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PRIVATE  LIBRAR 
RICHARD  C.  HAL'. 


MflMMl 


CYCLOP.4  blA 

V 


OF 


THEOLOGICAL,  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL 


-^•. 


LITERATURE. 


PREPARED   BY 


THE  REV.  JOHN  M'CLINTOCK,  D.D., 

AND 

JAMES  STRONG,  S.T.D. 
Vol.  V^— K,  L,  Mc. 


PRIVATE  UBRARY 
f^'CHARD  C  kALVERSOK 

NEW    YORK: 

HARPER  &  BROTHERS,  PUBLISHERS, 

FRANKLIN    SQUARE. 

*  18  8  2, 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1873,  by 

HARPER  &  BROTHERS, 

In  the  Office  of  the   Librarian   of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


PREFACE    TO    VOL.  V. 


Op  this  volume,  as  of  that  which  immediately  preceded  it,  the  editorial  responsi- 
bility and  general  supervision  have  rested  upon  Dr.  Strong.  He  has,  however,  been 
greatly  aided  by  Professor  Wormax,  who  has  continued  to  assist  in  the  department 
left  incomplete  by  the  late  Dr.  McClintock.  Professor  Schem  has  likewise  rendered 
important  aid,  chiefly  in  national  history  and  statistics.  The  comprehensive  scope 
and  detailed  character  of  the  work,  as  a  trustworthy  book  of  reference  on  all  relig- 
ious topics,  have  been  maintained  Avithout  change,  except  such  improvements  as  ex- 
perience in  its  progress  has  suggested.  Increased  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
non-Christian  religions  and  nationalities,  as  the  advance  of  missionary,  scientific,  and 
mercantile  exploration  has  made  them  more  and  more  the  subjects  of  public  notice 
and  interest.  The  vocabulary,  in  the  branches  of  philosophy,  ethics,  and  memoirs, 
will  also  be  found  to  be  somewhat  more  full,  and,  we  trust,  not  less  satisfactory,  than 
heretofore. 

The  contributions  of  the  numerous  assistants  and  special  collaborators  are  indicated 
by  their  initials  appended  to  their  respective  articles.  The  following  is  a  complete 
list  of  contributors  to  this  volume  only.  Other  eminent  names,  both  in  this  country 
and  abroad,  have  been  secured  for  the  future  volumes,  and  will  be  announced  in  due 
time. 

S.  L.  B.— The  Kev.  S.  L.  Baldwin,  A.M.,  missionary  to  China. 
C.  R.  B.— The  Rev.  C.  R.  Barnes,  A.M.,  Jersey  City,  N.  J. 

C.  B. — Charles  Bruchhausen,  IVLD.,  Ph.D.,  Norwich,  N.  Y. 
J.  K.  B.— The  Rev.  J.  K.  Burr,  D.D.,  Hoboken,  N.  J. 

H.  A.  B. — Professor  H.  A.  Buttz,  A.jNI.,  of  the  Drew  Theological  Seminary. 

T.  W.  C— The  Rev.  T.  W.  Chambers,  D.D.,  New  York  City. 

G.  R.  C— The  Rev.  George  R.  Crooks,  D.D.,  editor  of  the  Methodist,  New  York. 

D.  D. — The  Rev.  Daniel  Devinne,  Morrisania,  New  York. 

E.  H.  G.— Professor  E.  H.  Gillett,  D.D.,  of  the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York. 

D.  R.  G.— The  Rev.  D.  R.  Godwin,  D.D.,  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Divinity  School,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

J.  T.  G. — The  Rev.  J.  T.  Gracey,  A.M.,  missionary  editor  of  the  Northern  Christian  Advocate. 

J.  D.  H.— J.  D.  Hammond,  A.B.,  of  the  Drew  Theological  Seminary. 

G.  F.  H.— Professor  George  F.  Holjies,  LL.D.,  of  the  University  of  Virginia. 

R.  II.— The  Rev.  R.  Hutcheson,  A.M.,  Washington,  Iowa. 

D.  P.  K. — Professor  D.  P.  Kidder,  D.D.,  of  the  Drew  Theological  Seminary. 

C.  P.  K. — Professor  Charles  P.  Krautii,  D.D.,  of  the  Lutheran  Divinity  School,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

J.  F.  M.— The  Rev.  J.  F.  Marlay,  Dayton,  Ohio. 

G.  M.— The  Rev.  George  Miller,  B.D.,  Wallpack  Centre,  N.  J. 

E.  B.  O.— The  Rev.  E.  B.  Otheman,  A.M.,  Rhinebeck,  N.  Y. 
N.  P.— President  Noah  Porter,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  of  Yale  College. 
J.  N.  P. — Mr.  Jules  N.  Proeschel,  late  of  Paris,  France, 

E.  de  P.— The  Rev.  E.  de  Puy,  AM.,  New  York  City. 

J.  D.  R.— The  Rev.  J.  D.  Rose,  M.D.,  Ph.D.,  Summit,  N.  J. 

A.  J.  S. — Professor  A.  J.  Schem,  editor  of  the  Dmtsch-amerikanisches  Conversalions-Lexikon. 

E.  de  S. — The  Right  Rev.  E.  de  Schweinitz,  D.D.,  bishop  of  the  Moravian  Church,  Bethlehem,  Pa. 

L.  E.  S. — Professor  L.  E.  Smith,  D.D.,  of  the  Exmniner  and  Chronicle,  New  York. 

J.  L.  S.— The  Rev.  J.  L.  Sooy,  A.B.,  Titusville,  N.  J. 

M.  L.  S.— The  late  Professor  M.  L.  Stoever,  D.D.,  of  Pennsylvania  College. 

G.  L.  T.— The  Rev.  George  L.  Taylor,  A.M.,  Hempstead,  L.  L 

W.  J.  R.  T.— The  Rev.  W.  J.  R.  Taylor,  D.D.,  Newark,  N.  J. 

N.  v.— The  Rev.  N.  Vansant,  of  the  Newark  Conference. 

C.  W. — Professor  C.  Walker,  D.D.,  of  the  Theological  Seminary,  Alexandria,  Va. 

T.  D.  W.— The  Rev.  Theodore  D.  Woolsey,  D.D.,  late  president  of  Yale  College. 

J.  H.  W. — Professor  J.  H.  Worjian,  A.M.,  late  librarian  of  the  Drew  Theological  Seminary. 


LIST  OF  WOOD-CUTS  IN  VOL.V. 


The  Kaaba  nt  Mecca Page     1 

Figniea  on  Rocks  at  Kanah 11 

Ancient  Egyptian  Key 59 

Interior  of  Khan  at  Aleppo 09 

Month  of  the  Kishon Ill 

English  Merlin 113 

Red  Kite 113 

Fignre  of  Kneph 1'25 

Ancient  Etruscan  Knife 126 

Ancient  Egyptian  Knives 126 

Varions  Ancient  Knives 126 

Egyptian  Flint  Knives 127 

Egyptian  Slanghtering-knives 127 

Ancient  Assyrian  Knives 127 

Border  of  Assyrian  Slab 135 

Krishna  trampling  on  the  Serpent.  161 

Serpent  biting  Krishna's  Heel 165 

Roman  Labarum 177 

Monogram  of  Christ 177 

Attack  of  Lachish  by  Assyrians. . .  ISl 
Assyrian  Ground-plan  of  Lachish.  ISl 
Jewish  Captives  from  Lachish. . ..  1S2 

Ancient  Egyptian  Ladder 190 

Ancient  Assyrian  Ladders 191 

Figure  of  the  Dalai  Lama 202 

Agnus  Dei 206^ 

AncientEgyptian  Cylindrical  Lamp  220 

Bronze  Lamp  and  Stand 221 

Various  Ancient  Egyptian  Lamps.  221 

Ancient  Assyrian  Lamps 221 

Classical  Hand-lamps 221 

Classical  Hanging  Lamps 221 

Oriental  Wedding  Lantern 222 

Oriental  Hanging  Lamps 222 

Enlarged  View  of  the  Kandll 222 

Egyptian  Knives  and  Lancets 225 

Lancet-window 225 

Ancient  Roman  Lantern 235 

Modern  Oriental  Lantern 235j 

Ancient  Egyptian  Lantern 235' 

Ordinary  Eastern  Lantern 235 

Architectural  Lantern  of  St.  Helen's  235 

Copper  Coin  of  Laodicea 237 

The  Hoopoe 240, 


The  Pewit Page  246 

Lattice  Window  at  Cairo 26S 

Lattice-work  at  Cairo 269 

Specimen  of  the  Laudian  MS 275 

Lavatory  at  Selby 2S0 

The  Laver,  after  Theuius 2S1 

The  Laver,  according  to  Paine 282 

Costume  of  a  Lazarist 300 

Ancient    Egyptians    working    in 

Leather. .' SOS 

View  of  Lebanon 310 

A  suppliant  Native  of  Lebanon...  314 

Felling  Trees  on  Lebanon 314 

Lectern  at  Ramsay  Church 317 

The  Leek 324 

Trigonella  Fcenuvi-Grcecum 324 

Ancient  Legionary  Soldiers 329 

Ancient  Egyptians  cooking  Len- 

tiles 347 

The  Lentile 34S 

Syrian  Panther 370 

Levitical  City,  Diagram  I,  a 394 

Levitical  City,  Diagram  I,  6 394 

Levitical  City,  Diagram  II 394 

Levitical  City,  Diagram  III 394 

Levitical  City,  Diagram  IV 394 

Levitical  City,  Diagram  V 395 

Levitical  City,  Diagram  VI,  ot 395 

Levitical  City,  Diagram  VI,  b 395 

Egyptian  Gnat  magnified 422 

Aquilaria  Aijallochum 428 

The  Water-lily 432 

White  Lily 433 

Scarlet  Martagou 434 

African  Lion 446 

Claw  in  Lion's  Tail 446 

Persian  Lion 447 

Lion  at  Arban 447 

Lion  let  out  of  a  Cage 447 

Egyptian  Hunting  with  a  Lion  —  448 

A  Lion  devouring  a  Man 448 

Ancient  Egyptian  Palanquin 455 

Modern  Persian  Palanquin 455 

Syrian  Double  Palanquin 455 


Camel  bearing  the  Hodaj Page  4.55 

Chamceleo  Vulgaris 469 

Lacerta  Stellio 470 

Ancient  Roman  Bread 472 

Ancient  Egyptian  Bread 472 

Modern  Egyptian  wooden  Lock. . .  477 

(Edipoda  Migrator ia 484 

Acridiuvi  Lineola 485 

Acridiuvi  Peregrinum 485 

Locust  flying 485 

Dried  Locusts 486 

Locust-eating  Bird 486 

"Lot's  Wife" 521 

Coin  of  Lycia 584 

Lych-gate  at  Blackford  Church.. . .  584 
Persepolitau  Emblem  of  Macedon.  617 

Coins  of  Macedonia 61S 

Mosque  at  Hebron 021 

Ancient  Egyptian  Cuirass 059 

Jews'  Mallow 684 

Sea-purslane 684 

Vicinity  of  Abraham's  Cemeterv..  6ST 

Map  of  Mauasseh— East 090 

Map  of  Manasseh— West 691 

A  tro])a  Mandragora  Ojjicinarum. . .  700 

Tamarix  Gallica 712 

A  Ihagi  Maurorum 712 

Modern  Egyptian  Mantle 718 

Specimen  of  Odessa  MS 722 

Specimens  of  Greek  MSS 72S 

Maronite  Sheik  and  Wife 769 

Table  of  Prohibited  Marriages 779 

Mohammedan  Bridal  Procession, .  79T 

Figure  of  Mars 812 

Mary  Queen  of  Scots 849 

Rock  of  Massada 850 

Mask  Corbel 853 

Masonry  at  Hebron 858 

Pistacia  Lentisciis 871 

Mater  Dolorosa ( 872 

Ancient  Egyptian  Hoes 902 

Ancient  Throw-sticks 903 

Coin  of  Masimin  1 916 

Coin  of  Masimin  II 917 


i^ 


C  YC  L  0  P^  D I  A 


OF 


BIBLICAL,  THEOLOGICAL,  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  LITERATUKE. 


K. 


Kaab,  a  celebrated  Arabian  poet,  author  of  one  of 
the  seven  poems  which  were  suspended  in  tlie  temple 
of  IMecca,  was  originally  a  strenuous  opponent  of  Mo- 
hammed, whose  doctrines  and  person  he  satirized.  He, 
however,  recanted  by  writing  a  poem  in  honor  of  the 
prophet.  As  a  reward,  the  prophet  gave  him  his  green 
mantle,  which  one  of  the  descendants  of  Kaab  sold  for 
ten  thousand  pieces  of  silver.     He  died  in  602. 

Kaaba  (Arabic  Al-Kaahah,  "Square  House,"  or, 
more  properly,  now  Beit-Alluh,  "House  of  God")  is 
the  name  of  an  oblong  stone  building  inclosed  in  the 
great  mosque  at  Mecca.  From  time  immemorial  tra- 
dition makes  Mecca  to  have  been  a  place  of  pilgrimage 
from  all  parts  of  Arabia  "  within  a  circuit  of  a  thousand 
miles,  interrupted  only  by  the  sea.  The  Kaaba,  the 
Black  Stone,  and  other  concomitants  of  worship  at  !Mec- 
ca  have  a  similar  antiquity"  (Muir,  Mahomet,  i,  211). 
There  are  intimations  of  the  Kaaba  to  be  found  in  He- 
rodotus and  Diodorus  Sicidus.  It  certainly  existed  be- 
fore the  Christian  rera  (Sir  W.  Jones,  Works,  x,  35G ;  BI. 
C.  de  Percival,  i,  74 ;  ii,  532).     See  Mecca. 

Oriffin  ami  Histoi-y. — IMr.  Muir  (ii,  34)  thinks  the 
,  Kaaba  to  be  of  Yemen  origin,  and  to  have  been  connect- 
\'l  with  the  systems  of  idolatry  prevalent  in  the  south- 
eX'  jiortion  of  the  Arabian  ])eninsiUa.  The  Mussulmans 
say  that  Adam  first  worshipped  on  this  spot,  after  his 
expulsion  from  Paradise,  in  a  tent  sent  down  from  heav- 
en for  this  purpose.  Seth  substituted  for  the  tcift  a 
structure  of  clay  and  stone,  which  was,  however,  de- 
stroyed by  the  Deluge,  but  afterwards  rebuilt  by  Abra- 
ham and  Ishmael.  But  this  tradition  may  have  arisen 
in  connection  with  a  traditional  Jewish  inscription  found 
on  a  stone  in  the  Kaaba  about  forty  years  before  Jloham- 
med,  and  which  would  suggest  the  possibility  that  some 
remote  Abrahamic  tribe  acquainted  Avith  SjTiac  may 
have  been  at  an  early  period  associated  with  aboriginal 
Ai-abs  in  the  erection  of  the  Kaaba.  Some  have  sup- 
posed it  to  have  been  devoted  to  the  worship  of  Saturn 
(Zohal).  Certain  it  is  that  it  has  been  the  holy  em- 
blem at  different  periods  of  four  different  faiths.  Sa- 
bxan,  Hindu,  Gueber,  and  Moslem  have  all  held  it  ia 
veneration  (Burton,  iii,  IGO).  According  to  tlie  Koran, 
it  is  "  tliC  ancient  house,"  the  first  house  built  and  ap- 
pointecl  for  God's  worship  (Sale's  Koi-an,  p.  276),  and  the 
guardianship  of  it  was  by  express  revelation  given  to 
Othman  (Sale,  p.  167). 

It  was  originally  without  a  roof,  and,  having  suffered 
material  damage  by  a  flood,  was  considered  to  be  in 
danger  of  falling.  The  treasures  it  contained  were  con- 
sidered insecure,  and  some  of  them  were  alleged  to  have 
been  stolen.  In  A.D.  605  Mohammed  rebuilt  the  edi- 
fice, but  in  A.D.  1626  it  was  again  destroyed  by  a  great 
torrent,  and  in  A.D.  1627  was  rebuilt  substantially  after 
its  present  form. 

Slructwe. — It  stands  now  on  a  base  about  two  feet  in 
v.— A 


height,  which  is  a  sharp  inclined  plane ;  and,  as  the  roof 
is  fiat,  the  buililing  becomes  an  irregular  cube,  the  sides 
of  which  vary  from  forty  to  fifty  feet  in  height,  and 
eighteen  by  fourteen  paces  in  extent.  It  is  inclosed  by 
a  wall  some  two  hundred  and  fifty  paces  on  two  sides, 
and  two  hundred  paces  on  the  others. 

The  Kaaba  has  but  one  door,  which  is  raised  some 
four  or  five  feet  from  the  ground,  and  is  reached  hv  a 
ladder.  It  is  allowed  to  be  entered  only  two  or  three 
times  a  year,  though  it  is  reputed  to  be  susceptible  of  a 
money  influence,  and  to  be  opened  clandestinely  much 
more  frequently.  The  door  is  wholly  coated  with  sil- 
ver, and  has  gilt  ornaments.  Wax  candles  are  Ijurned 
before  it  nightly,  together  with  perfuming-pans  contain- 
ing musk,  aloes,  etc.,  and  other  odorous  substances. 


The  Kaaba  at  Mecca. 

Black  Stone. — The  most  important  feature  of  the  Ka- 
aba is  the  "  Black  Stone,"  which  is  inserted  in  the  north- 


KAABA 


KADESH 


east  comer  oi  the  building,  at  the  height  of  four  or  five 
feet  from  the  ground.  It  is  in  shape  an  irregular  oval, 
about  seven  inches  in  diameter.  Tliere  are  various 
opinions  as  to  the  nature  of  this  stone.  Burckhardt 
supposes  it  to  be  a  "  lava"  stone.  Others  suggest  that 
it  is  an  aerolite.  Muir  calls  it  "  a  fragment  of  volcanic 
salts  sprinkled  with  colored  crj^stals,  and  varied  red 
feldspatli  upon  a  dark  black  ground  like  a  coal,  one  pro- 
tuberance being  reddish."  IJurckhardt  thinks  it  looks 
as  if  it  had  been  broken  into  several  pieces  and  cement- 
ed. He  says,  howe\'er,  that  it  is  difficult  to  determine 
the  quality  of  it,  because  it  is  so  worn  by  the  millions 
of  kisses  and  touches  of  the  pilgrims.  Muir  says  it  is 
worn  '•  until  it  is  uneven,  and  has  a  muscular  appear- 
ance." It  is  bordered  all  round  with  a  large  plate  of 
silver  about  a  foot  broad.  The  part  or  angle  exposed  is 
semicircular.  So  much  of  the  merit  of  the  Kaaba  de- 
pends on  this  stone  that  at  the  time  of  the  rebuilding 
of  the  edifice  by  Mohammed  a  great  contest  arose  be- 
tween the  families  of  the  Koreish  for  the  honor  of  plac- 
ing it  in  the  new  structure.  Mohammed  settled  this 
dispute  by  placing  it  on  his  own  mantle,  and  causing  a 
chief  of  each  tribe  to  lift  it,  and  then  put  it  himself  in 
its  position  in  the  Kaaba.  See  Kokeish.  Pilgrims, 
on  arrival  at  IVIecca,  proceeding  to  the  Kaaba  and  mak- 
ing the  circuit  of  it,  start  at  the  corner  where  the  black 
stone  is  inserted. 

Fabulous  stories  abound  relative  to  the  black  stone, 
such  as  that  it  was  originally  white,  but  became  black 
because  of  the  silent  and  unseen  tears  which  it  wept  on 
account  of  the  sins  ofwien.  This,  however,  only  affect- 
ed its  exterior.  Others  attribute  its  change  of  color  to 
the  innum(*rable  touches  and  kisses  of  the  pilgrims.  It 
is  one  of  the  precious  stones  of  Paradise,  which  came  to 
earth  with  Adam,  and  was  miraculously  preserved  diu-- 
ing  the  flood,  and  brought  back  to  INIecca  by  the  angel 
Gabriel,  and  given  to  Abraham  to  build  originally  in 
the  Kaaba.  It  was  taken  at  one  time  by  the  Karma- 
thians  (q.  v.),  who  refused  to  release  it  for  five  thousand 
pieces  of  gold,  but  they  finally  restored  it. 

Veilinrj. — There  is  a  custom,  very  remote  in  its  origin, 
of  covering  the  outside  of  the  Kaaba  with  a  veil,  which 
has  at  various  times  been  made  of  Yemen  cloth,  of 
Egyptian  linen,  of  red  brocade,  and  of  black  silk.  To 
supply  it  became  at  one  time  a  sign  of  royalty,  and  it 
was  accordingly  furnished  by  the  caliph  of  Egypt,  and 
later  by  the  Turkish  sultan.  There  seems  to  be  some 
conflict  of  authorities  about  some  things  pertaining  to 
the  custom  of  veiling.  About  one  third  from  the  top 
of  the  veil  is  a  band  about  two  feet  in  width,  embroi- 
dered with  texts  from  the  Koran  in  gilt  letters  (see 
Muir,  ii,  32 ;  Burton,  iii,  295,  300). 

Admission. — Since  the  ninth  year  of  the  Hegira  an 
order  has  obtained  that  none  but  Islamites  shall  be  ad- 
mitted to  the  Kaaba.  Formerly  the  General  Assembly 
of  Ocadh  convened  at  Mecca.  In  it  poets  contested  for 
a.  whole  month  for  prizes,  and  those  poems  to  which 
prizes  were  from  time  to  time  a^\'arded  were  by  public 
order  written  in  letters  of  gold  on  Egj^itian  silk,  and 
hung  up  in  the  Kaaba  (Sale,  p.  20). 

Other  Fetiinres. — In  the  south-east  corner  of  the  Ka- 
aba is  a  smaller  stone,  less  venerated  than  the  above, 
being  touched  only,  and  not  kissed,  by  those  walking 
round  the  Kaaba.  On  the  north  side  of  the  Kaaba  is 
a  slight  hollow,  large  enough  to  admit  three  persons, 
where  it  is  specially  meritorious  to  pray,  it  being  the 
place  where  Abraham  and  Ishmael  kneaded  chalk  and 
mud  for  tlie  original  structure.  From  the  west  side  of 
the  Kaaba  a  water-spout  carries  rain  from  the  roof  and 
pours  it  on  the  reputed  grave  of  Ishmael,  and  pilgrims 
are  not  unfrequently  seen  "  fighting  to  catch  it."  This 
water-spout  is  said  to  be  of  i)ure  gold,  and  is  four  feet 
in  length  and  about  six  inches  in  width.  It  is  declared 
to  have  lieen  taken  to  the  Kaaba  A.II.  981.  The  pave- 
ment round  the  Kaaba  is  a  mosaic  of  many  colored  stones, 
and  was  laid  in  A.H.  ^ii\.  Tliere  is  on  one  side  of  tlie 
Kaaba  a  semicircidar  wall,  which  is  scarcely  less  sacred 


than  the  Kaaba  itself.  The  walk  round  the  Kaaba  is 
outside  this  wall,  but  the  closer  to  it  the  better.  This 
wall  is  entitled  El  Ilattim,  and  is  of  solid  stone,  five  teet 
in  height  and  four  feet  in  thickness.  It  is  incased  in 
wliite  marble,  and  inscribed  with  prayers.  The  Kaaba 
has  a  double  roof,  supported  by  pillars  of  aloe-wood,  and 
it  is  said  that  no  bird  ever  rests  upon  it.  The  whole 
building  is  surrounded  by  an  inclosure  of  columns,  out- 
side which  there  are  found  three  oratories,  or  places  of 
devotion  for  different  sects;  also  the  eilifice  containing 
the  well  Zem-Zem,  the  cupola  of  Abbas,  and  the  Treas- 
ury. All  these  are  further  inclosed  by  a  splendid  colon- 
nade, surmounted  by  cupolas,  steeples,  spires,  crescents, 
all  gilded  and  adorned  with  lamps,  which  shed  a  briUiant 
lustre  at  night.  These  surroundings,  between  M-hich 
and  the  Kaaba  run  seven  paved  causeways,  were  first 
devised  by  Omar  for  the  better  preservation  of  the  Ka- 
aba itself.  According  to  Burckhardt,  the  same  holy 
Kaaba  is  the  scene  of  such  indecencies  as  cannot  with 
propriety  be  particularized ;  indecencies  wliich  are  prac- 
ticed not  only  with  impunity,  but  publicly  and  without 
a  blush.     See  Mohajimedaxisji. 

Since  the  second  year  of  the  Hegira  the  Kaaba  has 
been  for  the  Mussidman  world  the  Kebluh.  or  place  to- 
wards which  all  Moslems  turn  in  prayer.    See  Keblah. 

See  Nari-ative  of  a  nigrimarje  io  El  Medinah  and 
J1/ecc«,byRichardF.  Burton,  vol.  iii  (Loud.  1855)-;  Sale's 
Koran  ;  Muir,  Life  of  Mahomet,\o\.  ii  and  iii  (London, 
1858);  Sprenger, /v//e  q/jl/o/iome^,  ii,  7;  'Lay .  De  iempli 
Meccani  orifjine  (Berlin,  1840, 4to).     (J.  T.  G.) 

Kaath.     See  Pelicax. 

Kabbala.     See  Cabala. 

Kabiler  is  the  name  of  a  nephew  of  Brahma,  and 
one  of  India's  greatest  saints.  His  father  was  Karta- 
men,  the  ancestor  of  the  Brahmin  race.  It  is  in.  the 
person  of  this  Hindu  that  Vishnu  took  the  form  of  man 
some  twenty-four  different  times.  See  YoUmer,  Wor- 
tevhuch  der  Mytholofjie,  p.  987. 

Kab'zeel  (Ileb.  Kuhtseel',  ?NS^p,  yaihering  of 
God.  i.  e.  perhaps  confluence  of  waters;  Sept.  Kfl/jiT€)jX 
in  Joshua,  elsewhere  KajSaamjX  v.  r.  Ko/3f  irt /;\,  etc.),  a 
town  on  the  extreme  south  of  Judah,  near  Idunii^a,  and 
therefore  probably  included  witliin  the  territory  of  Sim- 
eon (.Josh.  XV,  21) ;  the  native  place  of  Benaiah  (son  of 
Jehoiada),  one  of  David's  chief  warriors  (2  Sam.  xxiii, 
20:  1  Chron.  xi,  22).  It  was  inhabited  after  the  cap- 
tivit}'  under  the  similar  name  of  Jekabzeel  (Neh.  xi, 
25).  Its  locality  can  only  be  conjectured  as  being  near 
the  edge  of  the  Ghor,  south  of  the  Dead  Sea  (see  Ma- 
sius.  Comment,  on  Josh,  ad  loc).  The  name  and  vicin- 
ity are  probably  stiU  represented  by  the  wady  El-Ku- 
seib,  a  small  winter  torrent  running  into  the  Dead  Sea 
from  the  south  (Robinson,  Researches,  ii,  497).  Here 
the  boundaries  of  Palestine,  Edom,  and  Moab  would  con- 
verge, as  is  implied  in  the  above  Scripture  references, 
and  the  region  is  still  the  resort  of  wild  animals  (Lynch, 
Jordan,  p.  319;  De  Saulcy,  Dead  Sea,  i,  298),  and  char- 
acterized by  a  deep  fall  of  snow  in  winter  (Burckhardt, 
Sjiria,  p.  402),  as  is  stated  in  the  account  of  Beuaiah's 
adventure  with  the  lion. 

Ka'des.(Kf(c/;c\  a  town  of  Palestine,  apparently  in 
the  south  (Judith  i,9) ;  probably  the  same  as  Kadesh- 
BAKNEA  (q.  v.). 

Ka'desh  (Heb.  Kadesh',  'iJ'y^^,  holy,  perhaps  as  be- 
ing the  site  of  some  ancient  oracle  [compare  the  early 
equivalent  name  "fount  of  judgment"],  Gen.  xiv,  7; 
xvi,  14;  XX,  1 ;  Numb,  xiii,  2(i ;  xx,  1, 14,  IG,  22;  xxvii, 
14;  xxxiii,  36,  37;  Deut.  i,46;  xxxii,  51;  Judg.  xi,  16, 
17;  Psa.  xxix,8;  Ezek.  xlvii,  19 ;  xlviii,28;  Sept.  Ko- 
C)]i:,  but  in  Ezek.  xlvii,  19,  Kaclic  v.  r.  Koo////)  or,  more 
fully,  K  A'DESH-BAK'NEA  (Hebrew  Kadesh  '-Barne'd, 
"3"ia  w"|1p,  the  latter  portion  of  the  name  being  re- 
garded by  Simonis^  Lex.  s.  v.,  as  compounded  of  "i3,  open 
country,  and  i"_3,  icandering ;  Numb,  xxxii,  8;  xxiv,  4; 


KADESH 


KADI 


Deut.  i,2,19;  ii,14;  ix,23;  Josh,  x, 41;  xiv,(;,7;  xv,3; 
Sept.  K-dSi]Q  [roi)]  Booj'//),  a  site  on  the  south-eastern 
border  of  the  Promised  Land,  towards  Edora,  of  much  in- 
terest as  being  the  point  at  whicli  the  Israelites  twice 
encamped  (their  nineteentli  and  thirty-seventh  stations) 
Avith  the  intention  of  entering  Palestine,  and  from  which 
they  were  twice  sent  back ;  the  tirst  time  in  pursuance 
of  their  sentence  to  wander  forty  years  in  the  wilder- 
ness, and  tlie  second  time  from  the  refusal  of  the  king 
of  Edom  to  permit  a  passage  through  his  territories.  It 
is  proliable  that  the  term  "  Kadesh,"  though  applied  to 
signify  a  "city,"  yet  had  also  a  wider  application  to  a 
region,  in  which  Kadesh -meribah  certainly,  and  Ka- 
desh-barnea  probably,  indicate  a  precise  spot.  Thus 
Kadesli  appears  as  a  limit  eastward  of  the  same  tract 
which  was  limited  westward  by  Shur  (Gen.  xx,  1).  Shur 
is  possibly  the  same  as  Sihor,  "  which  is  before  Egypt" 
(xxv,  18 ;  Josh,  xiii,  3 ;  Jer.  ii,  18),  and  was  the  first 
jiortion  of  the  wilderness  on  wliich  the  people  emerged 
from  the  passage  of  the  Ked  Sea.  See  Shur.  "Be- 
tween Kadesh  and  Bered"  is  another  indication  of  the 
site  of  Kadesh  as  an  eastern  limit  (Gen.  xvi,  14),  for  the 
point  so  fixed  is  "  the  fountain  on  the  way  to  Shur"  (v, 
7),  and  the  range  of  limits  is  narrowed  by  selecting  the 
western  one  not  so  far  to  the  west,  while  the  eastern 
one,  Kadesh,  is  unchanged.  Again,  we  have  Kadesh  as 
the  point  to  which  the  foray  of  Chedorlaomer  "  return- 
ed"— a  word  which  does  not  imply  that  they  had  previ- 
ously visited  it,  but  that  it  lay  in  the  direction,  as  view- 
ed from  Mount  Seir  and  Paran,  mentioned  next  before 
it,  which  was  that  of  the  point  from  which  Chedorlao- 
mer had  come,  viz.  the  north.  Chedorlaomer,  it  seems, 
coming  down  by  tlie  eastern  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
smote  the  Zuzims  (Amnion,  Gen.  xiv,  5;  Deut.  ii,  20), 
and  the  Emims  (Moab,  Deut.  ii,  11),  and  the  Horites  in 
Mount  Seir,  to  the  south  of  that  sea,  luito  "  El-Paran 
that  is  by  the  wilderness."  He  drove  these  Horites 
over  the  Arabah  into  the  Et-Tlh  region.  Then  "  re- 
turned," i.  e.  went  northward  to  Kadesh  and  Ilazezon 
Tamar,  or  Engedi  (comp.  Gen.  xiv,  7 ;  2  Chron.  xx,  2). 
It  was  from  Kadesh  that  the  spies  entered  Palestine  bj' 
ascending  the  mountains :  and  the  murmuring  Israelites, 
afterwards  attempting  to  do  the  same,  \vere  driven  back 
by  the  Amalekites  and  Canaanites,  and  afterwards  ap- 
parently by  the  king  of  Arad,  as  far  as  Ilormah,  then 
called  Zephath  (Numb,  xiii,  17  ;  xiv,  40-45 ;  xxi,  1-3  ; 
Deut.  i,  41-44 ;  compare  Judg.  i,  7).  There  was  also  at 
Kadesh  a  fountain  (Ex-jiishpat)  mentioned  long  be- 
fore the  exode  of  the  Israelites  (Gen.  xiv,  7)  ;  and  the 
miraculous  supply  of  water  took  place  only  on  the  sec- 
ond visit,  which  implies  that  at  the  first  there  was  no 
lack  of  this  necessary  article.  In  memory  of  the  mur- 
murs of  the  Israelites,  this  fountain  afterwards  bore  the 
name  of  "  the  Waters  of  Meribah"  (Deut.  xxxii,  51). 
The  adjacent  desert  was  called  the  "Wilderness  of  Ka- 
desh" (Psa.  xxix,  8).  On  the  second  visit  to  this  place 
iMiriam  died  there,  and  jMoses  sent  messengers  to  the 
king  of  Edom,  informing  him  that  they  were  in  Kadesh, 
a  city  in  the  uttermost  part  of  his  border,  and  asking 
leave  to  pass  through  his  country,  so  as  to  continue 
their  course  round  jMoal),  and  approach  Palestine  from 
the  east.  This  Edom  rei'used,  and  the  Israelites  accord- 
ingly marched  to  Mount  Ilor,  where  Aaron  died;  and 
then  along  the  Arabah  (desert  of  Zin)  to  the  Red  Sea 
(Numb.  XX,  14-29).  The  name  of  Kadesh  again  occurs 
in  describing  the  southern  quarter  of  Judah,  tlie  line  de- 
fining which  is  drawn  "from  the  shore  of  the  Salt  Sea, 
from  the  bay  that  looked  southward;  and  it  went  out 
to  the  south  side  of  Akrabbim,  and  passed  along  to  Zin, 
and  ascended  up  on  the  south  side  to  Kadesh-barnea" 
(Josh.  XV,  1-3 ;  compare  Numb,  xxxiv,  3,  4).  In  Gen. 
xiv,  7  Kadesh  is  connected  with  Tamar,  or  Hazezon  Ta- 
mar, just  as  we  find  these  two  in  the  cf)mparativcly  late 
book  of  Ezeldel,  as  designed  to  mark  the  southern  bor- 
der of  Judah,  drawn  through  them  and  terminating  sea- 
ward at  the  "  river  to,"  or  "  towards  the  great  sea" 
(Ezek.  xlvii,  19;  xlviii,  28).     There  is  one  objection  to 


this  view.  The  Kadesh  from  which  the  spies  were  sent 
was  in  t/ie  wilderness  of  Paran  (Numb,  xiii,  26);  Ka- 
desh-barnea was  in  the  wilderness  of  Zin  (xx,  1).  This 
is  easily  removed.  Paran  was  the  general  name  for  the 
whole  desert  west  of  the  Arabah,  extending  from  Pales- 
tine to  Sinai  (Gen.  xxi,  21 ;  Numb,  x,  12 ;  xii,  10 ;  1 
Sam.  xxv,  1).  It  even  seems  to  have  included  the  Ar- 
abah, reaching  to  the  very  base  of  Mount  Seir  (Gen. 
xiv,  G).  Zin  was  a  specific  name  for  that  part  of  the 
Arabah  which  bordered  on  Edom  and  Palestine  (Numb, 
xiii,  21 ;  xxxiv,  3,  4 ;  Josh,  xv,  1-3).  If  Kadesh  was  sit- 
uated on  the  western  side  of  the  Arabah,  then  it  might 
be  reckoned  either  to  Paran  or  to  Zin ;  or,  if  we  agree 
with  Keil,  Delitzsch,  and  others  (Keil  on  Josh,  x),  that 
Paran  was  the  general  name  for  the  whole,  and  Zin  the 
specific  name  of  a  portion,  the  objection  is  removed  at 
once. — Kitto;  Smith.     Compare  Kedesii,  1. 

To  meet  these  various  indications,  two  places  by  the 
name  of  Kadesh  were  formerly  supposed  to  exist :  but 
the  editor  of  the  Pictorial  Bible  has  shown  (note  on 
Numb.  XX,  1)  that  a  single  Kadesh  would  answer  all 
the  conditions,  if  placed  on  the  western  border  of  the 
Arabah,  opposite  Mt.  Hon  Accordingly,  Dr.  Robinson 
locates  it  ^t  Ain  el-Weheh,  which  he  argues  coincides 
with  all  the  circumstances  mentioned  (^Researches,  ii, 
168).  But  this  is  somewhat  too  distant  from  the  pass 
es-Sufa,  v/hich  is  probably  the  Zephath  where  the  Isra- 
elites encountered  the  Canaanites,  and  on  this  account 
Raumer  has  with  greater  plausibility  fixed  Kadesh  at 
Ain  es-IIasb  (Der  Zug  der  Israeliten,  Leipz.  1843,  p.  9 
sq.).  See  Exode.  Mr.  Rowlands,  who  travelled  through 
this  region  in  1842,  thinks  he  discovered  Kadesh  (as  weU 
as  numerous  other  ancient  localities  in  this  vicinity)  at 
a  place  which  he  calls  Ain  Kudes  (Williams's  Holy  City, 
2d  edit.,  i,  407).  A  writer  in  Fairbairn's  Dictionary  ar- 
gues at  length  in  favor  of  this  position  at  Ain  Gades, 
but  all  his  reasoning  partakes  of  the  character  of  special 
pleading,  and  rests  upon  inconclusive  grounds.  His  only 
real  argument  is  that  Kadesh  appears  to  have  lain  be- 
tween wady  Feiran  (Paran)  and  Engedi  (Hazezon-ta- 
niar),  on  Chedorlaomer's  route  (Gen.  xiv,  7);  but  that 
route  is  given  so  vaguely  that  we  can  lay  no  particular 
stress  upon  it.  The  other  arguments  even  tell  the  other 
way;  especially  do  the  passages  adduced  go  to  show  that 
Kadesh  was  at  the  extreme  east  from  Shur  (Gen.  xx,  1) 
and  el-Arish  (Numb,  xxxiv,  5 ;  Josh,  xv,  5),  and  the  same 
was  the  case  with  Zin  (Numb,  xiii,  21 ;  xxxiii,30).  This 
position  also  is  avowedly  not  only  inconsistent  with  the 
location  of  Huzeroth  at  Ain  Iludheirah,  but  even  re- 
quires us  to  enlarge  the  borders  of  Edom  far  to  the  west 
(Numb.  XX,  10),  and  actually  to  remove  Mt.  Hor  from 
its  well-defined  traditionary  situation  (Deut.  i,  2).  Capt. 
Palmer  has  more  lately  visited  the  site  thus  assumed  for 
Kadesh,  and  particularly  describes  it  {Quart.  Statement 
of  the  "Palestine  Exploration  Fund,"  Jan.  1871,  p.  20 
sq.)  as  "consisting  of  three  springs,  or  rather  shallow- 
pools,  one  of  them  overflowing  in  the  rainy  season ;"  but 
his  advocacy  for  the  identity  adds  no  additional  argu- 
ment. In  fact,  the  agreement  in  the  name  is  the  only 
plea  of  any  force.  This  is  counterbalanced  by  the  scrip- 
tural notices  of  the  position  of  the  place.  See  Dr.  Rob- 
inson, in  the  Bihliotheca  Sacra,  1840,  p.  377  sq. ;  also 
Palmer,  Desert  of  Exodus, ^i.  280;  comp.  Kitto's  Scrip- 
ture Lands,  p.  78-82;  Ritter.  Krdkunde,  xiv,  1077-10S9. 
Schwarz  {Palestine,  p.  23)  endeavors,  from  Rabbinical  au- 
thority, to  locate  Kadesh  at  a  place  named  by  him  wady 
Bierin,  about  forty-five  miles  south  of  Gaza ;  but  his 
whole  theory  is  imaginary,  besides  indicating  a  posi- 
tion too  far  west  for  this  Kadesh,  and  requiring  anotli- 
er  for  En-]\Iishpat  (p.  214),  which  is  stated  by  Euscbius 
and  Jerome  {Onomast.  s.  v.  K(th]c,  B«pi'»';,  Cades)  to 
have  been  in  the  vicinity  of  Mt.  Hor.  From  this  last 
statement  Stanley  (Sinai  and  Palestine,  p.  95)  unwar- 
rantably infers  that  Kadesh  was  identical  with  Petra. 

Kadi  (Arabic)  is  among  the  Mohammedans  the  title 
of  an  assistant  judge  of  civil  law,  and,  like  the  judge 
himself  (niolla),  is  classed  among  the  higher  clergy,  be- 


KADKOD 


KAFFRES 


cause  all  civil  law  of  the  Mussulman  is  based  on  the  Ko- 
ran.    8ee  Koran. 

Kadkod.     See  Agate. 

Kad'miel  (Heb.  Kadmiel',  SX'^^a'll?)  ^''fore  God,  i. 
c.  his  servant;  Sept.  Kai'fiu'jX),  one  of  the  Levites  who 
returned  with  Zerubbabel  from  the  captivity  (Neh.  xii, 
81,  and  assisted  in  the  various  reibrms  of  that  period, 
being  always  named  in  connection  with  Jcshua  (Ezra 
iii,  9 ;  Neh.  vii,  43:  corap.  Ezra  iii,  9) ;  sometimes  only  as 
a  descendant  in  common  of  Hodaviah  (Ezra  ii,40 ;  Neh. 
vii,  43 ;  comp.  Ezra  iii,  9),  but  once  as  a  son  (Neh.  xii, 
24).  The  length  of  time  over  which  these  notices  seem 
to  extend  (B.C.  53G-410)  leads  to  the  suspicion  that 
they  relate  to  two  individuals  (perhaps  a  brother  and 
also  a  sun  of  the  Levite  Jeshua),  one  of  whom  may  liave 
been  concerned  in  the  earlier  events,  and  the  other  in 
the  later. 

I^ad'monite  (Heb.  Kadmoni',  '^3b'7|2,  eastern,  as 
in  Ezek.  x,  19,  etc.,  or  J'ormei-,  as  in  Ezek.  xxxviii,  17, 
etc. ;  only  once  of  a  nation,  collect,  in  the  sing..  Gen.  xv, 
19;  Sept.  K£t)/uiij'oIoi,A"ulg.  Cedmoncei,  A.  V.  '"Kadmon- 
ites"),  the  name  of  a  Canaanitish  tribe,  who  appear  to 
I'.avc  tlwelt  in  the  north-east  part  of  Palestine,  under 
JMount  Hermon,  at  the  time  that  Abraham  sojourned  in 
the  land,  and  are  mentioned  in  a  more  than  ordinaril|r 
full  list  of  the  aborigines  of  Canaan  (Gen.  xv,  19).  As 
the  name  is  derived  from  D'lJ?,  Icedem,  "  east,"  it  is  sup- 
posed by  Dr.AVells  and  others  to  denote  a  people  situ- 
ated to  the  east  of  the  Jordan,  or,  rather,  that  it  was  a 
term  applied  collectively,  like  "Orientals,"  to  all  the 
people  living  in  the  countries  beyond  that  river.  At 
least  it  may  be  a  term  of  contrast  with  the  more  western 
Zidonians.  As  the  term  lik-ewise  signifies  ancient,  it 
may  designate  the  older  or  aboriginal  races  of  that  re- 
gion in'  general,  who  were  recognized  as  the  earliest  in 
origin.  Both  these  explanations  may  be  correct,  as  the 
Kadmonites  are  not  elsewhere  mentioned  as  a  distinct 
nation  ;  and  the  subsequent  discontinuance  of  the  term, 
in  the  assigned  acceptation,  may  easily  be  accounted  for 
by  the  nations  beyond  the  river  having  afterwards  be- 
come more  distinctly  kno\^^^,  so  as  to  be  mentioned  by 
their  several  distinctive  names.  See  Hivite.  The 
reader  may  see  much  ingenious  trifling  respecting  this 
name  in  Bochart  (Canaan,  i,  19) ;  the  substance  of  which 
is  that  Cadmus,  the  founder  of  Thebes,  in  Bceotia,  was 
originallj'  a  Kadmonite,  and  that  the  name  of  his  wife, 
Hermione,  was  derived  from  jNIount  Hermon.  By  oth- 
ers the  name  Kadmonites  has  been  extended  as  equiva- 
lent to  "  the  children  of  the  East"  C^lp,  '^.?2),  i.  c.  those 
living  beyond  fhe  Euphrates  (Ewald,  Isr.  Gcsch.  i,  300) 
[see  Bene-Kedem],  and  Keland  {Piih'.<:tiiia,j\  94)  has 
sought  to  identify  them  with  the  Nabatlireans  of  Ara- 
bia; but  these  were  Ishmaelites.  It  was  probably  ap- 
plied collectively  to  various  tribes,  like  the  Saracens  of 
the  jNIiddle  Ages  or  the  Bedouins  of  modern  times  (Bit- 
ter, Erdkunde,  xv,  138).  According  to  Dr.  Thomson, 
the  name  is  still  preserved  among  the  Nusariyeh  north 
of  Tripoli,  who  have  a  tradition  that  their  ancestors 
were  expelled  from  Palestine  by  Joshua,  and  who  seem 
in  physiognomy  and  manners  to  belong  to  the  most  an- 
cient inhabitants  of  the  country  (Land  and  Bool;  i,  24:2'). 
See  Caxaamte. 

Kadroma  is  the  name  of  a  Thibetian  Jewish  divin- 
ity. Strangely  enough,  the  Darwinian  theory  seems  to 
have  been  entertained  at  a  date  considerably  anterior 
to  our  century,  for  this  goddess  the  Thibetians  claim  to 
have  belonged  to  the  ape  race,  and,  after  marriage  to  an 
ape,  to  have  become  the  mother  of  tlie  entire  popidation 
of  Thibet.     See  "\'ollmer,  Wortei-b.  d.  Mythol.  p.  990. 

Kaffres  (from  the  Arabic  Kafir,  infidel,  i.  e.  non-Mo- 
hammedan), a  people  in  south-eastern  Africa,  who  re- 
ceived tliis  name  from  the  Moorish  navigators  of  the  In- 
dian Ocean.  AV'hen  the  Dutch  colonists  came  in  contact 
with  the  most  southern  tribe  of  the  Kaffres,  the  Koosas, 
or  Amalvosa,  the  Moorish  name  was  given  to  them  exclu- 


sively, and  in  this  restricted  sense  it  is  commonly  used 
by  the  Dutch  and  English  colonists.  It  is,  however, 
well  ascertained  that  not  onlj'  the  tribes  now  commonly 
called  Kaffres,  but  the  Tambookies,  Mam  bookies,  Zulus, 
Damaras,  the  inhabitants  of  Delagoa  Bay,  Mozambique, 
and  the  numerous  Bechuana  tribes  who  occupy  the  inte- 
rior of  the  continent  to  an  extent  as  yet  unexplored,  are 
but  subdivisions  of  one  great  family,  allied  in  language, 
customs,  and  mode  of  life.  The  Kaffre  languages  (in 
the  wider  sense  of  the  word)  are  divided  (bj'  Pr.  Mtiller) 
into  an  Eastern,  Middle,  and  Western  group.  The  for- 
mer comprises,  1.  the  Kaft're  languages  (in  the  narrower 
sense  of  the  word),  embracing,  besides  the  Kaffre  proper, 
also  the  Zulu  dialect;  2.  the  Zambesi  languages,  em- 
bracing the  languages  of  the  Barotse,  Bayeye,  and  Ma- 
shona;  3.  the  languages  of  Zanzibar,  embracing  the  lan- 
guages of  the  Kisuahih,  Kinika,  Kikamba,  and  the  Ki- 
hian.  The  Middle  group  contains,  1.  the  Sechuana 
languages  (Sesuto,  Serolong,  and  Shlapi);  2.  the  Te- 
keza  languages,  embracing  the  languages  of  the  Manco- 
losi,  Matonga,  and  JIaloenga.  The  AVestern  group  con- 
tains, 1.  the  Bunda,  Ilerero,  and  Londa  languages;  2. 
the  languages  of  Congo,  Mpongwe,  Dikele,  Isuba,  and 
Pernando  Po.  The  Kaffre  languages  are  sonorous,  flexi- 
ble, and  definite.  The  southern  tribes  have  adopted  the 
peculiar  smacking  sounds  of  the  Hottentots,  which  fre- 
quently change  the  meaning  of  words.  The  govern- 
ment of  the  Kaffre  tribes  is  feudal — an  aristocracy  of 
chiefs,  acknowledging  the  supremacy  of  the  sovereign, 
but,  except  on  extraordinary  occasions,  acting  inde- 
pendently of  him.  The  general  chief  is  the  sovereign 
of  the  nation,  and  in  a  council  of  chiefs  is  very  power- 
fid,  and  is  looked  upon  by  all  the  nobles  and  people 
with  luibounded  respect.  The  kraals  (hamlets)  gener- 
ally consist  of  a  dozen  low,  conical  huts,  the  diameter 
of  which  is  no  more  than  about  ten  feet,  into  which  one 
has  to  creep  through  a  low  opening,  closed  during  the 
night  by  trees.  In  the  middle  of  the  hut  is  a  room  for 
the  cattle.  Wars  generallj^  arise  out  of  the  stealing  of 
cattle.  In  personal  appearance  the  Kaffres  are  a  re- 
markably fine  race  of  men.  They  are  of  dark  brown 
color,  have  a  beautiful  and  vigorous  constitution,  dark 
woolly  hair,  a  lofty  front,  and  bent  nose  like  the  Eu- 
ropeans, projecting  cheek-bones  like  the  Hottentots, 
thick  lips  like  the  negroes.  Their  beard  is  thin.  The 
women  are  handsome  and  modest ;  their  clothing  con- 
sists of  cloaks  of  skin,  while  the  men  are  almost  naked. 
They  have  no  national  religion;  tliere  are  some  traces 
of  a  belief  in  a  supreme  being  and  in  subordinate  spir- 
its, but  no  kind  of  religious  worship  and  no  priests. 
They  are  very  superstitious,  and  pay  a  high  tribute  to 
sorcerers.  "  They  have  no  idea,"  says  I'hilip  {South 
Africa,  i,  118),  "of  any  man's  dying  except  from  hun- 
ger, violence,  or  witclicraft."  Like  many  other  savage 
tribes,  they  practice  the  worship  of  their  ancestry, 
"  They  sacrifice  and  pray  to  their  deceased  relatives, 
although  it  woivld  be  asserting  too  much  to  say  abso- 
lutely that  they  believe  in  the  existence  and  the  im- 
mortality of  the  soul.  In  fact,  their  belief  seems  to  go 
no  further  than  this,  that  the  ghosts  of  the  dead  haunt 
for  a  certain  time  their  previous  dwelling-places,  and 
either  assist  or  ])lague  the  living.  No  special  powers 
are  attributed  to  them,  and  it  Avould  be  a  misnomer  to 
call  them  deities"  (comp.  Lubbock,  Primilice  Condition 
of  Man,  N.  Y.  1871,  8vo,  ch.  iv  sq.).  They  practice  cir- 
cumcision, but  only  as  a  custon),  not  as  a  religious  rite. 
Polygamy  is  allowed,  and  as  the  heavy  work  is  chiefly 
performed  by  the  women,  it  has  proved  a  great  obstacle 
to  the  introduction  of  Christianity. 

The  various  tribes  of  the  Kaffre  family  are  estimated 
by  Rev.  J.  J.  Preeman,  secretary  of  the  London  Mis- 
sionary Society,  at  2,000,000,  spread  from  the  eastern 
frontier  of  Cajie  Colony  beyond  Delagoa  Bay,  and  then 
across  the  whole  continent,  without  break,  to  the  Atlan- 
tic in  latitude  20^.  A  part  of  the  territory  of  the  Kaf- 
fres, from  which,  ia  particidar,  constant  raids  were  made 
into  English  territorv,  was  annexed  to  the  British  do- 


KAGBOSSUM 


KALDEROX 


minions  under  the  name  of  Queen  Adelaide  province. 
It  was  subsequently  restored  to  the  chiefs  of  the  Kaffres; 
in  1847  it  again  became  an  Enfflish  province,  under  the 
name  of  British  Kaffraria,  and  King  William's  Town,  on 
the  Buffalo  River,  was  made  the  capital  and  the  mili- 
tary head-quarters.  The  capital  has  a  popidation  of 
2760,  the  sea-port,  East  London,  of  2510.  The  population 
of  the  towns  consists  chiefly  of  English  and  German  S3t- 
tlers,  while  the  country  people  are  Kaffres.  In  1857  the 
province  numbered  3942  kraals,  and  had  a  population  of 
101,721,  but  a  terrible  famine,  which  was  caused  by  a  false 
prophet  of  the  name  of  Umhlakasa,  reduced  it  in  1858 
to  1291  kraals,  and  a  population  of  5-^,186.  In  1871  the 
province  embraced  about  3900  sq.  miles,  and  a  popula- 
tion of  about  90,000.  The  British  influence  more  and 
more  extends  over  Kaffraria  jiroper,  which  is  situated 
between  British  Kaffraria  and  Natal,  and  embraces  about 
14,457  sq.  miles  and  100,000  inhabitants.  North  of  Na- 
tal and  the  Transvaal  republic  extends  the  land  of  oth- 
er Kaffre  tribes,  the  territory  of  which  is  estimated  at 
62,930  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  about  440,000. 
Cape  Colony,  according  to  the  census  of  1865,  had  a  Kaf- 
fre population  of  100,536. 

As  the  Dutch  government  of  Cape  Colony  was  hos- 
tile to  all  Christian  missions,  the  missions  among  the 
Kaffres  did  not  begin  until  tlie  government  had  passed 
under  British  rule.  The  Moravians,  who  then  for  the 
first  time  found  the  necessary  protection  for  their  re-es- 
tablished missions  among  the  Hottentots  [see  Hottex- 
TOTs],  extended  in  1818  their  labors  also  to  the  Kaffres, 
in  particular  to  the  tribes  of  the  Fongus  and  Tambakis, 
whence  in  1862  a  station  was  established  among  tlie 
last  named  tribe  of  Independent  Kaffraria.  The  mis- 
sionary Yon  der  Kemp,  who  in  1798  was  sent  out  by  the 
London  Missionary  Society,  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
missions  of  this  society  among  the  Kaffres.  The  Wes- 
leyan  missionaries  have  (since  1820)  numerous  stations 
in  all  parts  of  the  Kaffre  territory.  Their  missionaries 
have  for  a  long  time  been  almost  the  only  ones  who  ven- 
tured to  penetrate  into  tlio  uncultivated  districts  of  the 
free  KafTres.  The  Free  Church  and  the  United  Presby- 
terians of  Scotland  have  a  number  of  stations  in  British 
Kaffraria,  and  have  begun  to  extend  their  labors  to  (in- 
dependent) Kaffraria,  among  the  natives  whom  the  Brit- 
ish government  has  induced  to  settle  there.  The  Ber- 
lin missions  have  also,  since  1834,  established  a  number 
of  stations  in  British  Kaffraria.  Tlie  Anglican  Church, 
which  has  bishops  at  Capetown  (1847),  (irahamstown 
(1853),  and  in  the  Orange  Free  State  (1863),  has  sta- 
tions both  in  British  and  in  Free  Kaffraria,  and  is  eager- 
ly intent  upon  extending  its  work.  The  Dutch  Re- 
formed Church  had  done  nothing  for  the  Kaffres  until 
the  establishment  of  a  special  missionary  board  in  1863 
(Synodale  Zendings  Comissiii  in  Zuyd  Africa),  which 
displays  a  great  zeal  in  the  establishment  of  missions 
among  the  pagan  population.  More  recently  the  Ger- 
man Baptists  have  sent  out  missionaries  to  British  Kaf- 
fraria. The  Roman  Catholic  Church  has  also  a  few  sta- 
tions in  British  Kaffraria.  See  Grundemann,  Missions- 
atlas  (2d  number,  Gotha,  1867);  Newcomb,  C/ycfo/iferfm 
of  Missions;  MoffaVs  Soutke7-n  Africa  (Lond.  1842);  T. 
B.  Freeman's  Tour  in  South  Africa  (Lond.  1857) ;  Lich- 
tenstein.  Travels  in  South  Africa ;  BurcheU,  Travels  in 
Southern  Africa.     (A.  J.  S.) 

Kagbossum  is  the  name  of  a  crow  which  the  Hin- 
dus assert  embodies  the  soul  of  one  of  their  celebrated 
sages ;  some  of  them  say  even  of  Brahma  himself.  See 
Vollmer,  WOrterb.  d.  Mythol.  p.  991. 

Kahanbarha,  the  Persian  name  for  the  period  in 
which  the  world  was  created,  and  wliich  in  their  cos- 
mogony, as  in  that  of  the  Christian  dispensation,  covers 
six  days ;  but,  like  some»  of  our  theorists,  they  say  that 
each  day  of  creation  corresponds  in  length  to  a  period 
of  one  month.     See  Zoroastuianism. 

Kahler,  Johannes,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  some 
note,  was  born  at  Wolmar,  Hesse  Cassel,  Jan.  20,  1649, 


and  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Giessen.  He 
began  his  lectures  at  that  university  in  1673  on  the  Car- 
tesian philosopiiy,  and  became  one  of  its  ablest  expo- 
nents. In  1677  he  was  called  as  extraordinary  professor 
of  metaphysics  to  Rintein,  and  shortly  after  was  pro- 
moted to  the  fidl  or  ordinary  professorship.  In  1683  he 
became  also  professor  of  theology.  He  died  IMay  17, 
1729.  Kahler  was  highly  esteemed  by  his  contempo- 
raries, and  enjoyed  the  confidence  and  good  will  of  his 
colleagues  to  such  a  degree  that  he  was  chosen  rector  at 
six  different  elections.  His  writings,  consisting  mainly 
of  dissertations  on  theology  and  philosophy,  were  col- 
lected and  printed  in  2  vols.  12mo.  See  Allgem.  Hist. 
Lex.  vol.  iii,  s.  v. ;  Jocher,  Gelehrten  Lexikon,  vol.  ii,  s.  v., 
gives  a  complete  list  of  Kahler's  productions. 

Kaisersberg.     See  Geiler. 

KaisersvT^erth.     See  Fliedner. 

Klajoniort.s,  the  Persian  name  for  the  first  man, 
who  they  say  was  a  direct  descendant  of  a  bull  (Abu- 
dad),  and  was  botli  man  and  wife  at  the  same  time.  So 
sacred  was  his  person  tliat  even  angels  worshipped  him. 
Ahriman,  however,  was  bent  upon  his  destruction,  and 
for  thirty  years  he  persecuted  Kajomorts.  until  success- 
fid  in  slaying  him.  But  the  seed  of  Kajomorts  fructified 
the  earth,  tlie  sun  purified  it,  and  after  forty  years  a 
plant  sprang  up,  whicli  became  a  mighty  tree,  bearing, 
instead  of  fruit,  ten  human  pairs,  one  of  which,  Meshia 
and  Meshiane,  became  the  ancestors  of  the  human  race 
(see  Vollmer,  Worterb.  d.3Iythol.  p.  992).    See  Ormuzd  ; 

ZOROASTRIAXISM. 

Kakusandu  is  the  name  of  the  third  Buddha  who 
preceded  Gotama  (q.  v.),  and,  according  to  Major  Forbes's 
(Journ.  Asiatic  Societj/,  June,  1836)  calcidation  of  Hin- 
du chronology,  must  have  lived  on  the  earth  B.C.  3101 
(see  Hard}',  Manual  of  Buddhism,  p.  87, 96,  et  al.).  See 
Buddha. 

Kalasutra,  the  Hindu  name  for  a  place  in  heU  to 
which  the  trespassers  of  Hindu  tradition  are  consigned, 
particidarly  those  who,  after  offering  a  sacrifice  for  their 
ancestors,  d^re  to  remove  from  the  altar  any  portion  of 
the  offering  which  the  flames  might,  have  left  uncon- 
sumed.     See  Vollmer,  \Voi-te?-b.  d.  Mythol.  p.  993. 

Kalderon  (more  accurately  Calderon),  the  most 
celebrated  poet  of  Spain,  born  of  a  noble  familj'-  at  Mad- 
rid Jan.  1, 1601,  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Sala- 
manca, but  at  length  went  into  the  army,  and  fought  in 
Milan  and  Flanders,  until  in  1651  he  entered  the  priest- 
hood. Already,  as  a  soldier,  he  had  devoted  much  time 
to  the  cultivation  of  his  poetical  talents ;  now,  as  a  priest, 
he  devoted  most  of  his  time  to  it,  and  it  is  for  his  influ- 
ence on  the  religious  poetry  of  Spain,  for  his  relation  to 
the  history  of  Roman  Catholic  poetry,  that  we  make 
room  for  a  short  sketch  of  this  religious  (Roman  Catho- 
lic) Shakespeare.  Shortly  after  his  admission  to  the 
priesthood  he  took  a  chaplaincj'  at  Toledo,  but  the  king, 
with  whom  Kalderon  was  in  special  favor,  soon  gained 
the  poet  for  his  court  by  assigning  Kalderon  a  lucrative 
position  in  the  royal  chapel.  He  died  about  1681,  per- 
haps somewhat  later.  He  WTOte  no  less  than  five  hun- 
dred dramas,  many  of  which  have  a  religious  tendency, 
and  display  most  accurately  the  religious  and  moral 
character  of  his  time  and  people.  Those  of  his  produc- 
tions wdiich  have  been  preserved  are  divided  into  three 
different  groups.  The  first  contains  his  comedies  of  fa- 
miliar life ;  the  second,  the  heroic ;  and  the  third  em- 
braces his  religious  pieces,  or  "Sacramental  Acts"  {Au- 
tos Sacramentales),  and  these  only  concern  us  here. 
They  are  compositions  which  bear  a  strong  resem- 
blance to  the  miracle-plays  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  are, 
like  them,  deformed  by  fantastic  extravagances  of  re- 
ligious opinion  anil  feeling.  Some  of  them,  however, 
are  beautifully  poetical.  One  of  the  most  character- 
istic, held  also  by  some  critics  to  be  the  best,  is  "  The 
Devotion  of  the  Cross,"  a  strange  farrago  of  tlie  wildest 
supernatural  inventions,  and  the  most  impracticaUy-mo- 
tived  exhibitions  of  human  conduct,  but  breathing  a  po- 


KALDI 


KALI 


etic  spirit  which  is  wonderfully  impressive.  One  of  its 
main  incidents  is  the  legend  of  one  dead  man  shriving 
another,  which  had  been  used  by  another  poet.  An- 
other successful  effort  of  his  is  "The  steadfast  Prince." 
Both  of  these  have  frequently  been  translated  into  En- 
glish and  other  languages.  See,  however,  Ticknor,  Ilis- 
lorij  of  Spanish  Literature  (new  edition,  1871,  with  In- 
dex). One  of  the  ablest  Koman  Catholic  critics,  pro- 
fessor Frederick  Schlegel,  thus  speaks  of  Kalderon's  po- 
sition as  a  Christian  poet:  "The  Christianity  of  this 
poet,  however,  does  not  consist  so  much  in  the  external 
circumstances  which  he  has  selected,  as  in  his  peculiar 
feeling,  and  the  method  of  treating  his  subject,  which  is 
most  common  with  him.  Even  where  his  materials  fur- 
nish him  with  no  opportunity  of  drawing  the  perfect 
development  of  a  new  life  out  of  death  and  suffering, 
yet  everything  is  conceived  in  the  spirit  of  this  Chris- 
tian love  and  purification,  everything  seen  in  its  light, 
and  clothed  in  the  splendor  of  its  heavenly  coloring.  In 
every  situation  and  circumstance,  Kalderon  is,  of  all 
dramatic  poets,  the  most  Christian,  and  for  that  very 
reason  the  most  romantic"  {IIistoi-y  of  Literature,  p.  280, 
281).  Se.e  also  Eichendorff,  GeistlicJie  Schauspiele  von 
Don  Pedro  Kalderon  de  la  Barca ;  Schmidt,  Schauspiele 
Calderom  (Eberfeld,  1857) ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyklop.  vii, 
218  sq.     (.J.H.W.) 

Kaldi,  Georg,  a  celebrated  Hungarian  Jesuit,  was 
born  at  Tyrnau  (Hungary)  in  1570.  After  filling  vari- 
ous positions  in  the  Jesuitical  order,  preaching  at  Vienna, 
and  teaching  theology  at  Olmutz,  he  became  at  last  rec- 
tor of  the  college  at  Presburg,  and  remained  there  until 
his  death  in  16o4.  He  was  the  first  Roman  Catholic  to 
furnish  Ids  co-religionists  a  Hmigarian  translation  of 
the  Bible.  It  was  published  at  Vienna  in  1G2G,  folio  (the 
Protestant  translation,  by  Visoli,  was  made  in  1589).  A 
portion  of  Kaldi's  sermons  were  published  at  Presburg 
in  1G31. 

Kalendar.     See  Calendar. 

Xali  (or  Kalee)  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  many 
forms  of  Doorgd,  so  popularly  and  variously  worshipped 
in  Hindustan.       • 

Names  and  History. — Doorgfi  is  the  female  principle 
in  the  production  of  the  world  who  appears  throughout 
the  Hindu  Shastras  as  Prakriti  or  Bhagwati.  She  is 
said  to  have  had  a  thousand  names,  and  to  have  appear- 
ed in  a  vast  number  of  forms  in  different  periods:  thus, 
as  Sati,  she  first  became  the  wife  of  Siva,  but  renounced 
her  life  on  hearing  her  father  reproach  her  husband. 
She  again  appeared  as  "  the  mountain-born  goddess" 
under  the  name  of  Parirati,  and  again  married  Siva. 
After  giving  birth  to  her  sons  Ganesh  and  Katik,  she 
became  renowned  for  her  achievements  in  war  agamst 
the  giant  enemies  of  the  gods. 

Tins  goddess  assumed  the  name  of  Kali  on  the  occa- 
sion of  a  battle  with  a  thousand-headed  giant  demigod 
whom  she  slew.  In  her  excessive  delight  over  her  vic- 
tor}-,  she  danced  till  she  shook  the  foundation  of  the 
earth,  and  the  gods  were  compelled  to  induce  her  hus- 
band Siva  to  influence  her  to  stop,  which,  however,  he 
found  no  means  of  doing  till  he  resorted  to  the  expedi- 
ent of  throwing  himself  among  the  bodies  of  the  slain. 
Kali,  observing  herself  dancing  on  the  body  of  her  hus- 
band, was  shocked,  and,  protruding  her  tongue  in  her 
surprise,  stood  still.  In  this  attitude  she  is  re^^resented 
in  the  images  of  her  now  made,  and  sold,  and  worship- 
ped tlirougliout  Bengak 

Lnages. — In  allusion  to  the  above  contest  with  the 
giant.  Kali  is  often  represented  as  "  a  ten-armed  god- 
ilcss."  Her  image  in  this  aspect  is  that  of  a  yeUow 
woman  with  ten  arms,  richly  dressed  and  ornamented, 
standing  erect,  resting  lier  left  foot  on  the  back  of  a 
prostrate  buffalo,  and  her  right  on  that  of  a  couchant 
lion,  holding  in  her  hands  a  spear,  an  axe,  a  discus,  a 
trident,  a  club,  an  arrow,  and  a  shield. 

Her  most  common  image,  however,  is  that  of  a  black 
or  very  dark  blue-colored  woman  with  four  arms ;  the 


upper  left  arm  holding  a  cimeter,  the  louver  left  a  hu- 
man head  by  the  hair.  The  other  right  arm  is  held  up 
to  indicate  either  that  she  is  bestowing  a  blessing  or  the 
restoration  of  nature  from  the  devastation  which  she  has 
caused,  and  to  which  her  lower  right  hand  is  pointing. 
iVll  her  hands  are  bloody.  In  this  form  she  is  standing 
on  the  body  of  her  husband,  who  is  a  white  man,  stretch- 
ed at  fidl  length  upon  his  back.'  Around  her  waist,  as 
a  covering,  she  wears  a  string  of  bloody  human  hands. 
She  wears  an  immense  neclvlace,  reaching  below  her 
knees,  which  is  composed  of  human  skulls.  In  some 
images  a  pair  of  dead  human  bodies  hang  by  the  hair 
from  her  ears.  Her  tongue,  as  above  set  forth,  protrudes 
from  her  mouth  upon  her  chin. 

She  appears,  moreover,  under  other  forms :  sitting  on 
a  dead  body,  with  two  giants'  heads  in  her  arms ;  as  a 
black  female  sitting  on  a  throne,  etc. 

Character. — Kali,  in  Hindu  mj'thology,  is  nothing 
more  nor  less  than  a,  female  Satan.  She  is  a  very  san- 
guinary goddess;  her  eyebrows  are  bloody,  and  blood 
falls  in  a  stream  down  her  breast.  Her  eyes  are  red, 
like  those  of  a  drunkard. 

Sacrifices. — ]Mr.  Ward  makes  a  summary  from  one  of 
the  Puranas  to  the  effect  that  a  tiger's  blood  offered  to 
her  in  sacrifice  will  please  her  for  a  hundred  years ;  that 
of  a  lion,  a  reindeer,  or  a  man,  a  thousand  years ;  and 
that  of  three  men  for  ten  hundred  thousand  years.  In 
the  event  of  a  human  person  being  offered  in  sacrifice,  it 
must  be  performed  in  a  cemetery,  or  at  a  temple,  or  in  a 
mountain.  Only  a  person  of  good  appearance  should  be 
offered.  The  victim  should  be  adorned  with  chaplets 
and  besmeared  with  sandal-wood,  after  various  ablu- 
tions. The  deformed,  timid,  leprous,  or  crippled  must 
not  be  offered ;  nor  must  a  priest,  nor  a  childless  broth- 
er. The  victim  must  be  prepared  the  day  before  the 
offering,  his  neck  being  besmeared  with  blood  from  the 
axe  with  which  he  is  to  be  sacrificed.  Besides  this, 
however,  persons  may  draw  blood  from  their  own  bod- 
ies, or  cut  off  their  flesh,  to  be  presented  to  this  goddess 
as  a  burnt-offering,  or  burn  the  body  by  the  flame  of  a 
lamp. 

Worshippers.  —  Many  Hindus  adopt  the  ten-armed 
Doorgfi  as  their  guardian  deity,  and  she  is  considered  as 
the  image  of  the  divine  energy.  Her  worship  in  Lower 
Bengal  is  so  popidar  that  on  the  occasion  of  a  great  an- 
nual festival  all  business  is  suspended,  and  even  the  Eu- 
ropean courts,  custom-house,  and  other  public  offices  are 
closed. 

The  professional  robbers  and  murderers  so  long  known 
and  dreaded  throughout  India,  and  notorious  elsewhere 
as  Thugs,  are  the  special  devotees  of  the  four-armed 
Kali.  In  the  hope  of  greater  success  in  their  work, 
they  consecrate  to  her  their  instruments  of  death,  and. 
their  victims  are  held  to  be  immolated  in  her  honor. 
These  men  will  join  travellers,  and  accompany  them  for 
days,  gaining  their  confidence  if  possible,  xmder  some 
disguise,  until,  watching  their  opportunity,  they  can  ad- 
minister drugs,or  choke  them  with  a  small  cord, and  then 
rob  them  of  all  they  possess.  Formerly,  it  is  supposed, 
the  goddess  rendered  them  much  more  assistance  than 
of  late,  by  putting  out  of  the  way  the  corpses  of  those 
slain  ;  but,  in  consequence  of  one  of  their  number  look- 
ing behind  him  after  a  murder,  she  ceased  to  render 
them  so  certainly  this  assistance,  as  this  was  a  violation 
of  the  express  condition  on  which  she  kept  secret  all 
traces  of  their  deeds.  The  accounts  of  the  occasion  of 
their  losing  her  assistance  in  this  particular  arc  cc  in- 
flicting, and  scarcely  worthy  of  reproduction.  I'ersons 
wishing  to  trace  the  matter  may  refer  to  Illustrations 
of  the  History  a lul  Practices  of  the  Thugs  (Lond.  1837). 
See  Thugs. 

Cti-emonies. — Distinct  from  the  great  festival  alluded 
to  above  in  honor  of  Doorgfi  as  tlie  "ten-armed  goddess" 
is  a  famous  and  popular  festival  held  in  her  service  un- 
der the  special  form  of  Kali.  It  is  observed  with  much 
the  same  form  as  tlie  other.  Annual  sacrifices  of  sweet- 
meats, sugar,  garments,  rice,  plantains,  and  pease  are  of- 


KALI 


KALMUCKS 


fered  in  great  abundance.  The  first  day  ends  with 
singing,  dancing,  and  feasting,  and  with  the  lower  class- 
es in  great  debauchery  and  shameless  licentiousness,  the 
arak,  an  intoxicating  liquor,  being  consecrated  to  the 
idol  goddess.  On  the  second  morning  images  of  all 
sizes  representative  of  the  goddess  are  made,  and,  after 
consecration  by  the  Brahmaus,  are  carried  through  the 
streets  in  procession  to  the  Hooghly  Eiver,  and  there, 
carried  out  in  boats,  are  thrown  into  it,  and  with  this 
act  terminate  these  wild  and  terrible  orgies.  Immense 
sums  are  expended  by  many  of  these  devotees  during 
these  festivals.  Mr.  Ward  estimates  as  much  as  £9000 
sterling  to  have  been  expended  annually  at  the  single 
shrine  in  Calcutta,  and  narrates  cases  of  individual  offer- 
ings, at  one  time,  of  £10,000,  comprising  rich  beds,  sil- 
ver plate,  and  food  for  the  entertainment  of  a  thousand 
persons. 

Temples. — There  arc  many  buildings  devoted  to  her 
worship.  The  greatest  and  most  popular  of  these  is 
that  of  Kali-Ghat,  about  three  miles  to  the  south  of 
Calcutta.  There  are  fifty  other  edifices  in  various  parts 
of  India  devoted  to  Doorga  under  her  variety  of  forms 
and  names.  All  these  are  said  to  have  originated  in  an 
incident  connected  with  her  history  previous  to  her 
having  assumed  the  shape  of  Parwati,  when  Vishnu  sev- 
ered her  body  into  fifty-one  separate  pieces,  which  were 
strewn  over  the  earth,  and  conferred  a  peculiar  sanctity 
on  the  places  where  they  happened  to  fall.  All  of  these 
became  sites  of  temples,  in  which  an  image'  of  some  one 
of  her  thousand  forms  was  set  up.  The  whole  of  the 
country  to  the  south  of  Calcutta,  including  the  spot 
known  as  Kali-Ghat,  was  thus  rendered  sacred,  the  toes 
of  the  right  foot  being  deposited  at  the  latter  place. 
The  temple  at  Kali-Ghat  consists  of  one  room,  with  a 
large  pavement  around  it.  The  image  of  Kali  is  in  this 
temple  (Ward,  ii,  157). 

There  is,  perhaps,  no  fabled  impersonation  in  all  the 
Hindu  mj^thology  exerting  a  greater  or  more  gloomy 
influence  over  millions  of  men  than  Doorga,  under  the 
title  of  Kali. 

Literature. — Journ.  of  the  Asiatic  Society's  Research- 
es, vol.  V. ;  Coleman,  Mytholor/y  of  the  Hindoos  ;  Moor, 
Hindoo  Pantheon ;  Ward,  Hindoo  Mi/tholof/t/ ;  account 
of  temple  at  Kali-Ghat  in  the  Calcutta  Christian  Ob- 
server, Sept.  1833  ;  Col.  Sleeman,  Journey  through  Oudh. 
(J.T.G.) 

Kali.     See  Parched  Coex. 

Kallghi  is  the  name  of  one  (the  tenth)  impersona- 
tion of  the  Hindu  god  Vishnu.     See  Kiusiina. 

EZaliph  (more  generally  Caliph),  originally  a  depu- 
ty or  lieutenant,  but  afterwards  applied  chiefly  to  the  suc- 
cessors of  Mohammed.  As  a  representative  of  the  proph- 
et and  Islam,  the  caliph  exercised  a  power  which  was 
primarily  spiritual,  and  in  theory,  therefore,  he  claimed 
the  obedience  of  aU  Mohammedans.  In  practice  the 
claim  was  soon  disregarded,  and  the  Fatimite  caliphs  of 
Africa  and  the  sovereigns  of  the  Ommiad  dynasty  of 
Spain  each  professed  to  be  the  only  legitimate  represent- 
atives of  Jlohammed,  in  opposition  to  the  Abasside  ca- 
liphs of  Bagdad.  The  latter  caliphat  reached  its  high- 
est splendor  under  Haroun  al-Eascliid,  in  the  9th  cen- 
tury; but  his  division  of  the  empire  among  his  sons 
showed  how  completely  the  caliph  had  lost  sight  of  the 
spiritual  theorj'  of  his  office.  For  the  last  two  hundred 
years  the  appellation  of  caliph  has  been  swallowed  up  in 
shah,  sultan,  emir,  and  other  titles  peculiar  to  the  East. 
See  Brande  and  Cox,  Dictionary  of  iSciencej  Literature, 
and  A  rt,  i,  350. 

Kalir,  Eleasar  Ha-,  one  of  the  oldest  Jewish  poets 
of  Italy,  generally  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  syna- 
gogual  poetry  of  the  non-Se]Aardite  Jews  in  Europe, 
flourished  about  the  beginning  of  the  8th  centurj'.  Of 
his  personal  history  nothing  further  is  known.  He  wrote 
some  one  hundred  and  fifty  different  sacred  poems,  many 
of  which  were  inserted  in  the  liturgies  of  the  Babylonian, 
Italian,  German,  and  French  Jews.    He  was  a  disciple  of 


Jannai,  and  was  greatly  admired  by  his  contemporaries. 
See  Griitz,  Gesch.  d.Juden,  v,  181  sq. ;  Sachs,  Religiose 
Poesie  d.  Juden  in  Spanien,  p.  180  sq. ;  Zunz,  Synagogale 
Poesie  d.  Jifittelalters,  p.  128  sq.  See  also  Liturgy,  Jew- 
ish; Machsor;  Synagogual  Poetry. 

Kaliyuga,  or  the  Kali  Age,  is  the  fourth  or  last 
age  of  the  Malta,  or  great  age  [see  Yuga],  and  bears 
some  resemblance  to  the  Iron  Age  of  classical  mythol- 
ogy. The  Hindus,  recognising,  like  all  religionists  of 
antiquity,  that  man  by  sin  has  fallen  from  las  high  es- 
tate, have  divided  the  world's  existence  into  four  pe- 
riods, which  arc  marked  by  successive  physical  and  mor- 
al decrements  of  created  beings.  They  hold  that  the 
present  period  is  the  last  one,  that  it  consists  of  432,000 
solar  sidereal  years,  and  tliat  the  Kali  Age  began  B.C. 
3102.  "In  the  Krita  (or  first)  age,"  Manu  says,  "the 
(genius  of)  Truth  and  Right  (in  the  form  of  a  bull) 
stands  firm  on  his  four  feet,  nor  docs  any  a<lvantage  ac- 
crue to  men  from  iniquity.  But  in  the  following  ages, 
by  reason  of  unjust  gains,  he  is  deprived  successive V 
of  one  foot;  and  even  just  emoluments,  through  the 
prevalence  of  theft,  falsehood,  and  fraud,  are  gradually 
diminished  by  one  foot  (i.  e.  by  a  fourth  part)."  The 
estimate  in  which  Kaliyuga,  our  present  age,  is  held  by 
the  modern  Hindus  may  be  gathered  from  one  of  their 
most  celebrated  Puranas,  the  Padma-Purana.  In  the 
last  chapter  of  one  of  the  books  (Kriyayogasara)  of 
this  Purana,  the  following  account,  which  we  take  from 
Chambers,  Cycloptedia  (s.  v.  Kaliyuga),  is  given  of  it: 
"  In  the  Kaliyuga  (the  genius  of)  Right  will  have  but 
one  foot ;  every  one  will  delight  in  e\-il.  The  four  castes 
will  be  devotea  to  wickedness,  and  deprived  of  the  nour- 
ishment which  is  fit  for  them.  The  Brahmans  will  neg- 
lect the  Vcdas,  hanker  after  presents,  be  lustful  and 
cruel.  They  will  despise  the  Scriptures,  gamble,  steal, 
and  desire  intercourse  with  widows.  .  •  .  For  the  sake 
of  a  livelihood,  some  Brahmans  will  become  arrant 
rogues.  .  .  .  The  Sudras  Avill  endeavor  to  lead  the  life 
of  the  Brahmans,  and,  out  of  friendship,  people  will 
bear  false  witness  .  .  .  they  will  injure  the  wives  of 
others,  and  their  speech  will  be  that  of  falsehood. 
Greedy  of  the  wealth  of  others,  they  will  entertain  a 
guest  according  to  the  behest  of  the  Scriptures,  but  af- 
terwards kill  him  out  of  covetousness ;  they  are  indeed 
worthy  of  hell.  The  twice-born  (i.  e.  the  first;  three 
castes)  will  live  upon  debts,  sell  the  produce  of  cows, 
and  even  their  daughters.  In  this  Yuga  men  will  be 
under  the  sway  of  women,  and  women  will  be  exces- 
sively fickle.  ...  In  the  Kaliyuga  the  earth  will  bear 
but  little  corn ;  the  clouds  will  shed  but  little  rain,  and 
that,  too,  out  of  season.  The  cows  will  feed  on  ordure,, 
and  give  little  milk,  and  the  milk  will  yield  no  butter ;. 
there  is  no  doubt  of  that.  .  .  .  Trees,  even,  ^vilI  wither 
in  twelve  j'ears,  and  the  age-  of  mankind  will  not  exceed 
sixteen  years ;  people,  moreover,  wiU  become  gray- 
haired  in  their  youth ;  women  will  bear  childrM  in 
their  fifth  or  sixth  year,  and  men  will  become  troubled 
with  a  great  number  of  children.  In  the  Kaliyuga  the 
foreigners  will  become  kings,  bent  upon  evil;  and  those 
living  in  foreign  countries  will  be  all  of  one  caste,  and 
out  of  lust  take  to  themselves  many  wives.  In  the  first 
twilight  of  the  Kaliyuga  people  wiU  disregard  Vishnu, 
and  in  the  midtUe  of  it  no  one  will  even  mention  his 
name."  Tliere  is  a  remarkable  identity  of  the  Hin- 
du belief  with  that  of  the  Hebrew  as  to  redemption 
from  this  sinful  state  by  a  Messiah.  See  Hardwick, 
Christ  and  other  Masters,  i,  303  sq.,  329  sq. ;  Weber,. 
Indische  Sludien,  ii,  411 ;  Wilson,  Asiatic  Researches,  x, 
27  sq. ;  Alger,  History  of  the  Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life^ 
p.  Ill  sq. 

Kallah.     See  Talmud. 

Kal'lai  (Heb.  Kallay',  i^p,  runner;  Serft.  Ka\- 
X«i),  a  chief  priest,  son  of  Sallai,  contemporary  with  the 
high-priest  Joiakim  (Neh.  xii,  20).     B.C.  post  53G. 

Kalmucks  (Tatar  KhaKmik,  i.  c.  apostates),  also- 
called  OlOk  or  Ekutes,  a  Jlongolian  tribe  of  nomads, 


KALONYMUS 


KAMA 


a  portion  of  whom  live  under  Chinese  rule,  while  the 
cjreater  number,  during  the  last  two  centuries,  have  set- 
tled in  or  belong  to  Russia.  They  are  similar  to  the 
Mongols  proper,  but  inferior  to  them  in  point  of  civiliza- 
tion. They  are  divided  into  nobles,  people  (serfs),  and 
priests ;  the  last  have,  in  i»articular,  a  very  great  in- 
fluence among  the  Buddhistic  Kalmucks.  They  are 
divided  into  tribes  (IHuss),  at  the  head  of  which  are 
Tchaidas;  and  the  tribes  are  subdivided  into  Aimaiis 
(of  from  150  to  300  families  each),  at  the  head  of  which 
are  the  Saisans.  They  call  themselves  Derhen  Eret 
(Uorbon-Oirat),  i.  e.  the  four  allies,  because,  from  time 
immemorial,  they  have  been  divided  into  four  chief 
tribes  :  1.  The  Dsongars,  after  whom  Dsongaria  is  called, 
formerly  the  most  powerful  of  the  tribes,  but  subse- 
quently subdued  by  the  Chinese,  and  now  extant  onlj^ 
in  small  number.  2.  The  Koshotes  (i.  e.  warriors),  un- 
der princes  from  the  family  of  Jenghis  Khan,  num- 
bering from  50,000  to  60,000;  they  voluntarily  placed 
themselves  under  the  sceptre  of  Russia,  and  are  loyal 
subjects;  their  favorite  drink  is  the  kumiss  (fermented 
horse  milk).  3.  The  Derbets,  living,  in  the  16th  and 
17tli  centuries,  on  the  Volga  and  Ural,  now  on  the  Don 
and  the  Hi.  4.  The  Torgots  (Ttirga-Uten),  or  Kalmucks 
of  the  Volga,  have,  for  the  most  part,  left  Russian  terri- 
tory; only  the  tribe  Zoochor,  under  the  prince  Dundu- 
kor,  a  grand-uncle  of  the  powerful  khan  Ayuka,  remain- 
ed. Dimdukor  himself  was  baptized,  and,  by  order  of 
Alexander  I,  the  title  passed  over  to  his  son-in-law  Xor- 
kasov.  Some  of  the  Kalmucks  live  scattered  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  Simbirsk  (15,000  souls,  all  in  connection  with 
the  Greek  Church),  others  east  of  the  Ural,  on  the  Jhet 
River  (professing  Islamism),  and  in  several  commercial 
towns  of  Russia,  altogether  about  1 20,000  souls,  of  whom 
73  per  cent,  live  in  the  government  of  Astrachan.  The 
majority  of  the  Kalmucks  are  still  Buddhists.  They 
were  all  originaUy  adherents  of  that  form  of  Buddhism 
Imown  as  Lumaism,  which  the  IMongols  in  general  re- 
ceived from  Thibet.  In  Dsongaria  they  have  two  cel- 
ebrated temples;  the  one  is  situated  on  the  Tekes,  the 
other  on  the  Hi.  In  the  latter  resides  the  Tchamba 
Lama  in  the  winter,  and  with  him  a  number  of  priests, 
who  here  teach  reading  and  writing.  They  are  joined 
by  pious  pilgrims  and  numerous  Chinese  merchants, 
who  set  up  their  shops  around  the  temple.  The  chiefs 
of  the  Chinese  Kalmucks  used  to  receive  from  the  man- 
darin the  insignia  of  their  rank,  but  of  late  the  virtual 
independence  of  Dsongaria  has  severed  the  former  re- 
lation of  the  Kalmucks  to  the  Chinese  government; 
and,  after  the  occupation  of  Kultsha  by  the  Russians 
in  ^lay,  1871,  the  Chinese  Kalmucks  generally  declared 
their  submission  to  the  Russian  government.  The  lan- 
guage of  the  Kalmucks  is  a  branch  of  the  jNIongolian 
language ;  grammars  of  the  language  have  been  pub- 
lished bj'  Bobrovnikov  (Kasan,  1849)  and  Zwieck  (Don- 
aue^iingen,  1857).  The  literature  consists  almost  ex- 
clusively of  translations  of  Buddhistic  writings  from 
India.  A  collection  of  legends  (Siddhi-Kiir),  with  Ger- 
man translation,  was  published  by  Julg  (Leipzig,  1866). 
(A.J.S.) 

Kalonymus  ben-Kalonymcs,  a  Jewish  writer 
of  some  note,  was  born  in  Italy  in  1287,  but  lived  for 
some  time  in  Southern  France,  and  was  there  picked  up 
by  king  Robert  of  Naples,  lie  returned  with  the  latter 
to  his  native  land,  and  filled  some  important  offices  in 
his  service.  Kalonymus  Avas  an  accomiilished  scholar, 
translated  into  Hebrew  medical,  astronomical,  and  phil- 
osophical works  of  the  Aral)ians,  wrote  a  number  of  sa- 
tirical treatises  on  the  low  moral  state  of  his  contempo- 
raries, and  labored  in  this  and  other  ways  to  ameliorate 
the  miserable  condition  of  his  countrymen.  lie  died 
about  1^37.  The  best  of  his  later  works  is  'n2  '"X, 
or  The  Stone  of  Wcepinfj  (Naples,  1489  ;  translated  into 
Jewish  German,  Frkft.  1746).  He  also  edited  with  great 
ability  a  part  of  the  Arabian  Encyclopaedia  of  the  Sci- 
ences (known  as  "Treatises  of  the  Honest  Brethren")  for 


the  use  of  the  Italian  Jews.  See  Gratz,  Gesck.  d.  Juden, 
vii,  305sq.;  Zimz,in  GeigeTsZeitsch7-iJ't,u,8l3;  iv,  200 
sq. ;  Fliigel,  Zeitschrift  der  deutsch.  Morgenldnd,  Gesdlsch, 
1859.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Kalottinocracy  is  a  new  word  sometimes  used 
instead  of  hierarchij.  The  word  is  derived  from  the 
French  cidotta  (cap,  such  as  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy 
wear),  and  the  Greek  Ktiartiv  (to  govern). 

Kalpa  designates  in  Hindu  chronology  the  Brah- 
minical  period  of  one  day  and  night,  and  corresponds 
to  a  period  of  4,320,000,000  solar  sidereal  years,  or  years 
of  mortals,  measuring  the  diu-ation  of  the  world,  and,  ac- 
cording to  many,  including  even  the  interval  of  its  anni- 
hilatioii.  The  Bhavishya-Purdna  admits  of  an  infinity 
of  kalpas;  other  Puranas  enumerate  tliirty.  A  great 
kalpa  comprises  not  a  day,  but  a  life  of  Brahma.  In 
Vedic  literature,  kalpa  is  a  Vedanga  ((j.  v.).  See  Hardy, 
Manual  of  Buddhism,  p.  1  sq.,  7  sq.     See  Kalpa-Sltra. 

Kalpa-Sutra  is,  in  Vedic  literature,  the  name  of 
those  Sanscrit  works  which  treat  of  the  ceremonials 
usual  at  a  Vedic  sacritice.  See  Veda.  In  Jaina  litera- 
ture it  is  the  name  of  the  most  sacred  religious  work  of 
the  Jainas  (q.  v.).  It  chiefly  relates  the  legeudarj^  his- 
tory of  Slahavira,  the  last  of  their  twenty-four  deified 
saints,  or  Tirthankaras,  but  contains  also  an  account  of 
four  other  saints  of  the  same  class.  The  author  of  the 
work  was  Bhadra  Bahu,  and  it  was  composed,  Stevenson 
assumes,  in  the  year  A.D.  411,  It  is  held  in  high  respect 
by  the  Jainas,  who,  out  of  the  eight  days  which,  in  the 
middle  of  the  rains,  they  devote  to  the  reading  of  their 
most  sacred  writings,  allot  no  less  than  live  to  the  Kalpa- 
Sutra.  See  Stevenson,  The  Kuljxi-Sutra  and  Nava 
Tutva  (London,  1848). 

Kalteiseil,  Hejnrioh,  a  celebrated  Dominican  of 
the  15th  century,  was  born  near  Coblentz,  and  educated 
at  Vienna  and  Cologne.  In  the  latter  city  he  was  af- 
terwards professor  of  theology,  preaching  at  the  same 
time.  Later  he  removed  to  Mentz,  and  became  general 
inquisitor  of  Germany.  He  was  present  at  the  Council 
of  Basle,  and  took  quite  a  prominent  part  in  the  delib- 
erations against  the  Hussites.  He  was  one  of  the  four 
doctors  on  the  Roman  CathoUc  sitle  who  disputed  with 
the  Bohemians.  See  Hussites;  Basle,  Council  of. 
In  1443  pope  Eugenius  IV  made  him  Magister  sacri  Pa- 
latii,  and  in  1452  pope  Nicholas  V  created  him  arch- 
bishop of  Drontheim.  He  died  in  1465.  Kalteisen's 
literary  abilities  are  general!}^  spoken  of  as  moderate. 
He  wrote  much,  but  little  has  been  published.  See 
Basnage-Canisius,  Led.  Antiq.  iv,  628  sq. ;  Quetif  and 
Echard,  Script.  Ord.  Freed,  ii,  828 ;  Schrijchk,  Kirchen- 
rjesch.  xxxiv,  707  ;  Wetzer  u.  Welte,  Kirchen-Lex. y'l,  15. 

Kama,  the  Hindu  dera  or  deity  of  Love,  one  of  the 
most  pleasing  creations  of  Hindu  fiction,  is,  in  the  San- 
scrit poetty  of  later  periods,  the  favorite  theme  of  de- 
scriptions and  allusions.  The  genealogy  of  this  deitA'  is 
quite  obscure ;  according  to  some  Puranas,  he  was  orig- 
inalh'  a  son  of  Brahma ;  according  t(S  others,  a  son  of 
Dharma  (the  genius  of  Virtue),  In'  Sraddha  (the  ge-r 
nius  of  Faith),  herself  a  daughter  of  Daksha,  who  was 
one  of  the  mind-born  sons  of  Brahma.  Tlie  god  Siva, 
being  on  one  occasion  greatly  incensed  at  Kama,  re- 
duced him  to  ashes;  but  ultimately,  moved  by  the  af- 
fliction of  Rati  (Voluptuousness),  the  wife  of  Kama,  he 
promised  her  that  her  husband  should  be  reborn  as  a 
son  of  Krishna,  and  he  was  accordingly  born  under  the 
name  of  Pradi/umna,  who  was  the  god  of  Love.  "  But 
when  the  infant  was  six  days  old  it  was  stolen  from 
the  lying-in  chamber  bj-  the  terrible  diemon  Sainbara ; 
for  the  latter  foreknew  that  Pradyumna,  if  he  lived, 
would  be  his  destroyer.  The  boy  was  thrown  into  the 
ocean,  and  swallowed  by  a  large  fish.  Yet  he  did  not 
die,  for  that  fish  was  caught  by  fishermen,  and  delivered 
to  Mayavati,  the  mistress  of  Sambara's  household ;  and, 
when  it  was  cut  open,  the  child  was  taken  from  it. 
While  INIayavati  wondered  who  this  coiUd  be,  the  di- 
vine sage  Narada  satisfied  her  curiosity,  and  counselled 


KAMA 


KAMI 


her  to  rear  tenderly  this  offspring  of  Krishna.  She  act- 
ed as  lie  advised  her;  and  when  Pradyumna  grew  up, 
and  learned  his  own  history,  he  slew  the  diemon  Sam- 
bara.  Mayavati,  however,  was  later  apprized  by  Krish- 
na that  she  was  not  the  wife  of  Sambara,  as  she  had 
fancied  herself  to  be,  but  tliat  of  Prad3'unma — in  fact, 
another  form  of  IJati,  who  was  the  wife  of  Kama  iu  his 
former  existence.  In  the  representations  of  Kama  we 
find  him  holding  in  one  hand  a  bow  made  of  sugar-cane, 
and  strung  with  bees,  in  the  other  an  arrow  tipped 
with  the  blossom  of  a  tlower  which  is  supposed  to  con- 
quer one  of  the  senses.  His  standard  is,  agreeably  to 
the  legend  above  mentioned,  a  fabulous  fish,  called  Ma- 
kara ;  and  he  rides  on  a  parrot  or  sparrow — the  sjtnbol 
of  voluptuousness.  His  epithets  are  numerous,  but  easi- 
ly accounted  for  from  the  circumstances  named,  and 
from  the  effects  of  love  on  the  mind  and  senses.  Thus 
he  is  called  MaJcaradhwaja,  *  the  one  who  has  Makara 
in  his  banner;'  Mada,  'the  maddener,'  etc.  His  wife, 
as  before  stated,  is  Rati;  she  is  also  called  Kajnakala, 
'  a  portion  of  Kama,'  or  Prifi,  '  affection.'  His  daugh- 
ter is  Trisha,  'thirst  or  desire;'  and  his  son  is  Anirud- 
dha,  '  the  irresistible.'  "  —  Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v.  See 
Midler,  Chips,  vol.  ii,  ch.  i,  especially  p.  127-135;  Voll- 
raer,  Mythol.  Worferbuck,  p.  1008. 

Kama.     See  T.VLJtuD. 

Kaniawachara,  the  Buddhist  name  of  one  of  the 
three  divisions  of  the  Sakwala  (q.  v.),  and  refers  to 
the  worlds  in  which  there  is  form,  with  sensual, enjoy- 
ment. The  Buddhist  affirms  that  there  are  iniumiera- 
ble  worlds,  but  only  three  kinds  of  them,  viz.  (1)  worlds 
in  which  there  is  no  perceptible  form ;  (2)  workls  in 
which  there  is  form,  but  no  sensual  enjoyment;  (3)  and 
lastly,  the  Kamcncachara  explained  above.  See  Hardy, 
Manual  of  Buddhism,  p.  3  sq. 

Kamenker.     See  Meir,  Mose. 

Kami  (or  Happy  Spirits)  is  the  name  given  in  Jap- 
anese mythology  to  certain  spirits  or  divinities  who 
founded  the  first  terrestrial  dynasty.  All  primitive  my- 
thologies are  coupled  with  and  made  to  rise  out  of  cos- 
mogony. Unfortunately,  however,  the  cosmogony  of 
the  Japanese  is  not  only  of  the  wildest  sort,  but  so  mixed 
with  that  of  the  Chinese  that  it  is  very  difficult  to 
speak  with  any  certainty  of  this  ancient  religion.  From 
primieval  chaos,  say  the  Japanese,  there  sprung  a  self- 
created,  supreme  God,  who  fixed  his  abode  in  the  high- 
est heaven,  and  could  not  have  his  tranquillity  disturb- 
ed by  any  cares.  Next  there  arose  two  plastic,  creative 
gods,  who  framed  the  universe  out  of  chaos.  The  uni- 
verse was  then  governed  for  myriads  of  years  by  seven 
gods  in  succession.  They  are  called  the  Celestial  Gods. 
The  last  of  them  was  the  only  one  that  had  a  wife,  and 
to  him  the  earth  we  inhabit  owes  its  existence.  In 
what  may  be  called  the  Genesis  of  the  Japanese  Bible 
the  creation  of  the  world  is  thus  narrated : 

"  In  the  beginning  there  was  neither  heaven  nor  earth. 
The  elements  of  all  things  formed  a  liquid  and  troubled 
mass,  similar  to  the  contents  of  an  undeveloped  epfg.  iu 
which  the  white  and  the  yellow  are  still  mingled  together. 
Out  of  the  intiuite  space  which  this  chaos  filled  a  god 
arose,  called  the  divine  Supreme  Being,  whose  throne  is 
iu  the  centre  of  heaven.  Then  came  the  celestial  reason, 
exalted  above  the  creation  ;  linally,  the  terrestrial  reason, 
who  is  the  sublime  spirit.  Each  one  of  these  three  prim- 
itive gods  had  his  own  existence,  but  they  were  not  yet 
revealed  beyond  their  spiritual  natures.  Then,  by  de- 
grees, the  work  of  separation  went  on  in  chaos.  The 
fiuest  atoms,  moving  in  different  directions,  formed  the 
heavens.  The  grosser  atoms,  attaching  themselves  to 
each  other,  and  adhering,  produced  the  earth.  The  for- 
mer, moving  rapidly,  constructed  the  vault  of  the  firma- 
ment which  arches  above  our  heads;  the  latter,  being 
slowly  drrtwn  together  in  a  solid  body,  did  not  form  the 
earth  until  at  a  much  later  period.  When  the  earthly 
matter  still  floated  as  a  fish  that  comes  to  the  surface  of 
the  waters,  or  as  the  image  of  the  moon  that  trembles  on 
a  limpid  lake,  there  appeared  between  the  heavens  and 
the  earth  something  smiilar  to  a  piece  of  reed,  endowed 
with  movement,  and  capable  of  transformation.  It  was 
changed  into  three  gods,  which  are:  the  August  one, 
reiguing  perpetually  over  the  empire;  he  who  leigns  by 
Tirine  of  water ;  and  he  who  reigns  by  virtue  of  tire.'    All 


three  were  of  the  male  sex,  because  they  owed  their  origin 
to  the  action  of  the  divine  reason  alone.  After  the  first 
three  males  there  came  three  pairs  ofgods  and  goddesses, 
•reigning  over  the  elements  of  wood,  metal,  and  earth. 
This  second  dynasty  contained  as  many  goddesses  as 
gods, because  the  terrestrial  united  equally  with  the  celes- 
tial reason  iu  producing  them.  The  first  of  the  seven 
gods  commenced  the  creation  of  the  earth,  and  all  to- 
gether personify  the  elements  of  the  creation.  The  ^ra 
of  the  celestial  gods,  commencing  with  the  first  and  ter- 
minating with  the  last  male  and  female  pair,  who  were 
called  Izanaghi  and  Izauami,  coutinued  for  millions  on 
millions  of  years." 

But  the  world,  and,  most  important  of  all,  the  empire 
of  Japan,  was  not  yet  created.  The  account  given, 
therefore,  is  very  circumstantial.  One  day,  when  the 
god  and  goddess  were  sitting  together  on  the  arch  of 
the  sky,  they  happened  to  talk  of  the  possible  existence 
of  an  inferior  world.  "There  should  be  somewhere," 
said  Izanaghi  at  length  to  his  wife, "  a  habitable  earth. 
Let  us  seek  it  under  the  waters  that  are  seething  beneath 
us."  He  plunged  his  spear  into  the  water,  and,  as  he 
withdrew  it,  some  turbid  drops  trickled  from  the  dia- 
mond point  of  his  javelin,  congealed,  and  formed  a  great 
island,  iqion  which  the  pair  descended,  determined  to 
make  it  the  beginning  of  a  grand  archipelago.  From 
out  the  waters  Izanaghi  raised  the  island  of  Av/adzi, 
then  the  mountainous  Oho-yamato,  rich  in  fruits  and 
with  fine  harbors;  then  the  others  in  succession,  until 
the  empire  of  the  eight  great  islands  was  completed. 
The  smaller  islands  were  then  made,  six  in  number; 
and  .the  islets  scattered  here  and  there  formed  them- 
selves afterwards  from  the  mixture  of  the  sea-foam  and 
the  deposits  of  the  rivers.  Eight  millions  ofgods  (ge- 
nii) were  then  called  into  existence,  and  ten  thousand 
kinds  of  things,  out  of  which  came  everything  that  can 
be  foimd  in  the  earth.  Upon  the  completion  of  this 
work,  Izanaghi  and  his  wife  made  the  earth  their  habi- 
tation, and  i)ecame  the  progenitors  of  the  five  dynasties 
of  terrestrial  deities,  who  in  turn  governed  the  earth 
during  two  million  and  odd  years.  The  last  of  these, 
having  married  a  terrestrial  wife,  left  a  mortal  son  upon 
earth  named  Linmou-tenwou,  the  ancestor  and  progen- 
itor of  the  races  of  men,  the  first  of  the  mikados.  See 
iMiK.VDO.  Born  upon  earth,  Linmou-tcn\vou  was  of 
course  mortal.  His  parents,  especially  the  tender  Iza- 
nami,  tremljled  .at  the  thought  that  she  must  one  day 
close  the  eyes  of  her  children,  and  yet  continue  to  enjoy 
immortality  herself.  They  therefore  conferred  upon 
their  terrestrial  offspring  the  gift  of  immortality,  the 
power  of  mediation  bet^veen  the  gods  and  man — made 
them  immortal  kamis,  happy  spirits,  worthy  of  divine 
honors.  This  is  the  point  where  the  Japanese  com- 
mence their  history,  and  hence  their  doctrine,  that  the 
spirits  of  human  beings  survive  the  body,  and,  accord- 
ing to  the  actions  of  the  individual  in  life,  receive  re- 
ward or  punishment.  When  a  man's  life  has  been  flis- 
tinguishcd  for  piety,  for  patriotism,  or  for  good  works, 
the  Japanese  deify  him,  after  death,  as  a  kami,  and 
thus  the  number  of  these  demigods  has  liecome  indefi- 
nite. Some  of  these  spirits  preside  specially  over  the 
elements  and  powers  of  nature. 

The  worship  of  these  demigods  or  Kami  is  called 
Kami-no-mitsi,  or  "  the  way  of  the  Kami."  It  pos- 
sesses some  features  which  are  found  in  the  religious 
observances  of  no  other  race.  There  are  chapels  dedi- 
cated to  the  several  Kamis  in  all  parts  of  the  empire, 
but  they  are  most  numerous  and  celebrated  in  the  .south- 
ern islands.  "  These  chapels  are  called  mias.  They  are 
always  built  in  the  most  picturesque  localities,  and  es- 
pecially where  there  is  a  grove  of  high  trees.  Some- 
times a  splendid  avenue  of  pines  or  cedars  conducts  to 
the  sacred  place,  which  is  always  approached  tlirough 
one  or  more  detached  portals,  called  toris,  like  the  jiylse 
of  the  Egyptian  temples.  The  chapel  is  usually  set 
upon  a  hill,  natural  or  artificial,  buttressed  with  Cyclo- 
pean walls,  and  with  a  massive  stone  stairway  leading 
to  the  top.  At  the  foot  of  the  stairs  there  is  a  small 
building  containing  a  tank  of  water  for  ablutions.  The 
chapel  itsellis  usually  small,  and  very  simple  in  its  plan. 


KAIVOION 


10 


KANAH 


much  resembling  the  native  dwelling -house.  Three 
sides  are  closed,  and  one  is  open  to  sun  and  air.  The 
woodwork  is  kcjit  scrupulously  clean,  and  the  floor  is 
covered  with  the  finest  matting.  The  altar,  which 
stands  alone  in  the  centre,  is  ornamented  with  a  jjlain 
disk  of  metal,  but  no  statues  or  sj'mbolical  figures  are  to 
be  seen,  and  very  rarely  emblems  of  any  kinil.  Never- 
theless, there  are  sometimes  stationed  at  the  head  of  the 
staircase,  outside  of  the  chapel,  sitting  figures  resembling 
dogs  ancl  unicorns,  which  are  said  to  represent  the  elc- 
'  ments  of  water  and  fire.  The  interior  is  generally  hung 
with  strijis  or  ribbons  of  colored  paper,  the  exact  signif- 
icance of  which  is  not  yet  clearly  understood.  The 
chapels  are  also  ornamented  by  their  pious  votaries  with 
colored  lanterns,  vases  of  perfume,  and  of  fiowers  or  ever- 
green branches,  which  are  renewed  as  fast  as  they  witli- 
er.  At  the  foot  of  the  altar  there  is  a  hea\'y  chest  with 
a  metal  grating,  through  which  fall  the  pieces  of  money 
contributed :  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  the  priest 
carries  a  key  to  the  box.  These  mias  were  originallj^ 
commemorative  chapels,  erected  in  honor  of  Jajianese 
heroes,  like  that  of  Tell  by  the  lake  of  the  Four  Forest 
Cantons.  The  prince  of  the  province  which  had  given 
birth  to  the  hero,  or  where  his  deeds  had  been  perform- 
ed, took  upon  himself  the  charge  of  keeping  the  chapel 
in  repair ;  there  was  no  priest  to  officiate  at  the  altar  of 
the  kami;  no  privileged  caste  interposed  between  the 
adorer  and  the  object  of  his  worship.  The  act  of  ado- 
ration, in  fact,  performed  before  the  mirror  (represent- 
ing that  bequeathed  by' the  goddess  Izanami  to  her  chil- 
dren\  passed  beyond  the  guardian  spirit  of  the  chapel, 
and  reached  the  supreme  god  above  him.  The  chapel, 
therefore,  was  open  to  all ;  the  worship  was  voluntary, 
and  offered  as  the  intUvidual  might  choose,  no  ceremo- 
nial being  prescribed.  With  the  introduction  of  Buddh- 
ism, however,  an  important  change  took  place.  The 
new  faith  was  sufficiently  incorporated  with  the  old  to 
transfer  the  chapels  to  the  special  charge  of  the  priests 
[called  Kami-nusi,  or  'ministers  of  the  spirits'],  and  to 
introduce,  in  place  of  the  voluntary,  formless  worship  of 
the  people,  a  system  of  processions,  litanies,  offerings,  and 
even  of  miracle-working  images.  Indeed,  almost  the 
only  difference  between  this  system  and  the  worship 
of  the  saints  in  Catholic  countries  lies  in  the  circum- 
stance tliat  the  priests  who  officiate  only  put  on  their 
surplices  for  the  occasion,  and  become  secular  again 
when  they  leave  the  chapel"  (Bayard  Taylor's  Japan,  p. 
255  sq.,  in  the  excellent  collection  of  Scribner's  Librurij 
of  Wonders,  Ti-avels,  etc.,  N.  Y.,  1872, 12mo).  Compare 
Humbert,  Sojourn  in  Japan,  transl.  in  Ladies'  Reposito- 
ry, JNIarch,  1870,  p.  184  sq. ;  Macfarlane,  Japan  (London, 
1852,  8vo),  p.  204  sq.;  Siebold,  Nippon,  i,  3  sq.;  ii,  51 ; 
K-impfer,  Japan,  in  Pinkerton,  vii,  672  sq. ;  Tylor,  Prim- 
itive Culture  (London,  1871,  2  vols.  8vo),  vol.  ii  (see  Li- 
dex).     (J.H.W.) 

Kammon.  ■  See  Cummin. 

Kanipanton,  Lsaac  ben-Jacob,  a  Jewish  rabbi  of 
some  note,  was  born  in  Castile  in  13(50.  Of  his  personal 
history  but  little  is  known.  He  was  gaon  of  Castile, 
and  is  particularly  looted  for  his  contributions  to  Tal- 
mudical  literature,  and  his  influence,  through  his  pupils, 
on  Jewish  Utcrature  of  the  15th  century  in  the  Sjianish 
pcninsida.  lie  died  at  Penjafiel  in  14G3.  One  of  his 
most  important  works  is  'll^pnn  "^w"!"  {Ways  of  the 
Talmud,  first  published  atlSIantua  in  1590),  an  introduc- 
tion to  the  study  of  the  Talmud  (really  a  methodology). 
See  Griitz,  Gesch.  d.  Jttden,  viii,  152  ;  Jost,  Gesch.  d.  Ju- 
dentliiims,ui,87;  Yiirst, Biblioth.Jud.  \,U0.     (.LILW.) 

Kamsin.     See  Simoom. 

Kamtchatka,  a  peninsula  in  the  extreme  north- 
east of  Asia,  occupied  by  the  Kussians  from  lODG  to 
1706,  extends  Ijetween  the  seas  of  Kamtchatka  and 
Ochotzk,  fipm  latitude  51°  to  61°  N.,  and  contains  20,800 
square  miles,  and  about  4500  inhaliitants,  one  third  of 
whom  arc  Kussians.  The  fimner  principal  place,  Nish- 
nei  Kamtschatk,  on  the  mouth  of  the   Kamtchatka 


River,  has  hardly  200  inhabitants.  Petropaulovsk,  the 
present  capital,  is  the  seat  of  a  Kusso-American  trading 
company,  and  has  a  population  of  about  1000.  Until 
185G  Kamtchatka  was  a  separate  district ;  at  present  it 
constitutes  the  district  Petropaulovsk,  of  the  coast  dis- 
trict of  Eastern  Siberia.  The  Kamtchadales  inhabit, 
besides  Kamtchatka,  also  a  part  of  the  Kurilc  Islands. 
They  belong  to  the  IMongolian  race,  are  small, have  thick 
heads,  and  flat,  broad  faces,  and  small  e)'es,  which  are  fre- 
quently inflamed  by  the  snow.  Though  baptized,  the 
Kamtchadales  are  still  addicted  to  Shamanism  (q.  v.), 
and,  in  particular,  practice  sorcery.  They  are  fund  of 
hunting  and  fishing,  good-natured,  and  hospitable.  (A. 
J.  S.) 

Kaiia  (Heb.  ilSpn  "iS5),  the  name  of  one  of  the 
later  cabalistic  works  treating  of  the  religious  rites  of 
the  Jews,  has  attained  considerable  notoriety  on  account 
of  its  decided  opposition  not  only  to  all  the  Jewish  ritu- 
al, to  Talmudical  interpretation,  and  to  the  Talmud  itself, 
but  for  its  fierce  attacks  even  against  Biblical  Judaism. 
Its  authorship  is  undecided,  but  of  late  most  Jewish  crit- 
ics lean  to  the  opinion  that  Kana  and  another  cabalistic 
work  entitled  Felia  (fiS^bs,  pubUshed  at  Kores  in  1784, 
and  often),  an  interpretation  of  the  first  book  of  the  Law 
(Genesis),  were  written  by  one  and  tlie  same  person,  and 
belong  to  a  Spanish  Jewish  heretic  of  the  15th  century 
or  thereabout.  Dr.Jellinek  {Bet-Ha-Midrash,  iii;  Einl. 
p.  xxxviii  sq.)  thinks  both  the  production  of  an  Italian 
or  Greek  Jew.  See,  for  further  details,  Griitz,  Gesch.  d. 
Juden,  viii,  230  sq.,  458  sq.    See  also  C.vbala,    (J.  H.W.) 

Ka'nah  (Heb.  Kanah',  njj^,  re'edy ;  Sept.  Kavu  v. 
r.  KavBav),  the  name  of  two  places  in  Palestine. 

1.  A  stream  (?n3,  torrent  or  wady,  q.  d.  "  the  brook 
of  reeds,"  as  in  the  marg.)  that  formed  the  boundary  be- 
tween Ephraim  and  jManasseh,  from  the  ^Mediterranean 
eastward  to  the  vicinity  of  Tappuah  (Josh,  xvi,  8) ;  ly- 
ing properly  within  the  territory  of  IManasseh,  although 
the  towns  on  its  southern  bank  were  assigned  to  the 
tribe  of  Ephraim  (Josh,  xvii,  0 ;  see  Keil,  Comment,  ad 
loc.  prior.).  See  Tribe.  Schwarz  says  it  is  to  be  still 
found  in  the  equivalent  Arabic  name  Wady  al-Kazah 
(valley  of  reeds),  that  rises  in  a  spring  of  the  same  name, 
Ain  al-Kazah,  one  mile  west  of  Shechem,  and,  after 
flowing  westerly,  acquiring  a  considerable  breadth,  and 
irrigating  fields  on  its  way,  finally  falls  into  the  jNIedi- 
terranean  south  of  Ciesarea  (Palestine,  p.  51).  Other 
travellers,  however,  do  not  speak  of  such  a  stream  unless 
it  be  the  Nahr  el-Kezih  (river  of  reeds)  spoken  of  in  the 
Life  of  Saladin  (p.  191, 193)  as  existing  between  Caesa- 
rea  and  Arroplo  (Arsuf),  and  supposed  to  be  represented 
by  the  Nahr-Arsuf  (otherwise  el-Kassah)  which  enters 
the  INIediterranean  due  west  of  Sebustieh  (Samaria). 
Dr.  Robinson,  in  his  last  visit  to  Palestine,  discovered  a 
Wady  Kanah,  south-west  of  Shechem,  which  he  de- 
scribes as  originating  in  a  spring  of  tlie  same  name  in 
the  plain  el-Mukhna  (south  of  Nablus),  and  running  be- 
tween deep  and  rugged  banks  westerly  to  the  jilaln  bor- 
dering the  ^Mediterranean,  near  Ilableh,  where  it  is  wide 
and  cultivated,  and  bears  a  different  name  (Reseai'ches, 
new  edit.,  iii,  135);  from  which  it  appears  that  it  joins 
the  Nahr  cl-Aujeh,  as  laid  down  on  his  map.  This, 
however,  is  too  southern  a  position  for  the  stream  in 
question ;  for  it  would  wholly  cut  off  Ephraim  from  the 
sea-coast,  and  confine  its  territory  within  verj'  narrow 
limits  (Thomson,  Land  and  Bool;  ii,  259).  In  the  ab- 
sence of  more  specific  infonnation  respecting  this  region, 
we  may  conclude  that  the  name  "  Brook  of  Kceds"  is  a 
designation  of  the  sedgy  streams  that  constitute  the 
Nahr  Falaik  (comp.  the  Arundinetis,  between  Ca^sarea 
and  Apollonia,  spoken  of  by  Schultens,  Vita  Saladini,  p. 
191,  193),  perhaps  including  its  middle  branch,  called 
Wady  Mussin  or  Slleh  {on  Van  de  Velde's  Map).  Dr. 
Thomson  {ui  sup.)  thinks  it  is  the  present  46m  Zabura; 
but  this,  again,  seems  rather  too  far  north. 

2.  A  town  in  the  northern  part  of  Asher,  not  very 


KANDEKUMARAIO 


11 


KANT 


far  from  its  eastern  border,  mentioned  in  connection 
with  llammon  and  Zidon  (Josh,  xix,  23).  Dr.  Kobinson 
identifies  it  witli  Kana,  a  large  village  on  the  brow  of  a 
valley  not  far  soutli-east  of  the  site  of  Tyre  (Research- 
es, iii,  384),  So  also  Schwarz  (Palest,  p.  192),  Van  de 
Veldc  (Memoir,  p.  327),  and  Porter  (Handbook  for  Pal- 
estine, p.  325,  442).  About  a  mile  north  of  the  place  is 
a  very  ancient  site,  strewn  with  ruins,  some  of  them  of 
colossal  proportions ;  and  in  the  side  of  a  ravine  not 
very  far  distant  are  some  singular  figures  of  men,  wom- 
en, and  children  cut  on  the  face  of  a  cliff  (Thomson, 
Land  and  Book,  i,  298).  Tristram  (Land  of  Israel,  p. 
58)  regards  them  as  Phoenician.     See  Inscriptions. 


Ancient  Tigurea  on  Rockb  at  Kiunh 

Kandekumaraio,  another  name  for  the  Hindu 

deity  known  as  Kartiiceya  (q.  v.). 

Kaneh.     See  Eeed. 

Kanne,  Johann  Arnolh,  a  German  mystic,  was 
born  at  Detniold  in  1773,  and  educated  at  the  gymna- 
sium of  his  native  city.  While  but  a  youth  he  attempt- 
ed the  restoration  of  the  exceedingly  marred  text  of 
Varro,  De  Linr/ua  Latina.  He  studied  theology  at  the 
University  of  Gottingen,  where  the  rational  exegesis  of 
Eichhorn  nearly  stifled  all  his  religious  belief.  From 
Gottingen  he  went  to  Leipsic,  thence  as  a  teacher  to 
Hallo,  and  finally  to  Berlin.  In  1805  he  wrote  at  WUr- 
temberg  a  work  on  the  mythology  of  the  Greeks  (Wei- 
mar, 1805).  His  study  of  this  subject  led  him  to  read 
the  Old  Testament,  and  idtimately  resulted  in  the  pub- 
lication of  Die  erste  Urkunde  der  Geschichte,  with  a 
Preface  by  Jean  Paul  (1808,  2  vols.  8vo).  During  the 
war  with  the  French  he  joined  the  PrussfJin  army,  but 
Avas  captured  by  the  French,  from  whom  he  soon  es- 
caped, and  then  entered  the  Austrian  army.  But,  pros- 
trated by  disease,  he  was  several  times  confined  in  the 
hospital  at  Linz,  when,  through  the  efforts  of  Jean  Paul 
and  president  Jacobi,  he  was  dismissed  from  the  ser- 
vice. On  Jacobi's  recommendation,  in  1809  he  was 
called  to  the  chair  of  history  in  the  College  of  Science 
at  Nuremberg.  His  sufferings  in  the  army  seemed  to 
have  accelerated  his  previous  religious  decline,  and  his 
works  published  after  his  appointment  at  Nuremberg 
give  evidence  of  his  leaning  towards  extreme  rational- 
ism. He  wrote  in  this  period  Pantheon  der  dltesten 
Naturphilosophie  oder  die  Pelif/ion  der  Volker  (1811)  : — 
Si/stem  der  Indischen  Mythe  oder  Kronus  mid  die  Ge- 
schichte des  Gotimenschen  (1813).  He  was,  however, 
soon  afterwards  induced  to  renounce  his  antichristian 
views  laid  down  in  these  books.  He  made  an  attempt 
to  derive  all  languages  from  one  primitive  language  in 
his  TrayyXojCTOToi',  but  his  request  to  king  Alexander  to 
aid  his  jihilological  undertaking  received  no  hearing. 
In  Nuremberg  his  moral  and  spiritual  condition  was  for 
a  long  time  a  turmoil  of  conflicting  emotions,  but  the 
reading  of  religious  writings  and  elevated  conversation 
with  distinguished  Christians  brought  about  a  spiritual 
regeneration.  In  1818  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of 
Oriental  Utcrature  in  the  University  of  Erlangen.  Here 
he  withdrew  from  all  society,  and  lived  in  seclusion  from 
the  world,  v.holly  absorbed  in  contemplative  mysticism. 


other  significations. 


Doubtless  his  papers  would  have  afforded  a  clear  view 
of  the  state  of  his  soul,  but,  according  to  his  friends,  to- 
wards the  close  of  his  Ufe  he  destroyed  aU  documents 
relating  to  this  subject.  He  died  Dec.  17,  1824.  His 
other  rehgious  works  are:  Sammlung  wahrer  und  er- 
u-ecklicher  Geschichten  aus  deni  Reiche  Christi  und  fur 
dasselhe  (1815-17, 2  vols. ;  1822, 3  vols.)  -.—Leben,  und  aus 
dem  Leben  merkwiirdifjer  und  erweckter  Christen  (181G- 
17,  2  vols.) :  —  Fortsetzum/  (1824)  :  —  Romane  aus  der 
Christenwelt  aller  Zeiten  (1817) : — Christus  iin  A.T.,  or 
Unte7-suchungen  iiberdie  Vorbilder  undmessianischenStel- 
len  (1818,  2  vols.  8vo)  •.—Bihlische  Untersuchun/;en  oder 
Auslegungm  mit  und  ohm  Polemih  (1819-20,  2  vols. 
8vo).  He  edited  also  the  follow- 
ing: Auserlesene  christliche  Lieder 
(Erlang.  1818) : — Weissagungen  v. 
Verheissungen  der  Kirche  Christi 
avf  die  letzten  Zeiten  der  Ileiden, 
—  Katholische  Real  -  Enctjklop.  v, 
1036. 

Kanon  is  one  of  the  names  by 
which  the  official  list  or  register  of 
tlie  Church  is  known.  It  is  also 
frequently  spoken  of  as  KaraXoyoQ 
'itgaTiKoc,  list  of  the  priesthood,  and 
lence  spiritual  persons  were  denom- 
inated KavoviKoi,  canonici,  and  ol 
Tov  Kavui'ot;,  men  of  the  c««o»,  be- 
cause their  names  were  entered  in 
the  list.  The  word  kuviov  had  also 
The  assent  of  the  catechumens  to 
a  summary  of  the  leading  articles  of  the  Christian  faith 
was  required,  and  this  creed  was  variously  designated ; 
sometimes  Kavwv,  the  rule,  sometimes  TriariQ,  the  faith, 
and  sijmbolum,  a  badge  or  token  (see  Kiddie,  Christian 
Antiquities,  s.  v.).     See  Canon, 

Kanoiise,  Peter,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom 
in  Boonton,  N.  J.,  August  20,  1784,  of  German  descent; 
was  educated  for  the  ministry  under  Drs.  Armstrong  and 
Kichards,  and  was  licensed  and  ordained  in  1822.  H(j 
successively  preached  at  Suckasunna,  N.  J. ;  Ne^vark,  N. 
J. ;  Wantage,  N.  J. ;  Newark,  N.  J. ;  Poughkeepsie,  N. 
Y. ;  again  at  Wantage,  N.  J.,  and  then  as  a  home  mis- 
sionary in  Dane  Co.,  Wisconsin.  He  died  May  30, 1864. 
"  He  was  an  able  and  impressive  preacher  of  the  Gos- 
pel. .  .  .  bearing  the  '  fruits  of  the  Spirit,'  and  instru- 
mental in  the  conversion  of  many  souls." — AVilson,  Prc?- 
bijterian  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1866,  p.  216. 

Kansa,  in  Hindu  mytholog}^,  is  the  name  of  a  king 
of  the  race  of  Bhoja — considered  also  a  daemon  (Kiila- 
nemi)  in  human  shape,  and  notorious  for  his  enmity  to- 
wards the  god  Krishna  [see  Vishnu],  by  whom  he  was 
ultimately  slain. 

Kant,  Imjianuel,  designated  bj'  De  Maistre  "  the 
philosopher  of  nebulous  memory,"  acquired  enduring  re- 
nown as  the  author  of  the  Critical  Philosophy.,  as  the 
father  of  the  recent  German  or  transcendental  specula- 
tion, and  as  the  most  acute  and  profound  metaphysician 
of  the  closing  18th  century.  The  importance  of  his 
philosophical  career  is  evinced  by  his  furnishing  the 
link  of  connection  between  the  schools  of  Leibnitz, 
Locke,  Berkeley,  and  Hume,  and  those  of  Hegel,  Scliel- 
liiig,  and  Comtc.  He  closes  one  great  and  brilliant  era 
of  metaph}'sical  inquiry ;  he  commences  another  with 
singular  fulness  of  knowledge,  breadth  of  comprehen- 
sion, perspicacity  of  discernment,  and  logical  subtlety 
and  precision.  He  exposed  inveterate  errors  of  proced- 
ure ;  he  improved,  sharpened,  and  refined  the  methods 
of  investigation ;  he  surveyed  and  plotted  out  the  boun- 
daries of  metaphysical  research  ;  and  he  rendered  more 
distinct  and  precise  the  nature  of  the  inquiry,  the  sub- 
ject with  v.liich  it  is  concerned,  and  the  instruments  at 
our  command  for  its  investigation.  These  are  inestima- 
ble services,  the  benefits  of  which  are  experienced  even 
in  the  midst  of  the  errors  that  have  sprung  from  the 
svstem  bv  which  thev  were  rendered. 


KANT 


12 


KANT 


Life. — Kant  was  born  at  Kiinigsberg  April  22, 1724, 
and  spent  his  whole  lite  there  or  in  its  immediate  neigh- 
borhood, never  having  journeyed  more  than  forty  miles 
from  his  native  place.  He  ended  his  tranquil  life  in 
the  city  of  his  birth,  February  12,  1804.  He  was  of 
Scotch  origin.  His  father,  John  George  Cant,  removed 
from  Tilsit,  where  his  immigrant  grandfather  first  set- 
tled, to  Ktinigsberg,  and  followed  the  saddler's  trade  with 
little  worldly  success.  His  pinched  fortunes  were  enno- 
bled by  stern  and  unostentatious  integrity.  All  accounts 
commemorate  the  high  character,  intelligence,  and  au- 
stere piety  of  Anna  Kegina  Keuter,  the  philosopher's 
mother — virtues  affectionately  attested  by  her  illustrious 
son,  who  ascribes  all  that  was  best  in  himself  to  her  ex- 
ample and  instructions,  and  to  the  purifying  influences 
of  his  childhood's  home.  He  lost  his  mother  when  he 
was  eleven  years  of  age,  his  father  in  his  twenty-second 
year  (174G).  They  lived  long  enough  to  transmit  to 
him  the  memory  of  their  virtuous  example — 'twas  all 
they  had  to  bequeath.  After  receiving  the  first  rudi- 
ments of  education  at  the  charitable  schools  of  the  city, 
he  was  sent  to  the  Frederick  College  in  1734,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  his  uncle,  a  substantial  shoemaker.  Here  he 
remained  for  seven  years  under  the  care  of  Dr.  Schiiltz, 
an  eminent  adherent  of  Wolf,  at  the  time  when  the 
AVollian  philosophy  was  a  subject  of  acrimonious  contro- 
versy. He  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the  classics  and 
mathematics,  the  essential  foundation  of  all  thorough 
instruction,  and  had  Rulmken  for  his  fellow -student. 
From  the  Collef/ium  Fredericiumnn  he  passed  in  1740  to 
the  University  of  Kiinigsberg,  and  entered  upon  a  course 
of  theology;  but  his  ill  success  in  preaching  discouraged 
him,  and  he  attached  himself  to  the  matliematical  and 
physical  sciences,  in  the  former  of  which  his  first  dis- 
tinction was  gained.  During  the  latter  period  of  his 
university  career  he  supported  himself  by  teaching  in 
the  humblest  grades,  in  consequence  of  the  increasing 
penury  of  his  father,  whose  death  in  1746  compelled  him 
to  withdraw  from  the  university,  and  to  seek  a  living 
from  his  own  exertions  alone.  For  the  nine  following 
years  he  was  employed  as  a  private  teacher  in  or  near 
Kijnigsbcrg,  and  flnally  in  the  noljle  family  of  Kayscr- 
ling,  by  Avhom  his  merits  were  appi'eciated,  and  in  whose 
society  he  acquired  that  polish  of  manner  which  distin- 
guished him  through  life.  lie  changed  his  family  name 
of  Cant  to  the  more  Germanic  appellative  Kant,  but  he 
did  not  thus  divest  himself  of  the  Scotch  characteristics 
of  mind  and  morals.  In  the  second  year  of  his  engage- 
ment in  private  tuition  he  published  his  first  work, 
Gedcmken  von  dcr  walrren  Scliatziiiir/  de?'  lehendujcn  Krlifle 
{Thour/hts  on  the  true  Measure  of  Living  Forces,  1747), 
which  was  esteemed  a  valuable  contribution  to  the  fa- 
mous controversy  on  the  subject.  In  1754  he  discussed 
the  question  proposed  for  a  prize  by  the  Berlin  Acade- 
my, Whether  the  Earth  had  undergone  a>i;j  change  conse- 
quent upon  its  7-evolution  upon  its  Axis.  This  essay  fa- 
cilitated his  acquisition  of  the  master's  degree  in  the 
next  year.  At  this  time  he  returned  to  the  universitj- 
as  prirat-doceut,  and  maintained  an  uninterrupted  con- 
nection with  it  thenceforth  till  the  closing  years  of  his 
life  He  inaugurated  his  lectures  by  the  composition  of 
two  theses :  the  first,  Be  Igni ;  the  second,  IHssertatio  de 
Prina'piis  Primis  Cognitiouis  Ifumancr,  which  was  the 
first  manifestation  of  the  direction  of  his  mind  to  meta- 
physical inquiry,  and  also  showed  that  he  had  fixed  on 
the  central  point  of  all  philosoi)hy.  While  employed  in 
private  teaching  he  had  diligently  prosecuted  his  ency- 
clopxdical  stucUes,  and  had  acquired  the  English  lan- 
guage by  his  own  exertions,  in  order  to  master  the  spec- 
ulations of  Locke,  Berkeley,  and  Hume.  Another  kin- 
dred treatise  belongs  to  this  year — Priiicipioriiiu  Primo- 
rum  Cognitionis  Metaphysical  Nova.  Dducidatio,  as  also 
liis  Allgemeine  Naturgeschiehte  nnd  Theorie  des  Ilimimls 
(^Univeisal  Natural  History  and  Theory  of  the,  Hea'r- 
eni).  The  last  work  was  issued  anonymously,  with  a 
dedication  to  Frederick  tlie  (ireat.  It  is  remarkable  for 
its  bold  views,  and  for  aimouncing  the  probable  resolu- 


tion of  the  nebula?  into  stars,  and  the  probable  discovery 
of  new  planets  —  scientific  predictions  fulfilled  in  much 
later  years  by  Ilerschel  and  Leverrier.  Tliis  production 
occasioned  a  correspondence  with  Lambert  (17G1),  the 
singularly  profound  president  of  the  Berlin  Academy, 
who  espoused  similar  opinions.  For  fifteen  years  (1755- 
1770)  Kant  lectured  to  private  classes  in  the  university. 
His  courses  treated  "panie  de  omni  scibili,"  but  were 
marked  by  a  special  addition  to  the  physical  sciences, 
and,  after  1757,  to  physical  geography,  a  novel  branch 
r)f  knowledge  which  he  continued  to  expound  annually 
till  the  close  of  his  academical  career.  A  life  so  retired 
as  Kant's,  and  so  exclusively  occupied  with  study  and 
the  duties  of  instruction,  scarcely  offers  any  events  for 
biography  beyond  the  development  of  opinions,  the  jjub- 
lication  of  the  treatises  in  which  such  opinions  are  set 
forth,  and  the  academic  distinctions  attained.  The 
chronicler  finds  little  to  report  more  exciting  than  Dr. 
Primrose's  migrations  "from  the  blue  chamber  to  the 
brown,"  and  hence  is  compelled  to  mark  the  critical  mo- 
ments of  his  career  by  the  notice  of  the  principal  wt)rks 
as  they  appeared.  Such  indications,  however,  have  a 
value  of  their  own,  as  they  reveal  the  growth  of  spec- 
ulations which  have  moulded  the  intelligence  of  the 
^^•orld,  and  mark  the  times  and  modes  in  wliich  the  rev- 
olutions of  thought  have  been  effected.  In  1762  ap- 
peared Kant's  criticism  of  the  Aristotelian  logic,  in  a  trea- 
tise entitled  Die  falsche  Spitzjindigkeit  der  vier  syllogis- 
tischen  Figuren  {False  Subtlety  of  the  Syllogistic  Figures'). 
The  censors  of  Aristotle  have  usually  misapprehended 
both  his  doctrines  and  his  aims,  and  have  imagined  to 
be  erroneous  dogmas  which  the  Stagyrite  had  medita- 
ted more  profoundly,  and  had  treated  with  a  juster  re- 
gard to  practical  convenience  than  themselves.  In  the 
course  of  the  next  year,  1763,  Kant  gave  to  the  public 
his  Der  einzig  mogliche  Beweissgrund  zu  einer  Demonstra- 
tion des  Daseyns  Gottes  {Ontological  Demonstration  of  the 
Being  of  God),  in  which  he  repudiated  alike  the  deduc- 
tions a  p)rion  of  Anselm,  Des  Cartes,  and  Clarke,  and 
the  inductions  a  posteriori  of  the  natural  theologians, 
and  regarded  the  conception  of  the  possibility  of  God  as 
attesting  the  reality  of  his  existence.  This  treatise  still 
bears  the  imjiress  of  the  dominant  Wolfian  philosophy, 
which  he  had  imbibed  from  his  early  teacher  Schultz. 
In  this  year  he  contended  for  the  prize  offered  by  the 
Berlin  Academy,  his  treatise  on  the  Principles  of  Nat- 
ural Theology  and  Morals  {Unteisuchung  iiher  die  Deut- 
lichkeit  der  Grundscitze  der  natiirlicheii  Theologie  vnd 
Morcd)  receiving  the  second  honors,  while  the  first  v.ere 
adjudged  to  IMoses  IMendelssohn.  Three  years  more 
elapsed  before  he  received  his  first  public  appointment 
as  underkeeper  of  the  Royal  Library,  with  the  scant  sal- 
ary of  fifty  dollars.  In  this  year  he  exposed  the  pre- 
tensions of  Swedenborgianism,  being  always  ready  to 
assail  new-fangled  delusions,  whether  stimulated  by  en- 
thusiasm or  by  imposture.  At  length,  when  ajiproach- 
ing  the  end  of  his  forty-seventh  year,  he  was  promoted 
to  the  chair  of  logic  and  metaphj-sics  in  his  own  uni- 
versity, with  a  stipend  of  three  hundred  dollars.  He 
had  suffered  two  previous  disappointments.  He  had 
failed  to  obtain  the  professorship  extraordinary  of  logic 
in  1756,  and  the  ordinary  professorship  in  1758,  and  had 
declined  the  professorship  of  poetry  in  17G4,froin  distrust 
of  his  aptitudes  and  acquirements.  He  had  refused  in- 
vitations from  Erlangen  and  Jena,  from  reluctance  to 
abandon  his  people  and  his  native  home. 

Custom  demanded  an  inaugural  dissertation  from  the 
professor  elect.  Kant's  subject  was  De  3/undi  AS'ensibi/is 
atqne  Intelligibilis  Forma  et  Principiis.  This  essay  con- 
tained the  first  distinct  anticipations  of  his  characteristic 
system,  though  his  philosophj-  did  not  receive  form  or 
coherent  development  for  many  ensuing  years.  The  re- 
mainder of  his  life  was,  however,  consecrated  to  its  defi- 
nite constitution  and  exposition.  It  early  began  to  as- 
sume shape,  for  in  1772  he  smoothed  the  way  for  a  full- 
er discussion  by  his  Scheme  of  Transcendental  Philoso- 
phy.   No  desire  of  change,  no  temptation  of  worldly  ad- 


KANT 


13 


KANT 


vancement  and  honor  could  seduce  him  from  his  calm  lu- 
cubrations. He  refused  to  go  to  Halle,  though  a  double 
salary  was  offered  him.  After  eleven  years  of  patient 
meditation  he  produced  in  1781  his  Critique  oftkePure 
Reason  {Kritik  dev  reiiien  Vernunft),  which  proclaimed 
a  ne^v  philosophy,  and  ushered  in  a  new  cycle  of  specu- 
lation— norm  ordo  Sicclorum  metaphysicoruin.  The  work 
was  modified  in  a  second  edition  in  1787,  to  obviate  the 
imputation  of  idealism  and  idealistic  infidelity  objected 
to  it  as  to  the  previous  system  of  Wolf.  It  long  seemed 
as  if  this  remarkable  production — a  revolution  itself,  and 
the  parent  of  revolutions — woidd  never  reach  a  second 
edition.  For  six  years  it  lay  so  unheeded  on  the  jnib- 
lisher's  shelves  that  he  contemplated  disposing  of  it  as 
waste  paper,  when  a  sudden  demand  relieved  his  anxie- 
ties, and  rendered  a  republication  expedient.  This  time- 
ly uiterest  in  the  book  was  scarcely  due  to  Kant's  Pro- 
legomena to  Metaphysics  {Prolegomena  zu  eiiier  jeden 
kiinflvjen  Metaphysik,  die  als  Wissenschaft  wird  aiiflre- 
ten  Iconnen,  1783),  but  may  be  attributed  to  striking  no- 
tices of  the  doctrine  in  prominent  German  magazines. 
In  1785  the  practical  side  of  his  system  was  exposed  in 
his  Metaphysics  of  Ethics  {Grmidler/ung  zur  Metaphysik 
der  Sitten),  and  in  the  following  year  its  extension  to 
physical  speculation  was  attempted  in  his  Metaphysics 
of  Natural  Science  (^Metaphysische  A  ufanr/sgriiiule  der 
Naturwissenschaft).  In  1788  the  positive  aspect  of  his 
philosophy  was  presented  in  the  Critique  of  the  Practical 
Reason  {Kritik  der  praktischenVei-nunf),  which  treats 
of  the  principles  and  objects  of  the  moral  law,  and  con- 
structs ethics  on  the  formula,  Act  so  that  your  principle 
of  action  may  serve  as  a  universal  law.  The  foimdation 
is  narrow,  and  has  the  cold  rigidity  of  Stoical  pretension, 
but  it  was  a  stern  and  strict  rule  in  the  conception  of 
its  propounder,  and  was  borrowed  from  his  own  line  of 
conduct,  and  from  the  austere  virtues  of  his  parental 
home,  as  much  as  from  the  dictates  of  his  reason.  The 
defects  of  this  canon  will  be  indicated  hereafter.  The 
outline  of  the  new  philosophy  was  completed  in  1790  by 
the  Critique  of  the  Practical  Judgment  {Kritik  der  Ur- 
tkeikkraft),  which  is  in  some  respects  the  most  satis- 
factory work  of  the  series.  It  is  designed  to  unit  j  the 
practical  with  the  theoretical  reason,  the  freedom  of  the 
wUl  witii  the  law  of  existence,  by  regarding  the  whole 
order  of  creation  as  a  system  of  means  effectually  adapt- 
ed to  the  attainment  of  benelicent  aims.  It  is  thus  a 
tractate  of  teleology  or  of  final  causes.  It  is  principally 
occupied  with  the  theory  of  the  beautiful  and  the  sub- 
lime, and  is  in  great  measure  a  development  of  the  Ob- 
servations  on  the  Beautiful  and  the  Sublime  {Beobach- 
tunrjen  iiber  das  Gefiihl  des  Schonen  und Erhabenen,  17C4), 
and  the  Metaphysics  of  Ethics  (1785). 

Kant's  metaphysics  had  thus  been  exhibited  by  him- 
self in  all  its  principal  applications.  It  had  attracted 
general  notice;  it  had  gathered  around  it  numerous  and 
enthusiastic  disciples;  it  had  secured  for  its  author  pro- 
found respect  and  earnest  admiration.  Distinguished 
men  flocked  to  his  lectures ;  princes  and  sovereigns  com- 
missioned learned  scholars  to  hear  his  teacliings  and  to 
report  his  doctrines.  His  life  was  surroiuided  witli  case, 
and  his  days  were  crowned  with  honor.  His  salary  had 
been  increased,  and  had  given  what  was  wealth  to  one 
of  his  simple  tastes  and  frugal  habits.  He  liad  been 
twice  appointed  rector  of  the  university.  His  industri- 
ous and  meditative  career  had  passed  its  grand  climac- 
teric, and  was  stretching  serenely  to  its  close.  Just 
when  the  aims  of  life  appeared  to  have  been  won,  Kant 
was  plunged  into  the  only  serious  troubles  wliich  dis- 
turbed liis  tranquil  existence.  He  became  involved  in 
a  grave  religious  controversy  bj'^  some  articles  in  a  Ber- 
lin magazine,  afterwards  reproduced  in  a  volume  under 
the  title  of  Religion  within  the  Limits  of  Pure  Reason 
Sfiie  Religion  inner  halb  der  Grenzen  der  blossen  Vernunft, 
1793).  There  was  a  ferment  in  the  religious  circles  of 
Germany  at  this  time,  and  Kant's  philosophy  had  early 
excited  alarms  which  appeared  now  to  be  justified.  A 
doctrine  which  rejected  the  accepted  arguments  for  the 


being  of  God,  the  validity  of  revelation,  the  immortality 
of  the  soul,  and  the  creation  of  the  world,  offended  too 
many  convictions,  unsettled  too  many  inveterate  habits 
of  thought,  and  substituted  too  shadowy  and  too  ab- 
stract si)eculations  for  accredited  precepts  and  dogmas, 
not  to  produce  discontent  and  censure.  Nor  were  the 
alarms  entertained  unreasonable,  as  was  shown  by  the 
subsequent  developments  of  the  transcendental  philoso- 
phy. The  agitation  excited  by  Kant's  theological  in- 
novations was  partially  allayed  by  a  royal  mandate  di- 
recting him  to  observe  silence  on  religious  topics.  The 
king's  interference  is  supposed  to  have  been  induced  by 
Kant's  sympathies  with  the  French  Revolution,  despite 
of  the  Reign  of  Terror.  On  the  death  of  the  king  in 
1797  he  resumed  his  expositions,  considering  his  engage- 
ment as  a  personal  one  with  that  monarch.  But  before 
this  time  he  had  narrowed  the  sphere  of  his  activity. 
In  179i  he  withdrew  from  general  society;  in  1795  he 
discontinued  aU  his  instructions  except  in  logic  and  met- 
aphysics, and  he  closed  his  ifcademic  labors  altogether 
two  years  afterwards.  In  1798  he  composed  his  Strife 
of  the  Faculties  {Der  Sireit  der  Facultdten),  reviving  the 
religious  dispute  in  which  he  had  been  entangled ;  and 
he  bade  farewell  to  the  public  in  his  Pragmatical  View 
of  Anthropology  {Anthropologic  in  pragmatischer  Hin- 
sicht).  The  last  work  from  his  o\vn  pen  was  a  protest 
against  Fichte's  doctrine,  which  gave  to  the  new  philos- 
ophy the  subjective  or  idealistic  cast,  against  which  his 
own  -efforts  had  always  been  strenuously  directed.  In 
this  paper  were  manifested  his  own  failing  powers,  and 
his  incapacity  to  appreciate  other  systems  than  his  own 
— a  natural  consequence  of  his  habitual  disregard  of  the 
history  of  speculation.  His  pupils  published  several 
other  works  from  his  notes  and  papers  during  the  last 
years  of  his  life.  Tliat  life  was  not  long  extended  after 
his  retirement.  His  constitution  gradually  broke  up; 
his  health,  so  remarkably  maintained,  began  to  decline; 
appetite,  teeth,  strength,  sight,  voice,  memory,  all  failed, 
and  his  pure,  laborious,  and  honorable  existence  was  ter- 
minated by  an  apopleetic  attack,  Feb.  12, 180i,  vvdicn  he 
had  nearly  completed  his  eightieth  year.  His  death 
produced  profound  emotion  throughout  Germany.  The 
whole  city  of  Kiinigsbcrg  put  on  mourning;  multitudes 
flocked  to  liis  funeral,  and  his  remains  were  escorted 
to  the  grave  by  a  solemn  procession.  A  characteristic 
medal  was  struck  to  commemorate  his  fame.  It  liore  an 
emblem  and  a  motto  appropriate  to  his  doctrine,  "  Altius 
volantem  coercuit."  He  was  worthy  of  such  honor.  He 
left  to  his  countrs'men  the  example  of  a  career  rich  in 
wholesome  fruits  —  simple,  sincere,  upright,  laborious; 
devoted  singly  to  the  promotion  of  tnith,  and  to  tlie  re- 
moval of  error  in  the  highest  and  most  perDous  regions 
of  speculation,  illustrated  by  seventy  years  of  unbroken 
industry,  and  by  half  a  century  faithfully  given  to  tjie 
instruction  of  successive  generations  of  the  young  in  va- 
rious branches  of  learning,  from  the  humblest  rudiments 
of  knowledge  to  tlio  mostrccondite  metaphysical  research. 
Humble,  modest,  and  true,  his  life  was  a  nobler  crown  to 
his  memory  than  all  the  honors  that  men  could  bestow. 
In  person,  Kant  was  small  and  delicately  built.  His 
blue  eyes  expressed  benevolence,  but  his  features  were 
rugged,  and  seamed  with  the  lines  of  habitual  thought. 
Lavater  mistook  his  portrait  for  that  of  a  noted  high- 
wajTiian.  His  manners  were  kindly  and  courteous.  He 
was  very  genial  in  company,  full  of  mirth  and  innocent 
wit,  and  scrupulously  abstinent  of  learned  or  metajihys- 
ical  discourse.  As  a  lecturer  he  was  easy  and  attrac- 
tive, displaying  nothing  of  the  repulsive  aridity  and 
elaborate  awkwardness  of  his  philosophical  treatises. 
He  was  a  reverential  observer  of  all  truth,  and  rigid  in 
the  practice  of  all  justice.  The  like  precise  projiriety 
regulated  all  his  habits.  He  was  plain  in  his  tastes,  ab- 
stemious in  eating  and  drinking,  chary  of  indulgences, 
frugal  in  his  expenditures,  methodical  in  every  arrange- 
ment. "  Early  to  bed  anil  early  to  rise"  was  the  rule  of 
his  hfe.  His  hour  for  rising  was  four  in  summer  and 
live  in  winter;  fur  bed,  ten  in  summer  and  nine  in  win- 


KANT 


14 


KANT 


ter.  By  tliis  regularity  and  moderation  he  reached  ful- 
ness of  years  with  liealth,  cheerfulness,  and  perfect  se- 
renity. He  seems  to  have  been  deficient  in  i)oetic  sen- 
sibihty  and  poetic  imajjinatiou.  To  this  defect  may  be 
ascribed  several  imperfections  in  the  exposition  of  his 
philosophy,  and  his  total  want  of  religious  sentiment. 
Shortly  before  his  death  he  declared  that  he  had  no  de- 
terminate notion  of  a  future  state,  but  was  inclined  to 
believe  in  metempsychosis.  This  was  the  Haw  in  his 
mental  and  moral  constitution  which  produced  many 
flaws  in  his  speculation. 

Like  his  illustrious  contemporary  Hume,  whom  he 
sur\ived  nearly  thirty  years,  Kant  Avas  never  married. 
He  gave  no  ''  hostages  to  fortune,"  but  illustrated  Ba- 
con's dictum,  that "  the  best  works,  and  of  greatest  merit 
for  the  public,  have  proceeded  from  unmarried  or  child- 
less men."  Of  the  works  constituting  Kant's  bequest  to 
posterity,  the  most  noted  and  important  are  those  that 
expountl  the  "  Critical  Philosophy,"  and  of  this  philoso- 
phy a  brief  notice  remain.*  to  be  given. 

Philosophy — Kant's  scheme  of  speculation  is  so  com- 
prehensive, so  extensive,  so  intricate,  so  systematic,  so 
full  of  divisions  and  subdivisions,  that  it  is  impossible  to 
attempt  any  complete  summary  of  it  within  the  limits  al- 
lowed by  this  article.  Not  the  fullest,  but  the  most  com- 
pact mode  of  exposition  is  required.  Hence  the  notice 
of  tlie  numerous  treatises  not  directly  employed  in  the 
construction  of  the  "  Critical  Philosophy"  has  been  in- 
troduced into  the  biographical  sketch.  Hence,  too,  the 
reader  wlio  desires  a  formal  outline  of  the  system  must 
be  referred  to  some  of  the  numerous  synoptical  views 
presented  in  German,  French,  English,  and  Latin.  All 
that  can  be  aimed  at  here  will  be  to  give  a  cursory  ac- 
count of  the  distinctive  peculiarities  of  Kant's  scheme. 
To  do  this,  it  may  suffice  to  explain  his  relation  to  pre- 
vious philosophy,  to  point  out  his  characteristic  method, 
and  to  note  the  cliief  developments  and  applications  of 
that  method. 

To  show  the  exact  relation  of  Kant  to  antecedent 
and  contemporary  modes  of  spocidation  woidd  require  a 
detailed  account  of  the  fortunes  of  philosophy  from  Ba- 
con, and  Gassondi,  and  Des  Cartes.  This  is'more  than 
has  been  attempted  by  Rosenkranz.  It  must  suffice  to 
state  that  in  the  middle  of  the  18th  century  the  Wolfian 
deyeloiiment  and  systematization  of  the  philosophy  of 
Leibnitz  was  predominant  in  Germany;  the  scepticism 
of  Hume  perplexed  and  alarmed  Britain ;  and  the  mate- 
rialism of  D'Alembert,  Diderot,  and  Condillac  was  fash- 
ionable in  France.  The  philosophy  of  Leibnitz  was  an 
effort  to  escape  the  pantheistic  tendencies  of  Cartesian- 
ism  as  evolved  in  the  idealism  of  Spinoza  and  the  the- 
osophism  of  JNLalebranche.  Hume's  philosophy  was  the 
sceptical  evolution  of  the  sensationalism  of  Locke,  gener- 
ated by  the  collision  between  the  mechanicism  of  Hartley 
and  the  Pyrrhonism  of  Berkeley.  The  infidel  doctrine  of 
the  school  of  the  French  Eiicyclopnsdia  was  the  superfi- 
cial deduction  of  the  French  intellectual  anarchists  from 
the  partial  appreciation  of  the  tenets  of  Locke,  whose 
own  princii>les  were  vague  and  incoherent.  The  prob- 
lem presented  for  solution  was  to  find  some  ground  of 
conciliation  between  all  these  divergent  opinions,  to  de- 
tect and  expose  the  fallacies  on  which  they  rested,  to 
avoid  the  mischiefs  caused  or  portended  by  them,  and  to 
discover  a  trustworthy  and  intelligible  basis  for  human 
knowleilge.  The  situation  was  in  many  respects  anal- 
ogous to  that  which  characterized  the  Hellenic  world  at 
the  time  of  Socrates.  Kant  undertook  the  investiga- 
tion of  this  arduous  and  urgent  problem,  and,  like  Soc- 
rates, he  proceeded  by  the  critical  investigation  of  the 
nature  of  knowledge  and  of  the  intellectual  faculties  of 
man.  By  this  procedure  he  was  gradually  led  to  the 
determination  of  the  conditions  of  the  problem,  and  to 
the  discovery  of  a  solution  partially  true,  and  which  ap- 
peared to  himself  complete  and  irrefragable.  In  meta- 
physics the  method  is  the  philosophy,  and  Kant's  jneth- 
od  gave  to  his  system  the  appropriate  name  of  the  Crit- 
ical I'hilosophy. 


It  must  be  remembered  that  Kant's  early  guide  was 
Schultz,  an  earnest  partisan  of  "Wolf;  that  Kant  pro- 
ceeils  from  the  Wolfian,  that  is,  from  the  methodical 
LeibniJ;zian  School;  that  he  slowly  emerges  from  the 
Wolfian  circle,  and  that  Wolfian  characteristics  may  be 
traced  throughout  the  whole  construction  of  his  scheme. 

The  response  made  by  Leibnitz  to  the  thesis  of  Locke 

— "  Nihil  est  in  intellectu  (juod  non  prius  in  sensu" a 

dogma  by  no  means  Aristotle's,  and  only  virtually  Locke's 
—furnishes  the  key-note  to  the  whole  philosophy  of 
Kant.  "  Nisi  intellectus  ipse,"  replied  Leibnitz ;  "thus 
distinguishing  the  faculty  of  thought  from  the  impres- 
sions it  receives,  and  offering  a  refutation  at  once  of 
both  the  sceptical  and  the  materialistic  followers  of 
Locke.  The  same  just  discernment  may  be  found  in 
Aristotle,  though  it  has  been  little  noticed  (.1  nul/jt.  Post. 
ii,  xix).  What  was  required  was  the  discovery  of  some 
principle  of  intelligence,  some  interjiretation  of  the  pro- 
cess of  human  thought,  which  woidd  withdraw  the  mind 
of  man  from  the  arbitrary  government  of  a  ProA-idential 
compulsion,  a  blind  necessity,  or  a  mechanical  regula- 
tion by  material  constitution  or  by  external  chance. 
Kant  sought  this  principle  in  the  constitution  and  limi- 
tations of  the  human  mind.  He  analyzed  the  products 
and  the  processes  of  thought.  He  found  that  in  every 
pcrcejition,  in  every  judgment,  in  every  generalization, 
the  mind  communicated  something  of  its  own  to  what 
was  presented  as  the  object  of  knowledge ;  that  in  every 
apprehension,  what  was  apprehended  was  moulded  and 
determined  by  the  intelligence  which  apprehended  it. 
To  use  the  language  of  the  school,  the  form  of  knowl- 
edge was  necessarily  imposed  by  the  constitution  of  the 
cognizant  mind.  This*  seems  to  have  been  the  doctrine 
of  Aristotle  (jriv  ■ipi'XJjv  tlvai  totzov  tlSuv,  Be  Anhn, 
iii,  iv),  and  was  deduced  from  his  teachings  by  his  scho- 
liast, Asclepius. 

It  was  slowly  that  Kant  reached  this  conclusion, 
which  became  very  prolific  in  his  hands.  He  tells  us 
that  it  was  due  to  the  examination  of  Hume's  denial  of 
any  nexus  between  cause  and  effect,  which  of  course  re- 
duced the  universe  to  a  disconnected  dream,  and  ren- 
dered all  knowledge  the  mere  aggregate  of  impressions 
fortuitously  succeeding  each  other.  He  found  that  the 
same  difficidty  which  had  been  exposed  by  Hume  in  re- 
gard to  cause  and  effect  existed  in  the  case  of  all  syn- 
thetic judgments  «  priori,  or  those  which  unite  two  un- 
connected conceptions  in  one  proposition.  Truth  was 
thus  deprived  of  all  valiility,  and  experience  became 
fallacy.  How  could  a  firm  fomidation  be  attained? 
Was  experience  as  hollow,  and  spectral,  and  delusive  as 
it  had  been  represented  by  Hume  ?  Three  questions 
presented  themselves  for  solution,  each  corresponding  to 
a  distinct  branch  of  metaphysical  inquiry :  "  What  can  I 
know?"  "What  ought  I  to  do?"  "What  may  I  hope 
for?"  The  answer  to  the  first  question,  which  was  the 
investigation  of  the  nature  of  knowledge  and  of  the  na- 
ture of  the  mind,  was  given  in  the  Critique  of  the  Pure 
Reason.  The  answer  to  the  second,  wdiich  embraced  the 
theory  of  duty,  was  propounded  in  the  Critique  of  the 
Practical  Reason.  The  answer  to  the  third,  which  con- 
templated the  summum  honum  under  a  jieculiar  aspect, 
was  presented  in  the  Critique  of  the  Judf/mcnt — a  very 
ambiguous  designation.  This  distinction  of  subjects  and 
division  of  treatises  sprung  from  the  distribution  of  the 
matter  of  philosophy  then  prevalent  in  Gemiany.  The 
distribution  had  itself  descended  from  Aristotle  {^tioiu]- 
TiKi)  yap  Ktti  TrpaKrtK})  Kai  7ron)TiK})  Xiyirai  scil.  t—i- 
a-rjf^tt]. — Top.  vi,  C ;  comp.  Metaph.  v,  1 ;  xi,  7 ;  xii,  9). 

(1)  The  Critique  of  the  Pure  Reason  contains  the  es- 
sence of  Kant's  philosophy.  It  exhibits  his  method, 
illustrates  his  procedure,  and  presents  his  fundamentid 
conchisions.  The  conception  of  the  Pure  IJcason  is  in 
great  measure  his  own,  though  both  the  name  and  what 
is  denoted  by  the  name  are  found  in  previous  systems 
(Plotinus,  Ennead.  v,  3,  3;  Leibnitz,  Theod.  §  1 ;  Nouv. 
Ess.  ii,  iv,  §  3).  The  pure  reason  is  reason  in  its  essential 
constitution — iv  Cvvafiu,  not  iv  ivtpyiia — the  think- 


KANT 


15 


KANT 


ing  faculty  in  its  adaptation  to  thought — erapty  of  the 
matter  of  thought,  and  distinct  from  its  experiences.  It 
is  the  mill  witliout  the  grain  which  is  to  be  ground  by 
it.  In  analyzing  the  principle  of  thought,  Kant  detects 
an  active  as  well  as  a  passive  factor.  In  every  act  of 
thought  there  is  the  reception  of  the  impression  from 
the  object  of  thought,  and  the  subjective  reaction  there- 
by excited,  which  reaction  communicates  the  rational 
form  to  the  conclusum,  and  differentiates  to  vovf^itvov, 
the  subject  of  thought,  from  ro  ^atvuyu£vo»',  the  object 
of  thought. 

Kant  cUstinguishes  the  agencies  which  supply  the 
materials  of  knowledge  into  three — sense,  understand- 
ing, reason.  The  distribution  of  the  faculties  of  the 
mind  is  always  hazardous,  and  often  beguiling.  The 
mind  is  one  and  comjilcte.  In  the  perceptions  of  sensa- 
tion, the  elements  derived  from  the  mind,  and  not  from 
the  impression,  are  space  and  time.  Such  elements  are 
called  transcendental  because  they  transcend,  precede, 
and  formulate  the  experience.  They  are  consequently 
the  forms  or  conditions  of  sensations.  They  are  not 
supplied  by  the  sensation,  but  they  are  added  to  it  by 
the  mind  in  the  act  of  perception.  There  arc  indica- 
tions of  this  doctrine  in  Plotiuus  (^/mear?.  ii,  7, 9),  Leib- 
nitz (Nouv.  Ess.  liv.  ii,  chap,  v),  and  in  other  writers. 
It  is  intimated,  indeed,  by  Aristotle,  and  is  a  natural  de- 
duction from  the  Ideas  of  Plato.  It  is  singularly  cor- 
roborated by  recent  expositions  of  the  physiology  of 
nervous  action.  In  Kant's  theory  the  phenomena  of 
the  external  world  are  all  sulyect  to  the  conception  of 
space,  the  phenomena  of  the  mind  to  the  conception  of 
time.  The  sensationalist  is  thus  refuted,  as  space  and 
time  are  not  obtained  from  sensation.  The  dogmatic 
idealist  is  refuted,  as  the  matter  of  knowledge  must  be 
supplied  by  external  impressions. 

The  understanding  co-ordinates  the  perceptions  of 
sense,  and  forms  them  into  judgments  by  giving  to 
them  unity  and  interdependence.  The  transcendental 
elements  supplied  in  this  action  of  tlie  understanding 
are  arranged  by  Kant  in  twelve  categories.  The  name 
of  categories  is  taken  from  the  Organon  of  Aristotle,  but 
Kant's  categories  are  entirely  diverse  from  Aristotle's. 
Kant  observed  that  metaphysical  science  pursued  a  de- 
lusive round,  without  making  progress  or  securing  sta- 
bility, while  logic  had  received  full,  complete,  and  defi- 
nite form  from  its  great  founder.  He  ascribed  this  dif- 
ference of  fortune  to  the  fact  that  logic  was  simply  the 
exposition  of  tlie  procedure  of  the  mind  in  reasoning, 
and  he  concluded  that  equal  validity  would  be  conferred 
on  metaphysics,  if  it  were  reduced  to  an  accurate  repre- 
sentation of  the  procedure  of  the  mind  in  the  acquisition 
and  employment  of  the  materials  of  knowledge.  Hence 
he  invented  a  forced  analogy  between  the  two  branches 
of  speculation,  and  rendered  his  theory  intricate,  arbi- 
trary, and  obscure  by  compelling  it  to  assume  a  form 
fantastically  corresponding  with  logical  distinctions.  In 
this  spirit  he  devised  his  twelve  categories,  and  ar- 
ranged them  according  to  the  forms  of  propositions,  in 
the  manner  exhibited  in  the  following  table : 

I-op:ic.il.  Transcendental. 

^Universal.  Uuitj'. 

I.  Quantity -(Particular.  Plurality. 

(.Singular.  Totality. 

rAfflrmative.  Keality. 

II.  Quality <  Negative.  Negation. 

(indeterminate.  Limitation. 

^Categorical.  ^  Substance. 

III.  Relation J.  Hypothetical.  Cause. 

(Disjunctive.  Reciprocity. 

( Problematical.  Possibility. 

IV.  Modality ^  Assertory.  Existence. 

(Apodeictlc.  Necessity. 

All  judgments  are  framed  by  the  mind  under  the  in- 
fluence of  these  categories,  four  of  them — one  from  each 
class — being  inevitably  applied  in  every  instance.  As, 
however,  things  are  thus  seen,  not  as  they  are,  but  as  the 
intellectual  predispositions  make  them  appear  to  be — 
knowledge  is  purely  relative  to  the  human  mind — ob- 
jective truth  is  not  attainable,  and  all  oiu:  experiences 


or  knowledge  have  only  a  subjective  validity.  The 
mind  cannot  think  except  so  far  as  it  has  been  ])rovoked 
by  objective  stimulation,  therefore  there  is  a  real  objec- 
tive existence  of  things.  It  thinks  under  the  control 
of  the  categories  of  the  understanding,  therefore  knowl- 
edge is  subjective  in  form,  is  moulded  by  the  recipient 
mind,  and  cannot  be  known  to  correspond  to  the  reality 
of  things.  The  image  is  reflected  from  the  mirror,  but 
the  object  represented  may  be  magnified  or  diminished, 
or  strangely  distorted  by  the  character  of  the  mirror, 
without  being  altered  in  itself.  The  image  is  aU  that 
constitutes  knowledge ;  there  is,  accordingly,  no  assur- 
ance of  agreement  between  the  image  and  the  object. 
Thus  all  knowledge  is  conditional  only — conditioned  by 
the  forms  of  the  understanding,  which  mould  it  into  the 
form  in  which  it  is  received.  Some  principle  was  re- 
quired to  give  coherence,  vmity,  confidence  to  the  rela- 
tive knowledge  obtained  through  such  mental  experi- 
ences. This  was  supposed  to  be  given  by  the  conscious- 
ness of  personality  which  boimded,  adunated,  and  har- 
monized all  the  qualified  judgments  that  could  be  enter  ■ 
tained.  It  seems  a  misapprehension  on  the  part  of 
Kant,  and  at  variance  with  his  system,  to  claim  any 
necessary  truth  for  judgments  formed  in  this  manner. 
There  can  be  nothing  more  than  a  relative  or  contin- 
gent necessity — an  impossibility  of  thinking  otherwise 
than  tlie  constitution  of  the  mind  necessitates. 

In  the  higliest  region  of  the  mind — the  reason  or  the 
faculty  of  ideas — there  is  also  subjection  of  the  matter 
of  knowledge  to  transcendental  forms.  But  the  func- 
tions of  the  reason  pass  beyond  the  limits  of  experience, 
and  are  only  regulative.  In  this  branch  of  the  sulyect, 
which  is  designed  to  explain  the  combination  of  the 
judgments  of  the  understanding  into  ratiocinative  con- 
clusions, Kant  introduces  three  pure  ideas,  which  are 
deemed  to  be  analogous  to  the  three  forms  of  the  syllo- 
gism— categorical,  h j'pothetical,  and  disj  unctive.  These 
ideas  are,  1.  Absolute  unity,  or  simple  being,  the  soul, 
which  gives  origin  to  Rational  Psychology ;  2.  Absolute 
totality,  the  aggregate  of  phenomena  in  space  and  time, 
the  world,  which'is  the  basis  of  Cosmology  ;  and,  3.  Ab- 
solute reality,  supreme  existence,  the  First  Cause,  which 
is  the  subject  of  Theology.  From  this  point  the  later 
German  schools  diverge  by  ascribing  a  real  and  not 
simply  a  subjective  validity  to  the  forms  of  the  abso- 
lute. With  Kant  they  are  merely  postulates  of  reason, 
having  no  assured  objective  existence.  Rational  psy- 
chology only  exhibits  the  phenomena  of  mental  con- 
sciousness without  guaranteeing  anything  in  regard  to 
the  essential  nature  of  the  mind  or  to  the  immortality 
of  the  soul.  Itational  cosmology  is  equally  unable  to  at- 
tain to  any  positive  knowledge  in  regard  to  the  creation. 
It  lands  us  finally  in  four  pairs  of  transcendental  ideas, 
each  pair  producing  twin  contradictions.  These  are 
Kant's  celcljrated  antinomies :  1.  In  cpiantity,  it  may  be 
proved  that  the  world  is  both  limited  and  unlimited ;  2. 
In  quality,  that  its  elements  are  ultimately  simple  and 
infinitely  divisible ;  3.  In  relation,  tliat  it  is  caused  by 
free  action,  and  by  an  infinite  series  of  mechanical  causes ; 
4.  In  modalit}-,  that  it  has  an  independent  cause,  and 
that  it  is  composed  of  interdependent  members.  Which- 
ever of  these  alternatives  be  asserted,  it  cannot  be  ex- 
clusively maintained,  for  it  results  in  hopeless  paralo- 
gisms: Both  must  be  in  some  sense  true,  yet  both  can- 
not be  simultaneously  entertained,  because  they  are  con- 
tradictory. Hence  no  certainty,  no  complete  compre- 
hensive knowledge  can  be  attained.  Metaphysics  is 
simply  inquisitive,  speculative,  critical,  showing  the  lim- 
itations of  the  human  mind,  and  the  impossibility  of 
knowing  the  reality  of  things,  but  at  the  same  time  fur- 
nishing glimpses  of  a  reality  which  the  mind  can  not 
compass — of  existence  and  truth  beyond  the  range  of 
finite  comprehension.  It  is  the  confession,  if  not  the 
demonstration  of  the  intellectual  weakness  of  man.  The 
same  negative  result  is  reached  in  rational  theology. 
The  ontological  argument  for  the  being  of  (iod — that  of 
Anselm  and  Des  Cartes,  derived  from  the  notion  of  per- 


KANT 


16 


KANT 


feet  and  indopendcnt  existence — the  cosmological  argu- 
ment of  Clarke,  which  proceeds  from  tlie  eonceijlion  of 
contingent  to  that  of  necessary  being — and  the  pliysico- 
teleological  argument  of  the  natural  theologians,  wliich 
infers  a  supreme  intelligent  Designer  from  the  evidences 
of  design  in  the  creation,  are  all  equally  inconclusive. 
"  Thus  the  soul,  the  world,  and  God  are  left  by  Kant's 
speculative  philosophy  as  problems  not  only  unsolved, 
but  demonstrably  unsolvable."  To  fiirnisli  a  positive 
support  for  convictions  on  this  subject  indispensable  for 
human  guidance,  and  to  give  an  authoritative  rule  for 
action,  Kant  constructed  his  ethical  systems. 

(2)  Critique  of  the  Practical  Reason.  —  Neither  the 
name  nor  the  conception  of  the  practical  reason  was  a 
novelty;  both  occur  in  Aristotle  {Be  Anim.  iii,  10;  6 
/uj'  yiip  SEwpj/riKoc  vovg  o'uMv  votl  irpoKruv,  ibid.  c. 
ix\  They  are  found  in  Acpiinas  (Summ.  Theol.  ii,  1,  00, 
and  especially  91,3),  in  Roger  Bacon  {Opus  Majus,  p.  35, 
44),  and  in  most  philosophers,  mediaeval  and  modern, 
who  have  accepted  the  Aristotelian  doctrine.  What- 
ever systems  have  recognised  a  moral  sense,  whatever 
theories  have  admitted  a  sustaining  and  guiding  illumi- 
nation of  the  conscience,  whatever  schemes  acknowl- 
edge the  inworking  spirit,  and  whatever  exi:)ositions  of 
the  mysteries  of  man  assume  an  abidnig  faith  as  the 
foundation  of  moral  action,  entertain  substantially  the 
same  fundamental  doctrine  as  Kant's,  though  it  is  dif- 
ferently expanded  and  applied  by  them.  The  charac- 
teristic feature  of  Kant's  ethical  system  is  what  he  terms 
the  "  Cdtefforical  Imperative."  Speculative  philosophy 
aflFords  neither  absolute  truth  nor  certain  guidance. 
Practical  philosophy  rests  upon  the  enlightened  con- 
science— enlightened  by  its  own  indwelling  light.  Tlie 
"  categorical  imperative"  is  a  rule  of  action — a  moral  law 
deriving  its  authority  from  itself — intuitively  received — 
determining  action  by  the  idea — governing  by  the  ra- 
tional form,  not  by  the  matter — thus  advancing  to  the 
realm  of  the  absolute,  the  unconditional,  the  noumenal, 
and  passing  from  the  shadows  of  sjieci'Iation  to  the  real- 
ities of  action  and  duty.  The  formula  of  this  "  categor- 
ical imperative"  is.  Act  so  that  your  action  ma}'  be  ap- 
plied as  a  universal  rule.  It  is  obvious  that  a  precept 
so  vague  and  so  abstract  may  represent  an  essential 
characteristic  or  property  of  right  conduct,  but  cannot 
be  accepted  as  its  principle.  It  is  indefinite,  and  it 
wants  the  authority  of  sovereign  command.  It  would 
require  the  omniscient  comprehension  of  all  contempo- 
raneous relations,  and  all  possible  consequences  for  the 
regulation  of  e\-ery  act,  and  at  best  would  result  in 
transcendental  utilitarianism.  It  is  too  abstruse  to  be 
promptly  and  habitually  applied  to  all  the  occurrences 
of  life,  and  by  all  grades  of  men.  It  is  limited  to  finite 
intelligences,  and  is  sufficiently  elastic  to  allow  each 
one's  ignorance  or  obtuse  conscience  to  be  alleged  as  the 
individual  rule  of  right.  It  might  easily  be  stretched 
so  as  to  sanction  the  Donatist  thesis,  "  (Juicquid  libet, 
licet."  On  such  a  scheme,  to  employ  the  expression  of 
Lyly's  Euphues,  "  it  is  the  disposition  of  the  mind  that 
altereth  the  nature  of  the  thing."  Our  morals  would  be 
shifting  and  casuistical.  The  wish  would  continually  be 
the  father  to  the  thought;  and  all  enthusiasm,  all  fa- 
naticism, all  monomania  might  be  presented  as  the  can- 
on of  order.  The  conception  of  duty  is  the  touchstone 
and  stumliling-block  of  pliilnsojihy,  and  against  it  is 
shattered  every  scheme  which  does  not  rest  upon  the 
acceptance  of  revelation,  and  the  acknowledgment  of 
God, ''  in  whom  we  live,  and  move,  and  ha\'e  our  being." 
There  is  no  other  mode  of  passing  the  chasm  which  sep- 
arates the  negative  results  of  sjieculative  inipiiry  from 
the  positive  requirements  of  practical  action.  Specula- 
tive |>hil()S(>]iliy  discusses  the  l)iiuiidaries  of  tlie  mind; 
practical  jiliilosophy  is  concerned  with  actions  which  are 
infinite  in  their  consequences,  and  whose  eH'ects  "  wan- 
der through  eternity." 

(3)  T/ie  Critique  of  the  ,Tu(lfjmenC{Urtheihh-aft — Fac- 
ulty of  .Judgment). — This  is  the  tliird  of  the  systematic 
treatises  devoted  to  the  construction  of  the  critical  phi- 


losophy. The  designation  is  infelicitous  and  ambigu- 
ous. The  Iwaf/iiiation  would  be  more  appropriate,  but 
would  scarcely  be  applicable  without  some  violence  to 
the  whole  scope  of  the  inquiry  proposed.  The  depart- 
ment corresponds  to  the  tTrictr/j/u?/  TroirjTiKi},  or  construc- 
tive science  of  the  peripatetic  distribution  of  knowledge- 
and  connects  the  domain  of  the  pure  with  that  of  the 
practical  reason.  The  imagination  is  the  faculty  of  con- 
ciliation— of  re-creation — uniting  in  emotional  delight 
the  obligations  of  action  with  the  highest  discoveries 
of  speculation.  In  Kant's  critique  of  the  judgment  are 
included  the  doctrine  of  the  beautiful  and  the  sublime, 
or  a;sthetics,  and  the  doctrine  of  final  causes,  or  teleology. 
His  theory  of  beauty  accords  in  substance  with  that  of 
Plato,  or  rather  that  of  Plotinus,  but  from  his  own  singu- 
lar defect  of  imagination,  and  consequent  limitartion  of 
view,  it  is  denied  the  completeness,  splend(  r,  and  fulness 
of  far-reaching  suggestion  which  illustrate  that  magnif- 
icent exposition  of  the  grandest  and  most  recondite  sub- 
ject of  metaphysical  speculation.  In  beauty.  Kant  con- 
templates only  the  latent  beneficent  design,  the  harmony 
of  means  and  ends,  without  dwelling  upon  the  more  sig- 
nificant conception  of  the  primordial  plan,  the  archety- 
pal perfection,  from  which  the  whole  creation  has  de- 
clined, but  towards  which  man's  ideal  ever  strives  to  re- 
turn. The  terms  in  which  the  doctrine  is  expounded 
are  often  confused  and  indistinct,  but  the  essential  prin- 
ciple of  beauty,  which  is  not  in  things,  but  in  the  mind, 
is  the  intuitive  perception  of  the  concord  between  the 
ideal  perfection  suggested  and  the  order  of  the  universe 
observed.  The  principle  of  the  sublime  is  the  intuition 
of  the  discrepance  between  the  finite  powers  of  man  and 
the  infinite  towards  which  he  aspires,  producing  pain 
from  the  sense  of  lunitation,  but  exaltation  from  yearn- 
ing towards  the  limitless,  beyond  sense  and  conception, 
which  is  felt  to  be  his  natural  home,  his  ultimate  desti- 
nation. In  the  discussion  of  teleology  proper  Kant  en- 
deavors to  restore  some  efficacy  to  that  reasoning  from 
final  causes  which  in  earlier  treatises  he  had  repudiated. 
This  part  of  the  subject  is  inadequately  unfolded,  but  it 
presents  many  vast  and  suggestive  views,  and  in  some 
sort  prepares  the  way  for  the  last  of  Kant's  treatises 
which  can  be  specially  noticed  here. 

(4)  Relu/ion  within  the  Limits  of  Pure  Reason, — This 
is  Kant's  theology,  and  is  the  most  unsatisfactory  of  aU 
his  efforts.  It  was  an  attempt  to  reconstruct  the  foun- 
dations of  religious  belief,  which  had  been  sapped  and 
in  great  measure  overthrown  by  his  critical  investiga- 
tions. It  was  the  work  of  his  old  age,  and  at  all  periods 
of  his  life  he  seems  to  have  been  at  least  as  deficient  in 
religious  sentiment  as  in  emotional  imagination,  which 
is  closely  aUied  to  it.  The  work  provoked  much  oppo- 
sition at  the  time  of  its  appearance,  and  caused  the  only 
serious  annoyance  of  his  life.  It  scandalized  many  re- 
ligions minds,  it  was  dangerouslj'  consonant  Avith  the 
revolutionarj'  infidelity  of  France,  and  it  presented  the 
point  of  departure  for  the  German  rationalism  of  the 
19th  centurj%  It  treats  the  revelations  of  Scripture  in 
regard  to  the  fall  of  man,  to  his  redemption,  and  to  his 
restoration  as  a  moral  allegon,',  the  data  for  which  are 
supplied  by  the  consciousness  of  depravity,  and  of  dere- 
liction from  the  strict  principles  of  duty.  It  is  Strauss 
in  the  germ.  It  is  utterly  inconsistent  Avith  any  scheme 
of  religion,  and  serves  to  show  Kant's  profound  sense  of 
the  insulHciency  of  his  own  doctrine  for  the  solution  of 
the  highest  enigmas  of  humanity.  The  ttou  (xrui — the 
solid  locus  standi  was  wanting  to  his  elaborate  system. 
The  philosophy  was  wholly  critical  in  its  procedure,  and 
negative  in  its  results.  It  weakened  or  undermined 
those  intuitive  convictions— inexplicable,  but  irrefraga- 
ble—which enable  man  "  to  walk  by  faith,  and  not  by 
sight." 

This  notice  is  too  brief  to  allow  the  exhibition  of  the 
incongruities  or  fallacies  of  the  transcendental  sj-stem, 
or  the  suggestion  of  rectifications,  as  it  has  been  too  brief 
for  any  detaile<l  account  of  the  several  p.irts  of  his  com- 
plex and  elaborate  scheme.     That  scheme  is  a  wonder- 


KANTOPLATONISM 


17 


KARAITES 


fill  monument  of  patient  industrj',  acute  discernment, 
perspicacious  analysis,  and  of  bold  and  honest  thought. 
It  was  soon  felt  to  be  unsatisfactory,  and  it  engendered 
new  swarms  of  speculative  heresies ;  but  its  influences 
must  be  souglit  in  Rosenkranz's  history  of  Kant's  doc- 
trine, and  in  other  treatises  on  the  history  of  German 
speculation. 

Literature. — The  bibliography  of  Kant's  philosophy 
would  make  the  catalogue  of  an  extensive  Ubrarj-,  and 
would  include  nearly  everything  in  the  highest  branch- 
es of  metaphysics  which  has  ajjpeared  since  tlie  pubU- 
cation  of  the  Critique  of  Pure  Reason.  In  all  the  gen- 
eral histories  of  modern  specidation,  much  space  is  of 
course  conceded  to  this  suVyect.  The  following  treatises 
may  be  examined  with  advantage.  Kant,  Wei'ke,  of 
course.  The  best  editions  are  that  of  Hartenstein  (Leip- 
zig, 1838-9, 10  vols.),  and  that  of  Rozenkranz  and  Sclui- 
bert  (Leipzig,  18i0-42, 11  vols.),  including  a  fidl  biogra- 
phy-of  the  philosopher  by  Schubert,  and  an  elaborate 
appreciation  of  the  relations  and  influences  of  the  phi- 
losophy by  Rosenkranz.  It  gives  also  a  chronological 
catalogue  of  Kant's  multifarious  writings.  Recent  trans- 
lations into  English  are  those  of  his  Critik  of  Pure  Rea- 
son, by  Hayward  (Lond.  1848,  8vo),  and  by  Meiklejohn 
(Lond.  1856, 8vo) ;  of  his  31et(iplii/sics  of  Ethics,  by  Sem- 
ple  (Lond.  1850,  8vo)  ;  of  his  Theory  of  Relif/ion,  by  the 
same  (Lond.  1858,  8vo).  There  are  biographies  by  Bo- 
rowsky  (1804  :  this  was  revised  by  Kant) ;  by  Wasian- 
sky,  his  private  secretary,  giving  an  account  of  liis  last 
years  (1804);  by  Jachmann  (1804);  by  Hasse  (1804); 
and  the  ablest  by  Kunotisclien  of  Jena  (1800).  For  the 
appreciation  of  the  doctrine  the  following  works  may 
be  consulted:  Nitzsch,  Genei-al  and  Introductorn  View 
(Lond.  1790) ;  Schmidt-Phiseldek,  Expositio  Philosoph. 
Crit.  (Hafa.  1790);  Jlellin,  Encydop.  Diet,  of  the  Kan- 
tian Philogoph'i  (1797,  6  vols.);  Vi^i\[\ch.  Elements  of  the 
Critical  Philosophy  (London,  1798);  Yiilers,  Philosophic 
de  Kant  (jMetz,  1801) ;  Degerando,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Phi- 
losophie  (Paris,  1804) ;  Wirgman,  Principles  of  the  Kan- 
tesian  Philosophy  (London,  1824 — a  recomposition  of  an 
able  article  contributed  to  the  Encyclopwdia  Londinen- 
sis  in  1812);  Cousin, /.efo«s  sur  la  Philosophie  de  Kant 
(Paris,  1842 ;  translated  by  A.  G.  Henderson,  Lond.  1871, 
8vo)  ;  ^livciXiJch,  Sketches  of  Modern  Philosophy  (1842); 
Barchou  de  Penhoen, //ts<.  f?e  la  Phil.  Allemande  depuis 
Leibnitz  jusqua  Ilegel  (Paris,  1837,  2  vols.) ;  Erdmann, 
Gesch.  der  neueren  Philosophie ;  Michelet,  Geschichte  des 
letzten  Systems ;  Willra,  Histoire  de  la  Philosophie  A  lle- 
mande  (Paris,  1847,  4  vols.) ;  Morell,  Philosophy  of  the 
Idth  Century  (1848)  ;  Chalybteus,  Histor.  Entwicktlun/j  d. 
spekulatifen  Philosophie  von  Kant  his  Her/el  (4th  edit. 
Leipz.  1848) ;  E.  Remhold,  Gesch.  d.  Philos.  (4th  ed.  Jena, 
1854),  vol.  iii ;  Lewes,  History  Philos.  (3d  ed.  1871, 2  vols. 
8vo),  vol.  ii;  Hurst's  Hagenbach,  CAm/t/i  Ilist.  ISth  and 
mh  Ce«f.  (N.  York,  1870,  2  vols.Svo),  lect.iv,  sq.;  Far- 
rar,  Crit.  Hist,  of  Free  Thought.  Very  instructive  no- 
tices of  Kant  and  his  philosophy  are  contained  in  tlie 
North  British  Revieir,  vol.  x,  the  Encyclopmdia  Bi'itan- 
nica,  and  in  Apjileton's  A  merican  Cyclopmlia.  The  crit- 
icisms of  Dugald  Stewart  in  the  Supplement  to  tlie  Ency- 
clop.  Brifannira  are  wholly  unsatisfactory.     (G.  F.  H.) 

Kantoplatonism,  the  French  term  for  a  new 
mode  of  philosophizing  which  inclines  to  Idealistn  (q. 
v.).  The  Kantoplatonists  are  considered  an  offspring 
of  the  Platonic  and  Kantian  schools  of  philosopliy.  The 
representative  of  Kantoplatonism  is  Cousin  (q.  v.). 

Kanute.     See  Denmark. 

Kaphar.     Sec  Kepiiar. 

Kapharnaites.     See  Lord's  Supper;  Transub- 

STANTIATION. 

Kapila,  the  reputed  author  of  the  Sdnkhya  (q.  v.), 
one  of  the  philosophical  systems  of  the  Hindus.  As  to 
the  origin  of  Kapila,  Hindu  tradition  is  ratlier  vague. 
Among  his  followers  he  is  by  some  described  as  a  son 
of  Brahma,  and  by  others,  especially  liis  later  followers, 
as  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu.  He  is  also  recomited  to 
v.— B 


have  been  bom  as  the  son  of  Devahuti,  and,  again,  is 
identified  with  one  of  the  agnis  or  fires.  Finally,  it  is 
said  that  there  existed,  in  fact,  two  Kapilas — the  first 
an  embodiment  of  Vishnu  ;  the  other,  the  igneous  prin- 
ciple in  human  disguise.  The  probability  is  that  Ka- 
pila was  simply,  like  the  great  majority  of  his  educated 
countrymen,  a  Brahman.  Spence  Hardy  (Manual  of 
Buddhism,  p.  132)  quotes  a  legend  by  which  it  may  be 
shown  that  the  Hindus  regarded  Buddha  as  a  later  ex- 
istence of  our  Kapila,  and  that  therefore  Buddliism  is  the 
Sankhj'a  philosophy  modified;  but  professor  I\lax  31  tiller 
rejects  this  theorj^,  and  says  that  he  has  looked  in  vain 
for  any  similarities  between  the  system  of  Kapila,  as 
known  to  us  in  the  Sankhya-sutras,  and  the  Abhidhar- 
ma,  or  the  metaphysics  of  the  Buddhists.  He  adds, 
however,  that  if  any  similarity  of  the  two  systems 
could  be  established,  such  proofs  would  be  very  valua- 
ble. "  They  would  probably  enable  us  to  decide  whether 
Buddlia  borrowed  from  Kapila,  or  Kapila  from  Buddha, 
and  thus  determine  the  real  chronology  of  the  philo- 
sophical literatiu-e  of  India,  as  either  prior  or  subse- 
quent to  the  Buddhist  a3ra."  See  Professor  J.  E.  Hall, 
Bibliotheca  Tndica,  Sunkhyapr.  p.  14  sq. ;  Ballantyne, 
Lecture  on  the  Sankhya  Philosophy  [Mirzapore,  1850] ; 
Hardwick,  Christ  and  other  Masters,  i,  208  sq. ;  Max 
Miiller,  Chips  from  a  German  Workshop,  i,  223  sq.  See 
also  Sankhva. 

Kapitorists,  a  sect  of  the  Russian  Church.  See 
Russian  Ciiurcii. 

Karaites  (Ileb.  D'^XIp,  Karaim,  i.  e.  Readers)  is 
the  name  of  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  remarkable  sects 
of  the  Jewish  synagogue,  whose  distinguishing  tenet  is 
strict  adherence  to  the  letter  of  the  written  law  (i.  e.  sa- 
cred writings  of  the  O.  T.),  and  utter  disregard  of  the 
authority  of  the  oral  law  or  tradition  (q.  v.). 

Ori'/in. — Up  to  our  own  day  it  has  been  impossible  to 
determine  the  age  in  which  the  Karaites  originated; 
certain  it  is  that  they  existed  before  the  8th  centiuA",  to 
which  their  origin  was  formerly  assigned.  The  Kara- 
ites themselves  claim  to  be  the  remains  of  the  ten  tribes 
led  captive  by  Shalmaneser,  The  Rabbins  (c.  g.  Aben- 
Ezra,  Maimonides,  etc.)  unjustly  assert  that  this  sect  is 
identical  with  the  Sadducees  (comp.  Rule,  Karaites,  p. 
viii),  and  that  they  -were  originated  by  Ahnan  (about 
A.D.  G40),  because  the  latter  was  ignored  in  the  election 
of  a  new  Resh-Gelutha  (q.  v.) ;  but  the  investigations  of 
our  day  lead  us  to  believe  that  the  Karaites  must  have 
originated  immediately  after  the  return  of  the  Jews  from 
Babylonian  captivity,  although  they  did  not  organize 
into  a  distinct  sect  until  after  the  collection  of  oral  tra- 
dition, and  that  for  this,  and  no  other  reason,  we  find  no 
mention  of  them  as  such  in  the  New-Test,  writings,, 
nor  in  those  of  Josephus  and  Philo.  Upon  the  comple- 
tion of  the  Talmud  it  is  well  known  that  a  great  agita- 
tion prevailed  in  the  Jewish  communitj',  especially  in 
the  western  synagogues,  and  particularly  at  Constanti- 
nople, where,  on  the  ides  of  February,  A.D.  529,  Justin- 
ian was  obliged  to  interfere,  and  actually  prohibited  the- 
reading  of  the  Jlishna  in  the  sj-nagogue.  In  the  con- 
version of  the  Khazars  (q.  v.)  to  Judaism,  the  Karaites,, 
as  we  leani  from  the  Sepher  Chozri  [see  Judah  Ha- 
Levi],  already  appear  as  a  distinct  sect.  From  inscrip- 
tions collected  and  examined  by  Abraham  Firkovitch, 
the  celebrated  Russian  Jew,  within  tlie  last  twenty'  years, 
there  are  indications  that  in  the  Crimea  at  least  Kara- 
ites may  have  flourished  as  early  as  the  first  half  of  the 
4th  century  (compare  Rule,  p.  83 ;  N.  Y.  Nation,  June  7, 
1800).  The  external  unity,  however,  of  the  Jewish 
Church  was  not  broken  apparently  imtU  the  time  of 
Ahnan  ben-David.  It  is  true,  even  in  the  days  of 
Christ,  the  internal  peace  of  the  Jewish  fold  was  much 
disturbed  ;  synagogues  ditTered  greatly  from  each  other,, 
but  ostensibly  these  differences  were  provoked  only  by 
ignorance  of  the  Hebrew,  and  the  introduction  of  Greek 
and  other  foreign  idioms;  on  doctrines  and  discipline 
there  seemed  to  reign  universal  harmonv.     Not  so  after 


KARAITES 


18 


KARAITES 


the  publication  of  the  Talmud.  Tliore  were  many  who 
inclined  to  jiay  strict  ckfercnce  only  to  the  inspired 
writings  of  the  0.  T. ;  and  when,  in  the  middle  of  the 
8th  centurj',  a  Luther  in  the  form  of  Ahnan  ben-David 
arose  in  the  Jewish  midst  and  declared  his  opposition 
to  the  Kabbinites,  a  party  was  formed  in  his  favor  at  Je- 
rusalem itself,  which  soon  extended  throughout  Pales- 
tine, and  even  far  away  through  all  the  East,  as  well  as 
towards  the  West.  The  jjcrsonal  history  of  this  great 
Jewish  reformer  is  rather  obscured  by  the  fables  of 
Arabs,  and  the  calumnies  of  some  Kabbinites ;  and  it  re- 
mains to  be  settled  whether,  as  the  Karaites  assert,  he 
■was  born  at  Beth-tsur,  near  Jerusalem  (and  of  the  lineage 
of  king  David),  or  in  Beth-tsur  (Bazra)  on  the  Tigris, 
and  consequently  imbibed  his  reformatory  notions  from 
the  Arabian  or  Persian  dissenters  from  IMohammedanism 
known  as  MutazilHes  (q.  v.).  Certain  it  is,  however, 
that  at  the  time  of  the  election  of  a  new  Resh-Geluiha 
Ahnan  must  have  enjoyed  some  distinction,  or  he  could 
never  have  presented  claims  for  the  office  of  ''  leader 
in  Israel."  In  the  year  70 1  we  find  him  at  Jerusalem 
in  a  synagogue  of  his  own,  expounding  the  new  doc- 
trine, and,  after  kindling  great  enthusiasm  among  a  host 
of  disciples  who  had  quicklj'  gathered  about  him,  send- 
ing forth  from  this  centre  of  Judaism  "letters  of  admo- 
nition, instruction,  and  encouragement  to  distant  con- 
gregations, with  zealous  preachers  who  proclaimed  ev- 
erywhere the  supreme  authority  of  the  Law,  and  the 
worthlessness  of  all  that,  in  the  Talmud  or  any  other 
writings,  was  contrary  to  the  law  of  Moses"  (comp.  Pin- 
skcr,  Likule  Kadinonioth,  or  Ziir  Geschichte  Ji.  Litei:  des 
Kariii.-^mus,  Append,  p.  33  and  90).  Ahnan  died  in  7(55, 
yet  within  that  astonishingly  brief  period  the  Karaites 
had  spread  over  Palestine,  Egj'pt,Greece,  Barbary,  Spain, 
SjTia,  Tartary,  Byzantium,  Fez,  IMorocco,  and  even  to 
the  ranges  of  the  Atlas,  and  by  all  the  Karaites  in  these 
distant  lands  his  death  was  mourned  as  the  loss  of  a 
second  IMoses.  Under  Rabbi  Salomon  bcn-Jerukhim 
(born  in  885)  they  prospered  greatly  in  the  9th  ccnturj% 
and  even  up  to  the  14th  they  seem  to  have  increased, 
but  thereafter  their  condition  becomes  obscure,  and  light 
first  again  breaks  upon  the  Karaites'  history  with  the 
opening  of  the  present  century  (see  below). 

The  reason  why  so  little  is  yet  known  about  the  Ka- 
raites is  that  their  writings  are  not  generally  accessible. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  17th  century  Protestant  theo- 
logians interested  themselves  in  their  behalf,  and  in  1G90 
Peringer  (then  professor  of  Hebrew  at  the  university  at 
Upsala)  was  sent  to  Poland  by  the  king  of  Sweden  to 
make  inquiries  into  their  history.  In  1698  Jacob  Trig- 
land  (professor  at  Leyden)  went  thither  for  the  same 
purpose,  and  the  results  of  his  investigations,  which  re- 
main of  great  value  to  this  day,  were  published  in  the 
Thesmirus  of  Sacred  Oriental  Antiquities.  Trigland  says 
that  he  had  learned  enough  to  speak  of  them  with  as- 
surance. He  asserts  that,  soon  after  the  prophets  had 
ceased,  the  Jews  became  divided  on  the  subject  of  works 
and  supererogation,  some  maintaining  their  necessity 
from  tradition,  whilst  others,  keeping  close  to  the  writ- 
ten law,  set  them  aside,  and  that  thus  Karaism  com- 
menced. He  adds  that,  after  the  return  from  the  Baby- 
lonian cajitivity,  on  the  re-cstablishnient  of  the  observ- 
ance of  the  laAv  there  were  several  practices  found  prop- 
er for  that  end,  and  these,  being  once  introduced,  were 
looked  upon  as  essential,  and  as  appointed  by  ]\Ioses. 
This  was  the  origin  of  Pharisaism,  while  a  contrary  par- 
ty, who  continued  to  adhere  to  the  letter,  foimded  Ka- 
raism. AVolliiis,  the  great  1  lebrew  l)ibliographer,  depend- 
ing on  the  Mciiioirf:  of  ]\Iardachai  ben-Nissan,  a  learn- 
ed Karaite  (imblished  by  AVolf  under  the  title  of  Xoti- 
tia  Kumorum,  Hamburg  and  Leipzig,  1714,  4to),  refers 
their  origin  to  a  massacre  among  the  Jewish  doctors 
imder  Alexander  Jannanis,  their  king,  about  a  hundred 
years  before  Clirist,  because  Simon,  son  of  Shetach."and 
the  (pieen's  brother,  making  his  eseape  into  Egypt,  there 
forged  his  pretended  traditions,  and,  on  his  return  to  Je- 
rusalem, published  his  visions,  interpolating  the  law  af- 


ter his  own  fancy,  and  supporting  his  novelties  from  the 
notices  which  God,  he  said,  had  communicated  by  the 
mouth  of  Moses,  whose  depositary  he  was.  He  gained 
many  followers,  and  was  opposed  by  others,  who  main- 
tained that  all  which  (iod  had  revealed  to  Moses  was 
written.  Hence  the  Jews  became  divided  into  two 
sects,  the  Karaites  and  Traditionists.  Among  the  first, 
Juda,  son  of  Tabbai,  distinguished  himself;  among  the 
latter,  HQlel  ((j.  v.).  In  later  history  he  agrees  with 
Avhat  has  been  said  above.  It  remains  only  to  be  stated 
that  Wolfius  reckons  not  only  the  Sadducees,  but  also  the 
Scribes,  in  the  number  of  Karaites.  But  such  a  class- 
ification is  wholly  inconsistent  with  our  present  knowl- 
edge of  the  Sadducees  and  the  Scribes.  Karaism  cannot 
be  regarded  as  in  any  sense  a  product  of  Sadduceeism ; 
the  two  are  the  opposites  both  in  principle  and  tendency, 
or,  as  Rule  has  it,  "  Sadduceeism  and  Karaism  are  just  as 
contrary  the  one  to  the  other  as  imbelief  and  faith." 

Doctrines  and  Usages. — Although  the  Karaites  are 
decidedly  opposed  to  assigning  any  authority  to  tradi- 
tion, they  by  no  means  reject  altogether  the  use  of  the 
Talmud,  etc.  Quite  to  the  contrarj-,  they  gladly  accept 
any  light  that  they  can  get  in  their  investigation  of  the 
O.-T.  Scriptures,  but  it  is  only  as  exegetical  aids  that 
they  are  ready  to  accept  Jewish  traditionary  writings. 
Selden,  who  is  very  express  on  this  point,  observes,  ia 
his  Uxor  Ilehraica,  that  besides  the  mere  text,  they 
have  also  certain  interpretations  which  they  call  hered- 
itarj-,  and  which  they  consider  proper  traditions.  Their 
theology  seems  to  differ  only  from  that  of  the  Rabbin- 
ites  in  being  purer  and  free  frtim  superstition,  as  they 
give  no  credit  to  the  explications  of  tlie  Cabalists,  chi- 
merical allegories,  nor  to  any  constitutions  of  the  Tal- 
mud. In  short,  they  accept  only  what  is  conformable 
to  Scripture,  and  may  be  drawn  from  it  by  just  and 
necessary  consequences.  The  Karaites,  in  distinction 
from  the  Kabbinites,  have  their  own  Confession  of  Faith, 
which  consists  of  ten  articles.  They  are  (as  translated 
by  Rule,  p.  128)  as  follows: 

1.  That  all  this  bodily  (or  material)  existence,  that  is  to 
say,  the  spheres  and  all  that  is  iu  them,  is  created. 

2.  That  they  liave  a  Creator,  and  the  Creator  has  hia 
own  soul  (or  spirit). 

3.  That  he  has  no  similitude,  and  he  is  one,  separate 
from  all. 

4.  That  he  sent  Moses,  our  master  (upon  whom  he 
pence !;. 

5.  That  he  sent  with  Moses,  our  master,  his  law,  which 
is  perfect ; 

G.  For  the  instruction  of  the  fiiithful,  the  language  of  our 
law,  aud  the  interpretation,  that  is  to  Fay,  the  reading 
(or  text),  and  the  division  (or  vowel  pointing). 

7.  That  the  blessed  God  sent  forth  the  other  prophets. 

S.  That  God  (blessed  he  his  name  !)  will  raise  the  sons 
of  men  to  life  in  the  day  of  judgment. 

0.  That  the  hlessed  God  giveih  to  man  according  to  his 
w.Tjs,  and  according  to  the  fruit  of  his  doings. 

10.  That  the  hlessed  God  has  not  reprobated  the  men 
of  the  captivity,  but  they  aie  under  the  cliastit-ements  of 
God,  aud  it  is  every  day  riirht  that  they  should  obtain  his 
salvation  by  the  bauds  of  Messiah,  the  Son  of  David. 

A  comparison  of  this  confession  with  the  thirteen  ar- 
ticles of  the  Kabbinites  [see  Judaism]  makes  it  evident 
that  the  Karaitic  confession  was  framed  later  than  that 
of  the  Rabl)inites,  with  intent  to  put  in  bold  relief  the 
peculiar  doctrines  of  Karaism.  Prayer,  tasting,  and  pil- 
grimages to  Hebron  (cvidtntly  inspired  by  the  Jloham- 
medan  pilgrimage  to  JMccca)  are  points  of  religious  prac- 
tice to  which  they  pay  particular  attention.  They  are 
eminently  moralists  (revering  greatly  Leviticus  xix  and 
xx),  very  conscientious  in  their  dealings  with  their  fel- 
low-men, temperate  and  .simple  in  food  ar.d  dress,  al- 
though far  from  being  ascetics.  In  distinction  from 
the  Rabbinitcs,  they  make  the  heads  of  their  jihylacter- 
ies  round  instead  of  square,  and  their  prohibition  of 
marriage  among  persons  of  affinity  extends  to  degrees 
almost  of  infinit}-.  Instead  of  facing  their  synagogues 
towards  the  east,  as  (hi  the  Kabbinites,  they  face  them 
north  and  south,  arguing  that  Shalmaneser  brought  them 
northward,  so  that  in  praying  they  nuist  turn  to  the 
south  in  order  to  face  Jerusalem. 


KAREAH 


19 


KARENS 


Numher  and  Present  Condi/ion. — The  number  of  the 
present  adherents  to  Karaism  has  been  variously  esti- 
mated; nothing,  however,  can  be  definitely  or  even  ap- 
proximately given  until  more  shall  be  known  of  the 
Jews  of  Asia.  They  are  strongest,  according  to  modern 
accounts,  in  the  Crimea,  where  there  are  over  4000  of 
them  ;  but,  with  Rule  (p.  112),  we  believe  that  there  are 
many  Jews,  ostensibly  adherents  of  the  Rabbinites,  who 
are  truly  believers  in  Karaism  ;  certainly  the  lieformed 
schools  of  Judaism  are  nothing  else  than  Rationalistic 
Karaites. 

Under  the  Russian  and  Austrian  governments  the 
Karaites  enjoy  greater  privileges  than  the  Rabbinites; 
in  mauj'  respects  they  are  on  an  equality  with  the  adhe- 
rents to  the  state  religion  of  these  respective  countries. 
Fortunately  for  the  Rabbinites,  however,  it  is  not  any 
want  of  morality  in  them,  but  the  excesses  of  the  Chas- 
idim  (q.  v.)  who  belong  to  their  number,  that  has  de- 
prived them  of  the  favors  which  are  so  freely  bestowed 
on  the  Karaites.  Strangely  enough,  the  Karaites  con- 
tend that  the  Messiah  will  issue  from  their  tribe,  and 
that  their  princes  were  once  the  sovereigns  of  Egypt. 

Literature. — The  Karaites  have,  ever  since  the  days 
of  Ahnan,  produced  writers  of  great  excellence  and  dis- 
tinction. Unfortunately,  we  have  thus  far  succeeded  in 
wresting  from  oblivion,  comparatively  speaking,  only  a 
few  works,  but  these  evince  that  Karaism  has  not  failed 
to  be  active  in  urging  its  adherents  to  literary  activity. 
They  have  produced  an  extensive  special  Hebrew  liter- 
ature of  their  own,  chiefly  consisting  of  works  on  the- 
ology, philosophy,  mathematics,  astronomy,  etc.  The 
greatest  number  of  these  are  deposited  in  the  Imperial 
Library  at  St.  Petersburg.  So  long  as  they  lived  prin- 
cipally under  jMohammedan  rule  they  wrote  in  Arabic, 
but  when  they  unfolded  a  literary  activity  in  the  Cri- 
mea and  among  the  Tartars  they  originated  a  language 
peculiar  to  themselves — a  mixture  of  Tartar  and  Turk- 
ish. Some  of  their  principal  later  authors  are  little 
known  to  us,  e.  g.  Joseph  b.-Noah,  .Jeshua,  Jehudah  Ha- 
dassi,  Aron  b.-Joseph,  Aron  b.-Eliah,  the  celebrated  op- 
ponent of  Moses  Maimonides ;  Eliah  Beshitzi,  Kaleb, 
IMoses  Beshizi,  IMardochai  b.-Nissan,  Salomo  b.-Abram 
Traki,  Simcha  b.-Isaac  b.-lMoses,  etc. 

Se?  Furst,  Gesch.  d.  Karderthitms  (Leipz.  18G9,  5  vols. 
8vo) ;  Beer,  Gesch.  d.  jiidisch.  Sekten,  vol.  i  (Leipz.  1822, 
8vo);  Jost,  Gesch.  d.Jndentfiitm.9,  xo\.  ii  (see  Index  in  vol. 
ill);  Gviitz,  Gesch. ,d.  Juden,  u,  i07  sq.,  and  later  volumes; 
and  the  compendium  of  Rule,  History  of  the  Karaite 
Jews  (Lond.  1870, 8vo).      (J.  il.  W.) 

Kare'ah  (linh.Kare'ach,  HTp,  hald;  Sept.  Kap?;£ 
v.  r.  Kapis  or  Knp£«  ;  in  2  Kings  xxv,  23,  Kapii  v.  r. 
KcfpZ/S',  Auth.Yers.  "Careah"),  the  father  of  Johanan 
and  .Jonathan,  who  attached  themselves  for  a  time  to 
the  loyal  party  under  Gedaliah,  the  Babylonian  gover- 
niir  of  Jerusalem  (Jer.  xl,  8,  13,  15,  IG;  xli,  11,  13.  14, 
IG ;  xlii,  1,8;  xliii,  2,  4,  5).     B.C.  ante  588. 

Karelia  (also  Carena,  Quarena,  Carentana)  is  the 
name  of  an  ecclesiastical  fast  formerly  observed  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  forty  days  in  length,  and  was 
generally  imposed  by  bishops  or  monastic  authorities  for 
various  venial  sins.  The  Karenist  was  confined  to  bread 
and  water,  and  deprived  of  all  other  temporal  conven- 
iences and  enjoyments,  as  well  as  all  association  with  the 
world.     See  Aschbach,  Kirchcn-Le.r.  iii,  C89. 

Karens,  the  name  of  a  people  of  India,  occupying 
various  portions  of  Burmah  between  28^  and  10°  N.  lati- 
tude, and  99°  and  93°  E.  longitude.  The  name  Karen  is 
of  Burmese  origin,  and  designates  a  class  of  the  IMon- 
golian  family  of  tribes  who  call  themselves  Pgah  Ken- 
zau,  a  term  meaning  man.  They  first  became  known 
to  Europeans  in  A.D.  1824-7.  They  appear  to  be  iden- 
tical with  the  Kak/u/en.11,  which  Kincaid  thinks  to  be 
only  another  name  for  Karen.  He  says  that  all  these 
tribes,  through  the  whole  extent  of  the  Shan  country, 
and  farther  north,  are  called  Kakhyens.  They  are  found 
from  the  JIartabau  (iulf  inward  as  i'ar  as  the  Burman 


population  has  ever  extended.  They  are  numerous 
about  Rangoon  and  Ava,  and  are  known  to  extend  at 
least  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles  east  of  Ava.  These 
tribes  are  supposed  to  number  about  five  millions. 

Or  if/in.  —  There  is  much  doubt  as  to  their  origin. 
There  are  amongst  them  many  distinct  traditions  which 
would  point  to  a  Thibetan  source.  Slason  (in  his  Tcn- 
nasserini)  says  that  they  regard  themselves  as  wander- 
ers from  the  north,  and  as  having  crossed  "  a  river  of 
running  sand,"  by  which  name  he  says  Fa  Hian,  the 
Chinese  pilgrim  who  visited  India  about  the  5th  cen- 
tury, constantly  speaks  of  the  great  desert  to  the  north 
of  Burmah,  and  between  China  and  Thibet.  Bruce  says 
that  they  are  of  Turanian  stock,  and  allied  with  the  Ta- 
mulians  of  India  an<l  the  inhabitants  of  Thibet  (p.  145, 
147).  A  portion  of  northern  Burmah  and  Yunnan  has 
been  suggested  as  the  probable  original  seat  of  the  Ka- 
ren race.  Many  authorities  consider  them  as  the  abo- 
rigines of  much  of  Burmah.  Amongst  the  reasons  as- 
signed for  this  view  are  ,the  following:  (1)  They  re- 
ceived from  the  Burmese  their  name  of  Karen,  Mhich 
means  Jirrt  or  aboriginal.  (2)  Their  habits  are  much 
more  primitive  than  those  of  the  Burmese,  and  they  dir.- 
like  their  subjugation  to  the  latter.  (3)  They  have  tra- 
ditions distinctly  fixing  their  early  location  on  the  east- 
ern side  of  a  body  of  water  which  they  call  Kuiv  or  KIto, 
which  is  so  ancient  a  term  that  they  have  lost  the  mean- 
ing of  it  altogether,  but  the  tradition  itself  shows  that 
this  was  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  (4)  The  Jloans  or  Ta- 
laings,  a  people  Mho  are  older  residents  than  the  Bur- 
mese in  Farther  India,  sa}^  the  Karens  were  in  the  coun- 
try when  thej^  first  entered  it,  and  were  known  as  Be- 
loos  or  wild  men  by  their  forefathers  (Journ.  American 
Oriental  Society,  vol.  iv). 

Description. — Tlie  Karens  of  the  north  are  more  ad- 
vanced in  the  arts  and  in  the  habits  of  civilization  than 
those  of  the  southern  district.  They  reckon  themselves 
not  by  villages  nor  by  cities,  but  by  families,  having  a 
patriarchal  form  of  society,  single  families,  occupants  of 
one  house,  often  numbering  from  three  to  four  hundred 
members.  Their  liouses  are  immense  structures,  made 
of  posts,  with  joists  at  a  height  of  seven  or  eight  feet 
from  the  groimd,  the  sides  being  lined  with  mats,  the 
roof  being  of  palm-leaves,  and  the  partitions  of  bamboo 
matting. 

It  is  the  southern  section  of  these  tribes,  however, 
which  is  best  known,  especially  those  designated  as 
Sgau  and  Pgho  Karens.  The  latter  are  called  by  the 
Burmese  Talainy  Karens,  and  are  a  vigorous  people,  ro- 
bust, full-chested,  with  large  limbs,  square  cheek-bones, 
thick  and  fiattened  nose,  but  not  specially  jiromincnt 
lips.  The  Sgau,  or  pure  Karens,  are  smaller,  v.ith  a  com- 
plexion lighter  than  others  surrounding  them,  and  with 
a  general  languor  about  their  movements.  Mr.  Judson 
in  1833  wrote  of  them  as  "  a  meek,  peacefid  race,  sim- 
ple and  credulous,  with  many  of  the  softer  virtues  and 
few  flagrant  vices,  greatly  addicted  to  drunkenness,  ex- 
tremely filthy,  indolent  in  their  habits,  their  morals  in 
other  respects  being  superior  to  many  more  civilized 
races,  though  he  was  told  that  they  were  as  untamable 
as  the  wild  cow  of  the  mountains"  (Waj-land,  J«f/soH,  i, 
542  sq.). 

Reliyious  Tradition.^. — They  have  amongst  them  a 
great  number  of  religious  traditions  which  bear  a  mark- 
ed analogy  to  Biblical  history.  The  tradition  respect- 
ing the  creation  specifies  that  man  was  created  from  the 
earth,  and  woman  from  one  of  man's  ribs.  The  Creator 
said,  "  I  lose  these,  my  son  and  daughter.  I  will  bestow 
my  life  upon  them,"  and  he  then  breathed  a  particle  of 
his  life  into  their  nostrils,  "and  they  came  to  life  and 
were  men."  God  made  food  and  drink ;  rice,  fire,  and 
water;  cattle,  elephants, and  birds.  Traditions  concern- 
ing man's  primitive  state  and  first  transgression,  verj' 
similar  to  the  Bible  narrative,  are  also  preserved  amongst 
them.  Nank'plav,  who  answers  to  the  serpent  of  Gen- 
esis, is  variously  impersonated  as  sometimes  male  and 
sometimes  female  :  man  is  located  in  a  garden,  with  sev- 


KARENS 


20 


KARENS 


en  different  kinils  of  fruits  of  which  he  should  cat.  with 
one  exception.  Nauk'jdau  meets  liim  and  tells  him  tlie 
character  of  all  the  fruits,  and  assures  him  that  the  for- 
bidden one  is  the  most  delicious  of  all.  He  prevails  on 
the  woman  lirst  to  taste  this  fruit.  She  gives  it  to  her 
husband,  etc.  On  the  morrow  Ywah  (on  this  name,  see 
below,  imder  Reliyious  Views)  comes,  etc.  The  very  de- 
tail of  the  narrative  is  preserved  to  a  marvellous  de- 
gree. 

Otlier  traditions  point  to  a  flood,  in  which  the  waters 
"rose  and  rose  till  they  reached  to  heaven."  Others 
refer  to  an  early  separation  of  the  human  family.  "  JMen 
had  at  first  one  father  and  mother;  but, because  they  did 
not  love  each  other,  thej^  separated,  after  which  they  did 
not  know  each  other's  language,  and  became  enemies 
and  fought."  Still  another  says  that  when  they  were 
scattered,  a  younger  brother,  or  the  "  White  Westerner," 
came,  begging  the  Karens  to  return  to  the  place  where 
they  left  God ;  which  tradition  is  said  to  have  had  much 
to  clo  with  the  early  success  of  the  missionaries  amongst 
these  people,  as  the  Karens  applied  these  traditions  to 
them. 

Relifjious  Views. — They  have  remarkably  clear  views 
of  God,  whom  they  believe  to  be  "  immutable,  eternal ; 
that  he  was  from  the  beginning  of  the  world.  The 
life  of  God  is  endless ;  generations  cannot  measure  his 
existence.  God  is  complete  and  good,  and  through  end- 
less generations  will  never  die.  God  is  omnipotent,  but 
we  have  not  believed  him.  God  created  man  anciently. 
He  has  a  knowledge  of  all  tilings  to  the  present  time. 
He  created  spirit  and  lii'e."  This  God  is  known  as 
Ywah,  '•  which  approaches  the  word  Jehovah  as  nearly 
as  possible  in  the  Karen  language."  He  was  not,  how- 
ever, worshipped  when  the  missionaries  first  went  to  the 
Karens.  A  great  power  for  evil  (Satan)  since  the  fall  has 
rendered  relief  to  man  by  introducing  charms  against 
sickness,  death,  and  other  misfortunes,  and  this  person- 
age, though  without  image,  is  widely  worshipped.  Thus 
originated  their  dajmon  worship.  They  appear  to  be- 
lieve in  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  though  it  is  doubt- 
ful if  this  obtains  universally  amongst  them.  Mr.  Cross 
doubts  if  they  have  any  proper  idea  of  the  resurrection 
of  the  dead.  Transmigration  is  not  accepted  amongst 
them,  and  many  think  the  soul  "flics  off  in  the  air." 
They  are  thus  distinguished  from  the  Buddhists,  though 
long  resident  with  them  in  Burmah. 

Spirit  ]Vo)-shij). — Besides  the  Ywah  and  the  docmons 
above  alluded  to,  they  believe  in  many  other  spiritual 
beings  known  as  Kelah,  or,  speaking  m.jre  definitely, 
every  object  has  a  kelah,  whether  men,  trees,  or  plants, 
and  even  inanimate  objects,  such  as  axes  and  knives. 
The  grain  growing  has  its  kelah.  and  when  it  does  not 
flourish  it  is  because  the  kelah  is  leaving  it,  and  it  must 
be  called  back  by  invocation.  The  human  kelah  is  not 
the  soul,  nor  is  the  responsibility  of  human  actions  lodged 
in  it,  nor  any  moral  character  attached  to  it.  AU  this 
is  attributed  to  the  Thah.  The  kelah  is  the  author  of 
dreams ;  it  is  that  nature  which  pertains  to  life,  the  sen- 
tient soul,  the  animal  spirits.  It  can  leave  the  body  at 
will.  When  it  is  absent  disease  ensues ;  when  yet  lon- 
ger away,  death  results.  Kelah  seems  to  signify  life, 
or  existence  in  the  abstract,  or  of  the  individual.  It  is 
more  apt  to  forsake  feeble  persons  and  children.  The 
'  kelah  of  one  person  may  accompany  that  of  another  in 
going  away,  hence  children  are  kept  away  from  a  coqise, 
and  the  house  where  a  person  dies  is  abandoned.  Great 
efforts  are  made  to  induce  a  departed  kelah  to  return. 
Tempting  food  is  placed  on  the  public  wa.yside  or  in 
the  forest,  and  various  ceremonies  and  rituals  arc  gone 
through,  which  sometimes  are  thought  to  be  successful 
in  securing  tlie  return  of  the  kelah.  One  might  almost 
Avonder  that  its  return  should  Ije  cousidered  desirable 
■when  we  are  further  told  that  the  kelah  has  seven  sep- 
arate existences  in  one,  which  endeavor  to  superinduce 
madness,  recklessness,  shamelessness,  drinking  propensi- 
ties, anger,  cruelty,  violence,  murder,  and  are  constantly 
bent  on  evil.     But  along  with  the  kelah  we  learn  of 


Tso,  which  maan?,  power,  and  seems  to  be  a  personifica- 
tion oVreuson,  If  the  tso  becomes  heedless  or  weak,  or 
is  unfortunately  circimistanced,  then  the  kelah  can  do 
mischief,  but  otherwise  it  is  powerless  for  evil. 

There  are  other  spiritual  beings,  such  as  Keplwo,  a 
species  of  vampire,  which  is  the  stomach  of  a  wizard, 
and  in  the  form  of  the  head  and  entrails  of  a  human  be- 
ing goes  out  at  night  to  seek  food.  It  destroys  human 
kelahs.  Therels  are  spirits  of  those  who  have  died  by 
violence,  as  by  tigers  or  other  wild  beasts,  by  famine,  or 
sword,  or  starvation.  These  can  neither  go  to  the  up- 
per region  (Mukhah),  nor  to  that  of  the  Flu,  where  men 
are  punished,  but  must  remain  on  earth,  causing  mortal 
sickness.  Offerings  and  supplications  are  made  to  them. 
Tahmus  or  Tah-his  are  spectres  of  those  Avho  have  been 
dreadfully  wicked  in  this  life.  They  appear  as  appari- 
tions only,  in  form  of  horses,  elephants,  (togs,  crocodiles, 
serpents,  vultures,  ducks,  or  colossal  men.  /Sek/niJis  are 
spirits  of  persons  left  unburied,  and  of  infants  or  aged 
persons  who  have  become  infirm  because  the  tso  has 
left  them.  Plup)ho  are  inhabitants  of  the  infernal  re- 
gion, and  are  spirits  of  all  who  go  natinally  to  their 
proper  place,  and  renew  their  earthly  em]iloyments, 
building  houses,  cutting  rice,  etc.  The  location  is  un- 
declared, but  is  above  the  earth,  or  below  it,  or  beyond 
the  horizon.  It  is  presided  over  by  king  Cootay  or  Thee- 
do.  At  his  call  the  kelahs  must  go,  and  men  die.  Un- 
der his  dominion  they  serve,  as  in  an  intermediate  state, 
a  probation,  and  if  good  go  to  heaven,  if  bad  to  hell  or 
Lerah,  which  has  two  gradations  of  piniishment,  one  be- 
ing more  severe  than  the  other.  Tuh-nahs  or  Xaks  are 
the  spirits  of  two  sorts  of  fiends  which  take  the  form 
of  any  animals  they  please,  and  prey  upon  men.  The 
Lord  of  men  created  them  as  a  punishment  in  conse- 
quence of  a  disobedience  on  the  part  of  men  to  one  of 
his  commands.  They  have  a  king  who  was  the  great 
tempter  of  man  in  the  garden.  Mukhahs  are  the  an- 
cestors of  the  Karons  who  inhabit  the  upper  region,  and 
are  the  creators  of  the  present  generation.  Sometimes 
they  work  imperfectly,  and,  as  a  consequence,  ill-favored 
and  imperfect  persons  are  found.  Tliey  preside  over 
births  and  marriages,  mingling  together  the  blood  of 
two  persons.  Thej-  are  -worshipped  with  offerings.  The 
Keleepho  create  the  winds;  the  Tah  Yoornu  cause  eclips- 
es ;  the  Coocla  and  Liatpihoo  preside  over  the  wet  and 
dry  seasons. 

Priesthood. — There  are  amongst  the  Karens  a  class  of 
people  who  serve  as  prophets,  and  assume  conditions  of 
mind  and  body  much  like  those  affected  by  the  '•  medi- 
cine-men" amongst  North  American  Indians.  What 
with  writhing  of  the  body,  rolling  on  the  ground,  foam- 
ing at  the  mouth,  etc.,  they  are  presumed  to  attain  a  state 
of  clairvoyance  favorable  to  the  prediction  of  comuig 
events.  The  prophecies  uttered  by  these  which  are  re- 
tained in  tradition  mostly  pertain  to  the  deliverance  of 
the  Karens  from  the  oppression  of  the  Burmese.  These 
prophets  are  of  two  classes.  The  wees  compose  ballads 
and  other  poetry,  and  have  great  power  in  caUing  back 
dejjarted  kelahs.  The  other  class  are  known  as  booL- 
Iios,  and  are  rather  priests  than  prophets,  taking  the  lead 
in  the  religious  ceremonies  of  the  people,  instructing 
them  in  their  religious  obligations,  and  are  a  more  re- 
spectable class,  being  heads  of  commmiities,  though  not 
hereditary  chiefs. 

Jlissiniis. — iMissionary  work  was  commenced  amongst 
these  tribes  about  1828,  by  Messrs.  Boardman  and  JuH- 
son,  who  were  succeeded  bj'  Blessrs.  Wade,  Blason,  and 
Kiucaid.  Twenty-five  years  after  that  the  Karen  apostle 
Ko-thau-Bu,  a  native  convert,  met  with  wonderfLd  suc- 
cess amongst  these  people.  Associated  prominently  with 
this  great  movement  was  Rev.  Mr.  Vinton,  who  '-in  six 
years  planted  forty  churches,  opened  forty-two  houses 
of  worship  and  thirty-two  school-houses,  and  saw  be- 
tween eight  and  nine  thousand  Karens  raised  to  the  lev- 
el of  Christian  worshijipers.  In  1852  alone  he  received 
five  hundred  Karens  into  the  Church.  In  1808  the  Bap- 
tist jMission  report  showed  that  they  had  amongst  this 


KARE-PATREPAXDAROInT 


21 


people  sixty-six  native  ordained  pastors  and  evangel- 
ists; three  hundred  and  forty-six  native  preachers  un- 
ordained;  three  hunth-ed  and  sLxty  native  chiu-ches ; 
nineteen  thousand  two  liundred  and  thirty-one  church- 
members,  and  nearly  sixty  thousand  natives"  of  all  ages 
known  as  Christians.  A  writer  in  the  Madras  Obsei-v- 
er  (India)  stated  that,  in  Oct,  18G8,  a  gentleman,  not  in 
sympathy  with  the  Baptists,  but  a  great  traveller,  per- 
forming "his  journeys  on  foot  through  Burmah  while 
amongst  these  Karen  districts,  said  that  on  one  occasion 
"  he  found  himself  for  seventeen  successive  nights,  at 
the  end  of  his  days'  journeys  through  the  forest,  in  a  na- 
tive Christian  village. 

Literature. — Jonriial  of  the  American  Oriental  Socie- 
ty,  vol.  iv;  Wayland,  Z,j/e  of  Judson ;  Brace,  Races  of 
the  Old  World;  Whitney,  Lanr/uarje  and  the  Studi/  of 
Lawjuarje ;  Latham,  Elements  of  Comparative  Philolocji/  ; 
Anderson,  Foreign  Missions  (N.  Y.  18G9) ;  Mullen,  7'en 
Years  of  Missionary  Work  in  India  ;  Mrs.  Mason,  Ciril- 
izinij  Mountain  Men,  or  Sketches  of  Mission  Work  among 
the  Karens  (18G2) ;  Mrs.  Wylie,  Gospel  in  Burmah.  For 
a  full  history  of  the  mission  work  amongst  the  Karens, 
see  Mason,  Gospel  in  Burmah ;  Report  of  A  merican  Bap- 
tist Mission  Union  for  1808.  A  comparative  vocabulary 
of  the  Sgau  and  Pwo  dialects  of  the  Karen  language,  by 
the  liev.  Dr.  Nathan  Brown,  Baptist  missionarj-,  now  of 
New  York  City,  may  be  found  in  the  Jou7:  of  the  Amer- 
ican Oriental  Societi/,  vol.  iv.  See  also  the  article  Bur- 
mah (II.  Missions).     (J.  T.  G.) 

Kare-Patrepandaron,  the  name  of  a  class  of 
Hindu  ascetics,  beggars  of  the  Brahminic  order,  who  have 
vo\\-ed  eternal  silence.  Wholly  naked,  with  only  a  sacred 
string,  generally  a  snake's  skin,  over  their  shoulders, 
they  make  their  home  under  large  shade-trees.  When 
they  enter  a  house  they  manifest  their  presence  by  the 
clapping  of  their  hands,  and  generally  share  with  the 
inmates  the  best  of  their  dainties,  for  a  Brahmin  consid- 
ers himself  highly  honored  by  such  a  visit, — ^Vollmer, 
WOrterb.  d.  Mythol.  p.  1020. 

Karg,  Georg  (the  "Parsimonious"),  a  German  theo- 
logian, was  born  at  Heroldingen  in  1512.  In  1538  he  was 
ordained  for  the  ministry  by  iMelancthon,  and  became 
pastor  first  at  Oettingen,  later  at  Schwabach ;  and  finally, 
in  1553,  settled  at  Anspach,  and  became  general  superin- 
tendent of  the  churches  of  the  duchy  of  Baireuth.  He 
died  in  157G.  Karg  acquired  great  notoriety  during  the 
difficulties  concerning  the  Formula  Concordice  by  main- 
taining that  it  was  only  by  passive  obedience  that  Christ 
made  atonement  for  us :  for  active  obeilience  (obedien- 
tia  activa)  he  was  bound  to  give  as  man ;  the  law  binds 
us  either  to  obedience  or  to  iinnishment,  but  not  to  both 
together.  Christ,  while  suffering  the  punishment  for 
us,  rendered  obedience  on  his  own  account.  What  he 
has  paid  remains  no  longer  for  us  to  pay  (i.  e.  the  pun- 
ishment) ;  obedience,  however,  w.e  are  bound  to  render, 
as  he  rendered  his,  in  order  to  be  a  pure  and  perfect  of- 
fering unto  God.  See  Imputation.  He  defended  these 
opinions  in  1563,  but,  as  they  provoked  a  great  contro- 
versy, he  finally  retracted  them  in  1570.  The  same 
opinions  were  afterwards  maintained  by  John  Piscator, 
professor  at  Herborn,  and  by  John  Camero  of  Saumiu-. 
See  ^Valch,  Streitigkeiten  innerh.  d.  luth.  Kirche,  xiv,  360 ; 
Schrockh,  Kirchengesch.  seit  d.  Reformation,  v,  358 ;  Bol- 
linger, D.  Reformation,  iii,  564 ;  Schweizer,  Centraldog- 
men,  ii,  16, 17  ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyklop.  vii,  379. 

Karigites,  or  Separatists,  is  the  name  of  a  IMo- 
hammedan  sect  who  oppose  all  government,  both  eccle- 
siastical and  spiritual.  They  holil  that  tlie  person  who 
is  to  preside  in  spiritual  affairs  sliould  be  a  man  of  su- 
pernatural birth  and  altogether  of  a  spiritual  character. 
See  INIoiiAMJiEDANS;  comp.  I-Lvumatiiians. 

Karim.     See  Carem. 

Kar'kaa,  or,  rather,  Kar'ka  (Hebrew  Karka', 
")5"i|?,  a  floor,  as  in  Numb,  v,  17,  etc.;  with  art.  and  il 
directive  in  pause,  i^"P'^|5'^,  hak-Karka'd;  Sept,  'Ak- 


KARMATHIANS 

Kapica  V.  r.  rijv  Kara  Sixrudg  Kdorjc  ;  Vulg.  Carcaa  v, 
r.  Caj-iatha),  a  jilace  situated  at  a  bend  in  the  southern 
boundary  of  Judali  (i.  e.  Simeon  or  Palestine),  between 
Adar  and  Azmon  (Josh,  xv,  3) ;  probably  about  mid- 
way between  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  IMecUterranean,  jjer- 
haps  near  the  well  marked  as  Bir  Abu-Atreibe  on  Zim- 
mermann's  map.     See  Tribe. 

Karkaphensian  Version.  See  Syriac  Ver- 
sions. 

Karkom.     See  Saffron. 

Kar'kor  (Heb.  Karkor',  "^p^^,  foundation ;  Sept. 
KapKc'ip  V.  r.  Knpicd,\u\g.  requiescehant),  a  place  be- 
yond Jordan  whither  the  iMidianitish  princes  Zeba  and 
Zalmunna  had  retired  with  their  remaining  army  after 
the  first  rout  by  Gideon,  who  pursued  and  routed  them 
again  in  its  vicinity  (Judg.  viii,  10).  From  the  context 
it  appears  to  have  been  situated  not  far  beyond  Succoth 
and  Penuel,  towards  the  south,  in  a  naturally  secure  spot 
east  of  Nobah  and  Jogbehah;  indications  that  point  to 
a  locality  among  the  southern  openings  of  Jebel  Zurka, 
north-east  of  Rabbath  Ammon.  Schwarz  supposes  {Pa- 
lest, p.  223)  that  el-Keruh  is  meant,  a  place  a  few  miles 
south-east  of  Draa  or  Edrei,  in  the  Haiuran ;  but  this  is 
too  far  distant  north-easterly.  Eusebius's  comparison 
of  the  castle  {(ppovpiov)  Carcaria  (KapKapia,  Onomast.), 
one  day's  joiurnej^  distant  from  Petra,  is  equally  foreign ; 
and  this  may  be  the  modern  Kerak  of  Moab.     See  Ke- 

NATII. 

Karl-Borromseus  Union,  a  Eoman  Catholic  as- 
sociation in  Khenish  Prussia,  formed  for  the  purpose  of 
effecting  in  Roman  Catholic  society  the  same  results  for 
which  the  Gustavus  Adolphus  Society  of  the  Protestant 
Church  was  founded.  Perhaps,  in  a  measure,  it  was  in- 
tended to  oppose  any  inroads  of  the  Protestant  associa- 
tion among  the  Roman  Catholics.  It  originated  in  1841. 
and  makes  it  its  special  object  to  circidate  at  large  the 
literary  productions  of  Roman  Catholics.  The  society 
publishes  a  monthly  journal,  and  occasionally  works  of 
a  religious  character  ^vritten  in  popular  form.  See  Ka- 
tholische  Real-Encgklojmdie,  xi,  835. 

Karlowitz,  Ciiristopii  von.     See  Maurice  of 

S.VXONY. 

Karlstadt,  Andreas  Rudolph  Bodensteih. 

See  Carlstaut. 

Karlstadt,  Johannes.     See  Draconites. 

Karmathians  (so  called  from  Abu  Said  Al-Jena- 
bi,  surnamed  .1  l-Karmatha)  is  the  name  of  a  Jloham- 
medan  sect  which  originated  in  the  9th  century,  under 
the  caliphate  of  Al-jMotammed.  Strictly  speaking,  the 
Karmathians  were  Shiites  (q.  v. ;  see  also  Ismail),  for 
Karmatha,  their  founder,  was  one  of  the  missionaries  in 
the  province  of  Kufa,  appointed  by  one  of  the  apostles 
( Hussein  Ahwagi)  of  Ahmed,  the  successor  of  Abdallah 
Ibn-^Iaimun.  who  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  2d 
centur}'-,  and  who  first  gave  character  to  the  Ismaillte 
schism.  It  was  he  likewise  who  projected  and  prejiared 
the  way  for  a  union  of  the  Arabic  conquerors,  and  the 
many  races  that  had  been  subjected  since  Mohammed's 
death,  and  the  enthronement  of  what  later  was -called 
"  Pure  Reason"  as  the  sole  deity  for  worship.  With  an 
extraordinary  knowledge  of  the  human  heart  and  hu- 
man weakness,  he  foimd  a  way  to  attract  the  high  and 
tlie  low.  To  the  believer  he  offered  devotion ;  liberty, 
if  not  license,  to  the  "free  in  spirit:"  philosophy  to  the 
"strong-minded;"  mystical  hopes  to  the  fanatics:  mira- 
cles to  the  masses.  To  the  Jews  he  offered  a  JNIessiah, 
to  the  Christians  a  Paraclete,  to  the  JNIoslems  a  Mahdi, 
and  to  the  Persi.an  and  Syrian  "pagans"  a  philoscjphi- 
cal  theologv.  The  results  of  his  exertions,  so  pr;\ctical 
in  tendency,  were  tridy  wonderful,  and  at  one  tii.ie  it 
seemed  as  if  jMohammedanism  was  doomed.  He  was 
soon  persecuted  by  the  authorities,  and,  driven  frojn 
place  to  pliice,  he  finally  died  in  Selamia,  in  Syria,  leav- 
mg  the  -work  he  had  so  successfully  begun  to  his  sun 


KARMATHIANS 


22 


KARMATHIANS 


Ahmed.  This  Ahmed,  profit uip  hy  the  experience  of 
his  father,  carried  on  tlie  work  of  conversion  somewhat 
secretly ;  at  least  he  did  not  dare  to  assume  publicly  the 
claims  of  an  imam,  as  his  father  had  done.  He  sent 
missionaries,  however,  to  different  jiarts  of  the  country 
to  gain  adherents  for  this  extreme  nationalistic  move- 
ment, and  one  of  the  converts  made  was  our  Karmatha, 
who  gave  ne^v  life  to  this  inidertaking.  He  (juickly 
gathered  about  him  a  large  number  of  converts,  and, 
successful  in  securing  their  confidence,  he  soon  made 
tliem  the  blind  instruments  of  his  will.  He  advocated, 
according  to  some  authorities,  absolute  communism,  not 
only  of  property,  but  even  of  wives,  and  fomided  one 
particular  colony,  consisting  of  chosen  converts,  around 
his  own  house  at  Kufa.      (See  below.  Religious  Belief.) 

From  this  place,  called  the  "House  of  Refuge,"  there- 
after the  whole  religious  movement  of  the  Karmathians 
was  conducted.  jNIissionaries  were  created  and  sent  to 
different  parts  of  the  earth  to  convert  the  nations,  and 
gather  them  into  the  fold  of  Karmathianism.  Among 
these  converts  was  one  Abu  Said,  whose  success  in 
Southern  Persia,  and  afterwards  at  Bahrein,  in  the  Per- 
sian Gulf,  deserves  special  notice  here.  The  inhabitants 
of  this  country,  formerly  a  province  of  Persia,  adhering 
partly  to  the  Jewish,  partly  to  the  Persian  faith,  had 
been  subjected  by  Mohammed,  but  had  been  allowed  to 
retain  their  o^vn  creed.  After  the  prophet's  death  they 
had  at  once  shaken  off  the  unwelcome  yoke,  Avhich, 
however,  had  again  been  put  upon  them  by  Omar.  In 
the  interior  of  this  country  lived  certain  Arabs,  highly 
disaffected  against  Islam,  the  innumerable  precepts  of 
which  they  intensely  disliked,  and  among  these  Abu 
Said  made  the  most  marvellous  strides  in  his  con- 
versions, until  he  finally  gained  the  confidence  of  the 
Bahreinites  generally,  and  in  less  than  two  years  he 
brought  over  a  great  part  of  the  people  of  Bahrein.  To 
suppress  this  proselytism,  an  army  of  10,000  men  was 
dispatche'd  in  282  (Hegira)  against  liim  and  his  fol- 
lowers, but  the  Karmathians  were  victorious,  and  Abu 
Said  now  became  inidisputcd  possessor  of  the  whole 
country,  destroyed  the  old  capital  Hajar,  and  made 
Lahsa  (his  own  residence)  the  cayjital  of  the  country. 
In  other  parts  of  the  Saracenic  possessions  the  Karma- 
thians also  warred  for  a  time  successfully  against  the 
caliphate  of  Bagdad,  and  threatened  its  very  existence, 
until,  in  a  batlle  fought  in  the  29ith  year  of  the  Hegi- 
ra, the  caliph's  general,  Wasif,  won  a  decisive  victory, 
and  greatly  crippled  the  military  strength  of  the  Kar- 
matliians.  Both  Karmatha  (of  whose  personal  historj' 
after  this  time  we  lack  all  information)  and  Abu  Said 
became — by  what  means  is  matter  of  great  obscurity — 
faithless  to  their  own  creed ;  but  they  continued  to  have 
followers,  and  when  Abu  Said  was  killed,  together  with 
some  of  his  principal  officers,  in  the  bath  in  his  own 
castle  at  Lahsa.  in  301  of  the  Hegira,  by  one  of  his 
eunuchs,  his  son,  Abu  Tahir,  liecame  his  successor,  and 
the  struggle  was  continued.  In  311  he  seized  the  town 
of  Basra.  In  the  next  year  he  pillaged  the  caravan 
which  went  to  JNIecca,  and  ransacked  KuHi.  In  315  he 
once  more  appeared  in  Kufa  and  in  Irak,  and  gained  so 
decided  a  victory  over  the  caliph's  troops  that  Bagdad 
began  to  tremble  before  him.  In  317  (A.D.  930)  the 
great  and  decisive  blow  against  the  caliphate,  or,  rather, 
against  JMohammedanism  itself,  was  struck.  '■  When 
the  great  caravan  of  pilgrims  for  the  annual  pilgrimage 
had  arrived  at  jNIccca,  the  news  suddenly  sjiread  that 
Abu  Tahir,  the  terror  of  Islam,  had  appeared  at  tlie  head 
of  an  army  in  the  holy  city  itself.  All  attempts  to  buy 
him  oil"  failed,  and  a  ma.ssacre  of  the  most  fearful  de- 
scription ensued.  AVith  barbarous  irony,  he  asked  the 
victims  what  had  become  of  flie  sacred  [irotection  of  the 
place.  Every  one.  they  had  ahvays  been  told,  Avas  safe 
and  inviolable  at  !Mecca.  Why  was  he  allowed  thus  ea- 
sily to  kill  them — the  race  of  donkeys?  Accordrng  to 
some,  for  six  days;  to  others,  for  eleven  or  seventeen,  the 
massacre  lasted.  The  numbers  killed  within  the  pre- 
cincts of  the  temple  itself  are  variously  given.     The 


holy  places  were  desecrated,  almost  irredeemably.  But, 
not  satisfied  with  this,  Abu  Tahir  laid  hands  on  the  su- 
preme palladium,  tlie  black  stone  itself.  Yet  he  was 
apparently  mistaken  in  his  calcidations.  So  far  from 
turning  the  hearts  of  the  faithful  from  a  worship  which 
God  did  not  seem  to  have  defended,  the  remaining  Mos- 
lems clung  all  the  more  fervently  to  it.  God's  decree 
had  certainly  permitted  all  these  indignities  to  be  put 
upon  his  house,  but  it  was  not  f(jr  them  to  murmur. 
The  stone  gone,  they  covered  the  place  where  it  had 
lain  with  their  kisses."  Whenever  Abu  Tahir  did  not 
prevent  them  by  force,  the  caravans  went  on  their  usual 
annual  pilgrimage,  and  Abu  Tahir  was  finally  persuade<i 
to  conclude  a  treaty  permitting  the  pilgrimage  on  pay- 
ment of  five  denars  fur  every  camel,  and  seven  for  everj-- 
horse.  But  the  black  stone,  notwithstanding  all  the 
efforts  on  the  part  of  the  court  of  Bagdad,  he  never  re- 
turned. (See  below.)  Abu  Tahir  liimself  was  a  man 
of  great  daring,  and  so  infatuated  were  his  men  with 
the  personal  bravery  and  divine  calling  of  their  leader 
that  they  blindly  obeyed  any  demands  he  made  upon 
them. 

Abu  Tahir  died  in  332  of  the  Hegira,  master  of 
Arabia,  Syria,  and  Irak.  It  was  not  until  seven  years 
later  (A.D.  950),  inukr  the  reign  of  two  of  his  brothers 
who  had  succeeded  him,  that  the  "  black  stone"  -was  re- 
turned to  IMecca  for  an  enormous  ransom,  and  fixed 
there,  in  the  seventh  piUar  of  the  moscpie  called  Rahmat 
(God's  mercy).  But  with  the  death  of  Abu  Tahir  the 
star  of  the  Karmathians  began  to  wane.  Little  is  heard 
of  them  of  any  import  till  375,  when  they  were  defeated 
before  Kufti — an  event  which  seems  to  have  put  an  end 
to  their  dominion  in  Irak  and  Syria.  In  378  they  were 
further  defeated  in  battle  by  Asfar,  and  their  chief  kill- 
ed. They  retreated  to  Lahsa,  where  they  fortified  them- 
selves; whereupon  Asfiir  marched  to  Elkatif,  took  it, 
and  carried  away  all  the  baggage,  slaves,  and  animals 
of  the  Karmathians  of  that  town,  and  retired  to  Basra. 
This  seems  to  have  finally  ruined  the  already  -(vcak 
band  of  that  once  formidable  power,  and  nothing  fur- 
ther is  heard  of  them  in  history,  although  they  retained 
Lahsa  down  to  430,  and  even  later.  To  our  own  day 
there  still  exists,  according  to  Palgrave,  some  disaffect- 
ed remnants  of  them  at  Hasa  (the  modern  name  of  their 
ancient  centre  and  stronghold),  and  other  tracts  of  the 
peninsula;  and  their  antagonism  against  IMohammed- 
anism,  which  they  have  utterly  abrogated  among  them- 
selves, so  far  from  Ijeing  aliated,  bids  fair  to  break  out 
anew  into  open  rebellion  at  the  first  opportunity.  In- 
deed, some  of  the  most  trustworthy  writers  on  Eastern 
historj'  assert  that  the  modern  Druses  owe  the  origin  of 
their  religious  belief  to  the  Karmatliiaiis  (comp.  Mad- 
den, Turkish  Empire,  ii,  210). 

The  religious  heVuf  of  the  Karmathians,  so  far  as  it 
has  been  preserved  to  us,  seems  in  the  beginning — be- 
fore Ismailism  became  a  mixture  of  "naturalism"  and 
"materialism"  of  whilom  Sabaism,  and  of  Indian  incar- 
nations and  transmigrations  of  later  days — to  have  only 
been  a  kind  of  "reformed"  Islam.  Their  master  Kar- 
matha, this  sect  maintained,  had  evinced  himself  to  be 
a  true  prophet,  and  had  brought  a  new  law  into  the 
world.  By  this  many  of  the  IMohammedan  tenets  were 
altered,  many  ancient  ceremonies  and  forms  of  prayer 
were  changed,  and  an  entirely  new  kind  of  fast  intro- 
duced. Wine  was  permitted,  as  well  as  a  few  other 
things  which  the  Koran  prohibited,  while  many  of  the 
precejits  found  in  that  book  were  made  mere  allegories. 
L'rayer  was  but  the  symbol  of  obedience  to  their  imam, 
and  fasting  the  symbol  of  silence,  or,  rather,  of  conceal- 
ment of  the  religious  doctrine  from  the  stranger.  Thej' 
also  believed  fornication  to  be  the  sin  of  infidelity,  and 
the  guilt  thereof  to  be  incurred  by  those  who  revealed 
the  mysteries  of  their  religion,  or  failed  to  pay  a  blind 
obedience  to  their  chief,  or  to  contribute  the  fifth  part 
of  their  jiroperty  as  an  offering  to  the  imam  (compare 
Sale.  Prclimliiari/  Discourse  fo  tlte  Koran'). 

For  further  details,  see  Weil,  GescJdchte  d.  Chalijen; 


KARX 


23 


KARO 


idem,  Geschichte  der  islam'Uischen  Volker  (Stuttg.  18Cfi, 
8vo),p.  197  sq. ;  De  (Joeje,  il/e^woiz-e  sur  Its  Cannathi's, 
etc. ;  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  litlif/ion  des  Druses  ;  Sale,  Ko- 
ran;  Taj'lor,  Hist. Mohammedanism,  p.  223  sq. ;  Madden, 
Turkish  Jimpire,  ii,  IGi  sq. ;  Chambers,  Cyclopcedia,  x, 
58G  sq.     See  Siiiites. 

Karn,  Aakox  Jakob,  a  Lutheran  minister,  was  born 
in  Loudon  Co.,  Virginia,  August,  1820.  In  his  youth  lie 
dedicated  himself  to  the  service  of  the  Lord,  and,  with 
a  view  to  enter  the  Christian  ministry,  became  a  stu- 
dent ill  tlie  institution  at  Gettysburg  in  the  autumn 
of  1837,  and  was  gTaduated  from  Pennsylvania  College 
in  18-12,  and  from  the  theological  seminary  in  1811. 
After  his  license  to  preach  he  accepted  a  caU  to  the  Lu- 
theran Church  at  Pine  Grove,  Pa. ;  thence  he  removed 
to  Canton,  Ohio.  In  1848  he  took  charge  of  the  En- 
glish Lutheran  Church  in  Savannah,  Georgia.  Here  he 
labored,  enjoying  the  confidence  of  his  people  and  the  re- 
spect of  the  whole  community,  till  his  physical  strength 
gave  vvay,  and  advancing  disease  compelled  him  to  sus- 
pentl  the  exercise  of  his  office.  His  congregation  sug- 
gested a  trip  to  foreign  lands.  They  provided  the  ex- 
penses for  the  journey,  and  supplies  for  the  pulpit  during 
his  absence.  He  travelled  through  France,  Ital}',  Ger- 
many, and  Switzerland,  but  his  impaired  health  derived 
no  advantage  from  the  tour,  and  he  returned  to  his  na- 
tive country  only  to  close  liis  life  surrounded  l)y  the 
tender  sympathies  of  loved  ones  at  home.  He  died  at 
Chicago,  lU.,  Dec.  19, 18t)0.  Karn  was  an  able  preacher 
and  an  excellent  man.  His  ministry  was  fruitfid  in  good 
results.  During  the  prevalence  of  flie  yeUow  fever  in 
Savannah  in  1854  and  1858,  he  continued  at  his  post, 
exhausting  his  time  and  his  strength  in  ministering  to 
the  suffering  and  the  dying,  not  only  of  his  own  con- 
gregation, but  to  others  wlio  were  not  in  connection 
with  any  Church,  amid  scenes  the  most  distressing  and 
heart-rending,  in  his  offices  of  kindness  to  the  sick  and 
in  the  burial  of  the  dead.  It  is  supposed  his  physical 
constitution  sustained  an  injury  from  the  influences  of 
the  epidemic  from  whicli  he  never  recovered.    (M.  L.  S.) 

Karnaim.     See  Asiitarotii-karnaim. 

Karuko"Wski,  Stanislaus,  a  celebrated  Roman 
Catholic  jirelate,  was  born  in  Bland  in  1526.  Of  Ids 
early  life  nothing  is  known  to  us.  In  15G3  he  was  made 
bisliiip  of  Wladislaw,  and  became  coadjutor  to  the  arch- 
bishop of  Gnesen  in  1577,  and  in  1581  sole  occupant  of 
the  archbishopric  and  primate  of  Poland.  In  the  civil 
history  of  Poland  Karnkowski  played  jio  imimportant 
part.  King  Stephen  (Betori)  was  crowned  b}'  him  (Hay 
1, 157G),  and  on  the  death  of  the  king  Karnkowski  him- 
self assumed  the  reins  of  government  until  a  ro3'al  suc- 
cessor was  found  in  the  person  of  the  Swedish  crown- 
prince  Sigismund,  whom  he  also  crowned.  It  is  gener- 
ally supposed  that  Karnkowski  belonged  to  the  .Jesuit- 
ical order.  In  Kalisch  he  built  a  college  for  the  .Jesuits : 
he  also  founded  two  schools  for  the  theological  training 
of  Roman  Catholics.  Under  his  protection  tlie  cele- 
brated .Jesuit  .Jacob  Wujek  translated  the  Bilile  into  Po- 
lish, a  work  which  to  tliis  day  remains  the  only  authen- 
tic edition  in  the  Polish  (Roman  Catholic)  Church. 
Karnkowski  died  May  2G,  1G03.  He  published  Consti- 
tutiones  synodales  dioceses  cum  caiechesi : — Sermones  ad 
parochos: — De  ecclesia  utraqiie ;  etc.  See  Wetzer  und 
Welte,  Kircheii-Lexikon,  xii,  632. 

Karo,  Joseph  bex-Ephraim,  ^  Jewish  Rabbi,  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  characters  in  Rabbinic  literature, 
was  born  in  Sjiain  in  1488,  of  a  family  of  note.  Amid 
the  great  persecutions  which  the  Spanish  Jews  suffered 
in  the  early  part  of  the  IGth  century,  the  Karo  family 
were  exiled,  anil  settled  finally  at  Nicopolis,  in  Euro- 
pean Turkey.  His  early  Talmudical  education  .Joseph 
received  under  tlie  instruction  of  liis  own  father,  and 
the  youth  quickly  evinced,  in  the  ready  acquisition  of 
Talmudic  lore,  a  particular  liking  for  tradition.  The 
Mishua  text,  it  is  said,  he  had  learned  by  heart,  and  be- 
fore he  had  reached  the  age  of  twenty-five  he  was  ac- 


cepted as  a  Talmudical  authority.  From  Nicopolis  .Jo- 
seph removed  successively  to  Adrianoiile  and  Salonica. 
WhUe  a  resident  of  these  places  (about  1522-35)  he  be- 
came acquainted  with  the  great  cabalistic  fanatic  Sa- 
lomo  Moleb(j  of  Pcjrtagal.  and  he  was  finally  induced  to 
remove  to  Safet  (q.  v.),  in  Palestine,  the  great  cabalis- 
tic centre  in  the  East  in  the  IGth  century.  In  Safet  he 
studied  much  with  the  Rabbinical  authorities  of  Pales- 
tine, and  during  the  controversy  on  the  Jewish  gaonate 
[see  Jacob  Berab]  Joseph  Karo  was  one  of  the  four 
disciples  whom  Jacob  Berab  ordained  when  forced  by 
Levi  ben-Chabib  to  quit  the  country.  See  Ordination, 
Jewish.  Previously  infatuated  with  the  Cabalists'  Mes- 
sianic notions,  and  now  (Jacob  Berab  died  Januar\', 
1541,  shortly  after  quitting  Palestine)  one  of  the  four 
Rabbis  ordained  by  the  only  authority  competent  to 
perform  the  sacred  rite,  he  became  satisfied  that  he  was 
divinely  chosen  for  some  important  mission,  perhaps 
even  the  Messiahship  itself.  (He  believed,  says  Griitz 
[see  below],  that  he  would  die  and  be  again  raised  up 
to  become  the  leader  of  his  nation.)  Ever  since  1522 
he  had  been  engaged  in  writing  an  extensive  religious 
and  ritual  codex,  entitled  ~&i^  IT'Sl  (Beth  Yosepth,  first 
published  at  Sablonets,  1553,  4  vols,  folio),  a  revision, 
correction,  and  enlargement  of  a  like  work  by  Jacob  ben- 
Asher ;  he  now  hastened  the  completion  of  this  gigantic 
undertaking  in  the  hope  that  its  publication  would  lead 
his  people  to  assign  him  at  once  the  jilace  to  which  he 
believed  himself  divinely  called.  He  completed  the 
work  in  1542,  but- it  gauied  for  him  only  the  recognition 
of  being  one  of  the  ablest  rabbis  of  Safet.  Unremit- 
tingly he  continued  his  labors,  determined  to  bring 
about  the  result  which  he  believed  to  be  his  mission — 
the  union  of  Israel — and  with  it  hasten  the  days  of  the 
Messiah.  In  the  IGth  century  the  Talmud  was  exten- 
sively studied  among  the  Jews.  Every  important  con- 
gregation sustained  not  onh'  a  rabbi,  but  a  college.  Thus 
many  lucrative  positions  were  open  to  men  inclined 
to  study,  and  there  resulted  a  general  interest  in  the 
study  of  the  Talmud.  But  many  students  imply  many 
interpreters,  and  thus  it  came  that,  after  a  time,  each 
congregation,  and  sometimes  even  each  member  of  a 
college,  had  their  own  interjiretation  of  the  Talmudical 
precepts,  and  Jewish  orthodoxy  Avas  at  a  loss  how  to 
judge  rightly.  Joseph,  comprehending  the  danger  of  a 
general  division  and  a  loose  interjiretation,  determined 
to  meet  the  case  by  a  compilation  of  rabbinical  law  and 
usage,  i.  o.  by  the  publication  of  the  interpretations 
which  the  Talmud  had  received  at  the  hands  of  the 
most  distinguished  teachers  in  Israel.  At  first  he  sim- 
ply subjected  his  former  work  to  a  general  supervision, 
wlaich  he  completed  after  twelve  years  of  haril  labor. 
Finding,  however,  that  this  did  not  quite  accomplish  the 
desired  result,  he  set  about  writing  a  new  work,  and  af- 
ter nine  years  of  intense  application  presented  his  peo- 
ple with  a  compendium  of  rabbinical  law  and  usage,  en- 
titled Tl^^"  'I'^V'^  {ShuJchan  .4r((^-,  first  published  at 
Venice,  1565),  which  to  this  day  remains  a  rabbinical 
authority.  His  name  now  became  celebrated  in  all 
lands  Avhere  Jews  made  tlieir  abode,  and  at  Safet  itself 
(which  really  meant  all  I'alestine)  he  was  cheerfidly  ac- 
corded the  place  of  first  authority,  as  a  worthy  successor 
of  Jacob  Berab.  See,  however,  the  article  INIoses  de 
Trani.  He  died  in  1575.  One  result  Karo's  labors 
had  at  least  effected — the  harmony  of  all  Israelites  in 
expounding  the  law  through  the  Talmud — tlie  estab- 
Ushment  of  Rabbinic  Judaism — after  all.  a  very  dittcrent 
religion  from  that  revealed  through  IMoses  at  Jlount 
Sinai,  foretold  hy  tlie  prophets,  and  taught  by  IMoses 
IMaimonides.  For  a  long  time  the  Shulchan  Aruk  was 
the  text-book  in  all  the  Je^vish  schools,  the  accepted 
interpretation  among  aU  that  people,  and  many  are  the 
editions  that  have  been  published  of  it,  legions  the  schol- 
ars who  hnve  commented  upon  it.  Karo's  other  work 
of  note  which  deserves  mention  liere  is  Chisiph  Mi.'^hne, 
a  commcntarv  on  3Iaimonidcs's  Jad  Uavhazaka,  which 


KARPAS 


24 


KATYAYANA 


h?is  frequently  been  published  with  the  latter  work. 
See  Griitz,  Geschichie  ihr  Judeii,  ix,  319  sq. ;  Zunz,  Zur 
Geschichte  u.L{teratU7-,  p.  230  sq. ;  Jost,  Gesck.  d.Jtiden- 
■  tkums,  iii.  129  ;  Flirst, Biblioth.  Jud. ii,  172  sq.     (i.  II.  W.) 

Karpas.     See  Greks  ;  Cotton. 

Kar'tah  (lleb.  A'aW«/j',  nn"i|3,  city;  Sept.  K«p- 
^av  V.  r.  Kuap:),  a  town  in  the  tribe  of  Zebulon,  as- 
signed, with  its  suburbs,  as  one  of  tlie  places  of  residence 
for  the  Levites  of  the  family  of  Merari  (Josh,  xxi,  34). 
It  is  there  mentioned  between  Jokncam  and  Dimnah, 
the  fourth  city  named  being  Nahalal;  but  the  parallel 
passage  (1  Chron.  vi,  77)  gives  but  two  cities,  and  these 
different,  namely,  Kimmon  and  Tabor,  the  first  of  these 
being  probably  a  preferable  reading  for  Dimnah,  and 
the  latter  a  collective  for  two  others,  Jokneam  being  in 
the  same  connection  (ver.  08)  separately  attributed  to 
the  Kohathites  along  with  other  places  on  Mt.  Ephra- 
im,  near  which  it  lay.  Kartah  is  doubtless  identical 
with  the  Kattath  elsewhere  spoken  of  in  the  same  as- 
sociation (Josh,  xix,  15).  Van  de  Yelde  suggests  (J/e- 
7)ioif,  p.  327)  that  it  is  "possibly  the  same  with  el- 
Ilarte,  a  village  with  traces  of  antiquity  on  the  banks 
of  the  Kishon,"  not  very  far  from  its  junction  with  wady 
Melek ;  the  ruins  being  on  the  teU  Hiirteyeh,  on  the  op- 
posite side  of  the  river  (^Narrative,  i,  289). 

Kar'tan  (Heb.  A'ar^a?j',  "ri"i|^,  double  city,  an  old 
dual  from  »^"^p;  Sept.  KapBch'  v.  r.  Qif.ii.Lwv  and  Nof/(- 
/xwf),  a  town  of  Naphtali,  assigned  to  the  Gcrshonite 
Levites,  and  appointed  to  be  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge 
(Josh,  xxi,  32).  In  the  parallel  passage  (1  Chron.  vi, 
76)  it  is  called  by  the  equivalent  name  of  Kirjathai  ji. 
The  associated  names  suggest  the  probability  of  some 
locality  near  the  north-western  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Ti- 
berias, perhaps  the  ruined  village  marked  as  el-Katanah 
on  Van  de  Velde's  map,  on  wady  Furam,  about  midway 
between  Lake  Tiberias  and  the  Ilulch. 

Kartikeya  is  the  name  of  the  Hindu  Mars,  or 
god  of  war,  who  is  represented  Ijy  the  Pnranic  legends 
as  having  sprung  from  Siva  after  a  most  miraculous 
fashion.  The  germ  of  Kartikeya  having  fallen  into 
the  Ganges,  it  was  on  the  banks  of  this  river,  in  a 
meadow  of  Sara  grass,  that  the  offspring  of  Siva  arose ; 
and  as  it  happened  that  he  was  seen  by  six  nymphs,  the 
Krittikfis  (or  Pleiades),  the  chUd  assumed  six  faces,  to 
receive  nurture  from  each.  Grown  up,  he  fulfilled  his 
mission  in  killing  Taraka,  the  dnemon-king,  whose  pow- 
er, acquired  by  penances  and  austerities,  threatened  the 
very  existence  of  the  gods.  He  accomplished,  besides, 
other  heroic  deeds  in  his  battles  with  the  giants,  and 
became  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  divine  armies. 
Having  been  brought  up  by  the  Krittiktis,  he  is  called 
Kartikeya,  or  Shunmatura,  the  son  of  six  mothers ; 
and,  from  the  circumstances  adverted  to,  he  bears  also 
the  names  of  Gangeya,  the  son  of  the  Ganges ;  Sarahhu, 
reared  in  Sara  grass;  Shanmukha,  the  god  with  the  six 
faces,  etc.  One  of  his  common  appellations  is  Kumdni, 
youthful,  since  he  is  generally  represented  as  a  fine 
youth;  and,  as  he  is  riding  on  a  peacock,  he  receives 
sometimes  the  epithet  of  Sikhiruhana,  or  "the  god 
whose  vehicle  is  the  peacock." — Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Kasiniir,  St.,  prince  of  Poland,  noted  in  the  aimals 
of  the  lloman  Catholic  Church  for  his  great  piety  and 
asceticism,  born  in  October,  1458,  took  no  unimportant 
part  in  the  efforts  of  the  royal  house  of  Poland  to  secure 
the  throne  of  Hungary.  Quite  inconsistently  with  his 
saintly  profession,  he  marched  at  the  head  of  a  large 
army  towards  the  borders  of  Hungary  in  1471.  On  his 
return,  after  the  declaration  of  pope  Sixtus  IV  in  favor 
of  the  deposed  king  of  Hungary',  Kasimir  practised  even 
greater  austerity  than  before,  and  died  March  4,  HS;;, 
at  AViliia,  in  Lithuania.  Kasiniir  was  canonized  in  1522 
by  pope  Leo  X,  and  he  is  looked  upon  as  the  patjrou 
saint  of  Poland.     See  Pol^vi«u. 

Kaspi.     See  Ibx-Caspi. 


Katan.     See  Hakk^vtan. 

Katerkamp,  Joiiaxn  Theodor  Hermann,  an 
eminent  Koman  Catholic  theologian,  was  born  at  Och- 
trup,  near  Minister,  Germany,  Jan.  17,  17G4;  studied 
theology  at  IMunster,  and  subsequently  (1809)  became 
professor  of  Church  History  in  his  alma  mater.  He  had 
been  ordained  priest  in  1787,  and  in  1823  he  was  ap- 
pointed canon,  and  in  1831  dean  of  the  cathedral  at 
^linistcr.  He  died  Jidy  8,  1834.  Katerkamp's  princi- 
pal work  is  his  Kirchenyesch.  (of  which  the  introduction 
was  published  in  1819;  and  live  volumes,  bringing  the 
work  down  to  the  second  Crusade,  from  1823-34,  8vo). 
He  also  wrote  Ueher  d.  chrhtl.  Lehen  u.  d.  Geist  d.  gottes- 
dienstl.  Versainmlunrjen  (jMi'inster,  1830,  8vo):  —  Denk- 
tnirdigkeiten  aus  d.Leben  d.FUrstin  Galiczin  (ibid.  1828; 
2d  ed.  1838).  See  Herzog,  Real-Encyklopddie,  vii,  459  ; 
Wetzer  mid  Welte,  Kircken-Lex.  xii,  (537. 

Katharinus,  Ajibrosius.     See  Catharixus. 

Kathenotheism  ((caS'  tvog  &i6c,  each  one  a  god) 
is  a  term  devised  by  Prof.  J\Iax  iNIuller  {Mg  Vtda,  i,  164, 
460)  to  designate  the  doctrine  of  tlivine  unity  in  diver- 
sity as  unfolded  in  the  sacred  writings  of  tlie  Hindus. 
He  rejects  the  term  jjolytheism  on  the  ground  that  the 
Hindus,  in  their  worship,  ever  ascribe  to  one  god  the  at- 
tributes of  all  the  others.  Thus  in  one  hj-mn,  ascribed 
to  Mann,  the  poet  saj's,  "Among  you,  O  gods,  there  is 
none  that  is  small,  none  that  is  young ;  you  are  all  great 
in  deed."  .  .  .  "And  what  more  coidd  human  language 
achieve,"  asks  tlie  professor,  "  in  trying  to  express  the 
idea  of  a  divine  aad  supreme  power?  .  .  .  This  is  surely 
not  what  is  commonlj-  understood  by  polj'theism.  Yet 
it  would  be  equally  wrong  to  call  it  monotheism.  If  we 
must  have  a  name  for  it,  I  should  call  it  KatJienotJteism" 
(Chips,  i,  28).  See  also  Tyler,  Primitice  Culture  (Loud. 
1871,  2  vols.  8vo),  ii,  321.     (J.  H.W.) 

Elathisniata  [Ka^iapara,  sittings)  is  a  name  which, 
in  the  early  Church,  according  to  Suicer,  was  applied  to 
certain  parts  of  holy  Scripture,  because,  during  the  read- 
ing of  them,  the  people  sat.  Other  portions  of  Scripture 
were  entitled  araaHQ  (standings),  because,  during  the 
reading  of  them,  the  people  stood.  It  was  usual  m  the 
early  Church  for  all  worshippers  to  stand  during  the 
reading  of  the  gospels  and  the  singing  of  the  psalms. 

Katona,  Emeric,  of  Abaujvar,  a  Hungarian  Prot- 
estant controversialist,  was  born  at  Uifalon  in  1572.  He 
became  rector  of  the  college  of  Szepsi  in  1593,  but  re- 
signed in  1595  to  study  theology  at  "Wittenberg  and 
Heidelberg  for  two  years  and  a  half,  and  then  returned 
to  his  country.  He  became  successively  rector  of  Pa- 
tak  (in  1599),  preacher  at  the  court  of  George  Ea- 
goczi,  prince  of  Transylvania,  pastor  of  Szepsi,  Goenc- 
ziu,  and  Karextur,  and  died  Oct.  22,  1610.  He  wrote 
De  Libera  Arbitrio,  contra  theses  Andrece  Saroji ;  Anti- 
papismus ;  Tractatus  de  Patrum,  conciliontm  et  tradi- 
tionum  Aitctoritate  cii'ca  Jidel  dogmata,  cult^ts  idem  mo- 
resque  vivendi  (Francfort,  1611,  8vo,  with  a  Life  of  the 
author  by  Pareits).  See  Cz^^tt^nger,  Specimen  llunga- 
rice  Literatw,  p.  199;  Horanyi,  Nova  Memoria  llunga- 
ronim,  ii,  304. 

Katon  Moed.     See  Talmud. 

Kat'tath  (lleb.  Kattath',  n^Jp,  small,  for  ^VJ^^; 
Sept.  Karra5-  v.  r.  KaravaS;),  one  of  the  cities  of  Zeb- 
ulon, mentioned  first  in  a  list  of  towns  apparently  along 
the  southern  border  from  Slount  Tabor  westerly  (Josh. 
xix,  15) ;  and  (notwithstanding  the  slight  difference  in 
radicals)  ]irobably  the  same  with  the  Kartaii  (q,  v.) 
of  Josh,  xxi,  34;  perhaps  also  with  Kiti:on  (Judg.  i, 
30).  Schwarz  (Palest,  p.  172),  by  a  tortuous  derivation 
through  the  Talmud,  seeks  to  identify  it  witli  Cana  of 
Galilee. 

Katyayana  is  a  name  of  great  distinction  in  the 
histoni'  of  the  literature  of  India,  especially  the  ritual 
and  grammatical  literature  of  the  ]'rahniauical  Hindus, 
which  has  been  greatly  enriched  by  a  writer  or  writers 


KAUTZ 


25 


KEBLAH 


of  that  name.     Katyayana  is  also  the  name  of  several 
of  the  chief  disciples  of  the  Buddha  Sakyamuni. 

Kautz,  Jacob,  an  eminent  German  theologian) 
'prominent  in  the  Anabaptist  movement  of  the  16th 
century,  was  born  at  Bockenheim,  Hesse  Cassel,  about 
1500.  He  was  a  preacher  at  Worms  when,  in  1527,  he 
identified  himself  with  the  Denk-Hetzer  movement  in 
forming  a  strong  opposition  against  infant  baptism. 
Previously  to  this  time,  Kautz  had  estranged  him- 
self from  the  Lutheran  reformers  by  his  anti-Trini- 
tarian heresies ;  now  he  openly  broke  with  them,  and 
warmly  welcomed  the  Strasburg  preachers.  See  Ana- 
baptists. He  published  seven  theses  in  defence  of  his 
peculiar  views  (corap.  Arnold,  Ketzerhistorie,  i,  63),  and 
for  the  day  of  Pentecost  invited  the  Lutheran  ministers 
to  pulilic  disputation.  Although  yet  a  j'ouug  man,  he 
had  already  obtained  great  celebrity  as  a  public  speaker, 
and  no  doubt  took  this  course  in  order  to  increase  the 
number  of  his  followers.  But  the  theses  of  Kautz  were 
so  decidedly  opposed  to  Lutheran  christology  and  dog- 
mas that  the  authorities  interfered,  incarcerated  him, 
and  finally  obliged  him  to  quit  "Worms.  Wandering 
about  from  place  to  place,  we  find  him  in  July  at  Augs- 
burg, later  at  Rothenburg,  and  in  1528  finally  at  Stras- 
burg. Here  he  succeeded  for  a  time  in  preaching  his 
heretical  doctrines,  but  in  1529,  so  great  had  his  fanati- 
cal excesses  become,  that  the  city  authorities  felt  obliged 
to  interfere,  and  he  was  arrested  and  compelled  to  leave 
the  city.  After  losing  sight  of  him  for  a  time,  we  find 
him  in  1532  again  knocking  at  the  gates  of  the  city  of 
Strasburg,  and  vainlj'  seeking  admission.  From  this 
time  all  traces  of  him  are  lost,  and  neither  the  time  nor 
the  place  of  his  death  is  known.  Kautz  was  qiute  inti- 
mate with  Capito,  the  eminent  coadjutor  of  the  Reform- 
ers QicolampacUus  and  Buccr,  and  at  one  time  it  was 
even  asserted  by  the  Anabaptists  that  he  had  succeeded 
in  winning  him  to  their  side.  Capito,  however,  does 
not  deserve  this  reproach.  On  the  contrary,  he  did  all 
in  his  power  to  restrain  Kautz  in  his  fanaticism.  See 
Trechsel,  Antitrinitarier,  i,  13  sq. ;  Keim,  in  the  Jahrh. 
f.  dmtsche  Theol.  i,  2,  271  S(i. ;  Stud,  nml  Krif.  1841,  p. 
1080  sq.     See  aLso  Denk  ;  Hktzer.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Kay,  .James,  a  Unitarian  minister,  was  born  at  Heap 
Fold,  in  Lancashire,  England,  June  21,  1777,  and  was 
reared  in  the  Church  of  England.  At  the  age  of  seven- 
teen, however,  he  became  a  dissenter,  and  at  once  pre- 
pared for  the  ministry.  In  1799  he  was  settled  over  a 
Calvinistic  congregation  in  Kendal,  Westmoreland,  but 
he  resigned  this  charge  in  1810,  and,  with  about  one 
third  of  his  congregation,  joined  the  Unitarians,  and 
two  years  later  became  pastor  of  a  Unitarian  church  at 
Hindley,  Lancashire.  In  1821  he  emigrated  to  this 
country,  but  never  again  took  active  work.  He  died 
Sept.  22, 1817,  at  Trout  Run,  I'a.  "  He  fell  asleep  with 
the  accents  of  a  devout  faith  on  his  lips,  and,  we  doubt 
not,  with  the  trustful  spirit  of  a  disciple  in  his  heart." — 
Christian  Examiner,  1848,  p.  157. 

Kaye,  John  (1),  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  was  bom 
at  Hammersmith,  London,  in  1783,  and  was  educated  at 
Christ's  College,  Cambridge  (graduated  in  1804  with 
high  honor  and  distinction).  In  1814  he  was  elected 
master  of  his  college,  and  afterwards  filled  the  ofiice 
of  vice-chancellor.  In  1816  he  was  chosen  regius  pro- 
fessor of  divinity,  and  in  1820  became  bishop  of  Bristol; 
was  translated  to  Lincoln  in  1827,  and  died  in  1853.  Be- 
sides his  professional  labors,  Kaye  did  a  great  deal  of 
literary  work.  Many  of  his  writings  are  of  special  value. 
Characterized  as  they  are  bj'  clearness  and  precision, 
by  accuracy  and  fairness,  combined  with  the  necessary 
flexibihty,  no  thinking  mind  can  fail  to  be  enriched  by 
them.  Ilis  principal  writings  are :  The  Ecdedasticnl 
Ilistonj  of  the  2d  and  3(1  Centuries,  illustrated  from  the 
Writings  of  Tertullian  (Camb.  2d  ed.  1826,  8vo ;  3d  ed. 
1845): — SonK  Account  of  the  Writings  and  Opinions  of 
Justin  Martyr  (Lond.  2d  ed.  1836,  8vo;  3d  ed.  1853)  :— 
A  Charge  delivered  at  the  primary  Visitation  in  1828 


(Camb.  1828, 8vo) : — A  Charge  to  the  Clergy,  delivered  at 
the  triennial  Visitation  in  1843  (London,  1843,  8vo).  He 
also  published  some  anonymous  Remarks  on  Dr.  Wise- 
man\s  Lectures,  and  a  llejily  to  the  Travels  of  an  Irish 
Gentleman  (a  Roman  Catholic  polemical  work).  See 
Allibone,  Diet,  of  A  iithors,  s.  v. ;  London  Gentleman's 
Magazine,  1853  (April,  ]\Iay,  and  August).     (J.  L.  S.) 

Kaye,  John  (2).     See  C^uus. 

Kayits.     See  Fruit. 

Kazin.     See  Ittaii-kazix. 

Keach,  Benjamin,  an  eminent  English  Baptist  di- 
vine, was  born  at  Stokehaman,  Buckinghamshire,  Feb. 
29, 1640.  He  does  not  appear  to  have  followed  any  reg- 
ular course  of  study;  his  parents  were  poor,  and  could 
not  aid  him  in  a  collegiate  education.  He  paid  par- 
ticular attention  to  the  Scriptiu-es.  In  1658  he  be- 
came a  preacher,  and  in  1668  was  chosen  pastor  of  a 
congregation  in  Southwark,  of  which  he  had  for  three 
years  previously  been  a  member.  After  the  Restoration 
he  suffered  in  common  with  all  nonconformists,  and  tted 
from  the  country,  where  the  persecutions  were  unbear- 
able, to  the  metropolis.  Here  he  became  pastor  of  a 
small  society,  which  met  in  a  private  house  in  Tooley 
Street.  Successful  as  a  minister,  he  soon  moved  his 
fast-increasing  flock  (which  numbered  at  one  time  over 
lOOO)  to  a  large  new  chiu-ch  in  Horsley  Down,  South- 
wark. He  died  in  1704.  Keach  belonged  to  the  Par- 
ticular or  Calvinistic  Baptists,  and  was  considered  a  man 
of  great  ]jiety  and  learning.  His  principal  Avorks  are, 
Tropologia,  or  Key,  to  open  Scripture  Metaphors  (Lond. 
1682 ;  best  edition  1779,  fol. — very  scarce ;  and  reprinted 
in  1856,  8vo) : — The  Marrow  of  true  Justification,  or 
Justification  without  Works  (Lond.  1692, 4to) : — The  Axe 
laid  to  the  Root,  or  one  more  Blow  at  the  Foundation  of 
Infant  Baptism  and  Church-membership  (Loudon,  1693, 
4to): — Light  broke  forth  in  Wales  (Lond.  1696,  8vo;  an 
answer  to  INIr.  .Tames  Owen's  book,  entitled  Children's 
Baptismfroni  Heaven')  : — The  Display  of  glorious  Grace, 
in  14  Sermons  [on  Isa.  liv,  10]  (Lond.  1098, 8vo)  : — Gos- 
pel Mysteries  Unveiled,  or  an  Exposition  of  all  the  Par- 
ables, etc.  (Lond.  1701 ,  fol. ;  1856,  royal  8vo.  "  ^Mingled 
with  unquestioned  reverence  for  the  divine  Word,  and 
much  good  material  of  which  the  judicious  student  may 
avail  himself  with  advantage,  there  is  a  large  amount 
of  fanciful  exposition  and  of  unwise  spiritualizing"  [Kit- 
to])  : — A  Golden  Mine  opened,  or  the  glory  of  God's  i-ick 
Grace  displayed  in  the  Mediator,  etc.  (Lond.  1694,  4to)  : 
— The  French  Impostor  delected,  or  Zach.  Ilousel  tryed 
by  the  Word  of  God,  etc.  (Lond.  1703, 12mo)  : — Believer's 
Baptism,  wherein  the  chief  arguments  for  infant  bap- 
tism are  collected  and  combated  (London,  1705,  8vo) : — 
Travels  of  True  Godliness,  and  Travels  of  Ungodliness, 
after  the  manner  of  Bunyan's  (often  reprinted) ;  also  ^vith 
Notes  and  Memoirs  of  the  author,  by  the  Rev.  Howard 
Malcolm  (N.  Y.  1831,  18mo) : — Exposition  of  the  Para- 
bles (Lond.  1704,  fol.).  Keach  also  figured  in  his  day  as 
a  hymnologist,  but  his  sacred  songs  were  rather  medi- 
ocre. See  Stoughton,  Eccles.  History  of  Engl,  ii,  465  sq. ; 
Crosby,  Hist,  of  the  Baptists ;  Wilson,  Hist,  of  Dissent  in g 
Chwches ;  AlVihone,  Diet.  Engl,  and  American  Authors, 
s.  V. ;  Kitto,  Cyclop).  Bibl.  Lit.  s,  v,      (J.  H.  W.) 

Keating,  Geoffrey,  an  Irish  divine  and  historian, 
flourished  in  the  early  jiart  of  the  17tli  century  (died 
about  1625,  or  somewhat  later).  He  is  noted  as  the  au- 
thor of  a  general  history  of  Ireland,  in  which  tlie  eccle- 
siastical history  of  that  country  is  treated  in  detail.  It 
was  translated  into  English  by  Dermot  O'Connor  (Lon- 
don, 1728,  fol. ;  Westm.  1726,  fol. ;  1738,  fol. ;  Dubl.  1809, 
2  vols.  8vo;  1811,  8vo). — Allibone,  Dictionary  of  Au- 
thors, s.  V. 

Keblah  is  a  term  by  which  the  Mohammedans  des- 
ignate the  direction  towards  which  they  are  command- 
ed to  turn  their  faces  in  their  devotions.  ''At  first," 
says  Sale  (Koran,  p.  17),  "  ^lohammed  and  his  follow- 
ers observed  no  particular  rite  in  turning  their  faces  to- 
wanls  any  certain  place  or  quarter  of  the  world  when 


KEBLE 


26 


KECKERMANN 


they  prayof],  it  being  declared  to  be  perfectly  indiffer- 
ent. Afterwards,  when  the  pro[)het  Hed  to  jNIedina,  he 
directed  them  to  turn  towards  the  temple  of  Jerusalem 
[probably  to  ingratiate  himself  with  the  Jews],  which 
continued  to  be  their  Keblah  for  six  or  seven  months; 
but,  either  finding  tlie  Jews  too  intractable,  or  despair- 
ing of  otherwise  gaining  the  pagan  Arabs,  who  coidd  not 
forget  their  respect  to  the  temple  of  Mecca,  he  ordered 
that  praj-ers  for  the  future  should  be  tt)wards  the  last. 
This  change  was  made  in  the  second  year  of  the  Hegira, 
and  occasioned  many  to  fall  from  him,  taking  offence  at 
his  inconstancy."     See  Kaaba. 

Keble,  Johx,  "  the  sweetest  and  most  Christian  poet 
of  modern  days,"  was  bora  in  Fairford,  in  Gloucester- 
shire, April  25, 1792.  His  father  was  fellow  of  Corpus 
Christi  College,  and  for  fifty  years  vicar  of  Coin,  St^^Vl- 
vins,  and  lived  until  his  ninetieth  year.  His  mother 
was  the  daughter  of  a  clergyman.  Thus  on  both  sides 
he  came  of  a  pastoral  stock ;  and  it  is  worthy  of  note 
that  his  only  surviving  brother,  Thomas,  like  himself 
became  a  clergyman  (rector  of  Bisley),  that  that  broth- 
er's sou  also  tooli  orders,  and  that  Mr.  Keble  himself, 
like  his  father,  married  a  clergyman's  daughter.  Young 
Keble  was  prepared  for  college  by  his  father,  and  en- 
tered the  University  of  Oxford,  and  there  greatly  distin- 
guished himself  by  a  remai-kable  display  of  talent  and 
application.  When  only  eighteen,  fidl  four  years  be- 
low the  customary  age  for  graduating,  John  Keble  won 
the  highest  intellectual  rank  the  universitj-  can  bestow, 
that  of  a  "  double-first  classman,"  his  name  appearing 
in  the  first  class  of  classics  as  well  as  in  the  first  class  of 
mathematics.  This  distinction  had  never  been  achieved 
up  to  tliat  time  except  in  the  case  of  Robert  Peel.  April 
20,  1811,  wanting  a  few  daj'S  of  the  completion  of  his 
nineteenth  year,  he  was  elected  probationer  fellow  of 
Oriel,  and  took  his  place  at  the  high  table,  and  in  the 
senior  common  room  of  that  celebrated  college.  Whate- 
ly  entered  it  with  him,  and  these  two  were  the  duum- 
viri to  whom  all  paid  an  almost  obs  quious  deference. 
In  1812  he  won  the  prizes  for  both  the  bachelors'  essays 
— the  English  on  Translation  from  Dead  Languages,  the 
Latin  a  comparison  of  Xenophon  and  Julius  C;Esar  as 
Military  Chroniclers.  In  the  annals  of  Corpus  twice 
only  has  such  a  triumph  been  won,  one  instance  that  of 
young  Keble,  and  the  other  no  less  a  man  than  Henry 
Hart  iMilman,  the  late  celebrated  dean  of  St.  Paul's  Ca- 
thedral. At  the  unprecedented  age  of  twenty-two — in- 
deed, some  months  short  of  it — he  was  appointed  by  the 
University  of  Oxford  one  of  its  public  examiners.  Thus 
did  Keble  attain  a  success  which  w-e  believe  has  never 
been  equalled  ft)r  its  precocious  ability.  In  1815  he  was 
ordained  deacon,  the  following  year  priest,  and  soon  af- 
ter left  the  university,  and  never  again  permanently  re- 
sided there.  lie  became  his  father's  curate,  and  lived 
with  him  in  tliat  capacity  nearly  twenty  years.  He 
turned  aside  from  the  numerous  paths  of  ambition  which 
were  open  to  him,  and  gave  himself  to  parochial  work  as 
the  employment  of  his  life.  In  1835  Keble's  father  died. 
He  was  now  offered  and  accepted  the  vicarage  of  Hurs- 
ley,  and  married.  His  parish  was  obscure,  thirty  miles 
from  Oxford.  There  was  not,  it  is  said,  a  single  culti- 
vated family  in  his  charge,  so  that  his  labors  were  alto- 
gether among  the  humbler  and  poorer  classes,  but  under 
his  indefatigable  ministrations  it  became  one  of  the 
model  parishes  of  England.  It  is,  however,  as  the  poet 
of  the  "Christian  Year"  and  the  "Lyra  Innocentium" 
that  Keble  will  be  most  widely  and  permanently  known. 
The  former  was  published  in  1827.  It  is  probaVtle  that 
most  of  the  imem  was  written  at  Fairford.  Its  success 
was  certainly  most  remarkable.  IMore  than  one  hun- 
dred editions  have  been  sold.  Of  course  Keble  might 
have  realized  a  fortune  from  the  sale  of  this  extraordi- 
nary book;  lint  in  this,  as  in  evcrj'thingelse, he  showed 
his  disintercste(hiess.  When,  in  1835,  Keble  came  to 
Hursley,  he  found  a  church  not  at  all  to  his  mind.  It  is 
descriljcd  as  a  i)laiii  and  anything  but  beautiful  build- 
ing of  Mint  and  rubble.    He  at  once  determined  to  have 


a  new  one  built,  and,  in  order  to  carrj'  out  his  project, 
he  employed  the  profits  of  the  many  editions  of  The 
Christian  Year;  and  when  the  building  was  finished, 
his  friends,  in  token  of  their  regard  for  him,  filled  all  the" 
windows  with  stained  glass.  On  Friday,  the  Cth  of 
April,  1800,  he  was  buried  in  the  church-yard  of  Hurs- 
ley, where  he  had  officiated  as  minister  for  nearly  thirty 
years.  It  was  on  the  day  before  Good  Friday,  viz.  on 
the  29th  of  March,  that  he  died.  On  the  eve  of  a  great 
Christian  observance,  he,  the  singer  of  Christian  observ^- 
ances,  passed  away  to  his  rest.  The  character  of  Ke- 
ble's poetry  may  be  surmised  from  his  life  and  opinions; 
it  is  gentle,  sweet,  devotional,  and  highly  cultivated;  it 
translates  religious  sentiment  out  of  the  ancient  and  ex- 
clusively Hebrew  dialect  into  the  language  of  modern 
feeling.  A  deep  tone  of  home  affection  runs  through 
all  his  poems.  The  highest  culture  of  which  man  is 
capable,  and  the  most  refined  thought  in  him,  had  not 
weakened,  but  only  made  natural  affection  more  pure 
and  intense.  Never,  perhaps,  except  in  the  case  of 
George  Herbert,  has  a  character  of  such  rare  and  saintly 
beauty  concurred  with  a  poetic  gift  and  power  of  poetic 
expression  of  the  highest  order.  John  Keble  is  noted 
also  as  the  leader  of  the  original  band  of  Oxford  schol- 
ars and  divines  who  began  the  so-called  "  Puseyite" 
movement  in  the  English  Church.  He  contributed  to 
the  famous  Tracts  for  the  Times  (183-1-1836),  and  it  is 
to  Keble's  influence  over  Newman  that  the  latter  as- 
scribes  his  conversion  to  Romanism,  dating  it  from  July 
14, 1833,  when  Keble  preached  his  sermon  on  National 
Apostasi/.  He  was  also  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Bihli- 
otheca  Patrum  Ecclesi(e  Catholicie  (begun  in  1838).  His 
works  are,  0«  Translation  from  the  Dead  Languages  (an 
Oxford  Prize  Essay,  1812;  Oxf.  1812)  -.—The  Christian 
Year:  thoughts  in  verse  for  the  Smidaj-s  and  hoh'-days 
throughout  the  year  (1827,  2  vols. ;  36th  cd.  1852",  8vo) : 
—The  Child's  Christian  Year  (4th  edit.  1841, 18mo)  :— 
Primitire  Tradition  recognised  in  Jlohj  Scrijiture  ;  a  Ser- 
mon (on  2  Tim.  i,  14;  4tli  ed.,with  a  Postscript  and  Ca- 
tena Patrum  [No.  3  of  the  Tracts  of  the  Timesi,  1839, 
18mo ;  originaUy  published  [in  1837]  as  No.  78  of  the 
[Oxford]  Tracts  for  the  Times) : — The  Psalter,  or  Psalms 
of  David,  in  English  Verse  (1839,  sm.  8vo  ;  3d  edit.  1840, 
18mo)  : — Selections  from  Richard  Ilool-er  (1839, 18mo  ; 
2d  edit.  1848, 18mo) : — an  edition  of  Ilool-er's  ]Vo7-ks : — 
Pralectiones  Academicm  Oxotiii  J/abitce  (1832-41,  2  vols. 
8vo;  1844-1846,  2  vols.  8vo)  :  —  Lgra  Innocentium: 
Thoughts  on  Verse,  on  Children,  their  Ways  and  their 
Privileges  (184G.  sm.  8vo,  Anon.)  : — Sermons  Academi- 
cal and  Occasional  (1847,  8vo;  2d  edit.  1848,  8vo)  :—A 
very  feio  j)luin  Thoughts  on  the  proposed  Addition  of 
Dissentei's  to  the  University  of  Oxford  (written  from  his 
position  as  High-Church  polemic,  1854).  See  Coleridge, 
Memoirs  of  the  Rev.  J.  Keble  (1869, 2  vols.  8\-o) ;  Shairp, 
Memoir  (in  tSiudies  in  Poetry  and  Philosophy);  Allibone, 
Diet,  of  Authors,  s.  v. ;  Church  Review,  Oct.  1866,  art.  i; 
A nur'.Ch.  Review,  April,  1870,  art.  i.     (E.  de  P.) 

Keckermann,  BAitTiioLOM.Kus,  a  reformed  Ger- 
man theologian,  was  born  at  Dantzic  in  1571,  and  edu- 
cated at  Wittenberg,  Leipsic,  and  Heidelberg.  In  the 
last  place  he  became  professor  of  the  Hebrew  language 
about  1592.  In  1602  he  accepted  the  rectorate  of  the 
gymnasium  at  Dantzic,  where  he  died  August  25, 1609. 
Keckermann  wrote  many  theological  and  philosophical 
works,  the  most  important  of  which  are  Systemti  The- 
olor/ice  (Berlin,  1()15,  4to),  and  Rhetorica  Ecclesiasticce 
(Ilanau,  1600, 1613, 8vo).  These  are  circulated  vcrj'  ex- 
tensively, and  prove  him  to  have  been  a  writer  of  great 
originality  and  ability.  He  argued  in  behalf  of  a  sep- 
aration of  philosophy  and  theology,  to  ])revent  any  fur- 
ther miscliief  to  Cliristianity  such  as  scholasticism  had 
caused,  and  in  his  Systema  Ethices  (ibid.  1610,  8vo)  he 
pleads  for  the  separation  of  ethics,  as  a  philosophical 
science,  from  theology ;  the  latter,  he  argues,  must  con- 
fine itself  to  the  inner  religious  life,  the  former  to  the 
'^bonum  civile"  (0pp.  ii,  233  sq.).  In  view  of  these,  his 
own  teachings,  it  is  unjust  to  classify  this  \vritcr,  as  some 


KEDAR 


27 


KEDESH 


have  done,  among  the  originators  of  Protestant  scholas- 
ticism. Of  vaUie,  also,  are  Keckermann's  speculations 
on  the  Trinity  (comp.  Baur,  Dreieiniijkeitslehre,  iii,  308 
sqO.  His  works  have  been  published  entire  {Opera  Om- 
nia) at  Geneva  in  lGl-1.  See  lleizog,  Eeal-Enc^klojm- 
clie,  vii,  463. 

Ke'dar  (Heb.  Kedar',  "I'll?,  (7«/-i--skinned ;  Sept. 
Ki]vun),  the  second  son  of  Ishmael,  and  founder  of  the 
tribe  that  bore  his  name  (Gen.  xxv,  13).  B.C.  post 
20(jl.  The  name  is  used  in  Scripture  as  that  of  the 
Budouins  generally,  whose  characteristic  traits  are  as- 
cribed to  them  (Cant,  i,  5;  Isa.  xxi,  10;  xhi,  11;  Ix,  7; 
Jer.  ii,  10 ;  xlix,  28 ;  Ezek.  xxvii,  21) ;  more  fully,  "sons 
of  Kedar"  ("i^i?  "^Sa,  Isa.  xxi,  17);  in  Psa.  cxx,  5,  Ke- 
dar and  Mesecli  are  put  for  barbarous  tribes.  Rabbin- 
ical writers  expressly  identify  them  with  the  Arabians 
(Pseudojon.  on  Gen.  xxv,  and  the  Targum  on  Psa.  cxx ; 
comp.  the  Jewish  expression  "tongue  of  Kedar"  for  the 
Arabic  language),  and  the  Arabs  acknowledge  the  pa- 
ternity (Pococke,  Spec.  40).  The  Kedarenes  (as  they 
were  called  in  later  times)  do  not  appear  to  have  lived 
in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  Judaea  (Jer.  ii,  10; 
comp.  Psa.  cxx,  5).  Jerome  (Onomasi.  s.  v.  MaStdi') 
places  them  in  the  Saracenic  desert,  on  the  east  of  the 
lied  Sea,  which  identities  them  with  the  Cedrei  of  Pliny 
(v,  12)  as  neighbors  of  the  Nabathreans  (comp.  Isa.  xl, 
7).  Stephen  of  Byzantium  reckons  them  {K-tSpaviTai) 
as  inhabitants  of  Arabia  Felix ;  but  Theodoret  (on  Psa. 
cix)  assigns  them  a  locality  near  Babylon  (see  Relaudj 
Pakest.  p.  86  sq.).  Ptolemy  calls  them  Durrce  {Geocj. 
vi,  7),  evidently  a  corruption  of  the  ancient  Hebrew; 
and  Forster  supposes  that  it  is  the  same  peojile  Arrian 
refers  to  as  the  Kanraita,  which  he  thinks  shoidd  be 
read  Kddraitce  (Georjr.  of  Arah'ut,  i,  247).  A  very  an- 
cient Arab  tradition  states  that  Kedar  settled  in  tlie 
Hejaz,  the  country  round  jNIecca  and  Medina,  and  that 
his  descendants  have  ever  since  ruled  there  (Abulfeda 
Hist.  Ante  islamic  a,  ed.  Fleischer,  p.  192).  Fnnn  Kedar 
sprung  the  distinguished  tribe  of  Koreish,  to  which  Mo- 
hammed belonged  (Caussin,  Essai,  i,  175  sq.).  Of  the 
histoiy  of  the  head  of  the  tribe  little  is  known,  but  his 
posterity  are  described  as  being  rich  in  flocks  of  sheep 
and  goats,  in  which  they  traded  with  the  Syrians  (Ezek. 
xxvii,  21 ;  Jer.  xlix,  49),  as  dwelling  in  tents  of  black 
hair  (Cant,  i,  5),  though  some  of  them  occupied  cities 
and  villages  (D'^IS'  and  D'^IIiri;  Isa.  xliii,  11)  in  the 
midst  of  the  wilderness  of  Arabia,  apparently  in  a  moun- 
tainous and  rocky  district,  and  as  being  sliilful  in  the 
use  of  the  bow  (Isa.  xxi,  17) :  particulars  which  emi- 
nently agree  with  all  descriptions  of  the  mamiers  and 
mode  of  life  of  the  nomade  Arabs  bordering  Palestine  on 
the  cast,  from  the  Red  Sea  to  Asia  Jlinor  (Wellsted, 
Travels  in  Arabia,  ii,  231  sq. ;  Wallin.in  the  Journ.  of 
R.  Gcofj.  Soc.  vols.  XX  and  xxiv).     Sec  Arabia. 

Ked'emah  (\\^\i.Ked'mah,T\'Z'^'^_,easticard;  Sept. 
KfO;u«,  but  in  Chron.  v.  r.  Kftiwui),  the  last  named  of 
the  sons  of  Ishmael,  and  probably  head  of  an  Arab  tribe 
called  by  the  same  title  (Gen.  xxv,  15;  1  Chron.  i,  31). 
B.C.  post  2061. 

Ked'emoth  (Heb.  Kedemoth',  T'i'C'lp,  heijinninfjs; 
Sept.  KtOj^iw^,  Kicii]i.iw^,  but  in  Chron.  KcioiiwSr  v.  r. 
Kni.ii]l)io^),  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Rcnbcn,  assigned,  with 
its  suburbs  ("villages"),  to  the  Levites  of  tiie  family  of 
IMerari  (Josh,  xiii,  18 ;  xxi,  37 ;  1  Chron.  vi,  79 ;  in  all 
which  passages  it  is  mentioned  between  Jahazah  and 
Mephaath),  with  a  desert  (n3"ir),  open  i)asture-groun(Js) 
of  the  same  name  adjacent,  whence  Moses  despatched 
the  messengers  requesting  of  Sihon  a  peaceable  pas- 
sage through  liis  dominions,  which  the  Israelites  were 
now  entering,  having  crossed  the  river  vVrnon  (Deut.  ii, 
20).  These  indications  (ix  its  locahty  not  far  north- 
cast  of  Dibon-gad,  possibly  at  the  ruined  village  ed- 
Duleitat  (Robinson,  Researches,  iii,  Appeml.  p.  170),  east 
of  Medeba  (Van  de  Velde,  il/o/)). 


Ke'desh  (Heb.  id.,  "d'lp,  sanctuary ;  Sept.  KeoiQ, 
but  Kdticc  in  Josh,  xxi,  32  ;  K.uOtjg  in  Judg.  iv,  C,  v.  r.  9- 
Kf'!£f  V.  r.  in  1  Chron.  vi,  72),  the  name  of  three  towns 
in  Palestine. 

1.  A  city  in  the  extreme  southern  part  of  the  terri- 
tory originally  assigned  to  Judah  (Josh,  xv,  23,  where 
it  is  mentioned  between  Adadah  and  Hazor),  and  doubt- 
less included  in  the  portion  afterwards  set  off  to  Simeon 
(Josh,  xix,  1-9).  As  the  associated  places  seem  to  in- 
dicate a  position  towards  the  Dead  Sea,  we  may  con- 
jecture that  it  was  the  same  as  Kadesii-barnea  (the 
names  being  the  same  in  Heb.),  which  lay  there,  and  is 
not  mentioned  in  either  of  the  foregoing  lists,  although 
it  certainly  was  includeil  within  the  district  indicated. 

2.  A  Levitical  city  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar  (1  Chron. 
vi,  72),  otherwise  called  Kisiiiox  (Josh,  xix,  20;  "Ki- 
shon,"  xxi,  28). 

3.  A  "  fenced  city"  of  Naphtali  (Josh,  xix,  37,  where 
it  is  mentioned  between  Hazor  and  Edrei),  hence  also 
called  Kedesii-nai'iitali  (i.  e.  Kadesh  of  Naphtali, 
Judg.  iv,  6) ;  appointed  as  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge 
(Josh,  xix,  7,  where  it  is  located  on  Mt.  Naphtali),  be- 
ing a  Levitical  city  assigned  to  the  Gershonites  (Josh. 
xxi,  32;  1  Chron.  vi,  76).  It  was  one  of  the  original 
Canaanitish  royal  cities,  whose  chieftains  were  slain  by 
Joshua  (Josh,  xii,  22).  and  was  reckoned  as  a  Galilean 
town  (Josh,  xix,  7 ;  xxi,  32 ;  1  Chron.  vi,  76).  It  was 
the  residence  of  Barak  (Judg.  iv,  G),  and  there  he  and 
Deborah  assembled  the  tribes  of  Zebulon  and  Najilitali 
before  the  conflict  (vcr.  9, 10\  Near  it  was  the  tree  of 
Zaananim,  where  was  pitched  the  tent  of  the  Kenites 
Heber  and  Jacl,  in  which  Siscra  met  his  death  (ver.  11). 
It  was  probably,  as  its  name  implies,  a  "  holy  place"  of 
great  antiquity,  -(vhich  Avould  explain  its  selection  as 
one  of  the  cities  of  refuge,  and  its  being  chosen  by  the 
prophetess  as  the  spot  at  which  to  meet  the  warriors  of 
the  tribes  before  the  commencement  of  the  struggle  "  for 
Jehovah  among  the  mighty."  It  was  one  of  the  places 
depopulated  by  Tiglath-pileser  (2  Kings  xv,  29).  Josc- 
phus  calls  it  Kedesa  (>)  KiC(tT(t,Ant.  v,  1, 18,  and  24)  or 
Cydisa  {Ant.  ix,  11, 1  >,  and  places  it  under  the  name  of 
Cedasa  (Ktoaca),  on  the  border  between  Galilee  and 
Tyre  {Ant.  xiii,  5,  6),  to  the  latter  of  which  it  adhered 
in  the  fhial  struggle  (  War,  ii,  18, 1).  It  was  here  that 
Jonathan  the  Maccabee  gained  the  victory  over  the 
princes  of  Dcrnctrius  {\s.an]q,  1  Mace,  xi,  63, 73).  It  is 
probably  the  same  with  the  Cydis  {Ki<cig  i)  Nf0.3-nXi) 
mentioned  as  the  birthplace  of  Tobit  (i,  1).  Ensebius 
{Onomast.  s.  v.  MiUq)  mentions  it  by  the  name  ofCydossos 
{KvSoffaoc,  Jerome  Cidissus),  as  lying  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Paneas,  about  20  Roman  miles  from  Tyre.  It  is 
also  probably  the  same  with  the  strongly-fortilied  place 
in  this  district  called  Cydyssi  by  Josephns  {Kvcva(Toi, 
War,  iv,  2,  3).  Kedesh  was  situated  near  the  "  plain"  of 
Zaanaim,  on  the  route  taken  by  Barak  (who  was  a  na- 
tive of  the  place)  in  the  pursuit  of  Siscra,  and  hence 
must  have  been  beyond  j\It. Tabor,  in  the  direction  from 
the  Kishon  (.Judg.  iv,  6,  9, 10, 11).  The  indications  cor- 
respond very  weil  to  the  position  of  the  modern  village 
of  Kedes,  discovered  by  Dr.  Robinson  on  the  hills  west 
of  the  lake  el-Hnleh  {Researches,  iii,  355;  Bibliotheca 
Sacra,  1843,  p.  11).  and  fully  described  by  Rev.  E.  Smith 
{Bib!.  Sac.  1849,  p.  374,  375)  as  being  a  small  place  ro- 
mantically situated  on  a  hill  in  a  rich  and  beautiful 
plain,  abundantly  sujiplied  with  water,  and  containing 
extensive  ruins  apjiarently  of  Roman  origin  (see  also 
Robinson's  Researches,  new  edit.,  iii,  366-309 ;  "\*an  de 
Ye\de, Narralire,  ii,417).  From  the  12th  century  (Bcnj. 
of  Tudela,  in  Bohn's  L'arly  Travels,  p.  89)  it  has  been 
reputed  to  possess  the  graves  of  Delwrah,  Barak,  Ahino- 
am,  Jael,  and  Heber  (Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  183 ;  comp.  ]i. 
91).  Porter,  in  1858,  saw  close  by  the  site  the  black  tents 
of  nomads  pitched  imder  the  terebinths  {Handbook for 
Palest,  p.  443),  Ukc  those  of  Heber  the  Kenite  (Judg.  iv, 
11). 

"  In  the  Greek  {Kvciwif)  and  Syriac  (Kedesh  de  ^aph- 
tali)  texts  of  Tob.  i,  2— tliough  not  in  the  Vulgate  or  A, 


KEDROX 


28 


KEILAH 


Y. — Kcdesh  is  introduced  as  the  birthplace  of  Tobias. 
The  text  is  exceedingly  corrupt,  but  some  little  support 
is  lent  to  this  reading  by  tlie  \'ulgate,  which,  although 
omitting  Kedesh,  mentions  Safed — j^ost  vium  qum  ducit 
ad  Occidentem,  in  sinistro  hahens  cintatem  Suphet, 

"  The  name  Kedesh  exists  much  farther  north  than 
the  possessions  of  Naphtali  would  appear  to  have  ex- 
tended, attached  to  a  lake  of  considerable  size  on  the 
Orontes,  a  few  miles  south  of  Hums,  the  ancient  Emessa 
(Thomson,  in  Kitter,  Damascus,  p.  1002  sq.).  The  lake 
was  well  known  under  that  name  to  the  Arabic  geogra- 
phers (sec,  besides  the  authorities  iiuoted  by  Robinson 
[iii,  594,  new  ed.],  Abulfeda  in  Schultcns's  Index  Georjr., 
'Fluvius  Orontes,'  and  'Kudsum'),  and  they  connect  it 
in  jjart  with  Alexander  the  (Jreat.  But  this  and  the 
origin  of  the  name  are  alike  uncertain.  At  the  lower 
end  of  the  lake  is  an  island  which,  as  already  remarked, 
is  possibly  the  site  of  Ketcsh,  the  capture  of  which  by 
Sethos  I  is  prcser\'ed  in  the  records  of  that  Egyptian 
king"  (.Smith). 

Kedron.     See  Kidrox. 

Keel  (rpoTTtC)  as  being  that  which  turns  the  vessel), 
the  lo;igltudinal  projection  on  the  bottom  of  a  ship 
(Wisd.  V,  10). 

Keeler,  Sylvaxus,  was  the  earliest  native  ISIeth- 
odist  itinerant  in  Canada.  He  tirst  appears  in  the 
^Minutes  of  1795  on  the  Bay  of  Quinte  Circuit,  "  He 
proved,"  says  the  Canadian  chronicler  of  the  Church, 
"  a  good  and  faithful  minister  of  Christ."  He  labored 
about  twelve  years  in  the  itinerant  work,  and  then  re- 
tired into  the  local  ranks,  compelled  by  the  growing 
necessities  of  his  family  to  resort  to  other  means  of  sup- 
port. He  did  not,  however,  abandon  his  Sabbath  labors, 
but  continued  to  preach  all  his  days.  After  his  family 
grew  up  and  were  able  to  provide  for  themselves,  he 
extended  his  efforts  to  greater  distances  from  home, 
carrying  the  Gospel  into  the  distant  settlements  of  im- 
migrants beyond  the  liideau.  He  died  in  the  faith. 
Keeler  bad  no  advantages  of  early  education;  he  had, 
however,  endowments,  natural  and  of  divine  bestow- 
ment.  His  person  was  commanding,  and  his  voice 
clear,  melodious,  and  strong.  His  spirit  and  manners 
were  the  most  bland  and  engaging,  and  his  zeal  and 
fervor  knew  no  bounds  and  suffered  no  abatement. — 
Stevens,  Hist.  M.  E.  Church,  iii,  192 ;  iv,  27-i.     (J.  L.  S.) 

ICeeling,  Isaac,  an  English  Weslcyan  minister  of 
note,  was  born  in  the  latter  half  of  the  last  century,  and 
entered  the  ministry  iu  1811,  but  it  was  not  until  after 
many  years  of  hard  labor  that  he  rose  to  any  promi- 
nence. In  1815  he  was  elected  president  of  the  Confer- 
ence; shortly  after  his  health  began  to  fail,  and  he  was 
obliged  to  take  a  supernumerary  relation.  He  died  in 
18G9.  "  ]\Ir.  Keeling  was  sagacious,  discriminating,  cau- 
tious, profound,  and  intensely  original.  His  sermons 
were  models  of  pure  diction,  exact  thought,  luminous 
arrangement,  careful  definition,  and  varied  instructive- 
ness.  He  was  a  man  of  retiring  habits  and  cold  exte- 
rior, but  he  had  a  warm  heart,  and  a  keen  relish  of  the 
pleasures  of  friendship." 

Keene,  Edmund,  D.D.,  an  English  prelate,  and  a 
native  of  Lynn,  Norfolk,  was  born  in  1713.  He  became 
master  of  Peter  House  in  1748,  bishop  of  Chester  in  1752, 
and  ;vas  thence  transferred  to  l-^ly  in  1770.  He  died  in 
1781.  He  published  five  Occasional  Strmons  (1748, 1753, 
1755,  1757, 1707). 

Keeper,  in  its  widest  sense,  corresponds  to  the  Ileb. 
^"Si'l",  shomer',  Gr.  Ti]poJv;  in  a  special  sense  to  "'1313 
or  "l^lS,  a  icatchman,  as  often  rendered;  il^li"!,  is  a 
shepherd ;  while  TJ,  <bv\a^,  is  a  ffuard  over  prisoners. 
These  words  are  of  frequent  occurrence,  besides  others 
iu  certain  peculiar  senses  or  combinations,  the  meaning 
being  clear  from  the  connection.   , 

Kehel'athah,  or,  rather,  Keiie'lau  (Heb.  Kehe- 
lah',  '!^'^'!^'p,  assembly,  only  with  tl  paragogic,  tirSilpj 


Kehela'thah;  Septuag.  MrtK-(;\Xc(3,Vulg.  (7ee?aMa),  the 
twenty-third  station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  desert,  be- 
tween Kissali  and  j\It.  Shapher  (Numb,  xxxiii,  22,  23); 
perhaps  at  the  mouth  of  wady  el-Hasana,  west  of  Jebel 
Achmer.     See  Exode. 

Keil,  Karl  August  Gottlieb,  an  eminent  German 
theologian,  was  born  at  Grossenhain,  near  Dresden,  Sax- 
ony, April  23, 1754,  and  was  educated  at  Leipzig  L^ni- 
versity.  Three  years  after  graduation  he  obtained  a 
privilege  as  tutor  at  his  alma  mater,  and  at  once  opened 
a  course  of  lectures  on  exegesis  and  hermeneutics.  In 
1785  he  was  appointed  professor  extraordinary  of  philos- 
ophy, in  1788  professor  extraordinary  of  theology,  and  in 
1793  was  finally  promoted  to  the  full  or  ordinary  profess- 
orship. He  died  at  Leipzig  April  22, 1818.  His  works 
are  St/stematisches  Verzeichm^s  derjenigen  theolngischen 
Schriften  d.  Kenntniss  cdlgemein  nothig  und  niitzlich  ist 
(Stendel,  1783,  1792,  8vo) :  —  De  exempilo  Christi  recte 
imitando  Dissert.  (Lpz.  1792,  4to)  : — De  Doctoribus  vete- 
ris  Ecclesiin  culpa  corrupts  per  Pkitonicas  sententius  ihe- 
ologice  liberamUs  (Lpzg.  1793,  181G,  4to),  consisting  of 
twenty-two  dissertations,  which  were  to  be  followed  by 
others.  They  were  afterwards  printed  in  his  Opuscida 
A  cad.,  of  which  they  form  the  second  part.  It  is  a  very 
valuable  work: — Ueber  d.  historische  Ei'Marungsart  d. 
heiligen  Schrift  u.  deren  Nothivendigkeit  (Lpz.  1798, 8vo ; 
Latin  by  Hempel) : — Lehrhuch  der  Hermeneutik  d.  N.T, 
nach  Grundsdtzen  d.  grammatisch-historischen  Interpre- 
tation (Leipzig,  1810,  8vo;  Latin  translation  \>y  C.  A.  G. 
.  Emmerling,  Lpz.  1811, 8vo),  a  very  useful  and  important 
contribution  to  the  department  of  hermeneutics,  which 
he  made  his  specialty,  and  in  which  he  has  justly  be- 
come very  celebrated.  After  his  death  his  occasional 
^mtings  were  collected  by  J.  D.  Goldhom,  and  published 
under  the  title  of  Opuscida  academica  ad  N.  T.  interpre- 
tationem  grammatico-historicctm,  et  theologice  Christiance 
origines  2Je7iinentia  (Lpzg.  1821,  2  vols.  8vo).  Besides 
treatises  on  topics  of  hermeneutical  interest,  this  volume 
contains  several  excgetical  essays,  and  an  elaborate  dis- 
sertation, De  Platonicfv  p)hilosophi(c  ad  theolog.  Christ, 
apud  vet.  ecclcs.  scriptores  ratione.  "  Keil,"  says  Prof. 
AV.  L.  Alexander  (in  Kitto,  Bibh  Cyclop,  vol.  ii,  s.  v.), 
"is  a  perspicuous  writer,  and  his  works,  though  cold 
and  formal,  are  full  of  good  sense  and  solid  learning." 
In  connection  with  H.  G.  Tzschirner,  Keil  also  published 
a  theological  journal  under  the  title  Analectenf.  d.  Stu- 
dium  d.  exegetischen  it.  systemaiischen  Theologie  (Lei]izig, 
1812-18,  4  vols.  8vo),  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gener. 
XX,  503 ;  Herzog,  Real-Enajldop.  vii,  504. 

Kei'lah  (Heb.  Ke'ilah',  Th'^Vp  [in  1  Sam.  xxiii,  5, 
TOVY>~\,\)Xoh. citadel ;  Septuag. KtVAa  or  Kt/Xa,  v.  r.  in 
Chron.  and  Neh.  KtaXa),  a  city  in  the  plain  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV,  44),  bordering  on  the  southern  portion  of  the 
highlands  (see  Keil's  Comment,  ad  loc).  It  appears  to 
have  been  founded  by  Naham  the  Garmite,  brother  of 
Hodiah.  one  of  the  wives  of  Mered  (1  Chron.  iv,  19). 
"  The  Philistines  had  fallen  upon  the  town  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  harvest  (Josephus,  Ant.  vi,  13, 1),  plundered 
the  corn  from  its  threshing-floor,  and  driven  off  the  cat- 
tle (1  Sam.  xxiii,  1).  The  prey  was  recovered  by  Da- 
vid (ver.  2-5),  who  remained  in  the  city  till  the  com- 
pletion of  the  ingathering.  It  was  then  a  fortified 
place,  with  walls,  gates,  and  bars  (1  Sam.  xxiii,  7,  rnd 
Josephus).  During  this  time  the  massacre  of  Nob  Avas 
perpetrated,  and  KeUah  became  the  repository  of  the 
sacred  cphod,  which  Abiathar  the  priest,  the  sole  sur- 
vivor, had  carried  off  with  him  (ver.  6).  But  it  was 
ncjt  destined  long  to  enjoy  the  presence  of  these  brave 
and  hallowed  inmates,  nor  indeed  was  it  worthy  of  such 
good  fortune,  for  the  inhabitants  soon  plotted  David's 
betrayal  to  Saul,  then  on  his  road  to  besiege  the  ]ilace. 
Of  this  intention  David  was  warned  by  divine  intima- 
tion. He  therefore  left  (1  Sam.  xxiii,  7-13").  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  word  Baali  is  used  by  David  to  de- 
note the  inhabitants  of  Keilah  in  this  passage  (ver.  11, 
12;  A.  V.  '  men'),  possibly  pointing  to  the  existence  of 


KEIR 


29 


KEITH 


Canaanites  in  the  place"  (Smith).  See  Baal.  Keilah 
was  so  considerable  a  city  in  the  time  of  Nehemialr  as 
to  have  two  prtefects,  who  are  mentioned  as  assisting  in 
the  reconstruction  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii,  17, 
18),  and  existed  in  the  days  of  Eusebius  and  Jerome, 
who  place  it  eight  (the  former,  s.  v.  Ki]\a,  less  correctly, 
seventeen)  Roman  miles  from  Eleutheropolis,  on  the 
road  to  Hebron  (see  Keland,  Pulcest.  p.  488,  G98).  Jose- 
phus  calls  it  CiUct  (KiXXrt,  Ant.  vi,  13, 1).  The  prophet 
Habakkuk  is  said  to  have  been  buried  here  (Sozomen, 
Hist,  vii,  29 ;  Nicephorus, Ilisf.  xii, 4:8) ;  but  see  IIukkok. 
The  above  notices  all  point  to  a  locality  at  a  f(jrk  of 
■\\aily  el-Faranj,  a  little  N.  of  Idhna  (Jedna),  "  where  on 
a  projection  of  the  right-hand  mountain  stands  a  ruined 
tower"  {lloh'mson, Researches,  ii,  427),  which  Van  de  Velde 
learned  at  Hebron  was  still  called  Kiluh  {Memoir,  p. 
328).  This  is  confirmed  by  Tobler  {Dritte  Wanderun;/, 
p.  loO  sq.),  although  he  remarks  (p.  4G7)  that  Van  de 
Velde,  on  the  first  edition  of  his  Maji,  had  placed  it  too 
far  south  (S.E.  of  Idhna).  A  writer  in  Fairbairn's  Dic- 
tiomirii  (s.  V.)  argues  in  favor  of  the  locality  of  Khmcei- 
lifeh  [see  Rimmon],  but  this  is  utterly  out  of  the  re- 
quired region,  being  in  the  Simeonitish  portion  of  the 
tribe.     See  Judaii. 

Keir,  John,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  born 
at  Bucklyvie,  Stirlingshire,  Scotland,  Feb.  2,  1770,  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  studied  theology  un- 
der Rev.  A.  Bruce,  professor  of  theology  in  the  tleneral 
Associate  Synod,  and  was  licensed  at  Glasgow  in  1807. 
In  1808  he  was  appointed  missionary  to  Nova  Scotia, 
B.  P.,  wliither  he  immediately  proceeded.  In  the  spring 
of  1809  he  preached  at  Halifax  and  Merigomiah,  and 
later  took  charge  of  the  societies  at  Princetown  and  St. 
Peter's,  Prince  Edward  Island,  and  in  June,  1810,  was 
ordained  and  installed  as  pastor,  which  position  he  held 
for  nearly  fifty  years.  In  addition  to, his  pastoral  duties 
he  filled  the  position  of  professor  of  theology  in  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  of  Nova  Scotia,  to  which  he  was  ap- 
pointed in  1843.  He  died  Sept.  22,  1858.  "  Mr.  Keir, 
as  a  lecturer,  left  upon  the  minds  o6  the  students  a  deep 
imjiression  of  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  the  sa- 
cred ottice." — Wilson's  Presh.  Hist.  Almanac,  1859-60,  p. 
234. 

Keith,  George,  the  noted  leader  of  a  faction  of 
the  (Quakers,  was  born  in  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  about  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  lie  was  a  man  of 
superior  intellect,  who  had  enjoyed  the  advantages  of 
a  splendid  training,  not  only  in  tlie  schools  of  the  na- 
tional Church  of  Scotland,  but  also  at  the  University  of 
Aberdeen.  In  the  year  10G4  he  came  as  a  minister  from 
the  south  of  Scotland  to  his  friends  in  Aberdeen,  and, 
adopting  the  views  of  the  Quakers,  was  involved  in  con- 
fiscations and  imprisonment,  together  with  others  of 
that  persecuted  people.  He  wrote  and  published  sev- 
eral treatises  in  vindication  and  ex|3lauation  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  that  respectable  body  of  Christians,  and  in  1675 
was  engaged  with  the  celebrated  Robert  Barclay  in  a 
dispute  with  the  students  of  the  University  of  Aberdeen 
in  defence  of  the  Quaker  doctrines.  He  also,  about  this 
time,  with  William  Penn,  (ieorge  Whiting,  and  Stephen 
Crisp,  engaged  in  a  discussion  with  the  Baptists  in  Lon- 
don. About  the  year  1682  he  removed  to  England,  and 
took  charge  of  a  school  at  Edmonton,  established  by  the 
Society  of  Friends.  He  was  soon  persecuted,  however, 
for  pireaching  and  teaching  without  a  license,  and,  re- 
fusing to  take  the  oath,  was  committed  to  jail.  In  1684 
he  removed  to  London,  but  was  imjirisoned  five  months 
in  Newgate  for  nonconformity.  After  his  liberation  he 
emigrated  to  New  Jersey,  and  was  there  appointed  sur- 
veyor general,  and  employed  in  determining  the  boun- 
dary-line between  East  and  West  Jersey.  In  1689  he 
removed  to  Philadelphia,  where  he  took  charge  of  a 
Friends'  school,  with  a  liberal  salary,  but  resigned  his 
position  at  the  end  of  the  school  year,  and  travelled  in 
New  England,  visiting  meetings  and  holding  disputa- 
tions with  the  religious  professors.  He  is  noted  for  his 
defence  at  this  time  of  the  Quaker  tenets  against  In- 


crease and  Cotton  Mather.  On  his  return  to  Philadel- 
phia he  became  involved  in  a  controversy  with  his  own 
denomination,  on  various  points  of  discipUne  and  doctrine. 
He  charged  them  with  doing  away,  by  allegor\-,  with 
the  narrative  of  the  real  sufferings  of  Christ,  and  conse- 
quently the  doctrine  of  a  real  atonement.  He  also  sus- 
pected them  of  being  infected  with  the  spirit  of  Deism. 
Penn,  being  at  this  time  in  London,  addressed  a  letter  to 
Turner,  a  justice  in  I'hiladelphia,  in  which  he  defends 
"  honest  Geo.  Keith  and  his  I'latonic  studies,"  but  after- 
wards, becoming  acquainted  with  the  merits  of  the  dis- 
pute, decided  against  Keith.  Keith  returned  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  soon  came  in  collision  with  Penn  himself. 
Penn  having  spoken  from  the  text,  "The  blood  of  Jesus 
Christ  his  Son  cleanseth  us  from  all  sin,"  his  exposition 
being  strictlj'  orthodox  on  their  principles,  namely,  that 
"  the  blood  is  the  life,  and  the  life  is  the  light  within 
them,"  Keith  took  up  the  subject,  and  showed  that "  sin 
was  cleansed  by  the  blood  of  the  true  Christ  actually 
shed  on  Calvary."  Penn  is  reported  to  have  started 
from  his  seat,  and,  as  he  himself  afterwards  stated  in 
the  annual  meeting,  being  "so  transported  by  the  pow- 
er of  God  that  he  was  carried  out  of  himself,  and  did 
not  kno^v  whether  he  was  sittmg,  or  standing,  or  on  his 
knees,"  he  tlumdered  forth  this  anathema:  "I  pronounce 
thee  an  apostate,  over  the  head  of  thee."  The  great 
body  followed  Penn,  and  Keith  was  condemned  by  an 
edict  of  the  annual  meeting.  He  was  not  slow,  how- 
ever, in  his  own  defence,  but  denounced  the  society  as 
Deists,  and  entered  into  an  able  and  labored  argument 
to  prove  it  (see  Keith's  JJeism  of  William  Penn,  and 
Mosheim,  vol.  v,  cent,  xvii,  ch.  iv,  sect,  ii,  part  ii),  and 
formed  a  society  of  his  own,  kno%vn  as  Christian  Quale- 
ers.  Baptist  Quakers,  or  Keithians  (q.  v.).  Still  dissat- 
isfied, he  finally  entered  the  Church  of  England,  and 
became  a  regular  priest.  In  the  years  1702, 170;'>.  1704, 
he  performed  an  important  and  successful  mission  on 
the  American  continent,  under  the  care  of  the  Episco- 
pal Society  for  projHtr/cttiiuj  the  Gospel  in  Foreiffn  Parts. 
He  was  especiallj'  successful  in  Pennsj-lvania  and  New 
Jersey.  Seven  hundred  Quakers  were  through  his  in- 
strumentality converted  from  Quakerism  and  baptized 
(see  Humphry's  Historij  of  the  Qual-erSjl^onA.  A.D.  1730 ; 
Christian  Observer,  April,  1816).  Returning  to  England, 
in  1706  he  was  appointed  rector  of  Edburton,  in  Sussex, 
and  there  died  about  1715.  Bishop  Burnet,  who  was 
educated  with  Keith  at  the  University  of  Aberdeen,  in 
his  Historij  of  his  Own  Times  (1700,  ii,  144),  says  that 
Keith  "  was  esteemed  the  most  learned  man  that  ever 
was  in  that  sect ;  he  was  well  versed  both  in  the  Ori- 
ental tongues,  in  philosophy  and  mathematics."  Keith 
•\vrote  a  great  many  theological  tracts,  principally  di- 
rected against  the  (Quakers,  for  a  list  of  which  see  'Watts, 
Bihl.  Brit.  The  most  important  of  all  is  The  Standard 
of  the  Quakers  examined  (Lond.  1702,  8vo),  which  is  a 
refutation  of  Barclay's  Apolorjy.  See  Janney,  History 
of  the  Frieruls  (Philad.  1867,  4  vols.  12mo),  iii,  71  sq.  (E. 
de  P.) 

Keith,  Isaac  Stockton,  D.D.,  a  Congregational 
minister,  was  born  at  Newton,  Pa.,  Jan.  20,  1755,  grad- 
uated at  Princeton  College  in  1775,  entered  the  minis- 
trj'  in  1778,  and  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian 
church  in  Alexandria  in  1780.  In  1788  he  v,-ent  to 
Charleston,  S.  C,  as  colleague  pastor  of  the  Congrega- 
tional church,  in  which  position  he  labored  until  his 
death,  Dec.  14,  1813.  A  memoir  of  his  life  and  a  fev/ 
sermons  vrere  published  in  a  volume  in  1816. — Sprague, 
A  muds,  ii,  166. 

Keith,  Reuel,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  min- 
ister in  America,  was  born  at  Pittsford,  Vt.,  in  1792, 
and  passed  A.B.  in  jNIiddlebury  College  in  1814.  After 
teaching  for  some  time,  he  became  an  assistant  at  St. 
John's,  Georgetown,  D.  C,  and,  in  1820,  professor  of  hu- 
manity and  liistory  in  Williamsburgh,  Va.  A  theolog- 
ical seminary  having  been  established  soon  after  in 
Alexandria,  he  became  professor  of  pulpit  eloquence  and 
pastoral  theology  there,  and  in  1827  was  made  D.D.  by 


KEITH 


30 


KELLER 


his  alma  mater.  For  upwarils  of  twenty  years  lie  con- 
tinued to  (listharife  his  duties,  when  his  mind  hecame 
unstruni;  in  regard  to  his  salvation,  and  the  cloud  was 
removed  bj^  death  Sept.  3, 1«42.  He  published  a  Trans- 
lation (from  the  German)  of  Hengsteiibertfn  Christolof/y 
of  the  Old  Testament  (Alexandria,  D.  C,  1836,  3  vols. 
8vo).     See  Spragne,  ,1  nnals,  v,  625. 

Keith,  Robert,  iirimus  bishop  in  the  Scotch  Epis- 
cojial  Church,  was  born  at  Uras,  Kincardineshire,  in 
IGJSl.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Aberdeen,  and 
in  1713  became  pastor  of  a  congregation  in  l%dinburgh. 
In  1727  lie  was  ordained  bishop  of  Caithness,  Orlciiey, 
and  the  Isles,  and  in  1733  became  bishop  of  Fife.  He 
died  in  1757.  His  principal  works  are,  Iliston/  of  the 
Affairs  of  Church  and  State  in  Scotland  from  the  hef/in- 
iiing  of  the  Reformation  to  the  Retreat  of  Queen  Mary 
into  Enf/land,  anno  15G8  (Edinb.  1734,  fol.) : — llistoi-ical 
Catalor/ue  of  the  Scottish  Bishops  down  to  the  Year  1688, 
etc.  (Edinb.  1755,  4to;  new  cd.  1824,  8vo). — Chambers 
and  Thomson's  Bio(j.  Diet,  of  Einiiieiit  Scotsmen,  iii,  30b; 
Hook,  Fecks.  Bioff,  vi,  397. 

Keith,  ■William,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  born  in  Easton,  Mass.,  Sept.  15,  1776,  entered  the 
itinerancy  in  1798,  withdrew  from  the  connection  in 
1801,  but  returned  in  1803,  and  in  1806  re-entered  the 
itineranc3%  In  1809  he  was  stationed  in  New  York, 
where  he  died,  Sept.  10,  1810.  Ho  was  a  man  of  fine 
abilities,  of  comprehensive  mind,  and  logical  power. 
His  piety  was  deej)  and  sincere,  and  his  jireaching  tal- 
ents often  eloquent  and  always  useful. — Minutes  of  Con- 
ferences, i,  193. 

Keithians,  a  party  which  separated  from  the  Qua- 
kers in  Pennsylvania  in  the  j'ear  1691.  They  were 
headed  by  the  famous  George  Keith  (q.  v.),  from  whom 
they  derived  their  name.  Those  who  persisted  in  their 
separation,  after  their  leader  deserted  them,  practiced 
baptism,  and  received  the  Lord's  Supper.  This  party 
were  al::o  called  Quaker  Baptists,  because  they  retained 
the  language,  dress,  and  manner  of  the  Quakers. — Buck. 

Kelah.     See  Karens  {Spirit  Worship). 

Kelai'ah  (Heb.  Kelaijah',  •T^-'i?,  perh.  despised  by 
.Tehorah;  Sept.  KwXi'a  v.  r.  KaiXao),  one  of  the  Levitcs 
wlio  divorced  his  Gentile  wife  after  the  captivity,  oth- 
ern-ise  called  Kelita  (Ezra  x,  23). 

Keleb.     See  Dog. 

Keleusma  (KtXtvajia,  call).     See  Call. 

Keli.     See  Talmud. 

Kel'ita  [some  Keli'ta]  (Hebrew  Kelita',  Xli'^bp, 
dirarf;  Sept.  KioXiTacKaWirar;,  Ka\irih'\  one  of  the 
Levitcs  who  assisted  Ezra  in  expounding  the  law  to  the 
]icoplc  (Xeh.  viii,  7),  and  joined  the  sacred  covenant 
(Neh.  X,  10) ;  he  was  also  one  of  those  who  had  divorced 
their  heathen  wives  (Ezra  x,  23,  where  it  is  stated  that 
his  name  was  likewise  Kelaiaii).     B.C.  459-410. 

Ken,  John,  a  Reformed  Presbyterian  minister,  a  na- 
tive of  South  Carolina,  was  educated  in  the  University 
of  ( Jlasgow,  Scotland,  and,  with  a  view  to  enter  the  min- 
istry, he  imrsued  a  theological  course  of  study  under 
the  direction  of  the  late  Pev.  John  McMiller,  then  pro- 
fessor of  theology  in  the  Reformed  Church  of  Scotland. 
On  his  return  to  this  country  he  was  ordained  and  in- 
stalled pastor  at  Beech  Woods,  Ohio,  which  he  left  a  few 
years  later,  to  become  pastor  at  Princeton,  Indiana,  a 
charge  held  by  him  for  more  than  20  years.  He  died 
Nov.  6,  1842.  "  jNIr.  Kell  was  ardent  in  temperament, 
and  by  constitution  and  habit  generous.  He  was  never 
neutral  in  the  cause  which  he  believed  to  be  right,  and, 
while  zealous,  he  was  liberal.  Strict  in  regard  to  him- 
self, towards  others  he  was  indulgent." — Wilson, /Vc-si. 
J/isf.  A  liuitniic,  l.^'l;!.  p.  .'i.s7. 

Keller,  Benjamin,  a  promjnent  minister  of  the 
Lutheran  Church,  was  iiorn  in  Lancaster,  Pa.,  ISfarch  4, 
1794.  Under  the  faithful  ministry  of  Rev.  Dr.  IL  E. 
Muhlenberg,  he  made  a  public  profession  of  religion, 


and  from  that  time  felt  an  earnest  desire  to  devote  him- 
self to  the  work  of  preaching  the  Gospel.  His  classical 
course  he  pursued  under  the  direction  of  Rev.  Dr.  D.  F. 
Schsefter,  of  Frederick,  Jld. ;  his  theological  studies  with 
his  pastor.  Dr.  Muhlenberg.  In  1814,  before  he  had 
reached  his  21st  year,  he  was  commissioned  by  the  Syn- 
od of  Pennsylvania  to  preach.  His  first  charge  was  Car- 
lisle, Pa.  He  subsequently  labored  in  Gcrmantown,  Pa., 
(iettysljurg,  and  Philadelphia,  and  in  each  charge  he 
was  pre-eminent  as  a  pastor.  For  a  season  he  was  most 
successfully  engaged  as  general  agent  of  the  Parent  Ed- 
ucation Society,  and  at  a  later  jjeriod  his  services  were 
secured  by  the  Synod  of  Pennsylvania  in  its  efforts  to 
endow  a  German  professorship  in  the  institution  at  Get- 
tysburg. By  his  untiring  devotion  to  the  work,  his  per- 
severance and  tact,  the  object  was  readily  attained.  For 
some  years  he  was  also  engaged  in  the  work  of  the  Lu- 
theran Publication  Society,  in  a  general  agency  and  su- 
perintendence of  its  interests.  He  died  July  2, 18G4,  af- 
ter a  service  of  fifty  j'ears  in  the  Gospel  ministrv\  (M. 
L.  S.) 

Keller,  Emanuel,  a  Laitheran  minister,  was  bom 
at  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  Sept.  30,  1801.  Blessed  with  pious 
and  faithful  parents,  his  thoughts  and  desires  were  early 
turned  to  the  Christian  ministry.  His  classical  studies 
were  pursued  at  Dickinson  College,  Carlisle,  and  the 
study  of  divinity  imder  the  instruction  of  his  pastor. 
Rev.  Dr.  Geo.  Lochman.  In  1826  he  was  inducted  into 
the  sacred  office.  He  labored  in  the  ministry  succes- 
sively at  Manchester,  Md.,  and  Jlechanicsburg,  Pa. ;  at 
the  latter  place  he  died,  April  11,1837.  In  his  death 
the  Church  mourned  for  one  of  her  most  usefid  and  de- 
voted ministers.  Through  his  direct  and  personal  in- 
struTientality  a  large  ninnber  of  individuals  were  intro- 
duced into  the  ministry.     (M.  L.  S.) 

Keller,  Ezra,  D.D.,  an  eminent  minister  of  the 
Lutheran  Church,  was  born  in  IMiddletown  Valley,  Md., 
June  12, 1812.  Influenced  by  an  unquenchable  desire  to 
preach  the  Gospel,  the  most  formidable  obstacles  could 
not  deter  him  from  his  purpose.  While  at  Pennsylva- 
nia College  (he  graduated  in  1835)  he  began  the  study 
of  theology,  and  then  entered  the  seminary  at  Gettys- 
burg. After  his  licensure  to  preach  he  devoted  himself 
for  a  season  to  the  arduous  work  of  an  itinerant  mission- 
ary' for  the  Western  States.  In  this  work  he  was  very 
successhd,  especially  as  he  preached  in  German  as  well 
as  English.  Subsequent!}'  he  was  engaged  in  the  pas- 
toral work,  first  at  Taneytown,  Md.,  and  then  at  Hagers- 
town.  His  ministry  at  both  places  was  very  efficient. 
In  1844  he  accepted  the  presidency  of  Wittenberg  Col- 
lege, Springfield,  Ohio,  a  literary  and  theological  school 
called  into  existence  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  in  the  West,  a  position  for  which  he  was  re- 
garded as  admirably  fitted.  At  the  time  of  his  death 
few  men  in  the  Church  gave  greater  promise  of  exten- 
sive and  permanent  influence.  Ezra  Keller  died  Dec. 
29, 1848.  He  received  the  degree  of  D.D.  from  Jeffer- 
son College  in  1845.     (:M.  L.  s!) 

Keller,  Frederick  Augustus  Muhlenberg, 

the  son  of  Benjamin  Keller,  was  born  in  Carlisle,  Pa., 
\\m\  19, 1819 ;  he  graduated  at  Pennsylvania  College  in 
1838,  and  studied  theology  at  the  seminary  in  (icttys- 
burg.  For  a  brief  season  he  engaged  in  the  w^rk  of 
teaching  at  Waynesborough,  Pa.,  but  was  licensed  to 
preach  in  1842;  and  having  received  a  unanimous  call 
to  Trinity  Church,  Reading,  Pa.,  he  immediately  entered 
upon  the  duties  assigned  him  as  an  assistant  to  Rev.  Dr. 
jVIiller.  On  the  death  of  Dr.  ISIillcr  in  1850,  St.  James's 
Church  was  organized,  of  which  he  became  pastor.  This 
congregation,  with  others  -in  the  vicinity,  he  continued 
to  serve  with  a  fidelity  and  a  diligence  that  never  fal- 
tered, till  his  death,  March  18, 1864.     (M.  L.  S.) 

Keller  (Cellaurs\  Jacob,  a  German  Jesuit,  was 
born  at  Siickingen,  in  Swabia,  in  1568,  and  entered  the 
Jesuitical  order  when  only  twenty  years  old.  He  gain- 
ed an  unenviable  notoriety  by  his  controversies  with 


KELLERMAN^ 


31 


KELLY 


Protestants ;  most  prominent  among  them  is  his  public 
dispute  with  Jacob  lleilbruimer.  The  Jesuits  claim  that 
Keller  silenced  the  Protestant,  but  evangelical  writers 
all  deny  the  truth  of  this  assertion.  Be  this  as  it  may, 
Keller  himself  became  a  great  favorite  in  his  order,  and 
was  honored  with  a  professorsliip  of  theology  at  Regens- 
burg,  and  later  with  the  rectorate  at  jMiuiich.  He  was 
in  great  favor  also  with  the  duke  of  Bavaria.  Klose  (in 
Ilerzog,  Real-Enci/Hop.  vii,  508)  accuses  Keller  of  having 
contributed,  both  by  pen  and  byword  of  mouth,  towards 
the  feeling  of  hatred  which  divided  Protestants  and  Ko- 
manists  just  before  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  Keller  died 
Feb.  23,1031. 

Kellerman,  Georg,  a  celebrated  Roman  Catholic, 
was  born  Oct.  11,  177G,  near  Minister  ((iermany),  and 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  jMUnster  and  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  seminary  of  that  place.  He  was  or- 
dained priest  Aug.  2, 1801,  but  did  not  hold  any  priestly 
office  until  1811,  tilling  up  to  this  time  the  position  of 
private  tutor  in  the  family  of  the  celebrated  count  of 
Stolberg,  and  to  Kellerman,  no  doubt,  is  due  the  strong 
Roman  Catholic  tendencies  of  the  Stolberg  family.  In 
1826  Kellerman  assumed,  besides  his  priestly  duties, 
those  of  the  professorship  of  New-Testament  exegesis  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  theological  school  at  IMiinster,  which 
in  1830  he  exchanged  for  those  of  pastoral  theology. 
December  13,  1840  he  was  elected  bishop  of  Minister, 
but  he  died  shortly  after,  March  29, 1847.  He  published 
Predirjten  (Miinster,  1830,3  vols.  8vo;  1831,  and  1833)  : 
— Gesch.  d.  A.  und  N.  Test,  (an  abridgment  of  the  large 
work  of  Overberg,  and  extensively  used  as  a  text-book 
in  Roman  Catholic  schools) ;  and  edited  several  works 
of  others. — Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lex.  xii,  041. 

Kelley,  Chas.  H.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  born  in  Logan  Co.,  Ky.,  1821 ;  emigrated  to  Indiana 
in  1829 ;  was  converted  in  1830 ;  entered  the  Indiana  As- 
bury  University  in  1845,  but  his  health  soon  failed,  and 
he  left ;  entered  the  Indiana  Conference  in  1840 ;  Avas 
transferred  to  the  Missouri  Conference  in  1849,  and  ap- 
pointed to  St.  Joseph  station ;  in  1850  was  stationed  at  St. 
Louis ;  in  1851  at  Independence ;  and  in  1852  at  Lagrange 
Mission.  While  on  this  work  he  was  arrested,  on  Feb. 
13, 1853,  by  a  band  of  rufhans,  on  a  pretended  suspicion 
of  his  identity  with  Chas.  F.  Kelley,  who  had  recently 
escaped  from  the  state-prison  at  Fort  Madison.  Thith- 
er he  was  forced  on  a  stormy  winter  night,  and  though 
the  state  officers  instantly  set  him  at  liberty,  the  out- 
rages and  exposure  of  the  eighteen  hours  he  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  mob  threw  his  feeble  system  into  sickness, 
and  he  died  shortly  after,  Sept.  17, 1853.  He  was  a  good 
man,  an  able  and  faithful  preacher,  and  much  lamented 
by  his  brethren.— J/wiu^f*-  of  Conf.  v,  481.     (G.  L.  T.) 

Kells  (originally  Kenlis)  is  the  name  of  an  ancient 
Irish  t(]wn  in  wliich  a  very  important  synod  was  held 
A.D.  1152.  It  was  convoked  by  Papyrio  (Paparo?),  car- 
dinal priest,  and  the  pope's  (Eugenius  HI)  legate,  for  the 
formal  reception  of  the  Irish  Church  into  the  see  of 
Rome.  The  Church  of  Ireland,  which  had  been  found- 
ed A.U.  432,  remained  until  the  close  of  the  9th  centurv, 
and  even  later,  almost  entirely  isolated  from  the  rest  of 
Christendom.  Through  these  long  years,  bishop  Usher 
says  (iv,  325), "  All  the  affairs  of  the  bishops  and  Church 
of  Ireland  were  done  at  home  .  .  .  the  people  and  the 
kings  made  their  bishops."  All  this  while  the  Irish 
Churcli,  in  her  isolation  and  poverty,  grew  from  infancy 
to  maturity,  following  the  plain  scriptural  teachings  of 
her  unlettered  founder,  without  ]icrhaps  knowing  any- 
thing of  the  refinements  and  innovations  which  were 
arising  on  the  Continent.  The  irruption  of  the  Danes 
in  A.D.  787  had  brought  the  Irisli,  and  with  them  the 
Church,  into  more  general  communication  with  conti- 
nental Europe;  and  when,  towards  the  close  of  the  9th 
century,  many  of  the  colonists  in  Ireland  embraced 
Christianitj',  their  clergy  apjilied  to  the  English,  whom 
they  claimed  as  their  kindred,  for  ordination,  and  in 
A.D.  1085,  Laiifranc,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  ordained 


for  them  Donatus  as  the  bishop  of  Dublin.  On  his  con- 
secration Donatus  made  the  following  declaration :  "  I, 
Donatus,  bishop  of  the  see  of  Dublin,  in  Ireland,  do 
jiromise  canonical  obedience  to  you,  O  Lanfranc,  arch- 
bishop of  the  holy  Church  of  Canterbury,  and  to  your 
successors"  {Illust.  Men  of  Ireland,  i,  235).  This  was 
the  tirst  promise  of  fealty  on  the  part  of  any  church  in 
Ireland,  and  it  was  made  by  a  foreigner  (no  native  had 
ever  made  such  a  pledge),  and  gave  rise  to  two  Church 
organizations,  the  old  one  founded  by  St.  Patrick,  and 
the  new  Dano-Irish  Church  started  by  this  action  of  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury.  The  Synod  of  Kells  was  called 
to  bring  about  a  union  of  the  two  branches,  or,  at  least, 
to  establish  on  a  permanent  basis  the  claims  of  Roman- 
ism. We  cannot  tell  who  composed  this  celebrated  syn- 
od at  Kells,  for  from  this  time  forward  all  the  records 
were  in  the  keeping  of  the  new  organization;  those  of 
the  old  were  either  accidentally  or  intentionally  lost. 
It  is  not,  however,  very  probable  that  the  old  Irish  gov- 
ernment of  nearly  seven  hundred  years'  standing  would 
at  once  dissolve  itself  and  merge  into  the  new  our, 
whose  purposes  they  had  so  long  resisted.  Besides, 
nearly  twent}'  j-ears  aftenvards,  in  A.D.  1170,  we  fnid 
the  old  Synod  of  Armagh  still  in  existence,  deploring 
and  protesting  against  the  slaughterings  and  devasta- 
tions of  the  English  under  Henry  H,  whom  the  popes 
had  then  sent  over  to  Ireland  to  bring  their  Church  '•  to 
canonical  conformity."  I'apj-rio  clearly  recognised  it 
as  his  task  to  establish  a  hierarchy  where  none  had 
ever  existed  before,  and  for  this  purpose  he  attempted 
to  suppress  most  of  the  former  Irish  bishops,  and  to  cre- 
ate four  great  archicpiscopal  sees  —  those  of  Armagh, 
Cashcl,  Dublin,  and  Tuani — by  instituting  a  system  of 
tithes,  claiming  Peter's  pence,  and  requiring  conformity 
in  all  Church  matters  "  to  the  one  catliolic  and  Roman 
office."  He  brought  also  with  him  the  palliums  or  in- 
vestitures from  the  pope  for  the  four  newly-created  ar- 
chicpiscopal sees ;  the  reception  of  these  was  regarded 
as  so  many  pledges  of  fealty  and  obedience  to  the  popes 
of  Rome.  The  public  presentation  and  reception  of 
these  badges  had  long  been  an  object  of  great  solicitude 
on  the  part  both  of  Rome  and  of  several  of  the  promi- 
nent bishops  in  England  and  Ireland ;  for,  in  their  es- 
timation, until  this  was  done,  tliere  seemed  to  have 
been  something  Avanting  in  regard  to  a  fuU  and  com- 
plete union.  All  of  these  measures,  as  we  have  seen, 
were,  however,  inaugurated  and  carried  forward  liy  the 
Dano-Irish  and  a  smaU  Romanizing  jiarty  in  Ireland. 
The  native  clergy,  with  few  exceptions,  would  liave  ac- 
tivel}^  opposed  them  had  they  not  looked  upon  the 
Danes  as  mere  colonists.  To  their  sorrow,  the  Irish 
learned,  when  too  late,  that  the  Roman  hierarchy  had 
been  successfully  established  in  Ireland  by  the  action  of 
the  Synod  of  Kells.  See  Mant,  IlUtory  of  the  Irish 
Church,  p.  G.     See  Ireland.     (D.  D.) 

Kelly,  John,  a  minister  of  the  Reformed  Presbyte- 
rian Church,  was  born  at  Rocky  Creek,  Chester  District, 
S.  C,  in  1772,  and  was  educated  abroad  (at  Glasgow  Col- 
lege, Scotland),  as  was  the  custom  and  necessity  in  his 
day.  His  theological  studies  he  pursued  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  Rev.  Dr.  iMc^Millan,  of  Stirling,  Scotland. 
He  returned  to  South  Carolina  in  1808,  and  in  June, 
1809,  was  licensed  to  preach.  Two  years  later  he  was 
ordained  and  appointed  missionary  in  the  AVestern  States 
and  Territories,  and  settled  finally  at  Beech  Woods,  But- 
ler Co.,  Ohio.  He  was  released  from  active  seiwice  in 
1837,  but  continued  preaching  up  to  the  time  of  his 
death,  Nov.  6, 1842.  "  His  life  was  one  of  most  untiring 
activity,  and  under  his  faithful  ministry  many  a  spot  in 
the  wilderness  was  seen  to  bud  and  blossom  as  the  rose," 
— Sprague,  Annals,  ix  (Ref.  Presb.),  ji.  03. 

Kelly,  Thomas,  was  born  in  Queens  County,  Ire-i 
land,  about  1709,  and  was  the  son  of  Judge  Kelly,  of 
Kellyville.  He  graduated  at  the  Dublin  University 
with  the  highest  honors,  with  a  view  of  studying  law. 
He  entered  at  the  Temple,  London,  and  while  there  en- 


KELPIES 


32 


KEMPER 


joyed  the  friendship  of  his  celebrated  conntnTnan,  Ed- 
niiiiul  Biirko,  but  before  the  comiiletioii  of  his  letjal  stud- 
ies, his  miud  having  been  strongly  exercised  on  the  sub- 
ject of  religion,  he  entered  upon  a  course  of  theological 
reailing,  and  in  1793  was  ordained  a  clergyman  oi'  the 
Established  Church.  Kelly  became  one  of  the  most 
popular  preachers  in  Dublin,  and  crowds  flocked  to  his 
clmrch  Sunday  after  Sunday  to  listen  to  his  fervent  ap- 
peals ;  incurring,  however,  the  displeasure  of  his  superi- 
ors in  the  Church,  he  was  induced  at  length  to  leave  the 
Establishment,  though  he  never  dissented  from  its  doc- 
trines, lie  continued  to  labor  in  Dublin  for  more  than 
sixty  years,  and  it  was  a  common  remark  concerning 
liim  that  he  never  seemed  to  waste  an  hour.  He  was 
possessed  of  abundant  means,  a  rare  thing  among  cler- 
gymen, and  devoted  a  large  portion  of  it  to  the  building 
of  churches.  He  was  a  man  of  varied  learning,  versed 
in  the  Oriental  languages,  and  an  excellent  Biblical  crit- 
ic. He  was  also  skilled  in  music,  and  composed  a  vol- 
ume of  airs  for  his  hjTnns  which  were  remarkable  for 
their  simplicity  and  sweetness.  In  October,  1854,  while 
preaching  to  his  own  congregation,  he  was  seized  v.ith 
a  slight  stroke  of  paralysis,  which  gradually  lessened  his 
strength,  till  he  died  j\Iay  li,  1855.  jNIr.  Kelly  was  the 
author  of  Andrew  Dunn,  a  controversial  work  against 
Romanism,  and  of  a  pamphlet  entitled  Thovfjhis  on  Im- 
puted Righteousness,  but  as  a  writer  he  is  best  known  as 
the  author  of  IIi/m)is  on  various  Passar/es  of  Scripture 
(the  last  edition,  published  in  Dublin,  1853,  contains  sev- 
en hundred  and  sixty-five  hymns).     (E.  de  P.) 

Kelpies,  in  Scotch  mythology  a  name  for  departed 
spirits,  who  are  said  to  return  to  this  world  in  tlie  shape 
of  river-horses.  They  correspond  to  the  Ncik  of  Nor- 
wegian mythology.  See  Thorpe,  Northern  Mijtholorjy, 
ii,  22. 

Kelsey,  Jajies,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
born  at  Tyringham,  INIass.,  Oct.  18, 1782,  was  converted 
in  179G,  entered  the  Philadelphia  Conference  in  180G, 
and  labored  with  great  success.  .He  died  in  1840  (?). 
.Tames  Kelsey  was  a  good  man,  and  through  a  long  ser- 
vice was  intent  on  the  \vork  of  saving  the  souls  of  men. 
— Minutes  of  Conferences,  iii,  146. 

Kelso,  Gp:orge  W.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  Louisa  County,  Va.,  in  1815,  and  emi- 
grated while  young  to  Tennessee,  He  was  educated  at 
the  Nashville  University,  joined  the  Tennessee  Confer- 
ence in  1835,  was  transferred  to  the  Virginia  Conference 
in  1842,  and  died  Aug.  10, 1843.  Kelso  was  a  faithful 
and  very  successful  minister,  not  brilliant,  but  sound  and 
equable,  and  very  trustworthy  in  all  things. — Minutes 
of  Conferences,  iii,  460. 

Kemp,  James,  D.D.,  a  bishop  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  Aberdeenshire,  Scotland, 
in  1764,  of  I'resbyterian  parentage;  graduated  at  Aber- 
deen University  (Marischal  College)  in  1780,  and  the 
year  following  came  to  this  country.  At  first  he  en- 
gaged in  teaching,  but,  finally  decitUng  to  join  the  Epis- 
copal Church,  he  prepared  for  the  ministry;  was  or- 
dained by  bishop  White  Dec.  26, 1789,  and  the  year  fol- 
lowing became  rector  of  (ireat  Choptank  parish,  Mary- 
land, where  he  remained  for  more  than  twenty  years.  In 
1802  he  received  from  Columbia  College  the  degree  of 
D.D.  Two  years  later  he  was  elected  suifragan  bishop 
with  bishop  Claggett,  of  Maryland,  with  the  understand- 
ing that  he  was  to  succeed  the  latter  in  case  he  was  the 
survivor.  He  was  consecrated  for  this  position  at  New 
Brunswick,  New  Jersey,  Sept.  1, 1814.  The  jurisdiction 
of  bishop  Kemp  was  exercised  especially  over  the  par- 
ishes on  the  Eastern  Shore ;  in  1816,  however,  on  bishop 
Claggett's  decease,  the  whole  diocese  came  under  his 
charge,  and  by  his  ])rudence  and  moderation  lie  com- 
mended himself  to  both  clergy  and  laity.  In  1816  lie 
accepted  the  provostship  of  the  University  of  JIaryland, 
and  held  it  mitil  the  time  of  his  death,  Oct.  28,  1827. 
(J.  H.  \V.) 


Kemp,  Thomas  William,  a  minister  of  much 
promise  in  the  Lutheran  Church,  was  born  in  Frederick 
Co.,  I\Id.,  Dec.  2, 1833.  LTnder  the  influence  of  faithful 
Christian  nurture  his  religious  principles  were  success- 
fully developed,  and  the  foundation  of  his  character  laid. 
His  childhood  and  youth  were  characterized  by  an  ex- 
emption from  everything  vicious,  by  unusual  s]irightli- 
ness,  and  an  eager  desire  for  study.  For  four  years  he 
was  a  puiiil  of  St.  Mary's  (Catholic)  College,  Baltimore. 
He  subseciuently  entered  Pennsylvania  College,  and  grad- 
uated in  1853.  He  commenced  his  theological  studies 
under  the  direction  of  Drs.  Morris,  Seiss,  and  Webster, 
at  the  time  pastors  in  Baltimore,  and  completed  them 
at  the  seminary  in  Gettysburg.  He  was  licensed  to 
preach  in  1855.  For  a  brief  period  he  was  associated 
with  Dr.  Stork  in  the  pastoral  work  in  Philadelphia.  He 
subsequently  took  charge  of  a  Mission  Church  in  Chi- 
cago, Illinois,  but  the  climate  proving  unfavorable  to  his 
health,  he  was  obliged  to  retire  from  the  field.  He  vis- 
ited foreign  lands,  but  returned  from  his  pilgrimage  to 
die  amid  the  scenes  of  his  childhood  and  the  embrace 
of  loved  ones  at  home.  He  passed  peacefully  away 
Sept.  15, 1861.     (M.  L.  S.) 

Kemp,  van  der,  John  Theodore,  a  Dutch  mis- 
sionary, Avas  born  at  Kotterdam  in  1748,  and  studied 
Oriental  languages  and  theology  at  the  University  of 
Leyden,  but  after  graduation  he .  entered  the  army  in 
a  regiment  of  dragoons,  in  which  he  soon  attained  the 
grade  of  lieutenant.  He  left  the  army,  however,  and 
turned  to  the  study  of  medicine  at  Edinburgh,  and  in 
1791  commenced  practicing  at  Dort;  but,  in  the  end, 
he  turned  again  to  theology.  The  loss  of  liis  wife  and 
daughter,  who  were  drowned  together,  so  affected  him 
that  he  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  the  service  of 
his  divine  JMaster.  About  this  time  he  wrote  a  work 
on  St.  Paul's  theodicy  (published  in  1798),  and  later  he 
went  as  a  missionary  to  the  Hottentots.  Arriving  at 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  he  obtained  leave  from  a  Kaf- 
fre  king  to  settle  in  his  states,  but  was  subsequently 
driven  away  by  the  jealousy  of  the  Dutch  settlers.  Ee- 
tained  at  the  Cajie  by  governor  Janssens  until  1806,  he 
was  then  permitted  by  the  English  governor  Baird  to 
settle  at  Bethelsdorp.  The  official  report  of  his  mission, 
which  he  drew  up  in  1809,  does  not  show  him  to  have 
been  particularly  successful  in  his  attempts  to  civilize 
the  natives.  He  died  at  the  Cape  Dec.  7, 1811.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bioy.  Generale,  xxvii,  539.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Kempe,  Stepiian,  one  of  the  leaders  in  the  Ger- 
man Ileformation  of  the  16th  century,  the  founder  of 
Protestantism  in  the  city  of  Hamburg,  his  native  place, 
was  born  towards  the  close  of  the  15th  century.  He 
was  educated  at  Postock,  and  became  a  Franciscan  monic 
in  1523;  but,  while  on  business  for  his  order  at  Ham- 
burg, he  became  acquainted  with  the  reformer  Joachim 
Slitter,  and  soon  v/as  himself  one  of  the  most  enthusias- 
tic preachers  of  the  new  religion.  To  Kempe  belongs 
the  glory,  indeed,  of  the  evangelization  of  Hamburg. 
One  of  his  ablest  assistants  in  the  glorious  work  was 
Ziegenhagen  (q.  v.).  In  1528  they  had  so  far  gained 
the  upper  hand  that  the  Roman  Catholics  were  obliged 
to  leave  the  city  altogether  in  their  hands.  In  Lilne- 
burg,  also,  Kempe  aided  the  good  cause  of  the  Luther- 
ans ;  in  fact,  wherever,  in  the  immediate  neighborhood 
of  the  Hanse  cities,  his  assistance  was  needcil  to  further 
the  reformatory  movement,  it  had  not  to  be  asked  for 
twice.  He  died  at  llanilmrg  October  23,  1540.  He 
wrote  a  narrative  of  the  Keformation  in  Hamburg  which 
was  published  by  ]\Iayer  in  Das  Evangelische  Hamburg 
(Hamburg,  1693, 12mo). 

Kemper,  Jacksox,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  first  missionan,' 
bishop  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United 
States,  was  born  at  Pleasant  Valley,  in  Dutchess  County, 
New  York,  Dec.  24, 1789.  When  about  twelve  years  of 
age  he  was  sent  to  the  Episcopal  Academy  at  Clieshire, 
Conn.,  and  remained  there  two  years;  after  that  he  was 
put  under  the  charge  of  Rev.  Dr.  Barrj',  a  graduate  of 


KEMPIS 


33 


KEMPIS 


Trinity  CoUcge,  Dublin,  at  that  time  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  classical  teachers  in  the  country ;  entered 
Columbia  College  in  1805,  and  graduated  in  1809.  He 
began  the  study  of  theology  under  the  care  of  bishop 
Moore  and  the  clergy  of  Trinity  parish,  there  being  no 
theological  seminaries  in  those  daj-s.  As  soon  as  he  had 
reached  the  canonical  age  of  twenty-one  years,  he  was 
ordained  deacon  at  the  hands  of  bishop  White,  in  St.  Pe- 
ter's Church,  Philadelphia,  on  the  second  Sunday  in 
Lent,  1811.  He  was  immediately  called  to  the  assist- 
antship  under  bishop  White,  and  held  this  po'^ition  till 
June  of  1831,  when  he  accepted  the  rectorship  of  St. 
Paul's  Church,  Norwalk,  Conn.  h\  1835  he  was  elected 
tlic  first  missionary  bishop  of  the  American  Church. 
His  jurisdiction  comprised  "  the  North-west."  Out  of  it 
have  been  formed  the  dioceses  of  Missouri,  Indiana,  Wis- 
consin, jMinnesota,  Iowa,  Kansas,  and  Nebraska.  Early 
in  tiie  winter  of  this  year  bishop  Kemper  reached  St. 
Louis,  where  he  tooi^  up  his  residence  until  he  removed 
to  Wisconsin  in  1814.  Meanwhile  (about  1838)  he  had 
been  elected  to  the  bishopric  of  Maryland,  but  this  hon- 
or he  declined,  preferring  the  more  burdensome  but  not 
less  honorable  position  of  missionary  bishop.  In  1847, 
Wisconsin  having  been  organized  into  a  diocese,  the 
Primary  Convention  elected  bishop  Kemper  diocesan. 
This  was  also  declined;  but  in  1854,  being  again  unani- 
mously elected,  he  accepted,  only  upon  condition  that 
his  acceptance  should  allow  him  to  remain  missionary 
bishop  still.  At  the  General  Convention  of  1859  he  re- 
signed his  office  as  missionary  bishop,  and  from  that 
time  until  his  death,  Maj'  24, 1870,  his  labors  were  con- 
fined to  the  diocese  of  Wisconsin.  He  was  active  in 
the  establishment  of  a  theological  seminary  within  the 
bomids  of  his  diocese,  and  when,  in  1843,  it  was  founded 
at  Nashotah,Wisconsin,  the  bishop  took  up  his  residence 
on  a  farm  adjoming. 

Kenipis,  John  a,  a  German  monk,  brother  of 
Thomas  ;i  Kenipis  (q.  v.),  was  born  at  Kempen,  near 
Cologne,  in  13G5.  About  1380  he  came  to  Deventer, 
and  ^vas  admitted  by  Gerard  Groot  among  the  Brethren 
of  the  Common  Life.  He  became  successively  one  of 
the  first  members  of  the  Canons  Regular  of  Windesheim 
in  1386 ;  prior  of  the  Convent  of  Mariabrunn,  near  Arn- 
heim,  in  1392 ;  and  of  the  new  Convent  of  jMount  St.  Ag- 
nes, near  Zwoll,  in  1399.  Here  he  remained  nine  years, 
during  \vhicli  he  caused  the  buildings,  etc.,  of  the  con- 
vent to  be  finished.  He  subsecjuently  directed  four  oth- 
er establishments  of  his  order,  and  died  at  Bethany,  near 
Arnheira,  Nov.  4,  1432.  It  was  John  ;i  Kempis  who 
drew  up  the  rules  of  the  chapter  of  Windesheim,  the  cen- 
tral establishment  of  his  order.  Gerson  pronounced  his 
eulogy  in  the  Council  of  Constance.  See  Buschius, 
Chroiiicnn  Windescmense ;  Rosweide,  Vita  Joh.  a  Kempis 
{^Airpendix  ad  Thomm  a  Kempis  Chronicon  Montis  S. 
Agnetis) ;  Mooren,  Nachrichten  iiber  Thorn,  a  Kempis,  p. 
134. — Iloefer,  Xou  v.  Biog.  Gener.  xxvii,  542.    (J.  N.  P.) 

Kempis,  Thomas  a  Cso  called  from  his  native 
place,  Kempen,  a  village  in  the  diocese  of  Cologne ;  his 
family  name  was  Ildmerketi  [Latinized  Malleolus,  \At- 
tle  Hammer]),  one  of  the  most  celebrated  mystics  and 
forerunners  of  the  Reformation  of  tlie  IGth  century,  was 
born  about  1380.  Thomas's  parents  were  poor,  and 
could  ill  afford  the  aspiring  youth  any  su]ierior  advan- 
tages of  education,  but,  trained  by  a  pious  mother,  he 
had  early  inclined  to  the  priesthood,  and,  aware  of  the 
advantages  afforded  young  jiersons  by  the  monastic 
brotherhood  known  as  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life 
(q.  v.),  he  quitted  his  parental  roof  at  the  age  of  thir- 
teen to  seek  fiu-ther  educational  advantages  than  he 
had  enjoyed  at  his  home,  imder  the  instruction  of  the 
celebrated  John  Bffihme,  then  at  the  head  of  a  school 
at  Deventer,  superintended  by  the  "  Brethren  of  the 
Common  Life."  While  here  at  school  he  was  brought 
to  the  notice  of  Florentius,  one  of  the  principal  disciples 
of  Gerhard  Groot.  and  the  superintendent  of  the  broth- 
irhood,  whose  protection Tliomas  was  enjoving.  Floren- 
Y.-C 


tius,  not  slow  to  discover  in  Thomas  abilities  of  a  high 
order,  embraced  every  oijportunity  to  draw  the  pious 
youth  closer  to  liis  side,  and  in  139G  tinalf)'  offered  him 
a  home  at  Ids  own  house,  the  head-quarters  of  the  breth- 
ren, to  study  and  watch  more  closely  the  character  and 
inclinations  of  the  youthful  stranger.  Surrounded  Ijy  pi- 
ous comrades,  among  whom  we  meet  Arnold  of  Schoon- 
hoven  (q.  v.),  with  whom  he  shared  a  little  chamber 
and  bed,  Thomas  was  soon  inclined  to  a  life  of  asceti- 
cism. "Examples,"  says  Thomas  a  Kempis  himself, 
'■are  more  instructive  than  words"  (J\ill.  lilior.xxiv,  1, 
p.  95).  Possessed  of  a  boding  mind,  and  animated  by 
a  piety  so  fervent  as  to  presume  always  the  best  of  oth- 
ers, such  was  the  effect  produced  upon  him  by  the 
brethren's  whole  manner  of  life,  that  the  seven  years  he 
spent  in  the  zealous  exercise  of  piety  and  the  prosecu- 
tion of  his  studies  at  the  school  and  brother-house  of 
Deventer  were  to  him  seven  years  spent  in  an  actual 
paradise.  About  1400  he  petitioned  father  Florentius 
for  a  recommendation  to  admit  him  into  the  convent  of 
Mount  St.  Agnes,  near  Zwoll,  of  which  his  brother  John 
a  Kempis  (q.  v.)  was  then  prior,  and  with  a  hearty  wel- 
come he  entered  this  monastery  as  a  novice  among  the 
regular  canons.  "Strangely  as  the  mind  of  Thomas 
w'as  bent  upon  his  vocation,  and  although  both  nature 
and  previous  education  had  perfectly  adapted  him  for 
it,  he  did  not  pluftge  into  it  without  consideration.  De- 
liberate even  in  his  youthful  zeal,  he  spent  five  years 
of  novitiate,  assumed  the  monastic  dress  in  the  sixth, 
and  did  not  imtil  the  year  following  take  the  vow, 
which  he  then,  however,  kept  with  inviolable  fidelity" 
(Ullmann,  uf  infra,  ii,  124).  It  was  not  until  about  1413 
that  he  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood.  Before  this  or- 
dination he  had  buried  himself,  like  all  worthy  disciples 
of  the  brotherhood,  in  the  copying  of  MSS.  and  in  the 
performance  of  religious  exercises.  Now  that  he  ^\■as  a 
priest,  his  chief  occupation  became  the  delivery  of  relig- 
ious discourses  and  the  duties  of  the  confessional.  He 
continued,  however,  copying  religious  MSS.  Thomas  a 
Kempis,  indeed,  applied  himself  with  vigor  to  this  la- 
bor, to  which  he  brought  a  quick  eye  and  a  skilful  liand. 
He  copied  out  the  whole  Bible,  a  missal,  and  a  multi- 
tude of  other  works,  which  the  monasters  of  St.  Agues 
preserved ;  but,  in  performing  this  office,  he  also  prac- 
ticed the  advice  of  one  of  the  ancients,  who,  in  writing 
out  books,  did  not  only  seek  by  the  labor  of  his  hands 
to  gain  food  for  his  body,  but  also  to  refresh  his  soul 
with  heavenlj'  nourishment.  He  was  humble,  meek, 
ready  to  give  consolation ;  fervent  in  his  exhortations 
and  prayers,  spiritual,  contemplative,  and  his  efforts  in 
this  direction  finally  resulted  in  the  composition  of  an 
original  treatise,  which  to  this  hour  remains  one  of  the 
most  perfect  compositions  in  religious  literature,  by 
many  considered  the  most  beautiful  uninspired  produc- 
tion—  the  Imitation  of  Christ  (see  below).  In  1425 
Thomas  was  appointed  subprior,  an  office  which  in- 
trusted to  his  care  the  spiritual  progress  of  the  brethren 
and  the  instruction  of  novices.  A  difficidty  having  oc- 
curred between  the  jiope  on  the  one  side,  and  the  chap- 
ter and  nobility  of  Utrecht  on  the  other,  about  the  elec- 
tion of  Rudolph  of  Dieiihold  as  archbishop,  the  diocese 
was  put  under  interdict,  and  the  canons  left  JNIount  St. 
Agnes  in  1429  to  retire  to  Lunekerke,  in  Friesland,  but 
returned  in  1432,  when  Thomas  became  procurator  of 
the  convent.  But,  as  the  duties  of  this  office  appeared 
to  abstract  him  too  much  from  meditation  and  his  more 
profitalile  labors  as  an  author,  he  was,  about  1449,  re- 
poned  in  the  subpriorate,  and  continued  in  this  office 
until  his  death,  July  2r>,  1471.  "From  the  nature  of 
the  case,  we  have  little  to  say  of  Thomas's  cloisteral  life. 
Without  any  considerable  disturbance,  it  flowed  on  like 
a  limpid  brook,  reflecting  on  its  calm  surface  the  un- 
clouded heavens.  ( Juict  industry,  lonely  contemplation, 
and  secret  prayer  filled  uj)  tlie  day,  and  every  day  was 
like  another."  Among  his  contemporaries  Thomas  was 
eminently  distinguished  for  sanctity  and  ascetic  learn- 


KEMPIS 


34 


KEMPIS 


Worl:^. — The  reputation  of  a  Kempi?,  however,  rests 
not  upon  his  ascetic' character,  but  rather  on  the  produc- 
tions of  liis  pen — his  sermons,  ascetical  treatises,  pious 
biographies,  letters,  and  hynnis^and  from  these  only 
one  need  be  selected  to  claim  for  him  the  mastery  as  a 
religious  writer — his  Ih'  Iinilutione  Christi — "  standing, 
as  no  o)ie  doubts,  and  as  even  its  effects  have  demon- 
strated it  to  do,  ill  point  of  excellence  far  above  all  the 
rest,  the  (lurest  and  most  linished  production  of  Thom- 
as;" a  worlv  which,  next  to  the  sacred  Scriptures  only, 
has  had  the  largest  number  of  readers  of  which  sacred 
literature,  ancient  or  modern,  can  furnish  an  example. 
In  its  pages,  says  Milman  (^Lutiii  Christianity,  vi,  482), 
'•  are  gathered  and  concentred  all  that  is  elevating,  pas- 
sionate, profoundly  pious  in  all  tho  older  mystics.  No 
book,  after  the  holy  Scripture,  has  been  so  often  reprint- 
ed ;  none  translated  into  so  many  languages,  ancient 
and  modern,"  extending  even  to  Greek  and  Hebrew,  or 
so  often  retranslated.  Sixty  distinct  versions  are  enu- 
merated in  French  alone,  and  a  single  collection,  formed 
at  Cologne  within  the  present  century,  comprised,  al- 
though confessedly  incomplete,  no  fewer  than  500  dis- 
tinct editions.  Indeed,  it  may  be  somewhat  of  a  sur- 
prise to  some  to  learn  that  this  book  has  had  an  impor- 
tant influence  on  the  mind  of  John  Wesley  and  on  the 
origin  of  Methodism.  Wesley  published  a  translation 
of  it,  entitled  The  Christian's  Pattern.  It  was  one  of 
the  earliest  volumes  issued  by  the  ^Methodist  Book  Con- 
cern, and  is  still  on  their  catalogue.  "It  should  be," 
says  one  of  the  most  distinguished  American  Method- 
ists, '•  in  the  hands  of  every  Methodist." 

Strange,  indeed,  it  seems  that  the  authorship  of  a 
work  so  popular  and  so  widely  noted,  and  of  compara- 
tively recent  origin,  should  ever  have  been  a  subject  of 
doubt  and  long  controversy.  Shortly  after  the  decease 
of  Thomas  a  Kempis  a  violent  dispute  arose  between  the 
Canons  Regular  of  St.  Augustine  and  the  Benedictines, 
the  former  claiming  De  1  initatiojie  Christi  as  the  work 
of  Thomas  a  Kempis,  the  latter  asserting  it  to  have 
been  the  production  of  the  celebrated  John  (Jerson  (q. 
v.),  chancellor  of  the  University  of  Paris,  who  died  in 
1429.  These  two  persons  were  generally  cited  as  its 
authors  until  the  beginning  of  the  17th  centurv,  when 
the  Spanish  Jesuit  Manriqucz  discovered  a  MS.  which 
credited  it  to  John  Gersen,  or  Gesen,  abbe  of  Verceil  in 
the  early  part  of  the  13th  century.  Since  that  time 
(1604)  three  competitors  have  divided  the  voices  of  the 
learned — not  alone  individuals,  but  public  bodies,  uni- 
versities, religious  orders,  the  Congregation  of  the  In- 
dex, the  Parliament  of  Paris,  and  even  the  French 
Academy;  and  the  assertors  of  these  respective  claims 
have  carried  into  the  controversy  no  trifling  amount  of 
polemical  acrimony.  So  much  lias  been  written  on  the 
theme,  especially  by  French  and  Netherland  antiqua- 
ries, that  its  pamphlets  and  books  would  make  up  quite 
a  little  library.  Among  the  French  writers  the  ten- 
dency of  opinion  has  been  to  give  the  merit  of  this  cele- 
brated production  to  John  Gerson.  "  Kempis,"  argued 
Messieurs  Barbier  and  Lcroy,  "was  an  excellent  copv- 
ist;  his  copy  of  the  Bible — the  labor  of  fifteen  years- 
was  thought  a  masterpiece  of  calligraphic  art;  and  so 
he  was  merely  employed  in  transcribing  the  work  of 
Gerson,"  basing  their  inference  mainly  on  the  name  and 
date  of  an  ancient  MS.  of  the  De  Imitatione  preserved 
in  the  library  at  Valenciennes.  (German  writers,  on  the 
other  hand,  liavc  always  been  decidedly  in  favor  of  as- 
signing tlie  work  to  Thomas  a  Kempis,  and  since  the 
discovery  by  bishop  ]Malon  of  a  MS.  in  the  lilirary  at 
Brussels,  bearing  the  name  of  Thomas  a  Kempis  as  au- 
thor, the  Belgians  have  joined  the  Germans.  The 
proofs  in  favor  of  Thomas  a  Kempis  are  thus  stated  by 
M.  Ernest  (iregoire  (in  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bioij.  Gen.  xxvii, 
545  sq.). 

A.  The  direct  Testimom/  of  his  Contemporaries. — 1. 
John  Buschius,  canon  regular  of  tJie  monastery  of  Win- 
desheim  (1420-79),  positively  declares  in  his  (  hronicle  of 
that  convent  that  Thomas  wrote  the  Imitation,     As  he 


knew  him  intimately,  and  had  often  occasion  to  see  him, 
his  testimony  is  important.  They  were  of  the  same 
congregation,  and  Buschius  was  in  the  principal  con- 
vent, where  was  held  the  general  chapter,  in  which 
Thomas,  as  subprior,  took  part.  Moreover,  he  resided 
there  for  fifty-one  years,  only  one  league  and  a  half 
from  Mount  St.  Agnes,  where  Thomas  lived  at  tlie 
same  time.  It  was  said  by  some  that  the  passage  re- 
ferring to  Thomas  was  afterwards  added  in  the  chroni- 
cle; but  a  well-authenticated  deed,  drawn  up  in  17G0, 
testifies  tTiat  the  MS.  of  the  chronicle  written  by  Busch- 
ius's  own  hand  contains  the  passage  written  in  the  same 
hand,  with  the  same  ink,  and  in  full,  without  erasure, 
insertion,  or  parenthesis.  The  same  has  been  proved 
concerning  a  ]\IS.  copy  of  the  Chronir/e  of  Windesheim, 
written  in  1477,  and  another  written  in  1478,  which  was 
sold  at  Cologne  in  1823.  2.  Hermann  of  Uyd,  ^vho  wrote 
in  1464  a  description  of  the  convents  belonging  to  the 
Canons  Regular  of  Windesheim,  states  as  positively  as 
Buschius  tliat  Thomas,  with  whom  he  was  personally 
acquainted,  wrote  the  Imitation.  3.  Gaspard  Pforzheim, 
at  the  end  of  his  German  translation  of  the  first  three 
books  of  the  Imitation,  written  in  1448,  declares  that  it 
was  the  work  of  Kempis.  4.  The  author  of  an  anony- 
mous biography  of  Kempis,  written  before  the  year  1488, 
counts  the  Imitation  among  the  works  of  Thomas.  His 
testimony  is  the  more  valuable,  as  he  had  expressly  gone 
to  jNIount  St.  Agnes  to  learn  all  the  ]iarticulars  concern- 
ing Kempis  from  those  who  had  lived  with  him.  5. 
Albert  of  Hardenberg,  a  disciple  of  the  celebrated  Wes- 
sel,  who  was  himself  a  disciple  of  Thomas,  wrote  the 
following  decisive  passages:  "The  reputation  of  the 
excellent  brother  Thomas  a  Kempis  attracted  many 
people  to  him.  About  that  time  he  was  MTiting  the 
book  of  the  Imitation  oj"  Christ,  commencing  Qui  sequi- 
tiir  me.  Wessel  used  to  say  that  this  book  first  rendered 
him  zealously  pious,  and  decided  him  to  become  better 
acquainted,  and  even  familiar,  with  master  Thomas,  so 
that  he  actually,  embraced  monastic  life  in  the  same 
convent  of  St.  Agnes ;"  again :  "  The  monks  of  ilount 
St.  Agnes  have  shown  me  several  writings  of  the  very 
pious  Thomas  a  Kempis,  of  whom  they  have  preserved, 
among  others,  the  trul_v  estimable  work  of  the  Imita- 
tion of  Jesus  Christ,  to  which  A^'essel  owed  his  taste  for 
theologj-.  The  reading  of  this  \\ork  had  decided  him, 
while  jx't  quite  young,  to  go  to  Zwoll  to  study  belles- 
lettres,  and  to  enjoj'  the  friendship  of  the  pious  Thomas 
a  Kem])is,  who  was  then  canon  of  St.  Agnes.  Wessel 
had  the  highest  regard  for  liim,  and  preferred  dwelling 
there  rather  than  anywhere  else."  6.  John  jMauburne, 
a  canon  regular,  who  was  a  novice  of  jMount  St.  Agnes 
under  Renier,  which  latter  had  lived  there  six  years 
with  Thomas  .a  Kempis,  quotes,  in  his  Eosetum  spiritn- 
alium  exercitiorum,  printed  in  1491,  three  passages  of 
the  Imitation,  naming  Kempis  as  its  author.  In  his 
Catalogue  des  hommes  ilhistres  de  la  conf/ret/alion  de  Win- 
desem  (Windesheim)  he  names  three  books  of  the  Imi- 
tation, separately,  as  the  work  of  Thonias. 

These  various  testimonies  are  all  derived  from  learned 
and  trustworthy  men,  all  of  whom,  with  the  exception  of 
one,  were  personally  acciuainted  with  Thomas  a  Kenijiis, 
or  with  persons  who  lived  with  him.  They  are,  more- 
over, given  with  a  simplicity  which  shows  that  they 
did  not  consider  the  question  as  one  at  all  likely  to  give 
rise  to  controversy.  They  appear  so  conclusive  that  it 
is  hardly  necessary  to  mention  other  writers  of  the  15th 
century  who  testified  to  tlie  same  effect.  Trithemius 
(De  tScript.  Ercles.  c.  707)  informs  us  that  in  his  day 
Kempis  was  universally  considered  as  the  autlior  of  the 
Imitiitinn  ;  and  though  after  1441  some  MSS.  and  sul)se- 
qnently  some  editions  bore  the  name  of  Jolm  Gerson, 
everj'  time  the  question  as  to  the  authorship  arose  in  the 
15th  century  it  was  decided  in  favor  of  Kempis.  Thus 
Peter  Schott,  canon  regular  of  Strasburg,  in  the  pref- 
ace to  his  edition  of  the  works  of  John  (ierson  in  1488, 
says:  "Some  treatises  are  attributed  to  John  (Jerson, 
though  well  known  to  have  been  written  by  other  par- 


KEMPIS 


35 


KEMPIS 


ties ;  such,  for  instance,  is  the  work  De  Conlemptu  Mim- 
di,  which  i.s  proved  to  have  heen  written  by  a  canon 
rei^ular  called  Thomas  h  Kempis."  The  publisher  of  the 
French  translation  of  the  Imitation  (Paris.  1493)  ex- 
pressly states  thr.t  Thomas  ;i  Kempis  was  the  author. 
The  publisher  of  the  Nuremberg  edition,  1494,  does  the 
same.  Finally,  Francis  of  Tholen,  successor  of  Thomas 
as  subprior  of  Mount  St.  Agnes,  gives  the  IMS.  copies  of 
the  Iiiii/ation  in  Thomas's  own  handwriting  as  a  proof 
against  Gerson. 

B.  Indirect  Proofs  from  the  various  MSS.  and  Edi- 
tions.— The  oldest  MS.  of  the  Imitation  we  now  possess 
is  that  known  as  Kirchheim's  (in  the  Bourgogne  Li- 
brary, Brussels,  as  No.  15,137);  it  contains  only  the  first 
tlirce  books.  At  the  bottom  of  the  first  page  is  a  note 
saying,  "  Be  it  remarked  that  this  treatise  is  the  work 
of  a  pious  and  learned  man,  master  Thomas  of  jMount 
St.  Agnes,  and  canon  regular  of  Utrecht,  called  Thomas 
a  Kempis.  It  was  copied  from  the  author's  autograph 
in  the  diocese  of  Utrecht  in  the  year  1425,  in  the  cen- 
tral house  of  the  province."  Another  IMS.  of  the  same 
period  was  discovered  in  1852  [by  bishop  MUller,  of 
Minister],  in  the  gymnasium  of  Gadesd'onk,  near  Goch  : 
it  contains  the  first  four  books  of  the  Imitation:  the 
first  he  copied  in  1425,  and  the  last  in  1427.  It  does  not 
give  the  name  of  the  author,  but  a  very  significant  fact 
is  that  it  belonged  originally  to  the  Canons  Kegular  of 
Bethlehem,  near  Dottingheim,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
IVIount  St.  Agnes.  Among  the  other  MSS.  we  notice,  in 
the  first  place,  that  belonging  to  the  Jesuits  of  Anvers, 
which  played  an  important  part  in  the  controversy  re- 
specting the  authorship.  It  is  now  in  the  Bourgogne 
Library,  Brussels,  as  No.  6855-5861.  It  is  all  in  Thom- 
as's own  handwriting,  and,  besides  the  first  four  books 
of  the  Imitation,  it  contains  some  other  treatises  of  Kem- 
pis. It  closes  with  these  words :  "  Finitus  et  completus 
Anno  Domini  1441  per  manus  fratris  Thomre  Kempen- 
sis  in  Monte  S.  Agnetis  prope  Zwollas."  Some  have 
considered  this  as  a  proof  that  he  only  copied  it,  for 
he  used  the  same  formula  concerning  the  copies  of  the 
missal  and  Bible  which  he  wrote  in  1417  and  1438;  but 
it  has  been  ascertained  that  he  used  it  also  in  all  copies 
of  his  own  original  works.  The  Bourgogne  Library, 
Brussels,  preserves  as  No.  4585-4587  a  MS.  of  Thomas 
fi  Kempis  containing  a  collection  of  his  essays,  and 
which  ends  as  follows:  "Anno  1446  finitus  et  scriptus 
per  manus  fratris  Thomaj  Campensis,"  without  otherwise 
naming  Thomas  as  the  author.  This  formula,  there- 
fore, proves  nothing  either  for  or  against  the  claims  of 
Kempis.  But  it  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the  authorship 
of  the  ascetic  treatises  contained  in  the  Anvers  MS.  af- 
ter the  four  books  of  the  Imitation  has  always  been 
unanimously  ascribed  to  Kempis,  and  he  would  certain- 
ly not  have  put  at  the  head  of  them  the  work  of  anoth- 
er which  he  had  merely  copied,  or  he  would  be  open  to 
the  charge  of  deception.  There  are  other  MSS.,  dated 
1441, 1442, 1445,  1447,  and  1451,  as  also  seven  between 
1463  and  148S,  which  name  Kempis  as  the  author  of  the 
Imitation.  Among  the  many  MSS.  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury which  bear  no  precise  date,  but  testify  to  this  au- 
thorship, we  shall  mention  only  that  of  Dalhem,  copied 
by  a  priest  who  said  a  mass  for  Kempis  two  months  af- 
ter the  latter's  death,  and  that  of  the  canons  of  St.  Mar- 
tin of  Louvain,  which  they  received  in  1570  from  the 
last  remaining  members  of  the  congregation  of  Motmt 
St.  Agnes.  It  is  in  Kempis's  own  handwriting,  and  con- 
tains the  first  draft  of  the  fourth  book  of  the  Imitation — 
the  first  he  prepared  in  composing  the  work.  Among 
the  many  editions  of  the  Imitation  published  in  the 
15th  century,  twenty-three  at  least  consider  Kemjiis  as 
the  author;  and  among  these  we  find  the  oldest  of  all, 
published  by  Zainer  (Augsb.  1468-1472). 

C.  Proofs  drawn  froln  the  Doctrines  held  and  the 
Expressions  used  in  the  Imitation. — The  ]irinciples  ad- 
vanced in  the  Imitation  are  in  perfect  accordance  with 
those  held  by  the  founders  of  the  congregation  of  the 
Brethren  of  the  Common  Life,  (icTha.T(\  Groot,' Floren- 


tius  Radewins,  and  John  van  Heusden.  It  may  even 
be  considered  only  as  a  commentary  or  exposition  of 
their  doctrines.  In  judging  it  thus,  criticism,  how- 
ever, does  not  detract  from  the  value  of  this  mas- 
terpiece of  the  second  half  of  the  fourteenth  century. 
Buschius  said  of  its  author,  "Veriis  his  novissimis  teni- 
poribus  hujus  nostraj  terrre  apostolus,  primus  hujus  nos- 
tra3  reformationis  et  totius  modernaj  devotionis  origo."' 
The  word  d^rotio  came  to  be  used  to  designate  the  kind 
of  piety  Groot  sought  to  develop  among  his  disciples, 
and  the  latter  took  the  name  of  devoti.  Now,  in  the 
Imitation  we  find  some  ten  passages  where  the  expres- 
sion devotus  is  used  to  designate  a  particular  class  of  per- 
sons who  applied  themselves  zealously  and  ceaselessly 
to  the  practice  of  religious  exercises,  and  to  which  the 
author  himself  belonged.  Some  eleven  other  passages, 
and  a  whole  chapter  even,  show,  moreover,  that  the  book 
was  written  for  a  religious  community  of  wliich  the  au- 
thor was  also  a  member,  a  fact  quite  incompatible  with 
the  opinion  which  considers  Gerson  as  the  autlior.  We 
can  quote  here  only  three  of  the  most  conclusive  pas- 
sages: "SiT'pe  sentimus,  ut  meliores  et  puriores  in  initio 
conversionis  nos  fuisse  inveniamus,  quam  post  multos 
annos  professionis"  (lib.  i,  ch.  11).  "O  quantus  fervor 
omnium  rcligiosorum  in  principiis  suas  sanctre  institu- 
tionis!  .  .  .  O  temporis  et  negligentioe  status  nostri, 
quod  tam  cito  declinamus  a  pristino  fervore"  (lib.  i, 
ch.  18).  "Suscepi,  suscepi  de  manu  tua  crucem;  por- 
tabo  et  portabo  eam  ustpie  ad  mortem,  sicut  impo- 
suisti  mihi.  Yere  vita  boni  monachi  crux  est ;  sed 
dux  paradisi.  Eia  fratres,  pergamus  simul ;  Jesus  erit 
nobiscum.  Propter  Jesum  suscepimus  banc  crucem ; 
propter  Jesum  perseveremus  in  cruce"  (lib.  iii,  ch.  56). 
Another  and  strong  proof  in  favor  of  Kempis  is  the 
fact  that  the  principles  advanced  in  those  of  his  trea- 
tises the  authorship  of  which  has  not  been  contested 
are  precisely  the  same  as  are  advocated  in  the  Imi- 
tation. More  than  twenty  chapters  in  these  various 
treatises  have  almost  the  identical  headings  of  some  of 
the  Imitation.  Some  have  accounted  for  this  on  the 
ground  of  his  familiarity  with  De  Imita'ione  by  copy- 
ing; but  this  theory  falls  to  the  ground  when  we  con- 
sider that  in  all  his  other  treatises,  more  than  forty  in 
number,  he  nowhere  refers  to  or  quotes  the  Imitation, 
which  he  woukl  not  have  failed  to  do  if  it  were  the  pro- 
duction of  some  other  writer.  Next  to  the  general  re- 
semblance of  these  productions  with  regard  to  their  ten- 
or and  tone,  we  must  notice  their  similarity  of  style. 
The  Imitation  consists  wholly  of  a  series  of  sejiai-ate 
maxims,  pious  reflections,  advice,  axioms,  without  any 
special  connection  of  the  several  parlv?.  A  number  of 
MS.  copies  bore  the  title  Liber  sententiarum  de  Imita- 
iione  Chrisli,  or  A  dmonitiones  ad  spiritualiu  trahentes. 
But  this  is  exactly  Thomas  a  Kempis's  style.  The  writ- 
er's own  description  of  his  manner  of  writing  is  evident- 
ly that  of  the  author  of  the  Imitation :  '•  Vario  etiam 
sermonum  genere,  nunc  loquens,  nunc  disputans,  nunc 
orans,  nunc  colloquens,  nunc  in  propria  persona,  nunc  in 
peregrina,  placido  stylo  textum  pra?scntem  circum  fiexi" 
(Prolog.  Soliloqiii  A  nimcc).  Some  object  to  Kemjiis  on 
the  ground  that  he  was  a  mere  copyist,  who  spent  his 
life  peaceably  in  a  convent,  and  could  not  have  known 
so  intimately  and  accurately  the  yearnings,  the  sublime 
outbursts  of  the  human  heart  which  fill  every  page  of 
the  Imitation.  We  must  remark,  however,  that  tlie 
Canons  Regular  were  not  mere  copyists,  as  the  word  is 
understood  in  our  time,  but  rather  intelligent  ])ubli.sh- 
crs  of  the  works  they  copied,  and  often  men  of  great 
learning.  They  compared  and  corrected  the  works 
which  came  out  of  their  hands  by  the  aid  of  the  best 
authorities,  and,  according  to  Thomas,  their  principal  oc- 
cupations were  orare,  meditare,  studcre,  scribere.  Thom- 
as, as  we  have  seen,  was  especially  intrusted  ^vith  the  in- 
struction of  the  novices,  and,  it  seems,  preached  on  all 
special  occasions,  drawing  large  crowds  by  his  eloquence. 
He  who  seriously  studies  his  own  heart,  moreover,  does 
not  need  to  yo  abroad  in  the  world  to  become  thorough- 


KE3IPIS 


36 


KEMPIS 


ly  acquainted  with  human  nature,  with  its  varied  strug- 
gles, emotions,  and  j^eaniings.  "  I  iiave,"  says  Kenipis 
himself,  "  everywhere  sought  rest,  and  found  it  only  in 
solitude  and  among  books"  (De  Imitat.  Chrisli,  i,  22,  G ; 
23, 1  sq. ;  iii,  54, 1-8).  '■  The  Imitation,"  says  a  writer 
in  the  Revue  Chretienne  (Feb.  1861), "  is  a  great  and  good 
hook.  One  breathes  in  it  the  most  perfect  love  of  God. 
The  author,  whoever  he  may  be,  has  sounded  the  depths 
iif  this  abyss  of  love,  and  the  abyss  attracts  instead  of 
frightening  him.  In  this  faith  resting  on  God  one  feels 
a  passionate  casting  aside  of  the  things  of  this  world, 
and  a  fervent  yearning  for  the  realities  of  a  future  life." 

Another  great  reason  for  assigning  the  work  directly 
to  German  ground,  and  therefore  also  to  Kempis,  are 
the  many  Germanisms  occurring  in  the  Imituiion.  We 
shall  mention  only  five,  but  these  are  sufficient  to  show 
that  the  writer  was  thoroughly  conversant  with  German 
idioms :  Cackre  super,  in  the  sense  of  caring  for  a  thing ; 
jacere  in,  for  to  depend  on ;  (jravitas,  for  difficulty ;  levi- 
rt'i;  for  easily ;  and,  finally,  scire  exterius,  for  to  know  by 
heart.  This  last  is  a  literal  translation  of  the  German 
idiom  (unintelligible  in  any  other),  and  should  have  been 
■memoriter  scire.  Some  have,  on  the  other  hand,  point- 
ed to  several  Gallicisms  in  the  Imitatiun,  but  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris  was  at  that  time  the  centre  of  theolog- 
ical knowledge,  and  it  is  no  wonder  if  some  French  idi- 
oms became  current  expressions  in  the  schools,  w'hile 
this  could  not  be  the  case  with  German.     See  Gerson. 

The  other  works  of  Thomas  a  Kempis,  which  are  all 
of  an  ascetic  character  with  the  exception  of  two,  have 
been  collected  in  several  editions,  none  of  which,  how- 
ever, is  quite  complete.  Among  the  most  important 
editions  are  those  of  Ketelaer,  published  at  Utrecht  a 
few  j-ears  after  Kempis's  death;  of  Paris  (1493.  1520, 
1521, 1523, 1549),  Nuremberg  (1494),Venice  (1535, 1568, 
1576),  Antwerp  (1574).  That  published  at  the  same 
place  in  1600  by  the  Jesuit  Sommalius  is  considered  the 
best,  thougli  it  is  not  complete  ;  it  was  reprinted  at  Ant- 
werp (in  1607  and  1615),  at  Douay  (1635), Cologne  (1660, 
1728,  1754),  etc.  A  German  translation  of  Kempis's 
complete  works  was  published  by  Silbert  (Vienna,  1834, 
4  vols.  8vo).  One  of  the  latest  editions  was  prepared  by 
Krans,  Opera  Omnia  (Treves,  1868, 16mo),  but  the  most 
remarkable  modern  edition  is  a  Heptaglot,  printed  at 
Sulzbach  (1837),  containing,  besides  the  original,  later 
versions  in  Italian,  Spanish,  French,  German,  English, 
and  Greek.  As  for  the  De  Imitatione,  it  has  continued 
in  print  to  the  present  time  in  nearly  aU  the  languages 
of  the  civilized  world. 

Doctrines. — Supposing,  then,  that  Thomas  a  Kempis, 
of  whose  life  and  principal  work  we  have  just  treated, 
actually  floiu-ished  in  the  14th  century,  it  remains  to  be 
seen  in  how  far  his  doctrinal  views  entitle  him  to  prom- 
inence in  the  Christian  Church,  and  to  a  place  among 
the  forerunners  of  the  great  Reformation.  '•  It  is  true 
that  with  him  (Kempis),  in  common  with  aU  eminent 
men,  a  few  governing  thoughts  constitute  the  kernel  of 
his  intellectual  being  .  .  .  but  then  .  .  .  what  we  find 
in  him  is  practical  wisdom  .  .  .  sustained  by  a  deter- 
minate general  tendency  of  life  and  spirit."  It  must  be 
confesried,  also,  that  Thomas's  whole  theory  of  Christian 
life  and  laith,  in  so  far  as  we  see  It  developed  in  his 
writings,  cannot  be  i)roperly  called  original,  for  "  he 
draws  continually  from  the  great  traditionary  stream." 
'•  But,"  says  Ullmann  (ii,  132),  "  even  though  the  mate- 
rial be  not  to  any  great  extent  original,  it  yet  acquires 
through  the  individuality  of  Thomas,  compacting  it 
into  a  Ijeautiful  unity,  a  new  soul,  something  peculiarly 
lovely,  amiable,  and  fresh,  a  tone  of  truth,  a  cheerful- 
HLSS,  and  gentle  warmth  of  heart,  by  virtue  of  which  it 
|iroduces  quite  a  peculiar  etfect." 

For  a  decided  inclination  to  asceticism  we  always 
look  in  characters  of  the  age  to  which  Thomas  ;i  Kem- 
]iis  belonged;  we  do  not,  therefore,  make  room  here"  for 
a  delineation  of  this  part  of  his  character,  but  will  treat 
hastily  (inly  his  pecidiar  views  an  J'cl/oics/ii/i  vith  God. 
••  Where,"  asks  he,  "  can  man  find  that  which  is  tridy 


good,  and  which  cnduringly  satisfies  ?  Not  in  the  mul- 
titude of  things  which  distract,  but  in  the  One  which 
collects  and  unites.  For  the  one  does  not  proceed  out 
of  the  many,  but  the  many  out  of  the  one.  That  one  is 
the  one  thing  needfid,  the  chief  good,  and  nothing  better 
and  higher  either  exists  or  can  even  be  conceived.  .  .  . 
Compared  -with  him  the  creature  is  nothing,  and  only  be- 
comes anything  when  in  fellowship  with  him.  Whatev- 
er is  not  God  is  nothing,  and  sliould  be  counted  as  noth- 
ing" (Be  Imit.  Christi,  iii,  32,  1).  Here  we  find  Thomas 
agreeing  in  words  with  Eckart  of  the  Brethren  of  the 
Free  Sjdrit.  Both  say  God  is  all  and  man  nothing.  But 
with  what  tlifference  of  meaning!  Eckart  understands 
the  projjosition  metaphysically ;  Thomas  understands  it 
morally.  "According  to  l^ckart,  man  only  requires  to 
bear  in  mind  his  true  and  eternal  nature  in  order  to  be 
himself  God;  according  to  Thomas,  God,  as  himself  the 
most  perfect  person,  in  the  exercise  of  free  grace,  and 
from  fulness  of  the  blessings  that  reside  in  him,  is  [ileased 
to  impart  personality  to  men  in  order  that,  although, 
morally  considered,  they  are  themselves  nothing,  they 
may  through  him,  and  in  voluntary  fellowshi|)  with 
him,  attain  to  true  existence  and  eternal  life.  To  entef 
into  fellowship  with  God,  the  chief  good  and  fountain 
of  blessethiess,  and  to  become  one  with  him,  is  the  basis 
of  all  true  contentment.  But  how  can  two  such  par- 
ties, God  and  man,  the  Creator  and  the  creature,  be 
brought  together  ?  God  is  in  heaven  and  man  on  earth ; 
God  is  perfect,  and  man  sensual,  vain,  and  sinful.  There 
must,  therefore,  be  mediation — some  way  in  which  God 
comes  to  man,  and  man  to  God,  and  both  unite.  This 
union  of  man  with  God  depends  upon  a  twofold  condi- 
tion, one  negative  and  the  other  positive.  The  nega- 
tive is  that  man  shall  wholly  renoimce  what  can  give 
him  no  true  peace.  He  must  forsake  the  ^vorld,  which 
offers  to  him  such  hardship  and  distress,  and  whose  very 
pleasures  turn  into  pains ;  he  must  detach  himself  from 
the  creatures,  for  nothing  defiles  and  entangles  the  heart 
so  much  as  impure  love  of  them ;  and  only  when  a  man 
has  advanced  so  far  as  no  longer  to  seek  consolation 
from  any  creature  does  he  enjoy  God,  and  find  consola- 
tion in  him ;  he  must,  in  fine,  deny  himself,  and  wholly 
renounce — be  dead  to — selfishness  and  self-love,  for  who-> 
ever  loves  himself  will  find,  wherever  he  seeks,  only  his 
own  little,  mean,  sinfid  self,  without  being  able  to  find 
God.  This  last  is  the  hardest  of  all  tasks,  and  can  only 
be  attained  by  deep  and  earnest  self-acquaintance.  But 
whosoever  strictl)^  exercises  self-examination  will  infal- 
libly come  to  recognise  himself  in  his  meanness,  little- 
ness, and  nonentity,  and  will  be  led  to  the  most  perfect 
humility,  entire  contrition,  and  ardent  longing  after 
God.  For  only  when  man  has  become  little  and  noth- 
ing in  his  own  eyes  can  God  become  great  to  him ;  only 
when  he  has  emptied  himself  of  all  created  things  can 
God  replenish  him  with  his  grace.  .  .  .  Having  con- 
densed his  whole  doctrine  into  the  short  rule,  'Part  iriih 
all,  and  then  Jind  all,^  he  immediately  subjoms,  '  Lord, 
this  is  not  the  work  of  a  day,  nor  a  game  for  children. 
These  few  words  include  all  perfection.'  Here,  accord- 
ingly, an  efficacy  nutst  intervene  which  is  superior  to 
human  strength.  This  efficacy  is  divine  love  imparting 
itself  to  man,  and  becoming  the  mediatrix  between  God 
and  him,  between  heaven  and  earth.  Love  brings  to- 
gether the  holy  God  who  dwells  in  heaven  arid  the  sin- 
ful creature  upon  earth,  uniting  that  which  is  most 
humble  with  that  which  is  most  exalted.  It  is  the 
truth  that  makes  man  free,  'Juit  the  highest  truth  is  love. 
Divine  love,  imparting  and  manifesting  itself  to  man.  is 
grace.  God  sheds  forth  his  love  into  the  heart  of  man, 
who  thereby  acquires  liberty,  peace,  and  ability  for  all 
good  things;  and,  made  partaker  of  this  love,  man  reck- 
ons as  worthless  all  that  is  less  .than  God,  loving  God 
only,  and  loving  himself  no  more,  or,  if  at  all,  only  for 
God's  sake.  .  .  .  '  He  who  has  tnie  and  perfect  love 
does  not  seek  himself  in  anything,  but  only  desires  that 
(iod  may  be  glorified.  He  cares  not  to  have  joy  in 
himself,  but  refers  all  to  God,  from  whom,  as  their  source, 


KEMPIS 


KEX 


all  blessings  flov;-,  and  in  whom,  as  their  final  end,  all 
siilnts  lind  a  blissful  repose'"  (UUmann,  ii,  140  sq.). 

Naturall)'  enough,  Thomas  a  Kempis  shares  the  no- 
tion of  his  day — of  almost  the  whole  medieval  period 
—  in  reckoning  monachism  the  highest  stage  of  the 
Christian  life,  and  the  monk  the  perfect  Christian.  But 
this  is  due,  first  of  aU,  to  the  high  ideal  which  Thomas 
had  of  monachism,  and  of  which  he  was  himself  no 
mean  example.  Asceticism,  therefore,  characterizes  all 
he  writes.  Indeed,  even  a  taint  of  the  Pelagianism  of 
the  mediajval  theology  fastens  also  upon  him,  and  is  es- 
pecially manifest  in  those  of  his  writings  which  are  de- 
voted to  the  delineation  and  recommendalion  of  the 
monastic  life,  where  the  notion  of  merit  plays  a  not  nn- 
important  part,  and  the  centre  of  Thomas's  whole  re- 
ligious system  constitutes,  not  justification  by  faith,  but 
reconciliutiou  by  love.  It  is  even  true  that  "Thomas 
was  a  strict  Catholic,  and  directly  impugned  nothing 
which  had  received  the  sanction  of  the  Church,"  and 
that  "he  practiced  with  great  zeal  the  whole  divine 
worship  as  it  then  obtained,  and  which,  as  such,  appear- 
ed to  him  just  what  it  ought  to  be.  He  insists  with  par- 
ticular urgency  upon  ■what  is  so  characteristically  Ifo- 
mish,  prayers  for  the  dead  offered  through  the  medium 
of  the  mass,  especially  the  adoration  of  the  saints,  among 
whom  he  chiefly  worships  the  i)atron  saints  of  his  own 
monastery,  and,  most  of  all,  the  service  of  IMary,  to 
Avhom  he  ascribes  so  important  a  share  in  the  divine 
government  of  the  world  as  to  say  of  her, '  How  could  a 
world  which  is  so  full  of  sin  endure  unless  IMarj',  with  the 
saints  in  heaven,  were  daily  praying  for  it'?'  (Be  Discip, 
C/ciustr.  cap.  xiv;  comp.  /Sermon,  ad  Novit.  iii,  4,  p.  84; 
and  see  also  Trithemius,  ]Je  Scrijyt.  eccl.  c.  707,  p.  164; 
Specul.  Exemplar.  Dist.  x,  §  7).  He  no  less  acknowl- 
edges the  existing  hierarchy  and  ecclesiastical  constitu- 
tion in  their  whole  extent,  together  with  the  priesthood 
in  its  function  of  mediating  between  God  and  man;" 
but,  if  he  docs  not  attack,  neither  does  he  defend  or  es- 
tabUsh  any,  while,  in  many  respects,  he  may  be  said,  by 
his  negative  position,  to  have  not  only  actually  destroy- 
ed the  influence  of  the  Church,  but  really  to  have  paved 
the  way  for  reform.  However  true  it  be  that  "  Thomas 
is  not  intent ioimll 11  a  reformer  ...  he  nevertheless  is  a 
reformer, for  he  desired  the  selfsame  objects  as  Luther;" 
for  the  I'ormer,  like  the  latter,  cver^nvherc  insists  upon 
the  Christian  principles  of  spirituality  and  freedom 
which  formed  the  very  basis  of  the  Lutheran  Reforma- 
tion. In  the  12th  century  mysticism  was  the  defender 
of  the  Church,  but  not  so  the  practical  mysticism  of  the 
loth  century,  as  exhibited  by  the  Brethren  of  the  Com- 
mon Life,  and  especially  by  Thomas.  By  this  time  the 
tal)les  had  turned  completely.  The  position  once  occu- 
pied b}'  scholasticism  was  no-\v  assumed,  in  a  measure, 
by  mysticism,  and  it  became,  though  perhaps  only  cov- 
ertly and  unintentionaUy,  the  opponent  of  the  Church ; 
it  founded  or  gave  life  to  the  instittitions  which  sent 
forth  tlie  most  influential  precursors — the  very  leaders 
of  the  great  German  reform— and  in  many  other  respects 
"  directly  or  indirectly  exercised  a  positive  influence 
upon  the  Reformation."  For  did  not  the  Brethren  of 
the  Common  Life  labor  in  many  new  ways  to  prepare 
the  way  for  the  great  reforms  of  the  lt?th  century? 
Who  but  they  afforded  religious  instruction  to  the  peo- 
ple in  their  mother  tongue,  and  sought  their  improve- 
ment by  every  means — educated  the  young,  and  circu- 
lated the  Bible?  "And,  inasmuch  as  h,  Kempis  also 
belongs  to  that  side,  inasmuch  as  he  is  manifestly  anti- 
scholastical,  gives  prominence  to  the  religious  and  moral 
import  of  the  dogma,  and  applies  it  almost  exclusively 
to  the  use  of  the  mystical  and  ascetical  life,  we  must, 
from  a  regard  for  his  edifj'ing  character,  ascribe  to  him 
a  real,  although  an  indirect  influence  on  the  dissolution 
of  the  creed"  (UUmann,  ii,  158). 

See  Brewer,  Thomre  h  Kempis  Bior/raphia ;  UUmann, 
Reformers  before  the  Reformation,  W,  1\4  sq. ;  Bahring, 
Thomas  a  Kempis  nach  seinem  diisseren  ii.  inneren  Le- 
ben  dargestellt  (Berlin,  1854,  8vo) ;  Jlooren,  Nachrichten 


ii.  Thomas  a  Kempis  (Crefeld,  1855,  12mo) ;  Rosweydo, 
VindicicK  Kempenses  ;  J.  Fronteau,  Kempis  Vindicatus  ; 
Heser,  Bioptra  Kemjiensis ;  Th.  Carre,  Thomce  a  Kempis 
a  seipso  restitutus  ;  Ens.  Amort,  Plena  Informatio  de  statu 
controversiee  quw.  de  uiictore  libelli  de  Imitatione  Chrisii 
ayitatur,  etc.;  Y>(;\\^xaX,Verhandelinf/  over  het  Broodir- 
schap  van  G.  Groot  (Leyden,  185G)  ;  Scholz,  Dissertatio 
qua  Thomce  a  Kemjns  sententia  de  re  Christiana  exponi- 
tur,  etc.  (Gronmg.  1839) ;  Malou,  Recherches  historiqucs 
et  critiques  sur  le  veritable  auteur  du  livre  de  Vlinitaiion 
de  Jesus  Christ  (Louvain,  1849)— the  most  recent  and 
best  account  of  the  details  of  the  discussion  on  the  au- 
thorship of  the  Imitation;  Herzog,  Reed-Encyklopddie ; 
Schrockh,  Kirchengesch.  xxxiv,  302  ;  Erhard,  Gesch.  dcs 
WiederuufblUhens,  i,  2G3 ;  Gieseler,  Kirchengesch.  ii,  4, 
p.  347;  Hodgson  (William),  Reformers  before  the  Ref- 
ormation (Philada.  18G7,  r2mo),  chap,  x ;  Kiihn,  in  the 
Rev.  Chret.  Aug.  1857 ;  Contemp.  Rev.  Sept.  18GG ;  Meth. 
Quart.  Rev.  Oct.  185G,  p.  G42;  Am.  Presb.  Review,  .Tan. 
18G3,  p.  1G4 ;  Jahrb.  deutsch.  Theol.  x,  1.      (J.  H.  AV.) 

Kemu'el  [some  Kem'uel}  (Keh.Kemuel',  bx^irp, 
perhaps  helper  of  God,  otherwise  assembly  of  God;  Sept. 
KapovliX),  the  name  of  three  men. 

1.  The  third  son  of  Abraham's  brother  Nahor,  and 
father  of  six  sons  (Gen.  xxii,  21),  all  unknown  except 
the  last,  Bcthucl,  who  was  the  father  of  Laban  and  Re- 
bekali  (Gcn.xxiv,  15).  B.C.  cir.  2090.  As  the  name  of 
Ai-am,  the  first-born,  is  also  the  Hebrew  name  of  Syria, 
some  commentators  have  most  strangely  conceived  that 
the  Syrians  were  descended  from  liim ;  but  Syria  was 
already  peopled  ere  he  was  born,  Laban  (Gen.  xxviii,  5) 
and  Jacob  (Deut.  xxvi,  5)  being  both  called  "  Syrians," 
although  neither  of  them  was  descended  from  Kemuel's 
son  Aram.  The  misconception  originated  with  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  which  in  this  case  renders  d'nX  "^nN,  "  father 
of  Aram,"  by  Trnrtpa  Si'pwj',  "father  of  the  Sj'rians." — 
Kitto.     See  Aram.  • 

2.  Son  of  Shiphtan  and  phylarch  of  Ephraim,  ap- 
pointed commissioner  on  behalf  of  that  tribe  to  partition 
the  land  of  Canaan  (Numb,  xxxiv,  24).     B.C.  1G18. 

3.  A  Levite,  father  of  Ilashabiah,  which  latter  was 
one  of  the  roval  ofiiccrs  under  David  and  Solomon  (1 
Chron.  xxvii,  17).     B.C.  1014. 

Ken,  Thomas,  D.D.,  bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells,  a 
distinguished  nonjuror  divine,  was  born  at  Berkham- 
Etead,  Hertfordshire,  in  July,  1637.  He  was  educated 
at  Winchester  School  and  New  College,  Oxford.  About 
1G66  he  entered  the  Church,  and  became  chaplain  to 
bishop  Morley,  who  in  1GG9  secured  for  him  a  prebend 
in  Westminster.  In  1G74  he  visited  Rome,  and  on  his 
return  in  1G79  was  made  D.D.  About  the  same  time 
he  was  appointed  to  the  household  of  the  princess  of 
Orange ;  but  the  strictness  of  his  mora!  and  religious 
principles  having  displeased  prince  'Winiam,  he  soon  left 
Holland,  and  accompanied  lord  Dartmouth  in  his  expe- 
dition against  the  pirates  of  Tangier.  On  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  latter,  he  was,  on  their  return  in  1(;84, 
appointed  chaplain  to  Charles  II,  and  knew  how  to  main- 
tain the  dignity  of  his  office  unspotted  in  the  midst  of 
that  monarch's  licentious  court.  It  is  said  that  once,  as 
the  king  was  on  a  visit  to  Winchester,  Ken  refused  to 
receive  the  favorite.  El eonora  (iwynn,  into  his  house; 
the  king,  however,  praised  highly  the  dignity  of  the 
prelate's  character  instead  of  resenting  this  refusal, 
and  only  remarked,  "  IMistrcss  Gwynn  will  find  other 
lodgings."  In  the  very  same  year  (1684)  Ken  was  pro- 
moted to  the  bishopric  of  Bath  and  Wells.  During 
the  reign  of  James  II,  when  the  Church  of  England 
seemed  threatened  with  inroads  from  the  papacy,  bish- 
op Ken  stood  forth  one  of  the  most  zealous  guardians 
of  the  national  Church,  stoutly  opposing  .any  attempts 
to  introduce  popery  into  Great  Britain.  He  did  not,  in- 
deed, take  an  active  part  in  the  famous  popish  contro- 
versy which  agitated  the  reign  of  king  James  II  so 
briskly,  but  lie  was  far  from  being  unmindful  of  the 


KENAN 


KENAZ 


danger,  and  while  others  worked  by  their  pen,  he  as 
actively  labored  in  the  j)ul|iit,  and  boldly  took  every 
occasion  to  refute  the  errors  of  Romanism ;  nor  did  lie 
hesitate,  when  the  dan!j;er  of  the  hour  seemed  to  require 
it,  to  set  before  the  royal  court  its  injurious  and  un- 
manly politics  in  ecclesiastical  affairs.  Some  have  as- 
serted that  bishop  Ken  was  at  one  time  won  over  to  the 
papal  side,  either  at  this  time  or  later  in  life,  but  against 
this  assertion  speaks  his  decided  stand  in  l(i«8,  when  he 
protested  energetically  against  the  Edict  of  Tolerance, 
and  his  refusal,  when  the  Declaration  of  Indulgence  was 
strictly  commanded  to  be  read,  by  virtue  of  a  dispensing 
power  claimed  by  the  king,  to  comply  with  the  demand 
of  his  king.  Bishop  Ken  was  one  of  the  seven  bishops 
who  signed  a  petition  to  the  king  protesting  against 
tlie  act,  and  who  were  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  for 
their  insubordination.  After  the  Eevolution,  however, 
he  proved  his  steadfastness  to  his  royal  master  by  his 
refusal  to  take  the  oath  of  obedience  to  William  of 
Orange,  and  thereby  lost  his  bishopric.  Even  his  polit- 
ical adversaries,  ho^vever,  could  not  but  resi)ect  such 
conduct,  and  queen  iNIary,  whose  chaplain  he  had  been, 
provided  for  him  by  pension.  lie  retired  to  Longleate, 
in  Wiltshire,  and  there  died,  March  19, 1711.  Ken  was 
an  eminently  jiious  man,  and  jiossessed  great  learning 
and  talents.  While  in  the  bishopric  he  published  an 
Exposition  of  the  Church  Catechism  (Lond.  1G8(),  8vo), 
and  Prai/ersfor  the  Use  of  Bath  and  Wells  (Lond.  1G8G, 
12mo,  and  often).  Later  he  composed  a  Manual  of 
Prayers  (Lond.  1712,  12mo)  : — Exjjosition  of  the  Creed 
(Lond.  1852,  12rao),  etc.  He  also  wrote  much  poetry, 
which  remains  popiUar  to  this  day.  His  works  were 
lirst  published  at  London  in  1721,  in  4  vols.  8vo;  also 
Prose  Works  (London,  1838,  8vo).  See  W.L.Bowles, 
Life  of  Thomas  Ken  (Lond.  1830-31,  2  vols.  8vo) ;  Life 
of  Thomas  Ken,  by  a  Layman  (Lond.  1851,  8vo) ;  Haw- 
kins, Zzye  of  Ken  (1713);  Duj'ckinck,  ZZ/e  of  Bishop 
Thomas  Ken  (N.  Y.  1859) ;  Burnet,  Own  Times ;  Gentle- 
man's Mar/azine,  vol.  Ixxxiv;  Stoughton,  Eccles.  Hist, 
of  the  Emjl.  Church  of  the  Restoration  (Lond.  1870, 2  vols. 
8vo),  ii,  87,  97,  141  sq.,  278,  4G0 ;  Darling,  Cyclopmdia 
Bibliorp-aphica,  ii,  1713;  Allibone,  Ziic^  of  English  and 
American  Authors,  ii,  s.  v.;  Strickland  (Agnes),  Lives 
of  the  Seven  Bishops  (Lond.  18GG,  12mo),  p.  234  sq.      (.J. 

ii.  w.) 

Ke'nan  (1  Chron.  i,  2).     See  Caixan, 

'K.e'n^th.(l\ch.Kenath',T':'^, possession;  Sept. Ka- 
vd^),  a  city  of  Gilead,  captured,  with  its  environs,  from 
the  Canaanites  by  Nobah  (apparently  an  associate  or 
relative  of  .lair),  and  afterwards  called  by  his  name 
(Numb.  xxxiii,42;  compare  .Judg.viii,  11);  although  in 
the  ])arallel  passage  (1  Chron.  ii,  23)  the  cai)ture  seems 
not  to  be  distinguished  from  the  exploits  of  ,Tair  him- 
self, a  circum^ance  that  may  aid  to  explain  the  appar- 
ent discrepancy  in  the  number  of  villages  ascribed  to 
the  latter.  SeeJAiR.  Eusebius  and  Jerome  (O«owrts^ 
s.  V.)  call  It  Kanathd  (Kava^u),  and  reckon  it  as  a  part 
of  Arabia  (Trachonitis).  It  is  probably  the  Canatha 
(Kdi'a^a)  mentioned  by  Ptolemy  (v,  15,  and  23)  as  a 
city  of  the  Decapolis  (v,  16),  and  also  by  Josephus  ( War, 
i,  19,2)  as  being  situated  in  Culi-Syria.  In  the  time 
of  the  latter  it  was  inhabited  l>y  Arabians,  who  defeated 
the  troops  led  against  them  by  Herod  the  Great.  In 
the  Peutinger  Tables  it  is  placed  on  the  road  leading 
from  Damascus  to  Bostra,  twenty  miles  from  the  latter 
(Relaiid,  Pal.  p.  421).  It  became  the  seat  of  a  bishopric 
in  the  5th  century  (id.  ]i.  G.s2).  All  these  notices  indicate 
some  locality  in  tlu'  llaurau  (Auranitis)  (ilcland.raldst. 
p.  G81),  where  Burckhardt  found,  two  miles  northeast 
of  Suweidah,  the  ruins  of  a  place  called  Kunawat  (Trav. 
in  Syria,  p.  83-G), doubtless  the  same  mentioned  by  Kev. 
E.  Smith  (Robinson's /i'e«mrc7(es,  iii.  Append,  p.  157)  in 
the  .lebel  Hauran  (see  also  Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  "223). 
This  situation,  it  is  true,  is  rather-distant  north-easterly 
for  Kcnatli,  which  lay  not  far  licyond  .Togl)eliah  ( .Fudg. 
viii,  11),  and  within  the  territory  of  Manasseh  (Numb. 


xxxiii,  39-42),  but  the  boundaries  of  the  tribe  in  this 
direction  seem  to  have  been  quite  indelinite.  See  Ma- 
NASSEH,  East.  The  suggestion  that  Kenairat  was  Ke- 
nath  seems,  however,  to  have  been  lirst  made  by  Gese- 
nius  in  his  notes  to  Biu-ckhardt  (A.D.  1823,  p.  505).  An- 
other Kenawat  is  marked  on  Van  de  Yelde's  map  about 
ten  miles  farther  to  the  west.  The  former  place  was 
visited  by  I'orter  {Damascus,  ii,  87-115),  who  describe* 
it  as  "beautifully  situated  in  the  midst  of  oak  forests, 
on  the  western  declivities  of  the  mountains  of  Bashan, 
twenty  miles  north  of  Bozrah.  The  ruins,  which  cover 
a  space  a  mile  long  and  half  a  mile  wide,  are  among  the 
luiest  and  most  interesting  east  of  the  Jordan.  They 
consist  of  temples,  palaces,  theatres,  towers,  and  a  hip- 
podrome of  the  Roman  age  ;  one  ox  two  churches  of  ear- 
ly Christian  times,  and  a  great  number  of  massive  pri- 
vate houses,  with  stone  roofs  and  stone  doors,  which 
were  jirobably  built  by  the  ancient  Rephaim.  The  city 
walls  are  in  some  places  nearly  perfect.  In  front  of  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  temples  is  a  colossal  head 
of  Ashteroth,  a  deity  which  seems  to  have  been  wor- 
shipped here  before  the  time  of  Abraham,  as  one  of  the 
chief  cities  of  Bashan  was  then  called  Ashteroth-Kar- 
naim  (Gen.  xiv,  5).  Kunawat  is  now  occupied  by  a  few 
families  of  Druses,  who  find  a  home  in  the  old  houses" 
{Handbook  for  Palest,  p.  512  sq. ;  comp.  Ritter,  Pal.  and 
Syr.  ii,  931-939;  Buckingham,  Travels  amonij  the  Arab 
Tribes,  p.  240). 

Ke'naz  (Ileb.  Kenaz',  13 p,  hunter ;  Sept.  Ktj/t^,  but 
in  1  Chron.  i,  3G  v.  r.  K^^{^),  the  name  of  three  or  four 
men. 

1.  The  last  named  of  the  sons  of  Eliphaz,  Esau's  first- 
born ;  he  became  the  chieftain  of  one  of  the  petty  Edom- 
itish  tribes  of  Arabia  Petraja  (Gen.  xxxvi,  11,  15;  1 
Chron.  1,36).  B.C.  post  1905.  "The  descendants  of 
Esau  did  not  settle  within  the  limits  of  Edom.  The  Itu- 
rreans  migrated  northward  to  the  borders  of  DamasciLs; 
Amalek  settled  in  the  desert  between  Egypt  and  Pales- 
tine; Teman  went  westward  into  Arabia.  We  are  jus- 
tified, therefore,  in  inferring  that  Kenaz  also  may  have 
led  his  family  and  followers  to  a  distance  from  Mount 
Seir.  Forster  maintains  (Geor/raphy  of  Arabia,  11,43) 
that  the  tribe  of  Kenaz,  or  Al-Kenaz  with  the  Arabic 
article  prefixed,  are  identical  with  the  Lnkeni  or  Lteeni 
of  Ptolemy,  a  tribe  dwelling  near  the  shores  of  the  Per- 
sian Gulf  {Geoy.  vi,  7),  and  these  he  would  further  iden- 
tif}'  with  the  iEnezes  (pioyjCTly  Anezeh),  the  largest  and 
most  powerful  tribe  of  Bedawhi  in  Arabia.  It  is  possible 
that  the  Hebrew  Koph  may  have  been  changed  into  the 
Arabic  Ain;  in  other  respects  the  names  are  identical. 
The  ^Enezes  cover  the  desert  from  the  Euphrates  to 
Sj'ria,  and  from  Alejipo  on  tlie  north  to  the  mountains 
of  Nejd  on  the  south.  It  is  said  that  they  can  bring 
into  the  field  10,000  horsemen  and  90,000  carael-riders, 
and  they  are  kirds  of  a  district  some  40,000  square  miles 
in  area  (Burckhardt,  Xotes  on  the  Bedouins  and  Waha- 
bys,  1  sq. ;  Porter,  Handbook  for  Syria  and  Palest,  p.  536 
sq.)"  (Kitto).     See  Kexizzite. 

2.  Successor  of  Pinon,  and  predecessor  of  Teman 
among  the  later  Edomitish  emirs  ("dukes"),  who  ap- 
pear to  have  been  contemporary  with  the  Horite  kings 
(Gen.  xxxvi,  42 ;  1  Chron.  i,  53).  B.C.  considerably 
ante  1G58.     See  Esau. 

3.  The  younger  brother  of  Caleb  and  father  of  0th- 
niel  (afterwards  judge),  who  married  Caleb's  daughter 
(Josh.  XV.  17  ;  Judg.  i,  13)  ;  he  had  also  another  son.  Se- 
raiah  (1  Chron.  iv,  13).  B.C.  post  1698.  On  account 
of  this  double  relationship  Caleb  is  sometimes  called  a 
Kksezite  (Numb,  xxxiii,  12;  Josh,  xiv,  6, 14),  whence 
some  have  maintained  that  he  was  the  son  rather  than 
brother  of  Kenaz. 

4.  Son  of  Elah,  ajid  grandson  of  Caleb,  the  sun  of 
.Jeplnnmeh  (1  Chron.  iv,  15,  where  the  margin  under- 
stands "even  Kenaz,"  tlp^,  as  a  proper  name.  Uknaz). 
B.C.  post  1G18. 


KENDAL 


39 


KENITE 


Kendal,  Samuel,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
born  at  Sherburne,  Mass.,  July  11,  17r>3,  of  humble  par- 
entage. Young  Kendal  labored  hard  to  secure  for  him- 
self the  advantages  of  a  thorough  education,  with  a  view 
to  entering  the  ministry.  When  about  ready  to  go  to 
college  the  Kevolution  broke  out,  and  he  entered  the 
army.  He  finally  went  to  Cambridge  University  when 
25  years  old,  and  graduated  in  1782;  studied  theology 
under  the  sliadow  of  the  same  institution,  and  settled 
over  the  Congregational  Church  at  Weston,  IMass.,  as 
an  ordained  pastor,  Nov.  5, 1783.  In  180(5  Yale  College 
conferred  the  degree  of  D.D.  on  Mr.  Kendal.  He  died 
Feb.  15,  1814.  He  published  many  of  his  Sei-mons  (from 
17n3-1813).  Dr.  Kendal  "stood  high  among  the  clergy 
of  his  day,  and  was  ...  an  acceptable  preacher."  Of 
his  religious  opinions,  Dr.  James  Kendal  says  (in  Sprague, 
AmuiLijViih  180), '•  he  was  classed  with  those  who  are 
denominated '  liberal,'  and  was  probably  an  Arian,  though 
I  think  he  was  little  disposed  either  to  converse  or  to 
preach  on  controversial  subjects." 

Kendal],  George  (1),D.D.,  an  English  Calvinis- 
tic  divine,  who  flourished  abou't  the  middle  of  the  17th 
century,  was  prebend  of  Exeter  and  rector  of  Blisland, 
Cornwall,  at  the  Kestoration,  whgn,  on  account  of  non- 
conformity, he  was  ejected.  He  died  in  1(563.  He  is 
noted  as  tlie  author  of  an  able  treatise  on  the  Calvinistic 
faith,  entitled  Vindication  of  (he  Doctrine  of  Pi-edestina- 
tion  (Lond.  1653,  fol.).  Another  noted  work  is  his  reply 
to  John  Goodwin,  Defence  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Perse- 
verance of  the  Saints  (1054,  fol.).  See  Allibone,  i^iW. 
of  A  mcr.  and  Enf.  A  utluns,  ii,  s.  v. 

Kendall,  George  (2),  a  Methodist  minister,  was 
born  about  the  year  1815,  was  converted  at  the  age  of  16, 
and  joined  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  In  1845  he 
joined  the  Southern  Church.  He  was  licensed  to  preach 
about  1858,  and  upon  the  reorganization  of  the  IMcthod- 
ist  Episcopal  Church  in  Georgia  after  the  war,  he  was 
amoiig  the  first  to  return  to  the  Northern  Church.  He 
was  ordained  deacon  by  bishop  Clark  at  jMurfreesbor- 
ongh,  Tenn.,  and  continued  to  labor  as  a  missionary 
among  his  people  until  the  organization  of  this  Confer- 
ence, when  he  was  received  on  trial  and  appointed  to 
Clayton  Circuit.  In  1808  he  was  ajipointed  to  Clark 
Chapel,  Atlanta,  and  in  1860  and  1870  to  White  Water 
Circuit.  He  died  there  April  12, 1871.  His  dying  words, 
"  The  gates  are  open  and  I  must  go,"  give  assurance  that 
he  passed  away  as  one  of  the  fathers,  after  a  useful  and 
happy  life,  to  the  rest  that  remaineth  to  the  people  of 
God. — Minnies  of  Conferences,  1871,  p.  278. 

Kendall,  John,  a  prominent  Quaker,  was  born  in 
Colchester,  England,  in  1726;  entered  the  ministrj' when 
21  years  old,  and  in  1750  accompanied  Daniel  Stanton 
on  a  religious  visit  through  the  northern  parts  of  Eng- 
land. He  was  active  in  the  work  for  over  sixty  years, 
and  encouraged  many  "  to  the  exercise  both  of  civil  and 
religious  duties."  He  died  Jan.  27, 1815. — Janney,  Hist, 
of  the  Friends,  iv,  44  sq. 

Kendrick,  Bennett,  an  early  Methodist  Episco- 
pal minister,  was  a  native  of  Mecklenburg  Co.,Va. ;  en- 
tered the  itinerancy  in  1789;  was  stationed  at  Wilming- 
ton in  1802;  at  Charleston  in  1803-4;  at  Columbia  in 
1805 ;  presiding  elder  on  Camden  District  in  1807,  and 
died  April  5  of  that  year.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  nqt 
given,  but  he  died  j^oung.  He  was  a  man  of  much 
gravity,  piety,  and  intelligence,  and  was  a  studious  and 
skilful  preacher  of  the  AVord.  His  ministry  was  very 
useful,  and  his  early  death  was  a  loss  to  his  Conference 
and  tlie  Church. — Min.  of  Conferences,  i,  150.    ((i.  L.T.) 

Kendrick,  Clark,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  born  in 
Hanover,  N.  11.,  Oct.  6,  1775.  After  teaching  school  for 
a  time,  he  finally  turned  his  attention  to  preaching,  and 
became  pastor  of  the  Baptist  Church  at  Poultney,  Vt., 
where  he  was  ordained,  May  20, 1802.  He  had  in  1810 
been  appointed  a  delegate  to  the  Vermont  Association, 
of  which  he  remained  a  member  all  his  life.  He  also 
made  several  missionary  tours,  aside  from  his  regular 


pastoral  duties.  Mr.  Kendrick  had  early  interested  him- 
self in  the  subject  of  foreign  missions,  and  when,  in  1813. 
the  Baptist  General  Convention  for  the  Promotion  of 
Missions  was  established,  he  immediately  advocated  an 
auxiliary  in  his  own  state,  and  it  was  forpied.  He 
was  elected  first  vice-president,  and  in  1817  became  its 
corresponding  secretary,  which  office  he  held  until  his 
death.  In  1819  he  received  the  honorary  degree  of 
M.A.  from  tlie  Middlebury  College.  He  was  chiefly  in- 
strumental in  forming  the  Baptist  Education  Society  of 
the  State  of  Vermont,  of  which  he  was  chosen  presi- 
dent, and  afterwards  appointed  agent.  In  this  connec- 
tion he  co-operated  witli  tlie  Baptists  of  Central  and 
Western  New  York  for  the  benefit  of  IMadison  Univers- 
ity, Hamilton.  He  died  Feb.  29,  1824.  Mr.  Kendrick 
published  a  pamphlet  entitled  Plain  Dealinrj  with  the  Pc- 
do-Bu]3tists,  etc.,  and  some  occasional  Sennons. — Sprague, 
Annals,  vi,  379. 

Kendrick,  Nathaniel,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister 
of  note,  was  born  in  Hanover,  N.  II.,  April  22,  1777. 
His  early  education  was  limited,  and  he  was  at  first  en- 
gaged in  agricidtural  pursuits.  Having  joined  the  Bap- 
tist Church  in  1798,  he  felt  called  to  preach,  and,  after 
studying  with  that  view,  was  licensed  in  the  fpring  of 
1803.  He  supplied  for  about  a  year  the  Baptist  socictj- 
in  Bellingham,Mass. ;  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  church 
at  Lansingburgh, N.  Y.,  in  Aug.,  1805;  and  from  thence 
removed  in  1810  to  Middlebury,  Vt.  In  1817  he  became 
pastor  of  the  churches  of  Eaton,  N.  Y.,  and  in  1822  he 
was  elected  professor  of  theology  and  moral  ]ihiIosophy 
in  Madison  University,  N.  Y.,  with  which  institution  he 
remained  connected  until  his  death,  Sept.  11. 1848.  In 
1823  he  was  made  D.D.  by  Brown  University,  and  in 
1825  one  of  the  overseers  of  Hamilton  College.  Dr. 
Kendrick  published  two  or  three  occasional  Sermons. 
See  Sprague,  yl ?i«a&,  vi,  482 ;  A.^\Ae.tan,  American  Cy- 
clopcedia,  x,  185. 

Ken'ezite  (Numb,  xxxii,  12;  Josh.  xiv,0, 14"^.  See 
Kexizzite, 

Ken'ite  [some  Ke'nite']  {^i^p,,  Keijni',  prob.  from 
"jlp,  to  worh  in  iron,  Gen.  xv,  19 ;  Numb.  xxi,v,  21 ; 
Judg.  i,  16;  iv,  11,  17;  v,  24;  1  Sam.  xv,  6;  xxx,  29; 
written  also  "'3|!!,  Kent',  1  Sam.  xxvii,  10;  and  plural, 
£"'2^1?',  Kinim',  1  Chron.  ii,  55  ;  Sept.  Kf7'«(0(,  Gen.  xv, 
19;  Kf ?'a7oc,  Numb,  xxiv,  21;  Judg.  iv,  11,  17;  V.ivaloi, 
1  Chron.  ii,  55 ;  Ku'rtToc,  Judg.  i,  16 ;  v,  24  ;  1  Sam.  xv,  6 ; 
Kfi'i  V.  r.  Kfi'fi^i,  1  Sam.  xxvii,  10;  xxx,  29;  Vulg.  Ci- 
ncei.  Gen.  xv,  19 ;  1  Chron.  ii,  55 ;  Cinaus,  Numb,  xxiv, 
21 ;  Judg,  i,  16 ;  iv,  11, 17  ;  v,  24 ;  1  Sam.  xv,  6 ;  Ceni,  1 
Sam.  xxvii,  10;  xxx,  29;  Auth.Vers.  "Kenitcs,"  Gen. 
XV,  19;  Numb,  xxiv,  21;  Judg.  iv,  11;  1  Sam.  xv,  6 ; 
xxvii,  10;  xxx,  29;  1  Chron.  ii,  55;  '"  Kcnite,"  Judg.  i, 
16;  iv,17;  v,24;  sometimes  written  "^|?,A''rt'?/H/, Numb, 
xxiv,  22,  Septuag.  voacia  iravovf)^  iac ,\ v\s;.  Cin,  Auth. 
Vers.  "Kenite;  Judg.  iv.  11,  last  clause,  Sept.  K.tva, 
Vulg.  Cina'i,  Auth.Vers. "  Kenites"),  a  collective  name  for 
a  tribe  of  peojile  who  originally  inhabited  the  rocky  and 
desert  region  lying  between  St)uthern  Palestine  and  the 
mountains  of  Sinai  adjoining— and  even  partly  inter- 
mingling with  —  the  Amalekites  (Numb,  xxiv,  21;  1 
Sam.  XV,  0).  In  the  time  of  Abraham  they  possessed  a 
part  of  that  country  which  the  Lord  promised  to  him 
(Gen.  XV,  19),  and  which  extended  from  Egypt  to  the 
Euphrates  (verse  18).  At  the  Exodus  the  Kenites  pas- 
tured their  flocks  round  Singi  and  Horel).  Jethro,  Mo- 
ses's father-in-law,  was  a  Kenite  (Judg.  i,  16);  and  it 
was  when  Moses  kept  his  flocks  on  the  heights  of  Ho- 
rel) that  the  Lord  appeared  to  him  in  tlie  bi:rning  bush 
(Exod.  iii,  1,  2).  Now  Jethro  is  said  to  have  been 
'■priest  of  J/m//««"  (ver.  1),  and  a  "Midianitc"  (Numb. 
X,  29) ;  hence  we  conclude  that  the  jMidianifes  and  Ke- 
nites were  identical.  It  seems,  however,  that  there 
were  two  distinct  tribes  of  IMidianites,  one  descended 
from  Abraham's  son  by  Keturah  (Gen.  xxv,  2),  and  the 
other  an  older  Arabian  tribe.     See  JIidiaxite.     If  this 


KEXITE 


40 


KENIZZITE 


1)6  SO,  then  the  Kcnites  were  the  older  tribe.  They 
were  nomads,  and  roamed  over  the  country  on  the  north- 
ern border  of  the  Sinai  peninsula,  and  along  the  eastern 
shores  of  the  Gidf  of  Akabah.  This  r^y^ion  agrees  well 
with  the  prophetic  description  of  Balaam:  "'And  he 
looked  on  the  Keuites,  and  said,  Strong  is  thy  dwelling- 
jilace,  and  thou  puttest  thy  nest  {'p_,  ken,  alluding  to 
their  name)  in  a  rock"  (Xunib.  xxiv,  21  J.  The  wild 
and  riH-ky  mountains  along  the  west  side  of  the  valley 
of  Arabah,  and  on  both  shores  of  the  Gidf  of  Akabah, 
were  the  home  of  the  Kenites.  The  connection  of  j\Io- 
ses  with  the  Kenites,  and  the  friendship  shown  by  that 
tribe  to  the  Israelites  in  their-journey  through  the  wil- 
derness, had  an  important  influence  npon  their  after  his- 
tory. Mosos  invited  .Tethro  to  accompany  him  to  Pal- 
estine; he  declined  (Numb,  x,  29-32),  Init  a  portion  of 
the  tribe  afterwards  joined  the  Israelites,  and  Lad  as- 
signed to  them  a  region  ou  the  southern  border  of  Ju- 
dah,  such  as  fitted  a  nomad  people  (Judg.  i,  IG).  There 
they  had  the  Israelites  on  the  one  side,  and  the  Amalek- 
ites  on  the  other,  occupying  a  position  similar  to  that 
of  the  Tartar  tribes  in  Persia  at  the  present  day.  One 
family  of  them,  separating  themselves  from  their  breth- 
ren in  the  south,  migrated  away  to  Northern  Palestine, 
and  pitched  their  tents  beneath  the  oak-trees  on  the 
iqiland  grassy  plains  of  Kedesh-Naphtali  (Judg.  iv,  11, 
where  we  should  translate :  "And  Hcber  the  Kcnite  had 
severed  himself  from  Kain  of  the  children  of  Ilobab,  the 
father-in-law  of  ■Moses,  and  pitched,"  etc.).  It  was  here 
that  Jael,  the  wife  of  Heber,  their  chief,  slew  Sisera, 
who  had  sought  refuge  in  her  tent  (verse  17-21).  It 
would  appear  from  the  narrative  that  while  the  Kenites 
preserved  their  old  friendlv  intercourse  with  the  Israel- 
ites, they  were  also  at  peace  with  the  enemies  of  Israel 
— with  the  Canaanites  in  the  north  and  the  Amalekites 
in  the  south.  When  Saul  marched  against  the  Ama- 
lekites, he  warned  the  Kenites  to  separate  themselves 
from  tlicm,  for,  he  said,  '"Ye  showed  kindness  to  all  the 
children  of  Israel  when  they  came  up  out  of  Egypt"  (1 
Sara.  XV,  0).  The  Kenites  still  retained  their  posses- 
sions in  the  .south  of  Judah  during  the  time  of  David, 
who  made  a  similar  exemption  in  their  case  in  his  feign- 
ed attack  (1  Sam.  xxvii,  10 ;  compare  xxx,  20),  but  we 
hear  no  more  of  them  in  Scriptiu-e  history.  If  it  be 
necessary  to  look  for  a  literal  '■  fulfilment"  of  the  sen- 
tence of  Balaam  (Numb,  xxiv,  22),  we  shall  best  find  it 
in  the  accounts  of  the  latter  days  of  Jerusalem  under 
Jchoiakim,  when  the  Keuite  Rechabites  were  so  far 
'•  wastetl"  by  the  invading  array  of  Assyria  as  to  be 
driven  to  take  refuge  within  the  walls  of  the  city,  a 
step  to  which  we  may  be  sure  nothing  short  of  actual 
extremity  coidd  have  forced  these  Children  of  the  Des- 
ert. Whether  '"Asshur  carried  them  away  captive" 
with  the  other  inhabitants  we  arc  not  told,  but  it  is  at 
least  probable. 

Josephus  gives  the  name  Keveriotc  (.Uif.  v,  5,4); 
but  in  his  notice  of  Saul's  expedition  (vi,  7,  3)  he  has 
TO  TMV  "SliKijUTthv  tbvoc — the  form  in  which  he  else- 
where gives  that  of  the  Shechcmites.  In  the  Targums, 
instead  of  Kenites  Ave  find  Shulmai  (■^X'cbu,"),  and  the 
Talmudists  generally  represent  them  as  an  Arabian 
tribe  (Lightfoot,  Opera,  ii,  420;  \lfi\a.nA,  Pahpst.  p.  140). 
The  same  name  is  introduced  in  the  Samarit.Yers.be- 
fore  "the  Kcnite"  in  Gen.  xv,  19  only.  Procopius  de- 
scribes the  Kenites  as  holding  the  country  about  Petra 
and  ("ades  (Kadesh),  and  bordering  on  the  Amalekites 
(ad  Gen.  xv ;  see  Keland,  p.  81).  The  name  has  long 
since  disappeared,  but  probably  the  old  Kenites  are  rep- 
resented l)y  some  of  the  nomad  tribes  that  still  pasture 
their  flocks  on  the  southern  frontier  of  Palestine.  The 
name  of  Jia-Kain  (al)breviatcd  from  Bene  el-K(iin)  is 
mentioned  In' Ewald  (OV-.s-r/u'r/^/f,  i,  337,  note)  as  borne  in 
comparatively  modern  days  l)y  one  of  the  tribes  of  .the 
•desert :  but  little  or  no  inference  can  be  drawn  from  such 
similarity  in  names. 

The  most  remarkable  development  of  this  people,  ex- 


emplifying most  completely  their  characteristics — their 
Bedouin  hatred  of  the  restraints  of  civilization,  their 
fierce  determination,  their  attachment  to  Israel,  together 
with  a  peculiar  semi-monastic  austerity  not  observable 
in  their  earher  proceedings — is  to  be  found  in  the  sect 
of  the  Kechabite.s,  instituted  by  Itechab,  or  Jonadab  his 
son,  who  come  prominently  forward  on  more  than  one 
occasion  in  the  later  history.  See  IJeciiabite.  The 
founder  of  this  sub-family  apjiears  to  have  been  a  cer- 
tain Hammath  (Auth.Yers. '■Hemath"),and  a  singular 
testimony  is  furnished  to  the  connection  which  existed 
between  this  tribe  of  Midianitish  -wanderers  and  the  na- 
tion of  Israel,  by  the  fact  that  their  name  and  descent 
are  actually  included  in  the  genealogies  of  the  great 
house  of  Jiulah  (1  Chron.  ii,  55).  It  appears  that,  what- 
ever was  the  general  condition  of  the  3Iidianites,  the 
tribe  of  the  Kenites  possessed  a  knowledge  of  the  true 
God  in  the  time  of  Jethro  [see  Hoisab]  ;  and  that  those 
families  which  settled  in  I'alestine  did  not  afterwards 
lose  that  knowledge,  but  increased  it,  is  clear  from  the 
passages  which  have  been  cited. — Kitto  ;  Smith.  See 
Hengstenberg,  Bileam,  p.  192  sq. ;  Schwarz,  Pulestiiie,  p. 
218;  Ewald,  Gesch.  der  V.  Israel,  i,  337;  ii,  31;  Hitter, 
Erdkunde,  xv,  135-138 ;  also  the  monographs  of  A.  Mur- 
ray, Comrn.  de  Kinms  (Hamb.  1718) ;  A.  (i.  Kerzig,  BibL- 
hist.  A hhundl.  v.  d.  Kenitern  (Chemnitz,  1798).    See  Mid- 

lAXITE. 

Ken'izzite  (Heb.  "^'Sp,  Kenizzi',  patronymic  from 
KiiN.iz),  the  appellation  of  two  races  or  families. 

1.  (Sept.  Kfj'f^nToijYulg.  Cenezai,  Auth.Yers.  "  Ke- 
nizzites.")  Dr.  Wells  suggests  thatrthey  were  the  de- 
scendants of  Kenaz  {Geocjr.  i,  1G9).  ]Mr.  Forster  adopts 
this  view  {Georjraphy  of  A  ruhia,  ii,  43),  but  it  is  clearly 
at  variance  with  the  scope  of  the  IMosaic  narrative.  The 
words  of  the  covenant  made  with  Abraham  were :  '■  Unto 
thy  seed  have  I  given  this  land,  from  the  river  of  Egypt 
unto  the  great  river,  the  river  Euphrates,  the  Kenites, 
and  the  Ktrdzzites,^''  etc.,  plainh'  impl\ing  that  these 
tribes  then  occupied  the  land,  whereas  Kenaz,  the  grand- 
son of  Esau,  was  not  born  for  a  century  and  a  half  after 
the  Kenizzites  were  thus  noticed.  Forster's  idea  that 
the  promise  to  Abraham  was  proleptical  cannot  be  en- 
tertained. Nothing  further  is  known  of  their  origin, 
which  was  probably  kindred  with  that  of  the  other  tribes 
enumerated  in  the  same  connection.  As  the  name  sig- 
nifies hunter,  it  maj'  possibly  be  a  general  designation  of 
some  nomade  tribe.  The  sacred  writer  gives  no  infor- 
mation as  to  Avhat  part  of  the  country  the}-  inhabited, 
but,  as  they  are  not  mentioned  among  the  tribes  of  Ca- 
naan who  were  actually  dispossessed  by  the  Israelites 
(Exod.  iii,  8 ;  Josh,  iii,  10 ;  Judg.  iii,  5),  we  may  infer 
that  the  Kenizzites  dwelt  beyond  the  borders  of  those 
tribes.  The  whole  country  from  Egypt  to  the  Eui)hra- 
tes  was  promised  to  Abraham  (Gen.  xv,  18) ;  the  coun- 
try divided  by  lot  among  the  twelve  tribes  extended 
only  from  Dan  to  Bocrsheba,  and  consequently  by  far 
the  larger  portion  of  the  ''land  of  promise"  did  not  then 
become  "  the  land  of  possession,"  and,  indeed,  never  was 
occupied  by  the  Israehtes,  though  the  conquests  of  Da- 
vid probably  extended  over  it.  Bochart  supposes  that 
the  Kenizzites  had  become  extinct  between  the  times 
of  Abraham  and  Joshua.  It  is  more  probable  that  they 
inhabited  some  part  of  the  Arabian  desert  on  the  con- 
fines of  Syria  to  which  the  expeditions  of  Joshua  did  not 
reach  (see  Bochart,  Opera,  i,  307).  This  is  the  view  of 
the  Talmudists,  as  may  be  .seen  in  the  quotation  from 
their  writings  given  by  Lightfoot  {Opera,  ii,  429). — 
Kitto. 

2.  (Sept.  KiPfZatoQ,  but  ^taKtyiopifffifvoc  in  Numb.; 
Yulg.  Cenezmis,  Auth.  Yers.  "  Kenezite.")  An  epithet 
applied  to  Caleb,  the  son  of  Jephunneh  (Numb,  xxxii, 
12;  Jo.sh.  xiv.  C,  14);  probably  designating  his  twofold 
relationship  withKEXAz,  2  (see  further  in  Eitter's  Krd- 
hinde,  XV,  138).  "  Ewald  maintains  that  Caleb  really  be- 
longed to  the  tribe  of  the  Kenizzites,  and  was  an  adopt- 
ed Israelite  {Isr,  Gesch.  i,  298).    Prof.  Stanley  {Lectures 


KENNADAY 


41 


KENNEDY 


on  Jewish  Church,  i,  2G0)  holds  the  same  view,  and  re- 
gards Caleb  as  of  Idumaian  origin,  and  descended  from 
Kenaz,  Esau's  grandson.  But  a  careful  study  of  sacred 
history  proves  that  the  Edomites  and  Israelites  had 
many  names  in  common ;  and  the  patronymic  Kenizzite 
is  derived  from  an  ancestor  called  Kenaz,  whose  name  is 
mentioned  in  Judg.  i,  13,  and  who  was  perhaps  Caleb's 
grandfather"  (Kitto).     See  Caleb. 

Kennaday,  John,  D.D.,  a  noted  minister  of  the 
ISIethodist  Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  the  city  of 
New  York  Nov.  3, 1800.  In  early  life  he  was  a  printer, 
devoting  even  then,  however,  his  leisure,  as  far  as  prac- 
ticable, to  literary  pursuits.  He  was  converted,  under 
the  ministry  of  the  Kev.  Dr.  Heman  Bangs,  in  the  John 
Street  Methodist  Episcopal  Church ;  was  licensed  to  ex- 
hort the  year  following;  joined  the  New  York  Confer- 
ence in  1823 ;  was  stationed  Vm  Kingston  Circuit  in  1823 ; 
1825,  Bloomingburgh  Circuit ;  182(5,  transferred  to  Phil- 
adelphia Conference,  and  appointed  that  and  the  follow- 
ing year  at  Patterson,  N.  J. ;  1828-29,  Newark,  N.  J. ; 
1830-31,  Wilmington,  Del. ;  1832,  Morristown,  N.  J. ;  in 
1833,  retransferred  to  New  York  Conference,  and  sta- 
tioned in  Brooklyn ;  1835-3(>,  preacher  in  charge  of  New 
York  East  Circuit,  embracing  all  the  churches  east  of 
Broadway;  1837-38,  Newburgh,  N.  Y. ;  1839,  retrans- 
ferred to  Philadelphia  Conference,  and  that  and  tlie  fol- 
lowing year  stationed  at  Union  Church,  Philadeliihia  ; 
18-11-42,  Trinity  Church,  Philadelphia ;  1843-14,  second 
time  to  AVilmington,  Del. ;  at  the  close  of  his  pastoral 
term  the  Church  was  tlivided  peacefully,  and  a  new 
Church  organized,  called  St.  Paul's,  and  for  the  t-ivo  fol- 
lowing years  Dr.  Kennaday  was  its  pastor;  1847-48, 
again  pastor  of  Union  Church,  Philadelphia ;  1849,  Naz- 
areth Churcli,  in  that  city;  1850,  transferred  to  New 
York  East  Conference,  and  tliat  and  the  following  year 
was  pastor  of  Pacific  Street  Church,  Brooklyn  ;  1852-53, 
returned  to  Washington  Street  Church ;  1854-55,  First 
Church,  New  Haven,  Conn. ;  185G-57,  second  time  to  Pa- 
cific Street  Church,  Brooklyn ;  1858-59,  third  time  to 
Washington  Street  Church,  Brooklyn;  18G0-C1,  reap- 
pointed to  First  Church,  New  Haven,  Conn. ;  18G2,  Hart- 
ford, Conn. ;  and  in  1803  he  was  appointed  presiding 
elder  of  Long  Island  District,  which  office  he  was  admin- 
istering at  the  time  of  his  decease.  The  noticeable  fact 
of  this  record  is  the  number  of  times  Dr.  Kennaday  was 
returned  as  jiastor  to  churches  that  he  had  ]ireviously 
served.  Of  the  forty  years  of  his  ministerial  life,  twenty- 
two  years,  or  more  than  half,  were  sjient  in  live  church- 
es. No  fact  better  attests  his  long-continued  popularity 
and  his  power  of  winning  the  affections  of  the  people. 
"As  a  Christian  pastor,"  says  bishop  Janes,  "Dr.  Ken- 
naday was  eminent  in  his  gifts,  in  his  attainments,  and 
in  his  devotion  to  his  sacred  calling,  and  in  the  seals. 
God  gave  to  his.ministrj^  In  the  pulpit  he  was  clear; 
ill  the  statement  of  his  subject,  abundant  and  most  felic- 
itous in  his  illustrations,  and  pathetic  and  impressive  in 
his  applications.  His  oratory  was  of  a  high  order.  ,  .  . 
Out  of  the  pulpit,  the  ease  and  elegance  of  his  manners, 
the  vivacity  and  sprightliness  of  his  conversational  pow- 
ers, the  tenderness  of  his  s3-mpafhy,  and  the  kindness  of 
his  conduct  towards  the  afflicted  and  needy  .  .  .  made 
him  a  greatly  beloved  pastor."  He  died  Nov.  13, 1863. 
—Conference  Minutes,  1804,  p.  89.      (J.  II.  W.) 

Kennedy,  B.  J.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
■was  born  in  Bolton,Yt.,  Aug.  IG,  1808;  was  converted  in 
1842;  served  the  Church  faithfully  as  a  local  preacher 
until  1800,  when  he  joined  the  I*;rie  Annual  Conference, 
and  tilled  with  great  success  the  pulpits  at  Baiubridge, 
Maytield,  Bedford,  Twinsburgh,  and  Hudson  successive- 
ly. He  died  at  Hudson,  Ohio,  Nov.  30, 18C9.  Tke  chief 
elements  of  Kennedy's  power  with  the  people  were  puri- 
ty of  life,  cheerfulness,  broad  Christian  sympathies  for 
fallen  humanity,  and  strong  convictions  of  the  saving 
efficacy  of  Jesus  and  his  Gospel.  He  sustained  a  high 
position  among  the  brethren  of  his  Conference. — Chris- 
Han  Advocate'(N.Y.),  1870. 


Kennedy,  James,  a  Scotch  prelate,  grandson,  by 
his  mother,iiti;ol)ert  HI  of  Scotland,  was  Iwrn  in  1405  (V). 
After  studying  at  home,  he  was  sent  to  the  Continent 
to  finish  his  education,  entered  the  Church,  and  as  early 
as  in  1437  became  bishop  of  Dunkeld,  and  in  1440  ex- 
changed for  the  more  important  see  of  St.  Andrew.  He 
next  made  a  journey  to  Florence,  to  lay  before  pope  Eu- 
genius  IV  the  plan  of  the  reforms  he  intended  introduc- 
ing in  the  administration  of  his  diocese.  On  his  return 
(1444)  he  was  made  lord  chancellor,  and  as  such  took 
an  active  part  in  the  affairs  of  Scotland.  Pained  at  wit- 
nessing the  discords  which  marked  the  first  years  of  the 
reign  of  James  II,  he  again  applied  to  the  pope  for  ad- 
vice ;  but  the  latter's  intervention,  which  he  thought 
would  restore  peace,  did  not  have  this  result.  During 
the  minority  of  James  HI  he  sat  in  the  council  of  the 
regency,  and,  according  to  Buchanan,  used  his  infiueiice 
there  for  the  public  good.  He  died  at  St.  Andrew,  May 
10,  1406.  Kennedy  founded  and  endowed  the  college 
of  San  Salvador,  wliich  afterwards  became  the  Univer- 
sity of  St.  Andrew.  He  is  reputed  to  have  written  a 
work  entitled  iMonita  Politico,  and  also  a  history  of  his 
times,  both  of  which  are  ])robably  lost.  See  Mackenzie, 
Lives ;  Crawford,  Lires  of  Statesmen ;  Buchanan,  History 
of  Scotland ;  Chambers,  Illustrious  Scotsmen;  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biorj.  Ginerule,  xxvii,  560,     (J.  N.  P.) 

Kennedy,  John,  an  English  divine,  who  flourished 
about  the  middle  of  the  18th  century  (he  died  aliout 
1770).  rector  of  Bradley,  Derbyshire,  is  noted  for  his 
works  on  Scripture  chronology,  of  which  the  following 
are  best  known  :  Complete  SifStem  of  A  stronomical  Chro- 
nolofiii  mfoldinri  the  Scriptures  (London,  1702, 4to) :  this 
work  Kennedy  dedicated  to  the  lung,  and  the  dedica- 
tion was  composed  by  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson : — Explana- 
tion and  Proof  of  diko  (1774,  8vo),  addressed  to  James 
Ferguson. — Allibone,  Dictionary  of  Enylish  and  Ameri- 
can Authors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v% 

Kennedy,  Samuel,  M.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  Scotland  in  1720,  and  educated  in  the 
University  of  Edinburgh.  On  coming  to  America  he 
was  received  by  the  I'resbytery  of  New  Brunswick,  and 
Ucensed  by  them  in  1750.  The  following  year  he  was 
ordained,  and  installed  over  the  congregations  of  Bask- 
ing Ridge,  New  Jersey,  where  he  was  jirincipal  of  a  clas- 
sical school  which  acquired  considerable  celebrity.  In 
1700  he  rendered  his  name  conspicuous  in  behalf  of  an 
Episcopal  clergyman  by  his  connection  with  the  ludi- 
crous proclamation,  ^^  Eiyhteen  Presb.  Minis,  for  a  yroatr 
He  ■was  not  only  a  minister  and  a  teacher,  but  a  physi- 
cian, and  practiced  medicine  with  no  small  reputation 
in  his  own  congregation.  He  died  August  31, 1787. — 
Sprague,  Annals,  iii,  175. 

Kennedy, 'William  Megee,  an  early  Methodist 
minister,  was  born  iu  1783,  in  that  ])art  of  North  Caro- 
lina which  was  ceded  to  Tennessee  in  1790.  He  lived 
some  years  in  South  Carolina,  and  afterwards  settled  m 
Bullock  County,  Ga.  In  1803  he  was  Ijrought  into  the 
Church  under  the  ministry  of  Hope  Hull;  joined  the 
South  Carolina  Conference  in  1805,  and  filled  its  most 
important  appointments  for  more  than  thirty  years,  half 
of  the  time  as  presiding  elder.  In  1839  he  was  struck 
with  apoplexy,  and  was  cousequenfly  retunied  as  super- 
annuate, but  he  still  continued  to  labor  untU  his  death 
in  1840.  He  was  lamented  as  one  of  the  noblest  men 
of  Southern  ^Methodism.  Kennedj'  had  a  pc<'nliarly 
well-balanced  mind.  His  counsel  was  prudent  and  sa- 
gacious; he  formed  his  opinions  deliberately,  and  such 
was  his  discretion  that,  in  the  various  responsible  rela- 
tions he  sustained  to  the  Church,  it  is  quesfionalile 
whether  a  single  instance  of  rashness  could  be  justly 
charged  upon  him.  His  piety  unaffected,  his  intercourse 
with  the  people  affectionate,  his  preaching  faitlifid,  car- 
nest,  and  successful,  he  was  a  very  popular  prcaclier. 
He  was  successivelv  at  Charleston  (iu  1809, 1810, 1820, 
1821,  1834,  and  183'5),  Camden  (1818),  AVilmington,  N. 
C.  (1819),  Augusta,  Ga.  (1826-27),  Columbia,  S.  C.  (1828- 


KENNEDY 


42 


KENNEY 


29. 1S36-37).     See.  Summers,  SJcetches,  p.  131 ;  Stevens, 
History  of  the  M.  E.  Church,  iv,  205.      (J.  L.  S.) 

Keunedy,Williani  Sloane,  a  Presliyterian  min- 
ister (N.  S.),%vas  liorii  in  3Iii:--cy,  ra.,Jiine  "..  \>^ii\  grad- 
uated at  Western  Keserve  College  in  184G  ;  was  licensed 
by  the  Cleveland  Presbytery  in  1848,  and  soon  after  in- 
stalled pastor  of  the  Congregational  Church  in  Bucks- 
ville.  Ohio.  Here  he  labored  earnestly  for  four  years. 
In  185-2  he  accepted  a  call  to  Sandusky,  Ohio,  where  he 
ministered  with  great  success  until  his  removal  to  Cin- 
cinnati in  1859.  His  work  there  seemed  to  promise  well, 
his  congregations  increased,  and  his  influence  was  strong; 
but  in  the  spring  of  1860  his  health  began  to  fail,  and 
for  foiu-teen  months  he  struggled  against  disease,  preach- 
ing even  the  Sabbath  before  his  death.  He  died  July 
30, 1861.  He  was  a  thorough  scholar,  a  profound  theo- 
logian, and  an  instructive  and  impressive  preacher.  He 
wrote  Mesmtnic  Prophecies: — a  History  of  the  Plan  of 
Union: — Life  of  Christ;  and  Sacred  Analofjies. — Wil- 
son, Presb.  Hist.  Almanac,  1862. 

Keimerly,  Philip,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  born  in  Augusta  Co.,  Va.,  Oct.  18, 1769 ;  converted 
in  1786;  entered  the  Baltimore  Conference  in  1804;  and 
ill  1806,  on  account  of  ulcerated  throat,  located  and  set- 
tled in  Logan  Co.,  Ky.  In  June,  1821,  he  re-entered 
the  itinerancy  in  the  Kentucky  Conference,  but  died  on 
the  5th  of  the  ensuing  October.  "  But  his  work  Avas 
done,  his  temporalities  well  adjusted,  his  slaves  emanci- 
pated, and  his  sun  went  down  without  a  cloud."  During 
his  long  location  his  labors  were  "very  extensive  and 
useful."  "  He  was  a  good  preacher,  full  of  faith  and  of 
the  spirit  of  Christ." — Minutes  of  Conferences,  i,  399. 

Kennet,  Basil,  an  English  divine  of  note,  younger 
brother  of  the  following,  was  born  Oct.  21, 1674,  at  Post- 
ling,  in  Kent ;  entered  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford, 
in  1690 ;  took  the  master's  degree  in  1696,  and  the  year 
following  entered  the  ministry.  In  1706  he  was,  by  the 
interest  of  his  brother,  appointed  chaj  lain  to  the  English 
factory  at  Leghorn,  where  he  no  sooner  arrived  than  ho 
met  with  great  opposition  from  the  papists,  and  was  in 
danger  of  the  Inquisition.  This  establishment  of  a 
Church  of  England  chaplain  was  a  new  thing;  and  the 
Italians  were  so  jealous  of  the  Northern  heresy  that,  to 
give  as  little  offence  as  possible,  he  perlbrmed  the  duties 
of  his  office  with  the  utmost  privacy  and  caution.  But, 
notwithstanding  this,  great  offence  was  taken  at  it, 
and  complaints  were  immediately  sent  to  Florence  and 
Kome,  when  both  the  pope  and  the  court  of  Inquisition 
declared  their  resolution  to  expel  heresy  and  the  public 
teacher  of  it  from  the  confines  of  the  holy  sec,  and  se- 
cret orders  were  given  to  apprehend  and  hurrj^  him 
away  to  Pisa,  and  thence  to  some  other  religious  prison, 
to  bury  him  alive,  or  otherwise  dispose  of  him  in  the 
severest  manner.  Upon  notice  of  this  design,  Dr. New- 
ton, the  English  envoy  at  Florence,  interposed  his  of- 
fices at  that  court,  where  he  could  obtain  no  other  an- 
swer but  that  "  lie  might  send  for  the  English  preacher, 
and  keep  him  in  his  own  family  as  his  domestic  chap- 
lain ;  otherwise,  if  he  presumed  to  continue  at  Leghorn, 
he  must  take  the  consequences  of  it,  for,  in  those  matters 
of  religion,  the  court  of  Inquisition  was  superior  to  all 
civil  powers."  When  the  earl  of  Sunderland,  then  sec- 
retarj^  of  stale,  was  informed  of  this  state  of  affairs,  he 
sent  a  menacing  letter  by  her  majesty's  eoniniand.  and 
the  chaplain  was  permitted  to  continue  to  officiate  in 
safety  (  Life  of  Jiishop  Kennet,  p.  53  sq.).  In  1713  Ken- 
net's  failing  health  obliged  him  to  quit  Leghorn,  and  he 
returned  to  Oxford,  to  be  elected  only  the  year  follow- 
ing iiresident  of  his  college.  He  died,  however,  shortly 
after,  eillier  towards  the  close  of  1714  or  the  opening  of 
1715.  He  wrote  in  the  theological  department  an  A'.rpo- 
fition  of  the  Apostles''  Creed: — IJnriiphriise  on  the  Psalms, 
in  verse  (1706,  8vo) ;  and  published  shortly  before  his 
death  a  volume  of  Sei'mons  on  several  Occasions  (Lond. 
1715,  8vo).  He  also  furnished  English  translations  of, 
1.  I'uffendorf 'd  Iaiio  of  Nature  and  Nations  : — 2.  Pla- 


cette's  Christian  Casuist: — 3.  Godeau's  Pastoral  Instruc- 
tions : — 4.  Pascal's  Thouyhts  on  Reliyion,  to  which  he  pre- 
fixed an  account  of  the  manner  in  which  those  thoughts 
were  dehveretl  by  the  author : — 5.  Balzac's  A  ristijipus, 
with  an  account  of  his  life  and  writings : — 6.  The  Mar- 
riaye  of  Thames  and  Isis,  from  a  Latin  poem  of  iMr.  Cam- 
den. I)r.  Basil  Kennet  is  said  to  have  been  a  very  amia- 
ble man,  of  exemplary  integrity,  generosity,  and  mod- 
esty. See  AUibone,  Diet.  Enyl.  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  s.  v. ; 
Gen.  Dictionary ;  Hook, Eccles.  Bioy.  vi, 433.     (.J.  H.  W.) 

Kennet,  White,  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  prelate 
and  writer,  was  born  at  Dover  Aug.  10, 1660.     He  stud- 
ied at  St.  Edmund  Hall,  Oxford,  and  while  there   at- 
tracted attention  by  publishing  in   1680   a  pamphlet 
against  the  Whig  party,  entitled  Letter  from  a  Student 
at  Oxford  to  a  Eriend  in  the  Country,  in  Vindication  of 
his  i\fajesi'y,  the  Church  ofEnyland,  and  the  University, 
Through  the  influence  of  sir  William  Glynne  he  was 
appointed  vicar  of  Ambrosden,  C)xfordshire,  in  1684,  and 
obtained  a  preljend  in  the  church  of  Peterborough,  but 
returned  to  Oxford,  where  he  became  vice-principal  of. 
Edmund  Hall,  the  college  to  which  Hearne  belonged. 
He  was  decidedly  opposed  to  the  concessions  in  1688, 
and  was  of  the  number  in  the  Oxford  diocese  who  re- 
fused to  read  the  declaration  for  liberty  of  conscience. 
He  subseciuently  (1700)  resigned  Ambrosden,  and  settled 
in  London  as  minister  of  St.  Botolph's,  Aldgate,  where 
he  became  a  very  popidar  preacher.    He  was  made  suc- 
cessively archdeacon  of  Huntingdon  in  1701.  and  in  1707 
dean  of  Peterborough,  and  finally,  in  1718,  bijhop  of 
Peterborough.     He  died  Dec.  19, 1728.    Bishop  Kennet 
was  a  man,  as  his  biographer  says,  "  of  incredible  dili- 
gence and  application,  not  only  in  his  youth,  but  to  the 
very  last,  the  whole  disposal  of  himself  being  to  perpet- 
ual industry  and  service,  his  chiefest  recreation  being 
varietj'  of  employment."     His  published  works  are,  ac- 
cording to  his  biographer's  statement,  fifty-seven  in 
number,  including  several  single   sermons  and  small 
tracts ;  but  perhaps  not  a  less  striking  proof  of  the  in- 
defatigable industry  ascribed  to  him  is  to  be  seen  in  his 
manuscript  collections,  mostly  in  his  own  hand,  now  in 
the  Lansdowne  department  of  the  British  Museum  Li- 
brary of  Jlanuscripts,  where  from  No.  935  to  1042  are 
all  his,  and  most  fif  them  containing  matter  not  incor- 
porated in   any  of  his   printed  works.     The  principal 
among  the  latter  are:  Parochiid  Antiquities  attempted  in 
the  History  of  Ambrosden,  Burcester,  etc.  (Oxford,  1695, 
4to;  1818,  4to)  : — Ecclesiast.  Synods,  etc.,  of  the  Church 
ofEnyland  vindicated  from  the  3Iisrep7-esentations,  etc. 
(Lond.  1701,  8vo)  : — An  occasional  Letter  on  the  Subject 
of  Enylish  Convocations  (Lond.  1701,  8vo),  and  a  num- 
ber of  occasional  letters  and  sermons : — Jllonitioiis  and 
A  dvices  delivered  to  the  Cleryy  of  the  Diocese  of  Peter- 
borouyh,  etc.   (London,  1720,  4to) :  —  On  Lay  Impro- 
priations  (see  below)  : — Complete  History  of  England 
(Lond.  1719,  3  vols.  foL),  etc.     Bishop  Kennet,  in  1713, 
had  made  a  large  collection  of  books,  maps,  etc.,  with 
intent  to  write  A  full  History  of  the  Propayntion  of 
Christianity  in  the  Enylish  American  Colonies,  hut,  for 
some  reason  unknown  to  us,  the  j)lan  was  never  execu- 
ted.   It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  bishop  failed  to  carry 
out  the  project;  to  judge  from  vol.  iii  of  the  History  of 
England  which   he   pre]iared,  the   contribution  would 
have  been  valuable  to  American  Church  hi!-tory.     In 
1.S50,  S.  F.AVof)d  and  Ivl.  Baddeley  published  from  bish- 
op Kennet's  ^MSS.  his  Lay  Dnj.i-opriaiions  (  Lond.  12mo). 
See  William  Newton.  Life  (f  the  Riyht  Per.  Dr.  White 
Kennet  (London,  1730,  8 vo) ;  'SXooA,  Athenm  Oxonienses, 
vol.  ii ;  Chalmers,  Gen.  Bioy.  Dicticnai-y ;  Hoefer,  Kom: 
Bioy.  Generate,  xxvii,  563 ;  English  Cyclopa'dia ;  AUi- 
bone, Diet,  of  Engl,  and  A  mer.  Authors,  s.  v. 

Kenney,  Paishox  T.,  a  IMethodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  born  iu  New  Bedford,  Mass..  Se])t.  5, 1810.  He 
embraced  religion  at  the  tender  .ige  of  seven,  but  grad- 
ually became  indifferent  to  its  personal  enjoyment  until 
his  nineteenth  year,  when  he  was  restored  to  the  di- 


KENNICOTT 


43 


KENNICOTT 


vine  favor.  He  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1830;  entered 
"Wil'oraham  Academj',  and  in  1832  iSIiddlctown  Univers- 
ity, lu  1833  he  joined  the  New  England  Conference, 
was  appointed  to  Thompson  Circuit;  1834,  Hebron; 
1835,  East  Windsor;  1830,  IMystic;  1837,  North  Nor- 
wich; 1838-39,  Chicopee  Falls ;  1840-41,  Willimantic; 
1842,  located ;  1844,  readmitted  and  sent  to  Manchester; 
1845-4(;,  Mystic  Bridge :  1847,  Westerly  Mission ;  1848, 
Falmonth  ;"l849,  East  Harwich ;  1850-51, 1'rovincetovvn 
Centre ;  1852-55,  Sandwich  District ;  185G-57,  North 
Manchester;  1858-59,  Stafford  Springs;  1800-Gl,  Allen 
Street,  New  Bedford  ;  1862-65,  Sandwich  District;  1866 
-68,  New  London  District.  In  1869  he  removed  to  Ne- 
braska City,  Neb.,  and  started  a  school,  with  the  pros- 
pect of  its  becoming  a  Conference  Seminary,  but  died 
shortly  after,  Nov.  11, 1869.  As  a  preacher,  he  was  em- 
inently practical,  lucid,  fervent,  and  spiritual,  and  his 
labors  were  attended  with  success.  As  a  presiding  el- 
der, his  executive  ability  gave  general  satisfaction. — 
Minutes  of  Conferences,  1871,  p.  72. 

Keunicott,  Benjamin,  D.D.,  one  of  the  most  emi- 
nent Biblical  scholars,  was  born  of  humble  parents  at 
Totness,  in  Devonshire,  England,  Apr.  4, 1718.  At  quite 
a  youthful  age  he  succeeded  his  father  as  master  of  a 
charity  school  in  his  native  place,  and  here  continued 
imtil  1744,  when,  having  previously  given  proof  of  pos- 
sessing superior  talents,  he  was,  through  the  kindness 
of  several  gentlemen  in  the  neighborhood  who  inter- 
ested themselves  in  his  behalf,  and  opened  a  subscrij)- 
tiou  to  defray  his  educational  expenses,  eiiabled  to  go  to 
the  University  of  Oxford.  He  entered  at  AVadham  Col- 
lege, and  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  divinity  and 
•Hebrew  with  great  diligence,  and  while  yet  an  under- 
graduate published  Ta-o  Dissertations:  1.  On  the  Tree 
of  Life  in  Paradise,  n-ith  some  Ohsercations  on  the  Fall 
of  Man  ;  2.  On  the  Oblations  of  Cain  and  A  hel  (Oxf.  8vo), 
which  came  to  a  second  edition  in  1747,  and  procured 
him,  free  of  ex])ense,  the  distinguished  honor  oi'  a  bach- 
elor's degree,  even  before  the  statute  time.  Shortly  af- 
terwards he  was  elected  fellow  of  Exeter  College,  and 
in  1750  took  his  degree  of  M.A.  By  the  publication  of 
several  sermons  at  this  time  he  acijuired  addit.onal 
fame,  but  his  great  name  is  due  to  his  elaborate  re- 
searches f(jr  the  improvement  of  the  text  of  the  Hebrew 
Bible,  for  which  he  laid  the  foundation  in  1763.  It 
was  in  this  year  that  lie  inaugurated  his  great  under- 
taking by  giving  to  the  public  the  tirst  volume  of  his 
dissertations,  entitled  The  State  of  the  Printed  Hebrew 
Text  of  the  0.  T.  considered  (Oxford,  1753-1759,  2  vols. 
8vo ).  In  this  work  he  evinces  the  necessity  of  the  un- 
dertaking upon  which  he  had  set  his  heart  by  refuting 
the  popular  notion  of  the  "absolute  integrity"  of  the 
Hebrew  text.  In  the  first  volume  he  institutes  a  com- 
parison of  1  Chron.  xi  with  2  Sam.  v  and  xxiii,  followed 
by  observations  on  seventy  Hebrew  MSS.,and  maintains 
that  numerous  mistakes  aud  interpolations  disfigure  the 
sacred  Scriptures  of  the  O.  T. ;  in  the  second  volume  he 
vindicates  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  proves  the  cor- 
ruption of  the  printed  copies  of  the  Chaldee  paraphrase 
(the  accordance  of  which  with  the  text  of  the  O.  T.  was 
boasted  of  as  evincing  the  purity  of  the  latter),  gives  an 
account  of  the  Hebrew  MSS.  supposed  at  liis  day  to 
have  b'.'en  extant,  and  closes  with  tlie  proposition  to  in- 
stitute a  collation  of  existing  Hebrew  ^ISS.  for  the  pur- 
pose of  securing  a  correct  edition  of  the  O.-T.  Scriptures 
in  the  original;  extending  a  very  hearty  invitation  for 
assistance  to  the  Jews  also.  This  undertaking,  as  we 
miglit  naturally  expect,  met  with  much  opposition  both 
in  lingland  and  on  the  Continent.  It  was  feared  by 
many  that  such  a  collation  might  overturn  the  received 
reading  of  various  important  passages,  and  introduce 
uncertainty  into  the  whole  system  of  Biblical  interpre- 
tation. The  ])lan  was,  however,  warmly  patronized  by 
the  majority  of  the  English  clergy;  and  when,  in  1760, 
he  issued  his  proposals  for  collecting  all  the  Hebrew 
MSS.  prior  to  the  invention  of  the  art  of  printing  that 
could  be  found  in  Great  Britain  or  in  foreign  countries, 


the  utility  of  the  proposed  collation  w'as  very  generally 
admitted,  and  a  subscrijjtion  to  defray  the  expense  of  it, 
amounting  to  nearly  ten  thousand  poiuids,  was  quickly 
made.  Various  persons  ■were  employed,  both  at  home 
and  abroad ;  among  foreign  literati  the  principal  vi'as 
professor  Bruns,  of  the  University  of  Helmstadt,  who 
not  only  collated  Hebrew  MSS.  in  Germany,  but  went 
for  that  purpose  into  Switzerland  and  Italy.  In  conse- 
quence of  these  efforts,  more  than  six  hundred  Hebrew 
MSS.,  and  sixteen  jVISS.  of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch, 
were  discovered  in  different  libraries  in  England  and  on 
the  Continent,  many  of  which  were  wholly  collated,  and 
others  consulted  in  important  passages.  To  this  colla- 
tion of  MSS.  was  also  added  a  collation  of  the  most  noted 
printed  editions  of  the  Bible,  including  those  edited  by 
the  Kabbins,  whose  annotations,  as  well  as  the  Talmud 
itself,  were  frequently  consulted  by  the  learned  Keuni- 
cott. The  collation  continued  from  1760  to  1769,  during 
which  period  an  account  of  the  progress  making  was 
annually  published.  At  length,  after  sixteen  years  of 
unmitigated  industry,  appeared  the  first,  and  four  years 
later  the  second  volume  of  Kennicott's  edition  of  the  He- 
brew Bible — Vetvs  Testamentuni  Hebraicum  cum  rariis 
Lectionibus  (Oxonii,  1776, 1780,  2  vols.  fol.).  Though  the 
number  of  various  readings  was  found  to  be  very  great, 
yet  they  were  neither  so  numerous  nor  by  any  means  so 
important  as  those  that  are  contained  in  Griesbach's 
edition  of  the  New  Testament.  But  this  is  easily  ac- 
counted for  from  the  revision  of  the  Hebrew  text  by  the 
Masorites  in  the  7th  and  8th  centuries,  and  from  the 
scrupulous  fidelity  with  which  the  Jews  have  trans- 
scribed  the  same  text  Jrom  that  time.  '■  The  text  of 
Kennicott's  edition,"  says  Marsh  {Uiriniti/  Lectures,  pt. 
ii),  "was  printed  from  that  of  Van  der  Hooght,  with 
which  the  Hebrew  manuscripts,  by  Kennicott's  direc- 
tion, were  aU  collated.  But  as  variations  in  the  points 
were  disregarded  in  the  collation,  the  points  were  not 
added  in  the  text.  The  various  readings,  as  in  the  crit- 
ical editions  of  the  Greek  Testament,  were  printed  at 
the  bottom  of  the  page,  with  references  to  the  corre- 
sponding readings  of  the  text.  In  the  Pentateuch  the 
variations  of  the  Samaritan  text  were  printed  in  a  col- 
umn parallel  to  the  Hebrew ;  and  the  variations  observ- 
able in  the  Samaritan  manuscripts,  which  differ  from 
each  other  as  well  as  the  Hebrew,  are  likewise  noted, 
with  references  to  the  Hamaritan  printed  text.  To  this 
collation  of  manuscripts  was  added  a  collation  of  the 
most  distinguished  editions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  in  the 
same  manner  as  Wetstein  has  noticed  the  variations  ob- 
servable in  the  principal  editions  of  the  Greek  Testa- 
ment. Nor  did  Kennicott  confine  his  collation  to  man- 
uscripts and  editions.  He  further  'considered  that  as 
the  (piotations  from  the  Greek  Testament  in  the  works 
of  ecclesiastical  writers  afford  another  source  of  various 
readings,  so  the  quotations  from  the  Hebrew  Bible  in 
the  works  of  Jewish  writers  are  likewise  subjects  of  crit- 
ical inquiry."  To  the  second  volume  Kennicott  added 
a  Dissertatio  Generalis,  in  which  an  account  is  given  of 
the  manuscripts  and  other  authorities  collated  for  the 
work,  and  also  a  history  of  the  Hebrew  text  from  the 
time  of  the  Babylonian  captivity.  This  dissertation, 
which  the  best  Biblical  scholars  regard  as  able  and  valu- 
able, was  reprinted  at  Brunswick,  Germany,  in  1783,  im- 
der  the  superintendence  of  professor  Bruns.  Tlic  faults 
attaching  to  this  great  work  of  Dr.  Kennicott  are  thus 
summarized  by  Dr.  Davidson  {Biblical  Crit.  2d  edit.,  p. 
154  sq.):  "  He  (i.  e.  Kennicott)  neglected  the  ^fasorah 
(q.  V.)  as  if  it  Avere  wholly  worthless.  In  specifying  his 
sources,  he  is  not  always  consistent  or  uniform  in  his 
method.  Some  MSS.  are  only  partially  examined.  Nei- 
ther was  he  very  accurate  in  extracting  various  read- 
ings from  his  copies.  ■\Vhere  several  letters  arc  want- 
ing in  MSS.  there  is  no  remark  indicating  whether  the 
defect  should  be  remedied,  and  how.  The  ^MSS.  cor- 
rected by  a  different  hand  are  rejected  without  reason. 
Old  synagogue  ]\ISS.  are  neglected,  though  they  would 
have  contributed  to  the  value  of  the  various  rcaduigs. 


KENNON 


44 


KENOSIS 


Tan  dor  Hooght's  text  is  not  accurately  given,  since  the 
marginal  kerh,  the  vowel  points,  and  the  accents,  have 
been  kit  out.  The  Samaritan  text  should  have  been 
given  in  Samaritan  letters,  tliat  readers  might  see  the 
origin  of  many  of  the  various  readings.  The  edition 
wants  extracts  from  ancient  versions,  which  is  a  serious 
defect.  His  principles  or  rides  forjudging  Hebrew  MSS., 
and  determining  the  age,  quality,  or  value,  are  defec- 
tive. In  applying  his  copious  materials  he  often  errs. 
He  proceeds  too  much  on  the  assumption  that  the  Mas- 
oretic  text  is  corrupt  where  it  differs  from  the  Samari- 
tan rentateuch  and  ancient  versions,  and  therefore  sets 
about  ref(jrming  it  where  it  is  authentic  and  genuine. 
Yet,"  Dr.  Davidson  continues,  "  there  can  be  no  doubt 
thai;  Kennicott  was  a  most  laborious  editor.  To  him  be- 
longs the  great  merit  of  bringing  together  a  large  mass 
of  critical  materials.  The  task  of  furnishing  such  an  ap- 
paratus, drawn  from  so  many  sources,  scattered  through 
the  libraries  of  many  lands,  was  almost  Herculean,  and 
the  learned  author  is  entitled  to  all  the  praise  for  its  ac- 
complishment." An  important  Supplement  to  Kenni- 
cott's  Hebrew  Bible  was  published  by  De  Kossi,  under 
the  title  of  Vdi-ue  Lectiones  Veteiis  Testamenti  (Parma, 
1784-88, 4  vols.  4to,  with  an  Appendix  in  1798).  The 
works  of  Kennicott  and  De  liossi  are,  however,  too  bulky 
and  exjicnsive  for  gcntral  use.  An  edition  of  the  He- 
brew liible,  containing  the  most  important  of  the  vari- 
ous readings  in  Kennicott's  and  De  Kossi's  volumes,  was 
published  by  Dciderlein  and  Meissner,  Leipz.  1793 ;  but 
the  text  is  incorrectly  printed,  and  the  paper  is  exceed- 
ingly bad.  A  far  more  correct  and  elegant  edition  of 
the  Hebrew  Bible,  -which  also  contains  the  most  impor- 
tant of  Kennicott's  and  De  Rossi's  various  readings,  is 
that  of  Jahn  (Vienna,  1806, 4  vols.  8vo).  Dr.  Kennicott, 
during  the  progress  of  this  work,  resided  at  Oxford, 
where  he  was  librarian  of  the  Kadcliife  Library  after 
17G7,  and  canon  of  Christ  Church.  He  died  there  Sept. 
18,  1783.  Kennicott's  other  works  are,  The  Duty  of 
T/iuiik.ir/ifwf/for  Peace,  etc.  (Loud.  1749, 8vo) : — A  Woid 
to  the  Ilutciiinsonians,  etc.  (London,  1756, 8vo): — Chris- 
tian Fortitude :  a  Sermon  on  Rom.  viii,  35,  37  (Oxford, 
1757,  8vo)  : — A  luwer  to  a  Letter  from  the  Rev.  T.  Ruth- 
erford, D.D.,  F.R.S.  (London,  1762,  8vo)  -.—A  Sermon 
jJrear/ied  before  the  University  of  Oxford  at  St.  Marfs 
Church,  May  19,  1765  (Oxf.  1765,  8vo) : — Observations 
on  1  Sam.  vi,  19  (Oxford,  1768,  8vo): — Ten  Annual  Ac- 
counts of  the  Collation  of  Hebrew  MSS.  of  the  0.  Test., 
1760-1769  (Oxf.  1770, 8vo)  ■.—Critici  Sac7-i,  or  Short  Jn- 
trod.  to  Hebrew  Criticism  (Lond.  1774, 8vo)  : — Vetus  Tes- 
tameiitum  Hehraicum,  etc.  (Oxonii,  1776-80,  2  vols,  fol.) : 
— Dissertaiio  fjenei-alis  in  Vetus  Testanientum  Hebraicum, 
etc.  (Oxonii,  1780,  fol.) : — Epistola  ad  celeberrimum  pro- 
fessnrem  Joannem  Daridem  Michaelis,  de  censuru  primi 
tomi  liitiliorum-  Hebraicorum  nuper  editi,  in  Bihliotheca 
ejus  ()ri(  iitiili,  parte  xi  (Oxonii,  1777,  8vo) : — Editionis 
Veteris  Testamenti  Hebraici  cum  rari/s  hctionibus  brevis 
defensio,  contra  Ephemeridum  Go<  //iiif/i  jisium  crimina- 
tiones  (Oxon.  1782, 8vo)  -.—The  Sabbath,  a  Sermon  (Oxf. 
1781, 8  vo) : — Remarks  on  select  Passages  in  the  0.  T.,  to 
which  are  added  eight  Sermons  (Oxford,  1787,  8vo),  of 
which  more  than  one  hundred  pages  are  occupied  with 
a  translation  of  thirty-two  i)salms  and  critical  notes  on 
the  entire  book.  "  It  is  worthy  of  the  author's  reputa- 
tion." See  Dr.  Paulus,  Mcuiorabilia,  No.  i,  p.  191-198; 
(ientl.  Magazine,  1768;  North  Amer.  Review,  x,  8  sq.; 
W.ilch,  Xeueste  Religionsgesch.  i,  319-410;  v,  401-536; 
Eicldiorn,  Einleitung  in  das  A.  T.  vol.  ii ;  Darling,  Cgclo- 
jxrdia  J->ibliograj)h.  ii,  1721 ;  English  Cyclopeedia  ;  Kitto, 
Bibl.  Cyclopcedia,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Kennon,  IJohkut  Lkwis,  a  INIethodist  Episcopal 
minister,  born  in  (iranville  County,  N.  C,  in  1789,  was 
converted  in  1801,  entered  the  South  Carolina  Confer- 
ence in  1809,  and  in  1.S13  was  crrdained  elder,  and  loca- 
ted on  account  of  ill  health;  then  studied  medicine  and 
practiced  for  several  years,  jircaching  as  his  health  per- 
mitted. In  1819  he  removed  from  Georgia  to  Tusca- 
loosa, Ala.,  and  continued  his  jirofession  until  1824,  when 


he  re-entered  the  ministry  in  the  Mississippi  Confer- 
ence, antl  ;vas  four  years  presiding  elder  on  the  Black 
Warrior  District.  In  1829-30  he  was  stationed  at  Tus- 
caloosa, in  1831-2  on  Tuscaloosa  District,  in  1834  on  the 
Choctaw  Mission,  in  1835-6  in  Mobile,  and  in  1837  in 
Tuscaloosa.  He  died  during  the  session  of  the  Confer- 
ence at  Columbus,  Miss.,  Jan.  9, 1838.  Mr.  Kennon  was 
one  of  the  most  able  and  influential  ministers  of  his 
time  in  the  Southern  States.  His  home  culture  in 
childhood  was  excellent,  and  he  had  a  very  good  aca- 
demical education.  AV'hile  .studying  medicine  he  fur- 
ther pursued  his  literarj'  studies  at  the  South  Carolina 
College.  Kennon  numbered  among  his  friends  the  fore- 
most men  of  the  county  in  aU  professions,  and  was  the 
father  and  model  of  the  Conference.  He  died  honored 
and  beloved  h\  a  wide  circle  of  brethren  and  citizens. — 
Minutes  of  Confe7-ences,n,b7o;  Sketches  of  eminent  Itin- 
erant Ministers  (Nashville,  1858),  p.  113.     (G.  L.  T.) 

I^eiiosis  {kivwchq),  a  Greek  term  signifying  the 
act  0^  emptying  or  self-divestiture,  employed  by  modern 
German  divines  to  express  the  voluntary  humiliation 
of  Christ  in  his  incarnate  state.  It  is  borrowed  from 
the  expression  of  Paul, "  But  made  himself  of  no  reputa- 
tion {lavTov  hKh'ujae,  emptied  himself),"'  etc.  (Phil,  ii, 
7).  The  same  self-abasement  is  indicated  in  other  pas- 
sages of  Scripture ;  e.  g.  the  Son  laid  aside  the  glory 
which  he  had  with  the  Father  before  the  world  was 
(John  xvii,  5),  and  became  poor  (2  Cor.  viii,  9).  This 
term  touches  the  essential  difficulty  in  the  doctrine  of 
the  incarnation.  That  difficidty  seems  to  consist  in  the 
supposition  that  the  Logos  in  his  absolute  infinitude  of 
being  and  attributes  imited  himself  in  one  personality 
with  an  individual  created  man.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
has  been  alleged  as  an  objection  to  the  ke?wsis  tlieory 
that  "to  assume  any  self-limitation  on  the  part  of  God 
is  inconsistent  with  the  unchangeableness  of  the  divine 
Being."  But  God's  immutability  is  that  perfection  by 
virtue  of  which  his  will  and  nature  remain  in  constant 
harmony.  Every  change  must,  as  a  matter  of  course, 
be  rejected  that  woidd  bring  God's  will  or  nature  in 
conflict  with  each  other.  But  any  act  on  the  part  of 
God,  affecting  his  existence  internally  or  externally, 
that  is  in  harmony  with  the  divine  will  and  being,  is 
consistent  with  the  divine  immutabilitj'.  To  deny  such 
acts  on  the  part  of  God  is  to  deny  the  living  God  him- 
self A  God  without  a  motion  internally  or  externally 
would  be,  according  to  the  Scriptures,  a  nuUity,  a  dead 
God,  an  idol.  "Tlie  very  idea,"  says  Ebrard,  "of  God 
as  the  living  one  implies  the  possibility  of  a  self-lim- 
itation or  change  of  self,  of  course  of  such  a  change  by 
which  God  continues  as  God,  and  out  of  which  he  has 
at  all  times  the  power  of  asserting  his  infinitude.  In 
the  divine  Being  this  is  possible  through  the  Trinity. 
As  the  triune  God,  there  is  in  his  being  the  possibility 
for  him  to  distinguish  himself  from  himself  also  in  time, 
i.  e.  to  receive  within  himself  the  difference  between 
existence  within  time  and  out  of  time."  That  the  Son 
of  God  can  become  a  man  without  thereby  destroy- 
ing his  true  divinity  even  the  fathers  of  the  Church 
taught,  Tcrtullian  says:  "God  can  change  himself 
into  everything  and  yetremain  (in  substance)  what  he 
is."  Hilary  says:  "The  form  of  (Jod  and  the  fiirm  of 
a  servant  can  indeed  not  umiualilledly  become  a  unity ; 
they  rather  exclude  one  another  as  such.  But  how 
does  their  union  Jjecome  a  possibility  ?  Answer :  Only 
by  giving  up  the  one,  the  other  can  be  assumed.  But 
he  that  has  emptied  himself,  and  taken  upon  himself 
the  form  of  a  servant,  is  therefore  not  a  different  person. 
To  give  tq)  a  form  does  not  imply  the  desti-uction  of  its 
substance.  Exacth'  in  order  to  prevent  this  destruction 
the  act  of  self-emptying  goes  only  far  enough  to  consti- 
tute the  form  of  a  servant."  Ebrard  makes  the  fitting 
comparison  :  "  If  a  crown  prince,  in  order  to  set  others 
free,  should  go  for  the  time  being  into  voluntary  servi- 
tude, he  would  be,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  a  servant, 
and,  .18  he  has  not  forfeited  his  claims  to  the  crown,  also 
a  prince,  so  that  he  could  with  propriety  be  called  both 


KENOSIS 


KENOSIS 


sen^ant  ami  a  prince :  in  the  same  manner  Jesus  was 
the  true  and  eternal  God,  and  at  the  same  time  a  true 
and  real  man ;  and  it  can  be  said  with  propriety  of  him, 
the  Son  of  God  is  man,  and  the  mau  Jesus  Christ  is 
God."  To  this  is  added  by  the  author  of  Die  biblische 
Glauhenslehre  (published  by  the  "  Calwer  Verem") : 
"  The  same  is  the  case  with  man,  who,  notwithstanding 
the  various  changes  of  liis  circumstances  here,  and  the 
great  changes  which  he  shall  undergo  in  the  resurrec- 
tion, is  stiil  the  same  person.  We  meet  even  in  God 
■nith  a  change  of  conditions.  He  rested  before  and  after 
he  had  created  the  world ;  does  not  this  imply  a  self- 
llmitatioa  0:1  the  part  of  God?  And  what  self-limita- 
tions docs  not  God  impose  upon  himself  with  regard  to 
human  liberty !  The  omnipresence  of  God  is  no  infinite 
diffusion,  but  has  its  definite  starting-point;  and  if  God 
is  not  as  near  to  the  wicked  as  he  is  to  the  pious,  this  is 
likewise  an  act  of  self-limitation  on  God's  part  over 
against  the  ungodly.  Again,  the  personality  of  God, 
what  else  is  it  than  a  self-comprehension  of  the  infinite  V 
Yet  in  all  these  self-liniitations  God  remains  God. 
Should,  then,  the  Son  not  be  able  to  remain  in  sub- 
stance what  he  is,  if,  out  of  compassion  for  fallen  hu- 
manity, he  becomes  a  man,  and,  in  order  to  become  a 
man,  lays  aside  his  divine  glor}^  V" 

This  leads  us,  then,  to  the  main  question.  What  have  we 
to  understand  hij  the  divine-  glory  v-hich  the  Son  laid  aside 
durinfi  his  sojourn  on  earth?  To  this  question  the  Chris- 
tologians  who  adopt  the  l-enosis  return  different  answers. 
We  are  met  here  again  by  the  old  dillicidty  to  unite  the  di- 
vine and  the  human  in  one  self-consciousness.  The  ques- 
tion is  this,  Whether  the  self-consciousness  of  the  God- 
man  is  the  divine  self-consciousness  of  the  eternal  Son, 
or  the  self-consciousness  of  the  assumed  luiman  nature? 
Gess  (Gesch.  d.  Dor/mulik-)  takes  the  latter  view,  and  says 
tliat,  in  order  to  do  justice  to  the  true  humanity  of  Jesus 
Christ,  it  is  necessary  to  consistently  caiTy  out  the  self- 
emptying  act  of  the  Logos,  so  that  the  Son  of  God  in 
the  act  of  the  incarnation  laid  aside  the  divine  attributes 
of  omnipotence  and  omniscience,  together  with  his  di- 
vine self-consciousness,  and  regained  the  latter  gradual- 
ly in  the  way  of  a  really  human  development,  in  such  a 
manner  as  not  to  affect  the  true  and  real  divinity  of 
Christ.  Whether  a  temporary  la}'ing  aside-  of  the  di- 
vine self-consciousness  is  consistent  with  the  immuta- 
bility of  the  divine  Being  we  need  not  discuss  here.  The 
argimientation  of  Gess  is  very  acute,  and  may  appear  to 
the  metaphysician  the  most  consistent  and  satisfactory 
analysis  of  the  personal  union  of  the  divine  and  the  hu- 
man in  the  person  of  Christ;  but  exegcticaUy  it  seems 
to  us  untenable,  nor  is  it  fit  for  the  practical  edifica- 
tion of  the  Christian  pcojile,  an<l  a  theology  that  cannot 
be  preached  intelligibly  from  the  pulpit  is  justl}^  to  be 
suspected.  We  conclude  with  Liebner  and  other  Chris- 
tologians  that  by  the  glory  which  the  Son  of  God  laid 
aside  during  his  sojourn  on  earth  we  must  not  under- 
stand his  divine  self-consciousness,  n'ot  the  fulness  of  the 
Deity,  as  far  as  it  can  manifest  itself  in  a  human  nature. 
Oil  the  contrary,  it  is  said  of  this  very  glory,  "The 
Word  became  tiesh  and  dwelt  among  us,  and  we  saw 
hU  glory,  a  glory  as  of  the  only  begotten  of  the  Father, 
fu'.l  of  grace  and  truth.  .  .  .  And  of  his  fulness  we  all 
have  received  grace  for  grace."  This  divine  fulness  the 
Son  did  not  give  up  at  his  incarnation,  but  it  followed 
him  as  his  peculiar  property  from  heaven,  from  out  of 
the  Father's  bosom,  to  legitimate  him  as  the  Logos,  as 
the  only  begotten  of  the  Father,  yet  so  that  he  turned 
it  into  a  divine-human  glory,  actjuired  in  a  human  man- 
ner. Only  the  form  of  (iod,  the  divine  form  of  exist- 
ence, consequently  the  transcendent  divine  majesty  and 
sovereign  power  over  all  things,  united  with  uninter- 
rupted ghny,  he  exchanged,  at  his  incarnation  and  dur- 
ing the  time  of  his  sojourn  on  earth,  for  his  human  form 
of  existence,  for  the  form  of  the  servant.  Into  this  his 
antemundane  glory,  however,  he  re-entered  (John  xvii, 
5)  on  his  going  home  to  his  Father  (John  vi,  (32),  also 
in  the  capacity  of  the  exalted  Son  of  man  (Phil,  ii,  9). 


But  in  every  stage  of  his  divine-human  development 
the  Son's  oneness  of  being  and  of  will  with  the  Father 
remained,  and  by  this  verjr  fact  he  was  in  his  human 
teaching  and  conduct  the  express  image  of  the  invisible 
God,  the  personal  revealer  of  him  who  had  sent  him,  the 
Son  of  God  in  the  form  of  human  existence.  According 
to  this  view,  the  immanent  relation  of  the  Father,  Son, 
and  Holy  Ghost  did  not  suffer  any  change  by  the  laying 
asiile  of  the  divine  form  of  existence  on  the  part  of  the 
Son,  nor  during  the  time  of  his  existence  in  human 
form.  Only  according  to  this  view  also  have  the  words 
of  the  incarnate  Son  of  God  their  full  force :  "  Believe 
me  that  I  am  in  the  Father,  and  the  Father  in  me ;  if 
not,  believe  me  for  the  very  works'  sake.  The  words 
that  I  speak  unto  you  I  speak  not  of  myself,  but  the  Fa- 
ther that  dwelleth  in  me,  he  docth  the  Avorks"  (John 
xiv,  10,  11).  If  it  be  objected  that  the  really  human 
development  of  Jesus  is  inconsistent  A\ath  or  excluded 
by  the  continuance  of  the  eternal  self-consciousness  of 
the  Logos  in  the  incarnation,  we  answer  that  this  infer- 
ence does  not  necessarily  follow.  There  is  nothing  self- 
contradictory  in  the  assumption  that  the  incarnate  Lo- 
gos had  in  his  one  Ego  a  consciousness  of  his  twofold 
nature.  Even  if  we  cannot  explain  how  the  Logos  was 
conscious  of  himself  as  the  eternal  Son  of  God,  and  yet 
had  this  self-consciousness  only  in  a  human  form,  yet 
the  consciousness  of  his  twofold  nature  was  necessary  for 
the  mediatorial  office  of  the  incarnate  Logos;  he  was  to 
know  himself  accorduig  to  his  absolute  divinity  and  his 
human  development;  and  if  we  suppose  that  of  his  di- 
vine self-consciousness  onli/  so  much  as  was  necessary  for 
his  mediatoiial  office  passed  over  into  his  human  self- 
consciousness,  this  double  self-consciousness  is  in  perfect 
agreement  with  his  purely  human  life  and  with  his 
mediatorial  office.  As  to  the  divine  attributes  or  powers 
that  are  connected  with  the  divine  self-consciousness, 
there  is  nothing  self-contradictorj'  in  the  supposition 
that  the  divine  Ego  of  the  Logos  acted  in  concert  with 
the  powers  of  human  nature,  with  human  self-conscious- 
ness, and  human  volition,  if  we  ado^it  the  cthoi-e-mentioned 
relative  selj-limitutian  of  the  divine  knoivledge  and  will  as 
necessary  for  the  mediatorial  office.  But  even  if  by  this 
view  of  the  personal  oneness  of  the  divine  and  the  human 
in  Christ  the  metaphysical  difficulty  should  not  be  fidly 
removed,  we  would  prefer  confessing  the  unfathomable 
depth  of  this  mystery  to  any  philosophical  solution  of 
the  problem  which  we  could  not  fully  reconcile  with  the 
plain  teachings  of  the  Word  of  God. 

One  of  the  latest  and  most  striking  presentations  of 
this  self-abnegation  on  the  part  of  our  Lord  is  that 
found  in  Henry  Ward  Beccher's  Life  of  Jesus  (i,  50), 
which  we  here  transcribe,  omitting  its  monothelitism 
and  anthropopathy :  "  The  divine  Spirit  came  into  the 
world  in  the  person  of  Jesus,  not  bearing  the  attributes 
of  Deity  in  their  full  disclosure  and  power.  He  came 
into  the  world  to  subject  his  spirit  to  that  whole  disci- 
pline and  exjierience  through  which  every  man  must 
pass.  He  veiled  his  royalty ;  he  folded  back,  as  it  were, 
within  himself  those  ineffiible  powers  which  belonged 
to  him  as  a  free  spirit  in  heaven.  He  went  into  cap- 
tivity to  himself,  wrapping  in  weakness  and  forgetful- 
ness  his  divine  energies  while  he  was  a  babe.  '  Being 
found  in  fashion  as  a  man,'  he  was  subject  to  that  grad- 
ual imfolding  of  his  buried  powers  which  belongs  to  in- 
fancy and  childhood.  'And  the  c\n\<\  greiu  and  iraxed 
strong  in  spirit.'  He  was  subject  to  the  restrictions 
which  hold  and  hinder  common  men.  He  was  to  come 
back  to  himself  little  by  little.  Who  shall  say  that 
God  cannot  put  himself  into  finite  conditions?  Though 
a  free  spirit  God  cannot  grow,  yet  as  fettered  in  the 
flesh  he  may.  Breaking  out  at  times  with  amazing 
power  in  single  directions,  yet  at  other  times  feeling  the 
mist  of  humanity  resting  upon  his  brows,  he  declares, 
'  Of  that  day  and  that  hour  knoweth  no  man,  no,  not 
the  angels  which  are  in  heaven,  neither  the  Son,  but  the 
Father.'  This  is  just  the  experience  which  we  should 
expect  in  a  being  whose  problem  of  life  was,  not  the  dis- 


KENRICK 


46 


KENT 


closure  of  the  full  power  and  glory  of  God's  natural  at- 
tributes, but  tbe  manifestation  of  the  love  of  God,  and 
of  the  extremities  of  self-renunciation  to  which  the  di- 
vine lieart  would  sulnnit,  in  the  rearing  up  of  his  family 
of  children  from  animalism  and  passion.  The  incessant 
looking  for  the  signs  of  divine  power  and  of  intinite  at- 
tributes in  the  earthly  life  of  Jesus,  whose  mission  it  was 
to  bring  the  divine  Spirit  within  the  conditions  of  feeble 
humanity,  is  as  if  one  should  search  a  dethroned  king 
in  exile  for  his  crown  and  his  sceptre.  We  are  not  to 
look  fur  a  glorified,  an  enthroned  .Jesus,  but  for  God 
manifest  in  the  jlesh  ;  and  in  this  view  the  very  limita- 
tions and  seeming  discrepancies  in  a  divine  Ufe  become 
congruous  parts  of  the  whole  sublime  problem." 

Most  theologians,  however,  will  see  in  this  progres- 
sive development  of  Jesus  rather  the  growth  of  the  /nt- 
maii  faculties  as  shone  upon  by  the  inward  sun  of  divine 
life ;  and  in  the  alternate  lights  and  shades  of  the  Re- 
deemer's career,  not  so  much  the  vicissitudes  imposed 
upon  the  enshrined  Deity  by  the  earthly  abode,  as  the 
mutual  play  of  the  divine  and  the  human  natures,  now 
one  and  now  the  other  specially  manifesting  itself.  In- 
deed, the  theory  of  a  somewhat  double  consciousness,  if 
we  may  so  express  it,  or  at  least  an  occasional  (and  in 
early  life  a  prolonged)  withdrawal  of  the  divine  cogni- 
tions from  the  human  intellect,  and  thus  of  the  fuU  di- 
vine energies  from  the  human  will,  seems  to  be  required 
in  order  to  meet  the  varying  aspects  under  whicli  the 
comijound  life  of  Jesus  presents  itself  in  the  Gospels. 
Certainly  the  union  of  the  divine  Spirit  with  a  mere 
human  body  is  a  heathen  theophany,  not  a  Christian 
incarnation.  Indeed,  the  "Jksh''  which  the  Saviour  as- 
sumed, in  its  Scripture  sense,  has  reference  to  human 
vafnre  as  such,  its  mental  and  spiritual  faculties  not  less 
than  its  physical.  The  problem,  therefore,  still  is  to 
adjust  the  God  to  the  man.  This,  of  course,  can  only 
be  done  by  conceiving  of  the  infinite  as  assuming  finite 
relations,  and  this,  in  short,  is  the  meaning  of  Kenosis. 
See  HiMiLiATiox. 

This  topic  became  a  subject  of  controversy  in  the  first 
part  of  the  17th  century  between  the  theologians  of 
Gicssen  and  those  of  Tubingen  ;  the  former  (^lenzer  a;ul 
Feuerborn)  contending  that  Christ  during  his  state  of 
earthly  humiliation  actualh'  divested  himself  {KtvojciQ 
proper)  of  omnipotence,  omniscience,  etc.;  while  the 
latter  (Luke  Osiander,  Theodore  Thummius,  and  j\Iel- 
chior  Nicolai)  maintained  that  he  still  continued  to  pos- 
sess these  divine  attributes,  but  merely  concealed  them 
(K-()i'i;//(f)  from  men  (see  Thummius,  De  TaTziivuxriypa- 
<pi(f.  sacra.  Tubing.  162.3  ;  Nicolai,  De  Kivwan  Christi,  ib. 
iC22).  For  details  of  the  controversy,  see  Herzog,  liecd- 
KncykLxu,  oil  sq.;  xiv,  78G.  On.  the  doctrine  itself,  see 
Dorner,  Doct.  of  the  Person  oj"  Christ,  I,  ii,  29 ;  Schrockh, 
Kirchenr/esch.  iv,  G70  sq. ;  comp.  Jiib.  Repos.,h\ly,  1807, 
p.  410 ;  A  mer.  F'l-esh.  Rei:  July.  18G1.  p.  551 ;  Mcth.  Quar. 
Her.  Jan.  18G1,  p.  148 ;  April,"l870,  p.  291.  The  treatise 
of  ]5odemeyer, />«-/.<=/( /-e  i-on  der  Kenosis  (Gotting.  18G0), 
is  t)f  a  very  vague  and  general  character.  See  Cheis- 
TOLocv,  vol.  ii,  p.  281,  282. 

Keniick,  Fhancis  Patrick,  D.D.,  an  American 
IJoman  Catholic  prelate  of  great  note,  was  born  in  Dub- 
lin, Inland,  Dec.  3,  1797,  received  a  classical  education 
in  his  native  city,  and  in  1815  was  sent  to  Rome  to  study 
divinity  and  philos(i]ihy.  There  he  spent  two  years  at 
the  Ihuise  of  the  Lazarists,  and  four  years  in  the  College 
of  the  Pro|)aganda.  He  was  ordained  in  1821,  and  im- 
mediately thereafter  came  to  the  United  States  to  as- 
sume the  charge  of  an  ecclesiastical  seminary  just  start- 
ing at  Bardstown,  Ky.  He  soon  distinguished  himself 
as  a  polemic  writer  by  h\s  Letters  of  Omicron  to  Omer/a, 
■written  in  I'efence  of  tlie  Homan  Catholic  doctrine  of 
the  Eucharist,  in  reply  to  attacks  liy  Dr.  Blackburn, 
president  of  Danville  College:  Ky.,  under  t,he  signature 
of  "  Omega.'"  On  June  Gth,  l.s.'jd,  at  Bardstown,  he  was 
consecrated  bishoji  of  Arath  in  partihiis  infidelium,  and 
made  coadjutor  to  the  right  reverend  bishop  Connell,  of 
Philadelphia,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1842.     Dining  his 


episcopate  there  occurred  the  anti-Catholic  riots,  and  by 
his  firmness  and  jiromptness  of  effort  his  people  were 
prevented  from  retaliatory  acts.  In  1851  bishop  Ken- 
rick  was  transferred  to  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  Balti- 
more. In  1852,  as  "  apostolic  delegate,"  he  presided  over 
the  first  plenarj'  council  of  the  United  States  held  at 
Baltimore,  and  in  1859  the  pope  conferred  upon  him  and 
his  successors  the  "  ])rimacy  of  honor,"  which  gives  them 
precedence  over  all  Ifoman  Catholic  prelates  in  this  coun- 
try. He  died  at  Baltimore  July  8,  18G3.  Archbishop 
Kenrick  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  learned  men 
and  tlieologians  of  his  creed  in  this  country'.  He  is 
equally  distinguished  as  a  controversialist  and  a  Biblical 
critic.  His  style  is  vigorous  and  decided.  In  1837  he 
published  a  series  of  letters  On  the  Primacy  of  the  Holy 
See  and  the  A  uthorify  of  General  Councils,  in  reply  to 
bishop  Hopkins,  of  Vermont,  subsequentl}'  enlarged  and 
reprinted  under  the  title  of  The  Pi-imacy  of  the  Apostolic 
See  Vindiciited  (4th  ed..  Bait.  1855);  aho.Vi/idicution  of 
the  Catholic  Church  (12mo,  Baltimore,  1855),  in  reply  to 
Dr.  Hopkins's  End  of  Co7itrorersy  Controverted.  The 
works,  however,  which  constitute  his  chief  claim  to  the- 
ological eminence  are  his  Latin  treatises  on  dogmatic 
theologv,  Theolofjia  TJof/matica  (4  vols.  8vo,  Phil.  1839, 
1840)  and  Theolofut  Moralis  (3  vols.  8vo,  Phil.  1841-3), 
which  form  a  complete  course  of  diviriity,  and  are  used 
as  text-books  in  nearly  all  the  Romish  seminaries  of 
the  United  States.  An  enlarged  edition  of  these  works 
has  been  published  both  in  Belgium  and  in  this  countrj'. 
This  contains  many  valuable  additions,  among  them  a 
catalogue  of  the  fathers  and  ecclesiastical  writers,  with 
an  accurate  descrijition  of  their  genuine  works.  At  the 
time  of  his  death  he  v,as  engaged  in  revising  the  Fng- 
lish  translation  of  the  Scriptures,  of  which  the  whole  of 
the  X.  T.  and  nearly  aU  of  the  O.  T.  have  been  jinblished. 
"  It  is  illustrated  hy  copious  notes,  and  will  probably  su- 
persede the  Douay  version  in  general  use."  His  other 
works  of  a  sectarian  and  controversial  character  are 
Catholic  Doctrine  on  Justif  cation  Explained  and  Vindi- 
cated (12mo,  Phil.  1841): — Treatise  on  Baptism  (12mo, 
New  York*1843).  Kenrick  was  distinguished  both  for 
his  sagacity  and  moderation  in  counsel,  "  and  for  his  in- 
defatigable efforts  in  extending  the  power  and  influence 
of  his  Church."  While  in  Philadelphia  "he  founded 
the  theological  seminary  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  and 
introduced  into  his  diocese  the  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shep- 
herd, who  devote  themselves  to  the  care  of  Magdalen 
asylums."  "  During  the  period  of  our  civil  war  he  was 
unswerving  in  his  loyalty  to  the  Union,  and  never  failed 
to  inculcate  obedience  to  the  laws"  in  the  face  of  the  op- 
position of  many  of  his  people. — Alii  bone's  X'^(•^  of  Au- 
thors, s.  v.;  Appleton's  New  Arner.  Cyclop),  x,  13G;  An- 
nual for  18G3,  p.  5G1. 

Kent,  Asa,  a  ^Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  was  bom 
in  West  Brookfleld,  Mass.,  May  9, 1780.  In  18U1  he  was 
licensed  as  an  cxhorter,  and  ajipointed  to  Weathersfield 
Circuit,Vermont;  in  1802  he  joined  on  trial  the  New  York 
Conference,  and  was  apjiointed  to  Whitingham  Circuit. 
Tlie  following  year  he  became  a  member  of  the  old  New 
England  Conference,  and  during  the  thirty-six  years  suc- 
ceeding filled  apjiointments  at  Bamard,Yt.;  Atlicns,Yt.; 
Lunenburg,  Yt. ;  Ashburnham,  j\Iass. ;  Salisbury,  Mass. ; 
Salem,  N.H.;  Lynn,!Mass.;  Bristol.  R.  I.;  New  London, 
Conn. ;  Nantucket,  R.  I. ;  jMiddleborough,  L'ochestcr, 
IMass.;  Chestnut  Street,  Providence,  R.  I.;  Elm  Street, 
New  Bedford,  ]\Iass. ;  Newport.  R.  I.;  Charlestown,  An- 
dover.Mass.;  and  Edgartown,  j\Iartha's  Yineyard.  Dur- 
ing this  period,  ill  health,  brought  on  by  the  strain  of 
indefatigalJe  lai)ors  upon  a  naturally  delicate  constitu- 
tion, compelled  liim  several  times  to  take  sujiernumerary 
and  superanniiat('<l  relations.  In  1814-17  he  was  presid- 
ing elder  of  the  New  I>)ndon  district.  He  was  a  dele- 
gate to  the  (ieneral  Conference  in  New  York  in  1812, 
and  also  in  Baltimore  in  181G.  From  the  date  of  his 
last  appointment  in  1839  to  the  day  of  his  death,  Sept.  1, 
18G0,  he  was  always  laboring  when  his  health  would 
permit.     He  wrote  much  for  Ziori's  Herald  and  the 


KENT 


47 


KEPLER 


Christian  Advocate  andJournaJ.  His  productions  were 
characterized  by  a  clear,  concise,  unornamennd  Style, 
freshness  of  thought,  and  deep  spirituality.  Not  osten- 
tatious in  the  expression  of  his  religious  convictions  and 
experiences,  he  claimed  personal  knowledge  of  the  doc- 
trine of  entire  sanctification.  "  Uniformly  cheerful,  full 
of  buoyant  hopes  in  Christ,  he  always  was  remarkably 
sedate." — Meth.  Minutes  for  180 1;  New  York  Christian 
Advocate. 

Kent,  James,  a  distinguished  English  composer  of 
Church  music,  was  born  at  Winchester  in  ITOti,  and  at 
an  early  age  employed  as  chorister  in  the  cathedral  of 
that  cit}'.  His  talents  secured  him  admittance  to  the 
Chapel  koyal,  London,  where  he  enjoyed  the  tuition  of 
the  celebrated  Dr.  Croft.  After  completing  his  educa- 
tion, he  was  chosen  organist  of  Finden,  in  Northampton- 
shire, and  subsequently  was  appointed  organist  of  Trin- 
ity College,  Cambridge.  In  1737  he  was  elected  to  fill 
the  same  situation  in  the  cathedral  of  his  native  place, 
which  he  accepted  and  held  until  1774.  He  died  in  177G. 
Mr.  Kent  greatly  assisted  Dr.  Boyce  in  the  preparation 
of  his  magnificent  work,  the  collection  of  Cathedral  Mu- 
sic, and  his  services  are  duly  acknowledged  by  that 
learned  editor.  Mr.  Kent  published  a  volume  of  Twelve 
Anthems  (London,  1773,  ito),  among  which  are.  Hear 
imj  Prai/er,  When  the  Son  of  Man^Mn  Sonfj  shall  he  of 
Mercj,  and  others  which  are  favorites  with  the  congrega- 
tions of  English  cathedrals.  After  his  decease,  a  Morn- 
iiifi  and  Ereninfj  Service,  and  Eitjht  A nthems,  comjiosed  by 
him  for  the  Winchester  choir,  were  collected  and  printed 
by  Mr.  Corfe,  of  Salisbury ;  but  the  probability  is  tliat  the 
author  never  intended  them  for  publication,  as  they  are 
not  equal  to  his  other  published  productions.  "  ^Ir.  Kent 
was  remarkably  mild  in  his  disposition,  amiable  in  his 
manners,  exemplary  in  his  conduct,  and  conscientiously 
diligent  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties.  His  performance 
on  the  organ  was  solemn  and  impressive,  and  he  was  by 
competent  judges  considered  one  of  the  best  musicians 
of  the  age  in  which  he  lived"  {Ilarmonicon).    (.J.  H.AV'^.) 

Kentigern,  St.,  a  Scottish  prelate  who  flourished 
toward  the  close  of  the  Gth  century,  was  actively  en- 
gaged in  the  interests  of  the  Christian  Church  among 
the  natives  of  Scotland.  He  is  said  to  have  made  many 
converts  while  bishop  of  Glasgow.  Bishop  Kentigern 
died  about  A.D.  GOO. 

Kephar-  (132,  villar/e),  a  frequent  prefix  to  the 
Heb.  name  of  hamlets  or  small  places  in  Palestine,  as  in 
•  that  here  following,  and  many  others  mentioned  by  Be- 
laud {Paltrst.  p.  681  sq.)  and  Schwarz  (Palest,  p.  1 18. 119, 
ICO,  170, 177, 187, 188, 190,  200, 201, 204, 235).  See  Ca- 
riiAi;-. 

Kephar-Chananiah  (X'':Dn  "iSD,  i.  e.  villaffe  of 
Ilunaiduh),  a  place  named  in  the  Talmud,  and  now 
called  Kefr  A  nan,  5  miles  S.W.  of  Safed,  containing  the 
ruins  of  a  synagogue  (Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  187;  compare 
Eobinson,  Later  Bib.  Res.  p.  78,  note). 

Kepliir.     See  Lion. 

Kepler,  Joiianx,  the  celebrated  astronomer,  deserves 
a  place  here  not  so  much  on  account  of  his  services  to  the 
science  of  astronomy  as  for  the  relation  h2  sustained  to, 
and  the  treatment  he  received  from  the  Christian  Church 
of  the  IGth  century.  He  was  born  near  the  imperial 
city  of  Weil,  in  Wiirtemberg,  Dec.  27,  1571,  and  in  his 
childhood  was  weak  and  sickl^^  He  was  sent  to  school 
in  1577,  but  the  straitened  circumstances  of  his  father 
caused  great  interruption  to  his  education.  He  was 
soon  taken  from  school,  and  emiiloyed  in  menial  services 
at  his  father's  tavern.  In  his  twelfth  year,  however,  he 
was  again  placed  at  the  same  school,  but  in  the  follow- 
ing year  was  seized  with  a  violent  iOness,  so  that  his 
life  was  for  some  time  despaired  of.  In  158G  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  monastic  school  of  ^Nlaulbronn,  where  his 
expenses  were  paid  by  the  duke  of  Wiirtemberg.  The 
three  years  of  Kepler's  life  following  his  admission  to 
this  school  were  marked  by  a  return  of  several  of  the 


disorders  which  had  well-nigh  proved  fatal  to  him  in 
his  childhood.  To  add  to  his  misfortunes,  his  father  left 
home  in  consequence  of  disagreements  with  his  mother, 
and  soon  after  tiled  abroad.  After  the  departure  of  his 
father  his  mother  quarrelled  with  her  relations,  "having 
been  treated,"  says  Hantsch,  Kepler's  earliest  biographer, 
(in  his  edition  of  Epistoke  ad  J.  Keplerum,  etc.  [Leipz. 
1718]),  "with  a  degree  of  barbarity  by  her  husband  and 
brother-in-la^v  that  was  hardly  exceeded  even  by  her 
own  perversencss."  As  a  natural  consequence,  the  fam- 
ily affairs  were  in  the  greatest  confusion.  Notwith- 
standing these  complications,  young  Kepler  took  his  de- 
gree of  master  at  the  University  of  Tubingen  in  Au- 
gust, 1591,  holding  the  second  place  in  the  examination. 
While  at  the  uni\-ersity  he  had  paid  particular  atten- 
tion to  the  study  of  theology,  and  no  doubt  intended  to 
enter  the  ministry;  but,  annoyed  by  the  strife  which 
the  controversy  on  the  Formula  of  Concord  occasioned, 
and  opposed  to  the  doctrine  of  idjiquity,  at  that  time 
made  an  article  in  the  confession  of  Wiirtemberg's  state 
rehgion,  he  failed  to  secure  a  position  as  minister.  He 
now  turned  to  mathematical  studies.  His  attention 
was  first  directed  to  astronomy  by  the  offer  of  the  as- 
tronomical lectureship  at  Gratz.tlie  chief  town  of  Styria. 
At  that  time  he  knew  very  little  of  the  subject,  but, 
having  accepted  the  lectureship,  he  was  forced  to  ciual- 
ify  himself  for  the  position.  While  engaged  in  these 
investigations,  he  came  by  degrees  to  understand  the 
superior  mathematical  convenience  of  the  system  of  Co- 
pernicus to  that  of  Ptolemy.  His  general  views  of  as- 
tronomy, however,  were  somewhat  mystical,  as  may  be 
seen  in  his  Prodromus.  He  supposed  the  sun,  stars,  and 
planets  were  typical  of  the  Trinity,  and  that  (iod  dis- 
tributed the  planets  in  space  in  accordance  with  regular 
polyhedrons,  etc. 

In  1595  Kei>ler  completed  his  Mi/sterium  Cosmorjraj^h- 
icum,  in  which  he  details  the  many  hypotheses  he  had 
successively  formed,  examined,  and  rejected  concerning 
the  number,  distance,  and  periodic  times  of  the  planets, 
and  endeavors  to  demonstrate  the  correctness  of  the  Co- 
pernican  system,  which  at  that  time  was  stUl  discredited 
and  rejected  as  un-Biblical  by  both  Romanists  and  Prot- 
estants. To  avoid  persecution,  Kepler  took  the  precau- 
tion to  secure  the  opinion  of  eminent  theologians  of  both 
churches  before  publication,  and  for  this  purpose  sub- 
mitted the  ^IS.  to  the  faculty  of  Tlibingen  University. 
Of  course  they  quickly  condemned  the  sacrilegious  effort 
and  daring  of  the  j'oung  astronomer  (see  below),  but 
not  so  thought  duke  Louis  of  Wiirtemberg,  who  not 
only  approved  of  the  w^ork,  but  furnished  the  means  (in 
159G)  to  defray  the  expense  of  printing  it.  It  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  in  the  IGth  century  astronomical 
truth  was  equally  unknown  to  the  clergy  and  the  laity, 
and  that  the  motion  of  the  earth  and  the  stability  of 
the  sun  were  doctrines  apparently  inconsistent  with 
holy  Scripture.  Besides,  in  those  days  the  truths  of  re- 
ligion were  guarded  by  a  sternness  of  discipline  and  a 
severity  of  punishment  which  have  disappeared  in  more 
enlightened  times.  In  order  to  form  a  correct  judgment 
respecting  the  causes  which  led  to  the  opposition  to 
Kepler  bj^  the  Church,  and  the  subsequent  trial  and 
condemnation  of  (ialileo  (([.  v.),  we  must  turn  to  that 
period  when  they  first  submitted  their  opinions  to  the 
public.  The  philosophy  of  Aristotle  was  then  preva- 
lent throughout  Europe.  It  was  taught  in  all  its  uni- 
versities by  professors  lay  and  clerical,  and  every  at- 
tempt to  refute  their  doctrines  exposed  its  author  to  the 
opposition  of  the  learning  and  scholarship  of  that  day. 
One  of  the  principal  dogmas  of  the  Aristotelian  philos- 
ophy was  the  immutability  of  the  heavens.  The  bril- 
liant discoveries  of  Kepler  and  Galileo  struck  a  blow  at 
the  ancient  jihilosophy,  and  consequently  exposed  them 
to  the  hostility  of  the  Peripatetic  philosophers.  Now 
when  we  reflect  that  the  minds  of  all  thinking  men 
were  then  completely  moulded  by  that  philosojjhy,  and 
that  these,  again,  governed  the  reflections  of  those  im- 
mediately beneath  them,  and  from   them   the  residts 


KEPLER 


48 


KERCHIEF 


of  Aristotelianism,  minglint;  up,  as  they  did,  especially 
with  the  rehgioiis  opinions  of  tlie  day,  thus  reached 
the  whole  of  the  popular  intellect,  we  will  lind  it  no 
matter  of  surprise  that  the  zeal  of  these  innovators  met 
with  the  most  determined  opposition.  "The  Aristote- 
lian professors,  the  temporizing  Jesuits,  the  political 
churchmen,  and  that  timid  but  respectful  body  who  at 
all  times  dread  innovation,  whether  it  be  in  legislation 
or  in  science,  entered  into  an  alliance  against  the  philo- 
sophical tyrants  who  threatened  them  with  the  penal- 
ties of  knowledge."  "  He  who  is  allowed  to  take  the 
start  of  his  species,"  says  Sir  David  Brewster,  "  and  to 
penetrate  the  veil  which  conceals  from  common  minds 
the  mysteries  of  nature,  must  not  expect  that  the  world 
will  be  patiently  dragged  at  the  chariot-wheels  of  his 
philosopliy.  Mind  has  its  inertia  as  well  as  matter,  and 
its  progress  to  truth  can  only  be  insured  by  the  gradual 
and  jiatient  removal  of  the  difficidties  which  embarrass 
it."  Those  Protestants,  therefore,  who  are  so  ready  to 
censure  the  Church  of  Home  for  its  action  with  regard 
to  these  great  men  should  remember  that  it  was  but 
carrying  out  the  spirit  of  the  age,  and  a  measure  which 
the  "spirit  of  the  people  demanded.  Surely  Protestant- 
ism has  but  little  to  boast  of  in  this  matter.  More  than 
half  a  century  later  we  tind  that  the  great  and  good  Sir 
Matthew  Hale  condemned  to  death  two  women  for  witch- 
craft on  the  ground,  first,  that  Scripture  had  affirmed 
the  reality  of  witchcraft ;  and,  secondly,  that  the  wis- 
dom of  all  nations  had  provided  laws  against  persons 
accused  of  the  crime.  Sir  Thomas  Browne,  the  cele- 
brated author  of  the  Religio  Medici,  was  called  as  a  wit- 
ness at  the  trial,  and  swore  "  that  he  was  clearly  of 
opinion  that  the  persons  were  bewitched."  Not  only 
so,  but  Henry  j\Iore  and  Cudworth  strongly  expressed 
their  belief  in  the  reality  of  witchcraft ;  and,  more  than 
all,  Joseph  Glauride,  probably  the  most  celebrated  theo- 
logical thinker  of  his  time,  wrote  a  special  defence  of 
the  superstition,  without  doubt  the  ablest  book  ever 
written  on  that  subject.  As  late  as  1G92  nineteen  per- 
sons were  executed  and  one  pressed  to  death  in  iSIassa- 
chusetts  on  the  same  plea  for  witchcraft.  See  Salesi. 
'•  To  deny  the  possibility,  nay,  actual  existence  of  witch- 
craft and  sorcery,"  says  Sir  ■\\'illiam  Blackstone  (Com- 
mentciry  on  the  Laics  of  England,  bk.  iv,  ch.  iv,  sec.  6), 
"  is  at  once  flatly  to  contradict  the  revealed  Word  of 
God  in  various  passages  both  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
taments."     See  WlTCUCKAFT. 

In  1597  Kepler  married  Barbara  JNIiiller  von  IMiihl- 
eckh.  She  Avas  already  a  widow  for  the  second  time, 
although  two  years  younger  than  Kepler  himself.  In 
the  year  following  his  marriage,  on  account  of  the 
troubled  state  of  tlie  province,  arising  out  of  the  two 
great  religious  parties  into  which  the  German  empire 
was  then  divided,  he  was  induced  to  withdraw  into  Hun- 
gary. The  Jesuits,  anxious  to  secure  for  the  Piomish 
Church  the  learning  and  renown  of  Kepler,  earnestly 
worked  in  his  behalf,  and  secured  permission  for  his  re- 
turn to  Gratz.  Verj'  independent  in  character,  Kepler 
was  not  the  man  to  eat  the  bread  of  his  opponents,  and 
upon  his  frank  refusal  to  join  the  Romanists  he  was  vis- 
ited with  still  fiercer  opposition.  In  lOOO  he  paid  a  visit 
to  Tycho  Brahe,  and,  by  recommendation  of  the  latter, 
was  appointed  assistant  imperial  mathematician  b_v  em- 
peror Kudolph  II.  Upon  the  death  of  Tycho  in  1(501, 
Kepler  succeeded  him  as  principal  mathematician  to  the 
emperor,  and  took  up  his  residence  at  Prague.  The 
special  task  intrusted  to  Kepler  at  this  time  was  the  re- 
duction of  Tycho's  observations  relative  to  the  planet 
Mars,  and  to  this  circumstance  is  mainly  owing  his  grand 
discovery  of  the  law  of  elliptic  orbits,  and  that  of  the 
equable  description  of  a>ras.  These  continued  studies, 
his  searchings  after  liarmony,  led  him  at  last  to  the  dis- 
covery of  tlie  three  remarkable  truths  called  Kepler's 
Laws.  (For  an  account  of  these,  and  the  st6ps  that  led 
to  their  discovery,  see  the  Knf/lish  Cyclopedia,  s.  v., 
where  also  will  be  found  a  list  of  Kepler's  works.)  In 
162-i  he  went  to  Vienna,  the  emperor  finding  it  impos- 


sible to  make  good  his  promises  to  assist  Kepler,  to  se- 
cure the  necessary  means  to  aid  him  in  the  completion 
of  the  liudolphine  Tables;  it  was  not,  however,  till  1627 
that  these  tables — the  first  that  were  calcidated  on  the 
supposition  that  the  planets  move  in  elliptic  orbits — 
made  their  appearance ;  and  it  will  be  sufficient  to  say 
of  them  in  this  place,  that,  had  Kepler  done  nothing  in 
the  course  of  his  wln)le  life  but  construct  these,  he  would 
have  well  earned  the  title  of  a  most  useful  and  inde- 
fatigable calculator.  He  died  in  the  early  part  of  No- 
vember, 1030,  and  his  body  was  interred  in  St.  Peter's 
church-yard  at  Katisbon.  "Ardent,  restless,  burning  to 
distinguish  himself  by  his  discoveries,  he  attempted  ev- 
erything; and,  having  once  obtained  a  glimpse,  no  labor 
was  too  hard  for  him  in  following  or  verifying  it.  All 
his  attempts  had  not  the  same  success,  and,  in  fact,  that 
was  impossible.  Those  which  have  failed  seem  to  us 
only  fanciful;  those  which  have  been  more  fortunate 
appear  sublime.  When  in  search  of  that  which  really 
existed,  he  has  sometimes  found  it;  when  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  pursuit  of  a  chimera,  he  could  not  but 
fail;  but  even  there  he  unfolded  the  same  qualities,  and 
that  obstinate  perseverance  that  must  triumph  over  all 
difficulties  but  those  which  are  insurmountable."  See 
Breitschwerdt,  Jo/;o«?j  Keple7-'s  Leben  u.Wirkcn  (Stuttg, 
1831);  Brewster, />ices  of  the  Martyrs  of  Science  (Lond. 
1841) ;  Bailly,  Ilistoire  de  Vastronomie  moderne,  ii,  4  sq. ; 
Bayle,  Hist.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Aschbach,  Kirchen-Lexik.  s.  v. ; 
Brockhaus,  Conversaf.  Lex.  s.  v. ;  Enylish  Cyclop,  s.  v. ; 
Menzel,  Gesch.  der  Deutschen,  v,  104  sq.,  327  sq.,  471 ;  vi, 
10  sq. 

Kerach.     See  Crystal. 

Keralay,  De,  a  French  Eoman  Catholic  mission- 
ary, who  flourished  in  the  early  part  of  the  18th  ccn- 
turj',  joined  the  Congregation  of  Foreign  jMissions,  and 
in  1720  took  charge  of  the  mission  at  INIergui.  In  1722 
he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Eosalia,  and  became  co- 
adjutor to  M.  de  Cire,  apostolic  vicar  of  Siam,whom  he 
succeeded  in  1727.  The  court,  which  had  at  first  ap- 
peared favorably  inclined  towards  the  Christians,  soon 
began,  at  the  instigation  of  the  bonzes,  to  persecute 
them  violently.  The  missionaries  were  forbidden  pub- 
lishing any  books  in  the  Siamese  language,  or  teaching 
their  doctrines  to  the  people.  Inscriptions  insulting  to 
the  Christian  faith  were  placed  on  the  front  or  inside 
of  the  churches.  Keralay  himself  also  was  repeated- 
ly summoned  before  the  authorities,  to  answer  for  his 
infringements  of  their  regulations,  but  he  disjilaycd 
throughout  great  firmness  and  patience.  The  death  of 
the  king  and  the  civil  war  which  followed  gave  the 
Christians  some  respite,  but  after  a  short  time  persecu- 
tions began  anew,  and  it  was  during  these  that  Keralay 
died  atjuthia,  Nov.  27,  1737.  See  Lettres  edif antes; 
Henrion,  Hist,  des  Missions ;  Pallegoix,  Description  du 
royuume  Thai  (Paris,  1854, 12mo);  Uocfer,  Xouv.  Bioff. 
Generale,  xxvii,  595.  (J.  N.  I\) 
Keraziu.     See  Chorazix. 

Kerchief  (only  in  the  plur.  nnSS'S,  mispachoth', 
so  called  from  being  spread  out;  Sept.  tTrijiuXata  v.  r. 
TTioiSt'Xaia,  Symmachus  in7avxivia,\vlg.  ccrricalia), 
an  article  of  apparel  or  ornament  that  occurs  only  in 
Ezek.  xiii,  18. 21,  where  it  is  spoken  of  as  something  ap- 
plied to  the  head  by  the  idolatrous  women  of  Israel,  but 
the  meaning  of  which  it  is  difficult  to  discover.  Some 
of  the  ancient  versions  (e.  g.  Symmachus,  the  A'ulgate, 
etc.)  understand  7«Yfo?c.s  or  cushions  for  the  head,  as  in 
the  paraUel  member  (so  Ilosenmiiller,  Gcsenius,  etc.) ; 
others  (e.  g.  the  Sept.,  Syriac,  etc.)  think  that  manths  or 
coverings  for  the  head  are  intended.  Hitzig  understands 
the  talith  or  long  doth  worn  by  Jewish  worshippers. 
See  Fringe.  The  derivation  of  the  Hebrew  word,  and 
the  fact  that  the  article  might  be  torn  (ver.  21),  shows 
that  it  was  long,  loose,  and  flexible,  like  the  shawl  with 
which  Oriental  women  envelop  themselves  (Ruth  iii,  15 : 
Isa.  iii,  22)-,  and  the  statement  that  they  were  adapted 
to  be  placed  "  upon  the  head  of  every  stature"  (d"n  5" 


KERCKHERDERE 


49 


KERI  AND  KETHIB 


tl12'ip"^5,  i.  e.  persons  of  whatever  height),  confirms 
this  view.  Kimclu  says  it  was  a  rich  upper  garment. 
It  was  probably  a  long  and  elegant  veil  or  head-dress, 
perhaps  denoting  by  its  shape  or  ornament  the  charac- 
ter of  those  who  wore  them.  See  Veil.  The  false 
prophetesses  alluded  to  practiced  divinations,  and  jire- 
tended  to  deliver  .oracles  which  contradicted  the  divine 
prophecies.  (See  H;ivernick,6'omH?fH^  ad  loc).  Schroe- 
der  {De  vest.  mul.IIehr.  p.  2G0, 2G9)  well  interprets  "  veils 
such  as  those  with  which  in  the  East  women  cover  the 
entire  head,  especially  the  face"  (comp.  Paith  iii,  15 ;  Isa. 
iii,  22 ).  The  Eastern  women  bind  on  their  other  orna- 
ments with  a  rich  embroidered  handkerchief,  which  is 
described  by  some  travellers  as  completing  the  head- 
dress, and  falling  without  order  upon  the  hair  behind. 
See  Head-dkess.  This,  if  of  costly  and  splendid  ma- 
terial, would  be  a  not  unapt  decoration  for  the  meretri- 
cious purpose  in  question.     See  also  Handkerchief. 

Kerckherdere,  John  Geuard,  a  Dutch  theolo- 
gian anil  philologian,  was  born  near  IMaestricht  about 
1G78,  and  was  educated  at  Louvain,  where  he  afterwards 
became  a  professor.  He  died  March  IG,  1738.  His  the- 
ological works  of  note  avQ,  Systeina  Ajwcalypiicum  (Lou- 
vaiu,  1708, 12mo)  : — Prodromus  Danielicus,  sive  novi  co- 
nntus  historici  critici  in  celeberrimas  difficultates  hisforice 
Vet.  Test,  monarchic! rum  Asice,  etc.,  ac  prmcipiie  Daniel. 
2)ro2)het.  (Louv.  1711, 12mo) : — Be  MonarcJda  Rovim  pa- 
game  secundum  concordiam  inter  jJropketas  Danielem  et 
Joannem;  consequens  historiu  a  monarch ia;  conditoi-ihus 
uSiiue  adurlis  et  imperii  ruimim ;  accessit  series  historice 
ApoculifpticcB  (Louv.  1727,  12mo) :  —  De  Situ  Paradisi 
terr?stris  (Louv.  1731, 12mo). — Hoefer,  Nouv.Biog.  Gene- 
rale,  xxvii,  GOo. 

Kerckhove,  John  Polyandeu  van  den,  a  Dutch 
Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Metz  jNIarch  2G,  15G8,  was 
educated  at  Embden,  where  his  father  was  pastor  of  the 
French  Church,  and  afterwards  went  to  study  Hebrew 
and  philosophy  at  Bremen,  and  theology  at  Heidelberg, 
mider  Du  Jon  and  Crellius,  and  at  Geneva  under  The- 
odore de  Beza  and  Antony  Lafaye.  In  1591  he  became 
pastor  of  the  French  Church  at  Leyden,  and  soon  after 
at  Dort.  In  IGll  he  succeeded  Arminius  as  professor  of 
theology  in  the  University  of  Leyden.  He  took  part  in 
the  Synod  of  Dort,  and  was  one  of  the  theologians  com- 
missioned to  (b^aw  up  the  canon  of  that  synod ;  he  was 
also  member  of  a  committee  for  revising  the  Bible. 
Kerckhove  died  Feb.  4, 1G16.  He  wrote  A  ccord  desjjas- 
sages  de  VEcriture  qui  semhlent  ctre  contraires  les  uns  aux 
autres  (Dort,  1590, 12mo)  : — Theses  logicce  atque  elhicce 
(1602) : — Resp)onsio  ad  interpolata  A.  Cocheletii,  doctoris 
Sorhonnistce  (1610);  Cochelet  answered  in  his  Cmm^te- 
rium  Culrini: — Miscellaneai  Tructationes  theohgicce,  in 
quihus  (ir/itur  de  prcBdesdnatione  et  Ccena  Domini  (Ley- 
den, 1629, 8 vo) : — Prima  Concertatio  anii-sociniana  (Am- 
sterd.  16-40, 8vo)  : — De  essentiali  Christi  Existentia  Con- 
certatio, contra  Johannem  Crellium  (Leyden,  1G43, 12mo); 
etc.  He  also  published  Thomas  Cartwright's  Commen- 
tarii  in  Proverbia  Sulomonis,  and  was  one  of  the  pub- 
lishers of  the  Synopsis  purioris  Theologice  (hcyden,l6'25, 
8vo).  iiecFop])cns,Bibliotheca  Belgica;  Hos.horn.The- 
atrum  Hollandix,  p.  3G1 ;  'Pa(\ViOt,Memoires,  vol.  v. ;  Joh. 
Fabricius,  Jlistor.  Bibliothecarnm,  iv,  92. — Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog.  Generule,  xxvii,  G04.      (J.  N.  P.) 

Ke'reii-hap'pvich  (Heb.  Ke'ren-hap-Puh',  ''^1? 
T)^3"j, /'o;«  of  the  facG-jKiint,  i.  c.  cosmetic-box;  Sept. 
'AfiaX^cluQ  [v.  r.  'AjuriXSa/oc,  'AnaX^iac,  MaXBsai;] 
Kipag,  i.  e.  horn  of  plenty ;  Vulg.  correctly  Cornu  stibii, 
i.  e.  of  antimonj'),  a  name  given  to  Job's  third  daughter 
(Job  xliii,  14),  after  the  Oriental  ideas  of  elegance  (see 
Kitto's Dailg Bib. I II. adloc).  B.C. cir. 2220.   See  Paint. 

Keri  and  Kethib  (ainri  i-ip,  plural  liilp 
"|a'ir>21),  so  frequently  found  in  the  margins  and  foot- 
notes of  the  Hebrew  Bibles,  exhibit  tlie  most  ancient 
various  readings,  and  constitute  the  most  important 
portion  of  the  critico-exegetical  apparatus  bequeathed 
v.— D 


to  us  by  the  Jews  of  olden  times.  On  this  subject  we 
substantially  adopt  Ginsburg's  article  in  Kitto's  Cyclo- 
jicedia,  s.  v.     See  Masoraii. 

I.  Signification,  Classification,  and  3fode  of  Indication 
of  the  Keri  and  Kethib. — The  word  "^Ip,  Jceri',  may 
be  either  the  imperative  or  the  participle  passive  of  the 
Chaldee  verb  Xip,  to  call  out,  to  read,  and  hence  may 
signify  "  Read,''  or  "  It  is  read,"  i.  e.  the  word  in  ques- 
tion is  to  be  substituted  for  that  in  the  text.  S'^inS, 
kethib',  is  the  participle  passive  of  the  Chaldee  verb 
3ri2,  to  icrite,  and  signifies  "It  is  icritten,"  i.  e.  the  word 
in  question  is  in  the  text.  Those  who  prefer  taking 
the  word  "^"ip  as  participle,  do  so  on  the  ground  that  it 
is  more  consonant  with  its  companion  nT^S,  which  is 
the  participle  passive.  The  two  terms  thus  correspond 
substantially  to  the  modern  ones  margin  (Keri)  and  text 
(Kethib).  AVe  may  add  that  tlie  Rabbins  also  call  the 
Keri  N'^p'O,  mikra',  scripture,  and  the  Kethib  llTlO^) 
masorah',  tradition;  but,  according  to  our  ideas,  these 
terms  should  be  reversed. 

The  different  readings  exhibited  in  the  Keri  and 
Kethib  may  be  divided  into  three  general  classes:  a. 
"Words  to  be  read  differently  from  what  they  are  written, 
arising  from  the  omission,  insertion,  exchanging,  or  trans- 
position of  a  single  letter  (-"^v?^  ''"ip,  ''"^p^  ^T?)  5 
b.  Words  to  be  read,  but  that  are  not  ^vritten  in  the 
text  (UTID  N'Pl  'i"ip) ;  and,  c.  Words  written  in  the 
text,  but  that  are  not  to  be  read  (i"!p  X'?1  IS'^nS). 

a.  The  first  general  class  (variations)  comprises  the 
bulk  of  the  various  readings,  and  consists  of— 

1.  Corrections  of  errors  arising  from  mistaldng  hom- 
onyms, 0.  g.  xb,  the  negative  particle,  for  the  similarly 
sounding  15,  the  pronoun,  of  which  we  have  fifteen  in- 
stances (comp.  Exod.  xxi,  8 ;  Lev.  xi,  21 ;  xxv,  30 ;  1 
Sam.  ii,  3 ;  2  Sam.  xvi,  18 ;  2  Kings  viii,  10 ;  Ezra  iv,  2 ; 
Job  xiii,  15 ;  xli,  4 ;  Psa.  c,  3  ;  cxxxix,  16 ;  Prov.  xix, 
7;  xxvi,  2;  Isa.  ix,  2;  Ixiii,  9),  and  two  instances  in 
which  the  reverse  is  the  case  (1  Sam.  ii,  16 ;  xx,  2). 
Besides  noticing  them  in  their  respective  places,  the 
]\Iasorah  also  enumerates  them  all  on  Lev.  xi,  15.  The 
Talmud  {Sopherim,  vi)  gives  three  additional  ones,  viz., 
1  Chron.  xi,  21 ;  Job  vi,  21 ;  Isa.  xlix,  5.  hv  for  bx,  of 
which  we  have  four  instances  (1  Sam.  xx,  24;  1  Kings- 
i,  33  ;  Job  vii,  1 ;  Isa.  Ixv,  7 ;  Ezek.  ix,  5). 

2.  Errors  arising  from  mistaking  the  letters  which 
resemble  each  other,  e.  g.  S  for  3  (comp.  Prov.  xxi,  29) ; 
5  for  t  (Ezek.  xxv,  7) ;  'I  for  "j  (1  Sam.  iv,  13);  n  for 
1,  of  which  the  Masorah  on  Prov.  xix,  19,  and  Jer.  xxi^. 
40,  gives  four  instances  (2  Sam.  xiii,  37 ;  2  Kings  xvi,. 
6;  Jer.  xxi,  40 ;  Prov.  xix,  19) ;  fl  for  n  (.Jer.  xxviii,  1 ;. 
xxxii,  1) ;  n  for  D  (2  Sam.  xxiii,  13) ;  H  for  T\,  of  which 
the  Masorah  on  Prov.  xx,  21  gives  four  instances  (2 
Sam.  xiii,  37;  Prov.  xx,  21 ;  Cant,  i,  17 ;  Dan.  ix,  24)  ;; 
::  for  a  (1  Sam.  xiv,  32) ;  "^  for  1  in  innumerable  in- 
stances; D  for  3  in  eleven  cases  (Josh,  iv,  18;  vi,  5, 15"; 
1  Sam.  xi,  6,  9 ;  2  Sam.  v,  24 ;  2  Kings  iii,  24 ;  Ezra  viii, 
14 ;  Neh.  iii,  20  ;  Esth.  iii,  4 ;  Job  xxi,  13 ;  D  for  n  (Isa. 
xxx,  32) ;  :J  for  SJ  (2  Kings  xx,  4) ;  "I  for  ^  twice  (Jer. 
ii,  20 ;  Ezra  viii,  14)  ;  n  for  H  (Eccles.  xii,  6)  ;  n  for  n 
(2  Kings  xxiv,  14;  xxv,  17;  Jer.  Iii,  21). 

3.  Errors  arising  from  exchanging  letters  which  be- 
long to  the  same  organs  of  speech,  e.  g.  3  for  53,  of 
which  the  Keri  exhibits  one  instance  (Josh,  xxii,  7),. 
and  vice-versa,  of  which  the  Groat  INIasorah,  mider  letter 
3,  gives  six  instances  (Josh,  iii,  16 ;  xxiv,  15 ;  2  Kings 
v,  12 ;  xii,  10 ;  xxiii,  33 ;  Dan.  xi,  18) ;  M  for  N  (2  Kings 
xvii,  21);  :}  for  X  (1  Sara,  xx,  24;  1  Kings  i,  33;  Job- 
vii,  1 ;  Isa.  Ixv,  7;  Ezek.  ix,  5)  ;  52  for  2  (Isa.  Ixv,  4). 

4.  Errors  arising   from  the  transposition  of  letter^. 


KERI  AND  KETHIB 


50 


KERI  AND  KETHIB 


■which  the  Masorah  designates  "iPIIX'il  tS'lpl'O,  and 
of  which  it  gives  sixty-two  cases,  as,  for  instance,  the 
textual  reading,  or  Kethib,  is  priXfl,  the  tent,  and  the 
marginal  reading,  or  Keri,  transposing  the  letters  P  and 
n,  has  nbxn,  tlwse  (comp.  Josh,  vi,  13 ;  xx,  8 ;  xxi,  27 ; 
Judg.  xvi,  •!() ;  1  Sam.  xiv,  27 ;  xix,  18,  22,  23  [twice]  ; 
xx^-ii, «;  2Sam.  iii,  25;  xiv,  30;  xvii,  IG;  xviii,  8;  xx, 
14;  xxiv,  10;  1  Kings  vii,  45;  2  Kings  xi,  2;  xiv,  6; 
1  Chron.  i,  40 ;  iii,  24 ;  xxvii,  29 ;  2  Chron.  xvii,  8 ; 
xxix,  8;  Ezra  ii,  40;  iv,  4;  viii,  17  ;  Neh.  iv,  7  ;  xii,  14; 
Esth.  i,  5,  10  ;  Job  xxvi,  12  ;  Psa.  Ixxiii,  2 ;  cxxxix,  6  ; 
cxlv,  0  ;  Prov.  i,  27 ;  xiii,  20 ;  xix,  16  ;  xxiii,  5,  26  ; 
xxxi,  27 ;  Eccles.  ix,  4  ;  Isa.  xxxvii,  30  ;  Jer.  ii,  25  ; 
viii,  6;  ix,  7;  xv,  4;  xvii,  23;  xxiv,  9;  xxix,  18,  23  ; 
xxxii,  23  ;  xlii,  20 ;  1, 15 ;  Ezek.  xxxvi,  14 ;  xl,  15 ;  xUi, 
10 ;  xliii,  15, 16 ;  Dan.  iv,  9 ;  v,  7, 16  [twice],  29). 

5.  Errors  arising  from  the  small  letter  '^  bemg  dropped 
before  the  pronominal  1  from  plural  nouns,  and  making 
them  to  be  singular,  of  which  there  are  a  hundred  and 
thirteen  instances  [it  is  very  strange  that  the  jNIasorah 
JIagna  only  enumerates  fifty-six  of  tliese  instances] 
(Gen.  xxxiii,  4;  Exod. xxvii,  11;  xxviii,  28;  xxxii,  19; 
xxxix,  4,33;  Lev.  ix,  22;  xvi,  21 ;  Numb,  xii,  3;  Deut. 
ii,  33  ;  vii,  9 ;  viii,  2 ;  xxvii,  10 ;  xxxiii,  9  ;  Josh,  iii,  4 ; 
viii,  11;  xvi,  3;  Ruth  iii,  14;  1  Sam.  ii,  9,  10  [twice]; 
iii,  18 ;  viii,  3 ;  x,  21 ;  xxii,  13 ;  xxiii,  5 ;  xxvi,  7 
[twice],  11, 16;  xxix,  5  [twice]  ;  xxx,  6;  2  Sam.  i,  11 : 
ii,  23;  iii,  12;  xii,  9,  20;  xiii,  34;  xvi,  8;  xviii,  7,  18; 
xix,  19;  XX,  8;  xxiii,  9,  11;  xxiv,  14,  22;  1  Kings  v, 
17;  X,  5;  xviii,  42;  2  Kings  iv,  34;  v,  9;  xi,  18;  Ezra 
iv,  7  ;  Job  ix,  13  ;  xiv,  5  ;  xv,  15  ;  xx,  11 ;  xxi,  20  ; 
xxiv,  1;  xxvi,  14;  xxxi,  20;  xxxvii,  12;  xxxviii,  41; 
xxxix,  26,  30;  xl,  17;  Psa.  x,  5;  xxiv,  6;  Iviii,  8;  cvi, 
45;  cxlvii,  19;  cxlviii,  2;  Prov.  vi,  13  [twice];  xxii, 
24;  xxvi,  24;  Isa.  Hi,  5;  Ivi,  10;  Jer.  xv,  8;  xvii,  10, 
11;  xxii,  4;  xxxii,  4;  Iii,  33  ;  Lam.  iii,  22,  32, 39 ;  Ezek. 
iii,  20;  xvii,  21;  xviii,  23,  24;  xxxi,  5;  xxxiii,  13,  10; 
xxxvii,  16  [twice],  19;  xl,  6,  22  [twice],  26;  xliii,  11 
[thrice],  26;  xliv,  5;  xlvii,  11;  Dan.  xi,  10;  Amos  ix, 
6;  Obad.  v,  11 ;  Hab.  iii,  14) ;  as  well  as  from  the  in- 
sertion of  1  before  the  pronominal  1  and  before  the  pro- 
nominal "i  in  smgular  nouns,  and  making  them  plural ; 
the  Keri  exhibits  seven  instances  of  the  former  (1  Kings 
xvi,  26;  Psa.  ev,  18,  28 ;  Prov.  xvi,  27;  xxi,  29;  Eccles. 
iv,  17;  Dan.  ix,  12)  and  eight  of  the  latter  in  the  word 
ini  (Judg.  xiii,  17;  1  Kings  viii,  26;  xxii,  13;  Psa. 
cxix,  147, 101 ;  Jer.  xv,  10  [twice]  ;  Ezra  x,  12). 

6.  Errors  of  a  grammatical  nature,  arising  from  drop- 
ping the  article  (1  where  it  ought  to  be,  of  which  the 
Keri  exhibits  fourteen  instances  (1  Sam.  xiv,  32 ;  2  Sam. 
xxiii,  9 ;  1  Kings  iv,  7;  vii,  20 ;  xv,  18;  2  Kings  xi,  20 ; 
XV,  25;  Isa.  xxxii,  15;  Jer.  x,  13;  xvii,  19;  xl,  3;  Iii, 
32 ;  Lam.  i,  18 ;  Ezek.  xviii,  20),  or  from  the  insertion 
of  it  where  it  ought  not  to  be,  of  wliich  there  are  ten 
instances  (1  Sam.  xxvi,  12 ;  1  Kings  xxi,  8 ;  2  Kings 
vii,  12,  13;  xv,  25;  Eccles.  vi,  10;  x,  3,  20;  Isa.  xxix, 
11;  Jer.  xxxviii,  11);  or  from  the  dropping  of  the  tl 
after  ir:,  or  writing  XIH  instead  of  X^n  when  used  as 
feminine. 

7.  Errors  arising  from  the  wrong  division  of  words, 
c.  g.  the  first  word  having  a  letter  which  belongs  to  the 
second,  exhibited  by  the  Keri  in  three  instances,  and 
stated  in  the  :Masorah  on  2  Sam.  v,  2  (2  Sam.  v,  2 ;  Job 
xxxviii,  12;  Lam.  iv,  10),  or  the  second  word  having  a 
letter  whicli  belongs  to  the  first,  of  which  there  are 
two  instances  (1  Sam.  xxi,  12;  Ezra  iv,  12);  or  one 
word  being  divided  into  two  separate  words,  of  which 
the  ^lasorah  on  2  (Jhron.  xxxiv  mentions  eight- instan- 
ces (Judg.  xvi,  25 ;  1  Sam.  ix,  L;-  xxiv,  8 ;  1  Kings  xviii, 
5;  2  Chron.  xxxiv,  6;  Isa.  ix,  6;  Lam.  i,  6;  iv,  3),  or 
two  sei)arate  words  being  written  as  one,  exhibited  by 
the  Keri  in  fifteen  instances  (Gen.  xxx,  11;  Exod.  iv, 
2;  Deut.  xxxiii,  2;  1  Chron.  ix,  4;  xxvii,  12,  Neh.  ii. 


23 ;  Job  xxxviii,  1 ;  xl,  6 ;  Psa.  x,  10  ;  Iv,  16 ;  cxxiii,  4; 
Isa.  iii,  15 ;  Jer.  vi,  29  ;  xviii,  3  ;  Ezek.  viii,  6). 

8.  Exegetical  Kerls  or  marginal  readings  which  sub- 
stitute euphemisms  for  tlie  cacophonous  terms  used  in 
tlie  text,  in  accordance  with  the  injunction  of  the  an- 
cient sages,  that  *'all  the  verses  wherein  indecent  ex- 
pressions occur  are  to  be  replaced  by  decent  words  (e.  g. 
njp^w^'i  by  n233C''  [of  which  the  Keri  exhibits  four 
instances,  viz.  Deut.  xxviii,  30 ;  Isa.  xiii,  10 ;  Jer.  iii,  2 ; 
Zech.  xiv,  2]  ;  D^blS"  by  D'^lin:^  [of  which  the  Keri 
exhibits  six  instances,  viz.  Deut.  xxviii,  27 ;  1  Sam.  v, 
0,  9 ;  vi,  4,  5,  17 ;  omitting,  however,  1  Sam.  v,  12] ; 
D'i3'li"in  by  D*^3Ti31  [of  which  the  Keri  exhibits  one 
instance,  viz.  2  Kings  vi,  25];  Cnimn  by  nrj<i:i  [of 
which  the  Keri  exhibits  two  instances,  2  Kings  xviii, 
27;  Isa.xxxvi,  12];  Cn^ra  i72-i-2  by  Cnib:"!  i-^i^a 
[of  which  the  Keri  exhibits  two  instances,  2  Kings 
xviii,  27;  Isa.  xxxvi,  12]  ;  TlXinrb  by  niXri-l-^b  [of 
which  there  is  one  instance,  2  Kings  x,  27,  comp.  Me- 
ffilki,  25  b])." 

The  manner  in  which  this  general  class  of  various 
readings  is  indicated  is  as  follows :  The  variations  speci- 
fied under  1  and  2,  not  affecting  the  vowel  points,  are 
simply  indicated  by  a  small  circle  or  asterisk  placed 
over  the  word  in  the  text  (li'^T-),  which  directs  to  the 
marginal  reading  ("^Ip),  where  the  emendation  is  giv- 
en, as,  for  instance,  the  Kethib  in  Exod.  xxi,  8  is  X'?, 
in  1  Sam.  xx,  24  hb,  and  in  Prov.  xxi,  29  "pr^^  and 
the  marginal  gloss  remarks  IP  p,  PX  p,  "("^ni  p,  the 
p  being  an  abbreviation  for  "'"ip.  In  the  variations 
specified  under  3  and  4,  where  the  different  letters  of  the 
Kethib  and  the  Keri  require  different  vowel  points,  the 
abnormal  textual  reading,  or  the  Kethib,  has  not  only 
the  small  circle  or  asterisk,  but  also  takes  the  vowel 
points  which  belong  to  the  normal  marginal  reading,  or 
the  Keri,  e.  g.  the  appropriate  pointing  of  the  textual 
reading,  or  the  Kethib,  in  2  Kings  xvii,  21,  is  X'n|^^,  but 
it  is  pointed  X'^]^^,  because  these  vowel  signs  belong  to 
the  marginal  reading,  or  the  Keri,  UT^"],  which  it  is  in- 
tended should  accompany  the  vowel  points  in  the  text. 
The  same  is  the  case  with  the  textual  reading  in  2  Sam. 
xiv,  30,  which,  according  to  the  marginal  reading,  ex- 
hibits a  transposition  of  letters,  and  which  can  hardly 
be  pronounced  with  its  textual  points  nT.'^SJIill,  be- 
cause these  vowel  signs  belong  to  the  Keri,  iTir":itT!. 
Finally,  in  the  variations  specified  under  5,  C,  7,  and  8, 
which  involve  an  addition  or  diminution  of  letters,  and 
which  have  therefore  either  more  or  fewer  letters  than 
are  required  by  the  vowel  points  of  the  Keri,  a  vowel 
sign  is  sometimes  given  without  any  letter  at  all,  or  tv/o 
vowel  signs  have  to  be  attached  to  one  letter,  and  some- 
times a  letter  lias  to  be  without  any  vowel  sign ;  the 
variation  itself  being  either  indicated  in  the  margin  by 
the  exhibition  of  the  entire  word  which  constitutes  the 
different  reading,  or  by  the  simple  remark  that  such 
and  such  a  letter  is  wanting  or  is  redundant.  For 
instance,  in  Lam.  v,  7,  which,  according  to  the  Jlasorah, 
exhibits  two  of  the  twelve  instances  where  the  1  con- 
junctive has  boen  dropped  from  the  beginning  of  words 
(comp.  also  2  Kings  iv,  7;  Job  ii,  7;  Prov.  xxiii,  24; 
xxvii,  24;  Isa.  Iv,  13;  Lam.  ii,  2;  iv,  10;  v,  3,  5;  Dan. 
ii,  43),  the  textual  reading, or  Kethib,  is  C)3'iX°  ^3nDX*, 
and  the  marginal  reading,  or  Keri,  is  D3"iX1,  liniXI^ 
the  vowel  sign  of  the  conjunction  from  the  margin  being 
inserted  in  the  text  under  tlie  little  circle,  which,  con- 
sequently, has  no. letter  at  all;  in  Jer.  xlii,  0,  again, 
where  the  textual  reading  is  i:X,  and  the  marginal 
reading  linjX,  yet  the  Kethib,  which  has  only  three 
letters,  takes  the  vowel  signs  of  the  Keri,  which  has 
five  letters,  and  is  pointed  -13  X,  with  two  different  vow- 


KERI  AND  KETHIB 


51 


KERI  AND  KETHIB 


el  points  attached  to  the  one  "1 ;  whilst  in  2  Kuigs  vii, 
15,  where  the  reverse  is  the  case,  the  marginal  read- 
ing having  fewer  letters,  and  hence  fewer  vowels  than 
the  textual  reading,  which  takes  the  vowel  signs  of  the 
former,  the  Kethib  is  pointed  CTSriiia,  and  the  H  has 
no  vowel  sign  at  all.  There  is  a  peculiarity  connected 
with  the  marginal  indication  of  those  words  the  varia- 
tions of  which  consist  in  the  diminution  or  addition  of  a 
single  letter.  When  a  letter  is  dropped  from  a  word  in 
tlie  text,  the  whole  word  is  given  in  the  marginal  read- 
ing with  the  letter  in  question,  and  the  remark  "Read 
so ;"  as,  for  instance,  1  Sam.  xiv,  32 ;  Prov.  xxiii,  24, 
where  the  tl,  according  to  the  JNIasorah,  is  dropped  from 
^Vijn,  and  1  from  lbl"'1,  as  indicated  by  ??(i^_  and 
^^^''  ;  the  marginal  glosses  are  b^'l'tl  p?  ^h^^^  p; 
but  when  the  reverse  is  the  case,  if  a  letter  has  crept 
into  a  word,  the  whole  word  is  not  given  in  the  mar- 
ginal gloss,  but  it  is  simply  remarked  that  such  and 
such  a  letter  is  redundant  ("I'^n"'),  or  is  not  to  be  read 
("lip  xb),  as,  for  instance,  in  Eccles.  x,  20 ;  Neh.  ix,  17, 
where  the  n,  according  to  the  Masorah,  has  crept  in 
before  d'^S33,  and  1  before  ^DH,  the  marginal  gloss 
simply  remarks  n  "l^ni,  ^  ^in"^.  Upon  this  point, 
however,  the  greatest  inconsistency  is  manifested  in 
the  Masoretic  glosses ;  compare,  for  instance,  the  Kethib 
1^31:7  and  ""^Pi"!  in  Eccles.  iv,  8, 17,  both  of  which,  ac- 
cording to  the  Keri,  have  a  redundant  "i,  and  are  sin- 
gular nouns,  yet  the  Masoretic  note  upon  the  former  is 
13^"  p  exhibiting  the  whole  word,  whilst  on  the  latter 
it  simply  remarks    "^  Tin"!. 

h.  The  second  class  {insertions  directed),  which  com- 
prises entire  icords  that  have  been  omitted  from  the 
text,  exhibits  ten  such  instances  which  occur  in  the 
Hebrew  Bible,  as  follows  :  Judg.  xx,  13 ;  Euth  iii,  5,  17; 
2  Sam.  viii,  3;  xvi,  23;  xviii,  20;  2  Kings  xix,  31,  37; 
Jer.  xxxi,  38 ;  1,  29.  Besides  being  noted  in  the  mar- 
ginal glosses  on  the  respective  passages,  these  omissions 
are  also  given  in  the  INIasorah  on  Deut.  i  and  Ruth  iii, 
IG.  Tliey  are  also  enumerated  in  the  Talmud  (Tract 
Sopkerim,  vi,  8,  and  in  Nedarim,  37  b).  In  Nedurim, 
however,  the  passage  which  refers  to  this  subject  is  as 
follows:'  "The  insertion  of  words  in  the  text  ("pi^p 
piPD  Xbl)  is  exhibited  in  mS  [2  Sam.  viii,  3]; 
C-iX  [ibid,  xvi,  23]  ;  Cl"'S3  [Jer.  xxxi,  38]  ;  nb  [ibid. 

I,  21)];  PX  [Ruth  ii,  11];  ■^bs  [ibid,  iii,  5,  17];"  thus 
omitting  four  instances,  viz.  Judg.  xx,  13  ;  2  Sam.  xviii, 
20 ;  2  Kings  xix,  31,  37,  and  adding  one,  viz.,  Ruth  ii, 

II,  which  is  neither  given  by  the  Masorah  nor  in  <S'o- 
pherim. 

This  class  of  variations  is  indicated  by  a  small  circle 
or  asterisk  placed  in  the  text  with  the  vowel  signs  of 
tlic  word  which  is  wanting,  referring  to  the  margin, 
where  the  word  in  question  is  given.  Thus,  for  in- 
stance, in  Judg.  XX,  13,  where,  according  to  the  Keri,  the 
word  ■'D^  is  omitted,  the  Kethib  is  "("S'^pn  °  ^3X  i<b^ 
upon  which  the  marginal  gloss  remarks  N^T  "i^p  *i;3 

c.  Of  the  third  class  (omissions  suggested),  exhibiting 
entire  words  which  have  crept  into  the  text,  there  are 
eight  instances,  as  follows  :  Ruth  iii,  12  ;  2  Sam.  xiii,  33 ; 
XV,  21 ;  2  Kings  v,  18;  Jer.  xxxviii,  lO;  xxxix,  12;  Ii, 
3 ;  Ezek.  xlviii,  16.  These  variations  are  not  only  noted 
in  the  marginal  glosses  on  the  respective  passages,  but 
are  also  given  in  the  !Masorah  on  Ruth  iii,  12.  The 
passage  in  Nedarim,  27  b,  which  speaks  of  this  class  of 
variations,  remarking,  "Words  which  are  found  in  the 
text,  but  are  not  read  ("p"'^p  xbl  "pTs),  are  exhib- 
ited in  X3  [2  Kings  v,  18];  nXT  [Jer.  xxxii,  11];  "j'lTi 
[ibid.  Ii,  3];  ^li^n  [Ezek.  xlviii,  IG]  ;  tX  [Ruth  iii, 
12],"  omits  2  Sam.  xiii,  33 ;  xv,  21 ;  and  Jer.  xxxviii. 


16;  xxxix,  12;  and  adds  Jer.  xxxii,  11,  which  does  not 
exist  in  the  Masorah ;  whilst  Sopherim,  vi,  9,  which  re- 
marks ^izn  --,-11  bx"  nip-23  "I'lTXa  ■pSlSX,  refer- 
ring to  2  Sam.  xiii,  33  ;  Jer.  xxxix,  12  ;  2  Sam.  xv,  21 ; 
Ruth  iii,  12 ;  Jer.  Ii,  3 ;  p^zek.  xlviii,  IG  ;  omits  2  Kings 
V,  18,  and  Jer.  xxxviii,  16. 

This  class  of  variations  is  not  uniformly  indicated  in 
the  different  editions  of  the  Bible.  Generally  the  word 
in  question  has  no  vowel  signs,  but  an  asterisk  or  small 
circle  is  put  over  it,  referring  to  the  margin,  where  it  is 
simply  remarked  ''•^p  xbl  n"'n3,  written  [m  the  textr\, 
hut  not  \^to  6e]  read;  in  one  or  two  instances,  however, 
the  word  itself  is  repeated  in  the  margin,  as  in  2  Kings 
v,  18,  where  we  have  it  "^ip  xbl  aipD  X3,  [the  word] 
X3  [isl  ivritten  [in  the  text'\,hut  [is']  not  [to  be]  read. 

II.  Number  and  Position  of  the  Keri  and  Kethib. — A 
great  difference  of  opuiion  prevails  about  the  number 
and  position  of  these  various  readings.  The  Talmud, 
as  we  have  shown  above,  and  the  early  commentators, 
mention  variations  which  do  not  exist  in  the  Keris  and 
Ketlubs  of  the  ^Masorah.  This,  however,  is  beyond  the 
aim  of  the  [iresent  article,  which  is  to  investigate  the 
Keri  and  Kethib  as  exhibited  in  the  ]\Iasorah  and  in  the 
editions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible.  From  a  careful  perusal 
and  collation  of  the  IMasorah,  as  printed  in  the  Rabbinic 
Bibles,  we  tind  the  following  to  be  the  number  of  the 
Keris  and  Kethibs  in  each  book,  according  to  the  order 
of  the  Hebrew  Bible : 


....    24 

Ilabakkuk 

2 

VI 

Zephaiiiah 

Ilaggai 

Zecliixriah 

Malachi 

1 

Leviticus 

5 

11 

1 

...   .      7 

Deuteronomy 

Joshua 

....     24 
....     .SS 
22 

1 

74 

Judges 

Proverbs 

Job 

Son"  of  Song.s 

70 

1  Samuel 

2  Samuel 

T.S 

....     99 
49 

54 

5 

1  Kin"? 

Ruth 

13 

SO 

....     28 

Isaiali 

Jeremiah 

....     5.5 

....   ]4S 
....    U3 
6 

Ecclesiastes 

Esther 

11 

14 

Ezekiel 

Hosea 

Pauiel 

Ezra 

129 

33 

Joel 

Amos 

....       1 
3 

Nehemiah 

1  Chronicles 

28 

41 

Obadiah 

....       1 

4 
4 

39 

Micah 

Nahum 

Total 

....  1353 

The  disparity  between  Abrabanel's  calculations  about 
the  number  of  Keris  and  Kethibs,  leading  him  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  Pentateuch  has  65,  Jeremiah  81,  and 
1  and  2  Samuel  138  (Introduction  to  Jeremiah),  and  the 
numbers  which  we  have  stated  as  existing  in  these 
books,  is  easily  accounted  for  when  it  is  remembered 
that  this  erudite  commentator  died  fifteen  j-ears  before 
the  laborious  Jacob  b.-Chajim  collated  and  published 
the  Masorahs  on  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  and  therefore 
had  no  opportunity  of  consulting  them  carefully.  But 
we  lind  it  far  more  difficult  to  account  for  the  serious 
difference  in  the  calculations  of  later  writers  and  our  re- 
sults, as  may  be  seen  from  the  table  on  the  following 
page. 

For  the  collation  of  Bomberg's  Bible,  the  Plantin  Bi- 
ble, and  the  Antwerp  Bible,  we  are  indebted  to  the  ta- 
bles exhibited  in  Cappellus's  Critica  Sacra,  p.  70,  and 
Walton's /'?-oZe5ro?He«a  (ed.  Cantabrigire,  1828, i,  473) ;  and 
though  we  have  been  able  by  our  arrangement  to  cor- 
rect their  blunder  in  representing  Elias  Levita  as  sepa- 
rating the  Five  Megilloth  from  the  Hagiographa,  and 
giving  the  number  of  Keris  to  be  329  exclusive  of  the 
JMegilloth,  yet  we  were  obliged  to  describe  the  jMegU- 
loth  apart  from  the  Hagiographa,  to  which  they  belong 
acciinling  to  the  Jewish  order  of  the  Canon.  Elias  Le- 
vita's  own  words  on  the  numbers  are  as  follows:  "I 
counted  the  Keris  and  Kethibs  several  times,  and  found 
that  they  were  in  all  848  ;  of  these,  65  are  in  the  Penta- 
teuch, 454  in  the  Prophets,  and  329  in  the  Hagiographa, 
It  is  surprising  that  there  should  only  be  65  in  the  Pen- 
tateuch, 22  of  which  refer  to  the  single  word  n"1"3,  which 


KERI  AND  KETHIB 


52  KERI  AND  KETHIB 

same  vie-H'.  It  is  in  accordance  with  this 
recondite  sense  ascribed  to  the  origin  of 
the  Keri  and  Kethib  that  llashi  remarks 
on  Gen.  viii,  16,  "The  Keri  is  jliltl,  the 
Kethib  XU^n,  because  he  was  first  to  tell 
tliem  to  go  out;  but  if  they  should  refuse 
to  go,  he  was  to  make  them  go."  Kimchi. 
however,  is  of  the  opposite  opinion.  &'o 
far  from  believing  that  these  variations 
proceeded  from  the  sacred  writers  them- 
selves, who  designed  to  convey  thereby 
various  mysteries,  he  maintains  that  the 
Keri  and  Kethib  originated  after  the  Bab- 
ylonian captivity,  when  the  sacred  books 
were  collected  by  the  members  of  the  Great 
Synagogue.  These  editors  of  the  long-lost 
and  mutilated  inspired  writings  ''found  dif- 
ferent readings  in  the  volumes,  and  adopt- 
ed those  which  the  majority  of  copies  had, 
because  these,  according  to  their  opinion, 
exhibited  the  true  readings.  In  some 
N.B.-In  this  table,  what  are  denoted  by  "Variations"  are  designated  P^'''^''*  ^^ey  wrote  down  one  word  in  the 
" Interpolations,"  n^^i ;  "Deficiencies,"    t*^^^'  ^"^'\"".^  P"""^S  the  vowel  signs  to  it, 

or  noted  it  in  the  margin  without  insert- 


BoniberK's 
Sec.  Edit, 
ofliiljle, 
1524,  16«. 

The  Plan- 
tin  Bible, 
1666. 

The  Ant- 
werp or 
Royal  Bi- 
ble", 15T.'. 

Elias 
Levitn. 

Our 
Results. 

Pent  A-      1 

TEtUMI.         j 

VaiiiUions 

Interpolations 
Deticieucies  . . 

7a 

1 

"74 

74 
1 
2 

7T 

69 
1 
1 

71 

05 

76 

Earlier     1 
Prophets,  j 

Variations 

Interpolations 
Deticieucies  .. 

ba7 
11 

2 

350 

239 

25 

5 

2611 

277 

18 

5 

300 

.301 

Later      1 
Peoi'Uets.   1 

Variations 

Interpolations 
Deficiencies  . . 

348 
2 

850 

250 

25 

1 

2T0 

347 
11 

358 

454 

377 

Five       \ 
Megilloth.J 

Variations 

Interpolations 

51 
11 

43 
14 
57 

48 

8 

"50 

71 

Hagiogra-  (. 
ruA.        1 

Variations 

Interpolations 
Deficiencies  . . 

362 
60 

1 

423 

1S7 

34 

1 

222 

242 

20 

1 

263 

329 

408 

total 

1'25U 

11(11 

1048      1    f<4S    1    1353  1 

by  the  llasorites  as  "^Ip; 
"lion. 


is  'n"3  in  the  Kethib,  and  n"i"3  in  the  Keri;  that  the 
book  of  Joshua,  which  in  quantity  is  about  a  tenth  part 
of  the  Pentateuch,  should  have  32 ;  and  that  the  books 
of  Samuel,  which  are  merely  about  a  fourth  the  size  of 
the  Pentateuch,  should  contain  133"  {Massoreth  II a- 
Mussonth,  ed.  Sulzbach,  1771,  p.  8  sq.).  It  will  be  seen 
from  tliis  extract  that  Elias  Levita  not  only  gives  si.x 
Keris  less  in  Joshua  than  we  ha\'e  given,  but  also  differs 
from  Abrabanel  in  the  number  of  Keris  to  be  found  in 
tlie  books  of  Samuel. 

III.  Orlffin  and  Bate  of  the  Keri  and  Kethib. — The 
Talmud  traces  the  source  of  these  variations  to  Moses 
himself,  for  we  are  distinctly  told  in  Nedarhn,  57  b,  that 
"  the  pronunciation  of  certain  words  according  to  the 
scribes  (C'lS'iO  X^p'O),  the  emendations  of  the  scribes 
(S'^^SID  "l^"),  the  not  reading  of  words  which  are 
in  the  text  ('^"ip  Stbl  3'^r:),  and  the  reading  of  words 
which  are  not  in  the  text  (3'^ri3  xbl  ''"ip),  etc.,  are 
a  law  of  Moses  from  Sinai."  Jacob  b.-Chajim  defends 
this  view  in  his  elaborate  Introduction  to  the  Pabbinic 
Bible.  Elias  h(fvita,  who  also  expresses  this  Talmudic 
declaration,  explains  it  as  follows :  "  The  Keri  and  Keth- 
ib of  the  Pentateuch  only  are  a  law  of  Moses  from 
jNIount  Sinai,  and  the  members  of  the  Great  Synagogue, 
Haggai,  Zechariah,  Malachi,  Daniel,  Hananiali,  INIishael, 
Azariah,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  Mordecai,  and  Zcrubbabel, 
and  other  wise  men  from  the  craftsmen  and  artisans 
(1S0"^m  "iTTrin^)  to  the  number  of  a  hundred  and 
twenty,  wrote  down  the  Keri  and  the  Kethib  according 
to  the  tradition  which  they  possessed  that  our  teacher 
jNIo.ses  (peace  be  with  him !)  read  words  differently  from 
what  they  were  written  in  the  text;  this  being  one  of 
those  mysteries  which  they  knew,  for  Moses  transmitted 
this  mj'stery  to  Joshua,  Joshua  to  the  ciders,  the  elders 
to  the  prophet.i,  etc.,  and  these  were  put  down  in  the 
margin  as  his  readings,  Ezra  acting  as  a  scribe.  In  the 
same  manner  they  proceeded  in  the  Prophets  and  Ha- 
giograiiha  witli  every  word  respecting  which  they  had 
a  tradition  orally  transmitted  from  the  prophets  and  the 
.s.iges  that  it  was  read  differently  from  wliat  it  was  in 
the  text.  But  they  required  no  tradition  for  the  ]K)St- 
exilian  book.*,  as  the  authors  themselves  were  present 
with  them ;  hence,  whenever  they  met  with  a  word 
which  did  not  seem  to  harmonize  with  the  context  and 
the  sense,  the  author  stated  to  them  the  reason  why  he 
used  such  anomalous  expressions,  and  they  wrote  down 
the  weird  in  the  margin  as  it  should  Ijc  read"  (.Uassotxlh 
Ila-Massoreth,  fol.  8  b,  sq.).  JMeudelssohn,  in  his  valu- 
able introduction  to  his  translation  of  the  I'cntateuch, 
aud  most  of  the  ancient  Jewish  writers,  propounded  the 


ing  it  in  the  text,  whilst  in  other  places 
they  inserted  one  reading  in  the  margin  and  another 
in  the  text"  (Introduction  to  his  Commentary  on  Josh- 
ua). Ephodi  (flourished  1391-1403),  who  maintains  the 
same  view,  remarks  that  Ezra  and  his  followers  "  made 
the  Keri  and  Kethib  on  every  passage  in  which  they 
found  some  obliterations  and  confusion,  as  they  were  not 
sure  what  the  precise  reading  was."  Abrabanel,  who 
will  neither  admit  that  the  Keris  and  Kethibs  proceeded 
from  the  sacred  writers  themselves,  nor  that  they  took 
their  rise  from  the  imperfect  state  of  the  codices,  pro- 
pounds a  new  theory.  According  to  him,  Ezra  and  his 
followers,  who  undertook  the  editing  of  the  Scri]iturcs, 
found  the  sacred  books  entire  and  perfect ;  but  in  pe- 
rusing them  these  editors  discovered  that  they  con- 
tained irregular  expressions,  and  loose  and  ungrammat- 
ical  phrases,  arising  from  tlie  carelessness  and  ignorance 
of  the  inspired  writers.  "  Ezra  had  therefore  to  explain 
these  words  in  harmony  with  the  connection,  and  this 
is  the  origin  of  the  Keri  which  is  found  in  the  margin 
of  the  Bible,  as  this  holy  scribe  feared  to  touch  the 
words  which  were  spoken  or  written  by  the  Holy  Ghost. 
These  remarks  he  made  on  his  ow^l  account  to  explain 
those  anomalous  letters  and  expressions,  and  he  put 
them  in  the  margin  to  indicate  that  the  gloss  is  his  own. 
Now,  if  you  examine  the  numerous  Keris  and  Kethibs 
in  Jeremiali,  and  look  into  their  connection,  yon  will 
find  them  all  to  be  of  this  nature,  viz.,  that  they  are  to 
be  traced  to  Jeremiah's  careless  and  blundering  writing. 
.  .  .  .  From  this  you  may  learn  that  the  books  which 
have  most  Keris  aud  Kethibs  show  that  their  authors 
did  not  know  how  to  speak  correctly  or  to  wriljg  jirop- 
erly"  (Introduction  to  his  Commentaiij  on  Jeremi^jji'). 
Though  Abnabanel's  hypothesis  has  more  truth  in  it 
than  the  other  theories,  yet  it  is  only  by  a  comliination 
of  the  three  views  that  the  origin  of  the  Keri  and 
Kethib  can  be  traced  and  explained.  For  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  some  of  the  variations,  as  the  Talmud, 
Kashi,  etc.,  declare,  have  been  transmitted  by  tradition 
from  time  immemorial,  and  have  their  origiii  in  some 
recondite  meaning  or  m3-steries  attached  to  tlie  passages 
in  question ;  that  some,  again,  as  Kimchi,  Ephodi,  etc., 
rightly  maintain,  are  due  to  the  blunders  and  corrup- 
tions which  have  crept  into  the  text  in  the  course  of 
time,  and  which  the  siiiritiial  guides  of  the  nation  tried 
to  rectify  by  a  comparison  of  codices,  as  is  also  admitted 
by  the  Talmud  (comp.  Jerusalem  Megillah,  iv,  2;  So- 
phe7-im,\i,4);  and"  that  others,  again,  as  Abrabanel  re- 
marks, arc  owing  to  the  carelessness  of  style,  ignorance 
of  idioms  and  provincialisms,  which  the  editors  and  suc- 
cessive interpreters  of  the  Hebrew  canon  discovered  in 
the  different  books,  or,  more  yiroperly  sjieaking,  which 
were  at  variance  with  the  grammatical  rules  and  exe- 


KERI  AND  KETHIB 


53 


KERI  AND  KETHIB 


getical  laws  developed  in  aftertime  by  the  ISrasorltcs. 
Such,  however,  was  their  reverence  for  the  ancient  text, 
that  these  Masorites  who  made  the  new  additions  to  it 
left  the  text  itself  untouched  in  the  very  piaces  where 
they  believed  it  necessary  to  follow  another  explanation 
or  reading,  but  simply  inserted  tlie  emendation  in  the 
margin.  Ilencc  the  distinction  between  the  ancient 
text  as  it  was  written,  or  Kethib  (l^n:),  and  the  more 
modern  emended  readinij,  or  Keri  ("'"ip) ;  and  hence, 
also,  the  fact  that  the  Keri  is  not  inserted  in  the  syna- 
gogal  scrolls,  though  it  is  followed  in  the  public  reading 
of  the  Scriptures. 

IV.  Importance  of  the  Keri  and  Kethib,  especially  as 
reluting  to  the  EnriU^h  Version  of  the  Hebreio  Scriptures. 
—Some  idea  of  the  importance  of  the  Keri  and  Kethib 
may  be  gathered  from  the  following  analysis  of  the 
seventy-six  variations  which  occiur  in  the  Pentateuch. 
Of  the  seventy-six  Keris,  twenty-one  give  rn"3  in- 
stead of  "isa  (Gen.  xxiv,  li,  IG,  28,  55,  57;  xxxiv,  3 
[twice],  12;  Deut.  xxii,  15  [twice],  16,  20,  21,  23,  2-1, 
25,  2t3  [twice],  27,  28,  2D),  which  was  evidently  epicene 
in  earlier  periods  (comp.  Gesenius,  Granim.  sec.  23,  sec.  32, 
G  ;  Ewald,  Lehrbuch,  sec.  175,  b) ;  fifteen  have  the  plural 
termination  "11°  affixed  to  nouns  instead  of  the  singular 
1  in  the  text  (Gen.  xxxiii,  4;  Exod.  xxvii,  11 ;  xxviii, 
28;  xxxii,  10;  xxxix,  4,  33;  Lev.  ix,  22;  xvi,  21; 
Numb,  xii,  3;  Deut.  ii,  33  ;  v,  10;  vii,  9;  viii,  2  ;  xxvii^ 
10 ;  xxxiii,  9),  which  some  think  is  no  real  variation^ 
since  in  earlier  periods  the  termination  1  was  both  sin- 
gular and  plural,  just  as  11^3  stands  for  both  ■''n.)2  and 
■^■Ija ;  seventeen  give  more  ciurrent  and  m:ilbrm  forms 
of  words  (Gen.  viii,  17;  x,  19;  xiv,  8;  xxiv,  33  with  1, 
2G;  XXV,  23  with  xxxv,  11;  xxvii,  3  with  5,  7;  xxvii, 
29  with  the  same  word  in  the  next  clause;  xxxvi,  G,  14 
with  ver.  18 ;  xxxix,  20,  22  ;  xliii,  28  with  xxvii,  29  ; 
Exod.  xva,  2;  xvi,  7  with  Numb,  xvi,  11;  Numb,  xiv, 
36  with  XV,  24 ;  Numb,  xxi,  32  with  xxxii,  39 ;  xxxii, 
7  with  XXX,  G ;  Deut.  xxxii,  13  with  Amos  iv,  13)  ;  five 
substitute  the  termination  third  person  singular,  1  for  n 
(Gen.  xlix,  11  [twice];  Exod.  xxii,  26;  xxxii,  17; 
Numb.  X,  36),  which  is  a  less  common  pronominal  suf- 
fix (comp.  Gesenius,  Granitn.  sec.  91 ;  Ewald,  Lehrbuch, 
sec.  247,  a) ;  two  make  two  words  of  one  (Gen.  xxx,  11 ; 
Exod.  iv,  2);  two  have  lip^n  instead  of  ib':^  (Exod. 
xvi,  13;  Numb,  xi,  32);  three  give  plural  verbs  instead 
of  singular  (Lev.  xxi,  5 ;  Numb,  xxxiv,  4 ;  Deut.  xxxi, 
7),  which  are  no  doubt  an  improvement,  since  Numb. 
xxxiv,  4  is  evidently  a  mistake,  as  may  be  seen  from  a 
comparison  of  this  verse  with  verse  5 ;  three  substitute 
the  relative  pronoun  1?  for  the  negative  particle  XP 
(Exod.  xxi,  8 ;  Lev.  xi,  21 ;  xxv,  30),  which  is  very 
important;  two  substitute  euphemisms  for  cacophonous 
expressions  (Dent,  xxviii,  27,  30) ;  and  two  are  purely 
traditional,  viz.,  Numb,  i,  IG ;  xxvi,  9.  The  Pentateuch, 
however,  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  giving  an  adequate 
idea  of  the  importance  of  tlie  Keri  and  Kethib,  inasmuch 
as  the  Jews,  regarding  the  law  as  more  sacred  than  any 
other  inspired  book,  guarded  it  against  being  corrupt- 
ed with  greater  vigilance  than  tlie  rest  of  the  canon. 
Hence  the  comparatively  few  and  unimportant  Keris 
when  contrasted  with  those  occurring  in  the  other  vol- 
umes. Still,  the  Pentateuch  contains  a  few  specimens 
of  almost  all  the  different  Keris. 

As  to  the  question  how  far  our  English  versions  have 
been  influenced  by  the  Keri  and  Kethib,  this  will  best 
be  answered  by  a  comparison  of  the  translations  with 
the  more  striking  variations  whicli  occur  in  the  I'roph- 
ets  and  Hagiographa.  In  Josh,  v,  1,  the  textual  read- 
ing is  "till  ire  were  passed  over"  13"i3"),  the  Keri  has 
D"l3",  "untU  the//  passed  over;"  and  though  the  Sept., 
Vulg.,  Chaldee,  Luther,  the  Zurich  Bible,  Coverdale,  the 
Bishops'  Bible,  the  (Jeneva  Version,  etc.,  adopt  the  Keri, 
the  A.  v.,  foUowuig  Kimchi,  adheres  to  the  Kethib ; 


whilst  in  Josh,  vi,  7,  where  the  textual  reading  is  "and 
they  said  (ll'^X"''!)  unto  the  people,"  and  the  marginal 
emendation  is  "and  he  said"  ("I'CN'^I),  and  where  the 
Vulg.,  Chaldee,  Luther,  the  Zurich  Bible,  Coverdale,  the 
Bishops'  Bible,  and  the  Geneva  Version  again  adopt  the 
Keri,  as  in  the  former  instance,  the  A.  V.  abandons  the 
textual  reading  and  espouses  the  emendation.  In  Josh. 
XV,  47,  where  the  Keri  is  "the  borderimj  sea  (""^H 
binsn)  and  its  territory,"  and  the  Kethib  has  "  and  the 
fjreat  sea  (bi;\n  C^!!)  and  the  territory,"  which  is  again 
followed  by  the  ancient  versions  and  the  translations  of 
the  Reformers,  the  A.  V.,  without  taking  any  notice  of 
the  textual  reading  in  the  margin,  as  in  Josh,  viii,  16, 
adopts  the  emendation,  whereas  in  Josh,  xv,  53  the 
A.  V.  follows  the  textual  reading  (013^)  Janum,  noti- 
cing, however,  the  emendation  (012'')  Janus  in  the  mar- 
gin. AU  the  ten  emendations  of  the  second  class,  wliich 
propose  the  msertion  of  entire  words  into  the  text  C^p 
'2.T.'2  xbl),  are  adopted  in  the  A.  V.  without  the  slight- 
est indication  by  the  usual  italics  that  they  are  not  in 
the  text.  Of  the  eight  omissions  of  entire  words  in  the 
third  class  ('^"ip  5<bl  S'^nr)  nothing  decisive  can  be 
said,  inasmuch  as  six  of  them  refer  to  simple  particles, 
and  they  might  either  be  recognised  by  the  translators 
or  not  without  its  being  discernible  in  the  version.  The 
onlv  two  instances,  however,  where  there  can  be  no  mis- 
take (Jer.  xli,  3  ;  Ezek.  xlviii,  16),  clearly  show  that  the 
A.  V.  follows  the  marginal  gloss,  and  accordingly  re- 
jects the  words  which  are  in  the  text.  Had  the  limits 
of  this  article  alloAved  it,  we  could  have  shown  still  more 
unquestionably  that,  though  the  A.  V.  generally  adopts 
the  marginal  emendations,  yet  in  many  instances  it  pro- 
ceeds most  arbitrarily,  and  adheres  to  the  textual  read- 
ing ;  and  that,  with  very  few  exceptions,  it  never  indi- 
cates, l)y  italics  or  in  tlie  margin,  the  difference  between 
the  textual  and  the  marginal  readings. 

Inattention  to  the  Keri  and  Kethib  has  given  rise  to 
the  most  fanciful  and  absurd  expositions,  of  which  the 
following  may  serve  both  as  a  specimen  and  a  warning. 
In  looking  at  the  text  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  it  Avill  be 
seen  that  there  is  a  final  Mem  (D)  in  the  middle  of  the 
word  t^3'^Di,  Isa.  ix,  G.  We  have  already  alluded  to 
the  fact  that  it  exhibits  one  of  the  fifteen  instances 
where  the  Kethib,  or  the  textual  reading,  is  one  word, 
and  the  Keri,  or  the  emended  reading,  proposes  two 
words  (see  above,  sec.  1).  Accordingly,  H^^DP  stands 
for  il2"l  obi^idilb,  i.  c.  "?o  them  the  dominion  shcdl  be 
ffi-eat,"  corresponding  to  the  common  abbreviation  C3 
for  ens.  The  question  is  not  whether  sb  may  be  con- 
sidered as  an  abbreviation  of  cnb,  seeing  there  are  no 
other  examples  of  it ;  suffice  it  to  say  that  Je^vish  scribes 
and  critics  of  ancient  times  took  it  as  such,  just  as  they 
regarded  Gbx~iX  (Isa.  xxxiii,  7)  as  a  contraction  of 
nXIX  Clnb  =  nb  (comp.  the  Sj^iac,  Chaldee,  Aquila, 
Symmachus,  Theodotion,  Vulgate,  Elias  Levita,  etc.) ; 
and  that  the  Sept.  read  it  as  tu-o  words  (i.  c.  Mm  tlP), 
Subsequent  scribes,  however,  found  it  either  to  be  more 
in  accordance  with  the  primitive  reading,  or  with  their 
exegetical  rules,  as  well  as  with  the  usage  of  the  prophet 
himself  (comp.  Isa.  xxxiii,  23),  to  read  it  as  one  word; 
but  their  extreme  reverence  for  the  text  prevented  them 
from  making  this  alteration  without  indicating  that 
some  C(idlces  have  two  -words.  Hence,  though  they 
joined  the  two  words  together  as  one,  they  yet  left  the 
final  Mem  to  exhibit  the  variation.  An  example  of  the 
reverse  occurs  in  Neh.  ii,  13,  where  D'^JT^E^rt  has  been 
divided  into  two  words,  CliTlS  "sn,  and  where  the 
same  anxiety  faithfully  to  exhibit  the  ancient  reading 
has  made  the  editors  of  the  Hebrew  canon  retain  the 
medial  Mem  at  the  end  of  the  word.  It  was  to  be  ex- 
pected that  those  Jews  who  rcgaril  both  readings  as 


KERI  AND  KETHIB 


54 


KERIOTH 


emanating  from  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  as  designed  tocon- 
^•(■y  some  recondite  meaning,  woidd  tind  some  mysteries 
in  this  tinal  Mem  in  the  midtUe  of  timcb.  Hence  we 
lind  in  the  Talmnd  (Stin/ieflriii,  04)  the  following  remark 
upon  it:  "Why  is  it  that  all  the  Mems  in  the  middle 
of  a  word  are  open  [i.  e.  "2]  and  this  one  is  closed  [i.  e. 
C]?  The  Holy  One  (blessed  be  he!)  wanted  to  make 
Hczekiah  the  Messiah,  and  Sennacherib  Gog  and  Ma- 
gog; whereupon  Justice  pleaded  before  the  presence  of 
the  Holy  One  (blessed  be  he !),  Lord  of  the  World, '  What ! 
Davitl  the  king  of  Israel,  who  sang  so  many  hymns  and 
praises  before  thee,  wilt  thou  not  make  him  the  ^Messiah; 
but  Ilezekiah,  for  whom  thou  hast  performed  all  those 
miracles,  and  who  has  not  uttered  one  song  before  thee, 
wilt  thou  make  him  the  Messiah?'  Therefore  has  the 
Mem  been  closed."  Aben-Ezra  again  tells  us  that  the 
scribes  (not  he  himself,  as  Gill  erroneously  states)  see  in 
it  an  allusion  to  the  recession  of  the  shadow  on  the  dial 
in  Hezekiah's  time;  whilst  Kimchi  will  have  it  that  it 
refers  to  the  "  stopping  up  of  the  breaches  in  the  walls 
of  Jerusalem,  which  are  broken  down  during  the  captiv- 
ity, and  that  this  will  take  place  in  the  days  of  salva- 
tion, wlien  the  kingdom  which  had  been  shut  up  tiU 
the  coming  of  the  ^Messiah  will  be  opened."  But  that 
Christian  expositors  should  excel  these  mystical  inter- 
pretations is  surpassing  strange.  What  are  we  to  say 
to  Galatinus,  who  submits  that  this  Mem,  being  the  ci- 
pher of  000,  intimates  that  six  hundred  years  after  this 
prophecy  the  birth  of  Christ  was  to  take  place  ?  or  to 
the  opinion  which  he  quotes,  that  the  name  D'^^.'a 
T\~\'^,  Maria  Domina,  or  even  the  perpetual  virginity 
of  INIary  is  thereby  indicated  (lib.  vii,  c.  xiii)  ?  or  to 
Calvin,  who  thinks  that  it  denotes  the  close  and  secret 
way  whereby  the  Messiah  shoidd  come  to  reign  and  set 
xx\i  his  kingdom?  or  to  the  opinion  which  he  mentions 
tliat  it  indicates  the  exclusion  of  the  Jews  from  the 
IMessiah's  kingdom  for  their  unbelief?  or  to  the  con- 
jecture of  Gin,  that  "  it  may  denote  that  the  govern- 
ment of  Christ,  which  would  be  for  a  time  straitened, 
and  kept  in  narrow  bounds  and  limits,  should  hereafter 
be  throughout  the  world,  to  the  four  corners  of  it,  so  as 
to  be  tirm  and  stable,  perfect  and  comjilcte,  which  the 
figure  of  this  letter,  being  shut  and  four-square,  may  be 
an  emblem  of?" 

It  should  be  added  that  there  are  some  M-ords  which 
are  always  read  differently  (^^p)  from  what  they  are 
written  in  the  text  (HTZ),  and  which,  from  the  fre- 
quency of  their  occurrence,  have  only  the  vowel  signs 
of  the  proposed  Keri,  without  the  latter  being  exhibited 
in  the  marginal  gloss.  Tliese  are,  a.  The  name  nw, 
which  has  always  the  voAvel  signs  of  '^3"1X,  and  is  pro- 
nounced with  these  vowels,  i.  e.  <^iri^,  except  when  it 
precedes  this  name  itself,  in  which  case  it  has  the  vowel 
signs  of  D'^ri'SX,  i.  e.  nifT^;  h.  The  name  Jerusalem, 
when,  as  in  the  earlier  books  of  Scripture,  it  is  written 
with  a  Yod  before  the  Mem,  has  never  its  own  points,  i.  e. 
Cb'i^n^  or  C~,  but  has  the  vowel  signs  of  C^?"'^"''"''?, 
and  is  read  so ;  c.  The  word  X^in,  which  was  epicene  in 
earlier  periods,  is  always  pointed  NW  in  tlie  Pentateuch, 
when  it  is  used  as  feminine,  to  make  it  conformable  to 
the  later  feminine  form  X'^n ;  and,  c.  The  name  "^ZU."  —  "^ 
is  always  furnished  with  the  vowels  belonging  to  the 
Keri,  iZ'viJI'  ^^'ith  one  Sinn. 

It  remains  only  for  us  to  say  under  this  head  that 
the  judicious  critic  will  often  lind  good  reason  for  dif- 
fering from  the  opinion  that  seems  to  be  implied  in 
these  Masoretic  notes,  and  will  in  such  cases,  of  course, 
prefer  the  Kethib  to  the  Keri.     See  Ciuticisji,  Bm- 

LICAL. 

V.  Literature.— Ono  of  the  earliest  attempts  freely  to 
discourse  upon  the  origin  and  value  of  the  Keri  and 
Kethib  is  that  of  D.  Kiuichi,  in  the  Introduction  to  his 


Commentary  on  Joshim ;  Abrabanel,  too,  has  a  lengthy 
disquisition  on  this  subject,  in  the  Introduction  to  his 
Commentary  on  Jeremiah.  He  was  followed  bj'  the  la- 
borious Jacob  ben-Chajim,who  fidly  discusses  the  Keri 
and  Kethib  in  his  celebrated  Introduction  to  the  Jiab- 
hinic  Bible,  translated  by  Ginsburg  in  the  Journal  of 
Sacred  Literature  for  July,  1863 ;  and  by  the  erudite 
and  bold  Elias  Levita,  who  gives  a  verj'  lucid  account 
of  the  Keri  and  Kethib  in  his  Massoreth  Ila-Massorelh, 
ed.  Sulzbach,  1771,  p.  8  a,  sq. ;  21  a,  sq.  Of  Christian 
writers  are  to  be  mentioned  the  masterly  treatises  by 
Cajipellus,  Critica  Sacra,  lib.  iii,  cap.  ix,  sq. ;  Buxtorf, 
Tiberias,  cap.  xiii ;  Buxtorf  the  j'ounger,  A  nticritica 
(Basileaj,  1653),  cap.  iv,  p.  448-509;  Hilleri  De  Arcano 
Kethib  et  Keri  (Tub.  1692) ;  AValton,  Biblia  Pohjrjlotta, 
Prole;].  (Cantab.  1828),  i,  412  sq.;  ^Vo\f,  Bibliotheca  He- 
brcea,  ii,  507-533 ;  Frankel,  Vorstudien  zu  der  Septua- 
r/inta  (Leipzig,  1841),  p.  219  sq. ;  Sticht,  Be  Keri  et 
Kethibh  (Altona,  1760 ;  and  against  him  Dreschler,  Sen- 
tentia  Stichii,  etc.  Lips.  1763) ;  Triigard,  De  I'npl  2^r3 
(Gryph.  1775);  WolfFradt,  Z)e  Keri  et  ChUhibh  (Kost, 
1739).     See  Various  Beadixgs. 

Keri,  Francis  Borgia,  a  learned  Hungarian  Jes- 
uit, born  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th  centun,',  in  the 
county  of  Zemplin,  Hungary,  entered  the  Jesuitical  order 
when  yet  very  young,  and  became  an  instructor  of  phi- 
losophy and  mathematics  at  Tyrnau.  He  died  at  Buda 
in  17G9.  Keri  distinguished  himself  greatly  as  a  his- 
torian, especially  by  his  Imperatoi-es  Ottomuni  a  capita 
Constantinojwli  (Tyrnau,  1749,  9  pts.  folio).  He  wrote 
also  Lmjjeratoi-es  Orientis  compendia  exhibiti,  e  compluri- 
bus  Grcecis  pira>cipue  scrij^toi-ibus,  a  Constantino  Magna 
— ad  Constantinuni  ultimum  (Tyrnau,  1744,  folio).  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biocj.  Gener.  xxvii,  612 ;  Ilorangi,  Kova 
Memoria  Ilunriurorum,  ii,  332. 

Keri,  Janos,  a  noted  Hungarian  prelate,  born  in  the 
first  half  of  the  17th  century;  entered  as  a  mere  youth, 
in  1656,  the  order  of  St.  Paul,  became  afterwards  director 
of  the  establishment,  and  held  successively  the  bishop- 
rics of  Sirmium,Csanad,  and  Waitzen.  He  died  in  1685. 
Bishop  Keri  wrote  L^rocia  Martis  Tureici  (Pos.  1672, 
8vo): — Philosophicc  scholastica  (Presb.  1673,  3  vols,  fob), 
etc. — Hoefer,  N'ouv.  Biofj.  Gen.  xxvii,  612;  Czwittinger, 
Ilunyaria  Literata,  p.  203. 

Ke'rioth  (Heb.  Keriyoth',  TT^'lp,  cities ;  Sept.  in 
Jer.  Krtpiw^,  in  ver.  41  v.  r.  'AKKaptwB  and  'AKicapwv, 
elsewhere  TroXiig;  Yula;.  Cariofh;  Anth.  Vers.'' Klrioth" 
in  Amos  ii,  2 ),  the  name  of  two  places. 

1.  A  town  in  the  south  of  Jndah  (hence  probably  in- 
cluded within  Simeon\  mentioned  between  Iladattah 
and  llezron  (Josh,  xv,  25).  From  the  absence  of  the 
copulative  after  it,  Keland  {Pulnst.  p.  700, 708)  suggest- 
ed that  the  name  ought  to  be  joined  with  the  succeed- 
ing, i.  q.  cities  of  llezron,  i.  e.  Hazor  itself,  as  in  several 
ancient  versions  (but  see  Keil,  ad  loc.) ;  and  INIaurer 
{Comment,  ad  loc.)  has  defended  this  construction,  which 
the  enumeration  in  ver.  32  requires,  i.  e.  Kerioth-IIezron 
=  IIazor-Amam.  See  Jldaii,  Tkibe  of.  It  seems 
to  be  the  place  alluded  to  in  the  name  of  Judas  Iscariot 
('I(TKop((iir?;C)  !•  e- ^'i'""'p  'Ci''i^,  native  of  Kerioth').  Dr. 
IJobinson  conjectures  (7Jib!.  Iiesearchcs,  ii,472)  that  the 
site  is  to  be  found  in  the  ruined  foundations  of  a  small 
village  discovered  by  him  on  the  slope  of  a  ridge  about 
ten  miles  south  of  Hebron,  and  still  called  Ity  the  equiv- 
alent Arabic  name  el-Kuryetein  (comp.  De  Sanlcy's  Dead 
Sea,  i,  431 ;  Van  {k>  Yclde,  Xarrative,  ii,  82).  ^^'ith  this 
agree  thcpliiraH'urm  of  the  word,  the  associated  ejiifhets, 
and  the  frontier  position,  suggesting  that  the  jilace  was 
a  fortification  of  contiguous  hamlets  for  nomades  rather 
than  an  individual  city.     See  City;  Hazok. 

2.  A  strong  city  of  the  land  of  ]Moab,  mentioned  in 
connection  Avith  Beth-gamnl  and  Bozrah  (.ler.  xlviii, 
24).  in  the  |ir(iphetic  denunciations  of  its  overthrow  by 
the  Haliylonian  invaders  on  their  way  to  Palestine  (Jer, 
xlviii,  41 ;  Amos  ii,  2).     But  for  the  mention  of  Kiri- 


KERITHUTH 


55 


KERR 


athaim  in  the  same  connection  (from  which,  however,  it 
is  somewhat  dithcult  to  distinguish  it),  we  should  be  in- 
cUned  (see  Hitter's  Enlk.  xv,  583)  to  locate  it  at  Kureyat 
on  Jebel  Attarus,  east  of  the  Dead  Sea.  See  Kiiuatii- 
nuzoTir.  Porter  confidently  identirtcs  it  with  the  pres- 
ent Kureiijeh,  six  miles  east  of  Busrah,  in  the  plain  at  the 
foot  of  the  mountain  range  of  Biishan,  where  are  very 
extensive  remains  of  former  edifices  {Dammcus,  ii,  191 
sri.)-  But  the  associate  names  (in  the  first  passage  of 
Jer.)  appear  to  indicate  a  locality  south-west  of  Bozrali, 
and  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  Mishor  (q.  v.)  of  Moab 
extended  so  far  as  this.  See  Bozuah.  The  Kerioth 
(cities)  in  question  may  therefore  be  "  the  ancient  cities 
to  the  north  of  Amman  and  south-west  of  Busrah,  still 
bearing  the  names  of  Kiriath  and  Kiriatin,  where  the 
edifices  are  of  such  gigantic  proportions  and  primitive 
forms  as  to  induce  a  strong  conviction  that  they  were 
the  work  of  the  early  Emim"  (Graham,  in  the  Jour,  of 
Sac.  Lit.  April,  1858,  p.  240). 

Kerithuth.     See  Talmud. 

Kerkaroth.     See  Camel. 

Kerkassandi,  in  Hindu  mythologj^,  is  the  name 
of  the  first  Buddha  who  appeared  (when  men  were  yet 
attaining  to  the  desirable  age  of  40,000  years)  to  take 
upon  himself  the  sins  of  the  world,  to  redeem  them,  and 
to  secure  them  the  continued  enjoyment  of  the  high  age 
mentioned. — Vollmer,  ifi/thol.  Wurterb.  s.  v. 

Kernel  (only  in  the  plur.  Q'^3^"in,  cliartsaimim',  so 
called  from  their  sharp  taste ;  Sept.  (jrtf^KpvXat,  Vulg. 
Ufcipussa)  is  understood  by  theTalmudists  (so  the  A.V.) 
to  mean  the  grape-stones  (Mishna,  Nasir.  vi,  2)  as  op- 
posed to  the  skin  ("  husk"),  i.  e.  the  entire  substance  of 
the  grape  from  the  centre  to  the  surface  (Numb,  vi,  4). 
The  ancient  versions,  however,  refer  it  to  the  sour  or 
unripe,  grapes  themselves,  and  this  signification  is  fa- 
vored by  the  use  of  kindred  words  in  the  cognate  lan- 
guages. (See  further  in  Gesenius,  Thesaur.  Ileh.  p.  527.) 
See  Grape. 

Kero,  a  monk  of  St.  GaU,  who  lived  in  the  8th  cen- 
tury, is  considered  as  the  old  German  commentator  of 
the  rule  of  the  Benedictines.  His  work  appeared  in  the 
first  volume  of  SchUter's  Thesaurus  antiquitatuni  Teu- 
tonic, in  the  second  volume  of  Goldast's  Scriptores  re- 
rum  Aleman.,  and  in  the  first  volume  of  Hattemer's 
Denkmale  d.  Mittelalters.  He  is  also  considered  as  the 
author  of  the  translation  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the 
Apostles'  Creed  into  old  High-German,  and  is  said  to 
have  written  the  Glossarium  Keronis  (to  be  f<iund  also 
in  Hattemer's  Denkmale),  and  a  number  of  hymns,  etc. 
— Pierer,  Universal  Lex.  viii,  s.  v. 

Ke'ros  (Heb.  Kei/ros',  D"i'^I|5,  curved,  Neh.  vii,  47 ; 
Sept.  Kfiptic  V.  r.  YLiquq;  or  6"ijr,  A'ez-os',  Ezra  ii,  44; 
Sept.  Kj/padf  V.  r.  Kopsc,  Ka(!)?jt,'i  Vulg.  C'eros),  a  man 
whose  descendants  (or  a  place  whose  former  inhabit- 
ants) returned  as  Nethinim  from  Babj'lon  with  Zerub- 
babsl  (Ezra  ii,  44;  Neh.  vii,  47).     B.C.  ante  53G. 

Kerr,  George  (1),  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, particularly  eminent  as  a  Christian  educator,  was 
born  in  Antrim  County,  Ireland,  Dec.  18, 1814,  and  came 
to  this  country  with  his  parents  in  1823.  Early  attached 
to  the  Church,  he  decided  to  enter  the  ministry,  for  which 
he  sought  thorough  preparation,  first  by  a  full  classi- 
cal course  at  WOliams  College,  IMass.,  and  later  at  the 
Union  Theological  Seminary  of  New  York  City.  He 
was  licensed  and  ordained  in  1844,  and  began  his  ministe- 
rial labors  as  pastor  of  the  Kcformed  (Protestant  Dutch) 
Church  in  Conesville,  Schoharie  Co.,  N.  Y.  In  1840  he 
received  an  urgent  call  to  the  principalship  of  Franklin 
(N.  Y.)  Academy,  an  institution  then  hardly  deserving  a 
higher  place  than  the  district  school.  Kerr,  accepting 
the  position,  soon  made  this  academy  one  of  the  best 
in  the  state.  For  a  short  period  he  filled  a  chair  in 
the  New  York  State  Agricultural  College,  and  then  be- 
came principal  of  Watertown  Academy,  N.  Y.,  and  in 


1805  removed  to  Cooperstowii,  where  he  did  active  and 
valuable  service  for  the  large  seminary  then  located 
there.  In  1807  he  decided  to  return  to  Franklin  and 
to  resume  his  position  in  that  school,  but,  while  prepar- 
uig  for  the  removal,  died,  March  27.  "  Dr.  Kerr  was  a 
man  of  work ;  his  characteristics  were  prominent  and 
clearly  defined ;  all  through  life  he  was  intellectually  on 
the  alert;  everywhere,  on  all  worthy  subjects,  analyt- 
ical, independent,  discriminating.  He  was  a  thorough 
scholar,  especially  in  Greek  literature,  and  a  marvel  of 
enthusiasm  and  power  as  a  teacher"  (Wilson,  Prtsh.  His. 
Almanac,  1808,  p.  215).  He  aimed  not  only  to  educate 
the  mind,  but  had  particular  regard  for  the  education  of 
the  heart  of  all  his  students.     (J.  H.W.) 

Kerr,  George  (2),  a  Methodist  minister,  was  born 
in  Ireland  in  1819.  His  parents,  who  emigrated  to  Can- 
ada in  1822,  intended  him  for  the  mercantile  profession ; 
but,  converted  when  seventeen  years  old,  and  shortly 
after  impressed  with  the  conviction  that  lie  was  called 
to  preach,  he  came  over  to  the  States,  and  settled  at 
Winstead,  Conn.,  was  made  a  local  preacher,  and  in  1844 
joined  the  New  York  Conference.  In  1800  he  was  su- 
perannuated, and  made  Hudson,  N.  Y.,  his  residence.  He 
died  while  on  a  visit  to  his  friends  in  Ireland,  Sept.  8, 
1809.  He  was  much  esteemed,  not  only  by  members  of 
his  own  Church,  but  by  ministers  and  members  of  other 
evangelical  churches  of  the  city. — Smith,  Annuls  of  De- 
ceased Preachers  of  N.  Y.  and  N.  Y.  E.  Corf.  p.  119. 

Kerr,  Henry  M.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom 
in  York  District,  S.  C,  Dec.  oO,  1782.  In  very  early  life 
his  mother  had  consecrated  him,  as  Hannah  did  her 
Samuel,  to  the  Lord,  and  had  often  expressed  her  desire 
to  him  that  he  should  be  a  minister  of  the  Gospel  of  the 
blessed  Jesus.  His  parents  being  in  moderate  circum- 
stances, and  he  the  oldest  of  eleven  children,  he  was  com- 
pelled to  labor  for  their  maintenance ;  hence  his  educa- 
tion was  much  neglected  in  his  earlier  years.  lie  went 
first  to  an  academy  in  Roman  County,  N.  C. ;  the  ■;  he  re- 
paired to  Iredell  County,  and  enjoyed  the  advantages  of 
instruction  under  the  celebrated  James  Hall,  D.D.  Here 
he  completed  a  very  extensive  course  of  scientific  study, 
and  was  readily  received  as  a  candidate  for  the  ministry 
by  Concord  Presbytery  in  1811.  He  pursued  his  theo- 
logical course  part  of  the  term  with  the  Rev.  Dr.  Kilpat- 
rick,  and  part  of  it  with  James  ]\I'Kee,  D.D.  In  1 814  he 
was  licensed  by  Concord  Presbyter}'.  At  that  time  he 
was  residing  in  Salisburj',  N.  C.  He  remained  there, 
teaching  and  preaching,  until  the  spring  of  1810,  when 
he  removed  to  Lincoln  County,  and  he  was  ordained  in 
November  of  that  j'ear  pastor  of  Olney,  Long  Creek,  and 
New  Hope  churches.  In  1819  he  removed  to  Ruther- 
fordtown  to  take  charge  of  the  village  academy.  He 
preached  at  the  same  time  in  the  old  church  of  Little 
Britain,  and,  after  three  years,  removed  into  the  Ijounds 
of  this  church.  Here  he  spent  fourteen  years,  and  his 
laljors  were  again  blessed  in  a  remarkable  degree.  In 
1833  he  removed  to  Jonesboro',  East  Tennessee ;  but,  not 
finding  his  ministerial  associations  pleasant,  he  travelled 
further  west,  and  settled  in  Hardeman  County,  West 
Tennessee,  in  1835.  Here  he  performed  much  mission- 
ary labor  in  all  the  surrounding  counties,  and  organized 
many  churches.  The  infirmities  of  age  made  it  neces- 
sary for  him  to  abandon,  in  part,  his  evangelistic  labors, 
and  he  devoted  the  last  years  of  his  life  to  Bethel  and 
Aimwell  churches,  in  IM'Nairv  County.  In  the  fall  of 
1800  he  settled  near  AVatervalley,  in  the  Presbytery  of 
North  Mississippi,  where  he  finished  his  long  and  usefid 
career  January  28, 1805.  Trained  under  the  old  system, 
he  made  no  effort  at  rhetorical  display.  His  discourses 
were  pre-eminently  scriptural.  He  used  ''  the  sword  of 
the  Spirit,  which  is  the  Word  of  God,"  and  it  Avas  sharp 
in  the  heart  of  the  King's  enemies.  "  His  style  was  per- 
spicuous and  energetic,  and  he  was  often  truly  eloquent. 
The  providence  of  God  cast  his  lot  chiefly  in  destitute 
]iortions  of  the  land,  and  his  labors  were  evangelistic. 
He  organized  more  churches,  it  is  believed,  than  any 


KERR 


56 


KERR 


other  member  of  the  Presbytery.  For  many  years  he 
was  stated  derk  of  the  Presbytery  of  West  era  Tennessee 
District,  and  his  ac(iuaintancc  witli  the  form  of  govern- 
ment and  discipline  Avas  so  perfect  that  his  word  was 
taken  as  the  suhition  of  all  doubts  and  difficulties." — Wil- 
son, Presh.  Historical  A  Imanac,  1868,  p.  338. 

Kerr,  James,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  a  native  of 
Scotland,  was  born  in  1805,  and  was  educated  in  the 
University  of  Glasgow,  where  he  took  his  A.B.  in  1832. 
In  his  twenty-fifth  year  he  emigrated  to  the  United 
States,  and  shortly  after  entered  the  Western  Theolog- 
ical Seminar}',  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Presbytery 
of  Baltimore  April  27,  183G,  and  was  ordained  an  evan- 
gelist by  the  Presbyter}^  of  Winchester  at  IMartinsburg, 
Va.,  April  22, 1837.  He  labored  tirst  as  a  missionary  in 
Hampshire  County,  Va.,  for  two  years,  and  was  success- 
ful in  his  ministry,  planting  the  standard  of  the  Cross  in 
many  portions  of  that  hitherto  forsaken  country.  He 
was  next  invited  by  the  Church  of  Cadiz,  Ohio;  began 
his  ministerial  work  in  this  congregation  Dec.  2,  1838, 
and  was  regularly  installed  June,  1839.  He  died  April 
l',l,  1855.  Kerr  was  the  autlior  of  Mode  of  Baptism, 
and  a  small  work  on  Psalmodij.  '■  He  was  a  good  pres- 
byter, and  made  an  excellent  presiding  officer  of  an  ec- 
clesiastical court,  to  which  both  the  members  of  the 
Presbytery  and  SjTiod  can  testify.  His  decisions  were 
uniformly  correct,  and  his  thorough  acquaintance  with 
the  government  and  politj^  of  our  Church  gave  him  a 
superior  influence  in  all  her  judicial  meetings  upon 
which  he  ivas  called  to  attend.  He  was  remarkably 
conscientious  in  every  sphere  of  life,  whether  as  a  citi- 
zen, a  Christian,  or  a  minister.  So  decided  was  he 
against  reading  sermons,  or  even  taking  the  smallest 
abstract  into  the  pulpit,  that  he  invariably  voted  against 
the  licensure  and  ordination  of  any  young  man  that  did 
commit  this  '  great  mistake,'  as  he  sometimes  termed  it. 
As  a  preacher  he  was  clear  and  logical,  plain  and  inter- 
esting, in  his  statements  of  the  great  truths  of  the  Gos- 
pel. His  pulpit  productions  thoroughly  partook  of  his 
own  character,  and  came  forth  as  the  result  of  close  ap- 
plication and  much  study ;  and  on  no  occasion  would  he 
agree  to  preach,  if  it  could  at  all  be  avoided,  without 
special  preparation." — Wilson,  Prcsb.  Jlisiorical  Alma- 
«oc,  18G7,  p.  IGO. 

Kerr,  John,  a  Baptist  minister  of  Scottish  descent, 
was  born  in  Caswell  Comity,  N.  C,  Aug.  14,  1782,  con- 
verted in  18(10,  baptized  in  1801,  and  at  once  licensed  to 
preach.  "  Determined  to  avail  himself  of  every  means 
in  his  power  to  render  his  ministry  efficient  and  useful, 
the  young  evangelist  travelled  to  South  Carolina  to  see 
the  excellent  Marshall  and  listen  to  his  preaching,  and 
thence  to  Georgia  to  form  the  acquaintancG  of  the  dis- 
tinguished and  venerable  ]\Ierccr.  Returning  from  the 
South,  he  visited  Virginia,  and  became  jiersonally  known 
to  the  lamented  Semple  and  other  valuable  ministers 
of  the  state.  Wherever  he  went  his  preaching  pro- 
duced a  thrilling  effect.  His  youthful  appearance,  the 
ardor  and  gracefulness  of  his  manner,  and  the  beauty  of 
his  diction,  attracted  universal  attention.  There  are 
not  a  few  avIio  still  remember  his  visit  to  Eastern  Vir- 
ginia with  lively  emotion  after  the  lapse  of  almost  half 
a  century."  In  1811  he  embarked  on  the  stormy  sea  of 
politics,  consenting  to  become  a  candidate  for  Congress, 
and  he  was  twice  elected  thereto.  He  was  a  member 
of  that  ijody  during  the  War  of  1812,  and  served  his 
roimtry  at  that  critical  period  with  a  fervent  and  en- 
lightened patriotism.  At  the  close  of  his  Congressional 
career  he  returned  to  Halifax,  and  served  the  churches  at 
Arbor  and  at  ^lary  Creek.  In  Jlarch,  1825,  he  removed 
to  tlie  city  of  K'ichmonil,  and  l)ecame  the  jiastor  of  the 
First  I5aptist  Church.  Here  his  tine  pulpit  talents  were 
brought  into  active  and  succe.ssfuL  operation.  Crowds 
hung  with  dehght  on  his  ministry,  in  less  than  a  year 
more  than  live  hundred  members  were  added  to  the 
Church,  t^vo  hundred  and  seventeen  of  whom  were 
white.     This  successful  work  continued  until  dissension 


was  sown  among  his  parishioners  by  the  preaching  of 
Alexander  Campbell,  -whose  efforts  finally  drew  from 
Kerr's  church  nearly  half  of  its  members  (in  1831 ).  By 
the  close  of  1832  he  had  grown  weary  of  the  contentions 
to  which  the  division  had  given  rise,  and  resigned  his 
charge.  He  died  Sept.  29,  18'42.  He  was  naturally  of 
a  frank,  generous,  and  disinterested  disposition.  Inca- 
pable of  artifice  himself,  he  was  not  always  guarded 
against  it  in  others.  His  temperament,  peculiarly  ar- 
dent, sometimes  perverted  his  judgment.  His  manners 
were  uniformly  bland,  gentle,  and  conciliating.  In  so- 
cial intercourse  he  was  highly  gifted,  never  failing  to 
impart  an  interest  and  a  charm  to  conversation.  He 
was  dignified  without  ostentation,  and  cheerful  without 
levity.  "As  a  Christian,  he  imbibed  in  a  high  degree 
the  spirit  of  his  Master.  His  piety  was  not  the  d\varf- 
ish  and  stunted  growth  of  sectarianism — morose,  censo- 
rious, and  persecuting,  but  the  product  of  enlarged  and 
liberal  views — cheerful,  candid,  and  conciliatory.  Though 
he  was  firm  to  his  convictions  as  a  Baptist,  he  was  re- 
markably free  from  bigotry,  and  was  a  lover  of  good 
men  of  every  communion.  As  a  preacher  he  possessed 
commanding  talents.  A  fine  person,  a  sonorous  voice, 
and  a  graceful  manner  at  once  prepossessed  his  hearers 
in  his  favor.  His  apprehension  was  quick,  his  percep- 
tion clear,  and  his  imagination  remarkably  vivid.  He 
is  ranked  among  the  most  popular  preachers  of  his  day 
in  Virginia,  and  for  more  than  thirty  years  he  rarely  if 
ever  failed  to  be  appointed  at  associations  and  other  im- 
portant meetings  to  preach  on  occasions  of  the  greatest 
interest." — Sprague,  Aimals,  vi,  4-10  sq. 

Kerr,  Joseph,  D.D.,  a  prominent  minister  of  the 
Associate  Reformed  Church,  was  born  in  Antrim  County, 
Ireland,  in  1778 ;  educated  at  the  University  of  Glas- 
gow, and,  with  a  view  of  entering  the  ministry,  ptirsued 
theological  studies  under  the  direction  of  the  Associate 
Presbytery  of  Derry.  He  came  to  this  country  in  1801, 
and  Avas  licensed  by  the  Second  Presbyterj-  of  Pennsyl- 
vania shorth^  after.  His  appointment  lay  over  a  vast 
area  of  country  west  of  the  Alleghanies,  a  work  for 
which  he  seemed  to  have  been  endowed  by  nature.  In 
1804  he  was  called  to  Slifflin  and  St.  Clair  as  regular  pas- 
tor, and,  accepting,  was  installed  October  17.  When  the 
Presbyteiy  decided  to  establish  a  thcologicd  school  at 
Pittsburg,  they  looked  to  him  for  its  head,  and  felt  con- 
strained to  urge  his  removal  to  that  place,  and  ajipointcd 
him  professor  of  theology,  a  post  which  he  successfully 
filled  until  he  died,  Nov.*  15, 1829.  "The  death  of  Dr. 
Kerr  shed  a  gloom  not  only  over  the  large  circle  of  his 
friends  and  acquaintances,  and  the  families  of  his  pas- 
toral charge,  but  over  the  entire  Synod  of  the  West,  as 
it  seemed  at  once  to  dash  the  brightening  prospects  of 
the  infant  theological  seminary  intrusted  to  his  super- 
vision. .  .  .  With  an  athletic  physical  constitution,  of 
more  than  ordinarily  prepossessing  appearance,  he  was 
endoAvcd  with  intellectual  powers  of  the  first  order,  high- 
ly cultivated,  and  possessed  of  all  the  essential  elements 
of  a  natural  orator.  With  undoubted  yet  unostenta- 
tious piety,  mild,  kind,  aftalile,  affectionate,  benevolent, 
liberal,  and  hos]iitablc  almost  to  a  faidt,  he  at  once  won 
the  friendship  and  affections  of  his  acquaintances,  and 
the  confidence  of  the  congregations  to  whom  he  minis- 
tered, and,  without  assuming  it,  or  even  being  aiijiarcnt- 
ly  conscious  of  it,  he  occupied  from  the  commencement 
of  his  ministry  tlie  position  of  a  master  si)irit.  which  was 
accorded  to  him  witliout  envy  and  without  ojiposition  by 
his  co-presbyters." — (A\'ilson,  Pn\<b.  Jlistoriad  A  Imanuc, 
1863,  p.  372  sq. 

Kerr,  Joseph  R.,  son  of  the  preceding,  and  also  a 
minister  of  the  Associate  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church, 
was  born  in  St.  Clair  ti>wnsliip,  Alleghany  Co.,  Pa.,  Jan. 
18, 1807,  and  was  educated  at  the  Western  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  where  he  graduated  in  1826  with  the 
highest  honors  of  his  class.  In  the  fall  of  1827  he  en- 
tered the  theological  seminar^'  at  Pittsburg,  founded 
then  only  a  short  time,  over  which  his  father  presided. 


KERR 


57 


KESITAH 


and  was  licensed  Sept.  2, 1829,  Only  two  and  a  half 
montlis  later  his  father  died,  and  young  Kerr  was  called 
to  liU  his  place  in  the  pastorate,  and,  accepting  the  prof- 
fered place,  was  ordained  July  29, 1830.  "  Thus  called 
by  Providence  to  till  the  pulpit  of  such  a  man  as  his  fa- 
ther, he  succeeded,  from  the  very  first,  in  giving  entire 
satisfaction  to  his  people,  and  soon  became  one  of  the 
most,  if  he  was  not  altogether  the  most,  popidar  of  the 
preachers  in  the  city,  but  it  was  at  the  expense  of  such 
exliausting  toil  as  contributed  slowly  but  surely  to  un- 
dermine a  constitution  at  best  but  deUcate.  From  being 
a  student  of  divinity,  and  without  any  experience,  he 
entered  at  once  on  the  pastoral  oversight  of  a  large  con- 
gregation, and  all  the  duties  connected  with  the  office  of 
the  Christian  ministry.  In  his  preparation  for  the  pul- 
pit he  was  a  close,  unwearying  student.  lie  was  ambi- 
tious of  excellence  in  whatever  he  attempted  connected 
with  his  office,  and  became  a  workman  that  needeth  not 
to  be  ashamed"  (Sprague,  Annals  [Associate  lief.  Presb. 
Church ],  ix,  162.  His  health,  however,  failed  him,  and 
in  1832  he  was  obliged  to  take  an  assistant,  Moses  Kerr 
(q.  v.),a  younger  brother.  His  liealth,  notwithstand- 
ing this  timely  precaution,  continued  to  fail,  and  he  died 
June  14, 1843.  Kerr  published  an  address,  Responsihil- 
iti)  of  Literary  Men  (183G),  and  a  sermon  on  Duelling 
(1838).     (J.li.W.) 

Kerr,  Moses,  a  minister  of  the  Associate  Ecformed 
Presbyterian  Church,  third  son  of  Dr.  Joseph  Kerr  (q. 
v.),  was  born  in  St. Clair,  Pa.,  June  30, 1811.  Naturally 
of  a  serious  and  thoughtful  cast  of  mind,  and  manifest- 
ing in  very  early  life  decided  liiety,  his  education  was 
directed  from  the  first  with  a  view  to  iiualifying  him  for 
the  sacred  ministry.  Signs  of  failing  health,  however, 
induced  him  to  devote  himself  to  mercantile  life,  but  it 
soon  proved  as  unfavorable  to  his  health  as  his  ajiplica- 
tion  to  study,  and  he  engaged  in  farm-work.  His  health 
becoming  restored,  he  entered  the  Western  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  graduated  in  1828.  In  the  fall  of  the 
same  year  hebegan  the  study  of  theology  ia  the  seminary 
then  under  the  care  of  his  fiitlver ;  was  licensed  to  preach 
on  the  28th  of  April,  1831,  and  shortly  after  was  called  as 
pastor  to  ^Vlleghany.  But  when  the  Presbytery  met  to  or- 
dain and  install  him,  he  returned  the  call  on  account  of  a 
hemorrhage  of  the  lungs.  The  Prcsb3'tery,  however,  pro- 
ceeded with  his  ordination  to  the  office  of  the  ministrj-. 
This  was  on  the  9th  of  October,  1832.  Shortly  after  he 
sailed  for  Europe,  and  on  his  return,  with  every  appear- 
ance of  restored  and  established  health,  resumed  preach- 
ing, and  finally  accepted  a  call  by  the  large  and  influen- 
tial congregation  of  Robinson's  Eun,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Pittsburg,  September  2, 1834.  But  a  little  more  than  six 
months  later  he  was  again  attacked  with  hemorrhage 
of  the  lungs,  and  demitted  his  pastoral  charge.  During 
a  vacancy  he  discharged  for  a  time  the  duties  of  pro- 
fessor of  languages  in  the  Western  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania; afterwards  of  Biblical  literature  and  criticism 
in  the  theological  seminary,  Alleghany.  But  his  tastes 
and  talents  were  for  the  pulpit,  and  he  again  accepted 
a  call  as  a  preaclier,  this  time  from  the  Third  Church, 
Pittsburg,  18th  of  October,  1S37.  Witli  that  congrega- 
tion he  closed  his  life  on  the  2Gth  of  January,  1840. 
Moses  Kerr  "  was  a  student  from  tlie  love  of  study,  and 
a  careful  reader  of  the  best  writings  not  only  in  theolo- 
gy, but  in  literature  generall}'.  With  a  becoming  ap- 
preciation of  the  demands  of  his  profession,  he  aimed  to 
store  his  mind  not  only  with  the  matter  of  text-books 
of  theology  and  the  works  of  past  ages,  but  the  fresh 
discussions  of  living  divines,  and  at  the  same  time  keep 
up  with  the  general  advance  of  literature  and  science  in 
the  world.  As  a  preacher  he  had  capabilities  which, 
with  ordinary  health  and  an  ordinary  length  of  life,  must 
have  rendered  him  eminent  in  his  profession." — Sprague, 
A  nnals,  ix,  16(3. 

Kersey,  Jesse,  a  minister  of  the  Society  of  Friends, 
was  born  at  York,  Pa.,  in  1708.  lu  Ids  early  youth  his 
heart  was  given  to  God.     In  his  seventeenth  j-ear  he 


experienced  a  call  to  the  Gospel  ministry,  but  still  re- 
mained an  apprentice  to  the  trade  of  a  potter  about  foiu: 
years,  and  afterwards  taught  school.  In  1804  lie  em- 
barked for  England  on  a  Gospel  mission.  In  1805  he 
returned  to  America,  and  in  1814  went  on  a  reUgious 
mission  to  the  Southern  States,  afterwards  returning  to 
his  home,  and  continuing  to  labor  and  preach.  He  died 
near  Kennet,  Pa.,  in  1845.  As  a  minister,  Mr.  Kersey's 
affability  of  laianners,  his  grave  and  dignified  deport- 
ment, the  soundness  of  his  principles,  the  beauty  and 
simplicity  of  his  style  of  address,  heightened  in  their  ef- 
fect by  the  depth  of  his  devotional  feelings,  gave  an  in- 
terest and  a  charm  which  gained  him  many  admirers. 
See  Janney,  Ili^t.  aj'the  Friends,  iv,  116.     (J,  L,  S.) 

Keryktik  (from  Kiipixraio,  to  jn-eacli),  i.  e.  the  art 
of  preachbuj,  is  a  modern  name  for  Ilomilefics,  first  intro- 
duced by  Stier  (^Kerijklik,  1830, 1846).    See  Homiletics. 

Kesepli.     See  Silver, 

Kesitah  (n::'^'wp,  A,V,  "piece  cf  money,"  '-piece 
of  silver").  The  meaning  and  derivation  of  this  word, 
which  only  occurs  thrice  in  the  0,T,,  has  been  a  subject 
of  much  controversy.  The  places  where  it  is  found — 
Gen.  xxxiii,  19,  recording  Jacob's  purchase  of  a  piece  of 
ground  at  Shechem  ;  Josh,  xxiv,  32,  a  verbal  repetition 
from  Genesis;  and  Job  xlii,  11,  where  the  presents  made 
to  .Tob  are  s])ecitied,  and  it  is  joined  with  rings  of  gold — 
indicate  either  the  name  of  a  coin  or  of  some  article  used 
in  barter.     The  principal  explanations  of  the  word  are : 

1.  That  of  the  Sept.  and  all  ancient  versions,  which 
render  it  '•  a  lamb,"  either  the  animal  itself  or  a  coin 
bearing  its  impress  (Ilottinger,  Diss,  cle  A'linim.  Orient.'), 
a  view  which  has  been  revived  in  modern  times  by  the 
Danish  bishop  iSIunter  in  a  treatise  published  at  Copen- 
hagen, 1824,  and  more  recently  still  by  Mr.  James  Yates, 
Proc.  ofNumism.  Society,  1837, 1838,  p.  141.  The  entire 
want  of  any  etymf)logical  ground  for  this  interpretation 
has  led  Bochart  (^IJiei-ozoic.  i,  1.  2,  c.  3)  to  imagine  that 
there  had  been  a  confusion  in  the  text  of  the  Sept.  be- 
tween iKaruv  {.n'wv  and  tKarvv  ufxvwi',  and  that  this 
error  has  passed  into  all  the  ancient  versions,  which 
may  be  supported  by  the  singular  fact  that  in  Gen.  xxxi, 
7, 41,  we  find  D"p2  TTb^  (A.Y."  ten  times,"  rt: -,  how- 
ever, more  usually  standing  for  a  particular  weight) 
translated  by  the  Sept.  Ciku  u^ivCji',  which  it  is  difficult 
to  account  for  on  any  supposition  save  that  of  a  mistake 
of  the  copyist  for  j^tvwv.     See  Sheep. 

2.  Others,  adopting  the  rendering  "lamb,"  have  imag- 
ined a  reference  to  a  weight  formed  in  the  shape  of  that 
animal,  such  as  we  know  to  have  been  in  use  among 
the  Egyptians  and  Assyrians,  imitating  bulls,  antelopes, 
geese,  etc.  (see  Wilkinson's  /l«c.  Egypt,  ii,  10;  Layard, 
Nineveh  and  Babylon,  yi.  GOO -GO'2 ;  hcpshis,  Denhnale,  iii, 
plate  39,  No.  3). 

3.  Faber,  in  the  German  edition  of  IIarme>-''s  Obs.  ii, 
15-19,  quoted  by  Gesenius  (Tliescau:  p.  1241),  connects 
it  with  the  Syriac  hcsta,  Heb.  rD|?,  "a  vessel," an  ety- 
mology accepted  bj'  Grotefend  (see  below),  and  consid- 
ers it  to  have  been  cither  a  measure  or  a  sUver  vessel 
used  in  barter  (comp.  ^Elian,  1'.  //.  i,  22). 

4.  The  most  probable  view,  liowever,  is  that  su]iport- 
ed  by  Gesenius,  Kosenmiiller,  Jahn,  Kalisch,  and  the 
majority  of  the  soundest  interpreters,  that  it  was,  in 
Grotefend's  words  (Xiimism.  Chron.  ii,  248),  "merely  a 
silver  weight  of  undetermined  size,  just  as  the  most  an- 
cient shekel  was  nothing  more  than  a  piece  of  rough 
silver  without  any  image  or  device."  The  lost  root  was 
perhaps  akin  to  the  Arabic  fo/««/,  "he  divided  equally," 
Bochart,  however  {ut  sup.),  is  disposed  to  alter  the  punc- 
tuation of  the  Shin,  and  to  connect  the  word  witli  H-Cp, 
"  truth,"  adding  "  potuit  p  id  est  vera  dici  moneta  qua2- 
cunque  habuit  justum  pondus,  aut  etiam  moneta  sincera 
et  ciicilSCrjXoc." 

According  to  Rabbi  Akiba,  quoted  by  Bochart,  a  cer- 
tain coin  bore  this  name  in  comparatively  modern  times, 
so  that  he  would  render  the  word  by  "^pn,  odraKtc. — 


KESLER 


58 


KETURAH 


Kitto,  s.  V.     See  Kitto,  Daily  Bible  Illustralions,  ad  loc. 
Job.     See  JIoxey. 

Kesler,  Andkeas,  a  German  theologian,  born  July 
17.  l."i',>.j,  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Jena,  and 
al'terwards  became  adjunct  professor  in  the  philosoph- 
ical faculty  of  AVittenberg.  In  1G23  he  was  called  to 
till  a  professorship  in  Coburg;  in  1G25  he  became  pastor 
and  superintendent  at  Eisfeld;  in  1033  director  of  the 
gymnasium  at  Schweinfurt,  whence  in  1635  he  was  re- 
called to  Coburg  to  fill  a  high  ecclesiastical  position. 
He  died  Blay  15,  lG-13.  His  writings  consist,  besides 
sermons,  of  polemical  works  against  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  for  a  list  of  which  see  Hagelhan,  Leichenrede. 
See  also  Kenning  Witte,  ^femol•ia;  Theolor/orum  (Decas 
5 ),  p.  557  sq. — Herzog,  Real-Encyklop.  vii,  518. 

Kessler,  Christian  Rudolph,  a  German  Re- 
i'lirnied  minister,  burn  February  'JO,  1823,  in  the  Canton 
of  Graubueuden,  Switzerland,  was  educated  in  the  best 
schools  of  his  native  land,  and  afterwards  sjjent  some 
time  at  the  University  of  Leipsic;  came  to  America 
with  his  parents  in  1841 ;  studied  theology  at  Mercers- 
burg,  Pa.;  was  licensed  and  ordained  in  the  spring  of 
1843,  and  took  charge  of  congregations  in  Pendleton 
County,  Ya.  In  1844  he  became  associated  with  Dr. 
Bibighaus  as  assistant  pastor  in  the  Salem  congrega- 
tion, Philadelphia.  His  health  failing,  in  1848  he  re- 
moved to  AUentown,  Pa.,  to  establish  a  female  seminarj'. 
In  this  enterprise  he  was  remarkably  successful.  He 
died  JIarch  4, 1855,  leaving  the  institution  he  had  found- 
ed in  a  flourishing  condition. 

Kessler  (Aiienarius),  Johann  Jacob,  was  bom 
at  St.  Gall  in  1502,  and  studied  theology  at  Basle.  In 
1522  he  went  to  Wittenberg  to  hear  Luther,  and  on  his 
way  fell  in  with  him  at  Jena,  yet  without  knowing  him. 
In  1523  he  returned  to  St.  Gall,  but  his  inclination  to  the 
reform  doctrines  would  not  conscientiously  permit  him 
to  enter  the  priesthood,  and  he  became  a  saddler.  At 
the  request  of  his  compatriots,  he  finr'ly,  in  1524,  began 
Sunday  evening  meetings  for  the  study  of  Scripture, 
which,  on  account  of  the  general  interest,  were  in  1525 
transferred  to  the  Church  of  St.Lawrencc.  He  was  some- 
what opposed  at  first  by  a  few  narrow-minded  theolo- 
gians, and  at  their  request  even  discontinued  his  meet- 
ings for  a  time ;  but  the  public,  determined  to  hear  the 
preaching  of  Kessler,  induced  him  finally  to  enter  the 
ministry,  and  he  became,  in  1535,  evangelical  pastor  of 
the  Church  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  dean  of  St.  Gall  in  1573. 
He  died  JMarch  15, 1574.  Kessler  wrote  Sahhtttha,  St. 
Gallische  lieformutionschronik.  See  J.  J.  Bernet,  J. 
Ke.'fs/er  (St. 'Gall,  182G) ;  Herzog,  Eeal-KncyUop.  vii, 
618  ;  Pierer,  Universal  Lex.  s.  v. 

Kethem.     See  Gold. 

Kethib.     Sec  Keri. 

Kethubim.     See  Hagiographa. 

Kethuboth.     See  Talmud. 

Ketsach.     See  Fitches.    • 

Ketsiyah.     Sec  Cassia. 

Kett,  Hknuy,  B.D.,  a  learned  English  divine,  was 
born  at  Norwich  in  17G1 ;  studied  at  Trinity  CoUege, 
Oxford,  of  which  he  became  fellow,  and  afterwards  ob- 
tained the  living  of  Charlton,  (Jloucestersliire.  He  was 
drowned,  while  bathing,  in  1K25.  His  principal  works 
are:  Ui.-<ton/,  l/ic  Interpreter  nf  Propheey  (London,  4th 
ed.,  with  ailditional  notes,  1801,  2  vols.  8vo): — Sermons 
preached,  17!)0,  at  the  Lectures  founded  hy  the  late  Rev. 
John  Brvmpton,  M.A.  (London,  2d  cd.  17!)2,  8vo)  : — Ele- 
ments  of //eni-rtd,  Knowledr/e  (Lond.  8th  edit.  181.5,  2  vols. 
8vo). — Allibone,  Diet.  Enijl.  and  A  mer.  A  uthor.i,  s.  v. 

Kettfe^ler.AViLiiEL.M, bishop  of^MUnster  from  1553 
to  1557,  thougli  a  layman,  was  promoted  lo  the  prelatieal 
dignity  liy  sjucial  request  of  the  duke  of  Clcvc.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  enlightened  minds  of  this  jieriod  in  tlie 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  himself  inclining  to  tlic  Ref- 
ormat ion,  in  concert  with  the  duke  of  Cleve,  persuaded 


Cassander  (q.  v.)  to  use  his  influence  and  his  pen  to 
prevent  further  schism  in  the  Church,  and  to  bring  back 
those  who  had  left  the  Romanists.  At  Rome  he  was 
disliked  for  his  mildness  towards  the  Reformers,  and 
finally  quitted  the  bishopric. 

Kettenbach,  Heixkich  von,  an  eminent  German 
writer  of  the  jieriod  of  the  Reformation,  was  jirobably 
of  French  extraction.  Little  is  known  of  his  life.  He 
became  a  Franciscan,  and  in  1521  went  to  Ulm  in  the 
place  of  one  of  the  brethren  expelled  by  the  general  of 
the  order  for  holding  evangelical  opinions.  Ketten- 
bach, however,  soon  followed  the  example  of  his  prede- 
cessor :  he  preached  against  the  papacy  and  the  monks, 
and,  having  thus  aroused  the  enmity  of  the  Dominicans, 
was  in  turn  obliged  to  leave  L'lm  the  same  year.  He 
then  went  to  Wittenberg,  where  he  openly  joined  the 
Reformation,  took  part  in  all  the  movements  in  favor 
of  emancipation  from  Rome,  and  was  probably  killed  in 
the  peasants'  war.  Kettenbach  was  a  very  popular 
preacher,  and  made  many  converts  from  Romanism, 
which  he  attacked  in  Verrjleichung  lies  Alkrheiliysten 
Ilerrn  v.  Vuters  Papst  gegen  d.  seltsamen  u.fremden  Gast 
in  d.  Christtnheit,  rjenanni  Jesus,  etc.  (Wittenb.  1523) : — 
Praciica;  Neue  Apoloyie  it.  VeraiitworttuK)  Martini  Im- 
thers  wider  d.  Papisien  Mordyeschrei  (1523).  It  is  gen- 
erally supposed  that  Kettenbach  wrote  largely,  but  that 
his  works  have  been  lost.  His  influence  among  the 
Reformers  must  have  been  great,  or  he  would  not  have 
been  among  the  persons  cited  by  Eck  to  appear  with 
Luther  before  the  Reichstag  at  Augsburg.  See  Pierer, 
Univ.  Lex.  s.  v. ;  Yecsenmeyer,  Beitrdye  z.  Gesch.  d.  Lii- 
eratur  u.  Ref.  p.  70  sq. ;  Keim,  in  Herzog,  Reul-Ency- 
klopddic,  s.  V. 

Kettle  (1^'^,  dud,  so  called  from  hoiliny'),  a  large 
jwt  for  cooking  purposes  (1  Sam.  ii,  14;  elsewhere  ren- 
dered "pot,"  Psa.  Ixxxi,  G;  Job  xli,  20;  "caldron,"  2 
Chron.  xxxv,  13).  The  same  term  in  the  original  also 
signifies  "  basket"  (2  Kings  x,  7 ;  Jer.  xxiv,  2 ;  probably 
Psa.  Ixxxvi,  G).  From  tjie  passage  in  1  Sam.  ii,  13, 14, 
it  is  evident  that  the  kettle  was  emploj'ed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preparing  the  peace-offerings,  as  it  is  said  (verse 
14),  "All  that  the  flesh-hook  brought  up  the  priest  took 
for  himself."  In  the  various  processes  of  cookery  rep- 
resented on  the  momnnents  of  Egypt,  we  frequently  sec 
large  bronze  pots  placed  over  a  tire  in  a  similar  manner. 
See  Flesii-pot. 

Kettlewell,  John,  B.D.,  an  eminent  English  di- 
vine (nonjuror),  was  born  at  Northallerton,  Yorkshire, 
March  10,  1653;  studied  at  St.  Edmund's  Hall,  Oxford, 
and  in  1G75  became  fellow  of  Lincoln  College.  Still  but 
a  youth,  he  distmguislied  himself  liy  the  publication  of 
his  celebrated  work,  Measures  of  Christian  Obedience. 
He  was  generally  noticed,  and  in  1G82  lord  Digby  pre- 
sented j'oung  Kettlewell  with  the  vicarage  of  Coleshill, 
Warwickshire,  but  he  was  deprived  of  it  soon  after  the 
Revolution  on  account  of  his  refusal  to  take  the  oath  of 
obedience  to  AVilliam  and  IMary.  He  removed  to  Lon- 
don, and  died  there  April  12, 1695.  His  principal  works 
have  been  collected  and  published  under  the  style, 
Worl-s  printed  from  Cojnes  revised  and  improved  by  the 
Author  a  little  'before  his  Death  (Lond.  1719,  2  vols,  fol.) : 
—The  Duty  of  Moral  Rectitude  (Tracts  of  Angl.  Fathers, 
iv,  219). — Darling,  Cyclopcedin  Bihliofp-aphira,  ii,  1725; 
Macaulav,  Hist.  ofEnyland,  vol.  iv  (185G)  ;  Nelson,  Life 
of  Kettlewell  (Lond.  1718). 

Kettner,  Fuiedricii  Ernst,  a  German  theologian, 
was  liiirn  at  Leipzig  .Ian.  21,  1671,  and  educated  at  the 
imivcrsity  of  that  ]ilace.  He  was  licensed  in  1697,  and 
became  shortly  after  superintendent  in  Qne(Ilinburg,and 
first  court  preacher.  He  died  July  21, 1722.  His  writ- 
ings are  mainly  confined  to  local  Church  History. — All- 
gemeines  /list.  Lex.  iii,  22. 

Ketu'rah  {Heh.  Keturah',  fi'^^'.Z'^,  girdled,  other- 
wise incense  ;  Sept.  Xf  rro/'fjo),  "  the  second  wife,  or,  aa 
she  is  caUed  in  1  Chron.  i,  32,  the  concubine  of  Abra- 


KEUCHENIUS 


59 


KEY 


ham ;  by  her  he  had  six  sons,  whom  he  lived  to  see 
grow  to  man's  estate,  and  whom  he  estabHslied  '  in  the 
east  countrj','  that  they  might  not  interfere  with  Isaac 
(Gen.  XXV,  1-G).  B.C.  cir.  l'J'J7  et  post.  As  Abraham 
was  100  years  old  when  Isaac  was  born,  who  was  given 
to  him  by  the  special  bounty  of  Providence  when  '  he 
was  as  good  as  dead'  (Heb.  xi,  12) ;  as  he  was  140  years 
old  when  Sarah  died ;  and  as  lie  himself  died  at  the  age 
of  175  years,  it  has  seemed  improbable  that  these  six 
sons  should  have  been  born  to  Abraham  by  one  woman 
after  he  was  140  years  old,  and  that  he  should  have  seen 
them  all  grow  up  to  adult  age,  and  have  sent  them  forth 
to  form  independent  settlements  in  tliat  l^st  and  feeble 
period  of  his  life.  It  has  therefore  been  suggested  that, 
as  Keturah  is  called  Abraham's  '  concubine'  in  Chroni- 
cles, and  as  she  and  Hagar  are  probably  indicated  as  his 
'  concubines'  in  Gen.  xxv,  G,  Keturah  had  in  fact  been 
talieu  by  Abraham  as  his  secondary  or  concubine  wife 
before  the  death  of  Sarah,  although  the  liistorian  relates 
the  incident  after  that  event,  that  his  leading  narrative 
might  not  be  interrupted.  According  to  the  standard 
of  morality  then  acknowledged,  Abraham  might  quite 
as  properly  have  taken  Keturah  before  as  after  Sarah's 
death"  (Kitto) ;  althougli,  it  is  true,  this  would  hardly 
have  been  in  keeping  with  his  usual  regard  for  Sarah's 
feelings,  and  would  have  been  likely  to  introduce  into 
the  family  another  scene  of  discord  such  as  he  had  seen 
with  Hagar.  In  opposition  to  these  and  similar  argu- 
ments, however,  which  are  maintained  by  Prof.  Bush 
(A'o/e  on  Gen.  xxv,  1),  Dr.  Turner  justly  lu-ges  (Com- 
2utnion  to  Geiiesis,  p.  293  sq.)  the  evident  order  of  the 
narrative,  the  occasion  offered  by  the  death  of  Sarah, 
wliich  preceded  Abraham's  demise  thirty-six  \-ears,  and 
the  emphatic  manner  in  which  Keturah  is  introduced 
as  a  fidl  ^cij'e,  with  lawful  heirs,  although  of  less  esteem 
than  Sarah.  As  to  the  objection  drawn  from  the  impo- 
tence of  Abraham  in  consequence  of  advanced  age,  it  is 
readily  removed  by  the  implied  renewal  of  his  vigor  at 
the  promise  of  an  heir  by  Sarah  (compare  Ilcb.  xi,  11) ; 
and,  if  sound,  it  would  prove  too  much,  for  it  would  re- 
quire the  birth  of  all  the  six  sons  bj-  Keturah  to  be  dated 
before  that  of  Isaac.     Sec  Abkahaji. 

On  tlie  Arabian  affinities  of  Keturah,  see  the  Journal 
Aniutique,  Aug.  1838,  p.  197  sq.  '"  Her  sons  Avere  ' Zim- 
ran,  and  Jokshan,  and  Jlcdan,  and  Jlidian,  and  Ishbak, 
and  Shuah'  (Gen.  xxv,  2) ;  besides  tlie  sons  and  grand- 
sons of  Jokshan,  and  the  sons  of  Midian.  They  evi- 
dently crossed  the  desert  to  tlie  Persian  Gulf,  and  occu- 
pied the  whole  intermediate  country,  where  traces  of 
their  names  are  frequent,  while  Midian  extended  south 
into  the  peninsida  of  Araljia  I'roper.  In  searching  the 
works  of  Arab  writers  for  any  information  respecting 
these  tribes,  we  must  be  contented  to  find  tlicm  named 
as  Abrahamic,  or  even  Ishmaelitish,  for  under  the  latter 
appellation  almost  all  the  former  are  confounded  by  their 
descendants.  Keturah  herself  is  by  them  mentioned 
xcry  rarely  and  vaguely,  and  evidently  only  in  quoting 
from  a  rabbinical  writer.  (In  the  Kdnn'is  the  name  is 
said  to  be  that  of  the  Turks,  and  that  of  a  young  girl 
[or  slave]  of  Abraham  ;  and,  it  is  added,  lier  descendants 
are  the  Turks!)  jNI.  Caussin  de  Perceval  {Essai.  i,  179) 
has  enileavored  to  identify  her  witli  the  name  of  a  tribe 
of  the  AmaleUites  (the  1st  Amalek)  called  Katihri,  but 
his  arguments  are  not  of  any  weight.  They  rest  on  a 
weak  etymology,  and  are  contradicted  by  the  statements 
of  Arab  authors,  as  well  as  by  the  fact  tliat  the  early 
tribes  of  Arabia  (of  wliich  is  Katura)  have  not,  with  the 
single  exception  of  Amalek,  been  identified  with  any 
historical  names;  while  the  exception  of  Amalek  is  that 
of  an  apparently  aboriginal  people  whose  name  is  re- 
corded in  the  Bible  ;  and  there  are  reasons  for  supposing 
that  these  early  tribes  were  aboriginal"  (Smith).     See 

AlSAI'.IA. 

Keuchenius,  Pktrus,  a  learned  Dutch  theologian, 
was  born  at  Bois-le-Duc  August  22, 1654,  and  studied  at 
Leyden  and  Utreclit.  He  was  successively  minister  at 
Alem,  Tiel,  and  Arnheim.     He  died  ]\Iarch  27, 1G89.    He 


wrote  A  nnotata  in  omnes  A\  T.  lihros,  the  second  and 
only  complete  edition  of  which,  superintended  by  Al- 
berti,  appeared  at  Leyden  in  1755.  "  The  author's  aim 
in  these  annotations  is  to  throw  light  on  the  N.  Test,  by 
determining  the  sense  in  which  -words  and  phrases  were 
used  at  the  time  it  was  written,  and  among  those  with 
whom  its  writers  were  famihar.  For  this  purpose  he 
compares  the  language  of  the  N.  Test,  with  that  of  the 
Septuagint,  and  calls  in  aid'from  the  Chaldee  and  Syriac 
versions.  His  notes  are  characterized  by  sound  learn- 
ing and  great  good  sense.  Alberti  commends  in  strong 
terms  his  erudition,  his  candor,  solidity,  and  impartial- 
ity."— Kitto's  Bihlicul  Cijdop(ediu,  ii,  729. 

Kewley,  John,  D.D.,  a  Roman  Catholic  priest,  was 
by  birth  an  Englishman,  and  of  Roman  Catholic  parent- 
age. He  was  educated  at  St.  Omar's,  and  was  in  early 
hfe  a  Jesuit.  He  afterwards  renounced  the  doctrines 
and  communion  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  joined  "  Lady 
Huntingdon's  persuasion,"  preached  somewhat  among 
that  body  and  the  Methodists,  and,  coming  to  the  United 
States,  was  admitted  to  holy  orders  in  the  I'rotcstant 
Episcopal  Church  by  bishop  Claggett  (about  1804) ;  iii 
1809  became  rector  of  an  Episcopal  Church  in  Middle- 
town,  Conn.,  and  in  1813  of  the  parish  of  St.  George's, 
New  York,  where  he  continued  till  he  sailed  for  Europe 
in  1816.  He  afterwards  became  reconciled  to  the  Church 
of  Rome,  and  returned  to  his  original  ecclesiastical  con- 
nection, in  which  he  continued  till  his  death.  Kewley 
was  a  man  of  great  meekness  and  gentleness,  always  im- 
tiring  in  tlie  discharge  of  his  holy  functions,  and  fervent 
and  effective  in  his  preaching.  He  published  a  Sermon 
delivered  at  the  opening  of  the  Convention  of  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church  in  Marj-land  in  1806;  also  a 
sermon  entitled  Messiah  the  Physician  of  Souls,  preach- 
ed at  Middletown  and  Cheshire  in  1811.  See  Sprague, 
A  muds  of  the  A  merican  Pulpit,  v,  545.      (J.  L.  S.) 

Key  is  a  common  heraldic  bearing  in  the  insignia  of 
sees  and  religious  houses,  particularly  such  as  are  under 
the  patronage  of  St.  Peter.  Two  ke3-s  in  saltire  are  fre- 
quent, and  keys  are  sometimes  interlaced  or  linked  to- 
gether at  the  loics,  1.  c.  rings.  Keys  indorsed  are  placed 
side  by  side,  the  wards  away  from  each  other. 

Key  (HriS'5,  maphte'dch,  an  op)ener,  Judg.  iii,  25 ; 
Isa.  xxii,  22;  "opening,"  1  Chron.ix,  27  ;  (cXt/c,  from  its 
use  in  shutting.  Matt,  xvi,  19;  Luke  xi,  52;  Rev.  i,  18; 
iii,  7 ;  ix,  1 ;  xx,  1),  an  instrument  frequently  mentioned 
in  Scripture,  as  well  in  a  literal  as  in  a  figurative  sense. 
The  keys  of  the  ancients  were  very  different  from  ours, 
because  their  doors  and  trunks  were  generally  closed 
with  bands  or  bolts,  which  the  key  served  only  to  loosen 
or  fasten.  Chardin  saj-s  that  a  lock  in  the  East  is  like 
a  little  harrow,  which  enters  half  way  into  a  wooden 
staple,  and  that  the  key  is  a  wooden  handle,  with  points 
at  the  end  of  it,  which  are  pushed  into  the  staple,  and 
so  raise  this  little  harrow.  See  Lock.  Indeed,  early 
Oriental  locks  probably  consisted  merely  of  a  -wooden 
slide,  drawn  into  its  place  by  a  string,  and  fastened  there 
by  teeth  or  catches ;  the  key  being  a  bit  of  wood,  crook- 
ed like  a  sickle,  which  lifted  up  the  slide  and  extracted 
it  from  its  catches,  after  which  it  was  drawn  back  by 
the  string.  But  it  is  not  diflicidt  to  open  a  lock  of  this 
kind  even  without  a  key,  viz.  with  the  finger  dipped  in 
paste  or  other  adhesive  substance.  The  passage  Cant. 
V,  4,  5  is  thus  probably  explained  (Harmer,  Obs.  iii,  31 ; 
vol.  i,  394,  cd.  Clarke ;  Eauwolft",  ap.  Ray,  Irav.  ii,  17). 
Ancient  Egyptian  Ivcj-s  are  often  found  figured  on  the 
monuments.  The}'-  were  made  of  bronze  or  iron,  and 
consisted  of  a  straight  sliank,  about  five  inches  in  length, 


Iron  Key.    (From  Ancient  Thebes,  iu  Egypt.) 

with  three  or  more  projecting  teeth  ;  others  had  a  near- 
er resemblance  to  the  wards  of  modern  keys,  with  a  short 


KEY 


60 


KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE 


shank  about  an  inch  long ;  and  some  resembled  a  com- 
mon ring,  with  the  wards  at  its  back.  The  earliest 
mention  of  a  key  is  in  Judg.  iii,  '23-25,  where  Ehud  hav- 
ing gone  "through  the  porch  and  shut  tlie  doors  of  the 
parlor  upon  him,  and  locked  them,"  it  is  stated  that  Eg- 
lon's  "  servants  took  a  kei/  and  opened  them.'"  Among 
the  Assyrian  monuments  are  extant  traces  of  strong 
gates,  consisting  of  a  single  leaf,  which  was  fastened  by 
a  huge  modern  lock,  like  those  still  used  in  the  East,  of 
which  the  key  is  as  much  as  a  man  can  conveniently 
carry  (Isa.  xxii,  22),  and  also  by  a  bar  which  moved  into 
a  square  hole  in  the  wall.     See  Door. 

Tlie  term  key  is  frequently  used  in  Scripture  as  the 
symbol  of  goi'ernment,  poicer.  and  authority.  Even  in 
modern  times,  in  transferring  the  governinent  of  a  city, 
tlie  keys  of  the  gates  are  delivered  as  an  emblem  of  au- 
thority. In  some  parts  of  the  P^ast,  for  a  man  to  march 
along  with  a  large  key  upon  his  shoulder  at  once  pro- 
claims him  to  be  a  person  of -consequence.  The  size 
and  weight  of  these  oftentimes  require  them  to  be  thus 
carried  (Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  i,  493).  So  of  Christ 
it  is  said,  "  And  tlu  key  of  the  house  of  David  will  I  lay 
upon  his  shoidder ;  so  he  shall  open,  and  none  shall  shut ; 
and  he  shall  shut,  and  none  shall  open"  (Isa.  xxii,  22; 
Kev.  iii,  7).  He  also  has  the  "  keys  of  hell  and  of  death" 
(liev.  i,  18;  comp.  ix,  1;  xx,  1).  Our  Saviour  said  to 
I'eter,  as  the  representative  of  the  apostles  generally, 
upon  whom  collectively  the  same  prerogative  was  on 
another  occasion  conferred,  "And  I  ^vill  give  unto  thee 
the  keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven :  and  whatsoever 
thou  shalt  bind  on  earth  shall  be  bound  in  heaven ;  and 
^vliatsoever  thou  shalt  loose  on  earth  shall  be  loosed  in 
heaven"  (Matt,  xvi,  19;  xviii,  18) — that  is,  the  power 
of  preaching  the  Gospel  officially,  of  administering  the 
sacraments  as  a  steward  of  the  mysteries  of  God,  and 
as  a  faithful  servant,  whom  the  Lord  hath  set  over  his 
household.  This  general  authority  is  shared  in  common 
by  all  ministers  and  officers  in  the  Church.  The  grant 
doubtless  likewise  included  the  authority  to  establish 
rules  and  constitutional  orders  in  the  Church,  to  which 
Christ  himself  gave  no  special  ecclesiastical  form,  but 
left  it  to  be  organized  by  the  apostles  after  his  oivn  res- 
urrection. This  power,  too,  in  a  subordinate  degree,  is 
delegated  to  the  Church  of  later  times ;  for  it  is  notewor- 
tliy  that  even  the  apostles  have  not  delinitely  prescribed 
a'iiy  specilic  form  of  Church  polity,  and  this  is  therefore, 
in  a  great  measure,  left  to  the  discretion  of  each  body  of 
Christians.  Indeed,  the  settlement  of  the  cardinal  doc- 
trines of  Christianity,  as  a  basis  of  Church-membership 
and  ecclesiastical  discipline,  appears  to  be  the  only  ex- 
plicit clement  of  the  authority  conferred  in  these  pas- 
sages by  Christ  to  his  apostles — and  this  exclusively 
belonged  to  them,  inasmuch  as  their  office  was  not  trans- 
missible ;  so  that  the  canon  of  Scripture,  as  well  as  the 
essential  points  of  Church  constitution,  have  been  com- 
jilcted  by  them  for  all  time.  See  Succession.  As  to 
Peter  himself,  it  is  a  gratuitous  assumption  on  the  part 
of  Romanists  tliat  the  authority  was  conferred  upon  him 
personally  above  his  fellow-disciiiles,  since  in  the  other 
passage  the  general  "ye"  is  used  in  plaCe  of  the  individ- 
ual "  thou."  It  is  true,  however,  that  as  Peter  was  here 
addressed  as  the  foreman,  so  to  speak,  of  the  apostolical 
college,  he  was  eventually  honored  as  the  instrument  of 
the  introiluction  of  the  first  Gentile  as  well  as  Christian 
nu'mljcrs  into  the  Church  (sec  Acts  ii,  xl.  a  fact  to  which 
Peter  himself  alludes  in  a  very  unassuming  way  (Acts 
XV,  7 ).  The  association  of  this  authority  wit  h  the  power 
of  absolution  is  another  unauthorized  gloss  of  the  Koman 
Catholic  Church;  for  the  passage  in  which  this  is  con- 
ferred (John  XX,  23,  "  Whosesoever  sins  ye  remit,  they 
are  remitted  unto  them;  and  whosesoever  sins  ve  re- 
tain, tliey  arc  retained")  stanils  in  a  very  different  con- 
nection, and  is  evidently  to  l)e  i+itcr])reted  of, the  exclu- 
sively apostolical  right  to  jtronouuce  upon  the  religious 
state  of  those  to  whom,  by  the  imposition  of  hands,  they 
imparted  the  peculiar  miraculous  gifts  of  the  primitive 
age  (see  Acts  viii,  li-17;  xix,  0).     In  accordance  with 


the  above  analogies,  the  "key  of  knowledge"  is  the 
means  of  attaining  to  true  knowledge  in  respect  to  the 
kingdom  of  God  (Luke  xi,  25;  comp.  Matt,  xxiii,  13; 
Luke  xxiv,  32).  It  is  said  that  authority  to  explain 
the  law  and  the  prophets  was  given  among  the  Jews 
by  the  delivery  of  a  key..  See  Bind.  The  Kabbins  say 
that  God  has  reserved  to  himself  four  keys— the  key  of 
rain,  the  key  of  the  grave,  the  key  of  fruitfulness,  and 
the  key  of  barrenness.     See  Keys,  Poweh  of  the. 

Keyes,  Josiaii,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  was 
born  at  Canajoharie,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  30, 1799;  converted  at 
the  age  of  twelve;  entered  the  Genesee  Conference  in 
1820 ;  in  1831-34  was  presiding  elder  on  Black  Kivcr 
•District,  and  in  1835  on  Cayuga  District,  where  he  died 
April  22, 1836.  j\Ir.  Keyes  possessed  a  grasping  intellect 
and  great  application.  AVithout  regular  instruction,  he 
acquired  "  a  respectable  knowledge  of  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Hebrew,  and  as  a  general  scholar,  a  theologian,  and  a 
preacher,  he  stood  eminent  among  the  ^Methodist  minis- 
try of  the  day.  He  was  a  very  useful  man,  a  sincere 
Christian,  and  main-  souls  were  converted  through  his 
labors." — Minutes ofConf€r€nces.\\,A\2\  Geo. Peck,D.D., 
Early  Methodism  (N.  Y.  1860, 1 2mo) ,  p.  473.     (( i.  L.  T.) 

Keys,  John,  a  Presbyterian  minister  of  English  de- 
scent, was  born  at  AVilton,  N.  II.,  in  1778.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Dartmouth  College,  Hanover,  N.  H.,  in  1803,  and 
afterwards  taught  school  for  several  years.  He  studied 
theology  at  INIorristown,  N.  J.,  under  James  Eichards, 
D.D. ;  was  licensed  in  1805,  and  in  1807  ordained  by  the 
New  York  Presbytery  at  Orangedale,  N.  J.,  and  in  1808 
installed  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Sand  Lake,  near  Al- 
bany, N.  Y.  In  1814  he  accepted  a  call  from  the  Congre- 
gational Church  of  Wolcott,  Conn. ;  in  1824  removed  to 
Tallmadge,  Ohio,  as  pastor  of  a  Congregational  Church, 
and  afterwards  preached  successively  at  Dover,  New- 
burg,  Ohio;  at  Peoria,  111. ;  at  St.  Louis,  Mo. ;  and  at  Ce- 
dar Kapids  and  Elkader,  Iowa.  At  last  he  returned  to 
Dover,  Ohio,  where  he  died  January  27, 1867.  Mr.  Keys 
was  an  industrious  student.  As  a  preacher  he  took  the 
greatest  delight  in  his  work;  as  a  Christian  he  had 
great  faith  in  the  jiower  of  special  prayer.  See  "Wilson, 
Presh.  Historical  A  Imanac,  1868,  p.  216.     (J.  L.  S.) 

Keys,  Power  of  the,  a  term  which  in  a  general 
sense  denotes  the  extent  of  ecclesiastical  power,  or,  in  a 
narrower  sense,  the  right  to  authorize  or  prohibit  abso- 
lution ;  and  it  is  upon  the  interpretation  in  the  one  sense 
or  the  other  that  the  Protestant  and  Romish  churches 
differ  from  each  other.  "We  base  this  article,  in  the 
main,  upon  that  in  Herzog,  lieal-Encyklop.  xiii,  579  sq. 

I.  New-Testament  Doctrine. — The  expression  ririE"? 
TlTTi^a,  or  "  key  of  the  house  of  David"  (Isa.  xxii,  22), 
denotes  the  power  which  was  given  to  the  king's  officer 
over  the  royal  household.  In  literal  symbolism.  K\t'i^ 
Aaind  (Rev.  iii,  7)  denotes  the  authority  which  Christ 
as  King  exercises  over  his  realm  with  special  regard  to 
his  right  of  admission  or  dismission.  When  Jesus  (^latt. 
xvi,  19)  solemnly  intrusted  to  I'eter,  as  a  representative 
of  the  apostles,  the  keys  of  the  heavenly  kingdom,  lie 
invested  him  by  that  act  simply. with  his  apostolical 
station,  which  involves  the  founding  of  the  Christian 
Church  by  the  preaching  of  the  forgiveness  of  sin  (Luke 
xxiv,  47)  and  tlie  establishment  of  the  Gospel  doctrine 
(JIatt.  XX,  19).  In  this  sense  the  commission  (John  xx, 
23)  to  the  other  eleven  apostles  must  likewise  be  inter- 
jvreted,  for  we  have  no  reason  to  believe  that  the  ajios- 
tles  ever  exercised  the  authority,  as  Jesus  did,  of  reliev- 
ing the  sinner  of  his  guilt ;  and  yet,  even  if  proofs  could 
be  adduced  to  show  that  the  apostles  did  exercise  such 
authority,  all  evidence  that  such  authority  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Church  after  the  apostolic  age  is  surely 
wanting.  Besides,  it  is  proper  to  make  a  distinction  be- 
tween the  power  of  the  keys  claimed  for  Peter  as  an  ex- 
pression of  apostolical  authority,  and  the  power  "  to  bind 
and  to  loose"  which  Jesus  (Matt,  xvi,  19)  also  conferred 
not  only  upon  his  other  apostles,  but  upon  the  whole 
Church  (Matt,  xviii,  18).    Both  expressions,  to  bind  and 


KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE 


CI 


KEYS,  POAVER  OF  THE 


to  loose,  which  in  New-Testament  usage  do  not  require 
a  personal,  but  an  impersonal  object,  mean,  according  to 
Kabinnical  language,  to  permit  and  io  forbid,  to  confirm 
and  to  revoke  (see  Lightloot,  ad  loc.  Matt.,  and  corap.  the 
art.  Bind)  ;  and  in  the  N.-T.  passages  quoted  they  can 
refer  only  to  the  sphere  of  Christian  social  life.  Against 
the  opinion  of  the  later  Church,  that  Paul  (1  Cor.  v,  3-5) 
made  use  of  the  apostolic  authority  to  forgive  and  to 
retain  sins,  Eitschl  (.4  It-Kathol.  Kirche,  2d  edit.,  p.  337 
sq.)  argues  that  in  this  passage  onl}'  a  disciplinary  reg- 
ulation is  referred  to ;  that  Paul  conceded  to  the  Church 
the  right  of  discipline,  and  only  exercised  authority 
when  he  supposed  himself  to  act  in  harmony  with  the 
wish  of  the  Church ;  and  that,  if  the  apostle  (2  Cor.  ii, 
G-10)  held  a  contrarj^  doctrine,  he  would  be  subject  to  the 
charge  of  simulation.  The  apostolical  writings,  more- 
over, do  not  allude  to  any  other  agency  in  the  Church 
for  the  remission  of  sins  than  that  spoken  of  by  Paul 
himself,  2  Cor.v,  18  sq.,  namely,  reconciliation  by  Christ 
and  the  prayers  of  believers  (1  John  v,  IG;  James  v,  10). 

II.  Doctrine  of  the  Patristic  Period. — The  misconcep- 
tion of  the  meaning  of  the  power  to  hind  and  to  loose  was 
early  manifested  in  the  Chiu"ch.  The  Jewish-Christian 
Clementine  Homilies,  it  is  true,  stiE.  evince  a  knowledge 
of  the  original  signification  of  the  words  to  hind  and  to 
loose,  inasmuch  as  they  stQl  supply — in  the  N.-T.  sense 
— simply  an  impersonal  object;  but,withal,  they  have  so 
far  enlarged  iqion  the  meaning  of  the  expression  as  to 
find  comprehended  in  tlie  power  to  which  it  alludes  all 
privileges  of  the  episcopal  ofrice  as  a  continuation  of  the 
apostolical  office  (iii,  72).  Quite  the  opposite  was  held 
in  the  Gentile-Christian  Church  of  the  2d  centurj-.  It 
interjireted  the  power  "  to  bind  and  to  loose"  as  author- 
ity to  retain  and  to  forgive  sin,  and  supplied  the  two 
verbs  with  personal  objects;  yet  regarded— in  the  sp^it 
of  the  apostolic  Church — as  the  authorities  vested  with 
the  power  to  bind  and  to  loose,  the  society  (Church),  and 
not  the  bishop. 

In  so  far  as  from  a  heathen-Christian  stand-point  the 
power  of  the  "  keys"  v:as  identified  with  the  power  "  to 
bind  and  to  loose,"  the  f<irmer  was  held  to  express  in  one 
conception  both  the  latter  acts,  viz.  excommunication 
and  readmittance  to  the  Church;  but  as  the  keys  of 
Peter  were  taken  also  to  comprehend  all  rights  of  Church 
government,  and  especially  of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction, 
we  need  not  wonder  that  among  the  Church  fathers  of 
the  patristic  period  all  these  different  views  were  some- 
what mixed  (comp.  Tcrtullian,  De  Pudic.  21 ;  Cj'prian, 
iJe  unit,  eccles.  cap.  4).  It  was  in  the  period  of  scholas- 
ticism that  a  really  strict  distinction  was  aimed  at,  and 
yet  to  this  day  Koman  Catholics  have  failed  to  recog- 
nise generally  this  discrimination. 

The  whole  Church  was  at  first  regarded  as  bearers  of 
the  keys,  i.  e.  of  the  power  to  Mud  and  to  loose,  evidently 
because  Christ  works  and  has  his  abode  there.  (For 
this  reason,  also,  the  martyrs  were  accorded  the  position 
of  "prrecipua  ecclesia;  membra,"  in  whom  Christ  is  active 
for  his  own  glorification.  Comp.  Eusebius,  v,  2,  5 ;  Ter- 
tuUian,  T)e  Pudic. ;  Idem,  Apolor/.  39). 

The  first  decided  change  of  view  is  found  among  the 
Montanists.  TertuUian  (in  his  De  Pudicitia)  limits  the 
promise  of  ^Matt.  xvi,  18  sq.  simply  to  the  person  of  Pe- 
ter as  the  apostolical  founder  of  the  Church ;  the  power 
to  forgive  sin  he  regards  as  the  right  of  the  Church  in 
so  far  as  she  is  identical  with  the  Holy  (ihost.  The 
bearer  of  this  right  he  holds  to  be  the  spiritual  man 
(spiritualis  homo),  but  that  the  latter,  in  the  interests 
of  the  Church,  abstains  from  exercising  this  prerogative. 
His  opponent,  the  Koman  bishop,  however,  interpreted 
it  in  favor  of  all  the  bishops  (bishopric  =  numcrus  epis- 
coporum,  chap.  xxi).  This  thought  Cj-prian  enlarged 
upon  ^^-ith  a  free  use  of  the  Montanistic  thesis,  holding 
that  the  episcopate  is  the  inheritor  (heir)  of  the  aj^os- 
tolic  power,  the  seat  and  the  organ  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
and  therefore  possessed  of  power  to  hind  or  to  loose  of  its 
own  accord.  Of  course,  from  such  a  stand-point.  Cyprian 
was  forced  to  reject  as  presumption  the  claim  of  the 


martjTS  to  the  power  of  the  keys ;  he  only  conceded  to 
them  the  right  of  intercession  for  the  fallen.  To  prove 
the  ideal  unity  of  the  Church,  Cyprian  advances  the  ar- 
gument that  the  power  of  the  ke3'S  was  first  intrusted 
by  Christ  to  Peter,  and  only  afterwards  to  the  other 
apostles  {De  unit,  eccles,  cap.  iv).  In  the  writings  of 
Optatus  Milevitanus  this  thought  takes  the  form  that 
Christ  intrusted  the  keys  to  Peter,  and  that  Peter  him- 
self surrendered  them  to  the  other  apostles.  The  power 
of  the  keys  in  this  sense  evidently  denotes  the  episcopal 
power  in  aU  its  extent,  i.  e.  the  ecclesiastical  govern- 
ment. AMth  Cyprian,  to  bind  and  to  loose  already  means 
to  retain  or  forgive  sins  forever,  yet  he  only  uses  these 
expressions  when  speaking  of  the  forgiveness  of  sins  by 
baptism  (e.  g.  Epist.  73,  c.  7).  Later,  however,  they  are 
used  in  a  narrower  sense,  and  refer  to  great  sins  com- 
mitted after  baptism ;  in  short,  they  denote  the  right  of 
exercising  penance-discipline,  a  power  in  principle  con- 
ceded to  the  bishop,  but  which  actually  he  was  permit- 
ted to  exercise  only  in  union  with  aU  his  clergy.  Not 
all  sins  committed  after  baptism  were  subject  to  the 
power  of  the  keys,  only  the  greater  ones,  as  Augustine 
has  it, "  committed  against  the  Decalogue"  (Serm.  351,  i, 
"De  poenit."  c.  4).  This  declaration,  however,  is  to  be 
taken  with  the  exception  of  all  inward  sins,  i.  e.  tress- 
passes against  the  ninth  and  tenth  commandments; 
moreover,  in  the  older  practice,  onl}-  the  different  species 
of  idolatry,  murder,  and  unchastity  were  punished  by 
ecclesiastical  courts.  It  is  incorrect  to  argue,  as  has 
been  done  on  the  part  of  Protestants,  that  only  the  pub- 
lic sins — those  which  caused  trouble  to  the  Church,  were 
taken  account  of  by  the  Church.  As  to  the  sins  alluded 
to  above,  whether  committed  in  secret  or  publicly,  it 
was  supposed  that  they  did  injurj'  to  the  gifts  of  regen- 
eration, and  entangled  the  soul  in  the  meshes  of  spirit- 
ual death  ;  they  were  therefore  called  pecccita  (delicta  or 
crimina)  moi-talia,  also  cajntcdia ;  the  others  were  regard- 
ed as  simply  daily  experiences  of  the  remains  cf  weak- 
ness cleaving  to  the  believer,  of  which  it  seems  almost 
impossible  to  be  rid  in  this  life.  For  the  former  only 
the  power  of  the  keys  and  the  exercise  of  penance  were 
regarded  as  in  force ;  the  latter,  on  the  other  hand,  were 
supposed  to  be  atoned  for  by  the  daily  penance  of  a  be- 
lieving heart,  by  the  fifth  request  in  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
by  oblation  and  the  eucharist,  etc.  They  were  called 
iieccata  renialia. 

Actually  the  power  of  the  keys  was  exercised  by  the 
whole  clerical  body,  under  the  presidency  of  the  bishop. 
In  formal  inquisitorial  proceedings,  the  fact  of  the  com- 
mission of  a  mortal  sin  was  determined  either  by  the 
voluntary  confession  of  the  perpetrator  or  by  indictment 
and  hearing  of  witnesses,  followed,  in  case  of  established 
guilt,  by  the  declaration  of  excommunication  ;  but  the 
excommunicated  retained  the  privilege  of  praying  for 
admission  to  the  exercise  of  penance  in  the  Church. 
This  last,  in  early  days,  was  in  all  cases  public,  especially 
after  the  time  of  Augustine,  at  least  in  cases  of  public 
crime;  but  after  the  beginning  of  the  4th  centurj'  it 
was  regiUated  by  steps  corresponding  to  catcchumcnical 
grades.  Upon  the  expiration  of  tlie  term  of  penance,  the 
length  of  which,  in  the  early  Church,  was  discretionarj- 
v.-ith  the  bishop,  but  in  later  times  was  determined  by 
ecclesiastical  laws,  the  excommunicated  was  again  re- 
ceived into  Church  membership.  This  act,  which  was 
consummated  by  imposition  of  hands,  prayer,  and  the 
kiss  of  peace  hv  the  bishop,  with  the  assistance  of  the 
clergy  before  tlie  altar  (ante  apsidem),  in  presence  of 
the  membership  of  the  Church,  was  called  reconciliation, 
or  the  bestowal  of  peace  (pacem  dare).  Penitent  souls, 
however,  in  danger  of  immediate  death,  coidd  be  recon- 
ciled even  before  the  expiration  of  their  period  of  pen- 
ance, in  presence  of  the  bishop,  by  any  presbyter,  or,  if 
such  a  one  was  not  accessible,  even  bj^  a  deacon  (Cyp- 
rian, Epist.  xviii,  1 ;  Cone.  Eliberit.  can.  32) ;  a  practice 
which  we  find  even  as  late  as  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
which  clearly  proves  that  in  the  early  Churcli  reconcil- 
iation was  more  an  act  of  jurisdiction  than  of  order. 


KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE 


62 


KEYS,  POWEll  OF  THE 


In  the  earliest  days  of  the  Church,  the  exercise  of  its 
prerogative  of  the  ])ower  '•  to  loose,"  in  reconciliation, 
coincided  completely  witli  (ihsolution,  except  that  to  this 
term  there  was  not  fciven  the  meaning  which  it  re- 
ceived in  tlie  Middle  Ages.  Above  all,  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  tliat  the  Church  fathers  did  not  place  the 
atoning  power  in  the  reconciling  activity  of  the  Church, 
but  in  the  activitj'  of  the  penitent  himself;  from  the 
Church  the  penitent  received  only  instruction  how  to 
heal  the  wound  he  had  created  by  sin :  hence  they  fre- 
quently designated  penance  as  the  medicine,  and  the 
clerus  imposing  it  as  the  physician ;  he  (the  penitent) 
was  to  repair  himself  from  his  crime  by  his  good  -works, 
anil  merit  the  divine  forgiveness.  Thus  must  be  un- 
derstood Cyprian's  frequent  demand  of  "justa  pceniten- 
tia,"  which  consists  in  the  congruity  of  the  guilt  with 
the  penance  offered  as  reparation.  That  God  alone  ab- 
solved from  sin  was  the  accepted  axiom  of  the  early 
Church.  Yet  the  Church  hesitated  not  to  consider  it- 
self one  of  the  means  of  grace,  competent  to  assist  in 
the  work  of  salvation,  acting  upon  the  theory  laid  down 
by  Cyprian:  "Extra  ecclesiam  nulla  salus."  So  long 
as  the  mortally  sinning  one  saw  himself  inwardl}'  and 
outwardly  separated  from  the  Church,  the  absolute  way 
to  salvation,  divine  forgiveness,  seemed  to  him  inacces- 
sible ;  there  was  no  need  of  judgment  by  the  courts,  he 
was  already  judged.  If  the  Church  again  admitted 
him  to,  membership  among  the  purified,  he  was  not  nec- 
essarily among  the  number  of  the  saved,  but  he  had  at 
least  the  prospect  of  salvation ;  he  now  belonged  to  the 
number  of  those  over  whom  the  Lord  on  the  final  day 
woidd  sit  in  judgment,  from  whom  he  would  select  his 
own.  Upon  this  point  Cyprian  (Ep.  Iv,  15, 24)  and  Pa- 
cian  {Epkl.  ad  Si/mpron.  in  tine)  are  very  clear.  As  the 
absolving  judgment  of  the  Church  thus  becomes  rather 
luicertain,  depending  upon  approval  or  rejection  in  the 
final  judgment,  there  was  need  of  further  elucidation. 
Reconciliation  was  therefore  joined  with  prayer  by  a 
petition  that  God  would  forgive  the  penitent  his  sins, 
accept  as  sufficient  his  repentance,  which  of  course  could 
only  afford  a  limited  satisfaction  for  the  committed  of- 
fence, and  restore  to  him  the  lost  sjiiritual  gifts.  For 
tliis  reason  the  act  was  accompanied  by  the  imposition 
of  hands ;  compare  Augustine,  Be  Baptism,  iii,  c.  IG,  who 
says  of  this  ceremony  that  it  is  "  oratio  super  hominem," 
i.  e.  the  sj-mbolic  pledge  that  the  answer  of  prayer 
should  benefit  the  penitent,  and  that  with  it  was  be- 
stowed the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  In  this  sense  Cyp- 
rian speaks  of  a  "remissio  facta  per  sacerdotes  apud 
Dominum  grata" — for  he  knows  only  a  forgiving  activ- 
ity of  God;  and  with  him  all  alisolving  action  of  the 
("nurch  confines  itself  to  the  restitution  of  external  com- 
munion, and  the  prayerful  intercession  of  the  Church, 
viz.  of  tlie  priests,  martyrs,  and  believers.  However 
greatly  I'acian  and  Ambrosius  may  differ  in  their  de- 
fence against  the  Novatians  on  the  right  of  the  priest 
to  absolve  from  sin,  they  never  claimed  for  the  priest 
more  than  the  power  of  intercession — a  privilege  which 
they  believed  lie  held  in  common  with  the  congregation. 

It  is  in  the  Augustinian  period  that  wo  first  discover 
an  endeavor  to  delinc  the  jjiace  of  the  priest  in  the  ex- 
ercise of  the  power  of  the  keys.  The  older  fathers,  Cyp- 
rian and  Amlirose,  had  limited  the  effect  of  mortal  sins 
by  holding  that  they  infiicted  a  mortal  wound  upon  the 
fallen— calling  to  mind  the  man  who,  on  his  way  from 
.leni-iakMn  to  .lericho.  fell  among  murderers;  and  so  ec- 
cli'siastical  penance  was  regarded  simjily  as  a  remedy 
for  the  atHicted.  In  the  Augustinian  jieriod,  however. 
sin  was  held  to  be  a  deatli-intlicting  agent,  implying 
that  the  fallen  was  dead,  and  had  to  be  restored  to  life. 
But,  as  the  Church  did  not  possess  this  power,  a  change 
of  heart  was  supjjosed  to  precede  the  exercise  of  the 
p  )W('r  of  the  keys — in  slKtrt,  th'at  a  divine  intluence  vis- 
it ;'d  the  heart  before  any  human  agency  could  be  effec- 
tually applied.  Augustine,  in  several  passages  of  his 
v.-ritings  ( e.  g.  Traci  22  in  Ei:  Joh. ;  Tract.  40,  No.  24") 
finds  the  process  exemplified  in  the  resurrection  of  Laz- 


arus :  the  siimer,  like  Lazarus,  is  dead,  and,  so  to  speak, 
rests  spellbound  in  the  grave ;  Mercy  awakens  him,  and 
restores  him  to  life  by  w<junding  him  inwardly,  and, 
amid  great  pain,  brings  him  to  a  consciousness  of  his 
offences ;  upon  Slercy's  call  he  arises,  like  Lazarus,  from 
the  grave,  and  comes  to  light,  bowed  down  by  his  guilt, 
and,  with  an  acknowledgment  to  the  bishop,  seeks  the 
means  of  salvation  in  the  jiractice  of  penance ;  he  is  at 
last  freed  by  the  activity  of  the  priests,  as  Lazarus  was 
freed  by  the  disciples.  This  picture  we  find,  from  this 
time  forward,  in  most  representations  of  the  penance- 
process,  down  to  the  Middle  Ages;  and  especially  did 
the  Yictorinians  form  their  conception  of  absolution 
upon  it.  If  in  this  picture  the  act  of  loosing  can  only 
designate  the  united  action  of  the  Church  on  the  fallen, 
viz.  the  imposition  of  penance,  intercession,  the  removal 
of  excommunication,  and  the  admission  to  the  means 
of  grace,  it  would  seem  that  in  other  places  Augustine 
holds  that  the  forgiveness  of  sin  is  to  be  mediated  by 
the  Church ;  yet  even  here  he  does  not  speak  of  the 
Church  as  a  professed  institution  of  mercy,  but  rather 
the  community  of  saints,  or  of  the  predestined,  by  whom 
the  Spirit  of  God  performs  its  work.  Thus  lie  says 
{Serm.  99,  cap.  9) :  "  The  Spirit  forgives,  not  the  Church ; 
this  Spirit  is  God.  God  dwells  in  his  temple,  i.  e.  in  his 
saintly  believers,  in  his  -C'hurch,  and  he  forgives  sin  by 
this  agency,  because  it  is  the  living  temple."  But  even 
this  forgiveness  is  considered  only  as  the  fruit  of  pray- 
ers pleasing  to  God,  and  therefore  answered  by  him. 
While,  therefore,  Augustine  traces  forgiveness  in  recon- 
ciliation mainly  to  the  prayerful  intercession  of  the 
faithful,  Leo  the  Great  argues  that  the  priests  alone  are 
specific  intercessors  for  the  fallen,  and  that  without  their 
intercession  forgiveness  cannot  bo  secured  (''nt  indid- 
gentia  nisi  supidicationibus  sacerdotura  nequeat  obtiiie- 
ri").  He  bases  this  exclusive  intercession  prerogative 
of  the  priests  upon  the  fact  that  the  Saviour,  according 
to  his  promise  (Matt,  xxviii,  29),  which  Leo  refers  sim- 
ply to  the  clerus,  always  assists  the  action  of  his  priests, 
I  and  that  he  makes  them  the  channel  of  his  spiritual 
gifts  (£>).  82,  al.  108 ;  ad  Theod.  cap.  2).  It  is  thus  that 
the  Catholic  notion  of  the  clerical  priesthood,  which, 
independent  of  the  laity,  communicates  God's  mercy, 
and  regards  this  mediatorship  as  essential,  has  taken 
definite  shape;  and  what  has  been  added  in  later  times 
is  simply  a  more  complete  or  perfect  development  of  the 
idea  as  it  originated  with  Leo.  But  even  he  does  not 
make  the  assertion  that  the  priest,  instead  of  being  a 
mediator  by  prayer  for  forgiveness,  has  himself  the  au- 
thority, by  virtue  of  his  office,  to  absolve  from  sin. 

We  do  not  possess  an  absolution-fonnula  of  the  first 
ages  of  the  Church,  but  we  have  every  reason  to  sup- 
pose, upon  the  premises  stated,  that  it  could  only  have 
been  deprecative.  Augustine  even  denounced  the  ex- 
pression "  I  forgive  thj^  sins,"  of  the  Donatists,  as  heret- 
ical {Serm.  99,  c.  7-9).  If,  in  our  last  allusion  to  the 
reconciliation  of  the  siimer  by  means  of  prayerful  inter- 
cession, the  priest  alone  seemed  to  be  entitled  to  be  dep- 
recator,  we  find  a  very  different  view  was  entertained 
by  other  Church  fathers.  In  accordance  with  Lev.  xiv, 
2,  Jerome  says  that  the  priests  cannot  make  the  leper 
clean,  nor  the  reverse;  they  can  simply  distinguish  be- 
tween the  clean  and  the  unclean  (Comm.  in  J\I nit .  lib. 
iii).  Not  understanding,  therefore,  JNIatt.  xvi,  19  to  con- 
cede to  the  bishops  and  the  elders  any  other  power,  it 
follows  that  he  concedes  to  the  ecclesiastical  office  sim- 
ply the  authority  of  distinction,  i.  e.  the  judicial  |iower 
of  pronouncing  those  as  loosed  who  by  the  mercy  of  God 
had  l)een  inwardly  loosed,  and  those  as  bound  who  have 
not  yet  been  loosed  by  God's  mercy — a  judicial  decision 
whose  validity  is  essentially  confine<l  to  the  forum  of 
the  Church,  and  dues  not  extend  to  the  forum  of  God. 
Just  so  says  (iregory  the  (ireat  {Horn.  2(),  in  Ev.  No.  6), 
'•  It  must  be  determined  what  guilt  has  preceded  and 
what  penitence  has  followed  guilt  in  order  that  the 
shepherd  may  loose  those  whom  the  Lord  in  his  mercy 
visits  with  a  sense  of  repentance.     Only  when  the  judg- 


KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE 


63 


KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE 


ment  of  the  inner  judge  is  obeyed  can  the  action  of  the 
officer  to  loose  be  a  correct  and  real  one."  Adding,  as 
he  does,  like  Augustine,  the  narrative  of  the  resurrection 
of  Lazarus,  it  is  evident  that  Gregory  did  not  consider 
the  bishop's  action  in  mortal  sins  as  anything  more  than 
constituting  a  recognition  of  the  inner  condition  of  the 
sinner ;  those  into  whose  heart  God  has  breathed  the 
spirit  of  life  the  ecclesiastical  judge  is  to  pronounce  as 
loosed,  those  yet  spiritually  dead  as  bound. 

As  in  the  early  Church  great  penitence  was  conceded 
only  once,  so  reconciUation  by  the  Church  was  not  re- 
peated a  second  time.  In  the  writings  of  Sozomen  (lib. 
vii,  1<3)  we  first  find  a  witness  ft)r  the  principle  of  ad- 
mitting also  backsliders  to  penance  and  reconciliation. 
This  change  of  practice  was  a  necessary  consequence  of 
the  enactment  of  penitential  laws  which  extended  the 
use  of  the  term  mortal  sin  also  to  such  offences  as  had 
formerly  been  considered  simply  venial. 

III.  Doctrine  of  the  Middle  Ar/es  and  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church. — The  ancient  Church  classified  her  mem- 
bers into  three  sections — the  faithful,  the  catechumens, 
and  the  penitent.  The  power  of  the  keys  was  exercised 
upon  the  last,  and  in  a  certain  sense  also  upon  the  sec- 
ond class :  these  two  only  were  in  any  need  of  reconcil- 
iation or  absolution  by  the  Church.  There  is  not  the 
slightest  evidence  or  reason  to  believe  that  the  faithful 
were  obliged  to  make  confession  of  sins  to  the  priest, 
even  before  communion.  On  the  other  hand,  we  find, 
after  the  beginning  of  the  Middle  Ages,  a  tendency 
among  the  newly-converted  Germanic  nations  to  en- 
large the  practice  of  penance  into  a  general  institution 
in  the  Church,  and  to  make  the  power  of  the  keys, 
which  concerned  the  penitent  alone,  a  general  court  of 
appeal  and  of  mercy  for  all  the  faithful.  This  was  done 
first  by  subjecting  also  mental  sins  to  the  power  of  the 
keys,  wliile  in  the  earlier  Church  such  a  thing  had  nev- 
er been  dreamed  of.  The  origin  of  this  innovation  has 
been  demonstrated  with  full  evidence  by  Wasserschle- 
ben  {Bvssordmwff  d.  abendldndischen  Kirche,  p.  108  sq.). 
Monachism  was  the  exercise  of  penance  for  all  life.  In 
the  monastery  it  was  early  considered  an  act  of  asceti- 
cism to  disclose  to  the  brethren  the  most  secret  mani- 
festations of  sin.  In  the  old  British  and  Irish  Church 
education  was  directed  especially  to  the  order  and  in- 
terests of  practical  Church  life ;  morals  and  discipline 
were  generally  regulated  by  monastic  rule,  which  thus 
penetrated  society  at  large,  and  more  or  less  influenced 
all  civil  legislation.  As  early  as  the  penance-canons  of 
Vinniaus,  who  flourished  towards  tlio  end  of  the  5th 
century,  the  order  is  given  that  mental  sins,  even  though 
prevented  from  execution,  should  be  atoned  for  by  ab- 
stinence from  meat  and  wine  for  the  period  of  twelve 
months.  The  Anglo-Saxon  Pa-nifentiale,  which  bears 
the  name  of  Theodore  of  Canterbury,  prescribes  for  lusts 
of  fornication  twenty  to  forty  days'  abstinence.  The 
rules  of  penance  of  the  Irish  monk  Columban  (died  A. 
D.  G15)  imported  these  regulations  to  the  Continent, 
and  ordered  that  all  sinful  lusts  of  the  mind  should  be 
atoned  for  by  penance  with  bread  and  water  from  forty 
days  to  six  months  (compare  Wasserschleben,  Bussord- 
minfi,  p.  108, 100, 185,353).  In  the  5th  century  the  semi- 
Pelagian  John  Cassian,  of  Marseilles,  established  eight 
principal  or  radical  sins  (vitia  principalia),  from  which 
spring  the  actual  sins,  namely,  intemperance,  licentious- 
ness, avaricionsness,  anger,  sadness,  bitterness,  vanity, 
pride  (CoW.  S.  S.  Patritm  V,  "  de  octo  principalibus  vi- 
tiis'').  In  the  instructions  of  Columban  {Biblioth.Patr. 
maxim,  xii,  23)  they  are  mentioned  under  the  name  of 
"  crimina  capitalia,"  by  which  the  early  Church  desig- 
nated simplj'  those  actual  mortal  sins  that  were  subject 
to  public  penitence,  and  under  this  name  they  were  in- 
troduced into  several  Anglo-Saxon  and  Frankish  pen- 
ance-regulations. The  Synod  of  Chalons,  in  the  j'ear 
813,  directs  the  priest,  in  canon  32,  to  pay  special  regard 
to  the  principal  sins  of  the  confessors,  a  commendation 
which  Alcuiu  already  made  in  his  De  dicinis  officiis,  cap. 
13.     From  these  eight  radical  sins  the  seven  death-sins 


of  scholasticism  were  developed.  In  these  regulations 
of  penance  we  find  also  already  penance  reflemptions,  so 
important  to  the  historj'  of  absolution,  which  originated 
simply  by  a  transfer  of  the  old  Germanic  composition 
system  to  ecclesiastical  life. 

The  extension  of  the  power  to  bind  and  to  loose  over 
aU  Christians  was  a  necessary  consequence  of  such  in- 
fluences as  those  just  alluded  to.  In  the  instructions 
for  penance  of  the  abbot  Othman,  of  St.  Gall  (died  A.D. 
761),  we  have  the  principle  laid  down  that  without  con- 
fession there  is  no  forgiveness  of  sin.  In  Columban's 
book  of  confession  (can.  30),  on  the  borders  of  the  Gth 
and  7th  centuries,  it  is  ordered  that  before  every  com- 
munion there  should  be  confession,  especially  of  mental 
excitements.  According  to  Regino  of  Prum  (died  915) 
{De  discipl.  eccles.  ii,  2),  every  person  ought  to  confess 
at  least  once  a  year.  The  first  provincial  synod  which 
makes  confession  a  general  obligation  is  that  of  Aenham, 
A.D.  1109  (canon  20,  in  two  very  var\'ing  recensions). 
Innocent  III  is  really  the  originator  of  the  general  pen- 
ance law  [see  Penance],  and  thus  likewise  of  the  reg- 
idar  periodical  exercise  of  the  power  of  the  keys  over  all 
Christians.  His  regulation  had  no  doubt  the  intention 
of  staying,  by  ecclesiastical  shackles  on  the  conscience, 
a  spreading  heresy,  as  seems  evinced  by  the  similarity 
of  canon  29  of  the  fourth  Lateran  synod  with  the  twelfth 
canon  of  the  celebrated  Synod  of  Toulouse  in  1229. 

Notwithstanding  the  opposition  which  manifested 
itself  in  the  Prankish  realm  against  the  penitential 
books  and  those  of  its  rules  not  corresponding  to  the 
regulations  of  the  older  canons,  its  principles  took  effec- 
tual hold,  and  caused  a  decided  revolution  in  the  prac- 
tice of  penance  and  reconciliation.  Even  though,  after 
the  4th  century,  by  the  side  of  the  public  penance,  pri- 
vate penance  for  secret  offences  had  been  practiced,  rec- 
onciliation had  remained  public ;  now  a  distinction  was 
made  between  public  and  private  penance;  the  latter 
was  inflicted  on  voluntary  confession,  the  former  for  of- 
fences publicly  proved  against  the  perpetrator ;  and  for 
great  crimes,  such  as  murder,  pidjlic  penance  was  fol- 
lowed by  public  reconciliation,  which  was  gradually 
called  absolution.  But  as,  moreover,  the  extension  and 
enlargement  of  the  practice  of  penance  and  confession 
greatly  increased  the  confessional  business,  the  imposi- 
tion of  public  penance,  and  the  grant  of  a  corresponding 
reconciliation,  remained  the  prerogative  of  the  bishop, 
while  private  confession  and  private  absolution  fell  to 
the  presbyter,  who,  however,  exercised  the  right  to  for- 
give sin  merely  as  the  bishop's  delegate.  In  the  early 
Church  reconciliation  was  granted  only  upon  the  expi- 
ration of  penance ;  the  penance  regulations  of  Gildas, 
however,  jiermittcd  private  reconciliation  upon  comple- 
tion of  half  of  the  penitential  period  ;  the  rules  of  Theo- 
dore of  Canterbury  granted  it  at  the  expiration  of  a 
year,  or  even  after  six  months.  Boniface  ordered  in  his 
statutes  that  it  should  be  granted  immediately  after 
confession  (Gicseler,  Ch.  Ilint.  ii,  1,  §  19,  note  b).  All 
these  changes  became  prevalent  in  the  Carlovingiaii 
Age. 

Public  reconciliation  of  the  penitents  was  practiced 
in  the  Romish  Church  as  early  as  the  5th  century  on 
Green-Thursday  {Epist.  Innocentii  1,  ad  Decentium,  c. 
7) ;  in  the  Milanese  and  Spanish  on  Char-Friday  {Mo- 
rin.  lib.  ix,  cap.  29).  After  the  penitents  on  Ash- 
Wednesday  had  received  ashes  upon  their  head,  and 
had  been  solenmly  expelled  from  the  Church,  they  were, 
according  to  the  Pontificale  Romarmm,  again  solemnly 
led,  on  Green-Thursday,  to  the  cathedral,  where  they 
were  relieved  of  their  excommunication  and  blessed  by 
the  bishop  after  the  mercy-seat  had  been  implored  and 
the  person  sprinkled  with  holy  water  and  incense.  I'ub- 
lic  reconciliation  and  public  penance  naturally,  in  the 
course  of  the  Middle  Ages,  graduallj'  gave  place  to  pri- 
vate confession  and  private  absolution.  Since  the  Ref- 
ormation it  has  become  obsolete,  and  the  formulas  for 
the  same  find  a  resting-place  in  the  Episcopal  ritual 
(comp.  Daniel,  Codex  Uturf/icus,  i,  279-288). 


KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE 


64 


KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE 


Upon  the  theological  importance  of  absolution,  and 
the  relation  v'hich  the  priest  in  the  administering  of  it 
sustains  to  it,  the  same  opposite  opinions  which  we  found 
in  the  patristic  period  were  entertained  in  the  first  half 
of  the  Middle  Ages.  According  to  the  view  of  which 
Jerome  and  tJregory  the  Great  must  be  especially  des- 
ignated as  representatives,  the  priest  is  judge  in  foro 
eccleske,  and  may  by  his  judgment  simply  determine  and 
certify  for  the  Church  the  manifestation  of  divine  mer- 
cy in  the  penitent's  heart.  Thus,  in  the  JlomUics  of 
Eligius  of  Noyon,  which,  in  all  pmbabilit}-,  belong  to 
the  Carlovingian  period,  we  read  that  the  priests,  who 
are  in  Christ's  stead,  must  by  their  office,  in  a  visible 
manner  (externally  or  ecclesiastically),  absolve  those 
whom  Christ,  by  an  invisible  (inwardly  effected)  abso- 
hition,  declares  worthy  of  his  reconciliation  (atonement). 
Thus  says  Haymo  of  Hallterstadt  (died  853),  in  a  ser- 
mon (7/o;».  in  Octav.  Pnsch.),  after  alluding  to  the  prac- 
tices of  the  O.-T.  priests  towards  lepers :  "  Those  whom 
he  recognises  by  repentance  and  worthy  improvement 
as  inwardly  loosed,  the  shepherd  of  souls  may  absolve 
by  his  declaration."  According  to  this  view,  divine  for- 
giveness not  only  precedes  priestly  absolution,  but  also 
confession ;  it  is  the  portion  of  the  sinner  from  the  mo- 
ment when  he  repents  in  his  heart  and  turns  to  God. 
Absolution  of  the  Church  in  this  instance  is  simply  the 
confirmation  of  what  God  has  already  done.  A  proof 
that  this  was  the  stand-point  in  the  12th  century  is  fur- 
nished in  (Jratian's  treatment  of  the  Decretals  (cans, 
xxxiii,  qu.  iii).  lie  there  proposes  the  question  wheth- 
er anybody  can  give  satisfaction  to  God  by  simple  re- 
pentance without  confession  (and  consequently,  also, 
without  absolution).  He  first  adduces  the  reasons  and 
authorities  that  must  compel  an  affirmative  answer  to 
this  question,  then  those  that  would  answer  it  in  the 
negative ;  at  the  close  he  leaves  it  to  the  reader  to  de- 
cide for  himself  in  favor  of  the  one  or  the  other,  as  both 
opinions  have  the  favor  and  disapproval  of  wise  and 
pious  men.  Peter  the  Lombard,  Gratian's  contempo- 
rary, says  {Sent.  lib.  iv,  dist.  17)  that  the  sense  of  for- 
giveness is  felt  before  the  confession  of  the  lips,  indeed, 
from  the  moment  when  the  holy  desire  fills  the  heart. 
The  priest  has  therefore  the  power  to  bind  and  to  loose 
only  in  the  sense  that  he  declares  men  bound  or  loosed, 
just  as  the  disciples  declared  Lazarus  free  from  his 
bonds  only  after  Christ  had  restored  him  to  life.  The 
declaration  of  the  priest  has  therefore  simply  the  effect 
of  releasing  before  the  Church  the  person  already  loosed 
by  God.  According  to  cardinal  Kobert  Pulleyn  (died 
1115),  the  death-sinner  enjoys  divine  forgiveness  as  soon 
as  he  repents ;  absolution  is  a  sacrament,  i.  e.  the  sym- 
bol of  a  sacred  cause,  for  it  externally  represents  forgive- 
ness already  secured  in  the  heart  by  repentance,  not  as 
if  the  priest  actually  forgave,  hut  hy  the  external  symbol, 
for  the  sake  of  greater  consolation,  he  makes  the  penitent 
doubly  sure  of  forgiveness,  although  it  has  already  become 
manifest  (Sentoit.  lib.  vii,  1).  If,  at  the  same  time,  the 
anxiety  still  remaining  in  the  heart  is  lessened  or  re- 
lieved, this  is  the  effect  of  absolution,  not  depending  so 
much  ui)on  the  activity  of  the  priest  as  upon  God,  from 
whom  it  springs.  By  the  exercise  of  divine  forgive- 
ness the  sinner  is  simply  relieved  of  the  ultimate  conse- 
quences of  his  guilt,  i.  e.  eternal  damnation;  yet  earhcr 
or  more  immediate  punishment  can  ouly  be  prevented 
by  his  future  efforts  to  atone  for  the  act.  Hence  the 
priest  imposes  a  certain  measure  of  satisfaction,  a  com- 
pUance  with  which  can  alone  free  the  transgressor  from 
punishment  corresponding  to  the  greatness  of  his  guilt; 
if  the  satisfaction  is  too  moderate,  the  penitent  must  not 
fancy  himself  absolved  before  (iod;  he  will  have  to 
atone  to  the  fulness  of  the  measure  cither  in  this  world 
or  in  purgatory.  The  direct  bestowal  of  complete  abso- 
lution before  God  we  evidently  do  not  find  here  con- 
ceded to  be  the  prerogative  of  the  Church;  her  judg- 
ment is  competent  only  to  free  the  sinner  after  compli- 
ance with  her  imposition  of  punishment;  on  divine 
punishments  she  has  no  judgment. 


Nearest  in  view  to  Robert  Pidleyn  comes  Peter  of 
Poicticrs,  chancellor  of  the  University  of  Paris  (he  died 
about  1204),  who  (in  his  five  Libri  Sententiurum')  lays 
down  the  ductrine  that  forgiveness  of  sin  precedes  con- 
fession, and  that  it  is  secured  by  repentance.  He  ear- 
nestly contends  that  the  priest  cannot  relieve  the  con- 
fessing one  of  his  guilt  or  of  eternal  punishment;  both 
he  asserts  to  be  the  prerogative  of  (Jod  alone.  The 
jiriest  has  simjily  the  authority  to  indicate  or.  to  declare 
that  God  has  forgiven  the  penitent  his  sin.  God,  how- 
ever, relieves  of  eternal  punishment  only  on  condition 
of  definite  satisfactions,  which  the  priest  has  to  deter- 
mine as  to  measure,  and  to  impose  according  to  the 
greatness  of  the  crime;  and  on  this  account  the  priest 
must  possess  not  simply  the  power  to  loose,  but  also  the 
power  of  discretion  (clavis  discretionis),  which  is  not 
granted  to  everybody.  The  penitent  is  therefore  ad- 
vised in  all  cases  to  go,  if  possible,  beyond  the  measure 
of  satisfaction  imposed  by  the  priest,  lest  in  piu-gatory 
the  offender  may  be  obliged  to  make  satisfaction  for  his 
neglect  here.  It  is  quite  characteristic  that  this  scho- 
lastic regards  confession  as  a  sacrament  of  the  O.  T.,  for 
the  whole  process  of  penance  he  bases  upon  the  personal 
activity  of  the  penitent  {Sent,  iii,  cap.  13  and  IG ). 

Alongside  of  this  view,  according  to  which  the  pos- 
sessor of  the  po\ver  of  the  keys  officiates  essentially  as 
judge  in  foro  ecclesiw,  another  is  entertained,  which  finds 
its  strongest  exponent  in  Leo  the  Great,  according  to 
whom  the  priest  is  intercessor  and  mediator  for  the  pen- 
itent before  God.  This  particular  view,  in  its  successive 
developments,  has  exerted  the  greatest  influence  in  ex- 
panding the  priestly  power  of  the  keys.  This  position 
is  assigned  to  the  priest  in  all  late  penitential  books. 
Its  nature  is  clearly  defined  by  Alcuin,  who,  from  the 
analogy  of  Leviticus  (v,  12),  in  which  the  sinner  is  ad- 
vised to  seek  the  priest  with  his  sacrifice,  draws  the  con- 
clusion that  Christian  penitents  also  must  bring  their 
sacrifice  of  confession  to  God  by  way  of  the  priest,  in 
order  that  it  may  be  pleasing  to  and  secure  the  forgive- 
ness of  the  Lord  {Adfratr.  inprorinc.  Gothorum,  ep.  96). 
For  this  very  reason  he  calls  (in  his  De  officiis  divinis) 
the  priest  "sequester  ac  medius  inter  Deum  et  peccato- 
rem  hominem  ordinatus,  pro  peccatis  intercessor."  This 
sacertlotal  intercession  received  a  higher  import  in  the 
11th  or  12th  century  by  the  De  vera  et  falsa  p)(enitentia, 
a  work  attributed,  though  incorrectly,  to  Augustine.  It 
develops  the  following  doctrines:  1.  That  the  priest  in 
confession  stands  in  God's  stead — his  forgiveness  is  God's 
forgiveness ;  for  does  not  Christ  say, "  Whom  j-e  hold  to 
be  loosed  and  bound,  but  on  whom  ye  practice  the  work 
of  justice  or  of  mercy?"  (cap.  xxv).  2.  Gregory  the 
Great  had  already  laid  down  the  dogma  that  by  pen- 
ance (but  not  by  absolution),  sin,  which  m  itself  was  ir- 
remissible,  became  remissible,  i.  e.  became  an  expiable 
guilt  by  the  personal  activity  of  the  penitent.  This 
thought  was  modified  in  the  work  just  alluded  to,  so 
that  in  confession,  it  is  true,  the  sinner  is  not  cleared  be- 
fore God,  but  the  committed  offence  is  changed  from  a 
mortal  to  a  venial  sin  (cap.  xxv).  3.  Such  sins  no 
longer  incur  eternal,  but  simply  temporal  punishment, 
and  may  be  atoned  for,  cither  in  this  world  Ijy  works  of 
confession,  or  after  death  in  purgatory,  where  the  jiain 
to  be  endured  fur  them  shall  far  exceed  any  torments 
which  the  martyrs  ever  suffered  in  tliis  life.  This 
thought  was  taken  up  by  the  Yictorinians,  and  from  it 
was  developed  a  complete  system.  Hugo  of  St.  Victor 
regarded  the  priest  as  the  visible  medium  which  man, 
spellbound  by  his  senses,  needs  in  his  approaches  to 
God,  and  which  God  uses  to  pour  upon  the  human  heart 
his  mercies ;  yea,  in  virtue  of  this  position  he  does  not 
hesitate  to  refer  the  passage  in  Exodus  xxii,  28  to  the 
priests,  and  to  call  them  gods  (comp.  lib.  ii,/)c  sacr.  \-)t.  xiv, 
cap.  1).  And  why  should  he  not?  Had  not  pope  John 
VIII,  in  the  year  878  (Epist.  G6),  already  assumed  for 
himself  the  power,  in  virtue  of  his  authority  from  Peter, 
to  bind  and  to  loose,  to  absolve  from  all  sius,  those  who 
had  fallen  in  battle  for  the  Church  ?  and  had  not  bishop 


KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE 


65 


KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE 


Jordanus,  of  Limoges,  in  1031,  at  the  council  held  in  that 
city,  developed  the  principle  that  Christ  had  intrusted  to 
his  Cliurch  such  a  power,  that  slie  may  loose  after  death 
those  whom  in  life  she  had  bound?  (Mansi,  xix,  539; 
Gieseler,  Ch.  lligi.  ii,  1,  §  35,  note  K").  Hugo's  principles 
quickly  spread  among  his  contemporaries.  Cardinal  Tul- 
leyn  says  that  confession  made  to  the  priest  means  vir- 
tually (quasi)  confession  to  God ;  and  Alexander  III  de- 
clares that  what  the  priest  learns  in  confession  he  does 
not  learn  as  judge,  but  as  God  ("ut  Deus,"  cap.  2,  ap. 
Greg.  De  offic.judicis  ordin.  i,  31).  Now  if  we  behold  in 
the  priest  an  intermediate  being  between  God  and  man, 
surrounded  by  a  splendor  before  which  the  laj'man's  eye 
is  blinded,  it  is  no  more  than  reasonable  to  expect  that 
his  acts  must  gain  in  importance,  and  his  position  ap- 
proach nearer  and  nearer  to  the  office  of  God's  repre- 
sentative. Hugo  beholds  the  sinner  bound  by  a  twofold 
bondage — by  an  internal  and  external,  by  hardness  and 
by  incurred  damnation  ;  the  former  God  loosens  by  con- 
trition, the  latter  by  the  assistance  of  the  priest,  as  the 
instrument  by  which  he  works.  Here  also  the  resur- 
rection of  Lazarus  serves  both  as  example  and  as  proof 
(lib.  ii,  pt.  xiv,  cap.  8).  His  pupil,  Richard  of  St.Victor, 
goes  a  step  further  in  his  tract  De  potesiate  lif/tmdi  e( 
solvendi.  Loosing  from  guilt,  the  effects  of  which  are 
manifest  in  imprisonment  (impotency)  and  servitude 
(sin  service),  God  alone  performs,  either  directly,  or  indi- 
rectly by  men,  who  need  not  necessarily  be  priests ;  it  is 
done  even  before  confession,  by  contrition.  The  loosing 
from  etei-nal  punishment  God  performs  by  the  priest,  to 
whom,  for  this  purpose,  the  power  of  the  keys  has  been 
intrusted;  he  changes  it  (i.  e.  the  punishment)  into  a 
transitory  one,  to  be  absolved  either  iqion  earth  or  in 
purgatory.  The  loosing  from  tirinsitor//  punishment  is 
effected  by  the  priest  himself  by  changing  it  into  an  ex- 
ercise of  penance,  which  is  done  by  the  imposition  of  a 
corresponding  satisfaction. 

If  hitherto  we  find  independently,  side  by  side,  two 
opinions,  namely,  that  tlie  administrator  of  the  power  of 
the  keys  either  judges  infuro  ecclesim  or  as  an  interced- 
ing mediator,  we  need  not  wonder  that  the  advance  of 
doctrinal  development  soon  effected  a  dialectical  union 
of  the  two.  Eichard  of  St.  Victor  evidently  aimed  at 
such  a  fusion ;  the  great  scholastics  of  the  13th  century 
accomplished  it ;  and  Thomas  Aquinas  is  to  be  especially 
regarded  as  the  author  of  the  doctrine  defined  by  the 
Council  of  Trent.  Alexander  of  Hales,  in  his  Summn 
Theolori'ia  (pt.  iv,  qu.  20,  membr.  iii,  art.  2),  opens  with 
the  sentence,  "  The  power  to  bind  and  to  loose  really 
belongs  only  to  God ;  the  priest  can  simply  co-operate." 
But  wherein  shall  this  co-operation  consist?  Never 
would  the  priest  take  the  liberty'  to  absolve  any  one  did 
he  not  suppose  him  to  be  loosed  by  God.  Alexander  is 
the  first  writer  who  meets  the  alternative  as  to  whether 
the  priest  is  to  be  regarded  as  deprecator  or  as  judge. 
He  holds  him  to  bo  both  in  one  person ;  the  former  he 
is  before  God,  the  latter  before  the  penitent.  But  the 
power  to  loose  he  can  exercise  only  after  God  has  loosed. 
He  is  to  the  sinner  simply  an  interpreter  of  what  God 
has  already  accomplished  in  him,  or  is  doing  in  reply  to 
priestly  intercession.  Alexander  of  Hales  then  proceeds 
to  the  question  whether  the  priest  can  remit  eternal  pun- 
ishment. He  replies  (membr.  ii,  art.  2),  that  as  eternal 
pnnislmient  is  infinite,  and  cannot  be  severed  from  the 
offence,  the  priest  does  not  possess  any  power  to  remit 
it;  only  God, whose  powers  have  no  bounds,  can  do  this. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  power  of  the  keys  can  extend  to 
temporal  (or  finite)  punishments,  inasmuch  as  the  priest 
is  God's  instituted  arbitrator.  He  explains  this  in  detail 
thus  :  God's  mercy  forgives  so  that  it  does  not  affect  his 
justice.  His  justice  would  require  a  measure  of  punish- 
ment exceeding  our  powers  of  endurance  ;  therefore  he 
has  instituted,  in  his  mercy,  the  priest  as  arbitrator,  and 
given  him  authority  to  levy  the  divine  punishment,  and 
also,  in  virtue  of  Christ's  sufferings,  to  remit  a  portion  of 
it,  for  which  God's  justice  need  not  be  exercised.  To 
the  question  whether  the  kevs  have  authority  also  over 
v.— E 


purgator}-,  he  replies,  otAj  per  accident,  inasmuch  as  the 
priest  may  change  the  purgatorial  pmiishment  into  a 
temporal  one,  i.  e.  into  an  exercise  of  penance.  Just  so 
reason  Bonaventura  (lib.  iv,  dist.  xviii,  art.  ii)  and  Albert 
the  Great  {Comment,  lib.  iv,  dist.  xviii,  art.  xiii),  the  for- 
mer often  in  the  verj'  words  of  Alexander. 

Upon  this  basis  Thomas  Aquinas  completed  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Komish  Church  on  the  power  of  the  keys.  As 
Thomas  generally  distinguishes  in  ecclesiastical  "  pow- 
er" between  potestas  ordinis  and  jwtestas  jurisdictionis 
(Supi)l.  part  iii,  Summce,  qu.  20,  a.  1,  resp.),  so  there  ex- 
ists also  a  twofold  "  key,"  namely,  clavis  07-dinis  and 
cluvis  jurisdictionis  (qu.  19,  art.  3).  The  keys  of  the 
Church  themselves  are  the  power  to  remove  the  obsta- 
cle interposed  by  sin,  and  thus  make  admission  to  heaven 
possible  (qu.  17,  art.  1).  The  clavis  ordinensis,  so  called 
because  the  priest  receives  it  at  ordination,  directly  opens 
heaven  to  the  person  by  the  forgiveness  of  sins  (sacra- 
mental absolution),  while  the  clavis  jurisdictionis  only 
indirectly  causes  this  result,  namely,  by  the  intercession 
of  the  Church  through  excommunication  and  absolu- 
tion in  the  ecclesiastical  forum.  It  is  therefore  not  in  a 
strict  sense  a  clavis  caeli,  but  simply  quadam  dispositio 
ad  ipsam  (qu.  19,  art.  3).  To  the  acts  of  clavis  jurisdic- 
tionis belong  furthermore  also  the  grant  of  indulgence 
(qu.  25,  art.  2,  ad  1  m.).  Only  the  clavis  ordinis  is  of  a 
sacramental  nature  (ibid.) ;  hence  also  laymen  and  dea- 
cons may  possess  and  exercise  the  clavis  jimsdiciionis, 
like  the  judges  inforo  ecclesice,  for  instance,  the  arch- 
deacons (quest.  19,  art.  3)  and  the  papal  legates  (quest. 
26,  art.  2).  On  the  other  hand,  the  use  of  the  sacra- 
mental clavis  ordinis  necessarily  presupposes  the  posses- 
sion of  the  clavis  jurisdictionis,  as  the  priest  receives  at 
ordination  simply  the  authority  to  forgive  sins,  while 
for  the  exercise  of  it  a  definite  circle  of  men  (so  to  speak, 
the  material  or  the  object  of  the  power  of  the  keys),  who 
are  subjected  to  his  jurisdiction  ("plebs  subdita  per  ju- 
risdictionem,"  qu.  17,  art.  2,  ad  2  m.),  is  necessar}\  The 
clavis  o?-dinis  can  therefore  not  be  exercised  until  after 
the  possession  of  the  clavis  jurisdictionis  (qu.  20,  art.  1 
and  2)  ;  and,  vice-versa,  a  bishop  may,  by  the  withdrawal 
of  the  clavis  jurisdictionis,  deprive  a  schismatic,  heretic, 
excommunicated,  suspended,  or  degraded  person  of  his 
inferiors  (subjects),  as  well  as  of  the  possibility  of  exer- 
cising the  clavis  ordinis  (qu.  19,  art.  C). 

The  sacramental  power  of  the  keys  (clavis  ordinis) 
comes  into  practice  in  priestly  absolution,  and  it  is  par- 
ticularly due  to  Thomas  Aquinas  that  in  the  Ki>mish 
doctrine  this  power  of  the  keys  has  gained  so  much  im- 
portance, that  all  parts  of  the  sacrament  of  penance  se- 
cure their  unity  in  it.  Thomas  himself  argues  that  God 
alone  relieves  of  guilt  and  eternal  punishment  on  condi- 
tion of  mere  contrition  ;  but  this  contrition  can  only  as- 
sure the  heart  and  afford  evidence  of  forgiveness  when 
followed  by  the  fidness  of  love  (as  an  attendant  oi  fides 
formata^,  and  furthermore  must  be  accompanied  with  a 
desire  for  sacramental  confession  and  absolution.  To 
him  who  thus  repents,  guilt  and  eternal  punishment  are 
already  remitted  before  confession,  because  in  the  con- 
comitant desire,  while  repenting,  to  subject  himself  to 
the  power  of  the  keys,  the  latter  at  once  exerts  its  influ- 
ence {in  voto  existit,  although  not  in  actu  se  exercet^.  If 
such  a  person  comes  into  the  penance-chair,  the  grace 
showered  upon  him  is  greatly  increased  (augetur  gra- 
tia) by  the  exercise  (in  actu)  of  the  jwwer  of  the  keys. 
But  if  contrition  does  not  sufHciently  fill  the  sinner's 
heart  (for  want  of  love,  as  is  frequently  the  case  in  the 
simple  attritio),  and  therefore  his  disposition  docs  not 
admit  the  actual  exercise  of  the  power  of  the  keys,  then 
the  latter  supplements  his  disposition  by  removing  any 
still  existing  hinderance  to  the  inpouring  of  sin-forgiv- 
ing grace,  provided  he  does  not  himself  bar  all  access  to 
his  heart.  In  all  these  relations  the  priest  has  that 
place  in  the  sacrament  of  penance  which  water  holds  in 
the  sacrament  of  baptism ;  the  former  is  instrumenium 
animcitum,  as  the  latter  is  instrumentum  inanimaium. 
His  power,  whether  simply  in  vuto  requested  or  in  actu 


KEYS,  POWER  OF  TPIE 


66 


KEYS,  POWER  OF  TPIE 


exerted,  makes  way  for  the  overflowing  stream  of  mer- 
cy, and  secures  the  necessary  disposition  for  its  recep- 
tion {ibi(/.  qii.  18,  art.  1  and  2).  The  power  of  the  keys 
is  consecjuently  the  red  thread  whicli  is  threaded  at  con- 
trition, drawn  through  penance,  and  becomes  visible  to 
the  outwaril  eye  also  in  absolution.  It  gives  the  real 
form,  tlic  frame  that  secures  to  all  acts  of  penance 
(which  by  it  lirst  become  partes  sacrameiiti,  and  receive 
a  sacramental  character)  their  inner  connection,  and 
supplies  to  all  what  is  still  needed  for  their  completion 
(comp.qu.  10,  art.  1).  This  is  manifest  in  the  effects  of 
absolution  by  the  power  of  the  keys ;  for  example  (ac- 
cording to  qu.  18,  art.  2),  temporal  punishment  is  remit- 
ted (just  the  opinion  of  Kichard  of  St.Yictor).  Yet  this 
is  not  completely  done  as  in  baptism,  but  only  so  in  part; 
the  portion  still  remaining  must  be  atoned  for  by  the 
personal  satisfactions  of  the  penitent,  by  his  prayer,  by 
almsgiving,  by  fasting  to  the  fulness  of  the  measure 
meted  out  by  the  priest  (qu.  18,  art.  3).  The  imposi- 
tion of  satisfactions  Thomas  calls  binding,  i.  c.  obliging 
to  atone  for  punishments  still  in  reserve.  The  satisfac- 
tions have  the  twofold  object  of  appeasing  divine  jus- 
tice and  of  counteracting  any  tendency  in  the  soul  to 
sin.  Punishment  stiU  in  reserve  (poena;  satisfactoriaj) 
again  can  be  remitted  in  virtue  of  the  clavis  jurisdic- 
tionis  by  means  of  indulgence  (qu.  25,  art.  1),  which  in 
the  forum  of  God  has  the  same  value  as  in  that  of  the 
Churcli ;  and  this,  according  to  the  idea  of  substituting 
satisfaction  on  which  it  rests,  may  be  of  benefit  even  to 
souls  in  purgator}\ 

By  this  further  development  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
power  of  the  keys  the  form  of  absolution  also  was  nec- 
essarily considerably  altered.  Alexander  of  Hales  says 
that  in  his  day  the  deprecative  formula  preceded  and 
was  followed  by  the  indicative;  and  this  he  justifies 
from  his  stand-point  by  the  sentence, "  Et  deprecatio  gra- 
tiam  impetrat  et  absolutio  gratiara  supponit"  (comp.  pt. 
iv,  (iu.21,membr.  1).  The  indicative  form  of  absolution, 
however,  must  have  been  an  innovation,  for  the  un- 
named opponent  of  Thomas  alluded  to  in  his  opuscidum 
xxiii  (others  xxii)  actually  asserts  that  to  within  thirty 
j-ears  the  absolution  formula  usedb}''  all  priests  was  Ab- 
solutionem  et  remissioneni  tibi  trihuat  Dcus.  Thomas  de- 
fends with  special  emphasis  the  formula  Ego  te  absolvo, 
etc.,  because  it  has  in  its  favor  the  analogy  of  other  sac- 
raments, and  because  it  precisely  expresses  the  effect  of 
the  sacrament  of  penance,  namely,  the  removal  of  sin,  as 
an  exercise  of  the  power  of  the  keys.  He  interprets  its 
contents  in  the  following  words :  "  Ego  impendo  tibi  sac- 
rament um  absolutionis."  But  he  also  advises  that  the 
indicative  form  be  preceded  by  the  deprecative,  lest  on 
the  part  of  the  penitent  the  sacramental  effects  may  be 
prevented  (comp.  Daniel,  Cod.  Liturg.  i,  297). 

The  doctrine  of  Thomas  had  in  its  essentials  already 
been  dogmatically  defined  by  Eugenius  IV  in  1439  at 
the  Council  of  Florence  (Mansi,  xxxi,  1057),  and  in  its 
different  rules  more  minutely  at  the  Council  of  Trent, 
at  its  fourteenth  session,  Nov.  25, 1551.  The  Council  of 
Trent,  in  its  decree  and  the  canons  appended,  had  sim- 
ply pronounced  autlioritatively  the  exclusive  right  of 
the  priest  to  absolve,  and  it  explained  the  spirit  of  the 
latter  to  be  not  merely  an  announcement  of  forgiveness, 
but  a  judicial  and  sacramental  act.  The  Koman  cate- 
chism enters  far  more  into  detail  on  this  particular  point: 
as  the  i)riest  in  all  sacraments  performs  Christ's  office, 
the  penitent  has  to  honor  in  him  the  person  of  Christ. 
Absolution  announced  by  him  does  not  simply  mean,  but 
actually  jirocures  forgiveness  of  sin  (pt.  ii.  cap.  v,  qu.  17 
and  11),  for  it  causes  the  blood  of  Christ  to  flow  unto  us, 
and  washes  away  sins  committed  after  baptism  (tpi.  10). 
If,  in  contrition,  confession,  and  satisfaction,  the  personal 
activity  of  the  penitent  (the  opus  operans)  is  pre-emi- 
nent, on  the  other  hand,  in  absolution  (by  which,  as  the 
forma  sacranwnti,  those  acts  of 'penance  firsfreally  as- 
sume a  sacramental  character,  and  become  partes  sacra- 
r.ienti),  he  must  become  perfectly  passive  (for  it  operates 
altogether  ex  opere  operato).    From  this  stand-point  the 


objection  frequently  raised  on  the  Eoman  Catholic  side 
against  Protestant  polemics  seems  in  some  sort  reasona- 
ble, namely,  that  absolution  is  neither  hypothetical  nor 
absolute,  and  that  it  is  a  sacramental  act  to  which  this 
distinction  cannot  actuaUj'  be  apjjlied;  and  it  must  be 
conceded  on  our  part  that,  with  the  conditions  under- 
stood to  be  concurrent,  it  furnishes  such  a  degree  of  cer- 
tainty that  its  effects  cannot  fail  to  be  manifest  in  every 
one  who  does  not  intentionally  frustrate  it. 

This,  however,  is  only  one  side,  in  which  the  priest 
stands  as  intercessor  between  God  and  the  penitent,  no 
longer  (as  formerly  regarded)  as  a  deprecant  simply,  but 
as  dispenser  of  mercies.  The  Eoman  Catholic  concep- 
tion of  absolution  furnishes  for  consideration  still  anoth- 
er side,  according  to  which  the  priest  is  essentially ^m;///?, 
not  simply  inj'oro  ecclesice,  but  also,  at  the  same  time,  in 
foro  Dei,  i.  e.  judge  in  God's  stead.  As  such,  he  inves- 
tigates sin  to  determine  a  corresponding  punishment, 
and  examines  the  spiritual  condition  of  the  confidant  in 
order  to  know  whether  to  bind  or  to  loose.  lie  is  there- 
fore not  simply  executor  of  the  opus  opera  turn,  but  also 
judge  of  the  opus  operans.  Now,  as  such,  he  gives  a 
judgment,  and  this  must  be  either  hypothetical  or  ab- 
solute. If  we  look  at  the  form  of  the  sacramental  prac- 
tice, "Ego  to  absolvo,"  and  compare  with  it  the  assur- 
ances of  the  Iioman  catechism  that  the  voice  of  the  ab- 
solving priest  is  to  be  looked  upon  as  if  he  heard  the 
words  of  Christ  to  the  leper,  "Thy  sins  be  forgiven  thee'' 
{l.  f.  qu.  10),  we  cannot  do  otherwise  than  regard  the 
priestly  decision  as  absolute,  both  by  its  form  and  con- 
tents, as  an  infallible  divine  decision.  But  if,  on  the 
other  hand,  we  consider  that  the  jiricst — and  this  is  con- 
ceded on  the  part  of  the  Roman  Catholics — may  also  be 
fallible ;  that  the  confessor  is,  after  all,  a  very  imperfect 
surrogate  on  account  of  his  want  of  omnipotence ;  yea, 
that  but  very  rarely  he  can  attain  to  an  accurate  knowl- 
edge of  the  spiritual  condition  of  the  confidant,  his 
judgment  must  necessarily  become  conditioned;  the 
whole  sacrament  becomes  equally  hypothetical,  as  upon 
this  rests  its  basis.  Thus  the  Eoman  Catholic  doctrine 
fluctuates  between  two  opposite  poles  of  assurance  and 
contingency.  This,  indeed,  is  the  necessary  consequence 
of  its  development  as  we  have  followed  it  in  historj',  in 
which  two  separate  originally  distinct  views  as  to  the 
position  of  the  priest  in  absolution  had  been  combined, 
without,  however,  really  agreeing  with  each  other. 

IV.  Doctrine  of  the  Reformation  and  Protestantism. — 
A  very  new  development  was  given  to  the  doctrine  of 
the  power  of  the  keys  by  the  Eeformers.  Especially 
noteworthy  is, 

1.  Luther s  Attitude. — He  retained  private  confession 
and  private  absolution,  although  he  knew  them  to  be 
innovations  of  the  ^Middle  Ages ;  he  even  never  wholly 
abolished  the  sacramental  character  of  absolution.  Vet, 
notwithstanding  this  ai)parent  adherence  to  Eomish 
practices,  it  will  be  found  that  he  changed,  so  to  speak, 
regeitcrated  the  whole  institution  in  a  refonnatory  spir- 
it. With  Luther  also  the  power  of  the  kej-s  is  identical 
with  the  power  to  bind  and  to  loose.  The  keys  he  re- 
gards as  nothing  else  than  the  authority  or  office  by 
which  the  "Word  is  jiracticed  and  propagated.  As  the 
Word  of  God,  from  the  nature  of  its  contents,  is  both 
law  and  gospel,  so  the  sermon  has  the  t^\•ofokl  task  of 
alarming  the  secure  sinner  by  threats  of  the  law,  and  of 
giving  peace  to  the  troubled  conscience  by  the  consola- 
tions of  the  Gospel,  i.  e.  by  the  forgiveness  of  sins.  The 
former  is  denoted  by  the  binding  key,  the  latter  by  the 
loosing  key,  which  are  both  equalh'  essential  to  keep 
Christians  in  the  narrow  path  of  spiritual  life.  1-2 ven 
the  sermon  Luther  therefore  considers  as  an  act  (the 
essential  act)  of  the  power  of  the  keys,  and  the  consola- 
tion afforded  by  it  as  a  perfectly  effectual  absolution. 
From  the  latter,  however,  is  to  be  particularly  distin- 
giushed  common  absolution,  accorded  at  the  close  of 
the  sermon,  to  which  Luther  assigns  the  task  of  admon- 
ishing all  hearers  to  obtain  for  themselves  forgiveness 
of  sin ;  also^^ru'tj^e  absolution,  to  be  received  only  at  the 


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67 


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confessional,  and  which  is  notliing  more  nor  less  than 
a  sermon  contined  to  one  auditor.  The  existence  of 
these  different  modes  of  exercising  tiie  power  of  the 
keys  he  ascribes  partly  to  God's  riches,  who  did  not 
wish  to  manifest  any  littleness  in  the  matter,  and  partly 
to  the  wants  of  an  abashed  conscience  and  a  timid  heart, 
which  greatly  need  this  strength  and  stimulant  against 
the  devil.  The  value  of  private  absolution  he  places  in 
its  quasi  sacramental  character,  for,  like  the  sacrament, 
it  also  affords  a  real  advantage  in  confining  the  ^Vord  to 
a  particular  person,  and  thus  more  securely  strikes  home 
than  in  the  sermon.  It  is  true,  for  this  reason,  private 
absolution  camiot  be  regarded  as  an  absolute  necessity  to 
forgiveness  of  sin ;  but  he  views  it  as  unquestionably  ben- 
eficial and  advisable  {Stcitz,  I'ricatbeicltte  u.Privatabso- 
lutioi),  p.  7-1-1).  As  Luther,  moreover,  did  not  look  upon 
the  confessional  as  a  judicial  authority,  but  simply  as  a 
mercy-seat,  so  he  looked  upon  absolution,  which  he  rec- 
ognised as  the  most  important  feature  of  confession,  not 
as  a  judicial  decision,  but  as  the  simple  announcement  of 
the  Gospel :  "  Thy  sins  arc  forgiven  thee" — the  apportion- 
ment of  the  forgiveness  of  sin  to  a  ;;ar?z«<fa7- person,  the 
confinement  of  its  consolation  to  the  most  individual 
needs  of  a  single  heart.  The  power  and  effect  do  not 
depend,  according  to  Luther,  upon  the  priestly  character 
or  upon  the  priestly  utterance  of  him  who  administers  it, 
but  upon  the  word  of  Christ,  which  is  announced  by  it, 
and  upon  the  command  of  Christ,  which  is  executed  by 
it.  For  this  very  reason,  all  distinction  of  human  and  di- 
vine activity  disappears  from  it ;  neitlier  is  the  sentence 
of  the  person  absolving  afterwards  ratified  by  God,  nor 
docs  the  absolver  announce  upon  earth  the  judgment 
of  heaven;  but  in  the  forgiveness  at  absolution  God's 
forgiveness  is  directly  afforded.  The  only  condition 
upon  which  the  effect  of  absolution  depends  is  that  upon 
which  rests  the  effect  likewise  of  the  Word  of  God,  i.  e. 
of  the  sermon,  namely,  faith ;  for  by  faith  it  is  received. 
Repentance  is  efficacious  only  so  far  as  it  is  the  indis- 
pensable preparation  for  the  reception,  but  in  itself  can- 
not insure  forgiveness,  as  without  faith  it  remains  sim- 
ply sin  come  to  life  and  experienced  in  the  heart,  a 
Judas-pain  of  despair  (Steitz,  vt  sirpra,  §  6,  13,  15-18). 
Notwithstanding  this  irremissible  necessity  of  faith,  Lu- 
ther is  far  from  basing  upon  it  the  power  of  absolution; 
a  weak  faith  may  receive  strength  also ;  yea,  even  to 
the  unbeliever  it  is  truly  offered,  and  affords  him  for- 
giveness on  account  of  the  indwelling  of  the  "Word  of 
God,  at  least  for  the  moment,  but  if  repelled  by  unbelief 
it  only  adds  to  his  responsibility  before  the  judge.  The 
result  of  absolution  is  consolation  to  the  conscience  and 
peace  with  God  in  forgiveness  of  sins  and  restitution  in 
innocence  of  the  baptismal  pledge.  Private  absolution, 
Luther  holds,  must  be  administered  to  every  individual 
M'ho  demands  it ;  and  on  this  account  the  power  to  loose 
in  private  absolution  is  not  accompanied  by  the  power 
to  bind.  Upon  this  rests  the  importance  of  the  distinc- 
tion between  private  absolution  and  private  confession ; 
for  to  confess  does  not  mean  anything  else  than  inward- 
ly to  desire  absolution  for  our  sins  and  for  our  guilt: 
confession  can  therefore  not  be  offered  to  any  one,  for 
God  liimself  does  not  offer  it;  it  must  be  an  inward 
want.  For  this  reason,  again,  no  remuneration  can  be 
demanded  of  the  person  confessing.  Luther  makes  no 
distinction  between  the  absolution  of  the  layman  and  that 
of  the  priest.  It  is  also  his  opinion  tliat  man  cannot 
too  frequently  enjoy  absolution  and  the  consolation  of 
forgiveness,  hence  God,  in  the  riches  of  his  mercy,  has 
so  ordered  it  that  this  cfnisolation  may  be  experienced 
wherever  the  Cluirch  of  tlio  faithful  exerts  her  influ- 
ence. He  holds,  finally,  that  while  it  may  be  well  to 
confess  all  one's  different  sins,  it  is  most  important  to 
confess  those  that  particidarly  oppress  the  heart. 

The  key  to  bind,  for  which  Luther  found  no  place  in 
private  confession,  he  assigned  particularly  to  jurisdic- 
tion ;  it  found  its  application,  therefore,  in  the  ban.  Lu- 
ther's opinions  on  this  point  may  be  summed  up  as  fol- 
lows :  the  ban  can  be  exercised  only  in  cases  of  public 


sin  and  reproach,  and  for  notorious  disinclination  to  re- 
pentance ;  it  is  tlie  public  declaration  of  the  Church  that 
tlie  sinner  has  bound  himself,  i.  e.  has  deprived  himself 
of  aU  association  of  love,  and  surrendered  himself  to  the 
devO.  It  excludes  simply  from  the  public  association 
with  the  Churcli  and  her  sacraments,  not  from  the  inner 
membership  of  the  Cluirch,  from  which  the  sinner  him- 
self only  can  cut  loose.  It  is  merely  a  public  punish- 
ment of  the  Church,  and  has  no  other  object  than  to 
improve  the  sinner.  For  this  reason  he  is  simply  ex- 
cluded from  the  sacrament,  not  from  the  sermon,  nor 
even  from  the  intercession  of  the  Church  on  his  behalf. 
The  loosing  from  the  ban  is  the  public  declaration  of 
the  Church  that  the  person  hitherto  under  ban  has  been 
reconciled  to  and  is  again  accepted  by  the  Church. 
This  loosing  is  to  be  granted  to  any  one  who  seeks  it  in 
repentance  and  faith ;  and  this  absolution  of  the  Church, 
in  virtue  of  the  power  of  the  keys,  is  God's  absolution. 
A  ban  unjustly  imposed  can  do  tlie  person  so  pmiished 
no  harm,  and  should  be  borne  patiently ;  nor  must  it  be 
forgotten  that  external  membership  in  the  Church  may 
be  coexistent  with  exclusion  from  inner  membership. 

2.  MelaiKthon  coincided  generally  with  Luther  on 
the  doctrine  of  the  power  of  the  keys,  but  with  this  dif- 
ference, that  he  regarded  the  keys  as  an  essential  attri- 
bute of  the  episcopal  or  ministerial  office.  Yet  we  find 
in  ecclesiastical  regulations  made  under  his  supervision, 
as  early  as  1543,  some  decided  deviations  from  Luther's 
doctrines.  It  is  there  directed  to  admit  no  one  to  com- 
munion "  unless  he  have  previously  received  private 
absolution  from  his  pastor  or  some  other  competent  per- 
son" (Richter,  Kirchenordnunc;,  ii,  45).  Furthermore, 
the  right  is  conceded  to  the  absolving  minister,  under 
certain  conditions,  to  deny  absolution  to  the  confessing. 
The  ban  itself,  however,  in  consequence  of  its  abuse,  was 
early  taken  from  the  hands  of  the  clergy,  and  its  impo- 
sition left  to  the  Consistory.  Absolution  was  bestowed 
in  the  church  at  Sunday  vesper  service  by  imposition 
of  hands.  The  formulas  of  absolution  are  partly  exhib- 
itory ;  not  unfrequently  both  stand  side  by  side  for  se- 
lection. 

Chemnitz  is  the  first  who  disputes  that  absolution 
can  be  regarded  as  a  sacrament  in  the  same  manner  as 
baptism  and  communion,  and  assigns  for  his  reason  that 
it  rests  simply  uiwn  the  Word  of  God,  and  has  received 
no  additional  external  sign.  He  also  regards  the  exer- 
cise of  absolution  as  a  specific  prerogative  of  the  sacred 
office,  although  he  still  holds  to  the  old  Protestant  prin- 
ciple that  the  keys  were  given  to  the  Church  herself. 
(See  Schmidt,  Dogmatik,  §  53,  note  5 ;  Heppe,  Dogmatik,. 
iii,  25();  Kliefoth  [see  below],  p.  278.)  Moreover,  he 
argues  that  it  must  be  left  to  the  absolving  clergymani 
to  use  his  judgment  and  cognition  in  the  refusal  or  grant 
of  absolution. 

Quite  differently  teach  Quenstedt  and  Hollaz.  They 
explicitly  speak  of  the  power  to  forgive  sin  as  an  official 
prerogative  of  the  serv-ants  of  the  divine  Word,  and  the 
latter  even  teaches,  in  a  quite  un-Protestant  manner,  that 
the  servants  (ministers)  relatively  and  effectually  con- 
vert, renew,  and  bless  the  sinner  by  the  Word  of  God;, 
so  thev  also  relatively  and  effectually  forgive  sin  (Heppe, 
p.  252). 

As  a  misconstruction  of  the  original  Protestant  view 
on  this  doctrine,  we  must  certainly  regard  Baler's  posi- 
tion that  absolution  is  a  juridical  act;  and  he,  in  con- 
sequence, distinguishes  tlie  potestas  ordinis  and  the  ])0- 
tesfas  clavium  or  jui-isdictionis,  and  determines  the  former 
to  be  a  potestas  publicc  docendi  et  sacramehta  adminis- 
traruU,  and  the  latter  a  potestas  remittendi  et  retinendi 
peccata  (comp.  Schmidt,  §  50,  note  9). 

3.  The  Swiss  reformers,  from  the  very  commence- 
ment, interpreted  the  power  of  the  keys  to  refer  espe- 
cially to  the  exercise  of  ecclesiastical  government,  and 
rnore  particularly  to  Church  discipline,  and  in  this  sense 
they  have  formulated  in  their  confessions  the  rules  per- 
taining to  this  subject.  On  the  other  hand,  Calvin  re- 
ferred tlie  power  of  the  keys  altogether  to  the  preaching 


KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE 


68 


KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE 


of  the  Gospel  and  the  exercise  of  Church  discipline,  disre- 
garding the  sacramental  idea,  lie  taught :  1.  Absolution 
is  twofold :  one  part  serves  faith,  the  other  belongs  to 
Church  discipline.  2.  Absolution  is  nothing  else  than  the 
witness  of  the  forgiveness  of  sin  based  upon  the  forms  of 
the  Gospel  (Instif.  lib.  ili,  cap.  iv,  §  23).  3.  Absolution  is 
conditional;  its  conditions  are  repentance  and  faith.  4. 
As  to  the  existence  of  these  conditions  men  must  neces- 
sarily be  uncertain,  so  that  the  certainty  of  binding  and 
loosing  does  not  depend  upon  the  judicial  decision  of  a 
human  court.  The  servants  of  the  divine  Word  can 
therefore  absolve  only  conditionally  (§  1«) :  in  virtue, 
viz.  of  this  Word  they  can  promise  forgiveness  to  all 
who  believe  on  Christ,  and  threaten  damnation  to  those 
wlio  do  not  lay  hold  of  Christ  (§  21).  5.  In  tliis  exer- 
cise of  their  functions  they  can,  for  this  reason,  not  fall 
into  error,  for  they  do  not  promise  more  than  the  Word 
of  God  commands  them ;  while  the  sinner  can  seciure 
for  himself  certain  and  complete  absolution  with  perfect 
assurance  whenever  he  will  lay  hold  upon  the  mercy  of 
Christ  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  the  Bible  prom- 
ise, "According  to  thy  faith  be  it  unto  thee"  (§  22).  6. 
Tlie  other  absolution,  which  forms  a  constituent  of 
Church  disciphne,  has  nothing  to  do  with  secret  sins;  it 
extinguishes  only  any  offence  which  may  have  been 
given  to  the  Church  (§  23).  In  this  also  the  Church 
follows  the  infallible  rule  of  the  divine  Word :  in  virtue 
of  this  word  she  announces  that  all  adidterers,  thieves, 
murderers,  misers,  and  the  unjust  shall  have  no  part  in 
the  kingdom  of  God;  and  in  this  binding  she  cannot 
err.  With  this  same  AYord  she  looses  the  repenting 
ones,  to  whom  she  brings  consolation  (§  21).  Accord- 
ing to  these  principles,  which,  with  utter  disregard  of 
the  sacramental  idea,  designate  absolution  simply  as  a 
s]iecies  of  sermon,  and  with  it  reproduce  the  doctrine  of 
German  Protestantism  in  an  improved  form,  Calvin 
could  not  cast  aside  private  absolution ;  yet  he  declined 
to  recognise  in  it  a  general  institution  of  the  Church, 
and  made  its  administration  dependent  upon  the  indi- 
vidual need  of  those  who  should  demand  it.  Its  value 
to  the  end  in  view  he  speaks  of  very  much  in  the  strain 
of  the  Lutheran  Church  :  '•  It  happens  sometimes  that 
some  one  hears  the  promises  given  to  all  the  faithfid, 
and  nevertheless  remains  in  doubt  whether  to  him  also 
his  sins  are  forgiven.  When  such  a  one  uncovers  his 
secret  wound  to  his  pastor,  and  hears  that  voice  of  the 
Gospel,  '  Be  of  good  cheer,  thy  sins  are  forgiven  thee' 
(Matt,  ix,  2),  addressed  to  himself,  his  heart  is  quieted 
and  freed  from  all  fear.  Nevertheless  we  must  take 
care  lest  we  should  dream  of  a  power  of  the  keys  not  in 
accordance  with  the  doctrine  of  the  gospels"  (§  1-1).  It 
is  true,  this  does  not  look  exactly  like  Lutheran  private 
absolution,  but  it  is  certainly  the  only  evangelical  sense ; 
and  of  this  alone  the  Scriptures,  the  apostolic  Church, 
and  the  following  centuries  down  to  the  Middle  Ages, 
know  anything. 

4.  Private  absolution,  as  a  whole,  could  be  a  blessing 
only  so  long  as  that  specific  religious  interest  which  the 
IJeformation  awakened  in  all  circles  remained  fresh  and 
full  of  life;  with  a  lassitude  of  the  latter,  the  former  also, 
togetheV  with  confession,  its  offspring,  necessarily  dete- 
riorated to  a  dead  ecclesiastical  form,  and,  instead  of 
encouraging  faith,  favored  a  false  security.  In  several 
Lutheran  churches  its  exercise  was  ignored,  and  finally 
resulted  in  a  complete  change  of  the  manner  of  confes- 
sion and  absolution  (Steitz,  ]).  159  sq.).  The  fresh  and 
living  spirit  of  the  Keformation  had  fled,  private  con- 
fession and  "private  absolution  had  sunk  to  a  mere 
thoughtless  form.  Church  ban  had  become  a  punish- 
ment, public  reconciliation  a  public  restitution;  this  ec- 
clesiastical punishment  was  pronounced  only  by  the  con- 
sistories, and  simply  in  cases  of  offences  of  the  flosli. 

h.  Siiildenly  Pietism  came  forwjird  with  a  loud  protest, 
and  demanded  a  decided  reform  in  the  exercise  of  the 
power  of  the  keys.  The  forerunner  in  this  direction  was 
Thcophllus  Grossgebauer,  professor  at  Kostock  (IVdch- 
tersiimme  aus  dem  vericiiMelen  Zion,  IGGl),  who  regard- 


ed as  essential  for  private  sins  only  confession  before 
God,  but  for  public  sins,  to  wliich  alone  he  referred  the 
power  to  bind  and  to  loose,  iiublic  confession  and  recon- 
ciliation in  i)resence  of  the  offended  Church.  Spener, 
although  in  favor  of  retaining  private  confession  and 
private  absolution,  advocated  a  modified  form,  viz.,  an- 
nouncement to  the  pastor,  and,  as  its  object,  advice  for 
and  examination  of  the  condition  of  the  confidant's  soul; 
and  he  insisted  that  the  confessor,  whose  choice  he  left 
to  personal  confidence,  should  absolve  only  those  truly 
rejienting,  but  shoidd  impress  the  sinner  with  his  guilt, 
and  should  turn  over  the  doubtful  ones  to  a  college  of 
elders  for  them  to  judge  and  to  exercise  the  authority 
of  the  ban.  With  special  emphasis  he  declared  the  pow- 
er of  the  keys  to  be  a  right  of  the  whole  Church  or  of  the 
brotherhood,  which,  by  way  of  abuse,  had  fallen  exclu- 
sively into  the  hands  of  the  ecclesiastics.  With  far 
greater  decision  his  adherents  opposed  the  institution 
of  private  confession  :  the  attacks  of  pastor  Johann  Kas- 
par  Schade,  of  Berlin,  on  the  confessional,  which  he  call- 
ed an  institution  of  Satan,  and  his  abolition  of  private 
absolution  of  his  own  accord,  resulted  first  in  an  investi- 
gation of  the  merits  of  the  question  (Nov.  IG,  1G98),  and 
finall}'  in  an  electoral  resolution  (shortly  afterwards  fol- 
lowed by  a  like  regulation  on  tlie  part  of  other  states), 
which  ordered  confession  and  absolution  of  all  confidants 
in  common,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  left  private  confes- 
sion and  private  absolution  to  be  determined  by  the 
needs  of  the  individual.  The  war  thus  opened  between 
Pietism  and  Lutheran  orthodoxy  led  the  latter  to  de- 
clare private  confession  and  private  absolution  a  divine 
institution,  and  thus  only  brought  some  credit  to  the 
old  Lutheran  institutions,  while  it  greatly  increased  the 
fervor  of  their  opponents. 

6.  In  the  sphere  of  dogmatics  Schleiermacher  Avas  the 
first  among  German  Protestant  divines  to  reintroduce 
the  idea  of  the  power  of  the  keys,  but  he  confines  its 
application,  after  special  exclusion  of  the  sermon,  to 
the  law-giving  and  judicial  (administrative)  power  of 
the  Church,  which  he  regards  as  tlie  essential  outgrowth 
of  the  ecclesiastical  office  of  Christ,  and  whose  exist- 
ence he  ascribes  to  the  association  of  the  Church  with 
the  world  (§  144,  145).  When  we  consider,  however, 
how  vague  and  contradictory  are  the  confessional  IjoolvS 
of  the  evangelical  churches  on  this  point  (we  need  in- 
vite OJily  to  a  comparison  of  the  passages  collected  by 
Schleiermacher  in  §  145),  how  things  altogether  distinct 
are  there  joined,  and  how  difficult  it  is  in  an  exegetical 
way  to  define  the  subject  with  any  degree  of  certainty, 
it  seems  the  most  proper  course  to  ignore  the  attempt 
altogether  of  introducing  into  dogmatics  such  figurative 
terms  as  ''  keys  of  the  heavenly  kingdom,"'  to  "bind  and 
loose."  What  has  thus  far  been  written  upon  these 
phrases  would  have  been  much  more  in  place  in  defining 
"forgiveness  of  sin"  and  "justification"  when  alluding 
in  practical  theology  to  preparation  for  communion  (as 
has  been  done,  with  a  good  deal  of  tact,  by  Nitzsch  in 
his  Prakf.  Tlieol.  ii,  2,428),  and  in  ecclesiastical  law  un- 
der discipline  without  any  cause  for  fear  of  complication. 

As  regards  the  idea  of  absolution  so  prominent  in  the 
exercise  of  the  power  of  the  keys,  it  has,  during  the  last 
twenty  years,  again  become  (in  Germany)  matter  of 
general  investigation.  The  beginning  was  made  by  the 
court  preacher,  Dr.  Ackermann  (at  the  Church  diet  in 
Bremen  in  1852),  on  private  confession.  Altliough  he 
did  not  lay  particular  stress  upon  absolution,  but  simply 
justified  confession  on  its  own  account  and  as  a  psyclio- 
logical  need,  it  naturally  led  to  a  debate  on  absolution 
by  the  Church  diet,  followed  by  a  lively  discussion  be- 
tween the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  ministers.  On  the 
part  of  the  Lutherans  every  possible  effort  was  made  to 
reinvest  private  absolution  with  its  former  rights,  and 
to  pave  the  way  at  least  for  its  early  reintroduction. 
They  went  so  far  as  to  vindicate  it  as  a  divine  institu- 
tion, argued  for  general  absolution  as  a  duty,  and,  well 
knowing  its  origin  in  the  IMiddle  Ages,  appealed  to  it 
as  an  institution  sanctified  by  tradition  of  the  Church, 


KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE 


69 


KHAN 


Even  the  assertion  was  not  wanting  that  absolution,  un- 
der all  circumstances,  possesses  divine  power,  so  as  act- 
ually to  free  the  sinner  from  his  f^uilt,  quite  in  contra- 
diction to  the  new  Lutheran  doctrine.  See  Luther.vn- 
iSM,  New. 

V.  Doctrine  of  the  Greek  Church.— The  Greek  Church 
entertains  views  on  the  doctrine  of  the  power  of  the 
keys  and  on  absolution  very  similar  to  those  entertain- 
ed by  the  Latin  Church  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  sub- 
ject is  treated  in  full  in  Covel,  Account  of  the  Greek 
Church  (Cambridge,  1722,  foL),  p.  229  sq.;  iieale,  East- 
ern Church,  Introd.  ii.     See  Gueek  Church. 

YI.  Doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England  ami  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church. — On  the  question  of  abso- 
lution, as  involved  in  the  so-called  "power  of  the  keys," 
there  is  a  division  of  opinion  similar  to  that  noticed 
above  in  the  Lutheran  Church  of  Germany.  This  dif- 
ference is  but  part  of  a  wide  divergency  of  views  on  the 
whole  question  of  ministerial  functions,  and  is  generally 
denoted  by  the  opposite  terms  the  Iligh-Church  and  the 
Low-Church  party.     See  Kitualism. 

VIL  Literature. — J.  Morinus,  7)6  disciplina  in  admin- 
istratione  sacramenti  panitentice  (Paris,  1G51,  Antwerp, 
1682) ;  Daille,  De  poenis  et  satisfactionibus  humanis 
(Amst.  1G49) ;  De  sacramentali  sive  auriculari  Latino- 
rum  confessione  (Gen.  1661);  Hottinger,  »S^me(7mrt  exerci- 
tat.  de  pcenilentia  antiquioris  Romance  ecclesice  (Tigurini, 
1706) ;  Wernsdorf,  De  uhsolutione  non  mere  declarativa 
(Yitt.  17G1);  Abicht,  De  confsdone  privata  (Gedan. 
1728);  Fix,  Gesch.  d.  Beichie\Chemmtz,  1800);  Dens, 
Theolofjia,  torn,  vi ;  De  Sacrament.  Panit.  No.  14,  torn, 
ii.  No.  91,  De  Primatu  Peti-i ;  Mohnike,  Das  Sechste 
JIauptstiick  im  Katechismus  (Strals.  1830) ;  Barron,  On 
the  Supremacij  (in  Works,  vii,  134  sq.,  Oxf.  1830)  ;  Chas. 
Elliott,  Delineation  of  Roman  Catholicism  (3d  ed.,  by  Dr. 
Hannal),  Lond.  1851),  p.  195  sq.,  613  sq. ;  jMohler,  Sipn- 
holism  (transl.  by  Kobertson,  3d  ed.,  N.  Y.  Cathol.  Publ. 
House,  1870),  p.  217  sq.;  H.  C.  Lea,  Studies  in  Ch.  Hist. 
(Phila.  18C9),  p.  153,  223  sq.;  Haag  (Romish),  Ilistoire 
des  Dogmes  Chretiens,  vol.  ii,  §  20;  London  Reriew,  1864 
(JiUy),  p.  86  sq. ;  Ecang.  Quart.  Rev.  1869  (April),  p.  69, 
269;  (July)  p.  69,  341 ;  Martigny,  Dictiunnaire  des  An- 
tiquith,  p.  156.  Among  the  early  monographs  on  the 
keys  we  may  mention  those  of  Wigand,  De  dace  ligante 
(Francof.  1561);  Schmid,  De  clavibus  ecclesice  (Argent. 
1667) ;  Botface,  De  clavibus  Petri  (Haf.  1707) ;  Luther, 
Von  d.  Schliisseln  (ed.  Wiesing,  Frankft.  and  Lpz.  1795). 
Of  late  (chietly  German)  treatises  specially  on  the  sub- 
ject we  may  name  Eothe,  A  mt  d.  Schliissel  (Gorl.  1801); 
Brascms,  A  mt  d.  Schliissel  (Breslau,  1820);  Steitz,  Das 
Bussacrament  (Frankft.  1854) ;  idem,  Die  Privatbeichte 
und  Privatabsolution  (Frankft.  185 1)  ;  Kliefoth,  Beichte 


und Absolution  (Schwer.  1856) ;  F^terer, Luther's  Lehre 
von  der  Beichte  (Stuttg.  1857).  See  also  Absolution; 
Lay  Kei'kesextation  ;  Kock. 

Keyser,  Leoniiakd,  a  Baptist  martyr,  originally  a 
Roman  Catholic  priest,  tiourished  iu  the  first  half  of  the 
16th  century.  He  joined  the  Baptists  in  1525,  and  im- 
mediately began  preaching  the  Reformation  doctrine,  un- 
dismayed by  all  the  tyranny  exerted  against  the  faith- 
ful by  water,  fire,  antl  swonl.  In  the  second  j'ear  of  liis 
ministry  (1527)  he  was  ajiprehended  at  Scherding,  on 
the  River  Inn,  and  condemned  to  the  flames.  '■  The 
chief  heads  of  accusation  against  him  were,  that  faith 
alone  justifies,  without  good  works;  that  there  are  only 
two  sacraments ;  that  the  (iospel  was  not  preached  by 
the  papists  in  Germany;  that  confession  is  not  God's 
command ;  that  Christ  is  the  only  satisfaction  for  sin ; 
that  there  is  no  purgatory ;  that  Christ  is  the  only  Me- 
diator; and  that  all  days  (alluding  to  feast  or  saints' 
days)  are  alike  with  God." — Baptist  Martyrs,  p.  60. 

K!ezi'a  (Ileb.  Ketsiah',  T^V^'^'p,  cassia,  as  in  Psa. 
xlv,  9  ;  Septuag.  Karraia  v.  r.  Kacr/a),  the  name  of  .Job's 
second  daughter,  born  to  him  after  the  return  of  his 
prosperity  (Job  xlii,  14).     B.C.  cir.  2220. 

Ke'ziz  {llchrovf  Ketsits',Y''^'p,ab>-iipt ;  only  with 
p^I-',  e'mek,  valleij,  prefixed;  Septuag.  both  ' AjiiKKacriQ, 
Yulg.  Vallis  Casis),  or  rather  Emek-Keziz  (Yalo  of  Ke- 
ziz),  a  city  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  mentioned  between 
Beth-hoglah  and  Beth-arabah  (Josh,  xviii,  21),  and 
therefore  probably  situated  in  a  steep  ravine  of  the  same 
name  leading  to  the  valley  of  the  Jordan.  See  Beth- 
BASi.  M.  De  Saulcy  found  a  small  valley  by  the  name 
of  Kaaziz  about  an  hour  and  a  half  distant  from  Beth- 
any, in  the  direction  of  Jericho  {Nai-rative,  ii,  17),  which 
he  conjectures  (p.  26)  was  the  ancient  Yalley  of  Keziz. 
So  also  Van  de  Yelde  {Memoir,  p.  328)  calls  it  Wady  el- 
Kaziz. 

IChadijah  is  the  name  of  t\'\(i  first  wife  of  the  Is- 
lamite prophet.     See  Mohammed. 

Khan  is  the  more  common  Arabic  name  for  the  pub- 
lic establishments  which,  under  the  less  imposing  title 
of  menzil,  or  the  more  stately  one  of  caravanserai  (q.  v.), 
correspond  to  our  Occidental  ideas  of  an  inn  (cj.  v.). 
These  afford  lodging,  but  not  usually  food,  for  man  and 
beast.  They  are  generally  found  near  towns,  but  some- 
times in  the  open  country  on  a  frequented  route.  They 
are  mentioned  in  the  N. Test.  (TiavloxCiov,  Luke  x,  34) 
and  Talmud  (p'lilS,  Lightfoot,  0pp.  p.  799),  and  some- 
thing of  the  kind  seems  to  occur  in  the  later  books  of 
the  O.  T.  (r.iinj,  Jer.  xli,  17 ;  the  ica-aXvpa  of  Luke  ii, 
7  is,  however,  thought  by  some  to  have  been  of  a  more 


Interior  of  Vizir  Khan  at  Aleppo. 


KIIATCHADUR 


70 


KHLESL 


private  character).  The  earlier  Hebrews  knew  of  no  I 
such  provision  for  travellers  (Gen.  xlii,  27 ;  Exod.  iv, 
24;  2  Kings  xix,  23;  the  "jlb^  being  merely  the  stop- 
ping-place over  night;  the  tlJTT  of  Josh,  ii,  1  indicating 
rather  a  brothel,  and  the  TT'D  of  1  Sam.  xix,  18  the 
home  of  the  prophet-scholars).  Entertainment  was 
generally  furnished  by  individual  hospitality  (q.  v.). — 
Winer,  i,  479. 

Khatchadiir,  an  Armenian  theologian,  flourished 
in  tlie  opening  of  the  17th  century.  He  was  bishop  of 
Dehiiugha,  and  in  1G30  was  sent  by  the  Armenian  patri- 
arch Michael  HI  to  Constantinople  on  an  ecclesiastical 
mission,  and  later  to  Poland.  He  is  particularly  cele- 
brated, however,  as  a  poet.— Hoefer,  iVc<(»-.  £'io^.  6'e«er. 
xxvii,  075. 

Khatchid  I,  elected  patriarch  of  Armenia  in  972,  is 
noted  in  tlie  annals  of  the  ecclesiastical  history  of  Arme- 
nia for  the  interest  he  manifested  toward  literature  and 
the  fine  arts,  and  for  the  establishment  of  a  number  of 
monasteries.  He  died  at  his  residence  in  Arkina  in  992. 
— Hoefer,  Xouv.  Biog.  Gemrale,  xxvii,  G7G. 

Khatchid  II  was  patriarch  of  Armenia  in  1058,  but 
was  oppressed  by  the  Byzantine  emperor  Constantine 
Ducas,  who  imprisoned  him  for  some  three  years,  and 
then  banished  him  to  Cappadocia.  He  died  in  1064. — 
Hoefer,  Xoia:  Biog.  Generak,  xxvii,  670. 

Khazars  or  Khozars  is  the  name  of  a  Finnish 
people,  a  rude  Ijut  powerful  nation,  north  of  the  Cauca- 
sus, related  to  the  Bulgarians  and  Hungarians,  which 
in  the  8th  century  embraced  Judaism.  After  the  disso- 
lution of  the  empire  of  the  Huns  they  settled  on  the 
borders  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  at  one  time  possessed  a 
realm  near  the  mouth  of  the  Wolga  (by  thera  called 
Itil  or  Atel),  on  the  Caspian  Sea  (after  them  sometimes 
called  Khazar  Sea),  where  the  Kalmucks  (q.  v.)  now 
live.  They  gave  much  uneasiness  to  the  Persians,  es- 
pecially during  the  reign  of  Khosru  I  (q.  v.),  and  in  the 
7th  century,  after  the  downfall  of  the  Sassanians,  the 
Khazars  went  across  the  Caucasus,  invaded  Armenia, 
and  conquered  the  Crimea,  hence  called  at  one  time 
Khnzuri  or  Cho(a)zar{.  The  Byzantine  emperors  trem- 
bled before  the  warlike  skill  of  the  Khazars,  and  paid 
large  tributes  to  keep  them  at  a  respectful  distance 
from  Constantinople ;  the  Bulgarians  and  other  peoples 
■were  their  vassals ;  the  Russians  (Kievians)  appeased 
their  desire  for  conquest  by  an  annual  tribute,  and 
with  the  Arabs  they  -were  waging  constant  warfare. 
But  by  degrees,  as  they  abandoned  their  nomadic  hab- 
its, their  warUke  spirit  decreased,  and  they  largely 
fostered  commercial  intercourse  with  the  outer  world. 
They  exchanged  dried  fish,  the  furs  of  the  north,  and 
slaves  for  the  gold  and  silver  and  the  luxuries  of  south- 
ern climates.  JMerchants  of  all  religions — Jews,  Chris- 
tians, and  jMohammedans — were  freely  admitted,  and 
their  superior  intelligence  over  his  more  barbarous  sub- 
jects Liduced  one  of  their  kings,  Bulan,  to  forsake  their 
coarse,  idolatrous  worship,  greatly  mixed  with  sensu- 
ousness  and  licentiousness,  and  to  embrace  (A.D.  740) 
the  Jewish  religion.  "By  one  account,"  says  Milman 
(Jews,  iii,  138),  "he  was  admonished  by  an  angel;  bj' 
another,  he  decided  in  this  singular  manner  between 
the  claims  of  Christianity,  IMoslemism.  and  Judaism. 
He  examined  the  diflerent  teachers  apart,  and  asked 
the  Christians  if  Judaism  were  not  better  than  IMoham- 
medanism  ;  the  Moliammedan,  whether  it  was  not  bet- 
ter than  Christianity,  lioth  replied  in  tlie  afiirmative; 
on  which  the  monarch  decided  in  favor  of  Judaism." 
According  to  one  statement  secretly,  to  another  openly, 
lie  embraced  the  faith  of  IMoses,  and  induced  learned 
teachers  of  the  law  to  settle  in  his  dominions.  Of  Course, 
at  first,  the  change  of  religious  belief  was  confined  to  the 
royal  household,  and  the  four  thousand  nobles  of  the 
land,  who.  with  Bulan,  embraced  Judaism ;  but  soon  the 
new  religion  spread,  and  ere  long  tlie  majority  of  the 
nation  bowed  in  adoration  to  the  one  and  ever-livintr 


God.  Judaism  actually  became  a  necessary  condition 
to  the  succession  to  the  throne,  but  there  was  the  most 
Uberal  toleration  to  all  other  forms  of  faith.  See  Oba- 
DiAii.  liabbi  Hasdai,  a  learned  Jew,  who  was  in  the 
highest  confidence  with  Abderrahman,  the  caliph  of 
Cordova,  first  receiveil  intelligence  of  this  sovereignty 
possessed  by  his  brethren  through  the  ambassadors  of 
the  Byzantine  emperor.  After  considerable  difficulty, 
Hasdai  succeeded  in  establishing  a  correspondence  with 
Joseph,  the  reigning  king.  The  letter  of  Hasdai  is  ex- 
tant, and  an  answer  of  the  king,  which  does  not  possess 
equal  claims  to  authenticity.  The  Avhole  history  has 
been  wrought  out  into  a  religious  romance,  entitled 
Cosri  [see  Jehuda  ha-Levi],  which  has  involved  the 
question  in  great  obscurity.  Basnage  rejected  the  whole 
as  a  fiction  of  the  Kabbins,  anxious  to  prove  that  "  the 
sceptre  had  not  entirely  departed  from  Israel."  Jost 
inclines  to  the  belief  that  "  there  is  a  groundwork  of 
truth  under  the  veil  of  poetic  embellishment."  The 
latest  writers  upon  the  subject  admit  without  hesita- 
tion, and  Jewish  writers  almost  boast  of  the  kingdom 
of  Khazar.  Comp.  Friihn's  Commentary  of  Ibn-Foszlan 
"Z>e  ChazuTis"  (in  the  Memoires  de  V Academic  Tmperi- 
ale  des  Sciences  de  Peteishoitr-g,  1822,  vol.  viii) ;  D'Hos- 
son,  Peuples  dti  Cciucase;  Dufremery,  in  the  Journal 
A  siatique,  1849,  p.  470  sq. ;  Eeinaud,  A hulfeda,  Introd.  p. 
299;  "\'ivien  de  St.  Martin,  Les  Khazars  (in  the  Mhn.  a 
VAcademie  des  Inscriptions  et  des  BeUes-Lettres,  Paris, 
1851).  The  Khazars  became  extinct  as  a  nation  in  A. 
D.  945,  when  they  were  conquered  by  Swaitoslaw  [duke 
of  Kiev  (q.  v.)],  and  their  name,  otherwise  almost  for- 
gotten, was  preserved  in  the  archives  of  the  jMuscovite. 
See  Schweitzer,  JtidrUssiclie  ViJlker ;  Carmoly,  Itine- 
raires  de  la  Terre  Sainte  (Brux.  1847),  ]x  1-104;  Ilapo- 
port,  Kerem  Chemed,  v,  197  sq. ;  Cassel,  in  Ersch  und 
GrulDcr,  Encyklopadie ;  Griitz,  Geschichfe  d.  Juden,  v,  211 
sq. ;  Rule,  Karaites,  p.  79  sq.     See  Kief.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Khedr,  Al,  is  the  name  which  figures  in  the  Koran 
(chap,  xviii.  Sale's  edition,  p.  244)  as  that  of  a  person 
whom  the  ^Mohammedans  assert  the  Lord  pointed  out 
to  Moses  as  superior  in  wisdom  to  any  other  living  per- 
son, !Moses  included.  The  story  the  Mohammedans  tell 
is  thus  given  by  Sale :  "  JNIoses  once  preaching  to  the 
people,  they  admired  his  knowledge  and  eloquence  so 
much  that  they  asked  him  whether  he  knew  any  man 
in  the  world  who  was  wiser  than  himself,  to  which  he 
answered  in  the  negative ;  whereupon  God,  in  a  revela- 
tion, having  reprehended  him  for  his  vanity  (though 
some  pretend  that  Closes  asked  God  the  question  of  his 
o;vn  accord),  acquainted  him  that  his  servant  Al  Khedr 
was  more  knowing  than  he;  and,  at  ]\Ioses's  request, 
told  him  that  he  might  find  that  person  at  a  certain 
rock  where  the  two  seas  met,  directing  him  to  take  a 
fish  with  him  in  a  basket,  and  that  Avhere  he  missed  the 
fish  that  was  the  place.  Accordingly  Moses  set  out, 
with  his  servant  Joshua,  in  search  of  Al  Khedr."  See 
Sale's  Koran,  p.  244. 

Khlesl,  jMelciiiou,  a  German  theologian,  born  at 
Vienna  in  1553  of  Protestant  parents,  was  induced  to 
enter  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  joined  the  Jes- 
uits. After  studying  five  years  under  the  Jesuits  he 
took  the  first  four  orders,  then  continued  his  studies  for 
two  years  at  Ingolstadt,  and  was  ordained  jiriest  in  1579. 
He  became  successively  provost  of  the  cathedral  at  \i- 
enna,  administrator  of  the  bishopric  of  Neustadt  in  1588, 
and  bishop  of  Vienna  in  1598.  The  loose  conduct  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  having  greatly  contriliuted 
to  the  rapid  spreading  of  Protestant  doctrines,  Khlesl 
showed  himself  a  zealous  partisan  of  reform  in  this  re- 
spect, while,  on  the  other  hand,  he  did  his  utmost  to 
bring  Protestants  back  into  the  fold  of  Romanism.  Yet 
he  was  still  more  iiK-lined  to  mingle  in  politics  than  in 
Church  affairs.  He  attached  himself  to  the  grand  duke 
Jlatthias,  eldest  brother  of  the  emperor  Rudolph  II, 
whom  the  latter  particularly  disliked  on  account  of  a 
prediction,  according  to  which  this  brother  was  to  de- 
pose him.     The  emperor  contemplated  exiling  Khlesl, 


KHLESTOVSHCHICKI 


VI 


KIILISTIE 


but  the  latter  succeeded  in  organizing  a  conspiracy,  and 
Matthias  was  made  emperor  in  1-iudolph's  place.  The 
Protestant  princes  had  a  part  in  this  revolution,  but 
Khlesl  took  good  care  that  they  should  not  derive  any 
benefit  from  it  to  fiurther  their  religion.  Under  empe- 
ror Matthias  he  became  ])resident  of  the  privy  coun- 
cil in  1611,  and  cardinal  in  IGIG.  Notwithstanding  his 
opposition  to  Protestantism,  wliich  he  rigorously  perse- 
cuted in  1616-18,  he  remained  at  the  head  of  the  Ger- 
man party,  and  opposed  the  adoption  of  the  grand  duke 
Ferdinand  as  heir  to  the  throne.  Ferdinand  revenged 
himself  by  arresting  Khlesl  at  Vienna,  July  20,  1618, 
and  confining  him  first  at  the  castle  of  Ambras,  and 
then  at  the  convent  of  Georgenberg,  in  Tyrol.  In  1622 
a  requisition  from  the  pope  caused  him  to  be  transferred 
to  Rome,  where  he  was  imprisoned  for  seven  months  in 
the  castle  of  St.  Angelo.  After  his  liberation  he  return- 
ed to  Vienna  in  1627,  and  was  restored  to  the  possession 
of  his  property  and  his  offices.  lie  gave  np  politics  to 
attend  exclusively  to  the  management  of  ecclesiastical 
affairs,  and  died  Sept.  18,  1630.  His  fortune,  amount- 
ing to  over  half  a  million,  he  left  to  the  bishopric  of  Vi- 
enna; 100,000  ilorins  to  Neustadt  and  Vienna  for  a  yearly 
mass  for  his  soul ;  100,000  florins  to  the  convent  of  Hira- 
melspforte,  20,000  to  the  .Jesuits,  and  46,000  to  his  rela- 
tives. Khlesl's  motto  was  "Strong  and  mild:"  strong 
in  action,  mild  in  manner;  the  latter  was  somewhat 
difficult  for  him  to  submit  to,  as  he  was  naturally  hasty. 
He  had  not  received  a  classical  education,  but  was  vre]l 
versed  in  the  Bible,  in  patristics,  and  in  homiletics.  See 
Hammer  -  Purgstall,  Lehensheschreihunfi  des  Cardinals 
Kldc'sl  (Vienna,  1847-51, 4  vols.  8vo) ;  Pierer,  Univ.  Lex. 
s.  V. ;  Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirch.-Lex.  vi,  225. 

Klilestovslichicki.     Sec  Skoptzi. 

Khlistie  (Lashers),  also  called  Danielites,  is  the 
name  of  a  powerful  Russian  sect.  They  call  themselves 
"  people  of  God,"  "  Tribe  of  Israel,"  "  worshippers  of  the 
true  God,"  or  "  Brothers  and  Sisters."  They  originated 
in  the  first  year  of  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Alexis  (A.D. 
1645).  According  to  their  tradition,  there  descended,  in 
the  days  of  Alexis,  upon  Mt.  Gorodin,  in  the  district  of 
Wladimir,  in  great  power,  on  a  wagon  of  fire  surrounded 
by  a  cloud, "  God  the  Father,"  accompanied  by  the  hosts 
of  heaven.  The  latter  returned  again  to  the  other  world, 
but  the  Lord  himself  remained  on  the  earth,  and  mani- 
fested himself  in  the  flesh  in  the  person  of  Daniel  Phil- 
ippon  (or  Philippitch).  This  they  hold  to  have  been 
the  second  manifestation  of  God  the  Father  in  the  flesh, 
and  as  in  his  first  manifestation  Jerusalem  was  enlight- 
ened, so  at  this  time  Russia  was  blessed  with  special  di- 
vine favor;  and,  corresponding  to  Jerusalem,  they  point 
out  as  their  Zion,  or,  as  they  call  it, "  the  higher  region," 
the  province  Kostroma,  in  which  Daniel  Philippon  was 
born.  The  historical  facts  in  the  case,  as  related  bj' 
Dixon  (Free  Jiiissia,  p.  139),  however,  are,  that  Daniel 
was  a  peasant  in  the  province  of  Kostroma,  and,  after 
serving  for  a  time  in  the  Russian  army,  ran  away  from 
his  flag  in  battle,  declared  himself  the  Almighty,  and 
wandered  about  the  empire,  teaching  those  who  would 
listen  to  his  voice  his  doctrine,  inculcated  in  the  follow- 
ing twelve  commandments : 

1.  I  am  the  God  of  whom  the  prophets  spoke.  I  came 
for  the  second  time  into  the  world  to  redeem  the  souls  of 
men.    There  is  no  God  besides  me. 

2.  There  is  no  other  doctrine,  and  no  other  is  to  be 
songht. 

3.  In  what  you  are  taught,  therein  also  remain. 

4.  Keep  the  commandments  of  your  God,  and  become 
fishers  of  men  in  general. 

5.  Drink  no  strong  drinks,  and  do  not  fulfil  the  lust  of 
the  flesh. 

G.  Do  not  get  married,  and  whosoever  is  married  let  him 
live  with  his  wife  as  with  his  sister.  This  is  the  sense  of 
the  Old-Testament  Scriptures.  The  unmarried  should  not 
marry,  and  those  who  are  married  should  separate. 

7.  No  abusive  word  (diabol)  is  to  be  used. 

8.  Not  to  attend  wedding  or  baptism  festivities,  or  drink 
at  parties. 

0.  Not  to  steal ;  and  if  any  one  takes  of  another  the 
smallest  coin,  it  will  have  to  rnelt  on  his  head  at  the  judg- 


ment day  from  the  heat  of  punishment  before  he  can  he 
pardoned. 

10.  These  commandments  are  to  he  kept  secret,  not  to 
he  revealed  even  to  father  or  mother.  The  sufi'eriug  from 
tire  and  the  knout  must  he  endured, because  for'it  the 
kingdom  of  heaven  and  bliss  on  earth  are  obtained. 

11.  Friends  are  lo  visit  friends,  to  give  suppers  of  friend- 
ship, to  exercise  love,  to  keep  these  commands,  and  pniy 
to  God. 

12.  To  believe  in  the  Iloly  Spirit. 

Their  own  tradition  asserts  that  Daniel  himself  did 
not  issue  these  commands,  but  that  a  son  was  born  to 
him  fifteen  years  before  his  appearance  in  this  world,  in 
the  person  of  Ivan  Timofejen,  in  the  village  Blaksakon, 
of  a  woman  one  hmulrcd  years  old.  That  this  Ivan, 
when  thirty-three  years  old,  M'as  summoned  by  Daniel 
to  the  village  Staraja,  and  there  received  his  godhead, 
and  that  thereupon  father  and  son  ascended  into  heav- 
en, and,  after  a  short  tarry,  from  the  same  place  de- 
scended Jesus  the  Christ,  in  the  person  of  Ivan,  who  at 
once  commenced  to  preach,  assisted  by  twelve  disci;  les, 
the  doctrines  embodied  in  the  twelve  commandments 
above  cited,  and  entered  into  the  state  of  holy  matri- 
mony with  a  j'oung  female,  whom  they  call "  the  daugh- 
ter of  God."  To  add  to  the  romance  of  the  storj-,  the 
persecutions  to  which  these  fanatical  religionists  were 
subject  has  given  rise  to  an  imitation  of  the  resurrection 
narrative  of  the  N.-T.  Scriptures.  After  suffering  per- 
secution under  various  forms  and  of  divers  kinds,  Ivan 
was  partly  burned  and  then  crucified  ;  but,  after  remo- 
val from  the  cross,  and  his  burial  on  a  Friday,  he  rose 
again,  and  on  the  Sunday  after  appeared  in  the  midst  of 
his  foOowers.  Again  seized  by  the  authorities,  he  was 
tried  and  crucified  a  second  time,  and  his  skin  taken  off; 
one  of  his  female  followers  standing  by  then  wrapped 
the  body  in  a  sheet,  out  of  which  a  new  skin  formed  it- 
self, and  after  l)urial  he  again  rose  and  commenced 
anew  the  preaching  of  his  doctrines,  and  made  many 
followers.  Thereafter  Ivan  took  up  his  residence  at 
Moscow,  and  openly  taught  his  new  religion.  The  house 
which  he  occupied  was  called  the  "  New  Jerusalem."  He 
died  on  the  day  of  St.  Tichon,  after  living  some  forty- 
five  j'ears  at  IMoscow,  and  ascended  to  heaven  in  pres- 
ence of  his  disciples,  to  join  his  father  and  the  saints. 
Notwithstanding  the  frenzy  of  this  fabulous  narrative, 
the  sect  is  numerous,  and  has  among  its  members  many 
of  the  nobles  of  the  land. 

Like  the  Skoptzi,  the  sect  of  the  Khlistie  also  observe 
some  of  the  practices  of  the  regular  Church,  to  ward  oflf 
suspicion  and  to  shield  themselves  from  persecution. 
From  their  usages  it  is  known  that  before  they  go  to 
communion  in  the  church  they  first  partake  of  it  accord- 
ing to  their  own  form.  They  also  have  a  separate  form  of 
baptism.  They  have  pictures  of  their  god  Daniel  Phil- 
ippon, their  Jesus  Christ,  their  mother  of  God,  saints, 
prophets,  and  teachers  whom  they  adore.  The  orthodox 
church  edifices  they  call  "  ant-nests,"  and  their  priests 
"  idolaters  and  adidterers."  IMarriage  is  considered  au 
impurity,  and  all  entering  this  state  are  lost,  yet  they 
permit  one  of  the  nearest  relatives  of  Daniel  Philippon 
and  Ivan  Timofejen  to  enter  this  state  to  prevent  the 
interruption  of  the  lineage.  The  water  from  a  wcU  in 
the  village  Staraja,  near  Kostroma,  is  in  the  winter  sent 
about  in  the  shape  of  ice,  and  used  by  them  to  bake 
their  communion  bread.  In  the  same  village  lived  in 
1847  a  girl,  Uliana  Visilijewa  by  name,  who  was  adored 
as  the  last  of  the  lineage  by  many  from  all  parts,  among 
them  nobles  and  merchants  of  ]\Ioscow,  and  though  for 
this  reason  the  government  passed  unnoticed  her  sacri- 
legious acts,  she  was  at  last  arrested  and  sent  to  a  mon- 
asterj'. 

Their  mode  of  worship  is  very  much  like  that  of  the 
Skoptzi,  except  that  after  service  they  partake  of  au 
ordinary  meal  in  common,  which  is  prolonged  till  late 
in  the  evening,  and  often  becomes  the  occasion  of  licen- 
tious sins.  This  sect  is  known  in  various  hicalitics  by 
different  names ;  in  some  parts  they  are  called  LJad// 
(useless"),  in  others  Chorashij  (hypocrites,) ,Vertiini  (turn- 
ers),  Kiipidomj  (Cupido,  the  god  of  love).     Great  num- 


KHOLBAII 


KHONDS 


bers  of  these  heretics  have  been  sent  uito  the  Caucasus 
and  Siberia,  whore  many  of  tliem  have  been  forced  to 
enter  the  armies  and  the  mines.  See  Dixon,  Fj-ee  Rus- 
s'm,  chap.  xxiv. 

Kholbah  (Arabic),  a  peculiar  form  of  prayer  used 
iu  ]\[ciliammedan  countries  at  the  commencement  of 
iiiiblic  worship  in  the  great  mosques  on  Friday  at  noon. 
It  was  originally  performed  by  the  Projjhct  himself,  and 
by  his  successors  up  to  A.D.  930,  since  which  time  special 
ministers  are  appointed  for  the  purpose.  The  Kholbah 
is  chiefly  '•  a  confession  of  faith,"  and  a  general  petition 
for  the  success  of  the  Mohammedan  religion.  It  is  di- 
vided into  two  distinct  parts,  between  ■which  a  consid- 
erable pause  is  observed,  which  the  Mussulman  regards 
as  the  most  solemn  and  important  part  of  his  worship. 
The  insertion  of  the  sultan's  name  in  this  prayer  has  al- 
ways been  considered  one  of  his  chief  prerogatives.  See 
Brande  and  Cox,  Did.  of  Science,  Literature,  and  Art,  ii, 
28-2. 

Khonds.  There  are  throughout  India  manifest 
traces  of  a  rude  primitive  stock  of  people  who  occupied 
the  country  anterior  to  the  Aryo-Scythian  races,  and 
there  are  still  great  divisions  of  the  people  bearing  na- 
tional characteristics  which  distinguish  them  from  the 
Hindus.  The  earliest  knowledge  we  have  of  these  peo- 
])le  is  through  the  great  epic  poems  of  the  Hindus,  the 
Mahuhharata  and  the  Ramayana,  which  describe  the 
wars  of  the  Aryans,  as  the  invading  race,  with  the  ab- 
original inhabitants  of  these  impenetrable  forests.  Suc- 
cessive wars  of  invaders,  however,  subdued,  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent,  some  of  these,  and  modified  their  views 
and  usages ;  but  these,  in  tiun,  affected  the  religion  and 
manners  of  their  conquerors. 

Dicisions. — Some  of  these  races  have  attached  them- 
selves to  Hindu  society,  and  serve  in  a  condition  of 
degradation  as  Chandals  or  Mlechas,  i.  e.  outcasts  or 
pariahs.  Thej'  often  hold  offices  of  trust  and  responsi- 
bility in  village  communities,  but,  according  to  Hindu 
Lxw,  they  should  live  outside  of  villages,  and  own  no 
j)roperty  but  dogs  and  asses.  Their  customs  and  insti- 
tutions are,  however,  everywhere  tUfferent  from  those 
of  the  Hindus. 

There  are  others  of  tliese  aboriginal  tribes  who  have 
not  mingled  with  Hinduism  at  all,  or  only  very  partial- 
Iv.  Among  these  are  the  A'ti^*-  of  Bengal  and  Eastern 
Nagpoor,  the  Khonds  of  Central  India,  the  Bheels  of  the 
Yindhya  Mountains,  the  Khaudesh  IMalwah,  etc.,  of  Cen- 
tral India,  and  others  in  the  south  amid  the  forests  of 
the  Neilgherry  Hills,  in  Guzerat,  and  other  places  (see 
Edinh.  Review,  April,  18(U).  These  preserve  their  own 
habits,  even  where  Hinduism  most  presses  them.  They 
have  no  castes,  their  widows  are  allowed  to  remarry, 
they  have  no  objection  to  any  kind  of  flesh,  and  other- 
wise differ  greatly  from  the  Aryan  peoples. 

The  least  raised  above  their  primitive  condition  are 
the  Khonds  of  Orissa,  who  '•  occupy  a  district  about  two 
hundred  miles  long  by  one  himdred  and  seventy  broad, 
in  liampur,  in  the  district  of  Gunjam"  (Brace,  p.  1-1:2),  a 
tract  of  land  back  from  the  coast  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
where  it  trends  eastward  to  Calcutta  and  southward  to 
Madras,  and  embracing  the  plateaux  of  the  Vindliya 
and  other  mountains. 

Name. — They  term  themselves  Knee,  Kui,  Koinga, 
Kivinr/u,  but  are  known  to  Europeans  by  their  Hindu 
name  of  Khorul  or  Kond.  Their  language  is  affiliated 
with  the  Uriya  (Ooriya),  but  the  dialects  are  many,  and 
often  "a  Khond  of  one  district  has  been  found  unable 
to  hold  communication  with  one  of  a  neighboring  tribe." 
The  speech  has  "  a  peculiar  pectoral  enunciation."  Eth- 
nologicaUy,  all  these  tribes  are  Turanian  or  jMongolian. 

Domestic  Relations. — jMarriage  may  only  take  jilace 
without  the  tribe,  but  never  with  strangers,  the  tribes 
intermarrying.  Boys  often  op- twelve  year^  of  age  are 
married  to  girls  of  liftcen  or  sixteen,  the  arrangements 
being  always  made  by  the  parents.  The  father  of  the 
bridegroom  generally  pays  twenty  or  thirty  '"  hves"  of 
cattle  to  the  bride's  father.     The  marriage  rite  itself  is 


very  simple.  The  father  of  the  bridegroom,  with  his 
family  and  friends,  bears  «  quantity  of  rice  and  liquor  in 
procession  to  the  house  of  the  parents  of  the  girl.  The 
priest  takes  it,  and  dashes  the  bowl  down,  and  pours 
out  a  libation  to  the  gods.  The  parents  of  the  parties 
join  hands,  and  declare  the  contract  completed.  An  en- 
tertainment follows,  with  dancing  and  song.  Late  at 
night  the  married  pair  are  carried  out  on  the  shoulders 
of  their  respective  uncles,  when,  the  burdens  being  sud- 
denly exchanged,  the  boy's  uncle  disappears,  and  the 
company  assembled  divides  into  two  parties,  who  go 
through  a  mock  conflict ;  and  thus  the  semblance  of  a 
forcible  abduction,  remains  or  indications  of  which  are 
found  so  frequently  in  widely  separated  quarters,  are 
preserved  among  the  Khonds  of  Orissa  (see  M'Lennan's 
Primitive  Marriage).  The  marriage  contract  is,  how- 
ever, loosely  held.  If  chikllcss,  the  wife  may  return  to 
her  father  at  any  time,  or,  in  any  event,  within  six 
months  of  the  marriage  if  the  money  given  at  her  mar- 
riage be  restored  to  her  father.  She  cannot  be  forcibly 
retained,  however,  even  if  the  money  be  not  returned. 
If  her  withdrawal  be  voluntary  she  cannot  contract  an- 
other matrimonial  alliance.  A  man  maj'  ally  himself 
with  another  woman  than  his  wife,  with  the  wife's  con- 
sent. Concubinage  is  not  disgraceful,  fathers  of  re- 
spectable families  allowing  their  daughters  to  contract 
such  marriages.  An  unmarried  woman  may  become  a 
mother  without  disgrace. 

Births  arc  celebrated  on  the  seventh  day  by  a  feast 
given  to  the  priests  and  villagers.  The  name  is  deter- 
mined by  a  peculiar  rite,  in  \vhich  grains  of  rice  are 
dropped  into  a  cup  of  water. 

Death. — After  the  death  of  a  private  person  his  body 
is  burned,  without  any  ceremony  other  than  a  drinking 
feast.  If,  however,  a  chief  die,  "  the  heads  of  society" 
are  assembled  from  every  quarter  by  the  beating  of 
gongs  and  drums ;  the  body  is  placed  on  the  funeral  pile; 
a  bag  of  grain  is  laid  on  the  ground,  a  staff  being  plant- 
ed in  it ;  and  all  the  personal  effects  of  the  deceased,  his 
clothes,  arms,  and  eating  and  drinking  vessels,  being 
first  placed  by  the  flag,  are  afterwards  distributed,  when 
the  pile  is  fired,  and  the  company  dance  round  the  flag- 
staff. 

Social  Organization  and  Government. — The  family  is 
the  unit  of  organization  and  the  government  patriar- 
chal, all  the  members  of  the  family  living  in  subordina- 
tion to  the  head,  the  eldest  son  succeeding  to  his  au- 
thority. All  property  belongs  to  the  father,  the  married 
sons  having  separate  houses  assigned  them,  except  the 
youngest,  who  ahvays  remains  with  the  father.  This 
father,  or  patriarch,  is  called  .1  hbaya. 

A  number  of  families  constitute  a  village,  which  gen- 
erally numbers  forty  or  fiftv  houses,  over  whom  there  is 
a  village  abbaya  or  patriarch.  A  number  of  villages 
are  organized  into  a  district,  superintended  by  a  district 
abbaya,  who,  however,  must  be  lineally  descended  from 
the  head  of  the  colony.  A  number  of  districts  consti- 
tute a  tribe,  with  a  tribal  abbaya,  and  a  number  of  tribes 
constitute  a  federal  group,  with  a  federal  abbaya  or 
chief.  This  chieftainship  is  immemoriaUy  hcreditarj'' 
in  particular  families,  but  is  elective  as  to  persons.  The 
head,  however,  is  only  the  first  among  equals,  and  his 
rule  is  without  external  jiomp,  or  castle,  or  fort.  The 
chief  receives  no  tribute,  but  he  takes  part  in  all  impor- 
tant discussions,  whether  social  or  religious,  and  leads 
his  people  in  war.  His  influence  is  very  great.  Orig- 
inally and  theoretically,  the  abbaya  is  the  priest.  This 
is  not  so  no^v  in  all  cases,  yet  he  is  religiously  venerated. 
The  family  and  the  religious  principles  are  tbus  com- 
bined. The  theory  of  government,  as  above  sketched, 
is  not,  however,  often  completely  realized,  there  being 
every  possible  deviation  from  it,  and  the  tribes  being 
raucii  intermingled.  These  tribes  bear  names  resem- 
bling those  adopted  by  the  North  American  Indians,  e. 
g.  "  Spotted  Deer,"  "  Bear,"  "  Owl,"  etc. 

Personal  and  Social  Characteristics. — These  people, 
like  almost  all  known  rude  races,  are  "  given  to  hospi' 


KHONDS 


73 


KHONDS 


tality."  For  the  safety  of  a  guest  life  and  honor  are  | 
pledged.  He  is  "  before  a  child."  A  murderer  even 
may  not  be  hurt  in  the  house  of  his  enemy ;  it  is  doubt- 
ful if  he  may  be  even  starved  in  it.  The  Khond  phys- 
iognomy is  clearly  Turanian.  The  color  varies  from 
that  of  hght  bamboo  to  a  deep  copper;  the  forehead  is 
full,  the  cheek-bones  high,  the  nose  broad  at  the  point, 
the  lips  fidl,  but  not  thick,  and  the  mouth  large.  The 
Khonds  are  of  great  bodily  strength  and  symmetry,  well 
informed  on  common  subjects,  of  quick  comprehension, 
and  otherwise  show  considerable  intellectual  capability. 
Their  mode  of  salutation  is  with  the  hand  raised  over 
the  head.  Their  natural  moral  qualities  are  of  mixed 
cliaracter.  They  are  personally  courageous  and  reso- 
lute. They  have  so  great  a  love  of  ]iersonal  liberty  that 
it  is  affirmed  they  have  been  known  to  tear  out  their 
tongues  by  the  roots  that  they, might  perish  rather  than 
endure  confinement.  They  are  not  very  intensely  at- 
tached to  their  tribal  institutions,  but  have  great  devo- 
tion to  the  persons  of  their  patriarchal  chiefs.  They 
have,  however,  a  great  spirit  of  revenge,  and  are  given 
to  seasons  of  periodical  intoxication.  They  drink  a 
liquor  made  of  the  Mow  flower,  this  tree  being  found 
near  every  hut  and  in  the  jungles.  They  are  a  "na- 
tion of  drunkards,"  and  will  drink  any  intoxicating  bev- 
erage, the  stronger  the  better. 

Laws. — They  have  no  code  by  which  they  are  gov- 
erned, but  follow  custom  and  usage.  The  right  of  prop- 
erty is  recognised.  Murder  is  left  to  private  revenge 
or  retaliation.  In  case  of  matrimonial  unfaithfulness, 
the  seducer  maj'  be  put  to  death  if  the  husband  choose, 
or  he  may  accept  the  entire  property  of  the  criminal  in 
lieu  of  his  right  to  put  him  to  death.  Property  stolen 
must  be  returned,  or  its  equivalent  given.  There  are 
seven  judicial  tests;  common  oaths  are  administered  on 
the  skin  of  a  tiger  or  lizard.  Ordeals  of  boiling  water 
and  oil  are  likewise  resorted  to. 

Arts  and  Marmf act  tars. — The  Khonds  manufacture 
axes,  bows  and  arrows,  a  species  of  ]ilough,  and  other 
implements ;  they  distil  liquor,  extract  oil,  work  in  clay 
and  metals,  and  dye  their  simple  garments.  Their 
houses  are  formed  of  strong  boards,  plastered  inside. 

A  rms  and  Agricidture. — They  use  the  sling,  bow  and 
arrows,  and  a  broad  battle-axe,  and  adorn  themselves 
for  battle  as  for  a  feast.  They  raise  rice,  oils,  millet, 
pulse,  fruits,  tobacco,  turmeric,  mustard,  etc.  No  money 
other  than  "  cowries"  (shells)  was  until  recently  known, 
all  property  being  estimated  in  "  lives,"  as  of  bullocks, 
buffaloes,  goats,  fowls,  etc.  Women  share  in  the  work 
of  harvest  and  sowing. 

Diseases  and  Remedies.  —  For  external  wounds  they 
resort  to  a  poultice  of  warm  mud,  made  of  the  earth  of 
the  ant-hills.  They  also  cauterize  with  a  hot  sickle 
over  a  wet  cloth.  For  internal  ailments  they  have  no 
medicines.  They  consider  all  diseases  to  be  supernatu- 
ral, and  the  priest,  being  the  physician,  must  discover 
the  deity  that  is  displeased.  He  divides  rice  into  small 
heaps,  ^\•hich  he  dedicates  to  sundry  gods ;  then  he  bal- 
ances a  sickle  with  a  thread,  jjuts  a  few  grains  upon 
each  cud  of  it,  and  calls  upon  the  names  of  the  gods, 
who  answer  by  agitating  the  sickle,  whereupon  the 
grains  are  counted,  and  if  the  number  of  them  be  odd 
he  is  offended.  The  priest  becomes  "  fidl  of  the  god," 
shakes  his  head  frantically,  utters  wild  and  incoherent 
sentences,  etc.  Deceased  ancestors  are  invoked  in  the 
same  way,  when  offerings  of  fowls,  rice,  and  liquor  are 
made,  which  subsequently  become  the  priest's  portion. 

Marjical  ami  Swpersiitious  Usarjes.  —  Spells,  charms, 
incantations,  etc.,  are  substituted  for  medicines;  wiz- 
ards, witches,  ghosts,  sorcerers,  augurs,  astrologers,  con- 
jurors, and  all  like  means  are  in  constant  use.  Death 
is  not  a  necessity,  not  the  appointed  lot  of  man;  it  is  a 
special  penalty  of  the  gods,  who  destroy  through  war, 
or  assume  the  shapes  of  wild  beasts  to  destroy  mankind. 
Magicians  may  take  avvay  life. 

Mythnlngij. —  (I.)  The  catalogue  of  gods  worshipped 
among  the  Khonds  is  extensive.     (1.)  At  the  head  of 


the  pantheon  is  the  Earth-Goddess,  who,  with  the  sun, 
receives  the  principal  worship.  The  Earth-Goddess  is 
the  superior  power,  and  presides  over  the  productive 
energies  of  nature.  She  is  malevolent,  and  is  invoked 
in  war.  Slie  controls  the  seasons,  and  sends  the  period- 
ical rains.  To  her  human  sacrifices  were  offered.  There 
are,  besides  her,  (2.)  a  (iod  of  Limits,  who  fixes  bounda- 
ries, and  whose  altar  is  on  the  highways.  (3.)  The  sun 
and  moon  ;  ceremonially  worshipped.  (4.)  The  God  of 
Arms,  to  whom  a  grove  is  devoted.  (5.)  The  God  of 
Hunting,  worshipped  by  parties  who  hunt  in  companies 
of  thirty  or  forty,  and  siuround  their  game,  (G.)  The 
God  of  Births,  worshipped  in  case  of  barrenness.  (7.) 
The  God  of  Small-pox,  who  ''sows"  that  disease  as  men 
do  the  earth  with  seeds.  (8.)  The  Hill-god,  without 
formal  worship.  ('J.)  The  Forest-god,  to  whom  birds, 
hogs,  and  sheep  are  offered.  (10.)  The  God  of  liain. 
(li.)  Of  Fountains.  (12.)  Of  Elvers.  (13.)  Oi'  Tanks ; 
and  (1-i.)  the  village  gods,  who  are  the  guardians  of  lo- 
calities, and  of  domestic  and  familiar  worship. 

(II.)  Besides  the  above  principal  gods  there  are  infe- 
rior local  or  partially  ackno-wledged  gods,  worshipjied 
under  sj'mbols  of  rude  stone  smeared  with  turmeric,  etc. 
The  great  conservative  principle  is  worshipped. 

Priesthood.— The  abbayas  are  the  priests,  but  tliis  of- 
fice may  be  assumed  by  others.  Priests  eat  only  with 
priests ;  take  part  in  marriages,  elections,  political  coim- 
cils,  etc.  They  are  of  about  the  same  level  of  culture 
as  those  of  other  tribes  among  Turanian  races. 

Religious  Rites  and  iSac?-iJices. — Nothing  was  definite- 
ly known  of  the  tribes  of  Gumsur  until  the  British  army 
was  brought  into  colUsion  with  them  in  1836,  subse- 
quently to  which  the  custom  of  human  sacrifices  was 
discovered  to  exist  among  them.  The  British  govern- 
ment, after  a  long  series  of  efforts,  succeeded  in  abolish- 
ing it.  ]\Iajor  Campbell  says,  "  The  Khonds  generally 
propitiated  their  deity  (the  Earth-Goddess)  with  human 
offerings  (p.  38,  30).  This  had  been  handed  down 
through  successive  generations,  and  was  regarded  as  a 
national  duty.  In  Giimsur  it  is  offered  mider  the  effigy 
of  a  bird,  in  other  locrlitics  as  an  elephant  (p.  51).  The 
victim,  called  Ahriuh,  must  be  purchased,  may  be  of 
any  age,  sex,  or  caste,  adidts  being  best,  and  the  more 
costly  the  more  acceptable.  These  are  purchased  from 
relations  in  time  of  famine  or  poverty,  or  are  stolen 
from  other  regions  hy  professed  kidnappers  of  the  Panoo 
caste  (p.  52).  In  some  cases  Jleriah  women  -were  al- 
lowed to  live  until  they  had  borne  children  to  Khond 
fathers,  the  children  being  reared  for  sacrifice.  .  .  .  The 
sacrifice,  to  be  efficacious,  must  be  public  (p.  53).  In 
Giimsur  it  was  offered  annuallj'.  The  priest  officiates. 
For  a  month  previous  there  is  much  feasting,  dancing, 
intoxication,  etc.  One  day  before,  the  victim  is  stupe- 
fied with  toddy,  and  bound,  sitting,  at  the  bottom  of  a 
post  bearing  an  effigy.  The  crowd  dance,  and  say,  'O 
god,  we  offer  this  sacrifice  to  you ;  give  us  good  crops, 
seasons,  and  health.'  To  the  victim  they  say,  'AVe 
bought  you  with  a  price,  and  did  not  seize  you ;  now 
we  sacrifice  you  according  to  our  custom,  and  no  sin 
rests  with  us'  (p.  55).  Various  other  ceremonies  are 
performed,  after  which  they  return  to  the  post  near  the 
village  idol,  always  represented  by  three  stones,  a  hog 
is  sacrificed,  the  blood  tlows  into  a  pit,  the  human  vic- 
tim, having  been  intoxicated,  is  thrown  in  and  suffoca- 
ted in  the  bloody  mire.  Tlie  priest  cuts  a  piece  of  the 
flesh  and  buries  it ;  others  do  likewise,  carrying  the 
flesh  to  their  own  villages.  In  some  cases  the  flesh  is 
cut  wliile  the  victim  is  yet  alive,  and  buried  as  a  sacred 
and  supernatural  manure." 

Cognate  Tribes.  —  These  and  other  aboriginal  races 
have  received  so  much  attention  from  ethnographers, 
philologers,  and  other  scientific  men  that  furtlicr  details 
are  not  needed  here.  The  prominence  given  to  these 
aboriginal  races  of  late  years  might  justify  full  articles 
on  the  kindred  tribes,  but,  as  they  are  of  substantially 
of  the  same  level,  we  have  chosen  to  make  a  tolerably 
full  sketch  of  the  Khonds,  as  typical  of  the  aboriginal 


KHORSABAD 


KIBZAIM 


Turanian  element  in  Hindustan.  The  following  copious 
literature  will  enable  persons  to  make  a  pretty  exhaus- 
tive study  of  what  is  known  concerning  them. 

Literature. — Edinhurf/h  Review,  A\\ri\,  18G4;  Calcutta 
Review,  \o\.  V,  vi,  x;  Calcutta  Christian  Observer,  April, 
Julv.  1837;  Transactions  of  Ethnolof/ical  Society,  i,  15; 
vi,  24-27;  also  for  1865,  p.  81 ;  B.  H.  Hodgson,  Aborig- 
ines of  the  Eastei-n  Frontier;  Chepawj  and  Busunda 
Tribes;  Aborigines  of  Southern  India  (Calcutta,  1849); 
Aborigines  of  India  (Calcutta,  1847);  M'Pherson's  Re- 
jmrts  upon  the  Khoiuls  of  the  Districts  ofGunjam  ami 
Cubhack  (Calcutta,  1842) ;  A  personal  Narrative  of  thir- 
teen Years  among  the  wild  Tribes  of  Khondistan  for  the 
Suppression  of  human  Sacrifices,  by  jMajor  Gen.  John 
Campbell,  C.  B.  (Loud.  18G4) );  Sonthalia  aiul  the  Son- 
thnls,  by  E.  G.  Man  (Loud.  1868) ;  IMetz,  The  Tribes  of 
the  Neilgherries ;  Lewin,  Hill  Tracts  of  Chittagong ; 
ll&rl'inass;  Aborigines  of  the  Neilgherries  (London,  1832) ; 
The  People  of  India,  by  J.  F.Watson  and  J.  W.  Kaye, 
vol.  i;  History  of  the  Suppression  of  Infanticide,  etc.,  by 
John  Wilson,  D.D.,  F.R.S.  (Bombaj^  and  London,  1855) ; 
Tylor,  Primitive  Culture,  vol.  i  and  ii  (London,  1871); 
Lubbock,  Origin  of  Civilization,  etc.  (Lond.  1871) ;  Brace, 
Races  of  the  Old  World  (New  York,  1863)  ;  Latham, 
Elements  of  Comparative  Philology  (Lond.  1862);  Ander- 
son, Foreign  Missions  (New  York,  1869);  M'Lennan, 
Primitive  Marriage;  Hunter,  Rural  Bengal.    (J.  T.  G.) 

Khorsabad.     See  Nixeveit. 

Khosru,  or  Khusni  I,  surnamed  Nushirvan  {the 
nohle  soul),  and  known  in  Byzantine  history  as  Chosroes 
I,  the  greatest  monarch  of  the  Sassanian  dynasty,  a  son 
of  Kobad,  king  of  Persia,  mounted  the  throne  in  A.D.  531. 
He  is  noted  in  ecclesiastical  history  for  his  contests  with 
Justinian  (q.  v.),  and  gave  shelter  to  great  numbers  of 
those  whom  Justinian,  the  B}-zantine  emperor,  perse- 
cuted for  their  religious  opinions.  He  also  waged  war 
with  Justin  II  (570),  and  Justinian,  grand-nephew  of 
the  emperor  of  that  name.  Khosru,  however,  did  not 
live  to  see  the  end  of  the  contest,  as  he  died  in  579.  His 
government,  though  very  despotic,  and  occasionally  op- 
pressive, was  yet  marked  by  a  firmness  and  energy  rare- 
ly seen  among  the  Orientals.  It  was  during  the  reign 
of  this  prince  that  the  fanatical  followers  of  Mazdak, 
■who  had  obtained  numerous  proselytes  to  the  inviting 
doctrine  of  a  communism  of  goods  and  women,  were  ban- 
islicd  from  the  lands  of  the  Sassanidre.  Persia,  during 
his  reign,  stretched  from  the  Red  Sea  to  the  Indus,  and 
from  the  Arabian  Sea  far  into  Central  Asia.  "  The  vir- 
tues, and  more- particularly  the  justice  of  this  monarch, 
form  to  the  present  day  a  favorite  topic  of  Eastern 
panegyric,  and  the  glories  and  happiness  of  his  reign 
are. frequently  extoUed  by  poets  as  the  golden  age  of 
the  Persian  sovereignty.  His  reign  forms  an  important 
epoch  in  the  historj'  of  science  and  literature :  he  found- 
ed colleges  and  libraries  in  the  principal  towns  of  his 
dominions,  and  encouraged  the  translation  of  the  most 
celebrated  Greek  and  Sanscrit  works  into  the  Persian 
language.  A  physician  at  his  court,  of  the  name  of 
Barznyeh,  is  said  to  have  brought  into  Persia  a  Pehlvi 
translation  of  tliose  cebbrated  fables  which  are  known 
under  the  name  of  Bldpai  or  Pilpay,  and  it  was  from 
this  translation  of  tlie  Indian  tales  that  these  fables 
found  their  Avay  to  nearly  every  other  nation  of  West- 
ern Asia  and  Europe.  The  conquests  of  Khosru  were 
great  and  numerous;  his  empire  extended  from  the 
shores  of  the  Red  Sea  to  the  Indus;  and  the  monarchs 
of  India,  China,  and  Thibet  are  represented  by  Oriental 
historians  as  sending  aml)assadors  to  his  court  with  val- 
uable presents  to  solicit  his  friendship  and  alliance" 
(English  Cyclopwdia').  Sec  Ewald,  Zcilschrift  fiir  die 
Kuiide  des  Morgenlandcs,  i,  185  sq. ;  ilalcolm.  History  of 
Persia  (see  Index).     Sec  Persia. 

Khosru  II,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  surnamed 
Pu^,^•I/.  (the  Generous),  was  raised  to  the  throne  in  590. 
In  the  first  years  of  the  7th  century  he  opened  war  upon 
the  Romans,  and  for  seventeen  years  intlicted  upon  the 


Byzantine  Empire  a  series  of  disasters  the  like  of  which 
they  had  never  before  experienced.  Syria  was  con- 
quered in  611, 1'alestine  in  614,  Egj^irt  and  Asia  Minor 
in  616,  and  the  last  bulwark  of  tlie  capital,  Chalcedon, 
fell  soon  after.  '•  The  Roman  Empire  was  on  the  Itrink 
of  ruin  ;  the  capture  of  Alexandria  had  deprived  the  in- 
habitants of  Constantinople  of  their  usual  supply  of  corn, 
the  northern  barbarians  ravaged  the  European  prov- 
inces, while  another  powerful  Persian  army,  already  ad- 
vanced as  far  as  the  Bosporus,  was  making  prepara- 
tions for  the  siege  of  the  imperial  city.  Peace  was  ear- 
nestly solicited  bj'  Heraclius,  who  had  succeeded  Phocas 
in  610,  but  without  success.  Khosru,  however,  did  not 
cross  the  Bosporus,  and  at  length,  in  621,  he  dictated 
the  terms  of  an  ignominious  peace  to  the  emperor.  But 
Heraclius,  who  had  hitherto  made  very  few  efforts  for 
the  defence  of  his  dominions,  rejected  these  terms,  and 
in  a  series  of  brilliant  campaigns  (A.D.  622-627)  recov- 
ered all  the  provinces  lie  had  lost,  repeatedly  defeated 
the  Persian  monarch,  and  advanced  in  his  victorious  ca- 
reer as  far  as  the  Tigris.  Khosru  was  murdered  in  the 
spring  of  the  following  year,  028,  by  his  son  Siroes"  (Eng- 
lish Cyclopwdia).     See  Persia. 

Khozars.     See  Kiiazars. 

Kibby,  Epaphras,  a  IMethodist  minister,  was  born 
in  Somers,  Connecticut,  in  1777,  In  1793  he  joined  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  at  New  London,  and  imme- 
diately became  active  in  religious  duties,  and  in  1798 
entered  the  ministrj-.  Through  his  labors  jMethodism 
was  introduced  into  Bath  and  Hallowell,  Elaine.  Jlel- 
ville  B.  Cox,  the  first  foreign  missionary  of  the  !M.  E. 
Church,  was  converted  imder  his  preaching  in  the  latter 
place.  He  also  formed  the  first  Methodist  society  in 
New  Bedford.  He  was  a  local  preacher  eleven  years ; 
returned  superannuated  in  1841,  in  which  relation  he 
continued  till  his  death,  Sept.  8, 18G4.  Kibby's  habits 
of  study  were  careful  and  close,  as  shown  in  his  accu- 
rately-trained reasoning  powers,  as  well  as  his  elegant 
and  forcible  diction.  He  was  passionately  fond  of  choice 
literature  and  poetrj-,  and  was  himself  a  poet  of  taste 
and  considerable  ability.  His  pulpit  talents  were  of  a 
superior  order,  his  judgment  cool  and  clear,  his  piety 
deep  and  uniform.  See  Coif .  Minutes,  1865,  p.  60;  Ste- 
vens, History  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  iv,  35, 
72,73,481.    (J.L.S.) 

Kib'roth-hatta'avah  (Heb.  Kibroth'-hat-Taii- 
vah',  iT'XFltl  JTnSiT,  graves  of  the  longing ;  Sept.  Mr/;- 
/tarn  -j/c  i-i'bviuaQ,  Vulg.  Sepulchra  concujriscentice), 
the  fifteenth  station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  desert  of  Si- 
nai, between  Taberah  and  Ilazeroth,  so  called  from  be- 
ing the  burial-place  of  the  midtltudes  that  died  from 
gorging  themselves  with  the  preternatural  supply  of 
tiuail-flcsh  (Numb,  xi,  34,  35;  xxxiii,  16,  17;  Dent,  ix, 
22;  comp.  Psa.  Ixxviii,  30,  31 ;  1  Cor.  x,  6).  From  the 
omission  of  Taberah  in  the  list  at  Numb,  xxxiii,  16,  and 
the  absence  of  any  statement  of  removal  in  Numb,  xi, 
it  lias  been  by  some  inferred  that  Taberah  and  Kibroth- 
hattaavah  were  but  different  names  for  the  same  jjlace ; 
but  in  Dent,  ix,  22  they  are  clearlj-  distinguished,  al- 
though they  apparently  lay  not  far  apart.  Kibroth- 
hattaa^'ah  was  probably  situated  in  wady  Murrah,  not 
far  N.E.  from  Sinai  (Robinson,  Res.  i,  221  sq.), correspond- 
ing in  position  to-  the  Eru-eis  el-Eberig,  where  Palmer 
has  found  traces  of  an  ancient  encampment  {iJcsert  of 
the  Exodus,  p.  212  sq.).  Schwarz's  identification  {Pahs- 
tine,  p.  213)  v,-ith  Ain  esh-Shehabeh,  in  the  interior  of  the 
desert  (Robinson,  i,  264),  is  far  astray.     See  Exoue. 

Kibza'im  [mauy  Kib'zalm]  {Hchicvf  Kibtsa'yim, 
D'^S^iT,  two  heaps;  Sept.  Ka/Sffai'/i).  a  Levitical  city 
of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  assigned  to  the  Kohathitcs,  and 
appointed  a  city  of  refuge  (.losh.  xxi,  22,  where  it  is 
mentioned  in  connection  with  Gezer  and  Bcth-horon,  as 
if  lying  on  the  edge  of  the  mountains  of  Ephraim) ;  oth- 
erwise called  Jokmeasi  (1  Chron.  vi,  68),  which,  how- 
ever, is  elsewhere  (Josh,  xxi,  34)  assigned  to  the  IMe- 
rarites  m  Zebulon,  probably  by  a  slight  diversity  arising 


KID 


15 


KIDRON 


from  its  contiguity  to  the  Kishon,  which  formed  the 
bouiulary-liuc  between  those  tribes  (Josh,  xix,  11). 

Kid  (properly  ""IJ,  fjedi',  so  called  from  crop2nnr/  the 
herbage;  more  fully,  'C'j}  I'lJ,  "kid  of  the  goats;" 
fem.  'Pr'''}'^,  gediyah' ,  a  sAe-^*^W, Cant,  i,  8 ;  also  t>~")3,  son 
of  a  goat,  2  Chron.  xxxv,  7,  orig. ;  sometimes  for  TS,  a 
goat,  itself,  Numb,  xv,  11 ;  1  Kings  xx,  27 ;  likewise 
"l''"'il3,  sai>,/(«t>^,i.e.agoat,Gen.xxxv,31;  Lev.iv,23; 
ix,  3 ;  xvi,  5 ;  xxiii,  19,  etc. ;  fem.  t^~\'>"'C,  se'ira/i.  Lev. 
iv,  28;  V,  6;  Greek  tpi(poc,  Luke  xv,  29;  "goat,"  Matt. 
XXV,  32,  ver.  33  toKpiov,  diminutive),  the  young  of  the 
goat,  reckoned  a  great  delicacy  among  the  ancients; 
and  it  appears  to  have  been  served  lor  food  in  preference 
to  the  lamb  (Gen.  xxvii,  9;  xxxviii,  17;  Judg.  vi,  19; 
xiv,  (J ;  1  Sam.  xvi,  20).  It  still  continues  to  be  a  choice 
dish  among  the  Arabs.  By  the  Mosaic  law,  the  Hebrews 
were  forbidden  to  dress  a  kid  in  the  milk  of  its  dam ; 
and  this  remarkable  prohibition  is  repeated  three  several 
times  (Exod.  xxiii,  19 ;  xxxiv,  2G  ;  Deut.  xiv,  21)_.  This 
law  has  been  variously  understood.  However,  it  is  gen- 
erally supposed  that  it  was  intended  to  guard  the  He- 
brews against  some  idolatrous  or  superstitious  Y'ractice 
of  the  neighboring  heathen  nations.  The  practice  is 
quite  common  with  modern  Orientals  (Thomson,  Land 
and  Book,  i,  135).  Kids  were  also  among  the  sacrificial 
offerings  (Exod.  xii,  3,  margin;  Lev.  iv,  23-2G;  Numb, 
vii,  10-87).     See  Goat. 

Kidd,  Benjamin,  a  noted  (Quaker  minister,  was  born 
in  Yorkshire,  England,  about  1092 ;  entered  the  minis- 
tr)'  at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  emigrated  to  this  coun- 
try about  1722,  and  labored  here  successfully  for  some 
time.  He  afterwards  returned,  ho\vever,  to  lingland, 
and  settled  at  Banbury,  Oxfordshire,  "  where  his  exem- 
plary conduct  gained  him  the  esteem  of  all  ranks  and 
persuasions."  He  died  March  21,  1751.  Kidd  served 
his  generation  in  "  turning  many  from  darkness  to  light, 
and  from  the  paths  of  disobedience  to  tlie  ^visdom  of  the 
just." — Janney,  Hist,  of  the  Friends,  iii,  287. 

Kiddah.     See  Cassia. 

Kiddei',  Richard,  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  prelate 
and  learned  Orientalist,  was  born  at  Brighthelmstone,  in 
Sussex.  He  studied  at  Emanuel  College,  Cambridge, 
of  which  he  was  elected  fellow  in  1055.  He  afterwards 
became  vicar  of  Stanground,  Huntingdonshire,  but  was 
ejected  in  1G62  for  nonconformitj-.  He,  however,  con- 
formed some  time  after,  and  became  rector  of  llaiuc,  Es- 
sex, in  1004,  and  successively  rector  of  St.  IMartin's  Out- 
wick,  London,  in  1074;  prebendary  of  Norwich  in  1081; 
dean  of  Peterborough  in  1089 ;  and  finally  bishop  of 
Bath  and  Wells  in  1091.  He  died  in  1703.  He  was 
considered  one  of  the  best  divines  of  his  time,  and  a 
clear  and  elegant  writer.  His  principal  works  are  Dem- 
onstration of  the  Messias,  etc.  (London,  1084, 1099, 1700, 
3  vols.;  another  edit.  1720, fol.,  and  often  since): — The 
Judgment  ofpi-ivate  Discretion  in  Matters  of  Religion  de- 
fended— a  sermon  on  1  Thess.  v,  21  (Lond.  1087, 4to)  : — 
A  Sermon iireached  before  the  King  and  Queen  at  White- 
k(d/,Xor.  5, 1092  [on  2  Sam.  xxiv,  14]  (Lond.  1093, 4to)  : 
— Sermon,  Zech.  vii,  5,  of  Fasting  (Lond.  1094, 4to) : — A 
Commentary  on  the  Five  Boohs  of  Moses,  etc.  (London, 
1694, 2  vols.  8vo)  : — Bellarmine  examined  (Gibson's  Pre- 
servative, iv,  55) : — On  Repentance  (Tracts  of  Angl.  Fa- 
thers, ii,  300). — Darling,  Kncyclop.  Bihliograph.  vol.  ii,  s. 
V. ;  Birch,  Life  of  Tillotson;  Hook,  Kccles.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Kidderminster.     See  Kydehminstek. 

Kiddushim.     See  Talmud. 

Kidney  (only  in  plur.  riT^bs,  helayoth',  prob.  from 
the  idea  of  its  being  the  seat  of  longing'),  the  leaf-fat 
around  which  was  specially  to  be  a  burnt-offering,  sig- 
nificant of  its  being  the  richest  and  most  central  jiart  of 
the  victim  (Exod.  xxix,  13,  22;  Lev.  iii,  4,  10,  15;  iv, 
9;  vii,  4;  viii,  10,  25;  ix,  10,  19;  Isa.  xxxiv,  3).  Spo- 
ken also  of  the  "  7-eins"  of  a  human  being,  i.  e.  the  in- 
most sold,  which  the  ancients  supposed  to  be  seated  in 


the  \-iscera  (compare  the  Homeric  (ppr'jT,  midriff,  hence 
mind),  both  in  a  physical  sense  (Job  xvi,  13;  xix,  27; 
Psa.  cxxxix,  13  ;  Lam.  iii,  13),  and  figuratively  (Psa.  vii, 
9  ;  xvi,  7  ;  xxvi,  2 ;  Ixxiii,  21 ;  Prov.  xxiii,  10  ;  Jcx.  xi, 
20;  xii,  2;  xvii,  10;  xx,  12).  Sometimes  applieil  to 
lernels  of  grain,  from  their  kidney-like  shape  and  rich- 
ness (Deut.  xxxii,  14). 

Kid'ron  (Heb.  Kidron',  'ill'lp!  hirUd,  compare  Job 
vi,  10 ;  Sept.  Kstipwv,  N.  T.  Kttptui^,  John  xviii,  1,  where 
some  copies  erroneously  have  'Kicpwv,  and  the  Auth. 
Version  "  Cedron ;"  Josephus  Kicpwv,  Gen.  -Cjvoq),  the 
brook  or  winter  torrent  whicli  flows  through  the  valley 
of  Jehoshaphat  (as  it  is  now  called),  on  the  east  side  of 
Jerusalem  (see  1  Mace,  xii,  37).  "  The  brook  Kidron" 
is  the  only  name  by  which  "  the  valley"  itself  is  known 
in  Scripture,  for  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  the  name 
"Valley  of  Jehoshaphat"  in  Joel  (iii,  12)  was  intended 
to  apply  to  this  valley.  The  word  rendered  "  brook"  (2 
Sam.  XV,  23  ;  1  Kings  ii,  37 ;  xv,  13 ;  2  Kings  xxiii,  6, 
12;  2  Chron.  XV,  10;  xxix,  10;  xxx,  14;  Jer.  xxxi,40; 
compare  Neh.  ii,  15 ;  Amos  vi,  14)  is  ^HJ,  ndchal,  which 
may  be  taken  as  equivalent  to  the  Arabic  wady,  mean- 
ing a  stream  and  its  bed  or  valley,  or  properly  the  val- 
ley of  a  stream,  even  when  the  stream  is  dry.  The 
Septuagint  and  evangelist  (in  the  above  passages\  as 
wen  as  Josephus  {Ant.  viii,  1,  5;  but  (pdnay'i  in  ix,  7,3; 
War,  V,  0, 1),  designate  it  x^'Mcppoc,  a  storm  brook,  or 
winter  torrent.  But  it  would  seem  as  if  the  name  were 
formerly  applied  also  to  the  ravines  surrounding  other 
portions  of  Jerusalem,  the  south  or  west,  since  Solo- 
mon's prohibition  to  Shimei  to  "  pass  over  the  torrent 
Kidron"  (1  Kings  ii,  37  ;  Josephus,  ^  ?^^  viii,  1,  5)  is  said 
to  have  been  broken  by  the  latter  when  he  went  in  the 
direction  of  Gath  to  seek  his  fugitive  slaves  (ver.  41,42). 
Now  a  person  going  to  Gath  would  certainly  not  go  by 
the  way  of  the  Moimt  of  Olives,  or  approach  the  eastena 
side  of  the  city  at  all.  The  route — whether  Gath  were 
at  Beit-Jibrin  or  at  Tell  es-Safieh  —  would  be  by  the 
Bethlehem  gate,  and  then  nearly  due  west.  Perliaps 
the  prohibition  may  have  been  a  more  general  one  than 
is  implied  in  ver.  37  (comp.  the  king's  reiteration  of  it 
in  ver.  42 ),  the  Kidron  being  in  that  ease  specially  men- 
tioned because  it  was  on  tlie  road  to  Bahurim,  Shimei's 
home,  and  the  scene  of  his  crime.  At  any  rate,  beyond 
the  passage  in  question,  there  is  no  evidence  of  the 
name  Kidron  having  been  applied  to  the  southern  or 
western  ravines  of  the  city. 

The  Kidron  is  mentioned  several  times  in  the  Scrip- 
ture history,  being  the  memorable  brook  which  David 
crossed  barefoot  and  weeping  when  fleeing  from  Absa- 
lom (2  Sam.  XV,  23,  30) ;  and  Jesus  must  often  have 
crossed  it  on  his  way  to  the  Mt.  of  Olives  and  Bethany 
(see  John  xviii,  1).  According  to  the  Talmud,  the  blood 
of  the  animals  slaughtered  in  the  Temple,  and  other  ref- 
use (probably  the  impurities  from  the  citj',  A'azir,  Ivii, 
4),  were  carried  through  a  sewer  into  the  lower  Kidron, 
and  thence  sold  as  manure  to  gardeners  (Joma,  Iviii,  2). 
For  earlv  notices  of  the  Kidron,  see  AVUliam  of  Tyre, 
viii,  2 ;  Brocardus,  p.  8 ;  IJeland,  p.  294  sq.  The  dif  tin- 
guishing  peculiarity  of  the  Kidron — that  in  respect  to 
which  it  is  nx>st  frequently  mentioned  in  the  O.  T. — is 
the  impurity  which  appears  to  have  been  ascribed  to  it. 
Excepting  the  two  casual  notices  already-  quoted,  we 
first  meet  with  it  as  the  place  in  which  king  Asa  demol- 
ished and  burnt  the  obscene  phallic  idol  (see  Asiierah) 
of  his  mother  (1  Kings  xv,  13 ;  2  Chron.  xv,  10).  Next 
we  find  the  wicked  Athaliali  hurried  thither  to  execu- 
tion (Joseph.  .1  nt.  ix,  7,  3  ;  2  Kings  xi,  10).  It  then  be- 
comes the  regular  receptacle  for  the  impurities  and 
abominations  of  the  idol-«orship,  when  removed  from 
the  Temple  and  destroyed  by  the  adherents  of  Jcliovah 
(2  Chron.  xxix,  10;  xxx,  14;  2  Kings  xxiii,  4,  G,  12). 
In  the  course  of  tliesc  narratives  the  statement  of  Jose- 
phus just  quoted  as  to  the  death  of  Athaliah  is  support- 
ed by  the  fact  that  in  the  time  of  Josiah  it  was  the  com- 
mon cemetery  of  the  city  (2  Kings  xxiii,  0 ;  comp.  Jer. 


KIDRON 


ro 


KIDRON" 


xxvi,  23,  "  graves  of  the  common  people"),  perhaps  the 
"  valley  of  dead  bodies"  mentioned  by  Jeremiah  (xxxi, 
40 )  in  close  connection  with  the  '■  fields"  of  Kidroii,  and 
the  restoration  of  which  to  sanctity  was  to  be  one  of  the 
miracles  of  future  times  (ibid.)-  It  Avas  doubtless  the 
Kidron  valley  which  was  in  the  mind  of  the  prophet 
Ezekifl  when  he  described  the  vision  of  the  holy  and 
healing  waters  flowing  from  the  Temple  through  the 
desert  into  the  sea  (xlvii,  8) ;  and  this  very  contrast 
■with  its  customary  uses  serves  to  add  emphasis  to  his 
pro])hecy  (comp.  Wilson,  Lo«cZs  of  the  Bible, '\\,o2.\  Stan- 
ley, Sip:  and  Pal.  p.  288).  How  long  the  valley  contin- 
ued to  be  used  for  a  burying-place  it  is  very  hard  to  as- 
certain. After  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  in  1099  the 
bodies  of  the  slain  were  buried  outside  the  Golden  Gate- 
way (Mislin,  ii,  487;  Toblcr,  VnKjehwvjm,  p.  218) ;  but 
what  had  been  the  practice  in  the  interval  the  writer 
has  not  succeeded  in  tracing.  To  the  date  of  the  mon- 
uments at  the  foot  of  Olivet  we  have  at  present  no  clew ; 
but,  even  if  they  are  of  pre-Christian  times,  there  is  no 
proof  that  they  are  tombs.  From  the  date  just  men- 
tioned, however,  the  burials  ajipear  to  have  been  con- 
stant, and  at  present  it  is  the  favorite  resting-place  of 
Moslems  and  Jews,  the  former  on  the  west,  the  latter  on 
the  east  of  the  valley.  The  Moslems  are  mostly  con- 
fined to  the  narrow  level  spot  between  the  foot  of  the 
wall  and  the  commencement  of  the  precipitous  slope, 
while  the  Jews  have  possession  of  the  lower  part  of 
tlie  slopes  of  Olivet,  where  their  scanty  tombstones  are 
crowded  so  thick  together  as  literally  to  cover  the  sur- 
face like  a  pavement. 

Tlie  Kidron  is  a  mountain  ravine,  in  most  places  nar- 
row, with  precipitous  banks  of  naked  limestone;  but 
here  and  there  its  banks  have  an  easy  slope,  and  along 
its  bottom  are  strijis  of  land  capable  of  cultivation.  It 
contains  the  bed  of  a  streamlet,  but  during  the  whole 
.summer,  and  most  of  the  winter,  it  is  perfectly  drj';  in 
fact,  no  water  runs  in  it  except  when  heavy  rains  are 
falling  in  the  mountains  round  Jerusalm.  The  resident 
missionaries  assured  Dr.  Kobinsoa  that  they  had  not 
during  several  years  seen  a  stream  running  through  the 
valley  (see  Bibl.  Researches,  1,396-402).  On  the  broad 
summit  of  the  mountain  ridge  of  Jud;ra,  a  mile  and  a 
quarter  north-west  of  Jerusalem,  is  a  sUght  depression; 
tills  is  the  head  of  the  Kidron.  The  sides  of  the  de- 
pression, and  the  elevated  ground  around  it,  are  whiten- 
ed by  the  broad,  jagged  tops  of  limestone  rocks,  and  al- 
most every  rock  is  excavated,  partly  as  a  quarry,  and 
partly  to  form  the  f;ii,'ade  of  a  tomb.  The  vaUey  or  de- 
pression runs  fur  about  half  a  mile  towards  the  city;  it 
is  shallow  and  broad,  dotted  with  corn-fields,  and  sprink- 
led with  a  few  old  olives.  It  then  bends  eastward,  and 
in  another  half  mile  is  crossed  by  the  great  northern 
road  coming  down  from  the  hill  Scopus.  On  the  east 
side  of  the  road,  and  south  bank  of  the  Kidron,  are  the 
celebrateil  Tombs  of  the  Kings.  The  bed  of  the  valley 
is  here  about  lialf  a  mile  due  north  of  the  city  gate.  It 
continues  in  the  same  course  about  a  ([uartcr  of  a  mile 
fan  her,  and  then,  turning  south,  opens  into  a  wide  basin 
containing  cultivated  fields  and  olives.  Here  it  is  cross- 
ed diagonally  by  the  road  from  Jerusalem  to  Anathoth. 
As  it  advances  southward,  the  right  bank,  forming  the 
side  of  the  hill  Bezetha,  becomes  higher  and  steeper, 
with  occasional  precipices  of  rock,  on  wliicli  niay  be  seen 
a  few  fragments  of  the  ancient  city  wall;  while  on  the 
left  the  base  of  Olivet  projects,  greatly  narrowing  the 
valley.  Opposite  St.  Stephen's  gate  tlie  depth  is  fully 
100  feet,  and  the  breadth  not  more  than  400  feet.  The 
olive-trees  in  the  bottom  are  so  thickly  clustered  as  to 
fjrai  a  shady  grove;  and  their  massive  trunks  and 
gnarled  boughs  give  evidence  of  great  age.  This  spot 
is  shut  out  from  the  city,  from  the  view  of  public  roads, 
an<l  from  the  notice  and  interrfiption  ol'  wayfarers.  See 
(■i;riisi;MAXii.  A  zigzag  path  descends  the  steep  bni-.k 
from  St.  Stephen's  gate,  crosses  the  bed  of  the  valley  by 
an  old  l)ridge,  and  then  branches.  One  branch  leads 
direct  over  the  top  of  Olivet,    This  path  has  a  deep  his- 


torical interest ;  it  was  by  it  that  David  went  when  he 
tied  from  Absalom :  "  The  king  passed  over  the  brook 
Kidron,  and  all  the  people  passed  over,  towards  the  way 
of  the  wilderness''  (2  Sam.  xv,  23).  See  Olivet.  An- 
other branch  runs  round  the  southern  shoulder  of  the 
hill  to  Bethany,  and  it  has  a  deep  sacretl  interest,  for  it 
is  the  road  of  Christ's  triumphal  entry  (Matt,  xxi,  1  sq. ; 
Luke  xix,  37).  Below  the  bridge  the  Kidron  becomes 
still  narrower,  and  here  traces  of  a  torrent  bed  first  be- 
gin to  appear.  Three  hundred  yards  farther  down,  the 
hiUs  on  each  side — iMoriah  on  the  right  and  Olivet  on 
the  left — rise  precipitously  from  the  torrent  bed,  which 
is  spanned  by  a  single  arcli.  On  the  left  bank  is  a  sin- 
gular group  of  tombs,  comprising  those  of  Absalom,  Je- 
hosha])hat,  and  St.  James  (now  so  called)  ;  while  on  the 
right,  150  feet  overhead,  towers  the  south-eastern  angle 
of  tlie  Temple  wall,  most  probably  the  "pinnacle"  on 
which  our  Lord  was  placed  (Matt,  iv,  5).  The  ravine 
runs  on,  narrow  and  rocky,  for  500  yards  more ;  there, 
on  its  right  bank,  in  a  cave,  is  the  fountain  of  the  Vir- 
gin ;  and  higher  up  on  the  left,  perched  on  the  side  of 
naked  cliffs,  the  ancient  village  of  Siloam.  A  short  dis- 
tance farther  down,  the  valley  of  the  Tyropceon  falls  in 
from  the  right,  descending  in  terraced  slopes,  fresh  and 
green,  from  the  waters  of  the  Pool  of  Siloam.  The  Kid- 
ron here  expands,  affording  a  level  tract  for  cultivation, 
and  now  covered  willi  beds  of  cucumbers,  melons,  and 
other  vegetables.  Here  of  old  was  the  "  King's  Garden" 
(Neh.  iii,  15).  The  level  tract  extends  down  to  the 
mouth  of  Hinnom,  and  is  about  200  yards  wide.  A 
short  distance  below  the  junction  of  Hinnom  and  the 
Kidron  is  the  fountain  of  En-Rogel,  now  called  Bir  Ayiib, 
"  the  Well  of  Job,"  or  "  Joab."  The  length  of  the  valley 
from  its  head  to  En-Kogel  is  2f  miles,  and  here  the  his- 
toric Kidron  may  be  said  to  terminate.  Every  refer- 
ence to  the  Kidron  in  the  Bible  is  made  to  this  section, 
David  crossed  it  at  a  point  opposite  the  city  (1  Sam.  xv, 
23) ;  it  was  the  boundary  beyond  which  Solomon  for- 
bade Shimei  to  go  on  pain  of  death  (1  Kings  ii,  37) ;  it 
was  here,  probably,  near  the  mouth  of  Hinnom,  that  Asa 
destroyed  the  idol  which  Maachah  his  mother  set  up 
(xv,  13) ;  and  it  seems  to  have  been  at  the  same  spot, 
"  in  the  fields  of  Kidron,"  that  king  Josiah  ordered  the 
vessels  of  Baal  to  be  burned  (2  Kings  xxiii,4).  It  woidd 
seem,  from  2  Kings  xxiii,  6,  that  a  portion  of  the  Kid- 
ron, ajiparently  near  the  mouth  of  Hinnom,  was  used  as 
a  burying-ground.  The  sides  of  the  sun'ounding  cUffs 
are  fiUcd  with  ancient  rock  tombs,  and  the  greatest  boon 
the  dying  .Tew  now  asks  is  that  his  bones  be  laid  in  the 
Valley  of  Jehoshajihat.  The  whole  of  the  left  bank  of 
the  Kidron,  opposite  the  Temple  area,  far  up  the  side  of 
Olivet,  is  paved  with  the  white  tombstones  of  Jews. 
This  singidar  longing  is  doubtless  to  be  ascribed  to  the 
opinion  which  the  Jews  entertain  that  the  Kidron  is 
the  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat  mentioned  by  Joel  (iii,  2). 
See  Jehoshaphat,  Valley  of.  Below  En-I!ogel  the 
Kidron  has  little  of  historical  or  sacred  interest.  It  runs 
in  a  winding  course  cast  by  south,  through  the  AMlder- 
ness  of  Juda?a,  to  the  Dead  Sea.  For  about  a  mile  be- 
low En-Eogel  the  bottom  of  the  valley  is  cultivated  and 
thickly  covered  with  olive-trees.  Farther  down  a  few 
fields  of  corn  are  met  with  at  intervals,  but  these  soon 
disajipear,  and  the  ravine  assumes  the  bleak  and  deso- 
late aspect  of  the  surrounding  hills.  About  seven  miles 
from  Jerusalem  tlie  features  of  the  valley  assume  a  much 
wilder  and  grander  form.  Hitherto  the  banks  have 
been  steep,  with  here  and  there  a  high  precipice,  and  a 
jutting  cUff,  giving  variety  to  the  scene.  Now  they 
suddenly  contract  to  precipices  of  naked  roclv  nearly  300 
feet  in  height,  which  look  as  if  the  mountain  had  been 
torn  asunder  by  an  earthquake.  About  a  mile  farther, 
on  the  side  of  this  frightful  chasm,  stands  the  convent 
of  St,  Saba,  one  of  the  most  remarkaule  buildings  in  Pal- 
estine, founded  by  the  saint  whose  name  it  bears,  in  the 
vear  A.D.  439.  The  sides  of  the  chasm  both  above  and 
"below  the  convent  are  filled  with  caves  and  grottoes,  once 
the  abode  of  monks  and  hermits,  and  from  these  doubt- 


KIEF 


KIFFIN 


less  this  section  of  the  A'alley  has  got  its  modern  name, 
Wudi/  er-R(theb,  ^•Monk's  Valley"  (Wolcott, Researches 
in  Pal.,  in  Biblical  Caljinet,  xliii,  38).  Below  Mar  Saba 
the  valley  is  called  Wadij  en-Nur,  "Valley  of  Fire" — a 
name  descriptive  of  its  aspect,  for  so  bare  and  scorched 
is  it  that  it  seems  as  if  it  had  participated  in  the  doom 
of  Sodom.  It  runs  on,  a  deep,  narrow,  wild  chasm,  until 
it  breaks  through  the  lofty  line  of  cliffs  at  Kas  el-Fesh- 
khah,  on  the  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea.  It  will  thus  be 
seen  that  the  head  of  the  Kidron  is  just  on  the  verge  of 
the  water-shed  of  the  mountain-chain  of  Judah,  about 
2600  feet  above  the  sea.  Its  length,  as  the  crow  tlies,  is 
only  twenty  miles,  and  yet  in  this  short  space  it  has  a 
descent  of  no  less  than  3912  feet— the  Dead  Sea  having 
a  depression  of  1312  feet  (Van  de  Velde,  Memoir,  p.  179, 
182).— Ivitto;  Smith.  In  1848  the  levelling  party  of  the 
Dead  Sea  Expedition,  under  command  of  Lieut.  Lynch, 
worked  up  the  wady  en-Nar,  the  bed  of  the  Kidron,  from 
the  Dead  Sea  to  Jerusalem.  They  encountered  several 
preciiiices  from  ten  to  twelve  feet  high, down  which  cat- 
aracts plunge  in  winter.  They  found  the  ravine  shut 
in  on  each  side  by  high,  barren  cliffs  of  chalky  lime- 
stone, and  the  dry  torrent-bed  interrupted  by  boidders, 
and  covered  with  fragments  of  stone  l^Narrutive,  p.  38-1, 
387).  The  place  where  it  empties  into  the  Jordan  is  a 
gorge  1200  feet  deep,  narrow  at  the  bottom,  with  a  bed 
tilled  with  confused  fragments  of  rock,  much  worn,  but 
perfectly  dry  (ib.).  For  furtlier  notices,  see  lUtter's  Erd- 
kuwle,  XV,  000 ;  Robinson,  Biblical  Researches,  ut  sup. 

Kief  or  Kiev,  the  name  of  the  chief  town  of  the 
government  of  that  name,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Dnie- 
per, one  of  the  oldest  of  the  Russian  towns,  and  formerly 
the  capital  (containing  G0,000  inhabitants,  with  a  uni- 
versity and  a  theological  school),  was  in  8G4  taken  from 
the  Khazars  by  two  Norman  chiefs,  companions  of  Ru- 
ric,  and  conquered  from  them  by  Oleg,  Ruric's  success- 
or, wlio  made  it  his  capital.  In  1240  (when  it  ceased  to 
be  the  capital)  it  was  nearly  destroyed  by  Batu,  khan 
of  Kiptcliak.  Christianity  was  first  proclaimed  hi  Rus- 
sia at  Kief  in  988.  In  the  14th  century  it  was  seized 
by  Gedimin,  grand  duke  of  Lithuania,  and  annexed  to 
Poland  in  15G9,  but  in  1G8G  was  restored  to  Russia. 
Kief  is  the  oldest  Russian  metropolitan's  residence,  the 
cradle  of  Russian  Christianity.  It  is  also  noted  on  ac- 
count of  two  Church  (Greek)  councils  that  have  been 
hel<l  there.     See  Landon,  Manual  of  Church  Councils. 

(a)  The  first  of  these  convened  about  1147,  and  is 
noted  for  the  manner  in  which  the  bishops  elected  a  me- 
tropolitan in  the  place  of  Michael  II.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  Niphont  of  Novogorod,  they  all  agreed  to  take  the 
election  into  their  own  hands,  without  allowing  to  the  pa- 
triarch of  Constantinople  the  exercise  of  his  right  either 
to  nominate  or  confirm.  Niphont  strongly  protested 
against  the  step,  but  without  effect.  The  choice  of  the 
synod  fell  upon  Clement,  a  monk  of  Smolensk.  As  a 
substitute  for  the  patriarchal  consecration,  Onuphrius 
proposed  that  the  hand  of  St.  Clement  of  Rome,  -(vhose 
relics  had  been  brought  from  Cherson,  should  be  placed 
upon  his  head.  Tliis  election  led  to  great  disorder,  and 
subsequently  the  patriarch  Luke  Chysoberges  consecra- 
ted Constantine  metropolitan,  who  condemned  the  acts 
of  this  synod,  and  suspended  for  a  time  all  the  clergy 
ordained  by  Clement. — Mouravieff's  Ilisf.  Russ.  Church 
(by  Blackmore),  p.  35. 

(b)  Another  council  was  convened  here  in  1622.  Me- 
letius,  archbishop  of  Polotsk,  at  one  time  a  most  zealous 
defender  of  the  orthodox  Church  in  Russia,  had  been 
obliged  to  liee  into  Greece  upon  a  groundless  suspicion 
of  having  been  concerned  in  the  murder  of  Jehoshaphat, 
Uniate  archbishop  of  Polotsk,  and,  urged  by  fear,  liad 
given  himself  up  to  the  Uniate  party,  and  written  an 
apology  in  censure  of  the  orthodox  Church ;  in  this 
council  he  was  called  to  account,  made  to  perform  open 
penance,  and  to  tear  his  book.  Soon  after  he  entirely 
apostatized ;  and,  going  to  Rome,  had  the  title  of  arch- 
bishop of  Hieropolis  conferred  on  him. — jNIouravieff,  p. 
179. 


In  the  neigliborhood  of  Kief  is  the  convent  of  Kievo- 
Petchersk,  a  celebrated  Russian  sanctuary,  which  an- 
nually attracts  thousands  of  pilgrims  from  the  most  re- 
mote corners  of  the  empire.  In  the  daj's  of  king  "Wlad- 
imir,  the  river  Bug,  near  this  city,  was  considered  sa- 
cred by  many  Russian  sects,  and  in  many  respects  Kief, 
in  those  days,  resembled  the  citj'  of  Benares  in  India. 
The  reader  can  best  obtain  a  vie^v  of  the  worship  of  riv- 
ers in  the  East  by  turning  to  the  article  G^vnges  (comp. 
VoUmer,  MijthoLWM-terbuch,  p.  1049). 

Kiernander,  Joiix  Zachariah,  a  Swedish  Prot- 
estant missionary,  was  born  at  Axtadt,  Ostrogothia  (now 
the  lien  Lindkiiping),  Dec.  1, 1710.  He  studied  at  the 
school  of  Lindkiiping,  and  afterwards  at  the  universities 
of  Upsal  and  Halle.  Professor  Franke  recommended 
him  to  the  English  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Chris- 
tian Knowledge,  and  he  was  sent  to  India  in  1740.  Here 
he  labored  zealously  for  sixty  years,  and  acquired  such 
reputation  that  the  shah  of  Persia  intrusted  to  him  the 
Arabic  translation  of  the  Psalms  and  the  N.  T.  In  1767 
he  established  at  Calcutta  a  church,  which  was  opened 
in  1770,  but,  as  he  was  obliged  to  bear  the  expense  al- 
most exclusively  himself,  he  was  reduced  to  povertj-. 
Kiernander  was  successively  connected  with  the  Dutch 
Church  at  Chinsurah,  Bengal,  and  when  that  town  was 
taken  by  the  Enghsh  in  1795  he  was  made  prisoner,  but 
afterwards  permitted  to  settle  at  Calcutta.  He  died  in 
1799.  See  \^'alch,  Neueste  Religionsyesch. ;  A  eta  Jlis- 
torico-ecclesiastica  ;  A  sialic  A  nnual  Register  ;  Rose,  Xew 
Bioqraphical  Dictionary  ;  Hoefer,  Xvuv.  £ioff.  Gencrale, 
xxii,  715.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Kiesliiig,  JoHAXN  Rudolph,  a  German  Protestant 
theologian,  was  born  at  Erfurt,  Oct.  21,  170G;  became 
first  deacon  of  Wittemberg  in  1738,  extraordinary  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  at  Leipzig  in  1740,  professor  of  Ori- 
ental languages  in  the  same  university  m  174G,  and, 
finally,  professor  of  theologj^  at  Erlangen  in  17G2.  He 
retained  this  latter  position  until  his  death,  April  17, 
1778.  He  wrote  a  large  number  of  works,  the  most  re- 
markable of  wliich  are,  Exercitationes  in  quibus  J.  Chr. 
Tromhelli  Dissertationes  de  cultu  sanctorum  modeste  dilu- 
untur  (Lpzg.  1742-1746,  3  pts.  4to) : — Historia  de  Usu 
,  Symbolorum  (Lpzg.  1753,  8vo) : — De  Discijilina  Clerico- 
rum,  ex  epistolis  ecclesiast.  conspicua,  Liber  (Lpzg.  and 
Nuremberg,  1760,  8vo)  : — Program,  antiquoris  Ecclesim 
Christianm  hereticos  contra  immaculatam  Jfajice  I 'irginis 
conceptionem  testes  sistit  (Erlangen,  1775,  4to) : — Lehrge- 
bdude  d.  WiedertduJ'er  (Revel,  177G,  8vo).  He  also  pub- 
lished during  the  j'ears  1756-61  the  theological  journal 
entitled  Neue  Beitrdge  von  alten  v.  neuen  theolog.  Sachen, 
established  by  J.  E.  Knapp  in  1751  (Lpzg.  8vo).  See 
Winer,  Handb.  d.  iheologischen  Literaiur  ;  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog.  Generale,  xxvii,  716.      (J.  N.  P.) 

KifBn.WiLLi  AM,  a  distinguished  English  Baptist  min- 
ister, born  in  1616,  originally  a  merchant,  by  his  wealth 
exerted  great  infiuence  at  the  courts  of  king  Charles  II 
and  James  II,  and  thereby  indirectly  secured  many  favors 
to  his  brethren.  By  his  means  the  false  and  scurrilous 
pamphlet  entitled  Baxter  Baptized  in  Blood  was  exam- 
ined and  condemned ;  and  by  his  intercession,  also,  twelve 
Baptists  who  had  been  condemned  to  death  at  Ayles- 
bury received  the  king's  pardon.  In  1G83,  two  of  his 
grandsons,  Benjamin  and  William  Hewling,  young  gen- 
tlemen of  great  fortunes,  accomplished  education,  and 
eminent  piety,  were  concerned  in  the  ill-timed  and  ill- 
fated  expedition  of  the  duke  of  Monmouth,  which  ter- 
minated in  the  destruction  of  almost  all  who  had  any 
hand  in  it,  including  the  two  Hewlings,  though  every 
effort  was  made  by  Kiffin  to  save  their  lives.  Kiffin 
was  pastor  of  the  Baptist  church,  Devonshire  Square, 
London,  from  1639  to  1701.  He  died  in  the  latter  year, 
at  an  advanced  age,  "leaving  behind  him  a.  character 
of  rare  excellence,  tried  alike  by  the  fire  of  prosperity 
and  adversity  in  the  most  eventful  times."  He  wrote 
in  favor  of  strict  communion  in  reply  to  John  Bunyan, 
opposed  Dr.  Featley  in  the  famous  disputation  at  South- 


KIKAYON 


78 


KILHAM 


wark,  aiid  Avas  handled  with  severity  by  Edwards  in  his 
Caiii/nediia.  lie  is  regarded  as  the  father  of  the  "  Par- 
ticular iSaptists."  An  estimate  may  be  forined  of  the 
high  position  Kiffin  must  have  occupied  in  his  day  if 
IMacaulay  {[lUtory  of  Englaml,\o\.  ii)  coidd  say,  "  Great 
as  was  the  authority  of  Buuyan  with  Baptists,  that  of 
"William  Kiriin  was  still  greater.  Kiffin  was  the  first 
man  among  them  in  wealth  and  station."  "  His  por- 
trait," says  Skeats  {Hist.  English  Free  Churches,  p.  15-i), 
"docs  not  bear  out  the  once  current-impression  concern- 
ing the  Baptists  of  that  age.  With  skull-cap  and  flow- 
ing ringlets,  with  mustache  and  '  imperial,'  with  broad 
lace  collar  and  ample  gown  (see  his  portrait  in  Wilson's 
Dissentiuf)  Churches,  i,  403),  he  resembles  a  gentleman 
Cavalier  rather  than  any  popidar  ideal  of  a  sour-visaged 
and  discontented  Anabaptist."  See  Crosby,  Ilkt.  Enyl. 
Baptists;  and  Lives  (Lond. lG59,4to,and  one  by  Joseph 
Gurney,  1833,  8vo ;  also  his  Autobiography,  edited  by 
Orme.  Lond.  1823,  8vo).     (J.  II.  W.) 

Kikayoii.     See  Gourd. 

Kilburn,  David,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
born  at  Gilsum,  N.  H.,  October  24,  1784,  was  converted 
when  seventeen  years  old,  licensed  to  preach  in  1805, 
and,  after  three  years'  labor  as  a  local  preacher,  was  re- 
ceived into  the  New  England  Conference,  and  obtained 
his  first  appointment  at  Union,  Me.  His  subsequent 
stations  were  Keadticld,  jNIc. ;  Stanstead,  Canada ;  Dan- 
ville, Barnard  and  White  lUver,  Needham,  Boston,  Port- 
land, Me. ;  Wethersfield  and  Barre,Yt. ;  Providence,  E. 
I. ;  Lowell,  Lynn-Common,  Bridgewater,  North-west 
Bridgewater,  WaUham,  Barre,  Ashburnham,  South  Koy- 
alston,  Enfield,  and  Southampton.  He  travelled  also 
tlie  following  districts  as  presiding  elder:  Portland  Dis- 
trict, Maine  Conference ;  New  Hampshire,  Boston, 
Springfield,  and  Providence  Districts,  in  the  New  Eng- 
lantl  Conference.  In  1851  he  became  superannuated,  in 
1852-53  eifective,  in  1854  supernumerary,  in  1856  effec- 
tive, in  1858  again  supernumerary,  and  in  1859  he  again 
became  superannuated,  in  which  relation  he  remained 
till  the  time  of  his  death,  July  13, 18G5.  Kilburn  "  was 
a  man  of  great  endurance,  anil  constitutionally  qualified 
lor  the  immense  labor  he  performed;  of  sound  judg- 
ment, clear  understanding,  strong  will;  earnest  and  con- 
scientious in  the  performance  of  duty.  During  his  la- 
borious ministry  he  sustained  a  high  reputation  and 
exerted  a  powerfid  influence.  .  .  .  His  prudent  fore- 
sight, his  comprehensive  views,  his  knowledge  of  men, 
his  almost  intuitive  perception  of  character,  his  urban- 
ity, his  high  moral  and  Christian  virtues,  entitled  him 
to  an  honorable  social  and  official  position  in  the  Church 
which  he  so  faithfidlv  served.'" — Couf.  Minutes,  18G6,  p. 
5G. 

Kilbye,  Richard,  an  English  theologian,  was  born 
at  liatcliffe  in  the  second  half  of  the  IGth  century,  and 
was  educated  at  Oxford  University,  with  which  he  was 
identified  throughout  life ;  he  was  its  rector  in  1590,  and 
held  a  professorship  of  the  Hebrew  language.  He  died 
Nov.  7, 1G20.  Richard  Kilbye  was  one  of  the  transla- 
tors of  king  James's  version  of  the  Bible.  He  also  pub- 
lished several  Sermmis  (1G13,  etc.)  and  a  Commenta7-y  on 
Exodus. 

Another  English  divine  of  the  same  name  flourished 
about  the  same  time  in  Warwickshire.  He  died  in  1617, 
and  is  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  Burthen  of  a  load- 
cned  Conscience  (1616,  8vo ;  often  reprinted). — Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biofjr.  Diet,  xxvii,  720 ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  English 
and  A  merican  A  uthors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Kildare,  an  ancient  church  in  central  Ireland,  found- 
ed A.I). 481),  derived  its  name  from  the  Irish  celle,  church, 
and  deiir,  the  oak,  and  ■Nvas  at  lirst  estabUshed  by  St. 
Bridget  as  a  Christian  school,  and  afterwards  called  a 
imnnerj^,  for  the  purpose  of  teaching  pagan  women, 
married  or  single,  the  doctrines  and  duties  ol  Christian- 
ity. Soon  a  town  or  city  grew  up  around  it,  and  in  la- 
ter times  it  formed  an  extensive  diocese.  In  the  early 
period  of  Ireland's  history  it  is  nothing  remarkable  to 


find  woman  assuming  the  position  of  public  instructor ; 
Druidism,  the  former  religion  of  Ireland,  assigned  ofHces 
to  females.  In  the  early  history  of  the  Irish  Church  we 
have  several  intimations  that  Christian  women  were 
employed  in  its  services.  St.  Patrick,  in  his  Confession, 
sect,  xviii,  writes  about  a  woman  of  noble  birth,  of  the 
daughters  of  tlie  minor  king,  and  even  handmaids  in 
servitude,  who  were  active  in  the  cause  of  Cliristianity. 
The  Book  of  Armagh,  an  accredited  manuscript  of  the 
7tli  century,  in  speaking  of  an  earlier  period,  says  ex- 
pressly, "  The  early  Irish  Christians  did  not  reject  the 
fellowship  and  help  of  woman,  for  they  were  founded  on 
the  rock,  and  did  not  fear  the  blast  of  temptation."  St, 
Bridget,  the  founder  of  this  church  and  female  semi- 
nar}', tradition  says,  died  about  A.D.  515,  at  an  advanced 
age,  loved  in  life  and  lamented  in  death.  In  honor  of 
her  memory,  through  an  extent  of  fourteen  centuries,  in 
different  countries  and  in  different  languages,  millions 
have  been  called  by  her  name ;  more  children,  perhaps, 
than  after  any  other  Christian  woman  whose  name  is 
not  in  the  inspired  records.  Her  memory  was  cherish- 
ed by  the  Picts  and  the  British  Scots,  but  in  no  ]ilace 
except  Kildare  was  it  more  honored  than  in  the  Heb- 
rides, where  at  a  later  and  less  pure  age  she  became 
the  patroness  of  their  churches.  Several  lives  of  her 
have  been  M'ritten  by  foreigners  and  in  different  lan- 
guages, but  the  best  and  the  fullest  is  said  to  Ije  that  by 
St.Ultan,  the  materials  for  which  he  obtained  from  a 
manuscript  in  the  monastery  of  Katisbon,  Germany.  See 
j\Ioore.  Hist,  of  Ireland;  Ware's  Dish  Antiquities ;  Todd, 
Irish  Church,]-).  "18.     (D.D.) 

Kilham,  Alex.vnder,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
characters  in  the  history  of  Methodism,  the  founder  of 
the  "New  Connection  of  Wesleyan  JNIethodists,"  fre- 
quently called  simply  "  Kilhamites,"  and  really  the  first 
man  in  the  Methodist  connection  who  advocated  the 
representation  of  the  lay  element  in  the  government  of 
the  Chiu-ch,  was  born  at  Eiiworth,  England,  Jidy  10, 
1762.  His  parents  were  Methodists,  and  he  enjoyed  a 
training  strictly  in  accordance  with  their  own  religious 
convictions.  Vacillating  in  character  and  impetuous  in 
temper  in  his  youthful  days,  he  struggled  hard  against 
aU  religious  impressions,  Ibut  was  finally  converted  at 
the  age  of  eighteen,  and  shortly  after  began  preaching. 
Brackenbury,  one  of  Wesley's  right-hand  men,  met 
yomig  Kilham  one  day  at  Epworth  whUe  himself  on  a 
preaching  excursion,  and  engaged  him  at  once  as  his 
travelling  companion.  In  Brackenbury's  missionary 
visit  to  the  Channel  Islands,  Kilham  jjroved  himself  an 
able  assistant.  In  1785,  shortly  after  their  return  from 
the  islands,  Wesley  received  Kilham  into  the  regular 
itinerant  ministry.  Like  aU  other  laborers  of  early 
Methodism,  his  ministrations  frequently  met  with  op- 
position, and  an  encounter  with  a  mob  was  almost  a 
daily  experience.  At  Bolton  his  chapel  was  stoned ;  at 
Afford  market-place  he  was  attacked  by  a  clergyman 
and  a  constable ;  at  Spilsby  he  was  assailed  with  dirt 
and  eggs.  In  another  place  gunpowder  was  laid  under 
the  spot  where  he  expected  to  preach,  with  a  train  ex- 
tending some  distance,  but  without  effect,  for  he  took 
his  stand  elsewhere  and  escaped  the  danger.  It  was 
amid  such  difficulties  and  trials  that  Kilham  zealously 
labored  for  the  cause  of  his  Slaster.  In  1791  the  found- 
er of  INIethodism  expired.  During  the  life  of  Wesley 
there  had  been  no  actual  separation  of  the  Weslcyans 
from  the  Established  Church.  He  had  been  careful  to 
avoid  religious  meetings  during  the  hours  for  public 
worship  in  the  Establisliment.  He  had  never  allowed 
the  celebration  of  the  ordinances  of  baptism  and  the 
Lord's  Su]iper  by  his  own  preachers ;  his  jieojde  received 
these  at  the  hands  of  the  ministers  of  the  Established 
Church.  Frequently  a  voice  dissenting  from  this  course 
was  heard  from  among  the  AVesleyan  ministers.  Kil- 
ham himself  had  dared,  three  years  before  the  death  of 
Weslej',  to  record  the  wish,  "  Let  us  have  the  lilterty  of 
Englishmen,  and  give  the  Lonl's  Supper  to  our  socie- 
ties."    About  the  time  of  Wesley's  death  he  wrote,  "  I 


KILHAM 


T9 


KILIAN 


have  had  several  warm  contests  with  a  friend  because  I 
woiilil  not  liave  my  child  baptized  in  the  usual  way. 
The  storm,  however,  soon  blew  over.     I  hope  God  will 
open  the  eyes  of  the  JNIcthodists  to  see  their  sin  and  fol- 
ly in  their  inconsistent  connection  with  the  Church." 
The  opposition  against  ecclesiastical  subservienc}'  to  the 
laws  of  the  Church  of  England  became  more  determined 
after  the  decision  of  the  Conference  at  ilanchester,  July 
20,  17'J1,  the  first  after  Mr.  Wesley's  death,  to  "  take  the 
plan  as  ]Mr.  Wesley  had  left  it."     '"  The  controversy 
could  not,"  says  Stevens  {Ulstorij  of  Methadhm,  iii,  38), 
"but  be  resumed,  and  more  definite  results  must  be 
reached  before  the  Church  could  be  at  rest.     Partisans 
of  the  national  Church  regarded  the  pledge  as  binding 
the  jMethodists  to  the  Establishment ;  the  advocates  of 
progress  dissented,  and,  in  the  language  of  Pawson,  de- 
clared, '  Not  so ;  our  old  plan  has  been  to  follow  the 
openings  of  Providence,  and  to  alter  or  amend  the  plan 
as  we  saw  it  needful,  in  order  to  be  more  useful  in  the 
hand  of  God."     Hanby,  whom  Wesley  had  authorized 
to  administer  the  sacraments,  still  claimed  the  right  to 
do  so  wherever  the  societies  wished  him.      Pawson 
wrote  the  same  year  that  if  the  people  ^vere  denied  the 
sacraments  they  woidd  leave  the  connection  in  many 
places.     Taylor  was  determined  to  administer  them  in 
Liverpool;   and  Atmore  wrote  that,  having  'solemnly 
promised  upon  his  knees  before  God  and  his  people  that 
he  would  give  all  diligence  not  only  to  preach  the  word, 
but  to  administer  the  sacraments  in  the  Church  of  God,' 
he  woultl  do  so  wherever  required  by  the  people.     '  We 
were  as  much  divided,'  he  later  wrote, '  in  our  views  and 
practice  as  before ;'  and  numerous  disputes  occurred  dur- 
ing the  year  respecting  the  administration  of  the  sacra- 
ments and  a  total  separation  from  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land.   Circular  letters  in  great  abundance  were  sent  into 
different  parts  of  the  kingdom,  and  the  minds  of  the 
people  were  much  diverted  from  the  pursuit  of  more 
sublime  objects  by  others  which  tended  but  little  to  the 
profit  of  the  soul.'     The  diversified  opinions  of  the  con- 
nection were,  in  fine,  resolving  themselves  into  three 
classes,  and  giving  rise  to  as  many  parties,  composed 
respectively  of  men  who,  from  their  attachment  to  the 
EstaliUshment,  wished  no  change,  unless  it  might  be  a 
greater  subordination  to  the  national  Church  by  the 
abandonment  of  the  sacraments  in  those  cases  where 
Wesley  had  admitted  them ;  of  such  as  wished  to  main- 
tain Wesley's  plan  intact,  with  official  provisions  which 
might  be  requisite  to  administer  it ;  and  such  as  desired 
revolutionarjr  changes,  with  a  more  equal  distribution 
of  powers  among  laymen  and  preachers."     Kilham  be- 
longed to  the  third  party,  and  used  all  the  means  at 
his  command  to  influence  the  leaders  in  that  direction. 
At  the  next  Conference,  however,  he  was  severely  crit- 
icised for  his  assertion  of  the  popular  rights,  and  for  the 
pulilication  of  a  pamjihlet  on  the  Progress  of  LiherUj.  in 
which  he  urged  a  distribution  of  the  power  of  govern- 
ment between  the  clerical  and  the  lay  elements.    In  the 
course   of  the   controversy  severe   remarks  had  been 
thrown  out  by  Kilham,  which  were  construed  by  the 
preachers  into  defamations  of  the  society,  and  at  the 
London  C(3nference  of  1790  he  was  formally  arraigned, 
and  expcUed  from  the  connection.     Tliis  sunimarj'  pro- 
cess precipitated  the  division  of  sentiment,  and  residted 
in  the  estabUshment  of  an  independent  body  (now  known 
as  the  New  Connection  Methodists)  in  1797  at  Ebenezer 
Chapel.    Sec  Methodists,  New  Connection.    A  writ- 
er in  the  Wesleyan  Times  of  May  \i,  1802,  furnishes  doc- 
uments wliich  go  to  prove  that  Kilham's  course,  both  in 
1793-4,  and  even  as  late  as  1790,  had  the  approval  of  the 
most  celebrated  leaders  of  Methodism.     At  that  time 
Dr.  Adam  Clarke,  Pawson,  Bromwell,  and  Cownley,  all 
earnestly  indorsed  the  movement.     Kilham  himself  did 
not  long  survive  the  ecclesiastical  censure  of  his  breth- 
ren.    He  died  in  1798.     It  is  but  just  to  his  memory  to 
say  that  he  is  acknowledged  by  all  to  have  been  a  man 
of  fervent  piety,  and  that  he  was  animated  by  great 
zeal  for  the  success  of  the  Weslcvan  cause.     What  he 


actually  sought  to  accomplish  was  the  entire  separation 
of  the  Methodists  from  the  Established  Church,  with  a 
due  representation  of  the  lay  element  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  new  Church,  to  be  formed  at  once.  See,  for 
a  fuller  discussion  of  this  subject,  besides  the  article 
New  Connection  Methodists,  and  the  authorities  al- 
ready quoted.  Smith,  Hist,  of  Wesleyan  Methodism  (new 
edition),  ii,  30  sq. ;  Cooke,  Ilisf.  of  Kilham.  (J.  H.  W.) 
Kilhamites.     See  Kilham. 

Kiliaii  or  Kyllina,  a  saint  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  and  bishop  of  AV'urzburg  in  the  7th  centurj-,  was 
a  native  of  Ireland,  and  a  member  of  that  distinguished 
body  of  Irish  missionaries  among  the  Teutonic  nations 
to  whose  labors  in  the  Gth  and  7th  centuries  Chris- 
tianity and  civilization  were  so  largely  indebted  in  the 
southern  and  south-eastern  countries  of  Europe.  He 
was  of  a  noble  family,  and  while  yet  young  entered  the 
monastic  life  in  his  native  country.  Having  under- 
taken, in  company  with  several  of  his  fellow-monks,  a 
pilgrimage  to  Rome,  he  was  seized,  on  his  journey  (A.D. 
665)  through  the  still  pagan  province  of  Thuringia,  with 
a  desire  to  devote  himself  to  its  conversion,  and  with  his 
fellow-pilgrims,  the  presbyter  Colman  and  the  deacon 
Donatus,  he  secured  for  the  project  at  Rome,  in  687,  the 
sanction  of  pope  Conon,  by  \vhom  he  was  ordained  bish- 
op. On  his  return  he  succeeded  in  converting  the  duke 
Gosbert,  with  many  of  his  subjects,  and  in  opening  the 
way  for  the  complete  conversion  of  Thuringia.  L^nfortu- 
nately,  however,  Kilian  provoked  the  enmity  of  Geilana, 
who,  although  the  widow  of  Gosbert's  brother,  had  been 
married  to  Gosbert,  by  declaring  the  marriage  invalid, 
and  having  induced  Gosbert  to  separate  from  her,  he  was 
murdered  at  her  instigation,  during  the  absence  of  Gos- 
bert in  789,  together  with  both  his  feUow-missionaries, 
and  the  Bible,  Church  monuments,  and  ecclesiastical 
vestments  consigned  to  the  flames.  After  Gosbert's  re- 
turn Geilana  denied  the  deed,  but  both  she  and  the  mur- 
derer feU  a  prey  to  insanity,  and  Gosbert  himself  fell  by 
the  hands  of  a  murderer,  his  son  Hedan  II  was  deposed, 
and,  indeed,  his  whole  family  became  extinct.  Such  are 
the  oldest  legends  concerning  Kilian's  fate.  One  of 
them,  written  in  the  10th  or  1 1  th  centurj',  is  to  be  found 
in  Mabillon,  A  ct.  Sanct.  (ii,  991) ;  another,  with  some  ar- 
bitrary variations,  in  Surius  (iv,  131).  Yet  this  legend 
appears  somewhat  doubtful,  since  no  mention  is  other- 
wise made  of  any  British  missionaries  before  Boniface. 
Rhabanus  jNIaurus  (Canisius,  Lect.  A  ntiq.  ii,  2,  p.  333) 
claims  that  Gosbert  himself  condemned  Kilian  in  847  on 
account  of  his  preaching.  As  to  the  punishment  said 
to  have  overtaken  all  the  family  of  Gosbert,  it  is  con- 
tradicted by  history,  for  Hedan  II  was  yet  in  peaceful 
possession  of  his  dukedom  in  716,  remained  in  relation 
with  the  British  missionaries,  and  gave  St.  Willcbrord 
some  land  at  Arnstadt  and  jMtihlberg,  near  Gotha.  The 
facts  may  be  that  Kilian  belonged  to  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Roman  Church,  and  that  his  death  was  caused  by  his 
strict  enforcement  of  the  rules  concerning  matrimony. 
Before  his  appointment  to  Thrjingia  Kilian  seems  to 
have  already  distinguished  himself  in  the  ministry. 
Ttlosheim  says, ''  He  exercised  his  ministerial  functions 
with  great  success  among  the  Franks,  and  vast  numbers 
of  them  embraced  Christianity"  {Eccles.  History,  i,  441). 
Hence  he  is  sometimes  denominated  "  the  Apostle  of 
Franconia."  The  Rev.  Mr.  De  Yinne,  a  AVTiter  on  the  early 
Church  history  of  Ireland,  gives  credence  to  the  legend 
concerning  Kilian's  missionary  efforts  in  Germany,  and 
his  sad  fate,  on  the  ground  that "  towards  the  close  of  the 
7th  century  there  appear  to  have  been  a  great  number 
of  Irish  ecclesiastics  and  scholars  in  Germany  and  oth- 
er parts  of  Central  Europe.  IMany  of  these,  that  they 
might  be  the  more  useful  to  the  people,  translated  their 
names  into  Latin  or  German,  and  in  all  things  not  sin- 
ful identified  themselves  with  the  different  nationalities 
among  whom  they  lalxired.  To  this  class  belong  Wiro, 
Rumbold,  bishop  of  Mechlin,  Florentius,  bishop  of  Stras- 
burg,  Colman,  Albinos,  Clementus,  and  many  others,  of 
whom  Mosheim  said  there  were  '  French  and  Irish  who 


KILLIGREW 


80 


KIMCHI 


refusptl  a  blind  subnii^simi,  and  gave  much  trouble  to 
Konie""'  (_comp.  De  "N'innc,  Priinit.  Irish  Ch.X  See  Ign. 
Group,  Lebensbesch.d./ui/i'/t-ii  Kiliani  Bisckojf'cns  tt.dessen 
Gesellm  (Wurtzburg,  1738, 4t()l ;  J,  Kion,  Liben  u.  Tod  d. 
hnLKUian  (Aischaffenburg,  1834);  J.Ch.  A.Seiters,J5on- 
ijacius,  etc.  (^layenoe,  1845),  p.  97  sq. ;  F.  W.  Kettberg, 
Ktrchc-nfiesrh.  Deutschl.  ((iiittingen,  1848),  ii,  303 ;  Todd, 
Irish  Church,  p.  70  sq.      (J.  H.  W.) 

Killigrew,  Hknry,  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  was  i 
born  in  Itlli,  and  educated  at  Christ  Cliuroh,  Oxford, 
wliorc  lie  graduated  in  1Gl'8.  He  was  made  chaplain 
to  James,  duke  of  York,  and  prebend  of  Westminster,  in 
1G4-2,  and  died  about  1685.  His  Sermons  were  pub- 
lished (1GG6,  4to;  1G85,  4to;  1G89,  4to;  and  1695,  4to: 
the  last  edition  was  b}'  bishop  Patrick,  who  highly  eu- 
logized the  abilities  of  Killigrew  as  a  pulpit  orator). — 
Allibone,  Diet,  of  Engl,  and  Anier.  Authors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Kilvert.FRAN'cis,  an  English  theologian  and  teach- 
er, was  born  in  Bath  in  1793.  His  early  education  was 
under  the  instruction  of  Dr.  Rowlandson,  at  Hungerford; 
afterwards  he  was  at  the  Bath  Grammar  School,  where, 
because  of  his  superior  acquirements,  he  was  engaged  as 
one  of  the  assistant  masters  prior  to  his  entering  Oxford. 
He  went  to  Worcester  College  in  1811,  was  ordained 
deacon  in  1816,  and  priest  in  1817.  His  first  curacy  was 
that  of  Claverton,  near  Bath.  In  1837  he  became  pos- 
sessor of  Claverton  Lodge,  in  which  he  continued  to 
teach  privately  until  his  death,  Sept.  19, 18G3.  Kilvert 
was  a  man  of  uncommon  purity  of  life,  and  as  an  in- 
structor of  the  youth  his  precepts  and  holy  example 
were  invaluable.  He  piibhshed  a  volume  of  Sermons 
(preached  in  St. Mary's  Church,  Bathvvick,  1827): — Se- 
lection from  unpublished  Papers  of  Bishop  Warburton 
(1841)  : — Collection  of  original  Latin  Inscriptions;  and 
Memoirs  of  Bishop  Ilurd  (I860).  See  Appleton,  Amer- 
ican A  nnual  Cyclopcedia,  18G3,  p.  571.      (J.  L.  S.) 

KilTwardeby,  Robeht,  a  noted  English  prelate, 
flourished  in  the  second  half  of  the  13th  century.  He 
was  educated  at  the  universities  of  Oxford  and  Paric. 
In  1272  he  became  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  in 
1277  was  made  cardinal.  He  died  in  1279.  Cardinal 
Kihvardeby  is  said  to  have  written  as  many  as  39  dif- 
ferent works,  but  none  of  these  were  ever  printed.  See 
Hoe  fur,  Xour.  Biog.  Gen.  xxvii,  730. 

Kimashon.     See  Tiiorx. 

Kimber,  Isaac,  an  English  dissenting  minister, 
born  at  Wantage,  Berkshire,  in  1G92,  was  educated  at 
Circsham  College,  London,  and  the  Dissenters'  Academy, 
and  in  1724  became  pastor  at  Namptwich,  Cheshire,  but 
resigned  in  1727  on  account  of  some  dilhcidties  with  his 
congregation,  and  returned  to  London,  where  he  pub- 
lished a  periodical  which  lived  some  four  years.  He 
was  also  employed  by  booksellers  in  various  literary 
undertakings,  compihng  a  number  of  historical  works, 
among  which  we  remark  the  Life  of  Oliver  Cromwell 
(London,  1714,  8vo).  He  wrote  also  the  Life  of  bishop 
Beveridgc  prefixed  to  the  folio  edition  of  that  prelate's 
works,  of  which  he  was  editor: — Sermons,  etc.,  to  which 
is  prefixed  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  the  Au- 
thor (London,  1756, 8vo).  He  died  in  1758.  See  Chal- 
mers, GV«er«^  Biographicid  Dictionari/  ;  Allibone,  i>2C- 
tiiiiian/  of  English  and  American  Authors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 
(J.N.'P.) 

Kimchi,  David,  ben- Joseph  (by  the  Jews  fre- 
(lucnily  called  Itedak,  from  the  initial  letters  p  T1  = 
TT^p  nn  ~),  one  of  the  most  distinguished  Jewish 
writers  of  the  ^Midtlle  Ages,  the  great  exponent  of  He- 
Ijrew  grammar  and  lexicography,  was  Ixirn  at  Narbonne, 
ill  the  south  of  France,  in  1160.  Very  little  is  known 
of  his  private  life.  He  must  certainly  have  enjoyed, 
even  among  his  contemporaries,  considerable  influence, 
gained  perhaps,  in  a  measure,  by  his  masterly  defence 
of  Moses  Maimonidcs;  form  1232  we  find  him  acting  as 
the  arljiter  to  settle  the  dispute  then  existing  between 
the  Spanish  and  French  rabbis  respecting  the  opinions 


advanced  in  the  More  Xebohim  of  JIaimonides.  He 
died  about  1240.  His  works  are:  (1.)  Commentary  on 
the  Pentateuch  (tTnm  hv  CT^S),  only  Genesis  has 
been  published  by  A.  (iinsburg  (Pressburg,  1842),  cap. 
i,  1-10  being  supplied  by  Kirehheim  from  the  writings 
of  Kimchi,  as  the  MS.  was  defective  : — (2.)  Commentary 
on  the  earlier  Projihets  (U^:r::H'  U^ii^Zi  h'J  •CS^-\Z),\. 
e.  Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings,  printed  in  the 
Rabbinical  Bibles  edited  by  Jacob  ben-Chajim  (Venice, 
1525, 1548),  Buxtorf  (1619),  and  Frankfurter  (1724^27) : 

—  (3.)  Commentai-y  on  the  later  Prophets  (pV  TUIIS 
D'^;i~nx  CX'^z;),  i.  e.  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and 
the  minor  prophets;  also  given  in  the  Rabbinical  Bibles: 

—  (4.)  Commentary  on  the  Pscdms  (D''5nn  P"  C1"1E), 
first  printed  in  1477,  reprinted  several  times,  and  also 
given  in  the  Rabbinical  Bibles  of  Jacol)  ben-Chajim, 
but  not  in  those  edited  by  Buxtorf  and  Frankfurter: — 
(5.)  Commentary  on  Path  (m  rh-^^Q  h:!  UI^S),  pub- 
lished for  the  first  time  by  Mercier  (Paris,  15G3) : — (6.) 
Commentary  on  Chronicles  (Di-a^H  "iiaT  bv  Ullli:), 
given  in  the  Rabbinical  Bibles: — (7.)  Commentary  on 
Job  (^T^N  h"  UJTlS),  which  has  not  yet  been  publish- 
ed:—(8.)  The  celebrated  work  called  Miklol  (^''hzt), 
or  Perfection,  which  consists  of  two  parts — a.  A  Hebrew 
Grammar  (pTlp^n  p?n),  usually  bearing  the  name 
Miklol,  edited,  with  notes,  by  Elias  Levita  (Yen.  1545), 
and  by  :\I.  Hechim  (Furth,'l793) :— and  (9.)  b.  A  He- 
brew Lexicon  ("i":"!!  ppJl),  commonly  called  The  Book 
of  Roots  (D"'iD"i->l  125),  the  best  editions  of  which  are 
by  Elias  Levita  (Venice,  1546),  and  Biesenthal  and  Leb- 
recht  (BerUn,  1847): — (10.)  Refutation  of  Christianity 
(D"'"iUi;b  ni3Vyl"n),  in  which  he  denies  that  !Messian- 
ic  predictions  are  embodied  in  the  Psalms;  printed  to- 
gether with  Lippmann's  celebrated  Nitsachon  ("|''n:i3) 
(Amst.  1709,  1711;  Kiinigsberg,  1847):— and  (11.)  An- 
other polemical  work  called  mil,  also  printed  with  the 
Nitsachon.  Kimchi,  as  he  himself  frankly  says  in  his 
introduction  to  the  Miklol,  did  not  so  much  furnish 
new  and  startling  criticism  as  an  exhibit  of  the  results 
of  the  manifold  and  extensive  labors  of  his  numerous 
predecessors.  His  lexicon  is,  to  a  great  extent,  a  trans- 
lation of  Ibn-Ganach's  Book  of  Roots  [see  Ibn-G  anach], 
and  he  freely  quotes  the  great  Jewish-Arabic  commen- 
tators, grammarians,  and  lexicographers,  Saadia,  Ibn- 
Koreish,  Chajug,  Ibn-Ganach,  Ibn-Gebirol,  Ibn-Giath, 
Ibn-Balaam,  Gikatilla,  and  many  other  celebrities.  "  But, 
though  his  claims  are  modest,"  says  Ginsburg,  in  l\itto 
{Cyclop.  Bihl.  Lit.  vol.  ii,  s.  v.),  "  yet  his  merits  are  great. 
He  was  the  first  who  discovered  the  distinction  between 
the  long  and  the  short  vowels,  whereby  the  understand- 
ing of  the  changing  of  vowels  has  been  greatly  facilitated. 
He  moreover  defended  a  simple,  natural,  and  grammat- 
ical exegesis,  at  a  time  when  most  of  his  Jewish  breth- 
ren were  enamored  of  Hagadic,  Cabalistical,  and  astro- 
logical interpretations.  It  is  therefore  not  to  be  wondered 
at  that  he  became  so  eminent  among  his  brethren  that 
they  applied  to  him.  by  a  play  of  words,  the  saying  in 
theMishna  {Aboth,  iii,  17),  mm  "pX  n-^p  ^X  CX, 
No  Kimchi,  no  understanding  of  the  Scriptures.'^  Among 
Christian  scholars  also  Kimchi  enjoyed  great  celebrity, 
more  especially,  ho>vever,  among  the  precursors  of  the 
Reformation  and  the  Reformers  themselves,  "  notwith- 
standing his  hostility  to  Christianity,  which  is  displayed 
throughout  his  commentaries,  and  which  arose  from  the 
persecutions  that  the  Jews  had  to  endure  at  the  hands 
of  the  Crusaders."  ^lany  passages  obnoxious  to  adher- 
ents of  the  Christian  faith  were  struck  out  by  the  In- 
(juisition,  and  are  omitted  in  later  editions  of  Kimchi's 
Commentaries.  Pococke  collected  all  the  passages  which 
had  been  omitted  from  the  Prophets  in  Not.  ad  Portam 
MosL^,  in  his  theological  works  (ed.Lond.  1740  ).i,  241  sq. 
The  first  efforts  of  Christian  scholars  in  compiling  Heb. 


KIMCHI 


81 


KINAH 


lexicons,  or  glossaries,  and  grammars,  were  based  on  the 
labors  of  Kimclii,  and  the  notes  accompanying  the  Latin 
Bibles  of  Mmister  and  Stephen  are  derived  from  him. 
Excerpts  of  his  Commentary  on  Isaiah  were  translated 
into  Latin  by  Minister,  and  a  Latin  version  of  the  whole 
of  it  was  published  by  Malanimeus  (Florence,  1774). 
Leusden  published  Latin  versions  of  Joel  (Utrecht,  1656) 
and  Jonah  (Utrecht,  1657).  De  Muis  published  a  Latin 
translation  of  Malachi  (Paris,  1618).  Yehe  published  a 
German  translation  of  Amos  (Col.  1581),  and  Dr.M'Caul 
translated  the  Commentary  on  Zechariah  and  the  Pref- 
ace to  the  Psalms  into  English  (London,  1837).  A  Lat- 
in translation  of  the  Commentary  on  the  Psalms  was 
made  by  Janvier  (Constanz,  1544).  His  grammatical 
labors  embraced  in  the  Miklol  was  translated  into  Latin 
by  Guidacier  (Paris,  1540),  and  a  Latin  version  of  the 
Roots  was  published  in  1535.  See  Steinschneider,  Cata- 
lof)us  Lib.  Hebr.  in  Bibliotheca  Bodleiana,  col.  868-875 ; 
Flirst,  Bibliotheca  Judaica,  ii,  183  sq.,  and  his  Litrod.  to 
Ilabi-ew  Dictionary ;  the  masterly  biography  of  Kimchi 
by  Geiger  in  Ozar  Nechmad  (Vienna,  1857),  p.  157  sq. ; 
Dukes,  Die  Familie  Kimchi  (^Literaturblatt  des  Orients, 
1850) ;  Griitz,  Gesch.  der  Juden,  vi,  236  sq.;  Kitto,  Bibl. 
Ci/clop.  s.  V. 

Kimchi,  Joseph,  Ben-Isaac,  a  distinguished 
Jewish  liabbi,  father  of  the  preceding  (David),  was  born 
in  Spain  in  the  latter  half  of  the  11th  centiurj',  but  was 
obliged  to  quit  Spain  during  the  terrible  persecutions 
by  tlic  Mohammedans,  and  settled  at  Narbonne,  France. 
Just  as  little  is  known  of  his  personal  history  as  of  his 
son's.  lie  ^vas  well  versed  in  the  science  of  the  He- 
brew language  and  Biblical  exegesis,  and  by  the  intro- 
duction into  Southern  France  of  that  thorough  scholar- 
ship for  which  the  Spanish  Jews  in  his  day  are  so  cele- 
brated, gave  a  new  impetus  to  the  study  of  the  O.-Test. 
Scriptures  in  the  original.  As  has  been  pithily  said,  he 
became  the  Aben-Ezra  of  Southern  France.  He  died 
about  1180.  He  wrote  a  number  of  valuable  contribu- 
tions to  exegetical  theology,  but  it  is  as  a  theologian, 
especially  as  a  polemic,  that  Joseph  Kimchi  excelled. 
His  most  important  works  are:  ri'i"i3ri  ^£&  (^Booh  of 
the  Covenant^,  a  treatise  against  Christianity,  in  the 
form  of  a  dialogue  between  a  Jew  (iMaamin  or  believ- 
er) and  a  Christian  (Min  or  heretic),  and  which  was 
published  in  the  Milchemeth  hu-iihem  (Constantinople, 
1710,8vo):— dtrn  Th^nb-q  "iS&,againstaJewnamed 
Peter  Alphonse,  who  had  become  a  Christian :  this  work 
was  never  published.  He  also  wrote  in  Hebrew  verse  the 
maxims  of  Solomon  ben-Gabirol  (of  this  fragments  ap- 
peared in  the  Zion  [Francf.  1842, 8vo],  ii,  07-100) ;  some 
Hebrew  hymns,  which  were  inserted  in  the  Aijalcth  ha- 
(SAac/iH?- (published  by  Mard.Jare  [Mantua,  1612, 8vo]); 
a  Hebrew  translation  of  Bachia  ben-Joseph's  morals, 
printed  in  the  works  of  the  latter  (Leipzig,  1846, 12mo)  ; 
besides  commentaries  on  most  of  the  books  of  the  O.  T. 
The  last  are  as  follows:  (1.)  Commentary  on  the  Penta- 
teuch, entitled  min  ^30  {The  Book  of  the  Laic) ;  frag- 
ments are  extant  in  MS.,  De  Eossi  166,  and  in  the  quo- 
tations of  his  son  D.  Kimchi: — (2.)  Commentary  on  the 
earlier  Prophets,  called  n3p"2i"i  "13D,  The  Bill  of  Pur- 
chase, in  allusion  to  Jer.  xxxii,  11: — (3.)  Commentary 
on  the  later  Prophets,  called  ^^^mI  13D  {The  unfolded 
Bool;  in  allusion  to  Jer.  xxxii,  14).  These  works,  too, 
have  not  as  yet  come  to  light,  and  we  only  know  them 
through  the  numerous  quotations  from  them  dispersed 
through  David  Kimchi's  Commentaries  on  the  I'roph- 
ets : — (4.)  Commentary  on  Job,  of  which  defective  IMSS. 
are  preserved  in  the  Bodleian  Library  and  at  Jlunich, 
260:  —  (5.)  Commentary  on  Proverbs,  a  perfect  IMS.  of 
which  exists  in  the  Munich  Library,  No.  242 :  —  (6.) 
Hebrew  Grammar,  called  "jliaT  'n£&  (The  Booh  of  Re- 
membrance),  which  is  the  first  written  "by  a  Jew  in  a 
Christian  country,  and  is  quoted  by  D.  Kimchi  in  the 
Miklol,  X5p,  6; — (7.)  Another  grammatical  work,  en- 
V,— F 


titled  Xiphil  11:20  ISO,  also  quoted  in  the  3Iiklol, 
1  bp,  a.  "  Both  as  a  commentator  and  a  grammarian," 
says  Ginsburg  (in  Kitto,  Bibl.  Cyclop,  vol.  ii,  s.  v.),  "Jo- 
seph Kimchi  deserves  the  highest  praise;  and,  though 
his  works  still  remain  unpublished,  his  contributions  to 
Biblical  literature  produced  a  most  beneficial  influence, 
inasmuch  as  they  prepared  the  way  in  Christian  comi- 
tries  for  a  literal  and  sound  exegesis.  His  son,  David 
Kimchi,  who  constantly  quotes  him,  both  in  his  com- 
mentaries and  vuider  almost  every  root  of  his  Hebrew 
Lexicon,  has  familiarized  the  Hebrew  student  with  the 
grammatical  and  exegetical  principles  of  this  deservedly 
esteemed  Hebraist."  See,  besides  the  works  cited  under 
David  Kimchi,  Biesenthal  and  Lebrecht's  edition  of  D. 
Kimchi's  Radicum  Liber  (Berlin,  1847),  col.  xxiv  sq. ; 
and  Geiger's  excellent  treatise  in  Ozar  Nechmud  (Vien- 
na, 1856),  i,  p.  97-110 ;  Bartolocci,  May.  Biblioth.  Rabbin. 
iii,  327;  LiteraturblaU  des  Orients,  1850;  'Suxst,  Biblioth- 
eca Judaica,  ii,  186  sq.      (J.  H.W.) 

Kimchi,  Moses,  ben-Josepii  (also  called  Remak, 
from  the  initial  letters  p'nl  =  in^p  ntJa  S),  eldest 
son  of  the  preceding  (Joseph),  flourished  about  1160- 
1170.  Though  far  inferior  in  ability  to  his  father  and 
brother,  he  has  earned  an  honorable  place  as  a  commen- 
tator and  grammarian.  His  works  are :  (1.)  Commenta- 
ry on  Proverbs  (or  "^"C^  "ISD  513113)  (prmted  in  the 
Rabbinic  Bibles  of  Jacob  ben-Chajim,Ven.  1526,  1548; 
Buxtorf,  Basel,  1619;  and  Frankfurter,  Amst.  1724-27). 
This  work  has  been  falsel}'  ascribed  to  Aben-Ezra.  Com- 
pare Reifmann,  in  Literatui-blatt  des  Orients,  1841,  p.  760, 
751 ;  Zion  (F.  a.  JI.  1841),  i,  76 ;  Lippmann,  in  Zion  (F. 
a.  M.  1842),  ii,  113-117,  129-133, 155-157, 171-174, 185- 
188: — (2.)  Commentary  on  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  (also 
printed  in  the  Rabbinical  Bibles,  and  erroneously  at- 
tributed to  Aben-Ezra) : — (3.)  A  grammatical  work,  en- 
titled ri"in  "ib^n'iJ  ibriTO  (or  Joumey  on  the  Paths  of 
Knowledye'),  which  became  a  manual  for  both  Jews  and 
Christians  beginning  the  study  of  Hebrew  grammar. 
It  was  highly  commended  by  Elias  Levita,  ^vho  anno- 
tated and  edited  it  in  1508.  It  was  afterwards  publish- 
ed, with  a  Latin  translation,  by  Seb.  IMmister  (Basel, 
1531),  and  since  frequently,  with  diverse  additions  and 
modifications.  '■  The  chief  merit  of  this  little  volume 
consists  in  the  fact  that  j\I.  Kimchi  was  the  first  to  em- 
ploy therein  the  word  IpS  as  a  paradigm  of  the  regular 
verbs,  instead  of  the  less  appropriate  verb  meditc  guttu- 
ralis  b"3,  which  had  been  used  by  his  predecessors,  in 
imitation  of  Arabic  grammarians :" — (4.)  A  grammati- 
cal treatise  on  the  anomalous  expressions,  entitled  "l3D- 
!n01!irir!,  quoted  by  D.  Kimclii  in  the  Miklol.  See 
Biesenthal  and  Lebrecht's  edition  of  D.  Kimchi's  Radi- 
cum Liber  (Berlin,  1847),  col.  xxxviii  sq. ;  FUrst,  Bibli- 
otheca Judaica,  ii,  187  sq. ;  Steinschneider,  Catalogus 
Lib?:  Hebr.  in  Bibliotheca  Bodleiana,  col.  1838-1844;  by 
the  same  author,  Bihlioyraphisches  Handbuch  (Leipzig^ 
1859),p.74sq. ;  Ge'igcr s  Ozar  Xechmad, ii,  17  sq.;  Gins- 
burg, in  Kitto,  Bibl.  Cyclop,  ii,  s.  v. 

Kimmcsh,  Kimosh.     See  Nettle. 

Ki "nah  (Ilcb.  Kinah',  ni'^p,  an  eler/y,  as  iu  Jer.  ix,, 
9,  etc. ;  Septuag.  Kii/a  v.  r.  'Iicrt/i),  a  city  in  the  extreme 
south  of  Judah  (hence  prob.  includefl  within  the  terri- 
tory of  Simeon),  mentioned  between  Jagur  and  Dimo- 
nah  (Josh,  xv,  22).  "  Stanley  {Sinai  and  Pal.  p.  100)  in- 
geniously connects  Kinah  with  the  Kenites  (ijip),  who 
settled  in  this  district  (Judg.  i,  16).  But  it  should  not 
be  overlooked  that  tlie  list  in  Josh,  xv  purports  to  re- 
cord the  to^vnis  as  they  were  at  the  conquest,  while  the 
settlement  of  the  Kenites  probably  (though  not  certain- 
ly) did  not  take  place  till  after  it.  It  is  mentioned  in 
the  Onomasticon  of  Eusebius  and  Jerome  (s.  v.  Kivd, 
Cina),  but  not  so  as  to  imply  that  they  had  any  actual 
knowledge  of  it.  Witli  the  sole  exception  of  Schwarz 
{Palest,  p. 99), it  appears  to  be  unmentioned  by  any  trav- 


KINANAII 


82 


KING 


eller,  and  the  '  town  Chidh,  situated  near  the  wilderness 
of  Zin,'  with  which  lie  woulil  identify  it,  is  not  to  be 
found  in  liis  own  or  any  other  map"  (Smith).  The  true 
position  of  Kinali  can  only  be  conjecturally  located  as 
not  far  from  the  Dead  Sea,  possibly  in  wady  Fikreh. 

Kiuanah.     See  IMakuaii. 

Kindervater.CiiuiSTiANYicTOR,  a  German  preach- 
er and  philosopher  of  the  Kantian  school,  was  born  at 
Neuenheilii^en,  Thuringia,  in  1758,  and  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Leipzig.  lie  became  pastor  at  Pedel- 
witz,  near  Leipzig,  in  1790 ;  in  1804,  general  superintend- 
ent at  Eisenach,  and  died  May  9, 180(5.  His  most  im- 
portant works  are,  An  homo  qui  animum  neyet  esse  im- 
moiiakm,  aninio  possit  esse  tranquillo  (Lips.  1785, 4to)  : 
— Gicht  es  unerschutterliche  Beruhigung  in  Leiden  ohne 
den  aiif  Moralitdt  gegiiindeten  Glaitben  an  die  Unsterb- 
lichkoit  (1797): — Gesprdche  iiber  das  Wesen  der  Goiter 
(1787): — Adumhratio  qua'stionis,  an  Fi/n-konis  doctri- 
na  omiiis  tollatur  virtus  (1789,  4to): — Hkejitische  Dialo- 
gen  iiber  die  Vortheile  der  Leiden,  vnd  Widerv-drtigkeiten 
dieses  Lebens  (1788, 8vo) : — Geschichte  der  Wirkungen  der 
rerschiednen  Religionen  auf  die  Siitlichkeit  und  Gliicksc- 
ligkeit  des  Menschengeschlechts  in  dltern  und  neuern  Zei- 
ten  (1793,  8vo) : — Geist  des  reinen  Christenthunis  (1795, 
8v'o)  : — iJarstellung  der  Leidensgesch.  Jesu  (1797, 8vo)  : — 
De  indole  afque  forma  regni  Messice  e  mente  Johannis 
BapfistiB  Disserlatio  (1803,  4to). — King,  Encgklop.  Lex. 
vol.  ii,  s.  V. ;  Diiring,  Deutsche  Kanzelredner  d.  18'™  und 
19'"'  Jiihrh.  p.  155  sq. 

Kindred.  I.  The  following  are  the  Hebrew  terms 
thus  rendered  in  the  English  Bible  : 

1.  nr!2'i"3,  mishpachah' ,  usually  rendered  "family," 
answering  to  the  Latin  gens,  except  that  it  more  dis- 
tinctly includes  the  idea  of  original  affinity  or  deriva- 
tion from  a  common  stock ;  it  corresponds  exactly  ^vith 
our  word  clan.  It  is  used  of  the  different  tribes  of  the 
Canaanitcs  (Gen.  x,  18) ;  of  the  subdivisions  of  the  He- 
brew people  (Exod.vi,  14;  Numb.i,  20,  etc.) ;  sometimes 
for  one  of  the  tribes  (Josh,  vii,  17;  Judg.  xiii,  2,  etc.), 
and  in  the  later  books  tropically  for  a  people  or  nation 
(.ler.  viii,  3  ;  xxv,  9 ;  Ezek.  xx,  32 ;  Micah  ii,  3).  It  is 
translated  kindred  in  the  A.  V.  at  Gen.  xxiv,  41 ;  Josh. 
vi,23;  Ruthii,  3;  Job  xxxii,2 — in  all  of  which  it  refers 
to  relationship  by  consanguinity,  more  or  less  remote. 

2.  rribTO,  mole'deth,  conveys  primarily  the  idea  of 
birth,  natiritg ;  hence  a  person  born,  a  child  (Gen.  xxviii, 
9;  Lev.  xviii,  9, 11),  awd  persons  of  the  same  family  or 
/i««7^e  (Gen.  xii,  1 ;  xxiv,  4;  xxxi,  3  ;  xliii,  7;  Numb. 
X,  30 ;  Esth.  ii,  10 ;  viii,  G — in  all  which  passages  it  is 
translated  kindred  in  the  A.  V.).  In  some  of  these  in- 
stances, however,  the  kinship  is  only  the  remote  one  of 
common  nationality  arising  out  of  common  descent. 

3.  r>'^TO,  moda'ath,  literally  knowledge,  is  used  to  ex- 
press blood-relationship  in  Ruth  iii,  2 ;  compare  "'1T2 
(Ruth  ii,  1 ;  I'rov.  vii,4). 

4.  n?i<?,  gcUllah',  redemption,  a  word  which  properly 
designated  such  near  relationship  by  blood  as  would  con- 
fer the  rights  and  obligations  of  a  bxh,  or  kinsman, 
avenger,  and  redeemer,  on  the  party.  See  GoiJL.  As 
commonly  used,  however,  it  denotes  either  the  thing  re- 
deemed (Ituth  iv,  tJ),  or  the  right  of  redeeming  (Lev. 
xxv,  29,  etc.),  or  the  redemption  price  (Lev.  xxv,  26, 
etc.).  The  only  passage  in  which  it  is  translated  kin- 
dred in  the  A.  V.  is  Ezek.  xi,  15.  Ilengstenberg  (Chris- 
tol.  iii,  9,  E.  T.)  and  Iliivernick  (Comment,  ad  loc.)  con- 
tend that  ri?S5  is  to  be  taken  here  not  in  the  sense  of 
relations/lip,  but  in  that  of  suretyship  or  substitution- 
ary action,  and  they  would  translate  the  passage, '•  Thy 
brethren  are  the  men  of  thy  suretyship,"  or '' redemp- 
tion," i.  e.  the  men  whom  it  lies  on  them  to  redeem  or 
act  for.  The  Sept.  seems  to  hs\-e  read  V^r^ij,  for  they 
give  ai'xpaXwaiag  here. 

5.  nx,  acli,  which  pro]ierly  means  brother,  occurs  only 
once  ^vith  the  rendering  kindi-ed  in  the  A,  \.,  m  1  Chron. 


xii,  29.  It  is  frequently  used  elsewhere  in  a  wide  sense, 
and  may  be  nndiTstcxid  of  nearly  all  collateral  relation- 
ships whatever,  whether  by  consanguinity,  affinity,  or 
simple  association.  From  this  comes  iTiriX,  brotherhood 
(Zech.  xi,  14). 

Besides  these  terms,  the  Hebrews  expressed  consan- 
guinity by  such  words  and  phrases  as  1t33,y?esA  (Gen. 
xxxvii,  27 ;  Isa.  Iviii,  7) ;  "^"i  w^^  '^'?^?j  '"^V  ^one  and 
my  Jlesh  (Gen.  xxix,  14  ;  Judg.  ix,  2 ;  2  Sam.  v,  1,  etc.) ; 
'^Vi':i,Jlesh  (Lev.  xviii,  12,  13,  etc. ;  Numb,  xxvii,  41), 
with  niNd,  coll.  kinswomen  (Lev.  xviii,  17) ;  and  "IX'J 
i'\'Ci^, Jlesh  of  his  flesh  (A.V.  near  of  kin,  Lev.  xviii,G; 
nigh  (fkin,  xxv,  49). — Ejtto. 

II.  In  the  New  Test,  we  have  the  following  Greek 
words  thus  rendered:  ykvoc,  the  most  general  and  fre- 
quent term,  our  kin,  i.  e.  birth  relationship,  with  its  de- 
rivative avyysveia,  co-relationship;  TraTpia  (Acts  iii, 
25),  descent  in  a  direct  line  ("  lineage,"  Luke  ii,  4 ;  '•  fam- 
ily," Eph.  iii,  15);  and  tf>vX//(Rev.v,9;  vii,  9;  xi,9;  xiii, 
7 ;  xiv,  6),  a  tribe  (as  elsewhere  rendered). 

In  addition  to  these  lleb.  and  Greek  words,  various 
others  of  cognate  derivation  or  similar  signilication  are 
frequently  rendered '' kin,"  "kinship,"  etc. 

III.  The  terms  expressive  of  immediate  relationship 
are  father,  siotuki!,  brother,  sister,  son,  daugh- 
ter ;  those  expressing  collateral  consanguinity  are  un- 
cle, aunt,  nephew  (niece  does  not  occur  in  the  A.V., 
but  brother's  or  sister's  daughter),  cousin;  those  ex- 
pressive of  affinity  are  p\\theu-in-law,  jiother-in- 
LAw,  son-in-law,  daughter-in-law,  brother-in- 
law,  siSTER-iN-L.\w.     See  each  of  these  in  their  place, 

IV.  The  relations  of  kindred,  expressed  by  few  words, 
and  imperfectly  defined  in  the  earliest  ages,  acquired  in 
course  of  time  greater  significance  and  Avider  infiuence. 
The  full  list  of  relatives  cither  by  consanguinity,  i.  e.  as 
arising  from  a  common  ancestor,  or  by  affinity,  i.  e.  as 
created  by  marriage,  may  be  seen  detailed  in  the  Cor- 
pus Juiis  Civ.  Digest,  lib.  xxxviii,  tit.  10,  de  Gradibus; 
see  also  Corp.  Jur.  Canon.  Deer,  ii,  c.  xxxv,  9,  5.  See 
Affinity. 

The  domestic  and  economical  questions  arising  out  of 
kindred  may  be  classed  imder  the  three  heads  of  JIak- 
RiAGE,  Inheritance,  and  Blood -Revenge,  and  the 
reader  is  referred  to  tlie  articles  on  those  subjects  for  in- 
formation thereon.  It  is  clear  that  the  tendency  of  the 
jNIosaic  law  was  to  increase  the  restrictions  on  marriage, 
by  defining  more  precisely  the  relations  created  by  it,  as 
is  shown  bj'  the  cases  of  Abraham  and  IMoses.  For  in- 
formation on  the  general  subject  of  kindred  and  its  obli- 
gations, see  Selden,  De  Jure  Ncdurali,  lib.  v ;  INIichaelis, 
Lairs  of  Moses,  ed.  Smith,  ii,  3G  ;  Knobel  on  Lev.  xviii ; 
Philo,  he  Spec.  Leg.  iii,  3, 4, 5,  vol.  ii,  p.  301-304,  ed,  ;Man- 
gey;  Burckhardt,  .1  ?y;6  Tribes,  i,  150;  \\^ci\,Bibl.  Arch. 
ii,  50,  §  106, 107.— Smith.     See  Kinsman. 

Kine  (T\^'^.j}arah,'  i.  q.  fruitful,  a  heifer,  Gen.  xxxii, 
15;  xli,  2-27;  and  so  rendered  in  Numb,  xix,  2-9;  also 
a  young  milch-cow,  1  Sam,  vi,  7-14 ;  "  cow,"  Job  xxi,  10 ; 
Isa,  xi,  7;  a  "heifer"  just  broken  to  the  yoke,  Hos.  iv, 
16 ;  put  as  a  symbol  of  a  voluptuous  female,  Amos  iv,  1 : 
sometimes  in  the  Auth.Vers.  for  r|bx,  c'leph,  usually  an 
or,  as  rendered  in  Psa.  viii.  8;  Prov.  xiv,  4;  Isa.  xxx, 
24;  but  fcm.  in  Dent,  vii,  13  ;  xxviii,  4, 18,  51 ;  also  for 
"Ip2,  i(;/iY//-',  Dent,  xxxii,  14;  2  Sam,  xvii,  29;  a  beeve 
or  one  of  a  herd  of  cattle,  elsewhere  without  distinction 
of  sex,  and  rendered  "  ox,''  '■  bullock,"  "  herd,"  etc).  See 
Cow. 

King  (Ileb.  and  Chald.  Tyi'2,  me'hk,  ruler;  ftaai- 
\iv<j),  the  most  general  term  for  an  absolute,  indepen- 
dent, and  life-long  sovereign. 

1.  Scriptural  Applications  of  the  Title. — In  the  Bible 
the  name  does. not  always  imply  the  same  degree  of 
pov.-er  or  importance,  neither  does  it  indicate  the  magni- 
tude of  the  dominion  or  territory  of  the  national  ruler 
thus  designated  (Gen.  xxxvi,  31).     Many  persons  are 


KING 


83 


KING 


called  "  kings"  in  Scripture  whom  we  should  rather  de- 
nominate chiefs  or  leaders ;  and  many  single  towns,  or 
towns  with  their  adjacent  villages,  are  said  to  have 
kings.  Hence  we  need  not  be  surprised  at  seeing  that 
so  small  a  country  as  Canaan  contained  thirty-one  kinr/s 
who  were  conquered  (Josh,  xii,  9, 24),  besides  many  wlio 
no  doubt  escaped  the  arms  of  Joshua.  Adonibezek  him- 
sslf,  no  very  po\verful  king,  mentions  seventy  kliif/s  whom 
he  had  subdued  and  mutilated  (Judg.  i,  7 ;  1  Kings  iv, 
21 ;  XX,  1,  16).  Ii^ven  at  the  present  day  the  heads  of 
Arab  tribes  are  often  called  "  king,"  which  in  this  case 
also  means  no  more  than  sheik  or  chief.  In  like  man- 
ner, in  the  New  Test.,  owing  to  the  peculiar  political  re- 
lations of  the  Jews,  the  title  "  king"  has  very  different 
significations:  (1.)  The  Roman  emperor  (1  Pet.  ii,  13, 
17);  and  so  the  "  seven  kings"  (Rev.  xvii,  10)  are  perhaps 
the  first  seven  Caesars  (comp.  Thilo,  Apocr.  579).  (2.) 
Herod  Antipas  (Matt,  xiv,  9 ;  Mark  vi,  22),  although 
only  tetrarch  (compare  Luke  iii,  19).  (3.)  8o  also  the 
ten  provincial  representatives  of  the  Roman  government 
(Rev.  xvii,  12),  as  being  supreme  within  their  respective 
jurisdictions.     See  Governor,  etc. 

"  King,"  in  symbolical  language,  signifies  the  possess- 
or of  supreme  power,  whether  lodged  in  one  or  more  per- 
sons (Rrov.  viii,  15,  IG).  It  is  applied  in  the  Scriptures 
to  (iod,  as  the  sole  proper  sovereign  and  ruler  of  the 
universe  (1  Tim.  i,  17),  and  to  Christ,  the  Son  of  God, 
the  sole  Head  and  Governor  of  his  Church  (1  Tim.  vi, 
15,16;  Matt. xxvii,  1 1 ;  Lukexis,38;  John  i, 49;  xvili, 
33, 34) ;  also  to  men,  as  invested  with  regal  authority  by 
their  fellows  (Luke  xxii,  25;  1  Tim.  ii,  1,  2;  1  Pet.  ii, 
13-17) ;  so  also  the  people  of  God  are  called  kinr/s  and 
priests  (Psa.  xlix,  14;  Dan.  vii,  22,  27;  Slatt.  xix,  28; 
Luke  xxii,  29,  30 ;  1  Cor.  vi,  2,  3 ;  2  Tim.  ii,  12 ;  Rev.  i, 
6 ;  ii,  26,  27 ;  iii,  21 ;  v,  10 ;  xxii,  5).  In  Job  xviii,  14 
it  is  applied  to  Death,  who  is  there  called  the  "  king  of 
terrors."  In  Job  xli,  34,  leviathan,  or  the  crocodile,  is 
thus  designated :  "  he  is  a  king  over  all  the  children  of 
pride."     (See  AVemyss's  Symbol.  Did.) 

The  application,  however,  of  the  term  "  king,"  with 
which  we  are  here  particularly  concerned,  is  that  of  the 
name  of  the  national  ruler  of  the  Hebrews  during  a  pe- 
riod of  about  500  years  previous  to  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  B.C.  588.  It  was  borne  first  by  the  ruler  of 
the  Twelve  Tribes  united,  and  then  by  the  riders  of 
Judali  and  Israel  separately.     See  Kings,  Book  of. 

2.  Orii/in  of  the  Ilebre^n  Monarchy. — Regal  authority 
was  altogether  alien  to  the  institutions  of  Moses  in  their 
original  and  unadulterated  form.  Their  fundamental 
idea  was  that  Jehovah  was  the  sole  king  of  the  nation 
(1  hSam.  viii,  7) ;  to  use  the  emphatic  words  in  Isa. 
xxxiii,  22,  "  the  Lord  is  our  judge,  the  Lord  is  our  law- 
giver, the  Lord  is  our  king."  Although  Moses  ventured, 
witli  his  half-civilized  hordes,  on  tlie  bold  experiment 
of  founding  a  society  without  a  Iving,  and  in  doing  so 
evinced  a  rare  patriotism  and  self-denial,  for  without 
doubt  the  man  who  rescued  the  Je^vs  from  bondage  and 
conducted  them  to  the  land  of  Canaan  might,  had  he 
chosen,  have  kept  the  dominion  in  his  own  hands,  and 
transmitted  a  crown  to  his  posterity,  yet  he  well  knew 
what  were  the  elements  with  which  he  had  to  deal  in 
framing  institutions  for  tlie  rescued  Israelites.  Slaves 
they  had  been,  and  the  sjiirit  of  slavery  was  not  yet 
wholly  eradicated  from  their  souls.  They  had  witness- 
ed in  Egypt  the  more  than  ordinary  pomp  and  splendor 
which  environ  a  throne.  Not  improliably  the  ]irospcrity 
and  abundance  which  they  had  seen  in  Egypt,  and  in 
which  they  had  been,  in  a  measure,  allowed  to  partake, 
might  have  been  ascribed  by  them  to  the  regal  form  of 
the  Egyptian  government.  Moses  may  well,  therefore, 
have  appreliended  a  not  very  remote  departure  from 
the  fundamental  type  of  his  institutions.  Accordingly 
he  makes  a  special  provision  for  this  contingency  (Deut. 
xvii,  14),  and  labors,  by  anticipation,  to  guard  against 
the  abuses  of  royal  power.  ShoiUil  a  king  be  demanded 
by  the  people,  then  he  was  to  be  a  native  Israelite  :  lie 
was  not  to  be  drawn  away  by  the  love  of  show,  especial- 


ly by  a  desire  for  that  regal  display  in  which  horses 
have  always  borne  so  large  a  part,  to  send  down  to 
Egypt,  still  less  to  cause  the  people  to  return  to  that 
land;  he  was  to  avoid  the  corrupting  influence  of  a 
large  harem,  so  common  among  Eastern  monarchs ;  he 
was  to  abstain  from  amassing  silver  and  gold ;  he  was 
to  have  a  copy  of  the  law  made  expressly  for  his  own 
studj' — a  study  which  he  was  never  to  intermit  till  the 
end  of  his  days,  so  that  his  heart  might  not  be  lifted  up 
above  his  brethren,  that  he  might  not  be  turned  aside 
from  the  living  God,  but,  observing  the  divine  statute?, 
and  thus  acknowledging  himself  to  be  no  more  than  tie 
vicegerent  of  heaven,  he  might  enjoy  happiness,  ar.d 
transmit  his  authority  to  liis  descendants. 

The  removal  of  Moses  and  Joshua  by  death  soon  left 
the  people  to  the  natural  residts  of  their  own  condition 
and  character.  Anarchy  ensued.  Noble  minds,  indeed, 
and  stout  hearts  appeared  in  those  who  were  termed 
judges;  but  the  state  of  the  countrj^  was  not  so  satis- 
factory as  to  prevent  an  unenlightened  people,  having 
low  and  gross  affections,  from  preferring  the  glare  of  a 
crown  and  the  apparent  protection  of  a  sceptre  to  the 
invisible  and,  therefore,  mostly  imrecognised  artn  of 
Omnipotence.  A  king  accordingly  is  requested  (1  Sam. 
viii).  The  misconduct  of  Samuel's  sons,  who  had  been 
made  judges,  was  the  immediate  cause  of  the  demand 
being  put  forth.  The  request  came  with  authority, 
for  it  emanated  from  all  the  elders  of  Israel,  who,  after 
holding  a  formal  conference,  proceeded  to  Samuel,  in 
order  to  make  him  acquainted  with  their  wish.  Samuel 
was  displeased ;  but,  having  sought  in  prayer  to  learn  the 
divine  will,  he  was  instructed  to  yield  to  the  demand; 
yet  at  the  same  time  he  was  directed  to  "  protest  sol- 
emnly unto  them,  and  show  them  the  manner  of  the 
king  that  shall  reign  over  them."  Faithfully  did  the 
prophet  depict  the  evils  which  a  monarcliy  would  inflict 
on  the  people.  In  vain ;  they  said,  "  Nay,  but  we  will 
have  a  king  over  us."  Accordingly,  Said,  the  son  of 
Kish,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  was,  by  divine  direction, 
selected,  and  privately  anointed  by  Samuel  "  to  be  cap- 
tain over  God's  inheritance;"  thus  he  was  to  hold  only 
a  delegated  and  subordinate  authoritj'  (1  Sam.  ix ;  x, 
1-16).  Under  the  guidance  of  Samuel,  Said  was  subse- 
quently chosen  by  lot  from  among  the  assembled  tribes ; 
and  though  his  personal  appearance  had  no  influence  in 
the  choice,  yet,  when  he  was  plainly  pointed  out  to  he 
the  individual  designed  for  the  sceptre,  Samuel  called 
attention  to  those  personal  qualities  which  in  less  civ- 
ilized nations  have  a  preponderating  influence,  and  are 
never  without  effect,  at  least,  in  supporting  the  physical 
dignity  of  a  reign  (1  Sam.  x,  17-27).  (For  a  fuller  dis- 
cussion of  this  change  in  the  Hebrew  constitution,  see 
Kitto's  Daily  Bible  Illustrations  under  the  portion  of 
history  in  question.)     See  Samuel. 

The  special  occasion  of  the  substitution  of  a  regal 
form  of  government  for  that  of  the  judges  seems  to 
have  been  the  siege  of  Jabesh-Gilead  by  Nahash,  king 
of  the  Ammonites  (1  Sam.  xi,  1 ;  xii,  12),  and  the  re- 
fusal to  allow  the  inhabitants  of  that  city  to  capitulate 
except  on  humiliating  and  cruel  conditions  (1  Sam.  xi,  2, 
4-6).  The  conviction  seems  to  have  forced  itself  on 
the  Israelites  that  they  could  not  resist  their  formidable 
neighbor  unless  they  placed  themselves  under  the  sway 
of  a  king,  like  surrounding  nations.  Concurrently  with 
this  conviction,  disgust  had  been  excited  by  the  corrupt 
administration  of  justice  under  the  sons  of  Samuel,  and 
a  radical  change  was  desired  by  them  in  this  respect 
also  (1  Sam.  viii,  3-5).  Accordingly,  the  original  idea 
of  a  Hebrew  king  was  twofold :  1st,  that  he  should  lead 
the  people  to  battle  in  time  of  war;  and,  2dly,  that  he 
should  execute  judgment  and  justice  to  them  in  war  and 
in  peace  (1  Sam.  viii,  20).  In  both  respects  the  desired 
end  was  attained.  The  righteous  wrath  and  military 
capacity  of  Saul  were  immediately  triumphant  over  the 
Ammonites ;  and  though  idtimately  he  was  defeated 
and  slain  in  battle  with  the  Philistines,  he  put  even  them 
to  flight  on  more  than  one  occasion  (1  Sam.  xiv,  23  ; 


KING 


84 


KYMG 


xvii,  52),  and  generally  waged  successful  war  against 
the  surrounding  nations  (1  Sam.  xiv,  47).  See  Saul. 
His  successor,  David,  entered  on  a  series  ofbrUliant  con- 
quests over  the  Philistines,  Moabites,  Syrians,  Edomites, 
and  Ammonites ;  and  the  Israelites,  no  longer  confined 
within  the  naiTOW  bounds  of  Palestine,  had  an  empire 
extending  from  tlie  Iliver  Euphrates  to  Gaza,  and  from 
the  entering  in  of  Hamath  to  the  river  of  Egypt  (1 
Kings  iv,  21).  In  the  meanwliilc  complaints  ceased  of 
the  corruption  of  justice;  and  Solomon  not  only  consol- 
idated and  maintained  in  peace  the  empire  of  his  father 
David,  but  left  an  enduring  reputation  for  his  wisdom 
as  a  judge.  Under  this  expression,  however,  we  must 
regard  him,  not  merely  as  pronouncing  decisions,  pri- 
marily or  in  the  last  resort,  in  civil  and  criminal  cases, 
liut  likewise  as  liolding  public  levees  and  transacting 
public  business  "  at  the  gate,"  when  he  would  receive 
petitions,  hear  complaints,  and  give  summary  decisions 
on  various  points,  wliich  in  a  modern  European  kingdom 
■would  come  under  the  cognizance  of  numerous  distinct 
public  departments.     See  David  ;  Solojiox. 

3.  Functions  and  Prerogatives.  —  Emanating  as  the 
royal  power  did  from  the  demand  of  the  people  and  the 
permission  of  a  prophet,  it  was  not  likely  to  be  unlimit- 
ed in  its  extent  or  arbitrary  in  its  exercise.  The  gov- 
ernment of  God,  indeed,  remained,  being  rather  conceal- 
ed and  complicated  than  disoAvned,  nuich  less  super- 
seded. The  king  ruled  not  in  his  own  right  nor  in 
virtue  of  the  choice  of  the  people,  but  by  concession  from 
on  higli,  and  partly  as  the  servant  and  partly  as  the 
representative  of  the  theocracy.  How  inseciu-e,  indeed, 
was  the  tenure  of  the  kingly  power,  how  restricted  it 
was  in  its  authority,  appears  clear  from  the  comparative 
facility  with  which  the  crown  was  transferred  from  Saul 
to  David ;  and  the  part  whicli  the  prophet  Samuel  took 
ill  effecting  that  transference  points  out  the  quarter 
where  lay  the  power  wliich  limited,  if  it  did  not  pri- 
marily, at  least,  control  the  royal  authority.  It  must, 
however,  be  added  that,  if  religion  narrowed  this  au- 
thority, it  also  invested  it  witli  a  sacredness  which  could 
emanate  from  no  other  source.  Liable  as  the  Israelitish 
kings  were  to  interference  on  the  part  of  priest  and 
prophet,  they  were,  by  the  same  di\'iiie  power,  shielded 
from  the  unholy  hands  of  the  profane  vulgar,  and  it 
was  at  once  imjjiety  and  rebellion  to  do  injury  to  "  the 
Lord's  anointed"  (Psa.  ii,  G,  7  sq.).  Instances  are  not 
wanting  to  corroborate  and  extend  these  general  ob- 
serA-ations.  "WTien  Saul  was  in  extremity  before  the 
Philistines  (1  Sam.  xxviii),  he  resorted  to  the  usual 
methods  of  obtaining  counsel :  "  Saul  inquired  of  the 
Lord;  the  Lord  answered  him  not,  neither  hy  dreams, 
nor  by  Urim,  nor  by  tlie  prophets."  So  David,  when 
in  need  of  advice  in  war  (1  Sam.  xxx,  7),  resorted  to 
Abiathar  the  priest,  who,  by  means  of  the  ephod,  in- 
quired of  the  Lord,  and  thereupon  urged  the  king  to 
take  a  certain  course,  which  proved  successful  (see  also 
2  Sam.  ii,  1).  Sometimes,  indeed,  as  appears  from  1 
Sam.  xxviii.  it  was  a  propliet  who  acted  the  part  of 
prune  minister,  or  chief  counsellor,  to  the  king,  and  who, 
as  bearing  that  sacred  character,  must  have  possessed 
vcrj'  weighty  influence  in  the  roj'al  divan  (1  Kings  xxii, 
7  sq.).  We  must  not,  however,  expect  to  find  any  def- 
inite and  ]icrmancnt  distribution  of  power,  any  legal 
determination  of  the  royal  jircrogatives  as  discrimina- 
ted from  the  divine  authority;  circumstances,  as  they 
]ironn)ted  certain  deeds,  restricted  or  enlarged  the  sphere 
of  the  monarch's  action.  Tims,  in  1  Sam.  xi,  4  sq.,  we 
find  Saul,  in  an  emergency,  assuming,  without  consulta- 
tion  or  deliberation,  the  itower  of  demanding  something 
like  a  levy  en  masse,  and  of  proclaiming  instant  war. 
M'ith  the  king  lay  the  administration  of  justice  in  the 
last  resort  (2  Sam.  xv,  2 ;  I  Kings  iii,  Ki  sq.).  He  also 
jioss?ssed  the  power  of  life  and  dfalh  (2  Sam.vxiv).  To 
jtroviile  for  and  superintend  the  public  worsliip  was  at 
once  his  duty  and  his  highest  honor  (1  Kings  viii ;  2 
Kings  xii,  4;  xviii,  4;  xxiii,  1).  One  reason  Avhy  the 
people  requested  a  king  was  that  they  might  have  a 


recognised  leader  in  war  (1  Sam.  viii,  20).  The  INIosaic 
law  offered  a  jiowerful  liindrance  to  royal  despotism  (1 
Sam.  X,  2.")).  The  peuiilc  also,  by  means  of  their  eklers, 
formed  an  express  compact,  by  which  they  stipulated 
for  their  rights  (I  Kings  xii,  4),  and  were  from  time  to 
time  appealed  to,  generally  in  cases  of  "  great  pith  and 
moment"  (1  Chron.  xxix,  1;  2  Kings  xi,  17;  Joseplius, 
War,  ii,  1,  2).  Nor  did  the  people  fail  to  interpose  their 
win,  where  they  thought  it  necessar}-,  in  opposition  to 
that  of  the  monarch  (1  Sam.  xiv,  45).  The  part  which 
Nathan  took  against  David  sho^vs  how  effective,  as  well 
as  bold,  was  the  check  exerted  by  the  prophets ;  indeed, 
most  of  the  prophetic  history  is  the  history  of  the  no- 
blest opposition  ever  made  to  the  vices  alike  of  royalty, 
priesthood,  and  pcojile.  If  ncedfid,  the  prophet  hesitated 
not  to  demand  an  audience  with  the  king,  nor  was  he  daz- 
zled or  deterred  by  royal  po\ver  and  pomp  (1  Kings  xx, 
22,  38 ;  2  Kings  i,  15).  As,  however,  the  monarch  held 
the  sword,  the  instrument  of  death  was  sometimes  made 
to  prevail  over  every  restraining  influence  (1  Sam.  xxii, 
17).     See  Prophet. 

To  form  a  correct  idea  of  a  Hebrew  king,  we  must 
abstract  ourselves  from  the  notions  of  modern  Europe, 
and  realize  the  position  of  Oriental  sovereigns.  It 
would  be  a  mistake  to  regard  the  Hebrew  government 
as  a  limited  monarchy,  in  the  English  sense  of  the  ex- 
pression. It  is  stated  in  1  Sam.  x,  25,  that  Samuel 
'•  told  the  people  the  manner  of  the  kingdom,  and  wrote 
it  in  the  book  and  laid  it  before  the  Lord,"  and  it  is 
barely  possible  that  this  may  refer  to  some  statement 
respecting  the  boundaries  of  the  kingly  power.  (The 
word  US'jp,  literally y(«/*7?7iCHf,  translated  "manner"  in 
the  A.  v.,  is  translated  in  the  Sept.  ctK-ai wji(«,  i.  e.  statute 
or  ordinance  [comp.  Ecclus.  iv,  17;  Bar.  ii,  12;  iv,  13]. 
But  Joseplius  seems  to  have  regarded  the  document  as 
a  prophetical  statement,  read  before  the  king,  of  the  ca- 
lamities which  were  to  arise  from  the  kuigl}-  power,  as 
a  kind  of  protest  recorded  for  succeeding  ages  \_AHt.  vi, 
4,  6]).  But  no  such  document  has  come  down  to  us; 
and  if  it  ever  existed,  and  contained  restrictions  of  any 
moment  on  the  kingly  power,  it  was  probably  disregard- 
ed in  practice.  The  following  passage  of  sir  John  j\Ial- 
colm  respecting  the  shahs,  of  Persia  may,  with  some 
slight  modifications,  be  regarded  as  fairly  applicable  to 
the  Hebrew  monarchy  under  David  and  Solomon :  '•  The 
monarch  of  Persia  has  been  pronoimced  to  be  one  of  the 
most  absolute  in  the  world.  His  word  has  ever  been 
deemed  a  law :  and  he  has  probably  never  had  any  fur- 
ther restraint  upon  the  free  exercise  of  his  vast  au- 
thority than  has  arisen  from  Ms  regard  for  religion,  his 
respect  for  established  usages,  his  desire  for  reputation, 
and  his  fear  of  exciting  an  opposition  that  might  be 
dangerous  to  his  power  or  to  his  life"  (^Malcolm's  Peisia, 
ii,  303 ;  comp.  Elphinstone's  India,  bk.  viii,  ch.  3).  It 
must  not,  however,  be  supposed  to  have  been  either  the 
understanding  or  the  practice  that  the  sovereign  might 
seize  at  his  discretion  the  private  propert}'  of  individu- 
als. Ahab  did  not  venture  to  seize  the  vineyard  of  Na- 
both  till,  through  the  testimony  of  false  witnesses,  Na- 
both  had  been  convicted  of  blasphemj^;  and  possibly  his 
vineyard  may  have  been  seized  as  a  confiscation,  with- 
out flagrantly  outraging  jniblic  sentiment  in  those  who 
did  not  know  the  truth  (1  Kings  xi,  G).  But  no  mon- 
archy perhaps  ever  existed  in  which  it  would  not  lie 
regarded  as  an  outrage  that  the  monarch  should  from 
covetousness  seize  the  private  property  of  an  innocent 
subject  in  no  ways  dangerous  to  the  state.  And  gen- 
erally, when  sir  John  Malcolm  proceeds  as  follows  in  ref- 
erence to  "one  of  the  most  absolute"  monarchs  in  the 
world,  it  will  be  luiderstood  that  the  Hebrew  king, 
whose  power  might  be  dcscrilicd  in  the  same  way,  is 
not,  on  account  of  certain  restraints  which  exist  in  the 
nature  of  things,  to  be  regarded  as  "a  limited  monarch" 
in  the  European  use  of  the  words.  "  "We  may  assume 
that  the  po^ver  of  the  king  of  Persia  is  by  usage  absolute 
over  the  property  and  lives  of  his  conquered  enemies, 
his  rebellious  subjects,  his  own  family,  his  minisieis,  over 


KING 


85 


KING 


public  officers  civil  and  jnilitarij,  and  all  the  mmerous 
train  of  domestics,  and  that  he  may  punish  any  person 
of  these  classes  without  examination  or  formal  procedure 
of  any  kind;  in  all  other  cases  that  are  capital,  the  forms 
prescribed  by  law  and  custom  arc  observed;  the  mon- 
arch only  commands,  when  the  evidence  has  been  ex- 
amined and  the  law  declared,  that  the  sentence  shall  be 
put  in  execution  or  that  the  condemned  culprit  shall 
be  pardoned"  (ii,  306).  In  accordance  with  such  usages, 
David  ordered  Uriah  to  be  treacherously  exposed  to 
death  in  the  forefront  of  the  hottest  battle  (2  Sam.  xi, 
15) ;  he  caused  Rechab  and  Baanah  to  be  slain  instant- 
ly, when  they  brought  him  the  head  of  Ishbosheth  {2 
Sam.  iv,  1-2);  and  he  is  represented  as  having  on  his 
deatli-bed  recommended  Solomon  to  put  Joab  and  Shi- 
mei  to  death  (1  Kings  ii,  5-9).  In  like  manner,  Solo- 
mon caused  to  be  killed,  without  trial,  not  only  his  elder 
brother  Adonijah  and  Joali,  whose  execution  might  be 
regarded  as  the  exceptional  acts  of  a  dismal  state-policy 
in  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  but  likewise  Shimei,  after 
having  been  seated  on  the  throne  three  years.  And 
king  Saul,  in  resentment  at  their  connivance  with  Da- 
vid's escape,  put  to  death  85  priests,  and  caused  a  mas- 
sacre of  the  inhabitants  of  Nob,  including  women,  chil- 
dren, and  sucklings  (1  Sam.  xxii,  18, 19). 

Besides  being  commander-in-chief  of  the  army,  su- 
preme judge,  and  absolute  master,  as  it  were,  of  the  lives 
of  his  subjects,  the  king  exercised  the  power  of  impos- 
ing taxes  on  them,  and  of  exacting,-  from  them  personal 
service  and  labor.  Both  these  points  seem  clear  from 
the  account  given  (I  Sam.  viii,  11-17)  of  the  evils  which 
would  arise  from  the  kingly  power,  and  are  confirmed  in 
various  ways.  Whatever  mention  may  be  made  of  con- 
sulting "  old  men,"  or  "  elders  of  Israel,"  we  never  read 
of  their  deciding  such  points  as  these.  When  Pul,  the 
king  of  Assyria,  imposed  a  tribute  on  the  kingdom  of 
Israel, "  Menahem,  the  king,"  exacted  the  money  of  all 
the  mighty  men  of  wealth,  of  each  man  50  shekels  of 
silver  (2  Kings  xv,  19).  When  Jehoiakim,  king  of  Ju- 
dah,  gave  his  tril)ute  of  silver  and  gold  to  Pharaoh,  he 
taxed  the  land  to  give  the  money ;  he  exacted  the  silver 
and  gold  of  the  people,  of  every  one  according  to  his 
taxation  (2  Kings  xxili,  35).  The  degree  to  which  the 
exaction  of  personal  labor  might  be  carried  on  a  special 
occasion  is  illustrated  by  king  Solomon's  requirements 
for  building  the  Temple.  He  raised  a  levy  of  30,000 
men,  and  sent  them  to  Lebanon  by  courses  of  10,000  a 
month ;  and  he  liad  70,000  that  bare  burdens,  and  80,000 
hewers  in  the  mountains  (1  Kings  v,  13-15).  Judged 
by  the  Oriental  standard,  there  is  nothing  improbable 
in  tliese  numbers.  In  our  own  da3's,  for  the  purpose  of 
constructing  the  Mahmiideyeh  Canal  in  Egypt,  Me- 
hemet  Ali,  by  orders  given  to  the  various  sheiks  of  the 
provinces  of  Sakarah,  Ghizeh,  Mensiirah,  Sharkieh,  Me- 
iiiif,  Bahyreh,  and  some  others,  caused  300,000  men,  wom- 
en, and  children  to  be  assembled  along  the  site  of  the 
intended  canal  (see  ]\Irs.  Poole's  Enylishwoman  in  Eyypt, 
ii,  219).  This  was  120,000  more  than  the  levy  of  Solo- 
mon. 

In  addition  to  these  earthly  powers,  the  king  of  Israel 
liad  a  more  awfid  claim  to  respect  and  obedience.  He 
was  the  vicegerent  of  Jehovah  (1  Sam.  x,  1 ;  xvi,  13), 
and,  as  it  were.  His  son,  if  just  and  holy  (2  Sam.  vii,  l-l ; 
Psa.  Ixxxix,  26,  27;  ii,  6,  7).  He  had  been  set  apart  as 
a  consecrated  ruler.  Upon  his  head  had  been  poured 
the  holy  anointing  oil,  composed  of  olive-oil,  mj-rrh,  cin- 
namon, sweet  calamus,  and  cassia,  v.diich  had  hitherto 
been  reserved  exclusively  for  the  priests  of  Jehovah, 
especially  the  high-priest,  or  had  been  solely  used  to 
anoint  the  Tabernacle  of  the  Congregation,  the  Ark  of 
the  Testimony,  and  the  vessels  of  the  Tabernacle  (Exod. 
XXX,  23-33;  "xl,  9;  Lev.  xxi,  10;  1  Kings  i,  39).  He 
had  become,  in  fact,  emphaticallj' "  the  Lord's  anointed." 
At  the  coronation  of  sovereigns  in  modern  Europe,  holy 
oil  has  frequently  been  used  as  a  symbol  of  divine  right ; 
but  this  has  been  mainly  regarded  as  a  mere  form,  and 
the  use  of  it  was  undoubtedly  introduced  in  imitation 


of  the  Hebrew  custom.  But,  from  the  beginning  to  the 
end  of  the  Hebrew  monarchy,  a  living  real  significance 
was  attached  to  consecration  by  this  holy  anointing  oU. 
From  well-known  anecdotes  related  of  David — and,  per- 
haps, from  words  in  his  lamentation  over  Saul  and  Jon- 
athan (2  Sam.  i,  21) — it  results  that  a  certain  sacredness 
invested  the  person  of  Said,  t\vi  first  king,  as  the  Lord's 
anointed ;  and  that,  on  this  account,  it  was  deemed  sac- 
rilegious to  kill  liim,  even  at  his  o^v^^  request  (1  Sam. 
xxiv,  6,  10 ;  xxvi,  9,  16  ;  2  Sam.  i,  14).  After  the  de- 
struction of  the  first  Temple,  in  the  Book  of  Lamenta- 
tions over  the  calamities  of  the  Hebrew  people,  it  is  by 
the  name  of  "  the  Lord's  Anointed"  that  Zedekiah,  the 
last  king  of  Judah,  is  bewailed  (Lam.  iv,  20).  Again, 
more  than  600  years  after  the  capture  of  Zedekiah,  the 
name  of  the  Anointed,  though  never  so  used  in  the  Old 
Testament — j'et  suggested,  probably,  by  Psa.  ii,  2 ;  Dan. 
ix,  26 — had  become  appropriated  to  the  expected  king, 
who  was  to  restore  the  kingdom  of  David,  and  inaugu- 
rate a  jjeriod  when  Edom,  Moab,  the  Ammonites,  and 
the  Philistines  would  again  be  incorporated  with  the 
Hebrew  monarchy,  which  would  extend  from  the  Eu- 
phrates to  the  INIediterranean  Sea  and  to  the  ends  of  the 
earth  (Acts  i,  6;  John  i,  41 ;  iv,  25;  Isa.  xi,  12-14;  Psa. 
Ixxii,  8).  Thus  the  identical  Hebrew  -word  which  sig- 
nifies anointed,  through  its  Aramaic  form  adopted  into 
Greek  and  Latin,  is  still  preserved  to  us  in  the  English 
word  Messiah.  (See  Gesenius's  Thesaurus,  p.  825.)  Sec 
§  4,  below. 

4.  Appointment  and  Tnauyttration. — The  law  of  suc- 
cession to  the  throne  is  somewhat  obscure,  but  it  seems 
most  probable  that  the  kuig  during  his  lifetime  named 
his  successor.  This  was  certainly  the  case  with  David, 
who  passed  over  his  elder  son  Adonijah,  the  son  of  Hag- 
gith,  in  favor  of  Solomon,  the  son  of  Bathsheba  (1  Kings 
i,  30 ;  ii,  22) ;  and  with  Eehoboam,  of  whom  it  is  said 
that  he  loved  Jlaachah,  the  daughter  of  Absalom,  above 
all  his  wives  and  concubines,  and  that  he  made  Abijah 
her  son  to  be  ruler  among  his  brethren,  to  make  him 
king  (2  Chron.  xi,  21,  22).  The  succession  of  the  first- 
born has  been  inferred  from  a  passage  in  2  Chron.  xxi, 
3,  4,  in  which  Jehoshaphat  is  said  to  have  given  the 
kingdom  to  Jehorara  "  because  he  was  the  first»born." 
But  this  verj'-  passage  tends  to  show  that  Jehoshaphat 
had  the  power  of  naming  his  successor ;  and  it  is  wor- 
thy of  note  that  Jehoram,  on  his  coming  to  the  throne, 
put  to  death  all  his  brothers,  which  he  woidd  scarcely, 
perhaps,  have  done  if  the  succession  of  the  first-born  had 
been  the  law  of  the  land.  From  the  conciseness  of  the 
narratives  in  the  books  of  Kings  no  inference  either  v/ay 
can  i)e  drawn  from  the  ordinary  formula  in  which  the 
death  of  the  fivther  and  succession  of  his  son  is  recorded 
(1  Kings  XV,  8).  At  the  same  time,  if  no  partiality  for 
a  favorite  wife  or  son  intervened,  there  would  always 
be  a  natural  bias  of  affection  in  favor  of  the  eldest  son. 
There  appears  to  have  been  some  prominence  given  to 
the  mother  of  the  king  (2  Kings  xxiv,  12, 15;  1  Kings 
ii,  19),  and  it  is  possible  that  the  mother  may  have  been 
regent  diu-ing  the  minority  of  a  son.  Indeed,  some  such 
custom  best  explains  the  possibility  of  the  audacious 
usurpation  of  Athaliah  on  the  death  of  her  son  Ahaziah : 
a  usurpation  which  lasted  six  years  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  all  the  seed-royal  except  the  young  Jehoash  (2 
Kings  xi,  1-3).  The  people,  too,  and  even  foreign  pow- 
ers, at  a  later  period  interrupted  the  regular  transmis- 
sion of  royal  authority  (2  Kings  xxi,  24 ;  xxiii,  24,  30 ; 
xxiv,  17).     See  Heir. 

It  is  supposed  both  by  Jahn  (Bib.  A  rchceol.  §  222)  and 
Bauer  (in  his  lleh.Alterthumer,  §  20)  that  a  king  was 
only  anointed  when  a  new  family  came  to  the  throne,  or 
when  the  right  to  the  crown  was  disputed.  It  is  usual- 
ly on  such  occasions  only  tliat  the  anointing  is  speci- 
fied, as  in  1  Sam.  x,  1 ;  2  Sam.  ii,  4 ;  1  Kings  i,  39 ;  2 
Kings  ix,  3 ;  xi,  12 ;  but  this  is  not  invariably  the  case 
(see  2  Kings  xxiii,  30),  and  there  docs  not  apjMar  suf- 
ficient reason  to  doubt  that  each  individual  king  was 
anointed.     There  can  be  little  doubt,  likewise,  that  the 


KING 


86 


KING 


kings  of  Israel  were  anointed,  though  this  is  not  speci- 
liL'cl  by  the  writers  of  Kings  and  Clironicles,  who  would 
deem  such  anointing  invalid.  The  ceremony  of  anoint- 
ing, which  was  observed  at  least  in  the  case  of  Saul, 
David,  and  Solomon  (1  Sam.  ix,  14;  x,  1 ;  xv,  1;  xvi, 
12;  2  Sam.  ii,  4;  v,  1 ;  1  Kings  i,34;  xxxix,  5),  and  in 
^vliich  the  prophet  or  high-priest  who  perlbrmed  the 
rite  acted  as  the  representative  of  the  theocracy  and  the 
expounder  of  tlie  will  of  heaven,  must  have  given  to 
the  spiritual  power  very  considerable  influence ;  and 
both  this  particidar  and  the  very  nature  of  the  ob- 
servance direct  the  mind  to  Egypt,  where  the  same 
custom  prevailed,  and  where  the  power  of  the  priestly 
caste  was  immense  (Wilkinson's  Anc.  Er/ypt.  v,  279j. 
Indeed,  the  ceremony  seems  to  have  been  essential  to 
constitute  a  legitimate  monarch  (2  Ivings  xi,  12 ;  xxiii, 
oO) ;  and  thus  the  authorities  of  the  Jewish  Church  held 
in  their  hands,  and  had  subject  to  their  will,  a  most  im- 
portant power,  which  they  could  use  either  for  their  own 
purposes  or  the  common  good.  In  consequence  of  the 
general  observance  of  this  ceremony,  the  term  "anoint- 
ed," "  the  Lord's  anointed"  (1  Sam.  ii,  10 ;  xvi,  G ;  :^iv, 
C ;  2  Sam.  xix,  21 ;  Psa.  ii,  2 ;  Lam.  iv,  20),  came  to  be 
employed  in  rhetorical  and  poetical  diction  as  equivalent 
in  meaning  to  the  designation  "  lung."  See  Axoixting. 
AVe  have  seen  in  the  case  of  Saul  that  personal  and 
even  external  quaUties  had  their  influence  in  procuring 
ready  obedience  to  a  sovereign ;  and  further  evidence 
to  the  same  effect  may  be  found  in  Psa.  xlv,  3 ;  Ezek. 
xxviii,  12  :  such  qualities  would  naturally  excite  the 
enthusiasm  of  the  people,  who  appear  to  have  manifest- 
ed their  approval  by  acclamations  (1  Sam.  x,24;  1  Ivings 
i,  25 :  2  Kings  ix,  13 ;  xi,  13 ;  2  Chron.  xxiii,  11 ;  see  also 
Josephus,  War,  i,  33,  9). 

6.  Court  and  Revenues. — The  following  is  a  list  of 
some  of  the  officers  of  the  king:  1.  The  recorder  or 
chronicler,  who  was  perhaps  analogous  to  the  histori- 
ographer whom  sir  John  Malcolm  mentions  as  an  officer 
of  tlie  Persian  court,  whose  duty  it  is  to  write  tlie  an- 
nals of  the  king's  reign  {IJisf.  of  Persia,  c.  23).  Certain 
it  is  that  there  is  no  regular  series  of  minute  dates  in 
Hebrew  historj-  until  we  read  of  this  recorder,  or  remem- 
braiKier,  as  the  word  mazkir  is  translated  in  a  marginal 
iK)te  of  the  English  version.  It  signifies  one  who  keeps 
the  memory  of  events  alive,  in  accordance  with  a  mo- 
tive assigned  by  Herodotus  for  writing  his  history,  viz. 
that  the  acts  of  men  might  not  become  extinct  by  time 
(Herod,  i,  1 ;  2  Sam.  viii,  16;  1  Kings  iv,  3;  2  Kings 
xviii,  18;  Isa.  xxxvi,  3,  22).  See  Ekcorder.  2.  The 
scribe  or  secretarj',  whose  duty  would  be  to  answer  let- 
ters or  petitions  in  the  name  of  the  king,  to  write  dis- 
patches, and  to  draw  up  edicts  (2  Sam.  viii,  17;  xx,  25; 
2  Kings  xii,  10 ;  xix,  2 ;  xxii,  8).  See  Scribe.  3.  The 
officer  who  was  over  the  house  (Isa.  xxxii,  15;  xxxvi, 
3).  His  duties  Avould  be  those  of  chief  steward  of  the 
houseliold,  and  woidd  embrace  all  the  internal  economi- 
cal arrangements  of  the  palace,  the  superintendence  of 
the  king's  servants,  and  the  custody  of  his  costly  ves- 
sels of  gold  and  silver.  He  seems  to  have  worn  a  dis- 
tinctive  robe  of  office  and  girdle.  It  was  against  Sheb- 
na,  who  held  this  office,  that  Isaiah  uttered  his  personal 
jirophecy  (xxii,  15-25),  the  only  instance  of  the  kind 
in  his  writings  (see  Gcsen../euS(/.  i,  G94).  See  Steward. 
4.  The  king's  friend  (1  Kings  iv,  5),  called  likewise  the 
king's  0(jmpanion.  It  is  evident  from  the  name  that 
this  oniccr  nnist  have  stood  in  confidential  relation  to 
the  king,  Init  liis  duties  are  nowhere  specilied.  5.  The 
keeper  of  the  vestry  or  wardrobe  (2  Kings  x,  22).  C. 
Tlic  captain  of. the  body-guard  (2  Sam.  xx.  23).  The 
inqiortance  of  this  f)fficer  retjuires  no  comment.  It  was 
lie  who  obeyed  Solomon  in  putting  to  death  Adonijah, 
Joal),  Jind  Shimei  (1  Kings  ii,  25,  34,  46).  7.  Distinct 
officers  over  the  king's  treasures  —  liis  storehouses,  la- 
in irers,  vineyards,  olive-trees,  and  sycamore»-trces,  herds, 
camels,  and  flocks  (1  Chron.  xxvii,  25-31).  8.  The  of- 
ficer over  aU  the  host  or  army  of  Israel,  the  coiiimander- 
in-cliief  of  the  army,  who  commanded  it  in  person  dur- 


ing the  king's  absence  (2  Sam.  xx,  23 ;  1  Chron.  xxvii, 
34 ;  2  Sam.  xi,  1).  As  an  instance  of  the  formidable 
power  which  a  general  might  acquire  in  this  office,  see 
the  narrative  in  2  Sam.  iii,  30-37,  when  David  deemed 
himself  obliged  to  tolerate  the  murder  of  Abner  by  Joab 
and  Abishai.  9.  The  royal  counsellor  (1  Chron.  xxvii. 
32;  Isa.  iii,  3;  xix,  11,  13).  Ahithophel  is  a  specimen 
of  how  much  such  an  officer  might  effect  for  evil  or  for 
good;  but  whether  there  existed  under  Hebrew  kings 
any  body  corresponding,  even  distantly,  to  the  English 
Privy  Council  in  former  times,  does  not  appear  (2  Sam. 
xvi,  20-23  ;  xvii,  1-14). 

The  following  is  a  statement  of  the  sources  of  the 
royal  mcome :  1.  The  royal  demesnes,  corn-fields,  vine- 
yards, and  olive-gardens.  Some  at  least  of  these  seem 
to  have  been  taken  from  private  individuals,  but  wheth- 
er as  the  punishment  of  rebellion,  or  on  any  other  plau- 
sible pretext,  is  not  specified  (1  Sam.  viii,  14 ;  1  Cliroii. 
xxvii,  26-28).  2.  The  produce  of  the  royal  flocks  (1 
Sam.  xxi,  7;  2  Sam.  xiii,  23;  2  Chron.  xxvi,  10;  1 
Chron.  xxvii,  25).  3.  A  nominal  tenth  of  the  produce 
of  corn-land  and  vineyards,  and  of  sheep  (1  Sam.  viii, 
15, 17).  4.  A  tribute  from  merchants  who  passed  through 
the  Hebrew  territory  (1  Kings  x,  14).  5.  Presents  made 
by  his  subjects  (1  Sam.  x,  27;  xvi,  20;  1  Kings  x,  25; 
Psa.  Ixxii,  10).  There  is,  perhaps,  no  greater  distinc- 
tion in  the  usages  of  Eastern  and  Western  nations  than 
in  what  relates  to  the  giving  and  receiving  of  pres- 
ents. When  made  regularly,  they  do,  in  fact,  amount 
to  a  regular  tax.  Thus,  in  the  passage  last  referred  to 
in  the  book  of  Kings,  it  is  stated  that  they  brought  to 
Solomon  '■  every  man  his  present,  vessels  of  silver  and 
vessels  of  gold,  and  garments,  and  armor,  and  spices, 
horses  and  mules,  a  rate  year  by  year."  6.  In  the  time 
of  Solomon,  the  king  had  trading  vessels  of  his  own  at 
sea,  which,  starting  from  Eziongeber,  brought  back  once 
in  three  years  gold  and  silver,  ivorj',  apes,  and  jieacocks 
(1  Kings  X,  22).  It  is  probable  that  Solomon  and  some 
other  kings  may  have  derived  some  revenue  from  com^ 
mercial  ventures  (1  Kings  ix,  28).  7.  The  spoils  of  war 
taken  from  conquered  nations  and  the  tribute  paid  by 
them  (2  Sam.  viii,  2,  7, 8, 10 ;  1  Kings  iv,  21 ;  2  Chron. 
xxvii,  5).  8.  Lastly,  an  undefined  power  of  exacting 
compulsory  labor,  to  which  reference  has  already  been 
made  (1  Sam.  viii,  12, 13, 16).  As  far  as  this  power  was 
exercised  it  was  equivalent  to  so  much  income.  There 
is  nothing  in  1  Sam.  x,  25,  or  in  2  Sam.  v,  3,  to  justify 
the  statement  that  the  Hebrews  defined  in  express  terms, 
or  in  any  terms,  bj^  a  yiarticular  agreement  or  covenant 
for  that  purpose,  what  services  should  be  rendered  to  the 
king,  or  what  he  could  legally  require.  See  Solo.mon. 
6.  Usages. — A  ruler  in  whom  s(j  much  authority,  human 
and  divine,  was  embodied,  was  naturally  distinguished 
by  outward  honors  and  luxuries.  He  had  a  court  of  Ori- 
ental magnificence.  When  the  power  of  the  kingdom 
was  at  its  height,  he  sat  on  a  throne  of  Ivor}-,  covered 
with  pure  gold,  at  the  feet  of  which  were  two  figures  of 
lions,  with  others  on  the  steps  approaching  the  throne. 
The  king  was  dressed  in  royal  robes  (1  Kings  xxii,  10; 
2  Chron.  xviii,  9)  :  his  insignia  were  a  crown  or  diadem 
of  pure  gold,  or  perhaps  radiant  with  precious  stones  (2 
Sam.  i,  10;  xii,  30;  2  Kings  xi,  12;  Psa.  xxi,  3),  and  a 
royal  sceptre  (Ezek.  xix,  11;  Isa.  xiv,  5;  Psa.  xlv,  G; 
Amos  i,  5, 8).  Those  who  approached  him  did  liim  obei- 
sance, bowing  down  and  touching  the  ground  with  their 
foreheads  (1  Sam.  xxiv,  8;  2  Sam.  xix,  24);  and  this 
was  done  even  by  a  king's  wife,  the  mother  of  Sdlomou 
(1  Kings  i,  IC)).  His  officers  and  subjects  called  tliem- 
selves  his  servants  or  slaves,  though  they  do  not  seem 
habitually  to  have  given  way  to  such  extravagant  salu- 
tations as  in  the  Chalda-an  and  Persian  courts  (1  Sam. 
xvii,  32,  34,  36 ;  xx,  8 ;  2  Sam.  vi,  20 ;  Dan.  ii.  4).  As 
in  the  East  at  present,  a  kiss  was  a  sign  of  resjiect  and 
homage  (1  Sam.  x,  1 ;  perhaps  Psa.  ii,  12).  He  lived  in 
a  splendid  jialace,  with  porches  and  columns  (1  Kings 
vii,2-7).  All  his  thinking-vessels  were  of  gold  (1  Kings 
X,  21). 


KING 


87 


KING 


At  his  f.ccGssion,  in  addition  to  the  anointing  men- 
tioned above,  jubilant  music  formed  a  part  of  the  popu- 
lar rejoicings  (1  Kings  i,  40) ;  thank-offerings  were  made 
(1  Ivings  i,  25) ;  the  new  sovereign  rode  in  solemn  pro- 
cession on  tlie  royal  mule  of  his  predecessor  (1  Kings  i, 
38),  and  took  possession  of  the  royal  harem — an  act 
which  seems  to  have  been  scarcely  less  essential  than 
other  observances  which  appear  to  us  to  wear  a  higher 
character  (1  Kings  ii,  13,  22;  2  Sam.  xvi,  22).  A  nu- 
merous harem,  indeed,  was  among  the  most  highly  esti- 
mated of  the  royal  luxuries  (2  Sam.  v,  13 ;  1  Kings  xi, 
1 ;  XX,  3).  It  was  under  the  supervision  and  control  of 
eunuchs,  and  passed  from  one  monarch  to  another  as  a 
part  of  the  crown  property  (2  Sam.  xii,  8).  The  law 
(Deut.  xvii,  17),  foreseeing  evils  such  as  that  by  which 
Solomon,  in  his  later  years,  was  turned  away  from  his 
fidelity  to  God,  hail  strictly  forbidden  many  wives;  but 
Eastern  passions  and  usages  were  too  strong  for  a  mere 
\\Titten  prohibition,  and  a  corrupted  religion  became  a 
pander  to  royal  lust,  interpreting  the  divine  command 
as  sanctioning  eighteen  as  the  minimum  of  wives  and 
concubines. 

Deriving  their  power  originally  from  the  wishes  of 
the  people,  and  being  one  of  the  same  race,  the  Hebrew 
kings  were  naturally  less  despotic  than  other  Oriental 
sovereigns,  mingled  more  with  their  subjects,  and  were 
by  no  means  difficult  of  access  (2  Sam.  xix,  8 ;  1  Kings 
XX,  39;  Jer.  xxxviii,  7  ;  1  Kings  iii,  IG  ;  2  Kings  vi,  26; 
viii,  3).  After  death  the  monarchs  were  interred  in  the 
royal  cemetery  in  Jerusalem  :  "  So  David  slept  with  his 
fathers,  and  was  buried  in  the  city  of  David"  (1  Kings 
ii,  10 ;  xi,  43  ;  xiv,  31).  But  bad  kings  were  excluded 
"  from  the  sepulchres  of  the  kings  of  Israel"  (2  Chron. 
xxviii,  27). — Kitto;  Smith. 

See  Schickard,  Jus  Regiinn  Ilehrivor.  (Tiibing.  1G21) ; 
Carpzov,  Ajrpai:  Crit.  p.  52 ;  Michaelis,  Mos.  Recht.  i, 
298 ;  Otho,  Lex.  Rabbin,  p.  575 ;  Hess.  Gesch.  d.  K.  Juda 
vnd  Israels  (Ztir.  1787) ;  Houtuyn,  Monarchia  Ilehrceo- 
rum  (Leyd.  1G85) ;  Newman,  Ilebreio  Monarchy  (Lond. 
1847,  1853) ;  Pastoret,  Leyislaiion  des  Ilebreux  (Paris, 
1817)  ;  Salvador,  Hist,  des  Institutiones  de  Moise  (Paris, 
1828) ;  HuUmann,  Staatsverfassung  der  Israeliten  (Lpz. 
1834) ;  Maurice,  Kings  and  Pi-ophets  of  the  0.  T.  (Lond. 
1852,  Bost.  1858) ;  Brit,  and  For.  Evang.  Review,  April, 
18G1.     See  Monarchy. 

King  is  the  name  of  the  five  canonical  works  of  the 
followers  of  Confucius.  See  the  art.  Confucius  in  vol. 
ii,  p.  470  sq.,  especial!}'  p.  472. 

King,  Alonzo,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  born  in  AVil- 
braham,  Blass.,  April  1, 1796.  His  early  educational  ad- 
vantages were  few;  but  in  1818  he  went  to  prosecute 
his  studies  in  the  family  of  the  Rev.  Leland  Howard, 
then  pastor  of  the  Baptist  church  in  Windsor,  Vt.,  where 
he  was  converted  to  Christ.  He  afterwards  entered 
Waterville  College,  Maine,  and  graduated  in  1825.  He 
was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Baptist  Church  in  North 
Yarmouth,  Me.,  in  1826,  subsequently  of  a  small  church 
in  Northborough,  Mass.,  and  finally  settled  at  Westbor- 
ough,  Mass.,  where  he  died  in  1835.  King  was  a  man 
of  great  humility,  self-consecration,  and  self-abandon- 
ment. His  preaching  was  never  bold  or  startling,  but 
always  quiet,  tender,  persuasive.  He  had  a  talent  for 
lyric  poetry,  and  many  of  his  productions  are  abroad 
without  his  name.  His  style  as  a  writer  was  pure,  with 
a  decided  cast  of  the  imaginative  or  poetic,  which  was 
always  apparent  in  his  sermons  and  his  printed  produc- 
tions. He  compiled  the  Memoir  of  the  distinguished 
missionary,  Kev.  George  D.  Boardman.  See  Sprague, 
A  nnuls  of  the  A  merican  Pulpit,  vi,  747.     (J.  L.  S.) 

King,  Barnabas,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  in  New  ]Marll)orough,  Mass.,  June  2,  1780. 
^^  hile  j'et  in  his  14th  year,  his  great  proficiency  in 
study  attracted  the  attention  of  Dr.  Catline,  who  after- 
wards bore  all  the  expense  of  fitting  him  for  Williams 
College,  Mass.,  which  he  entered  in  1802.  In  1804  he 
graduated,  and  then,  for  a  year  taught  school  and  stud- 


ied theology  with  Dr.  Catline.  In  1805  he  was  licensed 
by  the  Berkshire  Congregational  Association,  IMass.,  and 
in  1805  was  ordained  by  the  Presbytery,  and  installed 
as  pastor  of  the  Kockaway  Church,  N.  J.,  where  he  con- 
tinued to  preach  till  1848 ;  his  congregation  then  called 
a  colleague  pastor,  which  relation  continued  until  the 
death  of  Dr.  King,  April  10, 1862.  King  was  a  man  of 
admirable  character;  his  consistent  piety  no  one  ques- 
tioned, and  his  sympathetic  heart  made  him  a  model 
pastor.  As  a  preaclier,  liis  style  was  very  simple,  but 
scriptural,  and  usually  very  earnest.  See  Wilson,  Pres- 
byterian Hist.  A  Imunac,  1863.      (J.  L.  S.) 

King,  Charles,  the  noted  president  of  Columbia 
College,  was  born  in  New  York,  March  16,  1789.  In 
comiiany  with  his  father,  Ilufus  King,  he  went  to  Eng- 
land, and,  during  his  residence  at  the  coiu-t  of  St.  James 
as  the  represontative  of  the  American  go\'ernment, 
young  Charles  attended  Harrow  School,  and  later  went 
to  Paris  to  further  prejiare  himself  for  admission  to  col- 
lege. He,  however,  afterwards  abandoned  this  inten- 
tion and  entered  the  mercantile  profession.  In  1823  he 
became  co-editor  of  the  Kevj  York  American.  In  1849 
he  was  chosen  president  of  Columbia  College.  He  died 
at  Frascati,  near  Rome,  in  Italy,  Sept.  27, 1867.  A  list 
of  his  works,  wliich  are  not  of  special  interest  to  theo- 
logical students,  is  given  by  Allibone,  Diet,  of  English 
and  American  Authors,  ii,  s.  v.;  New  American  Cyclo- 
pcedia,  1867,  p.  426, 

King,  Edward,  a  noteworthj'^  English  antiquary 
and  lawyer,  was  born  in  1735  in  Norfolk,  and  was  a 
graduate  of  Cambridge  University.  He  was  elected 
F.R.S.  in  1767  and  F.S.A.  in  1770."  He  died  in  1807. 
King  wrote  a  number  of  works  connected  with  theolo- 
gy, politics,  political  economy,  and  antiquities.  We  have 
room  here  only  to  note  his  Morsels  of  Criticisms,  tending 
to  Illustrate  some  few  Passages  in  Holy  Sc>-iptu7-e  vpon 
philosojjhical  Pi-inciples  and  an  enlarged  View  of  Things 
(Lond.  1788, 4to,  and  since).  The  contents  of  tl  i'=i  work 
are  :  On  the  word  "  Heaven"  in  the  Lord's  I'rayer ; 
Septuagint  Translation  of  Genesis;  John  the  Baptist  be- 
ing Elias;  Future  coming  of  Christ;  Day  of  Judgment; 
Series  of  Events  in  Revelation;  Daniel's  Prophecy; 
Deaths  of  Ananias  and  Sapphira ;  Dissertations  on 
Light;  The  Heavens;  Stars;  Fluid  of  Heat;  Miracles; 
Jacob  and  Esau ;  Soul,  Body,  Spirit,  etc.  King's  learn- 
ing was  profound  and  extensive,  but  he  was  so  inclined 
to  the  sjieculative  and  hjqiothetical  that  he  jierpetually 
fell  into  difficulty  by  advancing  statements  which  he 
•wixs  unqualified  to  establish.  The  want  of  discrimina- 
tion between  theory  and  fact,  supposition  and  reality, 
together  with  the  tenacity  with  which  he  clung  to  his 
premature  conclusions  when  assailed,  proved  quite  det- 
rimental. In  a  work  of  his  treating  on  the  signs  of  the 
times,  he  was  very  desirous  of  tracing  the  history  of  the 
French  Revolution  to  the  records  of  sacred  antiquity; 
he  also  ventured  to  assert  the  genuineness  of  the  second 
book  of  Esdras  in  the  ApocrjqDlia.  He  was  replied  to 
by  Gough  and  bishop  Horsley.  See  Chalmers's  Biog. 
Dirt,  vol.  xix  (Lond.  1815) ;  Watkins'sj5'w^.  Diet.  (Lond. 
1820) ;  Blake's  Biog.  Diet.  (3d  edit.  Phila.  1840) ;  Alli- 
bone, Diet,  of  Engl,  and  A  merican  A  uthors,  ii,  s.  v. 

King,  Henry,  D.D.,  bishop  of  Chichester,  and  eld- 
est son  of  John  King  (q.  v.),  was  born  at  Wornall,  Buck- 
inghamshire, in  Jan.  1591.  He  studied  at  Westminster 
School,  from  whence  he  was  elected  to  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  in  1608.  Having  entered  the  Church,  he  be- 
came chaplain  to  king  James  I,  archdeacon  of  Colches- 
ter, residentiary  of  St.Paul's,  and  canon  of  Christ  Church;' 
dean  of  Rochester  in  1638,  and  finally  bishop  of  Chi- 
chester in  1641.  Although  he  was  generally  considered 
a  Puritan,  and  his  nomination  had  been  a  measure  to 
conciliate  that  party,  he  remained  a  faithful  adherent 
of  the  king  during  the  civil  war,  and  at  the  Restoration 
was  reinstalled  in  his  bishopric.  He  died  Oct.  1, 16G9, 
He  was  considered  a  very  successful  preacher  and  a 
learned  divine.     His  principal  works  are,  A  n  Exposition 


KING 


KING 


upon  the  Lord's  Prayer  (London,  1034,  4to)  : — A  Sermon 
of  Deliverance,  Psa.  xci,  3  (Load.  1G2G,  4to)  : — Two  Ser- 
vians vpon  the  Act  Sunday,  July  10, 1025  (Oxford,  1G25, 
4to) : — The  Pscdms  of  David  turned  into  Metre  (1621, 
12mo;  new  edition,  with  biographical  notice,  notes,  etc., 
by  Dr.  John  Hannah,  1843, 12ino) ;  etc.  See  Wood,  .4  the- 
nce Oxonienscs,  vol.  ii ;  EUis,  Specimens,  vol.  iii ;  Chal- 
mers, Gen.  Biof/.  Dictionary ;  Iloefcr,  Nouv.  Bioy.  Ge- 
nerate, xxvii,  739 ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Enylish  and  Amer- 
ican A  itthors,  ii,  s.  v.     (J.  N.  P.) 

King,  James  S.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom 
at  Albany,  X.  Y.,  Aug.  20, 1832.  He  graduated  from  the 
College  of  New  Jersey,  Princeton,  N.  J.,  and  studied  the- 
ology in  the  Princeton  Seminarj'.  He  was  licensed  by 
the  New  York  Presbytery,  and  in  1858  ordained  and  in- 
stalletl  pastor  of  the  Rockland  Lake  Church,  New  Y'ork, 
^vhere  he  ^vas  quite  successful  and  greatly  beloved  by 
his  people.  Failing  health,  however,  compelled  him  to 
withdraw  from  the  active  duties  of  the  pastorate.  Dur- 
ing the  iicriod  of  his  necessitated  rest  he  did  some  effec- 
tive work.  He  died  at  Woodlawn,  near  Sing  Sing,  New 
Y'ork,  Sept.  15, 1864.  INIr.  King  was  an  estimable  min- 
ister, of  good  talents,  and  thoroughly  consecrated  to  his 
work.  See  Wilson,  Fresh.  Hist.  Almanac,  1866,  p.  126; 
Appleton,  ,1  nnual  Cyclopiedia,  1865,  p.  468. 

King,  John  (1),  D.D.,  bishop  of  London,  an  English 
theologian  and  a  descendant  of  Robert  King,  first  bishop 
of  Oxford,  was  born  at  Wornall,  Buckinghamshire,  about 
1559.  He  studied  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  Having 
entered  the  Church,  he  became  successively  chaplain  to 
queen  Elizabeth,  archdeacon  of  Nottingham  in  1590, 
D.D.  in  1601,  dean  of  Christ  Church  in  1605,  and,  final- 
ly, bishop  of  London  in  1611.  He  died  in  1621.  James 
I  called  him  the  khvj  of  preachers.  He  wrote  Lectures 
upon  Jonas,  delivered  at  Yoi-Jce,  1594  (Lond.  1611,  4to), 
and  some  Sermons.  Sec  Wood,  A  thence  Oxonienses,  vol. 
i ;  Dodd,  Church  History,  vol.  i ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bioy.  Ge- 
nercde,  xxvii,  739 ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Enylish  and  Amer- 
ican A  uthors. 

King,  John  (2),  D.D.,  an  English  theologian,  was 
born  in  Cornwall  in  1652.  He  studied  at  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  and  became  sticccsively  rector  of  Chelsea 
and  (in  1731)  prebendary  of  the  Cathedral  of  Y'ork.  He 
died  May  30, 1732.  King  wrote  A  nimadveisions  (2d  ed. 
1702, 4to)  -.—The  Case  of  John  Atherton,  Bishop  of  Wa- 
/fr/b?-fZ(1716, 8vo);  and  a  number  of  Sermons. — Hoefer, 
A''ouv.  Bioy.  Genh-ale,  xxii,  742. 

King,  John  (3),  a  Methodist  minister,  of  whose 
early  history  nothing  is  definitely  known,  was  one  of 
the  first  lay  evangelists  who  founded  Methodism  in  this 
coiuitry.  He  came  from  London  to  America  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  17C9,  and  his  enthusiastic  sympathy  with  the 
pioneer  Jlethodists  led  him  to  throw  himself  imme- 
diately into  their  ranks.  The  Church  hesitated  when 
he  presented  himself  for  license,  but,  persistent  in  his 
determination  to  preach,  he  made  an  appointment  "in 
the  Potter's  Field,"  where  he  proclaimed  his  first  mes- 
sage over  the  graves  of  the  poor,  and  began  a  career  of 
eminent  usefulness.  Afterwards  he  was  licensed,  and 
stationed  in  Wilmington,  Del.  Thence  ho  went  into 
]\ran,-land,  and  was  the  first  to  introduce  Methodism  to 
the  poo[ile  of  Baltimore.  In  this  latter  place  he  preach- 
ed from  tables  in  the  public  streets,  and  suffered  much 
opposition  from  frequent  mobs.  Kmg  was  afterwards 
received  into  the  regular  itinerancy.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  first  Conference  of  1773,  and  was  appointed 
to  New  Jersey.  He  soon  after  entered  Virginia ;  still 
later  he  :vas  again  in  New  Jersey.  He  located  during 
the  Revolution,  but  in  1801  reappeared  in  the  itinerant 
ranks  in  Virginia,  and  finally  located  in  1803.  Kmg 
was  a  pious,  zealous,  and  useful  man.  He  died  at  an 
advanced  age,  in  the  vicinity  of  Raleigh,  N.  C.  He  was 
probably  the  only  survivor,  at  the  time  of  his  decease, 
of  all  the  preachers  of  ante-re  volutif>narj'  date. — Stevens, 
Hist,  if  the  J/.  ]■:.  Church,  i,  87.     (J.  L.  S.) 

King,  John  Glen,  D.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.A.S.,  a  distin- 


guished English  theologian  and  antiquarian,  was  bom 
in  Norfolk  about  1731.  He  studied  at  Caius  College, 
Cambridge,  entered  the  Chiu-ch,  and  in  1764  was  ap- 
pointed chaplain  to  the  English  factory  at  Petersburg. 
He  afterwards  became  successively  rector  of  ^^'ormley, 
Hertfordshire  (in  1783),  and  minister  of  the  chapel  in 
Broad  Court,  Drury  Lane,  London  (in  1786).  He  died 
Nov.  3, 1787.  King  wrote  The  Rites  and  Ceremonies  of 
the  Greek  Church  in  Russia,  containiny  an  A  ccount  of  its 

Doctrine,  Worship,  ami  Discipline  (Lond.  1772,  4to) : A 

Letter  to  the  Bishop  of  Durham,  contaitiiny  some  Obser- 
vations on  the  Climate  of  Russia,  etc.  (Lond.  1778,  4to); 
etc.  See  Geiit.  Mayazine,  Ivii  and  lix  ;  Chalmers,  Gen. 
Bioy.  Dictionary  ;  Allibone,  Dictionary  of  Enylish  and 
American  Authors,  ii,  1031. 

King,  John  L.,  a  Presbj'terian  minister,  was  bom 
in  Indiana  Feb.  1, 1835;  was  educated  at  Knox  College, 
Galesburg,  111.,  and  studied  divinity  in  Lane  Theological 
Seminary,  Ohio ;  was  licensed  and  ordained  at  Cincin- 
nati in  1861,  and  then  assumed  the  pastorate  at  Wil- 
liamsport,  Indiana ;  afterwards  labored  as  a  missionary 
among  the  saikirs  at  Detroit,  Michigan,  and  finally  went 
to  Idaho  and  Colorado  Territories.  He  died  near  Den- 
ver, Nov.  10, 1866.  jNlr.  King  was  a  man  of  ripe  schol- 
arly attainments  and  fine  abilities,  earnestly  devoted  es- 
pecially to  the  work  of  elementary  religious  teaching. — 
Wilson,  Presb.  Historical  Almanac,  1867. 

King,  Peter,  lord  chancellor  of  England,  was  bom 
at  Exeter,  Devonshire,  in  1669 ;  went  to  Holland,  and 
studied  at  the  university  at  Leydcn,  and  upon  his  re- 
tiu-n  to  England  studied  law  at  Lincohi's  Inn,  and  be- 
came member  of  Parliament  in  1699.  In  1708  he  was 
appointed  recorder  of  London,  and  knighted.  At  the 
accession  of  George  I  he  was  made  lord  chief  justice  of 
the  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  and  soon  after  promoted  to 
the  peerage  as  lord  King,  baron  of  Ockham.  He  was 
made  lord  chancellor  in  1725,  but  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  as  successful  in  that  position  as  was  expected.  He 
died  in  1733.  He  was  well  versed  in  both  ecclesiastical 
historj'  and  the  law.  His  principal  works  are,  A  n  Enqui- 
ry into  the  Constitution, Discipline,  Unity,  and  Woi'ihip  of 
the  P7-i?nitiv€  Church,  etc.  [Anon.]  (Lond.  1712, 8vo)  :  in 
this,  his  first  publication,  he  advocated,  with  much  abil- 
ity and  learning,  the  right  of  Protestant  dissenters  from 
episcopacy  to  be  comprehended  in  the  scheme  of  the 
national  establishment.  The  work  excited  much  atten- 
tion, and  provoked  much  discussion,  especially  wlicn  the 
second  edition  was  issued  (1713).  I'romincnt  among 
the  opponents  was  the  nonjiuing  Sclater,  who  wrote  an 
Answer  to  it.  King  himself  has  been  said  to  have  af- 
tenvards  altered  his  opinion  on  the  subject : — The  His- 
tory of  the  Ajjostles'  Creed,  with  critical  Observations  on 
its  several  A}-ticles  [Anon.]  (London,  1702,8vo) — a  work 
dis|)laying  extraordinary  learning  and  judgment,  and 
highly  commended  by  the  ablest  critics,  among  others 
by  IMosheim.  See  Gentleman's  Mayazine,  vol.  Ixii  and 
Ixx ;  Chalmers,  General  Bioy.  Dictionary  ;  Lord  Camp- 
bell, Lives  of  Lords  Chancellors;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Eng- 
lish and  American  A  uthors,  s.  v.      (J.  II.  W.) 

King,  Richard,  an  English  theologian,  was  bom 
at  Bristol  in  1749;  studied  at  the  University  of  Oxford, 
and  became  successively  rector  of  Steeple,  Blorden,  and 
of  Worthing.  He  died  in  1810.  King  wrote  iMters 
from  A  brakam  Plymley  to  his  Brother  Peter  on  the  Cath- 
olic Question  (Lond.  1S'03,  8vo),  which  created  some  sen- 
sation -.—On  the  lii.<iiiriilinii  oj'thr  Scrijitiires  (1805,  8vo)  : 
—On  the  AUiiiuc'  lj(tir,ni  Church  and  State  (1807,8vo), 
His  wife,  Frances  Elizabeth  Bernard,  vTote  Female 
Scripture  Bioyraphy  (12th  edit.  London,  1840, 12mo): — 
The  Benefits  of  the  Christian  Temper;  etc.  See  Gent, 
Mayazine  (1810);  Rose,  A'c-w  Bioyraphical  Dictionary, 
s.  V. 

King,  Thomas  Starr,  a  Unitarian  minister,  was 
born  in  New  York  Doc.  16, 1824.  His  father.  Rev.  T.  F. 
King,  was  a  Universalist  clergyman  of  very  decided 
ability,  but  died  in  the  prime  of  life,  and  Thomas,  at 


KING 


89 


KINGDOM  OF  GOD 


the  age  of  twelve  years,  while  fitting  to  enter  Harvard 
College,  found  himself  the  principal  support  of  a  large 
family.  He  managed,  however,  successfully  to  complete 
his  studies,  and  in  September,  1845,  preached  his  first 
sermon  in  Woburn,  Mass.  The  next  year  he  was  set- 
tled over  his  father's  former  charge  in  Charlestown, 
•whence  he  was  called  in  1848  to  the  HoUis  Street  Uni- 
tarian Church,  Boston,  where  he  preached  with  great 
acceptance  and  a  constantly  increasing  reputation  till 
18G0,  when  he  accepted  the  call  of  the  Unitarian  Cluirch 
in  San  Francisco  to  become  their  pastor.  He  entered 
upon  his  new  duties  with  a  zeal  and  energy  which  won 
the  hearts  of  the  people,  and  ere  long  he  was  as  thor- 
oughly identified  with  California  interests  as  if  his 
whole  life  had  been  spent  there.  His  congregation  in- 
creased in  numbers  and  power  with  great  rapidity ;  but 
he  was  a  preacher  for  the  whole  city  and  state,  and 
crowds  hung  upon  his  elotiuent  utterances,  and  his  bold, 
earnest  words.  At  the  outbreak  of  our  late  civil  war. 
King,  finding  California  in  a  hesitating  position,  flung 
himself  into  the  breach,  and  by  his  eloquence  and  ear- 
nestness saved  the  state ;  and  when  the  sanitary  com- 
mission was  organized,  he  first  set  in  motion,  and  through 
the  next  three  years  pushed  forward,  the  efforts  in  be- 
half of  the  sick  and  wounded  sokliers.  His  labors  in 
this  cause,  added  to  his  pastoral  duties,  were  too  severe 
for  his  strength,  and  he  died  ]March  4, 18G4,  after  a  very 
brief  illness.  Mr.  King  published  several  discoiurses  and 
addresses,  etc.  —  Appleton,  New  American  Cyclopcedia, 
1865,  p.  4G8. 

King,  William,  (1),  archbishop  of  Dublin,  a  learn- 
ed divine  and  metaphysician,  was  born  at  Antrim,  prov- 
ince of  Ulster,  Ireland,  May  1,  1G50.  He  studied  at 
Trinity  College,  UubUn,  entered  the  Church  in  1G74,  and 
became  chaplain  to  Parker,  archbishop  of  Tuam.  The 
latter  being  translated  to  tlie  archbishopric  of  Dublin  in 
167'J,  King  became  chancellor  of  St.  Patrick  and  St. 
Marburgh,  Dublin.  Ireland  was  then  a  prey  to  violent 
religious  controversies,  which  served  also  as  a  cloak  for 
political  dissensions.  King  wrote  several  pamphlets 
against  Peter  Manby,  dean  of  Londonderry,  who  had 
embraced  Roman  Catholicism.  In  1G88  he  was  made 
dean  of  St.  Patrick.  The  Revolution  breaking  out  soon 
after,  and  James  II  having  taken  refuge  in  Ireland,  King 
was  twice  sent  to  the  Tower  of  Dublin  as  a  partisan  of 
the  insurgents.  He  defended  his  opinions  in  a  work 
entitled  The  State  of  the  Protestants  of  Ireland  under 
the  late  King  Jameses  Government  (3d  and  best  ed.  Lond. 
1692,  8vo),  which  gave  rise  to  a  controversy  between 
him  and  Charles  Leslie,  a  partisan  of  the  fallen  mon- 
arch. In  1691  King  was  made  bisliop  of  Derry,  and 
applied  himself  with  much  zeal  to  the  task  of  bringing 
back  into  the  Church  the  dissenters  of  his  diocese.  He 
finally  became  archbishop  of  Dublin  in  1702,  was  ap- 
pointed one  of  the  lords  justices  of  Ireland  in  1717,  and 
again  in  1721  and  1723,  and  died  at  Dublin  May  8, 1729. 
He  was  through  life  held  in  high  esteem  as  a  man,  as 
well  as  in  his  character  of  a  prelate  and  writer  on  the- 
ology. His  principal  work  in  that  line  is  the  De  Origine 
Mali  (DuWin,  1702, 4to ;  Lond.  1702, 8vo).  "  The  object 
of  this  work  is  to  show  how  all  the  several  kinds  of  evil 
•with  which  the  world  aljounds  are  consistent  with  the 
goodness  of  God,  and  may  be  accounted  for  without  the 
supposition  of  an  evil  principle."  It  was  attacked  by 
Baj'le  and  also  by  Leibnitz :  by  the  former  for  the 
charges  of  Manichasism  made  against  him,  and  by  the 
latter  because  King  had  taken  him  to  task  for  his  opti- 
mism. King,  however,  during  his  life  made  no  reply, 
but  he  left  among  his  papers  notes  of  answers  to  their 
arguments,  and  these  were  given  to  the  world  after  his 
death  by  Dr.  Edmund  Law,  bishop  of  Carlisle,  together 
•with  a  translation  of  the  treatise  itself  (Camb.  1758, 8 vo). 
In  1709  he  published  a  sermon  on  Divine  Predestination 
and  Foreknowledge  consistent  icith  the  Freedom  of  Man's 
Will,  preached  before  the  House  of  Peers.  In  this  work 
he  advanced  a  doctrine  concerning  the  moral  attributes 
of  God  as  being  different  from  the  moral  quaUties  of  the 


same  name  in  man.  This  valuable  and  most  important 
work  was  often  reprinted  (Exeter,  1815,  8vo;  London, 
1821,  8vo;  and  in  the  Tracts  of  Angl.  Fathers,  ii,  225). 
He  wrote  also  A  Discourse  concerning  the  Inventions  of 
Men  in  the  Worship  of  God  (Lond.  1697,  sm.  8vo)  : — An 
A  dmonition  to  the  Dissenters  (London,  1706,  sm.  8vo) : — 
An  Account  of  King  James  IPs  Behavior  to  his  Protes- 
tant Subjects  of  Irelaml,  etc.  (Lond.  1746,  8vo)  : — A  Vin- 
dication of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Henry  Sacheverell,  etc.  [Anon.] 
(Lond.  1710,  8vo)  ;  etc.  See  Bibliographia  Britannica  ; 
Chalmers,  General  Biographical  Dictionary ;  Cyclopwdia 
Bibliographlca,  ii,  1730 ;  Hook,  Ecclesiastical  Biography. 
vi,  45G ;  English  Cyclopcedia,  s.  v. ;  and  especially  AUi- 
bone.  Diet.  Engl,  and  A  m.  A  uth.  ii,  1032.     (J.  N.  P.) 

King,  "William,  (2),  a  Scotch  Presbj-terian  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  Tyrone,  Ireland.  He  emigrated  to 
America  in  1830,  and  became  pastor  of  a  church  at  Nel- 
son, Canada  West.  After  laboring  there  faithfully  and 
earnestly  for  many  years  he  removed  to  Carador,  C.  W., 
where  he  died,  IMarch  13, 1859. 

Kingdom  of  God  or  of  Heaven  (//  fiamXilci 
Tov  Btoij  or  ToJv  ovpavCoi').  In  the  New  Testament 
the  phrases  "kingdom  of  God"  (Matt,  vi,  33;  Mark  i, 
14,  15;  Luke  iv,  43;  vi,  20;  John  iii,  3,  5),  "kingdom 
of  Christ"  (Matt,  xiii,  41 ;  xx,  21 ;  Rev.  i,  9),  "kingdom 
of  Christ  and  of  God"  (Eph.  v,  5\  "  kingdom  of  David," 
i.  e.  as  the  ancestor  and  type  of  the  INIessiah  (ilark  xi, 
10),  "  the  kingdom"  (Matt,  viii,  12 ;  xiii,  19 ;  ix,  53),  and 
"kingdom  of  heaven"  (Matt,  iii,  2;  iv,  17;  xiii,  41,  31, 
33,  44,  47 ;  2  Tim.  iv,  18),  are  all  synonymous,  and  sig- 
nify the  divine  spiritucd  kingdom,  the  glorious  reign  of 
the  Messiah.  The  idea  of  this  kingdom  has  its  basis  iu 
the  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament,  where  the  coming 
of  the  Messiah  and  his  triumphs  are  foretold  (Psa.  ii,  6- 
12;  ci,  1-7;  Isa.  ii,  1-4;  Mic.  iv,  1;  Isa.  xi,  1-10;  Jer. 
xxiii,  5,  G;  xxxi,  31-34;  xxxii,  37-44;  xxxiii,  14-18; 
Ezek.  xxxiv,  23-31 ;  xxxvii,  24-28 ;  Dan.  ii,  44 ;  vii,  14, 
27 ;  ix,  25, 27).  In  these  passages  the  reign  of  the  j\Ies- 
siah  is  figuratively  described  as  a  golden  age,  when  the 
true  religion,  and  with  it  the  Jewish  theocracy,  should 
be  re-established  in  more  than  pristine  purity,  and  uni- 
versal peace  and  happiness  prevail.  All  this  was  doubt- 
less to  be  understood  in  a  spiritual  sense;  and  so  the 
devout  Jews  of  our  Saviour's  time  appear  to  have  un- 
derstood it,  as  Zacharias,  Simeon,  Anna,  and  Joseph 
(Luke  i,  G7-79 ;  ii,  25-30 ;  xxiii,  50-51).  But  the  Jews 
at  large  gave  to  these  prophecies  a  temporal  meaning, 
and  expected  a  INIessiah  who  should  come  in  the  clouds 
of  heaven,  and,  as  king  of  the  Jewish  nation,  restore  the 
ancient  religion  and  worship,  reform  the  corrupt  morals 
of  the  people,  make  expiation  for  their  sins,  free  them 
from  the  yoke  of  foreign  dominion,  and  at  length  reign 
over  the  whole  earth  in  peace  and  glory  (iMatt.  v,  19; 
viii,  12  ;  xviii,  1 ;  xx,  21 ;  Luke  xvii,  20 ;  xix,  11 ;  Acts 
i,  6).  This  Jewish  temporal  sense  appears  to  have  been 
also  held  by  the  apostles  before  the  daj'  of  Pentecost. 

It  has  been  wcU  observed  by  Knobel,  in  his  work  On 
the  Prophets,  that  "Jesus  did  not  acknowledge  himself 
called  upon  to  fulfil  those  theocratic  announcements 
which  had  an  earthly  political  character,  in  the  sense 
in  which  they  were  uttered;  for  his  plan  was  spiritual 
and  universal,  neither  including  worldly  interests,  nor 
contracted  within  national  and  political  limits.  He  gave, 
accordingl}',  to  all  such  announcements  a  higher  and 
more  general  meaning,  so  as  to  realize  them  in  accord- 
ance with  such  a  scheme.  Thus,  1.  The  prophets  had 
announced  that  Jehovah  would  deliver  his  people  from 
the  poUtical  calamities  into  which,  through  the  con- 
quering might  of  their  foes,  they  had  been  brought. 
This  Jesus  fulfilled,  init  in  a  higher  sense.  He  beheld 
the  Jewish  and  heathen  world  under  the  thraldom  of 
error  and  of  sin,  in  circumstances  of  moral  calaniitv,  and 
he  regarded  himself  as  sent  to  effect  its  dcUverance.  In 
this  sense  he  announced  himself  as  the  Redeemer,  who 
had  come  to  save  the  world,  to  destroy  the  works  of  the 
devil,  to  annihilate  the  powers  of  evil,  and  to  bring  men 
from  the  kingdom  of  darkness  to  the  kingdom  of  light. 


KINGDOM  OF  GOD 


90 


KINGDOM  OF  GOD 


2.  Tlie  prophets  had  predicted  that  Jehovah  would  again 
be  united  to  his  restored  people,  would  dwell  among 
them,  and  no  more  give  up  the  theocratic  relation. 
This  also  Jesus  fultilletl  in  a  higher  sense.  He  found 
mankind  in  a  state  of  estrangement  from  God,  arising 
from  tliiir  lying  in  sin,  and  he  viewed  it  as  his  vocation 
to  bring  tlicm  back  to  (iod.  He  reconciled  men  to  (iod 
— gave  tiieni  access  to  God — united  them  to  him  as  his 
dear  children,  and  made  his  people  one  with  God  as  he 
himself  is  one.  3.  The  prophets  had  declared  that  Je- 
hovah would  make  his  people,  thus  redeemed  and  re- 
united to  him,  supremely  blessed  in  the  enjoyment  of 
all  earthly  pleasures.  To  communicate  such  blessings 
in  the  literal  acceptance  of  the  words  was  no  part  of  the 
work  of  Jesus ;  on  the  contrary,  he  often  tells  his  follow- 
ers that  they  must  lay  their  account  with  much  suffer- 
ing. The  blessings  which  he  offers  are  of  a  spiritual 
kind,  consisting  in  internal  and  unending  fellowship 
\vith  GocL  Tills  is  the  life,  the  life  eteriuil.  In  the 
passages  where  he  seems  to  speak  of  temporal  blessings 
(e.  g.  jMatt.  viii,  11 ;  xix,  27,  etc.)  he  cither  speaks  met- 
aphorically or  in  "reference  to  the  ideas  of  those  whom 
he  addressed,  and  who  were  not  quite  emancipated  from 
carnal  hopes.  4.  The  prophets  had  predicted,  in  gen- 
eral, the  re-establishment  of  their  people  into  a  mighty 
state,  which  should  endure  upon  the  earth  in  imperish- 
able splendor  as  an  outward  community.  This  prospect 
Jesus  realized  again  in  a  higher  and  a  spiritual  sense  by 
establishing  a  religious  invisible  community,  internally 
united  by  oneness  of  faith  in  God  and  of  iiure  desire, 
Avhich  ever  grows  and  reaches  its  perfection  only  in  an- 
other life.  The  rise  and  progress  of  this  man  cannot 
observe,  for  its  existence  is  in  the  invisible  life  of  the 
spirit  (Luke  xvii,  20),  yet  the  opposition  of  the  wicked 
is  an  evidence  of  its  approach  (Matt,  xii,  28).  It  has 
no  political  designs,  for  it  '  is  not  of  this  world ;'  and 
there  are  found  in  it  no  such  gradations  of  ranJc  as  in 
earthly  political  communities  (Matt,  xx,  25).  What  is 
external  is  not  essential  to  it ;  its  prime  element  is  mind, 
pious,  devoted  to  God,  and  pleasing  God.  Hence  the 
kingdom  of  Jesus  is  composed  of  those  who  turn  to  God 
and  his  ambassadors,  and  in  faith  and  life  abide  true  to 
them.  From  this  it  is  clear  how  sometimes  this  king- 
dom may  be  spoken  of  as  present,  and  sometimes  as  future. 
Religious  and  moral  truth  works  forever,  and  draws  un- 
der its  influence  one  after  another,  until  at  length  it  shall 
reign  over  all.  In  designating  this  communitj-,  Jesus 
made  use  of  terms  having  a  relation  to  the  ancient  the- 
ocracy; it  is  the  Jciur/dom  of  God  or  of  heaven,  though, 
at  the  same  time,  it  is  represented  rather  as  the  family 
than  as  the  state  of  God.  This  appears  from  many  other 
phrases.  The  head  of  the  ancient  community  was  call- 
ed Lord  and  King;  that  of  the  new  is  called  Father; 
the  members  of  the  former  were  servants,  i.  e.  subjects 
of  Jehovah ;  those  of  the  latter  are  son,'?  of  God ;  the 
feeling  of  the  former  towards  God  is  described  as  the 
fear  of  Jehovah ;  that  of  the  latter  is  helievinfj  confi- 
dence or  love ;  the  chief  duty  of  the  former  was  righteous- 
ness ;  the  first  duty  of  the  latter  is  love.  All  these  ex- 
pressions are  adapted  to  the  constitution  of  the  sacred 
community,  cither  as  a  divine  state  or  as  a  divine  familij. 
It  needs  hardly  to  be  mentioned  that  Jesus  extended  its 
fullilmcnt  of  these  ancient  prophecies  in  this  spiritual 
sense  to  all  men." 

Kcferring  to  the  Old-Testament  idea,  wc  may  there- 
fore regard  the  '•  kingdom  of  heaven,"  etc.,  in  the  New 
Testament,  as  designating,  iu  its  Christian  sense,  the 
Christian  dispensation,  or  the  community  of  those  who 
receive  Jesus  as  the  Jlcssiah,  and  wlio,  iinitod  liy  his 
Spirit  under  him  as  their  Head,  rejoice  in  the  truth,  and 
live  a  holy  life  in  love  and  in  communion  with  him 
(Matt,  iii,  2;  iv,  17,  23;  ix,  35;  x,  7 ;  Mark  i,  14,  15; 
Lukex,  !»,  11;  xxiii,  51 ;  Acts  xxvii,  31).  This  spirit- 
ual liingdom  has  both  an  intermd  and  external  form.  As 
internal  and  spiritual,  it  already  exists  and  rules  in  the 
hearts  of  all  L'liristians,  and  is  therefore  ]irescnt  (Koin. 
xiv,  17;  Matt,  vi,  33;  Mark  x,  15;  Luke  xvii,  21;  xviii, 


17;  John  iii, 3, 5;  1  Cor.iv,20).  It  "  suff"ereth  violence," 
implying  the  eagerness  with  which  the  ( Jospel  was  re- 
ceived in  the  agitated  state  of  men's  minds  (ilatt.  xi, 
12 ;  Luke  xvi,  G).  As  external,  it  is  either  embodied  in 
the  visible  Church  of  Christ,  and  in  so  far  is  present  and 
progressive  (Matt,  vi,  10 ;  xii,  28 ;  xiii,  24,  31,  33.  41, 47 ; 
xvi,  19,28;  Mark  iv,30;  xi,  10;  Luke  xiii,  18,  20  ;  Acts 
xix,  8 ;  Heb.  xii,  28),  or  it  is  to  be  perfected  in  the  com- 
ing of  the  Messiah  to  judgment  and  his  subsequent 
spiritual  reign  in  bliss  and  glory,  in  which  view  it  is  fu- 
ture (Matt,  xiii,  43;  xxvi,29;  Mark  xiv,  25;  Luke  xxii, 
29, 30 ;  2  Pet.  i,  11 ;  Kev.  xii,  10).  In  this  latter  view  it 
denotes  especially  the  bliss  of  heaven,  eteiticd  life,  which 
is  to  be  enjoyed  in  the  Kedeemer's  kingdom  (Matt,  viii, 
11;  XXV,  34;  Mark  ix,  47;  Luke  xiii,  18,  29;  Acts  xiv, 
22;  1  Cor.  vi,  9,  20;  xv,  .50;  Gal,  v,  21 ;  Eph,  v,  5;  2 
Thess.  i,  5 ;  2  Tim.  iv,  18 ;  James  ii,  5).  But  these  dif- 
ferent aspects  are  not  always  distinguished,  the  expres- 
sion often  embracing  both  the  uitcrnal  and  external 
sense,  and  referring  both  to  its  commencement  in  this 
world  and  its  comjiletion  in  the  world  to  come  (Matt,  v, 
3,10,20;  vii,21;  xi.  11;  xiii,  11,52;  xviii,  3,4;  Col.  i, 
13  ;  1  Thess.  ii,  12).  In  Luke  i,  33,  it  is  said  of  the  king- 
dom of  Christ  "  there  shall  be  no  end ;"  whereas  in  1 
Cor.  XV,  24-26,  it  is  said  "  he  shall  deliver  up  the  king- 
dom to  God,  even  the  Father."  The  contradiction  is 
only  in  api)earance.  The  latter  passage  refers  to  the 
m«/M//on'r(^  dominion  of  Christ;  and  when  the  mediato- 
rial work  of  the  Saviour  is  accomplished,  then,  at  the 
final  judgment,  he  will  resign  forever  his  mediatorial 
office,  Avhile  the  reign  of  Christ  as  God  supreme  will 
never  cease.  "  His  throne,"  in  the  empire  of  the  uni- 
verse, "  is  forever  and  ever"  (Heb.  i,  8). 

"  There  is  reason  to  believe  not  only  that  the  expres- 
sion kingdom  of  heaven,  as  used  in  the  Nc^v'  Test.,  was 
employed  as  synonymous  with  hingdom  ef  God,  as  re- 
ferred to  in  the  Old  Test.,  but  that  the  former  expres- 
sion had  become  common  among  the  Jews  of  our  Lord's 
time  for  dcnotuig  the  state  of  things  expected  to  be 
brought  in  by  the  Messiah.  The  mere-  use  of  the  ex- 
pression as  it  first  occurs  in  Matthew,  uttered  apparent- 
ly by  John  Baptist,  and  our  Lord  himself,  without  a 
note  of  explanation,  as  if  all  perfectly  understood  what 
was  meant  by  it,  seems  alone  conclusive  evidence  of 
this.  The  Old-Testament  constitution,  and  the  writings 
belonging  to  it,  had  familiarized  the  Jews  with  the  ap- 
plication of  the  terms  Mng  and  kingdom  to  God,  not 
merely  with  reference  to  his  universal  sovereignty,  but 
also  to  his  special  connection  Avith  the  iieople  he  had 
chosen  for  himself  (1  Sam.  xii,  12;  Psa.  ii,  6;  v,  2;  xx, 
9 ;  1  Chron.  xxix,  11 ;  2  Chron.  xiii,  8,  etc.).  In  Daniel, 
however,  where  ]jointed  expression  required  to  be  given 
to  the  difference  in  this  respect  between  what  is  of  earth 
and  what  is  of  heaven,  we  find  matters  ordered  on  a  cer- 
tain occasion  with  a  view  t(j  bring  out  the  specific  lesson 
that  '  the  heavens  do  rule'  (iv,  26) ;  and  in  the  inter- 
pretation given  to  the  vision,  which  had  been  granted 
to  Nebuchadnezzar,  it  was  said,  witli  more  special  refer- 
ence to  New-Testament  times,  that  'in  the  days  of  those 
(earthly)  kings  the  God  of  heaven  (lit.  of  the  heavens) 
should  set  up  a  kingdom  that  should  never  be  destroy- 
ed' (ii,  44).  In  still  another  vision  granted  to  Daniel 
himself,  this  divine  kingdom  was  represented  under  the 
image  of  one  like  a  Son  of  man  coming  with  the  clouds 
of  heaAxn,  and  there  was  given  him  dominion,  and  glo- 
ri-,  and  a  kingdom,  that  all  people,  nations,  and  lan- 
guages should  serve  him'  (vii,  13,  14),  It  apjicars  to 
have  been  in  conse(picnce  of  tlie  phrascidogy  thus  in- 
troduced and  sanctioned  l)y  Daniel  that  the  expression 
'kingdom  of  heaven' (Cl^'C'i^'fl  r^rP"3,  malknth  hasha- 
maijini)  passed  into  common  usage  among  the  Jews,  and 
was  but  another  nanie  with  them  for  a  state  of  fellow- 
ship with  God  and  devotedness  to  his  service.  jMany 
cxam])les  of  this  arc  given  by  Wetstcin  on  Matt,  iii,  2 
from  .lewish  writings:  thus, 'He  who  confesses  (iod  to 
be  one,  and  repeats  Dent.  vi,4,  takes  up  the  kingdom  of 
heaven ;'  '  Jacob  cidled  his  sons  and  commanded  them 


KINGDOM  OF  ISRAEL 


91 


KINGS 


concerning  the  ways  of  God,  and  they  took  upon  them 
the  kingdom  of  heaven ;'  '  The  sons  of  Achasius  did  not 
take  upon  them  the  yoke  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven ; 
they  did  not  acknowledge  the  Lord,  for  they  said.  There 
is  not  a  Idngdom  in  heaven,'  etc.  The  expression,  in- 
deed, does  not  seem  to  have  been  used  specifically  with 
reference  to  the  Messiah's  coming,  or  the  state  to  be  in- 
troduced by  him  (for  the  examples  j)roduced  by  SchiJtt- 
gen  [Z'e  Messia,  ch.ii]  are  scarcely  in  point);  but  when 
the  Lord  himself  was  declared  to  be  at  hand  to  remodel 
everything,  and  visibly  take  the  government,  as  it  were, 
on  his  shoukler,  it  would  be  understood  of  itself  that 
here  the  kingdom  of  heaven  shoidd  be  found  concen- 
trating itself,  and  that  to  join  one's  self  to  Messiah  would 
be  in  the  truest  sense  to  take  up  the  yoke  of  that  king- 
dom" (Fairbairn).     See  Kingly  Office  of  Christ. 

The  scriptural  and  popular  usages  of  the  term  "  king- 
dom of  God,"  "  kingdom  of  heaven,"  etc.,  serve  as  a  clew 
to  the  otherwise  rather  abrujit  proclamation  of  the  Bap- 
tist and  Jesus  at  the  very  begiiniing  of  their  public  min- 
istrations. It  is  true  that  in  the  Old  Testament  the 
kingdom  or  reign  of  God  usually  signifies  his  infinite 
power,  or,  more  properly,  his  sovereign  authority  over 
all  creatures,  kingdoms,  and  hearts.  See  King.  Thus 
Wisdom  says  (x,  10),  God  showed  his  kingdom  to  Ja- 
cob, i.  e.  he  opened  the  kingdom  of  heaven  to  him  in 
showing  him  the  mysterious  ladder  by  which  the  an- 
gels ascended  and  descended  ;  and  Ecclesiasticus  (xlvii, 
13)  says,  God  gave  to  David  the  covenant  assurance,  or 
promise  of  the  kingdom,  for  himself  and  his  successors. 
StiU  the  transition  from  this  to  the  moral  and  religious 
sphere  was  so  natural  that  it  was  silently  and  continual- 
ly made,  especially  as  Jehovah  was  perpetually  repre- 
sented as  the  supreme  and  sole  legitimate  sovereign  of 
his  people.  Indeed,  the  theocracy  was  the  central  idea 
of  the  Jewish  state  [see  Juuge],  and  hence  the  first 
announcements  of  the  Gospel  sounded  with  thrilling  ef- 
fect upon  the  ears  of  the  people,  proverbially  impatient 
of  foreign  rule,  and  yet,  at  the  time,  apparently  bound  in 
a  hopeless  vassalage  to  Rome.  It  was  to  the  populace 
like  a  trumpet-call  to  a  war  for  independence,  or  rather 
Uke  one  of  the  old  preans  of  deliverance  sung  by  Miiiam 
and  Deborah.     See  Tiieocuacy. 

Copious  lists  of  monographs  on  this  subject  may  be 
seen  in  Danz,  Wurterhuch,  s.  v.  Himmel-Eeich,  Messias- 
Eeich ;  Volbeding,  Index  Prof/rammatum,  p.  37 ;  Ilase, 
Lehen  Jesti,  p.  72,  77.     See  Messiah. 

Kingdom  of  Israel.    See  Isk.vel,  Kingdoh  of. 

Kingdom  of  Judah.     See  Judaii,  Kingdom  of. 

Kingly  Office  of  Christ,  one  of  the  three  great 
relations  which  Jesus  sustains  to  his  people,  namely,  as 
prophet,  priest,  and  king,  and  to  which  he  was  solemn- 
ly inaugurated  at  his  baptism  by  John.  See  Anoint- 
ing, It  is  by  virtue  of  this  that  he  became  head  of  the 
Church,  which  is  the  sphere  of  his  realm.  See  Kinc;- 
DOM  OF  God.  This  is  that  spiritual,  evangelical,  and 
eternal  empire  to  which  he  himself  referred  when  inter- 
rogated before  Pontius  Pilate,  and  in  reference  to  which 
he  said,  "  My  kingdom  is  not  of  this  world"  (John  xviii, 
36, 37).  His  empire,  indeed,  extends  to  every  creature, 
for  "  all  authority  is  committed  into  his  hands,  both  in 
heaven  and  on  earth,"  and  he  is  "  head  over  all  things 
to  the  Church ;"  but  his  kingdom  primarily  imports  tiie 
Gospel  Church,  which  is  the  subject  of  his  laws,  the  seat 
of  his  government,  and  the  object  of  his  care,  and,  being 
surrounded  with  powerful  opposers,  he  is  represented  as 
ruling  in  the  midst  of  his  enemies.  This  kingdom  is 
not  of  a  worldly  origin  or  nature,  nor  has  it  this  world 
for  its  end  or  object  (Rom.  xiv,  17;  1  Cor.  iv,  20).  It 
can  neither  be  promoted  nor  defended  by  worldly  power, 
influence,  or  carnal  weapons,  but  by  bearing  witness  unto 
the  truth,  or  by  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel  with  the 
Holy  Ghost  sent  down  from  heaven  (2  Cor.  x,4,  5).  Its 
establishment  among  men  is  progressive,  but  it  is  des- 
tined at  last  to  fill  the  whole  earth"(Dan.  ii ;  Rev.  xi,  15). 
Its  real  subjects  are  only  those  who  arc  of  the  truth,  and 


hear  Christ's  voice ;  for  none  can  enter  it  but  such  as  are 
born  from  above  (John  iii,3-5;  Matt,  xviii,  3 ;  xix,  14; 
Mark  x,  15),  nor  can  any  be  visible  subjects  of  it  but 
such  as  appear  to  be  regenerated  by  a  credible  profes- 
sion of  faith  and  obedience  (Luke  xvi,  IG;  Matt,  xx, 
28-44).  Its  privileges  and  immunities  are  not  of  this 
world, but  such  as  are  spiritual  and  heavenly;  they  are 
all  spiritual  blessings  in  heavenly  things  in  Christ  Jesus 
(Eph.  i,  3).  Over  this  glorious  kingdom  death  has  no 
power;  it  extends  as  well  to  the  future  as  the  present 
world ;  and  though  entered  here  by  renewing  grace  (Cok 
i,  13),  it  is  inherited  in  its  perfection  in  the  world  of  glo- 
ry (Matt.  XXV,  34 ;  1  Cor.  xv,  50 ;  2  Pet.  i,  11).  Ilyjio- 
crites  and  false  brethren  may  indeed  insinuate  them- 
selves into  it  here,  but  they  will  have  no  possible  place 
in  it  hereafter  (Matt,  xiii,  41, 47-50 ;  xxii,  11-14;  Luke 
xiii,  28,  29 ;  1  Cor.  vi,  9, 10 ;  Gal  v,  21 ;  Rev.  xxi,  27).— 
Watson.  Its  rule  is  one  of  love  (Tholuck,  Sermon  on 
the  Mount,  i,  103).     See  Christ,  Offices  of. 

Kings,  First  and  Second  BOOKS  OF,  the  sec- 
ond of  the  scries  of  Hebrew  royal  annals,  the  books  of 
Samuel  forming  the  introductory  series,  and  the  books 
of  Chronicles  being  a  parallel  series.  In  the  Hebrew 
Bible  the  first  two  series  alone  form  part  of  "  the  FV>rmer 
Prophets,"  like  Joshua,  Judges,  and  Ruth.  See  Bible. 
In  our  discussion  of  these  we  largely  avail  ourselves  of 
the  articles  in  Kitto's,  Smith's,  and  Fairbaini's  Diction- 
aries, s.  v. 

I.  Numher  and  Title. — The  two  books  of  Kings  form- 
ed anciently  but  one  book  in  the  Jewish  Scriptures,  as 
is  affirmed  by  Origen  (apud  Euseb.  Prcep.  Ecanrj.  vi,  25, 
BflffiXf/wv  TpiT)],  rerapTj],  iv  ivi  Oi)a/<jufXf;^  Aafiio), 
Jerome  {Prolog.  Gal.),  Josephus  {Cont.  Ajnon.  i,  8),  and 
others.  The  present  division,  following  the  Septuagint 
and  Latin  versions,  has  been  common  in  the  Hebrew  Bi- 
bles since  the  Venetian  editions  of  Bombcrg. 

The  old  Jewish  name  was  borrowed,  as  usual, from  the 
commencing  words  of  the  book  (^1'^  Ti?'?"!|?))  Griccized 
as  in  the  above  quotiition  from  Eusebius.  The  Septua- 
gint and  Vulgate  now  number  them  as  the  third  and 
fourth  books  of  Kings,  reckoning  the  two  books  of  Sam- 
uel the  first  and  second.  Their  present  title,  C^zbo, 
BamXhov,  Regum,  in  the  opinion  of  Havernick,  has  re- 
spect more  to  the  formal  than  essential  character  of  the 
composition  {^Einleitimg,  §  1G8) ;  yet  under  such  forms 
of  government  as  those  of  Judah  and  Israel  the  roj'al 
person  and  name  are  intimately  associated  ■with  all  na- 
tional acts  and  movements,  legal  decisions,  warlike  prep- 
arations, domestic  legislation,  and  foreign  policy.  The 
reign  of  an  Oriental  prince  is  identified  with  the  history 
of  his  nation  during  the  period  of  his  sovereignty.  More 
especially  in  the  tlieocratic  constitution  of  the  Jewish 
realm  the  character  of  the  monarch  was  an  important 
element  of  national  history,  and,  of  necessity,  it  had  con- 
siderable influence  on  the  fate  and  fortunes  of  the  people. 

II.  Independent  Form.- — The  question  has  been  raised 
and  minutely  discussed  whether  the  books  of  Kings  (1 
and  2)  constitute  an  entire  work  of  themselves,  or  wheth- 
er they  originally  formed  part  of  a  larger  historical  work 
embracing  the  principal  parts  of  the  Pentateuch,  Joshua, 
Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings,  out  of  which  these  se\-eral 
books,  as  we  now  have  them,  have  been  formed.  Ewald 
regards  the  books  of  Judges  (with  Ruth),  1  and  2  Sam- 
uel, and  1  and  2  Kings,  as  forming  parts  of  one  whole 
work,  which  he  calls  "  The  great  book  of  the  Kings." 
The  grounds  on  which  this  supposition  has  been  built 
are  partly  the  following : 

(1.)  These  books  together  contain  one  unbroken  nar- 
rative, both  in  form  and  matter,  each  portion  being  con- 
nected with  the  preceding  by  the  conjunctive  1,  or  the 
continuative  ("n"^  The  book  of  Judges  shows  itself  to 
be  a  separate  work  from  Joshua  by  opening  with  a  nar- 
ration of  events  with  which  that  book  closes;  the  work 
then  proceeds  through  the  times  of  the  Judges,  and  goes 
on  to  give,  in  Ruth,  the  family  history  and  genealogy 


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92 


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of  David,  and  iii  Samuel  and  Kings  the  events  which 
transpired  down  to  the  captivity. 

("2.)  The  recurrence  in  Judges  of  the  phrases,  "And  in 
those  days  there  was  no  king  in  Israel"  (xvii,  6 ;  xviii, 
1 ;  xxi,  2b) ;  "  It  came  to  pass  in  those  days  when  there 
was  no  king"  (xix,  1) ;  and  in  liuth  (i,  1),  "  Now  it 
came  to  pass  in  the  days  when  the  judges  ruled,"  shows 
that  this  jjortion  of  the  worlv  was  Mritten  in  the  times 
when  there  u-ere  kings  in  Israel.  The  writer  therefore 
was  in  a  position  to  pass  under  review  the  whole  period 
of  the  times  of  the  judges,  and  we  find  that  he  estimates 
the  conduct  of  the  people  according  to  the  degree  of 
their  conformity  to  the  law  of  the  Lord,  after  the  man- 
ner of  the  writer  of  Kings  (Judg.  ii,  11-19;  2  Kings 
xvii,  7-23). 

Again,  in  Judg.  i,  21,  it  is  said  that  the  Jebusites 
dwell  with  the  children  of  Benjamin  in  Jerusalem  unto 
this  (la// ;  and  in  2  Sam.  xxiv,  16,  mention  is  made  of 
Araunah  the  Jebusite  as  an  inhabitant  of  Jerusalem, 
from  which  it  is  inferred  that  the  writer  intended  these 
facts  to  explain  each  other.  (But  see  Josh,  xv,  63.) 
So  there  is  a  reference  in  Judg.  xx,  27  to  the  removal 
of  the  ark  of  the  covenant  from  Shiloh  to  Jerusalem;  and 
the  expression  "  in  those  days"  points,  as  in  xvii,  G,  etc., 
to  remote  times.  There  is  thought  to  be  a  reference  in 
Judg.  xviii,  30  to  the  captivity  of  Israel  in  the  days  of 
Hoshea,  in  which  case  that  book  must  have  been  written 
subsequently  to  that  time,  as  well  as  the  books  of  Kings. 

(3.)  The  books  of  Kings  take  up  the  narrative  where 
2  Samuel  breaks  off,  and  proceed  in  the  same  spirit  and 
manner  to  continue  the  history,  with  the  earlier  parts 
of  ^vhich  the  writer  gives  proof  of  being  well  acquainted 
(comp.  1  Kings  ii,  11  with  2  Sam.  v,  4, 5 ;  so  also  2  Kings 
xvii,  41  with  Judg.  ii,  11-19,  etc.;  1  Sam.  ii,  27  with 
Judg.  xiii,  6 ;  2  Sam.  xiv,  17-20,  xix,  27,  with  Judg.  xiii, 
G ;  1  Sam.  ix,  21  with  Judg.  vi,  15,  and  xx ;  1  Kings  viii, 

1  with  2  Sam.  vi,  17,  and  v,  7,  9;  1  Sam.  xvii,  12  with 
Paith  iv,  17;  Faith  i,  1  with  Judg.  xvii,  7,  8,  9;  xix,  1, 

2  [Bethlehem-Judah]).  Other  links  connecting  the 
books  of  Kings  with  the  preceding  may  be  found  in  the 
comparison,  suggested  by  De  Wette,  of  1  Kings  ii,  26 
with  1  Sam.  ii,  35;  1  Kings  ii,  3,  4;  v,  17,  18;  viii,  18, 
19, 25,  with  2  Sam.  vii,  12-16 ;  and  1  Kings  iv,  1-6  with 
2  Sam.  viii,  15-18. 

(4.)  Similarity  of  diction  has  been  observed  through- 
out, indicating  identity  of  authorship.  The  phrase 
"Spirit  of  Jehovah"  occurs  first  in  Judges,  and  fre- 
quently afterwards  in  Samuel  and  Kings  (Judg.  iii,  10; 
vi,  34,  etc. ;  1  Sam.  x,  6,  etc. ;  1  Kings  xxii,  24;  2  Kings 
ii,  10,  etc.).  So  "Man  of  God,"  to  designate  a  prophet, 
and  "  God  do  so  to  me  and  more  also,"  are  common  to 
them;  and  "till  they  were  ashamed"  to  Judges  and 
Kings  (Judg.  iii,  25;  2  Kings  ii,  17;  viii,  11). 

(5.)  Generally  the  style  of  the  narrative,  ordinarily 
quiet  and  simple,  but  rising  to  great  vigor  and  spirit 
when  stirring  deeds  are  described  (as  in  Judg.  iv,  vii, 
xi,  etc. ;  1  Sam.  iv,  xvii,  xxxi,  etc. ;  1  Kings  viii,  xviii, 
xix,  etc.),  and  the  introduction  of  poetry  or  poetic  style 
in  the  midst  of  the  narrative  (as  in  Judg.  v,  1  Sam.  ii,  2 
Sam.  i,  17,  etc.,  1  Kings  xxii,  17,  etc.),  constitute  such 
strong  fcatiures  of  resemblance  as  lead  to  the  conclusion 
that  these  several  books  form  but  one  work. 

But  these  reasons  are  not  conclusive.  Many  of  the 
resemblances  may  be  accounted  for  in  other  ways,  while 
there  are  important  and  wide  differences. 

(1.)  If  the  arguments  were  sufficient  to  join  Judges, 
Samuel,  and  Kings  together  in  one  work,  for  the  same 
rea.sons  Josluia  nnist  be  added  (Josh,  i,  1 ;  xv,  63 ;  xxiii 
and  xxiv;  Judg.  i,  1). 

(2.)  The  writer  of  Kings  might  be  well  acquainted 
with  the  previous  history  of  his  people,  .ind  even  with 
the  contents  of  Judges  and  Samuel,  without  being  him- 
self flic  author  of  those  books. 

(3.)  Siicli  similarity  of  diction 'as  exists  mdy  be  as- 
crilicd  111  the  use  by  the  writer  of  Kings  of  earlier  docu- 
menis.  to  which  also  the  writer  of  Samuel  had  access. 

(4.J  There  are  good  reasons  for  regarding  the  Kings 


as  together  forming  an  entire  and  independent  work, 
such  as  the  similarity  of  style  and  language,  both  vo- 
cabulary and  grammar,  which  pervades  tlie  two  books, 
but  distinguishes  them  from  others — the  uniform  system 
of  quotation  observed  in  them,  but  not  in  the  books 
which  precede  them  —  the  same  careful  attention  to 
chronology — the  recurrence  of  certain  phrases  and  forms 
of  speech  peculiar  to  them.  A  great  number  of  words 
occur  in  Kings,  which  are  found  in  them  onh' ;  such  are 
chiefly  names  of  materials  and  utensils,  and  architect- 
ural terms.  Words,  and  unusual  forms  of  words,  occur, 
whicli  are  only  found  here  and  in  writers  of  the  same 
period,  as  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah,  but  not  in  Samuel  or 
Judges.     See  §  v,  below. 

III.  Contents,  Character,  and  Design.  —  The  books  of 
Kings  contain  the  brief  annals  of  a  long  period,  from 
the  accession  of  Solomon  till  the  dissolution  of  the  com- 
monwealth. The  first  chapters  describe  the  reign  of 
Solomon  over  the  united  kingdom,  and  the  revolt  luider 
Eehoboam.  Tlie  history  of  the  rival  states  is  next  nar- 
rated in  parallel  sections  till  the  period  of  Israel's  down- 
fall on  the  invasion  of  Shalmanezer.  Then  the  remain- 
ing years  of  the  principality  of  Judah  are  recorded  till 
the  conquest  of  Nebuchadnezzar  and  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Babylonian  captivity.  See  Israel;  Ju- 
dah. For  an  adjustment  of  the  years  of  the  respective 
reigns  in  each  line,  see  Chronology. 

There  are  some  pecidiarities  in  this  succmct  history 
worthy  of  attention.  It  is  summary,  but  very  sugges- 
tive. It  is  not  a  biography  of  the  sovereigns,  nor  a 
mere  record  of  political  occurrences,  nor  yet  an  ecclesi- 
astical register.  King,  Church,  and  State  are  all  com- 
prised in  their  sacred  relations.  It  is  a  theocratic  his- 
tory, a  retrospective  survey  of  the  kingdom  as  existing 
under  a  theocratic  government.  The  character  of  the 
sovereign  is  tested  b}^  his  fidelity  to  the  religious  obli- 
gations of  his  office,  and  this  decision  in  reference  to  his 
conduct  is  generally  added  to  the  notice  of  his  accession. 
The  new  king's  religious  character  is  generally  portraj'- 
ed  by  its  similarity  or  opposition  to  the  way  of  David, 
of  his  father,  or  of  Jeroboam,  son  of  Nebat,  "who  made 
Israel  to  sin."  Ecclesiastical  affairs  are  noticed  with  a 
similar  pmrjiose,  and  in  contrast  with  past  or  prevalent 
apostasy,  especially  as  manifested  in  the  popular  super- 
stitions, whose  shrines  were  on  the  "  high  places."  Po- 
litical or  national  uicidents  are  introduced  in  general  for 
the  sake  of  illustrating  the  iutiuence  of  religion  on  civic 
prosperity;  of  showing  how  the  theocracy  maintained 
a  vigilant  and  vengeful  guardianship  over  its  rights  and 
privileges — adherence  to  its  principles  securing  peace 
and  plenty,  disobedience  to  them  bringing  along  with  it 
sudden  and  severe  retribution.  The  books  of  Kings  are 
a  verification  of  the  IMosaic  warnings,  and  the  author  of 
them  lias  kept  this  steadily  in  view.  He  has  given  a 
brief  history  of  his  people,  arranged  under  tlie  various 
political  chiefs  in  such  a  manner  as  to  sli6w  that  the 
government  was  essentially  theocratic ;  that  its  spirit,  as 
developed  in  the  Mosaic  writings,  was  never  extinct, 
however  modified  or  inactive  it  might  sometimes  appear. 
Thus  the  books  of  Kings  appear  in  a  religious  costume, 
quite  different  from  the  form  they  would  have  assumed 
either  as  a  pohtical  or  ecclesiastical  narrative.  In  tlie 
one  case  legislative  enactments,  royal  edicts,  popular 
movements,  would  have  occupied  a  prominent  jilace ;  in 
the  other,  sacerdotal  arrangements,  Levitical  service, 
music,  and  pageantrj',  wouUl  have  filled  the  leading  sec- 
tions of  the  treatise.  In  either  view  the  points  adduced 
would  have  had  a  restricted  reference  to  tlie  palace  or 
the  temjjlc,  the  sovereign  or  the  pontiff,  the  court  or  the 
priesthood,  the  throne  or  the  altar,  the  tribute  or  tithes, 
the  nation  on  its  farms,  or  the  tribes  in  the  courts  of  the 
sacred  edifice.  But  the  theocracy  conjoined  both  the 
political  and  religious  elements,  and  the  insjiired  annal- 
ist unites  them  as  essential  to  his  design.  The  agency 
of  divinity  is  constantly  recognised,  the  hand  of  Jeho- 
vah is  continually  acknowledged.  The  chief  organ  of 
theocratic  infiueuce  enjoys  peculiar  prominence.     We 


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93 


KINGS 


refer  to  the  incessant  a.ccency  of  the  prophets,  their  great 
power  and  peculiar  modes  of  action  as  tletailed  by  tlie 
composer  of  the  books  of  Kings.  They  interfered  with 
the  succession,  and  their  mstrumentaUty  was  apparent 
in  the  schism.  They  roused  the  people,  and  they  braved 
the  sovereign.  The  balance  of  power  was  in  their  hands ; 
the  regal  dignity  seemed  to  be  sometimes  at  their  dis- 
posal. In  times  of  emergency  they  dispensed  with  usual 
modes  of  procedure,  and  assumed  an  authority  with 
■which  no  subject  in  an  ordinary'  state  can  safely  be  in- 
trusted, executing  the  law  with  a  summary  promptness 
which  renilered  opposition  impossible,  or  at  least  un- 
availing. They  felt  their  divine  commission,  and  that 
they  were  the  custodians  of  the  rights  of  Jehovah.  At 
the  same  time  they  protected  the  interests  of  the  na- 
tion, and,  could  we  divest  the  term  of  its  association 
with  unprincipled  turbulence  and  sedition,  w^e  would, 
lilte  Winer  (Eealicorterb.  s.  v.  Prophet),  style  them  the 
demagogues  of  Israel.  The  divine  prerogative  was  to 
them  a  vested  right,  guarded  ^vith  a  sacred  jealousy 
from  royal  usurpation  or  popular  invasion ;  and  the  in- 
terests of  the  people  were  as  religiously  protected  against 
encroachments,  too  easily  made  under  a  form  of  govern- 
ment which  had  not  the  safeguard  of  popular  represen- 
tation or  aristocratic  privilege.  The  priesthood  were  in 
many  instances,  though  there  are  some  illustrious  ex- 
ceptions, merely  the  creatures  of  the  crown,  and  there- 
fore it  became  the  prophetical  ofHce  to  assert  its  dignity 
and  stantl  forth  in  the  majestic  insignia  of  an  embassy 
from  heaven.  The  truth  of  these  sentiments,  as  to  the 
method,  design,  and  composition  of  the  books  of  Kings, 
is  confirmed  by  ample  evidence. 

(1.)  Large  space  is  occupied  with  the  building  of  the 
Temple — the  palace  of  the  divine  Protector — his  throne 
in  it  being  above  the  mercy-seat  and  between  the  cher- 
ubim (ch.  v-viii).  Care  is  taken  to  record  the  miracu- 
lous phenomenon  of  the  descent  of  the  Shekinah  (viii, 
10).  The  prayer  of  Solomon  at  the  dedication  of  the 
house  is  fidl  of  theocratic  views  and  aspirations. 

(2.)  Reference  is  often  made  to  the  i\Iosaic  law,  with 
its  provisions,  and  allusions  to  the  earlier  history  of  the 
people  frequently  occur  (1  Kings  ii,  3 ;  iii,  14 ;  vi,  11, 12 ; 
viii,  58,  etc. ;  2  Kings  x,  31;  xiv,  6;  xvii,  13, 15,37;  xviii, 
4-6 :  xxi,  1-8).  Allusions  to  the  IMosaic  code  are  found 
more  frequently  towards  the  end  of  the  second  book, 
when  the  kingdom  was  drawing  near  its  termination,  as 
if  to  account  for  its  decay  and  approaching  fate. 

(3.)  Phrases  expressive  of  divine  interference  are  fre- 
quently introduced  (1  Kings  xi,  31 ;  xii,  15 ;  xiii,  1, 2,  9  ; 
and  XX,  13,  etc.). 

(4.)  Prophetic  interposition  is  a  verj'  prominent  theme 
of  record.  It  fills  the  vivid  foreground  of  the  historical 
picture.  Nathan  was  occupied  in  the  succession  of  Sol- 
omon (I  Kings  i,  45) ;  Ahijah  was  concerned  in  the  re- 
volt (xi,  29-40).  Shemaiah  disbanded  the  troops  which 
Eehuboam  had  mustered  (fsAi,  21).  Ahijah  predicted  the 
ruin  of  Jeroboam,  whose  elevation  he  had  promoted  (xiv, 
7).  Jehu,  the  prophet, doomed  the  house  of  Baasha  (xvi, 
1).  The  reigns  of  Ahab  and  Ahaziah  arc  marked  by  the 
bold,  rapid,  mysterious  movements  of  Elijah.  Under 
Ahab  occurs  the  prediction  of  IMicaiah  (xxii,8).  The 
actions  and  oracles  of  Elisha  form  the  marvellous  topics 
of  narration  under  several  reigns.  The  agency  of  Isaiah 
is  also  recognised  (2  Kings  xix,  20 ;  xx,  16).  Besides,  1 
Kings  xiii  presents  another  instance  of  prophetic  opera- 
tion ;  and  iii  xx,  35,  the  oracle  of  an  unknown  prophet  is 
also  rehearsed.  Hiddah  the  prophetess  was  an  impor- 
tant personage  under  the  government  of  Josiah  (2  Kings 
xxii,14).  Care  is  also  taken  to  report  the  fulfilment  of 
striking  prophecies,  in  the  usual  phrase,  ■'  according  to 
the  word  of  the  Lord"  (1  Kings  xii,  15 ;  xv,  29 ;  xvi^l2 ; 
2  Kings  xxiii,  15-18 ;  ix,  36  ;  xxiv,  2).  So,  too,  the  old 
Syriac  version  prefixes,  "  Here  follows  the  book  of  the 
kings  who  flourished  among  the  ancient  people;  and  in 
this  is  also  exhibited  the  historj'  of  the  prophets  who 
flourished  during  their  times." 

(5.)  Theocratic  influence  is  recognised  both  in  the  de- 


position and  succession  of  kings  (1  Kings  xiii,  33 ;  xv,  4, 
5,  29,  30 :  2  Kings  xi,  17,  etc.).  Compare,  on  the  whole 
of  this  view,  Hiivernick,  Einleit.  §  168 ;  Jahn,  Introduct. 
§  46 ;  Gesenius,  Ueher  Jes.  i,  934.  It  is  thus  apparent 
that  the  object  of  the  author  of  the  Books  of  Kings  was 
to  describe  the  history  of  the  kingdoms,  especially  in 
connection  with  the  theocratic  element.  This  design 
accounts  for  what  De  "Wette  {Einleit.  §  185)  terms  the 
mythical  character  of  these  books. 

As  to  what  has  been  termed  the  anti-Israelitish  spirit 
of  the  work  (Bertholdt,  i-'wifciV.  p.  949),  we  do  not  per- 
ceive it.  Truth  required  that  the  kingdom  of  Israel 
should  be  described  in  its  real  character.  Idol-worship 
was  connected  with  its  foundation ;  moscholatry  was  a 
state  provision ;  fidelity  obUged  the  annalist  to  state  that 
all  its  kings  patronized  the  institutions  of  Bethel  and 
Dan,  while  eight,  at  least,  of  the  Jewish  sovereigns  ad- 
hered to  the  true  religion,  and  that  the  majority  of  its 
Idngs  perished  in  insiu-rectiou,  while  those  of  Judah  in 
general  were  exempted  from  seditious  tumults  and  as- 
sassination. 

lY.  Relation  ofKin[is  to  Chronicles. — The  more  obvious 
differences  between  the  books  of  Kings  and  of  Chroni- 
cles are, 

(1.)  In  respect  of  language,  by  which  the  former  are 
shown  to  be  of  earlier  date  than  the  latter, 

(2.)  Of  periods  embraced  in  each  work.  The  Chron- 
icles are  ranch  more  comprehensive  than  Kings,  con- 
taiuing  genealogical  lists  from  Adam  downwards,  and  a 
full  account  of  the  reign  of  David.  The  portions  of  the 
Chronicles  sj'nchronistic  with  Kings  are  1  Chron.  xxviii- 
2  Chron.  xxxvi,  22. 

(3.)  In  the  Kings  greater  prominence  is  given  to  the 
prophetical  office ;  in  Chronicles,  to  the  priestly  or  Le- 
vitical.  In  the  books  of  the  Ivings  we  have  the  active 
influence  of  Nathan  in  regard  to  the  succession  to  the 
throne ;  and  the  remarkable  lives  of  Elijah  and  Elisha, 
of  whom  numerous  and  extraordinary  miracles  are  re- 
lated, of  which  scarcely  the  slightest  mention  is  made 
in  Chronicles,  although  in  Kings  about  fourteen  chap- 
ters are  taken  up  with  them.  Besides  these,  other 
prophets  are  mentioned,  and  their  acts  and  sayings  are 
recorded ;  as,  1  Kings  xiii,  the  prophet  who  came  to 
Bethel  from  Judah  in  the  reign  of  Jeroboam,  and  his 
predictions ;  and  in  2  Kings  xxiii,  the  fulfilment  of  them 
in  the  days  of  Josiah ;  1  Kings  xiii,  the  old  prophet  who 
lived  at  Bethel  with  his  sons.  Ahijah  the  prophet,  also, 
in  the  days  of  Jeroljoam,  1  Kings  xiv ;  Jehu,  the  son  of 
Hanani,  1  Ivings  xvi ;  Jonah,  in  the  time  of  Jeroboam, 
2  Kings  xiv,  25 ;  and  Isaiah  in  relation  to  the  sickness 
of  Hezekiah,  2  Kings  xx.  Of  these  there  is  either  no 
mention,  or  much  slighter  in  Chronicles,  where  the 
priestly  or  Levitical  element  is  more  observable ;  as,  for 
example,  the  fuU  account,  in  2  Chron.  xxix-xxxi,  of  the 
purification  of  the  Temple  by  Hezekiah  ;  of  the  services 
and  sacrifices  then  made,  and  of  the  names  of  the  Le- 
vites  who  took  part  in  it,  and  the  restoration  of  the 
courses  and  orders  of  the  priesthood,  and  the  supplies  for 
the  daily,  weekly,  and  yearly  sacrifices;  also,  the  cir- 
cumstantial account  of  the  Passover  observed  by  com- 
mand of  Josiah,  2  Chron.  xxxv,  1-19.  In  this  Avay  we 
may  account  not  only  for  the  omission  of  much  that  re- 
lates to  the  prophets,  but  also  for  the  less  remarkable 
prominence  given  to  the  history  of  Israel,  and  the  great- 
er to  Judah  and  Jerusalem ;  and  for  the  frequent  omis- 
sion of  details  respecting  the  idolatrous  practices  of  some 
of  the  kings,  as  of  Solomon,  Kehoboam,  and  Ahaz ;  and 
the  destruction  of  idolatry  by  Josiah,  showing  that  the 
books  of  Chronicles  were  written  in  times  in  which  the 
people  less  needed  to  be  warned  against  idolatrj-;  to 
which,  after  the  captivity,  they  had  ceased  to  be  so 
prone  as  before. 

For  fm-ther  information  on  the  relation  between  Kings 
and  Chronicles,  see  Chronicles,  Books  of. 

V.  Peculiarities  of  Diction.— \.  The  words  noticed  by 
De  Wette  {Einl.  §  185)  as  indicating  their  modem  date 
are  the  foUowmg:  "^nX  for  nx,  1  Kings  xiv,  2.     (But 


KINGS 


94 


KINGS 


this  form  is  also  found  in  Judsx-  xvii,  2 ;  Jer.  iv,  30 ; 
Ezek.  xxxvi,  I'o,  and  not  once  iii  the  later  books.) 
irnX  for  ins,  2  Kings  i,  15.  (But  this  form  of  nX  is 
found  in  Lev.  xv,  18,  24;  Josh,  xiv,  12;  2  Sam.  xxiv, 
24;  Isa.  hx,  21;  Jer.  x,  5;  xii,  1;  xix,  10;  xx,  11; 
xxiii,  9;  xxxv,  2;  Ezek.  xiv,  4;  xxvii,  20.)  D"J31'  for 
ci"',  1  Kings  ix,  8.  (But  Jer.  xix,  8;  xlix,  17,  are 
identical  in  phrase  and  orthography.)  "p^"!  for  C^Iil, 
2  Kings  xi,  13.  (But  everj-where  else  in  Kings,  e.  g.  2 
Kings  xi,  G,  etc.,  D^IJ^,  which  is  also  universal  in  Chron- 
icles, an  avowedly  later  book ;  and  here,  as  in  ")^3T:i,  1 
Kings  xi,  33,  there  is  everj'  appearance  of  the  "  being  a 
clerical  error  for  the  copulative  1 ;  see  Thenius,  I.  c.) 
nS'^n'0, 1  Kings  XX,  14.  (But  this  word  occurs  in  Lam. 
i,  1,  and  there  is  every  appearance  of  its  being  a  tech- 
nical word  in  1  Kings  xx,  14.  antl  therefore  as  old  as  the 
reign  of  Ahab.)  "I'S  for  "i-^n,  1  Kings  iv,  22.  (But  "I3 
is  used  by  Ezek.  xiv,  14,  and  homer  seems  to  have  been 
then  already  obsolete.)  C"^"in,  1  Kings  xxi,  8, 11.  (Oc- 
curs in  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah.)  S"!,  2  Kings  xxv,  8. 
(But  as  the  term  evidently  came  in  with  the  Chal- 
dees,  as  seen  in  Ilab-shakeh,  Itab-saris,  Eab-mag,  its  ap- 
plication to  the  Chaldee  general  is  no  evidence  of  a 
time  later  than  the  person  to  whom  the  title  is  given.) 
tP'C,  1  Kings  viii,  61,  etc.  (But  there  is  not  a  particle 
of  e\'idence  that  this  expression  belongs  to  late  Hebrew. 
It  is  found,  among  other  places,  in  Isa.  xxxviii,  3,  a 
passage  against  the  authenticity  of  which  there  is  also 
nut  a  sliaddw  of  jiroof,  except  upon  the  presumption  that 
prophetic  intimations  and  supernatural  interventions  on 
the  part  of  God  are  impossible.)  i'^Sbri,  2  Kings  xviii, 
7.  (On  what  grounds  this  word  is  adduced  it  is  impos- 
sible to  guess,  since  it  occurs  in  this  sense  in  Joshua, 
Isaiah,  Samuel,  and  Jeremiah :  see  Gesenius.)  "jinaa, 
2  Kings  xviii,  19.  (Isa.  xxxvi,  4;  Eccles.  ix,  4.) 
r."1^n^,  2  Kings  xviii,  2G.  (But  why  should  not  a 
Jew.  in  Hezekiah's  reign  as  well  as  in  the  time  of  Nc- 
hemiah,  have  called  his  mother-tongue  "  the  Jeus^  lan- 
guage," in  opposition  to  the  Ay-amcean?  There  was 
nothing  in  the  Babylonian  captivity  to  give  it  the  name 
if  it  had  it  not  before,  nor  is  there  a  single  earlier  in- 
stance— Isa.  xix,  18  might  have  furnished  one — of  ««?/ 
name  given  to  the  language  spoken  by  all  the  Israel- 
ites, and  which,  in  later  times,  was  called  Hebrew : 
'£/3pai(7ri,  Prolog.  Ecclus. ;  Luke  xxiii,  38 ;  John  v,  2, 
etc.)  ^S">:jw  rx  ":2'n,  2  Kings  xxv,  C.  (Frequent  in 
Jer.  iv,  12 ;  xxxix,  o,  etc.)  Theod.  Parker  adds  i^HS 
(see,  too,  Thenius,  TiM.  §  G),  1  Kings  x,  l.i;  xx,  24;'  2 
Kings  xviii,  24,  on  the  presumption,  probably,  of  its  be- 
ing of  Persian  derivation ;  but  the  etymologj'  and  ori- 
gin of  the  word  are  (juite  uncertain,  and  it  is  repeatedly 
used  in  Jer.  li,  as  well  as  Isa.  xxxvi,  9.  With  better 
reason  might  X"12  have  been  adduced,  1  Kings  xii,  33. 
The  expression  ^Hitl  "12",  in  1  Kings  iv,  24,  is  also  a 
difficult  one  to  form  an  impartial  opinion  about.  It  is 
doubtful,  as  De  "Wette  admits,  whether  the  phrase  nec- 
essarily implies  its  being  used  by  one  to  the  east  of  the 
Euphrates,  because  the  use  varies  in  Numb,  xxxii,  19; 
xxxv,  14;  Josh,  i,  14  sq. ;  v,  1;  xii,  1,  7;  xxii,  7;  1 
Cliron.  xxvi,  30;  Dent,  i,  1,  5,  etc.  It  is  also  conceiva- 
ble that  the  ]>hrase  might  be  used  as  a  mere  geograph- 
ical designation  by  those  who  belonged  to  one  of  "  the 
provinces  beyond  the  river''  suliject  to  Bab\-lou ;  and,  at 
the  time  of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  Juda>a  had 
been  such  a  province  for  at  least  23  years,  and  probalily 
longer.  We  may  safely  alfirm,  therefore,  that,  on  the 
wliole,  the  peculiarities  of  diction  in  these  hooks  do  not 
indicate  a  time  after  the  captivity,  or  towards, the  close 
of  it,  but,  on  the  contrary,  point  pretty  distinctly  to  the 
age  of  Jeremiah.  It  may  be  added  that  the  marked 
and  systematic  differences  between  the  l.inguage  of 
Chronicles  and  tliat  of  Kings,  taken  with  the  fact  that 


j  all  attempts  to  prove  the  Chronicles,  in  the  main,  later 
1  than  Ezra,  have  utterly  failed,  lead  to  the  same  conclu- 
sion.    (See  many  examples  in  jMovers,  p.  200  sq.) 

2.  Other  peculiar  or  rare  expressions  in  these  books 
are  the  proverbial  ones :  "(""pS  'j'^Pld'?,  found  only  in 
them  and  in  1  Sam.  xxv, 22, 34;  "slept  with  his  fathers." 
"  him  that  dieth  in  the  city  the  dogs  shall  eat "  etc.  • 
^X  n-rr;;'  ns,  l  Kings  ii,  23,  etc.;  also  rflp,  1  Kings 
i,  41,  45;  elsewhere  only  in  poetry  and  in  tlie  composi- 
tion of  proper  names,  except  Dent,  ii,  3G;  Thn,  i,  9. 
Also  the  following  isolated  terms:  D'^'ia'ia,  "fowl,"  iv, 
23 ;  nins,  "  stalls,"  V,  G ;  2  Chron.  Lx,  25 ';  C^  n^rtl,  v, 
13 ;  ix,  15,  21 ;  "B'5, "  a  stone-quarry"  (Gesenius),  vi,  7; 
■^2?^,  vi,  17 ;  "iPinb,  19 ;  ti^t'^^'B  and  nis^'?,  "wild  cu- 
cumbers," vi,  18 ;  vii,  24 ;  2  Kings  iv,  39 ;  tTip^,  x,  28  ; 
the  names  of  the 'months,  D":rx,  viii,  2 ;  1",  ^^13,  vi,  37, 
38 ;  X'12,  "  to  invent,"  xii,  33 ;  Neh.  vi,  8,  in  both  cases 
joined  with  2^":  ;  T'^hz^,  '•  an  idol,"  xv,  13 ;  ^(^2  and 
"T^ran,  followed  by  •'t?nN,  "to  destroy,"  xiv,  10;  xvi, 
3;  xxi,  21;  ti'^'^'^'l, '■•joints  of  the  armor,"  xxii,  34; 
J'^O,  "a  pursuit,"  xviii,  27;  IrtS,  "to  bend  one's  self," 
xviii,  42 ;  2  Kings  iv,  34,  35 ;  DSU,  "  to  gird  up,"  xviii, 
40 ;  'nES.  "  a  head-band,"  xx,  38,  42 ;  pSlb,  "  to  suiRce," 
XX,  10  ;  Ilbn,  inicert.  signif.,  xx,  33 ;  tir^lb'O  flC", "  to 
reign,"  xxi,  7;  in'^n'3^,  "a  dish,"  2  Kings  ii,  20;  ubt, 
"  to  fold  up,"  ib.  8 ;  "IJ^IS,  "  a  herdsman,"  iii,  4  ;  Amos  i, 
1;  tj'l&N,  "an  oil-cup,"  iv,  2;  PX  Tin,  "  to  have  a  caTG 
for,"  13;  l^^t,  "to  sneeze,"  35;  'ibp:?,  "a  bag,"  42; 
U"!"".!!,  "  a  money-bag,"  v,  23 ;  niinr,  "  a  camp"  (?), 
vi,  8;  .TIS,  "a  feast,"  23  ;  Cipin?,  "  descending,"  9  ; 
2p," a  cab,"  25;  C]"i;ii  I'nri, " dove's  dimg,"ib.;  "i22p, 
perhaps  "  a  fly-net,"  viii,  15 ;  CiJ  (in  sense  of  "  self,"  as 
i:i  Chald.  and  Samar.),  ix,  13:  "1^2^, "a  heap,"  x,  8; 
nnrib'^,  "a  vestry,"  22;  (IXiri";,  "a  draught-house," 
27;  1-12,  "Cherethites,"  xi,  4,  19,  and  2  Sam.  xx,  23 
(kethib);  ttS^,  "a  keeping  off,"  xi,  G;  "12'2,  "an  ac- 
quaintance," xii,  6;  the  form  ^T^,  from  tlT',  "to  shoot," 
xiii,  17;  ri"12"i"lMil  "132,  "hostages,"  xiv,  14;  2  Chron. 
xxv,  24;  f'^'C'EHrl  ri"'2,  "sick-house,"  XV,  5;  2  Chron. 
xxvi,  21 ;  '2p,  "  before,"  xv,  10  ;  p"^."  w^I'1,  "  Damascus," 
xvi,  10  (perhaps  only  a  false  reading);  rSlJ"!'^.  "a 
pavement,"  xvi,  17;  Tir^"^  or  tjB'''?. "a  covered  way," 
xvi,  18;  XSn,  in  Piel  "to  do  secretly," xvii,  9;  iT^-rX, 
Avith  '^,  10,  only  besides  Deut.  vii,  5,  IMic.  v,  14 ;  X'13, 
i.  q.  n'n:,  xvii,  21  (kethib) ;  n'^i'Tci",  "  Samaritans," 
29 ;  'rrcn?,  "  Nehustan,"  xviii^4  ;  ti:";X, "  a  piUar,"  10  ; 
nw"i2  ilw",  "  to  make  peace,"  31 ;  Isa.  xxxvi,  10 ; 
^■^no, "  that  which  grows  up  the  third  year,"  xix,  29 ; 
Isa.  xxxvii,  30;  VZi  ^,"^2,  "  treasure-house,"  xx,  13; 
Isa.  xxxix,  2;  n3T^'!3,part  of  Jerusalem  so  called,  xxi, 
14;  Zeph.  i,  10;  Neh.  xi,  9;  ri'l^"?,  "signs  of  the  zo- 
diac," xxiii,  5;  ^TIQ,  "a  suburb,"  xxiii,  11;  £"^2?, 
"ploughmen,"  xxv,  12  (kethib);  XSd  for  |-;i"w\"to 
change,"  xxv,  9;  rts^Xfor  ^=''X,2  Kings  vi,13;  !^"5"=X, 
"meat,"l  Kings  xix,  8;  C"i3"2bN;,  "almug  trees,"  1 
I'Lings  X,  11,  12;  ^t^^,  "to  stretch  one's  self,"  1  Kings 
xviii,  42 ;  2  Kings  iv,  34, 35  ;  "IBN,  a  "  turban"  ("  ashes"), 
1  Kings  xx.38,41;  niia^,  "floats,"  1  Kings  v, 9;  t'^lj^, 
"chambers,"  1  Kings  vi,  5,  0,  10;  rt2"'C,  "  clay,"  1 
Kings  vii,  46 ;  ''"CJS,  "debt,"  2  Kings  iv,  7 ;  ID,  "  heavy," 
1  Kings  XX,  43;  xxi,  4,  5;  T'nPS,  "chapiter,"  only  in 
Kings,  Chronicles,  and  Jeremiah;  rn"l^T"2,  "snuffers," 
only  in  Kings,  Chronicles,  and  Jeremiah ;  n^irr, "  base," 


KINGS 


95 


KINGS 


only  in  Kliigs,  Chronicles,  Jeremiah,  and  Ezra.  To  these 
may  be  added  the  architectural  terms  in  1  Kings  vi,  vii, 
and  the  names  of  foreign  idols  in  2  Kings  xvii.  The 
general  character  of  the  language  is  most  distinctly  that 
of  the  time  before  the  Babylonian  captivity. 

VI.  Variations  in  the  Septuaf/iitt. — These  are  verj^  re- 
markable, and  consist  of  transpositions,  omissions,  and 
some  considerable  additions,  of  all  which  Thenius  gives 
some  useful  notices  in  his  Introduction  to  the  book  of 
Kings. 

1.  The  most  important  transpositions  are  the  history 
of  Shimei's  death,  1  Kings  ii,  3(3-46,  which  in  the  Sept. 
(Cod.  Vat.)  comes  after  iii,  1,  and  divers  scraps  from  ch. 
iv,  v,  and  ix,  accompanied  by  one  or  two  remarks  of  the 
translators.  The  sections  1  Ivings  iv,  20-25,  2-0,  2G,  21, 
1,  are  strung  together  and  precede  1  Kings  iii,  2-28,  but 
many  of  them  are  repeated  again  in  their  proper  places. 
Tlie  sections  1  Kings  iii,  1,  ix,  16, 17,  are  strung  togeth- 
er, and  placed  between  iv,  34  and  v,  1.  The  section  1 
Kings  vii,  1-12,  is  placed  after  vii,  51.  Section  viii,  12, 
13,  is  placed  after  53.  Section  ix,  15-22,  is  placed  after 
X,  22.  Section  xi,  43,  xii,  1,  2,  3,  is  much  transposed 
and  confused  in  Sept.  xi,  43,  44,  xii,  1-3.  Section  xiv, 
1-21,  is  placed  in  the  midst  of  the  long  addition  to  Chron. 
xii  mentioned  below.  Section  xxii,  42-50,  is  placed 
after  xvi,  28.  Chap,  xx  and  xxi  are  transposed.  Sec- 
tion 2  Kings  iii,  1-3,  is  placed  after  2  Kings  i,  18. 

2.  The  omissions  are  few.  Section  1  Kings  vi,  11-14, 
is  entirely  omitted,  and  37,  38  are  only  slightly  alluded 
to  at  the  opening  of  chap.  iii.  The  erroneous  clause  1 
Kings  XV,  6,  is  omitted ;  and  so  are  the  dates  of  Asa's 
reign  in  xvi,  8  and  15 ;  and  there  are  a  few  verbal  omis- 
sions of  no  consequence. 

3.  The  chief  interest  lies  in  the  additions,  of  wjiich 
the  principal  are  the  following.  The  supposed  mention 
of  a  fountain  as  among  Solomon's  works  in  the  Temple 
in  the  passage  after  1  Kings  ii,  35;  of  a  paved  cause- 
way on  Lebanon,  iii,  46;  of  Solomon  pointing  to  the 
sun  at  the  dedication  of  the  Temple,  before  he  uttered 
the  prayer,  "  The  Lord  said  he  would  dwell  m  the  thick 
darkness,"  etc.,  viii,  12,  13  (after  53,  Sept.),  with  a  ref- 
erence to  the  i3ifi\iov  r»)c  voijg,  a  passage  on  which 
Thenius  relies  as  proving  that  the  Alexandrian  had  ac- 
cess to  original  documents  now  lost;  the  information 
that  '■  Joram  his  brother"  perished  with  Tibni,  xvi,  22 ; 
an  additional  date  "  in  the  twenty-fourth  j-ear  of  Jero- 
boam," XV,  8 ;  numerous  verbal  additiong,  as  xi,  29,  xvii, 
1,  etc.;  and,  lastly,  the  long  passage  concerning  Jero- 
boam, the  son  of  Nebat,  inserted  between  xii,  24  and  25. 
There  are  also  many  glosses  of  the  translator,  explana- 
tory, or  necessary  in  consequence  of  transpositions,  as  1 
Kings  ii,  35,  viii,  1,  xi,  43,  xvii,  20,  xix,  2,  etc.  Of  the 
above,  from  the  recapitulatory  character  of  tlie  passage 
after  1  Kings  ii,  35,  containing  in  brief  the  sura  of  the 
things  detailed  in  vii,  21-23,  it  seems  far  more  probable 
that  KPHNHN  TH2  A1AH2  is  only  a  corruption  of 
KPINON  TOY  AIAAM,  there  mentioned.  The  ob- 
scure passage  about  Lebanon  after  iii,  46  seems  no  less 
certainly  to  represent  what  in  the  Heb.  is  ix,  18,  19,  as 
appears  by  the  triple  concurrence  of  Tadmor,  Lebanon, 
and  Si'vafTTniiiara,  representing  in3'j''a'2.  The  strange 
mention  of  the  sim  seems  to  be  introduced  by  the  trans- 
lator to  give  significance  to  Solomon's  mention  of  the 
house  which  he  had  built  for  (iod,  who  had  said  he 
would  dwell  in  the  thick  darkness;  not  therefore  under 
the  unveiled  light  of  the  sun ;  and  the  reference  to  "  the 
book  of  song"  can  surely  mean  nothing  else  than  to 
point  out  that  the  passage  to  which  Solomon  referred 
was  Psa.  xcvii,  2.  Of  the  other  additions,  the  mention 
of  Tibni's  brother  Joram  is  the  one  which  has  most  the 
semblance  of  an  historical  fact,  or  makes  the  existence 
of  any  other  source  of  history  probable.  See,  too,  1 
Kings  XX,  19 ;  2  Kings  xv,  25. 

There  remains  only  the  long  passage  about  Jeroboam. 
That  this  account  is  onh'-  an  apocrj'phal  version,  made 
up  of  tlie  existing  materials  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures, 
after  the  maimer  of  1  Esdras,  Bel  and  the  Dragon,  the 


apocryphal  Esther,  the  Targums,  etc.,  may  be  inferred 
on  the  following  grounds.  The  framework  of  the  story 
is  given  in  the  very  words  of  the  Hebrew  narrative,  and 
that  very  copiously,  and  the  new  matter  is  only  worked 
in  here  and  there.  Demonstrably,  therefore,  the  Hebrew 
account  existed  when  the  Greek  one  was  framed,  and 
was  the  original  one.  The  principal  new  facts  intro- 
duced, the  marriage  of  Jeroboam  to  the  sister  of  Shi- 
sliak's  wife,  and  his  request  to  be  permitted  to  return,  is 
a  manifest  imitation  of  the  story  of  Iladad.  The  mis- 
placement of  the  story  of  Aljijah's  sickness,  and  the  visit 
of  Jeroboam's  wife  to  Ahijah  the  Shilonite,  makes  the 
whole  history  out  of  keeping — the  disguise  of  the  queen, 
the  rebuke  of  Jeroboam's  idolatry  (which  is  accordingly 
left  out  from  Ahijah's  prophecy,  as  is  the  mention  at  v, 
2  of  his  having  told  Jeroboam  he  should  be  king),  and 
the  king's  anxiety  about  the  recoverj'  of  his  son  and 
heir.  The  embellishments  of  the  storj',  Jeroboam's 
chariots,  the  amplification  of  Ahijah's  address  to  Ano, 
the  request  asked  of  Pharaoh,  the  new  garment  not 
icashed  in  water,  are  precisely  such  as  an  embellisher 
would  add,  as  we  may  see  by  tlie  apocryphal  books  above 
cited.  Then  the  fusing  down  the  three  Hebrew  names, 
fTT^li,  n"^^:i,  and  n:i"ltn,  into  one,  Hapipa,  thus  giv- 
ing the  same  name  to  the  mother  of  Jeroboam,  and  to 
the  city  where  she  dwelt,  shows  how  comparatively 
modern  the  story  is,  and  how  completely  of  Greek 
growth.  A  yet  plainer  indication  is  its  confounding 
the  Shemaiah  of  1  Ivings  xii,  22  with  Shemaiah  the 
Nehelamite  of  Jer.  xxix,  24,  31,  and  putting  Ahijah's 
prophecy  into  his  mouth ;  for,  beyond  all  question, 
'F.v\a^i  (1  Kings  xii)  is  only  another  form  of  Ai'Aw^iDje 
(Jer.  xxxvi,  24,  Sept.).  Then,  again,  the  story  is  self- 
contradictory  ;  for,  if  Jeroboam's  child  Abijam  was  not 
born  till.a  year  or  so  ai'ter  Solomon's  death,  how  coidd 
"  any  good  thing  toward  the  Lord  God  of  Israel"  have 
been  found  in  him  before  Jeroboam  became  king?  The 
one  thing  in  the  story  that  is  more  like  truth  than  the 
Hebrew  narrative  is  the  age  given  to  Eehoboam,  six- 
teen years,  which  may  have  been  preserved  in  the  MS. 
which  the  writer  of  this  romance  had  before  him.  The 
calling  Jeroboam's  mother  yvv))  Tropvt]  instead  of  yvi») 
X'lpn  was  probably  accidental. 

On  the  whole,  then,  it  appears  that  the  great  varia- 
tions in  the  Sept.  contribute  little  or  nothing  to  the  elu- 
cidation of  the  history  contained  in  these  books,  nor 
much  even  to  the  text.  The  Hebrew  text  and  arrange- 
ment is  not  in  the  least  shaken  in  its  main  points,  nor 
is  there  the  slightest  cloud  cast  on  the  accuracy  of  the 
history,  or  the  truthfulness  of  the  prophecies  contained 
in  it.  But  these  variations  illustrate  a  characteristic 
tendency  of  the  Jewish  mind  to  make  interesting  por- 
tions of  the  Scriptures  the  groundwork  of  separate  re- 
ligious tales,  which  they  altered  or  added  to  according 
to  their  fancy,  without  any  regard  to  liistory  or  chro- 
nology, and  in  which  they  exercised  a  peculiar  kind  of 
ingenuity  in  working  up  the  Scripture  materials,  or  in 
inventing  circumstances  calculated,  as  they  thought,  to 
make  the  main  history  more  probable.  The  story  of 
Zerubbabel's  answer  in  1  Esdras  about  truth,  to  prepare 
the  way  for  his  mission  by  Darius ;  of  the  discovery  of 
the  imposture  of  Bel's  priests  by  Daniel,  in  Bel  and  the 
Dragon ;  of  Mordecai's  dream  in  the  apocryphal  Esther, 
and  the  paragraph  in  the  Talmud  inserted  to  connect  1 
Kings  xvi,  34  with  xvii,  1  (Smith's  Sac?:  Ann.  ii,  421), 
are  instances  of  this.  The  reign  of  Solomon,  and  the 
remarkable  rise  of  Jeroboam,  were  not  unlikely  to  exer- 
cise this  propensity  of  the  Hellenistic  Jews.  It  is  to 
the  existence  of  such  works  that  the  variations  in  the 
Sept.  account  of  Solomon  and  Jeroboam  may  most  prob- 
ably be  attributed. 

VII.  Another  feature  in  the  literary  condition  of  our 
books  must  be  noticed,  viz.,  that  the  compiler,  in  arran- 
ging his  materials,  and  adopting  the  very  words  of  the 
documents  used  by  him,  has  not  always  been  careful  to 
avoid  the  appearance  of  contradiction.  Thus  the  men- 
tion of  the  staves  of  the  aiji  remaining  ui  their  place 


KINGS 


96 


KINGS 


"unto  tliis  day"  (I  Kings  viii,  8)  does  not  accord  with 
the  account  of  the  destruction  of  tlie  Temple  (2  Kings 
XXV,  !')•  i  lie  mention  of  Elijah  as  the  only  prophet  of 
the  Lord  left  (1  Ivings  xviii,  22;  xix,  10)  has  an  ap- 
pearance of  disagreement  with  xx,  13,28,35,  etc.,  though 
xviii,  4,  xix,  18  supply,  it  is  true,  a  ready  answer.  In 
1  Kings  xxi,  13  only  Naboth  is  mentioned,  while  in  2 
Kings  ix,  2(3  his  sons  are  added.  The  prediction  in  1 
Kings  xix,  15-17  has  no  perfect  fulfilment  in  the  fol- 
lowing chapters.  1  Kings  xxii,  38  does  not  seem  to  be 
a  fulfilment  of  xxi,  ID.  The  declaration  in  1  Kings  ix, 
22  does  not  seem  in  harmony  with  xi,  28.  There  are 
also  some  smgular  repetitions,  as  1  Kings  xiv,  21  com- 
pared with  31 ;  2  Kings  ix,  29  with  viii,  25;  xiv,  15,  16, 
with  xiii,  12,  13.  But  it  is  enough  just  to  have  point- 
ed these  out,  as  no  real  difficulty  can  be  found  in  them. 
VIII.  As  regards  the  sources  of  wformation,  it  may 
truly  lie  said  that  in  the  books  of  Kings  Ave  have  the 
narrative  of  contemporary  writers  throughout.  It  has 
already  been  observed  [see  Chronicles]  that  there  was 
a  regular  series  of  state  annals  both  for  the  kingdom  of 
Judah  and  for  that  of  Israel,  which  embraced  the  whole 
time  comprehended  in  the  books  of  Kings,  or  at  least  to 
the  end  of  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim  (2  Kings  xxiv,  5). 
These  annals  are  constantly  cited  by  name  as  "  the  Book 
of  the  Acts  of  Solomon"  (1  Kings  xi,  41) ;  and,  after  Sol- 
omon, "  the  Book  of  the  Clironicles  of  the  kings  of  Ju- 
dah, or  Israel"  (e.  g.  1  Kings  xiv,  29 ;  xv,  7 ;  xvi.  5, 14, 
20;  2  Kings  X,  34;  xxiv,  5,  etc.) ;  and  it  is  manifest  that 
the  author  of  Kuigs  had  them  both  before  him  while  he 
drew  up  his  history,  in  which  the  reigns  of  the  U\o  king- 
doms are  harmonized,  and  these  annals  constantly  ap- 
pealed to.  (Similar  phraseology  is  used  in  Esther  x,  2, 
vi,  1,  to  denote  the  official  annals  of  the  Persian  empire. 
Public  documents  are  spoken  of  in  the  same  way  in  Neh. 
xii,  23).  But,  in  addition  to  these  national  annals,  there 
were  also  extant,  at  the  time  that  the  books  of  Kings 
Avere  compiled,  separate  works  of  the  several  prophets 
M'ho  had  lived  in  Judah  and  Israel,  and  which  probably 
bore  the  same  relation  to  the  annals  as  the  historical 
parts  of  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  bear  to  those  portions  of 
the  annals  preserved  in  the  books  of  Kings,  i.  e.  were,  in 
some  instances  at  least,  fuUer  and  more  copious  accounts 
of  the  current  events,  by  the  same  hands  which  drew  up 
the  more  concise  narrative  of  the  annals,  though  in  oth- 
ers perhaps  mere  duplicates.  Thus  the  acts  of  Uzziah, 
Anitten  by  Isaiah,  Avere  very  likely  identical  for  sub- 
stance with  the  history  of  his  reign  in  the  national 
chronicles ;  and  part  of  the  history'  of  Hezekiah  we  know 
was  identical  in  the  chronicles  and  in  the  prophet.  The 
chapter  in  Jeremiah  relating  to  the  destruction  of  the 
Temple  (ch.  lii)  is  identical  with  that  in  2  Kings  xxiv, 
XXV.  In  later  times  some  have  sujiposed  that  a  chap- 
ter in  the  projjhecies  of  Daniel  was  used  for  the  national 
chronicles,  and  appears  as  Ezra  i.  (Comp.  also  2  Kings 
xvi,  5  with  Isa.  vii,  1 ;  2  Kings  xviii,  8  with  Isa.  xiv, 
28-32).  As  an  instance  of  verbal  agreement,  coupled 
with  greater  fulness  in  the  prophetic  account,  see  2 
Kings  XX  compared  with  Isa.  xxxviii,  in  which  latter 
alone  is  Ilezekiah's  u-riting  given. 

These  other  works,  then,  as  far  as  the  memorj'  of  them 
has  been  preser\-ed  to  us,  were  as  follows  (see  Keil's 
Apuloff.  Vers.).  For  the  time  of  David,  the  book  of 
Samuel  the  seer,  the  book  of  Nathan  the  prophet,  and 
the  book  of  Gad  the  seer  (2  Sam.  xxl-xxiv  with  1  Kings 
i,  being  probably  extracted  from  Nathan's  book),  which 
seem  to  have  been  collected — at  least  that  portion  of 
them  relating  to  David — into  one  work  called  "the  Acts 
of  David  the  king"  (1  Chron.  xxix,  29).  For  the  time  of 
Solomon,  "  the  Hook  of  the  Acts  of  Solomon"  (1  Kings 
xi,  41 ),  consisting  probably  of  parts  of  the  "  Book  of  Na- 
than the  prophet,  the  prophecy  of  Ahijah  the  Shilon- 
itc,  and  the  visions  of  Iddo  the-scer"  (2  Chron.  ix,  29). 
For  the  time  of  Kehoboam, "  the  words  of  Shemaiah  the 
projjhet,  and  of  Iddo  the  seer  concerning  genealogies" 
(2  Chron.  xii,  15).  For  the  time  of  Abijah,  "  the  storj' 
(d'^l^a)  of  the  prophet  Iddo"  (2  Chron.  xiii,  22).    For 


the  time  of  Jehoshaphat, "  the  words  of,Tehu,the  son  of 
Hanani"  (2  Chron.  xx,34).  For  the  time  of  Uzziah, "  the 
writings  of  Isaiah  the  prophet"  (2  Chron.  xxvi,  22).  For 
the  time  of  Hezekiah,  "  the  vision  of  Isaiah  the  prophet, 
the  son  of  Amoz"  (2  Chron.  xxxii,  32).  For  the  time 
of  JNIanasseh,  a  book  called  "  the  saymgs  of  the  seers,"  as 
the  A.^^.,  following  the  Sept.,Yidg.,  Kimchi,  etc.,  rightly 
renders  the  passage,  in  accordance  with  ver.  18  (2  Chron. 
xxxiii,  19),  though  others,  following  the  grammar  too 
servilely,  make  Chozai  a  proper  name,  because  of  the 
absence  of  the  article.  For  the  time  of  Jeroboam  II,  a 
prophecy  of  "Jonah,  the  son  of  Amittai  the  prophet,  of 
Gath-hepher,"  is  cited  (2  Kings  xiv,  25) ;  and  it  seems 
likely  that  there  were  books  containing  special  histories 
of  the  acts  of  EUjah  and  Elisha,  seeing  that  the  times 
of  these  prophets  are  described  with  such  copiousness. 
Of  the  latter  Gehazi  might  well  have  been  the  author, 
to  judge  from  2  Kings  viii,  4, 5,  as  Elisha  himself  might 
have  been  of  the  former.  Possibly,  too,  the  prophecies 
of  Azariah,  the  son  of  Oded,  in  Asa's  reign  (2  Chro:(.  xv, 
1),  and  of  Hanani  (2  Chron.  xvi,  7)  (unless  this  latter  is 
the  same  as  Jehu,  son  of  Hanani,  as  Oded  is  juit  for  Az- 
ariah in  XV,  8),  and  Micaiah,  the  son  of  Imlah,  in  Ahab's 
reign;  and  Eliezer,  the  son  of  Dodavah,  in  Jehosha- 
phat's;  and  Zechariah,  the  son  of  Jehoiada,  in  Jeho- 
ash's ;  and  Oded,  in  Pekah's ;  and  Zechariah,  in  Uzziah's 
reign ;  of  the  prophetess  Huldah,  in  Josiah's,  and  oth- 
ers, may  have  been  preserved  in  writing,  some  or  all  of 
them.  These  works,  or  at  least  many  of  them,  must 
have  been  extant  at  the  time  when  the  books  of  Kings 
were  compiled,  as  they  certainly  were  extant  much  later 
when  the  books  of  Chronicles  were  put  together  by 
Ezra.  But  whether  the  author  vised  them  all,  or  only 
those  duplicate  portions  of  them  which  were  embodied 
in  the  national  chronicles,  it  is  impossible  to  say,  seeing 
he  quotes  none  of  them  by  name  except  the  acts  of  Sol- 
omon and  the  prophecy  of  Jonah.  On  the  other  hand, 
we  cannot  infer  from  his  silence  that  these  books  were 
unused  by  him,  seeing  that  neither  does  he  quote  by 
name  the  Vision  of  Isaiah  as  the  chronicler  does,  though 
he  must,  from  its  recent  date,  have  been  familiar  with 
it,  and  seeing  that  so  many  parts  of  his  narrative  have 
every  appearance  of  being  extracted  from  these  books 
of  the  prophets,  and  contain  narratives  which  it  is  not 
likely  would  have  found  a  place  in  the  chronicles  of  the 
kmgs.  See  1  Kings  xiv,  4,  etc. ;  xvi,  1,  etc.,  xi ;  2  Kings 
xvii,  etc. 

With  regard  to  the  work  so  often  cited  in  the  Chron- 
icles as  "  the  Book  of  the  Kings  of  Israel  and  Judah"  (1 
Chron.  ix,  1 ;  2  Chron.  xvi,  11;  xxvii,  7 ;  xxviii,  2G; 
xxxii,  32 ;  xxxv,  27 ;  xxxvi,  8),  it  has  been  thought  by 
some  that  it  was  a  separate  collection  contamiug  the 
joint  histories  of  the  two  kingdoms;  by  others,  that  it 
is  our  books  of  Kings  which  answer  to  this  description ; 
but  by  Eichhom,  that  it  is  the  same  as  the  Clironicles 
of  the  kings  of  Judah  so  constantly  cited  in  the  books 
of  Kings;  and  this  last  opinion  seems  to  be  the  best 
founded.  For  in  2  Chron.  xvi,  11,  the  same  book  is  call- 
ed "  the  Book  of  the  Kings  of  Judah  and  Israel,"  which 
in  the  parallel  passage,  1  Kings  xv,  23,  is  called  "  the 
Book  of  the  Chronicles  of  the  kings  of  Judah."  So, 
again,  2  Chron.  xxvii,  7,  comp.  with  2  Kings  xv,  oG ;  2 
Chron.  xxviii,  2C,  comp.  with  2  Kings  xvi,  19 ;  2  Chron. 
xxxii,  32,  comp.  with  2  Kings  xx,  20;  2  Chron.  xxxv, 
27,  with  2  Kings  xxiii,  28;  2  Chron.  xxxvi,  8,  with  2 
Kings  xxiv,  5.  Moreover,  the  book  so  quoted  refers  ex- 
clusively to  the  affairs  of  Judah;  and  even  in  the  one 
passage  where  reference  is  made  to  it  as  "  the  Book  of 
the  Kings  of  Israel"  (2  Chron.  xx,  34),  it  is  for  the  reign 
of  Jehoshaphat  that  it  is  cited.  Obviously,  therefore,  it 
is  the  same  work  which  is  elsewhere  described  as  the 
Chronicles  of  Israel  cindJudali,  and  of  Judah  and  Israel. 
Nor  is  this  an  unreasonable  title  to  give  to  these  chron- 
icles. Saul,  David,  Solomon,  and  in  some  sense  Heze- 
kiah (2  Chron.  xxx,  1,5,  6),  and  all  his  successors,  were 
kings  of  Israel  as  well  as  of  Judah,  and  therefore  it  is 
very  conceivable  that  in  Ezra's  time  the  chronicles  of 


KINGS 


97 


KINGS 


Judah  sliould  have  acquired  the  name  of  tlie  Book  of 
the  Kings  of  Israel  antl  Judah,  Even  with  regard  to  a 
portion  of  Israel  in  the  days  of  Kehoboani,  the  chroni- 
cler remarks,  apparently  as  a  matter  of  gratulation,ihat 
'•Ivehoboam  reigned  over  them"  (2  Chron.  x,  17);  he 
notices  Abijah's  authority  in  ])ortions  of  the  Israelitish 
territory  (2  Chron.  xiii,  18,  It) ;  xv,  8,  9) ;  he  not  un- 
frequently  speaks  of  Israel,  when  the  kingdom  of  Judah 
is  the  matter  in  hand  (as  2  Chron.  xii,  1 ;  xxi,  4 ;  xxiii, 
2,  etc."),  and  even  calls  Jehoshaphat  '■  king  of  Israel"  (2 
Chron.  xxi,  2),  and  distinguishes  '-Israel  and  Judah" 
from  '-Ephraim  and  ^Nlanasseh"  (xxx,  1);  he  notices 
Ilezekiah's  authority  from  Dan  to  Beersheba  (2  Chron. 
xxx,  5).  and  Josiah's  destruction  of  idols  througliout  all 
the  land  of  Israel  (xxxiv.  6-9),  and  his  Passover  for  all 
Israel  (xxxv,  17, 18),  and  seems  to  parade  the  title  "/ti«^ 
of  Israel"  in  connection  with  David  and  Solomon  (xxxv, 
3, 4),  and  the  relation  of  the  Levites  to  "  all  Israel"  (ver. 
3) ;  and  therefore  it  is  only  in  accordance  with  the  feel- 
ing displayed  in  such  passages  that  the  name,  '•  the  Book 
of  the  Kings  of  Israel  and  Judah,"  should  be  given  to 
the  chronicles  of  the  Jewish  kingdom.  The  use  of  this 
term  in  speaking  of  the  '•  kings  of  Israel  and  Judah  who 
^^■ere  carried  away  to  Babylon  for  their  transgression"  (1 
Chron.  ix,  1)  would  be  conclusive  if  the  construction  of 
the  sentence  were  certain.  But  though  it  is  absurd  to 
separate  the  words  '■  and  Judah"  from  Israel,  as  Bertheau 
does  {Kurzgff.  K.ccg.  Ifamlfi.).  following  the  Masoretic 
punctuation,  seeing  that  the  "Book  of  the  Kings  of  Israel 
and  Jitda/r  is  cited  in  at  least  six  other  places  in  Chron- 
icles, still  it  is  possible  that  Israel  and  Judah  might  be 
the  antecedent  to  the  pronoun  understood  before  ^1?.'!^. 
It  seems,  however,  much  more  likely  that  the  antece- 
dent to  -i-rx  is  "nil  "c"!  -"zh-g.  0.1  the  whole,  there- 
fore, there  is  no  evidence  of  the  existence  in  the  time 
of  the  chronicler  of  a  history,  since  lost,  of  the  two  king- 
doms, nor  are  the  books  of  Kings  tlie  work  so  quoted  by 
the  chronicler,  seeing  he  often  refers  to  it  for  "  the  rest 
of  tlie  acts"  of  Kings,  when  he  has  already  given  all  that 
is  contained  in  our  books  of  Kings,  lie  refers,  there- 
fore, to  the  chronicles  of  Judah. 

From  the  above  authentic  sources,  then,  was  compiled 
the  history  in  the  books  under  consideration.     Judging 
from  the  facts  that  we  have  in  2  Kings  xvii,  xix,  xx, 
the  history  of  Hezekiah  in  the  very  words  of  Isaiah, 
xxxvi-xxxix;  that,  as  stated  above,  we  have  several 
]iassages  from  Jeremiah  in  dupUcate  in  2  Kings,  and 
the  whole  of  Jer.  lii  in  2  Kings  xxiv,  18,  etc.,  xxv ;  that 
so  large  a  portion  of  the  books  of  Kings  is  rejieated  in 
the  books  of  Chronicles,  though  the  writer  of  Chronicles  | 
hnd  the  original  Chronicles  also  before  him,  as  well  as  I 
from  the  whole  internal  character  of  the  narrative,  and  j 
even  some  of  the  blemishes  referred  to  under  the  second  j 
head — we  may  conclude  with  certainty  that  we  have  in  ! 
the  books  of  Kings,  not  only  in  the  main  the  history  i 
faithfully  preserved  to  us  from  the  ancient  chronicles,  ! 
but  most  frequently  wliole  passages  transferred  verba-  | 
tim  into  them.     O^'casionally,  no  doubt,  we  have  the  ] 
oomjiiler's  own  comments,  or  reflections  thrown  in,  as  at ! 
2  Kings  xxi,  10-16;  xvii,  10-15;   xiii,  23;  xvii,  7-41,  | 
etc.     We  connect  tlic  insertion  of  the  prophecy  in  1  j 
Kings  xiii  with  the  fact^that  the  compiler  himself  was  i 
an  eye-witness  of  the  fulfdment  of  it,  and  can  even  see 
how  the  u-orJs  ascribed  to  the  old  prophet  are  of  the 
age  of  the  compiler.     We  can  perhaps  see  his  hand  in 
the  frequent  repetition,  on  the  review  of  each  reign,  of 
the  remark, "  The  high  places  were  not  taken  away ;  the 
people  still  sacrificed  and  burnt  incense  on  the  high 
places"  (1  Kings  xxii,  43  ;  2  Kings  xii,  3;  xiv,  4;  xv,  4, 
35;  comp.  1  Kings  iii,  3),  and  in  the  repeated  observa- 
tion that  such  and  such  things,  as  the  staves  by  which 
the  ark  was  borne,  the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes,  the  re- 
bellion of  Edom,  etc.,  continue  "  unto  this  day,"  though 
it  may  be  perhaps  doubted  in  some  cases  whether  these 
words  were  not  in  the  old  chronicle  (2  Chron.  v,  9).     See 
1  Kings  viii,  8 ;  ix,  13  21 ;  x,  12  ;  xii,  19 ;  2  Kings  ii,  22 ; 
v.— G 


viii,  22;  x,  27;  xiii,  23;  xiv,  7;  xvi,  6  ;  xvii,  23,  34,  41 ; 
xxiii,  25.  It  is  remarkable,  however,  that  in  no  instance 
does  the  use  of  this  phrase  lead  us  to  suppose  that  it 
was  penned  after  the  destruction  of  the  Temple  :  in  sev- 
eral of  the  above  instances  the  phrase  necessarily  sup- 
poses that  the  Temple  and  the  kingdom  of  Judah  were 
still  standing.  If  the  phrase,  then,  is  the  compiler's,  it 
proves  him  to  have  written  before  the  Babylonian  cap- 
tivity; if  it  was  a  part  of  the  chronicle  he  was  quoting, 
it  shows  how  exactly  he  transferred  its  contents  bo  his 
own  pages. 

IX.  A  ulhor  and  Date. — The  authorship  and  age  of 
this  historical  treatise  may  admit  of  several  supposi- 
tions. AVhatever  were  the  original  sources,  the  books 
are  evidently  the  composition  of  one  writer.  The  style 
is  generally  uniform  throughout  (Dr.Davidson,  in  IIorne''s 
Infrod.,  new  edit,,  ii,  666  sq.).  The  same  forms  of  ex- 
pression are  used  to  denote  the  same  thing,  e.  g.  the 
male  sex  (1  Ivings  xiv,  10,  etc.) ;  the  death  of  a  king  (1 
Kings  xi,  43,  etc.);  modes  of  allusion  to  the  law  (livings 
xi,  13) ;  fidelity  to  Jehovah  (1  Kings  viii, 63,  etc.;  see 
De  AVette,  Einleit.  §  184,  «  ;  Hilveniick,  Einleit.  §  171). 
Similar  idioms  are  ever  recurring,  so  as  to  produce  a  uni- 
formity of  style  (Hiivernick,  /.  c).     See  §  ii,  above. 

1.  With  regard  to  the  time  when  the  author  lived 
and  wrote  there  are  the  following  arguments : 

(1.)  The  stj'le  and  diction  indicate  the  later  age  of 
the  Hebrew  language,  but  not  the  latest.  Attempts  to 
prove  a  more  modern  date  than  the  middle  of  the  cap- 
ti\-ity  have  signally  failed.  Nearly  all  the  words  which 
De  Wette  and  others  have  selected  (see  §  v,  above)  are 
shown  to  have  been  in  use,  either  by  the  prophets  who 
flourished  before  the  captivity  and  at  its  commence- 
ment, or  by  still  earlier  writers;  but  words  and  phrases 
abound  which  were  in  common  use  by  the  writers  of 
the  concluding  period  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  who  did 
not  go  into  captivity,  especially  by  Isaiah  and  Jereusiah, 
In  this  respect  there  is  a  manifest  difference  liftween 
Kings  and  Chronicles.  Though  neither  work  is  free 
from  Chaldaic  forms,  they  are  rare  in  Kings,  hut  numer- 
ous in  Chronicles.  Their  occurrence  at  all  in  Kings  is 
sufficiently  accounted  for  from  the  contiguity  of  Judah 
to  Syria,  and  from  the  frequent  intercourse  with  Assyria 
which  commerce  and  war  involved. 

(2.)  With  the  evidence  which  the  language  affords, 
the  internal  evidence  of  the  contents  agrees.  The  his- 
tory is  carried  down  to  the  captivity  in  detail ;  and,  by 
way  of  supplement,  to  the  reign  of  Evil-merodach,  king 
of  Babylon.  The  closing  verse  implies  that  the  ^%Titer 
survived  Jehoiachin,  but  gives  no  hint  whatever  of  the 
termination  of  the  captivity,  which  he  surely  would 
have  done  had  he  written  after  the  return  from  Baliylon. 
We  may  therefore  safely  conclude  that  the  work  was 
composed  before  the  end  of  the  captivity,  but  after  the 
twenty-sixth  year  of  its  continuance. 

2.  Calmet  ascribes  the  authorship  to  Ezra;  but  there 
are  no  decided  indications  of  his  authorship,  and  the 
names  Zif  and  Bui  (1  Kings  vi,  1, 37, 38)  were  not  in  use 
after  the  captivity.  The  general  opinion,  however,  that 
Jeremiah  was  the  author  is  adopted  by  Grotius,  Carp- 
zov,  and  others,  and  is  lately  revindicated  b^'  Hiivcr- 
nick,  as  also  by  Graf  {De  lihror.  Sam.  et  Reriiim  composi- 
tione,  p.  61  sq.),  but  is  opposed  by  Kell,  Davidson,  and 
others.  In  fiivor  of  it  are  the  following  strong  argu- 
ments ; 

(1.)  The  work  is  attributed  to  Jeremiah  by  ancient 
tradition.  There  is  a  reference  to  Jeremiah  as  the  au- 
thor in  the  Talmud  (L'aba  Jlathra.  fol.  15,  1),  and  with 
this  notice  the  common  opinion  of  the  Jews  agrees. 

(2.)  The  style  and  language  of  Kings  resemble  those 
of  the  acknowledged  writings  of  Jeremiah.  In  both 
works  there  is  an  unusual  number  of  ii—aE  ^eyi'i^uva; 
and  also  of  words  peculiar  to  each  work,  though  used 
more  than  once.  What  is  still  more  to  the  purpose, 
there  are  words  and  forms  of  words  used  in  both  Avorks, 
but  in  them  only;  as,  p^rjra,  a  -cruse"  (1  Ivings  xiv, 


KINGS 


98 


KINGS 


3,  aiul  Jer.  xix,  1, 10) ;  S;."^,  a  '■  husbandman"  (2  Kings 
XXV,  12 ;  Jer,  lii,  IG ;  and  C^Sa^  Jer.  xxxix,  10) ;  nnn, 
to  "hide,"  used  in  Niphal  only  in  Kings  (1  Kings  xxii, 
25;  2  Kings  vii,  12)  and  in  Jeremiah  (xlix,  10) ;  "i^:^\  to 
"blind,"  used  in  the  sense  of  putting  out  the  eyes  only 
in  2  Kings  xxv,  7,  and  Jer,  xxxix,  7,  and  lii,  11,  etc.  See 
§  V,  above. 

(;5.)  The  habit  of  referring  to  the  Pentateuch,  pointed 
out  as  cliaracteristic  of  the  books  of  Kings,  is  equally  so 
of  Jeremiah ;  and  this  habit  in  both  is  thought  to  be 
accounted  for  on  the  ground  of  the  discovered  copy  of 
the  la^v  in  the  days  of  Josiah,  in  whicli  Jeremiah  took 
great  interest,  traces  of  which  are  discoverable  in  Jer. 
xi,  3-5  (Dent,  xxvii,  2G);  xxxii,  18-21  (Exud.  xx,  G; 
vi,  G) ;  xxxiv,  14  (Deut.  xv,  12).  The  same  general 
spirit  of  solemnity,  the  same  modes  of  thought  and  il- 
lustration, and  the  same  political  principles,  are  thought 
to  mark  the  two  works. 

(4.)  Some  portions  of  Kings  and  of  Jeremiah  are  al- 
most identical,  particularly  2  Kings  xxiv,  18-xxv,  and 
Jer.  lii.  The  two  passages  are  so  much  alike,  though 
diifering  in  some  respects,  as  to  appear  like  two  narra- 
tions of  the  same  event  by  the  same  person,  in  each  of 
which  some  points  arc  related  with  more  fulness  than  in 
the  other,  for  some  particular  purpose.  Parts  of  this 
narrative  are  also  contained  in  nearly  the  same  words  in 
Jer.  xxxix,  1-10 ;  xl,  7-xli,  10. 

(5.)  The  impression  produced  on  the  reader  is  that 
the  writer  of  Kings  was  not  taken  away  into  captivity 
either  in  the  days  of  Jehoiachin  or  of  Zedekiah,  as  the 
writer  of  Chronicles  appears  to  have  been ;  and  this  cir- 
cumstance agrees  with  the  supposition  that  Jeremiah 
was  the  writer.  We  know  tliat,  after  being  carried 
away  as  far  as  Ramah  with  the  captives  from  Jerusa- 
lem, he  was  set  free,  and  permitted  to  retiu-n  to  liis  own 
land  with  Gedaliah.  He  was  afterwards  taken  away  to 
Tahpanhes,  in  Egypt,  where  we  obtain  the  last  certain 
view  of  liim.  Besides  this,  many  other  points  of  agree- 
ment, more  or  less  striking,  present  themselves  to  the 
careful  reader — the  book  of  Jeremiah  serving  more  than 
any  other  part  of  Scriptura  to  illustrate  and  explain  the 
contemporaneous  portions  of  the  Kings,  and  the  events 
recorded  in  Kings  serving  as  a  key  to  many  portions  of 
the  prophet.  In  this  way  a  number  of  undesigned  co- 
incidences appear  between  the  supposed  and  the  ac- 
knowledged writings  of  Jeremiah,  as  the  following : 
2  Kings  xxv,  1-3,  comp.  with  Jer.  xxxviii,  1-9. 
?  Kings  xxv,  11, 12,  lS-21,  "  Jer.  xxxix,  10-14 ;  xl,  1-5. 
2  Kings  xxiv,  13,  "    Jer.  xxvii,  lS-20 ;  xxviii,  3-6. 

2  Kings  xxiv,  14,  "    Jer.  xxiv,  1. 

2  Kings  xxi,  xxii,  xxiii,      "    Jer.  vii,  15 ;  xv,  4  ;  xix,  3. 

(6.)  The  absence  of  all  mention  of  Jeremiah  in  the 
history,  although  he  was  so  prominently  active  in  the 
iour  or  five  last  reigns,  both  in  the  court  and  among 
the  people,  is  only  explicable  on  the  supposition  that 
Jeremiah  was  himself  the  writer.  Had  it  been  the 
work  t)f  another,  he  must,  as  in  Chronicles,  have  had 
very  distinct  mention. 

(7.)  The  events  singled  out  for  mention  in  the  con- 
cise narrative  are  precisely  those  of  which  Jeremiah 
hail  personal  knowledge,  and  in  which  he  took  special 
interest.  The  famine  in  2  Kings  xxv,  3  was  one  which 
had  nearly  cost  Jeremiah  his  life  (Jer.  xxxviii,  9).  The 
capture  of  the  city,  the  flight  and  capture  of  Zedekiah, 
the  Judgment  and  punishnielit  of  Zedekiah  and  his  sons 
at  i;il)lali,  are  related  in  2  Kings  xxv,  1-7,  in  almost 
the  identical  words  which  we  read  in  Jer.  xxxix,  1-7. 
So  are  the  breaking  down  and  burning  of  the  Temple, 
the  king's  palace,  and  tlie  houses  of  the  great  men,  the 
deportation  to  Babylon  of  the  fugitives  and  the  surviv- 
ing inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  aniUIuda-a.  The  intimate 
knowledge  of  what  Xebuzar-adan  did,  both  in  respect 
tt)  those  selected  for  capital  inniishment  and  tliose  car- 
ried away  captive,  and  those  po'or  whom  he  "left  in  the 
land,  displayed  by  the  writer  of  2  Kings  xxv,  11,  12, 
18-21,  is  fully  explained  l)y  Jer.  xxxix,"  10-14,  xl,  1-5. 
■where  we  read  that  Jeremiah  was  actually  one  of  the 


captives  who  followed  Nebuzar-adan  as  far  as  Kamah, 
and  was  very  kindly  treated  by  him.  The  careful  enu- 
meration of  the  pillars  and  of  the  sacred  vessels  of  the 
Temple  which  were  plundered  by  the  ChahUeans  tallies 
exactly  with  the  prediction  of  Jeremiah  concerning 
them  (xxvii,  19-22).  The  paragraph  concerning  the  ap- 
pointment of  Gedaliah  as  governor  of  the  remnant,  and 
his  murder  by  Ishmael,  and  the  flight  of  the  Jews  into 
Egypt,  is  merely  an  abridged  account  of  what  Jeremiah 
tells  us  more  fully  (xl-xliii,  7),  and  are  events  in  which 
personally  he  was  deeply  concerned.  The  writer  in 
Kings  has  nothing  more  to  tell  us  concerning  the  Jews 
or  Chaldees  in  the  land  of  Judah,  which  exactly  agrees 
with  the  hypothesis  that  he  is  Jeremiah,  who  we  know 
was  carried  down  to  Egypt  with  the  fugitives.  In  fact, 
the  date  of  the  writing  and  the  position  of  the  writer 
seem  as  clearly  marked  by  the  termination  of  the  narra- 
tive at  V,  2G,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 
It  may  be  added,  though  the  argument  is  of  less  weight, 
that  the  annexation  of  this  chapter  to  the  writings  of 
Jeremiah  so  as  to  form  Jer.  lii  (with  the  additional 
clause  contained  in  vs.  28-30)  ic  an  evidence  of  a  very 
ancient,  if  not  a  contemporary  belief,  that  Jeremiah  was 
the  author  of  it.  Again,  the  special  mention  of  Scraiah 
the  high-priest,  and  Zephaniah  the  second  priest,  as 
slain  by  Nebuzar-adan  (v,  18),  together  with  three 
other  priests,  is  very  significant  when  taken  in  connec- 
tion with  Jer.  xxi,  1,  xxix,  25-29,  passages  which  show 
that  Zephaniah  belonged  to  the  faction  which  o]iposed 
the  prophet,  a  faction  which  was  headed  by  priests  and 
false  prophets  (Jer.  xxvi,  7,  8,  11,  IG).  Going  back  to 
the  xxivth  chapter,  we  find  in  verse  14  an  enumeration 
of  the  captives  taken  with  Jehoiachin  identical  with 
that  in  Jer.  xxiv,  1 ;  in  verse  13  a  reference  to  the  ves- 
sels of  the  Temple  precisely  similar  to  that  in  Jer.  xxvii, 
18-20,  xxviii,  3,  G,  and  in  verse  3,  4,  a  reference  to  the 
idolatries  and  bloodshed  of  Manasseh  very  similar  to 
those  in  Jer.  ii,  34,  xix,  4-8,  etc.,  a  reference  which  also 
connects  chap,  xxiv  with  xxi,  6, 13-1 G.  In  verse  2  the 
enumeration  of  the  hostile  nations,  and  the  reference  to 
the  prophets  of  God,  point  directly  to  Jer.  xxv,  9,  90,  21, 
and  the  reference  to  Pharaoh-necho  in  verse  7  points  to 
verse  19,  and  to  xlvi,  1-12.  Brief  as  the  narrative  is,  it 
brmgs  out  all  the  chief  points  in  the  political  events  of 
the  time  which  we  know  were  much  in  Jeremiah's 
mind ;  and  yet,  -which  is  exceedingl}^  remarkable,  Jere- 
miah is  never  once  named  (as  he  is  in  2  Chron.  xxxvi, 
12,  21),  although  the  manner  of  the  writer  is  frequently 
to  connect  the  sufferings  of  Judah  with  their  sins  and 
their  neglect  of  the  Word  of  God  (2  Kings  xvii,  13  sq.; 
xxiv,  2,  3,  etc.).  This  leads  to  another  striking  coin- 
cidence between  that  portion  of  the  history  wliich  be- 
longs to  Jeremiah's  times  and  the  writings  of  Jeremiah 
himself.  De  AVctte  speaks  of  the  superficial  character 
of  the  historj'  of  Jeremiah's  times  as  hostile  to  the  the- 
ory of  Jeremiah's  authorship.  Now^,  considering  the 
nature  of  these  annals,  and  their  conciseness,  this  criti- 
cism seems  very  imfounded  as  regards  the  reigns  of  Jo- 
siah, Jehoahaz,  Jehoiachin,  and  Zedekiah.  It  must, 
ho\vever,  be  acknowledged  that,  as  regards  Jchoiakim's 
reign,  and  especially  the  latter  part  of  it,  and  the  way 
in  which  he  came  by  his  death,  the  narrative  is  much 
more  meagre  than  one  would  have  expected  from  a  con- 
temporary writer  living  on  the  spot.  But  exactly  the 
same  paucity  of  information  is  found  in  those  otherwise 
copious  notices  of  contemporary  events  with  which  Jer- 
emiah's prophecies  are  interspersed.  Let  any  one  open, 
e.  g.  Townsend's  Arrangement  or  Geneste's  F'orallel 
Histories,  and  he  will  see  at  a  glance  how  remarkably 
little  light  Jeremiah's  narrative  or  jirophecies  throw 
upon  the  latter  part  of  Jchoiakim's  reign.  The  cause 
of  this  silence  may  be  ditlicult  to  assign,  but,  whatever  it 
was,  whether  absence  from  Jerusalem,  possibly  on  the 
mission  described  in  Jer.  xiii,  or  imprisonment,  or  any 
other  impediment,  it  operated  equally  on  Jcremiali  and 
on  the  writer  of  2  Kings  xxiv.  When  it  is  borne  in 
mind  that  the  writer  of  2  Ivings  was  a  contemporary 


KIXGS 


99 


KING'S  BOOK 


writer,  and,  if  not  Jeremiah,  must  have  had  independent 
means  of  information,  tliis  coiucidence  will  have  great 
weight. 

It  has  been  argued  on  the  other  side — 

(1.)  That  the  concluding  portion  of  the  book  of  Kings 
could  hardly  have  been  written  by  Jeremiah,  unless  we 
suppose  him  to  have  written  it  when  he  was  betAvccn 
eighty  and  ninety  years  old.  To  this  it  may  be  replied 
that  the  last  four  verses,  relative  to  Jehoiachin,  arc 
equally  a  supjilement,  whether  added  by  the  author  or 
by  some  later  hand.  There  is  nothing  impossible  in  the 
supposition  of  Jeremiah  having  survived  till  the  thirty- 
seventh  year  of  Jehoiachin's  captivitj-,  though  he  would 
have  been  between  eighty  and  ninety.  There  is  some- 
thing touching  in  the  idea  of  this  gleam  of  joy  having 
reached  the  prophet  in  his  old  age,  and  of  his  havmg 
f;dded  these  few  words  to  his  long-finished  history  of 
his  nation  (see  Hiivernick,  Ueber  Daniel,  p.  14). 

(2.)  That  the  resemblance  of  style  and  diction  may 
be  accounted  fcjr  on  the  supposition  of  Jeremiah's  famil- 
iarity with  the  ancient  records  to  which  the  writer  of 
Kings  had  access,  while  the  similarity  of  2  Kings  xxiv, 
1-18,  etc.,  and  Jer.  xxxix,  might  arise  from  the  writer 
of  Kings  using  that  portion  of  Jeremiah's  work.  The 
identity  of  Jer.  lii  with  the  same  portion  of  Kings  is 
probably  owing  to  its  being  an  altered  extract  from 
Kings,  appended  as  a  supplement  to  Jeremiah  by  some 
later  hand.  Neither  of  the  suppositions,  however,  se- 
riously militates  against  the  general  authorship  of  Jer- 
emiah as  to  the  book  of  Kings.     See  Jeeejiiah. 

X.  Place  of  these  Boohs  in  the  Canon,  and  References 
to  them  in  the  Neio  Testament. — Their  canonical  author- 
it}'  having  never  been  disputed,  it  is  needless  to  bring 
fonvard  the  testimonies  to  their  authenticity  which  may 
be  found  in  Joscphns,  Eusebius,  Jerome,  Augustine,  etc., 
or  in  Bp.Cosin,  or  any  other  modern  work  on  the  Canon 
of  Scripture.  See  Canon.  They  are  reckoned,  as  has 
already  been  noticed,  among  the  Prophets,  in  the  three- 
fold division  of  the  Holy  Scriptures;  a  position  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  supposition  that  they  were  compiled 
by  Jeremiah,  and  contain  the  narratives  of  the  different 
prophets  in  succession.  They  are  frequently  cited  by 
our  Lord  and  by  the  apostles.  Thus  the  allusions  to 
Solomon's  glory  (Matt,  vi,  29) ;  to  the  queen  of  Sheba's 
visit  to  Solomon  to  hear  his  wisdom  (xii,  42) ;  to  the 
Temple  (Acts  vii,  47,  48) ;  to  the  great  drought  in  the 
days  of  Elijah,  and  tlie  widow  of  Sarepta  (Luke  iv,  25, 
26) ;  to  the  cleansing  of  Naaman  the  Syrian  (ver.  27) ; 
to  the  charge  of  Elisha  to  Gehazi  (2  Kings  iv,  20,  comp. 
with  Luke  x,4) ;  to  the  dress  of  Elijah  (Mark  i,G,  comp. 
with  2  Kings  i,8);  to  the  complaint  of  Elijah,  and  God's 
answer  to  him  (Kom.  xi,3, 4) ;  to  the  raising  of  the  Shu- 
nammite's  son  from  the  dead  (Heb.  xi,  35) ;  to  the  giving 
and  withholding  of  the  rain  in  answer  to  Elijah's  prayer 
(James  v,  17, 18 ;  Rev.  xi,  6)  ;  to  Jezebel  (Kev.  ii,  20) — 
are  all  derived  from  the  books  of  Kings,  and,  with  the 
statement  of  Elijah's  presence  at  the  Transfiguration,  are 
a  striking  testimony  to  their  value  for  the  purjiose  of 
religious  teaching,  and  to  their  authenticity  as  a  portion 
of  the  Word  of  God. 

On  the  M'hole,  then,  in  this  portion  of  the  history  of 
the  Israelitish  people  to  which  the  name  of  the  Books 
of  Kiiu/s  has  been  given,  we  have  (if  we  except  those 
errors  in  numbers  which  arc  either  later  additions  to 
the  original  work,  or  accidental  corruptions  of  the  text) 
a  most  important  and  accurate  account  of  that  people 
during  upwards  of  four  hundred  j'ears  of  their  national 
existence,  delivered  for  the  most  part  by  contemporaiy 
writers,  and  guaranteed  by  the  authority  of  one  of  the 
most  eminent  of  the  Jewish  prophets.  Considering  the 
conciseness  of  the  narrative  and  the  simplicity  of  the 
style,  the  amount  of  knowledge  which  these  books  con- 
vey of  the  characters,  conduct,  and  manners  of  kings  and 
people  during  so  long  a  period  is  tridy  wonderful.  The 
insij;lit  they  give  us  iuto  the  aspect  of  Judah  and  Jeru- 
salem, both  natural  and  artificial,  into  the  reHgious,  mil- 
itary, and  civil  institutions  of  the  people,  their  arts  and 


manufactures,  the  state  of  education  and  learning  among 
them,  their  resources,  commerce,  exploits,  alliances,  the 
causes  of  their  decadence,  and,  finally,  of  their  ruin,  is 
most  clear,  interesting,  and  instructive.  In  a  few  brief 
sentences  we  acquire  more  accurate  knowledge  ol'  the 
affairs  of  Egypt,  Tyre,  Syria,  Assyria,  Babylon,  and  oth- 
er neighboring  nations,  than  had  been  preserved  to  us 
in  all  the  other  remains  of  antiquity  up  to  the  recent 
discoveries  in  hieroglyphical  and  cuneiform  monuments. 
The  synchronisms  with  these,  if  they  create  some  diffi- 
culties, yet  funiish  the  only  real  basis  for  dates  of  these 
contemporaneous  powers ;  and  if  we  are  content  to  read 
accurate  and  truthful  history,  substantially  with  an  ex- 
act though  intricate  net-work  of  chronology,  then  we 
shall  assureilly  find  it  will  abundantly  repay  the  most 
laborious  study  which  we  can  bestow  upon  it. 

But  it  is  for  their  deep  religious  teaching,  and  for  the 
insight  vrhich  they  give  us  into  God's  providential  and 
moral  government  of  the  world,  that  these  books  are 
above  all  valuable.  Books  which  describe  the  wisdom 
and  the  glory  of  Solomon,  and  yet  record  his  fall;  whicli 
make  us  acquainted  with  the  painful  ministry  of  Elijah, 
and  his  translation  into  heaven ;  and  which  tell  iis  how 
the  most  magnificent  temple  ever  built  for  God's  glory', 
and  of  which  he  vouchsafed  to  take  possession  by  a  vis- 
ible symbol  of  his  presence,  was  consigned  to  the  flames 
and  to  desolation  for  the  sins  of  those  who  worshipped 
in  it,  read  us  such  lessons  concerning  both  God  and  man 
as  are  the  best  evidence  of  their  divine  origin,  and  make 
them  the  richest  treasure  to  every  Cliristian  man. 

XI.  Commentaries. — The  following  are  the  exegetical 
helps  specially  on  the  two  books  of  Kings,  to  the  most 
important  of  wliich  we  prefix  an  asterisk :  Ephraem 
Syrus,  Explanatio  (in  Syriac,  in  his  Opjy.  iv,  439) ;  The- 
odoret,  Qucestiones  (in  Greek,  in  his  Ojip.  i,  edit.  Halle, 
17G9);  Procopius  of  Gaza,  Scholia  [including  Chron.] 
(from  Theodoret,  edit.  IMeursius,  Lugd.  Bat.  1620,  4to) ; 
Eucherius  [falsely  attributed  to  him],  Commentcmi  (in 
the  Max.  Bibl.  Vet.  Patr.  vi,  965  sq.) ;  Kashi  [i.  e.  Itab. 
Sol.  Jarchi],  Commentariiis  [Joshua -Kings]  (trans,  by 
Breithaupt,  Gotha,  1714,  4to) ;  Bailolas,  "CJillB  [.Joshua- 
Kings]  (with  Kimchi's  Commentary,  Seira,  1494,  folio; 
and  in  the  Kabbinical  Bibles);  Alscheich,  nX'I'C,  etc. 
[Joshua-Kings]  (Venice,  1601,  foL,  and  later);  Bugen- 
hagen,  A  dnotationes  (Basil.  1525, 8vo) ;  Weller,  Commen- 
tarius  (Francof.  1557,  Norib.  1560,  fol.) ;  Borrhaus,  Com- 
mentarius  [Joshua-Kings]  (Basil.  1557,  folio) ;  Sarcer, 
Commentariiis  (Lips.  1559,  8vo);  Martvr,  Commentarius 
(Tigur.  1666, 1581,  Heidelb.  1599,  fol.)  ;  Strigel,  Commen- 
tarius [Samuel-Chron.]  (Lips.  1583, 1591, fol.);  Serarius, 
Commentaria  [Joshua -Chron.]  (Mogunt,  1609,  1617,  2 
vols,  fol.);  Leonhardt,  Hypomnemata  [Samuel-Chron.] 
(Erfurt,  1608, 1614,  8vo;  Lips.  1610,  4to) ;  De  Mendoza, 
Commentaria  [including  Sam.]  (Lugd.  1622-1631,3  vols, 
fol.);  Sanctius,  Commentarii  [Sam.-Chron.]  (Antwerp, 
1624,  Lugd.  1625,  fol.) ;  Crommius,  lllustrationes  [Kuth- 
Chron.]  (Lovan.  1631,4to) ;  'De.\eT&,  Commentaria  [in- 
clud.  Sam.]  (Lima',  lo35,  i'ol.) ;  *Bonfrere,  Commentaria 
[Sam.-Chron.]  (Toniaci,  1613,  2  vols.  fol. ;  also  with  his 
other  commentaries,  Lugd.  1737);  Caussinus,  Disserta- 
tiones  finclud.  Sam.]  (Par.  1650,  fol. ;  Colon;  1652,  4to) ; 
*Schmidt,  Adnotationes  (Argent.  1697,  4to) ;  Calmet, 
Commcntaire  (Par.  1711,  4to) ;  A  Lapide,  Commentariiis 
[Joshua-Kings]  (Antw.  1718,  fol.);  Brentano  and  De- 
reser,  Erhldrniuj  (F.  a.  31.  1827,  8vo) ;  Tanchur-Jerusa- 
Xdxvix,  Commentarius  [includ.  Sam.]  (from  the  Arabic,  by 
Haarbriickcr,  Lips.  1844,  8vo);  *Keil,  Commentar  (Mos- 
kau,  1846,  8vo;  tr.  Edinb.  1857,  8vo,  different  from  that 
in  Keil  and  Delitzsch's  Commentary)  ;  *Thenius,  Er- 
kldrung  (in  the  Kurzr/ef.  Exer;.  JIdhk:  Lpz.  1849,  8vo) ; 
Schliisser,  Einleitun;/  in  die  Biicher  der  Kvnige  (Halle, 
1861 ,  8vo).  For  monographs  on  particular  passages,  see 
Danz,  Worttrbuch,  p.  555.     See  Co.m.mentarv. 

King's  Book  is  the  name  of  a  book  published  A.D. 
1543,  under  the  sanction  of  Henry  VIII,  entitled  A  nec- 
essary Doctrine  and  Erudition  for  any  Christian  Man. 


KING'S  DALE 


100 


KINGSLEY 


Tlic  people  called  it  the  Kiin/s  J^ool:  in  contradistinc- 
t;!)!i  from  the  work  wliich  I'tirnished  the  basis  for  tlie 
Kin<js  Booh,  and  was  called  the  Bishops'  Book.  This  lat- 
ter was  an  exposition  of  tlie  Apostles'  Creed,  the  Seven 
Sacraments,  the  Ten  Commandments,  the  Pater  Noster, 
and  the  Ave  Maria :  to  these,  in  the  Kiiufs  Book,  was 
subjoined  additional  matter  touching  free  will,  good 
works,  justification,  predestination,  and  purgatory.  A 
ciiraparison,  however,  of  tlie  two  shows  that  in  the 
Kiiu/'s  Book  there  is  a  falling  a^vay  from  the  principles 
of  the  Reformation.     See  Institution  of  a  Cheistian 

King's  Dale  (T(5ari  p'ZV,  E'mek  ham-Me'lek, 
Vit'hn  of  the  Kinf) ;  Sept.  to  TZiCioi'  ruji'  jiaai\(tov,  >'/ 
KoiXuQ  Tov  jSaffiXiung),  a  place  incidentally  mentioned 
in  two  passages  of  Scripture  only.  When  Abraham  was 
returning  with  the  spoil  of  Sodom,  the  king  of  Sodom 
went  out  to  meet  him  "at  the  valley  of  Shaveh,  which 
?■■;  the  kinr/s  dak"  (Gen.  xiv,  17);  and  in  the  narrative 
of  tliG  death  of  Absalom  the  incidental  remark  is  insert- 
ed by  the  historian,  "  Now  Absalom  in  his  lifetime  had 
reared  up  for  himself  a  pillar  which  is  in  the  king's  dale" 
(2  Sam.  xviii,  18).  The  locality  has  usually  been  sup- 
posed to  be  in  the  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat  or  Kidron,  and 
that  the  well-known  monument,  now  called  the  tomb 
of  Absalom,  is  the  pillar  raised  by  that  prince  (Benja- 
min of  Tudela,  in  E  viij  Tnw.  in  Pcd.  p.  84;  IJaumer, 
raldsf.  p.  303;  Barclay,  Citij  of  the  Great  King,  p.  92). 
The  style  of  the  monument,  which  is  of  the  later  Roman 
age,  militates  against  this  theory,  unless  we  suppose 
that  this  structure  merely  represents  the  older  tradition- 
ary site.  See  Absalom's  Tojib.  The  names  given  to 
the  valley,  Einek,  Shaveh,  prove  that  a  "  plain"  or  '•  broad 
valley"  was  meant,  and  not  a  ravine  like  the  Kidron ; 
but  this  would  tolerably  well  apply  to  its  broader  part 
at  the  junction  with  that  of  Hinnom.  See  Jehosha- 
phat, Yallky  of.  Others  locate  the  king's  dale  at 
Bsersheba,  others  at  Lebanon  (Roland,  Palccsf.  p.  357), 
others  near  the  .Jordan  (Stanley,  Jewish  Church,  i,  44). 
But  if  we  identify  Salem  with  Jerusalem,  then  doubt- 
less the  king's  dale  was  close  to  that  city;  and  it  seems 
highl}-  probable  besides  that  Absalom  should  have  raised 
his  memorial  pillar  in  the  vicinity  of  the  capital  (Krafft, 
Die  Topogruphie  Jerusalems,  p.  88).  Still  others  regard 
the  place  as  that  elsewhere  called  the  '•  Valley  of  Reph- 
aim,"  and  now  usually  designated  as  the  Plain  ofBeph- 
(lim.  This  is  on  the  direct  route  from  the  north  to 
Hebron;  a  practicable  road  leads  down  from  it  through 
the  wilderness  to  the  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea ;  and  it  is 
so  close  to  Jerusalem  that  Melchisedec,  from  the  heights 
of  Zion,  could  both  see  and  hear  the  joyous  meeting  of 
the  princes  of  Sodom  with  the  victorious  band  of  Abra- 
ham, and  the  reclaimed  captives  (comp.  Kurtz,  Hist,  of 
the  Old  Covenant,  i,  218;  AVilson,  Lands  of  the  Bible,  i, 
488  ;  Kalisch,  On  Gen.  xiv,  17).  See  Rkimiaim,  Valley 
of.  The  epithet  "King's,"  however,  seems  rather  to 
favor  a  connection  with  the  "king's  garden"  [see  Je- 
rusai.km],  which  lay  near  the  Tool  of  Siloam  (2  Kings 
XXV,  4).     See  Shaveh. 

King's  Evil  is  the  name  in  England  of  a  disease 
which  the  people  believed  their  kings  had  the  power  of 
curing  by  touch.  So  strong  was  the  popular  conviction 
that  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  devised  a  special  form 
of  religious  service  to  be  recited  while  the  king  was 
touching  the  diseased  person.     It  is  as  follows: 

"The  first  gospel  was  exactly  the  same  with  that  on 
Ascension  Bay.  At  the  touching  of  every  infirm  person, 
these  words  wore  repeated,  'They  shall  hiy  their  hands 
on  the  sick,  and  they  shall  recover.'  The  second  gospel 
hoi;;in  at  the  tii-st  of  St.  .John,  and  ended  at  these  words, 
'full  of  grace  and  tnilh.'  At  putting  the  angel  (or  gold) 
about  their  necks,  'That  light  was  the  true  litrht  which 
lights  every  man  that  comelh  into  the  world,'  was  re- 
peated, 

Lord  have  mercy  upon  us. 

Christ  have  merei/  tijion  its. 

Lord  have  merry  upon  us. 

Our  Father  which  art  in  heaven,  hallowed  be  thy  name, 
etc. 

Minister.  O  Lord,  save  thy  servants. 


Ansri^er.  Which  put  their  trust  iu  thee. 
Minister.  Send  unto  them  help  from  above. 
Answer.  And  evermore  mightily  defend  them. 
Minister.  Help  us,  O  God,  our  Saviour. 
Answer.  And  for  the  glory  of  thy  name's  sake  deliver 
us ;  be  merciful  unto  us  sinners,  for  thy  name's  sake. 
Minister.  O  Lord,  hear  our  prayer. 
Answer.  And  let  our  cry  come  unto  thee. 

Tin-;   COLLECT. 

Almighty  God,  the  eternal  health  of  all  such  as  put  their 
trust  iu  thee,  hear  us,  we  beseech  thee,  on  the  behalf  of 
these  thy  servants,  for  whoiji  we  call  for  thy  merciful 
help ;  that  they,  receiving  health,  may  give  thanks  unto 
thee  iu  thy  holy  Church,~throngh  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord. 
Amen. 

The  peace  of  God,  etc." — Hook,  Chureli  Dictionary . 

"The  evidence  which  has  sometimes  been  offered  for 
supposed  miraculous  cures  of  the  king's  evil  is  none  at 
all  ibr  the  miracle,  but  goes  to  prove  that  patients  were 
touched,  and  afterwards  recovered.  SjTnptoms  of  many  ' 
diseases  abate  spontaneously ;  and  especially  in  the  case 
of  scrofula,  a  strong  excitement  of  mind  is  su]iposed  by 
medical  men  to  exert  often  a  reaction  in  the  absorbents. 
The  touch  of  a  hanged  man's  hand  has  been  held  iu  at 
least  equal  repute  for  Scrofula  and  wens,  doubtless  fur  a 
like  reason.  If  Jesus  had  laid  his  hands  on  many  sick 
persons,  and  some  of  them  had  recovered  within  a  week, 
how  different  would  have  been  the  state  of  the  case ! 
(See  Paley  on  tentative  miracles  and  gradual  cures.)  As 
the  reality  of  a  cure  by  the  touch  of  a  ro3-al  hand  cannot 
be  believed  without  the  utmost  degree  of  superstition, 
it  is  probable  that  the  service  was  used  as  a  petition  for 
the  cure,  and  that  the  touching  the  part  affected  was  a 
superstitions  act,  followed  by  a  cure  in  those  cases  iu 
which  the  action  of  the  mind  was  favorable  to  such  an 
effect.  Thus  the  cure  itself  would  be  explicable  from 
natural  causes." 

King's  Garden.     See  Garden. 

King's  Honse.     See  Palace. 

King's  Mother.     See  Queen. 

King's  Mowings.     See  Mowing. 

King's  Pool.     See  Pool. 

King's  Primer.     See  Peijier, 

King's  Sepulchre.     See  Tomb. 

Kingsbury,  Cyrus,  a  noted  American  missionary 
to  the  Indians,  was  born  about  1789.  He  commenced 
his  missionary  labors  about  1816,  and  for  more  than  hfty 
years  faithfully,  quietly,  and  meekly  served  his  INIaster 
in  making  known  to  those  committed  to  his  care  the 
unsearchable  riches  of  Christ.  Kingsbury  died  August, 
1870.  His  influence  among  the  savages  was  great,  and 
few  men  in  any  service  could  be  more  missed.  Among 
the  missionaries  of  this  age,  no  purer  name,  no  lovelier 
character,  has  appeared  than  that  which  belongs  to  Cy- 
rus Kingsbury. 

Kingsbviry,  William,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  born  in  London  July  12, 1744,  and  educated  first  at 
Christ's  Hospital,  London,  and  for  the  ministry  at  the 
educational  institution  for  Congregational  ministers  at 
Mile  End.  where  he  graduated  in  17G4.  He  was  ordained 
in  1765,  and  became  pastor  of  the  Independent  Church  at 
Southampton,  a  position  which  he  most  successfully  filleel 
for  forty-five  years.  In  1772.  in  addition  to  his  pastoral 
duties,  he  established  an  academy  for  the  education  of 
young  men.  In  1787  he  declined  a  position  iu  Homer- 
ton  College.  In  1795  he  was  one  of  the  prime  movers 
iu  founding  the  London  jMissionary  Society,  and  was  the 
first  to  preside  over  its  deliberations.  He  died  at  Cav- 
ersham  Feb.  18,  1818.  He  published  in  1798  An  Apol- 
ogi/for  Village  Preachers,  in  answer  to  an  attack  made 
upon  them.  IMr.  Kingsbury  was  "one  of  the  brightest 
ornaments  of  the  ministerial  character  that  has  graced 
the  Church  of  God  in  modern  times — a  man  of  rare  and 
exalted  worth,  possessed  of  vigor  of  intellect,  sound  crit- 
ical knowledge,  as  well  as  depth  of  piety." — JMorison, 
Missiiinarg  Fiitliirs.      (II.  C.  W.) 

Kingsley,  Calvin,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  bishop  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  was  born  of  Presbyterian 


KINGSLEY 


101 


KINGSLEY 


parentage,  at  Amesville,  Oneida  County,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  8, 
1812.     His  early  advantages  were  rather  moderate,  but 
his  thirst  for  knowledge  made  him  superior  to  circum- 
stances, and  he  secured  whatever  he  could  by  night 
study  and  the  careful  improvement  of  the  intervals  in 
his  workuig  hours,     lie  was  converted  at  the  age  of 
eighteen,  and  avowed  it  at  once  as  his  purpose  to  enter 
the  ministry.     By  teacliing  country  schools  he  saved 
enougli  to  partially  defray  the  expenses  of  a  collegiate 
education,  and  in  1 83(5  entered  Alleghany  College,whence 
he  was  graduated  with  honor  in  the  year  1841,  having 
held  already,  in  his  sophomore  year,  the  appointment  of 
tutor  of  mathematics.    Immediately  after  graduation  he 
was  elected  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  college,  and 
discharged  the  duties  of  that  position  for  .several  years, 
taking  upon  himself  also  the  work  of  preaching ;  he  had 
been  licensed  to  preach  ill  1836.    In  the  year  18-13,  when 
Alleghany  College  was  deprived  of  its  assistance  from 
Pennsylvania  by  an  enactment  withdrawing  all  appro- 
priation from  the  high  schools  of  the  state,  Kingsley, 
then  an  ordained  deacon  in  the  Church,  was  appointed 
agent  "  for  the  peculiarly  arduous  and  thankless  task  of 
raising  funds  for  the  endowment  of  his  college."    About 
this  time,  also,  the  future  bishop  first  came  prominently 
before  the  general  public.     lie  had  early  entertained 
strong  antislavery  predilections,  and  in  18i3  was  led  to 
open  a  public  discussion  with  the  distinguished  preach- 
ers Luther  Lee  (q.  v.)  and  Elias  Smith  (q.  v.),  who  had 
formeil  the  "Wesleyan"  organization  through  disaffec- 
tion at  the  position  assumed  by  the  Jlethodist  Episco- 
pal Church  on  the  subject  of  the  institution  of  slavery. 
In  these  discussions  Kingsley  proved  himself  in  every 
respect  the  equal,  if  not  the  superior,  of  his  antago- 
nists— "  men  by  nature  able,  and  by  practice  trained  to 
the  highest  point  of  effectiveness  b\'  their  zeal  for  truth, 
and  laborious  study  of  the  whole  ground  of  the  contro- 
versy."    From  18-i4  to  1845  he  was  also  regular  pastor 
in  the  city  of  Eric,  where  a  deep  religious  influence  ac- 
companied his  ministrations.    While  here  he  had  a  pub- 
lic discussion  with  a  Universalist  minister,  and  also  pre- 
pared his  lectures  on  Prof.  Bush's  work  on  the  Resurrec- 
tion, which  were  published  afterwards  under  the  title 
Kiiifjdqj  on  the  Besia-rection  (1845,  and  often).    Prefer- 
ring work  in  the  pulpit  to  that  in  the  rostrum,  he  re- 
signed his  place  at  Alleghany  College  in  1846,  but  the 
trustees  refused  to  accept  the  resignation,  and,  at  the 
most  earnest  entreaty  of  many  of  his  friends,  he  was  in- 
duced to  continue  his  college  relations,  even  at  a  consid- 
erable pecuniary  sacrilice.     Besides,  however,  discharg- 
ing the  duties  of  his  chair,  he  continued  to  labor  faith- 
fullv  as  a  preacher  upon  the  adjacent  circuits  and  sta- 
tions.    In  1852  he  was  elected  a  delegate  from  his  Con- 
ference to  the  General  Conference,  ami  not  only  was  he 
at  the  head  of  his  own  Conference  delegation,  but  while 
in  attendance,  though  a  comparative  stranger,  received, 
in  the  election  of  bishops,  some  forty  votes  for  this  distin- 
guished office.     By  the  next  General  Conference  (1856) 
he  was  elected  editor  of  the  Wester-n  Christian  Advocate, 
successor  of  the  celebrated  late  Dr.  Elliott.    In  this  place 
he  displayed  much  editorial  ability,  and  his  paper  be- 
came a  powerful  influence  in  the  West.    In  1860  he  was 
recognised  l)y  the  General  Conference  as  the  leader  of 
the  antislavery  movement,  and  was  chosen  chairman  of 
the  Slavery  Committee,  and  managed  the  (iiscussion  on 
that  subject  with  great  taste.     He  was  at  that  time  re- 
elected editor  of  The  Advocate,  and  at  the  breaking  out 
of  the  war  brought  its  whole  support  to  tlie  aid  of  the 
government.     In  1864,  the  General  Conference,  then  in 
session  at  Philadelphia,  promoted  liim  to  the  high  dis- 
tinction for  which  he  had  been  a  candidate  in  1852,  and 
he  performed  the  duties  of  the  position  until  the  sum- 
mer of  1869,  when  he  took  an  episcopal  tour  around  the 
worlil,  but  died  on  his  way  homeward  at  Beirut,  Syria, 
April  6, 1870.    '-As  a  bishop, he  met  the  highest  expec- 
tatum  of  the  Church.     In  the  chair  his  decisions  were 
clear  and  exact.     In  making  tlie  ajtpointments  he  man- 
ifested great  sympatliy  for  the  preachers  and  devotion 


to  the  interests  of  the  Chiurch.     His  ministrations  were 
able  and  successful,  and  during  the  six  j'ears  of  his  epis- 
copal labor  he  gave  himself  wholly  to  the  work  of  his 
great  olHce.    As  a  man,  he  was  simple  and  imaffected  in 
his  manners,  genial  and  social  in  his  spirit.     His  intel- 
lect was  strong,  keen,  and  logical.    He  used  a  ready  pen, 
and  his  descriptions  were  clear,  concise,  and  graphic. 
His  sermons  were  rich  in  doctrinal  truth,  and  by  their 
clear  conception  and  earnest  delivery  held  the  attention 
of  large  congregations.     His  executive  power  was  of  a 
superior  order,  and  each  successive  year  his  talents  were 
mifolding"  (^Conference  Minutes,  1870,  p.  294).     The  Rev, 
Dr.  Robert  AUyn,  in  his  Peisonal  Recollections  of  Bish- 
op Kingsley  (Ceidral  Christian  Advocate,  June  1, 1870), 
speaks  of  him  as  "  a  man  genial,  charitable,  honest,  ear- 
nest, slirewd  and  far-seeing,  patient,  careful,  logical,  and 
bold  in  defense  and  in  attack.     His  square  form,  solid 
lips,  and  broad  shoidders  were  an  indication  of  the  wres- 
tler, and  his  keen,  quick  eye  was  that  of  a  master  offence. 
While  he  was  one  of  the  most  diligent  of  workers,  he 
had  just  enough  of  tlie  phlegmatic  about  his  tempera- 
njent  to  make  him  the  pluckiest  of  fighters.    He  always 
looked  at  a.  point,  antl  not  at  half  of  the  horizon,  as  many 
do  when  they  preach  or  write.     His  eagle  eye  would  see 
the  mark,  no  matter  how  far  away,  and  his  steady  hand 
could  point  the  spear  to  hit  it  exactly.     In  his  sermoniz- 
ing there  was  no  attempt  at  profundity,  or  speculation,  or 
rhetorical  ornamentation,  or  even  logical  force;  yet  it  had 
all  these  so  far  as  they  are  of  any  account.     It  was  em- 
phatically as  the  rain  that  cometh  down  from  heaven — 
falling  because  the  clouds  are  too  full  to  hold  it  longer, 
and  never  caring  on  what  place  it  may  descend,  or  what 
it  shall  refresh.    His  thouglits  were  always  clear,  and  his 
words  exact  and  often  picturesque.     He  was  entirelj' 
indifferent  to  the  api)lause  of  those  to  whom  he  spoke, 
and  was  so  natural — commonly  not  graceful  in  all  his 
manner,  that  a  careless  observer  would  be  sure  to  be  de- 
ceived into  thinking  him  of  less  weight  than  he  really 
had.     Every  v.ord  he  chose  was  a  word  to  help  convey 
his  meaning,  and  he  never  added  another  for  show ; 
hence  a  few,  who  looked  for  sound  rather  than  sense, 
might  midervalue  his  preaching ;  but  let  a  congregation 
hear  him  often,  and  become  accustomed  to  the  flash  of 
his  eye  and  the  movement  of  his  face  as  his  thoughts 
came  leaping  from  his  heart,  and  as  he  attempted  to 
clothe  them  in  words,  and  they  could  not  fail  to  be  fas- 
cinated.    He  had  a  magnetic  power  to  keep  ]5cople 
awake  and  to  instruct  them,  and  to  attach  men  to  him 
which  not  many  possess.     Said  he  once, '  I  cannot  soar 
on  the  wings  of  fancy,  I  can  only  Instruct  and  convince.'  ' 
"  In  a  word,"  says  Dr.  ^\'iley,  "  his  whole  character  was 
well  rounded  and  symmetrical  as  his  mind  was  rigorous- 
ly logical,  and  his  frame  robust,  compact,  and  well  knit 
together.     He  fiUcd  with  ability  all  places  to  which  the 
Church  called  him,  as  pastor,  ediu;ator,  editor,  and  bish- 
op."    Bishop  Kingsley  left  in  MS.  form  a  series  of  lec- 
tures he  delivered  while  professor  at  Meadville,  in  de- 
fence of  the  Orthodox  doctrine.     It  is  to  be  hoped  that 
they  will  soon  be  brought  out  in  book  form.     They  cer- 
tainly would  prove  a  great  addition  to  our  literature  on 
those  subjects.     Since  his  decease  his  letters  of  travel 
have  been  published  under  the  title  of  Roii7xl  the  World 
(Cincinnati,  1870,  2  vols.  12mo),  prefaced  by  a  memoir 
of  the  bisliop.      (J.  IT.  W.) 

Kingsley,  James  Luce,  LL.D.,  an  eminent  and 
one  of  the  most  successful  American  educators,  born  in 
Scotland,  Conn..  Aug.  28, 1778,  was  a  lineal  descendant  of 
John  Kingsley,  one  of  the  seven  men  who  in  1636  con- 
stituted the  first  Church  in  Dorchester,  Mass.  He  en- 
tered Williams  College  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  and  at 
the  end  of  the  fresliman  year  was  transferred  to  Yale, 
where  he  graduated  in  1799.  After  teaching  in  Wind- 
ham and  Wethersfield  for  two  years  jMr.  Kingsley  was 
appointed  tutor  in  Yale  College  in  1801,  and  in  1805  was 
promoted  to  tlie  professorsliip  of  the  Hebrew,  Greek. and 
Latin  languages  and  of  ecclesiastical  history,  a  position 
which  he  retained  till  his  death  in  1852.     His  studies 


KINGSLEY 


102 


KINSMAX 


were  chiefly  in  language  and  history,  but  he  was  well 
versed  in  iiiatlieniaties,  theology,  metaphysics,  political 
science,  and  general  literature.  The  study  of  the  clas- 
sics had  disciplined  his  judgment  and  relined  his  taste, 
so  that  his  writings  ^vere  clear,  finished,  and  forcible  to 
the  highest  degree.  As  a  writer  of  English,  Dr.  Dwight 
called  him  the  American  Addison ;  in  Latin,  Prof.  Thach- 
er  says  that "  Cicero  was  his  model,  and  he  was  certainly 
a  successful  imitator  of  his  style — surprisinglj'  successful, 
when  we  consider  how  he  was  dependent  on  himself  for 
instruction."  Prof.  Kingsley  was  at  the  same  time  re- 
markably modest  and  retiring,  the  usual  accompani- 
ments of  true  greatness.  He  very  rarely  made  a  pub- 
lic address,  although  so  eminently  qualified  for  the  task ; 
and  the  editions  of  classical  authors  which  he  published 
as  text-books,  together  with  the  numerous  articles  which 
he  contributed  to  quarterly  and  monthly  periodicals, 
wore  commonly  anonymous.  His  Latin  compositions 
were  numerous,  but  rarely  published.  The  congratula- 
tory address  which  he  gave  at  the  inauguration  of  pres- 
ident Day  in  1817,  and  a  similar  address  at  the  inaugu- 
ration of  president  Woolsey  in  18-lG,  have  not  even  beeji 
found  among  his  jiapers.  The  memorandum  of  one  of 
his  associates  attributes  to  him  six  such  monumental 
tributes,  viz.  president  Dwight,  1817  ;  colonel  David 
Humphreys,  1818 ;  professor  Alexander  M.  Fisher,  1822 ; 
professor  M.  K.  Dutton,  1825;  tutor  Amos  PettingiU, 
1832 ;  and  Osgood  Johnson,  1837.  Tlie  most  elaborate 
of  his  writings  was  the  address  delivered  on  the  two 
hundredth  anniversary  of  the  settlement  of  New  Haven 
in  1838.  It  remains  a  model  of  thorough  investigation 
and  judicious  combination.  The  letters  of  Prof.  Kings- 
ley  have  been  very  much  admired.  With  president 
.Sparks,  Edward  Everett,  Dr.  Palfrey,  JMr.  Savage,  and 
other  literary  gentlemen,  he  was  in  constant  correspond- 
ence, but  more  particularly  with  Dr.  J.  E.  Worcester.  In 
the  A  merican  Quarterh/  Rec/ister  for  April,  1835,  and  Au- 
gust, 183G,  will  be  found  his  sketch  of  the  History  of  Yale 
College,  which  was  also  printed  as  a  separate  pamphlet 
(46  pages  8vo).  This  is  regarded  as  a  chief  authority 
in  relation  to  the  early  historj^  of  this  celebrated  college. 
The  productions  of  Prof.  Kingsley  found  a  large  place 
in  the  leading  American  periodicals;  ho  ranked  espe- 
»'iaUy  prominent  among  the  contributors  to  the  New 
Englander,  the  Christian  Spectator,  the  Biblical  Repos- 
itory, and  the  North  A  merican  Review.  For  a  complete 
list  of  his  works,  see  AUibone,  Diet.  Engl,  and  A  m.  A  uth. 
vol.  ii,  s.  V.  See  also  Thacher  (Thomas  A.),  Commemora- 
tice  Discourse  on  Prof.  Kingsley  (Oct.,  1852).     (E.  de  P.) 

Kingsley,  Phineas,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
born  in  Rutland,  Vt.,  March  12,  1788,  educated  in  the 
classics  by  his  uncle,  a  graduate  of  Harvard  College,  was 
licensed  to  preach  about  1818,  and  ordained  at  Highgate, 
Vt.,  Oct.  12, 1819,  where  he  remained  twelve  years.  He 
was  next  settled  for  seven  years  at  Underbill,  Vt,,  and 
f(jr  the  five  years  following  at  Sheldon,  Yt.  In  1847  he 
removed  to  Brooklyn,  Ohio,  and  continued  preaching  to 
the  day  of  his  death,  Jidy  G,  1863.  ''He  was  highly 
esteemed  by  his  ministerial  brethren,  not  for  showy  tal- 
ents, but  for  substantial  worth  and  fidelity." — Wilson, 
f'resb.  llist.  Almanac,  1867. 

Kingsmill,  Andukw,  an  English  divine,  born  at 
Sidmonton,  in  Hampshire,  in  1538,  was  educated  at  Cor- 
pus Christi  College,  Oxford,  and  removed  tlience  to  a 
fellowship  of  All  Souls  in  1558.  In  the  year  1563  there 
were  only  three  preachers  in  the  university,  of  whom 
Kingsmill  was  one;  but  after  some  time,  when  con- 
formity was  pressed,  he  withdrew  from  the  kingdom 
and  went  to  (ieneva,  but  at  the  end  of  three  years 
moved  to  Lausanne,  where  he  died  in  the  j'ear  1570,  in 
tlie  prime  of  life,  "leaving  behind  him,"  says  Ncale 
{Hist,  of  the  Puritans,  i,  116  sq.),J'an  excellent  pattern 
of  piety,  devotion,  and  all  manner  of  virtue."  He  was 
an  admired  preacher,  and  a  scholar  of  superior  attain- 
ments. His  memory  was  most  remarkable,  fur  it  is  said 
that  he  coidd  readily  rehearse,  in  the  Greek  language. 


all  St.  Paul's  epistles  to  the  Pomans  and  Galatians,  and 
other  portions  of  holy  Scripture,  memoriter.  His  works 
are :  1.  I  'lew  of  Man's  Estate  (1574,8vo)  : — 2.  Godly  A  d- 
vice  touching  Marriage  (1580,  8vo) : — 3.  Treatise  for 
such  as  are  troubled  in  Mind  or  afflicted  in  Body : — 4. 
godly  Exhortation  to  bear  patiently  all  Afflictions  for  the 
Gospel: — 5.  Conference  between  a  learned  Chi-istiun  and 
an  afflicted  Conscience.     (E,  de  P.) 

Kinkaid,  Samuel  Porterfield,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  born  May  24,  1827,  in  Donegal,  Butler 
County,  Pa. ;  was  educated  at  Washington  College,  Pa., 
where  he  graduated  with  honor  in  1857 ;  studied  theol- 
ogy at  the  ^\'estern  Theological  Seminary,  Alleghany, 
Pa.;  was  licensed  in  the  spring  of  1859,  and  during  his 
senior  year  at  the  seminary  preached  at  Academia  and 
Kockland,  Pa.  There  his  labors  were  so  abundantly  suc- 
cessful that  immediately  upon  his  graduation  he  -was  or- 
dained and  installed  over  the  united  churches  of  Acade- 
mia, Rockland,  and  Richland.  In  addition  to  his  pasto- 
ral duties,  he  taught  the  academy  at  Freedom,  Venango 
County,  Pa.  He  died  jNIarch  24,  1866.  Kinkaid  was 
marked  for  his  great  earnestness  and  diligence,  as  well 
as  for  his  ardent  piety  and  ability  to  present  truth  with 
directness  and  searching  power. — ^^'ilson,  Presb.  Hist, 
A  Imanac,  1867. 

Kinkead,  James,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom 
in  St.  Louis  Count}',  Mo.,  July  G,  1807,  licensed  to  preach 
in  1833,  and  ordained  in  1840.  llis  ministerial  life  was 
passed  entirely  in  St,  Francois  and  Washington  counties, 
JIo.  During  the  civil  war  he  took  every  opportunity  to 
favor  the  Union  cause,  and  thus  became  obnoxious  to 
the  rebels,  by  whom  he  was  taken  from  his  bed  and  cru- 
elly murdered  on  the  night  of  Sept.  26, 1863.  Destitute 
of  thorough  educational  training,  he  yet  excelled  in 
quickness  of  perception,  power  of  reasoning,  and  good 
judgment.  Not  sectarian  in  views  of  doctrine  and 
Church  government,  he  was  always  tenaciously  firm  in 
the  support  of  truth,  and  watchful  against  sophistry. — 
Presh.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1865.     (H.  C.  W.) 

Kinnersley,  Ebexezer,  a  Baptist  minister,  and  an 
eminent  scientist,  was  born  in  Gloucester,  England,  in 
1711.  In  1714  he  was  brought  to  America.  His  early 
life  was  spent  in  Lower  Dublin,  near  Philadelphia,  where 
he  pursued  his  studies  under  the  supervision  of  his  fa- 
ther. He  was  ordained  for  the  ministry  in  1743.  In 
1746  his  attention  was  directed  to  scientific  pursuits  and 
discoveries.  Afterwards  he  became  associated  with  Dr. 
Franklin  in  some  of  his  most  splendid  discoveries,  and 
delivered  scientific  lectures  in  Philade'phia,  New  York, 
Boston,  and  Newport.  In  1753  he  was  chosen  chief 
master  of  the  English  school  in  connection  with  the 
academy  at  Philadelphia,  and  in  1755  was  imanimously 
elected  professor  of  the  English  language  and  of  oratory 
in  the  college.  Succossfid  in  this  department,  he  was 
honored,  in  1757,  by  the  trustees  with  the  degree  of 
master  of  arts,  and  in  1768  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society,  which  was  then  com- 
posed of  the  most  learned  and  scientific  men  in  the  city. 
In  1772  he  resigned  the  professorship,  and  visited  the 
island  of  Barbadoes  on  account  of  his  failing  health. 
He  afterwards  returned  to  America,  and  died  July  4, 
1778.  IMr.  Kinnersley  was  of  dignified  personal  appear- 
ance, and  cnTinent  as  a  teacher  of  iniblic  speaking.  He 
acquired  his  chief  renown  not  in  the  ministry,  but  in  his 
scientific  pursuits  and  experiments. — See  Sprague,  A  n- 
nals  A  mer.  Pulj'it,  vi,  45.     (J.  L.  S.) 

Kiunim.     See  Lice;  Taljiud. 

Kinsman.  Of  the  four  Hebrew  words  thus  trans- 
lated in  the  A.  V.,  three,  TX"^  (Numb,  xxvii,  11 ;  "  kins- 
woman," Lev.  xviii,  12, 13 ;  elsewhere  "  kin,"  etc. ;  and  so 
mXT^,  ''kinswomen,"  Lev.  xviii,  17),  J."112  (literally  ac- 
quaintance, Ruth  ii,  1),  and  anp  (Psa.  xxxviii,  12  [  11] ; 
Job  xix,  14,  A.V. "  kinsfolk,"  literally  near,  as  often),  indi- 
cate simple  relationship.    The  remaining  one,  PXh,  along 


KINSMAN 


103 


KIPPAH 


with  that,  implies  certain  obligations  arising  out  of  that 
relationship.  The  term  bxj,  goW,  is  derived  bj-^  the 
lexicographers  from  the  verb  bX5,  to  redeem.  That  the 
two  are  closely  connected  is  certain,  but  whether  the 
meaning  of  the  verb  is  derived  from  that  of  the  noun, 
or  the  converse,  may  be  made  matter  of  question.  The 
comparison  of  the  cognate  dialects  leads  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  primary  idea  lying  at  the  basis  of  both  is 
that  of  coming  to  the  help  or  rescue  of  one,  hence  giving 
protection,  reckoning,  avenging.  In  this  case  the  ?XJ  of 
the  O.  T.  would,  in  fundamental  concept,  answer  pretty 
nearly  to  the  irapaKXijToq  or  paraclete  of  the  N.  T.  The 
goi'l  among  the  Hebrews  was  the  nearest  male  blood 
relation  alive.  To  him,  as  such,  three  rights  specially 
belonged,  and  on  him  corresponding  duties  devolved  to- 
wards his  next  of  kin.     See  Kindked. 

1.  When  an  Israelite  through  poverty  sold  his  inher- 
itance and  was  unable  to  redeem  it,  it  devolved  upon  one 
of  his  kin  to  purchase  it  (Lev.  xxv,  25-28 ;  Ruth  iii ;  iv). 
So  also,  when  an  Israelite  had  through  proverty  sold 
himself  into  slavery,  it  devolved  upon  the  next  of  kin, 
as  his  goel,  to  ransom  him  in  the  jubilee  year  (Lev. 
xxv,  47  sq.).  See  Jubilek,  Yeau  of.  In  allusion  to 
this,  God  is  frequently  represented  as  the  goel  of  his 
people,  both  as  he  redeems  them  from  temporal  bondage 
(Exod.  vi,  6;  Isa.  xliii,  1 ;  xlviii,  20;  Jer.  1, 34,  etc.)  and 
from  the  bondage  of  sin  and  evil  (Isa.  xli,  14;  xliv,  G,  22 ; 
xlix,  7;  Psa.  ciii,4;  Job  xix,  25,  etc.).  In  some  of  these 
passages  there  is  an  obvious  Jlessianic  reference,  to 
which  the  fact  that  our  redemption  from  sin  has  been 
effected  by  one  who  has  become  near  of  kin  to  us  by  as- 
suming our  nature  gives  special  force  (comp.Heb.  ii,  14). 
See  Redeemer. 

2.  When  an  Israelite  who  had  wronged  any  one  sought 
to  make  restitution,  but  found  that  the  party  he  had 
wronged  was  dead  without  leaving  a  son,  it  fell  to  the 
next  of  kin  of  the  injured  partj',  as  his  goel,  to  represent 
him  and  receive  the  reparation  (Numb,  v,  G  sq.).  The 
law  provided  that  in  case  of  his  having  no  one  suffi- 
ciently near  of  kin  to  act  for  him  in  this  way,  the  prop- 
erty restored  should  go  to  the  priest,  as  representing  Je- 
hovah, the  King  of  Israel — a  provision  which  the  Jews 
say  indicates  that  the  law  has  reference  to  strangers,  as 
"  no  Israelite  could  be  without  a  redeemer,  for  if  any  one 
of  his  tribe  was  left  he  would  be  his  heir"  (Maimon.  in 
Babcc  Kama,  ix,  11).     See  Goel. 

3.  The  most  striking  office  of  the  goel  was  that  of 
acting  as  the  avenger  of  blood  in  case  of  the  murder  of 
his  next  of  kin;  hence  the  phrase  Q'nfj  bxj,  the  blood- 
avenger.  In  the  heart  of  man  there  seems  to  be  a  deep- 
rooted  feeling  that  where  human  life  has  been  destroyed 
by  violence  the  offence  can  be  expiated  only  by  the  life 
of  the  murderer;  hence,  in  all  nations  where  the  rights 
of  individuals  are  not  administered  by  a  general  execu- 
tive acting  under  the  guidance  of  law,  the  rule  obtains 
that  where  murder  has  been  committed  the  right  and 
duty  of  retaliation  devolves  on  the  kindred  of  the  mur- 
dered person.  Among  the  Shemitic  tribes  this  took  the 
form  of  a  personal  obligation  resting  on  the  nearest  of 
kin  —  a  custom  which  still  prevails  among  the  Arabs 
(Niebuhr, /^ps.  d\Arahie,c\\.l).  This  deep-rooted  feel- 
ing and  established  usage  the  Mosaic  legislation  sought 
to  place  under  such  regulations  as  would  tend  to  prevent 
the  excesses  and  disorders  to  which  personal  retaliation 
is  apt  to  lead,  without  attempting  to  i)reclude  the  indul- 
gence of  it.  (Mohammed  also  sought  to  bring  the  prac- 
tice under  restraint  without  forbidding  it  [see  Koran, 
ii,  173-5  ;  xvii,  33J.)  Certain  cities  of  refuge  were  pro- 
vided, to  which  the  manslayer  might  endeavor  to  escape. 
If  the  goel  overtook  him  before  he  reached  any  of  these 
cities,  he  might  put  him  to  death ;  but  if  the  fugitive 
succeeded  in  gaining  the  asylum,  he  was  safe  until  at 
least  an  investigation  had  been  instituted  as  to  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  murder.  If  on  inquiry  it  was  found 
that  the  party  had  been  guilty  of  deUberate  murder,  tlie 
law  delivered  him  up  to  the  goel,  to  be  put  to  death  by 


him  in  anj'  way  he  pleased ;  but  if  the  murder  was  acci- 
dental, the  manslayer  was  entitled  to  the  protection  of 
the  asylum  he  had  reached.  See  City  of  Refuge.  He 
■was  safe,  however,  only  within  its  precincts,  for  if  the 
goel  found  him  beyond  these  he  was  at  liberty  to  kill 
him.  Among  some  of  the  Oriental  nations  the  right  of 
blood-revenge  might  be  satisfied  by  the  payment  of  a 
sum  of  money,  but  this  practice,  which  obviously  gave 
to  the  rich  an  undue  advantage  over  the  poor  in  matters 
of  this  sort,  the  law  of  Moses  absolutely  prohibits  (Numb. 
xxxv,  31).     See  Blood-revenge. 

From  the  narrative  in  Ruth  iii  and  iv  it  has  been  con- 
cluded that  among  the  duties  of  the  goel  was  that  of 
marrj'ing  the  wiilow  of  a  deceased  kinsman,  so  as  to 
raise  up  seed  to  the  deceased,  thus  identifying  the  office 
of  the  goel  with  that  of  the  levir,  as  provided  fur  in  Deut. 
XXV,  5-10.  See  Marriage.  But  the  levirate  law  ex- 
pressly limits  the  obligation  to  a  brother,  and,  according 
to  the  Jewish  commentators,  to  a  full  brother  b}^  the  fa- 
ther's side  (Maimonides,  quoted  by  Otho,  Lex.  Rahhin. 
p.  372),  and  in  this  relation  neither  Boaz  nor  the  other 
kinsman  stood  to  Elimelech  or  his  sons.  It  is  further 
evident  that  tlie  question  was  one  of  right  rather  than 
one  of  duty,  and  that  the  kinsman  who  waived  his  right 
incurred  no  disgrace  therebj-,  such  as  one  who  declined 
to  fulfil  the  levirate  law  incurred.  The  nearest  kinsman 
had  the  right  to  redeem  the  land,  and  the  redemption 
of  the  land  probably  involved  the  marrying  of  the  widov.' 
of  the  deceased  owner,  according  to  usage  and  custom ; 
but  the  law  did  not  enjoin  this,  nor  did  the  goel  who 
declined  to  avail  himself  of  his  right  come  under  any 
penalty  or  ban.  The  case  of  the  goel  and  that  of  the 
levir  would  thus  be  the  converse  of  each  other:  the 
goel  had  a  right  to  purchase  the  land,  but  in  so  doing 
came  under  an  obligation  from  custom  to  marry  the 
widow  of  the  deceased  owner;  the  levir  was  bound  to 
marry  the  widow  of  his  deceased  brother,  Avhich  in- 
volved, as  a  matter  of  course,  the  redemption  of  his 
property  if  he  had  sold  it  (see  Selden,  De  Success,  in 
ban.  defunct,  c.  15;  Benary,  JJe  Hebrceonim  Leviraiu,  p. 
19  sq. ;  Bertheau,  Exeget.  Ildb.  sum  A.  T.  pt.  vi,  p.  249; 
Michaelis,  On  the  Laws  of  Moses,  ii,  129  sq.). — Kitto,  s.  v. 
See  Levirate  Law. 

Kipling,  TiiOJiAS,  an  English  divine,  born  in  York- 
shire about  the  middle  of  the  18tli  century,  was  educa- 
ted at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated 
as  B.A.  in  17G8,  and  became  D.D.  in  1784.  His  first 
prominent  position  was  that  of  deputy  regius  professor 
of  divinity  under  bishop  Watson,  and  later  he  was  pro- 
moted to  the  deanery  of  Peterborough.  In  1792  Kip- 
ling preached  the  Boyle  Lectures,  which  were  not  pub- 
lished. In  1793  he  brought  out  at  the  university  press 
a  very  handsome  edition  of  the  famous  "  Codex  Bezte" 
of  the  N.  T.,  with  fac-simile  types  {Codex  Bezce,  Quad- 
ratis  Uteris,  Grceco-Latinis,  2  vols,  folio),  which  was  im- 
mediately assailed  with  a  vindence  amounting  to  per- 
sonal hostility  by  tlie  party  which  had  espoused  the 
cause  of  the  once  notorious  Frend,  who  was  banished 
the  university  for  Unitarianism,  and  in  whose  case  Kip- 
ling had  come  forward  as  promoter,  or  public  prosecutor. 
Dr.  Edwards,  the  leader  of  the  party,  charged  him  with 
ignorance  and  want  of  fidelity.  But,  tliough  his  prole- 
gomena do  not  manifest  much  accurate  scholarship,  and 
he  commits  the  serious  error  of  printing  the  corrections 
instead  of  the  original  reading  of  the  text,  which  he  rel- 
egated to  the  notes  at  the  end,  Tregelles  (^Introd.  to  Text. 
Crit.  of  N.  Test.)  allows  that  he  '"appears  to  have  used 
scrupulous  exactitude  in  performing  his  task  efficiently 
according  to  the  plan  -which  he  had  proposed  to  him- 
self." Kipling  also  published  The  A  rticles  of  the  Church 
of  England  proved  not  to  be  Calvinistical  (1802,  8vo), 
written  in  answer  to  Overton's  True  Churchman  ascer- 
tained. He  dicil  in  1822.  See  Kitto,  Cyclop.  Bib.  Lit. 
s.  V. ;  Allibone,  Diet.  Engl,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,\oL  ii,  s.  v. ; 
Hoefer,  Xouv.  Biog.  Gen.  xxvii,  7GG. 

Kippah.     See  Palji. 


KIPPIS 


104 


kirch:meier 


Kippis,  Andrew,  D.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.A.S.,  an  eminent 
EnsliJ^h  Unitarian  divine,  was  born  at  Nottingham  in 
1725.  He  studied  nnder  Dr.  Doddridj^e  at  Northamp- 
ton, and  in  174(3  became  minister  of  a  congregation 
at  Boston,  Lincohishire.  In  1750  he  removed  to  Dor- 
king, and  in  1753  became  the  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian 
congregation  of  Unitarian  tendency  at  Prince's  Street, 
Westminster,  witli  which  society  he  continued  connect- 
ed till  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1795.  The  duties 
arising  out  of  this  connection,  however,  did  not  preclude 
Dr.  Kippis  from  seeking  other  means  of  pul)lic  useful- 
ness. In  17G3  he  became  a  tutor  in  an  academy  for  the 
education  of  dissenting  ministers  in  London,  on  a  plan 
similar  to  that  on  which  the  academy  at  Northampton 
had  been  conducted.  He  was  also  one  of  the  principal 
contributors  to  the  Monthly  Revieiv  and  the  Genikman's 
Mof/dziiie  at  a  time  when  these  ^vere  considered  the 
leaciing  periodicals  of  England.  There  are  several  pam- 
phlets of  his  on  the  claims  of  the  dissenters,  and  on  other 
topics  of  temporary  interest;  but  the  work  with  which 
his  name  is  most  honorably  connected  is  the  republica- 
tion of  tVieBioffrap/iia  Britamnca,^\^^t\\  a  large  addition 
of  new  lives,  and  a  more  extended  account  of  many  per- 
sons whose  lives  are  in  the  former  edition  of  that  work. 
The  design  was  too  vast  to  be  accomplished  by  any  one 
person,  however  well  assisted.  Five  large  folio  volumes 
were  printed  of  the  work  (1778),  and  yet  it  had  proceed- 
ed no  further  than  to  the  name  of  Fastolf.  Part  of  a 
sixth  volume,  it  is  understood,  was  printed,  but  it  has 
not  been  given  to  the  world.  Many  of  the  new  lives 
were  written  by  Dr.  Kippis  himself,  and  particularly  that 
of  captain  Cook,  which  was  printed  in  a  separate  form 
also.  Dr.  Kippis's  was  a  literary  life  of  great  industry. 
He  was  the  editor  of  the  collected  edition  of  the  works 
of  Dr.  Nathaniel  Lardner  (q.  v.),  with  a  life  of  that  emi- 
nent theological  scholar.  He  published  also  the  ethical 
and  thetilogical  lectures  of  his  tutor,  Dr.  Doddridge,  with 
a  large  collection  of  references  to  authors  on  the  various 
topics  to  which  they  relate.  His  other  works  of  inter- 
est are.  Sermon  on  Luke  ii,  25  (Lond.  1780,  8vo)  : — Sei- 
mon  on  Psalm  ctIvv,  15  (London,  1788,  8vo)  : — .1  Vindi- 
cation oj'  Protestant  Dissenting  Ministers  (1773).  See 
Kees,  Funeral  Serm. ;  Gent.  Maf/.  vols.  Ixv,  Ixvi,  Ixxiv ; 
Darling,  Encyclopedia  Biblior/.  s.  v.;  English  Cyclopcedia, 
s.  V. 

Kippod.     See  Bitterx, 

Kippoz.     See  Owl. 

Kir  (Ileb.  id.,  "i"^]?,  a  icall  or  fortress,  as  often ;  Sept. 
always  as  an  appellative,  rtixoQ,  ttuXiq,  /3Jvpor,  etc., 
but  v.  r.  Xappc'iv,  Kvpjji'i),  etc.),  a  people  and  country 
subject  to  the  AssvTian  empire,  mentioned  in  connection 
with  IClam  (Isa.  xxii,  G),  to  which  the  conquered  Da- 
mascenes were  transplanted  (2  Kings  xvi,  9 ;  ^Vmos  i,  5), 
and  whence  the  Araraajans  in  the  east  of  Syria  at  some 
time  or  other  migrated  (Amos  ix,  7).  This  is  supposed 
by  major  Renncl  to  be  the  same  country  which  still 
Ijears  the  name  of  A'(?/-distan  or  A'oonlistan  {Geoyr.  of 
Jferodot.  p.  391).  There  are,  however,  objections  to  this 
view  ^vhich  do  not  apply  so  strongl}'  to  the  notion  of 
KoscnmiiUer  and  others,  that  it  was  a  tract  on  the  river 
(_'//riis  (Pliny,  Ilist.  Xat.  vi,  10  ;  Ptolemy,  v,  12)  (Kf()oc 
and  Kvppor,  in  Zend  Koro),  which  rises  in  the  moun- 
tains between  the  Euxine  and  Caspian  Seas,  and  runs 
into  the  latter  after  being  joined  by  the  Araxes  (Biisch- 
ing,  Mar/az.  x,  420;  compare  ^lichaelis,  Spicil.  ii,  121; 
SujipL  2191 ;  Gesenius,  Thesaurus,  p.  1210) ;  still  called 
Ktir  (Bonomi,  Xireveh,  p.  47,  71).  ^/'j/j-jistan.  or  Grusia 
((irusiana),  commonly  called  (Jeorgia,  seems  also  to  have 
derived  its  name  from  this  river  Kiir,  which  flows 
through  it.  Others  compare  Curena  or  Curna  of  Ptol- 
emy (Koi'pijra  or  KoTprn,  vi,  2,  10,  Chald.  '^3-"!p),  a 
city  in  the  south  of  !Media,  on  th»  river  ]Mardug  (Bochart, 
Phahfj,  iv,  32) ;  Yitringa  the  city  Carine,  also  in  ISIedia 
{Kapivt),  Ptolemy,  vi,  2,  15),  now  called  Kerend  (Bitter, 
ErdL  ix,  391).  Some  region  in  Media  is  perhaps  most 
si^^able  from  the  fact  that  iVrmenia,  whose  northern 


l)oundarics  are  washed  by  the  river  Cjtus,  was  probably 
nut  a  ])art  of  Assyria  at  the  time  referred  to  (see  Kno- 
bd,  Projihet.  ii,  108),  Kcil  {Comment,  on  Kings,  ad  loci 
thinks  the  Medes  must  be  meant,  erroneously  imagining 
that  the  inhabitants  of  Kir  are  spoken  of  in  Isaiah  as 
good  bowmen.  The  Sept.  (Vat.  JIS.  at  2  Kings),  the 
Vulg.,  and  Chald.  (at  2  Kings  and  Amos),  and  Symma- 
chus  (at  Amos  ix),  render  Cyrene! 

For  Kir  ofMoab  (Isa.  xv,  1),  see  Kiii-^Mo.vn. 

Kiratarjuniya,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  poems 
of  Sanscrit  literature,  the  production  of  Bharavi,  depicts 
the  contlict  of  Arjuna  with  the  god  Siva  in  his  disguise 
of  a  kirata,  or  momitaineer. 

Kirchentag.     See  Church  Diet. 

Kircher,  Athanasius,  an  eminent  German  Jes- 
uit, and  quite  prominent  as  a  phiIoso])her,  was  born  near 
Fidda,  Germany,  in  1001.  He  entered  the  Society  of 
Jesus  in  1018,  and  taught  mathematics  and  metaphys- 
ics in  the  college  at  Wurzbiirg.  During  the  inroads  of 
the  Swedes  he  fled  before  the  Protestant  powers,  and, 
after  a  short  stay  in  France,  went  to  Pome,  and  became 
a  professor  at  the  Propaganda.  He  died  in  1(380.  His 
writings,  which  extend  over  the  different  departments 
of  the  natural  sciences,  philosophy,  philology,  history, 
and  archteolog\',  evince  great  talent,  but  are  often  fan- 
ciful in  their  theories.  His  principal  works  of  interest 
to  us  are,  Qildipiis  yEgyptiacus,  etc.  (Roma?,  1G52,  etc.,  4 
vols,  fol.) : — Mundus  snhterranens,  in  xii  libros  digestiis, 
etc.  (Amsterdam,  1G65,  fol.)  : — Ai-ca  No'e,  in  tres  libros 
digesta,  etc.  (Amst.  1G75) : — Liber  pihilologicus  de  sono 
artificioso,  sive  vmsica,  etc.  (in  Ugolino's  Thesaurus, 
xxxii,  353) : — Liber  diacriticus  de  Musnrgia,  aniiquo- 
moderna  (Ugolino,  xxxii,  417):  —  China,  monumentis, 
qua  sacris,  qua  p)rofanis,  illustrata  (Amst.  1667,  fol.) : — 
Turris  Babel,  sive  Ai-chontologia,  etc.  (Amst.  1679, fol.): 
etc.  See  his  Autobiography  and  Letters  (Augsb.  1684) ; 
"Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lex.  vol.  vi,  s.  v. ;  Darling, 
Encyclop.  Bibliog.  s.  v.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Kircher,  Konrad,  a  learned  German  philologian 
of  Augsburg,  of  the  IGth  century,  was  a  Lutheran  pastor 
first  at  Donauwerth  and  later  at  Jaxtdorf,  and  died  about 
1622.  He  wrote  Concoi-dia;  veteris  Testamenti  GraccB 
Ebrceis  vocibus  i-espondentes  (Francf.  1607,  2  vols.  4to; 
greatly  enlarged  by  Abrah.  Trommius,  Amst.  1718) : — 
De  ttsu  concoi-dantiontm  Grcecorum  in  Theologia.  See 
Simon,  Hist.  Crit.  dii  Vieux  Testament,  i,  3,  ch.  ii ;  -1  llgem. 
Hist.  Lexikon,  iii,  33. 

Kirchhofer,  Melciiior,  a  celebrated  Svriss  eccle- 
siastical writer,  was  born  Jan.  3,  1775,  at  SchaflFhausen, 
and  was  educated  at  Slarburg.  In  1797  he  returned  to 
Switzerland,  and  was  ordained  for  the  holy  ministn.-. 
His  first  important  position  he  secured  in  1808  at  Stein, 
and  this  he  tilled  up  to  his  death,  Feb.  13,  1853.  He  is 
quite  celebrated  for  his  able  efforts  in  the  department 
of  Church  History,  which  procured  for  him  in  1840  the 
doctorate  of  theology  from  the  University  of  Marburg. 
Among  the  especially  valuable  writings  of  Kirchhofer 
are  his  monographs  on  Hofmeister  (1810),  Oswald  ^ly- 
conius  (1813),  Werner  Stciner  (1818),  Bcrthold  Haller 
(1828),  Wilhelm  Farel  (1831),  and  his  continuation  of 
Hottingers'  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Sicitzerlaml. — Her- 
zog,  Tie(d-Encykloj-iadie,  vii.  708. 

Kirchmayr,  Thomas,  a  German  theologian,  was 
bom  at  Straubingen,  Bavaria,  in  the  early  part  of  the 
16th  century;  became  pastor  first  at  Stadtsulza,  in  Thu- 
ringia,  and  later  (in  1541)  at  Kahla.  He  died  at  Wics- 
bach  in  1563.  Kirchmayr  is  noted  as  the  author  of  a 
commentary  on  1  John,  in  which  he  advocates  the  pre- 
destination theory  in  a  somewhat  peculiar  manner.  He 
teaches  that  the  chosen  ones  never  lose  the  influence  of 
the  holy  Spirit,  however  great  their  transgression.  He 
was  criticised  and  obliged  to  quit  the  pidpit. — Pierer, 
Unirersal  Li.rikon,  ix,  534. 

Kirchmeier,  Johann  Christoph,  a  noted  Ger- 
man theologian,  was  born  at  Orphcrode,  Hesse,  Sept.  4, 


KIRCHMEIER 


105 


KIKJATH-ARBA 


1674,  and  was  educated  at  the  University  of  ^Marburg. 
He  became  in  1700  professor  of  philosophy  at  Herborn, 
in  tlie  year  following  regular  professor  of  theology  at 
the  same  high-school,  and  in  1702  removed  in  this  ca- 
pacity to  Heidelberg.  In  1723  he  returned  to  Marburg, 
and  was  promoted  to  the  highest  honors  that  his  almn 
mater  coukl  bestow.  He  died  iMarch  15, 1743.  Kirch- 
meior  was  the  honor  and  pride  of  the  German  Reformed 
Church  in  Marburg,  and  his  memory  is  revered  to  this 
day.  A  list  of  his  writings,  which  are  mostly  of  a  con- 
troversial nature  and  in  pamphlet  form,  is  given  by  Do- 
ring,  Gdehrte  Theologai  Dtutschlands  d.  18'"'  und  19'"' 
Jahrh.  ii,  94  sq. 

Kirchmeier,  Johann  Siegmund,  a  German 
theologian  of  note,  was  born  at  AUendorf  Jan.  4,  1074, 
and  was  educated  at  Marburg  and  Ley  den.  In  1703  he 
became  pastor  at  Schwebda.  In  1704  he  accepted  the 
jirofessorship  of  logic  and  metaphysics  at  IMarburg  Uni- 
versity, and  at  the  same  time  became  pastor  of  a  Ke- 
formcd  church  at  jNIarbiu-g.  He  died  April  23,  1749. 
His  writings,  mainly  dissertations,  are  enumerated  by 
Diiring,  Gdihrte  Theolorjen  Deutschlands  d.  18™  u.  19'"' 
Jahrh.  ii,  99  sq. 

Kirghis,  or  Kincms-KAiSAKi  {Cossacks  of  the 
Steppi:.i),  is  the  name  of  a  people  spread  over  the  im- 
mense territory  bounded  by  the  Volga,  desert  of  Obsh- 
tchci  (iu  55^  N.  lat.),  the  Irtish,  Chinese  Turkestan,  Ala- 
Tau  Mountains,  the  Sir-Daria,  and  Aral,  and  Caspian 
Seas — a  vast  tract  of  land,  not  unfrequently  designated 
as  the  "Eastern  Steppe,"  and  containing  850.000  Eng- 
lish square  miles ;  sterile,  stony,  and  streamless,  and  cov- 
ered with  rank  herbage  live  feet  high.  The  Kirghis  are 
of  Turkish  origin,  and  speak  the  Uzbek  idiom  of  their 
race.  They  have  from  time  immemorial  been  divided 
into  three  branches,  called  the  Great,  Middle,  and  Little 
Hordes.  The  first  of  these  wanders  in  the  south-west 
portion  of  the  Eastern  Steppe ;  the  Middle  Horde  roams 
over  the  territory  between  the  Ishim,  Irtish,  Lake  Balk- 
hash, and  the  territory  of  the  Little  Horde.  The  Little 
Horde  (now  more  numerous  than  the  other  two  togeth- 
er) ranges  over  the  country  bounded  by  the  Ural,  Tobol, 
Siberian  Kirghis,  and  Tiu-kestan.  (A  small  oftshoot  of 
them  has,  since  1801,  wandered  between  the  Volga  and 
the  Ural  river,  and  is  under  rule  of  the  governor  of  As- 
trachan.)  South  of  Lake  Issikul  is  a  ^^■ild  mountain 
tribe  called  the  THko-Kamennaja,  the  only  tribe  which 
calls  itself  Kirghis.  They  are  called  by  their  neighbors 
Kara  or  Plack  Kirghis,  and  are  of  Jlandshiir  stock. 
Their  collective  numbers  are  estimated  at  upwards  of 
IJ  millions  of  soids,  more  than  half  of  whom  belong  to 
the  Little  Horde,  This  people  is,  with  the  exception 
above  mentioned,  nomadic,  and  is  ruled  by  sultans  or 
khans.  They  are  restless  and  predatory,  and  have  well 
earned  for  themselves  the  title  of  the  "  Slave-hunters  of 
the  Stejipes,"  by  seizing  upon  caravans,  appropriating 
the  goods,  and  selling  their  captives  at  the  great  slave- 
markets  of  Khiva,  Bokhara,  etc.  Their  wealth  consists 
of  cattle,  sheep,  horses,  and  camels.  They  are  of  the 
Moslem  faith,  iu  a  somewhat  corrupt  form,  and,  like  the 
followers  of  jMohammed,  are  the  sworn  enemies  of  the 
IMongols.  '•  Fired  by  hereditary  hate,"  says  Dixon  {Rus- 
sia, p.  339  sq.),  "these  Kirghis  bandits  look  upon  every 
man  of  Mongolian  birth  and  Buddhistic  faith  as  lawful 
spoil.  They  follow  him  to  his  pastures,  plunder  his  tent, 
drive  off  his  herds,  and  sell  him  as  a  slave.  But  when 
this  lawful  prey  escapes  their  hands  they  raid  and  rob 
on  more  friendly  soil,  and  many  of  the  captives  whom 
they  carry  to  Khiva  and  Bokhara  come  from  the  Per- 
sian valleys  of  Atrek  and  Meshid.  (Jirls  from  these  val- 
leys fetch  a  higher  price,  and  Persia  has  not  strength 
enough  to  protect  her  children  from  their  raids."  Not- 
withstanding the  strenuous  efforts  of  Kussia  to  educate 
the  Kirghis,  there  are  among  them  at  the  present  time 
only  twelve  schools,  attended  by  about  370  children. 
See  Chambers,  Cyclopaedia,  vol.  v,  s.  v. ;  Brockhaus,  Real- 
Encyklopddie,  vol.  viii,  s.  v.  Kirgesen. 


Kir-har'aseth  (2  Kings  iii,  25),  Kir-har'eseth 
(Isa.  xvi,  7),  Kir-ha'resh  (Isa.  xvi,  ll),Kir-lie'ies 
(Jer.  xlviii,  31,  30).     See  Kik-Moab. 

Kiriatha'im  (Jer.  xlviii,  1 ,  23 ;  Ezek,  xxv,  9).  See 
Kiujatiiaim. 

Kiriathia'rius  (KtpiaSiapioc  v.  r.  KopiaSioi,  Vidr;. 
Creurputros),  a  corrupt  form  (1  Esdr.  v,  19)  for  Kirjalh- 
arini  (Ezra  ii,  25),  or  Kihjath-jeariji  (Neh.  vii,  29). 

Kir'ioth  (Amosii,  2).     See  Keriotii. 

Kir' jath  (Josh,  xviii,  28).  See  KiEjAxn-jEARni ; 
also  the  following  names,  of  which  this  is  the  first  part. 

Kirjatha'im  (Hcb.  Kiryallm'yim,  n^T^^'^\^,  two  cit- 
ies, i.  e.  double-town;  Sept.  KapiaSraifi,  but  K«pio3f(/t 
in  Numb.;  >/  ttoXjc  in  Gen.;  v.  r.  Kopinjf/t  or  Kapta- 
^Ev  in  Jer.  and  Ezek.;  ttoAic  Trapa^aWaaaia  [appar- 
ently mistaking  the  directive  termination  iTC^~  for  D"'"] 
in  Ezek. ;  Auth.  Vers.  "  Kiriathaim"  in  Jer.  and  Ezek.), 
the  name  of  two  places. 

1.  (3nc  of  the  most  ancient  towns  in  the  country  east 
of  the  Jordan  (see  Ewald,  Gesch.  Isr.  i,  308),  as  it  was 
possessed  by  the  gigantic  Emim  (Gen.  xiv,  5),  who  were 
expelled  by  the  Moabites  (compare  Deut.  ii,  9, 10),  and 
these,  in  their  turn,  were  dispossessed  by  the  Amorites, 
from  whom  it  was  taken  by  the  Israelites.  Kirjathaim 
was  then  assigned  to  Reuben  (Numl).  xxxii,  37 ;  Josh, 
xiii,  19) ;  but  during  the  Assyrian  exde  the  Moabites 
again  took  possession  of  this  and  other  towns  (Jer.  xlviii, 
1,23;  Ezek.  xxv,  9).  Burckhardt  (riY/rf/^,  p.3(J7)found 
ruins,  called  Kl-Teim,  which  he  conjectures  to  have  been 
Kiria?/«n"w,  the  last  syllable  of  the  name  being  retained. 
This  is  somewhat  doubtful,  as  the  Christian  village  Ka- 
riatha  or  Koreiaiha  (JLapiucu,  KapirtSa)  of  Eusebius 
and  Jerome  (Onomasf.  s.  v.)  is  jilaced  ten  miles  west  of 
Mcdeba,  whereas  El-Tcim  is  lint  two  miles  (Seetzeii 
places  it  at  half  an  hour,  Reise,  i,  408).  IMichaelis  (Ori- 
ent, u.  exer/.  Bill,  iii,  120 ;  Siipjil.  2203  sq.)  compares  the 
modem  city  Kirjathctim,  one  day's  journey  from  Pal- 
myra (Wood,  ^?/i«s  of  Palmyra,  p.  34);  and  BUsching 
(Erdb.  xi,  6G8)  adduces  Kariuthaim  (in  Pliny,  vi,  32, 
Carriata),  a  place  in  the  desert  of  Arabia;  but  both 
these  identifications  are  madmissible  (Hamesveld,  iii, 
1G9).  Ritter  {Erdkundc,  xv,  1185,1186)  supposes  that 
the  Onomasticon  confounds  two  places  of  the  same  name, 
one  being  the  ancient  city  corresponding  to  El-Teim, 
north  of  the  wady  Zurka,  and  the  other  the  Christian 
town,  represented  by  the  modem  Kureyat,  south  of  the 
same  wady ;  but  we  see  no  occasion  for  this,  as  the  lat- 
ter place,  the  name  of  which  fully  agrees,  lies  at  the  re- 
quired distance  (eleven  miles,  Seetzen,  Reise,  ii,  342) 
scwth-west  of  INIedeba  (Porter,  Handbook,  p.  300),  upon 
the  southem  slope  of  Jebel  Attarus  (perhaps  referred  to 
by  Eusebius  in  the  expression  annexed  to  his  descrip- 
tion, iTTi  Tvv  Bap IV,  on  the  Baris,  using  the  term  in  the 
sense  of  a  fortress  on  a  kill-top  rather  than  alluding  to 
a  position  beyond  the  valley  Zurka-]\Iain,  which  Ritter, 
p.  578,  fancifully  conceives  to  be  thus  indicated  from  the 
abundance  of  mandrakes,  fiaapac).     See  Kerioth,  2. 

2.  A  city  of  refuge  in  the  tribe  of  Naphtali  (1  Chron. 
vi,  76) ;  elsewhere  (Josh,  xxi,  32)  called  Kaktan  (q.  v.). 

Kirjatli-ar'ba  (Hebrew  Kiryath'-Arba',  T^'^p. 
"3"!  Si,  city  of  A  i-ba  ;  Sept.  TruXig  'ApjSbK,  Gen.  xxiii,  2 ; 
Judg.  xiv,  15;  xv,  13,  54;  xx,  7;  KaptaBaplSoic,  Josh, 
xxi,  11 ;  Judg.  i,  10;  ttuXiq  toii  TTf  ^I'or,  Gen.  xxxv,  27; 
once  with  the  art.  "31X11  P^lp,  Kiryath'-ha-Arha'; 
Septuag.  Kapia^apfio  v.  r.  Kapia^apjStk,  Nch.  xi,  25; 
Auth.  Vers.  "  city  of  Arba,"  in  Gen.  xxxv,  27 ;  Josh,  xv, 
13 ;  xxi,  1 1),  the  original  name  of  Hebron,  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Judah,  so  called  from  its  founder,  one  of  the 
Anakim,  and  inhabited  under  the  same  name  after  the 
exile.  Hengstenberg,  however,  thinks  that  Hebron  was 
the  earlier  name,  and  Kirjath-Arba  only  was  imposed  by 
the  Canaanites  {Beitr.  iii,  187).  Sir  John  Mandevillo 
(cir.  1322)  found  it  still  "called  by  the  Saracens  Kari- 
carba,  and  by  the  Jews  Arbothu"  {Early  Travels,  p.  161). 


KIRJATH-JEARIM 


106 


KIRJATH-JEARIM 


It  is  a  Jewisli  gloss  (first  mentioned  by  Jerome)  which 
interprets  tiie  latter  part  of  the  name  ("3'IN;,  arba,  lleb. 
"  four")  as  referring  to  the  four  great  men  buried  there 
(the  saints  Adam,  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob ;  so  the 
Talmud,  see  Keil.  ad  loc. ;  or  the  giants  Anak,  Aliiman, 
Sheshai,  and  Tolniai,  according  to  Bochart,  Canan,\,\). 

Kir'jath-a'iini  (Ezra  ii,  25).    See  Kirjatii-Jea- 

RIM. 

Kir'jath-ba'al  (Heb.  Kiri/alh'-Ba'a!,ht^^-r'^^'p^ 
city  of  Baal;  Sept.  Kapui-bjiaaX),  another  name  (Josh. 
XV,  00 ;  xviii,  1-i)   for  Kiujatu-jeariji  (q.  v.).     See 

also  liAALAII. 

Kir'jath-hti'zoth  (Ilcb. Kirtjath'-Chutsoth ', r;:"i ■? 
rijjn,  city  of  streets  ;  Sept.  iriAiiQ  iiravXtiiJv),  a  city 
of  3Ioab  to  -vvhicli  Balak  took  Balaam  on  his  arrival  to 
offer  a  preparatory  sacrifice  (Numb,  xxii,  39).  The 
"S'ulgate  understands  an  extreme  city  of  the  territory  of 
iMoab,  as  that  on  tlie  border  of  Anion,  where  the  king 
met  his  prophetic  guest  (verse  StJ) ;  but  the  two  appear 
to  have  been  different.  Tlie  citj'  in  question  was  prob- 
ably the  capital  of  the  jNIoabitish  king,  usually  called 
KiK-^Io.VB,  and  here  distinguished  from  other  places  of 
a  similar  name  {Kirjath  meaning  simply  "  city")  by  an 
epithet  indicative  of  its  extent;  compare  the  presence 
of  the  court  and  "  high  places  of  Baal,"  as  well  as  the 
conspicuous  situation  of  the  city  (verse  41),  correspond- 
ing to  that  of  Kerak.  Porter,  however  (Murray's  Hand- 
book- for  Pal.  p.  299  sq.),  inclines  to  identify  the  place 
with  the  Keireyat  on  Jebel  Attarus,  and  so  with  Knu- 
ATIIAIM  (q.  v.). 

Kir'jath-je'arim  (Hch.  Kiryath'-Yedrim',  r""lp 
S'l"!""',  city  afforests;  Sept.  Kapim^iapEi/i,  Josh,  xviii, 
14;  Judg.  xviii,  12;  1  Chron.  ii,'  50,  52.  2  Chron.  i,  4; 
Neh.  vii,  29;  Jer.  xxvi,  20;  Kioia^apifi,  1  Sam.  vi,  21; 
vii,  1,2;  V.  r.  1  Chron.  ii,  50,  52 ;  2  Chron.  i,  4 ;  Neh.  vii, 
29  ;  Jer.  xxi,  20 ;.  ttoAic  'la^iiji,  Josh,  xv,  9,  GO ;  1  Chron. 
xiii,  5  [v.  r.  'lapi'/i]  ;  ttoKhq  'lapiiji.  Josh,  ix,  17;  Krt- 
ptci^iatip  v.  r.  TToXic;  'loin,  1  Chron.  ii,  53  ;  KaniaBjia- 
a\,  Josh,  xiii,  15;  omits  in  1  Chron.  xiii,  G  [or,  rather, 
l>araphrases  the  words  "Baalah,  which  is  Kirjath-jea- 
rim,"  by  ttoXiq  Aaiuo] ;  Josephus  »)  raij'  Kapia^iapi- 
^UTMV  TToXic,  Ant.  vi,  2, 1 ;  with  the  art.  Ciir^n  r.;;'"ip, 
Jer.  xxvi,  20),  in  the  contracted  form  KIRJATH-AliDI 
(lieh.  Kiryath'-Arim',  C^^jJ  »^!?"'p!  Ezra  ii,  25;  Sept. 
Kopirt3'tap£i'jit  v.r.  Kapia^iapifi),  and  simply  KIRJATH 
(HQb.Kiryatk',  r'i"ip,  Josh. xviii, 28;  Sept.  TroXiQ'lapi- 
(ifi),  one  of  the  towns  of  the  Gibeonites  (Josh.ix,  17).  It 
belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Josh. xv,  60;  Judg.  xviii, 
12),  and  lay  on  the  border  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii,  15 ;'  1 
Chron.  ii,  50),  to  which  it  was  finally  assigned  (Josh,  xviii, 
2S).  It  was  to  this  jilace  that  the  ark  was  brought  from 
Beth-shenifsh,  after  it  had  been  removed  from  the  land 
of  the  rinlistincs,  and  where  it  remained  till  removed 
to  Jerusalem  by  David  (1  Sam.  vii;  1  Chron.  xiii). 
This  was  one  of  the  ancient  sites  which  were  again  in- 
habited after  tlie  exile  (Ezra  ii,  25;  Neh.  vii,  29).  It 
was  also  called  Kikjatii-baal  (Josh,  xv,  GO  ;  xviii,  14), 
and  Baalah  (Josh,  xv,  9).  It  appears  to  have  lain  not 
far  from  Beerotli  (Ezra  ii,  25).  "  It  is  included  in  the 
genealogies  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  ii,  50,  52)  as  founded  by 
or  descended  from  Sliobal,  the  son  of  Caleb  beu-llur,  and 
as  having  in  its  turn  sent  out  the  colonies  of  the  Ithrites, 
Fuhites.  Shumathites,  and  JNIishraitcs,  and  those  of  Zo- 
rah  and  Eshtaol.  'Behind  Kirjath-jearim'  the  band  of 
Danites  pitched  their  camp  before  their  expedition  to 
Mount  Ephraim  and  Laish,  leaving  their  name  attached 
to  the  spot  for  long  after  (Judg.  xviii,  12),  See  ]Maiia- 
XEii-DAX.  Hitherto, beyond  the  early  sanctity  implied 
in  its  bearing  the  name  of  Baal,  there  is  nothing  "re- 
markable in  Kirjath-jearim.  It  was  no  doubt  this  rep- 
utation for  sanctity  which  made  the  people  of  Beth-she- 
mcsh  appeal  to  its  inliabitants  to  relieve  them  of  the 
ark  of  Jehovah,  which  was  bringing  such  calamities  on 
their  mitutored  inexperience.     From  their  place  m  the 


valley  they  looked  anxiously  for  some  eminence,  which, 
according  to  the  belief  of  tliose  days,  should  be  the  ap- 
propriate seat  for  so  powerful  a  Deity  [see  Thomson, 
Land  and  Bool;  ii,  539]  (1  Sam.  vi,  20,  21).  In  this 
high  place — '  the  hill'  (n"35ri) — under  the  charge  of 
Eleazar,  son  of  Abinadab,  the  ark  remained  for  twenty 
years  (vii,  22),  during  Avhich  period  the  spot  became  the 
resort  of  pilgrims  from  all  parts,  anxious  to  offer  sacri- 
fices and  perform  vows  to  Jehovah  (Josephus.  A  nt.  vi, 
2, 1).  Sixty-two  years  after  the  close  of  that  time  Kir- 
jath-jearim lost  its  sacred  treasure,  on  its  removal  by 
David  to  the  house  of  Obed-edom  the  Gittite  (1  Chron. 
xiii,  5,  G;  2  Chron.  i,  4;  2  Sam.  vi,  2,  etc.).  It  is  very 
remarkable  and  suggestive  that  in  the  account  of  this 
transaction  the  ancient  and  heathen  name  Baal  is  re- 
tained. In  fact,  in  2  Sam.  vi,  2 — probably  the  original 
statement — the  name  Baale  is  used  without  any  expla- 
nation, and  to  the  exclusion  of  that  of  Kirjath-jearim. 
In  the  allusion  to  this  transaction  in  Psa.  cxxxii,  G,  the 
name  is  obscurely  indicated  as  the  'wood' — yaar,  tho. 
root  of  Kirjath-^V-«/im.  AVe  also  hear  of  a  prtiphct  Uri- 
jah  ben-Shemaiah,  a  native  of  the  place,  who  enforced 
the  warnings  of  Jeremiah,  and  was  cruelly  murdered  by 
Jehoiakim  (Jer.  xxvi,  20,  etc.),  but  of  the  place  we  know 
nothing  beyond  what  has  already  been  said.  A  tradi- 
tion is  mentioned  by  Adrichomius  {Desci:  T.  S.  Dan.  § 
17),  though  without  stating  his  authority,  that  it  was 
the  native  place  of  '  Zechariah,  son  of  Jehoiada,  who 
was  slain  between  the  altar  and  the  Temple' "  (Smith). 
Josephus  says  it  was  near  Beth-shemesh  (^Ant.  vi,  1,  4). 
Eusebius  and  Jerome  {Onomast.  s.  v.  Ba«X,  Baal-cara- 
thiarim')  speak  of  it  as  being  in  their  day  a  village  nine 
or  ten  miles  from  Diospolis  (Lydda),  on  the  road  to  Je- 
rusalem ;  consequentl}' north-west  (Hamesveld,  iii,2G6). 
With  this  description,  and  the  former  of  these  two  dis- 
tances, agrees  Procopius  (see  Keland,  Palast.  p.  503). 
On  account  of  its  presumed  proximity  to  Beth-shemesh, 
Williams  {Holy  City)  endeavors  to  identify  Kirjath-jea- 
rim with  Deir  el-Hoica,  east  of  Ain  Shems.  I5ut  this, 
though  sufficiently  near  the  latter  place,  does  not  an- 
swer to  the  other  condltifjus.  Dr.  Robinson  thinks  it 
possible  that  the  ancient  Kirjath-jearim  may  be  recog- 
nised in  the  present  Kiiryet  el-Enab.  The  first  part  of 
the  name  (Kirjath,  Kuryet,  signifying  city")  is  the  same 
in  both,  and  is  most  probably  ancient,  being  found  in 
Arabic  proper  names  only  in  Syria  and  Palestine,  and 
not  very  frequentlj^  even  there.  Tlie  only  change  has 
been  that  the  ancient  "  city  of  forests"  has,  in  modern 
times,  become  the  "  city  of  grapes."  The  site  is  also 
about  three  hours,  or  nine  Roman  miles  from  Lj'dda,  on 
the  road  to  Jerusalem,  and  not  very  remote  from  Gibeon, 
from  which  Kirjath-jearim  could  not  well  have  been 
distant.  So  close  a  correspondence  of  name  and  position 
seems  to  warrant  the  conclusion  in  favor  of  Kuryet  el- 
Enab  (seeRitter's  Erdkinule,  yixi,  108-110).  This  place  is 
tliat  which  ecclesiastical  tradition  has  identified  with  the 
Anathoth  of  Jeremiah  (i,  1 ;  comp.  Jerome,  ad  loc. ;  also 
Onomasticoii,  s.  v. ;  Josei)hus,  A  nt.  x,  7, 3),  which,  howev- 
er, is  at  Anata.  Kuryet  el-Enab  is  now  a  poor  village, 
its  principal  buildings  being  an  old  convent  of  the  JMin- 
orites  and  a  Latin  church.  The  latter  is  now  deserted, 
and  is  used  for  a  stable,  but  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  lar- 
gest and  most  solidly  constructed  churches  in  Palestine 
(Robinson,  ii,  109, 334-337).  The  village  is  prettily  sit- 
uated in  a  basin,  on  the  north  side  of  a  spur  jutting  out 
from  the  western  hills.  The  only  well-built  houses  are 
those  belonging  to  the  family  of  the  sheiks  Abu-Ghosh, 
who  for  the  last  half  centurj'  have  been  the  terror  of 
travellers,  but  have  lately  been  overtaken  with  punish- 
ment by  the  Turkish  government.  Dr.  Robinson  re- 
marks that  "a  pretty  direct  route  from  Beth-shemesh 
would  pass  up  on  the  cast  of  Yeshua  and  along  wady 
Ghurab;  but  no  such  road  now  exists,  and  probably 
never  did,  judging  from  the  nature  of  the  country.  In 
all  probability,  the  ark  was  brought  up  by  way  of  Saris" 
(Researches,  new  cd.,  iii,  157).  Schwarz,  who  identifies 
Kirjath-jearim  with  the  same  site,  suggests  that  the  hill 


KIRJATH-SANNAH 


107 


KIRKPATRICK 


(which  he  calls  iMount  IVIidan)  south-west  of  the  village, 
and  just  south  of  Kuryet  es-Saideh,  may  be  the  "]Moiuit 
Jearim"  spoken  of  in  Josh,  xv,  10  (but  different  from 
IMount  Baalah  of  ver.  11) ;  both  jjlaces  having  taken  the 
title  Jearim  from  the  intervening  tract  of  land,  perhaps 
once  covered  with  wood  {Palest,  p.  97).  It  is  the  testi- 
mony of  a  recent  traveller  (Tobler,  7>/tV?e  Wamlerini//,  p. 
17y)  that  in  the  immediate  neighborhood,  on  the  ridge 
probably  answering  to  IMount  Jearim,  there  still  are 
'•  real  \voods,  so  thick  and  so  solitary,  he  had  seen  noth- 
ing like  them  since  he  left  Germany." 

Kir'jath  -  san'iiah  (Hebrew  Kinjath'  -  Sunnah', 
rii&~r^"i)?,  perh.  city  of  Sannah;  Josh,  xv,  49;  Sept. 
7co\i(-  yoai.ijxuT(iJV~),  usually  Kirjath-se'pher  (Heb,  A'h- 
l/ath'-Se'pfier,^tiZ>~r\^'^p,  hook-city ;  Sept.  iruXig  ypctfi- 
^LUTwv,  Josh.  XV,  15,  IG;  Judg.  i,  11 ;  ttoXic  twv  yc>afx-- 
/.u'lTwi',  Judg.  i,  12;  v.  r.  KapiaBtrifep,  Judg.  i,  11),  in 
later  times  (Josh,  xv,  15,  49 ;  Judg.  i,  11)  called  Debir 
(q.  v.),  a  Canaanitish  royal  city  (Josh,  x,  38),  afterwards 
included  within  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Josh,  xv, 48;  comp. 
Judg.  i,  11),  but  assigned  to  the  priests  (Josh,  xxi,  15 ;  1 
Chron.  vi,  58 ;  compare  Hamcsveld,  iii,  2"24).  The  name 
Debir  means  a  woj-d  or  oracle,  and  is  applied  to  that 
most  secret  and  separated  part  of  the  Temple,  or  of  the 
most  holy  place,  in  which  the  ark  of  the  covenant  was 
placed,  and  in  which  responses  were  given  from  above 
the  cherubim.  From  this,  coupled  with  the  fact  that 
Kirjath-scpher  means  "  city  of  writing,"  it  has  been  con- 
jectured that  Debir  was  some  particidarly  sacred  place 
or  seat  of  learning  among  the  Canaanites,  and  a  reposi- 
toiy  of  their  records.  ''  It  is  not,  indeed,  probable,"  as 
professor  Bush  remarks  (note  ad  loc.  Josh.), "  that  writ- 
ing and  books,  in  our  sense  of  the  words,  were  very  com- 
mon among  the  Canaanites;  but  some  method  of  re- 
cording events,  and  a  sort  of  learning,  was  doubtless 
cultivated  in  those  regions."  Bochart  {Canaan,  ii,  17) 
explains  the  latter  part  of  the  name  Kirjath-sannah  as 
being  a  Phccnician  term  equivalent  to  the  Arabic  siinna 
or"  precept,"  ■which  would  be  in  keeping  with  the  above 
explanation  of  the  other  terms.  Gesenius  {Thesaiu:  p. 
9G"2, 1237)  thinks  it  a  term  expressive  of  the  palm,  and 
Fiirst  {llth.  Lex.  s.  v.)  thinks  it  denotes  the  senna  plant. 
Debir  was  taken  by  Joshua  (x,  38) ;  but  it  being  after- 
wards retaken  by  the  Canaanites,  Caleb,  to  whom  it  was 
assigned,  gave  his  daughter  Achsah  in  mamage  to  his 
nephew  Othniel  for  his  braverj^  in  carryhig  it  by  storm 
(Josh.  XV,  16).  It  was  situated  in  the  mountains  of  Ju- 
dah (Josh.  XV,  49),  to  the  south  of  Hebron  (Josh,  x,  38 ; 
see  Keil,  Comment,  ad  loc),  and  on  a  high  spot  not  very 
far  from  it  (Josh,  xv,  15),  and  appears  to  have  been 
strongly  fortified  (Ewald,  Gesch.  Isr.  ii,  289).  These  cir- 
cumstances and  the  associated  names  (Josh,  xv,  48-50) 
appear  to  indicate  a  position  on  the  mountains  south- 
west of  Hebron,  in  the  vicinity  of  ed-Dhoheriyeh,  which 
has  a  commanding  situation  and  some  ruins  (Robinson's 
Researches,  1,311). 

Kirk,  a  word  meaning  circle,  in  the  sense  of  "  assem- 
bly" or  "  company ;"  the  original  word  being  Saxon,  and 
supposed  by  some  to  have  come  from  the  Greek  Kvpia- 
kCv,  dominicum, "  The  Lord's  house."  The  word  Church 
is  the  same  as  "  Kirk,"  and  has  the  same  signification  as 
"  congregation"  or  assembly,  which  are  elsewhere  given 
as  translations  of  the  original  word  tKKXijiria.  The  es- 
tablished religion  of  Scotland  (the  Presbyterian)  is  usu- 
ally called  the  Kii-k  of  Scotland.     See  Scotland, 

Kirkland,  John  Thornton,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  em- 
inent American  Unitarian  divine,  was  born  at  Herkimer, 
N.  Y.,  Aug.  17, 1770.  His  j-outhful  daj's  were  spent  at 
Stockbridge,  Mass.  At  the  age  of  thirteen  he  went  to 
Phillips  Academy,  then  under  the  care  of  Dr.  Eliphalet 
Pearson,  and  in  1785,  with  the  patronage  of  the  excel- 
lent judge  Phillips,  he  entered  Harvard  University.  He 
passed  through  college  with  a  high  re]iutatioii  for  schol- 
arship, especially  excelling  in  the  departments  of  lan- 
guages and  metaphysics,  and  graduated  in  1789  with 


distinguished  honors.  Shortly  after  he  went  to  Stock- 
bridge,  and  commenced  the  study  of  theology  under  the 
direction  of  Dr.  Stephen  West;  but  the  strict  vievs  of 
theology  to  which  he  was  here  introduced  were  little  to 
his  taste,  and  he  soon  after  returned  to  Cambridge,  where 
he  found  himself  in  a  much  more  congenial  theological 
atmosphere.  In  November,  1792,  while  still  prosecuting 
his  theological  studies,  he  was  appointed  tutor  of  meta- 
physics in  Harvard  University,  and  held  this  office  until 
February,  1794,  when  he  was  ordained,  and  installed  pas- 
tor of  the  New  South  Church,  Boston.  Here  he  soon 
drew  around  him  an  intelligent  and  discriminating  con- 
gregation, among  whom  were  some  of  the  leading  men 
of  the  times.  In  1802  he  was  honored  with  the  degree 
of  doctor  of  divinity  from  the  College  of  New  Jersey, 
and  in  1810  with  the  degree  of  doctor  of  laws  from 
Brown  University.  So  high  was  his  professional  repu- 
tation at  that  time,  and  so  commanding  the  influence 
lie  had  acquired,  that  in  1810  he  was  elected  to  the  pres- 
idency of  Harvard  University.  Dr.  Kirkland's  presi- 
dency marked  a  brilliant  epoch  in  the  history  of  the 
college.  Under  his  administration  tlie  course  of  studies 
was  greatly  enlarged ;  the  law  school  was  established ; 
the  medical  school  reorganized;  four  different  professor- 
ships in  the  academical  department  endowed  and  filled ; 
three  new  buildings  erected,  and  immense  additions 
made  to  the  library.  In  August,  1827,  lie  suffered  a 
stroke  of  paralysis,  which  led  him,  in  March,  1828,  to  re- 
sign his  office  as  president ;  and  in  April  he  set  out  on  a 
long  journey  through  the  "Western  and  Southern  States, 
and  afterwards  spent  three  years  and  a  half  in  visiting 
foreign  countries.  He  died  April  26, 1840,  Dr.  Kirk- 
land was  a  person  of  simple,  dignified,  and  winning  man- 
ners; he  had  great  natural  dignity;  there  was  an  un- 
studied grace  in  his  whole  bearing  and  demeanor.  His 
mind  was  of  an  ethical  turn ;  he  was  distinguished  as 
a  moralist,  and  seemed  to  possess  a  thorough,  intimate, 
and  marvellous  knowledge  of  men.  He  was  remarka- 
ble, too,  for  the  comprehensiveness  of  his  views  and  the 
universality  of  his  judgments.  He  always  generalized 
on  a  large  scale,  and  even  his  conversation  was  a  suc- 
cession of  aphorisms,  maxims,  and  general  remarks.  His 
publications  consisted  of  a  few  occasional  Discourses, 
several-contributions  to  the  periodicals  of  that  day,  aiid 
a  Memoir  of  Fisher  Ames.  See  Ware,  ^??;er.  Uniturian 
liiorj.  i,  273 ;  Christian  Examiner,  xxix,  282,     (J.  L.  S.) 

Kirkland,  Samuel,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  born  Dec.  1,  1741,  at  Norwich,  Conn.  He  received 
his  degree  from  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  1765,  though 
not  present  himself.  In  Nov.  1765,  he  went  on  a  mis- 
sionary visit  to  the  Seneca  Indians,  and  returning  in 
Maj^,  1766,  he  was  duly  ordained  and  appointed  mission- 
ary by  the  Connecticut  Board  of  Correspondents  of  the 
society  in  Scotland.  He  settled  at  Oneida  in  the  midst 
of  the  Oneida  tribe,  and  labored  until  the  Bevolution 
suspended  his  mission.  During  the  war  he  served  as 
chaplain  in  the  army,  and  was  engaged  in  negotiations 
with  the  Indians,  for  which  services  he  was  rewarded  by 
Congress  in  1785.  As  soon  as  the  war  was  ended  he 
continued  his  missionary  labors  among  the  Indians.  In 
1788  the  Indians  and  New  York  State  presented  him 
;\itli  valuable  lands,  part  of  which  he  improved  and  oc- 
cupied. During  the  year  1791  he  made  a  Statement  of 
the  Numhers  and  Situation  of  the  Six  United  Nations  of 
Indians  in  Noith  America,  and  in  the  winter  conducted 
a  delegation  of  some  forty  warriors  to  meet  Congress  in 
Philadelphia.  In  1793  he  was  instrumental  in  procuring 
a  charter  for  the  Hamilton  Oneida  Academy,  which  has 
since  become  a  college.  His  connection  with  the  socie- 
ty in  Scotland  was  broken  off  in  1797,  for  what  reason 
he  knew  not,  but  he  continued  his  accustomed  work  un- 
til his  death,  Feb.  28, 1808.— Sprague,  Anncds,  i,  623. 

Kirkpatrick,  Hugh.    See  Kirkpatkick,  Ja:\ies. 

Kirkpatrick,  Jacob,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  divine, 
was  born  near  Baskingridge,  N.J,,  August  7, 1785;  ]nir- 
sued  his  classical  studies  under  the  direction  of  the  IJev. 


KIRKPATRICK 


108 


KIR-MOAB 


Robert  Finley,  D.U.,  and  graduated  at  the  College  of 
New  .Tcrscy  in  LSO  t.  After  this  he  studied  law  three 
years,  b:;t  in  1807  he  decided  definitely  in  favor  of  the 
ministry,  and  resumed  his  studies  under  John  WoodhuU, 
D.D.,  of  Freehold,  N.  J.  In  August,  1809,  he  was  licensed 
hy  the  New  Brunswick  I'resbyterv,  and  was  ordained 
and  installed  pastor  of  the  United  First  Church  of  Am- 
well,  Kingoes,  N.  J.,  June  20, 1810,  where  he  continued  to 
labor  for  tifty-six  years.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Hunterdon  County  Bible  Society  (1816),  and  also 
among  the  earliest  and  most  energetic  promoters  of  the 
temperance  reformation  in  that  county.  He  died  at 
l-iingoes,  N.  J.,  May  2, 186(').  Dr.  Kirkpatrick  was  a  man 
of  a  large  and  generous  heart ;  his  preaching  was  full  of 
tenderness,  pathos,  and  earnestness ;  his  Christian  char- 
acter unassuming,  and  adorned  with  meekness  and  pie- 
ty.— Wilson,  Presb.  Historical  A  Imaiiac,  18G7.  (J.  L.  S.) 
Kirkpatrick,  James,  a  noted  minister  of  the 
Presbyteriau  Cluirch  in  Ireland,  was  the  son  of  Hugh 
Kirkpatrick,  a  minister  in  Lnrgan,  Scotland,  from  about 
1(J8G  to  the  Revolution,  when  he  retired  to  Dairy,  Ire- 
land, where  he  preached  until  1G91,  then  removed  to  Old 
Cumnock,  and  in  1G95  again  returned  to  Scotland,  and 
died  at  Balh'money  in  1712.  James  was  educated  at 
(ilasgow,  entered  the  ministry,  and  became  one  of  the 
most  promising  Irish  Presbj-terians  in  the  pulpit.  In 
170G  he  was  the  preacher  of  the  Second  Belfast  congre- 
gation. During  the  opposition  of  the  House  of  Parlia- 
ment to  the  Presbyterians,  James  Kirkpatrick  became 
one  of  the  ablest  champions  of  the  Presl)yterian  cause. 
In  1713  he  published  ,4  «  Historicul  Kssui/  iipaii  the  Loy- 
altij  of  Presbyterians  in  Great  Britain  ami  I  r<  luiidfrom 
the  Reformation  to  the  present  Year  (Belfast,  1713, 4to), 
to  which  neither  he  nor  the  printer  dared  to  affix  their 
names  for  fear  of  persecution.  He  died  about  1725. — 
Reid  and  Killen,  IJist.  Presb.  Ch.  in  Ireland,  iii,  91  sq. 

Kirk-Sessions  is  the  name  of  a  petty  ecclesias- 
tical ju'licatory  in  Scotland.  Each  parish,  according  to 
its  extent,  is  divided  into  several  particular  districts, 
every  one  of  which  has  its  own  elder  and  deacons  to 
govern  it.  A  Consistory  of  the  ministers,  elders,  and 
deacons  of  a  parish  form  a  kirk-session.  These  meet 
once  a  week,  the  minister  being  their  moderator,  but 
without  a  negative  voice.  It  regulates  matters  rela- 
tive to  public  worship,  elections,  catechizing,  visitations, 
membership,  etc.  It  judges  in  matters  of  less  scandal; 
but  greater,  as  adultery,  are  left  to  the  Presbytery,  and 
in  all  cases  an  appeal  lies  from  it  to  the  Presbyterj'. 
The  functions  of  the  kirk-session  were  in  former  times 
too  often  inquisitorially  exercised ;  but  this  is  now  less 
freiiucntl)'  attempted,  and  the  danger  of  it  is  continu- 
ally diminishing  through  the  growth  of  an  enlightened 
public  opinion.  In  former  times,  also,  the  kirk-session  in 
Scotland  often  imposed  lines,  chiefly  for  offences  against 
the  seventh  commandment;  but  this  practice  had  no 
recognition  in  civil  nor  even  in  ecclesiastical  law,  and  is 
now  wholly  relinquished.  The  kirk-session  of  the  Es- 
tabhshed  Church  in  each  parish  is  fully  recognised  in 
Scottish  law  as  having  certain  rights  and  duties  with 
respect  to  the  poor,  but  recent  legislation  has  very  much 
deprived  it  of  its  former  importance  in  this  relation. — 
Buck,  s.  v. ;  Chambers,  s.  v. 

Kirkton,  James,  a  Scottish  divine,  who  flourished 
in  the  sei'on<l  half  of  the  17th  century,  is  noted  as  the 
authnr  of  The  secret  ami  true  History  of  the  Church  of 
,Srntl(i>i(lfrom  the  Restoration  to  1078,  etc.  (edited  by  C. 
K.  Sliarpe,  Edinb.  1817,  4to),  a  work  which  has  been 
highly  commended  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  (Lofulon  Quart. 
Reriew,  xviii,  502  scj.).  Kirkton  died  in  1699. — Black- 
icooiVs  Jfayazine,  ii,  305  sq. 

Kirkwood,  Rokkut,  a  Presbyterian  minister,- born 
in  Paisley,  Scotland,  !May  25,  179.'?,,was  educated  in  Glas- 
gow College,  and  studied  divinity  with  liev.  jdhn  Dick, 
D.I).,  at  Theological  Hall,  (Jlasgow.  He  was  licensed 
in  18-28.  In  response  to  a  jircssing  call  for  ministerial 
workers  in  New  York,  he  went  thither  and  connected 


himself  with  the  Reformed  Protestant  Dutch  Church, 
under  the  I^Iissionary  Society  of  which  he  laboreil  un- 
til 1830,  when  he  became  pastor  at  Cortlandville,  N.  Y. 
He  officiated  there  and  at  Auburn  and  Sandbeach,  N. 
Y.,  until  1839,  and  then  served  as  a  domestic  missionary 
for  seven  years  in  Illinois.  For  the  next  eleven  years 
he  labored  as  agent  for  the  Bible  and  Tract  Societies. 
In  1857  he  transferred  his  connection  from  the  Reformed 
to  the  Presbyterian  Church,  and  settled  at  Y'onkers,  N. 
Y.,  devoting  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  literary  labors. 
He  died  August  26, 1866.  In  addition  to  numerous  con- 
tributions to  the  Christian  Intelligencer,  New  York  Ob- 
server, and  The  Presbyterian,  he  published  Lectui-es  on 
the  Millennium  (New  Y'ork,  1855) : — Universalism  Ex- 
plained (New  Y'ork,  1856) : — .4  Plea  for  the  Bible  (New 
York,  1S60 ;  a  very  (lopular  work  and  extensively  sold)  : 
— Illustrations  of  the  Offices  of  Christ  (New  Y'ork,  1862; 
a  practical  treatise  on  divine  influences);  together  with 
a  selection  of  sermons.  Mr.  Kirkwood  having  enjoyed 
the  superior  advantages  of  instruction  by  the  distin- 
guished Dr.  Dick,  was  thoroughly  and  systematically 
trained  in  the  great  evangelical  doctrines.  His  preacli- 
ing  was  ciiaracterized  by  a  practical  scriptural  tone. 
"His  only  peculiarity  of  doctrine  was  his  pre-millennial 
views,  in  which,  however,  as  his  work  on  this  subject 
shows,  he  was  moderate,  cautious,  and  never  went  to  the 
extreme  of  fixing  the  time  and  seasons,  which  the  Fa- 
ther hath  put  in  his  own  power." — Wilson,  Presb.  His- 
torical A  hnanac. 

Kir-Mo'ab  (lUh.  Kir-Modb',  'Z^r:t—i''p.fortress 
of  Moab  [see  Kir];  Isa.  xv,  1;  Sept.  to  thxoq  riig 
MwafSiTtSoc,  Vulg.  murus  Moab,  Auth.  Vers.  "  Kir  of 
:^Ioab"),  usually  KIR-HEEES  (Heb.  Kir-che'res,  -T^p 
b"iri,  brick  forfi-ess,  Jer.  xlviii,  31,  36;  Sept.  Keipdcic, 
Yulg.  murus  flat  ills ;  in  pause  bl'^H  "l"'p,  Isa.  xvi,  11; 
Sept.  TtixoQ  o  tVfKrtij'((T«f, Vulgate  murus  cocti  lateris, 
Auth.Vers.  '•  Ivir-haresh"),"  or  KIR-H ARESETH  (Heb. 
Kir-Chare' seth,  rib"in~"l"'p,  id.,  Isa.  xvi,  7;  Sept.  oi 
KaroiKovvTii;  2£3, Vulgate  muri  cocti  lateris;  in  pause 
riiy'nn  "i^p;,  2  Kings  iii.  25;  Sept.  to  Ti~ixoc,\w\'^nta 
7?i?/;i/(rf27e.«,  Auth.Vers. "Kir-haraseth"),  one  ofthe  two 
strongly  fortified  cities  in  the  territory  of  Moab,  the 
other  being  Ar  of  IMoab.  Joram,  king  of  Israel,  took 
the  city,  and  destroyed  it,  except  the  walls  (2  Kings  iii, 
25) ;  but  it  appears  from  the  passages  here  cited  that  it 
must  have  been  rebuilt  before  the  time  of  Isaiah,  anil 
again  ravaged  by  the  Babylonians.  In  his  pro]ihecr 
(xv,  1),  the  Chaldee  paraphrast  has  put  SNTCT  ^^2 "3, 
kerakka  de-Moab,  "  the  castle  of  Moab;"  and  the  former 
of  these  words,  pronounced  in  Arabic  karak,  kcrak,  or 
k'rak,  is  the  name  it  bears  in  2  Mace,  xii,  17  (XapaKO, 
Characci),  in  Steph.  Bj-zant.  {\apaKj.iw(ia,  Characnio- 
ba),  in  Ptolemy  (v,  17,  5,  XapaKio/^ta,  Churacoma'),  in 
Abulfeda  {T(tb.  Syr.  p.  89),  and  in  the  historians  of  the 
Crusades.  Abulfeda  (who  places  it  twelve  Arabic  miles 
from  Ar-JIoab)  describes  Kerak  as  a  small  town,  with 
a  castle  on  a  high  hill,  and  remarks  that  it  is  so  strong 
that  one  must  deny  himself  even  the  wish  to  take  it  by 
force  (comp.  2  Kings  iii.  25\  In  the  time  of  the  Cru- 
sades, and  when  in  possession  of  the  Franks,  it  was  in- 
vested by  Saladin;  but,  after  lying  before  it  a  month, 
he  was  compelled  to  raise  the  siege  (Boh.-eddin,  Vita 
Saladin.  p.  55).  The  Crusaders  had  erected  here  a  for- 
tress still  known  as  Kerak,  which  formed  one  of  the 
centres  of  operations  for  the  Latins  east  of  the  Jordan. 
On  the  capture  of  these  at  length  by  Saladin  after  a 
long  siege,  in  A.D.  1188,  the  dominion  of  the  Franks 
over  this  territory  ceased  (Wilken,  Kreuzz.  iv,  244-247). 
"  It  was  then  the  chief  city  of  .4  i-abia  Secunda  or  Petra- 
censis ;  it  is  specified  as  in  the  Belka,  and  is  distinguish- 
ed from  ']Moab'  or  'Rabbat.'  the  ancient  Ar-]Moab,  and 
from  the  Mons  reyalis  (Scludtens,  Index  Geoyr.  s.  v.  Ca- 
racha ;  see  also  the  remarks  of  Gcsenius,  Jesaia,  i,  517, 
and  liis  notes  to  the  (Jerman  translation  of  Burckhardt). 
The  Crusaders,  in  error,  believed  it  to  be  Petra,  and  that 


KIR-MOAB 


109 


KISIIION 


name  is  frequently  attached  to  it  in  the  -vmtings  of 
"W'ilUam  of  Tyre  and  Jacob  de  Vitry  (see  quotations  in 
Kobinson,  Bib.  Res.  ii,  107).  This  error  is  perpetuated 
in  the  Greek  Church  to  tlie  present  day;  and  the  bishop 
of  Fetra,  whose  otiice,  as  representative  of  the  patriarch, 
it  is  to  produce  the  holy  fire  at  Easter  in  the  Church  of 
the  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem  (Stanley,  S.  and  P.  p.  467), 
is  in  reality  bisliop  of  Kerak  (Seetzen,  Reisen,  ii,  358 : 
Burckhardt,  p.  387)"  (Smitli).  The  first  person  who 
visited  tlie  place  in  modern  times  was  Seetzen,  who 
Bays,  '•  Near  to  Kerak  tlie  wide  plain  terminates  which 
extends  from  Kabbah,  and  is  broken  only  by  low  and 
detached  hills,  and  the  country  now  becomes  mountain- 
ous. Kerak,  formerly  a  city  and  bishop's  see,  lies  on  the 
top  of  the  liill  near  the  end  of  a  deep  valley,  and  is  sur- 
roiuided  on  all  sides  with  lofty  mountains.  The  hill  is 
very  steep,  and  in  many  places  the  sides  are  quite  per- 
pendicular. The  walls  round  the  town  are  for  the 
most  part  destroyed,  and  Kerak  can  at  present  boast  of 
little  more  than  being  a  small  country  town.  The  cas- 
tle, -which  is  luiinhabited,  and  in  a  state  of  great  decay, 
was  formerly  one  of  the  strongest  in  these  countries. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  town  consist  of  jNIohammedans 
anil  tireek  Christians..  The  present  bishop  of  Kerak 
resides  at  Jerusalem.  From  tliis  ])lace  one  enjoys,  by 
looking  down  the  wady  Kerak,  a  fine  view  of  part  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  and  even  Jerusalem  may  be  distinctly 
seen  iu  clear  weather.  The  hill  on  which  Kerak  lies  is 
composed  of  limestone  and  brittle  marl,  with  many  beds 
of  blue,  black,  and  gray  flints.  In  the  neighboring 
rocks  there  are  a  number  of  curious  grottoes;  in  those 
which  are  imder  ground  wheat  is  sometimes  preserved 
for  a  period  often  years"  (Zach's  Monatliche  Correspond. 
xviii,  43-1).  A  fuller  account  of  the  place  is  given  by 
Burckhardt  {Travels  in  Syria,  p.  379-387).  by  whom  it 
was  next  visited;  and  another  description  is  furnished 
by  Irby  and  Mangles  ( Travels,  p.  3G1-370).  From  their 
account  it  would  seem  that  the  caverns  noticed  by  Seet- 
zen were  probably  the  sepulchres  of  the  ancient  town. 
We  also  learn  that  the  Christians  of  Kerak  (which  they 
and  Burckhardt  call  Kerek)  are  nearly  as  numerous  as 
the  i\Iohammcdans,  and  boast  of  being  stronger  and 
braver  (sec  Robinson's  Researches,  ii,  5GG-571).  On  ac- 
count of  tlie  notoriously  savage  character  of  its  Moham- 
medan inhabitants,  Kerak  has  not  often  been  visited  by 
travellers.  Lieut.  Lynch,  of  the  United  States  expedi- 
tion to  the  Dead  Sea,  penetrated  this  fastness  of  banditti, 
having  boldly  seized  the  sheik  and  detained  him  as  a 
hostage  for  their  safety.  He  describes  the  town  as  sit- 
uated upon  the  brow  of  a  hill  3000  feet  above  the  Dead 
Sea.  The  houses  are  a  collection  of  stone  huts,  built 
without  mortar.  They  are  from  seven  to  eight  feet 
high ;  the  ground  floors  about  six  feet  below,  and  the 
flat  terrace  mud-roofs  mostly  about  two  feet  above  the 
streets ;  but  in  many  places  there  were  short  cuts  from 
street  to  street  across  the  roofs  of  the  houses.  The 
houses,  or  rather  huts,  without  windows  and  without 
chimneys,  were  blackened  insifle  by  smoke,  and  the 
women  and  children  were  squalid  and  filthy.  Kerak 
contains  a  population  of  about  300  families ;  these  in- 
clude about  1000  Christians,  who  are  kejit  in  subjection 
by  the  IVIoslem  Arabs.  The  Jloslem  inhabitants  are 
wild-looking  savages,  but  the  Christians  have  a  mild  and 
hospitable  character.  The  males  mostly  wear  sheep-skin 
coats,  the  women  dark-colored  gowns ;  the  Christian  fe- 
males did  not  conceal  their  faces,  which  were  tattooed 
like  the  South  Sea  islanders.  The  entrance  to  Kerak  is 
by  a  steep  and  crooked  ravine,  wiiich  is  completely  com- 
manded at  the  summit  by  the  castle.  This  latter,  partly 
cut  out  of  and  partly  built  upon  the  mountain  top,  pre- 
sents the  remains  of  a  magnificent  structure,  its  citadel 
cut  off  from  the  town  bj'  a  deep  ditch.  It  seems  to  be 
Saracenic,  although  in  various  parts  it  has  both  the 
pointed  (iothic  and  the  rounded  IJoman  arch,  the  work 
doubtless  of  the  various  masters  into  whose  hands  it  has 
fallen  during  its  eventful  history.  Its  walls  are  com- 
posed of  liea\-j',  well-cut  stoues,  with  a  steep  glacis-wall 


surrounding  the  whole.  It  is  of  immense  extent,  having 
five  gates,  seven  wells  and  cisterns,  with  subterranean 
passages,  and  seven  arched  store-houses,  one  above  an- 
other, for  purposes  of  defence  (see  Lynch's  Narrative,  p. 
355-359).  Mr.  De  Saulcy  also  entered  this  "den  of 
robbers,"  as  he  terms  it,  and  he  has  added  some  partic- 
ulars to  the  above  description  {Narrative,  i,  302-330, 
390).  His  account  illustrates  the  character  of  the  in- 
habitants, who  have  for  many  years  been  the  terror  of 
the  vicinity  (Porter,  Handbook,  p.  GO ;  Schwarz,  Pales- 
tine, p.  21G ).  See  also  Patter's  Erdkimde,  xv,  91G,  1215. 
A  map  of  the  site  and  a  view  of  part  of  the  keep  will  be 
found  in  the  Atlas  to  De  Saidcy  {La  Mer  Morte,  etc., 
fcuilles  8,  20).     See  Moab. 

Kirwan.     See  Murray,  Nicholas, 

Kir"waii,  AValter  Blake,  an  eminent  Irish  divine, 
and  one  of  the  most  celebrated  and  popular  preachers  of 
the  last  half  of  the  18th  century,  was  born  at  tJalway 
about  1754.  He  was  educated  at  the  college  of  the 
English  Jesuits  at  St.Omer;  was  ordained  priest,  and 
was  for  a  time  professor  of  natural  and  moral  philosophy 
at  Lou  vain.  Having  embraced  Protestantism  in  1787, 
he  became  successively  minister  of  St.  Peter's  Church, 
Dublin;  prebendary  of  Howth,  minister  of  St. Nicholas 
Without  in  1788,  and  dean  of  Killala  in  1800.  He  died 
in  1805.  Few  preachers  of  any  age  have  enjoyed  siich 
popularity  as  Walter  Blake  Kirwan.  So  great  was  tl;o 
throng  to  listen  to  his  sermons  that  it  Avas  found  neces- 
sary to  defend  the  entrance  of  the  church  where  he  was 
to  preach  with  guards  and  palisades.  He  was  a  man 
of  fine  feelings,  amiable  and  benevolent,  and  his  irre- 
sistible powers  of  persuasion  were  chiefly  devoted  to  the 
preaching  of  charity  sermons.  It  is  said  that  the  col- 
lections taken  up  after  his  sermons  seldom  fell  short  of 
£1000.  These  addresses  have  been  published  under  the 
title  of  Sermons,  with  a  sketch  of  his  life  (London,  1814, 
8vo).  See  Darling,  Ctjclopcedia  Bihlioi/raphica,  ii,  1735 ; 
Allibone,  Did.  of  Enrjlish  and  Amer.  Authors,  ii,  1038; 
Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  xi,  130  sq. ;  Lord  Brougham,  Confrib. 
fa  the  Edinb.  Rev.  (Lond.  and  Glasgow,  185G),  i,  104  sq. 
(J.H.W.) 

Kish  (Heb.  id.,  ■d"'P,  a  trap,  otherwise  a  hoiii ;  Sept. 
Kji'c:  or  Ki'f,  N.  T.  K/c,  Auth.  Yers.  "  Cis,"  Acts  xiii,21), 
the  name  of  five  men. 

1.  The  second  of  the  two  sons  of  Mahli  (grandson  of 
Levi) ;  his  sons  married  their  cousins,  heiresses  of  his 
brother  Eleazar  (1  Chron.  xxiii,  21,  22).  One  of  these 
sons  was  named  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  xxiv,  29).  B.C. 
cLr.  1658. 

2.  A  Bcnjamite  of  Jerusalem  (i.e.  the  northern  neigh- 
borhood of  Jebus),  third  named  of  the  sons  of  Jehiel  (of 
Gibeon)  by  jMaachah  (1  Chron.  viii,  30  ;  ix,  36).  B.C. 
apparently  cir.  1618. 

3.  A  wealthy  and  powerful  Bcnjamite,  son  of  Ner  (1 
Chron.  viii,  33  ;  ix,  39),  and  father  of  king  Saul  (1  Sam. 
ix,  3 ;  X,  11,  21 ;  xiv,  51 ;  1  Chron.  ix,  39 ;  xii,  1 ;  xxvi, 
28).  He  was  thus  the  grandson  (1  Sam.  ix,  1,  "  son" 
[q.v.])  of  Abiel  (q.  v.).  See  Ner.  No  incident  is  men- 
tioned respecting  him  excepting  his  sending  Saul  in 
search  of  the  straj'ed  asses  (1  Sam.  ix,  3),  and  that  he 
was  buried  in  Zelah  (2  Sam.  xxi,  14).  B.C.  1093.  In 
Acts  xiii,  21  he  is  called  Cis.     See  Saul. 

4.  A  Levite  of  the  family  of  Merari,  son  of  Abdi,  and 
one  of  those  who  assisted  Ilezekiah  in  restoring  the 
true  religion  (2  Chron.  xxix,  12).     B.C.  726. 

5.  A  Bcnjamite,  the  father  of  Shimei,  and  great- 
grandfather of  Mordccai  (Esth.  ii,  5).  B.C.  considera- 
bly ante  598. 

Kish'i  (1  Chron.  vi,44).  See  Kushaiail 
Xish'ion  (\lQh. Kishyon' ,  "jTi^rp,  so  called  from  the 
hardness  of  the  soil;  Sept.  Ksmwr,  Auth.  Yers.  "  Kish- 
on"  in  Josh,  xxi,  28),  a  city  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar  (Josh. 
xix,  20,  where  it  is  mentioned  between  Kabbith  and 
Abez),  assigned  to  the  Levites  of  the  family  of  Ciershom, 
and  for  a  place  of  refuge  (Josh,  xxi,  28) ;  elsewhere  (1 


KISHOX 


110 


KISHOX 


Chron.  vi,72)  called  Kedesh  (q.  v.).  De  Saulcy  found 
ruins  called  Kiishaneh  (or  Kabs/niiieh),  an  hour  and  a 
hair  from  Kct'r-Kenna,  commandinj;;  tlie  Merj-es-Serbal. 
north  of  Jit,  Tabor,  which  he  is  inclined  to  identify  with 
the  ancient  Kishion  {Xarrat.  ii,  3-25,  32G).  Schwarz, 
citing  from  Astori,  places  it  2i  miles  south  of  Chesulloth 
(Iksal);  hut  lie  appears  to  be  misled  by  the  analofiy  of 
the  name  of  this  place  with  that  of  the  brook  Kishon 
{PdWM.  p.  IGG),  which  has  no  connection  in  origin  (see 
Hamosvcld,  iii,  241). 

Ki'shon  (\ie\). Kishon' ,  'lO'^p,  windinrj;  Septuag. 
K((7w)';  but  inPsa.lxxxiii,9,  KtffiTwj/  v.  r.  Kektwv,  Auth. 
Vers.  "Kison"),  a  torrent  or  winter  stream  (Pn3,  A.  Y. 
"river")  of  central  Palestine,  the  scene  of  two  of  the 
grandest  achievements  of  Israclitish  history — the  defeat 
of  Siscra  (Judg.iv,  7, 13 ;  v,  21),  and  the  destruction  of 
the  prophets  of  Baal  by  Elijah  (1  Kings  xviii,  40).  It 
formed  the  boundary  Ijetween  Manasseh  and  Zebulon 
(Josh,  xix,  11).  See  Jok:<e.ui.  Some  portion  of  it  is 
also  thought  to  be  designated  as  the  "waters  of  Megid- 
do"  (Jadg.  V,  19).  See  Megiddo.  The  term  coupled 
with  the  Kishon  in  Judg.  v,  21,  as  a  stream  of  the  an- 
cients (a'^^n|5il,  A.  Y.  "that  ancient  river"),  has  been 
very  variously  rendered  by  the  old  interpreters.  1.  It  is 
taken  as  a  proper  name,  and  thus  apparently  that  of  a 
distinct  stream — in  some  MSS.  of  the  Sept,  Kacmieifi 
(see  Barhdt's  IlexapltC) ;  by  Jerome,  in  the  Yulgate,  tor- 
Tcns  Cadiimim;  in  the  Peshito  and  Arabic  versions,  Citr- 
miiu  This  view  is  also  taken  by  Benjamin  of  Tndela, 
who  speaks  of  the  river  close  to  Acre  (doubtlsss  mean- 
ing thereby  the  Belus)  as  the  Q^'a'np  ^n3.  It  is  pos- 
sible that  the  term  may  refer  to  an  ancient  tribe  of  Ke- 
dumim — wanderers  from  the  Eastern  deserts — who  had 
in  remote  antiquity  settled  on  the  Kishon  or  one  of  its 
tributary  wadys.  See  Kadmoxites.  2.  As  an  epithet 
of  the  Kishon  itself:  ScYit.  j(Hjj,uppovg  upxaiiov,  Aquila, 
KavcTMinov,  perhaps  intending  to  imply  a  scorching  wind 
or  simoom  as  accompanj-ing  the  rising  of  the  waters ; 
Symmachus,  ah/ioiv  or  alywi',  perhaps  alluding  to  the 
swift  springing  of  the  torrent  (a'iyig  is  used  for  high 
waves  by  Artemidorus).  The  Targum,  adhering  to  the 
signilication  "  ancient,"  expands  the  sentence — "  the  tor- 
rent in  which  were  shown  signs  and  wonders  to  Israel 
of  old;"  and  this  miraculous  torrent  a  later  Jewish  tra- 
diti(jn  (preserved  in  the  Commenfarius  in  Canticum  Deb- 
horiF,  ascribed  to  Jerome)  would  identify  with  the  Bed 
Sea,  the  scene  of  the  greatest  marvels  in  Israel's  history. 
The  rcntlering  of  the  A.Y.  is  supported  by  jNIcndelssohn, 
Gescnius,  I'^wald,  and  other  modern  scholars.  The  ref- 
erence is  probably  to  exploits  among  the  aboriginal  Ca- 
naanites,  as  the  plain  adjoining  the  stream  has  always 
been  the  great  battle-ground  of  Palestine.  See  Esdka- 
ELox.     For  the  Kishon  of  Josh,  xxi,  28,  see  Kisniox. 

By  Josephus  the  Kishon  is  never  named,  neither  does 
the  name  occur  in  the  early  Itineraries  of  Antoninus  Au- 
gustus, or  the  Bordeaux  Pilgrim.  Eusebius  and  Jerome 
dismiss  it  in  a  few  -words,  and  note  only  its  origin  in 
Talmr  (Oiiomast.  Cison),  or  such  part  of  it  as  can  be  seen 
thence  {Ep.  (id  Enstochium.^  13),  passing  by  entirely  its 
connection  with  Carmel.  IJcnjamin  of  Tudela  visited 
Akka  and  Carmel.  He  mentions  the  river  by  name  as 
"  Nachal  Kishon,"  but  onty  in  the  most  cursory  manner. 
Brocardiis  (cir.  1500)  describes  the  western  portion  of 
the  stream  with  a  little  more  fulness,  but  enlarges  most 
on  its  Mpjier  or  eastoru  part,  which,  with  the  victory  of 
Barak,  he  places  on  the  cast  of  Tabor  and  Ilcrmon,  as 
discharging  the  water  of  those  mountains  into  the  Sea 
of  Galilee  (Dcscr.  Terra,  S.  cap.  G,  7).  This  has  been 
shown  by  Dr.  Bobinson  {Bib.  lies,  ii,  3G4)  to  allude  to 
the  wady  cl-Birch,  which  runs  down  to  the  Jordan  a 
few  miles  above  Scytbojiolis. 

The  Kishon  is  beyond  all  doubt  the  river  now  called 
Kdhr  el-^fokaltcih  (or  Mukatta),  which,  after  travers- 
ing the  plain  of  Acre,  enters  the  bay  of  the  latter  name 
at  its  sv)uth-east  corner.     It  has  been  usual  to  trace  the 


source  of  this  river  to  Jlount  Tabor  (as  above  by  Je- 
rome), but  Dr.  Shaw  affirms  that  in  travelling  along  the 
south-eastern  brow  of  Mount  Carmel  he  had  an  oppor- 
tunitj'  of  seeing  the  sources  of  the  river  Kishon,  three 
or  four  of  which  lie  within  less  than  a  furlong  of  each 
other,  and  are  called  Ras  el-Kishon,  or  the  head  of  the 
Kishon.  These  alone,  without  the  lesser  contributions 
near  the  sea,  discharge  water  enough  to  form  a  river 
half  as  large  as  the  Isis.  During  the  rainy  season  aU 
the  waters  which  fall  upon  the  eastern  side  of  Carmel, 
or  upon  the  rising  grounds  to  the  southward,  empty 
themlblves  into  it  in  a  number  of  torrents,  at  which 
time  it  overflows  its  banks,  acquires  a  wonderful  rapid- 
ity, and  carries  all  before  it.  It  was  doubtless  in  such  a 
season  that  the  host  of  Sisera  was  swept  away  in  at- 
tempting to  ford  it.  But  such  inmidations  are  only  oc- 
casional, and  of  short  duration,  as  is  indeed  implied  in 
the  destruction  in  its  waters  of  the  fugitives,  who  doubt- 
less expected  to  pass  it  safely.  The  course  of  the  stream, 
as  estimated  from  the  soiurces  thus  indicated,  is  not  more 
than  seven  miles.  It  rmis  very  briskly  till  within  half 
a  league  of  the  sea;  but  when  not  augmented  by  rains, 
it  never  falls  into  the  sea  in  a  full  stream,  but  insensi- 
bly percolates  through  a  bank  of  sand,  which  the  north 
winds  have  thrown  up  at  its  mouth.  It  was  in  this 
state  that  Shaw  himself  found  it  in  the  month  of  April, 
1722,  when  it  was  crossed  by  him. 

Notwithstanding  Shaw's  contradiction,  the  assertion 
that  ths  Kishon  derives  its  source  from  INIount  Tabor 
has  been  repeated  by  modern  travellers  as  conlidently 
as  by  their  ancient  predecessors  {Summer  Ramble,  i, 
281).  Bucldngham's  statement,  being  made  with  ref- 
erence to  the  view  from  JMount  Tabor  itself,  deserves  at- 
tention. He  says  that  near  the  foot  of  the  mountain  on 
the  south-west  are  "  the  springs  of  the  Ain  cs-Sherrar, 
which  send  a  perceptible  stream  through  the  centre  of 
the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  and  form  the  brook  Kishon  of 
antiquity."  Further  on.  the  same  traveller,  on  reach- 
ing the  hills  which  divide  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  from 
that  of  Acre,  saw  the  pass  through  which  the  river 
makes  its  way  from  the  one  plain  to  the  other  {Travels 
in  Palestine,  i,  1G8,  177).  Schwarz  also  states  that  the 
soiu-ces  of  the  Kishon  are  at  a  village  called  Sheik  Ab- 
rik,  south-west  of  Tabor  {Palest,  p.  1G6).  On  further  in- 
quiry, and  more  extensive  comparison  of  observations 
made  at  different  times  of  the  year,  it  \\ill  probably  be 
found  that  the  remoter  source  of  the  river  is  really  in 
Mount  Tabor,  but  that  the  supply  from  this  source  is 
cut  oft"  in  early  summer,  when  it  ceases  to  be  maintain- 
ed by  rains  or  contributory  torrents ;  Avhereas  the  copi- 
ous supply  from  the  nearer  springs  at  Eas  el-Kishon, 
with  other  springs  lower  down,  keep  it  up  from  that 
point  as  a  perennial  stream,  even  during  the  drought  of 
summer.  (See  Kitto's  Pict.  Hist,  of  Palestine,  p.  cxci.) 
Mariti  (ii,  112)  mentions  the  case  of  the  English  drago- 
man who  -(vas  drowned,  and  his  horse  with  him,  in  the 
attempt  to  cross  this  temporary  stream  from  JIt.  Tabor, 
in  Feb.  17G1.  During  the  battle  of  Mount  Tabor,  be- 
tween the  French  and  Arabs,  April  IG,  1790,  many  of  the 
latter  were  drowned  in  their  attempt  to  cross  a  stream 
coming  from  Dcburieh,  which  then  inundated  the  plain 
(Burckhardt,  Sip-ia,  p.  339).  Monro,  who  crossed  the 
river  early  in  April  (in  its  lower  or  perennial  part),  in 
order  to  ascend  !Mount  Carmel,  describes  it  as  traversing 
the  plain  of  Esdraelon.  The  river,  where  he  crossed  it, 
in  a  boat,  was  then  thirty  yards  wide.  In  the  plain 
from  Solam  to  Xazareth  he  crossed  "  a  considerable 
brook,  and  afterwards  some  others,  which  flow  into  a 
small  lake  on  the  northern  side  of  the  jJain,  and  event- 
ually contribute  to  swell  the  Kishon"  {Ramble.  1,55,281). 
Dr.  Bobinson  says  that  this  account  corresjionds  with 
channels  that  he  observed  {Biblical  Researches,  iii,  230). 
Prokesch  also,  in  April,  1829,  when  travelling  directly 
from  Bamleh  to  Nazareth,  entered  the  idain  of  Esdrae- 
lon at  or  near  Lcjjiui,  where  he  came  upon  the  Kishon, 
flowing  in  a  deep  bod  through  marshy  ground;  and  af- 
ter wandering  about  for  some  time  to  find  his  way 


KISHON 


111 


KISHON 


through  the  morass,  he  was  at  last  set  right  by  an  Arab, 
who  pointed  out  the  proper  ford  {Reise  ins  It.  Land,  p. 
120).  The  scriptural  account  of  the  overthrow  of  Sis- 
era's  host  manifestly  shows  that  the  stream  crossed  the 
plain,  and  must  have  been  of  considerable  size.  The 
above  arguments,  to  show  that  it  chd  so,  and  still  docs 
so,  are  confirmed  by  Dr.  IJobinson,  who  adds  that  "  not 
improbably,  in  ancient  times,  when  the  country  was 
perhaps  more  wooded,  there  may  have  been  j^ermanent 
streams  throughout  the  whole  plain."  The  transaction 
of  the  prophet  Elijah,  who,  after  his  sacritiee  on  Carmel, 
commanded  the  priests  of  Baal  to  be  slain  at  the*  river 
Kishon,  reqidres  no  explanation,  seeing  that  it  took 
place  at  the  perennial  lower  stream.  This  also  explains, 
what  has  sometimes  been  asked,  whence,  in  that  time 
of  drought,  the  water  was  obtained  with  which  the 
prophet  inundated  his  altar  and  sacrifice. 

Tlie  Kislion  is,  in  fact,  the  drain  by  which  the  waters 
of  the  ])lain  of  Esdraelon,  and  of  the  mountains  which 
inclose  that  plain,  namely,  C-armel  and  the  Samaria 
range  on  tlie  south,  tlie  mountain  of  Galilee  on  the 
north,  and  Gilboa,  "Little  Ilcrmon"  (so  called),  and 
Tabor  on  the  east,  find  their  way  to  the  Mediterranean. 
Its  course  is  in  a  direction  nearly  due  north-west  along 
the  lower  part  of  the  [ilain  nearest  the  foot  of  the  Sama- 
ritan hills,  and  close  beneath  the  very  cliffs  of  Carmel, 
breaking  through  the  hills  whicli  separate  the  plain  of 
Esdraeli)n  from  the  maritime  plain  of  Acre,  by  a  very 
narrow  pass,  beneath  the  eminence  of  Harothieh  or  Har- 
ti,  wliich  is  believed  by  some  still  to  retain  a  trace  of  the 
name  of  Harosheth  of  the  Gentiles.  It  has  two  princi- 
pal feeders :  the  lu-st  from  Deburieh  (Daberath),  on 
Mount  Tabor,  the  north-east  angle  of  the  plain ;  and, 
secondly,  from  Jclbuu  (Gilboa)  on  the  south-east.  It  is 
also  fell  by  the  copious  spring  of  Lejjun,  the  stream  from 
which  is  probably  the  "waters  of  jNIegiddo"  (Porter, 
Ilundbook,  p.  385).  The  highest  source  of  the  Kishon 
on  the  south-east  is  the  large  fountain  of  Jenin,  the  an- 
cient En-gannim,  the  water  from  which,  increased  by  a 
number  of  the  streamlets  from  the  surrounding  hills, 
flows  westward  across  the  plain  through  a  deep  channel 
during  the  winter  months;  but  in  summer  this  channel, 
like  the  northern  one,  is  perfectly  dry  (Van  de  Velde, 
Travels,  i,  3G2).  The  two  channels  unite  at  a  point  a 
few  miles  north  of  the  site  of  jNIegiddo.  The  channel  of 
the  united  stream  is  here  deep  and  miry,  the  ground  for 
some  distance  on  each  side  is  lo^v  and  marshy,  and  the 
fords  during  winter  arc  always  difficult,  and  often,  after 
heavy  rain,  impassable ;  yet  in  summer,  even  here,  the 
M'hole  plain  and  the  river  bed  are  dry  and  hard  (Kobin- 
son,  ii,  o(M).  These  facts  strikingly  illustrate  the  nar- 
rative of  the  defeat  of  Sisera.  The  battle  was  fought 
on  the  south  bank  of  the  Kishon,  at  jSIegiddo  (Judg.  iv, 
13;  V,  19).  "While  the  battle  raged  a  violent  storm  of 
wind  and  rain  came  on  (Judg.  v,  4, 20 ;  comp.  Josephus, 
Ant.  V,  5,  4).  In  a  short  time  the  hard  plain  was  turn- 
ed into  a  marsh,  and  the  dry  river-bed  into  a  foaming 
torrent.    The  Canaanites  were  driven  back  on  the  river 


by  the  fierv  attack  of  Barak  and  the  fury  of  the  storm ; 
for  "  tlic  earth  trembled,  the  lieavens  dropped  .  .  .  the 
stars  in  their  courses  fought  against  Sisera."  The  war- 
horses  and  chariots  dashing  madly  through  the  marshy 
ground  made  it  much  worse ;  and  the  soldiers,  in  trying 
to  cross  the  swollen  torrent,  were  swept  away. 

But,  like  most  of  the  so-caUed  "  rivers"  of  Palestine, 
the  perennial  stream  forms  but  a  small  part  of  the  Ki- 
shon. During  the  greater  part  of  the  year  (as  above 
noted)  its  upper  portion  is  dry,  and  the. stream  confined 
to  a  few  miles  next  the  sea.  The  sources  of  this  peren- 
nial portion  proceed  from  the  roots  of  Carmel — the  "vast 
fountains  called  Sa'adiych,  about  three  miles  east  of 
Chaifa"  (Thomson,  Land  and  Bool;  ii,  140),  and  those, 
apparently  still  more  copious,  described  by  Shaw  (Kob- 
inson,  ii,  365),  as  bursting  forth  from  beneath  the  east- 
ern brow  of  Carmel,  and  discharging  of  themselves  "  a 
river  half  as  big  as  the  Isis."  It  enters  the  sea  at  the 
lower  part  of  the  bay  of  Akka,  about  two  miles  east  of 
Chaifa,  "in  a  deep,  tortuous  bed,  between  banks  of 
loamy  soil  some  fifteen  feet  high,  and  fifteen  to  twenty 
yards  apart"  (Porter,  Handbook;  p.  383).  Between  the 
mouth  and  the  town  the  shore  is  lined  by  an  extensive 
grove  of  date-palms,  one  of  the  finest  in  Palestine  (Van 
de  Velde,  i,  289).  The  part  of  the  Kishon  at  which 
the  prophets  of  Baal  were  slaughtered  by  Elijah  was 
loubtless  close  below  the  spot  on  Carmel  where  the  sac- 
rifice had  taken  place.  This  spot  is  now  fixed  with  all 
but  certainty  as  at  the  extreme  east  end  of  the  moun- 
tain, to  which  the  name  is  still  attached  oi El-Mahraka, 
'•  the  burning."  See  Caioiel.  Nowhere  does  the  Ki- 
shon run  so  close  to  the  mountain  as  just  beneath  this 
spot  (Van  de  Velde,  i,  324).  It  is  about  1000  feet  above 
the  river,  and  a  precipitous  ravine  leads  directly  down, 
by  which  the  victims  were  perhaps  hurried  from  the 
sacred  precincts  of  the  altar  of  Jehovah  to  their  doom 
in  the  torrent  bed  below,  at  the  foot  of  the  mound, 
which  from  this  circumstance  may  be  called  tell  Kiisls, 
the  hill  of  the  priests.  Whether  the  Kishon  contained 
any  water  at  this  time  we  are  not  told;  that  required 
for  Elijah's  sacrifice  was  in  all  probability  obtained  from 
the  spring  on  the  mountain  side  below  the  plateau  of 
El-;\Iahraka.  At  the  mouth  of  the  river  are  banks  of 
fine  sand,  which  any  unusual  swell  in  the  river  converts 
into  dangerous  quicksands  (Van  de  Velde,  i,  289). 

The  modem  name  Nahr  el-Jtfuhitfa  some  have 
thought  means  "  the  river  of  slaughter,"  in  allusion  to 
the  slaughter  of  the  prophets  of  Baal  on  its  banks;  but 
the  name  may  also  signify  "  river  of  the  ford,"  from  an- 
other meaning  of  the  same  root  (compare  Robinson,  ii, 
3(J5) ;  the  latter  is  the  interpretation  given  of  the  name 
by  the  people  of  the  country. — Kitto ;  Smith.  See  fur- 
ther in  Hamesveld,  i,  522  sq. ;  Schwarz,  Palestine,  p.  49 ; 
Hackett,  Illustra.  p.  821-323;  Bitter,  Erdk.  xvi,  704; 
JMaundreU,  Early  Travels,  p. 430 ;  Pococke,  East,  II,  i,  55 ; 
G.  Kobinson,  Palest,  i,  203  (Par.  1835) ;  Thomson,  Land 
and  Pool;  i,  492 ;  Stanley,  Sinai  and  Pal.  p.  347 ;  Wilson, 
frauds  of  Bible, u,8G;  Tristram,  La«<?q/"/srae?,  p.  95,494* 


Mouth  of  the  Kishon. 


KISIISHU 


112 


KISS 


Kishshu.     See  Cucujiuiiit. 

Kislzer,  Johann  Justus,  a  German  theologian,  was 
born  at  Ki>dinij;haiisen  in  KitU),  and  was  educated  at  the 
nniversities  of  Jena  and  Gicsscn.  In  1G04  he  became 
l)rofessor  of  philosophy  at  Kinteln  University,  and  the 
year  following  proi'essor  of  theology.  He  died  March 
25,  171-1.  For  a  list  of  his  writings,  mainly  disserta- 
tions, see  During,  Gdehrte  Theolor/en  Deutschlands  des 
ly'"'  iiml  W'^Jahrh.  ii,  102. 

Ki'son  (Psa.  Ixxxiii,  9).  Sec  Kisiiox. 
l»!iss  ( p'4;3,  nashaJc';  Gr.  ^jXew,  to  love,  and  deriva- 
livos).  Originally  the  act  of  kissing  had  a  symbolical 
character,  as  a  natural  species  of  language,  expressive 
of  tender  affection  and  respect.  It  appears  from  the 
case  of  Laban  and  Jacob  (Gen.  xxix.  111)  that  this 
method  of  salutation  was  even  then  established  and  rec- 
ognised as  a  matter  of  course.  In  Gen.  xxvii,  26,  27,  a 
kiss  is  a  sign  of  affection  between  a  parent  and  child ; 
in  Cant,  viii,  1,  between  a  lover  and  his  bride.  It  was 
also,  as  with  some  modern  nations,  a  token  of  friendship 
and  regard  bestowed  when  friends  or  relations  met  or 
separated  (Tobit  vii,  G;  x,  12;  LuliC  vii,  45;  xv,  20; 
Acts  XX,  37 ;  Matt,  xxvi,  48 ;  2  Sam.  xx,  9) ;  the  same 
custom  is  still  usual  in  the  East  (Tischendorf,  Reise,  i, 
255).  The  Church  of  Ephesus  -wept  sore  at  Paul's  de- 
parture, and  fell  on  his  neck  and  kissed  him.  When 
Orpah  quitted  Naomi  and  Ruth  (Ruth  i,  14),  after  the 
three  had  lifted  up  their  voice  and  wept,  she  "  kissed 
her  mother-in-law,  but  Ruth  clave  unto  her." 

It  was  usual  to  kiss  the  mouth  (Gen.  xxxiii,  4 ;  Exod. 
iv,  27;  xviii,7;  ISam.  xx,  41;  Prov.  xxiv,  2G).  Kiss- 
ing the  lips  by  way  of  affectionate  salutation  was  not 
only  permitted,  but  customary  among  near  relatives  of 
both  sexes,  both  in  patriarchal  and  in  later  times  (Gen. 
xxix,  11;  Cant,  viii,  1).  Between  individuals  of  the 
same  sex,  and  in  a  limited  degree  between  those  of  dif- 
ferent sexes,  the  kiss  on  the  cheek  as  a  mark  of  respect 
or  an  act  of  salutation  has  at  all  tim^s  been  customary 
in  the  East,  and  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  extinct  even 
in  Europe.  Mention  is  made  of  it  (1)  between  parents 
and  children  (Gen.  xxvii,  2G,  27 ;  xxxi,  28,  55 ;  xlviii, 
10 ;  1,  1 ;  Exod.  xviii,  7  ;  Ruth  i,  9,  14 ;  2  Sam.  xiv,  33  ; 
1  Kings  xix,  20 ;  Luke  xv,  20 ;  Tobit  vii,  6 ;  x,  12) ;  (2) 
between  brothers,  or  near  male  relatives  or  intimate 
friends  (Gen.  xxix,  13  ;  xxxiii,  4 ;  xlv,  15 ;  Exod.  iv,  27  ; 
1  Sam.  XX,  41);  (3)  the  same  mode  of  salutation  be- 
tween persons  not  related,  but  of  equal  rank,  whether 
friendly  or  deceitful,  is  mentioned  (2  Sam.  xx,  9 ;  Psa. 
Ixxv,  10 ;  Prov.  xxvii,  G ;  Luke  vii,  45  [1st  clause] ;  xxii, 
48 ;  Acts  XX,  37) ;  (4)  as  a  mark  of  real  or  affected  con- 
descension (2  Sam.  XV,  5 ;  xix,  39)  ;  (5)  respect  from  an 
inferior  (Luke  vii,  38,  45,  and  perhaps  viii,  44).  In 
other  cases  the  kiss  is  imprinted  on  the  beard  (see  Ar- 
vieux,  iii,  182) ;  sometimes  on  the  hair  of  the  head  (see 
U'Grville,  Ad  Chariton,  viii,  4),  which  was  then  taken 
hold  of  by  the  hand  (2  Sam.  xx,  9).  Among  the  Arabs 
the  women  and  children  kiss  the  beards  of  their  hus- 
bands or  fathers.  TIic  superior  returns  the  salute  by  a 
kiss  on  tlie  forehead.  Kissing  the  hand  of  another  ap- 
pears to  be  a  modern  practice.  In  I'^gypt  an  inferior 
kisses  the  hand  of  a  sujierior,  generally  on  the  back,  but 
sometimes,  as  a  special  favor,  on  tlie  palm  also.  To  tes- 
tify abject  submission,  and  iu  asking  favors,  the  feet  are 
often  kissed  iustead  of  the  hand  (Luke  vii,  38).  "The 
son  kisses  the  hand  of  his  father,  the  wife  that  of  her 
husband,  the  slave,  and  often  the  free  servaut,  that  of 
the  master.  The  slaves  and  servants  of  a  grandee  kiss 
their  lord's  sleeve,  or  the  skirt  of  his  clotlnng"  (Lane, 
Mod.  A'f/.  ii,  9;  compare  Arvieux,  Trar.  p.  151 ;  Rurck- 
hardt,  7';-«r.  i,3G9  ;  Niebuhr,  I'o//.  i,  329 ;  ii.93;  Layard, 
Nin.  i,  174;  Wellsted,  .1  rnhia,  i,'341 ;  Malcolm,  SJcf-tches 
f)/'/V/■.s■^^^  p.  271).  Friends  saluting  each  other  join  the 
right  hand,  then  each  kisses  liis  owu  liand.  .'md  puts  it 
to  his  lips  and  forehead,  or  l)reast ;  after  a  lung  absence 
they  embrace  each  other,  kissing  tirst  on  the  right  side 
of  the  face  or  neck,  and  then  on  the  left,  or  on  both  sides 


of  the  beard  (Lane,  ii,  9, 10 ;  comp.  Irby  and  IMangles,  p. 
IIG ;  Chardin,  Voi/df/e,  iii,  421 ;  Burckhardt,  Notes,  i,  3G9 ; 
Russell,  A  leppo,  i,  240).  The  jjassage  of  Job  xxxi,  27, 
'•  Or  my  mouth  hath  kissed  my  hand,"  is  not  iu  point 
(see  Menken,  Dissert,  in  p.  1.,  Lipsiw,  1711;  Doughta'i, 
Analecl.  i,  211 ;  Kieseling,  in  the  Kov.  JllisceU.  Lips,  ix, 
595;  Biittiger,  Kuiistmi/t/iol.  i,  52),  and  refers  to  idola- 
trous usages  (sec  L.  Weger,  T)e  osc.  maims  iJolairica, 
Reglom.  1G98),  namely,  the  adoration  of  the  heavenly 
bodies  (comp.  Cicero,  ]'ei:  iv,  43 ;  Gesenius,  Comment,  on 
Isa.  xlix,  23).  See  Adoratiox.  It  was  the  custom  to 
throw  liisses  towards  the  images  of  the  gods,  and  to- 
wards the  sun  and  moon  (1  Kings  xix,  18 ;  IIos.  xiii,  2 ; 
comp.  Minuc.  Felix,  ii,  5 ;  Tacit.  I/ist.  iii,  24,  3  ;  Lucian, 
De  /Salt.  c.  17;  Pliny,  Hist.  Aat.  xxviii,  5).  The  kiss- 
ing of  princes  was  a  token  of  homage  (Psa.  ii,  12 ;  1  Sam. 
X,  1 ;  Xenophon,  Cijrop.  vii,  o,  32).  So  probably  in  Gen. 
xli,  40,  "  Upon  thy  mouth  shall  all  my  jieojilc  kiss," 
where  the  Auth.Yers.  interpets,  "According  to  thy  word 
shall  all  my  people  be  ruled"  (see  Gesenius,  Thesaur. 
Ileh.  p.  923).  AVc  may  compare  the  jMohammedan  cus- 
tom of  kissing  the  Kaaba  at  ]\Iecca  (Burckhardt,  Trar. 
i,  250,  298,  323;  Crichton.  Arabia,  ii,  215).  Xenophon 
says  (Ar/esH.  v,  4)  that  it  was  a  national  custom  with 
the  Persians  to  kiss  whomsoever  they  honored ;  and  a 
curious  passage  to  this  effect  may  be  found  in  the  Ci/ro- 
pcedia  (i,  4,  27).  Kissing  the  feet  of  princes  was  a  token 
of  subjection  and  obedience,  which  was  sometimes  car- 
ried so  far  that  the  print  of  the  foot  received  the  kiss, 
so  as  to  give  the  impression  that  the  very  dust  had  be- 
come sacred  by  the  royal  tread,  or  that  the  subject  was 
not  worthy  to  salute  even  the  prince's  foot,  but  was  con- 
tent to  kiss  the  earth  itself  near  or  on  which  he  trod 
(Isa.  xlix,  33;  Micah  vii,  17;  Psa.  Ixxii,  9;  comp.  Gen. 
xli,  40 ;  1  Sam.  xxiv,  8 ;  Matt,  xxviii,  9 ;  see  Dion  Cass, 
lix,  27 ;  Seneca,  De  Bene/,  ii,  12).  Similar  usages  pre- 
vail among  the  Orientals  to  the  present  day  (see  Wil- 
kinson, Anc.  Erj.  ii,  203  ;  Layard,  Ninev.  i,  274 ;  Harmer, 
Obs.  i,  33G;  Niebuhr,  Travels,  i,  414;  comp.  Assemani, 
Bibl.  Or.  i,  377 ;  Otho,  Lex.  Rab.  p.  233  ;  Barhebr.  Chron. 
p.  148,  189,  569).  The  Rabbins,  in  the  meddlesome, 
scrupulous,  and  falsely  delicate  spirit  which  animated 
much  of  what  they  wrote,  did  not  permit  more  than 
three  kinds  of  kisses — the  kiss  of  reverence,  of  reception, 
and  of  dismissal  (^Breshith  Rabba  on  Gen.  xxix.  11). 

The  pecidiar  tendency  of  the  Christian  religion  to 
encourage  honor  towards  all  men,  as  men,  to  foster  and 
develop  the  softer  affections,  and,  in  the  trying  condi- 
tion of  the  early  Church,  to  make  its  members  intimate- 
ly known  one  to  another,  and  miite  them  in  the  closest 
bonds,  led  to  the  observance  of  kissing  as  an  accompani- 
ment of  that  social  worship  wliich  took  its  origin  in  the 
very  cradle  of  our  religion.  (See  Coteler,  ^Id  comtituf. 
A  post,  ii,  57;  Fessel,  .1  t/cc  rs.  sacr.  p.  283.)  Hence  the 
exhortation,  "  Salute  each  other  with  a  holy  kiss"  (Rom. 
xvi,  16 ;  see  also  1  Cor.  xvi,  20 ;  2  Cor.  xiii,  12 ;  1  Thess. 
V,  26;  in  1  Pet.  v,  14  it  is  termed  "a  kiss  of  charity"). 
"  It  might,  perhaps,  be  understood  among  the  members 
of  the  Church  that  the  kiss  was  to  be  exchanged  be- 
tween persons  of  the  same  sex  only,  though  no  direc- 
tion to  this  effect  is  found  in  the  apostolic  epistles,  and 
it  is  known  that  in  process  of  time  the  heathen  took  oc- 
casion from  the  practice  to  reproach  the  Christians  for 
looseness  of- manners.  On  this  account  care  was  taken 
(as  ajipears  from  the  Apostolical  Constitutions)  to  main- 
tain iu  respect  to  it  the  distinction  of  sexes;  but  the 
practice  itself  was  kept  up  f<ir  centuries,  especially  in 
connection  with  the  celebration  of  the  Supper.  It  was 
regarded  as  the  si>ecial  token  of  perfect  reconciUation 
and  concord  among  the  members  of  the  Clunch,  and 
was  called  simply  the  peace  {ilpijrij),  or  the  Iciss  of  peace 
(osculum  pacis).  It  was  exchanged  in  the  Eastern 
Church  before,  but 'in  the  Western  after  the  consecra- 
tion prayer.  L^ltimately,  however,  it  was  discontinued 
as  a  badge  of  Cliristian  fellowship,  or  a  part  of  any 
Christian  solemnity"  (Fairbairn).  (See  Apost.  Constif. 
ii,  67  ;  viii,  il ;  Just.  Mart.  Ajiol.  i,  (io;  Palmer,  On  Lit. 


KISSOS 


113 


KITE 


ii,  102,  aiid  note  from  Du  Cange;  Kw^hamjChri.ff.  An- 
tiq.  b.  xii,  c.  iv,  §  5,  vol.  \v,  49 ;  b.  ii,  c.  xi,  §  10,  vol.  i,  1(51 ; 
b.  ii,  c.  xix,  §  17,  vol.  i,  272;  b.  iv,  c.  vi,  §  14,  vol.  i,  526 ; 
b.  xxii,  c.  iii,  §  6,  vol.  vii,  316 ;  see  also  Cod.Just.V.  Tit. 
iii,  16,  de  Don.  ante  Niipt.;  Brande,  Pop.  Antiq.  ii,  87). 
The  peculiar  circumstances  have  now  vanished  which 
gave  propriety  and  emphasis  to  such  an  expression  of 
brotherly  love  and  Christian  friendship.  (See  Wemyss, 
C'lavis  Symbolica,  s.  v.)  The  kiss  of  peace  still  forms 
part  of  one  of  the  rites  of  the  Romish  Church.  It  is 
given  immediately  before  the  communion ;  the  clergy- 
man who  celebrates  mass  kissing  the  altar,  and  em- 
bracing the  deacon,  saying,  "  Pax  tibi,  frater,  ct  ecclesiiB 
sanct;^  Dei ;'"  the  deacon  does  the  same  to  the  subdea- 
con,  saying,  "  Pax  tecum ;"'  the  latter  then  salutes  the 
others. 

Kissing  the  foot  or  toe  has  been  required  by  the  popes 
as  a  sign  of  respect  from  the  secular  power  since  the  8th 
century.  The  first  who  received  this  honor  was  jiope 
Constantine  I.  It  was  paid  him  by  the  emperor  Jus- 
tinian If,  on  his  entry  into  Constantinople  in  710.  Val- 
entine I,  about  827,  required  every  one  to  kiss  his  foot, 
and  from  that  time  this  mark  of  reverence  appears  to 
have  been  expected  by  all  popes.  When  the  ceremony 
takes  place,  the  pope  wears  a  slipper  with  a  cross,  which 
is  kissed.  In  more  recent  times,  Protestants  have  not 
been  required  to  kiss  the  pope's  foot,  but  merely  to  bend 
tlie  knee  slightly.     See  Adoration. 

On  tlie  suljject  of  this  article  generally,  consult  Em- 
merich, De  OacuUs  up.  Vtt.  ill  discesim  (Meining.  1783); 
Heckcl,  De  Osculis  (Lipsia?,  1689) ;  Pfanner,  De.  Oscidis 
Christiano?:  Veter.,  in  his  Obs.  Sac?:  ii,  131-201 ;  Kem- 
pius,  Z>e  Osculis  (Francof.  1680);  Jac.  Herrenschmidius, 
0.<!Ci(lof/ia  (Viteb.  1630);  Muller,Z>e  Osculo  Sancto  (Jena, 
1674)  ;  Boberg,  De  Osculis  Ilebi:  ;  Lomeier,  Diss,  fjenial. 
p.  328;  alsoinUgolini,7'(^fS(7?(r.vol.  xx;  Gotz,  De  Osculo 
(Jena,  1670);  hange,  Friedenhiss  d.alten  Christen  (Leipz. 
1747) ;  compare  Fabricius,  Bihliofp:  andquar.  p.  lOlG  sq. ; 
and  other  monographs  cited  by  Volbeding,  Index,  p.  55, 
147.    See  Salutation. 

Kissos.     See  I\"i'. 

Kisteniaker,  Johann  Hyacintii,  a  celebrated  Ro- 
man Catholic  theologian,  was  born  August  15, 1754,  at 
Nordhorn,  in  Hanover,  and  was  educated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Minister.  He  was  ordained  priest  Dec.  22, 1777, 
but  filled  the  rostrum  instead  of  the  ])ulpit,  and  became 
quite  celebrated  for  his  attainments  as  a  linguist.  In 
1786  he  was  elected  professor  of  philology  at  his  alma 
niator,  and  in  1795  was  transferred  to  the  chair  of  Bib- 
lical exegesis.  He  died  March  2, 1834.  Of  his  numer- 
ous works  we  have  room  here  only  for  the  titles  of 
those  most  important  in  theology,  which  are,  Commen- 
tatio  de  nova  exegesi  prcEcip)ue  Veteris  Testamenti  ex  col- 
laiis  scriptoribus  Greeds  et  Romctnis  scripta  (iMiinster. 
1806)  -.—Exefjet.  Abhandlnnr/  iiber  Matt,  xvi,  18,  10,  and 
xix,  3-12.  oder  iiber  den  Primat  Petri  und  das  IChehand : 
— Exegesis  critica  in  Psalmos  Ixvii,  et  cix,  et  excuisus 
in  Daniel  iii  defornace  ignis  (1809)  : — Weissagung  Jesu 
vom  Gericht  iiber  Judda  und  die  Welt,  etc.  (1816): — 
Canticum  canticorum  illustratum  ex  Hierographia  Ori- 
entallum  (1818):  —  Weissagung  vom  Dnmanuel  (1824); 
and  especially  Biblia  sacra  Vulgatw  editionis  juxta  ex- 
emplar Vaticanum  (1824,3  vols.),  dedicated  to  pope  Leo 
XII;  and  his  translation  of  the  New  Testament  (1825), 
which  is  largely  circulated  among  the  Roman  Catholics 
of  Germany.  Sec  Hamberger,  Das  gekhrte  Deutschland, 
Appendix, vols. xviii  and  xxiii;  Wetzer  und  Weltc, A'tV- 
chen-Lexikon,  vol.  vi,  s.  v. ;  xii,  671  sq.      (.J.  H.  W.) 

Kite  (rfX,  agyah',  so  called  from  its  clamorous  cry ; 
Sept.  iKTtv  V.  r.  ((>;r(i'oc,Vulg. vidtur ;  but  in  Job.  xxviii, 
7.  yi'i,  Auth. Version  "vulture"),  an  unclean  and  kecn- 
sight.cd  bird  of  prey  (Lev.  xi,  14 ;  Dent.  xiv.  13).  The 
version  of  I'seudo-Jonathan  lias  the  black  culture ;  the 
Venetian  Greek  koXoiui',  or  jackdaic ;  Kimchi  STX3,  or 
magpie;  Saadias  and  Abelwahd  the  male /i or ncd  otvl — 
most  of  which  are  evidentlv  mere  conjectures,  with  lit- 
V.*— H 


tie  regard  to  the  context,  which  classes  the  bird  in 
question  with  other  species  of  the  falcon  tribe.  See 
(tLede.  The  allusion  in  Job  alone  affords  a  clew  to  its 
identification.  The  deep  mines  in  the  recesses  of  the 
mountains  from  which  the  labor  of  man  extracts  the 
treasures  of  the  earth  are  there  described  as  "a  track 
which  the  bird  of  prey  hath  not  known,  nor  hath  the 
eye  of  the  ayyah  looked  upon  it."  Bochart  (^Iliernz.  ii, 
193  sq.,  779),  regarding  the  etymology  of  the  word,  con- 
nected it  with  the  Arabic  al-yuyu,  a  kind  of  hawk,  so 
called  from  its  cry  ydyd,  described  by  Damir  as  a  small 
bird  with  a  short  tail,  used  in  hunting,  and  remarkable 
for  its  great  courage,  the  swiftness  of  its  flight,  and  the 
keenness  of  its  vision,  which  is  made  the  subject  of 
praise  in  an  Arabic  stanza  quoted  by  Damir.  The  Eng- 
lish designate  it  as  the  merlin,  the  Falco  cesalon  of  Lin- 
nffius,  which  is  the  same  as  the  Greek  ahaXiov  and 
Latin  cesalo.    This  smallest  of  British  hawks  is  from  ten 


English  Merlin. 


to  twelve  inches  long ;  the  male  with  blue-gray  "back 
and  wings,  body  rufous ;  the  female  dark  brown  back 
and  wings,  with  brownish-white  body  (see  Penny  Cyclop. 
s.  V.  Merlin).  Gesenius,  however  (Thesaur.  p.  39),  is  in- 
clined to  regard  the  Hebrew  term  as  a  general  denomi- 
nation of  the  hawk  genus,  on  account  of  the  addition 
n3i72?,  after  its  kind.  See  Hawk.  "  The  Talmud  goes 
so  far  as  to  assert  that  the  four  Hebrew  words  rendered 
in  the  A.V.  'vulture,'  'glcde,'  and  'kite,' denote  one  and 
the  same  bird  (Lewysohn, Zoo/o^«e  des  Talniuds,^  196). 
Seetzen  (i,  310)  mentions  a  species  of  falcon  used  in  Syria 
for  hunting  gazelles  and  hares,  and  a  smaller  kind  for 
hunting  hares  in  the  desert.  Russell  {Aleppo,  ii,  196) 
enumerates  seven  different  kinds  employed  by  the  na- 
tives for  the  same  purpose.  Robertson  (Claris  Penta- 
teuchi)  derives  ayyah  from  the  Hob.  n^N,  an  obsolete 
root,  which  he  connects  with  an  Arabic  wortl,  the  pri- 


Ked  Kite. 


KITHLISII 


114 


KITTO 


man*  mcanin;;  of  which,  according  to  Schultcns,  is  '  to 
turn.'  Iftliis  derivation  be  the  true  one,  it  is  not  im- 
probable that '  kite'  is  the  correct  rendering.  The  hab- 
it which  birds  of  this  genus  have  of 'saiUng  in  circles, 
with  the  riulder-like  tail  by  its  inclination  governing 
the  curve,'  as  Yarrell  says,  accords  with  the  Arabic  deri- 
vation" (Smith).  Wood  (/iih/e  Ai/ii/uifg,  p.  358)  inclines 
to  adopt  Tristram's  identification  of  the  aijynh  with  the 
red  kite  {Milvns  regalis),  which  is  scattered  all  over  Pal- 
estine, feeding  chietly  on  the  smaller  birds,  mice,  reptiles, 
and  fish.  Its  piercing  sight  and  soaring  habits  pecul- 
iarly suit  the  passage  in  Job.     See  Vultuue. 

Kith'lish  (Ileb.  KithUsh',  d-^bna,  prob.  for  bns 
Ui"'X,  a  mini's  wall;  Sept.  Xa^aXiic  v.  r.  KaSrXwQ  and 
M«rtX''^C'^""^S'  eel/ills'),  a  town  in  the  valley  or  plain 
(Sheplielah)  of  Judah,  mentioned  between  Lalnnam  and 
Gederoth  (Josh,  xv,  40)  ;  evidently  situated  in  the 
south-western  group,  possibly  at  the  "  mound  and  some 
foundations  called  JelameK^  (Robinson,  Researches,  ii, 
38(3),  on  wady  el-IIeroy,  between  Gaza  and  Lachish 
(Van  de  Velde,  Map).  A  writer  in  Fairbairn's  Diction- 
ari/,  s.  v.,  proposes  the  ruined  site  el-Jilas  given  by 
Smith  (in  Robinson's  Res.  iii,  Appendix,  p.  119)  in  this 
vicinity;  but  this  is  not  laid  down  on  any  map,  if,  in- 
deed, it  be  not  the  same  place  as  the  above.  The  deri- 
vation proposed  by  the  same  writer  for  the  name  Kith- 
lish,  from  rriS,  io  crush,  and  TIJ"'?,  a  lion,  as  if  it  were 
the  haunt  of  that  animal,  is  fancifid,  and  unwarranted 
by  any  allusion  of  the  kind  in  the  text;  the  form,  more- 
over, woidd  then  have  been  O'^PPlS. 

Kit'roii  (Heb.  Kitron',  "(ill^p,  Icnotttj,  otherwise 
curtailed,  or  castle;  Sept.  Ksrpojv  v.  r.  Js.i(^piov,  and 
even  XeiSuoJf),  a  city  of  Zebulon  from  which  the  Israel- 
ites were  long  unable  to  expel  tlie  native  Canaanites 
(.Judg.  i,  30).  It  is  very  possibly  the  same  elsewhere 
called  Kattatii  (Josh,  xix,  15),  notwithstanding  the 
objection  of  Keil  {Comment,  on  Josh,  ad  loc.)  that  this 
and  all  the  other  names  are  needed  as  distinct  cities  in 
order  to  make  up  the  number  twelce  there  specified ;  for 
even  thus  the  number  will  be  incomplete,  without  either 
supposing  the  text  corrupt  or  borroAving  from  those  enu- 
merated in  the  preceding  verses  (doubtless  the  true  so- 
lution), in  either  of  which  cases  these  three  names,  so 
nearly  identical  (Kattah,  Kartah,  Kitron),  may  be  as- 
signed to  one  place.  Schwarz  (Palest,  p.  173),  on  Tal- 
mudical  grounds,  apparently  incorrectly,  identifies  it 
with  Scpphoris  (q.  v.). 

Kit'tim  (den.  x,  4;  2  Chron.  i,  7).     See  Ciiittiji. 

Kittle,  Andrew  N.,  a  minister  of  the  Reformed 
(Dutch)  Church,  was  born  at  Kindcrhook,  N.  Y.,  in  1785, 
graduated  at  Union  College  in  1804,  studied  theology 
under  Drs.  Frocligh  and  Livingston,  and  entered  the 
ministry  in  1800.  Until  1846  he  Avas  successively  pas- 
tor of  the  churches  of  Red  Hook  Landing  and  St.  John's, 
Linlithgo,  Upper  Red  Hook,  and  Stuyvesant.  Early 
consecrated  to  the  Lord,  he  was  an  able,  vigorous,  and 
indefatigable  minister  of  Jesus  Christ.  Though  he  was 
of  good  record  as  a  theologian  and  a  general  scholar, 
possessed  of  strong  common  sense,  and  fond  of  reading, 
his  retiring  disposition  kept  him  aloof  from  the  agita- 
ting controversies  and  public  excitements  of  the  times. 
Aspiring  only  to  be  a  preacher  and  pastor,  he  dwelt 
among  his  people  until  the  inlirmitics  of  age  constrained 
him  to  give  up  the  active  ministry.  He  died  in  18(54. 
Kittle  was  a  man  of  tine  features  and  noble  form,  a  dig- 
nilied  Christian  gentleman,  Riid  a  true  man  of  God. — 
Corwin,  Manual  of  R,f.  Church,  p.  12G.     (W.  J,  R.  T.) 

Kitto,  John,  one  of  the  most  eminent  Biblical  schol- 
ars of  this  age,  was  born  at  riymouth,  England,  Nov.  4, 
IMOI.  To  humlile  birth  was  addedj  in  his  twelfth  year, 
the  atilictiou  of  a  total  loss  of  his  sense  of  bearing;  but 
neither  [loverty  nor  bodily  defei  t  were  suflicicnt  to  deter 
tlie  aml)itious  and  energetic  youth  from  the  accpiisition 
of  knowledge.     Every  effort  that  could  possibly  be  put 


forth  to  secure  books  was  made ;  to  pay  for  a  few  books 
from  a  circulating  library,  he  groped  for  old  iron  and 
ropes  in  Sutton  Pool,  and  with  the  few  pennies  obtained 
by  this  irksome  task  he  supplied  himself  witli  the  ele- 
ments of  an  education.  The  destitution  of  his  parents 
obliged  them  at  last  to  place  John  in  the  "workhouse" 
at  riymouth,  where  he  was  admitted  Nov.  15, 1819,  and 
taught  the  shoemaker's  trade.  In  this  place  his  pow- 
erful will  soon  asserted  his  position  against  older  and 
stronger  boys,  and  here  he  began  in  1820  a  diary  winch 
is  still  preserved,  and  large  excerpts  from  which  have 
been  printed  in  his  Life.  It  contains  many  self-portraits, 
physical  and  mental,  and  shows  the  awakening  of  his 
mind  to  Hterary  tastes  and  ambition.  In  his  trade, 
however,  he  was  often  so  dull  and  dispirited  that  he 
called  himself  '•  Jolni  the  Comfortless,"  nnd  twice  had 
thoughts  of  bringing  his  life  to  a  premature  end.  In 
1821  he  was  hired  out  to  a  shoemaker,  but  his  awk- 
wardness and  tendency  to  books  greatly  irritated  his 
master,  and  John  was  submitted  to  such  harsh  treat- 
ment that  he  was  readmitted  to  the  workhouse  about 
six  months  later.  In  the  year  following  he  finally 
brought  out  some  essays  in  Nettleton's  Phjuiouth  Jour- 
nal, and  also  wrote  some  imaginary  correspondence. 
These  efforts  attracted  attention,  and  he  was  by  the  in- 
terposition of  several  gentlemen  removed  to  Exeter  to 
become  a  dentist.  In  1825  he  published  a  volume  of 
Essays  and  Letters,  which,  though  it  afforded  him  but  a 
small  pccuniarj-  remuneration,  secured  him  many  friends, 
made  him  quite  generally  known,  and  finally  resulted 
in  a  complete  change  of  basis  for  life.  Instead  of  per- 
fecting himself  in  the  art  of  dentistry,  he  accepted  an 
offer  to  enter  the  ^Missionary  College  at  Islington,  where 
he  was  to  be  taught  the  art  of  printing  ^vith  a  view  to 
service  in  some  foreign  missionary  institution.  In  June, 
1827,  he  was  sent  out  to  Malta;  but,  his  health  declin- 
ing, he  returned  to  England  in  1829.  Shortly  after  this 
his  former  employer,  Mr.  Groves,  the  dentist,  desired  a 
tutor  for  his  children,  to  accompany  him  on  a  tour  East, 
and  selected  Kitto  for  the  position.  He  was  now  af- 
forded a  sight  of  a  large  part  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and 
acquired  that  familiarity  with  the  scenery  and  customs 
of  the  East  which  was  aftervrards  of  such  signal  service 
in  the  department  of  literature  to  which  he  became  de- 
voted. In  turn  he  visited  St.  Petersburg,  Astrachan, 
the  Calmucks,  Tatars,  the  Caucasus,  Armenia,  Persia, 
and  Bagdad,  and  liy  way  of  Trebizond  and  Constanti- 
nople retimied  to  England  in  1833.  Through  the  influ- 
ence of  friends  he  gained  attention  by  a  series  of  papers 
in  the  Pennij  M(i<i<izine  (one  of  these  under  the  sugges- 
tive title  "  The  Deaf  Traveller"),  and  by  other  literary 
efforts. 

In  1835  Kitto  finally  entered  upon  the  preparation 
of  that  class  of  Avorks  which  have  so  justly  secured  him 
a  prominent  place  in  the  field  of  letters.  In  this  j^ear 
Mr.  Charles  Knight,  then  the  editor  of  the  Penny  Mag- 
azine, suggested  to  Kitto  the  preparation  of  a  "Picto- 
rial Bible."  All  that  Kitto  needed  was  the  suggestion. 
He  not  onh'  eagerly  emljraced  the  proposal,  but  earnest- 
ly entreated  to  be  allowed  to  undertake  the  responsibil- 
ity of  the  entire  work.  The  expiration  of  scarcely  more 
than  two  j-ears  saw  the  Pictorial  Bible  finished  (new 
edit.  1847,  4  vols.  8vo),  and  shortly  after  (in  1838)  he 
embodied  a  great  portion  of  his  experience  in  Persia  in 
two  small  volumes,  Uncle  Olircr's  Trar-els,  Next  fol- 
lowed (1839-40)  n.  Pictorial  History  of  Pakdine  and  the 
Holy  Land.  From  1841  to  1843  he  found  employment 
in  preparing  the  letter-press  for  the  Galh  ry  of  Scripture 
Enyravinr/s,  in  3  vols.  In  1843  he  wrote  a  History  of 
Palestine  (iniblished  by  A.  and  C.  Black,  of  Edinbm-gh), 
and  Thoughts  among  Flowers  (published  by  the  Relig- 
ious Tract  Society).  Irt  1845  he  prc])ared  The  Pictorial 
Sunday  Jiook,  and  commenced  the  work  which,  in  its 
latest  form  (3d  edition),  still  constitutes  one  of  the  best 
works  of  the  kind  in  any  language,  the  Cyclopirdia  of 
/liblical  Literatui-e.  See  Dictionaries,  Biulical. 
Though  the  work  already  accomplished  (up  to  1848} 


KLAIBER 


115 


KLEE 


would  have  sufficed  for  the  lifetime  of  almost  any  man, 
Kitto  labored  on  indefatigably,  and  not  only  brought  out 
contributions  of  great  value,  but  originated  and  edited 
the  Journal  of  Sacred  Literature,  a  quarterly,  which,  by 
its  masterly  productions,  has  made  English  scholarship 
famous  even  among  the  all-knowing  Teutons.  He  con- 
tinued the  editorship  of  the  Journal  until  1853.  His 
last  and  most  popular  work  was  the  JJailij  liible  Illus- 
trations, completed  in  eight  volumes.  During  its  prog- 
ress his  health  gave  way,  and  he  retired  to  Cannstadt, 
near  Stuttgard,  in  Germany,  where  he  died,  Nov.  25, 
1854.  Dr.  Kitto's  services  to  the  cause  of  Scripture 
learning  were  great  in  his  own  sphere.  He  revived  and 
freshened  the  study  of  Eastern  manners,  and  his  orig- 
ination of  his  C'/dopmdia  marks  an  epoch  in  the  Bibli- 
cal literature  of  England.  Our  own  work  is  not  unfre- 
qucntly  dependent  upon  the  labors  of  this  extraordinary 
character.  His  life  itself,  with  his  physical  defect  and 
early  privations,  was  a  marvel  of  self-education  and  he- 
roic perseverance.  The  University  of  Giessen  in  ISH 
honored  him  with  the  doctorate  of  divinity,  though  he 
was  a  layman.  An  interesting  autobiography  is  con- 
tained in  his  Lost  Senses.  See  Kitto,  O/clcp.  Bibl.  Lit. 
vol.  ii,  s.  V. ;  Enylish  Cyclop,  s.  v. ;  AUibonc,  Diet.  Emjl. 
and  A  m.  A  uth.  s.  v. ;  Memoirs  of  John  Kitto,  D.D.,  com- 
piled chiefly  from  his  letters  and  journals,  by  J.  E.  Ky- 
land,  M.A. ;  with  a  Critical  Estimate  of  Dr.  Kitto's  Life 
and  Writings,  by  Prof.  Eadie,  D.D.  (Edinb.  and  London, 
1856,  8vo)";  Eadie,  John,  Life  of  Kitto  (Edinb.  1857, 
8vo) ;  L^ond.Athen(Bum,\iibl,5\.me.1~;  North  lirit.  Rev. 
Feb.  1847 ;  Littell,  Licimj  Age,  lii,  445  sq.     (J.  H.W.) 

Klaiber,  Christian  Benjamin,  a  German  tlieolo- 
gian,  was  born  Sept.  15,  1795,  in  Wiirtemberg,  and  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Tiibingeii,  where  he  be- 
came a  professor  of  theology  in  1823.  Later  he  removed 
to  Stetten,  in  Kemsthal,  as  pastor,  and  died  in  183G.  He 
published  Studien  der  Wiirttemhergischen  Geistlichkeit. 

Klarenbach,  Adolf,  a  noted  martyr  of  the  Refor- 
mation, was  born  at  the  close  of  the  15th  century,  near 
the  city  of  Lennep,  in  the  d  uchy  of  Berg,  and  eagerly  pur- 
sued his  studies  first  at  jNIilnster,  then  at  Cologne,  under 
two  instructors  who  afterwards  became  his  inquisitors. 
He  became  master  of  a  school  at  jMiinster  in  1520,  and 
sought  to  impart  his  new  views  of  faith  to  his  pupUs. 
On  this  account  lie  was  driven  successively  from  IMlin- 
ster,  W'esel,  Buderich,  and  Osnabriick,  followed  some- 
times by  those  who  had  come  under  his  instruction. 
He  became  at  last  a  preacher  in  his  native  region,  bold- 
ly fulfilling  his  mission,  notwithstanding  the  anxious  re- 
monstrances of  his  parents  and  the  threats  of  the  mag- 
istrates, and  on  finally  leaving  Lenneji  he  addressed  to 
the  authorities  of  the  city  a  defence  from  Scripture  of 
his  decidedly  Lutheran  position,  declaring  that,  should 
they  even  take  his  life,  "  they  could  not  take  from  him 
Christ,  his  everlasting  life."  At  Cologne,  in  the  spring 
of  1528,  he  undertook  the  defence  of  an  old  friend  ami 
colaborer,  Klopreiss,  and  was  himself  thereupon  impris- 
oned with  his  friend.  He  was  heard  before  the  civil, 
and  later  before  the  ecclesiastical  court,  in  presence  of 
his  two  former  instructors,  Arnold  von  Zongern  and  Jo- 
hann  von  Venradt.  Theodore  Fabricius,  who  had  him- 
'self  suffered  much  in  Cologne  in  behalf  of  the  evangel- 
ical doctrine,  made  great  efforts  for  Klarenbach's  release. 
He  succeeded  in  delivering  Klopreiss,  and  there  came 
an  imperial  requisition  from  Speicr  upon  the  city  of  Co- 
logne to  show  cause  why  Klarenljach  ^^•as  detained. 
The  city  disregarded  the  subsequent  judgment  of  the 
imperial  court  in  the  prisoner's  favor,  and  said  "  it  knew 
no  supreme  court,  but  only  a  dungeon  court."  Into  the 
archbishop's  dungeon  Klarenbach  was  now  thrown  with 
others,  especially  Peter  Flysteden.  On  the  4th  of  March, 
1520,  Klarenbach,  exhorted  to  firmness  and  bravery  by 
his  friend  Peter,  was  taken  from  the  dungeon  for  final 
judgment  before  the  incpasitors.  The  grand  inquisitor, 
KiiUin,  solemnly  admonished  him  to  a  definite  retrac- 
tion. No  free  address,  notwithstanding  the  clamors  of 
the  spectators  for  it,  was  permitted  him.     After  the  ex- 


ample of  Paul  he  appealed  to  the  emperor,  but  the  ap- 
peal was  only  set  down  as  another  strong  evidence  of 
heresy ;  sentence  of  death  was  pronounced  on  the  19th 
of  Jlarch,  and  the  city  council  determined  upon  its  exe- 
cution. Farther  attempts  were  made  during  the  subse- 
quent months  of  his  imprisonment  to  turn  the  martyr 
from  his  faith.  "  It  will  cost  j'ou  your  neck,"  it  was 
said.  "  Here  it  is,"  replied  he,  bending  his  neck ;  ••  this 
you  can  have,  but  not  your  will  with  me."  In  the  au- 
tumn a  destructive  pestilence  visited  Cologne,  and  the 
priests  declared  it  a  judgment  of  heaven  upon  heresy 
and  the  sin  of  forbearance  with  heretics.  The  27th  of 
September  had  come.  Through  an  air-hole  of  the  dun- 
geon, the  prisoners  were  asked  if  they  stiD  stood  by  their 
opinions.  "As  long  as  God  will,"  replied  Ivlarenbach. 
Efforts  of  his  relatives  at  persuasion,  and  of  the  monks 
who  accompanied  them,  were  unavailing.  Both  the  pris- 
oners went  forth  courageously.  Minute  events  in  the 
passage  of  the  procession,  the  contending  sentiments 
which  it  awakened  in  the  spectators,  and  the  whole  dra- 
matic power  of  the  scene,  are  depicted  in  a  publication 
of  that  day  entitled  Alle  Acta  Adolphi  Klarenbach — 
written  professedly  by  an  eye  and  ear  witness.  The 
prophecy  uttered  by  Klarenbach  on  his  way  to  the  stake 
has  metits  fulfilment :  "  Oh  Cologne,  Cologne,  how  thou 
dost  persecute  the  Word  of  God !  a  cloud  is  in  the  sky 
which  will  yet  bring  down  a  rain  of  righteousness." — 
Herzog,  Real-Encgklopddie,  vol.  xix,  s.  v.     (E.  B.  0.) 

Klaus,  Brother.     See  Flue,  Nicholas  of. 

Klauser,  Salomon,  a  German  theologian,  was  born 
at  Zurich,  Switzerland,  in  1745 ;  entered  the  ministry  in 
17(j8,  and  was  called  to  a  pastorate  in  his  native  place 
in  1784,  where  he  died  April  14, 179G.  Klauser  has  left 
us  only  a  few  of  his  sermons,  but  these  all  evince  supe- 
rior scholarship.  A  selection  of  them  was  printed  in 
1798,  and  was  accompanied  with  an  introduction  by  Dr. 
H.  A.  Niemeyer.  A  list  of  those  printed  is  given  by 
During,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutschlands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Klausing,  Anton  Ernst,  a  German  theologian  of 
some  note,  was  born  at  Hervordeh,  in  Westphalia,  April 
11, 1729,  and  educated  at  the  University  of  Leipzig.  He 
travelled  for  three  years  in  Holland,  Italy,  and  England, 
and  on  his  return  taught  at  Leipzig.  He  died  Juh'  6, 
1803.  Klausing  was  thoroughly  conversant  with  sev- 
eral modern  languages,  and  besides  translations  of  the 
Sermons  of  Sterne,  Khufs  Usages  in  the  Greek  Church 
of  Russia,  a  collection  of  the  latest  works  on  the  I/istor'/ 
of  the  Jesuits  in  Portugal,  etc.,  he  published  several  val- 
uable theological  works.  The  most  important  of  his 
original  productions  are,  perhaps,  Commentatio  super  loco 
L'auli  ad  Rom.  ix,  23,  24  (Hate,  1754,  4to) : — Uistorice 
controx'ersioi  recentissimm  inter  Pontificem  Romanum  et 
rempublicam  Genuensem,  etc.  (Lips.  17(55, 4to).  See  Do- 
ring,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutschl.  ii,  106  sq. 

Klebitz  (Klebitus),Wilhelm,  a  German  theolo- 
gian of  tlie  Reformation  period,  and  favorably  inclined 
to  the  reformatory  movement,  flourished  at  Freyburg 
about  1560.  Nothing  further  is  known  of  his  personal 
history.  He  wrote  De  buccella  intincta,  quam  comedit 
Judas,  Matt,  xxvi,  contained  in  the  Crit.  Sac.  vol.  vi ; 
and,  in  the  bitter  controversy  which  he  waged  with  Hes- 
husius  (q.  v.),  Victnriam  veritatis  ac  ruinam  Papatus 
Suxonici  contra  Tilenuinnum  Ileshusium  de  S.  Synaxi. 

Klee,  Heinkicii,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  Ger- 
man Roman  Catholic  theologians  of  modern  times,  was 
born  at  IMunstermaifeld,  near  Coblentz,  April  20,  1800. 
In  1809  he  entered  the  Seniinarium  puerorum  of  Jfay- 
cnce,  and  in  1817  the  great  theological  school  under  Lie- 
bermann.  At  the  early  age  of  nineteen  he  became  a 
professor  in  the  minor  theological  school,  a  situation 
which  he  lield  for  some  ten  years,  and,  in  connection 
with  pastor  Schmitz,  greatly  developed  the  sciences  of 
philology  and  psedagogics.  He  was  ordained  priest  in 
1823,  became  professor  of  Biblical  exegesis  and  Church 
history  in  the  theological  seminary  in  1825,  and  a  few- 
years  after  professor  of  philosophy.    In  1825  he  attained 


KLEFEKER 


116 


KLEPTOMANIA 


the  (lep^-ee  of  D.D.  at  WUrzburg  by  liis  able  ilissertatioii 
Ih  cliiliasmo primorum  sceculuruin.  In  1827  he  wrote  a 
treatise  on  Auricular  Coiijession,  and  in  1821)  a  conimen- 
tary  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  John.  He  acquired  at  the 
same  time  great  popularity  at  jNIayence  as  a  preach- 
er. So  great,  indeed,  was  his  renown,  that  several  high- 
schools  endeavored  to  secure  him,  but  he  finally  accept- 
ed a  call  to  Bonn  University.  Here  he  gave  great  sat- 
isfaction to  the  strict  Roman  Catholic  party,  but  had  a 
long  and  severe  controversy  with  Hermes  (q.  v.)  and 
the  Ilermesians,  who  were  then  protected  by  the  arch- 
bishop. Klee  taught  the  popular  doctrine  that  faith 
■was  the  basis  of  theology ;  Hermes,  on  the  other  hand, 
inclined  more  to  accept  philosophy  as  its  basis.  With 
Klee,  who  evidently  endeavored  to  infuse  into  the  the- 
ological system  of  Romanism  a  philosophical  metliod, 
objective  reason,  revelation,  Christianity,  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  all  having  the  same  origin,  must  nat- 
urally constitute  part  of  an  indivisible  whole,  v.'hich  it 
remained  only  for  subjective  reason  to  prove  by  the  tes- 
timony of  history,  and  to  arrange  in  obedience  to  faith. 
Thus,  with  him,  the  definition  of  religion  was  chiefly  ob- 
jective: "Religion  is  a  union  between  God,  as  truth, 
and  man,  as  recognising  him,"  etc.;  "Religion  is  real- 
ized by  revelation  on  the  part  of  God,  and  bj'  faith  on 
the  part  of  man;"  "The  Church  is  Christianitj'  in  its 
jtrescnt  state  and  activity ;"  "  The  Church,  in  its  natm-e, 
is  such  as  Christ  has  made  it ;"  "  The  inward  and  out- 
ward life  of  the  Church  is  established  and  preserved  by 
the  hierarchy;"  "It  is  the  most  perfect  divine-human 
polity;"  "Christ  established  the  primacy  in  order  to 
jjreserve  the  unity  of  the  hierarchy."  He  argued  against 
Hermes  that  the  Roman  Catholic  doctrine  of  faith  has 
for  the  theologian  and  thinker  the  same  authoritative 
evidence  as  the  empiric  laws  of  nature  for  the  student 
of  natural  philosophy.  This  is  losing  sight  of  the  lact 
tliat  nature  is  the  result  of  necessary  laws,  and  a  pure 
action  of  God,  while  Church  tradition  is  but  the  result 
of  historical  freedom,  which  wc  find  full  of  defects,  and 
has  therefore  to  be  judged  on  the  ground  of  its  origin 
and  of  its  continued  validity.  In  his  theory  Klee  was  a 
Kantian,  but  in  practice  he  was  an  ardent  Roman  Cath- 
olic ajwlogist.  It  maj^  even  be  questioned  whether  the 
strong  traditionalistic  faith  of  Klee  and  his  school,  which 
permits  only  a  historical  demonstration  of  the  truth  of 
revelation,  has  rendered  any  great  and  lasting  service  to 
Roman  Catholic  theology.  Klee's  system  coincides  with 
the  final  development  of  abstract  Protestant  supranat- 
uralism,  inasmuch  as  he  makes  the  truth  of  the  whole 
S}-sicni  of  revelation  to  depend  upon  historical  proofs. 
jMevertlieless  his  system  is  much  more  dangerous  than 
Hermes's,  for  while  the  latter  identified  philosophical 
certainty  with  confidence  of  faith,  Klee  identified  phi- 
losophy with  ecclesiastical  Christianity  itself.  He  gave 
permanent  form  to  these  doctrines  in  System  der  Kuihol. 
Dor/iiuitik  (Bonn,  1831).  "When  Clement  August  became 
archbishop,  Klee's  system  prevailed ;  he  was  appointed 
examinator,  and  his  lectures  on  dogmatics,  which  had 
always  been  well  attended,  were  crowded.  The  exile 
of  the  archbishop,  however,  changed  his  position,  and  he 
accepted  a  call  to  Munich  in  1839.  He  died  there  July 
28, 1841.  Besides  the  above  mentioned  works  he  wrote 
Commtntar  iibcr  d.  A2)ostels  Paidus  Sendschreiben  a.  d. 
Homer  (Mentz,  1830)  ■.—Enajkl.d.  Theolnrjie  (ibid.  1832) : 
— Audi'i;um)  d.Jiriej'es  a.  d.  Ilehriier  (ibid.  1833)  : — Die 
Ebe  (ibid.  1833)  :—}>».  Katlwl.  Ikujmutik  (ibid.  1834-35, 3 
vols. ;  3d  cd.  1844) : — Doymewjeschichte  (ibid.  1835-37,  2 
vols.).  His  Grujidrisx  d.  Kal/iol.  Moi-al  was  published 
after  his  death  (in  1843)  by  llimioben.  See,  besides  the 
authorities  cited  in  the  article  Hermes,  Herzog,  Reul- 
Unq/klojmdie,  vii,  711 ;  Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lex. 
vi,  213  sq. ;  Migue,  Conclusions,  p.  1239. 

Klefeker,  Bkhnhakd,  a  German  preacher  of  dis- 
tinction, was  born  at  Hamburg  Jan.  12,  1760,  and  was 
educated  at  Leipzig  University,  which  he  entered  in 
1779,  and  where,  under  the  instruction  of  that  eminent 
German  pulpit  orator  ZoUikoffer,  he  laid  the  foimdation 


for  his  future  excellency  as  a  preacher.  In  May,  1791, 
he  was  called  as  regular  preacher  to  Osnabriick,  and, 
after  a  stay  of  five  years,  removed  thence  to  his  native 
city  to  assume  the  pastorate  of  St.  James's  Church. 
Here  he  labored  Avith  great  acceptance  and  success  until 
his  death,  June  10, 1825.  Though  Ivlefeker  aimed  to  be 
eminently  successful  in  the  pidpit,  his  literary  efforts 
betoken  a  mind  of  rare  activity.  He  published,  besides 
several  w^orks  on  ])ractical  religion  and  his  Sermons,  a 
homiletical  magazine  (flomileiisches Ideennuiffazin,  1809- 
19,  8  vols.  8vo)  : — Praktische  Vorlesungen  ii.  das  N.  Test. 
(1811-12,  3  vols.  8vo).  See  Doring,  Deutsche  Kanzel- 
redner,  p.  158  sq. 

Klein,  Priedrich  August,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  Fricdrichshaide,  near  Ronneburg,  Nov. 
7,  1793;  entered  the  University  of  Jena  in  1811,  and 
became  a  minister  at  Jena  in  1819;  but  only  two  years 
later  lie  was  suddenly  taken  ill,  and  died  Feb.  12,  1823, 
having  a  year  before  his  death  received  the  honorable 
appointment  of  professor  of  theology  at  the  university. 
Klein  published  in  1817  Vertraute  Briefe  ii.  Christentlmm 
u.  Protestantismits,  and  in  1817  began  with  Schroter  the 
publication  of  the  theological  journal  Piir  Christenthnm 
und  Gottesgelahrtheit.  Of  his  other  ]3ublications  the  fol- 
lowing deserve  our  notice:  Eeredsamkeit  des  Geistlichen 
(1818,  8vo): — Grundlinien  des  ReHgidsismvs  (1819,  small 
8vo)  : — PJogmatik  d.  evanr/el.  jjrotesf.  Kirche  (1822,  8vo). 
See  Diiring,  Gelehrte  Theologen  Deutschlunds,  ii,  108  sq. 
(J.H.W.) 

Klein,  Georg  Michael,  a  German  Roman  Cath- 
olic priest,  was  born  at  Alizheim  in  1777,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  the  high-school  in  ^^'^irzburg.  He  was  or- 
dained priest  in  1800,  but,  securing  the  friendship  of  the 
celebrated  German  philosopher  ScheUing,  Klein  there- 
after devoted  himself  zealously  to  the  study  of  meta- 
physics. He  became  professor  at  Wilrzburg  in  1804, 
and  in  1808  removed  to  Bamberg  in  the  same  capacity. 
In  1815  he  went  to  Regensburg  University  as  professor 
of  philosophy,  but  in  the  year  following  he  returned 
again  to  Wlirzburg.  He  died  in  1819.  His  works  are, 
Eeitrm/e  eum  Studium  der  Philosophie  des  All  (Wlirzb. 
1805,  8vo)  :—Verstandeslehre  (1810)  -.—  Versuch  d.  Ethik 
als  Wissenschdft  zu  hegriinden  (Rudolfst.  1811,  8vo) : — 
Iktrstellung  der  philosnp/ii.fclim  EeUgions-  v.  Sitienlthre 

(Wlirzb.  1818,  8vo) — by  far  his  ablest  work Kuthol, 

Recd-Encyklop.  xi,  850. 

Kleinknecht,  Conrad  Daniel,  a  German  theo- 
logian, was  born  at  Leiphcira  Aug.  22,  1691,  and  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Jena.  By  advice  of  the 
celebrated  Orientalist  and  theologian  Buddeus,  in  whom 
Kleinknecht  found  a  warm  friend,  he  accepted  a  posi- 
tion as  teacher  in  the  Orphanage  of  Halle,  which  he 
held  until  1719.  In  1725  he  became  pastor  at  Pfuhl,  in 
1731  at  Leipheim,  and  died  July  11,  1753.  He  was  es- 
pecially active  in  behalf  of  missions,  and  sought  to  in- 
terest the  state  authorities  for  them.  For  a  list  of  his 
writings,  see  Doring,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutschlunds,  ii, 
115  s(i. 

Klemni,  Joiiann  Christian,  a  German  theologian, 
born  at  Stuttgard  Oct.  22,  1688,  was  the  son  ofjohaun 
Conrad  Klemni,  who,  at  the  time  of  his  death  in  1717, 
was  professor  of  theology  at  Tubingen.  Young  Klemm 
was  educated  at  the  universities  of  Stuttgard  and  Tu- 
bingen, and  secured  the  degree  of  A.ISI.  in  1707.  Short- 
ly after  he  began  to  lecture  at  the  university,  in  1717 
he  became  professor  extraordinary  of  philosophy,  in 
1725  of  theology,  and  the  year  following  of  the  Oriental 
languages.  Tlie  degree  of  D.D.  was  bestowed  upon 
him  in  1730.  He  was  promoted  to  a  fuU  or  regular  pro- 
fessorship in  1736.  He  died  Oct.  1,  1754.  A  list  of^  his 
works  is  given  by  Doring,  Gelehrte  Theolor/en  Deutsch- 
lunds, ii,  118  sq.  See  also  Allgemeines  Hist. Lex.  s.  v.; 
Pierer,  Universal-Lexikon,  s.  v. 

Kleptomania  ( K-Xt Trrw,  to  steal,  and  /lavici,  viad- 
nt'ss),  a  form  of  partial  mental  derangement  which  is 
manifested  by  a  [iropensity  to  steal  and  hoard  articles 


KLEPTOMANIA 


117 


KLEPTOMANIA 


that  can  be  surreptitiously  appropriated.  The  propen- 
sity to  acquire  becomes,  in  such  cases,  so  irresistible,  and 
the  will  so  impotent,  that  the  appropriation  is  generally 
regarded  as  involuntary,  and  the  perpetrator,  therefore, 
irresponsible;  but,  in  order  to  constitute  a  case  of  moral 
irresponsibility,  it  should  undoubtedly  be  insisted  on 
that  to  the  phenomena  of  moral  there  should  always  be 
superadded  those  of  intellectual  disorder,  the  assumption 
being  that  so  long  as  the  intellect  is  unperverted  the 
person  will  be  found  to  possess  a  consciousness  of  the 
nature  of  the  criminal  act  in  relation  to  law.  The  plea 
of  insanity  in  the  agent  should  not  be  admitted  where 
it  is  evident  that  the  subject  is  perfectly  aware  of  the 
tendency  of  his  or  her  actions;  the  simple  moral  inabil- 
ity to  resist  this  temptation  is  only  in  the  same  predica- 
ment with  that  of  cverj'-  unquestioned  candidate  for  the 
penitentiary  or  gallows.  A  state  which  may  seem  to 
descr\-e  the  name  of  moral  insanity,  as  exhibiting  a  per- 
version of  tlie  moral  sentiments,  tendencies,  and  percep- 
tions, with  a  loss,  to  a  great  extent,  of  self-control,  is 
often  prominent  in  the  early  stages  of  mental  disease, 
and  befi)re  the  intellect  is  palpably  affected.  Up  to  this 
point  tlie  patient  should  undoubtedly  be  held  personally 
responsible  for  his  or  her  conduct  in  a  criminal  sense. 
When  certain  delusions,  when  delirium  or  incoherency 
supervene,  the  case  then,  without  question,  may  be  set 
down  as  that  of  insanity,  which  would  absolve  the  pa- 
tient from  responsibility.  The  question  here  suggests 
itself  as  to  the  place  which  morbid  impulses  ouglit  to 
have — how  nearly  are  they  allied  to  insanity,  and  how 
far  can  they  be  urged  as  extenuating,  or  even  excusing 
misdemeanors  or  crimes?  This  strange  thraldom  to  a 
morbid  prompting  not  unfrequently  has  its  outlet  in 
crimes  of  the  deepest  dye.  When  lord  Byron  was  sail- 
ing from  Greece  to  Constantinople,  he  ;vas  observed  to 
stand  over  the  sleeping  body  of  an  Albanian  with  a 
poniard  in  his  liand,  and  after  a  while  to  turn  away 
muttering,  "  I  sliould  like  to  know  how  a  man  feels  who 
has  committed  a  murder!"  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
lord  Byron,  urged  by  a  morbid  impulse,  was  on  the  very 
eve  of  knowing  what  he  desired  to  know.  But  one  of 
the  most  singular  instances  of  morbid  impulses  in  con- 
nection with  material  things  is  related  in  the  case  of  a 
young  man  who,  in  visiting  a  large  manufacturing  estali- 
lishment,  stood  opposite  a  large  hammer,  and  watched 
with  great  interest  its  perfectly  regular  strokes.  At  first 
it  was  beating  immense  lumps  of  crimson  metal  into 
thin  black  sheets,  but  the  supply  becoming  exhausted, 
at  last  it  only  descended  on  the  polished  anvil.  Still 
the  young  man  gazed  intently  on  its  motion ;  then  he 
followed  its  strokes  with  a  corresponding  motion  of  his 
head;  then  his  left  arm  moved  to  the  same  tune;  and, 
finally,  he  deliberately  placed  his  fist  on  the  anvil,  and 
in  a  second  it  was  crushed  to  a  jelly.  The  only  expla- 
nation he  could  afford  was  that  lie  felt  an  impulse  to  do 
it ;  that  he  knew  he  should  be  disabled ;  that  he  saw  all 
the  consequences  in  a  misty  kind  of  manner,  but  that  he 
still  felt  a  power  within  above  sense  and  reason — a  mor- 
bid impulse,  in  fact,  to  which  he  succumbed,  and  by 
which  he  lost  a  good  right  hand.  This  incident  sug- 
gests many  things  besicles  proving  the  peculiar  nature 
and  power  of  morbid  impulses — such,  for  instance,  as  a 
law  of  sympathy  on  a  scale  hitherto  undreamt  of,  as 
well  as  a  musical  tone  pervading  all  things.  An  illus- 
trious physician  has  lately  left  on  record  the  opinion  that 
"  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  terril)le  scenes  which  ac- 
companied the  final  suppression  of  the  Communist  out- 
break was  a  contagious  mental  alienation.  Tlie  minds 
of  the  Parisians  were  gradually  unhinged  by  the  priva- 
tions of  the  siege.  The  revolt  of  the  18th  of  March  gave 
the  last  blow  to  lirains  which  were  already  shaken,  and 
at  length  the  greater  part  of  the  po]iulation  went  raving 
mad.  Women  are,  under  such  circumstances,  fiercer  and 
more  reckless  than  men.  This  is  because  their  nervous 
system  is  more  fully  developed ;  their  brain  is  weaker, 
and  their  sensibilities  are  more  acute  than  those  of  the 
Stronger  sex ;  and  they  are  consequently  far  more  dan- 


gerous in  such  paroxysms.  None  of  them  knew  exactly 
what  they  were  fighting  for;  they  were  possessed  by 
one  of  the  various  forms  of  mania — that  which  impelled 
the  French  Jansenists  of  the  latter  half  of  the  18th 
century  to  torture  themselves  with  a  strange  delight  in 
pain  of  the  acutest  liinil.  The  men  who  threw  them- 
selves on  the  bayonets  of  the  soldiers  in  a  paroxysm 
of  passion  were  a  few  moments  afterwards  utterly  pros- 
trate and  begging  for  mercy.  They  were  no  more  cow- 
ards in  the  last  state  than  they  were  heroes  in  the  first — 
they  were  simply  madmen."  In  recurring  to  the  "  Reign 
of  Terror"  of  the  first  French  IJevo'.ution,  Lewis  Cass  has 
this  profound  reflection :  "  In  surveying  the  French  na- 
tional character  of  the  present  day"  (this  was  written  in 
1840),  "it  is  difficult  to  recognise  those  traits  of  cruelty 
which  were  so  shockingly  developed  during  the  Revolu- 
tion. Amonomania  must  have  prevailed,  hurrying  the 
nation  into  acts  inconsistent  with  its  general  feeling,  and 
marking  that  time  of  political  effervescence  as  an  ex- 
traordinary period  in  human  history."  The  general  term 
monomania,  implies  that  the  individual  is  deranged  only 
on  one  suliject,  or  in  reference  to  one  object,  or  in  one 
particular  train  of  thought  or  faculty  of  thinking,  and 
that  his  intellect,  judgment,  and  emotions  are  otherwise 
sound,  at  least  when  not  exercised  on  the  subject  of  his 
derangement.  This,  however,  is  not  strictly  true.  In 
almost  all  cases  of  so-called  monomania  there  are  other 
morbid  indications  besides  the  salient  one — morbid  dis- 
likes or  suspicions,  morbid  vanity  or  irritability.  Mono- 
mania seems  to  arise  in  the  failure  of  the  faculties  round 
a  given  centre  of  thought,  in  a  paralysis  of  power  along 
a  given  line  of  mental  direction,  iniaccompanied  by  any 
parallel  paralysis  of  interest,  so  that  the  patient  busies 
himself  involuntarily  on  a  subject  on  which  he  has  lost 
the  power  of  bringing  his  faculties  properly  to  bear.  It 
is  the  attempt  of  weakened  faculties  to  work  upon  an 
overstrained  nervous  string,  so  that  all  mental  power 
disappears  just  where  the  wish  to  apply  it  is  greatest. 
Now  these  morbid  centres  of  partial  imbecility  are, 
cceteris  jniribus,  more  likely  to  spring  up  in  minds  below 
the  average  in  general  power  than  in  those  above  them, 
though  the  centre  of  the  disease  itself  will  often  be  on 
the  noblest  or  most  sensitive  part  of  the  mind.  These 
peculiarities  are  nearly  always  distinctly  marked  in 
monomania,  particularly  in  that  form  of  it  which  is 
called  kleptomania.  It  is  usually  exhibited  by  persons 
who  have  no  motive  to  steal,  and  is  frequently  satisfied 
by  purloining  articles  of  no  value.  A  baronet  of  large 
fortune  stole,  while  on  the  Continent,  pieces  of  old  iron 
and  of  broken  crockery,  and  in  such  quantities  that  tons 
of  these  collections  were  presented  to  the  custom-house 
officers.  In  the  second  volume  of  the  Medical  Critic  the 
case  of  a  female  is  detailed  who  could  not  resist  the  im- 
pulse of  appropriating  everything  within  her  reach.  In 
searching  this  woman  on  one  occasion  there  were  found 
15  bags  upon  her  person,  in  which  there  were  1182  arti- 
cles, mostly  worthless,  viz.,  104  bits  of  paper,  82  sewing- 
needles,  18'  old  gloves,  12  moulds  for  wax  leaves,  19  but- 
tons, GO  feathers,  8  parcels  of  dried  fish,  135  bits  of  rib- 
bons, 9  bottles,  CI  lozenges,  and  a  variety  of  other  arti- 
cles, the  refuse  of  the  place,  to  which  she  had  at  various 
times  taken  a  fancy.  Another  case  reported  by  high 
medical  authority  is  that  of  a  rich  but  eccentric  gentle- 
man living  in  an  old  manor-house  in  Lincohishire,  Eng- 
land. He  Avas  a  good  business  man,  and  managed  his 
estate  with  care  and  prudence,  auditing  his  steward's 
yearly  accounts  with  the  skill  of  an  expert.  His  neigh- 
bors were  all  kindly  disposed  towards  him,  and  he  was 
charitably  disposed  tOAvards  the  poor.  Even  the  ser- 
vants who  saw  him  every  day,  altliough  they  confessed 
that  he  was  "certainly  very  peculiar  at  times,"  never 
once  dreamed  of  impugning  his  intellect.  He  was  in- 
sane in  one  direction  only,  and  one  might  have  passed  a 
lifetime  with  him  without  discovering  it.  He  would  be 
seized  by  a  sudden  determination  to  travel,  and  on  such 
occasions  he  would  travel  in  state,  with  a  retinue  of 
servants.     After  a  fortnight's  or  perhaps  a  month's  ab- 


KLEPTOMANIA 


118 


KLEPTOMANIA 


sence,  lie  would  return  home.  Invariably,  on  the  morn- 
ing of  the  next  day  after  his  return,  towels,  which  had 
been  taken  from  an  open  portmanteau,  were  found  scat- 
tered about  the  room.  ^Vlter  breakfast,  his  custom  was 
to  retire  to  the  library  and  write  the  addresses  of  all  the 
hotel-keepers  at  wliose  houses  he  had  slept  during  his 
absence  on  so  many  slips  of  writing-paper,  with  direc- 
tions to  his  servants  to  inclose  to  each  address  the  num- 
ber of  towels  specitied  upon  each  piece  of  paper,  and  to 
copy  such  other  ■\\Titing  as  they  might  find  there,  and 
send  this  in  a  letter, -with  the  towels,  to  the  hotel-keeper. 
This  gentleman  was  one  of  the  unhappy  race  of  klepto- 
maniacs, whose  particular  mania  impelled  him  to  pur- 
loin towels.  He  subsequently  gave  to  a  friend  a  liistorj^ 
of  his  case,  and  said  he  was  goaded  to  these  journeyings 
and  pilferings  by  an  irresistible  impulse,  which  he  insist- 
ed was  tlie  residt  of  demoniacal  possession.  He  was  never 
impelled,  however,  a  second  time  on  the  same  journey; 
so  that,  while  no  hotel-keeper  woidd  be  likely  to  suspect, 
during  his  visit,  a  gentleman  of  his  rank  and  st}'le  as  one 
■who  would  steal  his  towels,  it  never  transpired  publicly, 
so  far  as  is  known,  that  he  was  a  thief,  although  his 
own  consciousness  of  the  fact  embittered  his  existence. 
Sometimes,  in  the  case  of  this  form  of  monomania,  there 
exists,  in  the  mind  of  the  sufferer,  the  delusion  that  what 
he  steals  is  his  own  property,  or  has  been  stolen  from 
him,  and  that  he  merely  reclaims  his  own.  Sometimes 
he  imagines  that  God  orders  him  to  steal.  The  case  is 
recorded  of  a  .Scotch  clerg3-man,  distinguished  for  his 
learning,  piety,  and  charity ;  he  stole  Bibles  with  a  spe- 
cial view  to  the  glory  of  God  by  the  propagation  of  the 
Gospel.  His  manse  was  a  little  "  missionary  society  of 
stolen  Bibles,"  and  he  was  as  much  in  earnest  in  the  con- 
version of  souls  by  the  contraband  process  as  the  most 
enthusiastic  foreign  missionary  coidd  be  in  his  calling. 
He  was  at  last  detected  in  wholesale  Bible-stealing.  It 
was  farther  discovered  that  he  had  organized  a  wide 
missionary  district,  and  left  a  Bible  or  a  Testament  at 
every  cottage  where  it  was  needed  along  the  route. 
The  most  touching  fact  in  the  story  is  that  he  was  ar- 
rested while  on  his  knees  by  the  bedside  of  a  dying  old 
man,  with  a  stolen  Bible  lying  witle  open  before  liim  on 
the  bed.  '-What  made  you  steal  the  Biljle,  Mr.  B.?" 
asked  the  sheriff,  with  pious  horror  on  his  face.  "  God 
made  me  steal  them,  good  man,"  was  the  reply;  '-he 
was  weary  of  seeing  his  poor  people  perish  of  Gospel- 
hunger  because  the  rich  Bible  Society  could  not  afford 
to  feed  them  without  the  baubees,  and  so  God  set  me  to 
steal  for  them  and  save  them."  He  could  not  be  per- 
suaded that  he  had  done  wrong.  The  delusion  of  the 
clergyman,  who  was  a  very  poor  man,  naturally  suggest- 
ed insanity.  But  he  was  perfectly  sane  upon  all  other 
points,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  he  would  have  received 
the  benefit  of  Ids  malady— whether,  indeeil,  it  would 
have  been  admitted  as  a  malady  at  all — if  a  learned  and 
pluloso]ihical  physician  in  a  neighboring  town  had  not 
positively  sworn  that  he  was  the  '•  victim  of  moral 
mania."  There  is  this  peculiarity  sometimes  in  the 
case  of  kleptomaniacs,  that  their  purloining  is  confined 
to  single  articles.  The  case  is  reported  of  a  lady  who 
could  not  resist  the  temptation  to  steal  silk  stockings. 
Another  lady  would  steal  gloves  whenever  the  opportu- 
nity was  afforded.  A  boy  was  arrested  some  months 
since  in  Brooklyn  for  stealing  slii)pers  from  the  feet  of 
ladies  while  walking  in  the  street.  His  friends  came 
forwaril  and  testified  that  he  had  been  in  the  habit  of 
steahng  sli|)pers,  and  was  never  known  to  have  stolen 
anything  else,  all  his  life.  A  letter-carrier  in  Harlem, 
N.  Y.,  was  detected  in  abstracting  letters  and  concealing 
them  under  a  rock,  which  he  had  practiced  for  more 
than  a  year.  They  -wotc  most  carefully  hoarded  in  his 
place  of  concealment,  and  were  found  unopened.  It  was 
proven  in  his  case,  we  believe,  that  he  had  a  mania  for 
stealing  letters  without  any  apparcift  motive,  as  he  never 
made  any  use  of  them  cxcejit  to  hoard  them. 

The  cases  quoted  are  sufficient  to  prove  that  the  form 
of  moral  insanity  to  wluch  the  name  of  kleptomania  has 


been  given  reallj'  exists.  From  these,  as  well  as  many 
other  instances  which  will  readily  occur  to  the  reader, 
it  will  be  seen  that  there  can  be  little  difficulty  for  a 
skilfid  physician,  after  a  short  examination,  in  distin- 
guishing between  a  real  victim  of  this  disease  and  an 
ordinary  thief.  And  this,  as  well  as  every  other  true 
form  of  insanity,  ^ve  presume,  frees  every  one,  whether 
previously  bad  or  good,  from  moral  responsibility  in  this 
particular  regard.  \Mien  the  actual  condition  exists, 
no  matter  what  the  conduct  maj-  have  been  which  pre- 
ceded and  conduced  to  it,  the  earthly  account  of  the 
subject  has  already  been  closed,  and  the  deeds  that  fol- 
\o\v,  ^ve  are  sure,  \vill  be  mercifully  judged  of  by  him 
who  knows  whereof  his  poor  frail  creatures  are  made, 
and  remembers  that  they  are  but  dust.     (E.  de  P.) 

It  is  proper  to  add  to  the  above  remarks,  which  are 
evidently  just  in  their  conclusion,  some  considerations 
setting  the  question  of  moral  responsibility  in  such  cases 
in  a  fuUer  light. 

1.  The  distinction  is  well  made  in  the  beginning  of 
the  article  that  some  intellectual  defect  must  be  proven 
in  order  to  constitute  real  insanity  in  any  case.  It  is 
not  enough  that  a  perversion  of  the  moral  faculties  ex- 
ists, for  that  is  the  quintessence  of  guilt ;  and  on  this 
ground  he  who  should  most  effectually  obliterate  his 
own  conscience  would  thereby  the  most  completely  ex- 
cuse himself  in  whatever  crime  he  might  thus  render 
himself  capable  of  committing.  The  mere  fact  that  the 
persons  laboring  under  kleptomania  are  frequently  not 
conscious  of  any  wrong-doing  on  their  own  part  is  not 
of  itself  an  adequate  plea  in  their  justification. 

2.  The  actual  presence  of  mental  imbecility  in  these 
peculiar  cases  is  proved  by  the  fact  of  the  ubsurd  man- 
ner in  which  the  subjects  of  the  disease  steal.  In  the 
first  place,  they  do  not  commit  theft /b?'  their  own  hene- 
jit ;  they  do  not  appropriate  the  articles  taken  to  their 
own  use,  nor  do  they  liave  any  occasion  for  them.  The 
moral  motive,  i.  e.  gain,  is  evidentl}-  absent,  and  their 
conduct  is  at  once  understood,  when  the  circumstances 
become  known,  as  very  different  from  ordinarj'  cases  of 
shop-lifting.  In  the  second  place,  there  is  usually  a 
])ettiiiess,  oftentimes  an  absolute  puerility  in  the  acts 
committed,  that  marks  the  person  as  for  the  time  '"non 
compos  mentis."  The  articles  purloined  are  frequently 
worthless  in  themselves,  and  alwaj-s  relatively  so.  The 
conduct  of  the  individual  so  strongly  resembles  that 
harmless  and  unmeaning  gathering  of  sticks  and  straws 
which  is  one  of  the  most  common  signs  of  lunacy,  that 
everj'  one  informed  with  the  case  spontaneously  sets  it 
down  in  the  same  categorj'.  In  the  third  place,  the  im- 
pulse to  these  acts  comes  on  i»  sudden  Jit.s,  quite  at  vuri- 
eince  vil/i  the  I'sual  couise  of  the  individual's  conduct. 
A  general  good  character  is  always  held  to  be  one  of  the 
strongest  evidences  against  the  probability  of  a  partic- 
idar  offence ;  in  these  cases,  the  isolated  nature  of  the 
acts,  their  sporadic  occurrence,  the  peculiar  line  in  which 
they  take  place,  all  go  to  show  the  abnormal  condition 
of  the  mind  at  the  time.  The  mere  violence  of  the  im- 
pulse to  commit  them,  it  is  true,  is  not  a  valid  excuse; 
for  it  is  hard  even  for  the  subject  himself  to  be  sure 
that  this  is  really  irresistible ;  but  thej'rantic  character 
of  it,  as  he  experiences  it,  and  as  it  appears  to  others,  is 
a  legitimate  proof  of  its  insanity.  In  short,  the  utter 
and  marked  want  of  congruity  between  the  behavior  of 
the  person  under  these  circumstances  and  ordinary'  ra- 
tional life  stamps  the  act  as  that  of  a  special  mania,  un- 
accountable to  the  individual  himself  in  his  lucid  mo- 
ments. The  foregoing  criterion,  we  may  remark,  will 
serve  to  distinguish  genuine  cases  of  irresjwnsible  klep- 
tomania from  deliberate  and  culpable  thievishness, 
whether  habitual  or  occasional. 

3.  The  question  whether  this  may  be  a  congenital  ten- 
dency we  cannot  here  digress  to  consider,  except  so  far 
as  to  remark  that  this,  if  proved  in  the  affirmative, 
would  not  really  affect  the  main  issue  of  moral  responsi- 
bility; for  human  depravity  is  all  confessedly  inherited, 
but  we  do  not.  on  that  account,  hold  any  one  free  from 


KLESCHIUS 


119 


KLEY 


the  obligation  to  restrain  its  manifestation,  and,  by  using 
the  lielps  within  his  reach,  even  ultimately  eradicating 
it.  In  like  manner  we  pass  by  the  interesting  cognate 
subject  of  the  peculiar  passion  for  intoxicating  drinks 
experienced  by  the  habitual  inebriate,  and  its  violent — 
seemingly  overwhelming — tendency  to  return  on  the 
slightest  stimulus,  even  after  years  of  reform ;  merely 
observing  that  here,  whether  in  instances  of  inherited 
or  acquired  appetite,  the  disease — for  it  undoubtedly  is 
such — is  a  compound  one,  i.  e.  both  of  the  body  and  the 
mind,  the  latter  only— as  being  the  controlling  element 
— being  the  subject  of  moral  consideration ;  and  that  the 
responsibility  in  these  cases  is  at  most  simply  shifted  to 
Mill  abstinence  henceforth  from  the  deadly  seducer. 
This  last  thought,  however,  may  essentially  apply  to 
kleptomania  likewise ;  for  just  as  it  is  thQ  first  drop  that 
brings  back  the  drunkard's  fatal  appetite,  so  perhaps  it 
was  the  indiUgence  in  the  first  petty  theft  that  devel- 
oped the  uncontrollable  passion  for  purloining.  In  this 
light  the  subject  has  a  grave  lesson  for  all  fallen  human- 
ity, inasmuch  as  each  son  of  man  bears  within  his  bosom 
the  germ  of  every  hydra  sin,  wliicli  perchance  needs 
but  one  fecundative  act  to  cause  it  to  spring  forth  into 
virulent  hfe. 

Klescliius,  Daniel,  a  German  theologian,  born  at 
Iglau,  in  ]Moravia,  in  the  early  part  of  the  17th  century, 
was  educated  at  the  universities  of  Strasburg  and  Wit- 
tenberg, and  tlieu  preached  for  a  number  of  years  in 
Hnngaria  and  Croatia.  In  1673  he  went  to  Jena,  taught 
there  fur  a  time,  and  then  removed  to  Weissenfels,  where 
he  became  a  professor  at  the  gymnasium.  Kleschius 
was  a  verj'  peculiar  character.  He  made  many  predic- 
tions, among  others  that  the  year  1700  Avould  bring  the 
final  judgment  day.  He  lived,  however,  beyond  the 
time  appointed.  He  died  about  1701.  iicQ  AUfjemeines 
Hist.  Lex.  vol.  iii,  s.  v. 

Klesel.     See  Kiilesl, 

Klette,  JoiiANN  Georg,  a  German  Lutheran  divine, 
was  born  at  Eadeberg,  in  Meissen,  October  12,  IGoO,  and 
studied  theology  at  Leipzig  and  Wittenberg.  He  was 
made  professor  of  theology  and  metaphysics  at  Zerbst 
in  1681.  In  1606  he  became  pastor  in  that  place,  and 
died  Dec.  28, 1697. 

Kleuker,  Johaxn  Friedricii,  one  of  the  most  em- 
inent modern  German  theologians,  was  bom  at  Osterode 
Oct.  21, 1719.  He  studied  history,  philosophy,  and  the- 
ology at  the  University  of  Gottingen.  In  1773  he  be- 
came a  private  tutor  in  Blickeburg,  and  there  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Herder,  through  whose  influence  he  was 
appointed  prorector  of  the  gymnasium  of  Lemgo,  and,  in 
1778  rector  of  the  gymnasium  of  Osnabriick.  Herder 
also  induced  and  encouraged  him  to  write  on  the  tlieo- 
logical  questions  of  the  day.  In  acknowledgment  of  his 
literary  activity  and  profound  learning,  he  was  made 
D.D.  by  the  University  of  Helmstitdt  in  1791.  In  1798 
he  was  appointed  fourth  ordinary  professor  of  theology 
at  Kiel,  which  position  he  filled  with  great  success,  lec- 
turing on  the  exegesis  of  the  O.  and  N.  Test.,  Christian 
apologetics.  Christian  anticiuities,  ancient  Church  his- 
tory, the  doctrine  of  Christ  and  of  the  apostles,  symbol- 
ics, and  Christian  science,  of  which,  in  1800,  he  publish- 
ed a  Griuidriss  or  EncyUopadie  d.  Theologie  in  2  vols., 
for  the  use  of  his  numerous  pupils.  The  last  few  years 
of  his  life  were  spent  in  retirement  after  he  had  vainly 
tried  to  oppose  the  progress  of  scientific  rationalism. 
Kleuker,  says  Ilagenbach  (see  below),  "  was  one  of  the 
few  men  who,  in  doctrine  and  writings,  stood  in  avowed 
opposition  to  the  prevailing  theological  spirit  of  his 
times,  of  which  he  said  that  'it  had  so  poisoned  tlie 
whole  atmosphere  that  men  hardly  dared  to  speak  of 
Christ  as  anything  more  than  a  passing  shadow.'"  He 
was  not  even  satisfied  with  Herder,  who,  as  lie  held, 
made  too  many  concessions  to  the  new  style  of  doctrine 
and  thinking.  Yet  his  simple,  evangelical  faith,  his 
humble  piety,  and  his  active  interest  in  all  that  was 
grand  and  good,  secured  him  the  intimate  friendship  of 


that  class  of  men,  while  his  profound  learning,  especial- 
ly in  Oriental  and  in  classical  antiquities,  procured  him 
the  respect  and  consideration  of  all  scholars.  In  judg- 
ing a  theologian,  his  influence  on  his  associates  and  on 
the  age  in  whicli  he  lived,  it  does  not  suffice  to  examine 
simply  his  ViTitings;  as  much,  if  not  more,  can  be  deter- 
mined of  his  character  by  the  testimony  of  his  life  and 
death.  With  pleasure,  then,  do  we  point  to  the  dying 
testimony  of  tliis  celebrated  German  theologian.  His 
biographer  (see  below)  saj's  of  his  last  moments :  "  I  had 
the  fortune  to  be  present  when  Kleuker  died,  for  I  must 
call  it  a  good  fortune  to  see  a  true  Christian  die  as  calm- 
ly as  he  did.  As  I  came  in,  the  approach  of  death  was 
clearly  indicated  by  his  cold  hands,  almost  motionless 
pulse,  and  difficult  breathing.  A  kind  of  prophetic  spir- 
it appeared  to  come  over  him  when  he  once  more  warn- 
ed against  the  errors  of  his  contemporaries  by  proclaim- 
ing the  great  truths  that  he  had  so  often  taught.  After 
saying, '  It  is  jilainly  recorded  in  all  passages  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament  that  there  is  only  one  true  Sa\-iour, 
and  by  them  all  the  error  of  our  day  Avhich  looks  to  self- 
redemption  for  salvation  is  refuted,'  he  sweetly  fell  back 
into  the  corner  of  the  sofa,  bowed  his  head,  and,  without 
experiencing  the  least  convulsive  struggle  with  death, 
fell  asleep,  and  passed  away  into  the  better  world,"  May 
23, 1827.  Kleuker's  activity  as  a  writer  was  wonderful. 
He  wrote  first  a  Latin  programme,  entitled  Genius  e 
sc)-ij)tis  (intiquitaHs  monumentishiinriendus  (1775),  which 
was  followed  in  quick  succession  by  Zend-Avesta  nach 
Anquetil  dii  Perron  (1776-1777,  3  parts):  —  Anhanrj 
2.  Zend- A  vesta  (1781  -1783,  2  vols.) :—  Zend- A  vesta  im 
Kleinen  (1789) : — Menschlicher  Versuch  ii.  d.  Sohn  Gottes 
n.  d.  Menschen,  in  d.  Zeit  wie  ausser  d.  Zeit  (1776) : — Ge- 
dunken  Pascals  (1777)  •.—  Uebersetzuriff  u.  Erkliirung  d. 
Schriften  Salomons  v..  d.Salomonischen  Denkwiirdigl-eiten; 
Uebersetzunrj  der  Werke  Plato's  (1778-1797,  6  vols.)  :— 
Johaimes,  Petriis,  imd  Pauliis  als  Christologen  hetrachtet 
(1785): — a  prize  essay,  entitled  Ueber  d.Katur  u.d.Ur- 
sjn-iinrj  d.Emanationslehre  b.  d.Kabbalisten  (1785) : — HoU- 
icells  merkwiirdifje  historische  Nachrichten  v.Indostan  u. 
Bengalen,  etc.  (from  the  English,  1778) : — Abhandlungen. 
ii.  d.  Gesch.,  etc.,  A  siens,  von  i>ir  William  Jones  (from  Lhe 
English,  1795-1797,  4  vols.) : — Einige  Belehningen  iiber 
Toleranz,  Vernunft,  OJ}'enbaritng,Watuleriing  d.  Israeliten. 
durchs  rotke  Meer  jind  Anferstehung  Christi  von  d.  Tod- 
ten  (1778) : — Neue  Priifung  it.Erkldrungd.vorziiglichsten 
Beiveise  f.  d.  Warheit  ii.  d.  gottlichen  Urspning  d.  Chris- 
tenthums  w.  d.  Offenbarung  iiberhaiipt  (3  parts,  1788) : — 
AusfUhiiche  Untersuchung  d.  Griinde  J'. d.  Aecktheit  und 
Ghntbwiirdigkeit  d.  schriftlichen  Urkunden  d.  Christen- 
thums  (5  vols.)  : — Qirintus  Septimiiis  Florens  TertuUia- 
nus^s  Vertheidigung  d.  christlichen  ISache  gfgen  d.Heiden 
mit  erlduternden  Anmei-kungen  (from  the  Latin,  1798) : — 
Briefe  an  eine  christliche  Freundin  iiber  d.  Ilerder'sche 
Schrift  V.  Gottes  Sohn  (1802)  :—Ueb. d.  Ja  ii.Nein  d.bib- 
lisch-christlichen  u.  d.Vermtnftiheolog. (1819) : — Biblische 
Sgmpathien  od.erldiitcrnde  Bemerkimgen  ii.Betrachtun- 
gen  ii.d.Berichte  d.Evangelisten  v.Jesu  Lehren  v.Thaten 
1820): — Ueb.d.alten  und  neuen  Protestantismiis  (1823). 
See  H.  P.  Sexto,  Exjwsitio  Sermanis  Jesu.Jok.  V,  39  et 
siqyer  ejus  sententia  de  nexu  inter  scriptontm  Mosaico— 
7-um  argumentum  et  doctrinam  suam  nonnulla  (Helmst. 
1792, 8vo);  Notiz  unci  Kai-akteristik  cl.  iztlebenden  theolo- 
gischen  Schriftsteller  Deiitschkmds  (1797,  p.  108  sq.) ; 
Xeiie  Kielische  gelehrte  Zeititng  (2  Jahrg.  1798),  p.  282- 
286 ;  .J.  O.  Tliiess,  Gelchrtengesch.  d.  Universitdt  zu  Kiel,  i 
375-447;  YlaX]cn,  J.  F.  Kleuker  n.  Briefe  seiner  Freunde 
((iiittingen,  1842) ;  Ilagenbach,  Ch.  Hist.  18th  and  mh 
C'ra/.ii,  190  sq.;  U^rzog, Real-Encykl.y\i,7i2.  (J.H.W.) 
Kley,  Eduaku,  a  Jewish  preacher  and  educator  of 
note,  born  June  10,  1789,  at  Bemstadt,  in  SOesia,  was 
prominently  connected  with  the  reformatory  movements 
in  the  synagogue  at  the  opening  of  the  19th  centurj-. 
He  was  a  teacher  and  preaclier  at  Berlin  when,  in  1818, 
the  Progressive  Jews  of  Hamburg  called  him  to  the  su- 
perintendency  of  their  schools,  and  later  to  the  duties  of 
a  pastorate.     Kley  was  the  first  Jew  who  preached  in  a 


KLTNG 


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KLOPSTOCK 


temple  (the  name  for  the  houses  of  worship  of  Eeformed 
Jews),  and  \vho  used  a  German  liturgy  and  introduced 
an  organ.  ]\Iay  9, 1840,  he  resigned  his  pastoral  office, 
but  the  superintendence  of  the  Jewish  schools  he  held 
until  1848,  when  his  advanced  age  obliged  him  to  fore- 
"•o  all  active  labors.  His  admirers  presented  him  with 
a  large  fiuid  for  Ins  support,  Ijut  he  declined  to  use  it  for  j 
himself,  and  founded  the  "  Eduard  Ivley  Stiftung"  for 
the  support  and  assistance  of  old  teachers  not  sulti^dt- 
ly  provided  for  by  the  state.  He  died  Oct.  4, 1867.  His  ! 
sermons,  which  are  generally  acknowledged  to  be  of  su- 
perior order,  were  published  at  Hamburg  in  1826-'27, 
1844, 8vo.  He  also  published  two  volumes  of  homilies :  ! 
Predir/t  Skizzen,  or  Beitraije  zii  einer  Iciinftigen  Ilomiledk  1 
(Leipz.  1856,  2  vols.  8vo),  and  Die  deutsche  Synafjogm 
oder  UrdnuMj  des  Gottesdimstes  (Berlin,  1817-18,  2  vols. 
8vo) : — '■'I  T^^i:},  Katechismus  d.  Mosaischen  Eelir/ioiis- 
khre  (Berl.  1814 ;  3d  ed.  Leipz  1839  and  1850).  Kley  is 
often  and  justly  called  the  Schleiermacher  of  the  Jewish 
pulpit  of  Germany  in  our  age.  See  Jost,  Gesch.  d.  Ju- 
(kuthums  It.  s.Sekten,'ni,3o6;  Kayserling  (DT.M.),Bib- 
liothek  Jiid.  Kanzelrediier  (Berl.  1870,  8vo),  i,  47  sq. ;  II- 
lustrirles  Monatsheftf.  d.  gesammten  Int.  d.  Judenthums,  ii, 
419  sq. ;  Jonas,  LebenssUzze  v.  Herrn  Dr.  E.  Klerj  (Ham- 
burg, 1859, 12mo) ;  Furst,  Bih.  Jud.  s.  v.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Kling,  Chi:istian  Fiiiedrich,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  Altdorf,  in  Wlirtemberg,  Nov.  4, 1800,  and 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Tiibingen,  where  he 
became  "  repetent"  in  1824.  Two  years  later  he  entered 
the  ministry,  and  settled  at  AYaiblingcn  until  1832,  when 
he  removed  to  Marburg  as  professor  of  theology.  In 
1840  he  was  appointed  to  and  accepted  a  like  position 
at  Bonn  University,  which  he  held  until  1847 ;  then  be- 
came preacher  at  Ebersbach,  in  Wurtcmberg ;  later  dea- 
con at  Marbach,  and  died  in  18G1.  Kling  was  a  ready 
writer,  and  contributed  largely  to  the  difterent  (Jerman 
periodicals;  he  was  one  of  the  ablest  assistants  on  the 
Theolorjische  Studien  uml  Kritiken.  He  edited  J.  F.  von 
Flatt's  Vorlesungen  iiber  die  Pastorcd  Briefe  (1831),  and 
contributed  a  Commentcmj  to  the  Corinthians  to  Lange's 
Bibelicerk  (translated  by  Daniel  W.  Poor,  D.D.,  Scrib- 
ner's  edit.  New  York,  1871,  royal  8vo). 

Klinge,  Zaciiarias  Laurentius,  a  Swedish  theo- 
logian who  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury, was  first  professor  of  theology  at  Dorpat,  then 
preacher  at  the  Swedish  court,  and  later  pastor  at  Stock- 
holm and  bishop  of  Gothenburg.  He  died  Sept.  3, 1671. 
He  wrote  Theutnim  BiMicum,  etc.  See  A  Ugemeines  Hist. 
Lexikon,  iii,  38. 

Klingler,  Antonius,  a  German  Reformed  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  Zurich,  Switzerland,  Aug.  2, 1649 ;  was 
educated  at  several  of  the  most  celebrated  German  uni- 
versities ;  and  became  doctor  theologia;  in  1677,  and  pro- 
fessor at  the  gymnasium  at  Hanau  in  the  same  year. 
In  1680  he  was  offered  a  professorship  at  the  University 
of  Groiiingen,  but  he  declined  this  honor  in  favor  of  a 
pastorate  in  his  native  place.  He  died  there  in  August, 
1713.  Klingler  published  several  theological  works,  of 
■which  his  best  is  Bella  Jehovoe.  See  AUgemeines  Hist. 
Lexikon,  iii,  38. 

Klopstock,  Friedricu  Gottlieb,  an  eminent 
German  ])oct,  one  of  the  forerunners  of  the  great  tier- 
man  poetic  renaissance  of  the  18th  centurj- — '•  the  Ger- 
man ]Milton,"  as  he  is  frequently  styled — was  born  at 
(Juedlinburg,  Saxony,  July  2,  1724.  He  received  his 
early  education  at  the  school  of  his  native  place,  and 
when  sixteen  years  of  age  was  admitted  to  the  (Jymna- 
sium  at  Naumburg,  where  he  became  acquainted  with 
the  style  of  the  classical  authors  of  his  country.  While 
here  his  private  hours  were  devoted  to  compositions 
both  in  prose  and  verse,  particularly  to  the  writing  of 
pastorals,  which  were  in  great  voji;ue  among  the  tier- 
mans,  and  it  is  said  tliat  even  at  that  early  period  he 
had  decided  to  write  a  poem  of  greater  length  than  any 
that  liad  liitlicrto  been  attempted  by  his  countrymen, 
and  one  that  shoidd  do  honor  to  German  literatiu-e, 


which  was  at  this  time  rather  at  low  ebb.     Franco  was 
in  the  avantguard  of  political  influence,  and  ever^'thing 
French  was  considered  worthy  of  imitation ;  but  French 
influence  was  most  completely  manifest  in  the  social  life 
of  the  Germans,  particularly  in  their  literature,  aiid,  as 
a  late  writer  in  the  Westminster  Revieto  (Oct.  1871,  p. 
212)  has  it,  "at  no  time,  perhaps,  was  it  more  difficult  to 
form  and  express  original  views  in  Germany."     Klop- 
stock had  acquired  the  English  language,  and  in  his 
readings  of  English  works  his  eye  had  fallen  upon  the 
immortal  production  of  jMilton.    Trained  from  his  youth 
to  a  religious  life,  and  destined  for  the  ministry,  he  nat- 
urally decided  to  present  his  nation  with  a  like  work 
that  should  standby  the  side  of  the  English  production. 
If  no  more,  he  was  determined  that  the  German  mind 
shoidd  turn  towards  English  literature,  and  drink  at  its 
fountains,  rather  than  be  any  longer  subjected  to  that 
cold,  correct,  and  imimaginative  spirit  which  had  hith- 
erto tyrannized  over  their  thoughts  and  habits.     Bod- 
mer,  the  great  leader  of  the  so-called  "  Swiss  school"  of 
German  Uterature,  and  others  of  the  Swiss  school,  were 
already  fiuniishing  his  countrymen  with  able  translations 
of  English  poets;  among  other  works,  he  translated  Blil- 
ton's  Pcn-adhe  Lost.     In  1745  Klopstock  went  to  the 
University  of  Jena  to  study  theology,  but,  amid  the  pur- 
suit of  studies  in  divinity,  his  attention  at  everj-  conven- 
ient moment  was  occupied  with  the  great  work  which 
he  had  projected.     During  his  residence  at  that  insti- 
tution he  composed  the  first  three  cantos  in  prose ;  but 
after  his  removal  to  Leipzig   (in  1746),  having  made 
trial  of  hexameters  in  imitation  of  the  melodious  strains 
of  Homer  and  Yirgil,  and  being  pleased  with  the  success 
of  the  experiment,  he  resolved  to  execute  the  whole 
poem  in  that  measure.     Finally,  in  1748,  the  first  three 
cantos  of  his  Messiah  were  published  in  the  Bremer 
Beitrdge,  a  joiu'nal  which  had  been  started  by  men  de- 
termined, like  Klopstock,  to  break  loose  from  that  .'hal- 
low despotism  which,  under  the  leadership  of  the  pe- 
dantic Gottsched,  had  so  long  hung  over  them.     The 
fame  of  Klopstock,  whom  the  year  previous  such  men 
as  Gellcrt,  Kabener,  Hagedoni,  and  Gleim  had  pointed 
out  as  the  man  likely  and  competent  to  inaugurate  a 
new  era  in  German  poetry,  now  spread  far  and  wide; 
j  for  that  poem    enjoyed   an   extraordinary  jwpularity 
among  all  who  could  appreciate  the  attractions  of  ele- 
gant diction  and  high  devotional  feeling.     It  was  the 
I  subject  of  admiration  in  every  circle — even  in  the  pid- 
pit  it  attracted  notice,  and  was  often  quoted  with  ap- 
plause.    It  gratified  its  pious  author  by  its  subser- 
viency to  the  purposes  of  practical  religion,  i'or  many 
portions  of  it  were  set  to  sacred  music,  and  sung  at  the 
family  worship  of  the  Germans,  and  many  of  its  finest 
passages  were  introduced  to  give  point  and  liveliness  to 
1  the  pages  of  religious  and  devotional  works  of  that  day. 
j  It  raised  the  name  of  Kloi)stock  to  the  highest  pinnacle 
I  of  renown,  insomuch  that  all  classes  of  his  countrymen, 
I  even  the  peasantrj',  learned  to  understand  and  love  him 
as  a  sacred  poet.     His  fame  was  spread  even  to  foreign 
countries — for  in  1750,  when,  on  the  invitation  of  some 
friends,  he  went  to  spend  some  time  in  German  Switz- 
erland (at  Zurich),  in  the  enjoyment  of  its  wild  and  ro- 
mantic scenery,  he  was  received  with  a  degree  of  re- 
spect almost  bordering  on  veneration.     While  in  that 
country  his  mind  seems  to  have  taken  a  patriotic  ten- 
dency :  the  ancient  Hermann  (the  Arminius  of  Tacitus) 
became  his  favorite  hero,  whose  deeds  he  aftcr\vards  cel- 
ebrated in  some  dramatic  works.    In  Denmark  the  min- 
ister Bernstorff  had  become  acquainted  with  the  tliree 
cantos  of  the  Messiah,  and  Klopstock  was  offered  a  pen- 
sion of  8400  by  the  Danish  king  on  condition  of  coming 
to  Copenhagen,  and  there  finishing  his  poem.     He  set 
out  in  1751,  travelled  through  Brunswick  and  Hamburg, 
and  at  the  latter  place  formed  an  intimacy  with  Marga- 
retlia  ]Moller,  daughter  of  a  respectable  merchant.     At 
Copenhagen  he  was  received  l>y  Bernstorff  with  the 
greatest  respect,  and  introchiced  to  the  king,  Frederick 
V,  whom  he  accompanied  on  his  travels.     In  1754  he 


KLOPSTOCK 


121 


KLOPSTOCK 


went  to  Hamburg,  which  was  at  this  time  a  sort  of  lit- 
erary capital  of  Germany,  and  more  particularly  of  its 
northern  half,  as  'Weimar  became  some  years  later  of  the 
southern  half.  Not  only  could  Klopstock  claim  it  as  his 
residence,  but  it  also  contained  for  some  time  the  great 
Lessing,  who,  by  the  way,  was  no  mean  defendant  of 
Klopstock  in  the  attacks  made  against  the  latter  by 
Gottsched  and  his  school;  Herder  occasionally  visited 
the  Hanse  city,  and  a  number  of  lesser  lights,  such  as 
Voss,  Claudius,  Keimerus,  the  Stolbergs,  etc.,  gathered 
there  about  the  two  chief  luminaries.  "  Klopstock," 
says  iNIrs.  ^\'ild^worth  {Christum  Sin;jcrs  of  Germamj,  p. 
326  sq.),  speaking  of  his  residence  at  Hamburg,  "  enjoy- 
ed a  sort  of  reverence  not  unlike  that  paid  to  Dr.  John- 
son in  England,  but  in  some  respects  more  flattering,  as 
he  was  a  man  of  whom  it  was  much  easier  to  make  a 
popular,  and  especially  a  ladies'  hero."  Here  the  Messiah 
was  at  last  tinished  in  1773,  having  thus  occupied  twen- 
ty-seven years  in  preparation.  A  complete  edition  of  his 
odes  and  lyrics  was  brought  out,  and  here  he  devoted  the 
autumn  of  his  long  life  to  the  study  and  purification  of 
the  German  language  and  its  grammar.  He  had  always 
been  a  passionate  lover  of  his  country,  but  this  did  not 
prevent  him  from  taking  the  keenest  interest  in  the  Amer- 
ican War  of  Independence,  and  the  opening  of  the  French 
Revolution.  He  was  among  those  who  hailed  the  ear- 
lier years  of  the  latter  with  eager  sympathy,  and  the 
hope  of  a  coming  brighter  a;ra  lor  humanity,  and  who 
afterwards  underwent  the  bitterness  of  profound  disap- 
pointment. The  National  Assembly  had  marked  their 
recognition  of  his  friendship  for  the  French  people  by 
according  him  the  rights  of  a  French  citizen,  but  when 
the  terrible  massacres  of  1793  took  place  he  sent  back 
to  them  his  diploma.  In  Hamburg  he  married  his  "be- 
loved" Margaretha,  with  whom,  however,  he  enjoyed 
only  a  short  union;  she  died  in  childbed  in  1758.  In 
1771  he  was  honored  with  the  appointment  of  Danish 
ambassador  to  Hamburg,  and  flourished  at  this  place 
the  remainder  of  his  days,  dividing  his  time  between 
his  public  duties  and  the  pursuits  of  literature.  In  1792 
Klopstock  marrietl  for  the  second  time,  choosing  the 
Frau  von  Winthern,  an  old  love  of  his,  who  had  mean- 
while become  a  widow,  and  who  survived  him.  He  died 
in  1803,  and  was  buried  ('March  22)  by  Hamburg  with 
royal  honors,  a  distinction  which  in  Germany  is  gener- 
ally accorded  only  to  roj'al  personages. 

His  work  of  next  importance  to  the  Messiah  is  a 
drama,  above  alluded  to,  entitled  Ilermann^s  Schlacht 
(the  Battle  of  Arminius),  the  subject  of  which  is  the 
defeat  of  the  Koman  general  Varus  by  the  ancient  Ger- 
mans. It  is  scarcely  so  much  a  drama  as  a  lyric  poem 
in  a  dramatic  form.  It  was  composed  in  17(J4.  His 
otlier  dramas  are  of  a  similar  character,  and  were  writ- 
ten evidently  witli  intent  to  arouse  German  patriotism 
from  its  lethargy,  and  to  breathe  into  the  German  heart 
the  air  of  freedom.  But  the  Messiah  alone  is  of  special 
interest  to  oia  readers,  and  we  therefore  give  a  particu- 
lar description  of  it. 

Klopstock's  Messiah  is  a  poem  in  twenty  cantos, 
written  in  hexameters,  except  where  certain  choral 
songs  occur  in  unrhymed  lyrical  measure.  "  The  action 
opens  after  the  triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem,  when 
the  Messiah  withdra\vs  from  the  people,  and,  alone  on 
the  Jlount  of  Olives,  renews  his  solemn  vow  to  the  Al- 
mighty Father  to  undertake  the  work  of  redemption ;  it 
closes  when  that  work  is  completed,  and  he  sits  down  at 
the  riglit  hand  of  God.  Around  the  central  figiure  of 
the  God-man  are  grouped  an  infinite  variety  of  specta- 
tors and  actors :  angels  and  seraphs,  among  whom  Elva 
and  Gabriel  are  especially  appointed  to  attend  on  the 
divine  sufferer;  evil  spirits  who  conspire  against  him, 
but  one  of  whom,  Abljadonna,  repents  and  at  last  ob- 
tains mercy ;  Adam  and  Eve,  and  the  patriarchs,  who 
watch  with  profound  interest  and  gratitude  the  repara- 
tion of  the  fall ;  and  the  inhabitants  of  another  world, 
like  in  nature  to  man,  but  unfallen,  who  are  ]iermitted 
to  know  what  is  taking  place  among  their  sinful  kin- 


dred. Even  the  Father  himself  is  introduced  as  speak- 
ing, and  the  scene  is  sometimes  laid  in  the  highest 
heaven.  The  earthly  actors  are  the  mother  and  disci- 
ples of  .Jesus,  the  Jews,  and  the  Komans,  who  lead  him 
to  death,  and  a  number  of  those  who  have  come  in  con- 
tact with  him  in  his  ministrations,  among  whom  the 
most  clearly  drawn  are  two  female  figures,  both  named 
Cidli :  one,  the  wife  of  Gedor,  is  a  reminiscence  of  ^Meta, 
and  her  death  is  an  exact  transcript  of  jNIeta's  death-bed ; 
the  other  is  the  daughter  of  Jairus,  between  whom  and 
Semida,  the  youth  of  Nain,  there  exists  a  pure  but  ar- 
dent attachment,  which  at  last  finds  satisfaction  in 
heaven.  The  immense  number  of  personages  thus  in- 
troduced produces  a  confused  impression  ;  everything  is 
described  by  one  or  another  of  them,  and  talked  over  at 
length ;  scarcely  anything  actually  takes  place  before 
the  reader ;  there  is  an  absence  of  local  coloring  and  of 
character,  and  very  few  of  the  actors  have  any  distinct 
individuality  at  all ;  while  the  effort  to  keep  the  whole 
tone  of  the  poem  at  the  highest  possible  pitch  of  inten- 
sity and  awe  gives  rise  to  an  overstrained  inflation  of 
both  thought  and  style,  which  becomes  in  the  long  nni 
inexpressibly  fatiguing.  Yet  Klopstock's  poem  has  made 
for  itself  and  for  him  a  place  in  the  literature  of  his 
country  which  does  not  depend  on  the  number  of  read- 
ers it  now  attracts.  Its  subject  is  linked  bj'  a  thousand 
invisible  fibres  to  the  whole  Christian  thought  of  centu- 
ries past,  while  its  spirit  of  mercy,  forgiveness,  and  tol- 
erance— in  a  word,  of  redemption — is  essentially  char- 
acteristic of  the  later  developments  of  Christianity.  To 
treat  such  a  theme  worthily  at  all — to  embody  it  in  a 
form  which,  however  fuU  of  defects,  j'et  possesses  a  cer- 
tain dignity  and  real  genius — marks  its  author  as  a 
great  poet,  if  not  one  of  the  greatest,  and  gives  him  a 
place  historically  even  higher,  perhaps,  than  he  has  a 
right  to  command  as  an  artist."  The  poem  certainly 
abounds  in  passages  of  the  most  bcautifid  and  sjilendid 
poetry.  An  exuberant  imagination  everywhere  scat- 
ters its  wealth,  and  Klopstock  has  been  said  by  one 
critic  to  be  "  as  superior  to  Pindar  in  richness  and  deep 
feeling  as  the  spiritual  world  he  paints  transcends  in  in- 
trinsic magnificence  the  scenes  celebrated  by  the  Gre- 
cian bard ;"  and  by  another  critic,  "  now  to  rival  the 
tenderness  of  David,  now  to  soar  in  the  loftiest  fiights 
like  Isaiah.  The  purity  and  pathos  of  its  religious  sen- 
timents arc  equal  to  the  excellence  of  its  poetry.  But 
all  good  and  candid  judges  will  allow  that,  though  ex- 
hibiting a  sublimity  and  beauty  of  no  common  order,  it 
has  failed  to  accomplish  the  confident  expectations  of 
the  Germans,  that  it  woultl  eclipse  the  Paradise  Lost  of 
Jlilton."  For,  notwithstanding  its  grandeur,  it  is  ex- 
ceedingly tedious  to  read ;  and  even  at  the  time  of  Klop- 
stock's greatest  popularity  this  seems  to  have  been  felt, 
for  Lessing  observes,  in  an  epigram,  that  everybody 
praises  Klopstock,  but  few  read  him.  His  odes  are  val- 
ued by  his  own  countrymen  more  than  his  epic,  and 
some  are  truly  sublime;  but  the  construction  of  the  lan- 
guage is  so  singular,  and  the  connection  of  the  thoughts 
so  often  non-apparent,  that  these  odes  are  reckoned 
among  the  most  difficult  in  the  language.  Both  in  his 
Messiah  and  his  odes  he  is  dignified  and  sublime,  but 
his  rhapsodical  manner  contrasts  strangely  with  the 
pedantry  which  is  always  apparent.  Goethe,  in  his 
conversations  with  Eckermann,  expressed  his  opinion 
that  German  literature  was  greatly  indebted  to  Klop- 
stock, who  was  in  advance  of  his  times,  but  that  the 
times  had  since  advanced  beyond  Klopstock.  The  young 
Hardenberg  (who  wrote  under  the  name  of  "Novalis") 
has  happily  said  that  Klopstock's  works  always  resemble 
translations  from  some  unknown  poet,  done  by  a  clever 
but  unpoetical  philologist.  As  for  the  theological  as- 
pect of  his  poem  of  the  jlfessi.ah,  Klopstock  fell  into  the 
almost  inevitable  fault,  in  treating  this  subject  poetical- 
ly, of  dividing  the  kingdom  of  heaven  between  the  Fa- 
ther and  the  Son  (ditheism),  and  even  opposing  them 
to  each  other,  as  when  he  makes  Christ  say  to  God,  "  I, 
who  am  God  as  well  as  thou,  swear  to  thee  by  myself. 


KLUGE 


122 


KNAPP 


that  I  will  redeem  mankind."  (Comp.  Hurst's  Hagen- 
bach,  Church  History  of  the  18th  and  I9th  Centuries,  i, 
249;  ii, '277sq.) 

The  Messiah  was  first  published  in  fratcmonts.  and  then 
as  a  whole  (iUtona,  1780 ;  7tli  ed.  Lpz.  1817) :  it  has  been 
translated  into  Latin,  English,  French,  I'olish,  Dutch, 
and  S^vedish.  Klopstock  also  wrote  the  folloAving 
shorter  poems:  Oden  ii.Elegien  (Hamb.  1771,  2  vols. ;  Gth 
ed.  Lpz.  18l'7  ;  trans,  into  English  by  W.  Kind,  1847)  :— 
Geistliche  Lieikr  (Kopenh.  1758-G9,  2  vols.) ;  besides  dra- 
mas under  the  following  titles:  Adam's  Tod  (Kopenh. 
17u7 ;  4th  ed.  1773)  : — Salomo  (^lagdeb.  1764) : — David 
(Hamburg,  1772) ;  etc.  His  complete  works  have  been 
published  mider  the  title  Klopstock' s  sdmmtliche  Werke 
(Lpzg.  1798-1817,  12  vols.;  1822-24,  12  vols;  1823-29, 
18  vols.;  1839,  9  vols.;  1839,  1  vol.;  Kopenh.  1844,  10 
vols.,  with  3  supplements.  See  Cramer,  Klopstock;  er  u. 
i'lher  ihn  (Dessau,  1780,  5  vols.  8vo) ;  Mme.  de  Stael,  De 
VAUemarpie;  Klamer-Schmidt,  A7()/;stoc^•  u.  s.  Freunde 
(Halberstadt,  1810) ;  H.  Doring,  Klopstock's  Lebm  (Wei- 
mar, 1825);  Enfjlish  Cyclop,  s.  v.;  Herzog,  Real-Encij- 
llop.  vol.  vii,  s.  V. ;  Kurtz,  Litei-aturgesch.  vol.  ii  (see  In- 
dex in  vol.  iii) ;  and  especially  the  valuable  work  of 
Koberstein,  Grundriss  d.  Gesch.  der  deuischen  Literatur, 
iii,  260  sq.,  2884  sq.,  etc. ;  LtibeU,  Entwichelum/  d.  deiit- 
schen  Poesie  v.  Klopstock  bis  Goethe  (Braunschw.  1856), 
vol.  i ;  Gervinus,  Gesch.  d.  deutschen  Dichtuno  (Leipzig, 
1844,  5  vols.  8vo,  2d  ed.),  iv,  115  sq. ;  British  and  For- 
eir/ii  Quarterly  Bevicu;  Jan.  1843.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Kluge,  David,  a  German  theologian,  was  born  at 
Tilsit,  Prussia,  April  14, 1G18,  and,  upon  the  urgent  re- 
quest of  his  father,  studied  theology,  although  his  own 
inclinations  were  in  favor  of  medicine.  In  1641  he  be- 
gan to  lecture  at  the  University  of  Kostock,  v.here  he 
had  pursued  his  theological  studies  for  several  yeai's,  in 
addition  to  his  course  at  Ktinigsberg  Universitj%  Later 
lie  travelled  abroad,  and  visited  the  high-schools  of 
Sweden  and  the  Netherlands.  He  began  to  preach  in 
1644  at  JIarienwcrder ;  removed  in  1646  to  Saalfeld,  and 
in  1657  to  Elbingen,  in  1660  to  Wissmar,  and  in  1665  to 
Hamburg.  He  died  there  April  14, 1688.  For  a  list  of 
his  works,  see  Jiicher,  Gclehrt.  Lex.  ii,  2118  sq. 

Kluge,  Johann  Daniel,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  Weissenfels  June  6,  1701,  and  educated  at 
the  Universities  of  Leipzig  and  AVittenberg.  He  was 
made  a  professor  at  the  gymnasium  in  Dortmund  in 
1730;  in  1735  he  removed  to  Weissenfels  as  preacher 
and  superintendent  of  the  churches,  and  in  1745  accept- 
ed a  call  as  court  preacher  to  Zerbst,  where  he  died  July 
5, 1768.  Kluge  was  well  acquainted  with  dogmatics  and 
the  exegesis  of  the  N.  T.,  as  is  evinced  by  his  A\Titings 
in  those  departments,  lie  contributed  largely  to  peri- 
odicals, and  published  in  book  form  Concilium  syntag- 
matis  confessioninn  Eccles.  Luther  (Hamb.  1728,  4to)  : — 
Commentatio  de  Mart.  Chemnitii  auctoritate  commentitioi 
honorum  operum  in  acta  justijicationis  j)i'cesenti(e  /also 
prcetexta  (ibid.  1734, 4to): — Commentatio  in  lociim  (Tim. 
iii,  2)  (Dortra.  1747, 4to) : — Ecloyce  in  pericopas  epistol- 
icas  (ibid.  1 748, 4to),  etc.  Sec  Doring,  Gelehrte  Theolo-  \ 
gen  Dtutschlands,  ii,  131  sq. 

Kllipfel,  Emanuel  Christoph,  a  German  theo- 
logian, was  born  Jan.  29, 1712,  at  llattcnhofcn,  in  Wlir- 
temberg,  and  educated  at  Tiibingen.  In  1741  he  became 
jiastor  at  Geneva  of  a  German  Lutheran  church,  and  in 
1745  he  became  the  instructor  and  travelling  preacher 
of  the  king  of  Saxony,  and  resided  for  some  time  at 
I'aris.  On  his  return  to  Saxony  he  was  promoted,  and 
llnally.  in  1752,  became  one  of  the  highest  dignitaries  in 
the  Church  of  Saxonj-.  He  died  Nov.  21,  1776.  Al- 
though a  superior  scholar  and  a  ready  writer,  Klupfel 
has  left  us  only  two  small  contributions  to  theological 
literature :  Dissert,  de  nominihus,  llehrms  appellativis 
Alrph  prceformativo  (Tiibingen,  1733,  4to)  : — Bedenken 
iiber  die  Frage ;  ob  die  Ehe  mil  des  Brudeis  Wiftwe  er- 
laubt  sfi  (Gotha.  1752, 8vo).  —  Doring,  Gelehrte  Theolog, 
Deutschkvuh,  ii,  123  sq. 


Kliipfel,  Engelbert,  a  German  Roman  Catholic 
theologian  of  note,  was  born  at  Wipfelda,  between  AN'iirz- 
burg  and  Schweinfurt,  Jan.  18,  1733.  He  received  his 
early  education  in  the  school  of  Wurzburg,  and  in  1750 
joined  the  Augustinian  Hermits  of  that  city.  In  1751, 
however,  he  renounced  his  vows  at  Obemdorf,  and  went 
to  study  philosophy  at  Freiburg.  Next  he  removed  to 
Erfurt,  and  was  finally  ordained  priest  at  Constance  in 
1756.  In  1758  he  became  professor  of  philoso])liy  at 
Mannerstadt,  and  in  1763  at  Oberndorf;  afterwards  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Mentz,  and  finally  at  Constance. 
The  Austrian  court  wishing  to  replace  the  Jesuits  by  the 
Augustinians,  he  was  made  professor  of  the  University 
of  Freiburg,  in  Breisgau,  in  1768.  The  Jesuits,  however, 
tried  to  revenge  themselves,  and  Kliipfel's  Theses  de  statu 
7iaturce  purm  imjwssibili  were  attacked  by  professor  \A'ald- 
ner  as  tending  to  Jansenism.  But  Kliipfel  was  sustained 
b}'  the  court.  After  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  he  un- 
dertook the  publication  of  that  gigantic  task,  Noi-a  bib- 
liotheca  ecclesiastica  (Freib.  7  vols.  8vo,  1775-1790,  after 
the  plan  oi ^rn^siV s BiUiotheca  Ci'itica),&\\  effort  which 
was  highly  commended  bj'  his  contemporaries,  and  even, 
brought  him  a  recognition  from  Maria  Theresa  in  her 
own  handwriting,  with  the  proffer  of  assistance,  if  need- 
ed, to  complete  the  work.  The  Koman  Catholic  popula- 
tion, nevertheless,  were  opposed  to  him,  and  when,  in  a 
discourse  at  the  jubilee  of  1776,  he  attacked  the  system 
of  indulgences,  he  was  called  by  them  "  IMartin  Luther," 
and  "  the  enemy  of  indulgences."  He  was  involved  in  a 
controversy  also  with  the  Protestants  by  his  recension  of 
Semler's  Institutio  ad  Christianam  doctrinam  Ubercditer 
discendam.  His  principal  "work  is  his  Instituiiones  theo- 
logim  dogmatic(e  (1789),  which  has  been  used  as  a  text- 
book in  many  iniiversities,  but  was  quite  transformed  by 
Ziegler.  He  resigned  his  professorship  in  1805,  and  died 
July  8, 1811.  Kliipfel  was  a  man  of  very  varied  scholar- 
ship, and,  being  blessed  with  a  long  life  and  good  health, 
he  furnished  the  world,  besides  the  extraordinary  works 
already  mentioned,  as  a  result  of  his  study  of  the  Church 
fathers,  a  treatise  entitled  Tertulliani  mens  de  indissolii- 
bilitate  matrimonii  in  injidelitate  conti-acti,  conjuge  alter- 
utro  ad  Jidem  Christi  converso  (in  the  first  vol.  of  Rieg- 
ger's  Oblectamenta  Ilistorice  et  Juris  ecclesiastici  [1776]) : 
—  Vindicim  raticinii  Jesaice  vii,  14  de  hnmanuele  (1779, 
4to),  etc.  See  De  vita  et  scriptis  Com-adi  Celtis  opus 
piosthumum  Engelbeiti  Kluepfelii  (pub.  by  J.  C.  Ruef  and 
C.  Zell,  Friburgi,  1827)  ;  J.  L.  Hug,  Elogium  Kluepfelii 
Friburgi;  Herzog,  Jieal-Encykiop.  yu,7Gl ;  also  Doring, 
Gelehrte  Theol.  Dentschlunds,  ii,  126  sq.  (where,  by  mis- 
take, he  is  treated  as  Kliipfel,  Johann  Andreas).  (J. 
H.  W.) 

Knapp,  Albert,  a  German  theologian,  and  one  of 
the  ablest  ^vorkers  in  the  Wiirtemberg  Church  of  the 
19th  century,  peculiarly  distinguished  for  his  poetical 
gifts  and  influence  in  establishing  a  school  of  religions 
poetn,',  was  born  in  Tiibingen  July  25, 1798.  His  child- 
hood was  passed  in  the  village  of  Alpirsbach,  under  the 
old  11th-century  Benedictine  cloister,  and  he  enjoyed  the 
careful  instruction  of  Handel,  afterward  pastor  at  .Stamm- 
heim.  Night  and  day  he  dreamed  poetry.  His  miivcr- 
sity  studies,  upon  Avhich  he  entered  in  1816,  were  rather 
poetic  than  theological;  the  authorities  did  not  restrain 
his  choice,  and  for  that  he  always  expressed  his  grati- 
tude. In  1820  he  was  established  vicar  near  Stuttgard, 
and  here,  through  intercourse  with  the  pious  AMlhclm 
Hofacker  (q.  v.),  he  received  that  deep  religious  impres- 
sion which  ever  after  characterized  his  work.  In  1831 
he  became  deacon  at  Kirchheim,  where,  at  the  instance 
of  a  friend,  he  began  tlie  publication  of  the  Chriftoterpe, 
an  annual  which  contained  religious  selections  from  va- 
rious eminent  authors,  was  popular,  and  often  sought  as 
a  Christmas  gift  in  families,  but  ceased  with  the  year 
1853.  In  1836  he  was  made  pastor  at  Stuttgard.  and  la- 
bored there  with  great  zeal  for  the  cause  of  his  IMaster, 
exercising  a  large  influence  until  his  death,  .June  18, 
1864.  The  prayer  expressed  in  one  of  his  best  liymns 
was  answered :  "  Grant  me  one  thhig  here  below — thy 


KNAPP 


123 


KNAPP 


Spirit  and  thy  peace,  and  the  honor  in  my  grave  of  hav- 
ing known  thy  love." 

Albert  Kiiapp  is  chiefly  known  by  his  religious  poems, 
and  as  the  best  of  these  may  be  pointed  out  his  Chi-ist- 
Ik'he  Gedichte  (in  2  vols.  Stuttg.  18-29-,  3d  ed.  Basle,  18-13), 
Ilerhstbliithen  (1859),  and  Christoterpe,  alreadj'  referred 
to.  To  the  hj'mnology  of  the  Church  Ivjiapp  render- 
ed special  service  in  preserving,  in  the  revision  of  the 
Church  hymn-book,  many  forgotten  treasures.  His  Lie- 
derschatz,  generally  acknowledged  to  be  one  of  the  most 
valuable  collections  of  Christian  hymns  of  all  ages,  was 
first  published  in  1837  (2d  ed.  1850,  2  vols.  8vo),  and  the 
Ecangdlsche  Gesant/buch  in  1855.  His  avowed  principle 
of  modernizing  obsolete  forms  in  the  old  hymns  was 
sharply  assailed,  and  he  himself  restoretl  at  a  later  day 
some  of  the  original  expressions.  As  a  preacher  the 
manifold  richness  of  his  thought  and  delicacy  of  diction 
was  his  attraction.  He  did  not  suffer  himself  to  appear 
the  poet  in  his  sermons,  never  having  once  so  used  a 
poem  of  his  own,  nor  even  having  appointed  one  of  his 
own  hymns  to  be  sung,  yet  no  one  could  listen  to  him 
without  acknowledging  a  rare  union  of  extensive  learn- 
ing with  original  genius.  His  singular  merit  as  a  hymn- 
maker  remains,  notwithstanding  a  haste  of  composition 
and  lightness  of  tone  in  some  of  his  poems,  and  although 
the  subjective  individuality  of  the  author,  according  to 
the  spirit  of  the  times,  often  characterizes  his  weiglitier 
pieces,  yet  his  individuality  is  ons  of  simple  faith. 
In  theologj'  he  was  fully  evangelical  in  his  doctrine  of 
salvation,  which  he  defended  not  in  mere  polemic,  but  in 
heart-devotion  against  all  opposers.  See  his  preface  to 
the  Christoierpe  of  I84G  for  a  statement  of  his  belief.  He 
grounded  all  defence  of  doctrine  upon  the  necessities  and 
joyful  faith  of  spiritual  experience,  and  severely  con- 
demned a  merely  external  method  and  the  zeal  of  argu- 
mentative orthodoxy.  He  had  no  sympathy  with  sects 
as  such.  Knapp's  biographical  contributions  in  the 
Christoterpe  are  of  great  interest  and  beauty;  we  name 
that  on  his  own  "  Childhood  Days"  in  the  issue  of  1849, 
on  Ludwig  Hofecker  (1848),  Hedhigcr  (1836),  Steinhofer 
(1837),  Jacob  Balde  (1848),  Jeremias  Flatt  (1852).  The 
writer's  poetic  humor  and  narrative  power,  joined  with 
love  for  his  theme,  make  these  sketches  perfect  art- 
■\\-orks.  Dr.  Friederich  Wilhelm  Krummacher,  in  his 
autobiography  (translated  by  Easton,  Edinb.  18G9,  8vo, 
p.  203, 204),  pays  the  following  tribute  to  the  high  poet- 
ical talents  of  our  subject :  "That  in  Albert  Knapp  there 
^vas  a  true  poetic  inborn  genius  no  one  will  seriously 
deny,  and  yet  he  is  not  generally  mentioned  in  our  re- 
cent histories  of  literature  as  ranked  among  the  'Suabian 
poets,'  although,  without  doubt,  he  would  have  been 
named  among  them,  and  in  the  very  foremost  rank,  had 
he  consecrated  his  harp  to  the  spirit  of  the  world  instead 
of  seeking  aU  his  inspiration  from  the  Spirit  of  God;  but 
■worldly  fame,  to  which  the  way  and  the  door  stood  wide 
open  for  him,  he  gladly  cast  at  his  feet,  and  recognised 
it  as  his  calling,  as  it  indeed  was  the  impulse  of  his 
heart,  to  sing  the  praises  of  the  heavenly  Prince  of  Peace, 
througli.  whom  he  knew  he  was  redeemed  and  ordained 
'  to  the  inheritance  of  the  saints  in  light.'  Instead  of 
worldly  fame,  there  was  destined  for  him,  so  long  as  a 
Church  of  Christ  shall  remain  on  earth,  the  glorious  re- 
ward of  (iod,  that  his  Eiiies  u'iinsch  ich  niir  vor  allem 
Andern,  his  An  dein  Bluten  uml  J-Jrhkichen,  his  Abend 
ist  es,  Ilerr,  die  Stunde,  and  many  others  of  his  hymns, 
will  never  cease  to  be  sung  in  it.  We  bless  him  in  the 
name  of  many  thousands  to  whom  the  melodies  of  his 
harp,  breathing  peace  and  joy,  have  lightened  their  steps 
on  the  way  to  the  city  of  God,  and  we  hope  that  the 
people  of  Stuttgard  may  long  refresh  themselves  at  the 
'  streams  of  living  water'  which,  according  to  the  word 
of  the  Lord,  yet  flow  for  them  to  this  hour  from  the  life 
and  labors  of  their  highly-gifted  pastor."  See  Herzog, 
Reid-Eiiri/klop.  xix,  s.  v. 

7:^napp,  Georg  Christian,  an  eminent  German 
Protestant  theologian,  was  born  at  Glaucha,  near  Halle, 
in  1753.    He  entered  the  university  of  that  city  in  1770, 


and  afterwards  also  spent  a  semester  at  the  University 
of  Gottingen.  He  began  lecturing  on  philosophy  in 
1775,  was  appointed  professor  extraordinary  in  1777,  and 
regular  professor  in  1782.  In  1785  he  became  director 
of  Franke's  celebrated  orphan  asylum  and  educational 
institute,  previously  presided  over  by  his  father,  which 
he  managed  for  forty  years  in  conj miction  with  Nie- 
meyer.  in  the  division  of  labor  he  had  charge  of  the 
orphan  asylum,  the  Latin  school,  and  the  Biblical  and 
missionary  departments,  which,  notwithstanding  deli- 
cate health,  he  conducted  in  a  manner  that  gahied  him 
the  esteem  of  all.  He  died  Oct.  14, 1825.  Naturally  in- 
clined to  mysticism,  which  in  latter  years  caused  his 
writings  and  teaching  to  assume  a  supernaturalistic 
form,  he  did  not  succeed,  notwithstanding  the  jwpular- 
ity  of  his  lectures,  in  forming  a  school  of  his  own  in  the 
midst  of  the  nationalistic  tendencies  of  his  colleagues. 
Constitutional  timidity  also  impaired  much  of  his  influ- 
ence, as  he  shrank  from  all  personal  argum.enfs  either 
with  the  students  or  with  the  other  professors.  Dr.  F. 
W.  Krummacher  has  described  him  as  '•  tlie  last  descend- 
ant of  the  old  theological  school  of  Halle,"  and  assures 
us  that  he  "  was  well  able,  from  intellectual  ability  and 
scientific  attainment,  to  have  waged  a  successful  war 
against  the  then  reigning  Rationalism,  and  to  have  toss- 
ed from  their  airy  saddles  its  champions  among  his  col- 
leagues who  were  intoxicated  with  triumph,"  but  that 
"  his  excessive  gentleness  and  modesty,  bordering  even 
on  timidity,  led  him  carefully  to  avoid  everj-thing  like 
direct  polemics."  (Compare,  for  a  fuller  descrii)tio)i  of 
his  character,  etc.,  F.  Vr.  Krummacher's  Autobiography, 
translated  by  the  Kev.  M.  G.  Easton  [Edinb.  18G9, 8vo],p. 
55  sq.).  His  principal  works  are,  I'salmen  iibersetzt  tind 
mil  Anmerkuiif/eii  (1778;  3d  ed.  1789) : — a  very  careful- 
ly edited  and  useful  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  jVo- 
V7im  Tcstamentum  Grace  recoffiiovit  atque  insif/nioris  lec- 
tioniim  varietdtis  et  ar()Uinentorinn  notitiam  subjunxit 
(Halle,  1797,  4to  ;  the  last  ed.  in  1829,  2  vols.  8vo;  also  N. 
Y,  1808):  —  Scripta  varii  argumenti  maicimam  pai-tem 
exegetica  atque  historica  (Halle,  1805,  8vo;  a  second  and 
enlarged  edition  in  1823,2  vols.  8vo) : — the  following 
dissertations — Ad  vaticiniwn  Jacobi  {l~7i};  De  versione 
A  lexandrina  in  emendenda  lectione  exempli  Ilebraici  caute 
adhibendu  (Halle,  1773, 177(;).  After  Ins  death  K.  Thilo 
published  his  Vorlesungcn  iiber  d.  GUuihcnslelire  (183(3,  2 
parts,  which  were  translated  by  Dr.  Leonard  Woods  un- 
der the  title  Lectures  on  Christian  Theology  [Andover, 
1831-39,  2  vols.  8vo,  and  often  since],  and  have  been  ex- 
tensively used,  especially  in  this  country) ;  and  Guerike 
his  Bibl.  Glaubenslehre  z.  prahtischen  Gebrauch  (1840). 
Knapp  also  wrote  Traliat  ii.d.  Frage :  Was  soil  ich  thun, 
dass  ich  selig  icerde?  (1806) : — Anleitung  z.  einem  gottse- 
ligen  Leben  (1811).  Some  valuable  biographical  sketch- 
es which  he  contributed  to  the  paper  entitled  Frcmke's 
Sliftungen,  were  republished  under  the  title  Lehen  und 
Karakter  einiger  gelehrten  it.frommen  Manner  d.vorigen 
Jahrh.  (1829).  See  Niemeyer.  Epicedien  -zum  A  ndenken 
atif  Knapp  (1825) ;  K.  Thilo,  in  the  preface  to  Knapp's 
Vorlesungen  ii.d.  Glaubenslehre ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyldop. 
vii,  763 ;  Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Do- 
ring,  Gckhiie  Theol.  Deiitschlands,  s.  v.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Knapp,  Johann  Georg,  father  of  Georg  Chris- 
tian, was  himself  a  tlieologian  of  some  note.  He  was 
born  at  Oehringen  Dec.  27,  1705,  of  pious  parents,  and 
went  to  the  University  of  Altdorf  to  study  theology. 
He  removed  to  Jena  in  1723  to  continue  his  preparatory 
studies  for  the  ministerial  office,  and  completed  them  at 
Halle,  where,  in  1728,  he  was  ajipointed  instructor  at  the 
royal  predagogium.  In  1732  he  became  pastor  to  the 
Prussian  military  school  at  Berlin,  but  remained  there 
oidy  one  year,  and  then  returned  to  Halle  to  fiU  an  ad- 
junct professorship  in  theology  at  the  university.  He 
was  made  ordinary  or  regular  jirofessor  in  1739.  After 
the  decease  of  the  celebrated  Franke  he  was  placed  over 
the  orphan  asylum,  and  held  this  position  until  his  death, 
July  30,  1771.  Knapp  took  a  particidar  interest  in  the 
cause  of  missions,  and  published  Neuere  Gesch.  d,  evan- 


KXATCIIBULL 


124 


KNEELING 


gel.  MisaioTisamtfalteii  ziir  Bekekruvg  d.  Ileideiim  Ostindien 
(Halle,  1770,  ^vo),  and  other  rejwrts  of  missions.  He 
also  publislied  several  valualile  dissertations,  for  a  list  of 
■which,  see  Diiring,  Gelehrte  Theolog.  Ueutsc/daiuk,  ii,  144. 
(J.  II.W.) 

Kuatchbull,  Sir  Norton,  a  learned  English  baro- 
net. 1)1  iru  in  Kent  in  1001,  was  a  man  of  considerable 
erudition,  and  devoted  himself  with  some  success  to  the 
study  of  the  J5iblical  writings.  In  1659  he  gave  to  the 
world  Animadfersiones  in  Lihros  Noi-i  Testam.,  which 
speedily  \vent  through  a  considerable  number  of  editions 
(a  translation  of  it,  prepared  by  himself  or  under  his  su- 
perintendence, appeared  at  Cambridge  in  1G93),  and  was 
reprinted  both  at  Amsterdam  and  Frankfort,  at  which 
latter  place  it  formed  part  of  the  supplement  to  N.  Gurt- 
ler's  edition  of  Walton's  Po/i/r/lof,  1095-1701.  He  died 
in  1684.  "  KnatchbuU's  remarks  are  sensible,  and  show 
very  fair  learning;  but  they  are  entirely''  wanting  in 
deijth,  and  we  cannot  read  them  without  wonder  at  the 
small  amount  of  knowledge  which  procured  for  their  au- 
thor such  a  wide-spread  reputation"  (Kitto,/>'jW.Q/c/op. 
vol.  ii,  s.  v.).  Dr.  Campbell  calls  Knatchbull  '•  a  learned 
man,  but  a  hardy  critic." 

Knauer,  Joseph,  a  German  Roman  Catholic  prelate 
of  note,  was  born  at  Rothflossel,  near  Mittelwalde,  in  the 
duchy  of  (Jlatz,  Dec.  1, 17G4,  and  was  educated  at  Bres- 
lau  University.  He  was  ordained  priest  March  7, 1789, 
and  became  at  once  chaplain  to  the  dean  of  Mittelwalde. 
In  1794  he  was  appointed  priest  at  Alpendorf,  and  rose 
gradually  to  distinction  in  his  Church  until  in  1841  (Au- 
gust 27)  he  was  honored  with  the  ajipointment  of  arch- 
bishop of  Breslau.  He  died  jNIay  IG,  1844. — Kuthol.  lieal- 
Enciildopddie,  xi,  852. 

Knead  Qd''0,lusli),  to  prepare  dough  by  working  it 
with  the  hands;  a  task  usually  performed  by  women 
(Gen.  xviii,  G;  1  Sam.  xxviii,  24;  2  Sam.  xiii,  8;  Jer. 
vii,  18) ;  once  spoken  of  a  male  baker  (Hos.  vii,  4).  See 
Dough. 

KXEADING- TROUGH  (rriX'r-S,  mishe'reth,  so 
cnlk'd  from  t\\Q  fermentation  of  the  dough),  the  vessel  in 
which  the  materials  of  the  bread,  after  being  mixed  and 
leavened,  is  left  to  swell  (Exod.  viii,  3 ,  xii,  34 ,  rendered 
"  store"  in  Dent,  xxviii,  5, 17) ;  probably  like  the  wooden 
liowl  used  by  the  modern  Arabs  for  the  same  purpose. 
On  the  monuments  of  Egypt  wc  find  the  various  pro- 
cesses of  making  bread  represented  with  great  minute- 
ness. ISIen  were  chiefly  occupied  in  it,  as  with  us  at  the 
present  day.  Their  grain  was  ground  in  hand-mills,  or 
pounded  in  mortars,  and  then  kneaded  into  dough,  which 
was  sometimes  done  by  the  hand,  in  a  large  circular 
bowl, or  in  a  trough  with  the  feet  (Williinson,  Anc.  Eg. 
i,  174-G).  See  Bake.  The  process  of  making  bread  in 
Egypt  is  now  generally  performed  in  villages  by  wom- 
en, among  whom  proficiency  in  that  art  is  looked  upon 
as  a  sort  of  accomplishment.  Except  in  large  towns, 
each  family  l)akes  its  own  bread,  which  is  usually  made 
into  small  cakes  and  eaten  new,  the  climate  not  admit- 
ting of  its  being  kept  long  without  turning  sour.  When 
the  dough  is  sufhciently  kneaded,  it  is  made  up  into  a 
round  flat  cake,  generally  about  a  span  in  width,  and  a 
finger's  breadth  m  thickness.  See  Cake.  A  lire  of 
straw  and  dung  is  then  kindled  on  the  tloor  or  hearth, 
which,  when  sutllcicntly  heated,  is  removed,  and  the 
dough  Ijcing  jilaccd  on  it,  and  covered  with  hot  embers, 
is  thus  soon  baked.  Sometimes  a  circle  of  small  stones 
is  placed  upon  the  hearth  after  it  has  been  heated,  into 
v.-hicli  some  ]iastc  ii  poured,  and  covered  with  hot  em- 
bers: this  ]iroduce8  a  kind  of  biscuit.  SccOvex.  "The 
modern  Oriental  kneading-trciu^h'?.,  in  which  the  dough 
is  prepared,  have  no  resemblance  to  ours  in  size  or  shape. 
As  one  person  does  not  bake  bread  for  many  families,  as 
in  our  towns,  and  as  one  family  docs  not  bake  bread  suf- 
ficient for  many  days,  as  in  our  villages,  but  every  fam- 
ily bakes  for  the  day  only  the  quantify  of  bread  which 
it  re(iuires,  but  a  comparatively  small  (piantity  of  dough 
13  prepared.     This  is  done  i:i  small  ■wooden  bov.'ls ,  and 


that  those  of  the  ancient  Hebrews  were  of  the  same  de- 
scription as  those  now  in  use  appears  from  their  being 
al)le  to  carrj'  them,  together  with  the  dough,  wrapped 
up  in  their  cloaks,  upon  their  shouklers  without  diffi- 
culty. The  Bedouin  Arabs,  indeed,  use  for  this  puqjose 
a  leather,  which  can  be  drawn  up  into  a  bag  by  a  run- 
ning cord  along  the  border,  and  in  which  they  prepare 
and  often  carry  tlieir  dough.  This  might  ecjually,  and 
in  some  respects  better  answer  the  described  conditions; 
but,  being  especially  adapted  to  the  use  of  a  nomade  and 
tent-dwelling  people,  it  is  more  likely  that  the  Israel- 
ites, who  were  not  such  at  the  time  of  the  Exode,  then 
used  the  wooden  bowls  for  their  'kneading -troughs' 
(Exod.  viii,3;  xii,  34;  Deut.  xxviii,  5,  7).  It  is  clear, 
from  the  history  of  the  departure  from  Egypt,  that  the 
flour  had  first  been  made  into  a  dough  In-  Mater  only, in 
which  state  it  had  been  kept  some  little  time  before  it 
was  leavened ;  for  when  the  Israelites  were  unexpected- 
ly (as  to  the  moment)  compelled  in  all  haste  to  with- 
draw, it  was  found  that,  although  the  dough  had  been 
prepared  in  the  kneading-trough,  it  was  still  unleavened 
(Exod.  xii,  34 ;  compare  Hos.  vii,  4) ;  and  it  was  in  com- 
memoration of  this  circumstance  that  they  and  their 
descendants  in  all  ages  were  enjoined  to  eat  only  un- 
leavened bread  at  the  feast  of  the  Passover"  (Kitto). 
See  Bread. 

EInee  (Heb. and  Chald.  Tp3,6e'reZ-;  Qr.yovv;  Psa. 
cix,  24 ;  in  Dan. v,  6,  the  Chald.term  is  ri25'n N,  arl-ubak'). 
The  Hebrew  word,  as  a  verb,  signifies  to  bend  the  knee 
(2  Chron.  vi,  13),  also  to  bless,  to  pronounce  or  give  a 
blessing,  because  the  person  blessed  kneels.  See  Bless- 
ing. In  this  sense  it  refers  to  the  benediction  of  dying 
parents  (Gen.  xxvii,  4, 7, 10, 19),  of  the  priest  to  the  peo- 
ple (  Levit.  ix,  22, 23),  of  a  prophet  (Numl).  xxiv,  1 ;  Deut. 
xxxiii,  n.  It  also  signifies  to  salute,  which  is  connect- 
ed with  blessing  (2  Kings  iv,  29).  In  relation  to  God, 
to  praise,  to  thank  him  (Deut.  viii,  10 ;  Psa.  xvi,  7). 

The  expression  is  also,  ni  another  form,  used  in  refer- 
ence to  camels,  as  to  make  them  bend  the  knee  in  order 
to  take  rest:  "And  he  made  his  camels  to  kneel  down 
without  the  city"  (Gen.  xxiv,  1 1).     See  Camel. 

To  bow  the  knee  is  to  perform  an  act  of  worship  (1 
Kings  xix,  18),  and  in  this  sense  it  is  used  in  the  Heb. 
in  Isa.  Ixvi,  3 ;  "He  that  worships  idols"  is,  literally,  "He 
that  bows  the  knee"  to  them.     See  Worship. 

Tliat  kneeling  was  the  posture  of  prayer  ^ve  learn  from 
2  Chron.  vi,  13 ;  Dan.  vi,  10 ;  Luke  xxii,  41 ;  Acts  vii,  60 ; 
Eph.  3, 14.     See  Prayer. 

Knees  are  sometimes  put  symbolically  for  persons,  as 
in  Job  iv,  4;  Heb.  xii,  12  (Wemyss).     See  Kneel. 

For  the  peculiar  terra  in  Gen.  xii,  43  (see  IJeinecciiis, 
Be  nomine  Ti1|inX,Weissenf.  1726),  see  Abeech. 

Kneel  (TI'^3,  to  bend  the  knee  [q.  v.],  yovvTrsrUo), 
the  act  of  reverence  and  worship  (Psa.  xcv,  6 ;  Dan.  vi, 
10 ;  Acts  Ix,  40 ;  xxi,  5).     See  Attitlde. 

Kueelers.  See  Genuflectentes  ;  Catechu- 
mens. 

Kneeling,  the  act  of  bending  the  knee  in  devotion- 
al exercises,  is  a  practice  of  great  antiquity.  Reference 
to  it  is  made  in  all  parts  of  the  Scriptures,  both  of  the 
O.-T.  and  N.-T.  writings,  as  in  Isaac's  blessing  on  Jacob 
(Gen.  xxvii,  29),  compared  with  his  brother's  subsequent 
conduct  (xlii,  G),  and  with  an  edict  of  Pharaoh,  "Bow 
the  knee''  (xii,  43),  and  again  in  the  second  command- 
ment (Exod.  XX,  5).  Then  we  find  David  exclaiming, 
"Let  us  worship  and  bow  down,  let  us  kneel  before  the 
Lord  our  maker"  (Psa.  xcv,  6);  "We  will  go  into  his 
tabernacle,  and  fall  low  on  our  knees  before  his  footstool" 
(cxxxii,  7).  Solomon  "  kneeled  on  his  knees"  before  the 
altar  of  the  Lord,  with  his  hands  spread  up  to  heaven  (1 
Kings  viii,  54) ;  Ezra  fell  upon  his  knees,  and  spread  out 
his  hands  unto  God,  and  made  his  confession  (Ezra  ix, 
5-15);  Daniel  "kneeled  upon  his  knees  three  times  a 
day,"  .and  ])rayed  "as  he  did  aforetime"  (Dan.  vi,  10); 
the  holy  martyr  Stephen  "  kneeled  down,  and  cried  with 


KNEELING 


125 


KNEPH 


a  loud  voice,"  praying  for  his  murderers  (Acts  vii,  CO) ; 
Peter  likewise  '•  kneeled  down  and  prayed"  (Acts  ix,  40) ; 
Paul  also  (Acts  xx,  3G ;  xxi,  5).  That  the  posture  was 
a  customarj'  one  may  be  inferred  from  the  conduct  of 
the  man  beseeching  Christ  to  heal  his  son  (Matt,  xvii, 
14),  and  of  the  rich  j'oung  man  (Mark  x,  17),  as  also  of 
the  lei)or  (Mark  i,  40) ;  yea,  we  have  even  the  example 
of  Christ  himselt^  who,  according  to  Luke  (xxii,  14), 
'•  kneeled  ilown"  when  he  prayed.  That  the  practice 
was  general  among  the  early  Christians  is  plain  from 
the  Shepherd  of  Hermas,  from  Eusebius's  IJistor;/  (ii,  33), 
and  from  numberless  other  authorities,  and  especially 
from  the  solemn  proclamation  made  by  the  deacon  to 
tlie  people  in  all  the  liturgies, "  Flectamus  genua"  (Let 
us  bend  our  knees),  whereupon  the  people  knelt  till,  at 
the  close  of  the  prayer,  they  received  a  corresponding 
summons,  '•  Levate"  (Arise),  and  from  the  fact  that  prayer 
itself  was  termed  icXhig  yovarwv,  bending  the  knees. 

In  the  days  of  Irenanis,  and  for  some  time  after,  four 
postures  were  in  use  among  Christians,  namely,  stand- 
ing (for  which  see  reason  below),  prostration  (as  a  sign 
of  deep  and  extraordinary  humiliation),  bowing,  and 
kneeling.  The  posture  of  sitting  during  the  time  of 
public  prayer,  of  modem  days,  seems  to  have  been  un- 
known to  the  early  Christians.  Kneeling  at  public  de- 
votions was  the  common  practice  during  the  six  work- 
ing days,  and  was  understood  by  the  early  Church  to 
denote  humility  of  mind  before  God,  and  "as  a  symbol 
of  our  fill  by  sin."  A  standing  posture  in  worship  (ex- 
plained as  being  emblematic  of  Christ's  resurrection  from 
the  dead,  and  the  forgiveness  of  sins,  and  also  as  being  a 
sign  of  the  Christian's  hope  and  expectation  of  heaven) 
was  assumed  by  the  early  Christian  worshippers  (ex- 
cept penitents)  on  Suntlays  and  during  the  tifty  days 
between  Easter  and  Whitsuntide,  "as  a  symbol  of  the 
resurrection,  whereby,  through  the  grace  of  Christ,  we 
rise  again  from  our  fall."  Cassian  says  of  the  Egyptian 
churches  that  from  Saturday  night  to  Sunday  night, 
and  all  the  days  of  Pentecost,  they  neither  knelt  nor  fast- 
ed. The  Apostolical  Constitutions  order  that  Christians 
should  pray  three  times  on  the  Lord's  day,  standing,  in 
honor  of  him  who  rose  the  third  day  from  the  dead,  and 
in  the  writings  of  Chrysostora  we  meet  with  frequent 
allusions  to  the  same  practice,  especially  in  the  oft-re- 
peated form  by  which  the  deacon  called  upon  the  people 
to  pray, "  Let  us  stand  upright  with  reverence  and  de- 
cency." TertiUlian  says,  "  Wc  count  it  unlawful  to  fast, 
or  to  worship  kneeling,  on  the  Lord's  day,  and  we  enjoy 
the  same  immunity  from  Easter  to  Pentecost."  This 
practice  was  confirmed  by  the  Council  of  Nice,  for  the 
sake  of  uniformity,  and  it  is  from  this  circumstance, 
probably,  that  the  Ethiopic  and  Muscovitish  churches 
adopted  the  attitude  of  standing  generally,  a  custom 
which  they  continue  to  this  day.  From  Cyril's  writ- 
ings it  wotdd  appear  that  also  at  the  celebration  of  the 
Eucharist  a  standing  attitude  was  assumed  by  the  earlj' 
Christians.  He  saj's  "  it  was  with  silence  and  downcast 
eyes,  bowing  themselves  in  the  posture  of  worship  and 
adoration."  Tlie  exact  perioil  when  hieelinf/  at  the 
Lord's  Suii[)er  became  general  cannot  be  ascertained,  but 
it  has  prevailed  for  many  centuries,  and  it  is  now  gener- 
ally, though  not  altogether,  practiced  as  the  proper  pos- 
ture for  communicants. 

In  ordination,  also,  a  kneeling  posture  was  early  prac- 
ticed. Dionysius  says,  "The  person  to  be  ordained 
kneeled  befnrc  the  bisliop  at  the  altar,  and  he.  laying  his 
hand  ujion  his  head,  did  consecrate  him  with  a  holy 
prayer,  and  then  signed  him  with  the  sign  of  the  cross, 
after  which  the  bishop  and  the  clergy  present  gave  him 
the  kiss  of  peace."  Ifwould  appear,  however,  that  bish- 
ops elect  did  not  relish  much  the  humiliating  posture  of 
kneeling  at  their  ordination,  for  Theodorct  inlbrms  us 
that  "it  was  a  customary  rite  to  bring  the  person  about, 
to  be  ordained  bishoj)  to  the  holy  table,  and  make  him 
kneel  upon  his  knees  hij  forced  But  this,  no  doubt,  was 
a  significant  mode  of  showing  with  what  reluctance  men 
should  undertake  so  important,  so  weighty  a  charge  as 


that  of  bishop  in  the  Church  of  Jesus  Christ.  Indeed, 
so  solemn  and  onerous  were  its  responsibilities  esteemed, 
that  we  read  of  several  who  absconded  as  soon  as  they 
understood  that  the  jwpular  voice  had  chosen  them  to 
fill  this  honorable  post ;  and  many  of  them,  -when  cap- 
tured, were  brought  by  force  to  the  holy  altar,  and  there, 
against  their  ^yill  and  inclination,  were  ordained  by  the 
imposition  of  hands,  being  held  down  on  their  knees  by 
the  officers  of  the  church.    See  Election  of  Clergy. 

In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  the  act  of  kneeling  be- 
longs to  the  highest  form  of  worship.  It  is  especially 
practiced  in  the  perfonnance  of  monastic  devotions  and 
in  acts  of  penance.  It  is  also  frequently  employed  dur- 
ing the  mass,  and  in  the  presence  of  the  consecrated  ele- 
ments when  reserved  for  subsequent  communion.  In 
acts  of  penance  this  Church  has  carried  the  practice  to 
great  excess,  subjecting  the  penitent  to  sufferings  which 
remind  us  of  the  legend  told  of  St.  James,  that  he  con- 
tracted a  hardness  on  his  knees  equal  to  that  of  camels 
because  he  was  so  generally  on  his  knees.  "  Instances," 
says  Eadie,  "are  innumerable,  and  ever  recurring  in  the 
Romish  Church,  of  delicate  women  being  obliged  to 
walk  on  rough  pavements,  for  hours  in  succession,  on 
their  bare  knees,  until  at  length  nature,  worn  out  by  the 
injurious  and  demoralizing  exercise,  compels  them  to 
desist.  To  encourage  the  penitent  and  devout  in  acts 
of  this  nature,  the  most  wonderful  tales  are  related  of 
the  good  resulting  from  self- mortification  and  entire 
siUjmission  to  the  stern  discipline  of  the  Chiu-ch."  See 
the  article  Gexuflexiox. 

In  the  Anglican  Chiu-ch  the  rubric  prescribes  the 
kneeling  posture  in  many  parts  of  the  service,  and  this, 
as  well  as  the  practice  of  bowing  the  head  at  the  name  of 
Jesus,  was  the  subject  of  much  controversy  with  the  Pu- 
ritans. A  like  controversy  was  in  1838  provoked  in  Ba- 
varia by  a  ministerial  decree  obliging  Protestants  to  join 
Bomanists  in  this  ceremony  when  required  of  them,  and 
ended  only  with  its  repeal  in  1844  (for  details  on  this 
pjint,  see  the  Roman  Catholic  version  in  Wetzer  und 
Welte,  Kirchen  Lex.  vi,  23G ;  the  Protestant  side  in  Her- 
zog,  Real-Encyhlopadie,  s.  v.  Baiern).  See  Eadie,  Ecclcs. 
Diet.  s.  v.;  Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Hook,  Church  Did. 
s.  v.;  Riddle,  Christian  Antiquities,  391  sq.,  631  sq. ;  Cole- 
man, Christian  Antiquities  (see  Index). 

Kneph  or  Knuphis,  also  known  under  the  name 
of  Nuji  ( r  Nee,  in  Egyp- 
tian mythology  is  the  old- 
est designation  of  deity, 
and  signifies  either  sjnrit  or 
water,  perhaps  in  allusion 
to  the  Spirit  of  God,  who 
"in  the  beginning  moved 
\\\vm  the  face  of  tlie  wa- 
ters." Greatly  distorted  by 
the  priests,  the  legend  is  in 
brief  that  from  his  mouth 
came  the  egg  which  gave 
existence  to  all  things  tem- 
poral ;  hence  the  egg  is 
ills  symbol ;  likewise  the 
snake,  which  assumes  the 
shape  of  a  ring,  to  indicate 
his  eternal  existence.  His 
representation  is  frequent- 
ly found  on  Egyjitian  monuments,  sometimes  with  a 
snake  holding  an  egg  between  its  head  and  tail.  The 
Egyptians  of  Thebes  knew  only  this  one  god  to  be  hn- 
mortetl;  all  others  they  supposed  to  be  more  or  less  sub- 
ject to  temporal  changes. 

In  the  later  idolatrj'  Kneph  was  the  special  god  of 
Upper  Egypt,  where  he  was  represented  in  human 
shape,  with  the  head  of  a  ram ;  still  regarded  as  tho 
creator  of  other  gods,  he  was  figured  at  Elephantine 
sitting  at  a  potter's  wheel  fashioning  the  limbs  of  Osiris, 
while  the  god  of  the  Nile  is  pouring  water  on  the  clay. 
"The  idea,"  says  Trevor  {Anc.  Eimpt,  p.  131),  "seems 
to  be  the  same  as  in  Job  (x,  8,  9 ;  Rom.  ix,  23) :  '  Thine 


Figure  of  Kueph. 


KNIBB 


126 


KNIFE 


hands  have  made  me  and  fashioned  me  together  round 
about,  llcmeinlier.  I  beseech  thee,  that  thou  hast  made 
ine  as  (lie  clay.'''  (Comp. Herodotus, ii, 41.)  See  Voll- 
mer,  [VOrterb.  d.  J/)/tkol.  p.  106G.  See  Egypt.  (J.  U. 
W.) 

Kiiibb,  WiLLiA jr,  a  Baptist  missionary  to  Jamaica, 
was  burn  at  Kettering,  in  Nortliamptonshire,  England, 
about  1800.  He  sailed  as  a  missionary  to  Kingston, 
Jamaica,  in  1824;  in  1828  removed  to  the  IJidgeland 
jMission,  in  the  north-western  part  of  the  island,  and 
subsecpiently  became  pastor  of  the  mission  church  at 
Falmouth.  He  exercised  a  very  important  part  in 
bringing  about  the  Emancipation  Act  of  1833,  by  which 
sla^-ery  Avas  abolished  in  the  island,  and  afterwards  so 
exposed  the  apprenticeship  sj-stem  established  by  the 
same  act  as  to  secure  the  complete  emancipation  of  ap- 
prentices in  the  island.  In  1838  he  erected  a  normal 
school  at  Kettering,  in  Trelawnej^,  for  training  native 
and  other  schoolmistresses  for  both  Jamaica  and  Africa, 
and  in  1842  he  visited  England  to  promote  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  theological  seminarj'  in  connection  with 
the  native  mission  to  Africa.  He  died  at  Ketteruig 
July  lo,  1845.     See  Enfjlish  Cyclop,  s.  v.     (J,  L.  S.) 

Knife  is  the  representative  in  the  Auth,  Version  of 
several  Ileb.  terms :  !3"ltl  (che'rch,  from  its  laying  waste), 
a  sharp  instrument,  e.  g.  for  circumcising  (Josh,  v,  2,  3)  ; 
a  razor  (Ezek.  v,  1) ;  a  graving-tool  or  cliisel  (Exod.  xx, 
25) ;  an  a.re  (Ezek.  xxvi,  9) ;  poet,  of  the  curved  fusks 
of  the  hippopotamus  (Job  xl,  19) ;  elsewhere  usually  a 
"sword."  r?2X"5  {maake'leth,  so  called  from  its  use 
in  enthuf),  a  large  knife  for  slaughtering  and  cutting  up 
food  ((ien.  xxii,  6,  10;  Judg.  xix,  29;"Prov.  xxx,  14). 
■j^SilJ  {snkkin',  so  called  from  sejmraiing  parts  to  the 
view),  a  knife  for  any  purpose,  perhaps  a  table-knife 
(Prov.  xxiii,  2).  C^5n^  (inachalaph',  so  called  from 
f/lidiiiff  through  the  flesh),  a  hitfcher's  knife  for  slaugh- 
tering the  victims  in  sacrifice  (Ezra  i,  9).     See  Sword. 


Ancient  Etruscan  Sacrificial  Knife. 


"The  jirobable  form  of  the  knives  of  the  Hebrews 
wiU  be  best  gathered  from  a  comparison  of  those  of 
other  ancient  nations,  both  Eastern  and  Western,  which 
have  come  down  to  us.  No.  1  represents  the  Roman 
cultcr,  used  in  sacrificing,  which  may  be  compared  with 
No.  2,  an  Egyptian  sacrificial  knife.  Nos.  3,  4,  and  5 
arc  also  Egyjitian  knives,  of  which  the  most  remarka- 
ble, No.  3,  is  from  the  Louvre  collection;  the  others  are 
from  the  MonnmcnH  Reali  of  KosclUni.  Nos.  G-9  are 
liomau,  from  Barihelemy.  In  No.  7  we  have  probably 
the  form  of  the  jiruning-hook  of  the  Jews  (m^T'2,  Isa. 
xviii,  5),  though  some  rather  assimilate  this  to  the 
sickle  ('^;).  It  was  probably  with  some  such  instru- 
ment as  No.  9  that  the  priests  of  J'aal  cut  thepiselves" 
(Kittol.  See  Akmor.  The  knife  used  by  the  fisher- 
man fur  splitting  his  fish  ((j.  v.)  was  of  a  circular  form, 
wit!)  a  handle,  as  likewise  that  used  by  the  currier  for 
cutting  leather  ((\.  v.),  only  larger  and  heavier.     In  the 


Ancient  Egyptian  semicircular  Knives. 

British  Museum  various  specimens  of  ancient  Egj^itian 
knives  may  be  seen.  There  are  some  small  knives,  the 
blades  of  bronze,  the  handles  composed  of  agate  or  hem- 
atite. There  is  likewise  a  species  of  bronze  knife  with 
lunated  blade ;  also  the  blade  of  a  knife  composed  of 
steatite,  inscribed  on  one  side  with  hieroglyphics.  There 
is  also  an  iron  knife  of  a  late  period  and  peculiar  con- 
struction :  it  consists  of  a  broad  cutting-blade,  moving 
on  a  pivot  at  the  end,  and  working  in  a  groove  by  means 
of  a  handle.  The  following  summary  comparison  of  the 
Biblical  instruments  of  cutlery  with  those  used  at  vari- 
ous times  in  the  East,  as  to  materials  and  application,  is 
chiefly  from  Smitli's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  s.  v. 


Various  Forms  of  ancient  Knives. 

1.  The  knives  of  the  Egyptians,  and  of  other  nations 
in  early  times,  were  probably  only  of  hard  stone,  and 
the  use  of  the  fiint  or  stone  knife  was  sometimes  re- 
tained for  sacred  purposes  after  the  introduction  of  iron 
and  steel  (Pliny,  J/ist;  Xat.  xxxv,  12,  §  1G5).  Herodo- 
tus (ii,  80)  mentions  knives  both  of  iron  and  of  stone  in 
different  stages  of  the  same  process  of  embalming  (see 
Wilkinson,  A  nc.  Eyypt.  ii,  1 G3).  The  same  may  perhaps 
be  said,  to  some  extent,  of  the  Hebrews  (compare  Exod. 
iv,  25). 


KNIGHT 


121 


KNIGHTHOOD 


AiicieutEgyptiau  Flint  Ki;ivL--  Jr.uii  un-  Berlin  Museum). 

No.  1  for  general  purpotes;  No.  ■.:  probably  lor  incisions 

in  embalming. 

2.  Ill  their  meals  the  Jews,  like  other  Orientals,  made 
little  use  of  knives,  but  they  were  required  for  slaughter- 
ing animals  either  for  food  or  sacritice,  as  well  as  for  cut- 
ting up  the  carcase  (Lev.  vli,  oo,  3-i ;  viii,  15,  20,  25 ;  ix, 
13;  Numb.xviii,  18;  lSam.ix,24;  Ezek.xxiv,4;  Ezra 
i,  9 ;  jNIatt.  xxvi,  23 ;  Russell,  .1  liqjpo,  i,  172 ;  Wilkinson, 
i,  1G9 ;  Mishna,  TamV/,  iv,  3 ).     See  Eating. 


Ancient  Egyptian  Slaughteriug-kuivcs.  No.  1  is  cutting 
up  an  il)ek.  No.  2  is  sharpening  a  knife  on  a  steel  at- 
tached to  his  apron.  Over  them  is  the  hieroglyph  for 
the  act. 

Asiatics  usually  carry  about  with  tliem  a  knife  or 
dagger,  often  with  a  highly-ornamented  handle,  which 
may  be  used  when  required  for  eating  purposes  (Judg. 
iii,  21 ;  Layard,  Mn.  ii,  342,  200 ;  Wilkinson,  i,  358,  300 ; 
Chardin,  Vo'jugc.  iv,  18 ;  Nicbuhr,  Voyarie.  i,  340,  pi.  71). 
See  Girdle. 


Ancient  Assyrian  Knive^  (from  the  British  ^Museum). 
Two  of  them  have  a  hook  at  the  handle,  as  if  for  sus- 
pending in  the  girdle.  For  another  form  used  by  sol- 
diers, see  Bucket. 

3.  Smaller  knives  were  in  use  for  paring  fruit  (Jo- 
sephus,  Ant.  xvii,  7;  War.  i,  33,  7)  and  for  sharpening 
pens  (Jer.  xxxvi,  23).     See  Penknife. 

4.  The  razor  was  often  used  for  Nazaritish  purposes, 
for  which  a  special  chamber  was  reserved  in  the  Temple 
(Numb,  vi,  5,  9,  19 ;  Ezek.  v,  1 ;  Isa.  vii,  20  ;  Jer.  xxxvi, 
23  ;  Acts  xviii,  18  ;  xxi,  24;  Mishna,  Midd.  ii,  5).  See 
ILvzou. 

5.  The  pruning-hooks  of  Isa.  xviii,  5  were  probably 
curved  knives.     See  Pruning-iiook. 

6.  Tlie  lancets  of  the  priests  of  Baal  were  doubtless 
pointed  knives  (1  Kings  xviii,  28).     See  Lancet. 

Knight,  James  (1),  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  who 
floiirished  in  the  early  part  of  the  18th  century,  was  vi- 


car of  St.  Sepulchre's,  London.  Nothing  further  is  known 
to  us  of  his  personal  history.  He  wrote  in  Defence  of 
the  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity  two  treatises  (1714-15),  which 
are  highly  commended  by  Dr.  Waterland  (INIoyer's  Lec- 
tures), knight  also  pnlilished  five  separate  Sermons 
(1719-36),  and  eight  sermons  delivered  at  lady  Meyer's 
Lecture  in  1720-21  (1721,8vo).— AllibonCjZ'ic^o/iw^r- 
^wA  and  American  Authors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Knight,  James  (2),  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
born  at  Ilalitax,  Yorlishire,  England,  July  10,1709,  and 
was  educated  for  the  ministry  at  Homerton  College, 
where  he  is  said  to  have  made  rapid  attainments  in  Bib- 
lical science.  Upon  his  graduation  he  was  called  to  the 
Church  in  Collierskents,  Southwark,  where  he  was  or- 
dained in  1791.  In  1833  he  resigned  his  pastorate  there, 
after  a  foitlifid  and  successful  service.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  London  j\Iissionary  Society.  IMr. 
Knight's  sermons,  some  of  which  have  been  published, 
were  celebrated  for  their  sacred  unction,  and  their  thor- 
ough and  searching  appeals  to  the  conscience.  His  em- 
inent piety  was  both  the  strength  and  ornament  of  his 
character.  He  knew  how  not  only  to  discuss  a  subject 
with  logical  precision,  but  also  to  infuse  into  it  the  si)ir- 
it  of  vital  evangelical  piety.  See  Morison,  Missionuru 
Fathers. 

Knight,  Joel  Abraham,  a  INIethodist  minister, 
was  born  at  Hull.Yorkshire,  England,  April  23, 1754;  was 
ordained  at  Spatields  Chapel,  London,  jSIarch  9,  1783, 
where  he  was  also  appointed  master  of  the  charity 
school  and  assistant  preacher.  In  1788  he  preached  at 
Pentouville  Chapel,  and  in  1789  became  pastor  of  the 
Tabernacle  and  Tottenham  Court  chapels,  London,  a  po- 
sition which  he  occupied  until  his  death,  April  22, 1808. 
Mr.  Knight  was  a  zealous  worker  in  the  formation  and 
proceedings  of  the  London  jNIissionary  Society  in  1795. 
His  sermons,  some  of  which  were  published  ii»  London 
in  1788-9,  were  always  richly  imbued  with  the  distin- 
guishing doctrines  of  evangeiical  Christianity,  but  they 
especially  taught  that "  the  cordial  reception  of  the  doc- 
trine of  salvation  by  grace  must  necessarily  produce 
obedience  to  the  law  of  God."  In  speech  he  was  inva- 
riably chaste,  and  in  manner  affectionate  and  pathetic. 
— Morison,  Missionary  Fathers.     (H.  C.  W.) 

Knight,  Samuel,  D.D.,  an  English  divine  of  note, 
was  born  in  London  in  1075,  and  was  educated  at  St. 
Paul's  School  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He 
first  became  chaplain  to  Edward,  earl  of  Oxford,  and  was 
by  him  presented  to  the  rectory  of  Borough-green,  in 
Cambridgeshire,  in  1707;  was  made  prebendary  of  Ely 
and  rector  of  Bluntcshan\  (Huntingdonshire)  in  1714; 
became  chaplain  to  (ieorge  II  in  1730,  and  was  promoted 
to  the  archdeaconry  of  Berks  in  1735.  He  died  Dec.  10, 
1746.  Between  the  years  1721  and  1738  he  published 
several  of  his  Sermom.  He  also  wrote  Life  of  Dr.  John, 
Coles,  Dean  ofSt.PanVs  (London,  1724,  8vo;  new  edit. 
Oxford,  1823,"8vo)  -.—Life  ofFrasmus  (Cambridge,  1726, 
8vo).—GP7ieird  Biny.  Diet,  viii, 40  sq. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of 
Fnyl.  and  A  mer.  A  nthors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Knighthood,  the  condition,  honor,  and  rank  of  a 
knight,  also  the  service  due  from  a  knight,  and  the  ten- 
ure of  land  by  such  service.  In  a  secondary  sense,  the 
word  is  employed  to  denote  the  class  of  knights — the 
aggregate  body  of  any  particidar  knightly  association; 
the  institution  itself,  and  the  spirit  of  the  institution. 
In  these  remoter  meanings  it  becomes  identical  with 
Chiv(dry,  and  it  is  in  this  point  of  view  that  it  ivill 
principally  be  considered  here.  The  term  is  one  of 
various  significance,  and  is,  therefore,  apt  for  ambigu- 
ities; it  is  one  whose  applications  were  of  gradual  de- 
velopment, and  which  is,  accordingly,  of  diverse  histor- 
ical import.  Its  explanation  is  thus  necessarily  intri- 
cate and  midtifarious,  and  care  is  requisite  to  avoid 
confounding  different  things,  or  different  phases  of  the 
same  thing,  under  the  single  common  name.  Neglect 
of  this  precaution  has  occasioned  much  of  the  extrava- 


KNIGHTHOOD 


128 


KNIGHTHOOD 


gance  and  complexity  which  are  noticeable  in  specula- 
tions on  this  subject. 

A  kniijht  under  the  feudal  system — miles  in  the  La- 
tinity  of  feudal  jurisprudence— was  one  holduig  land  by 
military  service  {sercilium  militare),  with  horse,  and 
shield,  and  lance,  and  armor  cap-a-pie  (Blackstone,  Com- 
mentaries!, ii,  G2-3).  Knighthood  in  this  application  cor- 
responds closely  witli  the  French  designation  checalerie, 
and  its  consideration  is  inextricably  intertwined  with 
that  of  chivalry. 

The  characteristics  of  knighthood  have  undergone 
many  modifications  in  the  lapse  of  long  centuries.  The 
lord  mayor  of  London  is  knighted  for  the  presentation 
of  an  address  to  the  sovereign,  and  JMichacl  Faraday  is 
deservedly  made  an  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  for 
chemical  and  other  scientific  discoveries;  but  in  the 
main  conccjition  and  strict  usage  of  the  term  knight- 
hood, liege  service  in  war  is  implied. 

"A  kniirht  ther  was,  and  that  a  worthy  man, 
That  from  the  tyme  that  he  ferst  bigau 
To  ryden  out,  he  lovede  chyvah-ye, 
Troulhe  and  honour,  f'redom  and  curfesye. 
Ful  worthi  was  he  hi  his  lordes  werre. 
And  therto  had  he  riden,  uoman  ferre, 
As  wel  in  Cristendom  as  in  hethenesse, 
Aud  ever  honoured  for  his  worthinesse.'' 

Tlic  character  of  knighthood,  however,  as  distinguish- 
ed from  the  mere  tenure  of  land  by  knight-service,  was 
entirely  personal,  and  hence  it  is  conferred  and  attaches 
only  for  life,  and  is  not  descendible  by  inheritance.  It 
cannot  be  assumed  by  one's  own  act,  but  must  be  be- 
stowed by  another  of  knightly  or  of  superior  rank.  The 
knight's  estate  was  held  by  knight-service,  or  chivaliy, 
and  the  heir  at  full  age  was  entitled  and  could  be  com- 
pelled to  receive  knighthood.  Compulsory  writs  for  the 
latter  purpose  were  frequently  issued  from  the  proper 
courts.  But,  until  the  dignity  w^as  conferred,  the  as- 
pirant was  no  knight.  ISLiny  entitled  to  claim  the  dig- 
nity declined  to  do  so,  though  holding  land  by  knightl}' 
tenure,  because  unable  to  bear  the  ex,)enses  incident  to 
the  rank.  Hence  arose  the  old  adage:  ^' Bon  escuijer 
vault  mieiilx  que  pauvn  chei'alier."  But  the  reality  or 
the  obligation  of  jjcrsonal  military  service  was  always 
entailed  by  knighthood. 

I.  Orifjiii  of  Knifjhthood  or  Cliivalrj/. — Under  the  im- 
pulse of  the  same  uncritical  spirit  which  referred  the 
descent  of  the  Britons  to  Brutus  and  wanderers  from 
Troy,  the  origin  of  knighthood  has  been  traced  back  to 
the  judges  of  Israel  or  to  the  heroes  of  the  Iliad.  More 
modest  inqmrers  have  been  content  to  go  no  further 
back  than  to  Constantine's  supposed  "Order  of  the 
Golden  Angel"  (313),  or  to  the  equally  imaginary  Ethi- 
opian "  Order  of  St.  Anthonj-,"  and  the  anchorites  of 
the  African  deserts.  Others,  more  modest  still,  ascend 
onlj'  to  "  King  Arthur  and  the  Knights  of  the  Round 
Table,"  or  to  Charles  Martel  and  the  "  Order  of  the 
Gennet,"  or  to  '•  Cliarlemagne  and  his  Paladins."  In 
all  such  genealogies  there  is  much  fantasy,  confusion, 
and  retrospective  legend.  The  incidents  of  war  must 
in  all  ages  present  some  general  resemblances.  There 
must  always  have  been  leaders  and  followers,  brothers 
in  arms,  and  associations  of  warriors — "  i-irere  fortes  ante 
A^amemnona."  Such  tendencies  in  human  nature  as 
prompted  these  miUtarj'^  unions  might  furnish  the  im- 
pulse to  subsequent  institutions,  but  to  ascribe  the  ori- 
gin of  the  institutions  themselves  to  the  first  recorded 
manifestation  of  these  tendencies  is  to  renounce  all  his- 
torical discrimination.  When  the  origin  of  knighthood 
is  investigated,  what  is  desired  is  the  discovery  of  the 
existence  of  a  definite  institution,  with  precise  and  dis- 
tinctive cliaracteristics,  animated  l)y  a  peculiar  spirit, 
which  gave  its  coloring  to  society  for  many  generations, 
and  which  still  exercises  a  potent  influence  over  life  and 
manners.  What  is  contemplated  is  "a  military  insti- 
tution, prompted  liy  enthusiastic  1)enevolence,  sanctioned 
by  religion,  and  combined  with  religious  ceremonies,  the 
purpose  of  which  was  to  protect  the  weak  from  the  op- 
pression of  the  powerful,  and  to  defend  the  right  against 


the  wrong"  (James,  History  of  Chivalry,  chap.  i).  The 
only  important  omissions  in  this  definition  arc  the  obli- 
gation of  ^•honneur  aux  dumes,"  knightly  trutli,  and  the 
thorough  interpenetratioii  of  Cliristiaii  pn)fession,  if 
rarely  of  Christian  practice. 

The  germ  of  knighthood,  but  only  the  germ,  may  un- 
questionably be  found  in  the  ancient  usages  of  the  Teu- 
tonic trifles  aud  in  the  Teutonic  comitatus,  which  co- 
alesced with  Ii(jman  customs  and  with  the  suggestions 
of  the  times  in  shaping  feudalism.  The  very  name  of 
knight. — cniht,  cnicht,  bo}',  servant,  military  follower — 
would  indicate  such  a  derivation.  "  Arma  sumere  non 
ante  cuiquam  moris  quam  civitas  suflFecturum  proba- 
verit.  Turn  in  ipso  concilio  principum  aliquis,  vel  pa- 
ter, vel  propinqui,  scute  framcaque  juvenem  ornant. 
Hoc  apud  illos  toga,  hie  publicus  juventa;  honos;  ante 
hoc  domus  pars  videntur,  mox  reipublic;i?.  .  .  .  Ceteris 
robustioribus  ct  jam  pridem  probatis  adgregantur;  nee 
rubor  inter  comites  aspici"  (Tacitus,  Germ.  c.  xiii ;  comp. 
c.  xiv).  To  this  same  source  must  be  ascribed  in  part, 
but  only  in  part,  the  chivalrous  deference  for  women : 
"  in  esse  quin  etiam  sanctum  aliquid  et  providum  per- 
tant;  nee  aut  consilia  earum  aspernantur  aut  responsa 
neglegunt"  {ibid,  c.  viii).  The  intensification  and  spir- 
itualization  of  this  deference  are  due  to  Christianity. 

Ethnical  temperaments,  ethnical  tendencies,  and  eth- 
nical usages  are  seldom  entirely  eradicated.  They  con- 
tinue under  many  transmutations  and  disguises;  lurk 
under  new  forms,  animate  new  institutions,  and  enter 
into  strange  and  often  undetected  combinations.  With 
this  explanation,  knighthood  may  be,  in  some  measure, 
referred  to  the  rude  warriors  of  the  forests  of  Germany, 
who  are  described  in  the  satirical  romance  of  Tacitus  in 
terms  more  appropriate  to  the  Indians  of  North  Ameri- 
ca than  to  any  populations  which  really  occupied  the 
provinces  of  the  crumbling  empire  of  Rome.  The  act- 
ual historical  origin  of  knighthood,  though  verj'  ob- 
scure, may  be  safely  assigned  to  a  much  later  age,  and 
to  other  more  potent  influences  than  those  which  flowed 
from  the  Rhine,  and  the  Elbe,  and  the  shores  of  the 
Baltic. 

AVithoiit  recurring  to  the  details  of  the  feudal  system 
[see  Fief],  it  may  be  stated  that  feudal  services  {ser- 
rilia)  were  strictly  limited,  and  jirescribed  military 
service  for  a  fixed  time  and  of  a  fixed  amount.  Cir- 
cumstances might  occur  which  woidd  demand  longer, 
less  restricted,  and  less  formallv  organized  warfare. 
Such  circumstances  did  occur  in  the  ninth,  tenlli,  and 
eleventh  centuries.  During  the  Norman  ravages  of 
France,  on  the  disruption  of  the  Carlovingian  empire  and 
the  decay  of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty,  universal  anar- 
chy, misery,  and  outrage  covered  the  land.  The  ]ierils 
from  the  barbarous  enemy  were  scarcely  greater  than 
those  from  violent  and  rapacious  barons,  and  from  law- 
less and  lordlcss  plunderers.  The  multiplied  horrors  of 
the  dismal  period  were  aggravated  by  general  destitu- 
tion, by  famine,  by  plague,  and  by  disastrous  ])rodigies  on 
the  earth  and  in  the  heavens.  The  bonds  of  authoritj'- 
were  snapped ;  the  regular  organization  of  tlie  feudal 
society  was  rent  and  suspended ;  immediate  protection 
and  prompt  redress,  without  too  nice  distinction  of  rank 
and  sidjordination,  were  demanded  on  all  sides.  Tliose 
who  had  the  power,  the  heart,  and  the  will,  found  abun- 
dant work  for  active  hands  to  do  in  the  defence  of  wom- 
en and  children,  of  the  old  and  infirm,  of  unarmed  mer- 
chants and  pilgrims,  of  priests  and  monks;  and  rode 
through  the  coimtry  endeavoring  to  repress  disorder,  if 
unable  to  establish  order.  The  conilition  of  things  was 
even  worse  than  such  as  might  now  provoke  Lyncli  law 
or  instigate  vigilance  committees.  Of  course,  the  vigi- 
lance committees  of  the  closing  millennitmi  assumed  the 
moidd  of  the  time  iij  which  their  services  were  rendered. 
Accordingly,  the  avengers  of  iniquity  were  guided  by 
an  earnest,  though  usually  rude  and  blundering  sense  of 
Christian  obligation  in  their  generous  warfare.  It  thus 
became  the  avowed  duty  of  the  true  knight  to  serve 
women,  to  protect  the  feeble,  to  minister  to  the  wound- 


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129 


KNIGHTHOOD 


ed,  to  comfort  the  wretched,  to  repress  or  punish  wrong, 
aiid  in  all  honor  to  uphold  and  to  do  the  right. 

"He  had  abroad  in  amies  wouue  muchell  fame, 
And  flid  far  laudes  with  giorie  of  his  might ; 
Plaine,  faithful,  true,  and  enimy  of  shame, 
And  ever  lov'd  to  light  for  ladies  right; 
But  in  vaiue-glorious  frayes  he  litle  did  delight." 

While  these  calamitous  generations  writhed  through 
their  long  agony  in  France,  the  progress  of  the  Holy 
Warfare  in  Spain  agamst  the  Saracens  invited  and  en- 
riclied  the  princes,  nobles,  and  adventurers  who  fought  for 
the  Cross  against  the  Crescent.  Religious  fervor  was  thus 
intimately  conjoined  with  martial  prowess.  But,  both 
in  France  and  Spain,  and,  in  less  degree,  in  other  coun- 
tries, similar  necessities  concurred  in  the  production  of 
like  phenomena.  In  all  cases  there  was  a  relaxation 
of  the  direct  connection  of  military  achievement  with 
landed  estates  and  feudal  subordination.  High  moral 
qualities  and  Christian  zeal  were  required  of  the  land- 
less or  lonely  luiight,  or  were  annexed  as  requirements 
to  complete  the  character  of  the  accomplished  feudal 
vassal.  Thus  the  true  knight  came  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  knight  by  feudal  tenure;  though  the  feudal 
knight  might  possess,  and  was  expected  to  possess, 
knightly  characteristics  in  addition  to  his  feudal  do- 
main and  its  attendant  obligations. 

Doubtless  in  France  and  Spain,  and  elsewhere,  chiv- 
alrous emprise  was  encouraged,  if  not  originated  by  the 
Church,  the  sole  moral  authority  of  those  days,  which 
was  anxious  for  peace,  earnest  for  order,  vowed  to  the 
maintenance  of  right,  and  eager  to  subordinate  to  spir- 
itual ride  and  guidance  the  military  ardor  and  the  tem- 
poral power  of  the  time. 

All  these  influences  and 'all  these  tendencies,  of  va- 
rious age  and  origin,  converged  and  commingled,  with 
augmented  energy  in  each,  in  the  Crusades.  These  ro- 
mantic and  persistent  enterprises  maj'  have  been  under- 
taken and  prolonged  by  the  instigation  and  for  the  in- 
terest of  the  Pajjacy,  but  they  were  none  the  less  the 
outburst  of  popular  enthusiasm,  and  of  a  popular  en- 
thusiasm which  gave  form  and  active  reality  to  an  in- 
stinctive perception  of  urgent  policy.  Whole  nations 
are  not  impelled  for  centuries  to  arduous  and  perilous 
undertakings  by  any  extrinsic  force;  the  enduring  im- 
pidse  by  which  they  are  set  and  kept  in  motion  must 
be  a  living  power  in  their  ovni  bosoms, "  bequeathed  by 
bleeding  sire  to  son."  Looking  back  from  the  safe  van- 
tange  gromid,  which  has  been  secured  only  within  two 
hmidred  years,  it  is  difficult  to  appreciate  justly  the 
alarming  dangers  to  which  Christianity  and  Christian 
nations  were  exposed  from  Moslem  aggression  at  the 
commencement  of  the  second  millennium  of  our  rera. 
The  apprehension  -was  not  dispelled  entirely  till  the 
victory  of  John  Sobieski  under  the  walls  of  Vienna 
(1683).  It  is  equally  difficult  to  estimate  now  the  effect 
of  a  wild,  warlike  fanaticism  against  Saracens  and  Pa- 
gans in  implanting  the  recently  acquired  and  imper- 
fectly received  creed  in  tiu'bulent  spirits,  and  perhaps 
still  more  difficult  to  recognise  the  service  rendered  bv 
the  Holy  Wars  m  diftusing  and  deepening  the  sentiment 
of  a  common  faith,  a  common  interest,  a  common  civil- 
ization throughout  Western  Europe — a  Christendom,  or 
dominion  of  Christ. 

All  of  these  feelings  were  quickened  bj'  the  Crusades, 
and  were  both  exalted  and  rendered,  in  some  sort,  self- 
conscious  by  them.  It  must  be  rememliered  that  the 
Crusades  did  not  begin  with  Peter  the  Hermit  and  the 
Council  of  Clermont,  but  that  the  crusading  spirit  had 
been  previously  manifested  and  cherished  in  Spain,  in 
Sicily,  and  in  Northern  Africa.  This  spirit  only  re- 
ceived its  fuU  development  and  definite  purpose  by  be- 
ing directed  to  the  recovery  of  Jerusalem.  Through 
distant  i^iatic  expeditions  the  desultorj'  and  unregu- 
lated adventure  for  the  maintenance  of  Christian  belief 
and  Christian  security  was  generalized,  organized,  dis- 
ciplined, and  refined.  The  disorderly  violence  of  mar- 
tial barons  was  withdrawn  from  domestic  discords,  and 

v.— I 


guided  to  a  great  Em*opean  aim.  War  was  in  some 
degree  sanctified ;  it  was  ennobled,  at  least  in  the  con- 
ception of  the  warrior,  by  being  emploj-ed  for  the  de- 
fence and  maintenance  of  the  faith.  A  strange  but  not 
unfruitful  miion  was  thus  effected  between  devotion 
and  mUitary  prowess.  There  is  no  question  here  of 
the  use  which  was  made  of  this  combination  for  the 
extension  of  ecclesiastical  domination.  All  that  is  con- 
templated is  the  consequence  of  this  vmion  in  the  pro- 
duction of  chivalry  and  of  the  knightly  character — a 
magnificent  and  previously  unimagined  ideal,  however 
far  human  vices,  and  passions,  and  frailties  may  have 
prevented  the  perfect  realization  of  that  ideal.  Is  Chris- 
tianity to  be  condemned  in  these  late  ages  because  so 
few  of  those  who  profess  its  behests  reach  their  per- 
formance, and  because  so  many  fail  to  add  the  Christian 
graces  to  the  plainer  merits  of  Christian  belief  and  mor- 
als ■?  The  vision  of  the  Holy  Grail  may  visit  this  sor- 
rowfid  earth,  but  it  is  not  on  earth  that  it  can  be  won 
even  by  Sir  Galahad. 

Another  influence  must  be  admitted  to  have  exercised 
a  beneficial  effect  on  the  formation  of  knighthood.  This 
is  the  contact  and  comparison  with  the  intellectual  and 
social  culti'j-e  of  the  degenerate  Greeks,  and  with  the 
elegance  and  courtesy  of  the  Saracens.  This  influence 
must  have  commenced  early,  for  Bohemond,  and  Tan- 
cred,  and  Raj'mond  of  Toulouse,  and  Godfrey  of  Bouil- 
lon, and  Robert  of  Normandy  carried  with  them  to  the 
Holy  Land  in  the  First  Crusade  much  of  that  courtly 
bearing  and  generous  sentiment  which  did  not  become 
generally  disseminated  through  the  Christian  West,  or 
through  the  nobUitj'  at  home,  tiU  the  Second  and  Third 
Crusades.  These  qualities  may  have  been  directly  and 
indirectly  communicated  by  the  Saracens  in  Spain,  Sic- 
ily, and  Southern  France. 

Old  institutions  of  the  German  forest  life ;  the  effects 
of  feudal  organization  and  of  feudal  society ;  the  neces- 
sities of  a  ravaged,  ruined,  and  distracted  country ;  the 
operation  of  religious  zeal,  and  even  of  general  religious 
fanaticism;  the  action  of  the  priesthood,  and  collision 
with  cultivated  Greeks  and  brilliant  Saracens,  all  con-  . 
tributed  to  the  formation  of  the  type  of  a  Christian 
soldier — a  true  knight,  a  preux  chevalier,  sans  (ache  et 
sans  reproche.  The  judgment  is  accordingly  correct 
which  regards  the  sera  of  the  Crusades,  when  the  regu- 
lar and  permanent  Orders  were  instituted,  as  the  true 
period  of  the  formation  of  that  ideal  of  knighthood 
which  is  one  of  the  most  precious  bequests  for  which 
modern  times  are  indebted  to  the  Jliddle  Ages.  Un- 
doubtedly there  was  a  previous  growth  of  the  same 
kind,  but  the  growth  did  not  proceed  to  mature  and 
perfect  fruitage  until  aU  agencies  were  efficacioush* 
combined  on  the  sacred  soil  of  Palestine. 

It  is  a  cause  of  great  embarrassment  in  endeavoring 
to  ascertain  the  characteristics  and  origin  of  any  insti- 
tution which  has  widely  prevailed  in  obscure  ages,  that 
such  institutions  only  gradually  assume  the  complete 
form  which  is  their  familiar  shape,  that  many  concur- 
rent streams  flow  in  at  different  periods  and  add  their 
contributions,  and  that  the  darliuess  of  the  foregone 
time  affords  everj^  ojiiportunify  and  every  temptation  to 
throw  back  into  the  past  those  characteristics  M'hich 
only  belong  to  the  institution  in  its  final  development. 
The  same  confusion  which  presented  Virgil  as  a  necro- 
mancer to  mediaeval  fancy,  and  made  Theseus  a  feudal 
duke  of  Athens  in  the  imagination  of  Chaucer  and 
Shakespeare,  and  exhibited  Dan  Hector  and  Sir  Alex- 
ander to  the  admiring  regards  of  baronial  circles  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  pushed  back  the  distinctions  of 
knighthood  to  periods  in  which  the  germs  of  chivalr}- 
existed  only  in  a  loose  and  disconnected  form.  By 
this  glamour  the  Arthurian  cycle  and  the  Carlovingian 
myths  were  fashioned,  and  the  inventions  and  ideas  of 
the  twelfth  centurj^  were  provided  with  a  historical  ex- 
istence in  the  sixth  and  eighth.  After  knighthood  be- 
came an  established  institution,  it  prevailed  so  widely 
and  so  generally  that  it  seemed  to  be  a  necessary  part 


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130 


KNIGHTHOOD 


of  social  order.  Saladin  is  said  to  have  sought  and  re- 
ceived the  accolade  from  a  Christian  captive,  and  the 
Byzantine  emperor  Manuel  Coruncnus  lield  jousts  and 
tourneys  on  the  plains  of  Antioch  {Nicet.  Chomat,  iii,  3 ; 
comp.  Joann.  Cantacuzenus,  1, 42). 

II.  Nature  of  Kuiyhthood. — A  knight  was  a  soldier 
{miles),  usually,  but  not  necessarily,  of  gentle  blood — a 
soldier  wlio  fought  on  horseback  {caballarius,  chevalier, 
cahallero)  with  panoply  complete — 

"From  top  to  toe  no  place  appeared  bare, 
That  deadly  dint  of  Steele  endanger  may." 

In  the  feudal  hierarchy  he  was  the  holder  of  a  knight's 
fee,  but,  as  chivalry  was  developed,  he  might  be  "lord 
of  his  presence  and  no  land  beside."  The  quality  was 
thus  distinguished  from  the  estate,  and,  although  pen- 
alties were  imposed  for  conferring  the  cliaracter  on  any 
one  not  of  knightly  blood  and  of  knightly  havings,  yet 
tlie  lionor,  once  bestowed,  was  indelible  except  by  degra- 
dation for  unworthy  conduct.  This  point  was  decided 
in  an  English  court  of  law  by  lord  Coke,  and  the  deci- 
sion was  more  recently  confirmed  by  lord  Kenyon  in  the 
case  of  "Sir  John  Gallini,"  a  ballet-master.  Knight- 
hood thus  came  to  designate  personal  character  and 
station,  in  contradistinction  to  political  rank.  The  im- 
poverished warrior,  like  "  Walter  the  Penniless,"  or  Ber- 
trand  du  Guesclin,  or  the  Chevalier  Bayard,  might  be 
the, pearl  of  knights,  and  might  sit  down  with  princes; 
the  powerful  and  wealthy  baron  might  be  wholly  des- 
titute of  knightly  estimation. 

It  was  a  precious  service  that  was  rendered  to  morals 
and  civility  when  lofty  virtues  were  thus  broadly  dis- 
criminated from  territorial  possessions  and  worldly  rank. 
It  was  a  noble  model  of  personal  purity  and  elevation 
which  was  presented  for  imitation  to  a  warlike  and 
stormy  age.  The  knightly  cliaracter,  and  tlie  obliga- 
tions imposed  by  tliat  character,  are  strikingly  delinea- 
ted in  the  instructions  of  Alphonso  V  of  Portugal  to  his 
son  and  heir,  when  he  knighted  him  after  the  conquest 
of  ArzUla  (1-471),  in  the  presence  of  his  slain  Count  de 
Itlarialva.  "  First,  to  instruct  you,"  said  the  king, "  what 
the  nature  of  knighthood  is,  know,  my  son.  that  it  con- 
sists in  a  close  confederacy  or  union  of  power  and  virtue, 
to  establish  peace  among  men,  whenever  ambition,  av- 
arice, or  tyranny  troubles  states  or  injures  particulars; 
for  knights  are  bound  to  employ  their  swords  on  these 
■"/ccasions,  in  order  to  dethrone  tyrants  and  put  good 
men  in  their  place.  But  they  are  likewise  obliged  to 
keep  fidelity  to  their  sovereign,  as  well  as  to  obey  their 
("hicfs  in  war,  and  to  give  them  salutary  counsels.  It 
is  also  the  duty  of  a  knight  to  be  frank  and  liberal,  and 
to  think  nothing  his  own  but  his  horse  and  arms,  which 
he  ought  to  keep  for  the  sake  of  acquiring  honor  with 
them,  by  using  them  in  defence  of  his  religion  and  coun- 
try, and  of  those  who  are  unable  to  defend  themselves ; 
for,  as  the  priesthood  was  instituted  for  divine  service, 
so  was  chivalry  for  the  maintenance  of  religion  and 
iustice.  A  knight  ought  to  be  the  husband  of  widows, 
the  father  of  orphans,  the  protector  of  the  poor,  and  the 
prop  of  those  who  have  no  other  support;  and  they  v.ho 
do  not  act  thus  are  unworthy  to  bear  that  name.  These, 
my  son,  are  the  obligations  which  tlic  order  of  knight- 
hood will  lay  upon  you."  Striking  the  infant  thrice  on 
the  helmet  with  his  sword,  Alphonso  added,  "  May  God 
make  you  as  good  a  knight  as  this  whose  body  you  see 
before  you,  pierced  in  several  places  for  the  service  of 
God  and  of  his  sovereign"  (cited  by  lord  Lyttelton,  Hist, 
of  lion.  If.  iii,  159,  IGO.  Sec  also  Digby,  Mores  Catholi- 
ci,  bk.  ix,  chap,  x ;  .James,  Jlist.  of  Chiralrii,  chap.  i). 

This  lofty  exemplar  may  have  been  rarely  approached 
in  the  ages  of  chivalry.  The  Black  Prince  was  guilty 
of  sanguinary  atrocities.  The  passions  of  men  were 
brutal  and  untamed;  temptations  were  great  and  fre- 
(pient;  but  continual  failures  would  not  furnish  strange 
instances  of  the  disproportion  between  concej^tion  and 
performance.  IMuch,  however,  was  achieved  by  the  con- 
stant contemplation  of  excellence,  even  though  it  was 
unattained;  and  by  the  repeated  efforts  after  each  de- 


clension to  aspire  to  tlie  perfection  so  often  abandoned. 
Much,  too,  was  gained  by  the  partial  and  occasional  ac- 
complishment of  the  high  duties  prescribed.  Even 
more,  perhajis,  was  slowly  secured  by  the  bitter  shame 
and  repentance  which  ever  revived,  and  thus  perpetu- 
ated, the  desire  and  the  image  of  better  things.  "  Altius 
ibunt  qui  ad  summa  nituntur." 

INIuch  corruption  undoubtedly  flowed  from  the  con- 
junction of  chivalrj' with  the  Provenc^al  courts  of  love, 
which  were  of  mingled  Greek  and  Saracenic  descent. 
They  contributed  much  to  the  obscuration  and  debase- 
ment of  the  wise  ideal,  but  they  contributed  fully  as 
much  to  the  refinement  and  polish  of  the  intercourse 
between  the  sexes.  They  added  literary  and  intellect- 
ual culture  to  martial  bearing;  they  toned  down  the 
rough,  blunt  manner  of  the  battle-field  to  the  elegant 
and  respectfid  courtesies  of  the  boudoir.  They  exacted 
from  "  the  dauntless  in  war"  that  he  should  be  equally 
gentle  in  peace  and  "  faithful  in  love."  Thus  gallantry 
was  mellowed  and  softened  into  civility,  which  was  the 
antithesis  of  military  hntsquerie,  as  in  tlie  abbe  Talley- 
rand's celebrated  witticism.  Hence  sprung  that  thor- 
oughly modem  and  Christian  product,  "  the  gentleman 
of  the  olden  time,"  of  which  Sir  Harr}'  Lee  of  Ditchley 
may  be  taken  as  a  specimen.  If  fearful  licentiousness 
accompanied  these  amiable  graces  in  Provence,  Langiie- 
doc,  Aquitaine,  and  other  sunny  southern  lands,  at  any 
rate  vice  was  stripped  of  its  brutality  and  coarseness, 
and  lost  its  brazen  shamelessness  and  virulent  conta- 
gion. But,  tliough  truth  and  fidelity  to  his  "  faire  la- 
dye"  were  always  demanded  of  the  knight,  the  sensual- 
ism of  the  countries  of  romance  was  only  accidentally 
connected  with  knightly  conduct,  and  never  formed  any 
part  of  its  nature.     Moreover,  though  it  be  true  that 

"The  evil  that  men  do  lives  after  them. 
The  good  is  oft  interred  with  then-  bones," 

the  converse  is  equally  true ;  and  modern  generations 
unquestionably  owe  much  of  tliose  rarely-attained  per- 
fections which  are  now  most  admired  to  the  fragrant 
nastiness  and  ornate  priu-icnce  of  the  Cours  d' Amour 
and  Jeux  Floraiix. 

In  the  splendid  Arthurian  cycle — a  brighter  realm 
of  romance  than  all  the  legends  of  Homer  and  the 
Homerid.T — the  heroes  and  heroines  are  sadly  stained 
and  spotted  ■with  moral  blurs  and  blotches,  and  even 
with  gross  crimes.  Sir  Lancelot,  "  first  of  knights," 
bears  an  ineradicable  brand ;  but  still  is  scarce 

"Less  than  archangel  ruined,  and  the  excess 
Of  glory  obscured." 

The  birth  and  the  marriage  of  king  Arthur  are  equally 
foul;  and  the  champions  and  dames  that  encircled  him 
are  all  tainted,  except  Sir  Galahad — "  among  the  faith- 
ess,  faithful  only  he."  But,  despite  the  endless  detaU 
of  weakness,  of  ruth,  and  of  sin,  the  central  idea  comes 
forth,  like  the  sun  emerging  from  a  bank  of  clouds — the 
noblest  dream  of  human  fantasy,  the  highest  evidence 
of  ethereal  aspirations  from  the  midst  of  vicious  indul- 
gences and  multiplied  contaminations.  This  type  is 
true  knighthood,  '\^'hat  knighthood  was  has  been  al- 
ready partly  explained  ;  what  it  is  in  the  Arthurian  ro- 
mances is  shown  by  Arthur's  latest  bard : 

"In  that  fair  Order  of  the  Table  Round, 
A  glorious  conijinny,  the  flower  of  men, 
To  serve  as  model  "for  the  mighty  world, 
And  be  the  fair  beginning  of  a  time. 
I  made  them  lay  tlieir  hands  in  mine,  and  swear 
To  reverence  tlie  king,  as  if  he  were 
Their  conscience,  and  their  conscience  as  the  king; 
To  break  the  heathen,  and  uphold  the  Christ; 
'J'o  ride  abroad  redressing  human  wrongs; 
To  speak  no  slander,  no,  nor  listen  to  it; 
To  lead  sweet  lives  in  purest  chastity; 
To  love  one  maiden  only,  cleave  to  her, 
And  worship  her  by  years  of  nolile  deeds, 
Until  they  won  her;  for  indeed  I  knew 
Of  no  more  subtle"  master  under  heaven 
Than  is  the  maiden  jiassion  for  a  maid, 
Not  only  to  keep  duwii  the  base  in  man, 
But  teach  high  ihou^'hts,  and  amiable  words, 
And  courtliness,  and  the  desire  of  fame, 
And  love  of  truth,  and  all  that  makes  a  man." 


KNIGHTHOOD 


131 


KNIGHTHOOD 


III.  Classes  and  Derjrees  of  Knighthood. — Kiiiglitliood 
may  be  loosely  distributed  into  six  classes:  1.  Feudal 
kuiglithood;  2.  Simple  knighthood;  3.  Regular  knight- 
hood, or  the  knighthood  of  the  spiritual  orders,  like  the 
Knights  of  IMalta;  4.  Honorary  knighthood,  as  of  the 
(Jarter;  5.  Titidar  knighthood,  as  in  England  and  many 
other  countries,  constituting  a  dignity  of  lesser  nobility ; 
G.  Social,  or  fantastic  knighthood,  as  the  Templars  in 
Freemasonry,  the  Knights  of  Pythias,  etc.  The  first  of 
these  classes  furnishes  the  foundation  and  origin  of  all 
the  rest,  but  needs  no  further  notice  than  has  been  al- 
ready given.  The  last  is  foreign  to  the  present  pur- 
pose. The  fifth  may  be  excluded,  as  it  is  political  rather 
than  chivalrous.  Simple,  regular,  and  honorary  knight- 
hood require  further,  but  brief  consideration. 

Each  of  these  classes  exhibits  the  same  general  con- 
stitution, though  the  third  is  only  an  imitation,  and  a 
jireposterous  prolongation  of  the  first  with  the  forms  of 
the  second.  In  each  there  are  usually  three  degrees. 
In  actual  chivalry,  these  were  the  page,  the  squire,  and 
the  knight.  The  young  son  of  a  kniglit,  or  of  a  noble 
who  was  also  a  knight,  was  placed  at  the  age  of  seven 
years  in  the  service  and  cliarge  of  another  knight,  se- 
lected on  account  of  family  connection,  friendship,  or 
personal  renown.  The  education  of  the  young  in  the 
ages  of  chivalry  vf&s  secured  by  attendance  on  their 
elders  in  the  field,  in  hunting,  at  the  table,  and  in  the 
concerns  of  domestic  life  (see  Correspondeiwe  of  Simon 
de  Montfort  and  bishop  Grosseieste,  and  the  Treatises  on 
Manners  in  The  Babees'  Boke),  The  page,  or  varlet,  or 
valet  {rassaletus,  rarletus,  raktns)  was  taught  to  ride, 
to  run,  to  leap,  to  shoot  with  the  bow,  to  hawk,  to  play 
on  the  lute.  He  was  taught  obedience  and  attention  to 
his  superiors,  and  was  supposed  to  be  kept  in  the  ob- 
servance of  religion  and  morals.  He  attended  his  patron 
in  war,  but  armed  only  with  a  short  dagger.  His  per- 
son was  safe  in  the  melee,  for  it  was  dastardly  to  assail 
a  page.  In  the  intervals  of  serious  occupation  he  re- 
ceived guests  and  ministered  to  their  comforts,  and 
waited  on  the  chatelaine  and  the  other  ladies  of  the 
household,  receiving  instruction  in  legend,  and  poesy, 
and  song ;  in  manners,  and  in  the  formalities  of  love. 
The  character  of  the  instruction  in  the  last  easy  science 
may  perhaps  be  conjectured  from  the  tenor  of  the  lessons 
composed  for  his  daughters  by  the  knight  De  la  Tour 
Landry  in  1.571. 

At  the  age  of  fourteen  the  young  valet — the  term  is 
often  extended  to  the  second  stage — received  a  sword, 
consecrated  by  religious  benedictions,  in  exchange  for 
his  dagger,  and  entered  on  the  degree  of  squire  (esciiyer, 
scutifei;  armir/er).  His  exercises  were  now  mainly  di- 
rected to  the  pursuits  of  war.  He  was  trained  to  vault 
on  horseback  without  touching  the  stirrup.  He  was 
taught  the  inaner/e,  and  the  whole  art  of  '•  noble  horse- 
manship." He  carried  the  knight's  lance,  or  shield,  or 
helmet,  or  groomed  his  horse,  or  led  his  destrier.  He 
attended  him  in  the  tourney  and  in  the  battle.  He  was 
not  a  regular  combatant  in  the  fight,  but  he  rescued,  or 
defended,  or  remounted  his  principal.  He  cultivated 
courtsisie,  prosecuted  his  pleasant  studies  in  the  art  of 
love,  began  to  wear  ladies'  favors,  sought  to  become 
deliDmuiir — that  is,  neither  shy,  nor  haughty,  nor  awk- 
ward ;  and  diligently  imitated  the  procedure  and  im- 
biljcd  the  spirit  of  his  senior. 

At  full  age — though  the  honor  was  often  postponed, 
and  sometimes  accelerated— the  squire  was  advanced  to 
the  complete  knightly  dignity,  which  was  bestowed 
with  mitch  solemnity,  ceremonial,  and  religious  inter- 
vention. These  accompaniments  were,  of  course,  dis- 
pensed with  when  the  jiromotion  Avas  conferred  on  the 
battle-field.  Usually,  however,  the  reception  of  knight- 
hood was  ordered  at  some  high  festival,  and  was  sur- 
nnnuled  with  imposing  and  onerous  rites. 

I\  .  Institution  of  a  Knii/ht. — Various  procedures  were 
adopted  in  different  countries,  in  different  orders,  and  at 
different  times.  They  were  all  symbolic,  in  accordance 
with  that  love  of  symbol  and  allegory  which  charac- 


terizes unlettered  times.  There  was,  however,  such  a 
general  resemblance  in  the  form  and  spirit  of  the  cere- 
monial that  a  general  description  of  the  procedure  may 
be  readily  given.  It  is  onh^  necessary  to  understand 
that  some  of  the  incidents  were  at  times  omitted,  and 
that  others  were  frequently  modified. 

The  most  elaborate  of  all  investitures  appears  to  have 
been  the  old  procedure  of  the  Order  of  the  Bath,  as  de- 
scribed in  a  manuscript  in  Frend,  first  published  by  Ed- 
uardus  Bissajus,  and  cited  textually  by  Du  Cange  (s.  v. 
Miles).  The  novice  was  intrusted  to  the  charge  of 
select  squires.  His  beard  was  shaven  and  his  hair 
was  shorn.  In  the  evening,  prudent  and  distinguished 
knights  were  sent  to  instruct  him  in  his  obligations, 
ilinstrels  and  squires  came  singing  and  dancing  to  con- 
duct him  to  the  bath  that  had  been  prepared.  He  was 
stripped  naked  and  put  into  the  bath.  He  then  re- 
ceived further  instructions.  When  he  issued  from  the 
bath,  he  was  put  to  bed  to  dry  off.  When  dr)^,  he  was 
taken  up  and  clad  warmlj^,  with  a  red  garment  over  the 
rest,  having  sleeves  and  a  cowl  like  a  hermit's.  The 
knights  led  him  to  the  chapel,  the  attendant  squires 
singing  and  dancing  again.  He  remained  at  his  vigils 
and  prayers  all  night.  At  break  of  day  he  confessed 
and  received  mass,  after  which  he  was  put  to  bed.  After 
he  had  rested,  the  knights  and  squires  reappeared,  and 
clothed  him.  He  was  then  conducted  on  horseback, 
with  song  and  dance,  to  the  great  hall.  His  spurs  were 
fastened  on  by  the  two  noblest  knights  present,  who 
crossed  and  kissed  him  whan  they  had  discharged  their 
office.  His  sword,  suspended  from  a  baldric  {cingulum^, 
was  buckled  on  by  another  knight.  The  king,  or  of- 
ficiating knight,  then  struck  him  thrice  on  the  cheek 
(alopa,  a  slap),  or  on  the  neck  or  helmet,  with  the  flat 
of  his  sword  {accollare,  adobare,  adojitaro :  see  these 
titles  in  Du  Cange,  and  that  author's  Dissertation  xxii 
snr  Joinville),  and  kissed  him.  The  spurred  and  belted 
knight  was  now  led  back  to  the  chapel,  when  he  knelt, 
and,  laying  his  hand  on  the  altar,  swore  to  uphold  Holy 
Church  through  life.  Guizot  enumerates  twenty-six 
engagements  in  a  knightly  oath.  The  postulant,  \vith 
his  attendant  knights,  next  proceeded  to  hold  high  fes- 
tival, but  the  young  knight  was  not  allowed  to  eat,  to 
drink,  or  to  move,  or  to  look  about  him,  while  the  rest 
were  feasting.  After  further  ceremonial,  he  mounted 
his  horse,  assumed  his  arms,  and  exhiliitcd  feats  of  war- 
like dexterity  for  the  entertainment  and  admiration  of 
the  assembled  ladies. 

This  is  an  abridged,  if  not  a  brief  account  of  knight- 
ly investiture.  These  minute  and  tedious  formalities, 
which  are  travestied  by  Don  (Juixote,  belong  only  to 
times  of  peace,  and  subsequent  to  the  establishment  of 
the  regular  orders. 

Y.  The  Regidar  Orders  grew  out  of  the  necessities  of 
the  Holy  War  in  Spain  and  in  Palestine.  The  knights, 
like  priests,  were  vowed  to  celibacy,  and  were  designed 
to  be  ecclesiastical  soldiers.  They  were  to  protect  pil- 
grims, to  feed  the  hungry,  to  entertain  the  poor,  to 
shield  the  weak,  to  nurse  the  sick  and  the  wounded,  to 
assert  the  faith,  to  defend  the  Christian  land,  and  to  do 
zealously  all  duties  of  charity,  devotion,  and  war.  The 
most  noted  of  these  Orders  were — 

(I.)  The  Knyjhts  of  the  Iloly  Sejndchre,  instituted  by 
Godfrey  de  Bouillon  in  1099  to  guard  the  sepulchre  of 
Christ.  They  were  distinguished  by  a  golden  cross, 
cantoned  with  four  crosses  of  the  same,  pendent  from  a 
black  ribbon.  They  languished  and  expired  after  the 
fall  of  the  Latin  kingdom  of  Jerusalem. 

(II.)  Knif/hts  of  St.  John  ofJervsalem,  or  Knights  Hos- 
pitallers, afterwards  successively  Knights  of  Rhodes  (q. 
V.)  and  Knights  of  Malta  (q.  v.).  TJiey  were  founded 
about  1048  by  some  Neapolitan  merchants,  and  organ- 
ized in  1104.  In  peace  they  wore  the  black  robe  of  the 
Augustiuian  fraternity,  with  a  cross  of  white  cloth  ;  in 
war  they  exchanged  the  black  robe  for  a  white  go\ni. 
On  the  expulsionof  the  Christians  from  Palestine  they 
passed  over  to  Cyprus,  where  they  remained  tdl  their 


KNIGHTHOOD 


132 


KNILL 


conquest  of  Rhodes,  1308.  Driven  out  of  Rhodes  by 
the  Turks,  15-22,  they  received  Malta  from  the  emperor 
Oharles  V,  1530.  The  order  expired  with  the  surrender 
of  the  island  to  Napoleon  in  1798,  See  Hospitallers. 
(III.)  The  Kiiif/hts  of  the  Temple,  or  Red  Cross  Knights, 
founded  in  1118  by  two  French  Crusaders,  Hugo  de  Pa- 
ijanis  and  Godfrey  Aldemar  (or  of  St.  Omer),  and  organ- 
ized in  1128.  Their  rules  were  tlrawn  up  for  them  by 
Bernard  of  Clairvaux.  Their  badge  was  a  red  cross  em- 
broidered on  a  white  cloak  ;  their  emblem,  two  luiights 
on  one  horse,  to  indicate  their  vow  of  poverty.  They 
soon,  however,  acquired  immense  wealth,  and  were  ac- 
cused of  horrid  vices  and  crimes ;  but  Ashmole  remarks 
that  many  sober  men  judge  that  their  wealth  was  their 
greatest  crime.  After  sharp  persecutions  and  iniqui- 
tous trials,  they  were  suppressed  with  savage  cruelty  in 
France  by  Philippe  le  Bel,  1310,  and  soon  after  in  other 
countries.  They  were  charged  with  the  possession  of 
40,000  lordships  in  Europe.     See  Templars, 

(IV,)  The  Knights  of  Mart/,  or  the  Teutonic  Order, 
established  for  the  support  of  poor  pilgrims  of  all  na- 
tions by  wealthy  German  knights,  organized  in  1190  by 
the  survivors  of  the  army  of  Frederick  Barbarossa, 
Their  distinctive  garb  was  a  white  mantle,  having  on 
the  front  a  black  cross  with  a  white  potence.  Before 
the  loss  of  Palestine,  the  Teutonic  knights,  under  their 
grand-master  Hermann  von  Salza,  had  directed  their  ef- 
forts and  arms  against  the  Prussians,  Lithuanians,  and 
heathen  tribes  of  north-eastern  Europe,  By  the  secu- 
larization of  Prussia,  in  1525,  under  their  grand-master 
Albert  of  Brandenburg,  the  order  was  broken  up,  was 
deprived  of  its  most  valuable  possessions,  and  passed  out 
of  notice.     See  Teutonic  Knights. 

(V.)  The  Knights  of  San  Salvador,  founded  by  Al- 
phonso  V  of  Aragon  in  1 118.  Extinguished,  and  its  com- 
manderies  added  to  the  crown,  by  Charles  II,  1665. 

(VI. )  Tlie  Knights  of  Santiago  de  la  Espada,  in  Spain, 
refer  their  origin  to  837,  but  received  their  detinite  con- 
stitution in  1170, 

(VII.)  The  Knights  of  Alcantara,  1158,  and, 
(VIII.)  The  Knights  of  Calatrava,  1199,  were  insti- 
tuted to  guard  the  western  and  southern  portions  of 
Spain  against  the  Moors.     The  grand-mastership  of 
both  was  ultimately  assumed  by  the  crown  of  Spain. 

The  regular  orders  of  knighthood  were  designed  to 
promote  Christian  virtues  and  Christian  conduct,  and 
to  employ  chivalrous  energies  for  the  maintenance  and 
extension  of  Christianity,  and  the  protection  of  Chris- 
tendom against  Saracens  and  Pagans.  These  functions 
they  unquestionably  discharged  in  their  better  age,  and 
while  such  services  were  essentially  necessary.  With 
merit  came  favor,  and  power,  and  wealth,  and  arro- 
gance, and  negligence,  and  itUeness,  and  luxury,  and 
other  vices.  It  is  the  old  and  oft-repeated  stoiy  of  en- 
ergy declining  into  corruption.  But  they  had  afforded 
Europe  time  and  security  to  develop,  knit  together, 
and  confirm  its  civilization  and  its  strength.  When 
they  were  extinguished  by  secular  greed  for  their  pos- 
sessions, their  aptitude  had  disappeared,  "  Othello's 
occupation  was  gone"  when  "  villainous  saltpetre"  had 
totally  changed  the  organization  of  armies  and  the  con- 
duct of  battles.  It  was  chiefly  during  this  period  of 
confusion  that  sovereigns  and  princes,  desirous  of  pre- 
serving the  amusements,  exercises,  attachments,  loyaltj', 
splendors,  and  honors  of  knighthood — perhaps,  also,  of 
perpetuating  its  spirit — instituted  princely  in  imitation 
of  the  regular  orders,  Tlie  enimieration  and  descrip- 
tion of  the  multitude  of  such  associations  would  afford 
little  additional  illustration  of  knighthood.  It  must  suf- 
fice to  name  a  few  of  these  imitative  establishments. 

VI,  Honorary  Knighthood.  —  Of  this  there  were  the 
following  orders :  ...... 

"  Instituted 

The  Order  of  the  White  Elephant  of  Denmark..' 1190. 

"  the  White  Eagle  of  Poland l.B-2.5. 

"  the  Garter 1343, 

the  Bath 139!). 

"  the  Golden  Fleece 1430. 

"         the  Thistle 1&40. 


Institfltcd 
The  Order  of  Saint  Esprit 157S. 

"  Saint  Louis 1693. 

"  Saint  Andrew  and  Saint  Catharine 1698. 

"  the  Bhick  Eagle  of  Prussia 1705. 

"  Saint  Geor>re"(i'or  Russia) 1769. 

"  Saint  Patrick 1783, 

"  the  Legion  of  Honor 1802, 

"  the  Iron  Crown  (for  Italy) 1805. 

There  is  no  necessity,  and  would  be  little  propriety  in 
noticing  titular  and  social,  or  fantastic  knighthood  here. 
In  1790,  Burke  lamented  that  "  the  age  of  chivalry 
was  gone,"  Its  expiring  gleams  gilded  the  stark  forms 
of  Bayard  at  the  Sesia  and  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney  at  Zut- 
phen.  An  institution  which,  even  after  a  long  decline, 
could  breed  such  characters  as  these,  had  obviously  ren- 
dered an  enduring  ser^dce  to  humanity.  The  age  of 
chivalry  may  be  gone,  and  the  forms  of  chivalry  may 
be  relegated  to  the  domain  of  Romance,  but  its  spirit 
lives  on,  offering  examples  which  the  young  still  wel- 
come in  their  dreamy  and  joyous  days,  and  which  the 
mature  and  the  old  still  contemplate  with  fond  and  rev- 
erential regard.  The  ideal  remains — purified  by  time, 
freed  from  the  frailities  and  alloys  of  its  former  embodi- 
ment— and  aids  in  fashioning  modem  sentiment  to  the 
conception  and  admiration  of  the  Christian  gentleman. 
Disregarding  the  vices  which  connected  themselves  with 
chivalry,  but  which  were  not  of  its  essence,  knighthood 
merits  the  commendation  invariably  bestowed  upon  it 
by  discerning  historians.  It  aimed  to  achieve — as  far  as 
the  circumstances  of  its  actual  manifestation  permitted ; 
it  did  achieve,  in  thought,  if  rarely  in  act — what  the  oath 
of  the  new-made  knight  bound  him  to  pursue  as  his  rule 
of  action  through  life.  Its  influences  are  transmitted  to 
the  passing  generation,  which  has  itself  witnessed  shin- 
ing illustrations  of  their  aliiding  efficacj', 

VII.  Lite  rat  lire. — jMills,  History  of  Chivalry  (London, 
1825) ;  James,  History  of  Chivalry  and  the  Crusades  (Lon- 
don, 1830),  are  well  known  to  general  readers.  P'amiUar 
also  are  the  notices  in  Blackstone's  Commentaries,  bk,  ii, 
chap,  v;  Robertson,  History  of  Charles  V,  Introduction; 
Hallam,  Middle  Ages,  and  Guizot,  Hist,  de  la  Cirilisation 
en  France,  ii  Cours,  chap.  vi.  The  more  important  and 
authoritative  Avorks  on  the  subject  are  less  known,  and 
some  of  them  are  inaccessible  to  students  in  this  coun- 
try. Among  them  may  be  specified.  Lord  Lyttelton, 
Life  and  History  of  Henry  II  (London,  1777,  0  vols.  8vo : 
tedious,  but  full  of  information);  K.H.Digby,77/e5?-o«c?- 
stone  of  Honor  (London,  1845-8, 3  vols.  12mo),  and  ]\Iores 
Catholici,  or  The  Ages  of  Faith  (London,  1844-7.  3  vols. 
8vo)  ;  Dugdale,  Dissertation  tqwn  Knighthood  in  The 
Antiquities  of  Warwickshire  (London,  1056,  folio);  Sel- 
den.  Titles  of  Honor  (1614,  4to)  ;  Scf:^ar,  Honor,  Military 
and  Civill  (1G02,  folio) ;  Spelman,  Z'isse?'to^i!0  de  Milite; 
Upton,  De  Studio  J\[ilitari,  etc.  (Londini,  1054,  folio) ; 
Clarke,  Histo}-y  of  Knighthood ;  Sir  H.  N.  Nicolas's  He- 
raldic Worl-s  ;  Du  ('ange.  Gloss.  Med.  et  Inf.  Latin,  title 
Miles,  Adobare,  Alopa,  Armiger,  Calcar,  Cingulimi,  Val- 
etus,  etc.,  and  Dissertations  sur  Joinville ;  Muratori,  An- 
tiq.  Italicce  ;  ]\Iir;eus,  Origines  Fgnestrium  sire  Militari- 
um  Ordinum;  Favin,  Theatre  d^Honneur  et  de  Chera- 
lerie ;  Menestrier,  De  la  Chevalerie  ancienne  et  moderne ; 
Vulson  de  la  Colombiere,  Le  Vrai  Theatre  d^Honneur  ct 
de  la  Chevalerie ;  De  la  Curne  de  St,  Palaj-e,  Memoires 
sur  Vancienne  Chevalerie  (Paris,  1759-1780) ;  Amjiere,  De 
la  Chevalerie ;  Perrot,  Collection  Historique  des  Ordres  de 
Chevalerie  (Paris,  1836) ;  Gourdon  de  Genouillac,  Dic- 
tionnaire  Historique  des  Ordres  de  Chevalerie  (Paris, 
1853);  Reibisch,  Ge,sc///c/(^e  des  Rittencesens  (Stuttgard, 
1842),  A  very  copious  account  of  the  regular  and  nat- 
ural Orders  of  Honorary  Knighthood — extending  to  137 
associations,  but  not  including  the  Order  of  the  Victoria 
Cross  and  other  recent  orders — ma.y  be  found  in  the  En- 
cyclopcedia  Londinensis.     (G,  F,  H,) 

Knill,  RiciiART),  an  English  missionary'  of  the  In- 
dependents, was  born  of  humble  parentage,  at  Brami- 
ton,  April  14,  1787,  In  1816  he  proceeded  as  a  mis- 
sionary to  India  luider  the  London  Society,  where  he 
continued  until  1819,  and  then  returned  to  England, 


KNIPPERDOLLIXG 


133 


KNOBEL 


Shortly  after  liis  arrival  he  went  to  St.  Petersburg,  Rus- 
sia, to  take  charire  of  an  English  congregation  in  that 
city,  over  which  lie  presided  many  j^ears.  Subsequent- 
ly he  was  appointed  travelling  agent  for  the  London 
Missionary  Society,  and  for  eight  consecutive  years  la- 
bored to  awaken  the  Christian  mind  to  the  duty  of 
sending  the  Gospel  to  the  heathen,  a  work  for  which  he 
was  peculiarly  qualified.  In  1842  he  became  minister 
of  a  congregation  in  Wotton- under -Edge,  and  finally 
received  a  unanimous  invitation  to  the  pastorate  of 
Queen -Street  Chapel,  Chaster,  where  he  finished  his 
eminently  useful  career  in  1857.  His  style  of  preaching 
vvas  simple,  graphic,  chaste,  and  fidl  of  unction,  with  a 
fund  of  illustration  that  rendered  it  always  effective. 
See  Life  of  Rev.  Richard  Knill,  by  the  late  Rev.  Angell 
James  and  Charles  M.  Birrell  (Loud.  2d  ed.  1859,  r2mo; 
N.  Y.  18G0,  IGmo). 

Knipperdolling,  Bernard,  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Anal)aptists  of  JMiinster,  was  born,  probably  in  that 
cit}',  to\vards  the  close  of  the  15th  century.  His  at- 
tachment to  Lutheran  principles  caused  him  to  be  ex- 
iled from  JMiinster,  and  in  his  travels  he  connected  him- 
self Avith  the  Anabaptists  in  Sweden.  Returning  to 
Miinster,  he  became  the  leader  of  the  religious  enthu- 
siasts there,  together  with  Rothmann,  SLatthiesen,  and 
Eockhold,  and,  creating  disturbances,  he  was  imprisoned 
by  order  of  tlie  bishop  of  JMiinster,  Imprisonment  by 
no  means  dampened  his  ardor,  and  no  sooner  had  he 
been  released  than  he  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  his 
partisans,  and  actually  succeeded  in  becoming  master  of 
the  city.  Taken  and  imprisoned  again,  he  was  released 
by  his  friends,  and  soon  acquired  such  reputation  that 
the  Anabaptists  elected  him  in  153-1:  burgomaster  of 
Miinster.  The  same  rabble  which  had  succeeded  in 
electing  him  to  the  principal  office  of  the  city  now  as- 
sumed control  over  him,  and,  making  common  cause 
with  the  fanatical  Bockhold,  better  known  as  John  of 
Leydeii,  and  with  JMatthiesen,  they  immediately  filled 
all  public  offices  with  their  adherents,  and  proclaimed 
equality  of  estates,  conamunlty  of  goods,  and  polygamy. 
All  who  showed  the  least  signs  of  opposition  were  sum- 
marily dealt  with;  but  so  severe  became  Knipperdol- 
ling,  who  had  subsequently  been  elected  stadtholder, 
and  hail  appointed  John  of  Leydeii  king  of  Miinster, 
tliat  he  was  arrested  by  order  of  the  "  king"  and  impris- 
oned. Tlie  Roman  Catholic  party  finally  gained  the 
upper  hand  in  153G,  when  Knipperdolling  Avas  taken, 
condemned  to  have  his  body  torn  with  red-hot  pincers, 
and  to  be  afterwards  put  to  the  sword,  which  sentence 
M'as  executed  Jan.  23,  153G,  He  persisted  to  the  last 
in  his  opinions,  and  refused  to  become  reconciled  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  His  body  was  exhibited  in 
an  iron  cage  (which  still  remains)  suspended  from  the 
belfry  of  St.  Lambert's  Church,  IMiinster.  See  Catrou, 
Hist,  des  A  nabaptistes,  vol.  ii ;  IMencken,  Scriptores  Rev. 
Germ,  iii,  1534  sq. ;  Hamelmann,  Ili'^t.  Eccles,  renati 
Evang.  in  Urhe  Moiiast.  0pp. ;  Conr.  Heresbachie,  Ilisf. 
facHonis  Monasteriensis,  edit.  Boutcrwek  (Elberf.  18G6, 
8vo).     See  Anabaptists.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Knipstro  (also  Kniepstroh  or  Knipstrow,  Latin 
Knipstroviiis),  John,  a  German  reformer,  Avas  born  at 
Sandow,  near  Lovelberg,  Silesia,  May  1,  1497.  Educa- 
ted among  the  Franciscans,  he  was  sent  by  the  abbot  of 
his  convent  to  finish  his  studies  at  the  University  of 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  Here  he  was  a  witness  of  the 
famous  "Actus  disputationis"  in  which  John  Tetzel 
attempted  to  overthrow  Luther's  theses  against  indul- 
gences. Knipstro,  who  had  read  the  theses,  answered 
Tetzel  so  conclusively  that  the  latter  withdrew  from  the 
contest.  Knipstro  was  then  sent  to  the  convent  of  Pv- 
ritz,  in  Pomerania,  in  the  hope  that  quiet  and  rest  woiild 
calm  his  revolutionary  ardor;  but  he  improved  his  time 
in  reading  the  Bible  and  Luther's  works,  and  finally 
brought  the  whole  convent  to  share  in  his  vie^vs.  The 
town  heard  of  this,  and  Knipstro  was  invited  by  the  cit- 
izens to  preach  to  them,  which  he  did  with  such  success 


that  the  whole  town  soon  became  Protestant,  but  the 
bishop  interfered  in  favor  of  Roman  Catholicism,  and 
Knipstro  was  obliged  in  1522  to  flee  to  Stettin,  where 
he  married.  In  1524  he  went  to  Stargard,  and  thence 
to  Stralsund,  where  his  elocjuence  proved  fatal  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  part}-,  and  where,  in  1525,  he  was  ai> 
pointed  superintendent  of  ecclesiastical  affairs.  He 
took  part  as  such  in  the  General  Sj-nod  of  Pomerania 
in  1535,  and  was  then  appointed  the  first  general  super- 
intendent of  the  Church  in  Wolgast.  In  1539  he  was 
made  professor  at  the  LTnivcrsity  of  Greifswald,  Pome- 
rania, and  ill  1547  became  its  rector.  A  controversy 
with  Frever,  a  professor  in  the  same  institution,  gave 
him  such  annoyance  that  he  withdrew  to  Wolgast,  and 
devoted  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  teaching  and  to 
Church  administration.  He  died  at  the  last-named 
place  Oct.  4,  155G.  His  works  are :  Voni  rechten  Ge- 
hrauch  d.  Kirchen-G titer  (Stralsund,  1533):  —  Bedenlxn 
wider  d.  Interim,  etc.  (Stralsund,  1548) : — Epistolu  ad  J), 
^felanchthonem,  qua  Consensus  Ecclesive  Pomeranicm  ud 
suspiciendam  A  jig.  Confessionem  7-epeiitionem  declaratur 
(1552) : — Widerleffunff  d.  Behenntniss  Andr.  Osiandri  v.  d. 
Rechtfertigung  (1555?): — Forma  repetendi  catecMsmi 
(1555?).  See  Mayer,  Vita  Knipstrovii;  Jitnicke,  Ge- 
lehrtes  Pommcrliiml ;  H.  Schmid,  Einleitung  z.  Branden- 
burg Kirchen  Gesch. ;  J.  H.  Balthasar,  Sammlung  eiiii- 
ger  rommerschen  Kirchen- Hist,  gehorigen  Schriften,  i, 
93;  ii,  317sq. ;  Ze[\^r,  Universal  Lexikon,  s.y.\  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  Generule,  xxvii,  896 ;  Herzog,  Real-Encg- 
Uopddie,  vii,  765.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Knittel,  Franz  Anton,  a  German  theologian  of 
note,  was  born  at  Salzdahlum,  April  3,  1721,  and  was 
successively  archdiaconus,  general  superintendent,  and 
consistorialrath  at  Wolfenbiittel.  He  died  April  13, 
1792.  He  is  celebrated  as  the  discoverer  (in  the  library 
at  Wolfenbiittel)  of  a  MS.,  a  fragment  of  Ulfila's  Gothic 
version  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  It  is  a  palimp- 
sest, the  newer  surface  being  occupied  Avith  the  Origines 
and  some  letters  of  Isidorus  Hispalensis.  The  portions 
of  the  Gothic  version  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  con- 
tained in  it  are  xi,  33-36 ;  xii,  1-5, 17-21 ;  xiii,  1-5 ;  xiv, 
9-20 ;  XV,  3-13.  These  Ivnittol  printed  (in  all  probabil- 
ity in  1762  or  17C3)  in  a  volume  entitled  Ulphilce  TV?- 
sio  Gothica  nonnullorum  capitum  Ep.  ad  Rom.  rene- 
randum  antiquitatis  nionumentiim  .  .  .  e  Latina  codicis 
cujusd.  MSti  rescripti  .  .  .  una  cum  variis  varies  littera- 
turce  monimentis  hue  usque  ineditis,  etc.  The  text  is 
printed  on  one  side  of  the  page  in  Gothic  letters,  under 
each  word  is  Knittel's  reading  of  it  in  italics,  and  under 
that  a  Latin  translation  of  each.  On  the  other  side 
there  is  a  Latin  version  found  in  the  Ck)dex,  under  that 
the  reading  in  the  Vulgate,  and  under  that  the  Greek 
text.  There  are  also  twelve  plates,  containing  admira- 
blj^-executed  fac-similes  of  different  codices;  and  among 
the  notes  is  found  an  extract  of  considerable  length  from 
Otfried's  Gospel  Harmon;/.  The  volume  contains  also 
two  fragments  from  ancient  Greek  codices  of  the  N.  T. 
in  the  Wolfenbiittel  librarj',  and  a  copious  critical  com- 
mentary by  Knittel,  and  is  altogether  a  splendid  one ; 
but,  as  Knittel's  knowledge  of  Gothic  was  rather  imper- 
fect, its  literary  merits  are  not  quite  equal  to  its  sump- 
tuous appearance.  Knittel  deserves,  however,  the  praise 
of  great  laboriousness,  as  is  evinced  by  his  collection  of 
a  vast  amount  of  curious  matter  not  elsewhere  to  be 
found.  The  book  is  very  rarely  to  be  met  with  at  pres- 
ent; at  least  copies  containing  aU  the  plates. — Kitto, 
Diet,  Bibl.  Lit.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  Diiring,  Gelehrten  Theol. 
Deutschlunds,  vol.  ii,  s.  v.     See  Gothic  Version. 

Knobel,  Karl  August,  a  German  theologian,  high- 
ly distinguished  as  an  exegetical  scholar  in  the  Old 
Testament  and  as  archreologist,  was  born  Aug.  7,  1807, 
near  Sorau,  Silesia.  In  this  toAvn  he  studied  under  as- 
sociate principal  Scharbe,  who  inspired  Knobel  Avith  a 
zeal  for  learning,  and  also  befriended  him  with  money 
to  pursue  his  university  course  at  Breslau  after  his  fa- 
ther's death.     David  Schultz,  to  whose  children  he  be- 


KNOBELSDORFF 


134 


KNOP 


came  tutor,  exerted  a  special  influence  in  determining 
his  choice  of  teaching  as  a  profession,  and  in  fixing  tlie 
unfailing  rationaUstic  tendency  of  his  mind,  lie  began 
lecturing  in  1831,  and  his  fresliness,  power,  and  genuine 
worth  at  once  drew  and  ever  attracted  to  him  numerous 
hearers.  In  1835  lie  was  made  extraordinary  professor, 
and  in  1837  he  received  from  Breslau  the  degree  of  doc- 
tor in  theology,  chiefly  in  recognition  of  his  exceeding- 
Iv  valuable  -work  on  Hebrew  Prophecy  {Prophetismits  d. 
ilehiiier,  Breslau,  1837,  2  vols.  8vo).  The  fame  of  this 
work  brought  him  at  once  the  offer  of  a  professorship 
in  Gottingen,  in  Ewald's  place,  and  of  one  in  Giessen, 
which  latter  he  accepted.  Thenceforth  his  attention 
was  confined  to  the  study  of  the  Old  Testament;  but 
his  cold,  critical,  rationalistic  spirit  avails  but  little  to  a 
right  appreciation  of  the  theological  import  or  even  po- 
etical beauty  of  the  Scriptures.  His  publications  during 
his  twenty-four  years'  labor  at  Giessen  (nearly  all  exe- 
getical)  bear  the  same  defect  of  insight,  with  the  dis- 
play of  great  learning.  The  Commentary  on  the  Prophet 
Isuiiih  appeared  in  the  Kurzcjef.  exeyet.  Handb.  z.  A.  T. 
in  1843  ("id  ed.  185i,  3d  ed.  1861) ;  o\\  Genesis  in  1852  (2d 
ed.  18G0);  Exodus  and  Leviticus,  I8b7 ;  Xumbe/s,  Deu- 
teronomy, and  Joshua,  18G1.  These  commentaries  are 
characterized  by  special  sobriety  and  thoughtfulness, 
healthy  linguistic  and  historical  views,  -(vith  compre- 
hensive kno\vledge  of  Oriental  antiquity.  In  the  first- 
mentioned  feature  they  have  the  advantage  of  Hitzig. 
Knobel  is  independent,  and  gives  positive  views  on 
many  points  which  he  was  obliged  earnestly  to  defend. 
He  was  in  conflict  with  Ewald,  as  also  specially  in  ref- 
erence to  the  origui  of  the  Pentateuch  with  Hupfeld, 
Tuch,  Bcrtheau,  and  Stiichlin.  He  is  deserving  of 
credit  for  his  ingenuity  in  bringing  out  the  "  Composi- 
sition  theory"  concerning  the  production  of  the  Penta- 
teuch. Knobel  died,  after  long  and  severe  suffering, 
from  a  cancer  in  the  stomach.  May  25, 18G3.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  works  already  mentioned,  Knobel  published 
Commentar  iiber  Koheleth  (Lpz.  1836,  8vo) ;  and  VOlker- 
taftl  der  Genesis  (1850,  8vo),  a  very  learned  work,  and 
frequently  cited  in  the  cxegetical  department  of  this  Cy- 
clopcedia.  See  Ilerzog,  Real-EncyklopiUdie,  vol.  xix,  s.  v. 
(E.  B.  0.) 

Knobelsdorff,  ErsxAcnius  of,  a  German  Roman 
Catholic  theologian,  was  born  of  noble  parentage  in  1519, 
at  Heilsberg,  Prussia ;  was  educated  at  the  universities 
of  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  Lcipzig,Wittenberg,  and  Par- 
is, and  upon  the  completion  of  his  studies  took  orders 
in  the  Church.  During  a  visit  of  the  bishop  and  car- 
dinal of  Wermeland  to  Pome,  Knobelsdorff  administered 
the  duties  of  th»  episcopal  office,  and  in  1563,  upon  the 
return  of  the  bishop,  was  appointed  dean-cathedral.  He 
died  in  1571.  His  writings  are  of  but  little  account. 
See  AUyem.  Hist.  Lex.  iii.  41. 

Knock  (-B-l,Cant.  v,  2;  '-beat,"  Judg.  xix,  22; 
Kpoino,  'Slntt.  vii,  7 ;  Rev.  iii,  20,  etc.),  "  Though  Orien- 
tals arc  very  jealous  of  their  privacy,  they  never  knock 
when  about  to  enter  your  room,  but  walk  in  without 
warning  or  ceremony.  It  is  nearly  impossible  to  teach 
an  Arab  servant  to  knock  at  your  door.  They  give 
warning  at  the  outer  gate  or  entrance  either  by  calling 
or  knocking.  To  stand  and  c(dl  is  a  very  common  and 
respectful  mode.  Thus  ]\Ioscs  commanded  the  holder 
of  <a  ]iledge  to  stand  without,  and  call  to  the  owner  to 
come  forth  (Deut,  xxiv,  10),  Tliis  was  to  avoid  the  vio- 
lent intrusion  of  cruel  creditors,  Peter  stood  knocking 
at  the  outer  door  (Acts  xii,  13, 16),  and  so  did  the  three 
men  sent  to  Joppa  b}'  Cornelius  (Acts  x,  17,18),  The 
idea  is  that  the  guard  over  your  privacy  is  to  be  placed 
at  the  entrance  to  your  premises"  (Thomson,  Land  and 
Book,  i,  192  sq,).    See  House. 

Knollis,  FuANCTS,  a  distinguished  English  states- 
man, was  born  at  Grays,  Oxfordsliire,  about  ]'530.  He 
studied  at  the  University  of  Oxford,  Admitted  at  court, 
he  showed  great  zeal  for  the  lleformaticm,  and  wlien 
queen  Mary  ascended  the  throne  he  was  obliged  to  retire 


to  the  Continent,  At  Elizabeth's  accession  lie  returned, 
became  privy  counsellor,  treasurer  of  the  queen's  house- 
hold, and  knight  of  the  Garter,  He  was  one  of  the  judges 
of  Mary  Stuart,  He  died  in  1596.  Knollis  wrote  a  trea- 
tise on  the  Usuipation  of  papal  Bishops  (1608,  8vo). 
See  'riirner,  History  of  the  lieiyn  of  Edicard  VI,  Mary, 
and  Elizabeth ;  Rose,  New  General  Biographical  Diction- 
ary ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bioy.  Gin.  xxvii,  915,     (J.  N.  P.) 

Knollys,  ILvNsAKn,  an  eminent  English  Baptist 
minister,  was  born  in  Chalk  well,  Lincolnshire,  in  1598. 
He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Cambrulge,  and 
after  his  graduation  was  ordained  as  a  deacon,  and  then 
as  a  presbyter  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  was  pre- 
sented by  the  bishop  of  Lincohi  with  the  living  at  Hum- 
berstone.  About  1632,  beginning  to  doubt  the  lawful- 
ness of  conformity  to  the  Clnirch  of  England,  he  resign- 
ed his  living,  but  continued  to  preach  several  j-ears  lon- 
ger. In  1636  he  was  arrested  for  preaching  tjie  Gos- 
pel, and  thrown  into  prison  ;  but  his  keeper,  being  con- 
science-stricken, connived  at  his  escape,  and  he  came 
over  to  America  early  in  1638.  He  arrived  at  Boston, 
Masg.,  a  persecuted  fugitive,  in  a  state  of  utter  destitu- 
tion, and  was  obliged  to  work  daily  at  manual  labor  for 
his  subsistence.  At  first  he  met  with  a  cold  reception 
in  Boston,  which  was  then  in  a  ferment  on  the  question 
of  Antinomianism,  and  suspicious  of  all  new-comers ; 
but,  being  invited  to  preach  in  Dover,  N.  H,,  he  went 
thither,  and  in  1638  founded  the  first  church  in  that 
place.  He  returned  to  England  in  1641,  where  he  spent 
the  next  fifty  years  of  his  life,  during  that  most  agitated 
period  of  English  history,  and  died  Sept.  19, 1691.  Mr. 
Knollys  was  an  able  minister,  a  most  accomplished 
teacher  of  j'outh,  a  bold  pioneer  of  religious  liberty,  a 
man  of  large  public  spirit,  and  pre-eminently  great  in 
the  purity  of  his  character.  He  published  a  little  work 
on  the  Rudiments  of  Hebrew  Grammar  (1648,  12mo); 
also  Elnminf)  Fire  in  Zion  (1646,  4to)  ;  and  his  Autobi- 
oyraphy  in  1672,  which  was  brought  down  to  his  death 
by  ^Vm,  Kirtin  (1692,  8vo;  1813, 12mo),  See  Sprague, 
Annals  of  the  A  merican  Pulpit,  vi,  1.      (J.  L.  S.) 

Kiiop,  that  is,  Kxob  (Anglo-Saxon  cnceji),  a  word 
employed  in  the  A.Y.  to  translate  two  terms,  of  the  real 
meaning  of  which  all  that  we  can  say  with  certainty  is 
that  they  refer  to  some  architectural  or  ornamental  ob- 
ject, and  that  they  have  nothing  in  common. 

1.  Kaphtor'  (~i1PS3  or  "IPSS)  occurs  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  candlestick  of  the  sacred  tent  (Exod.  xxv, 
31-36,  and  xxxvii,  17-22,  the  two  passages  being  iden- 
tical). The  knops  are  here  distingiushed  from  the  shaft, 
branches,  bowls,  and  flowers  of  the  candlestick ;  but  the 
knop  and  the  flower  go  together,  and  seem  intended  to 
imitate  the  produce  of  an  almond-tree.  In  another  part 
of  the  work  they  appear  to  form  a  boss,  from  which  the 
branches  are  to  spring  out  from  the  main  stem.  In 
Amos  ix,  1  the  same  word  is  rendered,  with  doubtful  ac- 
curacy, "  lintel,"  The  same  rendering  is  used  in  Zeph. 
ii,  14.  where  the  reference  is  to  some  part  of  the  palace 
of  Nineveh,  to  be  exposed  when  the  wooden  upper  stor}' 
— the  "  cedar  work" — was  destroyed.  The  Hebrew  word 
seems  to  contain  the  sense  of  "  covering"  and  '•  crown- 
ing" (Gcsenius,  Thes.  Heb.  p,  709),  Josephus's  descrip- 
tion (.4??^iii,6,7)  names  both  balls  {crcpaipia)  and  pome- 
granates (po'i(TKoi),  cither  of  which  may  be  the  hiphtor. 
The  Targum  agrees  with  the  latter,  the  Sejit.  {^(jxnfHoTii- 
pfc)  with  the  former.  See  Lintk.l. — Smith.  All  these 
circumstances  point  to  a  signification  corresponding  es- 
sentially to  that  of  crorcn  ;  and  in  the  case  of  the  sacred 
candelabrum,  the  term  seems  to  point  to  a  sharp  orna- 
mental swell  placed  (like  a  horizontal  button )  immedi- 
ately beneath  the  cups  that  surmounted  each  arm  and 
section  of  the  shaft.     See  Tabeunaci.e. 

2,  The  second  term,  peka'im'  (C^i'pB),  is  found  only 
in  1  Kings  vi,18.  and  vii,  24,  It  refers  in  the  former  to 
carvings  executed  in  the  cedar  wainscot  of  the  interior 
of  the  Temple,  and,  as  in  the  preceding  word,  is  associ- 
ated with  flowers.     In  the  latter  case  it  denotes  an  or- 


KNORR 


135 


KNOW 


nament  cast  round  the  great  reservoir  or  "  sea"  of  Solo- 
mon's Temple  below  the  brim  :  there  was  a  double  row 
of  them,  ten  to  a  cubit,  or  about  two  inches  from  centre 
to  centre.  The  word  no  doubt  signifies  some  globidar 
thing  resembling  a  small  gourd  (being  only  the  masc. 
of  the  fem.  term  so  rendered  in  2  Kuigs  iv,  39)  or  an 
egg,  tliough  as  to  the  character  of  the  ornament  we  are 
quite  in  the  dark.  The  following  wood-cut  of  a  portion 
of  a  richly  ornamented  door-step  or  slab  from  Kouyun- 
jilv  probably  represents  something  approximating  to  the 
'■  knop  and  the  llower"  of  Solomon's  Temple.  But  as  the 
building  from  -which  this  is  taken  was  the  work  of  a 
king  at  least  as  late  as  the  sonftf  Esar-haddon,  contem- 
porary with  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Jlanasseh,  it 
is  only  natural  to  suppose  tliat  the  character  of  the  or- 
nament would  have  undergone  considerable  modification 
from  what  it  was  in  the  time  of  Solomon. — Smith, 


Oiuameutal  Border  of  a  Slab  from  Kouyuujik. 
IMr.  Paine  suggests  (Temple,  of  Solomon,  p.  41)  that  the 
difference  in  gender  (above  noted)  of  the  terms  for  the 
gourds  (or  ciicumhers,  as  he  renders)  is  accounted  for  by 
the  circumstance  that  these  ornaments  were  artificial 
(hence  in  the  masc),  while  the  real  fruit  is  fem.  He 
thinks  that  on  the  laver  they  were  arranged  in  vine- 
form,  ten  in  each  of  the  two  rows,  like  a  netting  {ib.  p. 
50).     See  Sea,  Brazen, 

Knorr,  Georg  Ciiristiax  vox,  a  German  divine, 
was  born  at  Oettingen  in  1C91,  and  was  educated  at  Jena 
from  1708  to  1712.  His  dissertation  for  the  master's  de- 
gree was  an  attack  on  Leibnitz,  and  created  quite  a  sen- 
sation at  the  time ;  it  was  entitled  Doctrime  ortJwdoxcc 
de  orifjine  mali  contra  recentiorum  quorundam  Injpothe- 
ses  modesta  assertio  (Jena?,  1712,  4to).  In  1716  he  be- 
came conrector,  and  a  few  months  later  rector  over  the 
schools  at  Oettingen ;  and  in  1726  was  called  to  Blanken- 
burg,  as  librarian  to  the  duke  of  Brunswick.  Some  time 
after  this  he  joined  the  Komanists.  He  died  in  1762. 
There  are  no  works  of  special  merit  from  the  pen  of 
Knorr  except  tlie  dissertation  already  mentioned. — Do- 
ring,  Gdehrte  Tlieol.  Deutschlands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Knorr  von  Rosenrotli,  Abraham,  a  Lutheran 
divine,  descended  from  a  noble  family  noted  in  the  an- 
nals of  the  history  of  Silesia,  flourished  in  the  17th  cen- 
tury as  pastor  at  Alt  Rauden,  in  the  duchy  of  Wohlau, 
and  was  the  father  of  Christian  and  Caspar,  both  also 
noted  Lutheran  pastors. 

The  former  of  these  two  sons,  namely.  Christian,  was 
born  July  15, 1631,  and  was  educated  at  the  high-schools 
in  Wittenberg  and  Leipzig.  He  was  then  sent  abroad, 
and  visited  Holland,  France,  and  England  in  turn,  and 
on  liis  return  devoted  himself  at  Sulzbach  to  the  study 
of  the  Oriental  languages,  especially  the  Hebrew,  of 
which  he  had  accjuired  the  rudiments  while  abroad.  He 
took  up  the  writings  of  the  Cabalists,  and  even  attempt- 
ed to  prove  the  authenticity  of  the  N.-T.  Scriptures  by 
this  Jewish  philosophical  system,  in  his  Kahbala  denu- 
duta,  sive  doctrina  Hebrcnorum  transcendentalis  (part  i, 
Sulzl)ach,  1677-8,  4to ;  pt.  ii,  F.  ad  JL  1684,  4to :  a  third 
part  was  suppUed  by  Pagendorm).  His  other  writings, 
allot  this  eccentric  nature,  do  not  deserve  mention  here, 
as  they  have  lost  all  value  as  literary  contributions. 
See,  for  details,  Alh/em.  I  list.  Lex.  iii.  42;  Griitz,  Gesch. 
d.  Jnden,  X,  2\K,  »^l.     (.LH.W.) 

Knorr  von  Rosenroth,  Christian.  See  Knorr 
VON  RosENRorii,  Abraham. 

Knott,  Edward,  an  English  Jesuit,  whose  true 
name  was  Matthinx  Wikon,  and  memorable  for  his  con- 
troversy with  Chillingworth,  which  caUed  forth  the  fa- 


mous book  called  The  Religion  of  Protestants,  was  bom 
at  Pegsworth,  near  INIoqieth,  in  Northumberland,  in  1580. 
He  M'as  entered  among  the  Jesuits  in  1606,  being  al- 
ready in  priests'  orders ;  and  is  represented  in  the  Bibli- 
otheca  Patrum  Socieiatis  Jesu  as  a  man  of  low  stature, 
but  of  great  abiUties.  He  taught  divinity  a  long  time 
in  the  English  college  at  Rome,  and  was  a  rigid  observ- 
er of  that  discipline  himself  which  he  as  rigidly  exacted 
from  others.  He  was  then  appointed  sub-provincial  of 
the  province  of  England;  and,  after  he  had  exercised 
that  employment  out  of  the  kingdom,  he  was  twice  sent 
thither  to  perform  the  functions  of  his  office.  He  was 
present,  as  provincial,  at  the  general  assembly  of  the  or- 
ders of  the  Jesuits  held  at  Rome  in  1646,  and  was  elect- 
ed one  of  the  definitors.  He  died  at  London  January 
4, 1655-6.  Knott  was  a  great  controversialist,  and  wrote 
largely,  displaying  in  all  his  works  great  acuteness  and 
learning.  His  first  book  was  a  little  work  entitled  Char- 
ity Mistaken  (Loud.  1630), with  the  "want  Avliereof  Cath- 
olics are  imjustly  charged,  for  affirming,  as  they  do  with 
grief,  that  Protestancy,  unrepented,  destroys  salvation," 
which  was  answered  by  Dr.  Potter,  provost  of  Queen's 
College,  Oxford  (in  1633),  by  a  piece  entitled  Want  of 
Charity  justly  charged  on  all  such  Romanists  as  dare, 
without  truth  or  modesty,  affirm  that  Protestancy  destroy- 
eth  Salvation.  To  this  Knott  replied,  under  the  title 
Mercy  and  Truth,  or  Charity  maintained  by  Catholics  (in 
1634),  which  occasioned  Chillingworth  to  publish  The 
Religion  of  Protestants.  Sec  Chillingworth.  Knott 
came  to  the  defence  in  1638,  in  a  pamphlet  entitled 
Christianity  Maintained,  and  later  in  a  work  under  the 
title  of  Infidelity  Umnmhed,  etc.  (Ghent,  1652, 4to).  At 
this  time,  however,  Chillingworth  had  been  dead  nine 
j'cars,  and  in  behalf  of  the  noted  deceased  a  reply  was 
made  by  Thomas  Smith,  fellow  of  Christ's  College,  Cam- 
bridge (in  1653),  in  the  preface  to  an  English  transla- 
tion of  DaiUe's  A pologyfor  the  Reformed  Churches.  See 
Gen.  Bing.  Diet,  viii,  49  sq. ;  'SVoo<\,  A  thenm  Oxon.;  De 
Maizeaux,  Life  of  Chillingworth.     (J.  IL  W.) 

Knott,  John  W.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  born 
near  BlairsviUe,  Westmoreland  County,  Pa.,  Oct.  7, 1812. 
He  was  educated  at  Jefferson  College,  Pa.,  and  studied 
theology  at  Western  and  Princeton  theological  semina- 
ries. After  graduation  he  preached  at  Gilgal,  Pa.,  for 
about  a-  year,  when  he  removed  to  Ohio,  and  was  in- 
stalled over  the  churches  of  Leesville  and  Ontario ;  there 
he  continued  three  years,  and  then  for  four  years  served 
as  pastor  of  the  churches  at  HayesviUe  and  Jerome- 
ville.  He  was  next  called  to  the  churches  of  Keene  and 
Jefferson,  where  he  officiated  for  seven  years.  During 
the  remainder  of  his  life,  with  intervals  of  relaxation 
on  account  of  ill  health,  he  preached  at  Eden,  Caroline, 
W^aynesburg,  Nevada,  and  Sandusky,  Ohio,  He  died  at 
Shelby,  Ohio,  Sept.  3,  1864.  jMr.  Knott  made  mau}^  sac- 
rifices of  personal  advancement  and  comfort  to  further 
the  cause  of  religion.  He  was  a  man  of  unbounded 
faith  in  the  Bible,  from  which  he  drew  all  his  theology 
and  philosopliy.  The  burden  of  his  preaching  Avas  Je- 
sus Christ  and  him  crucitied.  He  believed,  "  when  he 
had  proven  his  position  from  the  Bible,  he  had  estab- 
lished it  immovably."  See  AVilson,  I'resb.  Historical 
Almanac,  18()5. 

Know  (properly  "'l'^,  ytvioaKuj)  is  a  term  used  in  a 
variety  of  senses  in  the  Scriptures,  It  signifies  partic- 
idarly  to  understand  (Ruth  iii,  11),  to  approve  of  and 
delight  in  (Psa.  i,  6 ;  Rom.  \dii,  29),  to  chcrisli  (John  x, 
27),  to  experience  (Eph.  iii,  19).  In  Job  vii,  10  it  is 
used  of  an  inanimate  object :  '•  He  shall  return  no  more 
to  his  house,  neither  shall  his  place  know  liim  any  more." 
By  a  euphemism  it  frequently  denotes  sexual  connection 
((ien.  iv,  1  ;  Matt,  i,  25).  The  other  scriptural  applica- 
tions of  the  word  are  mostly  obvious,  as  follows:  (1,)  It. 
imports  to  have  acquired  information  respecting  a  sub- 
ject. (2.)  It  implies  discernment, judgment, discretion; 
the  power  of  discrimination.  It  may  be  partial ;  we  see 
but  in  part,  we  know  but  in  part  (1  Cor.  xiii,  9).     (3.) 


KNOWLEDGE 


136 


KNOWLEDGE 


It  frequently  signifies  to  liave  ascertained  by  experi- 
ment ((Jen.  xxii,  12).  (4.)  It  implies  discovery,  detec- 
tion ;  by  the  law  is  the  knowledge  of  sin  (Rom.  iii,  20). 

Natural  knowledge  is  acquired  by  the  senses,  by 
sight,  hearing,  feeling,  etc. ;  by  reflection ;  by  the  prop- 
er use  of  our  reasoning  powers ;  by  natural  genius ;  dex- 
terity improved  by  assiduity  and  cultivation  into  great 
skiU.  .So  of  luisbandry  (Isa.  xxviii,  30),  of  art  and  ele- 
gance (Exod.  XXXV,  31),  in  the  instance  of  Bczaleel. 
Spiritual  knowledge  is  the  gift  of  God,  but  may  be  im- 
proved by  stud}',  consideration,  etc.     See  Knowledge. 

Particuku-  Phrases. — The  priests'  lips  should  keep 
knowledge  (IMal.  ii,  7) ;  not  keep  it  to  themselves,  but 
keep  it  in  store  for  others;  to  communicate  knowledge 
is  the  way  to  preserve  it.  Knowledge  is  spoken  of  as 
an  emblematical  person,  as  riches,  and  treasures,  as  ex- 
cellency, and  as  the  gift  of  God  (Prov.  i,  29;  viii,  10, 
etc.).  See  Wisdoji.  "  Knowledge  puffeth  up,  but  char- 
ity editieth"  (1  Cor.  viii,  1) ;  i.  e.  the  knowledge  of  spec- 
idative  and  useless  things,  which  tend  only  to  gratify 
curiosity  and  vauitj',  which  contribute  neither  to  our 
own  salvation  nor  to  our  neighbor's,  neither  to  the  pub- 
lic good  nor  to  God's  glory ;  such  knowledge  is  much 
more  dangerous  than  profitable.  The  true  science  is 
that  of  salvation;  the  best  employment  of  our  knowl- 
edge is  in  sanctifying  ourselves,  in  glorifying  God,  and 
in  edifying  our  neighbor :  this  is  the  only  sound  knowl- 
edge (Prov.  i,  7). 

God  is  the  source  and  fountain  of  knowledge  (1  Sam. 
ii,  3 ;  2  Chron.  i,  10 ;  James  i,  5).  He  knows  aU  things, 
at  all  times,  and  in  all  places.  See  Omniscience.  Je- 
sus Christ  is  possessed  of  universal  knowledge ;  knows 
the  heart  of  man,  and  whatever  appertains  to  his  medi- 
atorial kingdom  (John  ii,  2-1,  25;  xvi,  30;  Col.  ii,  3). 
Men  know  progressively,  and  ought  to  follow  on  to 
kno^v  the  Lord  (Hos.  vi,  3) ;  what  we  know  not  now  we 
may  know  hereafter  (John  xiii,  7).  Holy  angels  know 
in  a  manner  much  superior  to  man,  and  occasionally  re- 
veal part  of  their  knowledge  to  him.  Unholy  angels 
kno^v  many  things  of  which  man  is  ignorant.  The 
great  discretion  of  life  and  of  godliness  is  to  discern 
what  is  desirable  to  be  known,  and  what  is  best  un- 
known ;  lest  the  knowledge  of  "  good  lost  and  evil  got," 
as  in  the  case  of  our  first  parents,  shoidd  prove  the  lam- 
entable source  of  innumerable  evils  (Gen.  ii,  9 ;  iii,  7). 

Knowledge  of  God  is  indispensable,  self-knowledge  is 
important,  knowledge  of  others  is  desirable ;  to  be  too 
knowing  in  worldly  matters  is  often  accessory  to  sinful 
knowledge ;  the  knowledge  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  is 
a  mean  of  escaping  the  pollutions  which  are  in  the 
world  (John  xvii,  3).  Workers  of  iniquity  have  no 
knowledge,  no  proper  conviction  of  the  divine  presence 
(Psa.  xiv,  4).  Some  men  are  brutish  in  their  knowl- 
edge (Jer.  Ii,  17);  e.  g.  he  who  knows  that  a  wooden 
image  is  but  a  shapely-formed  stump  of  a  tree,  yet  wor- 
ships it ;  he  boasts  of  his  deity,  which,  in  fact,  is  an  in- 
stance of  his  want  of  discernment,  degrading  even  to 
brutality  (Isa.  xlv,  20).  Some  are  wicked  in  their 
knowledge,  "knowing  the  depths  of  Satan,  as  they 
speak"  (llev.  ii,  20). — Calmet.     See  Gnosticisji. 

Knowledge.  By  this,  according  to  Sir  William 
Hamilton,"  is  understood  the  mere  possession  of  truths," 
and  tlie  possession  of  those  truths  about  which  our  fac- 
ulties have  been  previously  employed,  rather  than  any 
separate  power  of  the  understanding  by  which  truth  is 
perceived.  "  I  know  no  authority,"  says  Dr. Keid,  "be- 
sides that  of  ilr.  Locke,  for  calling  knowledge  &  faculty, 
any  more  than  for  calling  ojiinion  a  faculty."  Knowl- 
edge is  of  two  kinds,  viz.  historical  or  empirical,  and 
philosophical,  or  scientific  or  rational.  Historical  is  the 
knowledge  that  the  thing  is,  philosophical  is  tJic  knowl- 
edge why  or  how  it  is.  The  first  is  called  historical, 
because  in  this  knowledge  we  know  only  the  fact — only 
that  that  phenomenon  is;  for  history  is  properly  only 
the  narration  of  a  consecutive  series  of  phenomena  in 
time,  or  the  description  of  a  co-existent  series  of  jilio- 
iiomena  in  space;  the  second  philosophical,  to  imply 


that  there  is  a  way  of  knowing  things  more  completely 
than  they  are  known  through  simple  experiences  me- 
chanically accumulated  in  memory  or  hea]ied  up  in  cv- 
clopredias.  It  seeks  for  \vide  and  deep  truths,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  multitudinous  detailed  truths  which 
the  surface  of  things  and  actions  presents,  and  therefore 
a  knowledge  of  the  highest  degree  of  generalitj'.  "  The 
truth  of  philosophy,''  sa\-s  Herbert  Spencer,  "  bears  the 
same  relation  to  the  highest  scientific  truths  that  each 
of  these  bears  to  lower  scientific  truths.  As  each  widest 
generalization  of  science  comprehends  and  consolidates 
the  narrower  generalizations  of  its  own  division,  so  the 
generalizations  of  philof'ophy  comprehend  and  consoli- 
date the  widest  generalizations  of  science.  It  is  there- 
fore a  knowledge  the  extreme  opposite  in  kind  to  that 
which  experience  first  accumulates.  It  is  the  final 
product  of  that  process  which  begins  with  a  mere  colli- 
gation of  crude  observations,  goes  on  establishing  prop- 
ositions that  are  broader  and  more  separated  from  par- 
ticular cases,  and  ends  in  universal  propositions.  Or, 
to  bring  the  definition  to  its  simplest  and  clearest  form, 
knowledge  of  the  lowest  kind  is  ununified  knowledge ; 
science  is  partially  unified  knowledge ;  philosophy  is 
completely  unified  knowledge." 

This  term,  however,  is  associated  with  the  greatest 
problems  and  controversies  of  philosophy,  all  of  which 
are  involved  in  the  discussion  of  what  is  meant  by 
knowledge.  The  different  problems,  therefore,  of  the 
philosoph}'  of  mind  will  be  found  discussed  under  those 
names  that  severally  suggest  them.^ — Watts,  On  the 
Mind;  Dr.  John  TLAwaxAs,  Uncertainty,  Deficiency,  and 
Corruption  ofJIuman  Knowledge ;  Eeid,  Intellectual Poic- 
ei-s  of  Man ;  Stennett,  Sei-mon  on  A  cts  xxvi,  24,  25  : 
Vphnia,  Intellectual  Philosojjhy ;  Douglas,  <9m  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Society ;  Robert  Hall,  Works  ;  A  mer.  Li- 
brary of  Useful  Knowledye.  See  Faith  and  Reason  ; 
Idealisji  ;  Judgjient  ;  Moral  PHiLosopin' ;  Relig- 
ious PniLOSOPIIY.      (E.  DE  P.) 

Knowledcje  of  God.  By  this  is  not  meant  a  mere 
knowledge  of  his  existence,  for  the  devils  believe  that 
God  is ;  they  tremble  as  they  believe  it,  and  they  hate 
the  God  before  whom  they  tremble.  It  cannot  be  a 
mere  partial  acquaintance  with  the  character  of  God, 
because  we  cannot  for  a  moment  doubt  that  the  Jews 
were  partially  acquainted  with  God's  character,  and  yet 
our  Lord  said  to  them, "  Ye  neither  know  me  nor  my 
Father."  Neither  can  it  be  a  dry,  uninfliiential,  notional 
knowledge  of  God,  however  accurate  in  its  outline  that 
knowledge  may  be.  The  knowledge  of  God  includes 
far  more  than  this.  It  implies  a  real,  personal,  experi- 
mental, sanctif\-ing  acquaintance  with  him.  It  espe- 
cially regards  liim  as  a  reconciled  God  in  Christ — that 
is,  the  reconciliation  of  all  his  perfections  in  the  Avay  of 
his  mercy,  uni'olding  them  as  the  basis  for  the  soul's 
confidence;  that  he  is  righteously  and  holily  merciful, 
pardoning  sin  at  the  expense  of  no  other  perfection,  but 
in  the  full  and  perfect  harmony  of  all  his  perfections. 
Without  this  knowledge,  all  our  advances  in  other 
branches  of  knowledge  are  but  vain  and  unprofitable. 
All  other  knowledge  is  useful,  cntertaininy ;  this  alone  is 
needful.  This  may  do  without  other  knowledge,  but  no 
other  Itnowledge  will  do  without  this.  If  you  teach 
men  the  elements  of  education,  you  put  into  their 
hands  a  powerful  weapon  either  Jbr  good  or  for  evil,  ac- 
cording to  the  direction  that  may  be  given  to  it.  If 
you  put  into  their  hands  the  elements  of  sound  relig- 
ious knowledge,  j'ou  give  their  minds  a  right  and  safe 
exercise,  while  the  knowledge  will  keep  them  from  the 
abuse  of  the  tremendous  power  you  put  into  their  hands. 
See  Charnock,  Works,  ii,  3)S1 ;  Saurin,  Sermons,  i,  serm.  1 ; 
Gill,-Bof/?/  of  IJirinity,  iii,  12  (8vo);  Tillotson,  *SVn»o?i*, 
serm.  113;  AVatts,  ll't)?-A>",  i,  serm.  45;  Ha]!,  Sermon  on 
the  Advantages  of  Knowledge  to  the  lower  Classes ;  Yos- 
ter,  Essay  on  Popular  Ignorance;  D\\\(iht,  Theology ; 
Martensen,  Dogmatics.     See  Know.     (E.  de  P.) 

KnoTwledge,  Divine.     See  O.mniscience. 


KNOWLER 


137 


KNOX 


KnO'wler,  Wili.iaji,  LL.D.,  an  English  divine, 
was  born  in  May,  1C99,  and  was  educated  at  St.  John's 
College,  Cambridge.  He  was  first  chaplain  to  the  first 
marquis  of  Rocldngham,  and  was  by  him  presented  with 
the  rectory  of  Irthlingborrow,  and  afterwards  with  Bod- 
ilington,  both  in  Northamptonshire.  He  died,  in  all 
prol)abiiity,  in  1773.  Dr.  Knowler  pubUslied  an  Eng- 
lish translation  of  Chrysostom's  Cominenta)-i/  on  St. PauPs 
Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  with  an  account  both  of  Chrj'- 
sostom  and  of  Jerome. — Neio  Gen.  Biof/r.  Did.  viii,  b'd ; 
Allilwne,  Did.  KnrjL  and  Am.  Authors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Knowles,  James  Davis,  a  Baptist  minister, 
was  born  in  Trovidence,  R.  I.,  July,  1798.  He  learned 
the  printing  business,  and  in  1819  became  co-editor  of 
the  lihode  Island  American.  Having  joined  the  Bap- 
tist Church  in  ]\Iarch,  18-.'0,  he  was  in  the  fall  following 
licensed  to  preach.  Shortly  after  he  entered  the  soph- 
omore class  of  Columbian  College,  Washington,  D.  C, 
graduated  in  1824,  and  was  immediately  appointed  one 
of  the  tutors  of  the  college,  which  position  he  held  imtil 
called  as  pastor  to  the  Second  Baptist  Church  of  Boston, 
where  he  was  ordained  Dec.  28, 1825.  In  1832  impaired 
health  obliged  him  to  resign  his  pastoral  charge,  and  he 
became  i:)rofessor  of  pastoral  duties  and  sacred  rhetoric 
in  the  Newton  Theological  Institution,  acting  at  the 
same  time  for  over  two  years  as  editor  of  the  Christian 
Revietr,  a  Baptist  quarterly.  He  died  jMa}'  9, 1838.  Mr. 
Knowles  published  a  number  of  occasional  Sermons,  A  d- 
dresses,  etc. ;  Memoir  of  Mrs.  A  mi  II.  Judson,  late  Mis- 
sionary to  Burmah  (1829);  and  Memoir  of  Ror/er  Wil- 
liams, the  Founder  of  the  State  of  Rhode  Islaml  (Boston, 
1834) Sprague,  Annals,  vi,  707 ;  Appleton, New  Amer- 
ican Ci/clopcedia,  x,  192. 

Knowles,  James  Sheridan,  the  celebrated 
modern  dramatist  of  England,  in  later  years  a  minister 
in  the  Baptist  Church,  was  born  at  Cork,  Ireland,  in 
1784,  and  early  distinguished  himself  as  a  dramatic 
writer.  About  1845  he  began  to  entertain  religious 
scruples  about  his  connection  with  the  stage,  was  finally 
converted,  and  in  1852  joined  the  Baptist  Church  and 
entered  the  ministry.  He  died  Dec.  1,  18G2,  at  Tor- 
quay, in  Devonshire.  Several  of  his  sermons  have  been 
puljlished,  but  they  do  not  so  greathr  merit  our  notice  as 
his  exposition  of  the  Protestant  view  on  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per, which  he  defended  in  The  Idol  demolished  bij  its  own 
Priest  (Lond.  1851,  12mo),  an  answer  to  cardinal  Wise- 
man's lectures  on  transubstantiation.  He  also  wrote 
The  Rock  of  Rome,  or  the  Arch  Ileresi/  (London,  1849, 
1850,  1851).  His  dramatic  works  have  been  collected 
and  published  in  3  vols.  sm.  8vo,  in  1843  and  since.  See 
Allibone,  Diet.  Enf/l.  and  A  m.  A  uthors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  North 
Amer.  Review,  xl,  141  sq. •,  Chambers,  C'ycloj}.  s.  v.  (J. 
H.W.) 

KnoTwles,  John,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
born  in  Liiicolnsliirc,  England,  and  educated  at  Magda- 
len College,  Cambridge.  In  1G25  he  was  chosen  fellow 
of  Katharine  Hall,  and  while  cmphn-ed  in  his  duties  as 
a  teacher,  upon  the  invitation  of  the  mayor  and  alder- 
men of  Colchester,  became  their  lecturer.  In  conse- 
quence of  his  opposition  to  archbishop  Laud,  his  license 
was  revoked  in  1G39,  and  he  immediately  removed  to 
New  England,  and  was  ordained  co-pastor  at  Water- 
town,  Mass.,  Dec.  19.  In  October,  1G49,  he  departed  to 
Virginia,  in  response  to  a  call  for  ministerial  aid  in  that 
destitute  region.  In  a  few  months,  however,  he  return- 
ed to  Watertown,  whence  he  returned  to  England  in 
1G50,  where  he  soon  became  preacher  in  the  cathedral 
at  Bristol.  From  fhis  place  he  was  ejected  at  the  Res- 
toration, and  in  1GG2  was  prevented  from  public  minis- 
trations by  the  Act  of  Uniformity.  Ey  permission  of 
king  Charles  in  1G72,  he  became  colleague  of  the  Rev. 
Thomas  Kentish  at  St.  Katharine's,  London,  where  he 
preached  till  near  the  close  of  his  Ufe,  April  10,  1085. 
It  is  said  of  him  that  sometimes,  while  preaching,  his 
very  earnestness  and  zeal  so  exhausted  him  that  he 
fainted  and  fell.     Mr.  Knowles  is  represented  as  having 


been  "  a  godly  man  and  a  prime  scholar." — Sprague,  ^w- 
iials  of  the  A  inerican  Pulpit. 

Knowles,  Thomas,  D.D.,  an  English  divine  of 
great  learning  and  talents,  was  born  at  Eh'  in  1723 ; 
studied  at  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  was 
chosen  fellow,  and  was  afterwards,  for  over  thirty  years, 
lecturer  of  St.  ]\Iary's,  in  Bury  St.  Edmund's.  He  be- 
came successively  prebendary  of  Elj^,  rector  of  Ickworth 
and  Chedburgh,  and,  finally,  vicar  of  Winston,  Suffolk. 
He  died  in  1802.  His  principal  works  are,  The  Passion 
of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  (Lond.  1780, 12mo ;  a  new  ed., 
with  additions,  by  the  Rev.  II.  Hasted,  London,  1830, 
12mo)  : — Twelve  Sermons  on  the  Attribictes  (Camb.  1750, 
8vo)  : — A  nswer  to  Bp.  Clayton! s  Essay  on  Spirit  (Lond. 
1753,  8vo):  —  Primitive  Christianity  (1789,  8vo).  He 
also  WTOte  several  pamphlets  on  religious  subjects.  See 
Gent.  Marjazine,  vol.  Ixxii ;  Chalmers,  Gen.  Biotj.  Did.  ; 
Allibone,  Diet.  Engl,  and  Am.  Authors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Knowlton,  Gideox  A.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
mmister,  was  born  in  East  Iladdam,  Conn.,  entered  the 
itinerancy  in  Central  New  York  in  1800,  was  mostly  em- 
ploj-ed  in  what  was  the  old  Genesee  Conference,  sta- 
tioned at  Albany  in  1804,  at  Saratoga  in  1805,  and  died 
at  Whitest^wn,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  15,  1810.  He  was  deeply 
pious,  a  '"plain,  practical,  and  useful  preacher."  and  of 
great  and  exemplary  faithfuhiess  in  the  work  of  his 
Master. — Minutes  of  Conferences,  i.  195. 

Knowne  Men,  or  jusf-fastmen,  a  name  for  per- 
sons who,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII,  suffered  martyr- 
dom at  the  instigation  of  John  Longland,  bishop  of  Lin- 
coln, either  for  reailing  the  Scriptures  or  treatises  of 
Scripture  in  EngUsh,  or  for  hearing  the  same  read.  See 
Hardwick,  Hist,  of  the  Reformation,  p.  180,  note  3  ;  Fox, 
Book  of  Martyrs  (Lond.  1583),  p.  820-37 ;  Burnet,  Hist, 
of  the  R  format  ion  (London,  1681),  i,  27  sq. 

Knox,  John  (1),  the  Reformer  of  Scotland. 

I.  Early  Life. — He  was  born  in  GifFord,  a  vUlage  in 
East  Lothian,  in  1505,  of  respectable  parents,  members 
of  the  Romish  Chiu-ch,  who  were  able  to  give  their  son 
a  liberal  education.  After  spending  some  time  at  the 
grammar-school  of  Haddington,  he  was  sent  by  his  fa- 
ther, in  1521,  to  the  University  of  Glasgow.  Here  he 
studied  under  Jlayor,  a  famous  professor  of  philosophy 
and  theology,  A  disciple,  by  the  way,  of  Gerson  and  Pe- 
ter d'Ailly,  he  advocated  the  supremacy  of  general  coun- 
cils over  the  popes,  and,  carrying  this  view  into  polities, 
held  also  that  the  king's  authoritj^  is  derived  from  the 
people — a  doctrine  which  he  inculcated  in  his  pupils 
(Knox  as  well  as  Buchanan),  and  which  fully  explains  the 
democratic  tendencies  of  the  Scottish  reformer.  Soon 
after  taking  the  degree  of  M. A.,  Knox  became  an  assist- 
ant professor,  and  rivalled  his  master  in  the  subtleties 
of  the  dialectic  art.  He  obtained  clerical  orders  even 
before  he  reached  the  age  fixed  by  the  canons,  and  about 
1530  went  to  St.  Andrew's,  and  began  to  teach  there.  A 
veil  of  obscurity  hangs  over  his  life  for  several  of  the  fol- 
lowing years.  It  is  supposed,  however,  that  the  study 
of  the  fathers,  especially  Jerome  and  Augustine,  shook 
his  attachment  to  the  Romish  Church  as  early  as  1535, 
but  he  did  not  become  an  avowed  Protestant  until  1542 
— a  fact  which  shows  that  he  did  not  act  from  hasty  or 
turbulent  impulses,  but  with  prudence  and  deliberation, 
Ilis  reproof  of  existing  corruptions  compelled  him  to  re- 
tire from  St.  Andrew's  to  the  south  of  Scotland,  and  he 
was  degraded  from  his  orders  as  a  heretic.  He  now  be- 
came a  tutor  to  the  sons  of  two  noble  families,  and  oc- 
casionally preached  to  the  people  in  the  neighborhood. 
During  this  period  he  became  a  frequent  companion  of 
the  reformer  and  martyr  Geo.  Wishart,  to  whose  instruc- 
tions he  was  greatly  indebted.  When  Wishart  was  ap- 
prehended, Knox  would  fain  have  clung  to  him  and 
shared  his  fate,  but  his  friend  refused,  saying,  '•  Nay,  re- 
turn to  your  bairns,  and  God  bless  j'ou ;  one  is  suffi- 
cient for  a  sacrifice."  Wishart  was  burnt  at  the  stake, 
under  cardinal  Beaton's  orders,  in  ^M arch,  1540,  and  with- 
in two  mouths  afterwards  the  cardinal  was  put  to  death 


KNOX 


138 


KNOX 


in  liis  own  castle  of  St.  Andrew's  by  a  band  of  nobles  and  | 
others  who  held  the  castle  as  a  stronghold  of  the  re- 
furniing  interest.  Knox,  who  was  dail_y  in  danger  of 
liis  life  from  Beaton's  successor,  determined  to  go  to 
Germany  to  inirsue  his  studies,  but  was  induced  by  the 
parents  of  his  pupils  to  give  up  his  purpose  and  take 
refuge  in  the  castle,  which  he  did  with  many  other 
Protestants  in  Easter,  1547.  Here  for  the  first  time  he 
entered  upon  the  public  ministry  of  the  Gospel,  and  he 
distinguished  himself  both  as  a  powerfid  preacher  and 
a  fearless  opponent  of  the  papacy.  But  this  did  not 
continue  long.  * 

II.  His  Ej-ik. — The  arrival  of  a  French  fleet  enabled 
the  regent  of  Scotland  to  invest  the  castle  by  sea  and  by 
land,  and  on  the  last  day  of  July  the  garrison  was  com- 
IX'lled  to  surrender,  wliich  tliej^  did  upon  honorable  terms. 
But  instead  of  being  simply  expatriated  according  to 
the  engagement,  they  were  taken  to  France,  whore  the 
principal  gentlemen  were  held  as  prisoners,  and  Knox 
and  others  were  made  galley-slaves.  The  following 
winter  the  galleys  lay  on  the  Loire,  but  the  next  sum- 
mer they  cruised  on  the  east  coast  of  Scotland,  often  in 
sight  of  the  steeple  of  St.  Andrew's.  Knox's  constancy 
continued  unshaken  under  all  toils  and  trials,  which 
were  greatly  increased  at  one  time  by  disease,  until  in 
Feb.  15-19,  after  nineteen  months  of  bondage,  he  was  re- 
leased through  the  personal  interposition  of  Edward  Yl 
of  England  with  the  king  of  France.  He  immediately 
repaired  to  England,  where  he  was  warmly  welcomed 
by  Cranmer  and  the  council.  He  was  stationed  in  the 
nortli  at  Berwick,  and  afterwards  at  Newcastle,  where 
he  labored  indefatigably,  preaching  often  every  daj'  in 
the  week,  notwithstanding  many  bodily  infirmities.  He 
enjoyed  the  confidence  of  the  English  reformers,  was 
made  one  of  king  Edward's  chaplains,  was  consulted  in 
the  revision  of  the  Prayer-book,  and  also  of  the  j\rticles 
of  Religion,  and  was  oifered  the  bishopric  of  Rochester, 
but  declined  it  from  scruples  as  to  the  divine  authority 
of  the  office.  After  five  years  of  great  and  faithful  ac- 
tivity, at  the  end  of  which  he  married  a  Miss  Bowes,  of 
Berwick,  the  accession  of  jNIary  to  the  throne  put  an  end 
to  his  usefidness  and  endangered  his  life.  His  own  de- 
sire was  to  remain  and  meet  the  issue,  for,  as  he  said, 
"never  could  he  die  in  a  more  honest  quarrel," but  the 
tears  and  importunity  of  friends  prevailed  on  him  to  Hy. 
Accordingly,  in  January,  1554,  he  took  ship  to  Dieppe, 
Mhere  lie  sjjent  his  first  leisure  in  writing  suitable  ad- 
vices to  those  whom  he  coidd  no  longer  reach  by  his 
voice.  Afterwards  he  travelled  in  France  and  Switzer- 
land, visiting  particidar  churches  and  conferring  with 
the  learned.  At  Geneva  he  studied  Hebrew,  anil  form- 
ed with  the  celebrated  Calvin  an  intimate  friendship, 
Avhich  ended  only  with  Calvin's  death.  By  Calvin's 
infiucnce  he  was  induced  to  take  charge  of  the  Church 
of  English  exiles  at  Frankfort-on-the-ilain,  but  un- 
happy disputes  about  the  service-book  led  to  his  with- 
drawal after  less  than  six  months'  service,  in  March, 
1555.  He  immediately  turned  his  steps  to  Geneva, 
where  he  took  charge  of  an  English  congregation.  But 
in  the  same  year  he  made  a  flying  visit  to  Scotland, 
during  which  he  preached  incessantly,  and  labored  night 
and  day.  Among  the  many  distinguished  converts  he 
made  at  this  time  figured  three  young  lords,  wlio  after- 
wards played  no  unimportant  part  in  the  affairs  of  their 
country:  Archibald  Horn,  later  earl  of  Argyle;  James 
Stuart,  natural  brother  of  ^lary,  and  later  earl  of  Mur- 
ray, and  regent  during  the  minority  of  James  YI;  and 
John  Erskine,  who,  under  the  title  of  earl  of  JMarr,  also 
acted  as  regent.  His  influence  rendered  the  reformers 
more  decided  in  their  course,  and  he  instituted  in  1556 
the  first  of  those  rehgious  bonds  or  covenants  which  are 
so  marked  a  feature  in  Scottish  ecclesiastical  hi^torj'. 
But  he  judged  that  the  time  was  not  ripe  for  a  general 
movement,  and  accordingly  returned  to  Switzerland. 
After  his  departure  he  was  cited  to  appear  before  an  as- 
sembly of  the  h'omish  clergy,  and  in  his  absence  was 
condemned  to  be  burnt  as  a  heretic,  and  the  sentence 


was  executed  upon  his  effigj'.  In  Geneva  he  spent  near- 
ly three  years,  the  happiest  and  most  tranquil  of  his  life. 
He  counted  it  "  the  most  perfect  school  of  Christ  that 
ever  was  in  the  earth  since  the  days  of  the  apostles." 
He  was  surrounded  by  Ids  family,  and  lived  in  the  great- 
est harmony  with  his  colleague,  Goodman,  and  the  small 
flock  under  his  charge.  During  his  stay  he  took  part 
in  the  preparation  of  what  is  called  the  Geiuva  Bible. 
He  also  wrote  a  muuber  of  letters  and  apjieals  which 
were  forwarded  to  Scotland,  and  had  great  influence  in 
guiding  the  counsels  of  the  friends  of  the  Reformation. 
His  most  singular  treatise  was  a  volume  entitled  The 
First  Blast  of  the  Tnnrqwt  cir/ainst  the  monstrous  Regi- 
tnent  of  Women.  Although  undoubtedly  honest  in  liis 
opinions,  it  is  certain  that  he  was  led  to  them  bj'  his  ab- 
horrence of  Bloody  ISIary,  who  was  then  wearj-ing  Eng- 
land by  her  cruelties.  But  it  was  an  unfortunate  pub- 
lication, for  it  subjected  him  to  the  resentment  of  two 
queens,  during  whose  reign  it  was  his  lot  to  live ;  the 
one  his  native  princess,  Marj-,  queen  of  Scots,  and  the 
other  Elizabeth,  exercising  a  sway  in  Scotland  scarcely 
ini'erior  to  that  of  any  of  its  own  sovereigns.  Although 
his  residence  at  Geneva  was  so  agreeable  in  many  ways, 
yet  duty  to  Scotland  was  always  uppermost  in  his  mind, 
and  when  a  summons  came  from  the  leading  Protestants 
there  for  his  return,  he  j-ielded  at  once. 

HI.  His  Life-icork  in  Scoilmul. — The  inducement  for 
him  to  return  was  the  concession  of  liberty  of  worship 
promised  by  the  queen  regent,  but  upon  his  arrival 
at  Leith  in  May,  1559,  he  foimd  that  she  had  thrown 
off  all  disguises  (she  had  just  stipidated  to  assist  the 
Guises  in  their  plans  against  Elizabeth),  and  was  deter- 
mined to  suppress  the  Reformation  by  force.  Not  only 
did  she  refuse  the  demands  of  the  Protestants,  but  even 
summoned  a  number  of  the  preachers  for  trial  at  Stir- 
ling. But  Knox  was  not  disheartened.  He  wrote  to 
his  sister,  "  Satan  ragcth  to  the  uttermost,  and  I  am 
come,  I  praise  my  God,  even  in  the  brunt  of  the  battle." 
The  regent,  alarmed  at  the  attitude  of  the  Protestants, 
promised  to  put  a  stop  to  the  trial,  and  induced  the  ac- 
cused to  stay  awaj',  and  then  outlawed  them  for  not  ap- 
pearing. The  news  of  this  outrage  came  to  Perth  on 
the  day  when  Knox  preached  against  the  idolatrv'  of 
the  mass  and  of  image  worship.  At  the  conclusion  of 
the  service,  an  encounter  between  a  boy  and  a  priest  who 
was  preparing  to  celebrate  mass  led  to  a  terrible  riot. 
The  altar,  the  images,  and  all  the  ornaments  of  the 
church  were  torn  down  and  trampled  under  foot;  nor  did 
the  "rascall  multitude,"  as  Knox  called  them,  stop  till 
the  houses  of  the  Gray  and  Black  Friars  and  the  Car- 
thusian Monastery  were  laid  in  ruins.  Treating  this 
tumult  as  a  designed  rebellion,  the  regent  r.dvanced  upon 
Perth  with  a  large  force,  but  finding  the  Protestants  pre- 
pared to  resist,  made  an  accommodation.  Henceforth 
the  latter  came  to  be  distinguished  as  the  Congregation, 
and  their  leaders  as  the  lords  of  the  Congregation.  Un- 
der the  advice  of  Knox,  they  reformed  the  worship 
wherever  their  power  extended,  and  the  iconoclasm  of 
Perth  was  repeated  at  St.  Andrew's  and  many  other  parts 
of  the  kingdom,  not.  however,  by  a  riotous  proceeding, 
but  by  the  harmonious  action  of  the  authorities  and  the 
people.  The  briefest  and  best  defence  of  this  course  is 
the  reformer's  pithy  saying,  that  -'the  rookeries  were 
demolished  that  the  rooks  might  not  return."  The  con- 
test between  the  two  parties  went  on  for  a  year,  during 
part  of  which  Knox  prosecuted  a  flaming  evangelism  in 
the  Southern  and  eastern  counties,  while  at  otlier  times 
he  acted  as  chief  agent  in  securing  foreign  help  for  liis 
oppressed  countrj-men.  In  this  occuiTcd  the  only  seri- 
ous blot  on  his  fair  fame.  He  wrote  to  the  ICnglish 
governor  of  Berwick  that  England  might  send  troops  to 
their  aid,  and  then,  to  escape  reproach  from  France, 
might  disown, them  as  rebels.  The  rebuke  -which  he 
received  from  Sir  James  Croft  was  well  deserved.  The 
civil  war  was  at  length  terminated  by  the  entrance  of 
an  English  army,  wliich  invested  Edinburgh,  and  by  the 
death  of  the  queen  regent.    These  events  led  to  a  truce, 


KNOX 


139 


KNOX 


and  the  calling  of  a  free  Parliament  to  settle  religious 
dilTerences. 

This  body  met  in  August,  1560,  and,  carrying  out  what 
was  undoubtedly  the  wish  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
people,  established  the  Reformed  religion,  and  interdict- 
ed by  law  any  performance  of  lioman  Catholic  worship. 
In  all  this  Knox  was  not  only  an  active  agent,  but  the 
agent  above  aU  others.  The  Confession  of  Faith  and 
tlie  First  I?ook  of  Discipline  both  bear  the  impress  of  his 
mind.  Thus  a  great  step  was  taken,  from  which  there 
never  afterwards  was  any  serious  recession.  Knox  did 
not  attain  all  that  he  desired,  especially  in  respect  to  the 
jirovision  for  the  support  of  the  Church  and  of  educa- 
tion throughout  the  country.  8till  he  accomplished  a 
radical  work,  of  which  all  that  followed  was  only  the 
expansion  and  consolidation.  Tlie  arrival  in  the  next 
year  (1501)  of  the  youthful  queen  Mary,  who  had  high 
notions  of  prerogative,  as  well  as  an  ardent  attachment 
to  liomanism,  occasioned  new  dilHculties,  in  which  Kuox, 
as  minister  in  the  metropolis,  was  actively  engaged.  He 
had  iirolonged  interviews  witli  her,  in  which  she  exert- 
ed all  her  wiles  to  win  him  to  her  side,  but  in  vain.  He 
was  always  uncompromising,  and  once  drove  her  into 
tears,  for  which  he  has  often  been  censured ;  but  his  own 
statement  to  Mary  at  the  time  was  that  he  took  no  de- 
light in  any  one's  distress,  that  he  could  hardly  bear  to 
see  his  own  boys  weep  when  corrected  for  their  faults, 
but  that,  since  he  had  only  discharged  his  duty,  he  was 
constrained,  though  unwillingly,  to  sustain  her  majesty's 
tears  rather  than  hurt  his  conscience  and  betray  the 
commonwealth  through  his  silence.  Meanwhile  his  ac- 
tivity in  the  pulpit  was  unabated.  In  the  Church  of 
St.  Giles,  where  sometimes  as  many  as  three  thousand 
hearers  were  gathered,  he  jireached  twice  on  Sundays, 
and  thrice  gn  other  days  of  the  week.  To  these  were 
added  other  services  in  the  surrounding  country.  The 
effect  of  these  prodigious  labors  was  immense,  as  we 
learn  from  what  the  English  ambassador  wrote  to  Cecil : 
"  Where  your  honor  exhorteth  us  to  stoutness,  I  assure 
you  the  voice  of  one  man  is  able  in  an  hour  to  put  more 
life  in  us  than  six  hundred  trumpets  continually  blus- 
tering in  our  ears."  The  vehemence,  however,  oi'  his 
public  discourses  offended  some  of  his  friends,  and  his 
unyielding  opposition  to  the  court  led  to  his  alienation 
from  the  more  moderate  party  who  tried  to  govern  the 
country  in  the  queen's  name;  so  that  from  15G3  to  15G5 
he  retired  into  comjjarative  privacy,  but  he  continued 
his  labors  in  the  pulpit  and  in  the  assembl}'  of  the  kirk. 
The  rapid  series  of  events  which  followed  Clary's  mar- 
riage with  Darnley  in  July,  15G5,  tlic  murder  of  liizzio 
in  the  next  year,  the  murder  of  Darnley  in  15G7,  and 
the  queen's  marriage  with  Bothwell,  brought  Knox  again 
to  the  front.  ]Mary  was  compelled  to  abdicate  in  favor 
of  her  son,  and  Murray,  Aug.  15G7,  became  regent.  Fiu- 
ther  reforms  were  effected  by  the  Parliament  of  15G7. 
The  sovereign  was  bound  to  be  a  Protestant,  and  some 
better  jirovlsion  w'as  made  for  the  support  of  the  clerg}'. 
Knox  and  ISIurray  were  in  complete  accord,  and  the  af- 
fairs of  religion  seemed  so  settled  that  the  former  deem- 
ed his  work  done,  and  thought  of  retiring  to  Geneva  to 
end  his  days  in  peace.  But  in  1570  Jlurray  was  as- 
sassinated. Knox  shared  in  the  general  grief,  and  this 
event,  with  the  confusions  that  followed,  led  to  a  stroke 
of  apoplexy,  which  affected  his  speech  considerably.  He 
recovered  in  part,  and  was  able  to  resume  preaching, 
but  misunderstandings  sprang  up  between  him  and  the 
nobles,  and  even  some  of  his  brethren  in  the  General 
Assembly.  His  life  having  been  threatened,  he,  in  1571, 
by  the  advice  of  his  friends,  who  feared  bloodshed,  re- 
tired to  St.  Andrew's,  where  ho  preached  with  all  his  for- 
mer vigor,  although  unable  to  walk  to  tlie  pulpit  with- 
out assistance.  In  the  latter  part  of  1572  he  was  re- 
called to  Edinburgh,  and  came  back  to  die,  "  weary  of 
the  world,"  and  "  thirsting  to  depart."  One  of  his  last 
public  services  was  an  indignant  denunciation  of  the  in- 
human massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew's.  On  the  24th  of 
November  he  quietly  fell  asleep,  not  so  much  oppressed 


with  years  as  worn  out  by  his  incessant  and  extraordi- 
nary labors  of  body  and  mind.  In  an  interview  with 
the  session  of  his  Church  a  few  days  before,  he  solemnly 
protested  the  sincerity  of  his  course.  Many  had  com- 
plained of  his  severity,  but  God  knew  that  his  mind  was 
void  of  hatred  to  those  against  whom  he  had  thundered 
the  severest  judgments,  and  his  only  object  was  to  gain 
them  to  the  Lord.  He  had  never  made  merchandise  of 
God's  word,  nor  studied  to  please  men,  nor  indulged  his 
own  or  others'  private  passions,  but  had  faithfidly  used 
whatever  talent  was  given  to  him  for  the  edification  of 
the  Church. 

IV.  His  Character. — Knox  was  a  man  of  small  stat- 
ure, and  of  a  weakly  habit  of  body,  but  he  had  a  vigor- 
ous mind  and  an  unconquerable  will.  Firmness  and 
decision  characterized  his  entire  course.  His  piety  was 
deep  and  fervent,  and  the  zeal  which  consumed  him 
never  knew  abatement.  Yet  it  was  not  uninteUigent. 
He  was  well  educated  for  his  time,  and  always  endeav- 
ored to  increase  his  knowledge,  even  in  middle  life  seiz- 
ing his  tirst  opportunity  to  learn  Hebrew.  An  inward 
conviction  of  eternal  realities  inspired  him  with  a  bold 
and  fervid  eloquence  which  often  held  thousands  of  his 
countrymen  as  if  under  a  spell.  In  dealing  with  men, 
he  was  shrewd  and  penetrating  to  the  last  degree.  No 
outward  show  or  conventional  jiretence  deceived  him, 
^'\'hether  he  encountered  queens,  nobles,  or  peasants,  he 
went  straight  to  the  heart  of  things,  and  insisted  upon 
absolute  reality.  His  mind  was  not  of  a  reflective  or 
speculative  cast,  and  his  writings,  which  are  not  few, 
have  at  this  day  mainly  an  antitpiarian  interest.  His 
earnestness  was  all  in  a  practical  direction,  as,  indeed, 
his  life  was  one  long  contlict  from  his  flight  from  St. 
Andrew's  in  1542  until  his  return  thither  in  1571.  His 
language  was  such  as  became  his  thought  —  simjDle, 
homely,  and  direct.  "  He  had  learned,"  as  he  once  said 
in  the  pulpit,  "plainly  and  boldly  to  call  wickedness  by 
its  own  terms,  a  tig  a  fig,  and  a  spade  a  spade."  Nor 
did  he  ever  quaU.  Nothuig  daunted  him;  his  spirit 
rose  high  in  the  midst  of  danger.  The  day  his  body 
was  laid  in  the  grave,  the  regent  INIorton  said  truh', 
"  There  lies  he  who  never  feared  the  face  of  man."  Just 
such  a  man  was  needed  for  the  work  to  which  Provi- 
dence calk'd  him.  To  lay  the  axe  to  the  root  of  the 
tree  and  warn  a  generation  of  vipers  requires  one  stem 
as  Elijah,  vehement  as  John  the  Baptist.  It  has  been 
asked  if  the  work  would  not  have  been  done  better  had 
the  spirit  of  love  and  moderation,  as  well  as  of  power, 
presided  over  it;  the  answer  is  that,  considering  the 
character  of  the  times  and  the  jieople,  in  that  case  jier- 
haps  the  thing  would  not  liave  been  done  at  all.  But 
it  was  done,  thoroughly  done,  and  more  effectually  than 
in  any  other  country  in  Europe.  The  First  Book  of 
Discipline  required  a  school  in  every  parish,  a  college  in 
every  "  notable  town,"  and  three  universities  in  the 
kingdom.  The  burst  of  Carlyle  {Essay  on  Sir  Walter 
Scott)  is  well  deserved:  "Honor  to  all  the  brave  and 
true ;  everlasting  honor  to  brave  old  Knox,  one  of  the 
truest  of  the  true !  That,  in  the  moment  while  he  and 
his  cause,  amid  civil  broils,  in  convidsion  and  confusion, 
were  still  but  straggling  for  life,  he  sent  the  schoolmas- 
ter forth  into  all  corners,  and  said,  '  Let  the  people  bo 
taught;'  this  is  but  one,  and,  indeed,  an  inevitable  and 
comparatively  inconsiderable  item  in  his  great  message 
to  men.  His  message  in  its  true  compass  was.  Let  men 
know  that  they  are  men ;  created  by  God,  responsible 
to  God;  who  work  in  any  meanest  moment  of  time 
what  will  last  through  eternity.  This  great  message 
Knox  did  deliver  with  a  man's  voice  and  strength,  and 
found  a  people  to  believe  him  ....  The  Scotch  na- 
tional character  originates  in  many  circumstances;  first 
of  all,  in  the  Saxon  stuff  there  was  to  work  on;  but 
next,  and  Iteyond  all  else  except  that,  m  the  Presbyte- 
rian Gospel  of  .l<ihn  Knox." 

Says  Cunningham  (Church  Bist.  of  Scotland  [Edinb. 
1859,  2  vols.  >Svo],  i,  407  sq.),  "  Knox  was  not  perfect,  as 
no  man  is.    He  was  coarse,  tierce,  dictatorial ;  but  he  kad 


KNOX 


140 


KNUTZEN 


great  redeeming  qualities — qualities  which  are  seldom 
found  in  such  stormy,  changeful  periods  as  that  in  which 
he  lived  He  was  consistent,  sincere,  unseltish.  From 
first  to  last  he  pursued  the  same  straight,  unswerving 
course,  turning  neither  to  the  right  hand  nor  to  the  left; 
tirni  amid  continual  vicissitudes;  and  if  he  could  have 
biu-ncd  and  disembowelled  unhappy  Papists,  he  would 
have  done  it  with  the  fullest  conviction  that  he  was  do- 
ing Goil  ser\-ice.  He  hated  Popery  with  a  perfect  ha- 
tred ;  and  regarding  Mary  and  lier  mother  as  its  chief 
personations  in  the  land,  he  followed  them  through  life 
with  a  rancor  which  was  all  the  more  deadly  because  it 
was  rooted  in  religion.  He  was,  perhaps,  fond  of  power 
and  popularity,  but  he  gained  them  by  no  mean  compli- 
ances. On  a  question  of  principle  he  would  quarrel  with 
the  highest,  and,  having  quarreled,  he  would  not  hesi- 
tate to  vilify  them  to  their  face.  His  hands  were  clean 
of  bribes.  He  did  not  grow  rich  by  the  spoils  of  the 
Keformation.  He  was  content  to  live  and  die  the  min- 
ister of  St.  Giles's.  Is  not  such  a  one,  rough  and  bear- 
ish though  he  be,  more  to  be  venerated  than  the  supple, 
time-serving  Churchmen  who  were  the  tools  of  the  Eng- 
lish Keformation?  Does  he  not  stand  out  in  pleasing 
relief  from  the  grasping  barons  with  whom  he  was  as- 
sociatetl,  who  hated  monks  because  they  coveted  their 
corn-fields,  and  afterwards  disgraced  the  religion  they 
professed  by  their  feuds,  their  conspiracies,  and  cold- 
blooded assassinations?"  But  perhaps  the  greatest  trib- 
ute that  has  ever  been  paid  to  the  memory  of  John 
Knox  lias  of  late  been  penned  by  Froude  {Hist,  of  Eng- 
land, X,  457  sq.).  Frequently  the  charge  of  fanaticism 
has  been  laid  at  the  door  of  the  great  Scottish  reformer; 
this  Froude  unhesitatingly  refutes,  and  assures  us  that 
it  was  only  against  Popery,  the  system  that  enslaves 
both  the  Church  and  the  State,  that  he  fought.  '•  He 
was  no  narrow  fanatic  who,  in  a  world  in  which  God's 
grace  was  equally  visible  in  a  thousand  creeds,  could  see 
truth  and  goodness  nowhere  but  in  his  own  formula. 
He  was  a  large,  noble,  generous  man,  with  a  shrewd 
perception  of  actual  fact,  who  found  himself  face  to  face 
with  a  system  of  liideous  miquity.  He  believed  him- 
self a  prophet,  with  a  direct  commission  from  heaven  to 
overthrow  it,  and  liis  return  to  Scotland  became  the  sig- 
nal, tlierefore,  for  the  renewal  of  the  struggle." 

y.  Works  and  IJferature. — Besides  the  Geneva  Bible 
and  occasional  pamphlets,  John  Knox  wrote.  History  of 
the  Reformation  of  Religion  tcit/iin  the  Reahn  of  Scot- 
land from  1422  to  15G7  (Lond.  1G44,  folio;  Edinb.  1732, 
folio).  His  ]Vo)-ks  have  been  collected  and  edited  by 
Duv.  Laing  (Edinb.  184G,  8vo).  See  M'Crie,  Life  of 
John  Knox  (Edinb.  1814,  and  often  since);  Ch.  Nie- 
meycr,  Knox  Leben  (Lpz.  1824,  8vo) ;  T.  Brandes,  Life 
of  John  Knox  (London,  1863)  ;  Hetherington, //is^  q/ 
Ch.  of  Scotland ;  Burton,  IJist.  of  Scotland,  particularly 
ch.  xxxviii;  Ty tier, //«*Y.  o/' ,Sco//awf/,  vols,  vi  and  vii ; 
Hartiwick,  IIij<t.  of  the  Reformation,  p.  142  sq. ;  Russell, 
Ch.  in  ScotlanJ;  Ilallam,  Const.  Hist.  Engl,  i,  140,  note, 
171,  280;  iii,  210;  Fronde,  Hist,  of  Engl.  vols,  iv,  v,  vi, 
vii,  ix,  and  x,  and  his  Studies  on  ()reat  Subjects,  series  i 
and  ii ;  Edinb.  Rev.  xcv,  236  sq. ;  Westminster  Rev.  xli,  37 
sq. ;  London  Qu.  Rev.  ix,  418  sq. ;  Ixxxv,  148  sq. ;  J/eth. 
(pi.  Rrr.  ii,  325  sq. ;  Edinb.  Rev.  July,  1853.     (T.W.  C.) 

Knox,  John  (2),  D.D.,  an  American  divine  of  the 
Reformed  (I)utcli)  Church,  was  born  in  1700  near  Gct- 
tysl)iirgh.  Pa.,  grathiated  at  Dickinson  College  in  1811, 
studied  theology  under  Dr.  Joint  iNI.  Mason  in  New 
York,  was  licensed  to  preach  by  flic  Associate  Reformed 
Presbytery  of  Pliiladelphia  in  1815,  became  pastor  of 
the  Collegiate  Reformed  Dutch  Cluirch,  New  York,  in 
181fi,  and  remained  there  until  his  deatli  in  1858.  This 
brief  chronological  record  covers  the  life  and  ministry 
of  one  of  the  most  eminent  and  useful  of  American  pas- 
tors. Witliout  the  rare  gift  of  jiopular  eloquence,  he 
was  remarkable  for  clearness  of  thought  and  (xu-ity  of 
diction,  for  comprehensive  and  instructive  discourses, 
and  for  jjractical  usefulness.  'I'he  best  designation  of 
Lis  character  is  that  of  its  completeness.     He  was  a  ju- 


dicious counsellor,  a  safe  guide,  a  devout  believer,  and 
a  model  pastor.  In  the  ecclesiastical  assemblies  of  the 
Church  he  was  often  a  conspicuous  leader.  In  the 
American  Tract  Society,  with  which  he  was  for  many 
j'ears  closely  identified  as  a  member  of  its  executive 
committee,  he  did  much  to  shai^e  the  policy  and  direct 
the  publications  of  that  grand  catholic  institution.  He 
was  active  in  many  other  public  charities  of  the  coun- 
trj'.  Dr.  Knox  puljlished  a  number  of  occasional  ser- 
mons, among  Avhich,  those  on  "  I'arental  Responsibility" 
and  on  '•  Parental  Solicitude"  are  worthy  of  particidar 
notice.  He  was  also  the  author  of  several  useful  tracts 
and  addresses,  and  w\is  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  re- 
ligious newspapers.  He  was,  m  respect  of  piety,  a  very 
Barnabas,  "  a  son  of  consolation,"  "  fidl  of  faith  and  of 
the  Holy  Ghost." — Memorial  Sermon,  by  Dr.  Thomas 
De  Witt ;  Sprague,  Annals,  vol.  ix.     (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

Knox.Vicesimus,  D.D.,  a  distinguished  English 
writer  and  divine,  l)orn  at  Newington  Green,  Middlesex, 
Dec.  8,  1752,  was  a  son  of  the  Rev.Yicesimus  Knox, 
LLB.,  fellow  of  St.  John's  College,  Oxford,  and  head 
master  of  Merchant  Taylors'  School,  London.  Yoimg 
Yicesimus  Knox  was  also  educated.at  St.  John's  College, 
Oxford,  and  in  1778  was  elected  master  of  Tunbridge 
School,  Kent,  where  he  remained  some  thirty-three 
years,  and  was  then  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son.  He 
was  also  rector  of  RumweU  and  Ramsden  Crays,  in  Es- 
sex, and  minister  of  the  chapelry  of  Shipboume,  in 
Kent.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  resided  in  Lon- 
don. He  was  much  admired  as  a  preacher,  and  fre- 
quently gave  his  aid  in  behalf  of  public  charities  by  de- 
livering a  sermon.  He  died  while  on  a  visit  to  his  son 
at  Tunbridge,  Sept.  6, 1821.  Dr.  Knox's  chief  theolog- 
ical works  were :  1.  Essays,  Moral  and  Literary  (Lond. 
1777,  12mo,  anonjTnously ;  republished  in  1778,  with 
additional  essays,  m  2  vols.  12mo :  manj'  additions  have 
been  since  published) : — 2.  Liberal  Education,  or  a  prac- 
tical Treatise  on  the  Methods  of  acquiring  useful  and  po- 
lite Learning  (1781,  8vo;  enlarged  in  1785  to  2  vols. 
8vo) :  this  work  was  chiefly  intended  to  point  out  the 
defects  of  the  system  of  education  in  the  English  uni- 
versities, and  is  said  to  have  had  some  effect  in  produ- 
cing a  reformation  :  —  3.  Sermons  intended  to  j^romote 
Euith,  Hope,  and  Charity  (1792,  8vo) : — 4.  Christian 
Philosophy,  or  an  A  ttempt  to  display  the  Evidence  and 
Excellence  of  Revealed  Religion  (1795,  2  vols.  12mo) : — 
5.  Considerations  on  the  Nature  and  Efficacy  of  the 
LorcVs  SupiJer  (1799,  12mo).  He  also  published  occa- 
sional sermons  and  pamphlets.  Dr.  Knox's  writings 
were  once  much  esteemed.  His  style  has  considerable 
neatness  and  elegance,  but  he  has  little  originality  or 
power  of  thought,  and  his  popularity  has  for  some  years 
been  gradually  decreasing.  They  have  been  reprinted 
under  the  style  Works  (Lond.  1824,  7  vols.  8vo). — Engl. 
Cyclop,  s.  V. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  English  and  A  merican 
A  uthors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Knutzen,  Martin,  a  German  writer  and  philoso- 
pher of  the  Leibnitz- Wolfian  school,  was  born  in  Kiinigs- 
berg,  Prussia,  in  1713,  and  held  a  professorship  of  jihi- 
losophy  in  the  university  of  his  native  place.  He  died 
there  in  1751.  His  most  important  work  is  Von  der  im- 
mdteriellen  Natur  d.  Seek  (Frankfort,  1744,  8vo).  See 
Krug,  Philosopih.  Worterb.  ii,  G27. 

Knutzen,  Matthias,  a  noted  German  atheist, 
was  born  at  Oldensworth,  in  Schleswig-Holstein.  in  the 
early  part  of  tlie  17th  century,  and  was  educated  at 
Kcinigsberg  and  Jena  Universities.  He  was  the  fomider 
of  tlie  Conscientiarians,  advocating  the  doctrine  that 
reason  and  conscience  are  sufficient  to  guide  all  men ; 
besides  conscience,  he  asserted  there  is  no  other  God,  no 
other  religion,  no  other  laA\-ful  magistracy.  He  gave 
the  substance  of  liis  system  in  a  short  letter  (preserved 
in  the  edition  of  J/icralii  syntagma  historic  ecehsiasti- 
cw  [1G99]),  dated  from  Rome,  the  contents  of  which 
may  be  reduced  to  the  followhig  heads:  '"First,  there  is 
neither  a  God  nor  a  devil ;  secondly,  magistrates  are  not 


KOA 


141 


KOEBERGER 


to  be  valued,  churches  are  to  be  despised,  and  priests 
rejected;  thirdly,  instead  of  magistrates  and  priests,  we 
have  learning  and  reason,  which,  joined  with  conscience, 
teach  us  to  live  honestly,  to  hurt  no  man,  and  to  give 
every  one  his  due ;  fourthly,  matrimony  does  not  differ 
from  fornication ;  lifthly,  there  is  but  one  life,  which  is 
this,  after  which  there  are  neither  rewards  nor  punish- 
ments; the  holy  Scripture  is  inconsistent  with  itself." 
Knutzen  boasted  of  numerous  followers  in  the  principal 
cities  of  Europe;  and,  as  he  prided  himself  in  having 
found  adherents  to  his  doctrine  at  Jena,  I'rof.  John  Mu- 
sreus  attacked  and  refuted  him,  mainly  to  dispel  the  im- 
pression which  Knutzen  had  sought  to  make  that  Jena 
was  likely  to  become  a  convert  to  his  views.  He  died 
about  1G78,  or  later.  See  Bayle,  Hist.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Gen. 
Biofj.  Did.  s.  v.:  Kossel,  in  Stud,  und  Krit.  18M;  Hall, 
EncjUop.  vol.  Ix vi.     ( J.  H.  W.) 

Ko'a  (Hcb.  id.  ^"Ip,  Sept.  '\xouk  v.  r.  }Lov^,  Kov^'e, 
Aove  ;  \w]^.principes),  a  word  that  occurs  but  once,  in 
the  prophetic  denunciations  of  punishment  to  the  Jewish 
peo])le  from  the  various  nations  whose  idolatries  they 
had  adopted :  "  Tlie  Babylonians  and  all  the  Chakteans, 
Pekod,  and  Shoa,  and  Koa,  and  all  the  Assj-rians  with 
them:  all  of  them  desirable  young  men,  captains  and 
riders,  great  lords  and  renowned,  all  of  them  riding  upon 
horses"  (Ezek.  xxiii,  23).  The  Sept.,  Symmachus,  The- 
odotion,  Targums,  Peshito,  and  Engl.  Vers.,  followed  by 
many  interpreters,  regard  it  as  a  proper  name  of  some 
province  or  place  in  the  Babylonian  empire ;  but  none 
such  has  been  found,  and  the  evident  paronomasia  with 
the  preceding  terna  in  the  same  verse  suggests  a  sym- 
bolical signification  as  an  appellative,  which  appears  to 
be  furnished  by  the  kindred  Arabic  kua,  the  designation 
of  a  he-camd  or  stallion  for  breeduig  (a  figure  in  keep- 
ing with  the  allusions  in  the  context  to  gross  lewdness, 
as  a  type  of  idolatry),  and  hence  tropically  a  prince  or 
noble.  This  is  the  sense  defended  by  J.  D.  Michaelis 
{Siippl.  2175),  after  Jerome  and  the  Heb.  interpreters, 
and  adopted  by  Gesenius  (Thesaur.  Heb,  p.  1207).  See 
SnoA;  Pekod. 

Koach.     See  Ciiameleox. 

Kobavius,  Andreas,  a  noted  Jesuit,  was  born  at 
Cirkwitz  in  151)4,  and  died  at  Trieste  Feb.  22, 1644.  Of 
his  personal  history  nothing  further  seems  to  be  known. 
He  wrote  Vita  B.  Jvhannis  fumlatoris  frutruni  miseri- 
cordice. — Allgem.  Hisior.  Lex.  iii,  43. 

Kobler,  John,  an  early  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  Culpepper  Co.,  Ya.,  Aug.  29, 17G8;  was 
converted  in  1787;  entered  the  itinerancy  in  1789;  vol- 
unteered as  missionary  to  the  North-western  Territory', 
and  for  eighteen  years  labored  with  great  success  in  that 
vast  and  varied  field.  In  1809  his  health  obliged  him 
to  locate,  but  he  labored  as  his  strength  permitted  till 
his  death.  In  1839  the  Baltimore  Conference,  unsolicit- 
ed, placetl  his  name  on  its  list  as  a  superannuate.  The 
remainder  of  his  life  was  spent  with  great  usefulness  at 
Fredericksburg,  Va.,  where  he  died  July  20, 1843,  full  of 
years  and  honored  labors. — Minutes  of  Con f.  iii,  465. 

Kobuda'isi,  a  celebrated  Buddhist  pilgrim  of  Ja- 
pan, was  born  in  the  year  774.  In  earl}'  j'outh  he  be- 
gan studying  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  writers,  and.  in 
order  to  have  more  time  to  indulge  in  his  studies,  he 
embraced  religious  life  at  the  age  of  twenty.  Having 
become  high-priest,  he  accompanied  a  Japanese  ambas- 
sador to  China  in  804,  to  study  more  thoroughly  the 
doctrines  of  Chakia.  A  learned  Indian  named  Azari 
gave  him  the  information  he  desired,  and  presented  him 
with  the  books  he  had  himself  collected  in  his  pilgrim- 
ages. Another  hermit  of  northern  Hindustan  gave  him 
also  a  work  he  had  translated  from  the  Sanscrit,  and 
several  jMSS.  on  religious  subjects.  With  these  Kobu- 
da'isi returned  to  Japan  in  806,  where,  by  his  preaching 
and  miracles,  he  succeeded  in  converting  tlie  religious 
emperor  of  Japan,  who  embraced  Indian  Buddhism,  and 
was  baptized  according  to  the  rite  of  Chakia.     Encour- 


aged by  his  success,  Kobuda'isi  published  a  number  of 
ascetic  works,  and  a  treatise  in  which  he  exposed  the 
fundamental  dogmas  of  Buddhism.  According  to  Ko- 
buda'isi, the  four  scourges  of  humanity  are  hell,  women, 
bail  men,  and  war.  There  is  no  end  to  the  number  of 
miracles  he  is  said  to  have  wrought,  or  to  the  number 
of  pagodas  he  caused  to  be  built.  He  also  caused  tlie 
foundation  of  three  chairs  of  theology  for  the  interpre- 
tation of  the  sacred  writings.  He  died  in  835.  See  Tit- 
Sing,  Bibliotkeque  Juponaise  ;  Abel  ^evmx^t,  Nouveuux 
Melanges  Asiatiques;  Hoefer,  A o«f.  i)to^.  Gener.  xxvii, 
935.     (.J.  N.  P.) 

Koburg.     See  S.vxony. 

Koch,  Henry,  a  pioneer  minister  of  the  German  Re- 
formed Church  in  Western  Pennsylvania,  was  born  in 
Northampton  Co.,  Pa.,  in  1795 ;  pursued  his  theological 
studies  with  Rev.  Dr.  Becker,  of  Baltimore,  Md. ;  was 
licensed  and  ordained  in  1819,  and  settled  in  what  is  now 
Clarion  Co.,  Pa.  He  died  August  7, 1845.  He  laid  the 
foundations  of  numerous  congregations.  Five  charges 
have  grown  up  on  his  field,  which  constitute  the  heart 
of  what  is  now  Clarion  Classis.    His  memory  is  blessed. 

Koch,  John  Henry,  a  German  Methodist  minis- 
ter, was  born  of  Lutheran  jiarentage  in  Wollmar,  elec- 
torate of  Ilessen,  Germany,  Feb.  14, 1807,  and  emigrated 
in  1834  to  this  countrj'.  At  New  Orleans,  La.,  he  was 
attacked  with  yellow  fever,  and  resolved  on  his  sick-bed 
to  serve  God  with  his  whole  heart.  He  removed  after- 
wards to  Cincinnati,  where  brother  Nuelson  invited  him 
to  attend  the  meetings  of  German  Methodists,  and'there, 
under  the  preaching  of  father  Schmucker  and  Dr.  Wil- 
liam Nast,  he  was  awakened  and  converted.  He  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  1841,  and  in  1845  joined  the  Ken- 
tucky Conference.  He  was  successively  appointed  to 
the  following  charges :  West  Union,  Pomeroy,  Captina, 
in  Ohio ;  Wheeling,  W.  Va. ;  Portsmouth,  Madison,  New 
Albany,  JMount  Vernon,  Ind. ;  Louisville,  Ky. ;  Madison 
Street,  La wrenceburgh,Batesville,  Poland  and  Greencas- 
tle,  La  Fayette  and  Bradford.  His  health  failing,  he  re- 
fired  from  the  effective  service,  but  re-entered  tlie  ac- 
tive ;vork  three  years  later,  and  served  two  years  at 
jNIadison  and  one  year  at  Charlestown,  Ind.,  where  he 
died  Oct.  1, 1871.  "  Brother  Koch  was  an  earnest  Chris- 
tian and  a  faithful  itinerant.  Many  were  converted  un- 
der his  ministry,  and  great  is  his  reward  in  heaven." — 
Minutes  of  Conferences,  1871,  p.  227. 

Kochano'wski,  John,  a  Polish  nobleman  and  dis- 
tinguished poet,  who  was  born  in  1532,  and  died  in  1584, 
deserves  our  notice  for  his  translation  of  the  Psalms  into 
Polish  verse,  which  he  performed  in  so  masterly  a  man- 
ner that  he  was  surnamed  the  "  Pindar  of  Poland."  See 
Bentkowski,/7/«to?7/  of  Polish  Literature  (see  Index). 

Kochberg,  Johannes,  a  German  theologian  and 
descendant  of  a  noble  family,  flourished  in  the  early  part 
of  the  second  half  of  the  14th  centur}%  He  was  in  high 
position  at  the  convent  St.  Michael,  at  Jena,  about  1366. 
— A  Ihjem.  Histor.  Lex.  iii,  43. 

Kocher,  Johann  Cheistoph,  D.D.,  a  German  the- 
ologian, was  born  at  Lobenstein  April  23, 1699.  He  was 
successively  rector  of  the  gymnasium  at  Osnabriick,  su- 
perintendent at  Brunswick,  and  professor  of  theology  at 
Jena,  and  died  there  Sept,  21,  1772.  He  published  a 
continuation  of  Wolf's  Cura.  Philologica,  under  the  title 
Analecta  Philologica  et  Exegetica  in  Ctuatuor  Evangelia 
(Altenburg,  1766, 4to).  "  It  supplies,"  says  Orme, "  some 
of  the  desiderata  of  Wolfs  work,  and  brings  down  the 
account  of  the  sentiments  of  the  modern  writers  on  the 
Gospels  to  the  period  of  its  publication"  {Bihlioth.  Bib.  p. 
276).  For  a  list  of  all  his  works,  see  During,  Gclehrte 
Theol.  Deutschlands,  ii,  147  sq. 

Kodashim.     See  Talmlt). 

Koeberger,WENCESLAus,  a  noted  Flemish  painter 
and  architect,  was  born  in  Antwerp  about  1550 ;  studied 
in  his  native  city,  and  later  at  Rome ;  and  died  either 
in  1610  or  iii  1634.     He  selected  chiefly  reUgious  sub- 


KOFFLER 


142 


KOHEN 


jects,  and  among  his  best  paintings  are  "  the  ]\Iart}Tdom 
of  Saint  Sebastian,"  and  "Christ  taken  from  the  Cross 
and  supported  by  Angels."  See  Descamps,  Vies  des  Pein- 
ins  Miimamh,  etc, 

Kofller,  John,  a  Roman  Catholic  missionary  to 
Cochin  China.  Wc  have  no  details  of  his  life  until  af- 
ter he  departed  for  that  country  in  1740.  He  remained 
there  fourteen  years,  and,  being  made  physician  to  the 
king,  availed  himself  of  this  position  to  further  his  mis- 
sionary purposes.  The  persecution  of  the  Christians  in 
China  led,  however,  to  similar  measures  in  Cochin  Chi- 
na, and,  with  the  exception  of  Koffler,  whom  the  king 
prized  highly  on  account  of  his  medical  knowledge,  all 
the  missionaries  were  arrested  aud  shipped  to  Macao 
Aug.  27, 1750.  The  same  fate  also  overtook  Koffler  in 
1755.  Arriving  at  Macao,  he  was  arrested,  and  sent 
with  his  colleagues  to  Portugal,  where  they  were  im- 
prisoned as  having  encroached  upon  the  monopoly 
granted  to  the  Portuguese  government  by  the  Holy  See, 
and  which  it  claimed  gave  that  nation  the  exclusive 
right  of  evangelizing  the  East  Indies.  Koffler  was 
finally  released  through  the  intervention  of  the  empress 
INIaria  Theresa  in  1705,  and  was  sent  on  a  mission  to 
Transylvania,  where  he  labored  until  his  death  in  1780. 
Whik'  in  prison  he  wrote  a  memoir  of  his  travels,  which 
was  published  by  Eckart,  and  reprinted  by  De  Murr, 
under  the  title,  Joannis  Koffier  historica  Cochinchinw 
Descriptio  in  epitome  redacia  ah  J.  F.  Echirt,  edetife  De 
Murr  (1805,  8vo).  See  Migne,  Biog.  Chretienne  et  An- 
ftchrefienite ;  De  Monteron  et  Esteve,  ^^ssion  de  la  Co- 
chiiwhine  et  du  Ton/an,  1858.  —  Hoefer,  A'out;  Bio(j,  Gen, 
xxvii,  28.     (.J.  N.  P.) 

Kcgler,  Ignaz,  a  Jesuit  German  missionary  to  Chi- 
na, \vas  born  at  Landsberg,  Bavaria,  in  1G80,  entered 
the  order  of  Jesuits  in  109(5,  prepared  for  missionary 
work  in  1715,  and  departed  the  year  following  for  Chi- 
na, where  he  enjoyed  the  favor  of  the  emperor  in  a  re- 
markalih  degree.  Kogler  was  master  of  the  sciences, 
and  especially  in  astronomy  displayed  superior  acquisi- 
tion. He  died  in  Pekin  in  1710. — Hoefer,  Xouv.  Biofjr. 
Generale,  xxvii,  950. 

ICo'hath  (Heb.  Kohnth',  rtip,  assemUy,  Numb,  iii, 
10,29;  iv,2,4,15;  vii,9;  xvi,  1  Softener  Kehath',  rnp, 
Gen.  xlvi,  11 ;  Exod.  vi,  10, 18 ;  Numb,  iii,  17,  27  ;  xxv'i, 
57,  58;  Josh,  xxi,  5,  20,  20;  1  Chron.  vi,  1,  2, 16,  18,  22, 
38,  01,  60,  70 :  xv,  5 ;  xxiii,  6, 12 ;  Sept.  KaoS,  but  Ko3- 
in  Gen.  xlvi,  IH,  the  second  son  of  Levi,  and  father  of 
Amrara,  Izhar,  Hebron,  and  Uzziel  (Gen.  xlvi,  1 1 ;  Numb, 
iii,  19,  etc.).  B.C.  1873.  The  descendants  of  Kohath 
formed  one  of  the  three  great  divisions  of  the  Levitical 
tribe.  This  division  contained  the  priestly  family  which 
was  descended  from  Aaron,  the  son  of  Amram.  In  the 
service  of  the  taljernacle,  as  settled  in  the  wilderness, 
they  had  the  distinguished  charge  of  bearing  the  ark 
and  the  sacred  vessels  (Exod.vi,  10;  Numb,  iv,  4-6).  See 
Kouatihte. 

Ko'hathite  (collective  "^rrip,  Kohathi',  Numb, 
iii,  27, 30 ;  i v,  18, 34, 37 ;  x,  21 ;  xxvi,  57 ;  2  Chron.  xxxiv, 
12;  or  ''rnp,  Kehathi',  Josh,  xxi,  4,  10;  1  Chron.  vi, 
33,  .W ;  ix,  32  ;  2  Chron.  xx,  19 ;  xxix,  12 ;  Sept.  Kan^  ; 
Auth.  Vers.  "  Kohathites"),  the  descendants  of  Kohath, 
the  second  of  the  three  sons  of  Levi  (Gershon,  Kohath, 
jNIerari),  from  whom  the  three  principal  divisions  of  the 
Levites  derived  their  origin  and  their  name  (Gen.  xlvi, 
1 1  ;  Kx.id.  vi.  16,  18  ;  Numb,  iii,  17  ;  2  Chron.  xxxiv,  12, 
etc.).  Kiihath  was  the  f  itber  of  Amram,  and  he  of  Mo- 
ses and  Aaron.  From  him,  therefore,  were  descended 
all  the  priests;  and  hence  those  of  the  Kohathites  who 
were  not  priests  were  of  the  highest  rank  of  the  Levites, 
though  not  the  sons  of  Levi's  lirst-born.  Korah,  the  .son 
<if  Izhar,  was  a  Kohathite,  and  hence,  perha]is,  his  im- 
]iatience  of  the  superiority  of  his  relatives,  JIoScs  and 
Aaron.  In  the  journeyings  of  the  tabernacle  the  sons 
of  Kohath  hail  charge  of  the  most  holy  portions  ef  the 
vessels,  to  carry  them  by  staves,  as  the  vail,  the  ark, 


the  tables  of  show-bread,  the  golden  altar,  etc.  (Numb, 
iv) ;  but  they  were  not  to  touch  them  or  look  upon 
them  "lest  they  die."  These  were  all  previously  cov- 
eretl  by  the  priests,  the  sons  of  Aaron.  In  the  reign  of 
Ilezekiah  the  Kohathites  are  mentioned  first  (2  Chron. 
xxix,  12),  as  they  are  also  1  Chron.  xv,  5-7,  11,  when 
Uriel  their  chief  assisted,  with  120  of  his  brethren,  in 
bringing  up  the  ark  to  Jerusalem  in  the  time  of  David. 
It  is  also  remarkable  that  in  this  last  list  of  those  whom 
David  calls  "chief  of  the  fathers  of  the  Levites,"  and 
couples  with  "  Zadok  and  Abiathar  the  priests,"  of  six 
who  are  mentioned  by  name  four  are  descendants  of 
Kohath,  viz.,  besides  Uriel,  Shemaiah,  the  son  of  Elza- 
phan,  with  200  of  his  brethren;  Eliel,  the  son  of  He- 
bron, with  80  of  his  brethren ;  and  Amminadab,  the  son 
of  Uzziel,  with  112  of  his  brethren.  For  it  appears  from 
Exod.  vi,  18-22,  comp.  with  1  Chron.  xxiii,  12,  and  xxvi, 
23-32,  that  there  were  four  families  of  sons  of  Kohath — 
Amramites,  Izharites,  Hebronites,  and  Uzzielites;  and 
of  the  aljove  names  Elzaphan  and  Amminadab  were 
both  L^zzielites  (Exod.  vi,  22),  and  Eliel  a  Hebronite. 
The  verses  already  cited  from  1  Chron.  xxvi ;  Numb,  iii, 
19,  27;  1  Chron.  xxiii,  12,  also  disclose  the  wealth  and 
importance  of  the  Kohathites,  and  the  important  offices 
tilled  by  them  as  keepers  of  the  dedicated  treasures,  as 
judges,  officers,  and  rulers,  both  secidar  and  sacred.  la 
2  Chron.  xx,  19  they  appear  as  smgers,  with  the  Kor- 
hites. 

The  number  of  the  sons  of  Kohath  between  the  ages 
of  thirt}^  and  fifty,  at  the  first  census  in  the  wilderness, 
was  2750,  and  the  whole  number  of  males  from  a  month 
old  was  8600  (Numb,  iii,  28 ;  iv,  36).  Their  number  is 
not  given  at  the  second  numbering  (Numb,  xxvi,  57), 
but  the  whole  number  of  Levites  had  increased  by  1300, 
viz.  from  22,000  to  23,300  (Numb,  iii,  39;  xxvi,- 62), 
The  place  of  the  sons  of  Kohath  in  marching  and  en- 
campment was  south  of  the  tabernacle  (Numb,  iii,  29), 
which  was  also  the  situation  of  the  Reubenites.  Samuel 
was  a  Kohathite,  and  so  of  course  were  his  descendants, 
Ileman  the  singer  and  the  third  division  of  the  singers 
which  was  under  him.  See  Hemax;  Asaph;  Jedu- 
THUX.  The  inheritance  of  those  sons  of  Kohath  who 
were  not  priests  lay  in  the  half  tribe  of  IManasseh,  in 
Ephraim  (1  Chron.  vi,  01-70),  and  in  Dan  (Josh,  xxi,  5, 
20-20).  Of  the  personal  history  of  Kohath  we  know 
nothing,  except  that  he  came  down  to  Egypt  with  Levi 
and  Jacob  (Gen.  xlvi,  11),  that  his  sister  was  Jochcbed 
(Exod.vi, 20),  and  that  he  lived  to  the  age  of  133  years 
(Exod.  vi,  18).  He  live<l  about  eighty  or  ninety  j-ears 
in  Egypt  during  Joseph's  lifetime,  and  about  thirty 
more  after  his  death.  He  may  have  been  some  twenty 
years  younger  than  .Josejih  his  uncle.  A  fuU  table  of 
the  descendants  of  Kohath  may  be  seen  in  Uurrington's 
Genecdorjieit,  Tab.  X,  No.  1. — Smith.     See  Levite. 

Koheleth.     See  Ecclesiastes. 

Kolien,  Naphtliali,  a  great  Cabalistic  rabbi,  "a 
man  wliose  life  was  full  of  incidents  which  would  give 
a  biography  of  him  the  air  of  a  romance,"  was  born 
at  Ostrow,  in  the  L'kraine,  Poland,  about  1600.  While 
yet  a  j'outh  he  was  carried  off  by  some  Cossacks  into 
the  wilds  of  Poland,  and  for  several  years  there  follow- 
ed the  employments  of  a  hunter  and  a  shepherd.  He 
learned  to  excel  in  horsemanship  and  archery,  in  which 
he  took  great  delight  all  his  after  life.  At  length  he 
succeeded  in  making  his  escape  from  the  Tartars,  and 
travelled  in  Poland.  Here  new  impulses  stirred  with- 
in him,  and  his  naturally  vigorous  mental  powers  were 
roused  to  earnest  efforts  after  learning.  He  made  rapid 
progress  in  the  study  of  the  Talmud  and  Cabala,  was 
ordained  rabbi,  and  subsequently  elected  chief  rabbi  at 
Posen.  He  studied  the  Caliala  profoundly,  and  was  at 
once  admired  and  feared  for  his  supposed  ability  to  com- 
mand the  intervention  of  the  supernatural  powers.  But 
in  1711,  while  he  was  in  charge  of  the  Hebrew  congre- 
gations at  Frankfort-on-the- Maine, where,  as  in  Poland, 
he  enjoyed  for  a  time  a  high  reputation  as  an  expound- 


KOHEN 


143 


KOHLREIF 


er  of  the  law  and  a  Cabalistic  hicrophant,  there  occurred 
a  frightful  contiagratioii,  iu  -which  all  the  Jewish  quar- 
ter was  burned  to  ashes.  Iu  this  wofid  calaraitj'  Kohen, 
as  a  potent  Cabalist,  was  called  upon  by  the  distracted 
people  to  bring  into  exercise  those  supernatural  re- 
sources which  he  professed  to  command,  in  order  to 
stay  the  progress  of  the  fiery  flood.  lie  was  weak 
enough  to  make  the  trial.  Of  course  he  utterly  failed. 
This  exposure,  combined  -^vith  the  circumstance  that  the 
fire  had  first  broken  out  in  his  own  house,  turned  the 
popular  feeling  of  the  Jews  against  him,  and  Eabbi 
Naphthali  Kohen  was  once  more  obliged  "  to  grasp  the 
wandering  staff,"  and  begin  the  world  anew.  He  now 
hent  his  steps  towards  the  place  of  his  birth,  and  ended 
his  days  in  connection  with  the  spiagogue  at  Ostrow. 
Kohen  was  quite  a  poet,  and  wrote  several  hymns  and 
anthems  which  have  become  the  common  property  of 
the  synagogue  and  the  Jewish  people.  iVIany  curious 
notices  of  him  may  be  found  in  the  Jiklische  Merkwur- 
dir/lfiten  of  Johann  Jacob  Schudt.  See  Griitz,  Gesch.  d. 
Juden,  X,  348  sq. ;  see  also  Etheridge,  Introd.  to  Hebrew 
Literatiii-e,  p.  4A5  sq.     (J.  H.W.) 

Kohen,  Neheniiah,  a  noted  Jewish  fanatic,  who 
flourished  in  Poland  in  the  second  half  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury, and  pretended  to  be  a  prophet  or  preciu-sor  of  the 
Messiah,  was  a  rival  of  the  celebrated  iSabbathai  Zewi, 
who  claimed  about  the  same  time  to  be  the  veritable 
Messiah  so  long  looked  for  by  his  people.  Invited  by 
Sabbathai  to  visit  him,  Nehemiah  quickly  set  out  for 
Abydos,  and  was  immediately  upon  arrival  admitted  to 
an  audience  which  lasted  some  three  days.  The  rival- 
ry which,  on  accomit  of  their  pecidiar  profession,  natu- 
rally existed  between  the  two  pretenders,  made  each  fear 
for  his  life  from  the  other,  and,  as  Sabbathai  had  actually 
hired  several  base  fellows  to  assassinate  Nehemiah,  the 
latter  fled  to  Adrianople.  He  there  embraced  JMoham- 
medanism,  and  revealed  to  the  Turkish  government  the 
plottings  of  Sabbathai,  and  this  course  ultimately  led 
to  the  accession  of  this  pretended  Messiah  likewise  to 
the  fold  of  the  prophet  of  Islam.  See  Griitz,  Gesch.  d. 
Judcn,  X,  241  sq.     See  Sabbathai. 

Kohen-Zedek,  ben-Josepii,  a  noted  Jewish  rabbi, 
and  head  of  the  school  at  Pumbaditha,  flourished  from 
917  to  93G.  He  was  one  of  the  ablest  presidents  of  this 
Jewish  high-school,  and  labored  earnestly,  and  for  some 
time  with  considerable  show  of  success,  to  make  it  the 
first  and  best  authority  of  Pabbinic  learning.  Sura 
Academy  was  several  times  worsted  in  the  struggle,  and 
Kohen-Zedek  well-nigh  succeeded  in  abolishing  the 
exiliarchate  which  Sura  possessed,  but  in  925  he  was 
finally  led  to  acknowledge  David  ben-Sakkai  as  exili- 
arch,  and  in  turn  secured  Sura's  confirmation  of  his  ga- 
onate  at  Pumbaditha.  Kohen-Zedek  died  in  936.  See 
Griitz,  Gesch.  d.  Juden,  v,  296  sq. 

Kohl,  JoiiANN  Petek,  a  learned  German,  was  born 
at  Kiel  IMarch  10,  1698.  In  1725  he  was  called  to  St. 
I'ctersburg  to  teach  belles-lettres  and  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory. Three  years  after  he  left  tliat  city  because  he  be- 
came passionately  in  love  with  Elizabeth,  daughter  of 
Peter  the  (ireat,  a  passion  which  caused  him  to  commit 
many  extravagances.  He  retired  first  to  Hamburg,  af- 
terwards to  Altona,  where  he  passed  the  remainder  of 
his  life  in  study.  He  bequeathed  his  fine  library,  which 
contained  some  rare  manuscripts,  to  the  library  of  the 
gymnasium  at  Altona.  He  died  October  9, 1778.  His 
works  are,  Theologim  gentilis  Cimbricm  jmrioris  specimen 
(Kiel,  1723,  8vo)  : — Ecclesia  G7-(eca  Liitherizans,  sive  ex- 
ercitatio  de  consensu  ef  dissrnsu  orientalis  Grcecce  speciatim 
Enssicce  el  occidentfdis  Lnllteranm  ecclesim  in  dogmatibus 
(Lubeck,  1723, 8vo)  : — Introductio  in  historiam  et  i-em  lit- 
eruriam  Slavorum  in  primis  sacram,  sire  historia  crit- 
ica  i^ersionum  Slavonica7-um  maxime  insifpiium,  nimiruni 
codieis  sacri  et  Ephi-emi  Syri;  accedunt  duo  sermones 
Ephremi,  nnndum  editi,  de  S.  Cocna  fidei  Luther ancR  testes 
(Altona,  1729, 8vo).  The  conclusions  of  these  two  ser- 
mons of  saint  Ephrem  by  KoliI  have  been  refuted  by  Le 


Bran  and  Renaudot :  also  by  an  unknown  person,  who 
has  published  Antiruthicon,  seu  confutatio  annotatiomun 
Kohlii  ad  S.  Ephremi  Sermones  (Rome,  1840,  8vo)  : — 
Deliciw  Epistolic(P,  sice  epistolarum  argumenti  mm  minus 
raritdte  quam  orationis  cultu  insignium  fasciculus,  Ma- 
joragii,Graivii,Bartholini,  Schejferi  aliorumqrie  vironim, 
cum  jircejcdione  de  vita  scriptisque  Majoragii  (Leipzig, 
1731,  8vo) : — De  Epistolis  a  Jo.  Hevelio  partim,  jmrtim 
ad  ipsum  scripiis  adhuc  ineditis — dissertations  placed  in 
the  supplement  of  the  Leipzig  A  eta  Eruditorum,  ix,  359. 
Kohl  also  intended  to  publish  several  works  on  the  ec- 
clesiastical history  of  the  Slavic  nations,  but  the  MSS. 
of  only  a  few  have  been  found. — lloefer,  A'^ouc.  Biog.  Ge- 
nerate, xxvii,  30. 

Kohler,  Christian  and  Jerome,  two  I>rothers 
who  distingiushed  themselves  among  the  enthusiasts  of 
Berne  in  the  middle  of  the  18th  century,  were  natives 
of  Brligglen.  Ignorant  and  poor.  Christian  became  a 
mechanic  and  Jerome  a  wagoner,  and  they  appear  to 
have  led  very  irregidar  lives  until  1745,  when  they  were 
converted  in  a  revival  then  taking  place  in  the  country. 
They  soon  claimed  to  have  dreams  and  visions  in  which 
Christ  and  other  persons  appeared  to  them,  and  they 
went  about  preaching  and  exhorting.  They  may  at 
first  have  been  sincere,  but  appear  afterwards  to  have 
made  popular  credulity  a  means  of  gain.  They  claimed 
to  be  the  t\vo  witnesses  spoken  of  in  the  book  of  Reve- 
lation, and  made  many  followers.  Among  other  things, 
they  predicted  the  end  of  the  world  for  Christmas,  1748, 
and  afterwards  renewed  their  prediction  for  later  pe- 
riods. They  pretended  to  be  able  to  redeem  souls  out 
of  purgatory,  and  thus  swindled  a  great  many  persons. 
Finally,  a  price  was  set  on  their  heads.  On  Oct.  8, 1752, 
Jerome  was  caught;  he  was  brought  to  Borne,  judged, 
and  executed,  Jan.  16,  1763.  His  brother,  in  the  mean 
time,  was  made  prisoner  at  Neueburg,  but  of  his  subse- 
quent fate  there  is  no  record.  Their  principal  disciple 
in  Viol,  John  Sahli,  was  condemned  to  death  for  contu- 
macy March  19,  1753;  but  their  other  followers  were 
not  much  disturbed,  and  the  sect  died  out  slowly.  See 
Kyburg,  Das  entdeckte  Geheimniss  d.  Bosheit  in  d.  Briig- 
gler-Sekte  (Ziir.  1753);  Originalakten  im  Berncr  Staats- 
archii: ;  Simler,  Sammlung  z.  Kirchengesch.  pt.  i,  p.  249 ; 
JMcister,  Helcetische  Scenen  d.  neuern  Schicarmerei  u.  In- 
toleranz  (Ziirich,  1785"),  p.  161 ;  Schlegel,  Kirchengesch. 
d.  18  Jahrh.  (pt.  ii,  HeUbronn,  1788) ;  Tillier,  Gesch.  d. 
eidgenossischen  Freistaates  Bern  (Berne,  1839),  vol.  v; 
Hagenbach,  D.  ernngel.  Protestantismus  in  s.  geschichtl. 
Entivickelung,  iii,  193  sq. ;  Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kiixhen- 
Lexikon,  vi,  239. 

Kohler,  Johann  Bernhard,  a  German  philo- 
sophical writer,  -was  born  at  Liibeck  Feb.  10,  1742,  and 
was  educated  in  the  celebrated  universities  of  Germany, 
France,  and  Holland.  In  1781  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  the  Greek  and  Oriental  languages  at  the  L'ni- 
versity  of  Kcinigsberg.  He  died  April  3,  1802,  at  Basle, 
Switzerland.  Those  of  his  works  of  special  interest  to 
us  are,  De  Dote  apud  rete7-es  Ilebrceos  nubentium  (Lub, 
1757): — Obserrationes  in  Saci-um  Codicem,ex  scripto}-i- 
bus profunis  (Gcitt.  1759)  : — Obserr.  in  Sacrum  Codicem, 
maxime  ex  scriptoribus  Grcrcis  et  A  rabicis  (Lpzg.  1763  ; 
Leyd,  1765) : — Emendationes  in  Dionis  Chrysostomi  Ora- 
tiones  Parsicas  (Gritt.  1770,  4to). — Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biogr. 
Gener.  xxviii,  4;  Neue  Allgem.  deutsche  Biblioth.  Ixxii, 
339. 

Kohlreif,  Gottfried,  a  German  theologian,  bom 
at  Strehtz  C)ct.  11,  1674,  was  the  son  of  M.  C.  Kohlreif, 
a  noted  preacher  at  the  court  of  the  duke  of  Strelitz, 
Gottfried  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Rostock, 
where  he  entered  in  1692.  Shortly  after  the  opening 
of  the  University  at  Halle  he  went  thither  to  attend 
lectures  on  philosophy,  but  returned,  after  a  sliort  stay 
at  that  place,  and  at  Leipzig,  Wittemberg,  and  Berlin, 
to  Rostock  (1695),  About  1699  he  went  to  Hamburg, 
and  resided  there  until  1701,  when  he  became  pastor  of 
a  church  at  New  Brandenburg;  later  he  removed  to 


KOIXONIA 


144 


KOLLOCK 


Eatzeburg,  where  he  died,  August  13,  1750.  Kohlreif 
wrote  largelj' in  tlie  different  departments  of  theological 
science,  but  he  has  earned  special  credit  by  his  contri- 
butions to  Biblical  chronology.  His  most  important 
works  are,  Chronoloyia  Sacra  (Hamburg,  1724,  8vo) : — 
Chronolo;ji(t.  Liphrathon  (Liib.  and  Lpzg.  173"2,  8vo) : — 
Gesch.  <l  I'hilhti'r  v.  Moahiter  (Katzeb.  1738,  8vo).  A 
complete  Hst  of  liis  writings  is  given  by  During,  Ge- 
lehrte  Thcol.  I>e>itschlands,  ii,  163  sq. 

Koiuoiiia  {Koivojvia),  the  Greek  word  for  commun- 
ion, was  one  of  the  names  by  wliich  tlie  early  Church 
referred  to  the  Lord's  Supper.  See  Kiddle,  Christian 
Antiquities,  \).bA2  sq.     See  Communion. 

Kokabim.     See  Talmud. 

Koken,  Johann  Karl,  a  German  theologian,  was 
born  at  Hildesheim  June  9,  1711,  and  was  educated  at 
the  universities  of  Helmstildt  and  Gottingen.  In  1740 
he  accepted  a  call  to  Martin's  Church,  Hildesheim,  and 
in  175G  became  superintendent  of  the  Hildesheim  church- 
es. In  1757  the  theological  faculty  of  Kinteln  conferred 
on  Koken  the  doctorate  of  theology.  He  died  March 
15,  1773.  Besides  a  number  of  small  but  valuable  con- 
tributions to  practical  religious  literature,  he  wrote  Vor- 
treffiichkeit  d.  christl.  Rdiyion  Ql^desh.  1761,  4to ;  1762, 
4to) : — Kern  der  Sittenlehre  Jesun.  seiner  Apostel  (Brera. 
1766-72,  6  vols.  8vo).  See  DiJruig,  Gelehrte  Theologen 
Deutschlands,  ii,  168  sq. 

Kolai'ah  (Ileb.  Kolayah',  '^TJ^'P,  voice  of  Jehovah), 
the  name  of  two  men. 

1.  (Sept.  Kw/\f af  v.  r.  KoiX/ac  or  KoiXiag' ;  Vulg.  Co- 
lias.')  The  father  of  Ahab,  which  latter  was  one  of  the 
false  and  immoral  prophets  severely  denounced  by  Jer- 
emiah (Jer.  xxix,  21).     B.C.  ante  594. 

2.  (Sept.  Kw\£trt,Vulg.  Colaja.)  Son  of  Maaseiah 
and  father  of  Pedaiah,  a  Benjamite,  and  ancestor  of  Sal- 
lu,  which  last  led  back  a  party  from  Babylon  (Neh.  xi, 
7).     B.C.  much  ante  536. 

Kollar,  Jan,  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  Slavic 
poets  and  preachers,  was  born  July  29,  1793,  at  Mosch- 
owze,  in  the  north-west  of  Hungary,  studied  at  Presburg 
and  Jena,  and  in  1819  became  pastor  of  a  Protestant 
congregation  at  Pesth.  He  ■wrote  many  poems  of  great 
literary  value,  and  was  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  zeal- 
ous advocates  of  Panslavism.  In  1831  he  published  a 
volume  of  his  sermons,  Kazne  (Pesth,  1831,  8vo),  which 
were  found  so  eloquent  that  they  were  at  once  translated 
into  several  of  the  modern  languages.  The  revolution 
in  Hungary  compelled  him  to  abandon  his  countrj'.  He 
withdrew  to  Vienna,  where  he  was  made  professor  of 
archeology  in  1849,  and  died  there  Jan.  29, 1852.  See 
For.  Quart.  Rev.  April,  1828 ;  Jungmann,  Gesch.  d.  Bohm- 
ischen  Litteratur ;  Chambers,  Ctjclojh  s.  v. 

Kolle,  John,  a  German  Methodist  minister,  was 
born  at  Billcnhauson,Wurtembor£r,  Germany,  on  the  19th 
of  July,  1823 ;  came  to  the  United  States  Aug.  25, 1852 ; 
became  acquainted  with  some  intelligent  and  pious 
members  of  the  jMethodist  Episcopal  Church,  and  soon 
was  led  to  a  knowledge  of  his  sins,  and  was  enabled  to 
realize  by  faith  that  Jesus  was  his  Saviour.  In  1857  he 
was  licensed  to  preach,  and  in  the  spring  of  1858  was 
sent  to  Cape  Girardeau,  and  joined  the  Southern  Illinois 
Conference.  In  1861  he  was  ordained  a  deacon,  and 
sent  to  Benton  Street,  St.  Louis,  where  he  labored  two 
years  with  great  acceptabihty.  In  1803  he  was  ordain- 
ed an  elder,  and  sent  to  St.  Charles,  where  he  again  la- 
bored successfully  for  two  years.  His  next  appoint- 
ments were  Jlanchester  Jlission,  one  j'ear,  and  ITnion 
Mission,  three  years.  After  this  he  was  sent  to  Boone- 
ville  and  !Manito  IMission,  where  he  labored  till  his  course 
was  finished  on  the  18th  of  JNIarch,  1870.  "  As  a  preach- 
er, Kiille  was  faitliful  and  punctual.  He  was  a  diligent 
student,  and  accjuired  a  considerable  amount  flf  theolog- 
ical knowledge.  In  his  preaching  he  was  original  and 
practical,  and  it  was  easy  to  perceive  that  he  loved  the 
souls  of  those  to  whom  he  ministered.     His  motto  was 


'  Holiness  to  the  Lord,'  and  that  in  an  especial  sense, 
as  he  considered  it  to  be  his  calling  to  bear  the  vessels 
of  the  Lord."  He  contributed  largely  to  tlie  ChristUche 
Apologete,  the  German  organ  of  the  M.  E.  Church. — 
Cemference  Minutes,  1871. 

Kollenbusch  (also  Collenbusch),  Samuel,  M.D., 
an  eminent  (Jcrraan  pietist,  and  the  fomider  of  a  theo- 
logical scliool,  was  born  of  pious  parents  in  the  town  of 
Barmen  (Rhenish  Prussia),  Sept,  1, 1724.  He  hesitated 
long  between  theology  and  medicine,  but  finally  decided 
for  the  latter,  and  studied  at  Uuisburg  and  Strasburg. 
Through  all  his  studies,  however,  he  did  not  forget  to 
attend  to  his  spiritual  improvement,  and  attained  great 
Christian  self-control  and  perfection.  While  stuclying 
at  Strasburg  he  began  to  inquire  into  mysticism  and 
alchemy,  which  were  then  considered  as  having  a  close 
connection  with  each  other.  Upon  the  completion  of 
his  imiversity  studies  he  began  the  practice  of  medicine 
at  Duisburg,  but  in  1784  retired  to  Barmen,  and  there 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  life,  partly  in  the  practice  of 
mcchcine,  partly  in  disseminating  his  peculiar  religious 
views.  He  died  Sept.  1,1803.  Dr.  Kollenbusch  can,  in 
many  respects,  be  considered  entitled  to  a  place  between 
the  mystic  separatist  Tersteegen  (q.  v.),  born  twenty- 
seven  j'ears  before  him,  and  Jung-Stilling  (q.v.),  sixteen 
years  younger.  Like  the  latter,  ho  first  inclined  to  Leib- 
nitz and  AVolfs  philosophical  system,  then  became  a 
Bcngelian,  though  without  approving  all  Bengcl's  views. 
He  attachetl  especial  importance  to  the  visions  of  Doro- 
theo  Wuppermann,  of  Wichlinghausen,  a  patient  of  his 
attacked  with  hysterics.  Among  the  results  of  Dr.  Kol- 
lenbusch's  practical  activity  are  to  be  named  the  Bar- 
men Missionary  Society,  ami  the  Iiarmen  Mission  estab- 
lishment. He  wrote  Erldiinniii  /lih/ischer  Wahrheiten 
(Elberf.  1807)  -.—GoldeveA  ej,f,l  iu  .■^dtiernen  Schalen  (Bar- 
men, 1854).  See  T.  W.  Krug,  Die  Lehre  d.  Dr.  A'.,  etc. 
(Elberfeld,  1846) ;  same,  Kritische  Gesch.  d.jirotest.-i-eliff. 
Schtvartnerei,  etc.  (Elberfeld,  1851)  ;  Baur, />/«  Dreieinig- 
keitslehre,  p.  655  sq. ;  Hase,  Dogmatik,  p.  344  sq. ;  Ha- 
genbach,  Hist,  of  Doctrines,  ii,  §  300. 

Kollock,  Henry,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  Dec.  14, 1778,  at  New  Providence,  Essex  Coun- 
ty, N.  ,J.,  and  graduated  at  New  Jersey  College  in  1794. 
Having  devoted  himself  to  study  for  the  three  succes- 
sive years,  he  was  appointed  tutor  in  his  alma  mater. 
In  this  position  he  distinguished  himself  for  his  skill  in 
debate,  passing  his  leisure  hours  in  the  study  of  theol- 
ogy. In  1800  he  Avas  licensed,  and  preached  for  five 
months  at  Princeton,  where  he  also  delivered  a  series  of 
discourses  on  the  life  and  character  of  St.  Peter,  which 
were  remarkable  for  their  brilliancy  and  attraction.  On 
leaving  Princeton  he  took  charge  of  the  Church  at  Eliz- 
abethtown,  and  was  a  zealous  promoter  of  missions  to 
the  destitute  regions  in  Morris  and  Sussex  Counties.  In 
1803  he  returned  to  Princeton  as  pastor  and  professor, 
and  in  1806  accepted  a  call  from  the  Independent  Pres- 
byterian Church  at  Savannah,  Ga.,  where  his  labors  were 
abundant.  He  sailed  for  England  in  1817,  not  only  in 
quest  of  liealth,  but  also  to  collect  materials  for  a  life  of 
John  Calvin,  and  after  an  absence  of  eight  months  re- 
turned to  Savaimah,  where  he  died,  Dec.  29, 181 9.  A  col- 
lection of  his  Sermons  was  published  in  1822  (Savannah, 
4  vols.  8vo).  Dr.  J.  W.  Alexander  {Life  of  Dr.  A  rchi- 
bald  A  lexander,  \t.  359)  pays  Dr.  Kollock  a  very  high 
tribute  as  a  scholar,  and  says  of  him  as  a  preacher  that 
he  was  "one  of  the  most  ornate  yet  vehement  orators 
whom  our  country  has  produced." — Sprague,  A  nnals,  iv, 
263  sq.  ^0.^  Cambridge  GenercdEepository,\,\ob\  Chris- 
tian Review,  vol.  xiv ;  Kollock  (S.  K.),  Biograj)hy  of  H. 
Kollock. 

Kollock,  Shepard  Kosciusko,  a  Presbyteri- 
an minister,  and  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  June  29.  1795;  graduated  with  high 
lionors  from  Princeton  College  when  but  sixteen  years 
of  age,  and  soon  thereafter  ]iursued  a  course  in  theology 
with  the  l\ev.  Dr.  ]\l'Dowell,  and  afterwards  with  his 


KOLONTAJ 


145 


KONIG 


brother.  Rev.  Dr.  Henry  Kollock.  He  was  licensed  June, 
1814,  and  preached  with  abundant  success  for  three  years 
in  (ieorj^ia,  M'hen  he  was  called  in  May,  1818,  to  Oxford, 
N.  C,  where  he  was  ordained.  He  soon  after  accepted 
the  position  of  professor  of  rhetoric  and  logic  in  the 
University  of  North  Carolina.  In  1825  he  was  called  to 
the  Church  at  Norfolk,  and  labored  there  ten  years ;  and 
was  next  agent  of  the  Board  of  Domestic  Missions. 
From  1838  to  18-18  he  was  pastor  at  Burlington,  N.  J., 
and  subsequently,  till  18()0,  had  charge  of  a  Church  at 
Greenwich,  N.  J.  For  the  last  five  years  of  his  life  he 
filled  the  position  of  preacher  to  the  benevolent  institu- 
tions of  Philadelphia,  where  he  died,  April  7, 18G5.  The 
following  writings  from  his  pen  give  evidence  of  uncom- 
mon culture  and  breadth  of  mind :  Hints  on  Preaching 
without  Reading ;  Pastoral  Reminiscences  (translated  into 
French)  i—r/ie  Bards  of  the  Bible:— Eloquence  of  the 
French  Pulpit  (1852) : — Character  and  Writings  ofFene- 
lon  (1853): — Character  and  Writings  of  Pascal : — *S7. 
Ignatius  and  the  Jesuits  (1854)  : — Character  ami  Writ- 
ings of  Nicole: — Sidney  Smith  as  a  Minister  of  Religion 
(185G) : — Pastoral  Reminiscences  (N.  Y.  1849, 12mo) ;  etc. 
.See  Princeton  Review,  Index,  ii,  229 ;  A  mer.  A  nn.  Cyclop. 
18(35,  p.  469  ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Engl,  and  A  mer.  A  uihors, 
vol.  ii,  s.  V. ;  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  Aim.  1866,  p.  126  sq. 

Kolontaj,  Hugo,  a  Polish  Roman  Catholic  theolo- 
gian of  note,  was  born  in  the  county  of  Sandomir  April 
1, 1759;  was  educated  at  Pinczow  and  Cracow,  and  in 
1774  became  canon  at  the  cathedral  of  Cracow.  He 
was  a  decided  opponent  of  the  Jesuits,  and  did  all  in  his 
power  to  purge  the  schools  of  Poland  from  Jesuitical  aid 
or  influence.  In  1782  the  University  of  Cracow,  in  rec- 
ognition of  his  services,  elected  him  rector  for  three 
years,  but  his  opponents  succeeded  in  driving  him  from 
the  place  after  only  two  years  of  his  term  had  expired. 
During  the  Polish  Revolution  he  worked  earnestly  in 
behalf  of  reform,  and  Avhen  the  Revolution  failed  he  was 
obliged  to  flee  from  the  country,  and  thereafter  he  nev- 
er held  office  again,  though  he  was  permitted  to  return 
to  his  native  country.  He  died  at  Warsaw  February 
28, 1812.  His  works  are  all  of  a  secular  nature ;  their  ti- 
tles are  given  in  Brockhaus,  Conversations  Lexikon  (11th 
edition),  viii,  923. 

Komander,  Johanx  (Dorfmann),  a  German  theo- 
logian of  the  Reformation  period,  became  interested  in 
the  cause  of  the  Reformers  while  pursuing  his  studies 
at  Ziirich,  and  was  highly  prized  as  a  friend  by  Zwin- 
gle,  anil  after  his  secession  from  the  Romish  Church  (in 
1525),  in  whicli  he  had  been  priest,  became  the  chief 
support  of  the  Reformation  in  the  Blinden  region.  Here 
the  worthlessness  of  the  clergj',  who  were  often  ignorant 
of  the  language  of  tlie  people,  and  guilty  of  gross  im- 
morality, necessitated  reform,  for  which  a  people  of  truly 
independent  spirit  were  also  ready.  Many  prominent 
laymen  early  favored  the  movement,  particularly  Jacob 
Salzmann,  at  Chur.  At  the  Bundestag  of  1524,  held  at 
Ilanz,  a  complaint,  set  forth  in  an  act  of  eighteen  arti- 
cles, was  entered  against  the  corruptions  of  the  Church, 
and  especially  the  malpractices  of  the  clergy.  In  ac- 
cord witli  the  spirit  of  this  "Artikelbrief,"  which  was 
adopted  by  the  Assembly,  and  remained  for  centuries 
the  fundamental  law  in  Graubi'mden,  Komander  was 
appointed  pastor  at  St.  Martin's  Churcli,  of  which  posi- 
tion the  former  incumbent  confessed  himself  incapable, 
and  he  there  began  and  continued  his  labors  for  thirty- 
three  years.  He  met  bitter  opposition  and  yet  encour- 
aging success.  Zwingle,  especially,  sent  a  letter  of  con- 
gratulation in  January,  1525,  addressed  to  the  '-three 
Rhajtian  Federations."  The  most  troublesome  obsta- 
cles to  the  movement  were  the  Anabaptists,  whom  the 
Pajiists  themselves  encouraged  for  the  sake  of  creating 
division.  Brought  under  accusation  in  the  Bundestag 
of  1525,  Komander  asked  opportunity  for  a  public  de- 
fence of  his  position,  which  he  made  at  Ilanz  in  Janua- 
ry, 1526,  in  eighteen  theses.  He  could  only  with  difti- 
culty  secure  a  fair  and  orderly  debate,  but  finallv  brought 
v.— K 


all  his  opponents  to  acknowledge  his  first  thesis,  viz. 
"That  the  Church  is  born  of  the  AVord  of  God,  and 
must  abide  by  it  alone."  In  the  whole  affair  the  learn- 
ing of  the  Reformers  was  confessed ;  seven  priests  were 
won  to  the  evangelical  faith,  and  the  accusations  were 
not  established.  Komander  administered  the  Lord's 
Supper  in  the  evangelical  form  on  Easter  of  1526,  and 
had  the  images  removed.  The  Bundestag  of  this  year 
granted  fuU  liberty  and  protection  of  worship  under  thC 
new  form.  Against  the  intrigues  of  the  Catholic  bishop 
twenty  new  reform  articles  were  established.  The  ab*- 
bot  Schlegel,  former  accuser  of  Komander,  was  beheaded 
for  connivance  with  the  declared  enemies  of  the  Confed- 
eracy, and  the  bishop  fled.  Komander,  in  order  more 
perfectly  to  organize  the  reform  nlo^'ement,  secured  the 
formation  of  a  synod  that  shoidd  have  authority  in  the 
examination  and  appointment  of  pastors.  A  disputa- 
tion sustained  at  Sus,  in  the  Eugadine,  in  1537,  in  the 
Romance  language,  chiefly  by  GaUienus,  the  fast  friend 
of  Komander,  and  Blasius  his  colleague,  where  the  eigh- 
teen theses  defended  by  Komander  at  Ilanz  were  adopt- 
ed, secured  the  entire  prevalence  of  the  reform  in  the 
Eugadine.  Komander  prepared  a  catechism,  and  suc- 
ceeded, with  the' aid  of  Bullinger's  influence,  in  estab- 
lishing a  gymnasium  at  Chur  in  1543.  He  was  deeply 
interested  for  the  Italians  of  the  southern  districts,  but 
found  his  work  with  them  chiefly  a  matter  of  dispute 
on  sceptical  points.  The  Rha;tian  Confession  was  adopt- 
ed by  the  synod  with  particular  reference  to  the  errors 
of  the  Italians.  Komander  rejoiced  at  the  sudden  end 
of  the  Council  of  Trent  in  1552.  In  the  following  year 
he  had  to  counteract  the  pope's  endeavors  .to  bring  in 
the  Inquisition.  Prostrated  by  the  plague  of  1550, 
which  carried  off  1500  of  the  population  of  Chur,  he 
never  recovered  full  strength,  though  he  worked  on  till 
his  death  early  in  1557. — Heizog,  Real-Eneykloj).  s.  v. 
(E.  B.  O.) 

Komano-Bikuiii,  a  female  order  of  Japanese  Beg- 
hards,  or  begging  mnis,  who  accost  travellers  for  their 
charity,  singing  songs  to  divert  them,  though  upon  a 
strong,  wild  sort  of  tune,  and  stay  with  travellers  who 
desire  their  company.  INIost  of  them  are  daughters  of 
the  Jamabos  (q.  v.),  and  are  consecrated  as  sisters  of 
this  begging  order  by  having  their  heads  shaved.  They 
are  neatly  and  well  clad,  and  wear  a  black  silk  hood,, 
with  a  light  hat  over  it,  to  protect  their  faces  from  the- 
sun.  Their  behavior  is,  to  aU  appearance,  free,  yet  mod- 
est. They  always  go  two  and  tv,'o,  and  are  obliged  tO' 
bring  a  certain  portion  of  their  alms  to  the  temple  of  the- 
sun  goddess  at  Isye.    See  M'Farlane,  Japan,  p.  219,  220. 

Komp,  Heixrich,  a  German  Roman  Catholic  the- 
ologian of  note,  born  at  Fulda  in  1765,  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Heidelberg;  became  priest  in  1789,. 
in  1790  professor  at  the  gymnasium  of  his  native  place,, 
in  1792  professor  of  theology,  etc.,  in  1811  court  chap- 
lain to  prince  Primas,  grand  duke  of  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main  and  archbishop  of  Regensburg,  and  in  1829  cathe- 
dral scholastic.  He  died  Feb.  14,  iSiG.—Kathol.  Real- 
Encyliop.  xi,  858. 

Konar.ski,  Adaji,  a  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  flour- 
ished about  the  middle  of  the  16th  century.  He  was 
bishop  of  Posen  from  1562  to  1574.  He  is  noted  for  his- 
efforts  to  improve  the  religious  educational  advantages 
of  the  youth  of  his  Church.  Upon  the  model  of  the 
school  at  Braunsberg,  one  of  the  most  noted  Roman 
Catholic  literary  institutions,  he  founded  a  Jesuit  col- 
lege at  Posen  in  1572,  furnishing  for  its  support  a  great 
part  of  his  own  income.  He  ^vas  at  the  head  of  the 
Polish  delegation  of  magnates  that  went  to  France  to 
meet  Henry  of  Yalois,  afterwards  king  of  Poland. — Wet- 
zer  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lc.r.  vi,  243. 

Konig,  Christian  Gottlieb,  a  German  theolo- 
gian of  note,  was  born  at  Altdorf  March  26,  1711,  and. 
was  educated  at  the  university  of  his  native  place.  In 
1734  he  was  appointed  proiessor  at  Giessen  Universitj', 
but  resigned  this  position  onlj'  two  years  later.    In  1742 


KONIG 


146 


KONRAD 


he  became  pastor  at  Elberfeld,  and  remained  there  until 
1747,  when  he  removed  to  Amsterdam,  wliere  lie  taught 
the  Oriental  languages.  He  died  at  Leyden  in  1782. 
'His  [irineipal  work  is  Weissar/ung  Mosis  in  den  letzten 
Tageii  (Frankfort,  1741,  fol.).  A  list  of  his  writings  is 
given  in  Diiring's  Gelchrte,  Theol.  Deutschl.  ii,  152  sq. 

Konig,  Georg,  a  German  Lutheran  theologian,  was 
born  at  Amberg  Feb.  2, 1590,  and  was  educated  at  the 
imiversities  of  Wittenberg  and  Jena.  In  1G14  he  was 
called  as  j)rofessor  of  theology  to  Altdorf.  and  in  1644  he 
added  to  the  duties  of  his  chair  the  librarianship  of  that 
high-scluiol.  He  died  Sept.  10, 1054.  He  wrote  Casus 
Consciitiiitr,  etc. — .4  l/i/em.  IJigt.  Lexikori,  iii,  45. 

Konig,  Johann  Friedrich,  a  German  Lutheran 
theologian,  was  born  at  Dresden  October  16, 1619.  He 
studied  at  Leipzig  and  Wittenberg;  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Greifswalde  in  1651,  superintendent  of  Meck- 
lenburg and  Ratzeburg  in  1656,  and  tinally  professor  of 
theology  at  Rostock  in  1659,  where  he  died  Sept.  15, 1664. 
His  21i('olo[iia  positiva  aci'oamatica  (Rost.1664:  Cth  ed. 
Rost.  1680,  8vo;  Wittenb.  1755)  became,  notwithstand- 
ing its  dryness,  a  very  popular  text-book  of  dogmatics. 
Hahn,  Richter,  and  Haferung  have  expounded  and  com- 
mented upon  it,  and  it  became  the  foundation  of  J.  A. 
Quenstiidt's  celebrated  work.  See  W^alch,  Bib/,  theol.  sel. 
i,39;  Heinrich,  Fe?\'!«c/j  einer  Geschickte  cL  verschiedenen 
Lehrarten  d.  c/irisi lichen  Glavhenswurheiten,  etc.  (Leipz. 
1790);  iic\ix'6ckh,Kh-chenf/esch.seit  d.Refor.\m,\\  sq. ; 
Gass,  Gesch.  d.  prot.  Dogmatik,  i,  321  sq. ;  Herzog,  Real- 
Encydopadie,  viii,  1  sq. 

Konig,  Mauritius,  a  Danish  prelate  of  note,  flour- 
ished in  the  second  half  of  the  17th  century.  He  was 
professor  of  theology  at  Copenhagen,  and  later  bishop 
of  Ajdburg,  and  died  May  2,  1672. — Allgem.  Hist.  Lexi- 
kon,  iii,  46. 

Konig,  Samuel,  celebrated  in  the  annals  of  Swiss 
pietism,  was  bom  at  Gergensee,  in  the  canton  of  Berne, 
about  1670.  He  studied  at  Berne  and  Zurich,  and  af- 
terwards made  a  journey  to  Holland  and  England,  as 
was  customary  in  those  days.  He  evinced  great  zeal 
and  talents  in  the  Oriental  languages,  which  were  then 
much  studied  by  the  Protestants,  and  was  considered  by 
his  followers  as  a  first-class  Orientalist.  He  was  also 
noted  for  his  participation  in  the  mystic  tendencies  of 
his  day,  and  after  studying  Petersen's  chiliastic  exposi- 
tions,, became  himself  a  zealous  partisan  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  Millennium.  After  his  return  to  Berne  he  was 
ordained,  and  appointed  at  first  preacher  in  the  hospital 
attached  to  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  About  the 
same  time  Spener's  pietism  was  beginning  to  gain  ad- 
herents in  Berne,  especially  through  the  efforts  of  Lutz 
(Lucius).  Kijnig,  who  at  first  held  aloof,  was  gradually 
drawn  into  connection  with  them,  and  thus  became  iden- 
tified with  the  development  of  jiietism  in  Berne.  Here, 
as  elsewhere,  pietism  was  strenuously  opposed  by  the 
orthodox  party  in  the  Church,  who,  on  April  3,1698,  ap- 
pointed a  special  committee  to  proceed  against  "Quaker- 
ism, unlawful  assemblies,  and  doctrinal  schisms."  In 
August  of  the  same  year  the  upper  council  appointed  a 
committee  on  religion,  for  tlie  purpose  of  ascertaining 
all  about  ]>ietism  (in  I5erne),  and  reporting  thereon  to 
the  council.  KiJnig  was  several  times  summoned  before 
this  committee,  and  courageously  defended  his  views  on 
these  occasions  on  chiliasm,as  also  his  sermons,  in  which 
he  insisted  with  peculiar  force  on  the  necessity  of  re- 
pentance and  of  regeneration.  Among  his  theological 
opponents  the  most  distinguished  were  the  professors  of 
theology,  Wyss  and  Niidorf.  Kiinig  was  finally  ejected 
and  exiled,  the  pietists  were  persecuted,  and  the  so-call- 
ed "  association  oath"  was  instituted,  July,  1699,  with  a 
view  to  prevent  sejiaration.  To  these  measures  were 
added  a  strict  censorship  of  books,  and  the  prohibition 
of  religious  reunions.  Konig  retired  to  Ilerliorn,  but 
was  soon  driven  out  from  that  place  also,  and  went  to 
the  county  of  Sayn-Wittgenstein,  the  general  refuge  of 
all  pietists  and  illumuiati.     In  1700  he  went  to  Halle, 


where  he  gained  many  adherents,  and  afterwards  to 
Magdeburg,  where  he  ibund  congenial  spirits,  especial- 
ly in  Petersen  and  his  wife,  Johanna  Eleonora  von  Mer- 
lau,  Nik.  von  Rodt,  and  Fellenberg.  Finally  he  return- 
ed to  active  life  as  pastor  of  a  French  Church  in  Biidin- 
gen.  Here  he  resided  eighteen  years,  during  which 
he  wrote  a  number  of  works.  In  1730  he  returned  to 
Berne,  and  secured  an  appointment  as  professor  of  mod- 
ern languages  and  mathematics  in  the  university.  He 
continued  to  hold  religious  meetings,  and  travelled  oc- 
casionally in  the  interest  of  pietism,  but,  having  at- 
tempted to  establish  meetings  for  mutual  edification  at 
Basel  (in  1732),  he  was  expelled  from  the  city.  Kiinig 
died  May  30,  1750.  His  principal  works  are,  Betrach- 
tiDiff  d.  imcendiyen  Reichs  Gott.es,  wie  es  im  Herzen  d.-Men~ 
schen  atij'gerichtet  wird  (Basel,  1734)  : — Theolocjia  Mys- 
iica  (Berne,  1736).  See  F.  Trechsel,  Samuel  KOnig  ii,  d. 
Pietismus  in  Berne  (^Berner  Tasrlienhuch,  1852) ;  Schle- 
gel,  Kirchengeschichte  d.  1 8'"'  Ja/irhuiiderts, ii  (1),367  sq.; 
Schuler,  Thaten  imd  Sitten  d.  Eidgenossen,  iii,  268  sq. ; 
Hurst's  Hageubach,  Ch.IJist.  18lh  and  Idth  Cent,  i,  179, 
183. 

Konigsdorfer,  Colestin  Bernhard,  a  German 
Roman  Catholic  monastic,  was  bom  Aug.  18, 1756,  at  the 
village  of  Flotzhcim ;  was  educated  at  Augsburg  from 
1768  to  1776,  and  entered  the  Benedictine  order  in  1777, 
at  Donauworth.  He  was  ordained  priest  Dec.  23, 1780, 
and  was  sent  to  the  university  at  Ingolstadt  to  continue 
his  theological  studies  and  the  acquisition  of  the  Oriental 
languages.  In  1790  he  was  called  to  a  professorship  at 
Salzburg  LIniversity;  in  1794  was  elected  abbot  of  his 
convent,  and  remained  its  head  until  1803,  when  the  con- 
vent was  suppressed.  He  died  March  16,  1840.  Ko- 
nigsdorfer Avrote  Theologia  in  Compendiitm  redacta  (Ko- 
penh.  1787) — a  theological  compend  which  he  intended 
mainly  for  his  monastic  brethren : — Gesch.  d.  Klosteis  z, 
heiligen  Kreuze  in  Donamcorth  (1819-1829,  3  vols,  in  4 
parts).  He  also  published  several  sermons  (1800, 1812, 
1814).— A'o//io/.  Real-Encyliopddie,  vi,  328. 

Konigsdorfer,  Martin,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
a  popular  pulpit  orator,  was  borii  at  Flotzhcim  Oct.  20, 
1752 ;  studied  theology  at  Dillingen ;  was  ordained  priest 
at  Augsburg  March  15,  1777,  and  was  successively  ap- 
pointed to  Monheim,  Heideck,  Seiboldsdorf  near  Neu- 
burg,  and  Lutzungen  near  Hochstiidt.  He  died  about 
1815.  Konigsdorfer  was  noted  as  a  preacher  for  his  rare 
ability  in  adapting  himself  to  the  standard  of  his  audi- 
ences; thus,  in  his  appointments  in  rural  districts,  he 
knew  how  to  interest  the  peasants  in  liis  preaching,  and 
did  much  good  among  them.  He  ])ul)Ii;-hc(l  Kiiiltolische 
llomilien  ttnd  Erkldrungen  d.  hdt.  Krangdicn  uuf  alle 
Sonn-  V.  Feie7-tage{Aug»huTp,  1800,  and  often) : — Kathol. 
Geheimnisse  u.  Sittenreden  (1812-32,8  vols.  8vo) : — Ka- 
thol. Christenlehren  (1806,2  vols.): — Die  ch?istliche  Kin- 
derzucht  (six  sermons,  1814) : — Das  ewige  Priesterthum 
d.  Kathol.  Kirche  (1832).  —  Kathol.  Real-Encyldopddie, 
vi,  329. 

KonigS'warter,  Baron  Jonas,  a  celebrated  Jew- 
ish ]ihilanthropist,  was  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Maiii 
about  1806,  and  removed  to  Vienna  about  1830,  when  a 
man  of  only  moderate  wealth.  There  bis  means  in- 
creased rapidly,  and  he  died  Dec.  24,  1871,  leaving  an 
only  son  heir  to  a  property  worth  fifteen  million  ilollars. 
He  was  a  great  benefactor  to  the  Jews  of  the  Austrian 
capital,  over  whom  he  presided  as  chief,  arid  took  par- 
ticular interest  in  all  tlio  charitable  institutions  of  Vi- 
enna. He  left  large  sums  to  benefit  each  of  these,  with- 
out any  regard  to  confession  or  creed. — New  York  Jew- 
ish Messenger,  Jan.  26,  1872. 

Konrad  of  Mai£I'.urg,  a  German  Dominican  of  the 
13th  century,  one  .of  the  most  trusted  of  Rome's  vota- 
ries, was  confessor  of  princess  St.  Elizabeth  of  Thurin- 
gia,  and  inquisitor  of  (iermany.  Of  his  personal  history 
hut  little  is  known.  Some  suppose  him  to  he  identical 
witli  the  Konrad  who,  as  a  scholastic  of  Jlcntz,  enjoyed 
the  favor  of  Honorius  HI  (q.  v.).     Konrad  of  Marburg 


KONRAD 


147 


KOPKE 


was  a  particular  favorite  of  pope  Gregory  IX,  by  whom 
he  was  intrusted  with  various  disciplinary  offices,  par- 
ticularly with  the  punishment  of  heretics  and  the  ex- 
tirpation of  heresy.  His  conduct  towards  St.  Elizabeth 
(i|.  V.)  was  perfectly  atrocious,  but  no  less  inhuman  was 
the  treatment  which  the  Patarenes  (q.  v.)  received  at 
his  hands.  He  was  finaUy  slain  in  I'ioS  by,  or  at  the 
instigation  of,  some  German  nobles  whom  he  had  op- 
posetl.  See  Hausrath,  Konrad  von  Marburg  (1861); 
Henke,  AT.  r.  Marburg  (1861) ;  Herzog.  Real-Eiicyklop. 
viii,  25;  and  the  Koman  Catholic  Kircken-Lexikon,  by 
Wetzer  und  Welte,  ii,  805  sq.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Konrad  III,  emperor  of  the  Germans,  the  founder 
of  the  Hohenstaufen  dynasty,  eminent  among  the  Cru- 
saders, was  the  son  of  Frederick  of  Suabia,  and  ^vas  born 
in  1093.  He  was  elected  successor  to  Lothaire  by  the 
princes  of  Germany  at  Aix-la-ChapeUe,  Feb.  21,  1136, 
to  prevent  the  increasing  preponderance  of  the  Guelf 
party.  For  his  quarrels  with  Henry  the  Proud,  duke 
of  Bavaria  and  Saxony,  and  head  of  the  Guelf  party  in 
(iermany,  etc.,  see  Guelfs  and  Ghibellines,  When 
St.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  commenced  to  preach  a  new 
crusade,  Konrad,  seized  with  the  general  infatuation,  set 
out  for  Palestine  at  the  head  of  a  large  army  [see  Cru- 
sades] in  company  with  his  old  enemy,  Guelf  of  Bava- 
ria, who  proved  treacherous,  however,  returned  to  Ger- 
many before  Konrad,  and  with  his  nephew,  Henry  the 
Lion,  renewed,  though  unsuccessfully,  the  former  at- 
tempt to  gain  possession  of  Bavaria.  Konrad  took  sides 
with  the  pope  and  the  northern  Italians  against  Poger 
of  Sicily,  but,  while  preparing  for  an  expedition  against 
the  latter,  he  was  poisoned,  Feb.  15,  1152,  at  Bamberg. 
Konrad  was  largely  endowed  with  the  virtues  necessary 
for  a  great  monarch,  and,  though  himself  unlearned,  was 
a  warm  patron  of  science  and  letters.  His  marriage 
with  a  Greek  princess  was  symbolized  by  the  two-head-  j 
ed  eagle  which  figured  on  the  arms  of  the  emperor  of  i 
(iermany,  and  now  appears  on  the  arms  of  the  sover-  j 
eign  of  Austria.     See  Germany.  j 

Konradin  of  Suabia,  the  last  descendant  of  the 
house  of  the  Hohenstaufen,  son  of  the  excommunicated 
Henry  IV,  was  born  in  1252.  He  deserves  our  notice 
for  the  relation  he  sustained  to  the  intriguing  pope  In- 
nocent IV,  and  the  treatment  he  received  at  the  pope's 
hands.  His  Italian  possessions  were  seized  by  Innocent 
IV  on  the  plea  that  the  son  of  a  prince  u-ho  dies  excom- 
municated has  no  hereditary  rights,  an  example  which 
the  other  enemies  of  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen  rejoiced 
to  follow.  Konradin's  cause  was  befriended  by  his  uncle 
M.infred,  who  took  up  arms  in  his  behalf,  drove  the 
]3ope  from  Naples  and  Sicily,  and,  in  order  to  consolidate 
his  nephew's  authority,  declared  himself  king  till  the 
young  prince  came  of  age.  The  pope's  inveterate  ha- 
tred of  the  Hohenstaufen  induced  him  thereupon  to 
offer  the  crown  of  the  Two  Sicilies  to  Charles  of  Anjou,  I 
a  consummate  warrior  and  able  politician.  Charles  im- 
mediately invaded  Italy,  met  his  antagonist  in  the  plain 
of  (irandella,  where  the  defeat  and  death  of  Manfred,  in 
1266,  gave  him  undisturbed  possession  of  the  kingdom. 
But  the  Neapolitans,  detesting  their  new  master,  sent 
deputies  to  Bavaria  to  invite  Konradin,  then  in  his  six- 
teentli  year,  to  come  and  assert  his  hereditary  rights. 
Konradin  accordingly  made  his  appearance  in  Italy  at 
the  head  of  10,000  men,  and,  being  joined  by  the  Neapol- 
itans in  large  numbers,  gained  several  victories  over  the 
French,  but  was  finally  defeated,  and,  along  with  his 
relative,  Frederick  of  Austria,  taken  prisoner  near  Tagl- 
iacozzo,  Aug.  22,  1268.  The  two  unfortunate  princes 
were,  trith  the  consent  of  the  pope,  executed  in  the  market- 
plice  of  Naples  on  the  iOth  of  October.  A  few  minutes 
before  his  execution,  Konradin,  on  the  scaffold,  took  off 
his  glove,  and  threw  it  into  the  midst  of  the  crowd,  as  a 
gage  of  vengeance,  requesting  that  it  might  be  carried 
to  his  heir,  Peter  of  Aragon.  This  duty  was  under- 
taken by  the  chevalier  De  Waldburg,  who,  after  many 
hair-breadth  escapes,  succeeded  in  fulfilling  his  prince's 
last  command.    See  Innocent  IV;  Sicilian  Vespers. 


Koolhaas,  Caspar,  often  named  with  Koomherfc, 
in  Holland,  as  the  predecessor  of  Arminius,  was  born  at 
Cologne  in  1536.  He  studied  at  Dtisseldorf,  and  in  1566 
renounced  many  advantages  to  join  the  Reformation. 
He  afterwards  held  some  situations  as  pastor  in  the 
duchies  of  Zweibriick  and  Nassau.  In  1574  he  was 
called  to  the  University  of  Leyden,  then  opening,  as  a 
professor.  He  subsequently  resigned  the  professorship, 
and  died  a  private  teacher  at  Le3'den  in  1615.  His 
opinions  had  been  the  cause  of  his  resignation :  he 
maintained  nearly  the  same  views  professed  afterwards 
by  the  Arminians  on  the  extension  of  the  authority  of 
superiors  in  ecclesiastical  affairs,  reduction  of  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Church  to  a  icw  simple,  fundamental  points, 
and  the  correction  or  absolute  rejection  of  the  doctrine 
of  predestination.  His  work  Dejure  Christiani  magis- 
tratus  circa  disciplinam  et  regimen  ecclesim  gave  great 
offence.  He  was  summoned  before  a  synod  held  at 
Middelburg  in  1581,  and  requested  to  recant  and  sign 
the  Belgian  Confession,  but  refused,  and  ai)pealed  to  the 
States.  A  provincial  synod  of  Haarlem  excommunica- 
ted him  in  1582,  but  he  was  protected  by  the  chief  mag- 
istrate of  Leyden,  who  reported  to  the  Dutch  States 
against  the  renewal  of  religious  persecution,  as  well  as 
agauist  the  acts  of  the  synods,  and  the  encroachments 
of  the  ecclesiastical  college  on  the  rights  of  the  author- 
ities. See  A.  Schweizer,  Gesch.  d.  ref.  C'entraldogmen,  ii, 
40;  Benthem,  Holland  Kirchen-u.  Schulenstaat,  ii,  33; 
Ugtenbogaert  Kerkel.  Hist.  p.  214. — Herzog,  Real-Enoj- 
klopddie,  viii,  26. 

Koordistan.     See  Kurdistan. 

Koornhert.     See  Cornarists/ 

Kopacsy,  Joseph  von,  a  Hungarian  Roman  Cath- 
olic prelate,  was  born  of  noble  parentage  at  Wessprim 
in  1775,  and  was  educated  at  the  seminary  in  Presburg. 
He  was  ordained  priest  in  1798,  and  shortly  after  received 
an  appointment  as  professor  of  Church  history  and  ec- 
clesiastical law.  In  1806  he  became  preacher  at  Wess- 
prim, in  1822  he  was  made  bishop  of  Stuhlweissenburg, 
and  in  1824  bishop  of  Wessprim.  In  1839  he  wan  pro- 
moted to  the  archbishopric  of  Grau,  and  at  the  same 
time  was  made  primate  of  Hungary.  He  died  Sept.  18, 
1847.  Bishop  Kopacsj^  published  a  German  translation 
of  Fleury's  Customs  and  Usages  of  Jews  and  Christians 
{\m2,).—Kuthol.Real-Encgklop.  xi,  861. 

Koph.     See  Ape. 

Kopher.     See  Camphire. 

Kopiatai.     See  Copiat.e. 

KopisteiLski,  Zachartas,  a  Russian  theologian, 
flourished  ui  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century  as  ar- 
chimandrite of  the  convent  of  St.  Anthony  at  Kief,  and 
died  there  April  18,  1626.  He  translated  into  Slavonic 
the  commentary  of  St.  Chrvsostom  on  the  Acts  and 
Paul's  epistles  (Kief,  1623  and  1624,  folio).  He  also  pub- 
lished a  Funeral  Sermon,  in  which  he  seeks  to  prove 
that  the  doctrine  of  Purgatory  is  sanctioned  by  apostolic 
authority ;  and  a  \oinacanon,  or  review  of  the  canons 
(Kief,  16*24  and  1629 ;  Moscow,  1639 ;  Lemberg,  1C46).— 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxviii,  75. 

Kopitar,  Bartiiolomaus,  a  learned  Orientalist, 
was  born  at  Pepnje  in  1780,  and  educated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Vienna.  In  1809  he  was  appointed  assistant 
at  the  Imperial  Library,  was  promoted  to  the  head  libra- 
rianship  in  1843,  and  died  Aug.  11,  1844.  He  published 
an  edition  of  the  Polish  Psalter  found  in  the  convent  of 
St.  Flarian,  with  a  (Jerman  and  Latin  translation  (Vi- 
enna, 1834),  etc. — Kathol.  Real-Encijklop.  vi,  3()2. 

Kopke,  Adaji,  a  German  fanatic,  wlio  flourished  in 
the  first  half  of  the  18th  centurv'  as  pastor  at  Walmo, 
was  an  ardent  follower  of  Dippel  (q.  v.),  and,  witli  Ha- 
genbach  {Church  Hist.  18th  and  ISth  Cent.,  transl.  by  Dr. 
Hurst,  i,  168  sq.),  we  are  in  doubt  what  place  to  assign 
any  of  Uippel's  followers;  he  was  measurably  a  iVIystie, 
yet  he  can  neither  be  definitely  classed  with  them  nor 
with  any  of  the  sects  known  as  Pietists  or  Rational- 


KOPPE 


148 


KORAH 


ists,  fanatics  or  scoffers,  Mystics  or  Illuminists.  He 
wrote  liistor.  Nachricht  v.  Caspa?-  Schwenkfeld  (Prenz- 
lau,  1745.  8vo) :  —  Wer/u-eiser  zum  guttlichen  Lebeit,  etc. 
(ibid,  1744, 8vo): — Die  reinigende  Kraft  des  Gottes-Blutes 
Jesii  C/iristi  (ibid,  1744,  8vo).  See  Kraft,  Tkeol.  Bibli- 
othel;  i,  202 ;  Walch,  Comp.  hiKf.  eccl.  recentiss.  p.  233  sq. ; 
Fuhrmann,  Ilamlivorterh.  d.  Kirckengesch.  ii,  591. 

Koppe,  JoHANN  Benjamin,  a  distinguished  Ger- 
man IJiblical  scholar,  was  boni  at  Dantzig  Aug.  19, 1750. 
He  studied  philology  and  theology  at  the  universities 
of  Leipzig  and  Gottingen,  and  became  professor  of  Greek 
at  the  college  of  Mittau  in  1774,  and  professor  of  theol- 
ogy at  Gottingen  in  1775.  He  subsequently  became  (in 
1777)  director  of  the  seminarj-  for  preachers,  superin- 
tendent and  president  of  the  consistory  at  Gotha  (in 
1784),  and  preacher  at  the  court  of  Hanover  (in  1788). 
He  died  Feb.  12, 1791.  He  wrote  De  Critica  Veferis  Tes- 
tamenti  caute  adhibenda  (Gottingen,  1769): — Vindicice 
orandoi'um  a  damonum  ceque  imperio  ac  sacerdotiim 
fraudibus  (Gottmg.  1774,  8vo): — Israelitas  nan  215  sed 
430  annos  in  yEgypfo  commoratos  esse  (Gottingen,  1777, 
4to ;  reprinted  in  Post  and  Kuperti's  Sijlloge  Commenta- 
tionuni  theologicarum,  vol.  iv)  : — Interpretatio  Isaice,  viii, 
23  (Gott.  1780, 4to) :— ylcZ  Matthaum,  xii,  31,  De  Peccato 
in  Spiritiim  Sanctum  (Giitt.  1781,  8vo)  : — Super  Evan- 
gelio  Marci  ((iott.  1782, 4to) : — Exjylicatio  Moisis,  iii,  14 
(Getting.  1783,  4to)  : — Marcus  non  epitomator  Matthcei 
(Gott.  1783, 4to)  -.—Predigten  (Gott.  1792-3,  2  vols.  8vo). 
He  also  edited  three  vols,  of  the  Novum  Testamentum 
Greece  pierpetua  annotatione  illustratum,  published  at 
Gottingen,  10  vols.  8vo,  at  the  close  of  the  18th  century. 
This  work,  which, he  began,  but  did  not  live  to  com- 
plete, bears  his  name,  as  the  plan,  which  is  excellent,  is 
his.  It  furnishes  "  a  corrected  edition  of  the  Greek  text, 
mostly  agreeing  with  Griesbach,  with  critical  and  philo- 
logical notes  on  the  same  page,  with  prolegomena  to 
each  book,  and  excursus  on  tlie  more  difficult  passages. 
On  this  plan  Koppe  gave  a  volume  on  the  Epistles  to 
the  Galatians,  Ephesians,  and  Thessalonians,  and  anoth- 
•  er  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Komans,  which  closed  his  labors. 
Heinrichs,  in  continuation  of  the  original  design  of 
Koppe,  has  published  the  Acts,  and  all  tlie  remaining 
epistles  of  Paul,  except  those  to  the  Corinthians;  and 
Pott  has  published  the  Epistles  of  Peter,  and  that,  of 
James.  Koppe  is  esteemed  a  safe  and  judicious  critic; 
Heinrichs  and  Pott  less  so.  Koppe's  Romans  has  been 
republished  by  Ammon,  the  well-known  neologist,  with 
characteristic  notes  of  his  own"  (Orme).  See  Koppen- 
f'tadt,  Ucb.  Koppe  (1791,  8vo);  Schlichtegroll,  A> c?-ofo^. 
vol.  i;  Annalen  d.  Braunschu:  Lunebur(j.  Churlande,  vi, 
GO-84 ;  Hocfer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gencr.  xxviii,  79 ;  Herzog, 
Jieul-Encyk/op.  viii,  27.     (,f.  H.W.) 

Koppen,  Daniel  Joachim,  a  German  divine,  was 
born  at  Lliheck  in  1730.  He  was  pasior  at  Zettemin 
for  tliirty-nine  years,  and  died  .June  7,  1807.  Koppen 
secured  for  himself,  by  earnest  literary  labors,  the  repu- 
tation of  great  scliolarsliip,  and  his  works  are  all  valua- 
ble. Ho  wrote  Ilauptzweck  des  Predigtamtes  (Leipzig, 
1778,  8vo) : — Die  Bibel,  ein  Wei-k  der  gottlichen  Weisheit 
(ibid,  1787-88,  2  vols.  8vo;  2d  edition,  much  enlarged, 
1797-98):—  Wer  ist  Christ  (ibid,  1800,8vo).— Doring.Ge- 
If'hrfe  Theol.  Dentschlands,  ii,  155  s(j. 

Koppen,  Fiiedrich,  a  German  theologian  and 
philosoiiher,  was  l)<)rn  at  Liilieck  in  1775;  became  preach- 
er in  Bremen  in  1805;  jirofessor  of  pliikjsophy  in  1807, 
at  Landshut ;  and  in  182(5  was  ap[)ointcd  professor  at 
Erlangen.  He  died  Sept.  4, 1858.  Koppen  was  an  ar- 
dent follower  of  Jacobi  (q.  v.),  and  wrote  Ueber  die  Of- 
fetiharung  in  Bczhlmng  axif  Kantsche  u.  Firhtesche  Phi- 
losophie  (Liib.  1797;  2d  ed.  1802)  •.—Schelling's  Lehre  oder 
das  Game  der  Philosophie  des  absoluten  Nichts\l\amh. 
1805)  : — Darstellung  des  WeseiT^  d.  P/iilosopkie  (Nuremb. 
1810)  :~Pkilosop/iie  des  Chrhttenthums  (Leipz.  1813-15,2 
vols.;  2d  ed.  1825);  etc. — I'iqkt.  Universal  Lexikon,  in, 
711. 

Kor.     See  Cor. 


Ko'rah  (Heb.  Ko'rach,  TVyp,  ice,  as  in  Psa.  cxlvii, 
17  ;  Sept.  Koof ,  also  N.  T.  in  Jude  11 ;  Josephus  Kopf/^ , 
.4  nt.  iv,  2 ;  Vulg.  Core ;  Auth.Vers.  "  Kore"  in  the  patro- 
nymic, 1  Chron.  xxvi,  19,  and  "Core"  in  Jude  11),  the 
name  of  several  men. 

1.  The  tliird  son  of  Esau  by  his  second  Canaanitish 
wife  Aholibamah  (Gen.  xxxvi,  14 ;  1  Chron.  i,  35).  B.C. 
post  1904.  He  became  the  head  of  a  petty  Edomitish 
tribe  (Gen.  xxxvi,  18).  In  ver.  10  his  name  appears  as 
a  son  of  Eliphaz,  Esau's  son  ;  but  probably  by  a  confu- 
sion of  the  parentage,  for  in  the  jiarallel  passage  (1  Chron. 
i,  30)  this  name  is  omitted,  and  "  Timna"  inserted  after 
the  next  name — probably  another  interpolation  for  Tim- 
nah.     See  E.sau. 

2.  A  Lcvitc,  son  of  Izhar,  the  brother  of  Amram,  the 
father  of  Moses  and  Aaron,  who  were  therefore  cousins 
to  Korah  (Exod.  vi,  21).  B.C.  probably  not  much  ante 
1019.  From  this  near  relationship  we  may,  with  toler- 
able certainty,  conjecture  that  the  source  of  the  discon- 
tent which  led  to  the  steps  afterwards  taken  by  this  un- 
happy man,  lay  in  his  jealousy  that  the  high  honors  and 
privileges  of  the  priesthood,  to  which  he,  who  remained 
a  simple  Levite,  might,  apart  from  the  divine  appoint- 
ment, seem  to  have  had  as  good  a  claim,  should  have 
been  exclusively  appropriated  to  the  family  of  Aaron. 
When  to  this  was  added  the  civil  authority  of  Moses, 
the  whole  power  over  the  nation  would  seem  to  him  to 
have  been  engrossed  by  his  cousins,  the  sons  of  Amram. 
Lender  the  influence  of  these  fcellnj*s  he  organized  a 
conspiracy,  for  the  purpose  of  redressing  what  ajipeared 
to  him  the  evil  and  injustice  of  this  arrangement.  Da- 
than,  Abiram,  and  On,  the  chief  persons  who  joined  him, 
were  of  the  trilie  of  lieuben ;  but  he  was  also  supported 
by  many  more  from  other  tribes,  making  up  the  num- 
ber of  250,  men  of  name,  rank,  and  influence,  all  who 
maj'  be  regarded  as  representing  the  families  of  which 
they  were  the  heads.  The  appointment  of  Elizaphan  to 
be  chief  of  the  Kohathites  (Numb,  iii,  30)  may  have  fur- 
ther inflamed  his  jealousy.  Korah's  position  as  leader 
in  this  rebellion  was  evidently  the  result  of  his  personal 
character,  which  was  that  of  a  bold,  haughty,  and  am- 
bitious man.  Tliis  appears  from  his  address  to  jMoses 
in  ver.  3,  and  especiaUj'  from  his  conduct  in  ver.  19, 
where  both  his  daring  and  his  influence  over  the  con- 
gregation are  very  apparent.  Were  it  not  for  this,  one 
would  have  expected  the  Gershonites  —  as  the  elder 
branch  of  the  Levites — to  have  supplied  a  leader  in  con- 
junction with  the  sons  of  lieuben,  rather  than  the  fam- 
ily of  Izhar,  ^vho  was  Amram's  younger  brother.  The 
private  object  of  Korah  was  apparently  his  own  ag- 
grandizement, but  his  ostensible  object  was  the  general 
good  of  the  people :  and  it  is  perhaps  from  want  of  at- 
tention to  this  distinction  that  the  transaction  has  not 
been  well  understood.  The  design  seems  to  have  been 
made  acceptable  to  a  large  body  of  the  nation,  on  the 
ground  that  the  first-born  of  Israel  had  been  deprived 
of  their  sacerdotal  birthright  in  favor  of  the  Levites, 
while  the  Levites  themselves  announced  that  the  priest- 
hood had  been  conferred  by  ]\Ioses  (as  they  considered) 
on  his  own  brother's  family,  in  preference  to  those  who 
had  equal  claims;  and  it  is  easy  to  conceive  that  the 
Keubenites  may  have  considered  the  opportunity  a  fa- 
vorable one  for  the  recovery  of  their  birthright — the 
double  portion  and  civil  pre-eminence — which  had  been 
forl'eited  by  them  and  given  to  Joseph.  (See  Kitto's 
Daitg  Bible  Illiistrat.  ad  loc.)  These  are  the  explana- 
tions of  Aben-Ezra,  and  seem  as  reasonable  as  any  which 
have  been  offered.     (See  below.) 

The  leading  conspirators,  having  organized  their  jilans, 
repaired  in  a  body  to  Moses  and  Aaron,  boldly  charged 
them  with  public  usurpation,  and  required  them  to  lay 
down  their  arrogated  power.  Closes  no  sooner  heard 
this  than  he  fell  on  liis  face,  confounded  at  the  enormity 
of  so  outrageous  a  revolt  against  a  system  framed  so 
carefully  for  the  benefit  of  the  nation.  He  left  the  mat- 
ter in  the  Lord's  hands,  and  desired  them  to  come  on 
the  morrow,  provided  with  censers  for  incense,  that  the 


KORAH 


149 


KORAH 


Lord  himself,  by  some  manifest  token,  might  make 
known  his  will  in  this  great  matter.  As  this  order  was 
particularly  addressed  to  the  rebellious  Levites,  the  Reu- 
benites  left  the  place,  and  when  afterwards  called  back 
by  Moses,  returned  a  very  insolent  refusal,  charging  him 
with  having  brought  them  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt  un- 
der false  pretences,  "to  kill  them  in  the  wilderness" 
(Numb,  xvi,  1-17). 

The  next  day  Korah  and  his  company  ajipeared  be- 
fore the  tabernacle,  attended  by  a  multitude  of  people 
out  of  the  general  body  of  the  tribes.  Then  the  Sheki- 
nah,  or  symbol  of  the  divine  presence,  which  abode  be- 
tween the  cherubim,  advanced  to  the  entrance  of  the 
sacred  fabric,  and  a  voice  therefrom  commanded  Moses 
and  Aaron  to  stand  apart,  lest  they  should  share  in  the 
destruction  which  awaited  the  whole  congregation.  On 
hearing  these  awful  words  the  brothers  fell  on  their 
faces,  and,  by  strong  intercession,  moved  the  Lord  to 
confine  his  wTath  to  the  leaders  in  the  rebellion,  and 
spare  their  unhappy  dupes.  The  latter  were  then  or- 
dered to  separate  themselves  from  their  leaders  and  from 
the  tents  in  which  tliey  dwelt.  The  terrible  menace 
involved  in  this  direction  had  its  weight,  and  the  com- 
mand was  obeyed;  and  after  IMoses  had  appealed  to 
what  was  to  happen  as  a  proof  of  the  authoritj'  by  which 
lie  acted,  the  earth  opened,  and  received  and  closed  over 
the  tents  of  Korah,  Dathan,  and  Abiram.  The  Reuben- 
ite  conspirators  were  in  their  tents,  and  perished  in 
them ;  and  at  the  same  instant  Korah  and  his  250,  who 
were  offering  incense  at  the  door  of  the  tabernacle,  were 
destroyed  bj^  a  fire  which  "  came  out  from  tlie  Lord ;" 
that  is,  most  probably,  in  tliis  case,  from  out  of  the  cloud 
in  which  his  presence  dwelt  (Numb,  xvi,  18-35).  The 
censers  which  the}'  had  used  ^vere  afterwards  made  into 
plates,  to  form  an  outer  covering  to  tlie  altar,  and  tlius 
became  a  standing  monument  of  this  awful  transaction 
(Numb,  xvi,  30-40).  The  rebellious  spirit  excited  by 
these  ambitious  men  vented  itself  afresh  on  the  next 
day  ill  complaints  against  Moses  as  having  been  the 
cause  of  death  to  these  popular  leaders !  a  degree  of  ob- 
duracy and  presumption  that  called  forth  the  divine  in- 
dignation so  severely  as  not  to  be  allayed  till  a  sudden 
plague  had  cut  off  thousands  of  the  factious  multitude, 
and  threatened  still  further  ravages  had  it  not  been  ap- 
peased by  Aaron's  offering  of  incense  at  the  instance  of 
Moses  (Numb,  xvi,  41-50).  The  recurrence  of  a  similar 
jealousy  was  prevented  by  the  divine  choice  of  the  fam- 
ily of  Aaron,  attested  by  the  miraculous  vegetation  of 
his  rod  alone  out  of  all  the  tribes  (Numb.  xvii).  On,  al- 
though named  in  the  first  instance  along  ;\ith  Dathan 
and  Abiram  (ver.  1),  does  not  further  appear  either  in 
the  rebellion  or  its  punishment.  It  is  hence  supposed 
that  he  repented  in  time  ;  and  Abcndana  and  other  Rab- 
binical writers  allege  that  his  wife  prevailed  upon  him 
to  abandon  the  cause. 

It  might  be  supposed  from  the  Scripture  narrative 
that  the  entire  families  of  the  conspirators  perished  in 
the  destruction  of  their  tents.  Doubtless  all  who  were 
in  the  tents  perished;  but,  as  the  descendants  of  Korah 
afterwards  became  eminent  in  the  Levitical  service  [see 
Korahitk],  it  is  clear  that  his  sons  were  spared  (Exod. 
vi,  24).  They  were  probably  living  in  separate  tents, 
or  were  among  those  wlio  sundered  themselves  from  the 
conspirators  at  the  command  of  Moses.  There  is  no 
reason  to  suppose  that  the  sons  of  Korah  were  children 
when'their  father  perished.  Perhaps  the  fissure  of  the 
ground  which  swallowed  up  the  tents  of  Dathan  and 
Abiram  did  not  extend  beyond  those  of  the  Keubenites. 
From  -Numb,  xvi,  27  it  seems  clear  tlial  Korah  himself 
was  not  with  Dathan  and  Abiram  at  the  moment.  His 
t«nt  may  have  been  one  pitched  for  himself,  in  con- 
tempt of  the  orders  of  Moses,  by  the  side  of  his  fellow- 
rebels,  while  liis  family  continued  to  reside  in  their 
proper  camp  nearer  the  tabernacle ;  but  it  must  have 
been  separated  by  a  considerable  space  from  tliose  of 
Datlian  and  Abiram.  Or,  even  if  Korah's  family  resided 
among  the  Keubenites,  they  may  have  fied,  at  Moses's 


warning,  to  take  refuge  in  the  Kohathite  camp,  instead 
of  remaining,  as  the  wives  and  children  of  Dathan  and 
Abiram  did  (verse  27).  Korah  himself  was  doubtless 
with  the  250  men  who  bare  censers  nearer  the  talieriia- 
cle  (ver.  19),  and  perished  with  them  by  the  "fire  from 
Jehovah"  which  accompanied  the  earthquake.  It  is 
nowhere  said  that  he  was  one  of  those  who  "  went  down 
quick  into  the  pit''  (compare  Psa.  cvi,  17,  18),  and  it  is 
natural  that  he  shoiUd  have  been  with  the  censer-bear- 
ers. That  he  was  so  is  indeed  clearly  implied  by  Numb. 
xvi,  16-19,  35,  40,  compared  with  xxvi,  9,  10. 

The  apostle  holds  up  Korah  as  a  warning  to  presum]> 
tuous  and  self-seeking  teachers,  and  couples  his  crime 
with  those  of  Cain  and  Balaam,  as  being  of  similar  enor- 
mity (Jude  11).  The  expression  there  used,  "gainsay- 
ing" (^dvTiXoyia,  coniradictioii),  alludes  to  his  speech  in 
Numb,  xvi,  3,  and  accompanying  rebelUon.  Compare 
the  use  of  the  same  word  in  Ileb.  xii,  3 ;  Psa.  cvi,  32, 
and  of  the  verb,  John  xix,  12,  and  Isa.  xxii,  22;  Ixv.  2 
(Sept.),  in  which  latter  passage,  as  quoted  Rom.  x,  21, 
the  A.  V.  has  the  same  expression  of  "  gainsaying"  as  in 
Jude.  The  Son  of  Sirach,  following  Psa.  cvi,  16,  *1X?^^ 
iT.^'OP,  etc.  (otherwise  rendered,  however,  by  the  Sept., 
Trapwpytcraj'),  describes  Korah  and  his  companions  as  en- 
vious or  jealous  of  Moses,  where  the  English  "  malign- 
ed" is  liardly  an  equivalent  for  iL,i)\wcrav  (Ecclus.  xlv, 
18). — Kitto ;  Smith.  A  late  ingenuous  writer  (Prof.  Rei- 
chel,  of  Dublin,  Sermons,  Cambr.  1855)  distinguishes  the 
crime  of  Korah  from  that  of  Dathan  and  Abiram  (q.  v.) 
as  being  an  ecclesiastical  insubordination,  whereas  the 
latter  was  apolitical  rebellion;  he  also  draws  a  parallel 
between  the  position  of  Aaron  as  representing  the  high- 
priesthood  of  Christ — the  one  underived,  perpetual,  and 
untransferable  pontificate  "after  the  order  of  Melchize- 
dek,"  and  the  Levitical  order  represented  b}'^  Korah  cor- 
responding to  the  Christian  ministry  ;  and  he  arrives  at 
the  following  conclusion :  "  The  crime  in  the  Christian 
Church  corresponding  to  that  which  Korah  and  his  fol- 
lowers committed  in  the  Jewish  Church  consists,  not, 
as  is  often  stated,  in  the  people  taking  to  themselves  the 
functions  of  the  ministry,  but  in  the  Christian  minis^iy 
impiously  usurping  the  functions  of  Christ  himself;  and, 
not  contented  with  their  Jlaster's  having  separated  thcTi 
from  the  congregation  of  his  people  to  bring  them  near 
unto  himself,  to  do  the  service  of  his  house,  and  to  stand 
before  the  congregation  to  minister  to  them,  in  their 
'seeking  the  jmesthood  also,^  Tliis  is  the  gainsaying 
of  Korah,  which  the  authority  of  inspiration  declares 
should  be  repeated  even  in  the  earliest  ages  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  and  which  is  significantly  coupled  by  the 
apostle  Jude  with  the  way  of  Cain,  and  with  the  run- 
ning greedily  after  the  error  of  Balaam  for  reward."  In 
short,  it  was  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  such  as  were  al- 
ready invested  with  an  official  rank  in  the  Levitical 
cultus  to  supplant  those  occupying  the  higher  offices  in 
the  same  economy,  and  even  to  derogate  the  supreme 
and  exclusive  control  of  its  dispensation ;  and  all  this 
for  the  sake  merely  of  the  honors  and  emoluments  of 
the  promotion.  It  is  therefore  at  once  apparent  how 
little  this  narrative  supports  the  arrogant  claims  of  any 
class  of  so-called  priests  in  the  modern  Church,  and  that 
it  altogether  fails  to  warrant  their  exclusion  and  con- 
demnation of  others  who  have  as  clear  a  divine  call  as 
themselves  to  the  same  order  of  functions,  especially 
M'hen  the  latter  move  in  a  different  community,  are  ac- 
tuated by  the  most  unselfish  motives,  and  proceed  in 
accordance  with  the  most  imperative  demands  of  cir- 
cumstances. 

Korah  is  elsewhere  referred  to  in  Numb,  xxvi,  9-11 ; 
xxvii,  3;  1  Chron.  vi,  22,  87;  ix,  19.  See  Joum.  Sac. 
Lit.  App.  1852,  p.  195;  Forster,  Israel  in  the  Wilderness 
(Lond.  1865).  On  the  Korachida;.  see  Carpzov.  Ivtro- 
duct.  ii,  105 ;  Van  Iperen,  De  Jiliis  Korachi  psalmor. 
quorund.  auctorib.,  in  the  Bihl.  //af/an.ll,'i, 99  sq. ;  comp. 
Eichhorn,  Bibl.  d.  bihl.  Lit.  i,  911  sq. ;  Bauer.  Hebr.  My- 
tholog.  i,  302  ;  Krkldr.  d.  Mund.  d.  A .  Test,  i,  219  sq.  On 
the  Arabic  legends,  see  Fleischer,  Hist,  anteislam.  p.  321. 


KORAHITE 


150 


KORAN 


3.  The  first  named  of  the  fimr  sons  of  Hebron,  of  the 
family  of  Caleb,  of  the  tribe  of  Jiidah  (1  Chron.  ii,  43). 
B.C.  considerably  post  1012. 

Ko'rahite  (Hebrew  Korchi',  ^ty}^,  Exod.  vi,  24; 
Numb,  xxvi,  58;  1  Chron.  ix,  31 ;  xxvi,  19;  plur.  Kor- 
chini',  C^nip,  1  Chron. ix,  19 ;  xii, G ;  xxvi,  1 ;  2 Chron. 
XX,  19;  Septuag.  Kopt'r/jt,-,  1  Chron.  ix,  31 ;  Koplrai,  1 
Chron.  ix,  19 ;  xii,  (5 ;  elsewhere  paraphrases  viol,  nji-ioc, 
or  yeyiffHQ  Kope  ;  Auth.  Vers.  '•  Korahites,"  1  Chron.  ix, 
19;  "Korahite,"  1  Chron.  ix,  31 ;  "  Korathites,"  Numb. 
xxvi,  58;  "Kore,"  1  Chron.  xxvi,  19;  elsewhere  "  Kor- 
hites"),  the  patronymic  designation  of  that  portion  of 
the  Kohathites  who  were  descended  from  Korah,  and 
are  frequently  styled  by  the  synonymous  phrase  Sons 
of  Korah  (q.  v.).  Comp.  Asaph.  It  would  appear  at 
lirst  sight,  from  Exod.  vi,  24,  that  Korah  had  three  sons 
— Assir,  Elkanah,  and  Abiasaph— as  AViner,  Rosenmiil- 
ler,  etc.,  also  understand  it;  but  as  we  learn  from  1 
Chron.  vi,  22.  23,  37,  that  Assir,  Elkanah,  and  Abiasaph 
were  respectively  the  son,  grandson,  and  great  grand- 
son of  Korah,  it  seems  obvious  that  Exod.  vi,  24  gives 
us  the  chief  houses  sprung  from  Korah,  and  not  his  ac- 
tual sons,  and  therefore  that  Elkanah  and  Abiasaph  were 
not  the  sons,  but  later  descendants  of  Korah.  See  Sam- 
VKU  The  offices  tilled  by  the  sons  of  Korah,  as  far  as 
we  are  informed,  are  the  following : 

1.  They  were  an  important  branch  of  the  singers  in 
the  Kohathite  division,  Heman  himself  being  a  Korah- 
ite (1  Chron.  vi,  33),  and  the  Korahites  being  among 
those  who,  in  Jehoshaphat's  reign,  "  stood  up  to  praise 
the  Lord  God  of  Israel  with  a  loud  voice  on  high"  (2 
Chron.  xx,  19).  See  Hkman.  Hence  we  find  eleven 
psalms  (or  twelve,  if  Psa.  xliii  is  included  under  the 
same  title  as  Psa.  xlii)  dedicated  or  assigned  to  the  sons 
of  Korah,  viz.  Psa.  xlii,  xliv-xlix,  Ixxxiv,  Ixxxv,  Ixxxvii, 
Ixxxviii.  Winer  describes  them  as  some  of  the  most 
beautiful  in  the  collection,  from  their  liigh  lyric  tone. 
Origcn  says  it  was  a  remark  of  the  old  interpreters  that 
all  the  psalms  inscribed  with  the  name  of  the  sons  of 
Korah  are  full  of  pleasant  and  chcerfid  subjects,  and  free 
from  anything  sad  or  harsh  {IJomil.  on  1  Kings,  i.  e.  1 
Sam.),  and  on  Matt,  xviii,  20  he  ascribes  the  authorship 
of  these  psalms  to  "  the  three  sons  of  Korah,"  who, "  be- 
cause they  agreed  together,  had  the  Word  of  God  in  the 
midst  of  them"  (Homil.  xiv).  St.  Augustine  has  a  still 
more  fanciful  conceit,  which  he  thinks  it  necessary  to 
repeat  in  almost  every  homily  on  the  eleven  psalms  in- 
scribed to  the  sons  of  Kore.  Adverting  to  the  interpre- 
tation of  Korah,  Calvities,  he  finds  in  it  a  great  mystery. 
Under  this  term  is  set  forth  Christ,  who  is  entitled  Cal- 
vus  because  he  was  crucified  on  Calvary,  and  was  mock- 
ed by  the  by-standers,  as  Elisha  had  been  by  the  chil- 
dren who  cried  after  him  ^' Calve,  cali:e!"  and  who, 
when  they  said  "  Go  up,  thou  bald  pate,"  had  prefigured 
the  crucifixion.  The  sons  of  Korah  are  therefore  the 
children  of  Christ  the  bridegroom  (JInmil.  on  Psalms). 
Of  moderns,  Kosenmuller  thinks  that  the  sons  of  Korali, 
especially  Heman,  were  the  authors  of  these  psalms, 
which,  he  says,  rise  to  greater  sublimity  and  breathe 
more  vehement  feelings  than  the  Psalms  of  David,  and 
quotes  Hensler  and  Eicliliorn  as  agreeing.  De  Wette 
also  considers  the  sons  of  Korah  as  the  authors  of  them 
{Einl.  p.  335-339),  and  so  does  Just.  Olshausen  on  the 
Psalms  {Exeg.  Ilandh.  Einl.  p.  22 ).  As,  however,  the  lan- 
guage of  several  of  these  psalms,  e.  g.  of  xlii,  Ixxxiv, 
etc.,  is  most  appropriate  to  the  circumstances  of  David, 
it  has  seemed  to  other  interpreters  much  simpler  to  ex- 
plain the  title  "for  the  sons  of  Korah"  to  mean  that 
they  were  given  to  them  to  sing  in  the  Temple  services. 
If  their  style  of  music,  vocal  and  instrumental,  was  of  a 
more  sublime  and  lyric  character  tlian  that  of  the  sons 
of  Merari  or  Gershon,  and  Htnian  had  mwre  fire  in  his 
execution  tlian  Asaph  and  Jeduthun,  it  is  perfectly  nat- 
ural that  David  should  have  given  his  more  poetic  and 
elevated  strains  to  Heman  anil  his  choir,  and  the  sim- 
pler and  quieter  psalms  to  the  other  choirs.     A  serious 


objection,  however,  to  this  view  is  that  the  same  titles 
contain  another  phrase  dedicating  the  psalms  in  ques- 
tion "  to  the  chief  musician,"  so  that  the  following  ex- 
pression must  be  rendered  bg  (5  "  auctoris")  the  Korah- 
ites. See  Psalms.  J.  van  Iperen  (ap.  RosenmiiUer)  as- 
signs these  psalms  to  the  times  of  Jehoshaphat;  others 
to  those  of  the  Maccabees;  Ewald  attributes  the  42d 
Psalm  to  Jeremiah.  The  piUT^ose  of  many  of  the  Ger- 
man critics  seems  to  be  to  reduce  the  antiquity  of  the 
Scriptures  as  low  as  possible. 

2.  Others,  again,  of  the  sons  of  Korah  were  "por- 
ters," i.  e.  doorkeepers,  in  the  Temple,  an  office  of  con- 
siderable dignity.  In  1  Chron.  ix,  17-19,  we  learn  that 
Shallum,  a  Korahite  of  the  line  of  Ebiasaph,  was  chief 
of  the  doorkeepers,  and  that  he  and  his  brethren  were 
over  the  works  of  the  service,  keepers  of  the  gates  of 
the  tabernacle  (compare  2  Kings  xxv,  18)  apparently 
about  the  time  of  the  Babylonian  captivity.     See  also 

1  Chron.  ix,  22-29;  Jer.  xxxv,  4;  and  Ezra  ii,  42.  But 
in  1  Chron.  xxvi  we  find  that  this  official  station  of  the 
Korahites  dated  from  the  time  of  David,  and  that  their 
chief  was  then  Shelemiah  or  Meshelemiah,  the  son  of 
(Abi)asaph,  to  whose  custody  the  east  gate  fell  bj'  lot, 
being  the  principal  entrance.  Shelemiah  is  thought  to 
have  been  the  same  as  Shallum  in  1  Chron.  ix,  17,  and 
perhaps  MeshuUam,  2  Chron.  xxiv,  12;  Neh.  xii,  25, 
where,  as  in  so  many  other  places,  a  name  may  desig- 
nate, not  the  individuals,  but  the  house  or  family.     In 

2  Chron.  xxi,  14,  Kore,  the  son  of  Imnah  the  Levite,  the 
doorkeeper  towards  the  east,  who  was  over  the  free-will 
offerings  of  God  to  distribute  the  oblations  of  the  Lord 
and  the  most  holy  things,  was  probably  a  Korahite,  as 
we  find  the  name  Kore  in  the  family  of  Korah  in  1 
Chron.  ix,  19.  In  1  Chron.  ix,  31  we  find  that  jSIatti- 
thiah,  the  first-born  of  Shallum  the  Korahite,  had  the 
set  oflice  over  the  things  that  were  made  in  the  pans. — 
Smith.     See  Levite. 

Koraidhites  is  a  name  sometimes  applied  to  the 
unfortunate  Jewish  tribe  of  Koraidha,  of  Northern  Ara- 
bia, which  Jlohammed  extirpated  upon  their  refusal  to 
accept  him  as  God's  "  prophet."  For  a  detailed  descrip- 
tion of  the  sufferings  of  the  Jews  of  Karaidha,  see  Grtitz, 
Gesch.  d.  Juden,  v,  1 25-127 ;  Milman,  Hist,  of  the  Jews,  iii, 
99  sq. ;  jNIuir,  Life  of  Mohammed,  iii,  135  sq. ;  Sale's  Ko- 
ran, p.  345,  note  h.     See  Mohainimed. 

Koi'&n,  often  Anglicized  (when,  as  properly,  it  has 
the  article  prefixed)  Al-Coran,  but  more  iireciscly  Qu- 
raii.  The  emphasis  is  not  on  the  first  syllable,  as  many 
persons  plnce  it.  The  word  is  from  the  Arabic  root 
karaa,  and  means  literally  the  reading  —  that  which 
ought  to  be  read;  corresponding  nearly  to  the  Chaldee 
Keri  (q.  v.).  The  book  is  also  called  Furqun,  from  a 
root  signifying  to  divide  or  distinguish  ;  Sale  says  to  de- 
note a  section  or  p(n-tion  of  the  Scriptures;  but  Moham- 
medans say  because  it  distinguishes  between  good  and 
evil.  It  is  furthermore  spoken  of  as  A  l-Moshaf-^  The 
Volume,"  and  .1  l-Kitcib.  ••  The  Book,"  by  way  of  emi- 
nence; and  Al-Hhikr,  '"The  Admonition."  The  Koran 
is  the  Mohammedan  Book  of  Faith,  or,  as  wc  may  say, 
Bible. 

Divisions.— \l  consists  of  one  volume,  v.hicli  is  divided 
into  one  hundred  and  fourteen  larger  sections  or  portions 
called  Surus,  which  signifies  a  regular  scries.  These 
suras  or  sections  arc  not  numbered  in  the  original,  but 
bear  each  its  own  title,  which  is  generally  some  key- 
:\ord  in  the  chapter,  or  the  first  word  therein.  In  cases 
where  it  is  taken  from  near  the  close  of  the  chajiter,  it 
is  probal)le  that  that  ])ortion  was  originally  uttered  first. 
Some  sup]wse  these  titles  to  have  been  matter  of  revela- 
tion, as  also  the  initial  Bism-iUah.  ''  In  the  name  of 
( Jod."  etc.,  which  is  likewise  placed  as  a  prefatory  phrase 
in  all  iMoslem  books,  but  in  the  Koran  stands  at  the  head 
of  each  chai)tcr  or  sura.  There  are  twenty-nine  chap- 
ters which  begin  with  certain  letters,  and  these  the  Mo- 
hammedans believe  to  conceal  profound  mysteries,  that 
have  not  been  communicated  to  any  but  the  prophet  •, 


KORAN 


151 


KORAN 


notwithstanding  which,  various  explanations  of  them 
have  been  proffered.  For  these  curious  but  unimpor- 
tant theories,  see  Sale,  p.  43.  The  chapters  or  suras  do 
not  no^v  stand  in  tlie  order  in  which  they  were  original- 
ly uttered.  As  the  Mohammedan  theory  concerning  the 
reconciliation  of  inconsistencies  in  the  Koran  is  that  the 
later  revelation  abrogates  any  former  one  with  which 
it  conflicts,  and  as  some  two  hundred  and  twenty-five 
of  the  passages  of  the  Koran  are  admitted  thus  to  have 
been  cancelled,  their  chronological  order  frequently  be- 
comes a  matter  of  considerable  importance.  The  real 
order  in  point  of  time,  and,  therefore,  authority,  as  now 
determined,  after  immense  painstaking,  is  the  following : 
Suras  numbered  103, 100,  99,  91, 106, 1, 101,  95, 102, 104, 
82, 92, 105,  89, 90,  93,  94, 108,  were  dehvered  in  the  order 
in  which  they  are  here  set  down  in  the  first  stage  of 
Mohammed's  prophetic  career.  Suras  nimibered  90, 1 12, 
74,  111,  belong  to  the  second  period  of  his  career,  and 
extend  to  his  fortieth  year.  Those  numbered  87, 97, 88, 
80, 81,  84, 86, 110,  85, 83, 78,  77,  76,  75, 70, 109, 107, 55, 56, 
belong  to  the  third  period.  Numbers  67,  53, 32, 39,  73, 
79,  54, 34, 31, 09,  68,  41, 71,  52, 50, 45,  44, 37, 30, 26, 15,  51, 
cover  the  time  from  the  sixth  to  the  tenth  year  of  JIo- 
hammed's  mission.  Numbers  46,  72,  35,  36,  19,  18,  27, 
42, 40,  38,  23,  20, 43, 12, 11, 10, 14,  6,  64,  28,  23, 22, 21, 17, 
16, 13,  29,  7,  to  the  fifth  stage.  The  date  of  numbers 
113, 114  is  not  known.  Numbers  2,  47,  57,  8,  58,  65,  98, 
62,  59,  24,  63, 48,  61, 4,  3,  5,  33,  60,  06, 49,  9,  are  those  de- 
livered at  iledina.  Most  of  the  others  were  delivered 
at  Mecca,  though  some  were  delivered  partly  at  IMedina 
and  partly  at  Mecca.  The  Koran  is  further  subdivided 
by  the  e([uivalent  of  our  verses,  called  Ayat,  wliich 
means  si(jas  or  wonders,  as  the  secrets  of  God's  attri- 
butes, works,  judgments,  etc.  It  is  again  arranged  in 
sixty  equal  portions  called  Ileizb,  each  of  winch  is  di- 
vided into  four  equal  parts  (or  into  thirty  portions  twice 
the  length  of  the  former,  and  subdivided  into  four  parts), 
for  the  use  of  the  readers  in  the  royal  temples  or  in  the 
adjoining  chapels  where  the  emperors  and  great  men 
are  interred.  Thirty  of  these  readers  belong  to  each 
chapel,  and  each  reads  his  section  every  day,  so  that  the 
whole  Koran  is  read  through  once  a  day  (Sale,  p.  42). 

Contents. — The  matter  of  the  Koran  is  exceedingly 
incoherent  and  sententious,  the  book  evidently  being 
without  any  logical  order  of  thought  either  as  a  whole 
or  in  its  parts.  This  agrees  with  the  desultory  and  in- 
cidental manner  in  which  it  is  said  to  have  been  deliv- 
ered. The  following  table  of  the  suras  (condensed  from 
Sale)  will  give  the  reader  some  idea  of  its  miscellaneous 
range  of  topics.  IMany  of  the  headings,  however,  are,  as 
above  explained,  simply  catch-titles,  taken  from  some 
prominent  word  or  expression.  Most  of  the  contents 
are  preceptive  merely ;  some  are  a  travesty  of  Bible  his- 
tory; others  recount  in  a  vague  and  fragmentary  way 
incidents  in  the  prophet's  personal  or  public  career ;  and 
a  few  are  somewhat  speculative.  Generally  these  ele- 
ments are  indiscriminately  mixed  in  the  same  piece. 

■^■"•P-    Tit.1fiintl,„nM.,;n»l  ..^o.ofiChnp-    T;ti„;„.i,orv.;„!„„,     No.  of 


^_^, _      Title  in  the  Original.  ^°^-°l  i '^,'^^P-    Title  in  the  Original.   ^  _.^^^^ 

1.  Preface 7 !  23!  The  True  Believers .  118 

2.  The  Cow 2S6|  24.  Light 74 

3.  The  Family  of  Imraa  200,  25.  Al-Forkau  IT/ie  Ko- 

4.  Women lT5i  »•««] 77 

5.  The  Table 1-20    2G.  The  Poets 227 

C.  Cattle 165|  27.  The  Ant 93 

7.  Al-Araf 2061  28.  The  Story 87 

S.TheSpoils 70;  29.  The  Spider 09 

9.  The  Declaration  of  30.  The  Greeks 60 

Immunity  iConiw-     .      31.  Lokman 34 

■WJU] 1.59    32.  Adoration 29 

10.  Jonas 109    33.  The  Confederates  . .  73 

11.  Ilud 1231  34.  Saba 54 

12.  Joseph Ill:  35.  TheCreator  [.l»!/;e?.s-]  45 

13.  Thunder 43l  30.  Y.  S.  [I.  S.] 83 

14.  Abraham 52:  37.  Those  who  rank  them- 


15.  A\-ne]n\[.rheFti<jht] 
10.  The  Bee 12S 

17.  The  Night  Journey.  110 

18.  The  Cave Ill 

19.  Mary so 

20.  T.  H 134 

21.  The  Prophets 112 

22.  The  Pilgrimage  ....    7S 


selves  iu  Order  [The 

Classes-] 1S2 

3S.  S 86 

39.  The  Troops 75 

40.  The  True  Believers.    85 

41.  Are    distinctly   Ex- 

plained lExplana- 
tioit] 54 


<^,'"'P-   Title  in  the  Origin..!.  ^'^■"1  '^'"'P- 
ter.  °  V  erses. 

42.  Consultation 53 

43.  The   Ornaments    of 

God  [Uresiil 89 

44.  Smoke 67 

45.  The  Kneeling 36 

40.  Al-Ahkaf 35 

47.  Mohammed[T/ieBa«-  82, 

tie-] 38    83, 

4S.  The  Victory 29 

49.  The    Inner    Apart-  84, 

ments  VSanctuanil    IS   85. 

50.  K ■..     45    86. 

51.  The  Dispersing  [Z)Veaf/t     87, 

of  the  mnds] 60    88, 

52.  The  Mountain 48 

53.  The  Star 61    89, 

54.  The  Moon 55    90, 

55.  The  Merciful 78 

60.  ThelnevitableCJi/dfir-  91 

ment] 99    92, 

57.  Iron 29    9: 

58.  She    who   Disputed 

[The  Complaint] . .     22 

59.  TheEmigratiou  [The 

Assembly] 24    95, 

GO.  Shewhoistried[r/te  96, 

Proof] 13 

61.  Battle  Array 14 

C2.  The  Assembly  [Fri- 

dan] 11 

63.  The  Hypocrites  [Im-         08, 

-pioxis]   11    99, 

64.  Mutual  Deceit  [Knav-       100, 

ery] 18  101, 

65.  Divorce 12 

66.  Prohibition 12 

67.  The  Kingdom 30 

OS.  The  Pen 52 

69.  Thelnfallible  [Thcin-       103, 

evitable  Day] 52  104 

70.  The  Steps  [The  Class-       10.5 

es] 44  106, 

71.  Noah 28  107. 

72.  The  Genii 28 

73.  TheWrappedupETOc       108 

Prophet  in  his  Dress]  19  109, 

74.  TheCovered[rAe.Va«-      110, 

tie] 55  111, 

75.  The  Resurrection....  40  112, 

76.  Man SI 

77.  Those  who  are  sent       113, 

[TIieMesseufiers]...  50 
73.  The[Im])ortant]News40  114, 
79.  Those  who  tear  forth 

Manner  of  Preservation. — ^IVIohammed's  professed  rev- 
elations were  made  at  intervals  extending  over  a  period 
of  twenty-three  years,  when  the  canon  was  closed.  We 
have  no  certain  information  about  the  manner  of  their 
preservation  during  tlie  prophet's  life.  Manj^  persons 
wrote  them  on  palm-leaves  and  various  other  substances 
which  were  conveniently  at  hand.  A  writer  in..the  Cal- 
cutta Review  (xix,  8)  says :  '•  In  the  latter  part  of  his  ca- 
reer the  prophet  had  many  Arabic  amaiuienses ;  some  of 
them  occasional,  as  Ali  and  Othman,  others  official,  as 
Zeid  ibn-Thabit  (who  also  learned  Hebrew  expressly  in 
order  to  conduct  Mohammed's  business  at  Medina).  In 
WAckidy's  collection  of  dispatches  the  writers  are  men- 
tioned, and  they  amount  to  fourteen.  Some  say  there 
were  four-and-twenty  of  his  followers  whom  he  used 
more  or  less  as  scribes,  others  as  many  as  forty-two 
(Weil's  Mohammed,  p.  350).  In  his  early  life  at  Jlecca 
he  could  not  have  had  these  facilities,  but  even  then 
his  wife,  Khadija  (who  coidd  read  the  sacred  Scriptures), 
might  have  recorded  his  revelations;  or  Waraca,  j\li,  or 
Abu-Bekr.  At  Medina,  Obey  ibn-Kab  is  mentioned  as 
one  who  used  to  record  the  inspired  recitations  of  Mo- 
hammed (Wackid}',  p.  277i).  Abdallah  ibn-Sad,  anoth- 
er, was  excepted  from  the  Meccan  amnesty  because  he 
had  falsified  the  revelation  dictated  to  him  by  the  proph- 
et (Weil's  JfokatHmed).  It  is  also  evident  that  tlie  rev- 
elations were  recorded,  because  they  are  frequently  call- 
ed throughout  the  Koran  itself  Kitab, '  tlie  writing,'  i.  e. 
Scriptures."  Besides  this,  however,  there  were  many 
persons  who  recited  these  sayings  daily,  considering 
their  repetition  to  be  a  duty,  and  persons  generally  re- 
peated some  parts  of  them.  It  was  said  that  .some  could 
repeat  literally  every  word  of  the  Koran.  The  recital 
of  a  portion  of  it  was  essential  iu  everj'  celebration  of 


[  The   Ministers    of 

Vengeaiice] 46 

He  Frowned  [The 

Frown] 42 

TheFoldiug  upLIiarfc- 

vtt'.ss] 29 

The  Cleaving  asunder  19 
Those  who  give  short 

Measure  or  Weiglit  36 
The  Rending  asunder  23 
The  Celestial  Signs,.  22 
The  Nocturnal  Star..  17 

The  Most  High 19 

The     Overwhelming 

[The  Gloomy  Veil] .  26 

The  Daybreak 30 

The    Territory   [The 

City] 20 

The  Suu 15 

The  Night 21 

The  Brightness  [The 

Sun  in  Meridian] . .  11 
Have  we  not  opened? 

[The  Exposition]...     8 

TheJ?ig-[ti-ee] 8 

The  Congealed  Blood 

[The  Union  of  the 

Se.res] 19 

Al-Kadir  [The  Cele- 
brated Night] 5 

The  Evidence S 

The  Earthquake 8 

The  War  Hor.'^es 11 

The  Striking  [Day  of 

Calamities] 10 

The  Enmlous  Desire 

ofMultiplyiug[Lore 

of  Gain] S 

The  Afternoon 3 

The  Slanderer 9 

The  Elephant 5 

Koreish 4 

Necessaries  [The  Siic- 

coring  Hand] 7 

Al-Kaliiar 3 

The  Unbelievers 0 

Assistance 3 

Abu  Laheb 5 

The    Declaratio.i    of 

God's  Unit V 4 

The   Daybreak  [God 

of  Morning] 5 

Man 6 


KORAN 


152 


KORAN 


public  worship,  and  its  private  perusal  was  urged  as  a 
duty  and  considered  a  iirivilege.  No  order  was,  how- 
ever, observed  in  their  perusal,  in  public  the  imam  or 
preacher  selecting  according  to  his  own  pleasure. 

Colkded  hi/  Zeid. — ]\Iany  of  the  best  memorizers  of 
the  Koran  were  slain  in  battle  at  Yemana,  whereupon 
Omar  advised  caliph  Abu-Bckr,  "as  tlie  battle  might 
again  wax  hot  among  the  repeaters  of  the  Koran,"  that 
he  shoidd  appoint  Zeid  to_  collect  from  all  sources  the 
matter  of  the  Koran.  This  Zeid  did  from  date-leaves, 
tablets  of  white  stones,  breasts  of  men,  fragments  of 
parchment  and  paper,  and  pieces  of  leather,  and  the 
shoulder  and  rib  bones  of  camels  and  goats.  Sale  sup- 
poses that  Zeid  did  not  compile,  but  merely  reduced  to 
order  the  various  suras.  This,  however,  was  but  im- 
perfectly done.  Zeid's  copy  was  committed  to  the  care 
of  Ilafza,  the  daughter  of  Omar. 

Recension  in  Othmwis  Time. — A  variety  of  expres- 
sion either  originally  prevailed,  or  soon  crept  into  cop- 
ies made  from  Zeid's  edition.  The  Koran  was  "  one," 
but  if  there  were  several  varying  texts  where  would  be 
its  unity  ?  There  were  marked  differences  between  the 
Syrian  and  Iranian  readings.  The  caliph  Othman  or- 
dered Zeid  and  three  of  the  Koreish  (q.  v.)  to  reproduce 
an  authorized  version  from  the  copy  of  Hafza,  and  this 
was  subsequentl}'  sent  into  all  the  principal  cities,  all  pre- 
vious copies  being  directed  to  be  burned.  This  recen- 
sion being  objected  to  in  modern  times  on  the  ground 
that  the  Koran  is  incorruptible  and  eternal,  and  pre- 
sers'ed  from  all  error  and  variety  of  readings  by  the  mi- 
raculous interposition  of  God,  the  Mohammedans  now 
say  that  it  was  originally  revealed  in  seven  different 
dialects  of  the  Arabic  tongue,  and  that  the  men  in  ques- 
tion only  selected  from  these.  The  variations  in  the 
copies  of  Othman's  edition  are  marvellously  few.  There 
is  probably  no  other  work  which  has  remained  twelve 
ccuturies  with  so  pure  a  text. 

A  uthenticity. — It  would  appear  difficult,  notwithstand- 
ing the  care  taken  since  Othman's  day,  to  prove  that 
the  Koran  has  been  entirely  uncorrnpted.  The  Shiite 
Mussidmans  say  that  Othman  struck  out  ten  sections, 
or  one  fourth  part  of  the  whole;  and  the  Dahistdn, 
translated  by  Shea  and  Iroyer  (ii,  3G8),  contains  one  of 
the  sections  said  to  have  been  struck  out.  Again,  whlje 
the  Koran  was  in  the  care  of  Hafza,  one  of  Mohammed's 
wives,  we  cannot  say  that  it  was  not  in  any  way  tam- 
pered with.  The  balance  of  evidence,  however,  is  prob- 
ably against  the  views  of  the  Shiite  sect.  At  the  time 
of  the  recension  there  were  multitudes  who  had  tran- 
scripts, and  who  remembered  accurately  what  thcj'  had 
heard.  There  was  bitter  political  enmity  to  Othman, 
headed  by  Ali,  who  would  gladly  have  seized  on  any 
such  Haw  or  failure.  Abu-Bekr  was  a  sincere  follower 
of  Mohammed,  and  all  the  people  seem  to  have  been  ear- 
nest in  their  endeavor  to  reproduce  the  divine  message. 
The  compilation  was  made  within  two  years  of  the 
prophet's  death,  while  yet  there  were  official  reciters 
and  tutors  of  the  Koran  in  every  quarter.  The  very 
fragmentary  and  patchwork  character  of  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  book  bears  marks  of  honesty;  yet  passages 
revealed  at  various  periods  may,  after  all,  not  be  all  in- 
cluded. The  very  call  fur  the  recension  of  Othman's  is, 
on  the  other  hand,  urged  as  evidence  of  acknowledged 
corruiition. 

Tlip  Koran  as  a  Rerxdation. — The  Jlohammedan  the- 
ory is  tliat  the  Koran  is  eternal  and  uncreated,  and  was 
first  ^NTJtten  in  heaven  on  a  table  of  vast  size,  called 
"  the  Treserved  Table ;"  that  a  copy  of  this  volume  was 
made  on  paper,  and  brought  by  (Jaliriel  down  to  the 
lowest  heaven  in  the  month  of  Ilamadan,  from  which 
copy  the  work  was  at  various  times  communicated  to 
the  prophet.  The  whole  «-as  shown  to  Jlohammed 
once  a  year,  and  the  last  3-ear  of  his  life  he  sa^y  it  twice. 

The  evidence  relied  on  to  prove  its  inspiration,  so  far 
as  fonu<l  within  the  Koran  itself,  is  as  follows: 

1.  I'liat  Mohammed  was  furcrold  l)y  .Tesus  in  these 
words :  '■  Oh  children  of  Israel.  1  bring  glad  tidings  of 


an  apostle  who  shall  come  after  me,  whose  name  shall 
be  Ahmad"  (sura  0).  Ahmad  is  from  the  same  root, 
and  has  almost  the  samjc  meaning  as  Mohammed.  A 
passage  of  the  New  Test.  (John  xvi,  7),  in  which  Christ 
promises  to  send  the  Comforter,  is  wrested  for  the  same 
service,  as  also  are  Psa.  i,  2,  and  Deut.  xxxiii,  2. 

2.  Some  suppose  that  the  Koran  contains  (iccounts  of 
miracles  worked  by  Mohammed.  The  2-l:th  sura  cf)n- 
tains  what  some  ^Mohammedans  interpret  as  an  account 
of  Mohammed's  spliltin//  the  moon.  The  jMohammedan 
critics  are  not  agreed  themselves  as  to  whether  the 
prophet  there  speaks  in  the  future  or  past  tense.  Wheth- 
er he  does  not  merely  alhrm  that  the  moon  shall  be  split 
before  the  day  of  judgment  admits  of  question.  Mo- 
hammed elsewhere  in  the  Koran  distinctly  and  repeat- 
edly denies  that  he  could  or  would  work  miracles  (sura 
13-17,  etc.).  The  night  journey  of  Mohammed  from 
Mecca  to  Jerusalem  (sura  17),  and  the  conversion  of  the 
jinns  or  genii  who  heard  him  reading  the  Koran  (sura 
4G,  72),  are  also  referred  to  as  miracles  by  the  ]M(iham- 
medans,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  the  language  in  the  Koran 
was  intended  to  assert  what  it  has  since  been  made  to 
support.  Various  passages  are  referred  to  by  ]\Ioliam- 
medans  to  show  that  their  prophet  foretold  future  events 
— as  the  account  in  the  30th  sura  about  the  Greeks  be- 
ing overcome;  but  the  commentators  are  not  agreed  as 
to  the  reference  (sura  24,  27-48). 

3.  But  the  predictions  in  the  Koran  were  never  re- 
ferred to  as  evidence  of  Jlohammed's  inspiration.  The 
real  testimony  to  the  inspiration  of  the  Koran  appealed 
to  throughout  by  IMoharamedans  is  the  book  itself.  The 
author  of  it  everj-where  appeals  to  it  as  a  literary  mira- 
cle:  it  is  "uncreated"  and  ".eternal"  (Sale,  p.  4(5);  it 
could  not  have  been  composed  by  any  but  God  (Sale,  p. 
160) ;  Mohammed  challenges  men  and  genii  to  produce 
a  chapter  like  it  (Sale,  p.  109-235) ;  no  revelation  could 
be  more  self-evident  (Sale,  p.  130) ;  it  contains  all  things 
necessarj^  to  know  (Sale,  p.  221,  273);  it  was  so  won- 
derful that  it  was  traduced  by  its  enemies  as  a  piece  of 
sorcery  (Sale,  p.  100),  as  a  poetical  composition  (Sale,  p. 
304);  it  was  not  liable  to  corruption  (Sale,  p.  176),  and 
should  not  be  touched  by  the  ceremoniallv  unclean  (Sale, 
p.  437). 

The  Style  of  the  Koran. — It  is  difficult  to  make  a  pre- 
cise judgment  of  its  merits.  It  was  written  in  a  dialect 
of  Arabic  which  maj--  now  almost  be  called  a  dead  lan- 
guage. It  is  composed  in  a  kind  of  balanced  prose, 
with  frequent  rhyming  terminations;  a  sort  of  compo- 
sition once  greatly  admired  by  the  Syrian  Christians, 
but  in  Europe  neither  the  poetic  cadence  nor  the  jingling 
sound  is  deemed  suitable  to  prose  composition.  Some 
learned  Mussulmans  have  not  considered  it  remarkably 
beautiful  (Pocock's  Specimen  Hist.  Arabiim,  ed.  White, 
p.  224 ;  IMaracci,  Prodi-omiis,  iii,  75 ;  Lee's  J\Iarti/n's 
Tracts,  p.  124,  135).  (iibbon  is  probably  too  severe  in 
his  judgment  if  his  remarks  have  reference  to  its  man- 
ner and  not  to  its  matter,  when  he  calls  it  an  "incohe- 
rent rhapsody  of  fable,  and  precept,  and  declamation, 
which  sometimes  crawls  in  the  dust,  and  sometimes  is 
lost  in  the  clouds"  (I)ecl.  and  Fall  Roman  Empire,  i,  p. 
305,  Milman's  edition).  Some  affirm  that  Hamzah  ben- 
Ahmed  wrote  ^  book  against  the  Koran  with  at  least 
equal  elegance ;  and  !Maslema  another,  which  surjiassed 
it,  and  occasioned  a  defection  of  a  great  number  of  JIus- 
sulmans.  There  is  perhaps  little  reason  to  differ  from 
the  representations  of  Mr.  Sale  when  he  says,  "  The  Ko- 
ran is  usually  allowed  to  be  writtoi  with  the  utmost  el- 
egance and  purity  of  language  in  the  dialect  of  the  Ko- 
reish, the  most  noble  and  polite  of  all  the  Arabians,  but 
with  some  mixture,  though  very  rarely,  of  other  dia- 
lects. It  is  confessedly  the  standard  of  the  Arabic 
tongue,  and,  as  the  more  orthodox  believe,  and  are 
taught  by  the  book  itself,  inimitable  by  any  human  pen 
(though  some  sectaries  have  been  of  another  opinion), 
and  therefore  insisted  on  as  a  permanent  miracle,  great- 
er than  that  of  raising  the  dead,  and  alone  sufficient  to 
convince  the  world  of  its  divine  original"  ( A'o;-a??,  p. 43). 


KORAN 


153 


KORAN 


Relation  to  the  Bible. — The  Koran  maintains  that  rev- 
elation is  gradual,  and  that  God  has  given  written  rev- 
elations to  many  prophets  from  time  to  time,  nons  of 
which  are  extant  except  the  I'entateuch  of  Moses,  the 
Psalms  of  David,  and  the  Gospel  of  Jesus ;  that  God 
revives,  and  republishes  or  reproduces  from  time  to  time 
his  revelations  through  his  prophets,  according  to  the 
necessit}-^  of  the  case.  The  three  revelations — Jewish, 
Christian,  and  that  of  the  Mussidman — are  equally  in- 
spired and  divine.  The  preceding  Scriptures  are,  how- 
ever, to  be  interpreted  according  to  the  latest  revelation, 
and  are  liable  to  have  their  ordinances  modified  in  con- 
formity therewith.  A  distinction  is  thus  made  between 
belie/  in  and  oUir/ntion  to  obey  these  precepts.  The 
Jewish  and  Christian  Scriptures  are  variously  spoken 
of  as  '•  the  Word  of  God,"  "  Book  of  God,"  Taiirdt,  etc. ; 
they  are  described  as  "  revelations  made  bj-  God  in  ages 
preceding  the  Koran."  Exhortations  are  given  "to 
judge"  in  accordance  therewith.  Mohammed  himself 
was  sent  "  to  attest  the  former  Scrijjtures,"  etc.  (Com- 
pare passages  in  the  following  suras :  2,  8,  4.  5,  G,  7,  P, 
10,  II,  12,  is,  16,  17,  19,  20,  21,  23,  25,  26,  28,  20,  32,  34, 
35,  37,  39,  40,  41,  42,  43, 45,  46,  47,  48,  53,  54,  61,  62,  6C, 
74,  80,  87,  98.) 

There  are  various  correspondences  with  these  Scrip- 
tures, as  in  the  accounts  of  the  fall  of  Ad.am  and  Eve, 
the  narratives  of  Noah  and  the  deluge,  of  Abraham, 
Sarah,  Lot,  Isaac,  Moses,  Joseph,  Zacharias,  John  the 
Baptist,  etc.  The  contradictions  are,  however,  innumer- 
able :  e.  g.  one  of  Noah's  sons  was  drowned  in  the  Del- 
uge (sura  11);  the  wife  of  Pharaoh  saved  Moses  (sura 
28)  ;  the  wind  was  subject  to  Solomon  (sura  21 )  ;  Solo- 
mon was  driven  from  his  kingdom  ;  devils  built  for  Sol- 
omon, other  devils  dived  for  him  (ibid.) ;  thousands  of 
dead  Israelites  were  raised  to  life  (sura  3) ;  Ezra  and 
his  ass  died  for  a  hundred  years,  and  were  then  raised 
to  life  (sura  2) ;  the  grossest  being  that  Jesus  teas  not 
crucified,  and  is  not  the  Son  of  God  (sura  4). 

Sources  of  Jeioish  and  Christian  Elements. — The  Jew- 
ish and  Christian  elements  in  the  Koran  are  readily  to 
be  accounted  for.  Jews  from  all  parts  of  Arabia  were  in 
yearly  attendance  at  the  great  fairs  of  Ocatz,  Mujanna, 
Dzul,  Majaz,  etc.,  and  great  mercantile  journeys  were 
made  from  iMecca  to  Syria,  Yemen,  and  Abyssinia  at 
least  once  a  year.  Christianity  was  established  in  these 
quarters.  Some  Arabs  even  reached  much  further. 
Othman  ibn-Huweirith,  a  citizen  of  Mecca,  went  to 
Constantinople,  and  subsequently  returned  a  baptized 
Christian.  Arabs  frequented  the  Christian  courts  of 
Hira  and  Ghassan,  which  adjoined  Arabia  on  the  north. 
Mohannned  himself  had  been  twice  to  Medina.  Blore 
than  a  hundred  of  his  followers  found  refuge  in  the 
Christian  court  of  Abyssinia,  both  before  and  after  the 
Hegira.  Embassies  were  sent  by  Mohammed  to  the 
Koman  and  Persian  courts,  to  Abyssinian  and  other 
Christian  chiefs.  "Mohammed  had  connection  with 
Jews  and  Christians  of  every  quarter  of  the  civilized 
world"  (Muir's  Teslimoni/,  p.  118, 119).  There  are,  more- 
over, many  prominent  individual  cases  :  Zeid  was  of 
Syria,  among  whom  Cliristianity  prevailed.  He  was 
captured  and  sold  into  slavery,  and  was  presented  to 
Khadija  shortly  after  her  marriage  to  Mohammed,  who 
loved  liim,  and  adopted  him  as  his  own  son.  He  learned 
Hebrew.  Waraca,  a  cousin  of  Khadija,  was  a  convert 
to  Christianity,  acquainted  with  the  religious  tenets  and 
sacred  Scriptures  of  the  Jews  and  Christians,  cofiied  or 
translated  some  portion  of  the  Gospel  in  Arabic  or  He- 
brew, and  was  of  the  family  of  Mohammed.  The  slaves 
generally  of  Mecca  knew  something  of  Christianity  and 
Judaism  (Muir's  Mohammed). 

Mohammedans,  however,  do  not  admit  that  our  pres- 
ent Scriptures  are  trustworthy,  but  believe  them  to  liave 
been  interpolated  and  otherwise  coiTupted.  Tlicy  quote 
a  great  number  of  passages  of  the  Koran  to  establish 
this.  Mr.  Muir  {Testimonji,  p.  119  sq.)  nevertheless 
shows  that  there  is  no  charge  in  tlie  Koran  against  the 
Christians  on  this  account,  and  that  even  those  against 


the  Jews  are  of  "  hiding,  concealing"  the  whole,  and  uot 
of  corrupting. 

Doctrines  and  Hforxils. — The  contents  of  the  Koran 
as  the  basis  of  Mohammedanism  will  be  considered  un- 
der that  head,  while  for  questions  more  closely  connect- 
ed with  authorship  and  chronology  we  must  refer  to 
MoHAM.MED.  Brietiy  it  may  be  stated  here  that  "the 
chief  doctrine  laid  down  in  it  is  the  unity  of  God,  and 
the  existence  of  but  one  true  religion,  with  changeable 
ceremonies.  When  mankind  turned  from  it  at  different 
times,  God  sent  prophets  to  lead  them  back  to  truth ; 
Moses,  Christ,  and  l\Iohammed  being  the  most  distin- 
guished. Both  punishments  for  the  sinner  and  rewards 
for  the  pious  are  depicted  with  great  diffusencss,  and 
exemplified  chiefly  by  stories  taken  from  the  Bible,  the 
ai)Ocryphal  writings,  and  the  ISIidrash.  Special  laws  and 
directions,  admonitions  to  moral  and  divine  virtues,  more 
particularly  to  a  complete  and  unconditional  resignation 
to  God's  will,  legends,  principally  relating  to  the  patri- 
archs, and,  almost  without  exception,  borrowed  from  the 
Jewish  writings  (known  to  IMohammed  by  oral  commu- 
nication onlj-,  a  circumstance  which  accounts  for  their 
often  odd  confusion),  form  the  bulk  of  the  book,  which 
throughout  bears  the  most  palpable  traces  of  Jewish  in- 
fluence" (Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v.). 

Outward  Reverence. — The  ]\Iohammedans  regard  the 
Koran  witli  great  esteem,  never  holding  it  below  the 
girdle  nor  touching  it  without  purification.  It  is  con- 
sulted on  all  matters  of  importance,  and  is  the  basis  of 
the  entire  civil  code  and  procedure  of  all  IMohammcdan 
countries.  Sentences  from  it  are  inscribed  on  tlicir  ban- 
ners :  they  are  written  on  tissue  paper,  and  are  suspend- 
ed in  gold  and  silver  lockets  from  their  necks.  The  ma- 
terials of  its  binding  are  often  costly,  being  emblazoned 
with  gold  and  precious  stones.  Mohammedans  much 
dislike  to  see  the  book  in  the  hands  of  "infidels,"  as 
they  call  all  but  Islamites.  The  bazaars  or  streets  in 
which  if  is  sold  in  Constantinople  have  become  almost 
as  sacred  as  mosques,  and  the  dealers  in  the  Koran  have 
come  to  be  as  much  reverenced  as  the  preacher.  Ke- 
mal  Bey  has  recently  had  photographed  a  famous  copy 
of  the  Koran,  written  nearly  tvio  hundred  vears  ago  (in 
1004  of  the  Ilegira)  by  Ilafiz  Osman,  from"  the  MSS.  of 
Al-Kari,  a  celebrated  doctor  {friend  of  India,  Nov.  2, 
1871 ;  also  A  thenaum).  Multitudes  of  Mussulmans  know 
the  entire  Koran  by  heart ;  these  are  called  Ilatiz,  and 
are  much  venerated  in  consequence. 

Ti-anslations,  Commentaries,  Editions,  etc.  —  Various 
versions  of  the  Koran  have  been  made.  IMohammedans 
do  not  object  to  this  (Sale,  p.  50).  Of  French  transla- 
tions we  have  those  of  Du  Koyer,  Savary  (with  notes, 
1783),  Garcia  do  Tassy  (1820),  and  Kassi  Mirski  (1840). 
In  Latin  there  is  an  early  one  (A.D.  1143)  by  Ketencn- 
sis,  an  Englishman  (Basle,  1543),  and  an  Italian  one  from 
it — both  condemned  by  Sale.  The  Latin  transL-ftion  of 
Maracci  (1698)  is  much  quoted  by  authors.  In  German 
we  have  those  of  Megerlin  (1772),Wahl  (1828),  and  UU- 
mann  (1840).  In  English  there  is  Kodwell's  (1862),  and 
the  excellent  one  with  notes  by  George  Sale  (first  edit. 
1734;  last,  Lond.  1861) ;  also  Lane's  /Selections  from,  the 
Koran  (Lond.  1843,  12mo).  Besides  these  there  are  a 
great  number  of  Persian,  Turkish,  Malay,  Hindustani, 
and  other  translations,  made  for  the  benefit  of  the  vari- 
ous Eastern  Moslems. 

Of  concordances  to  the  Koran  may  be  mentioned  tliat 
of  Flligel  (Leipz.  1842),  and  the  Niijiim  al-FCirkan  (Cal- 
cutta, 1811). 

The  Koran  has  been  commented  upon  so  often  that 
the  names  of  the  commentators  alone  would  fill  volumes. 
Thus,  the  library  of  Tripoli,  in  Syria,  is  reported  to  liave 
once  contained  no  less  than  20,000  commentaries.  The 
most  renowned  are  those  of  Samachshari  (died  539  He- 
gira), Beidhavi  (died  685  or  716  Hegira),  Malialli  (died 
870  Hegira),  and  Sovuti  (died  91 1  Hegira).  The  Amer- 
ican Oriental  Society  has  in  its  library  at  New  Haven  a 
superior  copy  of  the  Persian  Commentary  on  the  Koran, 
by  Kamiil  ed-Din  Husam  (2  vols,  hi  one,  foUo).    For  a 


KORATHITE 


154 


KOREISH 


full  list  of  tliese  and  tlie  Oriental  translations  and  edi- 
tions of  tilt'  Koran,  sec  Triil hut's  pr.niijhlct,  .1  Cataloijue 
of  A  ruble,  Persian,  and  TurkUh  Books  printed  in  the 
East  (Ei^j-pt,  Tunis,  Oiidh,  Bombay,  etc.).     See  Au.vbic 

L.VNGUAdE. 

The  principal  editions  are  those  of  Hinkelmann  (Ham- 
burg. 1094),  Maracoi  (Padua,  1G98),  Fliigel  (Leipzig,  3d 
cd.  1838,  a  splendid  one),  besides  many  editions  (of  small 
critical  value)  printed  in  St.  Petersburg,  Kasan,  Teheran, 
Calcutta,  Cawnpore,  Serampore,  and  the  many  newly- 
erected  Indian  jiresscs. 

Literature. — In  addition  to  the  above,  special  refer- 
ence may  be  made  to  W.  3Iuir,  The  Testimony  borne  bij 
the  Koran  to  the  Jewish  and  Christian  Scriptures  (Alla- 
habad. India,  1860) ;  Prof.  Gerock,  Christoloyie  des  Koran 
(Hamburg,  1839) ;  Muir,  Life  of  Mahomet  (Lond.  18G0), 
A-ol.  iv  (the  first  volume  being  almost  entirely  occupied 
with  a  discussion  of  the  sources  available  for  such  a  bi- 
ograjjliy) ;  a  valuable  article  in  the  Calcutta  Review,  vol. 
xix;  the  Journal  Asiatique,  July,  1838,  p.  41  sq. ;  De 
Tassy,  Doctrines  et  devoirs  de  la  Religion  Musulniane 
tires  du  Coi-an;  White  {Bampton  Lectures'),  Comjnirison 
of  Mohammedanism  and  Christianity ;  Neal,  Islamism,  its 
Rise  and  Progress  (2  vols.  12mo — valueless) ;  LMters  to 
Indian  Youth,  hy  Dr.  Murray  Mitchell,  of  Bombay ;  Life 
and Reiiyion  of  Mohammed,in  accordance  with  the  Shiite 
Traditions  of  the  IJezat  al-Kulud  (translated  from  the 
Persian  by  Kev.  J.  L.  Merrick,  Boston,  1850) ;  Noldeke 
(Theodor),  Gesch.  d.  Quoran  (Getting.  1860) ;  \Veil,//w- 
torische  Einleit.  in  den  Koran  (Bielf.  1844) ;  Weil,  Mo- 
hammed der  Prophet  sein  Leben  u.  s.  I^ehre  (Stuttg.  1843, 
8vo);  Sprenger, /.eie/i  u.  I^ehre  von  Muhammed  (Berlin, 
18G1)  ;  Ivreraer,  Alfred  von,  Gesch.  d.  herrschenden  Ideen 
des  /slums  (Lpz.  1868) ;  Perceval  (Caus'fein  de),  Essai  sur 
Vhistoire  des  Arabes,  (ivant  I'lslamisme, pendant  I'ejwque 
de  Mahomet,  et  jusqu'a  la  reduction  de  iouies  les  tribus 
sous  la  lot  J/uA-su/marte  (Paris,  1847-8, 3  vols.  8vo);  and 
especially  Series  of  Essays  on  the  Life  of  Mohammed, 
and  Subjects  subsidiary  thereto,  by  Scyd  Ahmed  Khan 
Bahadcr  (London,  1870) ;  Amer.Presb.  Rev.  Oct.  1862,  p. 
754;  Revue  des  deux  Mondes,  Sept.  1, 1865.  On  the  Chris- 
tology  of  the  Koran,  see  the  Studien  u.  Krit.  1838-1847; 
\\.\ilo,  J oui-^tial  Sacred  lAter.  xxviii,  479;  Lond,  Quart. 
Review,  Oct.  1869,  p.  160  sq.      (J.  T.  G.) 

Ko'rathite  (Numb,  xxvi,  58).     See  Koraiiite. 

Koides,  Berenne,  a  Gemian  writer  on  exegetical 
theology,  was  born  at  Liibeck  Oct.  27, 1762,  and  studied 
at  the  universities  of  Kiel,  Leipzig,  and  Jena.  In  1793 
he  became  librarian  of  the  university  at  Kiel,  and  died 
there  Feb.  5, 1823.  His  exegetical  works  are,  Observa- 
tionum  in  Joucb  Oracula  Spccimina  (Jena,  1788): — Ruth 
ex  versions  Sejituayinta  inteipretuni  (Jena,  1788). — Hoe- 
fer,  Nouv.  Bioy.  Generale,  xxviii,  84. 

Ko're  (Hebrew  Ko)-e',  X'lip,  but  H';{p  in  1  Chron. 
xxvi,  1,  a partridye,  as  in  1  Sam.  xxvi,  20;  Sept.  Koof, 
but  Kwpi)  V.  r.  Ko(j/;  in  2  Chron.  xxxi,  14),  tlie  name  of 
two  or  three  men.     Sec  also  Koraii. 

1.  A  Lcvitc  and  Temple-warden  of  the  Korahites,  of 
the  sons  of  Asaph,  and  father  of  Mcshelemiah  or  Shcle- 
miah  (1  (Jhron.  xxvi,  1).  B.C.  1014.  He  was  probably 
identical  with  the  son  of  Kbiasaph  and  father  of  Shal- 
lum,  Levites  of  the  family  of  Korah,  engaged  in  the 
same  service  (I  Chron.  ix,  19). 

2.  Son  of  Imnah,  a  Lcvitical  porter  of  the  east  gate, 
ajipointed  by  Hezckiah  to  take  cliargc  of  the  Temple 
olTcrings  (2  Chron.  xxxi,  14  ).     B.C.  726. 

3.  Hy  erriineous  translation  in  the  A.Y.  at  1  Chron. 
xxvi,  19  for  Koraiiite  (q.  v.). 

Koreish  is  the  name  of  a  celebrated  aboriginal  tnbe 
of  Arabia,  from  whose  ranks  came  Mohammed,  the  foun- 
der of  Islam.  Tlie  iiiHuence  which  the  Koreish  must 
have  exerted  in  the  early  days  -of  IMohamme^l  is  appar- 
ent from  the  fact  that  they  exercised  the  guardianship 
over  the  Kaaba  (q.  v.).  When  Jlohannncd  claimed  for 
himself  the  dignity  of  a  prophet,  and  inveighed  against 
the  i)rimeval  superstition  of  the  Koreish  (ov  Meccans, 


as  they  are  sometimes  called,  after  their  principal  place 
of  residence,  the  city  of  Mecca),  he  was  denounced  by 
all  the  Koreish  tribe.  Many  of  his  people  were  stiU 
devoted  to  Sabaism  (q.  v.),  a  somewhat  refined  worship 
of  the  planetary  bodies  (in  aU  probability  the  belief  of 
the  Koreish  in  the  century  preceding  the  establishment 
of  the  ]\Iohammedan  creed;  compare  Sprenger,  Life  of 
Mohammed,  i,  170 ;  Milman's  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall 
of  the  Roinan  Empire, \,  92  sq. ;  Milman,  iMtin  Christi- 
anity, ii,  127 ;  and  the  article  Arabia,  vol.  i,  p.  342,  in 
this  Cyclopaedia),  while  many  others,  although  disbe- 
lieving the  general  idolatry  of  their  countrymen,  and 
not  yet  believers  in  Judaism,  or  in  the  corrupt  Christi- 
anity with  which  alone  they  were  acquainted,  were 
looking  for  a  revival  of  what  they  called  the  '"religion 
of  Abraham."  Indeed,  the  greater  the  number  of  Mo- 
hammed's converts,  the  greater  the  opposition  of  his 
tribe ;  for  had  not  the  new  religionists  dared  to  question 
the  sacredness  of  the  holy  temple,  and  call  their  ancient 
gods  idols,  and  their  ancestors  fools?  \^'ith  all  tlie  an- 
imosity of  an  established  priesthood  trembling  for  their 
dignity,  their  power,  and  their  wealth,  the  Koreish  re- 
sisted the  inroads  of  the  new  prophet,  and  though  there 
were  of  their  number  those  who  had  actually  longed  for 
the  propagation  of  a  monotheistic  faith,  they  now  spurn- 
ed its  establishment,  as  it  was  likely  to  give  superiority 
to  the  faihily  of  Hashem,  only  a  side  branch  of  the  pow- 
erful tribe.  JIany  of  the  converts  suffered  all  manner 
of  annoyance ;  not  a  few  were  subjected  also  to  punish- 
ment. In  consequence  of  this  contest,  Moliamnied  felt 
constrained  to  advise  his  followers  to  seek  refuge  in 
Abyssinia.  He  himself  had  hitherto  escaped  only  by 
the  heroic  conduct  of  his  adopted  father,  Abu  Talib, 
who,  though  not  a  believer  in  the  new  religion,  consid- 
ered it  his  dutj'  to  afford  protection  to  Mohammed  and 
all  his  kindred.  But  the  rapid  spread  of  the  Islamitish 
doctrines  made  the  Koreish  violent,  and  they  now  de- 
manded that  Jlohammed  should  be  delivered  into  their 
hands.  Upon  Abu  Talib's  refusal  to  comjily  with  their 
demands  a  feud  resulted,  and  all  the  Hashemites  were 
excommunicated.  The  Prophet  himself,  however,  they 
sought  to  remove  by  secret  assassination ;  a  price  was 
set  upon  his  head — 100  camels  and  1000  ounces  of  sil- 
ver— and  he  escaped  their  vengeance  only  by  the  self- 
possession  with  which  one  of  his  converts,  Nueim,  met 
the  would-be  assassin  Omar.  "  Ere  thou  doest  the  deed," 
said  Nueim,  "look  to  thine  own  near  kindred."  Omar 
rushed  infatuated  to  the  bouse  of  his  sister  Fatima  to 
punish  her  apostasy,  but  tliere  the  Koran  was  present- 
ed to  him ;  he  read  a  few  sentences,  and  was  changed 
into  a  follower  of  the  Prophet.  Yet  did  not  the  Koreish- 
ites  abate  their  hostility;  and  it  is  said  that  for  three 
long  years  Jlohammed  was  under  the  depressing  influ- 
ence of  the  interdict,  and  constantly  obliged  even  to 
change  his  bed  in  order  to  ehide  the  midnight  assassin 
(comp.  Sale's  Koran,  ch.  xxxvi;  D'llcrbclot,  Biblioth. 
Orientcde,  p.  445).  A  fugitive  from  his  native  city,  and 
despairing  of  making  ^lecca,  the  metropolis  of  the  na- 
tional religion,  the  centre  of  his  new  spiritual  empire,  he 
turned  to  the  friendly  city  of  Medina,  whither  more 
than  a  hundred  of  his  faithful  flock  had  preceded  him. 
Here  he  found  a  kind  reception,  and  succeeded  in  win- 
ning for  his  cause  and  creed  six  of  the  most  distinguish- 
ed citizens.  From  this  flight,  or  rather  from  the  first 
month  of  the  next  Arabic  year,  the  Mohanmiedan  ajra 
{Heyira,  q.  v.)  is  dated.     See  Mohamjied. 

Once  successfully  established  at  INIedina,  Moham- 
med's first  object  was  to  secure  his  native  stronghold, 
and  for  this  purpose  ho  declared  himself  at  war  with  the 
Meccans,  and  o])ened  the  contest  even  during  the  sacred 
month  of  the  Kajab.  The  fair  option  of  friendship, 
submission,  or  battle  was  proposed  to  the  enemies  of 
Mohammed.  If  tliey  should  profess  the  creed  of  Islam, 
they  were  to  be  admitted  to  all  the  temporal  and  spirit- 
ual benefits  of  his  ])rimitive  disciples,  and  to  march  un- 
der the  same  banner  to  extend  the  religion  which  they 
had  embraced.     In  his  very  first  battle  he  routed  the 


KORHITE 


155        KORNTHAL,  SOCIETY  OF 


Koreishites,  and,  notwithstanding  a  severe  \oss  and  a 
personal  wound  in  tlie  battle  near  Ohod,  his  power  had 
increased  so  rapidly  that  in  the  sixth  year  of  the  He- 
gira  he  determined  upon  and  proclaimed  a  pilgrimage 
to  Mecca.  Although  the  Meccans  did  not  suffer  him  to 
carry  out  tliis  project,  he  secured  their  recognition  as  a 
belligerent  and  equal  power  with  themselves  by  a  formal 
treaty  of  jieace,  into  which  they  mutually  entered.  In 
the  year  following  he  was  allowed  to  spend  a  three-days' 
pilgrimage  undisturbed  at  Mecca.  The  unfortunate 
attitude  of  tlie  Xoreishites  towards  jMohammed  during 
his  wars  with  the  Christians  emboldened  him  to  seek 
immediate  revenge  for  their  treachery-,  and  at  the  liead 
of  an  army  of  l(),0(iO  men  he  marched  against  Mec- 
ca, before  its  inhabitants  had  time  to  prepare  for  the 
attack,  without  difficulty  became  master  of  the  place, 
and  readily  secured  acknowledgment  as  chief  and  proj)!!- 
et.  Among  the  first  to  fall  jjrostrate  at  his  feet  were 
the  chiefs  of  the  Koreish.  "  What  mercy  can  you  ex- 
pect from  the  man  whom  j'ou  have  wTonged  ?"  "  We 
confide  in  the  generosity  of  our  kinsman."  '"And  you 
shall  not  confide  in  vain ;  begone !  You  are  safe,  you 
are  free."  With  the  conquest  of  Mecca  the  victory  of 
the  new  religion  was  secured  in  all  Arabia,  and  for  the 
history  succeeding  this  event  we  must  refer  to  Moiiaji- 
MED  and  Mohammedanism.  For  the  detail  of  the  three 
Koreishite  wars,  see  references  in  jNlilman's  Gibbon,  ii, 
133.     See  also  Mecca  ;  Medina.     (J.  II.W.) 

Kor'hite  (Exod.  vi,  24;  xxvi,  1;  1  Chron.  xii,  G; 
2  Chron.  xx,  19).     See  Kokaii. 

Kormczai  ICniga,  the  Russian  "corpus  juris  ca- 
nonici,"  or  canonical  lair,  is  supposed  to  have  become 
the  possession  of  the  llussians  in  the  days  of  Vladimir 
the  Great.  The  oldest  Codex  of  the  Kormczai  Kniga 
dates  from  1280,  and  was  found  in  the  cathedral  at  Nov- 
gorod ;  its  style  of  language  has.  led  to  the  suppo- 
sition that  it  was  translated  by  a  southern  Russian. 
The  Greek  original  has  never  yet  been  found.  The  Co- 
dex was  first  printed  Nov.  7,  1C50,  at  Moscow;  in  a 
somewhat  modified  form,  it  was  printed  by  the  Ras-Kol- 
niki  (q.  v.),  a  Russian  sect  at  Warsaw,  in  1786.  Since 
that  date  several  editions  have  been  published. 

The  Codex,  in  its  treatment  of  ecclesiastical  law,  is 
divided  into  seventy  chapters,  of  which  forty-one,  mak- 
ing part  i,  contain  the  canons  of  the  apostles,  the  coun- 
cils, and  the  canonical  letters;  the  remaining  chapters, 
making  part  ii,  contain  the  laws  of  the  Byzantine  em- 
perors, and  different  treatises  on  ecclesiastical  law.  The 
work  also  contains  historical  contributions  on  the  Greek 
and  Russian  Church,  the  Nomocunon  of  Photius,  a  notice 
of  the  name  and  edition  of  the  work,  the  edict  and  gift 
of  Constantino  to  Sylvester  (q.  v.),  and  a  polemical  trea- 
tise against  the  Latins.  See  Schlosser,  Morgenl.  oriho- 
doxe  Kirche  Russlands  (Heidelb.  1845) ;  Strahl,  Beilrage 
z.  rvssischen  Kirclienr/esch.  (Halle,  lS-27),  \^.  14;  Asch- 
bach,  Kirchen-Lexicon,  iii,  918.  Comp.  Fjiotius  ;  Rus- 
sian CiiiRcii.     (.J.  H.W.) 

Korner,  Johann  Gottfried,  a  German  theologian, 
was  bom  at  Weimar  Nov.  16, 1726,  entered  Leipzig  Uni- 
versity in  1743,  and  in  1749  became  catechct  at  St.  Pe- 
ter's Church  in  tliat  city.  In  17o2  he  was  made  sub- 
dean  at  Thomas  Church,  in  1756  at  St.  Nicholas  Church, 
and  in  1775  became  archdeacon.  Some  time  after  this 
he  was  appointed  regular  professor  of  theology  and  su- 
perintendent of  the  churches  of  Leipzig.  He  died  Jan- 
uary 4, 1785.  Kiirner  wrote  considerably,  but  his  contri- 
butions to  Church  History  are  of  especial  value.  His 
most  important  works  are,  Epitome  controversiarum  the- 
olofficurum  (Lipsi«,  1769,  8vo)  : — Vom  Colibat  der  Geist- 
lichen  (ibidem,  1784,  8vo") : — Erasmi  sentenUa  de  si/mholo 
aposfolico  ex  Riijlno  di'fensa  (ibid,  1749,  4to). — Dtiring, 
Gelfihrte  Theol.  Deutschlands,  ii,  157  sq. 

Koinmann,  Rupert,  a  Roman  Catholic  priest,  was 
born  at  Ingolstadt  in  1759  ;  entered  the  cloister  of  Prif- 
ling  in  1776 ;  took  the  vow  in  1777,  and  was  made  priest 
in  1780.     lu  order  further  to  prosecute  his  theological 


studies  he  went  to  the  University  of  Salzburg,  holding 
at  the  same  time  the  chaplaincy  at  Nonnenberg.  In 
1790  he  was  made  abbot  of  the  cloister  of  Prifiing.  He 
retired  from  this  monastery  after  its  secularization,  and 
died  Sept,  23, 1817.  Among  his  many  writings  we  have 
Die  Sibylle  der  Zeit, aits  der  Vorzeit,oder politische  Grund- 
sdtze  durch  die  Geschichte  hewdhrt,  nehst  einer  Ahhand- 
lumiiih. die  politische  Divination  (Frankf.  and  Leipz.  1810, 
2  vols.  8vo) : — Sihjlle  der  Rdigion  aits  der  Welt-  und  Men- 
schen-r/eschickte,  nebst  einer  Abhctndlinig  iiber  die  tjoldenen 
Zeitalter  (Munich,  1813, 8vo) : — Nachtriifje  zu  den  beiden 
Sibyllen  (with  a  biography  of  the  author,  Eegensburg, 
1818, 8vo). — WetzerundWelte,A'iVc/«e7i-Zea:jl-on,vol.vi, 
e.  V. 

Korntlial,  Society  of,  a  German  religious  com- 
munity, which  bears  its  name  from  the  place  where  it 
originated,  Kornthal,  in  Wiirtemberg.  Rationalistic  in- 
fluences in  the  Wiirtemberg  Church  had  T)ccasioned 
changes  in  the  liturgy  (1809)  obnoxious  to  many  who 
adhered  more  strictly  to  the  old  Lutheranism.  The 
millenarian  influence  of  .Tung  Stilling  and  Michael  Hahn 
incited  among  this  class  an  inclination  to  migrate,  espe- 
cially to  Russia,  where,  near  Tifiis,  in  1816-17,  several 
Wiirtemberg  settlements  were  formed,  while  many  hun- 
dred families  were  making  ready  to  follow.  The  king 
sought  means  to  restrain  this  movement,  and  in  1819 
accepted  the  suggestions  of  Gottlieb  Wilhclm  Hoffmann, 
burgomaster  of  Leonburg.  The  latter,  in  consequence 
of  deep  religious  impressions  received  in  his  youth,  was 
in  sympathy  with  the  Pietists,  and  now  proposed  to  re- 
tain for  the  state  a  valuable  class  of  citizens  by  securing 
for  them  the  establishment  of  a  community  similar  to 
that  authorized  at  Konigsbcrg  under  king  Frederick, 
simply  independent  in  its  religious  matters  of  the  Lu- 
theran Consistor\-.  The  motive  was  Pietistic.  and  not 
schismatic.  Hoffmann's  scheme  sought  to  reaUze  the 
spirit  of  the  apostolic  age;  required  as  condition  of  mem- 
bership "a  regenerate  state  of  lieart,  manifested  in  a 
true  life  which  springs  from  a  sense  of  pardoned  sin ;" 
and  demanded  careful  education  of  children  botli  men- 
tal and  industrial,  as  wtU  as  charitable  and  missionary 
work.  The  community,  as  established,  arose  from  the 
combination  of  three  distinct  elements,  viz.,  the  Old- 
Church  Pietism  represented  by  Hoffmann,  the  ^Moravian 
ideas  appearing  in  the  constitution  and  Church  service, 
and  the  partially  miUenarian  views  of  Hahn  to  which 
the  majority  adhered. 

Micliael  Hahn,  known  among  the  people  as  "Michel," 
was  at  this  time  sixty-two  years  old.  His  spirit  was 
that  of  .Jacob  Biihme.  Converted  at  the  age  of  twenty, 
he  passed  at  that  period,  and  subsequently,  through  an 
experience  of  religious  ecstasy.  Persecuted  by  his  fam- 
ily and  neighbors,  he  lived  ascetically,  was  much  in 
prayer,  addressed  religious  assemblies,  and  soon  won 
thousands  of  adherents,  who  sought  him  in  Sindlingen, 
where  he  settled  in  1794.  His  writings  were  dissemi- 
nated in  manuscript,  and  in  1817  his  followers  numbered 
18,000.  Hahn's  teaching,  with  its  acknowledged  de- 
fects, brought  a  spirit  of  practical  activity  to  the  aid  of 
a  too  subjective  Pietism.  The  Kornthal  society  was 
founded  Jan.  12,1819,  and  Hahn  was  chosen  its  presi- 
dent, but  he  died  on  the  20th  of  the  same  month.  See 
Hahn,  JIichael. 

The  Constitution  of  the  community  seeks  to  realize 
rather  the  union  of  the  religious  and  civil  orders  than 
their  separation.  Truly  patriarchal  imder  the  presi- 
dency of"  Father"  Hoffmann,  who  died  in  1846,  it  is  real- 
ly based  on  the  idea  of  the  universal  priesthood  of  Chris- 
tians. Not  the  clerg}-,  but  the  community,  is  the  final 
authority.  The  latter  ('-die  Giiterkaufsgesellschaft") 
is  the  original  possessor  of  the  land,  from  wliose  author- 
ity it  cannot  be  alienated.  The  lordship  of  Kornthal, 
1000  acres,  all  its  buildings,  gardens,  vineyards,  woods, 
was  purchased  for  113,000  gulden,  and  given  out  by  lot 
to  each  member.  jMoney  can  be  borrowed  only  from 
the  ciimmon  chest,  and  no  debts  can  be  contracted  by 
members  outside  the  communitv.     A  common  council 


KORTIIOLT 


156 


KOSTER 


and  council  of  ciders  is  periodically  elected.  The  pres- 
ident, pastor,  and  schoolmaster  are  chosen  by  the  com- 
munity, with  recognition  of  the  government  and  Church. 
The  pastor  shares  the  functions  of  the  Sunday  service 
with  the  president,  councilmen,  and  schoolmaster,  each 
of  whom  has  authority  to  conduct  a  week-day  service. 
The  community  admits  its  members  by  vote,  and  the 
children  of  the  members  are  received  only  upon  their 
own  recognition.  The  criminal  administration  is  under 
the  general  state  authority,  the  property  census  and  taK 
assessment  being  controlled  by  the  president. 

The  usual  Church  festivals  are  observed.  Baptism  is 
a  public  and  solemn  ceremony,  the  import  of  which  the 
people  are  not  allowed  to  forget.  The  Lord's  Supper  is 
administered  once  a  month  on  Saturday  evening,  pre- 
ceded by  a  week  of  preparatory  meetings. 

The  Christian  activity  of  the  community  is  displayed 
in  coinicction  with  foreign  and  domestic  missions  and  in 
education.  It  has  few  of  its  own  members  in  the  foreign 
mission  iiekl,  though  many  missionaries,  male  and  female, 
■were  educated  at  its  schools.  It  is  a  supporter  especially 
of  the  Basle  Mission  House,  and  its  yearly  missionary  fes- 
tival is  an  occasion  of  great  interest.  The  destitute  of 
the  neighborhood  are  systematically  visited,  and  its  in- 
stitution for  abandoned  children  is  chief  among  those  of 
its  class  at  Wiirtemberg.  In  its  separate  educational  in- 
stitutions for  the  two  sexes  about  10,000  persons  from 
various  lands  have  received  their  training. 

Konithal  has  in  all  a  population  of  about  1300.  It 
has  ever  exerted  a  salutary  influence  for  the  prevention 
of  schism  in  the  Wiirtemberg  Church,  has  furnished  for 
the  sentiment  of  Pietism  a  corrective  model  of  practical 
life,  and  has  in  general  shown  a  successful  example  of 
religious  and  moral  principle  directly  applied  to  social 
laws.  Here  are  uniformly  neat  dwellings,  clean  streets, 
a  well-clad  people;  intemperance  and  brawls  are  im- 
known ;  not  a  beggar  is  seen  except  such  as  may  come 
in  from  abroad ;  there  has  been  no  case  of  bankruptcy 
from  the  foundation  of  the  community,  but  two  illegiti- 
mate births,  and  not  a  case  of  civil  or  criminal  process 
of  law  has  been  required,  while  remarkable  fidelity  to 
the  government  in  times  of  trial  has  characterized  its 
pef>iile. — Kapflf,  Die  WUrtembei-yischen  BrikJerqemeinclen 
Konithal  it.  W ilhelmsdorf  (Kornih.  1839) ;  Barth,  Ueher 
die  Pieiisten  (Tiibing.  181!))  •,  Zeitschr.f.  hist,  theol.  18-11 ; 
Haag,  Studien  d.  Wiirttemb.  Geistl.  ix,  1  sq. ;  Ilerzog,  Real- 
Enri/ldnp.  vol.  xix,  s.  v.     (E.  B.  O.) 

Kortliolt,  Christian  (1).  See  Cortiiolt, 
Koitholt,  Christian  ("2),  an  eminent  Danish  Prot- 
estant tliculdgian,  and  a  ne]ihe\v'  of  Christian  Korthult 
(1),  was  born  at  Kiel  in  1709.  lie  studied  at  the  uni- 
versity of  his  native  city,  and  afterwards  visited  Hol- 
land and  England.  On  his  return  to  Germany  he  was 
ajipointed  rector  of  the  College  of  Leipzig,  and  adjunct 
jirofcssor  of  philosophy  in  the  university  of  that  city. 
A  few  years  after  he  became  professor  of  theology  in  the 
University  of  Gottingen,  and  finally  ecclesiastical  super- 
intendent. He  died  Sept.  21, 1751.  Besides  a  number  of 
articles  publislied  in  the  Acta  Erudilornm  Lipsiensium, 
and  a  collection  of  sermons  in  (Jerman,  he  wrote  De  sac- 
ruram  Christianorum  in  Cimbria  jmmoi-diis  (Kiel,  1728, 
•Ito) : — Conimentutio  historico-ecclesiastica  de  ecclesiis  sub- 
nrhicariis,  qua  in  dioccvsin  qxtani  episcopiis  Romamis  mtate 
coHcilii  yicieni  habuit,  inqvi/'iiur  (Leipz.  1732, 4to) : — De 
Si)cict(itv  A  iitiqnnria  TjmiUnciisi  ad  Kmippium  (Lpz.  1735, 
4to):— y-''  Mallh.  Tindalin  (Ljiz.  1734,4to)  :— /^e  Knthu- 
siasmi)  M'lhiunmedis  (Gotting.  1745,  8vo): — De  Simone 
I'ftro  primo  AposfoL  et  idtimo  ((Jotting.  1748,  8vo);  etc. 
He  published  also  Leibnitii  episiola;  ad  diversos  (Leipzig, 
1733-42,  4  vols.).  See  Joach.  Lindcmann,  Christ.  Kor- 
iholti  Oratio  J'unebris  (in  iSacer  decadum  scptenariiis,  me- 
mtriam  thcolof/nrum  nostra  (state,  etc.,Lpzg.  1705,  8vo); 
NiciTon,  Memoires,  vol.  xxxi ;  Hoefer,  Nour.  Dioij.  Gi'ii. 
xxvii,  93  ;  Pierer,  Univ.  Lexikon,  ix,  734.  (J.  N.  P.) 
Kos.  See  Owi,. 
Kosa.     See  Koreish. 


Kosegarten,  Bernhard  Christian,  a  German 
theologian,  was  born  at  Parchim,  in  Mecklenburg,  May 
7,  1722;  entered  Kostock  University  in  1739;  went  to 
Halle  in  1745,  and  became  adjunct  professor  in  1750. 
He  died  June  17,  1803.  Kosegarten  made  for  himself 
quite  a  name  by  his  Versuch  das  Kirchliche  Dogma  vom 
Stande  dtr  Ei'niedrigung  Christi  einer  Priifung  zu  unter- 
werj'en  (New  Brandenburg,  1748, 4to). — Doring,  Gekhrte 
Theol.  Deutschlands,  ii,  174. 

Kosegarten,  Hans  Gottfried  Ludv/^ig,  a  Ger- 
man C)rientalist  and  historian,  was  born  at  Altenkirchen, 
Isle  of  Kiigen,  Sept.  10, 1792 ;  studied  theology  and  phi- 
lology at  the  University  of  Greifswald,  and  in  1811 
went  to  Paris  to  continue  the  study  of  the  Oriental  lan- 
guages. He  became  adjunct  professor  at  Greifswald  in 
1815,  and  in  1817  professor  of  the  Oriental  languages  at 
Jena,  and  of  the  same  chair  at  Greifswald  in  1824.  He 
died  in  18G0.  Kosegarten  wrote  De  Mohammede  Ebn 
Batitta  ejusque  itineribus  (Jena,  1818),  and  published 
editions  of  Amru  ben-Kelthum's  Moallaha  (Jena,  1820)  : 
— Libri  Corona;  legis,  id  est  Coimnentarii  in  Peiitateuchum 
Karaitici  ab  Aharone  ben-Elihu  conscripti  aliquot  par- 
^icate  (Jena,  1824);  etc.  Sec  Piever, Univeisal  Lexikon, 
ix,  738. 

Kosegarten,  Lud-wig  Theobald,  a  German  di- 
vine and  ])oet,  was  born  at  Grevismiihlen,  in  Mecklen- 
burg, Feb.  1, 1758:  became  rector  at  Wolgast  in  1785; 
pastor  at  Altenkirchen  in  1792,  and  in  1808  professor  of 
history  at  the  university  in  (Jreifswald ;  later  also  pro- 
fessor of  theology,  and  pastor  at  St.  James's  Church  in 
that  place,  and  died  Oct.  2G,  1818.  He  was  at  one  time 
honored  with  the  rectorate  of  the  university.  His  writ- 
ings belong  to  the  domain  of  beUes-lettres.  See  Kober- 
stein,  Geschichte  d.  deutschen  Nationalliiteraiur,  iii,  2G23 
sq. 

Kossoff,  Sylve^tre,  a  Russian  divine,  who  flour- 
ished near  the  middle  of  the  17th  century,  was  metro- 
politan of  Kief  in  1647,  and  died  April  13, 1667.  Kos- 
soff wrote  a  work  on  the  Seven  Sacraments  (Koutimsk, 
1653,  4to),  which  an  ecclesiastical  council  at  Moscow  in 
1690  declared  heretical. 

Koster,  Johann  Friedrich  Burchardt,  a  Ger- 
man theologian,  was  liorn  at  Loccum  in  1791.  He  be- 
came professor  of  theology  in  Kiel  in  1839,  and  died 
about  1850.  His  works  are,  Meletemata  critica  et  exegeti- 
ca  in  Zachariam  Prophetam,  cap.  9-14  (Gotting.  1818)  : 
— Das  Christenthum  (Kiel,  1825) : — Lehrb.  der  Pastoral 
Wissenschaft  (ibid,  1827)  : — translations  of  the  Psalms 
(1837)  and"the  Prophets  (Leipzig,  1838). 

Koster,  Martin  Gottfried,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  tiuntersblum  Nov.  11,1734;  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Liniversity  of  Jena,  which  he  entered  in 
1752,  and  in  1755  became  pastor  at  'Wallershcim.  In 
1761  he  was  called  to  Weilburg  as  pastor  and  prorector 
of  the  gymnasium  in  that  place.  In  1773  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  at  Giessen,  and  died  there  Dec.  6, 1802. 
Koster  was  decidedly  ortliodox  in  belief,  and  labored 
both  by  his  tongue  and  his  pen  to  stay  the  incoming 
tide  of  Rationalism.  His  most  important  work  in  this 
direction  is  his  Neueste  Religiombegehenheiten  (Giessen, 
1778-1796),  in  which  several  eminent  German  theolo- 
gians assisted  him.  He  wrote  also  Vorurtheile  fitr  nnd 
wider  die  christi.  Religion  mbst  einer  A  bhandlung  von  Zu- 
lassung  des  Busen  (Frankfort-on-the-l\Iain,  1774, 8vo)  : — 
Erorterung  der  wichtigsten  Schwicrigkciten  in  der  L(hre 
vom  Teufk  (ibid,  1776, 8vo ;  another  work  on  Saf*iu.(  '•  ics- 
sen,  1776, 8vo) ;  etc.  See  Doring,6't/e/i?-i'e  Theol.  Dcutsch- 
lamh,  ii,  159  si]. 

Koster,  Wilhelm,  a  German  theologian,  was  bom 
in  1765,  and  early  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  theol- 
ogy. He  became  pastor  first  at  Oppenheim,  later  at  Ep- 
pingen,  and  died  May  8,  1802.  He  devoted  much  of  his 
time  to  the  study  of  practical  theology,  especialh'  to  lit- 
urgy, and  wrote  Liturgie  bei  Beerdifpmgen  (^larch,  1797, 
8vo)  ■.—Allgan.Altarlifurgie  (ibid,  1799,  8vo). — Doring, 
Gekhrte  Theol,  Deutschlands,  ii,  162. 


KOSTHA  IBN-LUKA 


157 


KRAFT 


Kostha  Ibn-Luka  (or  Liica),  an  Arabian  phi- 
losopher, tile  originator  of  Heliopolis  in  Syria,  flourished 
towards  the  close  of  the  9th  century.  He  died,  accord- 
ing to  Abulfarag,  about  890.  He  translated  many  works 
of  Greek  philosophers  into  Arabic,  and  wrote  himself 
many  original  treatises,  among  which  are,  De  Animce 
et  Spirit  us  JJiscrimine : — Be  Morte  inopinata:  —  De- 
scriptio  Spherce  Calcslis: — Liber  apoloffeticus  adve7-sus 
lihruiii  asiroloffi  Aba  Isce  de  Mohameti  Aposiolatu  et 
Prophetia.  See  Fabricius,  Bibliotheca  Gi'ceca,  ii,  801 ; 
D'Hcrbelot,  Biblioth.  Orientate,  p.  975. 

Kots.     See  Thorx. 

Kotter,  Cheistoph,  a  German  religions  fanatic, 
was  born  at  Sprottau,  Silesia,  in  1585.  He  claimed  to 
have  visions  (which  were  published  at  Amsterdam  in 
1657).  The  first  of  these  was  in  June,  IGKJ.  He  fancied 
he  saw  an  angel,  under  the  form  of  a  man,  who  command- 
ed him  to  go  and  declare  to  the  magistrates  that,  unless 
the  pcf)ple  repented,  the  wrath  of  God  would  make  dread- 
ful havoc.  His  pastor  and  friends  kept  him  in  for  some 
time,  nor  did  he  execute  his  commission,  even  though 
the  angel  had  appeared  six  times;  but  in  1G19,  when 
threatened  with  eternal  damnation  by  the  same  spirit,  he 
would  suffer  lumself  to  be  restrained  no  longer.  Kotter 
was  laughed  at ;  nevertheless,  his  visions  continued,  and 
were  followed  by  ecstasies  and  prophetic  dreams.  He 
waited  on  the  elector  palatine,  whom  the  Protestants 
had  declared  king  of  Bohemia,  at  Breslau,  in  1G20,  and 
informed  him  of  his  commission.  He  became  acquaint- 
ed, in  1625,  with  Comenius,  whom  he  converted  to  be 
a  believer  in  his  prophecies,  which  at  this  time  were 
rather  of  a  political  cast,  presaging  happiness  to  the 
elector  palatine,  and  the  reverse  to  the  emperor,  so  he 
became  at  length  obnoxious,  and  in  1627  was  closely 
imprisoned  as  a  seditious  impostor.  He  was  finally  lib- 
erated again  and  banished  from  the  empire ;  v.'ent  to 
Lusatia,  then  subject  to  Saxonj',  and  died  there  in  1647. 
Kotter's  visions  were  related  by  Comenius  in  a  work 
entitled  Lux  in  tenebris  (Amst.  1657  ;  an  epitome  of  this 
work  appeared  in  1660:  see,  for  an  account  of  it,  under 
Dkaisicius) .   See  Bayle, Hist.  Bid.  iii,  679  sq.    (J. H. W.) 

Kotzebiir,  Johann,  a  German  divine,  was  born  in 
Magdeburg  about  1654.  He  was  rector  at  Quedlinburg. 
He  died  September  3, 1692.  Kotzebur  wrote  Suscitabu- 
lum  Catholico-Lutherumnn  : — Confutatio  tractatus  Be- 
cani  de  eccksia,  etc. — Allfjem.  Hist.  Lex.  iii,  Gl. 

Kouyunjik.     See  Nineveh, 

Koz  (Hcb.  Kots,  yip,  a  thorn,  as  often :  1  Chron.  iv, 
8;  Sept.  Kwi,Vulg.  Co.^,  Auth.  Vers.  "  Coz  ;"  elsewhere 
with  the  art.  Viptl,  hah-Kots,  1  Chron.  xxiv,  10,  Sept. 
'Akkwq,  v.  r.  Kwp,  Yulg.  Accos,  Auth.  Vers.  "Hakkoz  ;" 
Ezra  ii,  61,  Sept. 'Ak/coi'c,  Yulg.  Accos ;  Neh.  iii,  4,  21, 
Sept.  'Akkwc,  Ynlg.  Accus,  Haccus ;  Neh.  vii.  Go,  Sept. 
'Akkioc,  v.  r.  'A(C(iJ^,  Yulg.  Accos),  the  name  of  two  or 
more  men. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Judah,  concerning  whose  genealo- 
gy  we  have  only  the  confused  statement  that  he  "  begat 
Anul)  and  Zolx'bah,  and  the  families  of  Aharhel,  the  son 
of  Ilarum"  (1  Chron.  iv,  8).     B.C.  prob.  cir.  1612. 

2.  The  head  of  the  seventh  division  of  priests  as  ar- 
ranged by  David  (1  Chron.  xxiv,  10).  B.C.  1014.  He 
is  probably  the  same  whose  descendants  are  mentioned 
as  returning  with  Zerubbabel  from  Baliylon,  but  as  be- 
ing excluded  by  Nehemiah  from  tlie  priesthood  on  ac- 
count of  their  defective  pedigree  (Ezra  ii,  Gl ;  Neh.  vii, 
63).  To  this  family  appears  to  have  belonged  Urijah, 
whose  son  INIeremoth  is  named  as  having  repaired  two 
portions  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii,  4,  21). 

Krafft,  Adam,  a  celebrated  German  sculptor  and 
architect,  born  at  Nuremberg  about  1430,  and  supposed  to 
have  died  about  1507,  deserves  our  notice  for  his  promi- 
nent connection  with  ecclesiology.  One  of  the  most  re- 
markable performances  of  his  still  extant  is  the  tabernacle 
in  stone,  fixed  against  one  of  the  columns  oi'the  choir  of 
the  church  of  St. Lawrence  (Lorenzkirche),  Nuremberg. 


It  is  in  the  form  of  a  square  open  Gothic  spire,  and  is  64 
feet  high ;  the  pinnacle  being  turned  downwards  like 
the  crook  of  the  crosier  or  an  episcopal  staif,  to  avfiid  the 
arch  of  the  church.  The  ciborium  is  placed  immedi- 
ately upon  a  low  platform,  Avhich  is  supported  partly  by 
the  kneeling  figures  of  Adam  Krafft  and  his  two  assist- 
ants; the  rail  or  baluster  of  the  platform  is  richly  car\-ed, 
and  is  ornamented  with  the  figures  of  eight  saints.  The 
whole  taljernacle  is  also  profusely  ornamented  with  small 
figures  in  the  round  and  bassi-relievi :  immediately  above 
the  ciborium,  on  three  sides,  are  representations  in  basso- 
relievo  of  "Christ  taking  leave  of  his  Mother,"  the  "Last 
Supper,"  and  "Christ  on  the  Mount  of  Olives;"  high 
above  these  are  "  Christ  before  Caiaphas,"  the  "  Crown- 
ing with  Thorns,"  and  the  "  Scourging;"  above  these  is 
the  "Crncifixi(ni;"  and  lastly,  above  that,  is  the  "Ees- 
urrection,"  all  in  the  round.  This  elaborate  work  was 
executed  by  Krafft  for  a  citizen  of  the  name  of  Hans 
Imhof,  and  for  the  small  sum  of  770  florins.  There  is  a 
print  of  this  tabernacle  in  Doppelmayr's  Historische  Xack- 
richt  von  den  N Umber fiischen  Kiinstlern.  Recent  writers 
have  indulged  in  various  conjectures  regarding  the  time 
and  works  of  Krafft,  but  the  circumstances  of  both  are 
still  involved  in  their  former  uncertainty.  See  Flissli, 
A  Uriemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Nf.gler,  Allrjemeines 
Kiinstler-Lexikon,  s.  v. — English  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Krafft,  Johann  Christian  Gottlob  Lud- 
■wig,  the  modern  reformer  of  the  Protestant  Church  in 
Bavaria,  was  born  at  Duisburg  Dec.  12, 1784.  He  stud- 
ied first  at  Duisburg,  where  he  fell  temporarily  under 
the  influence  of  infidelity.  He  then  spent  five  years  as 
private  tutor  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  and  this  period 
was  of  great  spiritual  regeneration  to  him,  though  he 
did  not  succeed  in  allaj'ing  all  his  doubts.  In  October, 
1808,  he  became  pastor  of  the  Eeformed  congregation  at 
Weeze,  near  Cleve.  He  still  felt  dissatisfied,  however, 
and  continued  to  search  the  Scriptures.  In  1817  he  be- 
came pastor  of  the  German  Reformed  congregation  at 
Erlangen,  and  professor  in  the  university  in  1818.  By 
this  time  his  convictions  had  become  settled,  and  he  a 
firm  Biblical  supernaturalist.  The  last  period  of  his 
spiritual  development,  his  conversion,  took  place,  ac 
cording  to  his  own  account,  in  the  spring  of  1821.  He 
died  May  15,  1845.  Without  being  gifted  with  very- 
brilliant  talents  or  especial  eloquence,  Krafft,  by  his  ear- 
nest practical  faith,  and  his  luicommon  energy,  can  be 
said  to  have  awakened  the  Protestant  Church  of  Bava- 
ria from  the  lethargic  sleep  into  which  it  had  fallen  un- 
der the  influence  of  ultra  rationalism.  He  took  great 
part  in  the  progress  of  home  missions,  and  was  the 
founder  of  an  institution  for  the  daughters  of  the  poor. 
He  wrote  Be  servo  et  libero  arbitrio  (Nuremb.  1818) : — 
Seven  Sermons  on  Isaiah  liii,  and  four  on  1  Cor.  i,  30 ; 
Jahrganfj:  Predifjten  ii.freie  Texte  (Erlang.  1828, 1832, 
1845).  After  his  death  Dr.  Burger  published  his  Chro- 
nologie  ii.  Harmonie  d.  rier  Evangelien  (Erlangen,  1848). 
— Herzog,  Real-Encgklopddie,  vol.  viii,  s.  v.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Kraft,  Friedrich  Willielm,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  Krautheim,  in  the  duchy  of  Weimar, 
Aug.  9,  1712,  and  was  educated  at  Jena  and  Leipzig 
from  1729  to  1732.  In  1739  he  became  pastor  at  Frank- 
endorf,  and  in  1747  imiversity  preacher  at  Gottingcn, 
holding  also  after  this  an  adjunct  professorship  of  the- 
ology in  this  high-school.  In  1750  he  removed  to  Dant- 
zic  as  senior  preacher  to  Mary's  Church,  and  died  there 
November  19,  1758.  His  most  important  works  are, 
Schriftmdssiger  Bev'eis  v.d.Ankunft  d.Messias  (Leipz. 
1734, 8vo) : — Ejil^/nhi  de  honoir  Bei  per  honores  ndids- 
troruni  ecclesiw  pnniKiri  tiilo  (Erf.  1739,  4to) : — Commen- 
tatio  de  pietale  obstdricum  ^Egi/ptiacarum  (ibid,  1744, 
4to).  He  also  published  many  of  his  sermons,  some  of 
them  under  the  title  Geistliche  Keden  (Jena,  1746,  8vo), 
and  Neue  theologische  BibUothek  (Lpz.  1746-1758;  con- 
tinued by  Ernesti,  and  later  by  Diiderlein),  which  last 
named  work  evinces  Kraft's  extended  researches  in  the- 
ological literature.  See  Doring,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Beutsck- 
lunds,  ii,  176  sq. 


KRAFT 


158 


KRANTZ 


Kraft,  Johanii  Georg,  a  German  theologian,  was 
born  at  IJaiersdorf,  in  the  ducliy  of  liaireutli,  June  8, 
1740,  and  was  educated  at  the  university  in  Krlangen. 
He  entered  the  ministry  at  tirst,liut  in  17(i4  obtained  the 
privilege  of  lecturing  at  the  university,  and  iu  ITfJG  be- 
came extraordinary  professor  of  philosophy,  and  in  17G8 
ordinary  professor  of  theology  and  university  preacher. 
He  died  July  2, 1772.  He  furnished  many  articles  to 
theological  periodicals,  and  published,  besides  a  host  of 
dissertations  and  several  sermons,  an  edition  of  Huth's 
Gesammelte Sonn-  v. lusl/in/s/in^dir/ten (Sch vvabach,  17(58- 
1771, 3  vols.  4to). — Diiring,  Gdehrte  Theol.  Deulschlunds, 
ii,  179  sij. 

Kraft,  Johann  Melchior,  a  German  theologian, 
■was  born  at  Wetzlar  June  11, 1673.  He  pursued  his  the- 
ological studies  at  Wittenberg  University,  where  he  ob- 
tained the  master's  degree  in  1G93.  In  lG9o  he  began 
lectures  at  the  University  of  Kiel,  and  in  1098  he  be- 
came pastor  at  SUderstapel ;  in  1705  pastor  at  Sandes- 
neben ;  in  1709  archdeacon  at  Husum.  and  shortly  after 
counsellor  of  the  Danish  Consistorj'.  He  died  July  22, 
1751.  His  most  important  works  are  Emendanda  et  Cor- 
rif/eiida  quccdam  in  historia  versivnis  Germnnicm  Bihlio- 
rum  (Dr.  J.  F.  Mayero  edita,  Schleswig,  1705, 4to) : — Po- 
droma  historice  versinnis  Bihliorum  Germanicm  (ibid, 
1714, 4to): — Aiisfuhrliche  Ilistorievom Exorcismo  (\\a.\n- 
burg,  1750,  8vo). — Doring,  Ge/e/wte  Theol.  Deutschlands, 
ii,  18-2  sq. 

Kraft,  Johann  "Wilhelm,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  AUendorf  ]\larch  1 1, 1G9().  He  went  to  Mar- 
burg University  in  1712,  and  in  1723  became  pastor  of 
the  Reformed  Church  at  Marburg;  later  (in  1738)  he  re- 
moved to  Hanau,  but  returned  to  Marburg  in  1747,  to 
assume  the  duties  of  a  professorship  in  theology  at  his 
alma  mater.  He  died  Nov.  25, 17G7.  His  most  impor- 
tant works  are  Fasciculi  observationum  sacrariiin  ir, 
quibits  varia  Scripturce  loca  atqiie  aiyumenta  theologica 
illiisfrantnr  (Marb.  1758-1766, 8vo) : — Sdagraphia  theo- 
logicB  moralis  ex  resipiscentia  et  fide  tanquam  ex  (jenui- 
no  geniinoqiie  omnium  virtutum  Christianarum  fonte  li- 
quido  derivatcs  (Rintel  and  Hersf.  1760, 8vo). — Doring 
Gelfhrie  Theol.  Deutschlands,  ii,  185. 

Kraft,  Justus  Christoph,  a  German  divine,  son 
of  the  jireceding,  was  born  at  Marburg  Jan.  2, 1732,  and 
was  educated  at  the  university  of  his  native  place  and 
at  Giittingen.  In  1757  he  became  pastor  at  Weimar, 
and  in  1762  at  Cassel,  whence  he  moved  to  Frankfort- 
on-the-]\Iain  in  1769.  He  died  there  Jan.  22, 1795.  For 
a  list  of  his  sermons  as  published,  see  During,  Gelehrte 
Theol.  Deutschlands,  ii,  187. 

Kragh,  Petek,  a  Danish  missionary,  born  at  Grim- 
ming.  near  Jtanders,  Nov.  20, 1794,  was  sent  as  mission- 
ary to  (irceiiland  about  1820,  and  returned  to  his  native 
country  in  18-J8.  The  date  of  his  deatli  is  not  known 
to  us.  Kragh  wrote  extensively,  and  translated  into 
the  vernacular  of  the  people  among  whom  he  preached 
the  Gosjiel  of  Christ,  parts  of  the  O.  T.,  sermons,  works 
on  practical  religion,  etc.  lie  also  pubUshed  in  Danish 
and  (irecnlandish,  y/«?w  Eqedcs  Aftensnmtaler  med  sine 

disciides  (Cojienhagen,  1837,  8vo) Vapercau,  Diet,  des 

Cvntempdrainx,  s.  v. 

Krakewitz,  Ai.iskut  Joachim  vox.  a  Gcnnan  Lu- 
theran divine,  was  Ixirn  at  (ievezin.  near  Stargard,  in 
^leckltMiliurg,  May  28,  1G74,  and  was  educated  for  the 
ministry  at  the  universities  of  Kostock,  Copenhagen, 
Leipzig,  and  other  (Jernian  high-schools  of  note.  He 
l)ccame  jirofessor  of  Hebrew  at  Rostock  in  1G98 ;  in  1708 
also  jirofessor  extraordinary  of  theology,  and  in  1713 
was  promoted  to  the  full  ]irofcssorsliip.  In  1721  he  re- 
m  )ved  to  the  university  at  Grcifswald,  and  tlierc  held  a 
prominent  position  as  a  theologian.  His  works,  mainly 
of  a  controversial  nature,  arc  limited  to  i)amphlet  form. 
See  Alh/emeines  JJist.  Lexikon,  Addenda,  s.  v. 

Kraliz,  15iblk  oi'",  the  most  celebrated  Bohemian 
version  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  issued,  in  tlic  IGth  cen- 
turv.  bv  the  Bohemian  and  Moravian  Brethren.     It  was 


translated,  in  fifteen  years,  by  a  committee  of  their  bish- 
ops and  ministers,  among  whom  the  most  prominent 
were  John  ^Eneas,  Jolin  Nemczansky,  Zacharias  Aris- 
ton.  and  Isaiah  CepoUa,  aided  by  two  Hebrew  scholars 
of  Jewish  extraction.  The  work  of  translating  and 
printing  was  carried  on  in  the  castle  of  Kraliz — hence 
the  name  of  this  Bible — near  WiUimowitz,  in  the  west 
of  Moravia,  at  the  expense  of  Baron  von  Zierotin, 
the  i)roprietor  of  the  domain,  and  a  member  of  the 
Brethren's  Church.  He  set  up  for  this  purpose  a  spe- 
cial and  costly  printing-press,  which  was  superintended 
by  Zacharias  Solin,  an  ordained  minister  of  the  Breth- 
ren. The  first  edition  appeared  in  six  folio  volumes,  as 
follows:  Part  i,  the  Five  Books  of  Moses,  in  1579  ;  Part 
ii,  Joshua  to  Esther,  in  1580:  Part  iii,  the  Poetical  Books, 
in  1582;  Part  iv,  the  Prophetical  Books,  in  1587;  Part 
v,  the  A]iocrypha,  and  Part  vi,  the  New  Testament,  in 
1593.  The  sixth  part  was  a  reprint  of  the  Bohemian 
N.  T.  translated  from  the  Greek  b}'  John  Blahoslaw,  a 
very  learned  bishop  of  the  Church,  who  was  no  longer 
living.  In  IGOl  a  second  edition  appeared,  and  in  1G13 
a  third.  The  last  was  in  one  volume  quarto.  The 
Kraliz  Bible  was  the  first  Bohemian  version  made  from 
the  original,  six  other  translations  having  preceded  it, 
all  based  on  the  Vulgate.  It  was,  moreover,  the  first  di- 
vided into  chapters  and  verses,  and  the  first  which  sep- 
arated the  apocryphal  from  the  canonical  books.  To 
each  single  verse,  throughout  the  entire  work,  was  ap- 
pended a  very  brief  commentary.  The  correctness  of 
the  translation  is  generally  conceded,  and  the  purity  of 
the  style  universally  admired.  This  Bible  is  still  the 
classic  standard  for  the  Bohemian  tongue.  At  the  pres- 
ent day,  however,  it  exists  as  an  antiquarian  work  only, 
a  copy  costing  about  300  florins.  This  is  owing  to 
the  destruction  to  which  it  was  doomed  in  the  Bohe- 
mian anti-Reformation,  when  it  was  everywhere  con- 
fiscated and  committed  to  the  flames  by  the  Jesuits  and 
soldiers  who  passed  through  the  country  in  search  of 
Protestant  books.  A  compendium  of  it  was  republish- 
ed at  Prague,  by  J.  L.  Koher,  in  1861  to  1865.  It  con- 
stitutes, moreover,  the  text,  word  for  word,  of  the  Bohe- 
mian Bible  issued  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  So- 
ciety. Gindely,  Geschichte  d.  Buhmischen  Bruder,  ii,309, 
310;  Czerwenka,  GescAtV/i'^e  d. Evanfi.  Kirche  inBuhmen, 
ii,  500,  etc. ;  Croger,  Gesch.  d.  alien  Briiderkirche,  ii,  157, 
etc.     (E,  UE  S.) 

Krama  or  Krasis,  the  practice  of  mixing  water 
with  the  sacramental  wine  (the  mixture  bearing  the 
name  Koafia,  and  the  act  ofmixinq  icpuaii;),  was  adopt- 
ed very  early  in  the  Church,  on  the  assumption  that  the 
wine  used  at  the  Passover  was  mixed  with  water;  but 
Lightfoot  shows  that  this  was  not  necessarily  the  case. 
In  the  Western  Church,  the  mixture  of  cold  water  with 
the  wine  takes  place  only  once  before  the  consecration ; 
wine  being  first  poured  into  the  cup,  and  the  water  add- 
ed. In  the  Oriental  Church  a  twofold  mixing  takes 
place.  There  is  the  first  mixture  of  cold  water  with  the 
wine  in  the  cup  before  consecration,  and  then  a  second 
mixture  with  warm  water  after  consecration,  and  imme- 
diately before  distribution.  This  is  sai<l  to  have  been 
designed  to  represent  at  once  the  water  which  flowed 
from  our  Saviour's  side  and  the  fire  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
— Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Krain,  Andreas,  archbishop  of.  See  AxdPvKas  of 
Craix. 

Krantz,  Albert,  a  (ierman  theologian  and  eminent 
historian,  was  bora  at  Hamburg  towards  the  middle  of 
the  15th  century.  He  studied  at  Hamburg,  Cologne, 
etc.,  and  became  doctor  in  theology  and  canon  law.  Af- 
ter traveling  through  most  of  Europe,  he  was,  on  his  re- 
turn, appointed  ]irofcssor  at  Rostock,  and  rector  of  that 
university  in  1482.  In  1492  he  settled  at  Hamlnirg, 
alter  having  been  employed  in  important  diplomatic 
missions.  In  1499  he  was  sent  as  envoy  to  England  and 
I'rance,  and  was  often  chosen  to  decide  difficulties :  thus 
he  acted  !is  arbiter  between  king  John  of  Denmark  and 


KRANTZ 


159 


KRAUSE 


duke  Frederick  of  Holsteiu  in  1500,  etc.  In  1508  he  was 
appointed  dean  of  Hamburg,  and  died  there  December 
7, 1517.  Though  not  an  ultramontane,  he  did  not  show 
himself  practically  much  in  favor  of  reformation  in  the 
Church,  yet  as  a  historian  he  exhibits  great  impartial- 
ity and  much  sound  criticism.  Krantz  wrote  Vandulia 
(151!);  Fraidvf.  1575,  1588,  IGOl ;  German  by  St.  Macro- 
pus,  Liib.  1000)  ■.—Saxonia  (1520 ;  Frankfort,  1575, 1580, 
lt)21;  Cologne,  1674,  1595;  German  by  Faber,  Leipzig, 
1593  and  15S2;  continued  by  Chytr;ius,Wittenb.  1585): 
— Chronicoii  rer/norum  aquilonarium,  Daime,  Suecim  et 
Norwiufia  (1545;  Lat.  154G;  Frankf.  1574,  1595;  Ger- 
man by  Eppcndorf,  Strasb.  1545) : — Metropolis  s.  Hist,  ec- 
cles.  in  Saxonia  (1548 ;  Basel,  1568 ;  Cologne,  1574, 159G ; 
Wittenb.  157G:  Frankf.  1576, 1590, 1627)  •.—Institutiones 
lofficcB  (Lpz.  1517)  : — Defensorium  eccL;  Spirantissimum 
opusculum  in  officium  misse  (1506,  etc.).  Under  Clement 
YIII  the  writings  of  Krantz  were,  on  account  of  some 
damaging  confessions  for  Romanism  therein  contained, 
put  in  the  Index.  See  Pierer,  Unipersal  Lexikon,  vol. 
viii,  s.  V. ;  Ilerzog,  Real-Encyklop.  vol.  ix,  s.  v. 

Krantz  (or  Cranz),  David,  a  Moravian  historian, 
was  born  at  Neugarten,  Pomerania,  in  1723.  In  his  youth 
he  was  master  of  a  school  at  Herrnhut;  he  became  secre- 
tary to  count  Zinzendorf  in  1747,  was  afterwards  sent  on 
a  literar}^  mission  to  Greenland,  where  he  was  eminently 
successful  in  collecting  historical  information.  He  return- 
ed in  1762,  and  became  pastor  of  the  church  at  Rixdorf. 
near  Berlin,  in  17()6.  He  died  at  Gnadenburg,  in  Silesia, 
in  1777.  His  principal  works  are  The  History  of  Green- 
land, and  of  the  mission  of  the  United  Brethren  (transl. 
Lond.  1820, 2  vols.  8vo) : — The  ancient  and  modern  History 
oj'tke  Bi-e/hi-en  (Lond.l780,8\'o). — DarYmg,Cycl.Bibl,s.v. 

Krasicki,  Ignaz,  a  Ptoman  Catholic  prelate,  was 
born  at  Dubiecko,  Poland,  Feb.  3,  1734,  and  early  en- 
tered the  priestly  office.  His  remarkable  talents  secured 
for  him,  when  only  twenty-nine  years  old,  the  honorable 
appointment  as  prince-bishop.  He  died  March  14, 1801, 
as  prince-bishop  of  Gnesen,  where  he  had  lived  since 
1795.     See  Kathol.  Reul-Encyldop.  vi,  396. 

Krasinski,  count  Valerian,  the  Protestant  Church 
historian  of  Poland,  was  a  native  of  the  ancient  Polish 
province  of  AVhite  Russia,  and  was  descended  from  a 
noble  family,  which  embraced  at  an  early  period  the 
Protestant  faith.  He  was  born  about  1780,  and  received 
a  superior  classical  education ;  while  yet  a  young  man 
he  was  appointedchief  of  that  department  of  the  minis- 
trj'  of  public  instruction  in  the  kingdom  of  Poland  which 
was  charged  with  the  superintendence  of  the  various 
classes  of  dissenters.  He  was  zealous  in  his  endeavors 
to  promote  instruction  among  them,  and  especially  ex- 
erted himself  in  the  establishment  of  a  college  at  War- 
saw for  the  education  of  Jewish  rabbis.  In  order  to 
lessen  the  expense  of  valuable  works,  especially  those 
on  scientific  subjects,  he  was  the  first  to  introduce  stere- 
otype printing  into  Poland,  and  this  was  not  accom- 
plished without  a  considerable  diminution  of  his  own 
income.  ^Vhcn  the  Polish  Revolution  of  1830  had  pro- 
claimed the  throne  of  I'oland  vacant,  and  organized  a 
national  government,  with  prince  Adam  Czartoryski  as 
president,  a  diplomatic  mission  was  sent  to  England,  of 
which  count  Valerian  Krasinski  was  a  member.  When 
the  Russian  armies  in  1831  had  overpowered  the  revo- 
lutionary movement  of  his  countrymen,  he  was  still  in 
England,  where  he  then  became,  with  many  others  of 
his  countrymen,  a  penniless  exile.  After  having  ac- 
quired the  English  language,  he  devoted  himself  to  lit- 
erature as  a  means  of  support,  and  became  the  author 
of  several  valuable  works.  He  resided  in  London  dur- 
ing the  first  twenty  years  of  his  exile,  and  during  the 
last  five  in  Edinburgh,  where  he  died  Dec.  22,  1855. 
Count  Krasinski  was  a  man  of  varied  learning,  and  pos- 
sessed extensive  information,  especially  on  all  matters 
connected  with  the  Slavonic  races.  His  moat  impor- 
tant works  are  the  following :  The  Rise,  Prorjress,  and 
Decline  of  the  Reformation  in  Polatui  (Lond.  1838-40,  2 


vols.  8vo) : — Lectures  on  the  Religious  History  of  the  P,la~ 
vonic  Nations  (London,  1849, 8vo) : — Sketch  of  the  Rdiy- 
ious  History  of  the  Slavonian  Nations  (Edinb.  1851, 8vo) : 
— Treatise  on  Relics,  by  J.  Calvin,  newly  translated  from 
the  French  original,  with  an  Introductory  Dissertation 
on  tlie  Miraculous  Images  of  the  Roman  Catholic  and 
Russo-Greek  Churches  (1854,  8vo).  He  published  also 
some  works  and  pamphlets  on  secular  and  recent  politi- 
cal subjects,  especially  on  those  connected  with  the  res- 
toration of  Poland.  See  English  Cyclop,  s.  v. ;  British 
and  For.  Ev.  Rev.  1845,  p.  502  ;  Jenkins,  Life  of  Cardi- 
nal Julian  (Preface). 

Kraus,  Christian  Jacob,  a  German  philosopher, 
was  born  at  Osterode  July  28,  1753,  entered  the  Uni- 
versity of  Kijnigsberg  in  1771,  studied  first  theology 
and  later  mainly  metaphysics;  in  1779  went  to  Gottin- 
gen ;  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy  at  the  Uni- 
versity in  Konigsberg  in  1781,  and  died  there  Aug.  25, 
1807.  His  writings  were  published  under  the  title  Ve7-- 
mischte  Schriften  (Kiinigsb.  1808-12,  7  vols.  8vo) ;  etc. 
— Kutholische  Real-Encyklopddie,  vi,  397. 

Kraus,  Johann  Baptist,  a  German  Roman  Cath- 
olic theologian,  was  Ijorn  at  Regensburg  Jan.  12,  1700, 
entered  the  Benedictine  order  in  1715,  and  in  1721  was 
sent  by  his  superior  to  Paris  to  study  in  the  convent  St. 
Germain  under  Montfaucon  and  Guarin ;  returned  to 
Germany  in  1724,  and  was  ordained  priest.  In  1725  he 
was  appointed  to  St.  Emmtran  Convent,  and  remained 
there  untU  his  death,  June  14, 1762.  Kraus  was  a  de- 
cided Roman  Catholic,  rather  ultramontane  in  his  views, 
and  hardly  suited  for  the  liberal  German  associations 
which  surrounded  him.  He  battled  earnestly  in  behalf 
of  his  sect,  and  opposed  vigorously  the  liberal  tendency 
of  the  Benedictine  Rothfischer,  who  had  frankly  confess- 
ed the  failings  of  some  of  the  institutions  of  the  Romish 
Church.  For  a  list  of  the  works  of  Kraus,  see  Dtiring, 
Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutschlands,  ii,  189  sq. 

Krause,  Friedrich  August  Wilhelm,  a  Ger- 
man doctor  in  philosophy,  was  born  at  Uobrihigk  in 
1 767,  and  nourished  at  Vienna,  where  he  died  March  24, 
1827.  He  published  Pauli  ad  Co7-inthios  epistolce  Or., 
perpetua  annotatione  illustrafce,  vol.  i  (Franc,  ad  ]\Ioen. 
1792) ;  intended  as  a  continuation  of  Koppe's  New  Tes- 
tament, but  never  carried  further.  He  had  previously 
published  Bie  Briefe  an  die  Philipp.  itnd  Thessal.  iiher- 
setzt  und  mit  Anmerk.  begleitit  (Frankfort,  1790).— Kitto, 
Biblical  Cyclopcedia,  s.  v. 

Krause,  Johann  Christian  Heinrich,  a  Ger- 
man divine,  was  born  at  Quedlinburg  Aiiril  29, 1757,  and 
entered  the  University  of  Jena  in  1775.  Four  j^ears 
later  he  began  lectures  at  the  University  of  Giittingen, 
but  in  1783,  on  account  of  straitened  circumstances,  went 
to  Jever  as  rector,  and  in  1792  was  called  to  a  like  posi- 
tion at  Hanover.  He  died  Jan.  12,  1828.  For  a  list  of 
his  works,  see  Dciring,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutschlands.  ii, 
193  sq. 

Krause,  Johann  Friedrich,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  Reichenbach  Oct.  26,  1770,  and  was 
educated  at  Wittenberg  University,  where,  after  secur- 
ing the  master's  degree,  he  lectured  a  short  time.  In 
1793  he  was  called  to  his  native  place  as  diaconus,  and 
in  1802  the  city  of  Naumburg  called  him  as  preacher  to 
the  cathedral.  In  1810  he  went  to  the  Universit}'  of 
Konigsberg  to  fill  a  professorship  in  theology,  which  po- 
sition he  held  until  1819,  when  he  accepted  a  call  as 
preacher  to  Weimar,  and  there  he  died.  May  31,  1820. 
Krause's  writings  consist  of  several  academical  pro- 
grammes, two  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Philippians,  one  on 
the  first  E]3istle  of  Peter,  and  four  on  the  second  Ejiistle 
to  the  Corinthians,  and  of  some  discussions  pertaining 
to  philosojihy  and  theology.  They  were  collected  by 
him,  and  issued  together  under  the  title  Opusciila  Theo- 
logic.a,  sparsim  edita  collegit,  ineditisque  (Dixit,  etc.  (Re- 
giom.  1818).  His  sermons  he  published  under  the  title 
Predigten  iiher  die  geicohnlichen  Sonn-  u.  Eesttagserange- 
lien  des  ganzen  Jahres  (Lpzg,  1803,  2  vols.  8vo ;  vol.  iii, 


KRAUSE 


160 


KREBS 


ibid,  1805,  8vo).     See  Doring,  Geh-hrte  Theol.  Deutsch- 
lands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Krause,  Karl  Christian  Friedrich,  a  (ierman 
l)liilosn]iluT,  born  in  Eisfiiberi;  INIay  (i,  17.^1,  was  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Jena,  where  he  attended  the 
lectures  of  Keinhold,  Fichte,  and  Schelling,  and  then  lect- 
ured as  "privat  docent"  from  1802  to  1804.  In  order 
to  devote  himself  to  the  wide  range  of  studies  which  he 
deemed  necessary  to  give  completeness  to  his  philosoph- 
ical system,  more  especially  to  studies  in  art,  he  quitted 
Jena,  and  resided  successively  in  Eudolfstadt,  Dresden, 
and  Berlin.  He  made  several  journeys  through  Ger- 
many, France,  and  Italy,  and  lectured  at  CJiittingen  from 
1824  to  1831,  when  he  retired  to  Munich.  ''The  aim 
of  his  speculations  was  to  represent  the  collective  life  of 
man  as  an  organic  and  harmonious  unity ;  and  he  con- 
ceived the  scheme  of  a  public  and  formal  union  of  man- 
kind, which,  embracing  the  Church,  State,  and  all  other 
partial  unions,  should  occupy  itself  only  Avitli  the  inter- 
ests of  abstract  humanity,  and  shoulrl  labor  for  a  uniform 
and  \iniversal  development  and  cidture.  The  germ  of 
such  a  union  he  thought  he  found  in  freemasonry,  to 
which  he  rendered  great  service  by  his  works."  He 
died  in  Munich  Sept.  27,  1832,  Among  his  works  are 
Vorlesunijen  iiber  das  Si/stem  der  Philosophie  (Gottingen, 
1828,  8vo): — Abriss  der  Religionsphilosophie  (1828)  : — 
and  Vorlesiinr/en  iiber  die  Grundwahrheiten  der  Wissen- 
schafl  (Gottingen,  1829).  See  Krug,  Philosophisches 
Lexikon,  ii,  642 ;  Kathol.  Real-EiicijMopddie,  vi,  398, 399 ; 
Appleton's  Xeio  A  mer.  Ci/clopmdia,  x,  217.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Krauth,  Charles  Philip,  D.D.,  an  eminent  divine 
in  tlie  Lutheran  Chiu-ch,  born  in  jNIontgomery  Co.,  Pa., 
jNIay  7, 1797.  Originally  designed  for  the  medical  pro- 
fession, he  commenced  its  study  under  the  direction  of 
Dr.  Selden,  of  Norfolk,Ya.,  and  subsequently  attended  a 
course  of  lectures  in  the  University  of  Maryland.  By  a 
Providential  interposition,  as  he  always  regarded  it,  his 
attention  was  directed  to  the  ministry  as  a  field  of  use- 
fulness. Brought  under  the  infiuence  of  saving  truth, 
and  liaving  consecrated  himself  unreservedly  to  the  blas- 
ter, he  felt  that "  woe  would  be  unto  him  if  he  preached 
not  the  Gospel."  He  very  soon  commenced  his  theo- 
logical studies  with  Rev.  Dr.  Schajffer,  of  Frederick,  ]Md., 
and  concluded  them  with  Kev.  A.  Keck,  of  Winchester, 
Ya.,  whom  he  also  aided  in  the  pastoral  work.  He  was 
licensed  to  preach  the  Gospel  bythe  Synod  of  Pennsyl- 
vania in  1819.  His  first  pastoral  charge  was  the  united 
churches  of  INIartinsburg  and  Shepardstown,  Va.,  where 
he  labored  for  several  years  most  efficiently  and  success- 
fully. He  removed  to  Philadelphia  in  1827 ;  advanced 
rapidly  as  a  scholar,  a  theologian,  and  preacher,  and  in 
l.s;5;>  was  unanimously  elected  professor  of  Biblical  and 
Oriental  literature  in  the  theological  seminary  at  Gettys- 
Ijurg,  Pa.,  with  the  understanding  that  a  portion  of  his 
time  shoidd  be  devoted  to  instruction  in  Pennsylvania 
College,  in  the  same  place.  In  1834  he  was  chosen  pres- 
ident of  the  college,  which  office  he  filled  with  distin- 
guished success  for  seventeen  years,  a  model  of  Chris- 
tian propriety,  purity,  and  honor.  The  history  of  the 
college  during  his  connection  with  it  furnishes  an  mi- 
crring  proof  of  his  abilities  and  faithfiduess.  During 
his  administration  the  institution  enjoyed  several  pre- 
cious seasons  of  revival,  when  large  numbers  of  the 
young  men  joined  themselves  to  the  people  of  God.  In 
1850  Dr.  Krauth  resigned  the  jircsidency  of  the  college, 
to  devote  his  entire  time  to  the  quiet  and  congenial  du- 
ties of  theological  instruction,  and  continued  these  labors 
until  the  close  of  life,  delivering  his  last  lecture  to  the 
senior  class  within  ten  days  of  his  death.  He  died  May 
30, 18t)7.  Dr.  Ivrauth  was  a  man  of  rare  endowments  of 
intellect.  His  mind  was  distinguished  for  the  harmoni- 
ous blendings  of  all  its  powers.  -  His  attainments  in  ev- 
ery department  of  literature  and  science  were  verj'  ex- 
tensive. In  the  pulpit  he  was  pre-eminent.  His  ser- 
mons were  always  impressive,  often  thrilling,  and  some- 
times accompanied  with  the  most  powerful  results.   The 


following  is  a  list  'of  his  publications :  Oration  on  ike 
Stud  J  (if  the  Herman  Languarje  (1832) : — Address  deliv- 
ered at  /lis  Immyuration  us  President  of  Penns;jlcania 
College  (1834): — Sermon  on  Missions  (1837): — Address 
on  the  Anniversary  of  Washington's  Birthday  (1846): — 
Discourse  at  the  Opening  of  the  General  Synod  (1850) : — 
Baccalaureate  Discourse  (1850) : — Discourse  on  the  Life 
and  Character  of  Henry  Clay'  (18b2).  He  edited  the 
General  Synod's  Hymn-book ;  Lutheran  Sunday-school 
Hymn-book ;  Lutheran  Intelligencer  (of  1826)  ;  Evangel- 
ical Quarterly  lieview  (from  1850-61).     (M.  L.  S.) 

Krautwald,  Valentin'.     See  Schwexkfeld. 

Krebs,  Johann  Friedrich,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  Baireuth  ilarcli  5,  1651 ;  studied  at 
Jena ;  became  rector  of  the  gymnasium  at  Heilsbrunn 
in  1675,  where  he  afterwards  tilled  the  posts  of  professor 
of  theology  and  Hebrew,  and  inspector;  and  died  Aug. 
16, 1721.  Krebs  was  a  copious  writer,  the  list  of  his 
works  filling  five  closely-printed  columns  in  Adelung. 
They  embrace  natural  and  moral  philosophy,  historical 
and  political  science,  and  theology,  mostly  in  the  form 
of  dissertations.  Among  the  most  valuable  is  a  work 
on  the  first  five  chapters  of  Genesis,  illustrated  from  the 
Syriac,  Chaldee,  Persic,  iEthiopic,  and  other  Oriental 
languages.  See  Adelung,  Gelehrten  Lexikon,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ; 
Doring,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutschlands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v.;  Kitto, 
Bibl.  Cyclop,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Krebs,  Johann  Tobias,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  Buttelstadt  (Thuringia)  in  1718,  and  was 
educated  at  Leipzig  University,  where,  after  attaining 
to. the  master's  degree,  he  lectured  on  N.  T.  exegesis. 
Later  he  was  conrector  at  Chemnitz,  and  finally  rector  - 
at  the  gymnasium  in  Grimma,  where  he  died  in  1782. 
Krebs  edited  Schottgen's  I^exicon  in  Nov.  Testament 
(Lips.  1765),  and  wrote  himself  two  works  of  consider- 
able value  for  the  illustration  of  the  facts  and  language 
of  the  N.  T.,  De  usu  et  prcestantia  Romcime  Historice  in 
N.  T.  interpretatione  (Lips.  1745)  : — Observationes  in  N. 
T.  e  Flavio  Joseph.  (Lips.  1755).  "  The  latter  contains 
a  rich  collection  of  examples  of  the  peculiarities  of  N.-T. 
phraseologv." — Pierer,  Univ.  Lexikon,  vol.  ix,  s.  v. ;  Kitto, 
Bibl.  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Krebs,  John  Michael,  D.D.,  a  noted  Presbyte- 
rian minister,  was  born  in  Hagerstown,  JNId.,  ]May  6, 
1804,  and  was  converted  at  the  age  of  nineteen.  He 
entered  Dickinson  College  in  1825,  and  after  graduation 
in  1827  with  the  highest  honors  of  his  class,  studied 
theology,  and  was  licensed  by  Carlisle  (Pa.)  Presbyterj' 
in  1829.  Shortly  after  he  became  the  pastor  of  Rutgers 
Street  Church,  New  York  City,  which  he  served  until 
his  death,  Sept.  30, 1867.  Though  one  of  the  ablest  and 
most  prominent  ministers  of  the  Presbyterian  Church, 
Dr.  Krebs  published  only  a  few  occasional  sermons,  be- 
sides several  contributions  to  the  periodicals  of  his 
Church  (for  which  see  Allibone,  Diet.  Engl,  and  Amer. 
A  itlhors,  ii,  1016),  and  to  Sprague's  .4  nnals  of  the  A  mer- 
ican  Pulpit.  '•  He  was  a  man  of  rare  gifts,  and  of  still 
more  rare  and  varied  acquirements,  being  learned  not 
only  in  theology,  but  in  the  whole  range  of  the  sciences; 
and  his  learning  was  all  made  to  bear  upon  the  work 
to  which  he  had  devoted  his  life,  that  of  the  (;osi)el 
ministry.  He  was  eminent  as  a  preacher  of  the  Gospel, 
and  still  more  eminent  in  the  councils  of  the  Church, 
having  no  equal  in  the  knowledge  of  ecclesiastical  law, 
and  in  his  acquaintance  with  the  ecclesiastical  history 
of  the  denomination  to  which  he  belonged."  He  was 
honored  with  the  ai)pointment  of  chairman  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  the  Reunion  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  and 
had  previously  held  other  offices  of  distinction  in  the 
councils  of  his  denomination.  See  Wilson,  Presb.  His- 
torical Almanac.  XSy-.^,  p.  100  sq. 

Krebs,  Winiam,  a  IMethodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  born  in  lialtiniore,  Md.,  Sept.  2,  1819;  joined  the 
Church  in  bsl  1 ,  and  wa,s  iumiediately  licensed  to  exhort ; 
and  the  year  following  joined  the  Baltimore  Conference 
as  pastor  of  Wesley  Chapel,  Baltimore.     He  died  Sept. 


KRECHLING 


161 


KRISHNA 


26, 1870.  "Brother  Krebs  was  a  perspicuous  preacher,  j 
logical  ill  method,  earnest  in  manner,  although  not  ve- 
hement, and  eminently  diligent  in  preparation.  He  was 
also  a  notably  faithful  pastor.  Five  years  of  his  minis- 
try were  spent  in  Washington,  five  in  Baltimore,  and 
one  in  Chicago,  and  everywhere  the  Lord  owned  his  la- 
bors."— Cotrfl'rence  Minutes,  1871,  p.  19. 

Krechling.     See  Anabaptists. 

Krell.     See  Cuiiix. 

Krey,  Joiiaxn  Beunhard,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  Kostoclv  Dec.  6, 1771,  and  was  educated  at 
the  university  in  that  city  and  at  Jena.  In  1806  lie 
was  appointed  assistant  pastor  at  St.  Peter's  Church  in 
liostock,  and  in  1814  became  the  principal  pastor.  He 
died  Oct.  6, 1826.  He  published  Beiti-age  zur  Mecklen- 
biirfjisc/icn  Kirchen-  u.  (jdehrteii  Geschickte  (Rost.  1818- 
1823, 3  vols,  royal  8vo).  For  a  list  of  his  works,  see  Do- 
ring,  Gdc'hrte  Theol.  Deulschlunds,  ii,  207  sq. 

KIrider,  Barnabas  Scott,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  in  1825,  in  Rowan  County,  North  Carolina ;  re- 
ceived his  education  in  Davidson  College,  N.  C,  where 
he  gra^luated  in  1850;  and  completed  his  theological 
studies  in  Columbia,  S.  C,  and  Princeton,  N.  J.,  semina- 
ries in  1855.  In  1856  lie  was  ordained  and  installed  as 
pastor  of  Bethany  and  Tabor  churches,  and  in  1858  took 
charge  of  Unity  and  Franklin  churches,  N.  C.  The  year 
succeeding  he  became  pastor  at  Thyatira,  where  he  died 
Oct.  19, 1865.  Krider  "  was  popular  in  address,  j  udicious 
and  practical,  and  won  the  affection  of  his  people." — 
Wilson,  Presb.  Historical  Almanac,  18GG. 

Krinon.     See  Lily. 

Kripner,  Samuel,  a  German  divine  of  some  note, 
was  born  at  Schwabelwald,  in  the  duchy  of  Baireuth, 
March  31,  1695;  entered  Jena  University  in  1710,  and 
in  1727  was  appointed  professor  of  Greeiv  and  the  Ori- 
ental languages  at  the  gymnasium  in  Baireuth.  He 
died  Oct.  15,  1742.  For  a  list  of  his  writings,  mainly 
dissertations,  see  During,  Gekhrte  Theol.  Deutschlands,  ii, 
210  sq. 

Krishna  was  the  eighth  and  most  celebrated  of  the 
ten  chief  incarnations  of  the  god  Vishnu,  who,  together 
witli  I5rahnia  and  Siva,  constituted  the  divine  triad  of 
the  Hindu  mythology.  See  TnniURTi.  The  term 
Krishna  is  a  Sanscrit  word  signifying  black,  and  was 
given  to  the  incarnation  either  because  the  body  as- 
sumed was  of  a  black  complexion,  or,  more  properly,  be- 
cause of  the  relation  of  the  avatar  to  a  deity  whose  dis- 
tinguishing color  was  black,  as  that  of  Brahma  was  red, 
and  Siva  was  white ;  or  for  a  reason  implied  in  the  ci- 
tation from  Porphyry  (Eusebius,  Be  Prnpar.  Evaiif/.'), 
that  the  ancients  represented  the  Deity  by  a  black  stone 
because  his  nature  is  obscure  and  impenetrable  by  man. 
See  further,  Maurice,  Indian  A  ntiquities,  ii,  364-368 ; 
Prichard's  Egypt.  Mythol.  p.  285;  Maurice,  Histoi-y  of 
Ilimlostan,  ii,  351. 

Krishna  is  the  most  renowned  demigod  of  the  Indian 
mythology,  and  most  famous  hero  of  Indian  history.  It 
is  probable  that  when  the  story  of  his  life  is  stripped  of 
its  mythological  accidents  it  will  be  found  that  he  was 
a  historical  personage  belonging  to  the  Aryan  race  when 
they  were  making  their  gradual  inroads  south  and  east 
in  the  peninsula  of  India.  It  is  presumable  that  the 
enemies  whom  he  attacked  and  subdued  were  the  Tura- 
nian races  who  constituted  the  aborigines  of  the  coun- 
try [see  KiiONns],  and  who,  fighting  fiercely  and  mer- 
cilessly in  their  primeval  forests,  were  soon  magnified 
into  gods  and  demigods.     See  Mythology. 

I.  Theory  of  the  Incarnation. — -Krishnaism,  with  all 
its  impsrfections,  may  be  accounted  as  a  necessary  and 
the  extreme  revolt  of  the  human  heart  against  the  un- 
satisfying vagaries  of  tlie  godless  philosophy  into  which 
Brahmanism  and  Buddhism  had  alike  degenerated.  The 
speculations  of  the  six  schools  of  philosophy,  as  enumer- 
ated by  native  writers,  served  only  to  bewilder  the  mind 
until  the  word  inaya,  "illusion,"  was  evolved  as  the  ex- 
ponent of  all  that  belongs  to  the  present  life,  while  the 
^Y.— L 


awfid  nn-steriousness  of  Nirvana  overshadowed  the  life 
to  come.  ]\Ian's  nature  asks  for  light  upon  the  per- 
plexed questions  of  mortal  existence,  but  at  the  same 
time  demands  that  which  is  of  more  moment,  an  an- 
chorage for  the  soul  in  the  near  and  tangible.  The 
ages  had  been  preparing  the  Hindu  mind  for  the  dogma 
of  Krishna — an  upheaving  of  something  more  subsi  an- 
tial  from  the  great  deep  of  human  hope  and  fear  than 
the  unstable  elements  of  a  life  transitory  and  void.  Con- 
sult Max  MUller's  Chijjs,  i,  242 ;  Biblioth.  Sac?-a,  xviii, 
543-568. 

The  avatars  preceding  that  of  Krishna  were  mere 
emanations  of  the  god  Vishnu,  but  this  embodied  the 
deity  in  the  entirety  of  his  nature.  In  tliose  he  brought 
only  an  ansa,  or  portion  of  his  divinity,  "a  part  of  a 
part;"  in  this  he  descended  in  all  the  fidness  of  the 
godhead,  so  much  so  that  Vishnu  is  sometimes  con- 
founded with  Brahma,  the  latter  becoming  incarnate  in 
Krishna  as  "  the  very  supreme  Brahma."  See  Hard- 
wick,  Christ  and  other  Maste?-s,  i,  280,  291,  note ;  also  Sir 
Wm.  Jones,  in  Maurice's  Hindostan,  ii,  256.  In  the 
Bhagavat  (iita,  that  wonderful  episode  of  the  ISIaha- 
bharata,  Arjuna  asks  of  Krishna  that  he  may  be  favored 
with  the  view  of  the  divine  countenance.  As,  in  re- 
sponse, the  deity  bestows  upon  him  a  heavenly  eye  that 
he  may  contemplate  the  divine  glory,  he  indulges  in  a 
rhapsody  which  describes  the  incarnate  god  as  compris- 
ing the  entire  godhead  in  all  its  functions.  Again, 
Krishna  says  of  himself,  "  I  am  the  cause  of  the  produc- 
tion and  dissolution  of  the  whole  universe,"  etc.  (Thom- 
son's edition,  p.  51). 

One  object  of  this  incarnation  was  "  the  destruction 
of  Kansa,  an  oppressive  monarch,  and,  in  fact,  an  incar- 
nate Daitya  or  Titan,  the  natural  enemy  of  the  gods" 
(H.  H.Wilson,  Eeliyion  of  the  Hindus,  ii,  G6).  A  more 
satisfactory  object  is  disclosed  by  Krishna  in  the  Bha- 
ghavat  Gita :  "  Even  though  I  am  unborn,  of  change- 
less essence,  and  the  lord  of  all  which  exist,  yet  in  pre- 
siding over  nature  (jn-ah-iti),  which  is  mine,  I  am  born 
by  my  own  mystic  power  (maya\  For,  whenever  there 
is  a  relaxation  of  duty,  O  son  of  Bharata !  and  an  in- 
crease of  impiety,  I  then  reproduce  myself  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  good  and  the  destruction  of  evil-doers.  I 
am  produced  in  every  age  for  the  purpose  of  establish- 
ing duty"  (Thomson's  cd.  p.  30).  The  incarnations  of 
Vishnu,  which  were  multiplied  to  infinitude,  assuming 
diversified  forms  of  man,  fish,  and  beast,  because  physi- 
cal life  has  in  it  nothing  real,  nothing  individual,  noth- 
ing of  lasting  worth,  we  may  believe  contemplated  even 
yet  a  more  ennobling  end,  an  antidote  to  the  essential 
evil  of  nature  as  declared  in  one  of  the  Puranas:  "The 
uncreated  being  abandons  the  body  that  he  used  in  or- 
der to  disencumber  the  earth  of  the  burden  that  over- 
whelmed it,  as  we  use  one  thorn  to  draw  out  another" 
(Burnouf,  quoted  by  Pressense.  Religions  he/ore  Christ, 
p.  63).  "  The  thorn  is  material  life,  which  Vishnu  ap- 
parently takes  on  himself  that  he  may  the  more  effec- 
tually destroy  it"  (Pressense,  ibidem').  "  Crude  matter 
and  the  five  elements  are  also  made  to  issue  from  Krish- 
na, and  then  all  the  divine  beings.  Narayana  or  Vishnu 
proceeds  from  his  right  side,  !Mahadeva  from  his  left, 
Brahma  from  his  hand,  Dharma  from  his  breath,  Saras- 
wati  from  his  mouth,  Lakshmi  from  his  mind,  Durga 
from  his  understanding,  Radha  from  his  left  side.  Three 
hundred  millions  of  gopis,  or  female  companions  of  Ra- 
dha, exude  from  the  pores  of  her  skin,  and  a  like  num- 
ber of  gopas,  or  companions  of  Krishna,  from  the  pores 
of  his  skin ;  the  very  cows  and  their  calves,  properly  the 
tenants  of  Goloka,  but  destined  to  inhabit  the  groves  of 
Brindavan,  arc  jiroduced  from  the  same  exalted  source" 
(H.  H.  Wilson.  Religion  of  the  Hindus,  i,  123). 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Puranas  disclose  with  regard 
to  Krislma  a  human  life,  when  considered  from  the  most 
favorable  stand-point,  discreditable  to  the  name  and  na- 
ture of  man.  It  is  a  tissue  of  puerilities  and  licentious- 
ness. The  miraculous  deeds  of  Krishna  were  rarely  for 
an  object  commensurate  with  the  idea  of  a  divine  inter- 


KRISHNA 


162 


KRISHNA 


position.  His  associations  as  a  cowherd  (gopala)  with 
the  gopis — in  which  capacity  he  is  most  popular  as  an 
object  of  adoration — are  no  better  than  the  amours  of 
classic  mytliology.  The  splendid  creation  of  the  Gita, 
not  unUke  the  human  liead  in  the  Ars  Poetica,  finds  in 
tlie  Puranas  an  unsightly  complement.  In  his  infancy 
he  is  represented  as  destroying  in  a  wonderfid  manner 
the  false  nurse  Putana ;  playing  his  tricks  upon  the  cow- 
herds— spiUing  their  milk,  stealing  tlieir  cream,  and  al- 
ways making  cmming  escapes ;  and  rooting  up  trees  the 
fall  of  which  made  tlie  tliree  worlds  to  resound.  In  his 
clilldhood  swallowed  by  an  alligator,  he  burns  his  way 
out  from  the  entrails  of  the  monster,  and  on  another  oc- 
casion contends  with  and  overcomes  the  dragon,  one  of 
whose  jaws  touched  the  ground  while  the  other  stretch- 
ed up  to  the  clouds;  checkmates  Brahma,  whose  mind 
had  been  led  by  evU.  suggestions  to  steal  away  the  cat- 
tle and  the  attendant  boys,  by  creating  others  which 
were  jierfect  fac-similes  of  those  that  had  been  stolen. 
Still  a  child,  he  dances  in  triumph  on  the  great  black 
serpent  KaU-naja,  and  then,  in  compassion,  assigns  him 
to  the  abyss;  hides  and  restores  the  clothes  of  the  gopis 
while  bathing;  lifts  the  mountain  Govarddhana  on  his 
little  finger  with  as  much  ease  as  if  it  had  been  a  lotus, 
that  its  inhabitants  might  be  protected  from  the  storm  ; 
and  plays  blind-man's  butf,  assuming  the  form  of  a  wolf, 
that  he  might  find  and  restore  the  boys  who  had  been 
abducted  by  anotlicr  wolf.  In  his  more  mature  man- 
hood we  behold  him  promoting  his  love  intrigues  by 
miraculously  corrupting  the  hearts  of  the  gopis,  or  ac- 
complishing that  most  astounding  miracle  with  respect 
to  his  16,000  wives,  "  quas  omnes  una  nocte  invisebat 
et  replebat"  (Paulinus,  Systema  Brahmanicum,  p.  150), 
in  order  that  Nared  might  be  convinced  of  his  divine 
nature.  Now  he  careers  in  triumph  over  battle-fields, 
with  a  blade  of  grass  or  with  a  single  arrow  shot  from 
the  all-conquering  bow  discomfiting  entire  armies:  and 
now  he  yields  himself  to  scenes  of  sumptuous  revelry  in 
the  gardens  of  golden  earth,  through  which  flowed  "  the 
river  whose  banks  were  all  gold  and  jewels,  the  water 
of  which,  from  the  reflection  of  rubies,  appeared  red, 
though  perfectly  white" — in  all  the  license  of  joy  sport- 
ing with  his  10,000  wives,  by  whom  he  was  siu-rounded 
"  as  lifjhtniiuj  with  a  cloud'' — they  and  he  pelting  each 
other  witli  tlowers,  thousands  of  lotuses  floating  on  the 
surface  of  the  river — whose  water  was  the  water  of  Ufe 
— among  which  innumerable  bees  were  humming  and 
seeking  their  food  (Bhagavat  Piirana,  in  Jlaurice,  Hist, 
of  Jliiidostan,  ii,  327-458).  Sir  Wm.  Jones,  however, 
with  enlarged  charity,  takes  a  modified  and  more  pleas- 
ing view  of  the  darker  phases  of  a  life  the  worst  scenes 
of  which  are  not  fit  to  be  told, "  that  he  was  pure  and 
chaste  in  reality,  but  exhibited  an  appearance  of  exces- 
sive libertinism,  and  had  wives  or  mistresses  too  numer- 
ous to  be  counted ;  he  was  benevolent  and  tender,  yet 
fomented  and  conducted  a  terrible  war."  See  farther 
ilauricc,  Ilindostan,  ii,  258. 

II.  Life  of  Krishna.  —  "The  king  of  the  Daityas  or 
aljorigines,  Ahuka,  had  two  sons,  Devaka  and  Ugrasena. 
The  former  had  a  daughter  named  Devaki,  the  latter  a 
son  called  Kansa.  Devaki  (the  divine)  was  married  to 
a  nobleman  of  the  ^Vryan  race  named  Vasudeva,  the  son 
of  Sura,  a  descendant  of  Yadu,  and  by  him  had  eight 
sons,  ^'asudeva  had  also  another  wife  named  Eohini. 
Kansa,  the  cousin  of  Devaki,  was  informed  by  the  saint 
and  prophet  Xarada  that  his  cousin  would  bear  a  son 
who  Would  kill  him  and  overtlirow  his  kingdom.  Kan- 
sa was  king  of  Matluira,  and  he  captured  Vasudeva  and 
his  wife  Devaki,  imjirisoned  them  in  his  own  palace,  set 
guards  over  them,  and  slew  the  six  children  whom  De- 
vaki had  already  borne.  She  was  about  to  give  birth 
to  the  seventh,  who  was  Balarama,  the  playfellow  of 
Krishna,  and,  like  him,  supposed  to  be  an  incarnation  of 
Vishnu ;  but.  by  divine  agency,  the  child  was  tVansferred 
before  l)irth  to  the  womb  of  Vasudeva's  other  wife,  Eo- 
hini, who  was  stiU  at  liberty,  and  was  thus  saved"  (Thom- 
son's summarj'  in  Bhagavad  Gita,  p.  ISi).     Her  eighth 


child  was  Krishna,  who  was  produced  from  one  of  the 
hairs  of  Vishnu  (jMuir's  Sanscrit  Texts,  ch.  ii,  sec.  5),  and 
was  born  at  midnight  in  Mathura, "  the  celestial  phe- 
nomenon." The  moment  Vasudeva  saw  the  infant  he 
recognised  it  to  be  the  Almighty,  and  at  once  presented 
his  adoration.  The  room  Avas  briUiantly  illuminated, 
and  the  faces  of  both  parents  emitted  rays  of  glory. 
The  child  was  of  the  hue  of  a  cloud  with  four  arms, 
dressed  in  a  yellow  garb,  and  bearing  the  weapons,  the 
jewels,  and  the  diadem  of  Vishnu  (H.  II.  "Wilson,  ut  sup. 
i,  122).  The  clouds  breathed  forth  pleasing  somids,  and 
poured  down  a  rain  of  flowers ;  the  strong  winds  were 
hushed,  the  rivers  glided  tranquilly,  and  the  virtuous 
experienced  new  delight.  The  infant,  however,  soon 
encountered  the  most  formidable  dangers,  for  Kansa  left 
no  means  unemploj'ed  to  compass  the  child's  destruc- 
tion. The  gods  interposed  for  his  deliverance ;  lidled 
the  guards  of  the  palace  to  a  supernatural  slumber;  its 
seven  doors  opened  of  their  own  accord,  and  the  father 
escaped  with  his  child.  As  they  came  to  the  Yamuna, 
the  child  gave  command  to  the  river,  and  a  way  was 
opened  that  they  might  pass  over,  a  serpent  meanwhile 
holding  her  head  over  the  child  in  place  of  an  umbrella. 
The  child  was  surreptitiously  exchanged  for  another,  of 
which  the  wife  of  an  Aryan  cowherd,  Nanda  by  name, 
had  been  delivered.  Krishna  was  left  with  the  cow- 
herd, while  Vasudeva  returned  with  the  other  to  the 
palace.  Not  long  after,  Kansa  discovered  the  impos- 
ture, and  in  anger  gave  command  for  the  incUscriminate 
slaughter  of  all  male  children.  To  escape  the  impend- 
ing danger,  Krishna  was  removed  by  Nanda  to  the  vil- 
lage Gokula.  Here  his  youth  was  passed  in  the  care 
of  the  flocks  and  herds.  The  young  gopas  and  gopis, 
cowherds  and  milkmaids,  flocked  to  his  side  from  the 
surroimding  countrj',  won  by  his  matchless  beauty  and 
the  display  of  his  miraculous  powers.  He  selected  from 
the  fascinated  gopis  a  bevy  of  beauties,  of  Avhom  he 
married  several,  Radha  enjoying  the  honor  of  being  his 
favorite  mistress,  and  subsequently  of  bcuig  associated 
with  him  as  a  joint  object  of  worship.  He  beguiled 
the  hours  with  them  in  the  gay  revelries  of  dance  and 
song.  A  second  Apollo,  he  wielded  the  power  of  music, 
and  at  the  sweet  sounds  of  flute  or  vhia  the  waters  stood 
StiU  to  listen,  and  the  birds  lost  the  power  of  flight.  The 
Puranas  dwell  upon  his  repeated  exploits  with  serpents, 
demons,  and  other  monsters,  each  one  of  whom  was 
eventually  crushed  or  conquered,  for  the  unequal  con- 
test was  waged  with  one  who  embodied  "  the  strength 
of  the  world."  An  impostor  arose,  pretending  to  be  the 
true  son  of  Vasudeva  or  Krishna  himself,  but  he  also 
was  defeated  and  slain  (.Johnson's  Selections  from  the 
Mahabharata,  third  section,  note).  Krishna  particijia- 
ted  in  the  family  feud  between  the  Kurus,  or  hundred 
sons  of  Dhritarasthra,  and  their  cousins,  the  five  sons 
of  Pandu.  One  of  the  battles  is  fabled  to  have  lasted 
eighteen  days,  and  to  have  been  attended  with  incredi- 
ble slaughter.  The  varied  fortunes  of  this  protracted 
strife,  interspersed  with  a  vast  number  of  legends  and 
traditions,  constitute  the  subject  of  the  great  epic  tlie 
Mahabharata.  For  the  protection  of  tlio  jieople  of  Yadu 
against  the  invasion  of  a  foreign  king,  Krishna  built 
and  fortified  the  town  of  Dvaraka,  in  Guzerat,  all  tlie 
Avails  of  which  were  so  studded  with  jewels  that  there 
was  no  need  of  lamps  by  night.  To  Eukmini  is  accord- 
ed the  pre-eminence  as  his  wife,  though  his  harem  num- 
bered 16,000  others,  each  one  of  whom  bore  him  ten  sons 
(comp.  The  Dahistan,  ii,  31,  1.S3,  and  Bhagavat  Purana, 
ibid,  ii,  408).  Many  Avere  his  notable  deeds,  some  of 
them  embracing  the  regions  of  the  dead,  and  others  In- 
(Ua's  heaven,  from  which  he  stole  the  famous  Parijata- 
trec,  produced  at  the  churning  of  the  ocean,  and  at  that 
time  thriving  in  the  gardens  of  Indra.  The  mighty 
tyrant  Kansa.  and  the  mightier  dremons  Chanura  and 
Mushtika,  fell  beneath  his  prowess,  and  even  his  own 
tribe,  the  Yadavas,  Avas  exterminated  through  his  agen- 
cy (11.  H.  AVilson,  Vishnu  Purana,  v,  passim).  His  death 
at  last  took  place  in  a  Avouderful  manner,  and  is  sup- 


KRISHNA 


163 


KRISHNA 


posed  by  some  to  illustrate  the  prophecy  of  the  Garden, 
Divrvasa  had  once  warned  him,  "  Oh,  Krishna,  take  care 
of  the  sole  oft/ii//oot ;  for  if  any  evil  come  upon  thee  it 
will  happen  in  tliat  place"  (as  is  related  in  the  Jlaha- 
bharata  in  Maurice,  ibid,  ii,  472).  As  he  sat  one  day  in 
the  forest  meditating  upon  the  fearfid  destruction  of 
Kuru  and  Yadava  alike,  he  inadvertently  exposed  his 
foot.  A  hunter,  Jara  (old  age),  mistook  him  for  a  beast, 
and  with  his  arrow  pierced  the  sole  of  his  foot.  In  his 
death  so  great  a  light  proceeded  from  Krishna  that  it 
enveloped  the  whole  compass  of  the  earth,  and  illumi- 
nated the  entire  expanse  of  heaven.  He  abandoned  his 
mortal  body  and  "  the  condition  of  the  threefold  quali- 
ties." According  to  the  Purana, "  he  united  himself  with 
his  own  pure,  spiritual,  inexhaustible,  inconceivable,  un- 
born, undecaying,  imperishable,  and  universal  spirit." 
He  returned  to  his  own  heaven,  denominated  Goloka — 
the  sphere  or  heaven  of  cows — a  region  far  above  the 
three  worlds,  and  indestructible,  while  all  else  is  subject 
to  annihilation.  "There,  in  the  centre  of  it,  abides 
Krishna,  of  the  color  of  a  dark  cloud,  in  the  bloom  of 
j'outh,  clad  in  yellow  raiment,  splendidly  adorned  with 
celestial  gems,  and  holding  a  Hute"  (Wilson,  Relirjion  of 
the  Hindus,  i,  123). 

In  this  entire  Ufa  we  find  no  high  moral  purpose  to 
elicit  our  admiration  or  command  our  faith.  Now  and 
then  there  appear  in  the  Puranas  suggestions  of  relief 
from  individual  burdens  of  oppression  and  woe,  but  they 
are  as  void  and  dissevered  as  flashes  of  Ughtning,  which 
serve  but  to  intensify  the  gloom.  Like  Buddha,  our  di- 
vinity bewails  the  evils  of  existence.  Whatever  may 
be  the  recognition  of  human  need,  the  idea  of  succor  is 
most  limited,  and  only  proves  that  the  religion  feels  it- 
self inadequate  to  the  emergency  of  man's  mortal  estate 
(comp.  the  opening  of  the  Bhagavat  Purana).  Its  sub- 
limest  thought  is  a  method  of  escape  from  the  necessity 
of  repeated  births,  but  even  this  it  fails  to  elaborate. 
With  our  eye  upon  the  balance  in  which  Krishnaism 
is  weighed,  the  confession  of  Porphyry  still  presses  pain- 
fidh'  upon  us  that ''  there  was  wanting  some  universal 
method  of  delivering  men's  souls  which  no  sect  of  phi- 
losophy had  ever  yet  found  out"  (Augustine,  De  Civitaie 
Dei,  lib.  x,  ch.  xxxii).    See  Incarnation,  vol.  iv,  p.  630. 

III.  The  Worship  of  Krishna. — The  worship  of  this 
divinity  is  so  blended  with  that  of  Vishnu  and  Eama, 
another  of  the  incarnations  of  Vishnu,  that  it  is  difficult 
to  treat  of  the  one  without  trenching  on  that  of  the 
others.  These  are  all  generally  considered  under  the 
denomination  Vaishnavas,  or  worshippers  of  Vishnu, 
who  are  usually  distinguished  into  four  Sampraddyas, 
or  sects,  designated  in  the  Padma  Purana  as  Sri,  Madh- 
wi,  Rudra,  and  Sanaka  (comp.  Wilson,  Relig.  of  Hindus, 
i,  34).  The  worshippers  of  Krishna  have  been  subdi- 
vided into,  1.  those  who  worship  him  alone;  2.  those 
who  worship  his  mistress  Radha  alone;  and,  3.  those 
who  worship  both  conjointly  (see  Vollmer,  Wui-terh.  d. 
Mythol.  p.  1093).  According  to  H.  H.Wilson,  through- 
out India  the  opulent  and  liuxurious  among  the  men, 
and  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  the  women,  attach 
themselves  to  the  worship  of  Krishna  and  Radha  either 
singly  or  together.  In  Bengal  the  worshippers  of 
Krishna  constitute  from  one  fifth  to  one  third  of  the 
entire  population  (Ward,  On  the  Hindus,  ii,  175,  448). 
The  temples  and  estabUshments  devoted  to  this  divinity 
are  numerous  all  over  India,  particularly  at  JMathura 
and  Brindavan,  the  latter  of  which  is  said  to  contam 
many  hundreds,  among  them  three  of  great  opulence 
(Wilson,  ^it  supra,  i,  135).  For  the  controversy  on  the 
extent  of  Krishna  worship,  see  Wdsou's  Vishnu  Parana, 
vol.  V,  Appendix. 

We  shall  have  to  content  ourselves  with  glancing  at 
some  of  the  more  notable  sects  or  Sampradayas.  The 
Rudra  Sampradayis  or  Vallabhacharis  adore  Krishna  as 
an  infant.  This  form  of  M'orship  is  widely  diffused 
among  all  ranks  of  Hindu  societj'.  In  their  temples  and 
houses  are  images,  not  unfrequently  of  gold,  in  the  form 
of  a  chubby  boy  of  a  dark  hue,  and  with  a  mischievous 


face,  in  some  cases  holding  butter  in  both  hands,  by 
which  is  perpetuated  one  of  his  boyish  pranks  (Paulli- 
nus,  Systema  Brahmainciim,  p.  146,  and  plate  15).  This 
image  eight  times  a  day  receives  the  homage  of  its  vo- 
taries with  most  punctilious  ceremony.  At  the  first 
ceremony,  being  washed  and  dressed,  it  is  taken  from  its 
couch,  where  it  has  slept  for  the  night,  and  placed  upon 
a  seat,  about  half  an  hour  after  sunrise.  Lamps  are 
kept  burning,  while  refreshments  are  presented,  with 
betel  and  Pan  (see  Wilson,  Rdirj.  of  Hindus,  i,  126-128). 
The  Sanakadi,  who  are  scattered  throughout  the  whole 
of  Upper  India,  the  Sakhi  Bhavas,  the  Raddha  Valla- 
bhis,  and  the  Charan  Dasis  differ  in  minor  particidars 
of  creed  and  rituahsm,  but  all  worship  Radha  in  union 
with  Krishna.  The  Chaitanyas  are  schismatics.  They 
believe  in  the  incarnation  of  Krishna  in  Chaitanya  their 
teacher,  who  on  this  account  is  elevated  to  joint  adora- 
tion. With  them  the  momentary  repetition  of  the 
name  of  their  divinity  is  a  guarantee  of  salvation. 

Festivals  in  commemoration  of  Krishna  are  annually 
observed  throughout  India,  and  still  maintain  a  most 
powerful  hold  of  the  popidar  heart.  The  third  day  of 
the  Uttarayana,  a  festival  held  about  the  middle  of 
Januarj',  is  sacred  to  Krishna  as  gopala  or  cowherd. 
In  the  afternoon  the  cows  and  bidls  are  washed  and  fed 
with  sacred  food,  then  decorated  with  chaplets  of  flow- 
ers. Thereupon  the  Hindus,  with  joined  hands,  walk 
around  the  herds  as  well  as  around  the  Brahmans,  and 
prostrate  themselves  before  them  (Wilson,  ihid,  ii,  171). 
The  Holi  festival  is  observed  about  the  middle  of 
March.  It  may  be  not  improperly  described  as  an  older 
and  more  crazy  sister  of  our  April  Fools'  Day,  and  is 
mostly  devoted  to  Krishna.  His  image  enjoys  a  swmg 
several  times  diu-ing  the  day,  is  besmeared  with  red 
powder,  and  dashed  with  water  colored  red.  In  the 
mean  time  unbounded  license  reigns  through  the  streets. 
"  It  woidd  be  impossible  to  describe  the  depths  of  wick- 
edness resorted  to  in  celebration  of  the  licentious  in- 
trigues of  this  popular  god"  (Trevor's  India,  p.  97).  The 
festival  of  Jaggernaut  ("  Lord  of  the  world"),  in  whose 
magnificent  temple  a  bone  of  Krishna  is  most  sacredly 
preserved,  commemorates  the  departure  of  Krishna  from 
his  native  land.  See  Jaggernaut.  This  also  takes- 
place  in  the  month  of  March.  Those  who  are  so  highly 
favored  as  to  assist  in  the  drawing  of  his  car  are  sure  of 
going  to  the  heaven  of  Krishna  when  they  die  (see 
Gangooly,  in  Clark's  Ten  Great  Religions,  p.  134 ;  Du- 
bois, Manners  ami  Customs  of  India,  p.  418).  The  na- 
tivity of  Krishna  is  celebrated  on  the  eighth  day  of  Au- 
gust. This  is  the  most  popular  of  all  the  festivals  at 
Benares.  The  Rasa  Yatra  falls  on  the  fidl  moon  m  Oc- 
tober, and  perpetuates  the  dance  of  the  frolicsome  deity 
with  the  16,000  gopis.  Though  it  is  universally  ob- 
served in  Hindostan,  the  details  are  such  that  it  wiU 
not  be  seemly  to  treat  either  of  the  occasion  or  the  ob- 
servance of  this  festival  (see  HolweU's  Indian  Festivals, 
pt.  ii,  p.  132;  Maurice,  Indian  Antiquities,  \,  159). 

The  Hindu  sects  are  distinguished  from  each  other 
by  various  fantastical  streaks,  in  different  colors,  upon 
their  faces,  breasts,  and  arms.  The  followers  of  Krishna 
bear  upon  their  forehead  two  white  marks  perpendicular 
to  the  e3-ebrows,  between  which  a  red  spot  is  percepti- 
ble, in  token,  says  Vollmer,  that  Krishna  bore  a  sun 
upon  his  brow  {Wurterh.  d.  Mythol.  p.  1093;  also  Wil- 
son's Rei.  of  Himl.  i,  41 ;  Dubois,  Manners  of  India,  ch. 
viii,  and  p.  214;  Trevor's  India,  p.  101). 

Unquestionably  the  influence  of  the  worship  of  this 
divinity  upon  the  morals  of  the  people  is  evih  On  the 
one  hand,  it  embraces  the  hideous  barbarity  of  Jagger- 
naut; and,  on  the  other,  excepting  a  festival  of  Siva,  it 
is  responsible  for  the  most  licentious  of  all  the  annual 
feasts  (comp.  Dahistan,  i,  183),  Entire  dependence  upon 
Krishna,  or  any  other  form  of  this  heathen  deity,  says 
H.  H.Wilson,  not  only  obviates  the  necessitj^  of  virtue, 
but  sanctifies  vice.  Conduct  is  wholly  immaterial.  It 
matters  not  how  atrocious  a  sinner  a  man  may  be  if  he 
paints  his  face,  his  breast,  his  arms  with  certain  secta- 


KRISHNA 


164 


KRISHNA 


rial  marks ;  or,  what  is  better,  if  ho  brands  them  per- 
manently upon  liis  skin  witli  a  hot  iron  stamp ;  if  he  is 
constantly  chanting  hymns  in  honor  of  Vishnu;  or, 
what  is  equally  ctiicacious,  if  he  spends  hours  in  the 
simple  reiteration  of  his  name  or  names;  if  he  die  with 
the  word  Hari,  Kama,  or  Krishna  on  his  lips,  and  one 
thouifht  of  him  in  his  mind,  he  may  have  lived  a  mon- 
ster of  ini(iiiity,  but  he  is  certain  of  heaven  (Wilson, 
Ri'U<j.  of  IJiiuliis,  ii,  75 ;  see  also  i,  IGl).  On  the  subject 
of  the  sects  and  worship  of  Krishna,  considt  A  siutic  Re- 
seai'ches,  xvi,  1,  and  xvii,  169 ;  Journal  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  /SociV/y,  ix,  GO-110;  H.  H.  Wilson, /S'e/eci  Works, 
vol.  i,  ii,  passim ;  Penny  Cyclop,  xxvi,  389. 

I\'.  Rcsc'inblances  between  Ki-ishnaivn  and  Revealed 
Reliyion.  —  Efforts  have  been  made  in  the  interest  of 
scepticism  to  establish  a  philological  similarity  between 
the  words  Krishna  and  Christ.  Such  specidations  be- 
long to  a  past  rather  than  to  the  present  age,  as  it  is 
no\v  conceded  by  philologists  that  the  two  words  have 
nothing  in  common.  The  curious  are  referred  to  Hick- 
son's  Time  and  Faith,  ii,  377 ;  Yolney's  Ruins,  p.  1G5 
(Am.  ed.  1828 ) ;  and  for  refutation  to  Maurice,  Ilindos- 
tan,  ii,  268-271.  The  readiness  with  which  the  scep- 
tical mind  of  our  own  age  seizes  upon  and  magnities 
even  fancied  resemblances  is  evinced  by  Inman,  who  in 
his  first  volume  (^Ancient  Faith,  p.  402)  gives  an  engrav- 
ing of  Krishna  strikingly  like  those  attributed  to  Christ, 
but  Avhich  in  the  second  volume,  on  farther  acquaint- 
ance with  the  subject,  he  admits  to  be  "  of  European 
and  not  of  Indian  origin,  and  consequently  that  it  is 
worthless  as  illustrating  the  life  of  Krishna"  (p.  xxxii). 

There  are  corresjwndences,  however,  some  of  which 
have  already  appeared  in  the  summary  of  the  life  of 
Krishna,  that  deserve  more  than  a  passing  notice.  It  is 
sufficient  to  adduce  the  more  striking  ones,  without  their 
correlatives  in  the  Bible,  as  these  will  readily  occur  to  the 
reader.  These  are  as  follows :  that  he  was  miraculous- 
ly born  at  midnight  of  a  human  mother,  and  saluted  by 
a  chorus  of  Devatas ;  that  he  was  cradled  among  cow- 
herds, during  which  period  of  life  he  was  persecuted  by 
the  giant  Kansa,  and  saved  by  his  mother's  flight;  the 
miracles  with  which  his  life  abounds,  among  which  were 
the  raising  of  the  dead  and  the  cleansing  of  the  leprous, 
perhaps  the  only  ones  which  particularly  resembled 
those  of  Christ,  for  the  rest  were  either  puerile  or  mon- 
strous; his  contests  with  serpents,  which  he  crushed 
with  his  foot ;  his  descent  to  the  regions  of  the  dead, 
and  his  final  ascent  to  the  paradise  Goloka  (comp.  Kleu- 
ker,  Ahhandluny  d.  Kalk.  Gesellsch.  i,  235;  Stirm,  Ajm- 
lotjie  des  Christenthums,  p.  181,  2d  ed.) 

1.  The  consideration  of  the  interesting  questions  in- 
volved in  these  correspondences  will  be  facilitated  by 
bearing  in  mind  that  India,  from  the  earliest  recorded 
period,  had  sustained  intimate  mercantile  relations  with 
Shemitic  races.  "  Before  merchants  sailed  from  India 
to  Egypt,  and  from  Egypt  to  India"  (that  is,  as  the  con- 
text shows,  before  the  period  of  the  I'tolemies),  '-Arabia 
Fehx  was  the  staple  (mart)  both  for  Egyptian  and  In- 
dian goods,  much  as  Alexandria  is  now  for  the  commod- 
ities of  Egyjit  and  foreign  merchandise"  (Arrian,  Peripl. 
Mar.  Frythr.  in  Ileeren's  African  Researches,  p.  228). 
"  If,"  says  Ilceren,  "  the  explicit  testimony  here  brought 
forward  ])roves  a  commercial  intercourse  between  India 
and  Arabia,  it  proves  at  the  same  time  its  high  antiqui- 
ty, and  that  it  must  have  been  in  active  operation  for 
many  centuries"  (ibid,  p.  229).  A  caravan  trade  also 
extended  from  India  to  Meroe,  in  Ethiopia,  which  was 
its  grand  emporium  {ibid,  p.  211).  Taking  its  rise  be- 
yond the  horizon  of  history,  it  was  j'et  in  its  zenith 
durhig  the  times  of  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and  Ezekiel  (see 
also  Vincent's  Periplus,  p.  57,  etc.).  It  could  not  be 
othervvise  than  that  there  should  have  been  an  inter- 
change of  religious  knowledge  as  well  as  an  exchange 
of  waxes;  for  commerce  was  promoted  by  religion,  and, 
to  a  great  extent,  controlled  by  the  jirlesthood ;  even  its 
temples  were  stations  and  marts  for  caravans  (see  fur- 
ther, lleeren,  ibid,  p.  219,  225,  232).     The  striking  re- 


semblance existing  between  the  Egyptian  and  Hindu 
mythologies,  which  has  been  unfolded  by  many  writers, 
illustrates  the  fact  of  an  interchange  of  religious  light; 
and  that  these  extremes  of  the  known  world  should  thus 
have  met  remarkably  confirms  the  views  of  lleeren  just 
adduced  (see  further,  I'richard,  Fyyptian  MythAoyy,  p. 
227-301 ;  Maurice,  Indian  Antiquities,  iii,  56-124;  Bun- 
sen,  God  in  History,  bk.  iii,  ch.  ii).     The  annexed  figures 


Krishna  trampling  upon  the  Serpent. 
were  copied  by  Sonnerat  from  scul|)tnres  in  one  of  the 
oldest  of  the  Hindu  pagodas.  No  Vishnuite  of  distinc- 
tion, Sonnerat  tcUs  us,  is  without  these  images  in  his 
house,  either  of  gold,  silver,  or  copper  (see  also  Prichard's 
F'lypt.  Myth.  p.  261).  For  a  glowing  description  of  Krish- 
na's person,  see  the  Piu-dna  in  Maurice,  Hindost.  ii,363. 

2.  On  the  supposition  of  the  oneness  of  oiu-  race  there 
is  no  reason  to  exclude  the  Hindu  from  an  original  par- 
ticipation in  the  patriarchal  knowledge  of  the  promised 
Redeemer,  as  transmitted  by  Noah  and  his  family.  Sue- 
tonius (Vespas.  iv)  and  Tacitus  (/list.x,  4, 13)  unite  in 
the  thought  of"  an  ancient  and  permanent  belief  having 
spread  itself  over  the  whole  East"  to  this  effect.  (See 
farther  Gray's  Connection,  i,  chap,  xxv ;  Hengstenberg, 
C/;m^o?o5ry,iv,  Appendix  ii;  Tholuck,  Le^re  r.d.Siinde, 
p.  220-229 ;  Stolberg's  Religions  Geschichte  i,  Beilage  iv ; 
Fabcr's  P>-oph.Piss.  i,  57-114;  Faber's  Horm  Mosaicce, 
i,  ch.  iii.)  All  Hindu  traditions  connected  with  the  or- 
igin of  their  religion  and  their  people  point  but  one 
way,  and  that  to  the  recognised  birthplace  of  our  race — 
the  lofty  watershed  from  which  in  every  direction  hu- 
man faiths  and  mythologies  have  flowed  forth.  (See 
Jlax  Midler  on  the  relations  of  the  Veda  and  Zend-Aves- 
ta, Chips,  1, 81-86.)  Though  these  traditions  in  them- 
selves may  be  as  inconsequential  as  falling  stars,  still 
they  reflect  a  light  kindred  with  that  which  shines  forth 
from  fixed  stars  in  the  firmament  of  true  faith.  Krish- 
na, as  seen  in  the  monuments  of  the  Hindu,  stands  a 
striking  exponent  of  primeval  traditions,  that,  having 
sprung  from  the  promise  of  the  Garden,  have  more  or 
less  modified  most  distant  and  varied  mythologies.  He 
is  a  crude  though  riot  inartistic  painting  of  a  hope  pre- 
served to  us  in  the  Word  of  God,  but  otherwise  hope- 
lessly lost.  He  is  one  of  a  brotherhood  that  embraces 
an  Apollo  triumphant  over  the  python  ;  a  Hercides, 
burj'ing  the  immortal  and  burning  out  the  mortal  heads 


KRISHNA 


165 


KRISHNA 


of  the  hydra;  a  Sigurd,  a  descendant  of  Odin,  slaying 
tlic  serpent  Fafnir,  and  rescuing  priceless  treasure;  a 
Thor,  styled  "  the  eldest  of  the  sous  of  God,"  who,  in  his 
contest  with  the  serpent,  thougli  brought  upon  his  knee, 
yet  bruised  his  enemy's  head  witli  the  mace  and  finally 
slew  him ;  an  Oshanderbegha,  predicted  by  Zoroaster, 
who  contends  twenty  long  years  with  a  malignant  dx- 
mon,  whom  he  eventually  conquers ;  and  even  the  less  re- 
nowned Algonquin  conqueror  Blichabo,  destroying  with 
his  dart  the  shining  prince  of  serpents  who  tiooded  tlie 
earth  with  the  waters  of  a  lake.  For  other  instances, 
considt  the  authorities  referred  to-  immediately  above, 
and  Brinton's  j\fijtlis  of  tite  New  Work/,  p.  IIG,  with  his 


Serpent  bituig  Krishna's  heel. 

interpretations.  On  the  other  hand,  IMajor  Bloor  states 
that  among  a  numerous  collection  of  pictures  and  images 
of  Krishna  he  had  not  one  original  in  which  the  ser- 
pent is  represented  as  biting  Krishna's  foot  (^Ilindii  Pan- 
theon),   For  an  account  of  this,  see  above. 

3.  It  is  not  to  be  questioned  that  India  was  a  field  of 
evangelical  effort  not  long  after  the  death  of  Christ, 
whicli,  taken  in  connection  with  the  generally  accepted 
view  that  Krishnaism  is  of  comparatively  recent  origin, 
suggests  that  its  more  palpable  features  of  resemblance 
have  been  more  or  less  directly  derived  from  the  Scrip- 
tures themselves.  If  doubt  be  cast  upon  the  extent  of 
country  comprehended  under  the  temi  India  in  this  con- 
nection, it  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  those  parts  of  the 
world  which  arc  supposed  by  some  to  be  confounded 
with  India  proper  maintained  by  trade  thus  early  a  live- 
ly intercourse  with  India,  and  could  thus  furnish  a  chan- 
nel for  the  propagation  of  Christianity  throughout  the 
field  where  Krishnaism  subsequently  prevailed. 

According  to  Eusebius, "  Pantaenus  was  constituted  a 
herald  of  the  (iospcl  of  Christ  to  the  nations  of  the  East, 
and  advanced  even  as  far  as  India."  He  found  himself 
anticipated  by  some  who  were  acquainted  with  the  Gos- 
pel of  Matthew,  to  whom  Bartholomew,  one  of  the  apos- 
tles, had  preached,  leaving  with  them  the  same  Gosjiel 
in  Hebrew  which  was  preserved  until  his  time  {Eccles. 
JJlst.  bk.  V,  eh.  x ;  see  Jerome,  Cutal.  Script,  cap.  xxxvi ; 
and  for  comparison  of  their  views  consult  Mosheim, 


Commentaries,  cent,  ii,  sec.  ii,  note  1 ;  see  also  Neander, 
CJi.  Hist.,  Clark's  ed.,  i,  112).  Tradition  tells  us  that  St. 
Thomas  preached  to  the  Indians,  which  is  confirmed  by 
Gregory  of  Nazianzum.  Jerome,  however,  makes  the 
field  of  labor  to  have  been  Ethiopia.  There  seems  to 
bo  little  doubt  that  copies  both  of  the  apocryphal  and 
of  the  genuine  Gospels  circulated  early  through  portions 
of  Southern  India.  Silly  miracles,  resembling  those  of 
the  former  almost  to  the  letter,  have  been  incorporated 
into  the  sacred  writings  of  Krishnaism.  Theophilus, 
surnamed  Indicus,  visited  India  as  a  missionary  in  the 
time  of  Constantino,  and  found  Christianity  already 
planted  and  flourishing,  tliough  isolated  from  Christian- 
ity at  large.  Both  Bardesanes  and  Maui,  horesiarchs  of 
the  early  Church,  in  tlieir  travels  came  into  close  and 
prolonged  contact  with  Buddhism, from  which  they  drew 
much  of  the  virus  that  they  strove  to  infuse  into  Chris- 
tian belief.  The  former  of  them  certainly  visited  India 
as  early  as  the  latter  part  of  the  '2d  century  (see  Kurtz, 
Hist.  ofCh.  p.  109,  sec.  50;  Neander,  ii,  198).'  Weber  and 
Lassen  agree  in  this  respect  in  their  interpretation  of  a 
passage  of  the  Mahabharata,  that  at  an  early  period  in 
the  historj^  of  the  Church  three  Erahmans  visited  some 
community  of  Christians  either  in  Alexandria,  Asia  Mi- 
nor, or  I'arthia,  and  that  on  their  return  they  ''were  en- 
abled to  introduce  improvements  into  the  hereditary 
creed,  and  more  especially  to  make  the  worship  of  Krish- 
na the  most  prominent  feature  of  their  system."  See 
farther  llaxAv>-ick,Christ, i, 24t)-258, 284-293 ;  Carwithen, 
Brahminical  Reliyion,  p.  98-104,  320-322 ;  Faber's  Pro- 
phetical Dissertation,'\,(i\\  Origin  of  Pagan  /rfo/.  bk.  vi, 
chap,  vi ;  Treatise  on  three  lJi.<iii'US(iti(ius,  Ijk.  i,  chaji.  vi ; 
Wuttke,  Geschichte  des  Heidenthums,  ii,  339 ;  also  author- 
ities referred  to  by  Hardwick,  /.  c.    See  India,  Modern, 

4.  It  was  the  fashion  earlj'  in  the  present  century  to 
search  out  astronomical  allusions  in  Krishna,  and  resem- 
blances to  Apollo,  the  mythological  counterpart  to  the 
sun,  but  these  have  given  place  to  sounder  criticism. 
Recent  researches  favor  the  view  that  no  great  antiq- 
uity is  to  be  attributed  to  Krishna  as  an  olrject  of  relig- 
ious regard.  That  some  one  bearing  that  name  may 
have  figured  as  a  local  hero  in  the  early  histor}'  of  In- 
dia, and  even  as  far  back  as  the  period  preceding  the 
war  of  the  Mahabharata,  is  not  improbable  (conip.  Wil- 
son, Reliyion  of  the  Hindus,  ii,  G5,  G6).  The  allusions  on 
classical  pages  ser\'e  to  justify  such  a  conclusion. 

5.  But  it  is  important  to  remember  that  Krishnaism 
nowhere  appears  in  the  Yedas,  the  most  ancient  scrip- 
tures of  the  Hindu.  "  Krishna  worship  is  the  most 
modern  of  all  the  philosophical  and  religious  systems 
which  have  divided  India  into  rival  sects.  Founded 
upon  the  theory  of  successive  incarnations  which  neither 
the  Yedas  nor  the  legislators  of  the  first  Brahmanical 
epoch  admitted,  Krishnaism  differs  in  so  many  points 
from  the  fiiiths  peculiar  to  India  that  avo  are  tempted  to 
regard  it  as  borrowed  from  foreign  philosophies  and  re- 
ligions" (M.  Pavio,  Bhagavat  Bason  Askand,  Prof.  p. xi ; 
in  like  manner  Lassen,  Tndische  Alterthitmsk.  i,  488;  ii, 
1107 ;  Pri chard,  Pfinjit.  Mythology,  p.  259,  with  citations 
from  Colebrooke ;  Max  !M  tiller,  Chips,  ii,  75,  Amer.  edit. ; 
A  siatic  Researches,  viii,  494).  "  It  is  believed,"  says  H, 
H.  Wilson  cautiously,  that  llama  and  Krishna  "  are  un- 
noticed in  authentic  passages  of  the  Sanhita  or  collected 
prayers,  and  there  is  no  mention  of  the  latter  as  Go- 
vinda  or  Gopala,  the  infant  co^vhord,  or  as  the  uncouth 
and  anomalous  Jaggernaut.  They  are  mentioned  in 
some  of  the  Upanishads,  supplementary  treatises  of  the 
Vedas,  but  these  compositions  arc  evidently,  from  their 
style,  of  later  date  than  the  Yedas,  and  some  of  them, 
especially  those  referring  to  Kama  and  Krishna,  are  of 
very  questionable  authenticity"  {ibid,  ii,  G5).  Compare 
Wilson's  Trunsl.  of  the  Rig  Veda  Sanhita,  i,  260, 313, 315 ; 
ii,  35,  note  b ;  iii,  148,  note  7. 

At  the  time  of  its  first  translation  into  English  by 
Wilkins,  an  immense  antiquity  was  claimed  for  the  Bha- 
gavat Gita  (see  above,  sec.  i ),  but  this  is  now  generally 
admitted  to  be  an  interpolation  in  the  Mahabharata,  and 


KRISHNA 


166 


KRISHNA 


to  have  been  produced  subsequently  to  the  rise  not  only 
of  Christianity,  but  of  Krishnaism  itself.  Lassen  accords 
it  a  place  in  the  later  history  of  Hindu  reUgions,  when 
"  the  Yishnuitcs  broke  up  into  sects  and  sought  to  bring 
their  religious  dogmas  into  harmony  with  the  theories 
of  phildsiipliy"  (^Imliiiche  Alt.  ii,  494  ;  Hardwick,  i,  241). 

As  to  the  I'urdnas,  which  are  almost  the  sole  author- 
ities for  those  events  in  the  Ufe  of  Krishna  (exclusive 
of  his  victorious  contest  with  the  serpent)  that  most  re- 
semble tlie  life  of  Christ,  they  are,  in  their  present  form, 
unquestionably  of  modern  origin.  They  abound  in  le- 
gends tliat  may  properly  be  regarded  as  piirana  (an- 
cient), but  bear  upon  their  face  sectarian  marks,  which 
betray  both  their  animus  and  their  age.  They  are  eigh- 
teen in  number,  and  some  of  them  are  voluminous.  The 
Puranas  themselves  in  many  cases  ascribe  their  author- 
ship to  others  than  Vyasa,  "  and  they  offer  many  inter- 
nal proofs  that  they  are  the  work  of  various  hands  and 
of  different  dates,  none  of  which  are  of  very  high  antiq- 
uity. I  believe  the  oldest  of  them  not  to  be  anterior  to 
the  8th  or  9th  century,  and  the  most  recent  to  be  not 
above  three  or  four  centuries  old.  .  .  .  The  determina- 
tion of  their  modern  and  unauthenticated  composition 
deprives  them  of  the  sacred  character  which  they  have 
usurped,  dcstroj's  their  credit,  impairs  their  influence, 
and  strikes  away  the  main  prop  on  which  at  present 
the  great  mass  of  Hindu  idolatry  and  superstition  relies" 
(H.  H.  Wilson,  JRelir/.  of  the  Hindus,  ii,  68).  There  is 
but  little  doubt  that  the  Brahmans  are  right  in  referring 
the  authorship  of  the  Bhagavata,  the  most  popular  of 
the  Puranas  (from  which  we  have  quoted  so  freely  in 
the  summary  of  Krishna's  Ufe),  to  Vopadeva,  who  flour- 
ished in  the  l'2th  century  (ibid,  p.  69 ;  sec  also  preface 
to  Wilson's  Vishnu  Purand).  Bentley  {Vieio  of  Ancient 
Asfronomt/,  i,  bk.  ii,  chap,  ii)  informs  us  that  he  obtained 
access  to  the  Janampatra,  or  horoscope  of  Krishna,  and 
was  enabled  to  discover  from  it  that  he  is  reputed  to 
have  been  born  on  the  2od  of  the  moon  of  Sravana,  in 
the  lunar  mansion  Rohini,  at  midnight,  the  positions  of 
the  sun,  and  moon,  and  five  planets  being  at  the  same 
time  assigned ;  from  which  he  deduced  the  date  of  the 
pretended  nativitj'  to  be  Aug.  7,  A.D.  GOO.  In  Mr.  Bent- 
ley's  opinion,  perhaps  a  fanciful  one,  Krishna  himself 
was  one  of  the  Hindu  personifications  of  time,  which 
view  he  supports  by  Krishna's  own  declaration,  '•  I  am 
time,  the  destroyer  of  mankind  matured,  come  hither  to 
seize  at  once  on  all  these  who  stand  before  us."  See 
farther,  on  the  astronomical  view,  Greswell's  Fasti  Ca- 
tholici,  iv,  88 ;  Cardinal  Wiseman's  Led,  ii,  1-28 ;  Tom- 
kins's  llidsean  Prize  Lectures,  p.  35^1;  \V.  A.  Butler's 
Ancient  I'hilos.  i,  247. 

From  considerations  like  these,  not  to  speak  of  others 
that  might  be  urged,  we  are  led  to  conclude  that  Krish- 
naism proper  was  post-Christian,  an  outcropping  of  hu- 
man and  possibly  of  diabolic  nature,  that  was  illustra- 
ted at  tlie  foot  of  Sinai,  but  which  no  more  resembled 
its  divine  original  than  the  lifeless  golden  calf  resembled 
the  living  Apis  of  Egypt.  As  in  the  pitiable  blur  of  a 
palimijsest,  Krishnaism  has  replaced  or  obscured  that 
which  was  more  precious — the  rehgion  of  Christ,  found- 
ed no  less  in  impregnable  truth  than  in  the  undying 
necessities  of  men.  For  at  the  rise  of  this  false  religion 
it  is  iilain  to  us  that  the  light  of  Christianity  was  re- 
flected already  on  the  sky  of  India — light  that  was  sadly 
jierverted  to  set  forth  a  feeble  caricature  of  the  incarna- 
tion and  life  of  Christ. 

6.  As  the  tenor  of  our  argument  has  indicated,  the 
criticism  of  the  present  age  is  tlisposed  to  assign  a  re- 
cent origin  to  Krishnaism,  though,  at  the  same  time,  it 
does  not  ignore  the  existenco  of  a  hero  bearing  the 
name  of  Krishna  conspicuous  in  the  early  and  fabulous 
history  of  India.  It  may  be  of  interest  to  the  reader  to 
have  presented  somewhat  mor6  in  detail  tlx;  views  of 
some  of  the  scholars  of  the  present  centurj',  conflicting 
and  confused  thougli  tiiey  be,  upon  the  general  subject 
of  the  relations  of  Krishnaism  to  Christiiinity  as  well 
as   profane   rehgions.     Arclideacon   Hardwick   thinks 


that  the  resemblances  are  no  greater  than  the  outward 
and  fortuitous  resemblances  between  other  heathen 
deities,  or  between  some  of  them  and  Christ.  He 
illustrates  by  the  incident  of  the  persecution  of  Her- 
cules in  his  infancy  by  Juno;  the  dancing  of  the  milk- 
maids and  satyrs  of  Bacchus,  which  compares  -with 
that  of  Krishna  ;  the  concealing  of  lipoUo  in  the  house- 
hold of  Admetus.  He  says  further,  "  If  Krishna  is  to 
be  regarded  as  a  purely  human  and  historical  hero, 
doomed  to  death  m  childhood  from  forebodings  that 
his  life  ^vould  prove  the  ruin  of  another,  we  can  find 
his  parallel  in  the  elder  Cyrus,  who  had  also  been  in- 
trusted to  the  care  of  herdsmen  to  preserve  him  from 
the  vengeance  of  his  royal  grandfather,  whose  death  it 
was  foretold  he  shoidd  ultimately  accomplish"  (i,  285, 
286).  Colonel  Wilford  supposes  Krislma  to  have  lived 
about  B.C.  1300.  Sir  William  Jones  says  the  story  of 
his  birth  is  long  anterior  to  the  birth  of  Christ,  and 
traces  it  probably  to  the  time  of  Homer.  He  thinks  it 
likely  that  the  spurious  gospels  of  the  early  age  of 
Christianity  were  brought  to  India,  and  the  wildest 
parts  of  them  repeated  to  the  Hindus,  who  ingrafted 
them  on  the  old  fable  of  Kesava,  the  Apollo  of  India 
(Asiatic  Pesearches,  i,  274).  Mr.  Bentley  (Hindu  As- 
tronomy), in  contradiction  to  Mr.  II.  Colebrooke,  Sir 
AVilUam  Jones,  major  Moor,  and  others,  boldly  charges 
the  whole  history  of  the  incarnation  of  Krishna  as 
a  "modern  invention"  and  "fabrication"  of  the  Brah- 
mans, who,  alarmed  at  the  progress  of  Christianity,  in- 
vented a  story  not  unlike  that  of  Christ,  and  affixed  a 
name  somewhat  similar  to  the  hero  of  it ;  all  of  which 
they  threw  back  to  a  very  remote  age,  that  it  might  be 
impossible  successful!}'  to  contradict  it,  and  then  repre- 
sented that  Christ  and  Krishna  were  the  same  person, 
of  whose  history  the  Christians  had  an  incorrect  ver- 
sion. Blr.  J.  C.  Thompson  thinks  that  Ivrishna  ante- 
dates the  Brahmanical  triad — Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva 
— and  that  his  great  exploits  occasioned  him  later  in 
Aryan  history  to  be  identified  wdth  Vishnu  (p.  134). 
Lassen,  an  eminent  Oriental  scholar,  refers  the  origin 
of  the  system  of  avatars,  as  disclosed  in  Vishnu,  to  a 
period  of  time  at  least  three  centuries  before  Christ ; 
while  Weber,  equally  distinguished  as  a  critic,  contro- 
verts his  views,  and  argues  that  Krishna,  the  hero  or 
demigod,  was  no  mcarnation,  and  differed  vastly  from 
the  Krishna  of  later  times.  (See  farther  Haidwick, 
ibid,  i,  288,  note.) 

V.  Literature. — The  "Mahahharata,"  translated  into 
French  by  Fauche  (Paris,  1803),  book  x,  which  is  appro- 
priated to  the  life  of  Krishna;  the  "Bhagavad  Gita," 
episode  of  the  preceding  (Wilkins's,  1785,  and  Thomson's, 
1855,  transl.  into  English,  and  Wm.  Schlegel's  transla- 
tion into  Latin,  1823) ;  the  "Vishnu  Purdna"  (translated 
by  H.  H.Wilson,  1842  and  1866,  6  vols.);  the  '' Maga- 
vata  Purdna"  (translated  into  French  by  Burnouf,  Paris, 
1840) ;  the  "  Ilari  Vansa"  (transl.  into  French  by  Lan- 
glois,  Paris,  1842) ;  "Analysis  of  the  Agni  Purana,"  in 
the  Journ.  of  As.  Soc.  of  Bengal,  i,  81 ;  "Analysis  of  the 
Brahma  Vaivartha  Purana,"  ibid, -p.  217;  also  Asiatic 
Researches,  passim,  especially  vol.  xv  and  xvi;  Hard- 
wick, Christ  and  other  Masters,  i,  246-258,  277-293— a 
valuable  and  easily  accessible  resume  of  the  whole  sub- 
ject; H.  II.  Wilson,  Peligion  of  the  Hindus,  vol.  ii,  pas- 
sim ;  Hoefer,  Biographie  Cenerale,  art.  Crichnie ;  J.  I>. 
Guigniaut,  7?e%«o«A'  de  VAntiquite,  vol.  i,  bk.  i,  ch.  iii; 
P.  F.  Stuhr,  Religions  systeme  der  heidnischen  Volker  des 
Orients  (Berlin,  1836-38,  2  vols.  8vo);  M.  Pavie,  Z/Z/w^a- 
vat  Dasam  Askand  (Paris,  1852);  W.  von  Humboldt, 
Ueber  die  unter  dem  Namen  Bhagavad  Gita  lekannte 
Episode  des  Mahabharata  (Berlin,  1826) ;  A.  Rcmusat, 
Melanges  Asiatiques  (Paris,  1825-1829.  4  vols.);  P.  von 
Bohlen,  Das  A  Ite  Indien  (2  vols.,  1830-31);  Christ.  Las- 
sen,//ifkse/ic  Alterthumskunde  (4  vols.,  1844r-46,  chiefly 
vol.  ii);  A.  F.  Weber, /«f/isc/ic?^  Studien  (10  vols.,  1849- 
67,  especially  the  two  first  vols.) ;  Indische  Hkitzzen 
(Berlin,  1857),  particularly  the  essay  Die  Verbindungen 
Indiens  mit  den  Ldndern  im,  Westen;  Coleman,  Mgthol- 


KROCtlMAL 


167 


KRUDENER 


o(]y  of  the  Hindus  (1832),  art.  Krishna;  Edward  Moor, 
iliiviu  Pantheon  (1«10) ;  H.  T.  Colebrooke,  Religion  of 
the  Hindus  (London,  1858);  WmAYarA,  Account  of  the 
Writings,  Religion,  etc.,  of  the  Hindus  (4  vols.,  1817-20)  ; 
G.  Haslam,  The  Cross  and  the  Serpent  (London,  1849)  ; 
G.W.  F.  Hegel,  in  the  Jahrbiicher  fur  wissenschaftliche 
Kritik  (Berlin,  1827) ;  J.  A.  Dorner,  Lehre  von  d.  Person 
Christi  (Stuttgardt,  1845),  i,  7  sq. ;  Theo.  Benfey,  Indien, 
in  Ersch  und  Gruber's  EnctjUop.,  sec.  ii,  vol.  17  (Leip- 
sic,  1840);  Biographie  Universelle  {Partie  Mythologique, 
supplement,  ii,  545-550) ;  K.  F.  Stiiudlin,  Magazin,  iii, 
2, 9'J  sq. ;  Muir,  Original  Sanscrit  Extracts  (5  vols.,  1858 
-1870),  vols,  i  and  iv.     See  Vishnu.     (J.  K.  B.) 

Krochmal,  Nachjian  ben-Shalmon,  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  Jewish  scholars  of  modern  date,  was 
horn  in  Brody  Feb.  18, 1780.  An  erudite  critic  and  em- 
inent Hebraist,  he  was  the  first  among  the  Jews  who, 
ivitli  a  rare  sagacity  and  independence  of  mind,  inves- 
tigated the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  in  order  to  ascertain  the 
origin,  unity,  and  date  of  each  book,  as  well  as  to  char- 
acterize its  peculiarity  of  style  and  language,  irrespec- 
tive of  the  fixed  traditional  opinions  held  alike  by  the 
synagogue  and  the  Chiu:ch  about  the  authors  and  ages 
of  tlie  respective  canonical  volumes  (comp.  Jost,  Gesch. 
des  Judenthums  und  seiner  Sekten,  iii,  343).  Krochmal, 
however,  on  account  of  feeble  health  and  other  infirmi- 
ties of  the  flesh,  published  but  little  in  his  lifetime.  In 
many  respects  he  may  be  likened  to  the  great  Jewish 
philosopher  of  the  19th  century  (ilendelsohn),  for,  like 
him,  he  suffered  from  impaired  health,  and,  like  him,  he 
struggled  for  an  education  after  he  had  entered  the  mer- 
cantile profession.  He  also  gave  much  of  liis  time  and 
attention  to  philosophy,  and,  as  the  fruits  of  his  inves- 
tigations, left  in  MS.  a  work  entitled  More  Nehoche 
Ha-Seman,  a  treasury  of  criticisms  on  Jewish  philoso- 
phy. Biblical  literature,  and  sacred  antiquities,  which 
the  learned  Dr.  Leopold  Zunz  edited  and  published  at 
Lemburg  in  1851.  Comi)are  also  Zunz  on  Krochmal,  in 
Jahrb.fur  Isixielilen  (1845).  Krochmal  was  an  inti- 
mate associate  of  the  late  Jewish  savant  Eapoport  (q. 
v.),  and  is  said  to  have  exerted  considerable  influence 
over  the  latter.  He  died  at  Tarnopol  July  31,  1840. 
His  works,  which  appeared  in  the  Hebrew  annual  called 
Kerem  Chemed  (vol.  v,  Piag.  1841,  p.  51  sq.),  are,  on  The 
Sacred  Antiquities  ami  their  Import  ("ilJ^p  HI^SI'S'lp 
"rsnni) :  1.  On  the  age  of  the  comforting  promises  in 
the  second  part  of  Isaiah,  chap,  xl-xlvi,  iii  which  he 
tries  to  demonstrate  the  late  date  of  this  part  of  the 
volume,  and  to  show  that  Aben-Ezra  was  of  the  same 
opinion,  only  that  he  veiled  it  in  enigmatical  language. 
See  Auex-Ezra.  2.  On  the  date  and  composition  of 
Ezra  and  Chronicles,  with  an  investigation  of  the  an- 
cient statement  on  this  subject  contained  in  the  Talmud, 
Baba  Batkra,  14,  b,  which  is  very  important.  He  tries 
to  trace  and  analyze  tlie  dift'erent  parts  of  which  these 
books  are  composed,  and  to  show  that  they  extend  to 
the  destruction  of  the  Persian  empire.  3.  On  the  date 
and  composition  of  Ezekiel,  the  Minor  Prophets,  Daniel, 
and  Esther,  witli  an  examination  of  the  ancient  state- 
ment on  this  subject  contained  in  the  same  passage  of 
the  Talmud,  which  is  stiU  more  important,  inasmuch  as 
Krochmal  shows  here  what  is  meant  by  the  Gi-eat  Syn- 
agogue, and  tries  to  demonstrate  that  some  portions  of 
the  IMinor  I'rophets  belong  to  the  period  of  the  Greek 
empire.  4.  On  the  origin  and  date  of  Ecclesiastes,  in 
which  he  insists  that  it  is  the  latest  composition  in  the 
canon.  See,  besides  the  authorities  already  referred  to, 
Ginsburg,  in  Kitto,  Cyclop.  Bibl.  Lit.  ii,  s.  v. 

Kromayer,  Jerome,  a  German  Protestant  di- 
vine, nephew  of  the  succeeding,  was  born  at  Zeitz  in 
1610,  and  was  educated  at  Leipzic,  Wittenberg,  and  Je- 
na. He  was  appointed  professor  at  Leipzig  in  1643,  and 
in  1657  regular  or  ordinary  professsor  of  divinity.  In 
1660  he  became  minister  at  Zeitz,  and  in  1661  at  Meis- 
sen. He  died  in  1670.  He  wrote  largely;  the  most 
important  of  his  works  are :  Commentaria  in  Epist.  ad 


Galatas: — Comment,  in  Apocalypsin : — Historice  Eccles. 
Centuriae  XVI:  —  Theologia  Positivo-Polemica : — Loci 
A ntisyncretistici : — Polymathia  Theologica : — some  con- 
troversial tracts,  dissertations,  etc. — Hook,  Eccles.  Diet, 
vi,  501. 

Kromayer,  John,  a  German  theologian,  was  bom 
at  Dobelen,  in  ^Misuia,  in  1576,  and  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Leipzic.  In  1600  he  was  made  deacon, 
and  some  time  after  was  appointed  pastor  at  Eisleben, 
and  later  pastor  at  Weimar.  He  died  in  1643,  after 
having  a  short  time  previously  been  honored  witli  the 
general  superintendency  of  the  churches  of  the  duchy 
of  Weimar.  John  Kromayer  wrote  Ilarmonia  Evange- 
listarum : — Historiae  Ecclesiasticm  Compendium : — Speci- 
men fontium  Scripiturw  Sacrce  apertorum,  etc.:  —  Exa- 
men  Libri  Christiance  Concordim : — a  Paraphrase  on  the 
Prophecy  and  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah  :  this  is  held  in 
high  estimation,  and  is  in  the  Bible  of  Weimar : — Expo- 
sition of  the  Epistles  and  Gospels  throughout  the  Year 
(4to) ;  and  Sermons. — Hook,  Eccles.  Diet,  vi,  502. 

KrotOS  (/cporof),  a  word  used  to  signify  approba- 
tion of  a  public  speaker.  It  means  literally  a  beating, 
striking,  knocking,  as  of  the  hands,  together ;  and  lience 
it  was  used  to  signify  consent  and  approbation,  either 
by  words  or  actions.  PubUc  applauses  and  acclamations 
appear  to  have  been  common  in  the  early  Church. — Far- 
rar,  Eccl.  Diet.     Sec  Acclamations. 

Kriidener,  Barbara  Juliana  ^•ON,  a  religious  vis- 
ionary and  enthusiast,  was  a  granddaughter  of  the  Rus- 
sian field-marshal  Von  Munich,  and  daughter  of  the 
states  councillor  baron  Von  Wletinghoff,  and  was  born 
at  Riga  in  1764  according  to  some  authorities,  or  in 
1766  according  to  others.  In  1782  she  married  baron 
Von  Kriidener,  the  Russian  ambassador  at  Venice,  and 
a  great  admirer  of  the  French  philosopher  Rousseau, 
But,  unfortunately,  the  baron,  who  had  been  twice  mar- 
ried before,  succeeded  much  better  in  making  his  wife 
an  ardent  disciple  of  the  phUosopliical  principles  which 
he  himself  espoused  than  in  winning  her  affections  for 
himself,  and  after  the  birth  of  a  son  and  a  daughter  tlie 
husband  and  wife  separated,  the  latter  to  take  up  her 
residence  at  Paris.  Here,  in  the  vortex  of  dissipation, 
her  better  feelings  would  sometimes  assert  themselves, 
but  tliey  were  smothered  by  the  adulations  of  all  the 
brilliant  personages  who  surroimded  her,  among  wliom 
figured  conspicuously  Chateaubriancl  and  Jladame  de 
Stael.  In  imitation  of  the  latter  she  gave  the  world 
her  biography,  in  the  shape  of  a  sickly  sentimental 
novel  entitled  Valerie,  describing  an  immoral  relation 
concealed  beneath  the  fragrant  veil  of  romance,  and  red- 
olent with  a  religious  Romish  and  fanatical  sentimental- 
ism.  Tlie  work  is  said  to  have  been  written  ^vlth  the 
assistance  of  St.  Martin,  and  created  quite  a  sensation, 
meeting  with  great  success,  especially  in  the  liigher  cir- 
cles of  society.  After  many  adventures,  IMadame  von 
Kriidener  came  to  reside  at  Berlin,  where  she  enjoyed 
the  close  intimacy  of  that  noble  woman  queen  Louisa, 
of  whose  projects  she  was  the  confidante  and  sharer  in 
the  stormy  period  of  Prussia's  warfare  with  France.  In 
1808  she  became  acquainted  with  Jung  Stilling  and 
Oberlin,  and  thereafter  we  find  her  devoted  to  reHgious 
mysticism  in  its  most  aggravated  forms.  She  l)Ought 
a  place  for  the  mystics  at  Bormingheim,  in  Wiirtem- 
berg,  and  did  all  in  licr  power  to  promote  their  inter- 
ests. Unfortunately,  however,  the  disorders  occasioned 
by  the  seeress  Kumrin,  and  by  pastor  Fantaine,  \\-hom 
she  protected,  were  visited  upon  her  head,  and  she  was 
exiled  by  king  Frederick.  She  now  retired  to  Baden, 
and  then  went  to  Strasburg,  and  finally  to  Switzerland. 
Wherever  she  went  she  attracted  attention,  both  by  her 
political  predictions  and  by  the  preaching  of  her  pecid- 
iar  doctrines,  heralding  a  new  religious  a^ra,  tliat  of  unity 
in  the  Church — "the  period  when  there  should  be  one 
flock  and  one  shepherd."  At  Geneva  especially  she  cre- 
ated quite  a  stir  in  religious  circles,  and  among  the  cler- 
gy of  distinction  whom  she  won  to  her  views  may  be 


KRUDENER 


168 


KRUG 


mentioned  pastor  Empaytaz,  the  eventual  head  of  the 
jMomicrg  (t\.  v.).  AVitli  the  assistance  of  men  of  talent 
and  L'ducatiou  of  Empaytaz's  stamp  she  formed  "  prayer 
unions,"  and  urged  the  community  to  a  more  vital  Chris- 
tian li\ing,  and  the  liberal  use  of  jjroperty  for  the  good 
of  t  lie  poor.  The  fidtilment  of  her  predictions  of  the 
fall  of  Napoleon,  his  return  from  Elba,  and  the  final  cri- 
sis at  Waterloo,  aided  her  cause,  and  emboldened  her  to 
the  assertion  that  she  enjoyed  the  favor  of  God  in  a  spe- 
cial degree.  Among  her  most  ardent  followers  at  this 
time  she  counted  no  less  a  personage  than  the  Russian 
emperor  iVlexander,  who,  with  the  Bible  in  his  hand,  was 
her  frequent  guest ;  and  it  is  known  that  her  influence 
over  Alexander  brought  about  the  Holy  jUliance.  Her 
love  of  humanity,  however,  and  her  gigantic  schemes 
for  its  moral  and  social  elevation,  often  led  her  to  over- 
step the  bounds  of  prudence  and  propriety,  and  made 
her  appear  a  dangerous  character  in  the  eyes  of  persons 
of  authority,  so  that  she  gradually  lost  the  favor  of  men 
of  political  prominence.  She  was  obliged  to  quit  France 
and  other  countries  successively,  and  even  lost  the  friend- 
ship of  the  emperor  Alexander,  as  is  evinced  by  the 
treatment  she  received  in  Russia  when  she  was  called 
thither  in  consequence  of  the  sickness  of  her  daughter. 
She  was  not  only  refused  admittance  to  the  emperor, 
but  when  aftervvards  she  advocated  tlie  cause  of  the  in- 
dependence of  Greece,  and  pointed  to  the  Russian  em- 
peror as  the  instrument  selected  by  God  for  the  accom- 
jilishment  of  this  great  work,  she  was  requested  to  re- 
frain and  to  leave  St.  Petersbiu-g.  Under  the  influence 
of  the  Moravians  her  life  and  habits  had  been  changed 
after  she  quitted  Paris,  and  she  had  often  dreamed  of 
founding  a  great  correctional  establishment  for  the  ref- 
ormation of  criminals  and  persons  of  evil  life.  Now 
driven  from  St.  Petersburg,  and  the  attack  of  a  cutane- 
ous disease  necessitating  her  residence  in  the  south,  she 
started  in  182-i  with  the  design  of  founding  such  an  in- 
stitution, and  of  establishing  a  German  and  Swiss  colony 
on  the  other  side  of  the  Volga.  On  the  way,  however, 
death  overtook  her  at  Kara-su-bazar,  Dec.  13, 1824.  The 
life  thus  suddenly  brought  to  a  close  lias  been  variously 
commented  upon.  In  her  day  "  passion  oscillated  in  the 
public  judgment  beween  favor  and  hostility  to  her,"  but 
now,  when  nearly  half  a  century  has  passed,  and  it  is 
easy  in  deliberation  to  pass  judgment  upon  her  life  and 
acts,  she  is  generally  spoken  of  favorably,  and  her  en- 
deavors to  inspire  the  people  with  religious  zeal,  and  a 
feeling  of  love  for  each  other  as  a  common  brotherhood, 
are  recognised.  Says  Ilagenbach  (Ch.  Hist.  18/h  and 
Idth  Centuries  [transl.  by  i3r.  J.  F.  Hurst],  ii,  413  sq.), 
'•It  is  a  remarkable  phenomenon, that  a  woman  trained 
in  the  dwellings  of  vanity,  and  humbled  by  her  sins  and 
errors,  had  such  a  spirit  of  self-denial  as  to  minister  on 
a  wooden  Ijench  to  the  poor  and  suffering,  to  seek  out 
criminals  in  prison,  and  to  present  to  them  the  consola- 
tions of  the  Cross;  to  open  the  eyes  of  the  wise  men  of 
this  world  to  the  deepest  m3-steries  of  divine  love,  and 
to  say  to  the  kings  of  the  world  that  everything  avails 
nothing  without  the  King  of  kings,  who,  as  the  Cruci- 
fied, was  a  stumbling-block  to  the  Jews  and  foolishness 
to  the  (irceks.  She  was  derided,  defamed,  persecuted, 
driven  from  one  country  to  another,  and  yet  never  grew 
weary  of  preaching  repentance  in  the  deserts  of  civiliza- 
tion, and  of  iiroclaiming  the  salvation  of  believers  and 
the  niiserv  of  unbelievers.  .  .  .  "Wherever  she  set  her 
foot,  great  multitudes  of  pco|)le  physically  and  spiritu- 
ally hungn,',  of  suflerers  of  every  class,  and  jiersons  witli- 
out  regard  to  confession,  surrounded  her,  and  received 
from  luT  food — yea,  Mouderful  food.  The  woes  which 
she  jironouuced  on  the  impenitent  awakened  in  many 
an  oppressed  and  troubled  spirit,  a  feeling  of  joy  at  mis- 
fortune, while  many  a  genial  word  of  love  fell  iuto-good 
ground."  Besides  the  novel  already  mentioned,  slie 
wrote  Le  Camp  des  Vertus  (Paris,  181.^).  jSIany  curious 
details  of  her  conversations  and  opinions  are  preserved 
in  Krug's  Convergationen  mit  Fran  r.  Kriideuer  (Leipz. 
1818).    See  also  C.  Maurcr,  Bikkr  uus  d.  Leben  eines  Pre- 


differs  (Schaffhausen,1843);  Berl.  Zeitschrift  fur  chrktl, 
Wissetisdiaft  v.christl.Lehen  (1857,  No.  0)  ;  Zeit;/enossen 
(Leipz.  1838),  iii ;  Adele  du  Thou,  Notice  sur  Mine.  Ju- 
lienne de  Kriidener  (Geneva,  1827,  8vo) ;  Mahul,  .4  miM- 
uire  Neerulor/ique,  anno  1825 ;  Eynard,  Vie  de  Jhne.  de 
Kriidener  (Paris,  1849,  2  vols.  8vo) ;  Ziethe,  Jid.  r.  KrU- 
dener  (18G4) ;  Hauck,  Theol.  Jahresbericht  (1869),  iv,  537 ; 
Sainte-Beuve,  Por/raits  de  Femmes ;  Derniers  Portraits 
Litteruires,  etc. ;  Herzog,  Real-EncyUoj).  viii,  1 1 2 ;  Hoe- 
fer,  Nouv.  Biofj.  Genirale,  xxvii,  234.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Krug,  John  Andre\Ar,  one  of  the  earlier  Luther- 
an ministers  who  immigrated  to  this  countrj',  was  born 
March  19,  1732.  He  was  higldy  educated,  and  was  for 
a  time  preceptor  in  the  Orphan  House  at  Halle.  He 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1703,  commissioned  by 
Dr.  Francke,  who  considered  him  well  fitted  for  mis- 
sionary work.  He  labored  first  at  Reading,  Penn.,  and 
among  the  people  of  the  surrounding  countrj-,  wholly 
devoted  to  his  duties,  and  greatly  beloved  by  the  com- 
munity. In  1771,  in  accordance  with  the  wishes  of  his 
brethren,  he  relinquished  this  field  of  labor,  and  assumed 
the  pastoral  care  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  Frederick, 
Md.  Here  he  continued  till  his  death,  which  occurred 
March  30, 1790.     (M.  L.  S.) 

Krug.Wilhelni  Traugott,  a  distinguished  Ger- 
man philosopher  and  writer,  was  born  at  Radis,  near 
Griifenhainchen,  Prussia,  June  22, 1770.  He  studied  at 
the  school  of  Pforta  and  the  L^niversity  of  Wittenberg, 
where  he  was  appointed  adjunct  professor  in  1794.  In 
the  j'Car  following  he  published  Ueber  die  Perfeciibili- 
tdt  der  ffeoJI'ciibarten  Reli(jion  (Jena  and  Lpz.  1795,  8vo), 
a  work  which  was  so  rationalistic  in  character  that  it 
barred  his  way  for  further  promotion.  In  1801  he  be- 
came professor  of  philosophy  in  the  University  of  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Oder,  and  here  he  wrote  his  principal  work, 
Fundamentalphilosoplde  (Zullichau  and  Freistadt,  1803; 
3d  ed.  Lpz.  1827),  which  became  very  popular  through- 
out Germany.  Guided  by  Kant's  criticism,  Krug  pro- 
fessed a  system  which,  under  the  name  of  "transcen- 
dental synthetism,"  aimed  to  reconcile  idealism  and  real- 
ism. ''According  to  Krug,  the  act  of  phDosophizing  is 
thought  entering  into  itself,  to  know  and  imderstand  it- 
self, and  by  this  means  to  be  at  peace  with  itself.  The 
following  are  his  principal  points:  1.  In  relation  with 
the  starting-point,  or  first  principle  of  knowledge :  the 
Ego  is  the  real  principle,  inasmuch  as  it  takes  itself  as 
the  object  of  its  knowledge  (the  philosophizing  subject). 
It  is  from  it  that  proceed,  as  from  an  active  principle, 
the  ideal pi-inciples,  which  are  essentially  different  from 
the  real  principles,  or,  in  other  words,  the  material  and 
formal  principles  of  philosophical  knowledge.  The  ma- 
terial principles  are  the  facts  of  consciousness  grasped  in 
conceptions,  which  are  all  comprehended  in  the  propo- 
sition, /  am  an  agent.  The  formal  princijiles  (deter- 
mining the  form  of  knowledge)  are  the  laws  of  my  ac- 
tivity; they  are  as  multifarious  as  activity  itself:  the 
first  of  these  laws  is,  Seel-  for  harmony  in  thy  activity. 
2.  How  far  ought  these  researches  to  be  carried  (the  ab- 
solute limit  of  philosophy)  ?  The  consciousness  is  a 
synthesis  of  being,  or  Esse,  and  knowing,  or  Science  {das 
Seyii  tind  das  Wissen),  in  the  Ego.  Every  consciousness 
is  thus  circumstanced,  which  implies  that  being  and 
knowing  are  united  in  us  a  pi-iori.  This  transcendental 
synthesis  is  therefore  the  original  and  inajipreciable  fact 
which  forms  the  absolute  limit  of  philosophizing.  Since 
being  and  knowing  {Seyn  nnd  Wissen'),  united  together 
in  the  consciousness,  cannot  be  deduced  the  one  from 
the  other,  tlieir  union  is  comjilctcly  jirimitivc.  .'!.  What 
are  the  different  forms  of  activity?  The  primitive  ac- 
tivity of  the  Ego  in  either  immanent  (s)ieculative)  or 
transitory  (i)ractical).  Sensibility,  intelligence,  and  rea- 
son are  its  different  latencies.  Philosophy,  regarded  as 
the  science  of  the  ]jrimitive  legislation  of  the  human 
mind  in  all  its  activity,  is  therefore  divided  into  a  spec- 
ulative ]iart  and  a  practical  yiart.  The  first  part  is 
subdivided  into  formal  doctrine  (logic)  and  material 


KRUGER 


169 


KRUMMACHER 


doctrine  (metaphysics  and  aesthetics),  inasmuch  as  the 
one  regards  the  matter  of  thought  j)€r  se,  and  the  oth- 
er (esthetics)  considers  it  in  relation  with  sentiment. 
The  latter  part  is  likewise  subdivided  into  formal  doc- 
trine (the  science  of  right  and  law)  and  material  doctrme 
(morals  and  religion).  Each  of  these  considers  the  leg- 
islation of  the  luiman  mind  under  a  different  aspect" 
('renncman,  Manual  of  Philus.  §  421).  After  the  death 
of  Kant,  Krug  was  called  to  Konigsberg  to  succeed  his 
great  master  as  professor  of  logic  and  metaphysics.  He 
subseriuently  tilled  also  Kraus's  place  as  professor  of 
practical  philosophy.  In  ISO^he  became  professor  of 
idiilnsophy  at  Leipzic,  a  position  which  he  retained  un- 
til 1831,  when  he  was  pensioned.  He  died  at  Leipzic 
Jan.  13,  1842,  Krug's  other  W(jrks  are  Versuch  eiiicr 
systematischen  EncijUopddie  d.  Wissemchaften  (Wittenb. 
179G-97,  2  vols.;  3d  vol.  Lpz.  1804)  :— J/e6er  d.  Verhalt- 
niss  d.  kriliscken  Philosophie  z.  moralischen,  politischen, 
u.  rdifjiosen  Cultur  d.  Menschcn  (Jena,  1798)  : — Versuch 
einer  s>/stematischen  Enojklopddie  d.  schunen  Kiinste 
(Lpzc.  i802)  ■.—Philosophie  d.  Ehe  (Lpzc.  1800)  :—Briefe 
iiber  d.  neusten  Idealismus  (Lpzc.  1801):  —  Entwurfeines 
neuen  Organon  d.  Philosophie  (Meiss,  aiid  Llibben,  1801) : 
— System  d.  theoretischen  Philosophie  (Konigsb.  180G-10 ; 
four  eds.  since):  —  Gesch,  d.  Philosophie  alter  Zeit  (Lpz. 
1815,  1826):  —  Si/stem  d.  praktischen  Philosophie  (Ko- 
nigsb. 1817-19,  2  vols.;  2d  ed.  1830-38)  :—IIandbuch  d. 
Philosophie  u.  j)hilosophischen  Literatur  (Lpzc.  1820-21, 
2  vols.;  3d  ed.  1829): — Versuch  einer  neuen  Theorie  d. 
Gefiihle  u.  d.  sorjenannten  GeJ'iihlsver/nof/ens  (Konigsberg, 
1823) : — Pisteolor/ie  oder  Glaube,  Aherfjlauhe  u.  Um/lauhe 
(Lpzc.  1825)  :  —  Das  Kirchenrecht  nach  Grundsdtzen  d. 
Vernunft,  etc.  (Lpzc.  182G)  :  —  AUg.  HaivJwOrterhuch  d. 
philosophischen  Wissenschaften  (Lpzc.  1827-28,4  vols.; 
2d  ed.  1832-34,  5  vols.  8vo) :  —  Universalphilosophische 
Vorlesungen  (Neustadt,  1831);  etc.  His  works  have 
been  collected  and  published  under  the  title  Gesammelte 
Schriften  (Braunschweig,  1830-34,  G  vols.  8vo).  See 
Krug,  Meine  Lebensreise  in  sechs  Staiionen  (Lpzc.  182G 
and  1842) ;  same,  Leipziger  Freuden  u.  Leiden,  etc.  (Lpz. 
1831) ;  !Morell,  Ilist.  Mod.  Philosophg  ;  Saintes,  Hist,  of 
Puitionalism,  p.  138 ;  Tenneraann's  Manual  of  Philosiphy 
(by  iMorell),  p.  4G5  sq. ;  ls.Tag,  Philosophisches  Worter- 
luch,  V  (1),  p.  G17  sq. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Giner.  xxvii, 
240.     (J.ILW.) 

Kriiger,  Oswald,  a  German  Jesuit,  was  l)orn  in  1598 
in  Prussia,  and  made  for  himself  a  name  by  his  thorough 
study  of  Hebrew,  which  he  taught  in  the  schools  of  the 
Jesuits;  later  he  devoted  himself  to  mathematics,  and 
became  professor  at  the  L^niversity  in  Wihia.  He  died 
May  IG,  1GG5. — Allgem.  Hist.  Lex.  iii,  65. 

Krumniacher,  Friedrich  Adolf,  a  German 
theologian  and  poet,  was  born  at  Tecklenburg,  in  West- 
phalia, July  13,  1767,  and  was  educated  at  the  univer- 
sities of  Lingen  and  Halle.  At  the  latter  school  he  en- 
joyed the  instruction  of  "  the  elder  Knapp,"  the  so  just- 
ly celebrated  "  pious"  professor  of  the  university  at  that 
time.  In  1800,  after  having  filled  various  positions  of 
trust,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Duisburg,  where  he  remained  until  1806.  He 
then  became  successively  pastor  of  Krefeld,  Kettwich, 
Bcrnburg,  and  Bremen.  His  talents  as  preacher  and 
administrator  caused  him  to  be  appointed  court  preacher 
and  Church  superintendent.  He  died  at  Bremen  April 
14,  1845.  Friedrich  Adolph  Krummacher  deserves  spe- 
cial commendation  in  this  work  for  liis  piety  and  the 
noble  Christian  example  he  furnished  to  his  sons,  and 
which  became  manifest  in  their  lives  (comp.  Krumma- 
ciiEn,  FniEDKicit  Wilhelm).  He  is  especially  known 
for  his  parables  in  verse,  which  have  become  classic  in 
Germany,  and,  though  he  has  had  many  imitators  in 
this  line,  he  has  never  been  surpassed.  His  works  are. 
Lie  Liebe,  a  hymn  (Wesel,  1801 ;  2d  ed.  1809):— Pora- 
behi  (Duisburg,  1805;  8th  ed.  Essen,  1850;  French,  Par. 
1821 ;  English,  Lond.  1844,  8vo,  and  often)  ■.—Apologien 
und  Paramythien  (Duisburg,  1810)  :  —  Festbiichlein,  eine 


Schri  ft  fur's  Volk  (Duisb.  1810,  2  vols. ;  od  edit.  Duisb. 
1819-21,  3  vols.)  -.—Die  Kinderwelt  (Duisb.  1806, 1813),  a 
series  of  sacred  poems  for  children : — Johannes,  a  drama 
(Lpz.  1815)  : — tfeber  d.  Geist  u.  d.  Form  d.  evangelischen 
Gesch.  in  histor.  u.  cesthetisch.  Hinsicht  (Lpz.  1805),  by  far 
his  most  important  theological  work  : — Bibelkattchismus 
(Essen,  1844, 12th  edit.)  : — Katechismus  d.  chrisil.  Lehre 
(Essen,  1821;  6th  ed.  1841)  : — Die  christl.  Volksschule  ini 
Bunde  m.  d.  Kirche  (Essen,  1823 ;  2d  edit.  1825) :  —  St. 
Ansgar,  d.  alte  mid  d.  neue  Zeit  (Bremen,  1828) :  —  Der 
Haujitmann  Cornelius  (Bremen,  1829 ;  English,  London, 
1838, 12mo ;  1839, 12mo,  with  notes  by  Fergusson ;  1840, 
12mo) : — Das  Ltben  des  heiligen  Johannes  (Essen,  1833 ; 
Engl.,  Lond.  1849,  8vo):  — i>((s  Tdubchen  (Essen,  1840, 
3d  ed.).  See  JNIoUer,  F.  A.  Krummacher  n.  s.  Freunde 
(Brem.  1849,  2  vols.);  Herzog,  Real-Eiwyklop.  viii,  118 
sq. ;  Brit,  and  For.  Evangel.  Rev.  Ixix,  627.  (J.  H.  W.) 
Krummacher,  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  one  of 
Germany's  most  el()C[uent  preachers  in  tliLs  century,  and 
the  most  distinguished  of  a  distinguished  famdy,  was 
the  son  of  Friedrich  Adolph  Krummacher  (q.  v.),  and 
was  born  at  IMors,  on  the  Khine,  -January  28, 1796.  After 
preparation  partly  at  the  Gymnasium  and  partly  under 
his  own  father,  he  entered  Halle  University  in  the  win- 
ter semester  of  1815-lG,  and  there  enjoyed  the  instruc- 
tions of  Niemeyer,  Wegscheider,  Geseuius,  jNIarx,  De 
Wette,  and  '•  the  elder  Knapp,"  for  whom  young  Krum- 
macher early  cherished  great  affection.  Two  3-ears  later 
he  removed  to  Jena,  drawn  thither  by  the  celebrated 
philosopher  Fries,  and  the  theologian  Schott,  the  well- 
known  editor  of  a  revised  edition  of  the  text  of  the 
New  Testament.  To  an  American  student  of  theology 
this  period  of  F.  W.  Krummacher's  life  presents  many 
points  of  special  interest.  He  had  left  Ilalle  for  Jena 
determined  to  sit  at  the  feet  of  Schott  and  other  cele- 
brated theologians,  but  so  disappointed  was  he  that  he  is 
led  to  exclaim  (in  his  Autobiography,  p.  77),  "Nothing 
remained  for  me  but  to  seek  refuge  from  this  spiritual 
famine  in  reading,"  and,  instead  of  attending  faithfully 
the  lectures  of  his  professors,  he  found  it  more  to  his 
soul's  interest  to  devote  his  time  to  the  reading  of  Her- 
der's Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry,  his  father's  Spirit  and 
Form  of  the  Gospels,  Kleuker's  apologetical  writings, 
and  other  books  of  this  class.  His  first  appointment  as 
preacher  he  found,  in  the  beginning  of  1819,  at  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main,  as  assistant  to  a  German  lieformed 
congregation.  In  1823  he  removed  to  the  village  of 
Ruhrort,  on  the  Rhine,  near  Dusseldorf,  and  two  years 
later  to  Gemarke,  a  parish  in  the  town  of  Barmen ;  and 
in  1834  he  accepted  a  repeated  call  to  the  city  of  Elber- 
feldt.  During  his  residence  there  a  call  came  to  him 
from  the  Pennsylvania  Synod  of  the  Reformed  German 
Church  to  come  to  the  United  States  and  fill  a  profess- 
or's chair  in  their  theological  school  at  Mercersburg, 
Penn.,  a  position  which  he  declined  in  favor  of  the  cele- 
brated Church  historian  Philip  SchafF,  D.D.,  now  pro- 
fessor in  the  L'nion  Theological  Seminary  at  New  York 
city.  In  1847  he  was  promoted  by  the  king  of  Prussia, 
Frederick  William  IV.to  the  pastorate  of  Trinity  Church, 
Berlin,  as  successor  of  the  renowned  pulpit  orator  ]\Iar- 
heinecke,  who  had  died  in  1846,  and  he  promptly  ac- 
cepted the  place.  About  two  years  later  he  became 
court  preacher  at  Potsdam,  the  usual  summer  residence 
of  the  Prussian  kings,  and  he  died  there  Dec.  19,  1868. 
Krummacher  was  honored  with  the  doctorate  of  divin- 
ity by  the  University  of  Berlin.  He  was  an  active  -work- 
er in  behalf  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance,  and  attended 
all  its  meetings  as  long  as  he  lived.  Dr.  Krummacher 
acquired  a  world-wide  celebrity  by  his  devotional  writ- 
ings, of  which  the  most  important  are  Flias  der  This- 
hiter  (Elberf.  1828;  5th  edit.  1860;  transl.  into  English 
and  extensively  circulated  both  in  England  and  in  tliis 
country)  : — Salomo  mid  Sulamith  (ibid.  3d  ed.  1830 ;  7th 
ed.  1855) : — Die  Sabbath  Glocke,  a  series  of  sermons  (Berl. 
1848  sq.,  12  vols.  8vo)  -.—Der  leidende  Christus  (Bielef. 
1854,  and  often ;  transl.  into  Engl,  in  Clark's  Librarj-) : 
—and  last,  but  hardly  least,  David,  der  KOnig  von  Israel 


KRUMMACHER 


170 


KUFIC  WRITING 


(Berl.  1866,  8vo;  traiisl.  into  English  and  published  by- 
Clark  of  Edinb.  and  Harpers  of  N.  Y.  1S70,  ll'mo). 

Like  his  father  and  uncle,  Dr.  Kriunmacher  was 
one  of  the  few  liold  and  uncompromising  witnesses  of 
evangelical  truth  of  which  (Jcrmany  can  boast.  Dr. 
Schatt'.  who  of  all  men  this  side  the  Atlantic  is  perhaps 
best  entitled  to  a  comment  on  the  life  and  labors  of  this 
celebrated  German  preacher,  speaks  of  him  as  follows : 
"  Krummacher  was  endowed  with  every  gift  that  con- 
stitutes an  orator,  a  most  fertile  and  brilliant  imagina- 
tion, a  vigorous  and  original  mind,  a  glowing  heart,  an 
extraorduiary  facility  and  felicity  of  diction,  perfect  fa- 
miliarity with  the  Scriptures,  an  athletic  and  command- 
ing presence,  and  a  powerful  and  melodious  voice,  which, 
however,  in  latter  years  underwent  a  great  change,  and 
sounded  like  the  rolling  of  the  distant  thunder  or  like 
the  trumpet  of  the  last  judgment.  This  splendid  outfit 
of  nature,  which  attracted  even  theatrical  actors  and 
mere  worshippers  of  genius  to  his  sermons,  was  sancti- 
fied by  divine  grace,  and  always  uncompromisingly  de- 
voted to  the  defence  of  scriptural  truth.  He  was  full 
of  the  fire  of  faith  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  In  the  pulpit 
he  was  as  bold  aiid  fearless  as  a  lion,  at  home  as  gentle 
and  amiable  as  a  lamb.  Like  all  truly  great  men,  he 
had  a  childlike  disposition.  ...  He  was  a  millionaire 
in  images  and  illustrations.  There  is  an  emharras  de 
richesse  in  hie  sermons,  even  more  than  those  m  Jeremy 
Taylor.  The  imaginative  is  too  predominant  for  simple 
and  severe  taste ;  but  with  all  their  defects  they  will 
live  as  long  as  sermons  are  read  for  private  devotion 
and  as  models  for  cultivating  a  higher  style  of  pidpit 
eloquence.  The  name  of  their  author  will  always  shine 
as  one  of  the  brightest  stars  in  the  galaxy  of  those  great 
and  good  men  who,  in  the  present  century,  have  fought 
the  good  fight  of  the  evangelical  faith  against  prevail- 
ing Rationalism  and  infidelity,  and  have  entitled  them- 
selves to  the  gratitude  of  the  present  and  future  gener- 
ations" (The  Observer,  N.  Y.  Feb.  4, 18G9).  His  Atifobi- 
ographij,  left  in  MS.  form,  was  published  after  his  death 
by  his  familv,  and  has  been  translated  into  English  by 
the  Itev.  M.  G.  Easton  (Edinb.  and  N.  Y.  1869, 8 vo).  See 
a  very  pleasant  short  sketch  by  professor  C.  W.  Bennett, 
in  the  N.  Y.  Christian  A  di-ocnte,  Feb.  11, 1869 ;  and  Meth. 
Qiiar.  Review,  1869,  p.  142, 441 ;  1870,  p.  161  sq.;  Uritisk 
and  For.  Ev.  Rev.  Ixix,  628 ;  A  mcr.  Fresh.  Rev.  1869,  p. 
776 ;  Evcmr/.  Qucir.  Rev.  1870,  p.  149 ;  Frincefon  Rev.  1870, 
p.  156.     ( J.  H.  W.) 

Krummacher,  Gottfried  Daniel,  a  German 
theologian,  younger  brother  of  F.  A.  Krummacher  (q. 
v.),  was  born  at  Tecklenburg  April  1, 1774.  He  studied 
at  Duisinirg,  and  became  successively  pastor  of  Biirth 
and  Wdlfratli,  and  finally  of  Elberfeld,  where  he  died 
Jan.  r)0, 1S37.  He  was  thoroughly  Calvinistic,  not  only 
in  his  tone  of  mind,  but  even  in  his  outward  aspect,  and 
as  the  head  of  the  Pietists  in  his  district  he  carried 
their  principles  to  their  full  length,  even  showing  much 
unfriendliness  to  those  who  did  not  coincide  with  him. 
He  \vrote  Die  Wandeninr/  Israels  durch  d.  Witstc  (3d  ed. 
Elberfeld,  1850-51, 2  vols.;  Engl.,  Lond.  1837-38,  2  vols. 
12mo)  ■.—Ihinspostille  (jMenns,  1835) : — TcirjUches  Manna 
(Elberfeld,  1838;  4thed.l851;  Engl., Loud.  1839, 12mo): 
—Jakob\i Kampfu.Sief/ (1829;  Engl.,Lond.  1838, 12mo); 
etc.  See  A.  W.  MciUer,  F.  .U'Krunmutcher's  Leben  (Bre- 
men, 1849),  i,  169;  ii,84;  Y.\.Kr\i3;,Krif.Gesch.d.pro- 
test.-reliff.  Schwdnnerei,  etc.,  im  lIi-r::o<ith  inn  Berg  (Elber- 
feld, 1851) ;  Krummacher  (Emil  W'ilhclm),  Leben  v.  Gott- 
fried Daniel  Krummacher  (Elberf.  1S3S,  8vo);  Autobi- 
ography of  F.  W.  Krummacher  (translated  by  Easton), 
p.  155;  Herzog,  Real-FncyLlop.  viii,  118  sq. 

Kmmmendyk,  Ai.heut,  a  learned  German  theo- 
logian, tiourishcd  about  the  middle  of  the  loth -century 
as  bishop  of  Holstein  and  Lubeck,  and  died  in  1489.  He 
left  in  AIS.  form  Chronicon  Kpiscoporum  Oldenburgien- 
sium  et  Lnbecensium  (printed  in  Meiboraius's  Scriptores 
Rerum  Germanicurum,  torn,  ii ). 

Krusius,  L.  A.     See  Millennium. 


Kryptae  {Kr>inTTai,cnjpts).  For  the  purpose  of  con- 
cealment from  their  ])ersecutors,  the  earlv  Christians 
occasionaEy  prepared  for  themselves  churches  and  ora- 
tories under  ground,  which  served  both  as  places  of  de- 
votion and  as  sepulchres  for  their  dead.  These  were 
called  cnjptce,  from  Kpinrrw,  to  conceal. — Farrar,  Fecks. 
Diet.     See  Crypt. 

Kryptics,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  those  theo- 
logians who  hold  to  the  K-pinpic,  or  concealment  theory  of 
our  Lord's  divine  attributes  during  his  earthly^  career. 
See  Kenosis. 

Ktistolatrae  (icorshiiipers  of  a  a-cafed  thing),  a 
branch  of  the  Jlonophysites,  who  maintained  tliat  the 
body  of  Christ  before  his  resurrection  was  corruptible, 
in  contradistinction  from  the  A  ctistetce,  who  held  that  it 
was  not  created. 

Kiibel,  Matiiaus,  a  German  theologian,  was  born 
at  Herbstein,  in  tlie  duchy  of  Fulda,  Nov.  14,  1742,  and 
Avhen  twenty-two  years  old  entered  the  order  of  the 
Jesuits,  mider  whom  he  received  his  subsequent  educa- 
tion. In  1783  he  became  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Heidelberg  University,  and  in  1785  was  appointed  to 
the  chair  of  canon  law.  He  died  Jan.  3,  1809.  Kiibel 
was  ([uite  liberal  in  tendency,  and  had  many  warm 
friends  among  Protestant  theologians.  He  wrote  Ratio 
Jidei  reddita  (Heidelb.  1776,  4to)  : — Exercitiuni  canoni- 
cnm  de  mairimonio  (1786,  4to). — Doring,  Gelehrfe  Theo- 
log.  Deutschlunds  des  18'"'  und  19"»  Jahrh.  ii,  212. 

Kiichlein,  Johann,  a  German  Protestant  theolo- 
gian, was  bom  at  Wetterau,  in  Hesse,  in  1546.  He 
studied  at  Heidelberg,  entered  the  Church,  and  became 
pastor  at  Tackenheim.  When,  in  1576,  elector  Louis 
expelled  the  Calvinistic  preachers,  Kiichlein  went  to 
Holland,  and  for  eighteen  years  held  a  professorship  in 
theology  at  Amsterdam.  In  1595  he  became  director 
of  the  College  of  Leyden,  and  died  July  2,  160G.  Guy 
Patin  calls  him  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time. 
His  collected  works  were  published  at  Geneva  (1613, 
4to).  See  li.Wittc,  BiariumBiogi-aphicum;  Meursius, 
A  then.  Batar.;  IMoreri,  iJict.  Hist.;  Jcicher,  Gekhrten 
Lexilvn;  Hoefer,  Xouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxvii,  256.  (J. 
N.P.) 

Kuen,  IMiciiAEi,,  a  German  savant,  was  born  at 
Weissenborn,  Austria,  Feb.  9,  1709,  entered  in  1728  the 
Augustine  order,  and  was  elected  in  1754  abbot  of  their 
monastery  at  Ulm.  He  died  Jan.  10,  1765.  His  prin- 
cipal works  of  interest  to  us  are  CoUectio  scriptoruni  re- 
rum historico-7nonastico-ecclesiasticarum  varioi'um  rcli- 
giosorum  ordinum  (Ulm,  1756-66,  6  vols,  fol.) : — Joannes 
de  Canabaco  ex  comitihus  de  Canabac,  qui  vvlgo  venditur 
pro  autore  quatuor  librorum  de  Imitatione  Christi,  re- 
center  delectus  a  quodam  canonico-regulari  (ibid,  17C0, 
8vo),  written  against  those  attributing  the  authorship 
of  Z^e  Imitatione  to  Gersen  instead  of  Kempis. — Iloefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxviii,  258. 

Kufic  "Writing,  an  ancient  form  of  Arabic  char- 
acters, which  came  into  use  shortly  before  INIohammed, 
and  was  chiefly  current  among  the  inhabitants  of  North- 
ern Arabia,  while  those  of  the  south-western  parts  cm- 
ployed  the  Ilimyaritic  or  Mosnad  {clipped)  character. 
The  Kulic  is  taken  from  the  old  Syriac  character  {Fs- 
tr(tngelo'),  and  is  said  to  have  been  first  introduced  by 
IMoramer  or  IMorar  ben-Morra  of  Anbar.  The  first  cop- 
ies of  the  Koran  were  written  in  it,  and  Kufa,  a  city  in 
Irak-Arabi  (pashalic  of  Bagdad),  being  the  one  which 
contained  the  most  expert  and  numerous  copyists,  the 
writing  itself  was  called  after  it.  The  alphabet  was  ar- 
ranged like  the  IleVirew  and  Syriac  (\vhencc  its  desig- 
nation, ABGal)  /feres'),  and  this  order,  although  now 
superseded  l)y  an(rther,  is  still  used  for  numerical  pur- 
poses. The  kufic  character,  of  a  somewhat  clumsy  and 
ungainly  shape,  began  to  fall  into  disuse  after  about  A. 
D.  1000;  Ebn-:\Iorla  of  Bagdad  (died  A.D.  938)  having 
invented  the  current  or  so-called  Neshki  QiashaJc,  to 
copy)  character,  which  was  stUl  further  improved  by 


KUHLMANN 


m 


KUMARASAMBHAVA 


Ebn-Bawab  (died  1031),  and  which  now  —  deservedly, 
as  one  of  the  prettiest  and  easiest — reigns  supreme  in 
East  and  West.  It  is  only  in  JLSS.  of  tlie  Koran,  and 
in  title-pages,  that  the  Kutic  is  still  employed.  A  pe- 
culiar kuid  of  the  Kufic  is  the  so-called  Karmatian— of 
a  somewhat  more  slender  shape — in  whicli  several  in- 
scriptions have  been  met  with  both  in  Arabia,  and  in 
Dauphiny,  Sicily,  etc.,  and  which  is  also  found  on  a  cor- 
onation mantle  preserved  in  Nuremberg.  The  Kufic  is 
written  with  a  style,  whUe  for  the  Neshki  slit  reeds  are 
employed.  Different  kinds  of  the  latter  character  (in 
which  the  alphabet  is  arranged  according  to  the  out- 
ward similarity  of  the  letters)  are  the  Moresque  or  Ma- 
ghreb (Western),  the  Divdni  (IJoyal— only  employed 
for  decrees,  etc.),  the  Talik  (chiefly  used  in  Persian), 
the  Thsoletki  (threefold,  or  very  large  character),  Jaku- 
thi,  Riliani,  etc. — Chambers,  Cyclojpcedia,  s.  v.  See  Al- 
piiahei'. 

Kuhlmann,  Quirinus,  a  German  visionary  and  re- 
ligious enthusiast,  was  born  at  Breslau  Feb.  25,  1651. 
He  began  to  attract  public  attention  at  the  age  of  eigh- 
teen, when,  rising  from  a  sick-bed,  he  claimed  to  have 
been,  during  his  illness,  in  direct  communication  both 
with  God  and  the  devil,  and  asserted  that  the  duty  had 
fallen  upon  him  of  revealing  to  all  nations  the  inspira- 
tions which  he  had  received  from  the  Holy  Ghost.  He 
quitted  the  University  of  Breslau,  where  he  had  been 
studying  jurisprudence,  and  went  at  once  to  Holland,  in 
1673,  to  become  a  follower  of  the  mystic  Jacob  Biihme 
(q.  v.),  as  is  shown  by  his  Neubeirjestet-ter  Bdhme  (Ley- 
den,  1674, 8vol.  He  found  a  congenial  spirit  in  Johann 
Rothe,  of  Amsterdam,  who  claimed  to  be  John  the  Bap- 
tist because  his  father's  name  had  been  Zacharias,  and 
to  this  fanatic  Kuhlmann  dedicated  his  Prodromus  quiiv- 
quennii  mirahilis  (Leyden,  167-1,  8vo).  He  also  sought 
to  enter  into  relations  with  Antoinette  Bourignon,  but 
does  not  appear  to  have  succeeded.  A  letter  of  his,  en- 
titled De  sapientia  iiifusa  Adamea  Salonioneaqua,  dated 
Lubeck,  Feb.  1675,  shows  that  he  was  at  that  time  a  res- 
ident of  that  citj'.  Another,  addressed  to  sultan  Mo- 
hammed IV,  proves  that  he  was  in  Constantinople  in 
1678.  On  Nov.  1, 1681,  he  published  at  Paris  his  Ar- 
canum microcosmicum,  curious  and  scarce,  like  all  his 
works.  After  wandering  through  Switzerland,  England, 
and  Germany,  he  went,  about  1689,  to  Russia,  for  the 
purpose  of  establishing  there  the  "  real  kingdom  of  God." 
At  tirst  he  succeeded  in  gaining  a  large  number  of  par- 
tisans, and  he  may  perhaps  be  considered  as  the  founder 
of  the  yet  existing  sect  of  Duchobortzi  (q.  v.),  or  spirit- 
ual wrestlers.  But  the  momentary  religious  freedom 
enjoyed  by  Russia  under  Basil  Galitzin  soon  came  to 
an  end  on  the  downfall  of  Sophia  and  the  accession  of 
Peter  I  to  the  throne.  One  of  the  first  acts  of  the  latter 
was  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  and  his  sentence  of 
death  on  Kuhlmann  and  his  disciple,  Conrad  Nordcr- 
mann,  supposed  to  have  been  occasioned  mainly  by  the 
eiforts  of  the  Lutheran  pastor  MeineclvC.  They  were 
both  burned  alive  at  Moscow,  Oct.  4, 1689.  Besides  the 
above-named  works,  Adelung  {Hist,  de  lafoUe  humaine, 
V,  9)  considers  Kuhlmann  as  the  author  of  forty-two 
other  works,  the  principal  of  which  are  Epistidce  theo- 
sophicce  Leidenses  (Leyden,  1674,  Svo):  —  Epistnlarum 
Londinensiam  Catholica  ad  Wickiefio-Waldenses,  IIiiss- 
itas,  Zwinr/lianos,  Lutheranos,  Calvinianos  (Rotterd.  1674, 
12mo) : — four  pamplilets  concerning  his  correspondence 
with  Athanase  Kircher  were  published  under  the  style 
Kirckeriana  de  arte  mar/na  sciendi,  etc.  (London,  1681, 
8vo).  See  B.  G.  Wernsdorf, /A-  Fanaticis  Silesiorum  et 
spectatim  de  Quir.  Kuhlmamw  (Wlttembcrg,  16itK,  1718) ; 
Museum  Bremense,  vol.  ii ;  Moreri,  Diet.  Hist. ;  Kncijclop. 
Catholique  de  Fribourg ;  J.  Gagarin,  f/ft  Document  inedit 
sur  Vexpuhion  des  Jesuites  de  Moscou  en  1689,  p.  27 ; 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gmerale,  xxviii,  263 ;  Rotmund,^/'?- 
lehrten  Lexikon,  vol.  iii,  s.  v.;  Bayle,  Ifist.  Diet,  iii,  688 
sq. ;  llagenhach,Vorlesungen  iiber  Gesch.d.  evangel. Pro- 
testd/itismus,  p.  316  sq. 

Kuhn,  Jean  Gaspard,  a  French  Protestant  preach- 


er, was  born  at  Saarbruck  in  the  latter  part  of  the  17th 
century,  and  flourished  as  professor  of  history  and  elo- 
quence at  the  University  of  Strasburg,  and  as  canon  of 
the  Church  of  St.  Thomas,  in  that  city.  He  died  in 
1720.  He  wrote  De  Sociabilitate  secundum  Stoicorum 
disciplinam. — Haag,  La  France  Protestante,  s.  v. 

Kiuiuoel,  Christiasus  Theophilus  (Christian 
Gottlieb  Kiihnul  in  German),  a  German  Protestant  the- 
ologian and  philologist,  was  born  at  Leipzic  Jan.  2, 1768. 
He  studied  the  classics  at  the  school  of  St.  Thomas,  and 
theology  in  the  miiversity  of  his  native  city.  In  1788 
he  began,  by  the  advice  of  tlie  celebrated  German  sa- 
vant Wolf,  a  course  of  lectures  at  his  alma  mater  on  the 
classics  and  on  the  books  of  the  O.  and  N.  T.  In  1790 
he  was  appointed  professor  extraordinary  of  philosophy, 
and  in  1796  preacher  of  the  university.  In  1799  he  de- 
clined an  invitation  to  a  professor's  chair  at  Copenha- 
gen, but  in  1801  went  to  Giessen,  as  professor  of  belles- 
lettres.  Subsequently,  however,  he  devoted  himself  en- 
tirely to  the  exegesis  of  the  N.  T.,  and  in  1809  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  chair  of  theology  as  ordinary  professor.  He 
died  there  Oct.  15, 1841.  He  -wrote  Messianische  Weissa- 
gungen  d.  alt.  Testaments  ubersetst  u.  erldutert  (Lpz.  1792, 
8vo,  Anon.)  : — Ilosecs  Oracula  Ilebr.  et  Lat.pierpetua  an- 
notatione  illustrata  (Lpz.  1792,  8vo).  He  had  published 
in  1789  a  German  translation  of  the  same  book,  with 
notes : — Observationes  ad  Novum  Testamentum,  ex  libris 
apocnjphis  Veteris  Testamenti  (Lpz.  1794,  8vo)  : — Peri- 
cojxe  evangelicm  (Lpz.  1796,  2  vols.  8vo)  : — Die  Psahnen 
metrisch  Ubersetst,  mit  Anmerkungen  (Lpz.  1799,  8 vo) : — 
Spicilegium  observationum  in  Epistolani  Jacobi  (Lipsite, 
1807,  8 vo)  : — Commentarius  in  libros  Kovi  Testamenti 
historicos  (Lpz.  1807-18, 4  vols.  8vo  ;  4th  ed.  Lpz.  1837 ; 
reprinted,  ^vit  h  the  Gr.  text  added,  Lond.  1835, 3  vols.  8vo) 
— a  very  able  and  successfid  work ;  one  of  the  best  of  the 
modern  exegetical  works  on  the  N.  T.  ever  issued  from 
the  German  ]iress,  but  unfortunately  wanting  in  spirit- 
ual insight.  It  belongs  to  the  range  of  higher  criticism, 
while  Rosenm  idler  is  occupied  with  the  lower.  Kuinoel 
is  undecided  Ijetween  orthodoxy  and  neology,  but  seems 
to  have  so  strong  an  under-current  of  conviction  in  fa- 
vor of  the  truth  as  to  lead  him  to  admit,  with  a  good 
share  of  favor,  evangelical  interpretations  mto  his  pages. 
As  to  theological  sentiments,  he  distinctly  avows  him- 
self a  high  Arian,  and  is  e\ndently  sceptical  concerning 
the  miracles  of  Christ.  His  commentary  is  of  the  his- 
torico-critical  kind  : — Commentarius  in  Epistolam  ad  He- 
braos  (Lpzc.  1831,  8vo). — Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale, 
xxviii,  268  ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyldop.  xix,  758 ;  Kitto, 
Cgcloptrdia,  ii,  763.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Kulkzynski,  Ignatius,  a  Russian  monastic,  was 
born  at  Wladimir  in  1707;  early  entered  the  order  of 
St.  Basil ,  resided  several  years  at  Rome  as  general  of 
his  order;  and  died  as  abbot  of  Grodno  in  1747.  He 
is  noted  as  the  author  of  Specimen  Ecclesim  Rutlienicoe 
(Rome,  1733, 8vo),  a  work  which  was  dedicated  to  pope 
Clement  XII,  and  is  now  hardly  accessible.  He  WTOte 
also  Ildiaspro  prodigioso  di  tre  colori,orvero  narrazione 
istorica  di  tre  immagini  miracolose  della  Beata  Vergine 
Maria  (Rome,  1732, 12mo)  : — De  Vitis  Sanctorum  divi 
Basilii  inagni  (2  vols,  folio,  left  in  MS.  form). — Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxviii,  270. 

Kulon,  the  name  of  a  city  found  only  in  the  Sept. 
version  (Kov\ov)  of  Josh,  xv,  59,  as  lying  in  the  tract 
around  Bethlehem  (see  Kiel's  Comment,  ad  loc.) ;  prob- 
ably corresponding  to  the  modern  village  of  Kvkmiek, 
an  hour  and  a  half  west  of  Jerusalem  (Robinson's  Be- 
searc/ies,  ii,  146),  with  many  old  walls  built  of  hewn 
stones  (Scholz,  Ihise,  p.  161).     See  Juijah,  Tribe  op. 

Kumarasambhava  is  the  name  of  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  poems  of  the  Hindus,  and  its  author  is 
believed  to  have  been  Kalidasa  (q.  v.).  Its  sulijcct  is 
the  legendarj-  history  connected  with  the  birth  of  Ku- 
mara,  or  Kartikega  (q.  v.),  the  Hindu  god  of  -war.  It 
consists  of  twenty-two  cantos,  but  only  eight  have  hith- 
erto been  published  in  the  origmal  Sanscrit.     The  first 


KUNADUS 


172 


KURDISTAN 


seven  have  been  elegantly  rendered  into  English  verse 
by  Mr.  II.  T.  H.  Gritttth.  at  present  principal  of  the  Be- 
nares (Jovernraent  College. — Chambers,  Cj/doj).  s.  v. 

Kunadus,  Andreas,  a  Lutheran  divine,  born  at 
Deiblon,  in  .Misnia,  in  1G02,  was  professor  of  theology  at 
the  University  of  Wittenberg,  and  died  in  ItitJi.  He 
■\vrot*  a  Coiiuiientary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Gulutians. — 
lloefer.  Xoiir.  Biocj.  Generale,  xxviii,  27G. 

Kiiiiibert,  a  bishop  of  Cologne,  who  flourished  in 
the  7th  century  (supposed  to  have  held  the  see  from 
G13-t)Gl),  is  generally  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  influ- 
ential prelates  of  the  Prankish  reahn  in  the  7th  centurj'. 
Not  only  in  ecclesiastical,  but  also  in  the  civil  history 
of  that  period,  Kunibert  tills  a  not  unimportant  place. 
He  was  a  favorite  adviser  of  king  Dagobcrt  I,  and  was 
the  educator  of  Sigbert  HI.  He  died  Nov.  1"2,  GGl  or 
CG3.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  commemorates  the 
day  of  his  decease.  See  Aschbach,  Kirchen-Lexil-on,  p. 
942  sq. ;  llcttberg,  Kirchengesch.  Deutschlands,  i,  536. 

Kunigimde,  St.     See  Cuxigunda. 

Kihinetll,  Johaxx  Theodor,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  Creusen,  in  Bajieuth,  Sept.  22, 1735; 
in  1753  he  went  to  the  University  of  Erlangen,  and  in 
1759  became  assistant  preacher  in  his  native  place.  He 
died  Aug.  28, 1800,  as  superintendent  of  BajTCuth.  Run- 
neth was  a  very  popular  preacher,  and  published  several 
of  his  sermons ;  he  also  wrote  largely  for  the  theological 
journals  of  Germany.  A  list  of  his  writings  is  given  by 
Doring,  Gdchrte  Theolofjen  Deutschlaiids,  ii,  214  sq. 

Kiinwald,  jMathias  von,  a  bishop  of  the  Bohe- 
mian Brethren,  flourished  in  the  15th  century.  He  was 
especi;dly  prominent  at  the  Synod  of  Eeichenau  in  1491:. 

Ktinze,  John  Christopher,  D.D.,  one  of  the  most 
learned  men  in  the  Lutheran  Church  of  this  country,  was 
born  in  Saxony  about  the  middle  of  the  18th  centuni'.  He 
was  educated  in  the  Gjonnasia  of  Rossleben  and  ^Rlerse- 
burg  and  the  University  of  Leipzic,  ami  for  several  years 
was  engaged  in  the  work  of  teaching  in  his  native 
land.  When  application  from  the  corporation  of  St. 
Michael's  and  Zion's  Church  was  made  to  the  theologi- 
cal facultv  at  Halle  for  a  minister,  their  attention  was 
immediately  turned  to  young  Kunze.  He  reached  the 
United  States  in  1770,  and  at  once  commenced  his  du- 
ties as  associate  pastor  of  the  German  churches  in  Phil- 
adelphia. This  field  of  labor  he  occupied  for  fourteen 
years,  universally  beloved,  and  exercising  a  wide  influ- 
ence for  good.  For  several  years  he  was  professor  in 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  from  w4ich  institution 
he  received  the  doctorate  in  1783.  He  accepted  a  call 
to  the  city  of  New  York  in  1781,  where  he  labored  for 
twenty-tiiree  years,  till  his  death,  July  24,  1807.  He 
was  devoted  to  his  work,  and  indefatigable  in  his  efforts 
to  do  good.  For  a  long  time  he  filled  with  signal  abil- 
ity the  professorship  of  Oriental  literature  in  Columbia 
College.  So  high  a  reputation  did  he  enjoj'  as  a  He- 
brew scholar  that  young  men  who  were  pursuing  their 
studies  with  ministers  of  other  denominations  frequently 
resorted  to  him  for  instruction.  The  rabbins  connected 
with  the  Jewish  synagogues  also  consulted  him  in  their 
interpretations  of  the  Hebrew.  "The  various  acfjuire- 
ments  of  this  gentleman,  and  particidarly  his  Oriental 
learning,  long  rendered  him  an  ornament  of  the  Ameri- 
can rei)ublic  of  letters.  He  probably  did  more  Jhan  any 
individual  of  his  day  to  promote  a  taste  for  Hebrew 
literature  among  those  intended  for  the  clerical  profes- 
sion in  the  I'nited  States"  (Dr.  Miller's  J?etrosp(ct  of  the 
Eii/htKuth  C('!itin\i/).  Dr.  Kunze  published  a  number 
of  works:  I/i.-ifon/  of  the  Lutheran  Church: — Somethin(] 
for  the  l'ii(hr^tini(Uii(j  ami  the  Heart  (1781, 8 vo): — A>«- 
Method  fur  Calculating/  the  r/reat  Ecli])se  of  June  10, 180G : 
— Hymn-book  for  the  Use  of  ihe^Church  (179p)  : — Cate- 
chism and  Lituri/y.  See  Hazeliu.s,  Hist.  Am.  Luth. 
Church,  1G85-1842.      CSl.  L.  S.) 

Kurdistan  or  Koordistan,  an  extensive  tract  of 
laud  in  the  eastern  portion  of  Asiatic  Turkey  and  in 


Western  Persia.  It  is  chiefly  occupied  by  the  Kurds, 
after  whom  it  is  called,  but  its  boimdary-liue  is  not  defi- 
nitely estabhshed,  and  the  estimates  of  its  area  and  pop- 
ulation greatly  thffer.  The  population,  according  to 
Kussegger  {Reisen  in  Europa,  Asien,  nnd  Afrika,  1835- 
41),  amounted  to  about  3,000,000 ;  according  to  Carl  Bit- 
ter, to  only  800,000 ;  according  to  Chambers,  100,000 ; 
according  to  Appleton,  40,000.  The  extent  of  Turkish 
Kurdisan  is  estimated  at  about  13,000  square  miles.  It 
was  formerlj'  divided  into  three  governments :  namelj', 
1.  Kurdistan,  consisting  of  the  Livas  ]\Iardin,  Sard,  and 
Diarbekir,  and  containing  2G5,000  inhabitants,  of  whom 
198,000  were  Mohammedans,  51,000  Annenians,  72  Jac- 
obites, 4  Yezides,  and  1100  Gipsies;  2,  Harput,  consist- 
ing of  the  Livas  Meadin,  Harput,  Behsni,  and  Den- 
sem ;  3.  Wan,  consisting  of  the  Livas  Hakkiyari.  Later 
it  was  divided  into  the  pachaUcs  Wan,  Mosul,  Diarbe- 
kir, and  Urfa  (Bakka);  the  beylics  Halikiyari,  Bahdi- 
nan,  Butan  (Bogdcn),  and  Ssindshar;  and  the  district 
of  Mardin.  The  most  important  towns  are  Diarbekir, 
BitUs,  Wan,  and  Mardin.  Persian  Kurdistan  comprises 
the  south  -  western  portion  of  the  province  of  Aserbei- 
jan  and  the  western  portion  of  ^\rdilan,  as  far  as  the 
Kercha  river.  The  most  important  town  is  Kirman- 
shan,  with  about  40,000  inhabitants.  The  Kurds  are 
an  agricultural  people,  who,  durmg  the  summer  months, 
pitch  their  black  tents  upon  the  Alpine  pastures.  Asia 
Blinor  and  Syria,  and  even  Constantinople,  are  receiving 
from  them  large  supplies  of  cattle.  The  country  is 
made  up  of  isolated  villages,  without  a  national  bond  of 
union,  and  their  intercourse  with  each  other  consists 
chiefly  in  plundering  expeditions.  Old  castles  on  in- 
accessible peaks  serve  the  bej-s  as  places  of  refuge  in 
cases  of  emergency.  These  beys  often  rule  over  several 
villages.  The  Kurds  were  kno-mi  to  Greek  writers  as 
Carduchians  (Js.ap£ov\oi,  Carduchi,  see  Smith's  Lict.  of 
Class.  Gear/,  s.  v.)  or  Kyrtians.  In  the  highlands  of  Kur- 
distan they  are  divided  into  two  different  tribes,  the  As- 
sireta  and  the  Guranians.  The  Assiretas  are  the  caste 
of  warriors,  and  rarely  or  never  agriculturists,  but  are 
devoted  to  cattle-breeding.  The  Guranians  can  never 
become  ivarriors,  are  agricultirrists,  and  kejit  in  subjec- 
tion by  the  Assireta.  As  the  language  of  the  two  tribes 
likewise  differs,  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  Guranians 
are  the  descendants  of  the  primitive  inhabitants,  who 
subsequently  were  subdued  by  a  more  warlike  tribe.  In 
Southern  Kurdistan  the  Assireta  call  themselves  Sipah 
(warriors)  and  the  peasants  Eayah  (subjects).  The  lan- 
guage of  the  Kurds  is  nearly  kindred  to  the  New  Per- 
sian, but  is  to  a  large  extent  mixed  with  Arabic,  Syrian, 
Greek,  and  Russian  words,  and  is  divided  into  numerous 
dialects.  They  have  no  written  alphabet,  and  there- 
fore no  literature,  but  a  number  of  their  pojndar  poems 
and  songs  have  been  written  down  in  Arabic. 

The  majority  of  the  inhabitants  are  fanatical  Sunnite 
IMohammedans,  who  hate  the  Shiites  even  more  than 
they  do  the  Christians.  But  the  number  of  Armenian, 
Jacobite,  and  Nestorian  Christians  is  also  considerable. 
The  Armenians  chiefly  live  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
country.  One  section  of  the  Jacobites  has  its  centre 
near  Mardin,  under  a  patriarch,  who  resides  in  the  con- 
vent of  Safarani.  AVcstern  Kurdistan  is  the  seat  of  the 
Nestorians.  See  Nestorians.  The  Kurds  show  Uttle 
disposition  to  embrace  Christianity.  Among  the  Arme- 
nians and  Nestorians  the  missionaries  of  the  American 
Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  IMissions  have  met 
with  a  great  success.  The  mission  at  Harput  for  the 
Armenians  commenced  in  1853.  In  1859  a  theological 
seminary  was  established  for  the  training  of  men  for  the 
pastoral  oflice,  and  in  18G1  a  female  seminary  for  the 
training  of  their  wives.  In  1870  seventy  out-stations 
were  connected  with  the  Church  of  Harput,  ten  with 
that  of  Bitlis,  and  twelve  with  that  of  Mardin.  The 
number  of  members  connected  with  Bitlis  and  the  out- 
stations  was  84 ;  of  Harput  and  out-stations,  602 ;  of 
Mardin  and  its  out-stations,  245;  and  the  total  number 
of  registered  Protestants  in  these  stations  and  out-sta- 


KURIA 


1V3 


lOJRTZ 


tions  Tvas  upwards  of  GOOO.  At  Mardin  the  buildings 
for  a  theological  school  and  other  purposes  are  completed. 
The  flourishing  ijiissions  among  the  Nestorians,  embra- 
cing more  than  sixty  congregations,  are  chiefly  in  Per- 
sia, and  are  now  under  the  charge  of  the  Mission  Board 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  the  United  States.  Of 
the  Jacobites  and  Nestorians  a  considerable  portion  have 
recognised  the  supremacy  of  the  pope.  The  former  are 
called  the  United  Syrians,  the  latter  the  Chakteans. 
The  United  SjTians  have  a  patriarch  in  Diarbekir,  and 
the  Chaldeans  a  jiatriarch  at  El-Kush,  near  Mosul,  in 
the  convent  of  St.  Ilormisdas.  The  sect  of  the  Yezides, 
or  Shemsieh,  who  are  dcscentled  from  the  Parsees,  though 
they  follow  at  the  same  time  some  jMohammedan  and 
Christian  practices  adopted  from  their  neighbors,  are 
fire-worshippers,  live  south  of  Mardin.  See  Shiel,  Notes 
on.  a  Journeii  from  Tahris  to  KoorcUstan  (1836),  in  the 
Journal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  (London,  vol. 
viii) ;  Rich,  Nan-ative  of  a  Journey  through  Koordistan 
(London,  1836,  2  vols.) ;  Wagner,  Reise  nach  Persien  mid 
dem  Lande  d.  Kurden  (Lpz.  1852,  2  vols.) ;  Somdreczkh, 
Reise  nach  Persien  und  durch  Kurdistan  nach  Urumiah 
(Stuttgard,  1857, 4  vols.) ;  Layard,  Nineveh,  etc.,  with  an 
Account  of  a  Visit  to  the  Chaldean  Christians  of  Koor- 
distan, etc.  (London,  1850) ;  Grundemann,  Missionsatlas, 
Asien,  p.  39  ;  Badger,  The  Nestorians  and  their  Ritucds, 
with  Narrative  of  a  Mission  to  Mesopotamia  and  Coor- 
distan  (London,  185J:,  2  vols.  8vo).     (A.  J,  S.) 

Kuria  or  Kyria.     See  Electa. 

Ktirma  (called  also  Kurmaratdra,  i.  e.  the  "avatar 
of  the  tortoise"')  is  the  name  by  which  the  second  incar- 
nation of  Vishnu  is  designated.  It  is  related  in  Hindu 
mythology  that  Kurma  took  the  form  of  a  tortoise  so  as 
to  furnish  a  support  to  Mount  Jlandara  while  the  gods 
and  Asiirs  chiu-ned  the  ocean.  The  mountain  being  the 
chum-stick,  the  great  serpent  Scsha  was  made  use  of 
for  the  string.  It  may  be  proper  to  observe  that  in  lit 
dia  churning  is  usually  performed  by  causing  a  body 
termed  the  churn-stick  to  revolve  rapidly  in  the  cream 
or  milk  by  means  of  a  string,  in  the  same  manner  as  a 
driU  is  made  to  revolve.  In  some  of  the  Hindu  pic- 
tures of  the  churning  of  the  ocean  the  gods  are  repre- 
sented as  standing  on  one  side  of  jNIount  ^Jlandara  and 
the  Asurs  on  the  other,  both  grasping  in  their  hands 
the  serpent  Sesha,  which  is  wound  round  the  mountain. 
This  rests  upon  the  back  of  the  tortoise  (Vishnu).  At 
the  same  time,  the  preserving  deity,  in  consequence  of 
his  ubiquitous  character,  is  seen  standing  among  the 
gods  and  grasping  Seslia,  and  also  as  dancing  on  the  top 
of  ilandara  (see  Plate  49  in  Moor's  Hindu  Pantheon^. 
Tlie  churning  of  the  ocean  is  one  of  the  most  famous 
and  popidar  fables  related  in  the  mythology  of  the  Hin- 
dus. It  resulted  in  the  production  of  the  fourteen  gems, 
as  they  are  called,  namely,  1.  Chandra  (the  moon) ,  2. 
Lakshini,  the  incomparable  consort  of  Vishnu;  3.  Sura- 
devi,or  the  goddess  of  wine;  4.  Uchisrava,  a  wonder- 
ful eight-headed  horse;  5.  Kustubha,  a  jewel  of  inesti- 
mable value;  6.  Parijiita,  a  tree  that  yielded  whatever 
one  might  desire ;  7.  Surabhi  or  Kamadhenu,  a  cow  sim- 
ilarly bountiful ;  8.  Dhanwantara,  a  wondrous  physician ; 
9.  Iravata  or  Ira  vat,  the  elephant  of  India;  10.  Shank,  a 
shell  which  conferred  victory  on  whosoever  sounded  it ; 
11.  Dauusha,  an  unerring  bow;  12.  Vish,  a  remarkable 
drug  or  poison ;  13.  Kembha  (or  Rambha),  an  Apsara 
possessed  of  surpassing  charms;  14.  Amrita,  or  Amrit, 
the  beverage  of  immortality.  See  j\Ioor,  Hindu  Pan- 
theon ;  Chambers,  Cyclopwdia,  ix,  814. 

Kurschner,  Conrad.     See  Pellican. 

Kurtz,  Benjamin,  D.D.,  LL.D,  a  prominent  min- 
ister of  the  Lutheran  Church,  was  born  at  Harrisburg, 
Penn.,  Feb.  28, 1795.  He  was  a  lineal  descendant  of  one 
of  tlie  Halle  patriarchs,  the  grandson  of  Rev.  John  Nich- 
olas Kurtz,  who  came  to  this  country  in  1745  as  an  as- 
sociate of  Henry  Melchior  Muhlenberg.  When  quite 
young  Benjamin  exhibited  remarkable  fitness  for  study, 
and  great  quickness  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge. 


At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  was  employed  as  an  assistant  in 
the  Harrisburg  Academy,  and  subsequently  gave  private 
instruction  in  Latin,  Greek,  and  German.  Early  train- 
ed to  industry  and  self-reliance,  he  formed  those  habits 
of  mental  discipline  which  gave  so  much  strength  to  his 
future  character.  He  studied  theology  under  the  di- 
rection of  Rev.  Dr.  Geo.  Lochman,  and  was  licensed  to 
preach  in  1815  by  the  Synod  of  Pennsylvania.  He  im- 
mediately received  a  call  to  Baltimore  as  assistant  min- 
ister to  his  uncle.  Rev.  Dr.  J.  D.  Kurtz.  He  remained 
in  this  position  for  a  brief  period,  and  then  accepted  the 
invitation  to  become  pastor  of  the  Ilagerstown  charge. 
During  this  period  of  his  ministry  his  labors  were  crown- 
ed with  the  most  abundant  success.  On  a  single  occa- 
sion he  added  to  the  Church  one  hundred  and  fifteen 
members.  Very  reluctantly  he  resigned  the  position, 
and  in  1831  took  charge  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in 
Cliarabersburg.  But  in  the  midst  of  his  usefulness,  with 
the  brightest  jjrospects  of  success,  his  labors  here  were 
abruptly  terminated  by  the  failure  of  his  health.  He 
removed  to  Baltimore  Aug.  24, 1833,  and  commenced  his 
career  as  editor  of  the  Lutheran  Observe?:  The  paper 
became  an  engine  of  great  influence  in  the  Church,  and, 
although  physically  disciualified  to  perform  regular  pul- 
pit labor,  in  his  editorial  capacity  he  was  permitted  ev- 
ery week  to  preach  the  Gospel  and  to  advance  the  inter- 
ests of  the  Church.  He  died  Dec.  29, 1865.  Dr.  Kurtz 
possessed  an  intellect  of  no  common  order,  a  resolute 
will,  and  remarkable  personal  power.  He  was  an  active, 
vigorous  thinker.  He  had  acquired  habits  of  close  ap- 
plication, of  careful  and  keen  observation,  a  fondness  for 
analytical  research,  and  the  investigation  of  intricate 
questions.  His  mind  was  clear  and  logical,  and  in  con- 
troversy he  had  scarcely  a  superior.  He  readily  com- 
prehended a  subject,  and  knew  how  to  grapple  with  any 
truth  that  claimed  his  attention.  Had  he  entered  the 
legal  profession,  for  which  he  was  originally  intended, 
or  political  life,  to  which  he  was  so  well  adapted,  he 
would,  no  doubt,  have  risen  to  the  highest  position,  to  a 
rank  C(iual  to  his  most  distinguished  contemporaries. 
As  a  preacher  he  was  very  much  gifted.  In  his  earlier 
years,  and  in  the  maturity  of  his  strength,  he  was  re- 
garded by  many  as  the  most  eloquent  speaker  in  the 
State  of  ^Maryland.  He  was  plain,  tlioughtful,  argu- 
mentative, and  forcible.  He  gave  utterance  to  the  great 
truths  of  the  Gospel  with  an  energy  and  an  unction  that 
carried  conviction  home  to  the  hearer.  He  was  a  clear, 
prolific  writer,  skilfid  in  repartee,  pungent  in  rebuke ;  a 
man  of  independent  spirit,  fond  of  excitement,  and  ;vork- 
ed  best  ;vhen  under  its  influence.  He  was,  in  the  full 
sense  of  the  term,  a  public  man,  and  few  men  in  the  Lu- 
theran Church  of  this  country  have  wielded  a  greater 
power  tlian  he.  His  name  was  a  tower  of  strength  in 
connection  with  any  enterprise  that  engaged  his  atten- 
tion. His  public  career,  extending  over  half  a  century, 
was  identified  with  the  most  important  events  in  the 
history  of  the  Lutheran  Church  during  that  period.  The 
recognised  leader  of  a  central  school  in  the  Church,  the 
public  representative  of  a  party  whose  views  he  adopt- 
ed, his  sentiments  on  all  subjects  were  regarded  with  fa- 
vor. His  words  were  received  as  oracular.  His  life 
was  one  of  ceaseless  activity.  Laborious,  self-sacrificing, 
a  man  of  great  industry  and  unwearied  perseverance,  he 
never  yielded  to  any  obstacle  that  was  not  absolutely 
insuperable.  Notwithstanding  his  daily  routine  of  duty, 
and  the  multiplicity  of  his  engagements,  he  found  some 
time  for  authorship.  His  books  were  generally  well  re- 
ceived by  the  public ;  some  of  them  passed  through  sev- 
eral editions.  The  following  embraces  a  list  of  his  publi- 
cations :  First  Principles  of  Religion  for  Children  (1821)  : 
— Sermons  on  Sabbath-schools  (1822)  : — Faith,  Hope,  and 
Charity  (1823)  : — Address  on  Temperance  (1824) : — Pas- 
toral Address  during  his  absence  in  Europe  (1827): — 
Ministerial  Appeal,  Valedictory  Sermon,  Ilagerstown 
(1831)  : — A  Door  opened  of  the  Lord,  Introductory  Ser- 
mon, Chambersburg  (1831)  : — Lnfant  I>apiism  ami  Af- 
fusion, tcith  Essaijs  on  Related  Subjects  (Baltimore,  1840) : 


KURTZ 


174 


KUVERA 


— Theological  Sketch-bool-,  or  Skeletons  of  Sermom,  care- 
fully arranged  in  systematic  order,  so  as  to  constitute  a 
eoraplftc  Body  of  Divinity,  partly  original,  partly  select- 
ed (1844,  2  vols.)  : — Why  are  you  a  Lutheran?  (1847) : 
— Prayer  in  all  its  Forms,  and  Training  of  Children 
(18yG)  : — Lutheran  Prayer-hook,  for  the  use  of  FamOies 
and  Individuals  (1856) : — The  Serial  Catechism,  or  Pro- 
gressive Instruction  for  Children  (1848) : — Design,  Ne- 
cessity, aiul  Adaptation  of  the  Missionary  Institute  at  Se- 
linsgrove.  Pa.  (Inaugural  Address)  (1859): — The  Choice 
of  a  Wife — Lecture  to  the  Graduating  Class  of  Theo- 
logical Students  iu  the  Missionary  Institute  (18G3) : — 
The  Condemned  Sermon — Experimental,  not  Ritual  Relig- 
ion, the  one  thing  needful;  preached  before  the  West 
Penns^-lvania  Sj-nod  (18C3) : — Believers  belong  to  Christ: 
Sacramental  Discourse  delivered  before  the  IMarj-laiid 
Synod  (1865).  He  was  also  co-editor  of  the  Yeai'-hook 
of  the  Reformation  (1844).  See  Evang.  Rev.  1866,  p.  25 
sq. ;  Lutheran  Obsei'ver,  Jan.  5  and  12, 1866.     (M.  L.  S.) 

Kurtz,  John  Daniel,  D.D.,  a  distinguished  minis- 
ter of  tlie  Lutheran  Church,  the  son  of  the  Rev.  J.  N. 
Kurtz,  was  born  at  Germantown,  Penn.,  in  1763.  Verj^ 
early  in  life  he  had  a  strong  desire  to  prepare  for  the 
ministry  of  reconciliation.  After  leaving  school  he  pur- 
sued his  studies  under  the  direction  of  his  father,  and 
subsequently  with  Rev.  Dr.  H.  E.  Miihlenberg,  of  Lan- 
caster. In  1784  he  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Synod 
of  Pennsylvania.  He  commenced  his  ministerial  labors 
by  assisting  his  father  in  preaching,  catechising,  and  vis- 
iting the  sick.  Afterwards  he  took  charge  of  congrega- 
tions in  the  vicinity  of  York.  He  removed  in  1786  to 
Baltimore,  where  he  labored  with  great  diligence  and 
fidelity  for  nearly  half  a  centurj'.  In  1832,  in  conse- 
quence of  advancing  physical  infirmities,  he  resigned 
his  position,  although  he  occasionally  preached,  and  en- 
deavored to  make  himself  useful  whenever  an  opportu- 
nity offered.  He  died  June  30, 1856,  in  the  98d  year' of 
his  age,  loved  and  honored  by  all  who  knew  him.  Dur- 
ing his  ministry  he  baptized  5156  persons,  buried  2521, 
and  solemnized  2386  marriages.  Being  once  told  that 
the  Methodists  were  gathering  in  German  Lutheran 
emigrants  and  organizing  chiu"ches  among  them,  his  re- 
ply was,  "  And  is  it  not  better  that  they  should  go  to 
heaven  as  Methodists  than  be  neglected  and  overlooked 
as  Lutherans  ?"  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Gen- 
eral Synod  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  a  director  of  the 
Theological  Seminar}',  and  closely  identified  with  aU  the 
benevolent  institutions  of  the  Church.  He  aided  in  the 
formation  of  the  Maryland  Bible  Society,  and  for  many 
j-ears  was  president  of  the  trustees  of  the  Female  Or- 
phan Asylum.     (jM.  L.  S.) 

Kurtz,  John  Nicholas,  one  of  the  earlier  Luther- 
an ministers  in  this  country,  was  bom  at  Lutzelinden,  in 
the  principality  of  Nassau  -Weilburg,  and  came  to  this 
country  in  1745.  He  pursued  his  studies  at  Giessen  and 
Hallo,  and  was  regarded  by  Dr.  Francke  as  peculiarly 
fitted  for  missionary  labor  among  his  countrj-men  in 
America.  He  was  the  first  Lutheran  minister  ordained 
in  this  countrj'.  He  labored  successively  at  New  Hano- 
ver, Tulpehocken,  Germantown,  and  York,  Pa.,  although 
he  frequently  spent  whole  months  in  visiting  the  desti- 
tute places  of  the  Church,  preaching,  catechising,  and 
administering  the  sacraments.  During  his  residence  at 
Tidpehocken  the  services  of  the  sanctuary  were  often 
conducted  at  imminent  risk  of  life,  as  the  ruthless  In- 
dian lay  in  wait  for  victims,  and  whole  families  were 
sometimes  massacred.  The  officers  of  the  church  stood 
at  the  doors  armed  with  defensive  weapons,  to  prevent 
a  surjirisc  and  to  protect  minister  and  people.  In  trav- 
elling to  liis  preaching  stations  and  visiting  among  his 
members  he  was  often  exposed  to  danger  from  the  at- 
tack of  the  tomahawk  and  scalping -knife.  He  was 
pastor  at  York  when  Congress,  during  the  Revolution, 
held  its  session  there,  and  bishop  White,  the  chaplain, 
was  his  guest.  As  an  evidence  of  his  interest  in  the 
American  struggle,  it  is  mentioned  that,  after  preaching 


on  the  Lord's  day,  he  invited  his  hearers  to  collect  all 
the  articles  of  apparel  they  could  spare,  and  send  them 
to  his  residence  tor  distribution  among  the  suflering, 
destitute  soldiers.  When  he  reached  his  threescore 
years  and  ten  he  felt  that  it  was  his  duty  to  retire  from 
the  active  duties  of  the  ministry.  He  removed  to  Bal- 
timore, where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  days  in  the 
famUj'  of  his  son,  John  Daniel  Kurtz  (q.  v.),  until  1794, 
when  he  peacefully  passed  away  to  his  rest.  He  was 
held  in  high  estimation  by  his  contemporaries  as  a  man 
of  great  learning  and  earnest  piety.     (M.  L.  S.) 

Kushai'ah  (Heb.  only  with  1  paragogic,  A'!/s/;rt^a'- 
hu,  in^'j'lp,  boiv  of  Jehovah,  i.  e.  rainbow ;  Sept.  Kicrai- 
ac),  a  Levite  of  the  family  of  Merari,  and  father  of 
Ethan,  which  latter  was  appointed  chief  assistant  of  He- 
man  in  the  Temple  music  imder  David  (I  Chron.  xv, 
17) ;  elsewhere  (1  Chron.  vi,  44)  called  Kishi.    B.C.  1014. 

Kussemeth.     See  Rye. 

Kiister,  Karl  Daniel,  a  German  theologian,  was 
born  at  Bernburg  May  6, 1727.  In  1745  he  entered  the 
University  of  Halle,  and  studied  theology  until  1749, 
when  he  became  teacher  in  the  German-French  orphan 
asylum  in  Magdeburg.  In  1754  he  entered  the  army  as 
chaplain,  and  in  this  capacity  served  the  Prussians  dur- 
ing the  Seven  Years'  War.  On  his  return  he  became 
preacher  at  Magdeburg,  and  was  made  the  first  pastor 
of  the  city  in  1768.  He  died  Sept.  21, 1804.  Kiister 
was  a  truly  pious  man,  and  greatlj'  served  the  cause  of 
Christianity,  especially  among  the  soldiers  of  Frederick 
the  Great.  For  his  works,  see  Dciring,  Gelehrte  Theol, 
Deutschlands,  ii,  218  sq. 

Kiister,  Ludolf,  a  learned  German  Greek  scholar, 
who  was  born  at  Blomberg,  Westphalia,  in  Fcl>.  1670, 
held  first  a  professorship  at  the  Joacbimsthal  Gymnasi- 
um in  Berlin,  and  latei^ enjoyed  the  favor  of  Lotus  XIV, 
and  a  pension  with  membership  in  the  French  Acad- 
emy, and  who  died  Oct.  12, 1716,  deserves  a  place  here 
for  his  edition  of  MiU's  Greek  Testament,  published  at 
Rotterdam  in  1710,  and  entitled  Collectio  Milliana,  etc. 
Kiister's  additions  consist  of  the  various  readings  of 
twelve  ]MSS.,  of  which  the  most  important  is  the  Codex 
Boe7-nerianus,  afterwards  admirably  edited  by  JIatthaei. 
The  edition  also  contains  a  preface  by  Ktlster,  and  a 
letter  of  Le  Clerc's  discussing  a  number  of  various  read- 
ings, of  some  historical  interest.  According  to  Trcgelles, 
it  is  usually  considered  inferior  in  accuracy  to  Jlill's  orig- 
inal edition. — Kit  to,  Cyclopcedia  of  Biblical  Literature, 
ii,  764. 

Kutassy,  Johannes,  a  very  prominent  Hungarian 
prelate  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  flourished  to- 
wards the  close  of  the  16th  century  as  archbishop  of 
Grau.  He  was  in  great  favor  at  the  court  of  the  emperor 
Rudolph  II,  and  was  employed  on  several  important 
diplomatic  missions.  He  died  about  1601. — Allgemeines 
Hist.  I^exikon,  iii,  69. 

Kuvera,  the  Hindu  Plutus,  or  god  of  wealth.  He 
owes  his  name  —  which  literally  means  "  havmg  a 
wretched  {hi)  body  (vei-a)"- — to  the  deformities  with 
which  he  is  invested  by  Hindu  mythology.  He  is  rep- 
resented as  having  three  heads,  three  legs,  and  but  eight 
teeth ;  his  eyes  are  green,  and  in  the  place  of  one  he  has 
a  yellow  mark ;  he  wears  an  earring,  but  only  in  one 
ear;  and,  though  he  is  properly  of  a  black  color,  his  belly 
is  whitened  by  a  leprous  taint.  He  is  seated  in  a  car 
(pushjKika'),  which  is  drawn  by  hobgoblins.  His  resi- 
dence, AJaka,  is  situated  in  the  mines  of  Mount  KaUa- 
sa,  and  he  is  attended  by  the  Yakshas,  Mayus,  Kinnaras, 
and  other  imps,  anxiously  guarding  the  entrance  to  his 
garden,  Chaitraratha,  the  abode  of  all  riches.  Nine 
treasures — apparently  precious  gems — are  especially  in- 
trusted to  his  care.  Ilis  vdfe  is  a  hobgobUn,  Yakshl,  or 
Yakshini,  and  their  children  are  two  sons  and  a  daugh- 
ter. As  one  of  the  divinities  that  preside  over  the  re- 
gions, he  is  considered  also  to  be  the  protector  of  the 
north. — Chambers,  Cyclopcedia,  s.  v. 


KUYPERS 


175 


LABADIE 


Kuypers,  Gerardus  Arextse,  D.D.,  an  emment 
minister  of  the  Keformed  (Dutch)  Church,  was  born  of 
Hollandish  parentage  in  the  island  of  Cura^oajW.  I.,  Dec. 
16, 1766.  His  father,  Rev.  Warmoldus  Kuypers,  was  a 
clergyman,  educated  at  the  University  of  Groningen,  and 
removed  to  this  country,  where  he  settled  as  pastor  of 
the  churches  at  Rhinebeck,  N.  Y.,  and  Hackensack,  N.  J. 
He  died  in  1799.  His  son  Gerardus  was  educated  by  the 
celebrated  Dr.  Peter  Wilson,  who  was  then  the  most 
popular  and  able  classical  teacher  in  New  Jersey.  His 
theological  course  was  pursued  under  the  care  of  his  fa- 
ther and  Drs.  Hermanus  Mayer  and  Dirck  Komeyn.  He 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  1787,  ordained  in  1788  as  co- 
pastor  at  Paramus,  N.  J.,  and  in  1789  became  one  of  the 
ministers  of  the  Collegiate  Keformed  Dutch  Church  in 
Ne\v  York,  where  he  remained  until  his  decease  in  1833. 
Dr.  Kuypers  was  a  Christian  gentleman,  and  a  theolo- 
gian of  the  old  school,  remarkably  conversant  with  the 
Bible,  and  possessed  of  high  pastoral  qualifications.  He 
is  described  as  an  evangelical,  practical,  lucid,  and  su- 
perior preacher,  a  man  of  peace  and  prudence,  and  a  liv- 
ing chronicle  of  past  events,  whose  decisions  on  matters 
of  usage  and  precedent  were  for  many  years  received  as 
final.  His  death  was  triumphant.  He  left  unfinished 
a  volume  of  Discourses  on  the  Heidelberg  Catechism. — 
Dr.  Knox's  Memorial  Discourse  (1833) ;  Sprague's  ^1??- 
nuls ;  Corwin's  Manual  Ref.  Ch.  p.  130 ;  Life  of  Dr.  J. 
II.  Linnffston.     (W.  J.  K.  T.) 

Kvasir  is  the  name  of  a  mythic  personage  mention- 
ed in  the  Norse  legends.  "  He  was  so  wise  and  know- 
ing that  no  one  could  ask  him  a  question  which  he  could 
not  answer.  He  was,  however,  entrapped  and  slain  by 
two  dwarfs  who  had  invited  him  to  a  feast.  With  his 
blood  they  mingled  honey,  and  thus  composed  a  mead 
which  makes  every  one  who  drinks  of  it  a  skald,  or  wise 
man."     See  Thorpe,  Northern  Mythology,  vol.  i. 

Kyderniinster  (or  Kidderjiinster),  Eichard, 
an  English  monk,  greatly  celebrated  both  as  a  preacher 
and  scliolar,  born  in  Worcestershire,  flourished  in  the 
first  half  of  the  16th  century.  He  was  abbot  of  the 
Benedictine  monastery  at  Winchcombe,  Gloucestershire, 
and  died  in  1531.  He  wrote  Tructatus  contra  Doctri- 
num  Lutheri  (1521);  also  a  history  of  his  monastery. 
See  Wood,  A  then.  Oxon. ;  Allibone,  Dictionary  of  Eng- 
lish and  A  merican  A  uthors,  ii,  1046. 

Kypke,  George  David,  a  distinguished  German 
Orientalist,  was  born  at  Neukirk,  Pomerania,  Oct.  23, 
1724.  He  studied  at  the  universities  of  Konigsberg  and 
Halle,  took  his  degree  in  the  department  of  philosophy 
in  1744,  in  1746  was  appointed  professor  extraordinary  of 
Oriental  languages  at  Konigsberg,  and  was  promoted  to 
the  full  professorship  in  1775.  He  died  Maj'  28,  1779. 
Kypke  wrote  Observationes  sacrce  in  Novi  Fmderis  libros, 
ex  auctoribus  Greeds  et  antiquitatibiis  (Breslau,  1755,  2 
vols.  8vo) ;  a  successful  attempt  to  illustrate  many  pas- 


sages of  the  New  Testament  by  examples  drawn  from 
Greek  classic  authors.  '•  Of  all  the  expositions  of  the 
New  Testament  conducted  on  principles  like  these,  I 
know  of  none  that  are  superior,  or,  indeed,  equal  to 
that  of  Kypke"  (JNIichaelis).  See  Kotermund,  Suppl. 
zu  Jocher ;  Hoefer,  jVowi'.  Biog.  Generide,  xxviii,  312. 

Kyrie  (Kupis),  "  O  Lord"  (in  Church  music),  the 
vocative  of  the  Greek  word  signifying  Lord,  with  which 
word  all  the  musical  masses  in  the  Church  of  Home 
commence.  Hence  it  has  come  to  be  used  substantive- 
ly for  the  whole  piece,  as  one  may  say,  a  beautiful  Ky- 
rie,  a  Kyrie  well  executed,  etc. 

Ktrie  Eleeison  (KvpiE  iXerjaov,  Lord  have  mercy 
[_U2)on  w«]),  the  well-known  form  of  earnest  and  pathetic 
penitential  appeal  of  the  Scriptures,  of  frequent  occur- 
rence in  the  services  of  the  early  Church,  and  in  the 
liturgical  formukc  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  church- 
es, and  since  the  Reformation  retained  even  in  many 
Protestant  churches. 

Eastern  Church. — INIost  frequently  it  was  used  in  the 
opening  portions  of  the  ancient  liturgies.  In  that  of  St. 
jNIark  we  find  three  long  prayers,  each  preceded  by  the 
threefold  repetition  of  the  Kyrie.  In  St.  Chrysostom's 
the  deacon  offers  ten  petitions,  and  each  is  followed  by 
the  answering  Kyrie  of  the  choir.  In  the  Apostolic  Con- 
stitutions (lib.  viii,  can.  6),  when  the  catechumens  are 
about  to  pray,  all  the  faithfid  add  for  them  this  suppli- 
cation (comp.  Neale,  Primitice  Lit.  p.  88). 

Western  Church. — In  the  AVest  the  KjTie  Eleeison  and 
Christe  Eleeison,  termed  by  St.  Benedict  " lesser"  or  " mi- 
nor Utany,"  it  is  generally  supposed  were  introduced  by 
pope  Sylvester  I  (314-335),  and  formed  a  part  of  the  Pre- 
ces  Feriales  of  the  "  Salisbury  Portiforium,"  as  they  do 
now  of  the  daily  offices  of  prayer  of  the  Church  of  Rome, 
England,  and  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  In  the 
Lutheran  and  many  other  evangelical  liturgies  the  KjTie 
Eleeison  is  retained.  SeePalmer,(?rw7.  LjV.i,  122;  Siegcl, 
Christlich-Kirchliche  Alterthii>ner,iu,2S7 ;  Riddle,  Chris- 
tian Antiquities,  p.  381 ;  Walcott,  Sacred  A  rchxeol.  s.  v. ; 
Proctor,  Common  Prayer  (see  Index) ;  Blunt,  Diet.  Doct. 
and  Hist.  Theol.  s.  v.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Kyrie,  JoiiN,  an  English  philanthropist,  whom  Pope 
has  immortalized  inider  the  name  of  "  The  Man  of  Ross," 
was  born  at  Dymock  (County  of  Gloucester)  in  1037. 
With  a  small  income  of  £500  he  managed  to  do  much 
good  to  the  population  of  Hereford  Count}'.  He  en- 
couraged agriculture,  opened  ways  of  communication 
between  the  different  places,  and  founded  asylums  for 
orphans  and  disabled  persons.  The  passage  in  which 
Pope  commemorates  him  is  too  well  known  and  too  long 
to  be  quoted  here.  We  will  only  say  that  it  is  sulistan- 
tiaUy  based  on  facts.  Kjnrle  died  in  1754.  See  Warton, 
Essay  on  the  Writings  and  Genius  ofPojJe;  Fopc,  Epistle 
II;  Fidler,  Worthies  of  England,  i,  582. — Hoofer,  Nouv. 
Biog.  Generale,  xxviii,  312.     (J.  N.  P.) 


L. 


La'adah  {llch.Ladnh',  iTn"b,  order;  Sept.  AaaSd 
V.  r.  Maoa.&),  the  second  named  of  the  two  sons  of  She- 
lah  (son  of  Judah),  and  founder  ("  father")  of  IMareshah, 
in  the  lowlands  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv,  21).  B.C.  cir. 
1873. 

La'adan  (Heb.  Ladan',  )'^Vb,  ar-i-anger^tlie  name 
of  two  men. 

1.  (In  1  Chron.  xxiii,  7-9,  Sept.  Aenoav  v.  r.  'Eodv, 
Vulg.  Leedan;  in  1  Chron.  xxvi,  21,  Aei^ch'  v.  r.  AaSc'iv, 
AaaSdv,  Ledan.)  The  first  named  of  the  two  sons  of 
Gershom,  the  son  of  Levi ;  elsewhere  called  Lmxi  (1 
Chron.  vi,  17). 

2.  (Sept.  raXaaodg  v.  r.  Aadoav,  Aao(n',Yulg.  La- 
addu.)  Apparently  the  son  of  Tahan  and  father  of 
Ammihud,  of  the  posterity  of  Ephraim  (1  Chron.  vii, 
26).     B.C.  considerably  post  1612. 


Laanah.     See  Wormwood. 

Labadie,  Jean  de,  a  French  enthusiast,  and  the 
founder  of  the  religious  sect  known  as  Labadi-its.  was 
born  at  Bourg,  in  Guienne,  Feb.  13, 1610.  Educated  in 
the  Jesuits'  school  at  Bordeaux,  he  entered  their  order, 
began  the  study  of  theology  m  1026,  and  soon  distin- 
giushed  himself  as  a  preacher.  Struck  with  tlic  abuses 
existing  in  the  Romish  Church,  he  clamored  for  reform, 
but,  meeting  with  no  encouragement  in  his  order,  he 
left  it  to  join  the  Fathers  of  the  Oratory  in  1039,  and 
very  shortly  afterwards  the  Jansenists.  In  1640  he 
was  appointed  canon  of  Amiens,  and  at  once  inaugura- 
ted various  reforms.  He  held  conventicles  for  tlie  pur- 
pose of  Bible  reading,  and  administered  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per in  both  kinds  to  the  peofjle.  To  prevent  liis  prog- 
ress, he  was  removed  in  1646,  and  sent  as  preacher 
and  inspector  to  the  convents  of  the  third  order  of  St. 


LABADISTS 


176 


LABAN 


Francis  in  Guienne.  Still  persecuted  by  the  Jesuits,  I 
he  joined  the  Kefornied  Church  at  IMontauban  in  IGuO,  I 
and  entered  the  I'rutestant  ministry'  under  very  au- 
spicious circumstances.  In  1G57  he  became  pastor  in 
Orange,  and  in  1659  in  Geneva.  In  both  situations 
he  exerted  himself  to  the  utmost  for  the  restoration  of 
apostolic  religion  on  Tietistic  principles,  and  gained 
many  partisans,  especially  in  Geneva.  In  lOGG  he  be- 
came pastor  of  a  Walloon  church  in  Middelburg,  but, 
by  the  machinations  of  his  enemies,  was  obliged  to  leave 
it,  and  in  1GG9  went  to  Amsterdam,  where  his  followers 
soon  formed  a  distinct  religious  sect,  known  as  Laba- 
DiSTS.  Peter  Yvon  was  one  of  their  preachers.  Hav- 
ing been  expelled  from  the  country  as  a  separatist,  Laba- 
die  went  in  1G70  to  Hereford,  where,  through  the  intlu- 
ence  of  his  disciple,  the  learned  Anna  ^Marie  von  Schur- 
mann  (who  appears  to  have  become  his  wife  afterwards), 
he  was  protected  by  the  princess  Elizabeth.  But,  again 
driven  a\vay  (in  1674)  by  the  authorities  as  an  Anabai> 
tist,  he  went  successively  to  Bremen  and  Altona.  Here 
he  managed,  with  the  assistance  of  Peter  Yvon  and  De 
Lignon,  to  hold  private  meetings  and  to  disseminate  his 
doctruies.  He  died  at  Altona  Feb.  13,  1674.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are,  Le  herault  du  grand  roi  Jesus  (Amst. 
1667, 12mo): — Le  veritable  exorcisme,  ou  Vuniqtie  moyen 
de  chasser  le  Diuble  du  inomle  Chretien  (Amsterd.  1667, 
12mo) : — Le  chant  royal  du  roi  Jesus-Ckrist  (Amsterd. 
1670, 12mo) : — Les  saintes  Decades  (Amst.  1671, 8vo) : — 
Uempire  du  St.  Esprit  (Amst.  1671,  12mo) : — La  refor- 
mation de  Veglise ;  La  jeune  religieuse  ;  Uarrivee  aj)OS- 
iolique;  Ahrerje  du  Christianisme  (transl.  into  German, 
Frankf.  1742) ;  etc. 

According  to  their  confession  of  faith  {Declaration  d. 
reinen  Lehre  i(.  d.  rjesunden  Glaubens  d.  Jolt,  de  L.,  etc., 
Heref.  1671),  the  Labadists  did  not  entirely  differ  from 
the  lieformed  Church,  whose  symbolic  books  they  ac- 
cepted. ■  They  supported  themselves  by  manual  labor, 
and,  after  the  example  of  the  primitive  Church,  pos- 
sessed everything  in  common;  they  insisted  that  great 
Stress  is  to  be  laid  on  the  internal  light,  and  that  it  alone 
can  make  the  outer  revelation  intelligible.  Thej'',  ho:v- 
ever,  declared  against  infant  baptism ;  also  against  the 
second  baptism  of  the  Anabaptists;  and  rejected  the  ob- 
servance of  the  Sabbath  on  the  plea  that  for  them  life 
was  a  perpetual  Sabbath,  etc.  The  reproach  of  immo- 
rality which  some  Roman  Catholic  writers  have  prefer- 
red against  them  is  unfounded ;  they  recognised  and 
.  honored  the  institution  of  matrimony.  After  Labadie's 
death  his  followers  removed  to  Wiewert,  in  the  duchy 
of  Clevcs,  but  gained  few  adherents,  and  the  sect  grad- 
*  ually  disappeared  about  the  middle  of  the  18th  century. 
At  the  opening  of  the  18th  century  they  attempted 
to  establish  themselves  in  the  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica; a  few  of  their  number  settled  on  the  banks  of  the 
Hudson  liivcr  as  missionaries,  but  they  do  not  seem  to 
have  taken  a  special  hold.  See  A.  I'auli  and  J.  Hund, 
Antilabadie  (Hamm,  lG71,4to) ;  L.  G.  EngelschaU,  Rich- 
ti(/e  Vorurtheile  d.  hcutiyen  Welt  (1716),  p.  652-682;  Dr. 
Schotel,  A .  M.  v.  Schurmann  (Hertogenb.  1853) ;  Arnold, 
Kirchen  u.  Ketzeryesch,  ii,  680 ;  Hagenbacli,  Gesch.  der 
Iteformation,  iv,  307  scj. ;  Giibel,  Gesch.  d.  chjistl.  Lehens 
in  d.  Rheinisch-Westphalischen  evangel.  Kirche  (Coblenz, 
1852 ),  vol.  ii ;  Ziitschr.  d.  histor.  theol.  1853, 1854, 
Labadists.     See  Lakadie. 

Labagh,  Pf.ter,  D.D.,  a  Reformed  (Dutch)  minister, 
was  born  in  1773  in  New  York  city,  of  French  and  Hol- 
landish  descent.  After  receiving  his  classical  education 
from  Dr.  Peter  Wilson,  of  Ilackensack,  N.J..  liis  theolog- 
ical studies  were  pursued  under  Drs.  Froeliglj  and  Liv- 
ingston, professors  of  theology  in  the  Reformed  Dutch 
Church.  He  was  licensed  in  179G,  and  immediately 
went  to  AVcsteni  New  York  on  a  tour  of  missi(mary  ex- 
ploration, and  afterwards  proceeded  on  horsqback  to  Ken- 
tucky, where  he  organized  a  Church  in  INIercer  County. 
Returning  to  New  York,  lie  settled  as  a  ])astor  in  Green- 
bush,  Rensselaer  County,  where  lie  remained  until  1809, 
and  then  removed  to  the  united  churches  of  Shannock 


and  Ilarlingcn.  He  retained  the  pastorate  of  the  latter 
Church  until  1844.  He  died  among  his  own  people  in 
1851S,  revered  and  beloved  by  all.  Dr.  Labagh  possessed 
an  active,  acute,  and  powerful  mind,  rapid  in  its  move- 
ments, sound  in  its  conclusions,  and  distinguished  by 
great  accuracy  of  judgment.  In  ecclesiastical  assem- 
blies he  was  always  a  leading  debater  and  comisellor. 
In  the  endowment  of  the  Theological  Seminary  at  New 
Brunswick,  and  in  all  the  great  movements  of  his  de- 
nomination, he  was  a  vigorous  and  successful  worker. 
He  was  a  clear,  strong,  and  experimental  preacher. 
During  the  great  revival  of  1831  his  Church  experi- 
enced a  work  of  grace  which  "  shook  the  whole  commu- 
nity for  miles  around."'  This  was  the  crowning  glory 
of  his  long  ministry.  His  latter  years  wore  spent  in 
patriarchal  retirement.  He  was  cheerful,  happy,  over- 
flowing with  good-humor,  mother-wit,  and  strong  com- 
mon sense,  and,  above  all,  with  a  deep  piety  which  illu- 
mined his  ministry  and  consecrates  his  memory.  A 
Memoir  of  him  was  published  in  1860  by  Rev.  John  A. 
Todd,  D.D.  (12mo).     (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

La'ban  (Hebrew  Lahan',  '33,  vMte,  as  frequently ; 
corap.  Simonis,  Onom.  V.  T.  p.  100 ;  Septuag.  Aa jiav,  but 
Aoliuv  in  Deut.  i,  1 ;  Josephus  Ac'ijiavoQ,Ant.  i,  16,  2), 
the  name  of  a  man  and  also  of  a  place. 

1.  An  Aramican  herd-owner  in  IMcsopotamia,  son  of 
Bethuel  (Gen.  xxviii,5),  and  kinsman  of  Abraham  (Gen. 
xxlv,  15,  19),  being  a  grandson  ('a,  not  simply  "son," 
as  usual;  see  Gesenius,  Thesaur.-p.'i\&)  of  Nahor  (Gen. 
xxix,  5).  During  the  lifetime  of  his  father,  and  by  his 
own  consent,  his  sister  Rebekah  was  married  to  Isaac  in 
Palestine  (Gen.  xxiv,  50  sq.).  B.C.  2024.  See  Rebek- 
ah. Jacob,  one  of  the  sons  by  this  marriage,  on  leaving 
home  through  fear  of  Esau,  complied  with  his  parents' 
wishes  b}'  contracting  a  still  closer  affinity  with  the  fam- 
ily of  his  uncle  Laban,  and  Avhile  seeking  the  hand  of 
his  daughter  Rachel  at  the  price  of  seven  years'  toil,  was 
eventuallv  compelled  bv  Laban's  artifice  to  marrv  first 
his  oldest  daughter,  Leah  (Gen.  xxix).  B.C.  1927ll920. 
See  Jacob.  When  Jacob,  having  fulfilled  the  addi- 
tional seven  years'  service  thus  imposed  upon  him,  and 
six  years  more  under  a  contract  to  take  care  of  his  cat- 
tle (in  which  time  he  managed  to  repay  his  overreach- 
ing uncle  by  a  less  culpable  stratagem),  was  returning 
b}^  stealth  across  the  Euphrates,  Laban  pursued  him  with 
intentions  that  were  only  diverted  by  a  preternatural 
dream,  and,  overtaking  him  at  Mt.GUead,  charged  him 
with  the  abduction  of  his  daughters  and  the  theft  of  his 
household  gods,  which  Rachel  had  clandestinely  carried 
off,  and  now  concealed  by  a  trick  characteristic  of  her 
family,  but  was  at  length  pacified,  and  formed  a  solemn 
treaty  of  amity  with  Jacob  that  should  ruitually  bind 
their  posterity  ((!en.  xxx,  xxxi).  B.C.  1907.  Nie- 
meyer  {Charukt.  ii,246)  has  represented  Laban  in  a  very 
odious  light,  but  his  conduct  appears  to  have  been  in 
keeping  with  the  customs  of  the  times,  and,  indeed,  of 
nomades  in  all  ages,  and  compares  not  unfavorably  with 
that  of  Jacob  himself.  (See  Kitto, /^«i7//  Illustra.  vol. 
i;  Abulfeda,  Anteislatn,  cd.  Fleischer,  p.  25;  Hitzig,  Ge- 
schichte  Israel  [Lpz.  1869],  p. 40, 49  sq.;  E\va\d,IJistori/ 
of  Israel  [transl.  London,  1869],  i,  346  sq.)— Winer,  ii,  1 
sq.  "  The  mere  possession  of  teraphim,  which  the  Jews 
at  no  time  consistently  condemned  (comp.  Judg.  xvii, 
xviii ;  1  Sam.  xix,  13 ;  IIos.  iii,  4),  does  not  prove  Laban 
to  have  been  an  idolater;  but  that  he  must  have  been 
so  appears  with  some  probability  from  xxxi.  53  ('the 
gods  of  Nahor'),  and  from  the  expression  iriwnS,  in 
xxx,  27 ;  A.  Y.,  ^ I  have  learnt  lig  experience,'  but  proper- 
ly '  I  have  divined'  or '  learnt  by  an  augurj''  (comp.  xliv, 
15 ;  1  Kings  xx,  33),  showing  that  he  was  addicted  to 
pagan  superstitious"  (Kitto). 

2.  A  city  in  the  Arabian  desert,  on  the  route  of  the 
Israelites  (Deut.  i,  1) ;  probably  identical  with  their  twen- 
ty-first station,  LiBNAit  (Numb,  xxxiii,  20).  Knobel's 
objections  {Erkldr.  ad  Inc.)  to  this  identification,  that  no 
discoiurses  of  Moses  at  Libnah  are  recorded,  and  that  the 


LABANA 


177 


LABIS 


The  Laharum. 


Israelites  did  not  return  to  that  place  after  reaching 
Kadesh,  are  neither  of  them  relevant.  He  prefers  the 
Hauara  of  ancient  notice  {A'otit.Dif/nit.  i,  78  sq. ;  //««- 
arra  of  the  Peutinger  Table,  ix,  e ;  Avapa  of  Ptolemy, 
V,  17,5),  between  I'etra  and  yEla,  as  having  the  signiti- 
eation  white  in  Arabic  (Steph.  Byz.  s.  v.). 

Lab'ana  {Aajiava),  one  of  the  chief  Temple-ser- 
vants whose  "  sons"  returned  from  the  captivity  (1  Esdr, 
v,28j  ;  evidently  the  Lebana  (q.v.)  of  the  Hebrew  list 
(Xeh.  vii,  48). 

Labaruni  is  the  name  given  to  the  old  standard 
or  dag  of  Christian  nations.  Its  derivation  is  uncer- 
tain, but  it  has  variously  been  consider- 
ed as  coming  from  \aj5t1v,  \ai<pii,  \d- 
(pvpov,  hiboro,  etc.  Some,  with  Pruden- 
tius,  pronounced  both  a's  short-,  others 
(Althelm,  De  laud.  Vir//.)  considered  the 
first  as  long.  Sozomen  has  it  \ajiujpoi' ; 
Chrysostom,  Xo/3o!'(io)'.  (Comp.,  on  the 
etymology,  Gretser,  De  Cruce,  lib,  iii.) 
We  find  this  name  already  applied  to  the 
Iioman  standard  in  coins  of  the  republic 
and  of  the  first  emperors,  espocially  on 
those  connected  with  the  wars  against 
the  Germans,  Sarmatians,  and  Armeni- 
ans. The  labarum  obtained  its  Christian 
signification  under  the  emperor  Con- 
stantine  the  Great,  who,  after  his  conver- 
sion, placed  the  image  of  the  cross  on  his 
standards,  and  caused  it  to  be  received 
at  Eome  as  the  (juiTqQiov  rpoiralov. 
Henceforth  it  was  considered  as  crj;juf tov 

TToXllUKiv    TWV    iiWuJV    TljiVOJTfpOV    it 

was  carried  in  advance  of  the  other  stand- 
artls,  looked  upon  as  an  object  of  adora- 
tion by  the  Cliristian  soldiery,  and  was  surrounded 
by  a  guard  of  fifty  picked  men.  Eusebius,  who  de- 
scribes it  with  great  particularity  (in  Vita  Coiistantin. 
li,  cap.  30,  31 ;  I5aronius,  Annales  Ecclesiasf.  A.D.  312, 
No.  2ij),  relates  that  Constantine  was  induced  to  place 
the  Christian  symbol  on  the  Roman  standard  by  having 
in  vision  seen  a  shining  cross  in  the  heavens.  (This 
vision  may  be  denied  or  variously  explained  from  sub- 
jective causes ;  compare  the  article  Constantine,  and 
Schaflf,  Ch.  Hist,  ii,  §  2.)  The  Roman  labarum  consist- 
ed of  a  long  gilt  spear,  crossed  at  the  upper  end,  and  a 
crown  towards  the  top,  made  either  of  gold  or  of  pre- 
cious stones,  and  bearmg  the  monogram  of  Christ  (thus 

P        P  \ 

X  or    I   1 ,  which  the  emperor  afterwards  -wore  also  on 

his  helmet.  From  the  spear  was  suspended  a  square 
piece  of  silken  veil,  on  which  the  likeness  of  Constantine 

and  of  his  sons  was  embroidered  with  gold. 

Accordmg  to  Pnidentius  (in  Symmachus,  i, 
■n  48G),  the  image  of  Christ  was  embroidered  on 

it.    During  the  reign  of  Julian  the  labarum 

JMonoijram  was  made  in  its  original  shape,  and  bore  the 

"Iit^'^t''^^  °"  iiiage  of  the  emperor,  along  with  those  of  Ju- 

rum,  ^'    P^ter,  Mars,  and  Mercurj-,  but  the  standard 

of  Constantine  was  restored  under  Valentine 
and  Gratian.  The  labarum  remained  the  standard  of 
Rome  until  the  downfall  of  the  Western  Roman  Empire, 
under  the  names  oi  labarum,  crux,  and  vexillum  ecclesi- 
asticum.  The  standards  at  present  in  use  in  some  cere- 
monies of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  still  consist  of  a 
spear,  with  a  cross-piece,  to  which  is  attached  a  cloth 
coverc<l  with  embroidery  or  painting.  The  most  re- 
nowned masterpiece  of  Christian  art,  Raphael's  Madon- 
na del  Sisfo,  was  originally  made  and  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. See  Ilerzog,  Re(d-Eucijklop.  vol.  viii,  s.  v. ;  Gibbon, 
Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roiiian  Ewpire,  ii,  2G1  sq. ;  Mar- 
tigny,  Diet,  des  Antiquites,  s.  v.;  Walcott,  Saci-ed  Ar- 
chaolorju,  s.  v.;  Voisin,  Diss.  crit.  sur  la  Vision  de  Con- 
stanlin  (Paris,  1774).     (J.  H,  W.) 

Labat,  Jean  Baptists,  a  French  Roman  Catholic 
mLssionarj-,  was  born  at  Paris  in  16G3.  He  joined  the 
Dominicans  in  April,  1G«5,  went  as  professor  of  philoso- 

V.— :m 


phy  to  Nancy  in  1G87,  and  afterwards  devoted  himself 
exclusively  to  preaching.  He  landed  at  La  Martinique 
Jan.  29, 1G94,  and  was  immediately  put  in  charge  of  tlie 
mission  at  jNIacouba.  While  attending  to  his  ecclesi- 
astical duties,  he  made  himself  very  usefid  in  the  colo- 
ny as  engineer,  agrittdtinist,  and  even  as  diplomatic 
agent,  and  rendered  great  service  against  the  English 
when  they  attempted  taking  the  island  in  1703.  Most 
of  his  colleagues  having  died  of  yellow  fever  and  other 
diseases  brought  on  by  the  climate,  he  returned  to  Fai- 
rope  to  seek  for  others,  and  arrived  at  Cadiz  Oct.  9, 1705. 
He  intended  returning  soon  to  the  West  Indies,  but  was 
sent  to  Rome  by  his  superiors,  and  was  retained  there 
until  1709;  he  afterwards  remained  at  Civita  Yecchia 
until  171G,  and  finally  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  died, 
Jan.  C,  1738.  He  wrote  Noui-eau  Voyar/e  aux  lies  de 
rAmerique  (Paris,  1722,  G  vols.  12mo;  La  Haye,  1724,  6 
vols.  12mo;  1738,  2  vols.  4to:  2d  ed.  Paris,  17"42,  8  vols. 
12mo ;  transl.  into  Dutch,  Amsterd.  1725.  4  vols.  12mo ; 
German,  Nuremb.  1783-87,  6  vols.  8vo),  and  some  other 
historical  and  miscellaneous  works.  See  Joui-nal  des 
Savants,  Oct.,  Nov.,  and  Dec.  1730 ;  Echard,  Script,  ord. 
S.  Domin.  ii,  800-,  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generule,  xxviii, 
333. 

Labbe,  Philippe,  a  celebrated  French  Jesuit,  was 
born  at  Bourges  July  10, 1607,  He  joined  the  order  in 
1G23,  and  became  professor  of  ethics,  philosophy,  and 
moral  theology,  first  at  the  CoUege  of  Bourges,  where  he 
had  been  educated,  and  aftenvards  at  Paris,  where  he 
settled  in  1G43  or  1G44.  After  teaching  theology  for 
two  years  in  that  city,  he  turned  himself  exclusively  to 
literary  labors.  He  died  at  Paris  Mar.  25, 1CG7.  Labbe 
was  a  man  of  extensive  learning,  uncommon  memory, 
and  great  activity.  Sotwel,  Niceron,  and  Moreri  con- 
sider him  as  the  author  of  seventy-five  dift'ercnt  works, 
some  of  them  quite  insignificant,  however.  His  chief 
claim  to  renown  rests  on  his  Manual  of  Councils,  which 
was  completed  by  Gabriel  Cossart,  and  published  at  Par- 
is in  1G71  (16  vols,  in  17,  folio;  to  some  copies  an  18th 
vol.  is  added,  containing  Jacobatius  de  Conciliis).  The 
most  complete  edition  was  published  under  the  title  aS'.iS'. 
Concilia,  ad  rec/iani  editioneni  exacta,  qum  olini  qiiarta 
parte  jn-odiit  auctior.  Studio  Philip.  Lahhei,  et  Gubr. 
Cossartii.  Nunc  verb  integre,  insertis  Stej)hani  Baluzii 
etJoannis  Harduini  additamentis,  jylurimis  praterea  un- 
dicunque  conquisitis  monumentvi,  notis  insuper  ac  observa- 
tionibus,  jirviiori  fundamento  conciliorum  epochas  ptrce- 
cipue  fulcientibus,  long'e  locupletior  et  emendatior  exhibe- 
tur.  Curante  Nicolao  Coleti  (Venet.  1728,  23  vols.  fol.). 
Et  supplement)im  J.  D.  3fansi  (Lucie,  1748-52, 6  vols. ;  in 
all,  29  vols.  fol.).  This  is  the  most  complete  collection 
extant  of  the  Councils  of  the  Church.  It  was  reprinted, 
^vith  the  supplement  incorporated,  and  edited  by  INIansi, 
at  Florence  (1757-98,31  vols,  folio) — a  much  esteemed 
and  accurate  edition ;  but  it  only  reaches  to  the  year 
1509,  while  the  edition  by  Coletus  brings  the  councils 
down  to  1727.  Among  his  other  works  the  most  impor- 
tant are,  SS.  Patrum  theologorum  scriptorumqite  ecclesi- 
asticomm  utriusque  Testanienti  Bibliothpca  chronnlngica. 
Cum  pinacotheca  scriptorum  Soc.  Jesu  (Par.  1659, 16mo) : 
— Uetj/mologie  de plusieurs  mots  Francois,  conire  les  abus 
de  la  secte  des  Hellenistes  du  Port-Royal  (Paris,  1661, 
12mo)  : — Bibliotheca  bibliothecarum  (3d  edit.  Roth.  1678, 
8vo)  : — De  Byzantincn  historic  scriptoribus  (Byzantine 
Histories,  i): — Nova  BibKotheca  31  SS.  Librorum  (1657, 
2  vols,  fol.)  : — De  Scriptoribus  Eccles.  Dissertatio  (2  vols. 
8vo) ;  etc.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxviii, 338 ; 
DarUng,  Cyclopasdia  Bibliographica, ii,  1751 ;  Pierer, Uni- 
versal Lexikon,  ix,  944.      (J.  N.  P.) 

Labben.     See  MuTii-LiVBBEN. 

Labis  (Xo/3('c,  or  \aftidiov,  a  spoon),  an  implement 
used  in  the  (ireek  Church  for  the  purpose  of  administer- 
ing the  elements  in  the  Lord's  Supper.  Difticulties  in 
the  administration  of  the  wine  were  fancied  to  arise  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  in  order  to  meet  whicli  the  Jistulm  eu- 
chai'isticce  were  introduced ;  and  subsequently  the  prac- 


LABOR 


178 


LABRADOR 


tice  of  (lipping  the  bread  in  the  wine,  so  that  both  might 
be  administered  together.  The  Latin  Church  at  length 
withdrew  the  wine  altogether;  anil  the  Greek  Church, 
mingling  both  elements,  administered  them  at  once  with 
a  \a]5ic,  or  iipooii. — B'arrar,  JiJccl.  Diet.     See  Fistul.e. 

Labor  (properly  ^'2V,(ihad',  to  zvorl; Gr.  lpyu'Coi.iai ; 
also  ">"",  amal',  to  ioil,GT.  Koiridiu  ;  and  other  terms). 
From  Gen.  ii,  15  (where  the  same  word  ^3^  is  used,  A. 
V.  "till"),  we  learn  that  man,  even  in  a  state  of  inno- 
cence, and  surrounded  by  all  the  external  sources  of 
happiness,  was  not  to  pass  his  time  in  indolent  repose. 
Ey  the  very  constitution  of  his  animal  frame,  exercise 
of  some  kind  was  absolutely  essential  to  liim  (comp.  Ec- 
cles.  V,  12).  In  Gen.  iii,  19,  labor,  in  its  more  rigorous 
and  exhausting  forms,  is  set  forth  as  a  part  of  the  pri- 
meval curse,  "  In  the  sweat  of  thy  face  thou  shalt  eat 
bread ;"  and  doubtless  there  is  a  view  of  labor  which  ex- 
hibits it  in  reality  as  a  heavy,  sometimes  a  crushing 
burden  (compare  Gen.  xxxv,  io).  But  labor  is  by  no 
means  exclusively  an  evil,  nor  is  its  prosecution  a  dis- 
honor (comp.  Psa.  ciii,  23,  24).  It  is  the  prostration  of 
strength,  wherewith  is  also  connected  the  temporary  in- 
capacity of  sharing  in  the  enjoyments  of  life,  and  not 
labor  itself,  which  constitutes  the  curse  pronounced  on 
the  fallen  man.  Hence  we  find  that,  in  primitive  times, 
manual  labor  was  neither  regarded  as  degrading  nor 
confined  to  a  certain  class  of  society,  but  was  more  or 
less  prosecuted  by  all.  By  the  institution  of  the  Sab- 
bath, moreover,  one  seventh  of  man's  brief  life  was  res- 
cued from  labor,  and  appro])riatcd  to  rest  of  body  and  to 
that  improvement  of  the  mind  which  tends  to  strength- 
en, invigorate,  and  sustain  the  entire  man.  See  Sab- 
bath. 

Labor  was  enjoined  on  all  Israelites  as  a  sacred  duty 
in  the  fourth  commandment  (Exod.  xx,  9;  Deut.  v,  13 ) ; 
and  the  Bible  entertains  so  high  a  respect  for  the  dili- 
gent and  skilful  laborer,  that  Me  are  tohl  in  Prov.  xxii, 
29, "  Seest  thou  a  man  skilled  in  his  work,  he  shall  stand 
before  kings"  (comp.  also  ibid,  x,4;  xii,  24,27).  Among 
the  beautiful  features  which  grace  an  excellent  house- 
wife, it  is  prominently  set  forth  that  "  she  worketh  will- 
ingly with  her  own  hands"  (Prov.  xxxi,  13).  With  such 
an  honorable  regard  for  labor,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered 
at  that  Avhen  Nebuchadnezzar  carried  the  Jews  away 
into  captivity,  he  found  among  tliem  a  thousand  crafts- 
men and  smiths  (2  Kings  xxiv,  14-lG;  Jer.  xxix,  2). 
The  ancient  rabbins,  too,  regarded  manual  labor  as  most 
honorable,  and  urged  it  upon  every  one  as  a  dutj',  as 
may  be  seen  from  the  following  sayings  in  the  Talmud : 
"  He  who  does  not  teach  his  son  a  craft  is,  as  it  were, 
briiii;ing  him  np  to  robbery"  (Cholin,  105);  "Labor  is 
greatly  to  be  prized,  for  it  elevates  the  laborer,  and 
maintains  him"  {Chagi(/a,b;  Nedarim,^'d,\i\  Baba  Ba- 
ihra,  110,  a).     See  Handicraft. 

The  Hebrews,  like  other  primitive  nations,  appear  to 
have  been  herdsmen  before  they  were  agriculturists 
(Gen.  iv,  2, 12, 17, 22) ;  and  the  practice  of  keeping  flocks 
and  herds  continued  in  high  esteem  and  constant  ob- 
servance as  a  regular  employment  and  a  social  condition 
(Judg.  i.  16;  iv,  11 ;  Amos  vii,  14  ;  Luke  ii,  8).  The  cul- 
ture of  the  soil  came  in  course  of  time,  introducing  the 
discovery  and  exercise  of  the  practical  arts  of  life,  which 
eventually  led  to  those  refinements,  both  as  to  processes 
and  to  applications,  which  precede,  if  the}'  do  not  create, 
the  fine  arts  (Gen.  iv;  xxvi,  12;  xxxiii,  19).  Agricul- 
ture, indeed,  became  the  chief  employment  of  the  He- 
brew race  after  their  settlement  in  Canaan  ;  it  lay  at  the 
very  basis  of  the  constitution,  linth  civil  and  religious, 
which  Jloses  gave  them,  was  licld  in  great  honor,  and 
was  carried  on  by  the  high  as  well  as  the  humble  in  po- 
sition (•Tudg.  vi,  1 1  ;  1  Sam.  xi,  5;  1  Kings  xix,  19).  No 
small  care  was  bestowed  on  tjie  culture  of  the  vine, 
which  grew  luxuriously  on  the  hills  of  Palestine  (Isa.  v, 
2,5;  ^fatt.  xxi.  33:  Numb.  xiii.  24).  Tlie  vintage  was 
a  season  of  jubilee  (JudLT.  ix.  27  ;  .ler.  xxv,  30 ;  Ima.  xvi, 
10).    The  hills  of  Palestine  were  also  adorned  with  well- 


cidtured  olive-gardens,  which  produced  fruit  useful  for 
food,  for  anointing,  and  for  medicine  (Isa.  xvii,  6;  xxiv, 
13;  Deut.  xxiv,  20;  Ezek.  xxvii,  17;  1  Kings  iv,  25; 
Hos.  xiv,  C,  7).  Attention  was  also  given  to  the  culture 
of  the  fig-tree  (2  Kings  xxi,  7;  1  Chron.  xxvii,  28),  as 
well  as  of  the  date-palm  (Lev.  xxiii,  40 ;  J.udg.  i,  IC ;  iv, 
5;  XX,  33;  Deut,  xxxiv,  3),  and  also  of  balsam  ((ien. 
xliii,  11 ;  Ezek.  xxvii,  17  ;  xxxvii,  25  ;  Jer.  viii,  22). — 
Kitto.     Sec  Aguicultuke. 

Laborautes  (labore/s),  a  name  sometimes  given 
to  the  copiuUe  ox  fossavii,  on  the  assumption  that  the. 
Greek  word  KOTciciTai  is  taken  from  kottoc,  labor. — Far- 
rar,  Eccl.  Did.  s.  v.     See  Copiat^  ;  Fossarii. 

Laborde,  Yidieu,  a  French  priest,  born  at  Tou- 
louse in  1G80,  flourislied  at  Paris  under  the  patronage 
of  cardinal  De  Noailles.  He  died  in  1748.  His  works 
are,  A  Treatise  on  the  Essence: — Distinction  and  Limits 
of  the  Spiritual  and  TemjJoral  Powers : — Familiar  Con- 
ferences ;  and  other  religious  works  of  value. 

Labouderie,  Jean,  a  celebrated  French  theologi- 
cal writer,  was  born  at  Chalinargues,  Auvergne,  Feb.  13, 
1776.  He  became  vicar  of  Notre  Dame,  Paris,  in  1815, 
and  early  distinguished  himself  more  as  a  MTiter  than 
a  preacher.  He  was  particularly  conversant  with  the 
Hebrew  language.  He  died  as  honorary  grand  vicar 
of  Avignon  at  Paris,  May  2,  1849.  Among  his  works 
are  Pensees  iheolor/iques  (Clermont,  1801,  8vo) :  —  Con- 
siderations addressees  aux  aspirants  au  ministh-e  de 
Veylise  de  Geneve,  faisant  suite  a  celles  de  M.  Empey- 
taz  sur  la  divinite  de  Jesus-Christ,  avec  ime  7-eponse  a 
quelques  questions  de  M.Delloc,  etc.  (Paris,  1817, 8vo)  : — 
Precis  historique  du  Methodisme  (1818, 8vo)  : — Le  Chris- 
tianisme  de  Moritniyne  (1819,  8vo): — Vies  des  Saints 
(1820, 3  vols.  24mo) :— iff  ReW/ion  Chretienne  (1826, 8 vo) : 
— Notice  historique  sur  Ztchiyle  (1828,  8vo)  ;  etc.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Genercde,  xxviii,  395. 

Laboureur,  Le  Jean,  a  French  priest,  born  at 
Montmorency  in  1623,  became  one  of  the  almoners  of 
the  king,  and  died  in  1G75.  He  wrote  several  valuable 
works  on  the  history  of  France. 

Labrador,  a  ])eninsula  of  north-eastern  America,  is 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  on  the  south 
by  the  LKiminion  of  Canada  and  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence, on  the  west  by  the  Hudson  Bay  and  James  Bay, 
on  the  north  by  the  Hudson  Strait.  Area  about  500,000 
sq.  miles.  The  peninsula  formerly  was  a  part  of  the  ter- 
ritory belonging  to  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  and  with 
the  remainder  of  this  territory  was  in  1869  sold  to  the 
government  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  The  interior 
of  the  country  is  almost  entirely  unknown.  The  popu- 
lation, comjirising  Indians,  Esquitnaux,  and  a  few  Euro- 
peans, amounts  to  about  4000.  It  is  believed  that  Lab- 
rador is  identical  with  the  IhUuland  (stone-land)  which 
about  the  year  1000  was  discovered  by  Leif,  the  son  of 
Eric  the  Bed.  On  June  24, 1497,  it  was  again  discov- 
ered by  John  and  Sebastian  Cabot.  It  was  visited  in 
1500  bj'  the  Portuguese  G.Cortereal,  who  called  it  Tierra 
del  Labrador  (land  for  labor),  and  in  1576  by  the  Eng- 
lishman M.  Frobishcr.  In  1618  Hudson  explored  a  part 
of  the  coast.  The  countrj',  which  has  a  rugged  coast, 
and  is  surrounded  with  many  small  islands,  does  not  al- 
low an  extensive  cultivation  ;  for,  although  the  vegeta- 
tion is  only  in  the  northern  part  so  limited  as  it  is 
throughout"  Greenland,  the  winters  are  even  more  se- 
vere, and  during  the  short  summers  the  musquitdcs  are 
even  more  troublesome  than  in  Greenland.  Tlie  ]i(ipu- 
lation  of  the  interior,  which  consists  of  Bed  Indians,  is 
verj' small;  the  Esquimaux,  who  inhabit  the  north-east- 
ern' and  tiie  western  coast,  are  a  little  more  numerous, 
and  support  themselves  by  fishing  seals,  etc.  If  these 
animals  fail  them  a  famine  is  brought  on,  or  they  are 
forced  to  penetrate  farther  into  the  interior,  where  they 
are  apt  to  encounter  the  Bed  Indians,  their  irreconcila- 
ble enemies  for  centuries. 

The  first  attempt  to  establish  a  mission  on  the  coast 
of  Labrador  was  made  by  the  Moravians  in  1752,  when 


LABROUSSE 


179 


LA  CHAISE 


J,  C.  Erhardt  was  killed  by  the  Esquimaux.  In  1771 
the  Moravians  succeeded  in  establishing  the  station  of 
Nain,  to  which  in  the  course  of  the  following  ten  years 
the  stations  of  Okak  and  Iloffenthal  (Hopedale)  were 
added.  The  mission  met  here  with  the  same  difficulties 
as  in  Greenland.  Thirty-four  years  after  the  establish- 
ment of  the  first  mission  an  extensive  revival  took  place, 
in  consequence  of  which  the  Esciuimaiix  connected  with 
these  stations  were  gained  to  Christianity.  For  the 
Esquimaux  living  more  to  the  north,  Hebron  was  found- 
ed in  1830.  In  18G-1  tlie  station  of  Zoar  was  establish- 
ed for  the  tract  of  land  lying  between  Nain  and  Iloffen- 
thal. All  the  Esquimaux  in  this  part  of  Labrador  are 
ivnv  Christians.  Only  north  of  Hebron  a  few  pagans 
are  still  living,  for  the  conversion  of  whom  in  1871  the 
station  of  Kama,  situated  on  the  Bay  of  Nullatorusek  (a 
little  north  of  lat.  59=  N.)  was  founded.  Famine  and 
epidemics  have  greatly  reduced  the  number  of  the  Es- 
quimaux in  Labrador.  In  1870  the  station  of  Nain 
numbered  239,  Okak  339.  Iloffenthal  250,  Hebron  219, 
and  Zoar  109  souls,  while  the  number  of  missionaries  and 
attendants  was  45.  The  acquaintance  of  the  natives  with 
European  necessities  forced  the  missionaries  to  charge 
themselves  with  the  importation  of  some  of  these  arti- 
cles. Subsequently  this  trade  was  transferred  to  special 
agents.  In  the  mean  while,  commercial  interests  have 
caused  a  number  of  Europeans  to  settle  on  the  coast  of 
Lalirador,  and  a  number  of  trading-posts  to  be  estab- 
lished. Besides  the  ^Moravians,  the  Society  for  the  Prop- 
agation of  the  Gospel  has  begun  missionary  efforts  on 
the  southern  coast,  and  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  has 
endeavored  to  gain  an  influence  upon  the  Red  Indians 
of  the  interior.  See  'New'comh.Ci/ctopcedia  of  Missions  ; 
Grundeman,  Missionsittlas  ;  Roraer,  Gescliichte  der  Lab- 
rador-Mission  (Gnadau,  1871).     (A.  J.  S.) 

Labrousse,  Clotilde  Suzan  Courcelles  de,  a 
French  religious  enthusiast,  was  born  at  Vauxain,  Peri- 
gord.  May  8,  17-17.  While  quite  young  she  adopted 
exaggerated  mystical  notions,  thought  herself  called  to 
become  a  saint,  and  was  so  anxious  to  leave  this  world 
for  a  better  one  that  she  made  an  attempt  at  suicide 
when  but  nine  years  old.  Her  ascetic  practices  were 
very  severe,  and  became  still  more  so  as  she  grew  up, 
yet  did  not  seem  to  ha\'e  any  injurious  effect  on  her 
health.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  she  became  a  mm  of 
tlic  third  order  of  St.  Francis,  and  soon  after  declared 
that  she  had  received  a  mission  to  travel  through  the 
world  to  convert  sinners,  but  was  detained  in  the  con- 
vent by  her  superior.  Siie  then  wrote  a  history  of  lier 
life,  which  she  addressed  to  JI.  de  Flamarens,  bishop  of 
Perigueux,  without  effect.  The  MS.,  however,  attract- 
ed the  attention  of  Dom  Gerle,  prior  of  the  Chartreuse 
of  Vauclaire,  who  entered  into  correspondence  with  the 
authoress  in  17G9,  and  she  afterwards  declared,  ^vhen  he 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  National  Assembly,  that 
she  had  predicted  it  to  him.  When  the  Revolution 
broke  out,  Isl.  Pontard,  constitutional  bishop  of  Dor- 
ilogne,  attracted  her  to  Paris,  where  she  prophesied 
against  the  court  of  Rome,  and  in  favor  of  the  civil  con- 
stitution of  the  clergy.  She  subsequently  returned  to 
Perigord,  and  left  tlicre  to  go  to  Rome,  thinking  to  con- 
vert the  pope,  cardinals,  etc.,  to  her  views,  and  to  induce 
them  to  renounce  temporal  power.  On  her  way  she  ad- 
dressed the  people  wherever  an  opportunity  offered.  In 
August,  1792,  she  arrived  at  Bologna,  whence  she  was 
driven  by  the  legate.  At  Yiterbo  she  was  arrested  and 
taken  to  the  castle  of  San  Angelo.  In  179t)  the  French 
Directory  interfered  to  obtain  lier  liberation,  but  she 
preferred  remaining,  as  she  had  been  very  kindly  treat- 
ed; but  when  the  French  took  Rome  in  1798  she  left  the 
prison  and  returned  to  Paris,  where  she  died  in  1821. 
She  persisted  to  the  last  in  believing  herself  inspired, 
and  actually  succeeded  in  gathering  a  small  circle  of  ad- 
licronts.  Labrousse  wrote  Propheties  concernant  la  Re- 
roliition  Fran^nise,  su.iries  dhuie  Prediction  qui  onnonce 
la  Jin  du  monde  (for  1899)  (Paris,  1790,  8vo)  -.—Lettre  de 
Mile,  de  Labrousse  (Paris,  1790,  8vo).     Pontard  pub- 


lished a  Pecueil  des  Ouvrages  de  la  celebre  Mlle.T^abroiis- 
se  (Bordeaux,  1797,  8vo).  See  IMahul,  Annuaire  necro- 
lo(j.  1822;  j\j-nault,  Jay,  Jouy  et  Norvins,  Biog.  noui: 
des  Contemp. ;  Querard,  La  France  Litteraire. — Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biocj.  Generale,  xxviii,  418. 

La  Brune,  Francois  de.    See  La  Bkune,  Jean 

DE. 

La  Brune,  Jean  de,  a  French  Protestant  minis- 
ter, flourished  in  the  second  hah'  of  the  17th  and  tlie 
earljr  part  of  the  18th  century.  After  the  revocation 
of  the  edict  of  Nantes  he  went  as  pastor  to  Basle ;  later 
he  became  minister  at  Schoonoven,  in  Holland.  He  is 
particularly  celebrated  as  a  writer,  but  many  of  the 
works  -(vhich  have  generally  been  attributed  to  him  are 
now  believed  to  be  the  production  of  Francois  de  la  Brune, 
also  a  Protestant  French  pastor,  who  flourished  about 
the  same  time ;  went  to  Amsterdam  in  1G85,  and,  on  ac- 
count of  heterodox  opinions,  was  suspended  from  the 
ministry  in  1G91.  We  have  under  the  name  of  La 
Brune,  among  other  works.  Morale  de  Confucius  (Amst. 
1688,  8vo): — Calvin's  Truite  de  la  Justification  (ibid, 
lG9o,  8vo;  1705, 12mo)  : — Hist,  du  Viiux  et  du  Nouveait 
Test,  en  vers  (173 1,  8vo). — Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bioej.  Generale, 
xxviii,  423. 

Lacarry,  Giles,  a  French  Jesuit,  who  was  born  at 
Castres  in  1G05,  and  died  in  1G84,  is  noted  as  the  author 
of  several  works  on  the  liistory  of  his  coimtrj'.  See 
General  Biographical  Dictionary,  s.  v. 

Lace  (^"^r^B,  pathiV,  from  being  twisted),  the  blue 
cord  with  which  the  high-priest's  breastplate  was  at- 
tached to  the  ephod  (Exod.  xxviii,  28,  37;  xxxix,  21, 
31;  rendered  "riband"  Numb,  xv,  38);  spoken  of  gold 
"  w-iVe"  (Exod.  xxxix,  3),  the  chain  for  attaching  a  cover 
to  its  vessel  ("  bound,"  Numb,  xix,  15) ;  a  strong  "thread'' 
of  tow  (Judg.  xvi,  9),  or  measuring-"  line"  of  flax  (Ezek. 
xl,  3) ;  also  of  the  string  by  which  the  signet-ring  was 
suspended  in  the  bosom  (•'  bracelet,"  Gen.  xxxviii,  18, 
35) ;  finally  (K\w(7j.ia,  a  spun  thread,  like  pathil  above, 
for  which  it  stands  in  Nimib.  xv,  3G),  a  cord  (Ecclus.  vi, 
30). 

Lacedsemo'nian  (AaKioatpuvioc,  2  Jlacc.  v,  9; 
elsewhere  'SlTrapridrrjc),  an  inhabitant  of  Lacediemon  or 
Sparta,  in  Greece,  with  whom  the  Jews  at  one  time 
claimed  kindred  (1  Mace,  xii,  2,  5,  G,  20,  21 ;  xiv,  20,  23 ; 
XV,  23).     See  SpAiiXA. 

Lacey,  William  B.,  D.D.,  a  clergyman  of  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church,  was  born  about  1781.  He  en- 
tered the  ministry  in  1813  as  missionary  of  Chenango 
County,  N.  Y. ;  in  1818  he  became  rector  of  St.  Peter's 
Church,  Albany.  He  lab.orcd  there  upwards  of  twenty 
years,  his  ministration  being  crowned  with  great  suc- 
cess. Subsequently  he  became  professor  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  I'ennsylvania,  and  president  of  a  college  at 
Laceyville,  Pa.  He  died  October  31, 186G.  Dr.  Lacey 
wrote  a  number  of  text-books  for  schools  and  coUeges 
which  were  deservedly  popular  in  their  day,  particularly 
his  Rhetoric  and  Morid  Philosophy.  During  the  last 
ten  years  of  his  life  he  employed  his  leisure  hours  in  re- 
vising a  History  of  the  Fnglish  Church  pi-ior  to  the  Time 
of  the  Monk  A  ugustin,  and  some  of  his  choicest  sermons 
and  other  MSS.     See  Am.  Ch.  Rev.  18G7,  p.  G47. 

La  Chaise  or  La  Chaize  d'Ais,  Francois  de, 
Pere,  a  celebrated  French  Jesuit  and  noted  confessor  of 
Louis  XIY,  was  born  of  a  noble  family  at  the  castle  of 
Aix  Aug.  25,  1624.  He  was  educated  at  the  College  of 
Roanne,  became  a  Jesuit,  and  afterwards  went  to  com- 
plete his  studies  at  Lyons,  where  he  subsequently  taught 
philosophy  with  great  success.  Having  been  appointed 
professor  of  theologj',  he  was  soon  called  away  from  Ly- 
ons to  direct  the  establishment  of  his  order  at  Grenoble, 
but  almost  immediately  returned  with  the  office  of  pro- 
vincial. Finally,  on  tlie  death  of  father  Ferrier,  he  suc- 
ceeded him  as  confessor  of  the  king  in  1G75.  iMadame 
de  ]Montespan  was  then  at  the  height  of  her  favor,  and 
all  the  efforts  of  father  Ferrier,  Bourdaloue,  Bossuet,  and 


LA  CHAPELLE 


180 


LACHISH 


Mascaron  had  proved  ineffective  against  her.    La  Chaise 
proceeded  more  oautioii^ly  than  his  predecessors,  and 
])roved  more  successt'id.     Never  directly  contradicting 
his  royal  penitent,  he  knew  how  to  gain  him  to  his 
views  hv  slow  but  steady  advances.    Whenever  he  saw 
the  king  disposed  to  throw  oflF  his  easy  yoke,  he  would 
feign  sickness  and  send  some  priest  of  strict  and  uncom- 
jjromising  ijrinciples  to  the  king,  who,  being  positively 
refused  absolution  once  by  fatlier  Deschamps,  woidd, 
after  such  experiments,  submit  the  more  readily  to  the 
wilv  Jesuit.     The  latter,  moreover,  was  an  agreeable 
companion  as  well  as  an  easy  confessor.     Madame  de 
Jlontespan,  weary  of  the  contest  with  La  Chaise  and 
Madame  de  Maintenon,  retired  linallj^  into  a  convent. 
The  queen  dying  a  few  years  afterwards.  La  Chaise  is 
said  to  have  given  the  king  the  idea  of  a  morganatic 
marriage,  and  even  to  have  performed  the  ceremony. 
Yet,  in  spite  of  all  he  had  done  for  her,  INIadame  de  INIain- 
tenon  (q.  v.)  does  not  appear  to  have  ever  been  verj- 
friendly  towards  the  Jesuit;    perhaps  because  he  pre- 
vented a  public  recognition  of  her  marriage ;  perhaps 
also  because  she  knew  that  in  helping  her  he  had  work- 
ed onl}^  for  himself.     When  Madame  de  Maintenon 
founded  the  institution  of  St.  Cyr,  La  Chaise,  Eacine, 
end  Boileau  were  commissioned  to  revise  its  rules.    The 
former  opposed  the  rule  that  teachers  should  be  required 
to  take  anything  more  than  the  simple  vows,  and  car- 
ried his  point,  though  subsequently  this  was  changed, 
and  they  became  subject  to  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine. 
After  the  death  of  the  (pieen  and  of  Colbert,  the  actions 
of  the  king  were  entirely  governed  by  La  Chaise  and 
]\L<idame  de  IMaintenon.     Both  agreed  against  the  Prot- 
estants, and  their  joint  efforts  brought  on  the  revocation 
of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.    The  Jesuit,  mdeed,  tried  to  con- 
ciliate the  king  and  the  pope  when  the  difficulties  arose 
about  the  declaration  of  the  clergy  in  1682,  and  the  fa- 
mous four  propositions,  and  CA'cn  appeared  more  inclined 
to  side  with  the  temporal  than  with  the  spiritual  mon- 
arch ;  but  he  again  balanced  the  account  by  advocating 
the  dragonnades  as  a  sure  means  of  reclaiming  erring 
consciences.     He  died  Jan.  20,  1709.     In  the  famous 
quarrel  between  Fenelon  and  Bossuet,  La  Chaise  sided 
with  the  former,  as  far,  at  least,  as  he  dared  without  of- 
fending the  king.     He  even  affected  great  regard  for 
Quesnel,  though,  when  it  is  remembered  that  he  caused 
the  works  of  that  writer  to  be  condemned,  the  sincerity 
of  his  regard  may  be  doubted ;  but  it  was  his  principle 
to  attack  individuals,  not  parties,  and  he  therefore  found 
it  convenient,  as  a  true  Jesuit,  to  praise  men  whom,  on 
account  of  their  very  principles,  he  secretly  sought  to 
destroy.    See  Jansenisji  ;  Jesuits.    He  was  a  shrewd, 
persevering  politician,  and  did  much  good  to  his  order, 
but  pere  La  Chaise  cannot  be  lauded  either  as  a  great 
man  or  as  a  good  priest.     Tlie  kindest  comment  ever 
made  on  his  character  is  that  by  "\"t)ltaire,  who  speaks 
of  liim  as  '•  a  mild  person,  with  whom  the  ways  of  con- 
ciliation were  always  open."     He  obtained  the  king's 
]irotection  for  the  College  of  Clermont,  since  called  Col- 
lege Louis-le-Grand,  and  received  for  his  order  a  fine 
estate  to  which  his  name  was  given,  and  which  is  now 
the  cemetery  of  "  Ph-e  la  Chdisb"  at  Paris.    He  wrote 
Perijmtctica;  qiutd ntplicis philosophia: Placita  raiionalis, 
etc.  (Lyons,  KiOl,  2  vols,  fol.)  : — Humanm  sapientim  Pro- 
positioiies  propufjncitce  Ijir/duni  in  colkf/io  Soc.  Jesu  (Ly- 
ons, 1662,  fol.)  : — Reponse  a  qiielqiies  difficultes  proposees 
a  un  Ihidlofjien,  etc.  (Lyons,  1666,  4to);  etc.     See  Saint- 
Simon,  MinKHn.t ;  ^ladame  de  JIaintenon,  Con-espond- 
(inrf ;  Voltaire,  jSV«cZe  de  Loiris  XFV;  Bcnoist,  IJisf.  de 
riCdit  de  Xinites;  Jurieu,  PoUtigite  du  Clei-ge  de  France  ; 
Sismondi,  Hist,  des  Fran^ah,  vol.  xxv,  xxvi,  and  xxvii ; 
Kegis  de  Chant elauze,  Le  Pere  de  la  Chaise  (Lyons,  1859, 
8vo);  Hoefcr,  Noui:  Bioffi:  Generale,  xxviii,  483.-    See 
Louis  XIV. 

La  Chapelle,  Armand  Boisbei.eau  he,  a  French 
Protestant  ■\vriter,  was  born  at  Ozillac  (Saintongc)  in 
1676.  He  was  a  student  at  the  college  of  Bordeaux 
when  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  obliged  him 


to  retire  to  England,  where  he  was  received  by  his 
grandfather,  pastor  of  the  Walloon  Church  at  London. 
In  169-1  he  was  ordained,  and  soon  afterwards  sent  to 
Ireland.  Subsequently  he  became  successivelj'  pastor  of 
Wandsworth,  in  the  neighborhood  of  London,  in  1696; 
of  the  chapel  of  the  French  artillery  in  that  town  in 
1711 ;  and  linally  pastor  of  the  Walloon  Church  of  the 
Hague  in  1725.  He  died  August  6. 1746.  La  Chapelle 
wrote  lie  flexions  an  siijet  d^un  sysi'eme  pretendu  nouveau 
sur  le  mijst'ere  de  la  Trinite  (Amst.  1729, 8vo)  : — Examen 
de  la  maniere  de  j^recher  des  Protestants  Franfuis,  etc. 
(Amsterd.  1730,  8vo)  : — Reponse  a  Mr.  Mainard,  ancien 
chanoine  de  St.  Sernin  de  Toulouse,  au  sujet  d'u7ie  con/h-- 
ence  sur  la  religion,  etc.  (La  Haye,  1730, 4to) : — Entretien 
au  sujet  de  la  Lettre  d'uji  Theologien  sur  le  mystere  de  la 
Trinite  (La  Haye,  1730,  8vo)  : — Lettre  d'un  thiologien 
Reforme  a  un  f/entilhomme  Lutherien  (Amst.  1736,  2  vols. 
12mo) ;  it  is  also  known  under  the  title  Lettres  sur  I'on- 
vracje  de  corAroverse  du  P.  Schaffmacher : — Memoires  de 
Pologne,  etc.  (Lond.  1739, 12mo)  : — Bescription  des  cere- 
monies observees  a  Rome  depuis  la  mort  de  Clement  XII 
jusqii'au  couronnement  de  Benoit  XIV,  son  successeur, 
etc.  (Paris,  1741, 12mo): — De  la  Nicessite  du  adte  pub- 
lic parmi  les  Chretiens  (La  Haye,  1746,  8vo ;  Frankfort, 
1747,2  vols.  12mo;  transl.  into  Dutch,  Amst.  1748,  8vo; 
into  German,  Breslau,  1749, 8vo;  Lpz.  1769,  8vo).  It  is 
a  defence  of  the  course  of  the  French  Protestants  in 
holding  their  assemblies  du  desert  in  spite  of  the  edicts  of 
the  king: — Vie  de Beausobre  (in  Beausobre's  Remai-ques 
sur  le  N^ouveau  Testament,\o\. ii).  He  wrote  also  in  La 
Bibliotheque  Anglaise,  ou  liistoire  litteraire  de  la  Grande- 
Bretagne  (Amst.  1717-27, 15  vols.  12mo)  : — Bibliotheque 
raisonnee  des  Ouvrages  des  Savants  de  rEurope  (Amst. 
1728-53,  52  vols.  12mo)  : — N'ouvelle  Bibliotheque,  ou  his- 
toire  litteraire  des  jirincipaux  ecriis  qui  se  publient  (La 
Haye,  1738  sq.,  19  vols.  12mo).  He  also  translated  into 
French  some  works  of  Dition,  Steele,  Bentley,  and  Bur- 
net. See  Querard,  La  France  Litteraire ;  Haag,  La 
France  Protest  ante ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gener.  xxviii, 
507.     (J.  N.  P.) 

La'chisli  (Heb.  Lalish',  TIJ"^^?,  prob.  impregnable, 
otherwise  smitten ;  Sept.  in  Josh,  and  Kings  Aaxi  c ;  in 
Chron.,  Neh.,  and  Jer.  Xaxi'tQ  v.  r.  A«x(c ;  in  Isa.  Aaxi'iQ 
V.  r.  Aa^'C  or  Aaxi'lQ ;  in  Mic.  Aaxiig ;  Joscphus  AaxiQ, 
Ant.  viii,  10, 1 ;  also  A«xfiff«,  Ant.  ix,  9,  3),  a  Caanan- 
itish  royal  city  (Josh,  xii,  11)  in  the  southern  part  of 
Palestine,  whose  king  Japhia  joined  the  Amoritish  con- 
federacy against  Joshua  (Josh,  x,  3, 5) ;  but  he  was  taken 
(Josh.  XV,  25),  and  his  city  destroyed  by  the  victorious " 
Israelites,  in  spite  of  the  re-enforcement  of  the  king  of 
Gezer  (Josh,  xv,  31-35,  where  its  great  strength  is  de- 
noted by  the  two  days'  assault).  See  Joshua.  From 
these  last  passages  it  appears  to  have  been  situated  be- 
tween Libnah  and  ICglon ;  but  it  is  mentioned  between 
Joktheel  and  Bozkath,  among  the  cities  of  the  Philis- 
tine valley  or  plain  of  Judah  (^Josh.  xv,  39).  It  is  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  Adoraim  and  Azekah  as  hav- 
ing been  rebuilt,  or  rather  fortified,  by  Kehoboam  against 
the  Philistines  (2  Chron.  xi,  9),  and  seems  after  that 
time  to  have  been  regarded  as  one  of  the  strongest  for- 
tresses of  the  kingdom  of  Judah  (for  hither  Amaziah 
was  pursued  and  slain,  2  Kings  xiv,  19;  2  Chron.  xxv, 
27),  having  for  a  time  braved  the  assaults  of  the  Assyr- 
ian army  under  Sennacherib  on  his  way  to  Egypt  (2 
Kings  xviii,  14, 17;  xix,8;  2  Chron.xxxii,9;  Isa. xxxvi, 
2;  xxxvii,  8);  but  was  at  length  taken  b\'  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, at  the  downfall  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah  (Jer. 
xxxiv,  7).  It  was  rcoccupied  after  the  exile  (Neh:  xi, 
30).  The  affright  occasioned  by  these  sudden  attacks 
was  predicted  by  the  prophet  Micah  (i,  13),  where  this 
city,  lying  not  very  far  from  the  frontiers  of  tlie  king- 
dom of  Israel,  apjjcars  to  have  been  the  first  to  intro- 
duce the  idolatry  of  that  commonwealth  into  Judaism. 
A  detailed  representation  of  the  siege  of  some  large  Jew- 
ish city  by  Sennacherib  has  been  discovered  on  the  re- 
cently disinterred  monuments  of  Assyria,  which  is  there 
called  Lakhisha,  and  presumed  to  be  Lachish  (Layard's 


LACIilSII 


181 


LACHISH 


Nineveh  and  Bahjlon,  p.  152),  although  it  does  not.  ap- 
pear from  the  Biblical  account  that  this  city  yielded  to 
ills  arms;  indeed,  some  exjiressions  would  almost  seem 
to  imply  the  reverse  (see  "thought  to  win  them,"  2 
Chron.  xxxii,  1 ;  "  departed  from  Lachish,"  2  Kings  xix, 
8 ;  and  especially  Jer.  xxxiv,  7).  Col.  Kawlinson  even 
reads  the  name  of  the  city  in  question  on  the  monu- 
ments as  Luhaiia,  i.  e.  Libnah  (Layard,  nt  siiji.  p.  153, 
note).  Eawlinson  also  thinks  that  on  the  first  attack  at 
least  Sennacherib  did  not  sack  the  city  {Herodotus,  i, 
481,  note  Gj.  At  all  events,  it  woidd  seem  that,  after  the 
submission  of  Hezekiah,  Sennacherib  in  some  way  re- 
duced Lachish,  and  marched  in  force  against  the  Egyp- 
tians (Joseph.  Ant.  x,  1,1;  comp.  Isa.  xx,  1-4).  Ilaw- 
linson  maintains  (Herodotus,  i,477)  that  Sennacherib  at- 
tacked Lachish  a  second  time,  but  whether  on  his  re- 


turn from  his  Egyptian  campaign,  or  after  he  had  paid 
a  visit  to  Nineveh,  cannot  now  be  determined.  See 
Hezekiah.  It  is  specially  mentioned  that  he  laid  siege 
to  it  "with  all  his  power"  (2  Chron.  xxxii,  9),  and  here 
"the  great  king"  himself  remained,  while  his  officers 
only  were  dispatched  to  Jerusalem  (2  Chron.  xxxii,  9 ; 
2  Kings  xviii,  17).  See  Sennacherib.  This  siege  is 
considered  by  Layard  and  Hincks  to  be  depicted  on  the 
slabs  found  by  the  former  in  one  of  the  chambers  of  the 
palace  at  Kouyunjik, which  bear  the  inscription  "Sen- 
nacherib, the  mighty  king,  king  of  the  country  of  As- 
syria, sitting  on  the  throne  of  judgment  before  (or  at 
the  entrance  of)  the  city  of  Lachish  (Lakhisha).  I  give 
permission  for  its  slaughter"  (Layard,  Xin.  and  Bab.  p. 
149-52,  and  153,  note).  These  slabs  contain  a  view  of 
a  city  which,  if  the  inscription  is  correctly  interpreted, 


Attack  of  Lachish  by  the  Assyrians.    From  the  Monuments, 


must  be  Lachish  itself.  The  bas-reliefs  depict  the  cap- 
ture of  an  extensive  city  defended  bj'  double  walls, 
with  battlements  and  towers,  and  by  fortified  outworks. 


The  country  around  is  represented  as  hilly  and  wooded, 
producing  the  fig  and  the  vme.  Immense  preparations 
had  evidently  been  made  for  the  siege,  and  in  no  othei 


Ground-plan  of  Lachish  as  taken  by  the  Assyrians.    From  the  Monumeuts. 


sculptures  were  so  many  armed  warriors  drawn  up  in 
array  against  a  besieged  city,  which  Avas  defended  with 
ecjual  determination.  Tlie  process  of  the  assault  and 
sack  are  given  in  the  most  minute  and  lively  man- 
ner. The  spoil  and  captives  are  exhibited  in  fidl,  the 
latter  distinguished  by  their  Jewish  physiognomy,  ajid 
by  the  pillaged  condition  of  their  garments.  On  a 
throne  iir  front  of  the  -city  is  represented  the  Assyr- 


ian king  giving  orders  for  the  disposal  of  the  prison- 
ers, several  of  whom  are  depicted  as  already  in  the 
hands  of  the  executioners,  some  being  stretcJied  naked 
on  the  ground  in  order  to  be  flayed  alive,  while  others 
>vere  slain  by  the  sword.  (See  Layard's  Jfomnnents  of 
Nineveh,  2d  series,  plates  20-24.)      See  Captive. 

Eusebius  and  Jerome  {Onomnst.  s.  v.)  state  that  in 
their  time  Lachish  was  a  village  seven  miles  south 


LACHMANN 


182 


LACOMBE 


Jewisli  Captives  from  Lachish.    From  the  Assj-riau  Sculptures  at  Kouyuujik. 


(••  to-svards  Darom")  of  Eleutheropolis.  The  only  place 
that  has  been  found  by  travellers  at  all  answering  to 
the  scriptural  notices  is  Um-Lakis,  on  the  left  of  the 
road  between  Gaza  and  Hebron,  situated  "  upon  a  low 
round  knoU,  now  covered  confusedly  with  heaps  of  small 
round  stones,  with  intervals  between,  among  which  are 
seen  two  or  three  fragments  of  marble  columns,  wholly 
overgrown  with  thistles ;  a  well  to  the  south-east,  below 
the  hill,  now  almost  filled  up,  having  also  several  col- 
innns  around  it"  (Robinson,  JJibUcal  Researches,  ii,  388). 
This  locality,  notwithstanding  it  is  somewhat  more  dis- 
tant from  iieit-Jibrin  (Eleutheropolis)  than  the  Ono- 
masticon  calls  for,  and  likewise  to  the  south-?i-e.s/,  and 
notwithstanding  the  imperfect  agreement  in  name  (sev- 
eral of  the  letters  being  different  in  the  Hcb.  and  Ara- 
bic, in  addition  to  the  prefix  Um  [wliich,  however,  may 
only  denote  its  importance  as  a  ?«o?/;f;--city]),  Kaumer 
and 'Grosse  (in  the  Studien  n.Krit.  1845,1,243  sq.)  in- 
cline to  identify  with  that  of  Lachish,  on  the  ground  of 
its  proximity  (see  Josh,  x,  31-3G)  to  Eglon  (liaumer, 
Beitrar/e  zur  biblischen  Geor/raphie,  1843,  p.  "23).  With 
this  conclusion  Schwarz  concurs  {Palestine,  p. 85),  as  also 
Van  de  Velde  {Memoir,  p.  329),  and  Thomson  {Land  and 
Book,  ii,  35G) ;  but  Ritter  is  imdecided  {Erdkumle,  xvi, 
131);  By  "  Daroma,"  also,  Eusebius  may  have  intend- 
ed, not  the  southern  district,  but  a  place  of  that  name, 
which  is  mentioned  in  the  Talmud,  and  is  placed  by  the 
accurate  old  traveller  hap-Parchi  as  two  hours  south  of 
Gaza  (Zmiz  in  Benj.  ofTudela,  by  Asher,  ii,  442).  With 
regard  to  the  weakness  of  Um-Lakis,  Mr.  Porter  has  a 
good  comparison  between  it  and  Ashdod  {Handbook,  p. 
261). 

Lachniann,  Karl,  a  distinguished  German  philol- 
ogist, was  born  at  Brunswick  March  4,  1793.  lie  stud- 
ied at  the  universities  of  Leipzig  aud  Giittingen,  and  in 
1811  founded,  together  with  Biuisen,  Dissen,  and  Em. 
8chulze,  the  IPhilological  Society.  In  1813  he  entered 
the  army  as  a  volunteer,  but,  having  left  it  at  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  war,  he  became  professor  at  the  University  of 
Eerhn  in  1827,  and  member  of  the  Academy  of  that  city 
in  1830.  He  died  at  Berlin  ]March  i;!,  1851.  His  phil- 
ological works  are  distinguished  for  profound  learning 
and  able  criticism.  He  confined  himself  mainly  to  edi- 
tions of  classical  authors,  but  he  also  jniblished  an  edi- 
tion of  the  Greek  New  Testament  (Berlin,  1831 ;  3d  ed. 
184G;  in  a  larger  form,  184G-50).  In  this  edition  of  the 
New-Testament  Scriptures  in  the  original,  "he  aimed," 
.says  Dr.W.  L.  Alexander  (Kitto,  Bibl.  Ci/clop.  ii,  7G9), 
'•  at  presenting,  as  far  as  possible,  the  text  as  it  was  in 
the  authorized  copies  of  the  4th  century,  liis  design  be- 
ing, not  to  compare  various  readings  witli  the  received 
text,  but  to  supply  a  text  derived  from  ancient  authori- 
ties tlirectly  and  exclusively.  Relin(iuishing  the  possi- 
bility of  ascertaining  what  was  the  exact  text  of  the 
original  as  it  appeared  in  the  aiitographs  of  the  authors, 
he  set  himself  to  determine  the  oldest  attainable  text 
by  means  of  extant  codices.  For  this  purjiose  he  made 
use  of  only  a  very  fe\v  ]MSS.,  viz.  A,  I>,  C,  P,  Q,  T, 
Z,  for  the  Gospels;  D,  G,  II,  for  the  Epistles;  the  ante- 


Hieronymian  Latin  versions,  and  the  readings  of  Ori- 
gen,  Irenreus,  Cyprian,  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  Lucifer ;  and 
for  the  Apocalypse,  Primarius.  Under  the  Greek  text 
the  editor  cites  his  authorities,  and  at  the  bottom  of  the 
page  he  gives  the  Yidgate  version  edited  from  two  cod- 
ices of  the  Gth  century,  the  Fuldensis  and  the  Amian- 
tiuus,  preserved  in  tlie  Laurentian  Librarj'  at  Florence. 
.  .  .  On  its  first  appearance,  his  work  and  the  principles 
on  which  it  was  based  were  subjected  to  much  hostility, 
but  his  great  services  to  the  cause  of  N.-T.  criticism  are 
now  universally  admitted.  That  he  narrowed  tuirea- 
sonably  the  sphere  of  legitimate  authority  for  the  sacred 
text,  that  he  was  sometimes  capricious  in  his  selection 
of  authorities,  and  that,  while  he  did  not  always  follow 
his  authorities,  he  at  other  times  followed  them  even  in 
their  manifest  errors  and  blunders,  may  be  admitted. 
But,  after  every  deduction  from  the  merits  of  his  work 
is  made  which  justice  demands,  there  wiU  still  remain 
to  Lachmann  the  high  praise  of  having  been  the  first  to 
apply  to  the  editing  of  the  Greek  N.  T.  those  sound  prin- 
ciples of  textual  criticism  which  can  alone  secure  a  cor- 
rect and  trust^^•orthy  text.  In  this  he  followed,  to  a 
considerable  extent,  the  counsel  of  the  illustrious  Bent- 
ley,  uttered  more  than  a  century  before  (whence  some, 
who  sought  to  discredit  his  efforts,  unworthily  mocked 
him  as  '  Simla  Bentleii') ;  but  he  owed  nothing  to  Bent- 
ley  beyond  the  suggestion  of  the  principles  he  has  fol- 
lowed ;  and  he  possessed  and  has  ably  used  materials 
•which  in  Bentley's  time  were  not  to  be  had."  (Comp. 
Lachmann's  exposition  of  his  principles  in  Studien  iind 
Kritiken,  1830,  p.  817-845;  also  a  revie-\v  of  Scrivener's 
{^Collation  of  the  Gospels,  Cambr.  1853,  8vo]  strictures 
on  Lachmann's  edition  of  the  N.-T.  writings  in  Kitto, 
Joitrn.  /Sac.  Lit.  1853,  July,  \).  3G5  sq.)  See  Hertz,  Lach- 
mann; eine  Bio(/raphie  (Berlin,  1851,  8vo);  Tregelles, 
Printed  Text  of  the  Greek  N.  T.  p.  97  sq. ;  Hoefer,  Notiv, 
Biofj.  Generale,  xxviii,  532;  Pierer,  Univei'sal  Lexikon, 
ix,  954.     See  Criticism,  Biblical. 

Laconibe,  Pkri:,  a  celeljrated  Roman  Catholic  mo- 
nastic, a  native  of  Savoy,  floimshed  in  the  second  half 
of  the  17th  century,  first  as  the  spiritual  adviser  and 
confessor  of  jNIadame  (iuyon.  and  afterwards  as  a  zeal- 
ous follower  of  the  eminent  French  female  Jlystic.  In 
1G87,  when  the  Quietism  of  IMolinos,  which  Lacombe 
ardently  espoused,  was  condemned,  pere  Lacombe  was 
imprisoned,  and  he  died  in  prison  in  1G99.  During  liis 
imprisonment  he  became  very  much  depressed  in  mind, 
and  finally  lost  liis  reason.  This  gave  rise  to  the  state- 
ment made  in  our  vol.  iii,  p.  1(»39,  that  •'  he  died  in  a  mad- 
house." His  relation  with  JNIadame  Guyon  had  been 
very  intimate,  and  this  was  quite  natural  when  we  con- 
sider that  the  former  confessor  became  an  ardent  follow- 
er of  JIadame,  and  no  doubt  the  scandal  to  which  their 
associations  had  given  rise,  as  well  as  the  imprisonment, 
made  Lacombe  a  great  sufferer  in  his  last  days.  He 
wrote  .1  nali/se  de  I'oraison  mentale,  which  in  1688  was 
forbidden.     See  (h-vox.      (J.H.W.) 

Lacombe,  Dominique,  a  French  prelate  of  note, 
was  born  at  Montrejean  (Haute  Garomie)  July  25, 1749, 


LACORDAIRE 


183 


LACORDAIRE 


and  v:m  educated  in  the  college  at  Tarbes,  ■which  he  en- 
tered iu  1766.  In  1788  he  became  rector  of  a  college  at 
Bordeaux,  but  energetically  embracing  the  principles  of 
the  Kevolution  in  1789,  he  solemnly  declared  in  favor  of 
separation  of  Cluircli  and  State,  and  was  elected  in  con- 
sequence curate  of  St.  I'aul  at  Bordeaux,  Sent  to  the 
Assembly,  he  took  quite  a  prominent  part  in  politics 
until  the  decretal  proliibiting  all  ecclesiastical  ckess  was 
published  (April  7, 1792),  when  he  forthwitli  ceased  his 
service  to  the  state,  and  returned  to  Bordeaux  to  assume 
tlie  duties  of  Ids  ecclesiastical  functions.  In  1797  he 
was  elected  metropolitan  of  Bordeaux,  and  in  1802  was 
one  of  the  twelve  bishops  nominated  by  the  emperor 
Napoleon,  as  whose  zealous  partisan  Lacombe  is  known 
after  his  deviation  to  the  episcopacy  of  Angoideme.  He 
died  April  7, 1823.  See  Annales  de  la  Reli(jion,  xv,  134 ; 
Iloefer,  Nour.  Biog.  Gmerale,  xxviii,  541. 

Lacordaire,  Jean  Baptiste  Hexki,  a  noted  Ro- 
man ( 'atholic  theologian  of  this  century,  the  reviver  of 
the  Dominican  order,  and  a  most  distinguished  pidpit 
orator  of  modern  France,  was  born  at  Itecey-sur-Ource, 
in  the  department  Cote-d'Or,  March  12,  1802.  He  Avas 
educated  for  the  legal  profession,  first  at  Dijon,  where 
he  obtained  the  highest  honors,  and  afterwards  (1822) 
at  Paris,  and  in  1824  he  began  practice  as  an  advocate, 
and  rose  rapidly  to  distinction.  Lacordaire  was  at  this 
time,  like  most  of  the  youth  of  France,  a  Deist  of  the 
Voltaire  school,  but  Lamennais'  Essai  sur  V indifference, 
which  fell  into  his  liands,  decided  the  youthful  lawyer  to 
devote  himself  thereafter  to  the  cause  of  the  Christian 
religion,  which  he  felt  satisfied  must  form  the  basis  of 
all  social  life.  He  immediately  abandoned  his  profes- 
sion, and  entered  tlie  College  of  St.  Sulpice,  and  in  1827 
received  holy  orders.  IMontalembert,  Lacordaire's  bi- 
ograjiher,  however,  would  have  us  believe  tliat  this  sud- 
den change  from  atheism  to  orthodox  Christianity  "was 
due  to  no  man  and  to  no  book,  but  solely  to  a  sudden 
impulse  of  grace,  which  opened  his  eyes  to  the  sin  and 
folly  of  irreligion."  Shortly  after  his  ordination  he  was 
offered  the  position  of  auditor  of  the  rota  at  the  court 
of  Home,  an  office  which  at  once  confers  the  title  of 
monsignore,  and  is  always  a  step  to  the  episcopate,  and 
often  to  a  cardinal's  hat ;  but  he  declined  it  peremptorily. 
His  first  appointment  was  that  of  almoner  in  the  Col- 
lege of  Juilly,  also  known  as  the  College  of  Henry  IV. 
Here  he  became  personally  acquainted  with  the  abbe 
Lamennais,  and  speedily  the  youthful  priest  and  the 
learned  theologian  formed  a  close  and  intimate  alliance, 
which  was  interrupted  only  by  the  departure  of  Lamen- 
nais from  the  Cliurch  in  1833.  One  of  the  first,  and 
perhaps  most  important,  results  of  the  friendly  alliance 
of  these  three  men  was  the  establishment,  after  the  July 
revolution  of  1830,  of  the  Journal  L'A  venir,  "  an  organ 
at  once  of  the  highest  Church  principles  and  of  the 
most  extreme  radicalism."  See  Lamennais.  Count 
IMontalembert  has  furnished  us  a  life-like  portrait  of 
Lacordaire  at  this  time;  and,  although  much  allowance 
must  be  made  for  the  passionate  exclamations  of  a 
friend,  it  deserves  at  least  our  notice.  "  It  was  in  No- 
vember, 1830,  that  I  saw  him  for  the  first  time  in  the 
cabinet  of  the  abbii  Lamennais,  four  months  after  a  rev- 
olution wliich  had  appeared  for  a  moment  to  confound 
in  a  common  ruin  the  throne  and  the  altar,  and  one 
month  after  the  establishment  of  the  Journal  L' A  renir. 
That  journal  liad  for  its  motto  '  God  and  Liberty  P  It 
was  tlie  intention  of  the  founders  that  it  shoidd  regen- 
erate Catholic  opinion  in  France,  and  seal  its  union  with 

liberal  progress He  was  twenty-eight  years  of 

age;  he  was  dressed  as  a  layman,  the  slate  of  Paris  not 
then  permitting  priests  to  wear  tlieir  clerical  costume. 
His  slender  figure,  his  delicate  and  regular  features,  his 
chiselled  forehead,  the  sovereign  carriage  of  his  head, 
his  black  and  sparkling  eye,  an  indescribable  union  of 
high  spirit,  elegance,  and  modesty  in  his  whole  appear- 
ance, were  only  the  outward  tokens  of  a  soid  which 
seemed  reaily  to  overflow,  not  merely  in  the  free  con- 
flicts of  public  speaking,  but  in  the  effusions  of  intimate 


friendship.  The  brightness  of  his  glance  revealed  at 
once  treasures  of  indignation  and  of  tenderness  ;  it 
sought  not  merely  enemies  to  combat  and  overthrow, 
but  also  hearts  to  win  over  and  subdue.  His  voice,  so 
vigorous  and  vibrating,  took  oi'ton  accents  of  infinite 
sweetness.  Born  to  combat  and  to  love,  he  already 
bore  the  stamp  of  the  double  royalty  of  soul  and  of  tal- 
ent. He  appeared  to  me  charming  and  terrible,  as  the 
tj^pe  of  enthusiasm  for  good,  of  virtue  armed  in  defence 
of  the  truth.  I  saw  in  him  one  of  the  elect,  predesti- 
nated to  all  that  youth  most  desires  and  adores  —  ge- 
nius and  glory."  The  articles  published  in  the  .1  venir 
speedily  provoked  the  displeasure  of  the  episcopate,  and 
an  early  opportunity  was  sought  to  bring  the 'trans- 
gressors to  grief.  This  was  found  in  an  intemperate 
attack  written  by  Lacordaire  against  Louis  Philippe. 
Both  Lacordaire  and  Lamennais  ^vere  cited  before  a  jury 
for  trial  in  January-,  1831 ;  the  former,  however,  pleaded 
the  cause  of  the  journal  witli  so  much  eloquence  and 
abilitj'  that  both  the  accused  were  acquitted.  Thus 
encouraged,  they  adopted  more  vigorous  measures  to  se- 
cure liberty  of  education,  in  the  face  of  an  energetic 
opposition  from  the  university.  They  announced  that 
they  would  open  a  free  school  in  the  Frencli  capital, 
and  actually  began  teaching  in  Jlay,  1831.  Tlie  ])olice, 
however,  soon  put  an  end  to  this  bold  movement,  and, 
as  one  of  their  number  was  a  count  (Montalcmbert), 
they  were  accused  before  a  court  of  peers,  and  fined  100 
francs.  A  short  time  after  the  papal  see  openly  de- 
clared its  opposition  to  them  by  an  encyclical  censure 
which  Gregory  XYI  issued  Sept.  18,  1832.  Eejecting 
all  their  dogmas,  it  declared  "  the  whole  idea  of  the  re- 
generation of  the  Church  absurd,  liberty  of  conscience  a 
delirium,  freedom  of  the  press  fatal,  and  invit)lable  sub- 
mission to  the  prince  a  maxim  of  faith."  Even  before 
this  papal  censure  had  been  publicly  proclaimed  the 
three  chief  editors  oi  UAvenir  had  gone  to  Rome,  to 
prevent,  if  possible,  any  severe  measures  on  the  )iart  of 
the  pope.  It  was  at  this  time  that  Lamennais  i,.st  de- 
cided to  turn  from  the  corruptions  of  Rome — from  the 
corpse  which  he  saw  clearly  it  was  in  vain  to  attempt 
to  resuscitate.  Not  so,  however,  was  Lacordaire  affect- 
ed. His  imagination  had  been  vividly  impressed  by 
the  imposing  ceremonies  and  glorious  traditions  of  the 
Romish  Church,  and  he  was  prepared  at  once  to  sub- 
mit to  it  "  sicut  cadaver."  "  The  miseries,  the  infirmi- 
ties," says  Montalcmbert,  in  his  biography  of  Lacordaire, 
"  inseparable  from  the  mingling  of  evcrvtliing  human 
with  that  which  is  divine,  did  not  escape  his  notice,  but 
they  seemed  to  him  as  if  lost  in  the  mysterious  splen- 
dor of  tradition  and  authority.  He  the  journalist,  the 
citizen  of  1830,  he  the  democratic  liberal,  had  wmpre- 
hended  at  the  first  glance  not  only  the  inviolable  maj- 
esty of  the  supreme  pontificate,  but  its  difficidties,  its 
long  and  patient  designs,  its  indispensable  regard  for 
men  and  things  here  below.  The  faith  and  the  duty 
of  the  Catholic  priest  had  at  once  elevated  that  noble 
heart  above  all  the  mists  of  pride,  above  all  the  seduc- 
tions, all  the  temptations  of  talent,  above  all  the  intoxi- 
cation of  strife.  With  the  penetration  which  faith  and 
humility  confer,  he  passed  beforehand  upon  our  jireten- 
sions  the  judgment  which  has  been  ratified  by  time, 
that  great  auxiliary  of  the  Church  and  of  truth.  It 
was  then,  I  venture  to  believe,  that  (iod  marked  him 
forever  with  tlie  seal  of  his  grace,  and  that  he  gave  him 
the  assurance  of  the  reward  due  to  the  invincilile  fidel- 
ity of  a  truly  priestly  soul."  Hereafter  the  man  Lacor- 
daire is  lost  in  the  churchman,  the  active  and  iiKpiiring 
intellect  confined,  if  not  extinguished,  liy  the  official  re- 
ligion. His  bond  fde  retractation  of  course  drew  upon 
him  not  only  estrangement  from  his  master,  whose  in- 
tellectual philosophy  he  ha<l  never  really  adopted,  and 
wliose  retractation  was  never  more  than  fiirmal,  but  the 
rejiroach  of  \\orldliness.  It  was  due  in  realit}',  how- 
ever, to  a  precisely  opposite  cause.  His  heart  was  iden- 
tified with  the  cause  of  the  Church,  and  only  his  intel- 
lect with  the  Free-Church  theorv.     "Do  not  let  ue 


LACORDAIRE 


184 


LACORDAIRE 


chain  our  hearts  to  our  ideas,"  he  said  quite  eariiestlj':  ] 
and  he  evidently  felt  the  delight  in  submission  which 
always  accompanies  a  sacritice  of  self  for  something  one 
thinks  higher  and  better  than  self.  He  thought  he  had 
detected  a  pride  of  systematic  jihilosophy  in  the  views 
of  his  master,  Lamennais,  and  this  had,  he  said,  often 
galled  and  fretted  him.  lie  believed  that  the  Church, 
in  condemning  Lamennais  and  his  school,  had  delivered 
him  (Lacorilaire)  '•  from  the  most  terrible  of  all  oppres- 
sions, that  of  the  human  intellect;"  and  henceforth, 
though  tender  and  respectful  to  his  master  in  the  ad- 
versity of  papal  disfavor,  he  really  loved  the  Church 
the  better  for  having  humbled  himself  before  her  deci- 
sion, just  as  he  woukl  have  loved  God  better  fur  having 
boweil  his  own  self-will  to  the  divine  volition.  The 
Church,  he  held,  was  higher  than  his  intellect.  His 
spirit,  he  fancied,  had  gained  in  vital  power  by  humbling 
his  own  intellect  before  the  mind  of  the  Church.  And 
so  he  embraced  the  first  opportunity  that  presented  it- 
self to  convince  the  papal  see  of  his  sincerity.  Lamen- 
nais had  just  appeared  before  the  public  in  his  Paroles 
dun  croi/ant,  and  the  book  was  selling  extensively,  and 
finding  a  very  large  circle  of  readers.  Here  was  an  op- 
portunity to  break  a  lance  in  defence  of  Eome ;  and, 
though  the  attack  in  this  instance  had  to  be  directed 
even  against  his  own  former  master,  he  hesitated  not  to 
enter  the  lists.  He  replied  to  Lamennais'  book  by  his 
Considerations  sur  le  syst'eme  jjhilosophiqtie  de  M.  La- 
mennais, a  work  which  proved  a  total  failure,  and  which 
Montalembert,  the  associate  of  Lacordaire — his  bosom 
apostate  from  Lamennais — is  obliged  to  admit  as  hav- 
ing been  anything  but  successful.  New  honors,  notwith- 
standing, soon  sought  out  the  devoted  adherent  to  the 
cause  of  the  Ultramontanes,  first  (in  1833  and  1835)  in 
the  offer  of  the  editorship  of  the  journal  UUnivers,  then 
lately  established  to  further  the  LTltramontane  princi- 
ples, and  later  in  the  proffer  of  a  professor's  chair  at  the 
University  of  Louvain.  He  desired  none  of  these — the 
pulpit  and  the  convent  cell  he  had  decided  should  be 
his  future  place  of  resort,  "  to  speak  and  to  write,  to  live 
a  solitary  and  studious  life;"  he  says  in  a  letter  of  1833, 
"  such  is  the  wish  of  my  whole  soul." 

In  the  spring  of  1833  he  preached  for  the  first  time 
in  public.  It  was  in  the  great  church  of  St.  Koch,  in 
Paris.  "  I  was  there,"  says  SI.  IVIontalembert,  "  with 
MM.  dc  Courcelles,  Ampere,  and  some  others,  who  must 
remember  it  as  I  do.  He  failed  completely,  and,  com- 
ing out,  every  one  said,  'This  is  a  man  of  talent,  but  he 
never  will  be  a  preacher.'  Lacordaire  himself  thought 
the  same."  His  failure  was  very  much  like  that  of 
Sheridan,  D'Israeli,  Kobert  Hall,  and  many  other  ora- 
tors— an  incentive  to  become  great.  In  the  beginning 
of  1834  he  delivered  his  famous  Conferences  in  the  Col- 
lege Stanislas,  the  humblest  of  the  colleges  of  Paris, 
where  he  had  been  appointed  as  lecturer  to  the  students, 
and  where  his  failure  at  St.  Roch  was  now  recompensed 
by  a  great  success,  his  audience  oftentimes  amounting  to 
from  .500  to  600  persons.  In  the  year  following  (1835) 
we  find  him  installed  preacher  at  Notre  Dame,  and  for 
once  it  was  acknowledged  that  "  France  had  a  living 
preacher  who  knew  how  to  fascinate  the  intellect,  kin- 
dle tlie  imagination,  and  touch  tlie  heart  of  the  most 
cultivated  and  of  the  most  illiterate.  Whenever  La- 
cordaire was  announced  to  preach  in  Notre  Dame  the 
cathedral  was  surrounded,  long  before  the  doors  were 
open,  by  an  immense  and  heterogeneous  crowd.  Before 
he  appeared  in  the  pulpit,  the  vast  nave,  the  aisles,  and 
the  side  chapels  were  thronged  with  statesmen  and 
journalists,  members  of  the  Academy  and  tradesmen, 
workhig-men  and  high-born  women,  scejitics,  socialists, 
devout  (,'atholics,  and  resolute  Protestants,  who  were  all 
compelled  to  surrender  themselves  for  tlie  time- to  the 
irresistible  torrent  of  his  elofiuenj^n;"  (I\.  A\'.  Dale,  in  Con- 
(em/virari/  Rei-iew,  May,  180^,  p.  2). 

Onlv  two  years  after  his  appointment  to  Notre  Dame, 
Lacordaire  suddenly  fixed  llie  woiidiT  of  the  multitude 
again  upon  him  by  relintiuishing  the  career  of  distinc- 


tion which  had  so  lately  opened  to  him,  and  by  jour- 
neying to  Rome,  "with  the  principal  design,"  as  he 
himself  teUs  us  in  one  of  his  letters,  "  of  entering  the 
Dominican  order,  with  the  accessory  design  of  re-estab- 
lishing it  in  France."  This  opens  a  new  phase  in  the 
life  of  Lacoriiaire.  "  It  was  always  the  mark  of  Lacor- 
daire's  character,"  says  a  writer  in  the  SjKctator  (Lond, 
Dec.  7,  18(57),  ''that  all  his  deepest  feelings,  like  moral 
caustic,  burnt  inward,  so  that  he  complained  from  the 
beginning  of  life  to  the  end  that  even  the  deepest  friend- 
ship he  knew  led  him  not  into  society,  but  into  solitude," 
and  it  is  in  solitude  that  his  days  are  mainly  spent  after 
his  sudden  retreat  from  Notre  Dame  in  1837.  Hence- 
forth his  "  inner  life"  is  a  story  of  the  inward  progress 
of  self-humiliations — self-crucifixions,  as  he  called  them, 
measuring  them  by  the  standard  of  Christ's  sufferings. 
In  the  complete  self-sacrifice  of  the  monk,  in  the  abso- 
lute life  in  God  to  which  he  now  resigned  himself,  he  be- 
lieved he  coidd  alone  find  the  true  source  of  a  new  life  for 
human  society.  If  Christ's  self-sacrifice  was  the  soiurce 
of  human  redemption,  the  orders  which  set  forth  that 
self-sacrifice  most  perfectly  to  the  world  contained  the 
true  life-l)lood  of  the  world ;  and  henceforth  his  life  and 
that  of  his  followers  became  one  long  passion  of  self-im- 
molation, in  which  the  spirit  was  trained  by  the  sharp- 
est voluntary  penances  to  regulate  every  inward  move- 
ment by  the  ideal  of  Christian  humiUty  or  humiliation.- 
What  Lacordaire's  biographer  reverently  calls  '"holy 
follies"  were  of  daily  occurrence.  "  "Will  you,"  he  said 
one  day  on  the  Campagna  to  his  disciple,  pere  Lesson, 
'•  suffer  something  for  the  sake  of  him  who  has  suffered 
so  much  for  us?"  and,  showing  him  a  thorn-bush,  they 
both  at  once  precipitated  themselves  into  it,  and  came 
out  covered  with  blood.  How  this  was  "suffering  for 
Christ's  sake"  Lacordaire  does  not  explain  ;  but  he  seems 
to  have  thought  that  all  suffering,  needless  or  needful, 
voluntary  or  involuntary,  was  a  lesson  in  love  for  Christ. 
"All  his  mysticism,"  says  his  biographer,  "reduced  it- 
self to  this  one  principle,  to  suffer ;  to  suffer  in  order  to 
expiate  justice,  and  in  order  to  prove  love."  And 
henceforth  his  life  as  a  monk  was  a  burning  fire  cf  re- 
ligious passion  and  penance,  all  intended  to  teach  him, 
as  he  thought,  to  enter  more  deeply  into  crucified  love : 
"  His  thanksgiving  after  mass  was  generally  short ;  in 
making  it  lie  most  often  experienced  veni"  ardent  emo- 
tions of  love  to  God,  which  lie  went  to  appease  in  the 
cell  of  one  of  his  religious.  He  would  enter  with  his 
countenance  still  radiant  with  the  holy  joy  kmdled  at 
the  altar;  then,  humbly  kneeling  before  the  religious, 
and  kissing  his  feet,  he  would  beg  him  to  do  him  the 
charity  of  chastising  him  for  the  love  of  God.  Then  he 
would  uncover  his  shoulders,  and,  whether  willing  or 
unwilling,  the  brother  was  obliged  to  give  him  a  severe 
discipline.  He  would  rise  all  bruised  from  his  knees, 
and,  remaining  for  a  long  time  with  his  lips  pressed  to 
the  feet  of  him  who  had  scourged  him,  would  give  utter- 
ance to  his  gratitude  in  the  most  lively  terms,  and  then 
withdraw  with  joy  on  his  brow  and  in  his  heart.  At  oth- 
er times,  after  receiving  the  discipline,  he  would  beg  the 
religious  to  sit  do\ra  again  at  his  table,  and  prostra- 
ting himself  on  the  ground  under  his  feet,  he  would  re- 
main there  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  finishing  his  ]irayer 
in  silence,  and  delighting  himself  in  God,  as  he  felt  his 
head  under  the  foot  that  humbled  him.  These  penances 
were  very  often  renewed,  and  those  who  were  chosen  to 
execute  them  did  not  resign  themselves  to  the  oflice 
without  dilHculty.  It  was  a  real  penance  to  them,  es- 
pecially at  first;  they  would  willingly  have  changed 
places  with  him.  Hut  gradually  they  became  used  to 
it,  and  the  father  took  occasion  of  this  to  require  more, 
and  to  make  them  treat  him  according  to  his  wishes. 
Then  they  were  obliged  to  strike  him,  to  s]iit  in  his 
face,  to  speak  to  him  as  a  slave,  '(io  and  dean  my 
shoes;  bring  me  such  a  thing;  away  with  you,  wretch!' 
and  they  had  to  drive  him  from  them  like  a  dog.  The 
religious  whom  he  selected  to  render  him  these  services 
were  those  who  were  most  at  their  ease  with  him ;  and 


LACORDAIRE 


185 


LACTAKTIUS 


he  retiinied  by  preference  to  such  as  spared  him  least. 
His  thirst  for  penances  of  this  description  appears  the 
more  extraortlinary  from  the  fact  that  his  exceedingly 
delicate  and  sensitive  temperament  rendered  them  in- 
supportably  painful  to  him."  To  Protestants  this  sounds 
like  the  rehearsal  of  an  unreal  moral  tragedy,  a  rehearsal 
which  must  have  done  far  more  to  bewilder  the  minds 
of  those  who  were  guilty  of  these  artificial,  cruel,  and 
unmeaning  insults  to  one  they  loved  and  revered  than 
to  deepen  his  own  love  for  his  Lord.  Yet  in  scenes  like 
these  were  fostered  the  roots  of  his  life  as  a  Dominican 
friar— the  spirit  less  of  a  modern  Catholic  thinker  than 
of  a  mediajval  monk.  But  if  his  change  to  a  monastic 
seclusion  from  the  turmoils  of  Paris  life  must  appear 
strange  to  a  Protestant  reader,  greater  still  will  ever  be 
the  task  to  explain  how  this  advocate  of  liberty  of  con- 
science and  the  impropriety  of  the  interference  of  the 
civil  power  for  the  punishment  of  heretics  could  find  it 
iu  his  heart  to  resuscitate  an  order  which  has  more 
crimes  and  cruelties  to  answer  for  than  even  the  infa- 
mous sect  of  the  Assassins — an  order  whose  founder  was 
the  very  incarnation  of  persecution.  Just  here  also  it 
may  not  be  out  of  place  to  alhule  to  the  uncritical  man- 
ner in  which  Lacordaire  composed  a  life  of  St.  Dominic 
— the  founder  of  the  Inquisition — entirely  ignoring  all 
those  historians  who  have  detailed  and  proved  the  atro- 
cious cruelties  perpetrated  by  that  saint  and  his  follow- 
ers (r/fl  de  Saint  hominiqne,  Paris,  1840^,  8vo). 

In  1840,  after  a  three-years'  novitiate  in  the  convent 
of  Querela,  Lacordaire  took  the  vo\vs  of  the  order  of  St. 
Dominic,  and  in  1841,  with  shaved  head  and  clad  in  the 
white  robe  of  his  order,  which  had  not  been  seen  in 
France  for  half  a  century,  he  once  more  ascended  the 
pidpit  of  Xotre  Dame.     From  this  time  his  voice  was 
frequently  heard  within  the  walls  of  that  great  cathe- 
dral of  the  capital  of  the  French,  as  well  as  in  many 
other  parts  of  France.     Thus,  in  1847,  he  preached  in 
the  cathedral  church  of  Nancy   the  funeral  sermon  of 
general  Drouot,  by  many  (e.  g.  Ste.-Beuve)  pronounced 
a  masterpiece  of  pulpit  oratory.      In  the  first  election 
which  succeeded  the  Revolution  of  1848  he  was  chosen 
one  of  the  representatives  of  Marseilles,  and  took  part  in 
some  of  the  debates  in  the  Assembly ;  but  he  resigned 
in  the  following  !May,  and  withdrew  entirely  from  polit- 
ical life.     In  1849,  and  again  in  1850  and  1851,  he  re- 
sumed his  courses  at  Notre  Dame.     To  immense  au- 
diences, such  as  no  orator  in  France  had  ever  been  able 
to  call  together  before,  he  delivered  in  these  eventfid 
years  a  series  of  discourses  on  the  communion  of  man 
with  God,  on  the  fall  and  the  restoration  of  man,  and  on 
the  providential  economy  of  the  restoration,  which,  to- 
gether with  earlier  discourses,  have  been  collected  in 
three  volumes,  under  the  title  of  Conferemes  de  Noti-e 
Dame  de  Paris  (1835-50 ;  a  selection  was  published  in 
English  dress  by  Henry  Langdon,  N.  York,  1871,  8vo). 
His  last  public  discourse  at  Paris  he  delivered  at  St. 
Roch  in  February,  1853.     To  some  of  his  remarks  the 
imperial  government  took  exception ;  and  Lacordaire, 
finding  himself  restricted  in  that  freedom  of  speech  of 
whieli  he  had  been  throughout  life  a  steady  and  power- 
ful defender,  never   again   preached  in  Paris ;  but  at 
Toulouse — the  birthplace  of  St.  Dominic  and  the  burial- 
place  ofvjt.  Aquinas — h*  delivered  in  1854  six  discoiurses 
on  life — the  life  of  the  passions,  the  moral  life,  tlie  super- 
natural life,  and  the  influence  of  the  supernatural  life  on 
the  public  and  private  life  of  man — which  his  biogra- 
pher (Montalembert)  pronounces  "  the  m(}St  eloquent, 
the  most  irreproachable  of  all."     Offered  the  direction 
of  the  school  and  convent  of  Soreze,  he  withdrew  to  that 
noted  retreat  of  the  Dominicans,  and  there  died,  Nov. 
21,  1861.     Besides  the  v.-orks  alluded  to — the  Confe- 
rences and  Considerations  2>fiilosophiques  —  Lacordaire 
wrote  a  Memoire  pour  le  retahlisseinent  en  France  de 
Vordre  des  fr'eres  jirecheurs  (1840).     His  correspondence 
with  ]\Iadame  Swetchine  (by  Falloux,  18G4),  with  :Mont- 
alembert  (1863),  and  with  a  young  friend  (by  I'abbe 
Perreire,  1863),  as  well  as  all  his  other  writings,  were 


pidjlished  as  (Euvres  completes  in  1851,1858,  and  1861, 
in  6  vols.  8vo  and  12mo.  Pie  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Academy  in  1860  as  successor  to  M.  de  Tocqueville, 
upon  whom  he  pronounced  a  eulogy — the  customary  in- 
augural address — which  was  liis  last  public  address. 

Of  tlie  ability  Lacordaire  displayed  in  his  works  a 
writer  in  the  Brit,  and  For.  Evang.  Rev.  (Oct.  1863),  p. 
726  sq.,  thus  comments:  "As  a  writer,  Lacordaire  has 
not  the  slightest  pretensions  to  compete  with  Lamen- 
nais,  one  of  the  greatest  writers  of  French  prose.  His 
loose,  declamatory,  theatrical  style  is  in  every  respect 
far  inferior  to  the  simple,  grand,  nervous  eloquence  of 
Lamennais.  ^^'e  also  venture  to  atfirm  that,  in  too  ■ 
many  of  his  discourses,  instead  of  explaining  the  Word 
of  God  simply  and  familiarly  to  the  people,  he  goes  out 
of  his  way  to  attack  what  he  terms  the  prevailing  doubt 
and  scepticism  of  the  age,  and  attempts  to  guide  his 
hearers  to  a  positive  divine  faith  by  the  utter  annihila- 
tion of  the  natural  reason.  In  many  of  his  discourses, 
too,  he  falsifies  history  for  the  purpose  of  making  it  co- 
incide with  his  Romanist  prejudices.  He  absolutely 
refuses  to  recognise  any  good  whatever  in  former  sys- 
tems of  reUgion  and  philosophy.  Without  the  pale  of 
the  Romish  Church  all  is  evil,  within  it  everything  is 
good.  As  to  human  reason,  he  cannot  endure  it.  '  That 
which  at  present  ruins  everything,'  he  says, '  that  which 
causes  the  world  to  ride  insecurely  at  anchor,  is  the 
reason.'  'Our  intelligence  appears  to  me  like  a  ship 
without  sails  or  masts  on  au  unknown  sea.'  '  Societies 
are  tottering  when  tlie  thinkers  take  them  in  hand,  aiid 
the  precise  moment  of  their  downfall  is  that  wherein 
they  announced  to  them  that  the  intellect  is  emanci- 
pated.' And  while  human  reason  is  thus  summarily 
condemned,  the  infallibility  of  the  Church  is  asserted 
and  defended  in  the  most  absolute  manner.  '  The  Cath- 
olic doctrine.'  he  says,  '  resolves  all  questions,  and  takes 
from  them  even  the  cpiality  of  questions.  We  have  no 
longer  to  reason,  which  is  a  great  blessing,  for  we  are 
not  here  to  reason,  but  to  act,  and  to  build  up  in  time  a 
work  for  eternity.' '' 

See  jMontalembert,  Le  Fere  Lacordaire  (Paris,  1862, 
8vo);  Lomenie,  Le  Fere  Lacordaire  (1844);  Lorrain, 
Biogruphie  Jristorique  de  Lacordaii'e  (1847)  ;  Chocame, 
Inner  Life  of  P'ere  Lacordaire  (transl.  by  Father  Ayl- 
ward;  Lond.  and  New  York,  1867,  8 vo);  Yillard.  ( 'o?Te- 
spondence  inedite  et  biographie  (Par.  1870,  8vo) ;  Kirwan, 
Afodern  France  (1863)  ;  and  the  Jierue  des  deitx  Mondes, 
May  1,1864;  Sainte-Beuve,  Cfl!/senes  du  Lwidi,i,2Q%  s({.\ 
Brit,  and  For.  Ev.  Rev.  Oct.  1863,  art.  iii ;  Contemjwra- 
rij  Rev.  May,  1868,  art.  i.  INI.  Edmond  Scherer,  in  the 
Litteraiure  Confemporaine,  also  treated  of  pere  Lacor- 
daire, but  with  special  regard  to  his  ability  as  a  writer. 
His  estimate  of  the  noted  Dominican  is  rather  mifavor- 
able,  perhaps  even  unjust.  Of  the  discourses  of  Lacor- 
daire, he  maintains  that  they  are  "  unreadable"  (p.  166). 
See  also  Blackwood''s  Magazine,  Feb.  1863 ;  Lond.  Quart. 
Review,  Jidy,  1864.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Lacroix,  Claudius,  a  noted  Roman  Catholic  theolo- 
gian and  philosopher,  was  born  at  the  village  of  St.  An- 
dre, province  of  Limburg,  in  1652.  He  became  master 
of  philosophy  in  1673,  and  immediately  after  joined  the 
Order  of  Jesuits.  He  taught  moral  theology  first  at 
Cologne,  then  at  ISIiinster;  became  doctor  of  theology  in 
1698,  and  died  June  1,  1714.  He  wrote  a  commentary 
on  Busenbaum's  Moral  Theologie  (Cologne,  1719,  2  vols, 
folio).     See  Bitskxbaum. 

Lacroze,  JIathuuin  Yeyssiere  de,  a  distinguish- 
ed French  Orientalist,  was  in  turn  a  mercliant,  a  medi- 
cal student,  and  a  Benedictine  monk.  Finally,  having 
abjured  Romanism,  he  retired  to  Prussia,  where,  in  1697, 
he  became  librarian  to  the  king.  He  died  at  Berlin  in 
1739.  His  principal  works  are  Histoire  du  Christian- 
isme  des  Indes  (La  Haye,  1724,  sm.  ivd)  :  —  Ilistoire^du 
Chi-istianisme  irEthiopie  et  d'Armenie  (La  Haye,  1739, 
sm.  8vo).     See  Darling,  Cgclop.  Bihliog.  s.  v. 

Lactantius,  Lucius  Ccelius  (or  dciLius)  Fir- 


LACTANTIUS 


186 


LACTANTIUS 


inANUS,  one  of  the  early  Latin  fathers,  called  by  Jerome  I 
(Cittal.  c.  80)  the  most  learned  man  of  his  time,  and,  on 
account  of  the  line  and  rhetorical  culture  which  his 
■\vritin2;s  evince,  not  unfrequently  named  the  Christian 
Cicero  (or,  as  Jerome  has  it,  "  Fluvius  eloquential  Tulli- 
an;c"),Avas  formerly  supposed  to  have  been  by  birth  an 
Ai'rican,  but  is  now  generally  believed  to  have  been  of 
Italian  birth,  a  native  of  Firmum  (Fermo),  on  the  Adri- 
atic, Italy.  He  was  born  probably  near  the  middle  of 
tlie  3d  century;  his  parents,  according  to  his  own  ac- 
count, were  heathens,  and  he  onl)'  became  a  Christian 
at  a  somewhat  mature  age  (comp.  Be  Ira  I)ti,  c.  2 ;  In- 
slitt.  Dif.  vii,  2),  certainly  before  the  Diocletian  perse- 
cution. Lactantius  pursued  his  rhetorical  studies  in  the 
school  of  the  celebrated  rhetorician  and  apologist  Aruo- 
bius  of  Sicca,  in  proconsular  Africa,  and  it  is  thus,  in  all 
probability,  that  arose  the  notion  that  Lactantius  was 
of  African  birth.  While  yet  a  youth  Lactantius  gained 
celebrity  l)y  the  publication  oi"  a  poetical  work  called 
Si/mposion,  a  collection  of  a  hundred  riddles  in  hexame- 
ters for  table  amusement.  But  it  was  his  eloquence 
that  secured  him  really  great  renown,  and  he  was  heard 
of  by  Diocletian,  and  by  him  called  to  Nicomedia  as 
professor  of  Latin  eloquence.  This  city  was,  however, 
inhabited  and  visited  mainly  by  Greeks,  and  Lactantius 
found  but  few  pupils  to  instruct.  This  afforded  him 
plenty  of  leisure,  and  he  welcomed  it  as  an  opportunity 
to  devote  himself  largely  to  authorship.  Thus  he  con- 
tinued at  Nicomedia  ten  years,  while  the  Christians 
were  not  only  persecuted  by  the  emperors  with  fire  and 
sword,  but  also  assailed  by  the  heathen  philosophers 
with  the  weapons  of  science,  wit,  and  ridicule.  Against 
so  many  outrages  Lactantius  felt  impelled  to  undertake 
the  defence  fif  the  hated  and  despised  religion,  and  the 
more  as  he  thought  he  had  observed  that  they  proceed- 
ed, at  least  in  part,  from  ignorance  and  gross  misunder- 
standings. It  ^vas  during  this  defence  of  Christianity,  in 
all  probaljility,  that  he  became  himself  a  convert  to  the 
true  faith,  and  thus  may  it  be  accou.Ued  for  that  Con- 
stantine  called  him  to  his  court  in  (laid  as  preceptor 
(after  312  says  Dr.  Schaff,  Ch.  Hist,  iii,  95G)  of  his  son 
Crispus,  whom  Constantine  afterwards  (32G)  caused  to 
be  put  to  death.  Eusebius  tells  us  that  even  in  this 
exalted  position  he  remained  so  poor  as  often  to  want 
for  the  necessaries  of  life.  He  must  have  been  quite 
old  when  he  arrived  in  Gaul,  for  he  is  then  already  spo- 
ken of  as  a  gray-haired  old  man,  and  he  is  supposed  to 
have  died  at  the  imperial  residence  in  Treves  shortly 
after  his  pupil  Crispus,  about  330.  It  has  often  been  a 
matter  of  great  perplexity  to  antiquarians  to  account 
for  the  fact  that  Lactantius  escaped  personal  injurj^  dur- 
ing the  Diocletian  persecution.  Some  think,  and  this 
seems  to  be  reasonable,  that  Lactantius  escaped  sufFerin 
for  his  faith  because  he  was  generally  regarded  as  a 
jihilosopher,  and  not  as  a  Christian  ^\Titer;  and,  indeed, 
to  judge  from  his  Dc  Opificio  Dei,  he  appears  to  have 
been  more  attracted  Ijy  the  moral  and  philosophical  as- 
pects of  Christianity  than  by  the  supernatural  and  the 
dogmatic.  lu  fact,  in  all  the  theological  works  of  Lactan- 
tius is  manifest  the  intluence  of  his  early  studies  of  all 
the  masterpieces  of  ancient  rhetoric  and  jdiilosophy,  and 
he  may  be  delined  as  a  Christian  pupil  of  Cicero  and  of 
Seneca.  (Comp.,  on  the  inclination  of  the  early  Chris- 
tian teachers  in  the  IJoman  empire  to  style  themselves 
"phik)sophers,"  Jirif.  Quart.  7iV?'.  July,  lf<7l,  p.  '.>,  col.  1.) 
Jerome  even  says  of  him  {Epist.  83,  ad  PutiUuiim  [alias 
8i  ad  Maf/iiiim]  ),  '•  Lactantius  wrote  seven  books  against 
the  (Jentiles,  and  two  volumes  on  the  work  and  the  an- 
ger of  God.  If  you  wish  to  read  these  treatises,  j'ou 
will  fnul  in  them  a  compendium  of  Cicero's  Dialogues." 
He  liad  ontiTcd  more  (kei)ly  into  Christian  morals  than 
into  Christian  metaphysics,  and  his  works  offer  hone  of 
those  learned  and  profound  expositions  of  the  dogmas 
which  we  fmd  in  Clement  of  Alexandria  or  in  Origen. 
Lactantius,  however,  has  been  called,  as  we  alreadj- 
hinted,  the  Christian  Cicero,  on  account  of  his  resem- 
blance to  this  celebrated  classical  writer  iji  the  elegance 


and  finish  of  his  style,  but  still  more  on  account  of  hav- 
ing made  himself  the  advocate  and  propagator  of  the 
great  moral  truth  of  Christianity,  while  carefidly  avoid- 
ing all  dogmatic  speculation;  thus  also  did  Cicero  advo- 
cate all  the  great  practical  truths  of  the  best  ])hilosoph- 
ical  systems  of  antiquity,  but  set  little  store  bj'  what- 
ever was  purely  metaphysical. 

In  learning  and  cidture  Lactantius  excelled  all  the 
men  of  his  time;  in  the  words  of  Jerome,  he  was  "om- 
nium suo  tempore  eruditissiraus."  His  writings  betray 
a  noble  unconsciousness  which  forgets  itself  in  striving 
to  reach  its  lofty  aim.  The  modesty  of  his  claims  and 
of  his  estimate  of  himself  is  exhibited  and  embodied  in 
the  facts  of  his  life.  Although  at  the  coiu-t  of  the  great- 
est prince  on  earth,  and  by  his  position  invited  to  luxu- 
rious indulgence,  he  voluntarily  preferred  a  pjoverty 
which  not  only  excluded  superfluities,  but  also  often  dis- 
pensed with  the  necessaries  of  life.  Some  have  repre- 
senteil  that  he  pushed  his  austerities  even  to  an  unau- 
thorized extreme.  '■  I  shall  tliink  that  I  have  sufficiently 
lived,"  he  writes,  "  and  tliat  I  have  sufficiently  fulfilled 
the  office  of  a  man,  if  my  labor  shall  have  freed  any 
from  their  errors,  and  directed  them  in  the  way  to 
heaven." 

Lactantius  was  a  layman  and  a  rhetorician,  and  yet 
he  displays  in  his  writings  in  general — and  they  were 
not  few — such  a  depth  and  extent  of  theological  knowl- 
edge as  could  scarcely  have  been  expected.  It  is  sur- 
prising with  what  penetration  and  precision  he  handles 
man}^  intricate  subjects.  Warmth  of  feeluig,  richness 
of  thought,  and  clearness  of  apprehension  are  impressed 
upon  all  his  literary  productions.  His  expressions  arc 
always  lucid,  considerate,  and  well  arranged.  Nowhere 
does  tlie  reader  feel  an  unpleasant  tone  of  pedantrj'  or 
affectation ;  everywhere  he  is  attracted  by  the  impress 
of  genuine  learning  and  eloquence.  In  harmony  and 
purity  of  style,  in  beauty  and  elegance  of  expression,  he 
excels  aU  the  fathers  of  Christian  antiquity,  if  we  except 
Ambrose  in  some  of  his  letters,  and  Sidpicius  Severus. 
His  reputation  in  this  respect  was  so  celebrated  in  the 
earliest  times  that  men  loved  to  call  him  the  Christian 
Cicero.  So  much  for  form  and  diction.  The  case  is 
quite  othenvise  with  the  exposition  of  the  pecuhar  doc- 
trines of  Christianity  in  detail.  In  the  midst  of  admi- 
rable philosophical  developments,  as  with  other  writers 
of  this  class,  we  meet  Avith  many  mistakes,  many  crrd- 
neous  views  and  half-truths,  for  which  Gelasius  classed 
his  writings  with  the  ApocrA-jiha.  If  the  jnrigment 
above  expressed  is  thus,  in  some  measure,  modilitd,  yet 
is  his  merit  not  much  diminished.  That  is  to  say,  there 
are  at  bottom  almost  entirely  such  anomalies  as  he  met 
in  the  older  A\Titers  liefore  him,  and  ■\\hich  the  Church 
had  not  yet  distinctly  excluded  bj'  a  more  precise  defi- 
nition of  the  doctrines  in  question.  What  strikes  us 
more  unpleasantly  is  that  we  miss  the  establishment  of 
Christianity  by  proof  from  its  own  dogmas,  which  he 
himself  had  promised  to  give;  we  sympathize  with  Je- 
rome in  the  wish,  '•  L^tinam  tarn  nostra  contuTuare  potu- 
isset,  quam  facile  aliena  distinxit." 

Dr.  Schaff  gives  the  following  summary-  of  the  doc- 
trinal vie\vs  of  Lactantius  {Church  Jlist.  iii,  057)  :  "  His 
mistakes  and  errors  in  the  exposition  of  points  of  Chris- 
tian doctrine  do  not  amount  to  heresies,  but  are  mostly 
due  to  the  crude  and  unsettled  state  of  the  Church  doc- 
trine at  the  time.  In  the  doctrine  of  sin  he  borders 
upon  j\Ianicha?ism.  In  anthropology  and  soteriology  lie 
follows  tlie  synergism  which,  until  Augustine,  was  al- 
most imiversal.  In  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  he  was, 
like  most  of  the  ante-Nicene  fathers,  a  subordinatimiist. 
He  taught  a  duplex  nativitas  of  Christ,  one  at  the  crea- 
tion, and  one  at  the  incarnation.  Christ  went  forth 
from  God  at  the  creation  as  a  word  from  the  mouth,  yet 
hypostaticaUy." 

Worls. — We  will  briefly  notice  his  works  in  order :  1. 
Divinarum  Ijistitutiimniii,  libri  vii  (Divine  Institutes, 
seven  books),  a  comprehensive  apology  for  the  Christian 
religion,  which,  on  account  of  the  elegant  style  in  which 


LACTANTIUS 


187 


LACTANTIUS 


it  is  written,  has  been  favorite  reading,  and  is  said  to 
have  appeared  ia  more  tlian  a  hundred  editions.  His 
motive  for  writing  this  work  he  thus  assigns  himself: 
Since  men,  by  their  own  fault  bewildered,  can  no  longer 
find  the  Avay  back  to  trutli,  his  object  is  to  point  it  out 
to  them,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  confirm  in  it  those 
■\vlio  have  already  reached  it.  He  feels  himself  the 
more  impelled  to  this  because  his  jjredecessors  in  this 
field— and  he  names  particularly  Tertullian  and  Cyprian 
— liad  not,  in  liis  opinion,  satisfied  the  requirements  of 
the  case  on  all  sides,  and  had  performed  their  task  nei- 
ther with  the  requisite  learning  and  thoroughness,  nor 
with  tlie  suitable  adornment  of  art  and  scientific  deptli. 
To  this  unfortunate  circumstance  he  ascribes  it  that  the 
Christian  religion  was  held  in  such  contempt,  and  with 
the  educated  classes  was  as  good  as  totally  unkno\vn. 
■  When,  with  all  the  power  of  language  and  genius  which 
he  eminently  possessed,  Lactantius  promises  to  make  a 
ilofence  of  the  faith,  the  precedence  in  this  respect  must 
by  all  means  be  conceded  to  him ;  in  bcautj'  of  form 
and  splendor  of  diction  he  surpasses  all ;  but  Jerome 
justly  refuses  to  admit  the  same  in  respect  to  the  weight 
of  the  contents  and  the  solidit^  of  the  proofs.  The  work 
is  dedicated  to  Constantine  the  Great — if  the  passage  is 
not  an  interpolation — whom  he  extols  with  the  liighest 
reverence,  and  praises  as  the  first  Christian  prince,  and 
the  restorer  of  righteousness.  Consequently,  it  was 
written  at  the  time  when  lie,  advanced  in  years,  was  al- 
ready at  court;  but  the  Church  was  still  sighing  under 
a  severe  persecution,  evidently  that  of  Licinlus,  since  the 
author  refers  to  that  of  Diocletian  as  liaving  long  since 
died  out.  This  brings  us  to  the  year  320,  although  he 
had,  as  elsewhere  appears  from  his  own  words,  formed 
the  purpose  and  tlie  plan  at  a  nnich  earlier  jjeriod.  Some 
suppt)se  that  the  work  wan  commenced  in  Bithynia  and 
completed  in  Gaul  after  a  lapse  of  twenty  years.  Oth- 
ers, from  an  allusion  Avhich  it  contains  to  the  Diocletian 
persecution — '■Spectatio  sunt  enini  spectanturque  adhuc 
per  orbem  poena;  cultorum  Dei,"  etc.  (v,  17,  §  5),  suppose 
it  to  have  been  written  before  Lactantius  went  to  Gaul. 

The  seven  books  into  which  this  work  is  divided 
form  seven  separate  treatises.  Tlie  first  book  is  in- 
scribed Be  falsa  i-eligione.  lie  designedly  leaves  un- 
touched the  principal  question  in  regard  to  the  existence 
of  a  supreme  Providence,  and  takes  his  departure  from 
the  proposition  that  there  is  one  God,  and  that,  accord- 
ing to  our  idea  of  his  essence,  of  his  relation  to  the 
world  under  him,  and  of  that  to  him,  there  can  be  but 
one.  He  proceeds  then  to  confirm  this  dogma  by  the 
authority  of  the  prophets  (of  which,  however,  he  makes 
more  use  in  his  programme  than  in  liis  performance; 
and  which,  indeed,  would  liave  been  only  a  petitio  prin- 
cipii),  by  tlie  utterances  of  the  poets,  the  philosophers, 
and  the  sibyls  —  all  of  whom  consent  in  one  and  the 
same  truth  ;  and  this,  at  least,  is  good  as  an  argunientum 
ad  hoiainein,  though  he  seems  to  allege  it  as  having  a 
higher  and  proper  force  of  proof.  The  last  half  of  the 
book  consists  in  the  ludicrous  exposure  and  sarcastic 
confutation  of  tlie  mythological  sj'stem  of  deities  in 
general  and  in  detail,  as  recognised  by  its  advocates. 

The  second  book,  iJe  urifjine  erruris,  demonstrates  the 
manifold  absurdity  with  which  mankind,  while  all  na- 
ture imiiels  them  to  the  knowledge  of  the  one  God,  and 
a  law  of  necessity  teaches  every  one  instinctively  to 
seek  him,  are  nevertheless  so  blinded  as  to  wander 
away  to  the  worship  o.f  idols.  He  confutes  the  spurious 
grounds  by  which  particularly  the  educated  class  among 
the  heathen  sought  to  excuse  or  justify  idolatry,  and 
shows  how  this  whole  pagan  religion,  more  closely  con- 
sidered, is  only  a  reflex  of  their  thoroughly  materialized 
and  secularized  habit  of  mind.  I'.ut  since  the  heathen 
used  especially  to  appeal  to  the  antiquity  of  their  cultus 
and  to  venerable  tradition,  the  author  meets  them  in 
this  wise  :  In  matters  of  religion  every  one  must  see  for 
himself;  error,  though  ever  so  full  of  years,  has.  by  its 
old  age,  acquired  no  right,  and  must  give  way  to  the 
truth  so  soon  as  she  establishes  against  it  her  primitive 


and  indefeasible  claims.  He  proceeds,  with  constant 
reference  to  the  diverging  opinions  of  the  philosophers, 
to  develop  from  the  holy  Scriptures  the  history  of  the 
creation  and  of  the  origin  of  idolatry.  According  to 
him,  this  originated  in  its  first  germ  from  Ham,  who  lay 
under  his  father's  curse.  Among  his  posterity  the  loss 
of  the  knowledge  of  the  true  God  first  prevailed ;  this 
passed  over  into  Sabaism  or  Parseeism  (worship  of  the 
heavenly  bodies) ;  spread  itself  in  this  form  first  in 
Egypt,  and  thence  among  the  neighboring  people.  In 
its  further  progress  it  included  the  deification  of  men,  an 
externally  pompous  worship,  and  finally  developed  it- 
self into  idolatry  proper,  which,  cherished  and  promoted 
by  the  influence  of  dajmons,  and  strengthened  by  means 
of  other  arts,  by  oracles,  magic,  etc.,  leavened  the  whole 
life  of  the  pagan  nations.  The  truth  of  this  intimate 
connection  of  the  da>raon  realm  with  the  heathen  poly- 
theistic worship,  and  with  the  phenomena  pertaining 
thereto,  lies  visibly  before  us,  says  Lactantius,  in  the 
Christian  power  of  exorcism;  and  with  this  he  cou- 
cludes. 

The  third  hook,  Be  falsa  sapientia,  exposes  the  hea- 
then philosophy  as  nugatorj'  and  false.  The  etymology 
of  the  word  philosophy  indicates,  saj'S  he,  not  the  pos- 
session of  wisdom,  but  a  striving  after  it;  and  in  its  ul- 
timate result  it  leaves  us  nothing  but  mere  opinions, 
upon  whose  grounds  or  groundlessness  it  can  give  us  no 
trustworthy  criterium,  and  consequently  no  certainty. 
The  residt  of  all  philosophy,  therefore,  when  brought 
into  relation  to  our  highest  end,  is  unsatisfying  and  use- 
less. Our  heart  thirsts  after  happiness,  anil  this  eager, 
fervent  impulse  no  human  wisdom  can  satiate.  The 
reason  why  it  cannot  is  this :  because,  torn  away  from 
its  union  with  religion,  the  fundamental  condition  of 
happiness,  it  must  necessarily  become  external,  one- 
sided, and  abstract.  He  finally  points  out  in  detail  this 
result  of  all  philosophy  in  the  history  of  the  different 
schools,  none  of  which  has  found  the  truth,  or  could  find 
it,  because  their  formal  princijile  had  already  misplaced 
the  way  to  the  desired  goal.  Therefore — and  this  is  the 
natural  conclusion — to  still  his  thirst  for  knowledge,  man 
must  not  turn  himself  to  these,  but  to  God's  own  revela- 
tion. 

The  fourth  book,  Be  vera  sajnentia,  proposes  to  pre- 
pare the  way  to  this  goal.  Starting  with  the  principle 
already  enunciated,  but  here  set  forth  more  in  detail, 
that  (genuine)  wisdom  and  religion  arc,  in  the  last 
analysis,  one,  they  may,  only  in  our  conception,  be  held 
asunder  as  distinct,  abstract  elements,  but  in  realitj'  and 
in  life  ought  never  to  be  separated.  The  heatlien  phi- 
losophy and  religion,  in  which  this  unnatural  antithesis 
and  separation  occurred,  were  therefore,  for  this  simple 
reason,  false.  The  true  unity  of  the  two  is  found  only 
in  Christianity.  In  order  to  exhibit  this  principle  as  a 
fact,  he  reviews  the  history  of  our  religion.  After  hav- 
ing briefly,  but  as  much  as  he  deemed  requisite  for  his 
purpose,  spoken  of  the  jirophets,  he  proceeils  to  develop 
the  doctrine,  after  his  fashion,  of  the  person  of  Jesus 
Christ,  from  the  first,  the  eternal  birth  of  the  Logos  from 
the  Father,  and  from  the  second,  his  incarnation  in  time ; 
he  establishes  the  truth  of  these,  together  with  his  De- 
ity anil  his  Messianic  office,  from  his  life,  his  miracles, 
and  the  pro]ihcts,  with  reference  almost  alwaj's  to  the 
Jews  only ;  but  finally  he  shows  to  the  heathen  how  the 
very  idea  of  true  ethical  wisdom  in  some  sort  includes 
in  itself  the  incarnation  of  the  lawgiver,  that  so  a  perfect 
example  maj'  be  gisen  of  the  possibility  of  keejiing  the 
law.  The  necessities  of  man  required  this  in  order  to  a 
mediation  between  God  and  man ;  and  the  lowly  life  of 
Christ,  his  sufferings,  and  even  his  death  on  the  cross, 
are  in  perfect  harmony  with  this  design. 

The  .fifth  book.  Be  jiistitia,  unfolds  first  the  author's 
motives  and  object.  Then,  entering  upon  the  subject 
itself,  he  teaches  how,  anciently,  in  the  times  called  by 
the  heathen  the  Golden  Age,  tiie  one  God  ^^•as  honored, 
and  with  his  worsViip  justice  bore  sway ;  and  how,  in  the 
sequel,  in  coimectiou  with  polytheism,  all  sorts  of  vice 


LACTANTIUS 


11 


LACTANTIUS 


came  trooping  in,  but  with  Clirist  a  kind  of  golden  age 
has  again  appeared  through  the  propagation  of  right- 
eousness, lie  further  shows  how  near  this  lies  to  all,  and 
that  oulv  through  wilfulness  it  can  fail  to  be  known; 
and  hoM-  the  heathen,  in  open  contradiction  to  the  idea 
of  religion,  to  reason,  and  to  every  sentiment  of  right, 
hate  tlie  Christians,  and  persecute  and  torment  them 
even  to  the  death.  Were  the  Christians  fools,  one  shoidd 
spare  them ;  if  wise,  imitate  them.  That  they  are  the 
latter  is  made  clear  by  their  virtuous  behavior  and 
their  untiinching  constancj'.  It  is  true  the  wisdom 
and  righteousness  of  God  condescend  to  clothe  them- 
selves in  the  appearance  of  folly,  partly  that  thus  the 
wisdom  of  the  world  may  bo  convinced  of  its  nothing- 
ness, and  partly  that  the  righteous  man  may  be  helped 
forward  on  the  narrow  way  to  his  reward.  The  pre- 
texts offered  by  the  heathen  in  justification  of  their 
treatment  of  the  Christians,  as  that  they  souglit  to  bring  j 
them  to  a  sober  mind,  etc.,  were,  he  maintains,  utterlj^ 
empty,  because,  in  the  first  place,  this  treatment  was  in 
itself  unsuitable,  and,  in  res|)ect  to  the  Christians,  who 
knew  very  well  how  to  defend  their  cause  with  all  so- 
berness, it  was  contemptuous  and  destructive  of  its  own 
object;  but, in  the  second  place,  these  pretexts  were  con- 
tradicted and  falsified  by  the  Komans'  contrary  practice 
of  toleration  towards  other  and  extremely  despicable  and 
senseless  religions.  Rather  it  was  abundantly  clear  that 
nothing  but  a  fierce  hatred  against  the  truth  impelled  to 
those  bloody  deeds  of  violence  and  cruelty. 

The  sixth  book,  De  vero  cidtii,  treats  of  the  practical 
side  of  true  religion.  A  merely  external  worship,  like 
that  of  the  heathen,  is  absolutely  worthless,  and  only 
that  is  true  in  which  the  human  soid  offers  itself  to  God. 
As  all  the  pliilosophers  agree  in  saying  there  are  two 
ways  for  man,  one  of  virtue,  the  other  of  vice;  the  for- 
mer narrow  and  toilsome,  leading  to  immortality ;  the 
latter  easy  and  pleasant,  leading  to  destruction :  the 
Christians  call  them  the  way  to  heaven  and  to  hell,  and 
eagerly  prefer  the  former,  that  at  the  last  they  may  attain 
the  enjoyment  of  the  blessedness  in  which  it  ends.  The 
philosophers  could  not  find  the  way  of  virtue,  because 
at  the  outset  they  had  formed  to  themselves  an  utterly 
different  idea  of  good  and  evil,  and  therefore  always 
sought  it  where  it  is  never  to  be  found — on  earth  in- 
ftead  of  in  heaven.  The  Christians,  who  walk  in  the 
light  of  revelation,  have  the  clew  of  the  truth,  the  eter- 
nal, unchangeable  law  of  God,  adapted  to  the  nature  of 
man,  which  unfolds  our  duties  both  towards  God  (officia 
pietatis)  and  towards  man  (officia  humanitatis).  Lac- 
tantius  then  proceeds  to  treat  of  the  virtues  which  are 
embraced  in  the  fundamental  principle  of  genuine  hu- 
manity— pity,  liberality,  care  for  the  widow,  the  orphan, 
the  sick,  the  dead,  etc.;  finally,  of  self-government  and 
the  mcxleration  of  the  desires  and  appetites,  particularly 
of  chastity  in  wedlock  and  out  of  i{;  and,  last  of  all,  of 
penitence  or  penance  (pccnitentia),  and  tlie  true  service 
of  God.  'I'iie  ^rmer  he  treats  as  a  saiixfoction,  and  in 
the  latter  he  does  not  rise  above  the  merely  ethical.  Ra- 
tionalistic position,  although,  through  his  whole  exposi- 
tion, he  makes  references,  by  way  of  contrast,  to  the  di- 
vergent views  of  the  philosoiihers. 

The  seventh  and  last  book,  7Je  rita  Jeo^r,  has  for  its 
subject  the  chief  end  of  man.  He  gives  us  briefly  his 
own  conception  of  the  great  end  of  our  existence,  thus: 
"Tiie  world  was  made  that  we  might  be  born;  we  are 
bom  that  wc  might  know  the  Creator  of  the  world  and 
of  ourselves;  we  know  him  that  we  may  honor  him; 
we  honor  him  that  we  may  receive  immortalitj'^  as  the 
reward  of  our  effort,  because  the  honoring  of  (iod  de- 
mands tlie  highest  effort;  wc  arc  rewarded  with  immor- 
tality, that  we,  like  the  angels,  may  forever  serve  the 
supreme  I'ather  and  Lord,  and  may  form  unto  God  an 
ever-during  kingdom  :  that  is  the  sum  and  substance  of 
all  things,  the  secret  of  (iod,  the  mystery  of  the  world." 
After  this  follows  the  proof  of  the  iinmortality  of  the 
soul,  imrsued  through  ten  distinct  arguments,  with  the 
refutation  of  objection?.     He  then  proceeds  with  an  at- 


tempt to  show  under  what  condition  the  natural  immor- 
tality of  the  soul  becomes  at  the  same  time  a  blessed 
immortality.  With  this  he  connects  his  views  in  re- 
gard to  the  time  and  the  signs  of  the  end  of  the  present 
world  to  the  last  judgment,  to  the  millennial  reign,  to 
the  general  resurrection  and  the  transformation  of  this 
world.  On  the  superabounding  delights  and  glories  of 
the  millennium  he  enlarges  with  special  satisfaction  and 
copious  eloquence.  In  conclusion,  he  congratulates  the 
Church  upon  the  peace  which  Cc>nstantine  has  given 
her,  and  calls  upon  all  to  forsake  the  worship  of  idols 
and  to  do  homage  to  the  one  true  God. 

2.  An  Ejntome  of  the  Institutes,  dedicated  to  Pentadius, 
is  appended  to  the  larger  work,  and  is  attributed  to  Lac- 
tantius  by  Jerome,  who  describes  it  as  being  even  in  his 
time  ciKe^aKog.  All  the  early  editions  of  this  abridg- 
ment begin  at  the  sixteenth  chapter  of  the  fifth  book 
of  the  original.  But  in  the  18th  centurj'  a  IMS.  con- 
taining nearly  the  entire  work  was  discovered  in  the 
royal  library  at  Turin,  and  was  published  bj'  C.  M.  Pfaff, 
chancellor  of  the  University  of  Tiibingen  (Paris,  1712). 
Walchius  and  others  have  doubted  the  genuineness  of 
this  Epitome,  but  Jerome's  assertion  appears  to  us  con- 
clusive. 

3.  De  Jra  Dei  (On  the  Anger  of  God).  It  has  often 
been  observed  how  the  Greek  philosophy,  and,  follow- 
ing its  lead,  the  heretical  Gnosis,  could  not  reconcile  jus- 
tice and  goodness.  This  had  also  struck  Lactantius, 
and  awakened  in  him  the  thought  of  proving  in  this 
treatise  that  the  abhorrence  of  evil  and  primitive  jus- 
tice are  necessarj'  and  fundamental  attributes  of  the  di- 
vine Being.  In  the  judgment  of  Jerome,  this  work  is 
composed  with  equal  learning  and  elofiuence.  Its  date 
is  probably  somewhat  later  than  that  of  the  Institutes. 

The  system  both  of  the  Epicureans  and  of  the  Stoics 
excluded  all  reaction  of  God  against  the  wicked.  The 
former,  in  order  not  to  disturb  God's  indolent  repose; 
the  latter,  in  order  not  to  transfer  to  the  idea  of  God  hu- 
man characteristics,  would  know  nothing  of  any  vital  or 
essential  manifestation  of  the  Deity  in  the  course  of  the 
world  or  towards  mankind.  Lactantius  showed  how, 
on  the  contrary,  in  the  worthy  idea  of  God's  essence  and 
operation,  the  conception  of  providence  cannot  be  want- 
ing ;  and  how,  moreover,  complacency  towards  the  good 
has,  as  its  natural  countcr|iart,  the  detestation  of  its  op- 
posite, the  evil.  Bcf ides,  religion  is  incontcstably  found- 
ed in  the  nature  of  man  ;  but,  if  we  assume  that  God  is 
not  angry  with  the  wicked,  or  does  not  avenge  the  trans- 
gressions of  his  commands,  from  religion  are  withdrawn, 
by  consequence,  its  rational  motive  and  all  its  founda- 
tions. If  there  is  a  moral  distinction  among  actions,  it 
is  impossible  that  God  should  stand  affected  in  the  same 
manner  towards  the  one  as  towards  the  other,  and  that 
without  its  being  necessar}',  in  consequence,  to  ascribe 
to  God  likewise  passions  or  affections  which  consist  in  a 
weakness,  as,  for  example,  fear.  When  Epicurus  objects 
that  God  could  punish — if  punish  he  must — without  any 
emotion  within  himself,  Lactantius  replies  :  the  view  of 
the  evil  must  of  itself  provoke  the  will  of  any  being  who 
is  good  to  a  counter  emotion,  and  it  cannot  be  indifler- 
ent  to  the  lawgiver  how  his  precepts  shall  be  observed. 
The  disproportion  of  the  external  fortunes  of  the  good 
and  the  bad  in  the  present  life  proves  nothing  to  the 
contrary  when  we  consider  the  proper  attitude  and  es- 
sence of  virtue,  etc.  The  whole  he  confirms  by  declara- 
tions of  the  prophets,  and  especially  of  the  sibyls. 

4.  De  Opijicio  Dei,  rel  forviatione  hoviinis  (On  Cre- 
ation).— This  is  thought  to  be  the  first-fruits  of  the 
Christian  genius  of  Lactantius,  since,  judging  from  the 
introduction,  the  persecution  was  still  in  progress.  The 
book  is  dedicated  to  a  certain  Demctrianus,  who,  having 
been  his  disciple,  w-as  now  an  officer  of  state ;  it  is  espe- 
cially directed  against  the  prevailing  philosophy,  and 
therefore  the  presentation  of  the  subject  is  kept,  in  form 
and  spirit,  upon  this  basis.  Tlie  subject  of  the  treatise 
is  the  organization  of  human  nature,  which  Cicero,  he 
says,  has  more  than  once  superficially  touched  upon  in 


LACTANTIUS 


189 


LACTANTIUS 


his  philosophical  writings,  but  never  thoroughly  inves- 
tigated. He  first  draws  a  general  parallel  between  the 
organism  of  the  beasts  and  that  of  man ;  to  the  latter 
God,  in  connection  with  an  apparently  scantier  outfit,  has 
given,  in  his  reason,  a  pre-eminence  far  outweighing  all 
tlie  superiority  of  the  beasts  in  physical  force.  Wlien 
philcisophy,  particularly  the  Epicurean,  reminds  us  of 
the  helplessness  of  human  infancy,  of  man's  weakness 
and  early  dissolution,  the  author  shows,  on  the  other 
hand,  that  these  objections  rest  upon  a  one-sided  mode 
of  regarding,  partly  the  phenomena  in  question  con- 
sidered aljsolutely,  and  partly  the  essence  and  the  end 
of  man  and  of  his  nature  (c.  1-4).  Having  thus,  in  a 
preliminary  way,  disposed  of  these  possible  objections 
against  his  subsequent  exhibition  of  the  subject,  he  pro- 
ceeds to  his  proper  business,  the  consideration  of  the 
human  body  as  the  habitation  and  organ  of  the  soul. 
He  indulges  in  a  detailed  investigation  and  analysis  of 
its  wonderful  structure ;  shows  the  beauty  and  symme- 
try of  its  several  limbs,  their  adaptation  to  their  corre- 
sponding functions,  and  their  admiral)le  connection  with 
the  totality  of  the  organism.  Hence  he  establishes, 
what  the  Epicureans  denied,  that  a  divine  creation,  and 
an  ordering  and  guiding  providence,  are  active  through- 
out the  universe  (c.  5-17).  In  conclusion,  he  dilates 
u)K>n  the  essence  of  our  soid,  upon  its  distinction  from 
spirit  (animus),  and,  finally,  upon  its  propagation.  He 
liere  reviews  the  opposing  philosophical  theories,  and 
declares  himself  thoroughly  opposed  to  generationism  or 
traducianism  (c.  17-20).  In  this  treatise  he  has  caught 
the  grand  idea,  and  furnished  the  leading  materials  of 
Paley's  famous  teleologlcal  argument;  and,  what  is  more 
surprising,  has  anticipated  some  of  the  most  striking 
an(l  comprehensive  ideas  of  modern  scientific  and  zoolog- 
ical classification. 

5.  De  mortibus  peisecutoi-tim  (On  Martyrdom).  —  Le 
Nourry  was  of  opinion  that  this  treatise  does  not  belong 
to  Lactantius.  In  the  only  codex  whicli  we  have  of  it, 
it  bears,  not  the  inscription  Firmiani  Lactantii,  but  Lu- 
cii  C;i?cilii,  which  is  never  given  to  our  author  by  the 
ancient  writers.  We  must  confess  that,  without  being 
aAvare  of  this  judgment  of  I,e  Nourry,  we  had  already, 
upon  a  careful  reading  of  the  treatise,  come  to  the  same 
conclusion  from  internal  evidence.  Mohler,  on  tlie  other 
hand,  maintains  its  genuineness;  in  confirmation  of 
which  he  refers  to  the  facts:  (1)  that  Jerome  refers  to  a 
work  of  Lactantius  under  the  name  De  Perseciitione, 
which,  says  he,  indicates  a  similar  subject  matter  with 
the  work  in  question ;  (2)  that  it  is  dedicated  to  a  cer- 
tain Donatus,  like  that  De  Dri  Dei,  and  the  writer  shows 
himself  to  have  been  an  eyewitness  of  the  transactions 
in  Nicomedia  under  Diocletian.  These  reasons  certainly 
are  not  very  strong;  but,  meanwhile,  it  is  a  curious 
question  whether  the  Donatus  addressed  in  this  treatise 
as  a  professor  may  not  have  been  the  first  Donatus  of 
heretical  notoriety.  Mohler  further  adds  that  the  style 
is  the  same  as  that  of  Lactantius's  other  works.  From 
this  we  must  strongly  dissent.  The  style  is  harsher, 
more  rugged,  and  broken  and  irregular — often  obscure. 
It  frequently  reminds  one  of  Tacitus;  whereas  the  gen- 
uine Lactantius  rarely  departs  from  an  imitation  of  the 
clear,  smooth,  flowing,  and  copious  stj'le  of  Cicero,  whom 
he  had  chosen  for  his  special  model  of  eloquence. 

In  the  early  editions  of  Lactantius  De  mortibus  2)€rse- 
cutorum  is  altogether  wanting.  It  was  first  printed  by 
Ste[)hen  Baluze  in  his  Miscellanea,  vol.  ii  (Paris,  1679), 
from  a  very  ancient  MS.  in  the  Bibliotheca  Colberti- 
na.  Its  authenticity  as  the  De  Persecutione  Libe?-  Umis 
of  Lactantius,  mentioned  by  Jerome,  is  maintained  by 
Baluze,  Ileumann,  and  others.  Among  the  latest  au- 
thorities in  favor  of  accepting  the  production  as  a  genu- 
ine work  of  Lactantius  we  count  JVIcihler  (see  below)  and 
Dr.  riiilip  Schaff  (Ch.  Hist,  iii,  958,  note  2).  Against 
accrediting  this  treatise  to  Lactantius  are  prominent, 
besides  Nourry  (in  the  Append,  to  ii,  830  S(j.  of  Migne's 
edition  of  Lactantius),  Pfaff,  Walch,  Le  Clerc,  Lardner, 
Gibbon,  Burckhardt,  and  others. 


The  object  of  this  work  is  to  show  the  truth  of  the 
Christian  religion  historically,  from  the  tragical  fate  of 
all  those  who  have  persecuted  the  Church  of  Christ.  It 
gives  a  very  detailed  description  of  several  scenes  in  the 
persecutions  of  Nero,  Domitian,  and  Valerian,  but  es- 
pecially dwells  upon  the  later  times,  those  of  Diocletian 
and  his  imperial  colleagues  Galerius  and  Maximin,  and 
shows  how  avenging  justice  overtook  them  all.  This 
work,  if  genuine,  furnishes  highly  important  contribu- 
tions to  ecclesiastical  history.  Among  other  things,  its 
author,  whoever  he  may  be,  declares  that  Peter  and  Paul 
preached  the  Gospel  at  Rome,  and  established  a  temple 
of  God  there,  where  they  both  suffered  martyrdom. 

G.  Lost  Writings. — The  Si/mposium  of  Lactantius  has 
probably  perished,  though  some  have  surmised  that  the 
yEnif/mata,  published  under  the  name  of  Symposius,  is 
really  the  youthful  composition  of  Lactantius.  Jerome 
mentions  besides  an  Itinerarium  in  hexameters,  two 
books  to  Asclepiades,  eight  books  of  letters  to  Probus, 
Severus,  and  Domitian,  all  of  which  are  lost.  It  ap- 
pears from  his  own  words  (^Instit.  vii,  1,  sub  fin.)  that  he 
had  formed  the  design  of  drawing  up  a  work  against 
the  Jews,  but  we  cannot  teU  whether  he  ever  accom- 
plished his  purpose. 

Several  other  pieces  still  extant,  but  which  have  been 
erroneously  ascribed  to  Lactantius,  are,  De  Phanice,  in 
elegiacs,  a  compilation  of  tales  and  legends  on  the  far- 
famed  Arabian  bird ;  it  is  probably  of  a  later  date  (see 
WernsdorfF,  Poetm  Lat.  Minores,  iii,  283)  : — Symposium, 
a  collection  of  one  hundred  riddles,  more  likely  the  work 
of  a  certain  Caalius  Firmianus : — De  Pascha  ad  Felicem 
Episcopum,  now  generally  considered  as  the  work  of 
Venantius  Honorianus  Clementianus  Fortunatus,  in  the 
Gth  century  : — De  Passione  Domini  (printed  in  G.  Fabri- 
cius's  Poet.  Vet.Eccles.  Op.  Christiana,  Basle,  15G4;  and 
in  Bibl.  Paf'r.  Lugdun.  1G77),  in  hexameters,  worthy  of 
Lactantius,  but  bearing  in  its  language  the  impress  of  a 
much  later  age. 

The  Editio  Princeps  of  Lactantius  was  printed  at  the 
monastery  of  Subiaco,  by  Swoynheym  and  Pannartz,  in 
14()5,  and  is  one  of  the  earliest  specimens  of  tyjjograph- 
ical  art;  the  same  printers  published  two  other  editions 
(Home,  14G8, 1470),  the  latter  under  the  direction  of  An- 
drew, bishop  of  Aleria.  A  number  of  editions  have  been 
published  since;  the  most  important  are  by  GaUteus 
(Lugd.  Bat.  IGGO,  in  a  series  of  Variorum  Classics,  8vo), 
C.  Cellarius  (Lpz.  1698,  8vo),  Walchius  (Lpz.  1715,  8vo), 
Heumann  (Getting.  1736,  8vo),  Bunemann  (Lpzg.  1739, 
8vo),  Le  Brun  and  Lenglet  du  Fresnoy  (Paris,  1748,  2 
vols.  4to),  F.  Ea  St.  Xaverio  (Home,  1754-9),  and  Migne 
(Paris,  1844,  2  vols,  royal  8vo).  A  convenient  manual 
edition  was  prepared  by  O.  F.  Fritzsche  for  Gersdorfs 
Bibliotheca  Pat  rum  ecc.les.  selecta  (Lips.  1842),  vols.  x,xi. 
See  Jerome,  De  Viris  III.  p.  79,  80 ;  Chronic.  Euseb.  ad 
ann.  cccxviii,  Comment,  in  Eccles.  c.  10 ;  Comment,  in 
Ej^hes.  c.  4,  Ad  Paidin.  Epist.;  Lactant.  Divin.  histit.  i, 
1,  §  8;  v,  2,  §  2;  iii,  13,  §  12;  Schrockh,  Kirchenrjesch. 
V,  232 ;  Schonemann,  Bibl.  Patr.  Lat.  vol.  i,  §  2 ;  Biihr, 
Gesch.  d.  Romisch.  Litterat.  Suppl.  Band,  1"  Abtheil.  §  9 ; 
2'^Abtheil.  §  38^6;  Biihr, />«e  christlich-rom.Theolor/ie, 
p.  72  sq. ;  Franciscus  Floridus,  Subcesivarum.  Lect.  liber 
ii,  ch.  iv;  Lenain  de  Tillemont,  Histoire  Eccles.  vol.  vi; 
Dupin,  Biblioth.  des  A  uteurs  eccles.  i,  295 ;  Brooke  IMoun- 
tain,^  Summanj  of  the  Writinr/s  of  lAictantius  (Lond. 
1839)  ;  Mohler,  Patrologie,  i,  917-933 ;  Ceillier,  Hist,  des 
Aut.  sacres,  ii,  494  sq. ;  Schaff,  Ch.  Hist.  vol.  iii,  §  173 ; 
Riddle,  Christian  Antiquities,  p.  160-163;  Christian  Re- 
view, 1845,  p.  415  sq. ;  Woodham,  Tertullicai,  p.  liii ; 
Leckey,  Hiit.  Europ.  Morals,  i,  493  sq.  Excellent  arti- 
cles may  also  be  found,  especially  on  the  writings  of 
Lactantius,  in  Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biog. 
ii,  701 ;  and  Herzog,  Recd-Encyklop.  viii,  158.  On  the 
Christology  of  Lactantius,  consult  Dorner,  Doctrine  of 
the  Person  of  Christ,  div.  i,  vol.  ii,  p.  192  sq. ;  Lamson,  The 
Church  in  'the  first  three  Centuries,  p.  183  sq.;  Bull,  On 
the  rr»«Vy  (ii,  index)  ;  'S(iM\Aer,Chr.  Dogmas ;  Zeitschr. 
f.  d.  hist.  Theol.  1871,  vol.  iv,  art.  xiii. 


LACTICINIA 


190 


LADD 


Lacticinia,  a  term  used  in  the  Church  law  of  fasts 
to  deiKitc  whatever  is  obtained  as  an  article  of  (bod  from 
the  nianinialia,  viz.  milk,  butter,  grease,  cheese.  Eggs 
are  usually  incliuied  with  these  articles.  Abstinence 
from  such  food  ^vas  required  in  the  Western  Church 
during  Lent,  while  the  more  stringent  customs  of  the 
Creek  Church  extended  the  prohibition  to  all  other 
fasts.     Thomas  Aquinas  uses  the  following  language: 


Ihy  Servant  since  ihe  Time  of  his  heJieving  and  professing 
himself  inspii-ed  (London,  1708,  small  8vo).  lie  is  also 
supposed  to  be  the  author  of  The  general  Delusion  of 
Christians  touching  the  Wai/s  of  God  revealing  himself 
to  and  by  the  Prophets  (1713, 8vo) ;  reprinted  a  few  years 
since.     See  Darling,  Encyclop.  Bihliogr.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lad  ("l"3,  na'aV,  often  rendered  "young  man,"  etc.; 
N.  T.  Traicdpiov,  a  little  child,  the  last  occurrmg  only 


"  In  jejunio  quadragesimali  interdicunter  universaliter  j  jJi^„\,;^  g^  ^^,1  »' child"  in  Matt,  xi,  16;  both  terms  be- 


ing  originally  without  respect  to  sex).  The  Heb.  word 
occasionally  thus  rendered  in  the  Auth.Yers.,  although 
occasionally  standing  for  a  girl  or  maiden  (Gen.  xxiv, 
14,  16,  28,  55;  xxxiv,  3,  12;  Deut.  xxii,  15  sq.),  for 
which  the  fem.  noun  (iTl"J,  naaruh')  is  usually  em- 
ployed, properly  denotes  a  hoy,  being  prob.  a  primitive 
word.  It  is  spoken  of  an  infant  just  born  (Exod.  ii,  6  ; 
Judg.  xiii,  5,  7;  1  Sam.  iv,  21),  of  a  boy  not  yet  full 
grown  (Gen.  xxi,  10  sq. ;  xxii,  12;  Isa.  vii,  10;  viii,  4), 
and  of  a  youth  nearly  twenty  years  old  (Gen.  xxxiv,  19; 
xli,  12  ;  1  Kings  iii,  7 ;  2  Sam.  xviii,  5, 29).  See  Child, 
etc. 

Iia'dau  (Ta^c'iv  v.  r.  A.a\av,  and  even  'Acrni',  Yulg. 
Dalarns),  one  of  the  Temple  servants  whose  descend- 
ants had  lost  their  pedigree  after  the  exile  (1  Esdr.  v, 
37)  ;  evidently  the  Delaiah  (q.  v.)  of  the  Hebrew  text 
(Ezra  ii.  60). ' 

Ladd,  Francis  Dudley,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 


ctiam  ova  et  lacticinia,  circa  quorum  abstinentiam  in 
aliis  jejmiiis  diversae  consuetudines  existuiit  a])ud  diver- 
sos."  The  Laodicean  and  Trullan  (A.D.  691)  councils 
made  stringent  requirements  on  the  subject.  Certain 
papal  dispensations,  granted  as  late  as  A.D.  1344  and 
A.D.  1485,  show  that  even  in  certain  parts  of  the  West- 
ern Church  this  abstinence  was  practiced  in  many  fasts 
besides  Lent.  In  some  Catholic  countries  general  dis- 
pensations on  this  point  have  become  permanent  by 
long  custom  and  positive  decree,  especially  on  the 
ground  of  health  and  necessity. 

In  tlie  English  Church  the  only  abstinence  that  was 
ever  enforced  was  from  tlesh-meat,  in  the  reign  of  queen 
Elizabeth ;  but  its  object  -was  rather  the  promotion  of 
state  interests,  "  to  promote  fisheries,  to  maintain  mari- 
ners, and  set  men  a  fishing ;"  and  was  dispensed  with  by 
virtue  of  licenses,  which  were  sold,  according  to  the  rank 
of  the  ajiplicants,  bj'  the  curates,  under  an  act  of  Parlia- 
ment passed  in  the  fifth  year  of  her  [Elizabeth's]  reign 
(Walcott,  Sacred  A  rchwol.  p.  273, 
Fasts  ;  comp.  Hook,  Ch.  Diction- 
ary, article  Abstinence).    "  AVith 
us,"  says  Wheatly  (Hook,  Chiti-ch 
Diet.  p.  9),  "  neither  Church  nor 
State  makes  any  difference  in  the 
kinds  of  meat ;  but,  as  far  as  the 
former  determines  in  the  matter, 
she  seems  to  recommend  an  en- 
tire abstinence  from  all  manner 
of  food  till  the  time  of  fasting  be 
over;   declaring  in  her  [Ch.  of 
Engl.]  homilies  that  fasting  is  a 
withholding  of  meat,  drink,  and 
all  natural  food  from  the  body 
f(ir  the  determined  time  of  fast- 
ing."    See  Wetzer   und  Wclte, 
Kirchen-Lex.  s.  v.     See  also  Ab- 
stinenxe;  Fasts. 

Lacunary    Roofs.       The 

ceiling  of  churches  in  early  times 
was  often  composed  of  lacunary 
work,  i.  e.  it  was  divided  into  sev- 
eral jiancls  called  laquearia  or  la- 
cnnaria,  and  these  were  richly 
gilded  and  otherwise  ornament- 
ed. Jerome  often  speaks  in  his 
M-ritings  of  the  lacunar}-  golden 
roofs.    Sec  Farrar,  Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Lacu'nus  (rather  Laccu- 
Nl'S,  ArtfOKori'or,  Vulg.  ('(ileiis\ 
one  ''of  the  sons  of  Addi,"  who 
ha<l  married  a  foreign  wife  afler 
the  exile  (1  Esdr.  ix,  31);  doubt- 
less the  Ciielal  (q.  v.)  of  the 
Hebrew  text  (Ezra  x,  30). 

Lacy,  John,  an  English  mys- 
tical writer,  nourished  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  18th  century.  He 
joined  the  French  prophets  upon 
their  appearance  in  London,  and 
]irofessed  to  have  supernatural 
revelations.  His  principal  works 
are.  Warnings  of  the  Eternal  Spir-  Aucioiit  Etryptians  assailing  a  Fortress  with  the  Testudo  and  Laddcis. 

it   III/   the    Mouth    of  his    Servant  l,  2,  3,  4,  liesi.'in-rs  i.roteclini;   liv  the  lestudn  armed  wnrrinrs,  a,  h.  c.  d,   at  tlie  base  of  the  fort,  f 

r   1                              if             /T  „„  1 drivinir  a  spike  hetween  the  ioii'its  of  the  stones  along  the  u|i)ier  courses  of  Ihe  foundation  walls,./,  to 

John,    SUrimmed    Lacy    (London,  p„n  the  foot  of  the  senHna-lidder;  6,7,8,  warriors  contendinR  with  the  defenders  of  the  tir,     - 

1707    Sm.  8vo)  : A    Relation  of  tlements,  h  ,•  9,  areher  attaeliiiiii  those  above  ;  10,  mounting  to  the  second  line  of  defences,  .9 


,,      ,        ,.  J- ^,     1  ^     1  •  to  lie  let  down  to  parry  the  assault 

the  Dealings  oj  God  to  las  lancor-      the  standard,  n. 


1,  k,  I,  m,  the  garrison  defending  the  citadel,  on  ' 


f  bat- 

11 ,  1 2  seem 

hl'ch  is  mounted 


LxVDD 


191 


LADDER 


was  bom  in  1820.  AV^hcn  only  eight  years  of  age  he 
showed  marked  indications  of  piety,  but  it  was  not  until 
his  fifteenth  year  that  he  joined  the  Church,  imder  the 
ministry  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  George  Sliephard,  now  professor 
in  Haugor  Theological  Seminary.  With  a  view  to  pre- 
pare for  the  ministry',  he  entered  Bowdoin  CoUege  at  the 
age  of  seventeen,  and  graduated  witli  honor  in  18-11 ; 
then  studied  theology  at  Bangor  Seminary,  and  was  or- 
dained at  Farmingtoii  in  184G.  In  Nov.,  1851,  he  re- 
ceived and  accepted  a  call  from  the  Penn  Presbyterian 
Churcli,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  During  the  war  he  labored 
incessantly  for  the  good  of  the  soldiers,  but  fell  a  prey 
to  disease  contracted  in  the  camps,  whither  he  had  gone 
several  times,  and  died  JiUy  7, 1862.  See  Wilson,  Presb. 
Historical  Almanac,  1863, p.  184. 

Ladd,  William,  an  American  philanthropist,  born 
at  Exeter,  New  Hampshire,  in  1778,  was  one  of  the  orig- 
inators of  the  American  Peace  Society,  of  which  he  be- 
came president.  He  died  in  1841.  Ladd  was  editor  of 
the  Friend  of  Peace  and  the  ]Iarhinger  of  Peace,  and 
wrote  several  essays  on  that  subject. 

Ladder  (U^'0,sullam',  a  staircase,  Yi^rh.irom  ?50, 
to  raise  up ;  Sept.  (cAi/za^  ;  the  Arab,  sullumun  has  the 


Aucieut  Assyrians  assaulting  a  City  with  Ladders, 


same  signification")  occurs  only  once,  in  the  account  of 
Jacob's  vision  in  his  dream  at  Bethel  (Gen.  xxviii,  1"2), 
where  the  '"ladder  set  up  on  the  earth,  and  the  top  of  it 
reached  to  heaven ;  and  behold,  the  angels  of  God  as- 
cending and  descending  on  it,"  represented  the  Gospel 
dispensation,  the  blessings  of  which  the  patriarch's  pos- 
terity -were  to  inherit;  the  Kedeemer  himself  being  this 
mystic  channel  of  intercoiu-se  between  heaven  and  earth 
(John  i,  51).  (See  Lang,  Visio  Scahe  Jacob,  Alt.  IGtIO ; 
Schramm,  Ds  Scala  Jucobaa,  F.  ad  0. 17 — .)  Scaling- 
ladders  for  war  (K\ifj.aKic)  are  mentioned  in  the  Apoc- 
rypha (1  Mace.  V,  30).  That  this  was  a  contrivance 
known  from  the  earliest  times,  we  have  abundant  evi- 
dence on  the  moniunents  of  Thebes,  where  attacks  ou 
fortified  places  are  represented  as  being  made  by  soldiers 
provided  with  scalmg-ladders  (Wilkinson,  i,  390).  (For 
illustration,  see  opposite  page.)  Similar  scenes  are  fre- 
quently depicted  on  the  Assyrian  monuments  (Lavard, 
Nineveh,  ii,  284).     See  Fortification. 

LADDER  OF  TYRUS,  the  (//  KXi/ta4'  'Yvpov  ;  Yidg. 
a  terminis  Ti/ri,  possibly  reading  (cXi'^ta),  one  of  the  ex- 
tremities (the  northern)  of  the  district  over  which  Si- 
mon MaccabiBUS  was  made  captain  (crrpnr?/ydf)  by  An- 
tiochus  YI  (or  Theos)  very  shortly  after  his  coming  to 
the  throne ;  the  other  being  ''  the 
borders  of  Egypt"  (1  Mace,  xi,  59). 
The  Ladder  of  Tyro  (ba  H'ob^.Q 
"iVS,  see  lleland,  PalcEst.  p.  343),  or 
of  the  Tyrians  (//  KXi/xa'^,  tiov  Tv~ 
iHbiv),  was  the  local  name  for  a 
high  mountain,  the  highest  in  that 
neighborhood,    a    hundred    stadia 
nortli    of  Ptolemais,  the    modern 
Akka  or  Acra  (Josephus,  War,  ii, 
10,  2).     The  rich  plain   of  Ptole- 
mais is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
a  rugged  mountain   ridge  which 
shoots  out  from  Lebanon  and  dips 
perpendicularly  into  the  sea,  fonn- 
ing  a  bold  promontory  about  300 
feet  in  height  (Russegger,  p.  3, 143, 
262 ;  Ritter,  Palest,  unci  xVy /•.  iii,  727, 
814  sq.).     The  waves  beat  against 
the  base  of  the  cliff,  leaving  no  pas- 
sage below.   In  ancient  times  a  road 
was  carried,  by  a  series  of  zigzags 
and  staircases,  over  the  summit,  to 
connect  the  plain  of  I'tolemais  with 
Tyre — hence  the  origin  of  the  name 
Scala  Ttp-iorum, "  Ladder  of  Tyre." 
It  was  the  southern  ]iass  into  Phoe- 
nicia proper,  and  formed  the  bound- 
ary between  that  country  and  Pal- 
estine   (Kenrick,  Phnenicia,  p.  20  ; 
Reland,  p.  544).     The  road  still  re- 
mains, and  is  the  only  one  along 
the  coast.     A  short  distance  from 
it  is  a  little  village  called  Naknrah, 
and  the  pass  is  now  called  lias  en- 
Xaldirah  ("the  excavated  prom- 
ontory"), doubtless  from  the  njad 
ivhicli  has  been  '•  hewn  in  the  rock" 
(Porter, //anrffiooZ-,  p.  389;  see  also 
Pococke,  i,  79 ;  Robinson.  Bib.  Res. 
iii,  89;  Stanley,  p.  200,  262).     The 
location  of  the  Itas  en-Nakhurah 
agrees  very  nearly  with  the  above 
jwsition  defined  by  Josephus,  as  it 
lies  10  miles,  or  about  120  stadia, 
from  Akka,  and  is  characterized  by 
tra^'cllers  as  ver\'  high  and  steep. 
P>oth  the  Ras  en-Nakhnrah  and  the 
Has  cl-A  bi/ad,  i.  e.  the  White  Cape, 
sometimes  called  Cape   Blanco,  a 
lieadland    six    miles    still   farther 
north,  are  surmounted  by  a  path 


LADISLAS 


192 


LADISLAUS 


cut  in  zigzags ;  that  over  the  latter  is  attributed  to  Al- 
exander the  Great.  It  is  possibly  from  this  circum- 
stance that  the  latter  is  by  some  travellers  (Irby,  Oct. 
21;  Wilson,  ii,  232 ;  Van  dc  Velde,i)/e?)zoj>,  p.  340;  etc.) 
treated  as  the  ladder  of  the  Tyrians.  But  by  the  early 
and  acciurate  Jewish  traveller,  hajj-Parchi  (Zunz,  in 
Baij.  ofTudda,  p.  402),  and  in  our  own  times  by  llobin- 
son  (iii,  82),  MisUn  (Zes  Saints  Lieux,  ii,  9).  Schwarz  (p. 
7(5),  Stanley  QSi/r.  and  Pal.  p.  2G4),  the  Kas  en-Nakhu- 
rah  is  identified  with  the  ladder ;  the  last-named  travel- 
ler pointing  out  well  that  the  reason  for  the  name  is  the 
fact  of  its  '•  differing  from  Carmel  in  that  it  leaves  no 
beach  between  itself  and  the  sea,  and  thus,  by  cutting 
off  all  communication  round  its  base,  acts  as  the  natural 
barrier  between  the  Bay  of  Acre  and  the  maritime  plain 
to  the  north — in  other  words,  betw-een  I'alestine  and 
Phtt-nicia"  (comp.  p.  260). — Smith;  Kitto. 

Ladislas  {Vladklas,  Vladislaf,  Uladislas)  II,  king 
of  Poland  (1380-1434),  known  also  imder  the  name  of 
Jaf/ieUo  or  Jafjelln,  deserves  a  place  in  our  work  on  ac- 
count of  his  introduction  of  Christianity  into  the  Polish 
dominions.  He  was  born  in  Lithuania  in  1348,  the  son 
of  Olgerd  and  grandson  of  Gedimin,  great  princes  of 
Lithuania.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  1386,  and,  by 
the  noble  influence  of  his  pious  Christian  wife  Hedvig, 
was  influenced  to  embrace  Christianity ;  a  short  time 
after  all  Lithuania  became  Christian,  and  when  Poland 
came  mider  his  sway  Christianity  became  the  dominant 
rcligidu  there.  He  died  in  Grodek,  near  Lemberg,  Ga- 
licia,  ;May  31, 1434.     See  Lithuania  ;  Poland. 

Ladislaus,  king  of  Naples  (A.D.  1386-1414),  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  on  the  violent  death  of  his  father, 
Charles  HL  Born  in  1376,  he  was  ten  years  old  at  the 
time  of  his  accession  to  the  disputed  crown.  Louis  of 
Anjou,  to  whom  queen  Joanna,  the  predecessor  of  Charles 
III,  had  bequeathed  the  kingdom,  was  his  competitor. 
Ladislaus  and  Louis  were  of  nearly  the  same  age.  Each 
was  left  under  the  guardianship  of  a  wido^ved  mother, 
and  each  had  on  his  side  the  authority  of  one  of  the  two 
rival  popes,  between  whom  Christendom  was  divided, 
and  whose  mutual  excommunications,  extending  to 
tlicir  respective  adherents,  were  the  scandal  of  the  age. 

The  reign  of  Ladislaus  is  historically  important  from 
its  intimate  connection  with  the  great  events  of  the 
time  in  Church  and  State.  At  an  early  age  he  devel- 
oped that  restless  energy  and  that  unscrupulous  ambi- 
tion which  made  him  a  model  for  Machiavelli's  "  Prince." 
When  but  sixteen  years  old,  his  mother  IMargaret  com- 
mitted him  to  the  barons  of  her  party  to  make  his  first 
essay  in  arms.  His  marriage  with  the  richest  heiress 
of  Sicily  put  into  his  hands  an  immense  dowry,  which 
he  employed  to  prosecute  his  designs,  securing,  when  it 
■was  expended,  from  the  ■venal  pontiff  a  divorce  from  his 
wife,  whom  he  bestowed  upon  one  of  his  favorites. 

By  means  of  the  papal  sanction  and  his  own  energy 
he  recovered  Naples  from  the  Angevin  party  (1400). 
The  faction  opposed  to  him  felt  the  full  weight  of  his 
vengeance.  His  security  was  increased  by  a  second 
marriage,  whicli  the  pontiff,  Boniface  IX,  proposed.  His 
ambition  Avas  excited  by  the  tempting  offer  of  the  Hun- 
garian crown,  made  by  those  w'ho,  dissatisfied  with 
Sigismund  (subsequently  emperor),  had  seized  and  im- 
prisoned him.  His  expedition  proved  unsuccessful,  and 
his  aVisence  from  Naples  inspired  anew  the  hopes  and 
efforts  (if  the  Angevin  party.  His  prompt  return  (1403) 
defeated  their  attempts.  The  most  powerful  of  the  dis- 
affected ndbilitj'  felt  the  weight  of  his  vengeance.  Many 
were  tlirust  into  prison.  Numbers  were  strangled.  Oth- 
ers fled.  Wholesale  confiscation  enriched  the  royal  treas- 
ury. A  reign  of  terror  prevailed  throughout  the  king- 
dom. 

Jealous  of  his  powerful  alh^,  Boniface  IX  showed 
himself  no  longer  disjiosed  to  co-operate  with  the  ty- 
rant;  but  at  this  juncture  he  died.  In  spite  of  letters 
from  tlie  king  of  France  deprecating  a  new  election, 
that  Cliristendora  might  be  miited  under  one  pontiff 


(the  French  prelates  supported  as  rival  pope  Benedict 
XIII,  q.  v.),  the  cardinals  chose  Innocent  VII  (q.  v.)  as 
his  successor.  Ladislaus,  whose  policy  was  opposed  to 
the  reunion  of  Christendom,  hastened  to  Eorae  to  con- 
gratulate him  upon  his  accession.  He  had  designs, 
moreover,  upon  Kome  itself,  torn  bj^  Guelph  and  Ghib- 
elline  factions.  Dissembling  his  purpose,  he  proposed 
himself  as  mediator,  and  secured  a  strong  hold  upon  the 
government  of  the  city,  while  his  royal  title  was  solemn- 
ly confirmed. 

Turning  from  Eome,  he  led  his  army  to  Southern  It- 
aly (1400),  but  was  repelled  by  the  yalor  of  the  Ursini. 
The  new  pope  already  regarded  him  with  mistrust.  At 
his  instigation  the  Poman  factions  were  brought  into 
colhsion.  Alarmed  for  his  safety,  the  pope  tied.  Ladis- 
laus ordered  his  generals  to  take  possession  of  the  city, 
but  they  were  repidsed.  The  citizens,  inclining  to  favor 
the  exiled  pontiff,  recalled  him  to  Pome.  Ladislaus, 
whose  attention  had  again  been  diverted  to  Southern 
Italy,  where  a  marriage  with  the  widow  of  Paymond  de 
Ursini  had  accomplished  more  than  arms,  now  advanced 
in  open  hostility,  resolved  to  regain  his  control  of  the 
city.  He  was  embittered  against  the  pontiff,  v,'ho  re- 
sented his  unscrupulous  spoliation  of  churches  and  mon- 
asteries, as  well  as  other  revenues  of  the  Church,  and 
who  complained,  moreover,  of  his  conspiracy  and  trea- 
son against  himself.  The  charges  against  the  king 
were  drawn  up  in  sixteen  articles,  and  on  the  ground  of 
these  he  ■\vas  declared  to  have  forfeited  his  kingdom,  as 
well  as  the  fiefs  ■which  he  held  of  the  Church,  and  ■was 
excommunicated  by  the  Church.  Ladislaus,  however, 
succeeded  in  calming  the  papal  resentment,  and  a  treaty 
was  effected  which  restored  him  to  his  former  power 
and  privileges;  but  as  he  evaded  all  the  provisions 
which  conflicted  with  his  ambition,  the  excommunica- 
tion would  have  been  renewed  had  not  Innocent  died 
suddenly  (Nov.  6, 1406). 

Gregory  XII,  successor  of  Innocent  YII,  pledged  him- 
self on  his  election  to  promote  the  unity  of  the  Church. 
His  disinclination  to  meet  his  rival  in  conference  ■was 
encouraged  by  Ladislaus,  ■who  assured  him  of  protection. 
The  miscrupulous  proceedings  of  the  king  stood  in  need 
of  the  papal  sanction,  and  he  was  willing  to  make  some 
efforts  to  secure  a  pope  for  himself.  Gregory  XII  dis- 
appointed the  expectations  of  his  cardinals.  Alarmed 
by  the  sedition  at  Pome,  he  fled  to  Yiterbo  (August  3, 
1407),  and  afterwards  to- Sienna  and  Lucca.  Ladislaus 
seized  the  occasion  to  make  inroads  upon  the  States  of 
the  Church.  Gregory  comjilained  of  his  conduct,  and 
menaced  him  with  the  thunders  of  the  Church.  He 
found  himself  forced,  ho^wever,  to  accept  the  plausible 
excuses  of  the  king,  whose  support  he  needed.  Ladis- 
laus now  resolved  to  prosecute  his  long-cherished  desire 
of  possessing  himself  of  Pome.  By  means  of  force  and 
treachery  he  succeeded  in  his  project.  On  the  2oth  of 
April,  1408,  Pome  opened  its  gates  to  him,  and  the  ty- 
rant of  Naples  was  welcomed  by  the  shouts  of  the  people. 

Gregory  exulted  in  the  king's  success.  He  hoped 
himself  to  be  able  now  to  return  to  Pome.  He  was  en- 
couraged to  refuse  his  assent  to  the  appointment  of  the 
council  proposed  to  he  held  at  Pisa,  which  he  justly 
feared  miglit  prove  fatal  to  his  claims.  IMeanwhile 
Ladislaus  prosecuted  his  ambitious  plans.  He  hojied  to 
secure  possession  of  Sienna  and  Florence.  For  several 
months  he  prosecuted  his  plans  by  diplomacy  and 
threats;  but  the  cautious  resistance  of  the  republics,  and 
the  hostile  attitude  of  the  Pisan  Council,  which  ■was 
now  CMarch,  1400)  in  session,  disconcerted  him.  The 
new  pontiff,  Alexander  Y,  elected  by  tlie  council,  fa- 
vored the  jiretensions  of  Louis  of  Anjou,  the  rival  pre- 
tender to  the  throne  <if  Xajiles.  The  latter,  followed  by 
an  army,  and  surrounded  by  his  partisans,  entered  Italy 
and  secured  a  lodgment  in  Rome.  Ladislaus,  in  the 
height  of  his  passion,  swore  to  annihilate  the  authors  of 
his  calamity.  He  provided  for  the  security  of  Gregory, 
who  had  been  holding  a  council  in  Aquileia,  rivaj  to 
that  of  Pisa,  and  ordained  his  recognition  as  pontiff 


LADISLAUS 


193 


LADVOCAT 


throughout  the  kingdom.  He  then  proceeded  in  force 
to  Kome,  of  -which  lie  quickly  regained  possession. 

Alexander  Y,  indignant  at  the  king's  course,  made 
up  a  catalogue  of  his  crimes,  and  ordered  Ladislaus  be- 
fore him  to  hear  the  sentence  which  pronounced  liis 
forfeiture  of  liis  throne.  Regardless  of  the  summons, 
Ladislaus  prosecuted  his  measures  of  violent  rapacity, 
amassing  the  means  to  continue  the  war.  But  at  this 
juncture  he  lost  possession  of  Rome.  With  treachery 
within  and  the  forces  of  Balthasar  Cossa  without,  the 
city  yielded  to  the  allies,  and  the  papal  authority  was 
re-established  within  its  walls. 

Tlie  sudden  death  of  Alexander  V  (May  3,  1410) 
opened  the  way  to  the  election  of  Balthasar  Cossa  him- 
self, the  sworn  foe  of  Ladislaus,  under  the  title  of  John 
XXIIL  Leaving  Bologna,  which  he  had  ruled  as  a 
despot  under  the  title  of  legate,  he  advanced  in  triumph 
to  Rome.  Ladislaus  was  now  confronted  by  an  Italian 
pope  and  a  French  army  under  Louis.  The  sentence 
of  excommunication  was  pronounced  against  him,  but, 
reckless  of  spiritual  terrors,  he  marshalled  his  forces  and 
prepared  for  the  conflict.  The  battle  took  place  May 
19,  l-tU,  near  I'onte-Corvo,  and,  after  a  desperate  con- 
test, the  forces  of  Ladislaus  were  defeated.  Instead  of 
being  disheartened  by  reverse,  however,  he  exerted  him- 
self successfully  to  bring  into  the  held  a  new  army  large- 
ly composed  of  the  fragments  of  the  old.  In  a  short 
time,  b}'  a  liberal  use  of  money,  he  had  greatly  profited 
by  the  respite  which  his  enemies,  too  sluggish  to  pursue 
their  advantage,  allowed  him.  Retracing  his  disasters, 
he  said  that  on  the  first  day  his  crown  and  personal  lib- 
erty were  endangered ;  on  the  second,  he  feared  only  for 
his  kingdom ;  on  the  third,  his  foe  could  only  waste 
himself. 

John  XXIII  had  exulted  in  the  defeat  of  his  foe.  The 
joy  at  Rome  was  expressed  by  pageants  and  processions ; 
but  the  pope  soon  discovered  that  he  had  been  too  pre- 
cipitate in  his  demonstrations.  lie  encouraged  the 
hopes  of  Louis,  but  declined  to  aid  him  by  arms.  He 
contented  himself  with  sending  Ladislaus  (August  11, 
1411)  a  summons  to  appear  before  him  as  a  heretic  and 
favorer  of  schism,  and  with  pubUshing  a  crusade  against 
him.  But  the  withdrawal  of  Louis  from  Italy  left  Lad- 
islaus without  a  competitor,  and  of  a  sudden  the  pope 
saw  himself  almost  helpless  in  the  hands  of  Ladislaus, 
and  in  constant  fear  of  his  ravages  and  assaults.  Anx- 
ious for  peace,  he  proposed  a  compromise  with  Ladislaus. 
Tlie  latter  was  to  abandon  the  anti-pope,  Gregorj'  XII, 
and  tlrive  him  from  the  kingdom.  The  pope  was  to 
confirm  the  king  in  possession  of  his  dominions,  to  ■which 
other  possessions  were  to  bo  added,  and  was  to  be  ap- 
pointed gonfalionere  of  the  Church,  and  to  be  paid  spe- 
cified sums  of  money.  Thus  John  XXIII  sacrificed  his 
ally  to  his  foe,  and  Ladislaus  did  the  same.  The  double 
ingratitude  and  treachery  were  endorsed  bj'  the  public 
recognition  of  the  legitimacy  of  the  pontiff  on  the  p.art 
of  Ladislaus,  who  ascribed  his  new  and  more  correct  ap- 
prehensions to  the  instruction  of  the  Father  of  light. 
Gregory  was  forced  to  flee  to  Rimini,  and  at  an  inter- 
view between  Ladislaus  and  the  pope,  the  latter  received 
from  the  former  marks  of  profound  homage. 

To  this  hoUow  compromise  mutual  distrust  succeeded. 
The  pope  sought  to  recover  his  old  allies.  He  excul- 
pated himself  to  Louis,  and  again  denounced  the  king 
of  Naples.  The  latter  responded  by  hostile  demonstra- 
tions. The  council  which  the  pope  had  meanwhile 
convoked  at  Rome  was  considered  by  him  as  depending 
on  the  appf)intment  and  authority  of  that  of  Pisa,  and, 
as  hostile  to  his  interests,  he  hoped  to  disperse  it.  The 
prospect  of  gaining  some  advantage  over  his  old  foe, 
Sigismund  of  Hungary,  now  elected  emperor,  was  also 
kept  in  view.  Gathering  his  forces,  he  approached 
Rome.  The  faithlessness  and  feebleness  of  the  papal 
forces  facilitated  its  capture.  The  pope  and  cardinals 
fled.  From  place  to  place  they  wandered,  yet  even 
Florence  dared  not  entertain  them  from  fear  of  the 
vengeance  of  Ladislaus.  John  XXIII  besought  help  of 
v.— N 


Sigismimd,  which  was  finally  granted  on  the  stipulation 
that  the  pope  should  immediately  convoke  a  General 
Council     See  John  XXIII. 

Ladislaus  meanwhUe  gave  full  scope  to  his  vengeance. 
Rome  trembled  with  terror.  Some  of  her  most  distin- 
guished citizens  were  sacrificed  to  his  revenge.  The 
States  of  the  Church  came  into  his  hands.  Sienna  and 
Florence  felt  themselves  threatened.  John  XXIII  for- 
tified himself  at  Boulogne,  and  gathered  forces  about 
him.  Even  here  he  did  not  feel  himself  safe.  His  car- 
dinals prepared  for  flight,  and  some  deserted  him.  The 
citizens  sought  to  hide  their  treasures,  and  tied,  gome  to 
Venice,  or  other  places  not  yet  threatened. 

There  appeared  no  longer  hope  of  effectual  resistance 
to  the  advance  of  Ladislaus.  All  Italy  seemed  about  to 
be  forced  to  submit  to  his  swaj-.  But  at  this  juncture, 
while  Imgering  at  Rerusia,  he  was  smitten  by  a  mortal 
disease.  A  slow  fever  wasted  his  strength,  but  did  not 
subdue  his  thirst  for  vengeance.  He  had  destined  the 
Ursini,  who  had  obstructed  his  capture  of  Rome,  and 
whom  he  had  promised  to  spare,  as  victims.  They  vis- 
ited him  in  his  sickness,  and  were  thrust  into  prison  by 
his  orders.  This  gross  violation  of  faith  excited  gen- 
eral indignation.  The  murmurs  of  the  soldiers  con- 
strained him  to  pause  in  his  purjjose  of  vengeance.  As 
his  disease  progressed  his  passions  became  more  fierce. 
Returnhig  by  way  of  Ostia  to  Naples,  the  officers  who 
accompanied  him  were  on  the  watch  to  prevent  him 
from  ordering  the  Ursini  to  be  cast  overboard  into  the 
sea.  When  he  reached  his  capital  he  was  no  longer 
master  of  himself.  Every  word  that  escaped  him  was 
an  order  for  some  fatal  arrest.  He  charged  his  sister, 
the  princess  Joanna,  to  see  that  Paul  de  Ursini  be  put 
to  death.  I'or  the  last  three  days  of  his  life  his  mind 
was  occupied  only  with  thoughts  of  vengeance.  With 
fearful  cries  he  was  heard  to  ask,  "Is  Paul  dead?" 
sometimes  calling  for  his  dagger  that  he  might  stab 
himself.  He  could  only  be  calmed  for  the  moment  by 
his  sister's  treacherous  assurance  that  his  orders  should 
be  executed. 

In  the  midst  of  his  paroxysms  Ladislaus  died,  Aug.  6 
or  8,  1414.  Naples  was  relieved  of  a  Ij-rar.t  and  Italy 
of  a  terror  that  had  disquieted  her  for  years.  History 
maj^  account  Ladislaus  a  modern  Herod.  All  that  was. 
unscrupulous,  cruel,  and  depraved  seemed  to  be  incar- 
nate in  him.  He  alternated  between  private  lust  and. 
public  violence.  In  his  own  age  he  was  the  most  notori- 
ous representative  of  the  vigor  and  craft  of  the  Italian. 
'•  prince."     See  Naples. 

See,  for  notices  more  or  less  extended  of  the  deeds  or 
career  of  Ladislaus,  Van  dcr  Hardt,  Monstrehfs  Chroni- 
cles ;  Niern,  Life  of  John  XXIII ;  Poggi,  Eraccioltni's' 
Wridmis.  Also  the  works  of  the  earlier  as  well  as  the 
later  Italian  historians,  including  Sismondi  and  Proctor. 
The  most  extended  and  connected  account  of  his  life,  per- 
haps, is  that  given  by  INI.  d'Egly,  Jlistoire  des  Rois  dcg 
Deux  Sidles.  He  seems  to  have  carefully  sifted  his 
authorities,  and  he  devotes  over  200  pages  of  his  second 
volume  almost  exclusively  to  Ladislaus.     (E.  H.G.) 

Ladvocat,  Jean  Baptist,  a  noted  French  theolo- 
gian and  author,  was  born  at  Vancouleurs  in  the  early 
part  of  the  17th  centurj',  and  was  educated  first  at  Pont- 
a-Mouson,  afterwards  in  Paris  at  the  Sorbonne,  where 
he  subse({uently  became  a  professor.  In  1751  he  was 
appointed  to  the  chair,  founded  at  his  suggestion  in  the 
Sorbonne  by  the  duke  of  Orleans,  for  the  inteqwetation 
of  the  Old-Testament  Scriptures  according  to  the  He- 
brew text.  He  died  in  1765.  Ladvocat  wrote  Diciion- 
naire  Geographique portaiif: — Diciionn.  Jlisloriqiie  por- 
tatifdes  grands  hommes  (2  vols.  8vo :  this  is  an  abridg- 
ment of  Moreri,  and  is  full  of  errors).  He  also  wrote 
a  Hebrew  Grammar  for  the  use  of  his  pupils ;  Tracta- 
tiis  de  Condliis  in  Geiwre  ;  and  Lett  re  dans  luqiielle  il  ex- 
amine si  les  Textes  originaux  de  VEcriture  sent  corriim- 
pus  et  si  la  Vulgate  leur  est  preferable.  Ladvocat  was. 
as  an  expositor  of  Scripture,  a  zealous  disciple  of  Hou- 
bigant.     He  was  also  a  correspondent  of  Dr.  Kenuicott, 


LADY 


194 


LAHMI 


whose  (xreat  work  ho  zealously  promoted,  and  he  collated 
many  SiSS.  for  him  in  the  IJoyal  Library  at  Paris. — 
llooiv,  /■:(■(■!(  s.  JJioffrap/ii/,  vi,  oOG. 

Lady  is  the  rendering  in  the  Auth.  A'ers.  of  the  fol- 
lowing terms  in  the  origmal:  riilia  {f/ehe'retJi,{em.  of 
■|^-"s  a  mlrjhtij  man),  applied  to  Babylon  as  the  mistress 
of  nations  (Isa.  xlvii,  5,  7 ;  elsewhere  a  "  mistress,"  as 
opposctl  to  a  maid-servant,  Gen.  xvi,  4,  8,  9 ;  2  Kings  v, 
3;  I'rov.  xxx,  23;  Psa.  cxxii'i,  2,  Isa.  xxiv,  2);  ITTJ 
(sarah',  fem.  of  "lb,  noble ;  the  same  as  the  name  given 
to  Sarai),  a  noble  female  (Judg.  v,  29;  Esth.  i,  18;  else- 
where a  "  princess,"  spec,  the  king's  wives  of  noble  birth, 
1  Kings  xi,  13,  different  from  concubines,  comp.  Cant,  vi, 
8;  "queen,"  Isa.  xlix,  23;  "princess"  among  provinces. 
Lam.  i,  1) ;  KVi/ia  (fem.  of  Kvpioc,  lord  or  master),  mis- 
tress, occurs  only  as  an  epithet  of  a  Christian  female  (2 
John  i,  1 ,  5 ),  either  as  an  honorable  title  of  regard,  or  as 
a  fem.  [)ropor  name  Cvria  (q.  v.). 

Lady  Chapel,  a  chapel  dedicated  to  the  Virgin 
Man,'  (^"  Our  Lath-"),  and  usually,  but  not  always,  placed 
eastwards  from  the  altar  when  attached  to  cathedrals. 
Henry  YII's  chapel  at  Westminster  is  the  lady  chapel 
of  that  cathctlral. 

Lady  Day.     See  Annunciation,  Feast  of. 

Lady  Fast,  a  species  of  penance,  voluntary  or  en- 
joined, in  which  the  penitent  had  the  choice  of  fasting 
once  a  week  for  seven  years  on  that  day  of  the  week  on 
which  Lddi/  J>ay  (q.  v.)  happened  to  fall,  beginning  his 
course  from  tliat  day,  or  of  finishing  his  penance  sooner 
by  taking  as  many  fasting-days  together  as  would  fall 
to  his  lot  m  one  year. — Walcott,  Sac.  A  rchceol.  s.  v. 

Lady  of  Mercy,  Our,  a  Spanish  order  of  knight- 
hood, instituted  in  1218  by  James  I  of  Aragon,  in  fulfil- 
ment of  a  vow  made  to  the  Virgin,  during  his  captivity 
ill  France,  for  the  redemption  of  Christian  captives  from 
among  the  Moors ;  and  to  this  end  each  knight,  at  his 
inauguration,  was  obliged  to  take  the  vow  that,  if  neces- 
sary for  their  ransom,  he  would  remain  himself  a  cap- 
tive in  their  stead.  'Within  the  first  six  years  of  the 
existence  of  the  order  no  fewer  than  400  captives  are 
said  to  have  been  ransomed  by  its  efforts.  On  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Moors  from  Spain  the  labors  of  the 
knights  were  transferred  to  Africa,  Their  badge  is  a 
shield  party  per  fess  gules  and  or,  in  chief  a  cross  pattee 
argent,  in  base  four  pallets  gules  for  Aragon,  the  shield 
crowned  \vith  a  ducal  coronet.  The  order  was  extend- 
ed to  ladies  in  1201. — Chambers,  Cyclopaedia,  s.  v. 

Lady  of  Montesa,  Our,  an  order  of  knighthood, 
founded  in  l.'>17  by  king  .lames  II  of  Aragon,  after  the 
abrogation  of  the  Order  of  the  Templars,  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  Ciiristians  against  the  ]\Ioors.  By  permis- 
sion of  pope  John  XXII,  James  of  Aragon  used  all  the 
estates  of  the  ex-Templars  and  of  the  Knights  of  St. 
John  situated  in  Valencia  for  this  new  order,  which  king 
James  n.-imed  after  the  town  and  castle  of  Montesa,  its 
head-quarters.  The  order  is  now  conferred  merely  as  a 
mark  nf  royal  favor,  though  the  provisions  of  its  statutes 
are  still  nominally  observed  on  new  creations.  The 
badge  is  a  red  cross  edged  with  gold,  the  costume  a  long 
white  woollen  mantle,  decorated  with  a  cross  on  the  left 
breast,  and  tied  with  very  long  white  cords. — Chambers, 
Cychqm'dia,  s.  v. 

Lady  Psalter.     See  Rosary. 

La'el  (licit.  l.aeV ,  ?N3,yo?-  or  of  God,  i.  e.  created 
by  him ;  otherwise  to  God,  i.  c.  devoted  to  him  ;  occurs 
also  in  .Job  xxxiii,C,  where  the  Auth.Vers.  has  "  in  God's 
stead  :"  Scptuag.  Aoi';X),  father  of  Elias.iph,  which  latter 
was  chief  of  the  family  of  the  Gershonites  at  the  Exode 
(Numb,  iii,  24).      B.C."  ante  1G57. 

LcCtare  Sunday,  called  also  Mid-t.ent,  is  the 
fourth  Siuiday  of  Lent.  It  is'  named  La-tare  (to  rejoice) 
from  the  first  word  of  the  Introit  of  the  mass,  which  is 
from  Isa.  liv,  1.     The  characteristic  of  the  services  of 


the  day  is  joyousness,  and  the  music  of  the  organ,  which 
throughout  the  rest  of  Lent  is  suspended,  is  on  this  day 
resumed.  Lwtare  Sunday  is  also  called  dominica  de 
rosa,  because  it  is  the  day  selected  by  the  pope  for  the 
blessing  of  the  Golden  Eose.  See  iiiege\,  Ilandbuch  d, 
christl.-Kirchlichen  Alterthiimer,  iv,  360,  367. 

Laevinus,  Torrentinus,  commonly  called  Torren- 
TIN.  a  Dutch  theologian,  who  flourished  in  the  second 
half  of  the  Kith  century,  was  a  native  of  (Jhent,  and  was 
educated  in  the  University  of  Louvain  in  law  and  philos- 
ophy. After  an  extended  tour  in  Italy,  he  became  suc- 
cessively canon  of  Liege,  vicar-general  to  the  bishop  of 
Liege,  and  finally  bishop  of  Antwerp,  from  which  he  was 
transferred  to  the  see  of  Mechlin,  where  he  died  in  1595. 
At  Louvain  Torrentin  founded  a  Jesuitical  college,  to 
which  he  bequeathed  his  library  and  a  large  collection 
of  curiosities. 

Lafaye  (also  known  by  the  Latin  name  Fayus),  Ax- 
TOiNE,  a  French  Protestant  minister,  was  born  at  Cha- 
teaudun  about  the  middle  of  the  10th  centurj'.  He  be- 
came professor  of  philosophy  at  Geneva  in  1570,  and  rec- 
tor in  1580.  He  was  transferred  to  the  chair  of  theol- 
ogy in  1584,  and  died  in  1615.  In  1587  he  took  part  in 
the  composition  of  the  Preface  to  the  French  translation 
of  the  Bible.  His  works  are,  De  rernaculis  Bibliorum 
interpretationibus  et  sacris  vernacula  lim/ita  pera;jendis 
(Gen.  1572, 4to)  :—De  Verba  Dei  (Gen.  1591, 4to):— i)e 
Traditionibus,  adversus  pontificios  (Gen.  1592,  4to)  : — De 
Christo  mediatore  (Gen.  1597,  4to)  : — De  Bonis  Opei-ibiis 
(Gen.  1601,  4to): — Geneva  libei-ata,  seu  narratio  libera- 
tionis  illius  qua  diviniius  immissa  est  Geneva  (Geneva, 
1603,  r2mo) : — Enchiridion  Disputatio7mm  theoloyicarum 
(Gen.  1605, 8vo) : — De  Vita  et  Obitu  Bezce  Uypomnemata 
(Geneva,  1606, 4to)  : — Commentarii  in  Ecclesiasten  (Gen. 
1609, 8vo) : — Coinment.  in  Episf.  ad  Romcmos  (Gen.  1608, 
8vo)  : — Comment,  in  Psalmos  xlix  et  Ixxxvii  (Gen.  1609, 
8vo)'. — Comment,  in  priorem  Epistol.  ad  Timotheum  (Ge- 
neva, 1609, 8  vo): — Emblemata  et  Epiigi-ammata  select  a  ex 
stromatis  j^ei-ipateticis  (Gen.  1610,  8vo).  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biorj.  Generale,  xxviii,  686. 

Lafitau,  Joseph  Francois,  a  French  Roman  Cath- 
olic missionary  of  the  Order  of  the  Jesuits,  born  at  Bor- 
deaux in  1670,  labored  for  many  years  among  the  Iro- 
quois tribe  of  American  Indians.  He  died  in  1740.  La- 
fitau is  especially  noted  for  his  archteological  researches, 
among  which  is  Maiirs  des  saiivoffes  A  mericains  com- 
parees  aiix  maiirs  des  premiers  temps  (Paris,  1723, 2  vols. 
4to).  He  wrote  also  Ilistoire  des  decouvc?ies  et  des  con- 
quetes  des  Portvgais  dans  le  nouveau  monde. 

La'had  (Heb.  id.  ^'TO,  in  pause  1il5,  prob.  oppress- 
or, otherwise  //rt»?f;  Sept.  Aoo  v.  r.  Aant^Vulg.  Laad), 
the  second  named  of  the  two  sons  of  Jahath,  of  the  fam- 
ily of  Zerah,  grandson  of  Judali  (1  Chron.  iv,  2),  B.C. 
post  1612. 

Lahai-roi.     See  Beer-i.ahai-roi. 

Lah'mam  (Heb.  L«c/i»i«s',  D'cnb,  prob.  an  errone- 
ous reading  for  Lachmam' ,  C^rib,  their  bread,  which  is 
read  in  some  MSS.,  and  which  the  Vulg.  and  Auth.Vers. 
follow;  Septuag.  An^ificVulg. /.(7;p?«f;»i),  a  city  in  the 
plain  of  Judah,  mentioned  between  Cabbon  and  Kith- 
lish  (Josh.  XV,  40),  probably  situated  among  the  Philis- 
tines west  of  the  Highlands  of  Jud.ta.  A  writer  in  Fair- 
bairn's  Dictionai-y,  s.  v.,  by  a  series  of  arguments  resting 
essentially  upon  the  insecure  foundation  of  the  mere  or- 
der of  the  names  in  Joshua,  seeks  to  identify  Lahmara 
with  the  el-IIumani  mentioned  by  Smith  in  the  list  in 
Eobinson's  Researches  (iii.  Append,  p.  119);  but  of  this 
place  there  is  no  other  trace  save  perhaps  the  name 
Tell-Imam  on  Zimmerman's  Map,  some  six  miles  to  the 
S.E.  of  the  vicinity  of  the  other  associated  names,  and 
apparently  out  of  the  bounds  of  the  group,  if  not  of  the 
tribe  itself.  Lahmam  is  possibly  the  present  Beit-Le- 
hia,  a  short  distance  N.E.  of  Gaza  (Hobinson,  iii.  Ap- 
pend, p.  1 18  ;  Van  de  Velde,  Memoir,  yi.  1 15). 

Lah'mi  (Heb.  Lachmi',  "^wrib,  my  bread;  Septuag. 


LAIDLIE 


195 


LAINEZ 


Aff^ifi  V.  r.  Aoo^ii,  Aaxfii,  etc. ;  Vulg.  Bellilchemiles),  a 
person  named  (1  Chron.  xx,  5)  as  beinsj  the  brother  of 
(ioliath,  and  slain  by  Elhanan,  one  of  David's  heroes; 
but  prob.  a  corrupt  reading  for  Beth-lehemite,  as  in 
the  parallel  passage  (2  Sam.  xxi,  19).  See  Elhanan. 
It  would  seem  that  both  these  passages  should  be  re- 
stored so  as  to  read  thus :  "  Elhanan,  the  son  of  Jair  (or 
Dodo)  of  Bethlehem,  slew  the  brother  of  Goliath  of 
(iath,  whose  spear-hanille  was  like  a  weaver's  beam." 
See  Jaih. 

Laidlie,  Archibald,  D.D.,  a  noted  minister  of  the 
Reformed  (  Dutch)  Church,  was  born  at  Kelso,  Scotland, 
Dec.  4,  1727.  After  graduating  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh  he  was  ordained  to  the  Gospel  ministry 
in  175;',  and  became  pastor  of  the  Scotch  Church  in 
Flushing,  Holland,  where  he  officiated  four  years,  and 
as  a  member  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts  of  that  country 
was  held  in  high  repute.  He  there  became  acquaint- 
ed with  the  Dutch  Church  and  language,  and  was  prov- 
identially prepared  for  his  ministrj^  in  America.  The 
bitter  controversy  concerning  the  use  of  the  Dutch  lan- 
guage in  preaching  in  the  Reformed  Church  of  this 
country  was  practically  settled  by  the  call  and  accept- 
ance of  Dr.  Laidlie  as  pastor  of  the  Collegiate  Church 
of  Xew  York.  He  was  the  tirst  minister  called  to  preach 
in  the  English  tongue  in  this  denomination.  His  first 
sermon  was  delivered  April  15,  17(j4,  from  2  Cor.  v,  11. 
It  was  two  hours  long,  most  carefully  prepared,  and  de- 
livered to  an  immense  audience  with  great  effect  in  the 
Jliddle  Dutch  Church,  which  was  set  apart  for  his  use 
on  a  part  of  each  Sabbath  day.  This  event  marks  a 
new  era  in  the  history  of  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church, 
and  which  Dr.  Livingston  declared  '•  shoidd  have  begun 
a  hundred  years  before."  It  would  have  saved  the 
Church  a  civd  lawsidt,  a  weary  ecclesiastical  strife,  and 
a  century  of  growth.  Trained  in  the  Scotch  theology, 
and  warmly  devoted  to  the  Dutch  Church,  Dr.  LaidUe's 
evangelical  and  powerful  ministry  resulted  in  great  spir- 
itual blessings.  He  was  a  winner  of  souls.  A  great 
reviv^al  crowned  his  ministry.  Crowds  waited  upon  his 
preaching.  His  pastoral  tact  and  success  were  rcmark- 
abl?.  His  brief  ministry  was  interrupted  during  the 
Revolutionary  War,  when  he  retired  to  Red  Hook,  and 
died  there  in  1778,  at  the  age  of  tifty-one,  a  victim  of 
consumption.  His  memory  is  held  in  great  esteem. 
He  was  prudent,  wise,  devout,  a  peacemaker,  and  a 
dauntless  herald  of  the  truth.  Tlie  circumstances  of  his 
c:ill,  the  critical  period  of  his  advent,  the  learning,  wis- 
dom, grace,  and  success  of  his  ministry,  have  made  his 
name  historical  in  his  Church.  He  left  no  printed  books, 
but  his  "  works  do  follow  him."  It  is  related  that  one 
of  his  aged  parishioners  once  said  to  him,  soon  after  he 
came  to  New  York,  "Ah  !  dominie,  we  offered  up  many 
an  earnest  prayer  in  Dutch  for  your  coaaing  among  us, 
and  the  Lord  has  heard  us  in  Enr/lish,  and  has  sent  you 
to  us."  But  his  coming  illustrated  another  phase  of 
contradictory  human  nature  in  those  who  had  most 
strenuously  insisted  upon  the  retention  of  the  language 
of  the  mother  country.  Some  of  these  very  people,  of- 
fendeil  and  baflled  by  their  more  sensible  co-worship- 
pers, actually  left  the  Dutch  Church  and  joined  the 
Episcopal,  saying  as  they  departed,  "  If  we  must  have 
English,  we  will  have  all  English."  Among  them  were 
the  Stuyvesants,  Livingstons,  and  other  eminent  fami- 
lies of  the  city,  who  have  ever  since  been  connected 
with  the  latter  denomination. — Dr.  Thos.  Do  Witt,  His- 
torical Discourse  (ISM) :  Dr.  Gunn,  IJ/'e  oj' Dr.  Lirin/j- 
stoii;  Sprague,  Ann.  of  the  Anier.  Pulpit,  vol.  ix.  (W. 
J.  R.  T.) 

Lainez  (or  Laynes),  Francisco,  a  Portuguese 
Roman  Catholic  missionary,  was  born  at  Lisbon  in  165G. 
His  true  name  was  Francisco  Troi/ano.  He  joined  the 
.Jesuits  in  1G72,  and  was  sent  to  the  coast  of  Malabar  in 
Ki.Sl.  He  landed  at  Goa,  and  settled  az  Catur,  in  Ma- 
dura. It  is  claimed  by  his  order  that  lie  baptized  there 
13,G00  inhabitants.  After  a  residence  of  twenty-two 
years  in  India  he  returned  to  Rome  in  1703,  and  was 


appointed  bishop  of  Meliapur.  In  1708  he  started  again 
for  India,  and  arrived  at  (Joa  September  25, 1709.  Here 
he  now  had  many  difficulties  with  the  civil  authori- 
ties, and  finally  retired  to  the  Jesuits'  establishment  at 
Chandernagore,  where  he  died,  June  11,  1715.  He 
wrote,  DeJ'ensio  Iiidicarum  Missionum  Madurensis  et 
Carnotensis,  etc.  (Rome,  1707,  4to) :  —  Carta  esorita  de 
Mudure  aos  padres  da  companhia  missionarios  acerca 
do  V.  P.  Joiio  de  Brito,  translated  into  French  in  the 
Letires  edifiantes  et  curieuses,  ii,  1-56 ;  and  in  the  Mer- 
cure,  under  the  title  Lettre  dn  P.  Francois  de  Laynes, 
jesuite,  etc.  (^larch,  1695).  See  Barbosa  Machado,  Bih- 
liotheca  Lusitana;  P.  Prat,  Vie  de  Jean  de  Brito  (2  vols. 
8vo) ;  Franco.  Imaffern  da  virtude  uro  noviciado  de  Coim- 
bra  (2  vols,  fol.) ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gen.  xxx,  41. 

Lainez,  lago,  a  celebrated  Spanish  Jesuit,  was 
born  at  Almancario,  near  Siguenca,  in  Castile,  in  1512, 
and  was  educated  at  the  high-school  of  AJcsJa.  In  his 
nineteenth  year  he  was  attracted  to  Paris  by  the  renown 
of  Ignatius,  and  at  once  became  one  of  his  most  ardent 
followers.  He  accompanied  Loj'ola  on  his  journey  to 
Rome,  and  there  obtained  from  pope  Paul  HI  the  ap- 
pointment to  a  professor's  chair  in  the  "  Collegium  della 
Sapienza."  On  the  death  of  the  great  leader  of  the 
Jesuitical  order  (in  155C)  Lainez  was  elected  his  suc- 
cessor, and  became  general  of  the  order  (.June  19, 1557). 
A  cardinal's  hat  and  other  high  positions  he  refused, 
determined  to  devote  all  his  time  and  energy  to  the  in- 
terests of  the  new  order.  In  the  Council  of  Trent, 
where,  with  Salmeron,  he  represented  Ids  order,  he  took 
an  active  part,  anil  opposed  the  doctrine  of  Seripando 
on  justification.  Lainez  appeared  on  the  field  of  con- 
troversy more  with  a  work  on  the  subject  than  with  a 
speech.  He  had  the  greatest  number  of  the  divines  on 
his  side.  He  also  took  a  leading  part  in  that  conned  in 
the  discussion  concerning  the  divine  right  of  bishops 
and  the  infallibility  of  the  pope.  The  historians  have 
preserved  a  very  full  report  of  his  speech  on  this  point. 
It  contains  the  most  extravagant  assertions  of  pontifical 
power  and  authority.  Lainez  maintained  that  Jesus 
Christ  is  sole  ruler  of  his  Church  ;  that  when  he  left  the 
world  he  constituted  Peter  and  his  successors  his  vic- 
ars ;  that,  in  consequence,  the  pope  is  absolute  lord  and 
master,  supreme  and  infallible ;  that  bishops  derive  from 
him  their  power  and  jurisdiction;  and  that,  in  fact, 
there  is  no  power  whatever  in  the  Church  excepting 
that  which  emanates  from  him,  so  that  even  general 
councils  have  no  authority,  are  not  infallible,  do  not  en- 
joy the  inriuence  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  unless  they  are 
summoned  and  controlled  by  papal  authority  (compare 
Pallav.  lib.  xviii,  s.  15  ;  Sarpi,  lib.  vii,  s.  20;  Le  Plat,  v, 
524).  Lainez  also  took  an  active  part  (in  1501)  in  the 
Conference  of  Poissy  (q.  v.),  where  he  aimed  to  concili- 
ate the  Huguenots  (q.  v.,  especiall}'  p.  392).  At  Ven- 
ice he  afterwards  expounded  the  Gospel  of  St.  John  for 
the  express  edification  of  the  nobility ;  and,  aided  by 
Lippomano,  he  succeeded  in  laying  the  foundation  of  a 
college  of  Jesuits.  He  devoted  great  attention  to  the 
schools,  and  directed  the  thoughts  of  his  order  towards^ 
education,  ^Vell  aware  tiiat  man  is  most  intiuenced  dur- 
ing his  whole  life  by  his  earl}'  impressions.  In  some 
parts  of  Germany — at  Ingolstadt  for  instance — the  Jes- 
uits soon  acquired  the  reputation  of  most  successful 
teachers.  This  new  direction  given  to  the  order  by 
Lainez  came  near,  however,  involving  them  in  serious 
difficulties :  the  Jesuits  had  at  first  attached  themselves 
to  the  doctrinal  views  of  the  Thomists;  but,  desiring  to 
be  independent  in  doctrine  as  well  as  life,  the  Inquisition 
soon  found  reasons  to  criticise  the  freedom  with  ^vhich 
they  pursued  their  speculations  on  this  point,  and  Lai- 
nez himself  was  suspected  by  the  Spanish  Inquisition 
(see  Llorente,  iii,  83).  He  died  at  Rome  Jan.  19,  1565. 
It  was  under  the  guidanJI  of  Lainez  that  the  spirit  of 
intrigue  entered  freely  into  the  society.  He  possessed 
a  peculiar  craftiness  and  dexterity  in  managing  affairs, 
and  was  freipiently  led  by  it  into  lov.-  and  unworthy 
tricks.     His  ruling  passion  was  ambition,  which  he 


LAING 


196 


LAISH 


knew  well  how  to  conceal  iiiulcr  a  veil  of  humility  and 
piety.  ,Bv  liis  artful  policy  lie  transformed  the  charac- 
ter of  the  Jesuitical  order  into  a  terrible  army,  that,  for 
the  sake  of  advancing  its  o\ni  interests,  shrunk  from 
no  attempt  to  gain  its  ends;  an  order  which  has  be- 
come a  reproach  to  the  Church  that  gave  it  birth.  The 
.lesuits  in  the  19th  century  are  recognised  as  a  bold 
band  —  an  order  which  dares  to  undermine  states,  to 
rend  the  Church,  and  even  to  menace  the  pope.  See 
JiistiTS.  Lainez  wrote  several  theological  works,  but 
none  of  them  had  been  completed,  and  nothing  from 
his  pen,  except  some  speeches,  has  ever  been  print- 
ed. See  Michel  d'Esne,  Vie  de  Laiiiez  (Douai,  1597) ; 
'iiicolhn,  Hist.  Jesuits,  p.  506  sq.;  Veisuch  einer  neuen 
Gesch.  des  Jesuiterordens,  vol.  ii ;  Mosheim,  Eccles.  Hist. 
iii,  90,  n.  20 ;  Ranke,  Hist,  of  the  Papaqj,  16th  and  17th 
Centuries,  i,  145, 153, 163,  399,  585 ;  Hardwick,  Hist.  Ref. 
ch.  viii;  Pierer,  Universal-Lexikon,  x,  31;  and  for  the 
Roman  Catholic  version,  Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirchen- 
Lexikon,  vi,  316.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Laing,  James,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  born  in 
Berry  Holes  of  Plain,  Perth  County,  Scotland,  in  1785, 
and  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  where 
he  graduated  with  distinction  in  1816.  After  teaching 
for  some  time,  he  determined  to  devote  himself  to  the 
ministry,  and  in  1825  was  licensed  by  the  Glasgow  Relief 
Presbyterj-.  May  8, 1830,  he  emigrated  to  the  United 
States;  was  ordained  by  Washington  Classis  in  1832, 
and  was  installed  pastor  of  the  Church  in  Argyle,  N.  Y. 
In  183-1  he  removed  to  Andes,  where  he  died  Nov.  15, 
1858.  •'  Mr.  Laing  was  a  man  to  be  esteemed,  loved, 
and  trusted — a  laborious  pastor  and  '  Israelite  indeed,  in 
whom  there  was  no  guile.' " — Wilson,  Fresh.  Histoi-ical 
Almanac,  1867,  p.  359. 

La'ish  (Heb.  La'yish,  d^b  Judg.  xviii,  14,  27, 29 ;  1 
Sam.  XXV,  44,  a  lion,  as  in  Isa.  xxx,  6,  etc.,  in  pause  d^b^ 
text  'CJlb,  2  Sam.  iii,  15,  with  n  local  fT^?^ ;  Judg.  xviii, 
7 ;  Isa.  X,  30 ;  Sept.  AdiQ  in  Sam.,  Aaitju  in  Judg.,  An- 
laa  in  Isa. ;  Yulg.  Lais,  but  Laisa  in  Isa.),  the  nanae  of 
at  least  one  place  and  perhaps  also  of  a  man. 

1.  A  city  in  the  extreme  northern  border  of  Pales- 
tine (Judglxviii,7, 14, 27,29),  also  called  Lesheji  (Josh. 
xix,  47),  and  subsequently,  after  being  occupied  by  a 
colony  of  Danites  (Josh,  xix,  47;  Judg.  xviii,  27  sq.), 
also  Dax  (Judg.  xviii,  29;  Jer.  viii,  16),  a  name  some- 
times given  to  it  in  anticipation  (Gen.  xiv,  14 ;  Deut. 
xxxiv,  1;  comp.  Jahn,£'i«?«V.  II,i,66;  Hug,  in  the /"ret - 
burr/.  Zeitschr.  v,  137  sq.).  It  lay  in  a  fruitful  district, 
near  the  sources  of  the  upper  Jordan  (Josephus,  A  ni.  viii, 
8, 4),  four  miles  from  Paneas  towards  Tyre  (Eusebius, 
Onomasf.).  Saadias  and  the  Samaritan  version  falsely 
give,  instead  of  Dan  (in  Gen.  xiv,  14),  "Paneas"  (see 
Winer,  Diss,  de  vers.  Sam.  p.  54),  which  also  Jerome  (at 
Ezek.  xxvii,  15,  and  Amos  viii,  14)  gives  as  an  equiva- 
lent. Laish  was  long  the  seat  of  a  corrupt  >vorship  of 
Jehovah  (Judg.  xviii,  14  sq.),  and  as  it  fell  within  the 
kingdom  of  Israel,  Jeroboam  established  there  the  idola- 
try of  the  golden  calf  (1  Kings  xii,  28  sq.).— Winer,  ii,4. 
The  occupation  of  this  place  by  the  Sidonians  is  easily 
accounted  for.  Sidon  was  a  commercial  city.  Situated 
on  the  coast,  with  only  a  narrow  strip  of  plain  beside  it, 
and  the  bare  and  rocky  side  of  Lebanon  impending  over 
it,  a  large  and  constant  supjily  of  food  had  to  be  brought 
from  a  distance.  The  plain  around  Laish  is  one  of  the 
richest  in  Syria,  and  tlie  enterprising  Phoenicians  took 
possession  of  it,  built  a  town,  and  ])laced  in  it  a  large 
colonj'  of  laborers,  expecting  to  draw  from  it  an  unfail- 
ing supply  of  corn  and  fruit.  Josephus  calls  this  plain 
''  the  great  plain  of  the  city  of  Sidon"  (.1  nl.  v,  3, 1).  A 
road  was  made  across  the  mountains  to  it  at  an  immense 
cost,  and  still  forms  one  of  thejnain  roads  from  the  sea- 
coast  to  the  interior.  Strong\astles  were  built  to  pro- 
tect the  road  and  the  colony.  Kulat  esh-Shukif,  one 
of  the  strongest  fortresses  in  Syria,  stands  on  a  com- 
manding hill  over  the  place  \vhcre  the  ancient  road 
crosses  the  river  Leoutes.  and  it  is  manifestly  of  Phoeni- 


cian origin.  So  also  the  great  castles  of  Banias,  four 
miles  east  of  Laish,  and  Ilunhi.  about  six  miles  Mcst  of 
it,  Avere  founded  by  the  I'hoenicians,  as  is  evident  from 
the  character  of  their  architecture  (Porter,  Handhouk;  p. 
444,  447  ;  Robinson,  Researches,  iii,  50,  52, 371,  403).  It 
is  most  interesting  to  discover,  after  the  lapse  of  more 
tlian  three  thousand  years,  distinct  traces  of  the  wealth 
and  enterprise  of  the  Phoenicians  around  the  site  and 
fertile  plain  of  Laish. — Kitto,  s.  v.    See  Dan. 

2.  A  place  mentioned  in  Isa.  x,  30,  where  the  proph- 
et, in  describing  tlie  advance  of  the  Assyrian  host  upon 
Jerusalem,  enumerates  Laish  with  a  number  of  other 
towns  on  the  north  of  the  city.  It  is  not  quite  certain 
whether  the  writer  is  here  relating  a  real  event,  or  de- 
tailing a  prophetic  vision,  or  giving  a  solemn  warning 
under  a  striking  allegory ;  but,  however  this  may  be,  the 
description  is  singularly  graphic,  and  the  line  of  march 
is  pointed  out  with  remarkable  minuteness  and  precis- 
ion. Aiath,Migron,  and  Michmash  are  passed;  the  deep 
ravine  which  separates  the  latter  from  Geba  is  then 
crossed ;  Ramah  sees  and  is  afraid — '•  Gibcah  of  Saul  is 
tied."  The  writer  now,  with  great  dramatic  effect, 
changes  his  mode  of  description.  To  terror  and  flight 
he  appends  an  exclamation  of  alarm,  representing  one 
place  as  crj^ing,  another  as  listening,  and  a  third  as  re- 
sponding — "  Lift  up  thy  voice,  daughter  of  Gallim  ! 
Hearken, Laishah  !  Alas,  poor  Anathoth  !"  The  words 
niij^b  "2^'ll'pin  are  rendered  in  the  A.  Y.,  '-Cause  it 
(thy  voice)  to  be  heard  unto  Laish" — that  is,  apparent- 
ly, to  the  northern  border-city  of  Palestine ;  following 
the  version  of  Junius  and  TremeUius,  and  the  comment 
of  Grotius,  because  tlie  last  syllable  of  the  name  which 
appears  here  as  Laishah  is  taken  to  be  the  Hebrew  par- 
ticle of  motion,  "to  Laish"  (agreeably  to  the  Hebrew 
accent),  as  is  undoubtedly  the  case  in  Judg.  xviii,  7. 
But  such  a  rendering  is  foimd  neither  in  any  of  the  an- 
cient versions,  nor  in  those  of  modern  scholars,  as  Gese- 
nius,  Ewald,  Zimz,  etc. ;  nor  is  the  Hebrew  word  here 
rendered  "  cause  it  to  be  heard"  foimd  elsewhere  in  that 
voice,  but  always  absolute  —  "  hearken"  or  "  attend." 
There  is  a  certain  violence  in  the  sudden  introduction 
amongst  these  little  Benjamite  villages  of  the  frontier 
town  so  very  far  remote,  and  not  less  in  the  use  of  its 
ancient  name,  elsewhere  so  constantly  superseded  by 
Dan  (see  Jer.  viii,  16).  Laishah  was  doubtless  a  small 
town  on  the  line  of  march  near  Anathoth  (see  Lowth, 
Umbreit,  Alexander,  Gesenius,  ad  loc). — Kitto;  Smith. 
INIany,  therefore,  understanding  a  different  place  from 
Dan  (Kosenmiiller,  A  Iterth.  Ill,  ii,  191 ;  Hitzig  and  Kno- 
hQ\,  Comment,  ad  loc),  regard  it  as  the  Laisa  (E\taai(, 
Cod.  Alex.  'AX«(7«)  mentioned  in  1  Mace,  ix,  5;  but  Re- 
land  has  shown  that  the  city  of  Judah  there  referred  to 
is  Adasa,  and  the  form  of  the  word  in  Isa.  does  not  war- 
rant this  interpretation  (see  Gesenius,  Comment,  ad  loc). 
This  Adasa  has  been  discovered  by  Eli  Smith  in  the 
modern  ruined  village  Adasa,  immediately  north  of  Je- 
rusalem (Robinson,  Researches,  iii,  Append,  p.  121). 

A  writer  in  Fairbairn's  Dictionanj  plausibly  suggests 
that  the  Laishah  in  question  may  be  found  in  the  pres- 
ent little  village  El-Isaiviyeh,  in  a  valley  about  a  milo 
N.E.  of  Jerusalem  (Robinson,  Researches,  ii,  108),  beauti- 
fully situated,  and  unquestionably  occupying  an  ancient 
site'  (Tobler,  TopoyrajMe  von  Jerusalem,  ii,  §  719). 

3.  A  native  of  GaUim,  and  father  of  Phalti  or  Phal- 
tiel,  to  which  latter  Saul  gave  David's  wife  Michal  (1 
Sam.  XXV,  44 ;  2  Sam.  iii,  15,  in  which  latter  passage  the 
text  appears  to  have  read  d^b.  Lush).  B.C.  ante  1062. 
"It  is  very  rcmarkal)le  that  the  names  of  Laish  (La- 
isliali)  and  Gallim  should  be  found  in  conjunction  at  a 
much  later  date  (Isa.  x.  30)"  (Smith).  "  This  associa- 
tion of  names  makes  it  more  than  probable  that  Laishah 
was  founded  by  Michal's  father-in-law,  who,  according 
to  the  custom  of  those  times,  gave  it  his  own  name. 
The  allusion  to  the  lion  which  it  involves  is  interesting, 
for  this  neighborhood  was  another  of  the  favorite  haunts 
of  that  animal.    It  was  by  such  ravines  as  wadys  Farah 


LAISHAH 


197 


LAKE 


and  Selam  that  it  was  wont  to  '  come  up  from  the  swell- 
ing of  Jordan'  (Jer.  xlix,  19) ;  in  the  opposite  direction 
we  have  a  further  trace  of  it  in  the  Chephirah  ('  young 
lion,'  now  Kefir)  of  western  Benjamin  (Josh,  ix,  17 ; 
xviii,  2G) ;  northward,  we  find  it  encountering  the  dis- 
obedient propliet  on  his  return  from  Bethel  (1  Kings 
xiii,  24:) ;  while  in  the  pastures  of  Bethlehem  to  the 
south  we  see  it  vanquished  by  the  sujierior  jjrowess  of 
the  youthful  David  {l  Sam.  xvii,  14-17)"  (Fairbairn). 

Laishah  (Heb.  La'yeshah,  iT^'^^,  i.e.  Laish,  with  H 
paragogic,  Isa.  x,  30).     See  Laish,  2. 

Laity,  the  people  as  distinguished  from  the  clergy. 
The  (ireek  word  XdiKoQ,  derived  from  Xaof  (Latin  syn- 
onyme  pkbs),  people,  and  signifying  one  of  the  peo])k',  is 
retained  in  the  Latin  laicus,  from  which  laitij  is  derived. 
In  the  Sept.Xaof  is  used  as  the  synonyme  of  the  Hebrew 
nS",  2^t02^le.  As  synonymes  of  these  Scripture  terms  we 
may  also  cite  the  words  "  faithful,"  "  saints,"  and  "  idi-* 
ot£e"  (q.  v.).  Comp.  Kiddle,  Christian  A  n'iqHilies,  p.  188 
sq.,  274,  275 ;  Vinet,  Pastoral  Theolor/;)  (N.  Y.  1854),  p. 
345.  In  the  O.-T.  Scriptures  we  find  allusions  to  the 
luity  in  Dent,  xviii,  3,  where  upon  them  is  laid  the  ob- 
ligation to  pay  a  tithe  to  the  priest  when  offering  sacri- 
fice; and  in  Ezokiel's  vision  of  the  new  Temple,  where 
"  the  ministers  of  the  house"  (o'l  Xtirovpyovi'rti;)  are  to 
boil  the  sacrifices  of  the  laity  (Ezek.  xlvi,  24).  So  also 
in  1  Chron.  xvi,  36,  "all  the  laity  said  Amen,  and  praised 
the  Lord,"  when  Asaph  and  his  brethren  had  finished 
the  psalm  given  to  tliem  by  David ;  see  likewise  2  Kings 
xxiii,  2,  3  ;  Neh.  viii,  1 1 ;  Isa.  xxiv,  2 ;  IIos.  iv,  9.  In 
the  N.-T.  Scriptures  this  distinction  seems  to  have  been 
ignored  by  Christ  and  his  apostles,  for,  although  there 
arc  passages  in  which  the  laity  are  spoken  of  as  a  class, 
it  is  nowhere  intimated  that  they  were  not  allowed  to 
exercise  the  prerogatives  of  the  clergy  in  a  great  meas- 
ure. Coleman  (^The  Apostolical  and  Primitive  Church 
[Phila.  1869, 12mo],  p.  230 ;  compare  p.  226  [6]),  one  of 
the  best  autliorities  on  Christian  antiquities,  holds  that 
in  the  earlj"^  stages  of  Christianity  "  all  were  accustomed 
to  teach  and  to  baptize,"  a  practice  to  which  Tertullian 
(born  about  A.D.  160)  soon  objected  (Z'e  Prwscript.  ch. 
xli).  From  the  writings  of  the  early  fathers,  it  is  evi- 
dent, moreover,  that  only  in  the  2d  and  3d  centuries, 
after  the  general  establishment  of  the  churches,  a  stricter 
distinction  was  inaugurated.  The  introduction  of  the 
episcopal  office,  however,  first  definitely  settled  the  po- 
sition of  the  layman  in  the  Church.  As  early  as  A.D. 
182,  or  thereabouts,  we  find  Clement  of  Rome  pointing 
to  the  laity  as  a  distinct  class.  In  a  letter  of  his  to  the 
Corinthians  respecting  the  order  of  the  Church,  after 
defining  the  positions  of  the  bishops,  priests,  and  dea- 
cons respectively,  he  adds,  6  Xa'iKog  ui>^poj-jro(;  toXq  \a- 
V/co7c  TvaocTayfiamv  oi^irai,  "the  laj'man  is  bound  by 
the  laws  which  belong  to  laymen"  {Ad  Corinth,  i,  40). 
A  little  later,  Cyprian  (born  about'  the  beginning  of  the 
3d  century)  uses  the  words  "  clerus"  and  "  plebs"  as  of 
the  two  bodies  which  make  up  the  Christian  Church 
(£/7.  Ix).  But  the  idea  that  the  priesthood  formed  an 
intermediate  class  between  God  (Christ)  and  the  Chris- 
tian community  first  became  prevalent  during  the  cor- 
ruptions that  ensued  upon  the  establishment  of  the  prel- 
acy. Gradually,  as  the  power  of  the  hierarchy  increased, 
the  infliK'uce  which  the  laity  had  exercised  in  tlie  gov- 
ernment of  the  Church  was  taken  from  them,  and  in 
602  a  synod  held  at  Kome  under  Sj'mmachus  finall}'  de- 
prived the  layman  of  all  activity  in  the  management 
of  any  of  the  affairs  of  the  Church  (compare  Coleman, 
Apostolic  and  Primitive  Church,  p.  118). 

In  the  Church  of  the  Reformers  a  very  different  spirit 
prevailed.  All  Christians  were  looked  upon  as  consti- 
tuting a  common  and  equal  priesthood.  Still  the  desire 
of  making  a  visible  distinction  often  led  even  the  Prot- 
estant Church  astray,  and  to  this  day  the  question  re- 
mains unsettled  in  some  churches  how  far  the  laity 
ought  to  share  in  the  government  of  the  Church ;  and 
hence  the  depth  of  the  distinction  implied  in  the  use  of 


the  word  "clergy"  and  "  laity"  varies  with  the  "Church" 
views  of  those  employing  them.  Some  very  strict  Prot- 
estants prefer  the  words  "mmister"  and  "people"  in- 
stead of  clergy  and  laity. 

Farrar  (in  his  Eccles.  Diet,  p.  349  sq.)  thus  draws  the 
line  of  distinction  between  the  clergy  and  laity  of  the 
Protestant  Church :  "  It  is  for  the  sake  of  the  people 
that  the  ordinances  of  religion,  and  the  clergy  as  the 
dispensers  of  them,  exist ;  they  are  called  to  bear  the 
burdens  of  the  Church,  as  they  receive  its  benefits.  It 
is,  however,  questioned  by  some  how  far  the  professional 
distinctions  between  clergy  and  laity  are  desirable.  As 
religious  teachers,  the  clergy  may  be  expected  to  be 
more  especially  occupied  in  fitting  themselves  for  that 
ofHce  in  qualifying  themselves  to  explain,  and  to  en- 
force on  others,  the  evidences,  the  doctrines,  and  the 
obligations ;  but  they  are  not  to  be  expected  to  under- 
stand more  of  things  surpassing  human  reason  than  God 
has  made  known  by  revelation,  or  to  be  the  depositories 
of  certain  mysterious  speculative  doctrines;  but  '■sttiv- 
ards  of  the  mysteries  of  God,'  rightly  dividing  (or  dis- 
pensing, opSioTOjioin'TEc)  the  word  of  the  truth.  The  la- 
ity are  in  danger  of  perverting  Christianity,  and  making 
it,  in  fact,  two  religions,  one  for  the  initiated  fe;v,  and  one 
for  the  mass  of  the  people,  who  are  to  follow  implicitly 
the  guidance  of  the  others,  trusting  to  their  vicarious 
wisdom,  and  piety,  and  learning.  They  are  to  lioware 
of  the  lurking  tendency  which  is  in  the  hearts  of  all 
men  to  that  very  error  which  has  been  openly  sanction- 
ed and  estal)lished  in  the  Romish  and  Greek  churches — 
the  error  of  thinking  to  serve  God  by  a  deputy  and  rep- 
resentative; of  regarding  the  learning  and  faith,  the 
prayers  and  piety,  and  the  scrupidous  sanctity  of  the 
'  priest'  as  being  in  some  way  or  other  transferred  from 
him  to  the  people.  The  laity  are  also  to  be  constantly 
warned  that  the  source  of  these  errors  lies  in  the  very 
fact  of  thus  regarding  the  clergyman  as  a  priest  (in  the 
sacerdotal  sense  of  that  term),  as  holding  a  kind  of  me- 
diatorial position,  one  which  makes  him  something  dis- 
tinct from,  and  therefore  no  rule  for  themselves ;  a  view 
whicli,  while  it  unduly  exalts  the  clergy,  tends  most 
mischievously  to  degrade  the  tone  of  religion  and  mor- 
als among  the  people,  by  making  them  contented  with 
a  less  measure  of  strictness  of  life  and  seriousness  of  de- 
meanor than  they  require  in  their  ministers.  Laymen 
need  also  to  be  reminded  that  they  constitute,  though 
not  exclusively,  yet  principally,  'the  Church;'  the  cler- 
gy being  the  7ninisfers  of  '  the  Church'  (1  Cor.  iii,  5) ; 
that  it  is  for  the  people's  sakes  that  the  ordinances  of 
religion,  and  the  clergy,  as  dispensers  of  the  same,  ex- 
ist; that  they  are  the  'body  of  Christ;'  that  on  them 
rests  the  duty  of  bearing  the  burdens,  as  they  receive 
the  benefits  of  the  Church;  and,  finally,  that  there  is  no 
difference  between  tliem  and  the  clergy  in  Church 
standing,  except  that  the  clergy  are  the  officers  of  each 
particular  church,  to  minister  tlie  Word  and  sacraments 
to  that  portion  of  its  members  over  whom  they  are 
placed."  See  Clergy;  Lay  Representation;  Lay' 
Preaching;  Mediator;  Ministry;  Pastoral  Of- 
fice; Priest.     (J.  H.W.) 

Lake  (Xlj-ivi],  a  pool),  a  term  used  in  the  N.  T.  only 
of  the  Lake  of  Gennesareth(Luke  v,  1,2;  viii,  22, 23, 33), 
and  of  the  burning  sulijhurous  pool  of  Hades  (Rev.  xix, 
20 ;  XX,  10, 14, 15;  xxi,  8).  The  more  usual  word  is  sea 
(q.  v.).  The  principal  lakes  of  Palestine,  besides  the 
above  Sea  of  Tiberias,  are  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Wa- 
ters of  Morom.     See  each  in  its  place. 

Lake,  Arthur,  a  distinguished  English  prelate,  was 
born  at  Southampton  about  1550,  and  was  educated  at 
Winchester  School,  and  at  New  College,  Oxford,  of  which 
latter  he  was  chosen  fellow  in  1589.  He  became  suc- 
cessively archdeacon  of  Surrey  in  1605,  dean  of  AVorces- 
ter  in  1608,  and  finally  bishop  of  Bath  and  AA'ells  in  1616. 
He  died  l\Iay  4, 1626.  Lake  made  important  donations 
to  the  library  of  New  College,  an<l  founded  a  chair  for 
Hebrew  and  for  mathematics  in  that  institution.  He 
was  a  very  learned  man,  especially  versed  in  the  ancient 


LAKE 


198 


LA  LUZERNE 


fathers,  and  very  successful  as  a  preacher.  After  his 
death  there  vere  pubUshetl  several  volumes  of  his  ser- 
mons:  Expoaition  It f  the  First  Psalm ;  Exposition  of  the 
J'i/'l //-first  J'siiliii ;  and  Meditations — all  of  which  were 
collected  and  published  in  one  volume,  under  the  title 
I\'inety-nine  iSermons,  with  some  Religious  and  Divine 
Meditations  (Lond.  1629,  fol.)  r — Theses  de  Sahhato  (at  the 
end  of  Twisse  on  the  Sabbath) : — On  Love  to  6'o(/ (Tracts 
of  Angl.  Fathers,  4, 39).  See  \^' oot\,  Athence  Oxonienses ; 
Chalmers,  General  Biogr.  Dictionary ;  Walton,  Life  of 
Dp.  Sanderson ;  Hook,  Ecclesiastical  Biograj)]ig,  vi,  509  : 
Darling,  Cyclopcedia  Dibliograjihica,  ii,  1755 ;  Allibone, 
Diet.  Engl,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  ii,  1048. 

Lake,  John,  D.D.,  a  noted  English  prelate,  flour- 
ished in  the  second  half  of  the  17th  century.  He  was 
bishop  of  Sodor  and  Man  in  1G8-2;  was  transferred  to 
Eristol  in  1G84,  and  in  1685  to  Chichester.  In  1689  he 
was  ejected  for  nonconfonnity.  He  died  about  the  close 
of  the  1 7th  century.  Lake  published  only  a  few  sermons 
(1670,  4to;  1671,  4to,  etc.).  See  Defence  of  B2\  Lake's 
Profession,  etc.  (1690,  4to). — AUibone,  Diet.  English  and 
American  A  uthors,  ii,  1048. 

Lakeniacher,  .Johann  Gottfried,  a  German  the- 
ologian and  Orientalist,  was  born  at  Osterwyck,  near 
Halberstadt.Nov.  17, 1695,  and  was  educated  at  the  uni- 
versities of  Helmstiidt  and  Halle.  In  1724  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  Greek,  and  in  1727  of  Oriental  lit- 
erature at  Halle.  He  died  March  16, 1736.  His  works 
are,  Elementa  lingua;  A  rahicxe  (Helmst.  1718, 4to),  a  work 
which  has  been  highly  commended  for  its  intrinsic  value 
as  an  introduction  to  the  study  of  the  Arabic  language : 
— Obsei-vationes  philologiccp,  quihus  varia  prcecipue  S. 
Codicis  loca  ex  antiquitatihus  illustrantur  (pars  i-x,  ibid, 
1725-33,  8vo,  and  often): — Antiquitates  Greecorum  Sa- 
crce  (ibid,  1734,  8vo). — During,  Gelehrte  Thcol.  Deutsch- 
lands,  ii,  223. 

Lakin,  Benjajiin,  a  jSIethodist  minister,  was  horn 
in  :Montgomery  Co.,  J\Id.,  Aug.  23, 1767 ;  was  converted 
in  1791,  and  shortly  after  entered  the  ministry.  His  first 
station  Avas  Hinkston  Circuit  (Nov.  6, 1794) ;  he  joined 
Holston  Conference  in  1795,  and  was  appointed  to  Green 
Circuit.  "  Diligently  and  successfully  Mr.  Lakin  labored 
in  the  Lord's  vineyard  until  1818,  when  his  health  and 
.strength  so  far  failed  him  that  he  was  obliged  to  retire 
from  the  active  ranks  of  the  ministry.  ...  He  was  at 
first  placed  on  the  list  of  suiiernumerary  preachers,  but 
soon  after  on  the  superannuate  mil.  This  relation  to 
his  Conference  he  sustained  until  liis  death,"  Feb.  5, 1849. 
See  Prof  Sam.  Williams,  in  Sprague,  A  nnuls  A  mer.  Pul- 
2nf,  vii,  267  sq. 

Lakshmi  is  the  name  of  a  female  Hindu  deity,  the 
consort  of  the  god  Vishnu  (q.  v.).  According  to  the 
mystical  doctrine  of  the  worshippers  of  Vishnu,  this  god 
produced  the  three  goddesses  Brahmi,. Lakshmi,  and 
Chandika,  the  first  representing  his  creating,  the  second 
his  preserving,  and  the  lliinl  his  destroying  energy. 
This  view,  however,  founded  on  the  superiority  of  Vish- 
nu over  the  two  other  gods  of  the  Hindu  triad — Brah- 
mi or  Saraswati  being  generally  looked  upon  as  the  en- 
ergy of  Brahma,  and  Chandika,  another  name  of  Durga, 
as  the  energy  of  Siva — is  later  than  the  myth,  relating 
to  Lakshmi,  of  the  epic  period  ;  for,  according  to  the  lat- 
ter, she  is  the  goddess  of  Fortune  and  of  Beauty,  and 
arose  from  the  Ocean  of  ^Milk  when  it  was  churned  by 
the  gods  to  procure  the  beverage  of  Immortality,  and  it 
was  only  after  this  wonderful  occurrence  that  she  be- 
came the  wife  of  Vishnu.  When  she  emerged  from  the 
agitated  milk-sea,  one  text  of  the  Ramayana  relates, 
"she  was  reposing  on  a  lotus-flower,  endowed  with  tran- 
scendent beauty,  in  the  first  bloom  of  youth,  her  body 
covered  with  all  kinds  of  ornaments,  and  marked  witli 
every  auspicious  sign.  .  .  .  TlTus  originated,  and  adored 
by  the  world,  the  goddess,  who  is  also  called  Padma  and 
(S^'i,  betook  herself  to  the  bosom  of  Hari — i.  c.  Vishnu."' 

A  curious  festival  is  celebrated  in  honor  of  Lakshmi 
on  the  fifth  lunar  day  of  the  light  half  of  the  month  Ma- 


gha  (February),  when  she  is  identified  with  Saraswati, 
the  consort  of  Brahma,  and  the  goddess  of  learning.  In 
his  treatise  on  festivals,  Kaghunandana,  a  great  modern 
authority,  mentions,  on  the  faith  of  a  work  called  Sam- 
watsara-sandipa,  that  this  divinity  is  to  be  worshipped 
in  the  forenoon  of  that  day  with  flowers,  perfumes,  rice, 
and  water;  that  due  honor  is  to  be  paid  to  inkstand  and 
writing-reed,  and  no  writing  to  be  done.  Wilson,  in  his 
essay  on  the  Religious  Festivals  of  the  Hindus  {Wo7-ks,\\, 
188  sq.),  thus  describes  the  celebration:  "On  the  morn- 
ing of  the  2d  of  February  the  whole  of  the  pens  and  ink- 
stands, and  the  books,  if  not  too  numerous  and  bulky, 
are  collected,  the  pens  or  reeds  cleaned,  the  inkstands 
scoured,  and  the  books,  wrapped  \i\}  in  new  cloth,  are  ar- 
ranged upon  a  platform  or  a  sheet,  and  strewn  over  with 
flowers  and  blades  of  j'oung  barley,  and  that  no  flowers 
except  white  are  to  be  offered.  After  performing  the 
necessary  rites  .  .  .  all  the  members  of  the  family  as- 
semble and  make  their  prostrations — the  books,  the  pens 
and  ink,  having  an  entire  holiday ;  and,  should  any  emer- 
gency require  a  written  communication  on  the  day  ded- 
icated to  the  divinity  of  scholarship,  it  is  done  with 
chalk  or  charcoal  upon  a  black  or  white  board."  There 
are  parts  of  India  where  this  festival  is  celebrated  at  dif- 
ferent seasons,  according  to  the  double  aspect  under 
which  Lakshmi  is  viewed  by  her  worshippers.  The  fes- 
tival in  February  seems  originally  to  have  been  a  ver- 
nal feast,  marking  the  commencement  of  the  season  of 
spring. — Chambers,  Cyclopcedia,  s.  v. 

La'kum  (Heb.  Lakhim',  CliTip,  according  to  Gese- 
nius,  way-stopper,  i.  e.  fortified  place;  Sept.  AoKovf^i  v.  r. 
AwSc'tfi  and'AK-poj',  Vulg.  Lecuni),  a  place  on  the  north- 
eastern border  of  Naphtah,  mentioned  after  Jafaiecl  in 
the  direction  of  the  Jordan  (Josh,  xix,  S3),  and  there- 
fore probably  situated  not  far  south  of  Lake  Mcrom.  The 
Talmud  (Mcgilloth,ls.s.,  1)  speaks  of  a  Liikim  (Cp"!?), 
perhaps  the  same  place  (see  Belaud, Palcvsf.  p.  875).  The 
site  of  Lakkum  is  possibly  indicated  by  the  ruins  mark- 
ed on  Van  de  Velde's  Map  adjoining  a  small  pool  east 
of  Tell- A  Iha rati  and  south-east  of  Safed. 

Lalita -Vistaiia  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  works  of  Buddhistic  literatm-e.  It  contains 
a  narrative  of  the  life  and  doctrine  of  Buddha  Sakya- 
muni  [see  Buddha],  and  is  considered  by  the  Buddh- 
ists as  one  of  their  nine  chief  works  treating  of  Dharma, 
or  religious  law.  It  is  one  of  the  develojied  sutras  of 
the  Mahayana  system.  An  edition  of  the  Sanscrit  text, 
and  an  English  translation  of  this  work  by  BaLu  \lt- 
jendralal  Mitra,  is  publishing  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal.  A  French  translation  from 
the  Thibetan  has  been  made  hy  Ph.  Ed.  Foucaux.  In 
Chinese  there  are  two  translations  of  it.  See  E.  Biu:- 
nouf  Introduction  a  Vllistcire  da  Buddhisme  Indien  (Par. 
1844);  and  W.  Wassiljew,  Dtr  Euddhismus,  seine  Dog- 
men,  Geschichte  und  Literatur  (St.  Petersbiu-g,  1860). — 
Chambers,  Cyclopwdia,  s.  v. 

Lallemant,  Jacques  Philippe,  a  French  Jes- 
uit, was  born  near  Abbeville  about  ICCO,  and  died  in 
1748.  He  published  a  remarkable  work  entitled  The 
true  Spirit  of  the  new  Disciples  of  Saint  Augustine  (1706 
sq.,  4  vols.).  He  also  wrote  Moral  Refections,  with 
Notes,  on  the  New  Testament  (1714,  11  vols.). 

Lallemant,  Pierre,  a  mystical  French  writer, 
wa..  born  at  Bheims  in  1622,  and  died  in  1673.  He  pub- 
lished The  Spiritual  Testament  (1672),  and  other  works 
of  a  like  character. 

La  Ltizerne,  Cksau  Gi'ii>i.aume  de.  a  distinguish- 
ed French  prelate,  was  born  at  Paris  July  7.  1738.  In- 
tended for  tiie  Church  by  his  family,  he  .studied  at  the 
seminary  of  St.^Magloire,  and  while  yet  quite  young  had 
several  benefits  bestowed  upon  him  through  family  in- 
fluence. In  1754  he  was  made  canon  in  minorihus  of 
the  cathedral  of  I'aris,  and  in  1756  abbot  of  Mortemer. 
In  1762  he  graduated  with  distinction,  and  was  imme- 
diately appointed  grand  vicar  to  the  archbishop  of  Nar- 


LAMA 


199 


LAMAISM 


bonne,  and  in  1770  (Juno  24)  was  finally  raised  to  the 
bishopric  of  Langres.  This  position  securing  him  a  seat 
in  the  States  with  the  nobility,  he  took  an  active  part 
in  political  events,  and  tried  to  conciliate  the  claims 
of  the  third  estate  with  those  of  the  nobility  and  cler- 
gy. He  subsequently  opposed  the  declaration  of  rights 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  new  constitution,  and  spoke 
in  favor  of  making  the  right  of  veto  granted  to  the 
king  more  decisive.  At  the  close  of  August,  1789,  he 
became  president  of  the  Assemblee  Constituante,  but, 
after  witnessing  the  excesses  of  the  5th  and  (3th  of  Oc- 
tober, he  retired  to  his  diocese.  Here  he  strenuously 
ojjposed  the  civil  constitution  of  the  clerg}',  and  was 
obliged  in  1791  to  leave  France.  He  went  successively 
to  Switzerland  and  Austria,  and  finally  settled  at  Venice 
in  1799,  and  remained  there  until  the  restoration  of  the 
Bourbons  to  the  throne  of  France.  He  was  made  car- 
dinal July  28,  1817,  and  minister  of  state.  The  see  of 
Langres  having  been  restored.  La  Luzerne  was  reap- 
pointed to  it,  but  legal  difficulties  prevented  his  assum- 
ing its  direction.  Li  1818  he  was  the  only  bishop  called 
to  the  council  of  ministers  to  contrive  the  ratification  of 
the  concordat  of  the  preceding  year.  Although  strongly 
attached  to  the  liberties  of  the  Galilean  Church,  La  Lu- 
zerne earnestly  advocated  a  strict  compliance  with  the 
letter  of  the  Concordat,  He  died  June  21, 1821.  Be- 
sides the  Oraisonfunehre  de  Charles  Emmanuel  III,  roi 
de  Sardaiffiie  (1773,  4to  and  12mo),  and  the  OraisotiJ'u- 
mbre  de  Louis  XV,  roi  de  France  (1774,  4to  and  12mo), 
he  wrote  a  number  of  pastoral  instructions,  etc.,  and  po- 
litical pamphlets.  Most  of  his  writings  were  collected 
and  published  under  the  style  CEuvres  de  M.  de  La  Lu- 
zerne (Lyons  and  Paris,  1842,  10  vols.  8vo).  See  Le 
ILonifeur,  July  26, 1821;  A7ni  de  la  Religion  et  du  Roi, 
xxviii,  225-233",  Mahul,  Annuaire  Necrologique,  1821, 
p.  239;  Qnerard,  La  France  Litteraire;  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog.  Generule,  xxix,  38.     (J.  N.  P.) 

La'ma  {\n(.{a,  Matt,  xxvii,  A(i,  which  is  also  read 
in  tlie  best  MSS.  at  Mark  xv,  34,  where  the  received 
text  has  Xai.iua  :  the  Heb.  has  both  forms,  iT2b,  lamah'. 

•I  '    '  '  T  t' 

and  ri53i3,  lam'mah,for  what ;  the  Syriac  version  has 
lemono),  a  terra  signifying  why  (as  the  context  explains 
it,  tvari,  by  which  also  the  Sept.  interprets),  quoted  by 
our  Saviour  on  the  cross  from  Psa.  xxii,  1  [2  in  the  He- 
brew ]. 

Ijaniaism  (from  the  Thibetan  h-Lama  [pronounced 
Lama^,  spiritual  teacher  or  lord)  is  the  Thibetan  form 
of  Buddhism  (q.  v.),  blended  with  and  modified  by  the 
religions  which  preceded  it  in  tliat  portion  of  China. 
Among  these  was  the  belief  in  the  "  JMystic  Cross," 
which  originated  in  the  circumstance  that  an  Indian 
prince  of  the  Litsabyi  or  Lichhavyi  race,  being  conquered 
in  war,  sought  refuge  in  Thibet,  where  he  became  king. 
The  Lichhavyis  of  Vaisili  professed  belief  in  "  Swasti." 
Swasti  is  a  monogrammatic  sign  formed  of  the  letters 
Su  and  Ti,  and  "  Suti'"  is  the  Pali  form  of  the  Sanskrit 
'•  Swasti,"  a  compound  of  su  (well)  and  asti  (it  is) ;  so 
that  "swasti"  implies  complete  resignation  under  all  cir- 
cumstances, which  was  the  chief  dogma  of  the  fatalists 
who  called  themselves  Swastikas,  or  followers  of  the 
IMystic  Cross.  These  people  were  also  annihilationists; 
hence  their  Thibetan  name  of  Mu-stegs-pa  or  Finiti- 
niists.  They  were  grossly  atheistical  and  indecent  in 
dress,  but  called  themselves  "  Pure-doers,"  and  the  sy- 
nonymous title  Punya,  "the  pure,"  Avas  carried  with 
them  into  Thibet,  and  became  modified  into  T'on  or  the 
"  Bons."  This  form  of  faith  continued  for  nine  centu- 
ries, until  Buddhism  was  generally  introduced  about  the 
midiUe  of  the  7th  century.  Even  then  the  followers  of 
the  Jlystic  Cross  were  still  powerful. 

llistorg Buddhism  was  probably  introduced  into 

Thibet  during  the  reign  of  Asoka,  who  propagated  that 
religion  with  ardor  upwards  of  two  thousand  years  ago. 
Li  B.C.  240,  at  the  close  of  the  third  synod,  numerous 
missionaries  were  dispatched  to  all  surrounding  coun- 
tries to  spread  the  doctrines  of  Sakyamuiii.     But  the 


more  formal  history  of  Buddhism  in  Thibet  I)egins  with 
king  Srongtsan  (larapo  (born  A.D.  G17,  died  G98),  who 
sent  to  India  his  prime  minister  Thumi  Sanibhota,  with 
sixteen  companions,  to  study  letters  and  religion.  He 
had  the  sacred  books  translated  into  Thibetan,  and  issued 
laws  abolishing  all  other  religions,  and  directing  the  es- 
tablishment of  this  one.  His  wives,  the  one  a  Nepau- 
lese,  the  other  a  Chinese,  greatly  assisted  him  in  these 
enterprises.  He  met,  however,  with  only  tolerable  suc- 
cess, and  the  religion  did  not  greatly  flourish.  Under 
king  Thisrong-de-tsan  (A.D.  728-786)  Buddhism  was 
more  successful  in  Thibet,  overcoming  the  efforts  of  the 
chiefs  to  crush  the  "new  religion."  This  prince  in- 
duced great  teachers  from  Bengal  and  Kafiristan  to  re- 
side in  Thibet.  They  sujierseded  the  Chinese  priests, 
who  were  the  earliest  Buddhist  missionaries.  A  imblic 
disputation  on  religions,  Avliich  was  ordered  by  the  king, 
greatly  increased  the  influence  of  the  Indian  priests. 
Large  monasteries  were  erected,  and  a  temple  at  Samye, 
and  the  translation  of  sacred  books  into  the  vernacular 
was  more  energetically  conducted.  King  Langdar  or 
Langdharma  tried  to  abolish  Buddhism,  and  in  bis  ef- 
forts to  do  so  commanded  the  destruction  of  all  temjiles, 
monasteries,  images,  and  sacred  books  pertaining  to  that 
religion.  The  indignation  against  these  efforts  was  so 
intense  that  it  resulted  in  the  murder  of  the  king  in 
A.D.  900.  His  son  and  successor  was  also  unfavorably 
disposed  towards  Buddhism,  and  gradual!}'  the  nc\v  re- 
ligion lost  many  adherents,  and  those  still  remaining 
faithful  even  suffered  persecution. 

From  A.D.  971  dates  the  revival  of  Buddhism,  or  the 
second  general  effort  to  propagate  this  religion  in  Tlii- 
bet,  under  Bilamgur  Tsan,  who  rebuilt  eight  temples, 
and  under  whom  the  priests  who  had  tied  the  country 
returned, and  fresh  accessions  were  made  from  the  priest- 
hood of  India.  Among  those  from  India  came  in  A.D. 
1041  the  celebrated  priest  Atisha.  In  the  12th  or  13th 
century  the  modification  of  Buddhism  known  as  the 
Tantrika  mysticism  was  introduced.  Considerat  \j  later 
a  great  impetus  was  given  to  Buddhism  by  the  cele- 
brated reformer  Tsonkhapa  (born  A.D.  1357),  who  en- 
deavored, about  the  opening  of  the  15th  century,  to  unite 
the  dialectical  and  mystical  schools,  and  to  put  an  end 
to  the  tricks,  pretended  miracles,  and  other  corruptions 
of  the  priesthood.  He  published  new  works  on  relig- 
ion ;  but,  so  far  as  regards  the  marked  similarity  be- 
tween the  ceremonial  of  the  Chinese  Buddhists  and 
some  Christian  sects,  Schlagintweit  says  that  "  we  are 
not  yet  able  to  decide  the  question  as  to  how  far  Buddh- 
ism may  have  borrowed  from  Christianity,  but  the  rites 
of  the  Buddhists  enumerated  by  the  French  missionary 
(Hue)  can  for  the  most  jiart  cither  be  traced  back  to 
institutions  peculiar  to  Buddhism,  or  they  have  sprung 
up  in  periods  posterior  to  Tsonkhapa"  (q.  v.). 

Sects. — According  to  Schlagintweit,  there  was  no  di- 
vision of  Lamaism  into  sects  previous  to  the  11th  cen- 
tury. Subsequently,  however,  there  arose  numerous 
subdivisions  of  the  people,  nine  of  which  still  exist, 
which  are  reputed  orthodox,  though  there  is  not  much 
known  about  them.  In  distinction  from  the  other  sects 
which  Tsonkhapa  labored  energetically  to  supersede,  he 
ordered  his  disciples  to  wear  a  j'ellow  dress  instead  of 
red,  the  color  of  the  older  religionists,  and,  to  make  the 
distinction  still  greater,  he  provided  a  peculiar  pattern 
for  a  cap,  also  to  be  made  of  yellow  cloth. 

1.  The  eldest  of  the  primitive  sects  is  the  Ni/igmajia. 
The  lamas  of  Bhutan  and  Ladak  belong  to  this  sect, 
and  they  adhere  to  ancient  rites,  ceremonies,  and  usages 
such  as  obtained  among  the  earliest  Chinese  priests. 
They  acknowledge  some  sacred  books  not  included  in 
the  Kanjur  or  Tanjur  hereinafter  mentioned.  2.  Anoth- 
er ancient  sect  is  the  Urgj/enpa.  or  the  disciples  of  Ur- 
gyen,  who  differ  from  the  first  in  their  worship  of  Ami- 
tabha  as  Padma  Sambliava,  3.  A  sect  founded  l)v  Brom- 
ston  (born  A.D.  1002)  observe  only  "prcceiits"  and  not 
"  transcendental  wisdom."  This  sect  wear  a  red  dress. 
4.  The  Sakgajja,  whose  particular  tenets  are  not  known, 


LAMAISM 


200 


LAMAISM 


but  who  wear  a  rod  dress  also.  5.  The  Gelulyn  CGal- 
danpa  or  (Jcldaiiiiia)  adlicre  to  the  doctrines  of  Tson- 
khapa,  and  this  sect  is  now  the  most  numerous  in  Thibet. 
G.  The  Kurr/yiitpa,  leave  Prfijna  Parimita,  resting  in  their 
observance  of  tlie  Aphorisms  (Sutras)  and  in  the  '•suc- 
cession of  precepts."  7.  The  Kurmapa,  and,  8.  Brilantg- 
pa,  are  not  much  known.  9.  The  Brugpa  (Dujip  or  Dad 
Uuypa)  have  a  particular  worship  of  the  thunderbolt 
(Dorge )  which  fell  from  heaven  in  Eastern  Thibet.  This 
sect  observe  the  Tantrika  mysticism. 

In  addition  to  the  above  there  is  the"Z)0)i"  religion, 
the  followers  of  which  are  called  Bonpas.  They  own 
many  wealthy  monasteries.  They  are  probably  the  de- 
scendants of  those  who  did  not  originally  accept  Buddh- 
ism, but  preserved  the  ancient  rites  and  superstitions 
of  the  country. 

Sacred  Books. — Lamaism  has  a  voluminous  sacred  lit- 
erature. Originally  it  consisted  almost  wholl}'  of  trans- 
lations, but  after  this  it  developed  rapidly  an  indigenous 
element,  especially  after  the  14th  century,  under  the  im- 
pulse given  to  it  by  Tsonkhapa.  The  commentaries  on 
the  sacred  text  are  frequently  in  the  vernacular.  But 
the  great  works  are  a  compilation  of  Sanskrit  translators, 
containing  sacred  and  profane  publications  of  different 
jieriods.  These  are  respectively  translations  of  "  the 
commandments"  and  of  the  doctrines  of  Sakyamuni,  in 
which  are  embraced  philosophy,  logic,  rhetoric,  and  Sans- 
krit grammar.  The  principal  of  these  translations  date 
from  about  the  9th  century.  Minor  ones  are  probably 
of  later  origin,  but  the  modern  arrangement  of  the  works 
is  probably  not  older  than  the  present  centur}%  These 
collections  v.ere  printed  in  17-28-46,  by  order  of  the  re- 
gent of  Lhassa,  and  are  now  printed  at  many  of  the 
monasteries.  They  are  entitled ''A'a;?/;//-  and  Tciiijur;" 
according  to  IMliller,  the  proper  spelhng  is  Bkah-hf/yur 
and  Bstan-/if/i/ur. 

"The  Kanjur  consists  of  the  following  sections:  1. 
Duh-a  (Sanscrit,  Vinat/a),  or  discipline  ;  2.  Sher-phjin 
(Sans.  Frajnapdrumitd),  or  philosophy  and  metaphyics ; 
3.  Phuh'hhen  (Sans.  Buddhavata  Sangha),  or  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Buddhas,  their  incarnations,  etc. ;  4.  dKon 
brTser/ss  (Sans.  Ratnukutu),  or  the  collection  of  precious 
things ;  5.  niDo  ssDe  (Sans.  Sutrantra),  or  the  collection 
of  Sutras ;  6.  Mjang  dass  (Sans.  Nirvana^,  or  the  libera- 
tion from  wordily  pains;  7.  rGjud (Sans.  Taiitras},  or  in- 
cantations, etc."  (Chambers).  There  are  many  editions 
of  the  Kanjur,  varying  from  100  to  108  volumes  folio.  It 
embraces  108;j  distinct  works.  INIassive  as  this  code  is, 
editions  of  it  have  been  printed  at  Pekin,  Lhassa,  and 
other  places.  T'hese  have  been  sold  for  sums  ranging 
as  high  as  £600,  or,  when  rnen  deal  in  kine,  for  7000 
oxen.  A  most  valuable  analysis  of  this  immense  Bible 
is  given  in  the  Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  xx,  by  Alexan- 
der Csomii  lie  Koriis,  a  Hungarian  who  made  his  way 
to  Thibet  on  foot  for  other  purposes,  but  became  an  en- 
thusiastic student  of  the  Thibetan  Scriptures. 

The  Tdiijirr  is  "a  collection  of  treatises  in  225  vol- 
umes, elegantly  printed  at  Pekin,  containing  transla- 
tions from  Sanskrit  and  Prakrit,  on  dogmas,  pliilosophj', 
grammar,  medicine,  and  ethics,  with  Amara's  Rosha  or 
^•ocabulary,  and  fragments  of  the  Mahabharata  and  of 
other  C[)ic  poems.  The  work  of  the  great  reformer,  the 
history  of  I5uddhism,  lives  of  saints,  and  all  sorts  of 
works  on  theology  and  magic,  till  the  libraries.  But 
the  Thibetans  also  possess  annals,  genealogies,  and  laws, 
as,  for  instance,  the  'Mirror  of  Kings'  (translated  into 
Mongolic  by  Ssanang  Ssetscn,  and  into  German  by 
Schmidt),  or  I'.odhimor  (' Wiiy  to  Wisdom'),  and  works 
on  astmiioniy  and  chronology"  (Appleton). 

Among  tlie  native  sacred  literature  of  Thibet  is  the 
historical  bimk  called  Maui  Kambiim,  containing  the 
legendary  tales  of  Padmapani's  propagation  of  Buddh- 
ism in  Thibet,  and  the  origin  and  appUcation,of  the  sa- 
cred formula  "  Om  ^[am  I'adma  Hum."  It  contains  a 
description  of  the  wonderful  region  Sukhavati,  where 
Amitabha  sits  enthroned,  and  where  those  are  who  most 
merit  blissful  existence ;  a  history  of  creation ;  prayers 


to  Padmapani,  and  the  advantages  of  frequent  repetition 
of  Ora  ]Slani;  the  meaning  of  that  sacred  sentence;  an 
account  of  the  tigurative  representations  of  Padmapani, 
and  of  his  images,  which  represent  him  with  faces  varj-- 
ing  from  three  to  one  thousand.  It  contains,  moreover, 
the  ethics  and  religious  ordinances  of  Buddhism  ;  biog- 
raphy ;  a  description  of  the  irresistible  power  of  "  Om 
Mani,"  etc.,  and  tells  how  it  secures  deliverance  from 
being  reborn ;  legends,  translations  of  sacred  books,  etc. 
This  has  been  translated  into  Mongolian. 

Grades  of  Initiation, — The  Buddhist  community  is 
divided  into  three  classes.  The  first  or  highest  is  known 
in  Thibet  as  True  Intelligence,  or  Chang  Chhuh,  mean- 
ing "  the  perfect"  or  "  accomplished ;"  and  Chang  Chhtib 
Sempali,  or  "  Perfect  Strength  of  I\Iind,"  because  the 
graduate  has  accomplished  the  grand  object  of  life,  which 
is  the  perfect  suppression  of  all  bodily  desire  and  com- 
l)lete  abstraction  of  mind.  These  are  the  Bodhisatwas 
of  Sanskrit  (or,  in  Chinese,  Pitsas),  who  are  incipient 
Buddhas,  rising  by  self-sacritice  and  their  good  influence 
over  their  fellow-men  to  the  highest  goal.  Every  age 
produces  a  number  of  these  Bodhisatwas.  The  second 
class  comprises  those  having  "individual  intelligence" 
or  self-intelligence,  the  Pratyel-a,  who  turn  not  out  of 
the  way.  The  third  is  the  Sravaka  or  auditor  (lis- 
tener). 

Orders  of  Beings. — The  self-existent  Adi  Buddha,  by 
five  spontaneous  acts  of  divine  wisdom,  and  by  five  ex- 
ertions of  mental  reflection  {dhyan^,  projected  from  his 
own  essence  five  intelligences  of  the  iirst  order,  known 
as  the  Pancha  Dhgdiii-  Buddha,  or  "  P'ive  celestial 
Buddhas,"  whose  names  are  Vairochana,  Akshobi/a, 
Ratna  Sambhara,  Amitabha,  and  Anwgha  /Siddha, 
These  five  intelligences  of  the  first  order  created  "  five 
inteUigences"  of  a  second  order,  or  Bodhisatwas,  who 
"become  creative  agents  in  the  hands  of  God,  or  serve 
as  links  uniting  him  with  all  the  lower  grades  of  crea- 
turely  existence."  The  Lohesicaras  ( Jigtcn  Baugchuk), 
or  "  Lords  of  the  World,"  are  also  acknowledged  in  Thi- 
betan Buddhism.  All  these  are  celestial  beings,  the 
spontaneous  emanations  from  the  Deity,  who  have  never 
been  subject  to  the  pains  of  transmigration. 

Inferior  to  these  are  the  created  or  mortal  beings,  di- 
vided into  six  classes,  named  JJroba  Rihlnil',  or  "  Six 
advances  or  progressors,"  because  their  soids  advance 
by  transmigration  from  one  state  to  a  better  one,  until 
they  finally  attain  absorption,  and  are  no  longer  subject 
to  transmigration.  These  six  are:  ].  Lhd,  or  gods;  2. 
Lha  Via  gin.  Titans ;  o.  Jli,  which  equals  man ;  4.  iJu- 
dro,  brutes i  5.  Yidvk,  goblins;  G.  Mgalho,  the  damned. 

The  hells  are  eight  cold  and  sixteen  hot,  and  are  fa- 
vorite subjects  of  Chinese  and  Thibetan  painters.  The 
punishment  is  not  everlasting,  but  after  expiation  the 
person  may  be  born  again. 

Objects  of  Worship. — In  early  periods  Lamaism  con- 
fined its  worship  to  the  triad  Buddha,  Dharma,  and 
Sangha ;  and  pious  reverence  was  shown  to  the  relics  of 
former  Buddhas,  as  well  as  to  those  of  Sakya  himself 
and  his  principal  disciples;  but  there  is  no  mention  of 
the  elaborate  system  of  Dhyani  Buddhas,  Padmapani, 
etc.,  earlier  than  about  A.D.  400.  Primitive  Buddhism 
is  now  stated  to  have  been  undoubtedly  atheistic,  but 
was  in  later  ages  greatly  modified. 

/Sakyamuni  is  worshipped  in  Ladak  as  "  Shakya  Thub- 
ba,"  yet  there  is  a  legend  to  the  effect  that  at  the  end 
of  twenty-five  centuries  from  the  present  time  he  is  to 
be  superseded  by  a  more  benign  Buddha,  called  Mai- 
trcga,  or  Mi-le.  The  people,  however,  worship  others 
equally  with  Sakya,  though  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  tiie  worshij)  is  of  later  date,  as  Fa  Hian  is  the  first 
who  makes  mention  of  it.  He  speaks  of  it  as  extant  at 
the  time  of  his  visit  in  A.D.  400.  These  other  deities 
are  Padmapani.  Jamya,  and  Chanrazili  (or  Padmapani, 
Manju  Sri,  and  Ava  Lokiteswara") ;  and  though  the  peo- 
ple still  confirm  an  oath  by  appealing  to  the  three  su- 
premacies of  the  liuildhist  triad,  yet.  when  they  under- 
take any  enterprise  or  begin  a  journey,  their  prayers  for 


LAMAISM 


201 


LAMAISM 


success  are  almost  invariably  addressed  to  Padmapani. 
The  mystic  sentence  "  Om  Muni  Pmlma  Hiini"  is  re- 
peated in  worship,  and  is  constantly  heard  as  one  moves 
through  the  country.  It  has  been  variously  translated 
as  "Oh,  the  jewel  in  the  lotus!"  and  "Hail  to  him  of 
the  jewel  and  the  lotus!"  and  "  Glory  to  the  lotus-bear- 
er Hum !" 

Padmapani  is  a  "Dhyani  Bodhisattna,"  and  of  all  the 
gods  is  most  frequently  worshipped,  because  he  is  a  rep- 
resentative of  Sakyamuni,  and  guardian  and  jiropagator 
of  his  faith  until  the  appearance  of  the  Buddha  iMai- 
treya.  He  is  the  patron  deity  of  Thibet,  and  manifests 
himself  from  age  to  age  in  human  shape,  becoming  Da- 
lai Lama  (see  below)  by  the  emission  of  a  beam  of  light, 
and  ultimately  is  to  be  born  as  the  most  perfect  Buddlia 
— not  in  India,  where  his  predecessors  became  such,  but 
in  Thibet.  He  has  a  great  many  names,  and  is  repre- 
sented in  various  figures,  sometimes  having  eleven  faces 
and  eight  hands,  the  faces  forming  a  pyramid  ranged  in 
four  rows,  each  series  being  of  a  different  complexion, 
as  white,  yellow,  blue,  red ;  sometimes  he  is  represented 
as  having  one  head  and  four  arms. 

Co-regent  with  Padmapani  is  ^lanju  Sri,  who  diffuses 
religious  truth,  bearing  .1  naked  sword  as  symbolic  of 
power  and  acumen;  he  is  lord  of  the  intellect,  and  the 
author  of  the  joy  of  the  family  circle,  and  is  deputy 
governor  of  the  whole  earth.  The  representations  of 
him  in  Thibet,  as  in  Mongolia,  make  him  to  have  innu- 
merable eyes  and  liands,  and  even  ten  heads,  crownetl, 
and  rising  in  the  form  of  a  cone,  one  above  another ;  he 
is  often  represented  as  incarnate  in  the  person  of  some 
Dalai  Lama  as  Padmapani. 

It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  these  are  the 
only  objects  of  worship  in  Thibet.  The  earliest  wor- 
ship of  that  country  was  a  species  of  nature  or  element 
worship ;  and,  as  Lamaism  ingrafted  tJie  ancient  gods 
and  spirits  of  the  former  inhabitants  on  itself,  tlie  poorer 
people  still  make  offerings  to  their  old  divinities,  the 
gods  of  the  hills,  the  woods,  the  dales,  the  mountains,  the 
rivers,  and  have  field,  family,  and  house  divinities.  La- 
maism was,  besides  this,  greatly  affected  by  its  contact 
with  the  Shamanism  (q.  v.)  of  the  Mongolians. 

These  gods  are  particles  of  the  Supreme  Intelligence, 
and,  though  they  are  many,  they  are  all  a  multiplica- 
tion of  the  one  God.  The  Thibetan  name  for  deity  is 
>.S'/i!(/,  the  equivalent  of  the  Sanskrit  Dera.  They  assist 
man,  each  having  his  own  sphere,  within  which  he 
reigns  supremo.     These  gods  are  both  male  and  female. 

There  arc,  besides  these,  malignant  gods,  called  "  Da," 
or  envmif,  and  "  Geg,"  decil.  The  most  malignant  of 
them  are,  1.  Lhamayin,  to  whom  many  ill-natured  spir- 
its are  subject.  They  cause  untimely  death.  2.  The 
Dudpos,  or  judges  of  the  dead.  Tlicse  try  to  prevent 
the  depopulation  of  the  world  by  prompting  evil  desire, 
by  becoming  beautiful  women.  They  disturb  devout 
assemblies.  They  are,  of  course,  antagonized  by  the 
more  benevolent  deities,  among  whom  some  become 
specially  famous,  as  the  Drag-sheds,  "  the  cruel  hang- 
men," who  are  subdivided  into  eight  classes.  Legends 
concerning  them  abound. 

Doctrines. — AccortUng  to  Csoma,  (in  the  Bengal  Soci- 
efg  Journal,  vii,  1-45),  the  higher  philosophies  are  not 
popularly  understood,  yet  the  people  of  Thibet  are  in 
general  tolerably  familiar  with  the  doctrine  of  the  Three 
Vehicles  (Triyana),  a  dogma  of  the  JIahayani  school, 
explained  in  the  Thibetan  Compendium  called  Lamrim, 
or  "  The  gradual  Way  to  Perfection."  The  argument 
of  the  book  is  to  the  effect  that  the  Buddha  dogmas  are 
intended  for  the  lowest,  middle,  and  highest  people,  and 
they  are  graded  accordingly.  In  the  matter  of  creeds, 
for  instance,  there  is  tlie  following  order.  The  lowest 
people  must  believe  in  God,  future  life,  and  that  the 
fruit  of  works  is  to  be  earned  in  this  life,  while  the  mid- 
dle class  are  to  know  (1 )  that  every  compound  is  per- 
ishable ;  (-2)  that  all  imperfection  is  pain,  and  that  de- 
liverance from  bodily  existence  is  the  only  real  happi- 
ness.    A  person  of  the  highest  class,  in  addition  to  all 


the  foregoing,  must  know  that  from  the  bodj'  to  the 
Supreme  Soul  nothing  is  existent  but  himself;  that  he 
will  not  always  be,  nor  ever  cease  absolutely  from  being. 

In  moral  duties  there  is  a  like  gradation.  Tlie  vul- 
gar are  to  jiractice  ten  virtues,  to  which  the  middle  class 
are  to  add  meditation,  wisdom,  etc. ;  while  the  supe- 
rior class  must,  in  addition  to  the  foregoing,  practice 
the  six  transcendental  virtues.  In  their  ultimate  des- 
tiny this  gradation  pursues  these  classes,  the  lowest  be- 
ing admitted  to  Ijecome  men,  gods,  etc.,  the  next  hav- 
ing hope  of  rebirth  in  Sukhavati,  without  pain  or  bodily 
existence,  and  the  best  expecting  to  reach  themselves 
Nirvana,  and  to  lead  others  thereunto  also.  The  priests 
who  take  the  vows  called  Dom  can  alone  hope  for  this. 

A  more  popular  code,  however,  is  necessary  for  sim- 
pler people,  and  hence  the  following  eight  precepts  com- 
monly obtain:  1.  To  seek  to  take  refuge  only  with 
Buddha.  2.  To  form  in  one's  mind  the  resolution  to 
strive  to  attain  the  highest  degree  of  perfection,  in  order 
to  be  united  with  the  Supreme  Intelligence.  3.  To  pros- 
trate one's  self  before  the  image  of  Buddha  to  adore 
him.  4.  To  bring  offerings  before  him,  such  as  are 
pleasing  to  any  of  the  six  senses,  as  lights,  flowers,  gar- 
lands, incense,  perfumes,  all  kinds  of  edibles  and  drink- 
ables, stufls,  cloth,  etc.,  for  garments,  and  hanging  or- 
naments. 5.  To  make  music,  sing  hymns,  and  utter  the 
praises  of  Buddha,  respecting  his  person  and  doctrines, 
love  or  mercy,  perfections  or  attributes,  and  his  acts  or 
performances  for  the  benefit  of  all  animal  beings.  G. 
To  confess  one's  sins  with  a  contrite  heart,  to  ask  for- 
giveness for  them,  and  to  resolve  sincerely  not  to  com- 
mit the  like  hereafter.  7.  To  rejoice  in  the  moral  mer- 
its of  all  animal  beings,  and  to  wish  that  they  may 
thereby  obiain  final  emancipation  or  beatitude.  8.  To 
pray  and  entreat  all  Buddhas  that  are  now  in  the  world 
to  turn  the  wheel  of  religion  (or  to  teach  their  doctrines), 
and  not  to  leave  the  world  too  soon,  but  to  remain  here 
for  many  ages  or  kalpas. 

Buddhism  in  Thibet,  as  elsewhere,  accepts  the  doc- 
trine of  me/emjjsychosis.  The  forms  under  which  any 
living  beings  may  be  reborn  are  sixfold,  enumerated 
previously  as  among  the  inferior  objects  of  worship. 
Good  works  involve  rebirth,  just  as  bad  ones  do.  Shinje, 
"  the  Lord  of  the  Dead,"  determines  the  end  of  life  and 
the  form  of  the  rebirth.  He  has  a  wonderful  mirror, 
which  reflects  the  good  and  bad  actions  of  men,  and  a 
balance  in  which  to  weigh  them.  When  being  in  any 
one  form  must  cease,  he  sends  his  servants  to  bring  the 
soul  before  him  for  the  announcement  of  the  form  it 
shall  next  assume.  If  the  servant  bring  the  wrong  per- 
son the  mirror  shows  it,  and  the  soul  is  dismissed. 

The  olyect  of  rebirth  being  the  expiation  of  sins, 
atonement  for  them  may  lessen  these  if  made  in  this 
life,  as  will  also  the  subduing  of  evil  desires,  the  prac- 
tice of  virtue,  and  confession.  The  Mahayana  school 
says  that  confession  confers  entire  absolution  from  sins. 
So  also  Thibetan  Buddhism  now  considers  it.  Confes- 
sion, however,  includes  repentance  and  promises  of 
amendment.  Various  ceremonies  accompany  the  avow- 
al. Consecrated  water  must  be  used,  which,  however, 
can  only  be  rendered  fit  by  the  priests  by  a  ceremony 
called  Tvisol,  or  "Entreaties  for  ablution."  Abstinence 
from  food  and  recitation  of  prayers  are  also  observed, 
but  the  commonest  form  is  that  of  a  simple  address  to 
the  gods.  The  confessors  who  deliver  from  sins  are 
generally  Buildhas  who  preceded  Sakyamimi,  or  holy 
spirits  equal  in  power  to  Buddhas.  There  are  tliirty- 
five  of  these  eminent  in  tliis  work,  known  as  the  "thirty- 
five  Buddhas  of  Confession,"  beautifully  colored  images 
of  ?i'hom  are  found  in  the  monasteries,  and  to  whom 
prayers  are  made  in  the  Thibetan  liturgy. 

Kegarding  the  future  abode  of  the  blessed,  Lamaism 
differs  from  other  Buddliism.  Nirvana  (annihilation) 
is  not  carefully  pointed  out,  and  the  sacred  books  say 
it  is  impossible  to  define  its  attributes  an(i  properties. 
But  to  those  fading  to  olitaiu  Nirvana,  or  unconscious 
existence,  the  next  best  state  that  can  be  offered  is  Suk- 


LAMAISM 


202 


LAMAISM 


harali,  entrance  upon  -which  exempts  Irom  rebirth,  but 
not  from  absi)hite  existence.  Thibetans  do  not  now 
•generally  distinguish  between  the  two,  the  great  stress 
being  laid  on  tlic  deliverance  from  rebirth.  This  region 
is  located  towards  the  west,  in  a  large  lake,  the  surface 
of  which  is  covered  with  lotus-Howers  of  rare  perfume, 
and  of  red  and  white  color.  Devotion  is  kindled  by 
birds  of  l\aradise,  food  and  clothing  being  had  for  the 
wishing.  Human  forms  may  be  assumed  and  laid  aside 
at  ])lcasure.     These  are  on  their  way  to  be  Bud<lhas. 

Priesthood. — The  first  organization  of  the  Thiljotan 
clergy  dates  from  A.D.  72G-78t),  and  the  present  hierar- 
chical system  from  about  the  loth  century.  In  A.D. 
1-117  the  Lama  Tsonkhapa  found'ed  the  Golden  IMonas- 
tery,  but  the  Dalai  Lama  at  Lhassa  and  the  Panchen 
Kinpoche,  both  credited  with  divine  origin,  gained 
greater  influence  than  that  of  Golden.  The  Dalai  La- 
ma (Grand  Lama)  is  an  incarnation  of  the  '■  Dhyani 
Eodhisattwa"  Chenrisi,  who  becomes  reincorporated  by 
a  beam  of  light  which  leaves  him  and  enters  the  person 
selected  for  the  descent.  The  "  Panchen,"  on  the  other 
liand,  are  incorporations  of  the  father  of  Chenrisi,  who 
was  named  Amitabha.  The  first  to  assume  the  title  of 
"  His  precious  Majesty,"  and  the  first  Dalai  Lama,  was 
Gedun  Grub  (1389-1473).  With  the  fifth  Dalai  Lama 
the  temporal  government  was  extended  over  all  Thibet. 
These  Dalai  Lamas  are  elected  by  the  priests,  but  since 
A.D.  1792  these  elections  have  been  greatly  influenced 


Figure  of  the  Dalai  Lama. 

hv  the  Chinese  government  at  Pekin.  Next  below  (he 
Dalai  Lamas  are  the  superiors  of  monasteries,  called 
Khaiipos.  They  are  appointed  by  the  Dalai  Lamas  for 
a  term  of  three  or  six  years,  and  some  of  them  are  con- 
sidered to  be  incarnations.  The  third  in  grade  are  the 
superintendents  of  choral  songs  and  the  music  of  the 
divine  services,  and  are  termed  Budzad.  Next  succeed- 
ing are  the  Gehkoi,  who  are  elected  bj'  the  monks  to 
maintain  order;  below  the  Gebkoi  are  the  oiio/.'.  The 
sixth  in  order  is  the  Lama,  a  title  which  literally  per- 
tains oidy  to  '•  su|ierior"  priests,  but,  by  courtesy,  is  now 
applied  to  all  IJuddhist  jiriests.  The  Tsihhan  are  astrol- 
ogers, who  marry,  are  fortune-tellers,  conjure  evil  spirits, 
etc.     Tlieir  instruments  are  an  arrow  and  triangle. 

In  the  organization  of  the  orders  there  is  a  code  of 
some  two  hundred  and  fifty  rulers.  Celibacy  and  pov- 
erty have  had  much  to  do  in  the  formation  of  the  char- 
acter of  the  priesthood.  The  vow  to  lead  a  life  of  celi- 
bacy is  rarely  revoked.  "While  the  priests  personally 
must  continue  poor,  the  monasteries  may  be  wealthy, 
and  they  actually  have  great  revenues.  Living  on  alms, 
most  is  collected  about  harvest  time.  Fees  from  funer- 
als, marriages,  illness,  etc.,  are  among  their  resources. 
The  property  of  the  monasteries  is  free  from  taxation. 


The  elder  son  generally  becomes  a  lama.  lu  1855 
the  total  number  of  lamas,  as  estimated  in  the  Jienyal 
Societij  Journal,  was  18,5U0,  in  twelve  monasteries  of 
Eastern  Thibet.  In  Western  Thibet  Cunningham  esti- 
mates one  to  every  thirteen  laymen,  while  in  Spiti  they 
number  one  to  seven  of  the  population. 

These  priests  till  the  gardens  attached  to  the  monas- 
teries, revolve  prayer  cylinders,  carve  blocks,  anrl  ]iaint. 
They  are  often  illiterate,  and,  though  most  of  them  know 
how  to  read  and  write,  they  do  not  care  to  accpiire  knowl- 
edge. Their  dress  and  caps  are  of  double  felt,  with 
charms  between  the  folds,  or  they  wear  large  straw  hats. 
The  head  lama's  cap  is  generally  low  and  conical,  though 
some  are  hexagonal,  and  others  like  a  mitre.  Thej-  wear 
also  a  gown,  which  reaches  to  the  calves  of  their  legs; 
this  has  a  slender  girdle  and  an  upright  collar.  They 
wear  also  trowsers,  and  boots  of  stiff  felt.  They  carry 
rosaries  containing  108  beads,  made  of  wood,  pebliles,  or 
bones.  Their  amidet  boxes  contain  images  of  deities, 
relics,  and  objects  dreaded  by  evil  spirits. 

Buildings  and  ]\[onuments. — The  priests  live  in  mon- 
asteries, each  of  which  receives  a  religious  name.  The 
architecture  is  similar  to  that  of  the  houses  of  the 
wealth}'.  The  entrance  faces  either  the  south  or  east. 
They  are  always  decorated  Avith  Hags.  They  sometimes 
consist  of  one  large  house,  several  stories  high,  and  in 
other  cases  of  several  buildings  with  temples  attached. 
In  their  exterior  appearance  they  are  much  inferior  to 
those  of  other  countries. 

The  temples  have  nothing  imposing  about  them. 
The  roofs  are  fiat  or  slojiing,  with  square  holes  for  win- 
dows and  skylights.  The  walls  are  towards  the  quar- 
ters of  the  heavens.  The  north  side  should  be  colored 
green,  the  south  side  yellow,  the  east  side  white,  the 
west  red.  They  are  not  always,  however,  in  this  order. 
The  interior  of  the  building  is  generally  one  large  room, 
with  side  halls  decorated  with  paintings,  images,  etc. 
The  side  halls  contain  the  library,  the  volumes  of  which 
are  on  shelves,  and  sometimes  wrajiped  in  silk.  In  the 
corners  are  ,statues  of  deities,  the  religious  dresses  of  the 
priests,  musical  instruments,  and  other  articles  of  sacred 
appointment.  "  The  Lamaic  temples  are  of  Indo-Chinese 
form,  square,  fronting  the  east  in  Thibet  and  the  south 
in  Mongolia.  They  are  often  cruciform.  There  are 
three  gates,  and  three  interior  divisions,  viz.,  the  en- 
trance-hall, the  body  of  the  edifice  with  two  parallel  rows 
of  columns,  and  the  .sanctuary  with  the  throne  of  the 
high  lama"  (Appleton),  For  a  descrijition  of  two  of  the 
largest  lama  temples  in  China,  see  Doolittle,  Social  Life 
of  the  Chinese,  ii,  457  sq. 

The  Chodiens  are  monuments  from  eight  to  fifteen 
feet,  or  even  sometimes  forty  feet  high.  They  are  re- 
ceptacles for  the  offerings  of  the  people,  and  reposito- 
ries of  relics,  and  are  very  much  revered  by  the  lamas. 
They  are  set  up  in  the  temples,  and  are  moulded  from 
metals,  or  even  of  clay  and  straw. 

The  Man  is  a  wall  six  feet  long  and  four  or  five  feet 
broad,  of  sacred  use.  Derchoks  and  lapchas  are  sacred 
flags  and  heaps  of  stones.  Prayers  are  inscribed  on  the 
flags,  and  the  people  seem  ever  eager  to  make  new  lap- 
chas. 

Images,  etc. — The  representations  of  deities  and  other 
sacred  personages  arc  copied  everj'where.  From  the 
earliest  period  relics  and  images  of  Puddha  have  been 
honored  and  worshipped  with  simple  ceremonies,  as  pros- 
trations, presentation  of  flowers,  jierfumcs,  praj'ers,  and 
hymns.  At  the  present  day,  Buddhas  preceding  Sakya- 
muni,  as  well  as  the  Dhyani  Buddhas,  a  host  of  gods, 
spirits  deified,  priests  of  local  reputation,  are  all  repre- 
sented in  images  or  pictures.  The  "  (iallery  of  Por- 
traits" has  drawings  of  over  tliree  hiuidred  saints. 

The  lamas  have  a  monopoly  of  the  manufacture  of 
these,  as  they  are  efficacious  only  after  the  jierformance 
of  certain  ceremonies  at  many  junctures  in  their  prepa- 
ration, and  these  the  lamas  alone  know  how  to  perform. 
Pictures  must  be  commenced  on  prescribed  days;  on 
certain  other  days  the  eyes  must  be  painted,  etc.    Draw- 


LAMATSM 


203 


LAMAISM 


ings  and  paintings  arc  traced  with  pinholes,  through 
which  powder  is  sifted ;  they  are  bordered  by  several 
strips  of  silk,  of  blue,  yellow,  red,  and  other  colors.  Stat- 
ues and  bass-reliefs  of  clay,  papier-mache,  bread-dough, 
or  metals,  or  even  of  butter  run  in  a  mould,  are  made. 
The  best  executed  contain  relics,  as  aslies,  bones,  hair, 
rags,  and  grain ;  these  arc  sometimes  contained  in  a  hole 
in  the  bottom  of  the  image. 

The  images  and  statues  of  the  Buddlia,  Bodhisat- 
twas,  and  the  Dragsheds  differ  greatly  from  each  other. 
Saki/amuni  is  represented  in  many  attitudes,  -with  one 
hand  uplifted  or  holding  an  alms-bowl,  as  sitting,  or  as 
recumbent.  Padmapani  has  sometimes  eleven  faces 
and  a  thousand  hands.  "MeUia,  the  god  of  tire,  when 
driving  away  evil  spirits,  rides  a  red  ram,  and  has  a  hor- 
rible countenance ;"  but  he  is  represented  in  many  other 
attitudes.  The  Bodhisattwas  have  a  shining  counte- 
nance, and  are  seated  on  a  lotus-Hower.  The  Dragsheds 
who  protect  against  evil  spirits  are  fierce-looking,  of 
dark  complexion,  and  sometimes  have  a  third  eye  in  the 
Ibrehead,  to  represent  their  wisdom.  They  are  almost 
naked,  but  wear  a  necklace  of  human  skulls,  and  have 
rings  on  tlieir  arms  and  ankles.  They  have  in  their 
hands  various  instruments  symbolic  of  their  power.  The 
Doije,  or  thunderbolt, ''  may  best  be  represented  by  four 
or  eight  metallic  hoops  joined  together  so  as  to  form 
two  balls,"  which  are  on  a  staff,  with  points  projecting. 
The  P/iurbu,  or  "nail,"  the  Beckon,  "club,"  and  Zar/pa, 
or  "  snare"  to  catch  evil  spirits,  and  the  Kajialu,  or 
drinking-vessel,  which  is  a  human  skull,  are  among  these 
sacred  instruments. 

Forms  of  Worship. — The  religious  services  consist  of 
singing,  accompanied  with  instrumental  music,  offerings, 
prayers,  etc.  The  offerings  are  of  clarified  butter.  Hour, 
tamarind- wood,  flowers,  grain,  peacock  feathers,  etc. 
There  are  no  blood-offerings,  as  any  sacrifices  entailing 
injury  to  life  are  strictly  forbidden  in  the  Buddhistic 
faith.  Drums,  trumpets  made  of  the  human  thigh-bone, 
cymbals,  and  flageolets,  are  among  the  sacred  musical 
instruments. 

The  Prayer  cylinder  is  an  instrument  peculiar  to  the 
Buddhists.  It  is  called  "kliorben"  (Hardy  says  hdarlas 
or  Tchukor,  according  to  liuc  =  turninff-prcri/er).  It  is 
generally  of  brass,  enveloped,  in  wood  or  leather.  A 
wooden  handle  passes  through  the  cylinder,  fomiing  its 
axis,  around  which  is  rolled  the  long  strip  of  clotli  or 
paper  on  which  is  the  prayer  of  printed  sacred  sentences. 
A  small  pebble  or  piece  of  metal,  at  the  end  of  a  short 
chain,  facilitates  the  rotation  of  the  cylinder  in  the  hand. 
Large  cylinders  near  the  monasteries  are  kept  in  motion 
by  persons  employed  for  the  purpose,  or  by  being  at- 
tached to  streams  of  running  water  like  a  mill-wheel. 
Each  revolution,  if  made  slowly,  and  from  right  to  left, 
is  equivalent  to  the  repetition  of  the  sentences  inclosed. 
Generally  the  inscription  is  oidy  a  repetition  of  the  sen- 
tence "  Om  mani  padma  hum."  There  is  also  a  sacred 
drama. 

Sacred  Pays  and  Festirals. — The  monthly  festivals 
are  four,  and  are  coimccted  with  the  phases  of  the  moon. 
No  animal  food  must  be  eaten,  but  ordinary  avocations 
need  not  be  discontinued.  There  are  particular  festi- 
vals for  each  month,  and  three  great  annual  festivals. 
"The  Lor/  ijSsur,  or  the  festival  of  the  new  year,  in 
February,  marks  the  commencement  of  the  season  of 
spring,  or  the  victory  of  light  and  warmth  over  dark- 
ness and  cold.  The  Lamaists,  like  the  Buddhists,  cele- 
brate it  in  commemoration  of  the  victory  obtained  by 
the  Buddha  Sakyamuni  over  the  six  heretic  teachers. 
It  lasts  lifteen  days,  and  consists  of  a  series  of  feasts, 
dances,  illuminations,  and  other  manifestations  of  joy; 
it  is,  in  short,  the  Thibetan  Carnival.  The  second  fes- 
tival,' probably  the  oldest  festival  of  the  Buddhistic 
Church,  is  held  in  commemoration  of  the  conception  or 
incarnation  of  the  Buddha,  and  marks  the  commence- 
ment of  summer.  The  third  is  the  u-aier-feast,  in  Au- 
gust and  September,  marking  the  commencement  of  au- 
tumn" (Chambers), 


Ceremonies. — Tvisol,  or  prayer  for  ablution,  is  among 
the  most  sacred  of  Buddhist  rites.  The  "  ceremony  of 
continued  abstinence"  is  performed  once  or  twice  a  year, 
and  occupies  four  days,  prayers  being  read  in  praise  of 
Padmapani. 

Rites  are  also  observed  for  the  attainment  of  super- 
natural faculties  called  Siddhi,  of  which  eight  classes  are 
distingiushed :  the  power  to  conjure;  longevity;  water 
of  life;  discovery  of  hidden  treasures;  entering  into  In- 
dra's  cave ;  the  art  of  making  gold  ;  the  transformation 
of  earth  into  gold ;  the  acquiring  of  the  inappreciable 
jewel. 

This  siddhi,  however,  cannot  be  obtained  without  cer- 
tain austerities,  observances,  and  incantations.  The  lat- 
ter must  be  repeated  a  fixed  number  of  timer.,  as,  for  in- 
stance, 100,000  times  a  day.  Meditation  is  always  nec- 
essary. 

Peculiar  ceremonies  are  observed  for  securing  the  as- 
sistance of  the  gods :  these  are  the  rite  iJnhJed,  or  mak- 
ing ready  a  burnt-offering,  which  has  various  names  and 
is  diflerently  observed,  as  the  "  sacrifice  for  peace,"  the 
"rich  sacrifice,"  to  secure  good  harvests;  the  sacrifice 
for  power,  to  obtain  influence  or  success ;  the  "  fierce  sac- 
rifice," to  secure  protection  from  untimely  death,  etc. 
Incantation  of  Lungta,  or  "the  horse  of  the  wind,"  is 
powerful  for  good,  as  is  also  the  talisman  Changpo, 
which  protects  from  evil  spirits.  The  evil  spirits  are 
limited  in  their  mischief  by  the  magical  figure  Phurbu, 
a  triangle  drawn  on  paper  covered  with  charms.  Among 
the  multitudinous  ceremonies  are  those  performed  in 
cases  of  illness.  Each  malignant  spirit  causes  some  par- 
ticular disease :  Eahu  inflicts  palsy,  others  cause  chil- 
dren to  fall  sick,  etc.  Charms,  noisy  music,  and  pray- 
ers accompany  what  rude  medicine  is  administered. 

"  Baptism  and  confirmation  are  the  two  principal  sac- 
raments of  Lamaism.  The  former  is  administered  on 
the  third  or  tenth  day  after  birth  ;  the  latter,  generally 
when  the  child  can  walk  or  speak.  The  marriage  cere- 
mony is  to  Thibetans  not  a  religious,  but  a  civil  act ; 
nevertheless,  the  lamas  knov»  how  to  turn  it  to  the  best 
advantage,  as  it  is  from  them  that  the  bridegroom  and 
bride  have  to  learn  the  auspicious  day  when  it  should 
be  performed;  nor  do  they  fail  to  complete  the  act  with 
prayers  and  rites,  which  must  be  responded  to  with 
handsome  presents"  (Chambers). 

"The  bodies  of  rich  laymen  are  buried,  and  their 
ashes  preserved,  while  those  of  the  common  people  are 
either  exposed  to  be  devoured  by  birds  or  eaten  by  sa- 
cred dogs,  which  are  kept  for  the  purpose,  and  the  bones 
are  pounded  in  mortars,  and  given  to  the  animals  in  the 
shape  of  balls.  Eich  persons  about  to  die  are  assisted 
by  lamas,  who  let  out  the  soul  by  pulling  the  skin  from 
the  skull  and  making  a  hole  in  it.  Eeligious  services 
for  departed  souls  are  said  in  the  ratio  of  payment  re- 
ceived. The  mode  of  the  funeral  is  determmed  by  as- 
trology" (Appleton\ 

Great  importance  is  attached  to  astronomy,  and  ta- 
bles of  divination  are  in  high  esteem,  as  are  soothsayers' 
formulas. 

Holy  Places. — "  The  principal  holy  place  in  Thibet  is 
Lassa,  with  the  monasteries  Lha-brang,  the  cathedral ; 
Ba-mo-tshhe  (great  circuit),  wherein  is  the  Chinese 
idol  of  Fo;  and  Moru  (pure"),  having  a  celebrated  print- 
ing-office. Near  the  city  is  Gar-ma-khian  (mother  clois- 
ter), wherein  bad  spirits  are  personated,  and  about  a 
mile  distant  a  three-pointed  hill,  with  the  chief  of  aU 
monasteries  and  palaces,  called  Potala  (  Buddha's  ^Slount), 
occupied  by  about  10,(100  lamas  in  various  dwellings. 
Several  fine  ]iarks  and  gardens  adorn  the  environs  of  the 
holy  city.  Among  the  thirty  great  lamaseries  in  the 
neighborhood  are  Sse-ra  (golden),  on  the  road  to  Mon- 
golia, with  Buddha's  sceptre  floating  in  the  air,  and 
15,000  lamas;  'Brass  ssPungss  (branch-heap),  founded 
by  the  reformer,  with  a  jMongolic  school,  odO  sorcerers, 
and  15,000  lamas;  and  dGal  Dan  (.Joy  of  heaven),  also 
built  by  the  reformer,  whose  bodj'  sometimes  converses 
with  the  8000  lamas.     On  the  road  to  Ssu-tchuan  is 


LAMAISM 


204 


LA  MARCK 


Lha-rL  (god  mountain"),  witli  a  fine  temple;  there  is  an- 
otlier  sacred  place  in  the  metropolis  of  Khani ;  others 
at  Issha-mDo  (two  ways),  Djaya,  etc.,  with  printing- 
offices;  many  others  on  the  roads  to  Pekin,  besides  the 
northern  raonasterj';  all  containing  an  incredible  num- 
ber of  monks,  under  Khntukhtus  and  lower  lamas;  so 
that  father  Hue  counts  3000  monasteries  in  U  alone; 
others  «4,000  monies  in  U,  Tsang,  and  Kham,  of  the 
yellow  .sect,  hermits,  beggars,  and  vagaljonds  not  in- 
cluded. About  120  miles  south-west  from  Lassa,  near 
the  confluence  of  the  Painora  with  the  great  gTsang- 
p(>-t.shhu  (Sanpn),  is  the  second  metropolis  of  Lamaism, 
viz.  liKra-,Shiss-Lhun-po  (mount  of  grace),  also  called 
bLabrang.  with  five  great  cenobies,  many  temples,  pal- 
aces, mausoleums,  pj^amids,  and  the  like.  In  the  neigh- 
boring city  there  is  a  Chinese  garrison.  About  midway 
between  the  two  bLa-brangs  there  are  three  rocky  isl- 
ands in  a  lake,  called  gYang-brog  (happy  desert ;  Yam- 
bro  on  English  maps),  which  contain  temples,  a  mag- 
nificent palace,  and  thousands  of  monks  and  nuns,  sub- 
ject to  the  rUo-rDje-Phag-mo  (saint,  or  adamantine 
sow),  a  female  Khutukhtu,  who  becomes  incarnated  'Nvith 
a  figure  of  a  sow's  snout  on  her  neck,  in  consequence  of 
her  having  escaped  from  Lassa  during  the  troubles  of 
the  regency  in  tlie  shape  of  that  animal.  The  Cliinese 
believe  her  to  be  the  incarnate  Ursa  INIajor.  On  the 
road  to  Nepaul  there  are  tlie  sNar-thang  monastery, 
where  the  Kanjur  was  printed;  and  Ssaskya,  mentioned 
above,  no\v  the  see  of  the  red-capped  Gong-rDogss  (high 
lord)  liin-po-tshhe,  who  is  hereditary.  On  the  road  to 
Bhotau  are  the  monasteries  Kisu  and  Gantum  Gumba 
of  Turner,  and  many  others,  swarming  with  lamas,  some 
filletl  with  Ainils  (nuns).  Bhotan  is  subject  to  the  Da- 
lai, but  there  are  also  three  red-capped  Ein-po-tshhe. 
The  metropolis  is  bKra-Shiss  Tshoss  rDsong  (gloria  sa- 
lutis  tideique  arx.  Turner's  Tassisudon),  under  an  incar- 
nate great  lama  and  a  secular  Uharma-raja,  who  rules 
over  six  districts,  with  about  10,000  lamas  and  45,000 
families.  In  Sikkim  the  aboriginal  Leptchas  have  many 
mendicant  lamas  who  practice  magic,  the  other  tribes 
being  pure  Buddhists.  Buddhism  flourished  in  Nepaul 
as  early  as  the  7tli  century  of  our  a»ra.  It  now  exists 
there  with  Brahminism  and  Mohammedanism,  so  that 
Neiiaul  has  also  a  double  literature.  In  Kunawar,  and 
elsewhere  on  the  Upper  Sutlej,  there  are  many  great 
monasteries  of  both  the  yellow  and  the  red  caps,  living 
in  ]ieace  with  each  other.  At  Sungnam  there  is  a  great 
liljrary,  a  printing  establishment,  and  a  gigantic  statue 
of  Buddha.  Ladakh  became  Buddhist  before  our  oera; 
its  history  is  even  less  known  than  that  of  Thibet.  Al- 
though invaded  by  Moslems  (about  16u0),  it  has  many 
lamas,  both  male  and  female.  In  China  there  are  two 
Buddhistic  sects,  viz.  that  of  Fo,  since  A.D.  65,  fostered 
by  the  government,  very  numerous,  but  without  hierar- 
chy, each  monastery  beuig  under  an  abbot,  who  is  a  cit- 
izen of  the  I'ith  class;  and  the  Lamaists,  organized,  as 
in  Thibet,  under  the  ministry  of  foreign  affairs,  with 
three  Kliutnkhtus  at  Pekin,  one  of  whom  is  attached  to 
t!ie  court,  while  another's  diocese  is  in  South  Mongolia, 
and  the  third  governs  the  central  one  of  their  great 
monasteries.  The  most  celebrated  temples  in  the  eigh- 
teen provinces  are  one  on  the  U-tai-shan  (five-topped 
mountain),  in  Shan-si.  and  one  in  Yuiuian.  In  Si-fan. 
or  Tangut,  aliout  the  Koko-Xor,  Lamaism  flourished 
under  tlie  Ilia  at  the  close  of  the  'Jth  century.  The 
great  reformer  was  incarnated  in  Amdo.  The  great 
cenoby  of  ssKubum  was  visited  and  endowed  by  Khang- 
hi,  and  has  a  celebrated  luiiversity.  Mongolia  is  the 
paradise  of  lamas,  they  forming  about  one  eighth  of  its 
population.  Its  patriarch,  the  Gegen  -  Khutukhtu.  a 
Bodhisattwa  of  ^L•xitreya,  is  eipuil  in  rank  to  both  Thi- 
betan ]M)i)es,  resides  at  Urga.  on  the  road  between Tekin 
and  Kiachta,  lat.  48=  20',  with  about  20,000  monks,  and 
has  attained  the  liighest  Khnbilghanism  by  sixteen 
incarnations,  having  been  first  the  son  of  Altan  Kha- 
klian  of  the  Khalkas,  and  having  once  died  (1839),  after 
a  vi,->it  to  Pekin,  cither  by  poison  or  from  licentiousness. 


The  Urgan  cenoby  owns  about  30,000  families  of  slaves. 
The  cathedral  at  Kuku  Khotun,  among  the  Turned,  is 
under  an  incarnate  patriarch,  now  second  to  the  pre- 
ceding. Most  cenobies  and  temples  now  extant  in  Mon- 
golia were  built  or  restored  after  the  second  conversion. 
A  Khutukhtu  rules  over  the  celebrated  establishment 
of  the  '  five  towers.'  Dyo  Naiman  Ssuma,  the  summer 
residence  of  the  second  Pekin  Khutukhtu,  contains  108 
temples  and  a  famous  manufactory  of  idols.  INIanv 
other  abodes  of  lamas  are  scarcely  inferior  to  those  we 
have  mentioned.  The  desert  of  Gobi  contains  many 
such  establishments.  Sungaria  contains  numerous  ruins 
of  Lamaism,  on  the  Irtish  and  elsewhere,  among  which 
those  of  Ablai-Klit,  near  Usk-Kamenogorsk,  are  most 
renowned,  because  the  first  fragments  of  the  holy  canon 
were  brought  thence  to  Europe  about  1750.  The  Tor- 
guts  have  built  many  sacred  places  since  their  return 
from  the  west.  A  few  lamas  were  found  among  the 
Burj'iits  (in  Kussia),  near  Lake  Baikal,  about  IGO  years 
ago,  as  missionaries  from  LTrga.  Now  almost  all  of 
them  south  of  the  lake  are  Lamao-Shamanites,  and  have 
wooden  temples.  The  Calmucks  between  the  Don, 
Volga,  and  LIral  arc  forbidden  to  maintain  intercourse 
with  the  Delai,  although  they  keep  up  a  Lamaic  wor- 
ship in  Shitiini-urgas  (church  tents)!' 

Government. — "  Since  the  restoration  of  the  power  of 
the  Dalai  by  the  emperor  Khian-lung,  all  the  decrees 
of  government  are  issued  in  the  name  of  each  of  the  two 
high  lamas,  in  their  respective  dioceses ;  but  the  real 
power  is  in  the  hands  of  the  emperor,  whose  two  Ta- 
tchin  (great  mandarins)  reside  at  Lassa,  with  Chinese 
garrisons  in  the  neighborhood,  to  watch  both  the  ocean 
of  holiness  and  the  Tsang-vang,  who,  as  vicar  of  the  em- 
peror, administers  the  affairs  of  the  country.  The  lower 
offices  only  are  hereditary'.  The  annual  tribute  of  the 
two  high  lamas  is  carried  every  third  year  to  I'ekin  by 
caravans"  (Appleton,  Cyclo])adia,  s.  v.). 

Literature. — See,  besides  the  sacred  books  mentioned 
above,  and  the  works  eited  under  Buddhisji,  A.  Cun- 
ningham, Ladal;  Physical,  Statistical,  and  Historical 
(London,  1854) ;  Csomii  de  Koros,  in  the  Journal  of  the 
Asiatic  Society,  Bengal,  i,  121-269;  ii,  57,  201,  388;  iii, 
57;  iv,  142;  v,  264,  384;  vii  (pt.  i),  142;  xx,  553-585; 
Hardwick,  Christ  and  other  Masters,  ii,  88  sq. ;  Hue  et 
(jahat,  Souvenirs  d'lin  Voyage  dans  la  Tartaric,  le  Thibet, 
et  la  Chine  (Paris,  1852) ;  Hodgson,  Illustrations  of  the 
Literature  and  Religion  of  the  Buddhists  (Serampore, 
1841);  Kcippen  (Fr.),  Die  Lamaische  Jlierarchie,  etc. 
(Berlin,  1859);  Schlagintweit,  jB»(/<//m-?H  in  Tibet  (Lpzg, 
and  London,  18G3).     See  Thibet.     (J.  T.  G.) 

La  Marck,  Evrard  de,  cardinal  bishop  and  lord 
of  Liege,  was  born  about  1475.  His  personal  qualities, 
as  well  as  the  services  rendered  to  the  Church  of  Liege 
by  his  ancestors,  caused  him  to  be  chosen  bishop  of  that 
citj-  in  1506.  He  at  once  ap])lied  to  Kome  for  approba- 
tion, and,  on  the  reception  of  the  papal  buU  of  installa- 
tion by  pope  Julius  II,  repaired  to  Liege,  where  he  was 
received  with  great  enthusiasm.  He  confirmed  the 
privileges  of  the  city,  which  he  governed  with  such 
wisdom  that,  while  war  was  raging  outside,  his  diocese 
continued  to  enjoy  undisturbed  peace.  He  restored  the 
old  discipline  of  St.  Hubert,  first  bishop  of  Liege,  and 
devoted  himself  to  the  spiritual  and  temporal  improve- 
ment of  his  charge.  In  acknowledgment  of  services 
he  had  rendered  to  Louis  XII  in  the  affairs  of  Italy,  he 
was  made  bishop  of  Chartres.  Francis  I  even  promised 
to  procure  him  a  cardinal's  hat,  but  a  protege  of  the 
duchess  of  Angouleme  obtaining  it  in  his  stead,  he  en- 
tered in  1518  uito  the  league  of  Austria  against  France, 
antl  even  warred  against  his  own  brother,  Kobert  de  la 
Marck,  who  had  made  peace  with  Francis  I.  In  the 
Diet  of  Frankfort  he  advocated  the  nomination  of  Charles 
V  as  emperor  of  (iermany,  and  was  rewarded  with  the 
archbishopric  of  Valencia.  In  1521  he  was  created  car- 
dinal, and  thereafter  became  a  zealous  opponent  of  the 
Keformation.  According  to  Abraham  Bzovius,  he  ap- 
pointed in  each  district  men  on  whom  he  could  relj-  to 


LA  MAKCK 


205 


LAMB 


ferret  out  and  punish  all  heretics.  A  great  many  were 
found  and  punished  by  exile  or  death,  while  their  pos- 
sessions were  sequestered.  He  is  said  to  have  cruelly 
tortured  Protestant  theologians.  He  had  at  lirst  wel- 
comed Erasmus,  who  dedicated  to  him  his  paraphrase 
on  the  Ei)istle  to  the  Romans,  but  turned  about  and 
called  him  a  heathen  and  a  publican  when  he  saw  him 
incline  towards  the  new  doctrines.  In  1529  he  was 
called  to  Cambrai,  where  the  Ladies'  Peace  was  con- 
cluded. In  153-2  he  equipped  at  his  own  expense  a  body 
of  troops  to  war  against  the  Turks.  Appointed  legate 
o  latere  in  1533,  he  labored  with  new  zeal  to  uproot  all 
heresy.  For  this  object  he  assembled  a  synod  at  Liege 
in  1538,  but  the  priests,  dissatisfied  with  his  austerity, 
declared  against  him.  He  hoped  to  subdue  their  oppo- 
sition, but  suddenly  died,  Feb.  IG,  1538.  See  Chapeau- 
ville,  Hist,  des  Cardinaux,  vol.  iii,  ch.  v  and  vi ;  Auber, 
Ilistoire  des  Cardinaux,  iii,  331 ,  Louis  Doni  d'Attichy, 
Flares  Cardinalium,  vol.  iii;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gene- 
rule,  xxix,  52.     (,T.  N.  P.) 

La  Marck,  Jean  Baptists  Pierre  Antoine 
de  Monet,  Chevalier  de,  a  very  distinguished 
French  naturalist,  deserves  a  iilace  here  on  account  of 
his  connection  with  the  celebrated  theory  of  the  "  Va- 
riation of  Species,"  lately  so  generally  made  known  by 
the  English  naturalist  Darwin.  See  Man,  Origin  of. 
La  IMarck  was  born  at  Barcnton,  in  Picardy,  Aug.  1 ,  1744, 
and  was  intended  for  the  Church  ;  he  entered,  however, 
the  army,  but  accidental  injury  led  him  to  adopt  the 
mercantile  profession.  During  his  leisure  hours  he 
studied  the  natural  sciences,  and  in  1778  finally  came 
before  the  public  with  a  work  on  botany,  which  secured 
him  the  position  of  botanist  to  the  king.  In  1793  he 
was  made  a  professor  of  natural  history  in  the  "  Jardin 
des  Plantes."  He  died  Dec.  20,  1829.  His  greatest 
work  is  his  Ilistoire  des  Animuux  sans  Vertebres  (Paris, 
1815-22,  7  vols.  8vo;  2d  ed.  Paris,  1835,  etc.).  In  Phi- 
losophie  Zoolof/ique  (Paris,  1809,  2  vols.  8vo),  and  some 
other  of  his  productions,  he  advanced  extremely  specu- 
lative views,  which,  since  Darwin's  rise,  have  become 
the  consideration  of  scientific  scholars.  So  much  is  cer- 
tain, that  La  JNIarck  was  the  first  (if  we  except  a  few 
obscure  wortls  of  Buffon  towards  the  close  of  his  life)  to 
advocate  "  Variation  of  Species."  For  a  more  detailed 
account  and  a  complete  list  of  his  works,  see  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Bior/.  Gi'iierale,  xxix,  55-G2).      (J.  H.  W.) 

Lanib  is  the  representative  of  several  Hebrew  and 
Greek  words  in  the  A.V.,  some  of  which  have  wide  and 
others  distinctive  meanings.     See  Ewe. 

1.  The  most  usual  term,  b^S)  I'c'bes  (with  its  trans- 
posed form  3'4?3,  ke'seh,  and  the  feminines  >1'U^3,  Idb- 
sali',  or  (1*^33,  kuhsuh',  and  n3"^2,  Jdshdh'),  denotes  a 
male  lamb  from  the  first  to  the  third  year.  The  former, 
perhaps,  more  nearly  coincide  with  the  provincial  terra 
hof/  or  hoijget,  which  is  applied  to  a  young  ram  before  he 
is  shorn.  The  corresponding  word  in  Arabic,  according 
to  Gesenius,  denotes  a  ram  at  that  period  when  he  has 
lost  his  first  two  teeth  and  four  others  make  their  ap- 
pearance, wliich  hajipens  in  the  second  or  third  year. 
Young  rams  of  this  age  i'orraed  an  important  part  of  al- 
most every  sacrifice.  They  were  offered  at  the  Aailj 
morning  and  evening  sacrifice  (Exod.  xxix,  38-41),  on 
the  Sabbath  day  (Numb,  xxviii,  9),  at  the  feasts  of  the 
new  moon  (Numb,  xxviii,  11),  of  trumpets  (Numb,  xxix, 
2),  of  tabernacles  (Numb,  xxix,  13-40),  of  Pentecost 
(Lev.  xxiii,  18-20),  and  of  the  Passover  (Exod.  xii,  5). 
They  were  brought  by  the  princes  of  the  congregation 
as  burnt-offerings  at  the  dedication  of  the  tabernacle 
(Numb,  vii),  and  were  offered  on  solemn  occasions  like 
the  consecration  of  Aaron  (Lev.  ix,  3),  the  coronation 
of  Solomon  (1  Chron.  xxix,  21),  the  purification  of  the 
Temple  under  Hezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxix,  21),  and  the 
great  Passover  held  in  the  reign  of  Josiah  (2  Chron. 
XXXV,  7).  They  formed  part  of  the  sacrifice  offered  at 
the  purification  of  women  after  childbirtli  (Lev.  xii,  G), 
and  at  the  cleansing  of  a  leper  (Lev.  xiv,  10-25).    They 


accompanied  the  presentation  of  first-fruits  (Lev.  xxiii, 
12).  When  the  Nazarites  commenced  their  ])eriod  of 
separation  they  offered  a  he-lamb  for  a  trespass-offering 
(Numb,  vi,  12),  and  at  its  conclusion  a  he-lamb  was 
sacrificed  as  a  burnt-offering,  and  a  ewe-lamb  as  a  sin- 
offering  (v,  14).  A  ewe-lamb  was  also  the  offering  for 
the  sin  of  ignorance  (Lev.  iv,  32).     Sec  Sacrifice. 

2.  The  corresponding  Chaldee  term  to  the  above  is 
153X,  immur'  (Ezra  vi,  9,  17 ;  vii,  17).  In  the  Targum 
it  assumes  the  form  N^"2"'>Sl. 

3.  A  special  term  is  n?I3,  taleh'  (1  Sara,  vii,  9 ;  Isa. 
Ixv,  25),  a  young  sucking  lamb;  originally  the  young 
of  any  animal.  The  noun  from  the  same  root  in  Arabic 
signifies  "  a  fawn,"  in  Ethioj)ic  "  a  kid,"  in  Samaritan 
"  a  boy,"  while  in  Syriac  it  denotes  "  a  boy,"  and  in  the 
feminine  "  a  girl."  Hence  "  Talitha  kumi,"  "  Damsel, 
arise !"  (Mark  v,  41).  The  plural  of  a  cognate  form  oc- 
curs C?:^,  teW)  in  Isa.  xl,  11. 

4.  Less  exact  is  '^3,  car,  a  fat  ram,  or,  more  probably, 
"  wether,"  as  the  word  is  generally  employed  in  opjiosi- 
tion  to  aijil,  which  strictly  denotes  a  "ram"  (Deut. 
xxxii,  14 ;  2  Kings  iii,  4 ;  Isa.  xxxiv,  G).  Mcsha,  king 
of  Moab,  sent  tribute  to  the  king  of  Israel  100,000  fat 
wethers ;  and  this  circumstance  is  made  use  of  by  R. 
Joseph  Kimchi  to  explain  Isa.  xvi,  1,  which  he  regards 
as  an  exhortation  to  the  Moabites  to  renew  their  trib- 
ute. The  Tyrians  obtained  their  supply  from  Arabia 
and  Kedar  (Ezek.  xxvii,  21),  and  the  pastures  of  Ba- 
shan  were  famous  as  grazing-gromids  (Ezek.xxxix,  18). 
See  Ram. 

5.  Still  more  general  is  'Xb:,^*;}??, rendered  "lamb"  in 
Exod.  xii,  21,  properly  a  collective  term  denoting  a 
"  tlock"  of  small  cattle,  sheep  and  goats,  in  distinction 
from  herds  of  the  larger  animals  (Eccles.  ii,  7 ;  Ezek. 
xlv,  15).     See  Flock. 

G.  In  opposition  to  this  collective  term  the  word  tT^, 
seh,  is  applied  to  denote  the  individuals  of  a  flock, 
whether  sheep  or  goats ;  and  hence,  though  "  lamb"  is 
in  many  passages  the  rendering  of  the  A.  V.,  the  mar- 
ginal reading  gives  "  kid"  (Gen.  xxii,  7,  8  ;  Exod.  xii, 
3;  xxii,  1,  etc.). — Smith,  s.  v.     See  Kid. 

7.  In  the  N.  T.  we  find  apviov  (strictly  the  diminu- 
tive of  api'p',  which  latter  once  occurs,  Luke  x,  1),  a 
lambkin,  the  almost  exclusive  word,  ajt/vof  being  only 
employed  iu  a  few  passages,  directly  referring  to  Christ, 
as  noticed  below. 

It  appears  that  originally  the  paschal  victim  might 
be  indifferently  of  the  goats  or  of  the  sheep  (Exod.  xii, 
3-5).  In  later  times,  however,  the  offspring  of  sheep 
appears  to  have  been  almost  miiformly  taken,  and  in 
sacrifices  generally,  with  the  exception  of  the  sin-offer- 
ing on  the  great  day  of  atonement.  Sundry  peculiar 
enactments  are  contained  in  the  same  law  respecting 
the  qualities  of  the  animal  (Exod.  xxii,  30;  xxxiii,  19; 
Lev.  xxii,  27).     See  Passover. 

In  the  symbohcal  language  of  Scripture  the  lamb  is 
the  tj-pe  of  meekness  and  innocence  (Isa.  xi,  G ;  Ixv, 
25 ;  Luke  x,  3 ;  John  xxi,  15).     See  Sheep. 

The  hypocritical  assumption  of  this  meekness,  and 
the  carrying  on  of  persecution  under  a  show  of  charity 
to  the  souls  of  men,  and  bestowing  absolutions  and  in- 
dulgences on  those  who  conform  to  its  rules,  appears  to 
have  given  rise  to  the  application  of  this  othenvise  sa- 
cred title  to  Antichrist  (Rev.  xiii,  11) :  "And  I  beheld 
another  beast  coming  up  out  of  the  earth,  and  he  had 
two  horns  like  a  lamb,  and  he  spake  as  a  dragon."  This 
evidently  has  reference  to  the  ostensibly  mild  and  toler- 
ant character  of  the  jiagan  forms  of  religion,  which  nev- 
ertheless, in  the  end,  were  found  co-operating  with  the 
relentless  secular  power.  It  finds  a  fit  counteri)art  in  the 
Jesuitical  pretensions  of  Romanism.     See  Anticiiuist. 

Lamb  {as  a  Christian  emblem'),  the  symbol  of  Christ 
(Gen.  iv,4;  Exod.xii,3;  xxix,  38;  Isa.xvi,  1 :  Jer.  liii, 
7;  John  i,  3G;  1  Pet.  i,  19;  Rev.  xiii,  8),  who  was  t\nii- 
fied  by  the  paschal  lamb,  the  blood  of  which  was  spruak- 


LAMP, 


206 


LAMBERT 


led  on  the  door-posts  and  lintel  of  the  doors  like  a  Taii- 
cross,  to  preserve  the  Hebrews  fruni  destruction.  In 
very  old  sepulchres  the  land)  stands  on  a  hill  amid  the 
four  rivers  of  Paradise,  or  in  the  Baptist's  hand.  It 
sometimes  carries  a  milk-pail  and  crook,  to  represent 
the  Good  Shepherd.  In  the  5th  century  it  is  encircled 
with  a  nimbus.  In  the  4th  century  its  head  is  crowned 
with  the  cross  and  monogram.  In  the  ()tli  century  it 
bears  a  spear,  the  emblem  of  wisdom,  ending  in  a  cross ; 
or  appears,  bleeding  from  five  wounds,  in  a  chalice.  At 
last  it  is  girdled  with  a  golden  zone  of  power  and  jus- 
tice (Isa.  xi,  5),  bears  the  banner-cross  of  the  resurrec- 
tion, or  treads  upon  a  serpent  (Kev.  xviii,  14).  At  length, 
in  the  8th  and  9th  centuries,  it  lies  on  a  throne  amid 
angels  and  saints,  as  in  the  apocalyptic  vision.  When 
fixed  to  a  cross  it  formed  the  crucifix  of  the  primitive 
Church,  and  therefore  was  afterwards  added  on  the  re- 
verse of  an  actual  crucifix,  as  on  tlie  stational  cross  of 
Velletri.  In  G92  the  council  in  TruUo  ordered  the  im- 
age of  the  Saviour  to  be  substituted  for  the  lamb.  Je- 
sus is  the  Shepherd  to  watch  over  his  flock,  as  he  was 
the  Lamb,  the  victim  from  the  sheep.  Walafrid  Strabo 
condemns  the  practice  of  placing  near  or  luider  the  al- 
tar on  Good  Friday  lamb's  flesh,  which  received  bene- 
diction and  was  eaten  on  Easter  day.  Probably  to  this 
custom  the  Greeks  alluded  when  they  accused  the  Lat- 
ins of  offering  a  lamb  on  the  altar  at  mass  in  the  9th 
centuri'.  In  ancient  times  the  pope  and  cardinals  ate 
lamb  on  Easter  day. — Walcott,  /Sacred  A  i-chceolofjy,  s.  v. 

LAMB  OF  GOD  {cqiviQ  eeov,  John  i,29,3G;  so  of 
the  Messiah,  Test,  xii  Pair.  p.  724,  725,  730),  a  title  of 
the  Redeemer  (compare  Acts  viii,32;  1  Pet.  i,  19,  where 
alone  the  term  n/ifof  is  elsewhere  employed,  and  with 
a  lilce  reference).  This  symbolical  appellation  applied 
ti)  Jesus  Christ,  in  John  i,  29,  SO,  does  not  refer  merely 
to  tlic  character  or  disposition  of  the  Saviour,  inasnuich 
as  he  is  also  called  '•  the  Lion  of  the  tribe  of  Judah" 
(Rev.  v,  5).  Neither  can  the  appellation  signify  the 
moM  excellent  lamb,  as  a  sort  of  Hebrew  superlative.  The 
term  lamb  is  simply  used,  in  this  case,  to  signify  the 
sacrifice,  i.  e.  the  sacrijicial  victim,  of  which  the  forr-.er 
sacrifices  were  typical  (Numb.  vi.  12;  Lev.  iv,  32;  v,  G, 
18;  xiv,  12-17).  So  the  prophet  understood  it:  "He  is 
brought  as  a  lamb  to  the  slaughter"  (Isa.  liii,7);  and 
Paul :  "  For  even  Christ,  our  Passover,"  i.  e.  our  Passover 
lamb,  "  is  sacrificed  for  us"  (1  Cor.  v,  7  ;  comp.  Pet.  i,  18, 
19).  As  the  lamb  was  the  symbol  of  sacrifice,  the  Re- 
deemer is  called  "  the  Sacrifice  of  God,"  or  the  divine 
Sacrifice  (John  i,  14 ;  comp.  1  John  xx,  28  ;  Acts  xx,  28 ; 
Rom.  ix,  5,  1  Tim.  iii,  16;  Tit,  ii,  13).  As  the  Baptist 
]X)inted  to  the  divinity  of  the  Redeemer's  sacrifice,  he 
ioiew  that  in  this  consisted  its  efficacy  to  remove  the 
sin  of  the  world.  The  dignity  of  the  Sacrifice,  whose 
Idood  alone  has  an  atoning  efiicaey  for  the  sm  of  the 
world,  is  acknowledged  in  heaven.  In  the  symbolic 
scenery,  John  beheld  "a  Lamis,  as  it  had  been  slain,  hav- 
ing seven  horns  and  seven  eyes,  which  are  the  .seven 
sinrits  of  (Jod."  i.  e.  invested  with  the  attributes  of  God. 
onniipotence  and  omniscience,  raised  to  the  throne  of 
universal  empire,  and  receiving  the  homage  of  the  uni- 
verse (1  Cor.  XV,  25;  Phil,  ii,  9-11;  1  John  iii,  8;  Heb. 
X,  5-17;  Rev.  v,  8-14).  See  the  monographs  on  this 
sidiject  eiteil  by  Yolbeding,  Index  Pnif/rammatuni,  p.  52. 


Agmm  Dei. 


In  the  Romish  Church  the  expression  is  blasphemous- 
Ij'  applied  in  its  Latin  form  to  a  consecrated  wax  or 
dough  image  bearing  a  cross,  used  as  a  charm  by  the 
superstitious.     See  Agnus  Dei. 

Lamb,  John,  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and  anti- 
quary, was  born  about  1790.  He  was  made  master  of 
Corpus  Christi  College  in  1822,  and  iii  1837  was  honored 
with  the  deanery  of  Bristol.  He  died  in  1850.  Lamb 
published  IJist.  Account  of  the  XXX IX  Articles,  1553- 
1.571  (Cambridge,  1829, 4to;  2d  ed.  1835,4to);  etc.  See 
Lond.Gentl.  Maej.  1848,  pt.  ii,  p.  55;  1850,  pt.  i,  p.  CG7; 
Christian  Remembrancer,  June,  1829. 

Lamb,  Thomas,  an  English  Baptist  minister  and 
strict  Calvinist,tlourishcd  in  the  second  half  of  the  17th 
century.  He  died  about  1672.  He  is  noted  as  the  (jp- 
ponent  of  John  Goodwin,  the  bold  defender  of  Armin- 
ianism,  whose  Redemption  Redeemed  (London,  1651,  fol.) 
Lamb  ans'wered  in  a  work  entitled  A  bsolute  Freedom 
from  Sin  by  Christ's  Death  for  the  Woiid,  etc.  (London, 
165C,  4to). 

Lambdin,  WiixiAJt,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  born  in  Talbot  Co.,  Md., 
June  4,1784;  was  converted  at  sixteen;  removed  to 
Pittsburg  in  1805;  joined  the  Baltimore  Conference  in 
1808;  was  on  various  circuits  and  stations  until  1815; 
then  local  till  1822 ,  then  in  Pittsburg  Conference  until 
1830  ;  then  local  at  Wheeling  until  1842 ;  then  in  Mem- 
phis Conference,  Tennessee,  where  he  labored  until  he 
was  superannuated  in  1848.  He  died  in  Henrj' County, 
Tenn..  ]May  22, 1854.  Lambdin  was  an  able  and  faith- 
ful minister  of  the  Word,  and  served  the  Church  long 
and  successfully.  —  Annals  of  the  Methodist  Episcojml 
Chnrch  South,  1855,  p.  348. 

I  ambert  von  Herskeld,  or  Aschaffenburg,  an 
eminent  German  historian  of  the  11th  century,  was  bom, 
it  is  supposed  by  some,  at  Aschaffenburg,  about  1034. 
In  1058  he  entered  the  convent  of  Hersfeld,  the  school 
of  which  was  at  that  time  one  of  the  most  celebrated  in 
(jermany,  and  in  the  same  year,  1058,  was  ordained 
priest.  Shoitly  after  he  went  on  a  journey  to  Jerusa- 
lem, without  the  consent  or  knowledge  of  the  abbot  of 
his  convent.  After  his  return  in  the  following  year, 
Lambert  devoted  himself  to  literary  pursuits,  yet  as  an 
inmate  of  the  convent  which  he  had  entered  before  his 
dej)artiire  for  the  Holy  Land.  He  was  in  great  favor 
among  his  superiors,  as  is  evinced  by  the  fact  that  he 
was  sent  to  visit  the  convents  of  Sigeberg  and  Saalfeld, 
newh'-established  institutions.  The  precise  date  of  his 
death  is  not  ascertained — probably  about  1080.  His 
■works,  which  are  numerous,  are  especially  valuable  as 
giving  a  clear  perception  of  the  state  of  letters  in  his 
times.  His  first  ■\vork  was  a  heroic  poem,  which  is  now 
lost.  He  then  wrote  a  history  of  the  Convent  of  Hers- 
feld, which  contains  vahial)le  information  for  the  history 
of  the  11th  century,  but  unfortunately  we  possess  only 
fragments  of  this  work.  These  were  published  by  Ma- 
der  from  a  Wolfenbiittel  Codex:  comp.  Vetustas,  siincii- 
monia,  potentia  atqne  maiesias  diicnm  Brunsvicensium  ac 
Lynebnrfiensiiim  domus  (Helmstadt,  16G1-4),  p.  150;  and 
again  in  A  ntiqq.  h'nnisric.  p.  1.50.  This  same  codex  was 
also  published  by  j\I.  (!.  Waitz,  vii,  138-141.  His  third 
work  is  a  history  of  (Jermany  in  two  parts.  The  second 
part  is  the  most  conijilete.  a?  well  as  the  most  interest- 
ing: it  begins  with  the  reign  of  Henry  IV,  and  extends 
to  the  election  of  king  Rudolf.  It  is  believed  by  some 
that  this  work,  treating  contemporary  events,  was  writ- 
ten at  different  periods,  whenever  anything  occurred 
which  seemed  to  tlie  author  important  enough  to  be 
mentioned.  It  appears,  however,  to  have  been  concluded 
about  10S4.  Landiert's  works  are  remarkable  for  purity 
of  style  and  elegance-  of  diction,  as  well  as  for  learning 
and  accuracy.  IVIilman  {Ldt.  Christianity,  x'ui.oSo)  says 
that  he  occupies  as  a  historian.  "  if  not  the  first,  nearly 
the  first  place  in  mediieval  history."  Hase  {Ch.  History, 
p.  182).  however,  thinks  that  Lambert  was  too  little  ac- 
quainted with  the  ways  of  the  world  to  make  a  proper 


LAMBERT 


20: 


LAMBERT 


chronicler.  Speaking  of  his  German  history,  Hase  says 
that  it  is  "just  such  a  picture  of  society  as  might  be  ex- 
pected from  a  pious  monk  who  had  matie  a  pilgrimage 
to  the  lioly  sepulchre,  and  looked  out  upon  the  world  and 
his  nation  from  the  small  stained  window  of  his  cell."  In 
his  allusions  to  the  difKculties  which  occurred  between 
the  temporal  and  ecclesiastical  powers,  Lambert  shows 
a  rare  degree  of  impartiality,  although  necessarily  yield- 
ing to  some  extent  to  the  effects  of  his  position  as  a 
monk,  as  well  as  of  the  troubles  of  the  times.  Some  of 
his  writings  were  translated  into  German  by  Hegewisch, 
and  his  whole  works  by  F.  B.  v,  Bucholz  (Frankf.  1819)  ; 
also,  more  recently,  by  Hesse,  in  the  Gesclikhtschreiher 
deutscher  Vorzeit.  d.  XT  Jahrh.  (Berl.  1855,  6  vols.).  See 
Frisch,  Comparaiio  critica  de  Lamberti  Sch.  annal,  etc., 
Diss,  inauff.  Monachii  (1830,  8\-o);  Stenze],  F?dHl:isc/ie 
Kaiser,  i,  495  ,  ii,  101  sq. ;  Viderit,  Conuneitf.  de  Lamb. 
Schafiiub.  (Hersf.  1828,  4to) ;  Hesse,  Recension.  Jen.  Lit. 
Zeitij.  1830,  No.  130 ;  Wilman,  Otto  III  Kxhirs,  vi,  p.  214 ; 
Hirsch  and  Waitz,  Chr.  Corbej.  p.  36,  Gicsebrecht,  An- 
nides  Altahenses  (Berlin,  1841);  Yloto,  Kaiser  Ileinrich 
J  I ',■  tiriinhagen,  A dalbert  v.  Bremen,  1854 ;  Ranke,  .1  bhh. 
d. Berlin.  A kad.xon  1854,  p.  430  sq.;  WituUeber  Benzo 
(Marburg,  1856);  Herzog,  Real-Encijklopddie,  viii, 
166  S([. 

Lambert  of  Maestricht,  a  martyr  and  a  saint  of 
the  Komish  Church,  commemorated  on  Sept.  17,  was  born 
at  Maestricht,  Holland,  towards  the  middle  of  the  7th 
century ;  was  educated  by  Theodard,  bishop  of  that  see, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  office  when  that  prelate  died  a 
martyr  in  (JfiS.  The  major  domus  Ebroin  was  then  in 
Avar  with  the  Merovingian  dynasty,  and  persecuted  all 
its  supporters.  Upon  Lambert  also  fell  his  displeasure, 
and  he  deprived  him  of  his  bishopric,  and  appointed 
Faramund  in  his  place.  Lambert  remained  for  seven 
years  (674-81)  in  the  Convent  of  Stablo,  where  he  led  a 
life  of  penitence  and  humiliation.  When  Pepin  d'Her- 
istal,  after  killing  Ebroin,  became  the  head  of  the  king- 
dom, Lambert  was  restored  to  his  bishopric.  The  an- 
cient historians  relate  that  he  was  killed  by  a  Frankish 
chieftain  named  Dodo,  out  of  revenge.  Two  relatives 
of  Dodo  attempted  to  seize  on  the  goods  of  the  Church, 
and  were  killed  liy  Lambert's  nejihew ;  Dodo,  in  return, 
caused  Lambert  himself  to  be  murdered  at  Liege.  Sub- 
sequent writers  attempted  to  render  this  liistory  more 
interesting.  They  say  that  he  was  murdered  by  Dodo 
on  account  of  the  freedom  with  which  he  reproved  Pe- 
pin d'Heristal  for  his  improper  intimacy  with  AlpaTs,  a 
sister  of  Dodo.  Siegbert  of  Gemblours  and  others  say 
that  on  one  occasion  he  refused  at  the  king's  table  to 
bless  iVlpais's  cup  with  the  sign  of  the  cross,  and,  seeing 
that  he  would  be  killed  for  this,  he  forbade  his  followers 
defending  him,  and  said  to  them,  "  If  >'ou  truly  love  me, 
love  Jesus,  and  confess  your  sins  to  him ;  as  for  me,  it  is 
time  that  I  should  go  to  live  in  communion  with  him." 
After  saying  Avhich,  he  knelt  down,  and,  while  praying 
for  his  enemies,  was  killed  with  a  spear.  It  was  on  the 
17th  of  September,  708  (709  according  to  the  Bollan- 
dists;  others  say  697  or  698).  So  great  was  the  venera- 
tion in  which  Lambert  was  held  by  his  contemporaries, 
that  in  714  a  church  was  built  in  commemoration  of  him 
at  Liege.  His  successor  in  the  bishopric  was  Hubert. 
Biographies  of  Lambert  were  written  by  Godeschalk, 
deacon  of  the  Church  of  Liege  in  the  middle  of  the  8th 
century ,  Stephan,  bishop  of  Liege  in  903 ,  a  canon  call- 
ed Nicholas,  about  1120;  and  a  monk  named  lleiner. 
See  A.  Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints ;  F.  W.  Kettberg,  K. 
Gesch.Dcutschl.ands,  i,  558  sq.;  Herzog,  Real-EncyHop. 
viii,  165;  Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lex.  vi,  323,324. 

Lambert,  Chandley,  a  jMethod,ist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  born  in  Alford,  Berkshire  County,  JNIass.,  in 
1781,  and  converted  at  Lansingburg,  N.  York,  March  27, 
1804.  He  entered  the  Black  Kiver  Conference  in  1807, 
labored  with  great  zeal  and  success  for  twenty  years, 
was  superannuated  in  1827,  and  died  at  Lowville,  N.  Y., 
March  16, 1845.    Lambert  was  a  man  of  great  integrity 


and  usefulness.  His  mind  was  superior  and  well  stored 
with  information,  and  his  preaching  eminently  practical 
and  fidl  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Many  souls  were  convert- 
ed through  his  labors. — Black  River  Conference  Memo- 
rial, \>.\i>^.      (G.  L.T.) 

Lambert,  Francis  (generally  known  as  T^ambert 
of  Avignon,  the  name  of  his  native  place),  also  called 
John  Sekranus,  a  French  theologian,  and  one  of  the 
early  apostles  of  the  Keformation,  was  born  in-  1487. 
At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  became  a  Gray  Friar,  was  then 
ordained  priest,  and  preached  for  a  while  with  great 
success.  He  soon,  however,  tired  of  the  world,  and, 
thinking  to  find  peace  of  mind  in  stricter  seclusion,  he 
asked  permission  to  join  the  Carthusians.  Refused  by 
his  superiors,  he  left  his  order  in  1522,  and  embraced  the 
doctrines  of  Luther,  whose  writings  he  had  secured  and 
carefully  studied.  On  a  visit  to  Switzerland  he  was  re- 
ceived by  Sebastian  de  Monte  Falcone,  prince-bishop  of 
Lausanne,  and  went  to  Berne  and  Zurich,  where  he  had 
a  public  conference  with  Zwingle.  He  thereupon  cast 
aside  the  dress  of  his  order,  took  the  name  of  John  Ser- 
ranus,  and  began  preaching  the  rcfc)rraed  principles  in 
the  several  cities  of  Switzerland  and  Germany.  In  1522 
he  held  public  conferences  at  Eisenach,  and  was  greatly 
instrumental  in  propagating  the  Reformation  in  Thu- 
ringia  and  Hesse.  In  January,  1523,  he  joined  Luther 
at  Wittenberg,  where  he  wrote  his  commentaries  on 
Hosea  and  other  books.  In  1524  he  went  to  Metz,  and 
afterwards  to  Strasburg,  where  he  remained  until  called 
to  Hombourg  by  the  landgrave,  Philip  of  Hesse,  in  1526. 
Here,  in  a  synod  held  in  October  of  the  same  year,  he 
argued  in  Latin,  and  Adam  Craton,or  Crafft,  in  German, 
against  the  tenets  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  as  de- 
fended by  Nicholas  Ilerborn  and  John  Sperber.  The 
latter  were  declared  vanquished  and  driven  out  of  Hesse. 
The  convents  were  closed  up,  and  their  revenues  em- 
ployed to  establish  four  hospitals  and  a  Protestant  acad- 
emy at  Marburg.  Lambert  became  its  first  professor  of 
theology.  In  1529  he  took  part  in  the  Conference  of 
Marburg  between  the  theologians  of  Switzerland,  Sax- 
ony, Suabia,  and  other  southern  German  provinces.  He 
died  April  18,1530.  All  the  writers  of  his  time  agree 
in  calling  him  a  learne<l,  industrious,  and  upright  man. 
His  numerous  works  are  now  very  scarce;  among  the 
most  important  are  Commentai'ius  in  Evanrjelium  Iju- 
cce.  (Wittemberg,  1523,  8vo;  Nuremberg  and  Strasburg, 
1525,  8vo;  Frankfort,  1693,  8vo): — hi  Cantica  canfico- 
rum  Salomonis  libellus,  etc.  (Strasburg,  1524,  8vo) : — De 
fideliiun  vocatione  in  rcffnum  Christi,  id  est  Ecclesiam, 
etc.  (Strasburg,  1525,  8vo)  : — Farrago  omnium  fere  re- 
rum  theologicurum  (1525?),  consisting  of  385  proposi- 
tions arranged  into  thirteen  chapters,  and  which  con- 
tain the  whole  theological  system  of  the  author: — In 
Johdem  j-irophetam,  etc.  (Strasb.  1525,  8vo): — In  Amos, 
Abdiam,  et  Jonam,  et  Allegorice  in  Jonam  (Strasburg, 
1525,  8vo)  : — In  Micheam,Nuum  et  Abacuc  (Strasburg, 
1525,  8vo) : — Theses  theologicm  in  synodo  I/omburgensi 
dispictatcB  (Erfurt,  1527,  4to  and  8vo) :  —  Exegeseos  in 
Apocalipsim  libri  vii  (Marburg,  1528,  8vo) : — De  Sgm- 
bolo  foederis  numquani  rumpendi  quani  communionem  va- 
cant ;  Fr.  Lamberti  Confessio,  etc.  (1530, 8vo ;  translated 
into  German,  1557, 8vo)  : — Conimenfarii  in  quatuor  libros 
Regum  et  in  Acta  Apostolorum  (Strasb.  1526;  Frankft. 
1539) : — De  Regno,  Civitate  et  Domo  Dei  ac  Domini  nus- 
tri  J.-C,  etc.  (Worms,  1538,  8vo).  See  J.  G.  Schelhorn, 
Amanitates  Litteraria,  iv,  807,  312,  324,  328,  x,  1235 ,• 
Seckendorf,  Commentarius  de  Lutheranismo,  lib.  ii,  sect, 
viii ;  Frcher,  Theatrum  VironmiDoctorum,  i,  104 ;  Bayle, 
Hist.  Diet,  iii,  708  sq. ;  J.  Tilemann,  Vitce.  Professorum 
theologice  AIarpu?-gensiu!7i;  Abraham  Scultet,  Annales 
Evangelii,  ann.  1526;  Le  Long,  Biblioth.  Sacra;  J.  F. 
Hekelius,  Epistolm  Singular,  manip.  primus;  Niceron, 
Memoires,  xxxix,  234  sq. ;  Hoefer,  Xoiir.  Biog.  Genirale, 
xxix,  132 ;  Baum  (Johann  W.\  Lambert  v.  A  rignon  nach 
seimm  Leben.  etc.  (1840);  HchTiJckh,  Kirchengeschichte 
s.d.Ref.  i,  380,434;  ii,  219. 

Lambei't,  George,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 


LAMBERT 


208 


LAMBRUSCHINI 


born  Jan.  31,  1742,  at  Chelsea,  En,£jland.  In  1707  he 
became  a  student  at  the  theological  school  under  the 
charge  of  liev.  James  Scott,  at  Hcckmondwicke,  iMig- 
land.  lie  pursued  his  studies  there  for  live  years,  and 
then  accepted  tlie  charge  of  a  church  at  Hull,  April  9. 
17(j9,  wlicre  lie  continued  his  ministrations  until  his 
death,  JNIarch  17, 1816.  Mr.  Lambert  was  a  minister  of 
more  than  ordinarj-  power  and  success,  attaching  to 
liimself,  by  his  intellectual  vigor,  moral  worth,  and 
Christian  excellence,  not  onl\'  his  own  people,  but  also 
numerous  members  and  ministers  of  other  denomina- 
tions. He  published  two  volumes  of  his  sermons,  On 
various  useful  and  important  Subjects,  adapted  to  the 
Family  and  the  Closet.  Lambert  was  one  of  the  found- 
ers of  the  London  IMissionary  Society,  and  preached  its 
first  anniversary  sermon  in  May,  1796.  See  Morison, 
JIL^siiinari/  Fathers,  p.  375  sq. 

Lambert,  Johann  Heinrich,  a  noted  German 
phil(iso|)her  and  mathematician,  was  born  Aug.  29, 1728, 
at  jMuhlhausen,  Alsace,  of  a  French  Protestant  family. 
His  talents  and  application  to  study  having  gained  him 
friends,  he  obtained  a  good  education,  making  remark- 
able progress  in  mathematics,  philosophy,  and  Oriental 
languages.  In  1756-58  he  visited  Holland,  France,  and 
Italy,  and  while  residing  in  the  tirst-named  country  ap- 
peared in  print  mth  his  Sur  les  jnvprietes  remarquables 
de  la  route  de  la  lumiere,  etc.  In  176-t  Frederick  the 
Great  summoned  him  to  Berlin,  and  made  him  a  mem- 
ber both  of  the  Council  of  Architecture  and  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences.  He  died  in  that  city  Sept.  25,  1777, 
leaving  behind  him  the  renown  of  having  been  the 
greatest  analyst  in  mathematics,  logic,  and  metaphysics 
that  the  18tli  century  had  produced.  Lambert  was  the 
first  to  lay  a  scientific  basis  for  the  measurement  of  the 
intensity  of  light  in  his  Pijrometrie  (Augsburg,  1700). 
and  he  discovered  the  theory  of  the  speaking-tube.  In 
philosophy,  and  particularly  in  analytical  logic,  he 
sought  to  establish  an  accurate  system  by  bringing 
mathematics  to  bear  upon  these  subjects,  in  his  Neues 
Organon,  oder  Gedanken  iiher  die  Erj'orschunf/  tend  Be- 
ziehumj  des  Wahren  (Lpzg.  1704, 2  vols.).  Of  his  other 
^vorks,  we  may  mention  his  profound  Kosmologiscke 
Briefe  iiber  die  Einrichtung  des  Weltbaus  (Augsb.  1761), 
and  his  correspondence  with  Kant.  See  Hoefer,  Koin: 
Bioff.  Generale,  xxix,  151  sq. ;  Chambers,  Ci/clop.  s.  v. ; 
Graf,  JAimbert's  Leben  (1829) ;  Huber,  Lambei-t  nach  s. 
Lebenii.Wirken  (1829). 

Lambert,  Jolin,  an  English  reformer,  lived  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  the  Eighth,  and  was  for  a  time  minister 
of  an  English  company  at  Antwerp.  After  his  return 
to  England  he  was  charged  with  heresy  because  he  re- 
jected the  dogma  of  transubstantiation.  He  was  tried 
before  the  king  and  bishops,  and,  upon  refusing  to  recant, 
was  burned  at  Smithfield,  Nov.  20, 1538.  Lambert  was 
distinguished  for  his  learning.  He  wrote  a  Treatise  on 
the  Lord's  Supper  (edited  by  John  Ball,  London,  1538, 
Ifimo) : — Treatise  on  Predestination  and  Flection  (Can- 
terbury, 1550,  8vo).  See  Burnet, ///*•/.  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, i,  406 ;  AUibone,  Diet.  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  ii, 
1051. 

Lambert,  Joseph,  a  French  ecclesiastic  and  mor- 
alist, was  born  in  I'aris  in  1654.  He  took  sacred  or- 
ders when  thirty  years  old,  and  nourished  afterwards  as 
jirior  of  Saint-Martin-de-Palai.seau.  He  died  January 
31,  1722.  Among  his  best  works  are  L'Annee  eranr/el- 
ique,  oil  homilies  sur  les  Evangiles  (Paris,  1()93-1697,  7 
vols.  12mo,  and  often) : — Instruction  sur  le  s/pnbole  (Par. 
1728,  2  vols.  12mo,  and  often).  See,  for  a  full  list  of  his 
writings,  lloefer,  .Xotn:  Biog.  Generale,  xxix,  150. 

Lambert,  Ralph,  D.D.,  a  prelate  of  the  Church  of 
England,  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century. 
He  was  successively  dean  of  Uawn,  and  bishop  of  Dro- 
more  and  of  Meath.  He  is  noted  especially  for  his  plea 
ill  favor  of  depriving  Presbyterian  ministers  of  all  power 
to  celebrate  marriage.  Some  of  his  Sermons  were  pub- 
lished in  1693, 1702,  and  1703.     The  date  of  his  death, 


or  other  particulars  of  his  life,  are  not  at  hand. — AUi- 
bone, Diet.  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  ii,  1052 ,  Keid,  Ilist. 
Irish  Presb.  Church,  iii,  38. 

Lambert,  St.,  de,  Charles  Francois,  marquis, 
a  noted  French  infidel  and  poet,  a  coutemporarj'  and  co- 
laborer  of  Voltaire  on  the  French  Fnci/clopadia  (q.  v.), 
was  born  at  Yezelise,  in  Lorraine,  in  1716  or  1717. 
About  1750  he  went  to  Paris,  and  soon  found  associates 
in  Kousseau,  Voltaire,  Grimm,  and  other  celebrated 
French  infidels  of  Voltaire's  day.  He  became  esjieciaUy 
celebrated  as  a  poet,  his  productions  were  greatly  lauded 
by  Voltaire,  and,  finally,  he  was  made  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy.  As  a  philosopher,  however,  he  did 
not  really  appear  before  the  public  until  1797,  when  he 
published  Les  Principes  des  Moeuis  chez  toutes  les  na- 
tions, ou  Catechisme  vniversel  (1797-1800).  He  died 
Feb.  9,  1803.  St.  Lambert's  personal  liistory  fully  coin- 
cides with  the  doctrines  he  espoused.  Ignoring  all  need 
of  religion,  his  morals  were  truly  Epicurean,  and  we 
need  not  wonder  to  find  that  his  celebrity  was  first 
gained  by  the  publication  of  his  criminal  intercourse 
with  a  woman,  and  the  birth  of  an  illegitimate  child. 

As  to  a  more  detailed  description  of  St.  Lambert's 
philosophical  system,  it  may  suffice  to  say  here  that  it 
very  much  resembles  that  of  Helvetius,  Mhom  St.  Lam- 
bert slavishly  followed.  Thus  he  teaches,  in  treating 
of  man's  nature,  and  his  duties  with  regard  to  human 
nature,  that  "  man,  when  he  first  enters  upon  the  stage 
of  life,  is  simply  an  organized  and  sentient  mass,  and 
that,  whatever  feelings  or  thoughts  he  may  afterwards 
acquire,  still  they  are  simply  different  manifestations  of 
the  sensational  facidty,  occasioned  by  the  pressure  of 
his  various  wants  and  necessities.  With  regard  to  eth- 
ics, he  maintains  that,  as  man  possesses  only  sensations, 
his  sole  good  must  be  personal  enjoyment,  his  only  duty 
the  attainment  of  it;  and  that,  as  we  may  be  mistaken 
as  to  what  objects  are  really  adapted  to  promote  our 
pleasure,  the  safest  nde  by  which  we  can  judge  of  duty 
in  particular  cases  is  public  opinion."  lahis  Catechisme 
Universel  he  divides  the  whole  mass  of  man's  duty  into 
three  classes — his  duty  to  himself,  to  his  own  family, 
and  to  society  at  large ;  while  the  duties  of  religion  are 
never  mentioned,  and  the  very  name  of  God  is  alto- 
gether excluded.  Condorcet's  fundamental  doctrine  of 
ethics — the  present  perfectibility  of  mankind,  both  in- 
dividually and  socially,  by  means  of  education  —  St. 
Lambert  proposed  to  substitute  in  place  of  the  sanctions 
both  of  morality  and  religion,  as  the  great  regenerating 
principle  of  human  nature  (compare  IMorcll,  llistori/  of 
Modern  Philosophi/,  p.  111).  See  Puymaigre,  Saint- 
Lambert  (1840) ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biofj.  Generale.  s.  v.  (J. 
H.W.) 

Lambeth  Articles.     See  Articles,  Lambeth. 

Lambruschiui,  Loiis,  an  eminent  Italian  prelate 
and  statesman,  was  born  at  Genoa  INIay  16, 1776.  Hav- 
ing entered  the  Order  of  Baniabites,  he  became  bishop 
of  Sabine,  then  archbishop  of  Genoa;  was  sent  to  France 
as  papal  nuncio  during  the  reign  of  Charles  X,  and  final- 
ly created  cardinal  Sept.  30, 1831.  I'ope  Gregory  XVI 
appointed  him  abbot  of  Santa  Maria  di  Farfa,  secretary 
of  state  for  foreign  affairs,  librarian  of  the  Church,  grand 
prior  of  the  order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  grand  chan- 
cellor of  the  order  of  St.  Gregory,  and  prefect  of  the  con- 
gregation of  studies.  Opposed  to  all  innovations,  Lam- 
bruschiui took  an  active  part  in  all  the  religious  and 
political  persecutions  which  marked  the  pontifical  career 
of  Gregory  XVI,  and  became  consequently  very  unpop- 
ular. In  ]«45  he  surrendered  the  direction  of  inililic  in- 
struction to  cardinal  Mezzofante.  On  the  death  of  (ireg- 
ory  XVI  in  1846,  Lambruschini  came  very  near  being 
elected  pope.  Piu.^  IX  appointed  him  member  of  the 
states  council,  and  restored  him  to  the  sccretarj'ship  and 
librarianshi])  of  the  Vatican.  In  1847  he  was  also  made 
bishop  of  Porto  de  San  Kufina  and  of  Civita  Vecchia, 
chancellor  of  the  (lontifical  orders,  and  sul)ilean  of  the 
sacred  college.     A\Ticn  the  revolution  broke  out  in  Ita- 


LAMECH 


209 


LAMECir 


ly  Lambnischini  was  in  danger,  and  fled  to  Civita  Ycc- 
chia,  but,  not  finding  more  security  there,  he  returned  to 
Kome.  In  1848  he  tied  first  to  Naples,  and  afterwards 
joined  Pius  IX  at  Gaeta.  He  re-entered  Rome  with 
the  pope  in  1850,  and  was  appointed  cardinal  of  the  pa- 
pal household.  He  is  said  to  have  then  advised  meas- 
nres  of  moderation,  which  were  rejected  by  cardinal  An- 
tonelli.  He  died  May  12,  1854.  His  principal  works 
were  translated  into  French,  under  the  title  Meditations 
sitr  les  Vertus  de  Suinte  Therese,i}recedees  dhtn  ahrerje  de 
sa  vie  (Paris,  1827, 18mo)  -.—Sur  PlmmacuUe  Conception 
de  Marie,  dissertation  poUmique  (Paris  and  Besan(,'on, 
184o,8vo):— />ft'oriOM  au  Sucre  Cceiir  de  Jesus,  etc.  {Var. 
1857, 18mo).  See  JJict.de  la  Conversation;  Eourquclot 
ct  Jlaury,  La  Litterature  Fran^aise  Contemp. ;  Hoefer, 
Xoui:  Biog.  Generale,  xxix,  175.     (J.  N.  P.) 

La'mech  (Ileb. Ze'meA-,  T^'oh, taster, oi\ie.r\s\se,  a  vig- 
orous youth,  in  pause  La'meh,  "'^b ;  Septiiag.  and  N.  T. 
Aa/(£x ;  Josephus  Aafiixog,  Ant.  i,2,2),  the  name  of  two 
antediluvian  patriarchs. 

1.  The  fifth  in  descent  from  Cain,  being  the  son  of 
IMethusael,  and  father  of  Jabal,  Jubal,  Tubal-cain,  and 
Naamah  (Gen.  iv,  18-24).  B.C.  cir.  3770.  He  is  re- 
corded to  have  taken  two  wives,  Adah  and  ZiUah  ;  and 
there  appears  no  reason  why  the  fact  should  have  been 
mentioned,  unless  to  point  him  out  as  the  author  of  the 
evil  practice  of  polj'gamy.  The  manner  in  which  the 
sons  of  Lamech  distinguished  themselves  as  the  inven- 
tors of  useful  arts  is  mentioned  under  their  several  names 
(q.  v.).  The  Targum  of  Jonathan  (ad  loc.)  adds,  that 
his  daughter  was  "the  mistress  of  sounds  and  songs,"  i. 
e.  the  first  poetess ;  which  Jewish  tradition  embellishes 
by  saying  that  all  the  world  wondered  after  her,  even 
the  sons  of  God,  and  that  evil  spirits  were  born  of  her 
(^Midrash  on  Kuth,  and  Zohar).  Josephus  {Ant.  i,  2, 2) 
relates  that  the  number  of  Lamech's  sons  was  seventy- 
seven,  and  Jerome  records  the  same  tradition,  adding 
that  they  were  all  cut  off  by  the  Deluge,  and  that  this 
v.-as  the  seventy-and-sevenfold  vengeance  which  La- 
mech imprecated. 

The  most  remarkable  circumstance  in  connection  with 
Lamech  is  the  poetical  address  which  he  is  very  abrupt- 
ly introduced  as  making  to  his  wives,  being,  indeed,  the 
only  example  of  antediluvian  poetry  extant  (Gen.  iv,  23, 
24): 

Adah  and  Zillah,  hear  my  voice  ; 
Wives  of  Lamech,  listen  to  my  say  ! 
For  a  man  I  slew  for  my  wound, 
Even  a  youth  for  my  bruise : 
If  seveufold  Cain  was  to  be  avenged, 
Then  Lamech  seventy  and  seven. 

It  has  all  the  appearance  of  an  extract  from  an  old  poem, 
which  we  may  suppose  to  have  been  handed  down  by 
tradition  to  the  time  of  Moses.  It  is  very  difficult  to 
discover  to  what  it  refers,  and  the  best  explanation  can 
be  nothing  more  than  a  conjecture.  It  is  the  subject 
of  a  dissertation  by  Hilliger  in  Thesaurus  Theologico- 
Philol.  i,  141,  and  is  discussed  at  length  by  the  various 
commentators  on  Genesis.  See  also  Hase,  De  Oraculo 
Lamec/ii  (Brem.  1712) ;  Schroder,  De  Lamecho  homicida 
(Marb.  1721).  The  following  is  a  synopsis  of  ancient 
and  modern  views.  "  Chrysostom  {Horn,  xx  in  Gen.)  re- 
gards Lamech  as  a  murderer  stung  by  remorse,  driven 
to  make  public  confession  of  his  guilt  solely  to  ease  his 
conscience,  and  afterwards  {Horn,  in  Psa.  vi)  obtaining 
mercy.  Theodoret  {Quwsf.  in  Gen.  xliv)  sets  him  down 
as  a  murderer.  Basil  (A)).  2(50  [317],  §5)  interprets 
Lamech's  words  to  mean  that  he  had  committed  two 
murders,  and  that  he  deserved  a  much  severer  punish- 
ment than  Cain,  as  having  sinned  after  plainer  warn- 
ing; Basil  adds,  that  some  persons  interpret  the  last 
lines  of  the  poem  as  meaning  that,  whereas  Cain's  sin 
increased,  and  was  fuUowod  after  seven  generations  by 
the  punislmient  of  the  Deluge  washing  out  the  foulness 
of  the  world,  so  Lamech's  sin  shall  be  followed  in  the 
seventy-seventh  (sec  Luke  iii,  23-38)  generation  by  the 
coming  of  him  who  taketh  away  the  sin  of  the  w.orld. 

v.— O 


Jerome  {Ep.  xxxvi,  ad  Damasum,  t.  i,  p.  IGl)  relates  as 
a  tradition  of  his  predecessors  and  of  the  Jews  that  Cain 
was  accidentally  slain  by  Lamech  in  the  seventh  gener- 
ation from  Adam.     This  legend  is  told  with  fuller  de- 
tails by  Jarchi.     (See  Kitto,  Daily  Bible  Illust.  ad  loc.) 
According  to  him,  the  occasion  of  the  poem  was  the  re- 
fusal of  Lamech's  wives  to  associate  with  him  in  conse- 
quence of  his  liaving  killed  Cain  and  Tubal-cain ;  La- 
mech, it  is  said,  was  blind,  and  was  led  about  by  Tubal- 
cain;  when  the  latter  saw  in  the  thicket  what  he  sup- 
posed to  be  a  wild  beast,  Lamech,  by  his  son's  direction, 
shot  an  arrow  at  it,  and  tlnis  slew  Cain ;  in  alarm  and 
indignation  at  the  deed,  he  killed  his  son ;  hence  his 
wives  refused  to  associate  with  him ;  and  he  excuses 
himself  as  having  acted  without  a  vengeful  or  murder- 
ous purpose.     Onkelos,  followed  by  Pseudo- Jonathan, 
paraphrases  it, '  I  have  not  slain  a  man  that  I  should 
bear  sin  on  his  account.'    The  Arab.Yer.  (Saadias)  puts 
it  in  an  interrogative  form, 'Have  I  slain  a  man?'  etc. 
These  two  versions,  which  are  substantially  the  same, 
are  adopted  by  De  Dieu  and  bishop  Patrick.     Aben- 
Ezra,  Calvin,  Drusius,  and  Cartwright  interi^ret  it  in 
the  future  tense  as  a  threat, '  I  will  slay  any  man  who 
wounds  me.'    Luther  considers  the  occasion  of  the  poem 
to  be  the  deliberate  murder  of  Cain  by  Lamech.    Light- 
foot  {Decas  Chorogr.  Marc.  p}-cem.  §  iv)  considers  La- 
mech as  expressing  remorse  for  having,  as  the  first  po- 
lygamist,  introduced  more  destruction  and  minder  than 
Cain  was  the  author  of  into  the  world"  (Smith).    Shuck- 
ford,  in  his  Connection,  supposes  that  the  descendants  of 
Cain  had  lived  for  a  long  time  in  fear  of  vengeance  for 
the  death  of  Abel  from  the  family  of  Adam ;  and  that 
Lamech,  in  order  to  persuade  his  wives  of  the  ground- 
lessness of  such  fears,  used  the  argument  in  the  text,  i.  c. 
if  any  one  who  might  slay  Cain,  the  murderer  of  his 
brother,  was  threatened  with  sevenfold  vengeance,  sure- 
ly they  must  expect  a  far  sorer  punishment  who  should 
presume  to  kill  any  of  us  on  the  same  account.     Others 
regard  Lamech's  .speech  as  a  heaven-daring  avowal  of 
murder,  in  which  he  had  himself  received  a  slight 
wound.     Some  have  even  sought  to  identify  Lamech 
with  the  Asiatic  deity  Lemus  or  Lames  (see  IMovers, 
Phi'm.  477;  Nork,  Bibl.  Mjithol.  i,  235).     Herder,  in  his 
Hebrew  I^oetri/,  supposes  that  the  haughty  and  revenge- 
ful Lamech,  overjoyed  by  the  invention  of  metallic  weap- 
ons by  his  son  Tubal-cain,  breaks  out  in  this  triumjihal 
song,  boasting  that  if  Cain,  by  the  providence  of  (iod, 
was  to  be  avenged  sevenfold,  he,  by  means  of  the  newly- 
invented  weapons,  so  much  superior  to  anything  of  the 
kind  known  at  that  time,  would  be  able  to  take  a  much 
heavier  vengeance  on  those  who  injured  him.    This  hy- 
pothesis as  to  the  occasion  of  the  poem  was  partly  an- 
ticipated by  Hess,  and  has  been  received  by  Ivosenmiil- 
ler,  Ewald,  and  Delitzsch.     Pfeiffer  (Diff'.  Scrip.  Loc.  p. 
25)  collects  different  opinions  up  to  his  time  with  his 
usual  diligence,  and  concludes  that  the  poem  is  Lamech's 
vindication  of  himself  to  his  wives,  who  were  in  terror 
for  the  possible  consequences  of  his  having  slain  two  of 
the  posterity  of  Seth.     This  judicious  view  is  substan- 
tially that  of  Lowth  (De  S.  Poesi  IJeb.  iv,  91)  and  Mi- 
chaelis,  who  think  that  Lamech  is  excusing  himself  for 
some  murder  which  he  had  committed  in  self-defence 
("  for  a  wound  inflicted  on  me"),  and  he  opposes  a  hom- 
icide of  this  nature  to  the  wilful  and  inexcusable  fratri- 
cide of  Cain.     Under  this  view  Lamech  would  appear 
to  have  intended  to  comfort  his  wives  by  the  assurance 
that  he  was  really  exposed  to  no  danger  from  this  act, 
and  that  any  attempt  upon  his  life  on  the  part  of  the 
friends  of  the  deceased  would  not  fail  to  bring  down 
upon  them  the  severest  vengeance  (compare  Dathe  and 
KosenmilUer,  ad  loc;  see  also  Turner's  Companion  to 
Genesis,  p.  209).     "  That  he  had  slain  a  man,  a  young 
man  (for  the  youth  of  one  clause  is  undoubtedly  but  a 
more  specific  indication  of  the  man  in  the  other),  and 
this  not  in  cool  blood,  but  in  consequence  of  a  wound  or 
bruise  he  had  himself  received,  is,  if  not  the  only  possi- 
ble, certainly  the  natural  and  obvious  meaning  of  the 


LAMENNAIS 


210 


LAMENNAIS 


■words ;  and  on  the  ground  apiiarcntly  of  a  difference  be- 
tween his  case  and  that  of  Cain's— namely,  that  lie  had 
dune  !/;»/(rprovaeati(m  what  Cain  had  done  vithout  it — 
he  assures  Intnselt'  of  an  interest  in  the  divine  guard- 
ianship and  protection  immeasurably  greater  than  that 
granted  to  Cain.  This  seems  as  plainly  the  import  of 
Lamech's  speech  as  lani!;uage  could  well  make  it.  But 
if  it  seems  to  imply,  as  it  certainly  does,  that  Lamech 
was  not  an  offender  after  the  type  and  measure  of  Cain, 
it  at  the  same  time  shows  how  that  branch  of  the  hu- 
man family  wore  becoming  familiar  with  strife  and 
bloodshed,  and,  instead  of  mourning  over  it,  were  rather 
presuming  on  the. divine  mercy  and  forbearance  to  brace 
themselves  for  its  encounters,  that  they  might  repel 
force  with  force.  The  prelude  already  appears  here  of 
the  terrible  scenes  which,  after  the  lapse  of  a  few  genera- 
tions, disclosed  themselves  far  and  wide — when  the  earth 
Avas  tilled  with  violence,  and  deeds  were  every  day  done 
which  cried  in  the  ear  of  heaNen  for  vengeance.  Such 
was  the  miserable  result  of  the  human  art  and  the  earth- 
ly resources  brought  into  play  by  the  Cainite  race,  and 
on  -which  they  proudly  leaned  for  their  ascendency ;  nor 
is  it  too  much  to  say  that  here  also,  even  in  respect  to 
the  luetic  gift  of  natiu-e,  the  beginning  was  prophetic 
of  the  end"  (Fairbairn).     See  Antediluvians. 

2.  The  seventh  in  descent  from  Seth,  being  the  son 
of  Methuselah,  and  father  of  several  sons,  of  whom  ap- 
parently the  oldest  was  Noah  (Gen.  v,  25-31 ;  1  Chron. 
i,  3 ;  Luke  iii,  3G).  B.C.  3297-2520.  He  was  182  years 
old  at  the  birth  of  Noah,  and  survived  that  event  595 
;i-ears,  making  his  total  age  707.  His  character  appears 
to  have  been  different  from  that  of  his  Cainite  name- 
sake (see  Dettinger,  in  the  Tub.  Zcitschr.f.  Theol.  1835, 
i.  11  sq.).  "Chrysostom  (Serin,  ix  in  Gen.,  and  Jfom. 
xxi  //(  (Jen.),  perhaps  thinking  of  the  character  of  the 
other  Lamech,  speaks  of  this  as  an  unrighteous  man, 
though  moved  by  a  divine  impulse  to  give  a  prophetic 
name  to  his  son.  Buttman  and  others,  observing  that 
the  names  of  Lamech  and  Enoch  are  found  in  the  list 
of  Seth's,  as  well  as  of  Cain's  family,  infer  that  the  two 
lists  are  merely  different  versions  or  recensions  of  one 
original  list — traces  of  two  conflicting  liistories  of  the 
first  human  family.  This  theory  is  deservedly  repudi- 
ated by  Delitzsch  on  Gen.  v"  (Smith). 

Lamennais,  Felicite  Robert,  Abbe  de,  a  Ro- 
man CaihoHc  theologian  and  philosopher,  occupies  a  dis- 
tinguished place  in  the  ecclesiastical,  political,  and  lit- 
erary history  of  France  of  the  19th  century.  He  was 
born  of  a  noble  family  at  St.Malo,  in  Bretagne,  June  6, 
1782.  In  his  boyhood,  his  clerical  tutor  having  fled 
to  iMigland  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution,  he  and 
his  brother  continued  their  studies  together  with  singu- 
lar iiideiiendencc.  It  is  said  that  when  only  twelve 
years  old  he  was  able  to  read  Livy  and  Plutarch  with 
ease.  "  In  1794,  having  been  sent  to  live  with  .in  uncle, 
this  relation,  not  knowing  what  to  do  with  a  wilful  boy, 
used  to  shut  him  n|i  for  whole  days  in  a  library  consist- 
ing of  two  compartments,  one  of  which,  called  'Hell,' 
contained  a  large  number  of  prohibited  books,  which 
little  Robert  was  enjoined  not  to  read.  But  the  lad  al- 
ready cared  for  none  but  books  of  reflection,  and  finding 
some  of  these  on  the  )irohibited  shelves,  that  division 
became  his  favorite.  Long  hours  were  thus  spent  in 
reading  the  ardent  pages  of  Rousseau,  the  thoughtful 
volumes  of  31alebran<he,  and  other  writers  of  sentiment 
and  philosophy.  Such  a  course  of  reading,  far  from  pro- 
ducing its  usual  effects  of  jjrecocious  vainglory  and  un- 
belief on  so  young  a  mind,  served  rather  to  ripen  his 
judgment,  and  to  develop  that  religious  fervor  which 
was  a  part  of  his  nature"  {l-'.iif/li/^h  Cyrlopwdhi).  He 
soon  took  a  decidedly  religious  course,  and,  though  of- 
fered a  mercaiuile  career  by  his  father,  chose  the"  clerical 
profession.  Before,  however,  entering  upon  the  studies 
of  the  sacred  office,  he  accepted  in  1807  the  position  as 
teacher  of  mathematics  in  tlic  college  of  his  native  place. 

To  promote  practical  piety,  he  published  in  1808  a 
translation  of  the  ascetic  Guide  Spiriditl  of  Louis  dc 


Blois.     In  reference  to  the  Concordat  of  Napoleon,  he 
wrote  Reflexions  sur  Vetat  de  Vef/lise  en  France  pendant 
le  dix-huitieme  siecle  et  snr  la  situation  uciuelle  (1808). 
He  here  denounces  the  materialism  propagated  by  the 
philosophers  of  the  18th  century,  bitterly  deplores  the 
apathy  thence  induced  to  religion,  and  expresses  much 
hope  from  the  beneficent  influence  of  the  Concordat,  and 
declares  the  la\vs  of  religion  and  morality  to  be  the  su- 
preme laws  of  life.     The  imperial  censorship,  however, 
detected  a  dangerous  independent  tendency  in  this  w'ork, 
especially  in  the  demand  for  ecclesiastical  synods  and 
conferences,  and  the  issue  of  the  first  edition  was  sup- 
l)ressed.     After  having  received  the  clerical  tonsure  (in 
1811),  he  published,  in  defence  of  the  papal  authority 
and  against  Napoleon,  Tradition  de  Vcylise  siir  Vinstitu- 
tion  des  eveques  (Paris,  1814).    I'rom  retirement  in  Eng- 
land, whither  he  had  been  obliged  to  flee  during  the 
Hundred  Days,  Lamennais  returned  to  France  (in  181(5) 
in   full   sympathy  with   the  Restoration,  and   entcrec] 
more  ardently  than  ever  upon  the  work  of  disseminating 
his  earlier  opinions.     He  was  ordained  priest  in  1817, 
and  in  this  year  began  the  publication  of  his  Essai  sur 
Vindijference  en  inatiere  de  relif/ion  (Paris,  1817-1820,  4 
vols.).     This  work,  of  which  Lacordaire  said  that  it 
caused  its  author  to  rise,  in  a  single  day,  like  a  new  Bos- 
suet  above  the  horizon,  thoroughly  aroused  public  at- 
tention to  the  author  and  his  pjrinciplcs,  attracted  many 
readers  by  the  eloquence  of  its  style,  and  has  passed 
through  many  editions.    The  -work  belongs  to  the  Cath- 
olic reactionary  school  of  philosophy,  to  which  Josei>h 
de  jNIaistre  had  given  the  leading  impulse.    The  author 
first  points  out  certain  perilous  tendencies  of  the  age 
which  seem  to  threaten  another  revolution,  and  notices 
the  vjirious  systems  of  religious  indifference.     He  next 
asserts  the  absolute  importance  of  religion  to  the  indi- 
vidual and  the  state.   The  incjuiry  concerning  the  ground 
of  certainty  in  matters  of  religion  is  then  met  b}-  postu- 
lating authority  —  that  is,  the  consenting  testimony  of 
mankind  as  the  only  ground.     This  testimony  finds  its 
interpretation  by  divine  appointment  in  the  Catholic 
Church,  and  finally  in  the  pope.     This  whole  scheme 
proceeds  upon  the  basis  of  sceptical  philosophy,  which 
denies  to  the  individual  reason  the  possession  of  certain- 
ty concerning  any  truth,  whether  scientific,  philosophic, 
or  rehgious,  and  Avhich  takes  refuge  for  the  attainment 
of  religious   certainty   in   a   common   consent   divinely 
guided.     It  thus  becomes  the  duty  of  the  state,  for  the 
security  of  its  own  welfare  and  that  of  the  individual,  to 
enforce  bv  every  moral  and  physical  means  the  decisions 
of  this  authoritative  Church.     Here  was  an  attempt  to 
win  back  both  jirince  and  people  to  the  absolute  submis- 
sion demanded  by  Gregory  VII  and  Innocent  III.    The 
French  Church  was  alarmed  at  so  extreme  a  position, and 
disavowed  its  own  chamjiion.     A  Defense  de  I'Essai  sur 
rindifference  was  issued  by  the  author.    In  1818  Lamen- 
nais joined  hands  for  a  brief  period  with  certain  Royal- 
ists in  founding  the  '•  Conservateur;"  but  afterwards,  in 
sympathy  with  another  coterie  called  the  drapeau  lihvnc, 
his  severity  in  writing  against  the  management  of  the 
university  invited  the  attention  of  the  police  authorities. 
In  1824  he  visited  Rome,  and  was  received  with  distinc- 
tion bv  iiope  Leo  XII;  he  is  said  to  have  declined  a 
cardinalship.  as  he  had  previously  declined  a  bishopric 
which  had  been  urged  upon  him  by  the  ministry  at 
Paris.     In  La  Relii/ion  ccnsideree  dans  ses  i-apporls  arcc 
Vordre  civil  et  politique  (Paris,  1825-2G,  2  vols.)  he  first 
began  to  exhibit  that  freedom  of  thought,  reaching  to 
the  last  boundary  of  revolution  (I)ut  which,  however, 
independent  of  Church  interests,  abandons  nothing  in 
spiritual  failh).     It  contained  an  attack  upon  (iailican 
lirinciiiles,  and  upon  some  measures  of  the  king,  which 
brought  him  again  before  the  courts.     Defended  by  the 
legal  skill  of  Berryer.  he  was  let  off  with  a  fine  of  thirtj' 
francs.     There  is  a  manifest  prognostication  of  the  com- 
ing disturbance,  of  the  breach  between  the  hierarchical 
authority  aiul  the  spirit  of  the  times  in  his  Proi/res  de 
la  revolution  it  de  la  f/uerre  contre  l'e<jlise  (1829). 


LAMENNAIS 


211 


LAMENNAIS 


The  July  revolution  completed,  the  Church  must  now 
be  saved  by  bringhig  it  into  harmony  with  the  demands 
of  civil  liberty,  and  to  serve  such  an  end  Lamennais 
enters  upon  the  second  period  of  his  career.     With  the 
co-operation  of  Lacordaire  (q.  v.)  and  ]\Iontalembert  (q. 
V.)  he  founded  the  journal  UA  veiiir,  which  had  for  its 
motto  "  God  and  Freedom,"  and  for  its  guiding  thought 
concerning  the  Church  that  the  latter  can  save  itself 
from  the  ruin  which  waits  on  political  absolutism  only 
by  freeing  itself  from  all  relations  with  the  state,  and 
from  the  corruptions  of  hierarchical  luxury,  while  it  is 
to  riourish  only  through  the  voluntary  devotion  of  its 
adherents,  and  in  harmony  with  laws  which  secure  for 
the  people  freedom   of  education   and   worship.      He 
preached  such  a  doctrine  enthusiastically,  and  believed 
that  Rome  would  receive  it.     He  was  present  at  Rome 
in  1831  with  Lacordaire  and  :Montalembert,  and  sought 
to  win  the  representatives  of  the  French,  Russian,  Aus- 
trian, and  Prussian  courts  to  his  views.     An  audience 
was  granted  by  the  pope  only  on  contUtion  of  silence 
concerning  the  matters  agitated.    When,  however,  La- 
cordaire had  presented  a  scheme  of  these  views  in  writ- 
ing, the  French  bishops,  ou  April  2-2,  1832,  presented  an 
outspoken  opposition  to  them.     A  few  extracts  from  an 
encyclical  letter  condemnatory  of  such  principles  which 
■was  issued  by  Gregory  XYI  on  Aug.  15,  1832,  best  ex- 
plains the  peculiar  position  assumed  by  the  writers  of 
LWvenir:  "From  this  infectious  source  of  indiflferent- 
ism,"  says  the  encyclical,  '■  Hows  that  absurd  and  erro- 
neous maxim,  or,  rather,  tliat  madness,  which  would 
insure  and  guarantee  to  all  liberty  of  conscience.     The 
way  is  prepared  for  this  pernicious  error  by  the  free  and 
unlimited  liberty  of  opinion  which  is  spreading  abroad, 
to  the  misfortune  of  civil  and  religious  society,  some 
asserting  with  extreme  imprudence  that  it  may  be  pro- 
ductive of  certain  advantages  to  religion."     And  after- 
wards it  adds :  '•  With  this  is  connected  that  lamentable 
liberty  whicli  we  cannot  regard  with  too  much  horror, 
the  liberty  of  the  press  to  publish  all  sorts  of  writings, 
a  liberty  which  some  persons  dare  to  demand  and  extol 
with  so  much  noise  and  ardor."     A  copy  of  it  was  sent 
with   special   exjalanations   to   Lamennais  by   cardinal 
Pacca,  who  urged  him  to  render  submission  to  the  au- 
thority he  had  himself  so  highly  extolled,  and,  as  if  to 
make  even  more  explicit  the  meaning  of  the  encyclical 
of  which  he  was  the  transmittcnt,  addeii,  "  The  doc- 
trines of  the  LW  venir  upon  the  liberty  of  worship  and 
the  liberty  of  the  press  are  very  reprehensible,  and  in 
ojjposition  to  the  teaching,  tlie  maxims,  and  the  policy 
of  the  Church  [the  italics  are  ours].     They  have  ex- 
ceedingly astonished  and  afflicted  the  holy  lather;  for 
if,  under  certain  circumstances,  prudence  compels  us  to 
tolerate  them  as  lesser  evils,  such  doctrines  can  never 
be  held  up  by  a  Roman  Catholic  as  good  in  themselves, 
or  as  things  desirable."     Strangely  enough,  as  it  must 
appear  to  Protestiant  ideas,  the  tliree  editors  of  U A  venir 
—  Lamennais  and  his  two  younger  coadjutors,  Lacor- 
daire and  Jlontalembcrt — submitted  to  tlie  papal  see, 
and,  of  course,  to  evince  their  sincerity,  discontinued  the 
pul)lication  oi  UAvtnlr.     But  Lamennais  having  after- 
wards, in  certain  smaller  articles,  expressed  himself  in  a 
spirit  contrary  to  the  views  of  the  encyclical,  he  received 
a  letter  from  the  pope  on  the  subject,  and  thereupon,  in 
a  formal  way,  subscribed  a  submission,  Dec.  11,  1833,  at 
the  palace  of  the  archbishop  of  Paris.     In  the  Affaires 
de  Rome  (see  below),  however,  he  declared  that  this  sub- 
mission on  his  part  had  been  made  only  for  the  sake 
of  peace,  and  that,  in  truth,  the  welfare  of  the  people 
must  be  considered  before  that  of  the  Church.     In  1834 
Paroles  cVun  croi/ant  appeared,  Avhich  passed  in  a  fcAV 
years   through  100  editions,  and   was   translated  into 
many  languages.     In  this  work  a  new  spirit  is  mani- 
fest.    In  earnest  language  the  former  and  existing  evils 
of  society  are  deplored,  while  in  a  style  of  prophetic  ar- 
dor  the  future    is   anticipated.     A  new   Christianity, 
based  on  the  principles  of  the  New  Testament,  in  a  rev- 
olutionized democratic  state  is  sought.     A  certain  ideal 


external  form  was  still  Lamennais'  hope.  He  had  ideal- 
ized the  Church,  and  would  now  seek  a  like  panacea  in 
a  social  reorganizati(jn  (see  Brit,  and  For.  Evangel.  Re- 
view, Oct.  18G3,  p.  731).  This  work  was  severely  con- 
demned by  a  special  decree  of  Gregory  XVI,  Aug.  7, 1834. 
In  the  'Affaires  de  Home  (Paris,  1836)  Lamennais  en- 
ters fuUy  upon  the  fnial  period  of  his  life.  He  here 
breaks  cop^pletely  and  irrevocably  with  the  Church;  de- 
clares the  Roman  hierarchy,  of  which  he  had  long  been 
the  champion,  to  be  incompatible  with  a  true  Christian- 
ity and  a  true  humanism,  and  hereafter  Lamennais  was 
regarded  by  the  Church  authorities  as  an  apostate. 
Like  Luther,  Ulrich  von  llutten,  and  many  other  great 
men,  Lamennais  had  been  completely  disenchanted  by 
the  sight  of  the  corruptions  of  Rome  in  her  very  strong- 
hold. "  His  strong  and  clear  vision  saw  in  her  but  a 
corpse  whicli  it  was  vain  to  attempt  to  resuscitate ;  a 
conglomerate  religion  made  up  of  Christianity  perverted 
by  Jewish  symbolism,  and  degraded  and  sensualized  by 
Oriental  and  classical  mythology  and  philosophy.  Yet 
he  hesitated  long  before  he  could  make  >ip  his  mind  ti) 
deny  his  whole  previous  life,  to  forsake  and  repudiate 
what  he  had  formerly  defended,  to  become  an  antago- 
nist of  the  Church  of  which  he  had  formerly  been  the 
bulwark  and  the  champion;  and  it  required  a  year's 
meditation  and  self-examination,  amid  the  woods  of  his 
paternal  domain  of  La  Chesnaye,  before  he  resolved  final- 
ly and  forever  to  break  with  the  Church  of  Rome.  In 
a  worldly  point  of  view,  be  had  everything  to  lose  and 
nothing  to  gain  by  the  course  which  he  pursued,  and  it 
required  no  ordinary  courage,  no  small  portion  of  the 
martyr-spirit  to  act  as  he  acted"  {For.  and  Brit.  Erang. 
Review,  Oct.  18G3,  p.  730).  In  1837  he  began  to  edit  a 
daily  journal,  Le  livre  du  Peiiple.  His  work,  Le  Pai/s  et 
le  Gouvernement  (1840),  was  obnoxious  to  the  authorities, 
and  caused  the  author  two  years'  imprisonment  and  a 
tine  of  2000  francs.  The  most  important  and  elaborate 
work  of  the  latter  days  of  Lamennais  is  his  Esqtiisse  d'line 
Philosophie,  in  4  volumes  (Paris,  1840-4G) ;  a  w^rk  elo- 
quent and  religious  in  tone,  and  exhibiting  the  author's 
general  philosophical  conceptions  in  this  later  period  of 
his  life.  Here  the  authoritative  ground  of  certainty  is 
found,  not  in  the  common  testimony  of  mankind,  but  in 
the  common  reason.  Pliilosophy  is  understood  in  a  broad 
sense,  having  for  its  range  the  facts  of  general  being ;  it 
is  not  merely  a  matter  of  psychology  or  metaphysics. 
The  method  of  this  philosophy  is  the  assumption  of  cer- 
tain foundation  truths  which  all  mankind  admit.  Al)- 
solute  existence  is  not  capable  of  proof,  and  in  like  man- 
ner God  and  the  world  are  two  fundamental  assump- 
tions. God  has  in  his  own  essence  necessity  and  varie- 
ty. He  is  an  eternal  conscious  Ego.  He  has  the  tri- 
une attributes  of  power,  intelligence,  and  love,  uhicli  in 
Scripture  language  are  exi)ressed  as  the  Father,  Son,  and 
Holy  Spirit.  God  has  society  within  himself,  v.i  the  type 
of  a'u  society,  and  the  three  attributes  produce  and  ex- 
plain the  laws  of  whatever  is  outside  of  God.  These 
attributes  are  recognised  as  controlling  elements  through 
every  development  of  tiiis  idiilosophical  system.  Crea- 
tion is  not  emanation,  hut  the  original  divine  ideas  are 
made  real  by  CnKX»J'rce  poiver.  This  is  not  Pantheism 
or  Dualism.  IMatter  arises  under  the  mysterious  power 
of  God  in  the  limitation  of  individuals.  Properly  speak- 
ing, matter  is  not  a  distinct  entity ;  it  is  but  a  limitation 
of  that  which  exists.  Time  and  space,  the  modes  of 
our  existence,  are  the  limitations  of  eternity  and  im- 
mensity, which  are  tlie  modes  of  God's  existence.  The 
nature  of  the  universe  is  to  be  determined  by  the  aid  of 
the  disclosures  of  science,  but  the  laws  of  its  existence 
and  operation  in  the  forms  of  inorganic,  organic,  and  in- 
tellectual being  are  determined  by  the  applicati<in  of  the 
principles  inherent  in  the  three  divine  attributes,  ilan 
is  the  most  elevated  of  the  beings  known  to  us.  The 
great  ]iroblem  concerning  man  is  the  origin  of  moral 
evil.  This  is  to  be  explained  as  a  limitation  of  the  free 
moral  agent  in  his  connnunion  with  (iod.  Thus,  al- 
though iuirtfid  to  the  subject,  the  actuality  of  moral  evil 


LAMENNAIS 


212 


LAMENNAIS 


does  not  introduce  any  positive  disorder  into  the  nni- 
vcrse  regarded  as  a  realization  of  the  divine  ideas.  The 
true  purpose  of  man's  life  is  to  free  himself  from  this 
state  of  isolation,  of  negation  in  self,  and  come  into  en- 
tire harmony  with  the  divine  will.  The  application  of 
this  svstem  to  the  several  faculties  and  pursuits  of  man 
is  developed  at  large.  Hope  for  the  world  thus  lies  in 
the  development  of  the  people.  Religion  and  nature 
will  issue  in  one  when  fully  disclosed.  Everything  in 
the  \vork  seems  to  proceed  from  a  religions,  but  no  lon- 
ger churchly  stand -point. 

Lamennais'  Discussions  Critiques  et  pensees  diverses 
sur  III  Rcliniim  et  la  Philosophie  (Paris,  18-11)  gives  the 
author's  views  on  social  questions.  In  place  of  the 
Church  autliority  whose  claims  he  formerly  advocated, 
he  would  now  have  the  democratic  theocracy  honored. 
This  is  in  great  measure  a  retraction  of  his  work  Sur 
V iiuliffe rence  en  maiiere  de  Religion.  Of  similar  im- 
port is  La  Relifjion  du  piosse  et  de  Farenir  du  Penple 
(1842).  It  is  no  longer  the  future  of  the  Church  of 
which  he  speaks,  but  of  the  people.  His  Church  is  now 
the  religion  of  brotherly  love,  and  he  will  have  it  rise 
upon  the  ruins  of  both  Komanism  and  Protestantism. 
Amschaspaiuls  et  Darvans  (1843),  and  Les  evangiles,  tra- 
duction nouvelle  avec  des  notes  et  des  reflexions  (184G), 
were  issued  professedly  as  a  defence  for  the  people 
against  a  mythological  and  superstitious  credulity.  La- 
mennais was  greatly  interested  in  the  February  Kevolu- 
tion,  and  exerted  his  intluence  to  prevent  acts  of  vio- 
lence against  the  Church  and  religious  interests.  Grat- 
itude for  his  services  in  this  regard  led  to  his  election 
to  the  Assembly  from  the  department  of  the  Seine,  and 
in  his  seat  he  ahvays  sided  with  the  Left.  He  is  said  to 
have  spoken  but  once,  and  that  in  opposition  to  the  dic- 
tatorship of  Cavaignac.  He  undertook  the  editorship, 
conjointly  with  I'ascal  Duj)rat,  of  the  journal  Le  Peuple 
Consiitudiit.  He  was  grieved  by  the  violence  of  the  Red 
Republicans,  though  still  steadfast  in  his  hope  of  the 
democracy;  and  was  forced  into  retirement  by  the  coup 
d'etat,  meeting  with  disappointment  in  this  direction 
likewise.  Nothing,  however,  availed  to  change  the 
views  he  had  in  later  years  adopted,  and  the  Church 
sought  in  vain,  through  the  intluence  of  relatives,  to  re- 
call him  to  her  ftiith  on  his  dying  bed.  He  died  at  Par- 
is, in  the  Rue  du  Grand  Chartres,  Feb.  27, 1854.  He  had 
refused  to  see  a  minister,  and  his  wiU  ordered  that  no 
fonnal  ceremony  sho\dd  attend  his  burial.  He  wished 
his  holly  to  be  placed  in  the  corbillard  des  pauvres,  or 
pauper's  hearse,  and  this  direction  was  complied  with. 
His  remains  were  followed  by  a  few  friends,  as  Beran- 
ger  and  Gamier  Pages,  and  also,  notwithstanding  the 
police  prohibition,  by  a  large  number  of  the  people,  who 
gatheretl  at  the  cemetery  Pere  la  Chaise.  No  prayer 
was  uttered,  nor  last  word  said,  and  the  remains  were 
placed  in  the  common  grave,  without  cross  or  stone  to 
mark  their  resting-place.  Lamennais  was  small  of 
stature,  though  of  attractive  physiognomy;  somewhat 
slow  and  hesitating  in  speech,  with  something  of  the 
Bretagnc  dialect;  less  able  with  his  tongue  than  with 
his  pen.  His  family  had  lost  most  of  their  property  in 
the  lirst  Revolution,  and  he  himself  a  large  part  of  his 
own  through  misplaced  confidence.  In  later  j'ears  he 
resided  mostly  on  a  small  estate  in  Lachesnaye,  near 
Dinau,  in  Hretagne. 

As  a  literary  character,  Lamennais  occupied  a  promi- 
nent place  in  the  revival  of  style  under  the  Restoration. 
His  era  succeeds  that  of  Chateaubriand,  and  corresponds 
with  that  of  ^Madame  de  Stael  and  .Joseph  de  Maistre. 
He  was  an  earnest  if  not  )irofound  thinker,  but  especial- 
ly brilliant  as  a  writer.  He  had  the  culture  of  art  com- 
bined with  the  vehemence  of  passion,  though  the  latter 
element  perhaps  too  often  expressed  itself  in  the  manner 
of  declamatiiin.  As  a  theorist  in  social  iihilosophy  he 
had  a  counterpart  in  Benjamin  Constant,  who  took  his 
stand-jioint  in  individual  liberty,  while  Lamennais  set 
out  from  the  assumption  of  a  consenting  unity  in  society 
and  religion.    It  has  been  claimed  that  his  steadfastness 


to  this  primar\'  principle  explains  the  variation  of  posi- 
tion which  changed  political  circumstances  seemed  to 
necessitate,  causing  him  to  be  at  one  time  all  for  the 
Church,  at  another  all  for  the  people.  There  were,  at 
all  events,  three  distinct  periods  in  his  career,  in  tlie 
first  of  which  he  was  Ultramontane ;  in  the  second  he 
sought  to  mediate  between  the  Church  and  democratic 
ideas ;  Avhile  at  the  last  he  cast  off  all  cliurchly  control, 
and  became  a  chiliastic  prophet  of  the  democracy. 

M.  Guizot,  in  the  second  series  of  his  Meditations  on 
the  Actual  State  of  Christianity,  thus  portraitures  La- 
mennais :  "  This  apostle  of  universal  reason  was  at  the 
same  time  the  proudest  worsliipper  of  his  own  reason. 
Under  the  pressure  of  events  without,  and  of  an  ardent 
controversy,  a  transformation  took  place  in  him,  marked 
at  once  by  its  logical  deductions  and  its  moral  inconsist- 
ency ;  he  changed  his  camp  without  changing  his  prin- 
ciples; in  the  attempt  to  lead  the  supreme  authoritj^of 
his  Church  to  admit  his  principles  he  had  failed ;  and 
from  that  instant  the  very  spirit  of  revolt  that  he  had 
so  severely  rebuked  broke  loose  in  his  soul  and  in  his 
writings,  finding  expression  at  one  time  in  an  indigna- 
tion fuU  of  hatred  levelled  at  the  po^verful,  the  rich,  and 
the  fortunate  ones  of  the  world ;  at  another  time  in  a 
tender  sympathy  for  the  miseries  of  humanity.  The 
Words  of  a  Believer  are  the  eloquent  outburst  of  this 
tumidt  in  his  soul.  Plunged  in  the  chaos  of  sentiments 
the  most  contradictor^',  and  yet  claiming  to  be  always 
consistent  with  himself,  the  champion  of  authority  be- 
came in  the  state  the  most  baited  of  democrats,  and  in 
the  Church  the  haughtiest  of  rebels.  It  is  not  without 
sorrow  that  I  thus  express  my  unreserved  opmion  of  a 
man  of  superior  talent — mind  lofty,  soul  intense;  a  man 
in  the  sequel  profoundly  sad  himself,  although  haughty 
in  his  very  fall.  One  cannot  read  in  their  stormy  suc- 
cession the  numerous  writings  of  tiie  abbe  dc  Lamen- 
nais without  recognising  in  them  traces,  I  will  not  say  of 
his  intellectual  perplexities — his  pride  did  not  feel  them 
— but  of  the  sufferings  of  his  soul,  whether  for  good  or  for 
evil.  His  was  a  noble  nature,  but  fuU  of  exaggeration  in 
his  opinions,  of  fanatical  arrogance,  and  of  angry  asper- 
ity in  his  polemics.  One  title  to  our  gratitude  remains 
to  the  abbe  de  Lamennais — he  thundered  to  purpose 
against  the  gross  and  vulgar  forgetfulness  of  the  great 
moral  interests  of  humanity.  His  essay  on  indifference 
in  religious  questions  inflicted  a  rude  blow  upon  that 
vice  of  the  time,  and  recalled  men's  souls  to  regions 
above.  And  thus  it  was,  too,  that  he  rendered  service 
to  the  great  movement  and  awakening  of  Christians  in 
the  19th  century,  and  that  he  merits  his  place  in  that 
movement,  although  he  deserted  it." 

One  of  Lamennais'  last  and  most  earnest  injunctions 
was  that  certain  papers,  which  contained  his  latest  sen- 
timents, should  be  published  without  alteration  or  sup- 
pression ;  but  the  religious  advisers  of  his  niece  (who 
was  also  his  housekeeper)  so  far  wrought  on  her  suscep- 
tibility as  to  cause  her  to  refuse  to  give  up  the  jiapers  to 
the  persons  whom  Lamennais  had  authorized  to  super- 
intend their  publication.  The  matter  was  in  conse- 
quence brought  before  the  proper  legal  tribimal,  when 
the  judges  directed  (August,  1850)  that  the  papers  shoidd 
be  handed  over  for  publication  in  their  integrity. 

The  first  edition  of  Lamennais'  collected  works  was 
published  under  the  title  G-luvres  completes  (Paris,  1836- 
37, 12  vols.  8vo).  Several  editions  have  appeared  since. 
See  Paganel,  Examen  critique  des  Opinions  dc  I'A  hhe  de 
Lamennais  (2d  edit.  1825,  2  vols.  8vo)  ;  H.  Lacordaire, 
Considerations  sur  le  Si/steme  J'hilosophique  de  M.  de 
Lamennais  (1834,  8vo) ;  E.  Lerminier,  Les  Adversaires 
de  Lamennais  (in  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  1834); 
Robinet,  Etudes  szir  I'abbe  de  Lamennais  (1835) ;  Ma- 
drolle,  Jlistoire  secrete  du  Partie  et  de  I'Apostasie  de  M. 
de  Lamennais  (1843);  Lomenie,  il/.  f/e  Lamennais  (1840); 
Sainte-Beuve,  Critique  et  Portraits  Litteraires,  v  (Paris, 
1846);  and, by  the  same  author.  Portraits  Contemporains 
(1846),  i,  134-191 ;  E.  Renan,  Lamennais  et  ses  en-its  (in 
the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  August,  1857) ;  Morell,  Hist. 


LAMENNAIS 


213       LAMENTATIONS,  BOOK  OF 


Modem  PhUosophj,  p.  527-37;  Damiron,  Z'^^ai  snr  Vhis- 
toire  de  la  Philosojjhie  en  France  au  Ideme  siecle  (1828), 
p.  105-197;  ll!i!L^,Les  Dogvies  Chretiens,\,AA^  8(\.\  For- 
ei(jn  Qiuir.  Rev.  April,  1838 ;  Brit,  and  For.  Rev.  1843,  p. 
382  sq.;  Westminster  Review,  A\)xi\,\9.hQ;  18G6,  p.  174; 
Revue  Chrkienne,  vol.  xiv,  No.  3,  p.  173.  See  also  the  ex- 
cellent articles  in  Herzog,  Real-EnajUop.  viii,  178-184 ; 
Hoefer,  Kouv.  Biorj.  Generale,  xxix,  182  sq.     (E.  B.  0.) 

Lamennais,  Jean  Marie  Robert  de,  a  French 
theoloiiian,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at  St.  Malo 
about  1775,  flourished  as  canon  of  the  diocese  of  Kennes, 
and  was  the  founder  of  the  order  known  as  Les  fr'eres 
de  Lamennais  de  Ploermel  (compare  Ilerzog,  Recd-Ency- 
klojh  iv,  509).  He  wrote  several  works  on  religious  sub- 
jects, but  they  are  of  no  particular  value.  In  the  prep- 
aration of  Tradition  de  Veglise  sur  I' institution  des  evcques 
he  greatly  assisted  his  brother.  He  died  in  1860. — 
Thomas,  Biographical  Dictionary,  p.  1362. 

Lament  (represented  by  numerous  Heb.  and  sev- 
eral Gr.  words,  of  which  the  principal  are  P3X,  uhcd',  to 
mnurn;  ITIJ  X,  «««/*',  to  sm//j;  ilifi, nahah', to  wail ;  'ISO, 
saphad',  to  smite  the  breast  in  token  of  violent  grief; 
"jJip,  hin,to  strike  a  mournful  tune ;  iirS, hahah',  to  weepi ; 
^p7]viw,  to  wail  aloud ;  kotttu),  to  cut,  i.  e.  beat  the  bo- 
som, etc.,  in  violent  liursts  of  grief;  with  their  deriva- 
tives). The  Orientals  are  accustomed  to  bewail  the 
dead  in  the  most  passionate  manner,  and  even  hire  pro- 
fessional mourners,  usually  women,  to  perform  this  cere- 
mony more  effectually  at  funerals.  See  Burial;  Gkief, 
etc. 

The  '^3''p,  hinah',  elegy,  or  dii'ge,  is  not  mentioned  in 
the  earliest  Hebrew  writings.  The  first  example  of  it 
which  we  meet  with,  and  also  one  of  tlie  most  beautiful 
and  pathetic,  is  the  lament  of  David  over  Saul  and  Jon- 
athan (2  Sam.  i,  17-27).  Notwithstanding,  it  is  natural 
to  suppose  that,  from  an  early  period,  and  not  on  rare 
occasions,  the  Hebrew  poetic  spirit  found  utterance  in 
this  class  of  compositions.  The  kimih  is  mentioned  as 
a  frequent  accompaniment  of  mourning  in  Amos  viii,  10 : 
'•  I  will  turn  your  feasts  into  mourning,  and  all  your 
songs  into  lamentation"  (ilS'^p).  Jeremiah  wrote  a  la- 
ment on  the  death  of  Josiah,which,  as  we  are  informed, 
was  added  to  the  collection  of  kinoth  or  dirges  existing 
at  that  time  (2  Chron.  xxxv,  25;  compare  also  Jer.  vii, 
29 ;  ix,  9, 10, 19).  In  2  Sam.  iii,  33,  34,  is  preserved  the 
brief  but  touching  lament  of  David  over  Abner  (q.  v.). 

The  kinah  was  of  two  sorts,  historical  andpi-ophetical. 
The  laments  of  David  and  Jeremiah  already  mentioned 
are  of  the  former  sort.  In  the  prophetic  writings,  and 
especially  in  Ezekiel,  we  meet  with  the  prophetic  la- 
ment, which  had  reference  to  some  calamity  yet  future, 
but  vividly  anticipated  and  realized.  Thus  Ezek.  xxvii, 
2,  "  Son  of  man,  take  up  a  lamentation  for  Tyrus,"  etc. 
In  this  case  the  prophet  himself  is  told  to  raise  his  la- 
ment, as  if  the  city  had  already  been  overthrown.  In 
others  he  gives  to  his  prophecy  the  form  of  a  lament,  to 
be  used  when  the  predicted  calamity  has  actually  taken 
place.  The  calamity  is  so  inevitable  that  the  prepara- 
tions for  bewailing  it  may  be  now  begun.  (Comp.  Ezek. 
xix,  1, 14;  xxvi,  17;  xxvii,  32;  xxviii,  12;  xxxii,  2, 16. 
So  Amos  V,  1.) 

The  only  other  passage  in  which  113 "^p,  or  its  cognate 
verb  'ilp  (lMm-n),\s  found,  is  Ezek.  ii,  10,  where  we  read 
of  a  "  roll  of  a  book,"  "ISO  r^5p  {megilluth  sepher),  be- 
ing spread  out  before  the  prophet ;  "  and  there  was  writ- 
ten therein  lamentations,  D'^3"^p  (kinim),  and  mourning, 
and  woe."  It  is  a  remarkable  coincidence,  but  probably 
nothing  more,  that  immediately  before  the  book  of  Eze- 
kiel there  stands  in  most  of  the  versions  of  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  a  il^S^a,  or  roll,  which  answers  quite  to  this 
description.  Those  who  regard  the  book  of  Lamenta- 
tions as  belonging  to  the  class  of  prophetic  laments 
might  probably  find  in  this  coincidence  a  confirmation 
of  their  views. 


The  opinion  just  mentioned,  that  the  book  of  Lamen- 
tations was  written  pirolepticcdly  in  view  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  and  belongs  to  the  class  of  prophetic 
kinoth,  as  intended  to  describe  that  event  proplietically, 
is  an  ancient  opinion,  held  and  defended  by  critics  of  no 
mean  reputation,  is  not  now  so  generally  entertained 
as  formerly.  The  prophetic  laments  are  usually  very 
brief;  or,  if  thej'  include  more  than  a  few  verses,  always 
tend  to  pass  into  distinct  prophecy,  and  rarely  keep  up 
to  the  close  their  character  as  laments  (Ezek.  xxvii,  27, 
etc.).  Perhaps  the  most  perfect  example  is  the  lament 
in  Ezek.  xxviii,  12-19;  but  even  there  we  meet  with  a 
"  Thus  saith  the  Lord"  (ver.  12).  It  is  therefore,  ^jrimci 
facie,  improbal)le  that  an  elegiac  composition  so  length- 
ened and  elaborate  as  the  book  of  Lamentations  should 
bear  a  distinctively  prophetic  character ;  though,  on  the 
other  hand,  its  assumed  prophetical  character  might  be 
said  to  justify  this  extended  wail.  Moreover,  in  the 
book  itself  there  is  not  the  slightest  indication  that  it 
does  bear  such  a  character;  and  the  most  ancient  tradi.- 
tion — that  contained  in  the  Sept. — gives  to  it  a  histori- 
cal foundation.  It  is,  indeed,  an  old  conjecture,  that  the 
book  of  Lamentations  is  identical  with  the  lament  wliich 
Jeremiah  composed  on  the  death  of  Josiah  (2  Chron. 
xxxv,  25)  ;  but  this,  if  its  main  or  only  purpose,  is  quite 
inconsistent  with  the  fact  that  throughout  the  entire 
book  tliere  is  not  a  single  allusion  to  the  death  of  Josiah. 
Only  once  is  mention  made  of  the  king,  '•  the  anointed  of 
the  Lord"  (iv,  20),  and  the  reference  is  evidently  not  to 
Josiah. — Fairbairn,  s.  v.    See  Lajientations,  Book  of. 

LAjNIENTATIONS,  Book  of,  one  of  the  books  of  the 
O.T.  commonly  assigned  to  Jeremiah,  and  consisting  of 
a  remarkable  series  of  threnodies.  In  the  following 
treatment  of  it  we  largely  foUow  the  articles  in  Smith 
and  Kitto,  s.  v. 

I.  Title.— The.  Hebrew  name  of  this  book,  n^iX,  Ey- 
kah',  "  How,"  is  taken,  like  those  of  the  five  books  of 
INIoses,  from  the  Hebrew  word  with  which  it  opens,  and 
which  appears  to  have  been  almost  a  received  formula 
for  the  commencement  of  a  song  of  wailing  (compare  2 
Sam.  i,  19-27).  The  Eabbins  remark  upon  this  title, 
"  Three  prophets  have  used  the  word  riD'^X  with  refer- 
ence to  Israel :  Moses,  Isaiah,  and  Jeremiah.  To  what 
are  they  to  be  likened '?  To  three  bridesmen  (^'^J'^^TUIty 
=:Mi)pTt](p6poi)  who  have  seen  the  afterwards  widowed 
wife  in  three  different  stages.  The  first  has  seen  her  in 
her  opulence  and  her  pride,  and  he  said,  "  Oh,  how  shall 
I  bear  alone  your  overbearing  and  your  strife  ?'  (Deut.  i, 
2).  The  second  has  seen  her  in  her  dissipation  and  dis- 
soluteness, and  he  said, '  Oh,  how  has  she  become  a  har- 
lot !'  (Isa.  i,  21).  And  the  third  has  seen  her  in  her  ut- 
ter desolation,  and  he  said, '  Oh,  how  does  she  sit  soli- 
tary !'  (Lam.  i,  1)"  (Introduction  to  Echa  Rabatkf). 

Later  Jewish  w'riters  usually  designate  the  book  by 
the  more  descriptive  title  riiD^p,  Kinoth',  "  lamenta- 
tions" —  dirge,  a  term  which  they  found  in  Jer.  vii,  29 ; 
ix,  10,20;  2  Chron.  xxxv,  25,  and  which  already  had 
probably  been  applied  familiarly  to  the  book  itself.  See 
Lajient. 

The  Septuagint  translators  found  themselves  obliged,, 
as  in  the  other  cases  referred  to,  to  substitute  some  title 
more  significant,  and  adopted  Bptji'd  'lepei^iiov  as  the 
equivalent  of  the  latter  Hebrew  term.  The  Vulgate 
gives  the  Greek  word,  and  explains  it  {Threni,  ill  est, 
Lamentationes  Jeremiee  Propheta').  Lutlier  and  the  A. 
V.  have  given  the  translation  only,  in  "  Klagelieder"' and 
"Lamentations"  respectively. 

II.  Position. — In  the  present  Hebrew  Bible  the  book 
of  Lamentations  stands  in  the  Hagiograi)ha  (Kethiihim) 
between  Ruth  and  Ecclesiastes.  The  Jews  believe  that 
it  was  not  written  by  the  gift  of  prophecy,  but  by  the 
Spirit  of  (iod  (between  which  they  make  a  distinction), 
and  give  this  as  a  reason  for  not  placing  it  among  the 
prophets.  In  the  arrangement  adopted  for  synagogue 
use,  and  reproduced  in  some  editions,  as  in  the  Bomberg 
Bible  of  1521,  it  stands  among  the  five  Megilloth  after 


LAMENTATIONS,  BOOK  OF   214   LAMENTATIONS,  BOOK  OF 


the  books  of  iVrosos,  or  books  of  Ruth,  Esther,  Ecclesi- 
astes,  and  Solomon's  SonR.  This  position  of  the  book 
proliably  had  a  Utiirgical  origin,  as  it  is  read  in  their 
synagogues  on  the  nintli  of  the  month  Ab,  which  is  a 
fast  fnr  the  destruction  of  the  holy  city.  In  the  ancient 
Hebrew  copies,  however,  this  book  is  supposed  to  have 
occupied  the  place  which  is  now  assigned  to  it  in  most 
versions,  namely,  after  Jeremiah.  Indeed,  from  the  man- 
ner in  which  Josephus  reckons  up  the  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  (^Contra  Apion,  i,  8),  it  has  been  supposed 
that  Jeremiah  and  it  originally  formed  Init  one  book 
(Prideaux,  Connection,  i,  332).  The  Septuagint  groups 
the  writings  connected  with  the  name  of  Jeremiah  to- 
gether, but  the  book  of  Baruch  comes  between  the 
prophecy  and  the  Lamentation.  On  the  hypothesis  of 
some  ^Titers  that  Jer.  lii  was  originally  the  introduction 
to  the  poem,  and  not  the  conclusion  of  the  prophecy, 
and  that  the  preface  of  the  .Sept.  (which  is  not  found 
cither  in  the  Hebrew  or  in  the  Targum  of  Jonathan) 
was  inserted  to  diminish  the  aljrnptness  occasioned  by 
this  separation  of  the  book  I'rom  that  with  which  it  had 
been  originally  connected,  it  woidd  follow  that  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  Yulg.  and  tlie  A.  Y.  corresponds  more 
closely  than  any  other  to  that  which  we  must  look  upon 
as  the  original  one. 

III.  Form. — The  structure  of  this  book  is  peculiarly 
artificial,  being  strictly  poetic,  and  in  many  portions 
acrostic. 

(1.)  Ch.  i,  ii,  and  iv  contain  22  verses  each,  arranged 
in  alphabetic  order,  each  verse  falling  into  three  nearly 
balanced  clauses  (Ewald,/'oe^/?wc/^  p.  1-47);  ii,  19  forms 
an  exception,  as  having  a  fourth  clause,  the  result  of  an 
interpolation,  as  if  the  writer  had  shaken  off  for  a  mo- 
ment the  restraint  of  his  self-imposed  law.  Possibly 
the  hiversion  of  the  usual  order  of  "  and  £  in  ch.  ii,  iii, 
iv,  may  have  arisen  from  a  like  forgetfulness.  Grotius 
(ad  loc.)  explains  it  on  the  assumption  that  here  Jere- 
miah followed  the  order  of  the  Chaktean  alphabet. 
Similar  anomalies  occur  in  Psa.  xxxvii,  and  have  re- 
ceived a  like  explanation  (De  Wette,  Psa.  p.  57).  It  is, 
however,  a  mere  hypothesis  that  the  Chaldajan  alpha- 
bet differed  in  this  respect  from  the  Hebrew;  nor  is  it 
easy  to  see  why  Jeremiah  should  have  chosen  the  He- 
brew order  for  one  poem,  and  the  Chaldiean  for  the  oth- 
er three. 

(2.)  Ch.  iii  contains  three  short  verses  under  each  let- 
ter of  the  alphabet,  the  initial  letter  being  three  times 
repeated. 

(3.)  Ch.  V  contains  the  same  number  of  verses  as  ch. 
i,  ii,  iv,  but  without  the  alphabetic  order.  The  thought 
suggests  itself  that  the  earnestness  of  the  prayer  with 
\vhieh  the  book  closes  may  have  carried  the  writer  be- 
yond the  limits  within  which  he  had  previously  con- 
lined  himself:  but  the  conjecture  (of  Ewald)  that  we 
liave  here,  as  in  Psa.  ix  and  x,  the  rough  draught  of 
■what  was  intended  to  have  been  finished  afterwards  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  others,  is  at  least  a  probable 
one. 

IV.  Author. — The  poems  included  in  this  collection 
appear  in  the  Hebrew  canon  with  no  name  attached  to 
them,  and  there  is  no  direct  external  evidence  that  they 
were  written  by  the  prophet  Jeremiah  earlier  than  the 
date  given  in  the  prefatory  verse  which  appears  in  the 
Septuagint,  which  is  .is  follows:  "And  it  came  to  pass, 
after  Israel  had  been  carried  away  cai)tlve,  and  Jerusa- 
lem liad  heconie  tlesniale,  that  Jeremiah  sat  weeping, 
and  lamented  with  this  lamentation  over  Jerusalem,  and 
said."  Tills  has  been  copied  into  the  Arabic  and  Vul- 
gate versions;  but  as  it  does  not  exist  in  the  Hel)rew, 
Chaldee,  or  Syriac,  it  was  regarded  by  Jerome  as  spuri- 
ous, and  is  not  admitted  into  his  version.  This  repre- 
sents, however,  tlie  established  belief  of  the  Jews  after 
the  completion  of  the  canon,  'i'lie  Talnuid,'embodying 
the  earliest  traditions,  has:  '"Jeremiah  wrote  his  book, 
the  book  of  Kings,  and  the  Lamentations"' (/)«6«  Bttthra, 
15,  a ).  Later  Jewish  writers  are  equally  explicit  {Echa 
liubb.  introd.).     Josephus  {Ant.  x,  5, 1)  follows,  as  far 


as  the  question  of  authorship  is  concerned,  in  the  same 
track,  and  the  absence  of  any  tradition  or  jirobalde  con- 
jecture to  the  contrary  leaves  the  concensus  of  critics 
and  commentators  almost  undisturbed.  (See  below.) 
An  agreement  so  striking  rests,  as  might  be  expected, 
on  strong  internal  evidence.  The  poems  belong  unmis- 
takably to  the  last  days  of  the  kingdom  or  the  com- 
mencement of  the  exile.  They  are  written  bj'  one  who 
speaks,  with  the  vividness  and  intensity  of  an  eye-wit- 
ness, of  the  misery  which  he  bewails.  It  might  almost 
be  enough  to  ask  Avho  else  then  living  could  have  writ- 
ten with  that  union  of  strong  passionate  feeling  and  en- 
tire submission  to  Jehovah  which  characterizes  both  the 
Lamentations  and  the  Prophecy  of  Jeremiah.  The  evi- 
dences of  identity  are,  however,  stronger  and  more  mi- 
nute. In  both  we  meet,  once  and  again,  with  the  pic- 
ture of  the  "  Virgin-daughter  of  Zion"  sitting  down  in 
her  shame  and  misery  (Lam.  i,  15 ;  ii,  13  ;  Jer.  xiv,  17). 
In  both  there  is  the  same  vehement  outpouring  of  sor- 
row. The  prophet's  eyes  flow  down  with  tears  (Lam. 
i,  16;  ii,  11;  iii,  48,  49;  Jer.  ix,  1 ;  xiii,  17;  xiv,  17). 
There  is  the  same  haunting  feeling  of  being  suir-omided 
with  fears  and  terrors  on  everj'  side  ( Lam.  ii,  22 ;  Jer.  vi, 
25 ;  xlvi,  5).  In  both  the  worst  of  all  the  evils  is  the 
iniquity  of  the  prophets  and  the  priests  (Lam.  ii,  14  ;  iv, 
13 ;  Jer.  v,  30,  31 ;  xiv,  13, 14).  The  suflterer  appeals  for 
vengeance  to  the  righteous  Judge  (Lam.  iii,  64-6G ;  Jer. 
xi,  20).  He  bids  the  rival  nation  that  exulted  in  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem  prepare  for  a  like  desolation  (Lam.  iv, 
21 ;  Jer.  xlix,  12).  The  personal  references  to  Jere- 
miah's own  fate,  such  as  we  know  it  from  his  book  of 
Prophecies  and  Kings,  are  not  wanting  (comp.  Lam.  ii, 
1 1,  and  iii,  with  Jer.  XV,  15  sq.;  xvii,]3sq.;  xx,7;  Lam. 
iii,  14  with  Jer.  xx,  7 ;  iii,  64-06  with  Jer.  xvii,  18 ;  v 
with  iv,  17-20).  As  in  the  Prophecies,  so  here,  the  in- 
iquities of  the  people  are  given  as  the  cause  of  the  exile 
and  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  the  Temple  (com- 
pare i,  5,  8, 14, 22 ;  iii,  39,  42 ;  iv,  6,  22 ;  v,  16  with  Jer. 
xiii,  22-26;  xiv,  7;  xvi,  10  sq. ;  xvii,  1  sq.),  their  sinful 
trust  in  false  prophets  and  iniquitous  priests,  their  rely- 
ing on  tlie  safety  of  Jerusalem,  and  on  the  aid  of  power- 
less and  treacherous  allies,  etc.  What  is  more,  his  poet- 
ical and  prophetical  individuality  pervades  the  whole  so 
unmistakably  that  it  seems  hardly  necessarj'  to  refer  to 
the  numerous  parallel  passages  adduced  by  Eichhorn, 
Bertholdt,  Keil,  De  Wette,  Jahn,  Bleek,  and  others.  If 
contents,  spirit,  manner,  individuality,  are  any  guaran- 
tee at  all,  then  Jeremiah  is  the  author,  and  sole  author 
of  the  book  before  us.  He  even  seems  to  refer  to  his 
other  book  (comp.  ii,  14;  Jer.  xiv,  13).  But  were  any 
further  proof  needed,  we  would  certainly  find  it  in  the 
very  diction  and  phraseology  common  to  both  works, 
and  peculiar  to  them  alone  (comp.  "^'n,  Lam.  i,  22,  and 
Jer.  viii,  18 ;  mSI  1T^'3,  Lam.  iii,  47,  and  Jer.  xxi v,  17  ; 
xlviii,43 ;  i^"  t"2  12"1",  Lam.  ii,  1 1,  and  Jer.  vi,  14,  and 
viii,  11 ;  S'l^D^  "115"2,  Lam.  ii,  22,  and  Jer.  vi,  25,  and 
frequently  the  very  frequent  use  of  "■'^'di  ""^"l-in,  C'l'p, 
fWC"^.  in  both;  phrases  like  "I  became  a  mockery  all 
day  long,"  Lam.  iii,  14,  and  Jer.  xx,  7,  etc. :  the  use  of 
the  1  parag.,  and  other  grammatical  peculiarities.  See 
Keil,  Einleit.  in  das  A .  T.  §  129). 

The  only  exceptions  to  this  unanimity  of  opinion  as 
to  the  authorship  of  Lamentations  are  Ilardt,  who,  for 
reasons  of  his  own,  ascribed  the  five  different  elegies  to 
Daniel,  Shadrach,  IMeshach,  Abednego,  and  king  .lehon- 
ja  respectively,  and,  in  our  own  time,  Conz  and  Thenius. 
The  last  holds  that  only  Lam.  ii  and  iv  belong  to  Jere- 
miah (the  former  written  in  Palestine,  the  latter  in 
Egypt),  the  three  others,  hov.-ever,  having  been  written 
by  Jeremiah's  contemporaries  and  disciples.  His  rea- 
sons for  this  assumption  are,  that  Jeremiah  could  not 
liavc  treated  the  same  subject  five  times;  that  ii  and  iv 
are  difftrent  from  i,  iii,  v,  which  are  less  worthy  of  Jere- 
miah's pen;  that  the  three  latter  do  not  quite  fit  Jere- 
miah's own  circumstances;  and,  finally,  because  there  is 


LAMENTATIONS,  BOOK  OF   215   LAMENTATIONS,  BOOK  OF 


a  ilifFerence  in  the  aljihabetical  structure  (see  above)  of 
i  and  of  ii-iv.  These  objections  to  Jeremiah's  exclu- 
sive autliorship  seem  about  as  tenable  as  Hardt's  Sha- 
drach,  Meshach,  Abednego,  and  consorts.  The  first  two 
jioints  arc  not  worth  consideration ;  the  third  is  an- 
swered by  the  simple  proposition  that  they  are  poems, 
anil  not  a  historical  narrative  which  we  have  before  us, 
and  that  therefore  a  certain  license  must  be  given  to 
the  poet  in  the  use  of  broad  similes  in  his  gencralizings, 
and  in  his  putting  himself  sometimes  in  the  place  of  the 
whole  people  as  its  spokesman  and  chief  mourner.  And 
if,  finally,  the  structure  ditfers  in  i  from  ii  and  iv,  then  it 
may  as  well  be  asked  why  iii,  which  is  not  supposed  to 
be  written  by  Jeremiah,  is  like  ii  and  iv,  which  are  al- 
lowed to  be  ^\•ritten  by  him  ?  If  somebody  has  imitated 
the  structure  in  iii,  why  has  it  not  been  also  imitated  in 
i  and  vV  A  further  refutation  of  this  attempt  to  take 
away  two  fifths  of  Jeremiah's  authorship — supported  by 
no  investigator  as  we  said — has  been  given  by  Ewald, 
and  we  have  indeed  only  mentioned  it  for  the  sake  of 
completeness.  Bunsen,  it  is  true  {fjott  in  der.Gesch.  i, 
420 ),  indicates  Baruch  as  probably  the  author,  in  part  at 
least,  of  Lamentations ;  but  this  is  evidently  a  mere  con- 
jecture. 

V.  Occasion. — The  earliest  statement  on  this  point  is 
that  of  Josephus  {Ant.  x,  5,  1).  He  finds  among  the 
books  which  were  extant  in  his  own  time  the  lamenta- 
tions on  the  death  of  Josiah,  which  are  mentioned  in  2 
Chron.  xxxv,  25.  As  there  are  no  traces  of  any  other 
poem  of  this  kind  in  the  later  Jewish  literature,  it  has 
been  inferred,  naturally  enough,  that  he  speaks  of  this. 
This  opinion  was  maintained  also  by  Jerome,  and  has 
been  defended  by  some  modern  writers  (Usher,  Dathe, 
jNIichaelis,  Notes  to  Lowth,  Prsel.  xxii  [Michaelis  and 
Dathe,  however,  afterwards  abandoned  this  hypothesis, 
and  adopted  that  of  the  later  date]  ;  Calovius,  Prolegom. 
ad  Thren. ;  De  Wette,  Einl.  in  das  A.  Test.,  Klagl.).  It 
doss  not  ap])ear,  however,  to  rest  on  any  better  grounds 
than  a  hasty  conjecture,  arising  from  the  reluctance  of 
men  to  admit  that  any  work  by  an  inspired  writer  can 
have  perished,  or  the  arbitrary  assumption  (De  Wette, 
I.  c.)  that  the  same  man  could  not,  twice  in  his  life,  have 
been  the  spokesman  of  a  great  national  sorrow.  (The 
argument  that  iii,  27  implies  the  youth  of  the  writer 
hardly  needs  to  be  confuted.)  Against  it  we  have  to 
set  (1)  the  tradition  on  the  other  side  embodied  in  the 
preface  of  the  Septuagint ;  (2)  the  contents  of  the  book 
itself.  Admitting  that  some  of  the  calamities  described 
in  it  may  have  been  common  to  the  invasions  of  Necho 
and  Nebuchadnezzar,  we  yet  look  in  vain  for  a  single 
•word  distinctive  of  a  funeral  dirge  over  a  devout  and 
zealous  reformer  like  Josiah,  while  we  find,  step  by  step, 
the  closest  possible  likeness  between  the  pictures  of  mis- 
ery in  the  Lamentations  and  the  events  of  the  closing 
years  of  the  reign  of  Zedekiah.  The  long  siege  had 
brought  on  the  famine  in  which  the  young  children 
fainted  for  hunger  (Lam.  ii,  11, 12,  20;  iv,  4,  9;  2  Kings 
XXV,  3).  The  city  was  taken  by  storm  (Lam.  ii,  7 ;  iv, 
12;  2  (Jhron.  xxxvi,  17).  The  Temple  itself  was  pol- 
luted with  the  massacre  of  the  priests  who  defended  it 
(Lam.  ii,  20,  21 ;  2  Chron.  xxxvi,  17),  and  then  destroy- 
ed (Lam.  ii,  G;  2  (Jhron.  xxxvi,  19).  The  fortresses 
and  strongholds  of  Judah  were  thrown  down.  The 
anointed  of  the  Lord,  under  whose  shadow  the  remnant 
of  the  people  might  have  hoped  to  live  in  safety,  was 
taken  i)risoner  (Lam.  iv,  20  ;  Jer.  xxxix,  5).  The  chief 
of  the  people  were  carried  into  exile  (Lam.  i,  5;  ii,  9;  2 
Kings  XXV,  11).  The  bitterest  grief  was  found  in  the 
malignant  exultation  of  the  Edomites  (Lam.  iv,  21 ;  Psa. 
cxxxvii,  7).  Under  the  rule  of  the  stranger  the  Sab- 
baths and  solemn  feasts  were  forgotten  (Lam.  i,  4;  ii,  G), 
as  they  could  hardly  have  been  during  the  short  period 
in  which  Jerusalem  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Egyptians. 
Unless  we  adopt  the  strained  hypothesis  that  the  whole 
poem  is  prophetic  in  the  sense  of  being  predictive,  the 
writer  seeing  the  future  as  if  it  were  actually  present, 
or  the  still  wilder  conjecture  of  Jarchi  that  this  was  the 


roll  which  Jehoiachin  destroyed,  and  which  was  re- 
written by  Baruch  or  Jeremiah  (Cari)zov,  Introd.  ad  lib. 
F.  T.  iii,  c.  iv),  we  are  compelled  to  come  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  coincidence  is  not  accidental,  and  to  adopt 
the  later,  not  the  earlier  of  the  dates.  At  what  perioil 
after  the  capture  of  the  city  the  prophet  gave  this  ut- 
terance to  his  sorrow  we  can  only  conjecture,  anil  the 
materials  for  doing  so  with  any  probability  are  but 
scanty.  The  local  tradition  which  pointed  out  a  cavern 
in  the  neighborhood  of . I  erusalem  as  the  refuge  to  which 
Jeremiah  withdrew  that  he  might  write  this  book  (Del 
Kio,  Prolefj.  in  Thren.,  quoted  by  Carpzov,  Introd.  1.  c), 
is  as  trustworthy  as  most  of  tlie  other  legends  of  the 
time  of  Helena.  He  may  have  written  it  immediately 
alter  the  attack  was  over,  or  when  he  was  with  Geda- 
liah  at  IMizpeh,  or  when  he  was  with  his  countrymen 
at  Tahpanhes.  Pareau  refers  ch.  i  to  Jer.  xxxvii,  5  sq. ; 
ch.  iii  to  Jer.  xxxviii,  2  sq. ;  ch.  iv  to  Jer.  xxxix,  1  sq., 
and  2  Kings  xxv,  1  sq. ;  ch.  ii  to  the  destruction  of  the 
city  and  Temple ;  ch.  v  is  admitted  to  be  the  latest  in 
order,  and  to  refer  to  the  time  after  that  event.  Ewald 
says  that  the  situation  is  the  same  throughout,  and  only 
the  time  different.  "  In  chaps,  i  and  ii  we  find  sorrow 
without  consolation ;  in  ch.  iii  consolation  for  the  poet 
himself;  in  chapter  iv  the  lamentation  is  renewed  with 
greater  violence;  but  soon  the  whole  people,  as  if  urged 
by  their  own  spontaneous  impulse,  fall  to  weeping  and 
hoping"  {Die  Poetischen  Biicher).  De  Wette  describes 
the  Lamentations  some\vhat  curtly,  as  "five  songs  re- 
lating to  the  destruction  of  the  city  of  Jerusalem  and  its 
Temple  (ch.  i,  ii,  iv,  v),  and  to  the  unhappy  lot  of  the 
poet  himself  (chap.  iii).  The  historical  relation  of  the 
whole  cannot  be  doubted ;  but  yet  there  seems  a  grad- 
ual ascent  in  describing  the  condition  of  the  city"  (AY«- 
leitung,  §  273). 

There  can  hardly  be  any  doubt,  however,  as  to  the 
time  to  which  these  threnodies  refer.  A  brief  glance  at 
the  corresponding  portions  in  the  books  of  Kings  and 
Chronicles  affords  decisive  evidence  that  they  speak, 
one  and  all,  of  the  whole  period  from  the  beginning  of 
the  last  siege  by  Nebuchadnezzar  to  its  terrible  end. 
This  has  also,  from  the  Se]it.  and  the  IMidrash  down- 
wards, been  the  almost  unanimous  opinion  of  investiga- 
tors (Carpzov,  Eichhorn,  Jahn,  Bertholdt,  Bonnelius, 
Horrer,  Kiegler,  Pareau,  etc.).  It  would  seem  to  be 
equally  clear  that  these  poems  belong,  broadly  speaking, 
to  no  particular  jihase  of  t  lie  great  epoch  of  terrors,  but 
that,  written  probably  within  a  very  brief  space  of  time 
(more  especially  does  this  appear  to  be  the  case  with 
the  first  lour),  they  portray  indiscriminately  some  woe- 
ful scene  that  presented  itself  "  at  the  head  of  every 
street,"  or  give  way  to  a  wild,  passionate  outcry  of  ter- 
ror, misery,  despair,  hope,  jjrayer,  revenge,  as  these  in 
vehement  succession  svv'ept  over  the  poet's  soul. 

Yet  it  has  been  suggested  (and  the  text  has  been 
strained  to  the  utmost  to  prove  it)  that  the  successive 
elegies  are  the  pictures  of  successive  events  portrayed  in 
song;  that,  in  fact,  the  Lamentations  are  a  descriptive 
threnody — a  drama  in  which,  scene  after  scene,  the  on- 
ward march  ol"  dread  fate  is  descriljcd,  intermixed  with 
plaints,  reflections,  prayers,  consolations,  such  as  the 
chorus  would  utter  in  grave  and  measured  rhythms,  ac- 
companied by  the  sighs  and  tears  to  Avhich  the  specta- 
tors would  be  moved  by  the  irredeemably  doomed  he- 
roes and  actors.  Thus,  for  instance,  it  has  been  main- 
tained that  the  first  chapter  speaks  of  Jehoiachin's  cap- 
ture and  exile  (Horrer,  Jahn,  Piegler,  etc.),  upon  which 
there  is  this  to  be  observed,  that  a  mere  glance  at  1 
Kings  xxiv  shows  that  such  scenes  as  are  described  in 
this  first  elegy  (famine,  slaughter  of  youths,  etc.)  do  not 
in  the  least  agree  with  the  time  and  circumstances  of 
Jehoiachin,  while  they  do  exactly  correspond  with  the 
following  chapter  of  Kings,  in  which  the  reign  under 
Zedekiah,  with  all  its  accompanying  horrors,  to  the 
downfall  of  the  city  and  empire,  are  related  with  the  se- 
vere calmness  of  the  historian,  or  rather  the  dry  minute- 
ness of  the  annalist.     Neither  can  we,  for  our  own  part, 


LAMENTATIONS,  BOOK  OF   216   LAMENTATIONS,  BOOK  OF 


see  that  •' gradual  change  in  the  state  of  the  city"  which 
t)e  Wcttesees  in  the  consecutive  chapters;  nor  can  we 
trace  the  gradual  progress  in  the  mind  of  the  people- 
that  is.  in  the  lirst  two  chapters,  heaviest,  forever  incon- 
solable grief ;  ill  the  third,  tlie  turning-point  (the  clas- 
sical peripeti/) ;  in  the  fourth  and  fifth,  the  mind  that 
gradually  collects  itself,  and  linally  tiiids  comfort  in  fer- 
vent prayer — which  is  Ewald's  ingenious  suggestion,  to 
wliicli  Keil  assents,  as  far  as  "  a  general  inner  progress 
of  the  poems"'  goes.  To  our,  and,  we  take  it,  to  everj' 
unbiassed  view,  each  of  the  elegies  is  complete,  as  far 
as  it  goes,  in  itself,  all  treating  the  same,  or  almost  the 
same,  scenes  and  thoughts  in  ever  new  modes.  In  this 
respect  they  might,  to  a  certain  degree,  be  likened  to 
the  "/»  Memoiiam"  and  the  second  movement  of  the 
■■Eroiccr — the  highest  things  to  which  we  can  at  all 
compare  them  in  the  varied  realms  of  song.  The  gen- 
eral state  of  the  nation,  as  well  as  of  the  poet,  seem  not 
much  different  from  the  first  to  the  last,  or,  at  all  events, 
the  fourth  poem.  It  would  certainly  appear,  moreover, 
as  if,  so  far  from  forming  a  consistent  and  progressive 
whole,  consciously  leading  onward  to  harmony  and  su- 
preme peace,  they  had  not  even  been  composed  in  the 
order  in  which  they  are  before  us  now.  Thus,  e.  g.,  the 
iburth  chapter  is  certainly  more  akin  to  the  second  than 
to  the  third.  Accident,  more  than  a  settled  plan,  must 
have  jilaced  them  in  their  present  order.  But  the  his- 
tory of  tills  collection  and  redaction  is  one  so  obscure 
that  we  will  not  even  venture  on  a  new  speculation  con- 
cerning it. 

YI.  Cunients. — The  book  is  a  collection  of  five  elegies 
sung  on  the  ruins  of  Zion ;  and  the  fall  of  Judsa,  the  de- 
struction of  the  sanctuary,  the  exile  of  the  people,  and 
all  the  terrors  of  sword,  fire,  and  famine  in  the  city  of 
.Jerusalem,  are  the  principal  themes  upon  which  they 
turn  in  many  varied  strains.  We  may  regard  the  first 
two  chaiJters  as  occupied  chiefly  with  the  circumstances 
of  the  siege,  and  those  immediately  following  that  event ; 
ill  the  third  the  prophet  dei)lores  the  calamities  and 
persecuti(jns  to  which  he  was  himself  exjiosed ;  the 
fourth  refers  to  the  ruin  and  desolation  of  the  city,  and 
the  unhappy  lot  of  Zedekiah ;  and  the  fifth  and  last 
seems  to  be  a  sort  of  prayer  in  the  name,  or  on  behalf, 
of  the  Jews  in  their  dispersion  and  captivity.  More 
particularly, 

1.  Chap.  i.  The  opening  verse  strikes  the  key-note 
of  the  whole  poem.  That  which  haunts  the  prophet's 
mind  is  the  solitude  in  which  he  finds  himself.  She 
that  was  "  princess  among  the  nations"  (1)  sits  (like  the 
JUD.EA  cAi'TA  of  the  Eomaii  medals),  '•  solitary,"  "  as  a 
widow."  Her  "  lovers"  (the  nations  with  whom  she  had 
been  allied)  hold  aloof  from  her  (2).  The  heathen  have 
entered  into  the  sanctuary,  and  mock  at  her  Sabbaths 
(7,10).  After  the  manner  so  characteristic  of  Hebrew 
poetry,  the  personality  of  the  writer  now  recedes  and 
now  advances,  and  blends  by  hardly  perceptible  transi- 
tions wish  that  of  the  city  which  he  personifies,  and 
with  which  he,  as  it  were,  identifies  himself.  At  one 
time  it  is  the  daughter  of  Zion  that  asks,  "  Is  it  nothing 
to  you,  all  ye  that  pass  by  V"  (12).  At  another,  it  is  the 
])i-ophet  who  looks  on  her,  and  portrays  her  as  "  spread- 
ing forth  her  hands,  and  there  is  none  to  comfort  her" 
(17  ).  ^[ingling  with  this  outliurst  of  sorrow  there  are 
two  tliouglits  characteristic  both  of  the  man  and  the 
time.  The  calamities  which  the  nation  sufl'ers  are  the 
consequences  of  its  sins.  There  must  be  the  confession 
of  those  sins :  "  The  Lord  is  righteous,  for  I  have  rebelled 
against  his  commandment"  ( 18).  There  is,  however, 
t,his  gleam  of  consolation  that  Judah  is  not  alone  in  her 
sufferings.  Those  wlio  have  exulted  in  her  destruction 
shall  drink  of  the  same  cup.  They  shall  be  like  unto 
her  in  the  day  that  the  Lord  sh-ill  call  (21). 

2.  ('ha)),  ii.  As  the  solitude  Of  the  city  was  the  sub- 
ject of  the  first  lamentation,  so  the  destruction  that  had 
laid  it  waste  is  that  which  is  most  conspicuons  in  the 
second.  Jehovah  had  thrown  down  in  his  wrath  the 
strongholds  of  the  daughter  of  Judah  (2).    The  rampart 


and  the  wall  lament  together  (8).  The  walls  of  the 
yialace  are  given  up  into  the  hand  of  the  enemy  (7). 
The  breach  is  great,  as  if  made  by  the  inrusliing  of  the 
sea  (13).  "With  this  there  had  been  united  all  the  horrors 
of  the  I'amine  and  the  assault — young  children  fainting 
for  hunger  in  the  top  of  every  street  (19) ;  women  eating 
their  own  children,  and  so  fidfiUing  the  curse  of  Deut. 
xxviii,  53  (20);  the  priest  and  the  prophet  slain  in  the 
sanctuary  of  the  L(jrd  (ibid.).  Added  to  all  this,  there 
was  the  remembrance  of  that  which  had  been  all  along 
the  great  trial  of  Jeremiah's  life,  against  which  he  had 
to  wage  continual  war.  The  prophets  of  Jerusalem  had 
seen  vain  and  foolish  things,  false  burdens,  and  causes 
of  banishment  (1-1).  A  righteous  judgment  had  fallen 
on  them.  The  prophets  found  no  vision  of  Jehovah  (9). 
The  king  and  the  princes  who  had  listened  to  them 
were  captive  among  the  Gentiles. 

3.  Chap.  iii.  The  difference  iu  the  stnicture  of  this 
poem,  which  has  already  been  noticed,  indicates  a  corre- 
sponding diflference  in  its  substance.  In  the  two  pre- 
ceding poems  Jeremiah  had  spoken  of  the  miserj'  and 
destruction  of  Jerusalem.  In  the  third  he  speaks  chief- 
ly, though  not  exchfsively,  of  his  own.  He  himself  is 
the  man  that  has  seen  affliction  (1),  who  has  been 
brought  into  darkness  and  not  into  light  (2).  He  looks 
back  upon  the  long  life  of  suffering  which  he  has  been 
called  on  to  endure,  the  scorn  and  derision  of  the  people, 
the  bitterness  as  of  one  drunken  with  wormwood  ( 14, 
15).  But  that  experience  was  not  one  which  had  ended 
in  darkness  and  despair.  Here,  as  in  the  prophecies,  we 
find  a  Gospel  for  the  weary  and  heavy-laden,  a  trust,  not 
to  be  shaken,  in  the  mercy  and  righteousness  of  Jeho- 
vah, The  mercies  of  the  Lord  are  new  every  morning 
(22,  23).  He  is  good  to  them  that  wait  for  him  (25). 
The  retrospect  of  that  sharp  experience  shoAved  him 
that  it  all  formed  part  of  the  discipline  which  was  in- 
tended to  lead  him  on  to  a  higher  blessedness.  It  was 
good  for  a  man  to  bear  the  yoke  in  his  youth,  good  that 
he  should  both  hope  and  cjuietly  wait  (26,  27).  AMth 
this,  etjually  characteristic  of  the  prophet's  individual- 
ity, there  is  the  protest  against  the  wrong  which  had 
been  or  might  hereafter  be  committed  by  rulers  and 
princes  (34-36),  the  confession  that  all  that  had  come 
on  him  and  his  ]5eople  was  but  a  righteous  retribution, 
to  be  accepted  liumbly,  with  searchmgs  of  heart,  and 
repentance  (39-42).  The  closing  verses  may  refer  to 
that  special  epoch  in  the  prophet's  lil'e  when  his  own 
sufferings  had  been  shaqjest  (53-56).  and  the  cruelties 
of  his  enemies  most  triumphant.  If  so,  we  can  enter 
more  fully,  remembering  this,  into  the  thanksgiving 
M'itli  which  he  acknowledges  the  help,  deliverance,  re- 
demption, which  he  had  received  from  God  (57,  58). 
Feeling  sure  that,  at  some  time  or  other,  there  would  be 
for  him  a  yet  higher  lesson,  we  can  enter  Avith  some 
measure  of  sympathy  even  into  the  terrible  earnestness 
of  his  appeal  from  tlie  unjust  judgment  of  earth  to  the 
righteous  Judge,  into  his  cr\-  for  a  retribution  without 
which  it  seemed  to  him  that  the  Eternid  llighteousness 
would  fail  (64-66). 

4.  Chap.  iv.  It  might  seem,  at  first,  as  if  the  fourth 
poem  did  but  reproduce  the  jjictures  and  the  thoughts 
of  the  first  and  second.  There  come  before  us  once 
again  the  famine,  the  misery,  the  desolation  that  had 
fallen  on  the  lioly  city,  making  all  faces  gather  black- 
ness. One  new  element  in  the  picture  is  found  iu  the 
contrast  between  the  past  glorv-  of  the  consecrated  fam- 
ilies of  kingly  and  priestly  stock  (A.  Vers.  '•  Nazaritcs"), 
and  their  later  miser}-  and  shame.  Some  changes  there 
are,  however,  n(;t  without  interest  in  their  relation  to 
the  poet's  own  life  anil  to  the  historj'  of  his  time.  All 
the  facts  gain  a  now  significance  by  being  seen  in  the 
light  of  the  i)ersoiKd-  exjjerience  of  the  third  poem.  The 
declaration  that  all  this  had  come  '"for  the  sins  of  the 
prophets  and  the  iniquities  of  the  priests"  is  clearer  and 
sharper  than  before  (ver.  13).  There  is  the  giving  up 
of  the  last  hope  which  Jeremiah  had  cherished  when  he 
urged  on  Zedekiah  the  wisdom  of  aubmissioii  to  the 


LAMENTATIONS,  BOOK  OF   217   LAMENTATIONS,  BOOK  OF 


Chakteans  (verse  20).  The  closing  words  indicate  the 
strength  of  that  feeling  against  the  Edomites  which 
lasted  all  through  the  captivity  (ver.  21,  22).  She,  the 
daughter  of  Edom,  had  rejoiced  in  the  fall  of  her  rival, 
and  had  pressed  on  the  work  of  destruction.  But  for 
her,  too,  there  ivas  the  doom  of  being  drunken  with  the 
cup  of  the  Lord's  wrath.  For  the  daughter  of  Ziou 
there  was  hope  of  pardon  when  discipline  should  have 
done  it^  work,  and  the  punishment  of  her  iniquity 
should  be  accomplished. 

5.  Chap.  V.  One  great  difference  in  the  fifth  and  last 
section  of  the  poem  has  already  been  pointed  out.  It 
obviously  indicates  either  a  deliberate  abandonment  of 
tlie  alphabetic  structure,  or  the  unfinished  character  of 
the  concluding  elegy.  The  title  prefixed  in  the  Vul- 
gate, "  Oratio  JeremicB  Praphetas"  points  to  one  marked 
characteristic  which  may  have  occasioned  this  differ- 
ence. There  are  signs  also  of  a  later  date  than  that  of 
the  preceding  poems.  Though  the  horrors  of  the  fam- 
ine are  ineffaceable,  yet  that  which  he  has  before  him  is 
rather  the  continued,  protracted  suffering  of  the  rule  of 
the  Chakteans.  The  mountain  of  Zion  is  desolate,  and 
the  foxes  walk  on  it  (ver.  18).  Slaves  have  ruled  over 
the  people  of  Jehovah  (ver.  8).  Women  have  been  sub- 
jected to  intolerable  outrages  (verse  11).  The  young 
men  have  been  taken  to  grind,  and  the  children  have 
fallen  under  the  wood  (ver.  13).  But  in  this  also,  deep 
as  might  be  the  humiliation,  there  ^vas  hope,  even  as 
there  had  been  in  the  dark  hours  of  the  prophet's  own 
life.  He  and  his  people  are  sustained  by  the  old  thought 
whicli  had  been  so  fruitful  of  comfort  to  other  prophets 
and  psalmists.  The  periods  of  suffering  and  struggle 
which  seemed  so  long  were  but  as  moments  in  the  life- 
time of  the  Eternal  (verse  10),  and  the  thought  of  that 
eternity  brought  with  it  the  hope  that  the  purposes  of 
love  whicli  had  been  declared  so  clearly  should  one  day 
be  fidfilled.  The  last  words  of  this  lamentation  are 
those  Avhich  have  risen  so  often  from  broken  and  con- 
trite hearts:  "Turn  thou  us,  O  Lord,  and  we  shall  be 
turned.  Kenew  our  days  as  of  old"  (ver.  21).  That 
which  had  begun  with  wailing  and  weeping  ends  (f«l- 
lowing  iMvald's  and  ^Nlichaelis's  translation)  with  the 
question  of  hope  :  '•  Wilt  thou  utterly  reject  us  ?  Wilt 
thou  be  very  wroth  against  usV" 

VII.  General  Character. — 1.  It  is  well  to  be  reminded 
bj"  the  above  survey  that  we  have  before  us,  not  a  book 
in  five  chapters,  but  five  separate  poems,  each  complete 
iu  itself,  each  having  a  distinct  subject,  yet  brought  at 
the  same  time  under  a  plan  which  includes  them  all. 
It  is  clear,  before  entering  on  any  other  characteristics, 
tliat  \ve  find,  in  fuU  predominance,  that  strong  personal 
emotion  which  mingled  itself,  in  greater  or  less  measure, 
with  the  whole  prophetic  work  of  Jeremiah.  There  is 
here  no  "  word  of  Jehovah,"  no  direct  message  to  a  sin- 
ful people.  Tlie  man  speaks  out  of  the  fulness  of  his 
heart,  and,  though  a  higher  Spirit  than  his  own  helps 
him  to  give  utterance  to  his  sorrows,  it  is  yet  the  lan- 
guage of  a  sufferer  rather  than  of  a  teacher.  There  is 
this  measure  of  truth  in  the  technical  classification 
whicli  placed  the  Lamentations  among  the  Hagiogra- 
pha  of  the  Hebrew  Canon,  in  the  feeling  which  led  the 
K.il)binic  writers  (J\\mc\\i,  Prwf.in  Psalm.)  to  say  that 
tliey  and  the  other  books  of  that  group  were  written  in- 
deed by  the  help  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  but  not  with  the 
special  gift  of  prophecy. 

2.  Other  differences  between  the  two  books  that  bear 
the  prophet's  name  grew  out  of  this.  Here  there  is 
more  attention  to  form,  more  elaboration.  The  rhytlim 
is  more  uniform  than  in  the  prophecies.  A  complicated 
alphabetic  structure  pervades  nearly  the  whole  book. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  this  acrostic  form  of  writing 
was  not  peculiar  to  Jeremiah.  Whatever  its  origin, 
whether  it  had  been  adofited  as  a  help  to  the  memory, 
and  so  fitted  especially  for  didactic  poems,  or  for  such  as 
were  to  be  sung  by  great  bodies  of  people  (Lowth,  Pnel. 
xxii),  it  had  been  a  received,  and  it  would  seem  popu- 
lar, framework  for  poems  of  very  different  characters, 


and  extending  probably  over  a  considerable  period  of 
time.  The  119th  Psalm  is  the  great  monument  which 
forces  itself  upon  our  notice ;  but  it  is  found  also  in  the 
25th,  34th,  37th,  111th,  112th,  U5th— and  in  the  singu- 
larly beautiful  fragment  appended  to  the  book  of  I'rov- 
erbs  (Prov.  xxxi,  10-31).  Traces  of  it,  as  if  the  work 
had  been  left  half  finished  (De  Wette,  Psalmen,  ad  loc), 
appear  in  the  9th  and  10th.  In  the  Lamentations  (con- 
fining ourselves  for  the  present  to  the  structure)  we 
meet  with  some  remarkable  peculiarities. 

It  has  to  be  remembered,  too,  that  in  thus  speaking 
the  writer  was  doing  what  many  must  have  looked  for 
from  him,  and  so  meeting  at  once  their  expectations 
and  their  wants.  Other  projjhets  and  poets  had  made 
themselves  the  spokesmen  of  the  nation's  feelings  on 
the  death  of  kings  and  lieroes.  The  party  that  contin- 
ued faithful  to  the  policy  and  principles  of  Josiah  re- 
membered how  the  prophet  had  lamented  over  his 
death.  The  lamentations  of  that  period  (though  they 
are  lost  to  us)  had  been  accepted  as  a  great  national 
dirge.  Was  he  to  be  silent  now  that  a  more  terrible 
calamity  had  fallen  upon  the  people?  Did  not  the  ex- 
iles in  Babylon  need  this  form  of  consolation?  Does 
not  the  appearance  of  this  book  in  their  canon  of  sacred 
writings,  after  their  return  from  exile,  indicate  that 
during  their  captivity  they  had  found  this  consolation 
in  it? 

The  choice  of  a  structure  so  artificial  as  that  which 
has  been  described  above  may  at  first  sight  appear  in- 
consistent with  the  deep,  intense  sorrow  of  which  it 
claims  to  be  the  utterance.  Some  wilder,  less  measured 
rhythm  would  seem  to  us  to  have  been  a  titter  form  of 
expression.  It  would  belong,  however,  to  a  ver}^  shal- 
low and  hasty  criticism  to  pass  this  judgment.  A  man 
true  to  the  gift  he  has  received  will  welcome  the  disci- 
pline of  self-imposed  rules  for  deep  sorrow  as  well  as  for 
other  strong  emotions.  In  proportion  as  he  is  afraid  of 
being  carried  away  by  the  strong  current  of  feeling  will 
he  be  anxious  to  make  the  laws  more  difficult,  the  dis- 
cipline more  effectual.  Something  of  this  kind  is  trace- 
able in  the  fact  that  so  many  of  the  master-minds  of 
European  literature  have  chosen — as  the  fit  vehicle  for 
their  deepest,  tenderest,  most  impassioned  thoughts — ^ 
the  complicated  structure  of  the  sonnet ;  in  Dante's  se- 
lection of  the  terza  rinia  for  his  vision  of  the  unseen 
world.  What  the  sonnet  was  to  Petrarch  and  jMiltoii, 
that  the  alphabetic  verse-S3'stem  was  to  the  writers  of 
Jeremiah's  time,  the  most  difficult  among  the  recognised 
forms  of  poetry,  and  yet  one  in  which  (assuming  the 
earlier  date  of  some  of  the  Psalms  above  referred  to) 
some  of  the  noblest  thoughts  of  that  poetry  had  been 
uttered.  We  need  not  wonder  that  he  should  have  em- 
ployed it  as  fitter  than  any  other  for  the  pur[)ose  for 
which  he  used  it.  If  these  Lamentations  were  intended 
to  assuage  the  bitterness  of  the  Babylonian  exile,  there 
was,  besides  this,  the  subsidiary  advantage  that  it  sup- 
plied the  memory  with  an  artificial  help.  Hymns  and 
poems  of  this  kind,  once  learned,  are  not  easily  forgot- 
ten, and  the  circumstances  of  the  captives  made  it  then, 
more  than  ever,  necessary  that  they  should  have  this 
help  afforded  them. 

De  Wette  maintains  {Comment,  iiher  die  Psalm,  p.  5G) 
that  this  acrostic  form  of  writing  was  the  outgrowth  of 
a  feeble  and  degenerate  age  dwelling  on  the  outer  struc- 
ture of  poetrv  when  the  soul  had  departed.  His  judg- 
ment as  to  the  origin  and  character  of  the  alpliabetic 
form  is  shared  by  Ewald  {Poet.  Biich.  i,  140).  Tliat  thia 
is  often  the  case  cannot  be  doubted;  the  119th  Psalm  is 
a  case  in  point.  It  is  hard,  however,  to  reconcile  this 
sweeping  estimate  with  the  impression  made  on  us  by 
such  Psalms  as  the  25th  and  34th;  and  Ewald  himself, 
in  his  translation  of  the  Alphabetic  Psalms  and  the  Lam- 
entations, has  shown  how  compatible  such  a  structure  is 
with  the  highest  energy  and  beauty.  With  some  of 
these,  too,  it  must  be  added,  the  assignment  of  a  later 
date  than  the  time  of  David  rests  on  the  foregone  con-» 
elusion  that  the  acrostic  structure  is  itself  a  proof  of  it 


LAMENTATIONS,  BOOK  OF        :iS        L A:\IENTATI0NS,  BOOK  OF 


(comp.  DeVitzschjCommentar  iiher  den  Psalter,  on  Psa.  ix, 
x).  De  Wette,  however,  allows,  condescendingly,  that 
the  Lainontations,  in  spite  of  their  degenerate  taste, 
"  have  Slime  merit  in  their  way."  Other  critics  have 
been  more  cntluisiastic  in  their  admiration  of  this  book. 
Dr.  Hlavney  remarks,  "  We  cannot  too  much  admire  the 
flow  of  that  full  and  graceful  pathetic  eloquence  in  which 
the  auttior  pours  out  the  effusions  of  a  patriotic  heart, 
and  piously  weeps  over  the  ruins  of  his  venerable  coun- 
try''(./i:'/Y;/ij«/(,  p.  37G).  '•  Never,"  says  an  unquestion- 
able judge  of  these  matters,  '•  was  there  a  more  rich  and 
elegant  variety  of  beautiful  images  and  adjuncts  ar- 
ranged together  within  so  small  a  compass,  nor  more 
happily  chosen  and  applied"  (Lowth,  De  Sacra  Poesi 
Ilebr.  rrwlect.  xxii).  The  poet  seizes  with  ^vonderful 
tact  those  circumstances  which  point  out  the  objects  of 
his  pity  as  the  subjects  of  sympathy,  and  founds  his  ex- 
postulations on  the  miseries  which  arc  thus  exhibited. 
11  is  book  of  Lamentations  is  an  astonishing  exhibition 
of  his  power  to  accumulate  images  of  sorrow%  The 
whole  series  of  elegies  has  but  one  object — the  expres- 
sion of  sorrow  for  the  forlorn  condition  of  his  country ; 
and  yet  he  presents  this  to  us  in  so  many  lights,  alludes 
to  it  by  so  many  figures,  that  not  only  are  his  mournful 
strains  not  felt  to  be  tedious  reiterations,  but  the  reader 
is  captivated  by  the  plaintive  melancholy  which  per- 
vades tlic  whole. 

3.  The  power  of  entering  into  the  spirit  and  meaning 
of  poems  such  as  these  depends  on  two  distinct  condi- 
tions. AVe  must  seek  to  see,  as  with  our  own  eyes,  the 
desolation,  misery,  confusion,  which  came  before  those 
of  the  iirophet.  We  must  endeavor  also  to  feel  as  he 
felt  when  he  looked  on  them.  The  last  is  the  more  dif- 
ticidt  of  the  tv.-o.  Jeremiah  was  not  merely  a  patriot- 
poet,  weeping  over  the  ruin  of  his  country.  He  was  a 
])roiihet  who  liad  seen  all  this  coming,  and  had  foretold 
it  as  inevitable.  He  had  urged  submission  to  the  Chal- 
dirans  as  the  only  mode  of  diminishing  the  terrors  of 
that  "  day  of  the  Lord."  And  now  the  Chaldwans  had 
come,  irritated  by  the  perfidy  and  rebellion  of  the  king 
and  ]irinccs  of  Judab;  and  the  actual  horrors  tliat  he 
saw.  surpassed,  though  he  had  predicted  them,  all  th.it 
he  had  been  able  to  imagine.  All  feeling  of  exultation 
in  which,  as  a  mere  prophet  of  evil,  he  might  have  in- 
dulged at  the  fulfilment  of  his  forebodings,  was  swal- 
loweil  iij)  in  deep,  overwhelming  sorrov^.  Yet  sorrow, 
not  less  than  other  emotions,  works  on  men  according 
to  their  characters,  and  a  man  with  Jeremiah's  gifts  of 
utterance  could  not  sit  down  in  the  mere  silence  and 
stu))or  of  a  hopeless  grief.  He  was  compelled  to  give 
expression  to  that  which  was  devouring  his  heart  and 
the  heart  of  his  people.  The  act  itself  was  a  relief  to 
him.  It  led  him  on  (as  has  been  seen  .above)  to  a 
calmer  and  serener  state.  It  revived  the  faith  and  hope 
which  had  been  nearly  crushed  out. 

4.  Tliore  are,  jierhaps,  few  portions  of  the  O.  T.  which 
aiipcar  to  have  done  the  work  they  were  meant  to  do 
mcirc  elfectually  than  tliis.  It  has  presented  but  scanty 
materials  for  the  systems  and  controversies  of  theology. 
It  has  suiiplied  thousands  with  the  fullest  utterance  for 
tlieir  sorrows  in  the  critical  periods  of  national  or  indi- 
vidual suffering.  We  may  well  believe  that  it  soothed 
the  weary  years  of  the  Babylonian  exile  (comp.  Zech.  i, 
(i  with  Lam.  ii,17).  When  the  Jews  returned  to  their 
own  laud,  and  the  desolation  of  Jerusalem  was  remem- 
bered as  belonging  only  to  the  past,  this  was  the  book  of 
remembrance.  On  the  ninth  day  of  the  month  of  Ab 
( .July),  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah  were  read,  year  by 
year,  with  fasting  and  weeping,  to  commemorate  the 
misery  out  of  which  the  people  had  been  delivered.  It 
lias  come  to  be  connected  with  the  thoughts  of  a  later 
devastation,  and  its  words  enter,  sometimes  at  least,  into 
tlio  jirayers  of  the  pilgrim  Jews  who  meet  at  the  "place 
of  wailing"  to  mourn  over  the  departed  glory  of  their 
city.  It  enters  largely  into  the  nobly-constructed  order 
of  tlie  Latin  Clnirch  for  the  services  of  Passion-week 
{Breviur.  Rom.  l''eri:i  (Juinta.    '■  In  Cocna  Domini").    If 


it  has  been  comparatively  in  the  background  in  times 
(vhen  the  study  of  Scripture  had  passed  into  casuistry 
and  spectdation,  it  has  come  forward,  once  and  again,  in 
times  of  danger  and  suffering,  as  a  messenger  of  jieace, 
comforting  men,  not  after  the  fashion  of  the  friends  of 
Job,  with  formal  moralizings,  but  by  enabling  them  to 
express  themselves,  leading  them  to  feel  that  they  might 
give  utterance  to  the  deepest  and  saddest  feelings  by 
which  they  were  overwhelmed.  It  is  striking,  as  wc 
cast  our  eye  over  the  list  of  writers  who  have  treated 
specially  this  book,  to  notice  how  many  must  have  pass- 
ed through  scenes  of  trial  not  unlike  in  kind  to  that  of 
which  the  Lamentations  speak.  The  book  remains  to 
do  its  work  for  any  future  generation  that  may  be  ex- 
posed to  analogous  calamities. 

VIII.  Commentaries. — The  following  are  the  special 
exegetical  helps  on  the  whole  book  of  Lamentations  ex- 
clusively, to  a  few  of  the  most  important  of  which  we 
prefix  an  asterisk :  Origen,  Scholia  (Greek,  in  Oj^J.  iii, 
320) ;  Ephrem  Syrus,  Explanatio  (Syr.,  in  0}yp.  v,  105)  ; 
Jerome,  In  Lam.  (in  0pp.  YSiippos.']  xiv,  227);  Theod- 
oret,  Interpretatio  (Greek,  in  0pp.  ii,  1)  ;  Paschalius  Eat- 
bertus, /«  Threnos  (in  0pp.  p.  1307)  ;  Hugo  ii  St.A'ictor, 
A  nnotationes  (in  0pp.  i,  103)  ;  Aquinas,  Commentaria  (in 
0pp.  ii) ;  Bonaventiura,  Exjjlicatio  (in  Opp.  i,  428) ;  Al- 
bertus  Magnus,  Commentarii  (in  Opp.  viii) ;  Q^^colampa- 
dius,  Enarrationes  [including  Jer.]  (Argent.  1533,  4to) ; 
Clenard,  Medifationes  (Paris,  153G,  8vo) ;  Bugenhagen, 
Adnotationes  (Vitemb.  1546,  4to) ;  Quinquaboreus,  Ad- 
notationes  (Paris,  1556,  4to);  Palladius,  Enarratio  (Vi- 
temb. 1560,  8vo) ;  Pintus,  Commentarius  [including  Isa. 
and  Jer.]  (Lugd.  1561,  etc.,  fol.)  ;  Strigel,  Commentarius 
(Lips,  et  Brem.  1564,  8vo)  ;  Selnecker,  Auslefiiinf/  (Lpz, 
1565.  4to);  QaXw'iu,  Pradectiones  [incliid.  Jer.]  (Frankft. 

1581,  8vo;  in  French,  Spires,  1584, 8 vo; "in  English,  Lon- 
don, 1587,  rimo,  etc.);  TaiUepied,  Commentarii  (Paris, 

1582,  8vo)  ;  Panigarola,  Adnotationes  (Verona,  1583; 
Rome,  1586,  8vo);  Agellus,  Catena  (Kom.  1589,  4to);  J. 
Ibn-Shoeib,  C^ZIS  b'p  (Ven.  1589,  4to);  Sam,  de  Vi- 
das,  "dl'nS  (Thessalon.  1596,  8vo) ;  Figuero,  Commenta- 
7-ia  (Lugd.  1596,  8 vo);  Makshan,  33  "jlJ^  (Cracow,  s.  a. 
[about  1600],  4to);  Alscheich,  C-^W:  C''in'l  (Venice, 
1001, 4to)  ;  Navarrette,  Commentaria  (Cordub.  1602,4to); 
Bachmeister,  Explicatio  (Rost.  1G03,  8vo) ;  Broughton, 
Commentarius  [includ.  Jer.]  (Genev.  1606,  4to;  also  in 
Worlcs,  p.  314)  ;  \  JesujMaria,  Interpretatio  (Neap.  1608, 
Col.  Agrip.  1611,  8vo);  Delrio,  Commentarius  (Lugdun. 
1608,  4to);  VoXan,  Commentarius  [including  Jer.]  (lia.-il. 

1608,  8vo) ;  A  Costa  de  Andrada,  Commentarii  (Lugd. 

1609,  8vo) ;  De  Castro,  Commentarii  [including  Jer.  and 
Bar.]  (Tar.  1009,  fol.) ;  Topsell,  Commentarius  (London, 
1613, 4to);  i^ancX'ms,  Commentarius  [includ.  Jer.]  (Lugd. 
1618,  fol.) ;  Hull,  Exposition  (Lond.  1618,  4to);  Ghisler, 
Commentarius  [includ.  Jer.]  (Lugd.  1023,  fol.)  ;  *Tarno- 
vius,  Commentarius  (Rostock,  1627,  1642;  Hamb.  1707, 
4to);  Peter  Jlartyr,  Commemtarius  (Tigur.  1029,  4to); 
Udall,  Conimenturie  (Lond.  1037,  4to) ;  De  Lcmiis,  Com- 
jM^H^f/rws  (Madrit.  1 649. fol.) ;  Tayler,  Comw!e?i/()nV [Rab- 
binical] (London.  1651, 4to) ;  Yowliir,  Commentarius  [in- 
clud. Jer.]  (Vitemb.  1672,  1699,  4to);  Hulsemann.  Com- 
mentarius [includ.  Jer.]  (Rudolph.  1690.  4to) ;  Benjamin 
Allcssandro,  ri=3  V"^^  (Venice,  1713,  4to);  C.  B.  Mi- 
chaelis,  Not<v  (in  Adnot.  phil.  exce;.  Halle,  1720,3  vols. 
4to) ;  Riedel.  Vehersetz.  (Wicn.  1761.  8vo);  Lcssing.  Ob- 
servationes  (Lipsiie,  1770,  8vo);  Biirmel,  Awm  rl.iiii(;<n 
(Weimar,  1781,  8vo);  Schleusner,  Curw  (in  Eichliorn's 
liepe/t.  pt,  xii.  Lips.  1783);  Horrcr,  Bearbeilun;/  (Halle, 
1784,  8vo) ;  Blayney,  Notes  [including  Jer.]  (Oxf.  1784, 
8vo,  etc.) ;  Lciwe  a.\vXy\o\kso\\n,  Anmerhimjen  (Berlin, 
1790, 8vo);  \\'\.\mon,Commentaire  (Par.  1790,  8vo) ;  *Pa- 
reau,  Illustratio  (L.  Bat.  1790,  8vo) ;  Libowitzer  n"^:^ 
"T":i  (Korcz.  1791,8vo) ;  ^chmirrcr,  Observatiovcs  (Tub. 
1793,  4to);  J.  H.  Michaelis,  Obserrationes  [includ.  Jer.] 
(Clotting.  1793,  8vo) ;  Gaab,  Beitrde/e  [includ.  Cant,  and 
Ecdes.]  (Tubing.  1795,  8vo);  Volborth,  Ucbersetz.  (CeUe, 


LAMFRIDUS 


219 


LAMOKMAIN 


1795,  Svo) ;  Otto,  Dissertafio  (Tiib.  1705,  4to) ;  Wetzler, 
•|1*:J  bnX  (Sklon,  1797,  8vo)  ;  Liindmark,  Dissertatio 
(Upsal.  1799,  4to) ;  Ilasselhuhn,  Dissertafiones  (Upsal. 
1S04.  4to) ;  Deresir,  Erklaruufi  [inckuling  Jer.  and  Bar.] 
(Frkft.  a.  M.  1809,  8vo)  ;  Hartmann,  Ueber.wtz.  (in  Jus- 
ti's  Blumen,  etc.,  Giess.  1809,  ii,  517  sq.)  ;  Welcker,  Uebers. 
[metrical]  (Giess.  1810,  8vo)-,  Bjorn,  Threni  [including 
Nah.]  (Havn.  1814,  8vo)  ;  *KiegIer,  Ammrkungen  (Er- 
langen,  1814,  8vo)  ;  Ja«ob-Lissa,  Ti:;;'  '^T'"?'!*  [including 
Cant.]  ( Dyrhenf.  1815-19, 4to) ;  Erdmann,  Specimen,  etc. 
(Host.  1818,  8vo) ;  Conz, K la ff Heeler  (in  Bengel's  ArcMv, 
iv  [Tiib.  1821],  p.  146  sq.)  ;  Fritz,  Exegesis  [on  chap,  i] 
(Argent.  1825,  4to) ;  *Kosenmiiller,  Scholia  (Lpz.  1827, 
8vo)i  Goldwitzer,  ^WOTerZ-.  (Sulzb.  1828,  8vo) ;  Wieden- 
feld,  Erldut.  (Elberf.  1830,  8vo)  ;  Koch,  Anmerlc.  (Menz, 
1835,  8vo);  Kalkar,  Jllustratio  (Havn.  1836,  8vo) ;  Lo- 
wenstein,  Erklanuig  [metrical]  (Frkft.  1838, 8vo) ;  Cure- 
ton,  ed.  Tanchum  Jerus.  Tli^p,  etc.  (Lend.  1843,  8vo)  ; 
Pappcnlieira,  Uehersetz.  (Bresl.  1844,  8vo) ;  Hetzel,  An- 
merk.  (Lpz.  1854,  8vo) -,  *Ncumann,  Ansler/iinrj  [includ. 
Jer.]  (Lpz.  1858,  8vo) ;  *Engelhardt,  Atisler/xng  (Lpzc. 
1867,  8vo)  ;  *Von  Gerlach,  Erkluning  (Berl.'  1868,  8vo) ; 
*ITenderson,  Commentary  [includ.  Jer.]  (London,  1851; 
Andov.  1868,  8vo).     See  Poetry,  Hebrew;  Cojijien- 

TARY. 

Lamfridus.     See  Lantfredus. 

Lami.     See  Lamy. 

Iiami,  Giovanni,  an  Italian  writer  of  note,  was  bom 
at  Santa  Croce,  Tuscany,  in  1697.  He  studied  law  at 
tlie  University  of  Pisa,  and  for  a  time  practiced  his  pro- 
fession at  Florence.  But  his  fondness  for  literature,  and 
especially  classical  and  ecclesiastical  erutUtion,  interfered 
with  his  professional  pursuits,  and  lie  became  an  author. 
He  tirst  wrote  in  defence  of  the  Nicene  Creed  concern- 
ing the  Trinity,  and  against  Leclerc  and  other  Socinian 
writers.  He  contended  that  the  Nicene  dogma  con- 
cerning the  Trinity  was  the  same  as  that  held  by  the 
early  promiUgators  of  Christianity  in  the  apostolic  times. 
His  work  is  entitled  7>e  recta  patrum  Nicenorum  Jide 
(Venice,  1730).  In  1732  he  was  made  librarian  of  the 
Kiccardi  Library,  and  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history 
in  the  Florence  Lyceum,  and  wliile  in  this  position  he 
published  De  Eruditione  Apostolorum  (1738),  a  sort  of 
continuation  of  his  former  work.  In  1740  Lami  began 
to  publish  a  literary  journal,  entitled  Navelle  Letierarie, 
wliicli  he  carried  on  till  1760,  at  first  with  the  assistance 
of  Targioni,  Gori,  and  other  learned  Tuscans  of  his  time, 
witli  whom  he  afterwards  quarrelled,  and  he  then  con- 
tinued the  work  alone.  During  his  position  as  Ubrarian 
he  made  a  selection  of  inedited  works,  or  fragments  of 
works,  from  the  manuscripts  of  the  Kiccardi  Library, 
wliich  he  published  in  a  series  entitled  Ddiciee  Erudito- 
riim  (Florence,  1736-09,  18  vols.  8vo).  He  also  edited 
the  works  of  the  learned  John  jMcursius,  in  12  vols,  folio. 
He  wrote  short  biographies  of  many  illustrious  Italians 
of  his  age,  under  the  title  oi Memorabilia  Italoriim  eru- 
ditione pnestantium  quibus  prcesens  sieciilnm  gloriatur 
(Florence,  1742-48,  2  vols.  8vo),  and  published  in  Greek 
the  letters  of  Gabriel  Severus,  archbishop  of  Philadel- 
phia, in  Asia  Minor,  and  of  other  prelates  of  the  Greek 
Church:  Gabrielis  Severi  ef  alioruni  Gmcorum  recenti- 
oruni  Epistolie  (Flor.  1754,  8\'o).  A  History  of  the  East- 
ern Church,  from  the  Council  of  Florence  to  1430,  he  left 
unfinished.  Lami  died  in  1770.  He  was  a  great  hater 
of  the  Jesuits,  and  wrote  many  satires  against  them. 
Memoirs  of  his  life  were  published  by  F'abroni  (I'lVre 
Itidiinnn,  vol.  xvi)  and  Fontanini  (Flor.  1789,  4to).  See 
E>it/l.  Ci/clop.  s.  v.;  Hoefer,  Xoiir.  Biog.  Generale,  xxLx, 
21()  s(i. ;  Sax,  Onomasticon,  vi,  490. 

Lamiletiere,  TiiiioriiiLE  Brachet  de,  a  noted 
French  theologian,  was  born  about  the  j'ear  1596.  He 
studied  at  the  University  of  Heidelberg,  and  afterwards 
practiced  law  at  Paris.  He  soon,  however,  tired  of  the 
bar,  and  devoted  himself  to  theology.  Having  become 
elder  of  the  Protestant  Church  at  Charenton,  he  took  an 


active  part  in  all  the  religious  controversies  of  the  times, 
and  was  one  of  the  most  prominent  members  of  the  po- 
litical assembly  of  La  KocheUe  in  1690,  whither  he  had 
been  sent  by  the  Consistory  of  Paris.  He  subsequently 
went  witli  La  Cliapelliere  to  Holland,  to  ask  aid  of  the 
states-general  for  the  Protestants  of  F' ranee.  We  next 
find  him  at  the  Assembly  of  Milhau  in  1625,  and  in  1627 
at  Paris,  where  he  was  aiTested  as  an  agent  of  the  duke 
of  Rohan.  He  was  condemned  to  death,  but  his  life  was 
spared  on  account  of  the  threatening  attitude  which 
the  inhabitants  of  La  Kochelle  assumed,  in  retaliative, 
towards  the  person  of  one  of  their  prisoners,  a  relation 
of  P.  Joseph  (the  confessor  and  secret  agent  of  Kiche- 
lieu).  He  was  finally  released,  and  even  received  a  pen- 
sion from  Eichelieu  on  the  condition  of  using  every  ex- 
ertion to  reunite  the  different  Protestant  churches.  He 
now  became  the  pliant  tool  of  Richelieu,  and  was  ex- 
communicated by  the  Church  of  Charenton  in  1644  for 
not  having  partaken  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in  twelve 
years.  He- finally  joined  the  Roman  Catholic  Clnirch, 
April  2, 1645.  The  remainder  of  his  life  was  employed 
in  writing  against  Protestantism.  He  died  in  1665,  de- 
spised alike  by  Protestants  and  Romanists.  His  princi- 
pal works  are.  Discours  des  vrayes  raisons pour  lesquelles 
ceux  de  la  religion  en  France  peuvetit  et  doivent  register 
par  amies  a  la  persecution  ouverte  (1622,  8v^o) ;  very 
scarce,  as  it  was  condemned  to  be  burned  bj'  the  public 
executioner : — Lettre  a  M.  Rambours  pour  la  reunion  des 
evangeliques  aux  catkoliques  (Paris,  1628,  12mo) : — T)e 
universi  orbis  Christiani  pace  et  concordia  per  curdina- 
lem  ducem  Richeliuni  constituenda  (Par.  1634, 8 vo;  transl. 
into  French,  1635, 4to): — Le  Moye^i  de  lapaix  Chretienne 
(Par.  1(>37, 8vo) : — La  Necessite  de  la  Puissance  du  Papie 
en  VEglise  (Paris,  1640,  8vo) : — Le  Catholique  reforme 
(Paris,  1642, 8 vo): — Le  Pacifique  veritable  (Paris,  1644, 
8vo) — condemned  by  the  Sorbonne ;  etc.  See  Benoit, 
Ilistoire  de  I'Edit  de  Nantes,  ii ;  De  Marolles,  Memoires  ; 
Grotius,  Kpistola  ;  Bayle,  Dictionnaire  Ilistorique ;  Tal- 
lemant,  Historiettes;  Haag,  La  France  Protestante ;  Hoe- 
fer, Xour.  Biog.  Generale,  xxix,  222.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Lammas-day  is  the  name  of  a  festival  obsen^ed 
by  Roman  Catholics  on  the  1st  of  August,  in  memorj'  of 
the  imprisonment  of  St.  Peter,  and  otherwise  called  St. 
Peter^s  chains.  The  word  is  of  doubtful  meaning :  some 
refer  it  to  a  Saxon  term  signifying  contribution.  Brande, 
in  his  '•  Antiquities,"  says,  '•  Some  suppose  it  is  called 
Lammas-day,  quasi  Lamb-masse,  because  on  that  day  the 
tenants  that  held  lands  of  the  cathedral  church  at  York 
were  bound  by  their  tenure  to  bring  a  live  lamb  into 
the  church  at  high  mass  on  that  day."  jNIore  proljably, 
however,  is  its  derivation  from  "loaf-mass,"  it  having 
been  the  custom  of  the  Saxons  to  offer  on  this  day  (Au- 
gust 1)  an  oblation  of  loaves  made  of  new  wheat.  Like 
man}'  other  Church  festivals,  it  seems  to  have  been  ob- 
served already  in  pagan  times,  and,  like  the  1st  of  May, 
was  a  festive  day  with  the  Druids.  Vallancey,  in  his 
Collectanea  De  Rebus  llibernicis,  says  the  Druids  cele- 
brated the  1st  of  August  as  the  day  of  the  oblation  of 
grain.  See  Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v.;  Taylor,  Ancient 
Christianity,  Gen.  Suppl.  p.  92 ,  F.adie,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Lammermann.     See  Lamormain. 

Lanimists,  a  sect  of  Remonstrant  Baptists.  See 
Mennonitks. 

Lament,  David,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  Presbyterian  di- 
vine, riourished  as  minister  of  Kirkpatrick,  Durham. 
He  died  in  1837.  This  is  all  we  know  of  his  personal 
history.  His  Sermons  were  published  at  London  from 
1760-87,  in  2  vols.  8vo  (new  edit.  1810,  3  vols.  8vo). 

Lamormain,   Guillaiime    Geinieau    de,   a 

noted  Belgian  Roman  Catholic  theologian  of  the  Order 
of  the  Jesuits,  was  born  in  the  duchy  of  Luxemburg 
about  1570;  entered  the  Jesuitical  order  in  1590,  and 
then  became  professor  of  theology  and  philosophy  at 
the  University  of  Gratz.  In  1624  he  was  appointed 
confessor  of  the  emperor  of  Austria,  F'erdinand  II,  and 
over  this  thoroughly  monkish  ruler  Lamormain  is  said 


LAMORIilAIN 


220 


LAMP 


to  have  exercised  perfect  sway.  He  and  John  Wein- 
giirtner,  another  Jesuit  confessor,  Vehse  (see  below)  tells 
us,  '-constantly  kept  near  him,  and  never  let  him  (Fer- 
dinand) out  of  their  sight ;"  and  it  is  due  to  this  Jes- 
uitic influence,  no  doubt,  that  Ferdinand  became  such 
a  fanatical  adherent  of  the  Chiu-ch  of  Kome,  and  a  most 
cruel  persecutor  of  Protestantism.  See  Austria.  Of 
Lamormaiu  himself,  it  is  said  that  he  was  so  devoted  to 
the  Romisli  cause  that  he  made  upwards  of  100,000  con- 
verts to  the  Church  of  Kome.  He  died  Feb.  22,  16-18. 
He  wrote  a  life  of  Ferdinand  II,  which  abounds  in  flat- 
tering terms  to  the  emperor,  who  had  been  a  pliant  tool 
in  the  hands  of  the  crafty  Jesuit.  See  Hoefer,  Xouv. 
Biog.  Generale,  xxix,  2-15;  Paquot,  Menioires  pour  ser- 
vir  a  Vhistoire  liUeraire  cks  Pays-Bus,  v,  98-100;  Yehse, 
Memoirs  of  the  Court,  A  ristocracy,  and  Diplomacy  of 
A  ustria  (transl.  by  F.  Demmler,  Lond.  1850,  2  vols.  sm. 
8vo),  i,  287  sq.,  319.     (J.  II.  W.) 

Lamormain,  Henri  de,  a  Belgian  Jesuit,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  and,  like  him,  a  native  of  Luxemburg, 
entered  the  Order  of  the  Jesuits  in  1596,  but  exerted  lit- 
tle influence  on  account  of  feeble  health.  He  died  Nov. 
26,  16-17.  He  translated  and  wrote  several  works-, 
among  them  are,  Tractatus  amoris  divini  constans,  libri 
xii  (from  the  French  of  Francisco  de  Sales,  Yienna,  1643, 
4to;  2d  edit.,  with  life  of  the  author  [Sales],  Col.  1057, 
8vo) : — De  Virtute  Panitentia,  etc.  (Vienna,  16  H,4to). — 
— Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxix,  245. 

Iianiothe,  Pieure  Lambert  de,  a  French  Roman 
Catholic  missionary,  was  born  at  Buclierie,  in  the  dio- 
cese of  Lisieux,  Jan.  18,  1624.  After  being  for  some 
time  connected  with  the  chancellery  of  the  Parliament 
at  Rouen,  he  entered  the  Church.  His  talents  caused 
him  to  be  distinguished  among  a  number  of  priests  who 
had  formed  in  1052  the  plan  of  Christianizing  China 
and  neighboring  countries.  In  1600  he  was  consecra- 
ted bishop  of  Berytlie.  He  embarked  at  JNIarsoiUes  for 
China  November  27,  1660,  and,  passing  through  Malta, 
Antioch,  Aleppo,  Bassora,  Chalzeran,  Shiraz,  Ispahan, 
Lara,  Surate,  Masulipatam,  Tenasserim,  Yalinga,  Pram, 
and  Pikfri,  arrived  at  Jutlica,  the  capital  of  Siam,  April 
22, 1662.  Here  he  found  some  1500  Christians  of  differ- 
ent nations  and  two  churches,  the  one  administered  by 
the  Dominicans,  the  other  by  the  Jesuits.  He  was  at 
first  well  received,  but  had  subsequently  to  submit  to 
many  annoyances  from  the  archbishop  of  Goa,  who 
claimed  the  primacy  of  the  whole  lilast  Indies,  and  La- 
mothe  finally  sailed  for  Canton  in  July,  1663,  with  two 
other  missionaries.  A  severe  tempest  obliged  them, 
however,  to  return  to  Siam.  Here  they  were  exposed 
to  all  sorts  of  ill  treatment  at  the  hands  of  the  Portu- 
guese, and  owed  their  safety  only  to  the  aid  of  the  Co- 
chm  Chinese.  Lamothe  sent  to  the  pope  and  to  Paris 
for  more  missionaries  and  other  assistance.  Alexander 
YII,  in  consequence,  extended  the  jurisdiction  of  apos- 
tolic vicars  over  the  kingdom  of  Siam,  .Japan,  and  other 
neighboring  countries,  which  action  freed  Lamothe  from 
the  control  of  the  archbishop  of  Goa.  He  was  now 
joined  by  Pallu  du  Pare,  l)ishop  of  Ileliopolis,  who 
reached  Siam  January  27, 1(>64,  with  other  missionaries. 
The  two  apostolic  vicars  held  a  synod,  and  Lamothe  re- 
ceived permission  from  the  king  to  establish  a  Church 
at  Siam,  which  he  intended  should  become  the  centre 
of  communication  between  the  extreme  Eastern  mis- 
sions. He  also  established  a  seminary  for  the  education 
of  native  priests  and  instructors,  a  college,  and  a  hospi- 
tal. Lamothe  died  June  15, 1679. — Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog. 
Generale,  xxix,  250  sq. 

Lamourette,  Adrien,  ahhe,  a  noted  French  eccle- 
siastic, was  born  ui  lUcartiy  in  1742.  During  the  Rev- 
olution in  France  he  became  an  auxiliary  of  ISIirabeau 
in  1789,  and  wrote  the  address  oji  the  civil  constitution 
of  the  clergy  which  that  orator  pronounced.  In  1791 
he  was  chosen,  under  tlic  new  Cliurch  regime  enacted 
by  the  Assembly  in  opijosition  to  tlie  L'onian  see,  bishop 
of  Khone-et-Loire,  and  deputed  to  the  National  Assem- 


bly, Having  resisted  the  extreme  measures  of  the  dom^ 
inant  party,  he  was  guillotined  Jan.  10, 1794.  He  pub- 
lished Pensk's  sur  la  philosojMe  et  Vincredulite  (1786, 
8vo)  : — Pensees  sur  la  philosophie  de  lafoi  (1789,  8vo)  : 
— Les  Delices  de  la  Religion  (1789,  12mo)  : — Considera- 
tions sur  resp7-it  et  les  devoiis  de  la  vie  religieuse  (1795, 
12mo) ;  etc. — Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  s.  v. 

Lamp  (properly  T^S?,  lappid',  a  flame,  Gen.  xv,  17; 
Exod.  XX, l.S,  Job  xli,  11;  Nah.ii,5,  Dan. x,6,  Isa.lxii, 
1;  Ezek.  i,  13;  lanij)-t07-cli,  J utl^.yn,16,20,  xv,4, 5;  Job 
xii,  5 ;  Zech.  xii,  0 ;  in  some  of  which  passages  it  is  ren- 
dered "  lightning,"  "brand,"  " torch," etc. ;  Gr. Aa/^7rae, 
atorch-"%/(<"or  lantern.  Acts  xx,8;  Rev.iv,5i  "loi-ch," 
John  xviii,  3 ;  Rev.  viii,  10 ,  oil-laynp,  Matt,  xxv,  1-8 ; 
also  T^3,  ncyr,  or  ^"^i,  nir,  a  light,  in  various  senses,  espe- 
cially for  domestic  purposes,  the  Gr.  \vxvoc)  is  a  term 
of  frequent  occurrence  in  a  literal  sense  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, such  a  utensil  being  often  really  meant  whore  the 
A.  Y.  gives  the  rendering  "  candle"  (q.  v.).  The  primary 
sense  of  light  (Oen.  xv,  17)  also  gives  rise  to  frequent 
metaphorical  usages,  indicating  life,  welfare,  guidance, 
as,e.  g.  2Sam.  xxi,  17;  Psa.  cxix,  105;  Prov.vi,  23;  xiii, 
9.  See  Light.  The  following  are  the  cases  in  which 
the  use  of  lamps  is  referred  to  in  the  Bible.  In  their 
illustration  we  freely  avail  ourselves  of  the  articles  in 
.Kitto's  and  Smith's  Dictionaries. 

1.  That  part  of  the  golden  candlestick  belonging  to 
the  tabernacle  which  bore  the  light ;  also  of  each  of  the 
ten  candlesticks  placed  by  Solomon  in  the  Temple  be- 
fore the  Holy  of  Holies  (Exod.  xxv,  37 ;  1  Kings  vii, 49; 
2  Chron.  iv,  20 ,  xiii,  11 ;  Zech.  iv,  2).     The  lamps  were 
lighted  every  evening,  and  cleansed  every  morning 
(Exod.  XXX,  7,  8 ;  Reland,  Ant.  Ilehr.  i,  v,  9,  and  vii,  8). 
It  is  somewhat  remarkable,  that  while  the  golden  can- 
dlestick, or  rather  candelabrum,  is  so  minutely  described, 
not  a  word  is  said  of  the  shape  of  the  lamps  (Exod.  xxv, 
37).     This  was  probably  because  the  socket  in  which  it 
was  to  be  inserted  necessarily  gave  it  a  somewhat  cy- 
hndrical  form  adapted  to  the  purjwse ;  for  it  is  hardly 
to  be  presumed  that  the  insecure  cup-form  usually  rep- 
resented in  engravings  would  have  been  adopted.    This 
shape  is  aptly  illustrated  by  an  instance  occurring  on 
the  Egyptian  monuments, 
Wilkinson  gives  {Ancient 
Egyptians,  v,  376)  what  he 
takes  to  be  the  represent- 
ation of  a  lamp  made  of 
glass,  with  a  hand  holding 
separately  an  erect  ■wick, 
as  if  the  bearer  were  about 
Ancient  Egyptian  Cylindrical   to  place  it  in  the  vase  pre- 
'^^P'  vious  to  its  being  lighted. 

The  lines,  he  thinks,  may  represent  the  twisted  nature 
of  the  cotton  wick,  as  they  do  the  watering  of  the  glass 
vase. 

Almost  the  only  other  fact  we  can  gather  in  this  con- 
nection is,  that  vegetable  oils  were  burnt  in  them,  and 
especially,  if  not  exclusively,  olive -oil.  This,  of  the 
finest  quality,  was  the  oil  used  in  the  seven  lamps  of  the 
tabernacle  (Exod.  xxvii,  20).  Although  the  lamp-oils 
of  the  Hebrews  were  exclusively  vegetable,  it  is  proba- 
ble that  animal  fat  was  used,  as  it  is  at  present  by  the 
Western  Asiatics,  by  being  placed  in  a  kind  of  lamp,  and 
burnt  by  means  of  a  wick  inserted  in  it.  See  Oil.  Cot- 
ton wicks  are  now  used  throughout  Asia,  but  the  He- 
brews, like  the  Egyptians,  probably  emjiloyed  the  outer 
and  coarser  libre  of  flax  (Pliny,  IJist.Nat.  xix,  1),  and 
perhaps  linen  yarn,  if  the  rabbins  are  correct  in  alleging 
that  the  linen  dresses  of  the  priests  were  unravelled 
when  old,  to  furnish  wicks  for  the  sacred  lamps. 

As  to  the  material,  the  burners  were  in  this  instance 
doubtless  of  gold,  although  metal  is  scarcely  the  best 
substance  for  a  lamp.  The  golden  candlestick  may  also 
suggest  that  lamjis  in  ordinary  use  were  placed  on 
stands,  and,  where  more  than  one  was  required,  on  stands 
with  two  or  more  branches.    The  modern  Orientals,  who 


LAMP 


221 


LAMP 


are  satisfied  with  very  little  light  in  their  rooms,  use 
stands  of  brass  or  wood,  on  whicli  to  raise  the  lamps  to 
a  sufficient  height  above  the  floor  on  which  they  sit. 
Such  stands  are  shaped  not  unlike  a  tall  candlestick, 
spreading  out  at  the  top.  Sometimes  the  lamps  are 
placed  on  brackets  against  the  wall,  made  for  the  pur- 
pose, and  often  upon  stools.  Doubtless  similar  contriv- 
ances were  employed  by  the  Hebrews.  The  Komans 
are  known  to  have  employed  them.    See  Candlestick. 


Bronze  Lamp  aud  Stand.    From  Pompeii. 

2.  A  torch  or  flambeau,  such  as  was  carried  by  the 
8oldiers  of  Gideon  (.Judg.  vii,  10, 20 ;  comp.  xv,  4).  From 
the  fact  that  these  were  at  first  enclosed  in  pitchers, 
from  which,  at  the  end  of  the  march,  they  were  taken 
out  and  borne  in  the  hand,  we  may  with  certainty  infer 
that  they  were  not  ordinary  lamps,  open  at  top,  from 
which  the  oil  coukl  easily  be  spilled.     See  Touch. 

3.  It  seems  that  the  Hebrews,  like  the  ancient  Greeks 
and  Romans,  as  well  as  the  modern  Orientals,  were  ac- 
customed to  burn  lamps  overnight  in  their  chambers; 
and  this  practice  may  appear  to  give  point  to  the  ex- 
pression of"o;«/e?-  darkness,"  which  repeatedly  occurs  in 
the  New  Testament  (^\Iatt.  viii,  12,  xxii,  13);  the  force 
is  greater,  however,  when  the  contrast  implied  in  the 
term  "  outer"  is  vie'ived  with  reference  to  the  effect  pro- 
duced by  sudden  expulsion  into  the  darkness  of  night 
from  a  chamber  highly  illuminated  for  an  entertain- 
ment. This  custom  of  burning  lamps  at  night,  with  the 
effect  pr(Kluced  by  their  going  out  or  being  extinguish- 
ed, supplies  various  flgures  to  the  sacred  writers  (2  Sam. 
xxi,  17 ,  Prov.  xiii,  9 ,  xx,  20).  On  the  other  hand,  the 
keeping  up  of  a  lamp's  light  is  used  as  a  symbol  of  en- 
during and  unbroken  succession  (1  Kings  xi,36,  xv,  4, 
Psa.  cxxxii,  17).     (See  Wemyss's  Symbol.  Diet.  s.  v.) 

The  usual  form  of  these  domestic  utensils  may  prob- 
ably be  inferred  from  tlie  prevailing  shape  of  antique 


specimens  from  neighboring  nations  that  have  come 
down  to  us.  In  the  British  Museum  there  are  various 
forms  of  ancient  Egyptian  lamps,  which  were  employed 
for  lighting  the  interior  of  apartments,  some  of  terra- 
cotta and  others  of  bronze,  with  various  ornaments  in 
bas-relief. 


Common  Funus  of  Aucieut  Ejryptian  Lamps. 


Ancient  Assyrian  Lamps  in  the  British  Museum. 
1,  Bronze  from  north-west  palace,  Nimroiid.    2,  Bronze 
from  Kouyunjik.    3,  4,  Terra-cotta  from  Warka.    5,Ter- 
ra-colta  from  Kouyunjik. 


Common  Form  of  Classical  hanging  Lamp. 
4.  It  appears  from  Matt,  xxv,  ],that  the  Jews  used 
lamps  and  torches  in  their  marriage  ceremonies,  or  rath- 
er when  the  bridegroom  came  to  conduct  home  the  bride 
by  night.  This  is  still  the  custom  in  those  parts  of  the 
liast  where,  on  account  of  the  heat  of  the  day,  the  bridal 
procession  takes  place  in  the  night-time.  The  connec- 
tion of  lamps  and  torches  with  marpiage  ceremonies  of- 
ten appears  also  in  the  classical  poets  (Homer,  Iliail,  vi, 
492;  Kur'ip.  P/xritiss.  346;  Jfeika,  1027;  A'irgil,  i>%. 
viii,  29),  and,  indeed.  Hymen,  the  god  of  marriage,  was 
figured  as  bearing  a  torcli.  The  same  connection,  it 
may  be  observed,  is  stiU  preserved  in  Western  Asia,  even 


LAMP 


222 


LAMP 


•where  it  is  no  longer  usual  to  bring  home  the  bride  by 
night.  During  two.  or  tlirec.  or  more  niglits  preceding 
the  wedding,  tlie  street  or  quarter  in  which  the  bride- 
crooni  hves  is  illuminated  with  chandeliers  and  lanterns, 
or  with  laiuerns  and  small  lamps  suspended  from  cords 
drawn  across  from  the  bridegroom's  and  several  other 
houses  on  each  side  to  the  houses  ojiposite;  and  several 
tmall  silk  flags,  each  of  two  colors,  generally  red  and 


Modern  Oriental  W  eddiiig  Lantern, 
green,  are  attached  to  other  cords  (Lane,  MofhEgjipt.  i, 
201 ;  INIrs.  Poole,  Enr/Uslncoman  in  Egi/pf,  iii,  131).  A 
modern  lantern  much  used  on  these  occasions,  with  lamps 
hung  about  it  and  suspended  from  it,  is  represented  in 
tlie  preceding  cut.  The  lamps  used  separately  on  such 
occasions  are  represented  in  the  following  cut.  Figs.  1, 
3,  and  5  show  very  distinctly  the  conical  receptacle  of 


wood  will 


^inall  Oriental  hanging  Lamps. 

serves  to  protect  the  flame  from  the  wind. 
Lamps  of  this  kind  arc  sometimes 
hung  over  doors.  The  shape  in 
figure  3  is  also  that  of  a  nuich- 
used  indoor  lamp,  called  kandil 
(Lane,  Modern  Kf/i/piian.i.  chap. 
V,  p.  lol).  It  is  a  small  vessel  of 
glass,  having  a  small  tube  at  the 
liottom,  in  -which  is  stuck  a  wick 
formed  of  cotton  twisted  round  a 
piece  of  straw ;  some  water  is 
poured  inJirst,  and  then  the  oil. 

^  ,  '^^  ,  ,-.  „.    ,f  ,,..  Lamps  verv  nearlv  of  this  shape 

EiiliH-'MMl  \  lew  ol  tlie  •  ",.-■• 

irrt<jrf;':inditsieccp-  appear  on  the  Lgyptian  monu- 

ti\c!e  for  oil.  ments,  and  they  seem,  iilso,  to  be 

o''  glass  (Wilkinson,  Ancient  E(/i/ptiuns,  iii,  101 ;  v,  370). 


If  the  Egj-ptians  had  lamps  of  glass,  there  is  no  reason 
why  the  Jews  also  might  not  have  had  them,  especially 
as  this  material  is  more  proper  for  lamps  intended  to  be 
hung  uji,  and  therefore  to  cast  their  light  down  from 
above. 

The  Jews  used  lamps  in  other  festivals  besides  those 
of  marriage.  The  Eoman  satirist  (Persius,  Sat.  v,  179) 
expressly  describes  them  as  making  illuminations  at 
their  festivals  by  lamps  hung  up  and  arranged  in  an  or- 
derly manner;  and  the  scriptural  intimations,  so  far  as 
they  go,  agree  with  this  description.  If  this  custom  had 
not  been  so  general  in  the  ancient  and  modern  East,  it 
might  have  been  supposed  that  the  Jews  adopted  it  from 
the  Egyptians,  who,  according  to  Herodotus  (ii,  G"2),  had 
a  "  Feast  of  Lamps,"  which  was  celebrated  at  Sais,  and, 
indeed,  throughout  the  countr\'  at  a  certain  season  of 
the  year.  The  description  which  the  historian  gives  of 
the  lamps  employed  on  this  occasion  strictly  applies  to 
those  in  modern  use  already  described,  and  the  concur- 
rence of  both  these  sources  of  illustration  strengthens 
the  probable  analogy  of  Jewish  usage.  He  speaks  of 
them  as  "  small  vases  filled  with  salt  and  olive-oil,  in 
which  the  wick  floated,  and  burnt  during  the  whole 
night."  It  does  not,  indeed,  apiiear  of  what  materials 
these  vases  were  made,  but  we  may  reasonalily  suppose 
them  to  have  been  of  glass.  The  later  Jews  had  even 
something  like  this  feast  among  themselves.  A  '■  Feast 
of  Lamps"  was  held  everv^  year  on  the  twenty-fifth  of 
the  month  Kisleu.  See  Dkdication.  It  was  founded 
bv  Judas  IMaccabfcus,  in  celebration  of  the  restoration 
of  the  Temple  worship  (Josephus,  Anf.  xii,  7, 7\  and  has 
ever  since  been  observed  by  the  lighting  up  of  lamps  or 
candles  on  that  day  in  all  the  countries  of  their  disper- 
sion (^Maimonides,  Rosh.  Hashanah,  fol.  8).  Other  Ori- 
entals have  at  this  day  a  similar  feast,  of  which  the 
"  Feast  of  Lanterns"  among  the  Chinese  is  perhaps  the 
best  known  (Davis,  Chinese,  p.  138).     See  Lantp:kx. 

LA^IP,  a  strange  ceremony  of  the  IMaronitc  Church. 
A  wafer  of  some  size,  having  seven  pieces  of  cotton 
stuck  into  it,  is  put  into  a  flask  or  basin  of  oil ;  a  relig- 
ious serv'ice  is  then  read,  the  cotton  is  set  fire  to,  and 
the  sick  person  for  whose  recovery  the  rite  is  intended 
is  anointed  with  the  oil,  and  prayer  is  repeated  over 
him. — Eadie,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. 

LA;MPS  (their  use  in  the  Christian  Church).  Among 
the  Jews  lamps  were  freely  used  in  the  synagogue  for 
various  purposes.  In  fact,  all  the  ancient  nations  had 
them  in  their  temples;  but  how  soon  they  were  made 
use  of  by  Christians,  and  what  significance  they  had  in 
symbolism,  remains  a  matter  of  dispute  between  the 
Eomish  and  Protestant  churches.  The  Protestants  gen- 
erally hold  that  there  is  no  evidence  that  lamps  were 
used  in  the  early  Church  for  any  other  purpose  than  to 
light  np  the  dark  places  where  they  were  obliged  to 
congregate  for  worship,  while  Komanists  claim  that 
they  were  used  as  symbols.  (Compare,  on  the  Poman 
Catholic  view,  Martigny,  Diet,  des  Antiqitites  Chre- 
tiennes,  p.  151,  s.  v.  Cierges;  see  also  the  art.  Lights.) 
Several  of  the  fathers,  among  them  Chrysostom,  con- 
demn in  strong  terms  the  custom  of  setting  up  lamps  on 
days  of  festival — as  the  relic  of  some  pagan  rite.  In 
the  days  of  Jerome,  it  is  true,  lights  were  freely  used  in 
churches,  but  Pomish  theologians  forget  to  teU  tliat  the 
propriety  of  the  custom  was  much  questioned  even  then. 
In  graves  of  the  Catacombs  "lamps  were  often  placed," 
says  Walcott  (Sacred  Archeology,  s.  v.),  '"as  a  symbol 
ofthc  eternal  light  which  the  departed,  it  is  hoped,  en- 
joy—as nicniorials  of  their  shining  lights  before  men, 
and  their  future  gloiy"  (Matt,  xiii,  43).  Put  it  is  evi- 
dent that  even  this  custom  was  early  disajiprovcd  of,  fol' 
the  Council  of  EUbaris  forbade  the  faithful,  on  jiain  of 
excommunication,  lighting  wax  candles  in  the  day- 
time in  cemeteries  or  other  burial-places  of  the  martyrs 
(compare  I-Ladie,  Eccles.  Diet.  p.  367).  In  our  day  it  is 
the  custom  in  tiie  Eoman  Catholic  churches  to  keep  a 
lamp  (eternal  light)  constantly  burning  before  or  by  the 
side  of  the  tabernacle.     (J.  H.  W.) 


LAMPADARY 


223 


LAMY 


Lampadary  is  the  name  of  an  officer  in  the  East- 
ern Church  whose  (hity  it  is  to  carry  before  the  patri- 
archs in  all  processit)ns  a  lighted  candelabrum,  called 
Xa/KTrncoi'XOi',  as  a  badge  of  distinction  among  bishops. 
It  is  the  business  of  the  lampadar}^  also  to  see  that  the 
lamps  of  the  church  are  lighted,  and  to  carry  a  taper  on 
days  of  great  i)rocessions.     See  Farrar,  Eccles.  Did.  s.  v. 

Lampe,  Fkiediuch  Adoi.f,  an  eminent  German 
Frotcstaut  theologian,  was  born  at  Detmold  (Lippe- 
Dctmold)  Feb.  19, 1G83.  He  entered  the  University  of 
Franeker,  and  later  that  of  Utrecht,  to  study  theology. 
He  was  successively  pastor  at  Wees,  Duisburg,  and  Bre- 
men. In  1720  he  became  professor  of  theology  at 
Utrecht,  and  in  1727  removed  to  the  University  of  Bre- 
men in  the  same  capacity.  He  died  December  8,  1729. 
Lampe  is  one  of  the  most  prominent  German  theolo- 
gians of  the  Reformed  Church,  who  introduced  into  the 
(Jerman  Church  the  Coccejanian  doctrines,  and  measu- 
rably also  the  principles  of  Labadism.  Lampe's  principal 
worlds  are,  Commentarius  analj/tico-exerjeticus  Evangelii 
secundum  Jofiannem {Amsterd.  1724-25,  3  vols.  4to)  ;  this 
work  Orme  commends  as  '•  both  extensive  and  valua- 
ble." Walch  ranks  it  among  the  best  expositions  of 
the  apostle's  Gospel: — De  Ci/mbalis  veierum  Libri  tres 
(Utrecht,  1703,  r2mo)  : — Exercitationum  sacrarium  Do- 
decas,  quibus  Psalmus  xlv perpetuo  commentario  explana- 
iur  (Bremen,  1715,  4to) : — Geheimniss  des  Gnadenbundes 
(Bremen,  1723, 12mo ;  translat.  into  Dutch,  Amst.  1727, 
8vo) ;  this  work  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  his  sys- 
tem of  theology  : — Belinecifio  Thelogim  actirw  (Utrecht, 
1727,  4to):  —  Rudimenta  Theohgim  eknchticce  (Bremen, 
1729,  8vo).  Lampe  published  also  a  large  number  of 
sermons  and  devotional  treatises  in  German,  which  were 
nearly  all  translated  into  Dutch ;  he  rearranged  and  ed- 
ited an  edition  of  the  Ilistoria  Ecclesim  Refoi-mata  in 
Iluuf/arid  et  Tran.yh'ania,  attributed  to  Paul  of  De- 
brezin  (Utrecht,  1728,  4to).  Together  with  Hase,  he 
published  the  lirst  three  volumes  of  tlie  Bibliotlteca  Bre- 
iiivnsis,  for  which  he  wrote  a  number  of  theological  arti- 
cles. Other  treatises  which  he  published  in  various  pa- 
pers were  collected  and  published  by  D.  Gerdes,  togeth- 
er with  his  discourses  and  programmes  (Amsterd.  1737, 
2  vols.  4to~).  See  Schumacher,  Memoria  Lampii,  in  Mis- 
cel/anea  Duisburgensia,  vol.  ii;  Acta  Eruditorum,  ann. 
1722;  Klifkcr,  Bibl.  Eruditor.  Prcecocium;  Burmann, 
Trajectum  eruditum;  J ochei,  A llr/em.  Gel. Lexifcon;  Hoe- 
fer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxix,  284;  Gbbel  (IMaximil- 
ian),  Gesch.  d.  ('hristlichen  Lebens,  vol.  ii  (see  Index). 

Lampetians  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  heretical 
sects  which,  on  pretence  of  promoting  sanctity  by  *an 
ascetic  life,  made  the  Christian  Sabbath  a  fast-day. 

There  was  also  another  sect  of  this  name  in  the  17th 
century,  the  followers  of  Lampetius,  a  Syrian  monk, 
who  pretended  that,  as  a  man  is  born  free,  a  Christian, 
in  order  to  please  God,  ought  to  do  nothing  by  necessi- 
ty ;  and  that,  therefore,  it  is  unlawfid  to  make  vows, 
even  those  of  obedience.  To  this  doctrine  he  added  the 
views  of  the  Arians,  Carpocratians,  and  other  sects.  The 
Lampetians  formed  a  branch  of  the  Mkssalians  (q.v.). 
— Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Lampillas,  Fk.vscis  Xavieis,  a  Spanish  .Jesuit, 
was  born  in  (Jatalonia  in  1731.  After  the  expulsion  of 
the  Jesuits  from  Spain  in  1767  he  went  to  Genoa,  where 
he  died  in  1810.  His  principal  work  is  a  defence  of 
Spanish  literature  against  Bettinelli  and  Tiraboschi, 
^Uf/gio  storico-apologetico  della  Leteraturu  Spagnuola. 
See  Hoefer,  A'oMf.  Biog.  Generale,  xxix,  285. 

Laniplugh,  Thomas,  D.D.,  an  English  prelate  of 
note  in  the  days  of  king  James  II,  was  born  in  York- 
shire in  1G15.  But  little  is  kn(jwn  of  his  early  personal 
history.  He  was  dean  of  Kochester  in  1676,  when  he 
was  promoted  to  tlie  episcopate  as  bishop  of  Exeter.  In 
this  position  he  became  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  di- 
vines of  the  day,  securing,  in  particular,  the  favor  of  the 
king  by  his  partisanship,  especially  in  1688.  In  this  year, 
just  before  the  exit  of  king  James  from  the  English 


throne,  Lamplugh  called  on  the  king,  was  graciously 
received,  praisecl  for  his  loyalty,  and  awarded  with  the 
archbishopric  of  York,  which  had  been  vacant  for  more 
than  two  years  and  a  half.  William  III.  whom  Lamp- 
high,  strangely  enough,  recognised  as  the  rightful  sover- 
eign of  England,  after  the  tiight  of  James,  contirmed 
the  appointment,  hence  some  writers'  statement  that 
William  of  Orange  appointed  Lamjdugh  to  the  arch- 
bishopric. The  archbishop  died  in  1691.  See  Debary, 
History  of  the  Church  of  Enghmd,  p.  167;  ]\Iacaulay, 
Ilistorg  of  England,  ii,  382.      ( J.  H.  W.) 

Laniprouti,  Isaac,  a  Jewish  Rabbi  of  some  note 
as  an  author,  flourished  in  Ferrara  in  the  lirst  half  of 
the  18th  centur3^  He  died  about  1756.  He  commenced 
the  preparation  of  a  large  encyclopiedia  of  Rabbinism, 
of  which  he  himself  completed  twelve  volumes,  bringing 
the  work,  excellent  in  its  character,  down  to  the  letter 
Mem.  It  was  published  at  Venice  between  1750  and 
1813.     See  Jost,  Gesch.  d.  Judenth.  u.  s.  Sekten,  iii,  230. 

Lamsoii,  Alvan,  D.D.,  a  Unitarian  minister,  was 
born  in  1792  at  Weston,  Mass. ;  was  educated  first  at 
Phillips  Academy,  Andover,  and  then  at  Harvard  Col- 
lege, where  he  graduated  in  1814.  He  was  immediately 
appointed  tutor  in  Bowdoin  College,  but  left  in  1816, 
and  entered  the  Divinity  School  at  Cambridge.  In  1818 
he  became  pastor  of  the  First  Church  in  Dedham,  Mass., 
where  he  officiated  for  over  forty  years.  He  died  July 
18,  1864.  He  wrote  much  for  the  Christian  Examiner, 
and  in  1857  published  a  volume  of  sermons  (Bost.  12ino). 
The  Christian  Register  says  of  him:  "Dr.  Lamson  has 
succeeded  in  uniting  the  acutest  moral  wisdom  with  the 
most  unpretending  and  childlike  modes  of  exhibiting  it. 
His  style  is  clear  as  crj'stal,  sometimes  almost  quamt  in 
its  simplicity,  and  not  without  touches  of  poetic  feeling 
as  well  as  fancy,  though  a  calm,  shrewd  judgment  char- 
acterizes all  his  opinions."  —  AUibone,  Diet,  of  Authors, 
vol.  ii;  Amei-ican  Annual  Cycloj)cEdia,  1864,  p.  612. 

Lamy  (or  Lajii),  Bernard,  an  eminent  priest  of 
the  French  Oratory,  was  born  at  Mans  in  June,  1610; 
studied  under  the  Oratorians,  joined  their  order  in  1658, 
and  completed  his  studies  at  Paris  and  at  Saumur.  He 
next  taught  belles-lettres  at  Vendome  and  JuLUy,  and 
philosophy  at  Saumiu"  and  at  Angers.  In  1676  he  was 
deprived  of  his  professorship  for  his  zealous  advocacy 
of  the  Cartesian  philosophy.  His  enemies,  the  Thom- 
ists,  even  obtained  a  lettre  de  cachet  against  him  under 
the  accusation  that  he  opposed  the  principle  of  royal 
authority.  He  was  banished  to  Grenoble,  where  cardi- 
nal Le  Camus,  who  had  established  a  seminar}^  for  the 
education  of  ecclesiastics,  and  who  held  Lamy  in  high 
estimation,  appointed  him  professor  of  divinity.  In 
1686,  his  sentence  having  been  revoked  in  its  most  es- 
sential charges,  he  was  recalled  to  Paris,  and  remained 
for  a  while  in  the  Seminary  of  St.Magloire ,  but,  having 
violated  the  rules  of  the  establishment  by  publishing 
without  the  knowledge  of  the  superior  a  work  {Lettre 
an  P.  Fourre,  de  VOratoire),  ^vhich,  besides,  was  consid- 
ered to  contain  objectionable  teachings  (viz.  as  that 
Christ  did  not  celebrate  the  Jewish  Passover  with  his 
disciples  [a  view  adopted  by  some  of  the  soundest  schol- 
ars] ;  that  John  the  Baptist  was  imprisoned  twice,  by 
the  Sanhedrim  and  by  Herod ;  and  that  the  three  Marys 
mentioned  in  the  Gospels  are  identical),  he  was  again 
exiled,  this  time  to  Rouen.  He  died  in  the  latter  city 
Jan.  29,  1715.  Lamy  was  a  very  prolific  writer,  and 
his  wf)rks  are  generally  distinguished  for  clearness  of 
thought  and  expression.  The  most  important  are.  Ap- 
paratus Biblicus  ad  intelligenda  Sacra  Biblia  (originally 
[Grenoble,  1687]  no  more  than  tallies  of  the  chief  facts 
of  Scripture,  with  rules  for  its  study,  and  compiled  sim- 
ply for  his  jiupils,  lie  subsequently  enlarged  and  pub- 
lished it  at  Lyons,  1696,  sm.  8vo,  and  it  was  in  its  day  con- 
sidered the  best  '"introduction"  to  the  Bible  extant;  an 
English  edition  was  prepared  by  R.  Bundy,  Lond.  1723, 
4to)  -.—Entretiens  sur  les  Sciences  (1684),  a  work  wliich 
was  highly  esteemed  by  J.J.Rousseau:  —  Introduction 


LAMY 


224 


LANCELLOT(T)I 


a  VEcriture  Sainie,  oil  Von  Iraife  cle  tout  ce  qui  conceme 
les  Jnifs,  etc.  (Lyons,  1709,  4to)  ■.—Harmoniii,  sive  Con- 
cordia qiiatnor  F.ranrielktarum,  cditio  novissima  (Paris, 


use,  Jer.  1,  42 ;  elsewhere  usually  "  spear"),  a  javelin  or 
ismaller  kind  of  missile  weapon,  in  distinction  from  the 
lonc-handlcd  spear  (H^jn,  chaniih'),  and  the  simple  dart 


1701, 1-Jin<>)  ■.—('oiiuiuii/iiriits  in  harmonuwi,  sioe  concor-  m^i^  she'lach).     See  Ahmor. 
cUm.  qnatuor  Krnn!jdis1m-um{V^rx^  1«99  4to)  :-/^w-        £ance,  The  Holy  (1),  is"the  name  of  a  knife  verv 

sertatio  de  Levitt  cantonbm  (Lgol.  32,  5- 1)  -.-De  taber-  ^^^^  j^^  ^j^^  ^^^^^  ,.  ^  ^  ^^^^^^^  ^^^^^^  j^^  ^^^  ^^^^j.  ^.j^^^^^j^ 

naculofaderis,  de.  sancta  cimtctle  Jerusalem  et  de  templo  ^^  j^j^^^^  ^,^^  ,     ^^.,^j^j^  (_,,^^.^^  ^^.^^    .^^^^^^    y^r-^^^ 

ejus  (Paris,  1720,  fol.).     lo  this  last-named  work  Laray  ^j^.^  ,  ,^^j^,  j^^^^^,,  ^^^^       ■         ^^  communion,  cuts  the 


is  said  to  liave  devoted  the  last  thirty  years  of  his  life 
It  was  i)uhlished  (after  his  death)  under  the  editorship 
of  pere  Desmoulins.  See  Ellies  Dupin,  Bill,  des  A  uteurs 
eccU's.  vol.  xix,  4to  ed. ;  Journal  de  tout  ce  qui  s'est  passe 
en  VUniversite  dWngers,  1G79,  4to;  F.  BouQlier,  Hist,  du 
Cartesianisme,  vol.  ii ;  B.  Haureau,  Uist.  Litter,  du  Maine, 
ii,  1 17-105,  Hook,  AVc^e*.  Bio(j.  vi,  515;  Kitto,  ^tMcaZ 
Ci/clopmlia,  ii,  779,  780.    (J.  H.  W.) 

Lamy,  Dom.  Francois,  a  French  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  was  born  at  jNIontereau,  in  the  diocese  of  Char- 
tres,  in  103(5.  He  entered  the  congregation  of  St.lMaur, 
of  tlie  Order  of  St.  Benoist,  in  1685,  and  was  in  relation 
with  some  of  the  most  important  men  of  the  time,  Fe- 
nelon  among  others.  He  died  in  1711.  Lamy  wrote 
largely  in  defence  of  Christianity,  and  agaijist  Spinoza ; 
the  most  important  of  his  works  are,  Traite  de  la  verite 
ecidente  de  la  religion  Chretienne  (1694, 12mo) : — De  la 
co?maissa7ice  de  soi-menie  (Paris,  1694—98,  6  vols.  8vo , 
augmented,  Paris,  1700),  the  ablest  and  most  celebrated 
work  of  Francois  Lamy  (comp.  the  art.  IMalebr^vnche)  : 
— Le  Nouvel  Atheisme  renverse,  ou  refutation  du  systeme 
de  Spinosa,  etc.  (Anon.,  Paris,  1696, 12mo) : — Sentiments 
de  piete  sur  la  pi-ofession  reliyieuse  (Paris,  1697,  12mo), 
which  gave  rise  to  much  controversy: — Lemons  de  la 
Sai/esse  et  de  V engagement  au  sei-vice  de  Dieu  (Par.  1703, 
12mo) : — Vincreduh  amene  a  la  religion  par  la  raison 
(Paris,  1710,  12mo) : — Traite  de  la  connaissance  et  de 
Vamour  de  Dieu  (Paris,  1712,  12mo) ;  this  work,  pub- 
lished after  his  death,  is  very  scarce.  Some  of  his  let- 
ters are  contained  in  the  Coi-respondance  de  Fenelon 
(Paris,  1827-29, 11  vols.  8vo).  See  Lc  Cerf,  Bihlioth.  des 
A  uteurs  de  la  Congreg.  de  St.Maur;  Niceron,  Memoires, 
vol.  X ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxix,  298  sq. 

Lancaster,  Joseph,  an  English  Quaker,  was  bom 
in  London  in  1778.  He  acquired  great  distinction  as 
the  promulgator  of  the  mutual  system  of  education  first 
introduced  by  Dr.  Bell  at  INIadras,  but  afterwards  known 
both  in  England  and  America  as  the  Lancasterian  Sys- 
tem. He  is  recognised  as  having  given  an  impulse,  by 
his  ^^Titings  and  lectures,  to  the  cause  of  popular  educa- 
tion in  many  countries.  He  first  opened  a  school  for 
poor  children  in  St.  George's  Field,  and  soon  rendered 
his  method  very  popular.  For  the  characteristics  of  his 
system,  see  Watts,  Bibl.  Brit.,  and  his  works  (London, 
1854)  ;  Lotul  Quart.  Rev.  vi,  24 ;  North  A  mer.  Rev.  xviii, 
184;  Living  Age,  April,  1845;  Alhbone,  Diet,  of  British 
and  A  mer.  A  utiiors,  ii,  1052 ;  Thomas,  Biog.  Diet.  p.  1365. 

Lancaster,  Lydia,  a  female  Quaker  minister, 
daughter  of  Thomas  Kawlinson,  was  born  at  Graith- 
waite,  Lancashire,  England,  in  1684.  In  the  course  of 
her  ministry  she  visited  several  times  the  greater  part 
of  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland,  building  up  her  soci- 
ety with  great  zeal  and  efficacy.  In  1718  she  came  to 
the  United  States,  and  was  here  especially  instrumental 
in  the  extension  of  the  Quaker  cause.  She  retained  her 
zeal  and  activity  to  extreme  old  age,  laboring  almost  to 
the  close  of  her  days.  May  30, 1761.  See  Janney,  Ilist. 
of  Frinds,  iii,  296. 

Lancaster,  Nathaniel,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the 
Church  ot  England,  was  horn  in  England  in  1698.  Dur- 
ing a  jxirtion  of  his  ministry  he  was  rector  of  Stamford 
liivers,  but  he  is  better  known  as  a  literarj'  man  than  as 
a  pastor.  He  died  in  1775.  His  published  works  are, 
Sirmoiis  (1746)  : — Kssay  on  Delicacy  (1748,  Svo)  : — The 
Old  Sirperit,  or  ^fithodism  Triunqihant — a  I'oem  (1770, 
4to  I. — AUibone,  Diet.  Engl,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  ii,  1052. 

Lance  ("pT'S,  Iddon',  so  called  from  its  destructive 


bread,  while  reading  the  corresponding  passages  of  the 
N.  T.  Scriptures.  See  Jlartignv,  Diet,  des  A  ntiquites,  p. 
353, 

Lance,  The  Holy  (2),  was  given  by  king  Eudolph 
of  Burgundy  to  king  Henry  I  of  Germany,  as  a  present, 
tlirough  the  intluence  of  Luitprand,  bishop  of  Cremona. 
It  came  to  be  considered  as  one  of  the  chief  insignia  of 
the  empire,  and  a  powerfiU  tahsman.  The  earlier  tra- 
dition represents  the  lance  as  having  been  chiefly  made 
of  the  nails  with  which  Christ  was  crucified ;  later  ac- 
counts assume  that  it  was  the  identical  lance  with  which 
the  Roman  soldier  pierced  the  Saviour's  side.  L'nder 
the  emperor  Charles  IV  this  lance  was  brought  to  Prague, 
and  in  1354  pope  Innocent  VI,  at  the  emperor's  request, 
instituted  a  special  festival,  De  lancea,  which  was  cele- 
brated in  Germany  and  Bohemia  on  the  first  octave  af- 
ter Easter.  Another  holy  lance  was  discovered  by  the 
empress  Helena,  and  kept  first  in  the  portico  of  the 
Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and  aft ersvards  at  Anti- 
och,  where  it  was  found  in  1093  by  a  French  priest,  Pe- 
ter Bartholomew ;  its  appearance  cheered  the  discour- 
aged Crusaders,  who  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the 
Saracens.  It  was  subsequently  brought  to  Constanti- 
nople, then  to  Venice,  and  afterwards  came  into  the  pos- 
session of  St.  Louis,  king  of  France.  It  was,  however, 
afterwards  taken  back  again  to  Constantinople,  and  it  is 
said  that  the  iron  of  it  was  brought  to  Rome  as  a  pres- 
ent to  pope  Innocent  VIII,  and  is  preserved  at  the  Vat- 
ican. The  genuineness  of  both  lances  has,  however, 
been  doubted  even  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and 
their  authenticity  was  never  officially  proclaimed. — Her- 
zog,  Real-Encyklop.  viii,  197.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Lanceae  et  Clav5rum  Festum.  See  Lance, 
THE  Holy  (2). 

Lancellot(t)i  (Lancelotus),  Giovanni  Paoli 
(1),  a  noted  Italian  writer  on  canon  law,  was  born  in  Peru- 
gia in  1511,  was  professor  of  canon  law  in  the  university 
of  his  native  place,  and  died  there  in  1591.  He  is  par- 
ticularly known  as  the  author  of  Jnstitutioties  juris  ca- 
nonui,  which  are  generallj'  published  with  the  Corpus 
juris  canonici;  yet  it  was  not  ado])ted  in  the  '"editio 
Romana,"  and  therefore  Richter  omitted  it  in  his  edi- 
tion. Lancellotti  appears  to  have  for  a  long  time  con- 
templated writing  an  elementary  text-book  for  the  study 
of  canon  law,  after  the  model  of  Justinian's  Institutes 
[see  Corpus  Juris  Civilis],  for  we  find  already  in  1555 
pope  Paul  IV  encouraging  him  in  his  plans.  Two  years 
after  Lancellotti  presented  his  work  to  the  papal  censure, 
and  it  was  examined  by  a  committee  composed  of  Fabi- 
anus  Atorombonus,  Julius  Oradinus,  and  Antonins  Mas- 
sa,  all  officers  of  the  court  Delia  Rota.  They  approved 
strong!}'  of  it,  and  their  recommendation  was  printed  in 
several  editions  of  the  Commentai'ii  Insiitutionum  subse- 
quently added  by  Lancellotti  himself  to  his  liber  i.  The 
book  was  afterwards  published,  and  immediately  adopt- 
ed as  a  text-book  in  the  University  of  Cologne.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  pope  steadily  refused  his  approval, 
and  some  other  censors  raised  objections  against  it  on 
the  ground  that  it  contained  principles  opposc<l  to  the 
then  recent  decisions  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  The  au- 
thor, however,  was  disinclined  to  alter  the  obnoxious 
passages,  and  resolved  to  continue  to  publish  the  work 
as  a  private  enterprise,  which  he  did  towards  the  close 
of  the  Council  of  Trent,  in  August,  1563,  at  Perugia, 
dedicating  it  to  Fius  IV.  In  the  following  years  it  was 
repeatedly  rejirinted  and  commended ;  Petrus  Matthiius 
even  appended  it  to  his  edition  of  the  Coipus  juris  ca- 
nonici (Frankf.  ad  M.  1591).    Soon  after  it  was  included 


LANCELLOTTI 


225 


LANDED  ESTATE 


in  the  edition  of  the  Corpus  ji/7-is  canon.  pubHsheil  at 
Lyons,  and  continued  to  be  printed  in  that  manner,  it 
liavingf  linally  olitained  the  apjiroval  of  pope  Paul  V 
(1G05-21)  by  the  intercession  of  cardinal  Scipio  Cobel- 
lutius  and  others.  Still  the  Institutiones  were  never 
considered  as  an  official  work.  Their  value  consists 
cliietly  in  the  insight  it  affords  into  wliat  was  considered 
as  law  before  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  the  common 
])ractice  of  that  time.  Subsequent  editions  carefully 
indicate  the  differences  between  it  and  the  new  laws. 
(See  Caspar  Ziegler,  Kotce  ex  ipsis  antiquitaium  ecclesi- 
asticurum  fontihus  c/erfwcte,  Wittemb.  1G99,  4to;  repro- 
duced in  Thomasius's  edition,  Haloe,  1710,1717, 4to;  also 
that  of  Douiat,Yenetiis,  1750,  2  vols.  8vo).  A  French 
translation,  with  a  comparison  of  the  Romish  andGaUican 
practice,  was  published  by  Durand  de  i\Iaillane  (Lyons, 
1710, 10  vols.  12mo). — Herzog,  Real-Encyklop.  viii,  187. 

Lancellotti  (or  Lancelotti),  Giovanni  Paoli 

("2),  an  Italian  author  and  priest,  was  Ijoru  at  Perugia  in 
1575,  and  died  in  Paris  in  1G40.  He  is  noted  as  the  au- 
thor of  a  successful  work  entitled  To-daij  ("  L'Hoggidi"), 
intended  to  prove  that  the  world  was  not  morally  or 
physically  worse  than  it  had  been  in  ancient  times.  He 
wrote  also  other  learned  works. 

Lancelot,  Dom.  Claude,  a  noted  French  theologian 
and  writer  of  tlie  Romish  Church,  was  born  at  Paris  in 
1G15.  In  1640  he  was  appointed  presiding  officer  of  the 
noted  school  of  Port  Royal,  and,  after  its  discontinuance 
in  1660,  he  became  instructor  of  prince  Con ti;  then  lived 
in  the  convent  St.  Cyran  until  its  destruction  in  1079. 
lie  died  at  Quimperlci  April  15, 1695.  His  works  are 
mainly  on  the  grammar  of  the  classical  and  Roman  lan- 
guages. He  also  published  historical  annotations  on  the 
Bible  of  Vitre,  and  left  in  MS.  form  memoirs  of  the  life 
of  Duverger  de  Hauranne,  of  the  St.  Cyran  convent.  See 
Sainte-Beuve,  Pc)?Y  Royal;  Vigneul  '^laxx'iWe,  Melanges, 
1, 132 ;  Niceron,  l\[ein.  pour  servir  a  I'/nstoire  des  Homines 
III.  XXXV;  Hoefer,  Xouv.  Biog.  Gin.  xxix,  322  sq. 

Lancet. (n*?"!,  ro'mach,  from  its  piercing,  1  Kings 
xviii,  28,  elsewhere  usually  '•  spear"),  the  iron  point  or 
head  of  a  lance.  See  Arjior.  The  incisive  implements 
of  the  most  ancient  Hebrews,  as  of  other  peoples,  were 
of  stone  (Exoti.  iv,  25;  Josli.  v,  2;  compare  Abicht,  JJe 
culiis  saxeis,  Lipsiaj,  1712  ;  and  generally  Creuzer,  Com- 
ment. Heroil.  i,  22.  The  testa  samia  with  -ivhich  the 
priests  of  Cybele  emasculated  themselves  [Pliny,  xxxv, 
40],  and  the  stone  knives  of  the  Egyptian  erabalmers 
[Herod,  ii,  86],  are  parallel  cases).  The  Hebrews  used 
no  knives  at  table  (although  one  term  for  knife,  rib2X"a 
is  so  named  from  eating^,  since  the  meat  was  brought  on 
ready  cut  into  pieces,  and  the  bread  was  so  thin  as  to 
be  easily  broken  with  the  fingers.  See  Eating.  The 
same  is  the  case  at  present  in  the  East,  even  in  princely 


feasts.  See  jMeal.  Knives  were  regularly  employed 
by  mechanics  (q.  v.),  and  in  slaughtering  animals  ((Jen. 
xxii,  0, 10 ;  comp.  Judg.  xix,  29 ;  see  Philo,  0pp.  ii,  570), 
and  for  preparing  food  (Josephus,  War,  i,  33,  7;  .4;*/. 
xvii,  71,  etc.).  The  sacrificial  knife,  in  particular,  was 
called  Ti'rt'?  (Ezra  i,  9),  and  a  room  in  the  (second)  Tem- 
ple was  appropriated  to  such  cutlery  (nlS^bn^  '^'^3, 
^lishna,  Middoth,  vi,  7).  A  penknife  was  called  ^V7} 
(Jer.  xxvi,  23;  Ezek.  v,  1),  originally  in  Aram.Tjan 
IBp"?,  which  in  the  Talmud  {Chelim,  xiii,  1)  likewise 
denotes  a  razor.  The  pruning-knife  was  called  !Ti -I'D 
(Isa.  ii,  4;  xviii,  5,  etc.). — Winer,  ii,  88.     See  Knife. 

Lancet  Style.     See  English  Style. 

LANCET-WINDOW  is  an  architectural  term  for  a 
narrow  window  with  acutely-pointed  arch  head.  This 
form  was  much  used  in  England  and  Scotland  during 
tlie  early  pointed  period  of  Gothic  architecture.  Sev- 
eral lancet-windows  are  frequently  groujjed  together,  so 
as  to  produce  a  pleasing  effect.  In  Scotland,  the  lancet- 
v.indow  was,  like  many  other  features  of  Scotch  Gothic, 
retained  to  a  much  later  period  than  in  England. — 
Chambers,  Cyclopadia,  s.  v. 


Egyptian  Knives  and  Lancets.     Collected  from  vnrious 
Sciilptui-es. 

v.— P 


Laucet-w nidow      Iiom  Gl  i^^  )\\  C  ilhtdnl. 

Land  (represented  by  several  Heb.  and  Gr.  words', 
properly  "('"IX,  e'rets,  usually  rendered  "eaiili,'"  Gr.  yi/ ; 
and  ri^'IX,  adamah',  usually  the  "ground;'"  sometimes 
iTl'^,  sadeh',  elsewhere  a  ^' field,'''  Gr.  aypuQ  ;  also  xw- 
pa,  a  tract  of  land  ;  etc.).  This  word  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment often  denotes  emphatically  the  country  of  the  Is- 
raelites ,  at  other  times  some  particular  countrj'  or  dis- 
trict, as  the  land  of  Canaan,  the  land  of  Egypt,  the  land 
of  Ashur,  the  land  of  Jloab.  In  several  places  of  our 
Authorized  Version  the  phrase  "all  the  earth"  is  used, 
wlien  the  more  restricted  phrase  "the  land,"  or  "all  the 
land,"  would  be  more  proper.  See  Agkicultuke  ; 
Farm  ;  Landed  Estate. 

Landau,  Jecheskel,  a  German  Rabbi  of  note,  was 
born  about  1720.  lie  flourislied  first  as  Rabbi  of  Jam- 
pol,  Podolia,  and  later  as  cliief  Rabbi  of  Prague.  He 
died  in  1793.  While  yet  a  young  man  Landau  gave 
jjromise  of  great  ability  as  a  jiolemic,  and  he  displayed 
this  quality  to  great  advantage  in  the  Sabbatarian  con- 
troversy which  raged  between  Eibeschiitz  [see  .Jona- 
than EiBEsciiiJTz]  and  Emden.  See  (iriitz,  Cesc/i.  der 
Juden,  vol.  x,  ch.  xi,  especially  p.  409,  415,  438;  Furst, 
Biblioth.  Jud.  ii,  216  sq. 

Landed  Sstate.  It  has  been  the  custom  to  re- 
gard the  Hebrews  as  a  pastoral  people  until  they  were 
settled  in  Palestine.  In  a  great  degree  they  dmilitlesa 
were  so,  and  when  they  entered  agricultural  ICgypt,  the 
land  of  (Joshen  was  assigned  to  them  expressly  because 
that  locality  was  suited  to  their  pastoral  liabits  (Gen. 
xlvii,  4-6).  These  habits  were  substantially  maintain- 
ed ;  but  it  is  certain  that  they  became  acquainted  with 
the  Egyptian  processes  of  culture,  and  it  is  more  than 


LANDED  ESTATE 


226 


LANDED  ESTATE 


probable  that  they  raised  for  themselves  such  products 
of  the  soil  as  they  retpiired  for  their  own  use.  We  may, 
indeed,  coUcet  tliat  the  jiortion  of  their  territory  which 
lay  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  Nile  was  placed  by 
them  mider  culture  (Dent,  xi,  10),  while  the  interior, 
with  the  free  pastures  of  the  desert  beyond  their  imme- 
diate territory,  sufficed  abundantly  for  their  cattle  (1 
Cliron.  vii,  21).  This  partial  attention  to  agriculture 
was  in  some  degree  a  preijaration  for  the  condition  of 
cultivators,  into  which  they  were  destined  eventually  to 
pass.  While  the  Israelites  remained  in  a  state  of  sub- 
jection in  Egypt,  the  maintenajice  of  their  condition  as 
shepherds  was  highly  instrumental  in  keeping  them  dis- 
tinct and  separate  from  the  Egyptians,  who  were  agri- 
culturists, and  had  a  strong  dislike  to  pastoral  habits 
(Gen.  xlvi,  34).  Cut  when  they  I)ecame  an  independ- 
ent and  sovereign  people,  their  separation  from  other 
nations  was  to  be  promoted  by  imhuiug  them  to  devote 
their  chief  attention  to  the  culture  of  the  soil.  A  large 
number  of  the  institutions  given  to  them  had  this  ob- 
ject of  separation  in  view.  Among  these,  those  relating 
to  agriculture — forming  the  agrarian  law  of  the  Hebrew 
people — were  of  the  first  importance.  They  might  not 
alone  have  been  sufficient  to  secure  the  end  in  view,  but 
no  others  could  have  been  etfectual  without  them ;  for, 
without  such  attention  to  agriculture  as  would  render 
them  a  self-subsisting  peo[)le,  a  greater  degree  of  inter- 
course with  the  neighboring  and  idolatrous  nations  must 
have  been  maintained  than  was  consistent  with  the  pri- 
niarv"  object  of  the  IMosaic  institutions.  The  common- 
est observation  suffices  to  show  how  much  less  than 
others  agricultural  communities  are  open  to  external  in- 
fluences, and  how  much  less  disposed  to  cultivate  inter- 
course with  strangers.     See  Husbanduy. 

It  was,  doubtless,  in  subservience  to  this  object,  and 
to  facilitate  the  change,  that  the  Israelites  were  put  in 
possession  of  a  country  already  in  a  high  state  of  culti- 
vation (Deut.vi,  11) ,  and  it  was  in  order  to  retain  them 
in  this  condition,  to  give  them  a  vital  interest  in  it,  and 
to  make  it  a  source  of  happiness  to  them,  that  a  very 
peculiar  agrarian  law  was  given  to  them.     In  stating 
this  law,  and  in  declaring  it  to  have  been  in  the  high- 
est degree  wise  and  salutary,  regard  must  be  had  to  its 
peculiar  object  with  reference  to  the  segregation  of  the 
Hebrew  people ;  for  there  are  points  in  which  this  and 
other  iVIosaic  laws  were  unsuited  to  general  use,  some 
by  the  very  circumstances  which  adapted  them  so  ad- 
mirably to  their  special  object.     When  the  Israelites 
were  numbered  just  before  their  entrance  into  the  land 
of  Canaan,  and  were  found  (exclusive  of  the  Levites) 
to  exceed  600,000  men,  the  Lord  said  to  INIoses,  "  Unto 
these  the  land  shall  be  divided  for  an  inheritance,  ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  names.     To  many  thou  shalt 
give  the  more  inheritance,  and  to  the  few  thou  shalt 
give  the  less  inheritance ;  to  every  one  shall  his  inher- 
itance be  given  according  to  those  that  were  numbered 
of  him.     Notwithstanding  the  Innd  shall  be  divided  by 
lot :  according  to  the  names  of  the  tribes  of  their  fathers 
shall  they  inherit"  (Numb,  xxvi,  33-54).     This  equal 
distribution  of  the  soil  was  the  basis  of  the  agrarian  law. 
By  it  provision  was  made  for  the  support  of  600,000 
yeomen,  with  (according  to  different  calculations)  from 
sixteen  to  twenty-tive  acres  of  land  to  each.     This  land 
tliev  held  indciiendent  of  all  tenijioral  sui)eriors,  by  di- 
rect tenure  from  .Jehovah  their   Sovereign,  by  whose 
power  they  were  to  acquire  the  territory,  and  imder 
Avhose  ])rotection  they  were  to  enjoy  and  retain  it.   "  The 
land  shall  not  be  sold  forever,  for  the  land  is  mine,  saith 
the  Lord:  ye  are  strangers  and  sojourners  with  me" 
(Lev.  XXV, "_':!).     Tims  the  basis  of  the  constitution  was 
an  e(iual  agrarian  law.      lint  this  law  was  guarded  by 
other  jjrovisions  cciually  wise  and  salutary.     Tlie  ac- 
cumulation of  debt  was  jireventi'd,  first,  by  j-u-ohibiting 
every  Hebrew  from  accepting  interest  from  any  of  his 
fellow-citizens  (Lev.  xxv,35,  36)  ;  next,  by  establishing 
a  regular  discharge  of  debts  every  seventh  year ;  and, 
tinallv,  bv  ordering  that  no  lands  could  be  alienated  for- 


ever, but  must,  on  each  year  of  Jubilee,  or  every  sevjnth 
Sabbatic  year,  revert  to  the  families  which  originally 
possessed  them.  Thus,  without  absolutely  depriving  in- 
dividuals of  all  temporary  dominion  over  their  landed 
property,  it  re-established,  everj-  fiftieth  year,  that  orig- 
inal and  equal  distribution  of  it  which  was  the  founda- 
tion of  the  national  polity;  and  as  the  period  of  this  re- 
version was  fi;xed  and  regular,  all  parties  had  due  notice 
of  the  terms  oir  M'hich  they  negotiated,  so  that  there 
was  no  ground  for  jmblic  commotion  or  private  com- 
plaint.    See  .Jiiiii.KE. 

This  law,  by  which  landed  property  was  released  in 
the  year  of  Jubilee  from  all  existing  obligations,  did  not 
extend  to  houses  in  towns,  which,  if  not  redeemed  ^vitll- 
in  one  year  after  being  sold,  were  alienated  forever  (Lev. 
XV,  29, 30).  This  must  have  given  to  property  in  the 
country  a  decided  advantage  over  property  in  cities,  and 
must  have  greatly  contributed  to  the  essential  oliject  of 
all  these  regulations,  by  affording  an  inducement  to  ev- 
ery Hebrew  to  reside  on  and  cultivate  his  land.  Fur- 
ther, the  original  distribution  of  the  land  Avas  to  the 
several  tribes  according  to  their  families,  so  that  each 
tribe  was,  so  to  speak,  settled  in  the  same  county,  and 
each  family  in  the  same  barony  or  hundred.  Nor  was 
the  estate  of  any  family  in  one  tribe  permitted  to  pass 
into  another,  even  by  the  marriage  of  an  heiress  (Nimib. 
xxvii) ;  so  that  not  only  was  the  original  balance  of 
property  preserved,  but  the  closest  and  dearest  connec- 
tions of  affinity  attached  to  each  other  the  inhabitants 
of  every  vicinage.     See  Inheritance. 

It  often  happens  that  laws  in  appearance  similar  have 
in  view  entirely  diflferent  objects.  In  Europe  the  en- 
tailment of  estates  in  the  direct  line  is  designed  to  en- 
courage the  formation  of  large  properties.  In  Israel  the 
effect  was  entirely  different,  as  the  entail  extended  to 
all  the  small  estates  mto  which  the  land  was  originally 
divided,  so  that  they  could  not  legally  be  united  to  form 
a  large  property,  and  then  entailed  upon  the  descend- 
ants of  him  by  whom  the  property  was  formed.  This 
division  of  the  land  in  small  estates  among  the  people, 
who  were  to  retain  them  in  perpetuity,  was  emiiKutly 
suited  to  the  leading  objects  of  the  Hebrew  institutions. 
It  is  allowed  on  all  hands  that  such  a  condition  of  land- 
ed property  is  in  the  highest  degree  favorable  to  high 
cultivation  and  to  increase  of  population,  while  it  is 
less  favorable  to  pasturage.  The  first  two  were  objects 
which  the  law  had  in  view,  and  it  did  not  intend  to  af- 
ford undue  encouragement  to  the  pastoral  life,  while  the 
large  pastiu-es  of  the  adjacent  deserts  and  of  the  com- 
mons secured  the  country  against  such  a  scarcity  of  cat- 
tle as  the  division  of  the  land  into  small  heritages  has 
already  produced  in  France. 

For  this  land  a  kind  of  cpiit-rent  was  payable  to  the 
sovereign  Proprietor,  in  the  form  of  a  tenth  or  tithe  of 
the  produce,  which  was  assigned  to  the  priesthood.  See 
Tithes.  The  condition  of  military  service  was  also  at- 
tached to  the  land,  as  it  appears  that  every  freeholder 
(Dent.  XX,  5)  was  obliged  to  attend  at  the  general  mus- 
ter of  the  national  army,  and  to  serve  in  it,  at  his  own 
expense  (often  more  than  repaid  by  the  plunder),  as 
long  as  the  occasion  required.  In  this  direction,  there- 
fore, the  agrarian  law  operated  in  securing  a  body  of 
600,000  men,  inured  to  labor  and  industrj',  alwa}-s  as- 
sumed to  be  ready,  as  thej-  were  bound,  to  come  furward 
at  their  country's  call.  This  great  body  of  national  yeo- 
manry, every  one  of  whom  had  an  important  stake  in 
the  national  independence,  was  officered  by  its  own  he- 
reditary chiefs,  heads  of  tribes  and  families  (comp.  Exod. 
xviii  and  Numb,  xxxi,  14),  andTiinst!  have  presented  an 
insuperable  obstacle  to  treacherous  ambition  and  polit- 
ical intrigue,  and  to  evcr^'  attempt  to  overthrow  the 
Hebrew  commonwealth  and  establish  despotic  jiowcr. 
Nor  were  these  institutions  less  wisely  adapted  to  secure 
the  state  against  foreign  violence,  and  at  the  same  time 
])revent  offensive  wars  anil  remote  conquests.  For  while 
this  vast  body  of  hardy  yeomanrj'  were  always  ready  to 
defend  their  countiy,  M'hen  assailed  by  foreign  foes,  yet, 


LAXDELIX 


227 


LANE 


as  they  were  constantly  employed  in  agriculture,  attach- 
ed to  domestic  life,  and  enjoyed  at  home  the  society  of 
the  numerous  relatives  who  peopled  their  neighborhood, 
war  must  have  been  in  a  high  degree  alien  to  their  tastes 
and  habits.  ReUgion  also  took  part  in  preventing  them 
from  being  captivated  by  the  splendor  of  military  glorj'. 
On  returning  from  battle,  even  if  victorious,  in  order  to 
bring  them  back  to  more  peaceful  feelings  after  the  rage 
of  war,  the  law  required  them  to  consider  themselves  as 
polluted  by  the  slaughter,  and  unworthy  of  appearing 
in  the  camp  of  Jehovah  until  they  had  employed  an  en- 
tire day  in  the  rites  of  purification  (Numb,  xix,  13-16; 
xxxi,  19).  Besides,  the  force  was  entirely  infantry;  the 
law  forbidding  even  the  kings  to  multiply  horses  in 
their  train  (Deut.  xvii,  IG);  and  this,  with  the  ordinance 
requiring  the  attendance  of  all  the  males  three  times 
every  year  at  Jerusalem,  proved  the  intention  of  the 
legislator  to  confine  the  natives  within  the  limits  of  the 
Promised  Land,  and  rendered  long  and  distant  wars  and 
conquests  impossible  without  the  virtual  renunciation 
of  that  religion  which  was  incorporated  with  their  whole 
civil  polity,  and  which  was,  in  fact,  the  charter  liy  which 
they  held  their  property  and  enjoyed  all  their  rights 
(Graves,  Lectures  on  the  Pentateuch,  lect.  iv,  Lowman, 
Civil  Gov.  of  the  Ileh.  ch.  iii,  iv;  Michaelis,  Mos.  Recht, 
i,  240  sq.).— Kitto. 

Landelin  and  Landoald,  two  saints  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church,  are  said  to  have  flourished  as 
preachers  of  the  Gospel  in  Belgium  in  the  7th  century. 
We  have  no  trustworthy  information  as  to  their  lives  and 
proceedings.  Among  the  aids  which  St.Amandiis  pro- 
cured from  Rome  in  Gul  to  help  him  in  his  missionar}' 
labors  is  mentioned  the  presbyter  Landoald,  probably  an 
Anglo-Saxon.  According  to  the  history  of  Landoald, 
written  in  the  10th  century  by  abbot  Heriger  von 
Lobbes,  Landoald  was  especially  supported  in  his  mis- 
sions by  king  Childeric  II,  who  furnished  him  with  all 
the  necessary  means.  He  is  also  said  to  have  had  Lam- 
bert of  iVIaestricht  for  a  pupil,  and  to  have  been  nine 
years  bishop  as  successor  of  St.  Amandus.  This  latter 
assertion,  however,  is  contradicted  by  the  fact  that  Re- 
maclus  was  the  successor  of  Amandus;  and  it  appears 
also  a  matter  of  doubt  whether  Lambert  of  Maestricht 
was  indeed  a  pupil  of  Landoald. 

Concerning  Landelin,  the  BoUandists  give,  imder  date 
of  June  15,  an  old  biography,  according  to  which  he  had 
been  a  pupil  of  Andebcrt,  bishop  of  Cambray  and  Arras, 
had  tied  from  his  tutor,  and  supported  himseh'for  a  while 
by  highway  robbery.  The  sudden  death  of  one  of  his 
band,  and  a  dream,  in  which  he  saw  his  former  compan- 
ion carried  to  hell  by  the  devil,  caused  his  conversion, 
and  he  subjected  himself  to  strict  penance  in  a  convent, 
and  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome.  Subsequently  conse- 
crated deacon  and  presbyter,  he  made  two  more  journeys 
to  Rome,  the  last  time  accompanied  by  his  pupils  Ade- 
lenus  and  Domitianus.  He  is  said  to  have  founded  the 
two  convents  of  Lobbes  and  Crepin.  According  to  the 
same  account,  Landelin  died  in  G86,  continuing  his  pen- 
ances to  the  last. — Dijrlo,  Landelin,  Apostel  d,  Deutschen 
(Augsb.  1838) ;  Wctzer  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lexikon,  vi, 
335 ;  Herzog,  Real-Encykhpddie,  viii,  187.     (J.  N.  P.) 

liaud-mark  (^^2il,  gehul',  or  U^'^'Z^,  gehuluh' ,  usu- 
ally rendered  "border"  or  '"coast"),  a  boundary-line  as 
indicated  by  a  stake,  stone,  or  other  monument  (Ueut. 
xix,  14;  xxvii,  17;  Prov.  xxii, '28;  xxiii,  10;  Job  xxiv, 
2).  It  was  the  manifest  intention  of  Jehovah,  in  Ijring- 
ing  the  Hebrews  into  Canaan,  to  make  them  a  nation 
of  agriculturists.  For  this  purpose  the  land  was  divided 
by  lot  and  measurement  among  the  tribes,  families,  and 
individuals  of  the  nation.  Thus  every  citizen  had  al- 
lotted to  him  a  piece  of  ground,  which  he  was  to  culti- 
vate and  leave  to  his  descendants.  The  importance  of 
preserving  accurately  the  boundaries  of  individual  or 
family  possessions  is  very  obvious;  and,  to  prevent  mis- 
takes and  litigation,  the  fields  were  markcil  ofTby  stones 
set  up  on  the  limits,  which  could  not  be  removed  ^vitlif- 


out  incurring  the  TiTath  of  heaven.  The  custom  had 
doubtless  prevailed  long  before  (Job  xxiv,  2),  it  was  thus 
confirmed  by  express  statute  (Deut.  xix,  14-,  xxvii,  17), 
and  it  appears  to  have  been  strictly  jjerpetuated  in  later 
times  (Prov.  xxii,  28 ;  xxiii,  10).  Similar  precautious 
were  in  use  among  the  Romans,  who  had  images  or  posts, 
called  Ilermce  or  termini,  set  up  on  the  line  between  dif- 
ferent owners,  which  were  under  the  patronage  of  a 
deity  especially  designated  for  that  care  (see  Smith's 
Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman,  Biog.  s.  v.  Terminus).  Land- 
marks were  used  in  Greece  even  before  the  age  of  Ho- 
mer {Iliad,  xxi,  405) ;  and  they  are  still  used  in  Persia, 
and  in  various  parts  of  the  East.  Even  to  this  day  fields 
in  the  East  have  no  fences  or  hedges,  but  a  ridge,  a 
stone,  or  a  post  occasionally  marks  the  boundary;  con- 
sequently, it  is  not  very  difficult  to  encroach  on  the 
property  of  another  (see  Hackett,  Illustra.  of  Script,  p. 
1G7).     See  Hedge. 

Lando  or  Landon,  a  Roman  pontiff,  was  a  native 
of  Sabina,  but  the  date  of  his  birth  is  not  known.  In- 
deed, but  little  is  accessible  as  to  his  personal  history 
until  he  came  to  the  pontifical  chair  in  913.  He  held 
the  pontificate  only  about  six  months,  for  he  died  about 
April  27, 914.    See  Bower,  liistorij  of  the  Popes,  v,  89  sq. 

Landoald.     See  Lantjelin. 

Landon,  WiiiTTiNGTON,  D.D.,  a  clergyman  of  the 
Church  of  England,  was  for  some  time  provost  of  Worces- 
ter College,  Oxford.  In  1813  he  was  appointed  dean  of 
Exeter,  and  in  1821  prebendary  of  SaUsbury.  He  died 
in  1839.  Some  of  his  sermons  were  published  in  Lon- 
don (1812,  8vo,  and  m  1835,  8vo). — AUibone,  Dictionary 
of  English  and  American  Authors,  ii,  1053. 

Landsborough,  David,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  Presbyte- 
rian minister,  was  born  at  Dalvy,  Galloway,  Scotland, 
in  1782.  He  was  pastor  of  the  parish  of  Stevenson  from 
1811  to  1843,  and  of  a  Free-Church  congregation  at  Salt- 
coats from  1843  until  his  death  in  1854.  Mr.  Landsbor- 
ough was  very  eminent  as  a  naturalist,  and  •«Tote  sev- 
eral treatises  on  botany  and  zoology.  He  also  contrib- 
uted frequently  to  Dr.  Harvey's  Psychologia  Britannica, 
and  published  papers  in  the  Annals  and  Magazine  of 
Natural  History. — Allibone,  Dictionary  of  British  and 
A  merican  A  uthors,  ii,  105G. 

Landsperger,  Joiiann,  a  Carthusian  monk,  who 
obtained  distinction  by  his  voluminous  ascetic  writings, 
was  bora  in  Landsperg,  Bavaria,  ui  the  latter  part  of  the 
15th  century ;  studied  in  Cologne,  was  made  prior  of  his 
order  near  Julich,  and  died  about  1534.  On  account  of 
his  marked  and  severe  piety,  he  was  called  the  Just. 
Among  his  works,  which  were  published  in  many  edi- 
tions at  Cologne,  are,  Sermunes  capitulares  in  prtecipuis 
anni  festivitatibus :  —  Vita  Servatoris  N.LX.:  — Para- 
phrases in  dominicales  Epiistolus  et  Erangelia: — Allo- 
quiaJesu  Christiadfdtlem  animam: — Enchiridion  vita 
spirituulis  ad  perfectioneni: — I'haretra  divini  amoris. 
Landsperger  was  the  first  to  publish  the  Revelations  of 
the  Holy  Gertrude.  — Wetzer  u.  Welte,  Kirchen-Lexikon, 
vi,  342. 

Landulph.     See  Patarians. 

Lane  (p/'/i'j,  so  rendered  in  Luke  xiv,  21 ;  elsewhere 
"street"),  a  narrow  passage  or  alley  in  a  city,  in  dis- 
tinction from  a  principal  thoroughfare  (jiXaTtui).  See 
Street. 

Lane,  George,  a  Methodist  minister  of  considera- 
ble note,  was  born  in  the  State  of  New  York  April  13, 
1784.  He  was  admitted  to  the  Philadelphia  Conference 
in  1805,  and  located  in  1810 ;  was  readmitted  in  1819, 
and  again  located  in  1825;  but  was  readmitted  once 
more  in  1834.  In  1836  he  was  elected  assistant  agent 
of  the  Jlethodist  Book-Concern  at  New  York.  In  this 
capacity  first,  and  later  in  that  of  principal  agent,  he 
served  until  1852,  when  he  retired  from  all  active  du- 
ties In  the  Church.  He  died  May  6, 1859.  Under  his 
prudent  management,  the  publishing  house,  then  at  200 
Mulberry  Street,  assumed  almost  gigantic  proportions, 


LANE 


228 


LANFRANC 


his  industrious  and  economical  business  habits  having 
trained  him  the  contidencc  both  of  the  Church  and  of 
the  f^eneral  jiubhc.  I'or  about  twelve  years  he  was  also 
treasurer  of  the  Missionary  Society  of  the  jM.  E.  Church. 
By  liis  energy  and  business  tact  this  society  was  re- 
lieved of  a  debt  of  about  sixty  thousand  dollars,  wdiich 
had  long  crippled  its  powers  of  usefulness.  Such  was 
his  earnestness  in  the  missionary  cause  that  he  was  fre- 
quently entitled  the  '•  father  of  the  Missionary  Society." 
'•As  a  preacher,  IMr.  Lane  was  thoroughly  orthodox, 
systematic,  and  earnest,  and  often  overwhelmingly  elo- 
quent ;  his  language  unstudied,  but  chaste,  correct,  sim- 
ple, and  forcible." — Peck.  Eurb/  Methodism,  p.  492  sq. ; 
Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Amer.  Pulpit,  vii. 

Lane,  John,  an  eminent  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  born  in  Virginia  about 
1789.  His  early  hfe  was  spent  in  Georgia,  and  he  was 
some  time  a  student  of  Franldin  College.  In  1814  he 
entered  the  South  Carolina  Conference;  in  1815  w^as 
sent  to  the  "  Natchez  Circuit,"  and  was  thrown  much  in 
contact  with  the  Creek  and  Cherokee  Indians,  where  his 
heroism  and  success  were  alike  conspicuous;  in  181G  he 
assisted  in  organizing  tiie  Mississippi  Conference,  then 
a  vast  and  almost  trackless  region,  now  constituting  four 
Conferences  and  part  of  a  fifth.  In  1820  he  was  dele- 
gate to  the  General  Conference  at  Baltimore,  and  pre- 
siding elder  on  the  Mississippi  District.  During  this 
year  his  father-in-law.  Rev.  Newit  Yick,  died,  and  ]\Ir. 
Lane  was  obliged  to  locate,  to  care  for  his  large  estate 
and  numerous  family.  He  remained  located  for  eleven 
years,  during  ^vhich  he  successfully  founded  the  city  of 
Yicksburg  on  his  father-in-law's  estate,  and  so  saved 
it,  and  educated  the  oqihan  children.  He  was  also  an 
extensive  merchant,  probate  judge  of  the  county,  and 
director  of  the  Railroad  Bank,  and  one  of  the  most  com- 
petent and  influential  business  men  of  the  state,  while 
at  the  same  time  he  preached  continually,  and  lillcd 
Vicksburg  station  one  year.  In  1831  he  re-entered  the 
Conference,  and  spent  most  of  his  subsequent  career  in 
the  presiding  eldership.  For  many  years  he  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Board  of  Trustees  of  Centenary  College,  and 
was  still  longer  president  of  the  Conference  Missionary 
Society.  He  died  in  1855.  He  was  a  man  of  large  ca- 
pacities and  indomitable  vigor.  His  piety  was  genial 
and  earnest,  and  his  great  delight  was  in  preaching  the 
Word  of  Life.  He  will  long  be  remembered  as  one  of 
the  founders  of  Methodism  in  the  South-west. — Summer, 
Biori.  Sketches,  p.  229 ,  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  A  merican 
I'uipit,  vii.     (G.  L.  T.) 

Laney,  Bknjamin,  D.D.,  a  prelate  of  the  Church  of 
England,  was  bishop  of  Peterl)orough  from  1C50  to  16G3  ; 
was  then  transferred  to  Lincoln,  where  he  remained  un- 
til 1()67,  when  he  was  transferred  to  the  bishopric  of  Ely. 
He  died  about  1G75.  Some  of  his  sermons  were  pub- 
lished in  ll)()2  and  1G75.  He  was  considered  a  very 
learned  divine,  and  of  great  acumen. — Allibone,  Diet,  of 
A  nthors,  ii,  105G. 

Ijanfranc,  the  most  noted  foreign  churchman  who 
rose  to  distinction  in  the  English  Church  of  the  ^Middle 
Ages,  was  born  of  a  senatorial  family  in  Pavia,  Italy, 
about  1005;  studied  law  in  Bologna,  but  not  without 
attention  to  other  subjects;  returned  to  Pavia,  where  he 
taught  jurisprudence,  and  also  the  liberal  arts,  -with 
great  success.  lie  soon  gave  bis  attention  exclusively  to 
the  latter,  the  liherales  disripliniv,  and  especially  to  dia- 
lectics, and,  leaving  his  own  country,  he  travelled  over 
a  large  part  of  France,  until,  induced  perhaps  bj^  the 
fame  of  William,  duke  of  Normandy,  he  settled  in  Av- 
ranches  with  some  of  his  old  iiujiils.  He  there  won 
great  distinction  as  a  teacher,  but  in  1042,  having  de- 
termined upon  a  more  private  and  contcmjilative  life, 
he  betiidk  himself  to  Kduen,  where,  in  fidlillment  of 
such  a  ])urpose,  according  to  his  hiograidier  Crispinus, 
lie  proposed  to  reside.  On  his  way  thitlier  he  was  fall- 
en upon  by  robbers,  bound  to  a  tree,  and  there,  stricken 
in  conscience  for  what  he  tlcemed  a  too  sellish  fear,  and 


for  his  unfitness  to  find  consoling  communion  with  God 
in  the  hour  of  peril,  he  made  a  vow,  should  he  escape 
with  his  life,  to  enter  a  monastery.  Delivered  from  the 
hands  of  tlie  robbers  bj'  some  passing  travellers,  he  en- 
tered the  cloister  of  Bee,  of  the  Benedictine  Order.  After 
three  years  of  cjuiet,  he  began  again,  at  the  instance  of 
llerluin,  the  abbot  of  Bee,  to  give  instruction,  and  Bee 
became  the  resort  of  students  from  every  class,  both 
clergy  and  laity,  and  from  many  lands.  Made  prior  of 
the  monasterj'  in  104G,  he  established  a  more  extensive 
and  systematic  course  of  study,  sacred  as  well  as  secular, 
unusual  attention  being  given  to  grammar  and  dialec- 
tics. In  respect  to  the  former,  Lanfranc's  inlluenee  con- 
tributed greatly  to  revive  the  general  study  of  Latin, 
and  ill  dialectics  he  is  a  forerunner  of  the  schoolmen.  Ex- 
egesis, and  patristic,  but  especially  speculative  theology, 
were  pursued.  Anselm  was  among  his  pupils  at  Bee, 
and  also  the  future  pope  Alexander  II.  During  this 
period,  about  1049,  occurred  Lanfranc's  first  dispute  with 
his  former  friend  Berengar,  then  archdeacon  at  Angers, 
on  the  subject  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  The  latter,  while 
defending  the  opinions  of  Scotus  Erigena,  sought  in  a 
letter  to  persuade  Lanfranc;  but  the  letter,  falling  into 
the  hands  of  others,  gave  rise  to  such  charges  of  hereti- 
cal fellowship  against  Lanfranc  that  he  was  provoked, 
in  defending  himself  at  Rome  and  Yercelli  in  1050,  to  a 
violent  attack  upon  Berengar.  The  learning  which  he 
disjilayed  in  this  controversy  greatly  increased  Lan- 
franc's fame  for  scholarship,  and  he  was  now  invited  to 
the  position  of  abbot  in  various  cloisters,  and  was  treat- 
ed with  special  favor  by  William  of  Normandy.  It  is 
related  that,  on  occasion  of  some  false  charges,  the  duke 
fell  out  with  him,  and  banished  him  from  his  dominions. 
A  lame  horse  was  given  him  for  the  journey,  and,  seated 
on  it,  he  happened  to  meet  the  duke,  who  coidd  not  help 
noticing  the  laughable  hobbling  of  tlie  animal,  when 
Lanfranc  took  occasion  to  say  to  him,  "You  must  give 
me  a  better  horse  if  you  wish  me  out  of  the  coimtry,  for 
with  this  one  I  shall  never  get  over  the  border."  The 
jest  won  the  duke's  attention,  and  an  explanation  fol- 
lo;ved,  which  established  Lanfranc  in  a  position  of  per- 
manent favor.  He  was  emphiyed  by  AMlliam  in  lOGO 
to  secure  from  the  pope  Niclmlas  II  Ubcrty  to  many  a 
near  relative,  a  princess  of  Flanders.  This  allowance 
was  obtained  on  the  condition  that  A\'illiam  should  found 
two  cloisters,  one  for  monks  and  another  for  niuis.  Over 
the  monastery  of  St.  Stephen,  at  Caen,  which  was  there- 
upon established,  Lanfranc  was  installed  in  10G3  as  ab- 
bot, Anselm  succeeding  him  in  that  capacity  at  Bee. 
Tlie  dispute  with  Berengar  meanwhile  continued.  The 
latter,  though  constrained  at  Rome  in  1059,  through 
fear,  to  recognise  the  doctrine  of  Paschasius  Ratlbertus, 
nevertheless  afterwards  sought  to  spread  his  former  sen- 
timents, and  was  bitterly  opposed  by  Lanfranc  in  his 
work.  Be  corpore  et  suv</uini'  Dam.  Jesu  Chrisii,  adv. 
Berengar  Turonen^em,  published  between  the  years  10G4 
and  10G9.  In  this  work  the  doctrine  of  transiibstantia- 
tion  is  clearly  contained.  Berengar  issued  a  reply.  Be 
sacra  cana  adv.  Laifraticiim  (an  edition  of  which  was 
published  by  Yischcr  in  Berlin  in  1834).  The  ability 
with  which  this  controversy  was  conducted  on  both  sides 
has  been  confessed.  Severe  personal  charges  are  min- 
gled with  argument,  and,  whatever  fault  may  have  been 
established  against  Berengar,  his  opponent  was  not  with- 
out blame  nor  without  prejudice  in  dealing  witli  jiatris- 
tic  authorities.  While  at  Caen,  Lanfranc  steadfastly 
refused  the  archbitihopric  of  Rouen,  but.  upon  the  ad- 
vice of  his  old  abbot  llerluin,  he  acce]ited  in  1070,  with 
much  reluctance,  the  archbishopric  of  Canterbury,  which 
was  urged  upon  him  by  William  of  Normandy,  at  this 
time  on  the  throne  of  England.  His  task  in  the  arch- 
bishopric was  b^' no  means  light,  inasmuch  as  he  was 
obliged  not  onlv  to  contml  and  amend  the  rudeness  and 
ignorance  of  his  own  clergy,  but  to  lUfend  also  the  au- 
thority of  his  primacy  against  the  other  prelates,  espe- 
cially Thomas  of  York  and  Odo  of  Baycux  and  Kent. 
The  self-will  of  the  king  jJso  gave  him  much  trouble, 


LANG 


229 


LANG 


and  he  was  frequently  tempted  to  retrace  liis  steps  to 
the  cloister,  but  was  urged  by  pope  Alexander  II  to  con- 
tinue his  public  labors.  The  violent  disposition  of  Wil- 
liam Kufus,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  1087,  was  a  fur- 
ther annoyance.  Notwithstanding  all  these  difficulties, 
he  lal)ored  perseveringly  in  tlie  erection  of  churches  and 
cloisters,  in  multiplying  correct  copies  of  the  fathers 
and  of  the  holy  Scriptures,  in  the  extension  of  learning 
and  improvement  of  manners  in  clergy  and  people,  and 
in  care  for  the  sick  and  the  poor.  "  Under  his  spiritual 
rule,"  says  a  noted  Church  historian,  "  the  Church  of 
England  received  as  strong  an  infusion  of  the  Norman 
element  as  was  forced  upon  the  political  system  of  Eng- 
land by  the  iron  hand  of  the  Conqueror."'  His  active 
and  iirudent  iiiHuence  was  also  often  employed  in  state 
affairs. 

Lanfranc's  relation,  while  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
to  the  papal  chair  forms  an  important  feature  of  his  life, 
lie  was  on  a  friendly  footing  with  Alexander  II,  his  for- 
mer pupil,  and  went  to  receive  at  his  hands  the  pallium 
of  his  office,  though  he  had  at  first  desired,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  king's  wishes,  that  it  should  be  sent  to 
him  to  England.  Gregory  YII,  greatly  displeased  with 
William's  independent  conduct,  and  his  inclination  to 
restrain  the  bishops  from  visiting  Rome,  sharply  com- 
plained to  Lanfranc  that  he  had  also  lost  his  former 
spirit  of  obedience  to  papal  authority.  Lanfranc  pro- 
tested his  continued  atfcction  for  the  Church,  and  de- 
clared that  he  had  sought  to  win  the  king  to  conformity 
in  certain  {particulars  (as  specially  in  the  matter  of  Pe- 
ter's pence),  but  said  little  concerning  his  general  rela- 
tion to  the  king,  or  that  of  the  latter  to  the  pope.  He 
seems  to  have  known  that  a  certain  degree  of  consider- 
ation, more  than  he  liked  dclinitely  to  express,  must  be 
allowed  to  the  royal  wishes.  The  pope's  command  to 
Lanfranc  to  appear  in  Itome  within  four  months  under 
threat  of  suspension  he  openly  and  without  answer  dis- 
obeyed. A  letter  of  Lanfranc  to  an  unknown  corre- 
spondent (£);.  59),  who  sought  to  gain  his  adhesion  to 
the  rival  pope,  Clement  II,  places  him  in  a  neutral  po- 
sition as  between  the  two  popes,  and  as  awaiting,  with 
the  government  of  England,  further  light  on  the  subject. 
Something  of  Lanfranc's  coldness  towards  Gregory  may 
perhaps  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  he  saw  in  this 
pope  (as  is  apparent  in  a  letter  cited  by  Gieseler)  a  pro- 
tector of  his  enemy  Berengar.  Lanfranc  died  Slay  28, 
1089,  two  years  after  the  death  of  William  the  Con- 
queror. 

Besides  his  work  against  Berengar  may  be  mentioned 
liis  Decreta  pro  urdine  Sancli  Bcnedicti:—Kpistoluru)ii, 
TAb:-r,  containing  GO  letters,  44  Avritten  by  him  and  IG 
addressed  to  him : — De  celaiida  confessione,  a  fragment 
of  an  address  in  defence  of  his  primatical  authority  ^  and 
Commentaries  on  St.  Paul's  Epistles.  His  biography  of 
AVilliam  the  Conqueror  has  been  lost.  The  tirst  com- 
plete edition  of  Lanfranc's  writings  was  published  by 
D'Acher\',  a  Benedictine  (Paris,  1G48,  fol.) ;  the  earliest 
edition  is  entitled  B.  Lunfranci  Opera  (Paris,  15G8,fol.) ; 
the  latest  edition  is  by  Giles  (Ox.  1844-45,  2  vols.  8vo). 

See  Milo  Crispinus,  Vita.  B.Lanfranci;  Cadmer,  Vita 
Anselmi;  Chronicon  Biccense;  Malmesbury,  Gista  Anylo- 
r«;H,  book  iii;  Acta  Sanctorum, '^Isai,  torn.  \\-,  Mohler, 
Gesamdte  Schriften,  vol.  i;  Hasse,  Anselm,  vol.  i;  Su- 
dendorf,  Berengarius  Turonensis  (Hamburg  and  Gotha, 
1850) ;  Gieseler,  Ch.  Hist,  ii,  102  -,  Churton.  Karl/j  Emjlish 
Church,  p.  26G,  20!  sq.,  H02-,  Palmer,  Ch.  Hist.  p.  lOG  S(i. ; 
Milman,  Lntiii  Christiaiiitij,  iii.  4o8-440  ;  Hook,  IJrcs  of 
the.  Archbb<ho]is  of  Cant('rbunj,yo\.  ii  (18G1):  Hill,  ,!/(;- 
7iasticism  in  England,  p.  337  sq. ;  Herzog,  Real-Enciihiop. 
s.  V. ;  Wetzer  u.  Weltc,  Kirchcn-Lexikon,  s.  v.    (E.  B.  O.) 

Lang,  Gsorg  Heinrich,  a  distinguished  German 
tlipiilogian,  was  born  X(jv.  28,  1740,  at  Oettingen.  He 
received  a  scientilic  education  in  his  native  town,  and 
pursued  theology  at  the  University  of  Jena.  In  17G5 
he  assumed  a  pastorate  at  Biihl.  and  in  1770  accepted  a 
call  to  Hohen-und-Niedcr-Altheim.  From  1774  to  1770 
he  fflled  the  position  of  superintendent  and  pastor  at 


Trochtelsingen,  and  in  the  latter  year  returned  to  his 
late  pastorate.  In  1789  he  became  court  preacher  and 
ecclesiastical  counsellor  to  the  reigning  princess  at  liat- 
isbon.  He  died  March  15, 180G.  Lang  exerted  no  little 
influence  in  the  progress  and  culture  of  religious  learn- 
ing. His  Dictionary  of  the  N.  T.  ( Worterbuch  des  ncuen 
Testamentes),  which  appeared  in  1778,  placed  him  in  the 
front  rank  of  writers  on  the  theory  and  historj'  of  the 
Christian  religion.  His  intense  zeal  for  the  practical  in 
later  life  directed  his  literary  activity  to  the  popular 
treatment  of  religious  truth ;  hence  appeared  Katechet- 
isches  Maffazi/i;  Nenes  Maf/azin;  Ascetische  Bibliothel; 
and  numerous  sermons  and  liturgical  writings.  In  his 
homiletical  writings  he  developed  many  new  and  happy 
ideas,  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  exigencies  of  the  times. 
3Iany  estimable  traits  of  character  both  adorned  his  pri- 
vate life  and  enhanced  his  merits  as  a  teacher  of  relig- 
ious truth.  For  a  list  of  his  works,  see  Doring,  Gelehrte 
Theol.  Deutschlands,  ii,  229. 

Lang,  Joseph,  a  German  Jesuit,  was  born  in  1746 
at  Briinn.  in  Boliemia,  and  was  educated  at  his  native 
city.  The  Jesuits  then  sent  him  to  Olmiitz  to  pursue 
philosophy,  and  linally  to  the  University  of  Prague, 
where  he  completed  a  course  of  theology.  He  v.'as  or- 
dained in  1773.  In  1780  he  accepted  a  call  to  a  Catho- 
lic Church  in  Leipzic,  and  in  1783  was  chosen  court 
preacher  at  Dresden.  In  1802  he  received  the  office  of 
superintendent  of  the  Catholic  inffrmary  at  the  latter 
place.  He  died  Dec.  28, 180G.  Lang  acquired  the  rep- 
utation of  a  popular  and  eloquent  pulpit  orator.  Be- 
sides frequent  contributions  to  journals,  he  published 
several  sermons.  See  Doring,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutsch- 
lands, ii,  233. 

Lang,  Lorenz  Johann  Jakob,  a  German  theo- 
logian, born  in  Selb,  in  the  principality  of  Baireuth,  on 
May  10, 1731,  was  the  son  of  a  stocking-maker,  and  be- 
ing destined  by  his  father  to  follow  the  same  trade, 
he  contended  in  his  desire  for  study,  which  he  early 
manifested,  with  many  difficulties.  By  the  assistance 
of  his  pastor,  liowever,  he  acquired  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  the  Latin  and  Greek,  and  entered  in  1743  the 
lyceum  at  Culmbach.  Indefatigable  in  his  industry, 
he  became  thoroughly  versed  in  ]>hilosophy  and  the- 
ology', as  is  evinced  in  the  disputations  De  prcestan- 
tia  philosophice  ]Vol fiance,  and  De  pontijice  coelesti  Novi 
Te'stamenti,  after  the  defence  of  which  he  entered  the 
University  of  Erlangeu  in  1751.  After  quitting  Erlan- 
gen,  he  went  to  Baireuth  in  175G  as  tutor.  A  few 
months  later  he  became  snbrector  in  Baireuth.  In  1758 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  the  Oriental  languages 
and  of  the  ffne  arts  at  the  Gymnasium  of  Baireuth.  In 
17G7  he  was  appointed  court  librarian,  and  in  1789  the 
first  professor  and  inspector  of  the  alumni,  and  in  1795 
the  lirst  counsellor.  He  died  Sept.  18, 1801.  Lang  wrote 
extensively,  but  most  of  his  wTitings  are  in  the  form  of 
dissertations.  A  complete  list  is  given  by  Doring,  Ge- 
lehrte Theol.  Deutschlands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lang  (OF  WKLLi.;NBURo),Matthaus,  a  noted  Ger- 
man prelate  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  an  acknowl- 
edged natural  brother  of  the  emperor  ^Maximilian  I,  was 
born  in  Augsburg  in  1469,  and  educated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Ingolstadt.  He  was  secretary  first  to  Frederick 
HI  and  later  to  Maximilian  I.  At  the  same  time  he 
held  positions  in  the  Church.  He  was  successively  priest 
at  Augsburg  and  Constance  until  1505,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed I)ishop  of  Gurk.  Inclined  towards  the  schis- 
matics of  the  Council  of  Pisa,  and  feared  on  account  of 
his  influence  over  the  emperor,  who  was  following  the 
lead  of  Lang,  the  youthful  liishop  received  the  cardinal's 
hat  from  pope  Julius  II  in  1511.  Of  course  the  conferred 
honor  made  the  trusted  adviser  of  IMaximilian  an  obe- 
dient servant  of  the  pontitT.  Lang  rested  not  until  peace 
was  restored  lietwecn  emperor  and  pope,  so  long  at  va- 
riance. Sec  Latkkan,  Couxcii.  of,  1513 ;  I'isa,  Cofx- 
cir.  of;  Julius  H.  In  1514  he  was  made  coadjutor  of 
the  archbishop  of  Salzburg,  and  Lu  1519  sole  incumbent 


LANGBAINE 


230 


LANGE 


of  that  archiepiscopal  see.  In  1518  ho  attended  the 
diet  at  Augsburg,  and  was  active  both  for  the  election 
of  Charles  V  as  king  of  Kome,  and  the  submission  of  Lu- 
ther. First  incUned  to  liberal  action  towards  those  who 
clamored  for  reform,  threatening  to  quit  the  Church  un- 
less their  wishes  were  heeded,  he  changed  front  sudden- 
ly after  he  had  gained  over  Johann  Staupitz  (q.  v.) ; 
crushed  the  revolutionarj' movements  of  the  Salzburgers 
in  152o  :  in  the  year  following  joined  the  Komish  Learjue 
(q.  V.) ;  and  in  15'25,  assisted  by  Bavaria,  suppressed  the 
peasant  insurrections.  At  tlie  Diet  of  Augsburg  in  1530 
he  openly  declared  himself  a  bitter  opponent  of  Luther. 
He  died  in  March,  1540.  A  narrative  of  cardinal  Lang's 
travels  in  Austria,  Hungary,  and  the  Tyrol  was  publish- 
ed by  his  chaplain  Bartholinus,  under  the  title  Odepor- 
icon  de  Mattkcei  cardinalis  (Vienna,  1511,  4to).  This 
work  is  now  very  rare  (comp.  Gotz,  iJresdener  Bibliotheh 
lii,  37).  Vehse  {Memoirs  of  the  Court,  A  ristocracy  and 
Dij)loinctcy  of  Austria  [transl.  by  Demmler,  Lond.  1856, 
2  vols.  sm.  8voJ,  i,  31)  thus  comments  on  his  character : 
'•Lang  was  an  exceetUngly  eloquent  and  adroit  man, 
ret  he  was  just  as  famous  for  his  elasticity  of  conscience 
as  for  cleverness.  He  surpassed  in  splendor  all  the  car- 
dinals and  archbishops  of  his  time,  and  in  this  respect 
certainly  did  not  belie  his  Cesarean  descent."  See  also 
Hansitz,  Germania  Sacra,  vol.  ii ;  DUcker,  Chronik  v. 
Salzburg;  Braun,  Gesch.  d.  B.  B.  V.  Augsburg,  vol.  iii ; 
Veith.  Bibliotheca  Avgustana,  Alphabet  v,  p.  25-1 IG; 
"\Vetzer  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lex.  vi,  318.  See  also  the 
article  M.vxiMiLi.v^f.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Langbaine,  Geraud,  D.D.,  .on  English  divine  and 
philologist,  was  born  at  Bartonkirke,  in  Westmoreland, 
about  1008.  He  studied  at  Blencow,  Cumberland,  then 
became  successively  a  servitor,  scholar,  and  fellow  of 
Queen's  College,  Oxford,  and  held  the  places  of  keeper 
of  archives  to  the  university  and  provost  of  his  college 
for  a  good  many  years  before  his  death,  which  happened 
in  1658.  He  was  a  studious  and  timid  man,  who  con- 
trived to  steer  through  the  political  storms  of  his  time 
without  giving  serious  offence  to  any  party.  He  edited 
Longinus,  and  published  several  works  of  his  own,  chief- 
ly on  Church  questions.  The  most  important  of  them 
are.  Episcopal  Inheritance,  etc.  (Oxford,  1641,  4to) : — A 
Reriew  of  the  Covenant  (Oxford,  1644 ;  Lond.  1661, 4to)  : 
— Qucsstiones  pro  more  solemni  in  Vesperiis  propositce 
ann.  1651  (Oxf.  1658, 4to).  He  also  worked  on  Usher's 
Chronologia  Sacra,  transl.  from  the  French  into  Eng- 
lish an  account  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (Oxford,  1638, 
fol.),  and  is  considered  the  author  of  .4  Vino  of  the  New 
Directory,  and  a  Vimlicntion  of  the  ancient  Liturgy  of 
the  Church  of  England  (Oxford",  1645,  4to).  He  left  also 
some  unprintcd  collections,  including  several  catalogues 
of  MSS.,  which  have  often  been  referred  to  by  A\'arton 
and  others.  See  WooA,  Athence  Oxon.  vol.  ii;  Chaufe- 
pie,  Xouveau  Dictionnaire  Ilistorique  ;  English  Cyclopm- 
dia  ;  Hoefer,  Xouv.  Biog.  Gen.  xxix,  384.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Langdoii,  Samuel,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  1722  in  Boston.  He  graduated  at  Har- 
vard College  in  1740,  and  was  ordained  colleague  pas- 
tor in  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  Feb.  4, 1747.  In  1774  he  was 
elected  president  of  Harvard  College,  which  position  he 
resigned  Aug.  30.  1780.  and  was  ordained,  .Ian.  18, 1781, 
pastor  at  Hampton  Falls.  He  died  in  the  last-named 
place  Nov.  29,  1707.  Langdon  published  An  impartial 
Examination  of  Mr.  Robert  Sandeman's  Letters  on  The- 
ronamlAxpusio  (1765): — .4  Summary  of  Christian  Faith 
and  Practice,  drawn  up  principally  in  Scripture  language 
(17(58): — Dudleian  Lecture  in  Ilari'ard  College  (1775): 
— Observations  on  the  Revelations  of  .Tesus  Christ  to  St. 
.John  (1791, 8vo): — Corrections  of  some  grand  Mistakes 
committed  by  Rev.  John  Cozens  Ogden  (1792): — Rehiarks 
on  the  leading  Sentiments  of  Rev.  Br.  I/opkins's  System  of 
Doctrines  in  a  iMter  to  a  Friend  (1794);  and  several 
occasional  sermons.  He  also  published,  in  company  with 
CoL  J.  Blanchard,  a  map  of  New  Hampshire  (1761).— 
Sprague,  A  nnals,  i,  455. 


Lange,  Joachim,  a  noted  German  Lutheran  the- 
ologian, one  of  the  heads  of  the  so-called  Pietistic  school, 
was  born  at  Gardelegen,  in  Saxony,  Oct.  26, 1670.     He 
entered  the  University  of  Leipzic  in  1689  to  study  the- 
ology.    Here  he  became  intimate  with  H.  A.  Franke, 
and,  besides  other  subjects,  applied  himself  especially 
to  the  study  of  the  Eastern  languages.     In  1690  he  ac- 
companied Franke  to  Erfurt,  and  in  1691  to  Halle.     In 
1696  he  was  made  corector  of  Koslin,  rector  of  the  Gym- 
nasium of  Friedrichswerder,  at  Berlin,  in  1697,  and  final- 
ly professor  of  theology  at  HaUe,  Maj^  7, 1744.    His  con- 
troversies agamst  the  xjhilosopher  Christian  "Wolff,  in 
whose  banishment  from  Halle  he  was  greatly  instru- 
mental, and  against  all  philosophical  sj-stems,  whether 
atheistical,  Jewish,  or  ]\Iohammedan,  prove  him  to  have 
been  fond  of  controversy,  more  learned  than  profound, 
and  greatly  wanting  in  method.    The  part  he  played  in 
the  Pietistic  controversies  was  not  very  brilliant.     It  is 
not  certain,  but  appears  probable,  that  he  was  the  au- 
thor of  the  Orthodoxia  vapidans  (1701)  against  the  the- 
ologians of  Wittenberg  (see  G.^Xa\ch,Lehrstreiit.  inner- 
halb  d.  evang.  luth.  Kirche,  i,  844  sq.).    His  A  ntibarbanis 
orihodoxice  (1709-11),  written  in  answer  to  Schelwig's 
Synopsis  Controversiai-um  sub  pietcttis pratextu  motarum, 
is  a  good  specimen  of  his  system,  which  generally  at- 
tached itself  to  particular  points  of  a  subject  instead  of 
the  whole.     G.  Walch  (see  above)  gives  an  extensive 
list  of  his  other  works  on  this  topic.     His  controversy 
with  Christian  Wolff,  the  distinguished  pupil  of  Leib- 
nitz, is  the  most  important.     The  school  of  the  latter 
had  produced  the  Bible  of  Wertheim,  which  Lange  at.- 
tacked  in  his  Der philos.  Religionsspotter  im  eisten  Tlitile 
d.Werthheimischen  Bihebverkes  verkappt  (1736;  2d  edit. 
1736).     In  that  work  he  advanced  his  favorite  theon,', 
which  he  further  developed  in  his  later  ^^Titings  against 
Wolff  and  others,  that  their  philosophical  system  was 
purely  mechanical.     This  was  followed  by  his  Darstel- 
lung  d.  Gntndsdtze  d.  Wolffischen  Philosojihie  (Lpz.  1736, 
4to),  and  the  150  F7-agen  aus  der  neuen  mcchanischen 
P.'.ilosophie  (Halle,  1734).     He  had  already  given  some 
inklings  of  his  vie^\'s  of  this  system  in  his  Caussa  Dei 
adi-ersus  A  theismuni   et  Pseudophilosophiam,  prcesertim 
Stoiccnn.  Sjnnoz.  ad  Wolfanam  (2d  ed.  Halle,  1727, 8vo) 
(see  H.'\\'nit\ie,  Christian  Wolff's  eigene  Lcbenshesch-ei- 
bung,  Lpz.  1841,  Preface).     Some  of  Lange's  exegetical 
works  are  yet  in  use ;  such  are  Comm.  hist.-herm.  de  vita 
et  epistolis  Pauli  (Halle,  1718,  4to)  : — Mosaisches  Licht 
u.Recht  (Halle,  1732,  fol.),  a  sort  of  commentary'  on  all 
the  books  of  the  O.  T.     Also  commentaries  on  various 
other  books  of  Scripture,  published  at  different  times, 
and  collectively  under  title  Biblia  jmrenthetica  (Leipzic, 
1743, 2  vols.  fol.).    Also  Exegesis  epp.  Petri  (Halle,  1712) : 
— Joannis  (1713,  4to).     Among  his  historical  Avorks  we 
notice  Gestalt  d.  Kreuzreichs  Christi  in  seiner  Unschuld. 
(Halle,  1713.  8vo): — Erlauteiimg  d.  naiestai  Historic  d. 
evang. Kirche  v.  1689  bis  1719  (Halle,  1719,8vo).   Among 
his  doctrinal  works  the  most  important  is  his  (Economia 
salutis  evangelicce  (2d  edition,  HaUe,  1730,  8vo;  German 
translation  1738, often  reprinted), against  predestination; 
which  met  with  great  success.     Finally  he  published 
also  a  Latin  (irammar,  which  was  for  a  long  time  very 
popular,  and  went  through  a  great  many  editions;  and 
an  Autobiographie,  to  which  is  appended  a  list  of  his 
works  (Haile  and  Ljiz.  1744).     See  Ucrzog,  Real-Ency- 
klfip.  viii,  194;  Diiring,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Dtutschlands,  ii, 
251   sq.;  Kotermimd,  Gekhrten  Lexikon,  s.  v.;  Dorner, 
Doctrine  and  Person  if  Christ,  II,  ii,  369, 376.    (J.  H.  W.) 
Lange,  Johann  Michael,  a  German  Protestant 
theologian  and  phil<iliigist.  was  born  at  Etzehvangen, 
near  Sulzbach,  March  9, 1664.     He  became  successively 
pastor  of  llohenstrauss,  Halle.  Altdorf,  and  Prenzlow, 
where  he  died  Jan.  10, 1731.     He  wrote  fifty-six  differ- 
ent works  (see  the  list  in  IJotcrmund. /,f=x.  iii,  1227),  of 
which  the  princijial  are  Aphorismi  Theologici  (Altdorf, 
1087)  :—De  Falnilis  Mohamedicis  (Altdorf,  1697, 4to):— 
Exercitatio  Philologica  de  differentia  linrpice  Gi-(ecoritm 
veteris  et  nova  seu  barbaiv-G rcecee  (2d  edit.  Altd,  1702) : 


LANGEAIS 


231 


LANGLE 


— Decas  I  disputatt.  theolog.  exegeticarum  cum  positivo 
polemicarum  numero  sacro  (Altd.  1703, 4to) : — De  Alco- 
rani  prima  inter  Eu  ropceos  ediiione  A  rabica  per  Pagani- 
niim  Brixiensem,  sedjussu  Pontif.  Rom.  aholita  (Altdorf, 
1703) : — DeAlcoranoA  rabico  et  vai-iis  speciininibus  atque 
novissimis  successibus  doctorum  quoriimdam  virorum  in 
edendo  Alcorano  Arabico  (Altdorf,  170-1) ; — De  Alcorani 
versionibus  variis,  tarn  oriental,  quam  occidental,  impres- 
sis  et  civtKduaHi:  (Altdorf,  1705) : — Octo  Dissertationes  de 
Versione  N.  T.  burbaro-Grceca  (Altd.  1705) : — Institutiones 
Pastorales  i^nremb.  1707) : — Philologia  barbaro-Grceca, 
etc.  (Niircmb.  1707-8,  2  parts,  4to).  See  Zeltner,  VitcB 
Theolog.  (Altd.),  p.  4G8-488;  Will,  Lexicon,  ii,  394-405; 
Koteniumd,  Sujipl.  z.  Jocher;  Hoefer,  Nou%j.  Biog.  Gene- 
rale,  xxix,  391.     (J,  N.  P.) 

Langeais,  Raoul  de,  a  French  prelate,  was  born  in 
the  l)eginning  of  the  11th  century.  He  was  brother  of 
Fulchredus,  abbot  of  Charroux.  Raoul  became  succes- 
sively dean  of  the  Church  of  Tours  and  bishop  of  that 
diocese  in  1072.  His  election,  however,  caused  great 
disturbances.  His  enemies  having  accused  him  of  in- 
cest before  Alexander  H,  the  latter  deposed  and  excom- 
municated him.  Kaoul  immediately  set  out  for  Kome, 
justified  himself,  and  was  restored  to  his  bishopric. 
\Vhen  Gregory  VII  succeeded  Alexander  II  the  accusa- 
tion was  taken  up  again,  but  with  like  resuh.  Still  the 
whole  Church  of  France  was  at  the  time  in  a  state  of 
comjilete  anarchy,  and  the  bishop  of  Tours  was  treated 
with  the  utmost  disrespect  by  his  clergy,  and  especially 
by  the  monks,  in  spite  of  the  evident  favor  of  the  pope. 
In  1078  he  was  accused  of  simony  before  tlic  Coimcil  of 
Poitiers,  and  vmable,  it  is  said,  to  clear  himself  other- 
wise, he  broke  up  the  council  by  main  force  (compare 
Labbe,  Condi,  x,  360 ;  Landon,  Manual  of  Councils,  p. 
497).  Still  Gregory  VII  merely  appointed  a  committee 
to  inquire  into  tlie  case.  How  this  committee  decided 
is  not  known,  but  all  trouble  was  at  an  end  in  1079,  for 
we  then  find  Gregory  writing  to  Raoul  inviting  him  to 
recognise  Gebuin,  archbisliop  of  Lyons,  whom  he  liad 
appointed  primate  of  Gaul,  and  about  the  same  time 
Kaoul  was  invited  to  the  Council  of  Badeaux  by  the 
legate  Amat,  who  calls  him  "  religionis  ecclesiasticos  ca- 
put honorabilius."  Shortly  afterwards  he  excommuni- 
cated Foidques  Rechin,  count  of  Anjou,  and  Gebuin  ap- 
proved his  proceedings;  but  king  Philip,  angered  at 
Langeais  for  siding  with  Gregory  VII  on  the  (question 
of  investiture,  took  the  part  of  tlie  count.  Langeais 
was  driven  from  liis  see,  and  excommunicated  by  the 
canons  of  St.  Jlartin ;  the  pope,  in  return,  excommuni- 
cated the  count  of  Anjou  and  all  his  partisans,  while 
Hughes  and  Amat,  legates  of  the  council  of  Poitiers, 
excommunicated  the  canons  of  St.  iNIartin.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  form  a  correct  judgment  of  those  events.  It  is 
likely,  however,  that  all  the  trouble  resulted  from  the 
fact  that  Langeais  had  entered  zealously  into  the  plans 
of  reformation  of  Gregory  VII,  and  therefore,  while 
praised  by  this  pope  and  his  adherents,  became  necessa- 
rily, as  a  leader  of  his  party  in  France,  an  object  of  ha- 
tred to  the  opposite  faction.  Documents  show  that  he 
was  governing  his  diocese  again  in  1084  and  1080.  The 
exact  time  of  his  death  is  not  ascertained,  but  he  must 
have  died  previous  to  the  year  1093.  See  J.  Maan, 
Sacr.  et  Metr.  eccl.  Turon.;  Gallia  Christ,  vol.  xiv,  col. 
63",  Hoefer,  Noiir.  Biog.  Gen.  xxix,  394  sq. 

Langeland  (Langland  or  Longland),  John,  a 
distinguished  prelate  of  the  Church  of  England,  was 
born  at  Henley,  England,  in  1473,  and  was  fellow  of  Mag- 
dalen College,  Oxford,  and  priucijial  of  IMagdalen  Hall 
in  1507.  In  1520  he  became  bishop  of  Lincoln,  and 
confessor  to  Henry  VIII,  whom  he  counseled  to  divorce 
queen  Catharine.  He  died  in  1547.  He  published  a 
number  of  sermons  and  theological  treatises  from  1517 
to  1540. — AUibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer.  A  iithors,  ii, 
1057;   Thomas,  Biogj-ajdncal  Dictionarrj,  p.  1452. 

Langbam,  Simon  of,  an  Enghsh  prelate,  was  born 
about  1310,  probably  at  Langham,  in  Rutlandshire.    In 


1335  he  entered  the  convent  of  St.  Peter,  Westmin- 
ster, of  which  he  became  abbot  in  1349,  and  showed 
great  zeal  in  the  reformation  of  monastic  abuses.  As  a 
reward  for  his  talents  Edward  HI  appointed  him  lord 
treasurer  in  1300,  and  chancellor  in  1304.  In  the  mean 
time  (1301)  he  had  been  appointed  bishop  of  Ely.  In 
1300  he  was  transferred  to  the  see  of  Canterbury.  The 
principal  act  of  his  administration  was  the  deposing  of 
the  celebrated  Wychtfe  (whom  his  jjredecessor  had  ap- 
pointed head  of  Canterbury  Hall,  Oxford)  on  the  plea 
that  a  secular  priest  was  not  suitable  for  the  position. 
This  injustice  perhaps  first  suggested  to  Wyclift'e  an  in- 
quiry into  papal  abuses.  His  proceedings  on  tliat  occa- 
sion gave  great  offence  to  Edward  HI,  and  when  the 
pope,  as  a  reward,  created  Langham  cardinal  of  St.  Six- 
tus,  the  king  seized  on  his  temporalities,  as,  by  the  law, 
the  see  of  Canterbury  had  become  vacant  by  the  pro- 
motion, Langham  now  went  to  join  the  pope,  who 
loaded  him  with  favors.  He  continued  to  take  a  part 
in  the  political  affairs  of  England,  vainly  trying  to  rec- 
oncile that  country  to  France.  During  the  last  years 
of  his  life  Gregory  XI  intrusted  him  with  the  care  of 
the  papal  affairs  at  Avignon,  wlierc  he  died  July  22, 
1376.  His  body  was  taken  back  to  England,  and  buried 
at  Westminster.  See  Wharton,  Anglia  Sacra;  Moser, 
Life  of  Simon  of  Jjungham,  in  the  European  Magazine, 
1797;  Th.  Tanner,  Bihlioth.  Britannica;  Baluze,  Vitce. 
Pap.  A  ven.  vol.  i ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxix, 
409 ;  Collier,  Eccles.  Hist,  (see  Index  in  vol.  vLii) ;  Nean- 
der,  Church  Hist,  v,  130. 

Iianghorne,  John,  a  minister  of  the  Church  of 
England,  was  born  in  Westmoreland,  England,  in  1735; 
obtained  a  curacy  in  London  in  1764;  in  1707  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  living  of  Blagden,  Somersetshire,  in  1777 
became  prebendary  of  Wells,  and  died  in  1779.  Lang- 
horne  published  several  works  both  in  prose  and  poetry; 
also  a  volume  of  his  Sermons,  preached  before  the  honor- 
able Society  of  Lincoln's  Inn  (3d  ed.  Lond.  1773,  2  vols, 
small  8vo).  "  His  sermons  are  short,  florid,  and  super- 
ficial." His  most  famous  work  was  his  translation  of 
Plutarch's  Lives,  on  which  his  brother  assisted.  See 
Darling,  Cyclop.  Bibliog.  ii,  1705;  AUibone,  Dictionary 
of  British  and  American  Authors,  ii,  1057. 

Langhorne,  'Williani,  j\LA.,  an  English  divine,, 
was  born  in  1721.  He  was  presented  to  the  rectory  of 
Hakinge,  and  received  the  perpetual  curacy  of  Folke- 
stone in  1754.  He  died  in  1772.  He  assisted  his  broth- 
er, John  Langhorne,  D.D.,  in  the  translation  of  a  popu- 
lar version  of  Plutarch's  Lives,  and  wrote  himself  Ser- 
mons on  practical  Subjects,  and  the  most  useful  Points  of 
Divinity  (2d  edition,  Lond.  1778,  2  vols.  r2mo): — Job,  a 
poem ;  and  a  paraphrase  in  verse  of  a  part  of  Isaiah. 
See  Thomas,  Biog.  Diet.  (Phila,  1871,  8vo),  p.  1308. 

Iianigan,  John,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Irish  Roman 
Catholic  priest,  was  born  at  Cashel,  Ireland,  in  1758,  and 
received  his  scientific  and  theological  education  at  the 
Irish  College  in  Kome,  where  he  also  took  his  orders. 
Soon  after  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  Hel)rew, 
divinity,  and  the  Scriptures  in  tlie  University  of  Pavia, 
In  1790  he  was  elected  to  a  similar  position  at  Jlay- 
nooth,  Ireland,  but  declined  it,  and  accepted  an  appoint- 
ment in  Dul)lin  Castle,  in  connection  with  which  he  as- 
sumed in  1799  the  duties  of  editor,  librarian,,  and  trans- 
lator for  the  Dublin  Society.  In  1821,  becoming  insane, 
lie  was  jilaced  in  an  asylum  at  Finglas,.  near  Dublin, 
where  he  died,  July  7,  1828.  Among  his  works  arc 
the  following  important  ones:  Institutionum  BUdicarum 
pars  prima  (Pavire,  1794,  8vo)  :  —  Protestant's  Apology 
for  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  (1809,  8vo)  :>— Ecclesias- 
tical History  of  Ireland  to  the  \^th  Century  (Dublin,.  1822, 
4  vols.  8vo;  1829,  4  vols.  8vo),  a  work  much  valued  for 
its  extensive  learnuig,  deep  research,  and  critical  acu- 
men. See  New  Amer.  Cyclop,  x,  304;  AUibone,  Diet, 
of  British  and  American  Authors,  ii,  1058, 

Langle,  Jean  Maximilian  de,  a  French  Protes- 
tant writer,  was  burn  at  Evreux  in  1590,  and  was  made 


LANGRES 


232 


LANGTON 


pastor  at  Rouen  in  1G15.  He  died  there  in  1074.  Be- 
sides a  dissertation  in  defence  of  Cliarles  I  of  Ens^land, 
he  wrote  Les  jo^es  inenarrahlcs  et  fjlorieuses  de  I'dme 
Jidele,  represeiilee,^  en  quinze  Sermons  sur  le  huiti'eme 
chap,  de  VEpitre  de  Saint  Paid  aux  Romains  (Saumur, 
1G(J9,  8vo) ;  and  Sermons  sur  divers  textes  de  Vecritui-e. 
— Iloefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxix,  414. 

Langres,  Synod  of.     From  the  acts  of  the  Concil- 
ium 'I'lillense  of  June,  859,  it  appears  that  another  {Con- 
ciliiim  Liiif/oiiense)  had  a  sliort  time  before  been  lield  at 
Langres  by  the  bishops  of  Charles  the  Young,  king  of 
Provence,  nephew  of  Charles  the  Bald,  and  son  of  Lo- 
thair  I,  to  whom  Langres  belonged  as  part  of  Burgundy. 
We  find  sixteen  canones  adopted  at  Langres  still  extant. 
These  were  read  again  in  the  Synod  of  Toid  (Savon- 
nieres),  and  incorporated  in  the  acts  of  that  synod's  ses- 
sion held  in  the  early  part  of  June,  850.     The  canones 
refer  partly  to  political  and  canonical  points,  partly  to 
dogmas.     The  assembled  clergy  availed  themselves  of 
the  opportunity  afforded  them  by  the  synod  to  obtain 
from  the  princes  Charles  the  Bald,  Lothair  II,andCharles 
the  Young  the  convocation  of  yearly  provincial  synods, 
and  two  yearly  general  synods  (can.  7).     An  attempt 
was  also  made  to  take  the  election  of  bishops  out  of 
the  hands  of  the  laity,  wherever  these  stiU  retained  this 
right,  and  to  leave  it  exclusively  with  the  clergy,  under 
the  plea  that  the  metropolitan  and  bishops  of  the  dio- 
cese were  alone  able  to  judge  of  the  qualifications  of 
candidates  (can.  8).     Great  opposition  was  also  mani- 
fested against  the  independence  of  convents  from  the 
episcopacy,  the  interest  of  discipline  requiring  that  such 
institutions  should  be  visited  by  the  bishops  (can.  9). 
Tlicy  only  maintained  the  right  of  the  convents  to  ap- 
point their  superiors  themselves  (can.  9  and  12).    Much 
was  also  done  in  regard  to  tlie  building  of  churches,  the 
administration  of  Church  property,  etc.  (can.  13) ;  the 
cstaLlishing  of  schools  (can.  10),  and  the  restoration  of 
h()spitalia,xieregj-inoi-um  videlicet,  et  aliorum  pro  remedio 
animarum  receptacula  (can.  14).     The  intervention  of 
the  temporal  power  was  invoked  against  roptores,  adul- 
teri  rel  rapaces,  which  latter  were  to  be  also  jiunished  b}' 
the  Church  with  the  full  severity  of  her  discipline.    But 
tlie  most  important  of  the  decrees  adopted  by  this  synod 
are  those  which  refer  to  the  dogma  of  predestination. 
It  is  in  this  Synod  of  Langres  that  the  bishops  of  Prov- 
ence appear  to  have  prepared  the  whole  matter,  so  as 
to  have  it  ready  to  be  submitted  to  the  Synod  of  Toul 
for  the  three  Carolinian  kingdoms  (Neustria,  Lorraine, 
and  I'rovence).    King  Charles  was  himself  present,  with 
a  view  to  prevent  the  proceedings  becoming  a  basis 
for  the  decrees  of  tlie  future  Synod  of  Toul.     In  the 
king«lom  of  Charles  the  Bald  the  semi-Pelagian  views 
of  ilincmar  on  that  dogma  were  most  generally  held, 
whilst  in  the  ancient  provinces  of  Lothair  I  the  Augus- 
tinian  views  were  still  ofiiciallv  retained.    As  the  coming 


0pp.  cd.  Sirm.  i,  2."1 ).  Its  inefficiency  was  subsequently 
made  evident  in  the  proceedings  of  the  ConcUiinn  Tul- 
lense  J  ajxid  Sapuiiurias.  See  Mansi,  xv,  5o7 ;  llar- 
douin,  V,  481 ;  Gieselcr,  Kirchengesch.  4th  edit,  ii,  1, 137  ; 
Gfrorer,  K.-G.  iii,  2,  881  ;  Herzog,  Real-  Encyklop.  viii, 
19G.     (J.N.  P.) 

Langton,  Stephen,  one  of  the  greatest  prelates  of 
the  early  English  Church,  celebrated  alike  in  ecclesias- 
tical and  secular  history,  was  born  in  the  earlier  half  of 
the  12tli  century,  according  to  one  account  in  Lincoln- 
shire, according  to  another  in  Devonshire,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Paris,  where  he  was  the  fel- 
low-student and  associate  of  Innocent  III.     Immediate- 
ly after  the  com])letion  of  his  studies  he  was  appointed 
teacher  in  the  university,  and,  by  successive  advances, 
finally  rose  to  the  office  of  its  chancellor.     On  his  visit 
to  Kome  about  the  year  120G,  pope  Innocent  III  hon- 
ored him  with  the  purple  by  the  title  of  Cardintd  of  St. 
Chnjsogonus ;  and  when,  by  the  rejection  for  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Canterbury  of  the  claims  both  of  Beglnald, 
the  subprior  of  Christchurch,  whom  his  brother  monks, 
without  consultation  of  the  king,  had  in  the  first  in- 
stance appointed  to  succeed  the  last  archbishop,  Hubert, 
and  of  John  de  Gray,  bishop  of  Norwich,  whom  they 
had  afterwards   substituted  in  deference  to  the  com- 
mands of  king  John,  another  choice  had  to  be  made, 
Innocent  III  favored  his  old  school-associate  rather  than 
the  appointment  of  John  de  Gray,  and  Langton  was 
consequently  elected  by  the  English  monks  who  were 
then  at  Kome,  and  was  consecrated  by  Innocent  at  Yi- 
terbo  June  27,  1207.     John's  determined  resistance  to 
this  nomination  gave  rise  to  the  contest  between  him 
and  the  pontiff  which  had  such  important  results.     See 
Innocent  III;  John,  king  of  England.     The  conse- 
quence, in  so  far  as  Langton  was  concerned,  was,  that  he 
was  kept  out  of  his  see  for  about  six  years ;  till  at  last, 
after  the  negotiation  concluded  by  the  legate  Pandulf, 
John  and  the  cardinal  met  at  Winchester  in  July,  1213, 
and  the  latter  was  fidly  acknowledged  as  archbishop. 
In  the  close  union,  however,  that  now  followed  between 
John  and  Innocent,  Langton,  finding  his  own  interests 
and  those  of  the  clergy  in  general,  in  so  far  as  they  were 
opposed  to  those  of  the  king,  disregarded  by  the  pope, 
joined  the  cause  of  the  English  barons,  among  wliom 
the  eminence  of  his  station  and  the  ascendency  of  his 
talents  soon  gave  him  a  high  intluence,  and  in  whose 
councils  he  at  once  took  a  prominent  part.    At  the  meet- 
ing of  the  heads  of  the  revolters  and  the  king  atKunny- 
mede  he  was  present,  and  it  was  through  his  efforts  that 
the  charter  of  Henry  I  was  renewed.     Among  the  sub- 
scribing witnesses  to  the  Magna  Charta  his  name  stands 
first;  and  from  henceforth  we  find  him  devoted  to  the 
cause  of  the  national  liberties,  which  he  had  just  joined, 
without  swerving  throughout  the  rest  of  the  contest,  a 
course  by  which  he  greatly  offended  the  pope.     Indeed, 


SvnodofToul  was  intended  to' settle  all  disputes  between  '  so  sincerely  devoted  to  tlie  interests  of  his  native  coun 


the  two  kingdoms  in  regard  to  political  and  religious 
([uestions,  the  preparatory  Sjniod  of  Langres  had  either 
to  recall  the  Augustinian  resolutions  of  the  Synod  of 
Yalencc,  or  to  alter  them  in  such  a  manner  that  they 
might  no  longer  give  offence.  They  could  not  agree  to 
do  the  former,  and  the  six  canones  of  Yalencc  wcreen- 
dorscil-,  but  the  expressions  against  the  Synod  of  Kiersy, 


try  was  Stephen  Langton  that  he  hesitated  not  to  act 
not  only  in  direct  opposition  to  the  wishes  of  his  friend, 
the  lioman  pontilT,  but  he  even  refused  to  comply  with 
his  demand  to  publish  the  document  containing  the  an- 
nouncement of  excommunication  of  the  barons  who  had 
rebelled  against  the  king,  a  punishment  which  Innocent 
sought  to  inllict  in  order  to  please  John,  whose  warm 


hich  offended  Ilincmar   and  his   followers   (capitula    partisan  he  had  become  after  1213.     Langton  did  not 


(piatuor  (piic  a  concilio  fratruin  nostrorum  mnuis  pros- 
])ecte  suscepta  sunt  propter  inutilitatem  vel  ctiam  nox- 
ietatem  et  crrorem  contrarium  veritati  [a  pio  auditu 


waver  even  when  threatened  witli  expulsion  from  the 
archiepiscopal  see;  he  was  suspended  in  1215,  but  was 
restored  in  the  year  following  (in  February),  and  was  in 


fidelium  penitus  cxplodimus])  were  omitted  from  the  I  his  place  in  1218  on  tlie  accession  of  Henry  III.  From 
fourth  canon.  That  this  was  but  a  half-way  and  ineffi-  '  this  time  forward  Langton  busied  himself  chitlly  with 
cient  measure  had  alreadv  been  suffitientlv"  established    the  affairs  of  the  Cluirch,  instituted  many  reforms,  caused 


by  Hincniar  himself  in  his  work  on  predestination,  cap. 
30:  if  the  canons  of  Yalence  were  retained.it  shoidd  be 
done  openlv,  and  they  should  be -courageously.defended, 
and  then  the  protestation  against  the  four  principles  of 
Kiersy  could  not  be  considered  omitted ;  but  if  these 
were  omitted,  then  it  v.ould  be  consistent  to  drop  the 
resolutions  of  the  Council  of  Yalence  (comp.  Ilincmari 


the  translation  of  Bccket's  relics  into  a  magnificent 
shrine  of  gold,  set  w-ith  precious  stones,  and  introduced 
into  England  the  mendicant  orders.  He  attended  the 
Latcran  Council  convened  at  Eome  in  1215,  He  died 
July  9,1228. 

Langton  is  generally  considered  one  of  the  most  il- 
lustrious men  of  the  age  in  which  he  Uved.     Both  as 


LANGUAGE 


233 


LANIADO 


an  ecclesiastic  and  a  writer  he  has  exerted  great  in- 
fluence. Unfortunately,  however,  his  writings,  which 
displaj'ed  great  learning  and  ability,  are  hardly  accessi- 
ble. They  have  hitherto  found  no  editor,  nor  has  any 
one,  as  far  as  we  are  aware,  ever  taken  the  trouble  to 
ascertain  how  much  the  commentaries  of  Langton  differ 
from  the  works  of  that  class  by  medi.Bval  Church  writ- 
ers. A  few  of  his  theological  tracts  have  been  printed, 
and  lists  of  all  the  productions  known  as  his  are  given 
by  Cave  and  by  Tanner.  Tlie  principal  are,  De  Beiw- 
dictionibus  : — De  Maledictionibus : — Summa  TheologicB  : 
— Summa  ch  diversis : — Repetitiones  leciionum: — Doai- 
menta  Clericorum: — De  sacerdiiiihiis  Deiim  nescientibus : 
—De  vera  Poenifentia: — De  Sim'dltndiidbus : — Adam  ubi 
.es;  and  more  particularly  his  Commentarij  (on  a  large 
portion  of  the  O.Test,).  Dean  Hook  (in  his  Lives  of  the 
Archbishops  of  Co  nterbiay,  vol  ii  [18l)l],ch.  xii)  gives 
references  to  libraries  where  some  of  Langton's  writings 
are  still  preserved-,  and  we  may  add  that  the  library  of 
Canterbury  Cathedral  contains  his  j]forals  on  Joshua, 
Judges,  Kuth,  Samuel,  Kings,  Tobit,  Esther,  Ezra,  Mac- 
cabees, Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  the  lesser  proph- 
ets (comp.  Todd  [H.  J.],  Cataloyue  [Lond.  1802],  p.  Ill 
sq.).  See  Fabricius,  Bill.  Med.  yEvi ;  Tanner,  Biblioth, 
Britannico-Hibern. ;  Oudin,  Comment,  de  Script.  Eccles. 
vol.  ii ;  Cave,  Script,  eccles.  Hist.  Litterar.  vol.  ii ;  Ciaco- 
nius,  VitcR  Pontific.  et  Cardin.  vol.  ii-,  Godwin,  De  Prce- 
sulibus  AnrjUm  Commentni'ius ;  Eiifflish  Ci/clop.;  Hook, 
Eccles.  Biography,  vi,  538  sq. ;  Milman,  Latin  Chrktian- 
ili/.  V,  25  sq. ;  Inett,  Hist,  of  English  Church,  vol.  iii  (see 
Index) ;  Cliurton,  Earhj  Engl.  Ch.  p.  355-,  Collier,  Eccl. 
Hist,  (see  Index  in  vol.  viii)-,  Hume,  llist.  of  England, 
vol.  i,  ch.  xi-,  and  the  authorities  already  cited  in  the 
articles  Innocent  III,  and  John,  king  of  England. 
(J.H.W.) 

Language  ("Vj?  [Chald.  "'i'bjjfony^K,-  nsb,  ?/». 
An  indication  of  the  manner  in  which  man  m.ay  have 
been  led  to  the  formation  of  a  vocabulary  is  thought  to 
be  given  in  (ien.  ii,  19.  But  it  is  evident  from  the 
whole  scriptural  account  of  creation  that  speech  was  co- 
eval with  the  formation  of  our  first  parents.  At  a  later 
date  the  origin  of  the  various  languages  on  the  earth 
(see  Van  den  Ilonert,  De  lingua  primreva,  L.  B.  1738)  is 
ai)parcntly  given  in  connection  with  the  building  of  the 
tower  of  Babel  (comp.  Kiimer,  De  Ungnar.  in  extruenda 
turri  Bubgl.  o/7«,Yiteb.  1782)  and  the  dispersion  of  men 
((jJen.  xi);  but  it  is  probable  that  the  diversities  of  hu- 
man speech  have  rather  resulted  from  than  caused  the 
gradual  divergence  of  mankind  from  a  common  centre 
(Ulod.  Siculus,  i,  8  ;  comp.  Jerusalem,  Fortges.  Betracht. 
Brschvv.  1773,  p.  263  sq. ;  Eichhorn,  Diversitatis  linguar. 
ex  iradit.  Seinit.  origines,  Getting.  1788  ;  Abbt,  Vermisch. 
/Sf/!/-*/?.  vi,9Gsq.).  See  Tongues,  Confusion  of.  The 
later  Jews  inferred  from  Gen.  x  that  there  were  gener- 
ally on  earth  seventy  (nations  and)  languages  (compare 
Wagenseil,  Sota,  p.  099;  Lightfoot,  Hor.  Heb.  p.  754, 
1031,  1089:  see  a  list  in  the  Jerusalem  Talmud,  Megill. 
fol.  71,  ch.  ii).  Individual  tongues  are  only  mentioned 
incidentally  in  the  Bible,  as  follows:  the  Canaanitvih 
(■|;"33  TiSb,  Isa.xix,  18),the67/aA7fP««  (D"''^b3  "Vrb, 
Dan.  i,4),  the  Arainwiin  (r'^'O'nX,  familiar  to  the  Assyr- 
ians [2  Kings  xviii,  20],  the  IMagians  [Dan.  ii,  4],  and 
the  Persian  olKcials  [Ezra  iv,  7]  ),  the  Jewish  (':^'^1'l^i^.^ 
i.  e.  Hebrew;  2  Kings  xviii,  2G  ;  Neh.  xiii,  24;  compare 
Esther  viii,  9;  Josephus,  Apion,  ii,  2),  the  Ashdodite 
(ni-li-rrx,  Neh.  xiii,  24) ;  in  the  N.  T.  the  Hebrew,  i. 
e.  Sgro-Vhiddee  (Ejipatc,  'Eftnn'iari,  Acts  xxii,  2,  etc.), 
the  Greek  (I'l'EWtjviKii.'EWiituari,  John  xix,  20;  Acts 
xxi,  37;  Rev.  ix,  11),  rhe  Latin  (Poj/tahri,  John  xix, 
20;  Luke  xxiii,  38),  and  the  Lycaonian  {i\.vKnori<jTi, 
Acts  xiv,  11).  It  is  remarkai)le  that,  in  all  the  inter- 
course of  the  Hebrews  with  foreign  nations,  mention  is 
very  rarely  made  of  an  interpreter  ((ien.  xiii,  23) ;  but 
the  passages  in  2  Kings  xviii,  2(>;  Isa.  xxxvi,  11.  prove 
that  the  common  Jews  of  the  interior  at  least  did  not 
understand  the  Aramaean  dialect.     That  the  Jews  of 


later  times,  especially  the  bigoted  citizens  of  Palestine, 
despised  heathen  languages,  is  notorious  (Josephus,  ,1  nt. 
XX,  11,  2);  that  they  made  use  of  the  Greek,  how-ever, 
is  evident  from  the  Talmud  {Sota,  ix,  14-,  comp.  Juda- 
im,  iv,  (),  where  Homer  is  mentioned),  to  say  nothing  of 
theN.  T. — Winer,  ii, 498.  See  Hellenist.  The  ques- 
tion as  to  the  common  language  of  Palestine  in  the  time 
of  our  Lord  and  his  apostles  has  been  keenly  discussed 
by  learned  writers  with  very  opposite  conclusions.  On 
the  one  hand,  Du  Pin  {Dissert,  ii).  Mill  {N.  T.  p.  8),  Mi- 
chaelis  {Lttrud.  iii).  Marsh  Qibid.  notes),  Weber  {Unter- 
such.  iib.  d.  Ev.  der  Hebraer,  Tlib.  1806),  Kniniil  {Com- 
ment, i,  18),  Olshausen  {Echtheit  der  Evang.  Kiinigsberg, 
1823,  p.  21  sq.),  and  especially  De  Bossi  {Delia  lingua 
propria  di  Cristo,  Parma,  1772),  and  Pfaniikuche  (in 
Eichhorn's  A  llgem.  Bibliothek,  viii,  365  sq.)  contend  for 
the  exclusive  prevalence  of  the  Aramaean  or  Syro-Chal- 
dee  at  the  time  and  in  the  region  in  question.  On  the 
other  hand,  Cappell  (Observatt.in  N.  T.  p.  110),  Basnage 
{Annul,  ad  an.  64),  ]\Iasch  {Von  der  Grumbprache  3fat- 
tha'i),  Lardncr  (Su|)plement  to  Credibility,  etc.,  i.  c.  5), 
Waheus  {(^'ommentarius,  p.  1),  and  more  particularly 
Vossius  {De  Oraculis  Sibyll.  Oxon.  1860,  p.  88  sq.),  and 
Diodati  {De  Christo  Greece  loquente.  Neap.  1767,  London, 
1843),  insist  that  the  Greek  alone  was  then  and  there 
spoken.  Between  these  extremes  Simon  {Hist.  Crit.  du 
N.  T.  Rotterd.  1689,  c.  6,  p.  56),  Fabricy  {litres  prind- 
tifs  de  la  Revelation,  Rome,  1773,  i,  116),  Ernesti  {Neuste 
f'heol.  Bibliothek,  i  [  1771  ],  269  sq.).  Hug  {Einleit.  in  d.  .V. 
T.  Tiib.  1826,  ii,  30  sq.),  Binterim  {De  ling.  origi7iali  N. 
T.  non  Latina,  Dusseld.  1820,  p.  146  sq.),  Wiseman  {Ho- 
rm  Syriaca,  Rom.  1828,  i,  69  sq.),  and  the  mass  of  later 
writers,  as  Credner  {Einleit.  in  d.  N.  Test.  Halle,  1836), 
Bleek  {id.  Berl.  1862),  and  (though  with  more  reserve) 
Roberts  {Language  of  Palestine.  London,  1859)  hold  the 
more  reasonable  vie>v  that  both  languages  were  concur- 
rently used,  the  Aramaean  probably  as  the  vernacular  at 
home  and  among  natives,  and  the  CJreek  in  promiscuous 
and  public  circles.  For  additional  literature  on  this 
question,  see  Fabricius,  Biblioth.  Grojca,  iv,  760 ;  Bibli- 
cal Repository,  1831,  p.  317  sq.,  530  sq. ;  and  the  mono- 
graphs cited  by  Yolbeding,  Imlex  Programmatum,  p.  18. 
On  the  Greek  of  the  N.  T.,  see  New  Testament.  On 
the  tongues  cognate  with  the  Hebrew,  see  Shejiitic 
Languages. 

Languet  de  Gergy,  Jean  Joseph,  a  distinguish- 
ed French  prelate,  noted  for  his  opposition  to  the  Jan- 
senists,  was  born  at  Dijon  August  25, 1677.  A  compa- 
triot and  friend  of  Bossuet,he  was  influenced  to  dedicate 
himself  early  to  the  service  of  the  Church.  After  having 
filled  various  minor  positions,  he  became  bisho])  of  Sois- 
sons  in  1715;  later  (in  1730)  he  was  promoted  to  the 
archbishopric  of  Sens,  where,  by  his  zeal  and  nltramon- 
tane  opinions,  he  brought  upon  himself  several  contro- 
versies with  the  Jansenists,  and  by  his  exti-eme  course 
made  himself  very  unpopular.  In  1721  the  French  Acad- 
emy honored  him  with  membershi)).  He  died  May  3, 
1753.  Languet  wrote  very  extensively.  A  complete 
list  of  his  works  is  given  by  Iloefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gene- 
rale,  xxix,  441.  The  most  important  of  his  writings  are 
Menioire  pour  Vevvque  de  Soissons  contre  les  religieuses 
du  Val  de  Grace  et  les  benedictines  de  Saint-CorneUle  de 
Compiegne  (Paris,  1726,  fol.) : — Opera  omnia  pro  defen- 
sione  Constitutionis  Unigenitus  et  udversus  ab  ea  apiielan- 
tes  successive  edita ;  in  LMtinam  linguam  conversa  a  va- 
riif  doctoribus  et  ab  auctore  recognita  et  emendata  (Sens, 
1752, 2  vols,  folio).— Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Generale,  xxix, 
441  sq. 

Laniado  (or  Lanado),  Abraham  ben-Isaac,  an 
Italian  rabbi  and  commentator,  flourished  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  16th  and  the  first  half  of  the  17th  century. 
He  wrote  a  v,-ork  on  the  mysteries  of  the  ]VIosaic  law, 
entitled  Cni3S  "S-C,  The  Shield  of  Abraham,  ^vhich 
consists  of  seventeen  treatises  and  discourses  on  circum- 
cision, marriage,  almsgiving,  confession  of  sins,  repent- 
ance, and  mourning  for  the  dead.  It  was  printed  in 
Venice  in  1603,  and  is  very  highly  esteemed  by  the 


LANIADO 


234 


LANTERN 


Jews :— A  commentary  on  the  Song  of  Songs,  entitled 
r,D2n  m"Ip3,  S/uds  ofSUver,  which  was  edited  by  Mo- 
ses Laniado,  with  the  Hebrew  text,  the  Commentary  of 
Rashi,  the  Chaldoc  Taraphrase,  with  a  Spanish  transla- 
tion by  tlie  editor,  printed  in  Hebrew  characters  (Yen- 
ice,  101'.) ).  He  also  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Penta- 
teuch, and  a  commentary  on  Ruth,  Lamentations,  Ec- 
clesiastes,  and  Esther,  which  have  not  as  yet  been  pub- 
lished.—Kitto,  Bibl  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Laniado,  Samuel  ben-Abkahaji,  another  Ital- 
ian rabbi  of  note,  flourished  at  Aleppo  about  1580.  He 
wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Pentateuch,  entitled  "^^3 
m^cn,  Dditjliiful  Vessel,  which  was  first  published  in 
Venice  in  1594-1595.  He  explains  the  Pentateuch  ac- 
cording to  the  Sabbatic  Lessons  [sec  Hapiitarah]  in  the 
Midrashic  manner: — A  commentary  on  Joshua,  Judges, 
Samuel,  and  Kings,  entitled  np"'  "'h^,  Precions  Vessel, 
which  was  first  published  in  Venice  in  1C03,  and  ex- 
cerpts of  it  are  printed  in  Erankfiirter's  Rabhhdc  Bible 
(q.  v.).  It  consists  chiefly  of  extracts  from  the  exposi- 
tions of  Rashi,  Aben-Ezra,  Ralbag,  etc. :— A  commentary 
on  Isaiah,  called  IS  il53,.l  Vessel  of  Pure  Gold  (Venice, 
1657).  It  is  a  very  lengthy  commentary,  and,  like  the 
former,  is  chiefly  made  up  from  the  expositions  of  Rashi, 
Aben-Ezra,  Ralbag,  etc.  See  Furst,  Biblioth.  JJebroica, 
ii,  222 ;  Steinschneider,  Catalogus  Libr.  Hehr.  in  Bibli- 
otheca  Bodleiana,  col.  2433 ;  Kitto,  Bibl.  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Lanka,  the  ancient  name  of  the  capital  of  Ceylon,  is 
celebrated  in  Hindu  mythology  as  the  chief  city  of  the 
giant  Ravana  (q.  \.\  who,  by  carrying  off  Sita,  the  wife 
of  Rama,  caused  the  conquest  of  Ceylon  by  the  latter 
personage,  who  is  considered  as  an  incarnation  of  the 
god  Vishnu. — Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Lanneau,  Bazile  E.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  at  Cliarleston,  South  Carolina,  jMarch  22, 1830.  and 
was  educated  at  Charleston  College,  where  he  graduated 
in  1848.  He  completed  a  course  of  theology  at  Colum- 
bia Seminary,  S.  C,  in  1851,  and  was  immediately  ap- 
pointed tutor  of  Hebrew  in  the  same  institution.  In 
1854  he  was  ordained,  and  made  pastor  of  a  Church  at 
Lake  City,  Florida;  from  1856  to  1858  he  was  editor  of 
the  Southern  Presbyterian,  at  Charleston,  and  then  re- 
turned to  Lake  City.  In  October,  1859,  he  was  elected 
to  the  chair  of  ancient  languages  in  "Oakland  College, 
Miss.,  which  position  he  held  until  his  death,  July  12, 
1860.  Lanneau's  linguistic  acquirements  were  very  ex- 
tensive. •'  He  was  not  only  a  scholar,  but  an  accurate 
and  well-read  divine.  His  style  as  a  writer  was  chaste 
and  clear." — Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  A  Inianac,  1861,  p.  95. 

Lanneau,  John  Francis,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  burn  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  August  14, 
1809 ;  was  educated  at  Yale  College,  class  of  1829,  and 
studied  theology  at  the  theological  seminaries  of  Prince- 
ton, N.  J.,  and  Columbia,  S.  C.  He  was  ordained  in  1833, 
and  labored  three  years  for  the  cause  of  foreign  mis- 
sions; then  went  as  a  missionary  to  Jerusalem.  In  1846 
he  returned  to  America,  and  was  called  to  jMarietta,  Ga. 
In  1855  he  became  pastor  at  Salem,  Ya.,  and  in  1861  re- 
turned to  Marietta,  Avhere  he  died,  Oct.  7,  1867.  Mr. 
Lanneau  is  re[)resented  as  an  able  minister,  and  always 
eminently  influential  and  acceptable  both  as  a  preacher 
ami  a  citizen. — Wilson,  F'resb.  Ilist.  A  hnancic,  1868,  p.  340. 

Lannis,  Jacob  W.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom 
in  I'.ah  imore  Co.,  Maryland,  July  8, 1826 ;  received  a  col- 
legiate education  at  Muskingum  College,  Ohio,  and  at 
Jefferson  CoDege,  Pa.,  where  he  graduated  in  1852.  He 
studied  theology  at  Alleghany  City  Theological  Semi- 
nary, and  afterwards  with  Dr.  Edwards,  of  Fort  Wayne, 
Ind.  In  1856  he  was  ordained  and  installed  as  pastor 
of  a  Church  at  Waveland,  Ind.  Jn  1858  he  removed  to 
Nashville,  Tennessee,  and  died  there  Aug.  9,  lB59.  INIr. 
Lannis  was  very  successful  in  his  brief  ministry. — Wil- 
son, Presb.  Hist.  Almanac,  ISGl,  p.  95. 

Lansing,  Nicholas,  a  minister  of  the  (Dutch)  Re- 


formed Church,  was  born  at  Albany  in  1748.  He  stud- 
ied theology  under  Dr.  Westerlo,  of  tliat  city,  and  was 
licensed  to  preach  bj'  a  general  meeting  of  ministers 
and  elders  in  1780.  Among  the  Dutch  clergymen  of 
the  last  two  generations,  this  venerable  man  held  a  rep- 
utation for  piety  and  individuality  of  character  that  re- 
minds us  of  Rowland  Hill,  James  Patterson,  of  Philadel- 
phia, and  a  few  others  of  similar  mould.  ISIany  curious 
and  interesting  stories  are  told  of  his  unique  and  godly 
life,  and  of  his  holy  ministry.  He  was,  while  young, 
captain  of  a  small  sailing  vessel  that  ran  between  Al- 
bany and  New  York,  and  was  converted  to  Christ  while 
in  this  calling.  Immediately  he  consecrated  himself  to 
the  ministry,  although  his  health  was  so  feeble  that  his 
physician  said  he  would  not  live  to  enter  the  pulpit. 
But  God  spared  him  to  ser\-e  in  his  sanctuary  fifty-five 
years.  He  preached  regularly  until  the  second  Sabbath 
before  his  death,  at  the  great  age  of  eighty-seven.  "  He 
spent  much  time  day  and  night  in  his  study,  fasting 
much  and  being  much  in  prayer.  He  usually  spent 
much  of  the  night,  and  sometimes  the  whole  night,  in 
praying.  His  clothing  always  gave  way  first  upon  the 
knees."  His  preaching,  which  was  in  the  Dutch  lan- 
guage, Avas  remarkable  for  its  scriptural  character,  spir- 
ituality, and  utter  fearlessness.  Striking  anecdotes  are 
told,  and  many  of  his  peculiar  expressions  are  yet  cur- 
rent, illustrative  of  tliese  features  of  his  ministry-.  On 
one  occasion,  in  a  meeting  of  classis,  when  called  upon  a 
second  time  by  the  president  to  make  a  brief  statement 
of  the  condition  of  his  Church,  the  old  man  rose  sud- 
denly and  said,  "Mr.  President,  Tappanl  Tappan!  aU 
Tappan  is  dead,  and  I'm  dead  too."  He  sat  down  and 
said  no  more  initil  he  was  asked  to  pray,  and  then  jjour- 
ed  out  his  soul  in  such  strains  of"  power  with  God"  that 
all  who  heard  him  felt  that  whatever  might  be  the  state 
of  his  people,  he,  at  least,  was  not  '■^dead"  yet.  He  ob- 
served family  worship  three  times  daily  during  a  part 
of  bis  life.  A  great  revival  of  religion  followed  one  of 
his  most  bold  and  characteristic  sermons  in  a  neighbor- 
ing place,  where  people  were  given  up  to  worldliness 
and  sin.  During  his  last  service  he  sat  in  the  pulpit,  as 
his  feebleness  obliged  him  to  do  frequently  in  his  later 
years.     Like  Baxter,  he  could  have  said 

"I  preached  as  if  I  ne'er  should  preach  again, 
And  as  a  dying  man  to  dyiug  men." 

Referring  to  the  strain  of  his  ministry  among  them,  he 
said  to  his  people,  "  I  have  never  preached  to  you  '  Do 
and  live,'  but '  Live  and  do.'  "  That  week  he  was  seized 
with  his  last  illness,  during  which  he  was  constantly  en- 
gaged in  prayer,  and  in  speaking  for  Christ  to  those 
who  were  with  him.  His  last  entl  was  peace.  Mr.  Lan- 
sing was  settled  first  in  the  united  chiu-ches  of  what  are 
now  Greenbush,  Linlithgo,  and  Taghkanic,  near  Albany, 
during  1781-4,  and  afterwards  at  Tappan  and  Clarks- 
town,  in  Rockland  County,  N.Y.,  1784-1830,  and  Tap- 
pan  alone  1830-35.  His  home  and  church  in  the  latter 
place  Avere  near  the  spot  on  which  major  Andre  was 
hung  in  the  Revolutionaiy  War.  See  Corv.in,  Manual 
of  the  Reformed  Church,  p.  134  sq.     (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

Lantern  {<pavoc,  so  called  for  its  shinivrj)  occurs 
only  in  John  xviii,  3,  where  the  party  of  men  which 
went  out  of  Jerusalem  to  apprehend  Jesus  in  the  garden 
of  Gethsemanc  is  described  as  being  provided  "with  lan- 
terns and  torches :"  it  there  probably  denotes  any  kind 
of  covered  light,  in  distinction  from  a  simple  taper  or 
common  house-light,  as  well  as  from  a  flamVieau  (conip. 
Athena;us,  xv,  58;  Philosen.  Gloss.).  Lanterns  were 
much  employed  by  the  Romans  in  military  operations ; 
two  of  bronze  have  been  found  among  the  ruins  of  Her- 
cidaneum  and  Pompeii.  They  are  cylindrical,  with 
translucent  horn  sides,  the  lamp  within  being  furnished 
with  an  extinguisher  {iim.\t\\,Lict.  of  Class.  Ant.\).b()S). 
In  the  article  Lamp  it  has  been  shown  that  the  Jewish 
lantern,  or,  if  we  may  so  call  it,  lamp-frame,  was  similar 
to  that  now  in  use  among  the  Orientals.  As  the  streets 
of  Eastern  towns  are  not  lighted  at  night,  and  never 


LANTERN 


235 


LANTERNS,  FEAST  OF 


Ancient  Roman  Lantern.  (On  the  left  is  a  separate  view 
of  one  of  the  corner-pieces ;  on  the  right  is  the  extin- 
guisher.) 


Modern  Oriental  Lantern, 
were  so,  lanterns  are  used  to  an  extent  not  known  among 
lis.     Siicii,  doubtless,  was  also  Ibrmerly  the  case ;  and  it 
is  therefore  remarkable  that  in  but  a  single  instance  the 


r\ 


Ancient  Egyptian  Lantern. 
Egyptian  monuments  offer  any  trace  of  the 
use  of  a  lantern.     In  this  case  it  seems  to 
be  borne  by  the  night-watch,  or  civic  guard, 
and  is  sha]icd  like  those  in  com- 
mon use  among  ourselves  (Wil- 
kinson, ,1  nc.  Eff.  ii.  72\     A  simi- 
lar lantern  is  at  this  day  used  in 
Persia,  and  perhaps  does  not  ma- 
terially differ  from  those  men- 
tioned in  Scripture.     More  com- 
mon at  present  in  Western  Asia 
is  a  large  folding  lantern  of  wax- 
ed cloth  strained  over  rings  of 
Ordinary  Eastern  Lan-  wire,  with  a  top  and  bottom  of 
terns.  tinned  copper.  It  is  usually  about 


Q 


h 


two  feet  long  by  nine  inches  in  diameter,  and  is  carried 
by  servants  before  their  masters,  who  often  pay  visits  to 
their  friends  at  or  after  supper-time.  In  many  Eastern 
towns  the  municipal  law  forbids  any  one  to  be  in  the 
streets  after  nightfall  without  a  lantern. — Kitto. 

Lantern,  in  Italian  or  modern  architecture,  a  small 
structure  on  the  top  of  a  dome,  or  in  other  similar  situ- 
ations, for  the  purpose  of  admitting  light,  promoting 
ventilation,  or  lor  ornament.  In  Gothic  architecture 
the  term  is  sometimes  applied  to  louvres  on  the  roofs  of 
halls,  etc.,  but  it  usually  signiiies  a  tower  which  has  the 
whole  height,  or  a  considerable  portion  of  the  interior, 
open  to  view  from  the  ground,  and  is  lighted  by  an  up- 
per tier  of  windows:  lantern-towers  of  this  kind  are 
common  over  the  centre  of  cross  churches.  The  same 
name  is  also  given  to  the  light  open  erections  often 
placed  on  the  tops  of  towers ;  these  sometimes  have 
spires  rising  from  them,  but  in  such  cases  they  are  less 
perforated  with  windows,  Lantei-nes  des  Moris  occur 
only  in  the  church-yards  on  the  Continent ;  they  were 
simply  pillars,  with  a  place  for  a  light  on  the  top  simi- 
lar to  small  light-houses,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that 
something  of  the  kind  M-as  adopted  in  the  early  Koman 
cemeteries,  and  so  has  given  origin  to  some  of  the  Irish 
round  towers,  which  may  well  have  been  used,  at  least 
in  some  instances,  for  this  purpose. — Parker,  Glossary  of 
Architecture,  s.v. 


St  Ilt'eu'^,  \oik 
Lanterns,  Feast  of,  is  a  Chinese  festival,  observed 
in  the  evening  of  the  15th  day  of  January  by  every 
Chinese  of  respectability,  who  illiuninates,  with  a  great 
number  of  wax  candles,  a  large  lantem,  displaying  more 
or  less  splendor,  according  to  the  circumstances  of  the 
owner.  Some  of  them  are  valued  at  several  thousand 
dollars,  on  account  of  the  decorations  bestowed  on  them, 
and  are  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  in  diameter.  The 
Chinese  ascribe  the  rise  of  this  festival  to  a  sad  acci- 
dent which  happened  in  the  family  of  a  certain  man- 
darin, whose  daughter,  as  she  was  walking  one  evening 
on  the  bank  of  a  river,  fell  in  and  was  drowned.  Her 
father,  in  order  to  find  her,  embarked  on  board  a  vessel, 
carrying  with  him  a  great  number  of  lantenis.  The 
whole  night  was  spent  in  search  of  her,  Init  to  no  pur- 
pose. However,  this  ceremony  is  annually  kept  up  in 
memory  of  the  mandarin's  daughter.  In  some  respects 
this  festival  resembles  that  obser\-ed  by  the  ancients  in 


LANTFREDUS 


236 


LAODICEA 


honor  of  Cores,  when  her  votaries  ran  up  and  down  the 
streets  witli  lighted  torches  in  their  hands,  in  imita- 
tion of  the  liurry  and  contusion  of  the  goddess  when  in 
quest  of  her  daughter  Proserpine.  Otliers  ascribe  the 
rise  of  this  Chinese  festival  to  an  extravagant  project 
of  one  of  tlieir  emperors,  wlio  shut  himself  up  with  his 
concubines  in  a  magniticent  palace,  Avhich  he  illumi- 
nated with  a  great  number  of  splendid  lanterns.  The 
Chinese,  scandalized  at  his  behavior,  demolished  his 
palace,  and  hung  the  lanterns  all  over  the  city.  But, 
however  uncertain  its  origin,  it  seems  pretty  detinitely 
established  that  the  lantern-festival  was  observed  as 
early  as  A.D.  700  (comp.  ^^'illiams,  Middle  Kingdom,  ii. 
82).' 

One  jieculiar  custom  of  this  feast  is  the  grant  of 
greater  license  to  manned  women,  who  on  other  even- 
ings, by  Chinese  custom,  are  obliged  to  confine  them- 
selves to  their  homes.  The  goddess  called  Mother  (q. 
V.)  is  worshipped  by  them  at  this  time,  particularly  by 
married  but  childless  women,  "  expecting  or  desiring,  as 
a  consequence  of  such  devotional  acts  to  '  Mother,'  to 
have  male  offspring."  See  Broughton,  BibUot^eca  Hist. 
Sarni,  ii.-i;  Doolittle, /S'oc!«^  Z(/e  of  the  Chinese  (New 
York,  1.S67.  2  vols.  12mo),  ii.  34  sq.      (J.  H.  W.) 

Lantfredus  or  Lamfridus,  a  disciple  of  bishop 
Ethelnold  of  Winchester,  flourished  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  lOfh  century.  He  is  known  onlj^  by  his  life  of  St. 
Swithun.  which  is  very  interesting,  as  it  affords  fine  fa- 
cilities for  studying  the  manners  and  history  of  his  time. 
"His  style  is  very  inflated,  and  it  is  rendered  obscure  by 
the  ado])tion  of  numerous  words  formed  from  the  Greek 
language."  The  editions  of  Lantfredus  are  those  of  Hen- 
rv  Wharton,  A»f/li(i  Sarra,  i  (Lond.  1691,  folio),  322: — 
Ldntfndi  ej>i.'ito/ii  /mm/issti  Histori(s  de  Miraculis  Swi- 
1hiid,Art(i  Sancloruin,  Jidii,  i  (Antwerp,  1719, fol.), 328- 
3;37  : — iSirilhuni  Vita  et  Miracula,  per  Lamfridmn  Mo- 
nachitm  Winton.  See  Darling,  Cyclop.  Bibliofp:  ii,  1767. 
Laodice'a  [strictly  Laodici'a]  (AaociKfio,  jiis- 
tice  o/'tae  people),  the  name  of  several  cities  in  Syria 
and  Asia  ]Minor.  but  one  of  which,  usually  called  Luodl- 
ceii  (III  Li/niin  (from  its  proximity  to  the  river  Lycus\ 
is  named  in  Scripture.  It  lay  on  the  confines  of  I'hrygia 
and  Lydia.  about  forty  miles  east  of  Ephesus,  and  is  that 
one  of  the  '•  seven  churches  in  Asia"  to  which  John  was 
commissioned  to  deliver  the  awful  warning  contamed  in 
Kcv.  iii.  U-19.  The  fulfilment  of  this  waming  is  to  be 
sought  in  the  history  of  the  Christian  Church  which 
existed  in  that  city,  and  not  in  the  stone  and  mortar  of 
the  city  itself;  for  it  is  not  the  city,  but  '■  the  Church  of 
the  Laodiceans,"  which  is  denounced.  It  is  true,  how- 
over,  that  the  eventual  fate  of  that  Church  must  have 
been  involved  in  that  of  the  city.  (See  an  account  of 
the  synod  at  Laodicea,  in  Phrj-gia,  A.D.  350-389,  in 
"S'on  Drey's  Theol.  Quart(d.schr.  1824,  p.  3  sq.) 

Laodicea  was  the  capital  of  Greater  Phrygia  (Strabo, 
xii,  p.  .')7();  Pliny,  v,  29;  or  Phrygia  Pacatiana,  accord- 
ing to  the  subscription  of  1  Tim.),  and  a  ver\'  consider- 
able city  (Strabo,  p.  578)  at  the  time  it  was  named  in 
the  New  Testament;  but  the  violence  of  earthquakes, 
to  which  this  district  has  always  been  liable,  demolished, 
some  ages  after,  a  great  part  of  the  city,  destroyed  many 
of  tlie  inhabitants,  and  eventually  obliged  tlie  remainder 
to  aliandon  tlie  s]iot  altogctlier.  The  town  was  origin- 
ally called  Diii.y/olis.  and  afterwards  Ithixi.t  (Pliny,  v, 
29  I;  but  Laodicea,  the  building  of  which  is  ascribed  to 
Autiochus  Theos,  in  honor  of  his  wife  Laodice,  was 
l)r(.bal>ly  founded  on  the  old  site.  It  was  not  far  west 
from  Coloss;v,  and  only  six  miles  to  the  west  of  Hierap- 
olis  (/tin.  Ant.  p.  337;  Tab.  Pait.;  Strabo.  xiii,  p.  629). 
At  first  Laodicea  was  not  a  jilace  of  much  importance, 
but  if  soon  ac(iuired  a  high  degree  of  prosperity.  It 
suffered  greatly  during  the  :\Iithridatic  war  (Appian, 
Bell.  Mith.  20;  Strabo,  xii,  p.  578),  but  quickly  recover- 
ed under  tlie  dominion  of  Pome;  and  towanls  the  end 
of  the  republic  and  under  the  first  emperors,  Laodicea 
became  one  of  the  most  imiiorfant  and  flourishing  com- 
mercial cities  of  Asia  Jlinor,  in  which  large   money 


transactions  and  an  extensive  trade  in  wood  were  car- 
ried on   (Cicero,  ad  Fam.  ii,  17;  iii,  5;  Strabo,  xii,  p. 
577 ;  compare  Vitruv.  viii,  3).     The  place  often  suffered 
from  earthquakes,  especially  from  the  great  shock  in  the 
reign  of  Tiberius,  in  which  it  was  completeh'  destroyed ; 
but  the  inhabitants  restored  it  from  their  own  means 
(Tacit.  A  nn.  xiv,  27).     The  wealth  of  the  citizens  crea- 
ted among  them  a  taste  for  the  arts  of  the  Greeks,  as  is 
manifest  from  the  ruins;  and  that  it  did  not  remain  be- 
hind-hand in  science  and  literature  is  attested  by  the 
names  of  the  sceptics  Antiochus  and  Theiodas,  the  suc- 
cessors of  yEnesidemus  (Diog.  Laert.  ix,  11,  §  106;  12,  § 
116),  as  well  as  by  the  existence  of  a  great  medical 
school  (Strabo,  xii,  p.  580).     During  the  Poman  period 
Laodicea  was  the  chief  city  of  a  Poman  conventus  (Cic- 
ero, ad  Fam.  iii,  7;  ix,  25;  xiii,  54,  67;  xv,  4;  ad  Att. 
V,  15,  16,  20,  21 ;  vi.  1,  2,  3,  7;  in  Verr.  i,  30\     Jlany 
of  its  inhabitants  were  Jews,  and  it  was  probably  owing 
to  this  circumstance  that  at  a  very  early  period  it  be- 
came one  of  the  chief  scats  of  Christianity  [we  have 
good  reason  for  believing  that  when,  in  writing  from 
Pome  to  the  Christians  of  Colossa?,  Paul  sent  a  greeting 
to  those  of  Laodicea,  he  had  not  personally  visited  either 
jilace.     But  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel  at  Ephesus 
(Acts  xviii,  19-xix,  41)  must  inevitably  have  resulted 
in  flic  formation  of  churches  in  the  neighboring  cities, 
especially  where  .Jews  were  settled.     See  LAodiceans, 
Epistle  to  the],  and  the  see  of  a  bishop  (Coloss.  ii,  1 ; 
iv,  15  sq.;  Pev.  i,  11 ;  iii,  14  sq. ;  Josephus,  Ant.  xiv,  10, 
20 ;  Hierocl.  p.  665).     The  Byzantine  writers  often  men- 
tion it,  especially  in  the  time  of  the  Comneni ;  and  it 
was  fortified  by  the  emperor  Manuel  (Nicef.  Chon.  .1  nn. 
p.  9,  81).     During  the  invasion  of  the  Turks  and  Mon- 
g<ils  the  city  was  much  exposed  to  ravages,  and  fell  into 
decay;  but  the  existing  remains  stiU  attest  its  former 
greatness  (see  Smith's  Diet,  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Geo(j.  s.  v. 
Laodiceia).     Smith,  in  his  Journey  to  the  Seven  Chvrch- 
es  (1671),  was  the  first  to  describe  the  site  of  Laodicea. 
He  was  follo>ved  by  Chandler.  Cockerell,  and  Pococke ; 
raid  the  locality  has.  within  the  present  century-,  been 
visited  by  ^Mr,  Hartley,  Mr.  Arundell,  Col.  Leake,  and 
^Ir.  Hamilton. 

'•Laodicea  is  now  a  deserted  place,  called  by  the 
Turks  Esli-hissar  ("Old  Castle"),  a  Turkish  ^vord  equiv- 
alent to  Paled-lastro,  which  the  Greeks  so  frequently 
apply  to  ancient  sites.  From  its  ruins,  Laodicea  seems 
to  have  been  situated  upon  six  or  seven  hills,  taking  up 
a  large  extent  of  ground.  To  the  north  and  north-east 
runs  the  river  Lycus,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  distant ; 
but  nearer  it  is  watered  by  two  small  streams,  the  Aso- 
pus  and  Cajirus,  the  one  to  the  west,  and  the  other  to 
the  south-east,  both  passing  into  the  Lj-cus,  which  last 
flows  into  the  ]Ma?ander  (Smith,  p.  85).  Laodicea  pre- 
serves great  remains  of  its  importance  as  the  residence 
of  the  Poman  governors  of  Asia  under  the  emperors, 
namely,  a  stadium,  in  uncommon  preservation,  three 
theatres,  one  of  which  is  450  feet  in  diameter,  and  the 
ruins  of  several  other  buildings  (Antiq.  of  Ionia,  pt.  ii, 
p.  32  ;  Chandler's  Asia  Minor,  c.  67).  Col.  Leake  says, 
"  There  are  few  ancient  sites  more  likely  than  Laodicea 
to  preserve  many  curious  remains  of  aiifiijuity  licncath 
the  surface  of  the  soil;  its  opulence,  and  the  eartlujuakcs 
to  which  it  was  subject,  rcrfdering  it  probable  that  val- 
ualile  works  of  art  were  often  there  buried  beneath  the 
ruins  of  the  public  and  private  edilices  (Cicero,  Kpist.  ad 
.■\mic.\\,  17;  iii,  5;  v,  20;  Tacitus,  y1  ?.»«/.  xiv,  27).  A 
similar  remark,  though  in  a  lesser  degree,  perhaps,  wiU 
apply  to  the  other  cities  of  the  vale  of  the  Jhcander,  as 
well  as  to  some  of  those  situated  to  the  north  of  3Iount 
Tmolus;  for  Strabo  (p.  579.  628,  630)  informs  us  that 
Pldladelphia.  Sardis.  and  jMagnesia  of  Sipyluij,  were, 
not  less  than  Laodicea  and  the  cities  of  tlie  M;\>ander  as 
far  as  Apamcia  at  the  sources  of  that  river,  subject  to 
the  same  dreadful  calamity  (Geoffraphy  of  Asia  Minor, 
p.  2.")3)"  (Kitto).  "  Nothing,"  says  Mr.  Hamilton  (Re- 
nearchett  in  Asia  Minor,  i,  515),  "  can  exceed  the  elosola- 
tion  and  melancholy  appearance  of  the  site  of  Laodicea; 


LAODICEA,  COUXCIL  OF  237         LAODICEA,  COUNCIL  OF 


the  lay  persons  present  shall  give  it 
to  each  other;  and  that  ended,  the 
administration  of  the  holy  eucha- 
rist  shall  proceed.  None  except  the 
priests  shall  be  permitted  to  ap- 
l)roach  the  altar  in  order  to  commu- 
nicate. 20.  A  deacon  not  to  sit  in 
the  presence  of  a  priest  without  per- 
mission of  the  latter.  The  same  con- 
duct is  enjoined  on  subdeacons  and 
all  inferior  clergy  towards  the  dea- 
con. 21,  22,  The  subdeacon  not  to 
Undertake  any  of  the  functions  of 
the  deacon,  nor  touch  the  sacred  ves- 
sels, nor  wear  a  stole.  23.  Forbids 
the  same  to  chanters  and  readers. 


Copper  Coin  ("meihillion")  of  Laodicea  in  Phrjgin,  with  Head  of  Commodus,  2-i-  No  one  of  the  clergy,  or  of  the 
Triumphal  Figure,  and  name  of  xVsiarcli.  order  of  ascetics,  to  enter  a  tavern. 


25.  Forbids  the  subdeacon  to  give 
no  ])icturesquc  features  in  the  nature  of  the  ground  on  |  the  consecrated  bread  and  to  bless  the  cup.  C2.  Pro- 
wliich  it  stands  relieve  the  dull  uniformity  of  its  undu-  j  hibits  persons  not  appointed  thereto  by  a  bishop  from 


lating  and  barren  hills;  and,  with  few  exceptions,  its 
gray  and  widely-scattered  ruins  possess  no  architectural 
merit  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  traveller.  Yet  it  is 
impossible  to  view  them  without  interest  when  we  con- 
sider what  Laodicea  once  was,  and  how  it  is  connected 
with  the  early  history  of  Christianity."  See  also  Fel- 
lows, Journal  written  in  Asia  Minor,  p.  251  sq. ;  Arun- 
dell,  SeLX'ji  Churches,  p.  85  sq.;  Schubert,  Reisen,  i,  282; 
S.  Stosch,  Syntagma  dissert.  7  de  sept,  urbibus  A  sice  in 
Apoc.  p.  105  sq. ;  also  in  Van  Hoven,  0/ium  literar.  iii,  p. 
52;  Mannert,VI,  iii,  129  sq. ;  Schultess,  in  the  N.theol. 
Annal.  1818,  ii,  177  sq.  See  Asia,  Seven  Churches  of. 
LAODICEA,  Council  ok  (Concilium  Laodicenuni), 
an  imi)ortant  council  held  at  Laodicea,  in  Phyrgia,  in 
the  4th  century.  The  year  in  which  this  council  con- 
vened is  disputed.  Baronius  and  Binius  assign  the  year 
314;  Pagi,  303;  Hardouin  places  it  as  late  as  372,  and 
others  even  in  899.  Hefele  thinks  that  it  must  have 
had  its  session  between  343  (the  Council  of  Antioch) 
and  381,  rather  in  the  second  than  in  the  first  half  of 
the  4th  century.  Beveridge  adduces  some  probabl'  rea- 
sons for  supposing  it  to  have  been  held  in  305.    Thirty 


meddling  with  exorcisms.  27.  Forbids  the  carrying 
away  of  any  portion  of  the  agapoe.  28.  Forbids  the  cel- 
ebration of  the  agapa;,  or  love-feasts,  in  churches.  29. 
Forbids  Christians  observing  the  Jewish  Sabbath.  30. 
Forbids  Christian  men,  especially  the  clergy,  from  bath- 
ing with  women.  31.  Forbids  giving  daughters  in  mar- 
riage to  heretics.  32.  Forbids  receiving  the  eulogire  of 
heretics.  33.  Forbids  all  Catholics  praj'ing  with  here- 
tics and  schismatics.  34.  Anathematizes  those  who  go 
after  the  false  martyrs  of  heretics.  35.  Forbids  Chris- 
tian persons  leaving  their  church  in  order  to  attend 
private  conventicles  in  which  angels  were  invoked,  and 
anathematizes  those  who  are  guilty  of'this  idolatry. 
30.  Forbids  the  clergy  dealing  in  magic,  and  directs  that 
all  who  wear  phylacteries  be  cast  out  of  the  Church. 
37.  Forbids  fasting  with  .lews  or  heretics.  38.  Forbids 
receiving  unleavened  bread  from  Jews.  39.  Forbids 
feasting  with  heathen  persons.  40.  Orders  all  bishops  to 
attend  the  synods  to  \vhich  they  are  summoned,  unless 
prevented  by  illness.  41, 42.  Forbids  clergymen  leaving 
the  diocese  to  travel  abroad  without  the  bishop's  per- 
mission and  the  canonical  letters.     43.  Forbids  the  por- 


two  bishops  were  present,  from  different  provinces  of  ;  ter  of  the  church  leaving  the  gate  for  a  moment,  even 
Asia,  and  sixty  canons  were  published,  which  were  ac-  in  order  to  pray.  44.  Forbids  women  entering  mto  the 
cepted  by  the  other  churches.  1.  Permits  the  adminis-  altar.  45.  Forbids  receiving  those  who  do  not  present 
tration  of  communion  to  persons  who  have  married  a  sec- I  themselves  for  the  Easter  baptism  before  the  second 
ond  time,  after  their  remaining  a  while  in  retreat,  fasting  week  in  Lent.  40.  Orders  that  all  catechumens  to  be 
and  praying.  2.  Directs  holy  communion  to  be  given  i  baptized  shall  know  the  Creed  by  heart,  and  shall  repeat 
to  those  who  have  completed  their  penance.  3.  Forbids  ;  it  before  the  bishop  or  priest  on  the  fifth  day  of  the  week, 
to  raise  neojihytes  to  the  sacertlotal  order.     4.  Forbids  ^  47.  Those  who  have  been  baptized  in  sickness,  if  thev 


usury  among  the  clergy.  5.  Ordination  not  to  be  ad- 
ministered in  the  presence  of  those  who  are  in  the  rank 
of  hearers.     0.  No  heretics  to  enter  within  the  church. 


recover,  must  learn  the  Creed.  48.  Orders  that  those 
who  have  been  baptized  shall  be  anointed  with  the  holy 
chrism,  and  partake  of  the  kingdom  of  God.     49.  For- 


7.  Any  Novatians,  Photinians,  or  Quartodecimani  who  bills  celebrating  the  holy  eucharist  during  Lent  on  any 
arc  to  be  received  into  the  Church  must  first  abjure  ev-  days  but  Saturdavs  and  Sundays.  50.  Forbids  eating 
ery  heresy,  be  instructed  in  the  true  faith,  and  anointed  i  anything  on  the  I'hursday  in  the  last  week  of  Lent,  or 
with  the  holy  chrism.  8.  All  Cataiihrygians  or  Monta-  j  during  the  whole  of  Lent  anything  except  dry  food.  51. 
nists  to  be  instructed  and  baptized  before  being  received  '  Forbids  celebrating  the  festivals  of  the  martyrs  during 
into  the  Church.     9.  Excommunicates  the  faithful  who  ;  Lent;  orders  remembrance  of  them  on  Saturdays  and 


go  to  the  places  of  worship  or  burial-grounds  of  here- 
tics. 10.  Forbids  the  faithful  to  give  their  children  in 
marriage  to  heretics.  11.  Forbids  the  ordination  of 
priestesses  {■iTp((j3vTici(;)  (see  below).  12.  Bishops  to 
be  appointed  by  the  metropolitan  and  his  provincials. 
13,  Priests  not  to  be  elected  l)y  the  people.  14.  Conse- 
crated eleniLMits  not  to  be  sent  into  other  parishes  at 
I^aster  by  way  of  eulogi;e.  15.  Only  those  chanters 
named  in  the  Church  roll  shall  ascend  the  pulpit  and 
chant.  10.  The  Gospels  to  be  read,  as  well  as  the  other 
books  of  Scripture,  on  Saturday.  17.  A  lesson  shall  be 
read  between  each  psalm.  18.  The  same  prayer  to  be 
repeated  at  nones  as  at  vespers.  19.  After  the  bishop's 
sermon  the  prayers  for  the  catechiunens  shall  be  said 
separately,  then  those  for  the  penitents,  and,  lastly,  those 
of  the  faithful;  after  which  the  kiss  of  peace  shall  be 
given,  and  after  the  priests  have  given  it  to  the  bishop, 


Sundays.  62.  Forbids  celebrating  marriages  and  birth- 
day feasts  during  Lent.  53.  ICnjoins  proper  behavior  at 
marriage  festivals,  and  forbids  all  dancing.  54.  Forbids 
the  clergy  attending  the  shows  and  dances  given  at  wed- 
dings. 55.  None  of  the  clergy  or  laity  to  club  together 
for  drinking- parties.  50.  Forbids  the  priests  taking 
their  seats  in  the  sanctuary  before  the  bishop  enters, 
except  he  be  ill  or  absent,  57.  Directs  that  bishops 
shall  not  be  placed  in  small  towns  or  villages,  but  sim- 
ply visitors,  who  shall  act  under  the  direction  of  the 
bishop  in  the  city.  58.  Forbids  both  bishops  and  priests 
celebrating  the  holy  eucharist  in  private  houses.  59. 
Forbids  singing  uninspired  hymns,  etc.,  in  church,  and 
reading  the  uncanonicr.l  books.  00.  Declares  which  are 
the  canonical  books  of  Scripture.  In  this  list  the  Apoc- 
ri-pha  and  the  book  of  Kevelation  are  omitted.  See 
Canon  of  Scriptuke.     Of  particular  interest  among 


LAODICEAN 


238 


LAOS 


the  decisions  of  this  council  is  canon  1 1 ,  forbiddint;  the 
employment  of  women  as  jireachers.  Ilefele  holds  that 
the  canon  has  hardly  been  properly  translated,  and  that 
the  desire  of  the  council  was  simply  to  forbid  stipeiior 
iliucuiit'.iseg  in  the  C'hurcli.  But  for  a  detailed  discussion 
we  must  refer  to  Ilefele,  Concilienijeschichte,  i,  731  sq. 
The  difficulty  as  to  the  meaning  arises  from  the  fact 
that  the  canons  were  written  in  (ireek,  and  the  question 
hini;os  on  the  mtanimj  intended  for  TrpscylivTiceg  and 
TrpoKii^ill^in'cn. 

Laodice'an  (AaociKivi;'),  an  inhabitant  of  the  city 
of  Laodicea,  in  Phrygia  (^Coloss.  iv,  IG;  Kev.  iii,  14), 
from  which  passages  it  appears  that  a  Christian  Church 
was  established  there  bv  the  apostles.     See  below. 

LAODICE  ANS,  EPISTLE  TO  THE.  "  In  the  con- 
clusion of  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians  (Colos.  iv,  IG), 
the  ajiostle,  after  sending  to  the  Cf)lossians  the  saluta- 
tions of  himself  and  others  who  were  with  him,  enjoins 
the  Colossians  to  send  this  epistle  to  the  Laodiceans, 
and  that  they  likewise  should  read  the  one  from  Laodi- 
cea {t))v  tK  AaoScKEiac).  It  is  disputed  whether  by 
these  concluding  words  Paul  intends  an  epistle  from 
him  to  the  Laodiceans  or  one  from  the  Laodiceans  to 
him.  The  use  of  the  preposition  t/c  favors  the  latter 
conclusion,  and  this  has  been  strongly  urged  by  Thcod- 
oret,  Chrysostom,  Jerome,  Philastrius,  (Ecumenius,  Cal- 
vin, Ueza,  Storr,  and  a  multitude  of  other  interj^reters. 
Winer,  however,  clearly  shows  that  the  preposition  here 
may  be  under  the  law  of  attraction,  and  that  the  full 
force  of  the  passage  may  be  thus  given :  '  that  written 
to  the  Laodiceans,  and  to  be  brought  J'lom  Laodicea  to 
you'  (G rammaiik  d.  Neutestamentl.  Sprachidioms,  p.  43-i, 
Lpz.  MoQ).  It  must  be  allowed  that  such  an  interjire- 
tation  of  the  apostle's  words  is  in  itself  more  probable 
than  the  other;  for,  supposing  him  to  refer  to  a  letter 
from  the  Laodiceans  to  him,  the  questions  arise,  How 
were  the  Colossians  to  procure  this  unless  he  himself 
sent  it  to  them?  And  of  what  use  would  such  a  docu- 
ment be  to  them?  To  this  latter  (luestion  it  has  been 
replied  that  probably  the  letter  from  the  Laodiceans 
contained  some  statements  which  inthienced  the  apostle 
in  writing  to  the  Colossians,  and  which  refpiired  to  be 
known  before  his  letter  in  rejjly  could  be  perfectly  un- 
derstood. But  this  is  said  without  the  slightest  shadow 
of  reason  from  the  epistle  before  us ;  and  it  is  opposed 
by  the  fact  that  the  Laodicean  epistle  was  to  be  used  by 
the  Colossians  after  they  had  read  that  to  themselves 
(iirai'  afayvio(y'bij,K.  t.  A.)-  It  seems,  upon  the  whole, 
most  likely  that  the  apostle  in  this  passage  refers  to  an 
epistle  sent  by  him  to  the  Church  in  Laodicea  some  time 
before  that  to  the  Church  at  Colossa;"  (Kitto).  The 
suggestion  of  Grotius  (after  IMarcion)  that  it  is  identical 
with  the  canonical  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  has  sub- 
stantially been  adopted  by  ISIill  and  Wetstein,  and  many 
modern  critics :  see,  especially,  Holzhausen,  Der  Bnf 
an  die  Kphesen  (Hannover,  183-1) ;  Baur,  Pauliis  (2d  ed. 
Lpz.  18GG-7),  ii,  47  sq. ;  Riibiger,  De  Cliristolot/ia  Pauli- 
na (Breslau,  1852),  p.  48 ;  Bleek,  Einleiiumj  in  das  N.  T. 
(2d  ed.  Berlin,  1866),  p.  454  sq. ;  Hausrath,  Der  Ajwstel 
Paidu.i  (Heidelb.  1865),  p.  2;  Volkmar,  Commentar  ziir 
Off'e/ih.  Jo/i.  (Ziirich,  1862),  p.  6G ;  Kiene,  in  the  Shid.  v. 
Krit.  18G9,  p.  323  sq. ;  Klostermann,  in  the  Jdhrh.fur 
deittschc  Theol.  1870,  p.  160  sq. ;  Hitzig,  Zur  Kritik  Paii- 
linisrhen  Brife  (Lpz.  1870),  p.  27.  The  only  supposi- 
tion that  seems  to  meet  all  the  circumstances  of  the 
case  is  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  although  not 
exactly  encyclical,  was  designed  (as  indeed  its  character 
evinces)  for  general  circulation;  and  that  Paul,  after 
having  dispatched  this,  addressed  a  special  ejustle  to 
the  Colossians  on  occasion  of  writing  to  Philemon,  and 
recommends  the  perusal  of  that  to  the  Ephesians,  which 
would  l)y  that  time  reach  them  by  way  of  Laodi"cea. 
This  explains  the  doubtfid  reacUng  iv  'E^fdi/j,  flnd  the 
absence  of  personal  salutation  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Ephesians.  and  at  the  same  time  the  allusion  to  a  letter 
from  Laodicea;  while  it  obviates  the  objectionable  hy- 
pothesis of  the  loss  of  an  inspireil  epistle,  to  which  par- 


ticular attention  had  thus  been  called,  and  which  was 
therefore  the  more  likely  to  have  been  preserved.  See 
Epiiksians,  Ei'isTLE  TO.  Wicselcr's  theory  (^Apoit, 
ZeiUdter,  p.  450)  is  that  the  Epistle  to  Philemon  is 
meant;  and  the  tradition  in  the  Apostolical  Constitu- 
tions that  he  was  bishop  of  this  see  is  adduced  in  confir- 
mation. But  this  is  utterly  at  variance  Mith  the  evi- 
dently personal  nature  of  the  epistle.  See  Philemox, 
Epistle  to.  Others  think  that  the  apostle  refers  to 
an  epistle  now  lost,  as  Jerome  and  Theodoret  seem  to 
mention  such  a  letter,  and  it  was  also  referred  to  at  the 
second  general  Council  of  Nicaja.  But  these  allusions 
are  too  vague  to  warrant  such  a  conclusion.  The  apoc- 
ryphal epistle,  now  extant,  and  claiming  to  be  that  re- 
ferred to  by  Paul,  entitled  Ejnstola  ad  Laodicenses,  is 
admitted  on  all  hands  to  be  a  late  and  clumsy  forgery. 
It  exists  only  in  Latin  IMSS.,  from  which  a  Greek  ver- 
sion was  made  by  Hutten  (in  Fabricius,  Cod.  Apiocr.  N. 
T.  i,  873  sq.).  It  is  evidently  a  cento  from  the  Galatians 
and  Ephesians.  A  fuU  accoimt  of  it  may  be  found  iu 
Jones  {On  the  Canon,  ii,  31-49),  The  Latin  text  is  given 
by  Auger  (lU  inf.),  and  an  English  version  by  Eadie 
{Comment,  on  Colos.\  We  may  remark  in  this  connec- 
tion that  the  subscription  at  the  end  of  the  First  Epistle 
to  Timothy  (typcKp)]  cnrb  AaoCuctiac,  tjtkj  'kjtI  f^iTj-po- 
TToXtt;  f^pvyiag  rj/c  no/canorr/f)  is  of  no  authority ;  but 
it  is  worth  mentioning,  as  showing  the  importance  of 
Laodicea.  On  the  general  subject  of  the  Laodicean 
epistle,  see  Michaehs,  Introd.  iv,  124;  Hug,  Introd.  ii, 
436;  Steiger,  Cofo«se?-fer.  ad  loc. ;  Heinrichs,  ad  loc. ;  Ea- 
phel.  ad  loc;  and  especially  Credner,  Geschiclite  d.N.T. 
Kanon  (ed.YoIkmar,  Berlin,  18G0),  p.  300,  313;  Auger, 
Uth.  d.  Laodicenerhrief  (Lpz.  1843) ;  Sartori,  Uth.  d.  La- 
odicenerhrief  (Llibeck,  1863) ;  Conybeare  and  Howson, 
Life  and  Epistles  of  St. Paul,  ii,  395  sq. ;  Huth,  Ep.  ex 
Laodicea  in EncycUca  ad  Ephesios  adserrata  (Erlangen, 
1751) ;  and  other  monographs  cited  by  Yolbediiig,  Index 
Proejrammatum,  p.  85.     See  Paul. 

Laos,  the  name  of  the  mountain  tribes  in  Farther 
India  who  inhabit  the  country  between  China,  Assam, 
Burmah,  Siam,  and  Tonquin,  and  are  dependent  upon 
Siam.  Like  the  Shaus  of  Burmah,  they  belong  to  the 
race  of  the  Thai,  which  extends  through  the  Ahom  as 
far  as  Assam.  The  Laos  and  their  descendants,  scat- 
tered through  the  northern  provinces  of  Siam  and  their 
own  countr}',  are  estimated  at  two  to  three  millions. 
The  Laos  are  divided  into  two  subdivisions.  The 
western  tribes  tattoo  themselves  like  the  Burmese  and 
the  Shaus,  and  are  on  that  account  called  Luo-pimj- 
dam,  or  black-bellied  Laos ;  the  eastern  tribes,  which  do 
not  tattoo  themselves,  are  called  Luo-jimif/-l/tao,  or 
white-bellied  Laos.  The  western  Laos  form  the  princi- 
palities of  Labong  (founded  in  574  after  Christ),  Lam- 
phtui.  Lagong,  iNIyang  Preh,  iNIyang  Nan,Chiengrai.  and 
Cliicnginai  or  /imniay.  The  last-named  was  I'ormerly 
an  indepeutlent  kingtlom,  which  frequently  carried  on 
wars  with  Pegu.  Of  the  principalities  of  the  eastern  or 
white  Laos,Viengkhan  has  been  almost  wholly  (1828), 
and  jMyang  Phuen  for  the  greater  part,  destroyed  by 
the  Siamese;  Myang  Lomb  ])ays  a  tribute  to  Siam,  and 
^lyang  Luang  I'hrabang,  which  was  formerly  governed 
I)y  three  kings,  is  dependent  not  only  upon  Siam,  but 
upon  Cochin  China.  As  the  Laos  have  no  maritime 
coast,  they  have  for  a  long  time  remained  unknown  to 
the  Europeans.  Chiengmai  was  for  the  tirst  time  vis- 
ited by  the  London  merchant,  Palph  Fitch,  who  arrived 
there  in  158()  from  Pegu.  Alter  the  occupation  of  Maul- 
main  in  1820  by  tireat  Britain,  new  expeditions  were 
sent  out,  and  tlie  meeting  with  Chinese  caravans  sug- 
gested the  tirst  idea  of  an  overland  road  to  Yunnan. 
The  lirst  European  who  visited  the  eastern  Laos  was 
Wusthof,  an  agent  of -a  Dutch  establishment  in  Cam- 
bodia, who  in  1641,  amid  the  greatest  difficulties,  sailed 
up  the  jMekhong.  The  Laos  possess  several  alphabets 
which  are  derived  from  the  Cambodian  form  of  the  Pali. 
The  name  of  Free  Laos  is  usuallv  given  to  the  moun- 
tain tribes  of  the  Kadeh.     Between  the  language  of  the 


LAO-TZU 


239 


LAO-TZU 


Laos  and  that  of  the  Siamese  there  is  only  a  dialectic 
difference,  which  has  chietiy  been  caused  by  the  fact 
that  the  savage  mountaineers  neglect  or  misapply  the 
rules  of  accentuation.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Laos 
surpass  the  Siamese  in  musical  taste.  The  religion 
of  the  Laos  is  Buddhism,  which,  however,  they  do  not 
hold  so  strictly  as  the  Siamese.  The  first  Christian 
mission  among  the  Laos  was  commenced  in  1867  at 
Chiengmai  (on  the  river  Quee  Ping,  500  miles  north  of 
Eankok),  by  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 
States  of  America.  The  first  missionary,  Mr.  M'Gil- 
livray,  was  welcomed  on  his  arrival  at  Chiengmai  both 
by  the  people  and  by  the  princes,  who  had  provided  a 
native  house  for  him  until  he  was  able  to  build  one  more 
suitable  to  his  wants  and  tastes.  In  1800  the  missiona- 
ries were  even  presented  by  the  king  with  a  beautiful 
lot,  but  subsequently  a  spirit  of  opposition  and  persecu- 
tion manifested  itself.  According  to  the  report  of  the 
Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of  I\Lay,  1871,  no  congrega- 
tion had  yet  been  organized.     (A.  J.  S.) 

Lao-tzu  (formerly  written  Lao-tse),  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  men  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  the  author 
of  the  Tao-te-kinr/,  and  founder  of  the  religious  sect 
known  as  Taoists  (or  Tauists),  was  born  in  the  king- 
dom of  Tsu  B.C.  604.  His  family  name  was  Le,  or  Plum  ; 
in  his  youth  he  himself  was  called  Urh,  or  Ear,  a  name 
given  him  on  account  of  the  size  of  his  ears.  When  he 
came  to  be  known  as  a  philosopher  he  was  honorably 
caMcd  Pe-ijanr/.  and  was  surnamcd  Lao-tzu  (old  boy),  or 
Lao-kun-tzii  (old  prince).  Tradition  asserts  that  his  fa- 
ther was  a  poor  peasant,  who  remained  a  bachelor  until 
he  was  seventy  j'ears  old,  and  then  married  a  woman  of 
forty.  Lao-tzu  was  probably  a  great  student  in  early 
life,  and  when  yet  a  youth  was  promoted  to  an  office 
connected  with  the  treasury  or  the  museum  under  the 
Chow  dynasty.  While  in  the  service  at  the  court  of 
Chow  he  visited  the  western  parts  of  China,  and  there 
probably  became  acquainted  with  the  rites  and  religion 
of  Full,  or  Buddha.  The  duration  of  Lao-tzu's  service 
at  the  court  is  entirely  uncertain.  When  the  Chow  dy- 
nasty was  hastening  to  its  fall,  and  the  whole  country 
torn  up  into  petty  states  warring  with  each  other,  and 
anarcliy  every  where  prevailing,  La(j-tzu  retired  into 
obscurity.  For  this  course  he  has  been  often  and  se- 
verely censured ;  but  when  we  consider  that  the  corrup- 
tion of  the  government  was  too  great  for  him  to  over- 
come, it  does  not  appear  that  he  was  to  blame  for  retiring 
with  pure  hands  from  his  connection  with  it.  There  is  no 
trustworthy  account  of  the  time  or  manner  of  his  death, 
but  some  writers  have  assigned  the  date  of  B.C.  523  to 
that  event.  Szu  Ma-chien,  in  relating  his  retirement 
from  the  government,  sim]jly  says,  '•  He  then  went  away, 
and  no  one  knows  his  end."  His  life  seems  to  have 
been  that  of  a  contemplative  philosopher — far  more  oc- 
cupied with  thoughts  of  the  invisible  and  the  mj'steri- 
ous  than  with  sublunary  things.  He  became  so  cele- 
brated as  a  philosojiher  that  Confucius  went  to  see  him, 
and  left  him  decjjly  imjiressed  with  his  extraordinary 
character,  and  evidently  regarded  Lao-tzu  as  something 
wonderful — divine;  yet,  while  all  agree  that  Confucius 
was  almost  carried  away  by  his  admiration  of  Lao-tzu, 
the  latter  has  been  accused  of  jealousy  and  spite  against 
Confucius.  His  writings,  however,  give  no  color  to  the 
charge ;  nor  is  it  likely  that  Confucius  himself  would 
have  always  spoken  of  Lao-tzu  in  such  high  terms  of 
este«m  and  admiration,  and  even  quoted  the  opinions 
of  his  rival  as  sufficient  answers  to  the  tiueries  of  his  dis- 
ciples, had  he  not  received  kind  treatment  and  atten- 
tions at  the  hands  of  Lao-tzu,  the  advocate  of  a  doctrine 
that  "  man  is  to  be  rendered  immortal  through  the  con- 
templation of  God,  the  repression  of  the  passions,  and 
the  perfect  tranquillity  of  the  soul,"  the  author  of  "  a 
moral  code  inculcating  all  the  great  princi|)les  found 
in  other  religions  :  charity,  benevolence,  virtue,  and  the 
free-will,  moral  agency,  and  responsibility  of  man." 

Lao-tzu  has  at  different  periods  enjoyed  the  patron- 
age of  the  Chinese  government,  there  being,  indeed,  a 


constant  struggle  for  ascendency  between  his  supporters 
and  those  of  Confucius  during  several  centuries  at  the 
beginning  of  our  era.  Emperors  have  paid  homage  to 
him  in  his  temple,  and  one  of  them  wrote  a  commentary 
on  his  book.  When  we  turn  aside  from  definite  history 
and  give  our  attention  to  legends,  there  is  no  end  to  the 
mysteries  thrown  around  his  birth  and  being.  His  fol- 
lowers have  transferred  him  from  the  ranks  of  ordinary 
mortals  into  an  incarnation  of  deity,  and  have  clothed 
his  philosophic  treatise  with  the  authority  of  a  sacred 
book,  being  jirobably  moved  to  this  course  by  a  desire  to 
make  their  founder  equal  to  Sakyamuni  (see  Gauta- 
ma), and  to  give  enhanced  importance  to  his  works. 
He  is  represented  as  an  eternal  and  self-existing  being, 
incarnated  at  various  times  upon  the  earth.  One  ac- 
count represents  him  as  having  been  conceived  by  the 
inriuence  of  a  meteor,  anil  after  being  carried  in  the 
womb  for  seventy-two  (another  author  says  eightj'-one) 
years,  at  last  delivering  himself  by  bursting  a  jiassage 
under  his  nK)ther's  left  arm.  From  having  gray  hairs 
at  birtli,  and  looking  generally  like  an  old  man,  he  was 
called  Lao-tzu — i.  e.  the  old  bo;/.  He  is  reported  to  have 
had  the  gift  of  speech  at  birth.  It  is  also  said  that,  as 
soon  as  he  was  born,  he  mounted  nine  paces  in  the  air, 
each  step  producing  a  lotus-fiower,  and,  while  poised 
there,  |iointed  with  his  left  hand  to  heaven  and  with  his 
right  hand  to  earth,  saying,  "  Heaven  above — earth  be- 
neath— only  Tao  is  honorable."  The  eighty-one  chap- 
ters of  the  Tao-tc-kinr;  are  said  to  have  been  obtained 
from  him  by  Ym-hsi,  the  keeper  of  the  Han-ku  Pass, 
through  which  he  was  leaving  the  country  on  his  re- 
tirement from  office. 

The  Tao-te-hini)  seems  to  have  recei\-ed  its  present 
name  about  B.C.  160.  Before  that,  it  was  known  as  the 
teachings  of  Hwang  and  Lao — i.e.  the  emperor  Hwang 
(B.C.  2600)  and  Lao-tzu ;  also  as  the  Book  of  Lao-tzu. 
There  is  much  uncertainty  and  confusion  in  regard  to 
the  text.  Some  editors,  having  in  view  the  tradition 
that  Lao-tzu  -(VTote  a  book  of  5000  characters,  have  cut 
down  those  in  excess  of  that  number  without  much  re- 
gard for  the  sense  of  the  author.  Others  have  added 
characters  to  explain  the  meaning,  thus  incorporating 
their  commentary  into  the  text.  The  occasional  sup- 
pression of  a  negative  particle,  by  some  editors,  gives  an 
exactly  opposite  meaning  to  a  sentence  from  that  of 
other  editions.  To  ascertain  the  true  text  is  in  many 
instances  impossible.  The  style  is  exceedmgly  terse 
and  concise,  without  any  pretension  to  grace  or  elegance. 
The  work  is  fidl  of  short  sentences,  often  enigmatical  or 
paradoxical,  and  without  apparent  connection.  (Juite 
probably  the  book  is  composed  of  notes  for  philosophical 
discourses,  which  Avere  expanded  and  explained  by  Lao- 
tzu  while  orally  instructing  his  disciples.  As  contribu- 
ting to  the  obscurity  of  the  style,  we  must  consider  that 
the  topics  discussed  are  exceedingly  abstruse,  and  that 
Lao-tzu  labored  under  the  cUsadvantage  of  writing  in 
the  infancy  of  literary  language  in  China,  and  was  com- 
pelled to  use  a  very  imperfect  medium  for  communica- 
ting his  thoughts. 

There  has  been  much  discussion  and  much  difference 
of  opinion  as  to  what  Lao-tzu  really  intended  by  Tao. 
The  word  means  a  [lath,  a  road ;  the  way  or  means  of 
doing  a  thing;  a  course  ;  reason,  doctrine,  principle,  etc. 
Lao-tzu  sf)metimes  uses  it  in  its  ordinary'  senses,  l)ut  it 
is  evident  that  in  general  he  uses  it  in  a  transcendental 
sense,  which  can  only  be  ascertained  by  a  carefid  study 
of  his  writings.  Tao  is  something  which  existed  be- 
fore heaven  and  earth,  and  even  before  deity.  It  has 
no  name,  and  never  had  one.  It  can  not  be  ai>]irehend- 
ed  by  the  bodily  senses  ;  it  is  profound  and  mysterious ; 
it  is  calm,  void,  solitary,  and  unchanging  ;  yet,  in  opera- 
tion, it  revolves  through  the  universe,  acting  ever^,-'- 
where,  but  acting  mysteriously,  spontaneously,  and 
without  effort.  It  contains  matter,  and  lias  an  inherent 
power  of  production ;  and  although  itself  formless,  yet 
comprehends  all  possible  forms.  It  is  the  ultimate  cause 
of  the  universe,  and  is  the  model  or  rule  for  all  creatures, 


LAO-TZU 


240 


LAO-TZU 


but  chiefly  for  man.  It  represents  also  that  ideal  state 
of  perfeetidn  iu  which  all  things  acted  liarnionionsly 
and  spontaneously,  good  and  evil  being  then  uidinown, 
and  tiie  return  to  -which  constitutes  the  sKininum  bo- 
v)iM  of  existence.  French  and  English  writers  gen- 
erally have  translated  Tuo  by  "  Reason,"  some  adding 
'■or  Logos."  There  are  some  striking  similarities  be- 
tween Tao  and  Loijos;  and  in  aU  the  translations  of  the 
Scriptures  into  Chinese  the  Lo(jos  of  John  is  rendered 
by  Tao.  Julien,  decidedly  dissenting  from  the  common 
translation  of  2'«o,  adopts  "Voie"  or  "  Waj'"  —  giving 
just  cause  for  his  dissent  in  the  fact  that  Lao-tzu  repre- 
sents Tao  as  devoid  of  thought,  judgment,  and  intelli- 
gence. Julien's  "Way,"  however,  is  also  objected  to, 
as  implying  a  way-maker  antecedent  to  it,  while  Tao 
was  before  all  other  existences.  The  '•  Nature"  of  mod- 
ern specidators  probably  answers  more  nearly  than  any- 
thing else  to  7'ao,  although  it  will  by  no  means  answer 
all  the  conditions  of  the  use  of  Tao  by  Lao-tzu. 

Doctrines. — (1.)  The  teachings  of  Lao-tzu  on  specu- 
lative physics  may  be  summarized  as  follows  :  All  exist- 
ing creatures  and  things  have  sprimg  from  an  eternal, 
all-producing,  self-sustaining  unity  called  Tao,  which, 
although  regarded  as  a  potential  existence,  is  also  dis- 
tinctly denominated  non-existence,  Lao-tzu  considering 
it  equivalent  to  the  primeval  Nothing  or  Chaos.  jVfr. 
Watters  (see  below)  thus  combines  these  apparently  con- 
tradictory views  :  "  Though  void,  shapeless,  and  imma- 
terial, it  yet  contains  the  potentiality  of  all  substance 
and  shape,  and  from  itself  produces  the  universe,  diffus- 
ing itself  over  all  space.  It  is  said  to  have  generated 
the  world,  and  is  frequently  spoken  of  as  its  mother — 
*  the  dark  primeval  mother,  teeming  with  dreamy  be- 
ings.' All  things  that  exist  submit  to  it  as  their  chief, 
but  it  shows  no  lordship  over  them.  All  the  operations 
of  Nature  (Tao)  occur  without  any  show  of  effort  or  vi- 
olence— spontaneously  and  unerringly.  Though  there 
is  nothing  done  in  the  universe  -which  Nature  does  not 
do,  though  all  things  depend  upon  it  f-r  their  origin  and 
subsistence,  yet  in  no  case  is  Nature  tisibl//  acting.  It 
is  in  its  own  deep  self  a  unit — the  smallest  possible 
quantity,  j-et  it  prevails  over  the  wide  expanse  of  the 
universe,  operating  unspent  but  unseen."  Lao-tzu's  ac- 
count of  the  origin  of  the  universe  is,  "  Tao  begot  1, 1 
begot  2,  2  begot  3,  and  3  begot  the  material  universe  ;" 
■which  has  been  explained  by  commentators  that  Tao 
generated  the  Passive  Element  in  the  composition  of 
things,  this  produced  the  Active  Element,  and  this 
the  harmonious  agreement  of  the  two  elements,  which 
brought  about  the  production  of  all  things.  The  next 
thing  to  Tao  is  heaven — i.  e.  the  material  heaven  above 
us.  This  is  pure  and  clear,  and  if  it  should  lose  its  puri- 
ty would  be  in  danger  of  destruction.  The  earth  is  at 
rest,  the  heavens  always  revolving  over  it,  producing 
the  various  seasons,  vivifying,  nourishing,  killing  all 
things.  Tlien  come  the  "myriad  things"  —  all  ani- 
mate and  inanimate  existences,  that  spring  from  Tao — 
which,  although  in  itself  impalpable,  bodies  itself  forth 
in  these  olyccts,  and  thus  liecomcs  subject  to  human  ob- 
servation. This  manifestation  of  Tao  in  each  object 
constitutes  its  Te.  Te  is  generally  translated  "Virtue," 
but  this  rendering  is  inadequate.  It  seems  frequently 
to  refer  to  the  specific  nature  of  the  olyect  spoken  of, 
whicli  is  derived  from  Universal  Nature  (Tao).  Follow- 
ing the  popular  ideas  of  his  country,  Lao-tzu  speaks  of 
five  colors,  live  sounds,  and  live  tastes,  and  regards  all 
things  as  arranged  in  a  sj'stem  of  dualism — e.  g.  a  wood- 
en vessel,  in  the  case  of  which  solidity  gives  the  object, 
and  hollnwness  the  utility.  In  representing  pure  exist- 
ence <'is  identical  with  non-existence,  he  anticipated  He- 
gel, of  our  own  century,  who  says, "  Scyn  und  Nichts  ist 
dasselbe"  —  Being  and  Non-being  are  the  samO.  He 
agrees  with  those  modern  phikisophers  whp  maintain 
that  God  made  all  things  out  of  himself,  but  differs  from 
them  in  never  introducing  personality  into  his  concep- 
tion, and  consequently  excluding  will  and  design  from 
the  primordial  existence. 


(2.)  In  politics  he  assigns  the  original  choice  of  a 
sovereign  to  the  people,  and  holds  that  he  whom  the 
people  elect  is  the  elect  of  heaven.  He  conceives  of  the 
sovereign  as  rather  the  model  and  instructor  than  the 
judge  and  ruler  of  the  people.  He  compares  the  ruling 
of  a  kingdom  to  the  cooking  of  a  small  fish,  which  is 
easily  spoiled  by  too  much  cooldng.  The  first  duty  of 
the  ruler  is  to  rectify  himself.  This  done,  it  will  be 
easy  for  him  to  regulate  his  kingdom.  He  speaks  in 
strong  terms  against  military  oppression,  and  has  a  poor 
opinion  of  fire-arms.  He  opposes  capital  punishment 
and  excessive  taxation.  He  thinks  the  people  should 
be  ke|)t  ignorant — the  ruler  shoidd  empty  their  minds 
and  till  their  stomachs;  weaken  their  wills  and  strength- 
en their  bones.  The  intercourse  of  different  states  with 
each  other  should  be  regulated  by  courtesy  and  forbear- 
ance. , 

(3.)  Ill  ethics,  Lao-tzu  held  that  in  the  beginning 
virtue  and  vice  were  unknown  terms.  Man,  without 
effort,  constantly  lived  according  to  Tao.  In  the  next 
stage,  man  —  though  in  the  main  virtuous — was  occa- 
sionally sliding  into  vice,  and  was  unable  to  retain  the 
stability  of  unconscious  goodness.  Then  came  a  period 
of  filial  piety  and  integrity;  and,  finally,  the  days  of 
craft,  and  ciuniing,  and  insincerity.  He  makes  no  ex- 
press statement  as  to  the  moral  condition  of  human 
beings  at  birth,  but  it  may  be  inferred  from  some  ex- 
pressions that  he  regards  the  spirit  as  coming  pure  and 
perfect  from  the  great  Mother,  but  susceptible  of  bad 
influences,  which  lead  it  astray.  With  him,  Tao  is  the 
standard  of  virtue,  the  guide  and  model  of  the  universe. 
To  meet  the  desire  of  men  for  something  more  tangible, 
he  refers  to  heaven,  earth,  and  the  sages  of  olden  times, 
but  nowliere  to  a  personal  god,  and  there  is  no  clear  ev- 
idence of  his  belief  in  such  a  being.  The  virtues  which 
distinguish  the  perfect  man  are  freedom  from  ostenta- 
tion, humility,  continence,  moderation,  gravity,  and 
kindness.  Much  and  fine  talking  are  to  be  avoided. 
He  assigns  a  low  place  to  learning,  which,  he  says,  adds  to 
the  evil  of  existence ;  and,  if  we  were  to  put  awaj^  learn- 
ing, we  would  be  exempt  from  anxiety.  There  is  one 
passage  that  seems  to  refer  to  a  future  life,  but  it  is  very 
obscure ;  and  the  only  future  Lao-tzu  appears  to  antici- 
pate is  absorption  into  Tao.  IMost  minds  will  see  little 
difference  between  absorption  into  non-existence  and 
annihilation.  At  chap,  xvi  of  his  Tao-fe-linij,  wlicre  he 
refers  to  this  sidiject,  he  says,  "When  things  have  lux- 
uriated for  a  while,  each  returns  home  to  its  origin,  (ic- 
ing home  to  the  origin  is  called  stillness.  It  is  said  to 
be  a  reversion  to  destiny.  This  reversion  to  destiny  is 
called  eternity.  He  who  knows  (this)  eternity  is  called 
bright.  He  who  does  not  know  this  eternity  wildly 
works  his  own  misery.  He  who  knows  eternity  is  mag- 
nanimous. Being  magnanimous,  he  is  cathohc.  Being 
catholic,  he  is  a  king.  Being  a  king,  he  is  heaven.  Be- 
ing heaven,  he  is  Tau.  Being  Tau,  he  is  entkuing. 
Though  his  body  perish,  he  is  in  no  danger."  Ar.d 
again,  at  chap,  xxviii,  "He  who  knows  the  light,  and  at 
tlie  same  time  keeps  the  shade,  will  be  the  whole  world's 
model.  Being  the  whole  world's  model,  eternal  virtue 
will  not  miss  liim,  and  he  will  return  home  to  tlie  abso- 
lute." Tlie  attainment,  then,  of  this  state  of  absolute 
v,icuit\'  he  looks  upon  as  tlie  chief  good,  and  warns  such 
as  have  attained  to  it  to  keep  themselves  perfectly  still, 
and  to  avoid  ambition.  And,  in  alluding  to  the  fact 
that  emptiness  or  non-existence  is  superior  to  existence, 
he  says  that  the  former  may  be  said  to  correspond  to 
use,  tile  latter  to  gain.  "Tau  is  empty."  "  Tlie  space 
between  heaven  and  earth  may  be  compared  to  a  bel- 
lows; though  empty,  it  never  collapses,  and  the  more 
it  is  exercised  the  more  it  brings  forth."  To  enforce 
this  theory  he  dr.aws  an  illustration  from  common  life, 
and  says,  "Thirty  spokes  unite  in  one  nave,  and  by 
that  part  wliich  is  non-existent  (i.  e.  the  hole  in  the 
centre  of  it)  it  is  usefid  for  a  carriage-wheel.  Earth  is 
moulded  into  vessels,  and  by  tlicir  liollowness  thej'  are 
useful  as  vessels.     Doors  and  windows  are  cut  out  ia 


LAP 


241 


LAPLACE 


order  to  make  a  house,  and  by  its  hollowness  it  is  useful 
as  a  house." 

Since  the  2d  century  A.D.  the  Taoists  have  greatly 
spread  in  China,  Japan,  Cochin-China,  Touquin,  and 
among  the  Indo-Chinese  nations.  In  our  day  they  are 
especially  popular  with  the  common  people,  and  in  some 
parts  of  China  their  influence  rivals  that  of  the  Buddh- 
ists. They  have,  however,  greatly  corrupted  the  teach- 
ings of  their  founder;  the  worship  of  original  Taoism 
has  been  degraded  into  the  lowest  idolatry,  while  its 
priests  are  jugglers  and  necromancers,  among  whom 
scarcely  a  trace  of  the  pure  spirit  of  Lao-tzu  can  be 
found.  See  J.  P.  A.  Kemusat,  Memoire  su?-  la  Vie  et  les 
Opinions  de  Lao-tseu  (1820) ;  John  Chalmers,  The  Sjjec- 
ulations  on  Metaphysics,  Poiit;i,  and  Moralih/  of  the  old 
Philoso2>her  Lau-tsze,  with  an  Introduction  (Lond.  1869, 
8vo) ;  the  valuable  articles  of  T.  Walters  in  the  Chinese 
EeconIer,vol.i  (1868);  Pauthier, /.re  Chine  (Paris,  1837, 
2  vols.  8vo),  p.  110-120  ;  Stanislas  JuUen,  Le  Licre  des 
Recompenses  (Paris,  1848,  8vo) ;  Neumann,  Lehrsaal  des 
Mittelreichs  (INIunich,  1856, 8  vo) ;  Legge,  Life  and  Teach- 
ings of  Confucius  (Lond.  1867,  8to),  ch.  v ;  Loomis,  Co7i- 
fucius  and  the  Chinese  Classics,  p.  278  sq.;  Pall  Mall 
Gazette  (London),  Sept.  3, 1869,  p.  11  sq.  See  also  arti- 
cles on  Lao-tzu  in  Chambers,  Cyclop. ;  Thomas,  Biogr. 
Diet. ;  and  Brockhaus,  Conversations-Lex.     (S.  L.  B.) 

Lap  Cl?3,  2  Kings  iv,  39,  a  f/arment,  as  elsewhere ; 
p^^n,  Prov.  xvi,  33,  the  bosom,  as  elsewhere ;  "iSn,  Neh. 
V,  13,  the  armful,  as  ia  Isa.  xlix,  22),  the  fold  of  the 
raiment  in  which  Orientals  are  accustomed  to  carry  ar- 
ticles in  lieu  of  pockets.  Instead  of  thcfbula  or  clasp 
that  was  used  by  the  Romans,  the  Arabs  join  together 
with  thread,  or  with  a  wooden  bodkin,  the  two  top  cor- 
ners of  their  upper  garment;  and,  after  having  placed 
them  first  over  one  of  their  shoulders,  they  then  fold  the 
rest  of  it  about  their  bodies.  The  outer  fold  serves  them 
frequently  instead  of  an  apron,  in  which  they  carry 
herbs,  loaves,  corn,  and  other  articles,  and  may  illustrate 
several  allusions  made  to  it  in  Scripture :  thus  one  of 
the  sons  of  the  prophets  went  out  into  the  field  to  gather 
herbs,  and  found  a  wild  vine,  and  gathered  thereof  wUd 
gourds  his  lap  full  (2  Kings  iv,  39).  The  Psalmist  of- 
fers up  his  prayers  that  Jehovah  would  "  render  unto 
his  neighbors  sevenfold  into  their  bosom  their  reproach" 
(Psa.  xix,  12).  The  same  allusion  occurs  in  our  Lord's 
direction, "  Give,  and  it  shall  be  given  unto  you,  good 
measure,  pressed  down  and  shaken  together,  and  run- 
ning over,  shall  men  give  into  your  bosom"  (Luke  vi, 
38).     See  Bosom  ;  DiiESS. 

Lapide.     See  Steen, 

Lapithae  {Xa-Ki^ai),  in  mythical  geography,  a  peo- 
ple of  Thessaly,  chiefly  known  to  us  from  their  fabled 
contests  with  the  Centaurs.  The  battle  between  the 
Centaurs  and  the  Lapithie  has  been  minutely  described 
by  Hcsiod  and  Ovid. — Brande  and  Cox,  ii,  317. 

Laphria  (Aa^p/n),  a  surname  of  Artemis  or  Diana 
among  the  Calydonians,  from  which  tlie  worship  of  the 
goddess  was  introduced  at  Naupactus  and  Patrre,  in 
Achaia.  At  the  latter  place  it  was  not  established  till 
the  time  of  Augustus,  but  it  became  the  occasion  of  a 
great  annual  festival  (Pausanias,  iv,  31,  §  6 ;  vii,  18,  §  6, 
etc. ;  Schol.  ad  Eurip.  Orest.  1087).  The  name  Laphria 
was  traced  back  to  a  hero,  Laplirius,  son  of  Castalius, 
who  was  said  to  have  instituted  her  worship  at  Calydon. 
Laphria  was  also  a  surname  of  Athene  or  IMinerva  (Ly- 
cophron,  356).— Smith,  Diet,  of  Greeh  and  Roman  Bi- 
oyraphy  and  Mythohxjy,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lapides  Judaici  {Jewish  Stones).  In  the  chalky 
beds  which  surround  in  some  parts  the  summit  of  Mount 
Carmcl  are  found  numerous  hollow  stones,  lined  in  the 
inside  with  a  variety  of  sparry  matter,  which,  from  some 
distant  resemblance,  are  supposed  by  the  natives  to  be 
petrified  olives,  melons,  peaches,  and  other  fruit.  These 
are  considered  not  only  as  curiosities,  Ijut  as  antidotes 
against  several  diseases.  Those  Avhich  bear  some  re- 
V.-Q 


semblance  to  the  olive  have  been  designated  Lapides 
Judaici,  otherwise  "  Elijah's  Melons,"  and  are  supersti- 
tiously  regarded  as  an  infallible  remedy  for  stone  and 
gravel  when  dissolved  in  the  juice  of  lemons.  Those 
supposed  petrified  fruits  are,  however,  as  Dr.  Shaw  states, 
only  so  many  different-sized  flint-stones,  beautified  with- 
in by  sparry  and  stalagmitical  knobs,  which  are  fanci- 
fully taken  for  seeds  and  kernels.     See  Caksiel. 

Lap'idoth  (Hebrew  Laj^jndoth',  r:*,~l'^^b,  torches; 
Sept.  Aa0(t')ai3),  the  husband  of  Deborah  the  prophetess 
(Judg.  iv,  4).  lie  may  have  resided  with  her  at  the 
time  of  her  public  services  as  female  judge  (ver.  5),  or 
more  probably  he  was  deceased,  and  she  is  named  as  his 
widow.  B.C.  ante  1409.  Prom  the  fact  that  the  name 
is  in  the  form  of  a  fem.  plur.,  some  have  talcen  it  to  mean 
her  place  of  residence  (r'lIJN,  woman  of,  being  under- 
stood before  it),  but  without  probabUity  (Bertheau,  ad 
loc).  By  others  the  term  lappidoth  has  been  under- 
stood to  denote  merely  her  character  (q.  d.  "  woman  of 
splendors,"  i.  e.  noble,  brilliant),  or  even  her  occupation 
merely  (q.  d.  lump-trimmer) ;  but  all  these  are  equally 
nugatory  suppositions.     See  Deborah. 

La  Pilonniere,  Francois  de,  an  eminent  French 
writer,  was  born  in  the  second  half  of  the  17th  century. 
After  remaining  for  some  time  a  member  of  the  Order 
of  the  Jesuits,  he  was  converted  to  Protestantism,  and 
on  this  account  was  obliged  to  flee  the  country.  He 
took  refuge  first  in  Holland,  then  in  England,  where  he 
was  w-elcomed  by  bishop  Hoadly.  The  precise  time  of 
his  death  is  not  ascertained.  He  wrote  VAtheisme  de- 
couvertpar  le  P.  IIardouin,Jesuite,  dans  les  ecrits  de  tons 
les  Peres  de  VErjlise  et  des  philosophes  modeimes  (1715, 
8vo ;  and  in  St.  Hyacinthe,  Memoires  Litteraires,  1716) : 
— UAbus  des  Confessions  de  Foi  (1716,  8vo): — An  An- 
swer to  the  R.  D.  Snape's  A  ccusation,  containing  an  ac- 
count of  his  behavior  and  suffeiing  amongst  the  Jesuits 
(Lond.  1717, 8vo ;  transl.  into  Latin  in  1718) :  it  is  a  sort 
of  autobiography: — Defense  des  Principes  de  la  Tole- 
rance (London,  1718, 8  vo)  : — Further  Account  of  himself 
(Lond.  1729, 8 vo).  He  translated  also  into  French  Pope's 
Essay  on  Criticism  (1717) ;  Plato's  Republic  (1725, 8vo)  ; 
Burnet's  Bistoire  des  dernieres  Revolutions  d'Angleterre 
(La  Haye,  1725, 2  vols.  4to;  London,  3  vols.  12mo;  latest 
edit.  La  Haye,  1735) ;  antl  some  works  of  bishop  Bau- 
ger  and  of  Steele.  See  Adelung,  Suppl.  z.  Jocher ;  H  aag, 
La  France  Protestante ;  Iloefer,  Kouv.  Biog.  Generale, 
xxix,  527,     (J.  N.  P.) 

Lapis  (the  stoi2e'),  a  surname  of  Jupiter  at  Rome,  as 
is  evident  from  the  expression  "Jovem  Lapidem"  (Cice- 
ro, ad  Fam.  vii,  12  ;  Gellius,  i,  21  ;  Polybius,  iii,  26).  It 
was  formerly  believed  that  Jupiter  Lapis  was  a  stone 
statue  of  the  god,  or  originally  a  rude  stone  serving  as 
a  symbol,  around  which  people  assembled  for  the  pur- 
pose of  worshipping  Jupiter.  But  it  is  now  generally 
acknowledged  that  the  pebble  or  flint-stone  was  regard- 
edTis  a  symbol  of  lightning,  and  that  therefore,  in  some 
representations  of  Jupiter,  he  held  a  stone  in  his  hand 
instead  of  the  thunderbolt  (Arnobius,  adv.  Gent,  iv,  25). 
Such  a  stone  ("  lapis  Capitolinus,"  August.  De  Civ.  Dei, 
ii,  29)  was  even  set  up  as  a  symbolic  representation  of 
the  god  himself  (Scrv.rtfi.fi'n.viii, 641).  When  a  treaty 
was  to  be  concluded,  the  sacred  symbols  of  Jupiter  were 
taken  from  his  temple,  viz.  his  sceptre,  the  pebble  and 
grass  from  the  district  of  the  temple,  for  the  purpose  of 
swearing  by  them  ("per  Jovem  Lapidem  jurare,"  Livy, 
i,  24;  XXX,  43).  A  pebble  or  flint-stone  was  also  used 
by  the  Romans  in  killing  the  animal  when  an  oath  was 
to  be  accompanied  by  a  sacrifice,  and  this  custom  was 
probably  a  remnant  of  very  early  times,  when  metal  in- 
struments were  not  yet  used  for  such  purposes. — Smith, 
Diet.  Greek  and  Rom.  Biog.  ami  Mythol.  s.  v. 

Laplace  (Plac.eis),  Josue  de,  a  distinguished 
French  Protestant  theologian,  was  born  in  Brittany 
about  the  year  1605.  After  completing  his  studies  in 
the  University  of  Saumur,  he  taught  philosophy  for  a 


LAPLACE 


242 


LAPLAND 


while,  and  in  IG'25  was  appointed  pastor  of  the  Church 
at  Nantes.  He  left  this  situation  in  1633,  to  hecome 
professor  of  theology  in  the  University  of  Sauinim 
Here,  with  L.  Cappel  and  Moses  Amj^raut,  he  gave  a 
new  impulse  to  theological  studies.  Laplace,  attacking 
the  Calvinistic  dogma  of  the  imputation  of  original  sin 
to  all  the  descendants  of  Adam,  endeavored  to  show  its 
incompatibility  with  the  divine  raerc}''  and  justice.  Ac- 
cording to  him,  original  sin  is  only  indirectly  imputed 
to  man,  and  he  has  to  answer  only  for  his  own  individ- 
ual sins.  The  orthodox  party  in  the  Calvinistic  Church 
strongly  opposed  this  doctrine,  and,  on  the  motion  of 
Garissoles,  the  national  Synoil  of  Charenton  (in  1644) 
formally  condemned  it,  without,  however,  naming  the 
author.  The  schools  of  Sedan,  Cieneva,  and  Holland  de- 
nounced it  also  as  impious  and  heretical.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  obtained  the  approbation  of  all  moderate  peo- 
ple. A  large  number  of  provincial  synods  thought  the 
national  synod  had  been  too  hasty  in  condemning  a  doc- 
trine before  taking  time  to  thoroughly  investigate  and 
discuss  it;  they  refused  to  submit  to  the  verdict  until 
another  national  synod  should  decide.  Lajilace,  for  fear 
of  increasing  the  difficulties,  patiently  submitted  to  the 
repeated  attacks  of  Desmarets,  liivet,  and  other  ortho- 
dox theologians.  He  only  answered  them  after  waiting 
vainly  for  ten  years  for  the  convocation  of  the  synod 
which  was  to  decide.  He  died  at  Saumur  Aug.  17, 1665. 
His  works  are,  Discoins  en  forme  de  dialoffue  entre  un 
pere  et  sonjils,  etc.  (Quevilly,  1629,  8vo) ;  often  reprint- 
ed, also  under  title  Entretitns  d'un  pere  et  de  sonjils  siir 
le  changement  de  religion  (Saumur,  1682, 12mo;  translat. 
into  German,  Basle,  1665,  8vo) : — Examen  des  Raisom 
pour  et  contre  le  scta'ijice  de  la  Messe  (Saumur,  1639, 
8vo) : — Suite  de  VExamen,  etc.  (Saumur,  1643,  8vo) : — 
De  locis  Zacharim  xi,  18 ;  xii,  10 ;  Malachia  Hi,  1  (Sau- 
mur, 1G50,  4to) : — Exjiosition  et  Pm-aphrase  du  Cantique 
des  Cantiques  (Saumur,  1656, 8vo)  : — Explication  ft/pique 
de  VhiMoire  de  Joseph  (transl.  from  the  Latin  of  Laplace 
by  Riisel.  Saumur,  1658, 8vo)  : — De  argumeniis  qiiibiis  ef- 
Jicitur  Christum  prius  Juisse  quam  in  utero  heatce  Vir- 
ginis  secundum  carnem  conciperetur  (Saumur,  1649, 4to) : 
— De  Testimoniis  et  A  rgumentis  ex  Veteri  Testament o  ijeii- 
tis,  quihus  probatur  Dominum  nostrum  Jesum-Christum 
esse  Deum,j)radiium  essentia  divina  (Saumur,  1651, 4to)  : 
— Catechesis  pro  conversione  Judworam  (Saumur,  4to)  : 
— Theses  Theologicce  de  statu  hominis  lapsi  ante  gixUiam 
(Saumur,  1640, 4to) :  this  is  the  work  whose  doctrines 
were  condemned  by  the  Sjaiod  of  Charenton  in  1644: — 
De  ImputationejJrimijKccati  A  dami  (Saumur,  1655, 4to)  : 
a  defence  of  his  opinions: — Opuscula  nonnuUa  (Saumur, 
1656, 8vo)  : — Syntagma  Thesium  theologicamm  (Saumur, 
1660, 3  pts.  4to;  4th  part,  1664).  A  complete  collection 
of  Laplace's  works  was  published  under  the  style  Opera 
Omnia  (Franeker,  1699,  and  Aubincit,  1702,  2  vols.  4to). 
See  Mosheim,  Ecclesiastical  History,  iii,  404;  Aymon, 
Synodes  des  Eglises  Reformees  de  France,  ii,  680 ;  Weis- 
mann,  I/istoria  Eccles.  stec.  xvii,p.919;  Haag,La  France 
Protestante;  T.  Colani,  Rei-ue  de  Theologie,  Oct.  1855; 
Bartholmess,  Disconrs  sur  la  vie  et  le  caract'ere  de  J.de 
La  Place,  in  the  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  de  Vliistoire  du 
Protestantisme  Fran^ais  (1853) ;  Hook,  Eccles.  Biogra- 
phy, viii,  97 ;  Hoefer,  Noiiv.  Biog.  Gcnerale,  xxix,  529 ; 
Ilerzog,  Real-Encyldop.  xi,  755  sq.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Laplace,  Pierre  Simon  de,  a  noted  French  phi- 
losopher, one  of  the  greatest  astronomers  and  mathema- 
ticians of  any  age  or  country,  born  at  lieaumont-en- 
Auge  (Calvados),  in  France,  IMarch  23,  1740,  of  humble 
parentage,  and  ajijiointed  professor  of  mathematics  in 
the  military  school  at  Paris  in  17G8,  and  membre-.id- 
joint  of  the  Ac-idemy  of  Sciences  in  1773,  tirst  made  a 
reputation  for  himself  by  liis  Exposition  du  Sysfhne  du 
Monde,  which  he  published  in  1796,  and  which -was 
.simply  an  outline  for  popular  use  of  his  greater  treatise, 
La  Mecanique  celeste,  ol'  which  the  first  two  Volumes 
were  sent  forth  in  1798,  the  third  in  1802,  the  fourth  in 
1805,  and  the  liftli  in  1M25,  ;iiul  still  later  (1827)  a  post- 
humous supplement  (for  a  full  synopsis  of  the  contents 


of  this  great  work  on  mathematical  astronomy,  see 
Penny  Cyclop,  xiii,  326  sq.),  a  book  which  wiU  doubt- 
less preserve  his  memory  to  the  latest  posterity.  He 
also  wrote  Theorie  Analytique  sur  les  Prohahilites  (1812), 
and  Essui  Philosophique  sur  les  Prohahilites  (1814).  He 
died  IMay  5,  1827.  His  last  words  were,  "Ce  que  nous 
connaissons  est  peu  de  chose ;  ce  que  nous  ignorans,  est 
immense."  "The  author  of  the  Mecanique  Celeste,  to 
use  a  common  synonyrae  for  Laplace,  must  be  an  object 
of  the  admiration  of  posterity  as  long  as  any  record  of 
the  18th  century  exists.  F'or  many  years  he  was  the 
head,  though  not  the  hand  of  European  astronomy; 
and  most  of  the  labors  of  observation  were  made  in  di- 
rections pointed  out  by  him,  or  for  the  furtherance  of 
his  discoveries  in  the  consequences  of  the  law  of  gravi- 
tation. It  is  sometimes  stated  by  English  writers  that 
Laplace  was  an  atheist.  We  have  attentively  exam- 
ined every  passage  which  has  been  brought  in  proof 
of  this  assertion,  and  we  can  find  nothing  which  makes 
cither  for  or  agauist  such  a  supposition An  at- 
tempt to  explain  how  the  solar  system  might  possi- 
bly have  arisen  from  the  cooling  of  a  mass  of  fluid  or 
vapor  is  called  atheistical  because  it  attempts  to  ascend 
one  step  in  the  chain  of  causes;  the  Principia  of  New- 
ton was  designated  by  the  same  term,  and  for  a  similar 
reason.  What  Laplace's  opinions  were  we  do  not  know ; 
and  it  is  not  fair  that  a  writer  who,  at  a  time  of  perfect 
license  on  such  matters,  has  studiously  avoided  entering 
on  the  subject,  should  be  stated  as  of  one  opinion  or  the 
other  upon  the  authority  of  a  fe\v'  passages  of  which  it 
can  only  be  said  (as  it  could  equally  be  said  of  most 
mathematical  works)  that  they  might  have  been  writ- 
ten by  a  person  of  any  religious  or  political  sentiments 
whatever"  (Penny  Cyclop,  xiii,  325-328).  See  Thomas, 
Biographical  Dictionary,  p.  1372 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog, 
Genercde,  xxix,  531  sq. 

La  Placette,  Jeax,  a  distinguished  French  Prot- 
estant theologian  and  moralist,  was  born  at  Pontac,  in 
Beam,  Jan.  19,  1639,  and  studied  theology  at  the  Prot- 
estant Academy  of  Montauban.  Appointed  pastor  of  Or- 
thez  in  1660,  he  removed  in  the  same  capacity  to  Nai  in 
1664,  and  remained  there  until  the  revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes,  refusing  several  pressing  invitations 
from  the  important  congregation  of  Charenton.  At  the 
revocation  he  obtained  leave  to  go  to  Holland,  from 
whence  he  afterwards  went  to  Prussia.  In  1686  he  final- 
ly accepted  tlie  office  of  pastor  to  the  French  Church  at 
Copenhagen,  which  he  held  until  1711.  He  then  re- 
signed and  retired  to  Utrecht,  where  he  died  April  25, 
1718.  His  principal  works  are,  Traite  des  Bonnes  Q\unxs 
en  general  (Amst.  1709, 12mo)  : — Traite  de  la  Restitution, 
etc.  (Amst,  1696, 12mo): — La  mart  desjustes,ou  la  ma^ 
niere  de  hien  mourir  (La  Haye,  1729, 12mo)  : — Traite  de 
VAumone  (Amsterd.  1699, 12mo)  : — Diveis  traiies  sur  les 
matiires  de  Conscience  (Amst.  1697, 12mo)  : — The  Death 
of  the  Righteous,  etc.,  translated  by  Thomas  Fenton,  M.A. 
(Lond.  1725, 2  vols.  12mo) : — Ti-aite  de  lafoi  divine  (Poter. 
1716,  3  vols.  12mo): — La  communion  devote,  ou  la  ma- 
niere  de  participer  saintement  et  utilement  a  VEucharistiQ 
(Amsterd.  6'"*  edit.  1706, 12mo) : — La  morale  Chretienne 
(d)regee,  etc.  (Amst,  2d  ed.  1701,  r2mo): — Essais  de  mo- 
rale (Amst.  1716, 4  vols.  r2mo) : — Kouveetu  essais  de  mo- 
rale  (La  Haye,  1715,2  vols.  12mo) : — The  incurahle  Scep- 
ticism of  the  Church  of  Rome  (Gibson's  Presei-vative, 
xvi.  176) ;  etc.  See  Vie  de  La  Placette,  by  Carrier  de  St. 
Philippe,  in  Avis  sur  la  maniere  de prtcher ;  Niceron, 
Memoires,  vol.  ii ;  Europe  Savante,  vol.  xviii ;  Nouvelles 
Litteraires,  July,  1718,  Haag,  La  France  Protestante; 
(iuerard.  La,  France  Litteraire  ;  Sayons,  I/ist.  de  la  lit- 
ter. Fran^aise  a  Vetranger,  ii,  211-220;  Hoefer,  A'owi'. 
Biog.  Generale,  xxix,  .549;  Darling,  Cyclopauia  Bihlio- 
graphica,  ii,  1767.     (J,  N.  P.) 

Laplaud  (native  Sameanda'),  a  territor}^  in  the 
noriliernmost  part  of  Europe,  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Arctic  Ocean,  on  the  south  by  Finland  and  the 
Swedish  province  of  Norrland,  on  the  east  by  the  White 
Sea,  and  on  the  west  by  Norway,    The  winter  is  verj-  long 


LAPLAND 


243 


LAPSE 


and  severe ;  the  summer  lasts  only  nine  weeks,  but  is,  in 
consequence  of  the  very  long  days,  almost  as  liot  as  in 
Italy,  and,  owing  to  the  innumerable  mosquitoes,  most 
oppressive  for  both  man  and  beast.  Only  in  the  south- 
ern part  of  Swedish  Lapland  is  the  soil  capable  of  culti- 
vation ;  the  corn  is  sown  towards  the  close  of  Slay,  and 
reaped  in  the  middle  of  August,  but  is  frequently  spoiled 
by  night-frosts.  Tlie  territory  is  but  very  thinly  set- 
tled, and  only  a  part  of  it  is  now  occupied  by  the  people 
to  which  it  owes  its  name,  the  southern  and  better  por- 
tions having  been  gradually  encroached  upon  by  Nor- 
wegians, Swedes,  and  Finlanders,  till  the  Laplanders 
l)roper  have  in  a  great  measure  been  cooped  up  within 
the  Arctic  Circle.  The  territory  is  politically  divided 
into  tliree  parts :  1.  Norwegian  Lapland  or  Finnmark, 
containing  27,315.70  square  miles  and  13,008  inhabitants, 
all  Laplanders,  or,  as  they  are  here  called,  Finnar.  2. 
Swedish  Lapland,  containing  49,035.17  square  miles, 
with  a  population  of  27,443  inhabitants,  of  whom  only 
5685  are  Laplanders,  and  all  the  remainder  S^vedish  col- 
onists, whose  number  has  steadily  increased  since  17G0, 
when  the  first  two  Swedish  families  settled  in  the  coun- 
try. 3.  Russian  Lapland,  which  partly  belongs  to  Fin- 
land and  partly  to  the  government  of  Archangel,  and 
embraces  Eastern  Lapland,  with  the  peninsula  of  Kola, 
also  called  the  Lapland  peninsula.  The  number  of  Lap- 
landers in  Russian  Lapland  had  in  1852  been  reduced  to 
2290.  The  native  inhabitants,  Laplanders  or  Laps,  call 
themselves  Sami  or  Saraelads,  and  consider  Lapland  and 
Laplanders  as  terms  of  abuse.  Tliey  are  either  Fjell- 
Lappar-Finner,  mountain  Laplanders,  who  lead  a  no- 
madic life,  and  pasture  large  reindeer  herds;  or  Skogs- 
La])par,  forest  Laplanders,  chiefly  occujiiod  with  hunting 
and  fishing,  leaving  their  herds  of  reindeer  in  charge  of 
the  preceding  class;  or  Soe-Finner,  sea  or  shore  Lap- 
landers, who,  too  poor  to  possess  such  herds,  have  been 
obliged  to  fix  their  residence  upon  the  coast,  and  subsist 
chiefly  by  fishing;  or  Sockne  Lappar,  parish  Lappars,  who 
hire  themselves  out  as  servants,  chiefly  for  tending  the 
reindeer.  They  are  good-natured,  honest,  superstitious, 
and  patriotic,  and,  with  the  exception  of  an  inclination 
to  drinikenness,  they  show  neither  great  vices  nor  great 
virtues.  The  origin  of  the  Laplanders  is  not  yet  fully 
cleared  up,  as  their  physical  characteristics  point  partly 
to  the  Mongolian  and  partly  to  the  Caucasian  race.  The 
prevailing  opinion,  however,  is,  that  they  are  only  a  va- 
riety of  Tchude  or  Finns.  The  Christianization  of  the 
Laplanders  did  not  begin  until,  in  1275,  a  part  of  their 
territory  was  annexed  to  Sweden.  For  several  centu- 
ries, however,  no  re.sidts  were  obtained  except  the  in- 
troduction of  Christian  baptism  and  Ciiristian  marriage. 
The  Norwegian  part  of  Lapland  belonged  to  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Nidaros  (Dronthcim) ;  the  Swedish  to  the 
archbishopric  of  Upsala.  Gustavus  I,  of  Sweden,  in  the 
first  half  of  the  IGth  century,  established  the  first  Lap- 
pish school  in  the  town  of  Pikea.  Charles  IX  and  Chris- 
tina made  great  efforts  for  bringing  them  over  to  the 
Lutheran  Church,  while  in  Norwegian  Finnark  king 
Christian  IV,  of  Denmark  (about  1(500),  extirpated  the 
remnants  of  paganism  by  force.  The  Christianization 
of  this  part  of  Lapland  was  completed  by  the  zeal  of 
bishop  Eric  Bredahl,  of  Drontheitn  (1643  "to  1672\  and 
his  successors.  At  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century, 
Isaac  Olsen,  a  poor  man,  during  fourteen  years,  labored 
among  the  Laplanders  for  their  Christianization,  and 
king  Frederick  IV,  of  Denmark,  in  1715  and  1717,  for 
the  same  purpose,  established  theological  seminaries  in 
Copenhagen  and  Drontheim.  In  1730  king  Christian 
VI  issued  an  order  that  every  Laplander,  before  the 
nineteenth  year  of  his  age,  must  receive  confirmation, 
from  which  time  the  parents  began  to  bestow  greater 
care  upon  the  education  of  their  children.  The  govern- 
ment appointed  travelling  teachers,  and  also  several  res- 
ident clergymen,  who  at  first  found  their  progress  great- 
ly delayed  by  the  difficulty  of  mastering  the  Lappish 
language.  The  kings  of  Sweden  since  Frederick  I 
U748)  worked  with  great  zeal,  but  little  success,  for 


the  entire  conversion  of  the  Laplanders.  In  the  treaty 
of  Friedrichshaven  Sweden  had  to  cede  its  Lappish 
territory  to  Russia,  but  in  1814,  in  the  treaty  of  Kiel, 
it  received  another  portion  from  Norway.  The  most 
zealous  missionary  wlio  has  labored  among  the  Lap- 
landers was  pastor  Stockfleth  (bom  in  1787),  who  joined 
them  in  their  nomadic  Ufe,  and  preached  to  them  in 
their  own  language,  wliich  it  cost  him  great  eflbrts  to 
learn.  At  present  divine  sendee  is  held  in  the  Lajjpish, 
Swedish,  and  Finnish  languages.  During  the  summer 
months  the  Laplanders,  who  during  this  time  are  mov- 
ing with  their  reindeer  further  into  the  mountains,  are 
visited  by  clergymen  of  Southern  Lapland.  The  Lap- 
landers show  great  docility  for  the  reception  of  the 
Christian  doctrine,  but  their  Christianity  is  stOl  mixed 
up  with  many  superstitious  views  and  pagan  customs. 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church  established  in  1855  the 
Prefecture  Apostolic  of  the  North  Pole,  which  embraces 
Lapland,  the  Faroe  Islands,  Greenland,  and  the  north- 
ernmost part  of  America.  The  apostolic  prefect  resides 
at  Tromsoe,  tlie  capital  of  Finnmark;  another  Lapland- 
ish  station  has  been  established  at  Altengard.  See  Wig- 
gers,  Kirchl.  Stulistik,  ii,  421  sq.;  Neher,  Kirchl,  Statis- 
tik,  ii,  406  sq.     (A.  J.  S.) 

Lapping  (Pi?^,  to  lick  up  like  a  dog,  1  Kings  xxi, 
19,  etc.)  of  water  by  "  putting  their  hand  to  their  mouth." 
spoken  of  as  a  test  in  reference  to  Gideon's  men  (Judg. 
vii,  5,  G),  is  still  in  the  East  supposed  to  distinguish 
those  who  evince  an  alacrity  and  readiness  which  fits 
them  in  a  peculiar  manner  for  any  active  service  in 
which  they  are  to  be  engaged.  See  Gideon.  Among 
the  Arabs,  lapping  with  their  hands  is  a  common  and 
very  expeditious  way  of  taking  in  liquids.  "  The  dog 
drinks  by  shaping  the  end  of  his  long,  thin  tongue  into 
the  form  of  a  spoon,  which  it  rapidly  introduces  and 
withdraws  from  the  water,  throwing  each  time  a  spoon- 
ful of  the  fluid  into  his  mouth.  The  tongue  of  man  is 
not  adapted  to  this  use ;  and  it  is  physically  impossible 
for  a  man,  therefore,  to  lap  literally  as  a  dog  laps.  The 
true  explanation,  probably,  is  that  these  men,  instead  of 
kneeling  down  to  take  a  long  draught,  or  successive 
draughts  from  the  water,  employed  their  hand  as  the 
dog  employs  his  tongue — that  is,  forming  it  into  a  hol- 
low spoon,  and  dipping  water  with  it  from  the  stream. 
Practice  gives  a  peculiar  tact  in  this  mode  of  drinking; 
and  the  interchange  of  the  hand  between  the  water  and 
the  month  is  so  rapidly  managed  as  to  be  comparable  to 
that  of  the  dog's  tongue  in  similar  circumstances.  Be- 
sides, the  water  is  not  usually  sucked  out  of  the  hand 
into  the  mouth,  but  b)^  a  peculiar  knack  is  jerked  into 
the  mouth  before  the  hand  is  brought  close  to  it,  so  that 
the  hand  is  approaching  ^vith  a  fresh  supply  almost  be- 
fore the  preceding  has  been  swallowed :  this  is  another 
resemblance  to  the  action  of  a  dog's  tongue.  On  com- 
ing to  water,  a  person  who  wishes  to  drink  cannot  stop 
the  whole  party  to  wait  for  him  when  travelling  in  car- 
avans, and  therefore,  if  on  foot,  any  delay  would  oblige 
him  to  unusual  exertion  in  order  to  overtake  his  party. 
He  therefore  drinks  in  the  manner  described,  and  has 
satisfied  his  thirst  in  much  less  time  than  one  who,  hav- 
ing more  leisure,  or  being  disposed  to  more  deliberate 
enjoyment,  looks  out  for  a  place  where  he  may  kneel  or 
lie  down  to  bring  his  mouth  in  contact  with  the  water, 
and  imbibe  long  and  slow  tlraughts  of  it"  (Kitto,  Picto- 
rial Bible,  ad  loc). 

Lapse  is  a  term  used  in  English  ecclesiastical  law 
to  denote  the  failure  to  exercise  the  right  of  presenting 
or  collating  a  vacant  ecclesiastical  benefice  within  the 
lawful  period.  On  such  occasions,  if  the  bishop  be  the 
patron,  the  right  devolves  or  lapses  to  the  archbishop, 
and  if  tlie  archbishop  omits  to  take  advantage  thereof, 
to  the  king.  So  also  if  any  person,  other  than  the  bish- 
op, be  patron,  on  his  neglecting  to  present,  the  right 
lapses  in  the  first  place  to  the  bishop,  on  the  bishop's 
neglect  to  the  archbishop,  and  from  him  to  the  king. 
The  patron,  the  bishop,  and  the  archbishop  are  several- 
ly and  successively  allowed  the  full  period  of  six  calen- 


LAPSE 


244 


LAPSI 


dar  months,  exclusive  of  the  day  on  wliich  the  benefice 
becomes  void;  and  if  the  bishop  be  liimself  the  patron, 
he  must  collate  to  the  benefice  within  the  period  of  the 
first  six  months  after  the  vacancy,  as  he  is  not  entitled 
to  six  months  in  his  character  of  patron,  and  six  months 
more  in  his  character  of  bishop.      When  the  patron's 
six  months  have  expired,  his  ri<;ht  of  presentation  is 
not  absolutely  destroyed  by  the  lapse  which  then  takes 
place,  but  the  bishop  acquires  merely  a  kind  of  concur- 
rent right  with  him ;  for,  although  the  bishop  may  col- 
late immediately  after  the  lapse,  yet,  so  long  as  he  suffers 
the  benefice  to  continue  vacant,  he  cannot  refuse  to  in- 
stitute a  person  presented  by  the  patron ;  and,  in  like 
manner,  when  the  bishop's  six  months  have  expired, 
the  patron  may  present  at  any  time  before  the  archbish- 
op has  tilled  up  the  vacancy.    By  these  means  provision 
is  made  against  the  improper  duration  of  vacancies  m 
the  Church ;  for  when  the  benefice  has  continued  vacant 
for  six  months,  the  patronage  for  that  turn  becomes  an 
object  of  competition  between  the  original  patron  and 
the  bishop  or  archbishop,  as  the  case  may  be,  the  nomi- 
nee of  that  party  which  presents  first  being  entitled  to 
the  benefice.     But  when  the  right  to  present  has  passed 
the  bishop  and  the  archbishop,  and  through  their  neg- 
lect has  actually  lapsed  to  the  crown,  a  different  rule  pre- 
vails, arising  from  an  old  maxim  of  Enghsh  law,  that  the 
king's  rights  shall  never  be  barred  or  destroyed  by  delay 
on  his  part.    Xiillum  tempus  occurrit  refji.   When,  there- 
fore, the  lapse  to  the  king  has  actually  occurred,  the 
right  of  presentation  for  that  turn  is  absolutely  vested 
in  him  ;  and  if  the  patron  presents  while  the  benefice 
continues  vacant,  the  king  may  present  at  any  time  af- 
terAvards  before  another  vacancy  occurs,  and  may  turn 
out  the  patron's  nominee.     But  if  the  patron's  nominee 
is  instituted  and  inducted,  and  dies  incumbent,  or  if,  af- 
ter his  induction,  he  is  deprived  by  sentence  of  the  eccle- 
siastical courts,  or  resigns  bona  fide,  and  not  with  intent 
to  defeat  the  kmg's  right  to  present,  before  the  king  has 
exercised  tliat  right,  it  is  then  held  that  his  right  is  de- 
stroyed ;  for  he  was  only  entitled  to  the  presentation  for 
one  turn,  and  his  having  permitted  the  patron  to  present 
for  that  turn  will  not  entitle  him  to  any  other.     When 
the  vacancy  is  occasioned  by  the  death  of  the  incum- 
bent, or  by  his  cession,  which  is  his  own  voluntary  act, 
being  the  acceptance  of  a  second  benefice  incompatible 
with  the  one  which  he  already  h(jlds,  the  ])atron  is 
bound  to  take  notice  of  the  vacancy,  without  its  being 
notified  to  him  by  the  bishop,  and  his  six  months  are 
calculated  from  the  time  at  which  the  vacancy  actually 
occurs.     But  when  the  incumbent  is  deprived  by  sen- 
tence of  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  and  when  he  resigns, 
such  resignation  being  necessarily  made  into  the  hands 
of  the  bishop,  it  is  held  that,  as  neither  his  deprivation 
nor  resignation  can  be  complete  without  the  concurrence 
of  the  bishop,  the  bishop  ought  to  notify  the  vacancy  to 
the  jiatron,  and  that  the  patron's  six  months  are  to  be 
calculated  from  the  time  at  which  such  notice  is  given. 
And  in  like  manner,  if  the  patron  presents  in  due  time, 
and  th('  bishop  refuses  to  institute  the  person  so  present- 
ed on  the  ground  of  his  insuflicienoy,  the  bishop  ought, 
if  the  patron  be  a  layman,  to  give  notice  of  his  refusal, 
and  initil  he  does  so  no  lapse  can  take  jHace  ;  but  if  the 
patron  be  a  spiritual  person,  it  aj)pears  from  the  old  law- 
ijooks  that  no  notice  is  necessary,  because  the  spiritual 
person  is  presumed  to  be  a  competent  judge  of  the  mor- 
als and  abilities  of  the  person  whom  he  has  selected  for 
the  appointment.     If,  on  account  of  some  such  neglect 
or  omission  on  the  part  of  the  bishop,  the  benefice  does 
not  lapse  to  him,  it  cannot  lapse  t(i  the  archbishop  or  to 
the  king;  for  it  is  a  rule  that  a  lapse  cannot  take  place 
per  saltum,  that  is,  by  leaping  over  or  leaving  out  the 
intermediate  steps.    This  rule  protects  the  patron's-right 
from  being  ever  injured  by  the  improjier  refusal  of  the 
bishop  to  institute  liis  nominee;  for  the  bishop'  can  take 
no  advantage  of  that  which  is  occasioned  liv  his  own 
wrongful  act,  neither  can  the  archbishop  or  the  king, 
for  the  reason  alleged  above.     This  right  of  lapse  ap- 


pears to  have  been  first  established  about  the  time  of 
the  reign  of  Henry  II,  and  to  be  coeval  with  the  prac- 
tice of  institution.  Previously  to  that  period  the  in- 
cumbent's title  was  complete,  upon  his  appointment  by 
the  patron,  without  his  being  instituted  by  the  bishop. 
But  the  Church  of  Home,  always  anxious  to  render  the 
clergy  independent  of  the  laity,  strongly  opposed  this 
custom  (pravaiii  consuetudinem,  as  Pope  Alexander  III, 
in  a  letter  to  Thomas  a  Becket,  designates  it),  and  in- 
sisted that  the  right  of  appointing  to  ecclesiastical  bene- 
fices belanged  exclusively  to  the  bishops.  This  intro- 
duced the  ceremony  of  institution  (q.  v.).  It  is,  however, 
contended  by  some  that  institution  is  as  ancient  as  the 
establishment  of  Christianity  in  England ;  but  Black- 
stone  (ii,33)  maintains  that  it  was  introduced  at  the  time 
stated  above.  After  that  period  the  bishop  alone  had 
the  power  of  conferring  the  legal  title  to  the  vacant 
church,  which  he  did  by  institution :  but  he  was  stiU 
bound  to  institute  the  person  presented  to  him  for  that 
purpose  by  the  patron,  provided  the  patron  presented 
some  one.  But  how  long  was  the  bishop  to  wait  to  see 
whether  it  was  the  patron's  intention  to  exercise  his 
right  of  presentation '?  The  law  declared  that  he  shor.ld 
wait  a  reasonable  time;  and  with  a  due  regard  to  the 
interest  of  the  patron  and  the  convenience  of  the  pub- 
lic, it  has  settled  that  time  to  be  six  months. — Eadie, 
Ecclesiastical  Dictionary,  s.  v.  See  Jus  Dkvolutum. 
Lapsed.     See  Lapsi. 

Xiapsi,  in  the  more  extended  meaning  of  the  word, 
'•  t/ie  J'aHen,''  especially  those  who  were  excluded  from 
communion  with  the  Church  on  account  of  having  com- 
mitted one  of  the  jKCcata  niortalia.  In  a  more  restrict- 
ed sense,  it  was  used  to  denote  such  as  had  "  fallen 
away,"  i.  e.  committed  the  peccatum  mortale  of  denying 
their  faith.  It  was  natural  that  these  should  be  lirst 
designated  by  the  expression  of  "  lapsi,"  as  heretics 
were  very  numerous  in  the  early  ages  of  the  Church, 
and  the  question  of  their  reintegration  into  the  Church 
was  one  of  considerable  importance.  As,  after  the  close 
of  the  persecutions,  there  were  no  longer  any  "lapsi"  in 
that  sense  of  the  word,  it  came  to  be  applied  as  synony- 
mous -Kiih  p)anitentes  or  hareiici,  though  only  occasion- 
ally.   Compare  Henschel,  Glossarium,  s.  v. 

The  '•  lapsi"  were  especially  numerous  when  persecu- 
tion assumed  the  regular  and  systematic  form  it  obtained 
in  Roman  law  muler  Nerva  and  Trajan.  Persistence  in 
the  profession  of  Christianity  was  alone  considered  a 
crime  against  the  state.  Yet  Trajan  granted  full  for- 
giveness to  the  Christians  who  consented  to  offer  up  in- 
cense before  his  statues  and  those  of  the  gods.  During 
the  Decian  persecution  the  form  of  abjuration  became 
even  more  simple.  Those  who  shrank  from  offering  up 
sacrifices  were  supposed  to  have  done  so  by  the  authori- 
ties. Indeed,  in  many  instances  certificates  were  given 
by  magistrates  that  the  law  had  actually  been  comiJied 
with.  Such  mild  measures  made  it  easy  for  many  to 
recant.  Cyprian  informs  us  that  large  numbers  eagerly 
recanted  in  Carthage  even  before  the  persecution  broke 
out;  and  Tertullian  (IJc  fufja  in  perscc.  c.  13)  relates 
with  righteous  indignation  that  whole  congregations, 
with  the  clergy  at  their  head,  would  at  times  resort  to 
dishonorable  bribes  in  order  to  avert  persecution.  But, 
after  the  end  of  the  persecution,  many  tried  to  unite 
again  with  the  Church.  The  question  now  arose  wheth- 
er the  Church  could  again  receive  them  as  members, 
and  on  what  conditions;  and  also,  who  had  the  power 
to  decide  that  (luestion?  In  the  first  ages  such  peni- 
tents were,  upon  their  confessions,  readmitted  by  impo- 
sition  of  hands.  Confessors  had  the  privilege  of  issuing 
letters  of  peace  (libelli  pacis)  to  the  lapsed,  which  fa- 
cilitated their  early  reception  to  communion.  But  such 
penitents  were  ineligible  for  holy  orders,  and,  if  already 
ordained,  they  were  deposed,  not  being  allowed  to  re- 
sume their  clerical  functions,  but  suffered  only  to  remain 
in  lay  communion.  By  degrees  these  admissions  were 
made  still  easier,  and  therefore  became  a  matter  of  se- 
rious consideration  by  the  Coiuicil  of  Aiicyra  (q.  v.),  and 


LAPWING 


245 


LAPWING 


resulted  in  the  revival  of  the  old  Montanist  controversy 
as  to  the  purity  and  holiness  of  the  Church,  besides  pro- 
voking another  as  to  the  extent  of  episcopal  powers. 
On  the  controversies  and  schisms  which  were  thus  pro- 
voked in  the  African  Church,  see  the  articles  Cypkian; 
Decius;  Felicissimus  ;  Maktyks  and  CoNFESsoiiS; 
NovATi.VN;  NovATUS.  (Compare  also  Schaff,  Ch.Hist. 
vol.  i,  §  114  and  115.)  Epiphanius  asserts  that  Mele- 
tius  revived  the  struggle  against  the  laxity  of  Church 
discipline ;  yet  this  assertion  is  not  fully  substantiated ; 
the  question  of  authority  was  already  the  foremost  in 
these  discussions.  See  Meletius.  This  was  still  more 
the  case  in  the  controversy  with  the  Donatists  (q.  v.). 

The  only  other  points  to  be  noticed  are  some  deci- 
sions of  the  councils  which  gradually  elaborated  each  of 
the  principles  tinally  established.  Thus  seven  canones 
(1-8)  of  the  Synod  of  Ancyra  determine  the  penance  to 
be  performedby  the  lapsi.  It  distinguished  between 
those  who  cheerfLilly  partook  of  the  repast  which  fol- 
lowed the  sacrifices  offered  to  idols,  those  who  partook 
of  it  reluctantly  and  with  tears,  and  those  who  ate  none 
of  it.  These  latter  were  punished  with  two  years  of 
penance,  the  others  more  severely.  Priests  who  had  sac- 
rificed to  idols  lost  their  ecclesiastical  character.  The 
Synod  of  Nicrea  was  still  more  lenient.  Those  against 
whom  it  was  most  severe  were  persons  who  had  recanted 
without  being  threatened  in  their  lives  or  fortunes ;  yet 
even  those,  while  declared  to  be  "  unworthy  of  the  pity 
of  the  Church,"  were  also  readmitted.  Naturally,  as 
persecution  decreased,  the  Church  became  less  stringent, 
as  it  had  no  longer  to  fear  desertions.  Even  before  that 
the  practice  of  the  Eastern  Church  had  become  very 
lenient.  See  Tertullian,  De  pudicitia ;  De  poenitentia  ; 
Cyprian,  Be  lapsis ;  epistolm ;  epp.  canonicce  Dionysii 
Akxaiulrini,  c.  2G2 ;  Mansi,  Acta  Condi.  (Ancyr.  1-8; 
Nicffiu.  10-13 ;  11  Carthag.  3 ;  111  Carthag.  27 ;  Agath. 
15) ;  Jacobi  Sirmondi  llis/oria  pwnitentiiE  puhl.  (1(550); 
Joh.  Morini  Comni.  histor.  de  disciplina  in  administratione 
sacr.  panit.  lo  primis  smculis  (ICjI);  Klee,  Die  Beichte, 
eiiie  hist.  hrit.  Untersuchnng  (1828) ;  Krause,  Diss,  de 
lapsis  priince  ecclesia ;  Riddle,  Chi-istian  Antiq.  p.  624 
sq. ;  Siegel,  Christlich-Kirchliche  Alterthilmer,  i,  290  sq. ; 
Schriickh,  Kirchengesch.  iv,  215,  282  sq. ;  v,  59,  313,  382  ; 
Herzog,  Real-Enajklop.  viii,  200 ;  Blunt,  Diet.  Hist,  and 
Doct.  Theolof/ij,  p.  395.     See  Apostasy.     (J'.  H.  W.) 

Lapwing,  in  our  version,  is  used  for  rS'^2*11  (du- 
kiphatk',  perhaps  from  Tl^'^,  the  Arabic  for  cocli.;  and 
i<S^3,  head,  i.  e.  topknot),  a  w'ord  which,  occurring  as 
the  name  of  an  unclean  bird  only  in  Lev.  xi,  19  and 
Deut.  xiv,  18,  affords  no  internal  or  collateral  evidence 
to  establish  the  propriety  of  the  translation.  It  has 
been  surmised  to  mean  "double-crest,"  which  is  suffi- 
ciently correct  when  applied  to  the  hnopne,  but  less  so 
when  applied  to  the  lapwing  {'l'argnm,(lal/iis  montanits), 
or  tlie  cock  of  the  woods,  Tetrao  uror/cdliis,  for  which 
bird  Bochart  produces  a  more  direct  etymology ;  and  he 
might  have  appealed  to  the  fiict  that  the  Attagan  visits 
Syria  in  winter,  exclusive  of  at  least  two  species  of  Pte- 
rocles,  or  sand-grouse,  which  probably  remain  all  the 
year.  But  these  names  were  anciently,  as  weU  as  in 
modern  times,  so  often  confounded  that  the  Greek  writ- 
ers even  used  the  terra  Gallinacea  to  denote  the  hoopoe; 
for  Hesychius  explains  tTroxp  in  ^Eschylus  by  the  Greek 
appellations  of  "  moor-cock"  and  •  mountain-cock"  (see 
Bochart,  s.  v.  Dukiphath) ;  and  in  modern  languages 
similar  mistakes  respecting  this  bird  are  abundant.  JEs- 
chylus  speaks  of  the  hoopoe  by  name,  and  expressly 
calls  it  the  biirl  of  the  rorks  (Fragm.  291,  quoted  by 
Aristotle,  //.  A .  ix,*49).  /Elian  (.V.  A .  iii,  2G)  says  that 
these  birds  biuld  their  nests  in  loftg  rocks.  Aristotle's 
words  are  to  the  same  effect,  for  he  writes,  "  Now  some 
animals  are  found  in  the  mountains,  as  the  hoopoe,  for 
instance"  (II.  A.  i,  1).  When  the  two  lawsuit-wearied 
citizens  of  Athens,  Euclpidcs  and  Pisthetajrus,  in  the 
comedy  of  the  Birds  of  Aristophanes  (20,  54),  are  on 
their  search  for  the  home  of  Epops,  king  of  birds,  their 


ornithological  conductors  lead  them  through  a  wild,  des- 
ert tract  terminated  bij  mountains  and  rocks,  in  which  is 
situated  the  royal  aviary  of  Epops.  The  Septuagint 
and  ViUgate  agree  with  the  Arabian  interpreters  in 
translating  the  Hebrew  term  by  iiroip  and  itpi(pu  ;  and, 
as  the  Syrian  name  is  kikuphah,  and  the  Egyptian  ku- 
kiiphak,  both  apparently  of  the  same  origin  as  dukiphath, 
the  propriety  of  substituting  hoopoe  for  lapwing  in  our 
version  appears  sufficiently  established.  The  ^^•ord  hoo- 
poe is  evidently  onomatopoetic,  being  derived  from  the 
voice  of  the  bird,  which  resembles  the  words  ''  hoop, 
hoop,"  softly  but  rapidly  uttered.  "  It  utters  at  times  a 
sound  closely  resembling  the  word  hoop,  hoop,  hoop,  but 
breathed  out  so  softly,  but  rapidly,  as  to  remind  the 
hearer  of  the  note  of  the  dove"  (Yarrell,  Brit.  Birds,  ii, 
17G).  The  (iermans  call  the  bird  Ein  IIoup,  the  French, 
La  Iluppe,  which  is  particularly  api)ropriate,  as  it  refers 
both  to  the  crest  and  note  of  the  bird.  In  Sweden  it  is 
known  by  the  name  of  Ildr-Fogel,  the  army-bird,  because, 
from  its  ominous  cry,  frequently  heard  in  the  wilds  of 
the  forest,  while  the  bird  itself  moves  off  as  any  one  ap- 
proaches, the  common  people  have  supposed  that  sea- 
sons of  scarcity  and  war  are  impending  (Lloyd's  Scand. 
Advent,  ii,  321). 

The  hoopoe  is  not  uncommon  in  Palestine  at  this  day 
(Forskiil,  Descr.  Anim.  pref.  p.  7 ,  Eussel,  Aleppo,  ii,  81 ; 
\{'6it,  Nachr.  v.  Marokko,  p.  297;  compare  Jerome,  ad 
Zech.  V,  9 ;  Bechstein,  Naturgesch.  ii,  547),  and  was  from 
remote  ages  a  bird  of  mystery.  INIany  and  strange  are 
the  stories  which  are  told  of  the  hoopoe  in  ancient  Ori- 
ental fable,  and  some  of  these  stories  are  by  no  means  to 
its  credit.  It  seems  to  have  been  always  regarded,  both 
bj-  Arabians  and  Greeks,  with  a  superstitious  reverence 
—a  circumstance  which  it  owes,  no  doubt,  partly  to  its 
crest  (Aristoph.  Birds,  94;  compare  Ovid,  Met.  vi,  C72), 
which  certainly  gives  it  a  most  imposing  appearance, 
partly  to  the  length  of  its  beak,  and  partly,  also,  to  ita 
habits.  "  If  any  one  anointed  himself  with  its  blood, 
and  then  fell  asleep,  he  would  see  dcsmons  sufi  ..ating 
him" — "  if  its  liver  were  eaten  with  rue,  the  eater's  wits 
would  be  sharpened,  and  pleasing  memories  be  excited" 
— are  superstitions  held  respecting  this  bird.  One  more 
fable  narrated  of  the  hoopoe  is  given,  because  its  origin 
can  be  traced  to  a  pecidiar  habit  of  the  bird.  The 
Arabs  say  that  the  hoopoe  is  a  betrayer  of  secrets ;  that 
it  is  able,  moreover,  to  point  out  hidden  wells  and  foun- 
tains under  ground.  Now  the  hoopoe,  on  settling  upon 
the  ground,  has  a  strange  and  portentous-looking  habit 
of  bending  the  head  downwards  till  the  point  of  the 
beak  touches  the  ground,  raising  and  depressing  its 
crest  at  the  same  time.  Hence,  with  much  probability, 
arose  the  Arabic  fable.  These  stories,  absurd  as  they 
are,  are  here  mentioned  because  it  was  perhaps  in  a 
great  measure  owing,  not  only  to  tiie  uncleanly  habits 
of  the  bird,  but  also  to  the  superstitious  feeling  with 
which  the  hoopoe  was  regarded  by  the  Egyptians  and 
heathen  generally,  that  it  was  forbidden  as  food  to  the 
Israelites,  whose  affections  Jehovah  wished  to  wean 
from  the  land  of  their  bondage,  to  which,  as  we  know, 
they  fondly  clung.  The  summit  of  the  augural  rod  is 
said  to  have  been  carved  in  the  form  of  a  hoopoe's  head ; 
and  one  of  the  kind  is  still  used  by  Indian  gosseins,  and 
even  Armenian  bishops,  attention  being  no  doubt  drawn 
to  the  bird  by  its  peculiarly  arranged  bars  upon  a  deli- 
cate vinous  fawn  color,  and  further  embellished  with  a 
beautiful  fan-shaped  crest  of  the  same  color.  The  hoo- 
poe is  a  bird  of  the  slender-billed  tribe,  allied  to  the 
creepers  {Certhiad(e),  about  as  large  as  a  pigeon,  but 
rather  more  slender.  Tlie  general  hue  is  a  delicate  red- 
dish buff,  but  the  back,  wings,  and  tall  are  beautifully 
marked  with  broad  alternate  bands  of  black  and  white : 
the  feathers  of  the  crest,  which  can  be  raised  or  dropped 
at  pleasure,  arc  terminateil  by  a  white  space  tijiped  with 
lilack.  In  Egyjit  tliese  birds  are  numerous  (Sonnini, 
Travels,  i,  204)",  forming  probably  two  species,  the  one 
permanently  resident  about  human  habitations,  the  other 
migratory,  and  the  same  that  visits  Europe.     The  lat- 


LAPWING 


246 


LARDNER 


Hoopoe  {Upupa  Epopn). 


ter  wades  in  the  mud  when  the  Nile  has  subsided,  and 
seeks  lor  worms  and  insects;  and  the  former  is  known 
to  rear  its  young  so  much  immersed  in  the  shards  and 
fragments  of  beetles,  etc.,  as  to  cause  a  disagreeable 
smell  about  its  nest,  which  is  always  in  holes  or  in  hol- 
low trees.  Though  an  unclean  bird  in  the  Hebrew  law, 
the  common  migratory  hoopoe  is  eaten  in  Egypt,  and 
sometimes  also  in  Italy;  but  the  stationary  species  is 
considered  inedible.  See  jNIacgillivray's  British  Birds, 
iii,  43;  Yarrell,  i>72V.  B.  ii,  178,  '2d  ed.;  Lloyd's  Scandi- 
navian Adrentures,  ii,  S'2l.  The  chief  grounds  for  all 
the  filthy  habits  which  have  been  ascribed  to  this  much- 
maligned  bird  are  to  be  found  in  the  fiict  that  it  resorts 
to  dunghills,  etc.,  in  search  of  the  worms  and  insects 
which  it  finds  there.  A  writer  in  Ibis,  i,  49,  says,  "We 
found  the  hoopoe  a  very  good  bird  to  eat."  Tristram 
says  of  the  hoopoe  {Ibis,  i,  27) :  "  The  Arabs  have  a  su- 
perstitious reverence  for  this  bird,  which  they  believe  to 
possess  marvellous  medicinal  qualities,  and  call  it  '  the 
Doctor.'  Its  head  is  an  indispensable  ingredient  in  aU 
charms,  and  in  the  practice  of  witchcraft."  —  Kitto; 
Smith;  Fairbairn.  See  Bochart,  Ilieroz.  iii,  107  sq. ; 
Rosenmiiller,  Alterth.  IV,  ii,  326;  Oedmann,  Samml.  v, 
66  sq. ;  Sommer,  Bibl.  A  bhandl.  i,  254  sq. ;  Penni/  Ci/clo- 
pcediu,  s.  V.  Upupidie;  Wood,  Bible  Animals,  p.  392. 

Dr.  Thomson,  however,  dissents  from  the  common 
view  above  that  the  Hebrew  dukiphath  is  the  ordinary 
hed-hood  or  hoopoe,  on  the  ground  that  the  latter  ''  is  a 
small  bird,  (/ood  to  eat,  comparatively  rare,  and  there- 
fore not  likely  to  have  been  mentioned  at  all  by  Moses, 
and  still  less  to  have  been  classed  Avith  the  unclean." 
He  proposes  the  English  pewit,  called  by  the  natives 
now  and  bu-teet.  "The  bird  appears  in  Palestine  only 
in  the  depth  of  winter.  It  then  disperses  over  the 
mountains,  and  remains  until  early  spring,  when  it  en- 
tirely disappears.     It  roosts  on  the  ground  wherever 


The  rewit. 


night  overtakes  it.  It  utters  a  loud  scream  when  about 
to  fly,  which  sounds  like  the  last  of  the  above  names. 
It  is  regarded  as  an  unclean  bird  by  the  Arabs.  The 
upper  part  of  the  body  and  wings  are  of  a  dull  slate-col- 
or, the  under  parts  of  both  are  white.  It  has  a  topknot 
on  the  hinder  part  of  the  head  pointing  backward  like 
a  horn,  and  when  running  about  on  the  ground  it  close- 
ly resembles  a  young  hare"  {Land  and  Bool;  i,  104). 

Lardner,  Dionysius,  LL.D.,  a  distinguished  Eng- 
lish writer  on  i)hysical  science,  was  born  in  Dublin  April 
3,  1793,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  natural  ]ihiloso- 
phy  and  astronomy  in  University  College,  London,  in 
1828.  In  1830  he  projected  a  sort  of  Encyclopa?dia,  con- 
sisting of  original  treatises  on  history,  science,  econom- 
ics, etc.,  by  the  most  eminent  authors,  and  134  volumes 
were  accordingly  published,  under  the  general  name  of 
Lurdiier's  Cyclopwdia,  between  1830  and  1844.  Some 
of  these  volumes  were  from  his  own  pen.  A  second  is- 
sue of  this  work  was  begun  in  1853.  He  has  published 
various  scientific  works,  the  most  important  of  which 
are  his  "  hand-books"  of  various  branches  of  natural  phi- 
losophy (1854-50).  He  is  also  the  author  of  the  Museum 
of  Science  and  Art,  an  excellent  popular  exposition  of 
the  physical  sciences,  with  their  applications.  He  died 
in  Paris  April  29,  1859. — Chambers,  Cyclojmdia,  s.  v. 

Lardner,  Nathaniel,  D.D.,  a  very  noted  English 
theologian  and  minister  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  of 
Arian  tendency,  was  born  in  Hawkshurst,  in  Kent,  in 
1684.  In  early  life  he  was  a  pupil  of  Dr.  Joshua  Old- 
field,  a  minister  of  eminence  in  that  denomination,  but, 
like  many  of  the  Dissenters  of  his  time,  he  preferred  to 
go  abroad  to  prosecute  his  studies.  He  spent  more  than 
three  years  at  the  University  of  Utrecht,  where  he  stud- 
ied under  Gra?vius  and  Burmann,  and  was  then  some  time 
at  the  University  of  Leyden.  He  returned  to  England 
in  1703,  and  continued  to  prosecute  his  theological  stud- 
ies with  a  view  to  the  ministry,  which  he  entered  at  the 
age  of  twenty-five.  He  began  preaching  at  Stoke-New- 
ington  in  1709,  but,  owing  to  his  want  of  power  to  mod- 
ulate his  voice,  soon  became  private  chaplain  and  tutor 
in  the  family  of  lady  Treby.  In  1724  he  was  appointed 
lecturer  at  the  Old  .Jewry,  where  he  delivered  in  outline 
his  work.  The  Credibilifi/  of  the  Gospel  Histoi-ij  (London, 
1727-43,  5  vols.  8vo),  generallj-  acknowledged  as  consti- 
tuting the  most  unanswerable  defence  of  Christianity  to 
our  own  day.  "  The  work  is  unequalled  for  the  extent 
and  accuracy  of  its  investigations.  Kecent  rtscarehee 
supplement  it,  but  it  is  not  likely  that  they  will  ever  su- 
persede it"  (W.  J.  Cox  in  Kitto).  Sir  James  IMackin- 
tosh,  in  his  remarks  on  Paley  (in  the  View  of  the  Pi-og- 
7-ess  ff  Ethical  Philosophi/\  rather  discredits  its  general 
usefulness  as  an  apologetical  work,  because  it  "soon  wea- 
ries out  the  greater  part  of  readers,"  though  there  are 
many  eminent  English  critics  who  think  otherwise  (com- 
pare Allibone,  Diet.  ofEnr/l.  and  A  m.  A  uthors, 
ii,  1060).  But  even  sir  J.  JIackintosh  concedes 
that  with  the  scholar  it  has  power :  "  The  few 
who  are  more  patient  have  almost  always  been 
gradually  won  over  to  feel  pleasure  in  a  dis- 
jilay  of  knowledge,  probity,  charity,  and  meek- 
ness inimatched  by  an  avowed  advocate  in  a 
case  deeply  interesting  his  warmest  feelings" 
( compare  also  Leland,  Deistical  Writers').  In 
1 729  he  was  unexpectedly  called  to  the  Church 
ill  Crutchwl  Friars,  which  position  he  accept- 
ed and  held  for  about  twenty-two  years.  He 
died  at  his  native  place  in  17(!8,  having  de- 
voted his  long  life  to  the  prosecution  of  theo- 
logical inquiry,  to  the  exclusion  of  almost  any 
other  subject.  As  a  supplement  to  The  Cred- 
ibiliti/,  Lardner  wrote  History  of  the  Apostles 
and  KiHtngelists,  writers  of  the  N.  Test.  ( 1 756- 
57.  again  1760,  3  vols.  8vo;  also  in  vol.  ii  of 
bishop  Watson's  Collection  of  Tracts).  Dr. 
Lardner  likewise  wrote  many  other  treatises, 
in  which  his  store  of  learning  is  brought  to 
bear  on  questions  important  in  Christian  the- 


LARES 


247 


LARNED 


ology.  The  most  remarkable  of  these,  his  minor  publi- 
cations, are  his  Letter  on  the  Lor/os  (1759),  in  which  it  dis- 
tinctly appears  that  he  was  of  the  Unitarian  or  Socinian 
scliool;  and  History  of  the  Heretics  of  the  first  two  Centu- 
ries after  Christ  (published  alter  his  decease  [1780, 4to], 
with  "additions  by  John  Hogg).  The  best  edition  of  Lard- 
ner's  works  is  that  by  Dr.  Andrew  Kippis  (Lond.  1788, 
11  vols.  8vo);  but  it  is  no  mean  proof  of  the  estimation 
in  which  they  are  held,  that,  large  as  the  collection  is, 
they  were  reprinted  entire  as  late  as  1838  (Lond.  10  vols. 
8vo",  a  very  handsome  edition).  His  writings,  now  more 
than  a  century  old,  are  still  regarded  as  "  a  bulwark  on 
the  side  of  truth,"  so  much  so  that  not  only  ministers 
and  students  of  theology  of  our  day  can  ill  afford  to  be 
without  them,  but  every  intelligent  layman  who  seeks 
to  do  his  duty  in  the  Church,  of  which  he  is  a  part, 
sliould  possess  and  study  them.  "  In  the  applause  of 
Dr.  Lardner,"  says  T.  H.  Home  {Bibl.  Bib.  p.  368),  "  aU 
parties  of  Christians  are  united,  regarding  him  as  the 
champion  of  their  common  and  holy  faith.  Seeker,  Por- 
teus,  Watson,  Tomline,  Jortin,  Hay,  and  Paley,  of  the 
Anglican  Church ;  Doddridge,  Kippis,  and  Priestley, 
among  the  Dissenters^  and  all  foreign  Protestant  Bibli- 
cal critics  have  rendered  public  homage  to  his  learning, 
his  fairness,  and  his  great  merits  as  a  Christian  apolo- 
gist. The  candid  of  the  literati  of  the  Romish  com- 
munion have  extolled  his  labors;  and  even  ISIorgan  and 
(iibbon,  professed  unbelievers,  have  awarded  to  him  the 
meed  of  faithfulness  and  impartiality.  By  collecting  a 
mass  of  scattered  evidences  in  favor  of  the  authenticity 
of  the  evangelical  history,  he  established  a  bulwark  on 
the  side  of  truth  which  infidelity  has  never  presumed  to 
attack."  See  Dr.  Kippis,  Life  of  Lardner,  in  vol.  i  of 
the  works  of  the  latter ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  m. 
Authors,  ii,  lOGO;  English  Cijclop.  s.  v.;  Farrar,  Critical 
Hist,  of  Free  Thoufjht,  p.  4G8 ;  Domer,  Person  of  Christ, 
ii,pt.  iii,  App.  p.  407. 

Lares,  in  connection  with  the  Manks  and  the  Pe- 
NATKS,  were  tutelary  spirits,  genii,  or  deities  of  the  an- 
cient Romans.  The  derivation  of  the  names  is  not  per- 
haps quite  certain,  but  the  lirst  is  generally  considered 
the  plural  of  lar,  an  Etruscan  word  signifying  "  lord"  or 
"hero;"  the  second  is  supposed  to  mean  "the  good  or 
benevolent  ones;"  and  the  third  is  connected  with  jk- 
nus, "  the  innermost  part  of  a  house  or  sanctuary."  The 
Lares,  Manes,  and  Penates  do  not  appear  to  have  been 
regarded  as  essentially  different  beings,  for  the  names 
are  frequently  used  either  interchangeably  or  in  such  a 
conjunction  as  almost  implies  identity.  Yet  some  have 
thought  that  a  distinction  is  discernible,  and  have  look- 
ed upon  the  Lares  as  earthly,  the  Manes  as  infernal, 
and  the  Penates  as  heavenly  protectors — a  notion  which 
has  probably  originated  in  the  fact  that  jManes  is  a  gen- 
eral name  for  the  souls  of  the  departed,  those  who  in- 
habit the  lower  world;  while  among  the  Penates  are 
included  such  great  deities  as  Jupiter,  Juno,  Vesta,  etc. 
Hence  we  may  perhaps  infer  that  the  jNIanes  were  just 
the  Lares  viewed  as  departed  spirits,  and  that  the  Pe- 
nates embraced  not  only  the  Lares,  but  all  spirits,  wheth- 
er dajmons  or  deities,  who  exercised  a  "special  provi- 
dence" over  families,  cities,  etc.  Of  the  former,  IManes, 
we  know  almost  nothing  distinctively.  An  annual  fes- 
tival was  lield  in  their  honor  on  the  19th  of  February, 
called  Feralia  or  Parentalia,  of  the  latter,  Penates,  we 
are  in  nearly  equal  ignorance,  but  of  the  Lares  we  have 
a  somewhat  detailed  account.  They  were,  like  the  Pe- 
nates, divided  into  two  classes  —  Lares  domestici  and 
Lares  jjubUci.  The  former  were  the  souls  of  virtuous 
ancestors  set  free  from  the  realm  of  shades  by  the  Ache- 
rontic  rites,  and  exalted  to  the  rank  of  protectors  of 
their  descendants.  They  were,  in  short,  household  gods, 
and  their  worship  was  really  a  worship  of  ancestors. 
The  first  of  the  Lares  in  point  of  honor  was  the  Larfa- 
miliark,  the  founder  of  the  house,  the  family  Lar,  who 
accompanied  it  iu  all  its  changes  of  residence.  The 
Lares  puhlici  had  a  wider  sphere  of  influence,  and  re- 
ceived particular  names  from  the  places  over  which  they 


ruled.  Thus  we  read  oi  Lares  compitales  (the  Lares  of 
cross-roads).  Lares  vicorum  (the  Lares  of  streets),  the 
Lares  rurales  (the  rural  Lares),  Lares  viales  (the  Lares 
of  the  highways).  Lares  permarini  (the  Lares  of  the 
sea),  and  the  Lares  cnhiculi  (the  Lares  of  the  bedcham- 
ber). The  images  of  these  guardian  spirits  or  deities 
were  placed  (at  least  in  large  houses)  in  small  shrines 
or  compartments  called  cediculce  or  lararia.  They  were 
worshipped  every  day :  whenever  a  Roman  family  sat 
down  to  meals,  a  portion  of  the  food  was  presented  to 
them;  but  particular  honors  were  paid  to  them  on  the 
calends,  nones,  and  ides  of  the  month ;  and  at  festive 
gatherings  the  lararia  were  thrown  open,  and  the  im- 
ages of  the  household  gods  were  adorned  with  garlands. 
— Chambers,  s.  v.  See  Smith's  Dictionary  of  Classical 
liioiiraphy  and  Mijthology,  s.  v. 

Larned,  Sylvester,  an  American  Presbyterian 
minister,  born  in  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  Aug.  31,  1796,  was 
educated  at  Lenox  Academy  and  Middlebury  College, 
studied  theology  in  Princeton  Seminary,  and  was  or- 
dained in  July,  1817.  His  earliest  efforts  at  preaching 
showed  rare  gifts  of  eloquence,  and  his  first  sermons, 
delivered  in  New  York  city,  attracted  large  crowds,  and 
melted  whole  audiences  to  tears.  President  Davis,  of 
Middlebury  College,  remarked  of  him  that  in  his  com- 
position and  eloquence  he  was  not  surpassed  by  any 
j'outh  whom  he  had  ever  known ;  and  John  Quincy 
Adams  declared  that  he  had  never  heard  his  equal  in 
the  pulpit.  To  his  wonderful  gift  of  oratorj^  Larned 
added  the  strength  of  a  dignified  and  commanding  pres- 
ence, a  voice  fnU  of  melody  and  pathos,  thorough  and 
sjinpathetic  appreciation  of  his  theme,  and  an  unj-ield- 
ing  devotion  to  his  calling.  He  had  the  unusual  power 
of  winning  his  audience  with  the  utterance  of  almost 
his  first  sentence.  His  very  look  was  eloquent.  Larned 
was  solicited  to  take  the  first  stations,  with  the  largest 
salaries ;  but,  desiring  to  give  his  energies  to  build  up 
the  Church  where  it  was  weak,  he  went  to  New  Orleans, 
and  soon  organized  a  church,  the  First  Presbyterian, 
over  which  he  became  pastor.  He  labored  there  with 
the  greatest  success,  creating  deep  impressions  upon  the 
popular  mind  until  his  death,  Aug.  20,  1820.  Seldom, 
if  ever,  has  the  death  of  one  so  young  caused  such  wide- 
spread sorrow.  His  Life  and  Sermo7)s  were  published 
by  Rev.  R.  R.  Giurley  (Ncav  York,  1844,  12mo).  —  AUi- 
bone.  Diet  of  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  iithors,  ii,  1060 ;  Water- 
bury,  Sketches  of  Eloquent  Preacheis,  p.  33  sq. ;  New  Eng- 
lander,  v,  70  sq. 

Larned,"William  Augustus,  a  noted  American 
Congregational  theologian  and  professor,  was  born  in 
Thompson  County,  Conn.,  June  23, 1806.  His  ancestors 
had  li\'cd  in  that  county  for  four  generations,  the  first 
of  the  family  having  come  over  in  John  Winthrop's  col- 
ony in  1630.  Provided  with  suitable  opportunities  for 
obtaining  an  education  by  his  father,  a  lawyer  of  con- 
siderable ability  and  renown,  young  Larned  was  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  College  with  honor  when  about  twenty 
years  of  age.  Although  religiously  trained  he  was 
somewhat  sceptical  in  his  youth,  but,  under  the  preach- 
ing of  Dr.  Fitch  while  in  college,  he  was  powerfuUy  im- 
pressed, and  in  the  great  revival  that  occurred  soon  after 
his  graduation  he  resolved  to  be  a  follower  of  Christ. 
After  teaching  five  years,  first  at  Salisburj',  N.  C,  and 
then  ff>r  three  years  as  tutor  in  Yale  College,  he  entered 
upon  his  theological  studies,  and  was  ordained  in  1834 
liastor  of  the  Second  Congregational  Church,  Millbury, 
JIass.,  but  was  compelled  to  reUnqulsh  this  chii.rge  iu 
the  following  year  on  account  of  impaired  health.  From 
1835  to  1889  he  was  associated,  at  their  request,  with 
Rev.  N.  S.  Beman,  D.D.,  and  Rev.  Mr.  Kirk,  in  instruct- 
ing theological  students  in  Troy,  N.  Y.  Soon  after  fin- 
ishing his  labors  in  Troy  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
rhetoric  and  English  literature  in  Yale  College,  a  posi- 
tion which  he  tilled  with  honor  and  usefulness  till  his 
death,  Feb.  3,  1862.  Prof.  Larned's  literary  labors  were 
mostly  confined  to  the  New  Englamler,  of  wliich  he  was 
editor  for  two  years,  and  to  which  he  contributed  twon- 


LAROCHE 


248 


LAROMIGUIERE 


ty-seven  different  articles  on  a  variety  of  topics.  As 
the  pastor  of  a  church,  as  the  successor  of  Dr.  Goodrich 
in  the  professor's  chair,  and  as  a  literarj'  man,  lie  acquit- 
ted himself  with  fidelity  and  success.  He  was  a  man 
simple  and  unpretending  in  his  tastes  and  habits,  of 
great  purity  of  character,  and  of  strong  faith  in  Christ 
as  his  Saviour.  See  New  Englander,  18G2,  April,  art.  ix ; 
Appleton,  Xew  Am.  Cyclop,  vol.  x,  s.  v. ;  Conrjreg.  Q,uaii. 
18G3 ;  Dr.  Theodore  Woolsey,  Funeral  Discourse  com- 
memorative of  Rec.  W.  A.  Larned  (New  Haven,  18G2, 
8vo).     (;H.A.B.) 

Laroche,  Alaix  de,  also  called  Alanus  de  Rupe, 
a  French  Koman  Catholic  theologian,  was  born  in  Brit- 
tany about  the  year  1428.  While  yet  quite  young  he 
joined  the  Dominicans,  studied  philosophy  and  tlieology 
at  I'aris,  and  was  sent  to  the  Netherlands  in  1459.  Af- 
ter lecturing  for  a  while  in  the  convents  of  Lille  and 
Douai,  he  became  professor  of  theology  at  Gand  in  14G8, 
and  at  Rostock  in  1470.  He  died  at  ZwoU  Sept.  8, 1475. 
Full  of  zeal,  but  very  deficient  in  knowledge,  Laroche 
labored  ceaselessly  to  propagate  the  use  of  the  rosary ; 
he  w'as  the  first  to  preach  on  this  practice,  introducing 
in  his  sermons  marvellous  stories  which  he  mostly  in- 
vented himself.  His  works  were  published  more  than 
a  century  after  his  death,  under  the  title  Beatus  Alanus 
de  Rape  redivivus,  de  Psalterio,  seu  Rosario  ChrisH  et  Ma- 
rice,  tractafus,  in  V partes  distributns  (Friburg,  1619,  4to ; 
Col.  1624;  Naples,  1630).  See  Trithemius,  Z^e  Script. 
Eccles.  c.  850;  Choquet,  Script.  Belrj.  Ord.  Prcedicat.  p. 
202-218;  Echard,  Script.  Ord.  Prcedicat. ;  Paqnot,  Me- 
moires,  etc.,  iii,  144-150 ;  Hoefer,  Noiiv.  Biog.  Geninde, 
xxix,  G22.     See  Rosarv.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Larochefoucauld,  Francois,  Drc  de,  a  noted 
French  philosophical  writer,  the  descendant  of  an  old 
French  family  of  great  celebrity,  was  born  in  1G13.  He 
early  enjoyed  the  fiivor  and  confidence  of  the  court,  but 
involved  himself  in  intrigues  against  cardmal  Richelieu, 
and  in  the  tumults  of  the  Fronde,  and  was  obliged  to 
retire  into  private  life.  Ever  attached  to  literary  pur- 
suits, he  cultivated  the  society  of  the  most  eminent  lit- 
erary persons  of  his  time,  Boileau,  Racine,  and  Moliere, 
and  composed  his  famous  Memoires  (Cologne,  1G62 ; 
Amsterdam,  1723,  etc.),  in  which  he  gives  a  simple  but 
masterly  historic  account  of  the  political  events  of  his 
time.  In  16G5  he  published  Reflexions  ou  Sentences  et 
Maximes  Morcdes,  a  work  containing  360  detached 
thoughts,  of  which,  perhaps,  the  most  widely  celebrated 
is  his  definition  of  hj-pocrisy,  as  "the  homage  which 
vice  renders  to  virtue."  The  book  is  regarded  as  a 
model  of  French  prose,  and  exhibits  much  acuteness  of 
observation,  and  a  clear  perception  of  the  prevalent  cor- 
TU])tion  and  hypocrisy  of  his  time.  Larochefoucauld 
died  Marcli  17,  1680.  His  (Eui-res  Completes  were  edit- 
ed by  Depping  (Par.  1818),  and  his  writings  have  l)cen 
commented  on  by  a  host  of  critics  of  the  most  different 
schools,  as  Voltaire,  Viuet,  Sainte-Beuve,  and  Victor  Cou- 
sin. See  Suard,  Notice  sur  La  Rochefoucanld;  Sainte- 
Beuve,  Etmh's  sur  La  Rochefoucauld,  in  his  Portraits 
des  Femmes ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gmerale,  xxix,  G34  sq. 
— Chambers,  Cgclopceclia,  s.  v. 

Laromiguiere,  Pierre,  a  distinguished  French 
metaphysician,  was  born  at  Livignac-le-Haut.  Aveyron, 
Nov.  3, 175G.  He  studied  at  the  College  of  Villefranche, 
and  became  successively  jirofcssor  of  i)hil()sophy  at  Car- 
cassonne, Tarbes  and  La  FK-clie,  and  Toulouse.  "^  In  1790 
he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  soon  became  professor  of  the 
normal  school.  In  1812  he  confined  himself  to  his  office 
of  librarian  of  the  university,  still  retaining,  however, 
the  title  of  jjrofessor  of  the  faculty  of  philosophy.  He 
died  at  Paris  Aug.  12,  1«37.  With  the  exception  of  a 
few  miscellaneous  pieces,  his  chief  reputation  as  a  phi- 
losopher rests  ou  his  Le^on.t  de  Philosophie  (3d  ed.  Paris, 
1826,  3  vols.  12mo).  He  had  been'educated  a  zealous 
pui)il  of  Condillac,  but  there  were,  as  Cousin  expresses 
it,  two  men  in  Laromiguiere.  the  ancient  an<l  the  mod- 
ern ;  the  disciple  and  the  adversary  of  Condillac. 


iMromiguiere's  Philosophy. — (1.)  Classification  of  the 
Faculties. — "  These  powers  and  capacities  he  separates 
into  two  great  classes— those  of  the  understanding  and 
those  of  the  wUl.  The  faculties  of  the  understanding  he 
reduces  to  these  three  :  1.  Attention;  2.  Comparison ;  3. 
Reasoning.  Of  these  three,  attention  is  the  fundamental 
principle  from  which  the  other  two  proceed ;  and  of  these 
two,  again,  the  phenomena  usually  denoted  by  the  words 
memory,  judgment,  imagination,  etc.,  arc  simply  modi- 
fications. Since,  however,  these  three  generic  powers,  in 
their  last  analysis,  are  all  included  in  the  first,  the  whole 
of  the  phenomena  of  the  understanding  may  be  said  to 
spring  from  the  one  great  fundamental  faculty  of  attention. 
If  we  now  turn  to  the  tcill,  we  find,  according  to  M.  Laro-  > 
miguiere,  a  comi)lete  parallel  existing  between  its  phe- 
nomena and  those  we  have  just  been  considering.  The 
foundation  of  all  voluntary  action  in  man  is  desii-e;  and 
in  the  same  manner  as  we  have  already  seen  the  two 
latter  faculties  of  the  luiderstanding  spring  from  the 
first,  so  now  we  see  springing  from  desire,  as  the  basis, 
the  two  corresponding  phenomena  of  preference  and  lib- 
erty. These  three  powers,  then,  being  established,  all 
the  subordinate  powers  of  the  will  are  without  difficulty 
reducible  to  them,  so  that,  at  length,  we  have  the  com- 
plete man  viewed  in  two  different  aspects — in  the  one 
as  an  intellectual,  in  the  otlier  as  a  voluntary  being,  the 
chief  facts  of  his  intellectual  exactly  corresponding  to 
those  of  his  voluntary  existence.  Lastly,  to  bring  the 
whole  system  to  a  state  of  complete  unity,  our  author 
shows  that  desire  itself  is,  strictly  speaking,  a  peculiar 
form  of  attention ;  that  the  fundamental  principle,  there- 
fore, of  our  intellectual  and  voluntary  life  is  the  same ; 
that  the  power  of  attention,  broadly  viewed  (being,  in 
fact,  but  another  expression  for  the  natural  activity  of 
the  human  mind),  is  the  point  from  which  the  whole 
originally  proceeds.  Now  the  contrast  between  this 
psychology  and  that  of  Condillac  is  sufficiently  striking, 
the  one  being  indeed,  in  a  measure,  directlj'  opposite  to 
the  other.  The  one  lays  at  the  foundation  of  our  whole 
intellectual  and  active  life  a  faculty  ])urc\y  passice  in  its 
nature,  and  regards  all  phenomena  as  simply  transfor- 
mations of  it;  the  other  assumes  a  primitive  power,  the 
very  essence  of  which  is  actiriti/,  and  makes  all  our  other 
powers  more  or  less  share  in  this  essence." 

(2.)  Origin  of  our  Ideas. — "  Here,  in  order  to  swerve 
as  little  as  possible  in  appearance  from  the  philosophy 
of  Condillac,  he  makes  the  whole  matericd  of  our  knowl- 
edge come  from  out  sensibility.  Condillac  had  derived 
all  our  ideas  from  sensation  in  its  ordinary'  and  contract- 
ed sense;  Locke  had  derived  them  from  sensation  and 
reflection,  thus  taking  in  the  active  as  well  as  the  pass- 
ive element  to  account  for  the  iihenoniena  of  the  case ; 
M.  Laromiguiere,  however,  explains  his  meaning  of  the 
word  sensibility  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  the  foun- 
dation stiU  broader  than  that  of  Locke  himself.  Sensi- 
bility, he  shows,  is  of  four  kinds :  1.  That  produced  by 
the  action  of  external  things  upon  the  mind — this  is 
sensation  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word ;  2.  that  ]iro- 
duced  by  the  action  of  our  faculties  upon  each  other — 
this  is  equivalent  to  Locke's  reflection ;  3.  that  which  is 
produced  by  the  recurrence  and  comparison  of  several 
ideas  together,  giving  us  the  perception  of  relations  ; 
and,  4.  that  which  is  produced  by  the  contemplation  of 
human  actions,  as  right  or  wrong,  which  is  the  nn'ral 
faculty.  In  this  theory  it  appears  at  once  evident  tliat 
there  is  a  secret  revolt  from  the  doctrines  of  sensational- 
ism. The  activity  of  the  human  mind  was  again  vin- 
dicated, the  majesty  of  reason  restored,  and,  what  was 
still  more  important,  the  moral  faculty  was  again  raised 
from  its  ruins  to  sway  its  sceptre  over  human  actions 
and  purposes.  i\I.  Laromiguiere,  the  ideologist,  will  al- 
ways be  viewed  as  the  day-star  of  French  eclecticijim" 
(Morell,  History  of  Modern  Philosophy,  p.  631  s(j.). 

Laromiguiere's  works  were  published,  in  the  7th  edi- 
tion, as  (Eueres  de  Laromiguiere,  at  Paris,  in  18G2.  See 
Cousin,  Fragments philosophirjues  (1838),  ii,  468;  Dami- 
ron,  Essai  sur  I'JIistoire  de  la  Philosophie  en  France  au 


LAROS 


249 


LA  SALLE 


xix"'^  siecle  (1828) ;  Daunou,  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les 
Ecrits  lie  Laromiyuiere  (1839) ;  Valette,  Laromigui'ere 
et  VEclectisme  (iS-t'i) ;  Saphary,  IJEcole  ecL'ctique  et 
VEcole  Eran^aise  (1844) ;  Perrard,  Loffiqne  clussique 
d'apres  les  principes  de  Laromiguiere  (1844);  C.  Mallet, 
Mem.  sur  Laromiguiere,  in  the  Compte  rendu  de  VA  ca- 
demie  des  Sciences  morales  et  poUtiques  (1847),  vol.  iii; 
Tissot,  Appreciations  des  Lemons  de  I'hilosophie  de  Laro- 
viiguiere  (1855)  ;  jMignet,  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  et 
les  Ecrits  de  M.  Laromiguiere  (185()) ;  Taine,  IjCS  Philo- 
sopkes  Eraiifais  du  xix'"'  siecle  (1857) ;  Iloefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  Generale,  xxix,  GG9. 

Laros,  John  Jacob,  a  minister  of  the  German  Re- 
formed Churcli,  of  Hut,aienot  descent,  was  born  in  Le- 
high Co.,  Pa.,  in  Feb.  1755.  lie  was  three  years  a  sol- 
dier in  the  Revolutionary  War,  and  fought  in  the  battle 
of  Trenton.  Afterwards  he  went  to  North  Carolina, 
where  he  taught  scliool.  He  studied  theology  private- 
ly, and  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1795.  He  preached 
seven  years  in  North  Carolina,  when  he  removed  to 
Ohio,  and  there  continued  the  good  work.  He  was  not 
ordained,  however,  till  18"20.  He  died  Nov.  17,  1844, 
having  accomplished  an  important  work  in  Ohio  as  a 
pioneer  of  the  German  Reformed  Church.  Mr.  Laros 
wrote  much.  He  left  behind  in  I\IS.  treatises  on  The 
Decrees  of  God  and  lieproba/ioii,  and  The  Evidences  of 
saving  Eaith.  These  are  in  (Jerman — ably  conceived, 
well  conducted,  and  written  in  a  beautiful  style.  He  left 
also  a  number  of  poems  of  considerable  merit.  Without 
mucli  learning,  he  was  decidedly  a  genius,  but,  what  is 
better,  he  left  behind  him  the  record  of  a  long,  laborious, 
and  useful  life. 

Larroque,  Daniel,  a  French  theologian  and  writer, 
was  born  at  A'itni  near  IGGO.  He  studied  theology, 
and  was  about  to  enter  the  ministry,  when  the  revoca- 
tion of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  drove  him  to  London.  After 
preaching  in  the  capital  of  England  for  several  months, 
he  Vv'ent  to  Copenhagen  as  minister  to  Huguenot  refu- 
gees. In  1G90  he  returned  to  France,  and  became  a  Ro- 
man Catholic ;  but  he  failed  to  meet  with  success  among 
the  Romanists,  and  he  devoted  himself  mainly  to  stndj', 
and  kept  in  close  retirement  from  the  world.  He  died 
at  Paris  Sept.  5, 1731.  A  list  of  liis  writings,  which  are 
not  of  particular  interest,  is  given  in  Hocfcr,  Nouv.  Biog. 
Generale,  xxix,  G97-699. 

Larroque,  Matthieu  de,  a  distinguished  French 
Protestant  theologian,  was  born  at  Lairac,  near  Agen,  in 
1G19.  He  studied  theology  at  jNIontauban,  and  in  1G43 
became  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Poujoh.  The  next  year 
he  went  in  the  same  capacity  to  Yitre,  where  he,  re- 
mained twenty-six  years.  In  1GG9  he  was  proposed  as 
minister  to  the  Church  of  Charenton,  but  the  govern- 
n>ent  opposed  his  nomination ;  similar  reasons  prevent- 
ed his  accepting  a  call  as  pastor  and  professor  to  Sau- 
mur.  He  shortly  after  went  to  Rouen,  where  he  died, 
Jan.  31, 1G84.  Larroque  was  a  man  of  eminent  natural 
talents,  extensive  learning,  and  great  activity.  He  wrote 
a  large  number  of  works,  mostly  polemical,  the  principal 
of  which  are,  Histoire  de  VEurharistie  (Amst.  1G69,  4to; 
2d  ed.  1G71, 8vo) ;  a  very  scholarly  work,  by  far  his  best, 
and  of  itself  enough  to  make  his  name  immortal: — Dis- 
sertalio  duplex  de  Photino  hwretico  et  de  Liberia ponfifice 
Romano  (Geneva,  1670,  8vo)  : — Obsei-vationes  in  Igna- 
tianas  Pearsonii  vindicias  et  in  annotationes  Bereregii  in 
Canones  Apostolorum  (Rouen,  1G74,  8vo) :  a  defence  of 
Daille's  work  on  the  epistles  of  Ignatius  against  Pear- 
son and  Beveridge ;  Reponse  aii  livre  de  ](/.  Veveque  de 
Meini.r,  De  la.  Communion  sons  les  deux  esp'eces  (Rotter- 
dam, 1G83,  ]2mo)  -.—Nouveau  Trai/e  de  la  Regale  (Rot- 
terdam, 1G85, 12mo),  in  defence  of  the  king's  right  to  ap- 
point ministers  to  the  vacant  churches  in  France  : — Ad- 
versarionim  sacronim.  Libri  iii  (Leydcn,  1G88,  8vo'),  be- 
ing part  of  an  ecclesiastical  history  which  he  left  in- 
com])lete.  Sec  Nouvelles  de  la  Hepnhliqne  des  Letlres, 
March,  1G84,  art.  5:  Bny]e,JJir/ionnaire  Ilisiorique;  Ni- 
ceron,J/e»wire«,vol.xxi;  Histoire  des  Ouvrages  des  Sa- 


vants, April,  IG88;  Haag,  Za  France  Protestante ;  Hoe- 
fer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxix,  G97.      (J.  N.  P.) 

Larue,  Charles  de,  a  French  Jesuit  and  celebrated 
preacher,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1G43 ;  joined  the  order  in 
1GS9,  became  soon  after  professor  of  rhetoric,  and  at 
once  attracted  the  attention  of  Louis  XIV  by  his  talents 
as  a  preacher  and  poet.  He  was  for  a  while  sent  as  a 
missionarj^  among  the  Protestants  of  the  Cevennes,  but 
soon  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  rhetoric  in  the  college  Louis-le-Grand.  He  was  also 
chosen  confessor  of  the  dauphincss,  and  of  the  duke  of 
Berri.  He  died  at  Paris  May  27,  1725.  Larue  wrote 
Idgllia  (Rouen,  1GG9,  12mo),  reprinted  under  the  title 
Carminuni  Libri  iv  (Gth  ed.  Paris,  1754),  which  contains, 
among  a  number  of  profane  pieces,  a  Greek  ode  in  honor 
of  the  immaculate  conception  (1G70)  : — P.Virgilii  Ma- 
ronis  Opera,  interpi-etatione  et  notis,  ad  usum  Ddphini 
(Paris,  1G75,  4to,  often  reprinted)  : — Sermons  (in  Jligne, 
Collection  des  Orateurs  Sacres)  :  these  are  celebrated  as 
models  of  pathos,  as  well  as  for  vehemence  of  style  and 
grace  of  diction : — Panegyriqites  des  Saints,  etc.  (Paris, 
1740,2  vols.  12mo) ;  and  a  number  of  theatrical  pieces, 
etc.  See  Mercure  de  France,  June,  1725 ;  Baillet,  Juge- 
ments  des  Savants;  Journal  des  Savants,  1695, 1706, 1712, 
1738,  and  1740;  Diet,  des  Predicateurs ;  Le  hong,  Bibl. 
Historique;  Moreri, Dictionnaire  Hist,  is.;  Bibl. des  ecri- 
vains  de  la  Comjiagnie  de  .Jesus,  p.  658-665 ;  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxix,  700. 

Lasae'a  (Aao-a/a,  derivation  unknown),  a  place  men- 
tioned only  in  Acts  xxvii,  8,  as  a  city  lying  near  the 
Fair  Havens,  in  the  island  of  Crete.  Other  MSS.  have 
Alassa  ("AXaffrrn),  and  some  (with  the  Vulgate)  Tha- 
lussa  {QaXaaaa),  which  latter  Beza  adopted  (see  Kui- 
iKi\,Comment.  ad  loc),  and  Cramer  mentions  coins  of  a 
Cretan  town  by  this  latter  name  (Ancient  Greece,  iii, 
374) ;  but  neither  of  these  readings  is  to  be  preferred. 
It  is  likely  that  during  the  stay  at  the  adjoining  port 
the  passengers  on  Paul's  ship  visited  Lasasa  (Conybeare 
and  Howson's  Life  and  Epist.  of  St.  Paul,  ii,  320,  n.).  It 
is  probably  the  same  r.s  the  Lisia  of  the  Peutinger  Ta- 
bles, sixteen  miles  east  of  Gortyna  (see  Hock,  A"/-e/ff,  i, 
412,439).  In  the  month  of  January,  1856,  a  yachting 
party  made  inquiries  at  Fair  Havens,  and  were  told  that 
the  name  Lasaja  was  stiU  given  to  some  ruins  in  the 
neighborhood.  It  lies  about  the  middle  of  the  southern 
coast  of  Crete,  some  five  miles  east  of  Fair  Havens,  and 
close  to  Cape  Leonda.  Mr.  Brown  thus  describes  the 
ruins:  "Inside  the  cape,  to  the  eastward,  the  beach  is 
lined  with  masses  of  masonry.  These  were  formed  of 
small  stones  cemented  together  with  mortar  so  lirmly 
that  even  where  the  sea  had  undermined  them  huge 
fragments  lay  on  the  sand.  This  sea-wall  extended  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  along  the  beach  from  one  rocky  face 
to  another,  and  was  evidently  intended  for  the  defence 
of  the  cit)'.  Above  we  found  the  ruins  of  two  temples. 
The  steps  which  led  up  to  one  remain,  though  in  a 
shattered  state.  Many  shafts,  and  a  few  capitals  of  Gre- 
cian pillars,  all  of  marble,  lie  scattered  about,  and  a  gully 
worn  by  a  torrent  lays  bare  the  substructions  down  to 
the  rock.  To  the  east  a  conical  rocky  hill  is  girdled  by 
a  wall,  and  on  a  platform  between  this  hill  and  the  sea 
the  pillars  of  another  edifice  lie  level  vi'ith  the  ground" 
(Smith's  Voyage  and  Shipirreck  of  St. Paul,  Apjicnd.  i,  p. 
2G0, 3d  edit.,  where  a  plan  is  given).  Captain  Spratt,  R. 
N.,  had  previously  observed  some  remains  which  jirob- 
ably  represent  the  harbor  of  LasKa  (see  p.  80,  82,  245), 
It  ought  to  be  noticed  that  in  the  Lescrizione  ddV  Isola 
di  Caudia,  a  Venetian  IVIS.  of  the  16th  century,  as  jjub- 
lished  by  Mr.  E.  Falkener  in  the  Museum  of  Classical 
Antiquities,  Sept.  1852  (p.  287),  a  place  called  Lapsca, 
with  a  "  temple  in  ruins,"  and  ''  other  vestiges  near  the 
harbor,"  is  mentioned  as  being  close  to  Fair  Havens. 

La  Salle,  Jeax  Baptist  ve,  a  French  priest,  found- 
er of  the  Order  of  Jirethrcu  (f  the  Christian  Schools,  was 
l)orn  at  Rlicims  April  30,  1G51.  In  1G70  he  went  to 
Paris  to  complete  his  education  at  the  Seminary  of  St. 


LAS  CASAS 


250 


LASITIUS 


Sulpice.  He  was  made  canon  of  Rhoims,  and  was  or- 
dained priest  in  1G71.  Struck  with  tlie  ignorance  of  the 
poorer  classes  with  regard  to  religion,  he  resolved  to  es- 
tablish a  congregation  whose  chief  object  shoidd  be  to 
teach  and  elevate  them.  In  1G79  he  began  teachinp-  in 
two  parishes  of  Kheims,  but  was  subjected  to  many  an- 
noyances from  the  secular  teachers,  and  even  censured 
by  some  of  the  clergy.  He  nevertheless  continued  his 
labors,  gave  all  his  means  to  the  poor,  and  finally  suc- 
ceeded. A  house  which  he  had  bought  at  Rouen,  Saint- 
Yon,  became  the  head-quarters  of  his  order,  and  when  he 
died,  April  7, 1719,  the  13rethren  of  the  Christian  Schools 
were  established  at  Paris,  Rouen,  Rheims,  and  other 
principal  cities  of  France.  Its  institution  was  approved 
by  Benedict  XIII  in  1725.  The  Brethren  of  the  Chris- 
tian Schools  take  the  three  vows  of  chastity,  poverty, 
and  obedience,  but  they  are  not  perpetual.  La  Salle 
did  not  wish  any  priest  to  be  ever  received  among  them. 
Their  dress  consists  of  a  black  robe  resembling  a  cas- 
sock, with  a  small  collar  or  ^vlute  bands,  black  stockings, 
and  coarse  shoes,  a  black  cloak  of  the  same  material  as 
the  dress,  with  wide  hanging  sleeves,  and  a  broad-brim- 
med black  felt  hat,  looped  up  on  three  sides.  Their 
order  became  widely  disseminated,  and  they  are  now 
scattered  nearly  through  the  whole  world.  In  1854 
they  counted  over  7000  members,  employed  in  France, 
Algeria,  the  United  States,  Itah",  etc.  Pope  Gregory 
XVI  placed  La  Salle  among  the  blessed,  and  he  was 
canonized  by  Pius  IX.  La  Salle  wrote  a  number  of 
tooks  for  the  education  of  children,  many  of  which  are 
still  in  use ;  among  them  we  notice  Les  Devoirs  du  Chre- 
tien envers  Dieu,  et  les  nioijeiis  de  pouvoir  Men  s'en  acquit- 
ter: — Les  Regies  de  la  Biensmnce  et  de  la  cicilite  Chre- 
tienne: — Instructions  et  Piie res  pour  la  Sainie  Messe: — 
Comluite  des  Ecoles  Chreliennes : — Les  dome  Vertus  d'un 
bon  Maitre.  He  is  also  considered  the  author  of  Me- 
(litciiiiins  sur  les  Eoaiujiles  de  tous  les  THmanches  et  sur 
les  principnles  Fetes  de  VA  nnee,  of  which  a  new  edition 
was  iiublished  in  1858  (Versailles,  8vo).  See  abbe  Car- 
ron.  Vie  de  J.-B.  de  La  Salle;  (Jarreau,  Vie  de  J.-Bapt. 
de  La  Salle ;  L'A  mi  de  FEnfance,  ou  Vie  de  J.-B.  de  La 
Salle ;  Le  veritable  A  mi  de  VEit/ance,  ou  A  hrerje  de  la  Vie 
cl  des  Vertus  du  venerable  Serviteur  de  Dieu  J.-B.  de  la 
Salle;  abbe  Tresvaux,  Vie  des  Saints;  Hoefer,  Kour. 
Bioff.  Oener.  xxix,  724.     (,I.  N.  P.) 

Las  Casas.     See  Casas. 

La'sha  (Heb.  Le'sha,  "'^h.Jissure,  in  pause  "d^; 
Scjit.  AamuYulg.  Lesa).  a  place  mentioned  last  in  de- 
fining the  border  of  the  Canaanites  ((ien.  x,  19),  and 
apparently  situated  east  of  the  Dead  Sea.  According 
to  Jerome  (Qumst.  in  Gen.),  Jonathan  (where  "'il'lbp  is 
doubtless  an  erroneous  transcrii>tion  for  ''Tilbp).  and  the 
Jems.  Targum,  it  was  the  spot  afterwards  known  as 
Callirr/ioe,  famous  for  its  warm  springs,  just  beyond 
Jordan  (Josephus,  ^m^  vii,  6,  5;  \Var,i,  33,  5;  compare 
Ptolemy,  v,  IG,  9),  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  where  Machaerus  lay  (Pliny,  v,  15).  These  springs 
were  visited  by  Irby  and  jNLangles  {Travels,  p.  4G7  sq.) ; 
they  lie  north  of  the  Anion  (Kosenmiiller,  Alterth.  II, 
i,  218).  Sehwarz  says  that  ruins  as  well  as  the  hot 
springs  are  still  found  at  the  mouth  of  ivadtj  Zurka 
{['(destine,  p.  228).  Bochart  {Geoep:  Sacr.  iv,  37)  less 
correctly  identifies  the  name  with  the  Arabic  Lusa 
(Rebuid,  PuLrst.  p.  871).  Lieut.  Lynch  visited  the  out- 
let of  tluse  springs  tlirough  the  wady  Zurka,  which  he 
describes  as  a  rajjid  stream  twelve  feet  wide  and  ten 
inches  deep,  with  a  temperature  of  9P,  having  a  slight 
sulphurous  taste.  The  bed  is  a  chasm  122  feet  wide, 
worn  through  perpendicular  cliffs,  and  fringed  with 
canes,  tamarisks,  and  the  castor-bean  {Narrative  of  the 
U.  S.  Expedition  to  the  Jordan,  p.  370).  Irby  and  Man- 
gles found  several  warm  sidpliiir  springs  discharging 
themselves  into  the  stream  at  various  points,  being,  no 
doubt,  tliose  visited  by  llcrod  iu  liis  last  sickness.  See 
CAi.i.iKijiioii.  The  place  is  apparently  also  the  Zii- 
RETH-SHAHAR  (q.  V.)  of  Josh.  xiii,  19- 


Lash'aron  [many  Lasha'ron]  (Heb.  Lashsharon', 
"I'l'ni'b,  signif.  unknown;  Sept.  Aiaapuv,  but  almost  all 
copies  omit ;  Vulg.  Saron,  but  iu  the  Benedictine  text 
Lassaron),  one  of  the  Canaanitish  towns  whose  kings 
were  killed  by  Joshua  (Josh,  xii,  18).  "Some  differ- 
ence of  opinion  has  been  expressed  as  to  whether  the 
first  syllable  is  an  integral  part  of  the  name  or  the  He- 
brew preposition  with  the  art.  implied  (see  Keil,  Josiia, 
ad  loc).  But  there  seems  to  be  no  warrant  for  suppos- 
ing the  existence  of  a  particle  before  this  one  name, 
which  certainly  does  not  exist  before  either  of  the  other 
thirty  names  in  the  list.  Such,  at  least, is  the  conclusion 
of  Bochart  {Hieroz.  i,  ch.  31),  Reland  {Palcesf.  871),  and 
others,  a  conclusion  supported  by  the  reading  of  the 
Targum,  and  the  Arabic  Version,  and  also  by  Jerome,  if 
the  Benedictine  text  can  be  relied  on.  The  ojjposite 
conclusion  of  the  Vulgate,  given  above,  is  adopted  by 
Gesenius  {Thesaurus,  p.  642,  b),  but  not  on  very  clear 
grounds,  his  chief  argument  being  apparently  that,  as 
the  name  of  a  town,  Sharon  woidd  not  require  the  arti- 
cle affixed,  which,  as  that  of  a  district,  it  always  bears. 
The  name  has  vanished  from  both  the  Vat.  and  Alex. 
MSS.  of  the  Sept.,  unless  a  trace  exists  in  the  '0<peKrrj- 
crapcoK  of  the  Vat."  (Smith).  Masius  supposes  Lasha- 
ron  to  be  the  place  mentioned  in  Acts  ix,  35,  where  the 
reading  of  some  MSS.  is  'Aaadpwva  instead  of  'S.apwi'a  ; 
but  there  is  no  evidence  to  support  such  a  view.  From 
the  fact  that  in  Joshua  it  is  named  between  Aphek  and 
Madon,  a  writer  in  Fairbairn's  Dictionary  argues  ibr  a 
position  at  the  modern  Saruneh,  south-east  of  Tiberias 
(Robinson,  Bibl.  Res.  iii,  Appendix,  p.  131) ;  but  the  rea- 
soning is  wholly  inconclusive,  and  the  location  utterly 
out  of  the  question.  Lasharon  was  possibly  the  same 
place  with  the  Lasha  of  Gen.  x,  19. 

Lashers.     See  Kiilystie. 

Lasitius,  John,  a  noted  Polish  Protestant  ecclesi- 
astical writer,  often  mistaken,  formerly,  for  the  cele- 
brated John  a  Lasco,  fiourislied  in  the  second  half  of  the 
IGth  centnr}-.  He  Avas  born  of  a  noble  family  about 
1534,  and,  as  was  the  custom  of  his  day,  was  early  sent 
abroad  to  pursue  a  course  of  studies  at  the  high-schools 
of  Basle,  Borne,  Geneva,  and  Strasburg.  After  quit- 
ting the  university  he  taught  for  a  short  time  in  a  pri- 
vate family  of  one  of  the  most  celebrated  noble  fatnilies 
of  Poland,  .Tohn  Krotowsky,  an  ardent  follower  of  the 
Moravian  Brethren.  (.)f  a  restless  nature,  and  greatly 
addicted  to  study,  he  soon  took  up  his  wandering-staff 
again,  and  roamed  nearly  over  all  Europe,  bringing  up, 
most  generally,  at  some  place  noted  for  its  university. 
First  we  meet  him  in  Paris,  next  in  Basle,  next  iu  Ge- 
neva, and  next  in  Heidelberg,  etc.,  until,  in  15G7,  he 
brings  up  again  in  Paris,  and  holds  a  disputation  on  the 
Trinity  with  the  Romish  theologian  Genebrard  {Chro- 
noloff.  lib.  iv,  a.  a.  1582,  p.  786).  After  1575  Lasitius 
seems  to  have  settled  in  his  native  country,  but  frequent- 
ly, even  after  this  date,  he  went  abroad,  not  for  liis  own 
gratification,  however,  but  in  the  interests  of  the  State 
and  the  Church.  He  early  became  an  admirer  of  the 
jMoravians,  and  is  by  many  (e.  g.  Gieseler,  Kirchencjesch, 
ii,  4.  p.  4G0)  supposed  to  have  joined  their  communion ; 
but,  however  uncertain  his  membership,  certain  it  is 
that  Lasitius  greatly  favored  tiie  Moravians,  and  that 
he  was  engaged  on  a  history  of  them.  He  was  one  of 
the  most  energetic  and  indefatigable  workers  among  the 
Poles  for  the  union  of  all  his  Protestant  brethren  into 
one  common  bond,  and  in  1570  finally  saw  his  efforts 
crowned  with  success  at  the  Synod  of  Sendomir.  See 
Poland.  He  died  July  12,  1599.  His  history  of  the 
Moravians  Lasitius  enlarged  after  the  union  of  the  Prot- 
estants, but  it  was  never  published  entire.  In  1649 
Amos  Comenius  published  an  outline  of  the  larger  one 
under  the  title  Johannis  Lasitii,  nobilis  Poloni,  historiee 
de  oriffine  et  rebus  ffeslis  Eratrnm  Bohemicorum  liber  oc- 
tavits,  qui  est  de  moribus  et  institutis  eorum.  Ob  preFseii- 
tem  7-erum  statum  seorsim  editus.  Adduniur  tamen  reli- 
quorum  vii  libi-orum  argumenta  et particularia  qucedam 


LASIUS 


251 


LASKO 


excerpta  (1649,  8vo ;  Amst.  IGGO,  8vo).  For  criticisms 
of  this  work,  see  Gindely,  Gesch.  d.  bOhnmchen  Brilder, 
ii,  90 ;  Wagenmann,  in  Herzog,  Real-JLiict/ldojiddie,  xix, 
776.  His  other  works  are.  Chides  Dantiscanorum  (Frkf. 
1578,  8vo) :  —  Historia  de  inr/ressu  Polonorum  in  Wula- 
chiam  anno  1572  (Frankf.  1578,  8vo)  -.-De  Russorum  et 
Moscovitarum  et  Tartarorum  reiif/ione,  etc.  (Speier,  1582, 
8vo) : — De  Bits  Samnt/itarum  ceterorumque  ^Sarmutarum 
etfalsorum  Chrislinnnriim,  item  de  relir/ione  Armeniorum 
et  de  initio  refjimims  Stq^hani  Bathorii  ojmscula  (Basle, 
1615,  4to)  : — Pro  Volano  et  puriore  reliyione  defensori- 
busque  ejus  adcersus  Antonium  Possevinum  S.J.  scrip- 
turn  apologeticum  (Wilna,  1584, 4to).  See  Lukaszewicz, 
Gesch.  d.  reform.  Kirchen  in  Litthauen,  ii,  182  sq. ;  Gin- 
dely, Geschichte  d.  bohmischen  Brlider,  ii,  90  ;  and  by  the 
same  author,  Quellen  zur  Geschichte  d.  buhmisch.  Briider, 
in  Pontes  rerum  Aiisfriacarum  (Vienna,  1859),  p.  379; 
Dieckhoff,  Gesch.  d.  Waldemer  im  AHttelulter,  \).  172,  357 ; 
liegenvolscius  (Wengerski),  Hist.  eccl.  Slavon.  iii,  452 ; 
Bayle,  Hist.  Diet.  s.  v.;  Jticher,  Gelehrten  Lex.  ii,  2283; 
and  especially  the  excellent  article  by  Wagenmann  in 
Herzog,  Real-Encijkiop.  xix,  770-777.      (J.  H.  W.) 

Lasius,  Christophonis,  a  Protestant  theologian, 
prominent  as  a  preacher  of  the  synergistic  school,  and 
opponent  of  Flacius,  was  born  at  Strasburg  about  the 
beginning  of  the  16th  century.  He  was  in  high  favor 
with  Jlelancthon  in  1531,  and  by  the  latter  recommend- 
ed to  Bucer.  The  part  he  took  in  the  synergistic  Me- 
lancthonian  controversy,  and  his  activity  against  the 
Flacian,  rendered  his  life  comparatively  a  wandering 
one.  In  1537  he  became  rector  of  Giirhtz,  and  in  1543 
pastor  at  Greussen.  On  account  of  his  jMelancthonian 
proclivities  he  was  deposed  in  1545 ;  was  then  made  pas- 
tor of  Spandau,  and  when  driven  away  from  that  place 
became  superintendent  of  Lauingen,  which  he  was  also 
obliged  to  leave.  After  remaining  for  a  time  in  Augs- 
burg he  was  appointed  superintendent  of  Cottbus,  but 
was  here  likewise  subject  to  many  annoyances,  and  tinal- 
ly  died  at  Senftenberg  in  1572.  His  works  are  espe- 
cially bitter  against  the  doctrine  of  the  passivity  of  man 
ill  repentance,  and  do  not  in  tlie  least  compliment  the 
Lutherans  of  his  day  and  generation.  The  principal 
are,  Pundament  tcahrer  Bekehrum/  wider  d.facianische 
Klotzbusse  (Francf.ad  0. 1568)  -.—Guldenes  Kleinod{K\i- 
remb.  1556) : — Grundfeste  d.  reinen  eranr/elischen  Wahr- 
heit  (Wittemb.  1568)."— Herzog,  i?«/^ Awry Wo;j.  viii,203  ; 
Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lex.  vi,  353. 

Lasius,  Hermann  Jacob,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  Nov.  15, 1751,  at  Greifswald,  Prussia.  He  en- 
tered the  university  of  his  native  place  in  1733,  and 
studied  theology,  philosophy,  mathematics,  and  philol- 
ogy. In  1738  he  went  to  Jena,  and  in  1740  to  Halle, 
with  the  intention  of  lecturing  at  the  universities;  at  the 
latter  he  obtained  the  degree  of  M.A.  Failing  health 
soon  obliged  him  to  leave  for  his  native  city,  and  he  re- 
opened his  lectures  there.  In  1745  he  became  subrec- 
tor,  and  in  1749  rector  of  the  public  school.  In  1764  he 
accepted  a  call  to  Rostock  as  professor  of  (Jreek  litera- 
ture at  the  university,  where  he  continued  laboring  un- 
til 1793.  He  died  Aug.  4, 1803.  Lasius  spent  a  great 
deal  of  his  time  in  the  study  of  theology.  The  few 
books  he  wrote  are  valuable,  and  generally  esteemed. 
The  most  noted  of  his  dissertations  are  J)e  individuo 
finito  (Jenre,  1739,  4to) : — De  bonarum  malarumqne  ac- 
tionum  effectibus  natitrcdibus  post  hone  ritam  ( Hal:i?, 
1740,  4to)  : — Diss,  qua  justa  diri/id  imjiiilcilio  iictionum 
nostrurum  liberarum  vindicatur  ((Jryphisw.  1741,  4to) : — 
De  legihus  et  panis  conventionalibus,  in  (jenere  ( Hala?, 
1740,  4to).  See  Doring,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutschlands, 
vol.  ii,  s.  V. 

Lasius,  Lorenz  Otto,  a  German  theologian,  born 
Dec.  31, 1675,  at  Riiden,  in  Brunswick,  was  early  distin- 
guished for  his  knowledge  of  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  He- 
brew. He  attended  the  universities  of  Heidelberg  and 
Halle,  and  became  successively  in  1702  subrector  in  Salz- 
wedel ;  in  1705,  deacon ;  and  in  1709,  pastor  at  ZiebeUe, 


near  Muskaii;  then  assessor  of  the  Consistory;  in  1717, 
doctor  of  theology ;  and  died  Sept.  20, 1750.  Among  his 
numerous  books  are  Die  PrilJ'ung  seiner  selbst  (Lauban, 
1710,  8vo,  and  often): — Versuch  die  hebrdische,  (jiiech- 
ische,  luteinische,  J'runzOsische  und  italienische  Sjirache 
ohne  Grammaiik  zu  erlernen  (Budissin,  1717,  8vo,  and 
often)  : — Pulingemsiu  moriulium,  oder  Betrachiungen  der 
Wiedergeburt  (Crossen,  1736,  8vo).  See  Doring,  Gelehrte 
Theol.  Deutschlands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Laskary,  Anpreas,  a  learned  and  pious  Roman 
Catholic  prelate,  was  bishop  of  Posen  from  1414-1426. 
He  was  a  niembet  of  the  Council  of  Constance,  and 
often  preached  to  the  assembled  clergy.  On  his  return 
home  he  sought  cloister  life,  but  was  restrained  by  the 
pope,  and  subsequently  by  his  active  intiuence  secured 
such  marked  prosperity  for  an  episcopal  village  in  Maso- 
wine  that  it  was  called  after  his  name,  Laskarzewo. — 
Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lex.  s.  v. 

Lasko  (Polish  Laski,  Latin  Lascus),  John  a  (1), 
a  very  celebrated  Roman  Catholic  prelate  of  the  Church 
of  Poland,  was  born  in  the  early  part  of  the  year  1466. 
He  was  at  lirst  provost  at  Skalbimierz,  then  at  Poscn, 
and  was  afterwards  chosen  by  Andreas  Roza,  of  Borys- 
zewice,  archbishop  of  Gnesen,  as  his  coadjutor.  Dur- 
ing the  reigns  of  Casimir  IV,  John  Albrecht,  and  Alex- 
ander, he  resided  at  court  as  archchanceUor,  and  on  the 
death  of  the  archbishop  of  Gnesen  (in  1510)  I,asko  suc- 
ceeded him  in  that  eminent  position.  In  1513  he  was 
sent  to  the  fifth  general  council  of  Lateran,  t(>gcther 
with  Stanislaus  Ostrorog,  and  in  the  presence  of  pope 
Leo  X  implored  the  Christian  princes  there  present  to 
assist  Poland  and  Hungary  against  the  attacks  of  the 
Turks  and  Tartars.  In  this  council  Lasko  obtained  for 
himself  and  all  succeeding  archbishops  of  Gnesen  the 
title  of  legatus  nutus  sedis  apostolica.  He  died  IMay  19, 
1531.  He  wrote  Relutio  de  erroribus  Moschorum.J'acia 
in  concilio  Lateranensi  a  Joanne  LMsko.  His  activity 
as  archbishop  is  manifest  in  the  number  of  provincial 
synods  over  which  he  presided:  1.  at  Gnesen,  in  .1506; 
2.  at  Petrikau,  in  1510;  3.  same,  1511 ;  4.  Lenczyc,  1523 ; 
5.  same,  1527  ;  6.  Petrikau,  1530.  He  was  a  decided  op- 
ponent of  the  Reformation  and  its  propagation  in  Po- 
land, as  is  evinced  by  his  canons  and  decretals  (comp.Con- 
stitutiones  synodorum  metropolitans  eccksice  Gnesnensis, 
Cracov.  1630).  He  wrote  also  Sanctiones  ecclesiasticcB 
tarn  ex  jjontijicum  decretis  quam  in  consiiiutionibus  syno- 
dorum  provincia;  inj)rimis  auteni  statuta  in  diversis  pro- 
vincialibus  synodis  a  se  sancita  (Cracov.  1525,4to).  Las- 
co  gained  great  reputation  by  his  collection  of  the  laws 
of  the  countr_y,  made  by  order  of  king  Alexander  of  Po^ 
land,  under  the  title  Commune  Polonice  regni pririkgium 
constitutionum  et  indultuum  (Cracov.  1506).  See  Da- 
malewicz,  T'lVcB  archicjnscoporum  Gnesnensium,  p.  278; 
Herzog,  Real-Encgllop.  viii,  203 ;  Wetzer  u.  Welte,  Kir- 
chen-Lexikon,  s.  v.      (J.  II.  W.) 

Lasko,  John  a  (2),  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
of  tlie  Polish  reformers,  was  born  at  Warsaw  in  the  early 
part  of  1499,  of  one  of  the  noblest  famihes  of  Poland, 
which,  during  the  16th  century  especially,  furnished 
many  men  illustrious  in  the  Church,  in  the  council,  and 
the  camp.  We  know  little  of  John  a  Lasko's  early  edu- 
cation, but  it  was  jirobably  conducted  under  the  super- 
vision of  his  uncle  (see  the  preceding  article),  who  would 
naturally  intend  him  lor  the  priesthood.  While  he  was 
yet  a  youtli,  the  (ierman  Reformation  commenced,  and 
evidently  attracted  a  large  share  of  his  attention.  The 
archbishoji,  however,  was  its  strenuous  opponent,  and 
young  Lasko,  at  the  University  of  Cracow,  where  Lu- 
ther's writings  were  publicly  bought  and  sold,  may  have 
contented  himself  with  accepting  the  current  religious 
sentiments  of  his  countrymen,  which  by  no  means  ac- 
corded with  the  highest  standards  of  Roman  Catliolic 
orthodoxy.  At  the  age  of  twenty-five  he  set  fortli  on 
his  travels.  It  was  his  ]iurpose  to  visit  the  courts  and 
universities  of  other  lands.  Passing  by  Wittenberg, 
with  its  Luther  and  Melancthon,  he  directed  his  course 


LASKO 


252 


LASKO 


to  Louvalii,  where  he  seems  to  have  been  repelled  by 
the  ignorance  and  bigotry  of  the  priesthood,  and  thence 
passed  to  Ziirich,  where  he  met  and  conferred  with 
Zwingle,  and  was  by  him  influenced  to  take  a  decided 
stand  f(jr  tlie  reformatory  movement.  From  Zurich  lie 
went  to  Paris,  where  he  was  honorably  received,  and  en- 
tered into  a  correspondence  with  the  sister  of  the  king, 
the  fiimous  Margaret  of  Navarre,  already  favorably  dis- 
posed to  the  cause  of  reform.  Thence  he  directed  his 
course  to  Basle,  attracted  thither  by  the  fame  of  Eras- 
mus, who  extended  to  him  a  cordial  welcome,  and  did 
not  disdain  to  accept  his  hospitable  gifts.  Tlie  veteran 
scholar  admired  and  praised  his  young  friend,  and  Lasko 
seems  to  have  reciprocated  his  confidence  and  affection. 
Both  occupied  the  same  dwelling,  and  for  some  month* 
the  expense  of  the  household  was  met  from  Lasko's 
purse.  Perhaps  the  fact  that  at  this  very  jimcture  the 
break  between  Luther  and  Erasmus  took  place  may  not 
have  been  without  its  effect  in  repelling  Lasko  from  too 
close  association  with  the  German  reformer.  In  Octo- 
ber, 1525,  Lasko  was  recalled  to  Poland,  doubtless  with  a 
view  to  be  engaged  in  state  employ,  or  as  an  ambassa- 
dor to  France  or  Spain.  However  this  may  be,  he  prob- 
ably passed  through  Italy  previous  to  his  return,  and 
there  formed  some  acquaintanceships,  not  without  influ- 
ence in  later  years.  Not  long  after  his  return  he  fell  in 
with  the  writings  of  Melancthon,  with  whom  he  subse- 
quently corresponded,  and  we  may  reasonably  conclude 
that  by  his  counsel,  or  with  his  sanction,  Polish  youth 
■were  sent  abroad  to  complete  their  studies  at  Witten- 
berg. A  marked  change  by  this  time  is  manifest  in  his 
views  and  feelings.  Erasmus,  in  his  correspondence, 
was  not  slow  to  note  this.  It  was  due  partly,  no  doubt, 
to  a  better  knowledge  of  the  German  reformers,  and 
parth',  also,  to  the  ripening  of  his  own  Christian  expe- 
rience. We  hear  him  declaring  that  he  owed  every- 
thing to  the  mercy  of  God.  No  foresight  of  his  own, 
no  world  -  wisdom,  could  have  saved  him  from  ruin. 
There  was  more  of  Luther  than  of  Er;  imus  in  such  soul- 
humbling  confessions.  The  <leath  of  his  uncle,  the  arch- 
bishop (1531),  who  was  resolutely  opposed  to  the  cause  of 
reform,  removed  a  certain  measure  of  restraint  which  had 
checked  young  Lasko's  freedom  of  action,  if  not  specula- 
tion. No  outward  manifestation  of  any  radical  change 
of  sentiment  had  hitherto  been  apparent.  He  was  suc- 
cessively nominated  canon  of  Gnesen,  custos  of  Plock, 
and  dean  of  Gnesen  and  Lencicz.  In  accepting  these 
dignities  he  still  cherished  the  hope  inspired  by  Eras- 
mus that  reform  might  take  place  within  the  Church 
itself,  and  to  this  end  he  was  induced,  in  a  cautious 
manner,  to  present  the  Polish  monarch  with  suggestions 
as  to  the  necessity  of  measures  directed  to  that  object 
(Krasinski's  Ref.  in  Poland,  i,  248).  In  153G  he  received 
the  royal  nomination  of  bishop  of  Cujavia,  and  the  most 
inviting  prospects  of  ecclesiastical  promotion  opened  be- 
fore him.  But  already  his  hope  that  the  Church  of 
Komc  would  reform  herself  had  died  out.  He  opened 
his  heart  to  the  king,  and  freely  confessed  the  views  and 
convictions  which  forbade  his  acceptance  of  the  prof- 
fered promotion,  ^\'ith  the  royal  permission,  and  pro- 
vided witli  commendatory  letters,  he  chose  temporarily 
to  withdraw  from  his  native  land.  He  directed  his 
course  to  the  Netherlands.  At  Antwerp  he  was  sought 
out  and  his  acquaintance  cultivated  by  the  most  respect- 
able citizens.  Tiic  royal  letters  alone  would  have  open- 
ed all  doors  to  him.  liut  his  (inal  decision  to  withdraw 
entirely  from  the  Itomau  CalhoHc  Church  was  hastened 
in  or  iM'l'ore  1540.  In  that  year  lie  married  a  woman 
of  hmnble  rank,  with<put  dowry,  whom  he  met  at  Lou- 
vain  (Krasinski  says  Mayence),  and  thus  made  his  breach 
with  Ixome  irreparable.  Instead  of  returning  to  his  na- 
tive land,  he  sought  a  retired  residence  at  Emdeti,  in 
Friesland.  Count  Enno,  who  was  anxious  to  secure  a 
reformation  of  the  (Jhurcli  in  his  principality,  proposed 
to  Lasko  the  charge  of  the  matter  as  suiierintendent. 
His  death  sus[)ended  the  negotiation, but  his  sister  Anna, 
who  succeeded  him,  renewed  the  proposal.     After  much 


hesitation,  Lasko  was  induced  in  1543  to  accept  the 
charge,  and  in  the  following  year  was  nominated  super- 
intendent of  all  the  churches  of  Friesland.  He  had  al- 
ready declined  the  invitation  to  return  to  Poland,  where 
he  was  assured  that  his  marriage  should  not  stand  in 
the  way  of  the  bestowment  of  a  bishopric.  He  longed, 
indeed,  to  return,  but  onl}'  that  he  might  labor  as  an 
evangelist,  unencumbered  with  any  connection  with 
Rome.  He  accepted  his  present  post — as  he  did  others 
to  which  he  was  subsequently  called — with  the  express 
proviso  that  if  duty  and  the  prospect  of  useful  service 
called  him  back  to  his  native  land  he  might  be  free  to 
go.  He  made  it  also  a  condition  of  his  acceptance  that 
no  obligation  should  be  imposed  upon  him  in  his  office 
inconsistent  with  the  word  and  will  of  God.  In  neigh- 
boring lands  his  proceedings  were  jealously  watched. 
The  duke  of  East  Courland,  who  had  married  a  daugh- 
ter of  Maximilian,  as  well  as  the  duke  of  Brabant,  felt 
that  his  influence  and  innovations  threatened  their 
states.  Lasko  pushed  on  the  cause  of  reform  by  assail- 
ing the  monasteries  and  the  pictures  in  the  churches. 
A  formidable  opposition  was  provoked,  but  he  manfully 
defended  himself,  and  was  sustained  by  the  countess. 
Opposition  gradually  yielded,  and  Romish  rites  and  cer- 
emonies disappeared  from  all  the  churches.  An  im- 
proved order  of  Church  organization  and  discipline  was 
introduced  and  estabUshed,  substantially  Presbyterian. 
He  employed  the  eldership  to  enforce  discipline.  He 
sought  to  promote  pastoral  culture  and  improvement,  as 
well  as  confessional  unity  of  doctrine.  Preaching  him- 
self, he  habitually  insisted  on  the  sole  and  supreme  au- 
thority of  the  Word  of  God.  In  correspondence  with 
Melancthon,  Bucer,  Bullinger,  Pellican,  and  Hardenberg, 
he  drew  up  a  confession  of  faith,  which  yet  proved  un- 
satisfactory to  the  Lutherans,  leaning  as  it  did  to  the 
views  of  the  Swiss  and  AngUcan  reformers,  although  by 
no  means  in  full  correspondence  with  those  of  Calvin. 

Lasko's  reputation  as  the  foimder  of  the  Protestant 
Church  in  Friesland  now  spread  rapidly,  and  he  was  re- 
peatedljr  consulted  by  foreign  riders  and  divines  on 
questions  of  Church  polity  and  order.  The  duke  of 
Prussia  invited  him  to  accept  the  superintendence  of 
the  churches  of  his  dominions,  but  the  project  was  de- 
feated by  the  condition  on  which  Lasko  insisted  that 
the  Church  should  be  independent  of  the  state,  and  that 
Lutheran  rites,  kindred  to  those  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  should  be  abolished  (Krasinski,  i,  253).  During 
his  residence  at  Emden  Lasko  was  forced  to  engage  in 
controversy.  Persecuted  elsewhere,  religious  enthusi- 
asts found  shelter  in  the  Netherlands,  and  intruded  with- 
in his  sphere.  Menno  Simon  and  David  George  were 
his  principal  antagonists.  He  sought  to  convince  them 
by  argument,  but  failed.  His  constant  difficulties  and 
the  pressing  burden  of  his  duties  induced  him  to  listen 
to  an  invitation  that  reached  him  from  England.  Arch- 
bishop Cranmer,  to  whom  Lasko  had  been  recommended 
by  some  of  his  brother  reformers,  Peter  ]Martyr  and  Wil- 
liam Turner,  pressed  him  to  come  and  assist  in  the  task 
of  completing  the  reformation  of  the  Church.  Early  in 
Sept.  1548,  parting  from  the  countess,  who  reluctantly 
consented  to  his  withdraw.al,  Lasko  set  out  for  England. 
Three  days  betbrc  he  left  the  celebrated  interim  of  the 
emperor  was  publishe<l,  threatening  to  arrest  and  put 
back  the  cause  of  Church  reform  in  all  his  states.  Las- 
ko wrote  back  to  his  friends  in  Emden  to  abide  firm,  as- 
suring them  that  it  was  better  to  fall  into  the  hands  of 
God  than  into  those  of  men.  His  first  visit  to  England 
was  designedly  temporary.  For  six  months  he  resided 
with  Cranmer  at  Lambeth.  The  views  of  the  two  men 
were  coincident  in  doctrine,  and  apparently  not  greatly 
divergent  in  matters  of  order  and  discipline.  The  im- 
pression which  he  made  in  England  \vas  favorable,  and 
in  a  sermon  i^rcached  before  the  king  Latimer  extolled 
him  witli  high  i)raise.  Iteturuing  to  Emden,  Lasko  en- 
couraged liis  fellow-religionists  in  their  opposition  to  the 
interim,  and  incurred  the  hostility  of  those — and  among 
them  of  the  chancellor  Ter  West — who  were  disposed  to 


LASKO 


253 


LAST  DAY 


faror  a  compromise  with  the  emperor.  There  was  some 
danger  that  Lasko  himself  would  be  sacrificed  to  their 
policy.  Leaving  Eraden,  therefore,  he  resided  for  a  time 
at  Bremen  and  Hamburg,  and  at  length  directed  his 
course  back  to  England,  in  May,  looO,  to  which  he  had 
been  reinvitcd.  Here,  imder  the  protection  of  a  Prot- 
estant monarch  (Henry  VI),  refugees  from  persecution 
on  the  Continent  were  collected  in  considerable  num- 
bers. The  foreign  Protestant  congregation  in  London 
was  composed  of  French,  Germans,  and  Italians.  Of 
this,  in  all  about  3000  members,  Lasko,  by  the  king's 
nomination  (July  24,  1550),  was  made  superintendent. 
He  seems,  however,  to  have  had  supervisory  charge 
over  aU  the  other  foreign  churches  of  the  city,  while 
their  schools  were  subject  to  his  mspection.  The  wis- 
dom of  his  measures  is  attested  by  a  letter  of  Melanc- 
thon,  who  speaks  (September,  1551)  of  the  purity  of  doc- 
trine of  his  churches.  He  differed  with  Cranmer  on 
some  points,  as  in  reference  to  sacramental  doctrine  and 
the  use  of  priestly  habits,  but  his  scruples  were  respect- 
ed, and  his  intervention  secured  the  foreign  chiurches 
from  molestation.  In  London  he  introduced  the  same 
system  of  Church  order  wliich  he  had  established  at 
Emdcn.  He  brought  out  an  edition  of  liis  Catechism 
for  the  instruction  of  the  people,  and  to  this  the  authors 
of  the  Heidelberg  Catechism  are  said  to  have  been  man- 
ifestly indebted.  The  English  liturgy  he  discarded. 
His  views  on  the  sacraments  may  be  inferred  from  his 
repuljlication  in  England  of  the  work  of  Bullinger,  to 
which  he  furnished  an  introduction.  This  was  followed, 
h(jwever,by  his  Brevis  et  delucida  de  Sacramentis  Eccle- 
sia  Cliristi  Traciatio  (Lond.  1552,  8vo),  in  which  he  ap- 
proximated to  the  views  of  Zwingle  and  Calvin.  On 
the  doctrines  peculiar  to  Calvin  Lasko  was  not  disposed 
to  stand.  He  uses  language  that  would  seem  to  indi- 
cate an  acceptance  of  the  belief  in  a  general  atonement. 
While  insisting  on  the  insufficiency  and  inability  of  hu- 
man effort  without  the  grace  of  God,  he  emphasizes  the 
freencss  and  rich  provisions  of  the  Gospel  of  Christ.  It 
was  during  his  residence  in  England  that  Lasko's  wife 
died,  and  his  second  marriage  took  place.  The  death 
of  the  young  king  suddenly  wrought  an  entire  change 
in  the  prospects  of  the  exiles,  and  on  the  accession  of 
queen  Mary  they  prepared  to  return  to  the  Continent. 
On  the  17th  of  September,  1553.  the  first  band  of  them, 
more  than  170  in  number,  embarked  for  Denmark,  where 
they  had  been  assured  of  a  welcome  reception  from  a 
Protestant  monarch.  But  a  bigoted  Lutheranism  re- 
pelled them  from  the  Danish  shores.  Lasko  hastened 
back  to  Emden,  while  his  fellow  -  pilgrims,  called  by 
Westphal,  a  Lutheran  divine,  "martyrs  of  the  devil," 
and  repulsed  at  Hamburg,  Lubeck,  and  Kostock,  finally 
found  a  hospitable  reception  at  Dantzic.  At  Emden 
Lasko  found  his  position  uncomfortable.  His  vicinity 
to  Brabant  gave  occasion  for  those  who  feared  his  influ- 
ence to  intrigue  against  him.  (iustavus  Yasa  invited 
him  and  his  friends  to  Sweden,  assuring  him  of  entire 
religious  liberty.  But  he  longed  to  return  to  his  native 
land.  His  views  concerning  the  sacrament,  however, 
were  rejiresented  to  the  liing  as  objectionable,  and  it 
seemed  essential  that  he  should  first  seek  to  harmonize 
them  with  the  Augsburg  Confession.  His  opponents  in 
controversy,  Westphal  especially,  had  spoken  of  him  in 
reproachful  terms.  He  determined  to  considt  with  Me- 
lanctlion,  and  in  April,  1555,  he  left  Emden,  and  for 
many  months,  passing  from  city  to  city  in  Germany, 
and  conferring  with  leading  theologians,  he  awaited  the 
long-desired  opportunity  of  returning,  with  the  hope  of 
useful  service,  to  his  native  land.  We  find  him  at  Frank- 
fort almost  at  the  very  time  when  the  English  exiles 
had  transferred  their  altercations  with  reference  to  the 
habits  to  that  city,  and  involved  there  to  some  extent 
in  tlie  Lutheran  controversy.  He  was  complained  of  as 
a  dissenter  from  the  Augsburg  Confession,  but  in  repl}' 
he  asserted  that  he  accepted  its  very  language  in  regard 
to  Christ's  presence  in  the  sacrament.  At  Stuttgard 
(May  22, 1556)  he  entered  with  Brentz  upon  a  disputa- 


tion on  the  sacramentarian  controversy,  and  there  re- 
newed his  assertion  and  vindicated  his  views.  With 
Melancthon  he  succeeded  better.  Although  he  coidd 
not  effect  a  union  of  the  Lutherans  and  the  Keformed.  as 
he  was  exhorted  to  do  by  the  kiiig  of  Poland,  with  a 
view  to  its  happy  effect  in  his  own  states,  he  yet  secured 
the  confidence  and  friendly  offices  of  INIelancthon.  The 
latter  intrusted  him  with  a  letter  to  the  king  of  Poland, 
to  which  a  modification  of  the  Augsburg  Confession, 
such  as  it  was  hoped  all  Protestants  might  unite  in, 
was  added.  Lasko  now  jirepared  for  his  return  to  Po- 
land, where  the  kuig,  Sigismund  Augustus,  was  disposed 
to  welcome  him.  He  first,  however,  published  a  new 
account  of  the  foreign  churches  which  he  had  superin- 
tended in  London,  dedicating  it  to  the  king,  the  senate, 
and  the  states  of  Poland,  urging  at  the  same  time  the 
reasons  for  reformation,  and  setting  forth  the  grounds 
of  his  own  action  in  rejecting  the  doctrines  of  the 
Church  of  Rome.  Such  a  vindication  of  himself  was 
called  for.  The  news  of  his  return  excited  the  appre- 
hensions, if  not  the  consternation  of  his  enemies.  In  Dec. 
1556,  after  an  absence  of  twenty  years,  he  iilanted  his 
feet  on  his  native  soil.  His  approach  had  been  preceded 
by  alarms  addressed  especially  to  the  ears  of  the  king.' 
He  was  called  a  dangerous  person,  an  outlawed  heretic, 
who  returned  to  his  country  only  to  excite  troubles  and 
commotions.  He  was  said  to  be  preparing  measures  of 
rebellion,  and  means  to  destroy  the  churches.  The  king 
was  not  alarmed.  He  received  the  reformer  in  a  friend- 
ly manner,  and  was  gratified  with  Melancthon's  letters. 
Cautious  in  his  policy,  however,  he  was  anxious,  before 
taking  bold  and  decisive  measures  of  reform,  to  secure 
Protestant  union.  Lasko  was  intrusted  with  the  super- 
intendence of  all  the  Reformed  churches  in  Little  Po- 
land. Laboring  ior  the  desired  union,  his  efforts  were 
counteracted  by  men  ivho  preferred  to  conceal  their  real 
(Socinian)  sentiments,  and  by  the  grave  difficulties 
which  he  had  to  encounter.  At  successive  annual  syn- 
ods he  exerted  himself  to  secure  a  harmony  of  the  Prot- 
estant confessions — a  result  effected  after  his  death  in 
the  celebrated  Consensus  Sendomiriensis.  In  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  of  Brzesc  he  took  an  active  part,  and 
is  said  to  have  published  many  books,  most  of  which 
are  now  irrecoverably  lost.  In  the  midst  of  his  efforts, 
and  under  the  burden  of  his  pressing  duties,  he  closed 
his  life,  Jan.  8, 1560.  During  the  last  four  years  of  his 
life  the  record  of  his  labors  is  scanty  indeed, but  his  vig- 
or, activity,  and  practical  ability  left  a  deep  and  abiding 
impress  on  the  development  of  the  Polish  Reformation. 

Literature. — The  sources  of  information  in  regard  to 
Lasko  are  at  present  quite  ample.  His  Life  (Leben  d. 
Johann  v.  Lasko),  by  Peter  Bartels  (  Elberfcld,  1860)  has 
been  concisely  and  carefully  compiled,  and  gives  a  sat- 
isfactory account  of  his  doctrinal  position,  as  well  as 
some  notice  of  his  books,  together  with  an  extended  list 
of  authorities.  Krasinski's  Hist.  Shfc/i  of  the  Beforma- 
iion  ill  Poland  (Lond.  1838,  2  vols.  8vo)  presents  an  ex- 
tended view  of  his  life  in  connection  with  the  Reforma- 
tion in  his  native  country.  In  some  respects,  hoAvever, 
the  most  valuable  work  on  the  subject  of  this  article  is 
Johannis  a  Leasee  Opera,  tain  edita  quam  inc-dita,  recen- 
suit  vitam  uuctoris  enarravit  A.Kuyper  (Amsterd.  1866, 
2  vols.  8vo).  In  over  1300  closely  printed  pages  we 
have  nearly,  if  not  quite  all  the  remains  of  Lasko  that 
cin  now  be  identified,  including  portions  of  his  corre- 
spondence, extending  from  1526  to  1559.  See  also  Ber- 
tram (.].¥.),  Griiiidlicf/er  Bericht  von  Johann  Alusco 
(1733,  3  vols.  4to) ;  Giibel.  Gesch.  des  christlichen  Ldens 
in  der  rhein-ivestph.  Kircke  (Coblenz,  1849),  i,  318-351 ; 
Neal,  Iliston/  of  the  Puritans,  i,  53  sq. ;  Hassencamp, 
Ifessische  Kiixhenf/esch.  (Marburg,  1832),  i,  §  47 :  Fischer, 
Versuch  einer  Gesch.  der  Ref.  in  Polen  ( 1856) ;  Schrockh, 
Kirchengesch.  s.  d.  Ref  ii.  688  sq.;  IMiddleton,^<;/(>?-7?ier.<:, 
ii  (see  Index)  ;  Jahrh.deutscher  Theologic.  1860,  ii,  536; 
1868,  iii,  536 ;  and  the  excellent  article  by  Gijbel,  in  Her- 
zog,  Reid-Kuri/Mop.  viii,  204  sq.      (E.  H." G.) 

Last  Day.     See  Judgjient  Day. 


LASTHENES 


254 


LATERAN  COUNCILS 


Las'thenes  (AaaBivrig;  comp.  Aa-/;(«\ot.'),  an  of- 
ficer who  stood  high  in  the  favor  of  Demetrius  II  Nica- 
tor.  He  is  described  as  '•  cousin"  ((Tiiyyfi'/;f,  1  Maco.  xi, 
31)  and  "  father"  (I  Mace,  xi,  32 ;  Josephus,  .4  7it.  xiii,  3, 
9)  of  the  king.  Both  words  may  be  taken  as  titles  of 
high  nobility  (compare  Grimm  on  1  Mace,  x,  89 ;  Diod. 
xvii,  59 ;  Gesenius,  Thesaui:  s.  v.  2S,  §  4).  It  appears 
from  Josephus  {Ant.  xiii,  4,  3)  that  he  was  a  Cretan,  to 
whom  Demetrius  was  indebted  for  a  large  body  of  mer- 
cenaries (compare  1  Mace,  x,  G7),  when  he  asserted  his 
claim  to  the  Syrian  throne  against  Alexander  Balas, 
B.C.  148  or  147.  It  appears  that  Lasthenes  himself  ac- 
companied the  young  prince ;  and  when  Demetrius  was 
established  on  the  throne,  he  appointed  Lasthenes  his 
chief  minister,  with  unlimited  power.  His  arbitrary 
government,  added  to  his  persuading  Demetrius  to  dis- 
band the  regular  troops  and  only  employ  Cretans,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  alienated  the  subjects  from  the  king,  and 
caused  great  dissatisfaction  to  the  soldiers.  This  con- 
duct led  to  the  downfall  of  Demetrius,  for  it  enabled 
Tryphon  to  set  up  Antiocluis,  the  young  son  of  Alexan- 
der I3alas  (Diodotus,  Reliq.  lib.  xxxiii,  4,  ed.  Didot,  ii,  522) . 
What  became  of  Lasthenes  is  not  known.     See  Dejie- 

TRIUS. 

He  must  not  be  identified  with  the  Cnidian  instruc- 
tor of  .the  sons  of  Demetrius  I  Soter  (Justin,  xxxv,  2 ; 
comp.  Livy,  Epit.  52).  There  is  a  later  Lasthenes,  also 
a  Cretan,  who  took  a  prominent  part  against  the  Ro- 
mans in  B.C.  70-68  (Smith,  Did.  of  Biogr.  s.  v.  Las- 
thenes, No.  3).— Smith ;  Kitto. 

Last  Time.     See  Eschatology. 

Latchet  (TilT*!?,  serok',  so  called  from  lacing  and 
binding  together;  Gr.  i/tac ,  a  thong,  as  it  is  rendered  in 
Acts  xxii,  25),  the  cord  or  strap  which  fastens  an  Ori- 
ental shoe  upon  the  foot  (Isa.  v,  27;  Mark  i,  7;  Luke 
iii,  10;  John  i,  27);  provejbial  fur  anything  of  little  val- 
ue (Gen.  xiv,  23).  See  Sandal.  " Gemnins  (^Thesaur. 
s.  V.  i:W)  compares  the  Lat.  /nlum=Jilum,  and  quotes 
two  Arabic  proverbs  from  the  Hamasa  and  the  Kamus, 
ia  which  a  corresponding  word  is  similarly  employed. 
In  the  poetical  figure  in  Isa.  v,  27,  the '  latchet'  occupies 
the  same  position  with  regard  to  the  shoes  as  the  girdle 
to  the  long  flowing  Oriental  dress,  and  was  as  essential 
to  the  comfort  and  expedition  of  the  traveller.  Anoth- 
er semi-proverbial  expression  in  Luke  iii,  10  points  to 
the  same  easily-removed  article  of  clothing"  (Smith). 
'•In  Matt,  iii,  11  the  same  sentiment  is  expressed  rather 
differently,  'Whose  shoes  I  am  not  worthy  to  bear;'  in 
both  cases  the  allusion  is  to  slaves,  who  were  employed 
to  loosen  and  carry  their  master's  shoes,  the  habits  of 
Orientals  requiring  this  article  of  dress  to  be  taken  off 
before  entering  an  apartment  (Thomson,  The  Land  and 
the  Book,  pt.  i,  chap.  ix).  This  saying  of  the  Baptist,  as 
reported  by  ^Matthew,  is  repeated  by  Paul  in  his  address 
to  the  Jews  at  Antioch,  in  Pisidia  (Acts  xiii,  25).  Chry- 
sostom,  on  John  i,  27,  remarks,  To  yap  v-oSiii^ia  Xvaca 
'■'/C  'CX"'''?t'  SiaKoviaQ  tori"  (Kitto).     See  Shoe. 

Lateran,  Caivrcu  of  St.  John,  the  first  in  dignity 
of  tlic  Itoman  churches,  and  situated  in  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  city,  derives  its  name  from  its  occupying  a 
portion  of  the  site  of  the  splendid  palace  of  Plantiiis  La- 
teranus,  which  having  been  escheated  (A.D.66)  in  conse- 
quence of  Lateranus  being  implicated  in  the  conspiracy 
of  the  I'isos  (Tacitus),  became  im|)erial  property,  anil 
was  assigned  for  Christian  uses  by  the  emperor  Constan- 
tine.  The  jialacc,  once  destroyed  by  fire,  and  rebuilt  by 
Sixtus  V,  was  the  habitual  residence  of  the  popes  until 
after  the  return  from  Avignon,  when  they  removed  to 
the  Vatican.  It  was  once  made  a  hospital  for  orphans, 
and  is  now  oecujiled  partly  by  otHcials  of  the  chapter, 
partly  for  public  purposes.  Tlic  present  pope,  Pius  IX, 
has  converted  a  portion  of  it  inti)  a'musetun  of  Chris- 
tian archeology.  Its  ancient  magnificence  is  celebrated 
by  Juvenal.  In  the  time  of  Constantine  the  palace 
was  the  abode  of  his  second  wife,  the  empress  Fausta, 


It  has  been  the  conjecture  of  some  that  Fausta  was  a 
Christian,  and  that  the  Basilica,  or  HaO  of  Justice,  con- 
nected with  her  palace,  was  granted  by  Constantine  as  a 
])lace  of  Christian  assembly.  The  fact  seems,  however, 
well  established  that  Constantino  subsequently  bestow- 
ed the  palace  upon  pope  Sylvester,  and  it  has  ever  since 
(several  times  rebuilt,  and  modified  in  its  fhial  comple- 
tion, dating  from  the  pontificate  of  Clement  XII)  con- 
tinued a  papal  patrimony.  The  emperor  is  said  to  have 
fomided  at  the  same  time  the  adjacent  church,  which  was 
originally  dedicated  to  the  Saviour,  but  after  it  was  re- 
built by  Lucius  II  in  the  midtUe  (jf  the  12th  century,  was 
dedicated  to  St.  John,  because  of  the  baptistery  which 
Constantine  built  near  by  it.  It  bears  the  additional 
name  Basilica  Constantiniana.  The  church  has  thus 
been  naturaUj'  regarded  as  the  parish  or  cathedral  church 
of  the  popes,  and  is  distinguished  as  such  above  any 
other  in  Korae.  St.  Peter's  and  Sta. Maria  Maggiore  are 
not  to  be  compared  with  it  in  importance.  Each  of  the 
three  has  a  porta  santo.  In  reference  to  the  Lateran, 
however,  Gregory  XI,  in  his  bull  June  23, 1372,  uses  the 
following  language,  which  has  been  substantially  re- 
peated by  many  popes:  "  Sacrosanctam  Lateranensem  ec- 
clesiam,  proecipuam  sedem  nostram,  inter  omnes  alias  Ur- 
bis  et  orbis  ecclesias  ac  basilicas,  etiam  super  ecclesiam 
sen  basilicam  principis  Apostolorum  de  Urbe,  siipremum 
locum  tenere."  The  ceremony  of  taking  possession  of 
the  Lateran  Basilica  is  one  of  the  first  observed  on  the 
election  of  a  new  pope,  whose  coronation  takes  place  in 
it.  The  chapter  of  the  Lateran  has  precedence  of  that 
of  St.  Peter's.  On  the  throne  of  the  Lateran  is  written 
the  inscription,  "  Ilajc  est  Papalis  Sedes  et  Pontificalis." 
An  inscription  on  each  side  of  the  entrance  styles  it 
mother  and  mistress  of  churches.  Omnium  urhis  et  orbis 
A'cclesiarum  Mater  et  Caput.  In  accordance  ■with  its 
dignity,  therefore,  all  the  oecumenical  councils  assem- 
bled in  the  city  of  Pome  have  been  held  in  this  church, 
the  late  council  (1870),  held  at  St,  Peter's,  being  the  only 
exception.  See  Lateran  Councils.  In  the  piazza 
of  St.  John  Lateran  stands  the  celebrated  relic  called 
the  "  Scala  Santa,"  or  "  Holy  Staircase,"  reputed  to  be 
the  stairs  of  Pilate's  house  at  Jerusalem,  made  holy  by 
the  feet  of  Christ  as  he  passed  to  judgment.  See  Iler- 
zog,  Real-Encijldop.  viii,  212  ;  Stanley,  Hist.  East.  Ch.  p. 
304;  Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lexikon,  vol.  vi,  s.  v. 

Lateran  Councils,  a  general  name  for  the  eccle- 
siastical councils  that  have  been  convened  in  the  Lat- 
eran Church  at  Rome,  but  especially  five  great  councils 
held  there,  and  regarded  by  the  Roman  Catholics  as 
a'cumenical,viz.  those  of  the  years  1123,1139,1179,1215, 
and  1512-17.  We  have  room  to  notice  the  most  impor- 
tant only  of  all  these  councils,  and  that  with  reference 
to  their  principal  enactments  and  historical  connections. 

I.  The  council  of  649,  under  IVIartin  I,  condemned  the 
Monothelitic  doctrine,  or  that  of  one  vill  in  the  person 
of  Christ.  This  view  was  developed  as  a  continuation 
of  the  Monojihysite  controversy.  The  Council  of  Chal- 
cedon,  in  451,  had  affirmed  the  existence  ci{  two  natures 
in  Christ  in  one  person,  against  the  Antiochians,  the 
Nestorians,  and  Eutychians.  This  determination  of  the 
council  did  not  obtain  final  supremacy  in  the  Greek  and 
Latin  churches  till  after  the  time  of  Justinian,  and  the 
conflict  with  it  was  continued  under  various  forms. 
From  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  tUl  that  of  Frankfort,  in 
793,  the  Church  councils  especially  sought  to  maintain 
the  tirofoldness  of  the  nature  of  Christ  asserted  at  Chal- 
cedon, with  less  regard  to  the  unity,  which  v,as  at  the 
same  time  established.  An  early  source  f(»r  the  rise  of 
Moiiothelitism  appeared  in  the  writings  of  Pseudo-Dio- 
nysius  the  Aroopagite,  which,  originating  jirobably  in 
the  4th  century,  obtained  for  many  centuries  thereafter 
great  credit  in  the  Church.  A  Neo-Platonic  mysticism 
in  these  writings  seeks  to  mediate  between  the  prevalent 
Chiu^ch  doctrine  and  Monophysitism  (or  the  doctrine  of 
one  nature  in  Christ).  The  Areopagite  is  not  an  out- 
spoken Monophj-site,  and  yet,  with  him,  the  human  in 
Christ  is  only  a  form  of  the  ilivine,  and  there  is  in  all 


LATERAN  COUNCILS 


LATERAN  COUNCILS 


the  acts  of  Christ  but  one  mode  of  operation,  the  thean- 
dric  energy  (jUia  ^lavcpiKt)  tvipytia).  This  expression 
became  a  favorite  one  with  all  the  Monophysite  oppo- 
nents of  the  Chalcedonian  decisions. 

The  Monothelitic  controversy  proper  extends  from 
623  10  080,  at  which  latter  date  the  Synod  of  Constan- 
tinople gave  the  most  precise  definition  of  two  wills  in 
the  two  natures  of  Christ.    The  earlier  stage  of  the  con- 
troversy, extenduig  to  the  year  638,  concerns  rather  the 
question  of  one  or  two  energies  or  modes  of  working  in 
the  acts  of  Christ.    The  emperor  Heraclius,  on  occasion 
of  his  recontiuering  the  Eastern  provinces  from  the  Per- 
sians in  the  year  622,  and  there  coming  in  contact  with 
certain  Monophysite  bishops,  conceived  the  idea  of  rec- 
onciling them  to  the  Church  by  authorizing  the  expres- 
sion in  reference  to  the  acts  of  Christ  which  was  used 
by  Dionysius — the  /lia  BeavcpiKi)  tvipyiia.     Sergius, 
patriarch  of  Constantinople,  being  consulted,  admitted 
the  propriety  of  the  expression  as  one  sanctioned  by  the 
fathers,  and  recommended  it  to  Cyrus,  bishop  of  Phasis, 
who,  being  soon  made  bishop  of  jUexandria,  set  up  a 
compromise  for  the  Monophysites  with  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon  on  nine  points.     Sophronius,  a  monk  of  Al- 
exanilria,  seriously  objected  to  the  course  taken  by  Ser- 
gius, and,  on  being  made  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  became 
so  strong  an  opponent  that  Sergius  called  to  his  aid  the 
inliuence  of  Honorius,  bishop  of  Home,  who  expressed 
liimself  in  favor  of  the  view  rather  of  one  will  than  of 
one  operation,  but  advised  that  controversy  be  avoided. 
It  is  unquestionably  the  fact  that  the  expressed  views 
of  Ilonorius,  thougli  a   pojje,  were  subsequently  con- 
demned in  council.     By  occasion  of  the  more  decided 
opposition  of  Sophronius,  the  emperor  Heraclius,  under 
advice  of  Sergius,  issued  his  edict,  the  EctJiesis,  in  the 
year  038,  in  which  he  forbade  the  use  of  either  expres- 
sion, "  one  mode  of  working"  or  "  tv.'O  modes  of  work- 
ing," in  a  controversial  way,  liut  especially  prohibited 
the  latter,  since  it  is  evident  that  Christ  can  have  but 
one  will,  the  human  being  subordinate  to  the  divine. 
This  was  distinct  Monothelitism.    A  powerful  opponent 
ol  this  view  was  the  monk  IVIaximus,  whose  writings 
had  a  controlling  influence  with  the  Lateran  Council. 
He  asserts  that  for  the  work  of  redemption  a  complete- 
ness in  the  two  natures  of  Christ  is  necessary;  there 
must  be  a  complete  human  will.     The  Logos,  indeed, 
works  all  through  the  human   working   and  willing. 
There  is  a  theandric  energy  in  his  own  sense.     It  is 
rather  as  a  rpoTroc  dvTtSoffeuic,  or  what  was  subse- 
quently  called  the   comrmimcafio   idiomatum.      Maxi- 
mus  worked  with  great  zeal  against  Monothelitism  in 
Rome  and  Africa,  sending  out  thence  tracts  on  the  sub- 
ject into  the  East.     Sophronius  still  carried  on  the  con- 
troversy, as  also,  with  him,  Stephen,  bisho]i  of  Doria,  his 
pupil.     After  the  death  of  Honorius  in  638,  the  bishops 
of  Kome  were  decidedly  opposed  to  Monothelitism,  and 
INIartin  I,  who  had  zealously  contended  against  the  view 
whUe  representative  of  the  Roman  Church  at  Constan- 
tinople, became,  when  made  pojie  in  649,  the  chief  ])illar 
of  tlie  contrary  opinion.     Advocates  of  tlie  ^iew  enim- 
ciated  in  the  Ect/tesli  of  Heraclius  were  Theodore,  bish- 
op of  Phasan,  and  Pyrrhus  of  Constantinople.     In  648 
the  emperor  Constans  H,  under  the  influence  of  the  pa- 
triarch Paul,  issued  his  Ti/pe  {rinroQ  TziaTHoQ),  which, 
though  not  so  decidedly  jVIonothelitic  as  the  Ecthesis, 
condemns,  under  threat  of  the  severest  penalties,  any 
further  controversy  upon  this  suliject.     'Without  con- 
sulting the  emperor,  Martin  I  now  convoked  this  first 
Lateran  Council,  in  which  he  presided  over  about  104 
bishops  from  Italj',  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Africa.     The 
pope   sought  to   obtain   generally  recognition  for  the 
council,  and  it  was  finallj'  evert^where  received  with  the 
five  (ecumenical councils.     Five  sessions  were  held:  the 
writings  of  the  prominent  jNIonothelitcs  were  examined 
and   condemned ;    pope   ]\[artin   explained   the   proper 
meaning  of  Dionysius's   term   "  tlieandric  oiteration," 
stating  that  it  was  designed  to  signify  two  operations 
of  one  person;  the  Ecthesis  of  Heraclius  and  Type  cf 


Constans  were  condemned;  and  the  judgment  of  the 
council  pronounced  in  twenty  canons,  which  anathema- 
tize all  who  do  not  confess  m  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  two 
wLUs  and  two  operations, 

II.  The  councils  of  1105, 1112,  and  1116,  under  Pascal 
II,  concern  the  contest  about  investitures  between  the 
pope  and  the  emperor,  which  was  brought  to  a  close  in 
the  Comicil  of  1123,  called  and  presided  over  by  Calix- 
tus  II.  This  body  consisted  of  300  bishops  and  600  ab- 
bots, all  of  the  Latin  Church.  The  investitiure  (q.  v.) 
contest,  which  began  as  early  as  1054,  when,  by  mutual 
decrees  of  excommunication,  the  breach  between  the 
Eastern  and  Western  churches  was  made  final,  arose 
from  the  claim  made  by  the  German  emperors  to  an  in- 
heritance of  rights  exercised  by  the  Greek  emperors 
concerning  the  appointment  of  candidates  to  ecclesias- 
tical offices,  and  their  investiture  with  the  right  to  hold 
Church  property  as  subjects  of  the  empire.  L'nder  the 
new  German  empire,  from  t)tho  the  Great  to  Henry  IV, 
930-1050,  the  popes  themselves  were  confirmed  in  their 
seat  by  the  emperor.  Henry  III  obtained  from  the 
Council  of  Sutrj',  which  was  held  near  Rome,  in  the 
midst  of  his  own  army,  in  1040,  the  power  of  nominating 
the  popes,  without  intervention  of  clergy  or  people.  The 
influence  of  Ilildebrand  was  now  felt — an  influence  which 
he  had  begun  to  exert  from  the  time  of  Leo  IX,  in  1048, 
and  which  secured  from  Nicolas  II,  1000,  a  decree  trans- 
ferring the  election  of  popes  to  a  conclave  of  cardinals. 
HUdebrand,  as  Gregory  YII,  maintained  a  celebrated 
contest  with  Henry  IV,  to  whom,  in  1075,  he  forbade  all 
power  of  investiture,  excommunicating  the  emperor  the 
next  year,  and  causing  him  to  do  penance  at  Canossa. 
With  his  victorious  campaign  in  Ital}^,  1080-83,  Henrj' 
drove  the  pope  into  exile  at  Salerno,  where  he  soon 
after  died.  His  immediate  successors,  however,  were 
such  as  he  had  designated  for  the  post,  and  were  the  in- 
heritors of  his  doctrines  and  plans  for  the  supremacy  of 
the  Church.  LTrban  II  sent  forth  an  encyclical  declar- 
ing his  adhesion  to  the  principles  of  Gregorj' — the  Ijic- 
tatus  Grefjorii;  and  Pascal  II  (1099-1118),  who  had  been 
one  of  Gregory's  cardinals,  showed  more  zeal  than  firm- 
ness in  the  same  course.  In  the  Lateran  Council  under 
the  pope,  1105,  an  oath  of  obedience  to  the  pope  was 
taken  by  the  clergy,  and  a  promise  rendered  to  f.ftirm 
whatever  he  and  the  Church  in  council  should  affirm. 
The  count  De  ^Meulan  and  his  confederates  were  excom- 
municated for  having  encouraged  the  king  of  England 
in  his  conduct  concerning  investitures.  Henry  \,  who, 
in  the  rebellion  against  his  father,  was  encouraged  by 
Pascal,  would  nevertheless  yield  nothing  on  becoming, 
emperor,  1105,  in  the  matter  of  investitures,  his  exam- 
ple being  followed  in  this  respect  by  England  and  France. 
Henry  marched  into  Italy  and  imprisoned  the  pope  in 
1111,  forcing  from  him  the  concession  of  rendering  back 
to  the  emperor  the  fiefs  of  the  bishops  on  condition  that 
there  should  be  no  imperial  interference  with  the  elec- 
tions. For  his  weakness  in  this  and  m  other  points 
the  pope  was  bitterly  reproached,  and  the  council  of  1 1 1 2 
revoked  aU  these  concessions  and  excommunicated  the 
emperor.  Notwithstanding  the  rebellion  of  his  German 
subjects,  Henry  collected  an  army  and  invaded  Italy 
anew  in  1110.  The  council  convoked  the  same  year 
thereupon  renewed  the  revocation  of  the  concessions 
Pascal  had  formerly  made,  and  anathematized  the  em- 
peror. At  last,  the  German  people,  weary  of  the  con- 
flict between  State  and  Church,  brought  about  a  jicaee- 
ful  compromise  in  the  concordat  at  the  imperial  Diet  of 
Worms,  1122.  The  principles  of  this  concordat  were 
adopted  by  the  council  cf  1123.  The  terms  of  the  com- 
pact are  as  follows :  "  The  emperor  surrenders  to  God,  to 
St.  Peter  and  Paul,  and  to  the  Catholic  Church,  all  right 
of  investiture  by  king  and  staff".  He  grants  that  elec- 
tions and  ordinations  in  all  chiu-ches  shall  take  place 
freely  in  accordance  with  ecclesiastical  laws.  The  jiope 
agrees  that  the  election  of  German  prelates  shall  be  had 
in  the  presence  of  the  emperor,  provided  it  is  v.ithout 
violence  or  simony.     In  case  any  election  is  disputed, 


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256 


LATERAN  COUNCILS 


tlie  emperor  shall  render  assistance  to  the  legal  party, 
with  the  advice  of  the  archbishop  and  the  bishops. 
The  person  elected  is  invested  with  the  imperial  fief  by 
the  royal  scejitre  pleilged  for  the  execution  of  every- 
thing required  by  law.  AVhoever  is  consecrated  shall 
also  receive  in  like  manner  his  investiture  from  other 
parts  (if  tlie  empire  within  six  months"  (Hase,  Church 
Hilton/,  p.  200 ;  Gieselcr,  Kecks,  llht.  ili,  181  sq.).  The 
pope  here  made  considerable  concessions  in  form,  but 
actually,  through  his  influence,  obtained  all  power  at 
the  elections.  The  council  of  1123  also  renewed  the 
grant  of  indulgences  promulgated  by  Urban  II  in  pro- 
motion of  the  first  crusade  in  1095,  and  decreed  the  cel- 
ibacy of  the  clergy.  Twenty-two  canons  of  discipline 
were  established. 

III.  The  council  of  1109,  under  Innocent  II,  con- 
demned the  anti-pope  Anacletus  II,  with  his  adherents, 
and  deposed  all  who  had  received  oilice  under  him.  On 
the  same  day  with  the  installation  of  Innocent  II,  in 
1130,  Peter  of  Leon,  a  cardinal,  and  grandson  of  a  rich 
Jewish  banker,  had  been  proclaimed  pope,  as  Anacletus 
II,  by  a  majority  of  the  carcUnals.  Innocent  took  ref- 
uge in  France,  where  he  was  supported  by  the  king. 
His  cause  was  Avarmly  esjioused  by  Bernard  of  Clair- 
vaux,  through  whose  influence  chiefly  Innocent  recov- 
ered his  position  in  Italy,  and  marched  into  Rome  tri- 
umphantly with  Lothaire  II  in  1136.  Anacletus  died  in 
1138,  and  a  successor  was  chosen  by  his  party  only  -with 
the  purpose  of  making  peace.  Roger  of  Sicily  had  sup- 
ported Anacletus,  anil  was  on  this  account  condemned 
in  the  council  of  1139,  though  the  origin  of  the  kingdom 
of  the  Two  Sicilies  belongs  to  the  same  year,  Roger  hav- 
ing taken  Innocent  prisoner,  and  havnng  compelled  the 
pope  to  bestow  upon  him  the  investiture  of  this  king- 
dom. At  this  council  Arnold  of  Brescia  was  also  con- 
demned. This  was  a  young  clergyman  of  the  city  of 
ISrescia,  a  disciple  of  Abelard,  who,  inspired  by  the  free 
philosophical  spirit  of  his  master,  devoted  himself  to  the 
promoti.in  of  practical  reform  in  Church  and  State.  A 
marked  spirit  of  political  independence  was  manifostiiir; 
itself  about  this  time  in  Lombardy,  as  an  inheritance 
from  the  old  Roman  municipaUties  established  thcie. 
Tlie  popes,  from  the  days  of  Leo  IX,  had  themselves  in- 
spired movements  of  ecclesiastical  reform.  Pascal  II 
had  admitted  that  the  secular  power  of  the  bishops  in- 
terfered with  their  spiritual  duties.  Bernard,  though  a 
zealous  opponent  of  Arnold,  yet  writes  as  follows  in  his 
Contemplations  on  the  Papacii :  "  Who  can  mention  the 
place  where  one  of  the  apostles  ever  held  a  trial,  decided 
disputes  about  boundaries,  or  portioned  out  lands  ?"  '■  I 
read  that  the  apostles  stood  before  judgment  seats,  not 
sat  on  them."  Arnold  preached  with  great  zeal  against 
the  political  power  and  wealth  of  the  clergy.  The 
Church  ought  rather  to  rejoice,  he  said,  in  an  apostolic 
poverty.  He  was  driven  successively  from  Italy,  France, 
and  Switzerland,  but  in  1 139  was  recalled  to  Rome  by 
the  populace,  who  sought  to  revive  the  sovereignty  of 
the  state,  established  a  senate,  limited  the  pope  to  the 
exercise  of  spiritual  power  and  the  possession  of  volun- 
tary offerings,  and  invited  the  Geniian  emperor  to  make 
Rome  his  capital.  Arnold  and  his  "politicians"  at 
Rome  thus  gave  pope  Iimocent  and  his  immediate  suc- 
cessors— Lucius  II,  Eugenius  III,  and  Adrian  IV — more 
trouble  than  any  political  movements  elsewhere.  This 
condemnation  at  the  council  did  not  etfcctually  cUmin- 
ish  his  power.  Wlicn,  however,  Adrian,  in  1151,  ]iut 
the  city  of  Rome  under  ban,  and  iirohibited  all  public 
worshij),  Arnold  was  abandoned  by  the  senate,  sacri- 
ficed by  Frederick  I,  and  hung  at  Rome  in  1155,  his 
body  being  burned  and  thrown  into  the  Tiber.  Among 
the  canons  of  the  council,  the  twenty-tliird  condemns 
the  heresy  of  the  JIanich:eans,  as  the  followers  of. Peter 
de  Bruis  were  called.  This  heresy  was  attributed  to 
the  early  Waldensians  in  France  and  elsewliefe.  arising 
partly  from  their  ascetic;  mode  of  life.  About  10(10  prel- 
ates were  present  at  this  council;  thirty  canons  of  dis- 
cipline were  published,  and  among  tliera  reaffirmations 


of  former  canons  against  simony,  marriage,  and  concu- 
binage in  the  clergy. 

IV.  The  council  of  1179,  under  Alexander  III,  num- 
bering 280,  mostly  Latin  bishops,  was  called  to  correct 
certain  abuses  which  had  arisen  during  the  long  schism 
just  brought  to  a  close- by  the  peace  of  Venice,  1177. 
Until  near  the  end  of  the  Pith  century  the  popes  were 
hard  pressed  by  the  Hohenstauften  emperors.  It  is  the 
contest  of  Ghibelline  and  Guelph.  Frederick  I  had 
taken  umbrage  at  the  use  of  the  term  '•  beneficium" 
in  a  letter  addressed  to  him  by  Adrian  IV  about  the 
rudeness  of  German  knights  to  pilgrims  visiting  Rome, 
as  if  the  pope  meant  to  imply  that  the  imperial  author- 
ity hail  been  conferred  by  him.  The  emperor  marched 
into  Italy,  and  other  letters  were  interchanged  between 
him  and  the  pope,  when,  upon  the  death  of  Adrian  in 
1159,  the  two  parties — the  hierarchic  and  the  moderate 
among  the  cardinals  —  chose  two  opposing  popes,  viz. 
Alexander  III  and  Victor  IV,  The  emperors  council, 
called  at  Pavia  in  IIGO,  recognised  the  latter.  Pascal 
III  and  Calixtus  III  followed  at  the  imperial  dictation, 
with  but  little  influence.  Alexander,  from  his  refuge 
in  France,-  enjoyed  great  popularity.  He  had  on  his 
side  the  Lombard  league.  The  cause  of  Frederick  was 
defended  by  the  lawyers  of  Bologna,  who  ascribed  to 
him  unlimited  power,  to  the  prejudice  of  the  people. 
Defeated  at  Legnano  in  117(5,  the  emperor  subscribed,  at 
the  dictation  of  Alexander,  the  peace  of  Venice,  the  pro- 
visions of  which  were  based  on  the  Concordat  of  Worms. 
The  first  and  most  important  of  the  twenty-seven  can- 
ons established  by  this  council,  which  were  mostly  dis- 
ciplinary, provides  that  henceforth  "  the  election  of  the 
popes  shall  be  confined  to  the  college  of  cardinals,  and 
tivo  thirds  of  the  votes  shall  be  required  to  make  a  law- 
ful (lection,  instead  of  a  majority  only,  as  heretofore." 
It  was  by  this  council  also  that  the  "  errors  and  impie- 
ties" of  the  Waklenses  and  Albigenses  were  declared 
heretical.  At  the  unimportant  council  of  1167,  pope  Al- 
exander excommunicated  Frederick  I. 

V.  Tlie  council  of  1215,  under  Innocent  III,  was  the 
most  important  of  all  the  Lateran  Councils.  It  is  usu- 
ally styled  the  Fourth  Lateran.  It  continued  in  session 
from  November  11  to  November  30,  having  present  71 
archbishops,  412  bishops,  800  abbots,  the  patriarclis  of 
Constantinople  and  Jerusalem,  and  the  legates  of  other 
patriarchs  and  crowned  heads.  The  pope  opened  the 
assembly  with  a  sermon  upon  St.  Luke  xxii,  15,  relating 
to  the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land  and  the  reformation 
of  the  Church.  The  remarkable  power  of  Innocent  HI 
is  displaj'ed  in  his  influence  over  this  council,  which 
was  submissive  to  all  his  wishes,  and  received  the  sev- 
enty canons  proposed  by  him.  The  papal  prerogatives 
attained  their  greatest  height  in  Innocent,  whose  pon- 
tificate extended  from  1198  to  1216.  The  bull  Unam 
Sanctam  of  Boniface  VIII.  directed  against  Philip  the 
Fair  in  1302,  marks  the  limit  from  which  the  power  of 
the  popes  evidently  declined.  Innocent  HI — a  man  of 
great  personal  power,  of  marked  ability  as  a  writer  and 
orator,  bold,  crafty,  and  ever  watchful  of  affairs — had 
his  eye  on  aU  that  transpired  through  his  legates.  The 
chief  objects  which  his  pontificate,  sought  were  "the 
strengthening  of  the  States  of  the  Church,  separation 
of  the  Two  Sicilies  from  all  dependence  on  the  German 
empire,  the  liberation  of  Italy  from  all  foreign  control, 
the  exercise  of  guardianship  over  the  confederacy  of  its 
states,  the  liberation  of  the  Oriental  Church,  the  exter- 
mination of  heretics,  and  the  exercise  of  ecclesiastical 
discipline"  (Hase,  Church  Hist.  p.  207).  Hitherto  Eng- 
land, Ciermany,  anil  France  had  constituted  a  balance 
of  power  against  the  pope,  but  under  Innocent  the  two 
former,  as  well  as  Italy,  submitted  to  the  claims  of  the 
pseudo-Isidorean  decretals.  France  was  early  laid  un- 
der interdict  (12(10)  on  account  of  Philip  Augustus's  re- 
pudiation of  Ingelmrge  and  the  Freucli  bishops'  appro- 
val of  the  act.  while  John  of  England  was  deprived  of  his 
realm,  to  receive  it  back  (in  1 213  *  only  as  a  fief  of  Rome. 
Deciding  at  first  for  Otlio  IV,  the  Guelph,  against  the 


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257 


LATERAN  COUNCILS 


Holienstauffen  Philip,  in  Germany,  Innocent  subsequent- 
ly securetl  from  the  council  the  recognition  of  Frederick 
II,  vainly  seeking  in  this  his  German  policy  to  free  It- 
aly entirely  from  the  power  of  the  emperor.  The  famous 
seventy  constitutions  of  Innocent,  if  not  discussed  con- 
ciliariter  by  the  bishops,  or  passed  with  every  form  of 
enactment,  were  nevertheless  regarded  as  the  canons  of 
the  council,  so  recognised  by  the  Council  of  Trent  and 
by  Church  authorities  of  the  intervening  age,  and  they 
have  constituted  a  fundamental  law  for  many  well- 
known  practices  of  the  Romish  Church.  The  first  of 
these  canons  asserts  the  Catholic  faith  in  the  unity  of 
God  against  all  Manicha^an  sects.  It  also,  for  the  first 
time,  makes  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  in  the 
use  of  this  express  term,  an  article  of  faith.  '•  The  body 
and  blood  of  Jesus  Christ  in  the  sacrament  of  the  altar 
are  truly  contained  under  the  species  of  bread  and  wine, 
the  bread  being,  by  the  divine  omnipotence,  transub- 
stantiated into  his  body,  and  the  wine  into  his  blood." 
The  second  canon  condemns  the  treatise  of  Joachim,  the 
prophet  of  Calabria,  which  he  wrote  against  Peter  Lom- 
bard on  the  subject  of  the  Trinity.  The  third  canon  is 
of  great  importance,  furnishing  the  basis  for  the  crusade 
against  the  Albigenses,  and  for  all  severities  of  a  like 
cliaracter  on  the  part  of  the  Koraish  Cliurcli.  It "  anath- 
ematizes all  heretics  who  hold  anything  in  opposition 
to  the  preceding  exposition  of  faith,  and  enjoins  that, 
after  condemnation,  they  shall  be  delivered  over  to  the 
secular  arm ;  also  excommunicates  all  who  receive,  pro- 
tect, or  maintain  heretics,  and  threatens  with  deposition 
all  bishops  who  do  not  use  their  utmost  endeavors  to 
clear  their  dioceses  of  them"  (LawAon,  Manual  of  Coun- 
cils, p.  295).  The  fourth  canon  invites  the  Greeks  to 
unite  with  and  submit  themselves  to  the  Romish  Church. 
T\\c  fifth  canon  regulates  the  order  of  precedence  of  the 
patriarchs:  l.Rorae;  2.  Constantinople ;  S.Alexandria; 
4.  Antioch ;  5.  Jerusalem ;  and  permits  these  several  pa- 
triarchs to  give  the  pall  to  the  archbishops  of  their  de- 
pendencies, exacting  from  themselves  a  profession  of 
faith,  and  of  obedience  to  the  Roman  see,  when  they  re- 
ceive the  pall  from  the  pope.  The  sixth  to  the  twen- 
tieth, inclusive,  are  of  minor  importance  (see  Landon, 
Manual  of  Councils,  p.  29G).  The  twenty-first  canon 
enjoins  "all  the  faitbfid  of  both  sexes,  having  arrived 
at  years  of  discretion,  to  confess  all  their  sins  at  least 
once  a  year  to  their  proper  priest,  and  to  communicate 
at  Easter."  This  is  the  first  canon  known  which  orders 
sacramental  confession  generally,  and  may  have  been 
occasioned  by  the  teachings  of  the  Waldenses,  that  nei- 
ther confession  nor  satisfaction  was  necessary  in  order 
to  obtain  remission  of  sin.  From  the  words  with  which 
it  commences,  it  is  known  as  the  canon  "  Omnis  utrins- 
que  sexus,"  and  was  solemnly  reaffirmed  by  the  Council 
of  Trent.  The  canons  (given  complctclj'  by  Landon, 
Man.  of  Councils,  p.  293  sq.)  in  general  constitute  a  body 
of  full  and  severe  disciplinary  enactments.  This  council 
reaffirmed  and  extended  the  Truce  of  God  on  plenary 
indulgence  which  had  been  previously  proclaimed  in 
behalf  of  the  Eastern  Crusades,  and  fixed  the  time,  June 
1,  and  place,  Sicily,  as  a  rendezvous  for  anotlier  crusade. 
This  council  also  confirmed  Simon  do  Montfort  in 
possession  of  lands  which  the  Crusaders  had  obtained 
l)y  papal  confiscation  from  the  Waldenses,  and  decreed 
the  entire  extirpation  of  the  heresy.  The  Waldenses 
or  Albigenses  in  the  south  of  France  were  the  followers 
of  Peter  Waldo,  a  wealthy  citizen  of  Lyons,  who,  from 
religious  principle,  adopted  a  life  of  poverty.  His  fol- 
lowers were  also  called  Leonistaj  and  "  Poor  men  of  Ly- 
ons." They  were  allied  in  their  sentiments  to  the  Vau- 
dois  of  the  Piedmontese  valleys,  with  whom  they  became 
united  for  mutual  defence.  They  protested  against 
these  points  in  the  doctrine  of  the  Romish  Church :  1. 
Transubstantiation.  2.  The  sacraments  of  confirmation, 
confession,  and  marriage.  3.  The  invocation  of  saints. 
4.  The  worship  of  images.  5.  The  temporal  power  of 
the  clergy.  A  crusade  had  been  instituted  against  them 
by  the  papal  power  in  1178.  Innocent  sought  to  win 
v.— R 


them  over  and  make  monks  of  them  by  establishing  in 
1201  the  order  of  "  Poor  Catholics."  Unsuccessful  in 
this,  he  confiscated  their  lands  to  the  feudal  lords,  and 
established  an  inquisition  among  them  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Dominic,  which  was  formally  sanctioned  by  the 
present  council.  The  warfare  against  them,  incited  and 
directed  by  tlie  monks  of  Citeaux,  was  allowed  by  Philip 
Augustus.  Count  Raymond  of  Toulouse  espoused  the 
cause  of  his  persecuted  vassals.  The  papal  legate,  Peter 
of  Castelnau,  sent  to  convert  the  Waldenses,  was  mur- 
dered by  Raymond,  whose  dominions  were  thereupon 
assaulted  in  1209  by  a  fiercer  crusade  of  so-called  "  Chris- 
tian Pilgrims,"  led  on  by  Simon  de  Montfort  and  Arnold, 
the  abbot  of  Citeaux.  The  count  of  Toulouse  submit- 
ted, but  a  bloody  warfare  was  prosecuted  against  Ray- 
mond Roger,  viscount  of  Beziers  and  Albi,  and  subse- 
quently 200  towns  and  castles  within  the  boundaries  of 
the  two  counts  were  granted  to  the  successful  Simon  de 
Montfort.  A  rebellion,  however,  against  his  power  de- 
prived him  of  all ;  but  Raymond  of  Toulouse,  who  ap- 
peared at  the  council  of  1215,  obtained  no  favor,  and  his 
territory  was  declared  to  be  alienated  from  liim  forever. 

\'L  The  council  of  1512-1517,  under  Julius  II  and 
Leo  X,  was  convened  for  the  reformation  of  abuses,  for 
the  condemnation  of  the  Council  of  Pisa,  and  attained 
its  most  important  result  in  the  abolition  of  the  Prag- 
matic Sanction.  France,  under  Louis  XII,  had  obtained 
great  military  successes  in  Italy  bj-  the  League  of  Cam- 
bray,  formed  in  1509  against  Venice.  In  the  interests 
of  F' ranee,  and  by  the  friendship  of  some  of  the  cardi- 
nals, Louis  XII  summoned  a  Church  councU  at  Pisa, 
Nov.  1511,  which  in  1512  was  moved  to  Milan,  but  was 
entirely  fruitless  of  results,  being  dissolved  by  the  pres- 
ence of  the  pope's  army.  Jidius  II,  thougli  at  first  jeal- 
ous of  Venice,  had  nevertheless,  aroused  by  the  successes 
of  the  French  general,  formed  the  Holy  Alliance  with 
Venice,  Spain,  England,  and  Switzerland,  and  now,  at 
the  head  of  his  army,  drove  the  French  beyond  the 
Alps,  and  himself  summoned  a  council  at  the  Latcran 
May  10, 1512.  This  council  extended  over  twelve  ses- 
sions, until  March,  1517.  The  bishop  of  Guerk  had  ac- 
tively promoted  the  summoning  of  the  council,  and  at- 
tended as  representative  of  the  German  emperor.  All 
the  acts  of  the  Council  of  Pisa  were  at  once  annulled.. 
Julius  having  died  in  Feb.  1513,  Leo  X  presided  over 
the  sixtli  session.  At  the  eighth  session,  in  Dec.  1513, 
Louis  XII,  through  his  ambassador,  declared  his  adhe- 
sion to  this  Council  of  the  Lateran.  At  the  eleventh 
session,  in  Dec.  1516,  the  bull  was  read  which,  in  place 
of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Eourges  (1438),  whereiir 
France  accepted  the  decisions  of  the  Basle  council  in  so 
far  as  they  were  consistent  with  the  liberties  of  the  Gal- 
ilean Church,  substituted  the  Concordat  agreed  upon  this 
year,  151G,  between  Leo  X  and  I'rancis  I.  Through 
hope  of  increasing  his  power  in  Italy,  Francis  largely 
sacrificed  the  liberties  of  the  Church.  Several  of  the 
articles  of  the  Pragmatic  were  retained,  but  most  of 
them  were  altered  or  abolished.  The  first  article  was 
entirely  contrary  to  the  Pragmatic,  which  had  re-estab- 
lished the  right  of  election,  while  the  Concordat  declares, 
that  the  chapters  of  the  cathedrals  in  France  shall  no 
longer  proceed  to  elect  the  bishop  in  case  of  vacancy ,^ 
but  that  the  king  shall  name  a  proper  person,  whom  the 
pope  shall  nominate  to  the  vacant  see.  The  Concor- 
dat, on  account  especially  of  this  provision,  met  with 
great  opposition  in  the  Parliament,  universities,  and  the 
Church  at  Paris.  It  was  a  great  advance  of  the  papacy- 
against  tlie  liberties  of  France  (compare  Janus,  Pope  and 
Council,  §  xxviii  and  xxix).  Neither  this  council  nor 
the  other  four,  viz.  those  of  1123, 1139, 1179,  and  1215, 
styled  oecumenical  by  the  Romish  Church,  can  be  prop- 
erly regarded  as  such. 

Some  writers  mention  as  the  sixth  Lateran  the  coun- 
cil convened  by  pope  Benedict  XIII  on  tlie  bull  Uni- 
fjenitus  [see  Jansesius],  and  for  the  pm^iose  of  general 
reform  in  the  Church  (compare  Klemm,  Cone,  a  Bened. 
XIII,\i\Lat.habitiprwhreve  examen  (1729) ;  WalchjZ'e 


LATEY 


258 


LATBIER 


concil.  Lut.  a  Bentd.  XIII  (Lips.  172G).  For  a  detailed 
account  of  the  council  at  the  Lateran  opened  Dec.  8, 
18G9,  see  QJcumknical  Coun'Cil,  and  the  article  Infal- 
libility in  vol.  iv,  especially  p.  573  sq.  See  Landon, 
Manual  of  Councils,  p. '2S7-oi)3;  Mansi,  C'o««V.  vi,  75 ;  x, 
741,707,800,891,999,1503;  xi,  117;  xiv,  1-340;  Giese- 
ler,  Cfi.  Hist,  i,  308 ;  ii,  131, 184, 195, 38« ;  ISIihnan.  Latin 
Ckrisliaiiifi/,in,297, 298  sq.,434,  iv,  140, 175  sq.,230;  v, 
211  sq. ;  Cuuniugham,  Hist.  Theol.  i,  417  sq. ;  Ranke, 
Hist,  of  the  Papacy,  i,  351 ;  ii,  200.     (E.  B.  O.) 

Latey,  Gilbert,  an  English  Quaker,  was  born  in 
England  in  1027.  He  was  one  of  the  most  active  and 
efficient  members  of  his  society  in  London.  His  labors 
were  directed  especially  to  the  relief  of  the  more  unfor- 
tunate of  his  Church.  He  died  Sept.  i5,  1705.  See 
Janney,  Eist.  of  Friends,  iii,  105, 

Lathrop,  Joseph,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Congregational 
minister,  was  born  October  20, 1731  (O.  S.),  at  Norwich, 
Conn. ;  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1754;  entered  the 
ministry  January,  1750 ;  was  ordained  pastor  in  West 
Springfield,  Mass.,  August  25,  and  labored  there  until  his 
death,  December  31, 1820.  In  1793  he  was  elected  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  in  Yale  College,  but  declined  the  posi- 
tion. He  published  A  Letter  to  the  Rev.  the  associated 
Pastors  hi  the  County  ofNeio  Haven  concerning  the  Ordi- 
nation of  the  Rec.  John  Hubbard  in  Meriden  (1770)  : — 
3Liscellaneous  Collectio?i  of  original  Pieces,  political,  mor- 
al, and  entertaining  {ViSij);  and  a  number  of  occasional 
Sermons  (Hartford,  1793,  8vo ;  1803,  8vo ;  Worcester, 
1807, 8vo).  Doctor  Lathrop  was  a  popular  preacher,  and 
his  sermons  have  long  been  highly  commented  upon 
both  in  this  country  and  in  Europe. — Sprague,  Annals 
of  the  A  merican  Pulpit,  i,  528. 

Latimer,  Hugh,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  prel- 
ates of  the  Church  of  England,  undoubtedly  one  of  the 
ablest,  if  not  the  al)lest  ecclesiastic  among  the  English 
reformers  of  the  IGth  century,  called  by  Froude  {Hist, 
of  England,  i,  204 ;  comp.  ii,  101)  the  John  Knox  of  Eng- 
land, the  bearer  of  a  name  that  "  now  shines  over  two 
hemispheres,  and  will  blaze  more  and  more  till  the  last 
day,"  was  born  at  Thurcaston,  in  Leicestershire,  about 
1470.  His  father,  a  farmer  of  good  practical  judgment, 
early  discovering  in  Hugh  talents  that  would  tit  him  for 
a  literary  position  of  note,  afforded  him  all  the  advan- 
tages of  his  time  at  school,  and  at  fourteen  Hugh  was 
transferred  to  Cambridge,  where  he  was  soon  known  as 
a  sober,  hard-working  student.  At  nineteen  he  was 
elected  fellow  of  Clare  Hall,  took  his  degree  at  twenty, 
and  at  once  entered  on  tlie  study  of  theology,  having 
decided  to  devote  himself  to  the  services  of  tlie  Church. 
A  sincere  and  devout  believer  in  the  doctrines  and  rites 
of  the  Church  of  IJomc,  we  need  not  wonder  at  finding 
him,  at  this  period  of  his  life,  loud  and  freijuent  in  his 
deniniciation  of  the  would-be  reformers,  seldom  losing 
an  opportunity  of  inveighing  against  them.  •'  He  even 
held  them,"  says  Jliddleton  (Memoirs  of  the  Reformers, 
iii,  103), "in  such  horror  that  he  thought  they  were  the 
supporters  of  that  Antichrist  whose  appearance  was  to 
precede  the  coming  of  the  Son  of  Man,  and  conjectured 
that  the  day  of  judgment  was  at  hand."  Nt>r  were  the 
events  of  his  day  likely  to  cool  his  mistaken  zeal.  Lu- 
ther, who  was  making  havoc  in  the  ranks  of  the  papacy, 
had  just  been  assailed  by  "  the  defender  of  the  faith"  (kiiig 
Henry  VIIIj ;  and  as  a  most  fit  subject  for  his  disserta- 
tion for  the  divinity  degree,  Latimer  could  find  no  bet- 
ter worlc  than  "  fleshing  his  maiden  sword"  in  an  attack 
upon  Mtlaiicthon— surely  no  small  task  for  a  man  not 
much  beyond  his  teens.  But  even  at  this  early  age 
Hugh  Latimer  proved  himself  quite  a  formidable  po- 
lemic, and,  what  is  even  more  noteworthy,  a  man  not 
afraid  to  speak  his  mind — a  trait  which  distinguishes 
our  subject  in  all  the  acts  of  his  life.  Immediately  after 
his  attack  on  Jlclancthon  he  came  under  the  eye  and 
tongue  of  Bilney,  the  famous  advocate  of  the  Reformed 
doctrines  in  the  iMiirlish  Church,  and  he  was  led  to  ex- 
amine more  critically  the  doctrines  and  discipline  of  his 


Church.  The  result  was,  naturally  enough,  conversion 
to  the  cause  which  Bilney  so  ably  advocated.  Latimer 
was  at  this  time  about  thirty  years  of  age,  and  as  he 
was  not  a  man  accustomed  to  do  things  by  halves,  he 
became  a  zealous  advocate  for  reform,  and  preached 
manfully  and  boldly  against  the  false  doctrines  and  va- 
rious abuses  of  Romanism  ^vhich  had  crept  into  and  pol- 
luted the  Church  of  England.  Naturally  gifted  with 
great  oratorical  powers,  and  inspired  by  the  fitness  of 
the  subject  with  which  he  was  dealing,  he  soon  made 
himself  famous  as  a  preacher  at  Cambridge.  "None, 
except  the  stiff-necked  and  uncircumcised,  ever  went 
away  from  his  preaching,  it  was  said,  without  being  af- 
fected with  high  detestation  of  sin,  and  moved  to  aU 
godliness  and  virtue"  {Jewel  of  Joy  [Parker  Society  edi- 
tion], p.  224  sq.).  Such  preaching,  however,  greatly  as 
it  was  needed  by  the  times  in  which  Latimer  lived, 
could  not  meet  the  approval  of  the  servile  ecclesiastics. 
It  was  too  much  tinged  by  theological  statements  that 
"had  originally  sprouted  in  England,  and,  after  being 
translated  to  Germany,  had  been  brought  back  with  im- 
proved fibre ;"  and  Latimer  soon  found  himself  surround-^ 
ed  by  a  formidable  opposition,  daily  growing  in  strength. 
His  "  heretical  preaching,"  as  it  was  then  called,  caused 
a  remonstrance  made  to  the  diocesan  bishop  of  Ely  by 
a  gray  friar  named  Venetus,  but  really  due  to  most  of 
the  divines  of  Cambridge,  requesting  episcopal  inter- 
ference. Dr.  West,  then  the  incumbent  of  the  bishopric 
of  Ely,  naturally  a  mild  and  moderate  man,  inclined  to 
favor  Latimer  at  first,  and  only  mildly  rebuked  him. 
Here  the  matter  might  have  ended,  and  it  is  more  than 
likely  that  "  he  would  not  have  been  the  Latimer  of  the 
Reformation,  and  the  Church  of  England  woidd  not,  per- 
haps, have  been  here  to-day"  (Froude,  ii,  101),  had  not 
this  bishop,  while  on  a  visit  to  Cambridge  (1525),  unex- 
pectedly attended  one  of  Latmier's  preaching  services, 
and  had  not  his  prelatical  dignity  been  sorely  touched  on 
the  occasion.  Latimer  was  right  in  the  midst  of  his  ser- 
mon when  the  bishop  entered ;  immediately  he  abandon- 
ed his  subject,  and,  as  soon  as  the  bishop  had  been  seated, 
according  to  Strype,  addressed  the  audience  as  follows : 
"It  is  of  congruence  meet  that  a  new  auditory  being 
more  honorable,  requireth  a  new  theme,  being  a  new  ar- 
gument to  entreat  of.  Therefore  it  behoveth  me  nov\f 
to  deviate  from  mine  intended  purpose,  and  somewhat 
to  entreat  of  the  honorable  estate  of  a  bishop.  There- 
fore let  this  be  the  theme, '  Christus  existens poniifcx  fu- 
turorum  bonorum,  etc.'"  This  text,  says  a  contempo- 
rary, he  so  fruitfully  handled,  expounding  every  word, 
and  setting  forth  the  office  of  Christ  so  sincerely  as  the 
true  and  perfect  pattern  unto  all  other  bishops  that 
should  succeed  him  in  his  Church,  that  the  Inshop  then 
present  might  well  think  of  himself  that  neither  he  nor 
any  of  his  fellows  were  of  that  race,  but  rather  of  the 
fellowship  of  Caiaphas  and  Annas.  It  cannot  appear 
strange  to  any  one  that "  the  wise  and  politic  man,"  as 
the  bishop  of  Ely  was  generally  called,  thereafter  also 
went  over  to  the  enemy,  and  forbade  Latimer's  preach- 
ing within  the  diocese  over  which  he  presided.  Lati- 
mer, however,  overcame  this  obstacle  by  gaining  the 
use  of  a  pulpit  in  a  monastery  of  Austin  friars,  exempt 
from  episcopal  jurisdiction,  and  the  prior  of  which.  Dr. 
Barnes,  decidedly  favored  the  reformed  doctrines.  This 
daring  attitude  of  the  yoiuig  preacher  so  provoked  Dr, 
West  and  the  Cambridge  clique  that  the  bishop  made 
complaint  to  cardinal  Wt ilsey.  "  No  eye  saw  more  (juick- 
ly  than  the  cardinal's  the  (litfcrcnce  between  a  true  man 
and  an  impostor,"  and  when  he  had  heard  from  the  lips 
of  Latimer  himself  the  substance  of  the  sennons  that 
had  given  cause  to  the  complaint,  the  cardinal,  instead 
of  punishing  Latimer,  replied  to  the  accusations  by 
granting  the  offender  a  license  to  preach  in  any  church 
in  England.  "  If  the  bishop  of  Ely  cannot  abide  such 
doctrine  as  you  have  here  repeated,"  he  said,  "you  shall 
preach  it  to  his  beard,  let  him  s:iy  what  he  will"  (Lati- 
mer, R(  mains,  p.  27  sq.,  as  quoted  by  Froude,  ii,  102). 
From  this  time  forward  the  career  of  Latimer  seems 


LATIMER 


259 


LATIMER 


clearly  marked  out.  Hitlicrto  lie  had  been  quite  ortho- 
dox ill  points  of  theoretic  belief.  '■  His  mind,"  says 
Froude,  "  was  practical  rather  than  speculative,  and  he 
was  slow  in  arriving  at  conclusions  which  had  no  im- 
mediate bearing  upon  action."'  Now  he  broke  loose  al- 
together from  the  position  of  the  Cambridge  authorities, 
and  probably  became  defiant  of  them.  But  Wolsey 
(t  15;50)  feU  from  grace,  and  there  was  reason  to  fear 
that  Latimer  would  now,  at  last,  also  faU  a  prey  to  the 
malice  of  his  formidable  adversaries,  greatly  increased 
in  numbers  by  his  success  in  gaining  followers,  who  were 
drawn  towards  him  by  his  clo(juence,  his  moral  conduct, 
and  his  kindness  of  disposition,  as  well  as  by  the  mer- 
its of  his  cause.  Unexpectedly,  however,  and  quite  to 
the  chagrin  of  the  Cambridge  men,  he  found  a  fresh 
protector  in  the  king  himself.  lie  had  preached  before 
Henry  in  the  Lent  of  1530,  having  been  introduced  to 
his  royal  master  by  the  king's  physician.  Dr.  Butts ;  and 
lie  won  the  favor  of  Henry  by  his  honest,  straightfor- 
ward logic  and  his  enthusiasm.  In  this  new  position  he 
performed  his  duty  as  faithfully  as  ho  had  in  preaching 
at  Cambridge,  and  he  dared  to  speak  the  truth  in  a  place 
wliere  the  truth  is  generally  forgotten.  A  special  op- 
portunity to  speak  in  defense  of  the  Protestant  cause 
was  afforded  him  by  the  persecutions  to  which  the  truest 
men  in  Henry's  dominions  were  subjected  at  this  time 
on  account  of  their  religious  faith ;  and,  though  he  did 
not  succeed  in  staying  the  hand  of  persecution  by  this 
address  of  almost  unexampled  grandeur,  it  yet  remains 
"  to  speak  forever  for  tlie  courage  of  Latimer,  and  to 
speak  something,  too,  for  a  prince  that  could  respect  the 
nobleness  of  the  poor  yeoman's  son,  who  dared  in  such  a 
cause  to  write  to  him  as  a  man  to  a  man.  To  have 
written  at  all  in  such  a  strain  was  as  brave  a  step  as 
was  ever  deUberately  ventured.  Like  most  brave  acts, 
it  did  not  go  unrewarded;  for  IIcnr\'  remained  ever  af- 
ter, however  widely  divided  from  him  in  opinion,  yet 
his  unshaken  friend"  (Froude,  ii,  104).  Perhaps  it  may 
not  be  out  of  place  here  to  say  that  Henry  VIII  himself, 
however  nobly  he  may  have  acted  towards  Latimer  and 
the  Reformers  after  1530,  was  perhaps,  in  the  main,  in- 
cited to  his  friendly  deeds  towards  Latimer  by  the  posi- 
tion the  latter  had  taken  in  1527.  Froude  and  most  of 
the  English  historians  forget,  in  their  great  endeavor  to 
cleanse  Henry  Till  from  all  sin,  that,  however  greatly 
the  Church  of  England  has  been  l)cnefited  by  his  work, 
his  object  was  not  reform  in  the  Church,  but  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  second  papacy  and  his  own  enthronement 
as  pope,  and  that  he  was  only  led  to  take  this  step  when 
he  found  so  many  pliant  tools  to  carry  out  his  project  of 
separation  from  his  first  wife,  Catharine  of  Aragon.  Of 
the  commission  appointed  by  the  LTniversity  of  Cam- 
bridge to  investigate  the  king's  rights  in  this  matter, 
Latimer  had  been  a  member,  and  had  taken  decided 
ground  in  favor  of  the  king.  This  of  itself  was  sufficient 
to  secure  the  good  offices  of  his  royal  master.  Latimer's 
record  of  course,  both  before  and  after  this  event,  clearly 
proves  that  he  was  not  a  pliant  tool  in  the  hands  of  the 
king,  but  actually  believed  Henry  Till  justified  in  his 
separation  from  Catharine. 

Jlost  prominent  and  influential  at  this  time  among 
the  king's  favorites,  or  the  Anne  Boleyn  party,  as  they 
are  sometimes  termed,  as  the  advocates  of  her  cause  and 
the  justness  of  king  Henr^-'s  marriage  with  her,  was  lord 
Thomas  Cromwell  (q.  v.;  comp.  also  Froude,  History  of 
Enf/lnnd,  ii,  109  sq.).  By  Cromwell's  exertions.  Latimer, 
in  1531,  was  presented  with  the  benefice  of  West  King- 
ston, in  Wiltshire,  where  he  preached  the  reformed  doc- 
trines with  such  plainness  and  emphasis  as  to  bring 
upon  him  a  public  accusation  and  citation  before  the 
liisliop  of  London,  who  had  only  been  watching  for  an 
opportunity  to  punish  him  as  a  heretic.  The  citation 
was  issued  and  served  .January  10,  1532.  Articles  were 
drawn  up,  mainly  extracts  from  his  sermons,  in  which 
he  was  charged  with  speaking  lightly  of  the  worship  of 
the  saints,  and  with  affirming  that  there  was  no  mate- 
rial fire  of  a  purgatorial  description,  and  that,  for  his 


own  part,  he  would  rather  be  in  purgatory  than  in  the 
Lollard's  tower!  He  set  ou:  for  London  in  the  depth 
of  winter,  and  under  a  severe  fit  of  the  stone,  determined 
to  defend  the  justness  of  his  course.  He  was  submitted 
by  the  different  bishops  to  the  closest  cross-questionings, 
in  the  hope  that  he  M'oidd  commit  himself.  "They 
felt,"  says  Froude  (ii,  107),  "that  he  was  the  most  dan- 
gerous person  to  them  in  the  kingdom,  and  thev  labored 
with  unusual  patience  to  insure  his  conviction."  Lati- 
mer, however,  baffled  his  episcopal  inquisitors  with  their 
own  weapons,  and  when  they  dared  to  excommunicate 
and  to  imprison  him,  he  dared  to  appeal  to  the  king  in 
the  face  of  their  formidable  opposition,  and  was  permit- 
ted to  escape  with  a  simple  submission  to  the  archbish- 
op, instead  of  an  obligation  to  subscribe  to  a  certain  fist 
of  articles.  These  latter  were  as  follows :  "  That  there  is 
a  purgatory  to  purge  the  souls  of  the  dead  after  this  life; 
that  the  souls  in  purgatory  are  holpen  with  the  masses, 
prayers,  and  alms  of  the  living:  that  the  saints  do  pray 
as  mediators  now  for  us  in  heaven ;  that  they  are  to  be 
honored ;  that  it  is  profitable  for  Christians  to  call  upon 
the  saints  that  they  may  pray  for  us  unto  God;  that 
pilgrimages  and  oblations  done  to  the  sepulchres  and 
relics  of  saints  are  meritorious;  that  they  which  have 
vowed  perpetual  chastity  may  not  marrj',  nor  break 
their  vow,  without  the  dispensation  of  the  pope ;  that 
the  keys  of  binding  and  loosing  delivered  to  Peter  do 
still  remain  with  the  bishops  of  Kome,  his  successors,  al- 
though they  live  wickedly,  and  are  by  no  means,  nor  at 
any  time,  committed  to  laymen;  that  men  may  merit 
at  God's  liand  bj'  fasting,  prayer,  and  other  works  of 
piety ;  that  they  which  are  forbidden  of  the  bishop  to 
preach,  as  suspected  persons,  ought  to  cease  until  they 
have  purged  themselves;  that  the  fast  Avhich  is  used  in 
Lent,  and  other  fasts  prescribed  by  the  canons,  are  to  be 
observed;  that  God,  in  evcrj'  one  of  the  seven  sacra- 
ments, giveth  grace  to  a  man  rightly  receiving  the 
same;  that  consecrations,  sanctifyings,  and  blessings, 
by  custom  received  into  the  Church,  are  profitable;  that 
it  is  laudable  and  profitable  that  the  venerable  images 
of  the  crucifix  and  other  saints  should  be  had  in  the 
Church  as  a  remembrance,  and  to  the  honor  and  wor- 
ship of  Jesus  Christ  and  his  saints ;  that  it  is  laudable 
and  profitalile  to  deck  and  clothe  those  images,  and  to 
set  np  burning  lights  before  them  to  the  honor  of  said 
saints."  Historians  disagree  as  to  the  attitude  of  Lati- 
mer towards  the  bishops,  who  demanded  that  he  should 
sign  at  least  two  of  the  articles,  viz.  the  one  respecting 
the  observance  of  Lent,  and  that  concerning  the  crucifix 
and  the  lawfulness  of  images  in  churches.  Fox  doubts 
that  Latimer  signed  any ;  (iilpin,  in  his  memoir  of  Lat- 
imer, denies  it  outright ;  Hook  {Eccles.  Biogr.  vi,  5G2) 
says  that  the  fact  of  Ids  signing  "  is  put  beyond  all  ques- 
tion by  the  minutes  of  the  Convocation,  where  it  is 
recorded  that  in  the  month  of  March,  1532,  Latimer 
appeared,  and,  kneeling  down,  craved  forgiveness,  ac- 
knowledging that  he  had  erred  in  preaching  against  the 
aforesaid  two  articles."  Froude,  however,  holds  that 
Latimer  signed  "all  es-ccpl  two — one  apparently  on  the 
power  of  the  pope ;  the  other  I  am  unable  to  conjecture." 
(Comp.  Burnet,  Hist,  of  the  Jief.  iii,  116,  Latimer's  Re- 
mains, p.  466.) 

Rescued  from  these  perils  by  lord  Cromwell,  he  was 
by  the  latter  now  introduced  to  Anne  Boleyn,  and  by 
her  appointed  chaplain  ;  and  in  1535  he  was  honored 
with  the  bishopric  of  Worcester.  In  this  new  appoint- 
ment, which  marks  an  important  epoch  in  the  ecclesias- 
tical history  of  the  day,  Latimier  was  remarkably  zeal(  us 
in  the  discharge  of  his  office ;  he  was  active,  determined, 
and  vigilant.  "  In  writing,  frequent ;  in  ordaining, 
strict;  in  preaching,  indefatigable;  in  reproving,  severe ; 
in  exhorting,  persuasive."  In  1536,  finally,  he  was 
brought  from  the  somewhat  secluded  position  he  had 
hitherto  occupied  to  a  more  public  exhibition  by  a  sum- 
mons to  Parliament  and  Convocation,  at  the  opening  of 
which  he  preaclied  two  very  powerful  sermons,  boldly 
urging  the  necessity  of  reform.     Ever  since  1534  es- 


LATIMER 


260 


LATIMER 


trangement  between  the  pope  and  the  king  had  been 
quite  decided.  Cranmer's  decree  of  1533,  approving  the 
marriage  with  Anne  Boleyn,  had  been  declared  first  null 
and  void  by  the  pope,  and  Henry  had  been  threatened 
with  excommunication;  but,  as  he  had  ignored  the  pa- 
pal threat,  a  bull  to  this  effect  was  published  in  1534-5. 
These  proceedings  on  the  part  of  Home  left  no  other 
course  open  to  Henry  than  either  to  repent,  or  to  estab- 
lish himself  as  the  supreme  head  of  the  English  Church. 
The  Convocation  of  Canterbury,  in  1531,  had  pronounced 
orHcially  in  favor  of  constitutional  reforms,  and  an  act 
of  Parliament  in  1533  repudiated  papal  supremacy  by 
withdrawing  first  the  pajTnent  of  the  bishops'  annates 
or  first-fruits,  and  next  by  an  "  act  for  the  restraint  of 
appeals,"  which  forbade  appeals  to  Rome  on  any  pretext, 
and  asserted  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  authorities  in 
England  competent  to  decide  without  any  consultation 
of  the  papal  power,  followed  by  another  act  conferring 
on  the  English  monarch  the  right  of  episcopal  appoint- 
ment, as  well  as  another  forbidding  applications  to  the 
lioman  see  for  faculties,  dispensations,  etc.  It  was 
therefore  no  great  task  to  prevail  upon  the  convocations 
of  Canterbury  and  York,  in  1534,  to  declare  formally 
against  the  claim  of  the  Koman  see  to  exercise  any  ju- 
risdiction in  England;  and,  when  once  the  step  had 
been  taken  by  the  convocations,  both  the  universities, 
as  weU  as  the  whole  of  the  bishops,  and  an  overwhelm- 
ing majority  of  the  clergy,  cheerfidly  followed  in  the 
same  wake,  "all  apparently  feeling  that  there  was  no 
sound  theological  reason  for  the  maintenance  of  so  bur- 
densome and  unconstitutional  a  tyranny"  (Blunt  [John 
Henry],  Key  to  Ch.  History  [modern  ],  p.  23).  "With  all 
these  initiatory  measures  secured,  Henry  had  no  reason 
any  longer  to  hesitate  on  the  decided  step  of  seizing  the 
supreme  power  over  the  English  Church,  which,  in  1531, 
the  convocations  of  Canterbury  and  York  had  consented 
to  recognise  only  with  the  definite  limitation  "as  far  as 
the  law  of  Christ  will  allow,"  and  he  began  the  work  bj' 
an  order,  in  1534,  to  omit  the  ])ope's  name  from  the  ser- 
vice-books, quickly  followed  by  t\vo  successive  acts, 
passed  by  a  servile  Parliament,  confirming  the  suprem- 
acy, and  giving  to  the  king  unlimited  power  to  repress 
all  heresies,  and  to  punish  as  high  treason  the  denial  of 
his  right  to  the  title  of  supreme  head  of  the  Church. 
In  order  further  to  secure  him  in  the  position  which  he 
had  assumed,  the  Convocation  of  153G,  in  which  Lati- 
mer, as  we  have  seen  above,  figured  quite  prominently, 
was  urged  to  settle  the  questions  of  doctrine  and  devo- 
tion, which  were  agitating  the  English  Church,  and,  as 
the  result  of  their  deliberations,  sent  forth  the  following 
ten  articles,  the  original  predecessors  of  the  Thirty-nine 
Articles  of  Keligion.     See  Auticles. 

I.  Enjoined  belief  in  the  Holy  Bible,  the  three  creeds, 
and  the  teaching  of  the  first  four  general  councils. 

II.  Set  forth  the  doctrine  of  baptismal  regeneration. 
HI.  Defined  penance  as  consisting  of  repentance,  con- 
fession, absolution,  and  amendnieut  of  life. 

IV.  Declared  fully  the  doctrine  of  the  real  presence, 
without  asserting  that  of  trausubstantiation. 

V.  Explained  justiiicatiou  as  attainable  by  repeut.auee, 
faith,  and  charity,  through  the  merits  and  mission  of  our 
blessed  Lord. 

VI.  Declared  that  images  might  l)e  profitably  nsed  as 
aids  to  devotion,  but  not  worshipped  nor  nndulyhonored. 

VII.  Set  forth  the  honor  due  to  saints  as  God's  faithful 
people  who  pray  for  us. 

Vin.  Showedthat,  with  certain  limitations,  the  prayers 
of  the  saints  might  be  asked  for. 

IX.  Spoke  of  minor  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  Church, 
such  as  the  use  of  holy  water,  ashes  on  Ash-Wednesday, 
palais  on  Palm-Sunday,  etc.,  and  declared  that  they  might 
he  fitly  used  to  excite  devotional  feelings,  but  not  as  if 
they  could  obtain  remission  of  sins. 

X.  Distinguished  prayers  for  the  dead  from  the  Romish 
doctrine  of  pnrgatory,  repudiating  the  latter. 

In  the  following  year  these  doctrinal  articles  were 
succeeded  by  the  Institution  of  a  Christian  Afan  (q.  v.),  a 
plain  and  authoritative  expositiou  of  Church  doctrine, 
composed  by  a  commission  of  fi)rty-six  divines,  appoint- 
ed by  the  king,  and  including  all  the  bishoi)s  as  well  as 
some  other  dignitaries  of  the  Church.  In  this  commis- 
sion all  shades  of  opinion  had  been  represented,  Cranmer 


and  Latimer,  as  well  as  Gardiner  and  Bonner,  being  of 
the  number;  but  it  was  evident  throughout  that  the 
Kelbrmers  were  in  the  majority ;  and  when,  to  all  out- 
ward aijpearances,  the  reform  movement  seemed  des- 
tined to  prove  a  success  in  England,  it  suddenly  received, 
Irom  a  quarter  where  it  was  last  looked  for,  a  blow  that 
stimned  it  almost  completely.  The  separation  between 
the  king  of  England  and  the  pope  of  Kome  having  be- 
come complete,  the  Lutherans  grew  anxious  to  effect  a 
union  with  the  English  Reformers,  and  to  this  end  three 
German  divines,  with  Burckhardt  at  their  head,  had 
come  to  England  in  1538,  to  discuss  and  amicably  settle 
all  minor  religious  differences  of  opinion.  Unfortunate- 
ly, however,  they  not  only  failed  to  bring  about  an  agree- 
ment on  sacramental  doctrine,  but  the  discussion  even 
induced  the  king  to  cling  more  tenaciously  than  ever  to 
the  belief  of  the  Romish  Church,  especially  on  transub- 
stantiation ;  and  in  1539  the  king  actually  caused  the 
passage  of"  the  bloody  act  of  the  Six  Articles,"  or  "  the 
whip  with  six  strings,"  as  the  Protestants  termed  it,  by 
which  the  denial  of  transubstantiation  was  made  pun- 
ishable ivith  death,  and  other  mediieval  dogmas  were 
enforced  by  fine  and  imprisonment  (comp.  Froude,  Hist. 
of  Eni/lund,  iii,  ch.  xvi).  From  these  six  articles  (q.  v.) 
the  reformers,  of  course,  totally  dissented;  many  of  them 
preferred  to  hold  their  peace,  and  kept  their  places. 
Latimer,  however,  was  not  one  of  these  :  accustomed  to 
speak  his  mind,  he  at  once  manifested  his  dissent  to  this 
enactment  by  his  resignation  of  the  bishopric.  Some 
historians  will  have  it  that  he  was  induced  to  resign  by 
lord  Cromwell;  the  latter,  "either  himself  deceived  or 
desiring  to  smooth  the  storm,  told  Latimer  that  the  king 
advised  his  resignation"  (Froude,  iii,  370,  foot  note). 
The  state papei-s  (i, 849), however,  state  "  that  his  majes- 
ty afterwards  denied  this,  and  pitied  Latimer's  condi- 
tion ;"  and  when  we  consider  that  Latimer  had  found  a 
tried  friend  in  Cromwell,  we  can  hardly  conclude  that 
either  he  or  the  king  had  anything  to  do  with  the  res- 
ignation, which  was  an  act  only  to  be  expected  oi'  Lati- 
mer, ever  imlependcnt  and  bold  to  speak  the  truth. 
Froude  (on  the  authority  of  Hall)  will  have  it  even 
that  Latimer,  together  with  Shaxton  (q.  v.),  were  im- 
prisoned immediately  after  their  resignation,  but  if  this 
be  true  he  can  have  been  confined  onl}-  a  brief  period,  as 
by  a  summary  declaration  of  pardon  the  bishop's  dun- 
geon doors  were  thrown  open  and  the  prisoners  were 
dismissed  a  very  .short  time  after  their  imprisonment. 

Latimer  thereafter  sought  retirement  in  the  countr3-, 
where  he  would  have  continued  to  reside  had  not  an  ac- 
cident befallen  him,  the  effects  of  which  he  thought  the 
skill  of  London  surgeons  would  alleviate.  He  arrived 
in  London  when  the  power  of  Cromwell  was  nearly  at 
an  end,  and  the  mastery  in  the  hands  of  Gardiner,  who 
no  sooner  discovered  him  in  his  privacy  than  he  pro- 
cured accusations  to  be  made  against  him  for  his  objec- 
tions to  the  Six  Articles,  and  he  was  committed  to  the 
Tower.  Different  causes  being  alleged  against  him,  he 
remained  a  prisoner  for  the  remaining  six  years  of  king 
Henry  YIH's  reign,  his  enemies  evidently  designing 
mainly  to  prevent  his  influence  for  the  cause  of  the  Re- 
formers in  the  capital  of  the  nation.  Upon  tlie  accession 
of  Edward  YI  Parliament  offered  to  restore  him  to  his 
see,  but  Latimer  was  firm  in  his  refusal  to  receive  it :  his 
great  age,  he  said,  made  him  desirous  of  freedom  from 
any  and  all  respcmsibility.  He  preached,  however,  fre- 
quently, and  gave  himself  up  to  all  manner  of  benevo- 
lent works.  He  was  a  decided  opponent  of  "  the  bloody 
Bonner;"  occasionally  his  advice  was  sought  for  by  the 
king,  and  he  was  continually  active  as  the  strenuous  re- 
prover of  the  vices  of  the  age;  but  the  reign  was  short, 
and  with  it  expired  Latimer's  prosperity.  In  July,  1553, 
king  Edward  died  ; .  in  September,  Mary  had  begun 
to  take  vengeance  on  the  Reformers,  and,  among  oth- 
ers, Latimer  was  committed  to  the  Tower.  Though 
he  was  at  least  eighty  years  old,  no  consideration  was 
shown  for  his  great  age,  and  he  was  sent  to  Oxford, 
March  8, 1554,  together  with  Cranmer  and  Ridley,  to  dis- 


LATIMER 


261 


LATIN 


pnte  on  the  corporal  presence.  He  had  never  been  ac- 
counted very  learned  :  he  had  not  used  Latin  much,  he 
told  them,  these  twenty  years,  and  Avas  not  able  to  dis- 
pute; but  he  would  declare  his  faith,  and  then  they 
might  do  as  they  pleased.  He  declared  that  he  thought 
the  presence  of  Christ  in  the  sacrament  to  be  only  spir- 
itual; "he  enlarged  much  against  the  sacrifice  of  the 
mass,  and  lamented  that  they  had  changed  the  com- 
munion into  a  private  mass;  that  they  had  taken  the 
cup  away  from  the  people ;  and,  instead  of  service  in  a 
known  tongue,  were  bringing  the  nation  to  a  worshiji 
that  they  did  not  understand"  (Burnet,  Re furmation,  vol. 
ii).  He  was  laughed  at,  and  told  to  answer  their  argu- 
ments; he  reminded  them  that  he  was  old,  and  that  his 
memory  had  failed;  the  laughter,  however,  continued, 
and  there  was  great  disorder,  perpetual  shoutings,  taunt- 
ings,  and  reproaches.  When  he  was  asked  whether  he 
would  abjure  his  principles,  he  only  answered,  "I  thank 
God  most  heartil}'  that  he  hath  prolonged  my  life  to  tliis 
end,  that  I  may  in  this  case  glorify  God  with  this  kind 
of  death."  He  was  found  guilty  of  heresj'  and  sentenced 
to  death,  but  the  Romanists,  to  make  sure  that  no  claims 
for  the  irregularity  of  the  trial  shoidd  be  charged  upon 
them,  set  aside  the  sentence  which  had  been  passed 
at  the  first  trial,  and,  by  direction  of  cardinal  Pole,  an- 
other commission,  consistmg  of  Brookes,  bishop  of  Glou- 
cester; Ilolyman,  bishop  of  Bristol;  and  White,  bishop 
of  Lincoln,  was  convened  on  the  7th  of  September,  under 
the  altar  of  St.  Mary's  Church  at  Oxford,  and  the  three 
"arch  heretics" given  a  second  hearing  and  condemned. 
Latimer  was  the  last  introduced.  He  was  now  eighty 
years  old,  "  dressed  in  an  old  threadbare  gown  of  Bristol 
frieze,  a  handkerchief  on  his  head  with  a  night-cap  over 
it,  and  over  that  again  another  cap,  with  two  broad  Haps 
buttoned  under  the  chin.  A  leather  belt  was  round  his 
waist,  to  which  a  Testament  was  attached ;  his  specta- 
cles, without  a  case,  hung  from  his  neck.  So  stood  the 
greatest  man,  perhaps,  then  living  in  the  world,  a  pris- 
oner on  his  trial,  waiting  to  be  condemned  to  dcatli  by 
men  professing  to  be  ministers  of  God.  .  .  .  Latimer's 
trial  was  the  counterpart  of  Ridley's  (see  Froude,  vi,  356 
sq.) ;  the  charge  was  the  same  (on  the  sacrament),  and 
the  result  was  the  same,  except  that  the  stronger  intel- 
lect vexed  itself  less  with  nice  distinctions.  Bread  was 
bread,  said  Latimer,  and  wine  was  wine ;  there  was  a 
change  in  the  sacrament,  it  was  tnie,  but  the  change 
was  not  in  the  nature,  but  the  dignity"  (Froude,  vi,  359 
sq.).  Every  effort  was  made  to  induce  a  recantation, 
but  Latimer,  like  Ridley,  remained  lirm,  and  sentence 
was  pronounced  ii]ion  them  as  heretics  obstinate  and  in- 
curable, and  on  the  16th  of  October,  1555,  both  Latimer 
and  Ridley  were  led  to  the  stake  and  burnt,  outside  the 
north  wall  of  the  town,  a  short  stone's  throw  from  the 
southward  corner  of  Baliol  College,  and  about  the  same 
distance  from  Brocardo  prison,  where  Cranmer  still  lin- 
gered. The  last  words  of  Latimer  were  addressed  to 
his  companion,  and  are  characteristic  of  our  subject : 
"Be  of  good  comfort,  master  Ridley,  and  play  the  man  : 
we  shall  this  day  light  such  a  candle,  by  God's  grace,  in 
England,  as  1  trust  shall  never  be  put  out."  Gunpow- 
der had  been  fastened  about  his  body  to  hasten  his 
death ;  it  took  fire  with  the  first  flame,  and  he  died  im- 
mediately. 

Latimer's  character,  which  has  been  treated  most 
beautifully  by  the  late  Rev.  E.  Thomson,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  in 
his  S/cetches,  Biographical  and  Incidental  (Cine.  1856),  p. 
42  sq.,  seems  to  us  to  present  a  combination  of  many 
noble  and  disinterested  qualities.  "  He  was  brave,  hon- 
est, devoted,  and  energetic,  homely  and  popular,  yet 
free  from  all  violence ;  a  martyr  and  hero,  yet  a  plain, 
simple-hearted,  and  unpretending  man  ;  an  earnest, 
hopeful,  and  happj^  man,  fearless,  open-hearted,  hating 
UQthing  but  baseness,  and  fearing  none  but  God — not 
throwing  away  his  life,  yet  not  counting  it  dear  when 
the  great  crisis  came  —  calmly  yieliiing  it  up  as  the 
crown  of  his  long  sacrifice  and  strugi^le.  There  may  be 
other  reformers  that  more  engage  our  admiration,  there 


is  no  one  that  more  excites  our  love"  (TuUoch,  Leaders 
of  the  Ref.  p.  322-324).  Latimer's  sermons,  character- 
ized by  humor  and  cheerfulness,  manly  sense  and  direct 
evangelical  fervor,  were  first  printed  collectively  in  1549, 
8vo,  and  in  1570,  4to;  one  of  the  best  editions,  with 
notes  and  a  memoir,  was  prepared  by  John  AVatkins, 
LL.D.  (Lond.  1824,  2  vols.  8vo).  A  complete  edition  of 
his  Works  (the  only  complete  one)  was  edited  for  the 
Parker  Society  by  the  Rev.  G.  E.  Corrie  (Cambr.  1844-5, 
4  vols.  8vo).  See  Gilpin,  Life  of  Latimer  (1755,  8vo); 
Fox,  Book  of  Martijrs ,-  Mkldleton,  Mem.  of  the  Reform- 
ers, iii,  101  sq. ;  TuUoch,  Leaders  of  the  Reformation,  p. 
245  sq. ;  Hook,  Eccles.  Biog.vi,  551  sq. ;  Burnet,  Hist,  of 
the  Reformation  (see  Index) ;  CoUier,  Eccles.  Hist,  (see 
Index) ;  Froude,  Hist,  of  Engl.  vol.  i-vi  (see  Index  in  vol. 
xii) ;  Engl.  Ci/clop.  s.v.;  Blachcood's  Maq.  Ixix,  131  sq. ; 
Lond.  Retr.  Rev.  1822,  vi,  272  sq.     (,J.*H.  W.) 

Latimer,  William,  an  English  humanist  of  the 
15th  century,  became  in  1489  a  fellow  of  All  Souls'  Col- 
lege, Oxford.     He  studied  theology  in  that  university, 
and  afterwards  Greek  at  Padua,  and  subsequently  be- 
came teacher  to  Reginald  Pole.   He  was  a  friend  of  Eras- 
mus, and  even  assisted  him  in  preparing  his  second  edi- 
I  tion  of  the  N.  T.     He  died  about  1545.     Erasmus  and 
j  Leland  both  speak  of  Latimer  in  high  terms  as  a  writer 
I  and  scholar.     Unfortunately,  however,  he  never  pub- 
lished any  of  his  writings,  and  there  remain  in  ]\IS.  form 
only  a  few  of  his  letters  to  Erasmus.     See  Hallam,  Lit. 
Hist,  of  Europe  (Lond.  1854),  i,  232,  271. 

Latin  ('Pw^uaVKoc,  Roman,  Luke  xxiii,  38 ;  'Pw/m- 
iari,  in  Roman,  John  xix,  20),  the  vernacular  language 
of  the  Romans,  although  most  of  them  in  the  time  of 
Christ  likewise  spoke  Greek.  See  the  monographs  on 
the  subject  cited  by  Yolbeding,  Index,  p.  135.    See  Lat- 

INISMS. 

LATIN,  Use  of,  in  the  Administration  of  the 
Sacrasients.  The  words  of  St.  Augustine  against  hea- 
then Rome  in  De  civitate  Dei,  xix,  7,  "  Opera  data  est, 
ut  imperiosa  civitas  non  solum  jugum  sed  etiam  linguam 
suam  domitis  gentibus  imponeret,"  may  be  justly  ap- 
plied to  modern  Christian  Rome.  By  imposing  its  lan- 
guage on  all  nations  acknowledging  its  sovereignty  it 
has  obtained  also  the  mastery  over  their  spiritual  life. 
Benedict  XIV,  indeed,  nobly  declared,  "  Ut  ornnes  ca- 
tholici  sint,  non  ut  omnes  Latini  ijant,  necessarium  est." 
But  this  principle  of  true,  ancient  catholicity  resulted 
only  in  some  useless  concessions  on  unimportant  points, 
for  Roman  Catholicism  early  found  that  it  cannot  af- 
ford to  dispense  with  the  use  of  Latin  and  adopt  the 
vulgar  tongues;  that  it  would  thereby  endanger  the 
consolidation  of  the  Church's  power — yea,  its  very  ex- 
istence. Tliat  the  Latin  language  was  originally  used 
in  the  public  worship  of  the  Romish  adherents,  in 
countries  where  Latin  was  the  popidar  language,  can- 
not be  a  matter  of  surprise  or  condemnation,  nor  that 
the  clergy  should  have  continued  to  use  it  in  Chris- 
tianizing the  nations  who  became  subjects  to  Rome, 
even  after  its  use  had  become  obsolete  in  Rome  itself. 
Of  course  there  is  everj-  reason  to  believe  that  in  the 
earliest  stages  the  ecclesiastical  language  of  the  Greek- 
speaking  Roman  Church  was  Greek,  and  continued  such 
till  the  transfer  of  the  empire  to  Byzantium  (Forbes, 
Explan.  XXXIX  A  rt.  ii,  430),  and  that,  indeed,  all  the 
early  churches  followed  the  practice  of  the  apostles,  to 
whom  the  use  of  a  foreign  language  was  repugnant 
(compare  1  Cor.  xiv,  19 ;  ibid.  IC).  and  made  use  of  their 
own  vernacular,  as  in  the  introduction  of  the  Gospel  to 
India,  Parthia.  and  other  regions.  But  the  use  of  the 
Latin  tongue  b)'  tlic  Romish  Church  was  in  its  early 
period  admissible,  when  we  consider  that  it  was  only 
the  Church  that  had  it  in  its  pov.cr,  at  a  time  when  the 
influence  of  the  infant  modern  languages  was  derogatory 
to  tlie  Latin,  to  maintain  the  ancient  language  in  com- 
parative purity,  and  to  preserve  to  us  its  most  noble  mon- 
uments. Indeed,  as  Hill  (English  Monasticism,  p.  325) 
has  well  said,  "  had  it  not  been  adopted  by  the  Church, 


LATIN 


262 


LATIN 


then,  for  some  centuries,  while  the  new  tongues  were 
gradually  developing  themselves  and  settling  into  a 
form,  the  world  would  have  been  dark  indeed;  not  a 
book,  not  a  page,  not  a  syllable  would  have  reached  us 
of  the  thought,  the  life,  or  the  events  of  that  period. 
From  the  4th  to  the  7th  century  there  woidd  have  been 
an  impenetrable  gap  in  the  annals  of  humanity — tlie 
voice  of  history  would  have  been  hushed  into  a  dead 
silence,  and  the  light  of  the  past,  which  beacons  the  fu- 
ture, woidd  have  been  extinguished  in  the  darkness  of  a 
universal  chaos."  Not  so  justifiable,  however,  -was  the 
conduct  of  the  Romish  Church  after  the  moderate  de- 
velopment of  the  modern  languages ;  and  we  see  an  in- 
clination, even  in  the  papal  chair,  to  revolutionize  eccle- 
siastical usage  in  this  respect  in  the  latter  half  of  the  9th 
century,  when  the  Slaves  became  converts  to  Christian- 
ity untler  the  labors  of  St.  Methodius,  and  introduced 
the  vernacular,  with  the  consent  and  approval  of  pope 
John  VIII  (comp.  Methodius,  Epist.  247,  to  Sfentopul- 
cher,  count  of  Moravia).  Gregory  VIII,  on  the  other 
hand,  quickly  undid  the  liberal  work  of  John  VlII,  and 
was  loud  in  his  denunciations  of  the  use  of  any  but  the 
Latin  language  in  Christian  religious  worship.  Never- 
theless, there  have  been  many  exceptions  during  the 
Middle  Ages.  The  Bohemian  Church  early  manifested 
a  desire  to  use  the  vernacular;  and,  although  Gregory 
VII  had  stringently  insisted  on  the  use  of  the  Latin, 
they  succeeded  at  the  Council  of  Basle  (1431)  in  the  pas- 
sage of  an  act  tolerating  the  vernaciUar  in  the  churches 
of  Bohemia. 

The  Reformation  of  the  16th  century  first  awoke  a 
general  desire  for  the  use  of  the  vernacular ,  France  and 
Germany  were  particularly  determined  to  secure  tliis 
privilege.  The  Council  of  Trent,  which  was  approached 
on  this  subject,  however,  onl}'  so  far  regarded  the  de- 
mauds  of  Catharine  de  Medicis  and  the  emperor  Ferdi- 
nand on  this  point  as  to  reaffirm  the  existing  rides  in 
the  mildest  possible  terms,  so  as  not  to  offend  them 
(Sessio  xxii,  cap.  8:  "Etsi  missa  magnam  contineat 
populi  fidelis  eruditionem,  non  tamen  expedire  visum 
est  patribus,  ut  [missa]  vulgari  lingua  passim  celebra- 
retur").  It  only  anathematizes  those  who  claim  that 
mass  is  to  be  exclusively  celebrated  in  the  vernacular: 
"  Si  quis  dixerit,  lingua  tantum  vulgari  missam  celebrari 
debere,  anathema  sit"  (/.  c.  canon  9).  Yet,  in  order  to 
appear  to  make  some  concession  to  the  requirements  of 
the  times,  the  synod  decided  (/.  c.  cap.  8),  "Ne  oves 
Christ!  esurlant,  neve  parvuli  panem  petant,  et  non  sit 
qui  frangat  eis,  mandat  S.  synodus  pastoribus  et  singulis 
curam  anlmarum  gerentibus,  ut  frequenter  inter  missa- 
rum  celebrationem  vel  per  se  vel  per  alios  ex  iis,  quaj  in 
missa  leguntur,  aliquid  exponant,  atque  inter  cetera 
sanctissimi  hujus  sacriticii  mysterium  aliquod  declarent, 
diebus  prajsertim  dominicis  et  festis,"  by  which  they 
acknowledged,  perhaps  more  than  they  intended  to  do, 
the  necessity  of  making  an  allowance  for  the  desire  of 
having  the  Scriptures  explained  in  the  vernacular.  The 
reasons  given  by  the  Council  of  Trent  for  its  determina- 
tion to  continue  the  use  of  Latin  as  the  language  of  the 
Church  (given  by  Goschl  in  his  Gfsc/iichllicke  Barsfd- 
lunr/  (/.  Cone.  V.  Trident.  1840,  part  ii,  p.  135)  are  as  fol- 
lows: 1.  That,  in  consequence  of  tlie  changes  to  which 
modern  languages  are  liable,  the  terms  of  worship  might 
be  altered,  and  also  the  ideas  connected  with  them,  thus 
giving  rise  to  heresies.  2.  If  mass  were  to  be  said  in 
the  vernacular,  then  the  greater  number  of  the  priests 
would  be  unable  to  say  mass  in  other  than  their  native 
countries,  as  they  would  bo  obliged  to  say  mass  in  a  dif- 
ferent language  in  every  country.  3.  The  holy  myster- 
ies, of  which  mass  is  the  most  important,  shoidd  not  be 
presented  to  the  masses  in  their  own  language,  as,  from 
their  inability  to  understand  their  mysterious  -import, 
occasion  might  thus  arise  for  nii)deni  heretics  to  profane 
these  mysteries  in  tlie  vernacular.  All  the'  other  rea- 
sons which  have  at  various  times  been  advanced  in  de- 
fence of  the  custom  by  I\oman  Catholic  writers  are  but 
variations  on  the  above  (comp.  Forbes,  Explanation  of 


the  Thirty-nim  Articles,  ii,  434;  Adolphus,  Compendium 
Theolof/icum,  p.  420). 

BeUarmine  (in  his  Works,  iii,  119)  attempts  to  com- 
plete and  comment  on  these  grounds.  1.  He  says  "  the 
Latin  Church  has  always  admmistered  the  sacraments 
in  Latin,  although  this  language  had  long  since  ceased 
to  be  the  common  language  of  the  people."  This  is  ad- 
mitting that  circumstances  are  changed,  but  asserting,  at 
the  same  time,  that  it  is  to  be  retained  simply  from  halj- 
it.  Bellarmine  then  attempts  to  prove  its  reasonable- 
ness. He  says :  "  There  is  no  pressing  motive  why  the 
sacraments  should  be  administered  in  the  vernacular, 
while  there  arc  many  objections  to  it ;  for  there  is  no 
necessity  that  those  who  receive  the  sacraments  shoidd 
understand  the  words  which  accompany  them ;  for  the 
words  are  addressed  either  to  the  elements,  as  in  the 
eucharist,  the  blessing  of  holy  water,  oil,  etc.,  and  these 
understand  no  language ;  or  else  they  are  addressed  to 
God,  and  he  understands  them  all;  or,  again,  they  are 
addressed  to  persons  who  are  to  be  consecrated  or  ab- 
solved, not  instructed  or  editied,  as  in  the  sacraments  of 
baptism  and  absolution ;  hence  it  is  at  best  a  matter  of 
indifterence  to  tlie  person  concerned  whether  he  under- 
stood the  words  or  not;  it  is  further  proved  that  persons 
deprived  of  reason  can  nevertheless  receive  baptism  arid 
the  sacrament  of  reconciliatio,  which  is  seen  in  the  bap- 
tism of  new-born  infants  and  the  reconciliatio  of  sick 
persons  when  in  an  unconscious  state."  Yet  Bellarmine 
himself,  perceiving  the  difficulties  of  the  position  he  had 
assumed,  adds :  "  There  are,  moreover,  hardly  such  gross- 
ly ignorant  persons  in  the  Latin  Church  as  not  to  know 
in  general,  by  the  words  which  accompany  it,  which  of 
the  sacraments  is  being  administered  to  them."  Grant- 
ing this,  we  cannot  understand,  then,  in  what  manner 
the  use  of  Latin  is  to  prevent  the  profanation  of  the  sac- 
raments as  set  forth  by  the  Council  of  Trent.  Among 
the  objections  to  the  use  of  modern  languages,  we  tind 
that  '•  the  free  intercourse  between  the  difterent  church- 
es, which  they  need  as  members  of  one  body,  is  rendered 
by  it  much  more  difficult.  I\Ioreover,  Christians  leav- 
ing their  native  country  would  thus  be  obliged  to  de- 
prive themselves  from  attending  the  divina  officia." 
This  is  taking  for  granted  that  all  Christians  under- 
stand Latin ;  for,  unless  they  do,  it  would  become  a  mat- 
ter of  indifference  to  them  whether  they  heard  mass  in 
that  or  another  foreign  language.  "  2.  The  sacraments 
should  always  be  attended  by  a  certain  majesty  and  in- 
spiring solemnity,  which  can  be  better  preserved  by  not 
using  their  usual  language.  If  it  is  granted  that  in 
public  worship  we  should  use  special  buildings,  special 
costumes,  special  forms,  etc.,  there  cannot  be  any  objec- 
tion against  the  propriety  of  using  also  a  different  lan- 
guage; not  that  Latin  is  in  itself  a  more  sacred  lan- 
guage than  another,  but  because  it  is  better  calculated 
to  produce  a  feeling  of  reverence  than  the  common 
tongue.  3.  It  is  right  that  the  sacramental  words  shoidd 
always  be  presented  to  all  the  people  in  the  same  man- 
ner and  under  the  same  form,  to  avoid  the  danger  of 
changes  and  alterations.  This  is  the  more  easily  ac- 
complished by  making  all  priests  use  the  same  lan- 
guage." Yet  this  does  not  always  avoid  the  danger,  for 
there  have  been  instances  of  priests  administering  bap- 
tism ''in  nomine  patria,  tilia  et  spiritua  sancta."  4. ''  By 
administering  the  sacraments  in  the  vernacular  a  wide 
door  would  be  opened  to  ignorance,  for  the  priests  would 
at  last  consider  themselves  fully  qualified  if  they  knew 
how  to  read.  Latin  would  be  totally  forgotten,  and  they 
would  be  unable  to  read  the  fathers  and  even  tlie  Scrip- 
tures." Here  we  see  another  instance  of  the  arroj;ance 
of  the  hierarchy,  surpassing  that  of  heathen  Home, 
which,  if  it  compelled  subjected  nations  to  adopt  ifs  lan- 
guage, did  not,  at  least,  prevent  them  from  understand- 
ing it.  Christian  Rome  seems,  indeed,  to  be  imbued 
with  the  idea  that  mankind  praise  and  value  most  what 
they  do  nof  understand. 

Towards  tlie  close  of  the  IStli  century  and  the  begin- 
ning of  the  rJth,  efforts  were  again  made,  especially  in 


LATINISMS 


2G3 


LATIN  VERSIONS 


Germany,  to  have  mass  said  in  the  vernacular  (see  ISIar- 
heinecke,  Si/siem  d.  Katholicismus,  iii,  397),  but  in  vain. 
The  increase  of  uUramontanisni  rendered  all  efforts  un- 
availing. Hirscher,  in  his  Missm  genuinum  notionem 
eniere,  etc.,  tentavit  Uiisclier  (Tubing.  1821),  thus  clearly 
expressed  the  general  aspiration  (p.  t)9) :  "  Vituperamus 
igitur  hunc  externe  in  cultu  nostro  linguie  usum  pro  viri- 
bus  nostris,  atque  si  unquam  eucharistiie  celebrationi 
vitam  redire  velimus,  eliminandum  esse  atijue  proscri- 
bendum  statuimus.  Et  sane,  si  liturgia  Latina  inter  nos 
Gcrmanos  non  existeret,  nemo  profecto  popuhmi  aUqueni 
universum  lingua  uti  vel  duci  velle,  qua  Deum  adoret, 
sibi  i)enitus  ignota  admitteret  possibilitatem.  Incora- 
prehensibile  revera  istud  omnibus  debet  viileri.qui  cunc- 
ta  ad  sanre  rationis  normam  solcnt  metiri,  et  nihil  nisi 
quod  ffiditicat  atl  cultum  admittere."  Here  Hirscher 
quotes  the  v.'ords  of  St.  Paul,  1  Cor.  xiv,  1-20,  and  con- 
tinues :  "  Apostolus  hoc  loco  ne  de  ordinario  quldem  lin- 
gure  exter£B  in  ecclesia  usu  sed  de  extraordinario  aliquo 
loquitur,  quem  argumentis  ex  visceribus  rei  petitis  im- 
pugnat.  Quanto  magis  igitur  principiis  suis  inhaerens 
ordinarium  ab  ipsis  mysferiorum  ministris  et  universi 
cultus  ducibus  debuit  corripere?"  He  then  goes  on  to 
prove  that  the  use  of  Latin  in  the  mass  is  in  contradic- 
tion with  the  object  of  this  part  of  worship,  which  re- 
quires "  sacerdotem  inter  ct  populnm  actionem,  cele- 
brantis  et  populi  communionem"  (p.  70-71).  These 
views,  however,  he  afterwards  withdrew,  on  being  ad- 
monished by  superior  authorities.  Komanism  cannot 
admit  any  real  communion  between  the  priest  and  the 
people  in  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass,  and  Hirscher  had  in 
this  respect  gone  farther  than  his  Church  would  allow 
him.  It  is  remarkable  that  all  such  efforts  were  always 
connected  with  more  extended  theological  views,  name- 
ly, with  the  rejection  of  the  atoning  character  of  mass. 

As  the  principles  of  the  Reformation  unfolded,  so  did 
the  necessity  of  administering  the  sacraments  in  the 
vernacular.  Yet  Latin  was  not  at  once  set  aside,  and 
there  are  yet  extant  a  numljer  of  Lutheran  liturgies  of 
the  second  half  of  the  IGth  centurj-  in  which  that  lan- 
guage is  extensively  used. 

In  the  English  Church,  one  of  the  first  acts  of  the  Re- 
formers was  in  behalf  of  the  use  of  the  vernacular  in  re- 
ligious service,  and  the  twenty-fourth  of  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles  treats  "  of  speaking  in  the  congregation  in 
such  a  tongue  as  the  people  understandeth."  The  arti- 
cle reads  thus:  "It  is  a  thing  plainly  repugnant  to  the 
Word  of  God,  and  the  custom  of  the  primitive  Church, 
to  have  public  prayer  in  the  church,  or  to  minister  the 
sacraments  in  a  tongue  not  understanded  of  the  people." 

See  Herzog,  Real-Enq/Jdopddie,  viii,  208 ;  Fuhrmann, 
Handwdrtei-huch  d.  Kircheni/e.fcJi.  n,(ilO  sq.;  SchriJckh, 
Kirchenr/escfi.  xx,  153  sq. ;  xxi,  418  sq.      (J.  II.  W.) 

Latinisms.  This  word,  which  properly  signifies 
idioms  or  phraseology  peculim-  to  the  Latin  tongue,  is  ex- 
tended by  Biblical  critics  so  as  to  include  also  the  Latin 
words  occurring  in  the  Greek  Testament.  It  is  but  rea- 
sonable to  expect  the  existence  of  Latinisms  in  the  lan- 
guage of  every  country  subdued  by  the  Romans.  See 
EoME.  The  introduction  of  their  civil  and  military 
officers,  of  settlers,  and  merchants,  would  naturally  be 
followed  b}^  an  infusion  of  Roman  terms,  etc.,  into  the 
language  of  their  new  subjects.  There  would  be  many 
new  things  made  known  to  some  of  them  for  which  they 
could  find  no  corresponding  word  in  their  own  tongues. 
The  circumstance  that  the  proceedings,  in  courts  of  law 
were,  in  ev3ry  part  of  the  Roman  empire,  conducted  in 
the  Latin  language,  would  necessarily  cause  the  intro- 
duction of  many  Roman  words  into  the  department  of 
law,  as  might  be  amply  illustrated  from  the  present  state 
of  the  juridical  language  in  ev^ery  country  once  subject 
to  the  Romans,  and  even  in  our  own.  Valerius  Maxi- 
mus  (ii,  2,  2),  indeed,  records  the  tenacity  of  the  an- 
cient Romans  for  their  language  in  their  intercourse 
•»vith  the  (jreeks,  and  their  strenuous  endeavors  to  prop- 
agate it  through  all  their  dominions.  The  Latinisms  in 
the  New  Testament  are  of  four  kinds. 


1.  L^athi  Words  in  Greelc  Characters. — The  following 
are  instances  (see  Tregelles  in  Home's  Ititrod.  iv,  15): 
'Affdapioj', "  farthing,''  from  the  Latin  assaiius  (Matt. 
X,  29).  This  word  is  used  likewise  by  Plutarch,  Diony- 
sius  of  Halicarnassus,  and  Athenajus,  as  may  be  seen  in 
Wetstein,  ad  loA  SccAssarium.  Kfjvffoc,  census  (Matt. 
xvii,  25);  Kivrvpior,  centurio  (Mark  xv,  39),  etc.;  \t- 
jHov,  legio,  "legion"  (Matt,  xxvi,  53).  Polybius  (B.C. 
150)  has  also  adopted  the  Roman  militarj'  terms  (vi,  17) 
161G.  ^TTiKovXc'iTwp,  specidator,  "  a  spy,"  from  sjjeculor, 
"  to  look  about,"  or,  as  Walil  and  Schleusner  think,  from 
spiculum,  the  weapon  carried  b}'  the  speculator.  The 
word  describes  the  emperor's  life-guards,  who,  among 
other  duties,  punished  the  condemned ;  hence  "  an  exe- 
cutioner" (Mark  vi,  27),  margin,  "one  of  his  guard" 
(comp.  Tacitus,  Hist,  i,  25  ;  Josephus,  War,  i,  33, 7  ;  Sen- 
eca, De  Ira,  i,  IG).  M  ukiWov,  from  macellum,  "  a  mar- 
ket-place for  flesh"  (1  Cor.  x,  25).  As  Corinth  was  now 
a  Roman  colony,  it  is  onlj^  consistent  to  find  tliat  the  in- 
habitants had  adopted  this  name  for  their  public  mar- 
ket, and  that  I'aul,  writing  to  them,  should  employ  it. 
Mi'Aioi',  "a  mile"  (IMatt.  v, 41).  This  word  is  also  used 
by  Polybius  (xxxiv,  11,8)  and  Strabo  (v,332), 

2.  I^atin  Senses  of  Greek  Words:  as  Kopnoc  (Rom. 
XV,  28),  "  fruit,"  where  it  seems  to  be  used  in  the  sense 
of  emolumentum,  "  gain  upon  money  lent,"  etc. ;  tTtaivoQ, 
"praise,"  in  the  juridical  sense  of  elogium,  a  testimonial 
either  of  honor  or  reproach  (1  Cor.  iv,  5). 

3.  Those  forms  of  speech  which  are  proper!}'  called 
Latinisms:  as  fSovXopii'og  -(p  uxX(ij  to  ikcivoj'  Troiiitrai, 
"  willing  to  content  the  people"  (Mark  xv,  15),  which 
corresponds  to  the  phrase  sntisfacere  alicui;  XajSiiv  to 
'iKavbif  Trapa,  "  to  take  security  of,"  satis  accipere  ah 
(Acts  xvii,  9) ;  ^oq  ipyaaiav,"  grve,  diligence,"  fZa  op- 
erain  (Luke  xii,  58) — the  phrase  7-emitiere  ad  aliumju- 
dicem  is  retained  in  Luke  xxiii,  15;  crv  <j\pei,  "see  thou 
to  that,"  tu  vide7-is  (JIatt.  xxvii,  4)  (Aricler, Heinieneut. 
Biblica,yiennx,  1813,  p.  99 ;  Michaelis,  Introd.  to  the  Neio 
Test,  by  Marsh,  Camb.  1793,  vol.  i,  pt.  i,  p.  163  sq. }. 

4.  Latin  Terminations  in  Greek,  Gentile,  and  patro- 
nymic nouns:  e.  g.  'HipwciavvQ  (Matt,  xxii,  16)  and 
XpiCTTtni'dc  (Acts  xi,  26,  etc.)  (Winer,  New  Test.  Gram. 
ed.  Andover,  1869,  p.  95). 

The  importance  of  the  Latinisms  in  the  Greek  Testa- 
ment consists  in  this,  that,  as  we  have  partly  shown  (and 
the  proof  might  be  much  extended),  they  are  to  be  found 
in  the  best  (jreek  writers  of  the  same  era.  Their  occur- 
rence, therefore,  in  the  New  Testament  adds  one  thread 
more  to  that  complication  of  probabilities  with  which 
the  Christian  history  is  attended.  Had  the  Greek  Testa- 
ment been  free  from  them,  the  objection,  though  recon- 
dite, would  have  been  strong.  At  the  same  time,  the 
subject  is  intricate,  and  admits  of  much  discussion. 
Dr.  Marsh  disputes  some  of  the  instances  adduced  by 
Michaelis  (id  sup.  p.  431  sq.).  Dresigius  even  contends 
that  there  are  no  Latinisms  in  the  New  Testament  {iJe 
Latinismis,  Lips.  1726;  and  see  his  Vindidce  Lisscrla- 
tionis  de  Latinismis).  Even  Aricler  allows  that  some 
instances  adduced  by  him  may  have  a  purely  Greek  or- 
igin. Truth,  as  usual,  lies  in  the  middle,  and  there  are, 
no  doubt,  many  irrefragable  instances  of  Latinisms, 
which  will  amply  repay  thf  attention  of  the  student. — 
Kitto,  s.  v.  See  Georgii  Jlierocrit.  de  Latinismis  Nori 
Test.  (Wittemberg,  1733) ;  Kypke,  Observat.  Sac?:  ii,  219 
(Wratisl.  1755);  Pritii  Introductio  in  Lect.  Kov.  Test. -p. 
207  sq.  ( Leipz.  1722) ;  A^'etterburg,  Be  vocibus  Ixttinis  in 
N.  T.  obriis  (Lund.  1792):  Fougberg,  Z^e  Latinismis  in 
N.  T.  (Upsal.  1798);  Kapp,Z)e  N.  T.  Latinismis  (Lipsiae, 
1726) ,  Wernsdorf,  De  Christo  Latine  loquente, p.  19 ;  Jahn, 
A  rchir.  II,  iv,  Qlearius,  De  Stylo  Nov.  Test.  p.  368  sq.; 
Inchofer,  Sacroi  Latinitatis  Ilistoria  (Prag.  1742).  See 
New  Testament. 

Latin  Versions  oi-^  the  Holy  Scriptires. — The 
extensive  use  of  the  Latin  as  a  learned  language,  and 
the  great  influence  which  the  translations  in  it  have  had 
upon  all  subsequent  versions,  render  them  highly  im- 
portant.    We  here  adopt  so  much  of  Dr.  Alexander's 


LATIX  VERSIONS 


264 


LATIN  VERSIONS 


article  in  Kitto's  Cyclopcedia,  s.  v.,  as  is  appropriate  to 
our  purposes. 

I.  Ante-llieronymian  Versions. — Tlie  early  and  ex- 
tensive diffusion  of  Christianity  amoufz;  the  Latin-speak- 
ing people  renders  it  probable  tliat  means  would  be  used 
to  supply  the  Christians  who  used  that  language  with 
versions  of  the  Scriptures  in  their  own  tongue,  especial- 
ly those  resident  in  countries  where  the  Greek  language 
was  less  generally  known.  That  from  an  early  period 
such  means  were  used  cannot  be  doubted ;  but  the  in- 
formation which  has  reached  us  is  so  scanty,  that  we 
are  not  in  circumstances  to  arrive  at  certainty  on  many 
points  of  interest  connected  with  the  subject.  It  is  even 
matter  of  debate  whether  there  were  several  transla- 
tions, or  one  translation  variously  corrupted  or  emended. 

1.  The  lirst  writer  by  whom  reference  is  supposed  to 
be  made  to  a  Latin  version  is  Tertullian,  in  the  words 
"  Sciamus  plane  non  sic  esse  in  Grreco  authentico,  cjuo- 
modo  in  usum  exiit  per  duarum  syllabarum  aut  callidara 
aut  simplicem  eversionem,"  etc.  (/)e  JSlonorjamia,  c.  11). 
It  is  possible  that  Tertullian  has  in  view  here  a  version 
in  use  among  the  African  Christians ;  but  it  is  by  no 
means  certain  that  such  is  his  meaning,  for  he  may  re- 
fer merely  to  the  manner  in  which  the  passage  in  ques- 
tion had  come  to  be  usually  cited,  without  intending  to 
intimate  that  it  was  so  written  in  any  formal  version. 
The  probability  that  such  is  really  his  meaning  is  great- 
ly heightened  when  we  compare  his  language  here  with 
similar  expressions  in  other  parts  of  his  writings.  Thus, 
speaking  of  the  Logos,  he  says, "  Hanc  Grreci  Aoyov 
dicunt,  quo  vocabulo  etiam  sei-monem  appellamus.  Ide- 
oque  in  usu  est  nostrorum  per  simplicitatem  interpreta- 
tionis,  Sermonem,  dicere,  in  primordio  apud  Ueum  esse" 
(Adr.Prar.  c.  5),  where  he  seems  to  have  in  view  sim- 
ply the  colloquial  usage  of  his  Christian  compatriots 
(comp.  also  A  Jr.  Marc.  c.  4:  and  c.  9).  The  testimony 
of  Augustine  is  more  precise.  He  says  (De  Doct.  Christ. 
ii,  11) :  '"Qui  Scripturas  in  Hebmea  lingua  in  Grajcara 
verterunt  numerari  possunt,  Latini  autem  interpretes 
nuUo  modo.  U t  enim  cuiquam  primis  fidei  temporibus 
in  manus  venit  codex  Gra;cus  et  aliquantulum  facultatis 
sibi  utriusque  lingua?  Latine  videbatur,  ausus  est  inter- 
pretari."  A  few  sentences  before  he  speaks  of  the  "Lat- 
inorum  interpretum  intinita  varietas;"  and  he  proceeds 
to  give  instances  how  one  of  these  versions  elucidates 
another,  and  to  speak  of  the  defects  attaching  to  all  of 
them.  This  testimony  not  only  clearly  establishes  the 
fact  of  the  existence  of  Latin  versions  in  the  beginning 
of  the  4th  century,  but  goes  to  prove  that  these  were  nu- 
merous ;  for  that  Augustine  has  in  view  a  number  of  in- 
terpreters, and  not  merely  a  variety  of  recensions,  is  ev- 
ident from  his  statement  in  this  same  connection, "'In 
ipsis  interpretationibus  Itala  ceteris  praiferatur,  nam  est 
verborum  tenacior  cum  perspicuitate  sententire;"  and 
from  his  speaking  elsewhere  {Cont.  Fauslum,  ii,  2)  of 
"codices  aliarum  regionum."  On  the  other  hand,  the 
testimony  of  Hilary  is  in  favor  of  only  one  Latin  ver- 
sion :  "  Latina  translatio  dum  virtu  tem  dieti  ignorat 
magnam  intulit  obscuritatem,  non  discernens  ambigui 
sermonis  proprietatem"  {in  Psa.  cluiii).  On  the  same 
side  is  the  declaration  of  Jerome :  "  Si  Latinis  exempla- 
ribus  lidcs  est  adhibenda  respondebunt  Quibus?  tot  sunt 
enim  excmi)laria  pene  quot  "codices."  That  by  "  exem- 
plaria"  here  .Jerome  refers  to  what  would  now" be  called 
editions  or  recensions,  is  evident  from  the  nature  of  his 
8tatempiit,for  it  cannot  be  supposed  that  he  intends  to 
say  that  almost  every  codex  presented  a  distinct  trans- 
lation ;  and  this  is  rendered  still  more  so  by  what  follows  : 
"  Si  autem  Veritas  est  (pia-renda  de  pluribus,  cur  non  ad 
Gn-ecam  originem  revertentes  ea  qu:c  vcl  a  vitiosis  inter- 
prctibui  male  reddita,  vel  a  pr;esumpt(iribus  imjieritis 
cmendafa  perversius  vel  a  librariis  di)rinitantil)us  addita 
sunt  aut  mutata  corrigauius"  {Prwf.  in  Evuuijij.  Ad.  Da- 
mas.).  IClsewhere  {Prrrf.  in  Josnam)  lie  saj'S  also  : 
"Apud  Latinos  totexerai)laria  quot  codices  et  unusquis- 
que  pro  suo  arbitrio  vel  addidit  vel  suhtraxit  (juod  ei  vi- 
sum est ;"  where  there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  bis  mean- 


ing. Jerome  frequently  uses  the  expression  communis 
or  vulf/ata  edi/io,  but  by  this  he  intends  the  Sept.,  or  the 
old  Latin  translation  of  the  Sept.  In  reference  to  the 
Latin  N.  T.  he  uses  the  expressions  Lutinus  interpres, 
Latiid  codices,  or  simply  in  Latino. 

The  statement  of  Augustine,  that  of  these  interpreta- 
tions the  Itala  was  preferred,  has  been  supposed  to  indi- 
cate decidedly  the  existence  of  several  national  Latin 
versions  known  to  him.  For  this  title  can  only  indicate 
a  translation  prepared  in  Italy,  or  used  by  the  Italian 
churches,  and  presupposes  the  existence  of  other  ver- 
sions, which  might  be  known  as  the  Africana,  the  His- 
2Kinica,  etc.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  Lf  there  was 
a  version  known  by  this  name,  it  seems  strange  that  it 
should  never  be  mentioned  again  by  Augustine  or  by 
any  one  else ;  and  further,  it  is  remarkable,  that  to  des- 
ignate an  Italian  version  he  should  use  the  word  ^'■Jtala" 
and  not  "  Jtcdica."  This  has  led  to  the  suspicion  that 
this  word  is  an  error,  and  different  conjectural  emenda- 
tions have  been  proposed.  Bentley  suggested  that  for 
itala  ....  nam  there  should  be  read  ilia  ....  qua,  a 
singularly  infelicitous  emendation,  as  Hug  has  shown 
(Inti-od.  E.  T.  p.  2G7).  As  Augustine  elsewhere  speaks 
of  "codicibus  ecclesiasticis  inteqiretationis  usitatte"  {De 
consensu  Evanej.  ii,  G6),  it  has  been  suggested  by  Potter 
that  for  Itala  should  be  read  usitata,  the  received  read- 
ing having  probably  arisen  from  the  omission,  in  the 
first  instance,  of  the  recurrent  syllable  us  between  inter- 
pretationibus and  usitata  (thus  IxxEiiPKEXATiosiBUSi- 
tata),  and  then  the  change  of  the  unmeaning  itata  into 
itala.  Of  this  emendation  many  have  approved,  and  if 
it  be  adopted,  the  testimony  of  Augustine  in  this  pas- 
sage, as  for  a  plurality  of  Latin  versions,  will  be  greatly 
enfeebled,  for  by  the  versio  usitata  he  would  doubtless 
intend  the  version  in  common  use  as  opposed  to  the  un- 
authorized interpretation  of  private  individuals.  As 
tending  to  confirm  this  view  of  his  meaning,  it  has  been 
observed  that  it  is  extremely  improbable  that  if  there 
was  an  acknowledged  rersio  Africana,  the  Christians 
in  Africa  would  be  found  preferring  to  that  a  version 
made  for  the  use  of  the  Italians.  A  new  suggestion  re- 
lating to  this  passage  has  been  offered  by  Keuss  {Gescli. 
d.  Schr.  d.  N.  7".  p.  436),  "Is  it  not  possible,"  he  asks, 
"  that  Augustine  may  refer,  in  this  passage  (written 
about  the  year  397),  to  a  work  of  Jerome,  viz.,  his  ver- 
sion of  Origen's  Hexapla,  which  Augustine,  in  one  of  his 
letters  {Ep.  xxviii,  torn,  ii,  p.  Gl)  to  Jerome  prefers  to  his 
making  a  new  translation  from  the  original?  At  any 
rate,"  he  adds, "it  is  remarkable  that  Isidore  of  Spain 
{Etymol.  vi,  5)  characterizes  the  translation  of  Jerome 
(the  last)  as  verborum  teneiciorem  et  perspicuitate  senten- 
tia  clariorem.  May  one  venture  to  suggest  that  he 
has  taken  this  phrase  from  Augustine,  regarding  him  as 
using  it  of  Jerome."  To  this,  however,  it  may  be  re- 
plied, that  whilst  it  is  not  improbable  that  Isidore  took 
the  passage  from  Augustine,  he  may  have  done  so  with- 
out regarding  Augustine's  words  as  referring  to  any 
work  of  Jerome.  That  they  do  so  refer  seems  to  us  very 
improbable. 

An  effort  has  been  made  to  obtain  a  decision  for  this 
question  from  a  collation  of  the  extant  remains  of  the 
ancient  Latin  texts,  but  without  success.  Eichhom 
{Einleit.  ins.  N.  T.  iv,  387  sq.)  has  compared  several  pas- 
sages found  in  the  writings  of  the  early  Latin  fathers 
with  certain  extant  codices  of  the  early  Latin  text,  and, 
from  the  resemblance  which  these  bear  to  each  other, 
he  argues  that  they  have  all  been  taken  from  one  com- 
mon translation.  In  this  conclusion  many  scholars  have 
concurred  both  before  and  since  the  time  of  Eichhorn 
( Wetstein,  Ilody,  Semler,  Lachmann,  Tregclles,  Tischen- 
d(irf ),  but  others  have,  on  the  other  side,  pointed  to  se- 
rious differences  of  rendering,  which,  in  their  jiulgment, 
indicate  the  existence  of  distinct  translations  (JMichaelis, 
Hug,  De  Wctte,  Bleek,  etc.). 

As  the  evidence  stands,  it  seems  impossible  cither  to 
hold  to  the  existence  of  only  one  accredited  Latin  ver- 
sion before  the  time  of  Jerome,  the  corruption  of  which, 


LATIN  VERSIONS 


2G5 


LATIN  VERSIONS 


from  various  causes,  is  sufficient  to  account  for  all  the 
discrepancies  to  be  found  in  the  extant  remains,  or  to 
maintain  with  certainty  that  there  were  several  inde- 
pendent versions,  the  work  of  persons  in  different  parts 
of  the  Latin  Church.  There  is,  however,  a  third  sup- 
position which  may  be  advanced  :  There  may  at  an 
early  period,  and  probably  in  Africa,  have  been  made  a 
translation  of  the  Bible  from  the  Greek  into  Latin,  and 
this  may  have  formed  the  groundwork  of  other  transla- 
tions, intended  to  be  amended  versions  of  the  original. 
In  this  case  a  certain  fundamental  similarity  viould 
mark  all  these  translations  along  with  consiilerable  va- 
riety ;  but  this  variety  would  be  traceable,  not  to  unde- 
signed corruption,  but  to  purposed  attempts,  more  or 
less  skilfully  directed,  to  produce  a  more  adequate  ver- 
sion. This  supposition  meets  all  the  facts  of  the  case, 
and  so  far  has  high  probability  in  its  lavor.  I'roceed- 
ing  upon  it,  we  may  fiu'ther  suppose  that  these  different 
revised  or  amended  translations  might  have  their  origin 
in  different  parts  of  the  western  world ;  and  in  this  case 
the  meaning  of  Augustine's  statement  in  the  passage 
(J\inf.  Fausfum,  ii,  2)  where  he  speaks  of  "codices  ali- 
arum  regionum"  becomes  manifest.  In  this  case,  also, 
if  the  reading  Jtula  be  retained  (anil  most  critics  incline 
to  retain  it)  in  the  famous  passage  above  cited,  it  will 
indicate  the  revision  prepared  in  Italy  and  used  bj'  the 
Italian  churches,  of  which  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that 
it  Avould  be  both  more  exact  and  more  polished  than  the 
others,  and  with  which  Augustine  would  become  fa- 
miliar during  his  residence  in  Rome  and  Milan,  See 
Italic  Version. 

2.  Of  this  ancient  Latin  version  in  its  various  amend- 
ed forms,  all  of  which  it  has  become  customary  to  in- 
clude under  the  general  designation  Itala,  we  have  re- 
mains partly  in  the  citations  of  the  Latin  fathers,  part- 
ly in  the  Grajco-Latin  codices,  and  (jartly  in  special  M.SS. 
A  cojiious  collection  from  the  first  of  these  sources  (which 
yet  admits  of  being  augmented)  has  been  supplied  by 
Sahat ler,  Bibliorum  SS.Lutime  Vers,  untiqum  seu  ]'etus 
Itala,  etc.,  qucecunque  reperiri  potuerunt  (Kemis,  1743,3 
vols.  foL,  ed.  2, 1749).  For  the  Apocalypse  we  depend 
entireh'  on  this  source,  namely,  the  quotations  made  by 
Primasius.  The  GriBCO-Latin  codices  are  the  Canta- 
brulf/ian  or  Codex  Bezce,  the  Laudian,  the  Cluromontane, 
and  the  Boeinerian.  See  Maxl'SCRipts.  Of  the  known 
special  codices  containing  portions  of  the  N.T.,  the  fol- 
lowing have  been  printed  or  collated : 

1.  Cod.Vercellensifs,vir'Me\'\  apparently  by  Eusebius  the 
Martyr  in  the  4th  centni-y:  it  embraces  the  four  Gospels, 
though  with  frequent  larinuv.  It  is  mentioned  by  Mout- 
faucon  hi  his  Diariii.m  Italicttm,  p.  445;  and  it  has  been 
edited  by  Bianchinus  (Bianchiiii),  in  Evnnficiiarium  qvad- 
rvplcx  LutincD  vers,  aiitiq.  sen.  Vet.  Italiea',  etc.  (Rom.  1T4!>, 
4  vols,  fol.) ;  previously,  and  still  nmre  carefully,  by  J.  A. 
Irici,  .S'.s'.  Emngeliorii'in  Cod.  S.  Kunehii  mmm  exaratiis,  ex 
aiifdijrriplw  ad  unqtteni  exhibitu.t,  etc.  (Mediol.  1 T48, '.'  parts, 
4to).  In  this  codex  the  Gospels  are  arranjred  in  the  order 
Matthew,  John,  Luke  [Lncanus],  Mark.  As  a  specimen  of 
!he  style  of  this  code.x,  and  the  imperfect  state  in  which 
tsome  parts  of  it  are,  we  give  the  following  passage  (Joliu 
iv,  4S-52)  from  the  edition  of  Iiici: 


ait  ergo  ad  illy 

IHS  NISI  Sir: 

NA  F.T  PRODIG 
-  ■  VIDERITIS 

KOY - 

TIS  DICIT  ILLI 
REG  -  -  -  S  DME 


ET  IBAT  JAM  -  - . 
IPSO  DESCEN 
PRNTK  SERVI 

orrvRER- - 

ILI.l  ET  NVNT-- 
VERVNT  EI  -- 
CE.VTES  QVO 
NIAM  I'MLIVS 
TVVS  VIVIT 
INTER -'GA 
BAT  H".-- 


AIT--IHS-ADE 

Fll.tVS  TVVS 
VIVIT  ET  ORE 
DTDIT  HOMO 
VERBO  QVOD 
DIXIT  ILLI  IHS 


MKLIVS  HARVIT 
ET  DIXERVNT 
HERI  HORA  SEP 
TIMA  -  -  LIQVID 
ILLVM  FEBRIS. 

2.  Cod.  Veronenma,  a  MS.  of  the  4th  or  M\\  century,  in  the 
library  at  Verona,  containinc  the  Gospels,  but  with  many 
lacmire;  printed  by  Bianchini'. 

3.  Cod.  lirixionvft,  of  about  the  fith  rentuiT,  at  Brixen,  in 
the  Tyrol,  containing  the  Gospels,  with  the  exception  of 
some  parts  of  Mark;  printed  hv  Bianriiini. 

4.  Cod.Corbcijentiif!,  a  very  ancient  MS.,  from  which  Mar- 
tianay  edited  Matthew's  Gospel,  the  Epistle  of  James,  etc. 
CJPar.  16'J&).    The  gospel  appears  also  iu  Bianchiui's  work, 


atid  in  the  appendix  to  Calmet's  commentary  on  the  Apoc- 
iilyp.'-e.  Tliere  is  another  M.S.  of  the  old  Latin  text  al  Cor- 
liey,  from  which  various  readings  have  lieen  collected  on 
Matthew,  Mai  k,  and  Luke  by  Bianchini,  and  ou  ihe  four 
Gospels  (partially)  by  Sabatier. 

5.  Cod.  Colbertinus,  of  the  lltli  century,  in  the  Parisian 
library;  edited  entire  by  Sabatier. 

C.  Cod.  I'alatinns,  (if  the  5th  century,  iu  the  library  at  Vi- 
enna, containing  about  the  whole  of  Luke  and  Jolni,  and 
the  greater  part  of  ^Matthew  and  Mark;  edited  by  Tiech- 
endorf  (Leijiz.  1S4T,  4to). 

T.  Cod.Bohhienni.%  of  the  5th  century,  now  at  Turin,  for- 
merly in  the  inonasteiy  of  Bobbio,  containing  portions  of 
Matthew  and  Mark  ;  fragments  of  Acts  xxiii,  xxvii,  2S ; 
and  of  the  Epistle  of  James,  i,  1-5 ;  iii,  13-18;  iv,  1,2;  v, 
19,20;  1  Pet.  i,  1-12;  edited  by  Fleck,  iu  Anecdota  Sacra 
(Lips.  1S3T),  and  more  fully  by  Tischendorf,  iu  the  Wiener 
JahrbiicJier,  1847. 

8.  Cod.  Clarmontamis,  of  the  4th  or  5th  century,  now  in 
the  Vatican  library,  containing  the  fourGospels,"Matthe\v 
in  an  ante-hieronyraian  version  (wanting  i,  1-iii,  15;  xiv, 
33-xviii,  12),  the  other  three  according  to  the  Vulgate";  col- 
lated by  Sabatier,  edited  by  Mai,  ,S'cM;2>tor/-.  Vett.Aova  Col- 
lectio  a  Vatican,  eodd.  edita,  iii,  257  sq. 

9.  Fragments  of  Mark  and  Luke,  contained  iu  a  MS.  of 
about  the  5th  century,  belonging  to  the  imperial  library 
at  Vienna,  have  been  printed  by  Alter,  in  Paulus,  yir7«'(7oj-. 
f/'/r  Bibl.  vnd  Morrienluvd  Litter,  iii,  115-170,  and  in  Paulas, 
Memorabilien,  vii,  5S-!)C. 

10.  A  MS.  of  the  7th  centtir}',  now  at  Breslau,  contain- 
ing the  synoptic  Gospels,  with  lacunoe  and  part  of  John's 
Gospel ;  described  by  Dr.  D.  Schulz,  De  Cod.  4  Evangg.  Lih- 
lioth.  Rhedigeriance  (Bresl.  1814). 

11.  A  fragment  of  Luke  (xvii-xxi)  from  a  palimpsest  of 
the  Gth  century,  in  Cev\?ix\\,  Momimcnta  Sac.  ctProf.prce- 
sertini  Bibl.  Amlrrosianee  (Mil.  1861),  I,  i,  1-8. 

12.  Cardinal  Mai  has  given,  in  his  Spicilegium  Boma- 
nimi,  ix,  C1-8G,  various  readings  from  a  very  ancient  co- 
dex of  the  Spectdum  Aiigri.<ttini,  and  he  has  since  edited 
the  .^j^ecnhim  entire  iu  his  PP.  Xov.  Bibl. ;  comp.  Tregelles, 
p.  239. 

13, 14, 15.  In  the  monastery  of  St.  Gall  are  three  codices, 
the  tirst  of  the  4th  or  5th  century,  containing  fragments 
of  Matthew;  the  second  a  GallicMS.  of  the  7th  century, 
containing  Mark  xvi,  14-20;  tlie  third  an  Irish  MS.  of  the 
7th  or  8th  century,  containing  John  xi,  14-44. 

16.  Cod. Monacensis,  of  the  6th  century,  containing  the 
four  Gospels,  with  lacvna>;  transcribed  "by  Tischendorf. 

17.  A  fragment  containing  Matt,  xiii,  13-25,  on  purple 
vellum,  of  the  51h  century,  in  the  library  at  Dublin,  print- 
ed in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Ruyal  Irish  Acadevui,  iii,  37^ 
by  Dr.  Todd. 

IS.  Cod.  Guelferbijtamis,  of  the  Gth  century,  containing 
some  fragments  of  Rom.  xi,  15,  published  liy  Knittel  (q. 
V.)  in  17G2,  and  more  correctly  by  Tischendorf,  jljucdo?. 
Sac.  et  Prof.  p.  153. 

10.  Fragments  of  the  Pauline  epistles  discovered  by 
Schmeller  at  Munich,  and  transcribed  by  Tischendorf,  who 
has  described  them  in  the  Deutsche  Zeitschrift  fiir  Christl. 
W7.s-.sc«.st/((//;  for  1857,  No.  8. 

Besides  these,  there  are  several  MSS.  known  to  exist 
chiefly  in  the  British  libraries.  Some  of  these  are  no- 
ticed in  Bentley's  Critica  Sacra,  edited  by  Ellis,  1802, 
and  in  ^\'cstwood's  Palwor/rapkia  Sacra  Picioria.  See 
also  Bctliam,  A  ntiquarian  Researches ;  Petrie,  On  the  Ec- 
clesiastical A  ntiq.  of  Ireland;  O'Connor,  liei-um  IJiljern, 
Scriptoix's. 

These  codices  pateographists  and  critics  profess  to 
be  able  to  allot  to  different  recensions  or  revisions.  Nos. 
1, 2, 4,  5,  7,  8,  9, 11, 13,  and  17  they  pronounce  to  be  Af- 
rican ;  3,  6,  12,  1(1,  Italian;  and  14,  1.5,  Irish;  though 
Tischendorf  expresses  doubt  as  to  the  African  character 
of  No.  9,  and  the  Italian  of  No.  6. 

Of  the  O.  T.  only  a  few  fragments  have  been  discov- 
ered in  special  codices.  These  have  been  printed  by 
Sabatier  (/(6.  «Y.),  by  YerceUone  (Varice  Lectiones  Vuly. 
Lat.  Bibllonim,  2  vols.,  Rom.  1860-62),  by  jNIiinter  ( J/w- 
cell.  Hofn.  1821),  by  Wone  (Lihri  Pulimpsesti,  Carlsrnhe, 
185.5),  by  Kanke  {Fragmenta  IIos.  Am.  JUich.Yicn.  1856, 
1858),  by  Fritzsche  (Liber  Judicum,  Turici,  1867),  and 
anonymously  {Biblioth.  A  shburnham.,  Lond.  1SG8).  The 
MSS.  of  the  Vulgate  preserve  the  old  Latin  version  of 
those  books  of  the  Apocrypha  which  were  not  retrans- 
lated by  Jerome,  and  the  Psalter.  Our  principal  source 
of  information,  however,  is  in  the  citations  made  bj'  the 
Latin  fathers  from  the  version  in  their  hands. 

From  these  various  sources  we  possess,  in  the  old  Lat- 
in version  of  the  O.  T..  the  Psalter,  Esther,  and  some  of 
the  apocryphal  books  entire,  the  rest  only  in  fragments; 
whilst  of  the  N.  T.  we  possess  nearly  the  whole. 

3.  The  value  of  these  remains  in  regard  to  the  criti- 


LATIN  YERSIOXS 


266 


LATIN  VERSIONS 


cism  of  the  sacred  text  is  verj'  considerable.  They  af- 
ford important  aid  in  determining  the  condition  of  the 
Greek  text  in  the  early  centuries.  This,  which  Bent- 
ley  was'  the  tirst  to  perceive,  or  at  least  to  announce, 
has  been  fully  recognised  by  Lachraann,  'I'regelles,  and 
Tischendorf,  though  they  have  not  all  followed  it  out 
with  equal  discretion  (see  Tischendorf 's  strictures,  Pro- 
leg,  in  eel.  Sept.  ef  X.  T.  p.  ciii,  ccxlii). 

Tlie  general  character  of  the  Itala  is  close,  literal  ad- 
herence to  the  original,  so  as  often  to  transgress  the 
genius  of  the  Latin  language;  its  phraseology  being 
marked  by  solecisms  and  improprieties  which  may  be 
due  to  its  having  been  originally  produced  either  in  a 
region  remote  from  the  centre  of  classical  ciUture,  or 
among  the  more  illiterate  of  the  community.  Thus 
Swrf/p  is  rendered  by  suli(turis,  cia(puptiv  by  siiperpo- 
nere  (e.g.  "quanto  ergo  supcrponit  homo  ab  ove,''Matt. 
xii,  12),  ■KpQtXmZiiv  by  prwspera re,  KorrpoKpuTopec  by 
munditenentes,  etc. ;  and  we  have  such  constructions  as 
"  stellam  quam  viderant  in  orientem"  (i\Xatt.  ii,  9) ;  "  ut 
ego  veniens  adorem  ei"  (Matt,  ii,  8) ;  "  qui  autem  audi- 
entes"  (ii,  9) ;  "  pressuris  quibus  sustinetis"  ("2  Thess.  i, 
4)  ;  "  habitavit  in  Capharnaum  maritimam"  (JIatt.  iv, 
13) ;  '•  terra  Naphthalim  viam  maris"  (iv,  15) ;  "  verbum 
audit  et  continuo  cum  gaudio  accipit  eum"  (xiii,  20) ; 
"dominantur  eorum,  principantur  eorum"  (xx,  25),  etc. 
It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the  current 
text  was  exposed  to  innumerable  corruptions,  and  that 
we  can  hardly,  from  the  specimens  that  have  come  down 
to  us,  form  ax\x  very  accurate  judgment  of  the  state  in 
which  it  was  at  first.  One  can  hardly  suppose  that  by 
any  Latin-speaking  people,  the  following  version,  which 
is  that  presented  by  the  Colbertine  IMS.  of  Col.  ii,  18, 19, 
could  have  been  accepted  as  idiomatic,  or  even  intelli- 
gible: "Nemo  vos  convincat  volens  in  humilitate  et  re- 
ligione  angelorum,  quiB  vidit  ambiUans,  sine  causa  infla- 
tus  sensu  carnis  suw,  et  non  tenens  caput  Christum,  ex 
quo  omne  corpus  connexum  et  conductione  subministra- 
tuni  et  provectum  crescit  in  increment um  Dei."  If  this 
be  (to  borrow  the  remark  of  Eichliorn,  from  whose  Ein- 
leitunrj  ins  N.  T.  iv,  354,  we  have  taken  these  specimens) 
'■verborum  tenax,"  where  is  the  '■  perspicuitas  senten- 
tiie"  of  which  Augustine  speaks  ? 

II.  Iliernnymiun  or  Vti/r/ate  Version.     See  Vltlg.vte. 

III.  Later  Latin  Versions. — Both  before  and  since  the 
invention  of  printing  attempts  have  been  made  to  pre- 
sent, through  the  medium  of  Latin,  a  more  correct  ver- 
sion of  the  original  text  than  that  found  in  the  ancient 
Latin  versions.  Of  these  we  have  space  only  for  a  bare 
catalogue.  (See  notices  of  the  authors  under  their  names 
in  this  work.) 

1.  Adam  Eston,  a  monk  of  Norwich,  and  cardinal 
(died  1397),  seems  to  have  been  the  first  who  thought 
of  a  new  version ;  he  translated  the  O.  T.,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Psalter,  from  the  Hebrew;  his  work  is 
lost  (Hody,  p.  440;  Le  Long— Masch  ii,  3,  p.  432). 

'2.  (iiannozzo  ]Manetti,who  died  in  1459,  began  a  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible,  of  which  he  finished  only  the  Psalms 
and  the  N.  T. ;  this  is  lost  (Tiraboschi,  Storia  dtlla  Lett. 
Ital.  vi,  2,  p.  109  sq.). 

3.  Erasmus  translated  the  N.  Test.,  and  published  the 
translation  along  with  the  Greek  text  (Basil.  1510),  fob). 

4.  Til.  Beza  issued  his  translation  of  the  N.  T.  in  1 556 ; 
it  appeared  along  witli  the  Vulgate  version.  Four  other 
editions  Iblloweil  during  the  author's  lifetime,  and  these 
present  the  Greek  text  as  well  as  the  Vulgate  and  Be- 
za's  own  translation;  many  other  editions  have  since 
followed.  Beza  aimed  at  presenting  a  just  rendering  of 
the  original,  williout  departing  more  than  necessary 
from  the  Vulgate.  His  renderings  are  sometimes  af- 
fected by  his  theological  views. 

5.  Sanctcs  Pagninus,  a  learned  Dominican  from  Luc- 
ca, produced  a  translation  of  the-whole  Bible  ^(Lugdun. 
1528,  4to,  and  Colon.  1541,  fob).  Later  editions  of  this 
work,  with  considerable  alterations,  apjieared  :  one,  edited 
by  tlie  famous  Mich.  Servetus,  under  the  name  of  Villa- 
uo\anu3  (Lugd.  1542)  ;  another,  revised  and  edited  by 


E.  Stephen  (Paris,  1557,  2  vols,  folio;  with  a  new  title, 
1577).  This  latter  has  been  often  reprinted.  The  ver- 
sion of  Arias  Montanus,  printed  in  the  Antwerp,  I'aris, 
and  London  jjolj-glots,  is  a  revision  of  this  version. 

6.  Cardinal  Cajetan  employed  two  Hebrew  scholars, 
a  Jew  and  a  Christian,  to  supply  him  with  a  literal  ver- 
sion of  the  Old  Test.  This  they  accomplished,  and  the 
work  appeared  in  parts  (Lugd.  1639,  5  vols,  folio).  The 
N.  T.,  translated  on  the  same  principle  of  strict  literal- 
ity,  appeared  earlier  (Ven.  1530, 1.531, 2  vols,  folio). 

7.  Sebastian  Minister  added  to  his  edition  of  the  He- 
brew Scriptures  a  Latin  translation  (Basle,  1534-35,  and 
1546,  2  vols,  folio).  This  translation  is  faithful  without 
being  slavishly  literal,  and  is  executed  in  clear  and  cor- 
rect Latin.  Portions  of  it  have  been  published  sepa- 
rately. 

8.  The  Ziirich  version,  begun  by  Leo  Judse,  and  com- 
pleted by  Bibliander  and  others  (1543,  folio,  and  in  4to 
and  8vo  in  1544).  This  version  is  much  esteemed  for 
its  ease  and  fluency ;  it  is  correct,  but  somewhat  para- 
phrastic. It  has  frequently  been  reprinted ,  there  is  one 
edition  by  K.  Stephen  (Paris,  1545). 

9.  Sebastian  Castellio  produced,  in  what  he  intended 
to  be  purely  classical  Latin,  a  translation  of  the  O.  and 
N.T.  (Basil.  1551,  again  1573,  and  at  Leipzic,  1738). 

10.  The  version  of  Junius  and  TremeUius  appeared  at 
Frankfort  in  parts  between  1575  and  1579,  and  in  a  col- 
lected f  )rm  in  1579,  2  vols,  folio.  TremeUius  took  the 
principal  part  in  this  work,  his  son-in-law  Junius  rather 
assisting  him  than  sharing  the  work  w-ith  him.  Tre- 
meUius translated  the  N.  Test,  from  the  Syriac,  and  this, 
along  with  Beza's  translation,  appeared  in  an  edition  of 
Tremellius's  Bible,  published  at  London  in  1585.  The 
translation  of  Piscator  is  only  an  amended  edition  of 
that  of  TremeUius. 

11.  Thomas  Malvenda,  a  Spanish  Dominican,  engaged 
in  a  "  nova  ex  Hebraso  translatio,"  which  he  did  not  live 
to  finish.  What  he  accomplished  was  published  along 
with  his  commentaries  (Lugdun.  1650,  5  vols,  folio) ;  but 
the  extreme  barbarism  of  his  style  has  caused  his  labors 
to  pass  into  oblivion. 

12.  Cocceius  has  given  a  new  translation  of  most  of 
the  Biblical  books  in  his  commentaries.  Opera  Omnia 
(tom.  i-vi,  Amsterdam,  1701). 

13.  Sebastian  Schmid  executed  a  translation  of  the  O. 
and  N.  Test.,  which  appeared  after  his  death  (Argcntor. 
1696,  4to) ;  it  has  been  repeatedly  reprinted,  and  is  es- 
teemed for  its  scholarly  exactness,  though  in  some  cases 
its  adherence  to  the  original  is  over  close. 

14.  The  version  of  Jean  le  Clerc  (Clericus)  is  found 
along  with  his  commentaries;  it  appeared  in  portions 
from  1693  to  1731. 

15.  Charles  Fr.  Houbigant  issued  a  translation  of  the 
O.  T.  and  the  Apocrypha  along  with  liis  edition  of  the 
Hebrew  text  (Paris,  1753,  4  vols,  folio). 

10.  A  new  translation  of  the  O.  T.  was  undertaken  by 
J.  A.  Dathe;  it  ajipeared  between  1773  and  1789.  At 
one  time  much  admired,  this  version  has  of  late  ceased 
perhaps  to  receive  the  attention  to  which  it  is  entitled. 

17-19.  Versions  of  the  Gospels  by  Ch.  Wilh.  Thale- 
mann  (Berl.  1781) ;  of  the  Epistles  by  Godf.  Sigismund 
Jaspis  (LipsiiB,  1793-97,  2  vols.) ;  and  of  the  whole  N.T. 
by  H.  Godf.  Keichard  (Lips.  1799),  belong  to  the  school 
of  CasteUio. 

20.  H.  A.  Schott  and  F.Winzcr  commenced  a  trans- 
lation of  the  Bil)le,  of  which  only  the  first  volume  has 
appeared,  containing  the  Pentateuch  (Alton,  et  Lipsise, 
1816).  Schott  has  also  issued  a  translation  of  the  N.  T., 
appended  to  bis  edition  of  the  (ireek  text  (Lips.  1805). 
This  has  passed  into  four  editions,  of  which  the  last 
(1839)  was  superintended  by  Baumgarten-Crusius. 

21.  RosenmiiUer  (iu  his  Scholia  in  V.  T.  Lips.  1788  sq.). 
Translations  of  the  N.  T.  have  also  been  issued  by  F. 

A.  Ad.  Nacbe  ( Lips.  1831)  and  Ad.  Goeschen  (Lips.  1832). 
See  Carpzo\-.  Crit.  Sacr.  p.  707  sc]. ;  Fritzsche,  art.  Vulga- 
ta,  in  Herzog's  Kncyk.;  Jiihle  o/erer//  Land,  p.  210,  etc. 
IV.  Literature, — Simon,  Hist.  Crit,  des  Versions  du  N. 


LATITUDINARIANS 


267 


LATITUDINARIANS 


Test.  (1G90);  Hody,  Z)e  Bibliornm  textibus  originalibus, 
versionihus  Greeds  et  Latina  \'iih/(ita,  Libri  iv  (Oxford, 
1705,  folio);  Martianay,  IJieroiii^iiii  0pp.  (Paris,  1G93); 
Bianchinus,  Vindicice  Canonis  SS.  Vuly.  Lat.  ed.  (Rome, 
1740) ;  Riegler,  Krit.  Gesch.  der  Vulguta  (Siilzb.  1820) ; 
L.  van  Ess,  Pnigmatisch-Krit.  Gesch.  der  Vulgata  (Tlib. 
1824) ;  Wiseman,  Two  Letters  on  1  John  v,  7,  reprinted 
in  liis  Essays,  vol.  i;  Diestcl,  Gesch.  d.  Alien  Test.  (Jena, 
18G9) ;  Kiirsch,  in  the Zeitschri/tfiir  d.hist.  Theol.  18G7, 
18G9, 1870.  See  also  the  Introductions  of  Eichhorn,  Mi- 
chaelis.  Hug,  De  Wette,  Hiiverniek,  Bleek,  etc. ;  David- 
son, Biblical  Criticism;  Reuss,  Gesch.  der  Ileil.  Sclrr.  X. 
T.  sec.  4rl8-457 ;  DarUng,  Ci/clopcvdiu,  p.  80.  See  Ver- 
sions. 

Latitudinarians,  a  name  given  to  those  divines 
who  in  the  17th  century  professed  indifference  to  what 
they  considered  the  small  matters  in  dispute  between 
Puritans  and  High-Churchmen,  and,  looking  at  theology 
from  a  philosophical  point  of  view,  laid  more  stress  on 
classical  philosophy  than  on  Christian  theology.  They 
attempted  to  compromise  the  differences  between  Epis- 
copalians, Presbyterians,  and  Independents.  Their  views 
vi'cre  a  residt  of  the  changes  then  going  on  in  the  relig- 
ious world,  and  of  the  influence  of  philosophy.  The  doc- 
trinal Puritans  had  already  taken  a  position  midway  be- 
tween the  school  of  Laud  and  the  fanatical  Puritans. 
Abbot,  Carltpn,  Hall,  and  others  were  the  chief  leaders 
of  that  party.  They  attached  no  importance  to  exter- 
nals, and  prized  practical  piety  far  above  all  matters  of 
form ;  and,  though  themselves  attached  to  the  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  Church,  they  allowed  others  to  differ  from 
them  as  to  the  best  form  of  ecclesiastical  government. 
In  their  theology  they  adhered  to  the  milder  Calvinism 
of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles;  but,  being  the  most  mod- 
erate, they  were  soon  overwhelmed  by  the  other  par- 
ties. As  liberal,  but  differing  from  them  in  doctrine,  we 
find  among  the  Eaton  scholars  Hales,  who,  although  an 
opponent  of  Laud's  High-Churchism,  was  in  dogmatics 
an  Arminian ;  and  Chillingworth,  who  desired  to  reduce 
Christianity  to  a  few  essential  jiractical  principles.  In 
the  midst  of  the  struggle,  and  the  rapid  changes  of  relig- 
ious views  and  systems,  the  moral  conception  of  Chris- 
tianity was  daily  gaining  ground ;  on  the  other  hand, 
theology  was  unable  to  withstand  the  inlhience  of  phi- 
losophy. The  regeneration  which  the  latter  had  expe- 
rienced at  the  hands  of  Bacon  and  Des  Cartes  obliged 
theology  to  review  its  foundations  in  the  light  of  phi- 
losophy and  science  as  well  as  of  history  (compare  Pro- 
fessor Maurice,  Moral  and  Metaphysical  Philosophy,  in 
the  Encyclop.  Metropol.  ii,  G56 ;  Stewart,  Essay  on  Met- 
aphysical Philosophy,  p.  58,  61,  notes,  and  24G,  note  O). 
Thus  Platonic  philosophjr  and  theology  were  intro- 
duced into  Cambridge  by  Cudworth  ((].  v.)  and  Henry 
More  (q.  v.).  Men  of  these  views  (among  others, 
also,  John  Smith,  Worthington,  bisliop  Wilkins,  and 
Theophilus  Gale),  and  especially  the  more  moderate 
among  them,  were  looked  down  upon  with  contempt  by 
the  more  ambitious  ones  in  (lOwcr,  and,  as  they  would 
not  follow  the  selfish  tendencies  of  the  times,  were  call- 
ed Latitude-men.  In  the  days  of  the  Commonwealth 
they  were  reproached  witli  Arminianism  and  prelatism. 
But  when  the  High-Church  party  came  again  into  pow- 
er with  tlie  Restoration,  and  its  ol<i  adversaries  tried 
to  atone  for  their  former  attacks  by  all  means  in  their 
power,  the  moderate  party  was  accused  of  want  of  loy- 
alty and  of  opposition  to  the  Church.  Whoever  refused 
to  submit  to  the  High-Church,  or  did  not  take  sides  with 
the  strict  Puritans  against  it,  were  called  Latitudinuriau. 
"  That  name,"  said  a  contemporary, ''  is  the  man  of  straw 
who,  in  order  to  have  something  to  tight  against,  has 
been  set  up  for  want  of  a  real  adversary — a  very  conven- 
ient name  wherewith  to  defame  any  one  who  we  may 
wish  to  injure."  As  the  name  came  thus  to  be  a]>plied 
to  a  number  of  persons  who  had  no  connection  whatever 
with  the  parry  which  it  (h'signated  at  first,  and  even  to 
such  as  were  totally  indifferent  in  matters  of  religion. 
the  appellation  soon  came  to  be  regarded  as  equivalent 


to  Socinian,  Deist,  and  Atheist.  As  regards  the  orig- 
inal Latitudinarians,  they  retained  the  liturgy,  rites,  and 
organization  of  the  English  Episcopal  Church.  They 
considered  a  general  liturgy  as  a  necessary  guard  against 
the  often  fanatical  prayers  of  the  Piu-itans,  and  they 
considered  the  English  liturgy  as  the  best,  on  account 
of  its  solemn  earnestness  and  its  character  of  primitive 
simplicity.  The  form  of  public  worship  they  looked 
upon  as  a  hajipy  medium  between  that  of  the  Romish 
Church  and  that  of  the  conventicles.  Ceremonies  they 
deemed  useful  for  the  purpose  of  edification,  and  episco- 
pacy they  cherished  as  the  most  correct  and  evangelical 
form  of  Church  government,  differing  both  from  what 
they  regarded  as  the  tyrannical  authority  of  Scotch 
Presbyterianism  and  from  the  anarcliy  of  the  Inde- 
pendents. In  point  of  doctrine  they  also  retained  the 
confession  of  the  English  Church,  which  they  consider- 
ed as  according  thoroughly  with  the  Scriptures.  The 
commentaries  of  the  primitive  Church  were  the  guides 
by  which  they  wished  reason  to  be  governed,  and 
reason  they  recognised  as  the  source  of  oiu-  knowledge 
of  revealed  and  natural  religion,  which  agree  on  all 
points.  The  fundamental  principles  of  true  religion  are 
freedom  of  the  will,  the  universality  of  the  redemption 
by  the  death  of  Christ,  the  sufficiency  of  divine  grace; 
and  these  find  entrance  into  the  human  heart  some- 
times by  the  testimony  of  Scripture,  sometimes  by  the 
unvarying  testimony  of  the  primitive  Church,  and  again 
by  reason  only.  In  theology,  the  oldest  views  are  al- 
ways found  to  be  the  most  reasonable.  Nothing  that  is 
false  in  philosophy  is  true  in  theology;  but  what  God 
has  united,  let  no  man  put  asunder.  Natural  sciences 
have  made  immense  jjrogress,  and  philosophy  and  the- 
ology cannot  remain  behind.  True  science  cannot  be 
put  down  any  more  than  the  light  of  the  sun  or  the  mo- 
tion of  the  ocean.  It  is  the  best  weapon  against  atheism 
and  superstition  (comp.  Smith  [John],  discourses  [ed. 
1821],  ii,  p.  19).  Thus  the  Latitudinarians  took  at  once 
fur  their  basis  science  and  toleration.  They  taught  re- 
spect for  the  Church  by  their  submission  to  it,  dd'ended 
it  by  their  learning  and  activity,  and  hoped  to  win  over 
the  Dissenters  by  their  moderation,  and  the  Presbyteri- 
ans by  their  accommodating  spirit,  thus  preventing  them 
from  anarchy.  This  is  the  character  given  to  the  Lati- 
tudinarians by  one  of  their  contemporaries  in  a  work  en- 
titled .1  brief  account  of  the  New  Sect  of  Latitudinari- 
ans (1GG2).  It  is  remarkable  how  many  ideas  of  the 
school  of  Laud  this  party  still  retained,  in  spite  of  its 
philosophical  views.  Its  broad  platform  admitted  men 
of  the  most  different  tendencies.  While  Cudworth, 
Whichcote,Worthington,  and  Wilkins  inclined  to  philo- 
sophical views,  Burnet,  Tillotson,  AMiiston,  and  Spencer 
adhered  more  to  the  Church  doctrines.  Bury,  in  The 
Kuked  Gospel  (1G90),  declared  all  Christian  doctrines,  ex- 
cept those  of  repentance  and  faith,  non-essential.  For 
this  he  was  attacked  by  Jurieu  in  his  La  Relir/ion  du 
Latitudinaire,  and  vainly  attempted  to  defend  the  or- 
thodoxy of  his  views  in  his  Lcttitudinarius  orthodoxus 
(1G97).  The  attemjits  made  by  the  Latitudinarians  in 
1G89-1G99  to  reconcile  the  Episcopalians  and  Presbyte- 
rians failed  utterly.  Latitudinarianism  was  subsequent- 
ly identified  still  more  with  indifferentism,  and  seldom 
appeared  in  theological  works.  It  is  only  in  quite  mod- 
ern times,  and  especially  under  the  influence  of  human 
theology,  that  this  tendency  has  been  brought  to  light 
again  in  the  Broad-Church  party,  which  forms  a  sort  of 
medium  between  the  Higli  and  Low  Church.  By  their 
opponents  the  Broad-C'luirchmen  are,  however,  desig- 
nated as  Latitudinarians  or  Indiflcronts.  Thev  consider 
the  differences  among  Cliristians  as  unimportant  when 
compared  with  their  essential  unity.  The  watchword 
of  the  party  is  love  and  toleration.  For  doctrines,  they 
hold  to  those  of  incarnation  and  atonement,  conversion 
by  grace  and  justification.  They  coincide  with  the  Low- 
Church  in  considering  Scripture  as  the  only  rule  of  faith, 
l)iit  taking  exceptions  hero  and  there  to  miracles,  and 
with  the  High-Church  in  believing  that  man  shall  be 


LATOMIUS 


2G8 


LATTICE 


judged  according;;  to  his  works.  In  opposition  to  the 
doctrine  of  the  invisible  Church  of  the  evangelical 
Church,  they  lay  great  stress  on  the  doctrine  of  a  visi- 
ble Cliiircli.  They  take  ■what  is  good  anywhere,  as  well 
in  the  Koinish  as  in  the  evangelical  churches.  They 
aim  at  nothing  less  than  the  accomi)lishment  of  a  relig- 
ious and  moral  reformation,  and  seek  to  occupy  in  our 
day  the  place  held  at  the  beginning  of  this  centur}'  by 
the  evangelical  party.  This  end  tlicy  strive  to  attain 
partly  by  tlieir  science  and  partly  by  their  practice,  and 
thus  tlistinguish  among  themselves  between  the  theorists 
and  anti-theorists.  They  derive  great  power  from  the 
liigh  scientific  attainments  of  many  of  their  members, 
and  try  to  advance  the  education  of  the  masses.  The 
founders  of  this  school  were  S.  T.  C(jleridge  and  Thom- 
as Arnold,  and  its  most  eminent  followers  Hare,  AVhate- 
ly,  Jlaurice,  Kingsley,  Stanley,  Alford,  Conybeare,  and 
Howson.  About  one  seventh  of  the  English  clergy'and 
a  number  of  bishops  belong  to  it.  See  Conybeare,  Church 
Pariifs;  Schaff,  Zust,  u.  Partheien  d.  enr/l.  Sfaais-Kirche 
in  Deutsch.  Zeitschrift.  1856,  No.  17;  Edward  Churton, 
The  Latitndinarians  from  1G71-1787  (Lond.  18Gl,8vo)  ; 
Amer.  Presh.  Rev.  1861,  April,  art.  vi  ;  Westminster  Rev. 
1854,  January;  Bib. Sacra,  1863, p. 865 ;  Farrar,C?iV. Hist, 
of  Free  Thought;  Ga.ss,  Doffmenf/eschich.iii  (see  Index); 
Stougliton,  Eccles.  Hist,  of  Englaiul  (since  the  Eestora- 
tion),  ii,  •26"2  sq.,  3-11  sq.,859  sq. ;  Ilerzog,  Real-Encijklop. 
viii,  215 ;  Blunt,  Diet.  Doctr.  and  Hist.  Theol.  p.  395  sq., 
and  his  Key  to  the  Knowledge  ofCh.  Hist.  (Mod.)  p.  97  sq. 
On  the  present  Broad  Church  of  England,  see  Miss  Cobbe, 
Jhoken  Lights  (London  ed.  p.  63),  and  Hurst's  History  of 
Rationalism,  Eug.  edition  (greatly  enlarged),  p.  423^38. 

Latomius,  Jacohus  {.Taques  Masson),  a  celebrated 
lioman  Catholic  theologian,  was  born  at  Cambron,  in 
Hainault,  about  the  middle  of  the  15th  century,  and 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Paris.  In  1500  he 
became  a  resident  of  Louvain,  where  he  was  made  a 
jirofessor  of  theology.  He  died  in  1544.  A  zealous 
disciple  of  scholasticism,  he  ardently  opposed  the  Ref- 
ormation both  by  his  pen  and  his  tongue,  and  was  en- 
gaged in  an  able  controversy  with  Luther,  who  ad- 
dressed to  him  Rationis  Latomiame  confutatio  wliile  a 
resident  of  the  Wartburg  (comp.  KiJstlin,  Luther  s  The- 
ologie,  ii,  55,  366).  The  Koman  Catholics,  of  course, 
greatly  loved  Latomius,  and  he  is  spoken  of  as  •'  vlr 
multiB  eruditionis,  pietatis,  modestia?,  trium  linguarum 
peritissimus,  haereticte  pravitatis  inquisitor."  A  collec- 
tion of  his  works  was  made  by  his  nephew.  Jacobus  La- 
tomius, his  successor  at  Louvain  (died  in  1596),  and  was 
l)ublished  at  Louvain  in  1550,  in  folio,  containing,  1. 
A  r/irulorum  doctiinm  LMtheri  jwr  theologos  Lovunienses 
damnutornni  ratio  (1519  and  1521)  :— 2.  Responsio  ad 
libellum  a.  Liithero  emissum  pro  iisdem  articulis  (1521)  : 
— 3. 1)e  primatu  Pontifcis  ad  versus  Martinum  Lutherum 
(1526;  also  reprinted  in  Roccaberti  Biblioth.  max.  pon- 
iificin,  Rom.  1689,  torn,  xiii): — 4.  I)e  variis  qiimstiomim 
gcmribiis  guibus  certat  ecchsia  intus  et  foris : — b.  De 
eccli'sia  et  humanm  legis  obligatione: — 6.  De  confessione 
secrela  (1525): — 1.  Ad  helleborum  J.  CEcolampadii  re- 
sponsio : — 8.  LJbellus  de  fide  et  operibus,  de  votis  atque 
institntis  monastids  .-—9.  De  trium  linguarum  et  studii 
theologiri  ratione  dialogi  ii  (Ibl^,  ito} :— 10.  Apologia 
pro  dialogis  : — 11.  Adversiis  lihn/m  Krasmide  sarcienda 
(celisi/r  Concordia: — 12.  Cntfiitatiomun  adversus  Guil. 
Tinilidnm  libri  Hi:— 13.  De  Matrimonio  .-—14.  De  qiii- 
busdam  articulis  in  ecclesia  controversis  :—lo.  Disputa- 
tio  quodlibetica  tribus  qucestionibus  absoluta :  (1.)  Li  li- 
bellum de  ecclesia,  Phil.  Afelancthoni  inscriptum ;  (2.) 
Contra  orationem  factiosorum  in  Comitiis  Ratisbonen.'.i- 
bus  habltam  (1544,  8vo).— Ilerzog,  Real-Encyldop.  xix, 
777. 

Latria  (\«r()f(«\  the  name  gjvcn  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  to  the  adoration  due  to  (iod  alone  on 
account  of  his  su]irema(y,  as  distinguished  from  hyper- 
didia  ((|.  v.),  worslii])  j.aid  to  the  Virgin,  and  duliu  (q.  I 
v.),  the  worship  paid  to  saints.  j 


Latroncinium.     See  Ephesus,  Robber  Council 

OF. 

Latta,  James,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  mmister,  was 
born  in  Ireland  in  1732;  emigrated  to  America  at  an 
early  age,  and  graduated  at  the  College  of  Philadelphia 
in  1757.  He  became  college  tutor  at  his  alma  mater, 
and  pursued  the  study  of  divinity.  He  was  licensed  in 
1758,  and  ordained  as  an  evangelist  in  1759.  Two  years 
after  he  accepted  a  call  from  the  congregation  of  Deep 
Run,  in  Bucks  Co.,  I'a.,  which  he  resigned  in  1770  for 
the  charge  of  Chestnut  Level,  in  Lancaster  County,  Pa. 
Here  he  established  a  school  of  long-continued  celebrity. 
During  the  war  he  accompanied  the  American  army  on 
their  campaign  as  a  soldier,  and  served  as  chaplain  for 
a  time.  He  vindicated  the  introduction  of  the  Psalms 
and  Hymns  of  Dr.  A\'atts,  and  labored  faithfully  in  his 
ministry  till  near  the  close  of  life.  He  died  Jan.  29, 
1801.  Latta  published  a  pamphlet  showing  that  the 
principal  subjects  of  psalmody  shoidd  be  taken  from  the 
Gospel,  8vo.  —  Sprague,  Annals,  iii,  199;  AVilson,  Presb. 
Historical  A  Imanac,  1865. 

Latta,  Samuel  A.,  a  minister  of  the  M.E.  Church 
South,  born  April  8, 1804,  in  Muskingum  Co.,  Ohio,  early 
evinced  an  aptitude  for  the  Christian  ministry,  and,  hav-- 
ing  practiced  medicine  from  1824  to  1829,  entered  thie 
•ministry  by  joining  the  Ohio  Conference,  and  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  difhcult  mission  at  St.  Clair,  JMichigan. 
In  1830  he  was  stationed  at  Cinciimati,  and  in  1831  was 
travelling  agent  for  the  American  Colonization  Society. 
In  1832  and  1833  he  occupied  the  Union  Circuit;  in 
1834,  Lebanon  station ;  in  1835  and  1836,  Hamilton  and 
Rossville  stations.  In  1837  he  was  agent  for  Augusta 
College,  Ohio,  in  behalf  of  which  institution  he  was 
very  successful.  In  1838  and  1839  he  preaclied  at  Day- 
ton, Ohio.  From  1840  till  his  death,  June  28, 1852,  he 
maintained  a  superannuated  relation.  Dr.  Latta  was 
both  an  excellent  preacher  and  a  good  physician,  but 
he  earned  his  highest  distinction  as  a  writer.  For  some 
years  he  was  editor  of  the  Methodist  Recoi-der.  He  had 
a  mind  of  uncommon  strength,  quite  versatile,  and  he 
had  improved  it  by  extensive  research  and  studj-.  '-He 
woidd  sometimes  reason  with  great  i)ower,  and  his  de- 
scriptions of  men  and  things  were  often  exceedingly 
striking  and  beautiful."  The  work  which  gained  him 
his  greatest  fame  was  The  Chain  of  Sacred  Wonders, 
published  in  1851  and  1852,  2  vols.  8vo. — Sprague,  ^1  ?J- 
nuls  of  the  American  I'uJpit,vn,lbh. 

Latter-Day  Saints.     See  Mormons. 

Lattice  stands  in  the  Auth.Yers.  for  the  following 
Hebrew  words  in  certain  passages:  1.  ^^J'i!X  {eshnah', 
so  called  from  darkening  a  room),  a  latticed  opening 
through  which  the  cool  breeze  passes,  and  which  at  the 
same  time  screens  the  inmates,  especially  females,  from 
exterior  sight  (Judg.  v,  28 ;  "  casement,"  Prov.  vii,  6). 
See  Window.  2.  C^^'^n  {charak!dm',i)iop.7iets;  Sept. 
ctKTva),  the  net-work  or  lattices  of  a  window  (Cant,  ii, 


^^r~  (■ 


kdh'.  an  intc?-u-eaving),  the  latticed 
lialustrade  before  a  win- 
dow or  balcony  (2  Kings 
i,  2 ;  elsewhere  a  net  or 
III  "  snare,"  Job  xviii,  8  ; 
"  net-work,"  etc..  aroiuid 
\  the  capitals  of  columns). 
"  The  lattice  window 
\\'  is  much  used  in  warm 
f,  Eastern    countries.      It 
if  frequently  projects  from 
the  wall  of  the  building, 
and  is  formed  of  reticu- 
lated work,  often  highly 
ornamental,  portions  of 
which  are  hinged,  so  that 
they  may  be  opened  or 
shut  at  jileasure.     The 
object  of  the  contrivance  is  to  keep  the  apartments  cool 


Lattice  Window  iu  Cairo. 


LATZEMBOCK 


269 


LAUD 


by  intercepting  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  while,  at  the 
same  time,  the  air  is  permitted  to  circulate  freely  through 

the  trellis  openings.    Through  the  lat- 

JX    tice  the  mother  of  Sisera  and  the  mys- 

>Sr-:J^J   tical  bridegroom   are   represented   as 

O   looking.     Through  tliis  Ahaziah  fell 


Lattice-work  in 
C:uro. 


and  injured  himself;  for  there  is  no 
reason  to  adopt  an  old  idea  that  he 
fell  through  a  grating  in  the  floor. 
The  words  in  these  three  texts,  how- 
ever, are  different  each  time  in  the 
original,  though  it  is  now  impossible  to  determine 
whether  they  were  entirely  interchangeable,  or  whether 
there  were  certain  differences  of  construction  indicated 
by  each  of  them"  (Fairbairn).     See  House. 

Latzembock,  Henky  de,  a  native  of  Bohemia, 
lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  Uth  and  first  part  of  the 
loth  centuries.  He  was  a  friend  of  the  reformer  John 
Huss,  whom,  in  connection  with  two  other  friends,  he 
was  appointed  to  conduct  in  safety  to  the  Council  of 
Constance.  He  stood  very  high  in  the  favor  of  the  em- 
peror Sigismimd,  and  appealed  to  him  in  behalf  of  the 
reformer.  After  the  condemnation  and  burning  of  Huss 
lie  was  himself  suspected  of  heresy,  was  summoned  be- 
fore the  council,  and  required  to  abjure  the  doctrines  of 
his  friend  and  approve  of  his  condemnation.  With  this 
requisition  he  complied,  being  more  intent  on  his  own 
safety  and  advancement  at  court  than  anxious  for  reform. 
After  this  period  little  information  concerning  him  is 
attainable. — Gillett,  Life  and  Times  of  John  Huss,  i,  352- 
354,  38G ;  ii,  28,  2G0. 

Laud,  "William,  the  celebrated  archbishop  imder 
James  I  and  Charles  I,  was  born  at  Heading,  the  princi- 
pal town  of  Berkshire,  October  7,  1573,  of  humble  but 
respectable  parentage.  In  1589  he  entered  St.  John's 
College,  Oxford,  graduated  with  distinction  in  1594, 
and  proceeded  A.M.  in  1598,  when  he  was  appointed 
reader  in  grammar.  In  January,  ICOO,  he  was  ordained 
deacon,  and  priest  in  1601.  The  Calvinistic  and  Puri- 
tan tendency  was  strong  in  Oxford  at  that  time ;  but 
Laud's  immediate  instructors  and  friends  had  been  on 
the  other  side;  his  natural  instincts  inclined  him  to 
High-Church  views  and  high  ritualistic  observances; 
he  saw,  too,  that  the  court  was  on  that  side,  and  that  a 
powerful  reaction  against  the  Calvinistic  ascendency 
was  ahead)'  in  progress.  Abbot  (afterwards  jirimate) 
and  Prideaux  had  succeeded  Drs.  Holland  and  Eeynolds 
as  theological  professors  in  the  university ;  but  Laud, 
being  appointed  in  1G02  to  read  the  Maye  divinity  lec- 
ture in  St.  John's  College,  did  not  hesitate  to  attack  Ab- 
bot's doctrine  in  regard  to  the  visibility  of  the  Church. 
The  latter  had  traced  the  visible  Cluirch  do\vn,  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  through  the  Borengarians,  the  Albigenses 
or  Waldensians,  the  Wickliftites,  and  the  Hussites,  to 
Luther  and  the  Reformation  ;  Laud  traced  it  boldly  and 
exclusively  through  the  Church  of  Home.  They  did 
not  see  that  exclusiveness  was  the  error  of  both  parties. 
In  ICOo  James  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  England,  and, 
greatly  to  the  disappointment  and  disgust  of  the  Puri- 
tans, but  to  the  unbounded  satisfaction  of  Laud  and  his 
friends,  he  openly  took  sides  with  the  highest  hierar- 
chical party  in  the  English  Church,  early  adopting  as 
his  pet  motto,  "No  bishop,  no  king."  Then  followed 
the  "Millenary  petition'!  and  the  famous  conference  at 
Hampton  Court,  which  resulted  in  the  king's  proclama- 
tion of  "  imiformity  in  discipline  and  worship."  This 
year  Laud  was  chosen  proctor  for  the  University  of  Ox- 
ford, and  in  the  same  year  he  was  appointed  chaplain 
to  the  earl  of  Devonshire.  In  1604  he  took  his  degree 
of  B.D.,  and  in  the  thesis  which  he  presented  on  the 
occasion  he  maintained  the  absolute  necessity  of  bap- 
tism to  salvation,  and  of  diocesan  bishops  to  the  exist- 
ence of  a  true  Church.  In  tlie  fillowing  year  Laud 
committed  one  of  the  most  unfortunate,  though  oft-re- 
pented faults  of  his  life,  in  solemnizing  the  marriage  of 
hid  patron,  the  earl  of  Devonshire,  with  lady  Kich,  who, 


as  he  and  all  the  world  knew,  had  been  divorced  from 
her  former  husband,  lord  Kich,  on  account  of  adultery 
alreaily  committed  with  the  same  earl  of  Devonshire 
himself,  of  whom  Laud  was  meaaiwhUe  the  chaplain. 
The  consequence  of  tliis  affair  was  that  the  earl  was 
utterly  disgraced  at  court,  and  soon  after  died,  while 
Laud,  sharing  in  the  public  odium,  was  severely  cen- 
sured by  the  highest  dignitaries  both  in  Church  and 
state. 

In  1606  Laud  preached  a  sermon  before  the  univer- 
sity for  which  he  was  vehemently  attacked  by  the  vice- 
chancellor  as  a  papist ;  and  though  he  contrived  to  es- 
cape formal  censure  from  the  authorities,  he  acknowl- 
edged afterwards  to  Ileylin  that  such  was  the  repute  in 
which  he  was  generally  held  at  the  university  that  "  it 
was  reckoned  a  heresy  to  speak  to  him,  and  a  suspicion 
of  heresy  to  salute  him  as  he  walked  the  street."  Still, 
Laud  was  not  without  powerful  friends,  who  sympa- 
thized with  him  and  his  opinions,  and  especially  active 
among  them  was  Dr.  Neile,  then  bishop  of  Rochester. 
In  1607  he  ivas  preferred  to  the  vicarage  of  Stamford, 
received  the  advowson  of  North  Kilworth,  and  took  his 
degree  of  D.D.  In  1608  he  was  appointed  chaplain  of 
bishop  Neile,  exchanged  North  Kilworth  for  'West  Til- 
bury, and  preached  his  first  sermon  before  king  James 
at  Theobald's.  The  next  year  he  was  presented  to  the 
living  of  Cuckstone,  whereupon  he  resigned  his  fellow- 
ship in  St.  John's  and  resided  on  his  benefice.  The  cli- 
mate of  Cuckstone  not  agreeing  with  his  health,  he  soon 
exchanged  this  benefice  for  that  of  Norton.  In  the 
mean  time  Neile,  having  been  translated  to  the  see  of 
Lichfield,  recommended  Laud  so  powerfully  to  the  king 
that  he  obtained  for  him  a  prebend's  stall  in  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Westminster,  the  deanery  of  which  Neile,  as 
bishop  of  Rochester,  had  held  in  commendam.  In  1611, 
after  a  violently  contested  canvass.  Laud  was  elected 
president  of  St.  John's  College,  owing  his  success  chiefly 
to  the  strenuous  efforts  of  bishop  Neile  and  of  Dr.  Buck- 
eridge.  At  the  same  time  he  became  one  of  king 
James's  chaplains,  while,  to  his  great  chagrin.  Abbot, 
upon  the  death  of  archbishop  Bancroft,  was  raised  to  the 
primacy.  Abbot  is  charged  by  Laud's  friends  as  hav- 
ing been  the  inveterate  enemy  of  the  latter,  and  the 
great  retarder  of  his  ecclesiastical  promotion.  Of  the 
"enmity,"  it  may  be  said  once  for  all  that  there  seems 
to  be  no  evidence  beyond  the  constant  repetition  of  the 
charge.  The  simple  truth  of  the  case  seems  to  be  that 
Laud  became  the  "  inveterate  enemy"  of  Abbot  because 
the  latter,  when  he  had  the  power,  refused  to  promote 
him,  and  conscientiously  discouraged  the  advancement 
of  a  man  in  whom  he  had  no  confidence.  Bishop  Neile 
now  bestowed  ujion  Laud  the  prebendary  of  Bugden, 
and  in  1615  the  archdeaconry  of  Huntingdon.  In  1616 
James  himself  bestowed  upon  him  the  deanery  of  Glou- 
cester, and  he  thus  obtained  the  prospect  of  reaching 
the  higher  prizes  he  had  in  view.  A  second  time  he 
got  into  hot  water  by  a  sermon  preached  before  the  uni- 
versity. For  this  he  was  taken  to  task  by  Dr.  Robert 
Abbot,  then  vice-chancellor,  and  brother  of  the  arcli- 
bisliop.  Abbot  now,  like  bishop  Hall  before,  charged 
him  with  tr^-ing  to  keep  on  both  sides  at  once.  In  his 
deanery  of  (iloucester  he  proceeded  to  "reform  and  set 
in  order"  according  to  his  own  ecclesiastical  notions,  or- 
dering the  communion-table  to  the  east  end  of  the  choir, 
to  stand  as  the  "  altar"  formerly  stood,  and  enjoining  a 
becoming  reverence,  i.  e.,  due  bowings  and  genuflexions, 
upon  the  clergy  and  officers  on  entering  the  church  or 
chancel,  and  proceeding  withal  in  a  most  high-handed 
manner.  Returning  to  court.  Laud  procured  directions 
for  the  "better  government"  of  the  university,  which 
contained  the  first  official  disapprobation  of  the  tenets 
of  the  Calvinists,  and  which,  being  evidently  levelled 
against  the  Puritans,  are  conceded  by  one  of  Laud's 
most  ardent  eulogists  (Lawson)  to  have  been  "not  alto- 
gether justifial)le,"  inasmuch  as  they  deprived  the  uni- 
versity of  its  independence,  and  subjected  it  completely 
to  the  control  of  the  king.     "  But,"  he  adds,  with  char- 


LAITD 


270 


LAUD 


acteristlc  fallacy  and  oiic-sidcdncss,  "  the  state  of  the 
times  rendered  such  instructions  necessarj- ;  and  the  con- 
sternation of  the  Puritan  faction,  when  they  were  made 
known  at  Oxford,  is  a  proof  of  the  wisdom  of  the  monarch 
and  his  advisers  in  thus  placing  a  timely  restraint  on 
tlic  progress  of  sectarian  partisanship  and  enthusiasm." 
James  liad  already  (1(510-12 )  re-established  episcopacy 
in  Scotland,  and  with  a  special  view  to  effect  a  more  per- 
fect uniformity  in  the  two  churches,  he  set  out  in  1G17 
to  visit  his  northern  kingdom  for  the  first  time  since  his 
accession  to  the  English  throne,  and  ordered  Laud  to  ac- 
company him.  The  king's  favorite  object  was  to  sub- 
stitute in  the  Scottish  Church  the  Episcopal  liturgy  in- 
stead of  the  Presbyterian  form  of  worship;  and,  though 
the  Presbyterians  prayed  that  they  might  be  preserved 
from  the  same,  Laud  and  some  of  the  royal  chaplains 
encouraged  James  to  persist  in  regarding  the  mass  of  the 
nation  as  a  set  of  "factious  enthusiasts,"  and  to  obsti- 
nately adhere  to  his  purpose  of  imposing  upon  these 
people  his  own  form  of  religion  in  the  name  of  "  the 
Church."  James  and  Laud,  with  a  little  knot  of  arch- 
bishops and  bishops  who  had  been  consecrated  to  their 
office,  not  in  Scotland,  but  at  Westminster,  were  "  the 
Church,"  and  the  Scottish  nation  was  "  the  faction" — a 
mistake  big  with  sad  and  fearful  consequences.  James 
now  propounded  the  famous  Five  Articles,  which  he 
subjected  first  to  the  assembly  called  together  at  St. 
Andrew's,  and  later  to  the  assembly  at  Perth,  where, 
through  the  indefatigable  exertions  of  the  bishops,  and 
the  shrewd  and  cunning  management  of  the  king,  the 
Five  Articles  were  confirmed.  These  articles  were  rig- 
idly enforced,  but  without  the  desired  effect.  The  Scot- 
tish "  rabble"  were  too  "  factious"  to  submit  to  a  religion 
manufactured  for  them  and  forcibly  imposed  upon  them 
by  others.  It  was  left  for  James's  successor  to  continue 
his  father's  design,  but  with  still  worse  success ;  and  it 
was  reserved  for  Laud  to  take  a  more  dominant  part  in 
the  business,  and  from  a  higher  position,  at  a  subsequent 
period.  On  his  return  through  Lincolnshire  he  was  in- 
ducted into  the  rectory  of  Ibstock,  which  he  had  taken 
in  exchange  for  Norton ;  and,  arriving  at  Oxford,  ho 
learned  with  pleasure  that  his  exertions  had  effectually 
restrained  the  "Puritan  enthusiasm"  at  Gloucester. 

In  1G20  Laud  -was  at  length  raised  to  the  episcopate, 
being  made  bishop  of  St.  David's,  in  spite  of  the  strenu- 
ous opposition  of  archbishop  Abbot,  as  his  friends  assert, 
and  tlirough  the  earnest  solicitations  of  the  duke  of 
Buckingham  and  of  the  lord -keeper  Williams,  then 
bishop  of  Lincoln,  as  is  commonly  alleged.  Before  his 
consecration  as  bishop,  Laud,  much  to  his  credit,  re- 
signed the  presidency  of  St,  John's  College,  because, 
though  such  things  were  often  winked  at,  he  could 
not  hold  it  without  a  violation  of  the  statute.  In  his 
])rimary  visitation  of  his  diocese,  he  set  things  "  in  or- 
der" according  to  his  peculiar  views  of  what  constituted 
the  essentials  of  "  the  Church's"  religion.  lie  also  built 
a  chapel  for  himself,  which  he  proceeded  to  fit  up  to  his 
own  taste  as  a  model,  and  consecrated  it  with  sundry 
extraordinary  ceremonies. 

In  1(522  Laud"s  dispute  with  the  Jesuit  Fisher  took 
place,  which  was,  perhaps,  the  most  creditable  perform- 
ance of  liis  life,  evincing  extensive  learning  and  no 
mean  ability.  Yet,  dealing  with  the  controversy  from 
the  high  Anglican  point  of  view,  it  fails  to  cover  the 
whole  Protestant  position,  and  is  now  almost  forgotten, 
biiiig  a  document  of  much  less  breadth  and  historical 
interest  tlian  some  still  older  defences  of  the  English 
Cliurch,  as,  for  example,  Jewell's  .!;«;%//. 

About  this  time  Laud  Ijecame  chaplain  to  the  duke 
of  Buckingham,  and  between  them  there  grew  up  an  in- 
timate and  lasting  friendship.  While  Buckingham  was 
absent  with  prince  Charles  in  Spain,  Laud  was  in  coftc- 
spondence  with  him,  and  seems  to^have  l)een  charged 
with  the  care  of  bis  interests  at  court  during  his  ab- 
sence; for,  observing  or  suspecting  some  movements  of 
tliu  lord-keeper  Williams  towards  uuik'nnining  the  duke 
in  the  royal  favor,  he  immediately. informed  his  patron 


in  Spain  of  the  apprehended  danger,  who  accordingly 
hastened  home  to  protect  himself.  Hence  arose  a  de- 
termined hostility  of  the  duke  towards  Williams,  and 
Williams  accused  Laud  of  ingratitude,  while  Laud,  on 
the  other  hand,  charged  him  with  duplicity  and  selfish- 
ness. Evidently  the  duke's  patronage  was  judged  of 
more  value  than  the  bishop's,  and  the  breacii  ripened 
into  a  rooted  enmity  between  the  two  churchmen. 
Laud  chose  to  consider  himself  insidted  by  Abbot  and 
Williams  because  his  name  was  not  inserted  in  the 
High  Commission.  He  complained  to  Buckingham,  who 
forthwith  procured  his  nomination.  In  1G2-4  James  died, 
and  Laud  lamented  him  with  demonstrations  of  the  ut- 
most sorrow.  On  the  first  day  of  March,  the  year  aft^r 
the  death  of  James,  Laud  received  his  appointment  to 
preach  before  Charles  at  Westminster  at  the  opening  of 
the  first  Parliament;  and  the  king,  upon  the  advice  of 
bishops  Laud  and  Andrews,  prohibited,  in  the  Convoca- 
tion which  met  at  the  same  time  with  Parliament,  the 
discussion  of  the  five  predestinarian  articles  of  the  Synod 
of  Dort,  "on  account  of  the  number  of  Calvinists  ad- 
mitted under  Abbot's  auspices  into  the  Lower  House." 
On  the  Sunday  after  the  marriage  of  Charles  and  Hen- 
rietta Maria,  Lautl  again  preached  before  the  king  and 
the  House  of  Lords.  The  king  had  summoned  this  Par- 
liament to  procure  supplies  for  the  prosecution  of  his 
wars;  but  they  chose  to  look  after  the  righting  of  their 
own  grievances  before  attending  to  the  king's  wants,  and 
proceeded  to  cite  and  condemn  a  certain  Mr.  Jlontague 
for  preaching  wliat  they  judged  heretical  and  unconsti- 
tutional doctrine.  Laud  immediately  flew  to  Jlonta- 
gue's  protection,  and,  at  his  remonstrance,  the  king  re- 
voked the  proceedings  of  Parliament,  and  prorogued 
them  to  Oxford.  Parliament  was  no  more  pliant  at 
Oxford  than  it  had  been  at  Westminster,  and  in  a  pet 
Charles  suddenly  dissolved  it. 

]\Ieanwhile  Laud  Avas  continually  rising  in  the  king's 
esteem  and  confidence,  while  Williams  was  removed 
from  his  office  of  lord-keeper  and  banished  the  court. 
Laud  was  indefatigable  in  his  labors  in  preaching  and 
purging  the  Church,  refusing  to  ordain  any  whom  he 
found  to  be  unqualified  for  the  sacred  office,  according 
to  his  view  of  the  proper  qualifications.  He  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  king  to  supply  the  place  of  the  now  dis- 
graced Williams,  the  dean  of  Westminster,  at  the  cere- 
mony of  the  coronation.  He  here  had  ofhcial  charge 
of  the  regalia,  and  is  accused  of  having  placed  a  crucifix 
upon  the  "altar,"  and  tampered  with  the  coronation 
oath ;  but  of  this  accusation  not  much  was  ever  made. 
By  the  king's  appointment  Laud  again  preached  the 
sermon  at  the  opening  of  Parliament,  which  assembled 
immediately  after  the  coronation.  This  Parliament  like- 
wise proceeded  at  once  to  aiijioint  a  committee  on  re- 
ligion. They  also  impeached  the  duke  of  Buckingham, 
and  refused  to  do  any  other  business  until  his  case  v;as 
disposed  of.  The  king,  finding  them  resolved  on  the 
ruin  of  his  minister — and  it  is  to  be  observed  it  was  the 
House  of  Lords  and  not  the  House  of  Commons  before 
which  he  was  to  be  tried — to  save  his  favorite,  was  com- 
pelled to  dissolve  his  second  Parliament.  Uncjuestion- 
ably  Laud  was  deeply  and  anxiously  interested  in  the 
cause  of  his  |iatron,  and  ho  is  charged,  on  some  show  of 
evidence,  with  having  written  the  speech  of  Bucking- 
ham in  his  own  defence,  and  the  speech  of  the  king  in 
Buckingham's  behalf. 

In  1(526  Laud  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Bath  and 
Wells  —  a  richer  bishopric  than  that  of  St.  David's. 
Both  of  Charles's  Parliaments  had  refused  to  vote 
the  subsidies  to  supply  his  [)ecuniary  wants,  and  he  re- 
solved to  collect  tlie  money  without  parliamentary 
authority.  With  this  view  he  resorted  to  the  expedi- 
ent of  "tuning  the  pulpits,"  and  Laud  was  his  instru- 
ment for  this  purpose.  He  was  instructed  to  prepare 
letters  to  be  issued  to  the  two  archbishops  and  their  suf- 
fragans, through  them  to  the  inferior  clergy,  and  by 
them  to  tlie  people,  persuading  them  to  pay  cheerfully 
the  taxations  necessarily  imposed  on  them.     "  The  in- 


LAUD 


2V1 


LAUD 


structions,"  as  Laud  informs  us,  "were  partly  political 
and  partly  ecclesiastical,"  and  were  to  be  published  in 
every  parish  in  the  kingdom.  Laud  engaged  in  the 
duty  witli  his  wonted  alacrity,  and  almost  immediately 
upon  receiving  the  royal  commands  he  had  the  instruc- 
tions prepared.  His  apologists  admit  that  it  is  a  difK- 
cult  matter  to  justify  these  instructions,  "because  they 
afford  a  dangerous  precedent,  whicli,  were  it  followed, 
woidd  be  attended  with  the  worst  consequences ;"  it  was 
no  less  than  undertaking  to  tax  the  people  without  the 
consent  of  their  representatives.  By  Laud's  prompt  and 
efficient  management  of  this  affair  he  was  still  further 
advanced  in  the  king's  good  opinion,  and  was  rewarded 
with  the  ajipointment  of  dean  of  the  chapel  royal,  and 
the  promise  of  the  primacy  in  the  eyeut  of  Abbot's  de- 
cea.se.  In  enforcing  Laud's  "  instructions,"  doctors  Sib- 
tliorpe  and  !Manwaring  preached  sermons  in  which  they 
maintained  the  extreme  doctrines  of  passive  obedience, 
and  \vhieh,  after  Laud's  revision,  were  published.  Ab- 
bot, too,  had  refused  to  license  Sibthorpe's  sermon,  for 
which  factious  procediure  a  commission  of  sequestration 
was  issued  against  him,  and  the  administration  of  his 
metropolitan  functions  was  put  into  the  hands  of  Laud, 
in  conjunction  with  four  other  bishops.  In  the  same 
year  Laud  was  made  a  privy  counsellor,  and,  by  the  re- 
distribution of  sundry  bishops  and  bishoprics,  arrange- 
ments were  initiated  to  make  a  vacancy  in  the  see  of 
London,  that  Laud  might  at  once  be  translated  to  that 
rich  and  pmverfid  bishopric.  Meanwhile  Charles  had 
been  compelled  by  his  necessities  to  call  a  third  Parlia- 
ment, although  it  was  well  miderstood  that  Laud  as  well 
as  Buckingham  would  be  thereby  endangered.  But,  to 
propitiate  the  popular  feeling,  several  commissions  were 
made,  and,  among  other  things.  Abbot  was  restored  to  his 
functions,  and  received  at  court.  Again  Laud  preached 
the  opening  sermon,  and  the  king  concluded  his  speech 
by  exhorting  I'arliament  to  follow  the  good  advice 
which  Laud  had  given  them.  But  the  Commons  de- 
termined to  proceed  to  business  in  their  own  way. 
They  first  drew  up  and  passed  the  famous  Petition  of 
Eight.  They  then  presented  a  remonstrance  of  griev- 
ances against  the  duke  of  Buckingham,  not  omitting 
to  mention  Laud  in  their  indictment.  They  cited  Dr. 
Manwaring  to  their  bar,  ordered  him  to  be  severe- 
ly punislied,  and  his  sermons  to  be  burnt.  The  king 
prorogued  Parliament,  ignored  the  complaints  against 
Buckingham  and  Laud,  remitted  Manwaring's  fine,  and, 
successively  giving  him  various  livings,  at  length  pro- 
moted him  to  the  deanery  of  Worcester,  and  then  to  the 
bishopric  of  St.  David's,  made  Sibthorpe  prebendary  of 
I'eterborough,  and  translated  Laud  to  the  see  of  London, 
July  15,  1G29.  On  the  death  of  Buckingham,  which 
took  place  before  the  next  meeting  of  Parliament,  the 
king  was  pleased  to  assure  Laud  that  he  intended  to  in- 
trust him  with  his  confidence  in  Buckingham's  room. 
At  the  examination  of  Felton,  the  assassin  of  Bucking- 
ham, before  the  privy  council,  the  man  .admitted  the 
deed,  l)ut  denied  tlie  privity  of  auj'  other  parties.  Laud, 
in  his  eagerness  to  improve  this  presumed  opportunity 
for  reaching  and  crushing  his  enemies,  threatened  him 
with  the  rack  if  he  would  not  disclose  his  accomplices. 
But,  upon  the  judges  being  asked  whether  Felton  could 
be  lawfully  put  to  the  rack,  tliey  returned  for  answer 
that  by  the  laws  of  England  he  could  not.  It  was  in 
this  interval,  too,  that  Laud,  "in  order  to  put  a  stop  to 
the  disturbances  whicli  arose  from  the  preaching  of  the 
abstruse  and  mystical  doctrines  of  predestination,"  as 
his  friends  aver,  "procured  a  royal  declaration  to  be  pre- 
fixed to  the  Articles,"  prohibiting  such  preaching.  Sir 
Tliomas  Wentworth,  afterwards  earl  of  Strafford,  was 
gained  over  from  the  popular  party  to  the  king's  side 
by  largesses  of  royal  favor,  and  lie  and  Laud  immedi- 
ately commenced  a  friendship  which  ever  after  remain- 
ed inviolate. 

\^'hcn  at  length  Parliament  again  assembled,  the 
Commons  opened  with  a  remonstrance  upon  the  alleged 
infractions  of  the  Petition  of  Eight,  and  then  turned 


their  attention  to  their  religious  grievances.  Excited 
to  great  exasperation  by  the  king's  declaration  which 
Laud  had  procured,  they  passed  a  solemn  vote  against 
it,  claiming,  protesting,  and  vowing  that  the  current 
and  general  exposition  of  the  articles, "  which  had  been 
established  by  act  of  Parliament,"  had  ever  been  the 
same  as  their  own.  In  the  debate,  Sir  John  Eliot  de- 
nounced some  of  the  bishops  as  neither  "orthodox  nor 
sound  in  religion.  Witness,"  said  he, "  the  two  bishops, 
Laud  and  Neile,  who  were  complained  of  at  the  last 
meeting  of  Parliament.  I  apprehend  much  fear  that, 
should  we  be  in  their  power,  we  may  be  in  danger  to 
have  our  religion  overthrown.  Some  of  them  are  mas- 
ters of  ceremonies,  and  they  labor  to  introduce  new  cer- 
emonies into  the  Church."  The  House  resumed  the 
cases  of  Montague,  Manwaring,  and  Sibthorpe,  to  all  of 
whom  the  king  had  granted  pardons  and  preferments. 
Laud  and  NeUe  were  the  grand  objects  of  attack,  being 
accused  of  having  procured  these  pardons.  "  In  Laud 
and  Neile,''  declared  Sir  John  Eliot,  "  is  centred  all  the 
danger  we  fear,"  and  he  proposed  to  petition  the  king  to 
leave  those  bishops  to  "  the  justice  of  the  House."  Oli- 
ver Cromwell,  too,  distinguished  himself  in  this  dis- 
cussion ;  the  preferment  of  IManwaring  especially  "  ex- 
cited his  wrath."  "If  these  be  the  steps  to  Church 
preferment,''  cried  the  future  Protector,  "  what  may  we 
expect'?"  At  length  the  king,  exasperated,  endeavored 
to  adjourn  the  House  by  royal  command.  This  led  to 
a  scene  of  great  excitement  and  confusion,  and  finally 
the  third  Parliament  of  Charles's  reign  was  abruptly  dis- 
solved. Parliaments  were  now  to  be  abolished,  and 
Laud  was  prime  minister.  He  must  be  held  to  all  the 
responsibility  attaching  to  such  a  position  at  such  a 
time.  He  presided  especially  over  the  affairs  of  Eng- 
land, the  duke  of  Hamilton  over  those  of  Scotland,  and 
Wentworth  over  those  of  Ireland.  In  his  ecclesiastical 
administration.  Laud's  friends  commonly  claim  for  him 
the  character  of  toleration  and  liberality,  in  the  face  of 
the  fact  that,  having  advised  with  Harsnet,  archbishop 
of  York,  he  drew  up  certain  articles  which,  under  the 
royal  authority,  were  immediately  dispatched  to  arch- 
bishop Abbot,  rec|uiring  liim  and  his  suflFragans  (in 
brief)  to  suppress  the  preaching  of  the  Puritans,  to  note 
all  absentees  from  the  prescribed  public  prayers,  and  to 
render  an  account  in  the  premises  on  the  2d  of  January 
every  year. 

Early  in  1630  Laud  was  chosen  chancellor  of  the  Uni- 
versity' of  Oxford.  In  the  same  year  he  also  enjoyed  the 
honor  of  officiating  at  the  baptism  of  the  infant  prince,  af- 
terwards Charles  II,  although  this  distinction  belonged 
b}'  usage  to  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Laud  was 
now  in  the  full  tide  of  prosperity,  and  nothing  could 
stand  in  his  way.  Did  the  Puritans  undertake  to  buy 
up  the  impropriations  of  Church  livings,  that  they 
might  have  the  disposal  of  them  for  their  lecturers, 
Laud  had  them  punished  for  their  impertinence,  and 
their  purchases  confiscated  to  the  king.  Did  they  pre- 
sume to  preach  or  publish  their  peculiar  tenets  at  Ox- 
ford or  in  Ireland,  Laud  had  them  expelled  or  silenced. 
^V'ere  any  bishoprics  or  deaneries  vacant.  Laud  saw 
that  they  were  filled  with  the  right  sort  of  churchmen. 
He  enlarged  St.  John's  College  with  a  new  quadrangle. 
He  repaired  St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  He  took  cognizance 
of  the  chapels  and  chaplains  of  English  congregations 
abroad,  and  of  the  congregations  or  churches  tjf  foreign- 
ers in  England,  and  reduced  them  all  to  conformity,  or 
placed  the  members  of  the  latter  under  the  strictest  sur- 
veillance, taking  away  the  children,  and  burdening  the 
parents  with  all  the  disadvantages  of  alienage.  He 
urged  the  Scottish  bishops,  if  they  made  any  change  in 
their  liturgy,  to  adopt  that  of  the  Church  of  England 
without  any  variation  ;  and  the  new  liturgy  which  was 
drawn  up  by  those  bishops  was  submitted  to  his  final 
revision.  On  the  king's  visit  to  Scotland,  Laud  attend- 
ed him,  was  made  a  member  of  the  Scotch  Privy  Coun- 
cil, and  ]ireached  before  the  king,  in  the  chapel  royal  in 
Holyrood  House,  on  "  the  utility  of  conformity." 


LAUD 


LAUD 


At  length,  on  the  4th  of  August,  IGo.j,  archbishop  Ab- 
bot dicil;  on  the  Otli  Laud  was  promoted  by  the  king  to 
the  jiriraacy,  and  on  the  19th  of  September  was  ibrmally 
translated  to  this,  the  long-desired  goal  of  his  ambition. 
At  the  same  time  he  was  offered  a  cardinal's  hat  by  cer- 
tain emissaries  of  the  pope,  which,  without  betraying 
either  astonishment,  or  indignation,  or  disturbance  of 
any  kind,  he  respectfully  declined  '•  till  IJome  should  be 
otherwise  than  it  then  was;"  and  before  his  enthrone- 
ment he  was  elected  chancellor  of  the  University  of 
Dublin. 

In  his  metropolitan  chair  his  first  act  was  to  issue 
more  stringent  rules  for  candidates  for  ordination,  so 
as  more  effectually  to  shut  out  Puritan  preachers  and 
lecturers.  The  next  was  to  revive  and  extend  the 
king's  declaration  concerning  lawful  sports  on  Sundays. 
The  archbishop  now  proceeded  upon  his  metropolitan 
visitations,  and  he  made  thorough  work  of  it ;  for  all 
Puritanism  he  was  a  perfect  "root  and  branch"  man. 
But  one  great  business  and  burden  with  him  was  to  see 
that  the  communion-tables  Avere  placed  altar-wise,  rail- 
ed in,  and  approached  always  with  the  prescribed  bows 
and  obeisances,  it  being  assumed  that  thus,  and  thus  only, 
could  true  devotion  and  godly  reverence  be  preserved  in 
the  Church.  His  old  patron,  bishop  Williams,  he  sus- 
pended for  contumacy.  He  busied  himself  earnestly  in 
improving  the  revenues  of  the  poor  clergy  of  London 
and  the  poorer  clergy  of  Ireland.  He  procured  a  new 
charter  and  statutes  for  the  University  of  Dublin,  and 
the  adoption  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  instead  of  those 
of  Lambeth,  by  the  Irish  Church.  Indeed,  through  his 
intimacy  with  Wentworth,  the  lord  deputy,  and  his 
chancellorship  of  the  Dublin  Universit}',  he  seems,  as 
prime  minister  and  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  to  have 
had  mucli  more  control  of  the  affairs  of  the  Irish  Church 
than  her  own  primate,  Usher,  or  any  or  all  of  her  bish- 
ops and  archbishops.  Civil  appointments,  also,  were  ac- 
cumulated upon  Laud.  He  was  not  only  prime  minister, 
privy  counsellor  in  England  and  in  Scotland,  member  of 
the  courts  of  Star  Chamber  and  High  Commission,  but  he 
was  also  appointed  a  member  of  the  committee  of  trade, 
aiid  a  commissioner  of  the  Treasury,  and  placed  on  the 
foreign  committee.  He  procured  the  new  Caroline  Char- 
ter for  Oxford,  and  continued  his  munificent  gifts.  He 
took  especial  care  of  the  restoration  of  the  cathedrals 
and  of  the  Cathedral  service,  with  all  the  old  accustom- 
ed appointments  and  ceremonies. 

Laud,  like  Wolsey  when  in  favor  with  Henry  Till,  had 
reached  the  highest  pinnacle  of  his  greatness.  All  honor, 
power,  and  splendor  seemed  to  converge  towards  him. 
All  around  was  buoyant  with  success  and  glowing  with 
promise.  It  was  Laud  here,  it  was  Laud  there,  it  was  Laud 
everywhere.  He  had  three  kingdoms  well  in  hand. 
Church  and  State  lay  submissive  at  his  feet.  But  the 
scene  was  soon  to  change.  He  was  disporting  himself 
upon  the  bosom  of  a  volcano,  whose  vent-holes  he  was 
lioi)ing  to  keep  stopped  up  with  his  puny  engineering. 
The  quakings  and  rumblings  of  the  approaching  eruption 
were  already  increasing.  In  the  year  1(137, ''some  fac- 
tious and  refractory  men  had  determined  to  establish 
tlieir  enthusiasm  on  the  shores  of  America,  amid  tlie 
fcjrcsts  of  New  England."  These  disorderly  emigra- 
tions without  a  royal  license  it  was  thought  expedient 
to  restrain,  "because  of  the  manj'idle  and  obstinate  hu- 
mors whose  only  or  principal  end  was  to  live  without 
the  reach  of  authority."  Eight  ships  in  the  Thames 
were  stopped  by  an  order  of  Council,  and  no  clergyman 
was  allowed  to  leave  the  country  without  the  approba- 
tion of  tlie  archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  the  bishop 
of  London.  Among  those  intended  emigrants  Oliver 
Cromwell  is  said  to  have  been  thus  stopped.  The  sj^mp- 
toms  of  dissatisfaction  and  uneasiness  were  drawing  to- 
wards a  crisis,  and  some  prosecutions  of  this  same  year 
accelerated  the  national  calamities.  The  first  case  was 
the  trial  of  Prynne,  Bastwick,  and  Burton  in  the  Star 
Chamber.  J'rynne  was  a  graduate  of  Oxford,  and  a 
barrister  of  Lincoln's  Inn :  Bastwick  left  Cambridge  be- 


fore taking  his  degree,  and,  having  travelled  nine  years 
on  the  Continent,  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  at  Padua; 
Burton  was  A.]\I.  and  B.D.  at  Oxford,  and  had  been  clerk 
of  the  closet  to  the  Prince  of  Wales,  and  rector  of  St. 
Matthew's,  Friday  Street,  London.  Prynne,  for  his  Ilis- 
trio-Mustyx,  had  already  been  condemned  to  pay  a  fine 
of  £5000,  to  be  expelled  from  Oxford  and  from  Lincoln's 
Inn,  to  stand  in  the  pUlorj'  at  Westminster  and  at  Cheap- 
side,  and  at  each  place  to  have  an  ear  cut  off,  to  have 
his  book  burnt  before  his  face,  and  to  remain  a  prisoner 
for  life.  In  the  execution  of  the  sentence  it  is  said  that 
Prynne  had  nearly  been  suffocated  Avith  the  smoke  of 
his  book.  From  prison,  however,  the  irrepressible  Prynne, 
as  soon  as  he  could  procure  writing  materials,  continued 
audaciously,  and  with  amazing  industr}',  to  send  forth 
his  pamphlets  against  his  persecutors;  and  now  the 
doctor  Bastwick  and  the  rector  Burton  had  joined  the 
lawyer  in  the  fray.  These  pamphlets  were  no  doubt  in- 
temperate and  extravagant,  coarse  and  violent  in  their 
language;  they  were  naturally  branded  as  scurrilous 
and  seditious  by  the  other  side.  But  it  is  to  be  remem- 
bered their  authors  were  persecuted  fanatics ;  and  it  is  a 
better  excuse  for  them  to  say  that  the  controversial  lan- 
guage of  the  age  was  coarse,  than  it  is  for  their  enemies 
to  say  that  the  punishments  of  the  age  were  barbarous. 
The  use  of  epithets  is  largely  a  matter  of  taste  and  fash- 
ion ;  but  humanit}'  itself,  wherever  it  exists,  is  shocked 
at  the  sight  of  torture,  and  cruelty,  and  blood.  All 
three  of  the  accused  were  condemned ;  Prynne  to  pay  a 
fine  of  £5000,  to  lose  the  remainder  of  liis  ears  in  the 
pillory,  to  be  branded  on  both  cheeks  with  the  initials 
of  slanderous  libeler,  and  to  be  immured  for  life  in  Caer- 
narvon Castle.  Bastwick  and  Burton  were  to  paj^  the 
same  fine,  were  to  lose  their  cars  in  the  pillory,  and  to 
be  imprisoned  for  life  in  separate  castles.  On  tliis  occa- 
sion. Laud,  who  was  a  member  of  the  court,  made  a  long 
speech.  As  he  had  everything  under  his  own  control, 
he  had  no  temptation  to  use  violent  language.  He  as- 
sumed an  air  of  studied  coolness  and  dignity.  Having 
descanted  upon  the  merits  of  his  own  immaculate  ad- 
ministration in  Church  and  State,  and  set  forth  in  strong 
colors  the  dangerous  and  abominable  character  of  fac- 
tious and  seditious  libeling,  he  added,"  But  because  the 
business  hath  some  reflection  upon  myself ,  I  shall  forbear 
to  censui-e  them,  and  leave  them  to  God's  mercy  and  the 
king's  justice."  That  is  to  say,  having  fully  given  his 
views,  he  would  not  cast  his  formal  vote  in  the  case,  but, 
knowing  full  well  what  the  decision,  yea,  the  "  unani- 
mous" decision  of  the  judges  would  be,  he  concludes  his 
speech  thus .  "  I  give  all  your  lordships  hearty  thanks 
for  j'our  noble  patience,  and  your  just  and  honorable 
sentence  upon  these  men,  and  your  unanimous  dislike 
of  them  and  defence  of  the  Church."  Who  can  doubt 
that  Prynne  was  riglit  in  afterwards  declaring  that  Laud 
was  "  the  cause  and  contriver  of  the  sentence  before  it 
was  given,  and  that  he  a]iproved  and  thanked  the  lords 
for  it  when  it  was  given  T  The  three  victims  under- 
went their  "  punishment''  (as  Laud's  friends  delight  to 
call  it)  with  tlie  most  astonishing  heroism.  Such  "pun- 
ishment" of  such  men,  however  ignominious  or  degrad- 
ing it  was  meant  to  be,  coidd  never  elevate  the  dignity 
or  strengthen  the  position  of  the  party  that  inflicted  it. 
The  sufferers  were  no  doubt  supported  by  the  sympa- 
thies of  an  immense  mass  of  the  people,  as  well  as  by 
their  own  courage  or  obstinacy,  their  religious  principle 
or  fanaticism.  No  wonder  that  libels  against  the  arch- 
bishop were  niultijilitMl  and  intensified,  and  that  his  vic- 
tims were  honored  with  aliundant  and  galling  demonstra- 
tions of  popular  favor.  It  was  found  necessary,  in  order 
to  remove  them  out  of  the  reach  of  tlieir  friends,  to 
transfer  them  from  the  prisons  to  which  they  had  been 
condemned  to  other  castles  in  the  Channel  Islands. 

Having  now  seen  the  leaders  of  the  "malignant  fac- 
tion" visited  with  condign  "  iiunislimcnt"  and  put  out  of 
the  way.  Laud  had  the  pleasure  of  having  his  early  pa- 
tron, bishop  Williams — against  whom  ho  seems  to  liavc 
nursed  a  rancorous  grudge,  as  though  fearing-  that  one 


LAUD 


2V3 


LAUD 


day  he  might  be  a  dangerous  rival — arraigned  before 
him  in  the  Star  Chamber,  at  first  on  the  old  charge  of 
revealing  the  king's  secrets,  and  afterwards  in  that  of 
suborning  a  witness ;  and,  having  again  delivered  him- 
self of  a  long  and  dignified  speech,  magnifying  the  enor- 
mity of  the  crime  of  subornation  of  perjurj',  especially  in 
a  clergyman  and  a  bishop,  and  at  the  same  time  protest- 
ing his  personal  friendliness,  he  graciously  and  humbly 
leaves  the  accused  to  the  tender  mercies  of  a  court  thus 
"  tuned,"  who  sentenced  him  to  pay  a  fine  of  £10,000,  to 
be  imprisoned  during  the  king's  pleasure,  and  to  be  sus- 
pended from  all  his  offices,  preferments,  and  functions. 
Upon  Laud's  recommendation,  a  decree  was  passed  by 
the  Star  Chamber  in  1637  for  restraining  the  freedom 
of  the  press.  The  provisions  of  the  edict  were  sufii- 
ciently  severe.  It  limited  the  number  of  master  print- 
ers under  penalty  of  whipping;  it  forbade  the  printing 
of  books  -svithout  a  license  from  the  archbishop  or  the 
bishop  of  London,  or  their  chaplains,  or  from  the  chan- 
cellors or  vice-chancellors  of  the  universities.  It  pro- 
hibited the  sale  of  imported  books  without  a  similar  li- 
cense; it  authorized  the  Company  of  Stationers  to  seize 
on  all  such  books  as  they  found  to  be  schismatical  or  of- 
fensive, and  to  lay  them  before  the  ecclesiastical  authori- 
ties; it  enacted  that  no  one  in  England  should  cause  to 
be  printed  any  books  in  English  beyond  tlie  seas,  or  to 
import  them  into  the  country;  and  finally  it  provided 
that  offences  against  the  decree  should  be  punished  by 
the  court  of  Star  Chamber  or  Ilicrh  Commission.     Such 


as  accessory,  but  as  prime  minister.  He  corresponded 
constantly  with  the  Scottish  bishops  as  well  as  with  the 
civil  authorities  in  Scotland.  To  him  they  made  their 
reports  and  their  excuses,  and  his  advice  and  direction 
were  required  and  sought  on  all  occasions. 

The  invasion  of  England  by  the  army  of  the  Cove- 
nanters at  length  compelled  Charles  once  more  to  sum- 
mon the  English  Legislature.  The  Long  Parliament 
met.  Then  the  bubble  burst;  then  the  flaunting  splen- 
dors of  a  luxurious  and  insolent  court  were  exchanged 
for  humiliation  and  deepening  gloom ;  then  the  vast 
machinery  of  ecclesiastical  despotism,  pushed  to  its  ut- 
most tension  of  pride  and  tyranny,  suddenly  gave  way 
with  a  crash,  and  the  accumulated  usurpations  of  royal 
prerogative  hastened  to  their  final  and  irreversible  doom. 
The  odious  courts  of  the  Star  Chamber  and  High  Com- 
mission were  abolished,  and  all  judges  were  henceforth 
made  independent  of  the  crown  ;  no  taxes,  of  whatever 
description,  were  to  be  levied  without  authority  of  Par- 
liament, and  Parliaments  were  bv  law  to  be  triennial. 
The  earl  of  Strafford,  lord  deputy  of  Ireland,  Laud's 
most  intimate  friend,  the  king's  ablest  political  adviser, 
and  the  most  skilful  commander  of  the  royal  forces 
against  the  Scotch,  was  impeached  for  high  treason. 
Laud's  own  impeachment  soon  followed,  and  he  was 
forthwith  committed  to  the  Tower,  where  he  was  kept 
imprisoned  three  years  (1641-5) ;  his  jurisdiction  and 
all  his  offices  and  emoluments  were  sequestered  by  the 
House  of  Peers.     Lambeth  Palace  was  made  a  state 


was  the  law  enacted — not  by  the  English  Parliament,  I  prison,  and  Leighton,  now  almost  a  maniac,  was  put  in 


but  by  the  Star  Chamber — to  protect,  not  the  English 
Protestant  Church,  but  the  Laudian  ecclesiastical  sys- 
tem against  the  "  Puritan  faction." 

The  "Short  Parliament"  of  1610  had  been  dissolved  af- 
ter a  session  of  three  weeks ;  but  as  the  Convocation  con- 
tinued to  sit,  a  set  of  new  canons  was  drawn  up  under  the 
influence  and  presidency  of  Laud,  wliich  contained  the 
famous  election  oath ;  and  the  first  of  which  proclaimed 
that  monarchy  was  of  divine  right, that  the  royal  author- 
ity was  independent,  not  only  of  the  bishop  of  Rome,  but 
of  everj'  other  earthly  power,  and  that  it  cannot  be  as- 
sailed on  any  pretence  without  resistance  to  the  ordinance 
of  God.  Not  only  this  canon,  but  the  whole  body  of  them, 
were  of  the  most  arbitrarj' character,  especially  enjoining, 
under  severe  penalties,  the  ceremonies  to  which  the  arch- 
bishop was  notoriously  attached ;  and  all  this  at  a  time 
most  unwisely  chosen,  when  the  whole  condition  of  the 
empire  was  imminently  critical ;  so  that,  as  Clarendon 
remarks, "  the  season  in  which  that  synod  continued  to 
sit  was  in  so  ill  a  conjuncture  of  time  that  nothing  could 
have  been  transacted  there  of  a  popiUar  and  prevailing 
influence." 

The  archbishop  prime  minister  had  so  completely 
established  uniformity  in  England  that  he  now  had 
leisure  to  turn  his  particular  attention  to  the  reforma- 
tion of  Puritan  abuses  in  the  outlying  islands  of  Jer- 
sey and  Guernsej'.  He  claims  to  have  brought  Chilling- 
worth  back  from  the  Church  of  Rome.  If  he  did,  he 
certainly  did  not  make  that  irrefragable  defender  of  the 
religion  of  Protestants  a  disciple  of  his  own  system.  He 
urged  bishop  Hall  to  write  his  treatise  on  Episcopacy; 
but  Hall's  claims  were  not  put  high  enough  to  satisfy 
Laud,  who  was  particularly  offended  because  the  pope 
was  plainly  called  Antichrist.  The  plot  now  thickens. 
The  Scottish  troubles  growing  out  of  the  attempted  im- 
position of  the  new  canons  and  liturgy  ujion  the  Scottish 
people,  beginning  with  the  "  profane  imprecation"  of  the 
dame  Janet  Geddes,  in  St.  Giles's,  at  the  first  reading  of 
the  detested  service:  "Out,  out,  thou  false  thief;  dost 
thou  say  mass  at  my  lug?"  had  now  swollen  into  an 
irresistible  storm  of  violence  and  rebellion.  The  uproar 
of  the  "  old  woman"  in  a  church,  and  the  brickbats  of 
the  mob  around  it,  had  turned  into  a  national  conspiracy. 
Through  all  the  business  Laud  had  adroitly  managed  to 
incur  no  responsibihty  without  the  participation  or  au- 
thority of  the  king  or  the  Scottish  bishops;  neverthe- 
less, it  is  evident  he  was  mixed  up  with  it  all,  not  only 

v.— S 


charge  of  it;  Prj-nne  was  made  his  warden  in  the  Tower. 
The  bishops  were  unseated  from  the  House  of  Lords ; 
episcopacy  and  the  liturgy  were  abolished  by  act  of 
Parliament ;  and  Laud — having  seen  the  complete  tri- 
umph of  the  miserable  "  fanatical  faction"  over  which 
he  had  wielded  the  rod  of  power  and  of  punishment  so 
long,  the  utter  destruction  and  abolition  of  the  hierar- 
chy and  the  ceremonies  to  whose  aggrandizement  and 
magnificence  he  had  devoted  his  life,  and  the  annihila- 
tion of  all  his  fond  dreams  of  personal  grandeur,  and 
glory,  and  lordly  munificence — was  at  length  condemned 
by  an  ordinance  of  Parliament,  and  suffered  decapitation 
on  Tower  HiU,  meeting  his  doom  with  perfect  compos- 
ure and  quiet  dignity,  on  the  10th  of  January,  1645. 

Thus  fell  the  famous  archbishop  Laud,  perhaps  the' 
best  praised  and  most  blamed  man  that  ever  lived.  As- 
to  the  formal  legality  of  his  sentence,  it  may  be  admit- 
ted that  it  cannot  be  constitutionally  or  technically  jus- 
tified. As  to  the  specific  charges  against  him,  it  may 
be  granted  that  they  could  not,  except  constructively,, 
amount  to  treason  even  if  proved,  and  that  few  of  any 
weight  were  proved  with  such  evidence  as  would  be  sat- 
isfactory under  the  strict  rules  of  an  impartial  court  of 
justice.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  Laud  was 
tried  before  a  revolutionary  tribunal;  that,  in  such  cir- 
cumstances, moral,  not  legal  evidence  swayed  his  j  udges ; 
and  that  the  general,  known  truth  of  the  case,  not  the 
detailed  proof  of  specific  articles,  determined  the  conclu- 
sion. 

It  may  be  conceded  that  tJie  arbitrary  and  tyrannical' 
acts  of  the  administration  of  Charles  and  of  Laud, wheth- 
er in  Church  or  State,  did  not  go  beyond  the  precedents 
which  had  been  set  from  Henry  YIII  downwards ;  but  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  spirit  of  the  times  had 
changed,  and  it  was  the  bounden  duty  of  wise  men  in 
high  places  to  know  it,  and  act  accordingly.  A  people 
educated  under  Romish  domination  and  superstition 
might  submit  to  the  imposition  of  taxes  or  of  creeds  by 
the  sovereign  and  established  authority,  which  a  people 
educated  under  even  an  imperfect  influx  of  Protestant 
light,  and  of  its  attendant  maxims  of  personal  liberty 
and  freedom  of  thought,  could  no  longer  brook.  More- 
over, a  tyrannical  despotism  once  constitutionally  es- 
tablished can  never  be  abolished  or  got  rid  of  unless  the 
governors  either  yield  to  the  popular  demands  or  are 
illegally  put  down  b)'  revolutionary  force  and  violence. 

It  mav  be  conceded  that  Laud  was  honest  and  con- 


LAUD 


274 


LAUD 


scientious  in  defending  the  extreme  doctrines  of  the  di- 
vine right,  of  the  royal  prerogative,  and  of  passive  obe- 
dience, and  in  his  endeavors  to  suppress  the  "  Puritan 
faction"  in  Churcli  and  State ;  but,  in  a  historical  esti- 
mate of  his  career  and  character,  this  proves  nothing. 
The  constitution  of  successive  Parliaments  shows  that 
this  "  fiiction"  was  an  increasing  majority  of  the  nation  ; 
they,  too,  were  conscientious ;  I'ryinie,  Bastwick,  and 
Burton  were  conscientious — fanatically,  not  by  policy, 
conscientious;  the  parliamentary  leaders,  those  noble 
defenders  of  English  liberty,  were  conscientious ;  most 
despots,  tyrants,  and  conservatives,  as  well  as  rebels, 
revolutionists,  and  reformers,  are  conscientious.  Their 
conduct  and  character  must  be  judged  of  by  rules  inde- 
pendent of  their  well  informed  or  ill  informed  private 
consciences.  There  may  be  fault  on  both  sides :  one 
extreme  begets  another.  So  it  was  then  ;  so  it  was  af- 
terwards. 

It  may  be  conceded  that  the  charge  of  popery  against 
Laud — a  charge  from  which  he  suffered  more  severely 
than  from  any  other,  and  which  more  than  any  other 
was  the  cause  of  his  ruin — was  not  literally  true.  What 
was  substantially  true  was  thus  put  into  the  false  and 
extravagant  formula  of  the  demagogue — it  was  a  cari- 
cature. Laud  was  a  loyal  son  of  the  Church  of  England, 
"  as  by  lavv  established,"  so  long  as  the  laws  were  in  ac- 
cordance with  his  notions,  or  as  he  had  the  interpreta- 
tion and  execution  of  them  in  his  own  hands.  It  was 
not  Roman  popery,  but  Anglican  or  Laudean  popery 
which  he  would  establish.  No  doubt  he  was  more  of  a 
Papist  than  of  a  Protestant  in  the  true  sense  of  that 
word.  His  sympathies  were  more  with  Rome  than  with 
Augsburg  or  Geneva;  and  the  people,  who  are  instinc- 
tively sagacious  in  questions  of  this  kind,  did  not  fail  to 
perceive  it,  and  they  expressed  their  judgment,  as  is 
their  wont,  in  the  most  summary  and  positive  terms. 

As  to  ecclesiastical  ceremonies,  Laud's  devotion  to 
them  and  to  their  enforcement  is  certainly  not  among 
the  marks  of  his  greatness  of  mind.  The  opposition  to 
them  may  have  been  as  unreasonable  as  their  imposi- 
tion; yet  the  fact  was  they  were  generally  unpopular 
and  odious,  and  Laud,  in  his  position,  was  bound  to  have 
the  discretion  to  accommodate  himself  to  that  fact.  It 
boots  nothing  to  say  that  they  were  not  illegal;  it  is 
enough  that  they  were  both  unpopular  and  unnecessar\\ 
It  boots  nothing  to  talk  of  the  irreverence  and  slovenli- 
ness of  the  Puritan  worship ;  that  is  mostly  exaggera- 
tion; but,  at  all  events,  decency  and  reverence  could 
have  been  preserved  without  the  precision  and  multi- 
plied formalities  of  the  Laudean  ceremonial. 

It  may  be  conceded  that  Laud  was  a  munificent  pa- 
tron of  learning  and  of  the  universities,  with  whose  dig- 
nities he  was  invested;  but  it  might  not  be  altogether 
amiss  to  inquire  whence  came  all  the  funds  of  which  he 
made  all  this  lordly  distribution;  and  perliaps  we  shall 
find  that,  in  this  matter,  Laud  deserves  only  this  honor 
above  many  other  men,  that  he  honestly  paid  over  at 
least  a  portion  of  the  money  to  those  to  whom,  after  all, 
it  rightfully  belonged.  He  never  stinted  the  splendor 
or  sumptuousness  of  his  own  establisbnient,  or  the  ap- 
pointments of  his  personal  retinue.  Of  his  wealth  and 
grandeur  he  enjoyed  what  he  could.  But  let  it  remain 
to  his  credit  that  his  vanity — if  it  were  nothing  better — 
took  the  form  of  magnilicent  public  benefactions. 

As  to  intellectual  abilities.  Laud's  nnist  have  been 
consider.ahle,  or  he  could  never  have  been  the  historical 
persuuagt'  lie  was.  In  the  personal  habits  of  his  private 
life  he  was  irre|)roachable.  As  a  clergyman  he  was  in- 
defatigable and  ptmctilious  in  the  discharge  of  his  du- 
ties. He  was  always  narrow  and  bigoted  in  his  views, 
but  he  lived  in  narrow  and  bigoted  times.  How  far  his 
high  political  positions  were  compatible  with  his  eecle- 
siastical  character  may  well  lie  ddubteil,  and  his  exam- 
ple can  never  be  repeated  again  in  lOngland.  How  far 
the  corrupting  influence  of  |)olitical  plai'e,  and  of  the 
association  of  political  persons  and  of  political  life,  may 
have  contributed  to  Uovelop  and  exaggerate  his  worst 


faults — which,  after  all,  were  chiefly  those  of  adminis- 
tration— it  is  impossible  to  say.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  he  was  a  courtier  long  before  he  was  even  a  bishop, 
and  continued  a  courtier  till  he  became  primate  of  all 
England,  and  thereafter  till  he  was  '•  translated"  from 
the  court  to  the  Tower  of  London.  If  lawn  sleeves  could 
pass  unsullied  through  the  scenes  of  such  a  life,  a  natu- 
rally ambitious  churchman  could  hardly  grow  in  grace 
in  such  an  atmosphere.  Laud's  devotional  compositions, 
in  the  form  of  private  prayers,  are  often  admirable,  and 
are  thought  to  give  a  very  favorable  insight  into  his 
interior  religious  life.  Let  us  hope  that  the  prayers 
were  sincere  and  acceptable. 

Laud's  character  may  be  considered  with  reference  to 
the  Tightness  of  his  general  purpose,  or  to  the  wisdom 
of  his  aiming  at  its  accomplishment,  or  to  the  manner 
in  which  he  endeavored  to  effect  it.  As  to  the  right  or 
wrong  of  his  general  purpose,  his  theory  and  aim, 
whether  in  Church  or  State,  but  particularly  in  the 
Church,  it  always  has  been,  and  perhaps  alwaj's  will  be, 
a  matter  of  dispute.  It  is  useless  to  discuss  it.  Any 
judgment  of  his  character  based  upon  the  assumption 
of  this  question  is  no  better  than  a  jjefitio  j)rincijni.  As 
to  the  wisdom  or  folly  of  undertaking  to  accompUsh  that 
purpose  in  those  times  and  under  those  circumstances,  it 
is  more  and  more  generall}^  admitted  that  he  made  a 
mistake  in  the  attempt.  His  friends  regard  it  as  a  ve- 
nial error,  his  enemies  reckon  the  blunder  a  crime.  As 
to  the  means  he  employed,  and,  in  general,  his  whole 
manner  and  bearing  in  seeking  his  end,  there  is  a  very 
general  verdict  against  him.  He  had  great  personal 
faults.  Prominent  among  them  were  an  overweening 
ambition,  self-sufficiency,  and  insolence.  An  aristocratic 
estimate  of  the  structure  of  society,  and  a  sovereign  con- 
tempt for  the  people  and  the  popular  will — very  natu- 
ral, but  the  more  inexcusable  in  a  man  of  his  origin  and 
profession  —  an  utter  destitution  of  the  grand  idea  of 
humanitt/,  underlie  all  the  mistakes  and  all  the  misfor- 
tunes of  his  lile. 

We  conclude  our  sketch  with  the  following  candid 
admissions  from  Le  Bas,  one  of  Laud's  most  earnest 
apologists  and  admirers.  ''  Tliat  the  administration  of 
Laud  was  in  some  respects  injurious  to  the  Church  can 
hardly  be  denied;  but  then  it  is  most  important  to  keep 
in  mind  that  the  injury  was  inflicted  not  so  much  by 
the  measures  which  he  adopted  as  by  the  manner  in 
which  he  enforced  them.  There  has  seldom,  perhaps, 
lived  a  man  who  contrived  that  his  good  should  be  so 
virulently  evil  spoken  of.  From  all  that  we  learn  of 
him,  his  manner  appears  to  have  been  singularly  ungra- 
cious and  unpopular,  and  his  temper  offensively  irascible 
and  hot.  If  we  are  to  trust  the  representations  of  him 
left  us  either  by  friend  or  foe,  he  must  have  been  one  of 
the  most  disagreeable  persons  in  the  three  kingdoms 
except  to  those  who  were  intimately  acquainted  with 
his  worth.  There  was  nothing  affable  or  engaging  in 
his  general  behavior.  His  very  integrity  was  often 
made  odious  by  wearing  an  aspect  of  austerity  and 
haughtiness.  It  would  almost  seem  as  if  prudence  had 
been  struck  out  of  his  catalogue  of  the  cardinal  virtues. 
He  was  unable,  as  Warbtirton  remarks,  to  comprehend 
one  important  truth,  with  which  liichelieu  was  so  fa- 
miliar, when  he  said  that  if  he  had  not  spent  as  much 
time  in  civilities  as  in  business  he  had  undone  his  mas- 
ter. The  consequence  of  this  ignorance,  or  of  this  dis- 
dain, of  the  ways  of  tlie  world  was  unspeakably  hurtful 
to  the  cause  which  at  all  times  was  nearest  his  heart. 
In  the  minds  of  many  who  were  ignorant  of  the  essen- 
tial excellence  of  the  man,  the  interests  of  the  Estab- 
lishment were,  by  his  demeanor,  associated  with  almost 
everything  that  is  harsh  and  repulsive.  For  a  consid- 
erable portion  of  his  life  he  was  regarded  not  only  as  the 
leader,  but,the  represent<itivc  of  the  ecclesiastical  body  ; 
and  the  impression  which  he  communicated  to  the  pub- 
lic was  too  often  that  of  unfeeling  arrogance  and  lofty 
impatience  of  control.  Whether  the  Church  could  have 
been  saved  by  any  combination,  in  the  person  of  its 


LAUDA  SIGN  SALVATOREM    275 


LAUDEMIUM 


ruler,  of  those  rare  endowments  which  secure  at  once 
both  reverence  and  attachment,  no  human  sagacity  can 
at  this  day  be  competent  to  pronounce ;  but  it  certainly 
is  not  altogether  surprising  that  this  unhappy  defect 
should,  even  in  the  minds  of  judicious  and  impartial 
men,  have  connected  his  administration  with  the  ruin 
of  the  Establishment.*  In  such  unquiet  times,  more  es- 
pecially, a  man  like  Laud  would  not  only  be  dreaded  as 
a  firm  and  conscientious  disciplinarian,  but  as  the  rigor- 
ous and  overbearing  priest;  and  the  Church  would  be 
sure  to  suffer  most  grievously  for  the  unpopularity  of 
her  governor." 

In  England,  the  parties  with  which  Laud's  life  was 
implicated  have  not  yet  passed  away,  so  that  it  is  al- 
most impossible  even  now  to  get  an  impartial  estimate 
of  the  man  from  his  own  countrymen;  but  it  can  hardly 
be  doubted  that  the  ultimate  verdict  of  historj'  will  be 
his  final  condemnation.  The  English  monarchy  has 
gloriously  survived  the  political  princijiles  which  he  de- 
fended; bis  ecclesiastical  principles  will  ultimately  lie 
found  equally  mmecessary,  nay,  hostile,  to  the  true 
strength  and  glory  of  the  English  Church.  (D.  II.  G.) 
Laud's  writings  are  few.  Wharton  published  his  J)i- 
arij  in  1694,  and  Parker  his  Wurls  (Oxford,  1847-GOi, 
containing,  among  other  things,  his  letters  and  miscel- 
laneous papers,  many  of  them  then  published  for  the 
first  time,  and,  like  his  Diarij,  invaluable  as  contribu- 
tions to  the  personal  histor}'  of  this  noted  archbish<i]i 
and  his  associates.  See  Hume,  Hist,  of  Fjigl.  chap,  lii; 
Hallam,  Constit.  Hist,  of  Engl.  (Lond.  1854),  ii,  38,  167  ; 
Macaulay,  Essays  (1854),  i,  159  sq.,  424  sq. ;  Short,  Ch. 
Hist.  (Lond.  1840),  p.  486  sq.,  553  sq.;  Tulloch,  English 
Puritanism,  p.  45  sq. ;  Fletcher,  History  of  Indejiendenaj , 
vols,  ii,  iii,  iv ;  Collier,  Eccl.  Hist,  (see  Index) ;  Prynne, 
Heylin,  Le  Bas,  Lawson,  and  Baines,  on  the  Life  of 
Laud;  IFes^m. /?«'.  xvii,  478  sq. ;  1870,  p.  294;  London 
Afonth. Rev. cxviu, 317  sq.;  Lemd.Retrosp.Reiwn  (1827), 
49  sq.;  LUachv.  3fag.  xxv,  G19  sq. ;  xxvii,  179;  xxix, 
523;  1,806;  Lond.  Quart.  Eev.  x,  101  sq.;  North.  Ama: 
Bevieu;  1864,  606  sq. 

Lauda  Sion  Salvatorem  is  the  beginning  of 
the  renowned  sequence  of  Thomas  Aquinas  (1224-1274) 
for  Corpus -Christi  day.  It  consists  of  twelve  double 
verses,  which  are  as  follows  : 

Care  cibus,  sanguis  potns  : 
Manet  tamen  Christus  totus 

Sub  utraque  specie. 
8.  A  siimente  uon  concisns, 


1.  Lauda  Siou  salvatorem, 
Lauda  ducem  et  pastorem 

In  hyniuiset canticis:  [de, 
Qunutnm  potes,  tantum  au- 
Quia  ninjoi-  orani  laude, 

Nee  laudare  sufflcis. 

?.  Laudis  Ihema  specialis, 
Panis  vivnfe  et  vitalis 

Hodie  proponitur, 
Qnem  in  sacire  mensa  coeuoe 
Tiirbae  fratrum  duodenre 

Datum  nou  ambigitur. 

3.  Sit  laus  plena,  sit  sonora, 
Sit.jucnnda,  sit  decora, 

Mentis  jubilatio : 
Dies  enim  sollemnis  agitur 
In  qua  niensre  prima  recoli- 

Hnjus  institutio.  [tur 

4.  In  hac  mensa  novi  regis 
Novum  pascha  novre  legis 

^  Phase  vetus  terrainat. 
Vetnstatem  uovitas, 
Umbram  fuc^at  Veritas, 
Noctem  lux  eliminat. 

5.  Qnod  in  ctEiiaChristus  ges- 
Faciendum  hoc  espressit  [sit 

In  siii  memorinm. 
Docti  sacris  institntis, 
Panem,  vinuin  in  salulis 

Cousecramus  hostiam. 

6.  Di)<;ma  datur  Christianis, 
Qiiod  in  carnem  transit  i)anis 

Et  vinum  in  sanguinem. 
Quod  nou  cnpis,  quod  non  vi- 
Animosa  tirmat  fides     [des, 

Prceter  reium  ordinem. 

7.  Sub  diversis  speciebns, 
Siszuis  tiiutum  et  non  rebus, 

Latent  les  eximise. 


Non  confractus,  nou  divisiis, 

Integer  accipitnr. 
Snmit  uuus,  sumunt  mille, 
Quantum  isti, tantum  ille, 

Nee  sumptus  consumiiur. 

9.  Sumunt  boni, sumunt  raali, 
Sorte  tamen  insequali 

VitJE  vel  inteiitus. 
Mors  est  malis,  vita  bonis  : 
Vide,  paris  sumplionis 

Quam  sit  dispar  exitns. 

10.  Fracto  demum  sacramen- 
Ne  vacilles,  sed  memento  [to 
Tantum  es>e  sub  fragmeuto 

Quantum  toto  tegitur: 
Nulla  rei  tit  scissura, 
Signi  tantum  fit  fractura 
Qua  nee  status  nee  statura 

Signati  minuitur. 

11.  Ecce  panis  angelorum, 
Factus  cibus  viatorum, 
Vere  panis  tilioium, 

Ndu  miltendus  canibus. 
In  fiuuris  priPf^itrnatur, 
Quuni  Isaac  imniolatur, 
Agnus  Pascliffi  deputatur, 

Datur  manna  patribus. 

12.  Bone  pastor,  panis  veie, 
.Tesn,  nostri  miserere. 

Tu  uos  pasce,  nos  tuere, 
Tu  nos  bona  fac  videre 

In  terra  vivcutium. 
Tu  qui  cnncta  scis  et  vales. 
Qui  nos  pascis  hie  mortales  : 
'I'uoB  Ibi  commensales, 
CohiEicdes  et  sodales 

Fac  sanctorum  civluni. 


Lauda  Sion,  although  full  of  the  doctrine  of  transub- 
stantiation,  as  was  to  be  expected  from  its  author,  yet 
contains  no  allusion  to  the  priestly  power  "  deiim  conf- 
ce?e,"  which  is  the  chief  characteristic  of  Corpus-Christi 
day,  but  ends  with  an  inward  prayer  for  adoption  and 
participation  in  the  eternal  feast  of  grace.  A  German 
translation  was  made  of  it  by  the  monk  John  of  Salz- 
burg (1366-1396), beginning  with  the  words  Lob,  0  Syon, 
deinen  Schdpfer.  We  know  of  no  EngUsh  translation. 
See  Koch,  Geschichte  des  Kirchenliedes,  i,  45-66  ;  Daniel, 
Tkesaur.  Hymmlogicus,  ii,  97  sq.  (Lips.  1855, 5  vols.  8vo). 

Laudian  Manu- 
script (Codex  Laudia- 
NLS,  SO  called  because  pre- 
sented by  arclibishop  Laud 
in  1636  to  the  University 
of  Oxford,  now  in  the  Bod- 
leian Librarj^,  where  it  is 
numbered  35),  usually  des- 
ignated as  E  cf  the  Acts, 
.    is  a  verj'  valuable  MS.  of 
ff   the  Acts,  with  the  Greek 
5    and  Latin  in  uncial  letters 
Jl   in  parallel  columns,  the 
g    Latin   words   (which   are 
5    neither  Jerome's  nor  the 
•<    Vulgate,  but  a  closely  lit- 
£    eral   version)   always  ex- 
|.    actly  opposite  the  Greek. 

It  is  defective  at  Acts 

3  xxvi,  29-xxvii,  26.  It  is 
i  in  size  nine  inches  by  sev- 
5  en  and  a  half,  and  consists 
^  of  226  leaves  of  23-26  hues. 
•=  The  vellum  is  rather  poor, 
■g  and  the  ink  faint.  There 
^  are  no  stops,  and  few 
—  breathings.  It  was  prob- 
g  ably  written  in  the  West 
'I  during  the  sixth  century. 
*§  Readings  were  taken  from 
^  it  by  Fell  ( 1675)  and  MUl 
9,  (1707).  Hearne  publish- 
§)  ed  the  text  in  full:  Acta 
^  Apostoloj-vm  Grwco-Lati- 
aa  ncB,  Uteris  majusculis 
^  (Oxon.  1715,  8vo) ;  row 
►<  very  scarce.  See  Davidson, 
■g  Bib.  Crit.  ii,  293 :  Tregelles, 
<  in  Home's  Lntrod.  iv,  187 
2  sq. ;  Scrivener,  lntrod.  p. 
I    128.     See  Mamisckipts. 

1        Laudemium,  a  name 
^    given  to  the  sum  which 
§    heirs,  on  obtaining  their 
S    inheritance,  are  to  pay  to 
^    certain  parties.    It  was  to 
£    be  paid  for  the  recognition 
"5    and  establishment  {landa- 
=    iio')  of  the  claim,  and  even, 
S    occasionallj',  on  coming 
S    into  possession  other  than 
,£*    an  inheritance,  as,  for  in- 
stance, by  gift,  etc.    It  sub- 
sequently became  obliga- 
tory only  in  cases  of  sale, 
of  inheritance  from  collat- 
eral relations,  or  sometimes 
from    descendants,  etc. 
^J     .  J  ^*|  The  Roman  law  states  tlie 

\r       I  r  \   L^  I  amount  to  be  paid  in  the 

case  of  a  copyhold  to  be 
one  fiftieth  of  the  princi- 
pal ("  quinquagcsima  pars  pretii  vel  wstimationis  loci, qui 
transfertur,"  cap.  3,  Cod.  .Just,  de  jure  emphyteutico,  iv, 
66).     It  subsequently  increased  to  one  thirtieth,  one 


5 

4. 


LAUDS 


27G 


LAUNOI 


twentieth,  and  even  one  tenth.  This,  however,  is  named 
the  laudemium  inajus,  and  distinguislied  from  the  lau- 
clemium  minus.  See  J.  C.  H.  Schroter,  V.  d.  Lehenswcn-e, 
etc.  (Berlin,  1789);  Christ,  Analecta  de  sportula  cliente- 
lari  vulffo  de  faxajeudali  (Lips.  1757). — Herzog,  Jleul- 
EneyUopddie,  viii,  230. 

Ijauds,  Hymns  of  praise  (from  Latin  huts,  praise). 
In  some  of  the  ancient  councils  the  hallelujah  appointed 
to  be  sung  after  the  Gospel  is  termed  Luudcs.  Also  the 
name  of  the  service  which,  before  the  PJeformation,  fol- 
lowed after  the  Nocturn,  celebrated  between  12  and  3 
A.M.,  or  in  the  3d  watch.  Du  Cange  assigns  them  this 
place,  but  cites  a  passage  from  which  it  would  appear 
tliat  they  rather  belong  to  matins  in  the  following 
■watch.  The  Lauds,  Du  Cange  tells  us,  consisted,  in  the 
monastic  or  pre-reformatory  service,  of  the  last  three 
psalms.  Durand,  however,  names  five.  See  Procter, 
Common  Prayer,  p.  186  sq. —  Eden,  Thcolog.  Diet.  s.  v.; 
Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v.  See  Breviauy  ;  Canonical 
Hours;  Liturgy;  Matins. 

Laufifer,  Jacob,  a  Swiss  Protestant  minister  and 
historian,  was  born  at  Zoffingen  July  25, 1688,  and  stud- 
ied theology  at  Halle  and  Utrecht.  In  1718  he  became 
professor  of  history  and  eloquence  at  Berne.  He  died 
Feb.  26,  1734.  His  works  are  not  of  special  interest  to 
theological  students,  excepting,  perhaps,  De  llostium 
tSpoliis  Deo  sacratis  et  sac?-amlis  (1717). 

Laughter  (pnif,  yfAwc,),  an  action  usually  ex- 
pressing Joy  (Gen.  xxi,  6;  Psa.  cxxvi,  2;  Eccles.  iii,  4; 
Luke  vi,  21);  sometimes  mockery  (Gen.  xviii,  13;  Ec- 
cles. ii,  2 ;  James  iv,  9) ;  and  occasionally  conscious  se- 
curity (Job  V,  22).  'When  used  concerning  God  (as  in 
Psa.  ii,  4;  lix,  8;  Prov.  i,  26)  it  signifies  that  he  de- 
spises or  pays  no  regard  to  the  person  or  subject.  See 
Isaac. 

Laughton,  George,  D.D.,  an  English  minister, 
lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  IHth  century.  Among  his 
works  of  importance  are  his  History  of  A  ncient  Egypt 
(Lond.  1774,  8vo)  : — Reply  to  Chap.  XV  of  Gibbon's  De- 
cline and  Eall  (1780-86).  His  Sermons  were  published 
from  1773-90. — .\llibone,  Diet,  of  British  and  Amei-ican 
Authors,  ii,  1064. 

Laugier,  Marc  Antoine,  a  French  Jesuit,  was 
born  at  Manos  July  25,  1713.  He  was  a  priest  at  Paris 
imtil  1757,  when  he  was  appointed  to  the  abbey  of  Ri- 
beaute.  He  died  April  7,  1769.  For  a  list  of  his  works 
on  various  subjects,  see  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Bioyr.  Generule, 
xxix,  894. 

Launay,  Pierre  de,  lord  of  La  Motte  and  Vaufee- 
lan,  a  French  Protestant  theologian,  was  born  at  Blois 
in  1573.  After  holding  a  high  position  in  the  war  de- 
partment, he  resigned  in  1613,  retaining  only  the  title 
of  secretary'  and  counsellor  to  the  king,  and  devoted 
liimself  exclusively  to  study.  He  acquired  the  mastery 
over  Greek,  learned  Hebrew  from  a  Jewish  teacher,  and 
was  for  forty  years  a  member  of  the  Consistory  of  Cha- 
renton.  He  took  part  in  several  provincial  synods,  and 
was  secretary  of  the  two  national  synods  of  Charenton 
in  1623  and  of  Alen^on  in  1637.  He  died  at  Paris  June 
27, 1661.  His  works  are.  Paraphrase  et  Erposition  du 
Prophete  Daniel  (Sedan,  \(>i\) ;— Paraphrase  et  claire 
Exposition  du  Lie  re  d^'  Salomon  vnlr/airement  appele 
r Ecclisiitste  (Saiut-Manrice,  1624,  8vo)  :  —  Paraphrase 
et  Exposition  des  Prorerbes  de  Salomon  et  du  premier 
Chapitre  du  Cantique  des  Caniiques  (Charenton,  1650,  2 
vols.  8vo;  2d  cd.  1655,  12mo)  -.—Paraphrase  et  Exposi- 
tion de  VEpistre  de  Saint  Paul  aux  Romains  (Saumur, 
1647,  8vo)  : — Para})hrase  sur  les  Epistres  de  Saint  Paul 
(Charenton  1650,  2  vols,  -ito):  — Paraphrase  et  Exposi- 
tion de  r Apocalypse  (Geneva,  1651,  4to)  ;  published  un- 
iler  the  name  of  Jonas  le  Buy  de  la  Prie.  In  this  work 
he  advances  opinions  on  the  jNIillFunium  which  were 
strongly  opposed  by  Amyraut : — Examen  de  la  RepUque 
de  M.  A  myraut  (Charenton,  1658,  8vo)  :  —  Traite  de  la 
Sainic  Cene  du  Seigneur,  uvea  I' Explication  de  quelques 


Passages  difficiles  du  Vieux  et  du  Nouveau  Testament 
(Saumur,  1659,  12mo):  —  Remarques  sur  le  Texte  de  la 
Bible,  ou  Explication  des  Mots,  des  Phrases,  et  des  Ei- 
gures  difficiles  de  la  sainte  Eci-itui-e  (Geneva,  1667,  4to), 
a  posthumous  and  highly  esteemed  work.  See  Haag, 
La  Erance  Protestante. —  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Generale, 
xxix,  907. 

Lauiioi,  Jean  de,  a  noted  French  Roman  Catholic 
historian  and  canonist,  was  born  at  Yal-de-Sis,  near  Ya- 
logne,  Dec.  21, 1603.  He  studied  at  Constance  and  Par- 
is, where  he  was  received  magister  in  June,  1034.  In 
the  same  year  he  entered  the  Church.  He  was  highly 
esteemed  among  the  learned  men  of  his  time.  On  a 
journey  to  Rome  he  became  the  intimate  friend  of  Luc 
Holstenius  and  Leo  AUatius.  His  whole  life  was  de- 
voted to  the  study  of  theology  at  the  Sorbonne  in  Paris ; 
he  never  sought  any  promotion,  but  preferred  to  serve 
his  Church  by  his  pen,  which  he  wielded  with  great 
power  and  ability.  He  died  at  Paris  March  10,  1678. 
Moreri  says  of  him :  '•  The  great  number  of  his  works, 
and  the  manner  in  which  they  are  written,  give  ample 
evidence  of  his  extensive  reading  and  ready  ability. 
But  his  style  is  neither  ornate  nor  polished ;  he  uses 
awkward,  obsolete  expressions;  handles  his  subjects  very 
peculiarly ;  and,  if  he  overcomes  his  adversaries,  he  also 
tires  his  readers  by  the  profusion  of  his  quotations.  He 
coukl  not  endure  I'ables  nor  superstitions,  and  defended 
with  great  firmness  the  rights  of  the  Church  and  of  the 
king,  which  were  endangered  by  the  idtramontanes." 
In  a  noble  spirit  of  independence,  he  preferred  expulsion 
from  the  Sorbonne  rather  than  to  indorse  the  condem- 
nation of  Arnauld  by  that  body,  although  he  differed 
from  that  theologian  in  his  views  on  grace.  He  even 
went  so  far  as  to  ■v\Tite  against  the  Eormulaire  of  the 
assembly  of  the  clergy  of  1656.  He  particularly  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  acumen  in  discovering  the  spu- 
riousness  of  most  of  the  acts  of  the  saints,  as  also  of  a 
number  of  ecclesiastical  privileges.  Dom  Bonaventure, 
of  Argonne,  writes  of  him  :  '•  He  is  dangerous  alike  to 
heaven  and  to  earth ;  he  has  overthrown  more  saints  in 
paradise  than  were  canonized  by  any  ten  popes.  He 
looked  with  suspicion  on  the  whole  martyrologia,  and  ex- 
amined the  claims  of  the  saints  one  after  another,  as  they 
do  in  France  about  the  nobility."  His  writings  are  main- 
ly of  a  historico-critical  nature,  and  in  tendency  apolo- 
getical  in  behalf  of  Gallicanism.  The  most  important  of 
them  are.  Syllabus  ratiomtm  quibus  caussa  Durandi  de 
modo  cmijuctionis  concursuum  Dei  et  creaturce,  dfferuli- 
tur  (Par.  1636,  8vo) : — De  mente  cotwilii  Tridentini  circa 
satisfactionem  in  sacramento  pcenitentia;  (1644),  in  which 
he  maintains  that  the  Coimcil  of  Trent  and  the  practice 
of  the  Church  do  not  prove  that  satisfaction  must  pre- 
cede absolution : — De  frequenti  Confessionis  et  Eucharis- 
tim  1ISU  (1653)  -.  —  De  commentitio  Lazari,  Magdalerm, 
Martha  ac  Maximini  in  provinciam  Appulsu  (1660, 
8vo)  :  —  De  auctoritate  negantis  argumenti  (Paris,  1050 
and  1662, 8 vo),  wherein  he  affirms  he  had  himself  seen 
at  Sienna,  in  1634.  the  statue  of  the  popess  Joanna  placed 
between  those  of  Leo  IV  and  Benedict  HI.  It  produced 
quite  a  controversy,  and  abbot  Thiers  wrote  against  it 
Defensio  adversus  Joh.de  Launoi  in  qua  defensione  Lau- 
noii  fraufks  calumnice,  plagia,  impostura,  etc.  (Paris, 
1664): — De  recta  Nicani  canonis  VI,et  prout  a  Rufno 
explicatur,  Inielligentia : — De  veteri  Ciborutn  Delectu  in 
jt'jvniis  Christianorum: — Judicium  de  Auctore  libri  De 
Imitatione  Christi  (Paris,  1649,  1650,  1052,  1063,  8vo). 
Launoi  advocates  the  claim  of  Gersen.  See  Kkmpis, 
TiiojiAS  A  : — De  Cura  Ecclesim  pro  Miseris  et  pauperi- 
bus  (Paris,  1663, 8vo)  -.—Epistola;  (Par.  1664-1673,8  vols. 
8vo ;  Cambridge,  1689,  1  vol.  folio) : — De  rero  A  uctore 
fidei  professionis  qum  Pelagio  Hieronymo,  A  ugustino  tri- 
bui  solet,  in  which  he  attempts  to  prove  that  Pelagius 
is  the  only  author  of  the  profession  of  faith  attributed 
to  Jerome  and  Augustine : — Explicala  Ecclesice  Traditio 
circa  canonem  "  Omnis  utriusque  sexus^'  (Par.  1672,  8vo), 
a  highly-esteemed  work: — Regia  in  Matrimonium  Potes- 
tas,  vel  de  jure  scecularium  principum  Christianorum  in 


LAURA 


277 


LAURENTIUS 


sauciendis  impedimentis  mairimonium  dirimentihus  (Par. 

1674,  4to).  This  work  was  condemned  at  Rome,  Dec. 
10,  1C88,  yet  its  principles  were  approved  by  a  num- 
ber of  the  most  distinguished  theologians  and  jurists : — 
Venerandce  RomaruB  Ecclesim  circa  simoniam  Ti-aditio 
(Paris,  1675,  8vo) : — iJe  Sahbatince  hullm  Priviletjio  et  de 
Sccqndaiis  Carmeliturum  Soliditate : — In  Priviler/ia  or- 
dinis  Pi-(emonstratensis : — In  Ckcuiam  immmiitatis  quam 
beatus  Germanus,  episco^nis  Parisiensis,  suburbano  mon- 
astei-io  dedisse  fertur : — In  privilegium  quod  Gregorius 
I"'  monasterio  Sancti-Medardi  Suessonensis  dedisse.  dici- 
tur.  In  these  works  the  author  examines  a  number  of 
rights  and  privileges  which  he  considers  as  imfounded 
or  unjust: — A  treatise  on  the  conception  of  the  Virgin, 
in  which  he  asserts  that  if  an  attempt  were  made  to  de- 
tine  "  the  point  of  the  conception  of  the  Virgin  by  the 
Scriptures  and  tradition,  it  woiUd  be  shown  that  she  was 
conceived  in  sin."  The  complete  works  of  Launoi  were 
published  by  abbot  Granet  (Geneva,  1731, 10  vols.  fol.). 
See  Dwjnn,  Bibl.  des  Auteurs  Ecclesiastiques,  vol.  xviii, 
34-62 ;  Journal  des  Savants,  anno  1664, 1665, 1667, 1668, 

1675,  1688,  1698,  1701,  1704,  1705,  1726,  1731;  Bibl.  sa- 
cree;  Moreri,  Grand  Diction.  Historique;  Guy-Patin, 
Epist. ;  Bayle,  Diet.  Critique,  and  Nouvelles  de  la  Repub- 
lique  des  Leftres ;  Niceron,  Memoires,  vol.  xxxii ;  Colo- 
mies,  Recueil  de  Particularites,  p.  329 ;  Reiser,  Elogium 
Joannis  Launoii  (Lond.  1685) ;  Hoefcr.  Nouv.  Biog.  Gene- 
rale,  xxix,  912  sq. ,  Herzog,  Real- Ency Mop.  viii,  230  sq. 

Laura  {collection  of  anchorites'  cells'),  a  name  given 
by  Church  historians  to  collections  of  cells,  the  habita- 
tions of  hermits  or  monastics  of  the  early  days  of  the 
Church,  but  incorrectly  used  as  a  sj^nonyme  of  monaste- 
rium,  from  which  it  greatly  differs,  inasmuch  as  the  in- 
mates of  the  latter  were  coenobites,  and  held  intercourse 
with  each  other,  while  those  of  the  former  lived  apart, 
in  seclusion.  The  holy  tenants  of  a  laura  passed  in 
solitude  and  silence  five  days  in  a  week ;  their  food 
was  bread,  water,  and  dates ;  on  Saturday  and  Sunday 
they  received  the  sacrament,  and  messed  together  on 
broth  and  a  small  allowance  of  wine.  Bingham  states 
that  when  many  of  the  cells  of  anchorets  were  placed 
together  in  the  same  wilderness,  at  some  distance  from 
one  another,  they  were  all  called  by  one  common  name, 
laura,  which,  as  Evagrius  informs  us  (i,  21),  differed 
from  a  coenobium  in  this,  that  a  laura  was  many  cells 
divided  from  each  other,  where  every  monk  provided 
for  himself;  but  a  coenobium  was  but  one  habitation, 
where  the  monks  lived  in  society,  and  had  everything 
in  common.  Epiphanius  {Hares.  69, 1)  says  Laura,  or 
Labra,  was  the  name  of  a  street  or  district  where  a 
church  stood  in  Alexandria;  and  it  is  probable  that 
from  this  the  name  was  taken  to  signify  a  multitude  of 
cells  in  the  wilderness,  united,  as  it  were,  in  a  certain 
district,  yet  so  divided  as  to  make  up  many  separate 
habitations.  The  most  celebrated  lauras  were  estab- 
lished in  the  East,  especially  in  Palestine,  as  the  laura 
of  St.  Euthymus,  St.  Saba,  the  laura  of  the  towers,  etc. 
— Eadie,  Ecclesiast.  Diet.  vol.  i,  s.  v.     See  Monachism  : 

MONASTEKV. 

Laureate  (from  the  Latin  verb  laureatus,  crowned 
with  the  prize)  was  used  of  a^successfid  theological  can- 
didate, in  ancient  times,  at  the  Scotch  universities. — 
Buck,  Theological  Dictionary,  s.  v. 

Laurence,  Richard,  D.C.L.,  a  distinguished  Eng- 
lish prelate,  was  born  at  Bath  in  1760 ;  matriculated  in 
the  University  of  Oxford  July  14,  1778,  as  an  exhibi- 
tioner of  Corpus  Christi  College ;  took  the  degree  of  B.A. 
April  10,  1782;  that  of  M.A.'july  9,  1785,  and  those  of 
B.  and  D.C.L.  June  27, 1794.  Upon  the  appointment  in 
1796  of  his  brother,  Dr.  French  Laurence,  to  the  regius 
professorship  of  civil  law,  he  was  made  deputy  professor 
at  Oxford.  In  1804  he  preached  the  Barapton  Lectures, 
and  the  reputation  thence  acquired  secured  for  him  from 
the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  the  rectory  of  Mersham, 
Kent.  In  1814  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  regius 
professor  of  Hebrew,  and  to   the   canonry   of  Christ 


Church,  Oxford,  and  in  1822  was  elevated  to  the  archi- 
episcopal  see  of  Cashel.  He  died  in  Dublin  .Dec.  28, 
1838.  His  most  important  works  are  his  translations 
of  certain  apocryphal  books  of  the  O.  T.  from  the  Ethi- 
opic,  accompanied  by  critical  investigations:  Ascensio 
Isaice  Vutis,  ojjusculum  pseudepigraphum,  multis  ubhinc 
sceculis,  ut  videtiir,  deperditum,  nunc  autem  apud  yEthio- 
pas  compertum  et  cum  versione  Latina  Anglicanaque 
publici  juris  factum  (Oxon.  1819, 8vo)  : — Primi  Ezrce  Li- 
bri,  qui  apud  Vulgatum  appellatur  quartus  versio  ^Ethi- 
opica,  nunc  jwimo  in  medium  prolata  et  Latine  A  nglice- 
que  reddita  (Oxon.  1820,  8vo).  The  translation  is  fol- 
lowed b}^  general  remarks  upon  the  different  versions  of 
this  book,  its  apocrj'phal  character,  the  creed  of  its  au- 
thor, and  the  probable  period  of  its  composition  [see 
EsDRAs]  : — The  Book  of  Enoch  the  Prophet,  an  apocrj'- 
phal  production,  supposed  to  have  been  lost  for  ages, 
but  discovered  at  the  close  of  the  last  centurj^  in  Abys- 
sinia, now  first  published  from  an  Ethiopic  MS.  in  the 
Bodleian  Library  (Oxford,  1821,  8vo;  3d  ed.  1838)  [see 
Enoch,  Book  of]  : — also.  Remarks  on  the  systematical 
Classification  of  MSS.  adopted  by  Griesbach  in  his  Edi- 
tion of  the  Greek  Testament  (Oxf.  1814,  8vo) :  —  Disser- 
tation on  the  Logos  of  St.  John  (Oxf.  1808,  8vo)  : — Criti- 
cal Reflections  upon  some  important  Misrepresentations 
contained  in  the  Unitarian  Version  of  the  N.  T.  (Oxford, 
1811,  8vo)  -.—The  Book  of  Job  in  the  Words  of  the  A.V., 
arranged  and  printed  in  conformity  with  the  Masoretic 
text  (Dublin,  1828,  8vo)  -.—On  the  'Existence  of  the  Soul 
after  Death  (London,  1834,  8vo).  This  work,  written  in 
opposition  to  Priestley,  Law,  and  their  respective  follow- 
ers, discusses  the  usage  of  the  terms  Koifiarr^ai  and 
Sheol,  and  enters  into  the  critical  examination  of  vari- 
ous scriptural  narratives: — An  AttemjH  to  illustrate  those 
Aiiicles  of  the  Church  of  England  which  the  Calvinists 
iwpi'operhj  consider  as  Calvinistical  (seven  sermons 
preached  as  Bampton  Lectures,  Oxford,  1838, 8vo) ;  and 
several  sermons  on  the  doctrine  of  A  tonement  (Oxford, 
1810,  8vo),  Baptismal  Regeneration  (1815,  8vo),  and  on 
Baptism  (1838,  8vo).  See  Kitto,  Bibl.  Cyclop,  vol.  ii,  s. 
V. ;  AUibone,  Diet.  Bnt.  and  A  m.  A  uth.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  Lond. 
Gentl.  Mag.  1839,  pt.  i,  p.  205  sq. ;  Darling,  Cycloj).  Bibli- 
ograph.  vol.  ii,  s.  v, 

Laurentius,  anti-pope,  lived  about  460-520.  He 
was  archdeacon  of  a  Church  in  Rome,  and  was  opposed 
to  Symmachus,  who  in  498  was  elected  successor  of 
Anastasius  II  in  the  papal  chair.  This  schism  created 
much  disturbance  in  the  city,  Festus  and  Probinus,  two 
of  the  most  influential  senators,  siding  M'ith  Laurentius. 
Both  parties  finally  agreed  to  submit  their  difficulty  to 
the  decision  of  Theodoric,  king  of  the  Goths,  though  an 
Arian.  He  decided  in  favor  of  Symmachus,  and  Lau- 
rentius, having  withdrawn  his  claim,  was  made  bishop 
of  Nocera.  But  as  he  subsequently  created  new  dis- 
turbances, and  was,  whether  justly  or  unjustly  is  not 
known,  accused  of  Eutychianism,  he  was  deposed  by  the 
Synodus  Palmaris  (501),  and  died  an  exile.  See  Anas- 
tasius, FiVa  Pontif;  Baronius,  Annales;  Plotina,  T'tVa 
Pontif-  Roman. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xix,  927. 

(J.N.r.; 

Laurentius,  a  noted  prelate  of  the  early  Englisli 
Church  (Anglo-Saxon  period),  flourished  in  the  first 
half  of  the  7th  century  (A.I).  605)  as  successor  of  St. 
Augustine — suggested  for  the  archbishopric  by  Augus- 
tine himself.  Under  the  reign  of  Eadbald,  the  successor 
of  Ethelbert,  when  England  was  in  danger  of  a  return 
to  heathenish  practices  by  Eadbald's  marriage  of  his 
own  mother-in-law,  Laurentius  shrewdly  managed  af- 
fairs for  the  benefit  of  Christianity ;  he  induced  the  king 
to  renounce  his  incestuous  marriage,  and  to  embrace  the 
Christian  faith.  See  Churton,  I/ist. Early  Engl.  Church, 
p.  41  sq. ;  Mosheim,  Eccles.  Hist.  bk.  ii.  cent,  vii,  pt.  i,  ch. 
i,  §  2,  and  note  (5). 

Laurentius,  St.,  according  to  tradition,  was  a  dis- 
ciple of  pope  Sixtus  II  (257-258),  who  received  him 
among  the  seven  Roman  deacons,  and  afterwards  made 


LAUREN  TIUS  VALLA 


278 


LAVALETTE 


him  arcluleacon.  When  the  pope,  during  the  persecu- 
tion of  the  Christians  b_y  Valerian,  was  led  out  to  suffer 
martyrtlom,  Laurentius  wished  to  accompany  him,  and 
to  share  his  fate  ;  but  Sixtus  prevented  him,  prophesying 
to  him  at  the  same  time  that  he  would  be  called  upon 
to  endure  even  greater  sufferings  for  the  cause  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  that  he  would  follow  him  within  three  days. 
The  omen  was  fultilled :  the  Koraan  governor  had  lieard 
of  treasures  belonging  to  the  Cliristian  Church,  and 
wished  to  obtain  possession  of  them.  He  desired  Lau- 
rentius to  reveal  them  to  him.  Laurentius  seemed  to 
comply,  and  was  allowed  to  depart.  Soon  the  cour- 
ageous young  disciple  of  Christ  returned,  accompanied 
by  a  crowd  of  paupers,  cripples,  and  sick,  whom  he  pre- 
sented to  the  governor,  saying,  "These  are  oiu:  treas- 
ures." This  was  regarded  as  an  insult,  and  in  punish- 
ment he  was  condemned  to  be  slowly  roasted  alive  in  an 
iron  chair.  Laurentius  underwent  this  martj'rdom  with 
resignati(m  and  cheerfulness.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
buried  in  tlie  Via  Tiburtina.  The  pope  Leo  I  said  of 
him  that  he  was  as  great  an  honor  to  Kome  as  Stephen 
to  Jerusalem,  and  Augustine  that  the  crown  of  Lauren- 
tius can  as  little  be  hidden  as  the  city  of  Eome  itself. 
Under  Constantine  a  church  was  erected  o\-er  tlie  place 
where  his  remains  were  supposed  to  be  (SH.  Laurentii 
extra  muros);  another  church  dedicated  to  him  is  St. 
Laurentii  in  Damaso.  He  is  commemorated  on  the  10th 
of  August.  The  earhest  accounts  of  his  martyrdom  are 
to  be  found  in  Ambros.  Be  offic.  ministr.  i,  41 ;  ii,  28.  The 
most  glowing  account  of  him  is  Prudentius's  Hymn,  in 
Laur.  (Prudentius,  F'eristeph.). — Herzog,  Real-EncyMop. 
viii,  202 ;  AVetzcr  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lex.  vi,  305. 

Laurentius  Valla,  a  distinguished  humanist,  was 
born  at  Kome  in  1415.  He  was  still  young  when  the 
reaction  against  scholasticism  set  in,  and  took  an  active 
part  in  the  conflict.  He  attacked  the  authenticity  of 
Constantine  the  Great's  deed  of  donation  in  his  Be /also 
credita  et  ementita  Constantini  donatiune  DecUimatio,  as 
also  all  the  other  unproved  assertions  of  the  theologians. 
Thus  he  questioned  the  origin  of  the  so-called  Apostles' 
Creed,  pointed  out  the  faults  contained  in  the  old  Latin 
versions  of  the  Bible,  and  applied  i)hilological  exegesis 
to  the  New  Testament.  It  is  no  Avontler  that  by  such  a 
course  he  gained  many  enemies,  especially  among  the 
clergy,  who  denounced  him  as  an  inlidcl.  He  Avas  com- 
pelled to  leave  Kome,  and  retired  to  the  court  of  Al- 
phonse,  king  of  Naples,  who,  though  fifty  years  of  age, 
now  commenced  to  study  Latin  under  Valla's  tuition. 
Here,  however,  he  commenced  anew  his  arguments  on 
the  Trinity,  free  will,  the  vows  of  continence,  and  other 
delicate  questions,  and  was  therefore  accused  of  heresy 
by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities.  King  Alphonse  suc- 
ceeded in  saving  his  life,  but  could  not  prevent  his  be- 
ing whipped  publicly  around  the  convent  of  St.  Jacob. 
Valla  then  returned  to  Kome,  where  he  found  a  protector 
in  pope  Nicholas  V,  who  gave  him  permission  to  teach, 
and  granted  him  a  salary.  Here  again  he  entered  into 
a  most  violent  controversy  with  Poggi.  He  died  at 
Kome  in  1457.  His  works,  in  which  he  attacks  scho- 
lastic theology  more  with  the  weapons  of  common  sense 
than  of  philosophy,  are  especially  directed  against  Aris- 
totle and  Boetius,  whom  he  considers  as  the  founders  of 
the  scholastic  dialect.  He  looked  upon  the  evidences 
of  Christianity  as  a  result  of  sane  human  reason,  which, 
in  its  development,  has  become  participant  in  the  divine 
revelation.  But  he  was  far  from  attenqjling  to  inquire 
further  into  these  revelations  by  analyzing  their  myste- 
ries. He  says  that  there  are  many  things  we  cannot 
know,  and  that  we  must  respect  tlie  mystery  with  which 
it  has  pleased  (lod  to  surround  them.  His  tendency  is 
eminently  practical ;  according  to  him  there  is  no  Vir- 
tue without  faith,  and  all  without  it  is  but  sinfulness. 
Where  hope  no  longer  points  t.o  liigher  and  eternal 
ha[)piness,  nothing  can  remain  l)ut  the  false  honesty  of 
the  stoic,  or  the  material  sense  of  the  epicure.  "Without 
hope  of  a  future  life  there  can  be  no  virtue,  only  mis- 
ery ;  the  peace  and  inner  satisfaction  of  which  philoso- 


phers boast  are  but  falsehoods.  True  virtue  is  undeni- 
ably above  worldly  desires — it  is  the  chief  requisite  of 
happiness ;  but  it  must  be  Christian  virtue,  not  that  of 
the  philosophers.  Among  his  works  are  to  be  noticed 
Ek(jantiai  Latini  sermonis  (Venice,  1471,  G  vols.  fol. ;  Par, 
1575, 4to) : — Be  libera  arbitrio : — Be  volitptdti'  ac  de  vera 
bono  libriiii: — Fuhulm  et  facetia  ;  and  especiallv  the 
above  Be  falsa  credita  et  ementita  Constantini  dunatione 
declamutio.  His  collected  works  were  published  at  Basle 
in  1540,  folio,  and  at  Venice  in  1592.  See  H.  Kitter, 
Geschichte  d.  Christl.  Pltilasap/ne,  v,  243-261 ;  Herzog, 
Real-EncyUop.  viii,  232,  233 ;  Wetzer  u.  Welte,  Kirchen- 
Lex.  vi,  oOG. 

Lauria,  FnAxcis  Laurext  Brancate  de,  an  Ital- 
ian theologian,  was  born  at  Lauria,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  in  IGll.  He  joined  the  Franciscans,  was  made 
cardinal  by  Innocent  XI  in  1GS7,  and  died  at  Kome 
Nov.  30,  1G93.  He  MTote  commentaries  on  the  four 
books  of  Scot's  sentences  (8  vols,  folio) : — Bevata  luudis 
ad  sanctissiniam  Trinitatem  Oratio  (Rome,  1C95, 12mo)  : 
— Be  Pra'destinatione  et  Beprobatinne  (Rome,  1G88,  4to; 
Kouen,  1715).  In  this  last  work  he  defended  Augus- 
tine's doctrine  on  grace  against  the  Molinists  and  Jan- 
senists.  See  Perennes,  Biograjjhie  Chretienne  et  Anti- 
Chretienne;  Joannes  a  Sancto-Antomo,  Biblioth.  Fran- 
ciscana. — Hoefer,  Nauv.  Biorj.  Gen.  xxix,  939.    (.1.  N.  P.) 

Laurie,  James,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  Feb.  11,  1778,  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  where  he 
also  received  his  education.  He  was  licensed  in  1800, 
and  continued  to  preach  in  his  native  country  for  two 
years,  after  which  he  came  to  America,  having  been  pre- 
viously ordained.  In  1803  he  was  installed  pastor  of  the 
Associate  Reformed  Congregation,  and  was  instrumen- 
tal in  the  establishment  of  the  first  place  of  Protestant 
worship  in  Washington,  D.  C.  He  Avas  employed  also 
during  his  ministry  as  a  clerk  in  the  register's  office  of 
the  Treasur\^  He  died  April  18,  1853.  He  published 
A  Sermon. — Sprague, -4 ?!««/.<,  iv,  314. 

Lavacrum.     See  Font  ;  Lavatory. 

Laval,  FRANfjOis  de  Montmokexcy,  a  noted  prel- 
ate of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  was  born  at  Laval, 
France,  INIarch  23, 1G22,  and  early  decided  for  the  priest- 
hood. He  was  ordained  priest  at  Paris  Sept.  23,  1G45; 
became  archdeacon  of  Evreux  in  1G53,  and  bishop  of 
Petrea  and  vicar  apostolic  of  New  France  in  1G58.  In 
the  year  following  he  went  to  Quebec  ami  assumed  the 
government  of  that  see  ;  while  there,  founded  the  Semi- 
nary of  Quebec  in  1GG3,  and  in  IGGG  consecrated  the  pa- 
rochial church  of  Quebec.  He  returned  to  France  in 
1674.  In  1688,  however,  he  returned  again,  and  retired 
to  the  seminary  he  had  founded,  and  to  this  school  made 
over  all  his  private  possessions.  He  died  at  (Quebec 
May  6, 1708.  Laval  is  said  to  have  exercised  as  pow- 
erful an  influence  over  the  civil  as  he  did  over  the  ec- 
clesiastical affairs  of  the  colony.  See  Y>ra.kQ,  Bictionary 
of  Amiriran  Jiiorjrajihy,  s.  v. 

Lavalette,  Anthony  de,  a  French  Jesuit,  who  be- 
came the  iiulircct  cause  of  the  suppression  of  his  order 
in  France  in  17G4,  was  born  near  Valbres  Oct.  21,  1707. 
He  entered  the  society  at  Toulouse  Oct.  10,  1725;  was 
for  a  time  professor  at  Puy  and  Rodez,  and  ^^■as  ordained 
priest  in  1740.  In  1741  he  went  to  3Iartini<iue,  where 
he  had  at  first  the  care  of  a  parish  ;  then  became  admin- 
istrator of  the  mission,  and  was  intrusted  with  aU  its 
temporal  concerns.  Appointed  general  of  tlie  Jesuits' 
mission  in  South  America  in  1754,  he  indulged  in  wild 
commercial  speculations  for  the  purpose  of  cancelling 
the  debts  of  the  mission,  but  they  all  failed;  he  became 
bankrupt,  ami  bad  to  leave  the  country.  He  retired  to 
England,  was  disowned  by  the  society,  and  died  some 
time  after  17G2.  Tlie  society  was  sued  by  his  creditors, 
but  declined  any  responsibility  for  his  engagements  con- 
tracted without  the  consent  or  knowledge  of  his  superi- 
ors; the  (luestion  was  referred  to  Parliament,  which  de- 
cided against  the  Jesuits.  The  sums  claimed  amounted 
to  five  million  francs.    On  the  8th  of  May,  17G1,  the  Jes- 


LAVATER 


279 


LAVATER 


uits  were  condc.nned  to  pay  the  whole  amount  and  costs; 
and  on  Aug.  G,  17G1,  their  institution  itself  was  attacked 
as  illegal,  and  as  contrary  to  the  interest  of  the  country. 
This  linally  led  to  the  suppression  of  the  order  in  France 
by  an  edict  of  Nov.  1764.  See  Seuac  de  Meilhan,  De  la 
Destruction  des  Jesuites  en  France,  in  itie.' Melanfjes  d'llis- 
toire  et  de  Litterature,  published  by  Crawford,  and  in  the 
appendix  to  the  Memoires  de  Mme.  du  Iluusset ;  Kanke, 
Hist,  of  the  Papacy,  ii,  296  sq. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Ge- 
nerale,  xxix,  973. 

Lavater,  Johann  Kaspar,  a  noted  Swiss  the- 
ologian and  preacher,  one  of  the  most  interesting  men 
of  the  last  century,  was  born  at  Zurich  Nov.  15, 1741. 
His  father,  Ilcnry  Lavater,  was  doctor  of  medicine  and 
member  of  the  government  of  Zurich.  His  mother, 
whose  maiden  name  was  Regula  Escher,  was  a  woman 
of  marked  character  and  oxtraordinarj'  gifts.  His  child- 
hood was  not  marked  by  any  great  signs  of  promise  as 
a  student,  but  he  had  a  decided  tendency  to  religion, 
and  a  great  predilection  for  singing  hymns  and  reading 
the  Bible.  It  was  wliile  at  school  in  Zurich  that  he 
conceived  the  idea  of  becoming  a  minister  of  the  Gos- 
pel. In  1755  Lavater  entered  the  college  in  his  native 
city.  In  1759  he  began  his  theological  studies,  and  in 
1762  was  ordained  a  minister.  In  consequence  of  com- 
plications in  the  political  affairs  of  liis  country,  he  trav- 
elled in  company  with  the  celebrated  painter  Fuseli, 
and  successively  visited  the  universities  of  Leipsic  and 
Berlin.  He  also  visited  Barth,  in  I'omerania,  for  the 
theological  advice  of  the  celebrated  provost  Spalding. 
In  17()4  ho  returned  to  his  native  place,  and  occupied 
himself  with  the  duties  of  the  ministerial  office  and 
Biblical  studios,  lie  also  wrote  some  poetry,  inspired 
by  the  poetical  jn'oductions  of  Bodmer  and  Klopstock. 
In  1766  he  married  Miss  Anna  Schinz,  the  daughter 
of  a  highly  respectable  merchant.  As  the  rosidt  of 
his  study  of  Bodmer  and  Klopstock,  ho  published  in 
1767  his  Schweitzerlieder,  containing  his  finest  poems, 
which  was  followed  by  his  Aiissichten  in  die  Ewigkeit 
(1768-73,3  vols.),  the  tirst  of  a  series  of  works  in  wliich 
he  maintained  the  perpetuity  of  miracles,  the  irresisti- 
bility of  prayer,  and  the  necessity  for  every  person  to 
conceive  of  God  as  manifested  in  Christ  crucilied  in  or- 
der to  be  really  alive  to  himself.  The  last  doctrine  was 
called  his  Christomania.  In  1769  Lavater  was  made 
deacon  of  the  Orphan-house  Church  at  Zurich,  where 
the  extraordinary  effect  of  his  sermons,  his  blameless 
life,  and  benevolent  disposition  made  him  the  idol  of 
his  congregation,  while  his  printed  sermons  sent  forth 
his  fame  to  distant  parts.  It  was  reserved,  however, 
for  his  Physioffiiomische  Fragmente  zur  Befurdenmg  der 
Menschenkenntniss  und  Menschenliehe  (Leipsic,  1775-78) 
to  extend  his  celebrity  generally.  This  Avork,  which 
has  often  been  reprinted  and  translated  (best  by  Dr.  H, 
Hunter,  London,  1789-98,  5  vols,  roj^al  4to),  was  the  first 
elaborate  attempt  to  reduce  physiognomy  to  a  science. 
Having  in  early  life  been  acquainted  with  a  large  num- 
ber of  eminent  men,  he  had  observed  corresponding 
points  of  resemblance  in  their  minds  as  well  as  their 
features,  and  from  a  disposition  to  generalize  he  was 
led  to  adopt  a  fixed  sj^stem,  and  wrote  this  work  in 
the  hope  that  it  might  promote  greatly  the  welfare  of 
mankind,  an  effort  in  which  he  moderately  succeeded. 
He  illustrated  it  with  numerous  engravings  and  vign- 
ettes, and  it  is  superior  in  respect  of  paper  and  typog- 
raphy to  any  book  previously  issued  from  the  German 
press,  Lavater  had  remarkable  powers  of  observation, 
and  skill  in  detecting  character.  He  differed  from  all 
who  had  preceded  him  in  this  science.  In  order  to  form 
an  opinion  of  the  character  from  the  face,  he  required 
to  see  the  face  at  rest — in  sleep  or  in  au  unconscious' 
state,  "The  greater  part  of  the  physiognomists,"  he 
says,  "  speak  only  of  the  passions,  or  rather  of  the  ex- 
terior signs  of  the  passions,  and  the  expression  of  them 
in  the  muscles.  But  these  exterior  signs  are  only  tran- 
sient circumstances,  which  are  easily  discoverable.  It 
has  therefore  always  been  my  object  to  consider  the 


general  and  fundamental  character  of  the  man,  from 
which,  according  to  the  state  of  his  exterior  circum- 
stances and  relations,  all  his  passions  arise  as  from  a 
root,"  Lavater's  "  Fragmente"  gave  rise  to  considerable 
discussion,  and  occasioned  general  excitement.  He  was 
visited  at  Zurich  by  throngs  of  eminent  and  curious  per- 
sons, whose  character  he  usually  judged  with  great  sa- 
gacity ;  at  a  glance  he  recognised  Necker,  Mirabeau, 
and  Mercier,  In  1775  he  was  elevated  to  the  pastorate 
of  the  Orphan-house ;  in  1778  was  elected  second  pas- 
tor of  St,  Peter's  Church  in  Ziirich,  and  in  1786  he  was 
called  to  fill  the  position  of  chief  pastor,  made  vacant  by 
the  death  of  his  associate.  When  the  French  Kevolu- 
tion  broke  out  Lavater  Avas  a  zealous  partisan  of  it,  but 
the  execution  of  Louis  XVI  made  him  turn  in  disgust 
from  the  Republican  party,  and  in  1798,  when  the  French 
took  possession  of  Switzerland,  he  protested  against  their 
ravages  in  a  publication  addressed  to  the  Directory,  en- 
titled "Words  of  a  free  Swiss  to  a  great  Nation,"  which, 
on  account  of  its  high-toned  courage,  gained  the  ap- 
plause of  all  Europe,  This  v.'ork  was  addressed,  under 
his  own  name,  to  Keubol,  a  member  of  the  French  gov- 
ernment at  that  time,  but  was  printed  witliout  his  co- 
operation, and  more  than  a  hundred  thousand  copies 
(;irculated.  At  the  same  time  he  gave  a  thrilling  dis- 
course from  his  pulpit  from  the  words,  "  Let  every  soul 
be  subject  unto  the  liigher  powers.  For  there  is  no 
power  but  of  (jod,"  etc,  (Kom,  xiii,  1-4).  This,  as  may 
be  supposed,  produced  an  indescribable  excitement.  The 
Swiss  Directory  at  first  resolved  upon  his  banishment. 
Difficulties  were  in  the  way  of  carrying  out  this  rigid 
measure,  and  the  decree  was  changed  to  suspension  from 
his  office.  This,  too,  was  prevented  by  his  friends,  and 
finally  he  received  only  a  gentle  expression  of  disap- 
proval. A  few  months  later,  however,  while  away  from 
home  for  his  health,  he  was  seized  and  carried  prisoner 
to  Basle,  on  the  charge  of  conspiracy  against  the  French, 
but  was  released,  after  a  confinement  of  several  weeks, 
for  want  of  evidence.  On  his  return  to  Ziirich  he  re- 
newed his  pastoral  labors,  and  opposed  with  all  his  en- 
ergies the  oppressive  measures  of  the  French  Directory. 
On  the  26th  of  September,  1799,  after  the  French  had 
taken  possession  of  Ziirich,  as  Lavater  was  standing  near 
his  own  house  and  trying  to  pacify  some  disorderly  sol- 
diers with  money,  he  received  a  gun-shot  from  one  of 
them,  which,  though  it  healed  for  a  time,  finally  proved 
fatal.  The  last  year  of  his  life  was  one  of  great  bodily 
suffering,  occasioned  by  his  wound,  Avhich  he  bore  with 
Christian  patience,  praying  for  the  man  who  had  wound- 
ed him.  He  desired  that  the  culprit  shoidd  not  be  ar- 
rested, "  I  woiUd,  Avith  all  my  severe  pain,  have  much 
more  sorrow  if  I  knew  that  any  punishment  were  done 
to  him,  for  he  certainly  knew  not  what  he  did,"  He  at 
the  same  time  inscribed  some  beautiful  poetical  lines  to 
him.  During  the  intervals  of  suffering  his  mental  ac- 
tivity continued  unabated.  He  was  never  idle.  When 
travelling  or  taking  daitj-  exercise,  and  even  at  his 
meals,  he  always  had  a  pencil  and  paper,  that  he  might 
write  down  any  new  thought  that  might  suggest  itself. 
He  wrote,  during  this  period  of  his  life,  several  small 
works  or  poems.  Among  them  were  "  Ziirich  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Nineteenth  Century,"  "Swan  Song,  or 
Last  Thoughts  of  a  Departing  One  on  Jesus  of  Nazareth 
and  Memorial  Leaves."  The  latter  he  desired  to  be  given 
after  his  death,  as  little  legacies,  to  his  friends,  Lava- 
ter's relation  to  his  fiock  was  always  of  the  most  inti- 
mate character,  as  is  evinced  by  his  request,  not  long 
before  his  death,  to  be  afforded  one  more  opportunity  to 
speak  to  his  beloved  congregation,  and  partake  with" 
them  of  the  holy  sacrament.  He  was  carried  to  liLs 
much-loved  Church,  where  he  met  a  large  assembly  of 
devoted  and  sorrowing  ]icoi)le.  One  who  was  i)reseut 
on  the  occasion  wrote :  "  His  face  was  filled  Avith  ear- 
nestness and  love,  bj-  which,  tliough  death  could  be  read 
in  everj'  one  of  his  features,  he  seemed  to  be  reflecting 
the  very  glory  of  heaven."  When  he  was  no  longer 
able  to  sit  up  and  hold  his  pen,  he  dictated  to  an  aman- 


LAVATER 


280 


LAYER 


uensis.  On  the  last  evening  of  the  old  year,  while  ly- 
inij;  ill  bed,  and  his  friends  were  obliged  to  stand  very 
near  to  understaud  liim,  he  dictated  some  lines  (Gernnan 
hexameters)  to  be  read  the  following  day  to  his  congre- 
gation.    He  died  the  '2d  of  January,  1801. 

Lavater  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men  of  his 
time.  He  had  an  original  mind,  and  was  a  true  philos- 
opher. He  wrote  with  acceptance  on  a  great  variety 
of  subjects,  and  on  none  more  effectively  than  on  ques- 
tions of  theology.  Among  those  who  knew  liim  best, 
he  was  distinguished  more  by  his  moral  traits  than  by 
his  intellectual  gifts;  by  his  purity  of  heart,  his  deep 
humility,  his  fervent  piety,  his  Christian  charity  and 
zeal  for  mankind.  A  more  thoroughly  good  man  and 
devoted  Christian  the  annals  of  literature  do  not  exhib- 
it. Goethe  at  one  time  said  of  him, "  He  is  the  best, 
greatest,  wisest,  sincerest  of  all  mortal  and  immortal 
men  that  I  know."  He  always  firmly  clung  to  his  pe- 
culiar religious  views, "  which  were  a  mixture  of  new 
interpretations  with  ancient  orthodoxy,  and  mystical 
even  to  superstition.  One  leading  article  of  his  faith 
was  a  belief  in  the  sensible  manifestation  of  supernatural 
powers.  His  disposition  to  give  credence  to  the  mirac- 
idous  led  him  to  believe  the  strange  pretensions  of  many 
individuals,  such  as  the  power  to  exorcise  devils,  to  per- 
form cures  by  animal  magnetism,  etc.  Some  even  sus- 
pected him  of  lioman  Catholicism.  Thus,  while  his 
mystical  tendency  rendered  him  an  object  of  ridicule  to 
the  party  called  the  enlightened  (Aufgeklarte),  the  fa- 
vor he  showed  to  many  new  institutions  offended  the 
religionists  of  the  old  school"  {Enr/l.  Cyclop,  s.  v.).  Yet 
withal,  many  of  the  religious  world,  even  of  those  not 
immediately  belonging  to  his  congregation,  regarded 
Lavater  with  great  veneration,  and  those  who  were 
entertained  by  a  correspondence  with  him  found  his 
letters  the  great  source  of  their  spiritual  consolation. 
His  biography  by  his  son-in-law  Gessner  {Lehensbe- 
schreibung  Lavaters),  by  far  the  most  complete,  appeared 
in  1802  (3  vols.  8vo),  and  an  excellent  selection  from  his 
works  by  Orelli  (Zurich,  1841-44, 8  vols.  8vo).  See  Ap- 
pleton's  New  A  rnericuu  Cyclopcedui,  s.  v, ;  Hedge,  Pi'ose 
Writers  of  Germany  (Phdadel.  1848),  p.  187-189;  Anna 
Lavater,  or  Picture  of  Swiss  Pastoral  Life  in  the  JMSt 
Century  (Cincinnati,  1870);  Hagenbach, //is/or^  of  the 
Church  in  the  \Hth  and  IQth  Centuries  (New  York,  1869)  ; 
Bodemann,  Lavater  (1856)  ;  Nitzsch,  Lavater  u.  Gellert 
(1857)  ;  Utber  Lavater's,  Herder's,  und  Schleiermacher's 
Kirchcnyeschichtliche  Bedeutun{j,  in  the  A  llyem.  Kirchen- 
zeit.  1856,  No. 91  sq.;  and  the  excellent  article  by  Schen- 
kel,  in  Herzog,  Real-EncyUop.  viii,  233  sq. 

Lavater,  Louis,  a  Swiss  Protestant  theologian, 
was  born  at  Kybourg  March  1, 1527.  He  went  to  Stras- 
burg  in  1545,  and  there  became  intimately  acquainted 
with  the  theologians  liucer  and  Sturm.  He  afterwards 
removed  to  Paris,  and  studied  theology  with  Turnebus, 
Kamiis,  and  Lambin.  After  visiting  Italy  he  returned 
to  Zurich,  where  he  became  archdeacon  and  canon  in 
1550,  and  finall\'  head  pastor  in  1585.  He  died  July 
15,  1586.  His  principal  works  are,  De  Ritibus  et  Instl- 
tutis  ecclesicE  Tigui-ino!  (Zurich,  1559,  8vo)  :  —  Historia 
de  oriyine  et  j)rogressu  Co?ttroversice  Saci-anientaruB  de 
Ccena  Domini  (Zurich,  1563  and  1572,  8vo)  -.-De  Spec- 
iris,  Lemuribus  et  magnis  atque  insolitis  fragoribus  ft 
prcEsagiiionibus  guce  obitum  hominum,  eludes,  mutatio- 
nesque  inipcriorum  prvecediint  (Zlir.  1570,  12mo;  trans- 
lated into  most  European  languages) :  — Fwji  Lr-Jpn  ?/. 
Tod  Ihiurich  linUingers  (Ziirich,  1576);  and  a  number 
of  exegctical  and  devotional  works.  See  Adam,  Vila' 
Theolog.  German  ;  Verhegden,  Elogia  ;  Hottinger,  Bibl. 
Tiguriua.—HocfcT,  Xour.  Biog.  Generale,  xxix,  994. 

Lavatory  (Lat.  laraioriiun),  a  cistern  or  trough  to 
wash  ill.  There  was  usually  a  lavatory  in  the  cloisters 
of  monastic  establishments,  at  whicli-tlie  inmates  washed 
their  hands  and  faces,  also  the  surplices  ami  other  vest- 
ments ;  some  are  still  extant.  This  name  is  also  given 
to  the  pucina  (q.  v.).     In  the  south  of  Germany  the 


Lavatory  at  Selby,  Yorkshire, 
lavatory  is  an  important  feature  resembling  a  baptis- 
tery; it  is  a  separate  chamber,  square  or  octagonal, 
standing  on  one  side  of  the  cloister-court,  with  a  reser- 
voir of  water  or  a  fountain  in  the  middle,  and  water- 
troughs  around  the  sides  for  washing  at. — Parker,  Glos- 
sary, s.  V. 

Laver  ("li^S  and  "i^S,  kiyor',  prop,  a  basin  for  boil- 
ing in,  and  so  signifying  a  "  pan"  for  cooking,  1  Sam.  ii, 
14;  or  a  fire-pan,  ''hearth,"  Zech.  xii,  6;  also  a  pulpit 
or  "  scaffold"  of  similar  form  for  a  rostrum,  2  Chron.  vi, 
13 ;  elsewhere  spoken  of  the  sacred  wash-bowl  of  the 
tabernacle  and  Temple,  Exod.  xxx,  18,  28;  xxxi,  9; 
XXXV,  16;  xxxviii,  8;  xxxix,  39;  xl,  7,  11,  30;  Lev. 
viii,  11 ;  2  Kings  xvi,  17;  plur.  fem.  1  Kings  vii,  30,  38, 
40,  43;  plural  masc.  2  Chron.  iv,  6,  14;  Sept.  Xovrijp, 
Vulg.  labruni),  a  basin  to  contain  the  water  used  by  the 
priests  in  their  ablutions  during  their  sacred  ministra- 
tions.    This  was  of  two  sorts  in  different  periods. 

1.  The  original  one  was  fabricated  at  the  divine  com- 
mand (Exod.  xxx,  18)  of  brass  {copper,  P'llJnp,  see 
Biihr,  Symbolik;  i,  484,  485 ;  Michaelis,  Soc.  Gott.  com- 
ment, iv ;  Umbreit,  in  the  Studien  und  Kritiken,  1843,  p. 
157),  out  of  the  metal  mirrors  which  the  women  brought 
from  Egypt  (Exod.  xxxviii,  8).  The  notion  held  by 
some  Jewish  writers,  and  reproduced  by  Franzius,  Biihr 
(Symb.  i,  484),  and  others,  founded  on  the  omission  of 
the  word  "  women,"  that  the  brazen  vessel,  being  pol- 
ished, served  as  a  mirror  to  the  Levites,  is  untenable. 
(See  the  parallel  passage,  1  Sam.  ii,  22,  where  C^OSj 
yvi'atKM',  is  inserted;  Gesenius  on  the  prep.  2,  p.  172; 
Keil,  Bibl.  Arch,  pt,  i,  c.  1,  §  19;  Glassms,  Phil.  Sacr.  i, 
580,  ed.  Dathe;  Lightfoot,  Descr.  Tempi,  c.  37,  1 ;  Jen- 
nings, Jew.  A  ntiq.  p.  302 ;  Knobel,  Kurtzg.  Exeg.  Ilandb, 
Exod.  xxxviii;  Philo,  Vit.Mos.  iii,  15;  ii,  156,  ed.  Man- 
gey.)  Its  size  and  shape  are  not  given,  but  it  is  thought 
to  have  been  circular.  It  contained  water  wherewith 
the  priests  were  to  wash  their  hands  and  their  feet 
whenever  they  entered  the  tabernacle,  or  came  near  to 
the  altar  to  minister  (Exod.  xl,  32).  It  stood  in  the 
court  between  the  altar  and  the  door  of  the  tabernacle, 
and,  according  to  Jewish  tradition,  a  little  to  the  south 
(Exod.  xxx,  19,  21;  Keland,  Ant.  Ilebr.  pt.  i,  ch.  iv,  9; 
Clemens,  De  Labro  ^Eneo,  iii,  9;  ap.  LTgolini  Thes.  xix). 
It  rested  on  a  basis  ("3,  ken,  Sept.  /3ocrtf)i  i-  e.  a  foot, 
though  by  some  ex|)lained  to  be  a  cover  (Clemens,  ibid. 
c.  iii,  5),  of  copper  or  brass,  which  was  likewise  made 
from  the  same  mirrors  of  the  women  who  assembled  at 
the  door  of  the  tabernacle  court  (Exod.  xxxviii,  8). 
Tliis  ''foot"  seems,  from  the  distinct  mention  constantly 
made  of  if,  to  liave  been  something  more  than  a  mere 
stand  or  support.  Probably  it  formetl  a  lower  basin  to 
catch  the  water  which  flowed,  through  taps  or  other- 
wise, from  the  laver.  The  priests  could  not  have  washed 
in  the  laver  itself,  as  all  the  water  would  have  been 


LAYER 


281 


LAYER 


thereby  defiled,  and  so  would  have  had  to  be  renewed 
for  each  ablution.  The  Orientals,  in  their  washings, 
make  use  of  a  vessel  with  a  long  spout,  and  wash  at  the 
stream  which  issues  from  thence,  the  waste  water  being 
received  in  a  basin  which  is  placed  underneath.  See 
Ablution.  It  has  therefore  been  suggested  that  they 
held  their  hands  and  feet  under  streams  that  flowed 
from  the  laver,  and  that  the  "  foot"  caught  the  water 
that  fell.  As  no  mention  is  made  of  a  vessel  whereat 
to  wash  the  parts  of  the  victims  offered  in  sacrifice,  it 
is  presumed  that  the  laver  served  this  purpose  also. 
The  Jewish  commentators  state  (perhaps  referring,  how- 
ever, to  the  later  vessels  in  the  Temple)  that  any  kind 
of  water  might  be  used  for  the  laver,  but  that  the  water 
must  be  changed  every  day.  They  also  mention  that 
ablution  before  entering  the  tabernacle  was  in  no  case 
dispensed  with.  A  man  might  be  perfectly  clean,  might 
be  quite  free  from  any  ceremonial  impurity,  and  might 
even  have  washed  his  hands  and  feet  before  he  left 
home,  but  still  he  could  by  no  means  enter  the  taberna- 
cle without  previous  ablution  at  the  laver.  "  In  the 
account  of  the  offering  by  the  woman  suspected  of  adul- 
tery there  is  mention  made  of 'holy  water'  mixed  with 
dust  from  the  floor  of  the  tabernacle,  which  the  woman 
was  to  drink  according  to  certain  rites  (Numb,  v,  17). 
Most  probably  this  was  water  taken  from  the  laver. 
Perhaps  the  same  should  be  said  of  the  '  water  of  puri- 
fying' (Numb,  viii,  7),  which  was  sprhikled  on  the  Lc- 
vites  on  occasion  of  their  consecration  to  the  service  of 
the  Lord  in  the  tabernacle"  (Fairbairn).  Like  the  other 
vessels  belonging  to  the  tabernacle,  the  laver  was,  to- 
gether with  its  "foot,"  consecrated  with  oil  (Lev.  viii, 
10,  11).  No  mention  is  found  in  the  Hebrew  text  of 
the  mode  of  transporting  it,  but  in  Numb,  iv,  14  a  pas- 
sage is  added  in  the  Sept.,  agreeing  with  the  Samaritan 
Pent,  and  the  Samaritan  version,  which  prescribes  the 
method  of  packing  it,  viz.  in  a  purple  cloth,  protected 
by  a  skin  covering.     See  Tabernacle. 

2.  In  the  Temple  of  Solomon,  when  the  number  of  both 
priests  and  victims  had  greatly  increased,  ttn  lavers 
were  used  for  the  sacrifices,  and  the  molten  sea  for  the 
personal  ablutions  of  the  priests  (2  Chron.  iv,  6).  These 
lavers  are  more  minutely  described  than  that  of  the 
tabernacle.  These  likewise  were  of  copper  ("brass"), 
raised  on  bases  (Hli-^S,  from  ',!13,  to  "stand  upright," 
Gesenius,7'/ie«(!/r.  p.  G65,  G70 ,  Sept. Griecizes  fitxwim^, 
Vulg.  bases)  (1  Kings  vii,  27,  39),  five  on  the  north  and 
south  sides  respectively  of  the  court  of  the  priests.  They 
were  used  for  washing  the  animals  to  be  offered  in  burnt- 
offerings  (2  Chron.  iv,  6).  Josephus  (^Ant.  viii,  3,  G) 
gives  no  distinct  account  of  their  form.  Ahaz  mutila- 
ted the  laver,  and  removed  it  from  its  base  (2  Kings 
xvi,  17).  Whether  Ilezekiah  restored  the  parts  cut  off 
is  not  stated,  but  in  the  account  of  the  articles  taken  by 
the  Chakkeans  from  the  Temple  only  the  bases  are 
mentioned  (2  Kings  xxv,  IG;  Jer.  lii,  17;  Josephus 
omits  even  these,  A  nt.  x,  8,  5). 

"  The  dimensions  of  the  bases,  with  the  lavers,  as 
given  in  the  Hebrew  text,  are  four  cubits  in  length  and 
breadtli,  and  three  in  height.  The  Sept.  gives  4  by  4, 
and  G  in  height.  Josephus,  who  appears  to  have  fol- 
lowed a  various  reading  of  the  Sept.,  makes  them  five  in 
length,  four  in  width,  and  six  in  height  (1  Kings  vii,  28; 
Thenius,  ad  loc. ;  Josephus,  yl?;^  viii,  3,  8).  There  were 
to  each  four  wheels  of  one  and  a  half  cubit  in  diameter, 
with  spokes,  etc.,  all  cast  in  one  piece.  The  principal 
parts  requiring  explanation  may  be  thus  enumerated: 
{(I)  '  Borders'  (rillJO^,  Sept.  irvyKXiin^iara,  Vulgate 
sciilpturcp),  probably  panels.  Gesenius  ( T/iesanr.  p.  938) 
supposes  these  to  have  been  ornaments  like  square 
shields,  with  engraved  work,  (b)  '  Ledges'  (CSb'J, 
i^tX<'>l^ti'a,  juncture,  from  25^3,  '  to  cut  in  notches,' 
Gesenius,  p.  1411),  joints  in  corners  of  bases  or  fillets 
covering  joints,  {r)  'Additions'  (n""'?,  from  ni^, '  to 
twine,'  Gesenius,  p.  746 ;  xCiQai,  lora,  whence  Thenius 


suggests  \CJpoi  or  Xwf)«  as  the  true  reading),  probably 
festoons ;  Lightfoot  translates  '  margines  oblique  de- 
scendentes.'  ((/)  'Plates'  (CJ'lp,  irQokxovTa,  axes,  Ge- 
senius, p.  972 ;  Lightfoot,  massce  (erece  tetragona),  prob- 
ably axles,  cast  in  the  same  piece  as  the  wheels,  (e) 
'  Undersetters'  (msrs,  wfiiat,  humendi,  Gesen.  p.  724), 
either  the  naves  of  the  wheels,  or  a  sort  of  handles  f(jr 
moving  the  whole  machine,  Lightfoot  renders ' columniB 
fulcientes  lavacrum.'  (/)  '  Naves'  (n"i'n!l\l"n,  modioli), 
io)  'Spokes'  (Cpli'rt,  radii;  the  two  words  combined 
in  the  Sept.  ?)  irpayixaTtia,  Gesen.  p.  536;  Schleusner, 
Lex.  V.  T.  Trpayji.).  (h)  'Felloes'  (D'^Sa,  vuiroi,  canthi, 
Gesen.  p.  256).  (i)  '  Chapiter'  (n'nrs,  Ki^aXii;,  summi- 
fas,  Gesen.  p.  725),  perhaps  the  rim  of  the  circular  open- 
ing ('  mouth,'  1  Kings  vii,  31)  in  the  convex  top.  (k) 
A  '  round  compass'  (a"""  D  ?^",  Gesenius,  p.  935,  989 ; 
ff-pdyyiiXoi'  ki<k\({J  ;  7-otundilas),  perhaps  the  convex 
roof  of  the  base.  To  these  parts  Josephus  adds  chains, 
which  may  probably  be  the  festoons  above  mentioned 
(.4  «^  viii,  3,  ()). 


Conjectural  Diagram  of  the  Laver.    (After  Thenius.) 

a,  borders;  6,  ledges;  c,  additions;  rf,  plwtes  ;  e,  undersetters,  _/,  naves;  ^, 
spokes;  A,  felloes;  i,  chapiter;  X:,  round  compass. 

"Thenius,  with  whom  Keil  in  the  main  agrees, both  of 
them  differing  from  Ewald,  in  a  minute  examination  of 
the  whole  passage,  but  not  without  some  transposition, 
chiefly  of  the  greater  part  of  ver.  31  to  ver.  35,  deduces  a 
construction  of  the  bases  and  lavers,  which  seems  fairly 
to  reconcile  the  very  great  difficulties  of  the  subject.  Fol- 
lowing chiefly  his  description,  we  may  suppose  the  base 
to  have  been  a  quadrangular  hollow  frame,  connected 
at  its  corners  by  pilasters  (ledges),  and  moved  l>y  four 
wheels  or  high  castors,  one  at  each  corner,  with  handles 
(plates)  (for  drawing  the  machine.  The  sides  of  this 
frame  were  divided  into  three  vertical  panels  or  com- 
partments (borders),  ornamented  with  bass-reliefs  of 
lions,  oxen,  and  cherubim.  The  fop  of  the  base  was 
convex,  with  a  circular  opening  of  one  and  a  half  cubit 
diameter.  The  top  itself  was  covered  with  cngra\'ed 
cherubim,  lions,  and  palm-trees  or  branches.  The 
height  of  the  convex  top  from  the  upper  plane  of  the 
base  was  one  and  a  half  cubit,  and  the  space  between 
this  top  and  the  lower  surface  of  the  laver  one  and  a 


LAVERTY 


282 


LAVINGTOX 


half  cubit  more.  The  laver  rested  on  supports  (under- 
setters)  rising  from  the  four  corners  of  the  base.  Each 
laver  coutaiued  40  '  baths'  (Gr.  X""?);  or  about  300  gal- 
lons. Its  dimensions,  therefore,  to  be  in  ])roporliou  to 
seven  feet  (four  cubits,  vcr.  38)  in  diameter,  must  have 
been  about  thirty  inches  in  depth.  The  great  height 
of  the  whole  machine  was  doubtless  iii  order  to  bring  it 
near  the  height  of  the  altar  (2  Chron.  iv,  1 ;  Arias  Mon- 
tanus,  De  Templi  Fabrica,  in  Crit.  Sac.  viii,  G2G ;  Light- 
foot,  Descr.  Templi,  c.  xxxvii,  3,  vol.  i,  p.  Gi6 ;  Thenius,  in 
Kurzg.  Exeg.  llandb.  on  1  Kings  vii,  and  Append,  p.  41 ; 
Ewald,  Geschichte,  iii,  313  ;  Keil,  Hundb.  ihr  Bibl.  Arch. 
§  24,  p.  128,  129)"  (Smith).  Mr.  Paine,  in  his  work 
on  Solomon's  Temple  (plate  xii,  fig.  6),  gives  the  follow- 
ing conjectural  view  of  one  of  these  lavers,  which  is 
more  compact,  less  likely  to  be  overturned,  and  more 
closely  analogous  to  the  forp  of  the  great  or  molten  sea 


Form  of  the  "Laver"  acco;  diu2:  to  Paiue. 


(q.  v.).  Yet  in  neither  of  these  figures  does  the  "  base," 
with  its  chest-like  form  and  inconvenient  height,  seem 
at  all  adapted  to  the  above  purpose  of  catching  the 
waste  water,  or  of  aiding  in  any  M'ay  the  ablutions,  un- 
less the  laver  itself  were  furnished  with  a  spout,  and  the 
box  below  formed  a  tank  with  openings  on  the  top  for 
receiving  the  stream  after  it  had  served  its  cleansing 
purpose.  The  portable  form  was  doubtless  for  conven- 
ience of  replenishing  and  emptying. 

3.  In  the  second  Temple  there  appears  to  have  been 
only  one  laver  of  brass  (Mishna,  Middoth,  iii,  C),  with 
twelve  instead  of  two  stop-cocks,  and  a  machine  for 
raising  water  and  filling  it  (Jlishna,  Tumid,  lii,  8;  com- 
pare i,  4,  Ziima,  iii,  10).  Of  its  size  or  shape  we  have 
no  information,  but  it  was  jirobably  like  those  of  Solo- 
mon's Temple.  Josephus,  in  liis  description  of  Herod's 
Temple  ( War,  v,  5),  scarcely  alludes  to  f  liis  laver.  See 
H.  (L  Clemens,  De  labro  m/ieo  (Utr.  1725 ;  also  in  Ugo- 
lini  Thesuur.  xix);  Lamy,  De  tabernac.  fad.  iii,  6,  7,  p. 
460  sq.,  and  table  10;  Vilalpandus,  On  Ezek.  li,  p.  492; 
L'Erapereur  in  Surenhusius's  Mi.irhna,  v,  3fi0  ;  Schaacht, 
Anim.ivlr.  ad  I  ken.  antiq.  p.  297  scj. ;  Ziillig,  Chcrubim- 
vai/i'ti,  \).  50  sq. ;  Griineisen,  in  the  Shiltijart.  Kunstbl. 
183 1,  No.  5  sq. ;  A.  Clants,  Scription.  biblic.  (Groningen, 
1733),  p,  05;  Scacchi,  Mgroth.  sacr.  thuochrism.  p.  41; 
and  the  various  commentators  on  the  passages  of  Scrip- 
ture, especially  Kosenmiiller,  and  Ilengstenberg'sPcwta^ 
ii,  133.     See  TiiMPi.E. 

Laverty,  Wii.li.vji  W.,  an  American  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  born  in  Union  Comity,  Pa.,  June  15, 1828; 
was  educated  at  Wasliington  College,  Pa.  (class  of  1849), 
and  studied  theology  iu  Princeton  Theological  Semi- 
nary. In  the  fall  of  1853  he  was  ordained  and  installed 
pastor  of  15ig  Sjiring  and  New  Cumberland  churches, 
Ohio.  In  connection  with  his  ministerial  duties  he  also 
filled  the  position  of  principal  of  Hagerstown  Academy. 
In  1857  he  accepted  the  pastorate  of  the  Wellsville  and 


East  Liverpool  churches,  Ohio,  and  in  the  spring  of  1864 
he  was  elected  principal  of  Mongolia  Academy,  at  Mor- 
gantown,  West  Va.,  where  he  died  Oct.  28, 1805.  Mr. 
Laverty  was  especially  adapted  to  the  training  and  in- 
struction of  youth,  and  he  always  devoted  himself  with 
untiring  assiduity  to  whatever  he  undertook. — Wilson, 
Presb.  Historical  Almanac,  1800,  p.  107. 

Lavialle,  Piekre  Joseph,  a  Roman  Catholic  prelate, 
was  born  in  jMauriac,  France,  in  1820,  and  received  both 
a  collegiate  and  theological  education  in  the  universities 
of  his  native  city.  In  1843  he  came  to  the  United 
States,  and  was  ordained  priest  the  following  year.  Af- 
ter a  year's  service  in  New  York  City  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor of  theology  in  St.  IMary's  College,  Lebanon,  Ky., 
and  in  1855  was  appointed  president  of  the  same  insti- 
tution. In  1859  he  declined  the  proffered  bishopric  of 
Savannah,  but  in  18G5  accepted  that  of  Louisville.  He 
died  May  11. 1807.  Bishoj)  Lavialle  was  a  man  of  great 
zeal  and  energy.  He  founded  several  educational  and 
benevolent  institutions  in  his  diocese.  His  character 
was  such  as  to  win  him  the  esteem  not  only  of  his  own 
people,  but  of  the  citizens  generally. — .4  merican  A  nnual 
Ci/clopwdia,  1 807,  p.  428. 

Laviugton,  George,  an  English  prelate,  noted  for 
his  antagonism  to  AVesley  and  Whitefield,  was  born  in 
Wiltshire  in  1083 ;  became  canon  of  St.  Paul's,  London, 
in  1732,  and  in  1747  Avas  promoted  to  the  bishopric  of 
Exeter.  Shortly  after  his  elevation  to  the  episcopal 
dignity,  Lavington,  who  had  from  the  first  looked  unfa- 
vorably upon  the  Methodistic  movement,  found  an  op- 
portunity to  exert  liis  episcopal  jurisdiction  upon  one 
of  the  ministers  of  his  diocese,  the  liev.  JMr.  Thompson, 
"  the  tolerant  and  zealous  rector  of  St.  Gennis,"  who  had 
dared  to  exert  himself  in  behalf  of  a  more  genuine  and 
active  religious  spirit  among  the  people  of  his  own  par- 
ish, and  the  community  in  its  neighborhood.  In  this 
instance  the  bishop  failed  utterly  of  cutting  short  the 
evangelizing  efforts  of  an  earnest  and  zealous  servant  of 
God,  and  he  gave  vent  to  his  feelings  by  a  public  attack 
on  the  originators  of  the  whole  movement — Wesley  and 
Whitefield — in  a  pamphlet  entitled  The  Enthusiasm  of 
3fethodists  and  Papists  comjiared  (LoniXon,  1749,3  parts, 
8vo),  in  which  he  "  exaggerated  their  real  faidts,  and 
imputed  to  them  many  that  were  monstrous  fictions." 
The  attack  was  at  once  taken  up  by  both  tlie  persons 
assailed  in  the  pamphlet,  and  from  the  position  assumed 
by  Wesley  in  his  answer  many  of  the  English  Church 
divines  have  plucked  an  arrow  in  defence  of  their  own 
Church  in  Wesley's  day.  Southey  was  the  first  to  cen- 
sure Wesley  for  the  use  of  intemperate  language  in  his 
reply  to  Lavington,  but  tlicre  is  really  no  reason  for 
any  one,  however  anxious  to  shield  Mr. Wesley,  to  de- 
fend his  harsh  treatment  of  the  bishop,  when  we  con- 
sider that  the  provocation  was  great  indeed.  Mr.  Ty- 
erman,  Wesley's  latest  biographer  (London,  1871,  3  vols. 
8vo ;  N.  York,  Harper  and  Brothers,  3  vols.  8vo,  1872), 
certainly  goes  too  far  when  he  attempts  to  clear  Wes- 
ley's skirts  by  saying  that  Lavington  "  deserved  all  he 
got,"  and  that  he  was  '•  a  buffooning  bishop"  and  '•  a  cow- 
ardly calumniator"  (ii,  94,  153).  But  there  is  no  jus- 
tice in  the  attempts  of  modern  English  writers  to  praise 
bishop  Lavington  at  the  expense  of  Jlr.  Wesley.  The 
bishop  made  a  most  undignified  assault  on  men  who 
were  engaged  in  a  work  approved  and  owned  of  God, 
and,  as  his  later  conduct  towards  lady  Huntingdon 
and  Wesley  himself  ])rovcs,  retreated  from  the  posi- 
tion he  had  taken,  '•ajjologizing  to  her  ladysliip  [Hunt- 
ingdon I  and  the  IMcssrs.  Whitefield  and  Wesley  for  the 
harsh  and  unjust  censures  which  he  was  led  to  pass  on 
them,"  and  even  requested  them  to  "  acce])t  his  un- 
feigned regret  at  liaving  unjustly  wounded  their  feel- 
ings, and  expose<l  tllem  to  the  odium  of  the  wuxM"  {Ladj 
//untinr/dan's  Life  ami  Times,  ch.  vii\  How  iu  the  face 
of  this  position,  however  hypocritical  on  the  part  of  Lav- 
ington, any  English  writers  can  afford  to  defend  bishop 
Laviiigton's  position,  as  has  been  done  lately  in  the 
North  British  Review  (Jan.  1871),  seems  to  us  stiU  more 


LAVIPEDIUM 


283 


LAW 


strange  when  we  take  into  consideration  the  attitude  of 
Wesley  on  his  last  meeting  with  hishop  Lavington  :  '•  I 
was  well  iilease<l  to  partake  of  the  Lord's  Supper  with 
my  old  op])()nent,  bishop  Lavington.  Oh,  may  we  sit 
down  together  in  the  kingdom  of  our  Father!"  record- 
ed by  Wesley  himself  in  liis  journal  of  17G2.  Bishop 
Lavington,  indeed,  seems  to  have  been  fond  of  polemical 
extravagances,  for  a  few  years  after  liis  attack  on  jNIeth- 
odism  he  wrote  The  Moravians  compared  and  detected 
(1755,  8vo).  Besides  these  two  attacks  upon  fellow- 
Christians,  he  published  some  occasional  Sermons.  He 
died  in  17G2.  See,  besides  the  references  already  made, 
Polwhele,  ilistortj  of  Devonshire,  i,  313 ;  Stevens,  Hist,  of 
ilethodism,  i,  247.300 ;  Meth.  Quart.  Revieic,  1871,  p.  306 
sq.    (J.H.W.) 

Lavipedium.     See  Foox-washixg. 

La^w  is  usually  detuied  as  a  rule  of  action ;  it  is 
more  properly  a  precept  or  command  coming  from  a  su- 
perior authorit}-,  which  an  inferior  is  bound  to  obey. 
Such  laws  emanate  from  the  king  or  legislative  body  of 
a  nation.  Such  enactments  of"  the  powers  that  be"  are 
recognised  in  Scripture  as  resting  upon  the  ultimate  au- 
thority of  the  divine  Lawgiver  (Rom.  xiii,  1).  We 
propose  in  this  article  to  discuss  only  the  various  dis- 
tinctions or  applications  of  the  term,  in  an  ethical  sense, 
reserving  for  a  separate  place  the  consideration  of  the 
Mosaic  law,  in  its  various  aspects,  ceremonial,  moral, 
and  civil. 

1.  Classification  ofLau-s  as  to  their  interior  Nature. — 
1.  " Penal  Laivs"  are  such  as  have  some  penalty  to  en- 
force them.  All  the  laws  of  God  are  and  cannot  but  be 
penal,  because  every  breach  of  his  law  is  sin,  and  meri- 
torious of  punishment. 

2.  "  Directinrj  Laws''''  are  prescriptions  or  maxims  with- 
out any  punishment  annexed  to  them. 

3.  "Positive  Laws"  are  precepts  which  are  not  found- 
ed upon  any  reasons  known  to  those  to  wliom  they  are 
given.  Thus,  in  the  state  of  innocence,  God  gave  the 
law  of  the  Sabbath ;  of  abstinence  from  the  fruit  of  the 
tree  of  knowledge,  etc.  In  childhood  most  of  the  pa- 
rental ct)mmands  are  necessarily  of  this  nature,  owing 
to  the  incapacity  of  the  child  to  understand  the  grounds 
of  their  inculcation. 

IL  Certain  Special  Uses  of  the  Tej-m. — 1.  "  Laio  ofFlon- 
or'"  is  a  system  of  rules  constructed  by  people  of  fashion, 
and  calculated  to  facilitate  theit  intercourse  with  one 
another,  and  for  no  other  purpose.  Consequently  noth- 
ing is  adverted  to  by  the  law  of  honor  but  what  tends 
to  incommode  this  intercourse.  Hence  this  law  only 
prescribes  and  regulates  the  duties  betwixt  equals,  omit- 
ting such  as  relate  to  the  Supreme  Being,  as  well  as 
those  which  we  owe  to  our  inferiors,  and  in  most  in- 
stances is  favorable  to  the  licentious  indulgence  of  the 
natural  passions.  Thus  it  allows  of  fornication,  adul- 
terj',  dnmkcnness,  prodigality,  duelling,  and  of  revenge 
in  the  extreme,  and  lays  no  stress  upon  the  virtues  op- 
posite to  these. 

2.  '•  Laws  of  Nations''''  are  those  rules  which,  by  a  tacit 
consent,  are  agreed  upon  among  all  communities,  at  least 
among  those  who  are  reckoned  the  polite  and  human- 
ized part  of  mankind. 

o."Laws  of  Natin-e." — "The  word  law  is  sometimes 
also  employed  in  order  to  express  not  only  the  moral 
connection  l)etwecn  free  agents  of  an  inferior,  and  oth- 
ers of  a  superior  power,  but  also  in  order  to  express  the 
•nexus  criiisrdi.i,  the  connection  between  cause  and  effect 
in  inanimate  nature.  However,  the  expression  law  of 
nature,  hx  natiirw,  is  improper  and  figurative.  The  term 
law  implies,  in  its  strict  sense.  Kpontaneiti/,  or  the  power 
of  deciding  between  right  and  wrong,  and  of  choosing 
between  good  and  evil,  as  well  on  the  part  of  the  law- 
giver as  on  the  part  of  those  who  have  to  regidate  tlieir 
conduct  according  to  his  dictates"  (Kitto,  s.  v.).  More- 
over, the  (lowers  of  nature,  which  these  laws  are  con- 
ceived as  representing,  arc  nothing  in  reality  but  the 
power  of  God  exerted  in  these  directions.  Hence  these 
laws  may  at  any  time  be  suspended  by  God  when  the 


higher  interests  of  his  spiritual  kingdom  require.  View- 
ed in  this  light,  miracles  not  only  become  possible,  but 
even  probable  for  the  furtherance  of  the  divine  economy 
of  salvation.  (See  BusheU,  Nature  and  the  Supei-natu- 
ral.)     See  Miracle. 

HI.  Forms  of  the  Divine  I^aw. — The  manner  in  which 
God  governs  rational  creatures  is  by  a  law,  as  the  rule 
of  their  obedience  to  him,  and  this  is  what  we  call 
God's  moral  government  of  the  world.  At  their  very 
creation  he  placed  all  intelligences  ixnder  such  a  system. 
Thus  he  gave  a  law  to  am/els,  which  some  of  them  have 
kept,  and  have  been  confirmed  in  a  state  of  obedience  to 
it ;  but  which  others  broke,  and  thereby  plunged  them- 
selves into  destruction  and  misery.  In  like  manner  he 
also  gave  a  law  to  ,4  (/«?»,  which  was  in  the  form  of  a 
covenant,  and  in  which  Adam  stood  as  a  covenant  head 
to  all  his  posterity  (Kom.  v).  But  our  first  parents  soon 
violated  that  law,  and  fell  from  a  state  of  innocence  to  a 
state  of  sm  and  misery  (Hos.  vi,  7).     See  Fall. 

1.  The  "Imw  of  Natu7'e"  is  the  wiU  of  God  relating 
to  human  actions,  grounded  in  the  moral  difference  of 
things,  and,  because  discoverable  by  natural  light,  obli- 
gatory upon  all  mankind  (Com.  i,  20;  ii,  14, 15).  This 
la^v  is  coeval  with  the  human  race,  buidmg  all  over  the 
globe,  and  at  all  times;  yet,  through  the  corruption  of 
reason,  it  is  insufficient  to  lead  us  to  happiness,  and  ut- 
terly unable  to  accjuaint  us  how  sin  is  to  be  forgiven, 
without  the  assistance  of  revelation.  This  law  is  that 
generally  designated  by  the  term  conscience,  which  is  in 
strictness  a  capacity  of  being  affected  by  the  moral  re- 
lations of  actions;  in  other  words,  merely  a  sense  of  right 
amhvronr/.  It  is  the  judgment  which  intellectually  de- 
termmes  the  moral  quality  of  an  act,  and  this  always 
by  a  comparison  with  some  assumed  standard.  With 
those  who  have  a  revelation,  this,  of  course,  is  the  test; 
with  others,  education,  tradition,  or  caprice.  Hence  the 
importance  of  a  trained  conscience,  not  only  for  the  pur- 
pose of  cultivating  its  susceptibility  to  a  high  degree  of 
sensitiveness  and  authority,  but  also  in  order  to  correct 
the  judgment  and  fumish  it  a  just  basis  of  decision.  A 
perverted  or  misled  conscience  is  scarcely  less  disastrous 
than  a  hard  or  blind  one.  Historj-  is  full  of  the  miseries 
and  mischiefs  occasioned  by  a  misguided  moral  sense. 

2.  "Ceremonial  La^v"  is  that  which  prescribes  the 
rites  of  worship  under  the  Old  Testament.  These  rites 
were  typical  of  Christ,  and  were  obligator}-  only  till 
Christ  had  finished  his  work,  and  began  to  erect  his  Gos- 
pel Church  (Heb.  vii,  9, 1 1 ;  x,  1 ;  Eph.  ii,  16 ;  Col.  ii,  14 ; 
Gal  v,  2, 3). 

3.  "Judicial  I^aw"  was  that  which  directed  the  pdlicy 
of  the  Jewish  nation,  under  the  peculiar  dominion  of 
God  as  their  supreme  magistrate,  and  never,  except  in 
things  relating  to  moral  equity,  was  binding  on  any  but 
the  Hebrew  nation. 

4.  "Moral  Law"  is  that  declaration  of  God's  will  which 
directs  and  binds  all  men,  in  every  age  and  place,  to  their 
whole  duty  to  him.  It  was  most  solemnly  proclaimed 
by  God  himself  at  Sinai,  to  confirm  the  original  law  of 
nature,  and  correct  men's  mistakes  concerning  the  de- 
mands of  it.  It  is  denominated  perfect  (Psa.  xix,  7), 
peqietual  (Matt,  v,  17,  18),  holy  (Kom.  vii,  12),  good 
(Kom.  vii,  12%  spiritual  (Kom.  vii,  14),  exceeding  broad 
(Psa.  cxix,  96).  Some  deny  that  it  is  a  rule  of  conduct 
to  believers  under  the  (iospel  dispensation;  but  it  is 
easy  to  see  the  futility  of  such  an  idea;  for,  as  a  tran- 
script of  the  mind  of  God.  it  must  be  the  criterion  of 
moral  good  and  evil.  It  is  also  given  for  that  very  pur- 
pose, that  we  may  see  our  duty,  and  abstain  from  every- 
thing derogatory  to  the  divine  glory.  It  affords  us 
grand  ideas  of  the  holiness  and  purity  of  (iod  ;  without 
attention  to  it,  we  can  have  no  knowledge  of  sin.  Christ 
himself  came,  not  to  destroy,  but  to  f'ldfil  it;  and  though 
we  cannot  do  as  he  did,  yet  we  are  commanded  to  follow 
his  example.  Love  to  God  is  the  end  of  the  moral  law 
as  well  as  the  end  of  the  Gospel.  By  the  law,  also,  we 
are  led  to  .see  the  nature  of  holiness  and  our  own  de- 
pravity, and  learn  to  be  humbled  under  a  sense  of  our 


LAW 


284 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


imperfection.  We  are  not  under  it,  however,  as  a  cov- 
enant of  works  (Gal.  iii,  13),  or  as  a  source  of  terror 
(Rom.  viii,  1),  although  we  must  abide  by  it,  together 
with  the  whole  preceptive  word  of  God,  as  the  rule  of 
oiir  conduct  (Rom.  iii,  31 ;  vii). — Hend.  Buck.    See  Law 

OF  MOSKS. 

IV.  Soiptiiral  Uses  of  the  Law. — The  word  "  law" 
(n"nri.  to/a/i',  vo/iof)  is  properly  used,  in  Scripture  as 
clse^vhcre,  to  express  a  definite  commandment  laid  down 
by  any  recognised  authority.  The  commandment  may 
be  general  or  (as  in  Lev.  vi,  9, 14,  etc.,"  the  law  of  the 
burnt-offering,"  etc.)  particular  in  its  bearing,  the  au- 
thority either  human  or  divine.  It  is  extended  to  pre- 
scriptions respecting  sanitary  or  purificatory  arrange- 
ments ("  the  law  of  her  that  has  been  in  childbed,"  or 
of  those  that  have  had  the  leprosy,  Lev.  xiv,  2),  or  even 
to  an  architectural  design  ("  the  law  of  the  house,"  Ezek. 
xliii,  12 ) :  so  in  Rom.  vii,  2,  '■  the  law  of  the  husband"  is 
liis  authority  over  his  wife.  But  when  the  word  is  used 
with  the  article,  and  without  any  words  of  Umitation,  it 
refers  to  the  expressed  will  of  God,  and,  in  nine  cases  out 
often,  to  the  Mosaic  law,  or  to  the  Pentateuch,  of  which 
it  forms  the  chief  portion. 

The  Hebrew  word  (derived  from  the  root  n^"^,  yarah', 
"  to  point  out,"  and  so  "  to  direct  and  lead")  laj's  more 
stress  on  its  moral  authority,  as  teaching  the  truth,  and 
guiding  in  the  right  way  ;  the  Greek  j'tijuoc  (from  vs/iw, 
*'  to  assign  or  appoint")  on  its  constraining  power,  as 
imposed  and  enforced  by  a  recognised  authority.  But 
in  either  case  it  is  a  commandment  proceeding  from 
without,  and  distinguished  from  the  free  action  of  its 
subjects,  although  not  necessarily  opposed  thereto. 

The  sense  of  the  word,  however,  extends  its  scope, 
and  assumes  a  more  abstract  character  in  the  writings 
of  the  apostle  Paul,  fiofiog,  when  used  by  him  with 
the  article,  still  refers  in  general  to  the  law  of  Moses; 
but  when  used  without  the  article,  so  as  to  embrace  any 
manifestation  of  "law,"  it  includes  all  powers  which  act 
on  the  Avill  of  man  by  compulsion,  or  by  the  pressure  of 
external  motives,  whether  their  commands  be  or  be  not 
expressed  in  definite  forms.  This  is  seen  in  the  con- 
stant opposition  of  epya  vo/uou  ("  works  done  under  the 
constraint  of  law")  to  faith,  or  "  works  of  faith,"  that  is, 
works  done  freely  bj'  the  internal  influence  of  faith.  A 
stUl  more  remarkable  use  of  the  word  is  found  in  Rom. 
vii,  23,  \vhere  the  power  of  evil  over  the  will,  arising 
from  the  corruption  of  man,  is  spoken  of  as  a  "  law  of 
sin,"  that  is,  an  unnatural  tyranny  proceeding  from  an 
evil  power  without.  The  same  apostle  even  uses  the 
terra  "  law"  to  denote  the  Christian  dispensation  in 
contrast  with  that  of  Moses  (James  i,  25 ;  ii,  12  ;  iv,  1 1 ; 
comp.  Rom.  X,  4  i  Heb.  vii,  12;  x,  1);  also  for  the  laws 
or  precepts  established  by  the  Gospel  (Rom.  xiii,  8,  10 ; 
Gal.  vi,  2 ;  v,  23). 

The  occasional  use  of  the  word  "  law"  (as  in  Rom.  iii, 
27,  "law  of  faith,"  in  vii,  23,  "law  of  my  mind"  [tov 
voof] ;  in  viii,  2, "  law  of  the  spirit  of  life ;"  and  in  James 
i,  25;  ii,  12, "  a  perfect  law,  the  law  of  liberty")  to  denote 
an  iiiterniil  principle  of  action  does  not  really  miUtate 
against  the  general  rule.  For  in  each  case  it  will  be 
seeu  that  such  principle  is  spoken  of  in  contrast  with 
some  formal  law,  and  the  word  "  law"  is  consequently 
applied  to  it  "  improperly,"  in  order  to  mark  this  opposi- 
tion, the  (jualifying  words  which  follow  guarding  against 
any  danger  of  misa[)prehension  of  its  real  character. 

It  should  also  be  noticed  that  the  title  "  the  law"  is 
occasionally  used  loosely  to  refer  to  the  whole  of  the  Old 
Testament  (as  in  .John  x,  34,  referring  to  Psa.  Ixxxii,  6; 
in  John  xv,  25,  referring  to  Psa.  xxxv,  19 ;  and  in  1  Cor. 
xiv,  21,  referring  to  Isa.  xxviii.  11, 12).  This  usage  is 
probably  due,  not  only  to  desire  of  brevity  and  to  the 
natural  prominence  of  the  Pentateuch,  but  also  to  the 
predominance  in  the  older  covenant  (when  considered 
senarately  from  the  new,  for  which  it  was  the  prepara- 
tion) of  an  external  and  legal  character. — Smith,  s.  v. 

It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  j/o/zof  very  often 


stands,  even  when  without  the  article,  for  the  Mosaic 
law,  the  term  in  that  sense  being  so  well  known  as  not 
to  be  liable  to  be  misunderstood.   See  Article,  Greek. 

LAW  OF  MOSES  {r\'4_-!2  n^lB)  signifies  the  whole 
body  of  Mosaic  legislation  (1  Kuigs  ii,  3 ;  2  Kings  xxiii, 
25 ;  Ezra  iii,  2),  the  law  given  by  Moses,  which,  in  refer- 
ence to  its  divine  origin,  is  called  Ti'iTi'}  n"nFi,  the  law 
nf  Jehovah  (Psa.  xix,  H  ;  xxxvii,  31 ;  Isa.  v,  24 ,  xxx,  9). 
In  the  latter  sense  it  is  called,  by  way  of  eminence, 
rrninn,  the  hm  (Dent,  i,  5;  iv,  8,  44;  xvii,  18,  19. 
xxvii,  3,  8),  When  not  so  much  the  substance  of  legis- 
lation, but  rather  the  external  written  code  in  which  it 
is  contained  is  meant,  the  following  terms  are  employed : 
"  Book  of  the  Law  of  Moses"  (2  Kings  xiv,  6 ;  Isa,  viii,31 ; 
xxiii,  6) ;  "  Book  of  the  Law  of  the  Lord,"  or  "  Book  of 
the  Law  of  God"  (Josh,  xxiv,  2G).  "Judgments,"  "  stat- 
utes," "  testimonies,"  etc.,  are  the  various  precepts  con- 
tained in  the  law.  In  the  present  article,  which  is 
chiefly  based  upon  those  in  the  dictionaries  of  Kitto 
and  Smith  (but  differs  from  them  both  in  maintaining 
the  perpetual  obligation  of  the  ten  commandments),  we 
propose  to  give  a  brief  analysis  of  its  substance,  to  point 
out  its  main  principles,  and  to  explain  the  position 
which  it  occupies  in  the  progress  of  divine  revelation. 
For  the  history  of  its  delivery,  see  Moses  ;  Exode  ;  for 
its  authenticity,  see  Pextateuch  ;  for  its  particular  or- 
dinances, see  each  in  its  alphabetical  place. 

The  law  is  especially  embodied  in  the  last  four  books 
of  the  Pentateuch.  In  Exodus,  Leviticus,  and  Num- 
bers there  is  perceptible  some  arrangement  of  the  va- 
rious precepts,  although  they  are  not  brought  into  a 
system.  In  Deuteronomy  the  law  or  legislation  con- 
tained in  the  three  preceding  books  is  repeated  with 
slight  modifications.     See  each  of  these  books. 

The  Jews  assert  that,  besides  the  written  law,  il"iin 
arDaiy,  vofioQ  tyypa^oc,  which  may  be  translated  into 
other  languages,  and  which  is  contained  in  the  Penta- 
teuch, there  was  communicated  to  Moses  on  Mount 
Sinai  an  07-al  law,  tlS  ?"-lI5  niiri,  vofioQ  nypa<poc, 
which  was  subsequently  written  down,  together  with 
many  rabbinical  observations,  and  is  contained  in  the 
twelve  folio  volumes  which  now  constitute  the  Talmud, 
and  which  the  Jews  assert  cannot  be,  or  at  least  ought 
not  to  be,  translated.     See  Taljiud. 

The  Rabbins  divide  the  whole  Mosaic  law  into  613 
precepts,  of  which  248  are  affirmative  and  365  negative. 
The  number  of  the  affirmative  precepts  corresponds  to 
the  248  members  of  which,  according  to  rabbinical  anat- 
omy, the  whole  human  body  consists.  Tlie  number  of 
the  negative  precepts  corresponds  to  the  365  days  of  the 
solar  year ;  or,  according  to  the  rabbinical  work  Brand- 
spieyel  (which  has  been  published  in  Jewish  German  at 
Cracow  and  in  other  places),  the  negative  precepts  agree 
in  number  with  the  366  veins  which,  they  say,  are  found 
in  the  human  body.  Hence  their  logic  concludes  that 
if  on  each  day  each  member  of  the  liuman  body  keeps 
one  affirmative  precept  and  abstains  from  one  thing  for- 
bidden, the  whole  law,  and  not  the  Decalogue  alone,  is 
ke[)t.  The  whole  law  is  sometimes  called  by  Jewish 
writers  Theriog,  which  word  is  formed  from  the  Hebrew 
letters  that  are  employed  to  express  the  number  613,  viz. 
400  =  n-t-200  =  -l  +  10  =  i+3  =  5.  Hence  613  =  J-'-.n 
theriog.  Women  are  subject  to  the  negative  precepts 
or  prohibitions  only,  and  not  to  the  affirmative  precepts 
or  injunctions.  This  exception  arises  partly  from  their 
nature,  and  partly  from  their  being  subject  to  the  au- 
thority of  husbands.  According  to  some  rabbinical 
statements  women  are  subject  to  100  precepts  only,  of 
which  64  are  negative  and  36  affirmative.  The  number 
613  corresponds  also  to  the  number  of  letters  in  the  Dec- 
alogue. Others  are  inclined  to  find  that  there  are  620 
precepts  according  to  the  numerical  value  of  the  Avord 
"in3=crowi,  viz.,  400  =  n+200  =  "l  +  20  =  D;  and  oth- 
ers, again,  observe  that  the  numerical  value  of  the  let- 


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285 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


ters  il'i'iT,  latv,  amounts  only  to  611.  The  first  in  or- 
der of  these  laws  is  found  in  Gen.  i,  27, 13^1  1"1S,  be 
f miff  til  and  multiply.  The  transgressor  of  this  law  is, 
according  to  l^abbi  Eliezer,  as  wicked  as  a  murderer. 
He  who  is  still  unmarried  at  twenty  years  of  age  is  a 
transgressor;  and  the  law  is  binding  upon  every  man, 
according  to  Schamai,  until  he  has  two  sons  ^  or,  accord- 
ing to  Hillel,  one  son  and  one  daughter  (compare  Juris 
Hebrceorum  leges,  ductu  Rabbi  Levi  Barzelonitse,  auctore 
J.  Henrico  Hottinger).     See  Cabala. 

1.  The  Law  with  refereme  to  the  Past  History  of  the 
People. — 1.  Here  it  is  all-important,  for  the  proper  un- 
derstanding of  the  law,  to  remember  its  entire  dependence 
on  the  A  brahamic  Covenant,  and  its  adaptation  thereto 
(see  Gal.  iii,  17-24).  That  covenant  had  a  twofold  char- 
acter. It  contained  the  "  spiritual  promise"  of  the  Mes- 
siah, which  was  given  to  the  Jews  as  representatives  of 
the  whole  human  race,  and  as  guardians  of  a  treasure  in 
which' "  all  families  of  the  earth  should  be  blessed."  This 
Avould  prepare  the  Jewish  nation  to  be  the  centre  of  the 
iniity  of  all  mankind.  But  it  contained  also  the  tem- 
poral promises  subsidiary  to  the  former,  and  requisite  in 
order  to  preserve  intact  the  nation,  through  which  the 
race  of  man  should  be  educated  and  prepared  for  the 
coming  of  the  Redeemer.  These  promises  were  special, 
given  distinctively  to  the  Jews  as  a  nation,  and  calcu- 
lated to  separate  them  from  other  nations  of  the  earth. 
It  follows  that  there  shoidd  be  in  the  law  a  correspond- 
ing duality  of  nature.  There  would  be  much  in  it  pe- 
culiar to  the  Jews,  local,  special,  and  transitorj- ;  but  the 
fundamental  principles  on  which  it  was  based  must  be 
universal,  because  expressing  the  will  of  an  unchanging 
God,  and  springing  from  relations  to  him  inherent  in 
human  nature,  and  therefore  perpetual  and  universal  in 
their  application. 

2.  The  nature  of  this  relation  of  the  law  to  the  prom- 
ise is  clearly  pointed  out.  The  belief  in  God  as  the  Re- 
deemer of  man,  and  the  hope  of  his  manifestation  as  such 
in  the  person  of  the  INIessiah,  involved  the  belief  that 
the  spiritual  power  must  be  superior  to  all  carnal  ob- 
structions, and  that  there  was  in  man  a  spiritual  ele- 
ment which  could  rule  his  life  bj-  communion  with  a 
Spirit  from  above.  But  it  involved  also  the  idea  of  an 
antagonistic  power  of  evil,  from  which  man  was  to  be 
redeemed,  existing  in  each  individual,  and  existing  also 
in  the  world  at  large.  The  promise  was  the  witness  of 
the  one  truth,  the  law  was  the  declaration  of  the  other. 
It  was  "  added  because  of  transgressions."  In  the  indi- 
vidual it  stood  between  his  better  and  his  worse  self, 
in  the  world,  between  the  Jewish  nation  as  the  witness 
of  the  spiritual  promise,  and  the  heathendom  which 
groaned  under  the  power  of  the  flesh.  It  was  intended, 
by  the  gift  of  guidance  and  the  pressure  of  motives,  to 
strengthen  the  weakness  of  good,  while  it  curbed  direct- 
ly the  power  of  evil.  It  followed  inevitably  that,  in  the 
individual,  it  assumed  somewhat  of  a  coercive,  and,  as 
between  Israel  and  the  world,  somewhat  of  an  antago- 
nistic and  isolating  character;  and  hence  that,  viewed 
without  reference  to  the  promise  (as  was  the  case  with 
the  later  Jews"),  it  might  actually  become  a  hinderance 
to  the  true  revelation  of  God,  and  to  the  mission  for 
which  the  nation  had  been  made  a  "  chosen  people." 

3.  Nor  is  it  less  essential  to  note  the  period  of  the  his- 
tory at  which  it  was  given.  It  marked  and  determined 
the  transition  of  Israel  from  the  condition  of  a  tribe  to 
that  of  a  nation,  and  its  definite  assumption  of  a  distinct 
position  and  office  in  the  history  of  the  world.  It  is  on 
no  unreal  metaphor  that  we  base  the  well-known  analo- 
gy between  the  stages  of  individual  life  and  those  of  na- 
tional or  universal  existence.  In  Israel  the  patriarchal 
time  was  that  of  childhood,  ruled  chiefiy  through  the  af- 
fections and  the  power  of  natural  relationship,  with  rules 
few,  simple,  and  unsystematic.  The  national  period  was 
that  of  youth,  in  which  this  indirect  teaching  and  influ- 
ence gives  place  to  definite  assertions  of  right  and  re- 
sponsibility, and  to  a  system  of  distinct  commandments, 


needed  to  control  its  vigorous  and  impulsive  action.  The 
fifty  days  of  their  wandering  alone  with  God  in  the  si- 
lence of  the  wilderness  represent  that  awakening  to  the 
difiiculty,  the  responsibility,  and  the  nobleness  of  life, 
which  marks  the  '•  putting  away  of  childish  things." 
The  law  is  the  sign  and  the  seal  of  such  an  awaken- 
ing. 

4.  Yet,  though  new  in  its  general  conception,  it  was 
probably  not  wholly  ttew  in  its  materials.  Neither  in  his 
physical  nor  his  spiritual  providence  does  God  proceed 
per  saltum.  There  must  necessarily  have  been,  before 
the  law,  commandments  and  revelations  of  a  fragment- 
ary' character,  under  which  Israel  had  hitherto  grown  up. 
Indications  of  such  are  easily  found,  both  of  a  ceremoni- 
al and  moral  nature,  as,  for  example,  in  the  penalties 
against  murder,  adulter^',  and  fornication  (Gen.  ix,  6 ; 
xxxviii,  24),  in  the  existence  of  the  Levirate  law  (Gen. 
xxxviii,  8),  m  the  distinction  of  clean  and  unclean  ani- 
mals (Gen.  viii,  20),  and  probably  in  the  observance  of 
the  Sabbath  (Exod.  xvi,  23, 27-29).  But,  even  without 
such  indications,  our  knowledge  of  the  existence  of  Is- 
rael as  a  distinct  community  in  P^gypt  would  necessitate 
the  conclusion  that  it  must  have  been  guided  by  some 
laws  of  its  own,  growing  out  of  the  old  patriarchal  cus- 
toms, which  would  be  preserved  with  Oriental  tenacity, 
and  gradually  becoming  methodized  by  the  progress  of 
circumstances.  Nor  would  it  be  possible  for  the  Israel- 
ites to  be  in  contact  with  an  elaborate  system  of  ritual 
and  law,  such  as  that  which  existed  in  Egj-pt,  without 
being  influenced  by  its  general  principles,  and,  in  less 
degree,  by  its  minuter  details.  As  they  approached 
nearer  to  the  condition  of  a  nation  they  would  be  more 
and  more  likely  to  modify  their  patriarchal  customs  by 
the  adoption  from  Egvpt  of  laws  which  were  fitted  for 
national  existence.  This  being  so,  it  is  hardly  conceiv- 
able that  the  Jlosaic  legislation  should  have  embodied 
none  of  these  earlier  materials.  It  is  clear,  even  to  hu- 
man wisdom,  that  the  only  constitution  which  can  be 
efticient  and  permanent  is  one  which  has  grown  up 
slowly,  and  so  been  assimilated  to  the  character  of  a 
people.  It  is  the  peculiar  mark  of  legislative  genius  to 
mould  by  fundamental  principles,  and  animate  by  a 
higher  inspiration,  materials  previously  existing  in  a 
cruder  state.  The  necessity  for  this  lies  in  the  nature, 
not  of  the  legislator,  but  of  the  subjects,  and  the  argu- 
ment, therefore,  is  but  strengthened  by  the  acknowledg- 
ment in  the  case  of  Moses  of  a  divine  and  special  inspira- 
tion. So  far,  therefore,  as  they  were  consistent  with  the 
objects  of  the  Jewish  law,  the  customs  of  Palestine  and 
the  laws  of  Egypt  would  doubtless  be  traceable  in  the 
Mosaic  system. 

5.  In  close  connection  with  this,  and  almost  in  conse- 
quence of  this  reference  to  antiquity,  we  find  an  accom- 
modation of  the  lavj  to  the  temper  and  circumstances 
of  the  Israelites,  to  which  our  Lord  refers  in  the  case  of 
divorce  (Matt,  xix,  7, 8)  as  necessarily  interfering  with 
its  absolute  perfection.  In  many  cases  it  rather  should 
be  said  to  guide  and  modify  existing  usages  than  actu- 
ally to  sanction  them  ;  and  the  ignorance  of  their  exist- 
ence may  lead  to  a  conception  of  its  ordinances  not  onh' 
erroneous,  but  actually  the  reverse  of  the  truth.  Thus 
the  punishment  of  filial  disobedience  appears  severe 
(Deut.  xxi,  18-21);  yet  when  we  refer  to  the  extent  of 
parental  authority  in  a  patriarchal  system,  or  (as  at 
Rome)  in  the  earlier  periods  of  national  existence,  it  ap- 
pears more  like  a  limitation  of  absolute  parental  authori- 
ty by  an  appeal  to  the  judgment  of  the  community.  The 
Levirate  law,  again,  appears  (see  'Mich.  Mos.  Recht,\ik. 
iii,  ch.  vi,  art.  98)  to  have  existed  in  a  far  more  general 
form  in  the  early  Asiatic  peoples,  and  to  have  been  rath- 
er limited  than  favored  by  INIoses.  The  la^v•  of  the  aven- 
ger of  blood  is  a  similar  instance  of  merciful  limitation 
and  distinction  in  the  exercise  of  an  immemorial  usage, 
probably  not  without  its  value  and  meaning,  and  cer- 
tainly too  deep-seated  to  a<lmit  of  any  but  gradual  ex- 
tinction. Nor  is  it  less  noticeable  that  the  degree  of 
prominence  given  to  each  part  of  the  Mosaic  system 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


286 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


has  a  similar  reference  to  tlic  period  at  whioh  the  na- 
tion had  arrived.  The  ceremonial  portion  is  marked 
out  distinctly  and  with  elaboration ;  the  moral  and  crim- 
inal law  is  clearly  and  sternly  decisive ;  even  the  civil 
law,  so  far  as  it  relates  to  individuals,  is  systematic,  be- 
cause all  tliese  were  called  for  by  the  past  growth  of  the 
nation,  and  needed  in  order  to  settle  and  develop  its  re- 
sources. But  the  political  and  constitutional  law  is  com- 
paratively imperfect;  a  few  leading  principles  are  laid 
down,  to  be  developed  hereafter;  and  the  law  is  directed 
rather  to  sanction  the  various  powers  of  the  state  than 
to  define  and  balance  their  operations.  Thus  the  exist- 
hvj;  authorities  of  a  patriarchal  nature  in  each  tribe  and 
family  are  recognised,  while  side  I)y  side  with  them  is 
established  the  priestly  and  Levitieal  power  which  was 
to  supersede  them  entirely  in  sacerdotal,  and  partly  also 
in  judicial  functions.  Tiie  supreme  civil  power  of  a 
"judge,"  or  (eventually)  a  king,  is  recognised  distinct- 
ly, although  only  in  general  terms,  indicating  a  sover- 
eign and  summary  jurisdiction  (Deut,  xvii,  14-20) ;  and 
the  prophetic  office,  in  its  political  as  well  as  its  moral 
aspect,  is  spoken  of  still  more  vaguely  as  future  (Deut. 
xviii,  15-22).  These  powers,  being  recognised,  are  left, 
within  due  limits,  to  work  out  the  political  system  of  Is- 
rael, and  to  ascertain  by  experience  their  proper  spheres 
of  exercise.  On  a  careful  tmderstanding  of  tliis  adapta- 
tion of  the  law  to  the  national  growth  and  character  of 
the  Jews  (and  of  a  somewhat  similar  adaptation  to  their 
climate  and  physical  circumstances)  depends  the  cor- 
rect appreciation  of  its  nature,  and  the  power  of  distin- 
guishing in  it  what  is  local  and  temporary  from  that 
which  is  universal. 

G.  In  close  connection  with  this  subject  we  observe 
also  t/ie  riradual process  by  u-ltich  the  law  u-cts  revealed  to 
the  Israelites.  In  Exod.  xx-xxiii,  in  direct  connection 
with  the  revelation  from  Mount  Sinai,  that  which  may 
be  called  the  rough  outline  of  the  I^Iosaic  law  is  given 
by  (iod,  solemnly  recorded  by  Jloses,  and  accepted  by 
the  people.  In  Exod.  xxv-xxxi  there  is  a  similar  out- 
line of  the  Mosaic  ceremonial.  On  the  basis  of  these  it 
may  be  conceived  that  the  fabric  of  the  IMosaic  system 
gradually  grew  up  mider  the  rc([uirements  of  the  time. 
In  certain  cases,  indeed  (as  e.fi..  in  Lev.  x,  1,  2,  compared 
with  K-11;  Lev.  xxiv,  11-lG;  Numb,  ix,  6-12,  xv,  32- 
41 ;  xxvii,  1-11,  compared  with  xxxvi,  1-12),  we  actual- 
ly see  how  general  rules,  civil,  criminal,  and  ceremonial, 
originated  in  special  circumstances;  and  the  unconnect- 
ed nature  of  the  records  of  laws  in  the  earlier  books  sug- 
gests the  idea  that  this  method  of  legislation  extended 
to  many  other  cases. 

TIk'  lirst  revelation  of  the  law  in  anything  like  a 
perfect  form  is  found  in  the  book  of  Deuteronomy,  at 
a  period  when  the  people,  educated  to  freedom  and  na- 
tional responsibility,  were  prepared  to  receive  it,  and 
carry  it  with  them  to  the  land  which  was  now  prepared 
for  them.  It  is  distinguished  by  its  systematic  charac- 
ter and  its  reference  to  lirst  jirinciples;  for  probably  even 
I)y  M<ises  himself,  certainly  Ijy  tlie  i)eople,  the  law  had 
not  bi'fore  this  been  recognised  in  all  its  essential  char- 
acteristics; and  to  it  we  naturally  refer  in  attempting  to 
analyze  its  various  parts.  .See  Dkuteuoxojiy.  Yet 
even  then  the  revelation  was  not  final;  it  was  the  duty 
of  the  prophets  to  amend  and  explain  it  in  special  points 
(as  in  tlie  well-known  example  in  Ezek.  xviii),  and  to 
bring  out  more  clearly  its  great  principles,  as  distin- 
guislied  from  the  external  rides  in  which  they  were  em- 
bodied; for  in  this  way,  as  in  others,  they  prejiared  the 
way  of  llim  who  "came  to  fuUil"  {-\ijf)Maai)  the  law 
of  old  time. 

IL  A  milj/sis  of  its  Contents.— It  is  customary  to  divide 
the  law  into  the  Jloral,  the  Ceremonial,  and  the  Political. 
I!ut  this  division,  although  valuable  if  considered  as  a  dis- 
tinction merely  sul)jcctive  (as  onal)Iing  us,  that  is,  to  con- 
ceive the  ol)jects  of  law,  dealing  as 'it  <loes  with  man  in 
his  soci.il,  political,  and  religious  cajiacity),  is  wholly  im- 
aginary if  regarded  as  an  objective  separation  of  various 
classes  of  laws.     Any  single  ordinance  might  have  at 


once  a  moral,  a  ceremonial,  and  a  political  bearing;  and 
in  fact,  although  in  particular  cases  one  or  other  of  these 
aspects  predominated,  yet  the  whole  principle  of  the 
jMosaic  insi;itutions  is  to  obliterate  any  such  supposed 
separation  of  laws,  and  refer  aU  to  first  principles,  de- 
pending on  the  will  of  God  and  the  nature  of  man.  In 
giving  an  analysis  of  the  substance  of  the  law,  it  will 
probably  be  better  to  treat  it,  as  any  other  system  of 
laws  is  usually  treated,  by  dividing  it  into  (1)  Civil; 
(2)  Criminal ;  (3)  Judicial  and  Constitutional ;  (4)  Ec- 
clesiastical and  Ceremonial. 

(I.)  LAWS  CIVIL. 
1.  Of  Peksons. 

(a)  Father  and  Son. 

The.  jioioe.r  of  a  Father  to  be  held  sacred ;  cursing,  or 
smiting  ^Exod.  xxl,  15,  17;  Lev.  xx,  9),  or  stubborn  and 
wilful  disobedience  to  be  considered  cupital  crimes.  I5ut 
uncontrolled  power  of  life  and  death  was  apparently  re- 
fused to  the  father,  and  vested  only  in  the  congregation 
(Deut.  xxi,  lS-21). 

Right  o.f  tlie  fir st-h»rn  to  a  double  portion  of  the  iuherit- 
ance  not  to  be  set  aside  by  partiality  (Deut.  xxi,  15-17). 
For  an  example  of  the  authority  of  the  lirst-boru,  see  1 
Sam.  XX,  21)  ("My  brother,  he  hath  commanded  me  to  be 
there"). 

Inheritance  by  Datighters  to  be  allowed  iu  default  of 
sous,  provided  (Xunib.  xxvli,  C-S;  conip.  xxxvi)  that  heir- 
esses married  iu  their  own  tribe. 

Duwjhtera  unmarried  to  he  entirely  dependent  oil  their 
father  (Numb,  xxx,  3-5). 

(u)  Husband  aiul  Wife. 

The  power  of  a  Husband  to  be  so  great  that  a  wife  could 
never  be  siii  juris,  or  enter  iudepeudeutly  into  any  en- 
gagement, even  before  God  (Numb,  xxx,  6-15).  A  widow 
or  divorced  wife  became  independent,  and  did  not  again 
fall  under  her  father's  power  (ver.  9). 

Divoree  (for  uncleanuess)  allowed,  but  to  be  formal  and 
irrevocable  (Deut.  xxiv,  1-4). 

Marriage  within  certain  degrees  forbidden  (Lev.  xviii, 
etc.). 

A  Slave  Wife,  whether  bought  or  captive,  not  to  be  act- 
ual property,  nor  to  be  sold  ;  if  ill  treated,  to  be  ipso  facto 
free  (Exod.  xxi,  7-9  ;  Deut.  xxi,  10-14). 

Slander  aijaiust  a  wife's  virginity  to  be  punished  by  fine, 
and  by  de|)rival  of  power  of~divo"rce  ;  on  the  other  hand, 
ante-conniil)ial  uucleauness  iu  her  to  be  punished  by  death 
(Deut.  xxii,  18-21). 

The  raising  xip  of  seed  (Levirate  law)  a  formal  right  to 
be  claimed  by  the  widow,  under  pain  of  infamy,  with  a 
view  to  pieservatiou  of  families  (Deut.  xxv,  5-10). 

(c)  Master  and  Slave. 

Pover  of  Master  so  .far  limited  that  death  under  actual 
chastisement  was  punishable  (Exod.  xxi,  20) ;  and  mailn- 
iug  was  to  give  liberty  ipso  facto  (ver.  26,  27). 

The  Hebrew  Slave  to  be  freed  at  the  sabbatical  year,  and 
provided  with  necessaries  (his  wife  and  children  to  go 
with  him  only  if  theycame  to  his  master  with  him),  nuless 
by  his  own  formal  act  he  consented  to  be  a  perpetual  slave 
(Exod.  xxi,  1-6;  Deut.  xv,  12-lS).  Tn  any  case  (it  would 
seem)  to  be  freed  at  the  jubilee  (Lev.  xxv,  10),  with  his 
children.  If  sold  to  a  resident  alien,  to  be  always  redeem- 
able, at  a  price  proportional  to  the  distance  of  "the  jubilee 
(Lev.  xxv,  47-.54). 

Foreign  Slaves  to  be  held  and  inherited  as  property  for- 
ever (Lev.  xxv,  45,  46)  ;  and  fugitive  slaves  from  foreign 
nations  not  to  be  given  up  (Deut.  xxiii,  15).    See  Si.avk. 

(i>)  Foreigners. 
They  seem  never  to  have  been  aid  juris,  or  able  to  pro- 
tect themselves,  and  accordingly  protection  and  kindness 
towards  them  are  enjoined  as  a  sacred  duty  (Exod.  xxii, 
21 ;  Lev.  xix,  33,  34). 

2.  Law  op  Tuings. 

(a)  Laics  of  Land  (and  Propertii). 

(1)  AU  Laiul  to  be  the  property  of  God  alone,  and  its  hold- 
ers to  be  deemed  His  tenants  (Lev.  xxv,  2.S). 

(2)  AU  sold  Land  tlierefcH'e  to  retMrn  to  its  original  own- 
ers at  the  jubilee,  and  the  price  of  sale  to  be  calculated 
accordingly  ;  and  redemption  on  equitable  terms  to  be  al- 
lowed at  ail  times  (xxv,  •J5-'.'7). 

,1  House  sold  to  be  redeemable  within  a  year;  and,  if  not 
redeemed,  to  pass  away  altogether  (xxv,  29,  30). 

But  the  Hou.frs  of  the  Levites,  or  those  in  nnwalled  vil- 
lages, to  be  redeemable  at  all  times,  iu  the  same  way  as 
laiid;  and  the  Levitieal  suburbs  to  be  inalienable  (xxv,  31 
-34). 

(3)  Land  or  Houses  sanctified,  or  tithes,  or  unclean  flrst- 
lintrs,  to  he  capable  of  beinir  redeemed  at  six-fifths  value 
(calculated  according  to  the  distance  from  the  jubilee  year 
l>y  the  priest) :  if  devoted  by  the  owner  and  unredeemed, 
to  be  hallowed  at  the  jubilee  forever,  and  given  to  the 
priests;  if  only  by  a  possessor,  to  leluru  to  the  owner  at 
the  jubilee  (Lev.  xxvii,  14-34). 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


287 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


(4)  Inheritance: 


(I)  Sons.  I 

('2)  Daughti'TH.  \ 

(,3)  Brotitera. 

(4)  Vnch»  on  the  Path 

(5)  N^xt  Kinsinenj  generally, 

(b)  Laws  of  Debt. 

Ci)  All  Dehts  (to  an  Isi-aelite)  to  be  released  at  the  seventh 
(sabbatical)  year ;  a  blessing  promised  to  obedience,  and 
a  curse  on  rcl'iisal  to  lend  (Dent,  xv,  1-11). 

(2'i  Interest  (from  Israelites)  not  to  be  taken  (Exod.  xxii, 
25-v!T  ;  Deut.  xxiii,  I'J,  2U). 

(3)  Pleihjcs  not  to  be  insolently  or  ruinously  exacted 
(Deut.  xxiv,  6,  lU-13, 17,  18). 

(o)  Taxation. 

(1)  Censits-moneij,  a  poll-tax  (of  a  half  shekel),  to  be  paid 
for  the  service  of  the  tabernacle  (Exod.  xxx,  12-16). 

All  spoil  in  war  to  be  halved;  of  the  combatant's  half, 
one  tive  hundredth,  of  the  people's,  one  fiftieth,  to  be  paid 
for  a  "  heave-ofl'eriug"  to  Jehovah. 
•  (2)  Tithes : 

(a)  Tithes  of  all  produce  to  he  given  for  maintenance 
of  the  Levites  (Numb,  xviii,  20-24). 

(Of  this,  one  tenth  to  be  paid  as  a  heave-ofi"ering 
[for  maintenance  of  the  priests]  [Numb,  xviii,  2'1- 
32J.) 
(6)  Second  Tithe  to  be  bestowed  in  religious  feasting 
and  charity,  either  at  the  Holy  Place,  or  every  third 
year  at  home  (?)  (Deut.  xiv,  22-28). 
(c)  First-frtiits  of  corn,  wine,  and  oil  (at  least  one  six- 
tieth, generally  one  fortieth,  for  the  priests)  to  be 
offered  at  Jerusalem,  with  a  solemn  declaration  of 
dependence  on  God,  the  King  of  Israel  (Deut.  xxvi, 
1-15 ;  Numb,  xviii,  12,  13). 

Firstlings  of  clean  beasts;  the  redemption-money 
(5  shekels)  of  man,  and  (t  shekel,  or  1  shekel)  of  un- 
clean beasts,  to  be  given  to  the  priests  after  sacrifice 
(Numb,  xviii,  15-18). 

(3)  Poor-Laws : 

(«)  Gleanings  (in  field  or  vineyard)  to  be  a  legal  right 
of  the  poor  (Lev.  xix,  9, 10  ;  Deut.  xxiv,  19-22). 

Q>)  Sliqlit  Trespass  (eating  on  the  spot)  to  be  allowed 
as  legal  (Deut.  xxiii,  24,  25). 

(c)  Second  Tithe  (see  2,  b)  to  be  given  in  charity. 

(f/)  Wages  to  be  jiaid  dag  bg  dag  (Deut.  xxiv,  15). 

(4)  Maintenance  of  Priests  (Numb,  xviii,  8-32). 
(a)  Tenth  of  Levites'  Tithe.     (See  2,  a.) 

(f>)  The  heave  and  wave  offerings  (breast  and  right  shoul- 
der of  all  peace-ofl'erings). 

(c)  The  meat  and  sin  offerings,  to  be  eaten  solemnly, 
and  only  in  the  holy  place. 

{d)  First-fruits  and  redemption  money.    (See  2,  c.) 

(c)  Price  of  all  devoted  things,  unless  specially  given 
for  a  sacred  service.  A  man's  service,  or  that  of  his 
household,  to  be  redeemed  at  50  shekels  for  man,  30 
for  woman,  20  for  boy,  and  10  for  girl. 

(II.)  LAWS  CRIMINAL. 

1.  Offences  against  God  (of  the  nature  of  treason). 
Ist  Command.    Acknowledgment  of  false  gods  (Exod. 

xxii,  2(1),  as  e.  g..  Moloch  (Lev.  xx,  1-5),  and  generally  all 
idolatry  (Deut.  xiii ;  xvii,  2-5). 

2d  Command.  Witchcraft  and  false  prophecg  (Exod.  xxii, 
18;  Deut.  xviii,  9-22;  Lev.  xix,  31). 

3d  Command,     lilasphcmg  (Lev.  xxiv,  15,  16). 

4tti  Command.     Sabbath-breaking  (Numb,  xv,  32-30). 

Punishment  in  all  cases,  death  bg  stoning.  Idolatrous 
cities  to  be  utterly  destroyed. 

2.  Offences  against  Man. 

5th  Command.  Disobedience  to  or  cursing  or  smiting  of 
parents  (Exod.  xxi,  15,  17;  Lev.  xx,  9;  Deut.  xxi,  18-21), 
to  be  punished  by  death  by  stoning,  [(ublicly  adjudged  and 
inflicted  :  so  also  ofdisobedience  to  the  priests  (as  judges) 
or  Supreme  Judge.  Cump.  1  Kings  xxi,  10-14  (Nahoth) ; 
2  Chron.  xxiv,  21  (Zechariah). 

6th  Command.  (1)  Mi(rder,  to  be  punished  by  death 
without  sanctuary  or  reprieve,  or  satisfaction  (Exod.  xxi, 
12, 14;  Deut.  xix,  ll-l.i).  Death  of  a  slave,  actually  under 
the  rod,  to  be  punished  (Exod.  xxi,  20,  21). 

(2)  Death  bg  negligence,  to  be  punished  by  death  (Exod. 
xxi,  2S-30). 

(3)  Accidental  Homicide;  the  avenger  of  blood  to  be  es- 
caped by  flight  to  the  cities  of  refuge  till  the  death  of  the 
high-priest  (Numb,  xxxv,  9-28  ;  Deut.  iv,  41^3  ;  xix,  4-10). 

(4)  Uncertain  Mttrder,  to  be  expiated  by  formal  disavow- 
al and  sacrifice  by  the  elders  of  the  nearest  city  (Deut.  xxi, 
1-0).  J  \  ) 

(5)  .\Rsrnilt  to  be  punished  by  lex  talionis,  or  damages 
(E.xod.  xxi,  18, 19,  22-25;  Lev.  xxiv,  19,  20). 

7th  Cnminaud.  (1)  Adnlterg  to  be  punished  by  death  of 
both  ofl'fuders:  the  rape  of  a  married  or  betrothed  rt'om- 
an,  by  death  of  the  oflender  (Deut.  xxii,  13-27). 

(2)  Rape  or  Sedvction  of  an  unbetrothed  virtrin,  to  be 
compensated  by  marriage,  with  dowrv  (5U  shekels),  and 
without  liower  of  divorce;  or,  if  she  be  refused,  by  pay- 
ment of  full  dowry  (Exod.  xxii,  16, 17 ;  Deut.  xxii,  28,  2'.)). 


(3)  Unlaipful  Marriages  (incestaons,  etc.)  to  be  punished, 
some  by  death,  some  by  childlessness  (Lev.  xx). 

8th  Command.  (1)  Theft  to  be  punished  by  fourfold  or 
double  restitution;  a  nocturnal  robber  miglit  be  slain  as 
an  outlaw  (Exod.  xxii,  1-4). 

(2)  Trespass  and  injury  of  things  lent  to  be  compensated 
(Exod.  xxii,  5-15). 

(3)  Perversion  nf  Justice  (by  bribes,  threats,  etc.),  and  es- 
pecially oppression  of  strangers,  strictly  forbidden  (Exod. 
xxiii,  9,  etc.). 

(4)  Kidnapping  to  be  punished  by  death  (Deut.  xxiv,  7). 
!»th  Command.     False  Witness;  to  be  punished  by  lex 

talioitis  (Exod.  xxiii,  1-3;  Deut.  xix,  16-21). 

Slander  of  a  wife's  chastity,  by  tine  and  loss  of  power  of 
divorce  (Deut.  xxii,  18, 19). 

A  fuller  consideration  of  the  tables  of  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments is  given  elsewhere.    See  Ten  Commandments. 

(III.)  LAWS  JUDICIAL  AND  CONSTITUTIONAL. 

1.  Jdkisdiotion. 

(a)  Local  Judges  (generally  Levites,  as  more  skilled  in 
the  law)  appointed,  for  ordinary  matters,  probably  by  the 
people,  with  approbation  of  the  supreme  authority  (as  of 
Moses  in  the  wilderness)  (Exod.  xviii,  25  ;  Deut.  1, 15-18), 
through  all  the  land  (Deut.  xvi,  18). 

{b)  Appeal  to  the  Priests  (at  the  holy  place),  or  to  the 
judge;  their  sentence  final,  and  to  be  accepted  under  pain 
of  death.  See  Deut.  xvii,  S-13  (comp.  appeal  to  Moses, 
Exod.  xviii,  26). 

{c)  Two  xcitnesses  (at  least)  required  in  capital  matters 
(Numb,  xxxv,  30  ;  Deut.  xvii,  6,  7). 

(d)  Punishment  (except  by  special  command)  to  be  per- 
sonal, and  not  to  extend  to  the  family  (Deut.  xxiv,  16). 

Stripes  allowed  and  limited  (Deut.  xxv,  1-3),  so  as  to 
avoid  outrage  on  the  human  frame. 

All  this  would  be  to  a  great  extent  set  aside — 

1st,  By  the  summary  jurisdiction  of  the  king.  See  1 
Sam.  xxii,  11-19  (Saul) ;  2  Sam.  xxii,  1-5 ;  iv,  4-11";  1  Kings 
iii,  16-2S;  which  extended  even  to  the  deposition  of  the 
high-priest  (1  Sam.  xxii,  17,  IS;  1  Kings  ii,  20,  27). 

The  practical  difliculty  of  its  being  carried  out  is  seen 
in  2  Sam.  xv,  2-6,  and  would  lead,  of  course,  to  a  certain 
delegation  of  his  power. 

2d.  By  the  appointment  of  the  Seventy  (Numb,  xi,  24- 
.80)  with  a  solemn  religious  sanction.  In  later  times  there 
was  a  local  Sanhedrim  of  23  in  each  city,  and  two  such  in 
Jerusalem,  as  well  as  the  Gieat  Sanhedrim,  consisting  of 
70  members,  besides  the  president,  who  was  to  be^'the 
high-priest  if  duly  qualified,  and  controlling  even  the  king 
and  high-priest.  The  members  were  priests,  scribes  (Le- 
vites), and  elders  (of  other  tribes).  A  court  of  exactly 
this  nature  is  noticed,  as  appointed  to  supreme  power  by 
Jehoshaphat.     (See  2  Chron.  xix,  S-11.) 

2.  Royal  Power. 

The  King's  Poieer  limited  by  the  law,  a."!  written  and 
formally  accepted  by  the  king,  and  directly  forbidden  to 
be  despotic  (Deut.  xvii,  14-20 ;  comp.  1  Sam.  x,  25).  Yet 
he  had  power  of  taxation  (to  one  tenth),  and  of  compul- 
sory service  (1  Sam.  viii,  10-18) ;  also  the  declaration  of  war 
(1  Sam.  xi),  etc.  There  are  distinct  traces  of  a  "mutual 
contract"  (2  Sam.  v,  3  (David) ;  a  "  league"  (Joash),  2  Kiugs 
xi,  17);  the  remonstrance  with  Rehoboam  being  clearly 
not  extraordinary  (1  Kings  xii,  1-6). 

The  Princes  of  the  Congregation.  The  heads  of  the  tribes 
(sec  Josh,  ix,  15)  seem  to  have  had  authority  under  Joshua 
to  act  for  the  people  (comp.  1  Chron.  xxvii,  16-22) ;  and  in 
the  later  times  "the  princes  of  Judah"  seem  to  have  had 
power  to  control  both  the  king  and  the  priests  (see  Jer. 
xxvi,  10-24 ;  xxxviii,  4,  5,  etc.). 

3.  RoYAi,  Revenue. 

(1)  Tenth  of  pro4uce. 

(2)  Domain  land  (1  Chron.  xxvii,  26-29).  Note  confisca- 
tion of  criminal's  land  (1  Kings  xxi,  15). 

(3)  Bond  service  (1  Kings  v,  17.  IS),  chiefly  on  foreigners 
(1  Kings  ix,  20-22;  2  Chron.  ii,  16, 17). 

(4)  Floelcs  and  herds  (1  Chron.  xxvii,  29-31). 

(5)  Tributes  (gifts)  from  ftn-eign  kings. 

(6)  Commerce;  especially  in  Solomon's  time  (1  Kings  x, 
22,  29,  etc.). 

(IV.)  ECCLESIASTICAL  AND  CEREMONIAL  LAW. 
1.  Law  of  Sacrifice  (considered  as  the  sign  and  the  ap- 
pointed means  of  the  union  with  God,  on  which  the 
holiness  of  the  people  depended). 
(a)  Ordinary  Sacrifices, 
(a)  The  whole  Burnt-Offering  (Lev.  i)  of  the  herd  or  the 
flock  ;  to  be  offered  continually  (Exod.  xxix,  3S-42) ; 
and  the  fire  on  the  altar  never  to  be  extinguished 
(Lev.  vi,  8-13). 
(6)  The  Meat-Offering  (Lev.  ii ;  vi,  14-23)  of  flour,  oil, 
and  frankincense,  unleavened,  and  seasoned  with 
salt. 

(c)  The  Peace-Offcring  (Lev.  iii ;  vii,  11-21)  of  the  herd 
or  the  flock ;  either  a  tbank-oflering,  or  a  vow,  or 
free-will  ofl'ering. 

(d)  The  Sin-Offering,  or  Trespass-Otl'ering  (Lev.  iv,  v, 
vi). 

[1]  For  sins  committed  in  ignorance  (Lev.  iv). 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


288 


LAAV  OF  MOSES 


[2]  For  vows  unwittingly  made  and  broken,  or 

uncleanness  unwittingly  contracted  (Lev.  v). 
[3]  For  sins  wittingly  cummitted  (Lev.  vi,  1-T). 
(n)  Extraordinary  Sacrifices. 

(a)  At  the  Caii.iecration  of  Priests  (Lev.  viii,  ix). 
(6)  At  the  J'nrijiratiun  of  Women  (Lev.  xii). 

(c)  At  the  Chaiusinii  of  hepern  (Lev.  xiii,  xiv). 

(d)  On  the  Great  Day  of  Atononent  (Lev.  xvi). 
((')  On  the  great  Festivals  (Lev.  xxiii). 

2.  Law  op  Hoi-inkss  (arising  from  tlie  union  with  God 
through  sacrifice). 
(\)  Holiness  of  Persotis. 
(a)  Holincsii  of  the  lohole  people  as  "children  of  God" 
(Exod.  xix,  5,  6 ;  Lev.  xi-xv,  xvii,  xviii ;  Deut.  xiv, 
1-21)  shown  in 

[ij  The  Dedication  of  the  first-born  (Exod.  xiii,  2, 
12, 13  ;  xxii,  29,  30,  etc.) ;  and  the  ofleriug  of  all 
firstlings  and  first-fruits  (Deut.  xxvi,  etc.). 
[2]  Distinction  of  clean  and  unclean  food  (Lev.  xi ; 

Deut.  xiv). 
[3]  Provision  for  purification  (Lev.  xii,  xiii,  xiv, 

XV ;  Deut.  xxiii,  1-14). 
[4]  Laws  against  disfigurement  (Lev.  xix,  27;  Deut. 
xiv,  1 :  compare  Deut.  xxv,  3,  Hgainst  excessive 
scourging). 
[6]  Laws  against  unnatural  marriages  and  lusts 
(Lev.  xviii,  xx). 
(h)  Holiness  of  the  Priests  {and  Levites). 

[1]  Their  consecration  (Lev.  viii,  ix;  Exod.  xxix). 
[2]  Their  special  qualifications  and   restrictions 

(Lev.  xxi ;  xxii,  1-9). 
[3]  Their  rights  (Deut.  xviii,  1-C ;  Numb,  xviii)  and 
authority  (Deut.  xvii,  8-13). 
(u)  Holiness  of  Places  and  Thimjs. 
(«)  The  Tabernacle  with  the  ark,  the  vail,  the  altars, 
the  laver,  the  priestly  robes,  etc.  (Exod.  xxv-xxviii, 
xxx). 
(6)  The  Holy  Place  chosen  for  the  permanent  erection 
of  the  tabernacle  (Deut.  xii ;  xiv,  22-29),  where  only 
all  sacrifices  were  to  be  offered,  and  all  tithes,  first- 
fruits,  vows,  etc.,  to  be  given  or  eaten. 
(o)  Holiness  of  Times. 
(a)  The  Sabbath  (Exod.  xx,  9, 11 ;  xxiii,  12,  etc.). 
(6)  The  Sabbatical  Year  (Exod.  xxiii,  10, 11 ;  Lev.  xxv, 
1-7,  etc.). 

(c)  The  Year  of  Jubilee  (Lev.  xxv,  8, 16,  etc.). 

(d)  The  Passover  (Exod.  xii,  3,  27;  Lev.  xxiii,  4-14). 

(e)  The  Feast  of  Weeks  (Pentecost)  (Lev.  xxiii,  16,  etc.). 

(f)  The  Feast  of  Tabernacles  (Lev.  xxiii,  33-43). 
(y)  The  Feast  of  Trumpets  (Lev.  xxiii,  23-25). 

(//)  The  Day  of  Atonement  (Lev.  xxiii,  26-32,  etc.). 
On  this  part  ofthe  subject,  see  Festival;  Kino;  Peiest; 
Tabernacle;  Saouifioe,  etc. 

III.  Distinctice  Characteristics  of  the  Mosaic  Law. — 
1.  The  leading  principle  of  the  whole  is  its  theocratic 
CHAUACTER,  Its  reference  (that  is)  of  all  action  and 
thoughts  of  men  directly  and  immediately  to  the  will  of 
God.  All  law,  indeed,  must  ultimately  make  this  refer- 
ence. If  it  bases  itself  on  the  sacredness  of  human  au- 
thority, it  must  Anally  trace  that  authority  to  God's  ap- 
pointment; if  on  the  rights  of  the  individual  and  the 
need  of  protecting  them,  it  must  consider  these  rights 
as  inherent  and  sacred,  because  implanted  by  the  hand 
of  the  Creator.  IJut  it  is  characteristic  of  the  Mosaic 
law,  as  also  of  all  Biblical  history  and  prophecy,  that  it 
passes  over  all  the  intermediate  steps,  #id  refers  at  once 
to  God's  commandment  as  the  foundation  of  all  human 
duty.  The  key  to  it  is  found  in  the  ever -recurring 
formula, "  Ye  shall  observe  all  these  statutes ;  I  am  Je- 
hovah." 

It  follows  from  this  that  it  is  to  be  regarded  not  mere- 
ly as  a  law,  that  is,  a  rule  of  conduct,  based  on  known 
truth  and  acknowledged  authority,  but  also  as  a  revela- 
tion of  God's  nature  and  his  dispensations.  In  this  view 
of  it,  more  particularly,  lies  its  connection  with  the  rest 
of  the  Old  Testament.  As  a  law,  it  is  definite  and  (gen- 
erally speaking)  final;  as  a  revelation,  it  is  the  begin- 
ning of  the  great  system  of  prophecy,  and  indeed  bears 
within  itself  the  marks  of  gradual  development,  from  the 
first  simple  declaration  ("I  am  the  Lord  thy  God")  in 
Exodus  to  the  full  and  solemn  declaration  of  his  nature 
and  will  in  Deuteronomy.  With  this  peculiar  character 
of  revelation  stamped  upon  it,  it  naturally  ascends  from 
rule  to  principle,  and  regards  all  gfiodness  in  man  as  the 
shadow  of  the  divine  attributes,'' Ye  shall  be  holy;  fori 
the  Lord  your  God  am  lioly"  (Lev.  xLx,  2,  etc. ;  comp. 
MatU  V,  48). 


Cut  this  theocratic  character  of  the  law  depends  nec- 
essarily on  the  belief  in  God  as  not  only  the  creator  and 
sustainer  of  the  world,  but  as,  by  special  covenant,  the 
head  of  the  Jewish  nation.  It  is  not  indeed  doubted 
that  he  is  the  king  of  all  the  earth,  and  that  all  earthly 
authority  is  derived  from  him ;  but  liere  again,  in  the 
case  of  the  Israelites,  the  intermediate  steps  are  all  but 
ignored,  and  the  people  are  at  once  brought  face  to  face 
with  him  as  their  rider.  It  is  to  be  especially  noticed  that 
God's  claim  (so  to  speak)  on  their  allegiance  is  based, 
not  on  his  power  or  wisdom,  but  on  his  especial  mercy 
in  being  their  saviour  from  Egyptian  bondage.  Be- 
cause they  were  made  free  by  him,  therefore  they  be- 
came his  servants  (comp.  Kom.  vi,  19-22) ;  and  the  dec- 
laration which  stands  at  the  opening  of  the  law  is, "  I 
am  the  Lord  thy  God,  ichich  hi-oiight  thee  out  of  the  land 
of  Effyj^f"  (Compare  also  the  reason  given  for  the  ob- 
servance of  the  Sabbath  in  Deut.  v,  15;  and  the  histor- 
ical prefaces  of  the  delivery  of  the  second  law  [Deut.  i- 
iii] ;  of  the  renewal  of  the  covenant  by  Joshua  [Josh. 
xxiv,  1-13]  ;  and  of  the  rebuke  of  Samuel  at  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  kingdom  [1  Sam.  xii,  6-15].) 

This  immediate  reference  to  God  as  their  king  is 
clearly  seen  as  the  groundwork  of  their  entire  polity. 
The  foundation  of  the  whole  law  of  land,  and  of  its  re- 
markable provisions  against  alienation,  lies  in  the  decla- 
ration, "  The  land  is  mine,  and  ye  are  strangers  and  so- 
journers with  me"  (Lev.  xxv,  23).  As  in  ancient  Home 
all  land  belonged  properly  to  the  state,  and  under  the 
feudal  system  in  mediaeval  Europe  to  the  king,  so  in 
the  Jewish  law  the  true  ownership  lay  in  Jehovah  alone. 
The  very  system  of  tithes  embodied  only  a  peculiar 
form  of  tribute  to  their  king,  such  as  they  were  familiar 
with  in  Egypt  (see  Gen.  xlvii,  23-2(5) ;  and  the  offering 
of  the  first-fruits,  with  the  remarkable  declaration  by 
which  it  was  accompanied  (see  Deut.  xxvi,  5-10),  is  a 
direct  acknowledgment  of  God's  immediate  sovereign- 
ty. As  the  land,  so  also  the  persons  of  the  Israelites  are 
declared  to  be  the  absolute  property  of  the  Lord  by  the 
dedication  and  ransom  of  the  first-bom  (Exod.  xiii,  2- 
13,  etc.),  by  the  payment  of  the  half  shekel  at  the  num- 
bering of  the  people  "  as  a  ransom  for  their  souls  to  the 
Lord"  (Exod.  xxx,  11-16),  and  by  the  limitation  of 
power  over  Hebrew  slaves  as  contrasted  with  the  abso- 
lute mastership  permitted  over  the  heathen  and  the  so- 
journer (Lev.  xxv,  39-46). 

From  this  theocratic  nature  of  the  law  follow  impor- 
tant deductions  with  regard  to  (a)  the  Aiew  which  it 
takes  of  political  society ;  (6)  the  extent  of  the  scope  of 
the  la^v ;  (c)  the  penalties  by  which  it  is  enforced ;  and 
(d)  the  character  which  it  seeks  to  impress  on  the  peo- 
ple. 

(1.)  The  basis  of  human  society  is  ordinarily  sought, 
by  law  or  philosophy,  either  in  the  rights  of  the  indi- 
vidual, and  the  y)artial  delegation  of  them  to  political 
authorities;  or  in  the  mutual  needs  of  men,  and  the  re- 
lations which  spring  from  them ;  or  in  the  actual  exist- 
ence of  power  of  man  over  man,  whether  arising  from 
natural  relationship,  or  from  benefits  confeiTcd,  or  from 
physical  or  intellectual  ascendency.  The  maintenance 
of  society  is  supposed  to  depend  on  a  "social  compact" 
between  governors  and  subjects;  a  compact,  true  as  an 
abstract  idea,  but  untrue  if  supposed  to  have  been  a  his- 
torical reality.  The  !Mosaic  law  seeks  the  basis  of  its 
polity,  first,  in  the  absolute  sovereignty  of  God;  next,  in 
the  relationship  of  each  individual  to  God,  and  through 
God  to  his  countrymen.  It  is  clear  that  such  a  doc- 
trine, while  it  contradicts  none  of  the  common  theories, 
yet  lies  beneath  them  all,  and  shows  why  each  of  them, 
being  only  a  secondarj-  deduction  from  an  ultimate  truth, 
cannot  be  in  itself  sufficient ;  and,  if  it  claim  to  be  the 
whole  truth,  will  become  an  absurdity.  It  is  the  doc- 
trine which  is  insisted  upon  and  develoi)ed  in  the  whole 
series  of  pro])hecy,  and  which  is  brought  to  its  perfec- 
tion only  when  applied  to  that  universal  and  spiritual 
kingdom  for  which  the  IMosaic  system  was  a  ])rcparation. 

(2.)  The  law,  as  proceetUng  directly  from  God,  and 


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289 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


referring  directly  to  him,  is  necessarily  absolute  in  its  su- 
jyremacy  and  unlimited  in  its  scope. 

It  is  supreme  over  the  governors,  as  being  only  the 
delegates  of  the  Lord,  and  therefore  it  is  incompatible 
with  any  despotic  authority  in  them.  This  is  seen 
in  its  limitation  of  the  power  of  the  master  over  the 
slave,  in  the  restrictions  laid  on  the  priesthood,  and  the 
ordination  of  the  "  manner  of  the  kingdom"  (Deut.  xvii, 
14-20;  comp.  1  Sam.  x,  25).  By  its  establishment  of 
the  hereditary  priesthood  side  by  side  with  the  author- 
ity of  the  heads  of  tribes  ("  the  princes"),  and  the  sub- 
sequent sovereignty  of  the  king,  it  provides  a  balance 
of  po\vers,  all  of  which  are  regarded  as  subordinate.  The 
absolute  sovereignty  of  Jehovah  was  asserted  in  the  ear- 
lier times  in  the  dictatorship  of  the  judge,  but  much 
more  clearly  under  the  kingdom  by  the  spiritual  com- 
mission of  the  prophet.  By  his  rebukes  of  priests, 
princes,  and  kings  for  abuse  of  their  power,  he  was  not 
only  defending  religion  and  morality,  but  also  maintain- 
ing the  divinely-appointed  constitution  of  Israel. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  supreme  over  the  governed, 
recognising  no  inherent  rights  in  the  individual  as  pre- 
vailing against,  or  limiting  the  law.  It  is  therefore  un- 
limited in  its  scope.  There  is  in  it  no  recognition,  such 
as  is  familiar  to  us,  that  there  is  one  class  of  actions  di- 
rectly subject  to  the  coercive  power  of  law,  while  other 
classes  of  actions  and  the  whole  realm  of  thought  are  to 
be  indirectly  guided  by  moral  and  spiritual  influence. 
Nor  is  there  any  distinction  of  the  temporal  authority 
which  wields  the  former  power  from  the  spiritual  au- 
thority to  which  belongs  the  other.  In  fact,  these  dis- 
tinctions woidd  have  been  incompatible  with  the  char- 
acter and  objects  of  the  law.  They  depend  partly  on 
the  want  of  Ibresight  and  power  in  the  lawgiver ;  they 
could  have  no  place  in  a  system  traced  directly  to  God : 
they  depend  also  partly  on  the  freedom  which  belongs 
to  the  manhood  of  our  race ;  they  could  not,  therefore, 
be  appropriate  to  the  more  imperfect  period  of  its  j-outh. 

Thus  the  law  regulated  the  whole  life  of  an  Israelite. 
His  house,  his  dress,  and  his  food,  his  domestic  arrange- 
ments and  the  distribution  of  his  property,  all  were  de- 
termined. In  the  laws  of  the  release  of  debts  and  the 
prohibition  of  usury,  the  dictates  of  self-interest  and  the 
natural  course  of  commercial  transactions  are  sternly 
checked.  His  actions  were  rewarded  and  punished  with 
great  minuteness  and  strictness,  and  that  according  to 
the  standard,  not  of  their  consequences,  but  of  their  in- 
trinsic morality,  so  that,  for  example,  fornication  and 
adultery  were  as  severely  visited  as  theft  or  murder. 
His  religious  worship  was  defined  and  enforced  in  an 
elaborate  and  unceasing  ceremonial.  In  all  things  it  is 
clear  that,  if  men  submitted  to  it  merely  as  a  law,  im- 
posed under  penalties  by  an  irresistible  authority,  and 
did  not  regard  it  as  a  means  to  the  knowledge  and  love 
of  God,  and  a  preparation  for  his  redemption,  it  would 
well  deserve  from  Israelites  the  description  given  of  it 
by  St.  Peter  (Acts  xv,  10)  as  "  a  yoke  which  neither 
they  nor  their  fathers  were  able  to  bear." 

(3.)  The  penalties  and  7-ewards  by  which  the  law  is 
enforced  are  such  as  depend  on  the  direct  theocracy. 
With  regard  to  individual  actions,  it  may  be  noticed 
that,  as  generally  some  penalties  are  inflicted  by  the 
subordinate,  and  some  only  by  the  supreme  authority, 
so  among  the  Israelites  some  penalties  came  from  the 
hand  of  man,  some  directly  from  the  providence  of  God. 
So  much  is  this  the  case,  that  it  often  seems  doubtful 
whether  the  threat  that  a  "  soul  shall  be  cut  off  from 
Israel"  refers  to  outlawrj"^  and  excommunication,  or  to 
such  miraculous  punishments  as  those  of  Nadab  and 
Abihu,  or  Korah,  Dathan,  and  Abirani.  In  dealing  with 
the  nation  at  large,  Moses,  regularly  and  as  a  matter  of 
course,  refers  for  punishments  and  rewards  to  the  provi- 
dence of  God.  This  is  seen  not  only  in  the  great  bless- 
ing and  curse  which  enforces  the  law  as  a  whole,  but 
also  in  special  instances,  as,  for  example,  in  the  promise 
of  unusual  fertility  to  compensate  for  the  sabbatical 
year,  and  of  safety  of  the  countrv  from  attack  when  left 
v.— T  ' 


undefended  at  the  three  great  festivals.  Whether  these 
were  to  come  from  natural  causes,  i.  e.  laws  of  his  prov- 
idence, which  we  can  understand  and  foresee,  or  from 
causes  supernatural,  i.  e.  incomprehensible  and  inscruta- 
ble to  us,  is  not  in  any  case  laid  down,  nor  indeed  does 
it  affect  this  principle  of  the  law. 

(4.)  The  bearing  of  this  principle  on  the  inquiry  as  to 
the  revelation  of  a  future  life,  in  the  Pentateuch,  is  easily 
seen.  So  far  as  the  law  deals  with  the  nation  as  a 
whole,  it  is  obvious  that  its  penalties  and  rewards  could 
only  refer  to  this  life,  in  which  alone  the  nation  exists. 
So  far  as  it  relates  to  such  individual  acts  as  are  gener- 
ally cognizable  by  human  law,  and  capable  of  temporal 
punishments,  no  one  would  expect  that  its  divine  origin 
should  necessitate  any  reference  to  the  world  to  come. 
But  the  sphere  of  moral  and  religious  action  and  thought 
to  which  it  extends  is  beyond  the  cognizance  of  human 
laws  and  the  scope  of  their  ordinary  penalties,  and  is 
therefore  left  by  them  to  the  retribution  of  God's  inscru- 
table justice,  which,  being  but  imperfectly  seen  here,  is 
contemplated  especially  as  exercised  in  a  future  state. 
Hence  arises  the  expectation  of  a  direct  revelation  of 
this  future  state  in  the  Mosaic  law.  Such  a  revelation 
is  certainly  not  given.  Warburton  (in  his  Divine  Le- 
gation of  Moses)  even  builds  on  its  non-existence  an  ar- 
gument for  the  supernatural  power  and  commission  of 
the  lawgiver,  who  could  promise  and  threaten  retribu- 
tion from  the  providence  of  God  in  this  life,  and  submit 
his  predictions  to  the  test  of  actual  experience.  The 
truth  seems  to  be  that,  in  a  law  which  appeals  directly 
to  God  himself  for  its  authority  and  its  sanction,  there 
cannot  be  that  broad  line  of  demarcation  between  this 
life  and  the  next  which  is  drawn  lor  those  whose  power 
is  limited  by  the  grave.  Our  Lord  has  taught  us  (jMatt. 
xxii,  31,32)  that  in  the  very  revelation  of  God,  as  the 
"  God  of  Abraham,  and  Isaac,  and  Jacob,"  the  promise  of 
immortality  and  future  retribution  was  implicitly  con- 
tained. We  may  apply  this  declaration  even  more 
strongly  to  a  law  in  which  God  was  revealed  as  enter- 
ing into  covenant  with  Israel,  and  in  them  drawing 
mankind  directly  under  his  immediate  government. 
His  blessings  and  curses,  by  the  very  fact  that  they 
came  from  him,  would  be  felt  to  be  milimited  by  time^ 
and  the  plain  and  immediate  fulfilment  which  they 
found  in  this  life  would  be  accepted  as  an  earnest  of  a. 
deeper,  though  more  mysterious  completion  in  the  world 
to  come.  But  the  time  for  the  clear  revelation  of  thi& 
truth  had  not  yet  come,  and  therefore,  while  the  future- 
life  and  its  retribution  is  implied,  yet  the  rewards  and 
penalties  of  the  present  life  are  those  which  are  plainly 
held  out  and  practically  dwelt  upon. 

(5.)  But  perhaps  the  most  important  consequence  of 
the  theocratic  nature  of  the  law  was  the  jieculiar  char- 
acter offjoodness  which  it  sought  to  impress  on  the  peo- 
ple. Goodness  in  its  relation  to  man  takes  the  forms  of 
righteousness  and  love ;  in  its  independence  of  aU  rela- 
tion, the  form  of  purity ;  and  in  its  relation  to  God,  that 
of  piet3\  Laws  which  contemplate  men  chiefly  in  their 
mutual  relations  endeavor  to  enforce  or  protect  in  thera 
the  first  two  qualities;  the  Mosaic  law,  beginning  with 
piety  as  its  first  object,  enforces  most  emphatically  the 
purity  essential  to  those  who,  by  their  union  with  God,, 
have  recovered  the  hope  of  intrinsic  goodness,  while  it 
views  righteousness  and  love  rather  as  deductions  from 
these  than  as  independent  objects.  Not  that  it  neglects 
these  qualities;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  full  of  precepts 
which  show  a  high  conception  and  tender  care  of  our 
relative  duties  to  man  (see,  for  example,  Exod.xxi,7-ll, 
28-36;  xxiii,  1-9;  Dcut.  xxii,  1-4;  xxiv,  10-22,  etc.) ; 
but  these  can  hardly  be  called  its  distinguishing  feat- 
ures. It  is  most  instructive  to  refer  to  the  religious 
preface  of  the  law  in  Deut.  vi-xi  (especially  to  vi,  4-13), 
where  all  is  based  on  the  first  great  commandment,  and 
to  observe  the  subordinate  and  dependent  character  of 
"  the  second  that  is  like  unto  it" — '*•  Thou  shalt  love  thy 
neighbor  as  thj'self ;  /  am  the  Lord"  (Lev.  xix,  18).  On 
the  contrary',  the  care  for  the  purity  of  the  people  stands- 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


290 


Lx\W  OF  MOSES 


out  remarkably,  not  only  in  the  enforcement  of  ceremo- 
nial "  cleanness,"  and  the  multitude  of  precautions  or 
remedies  against  any  breach  of  it,  but  also  in  the  sever- 
ity of  the  laws  against  self-pollution,  a  severity  which 
distinguishes  the  Mosaic  code  before  all  others,  ancient 
and  modern.  In  punishing  these  sins,  as  committed 
against  a  man's  own  self,  without  reference  to  their  ef- 
fect on  others,  and  in  recognising  purity  as  having  a 
substantive  value  and  glorj^,  it  sets  up  a  standard  of  in- 
dividual morality  such  as,  even  in  Greece  and  Rome, 
philosophy  reserved  for  its  most  esoteric  teaching. 

Now  in  all  this  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  appeal  is 
not  to  any  dignity  of  human  nature,  but  to  the  obliga- 
tions of  communion  with  a  holy  God.  The  subordina- 
tion, therefore,  of  this  idea  also  to  the  religious  idea  is 
enforced ;  and  as  long  as  the  due  supremacy  of  the  lat- 
ter was  preserved,  all  other  duties  would  find  their  places 
iu  proper  harmony.  But  the  usurpation  of  that  su- 
premacy in  practice  by  the  idea  of  personal  and  national 
sanctity  was  that  which  gave  its  pecidiar  color  to  the 
.Jewish  character.  In  that  character  there  was  intense 
religious  devotion  and  self-sacrifice;  there  was  a  high 
standard  of  personal  holiness,  and  connected  with  these 
an  ardent  feeling  of  nationality,  based  on  a  great  idea, 
and,  therefore,  finding  its  vent  in  their  proverbial  spirit 
of  proselytism.  But  there  was  also  a  spirit  of  contempt 
for  all  unbelievers,  and  a  forgetfulness  of  the  existence 
of  any  duties  towards  them,  which  gave  even  to  their 
religion  an  antagonistic  spirit,  and  degraded  it  in  after 
times  to  a  ground  of  national  self-glorification.  It  is  to 
be  traced  to  a  natural,  though  not  justifiable  perversion 
f)f  the  law  by  those  who  made  it  their  aU,  and  both  in 
its  strength  and  its  weaknesses  it  has  reappeared  re- 
markably among  those  Christians  who  have  dwelt  on 
the  Old  Testament  to  the  neglect  of  the  New. 

(6.)  It  is  evident  that  this  characteristic  of  the  Isra- 
elites would  tend  to  preserve  the  seclusion  which,  under 
(Jod's  providence,  was  intended  for  them,  and  woiUd  in 
its  turn  be  fostered  by  it.  We  may  notice,  in  connec- 
tion with  this  part  of  the  subject,  many  subordinate 
provisions  tending  to  the  same  direction.  Such  are  the 
establishment  of  an  agricultural  basis  of  society  and 
property,  and  the  provision  against  its  accumulation  in 
a  few  hands;  the  discouragement  of  commerce  by  the 
strict  laws  as  to  usury,  and  of  foreign  conquest  by  the 
laws  against  the  maintenance  of  horses  and  chariots,  as 
well  as  the  direct  prohibition  of  intermarriage  with 
idolaters,  and  the  indirect  prevention  of  all  familiar  in- 
tercourse with  them  by  the  laws  as  to  meats — all  these 
things  tended  to  impress  on  the  Israelitish  polity  a 
character  of  permanence,  stability,  and  comparative  iso- 
lation. Like  the  nature  and  position  of  the  country  to 
which  it  was  in  great  measure  adapted,  it  was  intended 
to  preserve  in  purity  the  testimony  borne  by  Israel  for 
God  in  the  darkness  of  heathenism,  until  the  time  should 
cx)nie  for  the  gathering  in  of  all  nations  to  enjoy  the 
blessing  promised  to  Abraham. 

2.  Tiie  second  great  and  obvious  design  of  the  Mosaic 
statutes  was  to  found,  iu  pursuance  of  the  theocratic  idea, 
a  complete  system  of  national  cui/rrs,  and,  in  order  to 
the  perpetuity  of  this,  to  establish  a  permanent  sacred 
caste  or  hierarchy.  We  here  use  the  word  hierarchy 
without  meaning  to  express  that  the  Mosaic  legisla- 
tion was  like  some  later  hierarchies  falsely  so  called,  in 
wliich  it  was  attempted  to  carry  into  effect  selfish  and 
wicked  plans  bypassing  thorn  off  as  being  of  divine  ap- 
pointment. In  the  ISIosaic  hierarchy  the  aim  is  man- 
ifest, viz.  to  make  that  which  is  really  holy  {ru  \tr){.v) 
])revail,  while  in  the  false  hierarchies  of  later  times  the 
profanest  selfishness  has  been  rendered  practicable  by 
giving  to  its  manifestations  an  appearance  of  holiness 
calcidated  to  deceive  the  multitude.  In  the  Mosaic 
legislation  the  priests  certainly  exercise  a  considerable 
authority  as  extern.al  ministers -of  holiness,  Iwit  we  find 
nothing  to  be  compared  with  the  sale  of  indulgences  in 
the  llomish  Church.  There  occur,  certainly,  instances 
of  gross  misdemeanor  on  the  part  of  the  priests,  as,  for 


instance,  in  the  case  of  the  sons  of  Eli ;  but  proceedings 
originating  in  the  covetousness  of  the  priests  were  never 
authorized  or  sanctioned  by  the  law. 

In  the  IMosaic  legislation  almost  the  whole  amount 
of  taxation  was  paid  in  the  form  of  tithe,  which  was 
employed  in  maintaining  the  priests  and  Levites  as  the 
hierarchical  office-bearers  of  government,  in  supporting 
the  poor,  and  in  providing  those  things  which  were 
used  in  sacrifices  and  sacrificial  feasts. 

The  taxation  by  tithe,  exclusive  of  almost  all  other 
taxes,  is  certainlj'  the  most  lenient  and  most  considerate 
which  has  ever  anywhere  been  adopted  or  proposed.  It 
precludes  the  possibility  of  attempting  to  extort  from 
the  people  contributions  beyond  their  power,  and  it  ren- 
ders the  taxation  of  each  individual  proportionate  to  his 
possessions;  and  even  this  exceedingly  mild  taxation 
was  apparently  left  to  the  conscience  of  each  person. 
This  we  infer  from  there  never  occurring  in  the  Bible 
the  slightest  vestige  either  of  persons  having  been  sued 
or  goods  distrained  for  tithes,  and  only  an  indication  of 
curses  resting  upon  the  neglect  of  paying  them.  Tithes 
were  the  law  of  the  land,  and  nevertheless  they  were 
not  recovered  by  law  during  the  period  of  the  taberna- 
cle and  of  the  first  Temple.  It  is  only  during  the  pe- 
riod of  the  second  Temple,  when  a  general  demoraliza- 
tion had  taken  place,  that  tithes  were  farmed  and  sold, 
and  levied  by  violent  proceedings,  in  which  refractory 
persons  were  slain  for  resisting  the  levy.  But  no  rec- 
ommendation or  example  of  such  proceeding  occurs  in 
the  Bible.  This  seems  to  indicate  that  the  propriety  of 
paying  these  lenient  and  beneficial  taxes  was  generally 
felt,  so  much  so  that  there  were  few,  or  perhaps  no  de- 
faulters, and  that  it  was  considered  inexpedient  on  the 
part  of  the  recipients  to  harass  the  needy. 

Besides  the  tithes  there  was  a  small  poU-tax,  amount- 
ing to  half  a  shekel  for  each  adult  male.  This  tax  was 
paid  for  the  maintenance  of  the  sanctuary.  In  atUlition 
to  this,  the  first-fruits  and  the  first-born  of  men  and 
cattle  augmented  the  revenue.  The  first-bom  of  men 
and  of  unclean  beasts  were  to  be  redeemed  by  mone}-. 
To  this  may  be  added  some  fines  paid  in  the  shape  of 
sin-offerings,  and  also  the  vo^vs  and  free-wiU  offerings. 

3.  In  addition  to  these  great  moral  and  liturgical  ends 
of  the  Mosaic  institutes,  we  must  not  fail  to  notice  their 
REPUBLICAN  ECONOMY.  The  whole  territory  of  the 
state  was  to  be  so  distributed  that  each  family  should 
have  a  freehold,  which  was  intended  to  remain  perma- 
nently the  inheritance  of  that  family,  and  which,  even 
if  sold,  was  to  return  at  stated  periods  to  its  original 
o%vners.  Since  the  whole  population  consisted  of  fami- 
lies of  freeholders,  there  was,  strictly  speaking,  neither 
citizens,  nor  a  profane  or  lay  nobility,  nor  lords  tempo- 
ral. We  do  not  overlook  the  fact  that  there  were  per- 
sons called  heads,  elders,  princes,  dukes,  or  leaders  among 
the  Israelites ;  that  is,  persons  who  by  their  intelligence, 
character,  wealth,  and  other  circumstances  were  leading 
men  among  them,  and  from  whom  even  the  seventy 
judges  were  chosen  who  assisted  IVIoscs  in  administer- 
ing justice  to  the  nation.  But  we  have  no  proof  that 
there  was  a  nobility  enjoying  prerogatives  similar  to 
those  which  are  connected  with  birth  in  several  coun- 
tries of  Europe,  sometimes  in  spite  of  mental  and  moral 
disqualifications.  We  do  not  find  that,  according  to  the 
Mosaic  constitution,  there  were  hereditary  peers  tem- 
poral. Even  the  inhabitants  of  towns  were  freeholders, 
and  their  exercise  of  trades  seems  to  have  been  com- 
bined with,  or  subordinate  to,  agricultural  ]>ursuits.  The 
only  nobility  was  that  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  and  all  the 
lords  were  lords  spiritual,  the  descendants  of  Aaron. 
The  priests  and  Levites  were  ministers  of  public  wor- 
ship, that  is,  ministers  of  Jehovah  the  King,  and,  as 
such,  ministers  of  state,  by  whose  instrumentality  the 
legislative  as  well  its  the  judicial  power  was  exercised. 
The  poor  were  mercifully  considered,  but  beggars  are 
never  mentioned.  Hence  it  appears  that  as,  on  the  one 
hand,  there  was  no  lay  nobility,  so,  on  the  other,  there 
was  no  mendicity. 


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291 


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Owing  to  the  rebellious  spirit  of  the  Israelites,  the 
salutary  injunctions  of  their  law  Avere  so  frequently 
transgressed  that  it  could  not  procure  for  them  that  de- 
gree of  prosperity  wliicli  it  was  calculated  to  produce 
among  a  nation  of  faithful  observers;  but  it  is  evident 
that  the  Mosaic  legislation,  if  truly  observed,  was  more 
fitted  to  promote  universal  happiness  and  tranquillity 
tlian  any  other  constitution,  either  ancient  or  modern. 

4.  We  close  this  part  of  our  discussion  by  a  few  mis- 
cellaneous observations  on  minor  peculiarities  of  the 
Mosaic  code. 

It  has  been  deemed  a  defect  that  there  were  no  laws 
against  infanticide ;  but  it  may  well  be  observed,  as  a 
proof  of  national  prosperity,  that  there  are  no  historical 
traces  of  this  crime ;  and  it  would  certainly  have  been 
preposterous  to  give  laws  against  a  crime  \vhich  did  not 
occur,  especially  as  the  general  law  against  murder, 
"Thou  shalt  not  kill,"  was  applicable  to  this  species 
also.  I'lie  words  of  Josephus  (Contra  Apionem,  ii,  24) 
can  only  mean  that  the  crime  was  against  the  spirit  of 
the  Mosaic  law.  An  express  verbal  prohibition  of  this 
kind  is  not  extant. 

Tliere  occur  also  no  laws  and  regulations  about  wills 
and  testamentary  dispositions,  although  there  are  suf- 
ficient historical  facts  to  prove  that  the  next  of  kin 
was  considered  the  lawfid  heir,  that  primogeniture  was 
deemed  of  the  highest  importance,  and  that,  if  there 
were  no  male  descendants,  females  inherited  the  freehold 
property.  We  learn  from  the  Epistle  of  Paul  to  the 
Hebrews  (ix,  IG,  17)  that  the  Jews  disposed  of  property 
by  wills ;  but  it  seems  that  in  the  time  of  IMoses,  and 
for  some  period  after  him,  all  Israelites  died  intestate. 
However,  the  word  SinOijKi],  as  used  in  ]Matthew,  IMark, 
Acts,  Romans,  Corinthians,  Galatians,  Ephesians,  and  re- 
peatedly in  the  Hebrews,  implies  rather  a  disposition, 
arrangement,  agreement  between  parties,  than  a  wiU  in 
the  legal  acceptation  of  the  term.     See  Testament. 

There  are  no  laws  concerning  guardians,  and  none 
against  luxurious  living.  The  inetHciency  of  sumptu- 
ary laws  is  now  generally  recognised,  although  renowned 
legislators  in  ancient  times  and  in  the  Middle  Ages  dis- 
played on  this  subject  their  wisdom,  falsely  so  called. 

Neither  are  there  any  laws  against  suicide.  Hence 
we  infer  tliat  suicide  was  rare,  as  we  may  well  suppose 
in  a  nation  of  small  freeholders,  and  that  the  inefficiency 
of  such  laws  was  understood. 

The  Jlosaic  legislation  recognises  the  human  dignity 
of  women  and  of  slaves,  and  particularly  enjoins  not  to 
slander  the  deaf  nor  mislead  the  blind. 

Moses  expressly  enjoined  not  to  reap  the  corners  of 
fields,  in  consideration  of  the  poor,  of  persons  of  broken 
fortimes,  and  even  of  the  beasts  of  the  field. 

Tlie  laws  of  INIoses  against  crimes  are  severe,  but  not 
cruel.  The  agony  of  the  death  of  criminals  was  never 
artificially  protracted,  as  in  some  instances  Avas  usual  in 
various  countries  of  Europe  even  in  the  present  century; 
nor  was  torture  employed  in  order  to  compel  criminals 
to  confess  their  crimes,  as  was  usual  in  ancient  times, 
and  till  a  comparatively  recent  period.  Forty  was  the 
maximum  number  of  stripes  to  be  inflicted.  This  max- 
imum was  adopted  for  the  reason  expressly  stated  that 
the  appearance  of  the  person  punished  should  not  be- 
come liorril>le,  or,  as  J.  D.  Michaelis  renders  it,  bur7if, 
which  expresses  the  appearance  of  a  person  unmerciful- 
ly beaten.  Punishments  were  inflicted  in  order  special- 
ly to  express  the  sacred  indignation  of  tlie  divine  Law- 
giver against  wilful  transgression  of  his  commandments, 
and  not  for  any  purposes  of  human  vengeance,  or  for 
the  sake  of  frightening  other  criminals.  In  some  in- 
stances the  people  at  large  were  appealed  to  in  order  to 
inflict  summary  punishment  by  stoning  the  criminal  to 
death.  This  was,  in  fact,  the  most  usual  mode  of  exe- 
cution. Other  modes  of  execution  also,  such  as  burn- 
ing, were  always  public,  and  conducted  with  the  co- 
operation of  the  people.  Like  every  human  proceeding, 
this  was  liable  to  abuse,  but  not  to  so  much  abuse  as 
our  present  mode  of  conducting  lawsuits,  which,  on  ac- 


count of  their  costliness,  often  afford  but  little  protection 
to  persons  in  narrow  circumstances.  In  lawsuits  very 
much  was  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  judges,  his  posi- 
tion greatly  resembling  that  of  a  permanent  jury,  who 
liad  not  merely  to  decide  whether  a  person  was  guilty, 
but  who  frequently  had  also  to  award  the  amount  of 
punishment  to  be  inflicted. 

In  the  Old  Testament  w^e  do  not  hear  of  a  learned 
profession  of  the  law.  Lawyers  (rojuiicoi)  are  men- 
tioned only  after  the  decline  of  tlie  IMosaic  institutions 
had  considerably  progressed.  As,  however,  certain  laws 
concerning  contagion  and  purification  were  administered 
by  the  priests,  these  might  be  called  lawyers.  They, 
nevertheless,  did  not  derive  their  maintenance  from  the 
administration  of  these  laws,  liut  were  supported  by 
glebe-lands,  tithes,  and  portions  of  the  sacrificial  offerings. 
It  is,  indeed,  very  remarkable  that,  in  a  nation  so  entirely 
governed  by  law,  there  were  no  lawyers  forming  a  dis- 
tinct profession,  and  that  the  vojitiKoi  of  a  later  age  were 
not  so  much  remarkable  for  enforcing  the  spirit  of  the 
law  as  rather  for  ingeniously  evading  its  injunctions,  by 
leading  the  attention  of  the  people  from  its  spirit  to  a 
most  minute  literal  fulfilment  of  its  letter.    See  Lawyer. 

IV.  In  considering  f/ie  i-elation  of  the  law  to  thefnlitre, 
it  is  important  to  be  guided  by  the  general  principle  laid 
down  in  Heb.  vii,  10, "  The  law  made  nothing  perfect"' 
{ovCiv  treXtiiiKTev  u  j'(5/(oc).  This  principle  will  be  ap- 
pUed  in  different  degrees  to  its  bearing  (a)  on  the  after- 
history  of  the  Jewish  commonwealth  before  the  coming 
of  Christ,;  (A)  on  the  coming  of  our  Lord  himself;  and 
(c)  on  the  dispensation  of  the  Gospel. 

1.  To  that  after-histor\'  the  law  was,  to  a  great  ex- 
tent, the  key  ;  for  in  ceremonial  and  criminal  law  it  was 
complete  and  final;  while,  even  in  civil  and  constitu- 
tional law,  it  laid  down  clearly  the  general  principles  to 
be  afterwards  more  fully  developed.  It  was,  indeed, 
often  neglected,  and  even  forgotten.  Its  fundamental 
assertion  of  the  theocracy  was  violated  by  the  constant 
lapses  into  idolatry,  and  its  provisions  for  the  good  of 
man  ovenvhelmed  by  the  natural  course  of  human  self- 
ishness (Jer.  xxxiv,  12-17);  till  at  last,  in  the  reign  of 
Josiah,  its  very  existence  was  unknown,  and  its  discov- 
ery w'as  to  the  king  and  the  f)Oople  as  a  second  publica- 
tion: yet  it  still  formed  the  standard  from  which  they 
knowingly  departed,  and  to  which  they  constantly  re- 
turned, and  to  it,  therefore,  all  which  was  peculiar  in 
their  national  and  individual  character  was  due.  Its 
direct  influence  was  probalily  greatest  in  the  periods  be- 
fore the  establishment  of  the  kingdom  and  after  the 
Babj'lonian  captivity.  The  last  act  of  Joshua  was  to 
bind  the  Israelites  to  it  as  the  charter  of  their  occupa- 
tion of  the  conquered  land  (Josh,  xxiv,  24-27)  ;  and,  in 
the  semi-anarchical  period  of  the  Judges,  the  law  and 
the  tabernacle  were  the  only  centres  of  anything  like 
national  unity.  The  establishment  of  the  kingdom  was 
due  to  an  impatience  of  this  position,  and  a  desire  for  a 
visible  and  personal  centre  of  authority,  much  the  same 
in  nature  as  that  which  plunged  them  so  often  into  idol- 
atry. The  people  were  wanied  (1  Sam.  xii,  G-25)  that 
it  involved  great  danger  of  their  forgetting  and  reject- 
ing the  main  principle  of  the  law — that  "  Jehovali  their 
God  was  their  king."  The  truth  of  the  prediction  was 
soon  shown.  Even  undei-  Solomon,  as  soon  as  the  mon- 
archy became  one  of  great  splendor  and  power,  it  as- 
simed  a  heathenish  and  polytheistic  character,  breaking 
the  law  both  by  its  (Ushonor  towards  God  and  its  for- 
bidden tyranny  over  man.  Indeed,  if  the  law  was 
looked  iqwn  as  a  collection  of  abstract  rules,  and  not  as 
a  means  of  knowledge  of  a  personal  god,  it  was  inevita- 
ble that  it  should  be  overborne  by  the  presence  of  a  vis- 
ible and  personal  authority. 

Therefore  it  was  that  from  the  time  of  the  establish- 
ment of  the  kingdom  the  prophetic  office  began.  Its 
ol)ject  was  to  enforce  and  to  jierfect  the  law  by  bearing 
testimonj'  to  the  great  truths  on  which  it  was  built,  viz. 
the  truth  of  God's  government  over  all,  kings,  jiriests, 
and  people  alike,  and  the  consequent  certainty  of  a 


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292 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


righteous  retribution.  It  is  plain  that  at  the  same  time 
this  testimony  went  far  beyond  the  law  as  a  definite  code 
of  institutions.  It  dwelt  rather  on  its  great  principles, 
which  -were  to  transcend  the  special  forms  in  which  they 
v.-ere  embodied.  It  frequently  contrasted  (as  in  Isa.  i, 
etc.)  the  external  observance  of  form  with  the  spiritual 
homage  of  the  heart.  It  tended  therefore,  at  least  in- 
directly, to  the  time  when,  according  to  the  well-known 
contrast  drawn  by  Jeremiah,  the  law  written  on  the  ta- 
bles of  stone  shoidd  give  place  to  a  new  covenant,  de- 
pending on  a  law  written  on  the  heart,  and  therefore 
coercive  no  longer  (Jer.  xxxi,  31-3i).  In  this  it  did  but 
carry  out  the  prediction  of  the  law  itself  (Deut,  xviii,  9 
-22),  and  prepare  the  way  for  '•  the  Prophet"  who  was  to 
come. 

Still  the  law  remained  as  the  distinctive  standard  of 
the  people.  In  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  after  the  separa- 
tion, the  deliberate  rejection  of  its  leadmg  principles  by 
Jeroboam  and  his  successors  was  the  beginning  of  a 
gradual  declension  into  idolatry  and  heathenism.  But 
in  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  the  very  division  of  the  mon- 
arch}^ and  consequent  diminution  of  its  splendor,  and 
the  need  of  a  principle  to  assert  against  the  superior 
material  power  of  Israel,  brought  out  the  law  once  more 
in  increased  honor  and  influence.  In  the  days  of  Je- 
hoshaphat  we  find,  for  the  first  time,  that  it  was  taken 
by  the  Levites  in  their  circuits  through  the  land,  and  the 
people  were  taught  by  it  (2  Chron.  xvii,  9).  We  find  it 
especially  spoken  of  in  the  oath  taken  by  the  king  "  at 
his  pillar"  in  the  Temple,  and  made  the  standard  of 
reference  in  the  reformation  of  Hezekiah  and  Josiah  (2 
Kings  xi,  1-1;  xxiii,  3;  2  Chron.  xxx;  xxxiv,  14-31). 

Far  more  was  this  the  case  after  the  captivity.  The 
revival  of  the  existence  of  Israel  was  hallo\ved  by  the 
new  and  solemn  publication  of  the  law  by  Ezra,  and  the 
institution  of  the  synagogue,  through  which  it  became 
tleeply  and  familiarly  known.  See  Ezra.  The  loss  of 
the  independent  monarchy,  and  the  cessation  of  proph- 
ecy, both  combined  to  throw  the  Jews  back  upon  the 
law  alone  as  their  only  distinctive  pledge  of  nationality 
and  sure  guide  to  truth.  The  more  they  mingled  with 
the  other  subject-nations  under  the  Persian  and  Grecian 
empires,  the  more  eagerly  they  climg  to  it  as  their  dis- 
tinction and  safeguard;  and  opening  the  knowledge  of 
it  to  the  heathen  by  the  translation  of  the  Septuagint, 
tlicy  based  on  it  their  proverbial  eagerness  to  proselytize. 
Tliis  love  for  the  law,  rather  than  any  abstract  patriot- 
ism, was  the  strength  of  the  Maccaba;an  struggle  against 
the  Syrians  (note  here  the  question  as  to  the  lawfulness 
of  war  on  the  Sabbath  in  this  war  [1  I\Iacc.  ii,  23-41]), 
and  the  success  of  that  struggle,  enthroning  a  Levitical 
l)ower,  deepened  the  feeling  from  which  it  sprang.  It 
so  entered  into  the  heart  of  the  people  that  open  idolatry 
became  impossible.  The  certainty  and  authority  of  the 
law's  commandments  amidst  the  periilcxities  of  pagan- 
ism, and  the  spirituality  of  its  doctrine  as  contrasted 
with  sensual  and  carnal  idolatries,  were  the  favorite 
boast  of  the  Jew,  and  the  secret  of  his  influence  among 
the  heathen.  The  law  thus  became  the  moidding  in"- 
iluence  of  the  Jewish  character;  and,  instead  of  being 
Ijoked  upon  as  subsidiary  to  the  promise,  and  a  means 
to  its  fulfilment,  it  was  exalted  to  sujireme  importance  as 
at  once  a  means  and  a  pledge  of  national  and  individual 
sanctity. 

This  feeling  laid  hold  of  and  satisfied  the  mass  of  the 
people,  harmonizing  as  it  did  with  their  ever-increasing 
sjiirit  of  an  almost  fanatic  nationality,  until  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  city.  The  Pharisees,  truly  rejiresenting  the 
chief  strength  of  the  \>V(<\,U'.  systematized  this  feeling; 
they  gave  it  fresh  food,  and  assumed  a  predominant 
leadership  over  it  liy  the  lloating  mass  of  tradition  which 
they  gradually  accumidated  around  the  law  as  a  nu- 
cleus. The  popular  use  of  the  \vord  '•  lawless"  (drofioc) 
as  a  term  of  contempt  (Acts  ii,  23^  1  Cor.  ix,  21)  for  the 
heathen,  and  even  for  the  uneducated  mass  of  their  fol- 
lowers (John  vii,  49),  marked  and  stereotyped  their  prin- 
ciple. 


Against  this  idolatry  of  the  law  (which,  when  import- 
ed into  the  Christian  Church,  is  described  and  vehe- 
mently denounced  by  St.  Paul)  there  were  two  reactions. 
The  first  was  that  of  the  Sudducees;  one  which  had 
its  basis,  according  to  common  tradition,  in  the  idea  of  a 
higher  love  and  service  of  God,  independent  of  the  law 
and  its  sanctions,  but  which  degenerated  into  a  specu- 
lative infidelity  and  an  anti-national  systein  of  politics, 
and  -which  probably  had  but  little  hold  of  the  people. 
The  other,  that  of  the  Kssenes,  M'as  an  attempt  to  burst 
the  bonds  of  the  formal  law,  and  assert  its  ideas  in  all 
fidness,  freedom,  and  purity.  In  its  practical  form  it 
assiuned  the  character  of  high  and  ascetic  devotion  to 
God ;  its  speculative  guise  is  seen  in  the  school  of  Philo, 
as  a  tendency  not  merely  to  treat  the  commands  and 
history  of  the  law  on  a  symbolical  principle,  but  actu- 
ally to  allegorize  them  into  mere  abstractions.  In  nei- 
ther form  could  it  be  permanent,  because  it  had  no  sulH- 
cient  relation  to  the  needs  and  realities  of  human  na- 
ture, or  to  the  personal  subject  of  all  the  Jewish  prom- 
ises ;  but  it  was  stdl  a  declaration  of  the  insufiiciency 
of  the  law  in  itself,  and  a  preparation  for  its  absorption 
into  a  higher  principle  of  unity.  Such  was  the  history 
of  the  law  before  the  coming  of  Christ.  It  was  full  of 
effect  and  blessing  when  used  as  a  means;  it  became 
hollow  and  insufficient  when  made  an  end. 

2.  The  relation  of  the  law  to  the  advent  of  Christ  is 
also  laid  down  clearly  by  St.  Paul.  The  law  was  the 
TraiSaywyvQ  ti'c  Xptarui',  the  servant  (that  is)  whose 
task  it  was  to  guide  the  cliild  to  the  true  teacher  (Gal. 
iii,  24) ;  and  Christ  was  "  the  end"  or  object "  of  the  law" 
(Rom.  X,  4).  As  being  subsidiary  to  the  promise,  it  had 
accomplished  its  purpose  when  the  promise  was  fultilled. 
In  its  national  aspect  it  had  existed  to  guard  the  foith 
in  the  theocracy.  The  chief  hinderance  to  that  faith 
had  been  the  difficulty  of  realizing  the  invisible  pres- 
ence of  God,  and  of  conceiving  a  communion  with  the 
infinite  Godhead  which  should  not  crush  or  absorb  the 
finite  creature  (compare  Deut,  v,  24-27 ;  Numb,  xvii,  12, 
13;  Jobix,32-35;  xiii,21,22;  Isa.xlv,  15,  Ixiv,  l,etc,). 
From  that  had  come  in  earlier  times  open  idolatry,  and 
a  half-idolatrous  longing  for  and  trust  in  the  kingdom ; 
in  after  times  the  substitution  of  the  law  for  the  prom- 
ise. The  difficulty  was  now  to  pass  away  forever,  in 
the  incarnation  of  the  Godhead  in  one  truly  and  vis- 
ibh'  man.  The  guardianship  of  the  law  was  no  longer 
needed,  for  the  visible  and  personal  presence  of  the  Jles- 
siah  required  no  farther  testimony.  Moreover,  in  the  law 
itself  there  had  always  been  a  tendency  of  the  funda- 
mental idea  to  burst  tlie  formal  bonds  which  confined  it. 
In  looking  to  God  as  especially  their  king,  the  Israelites 
were  inheriting  a  privilege,  belonging  originally  to  all 
mankind,  and  destined  to  revert  to  them.  Yet  that  ele- 
ment of  the  law  which  was  local  and  national,  now  most 
prized  of  all  by  the  .Jews,  tended  to  limit  this  gift  to 
them,  and  place  them  in  a  position  antagonistic  to  the 
rest  of  the  world.  It  needed,  therefore,  to  pass  away 
before  all  men  could  be  brought  into  a  kingdom  -where 
there  was  to  be  "neither  Jew  nor  Gentile,  barbarian, 
Scythian,  bond,  or  free." 

In  its  individual,  or  what  is  usually  called  its '"  moral" 
aspect,  the  law  bore  equally  the  stamp  of  trausitoriness 
and  insufficiency.  It  had,  as  we  have  seen,  declared  the 
authority  of  truth  and  goodness  over  man's  will,  and 
taken  for  granted  in  man  the  existence  of  a  spirit  which 
could  recognise  that  authority;  but  it  had  done  no  more. 
Its  presence  had  therefore  detected  the  existence  and 
the  sinfulness  of  sin,  as  alien  alike  to  God's  will  and 
man's  true  nature;  but  it  had  also  brought  out  with 
more  vehement  and  desperate  antagonism  the  power  of 
sin  dwelling  in  man  as  fallen. (Kom.  vii,  7-25),  It  only 
showed,  therefore,  the  need  of  a  Saviour  from  sin,  and 
of  an  indwelling  jiower  which  should  enable  the  spirit  of 
man  to  conquer  the  ''law"  of  evil.  Hence  it  bore  testi- 
mony to  its  own  insufficiency,  and  led  men  to  Christ.  Al- 
ready the  prophets,  speaking  by  a  living  and  indwelling 
spirit,  ever  fresh  and  powerful,  had  been  passuig  beyond 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


29.- 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


the  dead  letter  of  the  law,  and  indirectly  convicting  it 
of  insufficiency.  But  there  was  need  of  "l/ie  Prophet" 
who  should  not  only  have  tlie  fulness  of  the  Spirit  dwell- 
ing in  hinlself,  but  should  liave  the  power  to  give  it  to 
others,  and  so  open  the  now  dispensation  already  fore- 
told. When  he  had  come,  and  by  the  gift  of  the  Spirit 
implanted  in  man  a  i'ree  internal  power  of  action  tend- 
ing to  God,  the  restraints  of  the  law,  needful  to  train  the 
childhood  of  the  world,  became  unnecessarj'  and  even 
injurious  to  the  free  development  of  its  manhood. 

nie  relation  of  the  law  to  Christ,  in  its  sacrificial  and 
ceremonial  aspect,  will  be  more  fuUy  considered  else- 
where. See  SACKincE.  It  is  here  only  necessary  to 
remark  on  the  evidently  typical  character  of  the  whole 
system  of  sacrifices,  upon  which  alone  their  virtue  de- 
pended ;  and  on  the  imperfect  embodiment,  in  any  body 
of  mere  men,  of  the  great  truth  which  was  represented 
in  the  priesthood.  By  the  former  declaring  the  need 
of  atonement,  by  the  latter  the  possibility  of  mediation, 
and  yet  in  itself  doing  nothing  adequately  to  realize 
either,  the  law  again  led  men  to  him  who  was  at  once 
the  only  mediator  and  the  true  sacrifice. 

Thus  the  law  had  trained  and  guided  man  to  the  ac- 
ceptance of  the  Messiah  in  his  threefold  character  of 
king,  prophet,  and  priest ;  and  then,  its  work  being  done, 
it  became,  in  the  minds  of  those  who  trusted  in  it,  not 
only  an  encumbrance,  but  a  snare.  To  resist  its  claim 
to  allegiance  was  therefore  a  matter  of  life  and  death  in 
the  days  of  St.  Paul,  and,  in  a  less  degree,  in  after  ages 
of  the  Church. 

3.  It  remains  to  consider  how  far  it  has  any  obligation 
or  existence  under  the  dispensation  of  the  Gospel.  As 
a  means  of  justification  or  salvation,  it  ought  never  to 
have  been  regarded,  even  before  Christ:  it  needs  no 
proof  to  show  that  still  less  can  this  be  so  since  he  has 
come.  But  yet  the  question  remains  whether  it  is  bind- 
ing on  Christians,  even  when  they  do  not  depend  on  it 
for  salvation. 

It  seems  clear  enough,  that  its  formal  coercive  author- 
ity as  a  whole  ended  with  the  close  of  the  Jewish  dis- 
pensation. We  may  indeed  distinguish  its  various  ele- 
ments; yet  he  who  offended  "in  one  point  against  it 
was  guilty  of  all"  (James  ii,  10).  It  referred  throughout 
to  the  Jewish  covenant,  and  in  many  points  to  the  con- 
stitution, the  customs,  and  even  the  local  circumstances 
of  the  people.  That  covenant  was  preparatory  to  the 
Christian,  in  which  it  is  now  absorbed;  those  customs 
and  observances  have  passed  awaj'.  It  follows,  by  the 
very  nature  of  the  case,  that  the  former  obligation  to 
the  \dw  as  such  must  have  ceased  with  the  basis  on 
which  it  is  grounded.  This  conclusion  is  stamped  most 
imequivocally  with  the  authority  of  St.  Paul  through 
the  whole  argument  of  the  Epistles  to  the  Komans  and 
to  the  Galatians.  That  we  are  "not  under  law"  (Kom. 
vi.  14, 15 ;  Gal.  v,  18) ;  "  that  we  are  dead  to  law"  (Rom. 
vii,  4^G ;  (ial.  ii,  19), "  redeemed  from  under  law"  (Gal.  iv, 
5),  etc.,  is  not  only  stated  without  any  limitation  or  ex- 
ception, but  in  many  places  is  made  the  prominent  feat- 
ure of  the  contrast  between  the  earlier  and  later  cove- 
nants. It  is  impossible,  therefore,  to  avoid  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  formal  code,  promulgated  by  Moses,  and 
sealed  with  the  prediction  of  the  blessing  and  the  curse, 
cannot,  an  a  law,  be  binding  on  the  Christian. 

But  what,  then,  becomes  of  the  declaration  of  our 
Lord,  that  he  came  "  not  to  destroy  the  law,  but  to  per- 
fect it,"  and  that  "  not  one  jot  or  one  tittle  of  it  shall 
pass  away?"  what  of  the  fact,  consequeut  upon  it,  that 
the  law  has  been  reverenced  in  all  Christian  churches, 
and  had  an  important  infiuence  on  much  Christian  leg- 
islation? The  explanation  of  the  apparent  contradic- 
tion lies  in  several  considerations. 

(1.)  The  positive  obligation  of  the  law,  as  such,  has 
passed  away  ;  but  every  revelation  of  God's  will,  and  of 
the  righteousness  and  love  which  are  its  elements,  im- 
poses a  moral  obligation,  by  the  very  fact  of  its  being 
linown,  even  on  those  to  whom  it  is  not  primarily  ad- 
dressed.    So  far  as  the  law  of  Moses  is  such  a  revela- 


tion of  the  will  of  God  to  mankind  at  large,  occupying  a 
certain  place  in  the  education  of  the  world  as  a  whole, 
so  far  its  declarations  remam  lor  our  guidance,  though 
their  coercion  and  their  penalties  may  be  no  longer  need- 
ed. It  is  in  their  general  principle,  of  course,  that  they 
remain,  not  in  their  outward  form ;  and  our  Lord  lias 
taught  us,  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  that  these  prin- 
ciples should  be  accepted  by  us  in  a  more  extended  and 
spiritual  development  than  they  could  receive  in  the 
time  of  IMoses. 

To  apply  this  principle  practically  there  is  need  of 
study  and  discretion,  in  order  to  distinguish  what  is  lo- 
cal and  temporary  from  Avhat  is  universal,  and  what  is 
mere  external  form  from  what  is  the  essence  of  an  ordi- 
nance. The  moral  law  undoubtedly  must  be  most  per- 
manent in  its  influence,  because  it  is  based  on  the  nature 
of  man  generally,  although  at  the  same  time  it  is  modi- 
fied by  the  greater  prominence  of  love  in  the  Christian 
system.  Yet  the  political  law,  in  the  main  principles 
which  it  lays  down  as  to  the  sacredness  and  responsil  il- 
ity  of  all  authorities,  and  the  rights  which  belong  to 
each  individual,  and  which  neither  slavery  nor  even  gtdit 
can  quite  eradicate,  has  its  permanent  value.  Even  tlie 
ceremonial  law,  by  its  enforcement  of  the  purity  and  jicr- 
fection  needed  in  any  service  offered,  and  in  its  disregard 
of  mere  costliness  on  such  service,  and  limitation  of  it 
strictly  to  the  prescribed  will  of  God,  is  still  in  many 
respects  our  best  guide.  In  special  cases  (as,  for  exam- 
ple, that  of  the  sabbatic  law  and  the  prohibition  of 
marriage  iwithin  the  degrees)  the  question  of  its  author- 
ity must  depend  on  the  further  inquiry  whether  the  ba- 
sis of  such  laws  is  one  common  to  all  human  nature,  or 
one  peculiar  to  the  Jewish  people.  This  inquiry  may  oc- 
casionally be  diflacult,  especially  in  the  distinction  of  the 
essence  from  the  form  ;  but  by  it  alone  can  the  original 
question  be  thoroughly  and  satisfactorily  answered. 

(2.)  A  plain  distinction  of  this  kind  seems  to  lie  on  the 
face  of  the  subject,  as  to  the  main  question  at  issue.  The 
ceremonial  or  ritual  department  of  the  Mosaic  laws, 
Avhich  stood  in  meats,  and  drinks,  and  canial  ordinances 
(Heb.  ix,  10) ;  which  were  of  a  typical  character,  and  a 
mere  shadow  of  good  things  to  come,  was  abolished  by 
the  introduction  of  the  Gospel;  for  then  they  ceased  to 
have  any  pertinence,  the  reality  having  come  of  which 
they  were  the  figures.  But  the  kernel  of  the  law, 
properly  speaking,  the  moral  law,  which  is  a  transcript 
of  the  divme  mind,  is  eternal  and  unchangeable  in  its 
obligations  and  sanctions.  It  was  fuljilled  rather  than 
abrogated  by  the  Gospel.  It  was  confirmed  by  Christ, 
and  explained  in  its  infinite  comprehension  and  spiritu- 
ality b}'  him  and  his  apostles  throughout  the  New  Tes- 
tanient  (Matt,  v,  17, 18 ;  Luke  x,  26-28 ;  Pom.  v,  15-viii, 
o9).  Hence,  when,  in  Kom.  vi,  14;  vii,  1-G;  Gal.  ii,  19; 
V,  18,  the  moral  law  is  spoken  of  as  not  being  the  mere 
rule  of  life  for  persons  who  rely  on  the  grace  of  God, 
<and  who  are  authorized  to  expect  a  salvation  not  to  be 
purchased  by  their  works,  it  is  so  depreciated  simply 
because  in  that  aspect  it  is  regarded  as  a  law  according 
to  which  rewards  and  punishments  should  be  adjudged 
in  so  rigid  and  inexorable  a  manner  as  to  exclude  aU 
grace,  and  all  reliance  on  grace  (Eom.  iv,  12-14 ;  Gal.  ii, 
31 ;  iii,  10-12).  In  short,  it  is  abrogated  as  a  justifying 
ground  of  salvation  bj'  good  works,  because  none  can 
keep  it  perfectly  to  that  end.  Yet  it  is  not  abolished  as 
an  external  criterion  of  virtue  and  pict}',  and  as  the  final 
test  before  the  assembled  universe.     See  Antinojiians. 

(3.)  Another  very  important  fact  in  this  discussion  is 
that  all  the  moral  precepts  of  the  Decalogue  have  been 
re-enacted  by  our  Lord  and  his  apostles,  not  only  in 
principle,  but  in  explicit  terms  (JMark  x,  19 ;  Kom.  xiii, 
9).  It  is  true  Jesus  sums  up  the  spirit  of  the  wliole 
ten  commandments  in  the  two  of  love  to  God  and  man 
(IMatt.  xxii,  37-40),  and  St.  Paid  (Rom.  xiii,  10),  as  well 
as  St.  John  (1  John  iii,  11),  substantialh'  do  the  same. 
But  this  is  not  done  with  a  view  to  derogate  from  the 
]irecise  form  of  the  Mosaic  commands,  much  less  to  abol- 
isli  them ;  but  rather  with  a  view  to  re-enforce  them  by 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


294 


LAW 


educing  their  peniianeiit  and  universal  principle  of  obli- 
gation. Cliristianity  has  therefore  in  all  ages  justly 
recognised  the  paramount  and  unvarying  force  of  the 
moral  law  as  promulgated  on  Mount  Sinai. 

The  only  exception  to  the  above  remark  of  the  direct 
renewal  of  all  these  commandments  by  Christ  and  his 
r.postles  is  that  relating  to  the  Sabbath,  which  is  never 
([uoted  among  the  rest,  but  is  noticeably  omitted,  and 
lias  even  been  held  to  be  intentionally  discarded,  by 
]irecept,  inference,  and  example,  by  them.  The  excep- 
tion, however,  is  only  apparent,  and  is  due  to  the  pecul- 
iar nature  of  this  observance.  It  really  rests  upon  an 
earlier  than  the  Mosaic  institute,  for  it  dates  from  the 
creation,  and  was  therefore  appropriately  introduced  at 
Sinai  by  the  allusion,  "  Remember  the  Sabbath  day." 
^Moreover,  the  Jews  of  our  Lord's  day  were  in  no  need 
of  being  reminded  of  this  institution;  they  were  slav- 
ishly and  superstitiously  observant  of  it.  Fmally,  as 
the  day  of  its  observance  was  changed  by  the  very  first 
Christians,  there  would  have  been  an  obvious  impropri- 
ety in  their  referring  to  the  institution  itself  umler  that 
mime.  That  the  obligation  to  occupy  in  religious  rest 
one  day  in  seven  was  scrupulously  recognised  by  them 
the  historical  fact  of  the  ''Lord's  day"  abundantly  at- 
tests.    See  Sabbath. 

(4.)  Indeed,  the  same  remark  as  to  primeval  origin 
and  validity  applies  to  the  whole  Decalogue,  although 
this  cannot  be  so  clearly  proved  in  a  historical  argument 
as  with  regard  to  the  Sabbath.  Yet  it  has  been  shown 
above  (§  i,  No.  4)  that  these  moral  enactments  at  least 
were  nothing  new;  indeed,  as  all  must  at  once  admit, 
tliey  lie  at  the  very  foundation  of  civil  law  and  social 
organization;  and  it  coidd  easily  be  shown  that  the  He- 
lire  ws  had  substantialh'  recognised  their  force  for  ages. 
They  were  therefore,  in  fact,  but  republished  on  Sinai, 
under  new  sanctions,  and  do  not  require  for  their  au- 
thority the  support  of  any  special  dispensation. 

The  argument  of  the  apostle  Paul,  especially  in  the 
epistles  to  the  Romans,  Galatians,  and  Hebrews,  invari- 
a'uly  is  an  appeal  from  the  legal  bondage  of  .Judaism — 
not  merely,  be  it  observed,  the  intolerable  ceremonial 
yoke  (Acts  xv,  10),  but  still  more  emphatically  the  law 
of  "good  works,"  including,  of  course,  especially  the 
moral  code  (see  Rom.  ii,  21,  22 ;  vii,  7)  —  to  the  ante- 
jMosaic  dispensation,  the  faith  which  Abraham  had 
when  yet  a  Gentile  (Rom.  iv,  10 ;  Gal.  iii.  17, 18),  and  the 
primitive  priesthood  of  Jesus  (Heb.  vii).  Yet  this  law 
of  faith,  so  far  from  ignoring  the  moral  law,  is  its  only 
elTectual  support  (comp.  John  vi,  29)  ;  and  thus  the  so- 
lution of  this  question  becomes  likewise  the  reconcilia- 
tion of  the  doctrine  of  St.  Paul  with  that  of  St.  James. 
See  Jajies,  Epistle  of. 

V.  Literature.  —  J.  D.  Michaelis,  Mosaisches  Recht 
(Frkft.  1770-75),  translated  by  Alexander  Smith  under 
the  title  Commentaries  on  the  Iaiics  nf  Moses  (London, 
1814) ;  J.  II.  Ilottinger,  Juris  llebraorum  lerjes  cclxi,  ad 
Judworum  meniem  explicates  (Tiguri,  1655);  Selden, />e 
Ju7-e  naturali  et  gentium  juxta  JJebrceorum  Disciplinam 
(Argentorati,  1GG5);  Reimarus,  I)e  kfjibus  Mosaicis  ante 
Mosem  (Ilamb.  1741)  ;  D.  Hornsyli  J)e  pj-incipiis  Leijum 
Mosdiranim  (Hafniie,  1792);  Stiiudhn,  Comment  at  iones 
J I  de  Lei/nm  Mosaicarum  ((Jottingic,  1796) ;  Purmann, 
J)c  Jliiitibus  et  aconomia  Le<jum  Mosaicarum  (Franco- 
furti,  1789);  T.  G.  Erdmann,  Lefjes  Mosvi  p)r(vstantiores 
esse  lei/ibus  I.tjvurgi  et  Solunis  (Viteberga?,  1788) ;  Pas- 
toret,  liistoire  de  la  Legislation  (Par.  1817),  vols,  iii  et  iv; 
J.  Salvador,  I/istoii-e  des  Institutions  de  Mu'ise  et  du  Peu- 
plc  Ilebreu  (Paris,  1828, ."  vols.)  ;  Manson,  De  le/jislafura 
Miisaica  quantum  ad  /iijf/ie/ien  pertinet  (Haag,  1835); 
A\'clker,  Die  Letzten  Criinde  von  Itecht,  p.  270  sq. ;  Stiiud- 
Yvc\,  Geschichte  dfr  Sittetdehre  Jesu,  i,  1 11  sq. ;  Holberg, 
Ueschickte  der  Sittenlehre  Jesu,ii,'d'd\.  sq. ;  DaWette, 
tiittenlehre,  ii,  21  sq.  Luther's  views  are  given  by  C.  H. 
Y.  P/ialloblotzky,  l)e  Lef/is  Mosaicee  A  bror/dtione  (Got- 
tingw,  1824).  For  other,  chletly  older,  works  on  the 
subject  in  general,  see  Winer,  L'eidirvr-terburh,  s.  v.  Ge- 
setz;  Danz,  Wurierbuch,  s.  v.  Moses;  Yolbeding,  Index 


Programmatum,  p.  37 ;  Darling,  Cyclop.  Blbliogr.  column 
237  sq.  Among  later  discussions  we  may  name  Duncan, 
Character  and  Design  of  (he  Law  of  Moses  (Edinburgh, 
1851) ;  an  art.  in  the  Stud.  u.  Krii.  1846,  i,  43  sq. ;  Saal- 
schiUz,  I),  mos.  Redd  m.  Beriichsicht.  des  spat.  Jiid.  (Berl. 
1846) ;  Piccard,  De  legislationis  Mosa'icce  indole  morali 
(Utr.  1841)  ;  Klibel,  Das  alltestam.  Geselz  und  seine  Ur- 
kunde  (Stuttg.  1867).     See  Moses. 

Law,  Edmund,  D.D.,  a  noted  English  prelate,  was 
born  in  1703,  near  Cartmel,  in  Lancasliire,  and  was  ed- 
ucated at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge ;  was  elected 
feUow  upon  graduation,  and  in  1737  was,  by  the  luiiver- 
sity,  presented  with  the  rectory  of  Graystock,  in  Cum- 
berland. To  this  living  was  added  in  1743  the  arch- 
deaconry of  Carlisle.  These  positions  he  held  until  1766, 
when  he  returned  to  Cambridge  as  master  of  St.  Peter's 
College.  Later  he  was  appointed  librarian  of  the  uni- 
versity and  professor  of  casuistrj',  was  made  archdeacon 
of  Stafford,  was  presented  with  a  prebend  in  the  church 
of  Lincoln,  and  in  1767  with  one  of  the  rich  prebends  in 
the  church  of  Durham,  and  m  1768,  finally,  ^vas  honored 
with  the  bisliopric  of  Carlisle.  He  died  in  1787.  While 
yet  a  student  at  Cambridge,  Law  published  two  works 
which  show  at  once  the  peculiar  turn  of  his  own  mind, 
and  secured  him  a  place  among  the  best  and  wisest  in- 
structors of  their  species.  The  first  of  these  was  his 
translation  of  archbishop  King's  Essay  on  the  Origin  of 
Etil,  with  copious  notes,  in  which  many  of  the  difHcult 
questions  in  metaphysical  science  are  considered;  the 
second  was  his  Ineiuiry  into  the  Ideas  of  Space  and 
Time.  In  1743,  wliile  a  resident  of  Salkcld,  on  the  pleas- 
ant banks  of  the  Eden,  a  part  of  the  living  of  Carlisle, 
which  Lavv  was  then  holding,  he  began  his  third  work, 
Considerations  on  the  Theory  of  Religion,  etc.  (Camb. 
1745, 1749, 1755, 1765,  8vo ;  London,  1774,  8vo ,  7th  ed., 
CarUsle,  1784,  8vo  ;  new  edit,  by  bishop  George  H.  Law, 
of  Chester,  with  Life  of  bishop  Edmund  Law  by  William 
Palcy,  D.D.,  Lond.  1820,  8vo),  and  shortly  after.  Reflec- 
tions on  the  Life  and  Character  of  Christ  (Camb.  1749, 
8vo ;  often  reprinted  with  the  Considerations),  "  a  work 
of  singular  beauty,  not  to  be  read  by  any  person  with- 
out edification  and  improvement."  In  1777  he  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  the  works  of  Locke,  with  a  life  of 
the  author.  Of  this  English  philosopher  bishop  Law 
was  ever  an  ardent  follower  and  able  interpreter.  In- 
deed, "the  peculiar  character  of  Dr.  Law's  mind  appears 
to  have  been  acquired  in  a  great  measure  by  a  devoted 
study  of  the  writings  of  that  philosopher.  From  him 
he  seems  to  have  derived  that  value  which  he  set  on 
freedom  of  inquiry,  in  relation  to  theology  as  well  as 
to  every  other  subject.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  great  controversy  respecting  subscription,  and  act- 
ed accordingly  himself.  The  most  striking  proof  of 
this  is  afforded  in  the  later  edition  of  his  Considera- 
tions, which  contains  many  important  alterations.  From 
Locke  also  he  seems  to  have  derived  his  notions  of  the 
proper  mode  of  studying  the  sacred  Scriptures  in  order 
to  come  at  their  true  sense.  He  was.  in  short,  an  emi- 
nent master  in  that  school  of  rational  and  liberal  divines 
which  flourished  in  England  in  the  last  century,  and  is 
adorned  by  the  names  of  Jortin,  Blackburne,  Powell, 
Tyrwhitt,  Watson,  Paley,  and  many  others."  See  Eng- 
lish Cyclopeedia,  s.  v. ;  AJlibone,  Diet.  ofL'rit.  and  A  mer. 
Authors,  ii,  1065. 

Law,  George  Henry,  D.D..  an  English  divine, 
second  son  of  Edmund  Law.  D.D..  was  born  in  1761. 
He  became  l)ishoii  of  Chester  in  1812,  and  of  Bath  and 
Wells  in  1824.  He  died  in  1845.  Bishop  Law  publish- 
ed a-  number  of  his  Sermons,  for  a  Ust  of  whicli,  and  a 
biographical  notice  of  the  author,  see  the  London  Gent. 
Mag.  1845,  pt.  ii,  p.  529. — ^Vllibone,  Diet.  Brit,  and  A  mer. 
Authors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Law,  Isaac,  a  minister  of  the  Laiited  Presbyterian 
Church,  was  born  Sept.  5. 1815.  at  Salem,  N.York,  was 
educated  at  Union  College  (class  of  1838),  and  became 
shortly  after  a  student  of  theology  at  Canousburg,  I'a., 


LAW 


295 


LAWYER 


and  was  licensed  March  26,  1840.  In  1842  he  was  or- 
dained missionary  by  tlie  East  Salem  Presbytery,  and 
labored  in  this  capacity  untij  1847,  when  he  was  ordain- 
ed pastor  at  Cambridge.  He  died  Jan.  28,  ISGl.  Law 
'■proved  himself  'a  workman  that  needeth  not  to  be 
ashamed.'  ...  As  a  minister,  in  the  discharge  of  every 
public  and  private  duty  of  religion  he  was  exact,  fixed, 
and  regular." — Wilson,  Presh.  Hist.  A  Imaiiac,  1862,  p.  22. 
Lavr,  Joseph,  a  Methodist  minister,  was  born  in 
Washington  C^ouiity,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  10, 1798 ;  was  converted 
in  1815,  and  admitted  into  the  New  York  Conference  in 
1830,  after  eight  years'  service  as  a  local  preacher.  Al- 
though he  had  not  enjoyed  the  advantages  of  early  ed- 
ucation, he  soon,  by  unwearied  perseverance,  fitted  him- 
self for  usefulness  in  the  ministry,  and  quickly  gained 
distinction  among  his  ministerial  brethren  and  among 
the  ])eoi)le,  and  he  was  honored  with  some  of  the  best 
appointments  in  the  Conference.  He  was  for  many 
years  confined  in  his  labors  to  the  cities  of  New  York 
and  Brooklyn,  and  New  Haven  (First  and  Second 
Church)  and  Hartford.  In  the  city  of  Brooklyn  he  wa# 
instrumental  in  the  building  of  five  large  churches.  He 
was  superannuated  in  1861,  and  died  June  11, 1803.  On 
his  dying  bed  he  frequently  reciuested  the  sorrowing 
friends  around  him  to  sing;  and  a  little  before  his  spirit 
departed,  as  they  were  singing  one  of  his  favorite 
hymns — "  On  Jordan's  stormy  banks  I  stand,"  etc. — his 
eye  kindled  with  rapture,  and  he  gave  the  whispered  as- 
surance, "All  is  well." — Smith,  Sacred  Memories,  p.  243. 

Law,  Samuel  "Warren,  a  Methodist  minister, 
the  son  of  the  IJev.  Joseph  Law  (q.  v.),  was  born  at 
Marlborough,  Ulster  County,  N.  Y.,  November,  1821,  was 
converted  in  his  fourteenth  year,  and  in  1841  entered 
the  itinerancy.  He  had  many  excellences,  and  was  an 
able  and  successfid  minister.  His  death,  which  occurred 
April  28, 1857,  was  such  as  his  life  had  promised — calm, 
confiding,  and  peacefid. — Smith,  Sac.  Memories,  p.  230. 

LaTV,  "William,  an  eminent  English  nonjuring  di- 
vine and  able  religious  writer  of  the  mystic  school  of 
the  last  century,  was  born  at  Kingscliffe,  Northampton- 
shire, in  1686,  and  educated  at  Emmanuel  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  degree  of  M.A.  in  1712, 
and  became  fellow  in  1713.  Shortly  after  this  he  began 
to  preach,  but  was  obliged  to  quit  tlie  ministry,  and  also 
to  give  up  his  fellowship,  on  the  accession  of  George  I 
in  1714,  because  of  his  refusal  to  take  the  required  oath. 
He  now  became  tutor  to  his  relative  and  friend,  Edward 
Gibbon,  father  of  the  historian,  who  s]ieaks  of  his  piety 
and  talents  with  unusual  warmth.  Later,  two  of  his 
friends.  Miss  Hester  Gibbon,  sister  of  his  pupil,  and  Mrs. 
Hutcheson,  widow  of  a  London  barrister,  having  resolved 
to  retire  from  the  world,  and  devote  themselves  to  works 
of  charity  and  a  religious  life,  selected  Law  for  their  al- 
moner and  instructor.  He  accepted  the  position,  and 
the  three  parties  settled  in  a  house  at  Kingscliffe,  where 
Law  died,  April  9,  1761.  Law's  writings  are  tinged 
with  what  is  commonly  called  mysticism,  as  he  became 
an  ardent  follower  of  the  noted  mystic,  Jacob  Bohme. 
His  princiijal  work,  and,  indeed,  one  of  the  best  books 
of  the  kind,  is  his  Serious  Call  to  a  Devout  and  Holy 
Life  (1729),  a  treatise  that  first  awakened  the  religious 
sensibilities  of  Ur.  Samuel  Johnson,  who  speaks  of  it  in 
high  "terms,  and  from  which  the  brothers  Wesley  also 
derived  much  advantage.  Next  to  the  Serious  Call, 
his  most  important  works  are  his  answer  to  Mande- 
ville's  Fublc  of  Uie  Bees  (published  in  1724 ;  republished, 
with  an  introduction  by  the  Kev.  F.  D.  Maurice,  in  1844), 
his  letters  to  the  bishop  of  Bangor,  The  Way  to  Knoicl- 
etlye,  and  The  Spirit  of  Love.  A  collective  edition  of 
his  works  was  published  at  London  in  9  vols.  8vo  in 
1762.  It  has  fallen  to  the  lot  of  but  few  English  Avrit- 
ers  to  elicit  such  general  comment  and  commendation  as 
has  l)cen  the  fortune  of  William  Law.  The  rationalistic 
Gilibon,  the  liberal  Macaulay,  the  pious  John  Weslej-, 
and  the  morose  Sam.  Johnson,  all  were  of  one  mind  in 
their  praise  of  William  Law.     Sec  Eichard  Tighe,  Life 


and  Writiriffs  of  William  Law>  (1813,  8vo)  ;  Lond.  Gent. 
May.  vol.  Ixx ;  Theol.  Eclectic,  Jan.  1868 ;  Contempora?!/ 
Review,  Oct.,  1867;  Christian  Examiner,  1869,  p.  157; 
Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v. ;  AUibone,  Diet,  of  British  and 
A  merican  A  uthors,  ii,  1065  sq. 

Lavrn  Sleeves.     See  Eochette. 

Lavrrence,  Abbott,  an  eminent  American  mer- 
chant and  philanthropist,  was  born  at  Groton,  Mass.,  in 
1792 ;  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1839,  and  in  1843  was 
appointed  commissioner  to  settle  the  north-east  bound- 
ary question  with  Great  Britain ;  United  States'  minister 
to  England  in  1849  ;  and  died  in  1855.  Among  his  nu- 
merous and  munificent  donations  was  that  of  $100,000 
to  Harvard  University,  to  found  the  scientific  school 
called  by  his  name.  He  also  beciueathed  the  sum  of 
|;50,000  towards  erecting  model  lodging-houses. — Thom- 
as, Bioy.  Did.  p.  1384. 

La^wrence,  Amos,  a  distinguished  American  phi- 
lanthropist, was  born  at  Groton,  Mass.,  in  1786.  He  spent 
a  great  part  of  his  immense  fortune  in  various  charities 
and  donations  to  public  institutions.  He  died  in  1852. 
His  Life  and  Correspondence  was  published  bj^  his  son 
in  1855. — Thomas,  Bioy.  Diet.  p.  1384. 

Lavrrence,  Sir  Henry  Montgomery,  brother 
of  sir  Thomas  Lawrence,  the  "Saviour  of  India,"  is  noted 
for  his  philanthropy  and  Christian  bearing  as  a  sol- 
dier in  the  British  army  in  India.  He  was  born  in  Cey- 
lon in  1806,  and  after  entering  the  army  quickly  rose  to 
distinction.  In  the  campaigns  of  the  Sutlej  he  served 
with  distinction,  and  about  1850  was  appointed  presi- 
dent of  the  board  of  government  in  the  Punjaid;),  and  in 
1857,  when  the  Indian  mutiny  broke  out,  chief  commis- 
sioner of  Lucknow,  and  virtually  governor  of  Oude, 
While  in  command  of  the  handful  of  heroic  men  who 
defended  the  women  and  children  in  the  residency  of 
Lucknow,  sir  Henry  was  wounded  b}'  the  explosion  of  a 
shell,  and  died  July  4, 1857.  He  was  the  founder  of  the 
LMicrence  Asylum  for  the  reception  of  the  chiU^ien  of 
European  soldiers  in  India.  A  monument  to  his  mem- 
ory has  been  placed  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  See  J.  W. 
Kaye,  Lives  of  Lndian  Officers  (London,  1867);  Fraser^s 
Mayazine,  Dec.  1857;  North  British  licvieiv,  May,  1860; 
Butler,  Land  of  the  Veda,  p.  319  sq. 

Lawrence,  St.     See  Laurentius,  St. 

Lawrence,  St.,  Regular  Canons  of,  a  religious 
order,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  St.  Benedict  in  the 
6th  century.  Its  seat  was  in  Dauphine.  It  was  re- 
formed in  the  1 1th  century,  under  the  patronage  of  Ode, 
count  of  Savoy.  The  bishop  of  Turin  in  1065  conferred 
many  gifts  upon  it,  and  several  popes  enriched  it  with 
benefactions. — Eadie,  L'ccles.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Lav/reuson,  Laurence,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  born  in  1779;  entered  the  Philadeliihia 
Conference  in  1810,  and  died  April  4,  1829.  He  pos- 
sessed a  strong  and  generous  mind,  and  deep  piety.  He 
was  an  excellent  presiding  elder,  and  preached  with  dis- 
tinguished success  the  word  of  life. — Minutes  of  Confer- 
ences, ii,  3.S. 

Lawyer  (i'djukoc,  relatiny  to  the  lair,  as  in  Tit.  iii, 
9), "  in  its  general  sense,  denotes  one  skilled  in  the  law, 
as  in  Tit.  iii,  13.  When,  therefore,  one  is  called  a  law- 
yer, this  IS  understood  with  reference  to  the  laws  of  the 
land  in  which  he  lived,  or  to  which  he  belonged.  Hence 
among  the  Jews  a  lawyer  was  one  versed  in  the  laws  of 
Jloses,  which  he  taught  in  the  schools  and  synagogues 
(Matt,  xxviii, 35 ;  Luke  x,  25).  The  same  person  who  is 
called '  a  lawyer'  in  these  texts  i*'  in  the  parallel  jiassage 
(Mark  xii,  28)  called  '  a  scribe'  (yjia/i/zora'c),  whence  it 
has  been  inferred  that  the  functions  of  the  lawyers  and 
the  scribes  were  identical.  The  individual  may  have 
been  both  a  lawyer  and  a  scribe,  but  it  does  not  thence 
follow  that  all  lawyers  were  scribes.  Some  suppose, 
however,  that  the  'scribes'  were  the  public  expounders 
of  the  law,  while  the  '  lawyers'  were  the  private  ex- 
pounders and  teachers  of  it.     But  this  is  a  mere  conjee- 


LAWYERS 


296 


LAY  PREACHIXG 


ture,  and  nothing;  more  is  really  kiio^\ni  than  that  the 
'  lawviTs'  were  expouiulers  of  the  law,  whether  publicly 
or  privately,  or  both"  (Kitto).  Hence  the  term  is  equiv- 
alent to  '"teacher  of  the  law"  (voj^ioCicaffKciXog,  Acts  v, 
34).  '■  By  the  use  of  the  word  vojxiko^  (in  Tit.  iii,  9)  as 
a  simple  adjective,  it  seems  more  probable  that  the  title 
'  scribe'  was  a  legal  and  official  designation,  but  that  the 
name  vojiikoq  was  properly  a  mere  epithet  signifying 
one  '  learned  in  the  law'  (somewhat  like  the  o'l  t/c  vofiov 
in  Ilom.  iv,  14),  and  only  used  as  a  title  in  common  par- 
lance (comp.  the  use  of  it  in  Tit.  iii,  13, '  Zenas  the  law- 
yer'). Tliis  would  accomit  for  the  comparative  unfre- 
ciuency  of  the  word,  and  the  fact  that  it  is  always  used 
in  connection  with '  Pharisees,'  never,  as  the  word '  scribe' 
so  often  is,  in  connection  with  '  chief  priests'  and  'eld- 
ers' "  (Smith).  See  Lilienthal,  De  vofxiKoiQ  juris  utri- 
usqiie  apml  Ilebrceos  (Hal.  1740J.    Comp.  Scklbe. 

Lawyers.  In  the  Roman  and  Spanish  churches, 
pleaders  before  the  courts  were  not  eligible  to  the  cler- 
ical office.  The  rule,  however,  was  not  universal,  for  the 
Council  of  Sardica  enacted  that  a  lawyer  might  be  or- 
dained a  bishop  if  he  passed  through  the  inferior  grades 
of  reader,  deacon,  and  presbyter.  On  the  other  hand, 
clergymen  -were  not  allowed  to  act  as  law3'ers,  or  to 
plead  either  their  own  cause  or  even  an  ecclesiastical 
one.  Bribery  and  extortion  were  forbidden  to  la'svyers 
under  severe  penalties. — Eadie,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Lay,  Benjamin,  an  eccentric  philanthropist,  was 
born  at  Colchester,  in  England,  in  1G81,  and  settled  in 
Barbadoes  in  1710,  but  became  obnoxious  to  the  people 
by  his  abiihtion  principles,  came  to  the  United  States, 
and  settled  at  Abington,  Pa.  He  was  one  of  the  earli- 
est and  most  zealous  opponents  of  slaver}-^  in  the  United 
States,  and  the  coadjutor  of  Franklin  and  Benezet.  He 
•was  originally  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  but 
so  decidedly  opposed  was  he  to  the  practice  of  slavehold- 
ing  then  prevalent  among  them  (e.  g.  he  resolutely  re- 
fused to  partake  of  any  food  or  wear  any  clothing  which 
was  wholly  or  in  part  produced  by  the  labor  of  slaves) 
that  he  was  obhged  to  leave  the  society  in  1717.  Be- 
fore his  death  (in  1760),  however,  he  had  the  pleasure 
of  seeing  his  society  take  a  decided  stand  against  this 
abominable  institution.  His  opposition  to  slavery  was 
noticeable  on  every  public  occasion  where  he  had  any 
opportunity  to  manifest  his  disapprobation.  He  always 
expressed  himself  in  strong  terms,  and  sometimes  re- 
sorted to  methods  for  enforcing  his  arguments  that 
evinced  great  eccentricity.  Says  Janney  (iii,  246) :  "  He 
came  into  the  yearly  meeting  with  a  bladder  fUled  with 
blood  in  one  hand  and  a  sword  in  the  other.  He  ran 
the  sword  through  the  bladder,  and  sprinkled  the  blood 
on  several  Friends,  declaring  that  so  the  sword  would  be 
sheathed  in  the  bowels  of  the  nation  if  they  did  not 
leave  otF  oppressing  the  negroes."  In  1737  he  wrote  a 
treatise  entitled  All.  Slare-keepers  that  kwp  the  Innocent 
in  Bondii;ie  Apostates,  which  was  published  by  Frank- 
lin.   See  Janney,  Hist,  of  the  Friends,  iii,  245.    (J.  H.W.) 

Lay  Abbots  or  Abbacomites.  Prior  to  the 
period  nf  ('harlemagne  the  court  ajipointed  its  favorites 
to  the  office  of  abbot:  rich  abbacies  were  given  to  the 
higher  secular  clergy  in  commendam,  i.  e.  simply  to  en- 
joy its  revenues,  or  else  to  counts  and  military  chiefs 
m  reward  for  their  services.  These  lay  abbots  occupied 
the  monasteries  with  their  families,  or  with  their  friends 
and  retainers,  sometimes  for  months,  converting  them 
into  baiH|ucting  halls,  or  using  them  for  hunting  expe- 
ditions or  for  military  exercises.  The  wealthiest  abba- 
cies the  kings  either  retained  for  themselves  or  bestow- 
ed on  tlieir  sons  and  daughters,  their  wives  and  mis- 
tresses. Charlemagne  corrected  this  abuse:  he  insisted 
on  strict  discipline,  and  made  it  a  ride  that  schools 
should  be  planted  in  connection  with  the  various  monas- 
teries, and  that  literary  labors  sliould  be  prosecuted  with- 
in their  walls.— Eadie,  F.ccles.  Diet.     See  also  Abbot. 

Layard,  Ciiaislks  Pktkk.  D.D.,  an  English  theolo- 
gian, grandfather  of  Austm  Henry  Layard,  the  cele- 


brated traveller,  and  himself  a  descendant  of  an  an- 
cient French  family,  was  bom  about  1748.  He  was  ed- 
ucated at  Westminster  Sc^iool  and  St.  John's  College, 
Cambridge;  was  then  appointed  minister  of  Oxendon 
Chapel,  and  librarian  to  Tenison's  Librarj',  Westminster; 
and  in  1800  was  promoted  to  the  deanery  of  Bristol,  and 
to  the  royal  chaplaincy.  He  died  April  11, 1803.  Be- 
sides an  essay  on  Charity  and  Duelling  (1774  and  1776), 
he  published  several  of  his  Sermons.  Layard  was  one 
of  the  most  popular  preachers  of  his  day.  See  Allibone, 
Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  7ner.  A  uthors,  ii,  1071 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Bioff.  Generale,  xxx,  39. 

Lay  Baptism.     See  Baptism,  Lay. 

Lay  Brothers,  a  name  for  a  class  of  Romish  iUit- 
erate  persons  who  in  convents  devote  themselves  to  the 
service  of  the  monks.  They  wear  a  different  habit  from 
the  monks,  but  never  enter  the  choir,  nor  are  present  at 
the  chapters.  The  only  vow  they  make  is  of  obedience 
and  constancy.  They  were  first  employed  in  the  11th 
century.  In  the  nimneries  there  are  also  lai/  sisteis,  or 
siste7-s  converse,  who  hold  a  similar  relation  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  nuns.     See  Farrar,  Ecdes.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Lay  Chancellors.  This  office  is  found  in  the 
Church  at  an  early  period.  Bishops  Avere  often  appeal- 
ed to  in  civil  causes,  especially  when  both  parties  agreed 
to  refer  any  dispute  to  them ;  and  in  this  case  their  sen- 
tence was  valid,  but  its  execution  was  left  to  the  civil 
power.  When  civil  causes  began  to  multiply,  the  bish- 
ops were  compelled  to  devolve  some  part  of  this  service 
on  others,  in  whose  fidelity  and  integrity  they  could  con- 
fide. Some  bishops  selected  laymen  for  this  purpose, 
and  this,  according  to  Bingham,  probably  originated  the 
office  of  lay  chancellor. — Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Lay  Elders.     See  Elder. 

Laying  on  of  Hands.     See  Hands,  Imposition 

OF. 

Layish.     See  Lion. 

Laymann,  Paul,  a  German  Jesuit,  was  born  at 
Innsbruck  in  1576,  and  died  of  the  plague  at  Constance 
Nov.  13,  1635.  He  was  distinguished  in  life  for  a  re- 
markable knowledge  of  canonical  law,  so  that  he  be- 
came an  oracle  in  these  matters.  His  Morallheologie, 
published  first  at  Munich  (1625,  4to),  passed  through 
many  editions  (one  of  the  best  at  Mayencc,  1723).  His 
work,  Justa  defensio  Sanciissimi  Romani  Pontifcis,  etc.,  in. 
causa  il/onasteriorum  et  honorum  ecclesiastic,  vacaniinm, 
etc.  (Diling.  1631),  was  replied  to  by  the  Benedictine  Ro- 
man Ha}'',  in  Aster  inextinctus,  and  led  to  an  answer  by 
Laymann,  entitled  Censura  A  strolog.  ccclesiasticcv,  et  A  s- 
tri  inexlincti.  After  his  death  appeared  his  Jus  canon- 
icuin  (Diling.  1643)  a.w\. Repertorium  (Diling.  1644).  See 
Wetzer  u.  Welte,  Kirchen-Lex.  vi,  383. 

Layuez.     See  Lainez. 

Lay  Preaching.  In  order  to  form  just  views  of 
this  subject,  it  is  well  to  consider  that  primary  design 
of  Christianity  which  contemplates  world-wide  diffu- 
sion. For  the  accomplishment  of  that  design,  preach- 
ing is  the  grand  and  divinely  ajipointed  agcncj-.  But 
the  true  idea  of  preaching,  as  instituted  by  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  is  not  n'arrow  and  exclusive.  It  is  com- 
prehensive and  manifold.  It  demands  adaptation  to  all 
men  and  all  circumstances.  Preaching  warns,  pro- 
claims, invites,  teaches.  Although  made  the  special 
work  of  certain  representative  disciples,  it  is,  in  fact, 
enjoined  upon  the  Church  as  a  whole,  and  upon  its 
members  in  particular,  '-as  of  the  ability  which  God 
giveth"  (1  Pet.  iv,  10,  M).  There  is  no  Christian  so 
humble  as  to  be  beneath  the  application  of  the  follow- 
ing and  many  kindred  precepts  :  '•  Let  your  light  so 
shine  before  men  that  they  may  see  your  good  works, 
and  glorify  your  Father  which  is  in  heaven"  (Matt,  v, 
16) ;  "  Herein  is  my  Father  glorified,  that  ye  bear  much 
fruit;  so  shall  ye  be  my  disciples"  (John  xv.  8) :  "  Who- 
soever shall  confess  me  before  men.  him  shall  the  Son 
of  man  also  confess  before  the  angels  of  God"  (^Luke  xii, 


LAY  PKEACHING 


297 


LAY  PREACHIXG 


8).  These  tieclaration:,  of  the  Saviour  have  a  special  sig- 
nificance when  viewetl  in  comparison  witli  various  other 
passages  which  indicate  that  an  important  element  of 
preacliing  consists  in  bearing  witness  of  things  seen, 
heard,  and  experienced  in  reference  to  Christ  and  his 
kingdom  (see  Luke  xxiv,  48 ;  Acts  i,  21,  2 ;  ii,  32 ;  iv, 
20;  xxii,  15). 

When  considered  in  the  plain  light  of  Christian  his- 
tory and  obligation,  the  subject  of  lay  preaching  be- 
comes relieved  from  both  the  difficidties  and  the  tech- 
nicalities with  which  it  has  sometimes  been  invested  by 
a  pretentious  ecclesiasticism.  None  of  our  Lord's  disci- 
ples were  priests,  and  yet,  from  the  moment  of  their  call 
to  his  discipleship,  he  proceeded  to  instruct  them  in  the 
matter  and  duty  of  preaching.  At  an  early  period  of 
their  instruction  they  were  sent  out  to  preach  experi- 
mentally (see  Matt,  x,  5-42;  Luke  ix,  1-G).  Not  only 
Avere  the  twelve  thus  sent  forth  to  preach,  but  "  other 
seventy  also."  The  number  seventy  was  symbolic  both 
of  multiplicity  and  completeness,  and  the  a<-"t  of  sending 
out  seventy  (lay)  disciples, "  two  by  two,  before  his  face, 
into  every  city  and  place  whither  he  himself  would 
come,"  was  in  itself  significant  of  our  Lord's  purpose  to 
employ  all  his  true  disciples  in  spreading  the  truth  and 
establishing  his  kingdom  upon  tlie  earth. 

In  imitation  of  its  divine  Lord,  the  Apostolic  Church 
employed  not  only  the  apostles,  but  its  lay  members  in 
preaching  the  Word.  '-At  that  time  (after  the  death 
of  Stephen)  there  was  a  great  persecution  against  the 
Churcli  which  was  at  Jerusalem,  and  they  were  all  scat- 
tered abroad  tliroughout  the  regions  of  Judea  and  Sa- 
maria, except  the  apostles."  "Therefore  they  that 
were  scattered  abroad  went  everywhere  preaching  the 
Word"  (Acts  viii,  1,  4).  The  same  fact  is  illustrated  by 
the  course  of  Paul,  of  whom,  immediately  after  his  con- 
version, and  long  prior  to  his  ordination,  it  is  recorded, 
"and  straightway  he  preached  Christ  in  the  syna- 
gogues" (Acts  ix,  20).  In  this  act  the  regenerated  per- 
secutor showed  that  Christian  obligations  jirecede  min- 
isterial, and  that  whosoever  is  born  of  God  not  only 
hath  the  witness  in  himself,  but  is  prompted  by  the 
Holy  Spirit  to  utter  his  testimony  in  the  ears  and  to 
the  hearts  of  his  fellow-men. 

Tlie  allusions  to  the  modes  and  accompaniments  of 
worship  in  Ilom.  xii,  G-8,  and  1  Cor.  xiv,  as  well  as  in 
several  less  detailed  passages,  clearly  imply  that  the 
apostles  were  accustomed  to  encourage  the  exercise  of 
all  sjiecies  of  gifts  in  the  Church,  but  especially  those  of 
exhortation  and  prophecy.  From  these  scriptural  ex- 
amples, it  is  just  to  infer  that  lay  preaching,  in  the  va- 
rious forms  of  teaching,  evangelizing,  and  prophesying, 
had  from  the  first  a  double  object:  1,  to  do  good  to  all 
men ;  and,  2,  to  develop  and  prove  the  gifts  of  those 
who  IVoni  time  to  time  were  called  from  the  ranks  of 
the  laity  to  the  more  public  ministry  of  the  Word. 
Such,  doubtless,  continued  to  be  the  practice  of  the 
Church  during  the  early  centuries,  and  it  was  only  by 
degrees  that  it  became  modified  under  the  hierarchical 
spirit  which  became  developed  at  a  later  period.  In- 
teresting proof  of  this  is  found  in  connection  with  the 
history  of  Origen  of  Alexandria.  He,  as  a  layman  of 
known  learning  and  skill  in  exposition,  having  gone  to 
Ciesarea,  was  invited  by  the  bishops  there  to  preach. 
True,  his  preaching  on  that  occasion  was  made  the 
ground  of  a  charge  from  Demetrius  of  Alexandria 
against  the  bishops  who  invited  him.  But  the  form 
which  the  charge  took  is  in  favor  of  the  general  right 
of  laymen  to  exercise  their  teaching  fiuutions  in  the 
Church.  His  alleged  offence  was  not  that  he,  being  a 
layman,  taught,  but  that  he  taught  when  bishops  were 
present.  The  accused  bishops,  Alexander  of  Jerusalem 
and  Theoctistos  of  Ca'sarea,  defended  themselves,  not 
■with  a  plea  of  ignorance  or  of  exceptional  circumstances, 
but  by  an  appeal  to  the  common  law  of  the  Church. 
They  knew  the  custom,  even  in  the  form  of  wliich  De- 
metrius complained,  to  prevail  at  Iconium  and  other 
diurclies  of  Asia.     They  believed  it  to  prevail  else- 


where, and  thought  it  proper  to  be  recognised  at  Alex- 
andria also  (see  Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl.  vi,  19). 

In  the  fourth  Council  of  Carthage  we  find,  with  the 
name  of  Augustine  among  the  subscriptions  to  its  laws, 
the  rule,  "Laicus  prajsentibus  clericis,  nisi  ipsis  jubenti- 
bus,  docere  non  audeat"  (can.  98).  From  this  we  may 
infer  that  in  tlie  absence  of  the  clergy  a  layman  might 
teach,  and  also  in  their  presence  at  their  request.  It  is 
noted  by  Socrates  {IJist.  Eccks.  v,  22)  as  an  exceptional 
custom  of  the  Alexandrian  Church  that  the  office  of 
reader  might  be  filled  by  even  an  unbaptized  catechu- 
men. The  commentary  of  the  pseudo- Ambrose  on  Eph. 
4th  recognises  that  at  the  commencement  "omnibus 
concessum  est  et  evangelizare,  et  baptizare,  et  scripturas 
in  ecclesia  explanare."  In  the  so-called  Apostolic  Con- 
stitutions, representing  the  practice  of  the  Church  in  the 
3d  and  4th  centuries,  we  find  tlie  law  that  "  if  any  man, 
though  a  layman,  is  skilful  in  expounding  doctrines,  and 
of  venerable  manners,  he  may  be  allowed  to  teach"'  (viii, 
32).  Similar  indications  are  also  found  in  the  Shepherd 
of  Hermas.     See  Laitv. 

But  it  is  unnecessary  to  dweU  upon  the  lingering  evi- 
dences of  a  custom  that  was  destined  to  be  crushed  out 
by  increasing  perversions  of  the  original  spirit  of  the 
Gospel.  When  ritual  ceremonies  came  to  supersede  not 
only  the  practice,  but  the  very  idea  of  evangelization,  it 
is  not  surprising  tliat  preaching  itself  became  a  ceremo- 
ny, and  at  length  a  rare  and  infrequent  ceremony.  Not 
merely  laymen,  but  even  presbyters  of  the  Church,  were 
inhibited  from  ]3rcaching,  except  by  special  permission 
of  bishops ;  while  many  of  the  bishops,  who  had  arroga- 
ted to  themselves  the  exclusive  right  of  preaching,  ei- 
ther through  ignorance  or  indolence  practically  aban- 
doned the  custom.  "  There  was  a  time  when  the  bish- 
ops of  Eome  were  not  known  to  preach  for  five  hundred 
years  together!  —  insomuch  that,  wlien  Pius  Quintus 
made  a  sermon,  it  was  looked  upon  as  a  prodigy,  and, 
indeed,  was  a  greater  rarity  than  the  Swculun's  Lmli 
were  in  old  Pome"  (Bingham,  Orif/.  Eccl.  book  ii,  ch.  iii, 
§  4).  This  general  abandonment  of  the  great  and  pe- 
culiar work  of  the  Christian  ministry  had  its  counterpart 
of  error  in  monasticism,  which,  by  an  equal  perversion, 
sent  myriads  of  the  best  men  in  the  Church  during  suc- 
cessive centuries  to  waste  their  lives  and  religious  zeal 
in  fruitless  penances  in  desert  places  and  gloomy  clois- 
ters. Had  the  lives  and  talents  which  were  thus  thrown 
away  in  monastic  idleness  been  wisely  employed  in  va- 
rious forms  of  evangelization,  whether  lay  or  clerical, 
who  can  tell  how  much  better  the  world  would  have 
been  to-day !  In  fact,  nearly  all  the  real  progress  made 
by  Christianity  during  several  of  the  mediaeval  centu- 
ries was  by  exceptional  missionary  effort  among  various 
aboriginal  nations  of  Europe.  The  general  abandon- 
ment of  preaching  above  alluded  to  formed  a  pretext  for 
the  establishment,  in  the  13th  or  14th  centuries,  of  sev- 
eral preaching  orders  of  monks,  specialh'  the  Franciscans 
and  Dominicans.  These  monks,  in  an  ecclesiastical 
point  of  view,  were  laymen,  and  by  profession  they  were 
also  mendicants.  Nevertheless,  thej'  acquired  great  in- 
fiucnce  and  great  wealth  for  their  several  orders.  But 
such  results  did  not  relieve  the  evangelical  barrenness 
of  the  period,  nor  render  less  necessary  the  great  llcfor- 
mation  of  the  16th  century.  In  the  Reformed  churches 
there  was  a  general  breaking  away  from  the  trammels 
of  ecclesiasticism,  together  with  an  energy  of  purpose 
wliich  did  not  scrujile  to  employ  any  agencies  at  its 
command  for  the  dissemination  of  truth.  Still,  under 
I  the  infiuence  of  long-prevailing  custom,  that  great  ele- 
j  mcnt  of  Christian  power  to  be  derived  from  the  personal 
activity  of  devoted  laymen  was  to  a  large  degree  suffer- 
ed to  lie  dormant,  and  in  some  cases  actually  repressed. 
The  first  formal  and  greatly  effective  organization  of  lay 
preaching  as  a  system,  and  as  a  recognised  brancli  of 
Church  effort,  took  place  under  John  Wesley  at  an  early 
period  of  that  great  religious  movement  known  as  the 
revival  of  the  18th  century.  See  Stevens,  Histoi-y  of 
Methodism,  i,  173, 174, 


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298 


LAY  REPRESENTATION 


Not  only  was  great  good  accomplishcil  V)v  the  Wes- 
loyaii  lay  [ircachers  in  England,  hut  hy  ])crsons  of  this 
class  Methodism  was  introduced  into  America.  See 
Embuuy,  Philip  ;  Strawukidge,  liOUEur  ;  Webb, 
Capt.  In  all  parts  of  the  Avorld,  wherever  Methodism 
lias  extended  its  activities,  organized  lay  preaching  has 
been  a  leading  feature  of  its  evangelical  movements. 
See  ExiiouTERS;  Local  PiiEACiiEits;  Keaders.  Dur- 
ing the  current  century  other  evangelical  churches  have 
adopted  analogous  measures  in  various  forms,  and  em- 
ployed lay  evangelists  under  such  names  as-Bible-read- 
ers,  prayer-leaders,  colporteurs,  etc.  In  some  cliiirches 
in  which  official  sanction  has  not  been  given  to  lay 
jireaching — e.  g.  the  national  churches  of  England  and 
Scotland,  many  earnest  Christian  laymen,  including 
some  noblemen,  have  gone  forth  independently,  under 
their  personal  convictions  of  duty,  preaching  wherever 
they  could  assemble  congregations. 

The  vast  Sunday-school  enterprises  of  modern  times 
are  themselves  at  once  a  grand  result  and  agency  of  lay 
teaching  in  perfect  harmony  with  the  design  of  the 
Christian  ministry,  and  powerfully  auxiliary  to  its  most 
effective  administration  by  regularly  ordained  ministers 
of  the  Word.  The  Christian  Associations  of  the  pres- 
ent day  are  chiefly  composed  of  laymen,  and  the  whole 
weight  of  their  intluence  is  given  to  encourage  the 
evangelization  of  the  neglected  classes  of  society  by  all 
available  agencies,  such  as  lay  preaching  and  its  various 
auxiliary  forms  of  Christian  work.  By  these  numerous 
and  multiplying  means  of  Christian  teaching  and  influ- 
ence the  modern  Church  is  approximating  the  intense 
activity  of  the  apostolic  Church,  and  at  the  same  time 
adapting  itself  to  the  moral  necessities  and  special  con- 
ditions of  the  present  age.  In  this  manner  the  pri- 
mary design  of  Christianity  is  answered,  and  great  good 
is  accomplished  among  classes  of  people  that  would 
scarcely  be  reached  by  the  regular  clergy  of  any  of  the 
churches.  Nor  are  the  just  prerogatives  of  ordained 
preachers  in  any  degree  prejudiced  by  the  co-operative 
action  of  pious  and  judicious  laymen.  On  the  other 
hand,  all  ministers  of  a  truly  apostolic  type  cannot  fail 
to  see  that  their  own  success  is  greatly  promoted  by 
their  imitation  of  the  apostle  to  the  Gentiles  in  enlist- 
ing and  encouraging  as  extensively  as  possible  all  wor- 
thy helpers  in  Christ.  See  Young  Men's  Christian 
Assot'iATiONS.     (D.  P.  K.) 

Lay  Representation.  The  participation  of  the 
laity,  by  their  representatives,  in  the  government  of  the 
Church,  is  one  of  the  fruits  of  the  Protestant  Keforma- 
tion.  The  ground  of  their  claim  to  be  represented  in 
ecclesiastical  government  is  found,  however,  in  the  na- 
ture of  the  Christian  priesthood,  and  the  constitution  of 
the  Church  itself.  Christ  having  satisfied,  by  his  offer- 
ing of  himself,  that  sense  of  need  which  leads  men  to 
seek  for  mediators,  there  remains  to  the  Christian  com- 
munity the  offering  of  themselves,  as  a  priestly  body,  in 
sacrilice  and  service  to  their  Eedeemer.  Towards  God, 
all  are  spiritually  equal,  and  the  Church,  therefore,  as 
originally  constituted,  was  without  an  external  priest- 
ly caste.  '-As  all  believers,"  says  Neandcr,  in  his  Plant- 
iiKj  (iiiil  TnwdiKi  of  the  Church,  "were  conscious  of  an 
equal  relation  to  Clirist  as  their  Pedeemer,  and  of  a 
common  participation  of  communion  with  God  through 
him,  so  on  this  consciousness  an  equal  relation  of  believ- 
ers to  one  another  was  grounded,  which  utterly  preclu- 
ded any  relation  like  that  found  in  other  forms  of  relig- 
ion subsisting  between  a  priestly  caste  and  a  people  of 
whom  they  were  mediators  and  spiritual  guides.  The 
apostles  tliemselves  were  very  far  from  jjlacing  them- 
selves in  a  relation  to  believers  which  bore  any  relation 
to  a  mediating  priesthood:  in  this  respect  they  always 
placed  themselves  on  a  footing  of  etpiality." 

Yet  ajmstolic  churches  were  bv  no  means  without  a 
distinct  method  of  government.  Following  the  exam- 
ple of  the  synagogue,  elders  very  soon  ajipear  in  the 
Christian  community;  and  the  choosing  of  deacons  by 
the  people,  with  the  approval  of  the  apostles,  is  one  of 


the  earliest  facts  recorded  in  the  New  Testament  history 
of  the  organizing  Church.  The  charisins,  or  gifts  of 
the  Spirit,  included  that  of  government  (1  Cor.  xii) ; 
j'et  this  gift  was  used,  not  as  of  exclusive  right,  but  in 
co-operation  with  other  gifts  for  the  common  Melfarc. 
The  gift  of  the  Spirit  was  a  designation  to  the  Christian 
community  of  the  persons  fitted  for  the  exercise  of  this 
function.  The  Gentile  churches  adopted  substantially 
the  form  of  government  in  use  among  their  Jewish  fel- 
low-Christians; ''but  their  government,"  says  Neander, 
"  by  no  means  excluded  the  participation  of  the  whole 
Church  in  the  management  of  their  common  concerns, 
as  may  be  inferred  from  what  we  have  already  remark- 
ed respecting  the  nature  of  the  Christian  communion, 
and  is  also  evident  from  many  individual  examples  in 
the  apostolic  Church.  The  whole  Church  at  Jerusalem 
took  part  in  the  deliberation  respecting  the  relation  of 
the  Jewish  and  Gentile  Christians  to  each  other,  and 
the  epistle  drawn  up  after  these  deliberations  was  like- 
wise in  the  name  of  the  whole  Church.  The  epistles  of 
the  apostle  Paul,  which  treat  of  various  controverted 
ecclesiastical  matters,  are  addressed  to  whole  churches, 
and  he  assumes  that  the  decision  belonged  to  the  whole 
body.  Had  it  been  otherwise,  he  would  have  addressed 
liis  instructions  and  advice  principally,  at  least,  to  the 
overseers  of  the  Church." 

In  the  post-apostolic  age,  with  the  growth  of  the  sac- 
erdotal system,  the  laity  gradually  disappeared  from 
participation  in  the  government  of  the  Church.  As  re- 
ligion became  more  external,  the  minister  became  more 
a  mediating  priest,  until  finally  the  churches  were  rep- 
resented in  the  provincial  and  other  councils  solely 
by  their  bishops.  See  Laity.  The  hardening  process 
went  on  till  the  fabric  of  mediaaval  Christianity  was 
complete.  The  laity  were  held  in  a  state  of  pupilage, 
their  capability  of  self-guidance  in  matters  of  faith  and 
practice  was  denied,  and  the  powers  of  the  Church  were 
wholly  absorbed  by  the  hierarchy.  This  continued  till 
the  spell  of  mediffivalism  was  broken  by  Luther. 

The  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  alone  abolished 
human  mediation  between  man  and  God.  Luther  fully 
recognised  the  New-Testament  idea  of  the  priesthood  of 
all  believers,  and  proclaimed  it  with  all  the  force  of  his 
eloqueiice.  His  language  on  this  subject  is  verj^  ex- 
plicit :  "  Every  Christian  man  is  a  priest,  and  every 
Christian  woman  a  priestess,  whether  they  be  young  or 
old,  master  or  servant,  mistress  or  maid-servant,  scholar 
or  illiterate.  All  Christians  are,  properly  speaking, 
members  of  the  ecclesiastical  order,  and  there  is  no  dif- 
ference between  them  except  that  they  hold  different 
offices"  (see  citations  in  Hagenbach.  Hut.  of  Doctrines, 
ii,  '24).  By  the  inculcation  of  this  fundamental  princi- 
ple the  laity  recovered  their  position  in  the  Church  of 
Christ,  and  lay  representation  again  became  possible. 
'■The  restoration,"  says  Litton,  in  his  work  on  the 
Church,  "  in  theory  at  least,  of  the  laity  to  their  proper 
place  in  the  Church,  was  an  immediate  consequence  of 
the  Reformation.  By  reasserting  the  two  great  scrip- 
tural doctrines  of  the  universal  priesthood  of  Christians, 
and  of  the  indwelling  of  the  Spirit,  not  in  a  iiriestly 
caste,  but  in  the  whole  body  of  the  faithfid,  Luther  and 
his  contemporaries  shook  the  whole  fabric  of  sacerdotal 
usurpation  to  its  base,  and  recovered  for  the  Christian 
laity  the  rights  of  which  they  had  been  deprived.  The 
lay  members  of  the  body  of  Christ  emerged  from  the 
spiritual  imbecility  which  they  had  been  taught  to  re- 
gard as  their  natural  state,  and  became  free,  not  from 
the  yoke  of  Christ,  but  from  that  of  the  priest." 

The  right  of  the  laity  to  representation  has  ever  since 
remained  one  of  the  imints  of  difference  between  Protes- 
tantism and  L'omanisni.  The  Council  of  Trent  reaffirm- 
ed the  mediaeval  doctrine  in  the  strongest  terms.  In  its 
decree  on  the  sacrament  of  "order"  it  says,  '"And  if  any 
one  affirm  that  all  Christians  indiscriminately  are  priests 
of  the  New  Testament,  or  that  they  are  mutually  en- 
dowed with  an  ccpial  spiritual  power,  he  clearly  does 
nothing  but  confound  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchv,  which 


LAY  REPRESENTATIOX 


299 


LAY  REPRESENTATION" 


is  as  an  armj^  set  in  array;  as  if,  contrary  to  the  doc- 
trine uf  the  blessed  Paul,  all  were  apostles,  all  prophets, 
all  evangelists,  all  pastors,  all  doctors."  In  the  develop- 
ment of  Protestantism  the  lay  power  was  unfortunately 
absorbed  by  the  state.  The  State-Church  system  has 
hindered  the  free  growth  of  the  Christian  community; 
but  wherever  Protestantism  has  liad  the  opportunity  of 
freely  unfolding  its  principles,  lay  representation  has 
been  recognised  as  just  and  fitting. 

The  form  of  lay  representation  varies  in  the  Protes- 
tant churches.  Among  the  Presbyterians  the  laity  are 
represented  by  ruling  elders,  who  are  chosen  for  life.  A 
presbytery  usually  consists  of  all  the  ministers,  and  one 
ruling  elder  from  each  congregation  within  a  certain 
district ;  a  synod  is  a  similarly  constituted  body  from  a 
larger  district,  embracing  several  presbyteries;  and  a 
general  assembly  consists  of  an  equal  delegation  of  min- 
isters and  elders  from  each  presbytery,  in  a  certain  fixed 
]iroportion.  In  the  General  Assembly  of  the  State 
Church  of  Scotland,  the  crown  is  also  represented  by  a 
lord  high  commissioner.  The  Lutheran  Church  adheres 
to  the  doctrine  of  the  universal  priesthood  of  believers, 
as  taught  by  Luther:  "The  ultimate  source  of  power  is 
in  the  congregation,  and  sj'nods  possess  such  powers  as 
the  congregations  delegate  to  them."  In  the  United 
States  most  of  the  synods  are  connected  with  a  more 
general  bodj'  (the  General  Synod,  the  General  Council, 
or  the  Southern  General  Synod).  Among  the  Friends, 
or  Quakers,  the  legislative  power  is  exercised  by  a  year- 
ly meeting,  which  embraces  the  whole  society  witliin  a 
certain  district.  In  this  the  proceedings  of  the  (juarter- 
ly  and  monthly  meetings  are  reviewed.  There  are. also 
"  district  meetings"  for  the  supervision  and  care  of  the 
ministry,  which  are  composed  of  ministers  and  elders. 
The  Congregationalists  hold  the  entire  independence  of 
each  Christian  congregation,  and  its  right  to  manage  its 
own  affairs  without  interference  from  other  churches. 
In  each  church  all  the  brethren  have  ecjual  rights. 
Councils  may  be  called  by  letters  addressed  to  neigh- 
boring churches,  and,  when  assembled,  are  composed  of  a 
pastor  and  a  delegate  from  each  chiu'ch  invited.  They 
have,  however,  no  authoritative  power.  In  the  United 
States  all  the  congregational  bodies  (Baptists,  Orthodox 
Congregationalists,  Unitarians,  and  Universalists)  hold 
general  conventions,  in  which  the  laity  are  always  rep- 
resented. 

In  the  Established  Church  of  England  the  lay  power 
has  been  jealously  retained  and  guarded  by  the  crown 
and  Parliament,  but  the  Disestablished  Church  of  Ire- 
land has  reorganized  with  lay  representation.  In  the 
councils  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  the  Uni- 
ted States  the  laity  have  an  important  place.  In  each 
diocese  there  is  held  annually  a  convention  composed 
of  the  bishop,  the  clergy,  and  a  lay  delegate  from  each 
church.  This  is  the  governing  body  of  the  diocese. 
The  legislative  authority  of  the  entire  Ch\irch  resides  in 
a  general  convention,  which  meets  once  in  three  years, 
and  is  composed  of  the  bishops  and  four  clerical  and  four 
lay  delegates  from  each  diocese,  elected  by  the  diocesan 
convention.  The  bishops  form  one  house,  and  the  cler- 
ical and  lay  delegates  another.  The  concurrence  of 
both  liouses  is  necessary  for  the  passage  of  any  law, 
find,  if  asked  for,  the  concurrence  of  the  three  orders  be- 
comes necessary. 

Direct  representation  of  the  laity  is  not  established 
among  the  Wesleyan  INIethodists  of  England.  There 
are,  however,  preparatory  committees  appointed  by  the 
conference,  and  composed  of  ministers  and  laymen,  who 
revise  the  connectional  business  in  advance  of  the  an- 
nual assembling  of  the  conference.  These  committees 
shape  the  measures  ado]ited  subsequently  by  the  con- 
ference, their  recommendations  being  usually  concur- 
red in.  Direct  lay  representation  has  been  proposed 
by  the  Kev.WiUiam  Arthur  and  JNIr.  Percival  Punting, 
and  no  doubt  the  proposal  will  hereafter  be  much  dis- 
ciissed.  The  Irish  Wesley ans  are  making  steady  pmg- 
ress  towards  lay  delegation.    The  minor  Wesleyan  bod- 


ies in  England  (the  Primitive  IMethodists,  New  Connec- 
tion Methodists,  etc.)  have  adopted  lay  representation. 
Lay  representation  first  went  into  effect  in  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South  in  18G9.  It  also  exists  in  the 
Methodist  Protestant,  the  Methodist,  the  African  Meth- 
odist, and  the  African  Meth.  Episcopal  Zion  churches. 

The  history  of  lay  rejiresentation  in  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  has  been  quite  eventful.  Originally 
and  for  many  years  the  Church  was  governed  by  the 
travelling  ministers,  through  annual  conferences  and  a 
delegated  general  conference.  Early  in  this  century 
symptoms  of  a  desire  for  a  change  in  the  form  of  gov- 
ernment appeared.  About  18-22  the  Wesleijan  Reposito- 
rij,  a  paper  advocating  reform  (as  it  was  then  called), 
was  established  in  Philadelphia.  Tliis  was  followed  by 
a  convention  of  "  reformers"  in  Baltimore  in  1824,  who 
established  as  their  periodical  organ  in  that  citv  The 
Mutual  Rifjhts.  The  objects  of  attack  were  the  ejpisco- 
pacy  and  the  clerical  government  of  the  Church.  In 
1827  Dr. Thomas  E.Bond  issued  an  appeal  to  IMethodists 
against  lay  delegation  which  exerted  a  groat  influence 
in  determining  the  maintenance  of  the  existing  system. 
At  the  General  Conference  of  1828  the  subject  was  dis- 
cussed in  the  celebrated  "  Report  on  Petitions  and  Me- 
morials," which  denied  the  claims  of  the  petitioners. 
This  report  was  unanimous!}'  adopted.  By  this  time 
Church  proceedings  had  been  instituted  against  some  of 
the  '-reform  party"  in  Baltimore,  which  resulted  in  ex- 
pulsion. Others  withdrew,  and  in  1830  the  Constitution 
of  the  '■  Methodist  Protestant  Church"  was  formed.  The 
controversy  was  accompanied  and  followed  with  great 
bitterness  on  both  sides.  Looked  at  from  this  distmice 
of  time,  it  is  apparent  that  both  parties  numbered  among 
their  leaders  good  and  strong  men,  who  unfortunately 
stood  upon  extreme  and  irreconcilable  propositions.  The 
'•  reformers"  claimed  the  admission  of  the  laity  to  the 
General  Conference  on  the  ground  of  the  right  of  the 
pco|Je  to  share  in  ecclesiastical  legislation ;  this  claim 
was  denied  by  the  conservative  side  chiefly  on  the 
ground  that  the  General  Conference  possessed  '•  no  strict- 
ly legislative  powers." 

The  discussion  rested,  after  the  organization  Of  the 
Methodist  Protestant  Church,  for  more  than  twenty 
years.  Shortly  before  the  General  Conference  of  1852, 
a  convention  of  laymen  was  held  in  Philadelphia  to  take 
measures  for  brhiging  the  subject  before  the  Church 
once  more.  This  convention,  however,  disclaimed  all 
connection  with  the  principles  of  the  reformers  of  1828, 
and  asked  for  lay  representation  on  the  grounds  of  expe- 
diency solely.  Dr.  Thomas  E.  Bond,  the  great  antago- 
nist of  the  "radicals,"  met  the  members  of  the  conven- 
tion in  the  most  friendly  spirit,  and  conceded  to  them 
that  la}'  delegation  put  on  the  ground  of  expediency 
was  an  open  question.  While  still  denying  the  claim 
of  right,  he  went  so  far  as  to  suggest  a  plan  of  lay  co- 
operation in  the  annual  conferences.  The  petition  of 
the  convention  to  the  General  Conference  was  denied. 
In  the  General  Conference  of  185G  an  appeal  for  lay 
delegation  was  jiresented  again,  but  received  very  little 
attention.  By  LSGO  such  progress  had  been  made  that 
the  General  Conference,  assembled  in  that  year,  referred 
the  measure  to  a  popular  and  ministerial  vote,  to  be 
taken  in  1861  and  1862.  Both  votes  were  adverse  to 
lay  representation;  but  the  vote,  though  adverse,  de- 
veloped the  fact  of  a  growing  favor  for  this  important 
measure.  The  Methodist,  which  was  estabHshed  in  18G0, 
devoted  itself  to  the  advocac}'  of  it ;  other  pajjers,  espe- 
cially the  Zioris  Herald  and  the  Xorth-Wesltrn  Advo- 
cate, urged  it  upon  the  Church.  A  largely-attended 
convention  of  laymen  was  held  in  New  York  in  the 
spring  of  1863.  At  this  meeting  it  was  resolved  to  hold 
another  convention,  concurrently  with  the  session  of  the 
General  Conference  at  Philadelphia,  in  1864.  The  con- 
vention was  so  held,  and  presented  througli  a  deputation 
of  its  delegates  a  memorial  to  the  General  Conference, 
though  without  immediate  rcsidt.  A  third  convention 
was  held,  concurrently  with  the  session  of  the  General 


LAYRITZ 


300 


LAZARISTS 


Conference  at  Cliicngo,  in  18G8.  At  this  conference  a 
l)i)|)iil:ir  and  ministerial  vote  was  ordered  for  a  second 
time.  Tlie  vote  of  the  lay  members,  which  was  large, 
showed  a  majority  of  two  to  one  for  lay  delegation,  and 
the  necessary  three  fourths  of  the  ministry  were  se- 
cured. At  the  session  of  General  Conference  which  as- 
sembled in  Brooklyn  May  1, 1872,  the  measure  was  fully 
inaugurated,  and  the  lay  delegates  already  elected  were 
admitted  to  equal  powers.  The  plan  tluis  adopted  pro- 
vides for  two  lay  delegates  for  every  Annual  Conference, 
with  separate  votes  of  the  lay  and  clerical  members  on 
any  question  in  case  one  third  of  either  order  demand  it. 
References.  —  Neander,  Uistorij  of  the  Planting  and 
Training  of  the  Christian  Church,  book  i,  chapter  ii,  and 
book  iii,  chap,  v;  Hagenbach,  History  of  Christian  Doc- 
trines, ii,  277-283  ;  Litton,  History  of  the  Church,  book 
iii,  chapter  ii;  Waterworth,  CV«io«s  and  Decrees  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,  p.  172  sq. ;  Constitution  of  the  Presbyte- 
rian Church  in  the  CS.{p\ih].  by  Presb.  Board,  Philadel- 
phia) ;  Life  of  Bishop  Emory,  chaps,  x,  xi ;  Economy  of 
Methodism  Illustrated  and  Defended,  by  Dr.  T.  E.  Bond, 
Introduction  and  Appendix;  Perrine  (Prof.  W.  H.),  The 
'•  Wcsleyan  Axiom"  expounded:  a  Plea  for  a,  Lay  Dele- 
gation thoroughly  Scriptural,  Wesleyan,  and  Democratic 
(N.  Y.  1872),  attacking  the  plan  adopted  by  the  General 
Conference  of  18(38.     See  Laity.     (G.  K.  C.) 

Layritz,  Johann  Georg,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  July  15, 1641,  at  Hof,  in  Bavaria.  In  1667  he 
entered  the  university  at  Jena ;  in  1677  he  was  graduated 
M.  A.,  and  became  in  1673  professor  of  Church  and  profane 
history  at  the  gymnasium  of  Baireuth ;  in  1675,  librarian 
and  instructor  of  the  margraves  Erdmann,  Philipp,  and 
Georg  Albrecht ;  in  1685,  deacon  of  the  court  Church ;  in 
1688,  superintendent  at  Neustadt.  In  1697  he  accepted 
the  call  of  the  duke  Wilhelm  Ernst  of  Weimar,  and  he 
then  became  superintendent  in  general,  counsellor  of  the 
consistory,  tirst  preacher  of  the  Petri-Paul  Church,  and 
director  of  the  gymnasium.  He  died  April  4, 1716.  He 
left  numerous  productions,  e.  g.  Diss,  de  simplici  et  com- 
posito  (Jena;,  1668, 4to)  : — Auszug  der  Kirch engeschichte 
<k'S  Xeuen  Testam.  (Baireuth  und  Niiremb.  1678,  r2mo) : 
—  Synopsis  kistorim  ecclesiasticee  A^'ovi  Testam.  (ibid. 
1678,  12mo)  : — Der  rdmische  Papst-Thron,  cl.  i.  grilnd- 
liche  und  ausfiihrliche  Beschreibung  des papstlichen  Ehr- 
iind  Marht-  und  Wachstltums  (ibid,  1685,  4to). 

Layritz,  Paul  Eugeu,  a  noted  German  theolo- 
gian and  Moravian  bishop,  was  born  Nov.  13,  1707,  at 
Wunsiedel,  in  Bavaria;  was  educated  at  the  university 
of  Leipsic,  where,  besides  theology,  he  studied  philos- 
ophy and  mathematics.  In  1731  he  became  subrec- 
tor,  and  in  1735  rector  of  the  town-school  at  Neustadt. 
Through  an  early  acquaintance  with  the  count  Zinzen- 
dorf,  however,  he  was  in  1749  intrusted  with  the  direc- 
torship of  the  Moravian  seminary  and  grammar-school  at 
Marienborn,  and  henceforth  with  different  commissions 
on  the  affairs  of  the  denomination;  in  1749  he  was  sent 
by  them  to  England;  in  1763  to  St. Petersburg,  to  pro- 
cure permission  for  the  IMoravians  to  settle  in  the  Russian 
empire;  in  1773  to  Labrador,  to  inquire  into  the  progress 
of  their  missions  there.  In  1775,  at  the  Synod  of  Bar- 
by,  he  was  appointed  a  bishop,  and  intrusted  with  the 
supervision  of  the  Moravian  communities  throughout 
Silesia.  In  1782  he  undertook  also  the  supervision  of 
th3  communities  in  upper  Lusatia,  espcciallv  that  of 
llcrrnhut.  He  died  Aug.  3,  1788.  Besides  his  practical 
ariivity,  of  great  importance  to  his  denomination,  and 
his  extended  knowledge  of  the  Oriental  languages,  and 
of  the  modern  also,  his  productions  as  an  author  received 
a  hearty  welcome  by  his  contemporaries,  and  are  by  no 
means  useless  to  us,  a  few  of  which  are  here  mentioned : 
Erste  Anfangsgriinde  der  Verntafthhre  (Ziillichau,  1743, 
8vo;  2d  ed.,  ibid,  1748, 8vo;  .-Jd'ed.,  ibid.  1755,  8vo;  ^th 
ed.,  ibid.  1764,  8vo;  translated  into,Latin,  with  the  title 
Ekmenta  Lor/icce,  Stuttgard,  1766,  8vo)  i—Iietrachtungeu 
iiber  cine  vollstdndige  und  christliche  Erziehung  der  Kin- 
der (Barby,  1776,  8vo).  Sec  Dciring,  Gelehrte  Theolog. 
Deutschlunds,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 


Lazae  or  Xiazi  (AaZai),  the  name  of  a  large  nation 
inhabiting  Colchis,  between  the  rivers  Bathys  and  Pha- 
sis.  Untler  the  Komans  the  name  Lazica  was  applied 
to  the  whole  of  Colchis.  In  520  the  prince  of  the  Laza?, 
Tyathus  (Zathus  or  Tzathus),  went  to  Constantinople 
to  ask  the  aid  of  the  emperor  Justin  against  the  Per- 
sians. He  was  baptized  there,  with  the  emperor  hitn- 
self  as  his  sponsor,  married  a  Grecian  Christian  lady 
of  high  rank,  and  requested  the  emperor  to  crown  him 
king,  in  order  that,  if  he  should  receive  the  crown  at 
the  hands  of  the  king  of  Persia,  as  was  formerly  the 
custom,  he  shoidd  not  be  obliged  to  take  a  part  in  the 
heathen  ceremonies  and  sacrifices  which  woidd  follow. 
Justin  recognised  him  as  an  independent  sovereign,  and 
crowned  him  himself.  Soon  after  this  the  whole  of  the 
Lazaj  appear  to  have  become  zealous  Christians.  Pro- 
copius  calls  them  "  the  most  zealous  of  aU  Christians," 
and  this  ,seems  to  be  to  some  extent  corroborated  by  the 
fact  that  Chosroes,  king  of  Persia,  endeavored  to  remove 
them  into  the  interior  of  his  empire,  as  they  and  their 
neighbors  the  Iberians,  who  were  also  Christians,  op- 
posed an  invincible  barrier  to  the  extension  of  I'ersia. 
One  of  their  princes,  Gubazes,  having  been  assassinated 
by  a  Roman  general,  they  entertained  for  a  moment  the 
idea  of  attaching  themselves  to  Persia,  but  relinquished 
it  for  fear  of  thereby  being  in  danger  of  losing  their 
faith:  "qui  enim  varia  senserint,  versari  simul  nil  pos- 
sunt,  et  sane  nee  timore  intercedente  nee  beneficio  ducc 
fides  in  his  stabilis  manet,  ni  forte  eadem  et  rectius  sen- 
serint" (Agath.  iii,  12).  From  the  statement  in  Proco- 
pius  {Bell.  Goth,  iv,  2),  that  the  bishops  of  the  Laz;c  sent 
priests  to  neighboring  independent  Christian  nations,  it 
appears  that  the  Laza3  were  zealous  in  propagating  their 
faith.  Among  the  converts  they  made  to  Christianitj- 
are  the  Abasians,  to  Avhom  Justinian  I  sent  priests.  Sec 
Thcophan.  CAroBo^r.  anno  512;  Herzog,  Peal- Encyllop. 
viii,  250  ;  Wetzer  imd  Welte,  Kirchen-Lexikon,  vi,  oSG; 
Smith,  T)ict.  of  Class.  Geog.  s.  v. 

Lazaiists,  or  Priests  of  the  Mission,  a  soci- 
ety of  missionary  priests  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
It  was  founded  in  1G24 
by  St.  Vincent  of  Paid, 
who,  while  living  as  tu- 
tor and  chaplain  in  the 
liouse  of  count  Gondi, 
general  of  the  royal  gal- 
leys, was  induced  by  the 
general  confession  of  sick 
men  to  give  a  mission 
for  the  people  of  the  do- 
minions of  the  count. 
The  results  of  the  mis- 
sion so  well  pleased  the 
count  that  he  offered  a 
sum  of  money  to  any 
religious  congregation 
which  would  be  willing 
to  give  a  mission  in  his 
dominions.  Vincent  in 
vain  offered  this  sum  to 
the  members  of  his  own 
order,  the  Oratorians, 
Lazarist,  or  PiiL-st  of  the  Mis-  and  to  the  Jesuits.  Botli 
®"'""  were    so    overwhelmed 

with  business  that  they  could  not  accept  the  offer.  This 
refusal,  and  the  wish  of  the  family  of  count  Gondi,  as 
well  as  of  the  brother  of  the  coimt,  the  archijishoi)  of 
Paris,  induced  Vincent  in  1624  to  establish  the  society 
of  the  missionary  priests,  who  were  chiefly  to  devote 
themselves  to  the  religious  care  of  the  country  pcopb 
and  the  lower  classes.  The  new  institution  soon  re- 
ceived the  royal  sanction,  and  pope  Urban  VIII  made  it 
a  special  religious  society  under  the  name  of  the  Priests 
of  the  Mission.  In  1632  they  received  the  college  of 
St.  Lazarus  in  Paris,  whence  their  usual  name  Lazarists 
is  derived.  Their  more  spacious  establishment  and  the 
increase  of  their  income  now  enabled  the  congregation 


LAZARUS 


301 


LAZARUS 


to  extend  their  sphere  of  action.  In  addition  to  the 
revival  of  religion  among  the  masses  of  the  people,  the 
chief  ol)jects  of  the  Priests  of  the  Mission  were  the  ref- 
ormation of  the  clergy  by  means  of  conferences,  and  the 
establisliment  of  seminaries  in  accordance  with  the  de- 
crees of  the  Council  of  Trent.  Even  during  the  lifetime 
of  St.  Vincent  nearly  all  the  dioceses  of  France  had  been 
visited  by  his  disci))les;  and,  besides,  also  Italy,  Corsica, 
Poland,  Ireland,  Scotland,  Algeria,  Tunis,  and  Madagas- 
car received  the  missionaries,  who,  on  the  coast  of  Afri- 
ca, vied  with  the  Order  of  Mercy  in  the  redemption  of 
slaves.  To  Poland  they  were  called  by  the  queen,  Ma- 
ria Louisa,  wife  of  king  John  Casimir  II.  They  estab- 
lished a  missionary  institution,  under  the  direction  of 
Lambert,  while  the  plague  and  famine  were  raging,  in 
particular  in  "Warsaw.  Lambert  and  his  successor, 
Ozenne,  fell  victims  to  the  epidemic,  but  the  mission 
became  very  prosperous.  The  first  successors  of  Vin- 
cent as  superiors  general  were  Eene  Almeras  (1G72), 
Edmund  Jolly  (1G97),  and  Nicolas  Pierron ;  at  the  time 
of  the  first  revolution  abbe  Cayla  de  la  Garde  was  the 
head  of  the  congregation.  At  this  time  the  congrega- 
tion had  reached  its  zenith;  and  as  in  France  no  less 
than  forty-nine  theological  seminaries  were  conducted 
by  it,  it  exercised  a  gieat  influence  on  the  theological 
views  of  the  French  clergy.  During  the  Revolution, 
the  Lazarists,  in  common  with  all  the  other  religious 
denominations,  perished ;  but  they  were  restored  as  early 
as  1804,  and  even  received  from  the  public  exchequer  a 
support  of  15,000  francs.  At  Paris  a  hospital  belonging 
to  the  public  domain  was  given  to  them  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  central  institution  and  a  novitiate ;  they 
also  received  several  houses  in  the  departments  beyond 
the  Alps,  and  the  right  to  accept  legacies.  But  when  Na- 
])()leon  had  fallen  out  with  the  pope  he  again  abolished 
the  Lazarists  by  a  decree  of  1809,  suppressed  all  their 
houses,  cancelled  the  dotation,  and  contiscated  the  prop- 
erty which  had  been  given  to  them  or  acquired  by  them. 
They  were  legally  restored  in  181G :  and,  though  they 
could  not  recover  their  original  house,  St.  Lazare,  they 
acquired  another  house  in  the  Kue  Sevres,  whither  they 
also  transferred  their  seminary.  They  now  resumetl 
their  former  labors,  but  remained  for  some  time  without 
a  regular  superior  general.  After  the  death  of  Cayla  de 
la  Garde  two  vicars  general  had  been  appointed,  but  in 
1829  the  pope  appointed  a  new  superior  general  (Pierre 
DewaiUy),  as  the  convocation  of  a  chapter  general  pre- 
sented insurmountable  obstacles.  The  pope,  in  making 
this  appointment,  expressly  recognised  the  fact  that  the 
office  of  superior  general  had  always  been  filled  by  a 
Frenchman.  According  to  the  Roman  Almanac  for 
1870,  the  office  of  superior  general  was  at  that  time  filled 
l)y  father  Etienne.  In  18(5".!  (according  to  P.  Karl  vom 
heil.  Aloys,  Statisclies  Jahrhuch  der  Kirche,  Ratisbon, 
1802)  the  Lazarists  had  18  houses  in  France,  27  in  Italy, 
4  in  the  British  Isles,  fi  in  Germany,  3  in  the  Pyrenean 
peninsula,  10  in  Poland  (with  143  members).  In  Asia 
they  had  establishments  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  Persia, 
in  JIanilla,  and  in  rive  provinces  of  China ;  in  Africa, 
at  Alexandria,  in  Egypt,  at  Algiers  and  Mustapha,  in 
Algeria,  and  at  Adowa,  in  Abyssinia.  In  America  they 
ha<l  17  establishments.  In  all,  there  were  in  1862  about 
100  establishments,  with  2000  members.  See  Wetzer  u. 
Wcltc,  Kirchen-Lex.  vi,  383 ;  Fehr,  Gesch.  der  Moncksor- 
deii,  ii,  254.     (A.  J.  S.) 

Laz'arus  (Ari^apor,  an  abridged  form  of  the  Heb. 
name  EUazrir,  with  a  (ireek  termination,  which  in  the 
Talmud  is  written  "'iT"^  [see  Byna?us,  De  morte  Chr.  i, 
180;  comp.  Josephus,  ]r«?-,  V,  13,  7;  Simonis,  Onoinast. 
N. T.  p.  9G ;  Fuller,  Miscdl. i,  10 ;  Suicer,  Thesaiir.  ii,  205 ]. 
It  is  proper  to  note  this  here,  because  the  parable  which 
describes  Lazarus  in  Abraham's  bosom  has  been  sup- 
posed to  contain  a  latent  allusion  to  the  name  of  Eliezer, 
whom,  before  the  birth  of  Ishmael  and  Isaac,  Abraham 
regarded  as  his  heir  [see  Geiger,  in  the  Jiid.  Zeitschr. 
18G8,  p.  19G  sq.]),  the  name  of  two  persons  in  the  X.T. 

1.  An  inhabitant  of  Bethany,  brother  of  Mary  and 


INIartha,  honored  with  the  friendship  of  Jesus,  by  whom 
he  Avas  raised  from  the  dead  after  he  had  been  four 
days  in  the  tomb  (John  xii,  1-17).  A.D.  29.  This 
great  miracle  is  minutely  described  in  John  xi  (see  Kit- 
to,  Daibj  Bible  lUusf.  ad  loc).  Tlie  credit  which  Christ 
obtained  among  the  people  by  this  illustrious  act,  of 
which  the  life  and  presence  of  Lazarus  afforded  a  stand- 
ing evidence,  induced  the  Sanhedrim,  in  plotting  against 
Jesus,  to  contemjjlate  the  destruction  of  Lazarus  also 
(John  xii,  10).  Whether  they  accomplished  this  object 
or  not  we  are  not  informed,  but  the  probability  seems  to 
be  that  when  they  liad  satiated  their  malice  on  Christ 
they  left  Lazarus  unmolested.  According  to  an  old  tra- 
dition in  Epiphanius  {Hnr.  Ixvi,  34,  p.  C52),  he  was  thir- 
ty years  old  when  restored  to  life,  and  lived  thirty  years 
afterwards.  Later  legends  recount  that  his  bones  were 
discovered  A.D.  890  in  Cyprus  (Suicer,  Thesimr.  ii,  208), 
which  disagrees  with  another  story  that  Lazarus,  accom- 
panied by  JNIartha  and  Mary,  travelled  to  Provence,  in 
France,  and  preached  the  Gospel  in  Marseilles  (Fabrici- 
us.  Codex  Aj)ocr.  N.  Test,  iii,  475,  and  Lux  evang.  p.  388  ; 
Thilo,  Apocryph.  p.  711 ;  see  Launoii  Dissert,  de  Lazari 
appulsu  in  Provinciam,  in  his  Opera,  ii,  1). 

"  The  raising  of  Lazarus  from  the  dead  was  a  work 
of  Christ  beyond  measure  great,  and  of  aU  the  miracles 
he  had  hitherto  wrought  imdoubtedly  the  most  stupen- 
dous. 'If  it  can  be  incontrovertibly  shown  that  Christ 
performed  one  such  miraculous  act  as  this,'  says  Tho- 
luck  (in  his  Conimentur  zum  Evanfj.  Johmwis),  '  much 
will  thereby  be  gained  to  the  cause  of  Christianity. 
One  poi.it  so  peculiar  in  its  character,  if  irrefragably  es- 
tablished, may  serve  to  develop  a  belief  in  the  entire 
evangelical  record.'  The  sceptical  Spinoza  Avas  fidly 
conscious  of  this,  as  is  related  by  Bayle  {Diet.  s.  v.  Spino- 
za). It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  the  enemies  of 
Christianity  have  used  their  utmost  exertions  to  destroy 
the  credibility  of  the  narrative.  The  earlier  cavils  of 
Woolston  and  his  followers  were,  however,  satisfactorily 
answered  by  Lardner  and  others,  and  the  more  recent 
efforts  of  the  German  neologists  have  been  ably  and 
successfully  refuted  by  Oertelius,  Langius,  and  Reinhard, 
and  by  H.  L.  Heubner  in  a  work  entitled  Miraculoriim 
ah  Eranf/elisiis  narralorum  inter jiret at.  gramviatico-his- 
torica  (Wittenb.  1807),  as  well  as  by  others  of  still  more 
recent  date,  whose  answers,  with  the  objections  to  which 
they  apply,  may  be  seen  in  Kuinoel"  (Kitto).  See  also 
Flatt,  in  Mag.fiir  Dupnat.  iind  Aforal.  xiv,  91 ;  Schott, 
Opusc.  i,  259  ;  Ewald,  Lazen-us  Jiir  Gehildete  Christiisve- 
rehrer  (Berl.  1790)  ;  and  the  older  monographs  cited  by 
Volbeding,  Index  Programmatum,  p.  49 ;  Hase,  Ethen 
Jesii,  p.  1G9.  The  rationalistic  views  of  Paulus  (Kritisch. 
Kommentar)  and  Gabler  {Journal  f.  A  userl.  Theol.  Lit. 
iii,  235)  have  been  successfully  refuted  by  Strauss  (Lebeu 
Jesu),  and  the  mythological  dreams  of  the  latter  have 
been  dissipated  by  a  host  of  later  German  writers,  and 
the  reality  of  the  story  triumphantly  established  (see 
especially  Ncander,  Das  I^eben  Jesu  Christi;  Stier  and 
Olshausen,  ad  loc).  The  last  modification  of  Strauss's 
theory  (Die  Ilalhen  iind  die  Ganzen.  p.  79  sq.,  Berl.  1865) 
has  been  demolished  by  Hengstenberg  {Zeitschr.  f.  Prot- 
estant, u.  Kirche,  p.  39  sq.,  18G8) ;  comp.  Spiith  {Zeitschr. 
f.  wissensch.  Theol.  p.  339, 18G8)  and  Holzmann  {ibid.  p. 
71  sq.,  1869).  The  views  of  Paulus  have  just  been  re- 
vived in  the  lively  romance  of  M.  E.  Renan,  entitled  ]'ie 
de  Jesus;  and  the  latter's  theory  of  a  pious  Jraiid  has 
been  completely  demolished  by  Ebrard,  Pressense,  and 
Ellicott,  in  their  works  on  our  Lord's  life.  See  also  tlie 
Studien  und  Krii.  ii,  1861 ;  Watson,  Lazarus  of  Bethany 
(London,  1844).     Compare  Jesus  ;  Mary. 

2.  A  beggar  named  in  the  parable  of  Dives  (Luke 
i<.\\,  20-25)  as  suffering  the  most  abject  poverty  in  this 
life,  but  whose  humble  piety  was  rewarded  with  idtimate 
bliss  in  the  other  world;  the  only  instance  of  a  proper 
name  in  a  parable,  and  probably  selected  in  this  instance 
on  account  of  its  frecpiency.  He  is  an  imaginary  rep- 
resentative of  the  regard  which  God  exercises  towards 
those  of  his  sauits  whom  the  world  spurns  and  passes 


LAZARUS 


302 


LEACOCK 


unnoticed  ;  by  otliers,  however,  he  has  been  considered 
a  real  personage,  with  which  accords  the  old  tradition 
that  even  fjives  the  name  of  the  rich  man  as  being  Do- 
bntk  (sec  ¥.  Fabri,  Ecaijat.  i,  35  sq.).  Some  interpret- 
ers think  he  was  some  well-known  mendicant  of  Jeru- 
salem (see  Seb.  Schmid,  Fascic.  disputut.  p.  878  sq.),  and 
have  attempted  to  detine  his  disease  (see  Wetlcl,  Kj-ercit. 
Med.  cent,  ii,  dec.  ii.  No.  2 ;  Bartolini,  Morh.  bibl.  c.  xxi) 
with  the  success  that  might  be  expected  (S.  G.  Feige, 
De  morte  Laz.  [Hal.  1733]). 

Tlie  history  of  this  Lazarus  made  a  deep  impression 
upon  the  Church,  a  fact  illustrated  by  the  circumstance 
to  which  Trench  calls  attention,  "  that  the  term  lazar 
should  have  passed  into  so  many  languages,  losing  alto- 
gether its  signification  as  a  proper  name"  (On  Parables, 
p.  459,  note).  Early  in  the  history  of  the  Church  Laza- 
rus was  regarded  as  the  patron  saint  of  the  sick,  and  es- 
pecially of  those  suffering  from  the  terrible  scourge  of 
leprosy.  "Among  the  orders,  half  military  and  half 
monastic,  of  the  Tith  century,  was  one  which  bore  the 
title  of  the  Knights  of  St.  Lazarus  (A.D.  1119),  whose 
special  work  it  was  to  minister  to  the  lepers,  first  of 
Syria,  and  afterwards  of  Europe.  The  use  of  lazaretto 
and  haar-house  for  the  leper  hospitals  then  founded  in 
all  parts  of  Western  Christendom,  no  less  than  that  of 
lazzarone  for  the  mendicants  of  Italian  towns,  are  indi- 
cations of  the  effect  of  the  parable  upon  the  mind  of 
Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  thence  upon  its  later 
speech.  In  some  cases  there  seems  to  have  been  a  sin- 
gular transfer  of  the  attributes  of  the  one  Lazarus  to  the 
other.  Thus  in  Paris  the  prison  of  St.  Lazave  (the  Clos 
S.  Lazare,  so  famous  in  1848)  had  been  originally  a  hos- 
pital for  lepers.  In  the  17th  century  it  was  assigned  to 
the  Society  of  Lazarists,  who  took  their  name,  as  has 
been  said,  from  Lazarus  of  Bethany,  and  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  died  tliere  in  IGGO.  In  the  immediate  neighbor- 
hood of  the  prison,  however,  are  two  streets,  the  Rue 
d'Enfer  and  Kue  de  Paradis,  the  names  of  which  indi- 
cate the  earlier  associations  with  the  Lazarus  of  the  par- 
able. 

"  It  may  be  mentioned  incidentally,  as  there  has  been 
no  article  under  the  head  of  Dives,  that  the  occurrence 
of  this  word,  used  as  a  quasi-proper  name,  in  our  early 
English  literature,  is  another  proof  of  the  impression 
which  was  made  on  the  minds  of  men,  either  by  the 
parable  itself,  or  by  dramatic  representations  of  it  in  the 
medi.eval  mysteries.  It  appears  as  early  as  Chaucer 
(•  Lazar  and  Dives,'  Sompnoure's  Tale)  and  Piers  Plough- 
man ('Dives  in  the  deyntees  Ij-vede,'  1.  9158),  and  in 
later  theological  literature  its  use  has  been  all  but  uni- 
versal. In  no  other  instance  has  a  descriptive  adjective 
passed  in  this  way  into  the  received  name  of  an  indi- 
vidual. The  name  Ximciisis,  which  Euthymius  gives 
as  that  of  the  rich  man  (^Trench,  Parables,  1.  c),  seems 
never  to  have  come  into  any  general  use"  (Smith).  See 
Klinkhardt,  Z^e /iO?«i«e  divite  et  Lazaro  (Lipsice,  1831); 
Walker,  Parable  of  Lazarus  (Lond.  1850);  Meth.  Qiutr. 
Per.  July  and  Oct.  1859 ;  Jour.  Sac.  Lit.  April,  July,  and 
Oct.  18(54.     See  Pauaulk. 

Lazarus,  a  noted  French  prelate,  flourished  in  the 
first  half  of  the  5th  century.  It  is  supposed  that  he  was 
raised  to  the  archbishopric  of  Aix  in  408,  and  resigned 
in  411,  at  the  death  of  Constantine.  In  415  he  distin- 
guished himself  among  the  most  zealous  adversaries  of 
Pclagius,  and  of  liis  disciple  C<jelcstius,  for  we  find  that 
the  Council  of  Diospolis,  in  tlie  meeting  of  Dec.  20, 415, 
condemned  tlic  errors  attriljutcd  to  Pelagius,  and  de- 
nounced by  Lazarus,  then  archbishoji  of  Aix,  and  by 
lleros,  bislio])  of  Aries.  Pelagius  having  succeeded  in 
persuading  the  Eastern  bishops  that  he  did  not  hold 
the  condemned  doctrines,  Lazarus  and  Heros  addressed 
further  memorials  against  him  to  the  bishops  of  Africa, 
who  were  on  the  eve  of  iiolding  the  Council  of  Carthage. 
Here  Pelagius  and  Nestorius  were  finally  condemned. 
The  letters  of  pope  Zosimus,  who  fiivorcd  Pelagius,  are 
full  of  bitterness  against  Lazarus.  See  Augustine,  Ppia- 
tolce,  passim,  ct  Gesta  Pelur/ii ;  Marius  Mercator,  Com- 


monitorium;  Zosimi  Epistolw,  a  J.Sirmondo  edita;;  Gal- 
lia Christ,  vol.  i,  col.  299 :  Ifist.  Lit.  de  la  France,  ii,  147  ; 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gemrale,  xxix,  43.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Leach.     See  Hoksk-leecii. 

Leach,  James,  a  Presbj'terian  minister,  was  born  in 
Stafford  County,  Va.,  Juh- 15, 1791.  He  was  educated 
in  Hampden  Sidney  College,  Va.,  studied  divinity  in  the 
Union  Theological  Seminarj',  Va.,  and  was  licensed  by 
the  Winchester  Presbytery  Oct,  10, 1818.  He  was  a 
jiredestinarian  of  the  order  of  Augustine  and  Calvin. 
His  ordination  and  installation  took  place  soon  after  his 
call.  Sept,  27, 1819,  and  in  1824  he  was  transferred  from 
Berkeley  to  Hanover  by  the  Presbytery.  At  the  dis- 
ruption of  the  Church  he  took  sides  with  those  opposed 
to  the  Old-School  party,  believing  the  action  of  the  As- 
sembly of  1837  unconstitutional  as  well  as  injudicious. 
He  died  Sept.  4, 180G. — 'Wilson,  Presbyterian  Historical 
Almanac,  18G9,  p.  442. 

Leacock,  Hamble  James,  a  missionary  of  the 
Church  of  England,  was  born  at  Cluff 's  Bay,  Barbadoes, 
Feb.  14, 1795.  His  family  was  descended  from  a  noble 
English  ancestry.  Slaves  were  an  element  of  respecta- 
bility in  Barbadoes,  and  his  father  had  many.  Young 
Leacock  received  his  early  education  at  Codrington 
College,  Barbadoes.  Through  Dr.  Coleridge,  bishop  of 
Barbadoes  and  Leeward  Islands,  he  became  reader  in 
his  native  parish,  and  in  connection  studied  with  his 
pastor,  Rev.  W.  M.  Harte.  and  obtained  deacon's  orders 
in  January,  182G.  While  acting  as  assistant  priest  of 
St.  John's  Church  he  became  very  decided  in  his  relig- 
ious views,  and  extended  the  privileges  of  the  Church 
to  all  the  parish's  slaves,  at  the  same  time  liberating  aU 
his  o^vii  slaves.  The  hatred  and  open  reproach  of  the 
whites  even  the  bishop  could  not  calm.  Leacock  was 
transferred  to  the  island  of  St.Vincent,  and  then  to  Ne- 
vis, where  he  became  rural  dean  and  pastor  of  St.  Paul's 
Church,  Charlest.own.  lie  there  fought  polygamy  with 
success.  But  soon  reverses  came — difficulty  with  the 
bishop,  insurrections  of  the  slaves,  and  fall  of  jiroperty. 
lie  left  for  the  United  States,  and  settled  in  Lexington, 
Ky.,  in  1835.  His  confirmation,  neglected  in  his  youth, 
here  took  place  on  arrival.  He  fell  into  the  society 
of  such  men  as  Dr.  Coit,  Dr.  Cooke,  Amos  Cleaver,  and 
found  many  friends  in  Transylvania  University.  He 
gained  a  livelihood  by  teaching  until  1836,  when  he 
became  pastor  of  a  new  congregation,  St.  Paul's.  Diffi- 
culty soon  arose  here  also,  and  led  to  his  removal.  His 
friends  scattered  to  different  parts  of  the  Union.  Bishop 
Otey  stationed  him  in  Franklin  parish,  Tenn.  Soon  af- 
ter, urged  liy  friends,  he  preached  six  months  to  a  new 
congregation  in  Louisville,  Ky. ;  he  then  returneil  to  his 
old  parish.  He  bought  a  small  farm  in  New  Jersey, 
near  the  city  of  New  Brunswick,  and  settled  on  it  in 
1840.  He  no\v'  preached  in  different  places — for  a  few 
Sundays  in  and  about  Bridgeport,  Conn. ;  then  he  sup- 
plied the  winter  service  of  the  absent  pastor  of  Christ 
Church,  New  Brunswick.  In  1841  his  personal  appear- 
ance in  the  West  Indies  recovered  for  him  some  of  his 
pro])crty  there.  He  returned  to  the  States,  and  was 
appointed  to  two  small  stations  near  liis  farm.  In 
1843  he  became  rector  of  St.  Paul's  Church.  Perth  Am- 
boy.  In  1847  bis  health  and  ])roperty  called  him  to  the 
West  Indies  again.  By  a  letter  from  bishop  Doane, 
bishop  I'arry's  reception  was  such  that  he  decided  to 
remain,  and  in  1848  his  Perth  Amboy  congregation  ac- 
cepted his  resignation.  He  revisited  the  island  of  Ne- 
vis, and,  at  the  peril  of  his  life,  preached  vehemently 
against  some  of  the  immoral  practices  prevalent  there. 
In  1852  he  preached  again  for  one  year  in  St.  Peter's 
Church,  Speightstown.  Barbadoes.  In  1854  he  preached 
in  St,  Leonard's  Chapel,  Bridgetown.  On  July  15, 1855, 
he  became  the  first  volunteer  to  the  West  Indian  Church 
Association  for  the  furtherance  of  the  (iosjiel  in  Western 
Africa  (recently  formed  l>y  liishop  Parry),  sailed  for  Eng- 
land, visited  and  ]ircparcil  tliere,  reached  Africa,  and 
landed  at  Freetown,  Sierra  Leone,  Nov.  10.     Aided  by 


LEAD 


303 


LEAD 


the  bishop  of  Sierra  Leone  and  colonel  Hill,  its  govern- 
or, he  founded  at  length  a  station,  the  Rio  Pongas.  At 
Tintima  village  he  gained  over  one  out  of  the  five  hos- 
tile negro  chiefs.  An  educated  black  coming  with  him 
from  Barbadoes,  John  H.  A.  Duport,  and  a  converted  ne- 
gro chief,  Mr.  Wilkinson,  aided  him  greatly;  the  latter 
gave  him  a  site  for  his  dwelling  and  chapel.  Ill  health 
drove  the  missionary  to  Freetown  to  recruit.  Return- 
ing, he  opened  a  school  for  boys,  with  an  attendance 
wiiieh  increased  to  fort}^  He  was  aided  with  money, 
books,  and  clothing  from  England,  and  his  congregations 
in  Perth  Amboj',  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee.  His  terri- 
tory soon  widened,  the  natives  became  favorable,  and 
tlie  school  increased.  Again  sickness  drove  him  to  his 
friends  in  Sierra  Leone.  Against  their  advice,  and  that 
of  the  bishop  of  Barbadoes,  he  returned  to  his  post.  He 
seemed  to  recover,  and  laid  plans  for  future  efforts  ;  but 
died  August  20, 185G.  As  a  result  of  his  labors,  a  large 
missionary  field  was  opened.  His  biography  is  Avritten 
by  Rev.  Henry  Caswall,  D.D.  (London,  1857,  r2mo),  a 
friend,  and  English  secretary  of  the  society  under  which 
he  acted. 

Lead  (P'lSS',  ophe'reth,  from  its  duslij  color,  in  pause 
r"lEr,Exod;xv,  10;  Numb.  xxxi,22;  Jobxix,24;  Jer. 
vi,29;  Ezek.xxii,18,20;  xxvii,]2;  Zech.v,7,8;  Sept. 
I^6\i[iooc),a  well-known  metal,  generally  found  in  veins 
of  rocks,  though  seldom  in  a  metallic  state,  and  most 
commonly  in  combination  with  sulphur.  Although  the 
metal  itself  was  well  known  to  the  ancients  and  to  the 
Hebrews,  yet  the  earlj'  uses  of  lead  in  the  East  seem 
to  have  been  comparatively  few,  nor  are  they  now  nu- 
merous. One  may  travel  far  in  Western  Asia  without 
discovering  a  trace  of  this  metal  in  any  of  the  numer- 
ous usefid  applications  which  it  is  made  to  serve  in  Eu- 
ropean countries.  We  are  not  aware  that  any  native 
lead  has  been  yet  found  within  the  limits  of  Palestine. 
But  ancient  lead  mines,  in  some  of  which  the  ore  has 
been  exhausted  by  working,  have  been  discovered  by 
Mr.  Burton  in  the  mountains  between  the  Red  Sea  and 
the  Nile ;  and  lead  is  also  said  to  exist  at  a  place  called 
Sheff,  near  Mount  Sinai  (Kitto,  P/ii/s.  Bisf.  Pal.  p.  Ixxiii). 

The  ancient  Egyptians  employed  lead  for  a  variety 
of  purposes,  but  chietly  as  an  alloy  with  more  precious 
metals.  On  the  breasts  of  mummies  that  have  been 
unrolled  there  is  frequently  found  in  soft  lead,  thin  and 
quite  tlexiblc,  the  figure  of  a  hawk,  with  extended  wings, 
emblematical  of  Re,  or  Phra,  the  sun.  Specimens  of 
lead  have  also  been  discovered  among  the  Assyrian  ruins 
(Layard's  Kin.  and  Bab.  p.  357),-  and  a  bronze  lion  is 
found  attached  to  its  stone  base  by  means  of  this  metal 
(Bonomi,  Nineveh,  p.  325). 

The  first  scriptural  notice  of  this  metal  occurs  in  the 
triumphal  song  in  which  Moses  celebrates  the  overthrow 
of  T'haraoh,  whose  host  is  there  said  to  have  "  sunk  like 
lead''  in  the  waters  of  the  Red  Sea  (Exod.  xv,  10).  That 
it  was  common  in  Palestine  is  shown  by  the  expression 
in  Ecclus.  xlvii,  18,  where  it  is  said,  in  apostrophizing 
Solomon,  "Thou  didst  multiply  silver  as  lead;"  the  WTit- 
er  having  in  view  the  hyperbolical  description  of  Solo- 
mon's wealth  in  1  Kings  x,  27:  "The  king  made  the 
silver  to  be  in  Jerusalem  as  .^tone.^."  It  was  among  the 
spoils  of  the  Midianites  which  the  children  of  Israel 
brought  with  them  to  the  ])lains  of  Moab,  after  their  re- 
turn from  the  slaughter  of  the  tribe  (Numb,  xxxi,  22). 
The  shijis  of  Tarshish  supplied  the  market  of  Tyre  with 
lead,  as  with  other  metals  (Ezek.  xxvii,  12).  Its  heavi- 
ness, to  which  allusion  is  made  in  Exod.  xv,  10,  and 
Ecclns.  xxii,  14,  caused  it  to  be  used  for  weights,  which 
were  cither  in  the  form  of  a  round  flat  cake  (Zech.  v,  7), 
or  a. rough  unfashioned  lump  or  "stone"  (ver.  8) ;  stones 
having  in  ancient  times  served  the  purpose  of  weights 
(comp.  Prov.  xvi,  11).  This  fact  may  perhaps  explain 
the  substitution  of  "  lead''  for  "  stones"  in  the  passage  of 
Ecclesiasticus  above  quoted ;  the  commonest  use  of  the 
che.ipest  metal  being  present  to  the  mind  of  the  writ- 
er.    If  Gesenius  is  correct  in  rendering  ~3N,  and/:,  by 


"lead,"  in  Amos  vii, 7, 8,  we  have  another  instance  of 
the  purposes  to  which  this  metal  was  applied  in  forming 
the  ball  or  bob  of  the  plumb-line.  See  Plumb-line. 
Its  use  for  weighting  fishing-lines  was  known  in  the 
time  of  Homer  (//.  xxiv,  80).  In  Acts  xxvii,  28,  a 
plummet  {lioXir,  in  the  form  j3oXi4w,  to  heave  the  lead) 
for  taking  soundings  at  sea  is  mentioned,  and  this  was, 
of  course,  of  lead. 

But,  in  addition  to  these  more  obvious  uses  of  this 
metal,  the  Hebrews  were  acquainted  with  another  meth- 
od of  employing  it,  which  indicates  some  advance  in  the 
arts  at  an  early  period.  Job  (xix,  24)  utters  a  WMsh 
that  his  words,  "with  a  pen  of  iron  and  lead,  were  graven 
in  the  rock  forever."  The  allusion  is  supposed  to  be  to 
the  practice  of  carving  inscriptions  upon  stone,  and  pour- 
ing molten  lead  into  the  cavities  of  the  letters,  to  render 
them  legible,  and  at  the  same  time  preserve  them  from 
the  action  of  the  air.  Frecpient  references  to  the  use  of 
leaden  tablets  for  inscriptions  are  found  in  ancient  writ- 
ers. Pausanias  (ix,  31)  saw  Ilesiod's  Worls  and  Days 
graven  on  lead,  but  almost  illegible  with  age.  Public 
proclamations,  according  to  Pliny  (xiii,  21),  were  written 
on  lead,  and  tlie  name  of  Germanicus  was  carved  on 
leaden  tablets  (Tacitus,  Ann,  ii,  69).  Eutychius  {Ann. 
A  lex.  p.  390)  relates  that  the  history  of  the  Seven  Sleep- 
ers was  engraved  on  lead  by  the  cadi.  The  translator 
of  Rosenmiiller  (in  Bib.  Cab.  xxvii,  ()4)  thinks,  howeve.'-, 
that  the  poetical  force  of  the  scriptural  passage  has  been 
overlooked  by  interpreters;  "Job  seems  not  to  have 
drawn  his  image  from  anything  he  had  actually  seen 
executed :  he  only  wishes  to  express  in  the  strongest 
possible  language  the  durability  due  to  his  words;  and 
accordingly  he  says,  'IMay  the  pen  be  iron,  and  the  ink 
of  lead,  with  which  they  are  written  on  an  everlasting- 
rock,'  i.  e.  Let  them  not  be  written  with  ordinary  per- 
ishable materials."  The  above  usual  explanation  seems 
to  be  suggested  by  that  of  the  Septuagint,  "  that  they 
were  sculptured  by  an  iron  pen  and  lead,  or  hewn  into 
rocks."     See  Pen. 

Oxide  of  lead  is  employed  largely  in  modern  pottery 
for  the  formation  of  glazes,  and  its  presence  has  been 
discovered  in  analyzing  the  articles  of  earthen-ware  found 
in  Egypt  and  Nineveh,  proving  that  the  ancients  were 
acquainted  with  its  use  for  the  same  purpose.  The  A. 
V.  of  Ecclus.  xxxviii,  30  assumes  that  the  usage  was 
known  to  the  Hebrews,  though  the  original  is  not  ex- 
plicit upon  the  point.  Speaking  of  the  potter's  art  ni 
finishing  off  his  work,  "  he  applieth  himself  to  lead  it 
over,"  is  the  rendering  of  what  in  the  Greek  is  simply 
"he  giveth  his  heart  to  complete  the  smearing,"  the 
material  employed  for  the  purpose  not  bemg  indicated. 
See  PoTTEiiY. 

In  modern  metallurgy  lead  is  emiiloj'ed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  purifying  silver  from  other  mineral  products,  in- 
stead of  the  more  expensive  quicksilver.  The  alloy  is 
mixed  with  lead,  exposed  to  fusion  upon  an  earthen  ves- 
sel, and  submitted  to  a  blast  of  air.  By  this  means  the 
dross  is  consumed.  This  process  is  called  the  cupelling 
operation,  with  which  the  description  in  Ezek.  xxii,  18- 
22,  in  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Napier  {Met.  of  Bible,  p.  20-24), 
accurately  coincides.  "  The  vessel  containing  the  alloy 
is  surrounded  by  the  fire,  or  placed  in  the  midst  of  it, 
and  the  blowing  is  not  applied  to  the  fire,  but  to  the 
fused  metals.  .  .  .  When  this  is  done,  nothing  but  the 
perfect  metals,  gold  and  silver,  can  resist  the  scorify- 
ing influence."  In  support  of  his  conclusion  he  quotes 
Jer.  vi,  28-30,  adding, "  This  description  is  perfect.  If 
we  take  silver  having  the  impurities  in  it  described  in 
the  text,  namely,  iron,  copper,  and  tin,  and  mix  it  with 
lead, and  place  it  in  the  fire  upon  a  cupell, it  soon  melts; 
the  lead  will  oxidize  and  form  a  thick  coarse  crust  upon 
the  surface,  and  thus  consume  away,  but  effecting  no 
purifying  influence.  The  alloy  remains,  if  anything, 
worse  than  before.  .  .  .  The  silver  is  not  rcfhied,  because 
'the  bellows  were  burned'  —  there  existed  nothing  to 
blow  upon  it.  Lead  is  the  purifier,  but  only  so  in  con- 
nection with  a  blast  blowing  upon  the  precious  metals." 


LEADE 


304 


LEADERS 


An  allusion  to  this  use  of  lead  is  to  be  found  in  Theog- 
nis  (G/wm.  ir27  sq.,  ed.  Welcker),  and  it  is  mentioned  by 
riiny  (xxxiii,  31)  as  indispensable  to  the  purification  of 
silver  from  alloy.    Comp.  also  Mai.  iii,2, 3.    See  jMetal. 

By  modern  artificers  lead  is  used  with  tin  in  the  com- 
jiosition  of  solder  for  fastening  metals  together.  That 
the  ancient  Hebrews  were  acquainted  with  the  use  of 
solder  is  evident  from  the  description  given  by  the 
])rophet  Isaiah  of  the  processes  which  accompanied  the 
formation  of  an  image  for  idolatrous  worship.  The 
method  by  which  two  pieces  of  metal  were  joined  to- 
gether Avas  identical  with  that  employed  in  modern 
times;  the  substances  to  be  united  being  first  clamped 
liofore  being  soldered.  No  hint  is  given  as  to  the  com- 
jiosition  of  the  solder,  but  in  all  probability  lead  was  one 
of  the  materials  employed,  its  usage  for  such  a  purpose 
Ijeing  of  great  antiquity.  The  ancient  Egyptians  used 
it  for  fastening  stones  together  in  the  rough  parts  of  a 
building.  Mr.  Napier  (Metallurffij  of  the  Bible,  p.  130) 
conjectures  that  "  the  solder  used  in  early  times  for  lead, 
and  termed  lead,  was  the  same  as  is  now  used — a  mix- 
ture of  lead  and  tin." — Smith;  Kitto.     See  Solder. 

Leade  or  Leadly,  Jane,  an  English  mystic,  found- 
er of  the  Philadelpkiaus,  was  born  in  the  county  of  Nor- 
folk in  1G23.  According  to  her  own  accounts  she  was 
convicted  of  sin  in  her  sixteenth  j'ear  by  a  mysterious 
voice  whispering  in  her  ear,  and  found  peace  in  the 
grace  of  God  three  years  after.  Her  parents,  whose 
name  was  Ward,  seriously  opposed  Jane's  firm  religious 
stand,  and,  having  decided  to  withdraw  from  the  paren- 
tal roof,  she  removed  in  1643  to  London  to  join  a  brother 
of  hers  living  there.  She  had  spent  a  year  in  the  Eng- 
lish metropolis,  constantly  growing  in  grace  and  in  the 
kno^vledge  of  Christian  truths,  when  a  summons  came 
to  her  from  her  parents  to  return  home,  which  request 
was  at  once  obeyed.  Shortly  afterwards  she  was  mar- 
ried to  ■\ViUiani  Leade,  a  pious,  noble-hearted  man,  with 
whom  she  lived  happily,  blessed  with  a  family  of  four 
daughters,  until  1670,  when  William  was  suddenly  re- 
moved at  the  age  of  forty-nine.  From  the  time  of  her 
earliest  conversion  she  had  shown  signs  of  a  mystical 
tendency;  she  found  the  greatest  delight  in  seeking 
l)rivate  communion  with  God;  now  the  loss  of  her 
husband  drew  her  still  further  away  from  the  world, 
and  she  became  a  confirmed  mystic.  As  early  as  1652, 
Dr.  Pordage  (q.  v.)  and  his  wife,  together  \vith  Dr. 
Thomas  Bromley  (q.  v.),  had  succeeded  in  gathering  a 
congregation  of  mystics  of  the  Jacob  Bohme  (q.  v.) 
type,  but  the  pestilence  of  1655  had  necessitated  sep- 
aration, and  they  were  just  gathering  anew  at  London 
when  Jane  Leade  was  deprived  of  the  earthly  associa- 
tion of  her  husband.  She  joined  them  readily,  and  soon 
became  one  of  the  leading  spirits  of  this  new  mystical 
movement,  and  rose  until  she  finally  became  the  founder 
of  a  distinct  mystical  school  known  as  the  Philndelphi- 
wis  (q.  v.).  As  her  motive  for  joining  Pordage,  she 
assigned  certain  secret  divine  revelations  and  visions 
which  she  claimed  to  have  had  in  the  spring  of  1670, 
and  shortly-  after  she  actually  brought  before  the  society 
a  set  of  laws  which  she  professed  to  have  received  of  the 
Lord,  in  like  manner  as  Moses  had  been  intrusted  with 
the  Ten  Commandments.  (For  a  complete  copy,  see 
Xeitgchriftf.  hist.  Thenl.  1865,  p.  187  sq.)  A  still  stron- 
ger hold  she  gained  upon  the  society  and  upon  the  peo- 
ple at  large  by  the  publication  of  some  of  her  writings 
in  1683,  when  she  was  cnalded  to  send  them  forth  by 
the  pecuniary  aid  of  a  pious  lady  who  believed  in  Jane 
Leade's  divine  mission.     Her  great  object  in  publishing 

her  writings  (consisting  of  eight  large  octavo  volumes 

very  scarce  at  present  — like  tV.ose  of  Jacob  Bohme, 
though  less  original,  abounding  in  emblematic  and  figu- 
rative language,  and  very  obscure  in  style)  was  evident- 
ly to  spread  her  peciUiar  viev.s,  and  by  these  means  to 
form  a  society  of  all  truly  regenerated"  Cliristians,  from 
all  denominations,  which  should  be  the  visible  Church 
of  Christ  upon  earth,  and  be  tlius  awaiting  the  second 
coming  of  the  Lord,  which  she  claimed  to  have  been  in- 


formed by  revelation  was  near  at  hand  (for  1700).  She 
was  led  to  seek  the  establishment  of  a  distinct  organi- 
zation by  the  movements  of  the  German  Pietists  and 
Chiliasts  at  this  period.  In  1690,  Kilner,  of  Moscow, 
agitated  this  subject  still  fiu-ther  by  an  ettbrt  to  estab- 
lish a, pail  iarchul  and  LipostoUcal  society  of  true  and  per- 
secuted Christians,  and  in  1696  Mrs,  Petersen,  in  her 
Anleitunf/  z.  Versidndniss  d.  Offenharung,  and  again  in 
1698  in  Ber  geistliche  Kampf  (HaUe,  8vo),  called  upon 
the  regenerate  Christians  to  separate  from  the  world 
and  to  form  a  new  Jerusalem.  In  1695,  Jane  Leade,  to- 
gether with  her  friends  Bromley  and  Pordage,  removed 
to  carry  out  these  projects  in  London,  and  proposed  a 
new  society,  to  consist  only  of  Christians,  who,  Avith- 
out  separating  from  the  different  churches  to  which 
they  belonged,  should  form  a  pure  and  nndefiled  Church 
of  true  Christians,  to  be  governed  only  by  God's  wiU 
and  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  who  shoidd  hasten  tlie  sec- 
ond coming  of  Christ  and  the  beginning  of  the  millen- 
nium. So  successful  was  this  effort  that  by  1702  the 
Philadelphians,  as  they  now  called  themselves,  were 
able  to  send  missionaries  to  Germany  and  Holland  with 
a  view  to  making  proselytes ;  and,  although  they  failed 
to  accomplish  their  object  immediately,  the  idea  which 
constituted  it  took  ground  and  spread,  especially  in  Ger- 
many. Conrad  Briisske  of  Offenbach,  a  disciple  of  Bev- 
erley, Dr.  Horch  of  Marburg,  and  Dr.  Kaiser  of  Stutt- 
gard,  labored  to  propagate  it;  the  latter  wrote  a  number 
of  works  on  the  subject  under  the  name  of  Timotheus 
Philadelphus,  and  established  a  Philadelphian  commu- 
nity at  Stuttgard.  An  approximate  estimate  of  the  ex- 
tent of  Jane  Leade's  influence  on  Germany  and  Holland 
may  be  obtained  by  a  reference  to  the  extensive  list  of 
her  correspondents  in  those  countries  (comp.  Zeitsch.f. 
hist.  Theol.  1865,  p.  222,  note  38).  Many,  without  being 
outwardly  members  of  this  and  similar  societies,  were 
evidently  favorable  to  them.  But  some  enthusiasts,  as 
Gebhard, Wetzel,  Eva  von  Buttlar,  etc.,  caused  the  move- 
ment to  fall  into  discredit.  The  scattered  elements  of 
the  divers  societies  were  afterAvards  reunited  by  comit 
Zinzendorf,  and  formed  part  of  the  Jloravian  institution. 
But  to  return  to  Jane  Leade  herself.  In  1702  she  felt 
that  her  end  was  near  at  hand.  She  wrote  out  her  fu- 
neral discourse,  to  be  read  at  her  grave,  and  made  all 
manner  of  preparations  for  departure.  One  of  the 
strangest  featitres  of  this  period  of  her  life  is  her  study 
of  the  writings  of  cardinal  Petrucci  and  of  Eichard  of 
Samson.  She  died  Aug.  19, 1704.  The  most  noted  of 
her  works  are,  The  Wonders  of  God's  Creation  manifest- 
ed in  the  Variety  of  eight  Worlds,  as  they  u-ere  made 
hnown  experimentally  to  the  A  uthor  (Lond.  1695,  2-lmo) : 
— The  Tree  of  Faith,  or  the  Tree  of  Life,  springing  up  in 
the  Paradise  of  God  (Lond.  1696,  24mo),  See  G.  Ar- 
nold, Kirchenhistorie,xo\.  ii;  Gichtel,  Theosophia  prac- 
tica  ;  Poiret  and  Arnold,  Gesch.  d.  Mystik  ;  Corrodi,  Kri- 
tische  Gesch.  des  Chiliasmus,  iii,  403-421 ;  Gobel,  Gesch. 
d.  Christl.  Lebens,  vols,  ii  and  iii ;  Mosheim,  Eccles.  Hist. 
bk.  iv,  cent,  xvii,  sec.  ii,  pt.  ii,  ch.  vii,  §  5;  Lee,  Life  of 
Jane  Leade ;  J.  W.  Joeger,  Dissert,  de  Vita  et  Doctrina 
Janm  Lea.dce ;  Herzog,  Real-Encylclop.  viii,  251 ;  Hoefer, 
JVoiiv.  Biogr.  Generale,  xxx,  50;  Hochhuth,  Gesch.  der 
philadelphischen  Geineinden,  Part  I,  Jane  Leade  imd  die 
Philadelphier  in  England,  in  the  Zeitschy-ift  fiir  Hist. 
Theolnq.  1865,  p.  172-290.  See  PuiLADELriiiANs,  (J. 
H.W.) 

Leaders.  This  term  has  a  technical  significance 
as  applied  to  leaders  of  religious  classes  in  the  original 
Methodist  societies,  and  in  the  Methodist  churches  of 
the  present  day.  See  Class- jieetixgs.  The  leader's 
office  is  one  of  pastoral  help.  It  therefore  in\-olves  great 
responsibility,  and  requires  for  the  proper  discharge  of 
its  duties  a  deep  religious  experience,  combined  with  a 
capacity  to  instruct  believers  in  the  practical  details  of 
religious  truth,  to  console  the  afflicted,  to  encourage  the 
despondent,  to  guide  the  erring,  and,  in  short,  both  by 
precept  and  example,  to  lead  Christians  and  penitents 
forward  in  the  pathway  of  holiness.     Leaders  are  ex- 


LEADERS'  MEETINGS 


305 


LEAGUE 


pected  to  meet  the  several  members  of  their  classes 
weekly  lor  religious  worship  and  conversation,  to  visit 
those  who  are  detained  by  sickness,  and  to  take  all  suit- 
able means  for  aiding  the  religious  life  and  progress  of 
those  under  their  care.  They  are  also  required  to  meet 
their  pastors  weekly,  to  report  respecting  the  welfare  of 
the  members  and  probationers  attached  to  their  classes. 
See  Leaders'  Meetings  and  Probationers.  In  some 
cases  women  are  appointed  leadeis,  more  especially  of 
classes  composed  of  females  or  of  children.  That  the 
office  of  class-leader  has  been  greatly  helpful  to  the  pas- 
torate in  those  churches  which  have  employed  it  does  j 
not  admit  of  question.  Hence  it  is  a  recognised  obliga- 
tion of  pastors  in  those  churclies  not  only  to  select  the 
best  persons  for  the  office,  but  also  to  aid  them  in  ac- 
quiring the  best  qualitications  for  its  useful  exercise. 
To  aid  in  the  task  of  instructing  leaders  various  tracts 
and  small  books  have  been  published.  See  Tract  list 
of  tlie  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.     (D.  P.  K.) 

Leaders'  Meetings.  As  an  essential  part  of  the 
Wcsleyan  sj'stem  of  subpastoral  superintendence  by 
means  of  class  -  leaders  [see  Leaders],  an  organized 
meeting  was  appointed  to  be  held  Meekly  under  the 
above  title.  A  leaders'  meeting  is  composed  of  the  itin- 
erant ministers  of  any  circuit  or  station,  and  all  persons 
regularly  in  office  as  leaders  or  stewards.  See  Stew- 
ards. In  England,  the  powers  of  leaders'  meetings  have 
been  considerably  enlarged  since  such  meetings  were 
instituted  by  Mr.  Wesley.  "  They  have  now  a  veto 
upon  the  admittance  of  members  into  the  society,  when 
appealed  to  in  such  cases  by  any  parties  concerned : 
they  possess  the  power  of  a  jury  in  the  trial  of  accused 
members :  without  their  consent,  no  leader  or  steward 
can  be  appointed  to  office,  or  removed  from  it,  except- 
ing when  the  crime  proved  merits  exclusion  from  mem- 
bership, in  wliich  case  the  superintendent  can  at  once 
depose  the  offender  from  office,  and  expel  him  from  the 
society.  Without  their  consent,  in  conjunction  with 
the  trustees  of  the  chapel  in  which  their  meeting  is  at- 
tached, the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  cannot  be 
administered  in  the  said  chapel ;  and  the  fund  for  the 
relief  of  poor  and  afflicted  members  of  the  society  is  dis- 
tributed under  their  direction  and  management.  Eeg- 
idar  leaders'  meetings  have  from  the  beginning  been 
found  essential  to  the  pastoral  care  and  spiritual  pros- 
perity of  our  societies,  as  well  as  to  the  orderly  trans- 
action of  their  financial  concerns.  The  ministers  are 
directetl  attentively  to  examine,  at  each  meeting,  the  en- 
tries made  in  the  class-books  in  reference  to  the  attend- 
ance of  members,  in  order  that  prompt  and  timely  meas- 
ures may  be  adopted  in  cases  which,  on  inquiry,  shall 
ajipear  to  demand  the  exercise  of  discipline,  or  the  in- 
ter])osition  of  pastoral  exhortation  and  admonition" 
((Jrindrod's  Compendium  of  Wedeijan  ]\[etkodism).  In 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  leaders'  meetings  have 
no  judicial  or  veto  powers  as  described  above.  They 
are  held  monthly,  or  at  the  call  of  the  pastor.  Their 
usual  business  embraces  the  following  items :  o.  That 
tlie  leaders  have  an  opportiniity  "  to  inform  the  minister 
of  any  that  are  sick,  or  of  any  that  walk  disorderly  and 
will  not  be  reproved."  h.  That  the  pastor  may  examine 
the  several  class-books,  and  ascertain  the  Christian  walk 
and  character  of  each  member  of  the  Church,  and  learn 
what  members  of  the  flock  especially  need  his  watch- 
care  and  counsel,  c.  To  inquire  into  the  religious  state 
of  all  persons  on  trial,  and  ascertain  who  can  be  recom- 
mended by  the  leader  for  admission  into  full  connection, 
and  who  should  be  discontinued,  d.  To  examine  the 
several  leaders  respecting  their  '•  method  of  leading  their 
classes."  e.  To  recommend  to  the  quarterly  conference 
suitable  candidates  for  appointment  as  local  preachers. 
The  leaders'  meeting  also  becomes  to  pastors  a  conven- 
ient and  appropriate  body  of  men  with  whom  they  can 
take  coun.sel  from  time  to  time  respecting  many  minor 
matters  of  Church  interest  in  reference  to  which  advice 
or  co-operation  may  seem  desirable.  See  CLASS-jiEEr- 
INGS.      (D.  P.  K.) 

V.-U 


Leaf,  a  term  occurring  in  the  Bible,  both  in  the  sin- 
gular and  pliural,  in  three  senses. 

1.  Leaf  of  a  tree  (prop,  nbr,  aleh',  so  called  from 
spruiging  up ;  Gr.  (pvWov ;  also  "^S",  opki',  foliage  [Psa. 
civ,  12],  or  in  Chald.  the  top  of  a  tree  [Dan.  iv,  9, 11, 18], 
and  ~'^^,  te'rei^h,  a.  fresh  leaf  [Ezek.  xvii,  9]  "plucked 
off"  [Gen.  viii,  11]).  The  olive -leaf  is  mentioned  in 
Gen.  viii,  11.  Fig-leaves  formed  the  first  covering  of 
our  parents  in  Eden.  The  barren  fig-tree  (Matt,  xxi, 
19;  Mark  xi,  13)  on  the  road  between  Bethany  and  Je- 
rusalem "  had  on  it  nothing  but  leaves."  The  "tig-leaf  is 
alluded  to  by  our  Lord  (Matt,  xxiv,  32 ;  Mark  xiii,  28)  : 
"When  his  branch  is  yet  tender,  and  iiutteth  forth 
leaves,  ye  know  that  summer  is  nigh."  The  oak-leaf 
is  mentioned  in  Isa.  i,  30,  and  vi,  13.  Leaves,  the  organs 
of  perspiration  and  inhalation  in  plants,  are  used  sym- 
bolically in  the  Scriptures  in  a  variety  of  senses ;  some- 
times they  are  taken  as  an  evidence  of  grace  (Psa.  i,  3), 
while  at  others  they  represent  the  mere  outward  form 
of  religion  without  the  Spirit  (Matt,  xxi,  19).  Their 
flourishing  and  their  decay,  their  restoration  and  their 
fragility,  furnish  the  subjects  of  numerous  allusions  of 
great  force  and  beauty  (Lev.  xxvi,  36 ;  Isa.  i,  30  ;  xxxiv, 
4;  Jer.  viii,  13;  Dan.  iv,  12,  14,  21 ;  Mark  xi,  13;  xiii, 
28 ;  Eev.  xxii,  2).  The  bright,  fresh  color  of  the  leaf 
of  a  tree  or  plant  shows  that  it  is  richh'  nourished  bj'  a 
good  soil,  hence  it  is  the  symbol  of  prosperity  (Psa.  i,  3  ; 
Jer.  xvii,  8).  A  faded  leaf,  on  the  contrary,  shows  the 
lack  of  moisture  and  nourishment,  and  becomes  a  fit 
emblem  of  adversity  and  decay  (Job  xiii,  25 ;  Isa.  Ixiv, 
C).  Similar  figures  have  prevailed  in  all  ages  (see  We- 
myss.  Symbol.  Dictionary,  s.  v.).  In  Ezekiel's  vision  of 
the  holy  waters,  the  blessings  of  the  INIessiah's  kingdom 
.are  spoken  of  under  the  image  of  trees  growing  on  a 
river's  bank  ;  there  "  shall  grow  all  trees  for  food,  whose 
leaf  shall  not  fade"  (Ezek.  xlvii,  12).  In  this  passage  it 
is  said  that  "  the  fruit  of  these  trees  shall  be  for  food,  and 
the  leaf  thereof  for  medicine"  (margin, yo?-  bruises  and 
sores').  With  this  compare  John's  vision  of  the  heav- 
enly Jerusalem  (Eev.  xxii,  1,  2)  :  "In  the  midst  of  the 
street  of  it,  and  on  either  side  of  the  river,  was  there  the 
tree  of  life  ....  and  the  leaves  of  the  tree  were  for  the 
healing  of  the  nations."  There  is  probably  here  an  al- 
lusion to  some  tree  whose  leaves  were  used  by  the  Jews 
as  a  medicine  or  ointment ;  indeed,  it  is  very  likely  that 
many  plants  and  leaves  were  thus  made  use  of  by  them, 
as  by  the  old  English  herbalists.     See  Tree  of  Life. 

2.  Leaf  of  a  door  ("^iJ,  fse'la,  a  side,  in  1  Kings  vi, 
34  [where  the  latter  clause  has,  prob.  by  error,  i'pjr,  ke'- 
lanff,  a  curtain],  means  the  valre  of  a  folding  door ;  so 
also  r^'^l,  de'lcth,  a  door  [Isa.  xlv,  1]).     See  Door. 

3.  Leaf  of  a  book  (rblj,  de'leth,  a  door-ralce,  as 
above,  hence  perhaps  a  fold  of  a  roll  [Jer.  xxxvi,  23], 
like  our  column  of  a  volume).     See  Book. 

League  (r'i"l2,  berith',  a  contract  or  "covenant;" 
also  T^n,  c/idbar'  [Dan.  xi,  23],  to  "join"  in  alliance; 
P^2,  karaili',  to  cut,  i.e.  "make"  a  league),  a  political 
confederacy  or  treaty.  That  the  Hebrews,  surrounded  on 
every  side  by  idolatrous  nations,  might  not  be  seduced 
to  a  defection  from  Jehovah  their  king,  it  was  necessary 
that  they  shoidd  be  kept  from  too  great  an  intercourse 
with  those  nations  by  the  establishment  of  various  sin- 
gular rites  ;  but,  lest  this  seclusion  from  them  should  be 
the  source  of  hatred  to  other  nations,  Moses  constantly 
taught  them  that  they  should  love  their  neiijhhor,  i.  e. 
every  one  with  whom  they  had  intercourse,  including 
foreigners  (Exod.  xxii,  21  ;  xxiii,  9  ;  Lev.  xix,  34;  Deut. 
X,  18, 19 ;  xxiv,  17, 18 ;  xxvii,  19  ;  comp.  Luke  x,  25-37). 
To  this  end,  he  showed  them  that  the  benefits  which 
(iod  had  conferred  upon  them  in  preference  to  other  na- 
tions were  tmdeservcd  (Deut.  vii,  G-8  ;  ix,  4-24).  But, 
although  the  Hebrews  individually  were  debarred  from 
any  close  intimacy  with  idolatrous  nations  by  various 
rites,  yet  as  a  nation  they  were  permitted  to  form  trea- 


LEAGUE  OF  CAMBRAY 


306 


LEANDER 


ties  with  Gentile  states,  with  the  foUowiiic;  exceptions : 
(1.)  The  Canaaniles,  including  the  I'hilisiines ;  with 
these  nations  the  Hebrews  were  not  permitted  to  enter 
into  anv  alliance  whatever  (Exod.  xxiii,  32,  33  ;  xxxiv, 
12-lG;  Deut.  vii,  1-1 1;  xx,  1-18).  The  Phoenicians, 
although  Canaanites,  were  not  included  in  this  deep 
hostility,  as  they  dwelt  on  the  northern  shore  of  the 
countrj-,  were  shut  up  within  their  own  limits,  and  did 
not  occupy  the  land  promised  to  the  patriarchs.  (2.) 
The  Ama'lekites,  or  Canaanites  of  Arabia,  were  also  des- 
tined to  hereditary  enmity,  unceasing  war,  and  total  ex- 
termination (Exod.  xvii.  8, 14 ;  Deut.  xxv,  17-19  ,  Judg. 
vi,  3-5;  1  Sam.  xv,  1,  33;  xxvii,  8,  9;  xxx,  1,  17, 18). 
(3.)  The  Moahites  and  A  mmonites  were  to  be  excluded 
forever  from  the  right  of  treaty  or  citizenship  with  the 
Hebrews,  but  were  not  to  be  attacked  in  war,  except 
when  provoked  by  previous  hostiUty  (Deut.  ii,  9-19 ; 
xxiii,  3-C  ;  Judg.  iii,  12-30  ,  1  Sam.  xiv,  47  ;  2  Sam.  viii, 
2  ;  xii,  20).  With  the  Midianitish  nation  at  large  there 
was  no  hereditarj-  enmity,  but  those  tribes  who  had  con- 
spired with  the  Moabites  were  ultimately  crushed  in  a 
war  of  dreadful  severity  (Numb,  xxv,  17, 18;  xxxi,l-18). 
Yet  those  tribes  which  did  not  participate  in  the  hostili- 
ties against  the  Hebrews  were  included  among  the  na- 
tions with  whom  alliances  might  be  formed,  but  in  later 
times  they  acted  in  so  hostile  a  manner  that  no  perma- 
nent peace  could  be  preserved  with  them  (Judg.  vi,  1-40  ; 
vii,  1-25;  viii,  1-21).  No  war  was  enjoined  against  the 
Edomites ;  and  it  was  expressly  enacted  that,  in  the 
tenth  generation,  they,  as  well  as  the  Egyptians,  might 
be  admitted  to  citizenship  (Xumb.  xx,  14-21 ;  Deut. 
ii,  4-8).  The  Edomites  also,  on  their  part,  conducted 
themselves  peaceably  towards  the  Hebrews  till  the  time 
of  David,  when  their  aggressions  caused  a  war,  in  which 
they  were  overcome.  From  that  time  they  cherished  a 
secret  hatred  against  the  Hebrews  (2  Sam.  viii,  13, 14). 
War  had  not  been  determined  on  against  the  Amorites 
on  the  east  of  the  Jordan  ;  but,  as  they  not  only  refused 
a  free  passage,  but  opposed  the  Hebrews  with  arms, 
they  were  attacked  and  beaten,  and  their  country  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Hebrews  (Numb,  xxi,  21-35;  Deut. 
i,  4;  ii,  24-37;  iii,  1-18;  iv,  4(5-49 ;  Judg.  xi,  13-23). 
Treaties  were  permitted  with  all  other  nations,  provided 
they  were  such  as  would  tend  to  the  public  welfare. 
David  accordmgly  maintained  a  friendly  national  in- 
tercourse with  the  kings  of  Tyre  and  Hamath,  and  Sol- 
omon with  the  kings  of  Tyre  and  Egypt,  and  ^vith  the 
queen  of  Sheba.  Even  the  Maccabees,  those  zealots  for 
the  law,  did  not  hesitate  to  enter  into  compact  with  the 
Romans.  When  the  prophets  condemn  the  treaties 
which  were  made  with  the  nations,  they  did  so,  not  be- 
cause they  were  contrary  to  the  Mosaic  laws,  but  be- 
cause they  were  impolitic  and  ruinous  measures,  which 
betrayed  a  want  of  confidence  in  Jehovah  their  king. 
The  event  always  showed  in  the  most  striking  manner 
the  proprietv  of  their  rebukes  (2  Kings  xvii,  4;  xviii, 
20,21;  XX,  12, 13;  2  Chron.  xx,  35-37 ;  xxviii,  21;  Isa. 
vii,  2;  xxx,  2-12;  xxxi,  1-3  ;  xxxvi,  4-7;  xxxix,  1-8; 
Hos.  v,  13 ;  vii,  11 ;  xii,  1 ;  Jer.  xxxvii,  5-10),    See  Al- 

LI.\NCE. 

League  of  Cambray  is  the  name  of  the  league 
entered  into  (A.D.  15(is)  lietween  pope  Julius  H,  the 
emperor  JIaximilian,  and  tlie  kings  of  France  and  Na- 
varre, to  make  war,  by  the  aid  of  both  spiritual  and 
temporal  arms,  against  the  re])ublic  of  Venice.  See  Ju- 
i.irsll;  Mam.mii.ian  ;  Viixici:. 

League  and  Covenant.  See  Covenant,  Sol- 
emn  LKAdTK  AND. 

League,  Holy.     See  Holy  League. 

League  of  Smalcalde.     See  Smalcalde. 

Le'ah  (Heb.  Liah',  TMiO,  jceiu-y ;  Sept.  A£(a,yulg. 
Lia),  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  Aramajan  Laban,  and 
sister  of  Rachel  (Gen.  xxvi,  IG).  '  Instead  of  the  latter, 
for  whom  he  had  served  seven  years,  Jacob  took  her 
through  a  deceit  of  her  father,  who  was  unwilling  to 
give  his  yoimger  daughter  in  marriage  first,  contrarj' 


to  the  usages  of  the  East  (Gen.  xxix,  22  sq. ;  compare 
Rosenm idler,  MorfjciiL  i,  138  sq.).  B.C.  1920.  She  was 
less  beautiful  than  her  younger  sister  (comp.  Josephus, 
Ant.  i,  19,  7),  having  also  weak  eyes  (r\i~T  C^3'^"j 
Sept.  6(p^a\fioi  acrSitvHC,  Yiilg.  lipjns  oculis,  Auth.  Vers, 
"  tender-eyed,"  Gen.  xxix,  17 ;  comp.  the  opposite  qual- 
ity as  a  recommendation,  1  Sam.  xvi,  12),  which  proba- 
bly accounts  for  Jacob's  preference  of  Rachel  both  at 
first  and  ever  afterwatds,  especially  as  he  was  not  likely 
ever  to  love  cordially  one  whom  he  did  not  voluntarily 
marry  (comp.  Gen.  xxx,  20).  See  Rachel.  Leah  bore 
to  Jacob,  before  her  sister  had  any  children,  six  sons, 
namely,  Reuben,  Simeon,  Levi,  Judah  (Gen.  xxix,  32 
sq.),  Issachar,  and  Zebulon  (Ge)i.  xxx,  17  sq. ;  compare 
XXXV,  23);  also  one  daughter,  Dinah  (Gen.  xxx,  21), 
besides  the  two  sons  borne  by  her  maid  Zilpah,  and 
reckoned  as  hers,  namely,  Gad  and  Asher  (Gen.  xxx, 
9),  all  within  the  space  of  seven  j-ears,  B.C.  1919-1913. 
See  Concubine;  Slave.  '"Leah  was  conscious  and 
resentful  (chap,  xxx)  of  the  smaller  share  she  possessed 
in  her  husband's  atfections;  yet  in  Jacob's  differences 
with  his  father-in-law  his  two  wives  appear  to  be  at- 
tached to  him  with  equal  fidelity.  In  the  critical  mo- 
ment Avhen  he  expected  an  attack  from  Esau,  his  dis- 
criminate regard  for  the  several  members  of  his  family 
was  shown  by  his  placing  Rachel  and  licr  children 
hindermost,  in  the  least  exposed  situation,  Leah  and  her 
children  next,  and  the  two  handmaids  with  their  chil- 
dren in  the  front.  Leah  probably  lived  to  witness  the 
dishonor  of  her  daughter  (ch.  xxxiv),  so  cruelly  avenged 
by  two  of  her  sons,  and  the  subsequent  deaths  of  Debo- 
rah at  Bethel,  and  of  Rachel  near  Bethlehem"  (Smith). 
Leah  appears  to  have  died  in  Canaan,  since  she  is  not 
mentioned  in  the  migration  to  Egypt  (Gen.  xlvi,  5), 
and  was  buried  in  the  family  cemetery  at  Hebron  (Gen. 
xlix,  31). — Wmer,  ii,  10.     See  Jacob. 

Lealce,  Lemuel  Fordham,  a  minister  of  the  Pres- 
bj'terian  (O.  S.)  Church,  was  bom  in  Chester,  Morris 
County,  N.  J.,  and  was  educated  at  Princeton  College, 
class  of  1814.  After  graduation  he  taught  two  years, 
then  studied  theology  at  Princeton  Seminary,  was  li- 
censed by  the  Newton  Presbytery  Oct.  7, 1818,  and  l)e- 
came  pastor  of  the  churches  of  Oxford  and  Harmony  in 
1822.  In  1825  he  resigned  this  position,  and  labored 
for  the  missionary  interests  of  the  Church.  In  1831  he 
was  called  to  Chartiers  Church,  at  Canonsburg,  as  suc- 
cessor to  Dr.  M'JMillan,  and  there  he  labored  until  1850, 
when  he  became  president  of  Franklin  College,  New 
Athens,  Ohio.  Later  he  removed  to  Zelienople,  Pa.; 
thence  to  Waveland,  Ind.  He  died  Dec.  1, 1800. — Wil- 
son, Preshjterian  Historical  A  Imanac,  18G7.  p.  1G8. 

Learning,  Jeremiah,  D.D.,  an  Episcopal  clergj-- 
man,  was  born  at  Middletown,  Conn.,  in  1719,  graduated 
at  Yale  College  in  1745,  and,  after  entering  the  minis- 
trj-,  quickly  rose  to  distinction.  He  was  at  one  time 
spoken  of  for  the  office  of  first  bishop  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  of  America.  He  died  at  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  in  1804.  Among  his  pubUcations  are  A  Defence 
of  Episcopal  Government  of  the  Church: — Evidences  of 
the  Tnith  of  Christianity  ;  etc. — Allibone,  Diet.  British 
and  American  Authors,  voLii,  s.  v. 

Leander,  St.,  a  Spanish  prelate,  flourished  towards 
the  close  of  the  Gth  century,  lie  died  March  13,  GOl  (ac- 
cording to  some,  Feb.  27,  59G).  He  was  a  son  of  Severi- 
anus,  governor  of  Carthage,  and  brother  of  Fulgent  ius, 
bishop  of  that  city,  and  of  St.  Isidore  of  Seville,  who 
succeeded  him  as  bishop  of  Seville.  Leander  especially 
distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  against  the  Arians. 
Among  his  converts  was  Hermenigilde,  eldest  son  of 
Lcuvigilde,  king  of  the  Goths.  Upon  the  defeat  of  the 
former  by  the  latter  Leander  was  sent  into  exile,  but  he 
was  recalled  in  the  same  year,  and  converted  Reccarede, 
second  son  of  the  king.  After  the  death  of  Lcuvigilde 
he  assembled  at  once  the  third  Council  of  Toledo,  and 
caused  Arianism  to  be  solemnly  condemned.  For  his 
services  in  making  Spain  an  adherent  of  the  faith  of 


LEANG-00-TEE 


307 


LEAVEN" 


Rome  he  was  specially  rewarded  by  Gregorj'  I.  The  ca- 
thedral of  Seville  claims  to  possess  his  remains,  and  he 
is  commemorated  on  the  13th  of  March,  He  wrote  a 
number  of  works,  of  which  there  are  yet  extant  De  In- 
stitutione  Vh'ginum  et  contemptu  mundi  (to  be  foimd  in 
the  Codex  Regularum  of  St.  Benedict  of  Amiane,  pub- 
lished by  Holstenius,  and  in  the  Bibliotheca  Pai rum,  vol. 
xii).  It  is  a  letter  to  his  sister,  St.  Florentine : — Uomilia 
in  luudcm  Ecclesice,  etc.  (Labbe,  Condi,  vol.  v),  a  discourse 
on  the  conversion  of  the  Goths,  pronounced  at  the  third 
Council  of  Toledo.  Leander  is  considered  as  the  origi- 
nator of  the  Mozarabic  rite  completed  by  St.  Isidore. 
St.  Gregory  the  Great  dedicated  to  Leander  his  disser- 
tations on  Job,  which  he  had  undertaken  by  his  advice. 
See  St.  Isidore,  De  Viris  iUusfribiis,  etc. ;  St.  Gregory 
the  Great,  Epist.  and  Dialog. ;  St.  Gregory  of  Tours,  Ilisf. 
vol.  v;  Maxonms,  Annales ;  Dom  Mabillon,  ^w?(«^es  Or- 
dinis  Benedicti,  etc. ;  Baillet,  Vies  des  Saints,  i,  Mar.  13  ; 
Dom  CeUlier,  Ilist. d.  Auteurs  sacres, xvii,  115, etc.;  Dom 
liivet.  Hist.  Litteraire  de  la  France ;  Richard  et  Giraud, 
Bibliotheque  Sacree ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxx, 
55 ;  Wetzcr  u.  Welte,  Kirclien-Lex.  vi,  388. 

Leang-Oo-Tee,  emperor  of  China,  and  founder  of 
the  Leang  dynasty,  usurped  the  throne  about  A.D.  502. 
Through  devotion  to  the  doctrines  of  Fo  and  mysticism 
of  the  bonzes  (priests  of  Fo  or  Buddha),  he  neglected 
the  care  of  the  empire.  He  was  dethroned  by  one  of 
his  officers,  Heoo-King,  and  died  soon  after  (549). — 
Thomas,  Biog.  Diet.  p.  1386. 

Lean'noth  (Heb.  le-annoth',  rii3"5,ybr  ansrvering, 
i.  c.  singing;  Sept,  tov  cnroKpL^i]vai,\u\Q.  ad  respon- 
demlujn),  a  musical  direction  occurring  in  the  title  of 
Psa.  Ixxxviii,  and  denoting  that  it  was  to  be  chanted  in 
the  manner  indicated  by  the  associated  terms.  See 
Psalms,  Book  of. 

Learning,  skill  in  any  science,  or  that  improvement 
of  the  mind  which  we  gain  by  study,  instruction,  ob- 
servation, etc.  An  attentive  examination  of  ecclesias- 
tical history  will  lead  us  to  see  how  greatly  learning  is 
indebted  to  Christianity,  and  that  Christianity,  in  its 
turn,  has  been  much  served  by  learning,  "  All  the  use- 
ful learning  which  is  now  to  be  found  in  the  world  is  in 
a  great  measure  owing  to  the  Gospel,  The  Christians, 
who  had  a  great  veneration  for  tlie  Old  Testament,  have 
contributed  more  than  the  Jev.'s  themselves  to  secure 
and  explain  those  books.  The  Christians,  in  ancient 
times,  collected  and  preserved  the  Greek  versions  of  the 
Scriptures,  particularly  the  Septuagint,  and  translated 
the  originals  into  Latin,  To  Christians  were  due  the 
old  Hexapla;  and  in  later  times  Christians  have  pub- 
lished tlie  Polyglots  and  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  It 
was  the  study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  which  excited 
Christians  from  early  times  to  study  chronology,  sacred 
and  secular;  and  here  much  knowledge  of  history,  and 
some  skill  in  astronomy,  were  needful.  The  New  Tes- 
tament, being  written  in  Greek,  caused  Christians  to  ap- 
ply themselves  also  to  tlie  study  of  that  language.  As 
the  Christians  were  opposed  by  the  pagans  and  the 
Jews,  they  were  excited  to  the  study  of  pagan  and  Jew- 
ish literature,  in  order  to  expose  the  absurdities  of  the 
Jewish  traditions,  the  weakness  of  paganism,  and  the 
imperfections  and  insufficiency  of  philosophy.  The  first 
fathers,  till  the  3d  centiu^',  were  generally  Greek  writ- 
ers. In  the  3d  century  the  Latin  language  was  much 
upon  the  decline,  but  the  Christians  preserved  it  from 
sinking  into  absolute  barbarism.  IMonken,',  indeed,  pro- 
duced many  sad  effects ;  but  Providence  here  also 
brought  good  out  of  evil,  for  the  monks  were  employed 
in  the  transcribing  of  books,  and  many  valuable  authors 
would  have  perished  if  it  had  not  been  for  the  monas- 
teries. In  the  9th  century  the  Saracens  were  very  stu- 
dious, and  contributed  much  to  the  restoration  of  letters. 
But,  whatever  was  good  in  the  Mohammedan  religion, 
it  is  in  no  small  measure  indebted  to  Christianity  for  it, 
since  INIohammedanism  is  made  up  for  the  most  part  of 
Judaism  and  Christianity.     If  Christianity  had  been 


suppressed  at  its  first  appearance,  it  is  extremely  proba- 
ble that  the  Latin  and  Greek  tongues  would  have  been 
lost  in  the  revolutions  of  empires,  and  the  irruptions  of 
barbarians  in  the  East  and  in  the  West,  for  the  old  in- 
habitants would  have  had  no  conscientious  and  religious 
motives  to  keep  up  their  language ;  and  then,  together 
with  the  Latin  and  Greek  tongues,  the  knowledge  of 
antiquities  and  the  ancient  writers  would  have  been  de- 
stroyed. ...  As  religion  has  been  the  chief  preserver 
of  erudition,  so  erudition  has  not  been  ungrateful  to  her 
patroness,  but  has  contributed  largely  to  the  support  of 
religion.  The  useful  expositions  of  the  Scriptures,  the 
sober  and  sensible  defences  of  revelation,  the  faithful 
representations  of  pure  and  undefiled  Christianity— these 
have  been  the  works  of  learned,  judicious,  and  industri- 
ous men.  Nothing,  however,  is  more  common  than  to 
hear  the  ignorant  decry  all  human  learning  as  entirely 
useless  in  religion ;  and,  what  is  still  more  remarkable, 
even  some,  who  call  themselves  preachers,  entertain  the 
same  sentiments.  But  to  such  we  can  only  say  what  a 
judicious  preacher  observed  upon  a  public  occasion,  that 
if  all  men  had  been  as  unlearned  as  themselves,  they 
never  would  liave  had  a  text  on  which  to  have  display- 
ed their  ignorance"  (Jortin's  Sermons,  vol.  vii.  Charge  I), 
See  More,  Hints  to  a  Young  Princess,  i,  64 ;  Cook,  Miss. 
Ser.  on  Matt,  vi,  3 ;  Stennett,  Ser.  on  A  cts  xxvi,  24, 25. — 
Henderson's  Buck,     See  Knowledge, 

Leasing  (^T3,  Jcazab',  Psa,  iv,  2 ;  v,  6),  an  old  Eng- 
lish word  equivalent  to  Iging  or  lies,  as  the  term  is  else- 
where rendered. 

Leather  (li^J,  6i;  2  Kings  i,  6,  properly  skin,  as 
elsewhere  rendered,  i,  e,  on  a  person  or  animal,  also  as 
taken  off,  hide,  sometimes  as  prepared  or  tanned.  Lev, 
xi,  32  ;  xiii,  48  sq. ;  Numb,  xxxi,  20 ;  in  the  N.  T.  only 
in  the  adj.  Ctpnunvog,  "leathern,"  Matt,  iii,  4;  lit.  of 
skin,  as  in  the  parallel  passage,  Mark  i,  6).  A  girdle  of 
leather  is  referred  to  in  the  above  passage  (2  Kings  i,  6) 
as  characteristic  of  Elijah,  which,  with  the  mantle  of 
hair,  formed  the  humble  attire  that  the  prophets  usu- 
ally wore.  In  like  manner  John  the  Baptist  had  his 
raiment  of  camels'  hair  and  a  leathern  girdle  about  his 
loins  (Matt,  iii,  4).  Strong  and  broad  girdles  of  leather 
arc  still  much  used  by  the  nomade  tribes  of  Western 
Asia  (see  Hackett's  Illustr.  of  Script,  p,  96).  See  Skin; 
Dress, 

We  learn  from  the  monuments  [see  cut  on  page  308] 
that  the  ancient  Egyptians  were  well  acquainted  with 
the  various  processes  of  tanning  and  working  in  leather, 
and  from  them  the  Hebrews  undoubtedly  derived  their 
knowledge  of  the  art  of  preparmg  leather  for  a  variety 
of  useful  purposes.  It  appears  that  the  Egyptian  tan 
was  prei^ared  in  earthen  vessels,  and  that  the  workmen 
could  preserve  skins  either  with  or  without  the  hair. 
The  preparation  of  leather  was  an  important  branch  of 
Egyptian  industry  (see  Wilkinson's  Egyptians,  ii,  93, 99, 
105),  Leather  appears  to  have  been  used  by  the  an- 
cient Assyrians  in  some  cases  for  recording  documents 
upon  (Layard's  Nineveh,  ii,  147),     See  Tanner. 

Leaven.  In  the  Hebrew  we  find  two  distinct 
words,  both  translated  leaven  in  the  common  version  of 
the  Bible.  This  is  unfortimate,  for  there  is  the  same 
distinction  between  "Nb,  seur',  and  Y"^^^  chamets',  in 
the  Hebrew,  as  between  leaven  and  leavened  bread  in  the 
English.  The  Greek  ^I'/trj  appears  to  be  used  onlj'  in 
the  former  sense,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  it  applies  to  a 
liquid.  Chemically  speaking,  the  "  ferment"  or  "  yeast" 
is  the  same  substance  in  both  cases;  but  "leaven"  is 
more  correctly  applied  to  solids,  "  ferment"  both  to  liq- 
uids and  solids. 

1.  "'Xb,  seijr',  occurs  only  five  times  in  the  Scriptures, 
in  four  of  which  (Exod.  xii,  15, 19  ;  xiii,  7;  Lev.  ii,ll) 
it  is  rendered  "  leaven,"  and  in  the  fifth  (Dent,  xvi,  4) 
"leavened  bread."  It  seems  to  have  denoted  original- 
ly the  remnant  of  dough  left  on  the  preceding  baking, 
which  bad  fermented  and  turned  acid ;  hence  (accord- 


LEAVEN 


308 


LEAVEN 


ing  to  the  Lexicon  of  Dr.  Avenarius.  1588)  the  German 
sillier,  English  sour.  Its  distinctive  meaning  therefore 
is,  fermented  or  leavened  mass.  It  could  hardly,  how- 
ever, apply  to  the  murk  or  lees  of  wine. 

2,  you,  chamets',  ought  not  to  be  rendered  "  leaven," 
but  leavened  bread.  It  is  a  more  specific  term  than  the 
former,  but  is  confounded  in  our  translation  with  it. 
In  Numb,  vi,  3,  the  cognate  noun  is  applied  to  wine 
as  an  adjective,  and  is  there  properly  translated  "  vin- 
egar of  wine."  In  this  last  sense  it  seems  to  corre- 
spond to  tlie  Greek  ti^of,  a  sort  of  acid  wine  in  very 
common  use  among  the  ancients,  called  by  the  Latins 
posca,  vinum  culpatum  (Adam,  Rom.  Antiq.  p.  393; 
Jahn,  Fiibl.  ArclueoL  §  1-4-4).  This  species  of  wine  (and 
in  hot  countries  pure  wine  speedily  passes  into  the 
acetous  state)  [see  Drink]  is  spoken  of  by  the  Tal- 
mudists,  who  inform  us  that  it  was  given  to  persons 
about  to  be  executed,  mingled  with  drugs,  in  order  to 
stupefy  them  (Prov.  xxxi,  G;  Snnhedrin,  folio  43,  1,  c 
vi).  This  serves  to  explain  IMatt.  xxvii,  34.  A  sour, 
fermented  drink  used  bj'  the  Tartars  appears  to  have 
derived  its  name  kumiss  from  the  Hebrew  chamets'. 
From  still  another  root  comes  also  nS"5,'  7natstsah' 
(sweet,  "without  leaven"  [Lev.  x,  11]),  unleavened  (i.e. 
bread,  though  in  several  passages  "  bread"  and  "  cakes" 
are  also  expressed).     In  Exod.  xiii,  7,  both  seOr'  and 


chamets'  occur  together,  and  are  evidently  distinct: 
^^  Unleaveiwd  bread  (matstsuh')  shall  be  eaten  during 
the  seven  da}'s,  and  there  shall  not  be  seen  with  thee 
fermented  bread  (chamets'),  and  there  shall  not  be  seen 
with  thee  leavened  dough  (^seOr')  in  all  thy  borders." 
See  Wine. 

The  organic  chemists  define  the  process  of  fermenta- 
tion, and  the  substance  which  excites  it,  as  follows : 
"  Fermentation  is  nothing  else  but  the  putrefaction  of  a 
substance  containing  no  nitrogen.  Ferment,  or  yeast,  is 
a  substance  in  a  state  of  putrefaction,  the  atoms  of  which 
are  in  a  continual  motion"  (Turner's  Chemist?-//,  by  Lie- 
big).  This  definition  is  in  strict  accordance  with  the 
views  of  the  ancients,  and  gives  point  and  force  to  many 
passages  of  sacred  writ  (Psa.  Ixxix,  21 ;  Matt,  xvi,  G,  11, 
12  ;  Mark  viii,  15  ;  Luke  xii,  1 ;  xiii,  21 ;  1  Cor.  v,  5-8  ; 
Gal.  V,  9).  Leaven,  and  fermented,  or  even  some  readily 
fermentible  substances  (as  honey),  were  prohibited  in 
many  of  the  typical  institutions  both  of  the  Jews  and 
Gentiles.  The  Latin  writers  use  corruptus  as  signify- 
ing fermented ;  Tacitus  applies  the  word  to  the  fermenta- 
tion of  wine.  Plutarch  (Rom.  Qucsst.  cix,  G)  assigns  as 
the  reason  why  the  priest  of  Jupiter  was  not  allowed  to 
touch  leaven, "  that  it  comes  out  of  corruption,  and  cor- 
rupts that  with  which  it  is  mingled."  See  also  Aulus 
Gellius,  viii,  15.  The  use  of  leaven  was  strictly  forbid- 
den in  all  offerings  made  to  the  Lord  by  tire,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  raeat-oifering  (Lev.  ii,  11),  the  trespass-offer- 
ing (Lev.  vii,  12),  the  consecration-offering  (Exod.  xxix, 
2  ;  Lev.  viii,  2),  the  Nazarite-offering  (Numb.vi,  15),  and 
more  particularly  in  regard  to  the  feast  of  the  Passover, 
when  the  Israelites  were  not  only  prohibited  on  pain  of 
death  from  eating  leavened  bread,  but  even  from  having 
any  leaven  in  their  houses  (Exod.  xii,  15, 19)  or  in  their 
land  (Exod.  xiii,  7 ;  Deut.  xvi,  4)  during  seven  days, 
commencing  with  the  14th  of  Nisan.  The  command 
was  rigidly  enforced  by  the  zeal  of  the  Jews  in  later 
times  (compare  IVIishnah,  Pesach.  ii,  1 ;  Schottgen,  Ho- 
i-(B  Hebraicce,  i,  598).  It  is  in  reference  to  these  pro- 
hibitions that  Amos  (iv,  b')  ironically  bids  the  Jews  of 
his  day  to  "  offer  a  sacrifice  of  thanksgiving  with  leav- 
en." Hence,  likewise,  even  honey  was  prohibited  (Lev. 
ii,  11)  on  account  of  its  occasionally  producing  fermen- 
tation. In  other  instances,  where  the  offering  was  to 
be  consumed  by  the  priests  and  not  on  the  altar,  leav- 
en might  be  used,  as  in  the  case  of  the  peace-offering 
(Lev.  vii,  13)  and  the  Pentecostal  loaves  (Lev.  xxiii,  17). 
It  is  to  be  presumed  also  that  the  shew-bread  was  un- 
leavened, both,  it  fortiori,  from  the  prohibition  of  leaven 
in  the  bread  offered  on  the  altar,  and  because,  in  the  di- 
rections given  for  the  making  of  the  shew-bread,  it  is 
not  specified  that  leaven  should  be  used  (Lev.  xxiv, 
5-9) ;  for,  in  all  such  cases,  what  is  not  enjoined  is  pro- 
hibited. Jewish  tradition  also  asserts  that  the  shew- 
bread  was  without  leaven  (Josephus,  Ant.  iii,  6,  6;  Talm. 
Minchoth,  v,  2,  3).  On  Lev.  ii,  11,  Dr.  Andrew  Willet 
observes,  "  They  have  a  spiritual  signilication,  because 
ferment  signifieth  corruption,  as  St.  Paul  applieth  (1  Cor. 
V,  8).  The  honey  is  also  forbidden  because  it  had  a 
leavening  force"  (Junius,  Hexapla,  1631).  On  the  same 
principle  of  symbolism,  God  prescribes  that  salt  shall  al- 
ways constitute  a  part  of  the  oblations  to  him  (Lev.  ii, 
31)  on  account  of  its  antiseptic  properties.  Thus  St. 
Paul  (comp.  Col.  iv,  6;  Eph.  iv,  29)  uses  "salt"  as  pre- 
servative from  corruption,  on  the  same  principle  which 
leads  him  to  employ  that  which  is  unfermented  (uZvfioQ) 
as  an  emblem  of  purity  and  uncorruptedness.  See  Pass- 
over. 

The  Greek  word  ^17(1;,  rendered  '•leaven,''^  is  used  with 
precisely  the  same  latitude  of  meaning  as  the  Hebrew 
seor'.  It  signifies  leaven,  sour  dough  (Matt,  xiii,  33; 
xvi,  12;  Luke  xiii,  21).  Another  quality  in  leaven  is 
noticed  in  the  WWAq,  viz.,  its  secretly  penetrating  and  dif- 
fusive power ;  hence  the  proverbial  saying,  "  a  little 
leaven  leaveneth  the  whole  lump"  (1  Cor.  v,  6 ;  Gal.  v, 
9).  In  this  respect  it  was  emblematic  of  moral  influence 
generally,  whether  good  or  bad,  and  hence  our  Saviour 


LEBANA 


309 


LEBANON 


adopts  it  r.s  illustrating  the  growth  of  the  kingdom  of 
heaven  in  the  individual  heart  and  in  the  world  at 
large  (Matt.  xiii,33).  Leaven,  or  ferment,  is  therefore 
used  tropically  for  corruptness,  perverseness,  of  life,  doc- 
trine, heart,  etc.  (Matt,  xvi,  6, 11 ;  Mark  viii,  15  ;  Luke 
xii,  1 ;  1  Cor.  v,  7, 8 ;  couip.  Col.  iv,  6  ;  Eph.  iv,  29).  The 
idea  seems  to  have  been  faraOiar  to  the  Jews ;  compare 
Otlio,  Lex  Rahhin.  Talm.  p.  227.  They  even  employed 
leaven  as  a  figure  of  the  inherent  corruption  of  man : 
"  K.  Alexander,  when  he  had  finished  his  prayers,  said, 
Lord  of  the  universe,  it  is  clearly  manifest  before  thee 
tliat  it  is  our  will  to  do  thy  will :  what  hinders  that  we 
do  not  thy  will  ?  The  leaven  which  is  in  the  mass  {GL, 
The  evil  desire  which  is  in  thGhea.rty\BabijL Beradiotk, 
xvii,  1 ;  ap.  JMeuschen,  X.  T.  ex  Talmude  ill.).  We  tind 
the  same  allusion  in  the  Roman  poet  Ver&ms,  {Sat.  i,  24 ; 
compare  Casaubon's  note.  Comment,  p.  74).  See  Werns- 
dorf.  Be  fermento  llerodis  (Alt.  1724).      See  Unleav- 

ENIiD  BUEAD. 

'■  The  usual  leaven  in  the  East  is  dough  kept  till  it 
becomes  sour,  and  which  is  kept  from  one  day  to  an- 
other for  the  purpose  of  preserving  leaven  in  readiness. 
Tluis,  if  there  should  be  no  leaven  in  all  the  country  for 
any  length  of  time,  as  much  as  might  be  required  coidd 
easily  be  produced  in  twenty-four  hours.  Sour  dough, 
however,  is  not  exclusively  used  for  leaven  in  the  East, 
the  lees  of  wine  being  in  some  parts  employed  as  yeast" 
(Kitto,  Pictorial  Bible,  i,  161).  In  the  Talmud  mention 
is  made  of  leaven  formed  of  the  D^ISIO  b',!3  '^^p, 
bookmakers'' paste  {PesacJi,  iii,  1).  As  the  process  of 
producing  the  leaven  itself,  or  even  of  leavening  bread 
when  the  substance  was  at  hand,  required  some  time, 
unleavened  cakes  were  more  usually  jiroduced  on  sudden 
emergencies  (Gen. xviii,G;  Judg.vi,19). — Kitto;  Smith. 
See  Bake  ;  Bread,  etc. 

Leb'ana  (Neh.  vii,  48).     See  Lebanah. 

Leb'anah  (Heb.  Lebanah',  nsib,  the  moon  as  be- 
ing white,  as  in  Cant,  vi,  10,  etc.;  Sept.  in  Ezra  ii,  45 
AajSaiHo  ;  Chaldaistically  written  Lebana',  N53b,  in 
most  MSS.  in  Neh.  vii,  48,  Sept.  Aafiava,  Auth.  Vers. 
"Lebana";  Yulg.  in  both  passages  Lebana),  one  of  the 
Nethinim  whose  posterity  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel.     B.C.  ante  536. 

Leb'anon,  the  loftiest  and  most  celebrated  moun- 
tain range  in  Syria,  forming  the  northern  boundary  of 
Palestine,  and  running  thence  along  the  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean  to  the  great  pass  which  opens  into  the 
plain  of  Hamath.  The  range  oi  Anti-Lebanon,  usually 
included  by  geographers  under  the  same  general  name, 
lies  jiaraUel  to  the  other,  commencing  on  the  south  at 
the  fountains  of  the  Jordan,  and  terminating  in  the 
plain  of  Hamath.  In  the  following  account  we  adopt 
in  part  the  article  by  Dr.  J.  L.  Porter,  in  Kitto's  Cyclo- 
pcediu,  s.  v.     See  Palestine. 

I.  The  Name. — In  the  O.  Test,  these  mountain  ranges 
are  always  called  '1335,  Lebanon',  to  which,  in  prose, 
the  art.  is  constantly  prefixed,  "iiS^^rt  ;  in  poetry  the 
art.  is  sometimes  prefixed  and  sometimes  not,  as  in  Isa. 
xiv,  8,  and  Psa.  xxix,  5.  The  origin  of  the  name  has 
been  variously  accounted  for.  It  is  derived  from  the 
root  '^b,  "to  be  white."  'ISiiil  "ilH  is  thus  emphati- 
cally "  The  White  ^Mountain"  of  Syria.  It  is  a  singular 
fact  that  almost  uniformly  the  names  of  the  highest 
mountams  in  all  countries  have  a  like  meaning — Mont 
Blanc,  Himalaija  (in  Sanscrit  signifying  "  snowy"), 
Ben  Neris,  Snowdon,  perhaps  also  Alps  (from  alb, 
"white,"  like  the  Latin  albus,  and  not,  as  commonly 
thought,  from  aJp,  "high").  Some  suppose  the  name 
originated  in  the  white  snow  by  which  the  ridge  is  cov- 
ered a  great  part  of  the  j'car  (Bochart,  Opera,  i,  678 ; 
Gesenius,  Thesaurus,  p.  741 ;  Stanley,  .S'.  and  P.  p.  395). 
Others  derive  the  name  from  the  whitish  color  of  the 
limestone  rock  of  which  the  great  body  of  the  range  is 
comiiosed  (Schulz,  Leitunr/en  des  Hochsten,  v,  471 ;  Kob- 
inson,  Biblic.  lies,  ii,  493).     The  former  seems  the  more 


natural  explanation,  and  is  confirmed  by  several  circum- 
stances. Jeremiah  mentions  the  "snow  of  Lebanon" 
(xviii,  14)  ;  in  the  Chald.  paraphrase  ni^Pi  "1^13,  "  snow 
mountain,"  is  the  name  given  to  it,  and  this  is  equiva- 
lent to  a  not  uncommon  modern  Arabic  appellation,  Je- 
bel  eth-ThelJ  (Gesenius,  Thesaurus,  1.  c. ;  Abulfeda,  Tab. 
Si/r.  p.  18).  Others  derive  the  name  Lebanon  from 
XiliavojTog,  "  frankincense,"  the  gum  of  a  tree  called 
Mfiavog  Qleland,  PalfEst.  p.  312;  Herod,  i,  183),  which 
is  mentioned  among  the  gifts  presented  by  the  magi  to 
the  infant  Saviour  (Matt,  ii,  11).  This,  however,  is  in 
Hebrew  HJinb,  Lebonah  (Exod.  xxx,  34;  Isa.  Ix,  6). 
The  Greek  name  of  Lebanon,  both  in  the  Septuagint 
and  classic  authors,  is  uniformly  AifSavog  (Strabo,  xvi, 
755 ;  Ptol.  V,  15).  The  Septuagint  has  sometimes  'Aiti- 
XijiavoQ  instead  of  Aijiat'og  (Deut.  i,  7 ;  iii,  25 :  Josh,  i, 
4;  ix,  1).  The  Latin  name  is  LJbunus  (Phny,  v,  17), 
which  is  the  reading  of  the  Yidgate.  It  would  appear 
that  the  Greek  and  Roman  geographers  regarded  the 
name  as  derived  from  the  snow.  Tacitus  speaks  of  it 
as  a  remarkable  phenomenon  that  snow  should  lie  where 
there  is  such  intense  heat  {Hist,  v,  6).  Jerome  writes, 
"  Libanus  XevKaafioc  —  id  est,  condor  interpretatur" 
(Adi-ei-sus  Jorianum,  in  Ojjera,  ii,  286,  ed.  Migne)  ;  he 
also  notes  the  identity  of  the  name  of  this  mountain 
anA  franhincense  {in  Osee,  in  Opera,  yj,  ICO).  Arab  ge- 
ographers call  the  range  Jtbel  Libndn  (Abulfeda,  Tab. 
Syr.  p.  163 ;  Edrisi,  p.  336,  edit.  Jaubert).  This  name, 
hoAvever,  is  now  seldom  heard  among  the  people  of 
Syria,  and  ivhen  used  it  is  confined  to  the  western  range. 
Different  parts  of  this  range  have  distinct  names — the 
northern  section  is  called  Jtbel  Alkdr,  the  central  Sun- 
nin,  and  the  southern  J,  ed-JJruze.  Other  local  names 
are  also  used. 

The  eastei-^n  runge,  as  well  as  the  western,  is  fre- 
quently included  under  the  general  name  T.ebanon  in 
the  Bible  (Josh,  i,  4;  Judg.  iii,  3) ;  but  in  Josh,  xiii,  5 
it  is  correctly  distinguished  as  ^^  Lebanon  toward  iJ  e  sun- 
7-ising"  (d'C^'fl  rriTp  ")":3^ri;  Sept.  Aijiavov  airo 
avaToXCjv  ifKiov  ;  and  translated  in  the  Vulg.  Libani 
qiioqne  ref/io  contra  orienteni).  The  southern  section 
of  this  range  was  well  known  to  the  sacred  WTiters  as 
Hermon,  and  had  in  ancient  times  several  descriptive 
titles  given  to  it — Sirion,  Shenir,  Sion;  just  as  it  has  in 
modern  days  —  Jibel  esh-Shdk,  J.  eth-ThelJ,  J.  Antdr. 
Greek  writers  called  the  whole  range  'AiTiXifSarog 
(Strabo,  xvi,  p.  7.54;  Ptolemy,  v,  15),  a  word  which  is 
sometimes  found  in  the  Sept.  as  the  rendering  of  the 
Hebrew  Lebanon  (ut  supra).  Latin  authors  also  uni- 
formly distinguish  the  eastern  range  by  the  name  A  nii- 
libanus  (Pliny,  v,  20).  The  name  is  appropriate,  de- 
scribing its  position,  lying  "  opposite"  or  '•  over  against" 
Lebanon  (Strabo,  I.  c).  Yet  this  distinction  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  known  to  Josephus,  who  uniformly 
calls  the  eastern  as  well  as  the  western  range  AijiavoQ  ; 
thus  he  speaks  of  the  fountains  of  the  Jordan  as  being 
near  to  Libanus  {Ant.  v,  3, 1),  and  of  Abila  as  situated 
in  Libanus  (xix.  5,  1).  The  range  of  Anti-Lebanon  is 
now  called  by  all  native  geographers  Jehel  esh-Shurky, 
"  East  mountain,"  to  distinguish  it  from  Lebanon  prop- 
er, which  is  sometimes  termed  J(bel  el-Ghurbi/,  "West 
mountain"  (Robinson,  Biblical  lies,  ii,  437 ;  Burckhardt, 
Travels  in  Syria,  p.  4). 

To  insure  greater  definitenoss,  and  to  prevent  repeti- 
tion, the  name  Lebanon  will  be  applied  in  this  article  to 
the  western  range,  and  A  nti-Lebanon  to  the  eastern. 

II.  Physical  Geography. — 1.  Lebanon. — (1.)  Limits. — 
The  mountain-chain  of  Lebanon  commences  at  the  great 
vallej'  which  connects  the  INlediterranean  with  the  plain 
of  Hamath  (anciently  called  "  the  entrance  of  Hamath," 
Numb,  xxxiv,  8),  in  lat.  34^  40',  and  runs  in  a  south- 
western direction  along  the  coast,  till  it  sinks  into  the 
plain  of  Acre  and  the  low  hills  of  (ialilee,  in  lat.  33°. 
Its  extreme  length  is  110  geographical  miles,  and  the 
average  breadtli  of  its  base  is  about  20  miles.  The 
highest  peak,  called  Dahar  el-Kudib,  is  about  25  miles 


LEBANON 


310 


LEBANON 


View  of  Lebanon  above  Beirut. 


from  the  northern  extremity,  and  just  over  the  little 
cedar  grove ;  its  elevation  is  10,051  feet  (Van  de  Velde, 
Memoir,  p.  170).  From  this  point  the  range  decreases 
in  height  towards  the  south.  The  massive  rounded 
summit  of  Sunnln,  23  miles  from  the  former,  is  8500  feet 
high.  Jebel  Kenlseh,  the  next  peak,  is  6824  feet ;  and 
Tomat  Niha,  "  the  Twin-peaks,"  the  highest  tops  of 
southern  Lebanon,  are  about  6500  feet.  From  these  the 
fall  is  rapid  to  tlie  ravine  of  the  river  Litany,  the  an- 
cient Leontes. 

The  chain  of  Lebanon,  or  at  least  its  higher  ridges, 
may  be  said  to  terminate  at  the  ]ioint  where  it  is  thus 
broken  through  by  the  Litany.  But  a  broad  and  lower 
mountainous  tract  continues  towards  the  south,  border- 
ing the  basin  of  the  HiUeh  on  the  west.  It  rises  to  its 
greatest  elevation  about  Safed  (Jebel  Safed),  and  at 
length  ends  abruptly  in  the  mountains  of  Nazareth,  as 
the  northern  wall  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon.  This  high 
tract  may  very  properly  be  regarded  as  a  prolongation 
of  Lebanon. 

Some  writers  regard  the  Litany  as  marking  the  south- 
ern limit  of  Lebanon ;  and  it  would  seem  that  the  an- 
cient classical  geographers  were  of  this  opinion  (Smith, 
Did,  of  G.  and  R.  Geoij.  s.  v.  Libanus ;  Kitto,  P/i;/sical 
Jlist.  of  Pal.  p.  32).  Diodorus  Sicidus  describes  Leba- 
non as  extending  along  the  coast  of  Tripolis,  Bj'blus, 
and  Sidon  {Hist,  xix,  58) ;  and  the  Litany  falls  into  the 
sea  a  few  miles  south  of  Sidon.  The  notices  of  Ptolemy 
are  somewhat  indefinite,  and  represent  the  two  chains 
of  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon  as  commencing  at  the 
Mediterranean — the  former  on  the  north,  the  latter  on 
the  south  (Jjeog.  v,  15).  Strabo  is  more  definite  and  less 
accurate :  "  There  are  two  mountains  which  inclose  Coele- 
Syria  lying  parallel  to  each  other.  The  commencement 
of  both  these  mountains,  Libanus  and  Anti-Lil)anus,  is  a 
little  way  above  the  sea.  Libanus  rises  from  the  sea 
near  Tripolis  and  Theoprosopon,  and  Anti-Libanus  from 
the  sea  near  Sidon.  They  terminate  somewhere  near 
the  Arabian  mountains,  which  arc  above  the  district  of 
Damascus  and  tlie  Trachoncs.  .  .  .  A  hollow  plain  lies 
between  them,  wliose  breadth  towards  the  sea  is  200 
stadia,  and  its  length  from  the  sea  to  the  interior  about 
twice  as  much.  Kivcrs  fiow  through  it,  the  largest  of 
which  is  the  Jordan"  (xvi,  754).  According  to  Fliny 
the  chains  begin  at  the  sea,  but  they  run  from  south  to 
north  (//.  X.  V,  17 ;  compare  Amniian.  Marcel,  xiv,  26). 
Cellarius  merely  repeats  these  ancient  authors  {Geog.  ii, 
430).  Ixcland  shows  their  errors  and  contradictions, but 
he  cannot  solve  them,  though  he  tlcrived  soine  impor- 
tant information  from  ]\Lnnidrell  {Palccst.  \\.  oil.  sq. ; 
comp.  Early  Trav.  in  Pal.  Hohn,  p.  483).  liosenmiiller 
{Bih.  Geog.  ii,  207,  Clark),  Wells  {Geog.  i,  239),"and  oth- 
ers, only  repeat  the  old  mistakes.  The  source  of  these 
errors  maj'  be  seen  by  an  examination  of  the  i)hy.sical 
geography  of  the  district  east  of  Tyre  and  Sidon.    There 


can  bo  no  doubt  that  the  range  of  Lebanon,  viewed  in 
its  physical  formation,  extends  from  the  entrance  of  Ha- 
math  to  the  plain  of  Acre ;  but  between  the  parallels 
of  Tyre  and  Sidon  it  is  cut  through  by  the  chasm  of  the 
Litany,  which  drains  the  valley  of  Coele-Syria.  That 
river  enters  the  range  obliquely  on  the  eastern  side, 
turns  gradually  westward,  and  at  length  divides  the  main 
ridge  at  right  angles.  Here,  therefore,  it  maj'  be  said, 
in  one  sense,  that  the  chain  terminates ;  and  though  on 
the  south  bank  of  the  Litany  another  chain  rises,  and 
runs  in  the  line  of  the  former,  it  is  not  so  lofty,  its  great- 
est height  scarcely  exceeding  8000  feet.  Ancient  geog- 
raphers thought  Lebanon  terminated  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  Litany;  and  as  that  river  drains  the  valley  of 
Cocle-Syria,  which  lies  between  Lebanon  and  Anti-Leb- 
anon, they  naturally  supposed  that  the  chain  on  the 
south  bank  of  the  Litany  was  the  commencement  of  the 
latter  range.  Here  lies  the  error,  which  Dr.  Porter  was 
among  the  first  to  detect,  by  an  examination  of  the  gen- 
eral conformation  of  the  mountain  ranges  from  the  sum- 
mit of  Hermon  (see  Bihliotheca  Sacra,  xi,  52 ;  Porter, 
Ikimascus,  i,  296). 

Anti-Lebanon  is  completely  separated  from  this  west- 
ern range  by  a  broad  and  deep  valley.  The  great  val- 
ley of  the  Jordan  extends  northward  to  the  -ivestern 
base  of  Hermon,  in  the  parallel  of  the  chasm  of  the  Lit- 
any. From  this  point  a  narrower  valley,  called  wady 
el-Teim,  runs  northward,  till  it  meets  an  eastern  branch 
of  Cffile-Syria.  These  three  valleys,  forming  a  continu- 
ous line,  constitute  the  western  boundary  of  Anti-Leba- 
non. No  part  of  that  chain  crosses  them  (Robinson,  ii, 
438).  The  southern  end  of  the  plain  of  Coele-Syria  is 
divided  by  a  low  ridge  into  two  branches.  Down  the 
eastern  branch  runs  wady  cl-Teim,  conveying  a  tribu- 
tary' to  the  Jordan  (Bib.  Sac.  1.  c. ;  liobinson,  iii,  428- 
430) ;  down  the  western  runs  the  Litany.  The  latter 
branch  soon  contracts  into  a  wild  chasm,  whose  banks 
arc  in  some  places  above  a  thousand  feet  high,  of  naked 
rock,  and  almost  jierpendicular.  At  one  spot  the  ravine 
is  only  60  feet  wide,  and  is  spanned  by  a  natural  bridge, 
at  the  height  of  about  100  feet  above  the  stream.  Over 
it  rise  jagged  walls  of  naked  limestone,  pierced  with 
numerous  caves.  The  scenery  is  here  magnificent;  as 
one  stands  on  this  arch  of  nature's  own  building,  he 
can  scarcely  repress  feelings  of  alarm.  The  cliffs  al- 
most meet  overhead ;  rugged  masses  of  rock  shoot  out 
from  dizzy  heights,  and  appear  as  if  about  to  plunge 
into  the  chasm;  the  mad  river  far  below  dashes  along 
from  rapid  to  rapid  in  sheets  of  foam.  In  wild  grandeur 
this  chasm  has  no  equal  in  Syria,  and  few  in  the  world. 
Yet,  from  a  short  distance  on  either  side,  it  is  not  visible. 
The  mountain  chain  appears  to  run  on  in  its  course,  de- 
clining gradually,  but  without  any  interruption.  The 
ridge,  in  fact,  has  been  cleft  asunder  by  some  terrible 
convulsion,  and  through  the  cleft  the  waters  of  Coele- 


LEBANON 


311 


LEBANON 


Svria  have  forced  their  way  to  the  Mediterranean  in- 
stead of  the  Jordan,  which  is  the  natural  outlet.  It  will 
thus  be  seen  that  the  ridge  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Litany  is  the  prolongation  of  that  on  the  north,  and  is 
a  part  of  Lebanon  (Robinson,  ii,  438) ;  and  that  the 
chasm  of  the  Litany,  though  the  draiu  of  Ccele-SjTia, 
is  no  part  of  that  vallc}'.  Neither  Coele-Syria,  there- 
fore, nor  Anti-Lebanon,  at  any  point,  approaches  within 
many  miles  of  the  Mediterranean  {Handbook  for  S.  and 
P.  \).  571 ;  Kobinson,  iii,  420  sq. ;  Van  de  Velde,  Travels, 
i,  145  sq.). 

(2.)  Western  Aspect. — The  view  of  Lebanon  from  the 
Mediterranean  is  exceedingly  grand.  On  approaching, 
it  appears  to  rise  from  the  bosom  of  the  deep  like  a  vast 
wall,  the  wavy  top  densely  covered  with  snow  during 
winter  and  spring,  and  the  two  highest  peaks  capped 
v.'ith  crowns  of  ice  on  the  sultriest  days  of  summer. 
The  ivestern  slopes  are  long  and  gradual,  furrowed  from 
top  to  bottom  with  deep  rugged  ravines,  and  broken  ev- 
erywhere by  lofty  cliffs  of  white  rock,  and  ragged  banks, 
and  tens  of  thousands  of  terrace  walls,  rising  like  steps 
of  stairs  from  the  sea  to  the  snow-wreaths.  "  The  whole 
mass  of  the  mountain  consists  of  whitish  limestone,  or 
at  least  the  rocky  surface,  as  it  reflects  the  light,  exhib- 
its everywhere  a  whitish  aspect.  The  mountain  teems 
with  villages,  and  is  cidtivated  more  or  less  almost  to 
the  top;  yet  so  steep  and  rocky  is  the  surface,  that  the 
tillage  is  carried  on  chieflj^  by  means  of  terraces,  built 
np  with  great  labor,  and  covered  above  with  soil.  When 
one  looks  upward  from  below,  the  vegetation  on  these 
terraces  is  not  seen,  so  that  the  whole  mountain  side  ap- 
pears as  if  composed  of  immense  rugged  masses  of  naked 
whitish  rock,  severed  by  deep  ■wild  ravines,  running 
down  precipitously  to  the  plain.  No  one  would  suspect 
among  these  rocks  the  existence  of  a  vast  multitude  of 
thrifty  villages,  and  a  numerous  population  of  moun- 
taineers, hardy,  industrious,  and  brave"  (Robinson,  ii, 
493;  comp.  Volney,  Travels,  i,  272  sq.). 

On  looking  down  the  western  slopes  from  the  brow 
of  one  of  the  projecting  bluffs,  or  through  the  vista  of 
one  of  the  glens,  the  scenery  is  totally  different ;  it  is 
now  rich  and  picturesque.  The  tops  of  the  little  stair- 
like terraces  are  seen,  all  green  with  corn,  or  straggling 
vinos,  or  the  dark  foliage  of  the  mulberrj'.  The  steeper 
banks  and  ridge-tops  have  their  forests  of  pine  and  oak, 
while  far  away  down  in  the  bottom  of  the  glens,  and 
round  the  villages  and  castellated  convents,  are  large 
groves  of  gray  olives.  The  aspect  of  the  various  sec- 
tions of  the  mountains  is,  however,  very  different,  the 
rocks  and  strata  often  assuming  strange,  fantastic  shapes. 
At  the  head  of  the  ^•alley  of  the  Dog  river  are  some  of 
the  most  remarkable  rock  formations  in  Lebanon.  Here 
numbers  of  little  ravines  fall  into  the  main  glen,  and 
their  sides,  with  the  intervening  ridges,  are  thickly  cov- 
ered with  high  peaks  of  naked  limestone,  sometimes 
rising  in  solitary  grandeur  like  obelisks,  but  generally 
grouped  together,  and  connected  by  narrow  ledges  like 
arched  viaducts.  In  one  place  the  horizontal  strata  in 
the  side  of  a  lofty  cliff  are  worn  away  at  the  edges,  giv- 
ing the  whole  the  appearance  of  a  large  pile  of  cushions. 
In  other  jjlaces  there  are  tall  stalks,  with  broad  tops  like 
tables.  In  many  places  the  cliffs  are  ribbed,  resembling 
the  pipes  of  an  organ,  or  columnar  basalt.  A  single 
perch  of  clear  soil  can  scarcely  be  found  in  one  spot 
throughout  the  whole  region,  but  every  minute  patch  is 
cultivated,  even  in  grottoes  and  under  natural  arches 
(Porter's  Bamascvs,  ii,  2H'.)).  The  highest  peaks  of  the 
range  are  naked,  white,  and  barren.  A  line  drawn  at 
the  altitude  of  about  6000  feet  would  mark  the  limits 
of  cultivation.  Above  that  line  the  shelving  sides  and 
rounded  tops  are  covered  with  loose  limestone  debris, 
and  are  almost  entirely  destitute  of  vegetable  life. 

The  western  base  of  Lebanon  does  not  correspond 
with  the  shore-line.  In  some  cases  bold  spurs  shoot  out 
from  the  mountains,  and  dip  perpendicularly  into  the 
sen.  forming  Ijluff  promontories,  such  as  the  "Ladder  of 
Tyre,"  Tromontorium  Album,  or  "  White  Cape,"  the  well- 


knowTi  pass  of  the  Dog  River,  and  the  Theoprosopon, 
now  called  Ras  esh-Shuk'ah.  In  other  places  the  momi- 
tains  retire,  or  the  shore-line  advances  (as  at  Eeyrnt 
and  Tripolis),  leaving  little  sections  of  fertile  plain,  va- 
rying from  half  a  mile  to  three  miles  in  width.  This 
was  the  territory  of  the  old  Phoenicians,  and  on  it  still 
lie  the  scattered  remains  of  their  once  great  cities.  See 
Phcenicia.  From  the  promontory  of  Theoprosopon  a 
low  ridge  strikes  northward  along  the  shore  past  Tripo- 
lis, separated  from  the  main  chain  by  a  narrow  valley. 
When  it  terminates,  the  coast -plain  becomes  much 
wider,  and  gradually  expands,  till  it  opens  at  the  north- 
ern base  of  Lebanon  into  the  valley  leading  to  the  "  en- 
trance of  Hamath"  (Robinson,  iii,  385). 

(3.)  Eastern  Declivities.- — From  the  east  Lebanon 
presents  a  totally  different  aspect.  It  does  not  seem 
much  more  than  half  as  high  as  when  seen  from  the 
west.  This  is  chiefly  owing  to  the  great  elevation  of  the 
plain  extending  along  its  base,  which  is  on  an  average 
about  3000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea  (Van  de  Velde, 
Memoir,  p.  175).  The  ridge  resembles  a  colossal  wall, 
its  sides  precipitous,  and  thinly  covered,  in  most  places, 
with  oak  forests.  There  arc  very  few — only  some  two 
or  three — glens  furrowing  them.  The  summit  of  the 
ridge,  or  backbone,  is  much  nearer  the  eastern  than  the 
western  side;  and  extending  in  gentle  undulations,  white 
with  snow,  far  as  the  eye  can  see  to  the  riglit  and  left, 
it  forms  a  grand  object  from  the  ruins  of  Ba'albek,  and 
still  more  so  from  the  heights  of  Anti-Lebanon.  A  near- 
er approach  to  the  chain  reveals  a  ne^v  feature.  A  side 
ridge  runs  along  the  base  of  the  central  chain  from  the 
town  of  Zahleh  to  its  northern  extremity,  and  is  thinly 
covered  throughout  with  forests  of  oak  intermixed  with  a 
wild  plum,  hawthorn,  jmiiper,  and  other  trees.  A  little 
south  of  the  parallel  of  Sunnin  this  ridge  is  low  and  nar- 
row, and  the  Buka'a  is  there  widest.  Advancing  north- 
wards the  ridge  increases  in  height,  and  encroaches  on 
the  plain,  until,  at  the  fountain  of  the  Orontes  ('Ain  el- 
'Asy),  it  attains  its  greatest  elevation,  and  there  the 
plain  is  narrowest.  From  this  point  southwards  to 
where  the  road  crosses  from  Ba'albek  to  the  Cedars,  the 
central  chain  is  steep,  naked,  and  destitute  of  vegetation, 
except  here  and  there  a  solitarj^  oak  or  blasted  pine 
clinging  to  the  rocks  (Porter's  Damascus,  ii,  303  sq. ; 
Robinson,  iii,  530  sq,). 

The  side  ridge  above  described  sinks  down  in  grace- 
ful wooded  slopes  into  wady  Khalcd,  ■which  drains  a 
part  of  the  plain  of  Hums,  and  falls  into  Nahr  el-Kebir. 
The  main  chain  also  terminates  abru]itly  a  little  farther 
west,  and  its  base  is  swept  by  the  waters  of  the  Kebir, 
the  ancient  river  Eloutherus  (Robinson,  iii,  558-GO). 

(4.)  Rivers. — Lebanon  is  rich  in  rivers  and  for.ntains, 
fed  by  the  eternal  snows  that  crown  its  summit,  and  the 
vapors  which  they  condense.  The  '•  streams  from  Leb- 
anon" were  proverbial  for  their  abundance  and  beauty 
in  the  days  of  the  Hebrew  prophets  (Cant,  iv,  15),  and 
its  "  cold-flowing  waters"  were  types  of  richness  and 
luxury  (Jcr.  xviii,  14).  Some  of  them,  too,  have  ob- 
tained a  classic  celebrity  (sceRcland./V//rr.<i'.p.  209,437). 
They  arc  all  small  mountain  torrents  ratlicr  than  riv- 
ers. The  following  are  the  more  imjiortant :  1.  The  Eleu- 
therus  (now  Nahr  el-Keblr),  rising  in  the  plain  of  Emesa, 
west  of  the  Orontes,  sweeps  round  the  northern  base  of 
Lebanon,  and  falls  into  the  Mediterranean  midway  be- 
tween Tripolis  and  Aradus.  Strabo  states  that  it  form- 
ed the  northern  border  of  Phcenicia  and  Coele-Syria  (xvi, 
753;  Robinson,  iii.  57C).  2.  The  Kadisha,  or  '-sacred 
river,"  now  generally  called  Nahr  Abu-Aly,  has  its  high- 
est sources  around  the  little  cedar  grove,  and  descends 
through  a  sublime  ravine  to  the  coast  near  Tripolis.  At 
one  spot  its  glen  has  perpendicular  walls  of  rock  on  each 
side  nearly  1000  feet  high.  Here,  on  opposite  banks, 
are  two  villages,  the  peojile  of  which  can  converse  across 
the  chasm,  but  to  reach  each  other  requires  a  toilsome 
walk  of  two  hours.  In  a  wild  cleft  of  the  ravine  is  the 
convent  of  Kanobin,  the  chief  residence  of  the  Maronite 
patriarch  {Handbook/or  Syr.  and  Pal.  p,  586).     3.  The 


LEBAXON^ 


312 


LEBANON 


Adonis  (Nahr  Ibrahim),  famous  in  ancient  fable  as  the 
scene  of  the  romantic  story  of  Venns  and  Adonis.  Kill- 
ed by  a  boar  on  its  banks,  Adonis  dyed  with  his  blood  the 
waters,  which  ever  since,  on  the  anniversary  of  his  death, 
are  said  to  run  red  to  the  sea  (Lucian,  De  Stjria  l>ea,  (5 ; 
Strabo,  XV,  170).  Adonis  is  supposed  to  be  identical 
with  Tammuz,  for  whom  Ezekiel  represents  the  Jewish 
women  as  weeping  (viii,  14).  The  source  is  a  noble 
fountain  beside  the  ruins  of  a  temple  of  Venus,  and  near 
the  site  of  Apheca,  now  marked  by  the  little  village  of 
Afka  (Eusebius,riV.  Const,  iii,  55;  Porter,  Damascus,  ii, 
297;  Kitter,  Pal.  unci  Syr.  iv,  558).  'J'he  Adonis  falls 
into  the  sea  a  few  miles  soutli  of  the  Biblical  Gebal.  4. 
The  Lyons  flumcn,  now  Nahr  el-Kelb,  or  "  Dog  Kiver," 
rises  high  up  on  the  flank  of  Sunnin,  and'breaks  down 
through  a  picturesque  glen.  At  its  mouth  is  that  fa- 
mous jiass  on  whose  scidptured  rocks  Assyrian,  Egyp- 
tian, Koman,  and  French  (! )  generals  have  left  records 
of  their  expeditions  and  victories  (Robinson,  iii,  G18; 
Jfaiulbool;  p.  407  sq. ;  Strabo,  xvi,  755).  5.  The  jMagoras 
of  Pliny  (v,  17)  is  probably  the  modern  Nahr  Beyriit. 
6.  The  Tamyras  or  Damuras  (Strabo,  xvi,  756 ;  Polyb- 
ius,  V,  (58)  rises  near  Deir  el-Kamr,  the  capital  of  Leba- 
non. It  is  now  called  Nahr  ed-Dammiir.  7.  The  Bos- 
trenus  of  ancient  authors  appears  to  be  identical  with 
Nahr  el-Awaley,  though  some  doubt  this.  8.  The  Le- 
ontes  has  already  been'  mentioned.  The  lower  section 
of  it  is  now  generally  termed  Kasimiyeh,  and  the  upper 
section  Litany.  Its  chief  sources  are  at  Chalcis  and 
Baalbek  ;  but  a  large  tributary  flows  down  from  the  ra- 
vine of  Zahleh,  and  is  the  only  stream  which  descends 
the  eastern  slopes  of  Lebanon.  See  Lkontks. 
^  2.  Anti-Lebanon. —  (l.)  Peals. — The  centre   and  cul- 

minating point  of  Anti-Lebanon  is  Herjiox.  Erom  it 
a  number  of  ranges  radiate,  like  the  ribs  of  a  half-open 
fan.  The  rirst  and  loftiest  runs  north-east,  parallel  to 
Lebanon,  and  separated  from  it  by  the  valley  of  Ccele- 
Syria,  whose  average  breadth  is  about  six  miles.  This 
ridge  is  the  backbone  of  Anti-Lebanon.  Where  it  joins 
Hermon  it  is  broad,  irregular,  intersected  by  numerous 
valleys  and  little  fertile  plains,  and  covered  with  thin 
forests  of  dwarf  oak  Its  elevation  is  not  more  than 
4500  feet.  Advancing  northwards,  its  features  become 
wilder  and  grander,  oak-trees  give  place  to  juniper,  and 
tlie  elevation  increases  until,  above  the  beautiful  plain 
of  Zebedany — which  lies  embosomed  in  its  very  centre 
—it  attains  a  height  of  about  7000  feet  (Van  de  Velde, 
Memoir,  p.  175).  Erom  this  point  to  the  parallel  of 
Ba'albek  tliere  is  little  change  in  the  elevation  or  scen- 
ery. Beyond  the  latter  it  begins  to  fall,  and  declines 
gradually  until  at  length  it  sinks  down  into  the  great 
plain  of  llamath,  eight  miles  east  of  Klblah,  and  sixteen 
south  of  Emesa.  With  the  exception  of  the  Uttle  up- 
land jilains,  and  a  few  of  the  deeper  valleys,  this  ridge 
is  incajjable  of  cultivation.  The  sides  are  steep  and 
rugged,  in  many  places  sheer  precipices  of  naked,  jagged 
rock,  nearly  1000  feet  high.  They  are  not  so  bare  or 
bleak,  however,  as  the  higher  summits  of  Lebanon.  Veg- 
etation is  abundant  among  the  rocks;  and  though  the 
inhabitants  are  few  and  far  between,  immense  flocks  of 
sheep  and  goats  arc  pastured  upon  the  mountains,  and 
wild  beasts— bears,  boars,  wolves,  jackals,  hya-nas,  foxes 
—are  far  more  abundant  tlian  in  any  other  "part  of  Syria 
or  Palestine  (Porter,  Damascus,  ii,  315). 

The  lowest  and  last  of  the  ridges  that  radiate  from 
Hermon  rinis  nearly  due  east  along  the  magnificent 
plain  of  Damascus,  and  continues  onward  to  Palmvra. 
Its  average  elevation  is  not  more  than  3000  feet,  and  it 
does  not  rise  more  than  about  7()0  feet  above  the  plain, 
though  some  of  its  peaks  are  much  higher.  Its  rock  is 
chalky,  almost  jnire  white,  and  entirely  naked— not  a 
tree,  or  slirul).  or  patch  of  verdure  is  anywhere  seon  upon 
it.  It  thus  forms  a  remarkable  contrast  to  the  rich 
green  of  the  ])lain  of  Damascus.  Erom  tlie  central 
range  to  this  ridge  there  is  a  descent,  by  a  series  of 
l)road.bare  terraces  or  plateaus,  supported  by  long,  con- 
tinuoua  walls  of  bare,  whitish  limestone,  varving  from 


100  to  1000  feet  in  height.  Nothing  could  be  more 
dreary  and  desolate  than  the  scenery  on  these  stejtpes. 
The  graveUy  soil,  in  many  places  tliickly  strewn  with 
flints,  is  as  bare  as  the  clift's  that  bound  them.  Yet  they 
are  intersected  by  several  rich  and  beautiful  glens,  so 
deep,  however,  that  their  verdure  and  foliage  can  not  be 
seen  from  a  distance.  Towards  the  east  these  steppes 
gradually  expand  into  broad  upland  plains,  and  portions 
of  tliem  are  irrigated  and  tilled.  (Jn  them  stand  the 
small  but  ancient  towns  of  Yabrud,  Nebk,  Jerud,  etc., 
around  which  madder  is  successfully  cultivated. 

(2.)  Ricers. — Anti-Lebanon  is  the  source  of  the  four 
great  rivers  of  Syria  :  1.  The  Orontes  (q.  v.),  springing 
irom  the  western  base  of  the  main  ridge,  beside  the  ruins 
of  Lybo,  flows  away  northward  through  a  broad,  rich 
vale,  laving  in  its  course  the  walls  of  Emesa,  Hamath, 
Apamea,  and  Antioch.  2.  The  Jordan  (q.  v.),  Palestine's 
sacred  river,  bursting  from  the  side  of  Hermon,  rolls 
down  its  deep,  mysterious  valley  into  the  Sea  of  Death. 
3.  The  Abana,  the  "  golden-flowing"  stream  of  Damas- 
cus {ChrijsorrliQas,  Pliny,  v,  IG ;  also  called  Dardines, 
Steph.  Byz. ;  see  Abaxa),  rises  on  the  western  side  of 
the  main  ridge,  cuts  through  it  and  the  others,  and  falls 
into  the  lake  east  of  the  city.  3.  The  Leontes  (q.  v.), 
Phoenicia's  nameless  stream,  has  its  two  principal  foun- 
tains at  the  western  base  of  Anti-Lebanon,  beside  Chal- 
cis and  Ba'albek  (Porter,  Damascus,  i,  11 ;  Robinson,  iii, 
498, 506).  The  oidy  other  streams  of  Anti-Lebanon  are 
(4)  the  Pharpar,  now  called  el-'Awaj,  rising  on  the  east- 
ern flank  of  Hermon  (see  Pharpar),  and  (5)  the  torrent 
wliicii  flows  down  the  fertile  glen  of  Helbon  (q.  v.)  into 
the  plain  of  Damascus. 

3.  These  parallel  ranges  enclose  between  them  a  fer- 
tile and  well- watered  vallej-,  averaging  about  rifteen 
miles  in  width,  which  is  the  Ccele-Syria  (Hollow  Syria) 
of  the  ancients,  but  is  called  by  the  present  inhabitants, 
by  w-ay  of  pre-eminence,  el-Bekaa,  or  "the  Valley." 
This  is  traversed  through  the  greater  portion  of  its 
length  by  the  river  Litany,  the  ancient  Leontes.  It 
is  the  "  vaUey  of  Lebanon"  ('(i^sri  r^'pS)  mentioned 
in  Josh,  xi,  17 ;  xii,  7,  and  later  '•  the  plain  of  Aveii" 
Ci'lNTS'pa)  alluded  to  by  Amos  (i,  5),  where  also  Sol- 
omon constructed  one  of  his  palaces  (1  Kings  vij,  2;  ix, 
0;  X,  17;  Cant,  vii,  4).     See  Ccele-Syria. 

III.  Natural  Science. — 1.  Tlie  geolofjtj  of  Lebanon  has 
never  been  thoroughly  investigated.  Dr.  Anderson,  who 
accompanied  the  United  States  expedition  under  lieu- 
tenant Lynch,  is  the  only  man  who  has  attempted  any- 
thing like  a  scientitic  examination  of  the  mountains. 
We  are  much  indebted  to  his  lieconnaissance,  embodied 
in  Lynch's  Official  lieporf.  The  German  traveller  lius- 
segger  also  supplies  some  facts  in  his  lieiscn  (vol.  iii). 
Tristram,  in  his  Land  of  Israel  (s.  f.)  has  considerably 
enlarged  our  knowledge  of  the  geologj'  as  well  as  natu- 
ral history  of  Lebanon. 

The  main  ridges  of  Lebanon  and  .Vnti-Lebanon  are 
composed  of  Jura  limestone,  hard,  partially  crystallized, 
and  containing  few  fossils.  The  strata  have  been  great- 
ly disturbed.  In  some  places  they  are  almost  perpen- 
dicular ;  in  others  tilted  over,  laying  bare  veins  and  de- 
tached masses  of  trap.  In  the  southern  part  of  Leba- 
non, near  Kedesh  and  Safed,  are  many  traces  of  recent 
disturbance.  Erom  the  earliest  ages  earthquakes  have 
been  frequent  and  most  destructive  in  that  region.  The 
earthcpiake  of  1837  buried  thousands  of  the  inhabitants 
of  .Safed  beneath  the  ruins  of  their  houses  i  Robinson,  ii, 
422  sq. ;  Ilandb.  p.  43!S).  In  tlie  ujipcr  basin  iif  the  Jor- 
dan, and  along  the  eastern  flank  of  llernion,  trap  rock 
abounds;  the  latter  is  the  conniieaccment  of  the  great 
trap-fields  of  Hauran  (Porter,  Damascus,  ii,  240  sq.). 

Over  the  Jura  limestone  there  is  in  many  places  a 
more  recent  cretaceous  deposit ;  its  color  is  gray,  and 
sometimes  pure  white.  It  is  soft,  and  abounds  in  flints 
and  fossils,  ammonites,  echiiiites,  ostr«a,  chenopus,  ne- 
rinea,  etc.,  often  occurring  in  large  beds,  as  at  Bhamdun 
above  BevrCit.     Fossil  flsh  are  also  found  imbedded  in 


LEBANON 


313 


LEBANON 


the  rock  near  the  ancient  Gebal  (Reland,  Palo'st.  p.  321). 
Tliese  cretaceous  deposits  occur  along  the  whole  western 
Hank  of  Lebanon,  and  the  lower  eastern  ranges  of  Anti- 
Lebanon  are  wholly  composed  of  them  (D'Arvieux,  J/«- 
moires,  ii,  393 ;  Elliot,  Travels,  ii,  257  ;  Yolney,  ii,  280). 

Extensive  beds  of  soft,  friable  sandstone  are  met  with 
both  in  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon.  According  to  An- 
derson, the  sandstone  is  of  a  more  recent  period  than  the 
cretaceous  strata.  This  change  in  the  geological  struct- 
ure gives  great  variety  to  the  scenery  of  Lebanon.  The 
regular  and  gracefid  outlines  of  the  sandstone  ridges 
contrast  well  with  tlie  bolder  and  more  abrupt  limestone 
cliffs  and  peaks,  while  the  ruddy  hue  and  sombre  pine 
forests  of  the  former  relieve  the  intense  whiteness  of  the 
latter. 

Coal  has  been  found  in  the  district  of  Metn,  east  of 
Beyrut,  but  it  is  impure,  and  the  veins  are  too  thin  to 
rci)ay  mining.  Iron  is  found  in  the  central  and  south- 
ern portions  of  Lebanon,  and  there  is  an  extensive  salt 
marsh  on  one  of  the  eastern  steppes  of  Anti-Lebanon 
(Vorter,  JJamascus,  i,  IGl ;  Ilandboo!:,  p.  3G3;  Yolney,  i, 
281  ;  P.urckhardt,  p.  27). 

2.  The  Botam/  of  Lebanon,  like  the  geology,  is  to  a 
great  extent  unknown.  It  appears  to  be  very  rich  in 
the  abundance,  the  variety,  and  the  beauty  of  the  trees, 
shrubs,  and  flowers  of  these  noble  mountains.  The 
great  variety  of  climate,  from  the  tropical  heat  of  the 
Jordan  valley  at  the  base  of  Hermon,  to  the  eternal 
snows  on  its  summit,  affords  space  and  fitting  home  for 
the  vegetable  products  of  nearly  every  part  of  the  globe. 
The  forests  of  Lebanon  were  celebrated  throughout  the 
ancient  world.  Its  cedars  were  used  in  the  temples  and 
palaces  of  Jerusalem  (1  Kings  vi;  2  Sam.  v,  11;  Ezra 
iii,  7 ;  Isa.  xiv,  8 ;  Josephus,  War,  v,  5, 2),  Kome  (Pliny, 
//.  N.  xiii,  11),  and  Assyria  (Layard,  N'm.  and  Bab.  p. 
356,  G44) ;  and  the  pine  and  oak  were  extensively  em- 
ployed in  ship-building  (Ezek.xxvii,4-G).  See  Cedah. 
On  these  mountains  we  have  still  the  cedar,  pine,  oak 
of  several  varieties,  terebinth,juniper,  walnut,  plane,  pop- 
lar, willow,  arbutus,  olive,  mulljefry,  carob,  tig,  pistachio, 
sycamore,  hawthorn,  ajjricot,  plum,  pear,  apple,  quince, 
pomegranate,  orange,  lemon,  palm,  and  banana.  The 
vine  abounds  everywhere.  Oleanders  line  the  streams, 
and  rhododendrons  crown  the  peaks  liigher  up,  with  the 
rock-rose,  ivy,  berberry,  and  honeysuckle.  The  loftiest 
summits  are  almost  bare,  owing  to  the  cold  and  extreme 
dryness.  There  are  even  here,  however,  some  varieties 
of  low  prickly  shrubs,  which  lie  on  the  ground  like  cush- 
ions, and  look  almost  as  sapless  as  the  gravel  from  which 
they  spring.  Many  of  the  flowers  are  bright  and  beau- 
tiful— the  anemone,  tulip,  pink,  ranunculus,  geranium, 
crocus,  lily,  star  of  Bethlehem,  convolvulus,  etc.  This- 
tles abound  in  immense  variety.  Tlie  cereab  and  rer/f- 
lahks  include  wheat,  barley,  maize,  lentils,  beans,  peas, 
carrots,  turnips,  potatoes,  melons,  pumpkins,  cucumbers, 
tobacco,  cotton,  and  numerous  others. 

Irrigation  is  extensively  practiced,  and  wherever  v/a- 
ter  is  abundant  the  crops  are  luxuriant.  Probably  in  no 
part  of  the  world  are  there  more  striking  examples  of 
the  triumpli  of  industry  over  rugged  and  intractable 
nature  than  along  the  western  slopes  of  Lebanon.  The 
steepest  banks  are  terraced  ;  every  Tittle  shelf  and  cran- 
ny in  the  cliffs  is  occupied  by  the  thrifty  husbandman, 
and  planted  with  vine  or  mulberrj'  (Pobinson,  iii,  14,21, 
615 ;  Porter,  Damasrns,  ii,  283  ;  Handbook,  p.  410, 413). 

3.  Zoohir/ij. — Considerable  numbers  of  wild  beasts  still 
inhabit  the  retired  glens  and  higher  peaks  of  Lebanon, 
including  jackals,  hyenas,  wolves,  bears,  and  panthers  (2 
Kings  xiv,  9 ;  Cant,  iv,  8 ;  Hal),  ii,  17).    See  Palestine. 

Anti-Libanus  is  more  thinly  peopled  than  its  sister 
range,  and  it  is  more  abundantly  stocked  with  wild 
beasts.  Eagles,  vultures,  and  other  birds  of  prey  may 
be  seen  day  after  day  sweeping  in  circles  round  the 
beetliug  cliffs.  Wild  swine  are  numerous,  and  vast 
herds  of  gazelles  roam  over  tlie  bleak  eastern  steppes. 
See  Zooi.OfiV. 

IV.  Climate.  —  There  are  great  varieties  of  climate 


and  temperature  in  Lebanon.  In  the  plain  of  Dan,  at 
the  f<juntain  of  the  Jordan,  the  heat  and  vegetation  are 
almost  tropical,  and  the  exhalations  from  the  marshy 
plain  render  the  whole  region  unhealthy.  The  semi- 
nomads  who  inhabit  it  are  as  dark  in  complexion  as 
Egyptians.  The  thermometer  often  stands  at  98°  Fahr. 
in  the  shade  on  the  site  of  Dan,  while  it  does  not  rise 
above  32^  on  the  top  of  Hermon.  The  coast  along  the 
western  base  of  Lebanon,  though  very  sultry  during  the 
summer  months,  is  not  unhealthy.  The  fresh  sea-breeze 
which  sets  in  in  the  evening  keeps  the  night  compara- 
tively cool,  and  the  air  is  drj'  and  free  from  miasma. 
Snow  never  falls  on  the  coast,  and  it  is  very  rarely  seen 
at  a  lower  elevation  than  2000  feet.  Frost" is  unknown. 
In  the  plains  of  Coele-Syria  (3000  feet)  and  Damascus 
(about  2300  feet),  snow  falls  more  or  less  every  winter, 
sometimes  eight  inches  deep  on  the  streets  and  terraced 
roofs  of  Damascus,  while  the  roads  are  too  rough  and 
hard  with  frost  for  travelling.  The  main  ridges  of 
Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon  are  generally  covered  with 
snow  from  December  to  March,  sometimes  so  deeply 
that  the  roads  are  for  weeks  together  impassable.  Dur- 
ing the  whole  summer  the  higher  parts  of  the  moun- 
tains are  cool  and  pleasant,  the  air  is  extremely  diy, 
and  malaria  is  unknown.  From  the  beginning  of  June 
till  about  the  20th  of  September  rain  never  falls,  and 
clouds  are  rarely  seen.  At  the  latter  date  the  autumn 
rains  begin,  generally  accompanied  with  storms  of  thun- 
der and  vivid  lightning.  January  and  February  are 
the  coldest  months.  The  barley  har\-est  begins,  on  the 
plain  of  Phoenicia,  about  the  end  of  April,  but  in  the 
upper  altitudes  it  is  not  gathered  in  till  the  beginning 
of  August.  During  the  summer,  in  the  village  of  Shum- 
lan,  on  the  western  declivity  of  Lebanon,  at  an  elevation 
of  2000  feet,  in  the  hottest  part  of  the  day  the  thermom- 
eter does  not  rise  above  83°  Fahr.,  and  in  the  night  it 
usually  goes  down  to  76°.  From  June  20th  to  August 
20tn  the  barometer  often  does  not  vary  a  quarter  of  an 
inch;  there  are  few  cloudy  days,  and  scarcely  even  a 
slight  shower.  At  Bludan,  in  Anti-Lebanon,  with  an 
elevation  of  4800  feet,  the  air  is  extremely  dry,  and  the 
thermometer  never  rises  in  summer  above  82°  Fahr.  in 
the  shade.  The  nights  are  cool  and  pleasant.  The  si- 
rocco wind  is  severely  felt  along  the  coast  and  on  the 
western  slopes  of  Lebanon,  but  not  so  much  in  Anti- 
Lebanon.  It  blows  occasionally  during  IMarch  and 
April.  L'dc  is  almost  unknown  along  the  mountain 
ridges,  but  in  the  low  plains,  and  especially  at  the  base 
of  Hermon,  it  is  very  abundant  (Psa.  cxxxiii,  3). 

y.  Historical  Notices. — Lebanon  is  first  mentioned  as 
a  boundary  of  the  country  given  by  the  Lord  in  cove- 
nant promise  to  Israel  (Dent,  i,  7;  xi,  24).  To  the 
dwellers  in  the  parched  and  thirsty  south,  or  on  the  sul- 
try banks  of  the  Nile,  the  snows,  and  streams,  and  ver- 
dant forests  of  Lebanon  must  have  seemed  an  earthly 
paradise.  By  such  a  contrast  we  can  understand  JIo- 
ses's  touching  petition,  "  I  pray  thee  let  me  go  over  and 
see  the  good  land  that  is  beyond  Jordan,  that  goodly 
mountain,  and  Lebanon"  (Dent,  iii,  25).  The  mountains 
were  originally  inhabited  by  a  number  of  warlike,  inde- 
pendent tribes,  some  of  whom  Joshua  concpicred  on  the 
banks  of  Lake  Merom  (xi,2-18).  Thej-  are  said  to  have 
been  of  Phoenician  stock  (Pliny,  v,  17 ;  Euscbius,  Oiiom. 
s.  V. ;  compare  1  Kings  v).  Further  north  were  tlie  Hi- 
vites  (Judg.  iii,  3),  and  the  Giblites,  and  Arkitcs,  whose 
names  still  cling  to  the  ruins  of  their  ancient  strong- 
holds. See  (JiiiLiTE,  Akkite.  The  Israelites  never 
completely  subdued  them,  but  the  enterprising  Phoeni- 
cians appear  to  have  had  them  under  their  jiower,  or  in 
their  pay,  for  they  got  timber  for  their  fleets  from  the 
mountains,  and  they  were  able  to  supply  Solomon  from 
the  same  forests  when  building  the  'lemple  (1  Kings  v, 
9-11 ;  Ezek.  xxvii,  9  sq.).  At  a  later  period  we  find  the 
king  of  Assyria  felling  its  timber  for  his  military'  en- 
gines (Isa.  xiv,  8 ;  xxxvii,  24 ,  Ezek.  xxxi,  ](>),  and  it  is 
mentioned  on  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  (([.v.).  Dio- 
clorus  Siculus  relates  that  in  like  manner  Antigonus, 


LEBANON 


3U 


LEBAOTH 


G^Siiil 


having  collected  from  all  quarters 
hewers  of  wood,  and  sawyers,  and 
ship -builders,  brouglit  down  an 
immense  (juantity  of  timber  from 
Libanus  to  the  sea  to  build  himself 
a  navy  (xix,  58).  The  same  fact 
that  this  mountain  was  the  famous 
resort  for  timber,  whether  for  ar- 
chitectural, naval,  or  military  pur- 
poses, api)ears  from  the  Egyptian 
monuments,  where  the  name  is 
found  in  the  corrupted  form  of 
Lemanon  (Wilkinson,  Egyptians,  i, 
403).  It  is  there  represented  as  a 
mountainous  country,  inaccessible 
to  chariots,  and  abounding  in 
lofty  trees,  which  the  affrighted 
mountaineers,  having  fled  thith- 
A  suppliant  Native  of       f         j-  engaged  in  fell- 

Lebanon  (the  hiero-  .        .         »  '         .         ,      ,         , 
glyph  reads  Z-?)i-n-«).  "'S'  "^  order  to  impede  the  ad- 
Froni  the  Egyptian  vance  of  the  invading  Egyptian 
Moniimeuts.  army. 

During  the  conquests  of  David  and  the  commercial 
prosperity  of  the  nation  under  Solomon,  the  Jews  be- 
came fully  acquainted  with  the  richness,  the  grandeur, 


Natives  felliu 


:  Trees  in  Lebanon. 
Monuments. 


From  the  Egyptian 


and  the  luxuriant  foliage  of  Lebanon,  and  ever  after 
that  mountain  was  regarded  as  the  emblem  of  n-ealth 
and  majesty.  Thus  the  Psalmist  savs  of  the  Blessiah's 
kingdom,  "The  fruit  thereof  shall  sliake  like  Lebanon" 
(Ixxii,  10) ;  and  Solomon,  praising  the  beauty  of  the 
Bridegroom,  writes,  "His  countenance  is  as  Lebanon, 
excellent  as  the  cedars"  (Cant,  v,  15).  Isaiah  also  pre- 
dicts of  the  Church,  "  The  glory  of  Lebanon  shall  be 
given  to  it"  (xxxv,  2;  compare  Ix,  13;  Hos.  xiv,  5,  6). 
Indeed,  in  Scripture,  Lebanon  is  very  generally  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  the  cedar-trees  with  which  it 
abounded;  but  its  wines  are  also  noticed  (Hos.  xiv,  8) ; 
and  in  Cant,  iv,  11 ;  IIos.  xiv,  7,  it  is  celebrated  for  va- 
rious kinds  of  fragrant  plants.  Lebanon  is  greatly  cele- 
brated both  iu  sacred  and  classical  writers,  and  much  of 
the  sublime  imagery  of  the  prophets  of  the  Old  Test,  is 
borrowed  from  this  mountain  (e.  g.  I'sa.  xxix,  5,  G;  civ 
lG-18;  Cant,  iv,  8, 15;  Isa.  ii,  13;  Zech.  xi.  1.  2).  ■ 

Anti-Lebanon  seems  to  liave  Ijecu  early  l)rought  un- 
der the  sway  of  Damascus,  though  amid  its  southern 
strongholds  were  some  tierce  tribes  who  preserved  their 
independence  down  to  a  late  period  (1  Chron.  v,  19-23; 
Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  11.  3;  Strabo,  xvi,  p.  755,  756). 


During  the  reign  of  the  Seleucidae  several  large  cities 
were  founded  or  rebuilt  in  these  mountains,  as  Laodi- 
cea  at  the  northern  end  of  Anti-Lebanon,  Chalcis  at  its 
eastern  base,  Abila  in  the  wild  glen  of  the  Abana  (Luke 
iii,  1).  See  Abila.  At  the  commencement  of  our  ;era, 
Lebanon,  with  the  rest  of  Syria,  passed  into  the  hands 
of  Rome,  and  under  its  fostering  rule  great  cities  were 
built  and  beautiful  temples  erected.  The  heights  on 
v/hich  Baal-tires  had  burned  in  primeval  times,  and  the 
groves  where  the  rude  moinitain  tribes  worshipped  their 
idols,  became  the  sites  of  noble  buikUngs,  wliose  ruins  to 
this  day  excite  the  admiration  of  every  traveller.  Greece 
itself  cannot  surpass  in  grandeur  the  temples  of  Ba'albek 
and  Chalcis.  There  are  more  than  thirty  temples  in 
Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon  (Porter,  Handbook,  p.  454, 
457,  557, 411 ;  comp.  Kobinson,  iii,  438,  G25). 

During  the  wars  of  the  Seleucidffi,  the  Romans,  and 
the  Saracens,  the  inhabitants  of  Lebanon  probably  re- 
mained in  comparative  seciu-ity.  "When,  under  the 
jMuslem  rule,  Christianity  was  almost  extirpated  from 
the  rest  of  SjTia,  it  retained  its  hold  there;  and  the 
Maronites  (q.  v.),  who  still  occupy  the  greater  part  of 
the  range,  are  doubtless  the  lineal  descendants  of  the  old 
Syrians.  The  sect  originated  in  the  7th  century,  when 
the  monk  Maron  taught  them  the  JMonothelitic  heresy. 
In  the  12th  century  they  submitted  to  the  pope,  and 
have  ever  since  remained  devoted  Papists.  They  num- 
ber about  200,000.  The  Druses  (q.  v.),  their  hereditary 
foes,  dwell  in  the  southern  section  of  the  range,  and 
number  about  80,000.  The  jealousies  and  feuds  of  the 
rival  sects,  fanned  by  a  cruel  and  corrupt  government, 
often  desolate  "that  goodly  mountain"  with  fire  and 
sword.  Anti-Lebanon  has  a  considerable  Christian  pop- 
ulation, but  they  are  mixed  with  Mohammedans,  and 
have  no  political  status.  The  whole  range  is  under  the 
authority  of  the  pasha  of  Damascus. 

The  American  missionaries  have  established  several 
schools  among  the  people  of  Lebanon,  and  for  some 
years  past  pleasing  success  has  attended  their  efforts  in 
the  mountain,  winch,  however,  were  almost  wholly  in- 
terrupted by  the  violent  outbreak  among  the  Druses  in 
18G0,  ending  in  a  wholesale  massacre  of  the  Christians. 
On  the  suppression  of  this,  a  Maronite  governor  was 
appointed  over  the  district  by  the  Turkish  government, 
under  the  protectorate  of  the  live  great  European  powers, 
V.  Literature. — Robinson,  Biblical  Researches,  iii,  344, 
345,  439  ;  Kitto,  Pictorial  Jlistori/  of  Palestine,  Introd. 
p.  xxxii-xxxv,  Iv ;  Reland,  Palcestina,  i,  311;  Rosen- 
miiUer,  Biblisch.  Alterthuni.  ii,  236  ;  Raumer,  Palastina, 
p.  29-35 ;  D'ArvieiLX,  Memoii-es,  ii,  250 ;  Vohiey,  Voi/cif/e 
en  Syrie,  i,  243  ;  Seetzen,  in  Zach's  Monatl.  Correspond. 
June,  1806  ;  Burckhardt,  Travels  in  Syr.  p.  1  sq. ;  Rich- 
ter,  Wallfahrtcn,  j).  102,  etc.;  Irby  and  Mangles,  Travels, 
p.  20G-220 ;  Buckingham,  .1  rab  Tribes,  p.  468  sq. ;  Fi_sk, 
in  j\Iissionary  Herald,  1824 ;  EUiot,  Travels,  ii,  27G ; 
Hogg,  Visit  to  Alexandria,  Jerusalem,  etc.,  i,  219  sq. ,  ii. 
81  sq.;  Addison,  Palmyra  and Ba7nascus,  ii, 43-82  ;  Rit- 
ter's  Erdkunde,  xvii,  div.  1 ;  Robinson's  Researches,  new 
edit.,  iii,  584-625 ;  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1843,  p.  205-253 ; 
1848,  p.  1-23,  243-262, 447-480,  663-700 ;  Schwarz,  Pal- 
est, p.  55;  Kelly's  Syria  and  Holy  Land,  p.  76-165;  Por- 
ter, Damascus  (Lond.  1855) ;  Thomson,  Land  and  Book, 
vol.  i ;  Van  de  Velde,  Travels,  etc.,  vol.  i  ;  Churchill, Leb- 
anon (Loiulon,  1853,1862);  also  Druses  and  Maronites 
(Lond.  18G2; ;  Tristram,  LAind  of  Israel  (London,  1865)  ; 
Palmer,  in  the  Quarterly  Statement  of  the  "  Palestine 
Exploration  Fund,"  April,  1871,  p.  107  sq.  See  Pales- 
tin  k. 

Leb'aoth  (Heb.  Lebaoth',  riiX3P,  lionesses;  Sept. 
Art/3aw^),  a  city  in  the  southern  part  of  Judah,  i.  e. 
Simeon  (.Josh.  xv.  32)  ;  elsewliere  more  fully  Betii-le- 
I5AOTH  (Josh,  xix,  6) ;  also  Bpith-birei  (1  Chron.  iv, 
31).  The  associated  names  in  all  these  passages  sug- 
gest a  location  in  the  wild  south-western  part  of  the 
tribe,  possibly  at  the  ruined  site  marked  on  Van  de 
Velde's  Map  as  Sbeta,  on  wady  Simiyeh,  not  very  far 
from  Elusa,  towards  Gaza. 


LEBB^US 


315 


LEBRTJA 


Lebbse'us  (Af/S/Saloc),  a  surname  of  Judas  or  Jude 
(Matt.  X,  3),  one  of  the  twelve  apostles ;  a  member,  to- 
gether with  his  namesake  "  Iscariot,"  James  the  son  of 
Alphicus,  and  Simon  Zelotes,  of  the  last  of  the  three  sec- 
tions of  the  apostolic  body.  The  name  Judas  only, 
without  any  distinguishing  mark,  occurs  in  the  lists 
given  in  Luke  vi,  16 ;  Acts  i,  13 ;  and  in  John  xiv,  '22 
(where  we  tind  "  Judas  not  Iscariot"  among  the  apos- 
tles), but  the  apostle  has  been  generally  identified  with 
"Lebbiiius  whose  surname  wasThaddajus"  (Af/3/3a7oc  o 
iTTi/cXj/jf (t;  Ba^onlof)  (Matt,  x,  3 ;  Mark  iii,  18),  though 
Schleiermacher  (Critical  Essay  on  St. Luke,  p.  93)  treats 
with  scorn  any  such  attempt  to  reconcile  the  lists.  In 
botli  tlie  last  quoted  places  there  is  considerable  variety 
of  reading,  some  MSS.  having  both  in  Matt,  and  Mark 
AtjiftcnoQ  or  fdaoSaloQ  alone,  others  introducing  the 
name  'louCaQ,  or  Judas  Zelotes,  in  Matt.,  where  the  Vul- 
gate reads  Thadckeus  alone,  which  is  adopted  by  Lach- 
mann  in  his  Berlin  edition  of  1832.  This  confusion  is 
still  I'urther  increased  by  the  tradition  preserved  by  Eu- 
sebius  ( //.  K.  i,  13)  that  the  true  name  of  Thomas  (the 
twin)  was  Judas  (lovcaQ  6  Kcd  GwyuacOj  ^ii'l  that  Thad- 
dreus  was  one  of  the  "  seventy,"  identified  by  Jerome  in 
Mutt.  X  with  "  Judas  Jacobi,"  as  well  as  by  the  theories 
of  modern  scholars,  who  regard  the  "Levi"(Ae?;(c  6  -ov 
'AXfaiov)  of  iMark  ii,  1-4 :  Luke  v,  27,  who  is  called  "Le- 
bes"  (Af/,//)(j)  by  Origen  {Cont.  Cels.  1.  i,  §  62),  as  the 
same  with  Lebboeus.  The  safest  way  out  of  these  ac- 
knowledged difficulties  is  to  hold  fast  to  the  ordinarily 
received  oi)inion  that  Jude,  Lcl:)b;i?us,  and  Thadda;us 
were  three  names  for  the  same  apostle,  who  is  therefore 
said  by  Jerome  (/«  Matt,  x)  to  have  been  "  trionimus," 
rather  than  introduce  confusion  into  the  apostolic  cata- 
logues, and  render  them  erroneous  either  in  excess  or  de- 
fect.    See  THADD.12US. 

The  interpretation  of  the  names  Lebbseus  and  Thad- 
doeus  is  a  question  beset  with  almost  equal  difficulty. 
The  former  is  interpreted  by  Jerome  "  hearty,"  corcu- 
lum,  as  from  ;ib,  coi;  and  Thadda^us  has  been  erroneous- 
ly supposed  to  have  a  cognate  signification,  homo  pecto- 
rosus,  as  from  the  Syriac  'IP),  jjectus  (Lightfoot,  IIor(B 
Ihh.  p.  235;  Bengel,  Matt,  x,  3),  the  true  signification 
of  TO  being  mamma  (Angl.  teat)  (Buxtorf,  Lex.  Talm. 
p.  2505 ).  Winer  [Realwurterh.  s.  v.)  would  combine  the 
two,  and  interpret  them  as  meaning  Herzenshind.  An- 
other interpretation  of  Lebbreus  is  the  young  lion  (leuii- 
adiis),  as  from  N'^nb,  leo  (Schleusner,  s.  v.),  while  Light- 
foot  and  Baumg.-Crusius  woidd  derive  it  from  Lehba,  a 
maritime  town  of  Galilee  mentioned  by  Pliny  (Ilisi.  Nat. 
v,  19).  where,  however,  the  ordinary  reading  is  Jebba. 
Thadda'us  appears  in  Syriac  under  the  form  Adai ;  hence 
IMichaelis  admits  the  idea  that  Adai,  Thaddteus,  and  Ju- 
das may  be  different  representations  of  the  same  word 
(iv,  37(1),  and  Wordsworth  (Gr.  Test,  in  j\Iatt.  x,  3)  iden- 
tifies Thaddicus  with  Judas,  as  both  from  ri"nn,  "  to 
praise."  Chrs'sostoni  (De  Prod.  Jud.  1.  i,  c.  ii)  sa3's  that 
there  was  a  "Judas  Zelotes"  among  the  disciples  of  our 
Lord,  whom  he  identifies  with  the  apostle. — Smith.  See 
Jude. 

Lebetif,  Jean,  a  French  priest  and  antiquary,  was 
born  at  Auxerre  INIarch  6, 1687,  and  became  a  priest  in 
the  cathedral  of  his  native  place.  Later  he  made  an 
antiquarian  visit  through  France,  and  in  1740  was  cho- 
sen a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  for  which 
he  wrf)te  many  memoirs.  He  died  in  1700.  Lebeuf 
published  several  dissertations  on  French  history,  for  a 
hst  of  which,  see  Iloefer,  Nouv.  Biorj.  Gin.  xxx,  84. 

Lebi,  Lebiyah.     See  Lton. 

Leblond,  Gaspakd  jMichei-,  a  noted  French  eccle- 
siastic and  antiquary,  was  born  at  Caen  Nov.  24, 1738, 
and,  after  entering  the  priesthood,  became  abbot  of  Ver- 
mort.  Later  he  lived  in  Paris  as  keeper  of  the  Jlaza- 
rin  Library.  He  was  also  a  member  of  the  Institute, 
and  wrote  several  archaeological  treatises.  He  died  June 
17, 1S09.     See  Hocfer,  Nouv.  Bioy.  Gen,  xxx,  97. 


Leboii,  JosKPir,  a  noted  French  priest  and  politi- 
cian, was  born  Sept.25, 1765,  at  Arras;  pursued  his  stud- 
ies under  the  Brethren  of  the  Oratory,  and  entered  their 
order  afterwards;  then  taught  rhetoric  at  one  of  their 
colleges;  but  upon  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  he 
caught  the  intoxication  of  the  hour,  and  finally  became 
one  of  the  worst  Terrorists,  mingling  beastly  profligacy 
with  unquenchable  bloodthirstiness.  He  w'as  particu- 
larly severe  upon  the  clergy,  more  especially  monastics ; 
but  when  the  reaction  set  in  he  suffered  for  his  conduct 
death-punishment  by  the  guillotine  in  1795,  at  Amiens. 
See  Lacroix's  Pressense,  Ileliyion  and  the  litiyn  of  Ter- 
ror, p.  200, 407. 

Lebonah.     See  Fuanivincense. 

Lebo'nah  (Heb.  Lehonah',  tMi'^zb,  frankincense,  as 
often ;  Sept.  Af/Swva),  a  town  near  Shiloh,  north  of  the 
spot  where  the  Benjamite  youth  were  directed  to  cap- 
ture the  Shilonite  maidens  at  the  yearly  festival  held 
"  on  the  north  side  of  Bethel,  on  the  east  side  of  the 
highway  that  goeth  up  from  Bethel  to  Shechem"  (Judg. 
xxi,  19).  The  earliest  modern  mention  of  it  is  in  the 
Itinerary  of  the  Jewish  traveller  hap-Parchi  (A.D.  cir. 
1320),  who  describes  it  under  the  name  of  Lubin,  and 
refers  especially  to  its  correspondence  with  the  passage 
in  Judges  (see  Asher's  j5e?!/«7«2«  ofTudela,n,i3b).  Bro- 
cardus  mentions  it  as  a  very  handsome  village,  by  the 
name  of  Leinna,  four  leagues  south  of  Nablus,  on  the 
right  hand  of  the  road  to  Jerusalem  (chap,  vii,  p.  178). 
The  identity  of  this  place  was  again  suggested  by  Maun- 
drell,  who  calls  it  Leban  {Trav.  p.  86).  It  is  no  doubt 
the  Lubban  visited  by  Dr.  Eobinson  on  his  way  from  Je- 
rusalem to  Nablus  (Bib.  Researches,  iii,  90).  He  de- 
scribes the  khan  el-Lubban  as  being  now  in  ruins ;  but 
near  by  is  a  fine  fountain  of  running  water.  From  it  a 
beautiful  oval  plain  extends  north  about  fifteen  minutes, 
with  perhaps  half  that  breadth,  h'ing  here  deep  among 
the  high  rocky  hills.  About  the  middle  of  the  western 
side,  a  narrow  chasm  through  the  mountain,  called  wady 
el-Lubban,  carries  off  the  waters  of  the  plain  and  sur- 
rounding tract.  The  village  of  Lubban  is  situated  on 
the  north-west  acclivity,  considerably  above  the  plain. 
It  is  inhabited;  has  the  appearance  of  an  old  place ;  and 
in  the  rocks  above  it  are  excavated  sepulchres  (comp. 
De  Saulcy,  Nurratice,  i,  94,  95;  Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  130; 
Wilson,  ii,  292  sq. ;  Bonar,  p.  303  ;  Mislin,  iii,  319  ;  Por- 
ter, Handbook,  p.  330;  Van  de  Yelde,  Memoir,  p.  330; 
Tristram,  p.  160). 

Lebrija,  /Elius  Antonius  of  (or  Lebrixa.  vul- 
garly Xeb}-issensis,  from  Lebrixa  or  Lebrija,  the  old  Ne- 
brissa,  on  the  Guadalquivir),  "un  humanista  de  prima 
nota,"  the  Erasmus  of  Spain,  was  born  at  that  place  in 
1442  according  to  Munnoz  (Nichol.  Anton  and  Cave  spy 
1444).  He  studied  in  his  native  city,  and  afterwards 
went  to  the  University  of  Salamanca.  In  1461  he  went 
to  Italy  to  perfect  himself  in  the  classics.  He  visited 
the  best  schools,  heard  the  most  renowned  teachers,  and 
made  great  proficiency  in  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  etc., 
and  even  in  theology,  jurisprudence,  and  medicine.  Af- 
ter ten  years  thus  employed  he  returned  to  Spain,  in- 
tending to  effect  a  reformation,  and  with  the  special  aim 
of  promoting  classical  learning,  in  the  universities  of  that 
country.  He  first  labored  in  an  unofficial  way,  and  as 
teacher  in  the  coUege  of  San  Miguel  at  Seville ;  but  Sal- 
amanca was  the  object  of  his  ambition.  His  lessons  met 
with  great  success,  and  he  soon  became  popular  through- 
out Spain.  He  contributed  very  largely  to  the  expulsion 
of  barbarism  from  the  seats  of  education,  and  to  the  diffu- 
sion of  a  taste  for  elegant  and  useful  studies.  He  also 
published  a  large  ntmiber  of  philological  works,  such  as 
Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew  grammars,  and  especially  a 
Latin  lexicon,  which  was  enthusiastically  received  by 
the  universities  of  all  countries.  He  likewise  ajiplicd 
philology  to  theology,  and  by  that  means  caused  it  to 
make  a  great  progress:  in  order  to  correct  the  text  of 
the  Vulgate,  he  compared  it  with  the  older  texts,  the 
Hebrew  and  Greek  originals,  and  was  one  of  the  chief 


LEBRUN 


316 


LECLERC 


writers  on  the  Polyglot  of  the  Alcala,  prepared  under 
the  direction  of  cardinal  Xiinenes.  Tliis  course  natu- 
rally brought  him  into  conflict  with  the  scholastics, 
whose  system  had  to  his  day  prevailed.  He  was  charged 
with  having  approached  the  intricate  subject  of  theol- 
ogy without  any  knowledge  of  it,  and  to  have  under- 
taken an  unprecedented  labor  on  the  mere  strength  of 
his  philological  talents.  The  Inquisition  interfered,  and 
part  of  his  BibUcal  works  were  prohibited.  He,  how- 
ever, protested  against  this  measure  in  his  Apologia, 
addressed  to  his  protector,  cardinal  Ximenes,  and  had 
it  not  been  for  the  interference  of  the  latter,  and  of  oth- 
er intluential  friends  at  the  court,  he  vrould  no  doubt 
have  suffered  severely  (compare  his  Apulor/kt,  in  An- 
tonii  Bihl,  Hisp.  Vet.  ii,  310  sq.)  ;  as  it  was,  he  was  ap- 
pointed, in  1513,  professor  of  Latin  literature  at  the  newly 
established  University  of  Alcala  de  Henares  (^Complti- 
iuni),  and  here  was  suffered  to  end  his  days  in  peace. 
He  died  Jul}'  2, 1522,  according  to  Munnoz.  Most  of 
his  v.'orks  are  still  extant,  among  them  a  history  of  the 
reign  of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  made  by  order  of  that 
prince,  under  the  title  Decades  dace,  etc.  (posthumously 
edited,  15i5).  See  Nicolai  Antonii  Bihliotheca  Hispana 
(Rom.  1672),  p.  104  A,  109  B;  Du  Pin,  Nora:  Bibl.  des 
Auteurs  Eccles.  xiv,  120-123  ;  Guil.  Cave,  Scj-iptor.  eccl. 
Jlistoria  litter.  (Geneva;,  1094),  Appendix,  p.  116  B,  118 
A;  Hefele,  Cardinal  Ximenes,  \x  116, 124, 379, 458 ;  Islnn- 
noz,  Elogio  de  Antonio  de  Lebriju,  in  the  Memorias  de  la 
real  Academia  de  la  Ilistoria,  iii,  1-30;  Herzog,  Real- 
Eiici/klop.  viii,  265 ;  ]\I'Crie,  Reformation  in  Spain,  p.  61, 
75,  i05.    '(J.H.W.) 

Lebrun,  Pierre,  a  French  theologian,  born  at 
Brignolles  in  1661,  was  professor  in  several  colleges,  and 
died  in  1729.  He  wrote,  among  other  works,  a  Critical 
History  of  superstitious  Practices  which  have  seduced  the 
People  (1702). — Thomas,  Bior/.  Dictionary,  p.  1388. 

Lebuin  or  Liafv^in,  a  noted  colleague  of  Gregory 
in  his  mission  among  the  inhabitants  of  Friesland.  Ac- 
cording to  his  painstaking  biographer,  Huncbald,  a 
monk  of  the  convent  of  Elnon  in  the  10th  century  (in 
Surius,  vi,  277,  and  in  Pertz,  ii,  360),  Lebuin  was  a  na- 
tive of  Brittany,  and  joined  Gregory-  at  Lffrecht,  ha\ing 
been  directed  to  do  so  in  a  dream.  Gregory  sent  him 
on  a  mission  to  the  neighboring  people,  and  gave  him 
the  Anglo-Saxon  IMarcheliu  or  Marcellin  as  assistant. 
They  preached  with  great  success,  and  soon  established 
a  church  at  Wulpen,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Yssel, 
and  another  at  Deventer.  Tliese  churches  afterwards 
closing  by  an  invasion  of  the  Saxons,  Lebuin  coura- 
geously resolved  to  go  as  a  missionary  among  that  na- 
tion, and  went  to  Marklo,  one  of  their  principal  cities: 
later  he  went  further  north,  towards  the  Weser,  and 
there  was  well  received  by  an  influential  chief  named 
Folkbert,  who  seems  to  have  been  a  Christian.  Folk- 
bcrt  advised  him  not  to  visit  Marklo  during  the  reunion 
■which  was  held  there  yearly  to  discuss  the  general  in- 
terests of  the  nation,  but  to  conceal  himself  in  the  house 
of  one  of  his  friends,  Davo.  Lebuin,  however,  did  not 
abiile  by  this  counsel,  and  went  to  the  assembly.  Being 
aware  how  "omnis  concionis  illius  multitude  ex  diversis 
partibus  coacta  primo  suorum  proavorum  servare  con- 
tendit  instituta,  numinibus  videlicet  suis  vota  solvens 
ac  sacrificia,"  he  aiipeared  in  tlie  midst  of  the  assembled 
warriors  dressed  in  his  priestly  rol)es,  the  cross  in  one 
hand  and  the  Gospel  in  the  cttlior,  and  announced  him- 
self as  an  envoy  of  the  Most  High,  the  one  true  God 
anrl  creator  of  all  things,  to  whom  all  must  turn,  forsak- 
ing our  idols :  "  but,"  said  he,  at  the  close  of  \m  address, 
"  if  you  wickedly  persist  in  your  errors,  you  will  soon 
repent  it  bitterly,  for  in  a  short  time  there  will  come  a 
c;>urageous,  prudent,  and  strong  nionarcli  of  ilw  neigh- 
borhodil  who  will  overwhelm  vou  like  a  tornMit,  destrov- 
ing  all  with  tire  and  sword,  taking  your  wives  and  chil- 
dren to  be  his  servants,  and  subjecting  all  wlio  are  left 
to  his  rule."  This  discourse  greatly  excited  the  Saxons 
against  him ;  but  one  of  them,  Bute,  took  his  part,  and 


Lebuin  was  permitted  to  depart  unharmed.  He  now 
returned  to  Friesland,  and  rebuilt  the  church  of  Deven- 
ter, where  lie  remained  until  his  death.  When  Liudger 
built  a  third  time  the  church  which  had  been  again  de- 
stroyed during  an  invasion  of  the  Saxons  in  776,  the 
remains  of  Lebuin  were  discovered.  Lebuin  is  not  to 
be  mistaken  for  Livin,  the  pupil  of  Augustine,  who  went 
to  evangelize  Brabant  towards  the  middle  of  the  7th 
century.  The  biography  of  Livin,  believed  to  have 
been  written  by  Boniface,  cannot  for  a  moment  be  con- 
sidered as  referring  to  the  apostle  of  Germany.  It  is 
full  of  legends,  and  of  no  historical  value.  See  F.  W. 
Rettberg,  K.  Gesch.  Dentschlands,  ii,  405, 536,  509. — Her- 
zog, Real-Encyllop.  viii,  266 ;  Wetzer  u. >yelte,  Kircheur- 
Le.rikon,  vi,  401  sq. 

Le'cah  (Heb.  Lecah',  fl-P,  perh.  for  il-5%  a.  jour- 
ney, but  according  to  Fiirst,  annexation ;  Sept.  \)jxu  v.  r. 
Ar;X«'^  *"*l  A'/X"/^i  ^  i^Llg'  Lecha'),  a  place  in  the  tribe 
of  Judah  founded  by  Er  (or  rather,  perhaps,  by  a  son  of 
his  named  Lecah),  the  first -named  son  of  Shelah  (1 
Chron.  iv,  21).  As  Mareshah  is  stated  in  the  same  con- 
nection to  have  been  founded  by  a  member  of  the  same 
family,  we  may  conjecture  that  Lecah  (if  indeed  a  town) 
lay  in  the  same  vicinity,  perhaps  westerly. 

Leceue,  Charles,  a  French  Protestant  theologian, 
was  born  in  1647  at  Caen,  in  Normandy.  After  study- 
ing theology  at  Sedan,  Geneva,  and  Saumur,  he  was  in 
1672  appointed  pastor  at  Honfleur.  In  1682  he  supplied 
for  one  year  the  Cliurch  of  Charenton,  but  was  accused 
of  Pelagianism  by  Sartre,  pastor  of  Montpellier.  Una- 
ble to  obtain  from  the  Consistory  of  Charenton  a  certifi- 
cate of  orthodoxy  such  as  he  desired,  he  appealed  to  the 
next  national  synod,  where  he  was  warmly  sustained 
by  Allix,  but  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  sud- 
denly put  an  end  to  the  discussion.  Lecene  went  to 
Holland,  and  there  connected  himself  with  the  Armin- 
ians.  He  then  went  to  England,  but,  refusing  to  be  re- 
ordained,  and  being,  moreover,  strongly  suspected  of  So- 
cinianism,  he  was  unable  to  accomplish  anything  there, 
and  returned  to  Holland,  where  he  remained  until  1697. 
He  then  went  again  to  J^ngland,  and  settled  at  London. 
He  vainly  tried  to  found  an  Arminian  Church  in  the 
English  metropolis.  He  died  in  1703.  Lecene  was, 
e\'en  by  his  theological  adversaries,  considered  a  very 
learned  theologian.  A  plan  of  his  for  the  translation  of 
the  Bible  was  taken  up  by  his  son,  Michel  Lecene  ( Amst. 
1741,  2  vols,  folio)  :  Projet  dhine  nouvelle  version  Fran- 
foise  de  la  Bible  (Rotterdam,  1696,  8vo ;  translated,^?} 
Essay  for  a  new  Translation  of  the  Bible,  wherein  is 
shown  that  there  is  a  necessity  for  a  new  Translation,  2d 
ed.,  to  which  is  added  a  table  of  the  texts  of  Scripture 
[Loud.  1727, 8  vo]  ).  He  wrote  De  I'Etat  de  Vhomme  apres 
le pech'e  et  de  sa  predestination  au  salut  (Amsterd.  1684, 
12mo)  : — Entretiens  siir  direrses  matieres  de  theoloffie, 
etc.  (1685, 12mo): — Conversations  sur  divei-ses  matieres 
de  1-elifjion  (1687, 12mo).  See  Colani,  in  Revue  de  The- 
olof/ie,  vii,  343  sq.,  1857  ;  Hoefer,  Xouv.  Biog.  Gen.  xxix, 
185 ;  and  the  sketch  in  the  A  vertissement  de  sa  traduc- 
tion de  la  Bible  (Amst.  1742,  2  vols,  folio).     (J.  H.  W.) 

Leckey,  Williaji,  a  Presbyterian  minister  in  Ire- 
land, flourished  in  the  second  half  of  the  17th  centurj'. 
He  made  himself  conspicuous  by  the  part  he  took  in  the 
Blood  plot — an  attempt,  after  the  Restoration,  to  compli- 
cate the  Nonconformists  and  the  government  by  Avar- 
ring  against  Romanism,  He  was  imprisoned  i\Iay  22, 
1663,  and,  refusing  to  conform,  was  condemned  to  death, 
and  executed  on  July  15  at  Gallows  Green,  near  Dublin. 
Leckey  was  a  line  preacher  and  an  able  scholar,  a  fellow 
of  the  College  of  Dublin,  which  high  school  petitioned 
for  his  life.  This  roipiest  was  granted  upon  the  con- 
formity of  Leckey,  which,  as  we  have  seen  above,  he  re- 
fused. See  Reid,  Hist,  of  the  Presbyterian  Ch.  in  Ireland, 
ii,  275-282, 

Lecleic,  David,  a  Protestant  theologian,  was  born 
at  Geneva  Feb.  19.  1591.  He  studied  at  Geneva,  Stras- 
burg,  and  Heidelberg,  and  in  1615  went  to  England  to 


LECLERC 


317 


LECTIONAPJUM 


perfect  himself  in  the  study  of  Hebrew.  He  subse- 
quently returned  to  his  native  place,  and  in  1618  was 
appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  at  the  university.  He 
was  ordained  for  the  ministry  in  1G28,  and  died  April 
21,  11)54.  He  wrote  Qucesiiones  saci'a,  in  quibus  mitlta 
Scripturce  loca  variaque  lingucB  sacra  idiomata  expli- 
cantur,  etc.;  accesserunt  similium  argumentoruvi  diatri- 
bce  Steph.Clerici  (Amst,  1685,  8vo)  : — Oraliones  (^riii), 
conspectus  ecclesiasticus  et poemuta  ;  acceduni  Steph.  Cle- 
rici  Dissertationes  philologica  (Arasterd.  1687,  8vo) : — a 
Latin  translation  of  Buxtorf 's  Synagogue  (Basle,  1641, 
8vo  and  4to) ;  etc.  See  Tm  Vie  de  David  Leclerc,  in  his 
Qucesiiones  sucrce  ;  Senebier,  I/isi.  Lilteraire  de  Geneve ; 
Haag,  La  France  Protestunte ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Ge- 
ne rede,  XXX,  195. 

Leclerc,  James  Theodore,  a  Swiss  Protestant 
theologian  and  Orientalist,  ;vas  born  at  Geneva  Nov.  25, 
1692.  He  became  pastor  and  professor  of  Oriental  lan- 
guages in  that  city  in  1725,  and  died  in  1758.  He 
wrote,  Preservaiif  contre  le  Fanaiisme,  ou  Refutation 
des  j)retendus  Inspires  de  ce  Steele,  trad,  du  Latin  de 
Sam.  Turretin  (Gen.  1723, 8vo) :  it  is  a  work  against  the 
prophets  of  the  Cevennes : — Supplement  au  Preservaiif 
conire  le  Fanaiisme  (Gen.  1723,  8vo)  : — Les  Psaumes  fra- 
duits  en  Fran^ais  sur  Voriginal  Uebreu  (Gen.  1740  and 
1761,  8vo).  See  Senehier,  Hist.  Litterait'e  de  Geneve; 
Haag,  Zu  France  Pi-otestante ;  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Ge- 
nercde,  xxx,  200.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Le  Clerc,  John  (1),  first  martyr  of  the  Ecforma- 
tioii  in  France,  a  mechanic  by  trade,  was  born  at  Meaux 
towartls  the  close  of  the  15th  centurj'.  He  was  brought 
to  the  knowledge  of  divine  truth  by  reading  the  N.  T. 
translated  into  FrcncVi  by  Lefevre  d'Ltaples,  and  in  his 
zeal  for  the  cause  he  dared  to  post  on  the  door  of  the 
cathedral  a  1)111  in  which  the  pope  was  called  antichrist. 
For  this  offence  he  was  condemned  to  be  whipped  in 
Paris  and  at  INIeaux,  was  branded  on  the  forehead,  and 
exiled.  He  retired  to  Rosoy,  then  to  Metz  in  1525, 
where  he  continued  to  work  at  his  trade,  wool-carding. 
Here  he  one  day  broke  the  images  which  the  Romanists 
intended  to  carry  in  procession.  Instead  of  trying  to 
hide  himself,  he  boldly  confessed  his  deed,  and  was  con- 
demned to  fearful  bodily  punishment.  His  right  hand 
was  cut  off,  his  nose  torn  out,  his  arm  and  breast  torn 
with  red-hot  pincers,  and  his  head  encircled  with  two 
or  three  bands  of  red-hot  iron ;  amid  all  his  torments  he 
sung  aloud  the  verse  of  Psa.  cxv,  "  Their  idols  are  silver 
and  gold,  the  work  of  men's  hands."  He  was  finally 
thrown  into  the  fire,  and  thus  died.  His  brother  Peter, 
also  a  wool-carder,  was  chosen  by  the  Protestants  of 
Meaux  for  their  pastor,  and  fell  a  victim  to  persecution 
in  1546.  See  Haag,  La  France  Protestante,  vol.  vi ;  Hoe- 
fer, Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxx,  193 ;  Browning.  IJistory 
of  the  Huguenots,  i,  23. 

Le  Clerc,  John  (2).     See  Clerc,  Le. 

Leclerc,  Laurent  Jose,  a  French  priest,  was  born 
in  Paris  Aug.  22,  1677,  studied  theology,  and  was  then 
admitted  into  the  community  of  the  preachers  of  St.  Sul- 
])ice,  was  licensed  by  the  Sorbonne  in  1704,  and  taught 
theology  at  Tulle  and  at  Orleans.  In  1722  he  became 
princii)al  of  the  theological  seminary  at  Orleans,  and 
died  May  6, 1736.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  .4 
Critical  Letter  on  Buylt's  Dictionary.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog.  Generale,  xxx,  201. 

Lecomte,  Louis,  a  French  Jesuit,  was  born  at  Bor- 
deaux about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century.  He  was 
sent  as  missionary  to  China  in  1685,  and,  after  a  stay 
of  some  years  in  the  mission  of  Shensee  (Chensi),  re- 
turned to  France,  and  published  in  1696  Memoirs  on  the 
present  Slate  of  China,  a  work  which  was  censured  bj' 
the  faculty  of  theology.  He  died  in  1729.— Thomas, 
Biog.  Did.  p.  1390. 

Lectern,  or  Lettern  (Lat. leciorium  or  lectriciuni), 
a  reading-desk  or  stand,  properly  movable,  from  which 
the  Scripture  "lessons"  (leciiones),  which  form  a  portion 


of  the  various  church- 
services,  are  chanted  or 
read  in  many  churches. 
The  lectern  (also  called 
pulpitum,  arnbo,  sugges- 
ius,pyrgus,  tribunal,  lec- 
tricium,  or,  most  fre- 
quently, leciorium),  of 
very  ancient  use,  is  of 
various  forms  and  of 
different  materials,  and 
is  found  both  in  Roman 
Catholic  churches  and 
in  the  cathedrals  and 
college-chapels  of  the 
Church  of  F^ngland. 
Originally  they  were 
made  of  wood,  but  later 
they  were  frequently 
also  made  of  stone  or 
metal,  and  sometimes 
in  the  form  of  an  eagle 
(the  symbol  of  St.  John 
the  Evangelist),  the 
outspread  wings  of 

T     ,        .    „  r,x.      1,       which  form  the  frame 

Lectern  ui  Ramsay  Church,  .        , 

Huntingdonshire  (about  1450).   supportmg  the  volume. 

In  Scotland,  during  the 

last  centun,',  the  precentor's  desk  was  commonly  called 

by  that  name,  and  pronounced  lettern.     See  Chambers, 

Cyclopadia,  vol.  vi,  s.  v. ;  Walcott,  Sac.  A  rchceol.  p.  345. 

See  Eagle. 

Lecticarii,  the  same  as  the  copiatce.  They  were 
called  lecticarii  from  the  fact  that  they  carried  the  corpse 
or  bier  at  funerals.     See  Copiat^. 

Lectionarium,  or  Lessons.     Of  the  many  real 

and  supposcil  meanings  of  the  expression  lectio  (avay- 
voiaic,  di'dyrwrrpa),  we  have  here  only  to  consider  the 
liturgical.  In  this  sense  it  is  used  to  designate  the  read- 
ing, which,  together  with  singing,  prayers,  prcacliing, 
and  the  administration  of  the  sacraments,  constitutes 
public  worship. 

This  part  cjf  worship  is  adopted  from  the  Jews,  and, 
like  that  of  the  synagogues,  was  at  first  restricted  to  the 
reading  of  their  sacred  books  (O.  T.).  The  first  record 
we  find  of  the  reading  of  the  N.-Test.  Scriptures  in  the 
churches  is  in  Justin,  Apol.  i,  cap.  67.  But  the  fact  of 
the  reading  of  the  Bible  in  general  from  the  earliest 
times  is  clearly  established  by  passages  of  Tertnllian 
{Apolog.  cap.  39;  De  anima,  cap.  9),  Cyprian  {Fp.  24, 33, 
edit.  Oberth.  34),  Origen  {Contra  Cel-s.  iii,  45,  ed.  Oberth. 
50),  etc.  It  is  self-evident  that  the  canonical  books 
and  the  homologoumena  were  those  most  gcnerallv  read. 
But  that  lessons  were  occasionally  read  also  from  the 
Apocrypha  and  Antilegomena  is  shown  by  the  vet  re- 
maining lists  of  libri  ecclesiastici  and  uvayivwc^icoptva, 
i.  e.  of  such  books  as,  although  not  recognised  as  au- 
thorities in  matters  of  faith,  are  still  permitted  to  be 
read  in  the  churches.  Other  writings,  especially  acta 
martyrum,  and  sermons  of  some  of  the  most  distin- 
guished fathers,  came  afterwards  to  be  also  read  to  the 
people.  The  number  of  pieces  (leciiones)  read  at  each 
service  varied;  the  author  of  the  Apostolic  Constitu- 
tions (ii,  c.  57)  mentions  four;  two  was  the  minimum — 
one  from  the  Gospels,  the  other  from  the  epistles  or  oth- 
er books,  including  those  of  the  O.  T.  See  Peiucop^e. 
At  first  the  portions  to  be  read,  at  least  on  every  ordi- 
nary Sunday,  were  taken  in  succession  in  the  sacred 
books  (lectio  contimai),  but  afterwards  special  ]iortions 
were  appointed  to  be  read  on  certain  Sundays,  and  the 
selection  was  made  by  the  bishop,  until  at  last  a  regular 
system  of  lessons  was  contrived,  which  is  the  base  of  the 
one  still  used  at  present  in  churches  where  the  strictly 
liturgical  service  is  adhered  to.  For  feast-days,  at  first, 
special  lessons  were  appointed  (for  instance,  the  ac- 
count of  the  resurrection  on  Easter :  see  Augustine,  Serm, 


LECTISTERXIUM 


ilS 


LECTURES 


139, 140).  But  it  is  not  known  at  what  time  the  plan 
^vllic■ll  forms  the  basis  of  the  present  sj'stem  was  first 
adopted.  Yet  Kanke  {Das  Kirchl.  Pertkojieiisi/iitc-m,  Berl. 
1847)  gives  us  good  reasons  for  tliinkini;'  that  tradition 
may  be  correct  in  representing  Jerome  as  the  author  of 
the  ancient  list  of  lessons  known  under  the  name  of 
'•comes,"  and  as  the  originator  of  the  S3-stem  in  the 
"Western  Church. 

Such  lists,  indicating  the  portions  of  Scripture  to  be 
read  in  public  assemblies  on  the  different  days  of  the 
year,  are  named  lectionaria  (sc.  volumina)  or  lectionarii 
(libri) ;  Greek,  avayvoiaTiKu,  tvayytXiaragia,  tKKoya- 
via  (they  are  also  called  evangeliarium  ef  (pisiolare ; 
evangelia  cum  epistolis ;  comes).  In  Latin  the  principal 
are  the  "  Led.  Gallicanum,"  in  Mabillon,  Litur;/.  Gallic., 
the  "comes"  of  Jerome;  the  "Calendarium  Homanum" 
(edit.  Fronto,  Par.  1652) ;  the  "  Tabula  aiifiquarum  lec- 
tionum,''  in  Pauli,  .4cZ  missas,  in  Gerbert,  J/on(Hft.  Uturg. 
^4^e??i.i,409.  See  ±\xign&t\,l)enkwurdifjk.\o\.\i;  Handb. 
del-  chr.  A  rch.W, 6 ;  Kanke,  Das  Kirchl. Perikojjensi/stem ; 
Palmer,  Orii/.  Lit.  I,  i,  10;  Bingham,  Orig.  Eccles,  xiv,  3, 
§  2;  Procter,  History  of  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  p.  2U) 
sq. ;  Martene,  De  Ant. Eccles.  Hit.  iv,  5, 1  sq. ;  Freeman, 
Principles  of  Divine  Service,  i,  125  sq.     See  Liturgy. 

The  reading  of  the  lesson  in  the  early  ages  of  the 
Church  was  intrusted  to  the  lector  (q.  v.).  At  present, 
in  the  Komish  mass,  when  the  number  of  officiating 
priests  is  complete,  the  epistle  is  read  by  the  subdeacou 
and  the  Gospel  by  the  deacon.  See  Herzog,  Real-Ency- 
Moj).  viii,  268;  Blunt.  Z>;c^  of  Docir.  and  IJist.  Theol.  p. 
408  sq.     Sec  Lesson.     (J.H.W.) 

Lectisternium  (Lat.  lectus,  a  couch,  and  sternere, 
to  spread),  a  religious  festival  ceremony  among  the  an- 
cient Komans.  It  was  celebrated  during  times  of  public 
calamity,  when  the  gods  were  invited  to  the  entertain- 
ment, and  their  statues  taken  from  their  pedestals  and 
laid  on  couches.  The  lectisternium,  according  to  Livy 
(v,  13),  was  first  celebrated  in  the  year  of  Home  354  (on 
the  occasion  of  a  contagious  disease  which  committed 
frightful  ravages  among  the  cattle),  and  lasted  for  eight 
successive  days.  On  the  celebration  of  this  festival  en- 
emies were  said  to  forget  their  animosities,  and  all  pris- 
oners were  liberated.  —  Brando  and  Cox,  Dictionary  of 
A  rt  and  Sciences,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lector  {avayvioanjo)  or  Reader  was  the  name  of 
an  officer  in  the  ancient  Church  whose  place  it  was  to 
read  the  holy  Scriptures  and  other  lessons  (for  instance, 
the.4c/rt  martyrum)  in  public  worship.  He  was  also 
intrusted  with  the  keeping  of  the  sacred  volumes.  This 
reading  of  the  Word  of  God  formed  an  important  part 
in  the  service  of  the  Jewish  synagogues  (see  Luke  iv, 
16;  Acts  xiii,  15,  27;  2  Cor.  iii,  14),  and  was  introduced 
ijito  the  Christian  Church  from  thence.  But  we  do  not 
know  at  what  period  the  performance  of  it  became  a 
special  office.  Yet  Tertullian,  De  prcescr.  Imr.  c.  41,  ex- 
pressly sjjeaks  of  the  lector  as  a  special  officer  in  the 
Church,  and  Cyprian  {Kp.  33,  and  edit.  Oberth.  34)  men- 
tions the  ordination  of  two  readers.  The  early  Church 
councils  (C'oncil.  Chalcedon.  a.  451,  c.  13, 14 ;  folet.  7,  2 ; 
Vasense,  ii,  2 ;  Valentin,  c.  1 ;  A  rausial,  i,  18)  give  direc- 
tions about  the  duties  of  readers.  Still,  although  the 
most  eminent  fathers  laid  great  stress  on  the  reading  of 
Scripture  in  the  churches,  and  Cyprian  declares  their 
otBcc  one  of  great  honor  {Kpist.  .34),  it  was  yet  classed 
among  the  ordines  inferiores.  This  is  easily  accoimted 
for  from  the  fact  that  the  simple  reading,  without  any 
exegetical  or  liomiletical  explanations  (which  are  not 
in  the  province  of  the  reader),  was  a  mere  mechanical 
performance,  and  in  after  times  often  intrusted  to  cliil- 
(Iren.  After  the  form  of  the  liturgy  of  the  mass  was  final- 
ly settled,  the  lectors  were  forbidden  to  read  the  peri- 
copes  occurring  in  the  missa  (idclium.  They  were  also 
thereafter  exchuied  from  the  alt'ar,  and  suffered  to  read 
only  at  the  pu/pilum,  and  finally  were  obliged  to  leave 
to  the  deacon  or  presbyter  the  pronouncing  of  the  for- 
mula solennis.  i)robably  because  the  reader  was  of  lower 


degree  in  the  hierarchy.  Y'et  in  some  churches  the  or- 
dination of  readers  was  a  very  solemn  affair,  especially 
among  the  Greeks,  where  it  was  accompanied  by  impo- 
sition of  hands.  In  course  of  time  the  office  of  reader 
in  the  Komish  Church  came  to  be  absorbed  in  the  dea- 
con's,  and  identified  with  it.  See  C.  Schone,  Geschickts- 
forschungen  ii.  d. Kirchl.  Gebr.  iii,  108  (Berlin,  1822) ;  Jo. 
Andr.  Schmidt,  De  primitiuoR  eccles.  lectoribus  illustribus 
(Helmstadt,  1696)  ;  Bingham,  iJe  origin,  eccles.  ii,  29; 
Suicer  and  Du  Fresne,  Lexica ;  Augusti,  Denkwiird.  vol. 
vi;  Handb.  d.  chr.  Arch.  \,  262;  Herzog,  Peal-Encyklop. 
viii,  268. 

Lectorium.     See  Lectern. 

Lecturers,  an  order  of  preachers  in  the  Church  of 
England,  distinct  from  the  incumbent  or  curate,  usually 
chosen  by  the  vestry  or  chief  inhabitants  of  the  parish, 
and  supported  either  bj'  voluntary  contributions  or  leg- 
acies. They  preach  on  the  Sunday  afternoon  or  even- 
ing, and  in  some  instances  on  a  stated  day  in  the  week. 
The  lecturers  are  generally  appointed  without  any  in- 
terposition of  the  incumbent,  though  his  consent,  as 
possessor  of  the  freehold  of  the  Church,  is  necessary  be- 
fore any  lecturer  can  officiate :  when  such  consent  has 
been  obtained  (but  not  before),  the  bishop,  if  lie  ap- 
prove of  the  nominee,  licenses  him  to  the  lecture. 
Where  there  are  lectures  founded  by  the  donations  of 
pious  persons,  the  lecturers  are  appointed  by  the  found- 
ers, -without  any  interposition  or  consent  of  the  rectors 
of  the  churches,  though  with  the  leave  and  approbation 
of  the  bishop,  and  after  the  candidate's  subscription  to 
the  Thirty-nine  Articles  and  the  Act  of  Uniformity, 
such  .as  that  of  lady  Moyer  at  St.  Paul's,  etc.  ^\'llel^ 
the  office  of  lecturer  first  originated  in  the  English 
Church  it  is  difficult  to  determine.  It  is  manifest  from 
the  statute  (13  and  14  Car.  II,  c.  4,  §  19),  commonly 
known  as  the  Act  of  Uniformity  (1662),  that  the  office 
was  generally  recognised  in  the  second  half  of  the  17th 
centur\'.  Even  as  early  as  1589,  however,  an  evening 
lecture  on  Fridays  was  endowed  in  the  London  jjarish 
of  St.  Michael  Koj-al,  and  at  about  the  same  time  three 
lecture-sermons  were  established  in  St.JMichael's,  Corn- 
hill— t\vo  on  Sundays  after  evening  prayers,  and  a  third 
at  the  same  time  on  Christmas  day.  During  the  Great 
Kebellion  lecturers  used  their  influence  and  opportuni- 
ties for  the  overthrow  of  the  State  Church  and  the  mon- 
archy.—Eden,  Theol.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Buck,  Theol.  Diet.  s.  v. ; 
Eadie,  Eccles.  Diet.  p.  371. 

Lectures,  Bampton.     See  Bajipton  Lectures. 

Lectures,  Boyle.     See  Boyle  Lectures. 

Lectures,  Congregational.  See  Congrega- 
tional Lectures. 

Lectures,  Hulsean.  See  Hulsean  Lectures- 
Lectures,  Merchants',  a  lecture  set  up  in  Pin- 
ner's Hall  in  the  year  1672,  by  the  Presbyterians  and  In- 
dependents, to  show  their  agreement  among  themselves, 
as  well  as  to  support  the  doctrines  of  the  Keformation 
against  the  prevailing  errors  of  Popery,  Socinianism, 
and  infidelity'.  The  principal  ministers  for  learning  and 
popularity  v.-ere  chosen  as  lecturers,  such  as  Dr.  Bates, 
Dr.  IManton,  Dr.  Owen,  Mr.  Baxter,  IMessrs.  Collins,  Jen- 
kins, JNIead,  and  afterwards  ]\Iessrs.  Alsop,  Howe,  Cole, 
and  others.  It  was  encouraged  and  supported  by  some 
of  the  principal  merchants  and  tradesmen  of  the  city. 
Some  misunderstanding  taking  place,  the  Presbyterians 
removed  to  Salter's  Hall  and  the  Independents  remain- 
ed at  Pinner's  Hall,  and  each  party  filled  up  their  num- 
bers out  of  their  respective  denominations.  This  lecture 
is  kept  np  to  the  present  day,  and  is  now  held  at  Broad 
Street  meeting  every  Tuesday  morning. — Buck,  Theol, 
Dictionary,  s.  v. 

Lectures,  Monthly.  A  lecture  preached  month- 
ly by  the  Congregational  ministers  of  London  in  their 
different  chapels,  taken  in  rotation.  These  lectures  have 
of  late  been  systematically  arranged,  so  as  to  form  a 
connected  course  of  one  or  more  vcars.    A  valuable  vol- 


LECTURES 


319 


LEE 


ume  on  the  evidences  of  Eevelation,  published  in  1827, 
is  one  of  the  fruits  of  these  monthly  exercises. — Buck, 
Theoloffical  Dictionanj,  s.  v. 

Lectures,  Morning,  certain  casuistical  lectures, 
•which  were  preached  by  some  of  the  most  able  di\"ines 
in  London.  The  occasion  of  these  lectures  seems  to  be 
this  :  During  the  troublesome  times  of  Charles  I.,  most 
of  the  citizens  having  some  near  relation  or  friend  in  the 
army  of  the  earl  of  Essex,  so  many  bills  were  sent  up  to 
the  pulpit  everj-  Lord's  day  for  their  preservation  that 
the  minister  had  neither  time  to  read  them  nor  to  rec- 
ommend their  cases  to  God  in  prayer ;  several  London 
divines  therefore  agreed  to  set  apart  a  morning  hour  for 
this  purpose,  one  half  to  be  spent  in  prayer,  and  the  oth- 
er in  a  suitable  exhortation  to  the  people.  When  the 
heat  of  the  war  was  over,  it  became  a  casuistical  lecture, 
and  was  carried  on  till  the  restoration  of  Charles  IL 
These  sermons  were  afterwards  published  in  several  vol- 
umes quarto,  under  the  title  of  the  Morning  Ej-ercises. 
The  authors  were  the  most  eminent  preachers  of  the 
day ;  among  them  was,  e.  g.  archbishop  Tillotson.  It  ap- 
pears that  these  lectures  were  held  every  morning  i'or 
one  month  only,  and,  from  the  preface  to  the  volume, 
dated  1689,  the  time  was  afterwards  contracted  to  a  fort- 
night. Slost  of  these  were  delivered  at  Cripplegate 
Church,  some  at  St.  Giles's,  and  a  volume  against  popery 
in  Southwark.  jMr.  Ncale  observes  that  this  lecture  was 
afterwards  revived  in  a  different  form,  and  continued  in 
his  day.  It  was  kept  up  long  afterwards  at  several 
places  in  the  summer,  a  week  at  each  place,  but  latterly 
the  time  was  exchanged  for  the  evening. — Buck,  Thcvl. 
Dictionari/,  s.  v. 

Lectures,  Moyer's,  a  course  of  eight  sermons, 
preached  annually,  founded  by  the  beneficence  of  lady 
Jloyer  about  17"20,  who  left  by  \vi\\  a  rich  legacy  as  a 
foundation  lor  the  same.  A  great  number  of  English 
■writers  having  endeavored  in  a  varietj-  of  ways  to  in- 
validate the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  this  opulent  and 
ortliodox  lady  was  influenced  to  think  of  an  institution 
■which  should  provide  for  posterity  an  ample  collection 
of  productions  in  defence  of  this  branch  of  the  Christian 
faith.  The  first  course  of  these  lectures  was  preached 
by  Dr.Waterland,  on  the  divinity  of  Christ.  These  lec- 
tures were  discontinued  about  the  middle  of  the  last 
centur}'. — Buck,  Tk.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Eadie,  JlccL  Diet.  p.  450. 

Lectures,  Religious,  arc  discourses  or  sermons 
delivered  by  ministers  on  any  subject  in  theology.  Be- 
sides lectures  on  the  Sabbath  day,  many  think  proper  to 
]ireach  on  week-days ;  sometimes  at  five  in  the  morning, 
before  people  go  to  M'ork,  and  at  seven  in  the  evening, 
after  they  have  done.  In  London  there  is  preaching  al- 
most every  forenoon  and  evening  in  the  week  at  some 
place  or  other. — Buck,  TheoL  Dirtiunary,  s.  v. 

Lectures,  Warburtonian,  a  lecture  founded  by 
bishop  Warburton  to  prove  the  truth  of  revealed  relig- 
ion in  general,  and  the  Christian  in  (larticular,  from  the 
completion  of  the  prophecies  in  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment which  relate  to  the  Christian  Church,  especially 
to  the  apostas}-  of  papal  liome.  To  this  foundation  we 
o^.ve  the  admirable  discourses  of  Hurd,  Halifax,  Bagot, 
Apthorp,  and  many  others. — Buck,  Thcol.  Bid.  s.  v. 

Lecturn.     See  Lectern. 

Ledge  (only  in  the  plural  C^sVlJ,  shelahbim',  from 
jb'j,  to  mortice  together  ;  Sept.  tt,txi)IJ-tvct,  Yiilg.jtmc- 
ti(r(t>),  \iToii.joints,  e.  g.  at  the  corners  of  a  base  or  pedes- 
tal ;  hence  perhaps  an  ornament  overlaying  these  angles 
to  hide  the  juncture  (1  Kings  vii,  28,  29).  In  verses  35, 
36,  the  term  thus  rendered  is  different,  namely  T^,  yad, 
lit.  a  hand,  i.  e.  a  lateral  projection,  probably  referring  to 
side-borders  to  the  same  pedestals.  The  description  is 
too  brief  and  the  terms  too  vague  to  all<>w  a  more  defi- 
nite idea  of  these  appendages  to  the  bases  in  question. 
See  Laveu. 

Ledieu,  Fran9ois,  abbe,  a  French  ecclesiastic,  noted 


as  a  writer,  was  born  at  Peronne  about  the  middle  of 
the  17th  centuni'.  In  1()84  he  became  private  secretary 
of  the  celebrated  French  pulpit  orator  Bossuet,  bishop 
of  Meaux,  and  was  by  this  prelate  made  canon  of  the 
church  at  Meaux.  He  died  at  Paris  Oct.  7, 1713.  He 
wrote  Memoires  et  Journal  de  I'A  bbe  Ledieu  sur  la  vie  tt 
les  ouvrages  de  Bossuet  (Paris.  1856-57,4  vols.  8 vo),  upon 
which  the  late  Sainte-Beuve  thus  comments:  "L'abbe 
Ledieu  n'a  pas  le  dessein  de  diminuer  Bossuet,  mais  il 
souvient  son  illustre  maitre  a  une  epreuve  a  laquelle  pas 
une  grande  figure  ne  resisterait ;  il  note  jour  par  jour  a 
I'epoque  de  la  raaladie  derniere  et  du  declin  tons  les  ac- 
tes  et  toutes  les  paroles  de  faiblesse  qui  lui  echappent, 
jusqu'aux  plaintes  et  doleances  aux  quelles  on  se  laisse 
aller  la  nuit  quand  on  se  croit  seul,  et  dans  cette  obser- 
\-ation  il  porte  un  esprit  de  petitesse  qui  se  prononce 
de  plus  en  plus  en  avan^ant,  un  esprit  bas,  qui  n'est  pas 
moins  dangereux  que  ne  le  serait  une  malignite  sub- 
tile" {Moniteur,  Mar.  31, 1856).  Ledieu  also  left  in  MS. 
Memoires  sur  VHistoire  et  les  Antiquites  du  diocese  de 
Meaux.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxx,  262. 

Ledru,  Axdue  Pierre,  a  French  priest  and  natu- 
ralist, was  born  at  Chantenay,  INIain,  January  22, 1761. 
When  quite  young  he  entered  the  priesthood,  and  dur- 
ing the  Kevolution  adopted  its  principles,  and  was  ap- 
pointed curate  at  Pre-au-Mans.  Later  he  was  employed 
as  botanist  in  Baudin's  expedition  to  the  Canaries  and 
the  Antilles  (in  1796).  He  died  July  11, 1825.  Ledru 
wrote  several  Avorks,  for  a  list  of  Avhich  see  Hoefer,  Nouc. 
Biog.  Generale,  xxx,  267. 

Ledwicli,  Edward,  D.D.,  an  Irish  antiquarA'.  fel- 
low of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  subsequently  vicar  of 
Aghaboe,  Queens  County,  Ireland,  was  born  in  1739,  and 
died  in  1823,  He  published  The  Antiquities  of  Ireland 
(179-1),  a  very  valuable  vrork.  He  offended  many  of 
his  countrymen  by  denying  the  truth  of  the  legend  of 
St.  Patrick. 

Lee,  Andre'W,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  born  May  7,  1745  (O,  S,),  at  Lyme,  Conn.:  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  College  in  1766;  entered  the  ministry  in 
1768;  was  ordained  pastor  at  Lisbon,  Conn.,  Oct.  26, 1768; 
and  died  Aug.  25,1832.  He  was  made  a  member  of 
Yale  College  corporation  in  1807.  Dr,  Lee  published 
An  Inqidrij  whether  it  he  the  Duty  of  Man  to  be  willing 
to  suffer  JJumnution  for  the  Divine  Glory  (1786)  : — Ser- 
mons on  viD'ious  important  Subjects  (8vo,  1803) ;  and  sev- 
eral occasional  sermons, — Sprague,  A  nnals,  i,  668. 

Lee,  Ann,  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Shakers,  was 
born  in  Manchester,  England,  Feb.  29,  1736.  She  was 
the  daughter  of  a  poor  mechanic,  a  blacksmith  by  trade, 
and  a  sister  of  general  Charles  Lee  of  Revolutionary 
fame.  When  yet  a  young  girl  she  married  Abraham 
Standlcy,  of  like  trade  as  her  father,  and  she  became  the 
mother  of  four  children,  who  all  died  in  infancy.  When 
about  twenty-two  years  of  age  Jane  came  under  the  in- 
fluence of  James  Wardley.  at  this  time  the  great  expo- 
nent of  the  Millenarian  doctrines  of  the  Caniisa?-ds  and 
French  Prophets.  These  religious  fanatics,  after  endur- 
ing much  persecution  and  great  suffering  in  their  na- 
tive country,  had  sought  a  refuge  in  England  in  1705, 
Gradually  they  spread  their  views — communicating  in- 
spiration, as  they  thouglit — finding  ready  followers,  par- 
ticularly among  the  Quakers,  and  one  of  this  number — 
James  Wardlev— in  1747  actuallj'  formed  a  separate 
society,  consisting  mainly  of  Quakers,  claiming  to  be 
led  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  and  indulging  in  all  manner 
of  religious  excesses,  similar  to  those  of  the  Camisards 
(q,  V,)  and  French  Prophets  (q.  v.).  AVardley  claimed 
to  have  supernatural  visions  and  revelations,  and  as 
both  he  and  his  adherents  were  noted  for  their  bodily 
agitations,  they  came  to  be  known  as  Shaling  Quakers. 
Of  this  sect  Ann  Lee,  now  jMrs.  Standley,  became  one 
of  the  leading  spirits.  From  the  time  of  her  admission 
she  seems  to  have  been  particularly  inspired  for  leader- 
ship and  action.  Naturally  of  an  excitable  temper,  her 
experience  in  the  performance  of  the  peculiar  religious 


LEE 


320 


LEE 


duties  of  this  society — by  them  termetl  "  religious  ex- 
ercises"— was  most  singular  ami  painful.  ()(  a  pious 
nature,  she  hesitated  not  to  subject  herself  to  all  the 
torments  of  the  tlesh.  Often  in  her  fits  or  paroxysms, 
as  she  clinched  her  hands,  it  is  said,  the  blood  would 
flow  through  the  pores  of  her  skin  in  a  kind  of  san- 
gianary  perspiration.  This  her  followers  believe  was 
a  miraculous  phenomenon,  and  they  liken  it  to  the 
"bloody  sweat"  of  our  Saviour  in  the  garden.  Her 
flesh  wasted  away  under  these  exercises,  and  she  be- 
came so  weak  that  her  friends  were  obliged  to  feed  her 
like  an  infant.  Then,  again,  according  to  the  account 
given  by  her  followers,  she  would  have  "  intervals  of 
releasement,  in  which  her  bodily  strength  and  vigor 
were  sometimes  miraculously  renewed,  and  her  soul 
filled  with  heavenly  visions  and  divine  revelations." 
All  these  mortifications  of  the  flesh  were  by  her  sect 
accepted  not  only  as  evidences  ot  great  spiritual  fervor, 
but  as  proofs  of  the  indwelling  of  the  divine  spirit  in 
Ann  in  an  uncommon  measure.  She  rose  rapidly  in 
the  favor  and  confidence  of  her  brethren,  and  we  need 
not  wonder  that  soon  she  came  to  have  visions  and  rev- 
elations, and  that  they  frequently  and  gladly  "attested" 
them  as  manifestations  of  God  to  the  believers.  By  the 
year  1770  she  had  grown  so  much  in  favor  among  her 
people  that  her  revelations  and  visions  were  looked  upon 
with  more  than  ordinary  interest ;  and  when  in  this  year 
she  was  subjected  to  persecution  and  imprisonment  by 
the  secular  authorities,  her  followers  claim  that  the  Lord 
Jesus  manifested  himself  to  her  in  an  especial  manner, 
and  from  this  time  dates  the  beginning  of  that  "latter 
day  of  glory"  in  which  they  are  now  rejoicing.  Imme- 
diately after  her  release  from  prison  she  professed  su- 
pernatural powers  in  the  midst  of  the  little  societ}' 
gathered  about  her,  and  she  was  acknowledged  as  their 
spiritual  mother  in  Christ.  Ann  was  thereafter  accepted 
as  the  only  true  leader  of  the  Church  of  Christ — not  in  the 
common  acceptation  of  that  term,  but  as  the  incarnation 
of  infinite  wisdom  and  the  "second  appearing  of  Christ," 
as  really  and  fully  as  Jesus  of  Nazareth  was  the  incar- 
nation of  infinite  power,  or  Christ's  first  appearing,  and 
she  now  hesitated  not  to  style  herself  ".4«»,  the  Wor, '," 
signifying  that  in  her  dwelt  the  Word.  Among  other 
things  revealed  to  her  at  this  time  was  the  displeasure 
of  the  Almighty  against  the  matrimonial  state,  and  she 
opened  her  testimony  on  the  wickedness  of  marriage. 
If  nothing  else  could  have  provoked  the  secular  powers 
to  put  a  stop  to  her  fanatic  excesses  in  the  garb  of  re- 
ligion, her  attack  on  one  of  the  most  sacred  institutions 
of  the  civilized  state  demanded  immediate  action,  and 
she  was  again  imprisoned,  this  time  for  misdemeanor. 
Set  free  once  more,  she  began  to  spread  her  revelations 
more  generally,  and  actually  entered  upon  an  open  war- 
fare against  -the  root  of  human  depravity,"  as  she 
called  the  matrimonial  act,  and  the  people  of  Manches- 
ter were  so  enraged  that  she  was  shut  up  in  a  mad- 
house, and  was  kept  there  several  weeks.  Thus  harassed 
and  persecuted  on  English  soil,  .she  finally  decided  to 
seek  quiet  and  peace  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic,  and  in 
1773  professed  to  have  a  "special  revelation"  to  emi- 
grate to  America.  Several  of  her  congregation  asserted 
that  they  also  had  had  revelations  of  a  like  nature,  and 
she  accordingly  set  out  for  this  country.  She  came 
to  America  in  the  shi]i  ^laria.  Captain  Smith,  and  ar- 
rived at  New  York  in  May.  1774,  having  as  her  com- 
panions her  brother,  William  Lee,  James  Whitaker,  John 
Hocknell,  called  elders,  and  others.  In  the  spring  of 
1776  she  went  to  All)any,  and  thence  to  Niskayuna,  now 
Watervliet,  eight  miles  from  Albany.  Here  she  suc- 
cessfully established  a  congregation,  Avhich  she  called 
"^Ae  Church  of  Chrisfs  STond  appeai-im;"  formally  dis- 
solved her  connection  with  the  man  to  whom  she  had 
in  her  youth  given  her  h;uid  and  heart,  and  became 
their  recognised  head.  It  was  not,  however,  until  17X0 
that  Ann  Lee  succeeded  in  gathering  about  her  a  very 
large  fiock.  At  the  beginning  of  this  year  an  unusually 
great  religious  revival  occurred  at  New  Lebanon,  and. 


improving  this  opportunity,  she  went  prominently  be- 
fore the  people,  taking  an  active  part  in  the  religious 
commotion.  This  proved  to  her  cause  a  fine  harvest 
indeed,  and  the  number  of  her  deluded  followers  greatly 
increased,  and  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  the  now 
fiourishing  society  of  New  Lebanon.  See  SnAKiiits. 
One  of  these  New  Lebanon  converts,  Valentine  Itath- 
bun,  previously  a  Baptist  minister,  who,  however,  after 
the  short  period  of  about  three  months,  recovered  his 
senses,  and  published  a  pamphlet  against  the  imposture, 
says  that  "  there  attended  this  infatuation  an  inexpli- 
cable agency  upon  the  body,  to  which  he  himself  Avas 
subjected,  that  affected  the  nerves  suddenly  and  forcibly 
like  the  electric  fluid,  and  was  followed  by  tremblings 
and  the  complete  deprivation  of  strength.  When  the 
good  mother  had  somewhat  established  her  authority 
with  her  new  disciples,  she  warned  them  of  the  great 
sin  of  following  the  vain  customs  of  the  world,  and,  hav- 
ing fleeced  them  of  their  ear-rings,  necklaces,  buckles, 
and  everything  which  might  nourish  pride,  and  hav- 
ing cut'off  their  hair  close  by  their  ears,  she  admitted 
them  into  her  Church.  Thus  metamorphosed,  they  were 
ashamed  to  be  seen  by  their  f)ld  acquaintances,  and 
would  be  induced  to  contiiuie  Shakers  to  save  them- 
selves from  further  humiliation."  But  whether  it  was 
the  success  of  their  unworthy  cause,  or  their  religious 
excesses,  or  their  unwillingness  to  take  the  oath  of  al- 
legiance to  the  State  of  New  York,  they  made  them- 
selves obnoxious  here  also  to  the  secular  authorities, 
and,  as  in  her  native  countr}-,  Ann  Lee  was  subjected  to 
imprisonment,  and  escaped  trial  and  punishment  only 
by  the  kind  offices  of  the  governor,  George  Clinton. 
In  1781  she  set  out,  in  company  with  her  ciders,  on  a 
quite  extended  preaching  tour  through  the  New  Eng- 
land States,  in  the  course  of  which  societies  were  found- 
ed at  Harvard,  Jlass.,  and  sundry  other  places.  She 
had  always  asserted  that  she  was  not  liable  to  the  as- 
saults of  death,  and  that,  when  she  left  this  world,  she 
shoidd  ascend  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye  to  heaven ; 
but,  imhappih'  for  her  claims,  "the  mighty  power  of 
(Jod,  the  second  heir  of  the  covenant  of  promise"  and 
"  the  Lamb's  bride,"  or,  as  she  styled  herself, "  the  spir- 
itual mother  of  the  new  creation,  the  queen  of  Mount 
Zion,  the  second  appearing  of  Christ,"  died  a  natural 
death  at  Watervliet,  September  8, 1784. 

Strange  as  must  ever  ajipear  the  fanatical  excesses 
of  Ann  Lee,  and  her  willingness  to  lead  men  to  acts  of 
depravity,  to  blasphemous  religious  pretensions,  it  must 
be  conceded  that  she  was  certainly  a  wonderful  woman. 
Deprived  of  all  the  advantages  of  education,  she  never- 
theless, by  the  power  of  a  will  wholly  unyielding  and  a 
mind  of  no  commfin  order,  succeeded  in  establishing  a 
religious  sect,  liy  which,  at  present  consisting  of  more 
than  four  thousand  people,  some  of  them  of  marked  in- 
telligence and  superior  talents,  possessing,  in  the  aggre- 
gate, wealth  to  the  amount  of  more  than  ten  millions  of 
dollars,  she  is  considered  as  the  very  Christ — standing 
in  the  Church  as  God  himself,  and  at  whose  triijunal 
the  world  is  to  be  judged.  Over  this  society  her  influ- 
ence is  spoken  of  as  complete.  Her  word  was  a  law 
from  which  there  was  no  appeal.  Obedience  then,  as 
now,  was  the  one  lesson  that  a  Shaker  was  retpiired  to 
learn  perfectly — an  obedience  unquestioned  and  entire; 
and  all  this  when  the  very  foundation  upon  which  they 
rested  their  faith,  namely,  her  dii-ine  mission,  was  no- 
toriously antagonized  by  a  life  accused,  and  nut  without 
some  show  of  truthfidncss,  as  openly  and  shamefully 
impure.  See  II.  P.  Andrews  in  the  Ladies'  Repository, 
18,58,  p.  046  scj. ;  ]Marsdcn  (Rev.  J.  B.),  Hist,  of  Christian 
Churches  and  Sects,  ii,  320  sq. ;  Galaxy,  1872  (Jan.  and 
April),     See  Shakkus. 

Lee,  Charles,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  w.as  born 
near  Flemingsburg,  Ky,,  May  12,  1818;  was  converted 
when  about  twenty  years  of  age,  and,  though  hitherto 
a  farmer  by  employment,  he  decided  at  once  upon  the 
ministry-,  entered  the  college  at  Hanover,  Ind.,  and,  after 
graduating  in  1853,  studied  theology  with  the  president 


LEE 


321 


LEE 


of  his  alma  mater.  Ho  was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery 
of  Madison  in  1855,  and  became  pastor  at  Graham,  Ind. 
He  died  May  27,  18(53.  "With  fair  talents,  and  yet 
amid  many  discouragements  both  in  himself  and  from 
without,  he  was  still  not  only  a  faithfid,  but  a  successful 
pastor  of  the  chiu-ches  committed  to  his  care.  God 
gave  him  the  witness  of  approval  in  the  conversion  of 
many  under  his  ministry." — Wilson,  Presb.  Hist,  Alniu- 
Kfff,"l8G4,p.  IGO. 

Lee,  Cliauncey,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  born  at  Salisbur}',  Conn.,  1763 ;  graduated  at  Yale 
College  in  1784;  entered  the  ministry  June  3, 1789;  and 
was  ordained  pastor  in  Sunderland,  Vt.,  Blarch  18, 1790, 
where  he  remained  a  few  years,  and  in  Jan.,  1800,  be- 
came pastor  in  Colebrook,  Conn.  This  connection  he 
dissolved  in  1827,  to  become  pastor  at  Marlborough, Conn., 
Nov.  18, 1828,  which  place  he  held  untQ  Jan.  11. 1837. 
He  died  in  Hartwick,  N.  Y.,  Dec,  1842.  Lee  published 
the  A  merican  A ccomptant :  an  A  rithmetic  (1797) : — The 
Trial  of  Virtue :  a  metrical  Version  of  the  Book  of  Job 
(1807)  : — Se7-mons  especiull//  desir/nedfor  Tlevivals  (12mo, 
1824): — Letters  f-om  Aristarchus  to  Philemon  (1833); 
and  two  or  three  occasional  sermons. — Sprague,  A  nnals, 
ii,  288. 

Lee,  Edward,  an  English  prelate,  was  born  in  Kent 
in  1482;  was  educated  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge;  be- 
came chaplain  of  Henry  VHI,  and  was  finally  employed 
by  him  in  several  diplomatic  missions.  In  1529  he  was 
sent  to  PJome  to  negotiate  for  the  divorce  of  the  king, 
and  in  1531  was  appointed  archbishop  of  York.  He 
opposed  the  Eeform  doctrines  of  Luther,  but  favored 
the  innovations  which  Henry  VIII  made  in  the  Church. 
Lee  died  in  1544.  He  wrote,  Apologia  adversus  qiio- 
runidam  calumnias  (Louvain,  1520) : — Epistola  nuncu- 
jmtoria  ad  Des.  Erasmiun  (Louvain,  1520): — Annota- 
tionum  Libri  duo  in  annotationes  Novi  Testamenti  Erasmi 
(Biile,  1520):  —  Ej)istola  apologetica  qua  respondet  D. 
Erasmi  Epistolis. — AUibone,  Diet,  ef  Biit.  and  A  m.  A  u- 
thors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lee,  Jason,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  pioneer 
missionary  to  Oregon,  was  born  at  Stanstead,  Lower  Can- 
ada, in  1803 ;  labored  with  the  Wcsleyan  missionaries 
there  until  1833 ;  joined  the  New  England  Conference 
in  that  year,  and  was  ordained  missionary  to  Oregon. 
Here  he  labored  nobly,  buried  two  wives,  and  in  1844 
returned  to  New  York  to  raise  funds  for  the  Oregon  In- 
stitute, for  which  he  was  made  agent  bj'  the  New  Eng- 
land Conference,  but  he  died  at  his  birthplace,  March 
12, 1845.  His  loss  was  a  blow  to  the  mission,  but  it  is 
his  glorious  monument  for  two  worlds. — Minutes  of  Con- 
ferences, iii,  617.     (G.  L.  T.) 

Lee,  Jesse,  one  of  the  most  eminent  preachers  in 
the  early  history  of  the  American  Methodist  Church, 
and  recognised  as  the  founder  of  IMethodism  in  New 
England,  was  born  in  Prince  (ieorge's  County,  Virginia, 
March  12, 1758.  He  received  a  fair  education,  was  dil- 
igently instructed  in  the  Prayer-book  and  Catechism, 
and  early  acquired  skill  in  vocal  music,  which  served 
him  in  all  his  subsequent  labors.  His  early  life  was 
moral.  "  I  believe  I  never  did  anything  in  my  youth 
that  the  people  generally  call  wicked,"  is  the  record  in 
his  journal.  His  father  was  led  to  a  more  serious  mode 
of  life  than  prevailed  generally  in  that  community 
chictly  by  the  intluence  of  Mr.  Jarratt,  an  Episcopal 
clergyman.  Jesse's  parents,  however,  finally,  in  1773, 
joined  the  Methodist  Society  then  formed  under  Rob- 
ert Williams,  one  of  Wesley's  preachers,  the  promoter  of 
Methodism  in  those  parts.  In  this  very  year  Jesse  ex- 
perienced in  a  marked  manner  the  sense  of  pardoned  sin, 
and  continued  to  benefit  by  the  powerful  revival  influ- 
ences which  for  some  years  prevailed  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. In  1776  he  experienced  a  state  of  grace  which 
he  calletl  "perfect  love."  "At  length  I  could  say, 'I 
have  nothing  but  the  love  of  Christ  in  my  heart,'"  is  his 
record.  In  1777  he  removed  from  his  home  into  the 
bounds  of  Roanoke  Circuit,  North  Carolina,  where  the 
v.— X 


next  year  he  was  appointed  a  class-leader.  He  preach- 
ed his  first  sermon  November  17,  1779,  and  for  a  time 
supplied  the  preacher's  place.  In  the  summer  of  1780 
he  was  drafted  into  the  militia  to  meet  the  approach  of 
the  British  army  in  South  Carohna.  Excused  from 
bearing  arms  on  account  of  his  religious  scruples,  he 
rendered  various  other  services,  especially  by  preach- 
ing. Soon  obtaining  a  discharge,  he  was  eamestly  so- 
licited to  enter  the  itinerant  ministry,  but  shrank  from 
the  responsibility, "  fearing  lest  he  should  injure  the 
work  of  God."  At  the  tenth  Conference,  held  at  Ellis 
Meeting-house,  Sussex  County, Virginia,  April  17,1782, 
Lee  was  deeply  impressed  with  "  the  union  and  brother- 
ly love"  prevalent  among  the  preachers,  notwithstand- 
ing the  warm  difference  that  had  of  late  existed  among 
the  Methodist  preachers  on  the  subject  of  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  sacraments,  and  at  a  quarterly  meeting  in 
November  he  was  prevailed  upon  to  take  charge,  togeth- 
er with  Mr.  Dromgoolc,  of  a  circuit  near  f3denton.  North 
Carolina  —  the  Amelia  Circuit.  At  the  Ellis  Meeting- 
house Conference,  IMay  0, 1783,  he  was  received  on  trial. 
This  year  he  preached  with  marked  success.  He  writes, 
"  I  preached  at  Mr.  Spain's  with  great  liberty  .  .  .  the 
Spirit  of  the  Lord  came  upon  us,  and  we  were  bathed  in 
tears."  "  I  preached  at  Ilowel's  Chapel  from  Ezek.  xxxiii, 

11 I  saw  so  clearly  that  the  Lord  was  willing  to 

bless  the  people,  even  while  I  was  speaking,  that  I  be- 
gan to  feel  distressed  for  them.  .  .  .  After  stopping  and 
weeping  for  some  time,  I  began  again,  but  had  spoken 
but  a  little  while  before  the  cries  of  the  people  overcame 
me,  and  I  wept  with  them  so  that  I  could  not  speak.  I 
found  that  love  had  tears  as  well  as  grief."  Under  ap- 
pointment of  the  Conference,  which  beffan  at  Ellis  Preach- 
ing-house, Virginia,  April  30,  1784,  and  ended  at  Balti- 
more Ma^'  28  following  (see  minute  for  that  year),  he  la- 
bored in  different  circuits  with  like  success,  and  was  no^v 
regardedas  an  important  man  in  the  connection.  Decem- 
ber 12  he  was  invited  to  meet  Coke.Whatcoat,  and  Vasey 
at  the  celebrated  Christmas  Conference  of  1784  at  Balti- 
more, where,  with  the  aid  of  these  persons,  ordained  and 
sent  out  for  the  purpose  by  Sir.  Wesley,  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  was  organized.  Lee  could  not  attend 
the  Conference  from  his  distant  circuit  on  so  short  a  no- 
tice and  at  that  season  of  the  year,  but  was  immediately 
after  requested  by  bishop  Asbury  to  travel  with  him  in 
a  Southern  tour.  This  was  an  important  event  for  Lee. 
He  preached  with  the-bishop  at  Georgetown  and  Charles- 
ton. At  Cheraw  he  met  with  a  merchant  who  gave 
him  such  information  of  New  England  as  awakened  in 
him  an  eager  desire  to  transfer  his  field  of  labor  to  that 
region.  At  the  Southern  Conference,  held  in  North 
Carolina  April  20, 1785,  Lee,  in  ardent  controversy  with 
Coke,  who  was  still  in  the  countrj-,  sought  the  abroga- 
tion of  certain  stringent  rules  on  slavery  adopted  in  1784, 
which  required  of  each  member  of  the  society  the  gradual 
emancipation  of  his  slaves.  His  views  soon  prevailed. 
He  preached,  1786,  in  Kent  Circuit,  Maryland ;  1787,  in 
Baltimore;  1788,  in  Flanders  Circuit,  embracing  a  por- 
tion of  New  Jersey  and  New  York.  Previously  to  the 
General  Conference  of  1796  there  were  no  prescribed  lim- 
its to  the  several  conferences, but  they  were  held  at  (he 
discretion  of  the  bishop  as  to  time  and  place,  the  same 
preacher  being  sometimes  appointed  from  different  Con- 
ferences in  the  same  year.  At  the  Conference  held  in 
New  York,  May  28, 1789,  Lee  was  appointed  to  Stam- 
ford Circidt,  in  Connecticut,  and  now  began  his  career  in 
New  England,  which  continued  for  eleven  years.  Ne^^" 
England,  from  the  natural  temperament  of  its  inhabit- 
ants, and  their  previous  theological  education,  was  a 
hard  field  for  the  introduction  of  Methodism,  into  which 
— though  spread  into  all  the  other  Atlantic  States,  far 
into  the  West,  to  Canada  and  Nova  Scotia — it  had  not 
hitherto  ventured  with  a  set  purpose  of  permanent  oc- 
cupancy. Tlie  dearth  of  earnest  religious  interest  which 
succeeded  the  revivals  under  Edwards,  Whitefield,  and 
Tennant,  as  well  as  the  prevalent  reactionary  tendency 
to  rationalism,  furnished  sufficient  demand  for  the  zeal- 


LEE 


322 


LEE 


ous  preaching  of  the  Methodists.  They  felt  themselves 
called  also  to  a  special  mission  in  upholding  their  form 
of  doctrine  concerning  entire  sanctirtcation  in  this  life; 
but  tlieir  views  on  the  subject  oi'free  will  were  greatly 
misunderstood,  the  Methodist  Arminianism  being  con- 
founded with  Pelagianisra.  "  The  argument,"  says  John 
Edwards,  "most  constantly  used  against  Arminianism  in 
those  days  was  its  tendency  to  prepare  the  way  for 
Popery"  (as  being  a  doctrine  of  salvation  by  good  works). 
The  dominant  theology,  therefore,  gave  the  Methodist 
preachers  but  a  cold  reception.  Lee  preached  at  Nor- 
walk  tirst  in  the  street,  but  was  subsequently  allowed, 
both  in  this  and  other  places,  the  use  of  the  court- 
house, and  sometimes  of  the  meeting-house.  Thomas 
Ware,  who  heard  Lee  about  this  time,  wTites, "  When  he 
stood  up  in  the  open  air  and  began  to  sing,  I  knew  not 
what  it  meant.  I  drew  near,  however,  to  listen,  and 
thought  the  prayer  was  the  best  I  had  ever  heard.  .  .  . 
When  he  entered  upon  the  subject-matter  of  his  text,  it 
was  with  such  an  easy,  natural  flow  of  expression,  and 
in  such  a  tone  of  voice,  that  I  could  not  refrain  from 
weeping,  and  many  others  were  affected  in  the  same 
way.  When  he  was  done,  and  we  had  an  opportunity 
of  expressing  our  views  to  each  other,  it  was  agreed  that 
such  a  man  had  not  visited  New  England  since  the  days 
of  Whitelield."  At  Stratfield  he  formed  the  first  cldss, 
consisting  of  three  women,  September  26,  1787.  At 
Reading,  December  28,  he  formed  another  class  of  two. 
Thus,  at  the  end  of  seven  months'  labor,  he  had  secured 
Jiee  members  in  society.  But  the  spirit  with  which  he 
labored  appears  in  his  journal  as  follows :  "  I  love  to 
break  up  new  ground,  aiul  hunt  the  lost  souls  in  New 
England,  though  it  is  hartl  work ;  but  when  Christ  is 
with  me,  hard  things  are  made  easy,  and  rough  ways 
made  smooth."  After  preaching  to  a  large  congrega- 
tion on  one  occasion,  he  was,  as  usual,  left  to  find  shelter 
where  he  could,  and,  as  he  records,  rode  through  storm, 
"  my  soul  transplanted  with  joy,  the  snow  falling,  the 
wind  blowing,  prayer  ascending,  faith  increasing,  grace 
descending,  heaven  smiling,  and  love  abounding." 

In  February,  1790,  he  received  three  helpers.  Brush, 
Roberts,  and  Smith,  and  formed  the  New  Haven  Cir- 
cuit, He  passed  through  Rhode  Island,  and  appeared 
in  Boston  July  9.  Boardman  and  Garrettson  had  before 
preached  there,  but  no  permanent  fruit  remained  of  their 
labors.  Lee,  finding  no  house  opened,  preached  on  the 
Common  to  3000  hearers.  Though  Lee  often  returned 
to  the  city,  no  society  was  formed  there  till  July  13, 1792. 
He  had  better  success  elsewhere,  and  constantly  labored 
throughout  New  England  in  supervision  of  the  work, 
till  the  General  Conference  of  1796.  Soon  after  this 
date  he  began  to  travel  at  large  with  bishop  Asburj',  as 
his  authorized  assistant  in  preaching  and  iu  holding 
Conferences.  Thus  employed,  he  revisited  the  scenes  of 
his  former  labors  in  the  South,  and  travelled  also  through 
New  England.  The  period  of  his  labors  in  that  section 
closed  in  1800.  It  had  continued  for  eleven  years,  amid 
great  dithculties,  frequent  theological  controversies,  and 
no  small  degree  of  persecution.  The  statistical  result  at 
this  date  was  50  preachers  and  6001)  members.  At  the 
General  Conference  held  ]\Iay  6, 1800,  at  Baltimore,  Lee 
was  nearly  elected  a  bishop, W'hatcoat  being  chosen  over 
him  by  four  votes.  The  subse(iuent  portion  of  his  life 
was  spent  mostly  in  the  South,  in  earnest  and  successful 
labor  as  pastor  and  presiding  elder.  He  preferred,  says 
his  biographer,  the  former  position.  At  the  Virginia 
Conference  of  1807  his  influence  defeated,  from  an  opin- 
ion of  its  unconstitutionality,  the  proposition  to  call  an 
extraordinary  General  Conference,  iu  order  to  elect  a 
bishop  in  place  of  bishop  Whatcoat,  deceased.  He  had, 
for  like  reason,  opposed  his  own  ordination  as  assistant 
bishop  in  1796.  In  the  Virginia  Conference  of  1808  he 
advocated  a  petition  to  the  following  General  Confer- 
ence of  May  20,  1808,  to  establish  a  delegated  General 
Conference.  This  proposition  had  been  urged  by  Lee  as 
early  as  1792.  Such  action  was  tjiken  by  the  Confer- 
ence of  1808,  and  the  powers  of  the  General  Conference, 


as  the  supreme  authority  of  the  Church,  were  defined  in 
what  are  termed  the  Kestrictive  Rules.  In  the  same 
year  Lee  maile  a  last  visit  and  journey  tliroughout  New 
England,  which  was  "an  humble  but  exultant  religious 
ovation."  In  the  summer  of  1807  he  published  at  Bal- 
timore his  History  of  Methodism  in  America,  which  was 
the  first  work  of  the  kind.  During  that  year  he  served 
the  House  of  Representatives  at  Washington  as  chap- 
lain, as  he  did  also  in  1812  and  1S13.  In  1814  he  was 
chaplain  of  the  Senate.  At  the  General  Conference  of 
1812,  in  New  York,  Lee  strongly  advocated,  as  he  had 
previously  done,  the  proposition  to  make  the  office  of 
presiding  elder  elective.  He  opposed  with  equal  zeal 
the  principle  of  advancing  local  preachers  to  elders'  or- 
ders. He  continued  his  faithful  career  as  circuit  preach- 
er and  as  chaplain  to  Congress  till  1816.  He  was  present 
at  the  funeral  services  of  his  veteran  colaborer,  bishop 
Asbury,  held  by  the  General  Conference  of  1816  at  Bal- 
timore, and  did  not  long  survive  himself,  but  died  at  the 
age  of  fifty-eight,  Sept.  12,  1816.  Dr.  Stevens  closes 
his  history  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Chiu-ch  with  the 
following  characterization  of  Jesse  Lee :  "  A  man  of  vig- 
orous, though  unpolished  mind,  of  rare  popular  elo- 
quence and  tireless  energy,  an  itinerant  evangelist  from 
the  British  Provinces  to  Florida  for  thirty-five  j'ears,  a 
chief  counsellor  of  the  Church  in  its  annual  and  general 
conferences," "  founder  of  Methodism  in  New  England 
...  he  lacked  only  the  episcopal  oflice  to  give  him  rank 
with  Asbury  and  Coke.  Asbury  early  chose  him  for  the 
position  of  bishop.  Some  two  or  three  times  it  seemed 
likely  that  he  would  be  elected  to  it,  but  liis  manly  in- 
dependence and  firmness  of  opinion  in  times  of  party 
strife  were  made  the  occasion  of  his  defeat."  "In  public 
services  he  may  fairly  be  ranked  next  to  Asbury,  and  as 
founder  and  apostle  of  Eastern  Methodism  he  is  above 
any  other  official  rank.  In  this  respect  his  historic  honor 
is  quite  unique;  for, though  individual  men  have  in  sev- 
eral other  sections  initiated  the  denomination,  no  other 
founder  has,  so  completely  as  he,  introduced,  conducted, 
and  concluded  his  work,  and  from  no  other  one  man's 
similar  work  have  proceeded  equal  advantages  to  Amer- 
ican Methodism"  (iv,  610,  511).  The  same  author,  in 
another  place,  thus  presents  his  qualities  as  a  preach- 
er: "  Pathos  was  natural  to  him.  Humor  seems,  in  some 
temperaments,  to  be  the  natural  counterpart,  or,  at  least, 
reaction  of  pathos.  Lee  became  noted  for  his  wit;  we 
shall  see  it  serving  him  Avith  a  felicitous  advantage  in 
his  encounters  with  opponents,  especially  in  the  North- 
eastern States.  It  flowed  in  a  genial  and  permanent 
stream  from  his  large  heart,  and  played  most  vividlj'  in 
his  severest  itinerant  hardships;  but  he  was  fidl  offen- 
der humanity  and  affectionate  piety.  His  rich  sensibili- 
ties, rather  than  any  remarkable  inttllectual  powers, 
made  him  one  of  the  most  eloquent  and  popular  preach- 
ers of  his  day.  One  of  his  fellow-laborers,  a  man  of  ex- 
cellent judgment,  says  that  he  possessed  uncommon  col- 
loquial powers  and  a  fascinating  address;  that  his  readi- 
ness at  repartee  was  scarcely  equalled,  and  by  the  skill- 
ful use  of  this  talent  he  often  taught  those  who  were 
disposed  to  be  witty  at  his  expense  that  the  safest  way 
to  deal  with  him  was  to  be  civil.  He  was  fired  with  mis- 
sionary zeal,  and,  moreover,  was  a  man  of  great  moral 
courage"  (i,  413).  "  It  was  a  kind  of  fixed  priiuiple  with 
him,"  says  his  biographer  Lee  (p.  350),  "never  to  let  a 
congregation  go  from  his  preaching  entirely  unatfccted. 
He  would  excite  them  in  some  way.  He  would  make 
them  weep  if  he  could.  If  he  failed  in  this,  he  would 
essay  to  alarm  them  with  deep  and  solemn  warning  of 
words  and  manner;  and,  if  all  failed,  he  would  shake 
their  sides  with  some  pertinent  illustration  or  anecdote, 
and  then,  having  moved  them,  seek.  l)y  all  the  appli- 
ances of  truth,  earnestness,  and  affection,  to  guide  their 
stirred-up  thoughts  and  sympathies  to  the  fountains  of 
living  waters." — See  Life  and  Times  of  Jesse  Lee,  by  Le- 
roy  M.Lee  (Richmond,  Va.,  1848);  Stevens,  Bistort/  of 
Ike  M.  E.  Church  ;  Memoirs  of  Rev.  T.  Ware.  (E.  B.  O.) 
Lee,  Robert,  D.D.,  a  noted  Scotch  Presbyterian 


LEE 


323 


LEEK 


divine,  was  born  at  Tweedmouth  about  17%;  was  edu- 
cated at  St.  Andrew's  University,  and  became  a  minis- 
ter of  the  Gospel.  After  occupying  two  other  charges, 
he  became,  witli  Chahners  and  others,  minister  of  old 
(irayfriars,  Edinburgh.  He  died  in  aiarch,  1868,  at  Tor- 
quay, Devonshire.  Dr.  Robert  Lee  published  a  transla- 
tion' of  the  Thesis  o/Erastiis  (184-1)  :— Prayers  foi-  Pub- 
lic Worship:  —  Handbook  of  Devotion: — Prai/crs  for 
Family  Worship  : — The  Bible,  with  New  Marijinal  Ref- 
erences; a  work  which  brought  upon  liim  severe  condem- 
nation for  Rationalistic  tendency.  It  is,  however,  by  no 
means  to  be  inferred  from  this  that  Dr.  Lee  was  not  of 
the  evangelical  school;  he  fought  the  Socinians  with 
the  utmost  exertion,  and,  as  a  Scotchman  expressed  it, 
"  Dr.  Lee  emptied  the  Unitarian  chapel"  at  Edinburgh. 
Dr.  Lee  was  the  leader  in  innovations  and  changes  in 
the  Church  Establishment  of  Scotland.  His  views  were 
ultra-liberal;  and  from  the  year  1858,  when  the  innova- 
tions were  complained  of  before  the  Low-Church  courts, 
till  the  commencement  of  his  last  illness,  he  fought  a 
great  battle,  as  the  Bail;)  Review  expresses  it,  far  what 
he  deemed  a  more  liberal  construction  of  the  laws  of  the 
Church  in  the  matter  of  public  worship — in  other  words, 
publishing,  using,  defending  written  prayers — and  by  his 
own  force  of  character,  his  ingenuity  and  power  as  a 
controversialist,  and  his  influence  over  the  younger  min- 
isters of  the  Church,  he  probably  did  more  to  carry  for- 
ward the  movement  with  which  his  name  is  identified 
than  all  the  rest  of  his  brethren  who  took  part  with 
him.     See  Scotland,  Chukcii  of.     (.J.  H.  W.) 

Lee,  Robert  P.,D.D.,  a  (Dutch)  Reformed  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  1803,  at  Yorktown,  N.  Y. ;  graduated  at 
Dickinson  College  in  1824,  and  at  the  theological  semi- 
nary at  New  Brunswick  in  1828.  The  first  year  of  his 
ministry,  1828-9,  was  spent  as  a  missionary  in  New  York 
City.  He  was  pastor  of  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church 
of  Montgomery,  in  Orange  Co.,  N.  Y.,  from  1829  to  1858, 
Avhen  he  died,  in  the  midst  of  his  usefulness.  Dr.  Lee 
was  a  rare  man,  a  close  student,  a  diligent  and  accu- 
rate theologian,  an  impressive,  but  not  showy  preacher. 
His  mind  was  remarkably  clear,  comprehensive,  and 
acute.  His  judgment  was  ripe  and  instinctively  right. 
Decided  in  bis  theology,  he  loved  its  truths,  and  ex- 
pounded and  defended  them  with  tenacity  and  power. 
In  the  classis  and  synods  of  his  Church  lie  was  a  repre- 
sentative man;  among  his  brethren  and  neighboring 
congregations  he  was  a  trusted  counsellor  and  a  peace- 
maker. Without  haste  or  prejudices,  calm  and  wise,  of 
positive  character  and  noted  piety,  lie  was  always  influ- 
ential, and  yet  singularly  modest  and  retiring.  His  per- 
sonal presence  was  commanding,  his  fine  countenance 
beamed  with  intelligence  and  benevolence,  and  his  whole 
demeanor  was  such  as  became  the  true  minister  of  Christ. 
His  death  was  a  great  loss  to  the  whole  denomination, 
of  which  he  Avas  a  noble  representative. — Corwin,  lUun- 
iial  of  Personal  Recollections,  p.  1.36.     (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

Lee,  Samuel  (1),  D.D.,  a  distinguished  English 
Orientalist  and  Biblical  scholar,  was  born  at  Longnor, 
in  Shropshire,  May  14, 1783 ;  was  educated  but  moder- 
ately, and  apprenticed  to  a  carpenter.  His  aptitude  for 
learning,  however,  led  him  to  continue  his  studies  pri- 
vateh-,  and  he  thus  accpiired  the  Latin  language.  He 
next  mastered  the  Greek,  and  from  that  he  advanced 
to  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  Syriac,  and  Samaritan,  all  of  which 
he  acquired  by  his  own  unaided  efforts  before  he  was 
twenty-five  years  of  age.  By  this  time  he  had  mar- 
ried, and  exchanged  his  former  occupation  for  that  of  a 
schoolmaster.  Attracting  the  notice  of  archdeacon  Cor- 
bett  and  Dr.  .Jon.  Scott,  he  was,  by  their  aid,  enabled 
to  add  to  his  other  acquisitions  a  knowledge  of  Arabic, 
Persic,  and  Hindustanee,  as  well  as  some  European  and 
other  tongues.  In  1815  he  accepted  an  engagement 
with  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  and  became  a  stu- 
dent of  Queen's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his 
degree  of  B.A.  in  1817.  At  this  time  he  edited  portions 
of  the  Scriptures,  and  of  the  I'rayer-book,  in  several  Ori- 
ental languages.     In  1818  he  took  orders,  and  preached 


at  Shrewsbury,  still  carrying  on  his  Oriental  studies;  at 
this  time  he  is  said  to  have  had  the  mastery  over  eigh- 
teen languages.  In  1819  he  was  honored,  as  his  talents 
certainly  deserved,  with  the  professorship  of  Arabic,  and 
in  1834  was  made  regius  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Cam- 
bridge University,  besides  receiving  some  pieces  of 
Church  preferment,  and  the  title  of  D.D.,  first  from  the 
University  of  Halle,  and  then  from  that  of  Cambridge. 
Shortly  before  his  death,  Dec.  16, 1852.  he  was  made  rec- 
tor of  Barley,  in  Somersetshire,  where  he  died.  Besides 
the  editions  of  the  Scriptures  which  he  carried  through 
the  press,  he  published  several  valuable  linguistical 
works,  of  which  the  most  important  are.  Grammar  of 
the  Hebreio  Lanyuuf/e,  compiled  from  the  best  authorities, 
chiefly  Oriental,  which  has  passed  through  several  edi- 
tions : — A  Lexicon,  Ileb.,  Chald.,  and  Engl.  (Lond.  1840) : 
—  The  Book  of  the  Patriarch  Job  translated,  icith  Intro- 
duction and  Commentary  (Lond.  1837)  : — An  Inquiry  into 
the  Nature,  Progress,  and  End  of  Prophecy  (Camb.  1849) : 
—Prolegomena  in  Bib.  Polygl.  Londinens.  Minora  (Lond. 
1828).  He  also  published  an  edition  of  the  controver- 
sial tracts  of  INIartyn  and  his  opponents;  edited  Sir  Wil- 
liam Jones's  Grammar  of  the  Persian  Language,  with  an 
addition  of  his  own,  containing  a  synopsis  of  Arabic 
grammar ;  and  translated  and  annotated  the  travels  of 
Ibn-Batuta  from  the  Arabic.  A  minor  work  of  his, 
Dissent  Unscriptural  and  Unreasonable,  led  to  a  contro- 
versy with  Dr.  J.  Pye  Smith  (in  1834;  the  pamphlets 
were  published  in  1835).  Dr.  Lee  has  generally  been 
recognised  not  only  iis  a  great  scholar,  but  also  as  the 
greatest  British  Orientalist  of  his  day,  and  his  writings 
bear  evident  traces  of  a  vigorous,  earnest,  and  independ- 
ent mind,  loving  truth,  and  boldly  pursuing  it.  See 
Lond.  Genii.  Magazine,  1853,  pt.  i,  203  sq.;  BlackivooWs 
Magaziiie,  xlix,  597  sq. ;  Kitto,  Bibl.  Cyclop,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ; 
AHibone,  Diet.  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lee,  Samtiel  (2),  a  minister  of  the  United  Pres- 
byterian Church,  born  at  Jericho,  Yt.,  July  20, 1805,  was 
converted  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  and  educated  at  Ver- 
mont University.  He  studied  theology  at  Auburn 
Seminary,  and  was  licensed  and  ordained  by  Oneida 
Congregational  Council  Sept.  23, 1834.  He  spent  one 
year  of  his  ministry  at  Cazenovia,  N.  Y'.,  and  then  went 
to  Northern  Ohio,  and  took  charge  of  the  Church  in  Me- 
dina, Ohio.  Afterwards  his  labors  were  divided  between 
the  churches  of  Mantua  and  Streetsborough,  Ohio.  He 
died  Jan.  28, 18GG.— Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  A  Im.  1867,  p.  310. 
Lee,  "Wilson,  an  early  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  Sussex  County,  Del.,  in  1761 ;  entered 
the  itinerancy  in  1784;  labored  extensively  in  the  West, 
mostly  in  Kentucky,  until  1794,  when  he  was  appointed 
to  New  London,  Conn. ;  to  New  York  in  1795 ;  to  Phil- 
adelphia in  1796-7-8 ;  to  Baltimore  District  in  1801-2-3  ; 
superannuated  in  1804,  and  died  in  Arundel  County, 
Md.,  Oct.  1 1  of  the  same  year.  Mr.  Lee  was  '-one  of  the 
most  laborious  and  successful  jNIethodist  preachers  of  his 
time."  He  was  eminently  shi'ewd  and  circumspect,  and 
deeply  pious.  He  was  '■  a  witness  of  the  perfect  love  of 
God  for  many  years  before  he  died.  He  was  an  excel- 
lent presiding  elder,  and  an  eloquent,  argumentative, 
and  often  overpowering  preacher.  His  labors  in  the 
West  were  very  heroic,  and  contributed  largely  to  the 
evangelization  of  Kentuckj'  and  Tennessee." — Minutes 
of  Conferences,  i,  127;  i^{Q\e\vi,  Memorials  of  Methodism, 
ch.  xviii ;  Bangs,  Hist.  Meth.  Episc.  Ch.  vol.  i.  (G.  L.  T.) 
Leech.     See  Horse-lef.ch. 

Leek  ("I'^^n,  chatsir',  from  '^^'n,  to  enclose,  also  to 
grow  green ;  occurs  in  several  places  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, where  it  is  variously  translated,  as  gi-ass  in  1 
Kings  xviii,  5 ;  2  Kings  xix,  26 ;  Job  xl,  1 5 ;  Psa.  xxxvii, 
2,  etc.;  Isa.  xv,  6,  etc.;  herb  in  Job  viii,  12;  hay  in 
Prov.  xxvii,  25,  and  Isa.  xv,  6 ;  and  court  in  Isa.  xxxiv, 
13;  but  in  Numb,  xi,  5  it  is  translated  '-leeks;"  Sept.  to. 
■rpc'iaa,  Yii\g.  porri).  Hebrew  scholars  state  that  the 
\\OTd  signifies  '•  greens"  or  '•  grass"  in  general ;  and  it  is 
no  doubt  clear,  from  the  context  of  most  of  the  above 


LEEK 


324 


LEEK* 


passages,  that  this  must  be  its  meaning.  See  Grass. 
There  is,  therefore,  no  reason  why  it  should  not  be  so 
translated  in  all  the  passages  where  it  occurs,  except  in 
tlie  last.  It  is  evidently  incorrect  to  translate  it  hay,  as 
in  the  above  passages  of  Proverbs  and  Isaiah,  because 
the  people  of  Eastern  countries,  as  it  has  been  observed, 
do  not  make  hay.  The  author  of  Fragments,  in  contin- 
uation of  Calmet,  has  justly  remarked  on  the  incorrect- 
ness of  our  version,  '•  The  hay  appeareth,  and  the  tender 
yrass  showeth  itself,  and  the  heibs  of  the  mountains  are 
gathered''  (Prov.  xxvii,  25) :  "  Now  certainly,''  says  he, 
'■if  the  tender  ffiriss  is  but  just  beginning  to  show  itself, 
the  hay,  which  is  grass  cut  and  dried  after  it  has  arrived 
at  maturity,  ought  by  no  means  to  be  associated  with 
it;  still  less  ought  it  to  be  placed  before  it."  The  au- 
thor continues:  "The  word,  I  apprehend,  means  the 
tirst  shoots,  the  rising,  just  budding  spires  of  grass."  So 
in  Isa.  XV,  G.     See  Hay. 

In  the  passage  at  Numb,  xi,  5,  where  the  Israelites  in 
the  desert  long  for  '•  the  cucumbers,  and  the  melons,  and 
the  leeks,  and  the  onions,  and  the  garlic"  of  Egypt,  it  is 
evident  that  it  was  not  grass  which  they  desired  for 
food,  but  some  green,  perhaps  grass-like  vegetable,  for 
wliich  the  word  chatsir  is  used.  In  the  same  way  that 
in  this  country  the  word  greens  is  applied  to  many  vari- 


The  Leek  {Allium Porrum). 

eties  of  succulent  plants  as  food,  in  India  suhzi,  from 
suhz,  '•  green,"  is  used  as  a  general  term  for  herbs  cooked 
as  kitchen  vegetables.  It  is  more  tlian  probable,  there- 
fore, that  chatsir  is  here  similarly  employed,  though 
this  does  not  ])rove  that  leeks- are  intended.  Ludolphus, 
as  quoted  by  Celsius  {Ilierohot.  ii,  2G4),  supposes  that  it 
may  mean  lettuce,  or  salads  in  general,  and  others  that 
the  succory  or  endive  may  be  the  true  plant.  But  Eo- 
senmiiUer  states,  "  Tlie  most  ancient  Greek  and  the 
Clialdee  translators  unanimously  interpret  the  Hebrew 
l)y  the  Greek  -iroaaa,  or  leeks."  The  name,  moreover, 
seems  to  have  been  specially  applied  to  leeks  from  the 
resemblance  of  their  leaves  to  grass,  and  from  their  be- 
ing conspicuous  for  their  green  color.  This  is  evident 
from  minerals  even  having  been  named  from  Trpaaov 
on  account  of  their  color,  as  prasius,  prasites,  and  chry- 
soprasium.  Tlie  Arabs  use  the  wortl  h'lras,  or  Jcuraf/i, 
as  tlie  translation  of  the  -pcKrof  of  the  Greeks,  and 
with  tliem  it  signifies  the  leek,  both  at  the  present  dav 
and  in  their  older  works.  It  is  curious  that  of  tlic  dif- 
ferent kinds  described,  one  is  called  kurusal-bukl,  or 
leek  used  as  a  vegetable.  That  the  leek  is  esteemed  in 
Egypt  we  have  the  testimony' of  Hasschpitst,  who  says 
{Travels,  p.  291),  '•  The  kind  called  karrat  by  the  Arabs 
must  certainly  have  been  one  of  those  desired  by  the 
children  of  Israel,  as  it  has  been  cultivated  and  esteemed 
from  the  earliest  times  to  the  present  time  m  Egypt." 


The  Romans  employed  it  much  as  a  seasoning  to  their 
dishes  (Horace,  Ej).  i,  12,  21 ;  Martial,  iii,  47,  8),  and  it 
is  an  ingredient  in  a  number  of  recipes  in  Ajiicius  re- 
ferred to  by  Celsius  {Hierobot.  ii,  2G3 ;  comp.  Pliny,  IJist. 
Nat.  xix,  G  ;  HiUer,  JJierophyi.  pt.  ii,  p.  3G ;  Diosc.  ii,  4; 
Athen.  iv,  137, 170).  The  leek  (.4  lliian  porrum)  was  in- 
troduced into  England  about  the  year  1562,  and  thence, 
ill  due  time,  into  America ;  and,  as  is  well  known,  it  con- 
tinues to  be  esteemed  as  a  seasoning  to  soups  and  stews 
in  most  civilized  countries. — Kitto. 

There  is,  however,  another  and  a  very  ingenious  in- 
terpretation of  chatsir,  first  proposed  by  HengstenLerg, 
and  received  by  Dr.  Kitto  {Pictorial  Bible,  Numb,  xi,  b), 
which  adopts  a  more  literal  translation  of  the  original 
word,  for,  says  Kitto,  "  among  the  wonders  in  the  natu- 
ral history  of  Egypt,  it  is  mentioned  by  travellers  that 
the  common  people  there  eat  with  special  relish  a  kind 
of  grass  similar  to  clover."  Mayer  {Reise  nach  ^Egyp- 
tien,  p.  22G)  says  of  this  plant  (whose  scientific  name  is 
Trigonella  Fonnum- gracum,  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Leguminosce)  that  it  is  similar  to  clover,  but  its 
leaves  more  pointed,  and  that  great  quantities  of  it  are 
eaten  by  the  people.  Forskal  mentions  the  Trigonella 
as  being  grown  in  the  gardens  at  Cairo ;  its  native  name 
is Ilalbeh  {Flor.  yEgyptiaca,  p. 81).  Somiini  {Voyage,  i, 
379)  says,  "In  this  fertile  country  the  Egyptians  them- 
selves eat  thQ  fmu-grec  so  largely  that  it  may  be  prop- 


A<h 


Trigonella  Foenum-grcccum. 

erly  called  the  food  of  man.  In  the  month  of  Novem- 
ber they  cry  '  Green  halbeli  for  sale !'  in  the  streets  of 
the  town ;  it  is  tied  up  in  large  bunches,  which  the  in- 
habitants purchase  at  a  low  price,  and  which  they  eat 
with  incredible  greediness  without  any  kind  of  season- 
ing." The  seeds  of  this  plant,  which  is  also  cultivated 
in  Greece,  are  often  used ;  the}'  are  eaten  boiled  or  raw, 
mixed  with  honey.  Forskal  includes  it  in  the  materia 
medica  of  Egypt  {Mctt.  ^[ed.  Kahir.  p.  155).  There  does 
not  appear,  however,  sufficient  reason  for  ignoring  the 
old  versions,  which  all  seem  agreed  that  the  leek  is  the 
plant  denoted  by  chatsir,  a  vegetable  from  the  earliest 
times  a  great  favorite  with  the  Egyptians,  as  both  a 
nourishing  and  savory  food.  Some  have  objected  that, 
as  the  Egyptians  held  the  leek;  onion,  etc.,  sacred,  they 
would  abstain  from  eating  these  vegetables  themselves, 
and  woiUd  not  allow  the  Israelites  to  use  them  (compare 
Juvenal,  Sat.  xv,  9).  We  have,  however,  the  testimony 
of  Herodotus  (ii,  125)  to  show  that  onions  were  eaten  by 
the  Egj-ptian  poor,  for  he  says  that  on  one  of  the  pyra- 
mids is  shown  an  inscription,  which  was  exjilained  to 
him  by  an  interpreter,  showing  how  much  money  was 
spent  in  jiroviding  radishes,  onions,  and  garlic  fur  the 
workmen.  The  priests  were  not  allowed  to  eat  these 
things,  and  Plutarch  {De  Is.  et  Osir.  ii,  p.  353)  tells  us 
the  reasons.  The  Welshman  reverences  his  leek,  and 
wears  one  on  St.  David's  day ;  he  eats  the  leek  neverthe- 
less, and  doubtless  the  Egyptians  were  not  overscrupu- 
lous {Script.  Herbal,  p.  230). — Smith. 


LEES 


325 


LEGALISTS 


Lees  (only  ill  the  plural  D'^"i'?3'J,  sliemarim',  from 
l^'IJ,  to  keep  [Jer.  xlviii,  11  ;  Zcph.  i,  12;  rendered 
"  wines  on  tlie  lees"  in  Isa.  xxv,  G ;  "  dregs"  in  Psa.  Ixxv, 
8];  Sept.  rpDyiat ;  Vulgate ytfces).  The  Hebrew  term 
^■^'ly,  sheinei-  (the  presumed  singular  form  of  the  above), 
bears  the  radical  sense  of pi-eservaiion,  and  was  applied 
to  "  lees"  from  the  custom  of  allowing  the  wine  to  stand 
on  the  lees  in  order  that  its  color  and  body  might  be 
better  preserved;  hence  the  expression  "wine  on  the 
lees,"  as  meaning  a  generous,  fidl- bodied  liquor  (Isa. 
xxv,  G ;  see  Henderson,  ad  loc).  The  wine  in  this  state 
remained,  of  course,  undisturbed  in  its  cask,  and  became 
thick  and  sirupy ;  hence  the  proverb  "  to  settle  upon 
one's  lees,"  to  express  the  sloth,  indifference,  and  gross 
stupidity  of  the  ungodly  (Jer.  xlviii,  11;  Zeph,  i,  12). 
Before  the  wine  was  consumed  it  was  necessary  to  strain 
off  the  lees ;  such  ^vine  was  then  termed  "  well  refined" 
(Isa.  xxv,  G).  To  drink  the  lees  or  "  dregs"  was  an  ex- 
pression for  the  endurance  of  extreme  punishment  (Psa. 
Ixxv,  8). — Smith.  An  ingenious  writer  in  Kitto's  Ci/- 
chpcedia  (s.  v.  Shemarim)  thinks  that  some  kind  ofjjfe- 
serves  from  grapes  are  meant  in  Isa.  xxv,  G,  as  the  ety- 
mology of  the  word  suggests ;  but  this  supposition,  al- 
though it  clears  the  passage  from  some  difficulties,  is  op- 
jiosetl  to  the  usage  of  the  term  in  the  other  places.  See 
Wine. 

Leaser,  Isaac,  a  noted  Jewish  theologian  and  re- 
ligious writer,  was  born  at  Neukirch,  in  Westphalia,  in 
180G.  In  1825  he  emigrated  to  America,  and  became  in 
1829  rabbi  of  the  prmtipal  synagogue  of  Philadelphia. 
This  position  he  resigned  in  1850,  and  died  in  that  city 
in  18G8.  Leeser  \vas  a  superior  scholar  and  preacher, 
and  among  his  people  his  memory  will  ever  be  resjiected 
and  honored.  His  works,  which  are  completely  cited  in 
Alllbone,  iJicf.  of  British  aiul  American  Authors, yo\.  ii, 
s.  v.,  are  mainly  contributions  to  Jewish  literature — prin- 
cipaDy  Jewish  history  and  theology.  In  1843  he  as- 
sumed the  editorship  of  the  Jewish  Adrocaie  (or  Occi- 
dent). Very  valuable  is  his  edition  of  the  O.-T.  Scrip- 
tures in  the  original,  based  on  the  labors  of  I7ni  der 
Hooght,  and  published  by  Lippincott  and  Co.  (Philadel. 
18G8,8vo). 

Le  Fevre.     See  Faber  Stapulexsis. 

Left  (prop.  PIN^b,  semol',  a  primitive  word ;  Gr. 
evwi'vixog,  lit.  well-named,  i.  e.  lucky,  by  euphemism  for 
(\piarep6c,  as  opposed  to  'p'3'^,  ^t^ioc,  the  right).  The 
left  hand,  like  tlie  Latin  Iwrus,  was  esteemed  of  iU  omen, 
hence  the  term  sinister  as  equivalent  to  unfortunate. 
This  was  especialh'  the  case  among  the  superstitious 
Greeks  and  Romans  (see  Potter's  Gr.  Ant.  i,  323;  Adams, 
Bom.  Ant.  p.  301).  Among  the  Hebrews  the  left  like- 
wise indicated  the  no7-th  (Job  xxiii,  9 ;  Gen.  xiv,  15), 
the  person's  face  being  supposed  to  be  turned  towards 
the  east.  In  all  these  respects  it  was  precisely  the  op- 
posite of  the  rif/ht  (q.  v.). 

LEFT-HANDED  Oi^T^'^  l'^!  I^X,  shut  as  to  his 
right  hand  [Judg.ui,!^;  xx,  16];  Sept.  6^i(poTSpo()t'^ioc, 
Vulgate  q7,i  utraque  mann  pro  dextera  utehatur,  and  ita 
sinistra  lit  dextra  prcelians),  properly  one  that  is  imable 
skilfully  to  use  his  right  hand,  and  hence  employs  the 
left ;  but  also,  as  is  usual,  ambidexter,  i.  e.  one  who  can 
use  the  left  hand  as  well  as  the  right,  or,  more  literally, 
one  Avhose  hands  are  both  right  hands.  It  was  long 
supposed  that  both  hands  are  naturally  equal,  and  that 
the  preference  of  the  right  hand,  and  comparative  inca- 
pacity of  the  left,  are  the  result  of  education  and  habit. 
]5ut  it  is  now  known  that  the  difference  is  really  phys- 
ical (see  Bell's  Bridgewater  Treatise  on  the  IlaiuV),  and 
that  the  ambidexterous  condition  of  the  hands  is  not  a 
natural  development.     See  Ambidexter. 

The  capacity  of  equal  action  with  both  hands  was 
highly  prized  in  ancient  times,  especially  in  war. 
Among  the  Hebrews  this  quality  seems  to  have  been 
most  common  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  for  all  the  per- 
sons noticed  as  being  endued  with  it  were  of  that  tribe. 


By  comparing  Judg.  iii,  15;  xx,  IG,  with  1  Chron.  xii, 
2,  we  may  gather  that  the  persons  mentioned  in  the 
two  former  texts  as  '•  left-handed"  were  really  ambidex- 
ters. In  the  latter  text  we  learn  that  the  Benjaraites 
who  joined  David  at  Ziklag  were  "  mighty  men,  helpers 
of  the  war.  They  were  armed  with  bows,  and  could 
use  both  the  right  hand  and  the  left  in  hurling  [sling- 
ing] and  shooting  arrows  out  of  a  bow."  There  were 
thirty  of  them  ;  and  as  they  appear  to  have  been  all  of 
one  family,  it  might  almost  seem  as  if  the  greater  com- 
monness of  this  power  among  the  Benjamites  arose  from 
its  being  a  hereditary  peculiarity  of  certain  families  in 
that  tribe.  It  may  also  partly  have  been  the  result  of 
cultivation ;  for,  although  the  left  hand  is  not  naturally 
an  equally  strong  and  ready  instrument  as  the  right 
hand,  it  may  doubtless  be  often  rendered  such  by  early 
and  suitable  training. — Kit  to.     See  Hand. 

Leg  is  the  rendering  of  several  words  in  the  A.  V. 
Usually  the  Heb.  term  is  i'^S,  lara'  (only  in  the  dual 
B"'^'13),  the  lower  limb  or  shank  of  an  animal  (Exod. 
xii,  9  ;'  xxix,  17  ;  Lev.  i,  9, 13 ;  iv,  11 ;  viii,  21 ;  ix,  14 ; 
Amos  iii,  12)  or  a  locust  (Lev.  xi,  21) ;  the  oKiXoc,  of  a 
man  (John  xix,  31,  32,  33).  pid,  shuk  (Chald.  plj, 
shak,  of  an  image,  Dan.  ii,  33),  is  properly  the  shin  or 
lower  part  of  the  leg,  but  used  of  the  whole  limb,  e.  g. 
of  a  person  (Deut.  xxviii,  13 ;  Psa.  cxlvii,  10 ;  Prov. 
xxv'i,  7;  "thigh,"  Isa.  xlvii,  2;  in  the  phrase  "/»})  [q. 
v.]  and  thigh,"  Judg.  xv,  7 ;  spoken  also  of  the  drawers 
or  leggins,  Cant,  v,  15) ;  also  the  "  heave  shoulder"  (q.  v.) 
of  the  sacrifice  (Exod.  xxix,  22,  etc. ;  1  Sam.  ix,  24). 
Once  by  an  extension  of  PS"!,  i-e'gel  (1  Sam.  xvii,  G), 
properly  a  foot  (as  usually  rendered).  Elsewhere  im- 
properly for  ?!2uj,  sho'bel,  the  train  or  trailing  dress  of 
a  female  (Isa.  xlvii,  2) ;  and  In'n"^,  tsedda',  a  step-chain 
for  the  feet,  or  perh.  bracelet  for  the  wrist  ("  ornament 
of  the  leg,"  Isa.  iii,  20).     See  Thigh. 

Goliath's  greaves  for  his  legs  doubtless  extended  from 
the  knee  to  the  foot  (1  Sam.  xvii,  G).  See  Gkeaa'es. 
The  bones  of  the  legs  of  persons  crucified  were  broken 
to  hasten  their  death  (John  xix, 31).    See  Ckccifixion. 

Legalists.  Properly  speaking,  a  legalist  is  one 
who  "  acts  according  to  the  law ;"  but  in  general  tlic 
term  is  made  use  of  to  denote  one  who  seeks  salralion  by 
u-o}-ks  of  law  (not  of  the  law,  but  of  "law"  generally, 
whether  moral  or  ceremonial,  t4'  ipyeov  ropov,  Eom.  v, 
20)  instead  of  by  the  merits  of  Christ.  Manj^  who  are 
alive  to  the  truth  that  it  is  impossible  to  do  anything 
that  can  purchase  salvation,  and  who  desire  that  thLi 
doctrine  should  be  earnestly  and  constantly  incidcated 
by  Christian  ministers  in  their  teaching,  conceive  that 
there  is  a  danger  also  on  the  opposite  side';  and  that 
while  plain  Antinomian  teaching  would  disgust  most 
hearers,  there  is  a  kind  of  doctrine  scarcely  less  mis- 
chievous in  its  consequences,  that  which  only  uiciden- 
tally  touches  on  good  works.  They  think  that  what- 
ever leads  or  leaves  men,  without  distinctly  rejecting 
Christian  virtue,  to  feel  little  anxiety  and  take  little 
pains  about  it;  anything  which,  though  perhaps  not  so 
meant,  is  liable  to  be  so  understood  by  those  who  have 
the  wish  as  to  leave  them  without  any  feeling  of  real 
shame,  or  mortification,  or  alarm  on  account  of  their 
own  faults  and  moral  deficiencies,  so  as  to  make  them 
anxiously  watchful  onl//  against  seeking  salvation  bg 
good  works,  and  not  at  all  against  seeking  salvation 
without  good  works — all  this  (they  consider)  is  likely  to 
be  much  more  acceptable  to  the  corrupt  disposition  of 
the  natural  man  than  that  which  urges  the  necessity  of 
being  '■•careful  to  maintain  good  works."  Those  who 
take  such  a  view  of  the  danger  of  the  case  thiuk  that 
Christian  teachers  should  not  shrink,  through  fear  of 
incurring  the  wrongful  imputation  of  ''legalism,"  from 
earnestly  inculcating  the  points  Avhich  the  apoftlts  found 
it  necessarv  to  dwell  on  with  such  continual  watchful- 
ness and  frecjuent  repetition.  But  in  general  the  term 
is  made  use  of  to  denote  one  who  expects  salvation  by 


LEGATES 


326 


LEGATES 


his  own  works.  "We  may  further  consider  a  legalist  as 
one  who  has  no  proper  conviction  of  the  evil  of  sin; 
who,  although  he  pretends  to  abide  by  the  law,  yet  has 
not  a  just  idea  of  its  spirituality  and  demands,  lie  is 
ignonint  of  the  grand  scheme  of  salvation  by  free  grace: 
proud  of  his  own  fancied  righteousness,  he  submits  not 
to  the  righteousness  of  God;  he  derogates  from  the 
honor  of  Christ  by  mixing  his  own  works  with  his ;  and, 
in  fact,  denies  the  necessity  of  the  work  of  the  Spirit  by 
supposing  that  he  has  ability  in  himself  to  perform  all 
those  duties  which  God  has  required.  Such  is  the 
character  of  the  legalist,  a  character  diametrically  op- 
posite to  that  of  the  true  Christian,  whose  sentiment 
corresponds  with  that  of  the  apostle,  who  justly  observes, 
"  By  grace  are  j'e  saved,  through  faith,  and  that  not  of 
yourselves :  it  is  the  gift  of  God.  Not  of  works,  lest  any 
man  should  boast"  (Eph.  ii,  S,  9).— Eden,  Thcol.  Did.  s. 
v.;  Buck,  Theol.  Did.  s.  v. ;  Buchanan,  Dodrine  ofjus- 
tijiciition,  Lect.  vi,  especially  p.  153  sq. 

Legates   and  Nuncios   of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  AVith  reference  to  the  endeavors  of  that  Church 
to  unite  all  the  congregations  into  one  vast  system,  and 
to  rule  over  them  successfully,  preventing  all  heresy 
and  division,  the  Council  of  Sardica   (343)    expressly 
stated :  '•  Quod  si  is,  qui  rogat  causam  suam  iterum  au- 
diri,  deprecatione  sua  moverit  episcopum  Romanum,  ut 
de  latere  suo  jjresbyteros  mittat,  erit  in  potestate  ejus,"  etc. 
{Con.  Sardic.  c.  7,  in  c.  3(>,  can.  ii,  qu.  vi).     The  Romish 
clergy  was  therefore  sent  abroad  everywhere.     In  tlie 
African  churches,  however,  they  refused  to  admit  into 
fellowship  those  "qui  ad  transmarina  (concilia)  putave- 
rit  appellandum"  (Codex  ecdes.  Afric.  c.  125),  and  wrote 
to  Celestine  at  Rome, "  Ut  aliqui  tanquam  a  tu;i3  sancti- 
tatis  latere  mittantur,  nulla  invenimus  patrum  synodo 
constitutum"  (ibid.  c.  13o).     Thomassin  (  Veins  ac  nova 
ecdesicB  disciplina,  p.  i,  lib.  ii,  cap.  117)  has  collected  in- 
stances of  delegations  having  been  sent  in  various  cases 
during  the  4th  and  5th  centuries.     But,  as  vicars  of  the 
bishop  of  Rome,  we  find  in  Western  Illyria  the  bishops 
of  Thessalonica  after  Damasus  (a.  3G7) ;   in  Gaul,  the 
bishops  of  Aries  after  Zosimus  (a.  417) ;  in  Spain,  the 
bishops  of  Seville  after  Simplicius  (a.  467)  (Constant, 
De  aiiiiquis  canonum  colledionibus,  No.  23-25;  GaUande, 
De  vetuslig  canonum  colledionibus  dissert,  i,  23  sq. ;  Pe- 
trus  de  Marca,  De  concordia  sacerdotii  ac  imperii,  lib. 
V,  cap.  19  sq.,  30  sq.).     Among  the  delegates  of  the 
bishop  of  Rome  we  must  also  put  the  Apocrisiarii  [see 
Apockisiarius]  sent  to  the  imperial  court  at  Constan- 
tinople.    Leo  I,  and  particularly   Gregory  I,  carefully 
continued  the  relations  established  by  their  legates,  and 
created  more,  in  order  to  improve  the  condition  of  the 
churches,  and  to  increase  the  influence  of  Rome.    Greg- 
ory appointed  bishop  Maximus  of  Syracuse  over  all  the 
churches  of  Sicily  (•'  super  cunctas  ecclesias  Siciliaj  te . . . 
vices  sedis  apostolicic  ministrare  decernimus"),  with  the 
right  of  deciding  on  all  except  the  caii.fcp.  majores.    This 
office  was,  however,  vested  only  in  the  individual,  not 
in  the  see  ("  Quas  vices  non  loco  tribuimus,  sed  perso- 
naj,'"  c.  6,  X.  De  prcesumtionibus,  ii,  23,  a.  592;  c.  3,  can. 
vii,  qu.  i,  30  [a.  591],  c.  39;  can.xi,qu.i,  and  Gonzalez 
Tellez  to  c.  1,  X.  De  oplcio  legati,  i,  30,  a.  9).    To  England 
Gregory  sent  Augustine  (a. (501),  with  the  mission  of  im- 
proving the  Church  organization  of  that  country,  and 
particularly  of  upholding  the  episcopacy  (Kpist.  64,  a. 
601, in  c.3,can.  xxv,(iu.ii);  and  Agathon  (678)  also  sent 
the  Roman  abbot  .JdIiii  to  that  country  to  organize  wor- 
ship, convoke  a  council  to  intpurc  into  the  state  of  re- 
ligion, and  report  thereon  at  his  return  (Beda, ///x/. /scrZ. 
lib.  iv,  cap.  18).    Augustine  is  said  to  have  himself  taken 
part  in  settling  ecclesiastical  affairs  during  a  journey 
through  Gaul,  and  conferred  with  the  bislioji  of  Aries  as 
his  legate.     (Jregory  I  sent  also  other  special -delegates 
to  (iaul,  in  order  to  imi)roveJhe  state  of  the  churches 
there,  with  the  aid  of  the  bishops  and  Ih'o  king  (Tho- 
massin, c.  118).    In  the  course  of  time  the  legates  were 
empowered  to  act  by  themselves  on  the  orders  commu- 
nicated to  them  at  Rome.     The  vicariates  became  con- 


nected with  some  of  the  ancient  bishoprics,  by  whoso  in- 
cumbents they  had  long  been  exercised,  and  it  became 
difficult  to  erect  new  jiermanent  ones  on  account  of  the 
opposition  of  the  other  dignitaries  of  the  Church ;  so 
that  special  delegates  were  only  sent  when  affairs  of  im- 
portance rendered  such  a  step  necessarj'.  Even  then  it 
became  customary  to  await  the  wish,  or  at  least  to  se- 
cure the  sanction,  of  the  governments  into  whose  states 
they  were  sent.  There  were,  then,  two  kinds  of  legates, 
the  legati  nati,  and  the  legati  dati  or  missi. 

1.  Legati  nati,  in  cases  where  the  legation  was  con- 
nected with  a  bishopric.  The  rights  of  such  a  legate 
were  at  first  very  large;  his  jurisdiction  had  the  char- 
acter o{  jurisdictio  ordinaria  ;  it  also  appears  as  ordi- 
narii  ordimirioiiim,  and  formed  a  court  of  last  resort  for 
those  who  voluntarily  appealed  to  it.  After  the  16th 
century  their  prerogatives  were  gradually  restricted, 
and  finally,  after  the  introduction  of  the  legati  a  latere, 
the  title  became  merely  a  nominal  one,  the  metropolitan 
not  being  even  entitled  to  having  the  cross  borne  before 
him  where  there  was  a  legatus  a  latere  (c.  23,  X.  De 
privilegiis,  v,  33 ;  Innocent  III,  in  c.  5,  Cone.  Lateran, 
a.  1215). 

2.  Legati  missi  or  dati.  These  are  divided  into,  (1) 
Delegati,  appointed  for  one  specific  object.  It  was  al- 
ready forbidden  in  the  INIiddle  Ages  to  appoint  members 
of  the  clergy  in  their, place.  (2)  Xunrii  (ipDStoIifi.  \\\\o 
are  empowered  to  enforce  the  commands  contained  in 
their  mandates.  In  order  to  effect  this  object  they 
were  given  a  right  of  jurisdiction  until  the  IQth  centu- 
ry. To  enable  them  to  legislate  in  reserved  cases,  they 
Avere  invested  with  a  mandatum  spedcde,  making  the 
reservations  generaliter  for  them.  They  could  grant 
indulgences  for  anj^  period  not  exceeding  a  year.  All 
other  legates  were  subject  to  them  except  such  as  had 
special  j>rivileges  granted  them  by  the  pope.  The  in- 
signia of  the  nuncio  comprised  a  red  dress,  a  white 
horse,  and  golden  spurs.  (3)  Legati  ah  latere.  Special 
delegates  who  acted  as  actual  representatives  of  the 
popes,  and  who  possessed  all  the  highest  prerogatives. 
Their  plenarj'  power  is  thus  expressed :  "  Nostra  vice, 
qua3  corrigenda  sunt  corrigat,  qua:  statuenda  constituat" 
(Gregor.  ATI, Kji. lil >. iv, ep. 26).  They  exercised  ajuris- 
dictio  ordinaria  in  the  provinces,  had  power  to  suspend 
the  bishops,  and  to  dispose  of  all  reserved  cases.  The 
manifold  complaints  which  arose  in  the  course  of  time 
led  the  popes  to  alter  some  points  of  the  system.  Leo 
X,  in  the  Lateran  Council  of  1515,  caused  it  to  be  ruled 
that  the  cardinal  legate  should  have  a  settled  residence; 
and  the  Congrcgatio  pro  interpretatione  Cone.  Trid.  con- 
strued the  resolutions  of  the  councils  so  as  to  make  them 
very  favorable  to  the  bishops. 

The  Reformation  gave  occasion  for  the  sending  of  a 
large  number  of  legates,  and  also  for  the  nomination  of 
permanent  nuncios  at  Lucerne.  1579;  Vienna,  1581 ;  Co- 
logne, 1582;  Brussels,  1588  :  this,  howe^-er,  gave  rise  to 
fresh  disturbances  in  the  Church.     The  troubles  caused 
by  the  nuncios  were  the  cause  of  the  adoption  of  a  new 
article  under  the  gravamina  tiationis  Germaniccv.     In 
the  mean  time  the  French  Revolution  broke  out,  dis- 
turbing all  iireconceived  plans.     After  the  restoration 
of  order  in  the  hierarchy  the  system  of  legations  was 
revived,  but  with  many  modifications,  altering  its  ;Mid- 
dle-Age  features.     The  second  article  of  the  French 
Concordat  of  1801  states  expressly:  '-Aucun  individu  se 
disant  nonce,  legat,  vicaire  ou  commissaire  aiiostoliquc, 
ou  se  prevalant  de  toute  autre  denomination,  nc  pourra, 
sans  Tautorisation  du  gouvernement,  exerccr  sur  lo  sol 
Franc^^ais  ni  ailleurs,  aucune  fonction  relative  aux  affaires 
I  de  I'eglise  Gallicane."    This  clearly  removed  the  original 
\  foundation  of  the  intercourse  formerly  existing  between 
i  the  ])ai)al  see  and  these  countries.     Moreover,  several 
1  Roman  Catholic  governments,  such  as  Austria,  France, 
Spain,  etc.,  reserved  to  themselves  the  right  to  point 
out  the  parties  who  should  be  accredited  to  their  courts 
i  as  nuncios  {\s\\:\\xr,  ICuropdischesVolkerr.  §  186,  Anm. 
!  a.).     The  formula  of  the  oath  of  obedience  to  tlir  pope. 


LEGEND 


327 


LEGEND 


which,  since  Gregory  VII,  is  taken  by  bishops  at  their 
ordination,  says:  "  Legatum  apostolicffl  sedis  .  .  .  hono- 
ritife  tractabo  et  in  suis  necessitatibus  adjuvabo"  (c.  4, 
X.  Be  jurejurando,  ii,  24).  This  involves  the  duty  of 
supporting  the  procurations.  But  the  state  is  also  en- 
listed on  account  of  its  power. 

The  usual  envoys  of  the  pope  have  now  the  titles  of, 
1.  Lerjati  nati,  no  longer  invested  with  an  inherent  right 
to  the  management  of  ecclesiastical  affairs.  2.  Leguli 
duti,  mksi,  which  are  divided  into  (1)  Lefjati  a  latere 
or  de  latere,  who,  it  is  stated,  are  entitled  to  be  canoni- 
cally  designated  as  cardinals  a  latere  or  legates  de  la- 
tere. This  is  incorrect,  for  cardinals  are  now  seldom 
sent  on  such  missions,  if  ever,  but,  on  the  contrary,  other 
members  of  the  clergy,  cum  jwtestate  legati  a  latere.  (2) 
Nuncii  apostolici,  bearers  of  apostolic  mandates.  ^Vlule 
the  ibrmer  are  looked  upon  as  ambassadors,  it  is  a  nice 
question  whether  the  latter  occupy  the  second  position, 
that  of  envoys.  They  are  either  ordinary  permanent 
nuncios,  as  in  Germany,  or  extraordinarj',  sent  for  some 
special  purpose.  (3)  Internuncii  (residentes),  considered 
by  some  as  forming  a  third  class,  by  others  as  belonging 
to  the  second.  At  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  1815,  it  was 
decided  by  the  first  article  of  the  Rhjlement  sur  le  rang 
entre  ks  A  gens  diplomatiques  that  the  first  class  would 
be  formed  oi  A7nbat!sudeiirs,  Legats  ou  Nonces;  and  in 
article  fourth,  that  no  change  would  be  made  in  regard 
to  papal  representatives.  See  YAixhax^Volkerrecht ;  Ileff- 
tex,Vulkerrecht ;  MhuiH', Das Eui-opaiscke Gesamlschqfts- 
rechf;  Schulte,  Katliolisch.  Kirchenrecht  (Giessen,  1856) ; 
Walter,  Kirchenrecht  (11th  edit.  Bonn,  18.54)  ;  Herzog, 
Real-Encyklop.  viii.  269  sq. ;  Wetzer  und  AVelte,  Kirchen- 
Lexikon,  vi,  409  sq. 

Legend  (Lat.  legemla, "  things  to  be  read,"  lessons) 
was  the  name  given  in  early  times,  in  the  lloman  Cath- 
olic Church,  to  a  book  containing  the  daily  lessons  which 
were  wont  to  be  read  as  part  of  divine  service.  This 
name,  however,  in  process  of  time,  was  used  to  designate 
the  lives  of  saints  and  martyrs,  as  well  as  the  collection 
of  such  narratives,  from  the  fact  that  these  were  read  by 
the  monks  at  matins,  and  after  dinner  in  the  refectories. 
Among  numerous  theories  as  to  the  origin  of  the  le- 
gends, the  following  is  the  most  probable.  Before  col- 
leges were  established  in  the  monasteries  where  the 
schools  were  held,  the  professors  in  rhetoric  frequently 
gave  their  pupils  the  life  of  some  saint  for  a  trial  of  their 
talent  for  awplijication.  The  students,  being  constant- 
ly at  a  loss  to  furnish  out  their  pages,  invented  most  of 
these  wonderful  adventures.  Jortin  observes  that  the 
Cliristians  used  to  collect,  out  of  Ovid,  Livy,  and  other 
pagan  poets  and  historians,  the  miracles  and  portents  to 
be  found  there,  and  accommodated  them  to  their  own 
monks  and  saints.  The  good  fethers  of  that  age,  whose 
simplicity  was  not  inferior  to  their  devotion,  were  so  de- 
lighted with  these  tlo-\vers  of  rhetoric  that  they  were  in- 
duced to  make  a  collection  of  these  miraculous  composi- 
tions, not  imagining  that  at  some  distant  period  they 
would  become  matters  of  faith.  Yet,  when  Jacob  de  Vo- 
ragine,  Peter  de  Natalibus,  and  Peter  Pdbadeneira  wrote 
the  lives  of  the  saints,  they  sought  for  their  materials  in 
the  libraries  of  the  monasteries ;  and,  awakening  from 
tlie  dust  these  manuscripts  of  amplification,  imagined 
they  made  an  invaluable  present  to  the  world  by  laying 
before  them  these  voluminous  absiudities.  The  people 
received  these  pious  fictions  with  all  imaginable  sim- 
plicity, and,  as  few  were  able  to  read,  the  books  con- 
taining them  were  amply  illustrated  with  cuts  which 
rendered  the  story  intelligible. 

IMany  of  these  legends,  the  production  of  monastics, 
were  invented,  especially  in  the  Middle  Ages,  with  a 
view  to  sers-c  the  interests  of  monasticism,  particularly 
to  exalt  the  character  of  the  monastic  orders,  and  to 
represent  their  voluntary  austerities  as  purchasing  the 
peculiar  fjxvor  of  heaven.  For  this  purpose  they  un- 
scrupulously ascribe  to  their  patrons  and  founders  the 
power  of  working  miracles  on  the  most  trifiing  occa- 
sions.    Many  of  these  miracles  are  blasphemous  paro- 


dies on  those  of  our  blessed  Lord;  not  a  few  are  bor- 
rowed from  the  pagan  mythology ;  but  some  are  so  ex- 
quisitely absurd  that  no  one  but  a  monk  coulil  have 
dreamed  of  imposing  such  nonsense  on  the  most  besotted 
of  mankind.     "  It  would  be  easy  to  accumulate  proofs 
of  the  ready  belief  which  the  lower  orders  of  Irish  Ro- 
manists give  to  tales  of  miracles  worked  by  their  priests; 
but  it  is  remarkable  that  in  the  earlier  legends  we  very 
rarely  find  supernatural  po\vers  attributed  to  the  secular 
ecclesiastics ;  the  heroes  of  most  of  the  tales  are  monks 
and  hermits,  whose  voluntary  poverty  seemed  to  bring 
them  down  to  a  level  of  sympathy  with  the  lower  or- 
ders.    Indiscriminate  alms,  which  have  often  been  dem- 
onstrated to  be  the  source  of  great  evils,  are  always  pop- 
ular with  the  uninstructed,  and  hence  we  find  that  many 
of  the  heroes  of  the  legends  are  celebrated  for  the  prod- 
igahty  of  their  benevolence.    .The  miracles  attributed 
to  the  Irish  saints  are  even  more  extravagant  than  those 
in  the  Continental  martyrologies.     We  find  St.  Patrick 
performing  the  miracle  of  raising  the  dead  to  life  no  less 
than  seventeen  times,  and  on  one  occasion  he  restores 
animation  to  thirty-four  persons  at  once.     Gerald, bish- 
op of  Mayo,  however,  surpassed  St.  Patrick,  for  he  not 
onlj'  resuscitated  the  dead  daughter  of  the  king  of  Con- 
naught,  but  miraculously  changed  her  sex,  that  she 
might  inherit  the  crown  of  the  province,  in  which  the 
Salic  law  was  then  established.     We  find,  also,  in  the 
ecclesiastical  writers,  many  miracles  specially  worked  to 
support  individual  doctrines,  particularly  the  mystery 
of  transubstantiation.    Indeed,  a  miracle  appears  to  have 
been  no  unusual  resource  of  a  puzzled  controversialist. 
On  one  occasion  the  sanctitj'  of  the  wafer  is  stated  to 
have  been  proved  by  a  mule's  kneeling  to  worship  it; 
at  another  time  a  pet  lamb  kneels  down  at  the  elevation 
of  the  host ;  a  spider,  which  St.  Francis  d'Ariano  acci- 
dentally swallowed  while  receiving  the  sacrament,  came 
out  of  his  thigh ;  and  when  St.  Elmo  Avas  pining  at  be- 
ing too  long  excluded  from  a  participation  in  the  sacra- 
mental mysteries,  the  holy  elements  were  bro;  ^ht  to 
him  by  a  pigeon.    But  the  principal  legends  devised  for 
the  general  exaltation  of  the  Eomish  Church  refer  to 
the  exercise  of  power  over  the  devil.     In  the  south  of 
Ireland  nothing  is  more  common  than  to  hear  of  Satan's 
appearance  in  proper  person,  his  resistance  to  all  the  ef- 
forts of  the  Protestant  minister,  and  his  prompt  obedi- 
ence to  the  exorcisms  of  the  parish  priest.     In  general, 
the  localities  of  the  stories  are  laid  at  some  neighboring 
village ;  yet,  easy  as  this  renders  refutation,  it  is  won- 
derful to  find  how  generally  such  a  tale  is  credited. 
From  the  archives  of  the  Silesian  Church,  we  find  that 
some  German  Protestants  seem  to  believe  in  the  exor- 
cising powers  of  the  Eomish  priests.     Next  to  the  le- 
gends of  miracles  rank  those  of  extraordinary  austeri- 
ties, such  as  that  St.  Polycronus  always  took  up  a  huge 
tree  on  his  shoulders  when  he  went  to  pray;  that  St. 
Barnadatus  shut  himself  up  in  a  narrow  iron  cage ;  that 
St.  Adhelm   exposed  himself  to  the  most  stimiUating 
temptations,  and  then  defied  the  devil  to  make  him 
yield;  and  that  St. IMacarius  undertook  a  penance  for 
sin  six  months,  because  he  had  so  far  yielded  to  passion 
as  to  kill  a  tlca.     It  is  unnecessarj'  to  dwell  ujion  tlnrse, 
because  they  are  manifestly  derived  from  the  habits 
of  the  Oriental  fanatics,  and  are  evident  exaggerations 
made  without  taste  or  judgment.     See  History  of  Pop- 
erij  (Loud.  1838, 8 vo). 

The  most  celebrated  of  these  popular  medi.fval  fi'c^ 
tions  is  the  Legemla  Avrea,  or  Golden  Legend,  origi- 
nally written  in  Latin,  in  the  13th  centurj-,  by  Jacob  de 
Voragine  (q.  v.),  a  Dominican  friar,  who  afterwards  be- 
came archbishop  of  Genoa,  and  died  in  1298.  This  work 
was  the  great  text-book  of  legendary-  lore  cf  the  Mid- 
dle Ages.  It  was  translated  into  French  in  the  14th 
century  by  Jean  de  Vigny,  and  in  the  15th  into  Eng- 
lish by  William  Caxton,  "  It  has  lately  been  made  more 
accessible  by  a  new  French  translation  :  La  Legende 
Doree,  traduite  dn  Latin,  par  jM.  G.  B.  (Par.  1850).  There 
is  a  copy  of  the  original,  with  the  Gesta  Longobardoruvi 


LEGEND 


328 


LEGEND 


appendetl,  in  the  Harvard  College  Library,  Cambridge, 
{)riiitL'd  at  Strasbiirg  in  1-1'JG.  Longt'ellow,  in  a  note 
to  his  beautiful  poem,  says,  "  I  have  called  this  poem 
the  (ioldeii  Legend,  because  the  story  upon  which  it  is 
foundetl  seems  to  me  to  surpass  all  other  legends  in  beau- 
tv  and  significance.  It  exhibits,  amid  the  corruptions 
of  the  ^Middle  Ages,  the  virtue  of  disinterestedness  and 
selt-sacritice,  and  the  power  of  Faith,  Hope,  and  Charity 
sutlicient  for  all  the  exigencies  of  life  and  death."  The 
story  is  told,  and  perhaps  invented,  by  Hartmann  von 
der  Aue,  a  Minnesinger  of  the  I'ith  century.  The  orig- 
inal may  be  found  in  IMarlath's  Alt-deiUsche  Gtdichte, 
with  a  modern  Cierman  version.  There  is  another  in 
Marbach's  Volksbucher,  No.  3"2.  We  may  mention  also, 
among  other  productions,  the  Kaiserchronik  (Imperial 
Chronicle),  where  the  legendary  element  forms  a  very 
important  part  of  the  whole,  and  Werner's  versified 
Marienlehen  (Life  of  Mary),  written  in  1173,  etc.  The 
authors  of  these  works  were  ecclesiastics,  but  in  the  fol- 
lowing age,  when  the  mediasval  poetry  of  Germany  was 
in  its  richest  bloom,  and  the  fosterers  of  the  poetic  art 
were  emperors  and  princes,  the  legend  was  employed  by 
laymen  on  a  grand  scale,  and  formed  the  subject-matter 
of  ejiic  narratives.  Thus  Hartmann  von  der  Aue  work- 
ed up  into  a  poem  the  religious  legends  about  Gregory; 
Konrad  von  Fussesbrunnen  those  concerning  the  child- 
hood of  .Jesus ;  liudolph  von  Ems  those  about  Barlaam 
and  Josaphat ;  and  liimbat  von  Durne  those  about  St. 
George.  Letween  the  14th  and  16th  centuries  legends  in 
prose  began  also  to  appear,  such  as  Hermann  von  Fritz- 
lar's  ]'oii  (kni  Ileilir/en  Leben  (written  about  1343),  and 
gradually  supplanted  the  others. 

Much  of  this  legendary  rubbish  was  cleared  away 
by  Tillcmont,  Fleury,  Baillet,  Launoi,  and  Bollandus,  but 
the  faith  in  many  of  them  still  remains  strong  in  the 
more  ignorant  minds  of  the  Romish  Church.  The  re- 
peated and  still  continued  editions  of  the  Acta  /Sancto- 
rum (q.  V.)  afford  sufficient  evidence  of  this. 

The  most  comprehensive  and  valuable  work  on  the 
subject  of  the  legends  is  that  commenced  by  the  Bollan- 
dists  in  the  17th  century, /I  cto  Sanctorum,  and  still  in 
process  of  publication.  Legends  are  found  not  only  in 
tlie  IiLiman  Catholic,  but  also  in  the  Greek  Church. 
They  also  found  an  entrance  into  the  national  literature 
of  Christian  nations.  Among  the  Germans  especially 
was  this  the  case,  particularly  in  the  12th  century,  al- 
though specimens  of  legendary  poems  are  not  altogether 
wanting  at  an  earlier  period.  In  Great  Britain,  also,  the 
legends  of  Iving  Arthur  and  his  Round  Table  have  sprung 
afresh  into  popular  favor,  after  centuries  of  comparative 
obscurity,  and  have  once  more  become  the  treasure-house 
from  wliich  poet  and  painter  draw  subjects  for  their  pic- 
tures, and  in  which  essayists,  weary  of  the  old  heathen 
classics,  seek  for  illustrations  and  allusions.  The  first  of 
the  recent  poets,  however,  who  clearly  apprehended  the 
poetic  and  spiritual  elements  of  the  old  Christian  legend 
was  Herder,  and  his  example  has  been  followed  by  oth- 
er poets,  for  example,  the  romantic  school  in  German}-, 
and  IJiihver  and  Tennyson  in  England.  The  tendency 
to  mytliic  embellishment  showed  itself  more  particularly 
in  regard  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  the  later  saints,  and  holy 
men  and  women.  Of  all  these,  the  most  captivating, 
as  an  amiable  weakness,  was  the  devotion  to  the  Virgin. 
The  (ItMiial  of  the  title  "The  Mother  of  God"  bj-  Nes- 
torins  was  that  which  sounded  most  offensive  to  the 
general  ear;  it  was  the  intelligible,  odious  point  in  his 
heresy,  and  contributed,  no  doubt,  to  the  passionate  vio- 
lence with  which  that  controversy  was  agitated ;  and 
the  favorable  issue  to  those  who  might  seem  most  zeal- 
ous for  the  Virgin's  glory  gave  a  strong  impulse  to  the 
worsliip;  for,  from  that  time,  the  worship  of  tiie Virgin 
became  in  the  East  an  integral  part  of  Christianity. 
Among  .Justinian's  splendid  edifices  arose  mqny  church- 
es dedicated  to  the  Alothcr  of  (Jod.  The  feast  of  the 
Annunciation  was  celebrated  both  under  Justin  and  Jus- 
tinian. Heraclius  had  images  of  the  Virgin  on  his  masts 
when  he  sailed  to  Constantinople  to  overthrow  Phocas; 


and  before  the  end  of  the  century  the  Virgin  is  become 
the  tutelar  deity  of  that  city,  which  is  saved  by  her  in- 
tercession from  the  Saracens.  "  The  history  of  Chris- 
tianity," says  dean  Milman,  "cannot  be  understood  with- 
out pausing  at  stated  periods  to  survey  the  progress 
and  development  of  the  Christian  mythology,  which, 
gradually  growing  up,  and  springing  as  it  did  from  nat- 
ural anil  universal  instincts,  took  a  more  perfect  and 
systematic  form,  and  at  length,  at  the  height  of  the 
Mitldle  Ages,  was  as  much  a  part  of  Latin  Christiani- 
tj'  as  the  primal  truths  of  the  Gospel.  This  religion 
gradually  moidded  together  all  whicli  arose  out  of  the 
natural  instincts  of  man,  the  undying  reminiscences  of 
all  the  older  religions — the  Jewish,  the  Pagan,  and  the 
Platonic — with  the  few  and  indistinct  glimpses  of  the 
invisible  world,  and  the  future  state  of  being  in  the  New 
Testament,  into  a  vast  system,  more  sublime,  perhaps,  for 
its  indefiniteness,  which,  being  necessary  in  that  condi- 
tion of  mankind,  could  not  but  grow  up  out  of  the  kin- 
dled imagination  and  religious  faith  of  Christendom. 
The  historian  who  should  presume  to  condemn  such  a 
religion  as  a  vast  plan  of  fraud,  or  a  philosopher  who 
shoidd  venture  to  disdain  it  as  a  fabric  of  folly  only  de- 
serving to  be  forgotten,  would  be  equally  unjust,  equally 
blind  to  its  real  uses,  assuredly  ignorant  of  its  importance 
and  its  significance  in  the  history  of  man ;  for  on  this, 
the  popidar  Christianity  —  popular,  as  comprehending 
the  highest  as  well  as  the  lowest  in  rank,  and  even  in 
intellectual  estimation — turns  the  whole  history  of  man 
for  many  centuries.  It  is  at  once  the  cause  and  the  con- 
sequence of  the  sacerd»tal  dominion  over  mankind,  the 
groundwork  of  authority  at  which  the  world  trembled, 
which  founded  and  overthrew  kingdoms,  bound  togeth- 
er or  set  in  antagonistic  array  nations,  classes,  ranks, 
orders  of  society.  Of  this,  the  parent,  when  the  time  ar- 
rived, of  poetrj',  of  art,  the  Christian  historian  must 
watch  the  growth  and  mark  the  gradations  by  which  it 
gathered  into  itself  the  whole  activity  of  the  human 
mind,  and  quickened  that  activity  till  at  length  the  mind 
outgrew  that  which  had  been  so  long  almost  its  sole  oc- 
cupation. It  endured  till  faith,  with  the  schoolmen, 
led  into  the  fathomless  depths  of  metaphysics,  began  to 
aspire  after  higher  truths;  with  the  Reformers,  attempt- 
ing to  refine  religion  to  its  primary  spiritual  simplicity, 
this  even  yet  prolific  legendary  Christianity,  which  had 
been  the  accessory  and  supplementary  Bible,  the  author- 
itative and  accepted,  though  often  unwritten  Gospel  of 
centuries,  was  gradually  dropped,  or  left  but  to  the  hum- 
blest and  most  ignorant,  at  least  to  the  more  imaginative 
and  less  practical  part  of  mankind."  "The  influence 
that  these  works  exerted  on  the  medi;T>val  mind,"  says 
Hardwick,  "was  deep  and  universal.  Wliile  they  fed 
almost  every  stream  of  superstition,  and  excited  an  un- 
healthy craving  for  the  marvellous  and  the  romantic, 
they  were  nearly  always  tending,  in  their  moral,  to  enlist 
the  affections  of  the  reader  on  the  side  of  gentleness  and 
virtue,  more  especially  by  setting  forth  the  necessity  of 
patience,  and  extolling  the  heroic  energy  of  faith.  One 
class  of  those  biographies  deserve  a  high  amount  of 
credit ;  they  are  written  by  some  friend  or  pupil  of  their 
subject;  they  are  natural  and  life-like  pictures  of  the 
times,  preserving  an  instructive  portrait  of  the  mission- 
ar}-,  the  recluse,  the  bishop,  or  the  man  of  business;  yet 
most  commonly  the  acts  and  sufferings  of  the  mediaeval 
saint  have  no  claim  to  a  place  in  the  sphere  of  history, 
or  at  best  they  have  been  so  wantonly  embellished  by 
the  fancy  of  the  author  that  we  can  distinguish  very 
few  of  the  particles  of  truth  from  an  interminable  mass 
of  fiction.  As  these  '  Lives'  were  circulated  freely  in  the 
language  of  the  people,  they  would  constitute  important 
items  in  the  fireside  reading  of  the  age;  and  so  w^arm 
was  the  response  they  found  in  men  of  every  grade,  that, 
notwithstanding  feeble  efforts  to  reform  them,  or  at  least 
to  eliminate  a  few  of  the  more  monstrous  and  abstu-d, 
they  kept  their  hold  on  Christendom  at  large,  and  are 
subsisting  even  now  in  the  creations  of  the  medijeval 
artist"  (Ch.  Hist.  Middle  Ages), 


LEGEND 


329 


LEGION 


On  the  origin  of  these  legends  there  is  a  great  diver- 
sity of  opinion  among  the  learned.  Some  trace  it  to  the 
northern  Skalds,  who,  accompanying  the  army  of  Kollo 
in  his  warlike  migrations  southward,  carried  with  them 
the  lays  of  their  own  mythology,  but  replaced  their  pa- 
gan heroes  by  Christian  kings  and  warriors.  Salmasius 
adopted  the  theory,  which  was  indorsed  by  Warton,  that 
the  germs  of  romantic  fiction  originated  with  the  Sara- 
cens and  Arabians,  and  ascribes  its  introduction  into  Eu- 
rope to  the  effects  of  the  Crusades,  or,  according  to  War- 
ton  himself,  to  the  Arab  conquests  in  Spain ;  that  from 
thence  they  passed  into  France,  and  took  deepest  root  in 
Brittany.  Others,  again,  have  seen  in  the  tales  of  chiv- 
alry only  a  new  development  of  the  classic  legends  of 
Greece  and  Italy.  As  Christianity  unquestionably  bor- 
rowed and  modified  to  its  own  use  many  of  the  outward 
ceremonies  of  paganism,  so  they  held  that  the  Christian 
iroureiir  only  adopted  and  transmuted  the  heroes  of 
classical  poetry.  The  researches  of  count  Villemarque 
and  lady  Charlotte  Schreiber,  however,  to  which  the  at- 
tention of  the  learned  world  had  been  directed  before  by 
Leyden,  Douce,  and  Sharon  Turner,  conclusively  prove 
that  the  true  theory  as  to  their  origin  is  that  they  are 
Cymric  or  Armorican,  or  both.  The  wealth  of  the  old 
Cymric  literature  in  this  particular  respect  was  never 
even  suspected  until  lady  Charlotte  Schreiber,  with  the 
aid  of  an  eminent  Welsh  scholar,  the  Kev.  Thomas  Price, 
brought  to  light  in  their  original  form,  accompanied  by 
an  English  version,  the  collection  of  early  Cymric  tales 
known  as  the  Mabinorjion.  M.  de  la  Villemarque,  for  his 
own  side  of  the  Channel,  not  only  confirms  the  evidence 
of  lady  Schreiber,  but  brings  forward  additional  items  of 
proof,  from  fragments  of  Breton  songs  and  poems,  that 
the  roots  of  their  renowned  fiction  lie  deep  in  their  lit- 
erature also.  Their  very  form  —  the  eight  -  syllabled 
rhyme,  in  which  the  French  metrical  version  is  written 
— he  claims,  and  apparently  with  justice,  as  Cymric. 
See  Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v. ;  C'ljvlop.  Brit.  s.  v. ;  Herzog, 
Reul-Kncijl:  viii,  274  sq. ;  Vogel,  lersMc/i.  einer  Gesch.  v. 
Wuriliguiirj  der  Ler/enden,  in  lllgeu's  Hist,  theol.  Ahhandl. 
(Lpz.  lS"24),p.  141  sq.;  Mrs.  Jameson,  Lf^ew/s  oftheMo- 
ncistic  Orders,  and  her  Legends  of  the  Madonna.  See 
Myth.     (E.  de  P.) 

Legend,  Golden.  A  renowned  collection  of  le- 
gends written  in  the  loth  century  by  Jacob  de  Voragine 
(q.  v.).     See  Legend. 

Leger,  Antoine  (1),  a  French  Protestant  divine, 
was  burn  in  Savoy  in  1594.  He  was  professor  of  theol- 
ogy and  Oriental  languages  at  Geneva  from  llJ45  until 
his  death  in  1G61.  He  edited  the  Greek  text  of  the 
New  Testament  (1G38). 

Leger,  Antoine  (2),  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Geneva  in  1652.  He  also  became  a  Protestant 
minister,  and  afterwards  filled  the  chair  of  philosophy 
for  twenty-four  years  at  Geneva  with  eminent  success. 


He  died  in  1719.     He  published  several  scientific  trea- 
tises and  many  sermons. 

Leger,  Jean,  a  French  Protestant  minister,  was 
born  in  Savoy  in  1615.  He  was  pastor  of  a  Church 
of  the  Waldenses,  but  fortunately  escaped  from  the  mas- 
sacre of  1655.  He  afterwards  went  to  France,  and  so- 
licited the  intervention  of  the  court  for  his  countrj'men. 
In  1G63  he  went  to  Holland,  and  became  pastor  of  a 
'\\'aUoon  Church  in  Leyden.  He  died  in  1670.  Leger 
wrote  a  I/istoii/  of  the  Churches  of  the  Vcdleys  of  Pied- 
mont (1669 ).  See  Wai.dexses. 
Legerdemain.  See  Magic. 
Le'gion  (\tytm',  GrKcizcd  from  the  Latin  legio'),  a 
main  division  of  the  Koraan  army,  correspondmg  nearly 
to  the  modern  rec/iment.  It  always  comprised  a  large 
body  of  men,  but  the  number  varied  so  much  at  differ- 
ent times  that  there  is  considerable  discrepancy  in  the 
statements  with  reference  to  it.  The  legion  appears  to 
have  originally  contained  about  3000  men,  and  to  have 
risen  gradually  to  twice  that  number,  or  even  more.  In 
and  about  the  time  of  Christ  it  seems  to  have  consisted 
of  6000  men,  and  this  was  exclusive  of  horsemen,  who 
usually  formed  ao  additional  body  amountuig  to  one 
tenth  of  the  infantry.  As  all  the  divisions  of  the  Ro- 
man army  are  noticed  in  Scripture,  we  may  add  that 
each  legion  was  divided  into  ten  cohorts  or  regiments, 
each  cohort  into  three  maniples  or  bands,  and  each  man- 
iple into  two  centuries  or  companies  of  100  each.  This 
smaller  division  into  centuries  or  hundreds,  from  the 
form  in  which  it  is  exhibited  as  a  constituent  of  the 
larger  divisions,  clearly  shows  that  GOOO  had  become  at 
least  the  formal  number  of  a  legion.  See  Smith's  Diet, 
of  Class.  A  nt.  s.  v.  Army,  Roman. 

The  word  legion  came  to  be  used  to  express  a  great 
number  or  multitude  (e.  g.  of  angels,  Matt,  xxvi,  53). 
Thus  the  unclean  spirit  (Mark  v,  9;  compare  15),  when 
asked  his  name,  answers,  "  jMy  name  is  Legion,  for  we 
are  many."  Many  illustrations  of  tlys  use  of  the  word 
might  be  cited  from  the  Rabbinical  writers,  who  even 
apply  it  ("i'l"?^  or  "i'^sb)  to  inanimate  objects,  as  when 
they  speak  of  ''a  legion  of  olives,"  etc.  (see  Lightfoot, 
Nor.  Ifebr.  et  rtz/w. ;  Buxtorf,  Lex.  Tulm.  s.  v.).— Kitto. 
See  Ai4MV. 

Legion,  Theban,  according  to  Eucherlus,  was  a 
legion  of  6600  men  (the  usual  number)  which  had  come 
from  the  East  to  render  assistance  to  Maximian.  The 
latter  having  issued  orders  to  his  whole  army  to  perse- 
cute the  Christians,  this  legion  alone  refused  to  obey. 
The  emperor  was  in  the  neighborhood,  at  Octodurum 
(Martinach,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  St.  Bernard) ;  irri- 
tated when  he  heard  of  the  refusal  of  the  Theban  le- 
gion, he  had  it  decimated  twice,  and  finally,  as  he  fail- 
ed to  secure  its  members  to  join  in  persecuting  their 
Christian  brethren,  he  ordered  their  extermmation  by 


Ancient  Legionary  Soldiers.     (From  Titus's  Cuhnnu  at  Komc.) 


LEGION 


530 


LEHABIM 


the  remainder  of  his  army.  Another  account,  fciving 
substantially  the  same  version  of  this  event,  embellishes 
it  bv  what  seems  to  have  taken  place  about  the  year 
28G,  although  it  mentions  a  pope  Marcelliuus  as  having 
advised  them  rather  to  submit  to  death  than  to  act 
against  the  dictates  of  their  conscience,  while  this  Mar- 
cellinus  only  became  pope  ten  years  after  the  above 
time.  This  second  version  appears  to  be  but  a  rear- 
rangement of  the  legend  of  Eucherius,  just  as  there  have 
been  others  until  the  time  of  the  Keformation  (by  Pe- 
trus  Canisius  and  Gulielmus  Baldesanus).  This  legend 
was  first  treated  as  untrue  in  Magdeburg;  then  Jean 
Armand  Duljourdieu,  a  French  Reformed  minister  at 
London,  midertook  to  prove  that  the  number  of  the  le- 
gion did  not  by  any  means  amount  to  GGGG  (the  figures 
given  in  the  second  version).  This  led  to  a  protracted 
controversy.  The  silence  of  the  leading  early  ecclesias- 
tical historians  —  Eusebius,  Lactantius,  Sulpicius  Seve- 
rus,  and  Orosius — over  the  event  some  have  advanced 
to  prove  that  it  is  simply  a  fable,  but  their  silence  does 
not,  in  our  mind,  go  far  to  disprove  it.  Eusebius  says 
little  of  the  Western  martyrs,  yet  mentions  that  an  of- 
ficer picked  out  the  Christians  in  the  Roman  army  be- 
fore the  beginning  of  the  great  persecution,  and  gave 
them  the  choice  of  renouncing  their  religion  or  of  leav- 
ing the  arm}',  adding  that  many  Christians  were  killed 
by  his  orders.  The  others  either  do  not  mention  the 
martyrs  of  that  period,  or  were  by  other  circumstances 
prevented  from  becoming  acquainted  with  much  of  their 
history.  On  the  other  hand,  Ambrose  (f  397)  says, "  Ev- 
ery city  prides  itself  that  has  had  one  martyr;  how 
much  more,  then,  can  jNIilan  pride  herself,  who  had  a 
whole  army  of  divine  soldiers  V"  Eucherius  takes  this 
as  an  allusion  to  the  Theban  legion.  Another  testi- 
monj'  to  the  same  effect  is  contained  in  St.Victricius's 
work,  De  laudibus  martijrum  (390).  The  third  is  the 
discovery  of  a  shield  in  the  bed  of  the  Arve,  near  Ge- 
neva, representing  the  Thebans,  with  the  inscription 
Larffitds  D.  M.  Valentiniani  A  Ufjunti.  A  fourth  is  found 
in  the  life  of  St.  Romanus  (520),  who  mentions,  among 
others,  his  journey  to  Agaunum  {Custra  martijrum), 
probably  between  the  j^ears  460  and  470.  It  also  cor- 
roborates Eucherius's  figures  (6600).  The  fifth  is  that 
of  Avitus,  archbishop  of  Vienna,  a  breastplate  originally 
belonging  to  whom  is  yet  kept  in  the  convent :  this 
dates  from  the  year  517.  A  sixth  is  given  in  the  Vita 
of  Victor  of  Marseilles.  It  is  most  probable,  however, 
that  while  the  legend  rests  on  a  foundation  of  facts,  these 
facts  were  generalized  and  amplified,  so  that  a  number 
of  Christian  soldiers  in  the  Roman  army  became  a  le- 
gion first  of  6600,  then  of  G666.  Those  who  deny  the 
truth  of  the  legend  take  their  stand  on  its  similarity 
with  that  of  a  certain  Simeon  Metaphrastes,  according 
to  whom,  also,  one  Jlauritius,  under  the  same  emperor,  is 
said  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  with  Fhotinus,  Theo- 
dorus,  riiilippus,  and  sixtj'-seven  others,  all  of  the  mili- 
tary order.  Rut,  aside  from  the  name  of  Mauritius,  all 
the  others  have  diiferent  names,  while  the  details  of  the 
event  also  vary.  Among  the  writers  who  have  con- 
tested the  truthfidness  of  the  legend  concerning  the 
Tiieban  legion,  the  most  important  are  Dubourdieu^ Hot- 
finger,  Movie,  Burnet,  and  INIosheim;  it  has  been  de- 
fended by  George  Ilickes,  JM.  Felix  de  Balthasar  {De- 
fcnse  de  Id  Ler/ion  Thebk-nne,  Lucerne,  17G0,  8vo),  Dom 
Joseph  de  Lisle  (Dj/'cn.se  de  la  Verite  du  Martyre  de  la 
Letjion^  Thebeenne,  1737, Svo).  Rossignoli  (Historia  di  San 
Maiirizio),  and  1'.  de  Rivaz  {Erlaircigsements  sitr  les 
Marti/res  de  la  IJr/ioii  Thebeenne,  Paris,  1779, 8vo).  See 
llerzog,  Real-Encijklopd.di(',  vol.  ix,  s.  v.  Mauritius.  See 
IMAUKirifs. 

Legion,  Thundering  (LerpofidnniHitrir).  the  ti- 
tle of  a  lioman  legion  in  the  time  of  the  emperor"  Marcus 
Aurelins,  which,  after  the  expalsion  of  the  J^Farcomanni 
and  (^uadi  from  Hungary,  while  the  emperor  Aurclius 
was  pursiung  tliese  (ierman  tribes  Mith  a  detachment  of 
his  forces  (A.D.  174),  was  shut  up  in  a  valley  sun-ound- 
cd  on  every  side  by  high  mountains,  and  both  bv  the 


heat  of  the  weather  and  the  want  of  water  was  suffering 
more  cruelly  than  from  the  attacks  of  the  enemy,  when 
suddenly,  in  this  crisis,  a  shower  of  rain  reanimated  the 
Roman  soldiers,  while  at  the  same  time  a  storm  of  hail, 
attended  with  thunder,  assailed  the  enemy,  who  were 
then  easily  repulsed  and  conquered.  Both  heathen  and 
Christian  authors  agree  in  their  relation  of  the  principal 
circumstances  of  this  event.  The  adherents  of  each 
religion  saw  in  it  the  infiuence  of  the  prayers  of  their 
brethren.  According  to  Dio  Cassius  {Excerpta  Xiphilin. 
I,  Ixxi,  cap.  8),  the  miracle  was  wrought  by  an  Egyp- 
tian sorcerer  in  the  train  of  the  emperor;  according  to 
Capitolinus  (^Vila  Marc.  Aurel.  cap.  24),  it  was  the  ef- 
fect of  the  emperor's  prayers ;  but  according  to  Tertul- 
lian  {Apologet.  cap.  5;  Ad  Scopul.  cap.  4)  and  Eusebius 
{Hist,  Eccles.  lib.  v,  cap.  5),  it  was  brought  about  by  the 
prayers  of  the  Christians  in  his  army ;  hence  the  legion 
to  which  these  Christians  belonged  was  denominated 
fuliniiiatrix.  The  letter  of  the  emperor  Marcus  Aureli- 
us,  commonly  printed  in  Greek  in  the  first  Apology  of 
Justin  ]\Iartyr,  gives  the  same  account  with  the  Cliris- 
tian  writers,  but  it  is  spurious.  The  marble  pillar  erect- 
ed at  Rome  in  honor  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  still  stand- 
ing, represents  this  deliverance  of  the  Roman  army — 
the  Roman  soldiers  catching  the  falling  rain,  and  a  war- 
rior praying  for  its  descent.  It  is  not,  however,  to  be 
considered  as  a  memorial  of  any  influence  exercised  by 
the  Christians  in  that  event.  See  iMUman,  History  of 
Christianity,  ii,  145  sq. ;  Mosheim,  Eccles.  Hist.  I,  bk.  i, 
cent,  ii,  part  i,  chap,  i,  §  9 ;  Presseuse,  History  of  Early 
Christianity,  p.  129.      (J.  II.  W.) 

Legists  and  DecretistSj  the  interpreters  and  ed- 
itors {(jlossatores)  of  the  Roman  law.  See  Glosses  and 
Decretals. 

Legrand,  Antoine,  a  French  wTiter  and  monk, 
born  at  Douay,  lived  aliout  1650-80.  He  was  professor 
of  philosophy  and  theology  in  Douay,  and  was  a  disci- 
ple of  the  Cartesian  philosophy,  on  which  he  wrote  sev- 
eral treatises.  He  published  a  Sacred  History  from  the 
Creation  to  Constantine  the  Great  (1685),  and  other  works. 
— Thomas,  Biorj.  Dictionary,  s.  v. 

Legrand,  Joachim,  a  French  historian  and  abbe, 
born  at  Salnt-Lo  in  1653,  was  a  person  of  great  erudition. 
He  was  secretary  of  legation  in  Spain  about  1702,  and 
was  afterwards  employed  in  the  foreign  office.  He  died 
in  1733.  He  puljlished  a  History  of  the  Divorce  of  Hen- 
ry VIII  of  Emjland  (1G88),  and  a  few  other  historical 
works. 

Legrand,  Louis,  a  French  theologian,  was  born  in 
Burgundy  in  1711,  became  professor  in  the  seminary  of 
Sain t-Svd pice,  Paris,  and  died  in  1780.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  Treatise  on  the  Incarnation  of  the 
Word  (1751).  He  composed  the  censures  which  the 
faculty  of  theology  published  against  Rousseau's  Emile 
(1762)  and  Buifon's  Ejjoques  de  la  Nature  (Diedin,  1780). 
— Thomas,  Bior/.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Legris- Duval,  Rene  Michel,  a  French  priest, 
who  was  born  at  Bretagne  in  1705,  and  died  in  1816,  is 
noted  as  a  zealous  and  efficient  promoter  of  benevolent 
institutions. 

Legros,  Antoine,  a  French  scholar  and  writer, 
who  was  born  in  Paris  .about  1680,  and  died  in  175], 
published,  besides  other  works.  The  Woils  of  the  Fathers 
who  llrid  in  the  Time  of  the  Ajwstles,  with  Xotes  (1717). 

Legros,  Nicolas,  a  French  Jansenist  theologian, 
was  born  at  Rhelms  in  1G75.  He  passed  the  last  twen- 
ty-five years  of  his  life  in  Holland,  to  which  he  retired 
for  refuge  from  persecution.  He  died  in  1751.  Among 
his  works  are  a  French  translation  of  the  Bible  (1739), 
which  is  esteemed  for  fidelity;  and  a  Manual  for  the 
Christian  (174(1). 

Le'habim(Hcb, /,(7(r/iim',C'^2iip,prob,forC"2^?, 
Luhim  ;  Sept,  Art/^ifi/i,  v.  r.  in  Chron.  Aa/?f(i';  Vulg. 
Laahim),  a  people  reckoned  among  the  Midianitish 
stock  (Gen.  X,  13;  1  Chron.  i,  11).     See  Ethnology. 


LEHI 


331 


LEHNIN 


The  word  is  in  the  plural,  and  evidently  signifies  a  tribe, 
doubtless  taking  the  name  of  Le/iab,Mizr&iin's  third  son 
((ien.  X,  13).  Bochart  affirms  that  the  Lehabim  are  not, 
as  is  generally  supposed,  identical  with  the  Libyans. 
His  reasons  are.  That  Libya  was  much  too  large  a 
country  to  have  been  peopled  by  one  son  of  Mizraim ; 
and  that  in  other  parts  of  Scripture  Libya  is  either  call- 
ed Phut  (;:1S,  Jer.  xlvi,  9;  Ezek.  xxx,  &),  or  Lubim 
D^m?,  "2  Chron.  xii,  3;  Nahum  iii,  9),  and  Phut  was  a 
brother,  and  not  a  son  of  Mizraim  (Gen.  x,  6;  Bochart, 
Opei'a,  i,  "279).  These  arguments  do  not  stand  the  test 
of  historical  criticism.  Phut  and  Lubim  are  not  identi- 
cal (Nahum  iii,  9) ;  and  the  Lehabim  may  have  been 
joined  by  other  tribes  in  colonizing  Libya.  It  is  quite 
true  there  is  no  direct  evidence  to  identify  the  Lehabim 
and  Lubim  ;  yet  tliere  seems  a  high  probability  that  the 
words  are  only  different  forms  of  the  same  name — the 
former  being  the  more  ancient,  the  middle  radical  n  was 
afterwards  softened  (as  is  not  unusual  in  Hebrew,  Gesc- 
nius,  Thesaur.  p.  743, 360)  into  1  quiescent.  The  Le- 
habim are  not  again  mentioned  in  Scripture,  but  we  find 
the  Lubim  connected  with  Mizraim  (2  Chron.  xii,  3), 
and  the  Kushites  or  Ethiopians  (xvi,  8).  We  may 
therefore  safely  infer  that  the  Lehabim  were  the  ancient 
Lubim  or  Libyans,  who  perhaps  first  settled  on  the  bor- 
ders of  the  Nile,  among  or  beside  the  Mizraim  ;  but,  as 
they  increased  in  number,  migrated  to  the  wide  regions 
south-west,  and  occupied  the  vast  territory  known  to 
classical  geographers  as  Libya  (Kalisch  On  Gen.  x,  13 ; 
see  also  Michaelis,  Spicileri.  Geogr. ;  Knobel  Vulkertaftl 
des  Pent.').  Dr.  Beke  maintains  that  the  Lehabim,  as 
well  as  the  IMizraim,  were  a  people  of  north-western 
Arabia;  but  his  views  are  opposed  alike  to  the  opinions 
of  ancient  and  modern  geographers,  and  his  arguments 
do  not  appear  of  sufficient  weight  to  command  accept- 
ance (Qjir/iiies  Biblicw,  p.  107, 198  sq.). — Kitto.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Lubim  arc  the  same  as  the 
ReBU  or  LeBU  of  the  Egyptian  inscriptions,  and  that 
from  them  Libya  and  the  Libyans  derived  their  name. 
These  primitive  Libyans  appear,  in  the  period  at  wliich 
they  are  mentioned  in  these  two  liistorical  sources,  that 
is,  from  the  time  of  jMenptah,  B.C.  cir.  1250,  to  that  of 
Jeremiali's  notice  of  them  late  in  the  Gth  century  B.C., 
and  |)robably  in  the  case  of  Daniel's,  prophetically  to 
the  earlier  part  of  the  second  century  B.C.,  to  have  in- 
habited the  northern  part  of  Africa  to  the  west  of  Egypt, 
though  latterly  driven  from  the  coast  by  the  Greek  col- 
onists of  the  Cyrenaica,  as  is  more  fully  shown  under 
Ll'bi.m.  Geographically,  the  position  of  the  Lehabim 
in  the  enumeration  of  the  Mizraites  immediately  before 
the  Naphtuhim  suggests  that  they  at  first  settled  to  the 
westward  of  Egypt,  and  nearer  to  it,  or  not  more  distant 
from  it  than  the  tribes  or  peoples  mentioned  before  them. 
See  MizRAur.  Historically  and  ethnologically,  the  con- 
nection of  the  ReBU  and  Lil)yans  witli  Egypt  and  its 
people  suggests  their  kindred  origin  with  the  Egyptians. 
— Smith.     See  Libya. 

Le'hi  (Heb.  Lechi',  "^nb,  in  pause  Le'chi,  ^tfs,  a 
cheek  or  jaw-bone  [usually  with  the  art.  '^riSil];  Sept. 
Afyi  V.  r.  Aivi),  a  place  in  the  tribe  of  Judah  where 
Samson  achieved  one  of  his  single-handed  victories  over 
the  Philistines(Judg.xv,9, 14,  19,  in  which  last  passages 
the  Sept.  translates  (ndyioi',Yu\g.  mnxillu).  It  contain- 
ed an  eminence — Ramath-lehi,  and  a  spring  of  great  and 
lasting  repute  (see  Oxilob,  De  font  e  tSiineonis,lA\iS.\lf)o) 
— En  hak-kore  (ver.  17).  The  name  of  the  place  before 
the  confiict  was  evidently  Lehi,  as  apjiears  from  verses 
9  and  1 4 ;  perhaps  so  called  from  the  form  of  some  hill 
or  rock  ((iesenius,  Thesaur.  p.  752).  After  the  slaughter 
of  the  Philistines,  Samson,  with  a  characteristic  play 
upon  the  name,  makes  it  descriptive  of  his  signal  and 
singular  victory.  Lehi  is  possibly  mentioned  in  2  Sam. 
^^i'i'  |1 — the  relation  of  another  encounter  with  the 
Philistines  hardly  less  disastrous  than  that  of  Samson. 
The  Heb.  there  has  t^^n5,  as  if  n^n,  from  the  root  i" 


(Gesenius,  Thesaui:  p.  470).  In  this  sense  the  word 
very  rarely  occurs  (see  A.  V.  of  Psa.  Ixviii,  10,  30 ;  Ixxiv, 
19).  It  elsewhere  has  the  sense  of  "living,"  and  thence 
of  wild  animals,  which  is  adopted  by  the  Sept.  in  this 
place,  as  remarked  above.  In  ver.  13  it  is  again  ren- 
dered "troop."  In  the  parallel  narrative  of  1  Chron. 
(xi,  15),  the  word  nsn-i,  a  "  camp,"  is  substituted.  In 
the  passage  2  Sam.,  it  is  rendered  in  the  A.  Y.  "into  a 
troop,"  but  by  alteration  of  the  vowel-points  becomes 
"  to  Lehi,"  which  gives  a  new  and  certainly  an  appro- 
priate sense.  This  reading  first  appears  in  Josephus 
(A  nt.  vii,  12,  4),  who  gives  it  "  a  place  called  Siagona" 
— the  jaw — the  word  which  he  employs  in  the  story  of 
Samson  {Ant.  v,  8,  9).  It  is  also  given  in  the  Complu- 
tensian  Sept.,  and  among  modern  interpreters  by  Bochart 
{Hieroz.  i,  2,  ch.  xiii),  Kennicott  {Dissert,  p.  140),  J.  D. 
aiichaelis  {Bibelfur  Um/elehrt.),  Ewald  {Geschichle,  iii, 
180,  note).  The  great  similarity  between  the  two 
names  in  the  original  (Gesenius,  Thesaur.  p.  175  6),  has 
led  to  the  supposition  that  Beer-Lahai-roi  was  the  same 
as  Lehi.  But  the  situations  do  not  suit.  The  well  La- 
hai-roi  was  below  Kadesh,  very  far  from  the  locality  to 
which  Samson's  adventures  seem  to  have  been  confined. 
Jerome  states  that  Paula,  when  on  her  way  from  Beth- 
lehem to  Egypt,  passed  from  Sochoth  to  the  fountain 
of  Samson  {Opera,  i,  705,  ed.  Migne).  Later  writers  lo- 
cate it  beside  Eleutheropolis  (Anton.  Mar.  Itin.  30  ;  Re- 
land,  p.  872) ;  but  the  tradition  appears  to  have  been 
vague  and  uncertain  (Robinson,  ii,  C4  sq.).  There  is 
only  a  deep  old  well,  which  woidd  not  answer  to  the 
Scripture  narrative  (Robinson,  ii,  2(5  sq.). — Smith ;  Kit- 
to.  Van  de  Yelde  {Narrative,  ii,  140,  141)  proposes  to 
identify  Ramoth-Lehi  with  Ramoth  Nekeb  (1  Sam.  xxx, 
27),  as  well  as  with  Baalath  (1  Kings  ix,  18 ;  2  Chron. 
viii,  G),  Baalath-bcer  (Josh,  xix,  8),  or  Bealoth  (Josh. 
XV,  24) ;  and  all  these  with  some  ruins  on  tell  Lekiyeh, 
three  or  four  miles  north  of  Bir  es-Seba  (comp.  Memoir, 
p.  343),  a  view  to  which  we  yield  an  assent,  reluctant- 
ly, however,  owing  to  its  great  distance  from  the  Phil- 
istine territor}',  and  the  want  of  exact  agreement  in 
the  Arabic  name  {Lechi  and  Le//ii/eh').  The  Bcil-Liki- 
yeh,  mentioned  by  Tobler  {Dritie  Wandermif/,  p.  189)  as 
a  village  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  great  wady  Su- 
leiman, about  two  miles  below  tlie  upper  Beth-horon,  is 
a  position  at  once  on  the  borders  of  both  Judah  and 
the  Philistines,  and  within  reasonable  proximity  to  Zo- 
rah,  Eshtaol,  Timnath,  and  other  places  familiar  to  the 
history  of  the  great  Danite  hero.  But  this,  again,  is 
too  far  north  for  any  luiown  position  of  the  adjoining 
rock  Etain  (([.  v.). 

Lehmann,  Christian  Abraiiaji,  a  German  theo- 
logian, was  born  at  Tiitenbock  Jan.  4, 1735,  and  was  ed- 
ucated at  the  University  of  Wittenberg  (1754-58).  In 
1760  he  became  deacon,  in  1764  pastor  at  Lockwitz,  and 
in  1806  senior  of  the  district  of  the  Dresden  diocese. 
He  died  Dec.  30, 1813.  He  spent  his  life  in  practical  ac- 
tivity. He  was  remarkably  successful  in  an  attempt  to 
hold  prayer-meetings,  connected  with  Bible  instruction, 
thus  influencing  and  affecting  the  heart  in  a  time  when 
the  great  majority  of  the  pulpits  of  Germany  Avcre  oc- 
cupied by  rationalism.  Of  the  few  books  he  composed, 
we  mention  Kimzer  Entwurf  der  Glaubenslehre f'lir  er- 
warhsene  Kinder,  etc.  (1772, 8vo ;  new  and  enlarged  edit., 
1797,  8vo). — Doring,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutschl.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lehnberg,  IMagnus,  a  Swedish  prelate,  noted  as  a 
pulpit  orator,  was  born  in  1758,  and  became  bishop  of 
Linkiiping.     He  died  in  1809. 

Lehuin,  Herjiann  vox,  a  monk  of  the  convent  of 
that  name,  said  to  have  flourished  about  the  close  of  the 
13th  centur}-,  as  the  author  of  a  prophetic  poem,  in  100 
Latin  hexameter  verses,  concerning  his  convent  and 
the  house  of  Brandenlaurg,  entitled  Vaticinium  Lehnin- 
ense.  According  to  the  legend,  the  IMS^was  discovered 
in  an  old  wall,  in  the  17th  century,  by  the  elector,  when 
the  latter  intended  to  build  a  palace  on  the  ruins  of  the 
convent.     The  poem  is  written  in  the  interest  of  the 


LEIBNITZ 


332 


LEIBNITZ 


hierarchy;  it  deplores  the  heresy  of  the  former  house 
of  Ih-aiitleiiburi,'  in  the  ascendant  house  of  Hohenzollern 
(the  latter  family  adhering  to  Frotestanti-sm),  and  proijh- 
esies  the  downfall  of  the  now  nding'  family,  to  be  followed 
bv  the  restoration  of  the  unity  of  Germany  and  the  re- 
establishment  of  the  Koman  Catholic  Church.  Tlie  ex- 
istence of  this  poem  is  not,  however,  to  be  traced  with 
any  certainty  further  back  than  the  j-ear  1G03.  It  was 
first  published  in  Lilienthal  (Konigsb.  1723,  1741),  then 
at  Ik-rlin  and  Vienna,  1745;  IJern,  1758;  Leipsic,  1807; 
also  in  France,  in  1827  and  1830,  by  W.  Meinhold,  with 
a  metrical  translation,  Leips.  1849 ;  C.  Rosch,  Stuttgard, 
1849;  Gicseler,  Z)/e  Lehiihische  Weissagung  (Erf.  1849); 
Guhrauer,  Die  Weissayungen  v.  Lehnin  (Bresl.  1850) ;  J\I. 
Heffter,  Geschichte  cles  Klosters  Lehnin  (Brandenburg, 
1851).  Those  who  consider  this  poem  a  mere  mystical- 
ly-shaped narrative  of  past  events,  name  as  its  author 
51.  F.  Seidel,  assessor  of  the  privy  council  (f  at  Berlin  in 
1693);  or  Andrew  Fromm,  counsellor  of  the  Consistory 
(t  at  Frague  in  1G88) ;  or  Nicolas  vou  Zitzwitz,  abbot 
of  Huysburg,  who,  they  say,  composed  it  about  1G92;  or 
the  Jesuit  Frederick  Wolf,  chaplain  to  the  Austrian  em- 
bassy at  Berlin  in  16S5-8G  (f  1708) ;  or  (Elven,  captain 
of  cavalry  at  Stettiii  (f  1727).  See  L.  dc  Bouverois, 
Extrait  d'un  manuscrit  relatifa  la propMtie  dufr'ere  St. 
de  Lehnin  (German  transl.  by  W.  von  Schiitz  (Wiirzb. 
1847) ;  J.  A.  Boost,  Die  Weissagnngen  des  MOnchs  H.  z. 
Lehnin  (Augsb.  1848). — Pierer,  Universal-Lexikon,  viii, 
273 ;  Ilerzog,  Real-EncgHopddie,  v,  757  sq. 

Leibnitz,  Gottfiued  WiLHEor,  Baron  von — phi- 
losopher, theologian,  jurist,  historian,  poet,  mathemati- 
cian, mechanician,  naturalist,  and  votary  of  all  arts  and 
all  sciences — was  the  most  brilliant,  profound,  and  ver- 
satile scholar  of  the  century  following  the  death  of  Des 
Cartes — perhaps  of  modern  times.  He  is  among  the 
few  who  have  earned  the  honors  of  all-embracing  eru- 
dition— ultra  progredi  nefas  est.  As  the  opponent  of 
Spinoza,  Bayle,  and  Locke ;  as  the  conciliator  of  Plato 
and  Aristotle ;  as  the  reverential  follower  of  the  discred- 
ited schoolmen;  as  the  precursor  of  Kant,  and  as  the 
vindicator  "  of  the  ways  of  God  to  man,"  Leibnitz  occu- 
pies an  equally  eminent  and  important  position  in  the 
history  of  philosophic  opinion.  His  metaphysical  spec- 
ulations were,  however,  but  a  small  portion  of  his  labors. 
His  greatest  achievements  in  nearly  all  cases  were  onl}- 
the  liberal  recreations  of  his  idle  hours.  He  rendered 
all  learning  and  nearly  all  knowledge  tributary  to  his 
genius,  and  deserved  the  happy  eulogy  of  Fontenelle, 
that  '•  he  drove  all  the  sciences  abreast."  He  reformed 
and  enlarged  old  systems  of  doctrine,  he  added  new 
provinces  to  them,  he  improved  their  methods,  he  sup- 
plied them  with  keener  instruments,  he  discovered  new 
continents  of  study,  and  delineated  them  for  future  oc- 
cupation and  culture.  Whatever  region  he  visited  in 
the  wide  circuit  of  his  explorations  was  qiuckened  into 
bloom  and  fruitage  beneath  his  feet — 

"Siiaveis  Da;dala  tellus 
Summittit  flores."  * 

Life. — Leibnitz  was  the  son  of  Frederick  Leibnitz, 
professor  of  ethics  in  the  University  of  Leipsic,  and  was 
born  there  July  3, 164G.  He  was  early  placed  at  school. 
At  six  years  of  age  he  lost  his  father,  from  M-hom 
he  inherited  a  small  fortune  and  an  extensive  library. 
This  library  inspired,  moiilrled,  and  furnished  forth  his 
career.  He  buried  himself  in  his  young  years  amid  its 
volumes,  and  delighted  in  the  unaided  perusal  of  the 
ancient  classics.  His  attention  was  not  confined  to  the 
great  masters  of  stj-le,  nor  to  linguistic  pursuits.  He 
read  with  like  diligence  poets,  orators,  jurists,  travellers 
—works  of  science,  medicine,  philosojihy,  and  general 
information.  Nothing  came  amiss  to  his  insatiable  ap- 
petite and  incredible  industry.  At  fifteen  he  jentered 
the  University  of  Leii)sic,  and  was  directed  by  Jacobus 
Thomasius  to  mathematical  and  philosophTcal  studies. 
He  applied  hirSself  assiduously  to  the  writings  of  Plato 
and  Aristotle,  and  already,  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  was 
endeavoring  to  harmonize  and  combine  their  antago- 


nistic systems.  One  year  he  spent  at  the  University  of 
Jena,  but  he  returned  to  his  own  citj'  to  prosecute  his 
professional  studies.  Applying  for  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  law  when  he  had  scarcely  attained  his  twentieth 
year,  he  was  refused  the  diploma  on  the  pretext  of  his 
youth.  It  was  cheerfully  accorded  by  the  University 
of  Altdorf,  which  tendered  him  a  professorship;  but  this 
was  declined.  To  this  period  belong  his  A  I's  Comhina- 
toria — a  curious  adaptation  of  IJaymond  Lully's  Art  of 
Meditation  and  Logical  Invention — and  his  Mathemat- 
ical Demonstration  of  the  Existence  of  God.  His  esti- 
mate in  declining  life  of  the  former  treatise  may  be  seen 
from  his  fourth  letter  to  Remond  de  Montmort-in  1714. 
From  Altdorf  Leibnitz  proceeded  to  Nuremberg,  where, 
in  consequence  of  an  application  filled  with  cabalistic 
terms,  unmeaning  to  himself  and  to  every  one  else,  he 
was  admitted  into  an  association  for  the  pursuit  of  the 
philosopher's  stone,  and  was  appointed  its  secretarj-. 
Half  a  century  before,  Des  Cartes  had  been  similarly  se- 
duced in  the  same  regions.  I'rom  these  visionary  oc- 
cupations the  young  alchemist  was  soon  withdrawn  by 
the  baron  De  Boineburg,  chancellor  of  the  elector  of 
Mayence,  who  recommended  him  to  prosecute  history 
and  jurisprudence,  and  invited  him  to  Frankfort,  with 
the  promise  of  preferment.  He  illustrated  his  change 
of  abode  by  publishing  Nova  methodus  discendce  docen- 
dccque  Jurisprudentice.  (1GG7),  to  which  was  appended  a 
Catalogus  Desideratorum.  The  unsystematic  treatment 
of  jurisprudence  had  long  needed  reform.  Leibnitz  con- 
tinued his  efforts  in  this  direction  by  an  essay,  De  Cor- 
])ore  Juris  reconcinnando.  He  contemplated  at  this 
time  a  new  and  enlarged  edition  of  Alsted's  Encyclopa;- 
dia,  and  never  abandoned,  but  never  commenced  his  de- 
sign. From  these  vast  projects  he  was  di\-erted  by 
Boineburg,  at  whose  instance  he  composed  a  diplomatic 
exposition  of  the  claims  of  Philip  William,  duke  pala- 
tine of  Neuburg,  to  the  vacant  throne  of  Poland.  He 
declined  an  invitation  to  the  duke's  court,  remained  at 
Frankfort,  and  brought  out  a  new  edition  of  the  forgot- 
ten work  of  jNIarius  Nizolius,  De  Vciis  Principiis  et  Vera 
Ratione  Philosophundi.  He  added  notes,  and  prefixed 
two  dissertations;  one  on  The  Philosophical  Style  of 
Composition,  the  other  On  Writing  the  History  of  Phi- 
losojihy. In  the  latter  he  treated  of  Des  Cartes,  Aristo- 
tle, and  the  schoolmen,  and  on  the  mode  of  harmonizing 
the  Peripatetic  with  later  philosophy.  All  his  writings 
exhibit  pronounced  Cartesianism.  His  first  approaches 
to  physical  science  were  made  in  his  Theoria  31otus  Ab- 
stracti,  containing  the  germs  of  his  Calculus,  and  his 
Theoria  Mottis  Concreti  (1G71).  I'hcy  were  not  favor- 
ably received ;  but  Leibnitz  was  still  only  twenty-five 
years  old.  Next  year  appeared  his  Sacrosancta  Trini- 
tas  per  nova  argumenta  defensa,  directed  against  Wis- 
sowatius,  a  Polish  Unitarian.  Thus,  say  the  writers  in 
the  Biographie  Universelle,  "each  year  brought  a  new 
title  of  glory  to  Leibnitz,  and  gave  him  rank  among  the 
masters  of  the  different  sciences."  He  was  already  a 
counsellor  of  the  chancery  of  Maj-ence.  At  length  his 
desire  of  seeing  Paris  was  gratified.  Boineburg  sent 
him  thither  as  tutor  to  his  sons,  and  in  charge  of  some 
public  affairs.  He  was  at  once  admitted  into  the  most 
brilliant  scientific  circles,  in  the  most  brilliant  period  of 
the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  Here  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Huyghens,  and  improved  the  calculating  ma- 
chine of  Pascal.  He  was  also  induced  to  aid  in  pre- 
paring the  Latin  classics  in  usuni  Delphini.  On  the 
death  of  Boineburg  (1G73)  he  passed  over  into  England, 
where  he  was  received  with  distinction  by  Boyle,  Olden- 
burg, and  other  members  of  the  recent  Royal  Society. 
Intelligence  of  the  demise  of  the  elector  of  Mayence 
reached  him  in  London.  He  was  thus  deprived  of  the 
means  of  support.  Flattering  proposals  had  been  made 
to  him  by  Louis  XIV,  but  they  had  been  re-fused,  as 
they  required  adhesion  to  the  Catholic  communion.  In 
his  anxiety  and  distress,  he  was  appointed  by  the  duke 
of  Brunswick  a  counsellor,  with  an  adequate  pension, 
and  with  the  privilege  of  remainuig  abroad.     He  re- 


LEIBNITZ 


333 


LEIBNITZ 


turned  to  Paris,  hnd  remained  there  fifteen  months.     In 
l(i7G  he   revisited  England,  and  thence   proceeded  to 
Hanover  by  way  of  Holland.    Here  he  entered  upon  his 
duties  as  counsellor,  and — strange  duties  for  a  minister 
of  state ! — employed  himself  in  arranging  and  enlarging 
the  library  of  his  protector,  and  improving  the  drainage 
of  his  mines.     His  services  were  rewarded  with  a  con- 
siderable salary,  but  the  duke  soon  died  (1G79).     He 
found  other  employment,  for  he  was  never  idle,  and  com- 
posed a  treatise  on  The  Eights  o/Ainbassadorg,  arguing 
the  question  of  States'  Eights,  which  has  assumed  such 
prominence  in  Germany  in  recent  years.    The  new  duke 
of  Brunswick  engaged  Leibnitz  to  compose  the  History 
of  the  House  of  Brunswich.     To  prepare  for  the  task, 
he  visited  southern  Germany  and  Italy,  consulting  the 
learned,  exploring  monasteries,  ransacking  libraries,  ex- 
amining old  charters,  deciphering  mouldy  manuscripts, 
and  transcribing  worm-eaten  documents.    Whatever  he 
undertook  he  projected  on  a  scale  proportionate  to  his 
own  vast  comprehension  and  various  knowledge,  with 
little  regard  to  the  legitimate  magnitude  of  the  subject, 
or  to  the  brevity  of  human  life.     He  brought  back  from 
his  wanderings  an  abundant  supply  of  diplomatic  mate- 
rials, which  he  arranged,  and  from  -svliich  he  extracted 
extensive  works,  sometimes  having  little  direct  connec- 
tion with  the  Chronicles  of  Brunswick.     The  first-fruits 
of  these  collections  were  the  Codex  Juris  Gentium  Diplo- 
mat icus,  of  which  the  first  volume  was  issued  in  1693,  in 
folio;  the  second  in  1700, with  the  title  Mantissa  Codicis. 
Valualjle  as  w=ere  the  documents,  the  most  valuable  part 
of  the  work  was  the  Introduction,  reviewing  the  princi- 
ples of  natural  and  international  law,  and  sketching  the 
reform  of  civil  jurisprudence  vdtimately  achieved  by  Na- 
poleon.    Other  works  of  wide  comprehension  were  due 
to  these  archajological  researches :  the  demonstration  of 
the  descent  of  the  Guelphic  line  from  the  Italian  house 
of  Estc ;   the  Accessiones  Historic^   (1698,  2  vols.  4to, 
containing  a  multitude  of  unpublished  papers),  and  the 
iScripto?-es  Rerum  Bitinsvireusinm.     The  first  volume  of 
this  historical  collection  appeared  iir  1707,  folio ;  the  sec- 
ond in  1710;  the  third  in  1711.     These  extensive  accu- 
mulations were  only  materials  to  be  employed  for  The 
Histori/  of  the  House  of  Brunstrich.     In  the  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Corpus  Scripiorvm  Leibnitz  discussed  everj-- 
thing  connected  with  the  family,  the  realm,  and  the 
country  of  the  Guelphs,  investigating  the  traditions  of 
the  early  tribes  that  dwelt  on  the  Elbe  and  the  Weser, 
tracing  their  changes  and  migrations,  marshalling  the 
passages  of  the  ancient  authors  in  which  they  were  men- 
tioned, and  examining  their  language  and  the  mixture 
of  their  dialects.     It  inaugurated  ethnological  science 
and  comparative  philology.     His  inquiries,  however, 
stretched  far  beyond  the  incunabula  r/entis,  and  contem- 
plated the  primitive  condition  of  the  abode  of  the  race. 
This  preliminary  outline  is  given  in  the  Protogwa  (1693), 
■\vliieli  founded  the  modern  sciences  of  geology  and  jihys- 
ical  geography.     It  is  interesting  to  compare  this  frag- 
mentary sketch  with  the  Vvkjur  Errors  of  Sir  Thom- 
as Hrowne,  and  to  note  the  immense  stride  which  was 
made  by  Leibnitz.    Of  the  main  worl^,  to  which  this  es- 
say was  to  be  introductor}- — the  History  of  the  House  of 
Jhinisirick — only  a  brief  and  imperfect  outline  was  ever 
drawn  by  the  accomplished  author.     It  was  published 
after  his  death  by  Eccard,  in  the  A  eta  Eruditorum,  in 
1717. 

These  historical  labors  were  the  real  task  of  the  life 
of  Leibnitz.  But  the  long  years  of  plodding  industry 
were  abundantly  fiUed  with  other  enterprises,  and  it  is 
to  them  that  his  reputation  is  mainly  due. 

By  his  exertions  chiefly,  the  A  eta  Ertiditorum — a  sci- 
entific and  philosophical  periodical  —  was  established 
(vol.  i,  Leipsic,  1682).  To  this  he  contributed  largely, 
and  in  its  pages  appeared  many  of  his  most  luminous 
discoveries  and  suggestions.  In  it  was  published  his 
Meditationes  de  Coc/nitione,  Veritate  et  Idiis  (1681\  pro- 
pounding his  modifications  of  the  Cartesian  doctrine  of 
knowledge.     In  the  same  year,  and  in  the  same  work, 


appeared  his  rules  for  the  Differential  Calculus,  the  germs 
of  which  had  been  indicated  in  his  Theoria  Motus  Ab- 
stract thirteen  years  before.  He  gave  no  demonstra- 
tions ;  these  were  divined  with  wonderfid  ingenuity,  and 
promulgated  by  the  Bernouilli  brothers.  In  1687  the 
world  was  enriched  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  Princijna 
Mathematica  Fhilosophice  Naturulis,  which  employed  a 
mathematical  device  closely  analogous  to  the  Calculus 
of  Leibnitz.  A  bitter  controversy  jn  regard  to  priority 
of  discovery  and  originality  of  invention  sprung  up  be- 
tween the  partisans  of  these  great  mathematicians.  It 
is  scarcely  yet  terminated.  The  rigorous  and  repeated 
examination  of  the  question  justifies  the  conclusion  that 
both  had  independently  discovered  corresponding  pro- 
cedures. The  histor)^  of  inventions  is  full  of  such  coin- 
cidences. There  is  sufficient  difference  between  the  Flu- 
ents and  Fluxions  of  Newton  and  the  Calculus  of  Leib- 
nitz to  indicate  the  originality  of  each.  Neither  was 
the  first  to  enter  upon  this  line  of  inquiry.  To  Leibnitz 
is  specially  due  the  acquisition  of  the  powerful  instru- 
ment by  which  so  many  of  the  triumphs  of  modern  sci- 
ence have  been  won.  In  this  connection  a  passing  ref- 
erence may  be  made  to  his  Arithmetica  Binuria  (1697) 
— a  method  of  notation  and  computation  employing  only 
the  symbols  1  and  0;  and  also  to  the  Philosophy  of  Iit- 
fnity,  long  meditated,  but  never  made  pidjlic. 

The  conception  of  dynamical  science  continually  oc- 
cupied the  mind  of  Leibnitz,  and  was  the  natural  tend- 
ency of  his  philosophical  method.  The  A  eta  Erudito- 
rum for  1695  contained  his  Specimen  Dynamicum  ;  and 
in  the  same  year  he  gave  to  the  world,  through  the 
Journal  des  Sgavans,  his  Systema  de  Natura  et  Commu- 
nicatione  Substantiarum,  itemque  Unione  inter  Corpus  et 
Animam  intercedente.  In  the  latter  he  propounded  his 
celebrated  dogma  of  Pre-established  Harmony.  The  con- 
nection between  mind  and  body,  between  force  and  mat- 
ter, between  the  natura  naturans  and  the  natura  nat- 
nrata,  is  still  an  insoluble  enigma,  after  all  the  specula- 
tions of  transcendental  philosojdiv,  and  all  the  research- 
es of  modern  philosoidiy  and  modern  chemistry.  \^'e 
still  grope  for  life  in  the  dust  and  ashes  of  death.  The 
ved  of  Isis  has  not  been  raised.  Spencer,  and  Huxley, 
and  Tj-ndall,  et  id  yeniis  omne,  are  compelled  to  aclvnowl- 
edge  their  inability  to  penetrate  the  mysterj'  of  the  con- 
nection. However  untenable,  however  hazardous,  how- 
ever absurd  the  Pre-cstabhshed  Harmony  of  Leibnitz 
may  be,  it  was  a  beautiful  dream,  generated  in  some  sort 
by  the  atmosphere  of  the  time,  and  certainly  a  bold  and 
ingenious  attempt  to  escape  fiom  the  brute  mechanism 
of  Des  Cartes,  the  pantheism  of  Spinoza,  the  puppetry  of 
Malebranche,  and  the  materialism  of  the  Sensationalists. 
The  doctrine  was  illustrated,  explained,  and  expanded 
in  the  Theodicee,  and  in  many  short  essays  and  letters. 
So  much,  indeed,  of  the  philosophy  of  Leibnitz  was  com- 
municated only  by  occasional  papers  and  correspond- 
ence, so  little  by  sj'stematic  works,  that  it  is  impossible 
to  trace  the  course  and  development  of  his  views  in  any 
brief  notice.  His  two  formal  meta]diysical  works  be- 
long to  the  last  ])criod  of  his  life.  The  Nouvecmx  Es- 
sais,  in  reply  to  Locke,  answering  the  English  philoso- 
pher chapter  l)y  chapter,  and  section  by  section,  were 
completed  in  1701,  but  were  not  published  for  more  than 
half  a  century.  They  were  withheld  from  the  press  in 
consequence  of  Locke's  death  in  that  year,  and  were  first 
published  byRaspe  in  1763.  The  Theodicee,  which  was 
designed  as  a  refutation  of  Bayle,  and  was  undertaken 
at  the  request  of  the  queen  of  Prussia,  was  completed 
two  years  after  the  death  of  that  princess  and  of  Bayle, 
but  w^s  not  published  till  1710,  six  years  before  Leib- 
nitz's own  decease.  Like  the  Nouvecmx  Essais,  it  was 
composed  in  French,  of  which  language  Leibnitz  was  a 
perfect  master.  It  is  exquisitely  written,  and  is  the 
finest  specimen  of  philosophical  literature  since  the  Di- 
alogues of  Plato.  A  very  large  portion  of  the  meta- 
physical and  other  writings  of  Leibnitz  have  been  trans- 
mitted to  us  only  by  posthumous  publication. 

Though  Leibnitz   composed  only  these  two  formal 


LEir,XITZ 


334 


LEIBNITZ 


treatises,  his  pliilosopliiral  and  scientific  labors  were  mul- 
titiuUufius  and  multilarious.  He  was  indef'atiiiahle  in 
labor,  and  his  mind  ranged  with  eijiial  rapidit\'  and 
s])lendor  over  the  whole  domain  of  knowledfj;e.  Noth- 
in-jc  was  too  vast  for  his  comprehension,  too  dark  for  his 
penetration,  too  humble  for  his  notice.  He  correspond- 
ed with  Pclisson  on  the  conciliation  and  union  of  the 
Protestant  and  Catholic  communions,  and  was  thus 
broui^ht  into  connection  with  Bossuet.  With  Burnet 
be  discussed  the  project  of  uniting  the  Anglicans  and 
the  Continental  Protestants.  He  expended  much  time 
over  the  invention  of  a  universal  language.  He  wrote 
extensively  on  etymology,  and  the  improvement  of  the 
German  language,  which  he  so  rarely  emploj'ed.  ]\Ied- 
icine,  botany,  and  other  branches  of  natural  history  at- 
tracted his  earnest  regards.  He  addressed  a  memoir  to 
Louis  XIV  on  the  Conquest  and  Colonization  of  Egyj)t, 
with  the  rietv  to  establishimj  a  Supi-emacy  over  Europe. 
The  age  of  chivalry  and  the  Crusades  was  not  over  with 
him.  He  certainly  pointed  out  the  road  to  Napoleon. 
He  was  deeply  interested  in  the  accounts  of  the  Chi- 
nese, and  in  the  Jesuit  missions  for  their  conversion. 
He  wrote  much  upon  the  philosophia  Sinenjiis,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  delusion  of  the  age.  He  engaged  in  an 
active  but  courteous  controversy  with  Samuel  Clarke, 
in  which  the  highest  and  most  abstruse  riddles  of  meta- 
physics were  discussed.  From  his  historical  researches 
he  drew  the  materials  for  an  instructive  essay,  De  Ori- 
ffiiie  Francontm  (1715) ;  and  so  various  was  the  range  of 
topics  that  engaged  his  attention,  that  he  commented 
on  the  political  position  and  rights  of  English  freehold- 
ers. His  mind,  like  the  sun,  surveyed  all  things,  and 
brightened  all  that  it  shone  upon.  This  enumeration  of 
his  incpiiries  gives  a  very  imperfect  view  of  either  the 
number  or  the  variety  of  his  productions.  The  cata- 
logue of  his  writings  lills  thirty-three  pages  in  the  4to 
edition  of  his  works  by  Dutens. 

The  literary  fecundity  of  Leibnitz  was  equalled  by  his 
activity  in  promoting  the  practical  interests  of  intelli- 
gence. His  correspondence  linked  together  the  schol- 
ars of  all  countries,  furnished  a  bond  of  connection  be- 
tween all  learning  and  science,  and  created  for  the  11. ot 
time  a  universal  republic  of  letters.  He  thus  communi- 
cated an  impulse  to  the  dissemination  of  knowledge  not 
less  potent  than  that  given  by  Bacon's  New  Atlaiitui, 
and  by  the  institution  of  the  lioyal  Societj'  of  England. 
Of  that  society  he  was  an  adjunct  member,  as  he  was 
the  chief  of  the  foreign  associates  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  of  France.  He  suggested  to  the  first  king  of 
Prussia  the  foundation  of  the  Koyal  Academy  of  Berlin, 
aided  in  its  establishment,  and  became  its  first  jiresident 
(17011).  He  proposed  a  like  institution  for  Dresden,  but 
\\as  frustrated  by  the  wars  in  I'oland,  for  his  zeal  for 
lil)eral  studies  was  contemporaneous  with  the  conquer- 
ing campaigns  of  Charles  XH  of  Sweden.  When  the 
Berlin  Academy  was  endangered  by  the  death  of  its 
royal  founder,  Leibnitz  sought  to  open  a  new  home  for 
learning  l)y  establishing  a  similar  society  at  Vienna 
(171o).  The  design  was  not  carried  into  effect.  The 
exhaustion  of  the  finances  by  the  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession,  which  was  scarcely  closed,  was  unfavorable 
to  the  scheme.  I^eibnitz  was  warmh'  received,  was  en- 
couraged by  iirince  Kugene,  was  created  a  baron  of  the 
empire,  and  was  appointed  aulic  counsellor,  with  a  sal- 
ary of  -20110  fiorius.  Two  years  previously  he  had  been 
consultet!  at  Torgau,  in  regard  to  the  civilization  of 
Russia,  by  Peter  the  Great,  who  had  made  him  a  coun- 
sellor of  the  Russian  empire,  and  had  conceded  a  hand- 
some jiension  to  him.  All  the  while  he  remained  histo- 
riogra|ihcr  of  Brunswick.  It  is  rejiorted  that  the  elector 
of  linmswick  was  much  dissatisfied  with  the  slow  prog- 
ress of  the  history  of  his  house.  When  tlie  electorbecame 
king  of  England  (1714),  Leibnitz  hastened  f;-om  Vienna 
to  [lay  his  court  to  the  monarch,  but  his  new  majesty  had 
departed  for  liis  new  dominions.  He  met  tlie  sovereign, 
however,  on  his  return  to  his  paternal  domain.  The 
years  of  Leibnitz  were  now  drawing  to  an  end.    He  suf- 


fered from  acute  rheumatism  and  other  painful  disor- 
ders. Having  much  acquaintance  with  medicine,  he 
tried  novel  remedies  iipon  himself,  with  no  good  result. 
He  prolonged  his  studies  almost  to  his  last  days,  and 
died  tranquilly,  with  scarcely  a  word,  on  Nov.  14, 171(5, 
having  reached  the  age  of  "  threescore  and  ten  years." 
His  monument  at  the  gates  of  Hanover,  erected  by  king 
George,  bears  the  modest  inscription  Ossa  Leihnitii. 

Leibnitz  was  of  medium  height,  and  slender.  He 
liad  a  large  head,  black  hair,  M'hich  soon  left  him  bald, 
and  small  ej^es.  He  was  very  short-sighted,  but  his 
vision  was  otherwise  sound  to  the  end  of  his  days.  His 
constitution  was  remarkably  good,  for  he  reached  old 
age  without  serious  malady,  notwithstanding  the  strain 
to  which  it  was  subjected.  He  drank  moderately,  but 
ate  much,  especially  at  supper,  and  immediately  after 
this  heavy  meal  retired  to  rest.  He  was  wholly  irregu- 
lar in  eating.  He  took  his  food  whenever  he  was  him- 
gry,  usually  in  his  library,  without  abandoning  his 
books.  Frequently  he  took  his  only  repose  in  his  chair, 
and  occasionaUy  pursued  his  reflections  or  researches, 
without  change  of  place,  for  weeks — Fontenelle  sa}-s  for 
months.  He  read  everj'thing  —  good  books  and  bad 
books,  and  books  on  aU  manner  of  subjects.  He  ex- 
tracted largely  from  the  authors  perused,  and  made  co- 
pious annotations  upon  them.  His  memory  was  so  te- 
nacious that  he  rarely  recurred  to  these  Adversaria. 
He  sought  intercourse  with  men  of  all  occupations  and 
of  all  grades  of  intelligence.  Every  work  of  God  or 
man  was  an  object  of  interest  and  regard  to  him.  He 
stretched  forth  his  hand  to  everything — the  election  of 
a  king  of  Poland,  the  revival  of  the  Crusades,  the  con- 
version of  the  heathen,  the  reunion  of  the  churches,  the 
codification  of  laws,  the  history  of  a  dynasty  and  people, 
the  constitution  of  the  universe,  the  creation  of  new 
sciences,  tlie  derivation  of  words,  the  invention  of  a  cal- 
culating machine,  the  projection  of  a  universal  language, 
the  construction  of  wintlmills,  or  the  improvement  of 
pleasure  carriages.  The  extent  -of  his  correspondence 
was  amazing,  and  may  be  conjectured  from  the  list  of 
distinguished  correspondents  culled  by  Brucker  from 
the  ampler  catalogues  of  Feller  and  Ludovici.  The 
courtesy  of  his  epistles  was  as  notable  as  their  multitude. 
They  were  scattered  over  all  civilized  nations,  and  were 
on  an  endless  diversity  of  topics,  but  they  were  uni- 
formly marked  by  deference  for  the  persons  and  opin- 
ions of  others.  This  gentleness  sprung  from  an  amiable 
and  cheerful  nature.  It  was  cultivated  and  refined  by 
intercourse  with  princes,  and  statesmen,  and  philoso- 
phers, and  scholars,  and  also  with  the  humblest  classes 
of  society.  It  was  confirmed  by  his  belief  that  no  hon- 
est conviction  can  be  entirely  wrong.  His  conversation 
was  easy  and  abundant — as  full  of  charm  as  of  instruc- 
tion. It  may  be  conceded  to  Gibbon  that  completeness 
was  sacrificed  by  Leibnitz  to  universality  of  acquire- 
ment; but,  when  aU  bis  gifts  and  accomplishments  are 
embraced  in  one  view,  he  may  be  justly  deemed  to  merit 
the  eulogy  of  his  French  editor,  Jacques :  "  In  point  of 
speculative  philosophy  he  is  the  greatest  intellect  of 
modern  times ;  and  had  but  two  equals,  but  no  superiors, 
in  antiquity." 

Leibnitz  was  never  married.  He  contemplated  the 
experiment  once,  when  he  was  fifty  years  of  age  ('•  de 
quo  scmel  tantum  in  vita,  aetate  jam  provectior,  sed 
f^ustra  cogitavit").  The  lady  asked  time  for  reflection. 
The  opportunity  for  reflection  cooled  the  ardor  of  the 
jjhilosopher — the  match  was  not  decreed  by  any  pre- 
established  harmony,  and  the  suit  was  not  pressed. 

The  religious  fervor  of  Leibnitz  was  undoubted,  but 
he  was  negligent  of  the  offices  of  religion.  In  his  efforts 
to  promote  Cliristian  unity,  and  to  recognise  only  "  one 
Lord,  one  faith,  one  baptism,"  he  may  have  felt  too  keenly 
the  defects  of  rival  creeds,  so  as  to  accept  from  none  the 
truth  which  seemed  mutilated  and  imperfect  in  each. 

Philosophi).  —  Tlic  matliematical  and  scientific,  the 
historical  and  juridical,  the  linguistic  and  miscellaneous 
speculations  of  Leibnitz  have  been  noticed  very  inade- 


LEIBNITZ 


335 


LEIBNITZ 


quately,  but  as  fully  as  comports  vrith  the  desig^i  of  this 
Cyclop«dia.     His  philosophy  awaits  and  merits  more 
precise  coiisidoratioij.     It  must  be  premised  that  all  his 
labors,  however  remote  in  appearaoce  from  philosophical 
speculation,  were  inspired  and  animated  by  his  own  pe- 
culiar scheme  of  doctrine,  and  were  really  fragmentary 
applications  of  his  distinctive  principles.     Hence  pro- 
ceeded that  pervading  spirit  of  reform  which  is  mani- 
fested in  all  the  departments  of  knowledge  handled  by 
him,  and  which  was  rewarded  by  numerous  great  tri- 
umphs in  so  many  and  such  dissimilar  directions.    When 
details  are  neglected,  the  whole  body  of  his  writings  is 
found  to  be  connected  by  many  lines  of  interdependence, 
and  to  be  harmonized  into  unity  by  a  common  relation 
to  the  central  thought  around  which  his  own  reflections 
incessantly  revolved.     God  is  one,  and  there  must  be 
consistency,  and  concord  in  the  creation  of  God.     It  is 
no  easy  task  to  discern  this  unity,  and  to  detect  the 
general  scheme  of  the  Leibnitzian  philosophy.    Leibnitz 
nowhere  presents  a  symmetrical  exposition  of  his  whole 
doctrine.     His  ifomuldldijie,  or  rriitripia  Pliilosophice, 
seu  Theses  in  GratUtm  Principis  Euf/eidi,  furnishes  a  clew 
to  his  system,  but  it  is  only  a  slender  clew.    Even  if  the 
Principes  de  la  Nature  et  de  la  Grace  be  added  as  a  sup- 
plement, the  guiding  thread  is  very  frail.     His  views 
must  be  painfully  gathered  from   elaborate  treatises, 
from  occasional  essays,  from  scientific  papers,  from  pass- 
ing hints,  from  explanations  of  controverted  pouits, 
from  elucidations  of  obscure  or  misapprehended  state- 
ments, and  from  the  series  of  his  multifarious  epistles. 
Here  a  principle  is  thrown  out,  there  its  applications 
are  illustrated ;  in  one  place  an  erroneous  conclusion  or 
a  mistaken  inference  is  corrected,  in  another,  or  in  many 
others,  fresh  limitations  or  further  expansions  of  a  hy- 
pothesis are  proposed.     These  different  members  of  the 
imperfect  whole  are  separated  by  months  or  years  in  the 
life  of  the  author,  or  by  hundreds  of  pages,  or  whole 
volumes  in  his  collected  works.    It  required  the  patient 
diligence  of  Christian  Wolf  to  combine,  complete,  and 
organize  in  cumbrous  quartos  leaves  scattered  like  the 
oracles  of  the  Sibyl.     Leibnitz  had,  indeed,  no  system 
to  propound ;  he  had  no  thought  of  proraidgating  a  sys- 
tem or  of  establishing  a  sect.     Yet  his  mind  was  thor- 
oughly systematic.     The  system  which  resulted  from 
perfect  coherence  of  thought  was  latent  in  his  own  mind 
from  the  beginning,  and  was  consistently  evolved  as  the 
occasion  furnished  the  opportimity  of  presenting  its 
several  parts.     The  highest  intellect  attaches  itself  in- 
stinctivel}'  to  a  principle,  and  allows  accident  to  deter- 
mine ho^v  far  and  when  its  consequences  shall  be  im- 
rolk'd.     Leibnitz  only  desired  to  reconcile  the  opinions 
of  his  illustrious  predecessors  ;  to  correct  the  errors  and 
to  supply  the  deficiencies  which  he  recognised  in  the 
theory  of  his  chief  leader,  Des  Cartes,  and  to  redress 
the  evils  which  had  flowed  logically  from  those  errors. 
The  main  design  of  his  profound  investigations  was  to 
give  precision,  harmony,  and  veracity  to  the  immense 
stock  of  his  own  acquisitions  and  meditations.     Had  he 
reached  the  years  of  Methuselah  he  might  have  pro- 
posed a  system,  but  it  would  have  been  simjily  the  rec- 
titication  of  Cartesianism,  or  the  conciliation  of  Plato 
and  Aristotle,  of  Buonaventura  and  Aquinas.     It  must 
be  remembered  that,  of  his  two  systematic  treatises,  one 
was  published  towards  the  close  of  his  life,  the  other 
not  till  half  a  century  after  his  death.     His  natural  dis- 
position apparently  inclined  him  to  accumulate  knowl- 
edge for  its  own  sake,  and  to  reflect  uimn  his  acquisi- 
tions for  his  own  satisfaction.    He  seemed  to  be  impelled 
to  jiul'lication  only  by  some  accidental  stimulus.     His 
wliole  Ufe  was  a  discipline  and  preparation  for  what  he 
never  found  time  to  execute — never,  perhaps,  seriously 
thought  of  executing — a  vast  encyclopaidia  embracing 
all  that  could  be  known  by  man.     The  hints  thrown 
out  in  his  long  career,  apt  as  they  are  for  the  construc- 
tion of  a  c<insistent  globe  of  speculation,  only  indicate 
an  inideveloped  system,  which  is  revealed  by  glimpses 
as  the  need  or  provocation  of  the  moment  inspired. 


From  such  lirokcn  and  dispersed  lights  his  philosophy 
must  be  divined. 

Leibnitz  was  essentially  a  Cartesian.     He  was  Carte- 
sian in  his  method,  and  Cartesian  in  his  fundamental 
principles.     He  never  revolted  from  his  great  teacher. 
He  pursued  the  Cartesian  mode  of  analysis  and  abstrac- 
tion, he  employed  the  Cartesian  procedure  by  mathe- 
matical demonstration,  he  reasoned,  like  Des  Cartes, 
from  presumptive  principles,  he  accepted  the  Cartesian 
indicia  of  truth;  but  he  rendered  them  more  precise, 
and  was  not  wholly  negligent  of  experience.     He  also 
rehabilitated  the  Scholastic  or  Aristotelian  logic.     He 
endeavored  to  combine  with  the  dominant  doctrine  all 
that  seemed  valuable  in  elder  systems,  and  he  found 
some  truth  in  all  the  schemes  that  he  rejected.     His 
imagination  was  too  bold  and  too  active  to  permit  him 
to  be  the  servile  follower  of  anj^  master,  and  his  perspi- 
cacity was  too  acute  to  overlook  the  fatal  defects  of  the 
principles  and  conclusions  of  Des  Cartes.     The  main 
errors  to  be  corrected  spnmg  from  the  distinction  made 
by  the  French  reformer  between  mind  and  matter.     Ac- 
cording to  his  theorj^,  the  one  could  not  act  upon  the 
other.     The  intelligent  and  the  material  universe  were 
thus  hopelessly  divorced.     Mind  was  pure  thought; 
matter  was  simjjle  extension ;  the  apparent  concurrence 
of  the  two  in  the  phenomena  of  existence  was  due  to 
divine  assistancy.    See  Des  Cartes.    Beasts  were  ma- 
chines galvanized  into  the  semblance  of  voluntary  ac- 
tion by  the  intervention  of  divine  power.    PLvery  move- 
ment was  a  nodus  rindice  dignus.     If  mind  is  pure 
thought,  aU  mental  action  must  be  an  effluence,  an  ef- 
fect, or  a  manifestation  of  the  one  sole  Intelligence. 
The   distinction   of  minds  was  an  impossibility.     To 
Leibnitz  the  want  of  any  princijnum  indiriduutionis — 
that  old  war-cry  of  the  schoolmeri — was  apparent.    He 
discussed  this  topic  in  a  public  thesis  before  he  was  sev- 
enteen (May  30, 1GG3,  Opera,  torn,  ii,  part  i,  p.  4(J0,  ed. 
Dutens).     He  ascribed  entitalive  activity  to  matter,  and 
a  distinct  entity  to  each  individual  mind.    He  regarded 
the  human  mind  as  an  assemblage  of  dormant  capacities 
{ivTi\i\tiai),  to  be  called  into  action  by  the  stimulation 
of  sensations  from  without,  and  of  promptings  from 
within.     He  departed  so  far  from  the  teachings  of  Des 
Cartes  that  he  ascribed  soul  and  reason  to  brutes,  and 
in  some  sort  to  all  matter  also  {Leihniiiana,  §  c.  Opera, 
t.  vi,  part  i,  p.  315 ;  comp.  §  clxxxi,  p.  331 ;  see  Bayle, 
Diet.  Hist.  Crit.  tit.  Rorarius,  Pereira).      If  matter  is 
mere  extension,  it  must  be  identical  with  space,  and  is 
"  without  form   and  void,"  impalpable,  inconceivable, 
unreal.    To  give  shape  to  "  that  which  shape  had  none," 
motion  must  be  recognised  as  an  essential  quality  of 
matter,  because  form  is  produced  by  movement  in  space. 
Leibnitz  at  times  goes  so  far  as  to  suspect  that  all  space 
is  matter.     For  the  production  of  motion,  force — deter- 
minate power  in  action — is  necessary.     Of  the  real  ex- 
istence of  force  the  human  consciousness  affords  assu- 
rance.    From  these  corrections  of  the  Cartesian  postu- 
lates proceeded  the  mathematical  and  philosophical  spec- 
ulations of  Leibnitz  in  regard  to  vis  viva,  his  Tluory  of 
Motion,  Abstract  and  Concrete,  his  Dynamics,  and  even 
his  Calculus  of  Infinitesimals.     All  internal  and  external 
change,  all  properties  and  accidents  of  matter,  are  only 
"modes  of  motion."     The  latest  science  is  returning  to 
similar  hypotheses,  though  the  language  of  science  is 
altered.     Observed  phenomena  appeared  to  be  contra- 
dicted by  the  definition  of  body,  as  the  conjunction  of  ex- 
tension and  motion.     Bodies  were  often  at  rest,  under- 
going no  sensible  change.     Motion  could  not  belong  to 
them  essentially  as  aggregates,  but  onlj'  to  the  constitu- 
ents from  whose  conjoint  operation  the  external  or  the 
internal  movements  of  the  mass  proceeded.    If  a  jiroper- 
ty  was  to  inhere  in  such  constituents,  matter  could  not 
be  infinitely  divisible  :  the  process  of  division  must  be 
ultimately  arrested  by  reaching  an  irreducible  atom : 

"  Fateare  uecesse  'st, 
Esse  en,  quiE  inillis  jam  prneditu  partibus  exstent, 
Et  minima  cousieut  uatura." 


LEIBNITZ 


336 


LiiiBNITZ 


The  motion  attributed  to  these  primordial  particles  is 
due  to  an  indwelliii!?  force.  Thus,  from  liis  definition 
of  matter  as  the  union  of  motion  with  extension,  Leib- 
nitz was  led  to  recognise  as  tlie  iirlmary  units  of  the 
universe  an  infinity  of  simple  elementary  substances  or 
forces,  which  he  designated  jionads.  These  monads 
have  some  resemblance  to  those  of  Pythagoras,  Democ- 
ritus,  and  Epicurus,  and  also  to  the  Ideas  of  Plato ;  but, 
unlike  the  Ei)icurean  atoms,  they  are  not  solida,  though 
they  are  (efenia.  They  are  not  material,  but  they  are 
the  souLs  of  matter.  This  vaporous  dematerialization 
of  matter  may  be  illustrated  by  Plotinus's  definition  of 
matter  by  the  successive  segregation  of  all  the  proper- 
ties of  specific  body.  Is  not  the  theory  of  Boscovich, 
that  matter  is  only  an  assemblage  of  points  of  force,  an 
adaptation  of  Leibnitz's  conception  ?  Has  not  the  the- 
ory of  Boscovich  won  atlmiration  and  hesitating  ap- 
proval from  manj'  distinguished  men  of  science? 

The  consequences  of  the  rectification  of  the  Cartesian 
conception  of  matter  do  not  end  here.  As  the  motions 
or  manifestations  of  force  constitute  the  difference  be- 
tween the  several  simple  substances  or  monads,  when 
there  is  no  diversity  of  motion  there  is  no  difference  of 
properties  and  no  distinction  of  nature.  Hence  follows 
another  dogma  of  Leibnitz,  the  Idenlitij  of  Indiscerni- 
bles.  The  monads  are  infinite  in  number,  but  they  are 
unlilce,  and  present  an  infinite  diversity  of  forces.  There 
is  also  an  infinite  variety  of  gradations,  from  the  lowest 
atoms  of  matter  up  through  human  souls  to  the  supreme 
monad,  or  God.  Each  monad  is  in  some  sort  the  mirror 
of  the  universe  of  things;  each  possesses  spontaneous 
energy  or  life  within  itself,  and,  in  consequence  of  these 
characteristics,  each  has  its  own  peculiar  kind  of  reason, 
passive  in  matter  unorganized,  rudimentary  in  crystals 
and  vegetable  existence,  unreflecting  and  instinctive  in 
brutes,  self-conscious  and  introspective  in  man,  and  as- 
cending through  numberless  orders  of  angelic  intelli- 
gences. As  motion  is  the  principle  oi  quiddity  ("the 
ghosts  of  defunct"  terms  must  be  evoked),  force  is  an  es- 
sential quality  of  all  existence';  and  is  as  imperishable 
as  the  monad  is  indestructible,  unless  both  are  annilii- 
lated  by  the  same  Power  by  which  they  were  created. 
Here  is  another  anticipation  of  recent  scientific  deduc- 
tions. As  these  forces  are  immutable,  their  separate 
spheres  of  action  must  be  exempt  from  intrusion.  There 
may  be  composition  of  motions,  or  equilibrium  of  an- 
tagonisms, but  there  can  be  no  interaction  or  reciprocal 
influence. 

Here  presents  itself  the  ancient  insoluble  enigma. 
How  can  bodies  act  upon  each  other  ?  How  can  matter 
be  moulded  or  modified  by  vital  action?  How  can  it 
be  subdued  or  directed  by  the  inteUigent  volition  of 
man  ?  How  can  it  be  conjoined  with  spirit  in  any  form 
of  animate  existence  ?  Des  Cartes  so  completely  con- 
tradistinguished mind  and  matter  that  it  was  impossi- 
ble for  mind  to  act  upon  matter  or  matter  upon  mind — 
frustrnferro  dicerberat  uinbms.  Leibnitz  so  complete- 
ly assimilated  material  to  spiritual  existence,  giving 
body  to  spirit,  and  spirit  to  body  {Theod.  §  124),  that 
they  were  indistinguishable  except  by  their  properties 
—the  one  possessing  perception  only,  the  other  having 
apperception  also.  There  could  be  no  intercommunion, 
no  reciprocal  influence  between  them,  or  between  any 
monads.  ^  To  cut  rather  than  to  loose  the  intellectual 
knot,  which  was  only  rendered  more  intricate,  Leibnitz 
proposed  an  explanation  in  his  Systema  Naturm  (1(395). 
It  is  his  celebrated  doctrine  oi  Pre-established  Harmomj. 
The  monatls  are  forces,  sometimes  active,  sometimes 
suspended,  tvipyeini  and  SvvdjUK;,  governed  by  their 
ovm  inherent  tendencies,  and  without  i)ower  of  acting 
upon  each  other;  but  their  separate  actions  are  so  fore- 
known on  one  side,  and  predetermined  (in  the. other,  in 
the  moment  of  creation,  that  their  concurrent  evolutions 
reciprocally  correspond,  and  effectuate  all  the  phenom- 
ena of  the  universe.  ]\Iind,  therefore,  does  not  coerce 
matter,  nor  does  one  form  of  matter  control  another,  but 
the  inclination  of  the  will  and  the  disposition  of  the 


matter,  or  the  diverse  evolutions  of  different  monads, 
conjoin  independently  and  without  connection  in  the 
production  of  one  result,  in  consequence  of  the  pread- 
aptation of  all  the  elementary  forces  to  that  particular 
change,  at  that  particular  moment,  in  that  particular 
composition,  and  with  that  particular  consequence.  Du- 
gald  Stewart  illustrates  this  harmony  by  the  supposi- 
tion of  two  clocks  so  regulated  and  adjusted  as  to  strike 
the  hours  in  unison.  It  may  be  an  illustration;  it  is 
scarcely  an  elucidation  of  the  doctrine.  The  agreement 
is  only  in  time  and  performance :  there  is  no  concord- 
ance of  dissimilar  processes.  The  machinery  of  Divine 
A  ssistance,  which  Des  Cartes  had  employed  for  the  ex- 
planation of  the  phenomena  of  animal  life,  was  general- 
ized by  Leibnitz,  applied  to  the  whole  order  of  things, 
and  transferred  to  the  original  of  all  creation.  There  is 
thus  much  more  than  a  poetic  symbolism — there  is  a 
tUstinctive  philosoi:)hical  tenet  involved  in  his  fine  ex- 
pression that  "  the  iniiverse  is  the  knowledge  of  God." 
This  preordination  of  concurrences,  apt  for  each  occa- 
sion, between  monadic  developments,  each  of  which  is 
determined  by  its  own  inherent  force,  which  is  will  in 
intelligences  and  nature  in  material  things,  makes  the 
whole  endless  series  of  change  the  reahzation  of  fore- 
seen and  prearranged  correspondences.  It  is  the  con- 
tinual evolution  of  the  immeasurable  plan  entertained 
by  the  Creator  before  the  beginning  of  the  ages,  and 
brought  into  act  at  the  appointed  time  and  in  the  ap- 
pointed order,  with  mathematical  precision,  though  be- 
yond the  calculation  of  mathematical  devices.  Certain 
fabrics  are  curiously  woven  with  colors  so  arranged  in 
the  yarn  that  when  the  weaving  is  performed  each  col- 
or falls  with  exact  propriety  into  its  due  place,  and  con- 
tributes accurately  to  form,  to  tint,  to  perfect  the  con- 
templated pattern.  So,  in  the  system  of  pre-established 
harmony,  "  the  web  of  creation  is  woven  in  the  loom  of 
time,"  with  threads  prepared  from  the  beginning  to  fall 
into  the  requisite  connections,  and  to  produce  a  fore- 
known design.  Each  concurrent  movement  arrives  at 
the  appropriate  time  and  place  in  consequence  of  the 
whole  antecedent  series  of  changes  in  each  case,  for  no- 
\vhere  is  there  any  solution  of  continuity,  and  the  pres- 
ent is  alwaj's  the  jirogeny  of  the  past  and  the  parent  of 
the  future.  The  innumerable  lines  of  evolution  contin- 
ually interosculate  with  each  other,  but  never  are  blend- 
ed together.  It  wiU  readily  be  perceived  that  the  whole 
intricate  phantasmagoria  of  these  unconnected  monads 
is  only  a  grand  and  beautiful  variation  of  the  Cartesian 
hypothesis,  and  is  neither  more  valid  nor  more  satisfac- 
tory than  the  fantasy  it  was  designed  to  supplant. 

This  doctrine  of  pre-established  harmony  is  in  per- 
fect consonance  with  Leibnitz's  vindication  of  the  ways 
of  God  to  man,  if  it  did  not  necessitate  his  theological 
expositions.  The  Tkeodicee  is  the  most  exquisite,  the 
most  brilliant,  the  most  profound,  the  most  learned,  and, 
in  some  respects,  the  most  satisfactory  of  all  treatises  of 
philosophical  theology.  Many  of  its  conclusions  are 
either  true,  or  as  near  the  truth  as  the  human  intellect 
can  attain  in  such  inquiries.  Others  are  merely  con- 
jectural, and  are  sometimes  fantastic,  as  they  lie  beyond 
the  domain  of  possible  knowledge.  Several  of  its  posi- 
tions have  furnished  pretexts  for  sweeping  censures; 
but  in  such  speculations  error  is  inevitable,  and  a  slight 
error  opens  the  way  for  a  host  of  pernicious  and  unde- 
signed heresies.  The  most  notable  and  characteristic 
of  Leibnitz's  theological  dogmas,  which  provoked  the 
malicious  wit  of  Voltaire's  Candide,  is  intimately  asso- 
ciated with  the  explanation  of  the  combined  action  of 
monads.  This  is  the  theory  known  as  Optimism.  With- 
out absolutely  asserting  that  "Whatever  is.  is  best,"  it 
alleges  that  the  actual  world  is  the  best  of  all  possible 
worlds,  despite  of  acknowledged  evils  and  defects.  This 
is  suppose(l  to  be  "proved,  among  other  evidences,  by  the 
Leibnitzian  principle  of  the  sufficient  reason,  suice,  if 
any  better  world  had  been  possible,  it  is  reasonable  to 
suppose  that  it  would  have  been  selected  by  God  in 
preference  to  that  which  He  actually  created.  The  acute 


LEIBNITZ 


337 


LEIDRADT 


conceptions,  the  ingenious  arguments,  the  various  illus- 
trations, the  abundant  analogies  by  which  this  thesis  is 
maintained  and  adorned,  can  receive  here  only  their 
merited  tribute  of  admiration.  When  (iod  looked  upon 
the  work  of  each  of  the  six  days  of  creation,  "  He  saw 
that  it  was  good."  More  than  this  it  is  not  given  man 
to  know  :  "  that  which  is  wanting  cannot  be  numbered." 
But,  if  all  events,  if  all  changes,  if  all  composite  actions 
occur  by  divine  preadaptation,  it  must  be  presumed  that 
this  is  the  best  of  worlds.  There  is  wonderful  coherence 
in  the  views  of  Leibnitz,  interrupted  and  fragmentary  as 
is  their  exposition.  This  dialectical  consistency  is  so 
perfect,  and  in  its  evolution  so  s|)lendid  and  imposuig, 
that  his  scheme  presents,  both  in  the  process  of  its  con- 
struction and  in  its  structure,  the  charm  of  a  dream  of 
the  imagination.  Nothing  a])proaches  it  in  magnifi- 
cence but  the  ideal  universe  of  Plato. 

Of  course,  if  this  is  the  best  of  possible  worlds,  and  if 
its  phenomena  are  determined  by  the  divine  preordina- 
tion or  preorganization,  evil,  too  apparent  everyAvhere, 
must  be  merely  contingent — a  negative  characteristic,  a 
nonentity  in  itself.  Leibnitz  accordingly  regards  evil 
simply  as  imperfection — the  privation  of  good.  God  is 
perfect :  anything  less  than  God  must  be  imperfect.  All 
limitation  is  imperfection ;  all  imperfection  is  defect  of 
good — is  evil.  The  evil  increases  in  quality  and  in  de- 
gree with  each  remove  from  the  perfection  of  the  Su- 
preme Existence.  Hence,  in  this  best  of  worlds,  the 
taint  of  evil  is  over  the  whole  creation : 

"The  trail  of  the  serpent  is  over  it  all." 

All  this  may  be  admitted,  but  it  affords  only  an  inade- 
quate explanation.  It  does  not  justify  the  retribution 
which  is  merited  by  all  evil :  it  does  not  recognise  the 
positive  character  of  evil  as  the  violation  of  the  divine 
law  and  order ;  it  hardly  permits  the  notion  of  such  vio- 
lation. Leibnitz  denies  the  existence  of  physical  evil 
except  as  a  consequence  of  moral  evil ;  and  moral  evil 
consists  in  voluntary  increase  of  imperfection,  in  wilful 
estrangement  from  the  Supreme  Monad.  Even  thus,  no 
sufficient  reason  can  be  assigned  for  ascribing  sin,  and 
for  attaching  a  material  or  moral  penalty  to  wliat  is  the 
result  of  a  natural  and  inevitable  imperfection.  This 
defect  in  the  system  is  clearly  pointed  out  by  Kant. 

The  unfathomable  immensity  of  the  creation  can  be 
but  diml}^  apprehended  by  the  finite  and  fallible  mind 
of  man.  The  mighty  plan  and  purpose  of  (iod  cannot 
be  compressed  within  the  compass  of  human  intelligence. 
"  We  see  as  through  a  glass  darkly."  Schemes  of  the 
universe  framed  from  broken  and  darkling  glimpses  be- 
come more  delusive  as  they  become  more  systematic. 
Leibnitz's  intuitive  principles,  abstract  analysis,  and 
scholastic  deduction  were  peculiarly  apt  to  produce  hal- 
lucinations. 

Analysis  for  the  discovery  of  vltimafe  ahsfracts  ;  in- 
tuition for  the  acceptance  of  clear,  distinct,  and  adequate 
ideas;  the  principle  of  contradiction  as  the  test  of  ver- 
ity; the  principle  of  the  sufficient  reason  as  the  canon 
of  actuality — these  are  the  metaphysical  principles  or 
postulates  of  Leibnitz.  The  residtmg  philosophy,  both 
in  conception  and  in  construction,  is  exposed  to  "  such 
tricks  as  hath  strong  imagination,"  and  wants  firm  and 
assured  foundation.  It  is  a  complex  fantasy,  a  mathe- 
matical romance,  a  universe  of  shadows.  Still,  it  is 
marked  by  -wonderful  acuteness,  logical  coherence,  and 
purity  of  spirit.  It  preludes,  if  it  does  not  anticipate, 
the  main  doctrines  of  Kant,  and  is  the  fruitful  parent  of 
all  the  subsequent  philosophy  of  Germany. 

This  exposition  presents  the  leading  tenets,  the  idees 
meres  of  Leibnitz,  but  it  affords  no  image  of  the  splen- 
did completeness  of  the  entire  theory,  in  which  God  is 
presented  as  the  first  beginning  and"  the  last  end— the 
Alpha  and  Omega  of  the  whole  order  of  things  in  time 
and  out  of  time.  Nor  does  it  do  justice  to  the  vigorous 
thought,  the  profound  reflection,  the  comprehensive  in- 
telligence, the  keen  penetration,  the  exhaustless  learn- 
ing, the  wealth  of  knowledge,  the  varietv  of  illustration, 
v.— Y 


the  fervent  and  lofty  morality,  which  give  grace,  and 
dignity,  and  grandeur  to  the  whole  and  to  all  its  parts. 
Jididi  qua  potui,  non  ut  voliii,  sed  ut  me  spafii  avgusti<e 
co'erjerunt.  FuUer  information  must  be  sought  from  his 
own  extensive  works,  and  from  the  elucidations  afforded 
by  the  numerous  commentators  on  them.  . 

Literature. — Leibnitii  Opera  (ed.  Dutens,  Gen.  17C8, 
6  vols.  4to).  A  complete  edition  of  all  his  works  is  that 
by  Pertz  (Hamburg,  1845-47, 1st  series ;  1847, 2d  series ; 
1853-62,  3d  series).  The  latest  is  by  Onno  Klopp,  1st 
series,  1864-GG  (5  vols.  8vo).  Other  editions  are :  O'lu- 
vres  (ed.  Foucher  de  Careil,  Paris,  1854  sq.,  20  vols.) ; 
Deutsche  /ScA ?//?<=«  (ed.  Guhrauer,  Berlin,  1838);  Opera 
P/iUosopkica  (ed.  Erdmann,  Berl.  1839-40) ;  Opera  Math- 
etnatica  (ed.  Gerhardt,  Berlin,  1849-50) ;  OLuvres  (ed. 
Jacques,  Par.  1842. 2  vols.  12mo) ;  CEitrres philosophiqves 
(ed.  Janet,  Par.  1866,  2  vols.  8vo) ;  Raspe,  (Euvres  Phil- 
osophiqnes  de  feu  M.  Leibniz  (Amsterd.  et  Leips.  1765, 
4to)  ;  Feder,  Lettres  Choisies  de  la  Correspondance  de  M, 
Leibniz  (Hanover,  1805) ;  "Lnhmtz,  Memoir  recommend- 
ing the  Conquest  of  Egypt  to  Louis  XIV,  etc.  (London, 
1801);  Eccard,  Lf6««  f/esZfzJwzVz  (Berl.  1740);  Jancourt, 
Vie  de  Leibniz  (Amsterdam,  1756)  ;  Guhrauer,  Leben  des 
Leibnitz  (Bresl.  1842 ;  enlarged  1846) ;  Yogel,  Leben  des 
Leibnitz  (Leipsic,  1846) ;  Mackie,  Z/»/e  of  Leibnitz  (Bos- 
ton, 1845).  Leibnitz  transmitted  an  Autobiography  to 
his  friend  Pelisson,  but  it  has  never  seen  the  light.  See 
also  Fontenelle,  Eloge  de  I^eibniz  (Paris,  1716) ;  Bailly, 
Eloge  de  Leibniz  (Paris,  1769);  Kiistner,  Lobsch?-ift  avf 
Leibnitz  (Altenb.  1769);  V{a.nscivLS,G.G.  Leibnitii  Pi-in- 
cipia  Philosophice  more  Geometrico  demonstrata  (1728, 
4to)  ;  Ludovici,  Principia  Leibnitiana  (Lips.  1737,  2  vols. 
8vo) ;  Bayle,  Hist.  Crit.  Diet.,  may  be  consulted,  especial- 
ly under  the  title  Rorarius;  EmeTy,  Esprit  de  Leilmiz, 
etc.  (Lj-ons,  1772,  2  vols.  8vo  ;  reprinted,  Paris,  1803)  ; 
Emery,  Exposition  de  la  Doctrine  de  Leilniz  sur  la  B(- 
ligion  (Paris,  1819,  8vo) ;  Brucker,  Hist.  Crit,  Philosophic 
(Lips.  1767 ;  stiU  an  indispensable  authority  for  Leib- 
nitz) ;  Dugald  Stewart,  Supjjl.  Encyclop.  Britannica  ;  Sir 
James  Mackintosh,  ibid. ;  Morell,  Hist.  Phil.  XlXth  Cen- 
tury (New  York,  1848,  8vo) ;  Lewes,  Hist,  of  Philosophy 
(new  edition,  2  vols.  8vo),  vol.  ii;  and  the  other  histo- 
rians of  modern  philosophy ;  Biographie  Universclle,  s. 
V.  Leibniz,  by  Biot,  Duvau,  Maine  de  Biran,  and  Stapfer ; 
ScheUing, /.Mfrmfe  als  Denl-er ;  Helferich,  Spinoza  und 
Leibnitz;  TAravaeTma.nn,  Leibnitz  und  Herhart  (Wien, 
1849)  ;  Feucrbach,  Darstelluitg,  Entu-ickelung  und.  Kritik 
der  Leibnitzschen  Philosophie  (Anspach,  1837) ;  Leckej', 
Hist,  of  Morals,  i,  25 ;  Baumgarten-Crusius,  Dogmen- 
gesch. ,-  Hunt,  Pantheism,  p.  247  ;  Gass,  Dogmengesch.  vol. 
ii  andiii;  l\\iXiX, Hist,  of  Rationalism, ]i.&,\0^;  Saintes, 
Rationcdism,  p.  56;  Farrar,  Crit.  Hist,  of  Eree  Thought, 
p.  56  sq. ;  Dorner,  Gesch.  d.jn'Otest.  Theol.  p.  684  sq. ;  Jour- 
nal of  Spec.  Philos.  vol.  i.  No.  3,  art.  i ;  vol.  iii.  No.  1,  art. 
v;  Revue  Chret.  1868,  p.  9;  Brewster,  Life  of  Sir  Isaac 
Newton;  Ediiib.  Rev.  ISiG  (July);  Atlantic  Monthly, lib^ 
(June)  ;  Christian  Examiner,  xxviii,  418  sq. ;  Contemp. 
Review;  May,  i867,  art.  iii ;  Mtth.  Qu.  Rev.  1851  ( April\ 
p.  189,  211;"  1862  (April),  p.  335;  Revve  des  d.  Moiides, 
1861  { Jan. ).  p.  15 ;  also  (Sept.),  p.  81.     (G.  F.  H.) 

Leidradt,  a  noted  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  proba- 
bly a  Bavarian,  flourished  in  the  8th  centurj'.  He  was 
librarian  to  Charlemagne  until  798,  when  he  was  made 
archbishop  of  Lyons.  He  was  sent  soon  after  by  Char- 
lemagne, together  with  the  bishop  of  Orleans  and  other 
prelates,  into  the  southern  provinces  of  France,  to  sup- 
press by  moral  means  the  spreading  heresy  of  Adop- 
tianism,  and  they  succeeded  in  bringing  the  chief  teach- 
er of  this  doctrine,  Felix,  to  acknowledge  his  error  before 
the  council  held  at  Aix  in  799.  In  800  Leidradt  was 
successfid  Avith  his  co-laborers  in  restoring  20,000  Adop- 
tianists.  The  zeal  which  he  everywhere  displayed  ap- 
pears in  a  letter  written  to  Charlemagne  not  long  before 
the  latter's  death.  He  writes:  "I  have  done  my  best 
to  increase  as  far  as  necessary  the  number  of  priests.  I 
have  established  the  Psalm  service  after  the  model  of 
that  observed  in  your  palace,  and  have  erected  singing- 


LEIFCHILD 


338 


LEIGHLIN 


schools  by  which  the  instruction  may  be  continued.  1 
have  reading-schools  ^^•llere  not  only  the  appointed 
services  are  repeated,  but  where  the  holy  Scriiititres  in 
general  are  studied  and  explained,  and  in  which  are 
those  who  understand  the  spiritual  meaning  not  only  of 
the  Gospels,  but  also  of  the  prophets,  the  books  of  Sam- 
uel, the  Psalms,  and  Job.  I  have  had  as  many  books 
as  possible  transcribed  for  the  churches  in  Lyons,  pro- 
cured vestments  and  other  necessary  ai)pointments  for 
divine  service,  and  have  repaired  the  churches."  After 
Charlemagne's  death,  in  the  subscrijition  to  whose  will 
the  name  of  Leidradt  appears,  he  resigned  the  bishopric 
and  retired  to  the  convent  of  the  Holy  Medardus,  where 
he  died.  Neither  the  year  of  his  death  nor  of  his  birth 
are  knowTi,  He  ^vrote  in  a  clear  and  concise  style  some 
works  which  have  since  been  edited.  Of  special  value 
is  a  treatise  of  his  on  baptism,  which  was  published  by 
Mabillon  (.-1  nnaks,  vol.  ii).  See  Herzog,  Real-EncyUop, 
art.  Baluze ;  Wetzer  u.  Welte,  Kirchen-Lex.  vol.  vi,  s.  v. 
Leifchild,  Johx,  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  Inde- 
pendent minister,  was  born  in  1780  of  jMethodist  parent- 
age, and  was  brought  up,  and  began  to  preach  among 
the  ]\Iethodists ;  but  afterwards  embracing  Calvinistic 
opinions,  it  was  impossible  for  him  to  continue  preach- 
ing among  them,  and  he  was  advised  bj'  Mr.  Bunting, 
then  the  junior  preacher  in  the  circuit,  to  seek  other 
associations.  Accordingly,  in  1804,  he  entered  Hoxton 
Academy,  but  he  retained  tlirough  life  a  friendly  feel- 
ing for  the  friends  of  his  youth,  and  profited  largely  by 
what  he  learned  among  them.  He  died  in  June,  1862. 
Without  possessing  any  very  extraordinary  natural  en- 
dowments, he  attained  bj'  faithful,  earnest,  and  diligent 
labor  a  most  successful  and  honorable  career,  and  his 
life  is  a  noble  example  of  what  may  be  eifected  by  the 
right  cultivation  of  the  powers  a  man  possesses  within 
himself.  Irreproachable  in  character,  faithful  in  pas- 
toral attentions,  powerful  in  the  pulpit,  he  filled  every 
chapel  he  occupied,  built  up  every  Church  he  was  the 
pastor  of,  and,  when  enfeebled  by  age,  retired  from  his 
work  laden  with  honors,  and  not  without  very  substan- 
tial tokens  of  the  love  and  gratitude  of  those  Avhom  he 
had  served  in  the  Gospel.  One  of  the  deacons  of  Cra- 
ven Chapel  states  that,  during  tlie  twenty-tliree  years 
of  his  ministry  there,  more  than  fifteen  hundred  persons 
had  been  brought  to  decision  and  added  to  the  Church 
through  his  faithful  ministry.  Tlie  catholic  spirit  of 
Dr.  Leifchild  was  almost  as  prominent  a  feature  in  liis 
character  as  his  intense  and  pervading  earnestness.  He 
was  well  known  and  well  liked  by  Christians  of  various 
denominations,  witli  whom  he  mingled  freely,  and  whom 
he  loved  for  the  truth's  sake.  See  J.  R.  Leifchild,  John 
Leifchild,  his  J)  ubllc  Labors,  private  Usefulness,  and  per- 
sonal Characteristics  (Loud.  1860)  ;  Grant,  Metropolitan 
Pulpit  (1839),  ii,  152;  Pen  Pictures  of  Popular  EnglUh 
Preachers  (1852),  p.  130:  AMione,  Diet,  of  British  and 
A  mer.  A  ulhors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Leigh,  Edward,  a  learned  English -layman,  was 
born  in  1()(»2,  and  was  educated  at  Magdalen  College. 
Oxford,  lie  was  a  member  of  the  Long  Parliament,  but 
was  expelled  on  account  of  his  intercession  in  behalf  of 
the  life  of  king  Charles.  He  was  also  a  member  of  the 
Assembly  of  Divines,  and  held  the  oflSce  of  parliamenta- 
ry general.  He  died  in  1071.  Edward  Leigh  wote 
largely.  Of  his  Greek  works,  one  of  the  best  is  Critica 
Sacra  (1630,  4to,  and  often  ;  best  ed.  1662,  folio),  which 
not  only  gives  tlu;  literal  sense  of  every  word  in  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  but  enriches  the  definitions  with 
philological  and  ihcdogical  notes.  It  was  held  in  high 
esteem  unlil  supplanted  by  the  more  fundamental  worlds 
of  later  Hebrew  lexicographers.  He  also  wrote  Anno- 
tations on  the  Xew  Testament,  which  are  short  and  judi- 
cious, and  other  theological  works  of  considerable  value. 
See  Allibone,  iJict.  of  Brit,  anrl  A  m.  A  uthoivt,  ii,  1079. 

Leigh,  Sir  Egerton,  an  English  nobleman,  who 
flourished  towards  tlio  close  of  the  last  century,  is  noted 
for  his  piety  and  charitable  acts.    He  was  a  member  of 


the  "  London  Missionary  Society"  from  its  very  infancy 
(1795),  as  he  was,  indeed,  the  friend  of  every  cause  con- 
necteil  with  the  glory  of  God  and  the  good  of  soids. 
"He  devoted,"  says  Morison  {Fathers  and  Founders  of 
the  Loudon  Miss.  Hoc.  p.  554),  "  much  of  his  time,  ]jrop- 
erty,  and  influence  to  the  spread  of  evangelical  religion 
both  at  home  and  abroad,  and  was  so  zealous  in  the 
cause  of  his  divine  Master  as  occasionally  to  merge  the 
baronet  in  the  humble  preacher  of  the  cross  of  Christ." 

Leigh,  Hezekiah  G.,  D.D.,  an  eminent  minister 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  born  in 
Perquimas  County,  N.  C,  Nov.  23, 1795,  was  converted 
in  1817,  joined  the  Virginia  Conference  in  1818,  was  set 
off  with  the  N.  C.  Conference  in  1836,  was  a  delegate  to 
every  (ieneral  Conference  from  1824  to  his  death,  and 
died  in  Mecklenburg  Co.,  Ya.,  Sept.  18, 1853.  He  was 
also  a  member  of  the  Louisville  Convention  at  the  or- 
ganization of  the  M.  E.  Church  South,  and  as  one  of  the 
founders  and  first  agents  of  Randolph  Slacon  College, 
and  one  of  the  organizing  committee  of  Greensboro'  Fe- 
male College,  N.  C,  he  rendered  long  and  very  important 
service  to  the  cause  of  education  in  the  Church.  He  re- 
ceived a  good  academical  education  while  young,  and 
throughout  his  life  was  a  diligent  general  student.  Most 
of  his  ministry  was  spent  in  the  office  of  presiding  elder 
in  Virginia  and  N.  Carolina.  His  character  was  noble 
and  attractive,  and  his  mind  fuU  of  lofty  ardor  for  the 
welfare  of  Christianitj'.  His  influence  was  wide  and 
controlling  for  many  years.  He  was  an  earnest  and  use- 
ful minister  of  the  Gospel,  and  will  long  be  remembered 
in  the  Carolinas. — Summers's  Biograp)h.  Sketches,  p.  165. 
(G.L.T.) 

Leighlin,  Synod  of,  was  held  in  Campo-Lene, 
Ireland,  near  Old  Leighlin,  A.D.  633,  with  the  purpose 
of  settling  the  time  as  to  the  observance  of  Easter.  A 
few  years  before  (630),  Honorius  I  had  addressed  an  ex- 
postulatory  letter  to  the  Irish  olergy  on  the  paschal 
question  ;  and  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  this  was  the 
first  notice  taken  by  the  bishops  of  Rome  in  regard  to 
the  Church  founded  by  St.  Patrick,  and  was  about  200 
years  after  its  commencement.  At  this  period  the  Irish 
were  divided  on  the  time  of  keeping  Easter,  some  advo- 
cating the  Roman  practice,  others  the  Irish  way  of  ob- 
serving the  14th  day  of  the  first  vernal  month  (if  a  Sun- 
day), instead  of  adopting  its  celebration  on  the  Sunday 
following  the  14th,  and  the  matter  even  resulted  in  a 
controversy.  Laurentius  of  Canterbiu-y  relates  that  Du- 
gan,  an  Irish  bishop,  when  in  North  Britain,  declared 
that  he  woidd  neither  eat,  drink,  or  slec]i  under  the 
same  roof  with  those  Avho  held  to  the  Roman  practice. 
Cummian,  who  for  twelve  years  had  been  an  abbot  of 
lona,  was  greatly  troubled  about  it.  and  in  its  investiga- 
tion he  said,  "  I  turned  over  the  holy  Scriptures,  studied 
history  and  aU  the  cycles  I  could  find.  I  inquired  dili- 
gently what  were  the  sentiments  of  the  Hebrews,  Gre- 
cians, Latins,  and  the  Egyptians  concerning  this  solem- 
nity." A  deputation  was  sent  from  this  synod,  of  which 
most  probably  Cummijin  was  one,  to  ascertain  from  per- 
sonal inspection  whether,  as  they  had  heartl  in  Ireland, 
other  nations  kept  Easter  at  the  same  time  that  the 
Romans  did.  The  object  of  this  deputation  has  been 
greatly  perverted  in  the  interest  of  Romanism.  It  was 
not  to  get  a  decision  from  the  pope,  for  this  they  had 
had  for  years,  and  had  not  obeyed  it;  but  it  was,  as  be- 
fore stated,  simply  to  determine  for  tliemsclves.  They 
remained  at  Rome  or  in  the  East  about  two  years.  On 
their  return  they  reported  that  all  they  had  heard  in 
Ireland  they  had  seen  in  Rome — even  more  (ralde  certi- 
ora)  than  tliey  had  heard.  But  even  this  report  was 
not  decisive,  for  the  \"encrable  Bede  says,  "  Though  the 
south  of  Ireland  partially  conformed,  the  northern  prov- 
inces and  all  loiia  adiicred  to  their  former  practice." 
This  and  other  questions  of  nonconformity  were  for  a 
long  time  jiressed  and  resisted.  In  A.D.  664.  when  The- 
odore, the  Italian  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  by  order  of 
the  pope,  came  to  establish  the  entire  regime  of  Roman 


LEIGHTOX 


339 


LEIPSIC 


Catholicism  in  North  Britain,  the  paschal  and  many 
other  questions  were  again  so  fiercely  lu'ged  that  Col- 
man  and  most  of  the  former  clergy  left  and  returned 
to  Ireland.  Agam,  in  1070,  when  Malcolm  Canmore 
brought  Margaret,  his  Saxon  wife,  to  Scotland,  she  was 
shocked  to  find  the  faith  and  public  worship  of  her  new 
subjects  so  different  from  the  Catholic  Church  of  Eng- 
land. After  laboring  long  to  induce  her  husband  to 
ado[>t  the  rites  and  order  of  the  Saxon  Catholics,  she 
had  a  three  days'  discussion  with  the  existing  clergy 
and  the  Culdees  of  lona,  she  speaking  in  Saxon  and  her 
husband  interpreting  in  Irish.  See  Todd,  Irish  Church, 
chaii.  vi;  Usher,  Brit.  Eccles.  Antiq.  cap.  xvii  {Worlcs, 
vi,  492-510), 

Leighton,  Alexander,  a  Scottish  divine,  was  born 
at  Edinburgh  in  luG<S.  He  was  professor  of  moral  phi- 
losophy in  that  city  for  several  years  prior  to  1613,  when 
he  removed  to  London,  and  obtauied  a  lectureship.  For 
libellous  or  offensive  expressions  against  the  king,  queen, 
and  the  bishops,  in  his  book  called  Zion^s  Plea  (1G29), 
he  \\as  piuiished  by  the  Star  Chamber  with  mutilation, 
the  pillory,  and  long  imprisonment.  He  was  released 
in  1040,  and  died  about  1()4G.  Archbishop  Laud  was 
no  doubt  responsible  for  the  cruel  and  inhuman  treat- 
ment of  Leighton.     See  Laud. 

Leighton,  Robert,  a  Scottish  prelate,  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  preachers  and  theologians  of  the  17th 
centiny,  was  born  in  Edinburgh,  or,  as  others  think,  in 
London,  in  the  year  1611.  He  was  educated  at  the  uni- 
versity of  the  former  city,  and  there  took  his  degree  of 
M.A.  in  1631,  when  he  went  to  the  Continent  to  study, 
especially  in  France.  Here  he  resided  with  some  rela- 
tives at  Douay,  and  formed  the  acquaintance  of  several 
Roman  Catholic  students,  whose  Christian  virtues  made 
him  a  charitable  Christian  towards  all  who  bore  the 
name  of  his  Master.  "  Gentle,  tender,  and  pious  from 
his  earliest  years,  he  shrunk  from  all  violence  and  intol- 
erance; but  his  intercourse  with  men  whose  opinions 
were  so  different  from  his  own  convinced  his  reason  of 
the  folly  and  sinfulness  of  '  thinking  too  rigidly  of  doc- 
trine.'" He  returned  to  Scotland  in  1641,  and  was  im- 
mediately appointed  to  the  parish  of  Ncwbattle,  near 
Edinburgh;  but  as  Leighton  identified  himself  with  the 
cause  of  Charles  I  when  the  latter  was  confined,  by  the 
commissioners  of  the  Parliament,  in  Holmby  House,  he 
brought  upon  his  head  the  displeasure  of  the  Presbyte- 
rians, and,  according  to  bishop  Piiirnet,  "  he  soon  came 
to  dislike  their  Covenant,  particularly  their  imposing  it, 
and  their  fury  against  all  who  differed  from  them.  He 
found  they  were  not  capable  of  large  thoughts;  theirs 
were  narrow  as  their  tempers  were  sour;  so  he  grew 
weary  of  mixing  Avith  them,"  and  became  an  Episco- 
palian. For  this  change,  however,  there  were  serious 
obstacles  in  Leighton's  case,  and  it  has  therefore  been  a 
matter  of  general  disapprobation.  Certainly  the  facility 
with  which  he  fraternized  with  the  party  that  had  in- 
flicted such  horrid  cruelties  on  his  excellent  father.  Dr. 
Alexander  Leighton,  in  1630,  for  merely  publishing  a 
boolc  in  favor  of  Presbyterianism,  cannot  be  altogether 
approved  (com-p.  Proceedi7if/s  of  the  Societij  of  Antiqua- 
ries o_f  Scotland,  iv,  463  sq.).  In  1652  he  resigned  his 
charge,  and  in  the  following  year  was  elected  principal 
of  the  ITniversitj'  of  Edinburgh,  a  dignity  which  he  re- 
tained for  ten  years.  Earnest,  spiritual,  and  utterl}-  free 
from  all  selfish  ambition,  he  labored  without  ceasing  for 
the  welfare  of  the  students.  He  delivered  lectures  es- 
pecially to  the  students  of  theologj',  and  occasionally 
supplied  the  place  of  divinity  professor.  His  theolog- 
ical lectures  are  known  to  the  learned  world,  and  have 
been  translated  into  English.  For  pure  Latin,  sublime 
thought,  and  warm  diction,  they  have  never  been  sur- 
passed, and  seldom  equalled.  In  that  office  Dr.  Leigh- 
ton was  truly  the  ornament  and  delight  of  the  univer- 
sity, and  a  blessing  to  studious  youth.  After  the  resto- 
ration of  Charles  II  and  the  re -establishment  of  the 
episcopacy  in  Scotland,  Leighton,  after  much  reluctance. 


accepted  the  bishopric  of  Dunblane,  a  small  and  poor 
diocese,  and  was  consecrated  at  Westminster  Dec.  15, 
1661.  Unfortunately  for  his  peace,  the  men  with  whom 
he  was  now  allied  were  even  more  intolerant  and  un- 
scrupulous than  the  Presbyterians.  The  despotic  meas- 
ures of  Sharpe  and  Lauderdale  sickened  him.  Twice  he 
proceeded  to  London  (in  1665  and  1669)  to  implore  the 
king  to  adoj)t  a  milder  course — on  the  former  of  these 
occasions  declaring  "that  he  could  not  concur  in  the 
planting  of  the  Christian  religion  in  such  a  manner,  much 
less  as  a  form  of  government."  Nothing  was  reaUy 
done,  though  much  was  promised,  and  Leighton  had  to 
endure  the  misery  of  seeing  an  ecclesiastical  system 
which  he  believed  to  be  intrinsically  the  best,  perverted 
to  the  worst  of  purposes,  and  himself  the  accomplice  of 
the  worst  of  men.  In  1670,  on  the  resignation  of  Dr. 
Alexander  I5urnet,  he  was  made,  quite  agabist  his  per- 
sonal wishes,  archbishop  of  Glasgow,  and  he  finally  ac- 
cepted this  great  distinction  only  on  the  condition  that 
he  should  be  assisted  in  his  attempts  to  carry  out  a  lib- 
eral measure  for  "  the  comprehension  of  the  Presbyteri- 
ans." But  finding,  after  a  time,  that  his  efforts  to  unite 
the  different  parties  were  all  in  vain,  and  that  he  could 
not  stay  the  high-handed  tyranny  of  his  colleagues,  he 
finally  determined  to  resign  the  ecclesiastical  dignity  (in 
1673).  After  a  short  residence  in  Edinburgh,  he  went 
to  live  with  his  sister  at  Broadhurst,  in  Sussex,  where 
he  spent  the  rest  of  bis  days  in  a  retired  manner,  devoted 
chiefly  to  works  of  religion.  He  died  at  London  June 
25, 1684.  Leighton  published  nothing  during  his  life- 
time. His  great  worlv  is  his  P7-actical  Commentary  iipon 
the  First  General  Epistle  of  St.  Peter  ;  not  a  learned  ex- 
position by  any  means,  for  the  writer  hardly  notices 
questions  of  philology  at  all,  but  perhaps  no  more  re- 
markable instance  is  extant  of  the  power  which  sympa- 
thy with  the  writer  gives  in  enabling  an  expositor  to 
bring  out  and  elucidate  his  meaning.  Another  able 
work  of  his  is  Pr(dectiones  Theologice.,  of  which  an  edi- 
tion was  published  a  few  years  ago  by  the  late  profess- 
or Scholetield  of  Cambridge;  also  some  sermons  and 
charges.  There  is  an  edition  of  his  work  in  4  vols.  8vo, 
Lond.  1819 ;  but  the  best  edition  is  that  of  Pearson  (Lond. 
1828 ;  N.  Y.  1859,  8vo).  Another  good  edition  was  pub- 
lished in  1871,  in  6  vols.  8vo.  All  of  Leighton's  writ- 
ings have  received  the  highest  commendations  liecause 
of  the  lofty  and  evangelical  spirit  that  pervades  them. 
They  present  the  truths  of  Christianity  in  the  spirit  of 
Plato,  and  it  was  this  that  recommended  them  so  much 
to  Coleridge,  whose  Aids  to  Reflection  are  simply  com- 
mentaries on  the  teachings  of  archbishop  Leighton. 
'•  Few  uninspired  writings,"  says  Dr.  Doddridge,  ''  are 
better  adapted  to  mend  the  world :  they  continually 
overflow  with  love  to  God  and  man."  See  Hethering- 
ton,  Ch.  of  Scotland,  ii,  22  sq.,  70  sq. ;  Burnet's  History 
of  his  Own  Times;  Burnet's  Pastoral  Care ;  Doddridge's 
Preface  to  Leie/htoiis  Works  ;  The  Remains  of  A  rchbish- 
op  Leighton,  by  Jerraent  (1808);  his  Select  Works,  by 
Cheever  (Boston,  1832);  Vearson,  Life  of  Rohert  Leighton 
(1832)  ;  Kitto,  Cycl.  Bihl.  Liter,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  Chambers, 
Cyclop,  vol.  vi,  s.  v. ;  Chambers,  I^iog.  Diet,  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen,  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Lict.  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uthois, 
vol.  ii,  s.  V. 

Leipsic,  Colloquy  of,  in  1631.  The  disputes 
which  occurred  in  the  16th  century,  when  the  two  evan- 
gelical churches  framed  their  confession  of  faith,  had 
produced  great  bitterness  between  the  Lutherans  and 
Calvinists.  Attempts  at  reconciliation  had  already  been 
made  by  pious  individuals  in  the  16th  century,  and  stiU 
others  in  the  17th,  as,  for  instance,  by  the  indefatigable 
Scotchman  Dur»us,  and  by  Rupcrtus  Jleldenius,  but 
with  little  success.  It  was  the  trial  which  the  evan- 
gelical churches  of  Germany  underwent  during  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  that  really  first  made  the  two  sister 
communions  forsake  their  former  hostility.  They  saw 
that  they  were  both  standing  on  the  brink  of  a  preci- 
pice, and  the  ties  which  bound  them  to  each  other  were 
strengthened.     Both  the  authorities   and  the   people 


LEIPSIC 


340 


LEITOMYSL 


now  used  their  utmost  eiforts  to  secure,  if  not  unity, 
yet  at  least  peace  and  liarmony  between  tlie  two 
cluirches.  In  tlie  early  part  of  1G31,  after  Gustavus 
Ailoljdius,  the  champion  of  evangelical  liberty,  had  al- 
ready come  to  Germany,  the  landgrave  William  of 
Hesse  and  the  elector  Christian  William  of  Brandenburg 
joined  the  elector  George  of  Saxony  at  Leipsic,  and  they 
resolved  to  oppose,  by  main  force  if  necessary,  the  car- 
rying out  of  the  Edict  of  Restitution.  The  landgrave 
AVilliam  had  brought  with  him  the  professor  of  theology 
Crocius  and  the  court  preacher  Theophilus  Neuberger ; 
the  elector  Christian  William  was  accompanied  by  the 
court  preacher  John  Bergius.  The  theologians  of  Hesse 
and  Brandenburg  invited  those  of  Leipsic  to  a  confer- 
ence in  order  to  attempt  a  reconciliation  between  the 
evangelical  churches,  or,  at  least,  to  promote  a  better 
understanding  between  them.  It  was  intended  that  this 
conference  should  be  of  a  private  character,  yet  with 
the  hope  that  the  other  parts  of  Germany  would  follow 
the  example.  The  Reformed  party  demanded  only  that 
the  court  preacher  Matthias  Hoe,  of  Hohenegg,  should 
iu  the  discussions  abstain  from  the  vehemence  which 
distinguished  his  writings,  and  the  theologians  of  Leip- 
sic failed  not  to  grant  this  request,  with  the  assurance 
that  Hoe  was  very  gentle  in  convcrsatiuite.  The  elector 
George  having  sanctioned  the  plan  of  a  private  confer- 
ence, the  meetings  commenced,  March  3,  at  the  resi- 
dence of  the  upper  court  preacher,  and  under  his  presi- 
dency. They  were  held  daily,  and  continued  until 
IMarch  23.  On  motion  of  the  Reformed  party  the  Con- 
fession of  Augsburg  was  taken  as  a  basis,  they  announ- 
cing their  willingness  to  sign  it,  such  as  it  then  was  in 
the  Saxon  form  (published  by  order  of  the  elector  George, 
in  1G28).  They  also  thought  that  the  princes  of  their 
different  provinces  were  ready  to  do  the  same,  without, 
however,  undertaking  to  vouch  for  it.  They  stated 
furthermore  that  they  would  neither  reject  the  altered 
edition  of  the  Colloquy  of  ^^'orms  (in  1540)  nor  that  of 
Regensburg  (in  1541) ;  they  referred  to  the  position 
taken  at  the  convention  of  Naumburger  in  1561,  and  by 
the  Saxons  in  the  preface  to  the  Book  of  Concord.  The 
Confession  of  Augsburg  being  thus  adopted  as  a  whole, 
every  article  was  taken  up  separately  and  exammed. 
They  thus  found  that  both  parties  fully  coincided  in  the 
articles  v-vii  and  xii-xxviii,  while  their  differences  on 
tlie  articles  i  and  ii  were  comparatively  unimportant. 
■\Vitli  regard  to  the  iiid  article,  they  all  agreed  as  to  the 
interpretation  of  the  words,  but  the  Saxon  theologians 
maintained  that  not  only  the  divine,  but  also  the  human 
nature  of  Christ  possessed  omniscience,  omnipotence, 
etc.,  by  virtue  of  the  union  of  the  two  natures  in  his 
personality,  and  that  all  the  ji;lory  which  Christ  re- 
ceived was  only  received  by  his  human  nature.  The 
Reformed  theologians,  on  the  contrary,  denied  that 
Christ,  as  man,  was  omnipresent,  or  that  in  him  the 
human  nature  had  become  omniscient  and  omnipotent. 
They  agreed  also  in  the  ivth  article,  and  tlie  Reformed 
theologians  affirmed  that  they  did  not  believe  Christ 
had  come  to  save  all  men.  Tliey  also  agreed  in  the 
ixth  article,  to  which  they  made  some  addition  on  the 
necessity  of  baptism,  and  on  infant  baptism.  The  xth 
article,  concerning  the  Eucharist,  came  up  on  jMarch  7. 
Here  they  could  not  agree,  tlie  Reformed  theologians 
denying  the  physical  participation  in  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ,  and  asserting  a  sjiiritual  participation 
through  faith  ;  of  unworthy  communicants,  they  assert- 
ed that  these  partook  only  of  simple  bread  and  wine. 
The  Reformed  theologians,  however,  maintained  that  if 
it;  Avas  impossible  to  agree  on  tins  point,  it  was  at  least 
possible  for  the  two  parties  to  bear  charitably  with  each 
other,  and  to  unite  in  opposing  Romanism.  The  Sax- 
ons, wlio  did  not  wish  to  bind  themselves  by  any  prom- 
ises in  a  private  conference,  said  that  t,his  proposition 
would  have  to  be  further  considtired  in  the  fear  of  the 
Lord.  After  all  the  remaining  articles  had  been  agreed 
to,  they  came  to  the  question  of  election,  although  this 
doctrine  is  not  expressly  presented  in  the  Confession  of 


Augsburg.  Both  Lutherans  and  Reformed  agreed  in 
the  doctrine  that  only  a  part  of  mankind  will  be  saved, 
the  lieformed  theologians  basing  election  on  the  abso- 
lute will  of  God,  and  reprobation  on  the  unbelief  of 
man.  The  Lutherans,  on  the  other  hand,  considered 
election  as  the  result  of  God's  prescience  of  the  faith  of 
the  elect.  The  fact  that  the  theologians  of  the  contend- 
ing churches  had  been  brought  to  meet  together  peace- 
ably, and  to  explain  to  each  other  their  respective  doc- 
trines, was  not  without  a  great  influence  for  good,  al- 
though the  greater  hopes  for  the  future  to  which  it  gave 
rise  were  not  destined  to  be  fulfilled.  As  the  colloquy 
was  a  private  conference,  it  was  thought  best  nt)t  to 
give  its  proceedings  an  undue  publicity,  and  only  four 
copies  of  its  protocols  were  published,  and  delivered  one 
to  each  of  the  electors  of  Saxony  and  Brandenburg,  fine 
to  the  landgrave  of  Hesse,  and  one  to  the  theological 
faculty  of  Leipsic.  A  full  account,  however,  was  subse- 
quently published  in  England,  France,  Switzerland,  Hol- 
land, and  Sweden,  The  suspicions  of  both  parties  made 
any  decided  advance  impossible,  and  resulted  finally  in 
greater  estrangement  of  both,  and  in  renewed  attacks 
by  the  able  Lutheran  polemic  Hoe  (q.  v.),  of  which  a 
new  and  le;igthy  controversy  was  the  result.  See  C. 
W.  Hering,  Gesch.  d.  Kirchlichen  Unionsversuche,  etc. 
(Lpz.  1836),  i,  327  sq. ;  Alex.  Schweizer,  B.  jirotesfan- 
tischen  Centraldogmen,  part  ii,  p.  525;  Kurtzer  Discurs 
von  d.  z.  Leipzic  1631  mense  Blartio  angestellten  Relig- 
ionsvergleychung,  etc.  (Berlin,  1635) ;  Niemeyer,  Cullec- 
tio  confessiomim  in  ecclesiis  reformaiis  jmhlicaiurum 
(Lpz.  1840),  p.  653  sq.;  Mosheim,  Eccles.  Hist,  book  iv, 
cent,  xvii,  sect,  ii,  pt.  ii,  ch,  i,  §  4 ;  Herzog,  Real-Ency- 
klojmdie,  viii,  286. 

Leipsic,   Discussion  of.      See   Ecic;    Carl- 

STADT,  etc. 

Leipsic,  Interim  of.     See  Interim  (III). 

Leitch,  William,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  divine,  was  born 
in  1814  in  the  town  of  Rothesay,  a  famous  ^vatering- 
place  on  the  island  of  Bute,  Scotland,  and  Avas  educated 
at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  which  he  entered  at  the 
age  of  eighteen,  and  graduated  as  master  in  1836  with  the 
highest  honors  in  the  departments  of  mathematical  and 
physical  science.  While  a  student  he  also  lectured  in  the 
university  on  astronomy,  and  as  a  result  of  his  studies  in 
this  department  we  have  from  him  a  work  entitled  Cod^s 
Glorij  in  the  Heavens ;  o?;  Contributions  to  A  stro-t/ieoloffi/, 
which  contains  the  most  recent  astronomical  discoveries 
stated  Avith  special  reference  to  theological  questions. 
In  1838  he  was  licensed  as  a  preacher  of  the  Gospel  in 
the  Church  of  Scotland  by  the  Presbj'tery  of  Dunoon. 
In  1843  he  received  a  presentation  to  the  parish  of  !Mon- 
imail.  lie  continued  minister  of  this  parish  until  1859, 
when  he  was  selected  as  j^rincipal  of  Queen's  LTniversity. 
He  is  Avell  known  to  have  been  the  author  of  certain  ar- 
ticles in  which,  in  a  masterly  manner,  the  views  of  the 
late  Dr.  Wardlaw,  of  (Jlasgow,  on  the  subject  of  miracles, 
are  controverted.  For  several  years  he  conducted  a  se- 
ries of  investigations  on  the  subject  of  partheno-genesis 
and  alternate  generations,  as  illustrated  by  the  phenom- 
ena of  sexual  development  iu  hymenoptera.  The  result 
of  these  researches,  which  conflicts  with  that  of  tlie  Ger- 
man physiologist  Siebald  in  the  same  field,  is  given  in 
the  Transactions  of  the  British  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement  of  Science,  and  in  the  Annals  of  the  Botanical 
Societij  of  Canada.  Several  separate  publications  of 
his  also  appeared  on  the  subject  of  education.  In  1860 
he  became  principal  of  Queen's  University,  and  this 
connection  afforded  him  a  seat  in  the  Presbytery  of 
Kingston,  and,  in  consequence,  in  the  synod  also.  His 
position  also  gave  him  a  seat  in  the  senatus  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Toronto,  and  he  was  appointed  an  examiner 
of  that  university.  -He  died  in  1862.  See  Appleton's 
Amer.  Ann.  Cyclop.  1864,  p.  625. 

Leitomysl  orLeitomischel,  John,  a  Bohemian 
]irchne  noted  for  liis  energetic  character  and  his  unre- 
lenting hostility  to  the  Hussites,  flourished  in  the  latter 


LEJAY 


341 


LELAND 


part  of  the  14th  and  the  early  years  of  the  1.5th  centiirj-. 
He  first  comes  under  our  notice  as  one  of  the  two  prel- 
ates— the  archbishop  of  Prague  being  the  other — before 
whom  John  Iluss  was  to  be  cited  for  heresy.  His  posi- 
tion and  influence  in  Bohemia  were  such  that  Stephen 
Paletz,  writing  against  Huss,  dedicated  to  him  liis  Dia- 
logue ]'okitUi.9.  As  the  troubles  at  Prague  increased,  he 
was  one  of  those  to  whom  the  archbishop  of  Prague  ap- 
plied for  advice,  and  his  response  was  in  accordance  with 
ills  notoriously  stern  and  unbending  character.  Wlien 
the  Council  of  Constance  met  in  1414,  he  was  present  as 
a  member,  and  took  a  leading  part  in  its  proceedings. 
He  was  the  first  to  denounce  the  Calixtine  practice, 
recently  introduced  by  Jacobel  at  Prague,  and  he  was 
commissioned  by  the  council  to  take  measures  for  its 
suppression.  His  enmity  to  Huss  -was  signalized  by  the 
language  used  by  him  in  the  council,  and  excited  the 
deep  indignation  of  the  friends  of  the  Keformer,  who  did 
not  hesitate  to  reprehend  his  course  publicly  in  severe 
terms.  His  persistent  energy,  however,  merited  the  eu- 
logiums  of  the  council,  and  by  them  he  was  appointed  to 
bear  their  threatening  letter  to  Bohemia,  in  which  they 
attemi>tod  to  terrify  the  followers  of  Huss  into  submis- 
sion. Tlie  mission,  however,  proved  a  failure.  The 
person  of  the  bishop  was  no  longer  safe  in  his  own  coun- 
trj',  and  he  returned  to  the  comicil.  The  first  reward 
of  his  diUgence  was  his  promotion,  about  A.D.  1416,  to 
the  bishopric  of  Olmutz,  in  Moravia.  On  the  secession 
of  Conrad,  archbishop  of  Prague,  to  the  Calixtines  a 
sliort  time  afterwanls,  he  was  promoted  to  the  vacant 
dignity.  This,  however,  he  was  not  destined  to  enjoy. 
The  ascendencj'  of  the  Calixtines  must  have  excluded 
him  from  Prague,  if  not  from  Bohemia ;  and  perhaps 
among  all  the  enemies  of  the  Hussites,  during  the  pe- 
riod of  their  religious  wars,  there  was  no  one  who  could 
have  been  sooner  made  the  victim  of  their  vengeance 
than  the  obnoxious  bishop.  But  as  no  mention  is  made 
of  him  at  a  subsequent  date,  and  as  he  does  not  appear 
to  have  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Hussite  leaders,  we 
may  presume  that  his  life  must  have  closed  soon  after 
the  dissolution  of  the  Council  of  Constance.  He  was 
eminently  a  martial  prelate,  and  was  known  by  the 
sobriquet  of  "John  the  Iron."  Notices  of  him  will  be 
found  in  many  histories  of  his  times.  See  Von  der  Hardt, 
A  uthoriiies  on  the  Council  of  Constance ;  Lenfant,  Coun- 
cil of  Constance ;  Gillett,  Life  and  Times  of  John  Huss, 
vols,  i  and  ii ;  F.  Polacky,  Maij.  J.  IIus  Documenta. — Ne- 
andcr,  Ch.  Illst.  v,  296  sq.     (E.  H.  G.) 

Lejay,  Gui-Michel,  a  noted  French  scholar  in  ex- 
egetical  theology,  was  born  at  Paris  in  l.'JSS.  While  at 
the  high  school  he  paid  particular  attention  to  the  East- 
ern languages,  and  in  1615  projected  a  polyglot  of  the 
Bible,  known  as  the  Paiis  Polyglot  (Paris,  1620-45,  10 
vols,  fdlii)),  and  entitled  Biblia  llebraica,  Samaritana, 
( 'halihilcd.  ilra'ca,  Syriaca,  Latina,  Arabica,  quibus  tex- 
tus  orifjiiKiks  totius  Scripturae  sacrce,  quarum  pars  in 
tditione  Complutensi,  deinde  in  A  ntwerpiensi  regiis  sump- 
tibus  extat,  nunc  integri  ex  manuscriptis  toto  fere  orbe 
qiicesitis  exeinplaribus  exhibentur.  The  first  four  vols, 
contain  the  Heb.,  Chald.,  Sept.,  and  Vulg.  texts  of  the 
O.  T. ;  vols.  V  and  vi  the  N.  T.  in  Gr.,  Syr.,  Arab.,  and 
Lat. ;  vol.  vii,  the  Heb.  Samar.  Pent.,  the  Sam.  version, 
with  translation  by  Morinus,  the  Arab,  and  Syr.  Pent. ; 
vols,  viii-x,  the  rest  of  the  books  of  the  O.  Test,  in  Syr. 
and  Arab.  Lejay  lost  largely  by  this  publication ;  but, 
as  a  reward  for  his  labor  and  cost,  he  was  ennobled. 
The  work  was  the  best  of  its  kind  till  the  London  Poly- 
glot appeared,  by  which  it  was  soon  superseded.  See 
Lolong,  IHscours  historique  sur  les  pi-ineipales  editions 
des  Bibles pohiglottes  (Paris,  1713,  12mo),  p.  104  sq.,  379, 
399  sij.,  545,  546  sq. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxx, 
512  sq. ;  Kitto,  Cyclop.  Bibl.  Lit.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lejbowicz.     See  Frank. 

Lejuive,  Paul,  a  French  Jesuit  missionary,  was 
horn  in  1592,  entered  the  Jesuitical  order,  and  labored  in 
Canada  for  seventeen  vears.     He  returned  to  France  in 


1  G.02,  and  died  Aug.  7. 1GG4.  He  published  a  descriptive 
work  on  Canada  and  its  native  tribes  (7  vols.,  1640). — 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gen.  xxx,  518. 

Leland,  Aaron,  a  Baptist  minister,  sixth  in  de- 
scent from  Henry  Leland,  the  Puritan  ancestor  of  all  the 
Lelands  in  America,  but  in  a  different  line  from  his  more 
noted  contemporary,  Kev.  John  Leland,  was  bom  in  Hol- 
liston,  Mass.,  Jlay  28, 1761.  Of  a  naturally  vigorous  and 
inquisitive  mind,  he  grew  up  with  a  larger  measure  of 
intelligence  than  his  limited  means  of  early  culture 
would  have  indicated  as  jirobable.  He  united  in  1785 
with  the  Baptist  Cliurch  in  BelUngham,  by  which 
Church  he  was  Ucensed  to  preach,  and  subsequently  or" 
dained.  He  soon  after  removed  to  Chester,  Vt.,  where 
he  gathered  a  small  Church,  which  in  thirteen  years 
had  become  five— in  Chester,  Andover,  Grafton,  Weth- 
ersfield,  and  Cavendish.  From  Chester  he  visited  Ja- 
maica, in  the  same  county,  guided  through  the  wilder- 
ness by  marked  trees :  these  visits  resulted  in  the  for- 
mation of  several  churches  in  that  vicinity.  He  was  ♦ 
not  only  an  active  and  successful  minister,  but  had  im- 
portant civil  trusts  committed  to  him  by  the  suffrages 
of  his  fellow-citizens.  He  sat  in  the  state  Legislature 
several  years;  three  years  he  was  speaker  of  the  House; 
four  years  a  member  of  the  council;  five  years  succes- 
sively lieutenant  governor;  and  nothing  Ijut  his  own 
conviction  of  its  incompatibilitj-  with  the  duties  of  his 
higher  calling  prevented  his  election  to  the  governor- 
ship of  the  state.  He  refused  to  permit  any  civil  en- 
gagements to  hinder  his  usefulness  and  success  as  a 
Christian  minister,  and  he  continued  to  fidfil  his  calUng 
with  great  energj',  zeal,  and  success,  until  worn  out  with 
toD.  He  died  August  25, 1833.  He  was  a  popular  and 
effective  preacher.  His  commanding  form  and  counte- 
nance; his  musical  and  sonorous  voice;  his  ready  and 
fervid,  often  impassioned  utterance;  his  vigorous  intel- 
lect and  great  tenderness  of  spirit,  gave  him  unusual 
power  over  congregations.  He  was  often  sought  as  an 
orator  on  public  occasions,  and  called  to  give  counsel  in 
ecclesiastical  questions.  His  zeal  was  enlisted  in  the 
temperance  cause,  insisting  on  total  abstinence  from  in- 
toxicating beverages,  and  in  promoting  ministerial  edu- 
cation and  all  liberal  culture.  He  was  in  the  board  of 
fellows  of  Middlebury  College  from  the  year  1800  till  his 
death.     (L.  E.  S.) 

Leland,  John  (1),  a  celebrated  English  divine, 
was  born  at  Wigan,  Lancashire,  Oct.  18,  1691,  and  was 
educated  at  the  University  in  Dublin.  In  1716  he  be- 
came pastor  of  a  Presbyterian  Church  in  Dublin.  He 
afterwards  distinguished  himself  in  a  series  of  works  in 
which  he  defended  with  great  eloquence  the  Christian 
religion  against  the  attacks  of  Atheists  and  Deists.  As 
an  acknowledgment  of  his  services,  the  University  of 
Aberdeen  gave  him  the  title  of  D.D.  He  died  Jan.  16, 
1766.  His  important  works  are.  Defence  of  Christianity 
(Dublin,  1733,  2  vols.  8vo,  and  often;  intended  as  an  an- 
swer to  Tindal's  Christianity  .as  old  as  the  Creation,  Dub- 
lin, 1773,  2  vols.  8vo) : — The  divine  Authority  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament  asserted,  tcith  a  particular  Indication 
of  the  Characters  of  Moses  and  the  Prophets,  and  Jesus 
Christ  and  his  Apostles,  against  the  unjust  Aspeisions 
and  false  Reasoning  of  a  Book  entitled  "  The  Moral  Phi- 
losopher" (Lond.  1739,  8vo)  : — View  of  the  principal  De- 
istical  Writei-s  in  England  in  the  last  and  present  Century 
(ibid.  17.54,  2  vols.  8vo),  and  two  supplements.  A  new 
edition,  with  Appendix,  by  W.  L.  Brown,  D.D.,  was  pub- 
lished in  1798  (2  vols.  8vo).  The  best  edition  is  the 
fifth,  which  has  a  valuable  Introduction,  comprising  a 
succinct  view  of  the  subsequent  history  of  the  contro- 
versy, by  Cyrus  E.  Edmonds  (London,  1837,  8vo ).  He 
who  can  read  this  work  and  yet  remain  an  unbeliever 
in  Christianity  must  be  hopelessly  obtuse  or  perversely 
prejudiced : — Advantage  and  Necessity  of  Christian  Rev- 
elation (London,  1764,  2  vols.  4to).  After  his  death,  his 
Sermons  ^\•ere  published  in  4  volumes  8vo  by  Dr.  Isaac 
Weld,  with  the  Life  of  Dr.  Leland.     See  the  last  work, 


LELAND 


342 


LEMAISTRE  DE  SACI 


aiul  Brit  ink  Biog.  vol.  x ;  Alliboue,  Diet,  of  British  and 
A  iiiericdii  A  iitJiora,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Leland,  John  (2),  a  Baptist  minister,  distantly 
related  to  Aaron  Leland  (see  above),  was  born  in  Graf- 
ton, ]\Iassacluisetts,  May  14,  1754.  About  the  age  of 
eighteen  he  had  strong  and  painful  religious  impres- 
sions; he  emerged  into  light  and  peace  gradually,  and, 
after  the  lapse  of  several  months,  was  baptized  in 
June,  1774,  in  BeUinghara,  and  was  regularly  licensed 
by  the  Church,  lie  removed  in  177(3  to  Virginia, 
where  for  above  fourteen  years  he  exercised  an  itin- 
erant ministry,  preaching  over  all  the  eastern  section 
of  tlie  state,  sometimes  extending  his  tours  southward 
into  North  Carolina,  and  northward  as  far  as  Phila- 
delphia. He  was  ordained  in  Virginia,  somewhat  ir- 
regularly, in  1777,  and  again  ten  years  later,  with  more 
regard  to  form  and  customary  usage.  His  evangelical 
laliors  were  attended  with  large  success.  He  baptized 
seven  hundred  persons,  and  gathered  churches  at  Or- 
ange and  Louisa,  one  of  three  hundred  and  the  other 
of  two  hundred  members.  He  made  the  acquaintance 
of  'Sir.  jMadison,  with  whom  he  maintained  a  pleasant 
correspondence  for  many  years,  effectively  co-operating 
with  liim  to  secure  the  ratification  by  Virginia  of  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States.  In  1791  lie  return- 
ed to  New  England,  and  the  year  following  settled  in 
Cheshire,  Mass.,  where  he  resided  till  his  death.  Though 
acting  for  a  limited  period  as  pastor  of  the  Church  in 
Cheshire,  he  was  always  an  itinerant,  making  extensive 
tours  over  ^vestern  ISIassachusetts,  often  into  the  adja- 
cent parts  of  New  York,  and  into  more  distant  sections 
of  New  p]ngland  ;  twice  visiting  Virginia,  and,  wherever 
he  went,  preaching  and  baptizing — these  two  items  of 
'•the  great  commis^inu"  (Matt,  xxviii,  19,  20)  being  all 
to  which  he  felt  himself  called.  His  last  record  of  bap- 
tism was  Aug.  17, 1834,  when  he  was  over  eighty  years 
of  age,  which  brought  up  the  number  of  baptisms  in  his 
ministry  to  1524.  He  stiU  continued  to  preach,  and 
died  in  the  work  at  North  Adams,  Mass.,  Jan.  14, 1841. 
He  recorded,  when  at  the  age  of  sixty-six,  that  he  had 
then  preached  eight  thousand  sermons,  and  in  order  to 
do  it  had  travelled  distances  wliicli  would  thrice  girdle 
the  globe.  His  LiJ'e  and  Remains,  edited  by  his  daugh- 
ter, including  an  autobiography,  additional  memoirs,  and 
eighty  pieces — sermons,  tracts,  public  addresses,  and  es- 
says on  religious,  moral,  and  political  topics — most  of 
which  had  been  ])rinted  in  pamphlet  form  during  his 
life,  were  published  not  long  after  his  decease,  forming 
a  volume  of  700  pages  8vo.  "  Elder"  Leland,  as  he  was 
commonly  styled,  was  in  theology  a  Calvinist  of  the  old 
school.  He  was  always  popular  as  a  preacher  and  \\Tit- 
er,  especially  among  the  less-cultivated  class.  The  ele- 
ments of  his  success  were  a  strikingly- original,  often 
eccentric  cast  of  thought;  a  terse,  telling  expression, 
abomiding  in  compact,  apothegmatic,  easily-remember- 
ed sentences ;  a  vigorous  Saxon-I'Jnglish  diction  ;  slight- 
ly provincial  (•'  Yankee"),  homely  illustration,  often  a 
spice  of  humor,  and  his  sermons  were  never  wanting  in 
earnest  appeal.  These  qualities  were  aided  by  his  tall 
ligure,  the  compass  of  his  voice,  and  a  peculiar  but  ef- 
fective action.  His  singular  views  as  to  the  limit  of  his 
ministerial  duty,  leading  liini  to  baptize  converts  with- 
out gathering  tliem  into  churches,  caused  liis  success  as 
an  evangelist  to  leave  less  durable  traces  than  might 
otherwise  have  been  looked  for.  The  relations  of  Church 
and  State  in  Virginia  and  in  most  of  New  England, 
dnring  the  earlier  period  of  liis  ministry,  led  him  into  a 
habit  of  jwlitical  activity  whic^h  was  sometimes  censured 
by  jiersons  unable  to  appreciate  a  state  of  society  which 
had  passed  away.  Two  hynnis,  published  anonymously 
in  most  hymn-books — one  tlie  pojiular  evening  hymn, 
"The  day  is  past  and  gone;"  the  other  beginning, ''Now 
the  Saviour  standeth  pleading" — iire  ascribed  to  liis  pen, 
and  not  improliably  tlie  sini]jle  melodies  iti  which  they 
are  oftenest  sung.  His  productions,  consisting  of  sev- 
eral sermons,  essays,  and  addresses,  were  ]iublislied  after 
Ms  death,  with  a  memoir  of  tlie  author  by  Miss  L.  F. 


Greene  (1845, 8vo).     See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Amer- 
ican Pulpit,  vi,  174.     (L.  E.  S.) 

Leland,  Thomas,  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  was 
born  at  l)uhUii  in  1722,  and  was  educated  at  Trinity 
College  in  that  city.  He  became  senior  fellow  of  the 
college,  and  Avas  made  a  professor  of  poetry  there  la 
1703 ;  afterwards  vicar  of  Bray,  and  later  chaplain  to 
the  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland.  He  died  in  1785.  Le- 
land was  a  profound  scholar  and  a  most  eloquent  preach- 
er. He  published  the  Orations  oj'  Demosthenes,  Latin 
version  and  notes  (London,  1754,  2  vols.  r2mo),in  con- 
jmiction  with  Dr.  John  Stokes: — the  Orations  [19]  of 
Demosthenes,  in  English  (1756-61-70,3  vols.  4to ;  last 
ed.  1831, 12mo)  : — Hist. of  the  Life  ami  Reign  of  Philip, 
King  of  Macedon  (1758,  2  vols.  4to ;  last  ed.  1820, 2  vols. 
8vo)  : — Dissertation  on  the  Principles  of  Human  Elo- 
quence, etc.  (1764,  4to),  elicited  by  bishop  Warburton's 
Discourse  on  the  Doctrine  of  Grace :  answered  (anony- 
mously) by  Hurd,  on  behalf  of  Warburton,  in  a  very 
petulant  letter.  Answer  to  a  letter  to  him,  etc.,  17G4, 
4to.  This  is  a  reply  to  Hurd.  Leland  answered  for 
himself,  and.  in  the  opinion  of  all  tlie  world,  completely 
demolished  his  antagonist.  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit. 
and  A  mer.  A  itihors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Iieloug,  Jacques,  an  eminent  French  bibliographer, 
was  born  at  Paris  April  19, 1665.  In  1677  he  was  sent  by 
his  father  to  Malta,  to  be  educated  as  a  member  of  the 
order  of  Knights,  but  not  liking  the  severity  with  which 
he  was  treated,  he  obtained  permission  to  return  to  Paris. 
Here  he  continued  his  studies,  and,  as  he  had  not  yet 
taken  the  vows  of  the  Order  of  St.  John  of  IMalta,  he  en- 
tered the  Congregation  of  the  Oratory  in  1686.  He  be- 
came successivelj'  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Col- 
lege of  JaUli,  and  afterwards  m  the  seminary'  of  Notre 
Dame  dcs  Vertus,  near  Paris.  Later  he  was  appointed 
librarian  of  that  institution,  and  in  1699  was  transferred 
in  the  same  capacity  to  the  library  of  the  Oratoire  St.  Ho- 
nore,  at  Paris,  one  of  the  richest  in  that  city,  especially 
in  Oriental  books  and  IMSS.  This  position  he  occupied 
for  twenty-two  years,  rendering  the  greatest  services  to 
the  scientific  world  by  his  valuable  bibliograjihical:  re- 
searches, and  by  a  threefold  catalogue.  He  died  Aug. 
17, 1721.  His  most  important  work,  which  is  yet  highlj' 
prized  by  students,  is  his  Bihliotheca  Sacra  (Par.  1709,  2 
vols.  8vo ;  2d  ed.  1723,  2  vols.  fol. — this  latter  ed.  is  by  far 
the  best).  Another  augmented  edition  was  published  af- 
ter his  death  by  Desmolets,  a  priest  of  the  Oratory  (Par- 
is, 1723, 2  vols.  fol,).  A  valuable  supplement  was  after- 
wards added  to  it,  and  the  whole  work  carefully  revised, 
by  Chr.  Fr,  Biimer  (Lips,  1709)  ;  another  enlarged  and 
extended  edition  was  published  by  A,  G.  Masch  (HaUe, 
1778-1790,  5  vols.  4to).  As  a  historian,  Lelong  distin- 
guished himself  particularly  bj'  his  Bibliotli'eque  histo- 
rique  de  la  France,  contenant  le  catalogue  des  ouvrages 
imprimes  ct  ma77usc}-its,  qui  traitent  de  Vhistoire  de  ce 
rogaume  (Par.  1719 ;  2(1  ed,  by  Fevret  de  Fontette,  Par. 
1768,  5  vols.  fol.).  This  was  to  have  been  followed  by 
notices  on  the  author  of  these  works.  Lelong  wrote 
Discours  historiques  sur  les  ivincipales  editions  des  Bibles 
Polgglottes  (Paris,  1713):  —  Supplement  «  Vhistoire  des 
dictionnaires  Hehreux  de  Wolf  us  (Par.  1707): — Xouvelle 
methode  des  langues  Hehraique  et  Chaldaique  (Par,  1708), 
etc.  See  Desmolets,  Vie  du  P.  Lelong,  in  the  2d  and  3d 
edition  of  the  Bihliotheca  Sacra ;  Ilerzog,  Real-KncyUo- 
pddie,  viii,  290;  Hoefer,  JS'ouv.  Biog.  Uenercdc,  xxx,  540 
sq, ;  Kitto,  Bibl.  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Lemaistre  de  Saci  for  Sacy),  Isaac  Louis,  a 
noted  French  Janseiiist  theologian,  a  nephew  of  Antoine 
Arnaiild  Ic  (Jrand,  was  born  in  Paris  IMarch  29, 1613 ;  was 
ordained  a  ])riest  in  1650,  and  became  confessor  or  prin- 
cipal director  of  the  recluses  of  Port  Koyal.  Entangled 
in  a  controversy  ^vith  the  Jesuits,  he  was  persecuted  by 
the  authorities,  both  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  in  1661,  and, 
after  having  vainly  sought  refuge  among  friends,  was 
confined  in  tlie  Bastilc  in  1666.  During  his  imprison- 
ment, whicli  lasted  twu  years,  he  made  a  French  trans- 


LE  MERCIER 


343 


LEND 


lation  of  the  Old  Testament.  He  had  previously  been 
one  of  the  translators  of  the  Neiv  Testament  of  Mons 
(1667).  which  was  often  reprinted.  In  consequence  of 
renewed  persecution,  he  left  Port  lloyal  in  1679,  seeking 
peace  and  quiet  at  the  country  seat  of  a  friend  of  his. 
There  he  died,  Jan.  4, 1684.  He  published  French  ver- 
sions of  several  classical  works,  anil  of  valuable  theolog- 
ical treatises ;  alsoof  Thomas  a  Kempis's/wiVa/ion.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bioff.  Ginerale,  xxx,  568 ;  Ste.  Beuve, Poi-t 
Royal,  ii,  1, 2 ;  Kitto,  Bibl.  Cyclop,  s.  v.  Sacy,  de. 

Le  Mercier,  Jacques,  a  French  architect,  born  at 
Pontdisc  about  1600,  is  noted  as  the  builder  of  the 
Church  of  the  Sorbonnc  at  Paris,  reared  by  order  of  car- 
dinal Richelieu  about  1635.  Le  Blercier  obtained  the 
title  of  chief  architect  to  the  king.  Among  other  ad- 
mired works  of  his  arc  the  Church  of  the  Annonciade  at 
Tours,  and  that  of  Saint  Koch  in  Paris.  He  died  in 
1660. — Thomas,  Biog.  Diet.  p.  1401 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog. 
Generale,  xxx,  583. 

Lemoine,  Francois,  a  celebrated  French  painter  of 
the  isth  century,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1688,  He  Avas 
the  pupil  of  Louis  GaUochc,  early  distinguished  himself, 
and  in  1718  was  elected  a  member  of  the  lioyal  Academy 
of  Painting.  His  great  reputation  at  tliis  time  is  due 
mainly  to  his  painting,  in  oil,  of  the  Transfiguration  of 
Christ  on  the  ceiling  of  the  choir  of  the  Church  des  Jac- 
obins, Rue  du  Bacq.  In  1724  Lemoine  visited  Italy,  and 
in  the  j'ear  foUovi-ing,  on  his  return  to  France,  was  made 
professor  of  painting  in  the  Academy.  Louis  XV  ap- 
pointed him  in  1736  his  principal  painter,  with  a  salary 
of  4100  francs,  in  the  place  of  Louis  de  Boullogne,  de- 
ceased. The  first  of  Lemoine's  great  works  was  the 
cupola  of  the  chapel  of  the  Virgin  in  St.  Sidpice,  in  fres- 
co, which  he  commenced  in'1729 — a  work  of  three  years' 
labor.  His  masterpiece,  however,  is  the  Apotheosis  of 
Hercules,  painted  in  oil  on  canvas  pasted  on  the  ceiling 
of  the  Salon  dllercule  at  Versailles,  commenced  in  1732, 
and  finished  in  1736.  He  committed  suicide  June  4, 
1737.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Ginerale,  xxx,  617 ,  Eng- 
lish Cyelopmdia,  s.  v. 

L'Enipereur,  Constantine,  a  celebrated  Dutch 
Orientalist,  was  born  at  Oppyck,  in  the  Netherlands, 
about  1570.  Pie  was  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Harder- 
wyk  until  1627,  when  he  was  called  to  the  University 
of  Leyden  as  professor  of  Hebrew,  and  some  time  after 
was  made  professor  of  theology  in  that  liigh  school.  He 
died  in  1648.  L'Enipereur  edited  the  Commentary  of 
Aben-Ezra  and  Mos.  Alschech  on  Isa.  lii,  lo-Uii,  12,  with 
notes  (Leyd.  1633);  and  the  Paraphrase  of  Joseph  ben- 
Jachja  on  Daniel,  with  translation  and  notes  (Amsterd. 
1633 ),  also  the  iMishnic  tracts  Buba  Kama  and  Middoth 
(Leyil.  1737, 4to).  He  wrote  himself  Z'e  Uignitafe  et  Util- 
itafe  Lingua:  Ihhruiccc  (1627,  8vo)  : — Clavis  Talmudica, 
comj)lectens  formulas,  loca  dialeciica  et  logica  pj'iscorum 
Judceorum,  (Leyden,  1634,  4to):- — De  legg.  Hehr.  forens. 
(Leyd.  1637,  4to);  and  Disputationes  theologicm  (Leyd. 
1648,  8vo).  See  Kitto,  Cyclop.  Bibl.  Lit.  s.  v. ;  Hoefer, 
Notiv.  Biog.  Gen.  xxx,  642 ;  Filrst,  Bibl.  Jud.  i,  245  sq. 

Lempriere,  .Joiix,  a  distinguished  English  biogra- 
pher, was  b(irn  in  Jersey  about  1760.  He  was  educated 
at  Winchester  and  at  Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  and 
subsc(iueii(ly  became  first  head  master  of  Abmgdon 
Grammar-school,  and  later  of  the  school  at  Exeter.  In 
1810  he  resigned  the  latter,  and  the  following  year  was 
presented  to  the  livings  of  Meeth  and  Newton  Petrock, 
in  Devonshire,  which  he  retained  until  his  death,  Feb.  1, 
1824.  Lempriere  was  a  man  of  extensive  learning,  and 
thoroughly  acquainted  with  antiquity.  His  Bibliotheca 
Clasdca  (1788,  8vo;  subsequently  reprinted,  with  addi- 
tions by  himself)  is  still  in  general  use  in  the  universi- 
ties. He  Avrote  also  a  translation  of  Herodotus,  with 
notes  (1792),  of  which  the  first  volume  only  was  pub- 
lished, and  a  Universal  Biography  (1803,  4to  and  8vo). 
This  last  wprk,  compiled  with  great  care,  has  run  through 
several  editions.  The  name  of  Lempriere  was  once  well 
known  to  every  English-speaking  classical  student,  but 


the  rising  generation  is  forgetting  it,  and  it  will  soon 
become  vox  et  praterea  nihil.  A  Classical  Dictionary 
(^Bibliotheca  Classica,  1788)  of  his  was  for  many  years 
the  English  standard  work  of  reference  on  all  matters 
of  ancient  mythology,  biography,  and  geograph}%  See 
Davenport,  Ann.  Biog.  1824 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gener, 
xxx,  643  ;  Chambers,  Cycloj^adia,  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet. 
of  Brit,  and  Anier.  Authors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lem'uel  (Hebrew  Lemuel',  ^X^l^^,  Prov.  xxxi,  1 ; 
Sept.  VTTU  Srcoi),  Vulgate  Lamuel;  also  Lemoel,  huh'cb 
Prov.  xxxi,  4;  Sept.  Travra  ttouI, \ii\gate  Lamuel),  an 
unknown  prince,  to  whom  the  admonitory  apothegms 
of  Prov.  xxxi,  2-9  were  originally  addressed  by  his 
mother.  Most  interpreters  understand  Solomon  to  be 
meant  either  symbolically  (the  name  signifying  to  God, 
i.  e.  created  by  him)  or  by  a  pleasing  epithet  (see  Ro- 
senmliller.  Scholia  ad  Prov.  p.  718).  The  Rabbinical 
commentators  identify  Lemuel  with  Solomon,  and  tell 
a  strange  tale  that  when  he  married  the  tlaughter  of 
Pharaoh,  on  the  day  of  the  dedication  of  the  Temple, 
he  assembled  musicians  of  all  kinds,  and  passed  the 
night  awake.  On  the  morrow  he  slept  till  the  fourth 
hour,  with  the  keys  of  the  Temple  beneath  his  pillow, 
when  his  mother  entered,  and  upbraided  him  in  the 
words  of  Prov.  xxxi,  2-9.  Others  (e.  g.  Grotius)  refer 
it  to  Hezekiah  (by  a  precarious  etymology),  while  still 
others  (e.  g.  Gesenius)  think  that  no  Israelite  is  referred 
to,  but  some  neighboring  petty  Arabian  prince.  On  the 
other  hand,  according  to  PUchhorn  (^Einkitung,  v,  106), 
Lemuel  is  altogether  an  imaginary  person  (so  Ewald; 
comp.  Bertholdt,  v,  2196  sq.).  Prof.  Stuart  (Comment, 
on  Prov.  p.  403  sq.)  renders  the  expression  "Lemuel,  the 
king  of  Massa,"  and  regards  him  as  the  brother  of  Agur, 
whom  he  makes  to  have  been  likewise  a  son  of  the 
queen  of  Massa,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Dumah.  See 
Agur;  Ithiel.  In  the  reign  of  Hezekiali,  a  roving 
band  of  Simeonites  drove  out  the  Amalekitcs  from 
IMount  Seir  and  settled  in  their  stead  (1  Chron.  \v,  38- 
43),  and  from  these  exiles  of  Israelitish  origin  Hitzig 
conjectures  that  Lemuel  and  Agur  were  descended,  the 
former  having  been  born  in  the  land  of  Israel ;  and  that 
the  name  Lemuel  is  an  older  form  of  Nemuel,  the  first- 
born of  Simeon  (^Die  Spriiche  Salomons,  p.  310-314), 
But  this  interpretation  is  far-fetched ;  and  none  is  more 
likely  than  that  which  fixes  the  epithet  upon  Solomon. 
See  PiiovERBS. 

Lemiires,  the  general  designation  given  by  the  Ro- 
mans to  all  spirits  of  departed  persons,  of  whom  the 
good  were  honored  as  Lares  (q.  v.),  and  the  bad  (Lar- 
va;) were  feared,  as  ghosts  or  spectres  still  are  by  the 
superstitious.  The  common  idea  was  that  the  Lemures 
and  Larva;  were  the  same,  and  were  said  to  wander 
about  during  the  night,  seekuig  for  an  opportunity  of 
inliicting  injury  on  the  living  (Horat.  Epist.  ii,  2,  209; 
Pers.  V,  185).  The  festival  called  Lemuria  was  held  on 
the  9th,  11th,  and  13th  of  May,  and  was  accompanied 
with  ceremonies  of  washing  hands,  throwing  black  beans 
over  the  head,  etc.,  and  the  pronunciation  nine  times  of 
these  words :  "  Begone,  you  spectres  of  the  house !" 
which  deprived  the  Lemures  of  their  power  to  harm. 
Ovid  describes  the  Lemuria  in  the  fifth  book  of  his 
I'\isti.  See  De  Deo  Sacr.  p.  237,  ed.  Bip. ;  Servius,  ad 
uEn.  iii,  63 ;  Varro,  ap.  Nov.  p.  135 ;  comp.  Hartung,  Die 
Religion  dcr  Rdmer,  i,  55,  etc. ;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and 
Rom.  Biog.  and  Myth.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Leud  (represented  by  several  Heb.  words  which  iu 
other  forms  likewise  signify  to  bory-oiv,  e.g.  iTib,  lavah' ; 
T\'dXnashah' ;  I2^t\abat';  Gr.  (lavfi^otjXfKao).  Among 
the  Israelites,  in  the  time  of  INIoses,  it  must  have  been 
very  common  to  lend  on  pledge,  in  the  strict  sense,  ac- 
cording to  the  meaning  of  the  word  in  natural  law,  which 
allows  the  creditor,  in  case  of  non-payment,  to  appropri- 
ate the  pledge  to  his  own  behoof,  without  any  authori- 
tative interference  of  a  magistrate,  and  to  keep  it  just 
as  rightfully  as  if  it  had  been  bought  with  the  sum 


LENFANT 


344 


LENFANT 


which  has  been  lent  for  it,  and  which  rcmalms  unpaid. 
But  while  pledges  are  under  no  judicial  regulation,  much 
extortion  and  villainy  may  he  practiced,  when  the  poor 
man  ^vho  -wishes  to  borrow  is  in  straits,  and  must  of 
course  submit  to  all  the  terms  of  the  opulent  lender. 
It  will  not  be  imputed  to  Moses  as  a  fault  that  his  stat- 
iitt's  contain  not  those  legal  reliucments,  which  probably 
were  not  then  invented,  and  which  even  yet  may  be 
said  rather  to  be  on  record  in  our  statute-books  than  to 
be  in  our  practice.  They  would  have  been  dangerous 
to  his  people,  and  peculiarly  oii[)ressive  to  the  poor.  He 
let  pli'dge  remain  in  its  proper  sense,  pledge,  and  thus 
facilitated  the  obtaining  of  loans,  satisfj'ing  himself  with 
making  laws  against  some  of  the  chief  abuses  of  pledg- 
ing (Michaelis,  Mos.  Recht.).  See  Pledge.  These  laws 
may  be  found  in  Exod.  xxii,  25 ;  Deut.  xxiv,  G,  10-13. 
l»y  the  analogy  of  these  laws,  other  sorts  of  pledges 
ctiually,  if  not  more  indispensable,  such  as  the  utensils 
necessary  for  agriculture,  or  the  ox  and  ass  used  for  the 
plough,  must  certainly,  and  with  equal,  and  even  great- 
er reason,  have  been  restored.  The  law  in  Deut.  xxiv, 
12,  lo,  is  expressed  in  such  general  terms,  that  we  can- 
not but  see  that  the  pledge  under  which  the  debtor  must 
sleep  is  merely  given  as  an  example,  and  conclude,  of 
course,  that,  in  general,  from  the  needy  no  pledge  was  to 
be  exacted,  the  want  of  which  might  expose  him  to  an 
inconvenience  or  hardship,  more  especially  when  we  find 
the  lawgiver  here  declaring  that  God  would  regard  the 
restoration  of  such  pledges  as  almsgiving,  or  righteous- 
ness. So  it  was  in  fact,  and  at  the  same  time  it  was  at- 
tended with  no  loss  whatever  to  the  creditor;  for  he  had 
it  in  his  power,  at  last,  by  the  aid  of  summary  justice,  to 
lay  hold  of  the  whole  property  of  the  debtor,  and  if  he 
had  none,  of  his  person ;  and  in  the  event  of  non-pay- 
ment, to  take  him  for  a  hired  servant.  The  law  gave  him 
sufficient  security  ;  but  with  this  single  difference,  that 
he  durst  not  make  good  payment  at  his  own  hand,  but 
must  prosecute  (Lev.  xxv,  39-55 ;  Neh.  v,  5).  See  Debt. 
In  the  book  of  Job,  the  character  of  a  lender  upon  pledge 
io  thus  depicted:  "He  extorts  pledges  without  having 
lent,  and  makes  his  debtors  go  naked"  (xxii,  6 ;  xxiv,  7) ; 
"  He  takes  the  widow's  ox  for  a  pledge"  (xxiv,  3) ;  "  He 
takes  the  infant  of  the  needy  for  a  pledge"  (xxiv,  9-11). 
On  this  subject  our  Saviour  exhorted  his  disciples  to 
the  most  liberal  and  forbearing  course  towards  all  whom, 
they  could  aid  or  who  were  indebted  to  them  (Luke  vi, 
30-35).     See  Loan  ;  Usuuy. 

Lenfant,  Alexandre-Charles-Anne,  a  French 
priest  of  note,  was  born  at  Lyons  Sept.  6,  172G,  and  was 
educated  bj^  the  Jesuits  of  his  native  place.  In  1741  he 
entered  the  order,  and  became  professor  of  rhetoric  at 
jMarseilles.  Endowed  with  great  talent  as  a  speaker, 
he  became  one  of  the  most  popular  pulpit  orators  of  his 
order.  After  its  suppression  Lenfant  combated  the  doc- 
trines of  the  ]ihilosophical  antagonists  of  Christianity, 
particidarly  Diderot.  In  1792  he  was  arrested  by  the 
Itevolutionists,  and  subjected  to  capital  punishment  at 
Paris  Sept.  3,  1793.  His  works  are  an  Oraison  funehre 
on  Belzunce,  archbishop  of  jMarseilles  (1756,  8vo),  and 
another  on  the  father  of  Louis  XVI  (Nancy,  17GG)  :— 
Svrmons  pour  V A  vent  vt  pour  le  Careme  (Paris,  1818,  8 
vols.  12mo).       See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gen.  xxx,  G58. 

Lenfant,  Jacques,  a  very  noted  French  preacher 
and  tlicnln-ian,  the  son  of  Paul  Lenfant,  the  Protestant 
miniMir  ot  t'hatillon-sur-Scine,  was  born  at  Pazoche,  in 
lieaiirc.  a  district  of  llic  ancient  jirovince  of  Orleannois, 
in  France,  April  13,  IGlU.  Intended  for  the  same  pro- 
fession as  his  father,  he  was  sent  to  prosecute  his  studies 
at  Saumur;  and  dtiring  his  residence  at  that  imiversity 
lie  lived  with  the  learned  Jacipies  Cassel,  the  professor 
of  Hebrew,  with  whom  he  formed  a  friendsliip  which 
continued  during  their  lives.  He  completed  his  theo- 
logical cilucation  at  (ieneva  aiui  IIeidelherg_,  in  which 
latter  town  he  was  admitted  lo  the  ministry  of  the 
Protestant  Church  in  U)S4.  Soon  after  his  ordination 
he  obtained  the  appointment  of  minister  of  the  French 


Church  at  Heidelberg,  and  chaplain  to  the  dowager 
electress  Palatine.  The  invasion  of  the  Palatinate  by 
the  French  troops,  under  marslial  Turenne,  compelled 
Lenfant  to  leave  Heidelberg  in  1G88,  and  he  settled  at 
Berlin.  The  fear  of  meeting  his  countrymen  arose  from 
his  having  rendered  himself  obnoxious  to  the  Jesuits  by 
two  letters  which  he  had  written  against  that  society, 
and  which  are  appended  to  his  work,  entitled  A  Pre- 
servatice  against  a  Reunion  with  the  Church  of  Rome, 
Though  the  Protestant  French  church  of  that  city  had 
already  a  sufficient  number  of  pastors  attached  to  it,  the 
reigning  elector  of  Brandenburg,  Frederick,  afterwards 
king  of  Prussia,  who  knew  Lenfant  by  reputation,  ap- 
pointed him  to  that  church,  where  for  upwards  of  thir- 
ty-nine years  he  performed  duty.  In  1707,  on  a  visit 
to  England,  he  preached  before  queen  Anne,  and  it  is 
said  that  he  so  pleased  the  queen  that  she  desired  him 
to  enter  the  Church  of  England,  and  fiffered  him  the 
appointment  as  her  chaplain.  In  1710  he  obtained  the 
situation  of  chaplain  to  the  kmg  of  Prussia,  and  coun- 
cillor of  the  High  Consistorj-,  Lenfant  was  suddenly 
attacked  with  paralysis,  while  in  the  apparent  enjoy- 
ment of  perfect  health,  Jidy  29, 1728,  and  died  on  the  7th 
of  August  following.  His  disposition  is  represented  as 
having  been  extremely  amiable,  and  his  maiuier  simple 
and  modest.  Of  a  reflective  turn  of  mind,  he  spoke  but 
little,  and  that  little  well.  Though  a  most  voluminous 
writer,  he  Avas  fond  of  society,  and  opened  himself  with- 
out reserve  to  the  confidence  of  his  friends.  As  a  preach- 
er, his  manner  was  pleasing  and  persuasive;  tlie  matter 
of  his  discourse  was  chiefly  of  a  practical  nature,  and  his 
eloquence  was  rather  chaste  than  energetic.  The  style 
of  his  writing  is  elegant,  though  never  florid ;  it  has  less 
force  than  that  of  Jurieu,  and  less  eloquence  than  that 
of  Saurin,  but  the  French  is  purer,  and  the  diction 
more  refined.  It  is  not  certain  whether  he  was  the  first 
to  form  the  design  of  the  Bibliotheque  Germanique, 
which  was  commenced  in  1720,  but  he  took  a  prominent 
part  in  its  execution,  and  is  the  acknowledged  author 
of  the  preface.  Lenfant's  first  work,  which  appeared  in 
1G83,  was  a  review  of  one  of  Brueys,  who,  though  a  cel- 
ebrated French  dramatist,  has  written  several  theologi- 
cal works  in  defence  of  the  Koman  Catholic  faith.  In 
1688  he  published  a  translation  of  a  selection  from  the 
letters  of  St.  Cyprian ;  in  1G90,  a  defence  of  the  Heidel- 
berg Catechism,  which  is  generally  annexed  to  his  I're- 
sereatice,  etc.,  a  work  we  have  before  alluded  to;  and 
in  1691,  a  Latin  translation  of  the  celebrated  work  of 
the  pere  Malebranche,  La  Recherche  de  la  Verite.  His 
history  of  the  female  pope  Joan  appeared  in  1G94:  the 
arguments  in  it  are  drawn  from  the  Latin  dissertation 
on  that  subject  of  Spanheim.  It  is  said,  however,  that 
in  after  life  Lenfant  discovered  and  acknowledged  the 
absurdity  of  this  fiction.  See  Joan,  Pope.  In  1708 
appeared  his  remarks  on  the  Greek  edition  of  the  New 
Testament  by  IMill,  which  are  in  the  Bibliotheque  Choi- 
sie  of  Le  Clerc,  vol.  xvi.  The  following  works  after- 
wards appeared  in  succession  :  1.  Reflexions  et  Re- 
marques  sur  la  Dispute  du  Ph-e  Martiawj  avec  un  Juif : 
— 2.  Memoire  IliMoi-ique  touchant  la  Communion  sur  les 
deux  especes :  —  3.  Critique  des  Remarques  du  Pere  Va- 
vaseur ;  sur  les  Reflexions  de  Rapin  touchant  la  Po'e- 
tique: — 4.  Reponse  de  Mons.  Lenfant  a  Mons.  Dartis  au 
sujet  du  Socinianisme.  The  above  short  works  are  to 
be  found  in  the  Nouvelle  de  la  Republique  des  Leitres,  a 
review  to  which  Lenfant  was  a  frequent  contributor. 
In  1714  was  published  his  learned  and  interesting  I/is- 
toire  du  Concile  de  CouKtance  (Amstcrd.  1714,  2  vols.  4to ; 
1727,  and  an  Engl,  transl.  Loud.  1730,  2  vols.  4to).  Two 
years  after  he  wrote  an  apology  for  this  work,  which 
had  been  severely  attacked  in  the  Journal  de  Trevoux. 
In  1718,  in  conjiuiction  with  Beausobre,  he  published  a 
translation  of  the  New  Testament,  with  explanatory 
notes,  and  a  long  and  most  learned  introduction.  It  is 
by  this  Avork  (Ae  Xouc.  Test,  traduit  en  Fran^ais  sur 
I'original  Grec,  Amsterdam,  1718,  2  vols.  4to),  )ierba]is, 
that  he  is  best  known  to  English-speakuig  students. 


LENG 


545 


LENT 


Among  the  most  important  of  his  other  productions 
are  Pogijiana,  or  the  Life,  Chai-acter,  and  Maxims  of 
the  celtbi-aied  Floi-entine  Wfiter  Poggio  (Amsterdam, 
1720) : — A  Preventive  against  Reunion  with  the  *SVe  of 
Rome,  and  Reasons  for  Sejiaration  from  that  See  (Am- 
sterdam, 1723),  a  work  which  continues  to  enjoy  great 
popularity  among  Protestants : — IJistoire  du  Concile  de 
Pise,  et  de  ce  qui  s'est  passe  de  jjIus  memo-able  depuis 
ce  Concile  jusqu'a  celui  de  Constance,  a  learned  and  ac- 
curate work,  written  with  sufficient  impartiality  (Am- 
stcrd.  172-1,  2  vols.  4to) : — a  volume  containing  sixteen 
Sermons  on  different  Texts  of  Scripture  (1728) : — a  small 
volume  of  Remarks  on  Gisherfs  Treatise  on  Pulpit  Elo- 
quence, a  M'ork  which  has  greatly  added  to  his  already 
high  reputation : — IJistoire  de  la  Guerre  des  Hussites  et 
du  Concile  de  Bale  (Amsterd.  1731,  2  vols.  4to),  for  which 
he  liad  been  manj'  years  collecting  materials,  and  in  the 
prejiaration  of  which,  through  the  influence  of  the  king 
of  Prussia,  he  had  access  to  the  arcliivos  of  the  corpora- 
tion of  Basle.  See  English  Cuclopcedia,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog.  Generale,  xxx,  G57 ;  Bihlioth.  Germanique, 
xvi,  115  sq. 

Leng,  John,  an  Englisli  prelate,  was  bom  in  1C65, 
and,  after  having  completed  his  studies  at  Cambridge, 
became  chaplain  to  king  George  I.  In  1723  his  royal 
master  made  Leng  bishop  of  Norwich,  He  died  in  1727. 
He  published  editions  of  the  Plutus  and  Nubes  of  Aris- 
tophanes (1G95) : — an  excellent  edition  of  Terence  (Cam- 
bridge, 1701): — Sernwns  at  Boyle's  Lectures  (1717-18), 
and  twelve  separate  Sei-mons  (1699-1727).  See  Nich- 
ols's Lit.  A  nee.  Lgson's  Environs.  —  Allibone,  Dictionary 
of  British  and  American  Authors,  ii,  1084. 

Lengerke,  Casar,  a  noted  German  theologian,  was 
born  at  Hamburg  March  30, 1803.  He  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Kcinigsberg,  and  became  a  professor 
of  theology  and  Oriental  languages  at  that  high  school 
in  1829.  He  died  Feb.  3,  1855.  His  most  important 
works  are,  De  Epihrcemi  Sijri  arte  hermeneutica  liber 
(1831)  : — Das  Buch  Daniel  (1835)  : — Kenaan,  Voiles  und 
Religionsgcsch.  Israels,  vol.  i  (1814). 

Lenoir,  John,  a  French  Jansenist  priest,  was  born 
at  Alencon  in  1622.  He  became  theological  canon  of 
Seez  in  1052,  and  acquired  great  reputation  as  a  preach- 
er both  in  Normandy  and  at  Paris.  He  was  accused 
of  Jansenism,  and  by  his  quarrelsome  disposition  was 
made  the  subject  of  many  annoyances.  Eouxel  de  Me- 
davy,  bishop  of  Seez,  who  had  issued  a  charge  for  the 
publication  of  the  Formularj',  accused  him  of  various 
errors,  namely,  of  having  permitted  the  publication  of 
a  work  entitled  Le  Chretien  Champi'tre  by  a  layman, 
who  said  expressly  that  "  there  are  four  divine  persons 
who  are  to  be  worshipped  by  the  faitliful,  namely,  Jesus 
Christ,  St.  Joseph,  St.  Anna,  and  St.  Joachim  ;  and  that 
our  Lord  is  present  in  the  sacrament  of  the  altar  like  a 
chicken  in  an  egg-shell."  Lenoir  presented  then  a  pe- 
tition to  Louis  XIV,  together  with  an  attack  on  some 
propositions  which  he  considered  as  heretical.  His 
writings  on  these  subjects  were  exceedingly  violent :  he 
attacked  Rouxel  de  INIedavy,  wlio  was  then  archbishop 
of  Kouen,  and  even  De  Harlay,  the  archbishop  of  Paris. 
A  commission  was  appointed  to  judge  him,  and  he  was 
condemned,  April  24, 1684,  to  make  a  public  apology  in 
front  of  tlie  cathedral  at  Paris,  and  to  work  for  life  on 
tlie  galleys.  Tiie  sentence  was  not  fully  carried  out ; 
but  he  remained  a  prisoner  successively  in  the  prisons 
of  St.Malo,  Brest,  and  Nantes  until  his'death,  April  22, 
1692.  He  wrote,  A  vantages  incontestables  de  VEglise  siir 
les  Calvinistes  (Paris  and  Sens,  1673, 12mo)  -.—Xouvelles 
Lumieres  jiolitiques,  ou  I'Evangile  nouveau  (1676  and 
1687,  12mo:  this  work  arrested  the  publication  of  a 
French  translation  of  the  History  of  the  Council  of  Trent 
by  Pallavicini,  and  went  through  a  tliird  edition  under 
the  title  of  Politique  et  Intrigues  de  la  cour  de  Rome 
[1696,  12mo]) :  —  Eeveqne  de  cour  oppose  a  Veveque 
apostolique  (Cologne,  1682, 2  vols,  12mo)  -.—Lettre  a  M"" 
la  duchesse  de  Guise  sur  la  domination  episcopale,  etc. 


(1679, 12mo).  See  Svpplem.  au  Necrolog.  de  Port  Royal, 
1735;  Diet.  hist,  des  auteurs  eccles.;  Feller,  Diet,  hist.; 
Hoefer,  JVouv.  Biog.  Gen.  xxxviii,  203.      (J.  N.  P.) 

Lent,  the  forty  days'  fast,  is  the  preparation  for  Eas- 
ter in  the  Western,  Eastern,  and  Lutheran  churches, 
and  in  the  Church  of  England,  and  was  instituted  at  a 
very  early  age  of  Christianity.  In  most  languages  the 
name  given  to  this  fast  signifies  the  number  of  the  days 
—Forty ;  but  our  word  Lent  signifies  the  Spring  Fast, 
for  "Lenten -Tide"  in  the  Anglo -Saxon  language  was 
the  season  of  spring,  in  German  Lenz.  (For  another 
etymology,  see  Lentile.)  It  is  observed  in  commem- 
oration of  our  Lord's  fast  in  the  wilderness  (IMatt.  iv) ; 
and  although  he  did  not  impose  it  on  the  world  by  an 
express  commandment,  yet  he  showed  plainly  enough 
by  his  example  that  fasting,  whicli  God  had  sofrequent- 
ly  ordered  in  the  old  covenant,  -^vas  also  to  be  practised 
by  the  cliildrcn  of  the  neiv.  The  observance  of  Lent 
was  doubtless  strongly  confirmed  by  those  words  of  the 
Redeemer  in  answer  to  the  disciples  of  John  the  Bap- 
tist :  "  Can  the  cliildren  of  the  Bridegroom  mourn  as 
long  as  the  Bridegroom  is  with  them  V  But  the  days 
will  come  when  the  Bridegroom  shall  be  taken  away 
from  them,  and  then  shall  they  fast"  (Luke  v,  34,  35). 
Hence  we  find,  in  the  Acts  of  the  Aposflcs,  that  the  dis- 
ciples, after  the  foundation  of  the  Church,  applied  them- 
selves to  fasting.  In  their  epistles,  also,  they  recom- 
mended it  to  the  faithful.  The  primitive  Christians 
seem  to  have  considered  Christ,  in  the  above-mentioned 
.passage,  as  alluding  to  the  institution  of  a  particular 
season  of  fasting  and  prayer  in  his  future  Church,  and 
it  was  therefore  only  natural  that  they  should  have 
made  this  period  of  penitence  to  consist  of  forty  days,  see- 
ing that  our  divine  Master  had  consecrated  that  num- 
ber by  his  own  fast,  and  before  him  Moses  and  Elijah 
had  done  the  same-,  it  was  even  deduced  from  the  forty 
years'  staying  of  the  Israelites  in  the  desert  (Augustine, 
Se7-m.  cclxiv,  §  5).     See  Fasting,  vol.  iii,  p.  489  (II). 

I.  Practice  of  the  Early  Church. — In  the  age  immedi- 
atelj^  succeeding  that  of  the  aposf  les,  it  does  not  appear 
that  much  value  was  attached  to  the  practice  of  fasting. 
In  the  Shephe7-d  of  llcrmas  it  is  spoken  of  in  disparaging 
terms.  Verj-  little  notice  was  taken  of  fasting  Ijy  the 
writers  of  the  first  centuries,  which  may  be  accounted 
for  from  the  discouraging  influence  of  the  doctrines  of 
Montanus,  the  tenets  of  the  new  Platonic  school,  and 
the  progress  of  Gnosticism.  Hence  it  seems  that  the 
observance  of  fasts  was  introduced  into  the  Church  slow- 
ly and  by  degrees.  We  learn  from  Justin  Martyr  tliat 
fasting  was  joined  with  prayer  at  Ephesus  in  tlie  ad- 
ministration of  baptism,  which  is  worth)-  of  being  noted 
as  an  early  addition  to  the  original  institution.  In  the 
2d  century,  in  the  time  of  Victor  and  Irena;us,  it  had 
become  usual  to  fast  before  Easter,  yet  it  consisted  not 
in  a  single  fast,  but  rather  in  a  series  of  solemnities, 
which  were  deemed  wortliy  of  celebration.  It  was 
therefore  the  custom  of  several  congregations  to  pre- 
pare tliemselves  Ijy  mortification  and  fasting,  inaugu- 
rated on  the  afternoon  of  the  day  on  which  they  com- 
memorated tlie  crucifixion,  and  it  was  continued  until 
the  morning  of  the  anniversary  of  the  resurrection.  The 
whole  interval  would  thus  be  only  about  forfj"-  hours 
(Chrj-sosfom,  Oraf.  adv.  Judceos,  iii,  §  4,  vol.  i,  p.  611 :  oi 
—ar'tpfQ  tTinrojaav,  (c.r.A.;  Horn,  ii  in  Genesin,^  l,vol. 
iv,  p.  8;  Irenasus,  Epist.  ad  ]'ictorin. Papam ;  Eusebius, 
Hist. Eccl.  V,  24 ;  Dionys.  Alex.  Epist.  Canon. ;  Beveridge, 
Synoduon').  Clement  of  Alexandria,  however,  speaks  of 
weekly  fasts.  Tertullian,  in  his  treatise  De  Jejur.io, 
complains  bitterly  of  the  little  attention  paid  by  the 
Church  to  the  practice  of  fasting ;  by  which  we  may  see 
that  even  orthodox  Christians  exercised  in  this  matter 
that  liberty  of  judgment  which  had  been  sanctioned  by 
the  apostles.  Origen  adverts  to  this  subject  only  once, 
in  his  10th  Homily  on  Leviticus,  where  he  speaks  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  apostolical  doctrine.  It  appears,  how- 
ever, from  his  observations,  that  at  Alexandria  Wednes- 
days and  Fridays  were  then  observed  as  fast-days,  on 


LENT 


346 


LENT 


the  ground  that  our  Lord  was  betrayed  on  a  Wednes- 
day, and  cnicilied  on  a  Friday.  Tlie  custom  of  the 
Church  at  the  end  of  the  -ith  century  may  he  seen  from  a 
passage  of  Kpiplianius:  "In  the  whole  Christian  Church 
the  following  fast-days  throughout  the  year  are  regu- 
larly observed :  On  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  we  fast  un- 
til the  ninth  hour,"  etc. 

Eut  even  at  this  comparatively  late  date  there  was 
no  universal  agreement  in  the  practice  of  the  Church  in 
this  matter,  neither  had  fasts  been  established  by  law. 
Only  later  was  the  number  of  days  (nameW,  Jo?ii/)  fixed 
according  to  the  Greek  and  Latin  names  (jtaaapaKua- 
r?;=quadragesima).  But  for  a  long  time  the  Oriental 
and  Occidental  churches  differed.  As  the  former  did 
not  permit  its  members  to  fast  on  the  Sabbath,  their 
fast  continued  one  week  longer  (Socrates,  Hist.  Eccles.  i, 
V,  c.  22;  Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccles.  v,  2J:;  Sozomen,  Hist. 
Eccles.  vii,  19).  The  custom,  so  far  as  it  existed,  had 
been  silently  introduced  into  the  Church,  and  its  ob- 
servance was  altogether  voluntan.^  at  first.  This  fast- 
ing consisted  in  abstinence  from  food  until  three  o'clock 
in  the  afternoon,  but  at  a  later  period  a  custom  was  in- 
troduced, probably  by  the  Montanists,  aifecting  the  kind 
of  food  to  be  taken,  which  was  limited  to  bread,  salt,  and 
•water. 

Some,  however,  who  had  become  subject  to  the  rules 
of  the  Church,  tried  to  compensate  themselves  for  their 
privation  during  the  fasts  by  banqueting  on  the  days 
preceding  them  (Chrysostom.  De  pcenitentia,  hom.  v,  §  5, 
vol.  ii,  p.  315).  Others  adhered  literally  to  the  rules  of 
fasting  by  avoiding  strictly  the  prohibited  food,  but  pre- 
pared from  that  which  Avas  permitted  costly  dainties 
(Augustine,  *rm.  ccviii,  §  1).  The  fathers  and  teach- 
ers of  the  Church  of  this  period,  as  Chrysostom,  Augus- 
tine, Maximus  of  Turin,  Cajsarius  of  Aries,  etc.,  spoke 
often  against  this  hypocritical  fasting,  and  showed  that 
abstinence  would  then  only  be  of  service  Avhen  avoid- 
ance of  sinful  habits,  etc.,  as  well  as  contrition  of  heart, 
was  connected  with  it.  The  general  design,  then,  of 
the  primitive  Church  in  fasting  forty  days,  ^ve  may 
give  in  the  words  of  Chrysostom:  "Many  heretofore 
were  used  to  come  to  the  communion  indevoutly  and 
inconsiderately,  especially  at  that  time,  when  Christ  first 
gave  it  to  his  disciples.  Therefore  our  forefathers,  con- 
sidering the  mischief  arising  from  such  careless  ap- 
proaches, meeting  together,  appointed  forty  days  for 
fasting  and  prayer,  and  hearing  sermons,  and  for  holy 
assemblies ;  that  all  men  in  these  days,  being  carefully 
purified  by  prayer,  and  alms-deeds,  and  fasting,  and 
watching,  and  tears,  and  confession  of  sins,  and  other 
like  exercises,  might  come,  according  to  their  capacity, 
with  a  pure  conscience,  to  the  holy  table." 

"  The  ride  of  fasting  for  Lent  varied  greatly.  It  was 
usual  to  abstain  from  food  altogether  until  evening, 
change  of  diet  not  being  accounted  sufficient.  St.  Am- 
brose exhorts  men :  '  Differ  aliquantulum,  non  longe  lines 
est  dici'  (^Serm.  viii  in  I'sithn  c.rriii).  The  food,  when 
taken,  was  to  be  of  the  simi>lest  and  least  delicate  kind, 
animal  food  and  wine  being  prohibited.  St.  Chrysostom 
(Jlom.  ii)  on  Stat.)  speaks  of  those  who  for  two  days  ab- 
stained from  food,  and  of  others  who  refused  not  only 
wine  and  oil,  but  every  other  dish,  and  throughout  Lent 
partook  of  bread  and  water  only.  The  Eastern  Church, 
at  the  present  day,  observes  a  most  strict  rule  of  fasting. 
Wine  and  oil  are  aOowed  on  Saturdays  and  Sundays,  but 
even  these  days  arc  onlj-  jiartially  excepted  from  the  re- 
strictions of  Lent.  The  discipline  of  Holy  M'cek  is  ex- 
ceedingly rigorous.  During  Lent  corporeal  punishment 
was  forbidden  by  the  laws  of  Tiieodosius  the  (ireat :  'Nul- 
la supplicia  sint  corporis  quibus  (diebus)  absolutio  ex- 
pectatur  animarum'  (/'(«/.  HicihIhs.  ix,  tit.  xxxv,  leg.  v.). 
Public  games,  and  tlic  celebration  of  birthdays  and  mar- 
riages, were  also  interdicted  (Concil.  Laodic.  li,  liii).  It 
was  the  special  time  for  i)reparing  catechuTnens  for  bap- 
tism, and  most  of  St.  CyrU's  catechetical  lectures  were 
delivered  during  Lent.  St.  Chrysostom's  celebrated 
Homilies  on  the  Statutes  were  preached  during  this  sea- 


son. Daily  instruction  formed  a  part  of  the  service, 
and  holy  communion  was  celei)rated  at  least  every  Lord's 
day.  The  last  week,  the  Holy  or  Great  'Week,  was  kept 
with  still  greater  strictness  and  solemnitj'"  (Blunt,  Diet, 
of  Doctrinal  and  Historical  Theoloijy,  p.  408  j. 

II.  Practice  of  later  Times. — Fasting,  after  a  time, 
ceased  to  be  a  voluntary  exercise.  By  the  second  canon 
of  the  Council  of  Orleans,  A.D.  541,  it  was  decreed  that 
any  one  who  should  neglect  to  obser\-e  the  stated  times 
of  abstinence  should  be  treated  as  an  offender  against 
the  laws  of  the  Church.  The  eighth  Council  of  Toledo, 
in  the  7th  century  (canon  9),  condemns  any  one  who 
should  eat  flesh  during  the  fast  before  Easter,  and  says 
that  such  offenders  should  be  forbidden  the  use  of  it 
throughout  the  year.  In  the  8th  century  fasting  began 
to  be  regarded  as  a  meritorious  work,  and  the  breach  of 
the  observance  at  the  stated  times  subjected  the  offender 
to  excommunication.  In  later  times  some  persons  who 
ate  flesh  during  Lent  were  punished  with  the  loss  of 
their  teeth  (Baronius,  A  nnal.  ad  an.  1018).  Afterwards 
these  severities  were  to  a  great  extent  relaxed.  Instead 
of  the  former  limitation  of  diet  on  fast-days  to  bread, 
salt,  and  water,  permission  was  given  for  the  use  of  aU 
kinds  of  food  except  flesh,  eggs,  cheese,  and  wine.  Then 
eggs,  cheese,  and  wine  were  allowed,  flesh  only  being 
prohibited,  an  indulgence  which  was  censured  by  the 
Greek  Church,  and  led  to  a  quarrel  between  it  and  the 
Latin.  In  the  13th  centiu^y  a  cold  collation  in  the  even- 
uig  of  fast-days  was  permitted. 

The  following  are  the  fasts  which  generally  obtamed 
in  the  Church:  1.  The  annual  fast  of  forty  days  before 
Easter,  or  the  Seaso?i  of  Lent.  The  duration  of  this 
fast  at  first  was  only  forty  hours  (Tertull.  De  Jejun.  c.  2, 
13  ;  Iren«us,  ap.  Euseb.  Hist.  Eccl.  1.  v,  c.  24).  By  the 
time  of  Gregory  the  Great  (in  the  8th  centurj')  it  had 
extended  to  thirty-six  days,  and  it  had  been  so  accepted 
by  the  Council  of  Nicrea;  but  by  Gregory  the  Great,  or 
by  Gregory  II,  it  was  extended  to  forty  days,  the  dura- 
tion of  the  recorded  fasts  of  INIoses,  Elias,  and  our  blessed 
Saviour  (Exod.  xxxiv,  28 ;  1  Kings  xix,  8 ;  Matt,  iv,  2). 
Hence  the  term  Quadrayesima  (q.  v.),  whicl\  had  al- 
ready been  used  to  denote  this  period,  became  strictly 
applicable.  Socrates  {Hist.  Eccl.  1.  vii,  c.  19),  Basil  the 
Great,  Ambrose,  and  Leo  the  Great  speak  of  this  quad- 
ragesimal fast  as  a  divine  institution  but  this  can  mean 
no  more  than  that  the  fast  was  observed  in  imitation  of 
the  example  of  the  divine  Iledeemer  {Condi.  Genonens. 
c.  7 — in  canone  ajwstolorum,  G8 :  "Si  quis  Episcop.,  aut 
Presbyt,  etc.,  sac.  Quadragesimam  Pascha",  aut  quartam 
feriam,  aut  Parasecevem  non  jejunaverit,"  etc. :  Concil. 
Coloniens.  ii,  pt.  9,  can.  6).  2.  Quarterly  fasts,  no  traces 
of  which  occur  before  the  5th  centurj',  although  Bellar- 
mine  {De  bonis  operihus,  lib.  ii,  c.  19)  says  that  the  first 
three  of  these  fasts  were  instituted  in  the  times  of  the 
apostles,  and  the  last  by  pope  Calixtus,  A.D.  224.  3.  A 
fast  of  three  days  before  tlie  festival  of  the  Ascension, 
introduced  by  Mamercus,  bishop  of  Yienne,  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  5th  century.  In  some  places  it  was  not  cele- 
brated until  after  Whitsuntide.  It  was  called  Jejunium 
Royutionum,  or  Jejunium  Litaniarum,  "  the  fast  of  Ro- 
gations or  Litanies,"  on  account  of  certain  litanies  sung 
on  those  days.  The  words  XiTaviia  and  XiVni,  "lita- 
nies," in  Latin  Supjdicationes  et  lioyatioms,  in  their 
original  signification,  are  but  another  name  for  prayers 
in  general,  of  whatever  kind,  that  either  were  made 
jjubUcly  in  the  church  or  by  any  private  person.  (See 
Euseb.  Vit.  Const.  1.  i,  c.  14 ;  1.  iv,  c,  GC ;  Cbrysost.  Horn, 
antequam  iret  in  exilium  ;  Cod.  Theod.  lib.  xvi,  tit.  v, "  De 
hiereticus,"  1,  30,  1.)  4:.  Monthly  fasts,  a  fast-day  in 
every  month  except  July  and  August  {Concil.  IlUberit. 
can.  23;  Turon.  ii,  can.  18,  19).  5.  Easts  before  festi- 
vals, in  the  jilacc  of  the  ancient  vigils  which  were  abol- 
ished in  the  Sth'centur}-.  6.  Weekly  fasts,  on  Wednes- 
days and  Fridays,  entitled  stationes,  from  the  practice 
of  soldiers  keeping  guard,  which  was  csil\QAstatio  by  the 
Romans  ("  Stationum  dies,"  Tcrtullian,  De  Orat. ;  "  Sta- 
tionibus  quartam  ct  sextam  Sabbati  dicamus,"  Idem,  De 


LENT 


347 


LENTILE 


Jejunio ;  T»;c  vtirfTiiac,  rijg  Tirpdcog  Kai  Tiig  Trapa- 
aiciv^jC,  Clem.  Alex.  iSirom.  1.  7).  These  fasts  were  not 
so  strictly  observed  as  some  others,  and  were  altogether 
omitted  between  Easter  and  Whitsuntide.  The  obser- 
vance was  enjoined  especially  upon  the  clergy  and 
monks  (Constit.  Ajwst.  v,  15;  Can.  Apost.  G9).  By  the 
Council  of  Elvira,  c.  26,  at  the  beginning  of  the  4th  cen- 
tury, Saturday  was  added  to  the  weekly  fasts,  and  this 
led  to  the  gradual  neglect  of  the  Wethiesday  fast  in  the 
Western  Church.  The  stations,  or  fasts  on  stationary 
days,  terminated  at  three  o'clock  P.:M.  ("  non  ultra  no- 
nam  detijiendum,"  TertuHian,  Be  Jejunio  ;  "Quando  et 
orationes  fere  nona  hora  concludat  de  Petri  exemplo 
quod  Act.  X  refertur,"  ib.  c.  2).  Hence  TertuUian  calls 
them  haJf-fasts  ("semijejunio  stationum,"  De  Jejun.  c. 
13).  Wiien  a  fast  was  continued  the  whole  day,  it  was 
entitled  Jejunium,  or  Jejunium  perfectum ;  and  when  it 
lasted  uutil  the  morning  of  the  following  day,  or  for 
several  days  together,  it  was  distinguished  by  the  title 
Supcrpositio  {inrsp^ijcnt:).  The  latter  kind  of  fasts  was 
commonly  observed  during  the  rjreui  week,  or  week  be- 
fore Easter;  but  it  was  not  strictly  peculiar  to  that  sea- 
son. It  exceeded  the  others  not  only  in  point  of  time, 
but  by  the  observance  of  additional  austerities,  such  as 
the  c.i]po(bayia,  or  lirintj!  on  dry  food,  namely,  bread, 
salt,  and  water,  taken  only  in  tlie  evening.  7.  There 
were  also  occasional  fasts,  appointed  by  ecclesiastical 
authority  in  times  of  great  danger,  emergency,  or  dis- 
tress (Cyprian,  Ep)ist.  8,  §  1 ;  57,  §  3 ;  TertuUian,  Ajjol. 
c.  40 ;  De  Jejun.  c.  13). 

III.  Practice  in  Modem  Times. — The  Christians  of 
the  Greelc  Church  observe/bwr  regular  fasts.  The  first 
commences  on  the  loth  day  of  November,  or  forty  days 
before  Christmas.  The  second  is  the  one  which  imme- 
diately precedes  Easter.  The  third  begins  the  week  af- 
ter Whitsunday,  and  continues  till  the  festival  of  St. 
Peter  and  Paul.  The  number  of  days,  therefore,  com- 
])rised  m  these  seasons  of  fasting  is  not  settled  and  de- 
termined, but  they  are  more  or  less  long,  according  as 
Whitsunday  falls  sooner  or  later.  The  fourth  fast  com- 
mences the  1st  of  August,  and  lasts  no  longer  than  tiU 
the  15th.  Thesa  fasts  are  observed  with  great  strictness 
and  austerity.  The  only  days  when  they  indulge  tliem- 
selves  in  drinking  wine  and  using  oil  are  Saturdays  and 
Sundays. 

In  the  English  Church  Lent  was  first  commanded  to 
be  observed  in  England  by  Ercombert,  seventh  king  of 
Kent,  before  the  year  800.  The  Lenten  fast  does  not 
embrace  all  the  days  included  between  Ash- Wednesday 
and  Easter,  for  the  Sundays  are  so  many  daj'S  above 
the  number  oi forty.  They  are  excluded  because  the 
Lord's  day  is  always  held  as  a  festiral,  and  never  as  a 
fast.  These  six  Sundays  are  therefore  called  Sundays 
in  Lent,  not  Sundays  of  Lent.  The  principal  days  of 
Lent  are  the  first  day  of  Lent  {Caput  Jejunii,  or  Dies 
Cinerum),  Ash- Wednesday,  and  the  Passion-week,  par- 
ticularly Thursday  and  Friday  in  that  week.  There  is 
also  a  solenni  ser\'ice  appointed  i'or  Ash-Wednesday,  un- 
der the  title  of  a  "  Commination  or  denouncing  of  God's 
angei  and  judgments  against  sinners.''  The  last  week 
of  Lent,  called  Passion-week,  has  always  been  considered 
as  its  most  solemn  season.  It  is  called  the  great  tceefc, 
for  the  important  transactions  which  are  then  commem- 
orated. 

Tlie  same  rules,  observations,  services,  etc.,  are  ob- 
served in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  America 
as  in  the  Church  of  England  during  the  solemn  season 
of  Lcut. 

In  nearly  all  the  Protestant  churches  of  Europe,  par- 
ticularly in  the  Lutheran  Church,  fasts  and  Lenten-sea- 
son rcmaiu  up  to  this  day  pretty  much  the  same  as  in 
the  lioman  Catholic  Church. 

See  Bellarmine,  Opera;  Bcrgicr,  Diciionnaire  de  Tht- 
olof/iv,  art.  Caremc;  Pascal,  La  Liturrjie  catholique,  s.  v.; 
Gfrimfs  Church  History ;  Hook,  Ch.  Diet.  s.  v.;  Eiddle, 
Christian  Antiquities,  p.  660,008;  UaW,  Harmony  (see 
Index);  Bible  and  Missal,  p.  170;  Walcott,  Sac.  Ar- 


clicEol.  p.  348 ;  Procter,  On  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  p. 
250,  276,  277 ;  Wheatlcy,  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  p.  217 
sq.     See  Fastino. 

Leutile  (only  in  the  plural  Ci'dl?',  adashim',  prob, 
from  an  obsolete  root  signifying  to  fodder ;  Sept.  (paKvc, 
Yulg.  Ie7is)  is  probably  a  correct  rendering  of  the  plant 
thus  designated  (Gen.  xxv,  34 ;  2  Sam.  xvii,  28 ;  xxiii, 
11;  Ezek.  iv,  9).  In  Syria  lentiles  are  stDl  called  in 
Arabic  addas  (Russel,  N.  H.  of  A  lepj^o,  i,  74).  They  ap- 
pear to  have  been  chiefiy  used  for  making  a  kind  of  pot- 
tage. The  7xd  pottage,  for  which  Esau  bartered  his 
birthright,  was  of  lentiles  (Gen.  xxv,  29-34).  The  term 
red  was,  as  with  us,  extended  to  yellowish-brown,  which 
must  have  been  the  true  color  of  the  pottage  if  derived 
from  lentiles,  being  that  of  the  seeds  rather  than  that  of 
the  pods,  which  were  sometimes  cooked  entire  (llishna, 
Skabb.  vii,  4).  The  Greeks  and  Komans  also  called  len- 
tiles red  (see  authorities  in  Celsius,  Hie?-obotanic.  i,  105). 
Lentiles  were  among  the  provisions  brought  to  David 
when  he  fled  from  Absalom  (2  Sam.  xvii,  28),  and  a  field 
of  lentiles  was  the  scene  of  an  exploit  of  one  of  David's 
hei'oes  (2  Sam.  xxiii,  11).  From  Ezek.  iv,  9,  it  would 
appear  that  lentUes  were  sometimes  used  as  bread  (comp. 
Athen.  iv,  158).  This  was  doubtless  in  times  of  scarci- 
ty, or  by  the  poor  (compare  Aristoph.  Pluf.  1005).  Son- 
nini  {Travels,  p.  603)  assures  us  that  in  southernmost 
Egj'pt,  where  corn  is  comparatively  scarce,  lentiles  mix- 
ed with  a  little  barley  form  almost  the  only  bread  in 
use  among  the  poorer  classes.  It  is  called  bettan,  is  of  a 
golden  yelloiv  color,  and  is  not  bad,  although  rather 
heavy.  In  that  country,  indeed,  probably  even  more 
than  in  Palestine,  lentiles  anciently,  as  now,  formed  a 
chief  article  of  food  among  the  laboring  classes.  This 
is  repeatedl}'  noticed  by  ancient  authors ;  and  so  much 
attention  was  paid  to  the  culture  of  this  useful  pulse 
that  certain  varieties  became  remarkable  for  their  ex- 
cellence (comp.  Dioscor.  ii,  129).  The  lentiles  of  Pelu- 
sium,  in  the  part  of  Egypt  nearest  to  Palestine,  were 
esteemed  both  in  Egypt  and  foreign  countries  (Virgil, 
Georg.  i,  228),  and  this  is  probabh'  the  valued  Egyptian 
variety  which  is  mentioned  in  the  Mishna  {Kilaim, 
xviii,  8)  as  neither  large  nor  small.  Large  quantities 
of  lentiles  were  exported  from  Alexandria  (Augustine, 
Comm.  in  Psa.  xlvi).  VVmy,  in  mentioning  two  Egj-p- 
tian  varieties,  incidentally  lets  us  know  that  one  of  them 
was  red  (compare  Diog.  Laertius,  vii,  3),  by  remarking 
that  they  like  a  red  soil,  and  by  speculating  whether  the 
pulse  may  not  have  thence  derived  the  reddisli  color 
which  it  imparted  to  the  pottage  made  with  it  {Hisior. 
Natur.  xviii,  12).  This  illustrates  Jacob's  red  pottage. 
Dr.  Shaw  (i,  257)  also  states  that  these  lentiles  easily 
dissolve  in  boiling,  and  form  a  red  or  chocolate-colored 
pottage  much  esteemed  in  North  Africa  and  "\^'cstern 
Asia  (see  Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  i,  409).  Dr.  Kitto 
also  says  that  he  has  often  partaken  of  red  pottage,  pre- 
pared by  seething  the  lentiles  in  water  and  then  adding 
a  little  suet  to  give  them  a  flavor,  and  that  he  found  it 
better  food  than  a  stranger  would  imagine ;  "  the  mess," 
he  adds,  "had  the  redness  which  gained  for  it  the  name 
of  adonC'  (Pict.  Bible,  Gen.  xxv,  30,  34).  Putting  these 
facts  together,  it  is  likely  that  the  reddish  lentile,  which 
is  now  so  common  in  Egypt  {Descripit.  de  VEgypte,  xix, 
65),  is  the  sort  to  Avhich  all  these  statements  refer.  The 
tomb -paintings  actually  exhibit  the  operation  of  pre- 
paring pottage  of  lentiles,  or,  as  Wilkinson  {Anc.  Egyp- 
tians, ii,  387  j  describes  it,  "  a  man  engaged  in  cooking 


Ancient  Kyj  pt.ai 


LENTILES 


348 


LENTULUS 


lentiles  for  a  soup  or  porridge;  liis  companion  brings  a  j 
bundle  of  fagots  for  the  fire,  and  the  lentiles  themselves 
are  seen  standing  near  him  in  wicker  baskets."  The 
lentiles  of  Palestine  have  been  little  noticed  by  travel-  j 
lers  (e.  g.  Burckhardt,  .1  rah.  p.  51 ).  Nau  (  Voi/ar/e  Xou- 
veaii,  p.  13)  mentions  lentiles  along  with  corn  and  peas, 
as  a  principal  article  of  traffic  at  Tortura ;  D'Arvieux 
(Mim.  ii,  237)  speaks  of  a  mosque,  originally  a  Chris- 
tian church,  over  the  patriarchal  tomb  at  Hebron,  con- 
nected with  which  was  a  large  kitchen  where  lentile 
pottage  was  prepared  every  day,  and  distributed  freely 
to  strangers  and  poor  people,  in  memory  of  the  transac- 
tion between  Esau  and  Jacob,  which  they  (erroneously) 
believe  to  have  taken  place  at  this  spot.  When  Dr. 
Kobinson  was  at  Akabah,  he  saj's:  "  The  commissary  in 
the'  castle  had  also  a  few  stores  for  sale  at  enormous 
prices,  but  we  bought  little  except  a  supply  of  lentiles, 
or  small  beans,  which  are  common  in  Egypt  and  Syria 
under  the  name  of  acldas  (the  name  in  Hebrew  and 
Arabic  being  alike) — the  same  from  which  the  pottage 
was  made  for  which  Esau  sold  his  birthright.  We 
found  them  very  palatable,  and  could  well  conceive  that, 
to  a  weary  hunter  liint  with  hunger,  they  might  be 
quite  a  dainty''  (^Bib.  Res.  i,  146).  Again,  when  at  He- 
bron, on  the  '2ith  of  May,  he  observes :  "  The  wheat  har- 
vest here  in  the  mountains  had  not  yet  arrived,  but  they 
were  threshing  barley,  addas  or  lentiles,  and  also  vetch- 
es, called  by  the  Arabs  kersuma,  which  are  raised  chiefly 
for  camels"  {Bib.  Res.  ii,  242). 

The  lentile  (Erviim  lens  of  Linna;us,  class  xvii,  3)  is 
an  annual  plant,  and  the  smallest  of  all  the  legumino- 
s;b  which  are  cultivated.  It  rises  with  a  weak  stalk 
about  eighteen  inches  high,  having  pinnate  leaves  at 
each  joint  composed  of  several  pairs  of  narrow  leaflets, 
and  terminating  in  a  tendril,  which  supports  it  by  fas- 
tening about  some  other  plant.      The  small  flowers, 


The  Lentile  (Ervuni  Lena),  with  enlarged  View  of  the  Pod 
and  Seed. 

which  come  out  of  the  sides  of  the  branches  on  short 
peduncles,  three  or  four  together,  are  purple,  and  are  suc- 
ceeded by  the  short  and  flat  legumes,  which  contain  two 
or  three  flat  round  seeds,  slightly  curved  in  the  middle 
(as  indicated  in  the  Latin  ^(';w,"\vhich  optical  science  has 
appropriated  as  a  name  for  circular  glasses  with  spheri- 
cxl  surfaces^  and  of  a  co!<ir  varying  from  tawny  red  to 
almost  black.    The  flower  appears  in  May,  and  the  seeds 


ripen  in  July.  When  ripe,  the  plants  are  rooted  up  if 
they  have  l)een  sown  along  with  other  ])lants,  as  is 
sometimes  done,  l)ut  they  are  cut  down  when  grown  by 
themselves.  They  are  threshed,  winnowed,  and  cleaned 
like  grain.  There  are  three  or  four  kinds  of  lentiles,  all 
of  which  are  still  much  esteemed  in  those  countries 
where  they  are  grown,  viz.,  the  south  of  Europe,  Asia, 
and  North  Africa.  The  red  lentile  is  a  small  kind,  the 
seeds  of  which,  after  being  decorticated,  are  commonly 
sold  in  the  bazaars  of  India.  To  the  present  day  a  fa- 
vorite dish  among  the  Portuguese  and  Spaniards  is  len- 
tiles, mixed  with  their  unfailing  oil  and  garlic,  and  fla- 
vored with  spices  and  aromatic  herbs.  In  the  absence 
of  animal  food,  it  is  a  great  resource  in  Catholic  coun- 
tries during  the  season  of  Lent,  and  some  say  that  from 
hence  the  season  derives  its  name.  It  is  occasionally 
cultivated  in  England,  but  only  as  fodder  for  cattle  ;  it 
is  also  imported  from  Alexandria.  From  the  quantity 
of  gluten  the  ripe  seeds  contain,  they  must  be  highly 
nutritious,  though  they  have  the  character  of  being 
heating  if  taken  in  large  quantities.  Under  the  high- 
soimding  name  "  Ilevalenta  Arabica,"  we  pay  a  high 
price  for  lentile  flour,  and  in  various  culinary  prepara- 
tions are  unawares  relocating  Jacob's  pottage  (Playfair, 
Analysis;  Hogg,  IV^.  A'ln^rfom,  p.  275).  In  Egypt  the 
haulm  is  used  lor  packing. — Kitto  ;  Smith  ;  Eairbairn. 

Leutulus,  Epistle  of  {Epistola  Lentuli),  is  the 
w^ell-known  title  of  an  apocryphal  letter  on  the  phys- 
ical appearance  of  Christ,  which  the  Komish  Church 
receives  as  authentic,  and  as  having  been  written  by 
Publius  Lentulus,  a  Eoman  of  Palestine,  and  perhaps 
of  Jerusalem,  to  Rome.  Manuscrijit  copies  of  it  are  to 
be  found,  according  to  Joh.  Albert  Fabricius  (Cod.  apoc- 
ryp/i.  Novi  Testamenti,  i,  302),  in  several  libraries  of 
England,  France,  and  Italy  (viz.,  in  those  of  the  Vatican 
and  of  Padua),  Germany  (at  Augsburg  and  Jena,  ^vhere 
two  copies  formerly  existed,  one  of  which  was  embel- 
lished with  a  fine  image  of  Christ,  and  had  been  pre- 
sented to  the  elector  Frederick  the  Wise  by  pope  Leo  X). 
A  librarian  of  Jena,  Christopher  ]Mylius  {Memorab.  hib- 
lioth.  academ.  Jenensis,  Jen.  1746,  8vo,  p.  301  sq.),  states 
that  this  copy  was  written  in  golden  letters  upon  red 
paper,  very  richly  bound,  and  beautifully  illustrated. 
This  copy,  however,  is  lost.  The  work  was  first  printed 
in  the  Magdeburg  Centuries  (q.  v.)  (Basil.  1559),  i,  344; 
it  was  then  reproduced  in  Mich.  Neandri  Apocrypha 
(Basil.  1567),  p.  410  sq.,  afterwards  in  Joh.  Jac.  Grynjei 
Monunientas.Patrumorfhodox-Offrapha(Tiaisii.  1569,  fob). 
Joh.  Reiskius,  in  Exercitatt.  histor.  de  imaginibus  Jes, 
Chr.  rel.  (Jen.  1685,  4to),  gave  a  twofold  version  of  it, 
one  after  Grynseus,  the  other  a  reproduction  of  that  de- 
scribed by  Mylius.  This  epistle  was  highly  regarded  in 
former  times ;  the  papal  legate,  Jerome  Xavier,  trans- 
lated it  into  I'ortuguese  (in  his  historj-  of  Christ,  a  work 
fuU  of  legends  and  fables),  and  from  this  language  it 
was  subsequently  translated  into  Persian  ;  Reiske  and 
Fabricius  translated  it  into  German,  and  published  it  at 
Nurenberg  and  at  Erfurt.  It  is  also  to  be  found  in  a 
condensed  form  in  the  introduction  to  the  works  of 
archbishop  Anselm  of  CanterbiuTi',  which,  though  with- 
out date  or  name  of  place,  are,  from  internal  e^•idence, 
supposed  to  have  been  published  at  Paris  towards  the 
close  of  the  15th  or  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century; 
in  this  work  it  is  accompanied  by  a  description  of  the 
personal  apjiearance  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  In  the  earliest 
ages  of  the  Church  the  question  of  the  personal  appear- 
ance of  Christ  while  on  earth  had  begun  to  attract 
considerable  attention.  Had  there  been  anything  pos- 
itively known  on  the  subject  then,  it  woidd  certainly 
have  been  eagerly  received.  Yet,  although  the  Church 
fathers  Justin,  Tertullian,  Hegesippus,  and  Eusebius 
mention  a  letter  of  Pilate  to  Tiberius,  one  of  Abgarus 
to  Christ,  and  one  of  Jesus  to  Abgarus,  they  make  no 
mention  of  any  letter  of  Lentulus  concerning  Christ. 
On  the  contrary,  during  the  first  century,  while  the 
Christian  Church  was  suffering  persecution,  the  im- 
pression prevailed,  derived  from  Isa.  liii,  2,  3,  that  the 


LENTULUS 


349 


LENTULUS 


Lord's  personal  appearance  was  very  unprepossessing. 
But  as  the  Church  grew  in  prosperity  and  power  this 
idea  underwent  a  complete  change.  Eusebius  and  Au- 
gustine are  heard  to  complain  that  nothing  is  known  as 
to  the  Lord's  personal  appearance.  In  the  INIiddle  Ages 
a  directly  opposite  opinion  from  that  of  the  ancients  pre- 
vaileii,  anil  the  Lord  was  considered  as  having  been  an 
eminently  handsome  man,  which  opinion  was  only  based 
on  the  [passage  Psa.  xlv,  2.  In  the  works  of  the  Greek 
historian  Nicephorus  (surnamed  CaUistus  Xanthopu- 
lus),  who  lived  in  the  14th  century,  and  whom  Weis- 
mann  considers  a  credulous,  uncritical  writer,  we  find  a 
description  of  Christ's  personal  appearance,  for  which, 
however,  the  writer  gives  no  authority,  saying  only  that 
it  is  derived  from  the  ancients.  As  it  greatly  resembles 
that  of  Lcntulus,  and  perhaps  served  as  its  basis,  we  give 
it  here  as  a  curiosity  :  'H  fiEVTOi  SicnrXacric  r/)c  jiop<pT]Q 
Tov  Kvpiuv  I'lHoJi'  'h](jov  Xpi(TTOV,  (jjg  i'i,  ap\a'i(i)v  ttci- 
pti\i)(pafj.i]',  Toia  St  TLQ  ojg  tv  rvTrc^  napaXafitlv  ))i', 
wpcuog  i-itv  ))v  n)v  la^iv  (jrpocpa.  'Trjv  yt  fib'  i'i\tKiav 
h'lT  ovv  ui'aSpoixijv  tov  cnofiaroc,  itttci  arrt^cifiwr  1)1/ 
TiXdojv.  Eivi^ai'^ov  tx^ov  Tijv  Toixa  Kid  oh  ttco'V 
Santlav,  fjiuWov  [xiv  ouv  kui  Trpog  to  ouAoj/  f^itTp'noq 
TTuig  diroKkivovaav,  ^tKalvciQ  ck  yf  Tug  ocbpvg  hxs  k«( 
TO  TTc'iyv  tTTiKcti-nnlg,  Tovg  St  c^^aXfjiovg  ^npoTTOfc 
Twug  Kcd  i'lpi-ia  (sic  !)  tTTt'^apSrii^ovTccg,  tvo(pBaXi.tig  S' 
fjv  Kcd  tnippiv  T))v  piiVTOi  Tpixn  tou  Tcioywvog  Kap- 
Sr>)v  Tipd  tixfi  i^nl  oi'/c  tig  ttoXv  Ka^tii.itvtp>.  MciKpo- 
Tipav  Si  t))v  Tpixa  Ki<jia\i'jg  TTtpi'tiptptv  '  oiSiTTort  yap 
t,i>pcg  (tveji)]  tm  ti)v  KifaXijv  uiirov  oliSt  xsTp  c'uSrpoi- 
TTou,  Tr\i)i'  T)jg  /AijTpig  ciiiTov  vi]7rid'CovTog.  "Hptfia 
i—iK\ivi'ig  Ti)v  avxtva,  wg  /.ujSt  navv  opSiov,  Kai  iv- 
TiTcijji'tin]v  tx'-'v  Ti)v  ifKiKiav  tov  (HxJjiciTog  '  aiToxpovg 
ct  Kcd  ul<  (JTpoyyv\7]v  tx^ov  ti)i'  Sxpiv  tri'/y yrtrf)',  dW 
ux^TTtp  Tijg  jtijTpog  avrov  /iiicphv  VTTOKaTajicdvovffav, 
6/\('yo)^  c^{  tTrKponnaaojjBvi]!',  oaov  inroipaii'fiv  tv  (Tifi- 
vov  Tt  Ktd  TO  (TvvfTov  TOV  jj^-ovg  Kal  i'juipov  Kcd  TO 
KaTajraK  d6pyr]Tov.  Kara  TrctvTa  Si  iiv  t/Kptpijg  ti) 
Si'k}  Kill  Trcn'a<7Tri\<iJ  tKtivov  fj.7]Tpl.  Tavra  fiiv  tv 
TovToig.  Compare  the  articles  Christ,  Images  and 
PoRTHAiTs  OF ;  Jesus  Ciirist  (II,  11,  in  vol.  iv,  p.  884). 
The  same  tendency  jjrevailed  also  in  the  Western 
Church  until  the  Reformation,  when  Luther  took  a  more 
reasonable  view  of  the  question,  saying,  "  It  is  verj^ 
possible  that  some  may  have  been  as  handsome,  phys- 
ically, as  Christ.  Perhaps  some  M-ere  even  handsomer, 
for  we  do  not  see  it  mentioned  that  the  Jews  ever  won- 
dered at  his  beauty."  The  same  vie\v"  was  taken  by  a 
Roman  Catholic  writer  {In  libra  de  forma  Christi,  Paris, 
1649),  who  said  tliat  the  Redeemer  Was  not  either  ill 
favored  nor  more  handsome  tlian  other  men.  In  other 
cases,  however,  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  lias  re- 
tained the  ideas  presented  in  the  epistle  of  Lentulus. 

If  we  now  look  more  closely  into  this  epistle  of  Len- 
tulus, we  find  in  the  edition  of  Grj-n:eus  (Monum.  ortho- 
doxof/rdpha)  that  it  reads,  "Lcntulus,  Hierosolymitano- 
rum  Prreses,  S.  P.  Q.  Romano  S. :  Apparuit  temporibus 
nostris  et  adhuc  est  homo  magna;  virtutis,  nominatus 
Christus  Jesus,  qui  dicitur  a  gentibus  propheta  veritatis, 
quem  ejus  discipuli  vocant  filium  Dei,  suscitans  mortuos 
ct  sanaus  languores  [MS.  Vatic.  "  languentes"].  Homo 
quiilem  staturre  procerae  [Goldast.  addit.  "scilicet  xv 
palmorum  et  medii"J,  spectabilis,  vultum  habens  vene- 
rabilem,  (piem  intuentes  possunt  et  diligere  et  formi- 
dare :  ('aiiillos  vcro  circinos,  crispos  aliquantum  cteru- 
liores  et  fulgentiores  [MS.  1  Jen.  "  Capillos  habens  co- 
loris  nucis  avellana;  pnvmatura;  et  pianos  uscpic  ad 
aures.  ab  auribus  vcro  circinos,  crispos  aliquantulum 
cteruliorcs  et  fulgentiores"],  ab  humeris  volitantes  [om- 
nes  alii:  " ventilantes"],  discrimen  habens  in  medio  ca- 
pitis juxta  morem  Xazarenorum  [Centur.  jNIagd.  et  An- 
selmi  opp.  "Nazarworum"J  :  frontem  planam  et  serenis- 
simam,  cum  facie  sine  ruga  (ac)  macula  alicpia.  quam 
rubor  moderatus  venustat.  Nasi  et  oris  nulhi  prorsus 
est  rcprehensio,  barbam  habens  copiosam  ct  rubram 
[fere  omnes  ahi :  "  impuberem"  j,  capillorum  colore,  non 
Ipngam   sed  bifurcatam  [omnes  addunt :  "adspectum 


habet  simplicem  et  maturum"],  oculis  variis  et  claris 
existentibus.  In  increpatione  terribilis,  in  admonitione 
placidus  [plurimi  alii:  "blandus"]  et  amabilis,  hilaris 
servata  gravitate,  qui  nunquam  visus  est  ridcre.  Here 
autem  sape.  »Sic  in  statura  corporis  propagatus  [jilu- 
rimi  alii  addimt :  "  et  rectus"]  manus  habens  ct  membra 
[ceteri  omnes:  "brachia"]  visu  delectabilia  in  cloquio 
[rectius  ceteri:  "coUoquio"]  gravis,  rarus  ct  modestus 
speciosus  inter  filios  hominum.  Talete  [Hoc  Yalete  de- 
est  in  rcliquis  MSS.  et  edd.]." 

The  very  contents  of  the  letter  are  sufficient  evidence 
of  its  spiu-iousness.  Had  it  really  been  written  by  a  Ro- 
man, it  would  not  have  been  addressed  to  the  senate, 
but  to  the  emperor,  who  was  the  immediate  master  of 
the  Syrian  provinces.  It  appears  that  this  objection 
was  already  noticed  in  former  times,  for  in  the  Magde- 
burg Centuries  it  is  said  to  have  been  addressed  to  the 
emperor  Tiberius.  A  fact  of  still  greater  importance 
is  that  Lentulus  is  designated  as  Jfierosolymitanorum 
presses.  No  such  office  existed.  There  was  a  Prases 
Syricc  and  a  Procurator  Judwm  but  no  Presses  of  the 
Roman  inhabitants  at  Jerusalem.  For  this  reason  he 
is  called  in  the  Manuscr.  Jen.  \,  Proconsul  in  partihus 
Jiidwcp,  and  in  the  Manuscr.  Vatic,  and  Jen.  ii,  in  a  thor- 
oughly Roman  Catholic  manner,  Qfficialis  in  p?-oviiicia 
Judcea,  while  there  was  no  such  office  known  in  Rome 
at  that  period.  But  he  is  nowhere  represented  as  a 
friend  of  Pilate,  as  Zimmermann  attempts  to  make  him 
in  his  Lehensfjeschichte  d.  Kirche  Christi,  i,  70.  V\'e  know 
most  of  the  proconsuls  or  praisides  of  Syria,  and  all  the 
procurators  of  Juctea.  but  none  of  them  was  named  Lcn- 
tulus. In  the  classics  there  are  forty-three  persons  of 
that  name  mentioned,  but  four  only  belonged  to  the 
times  of  Tiberius.  One  of  them  only,  Enreus  Lentulus 
Ga3tulicus,  was,  according  to  Tacitus  (.4  nn.  iv,4G),  in  the 
year  2G,  consul  with  Tiberius,  and  in  34  was  the  chief  of 
the  legions  in  upper  Germany  (Tacitus,  A  mud.  \i,  oO) ; 
he  may,  indeed,  according  to  Suetonius  {Calif/,  c.  8)  and 
Pliny  {Episl.  v,  3),  have  been  in  Judaea  during  the  years 
26  to  33,  but  there  is  no  proof  of  it.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  Lentulus  who  wrote  the  epistle  is  expressly  called  in 
the  ]\IS.  Jen.  i,  Puhlius.  Moreover,  there  is  no  mention 
at  all  made  of  the  epistle  b}'  any  of  the  ancient  writers, 
whilst  other  epistles,  even  some  of  an  apocryphal  nature, 
are  mentioned  by  them,  and  this  one,  had  it  then  been 
known,  would  certainly  have  attracted  the  attention  of 
the  apologists  at  a  time  when  the  general  impression 
was  so  strong  against  the  fine  personal  appearance  of  the 
Lord.  Nicephorus  Xanthopulus,  whose  description  of 
Christ's  personal  appearance  we  gave  above,  states  only 
that  it  is  based  on  old  traditions,  while,  if  such  a  descrip- 
tion as  that  given  in  the  Epistle  of  Lentulus  had  been 
known  in  the  Greek  Church  in  the  14tli  century,  he 
would  certainly  not  have  failed  to  quote  it  as  an  author- 
ity. Regarding  the  literary  merits  of  the  work,  it  must 
be  confessed  that  it  is  written  in  old  Latin ;  but  as  it  is 
full  of  expressions  which  woidd  not  naturallj'  be  used  by 
a  Roman  citizen — as  the  whole  tenor  of  the  work,  more- 
over, is  thoroughly  unclassical,  it  is  to  be  supposed  tliat 
its  writer  aimed  to  imitate  the  style  of  the  ancients,  and 
pass  it  off  as  a  work  of  their  age.  A  Roman  would  nev- 
er have  used  the  expression  j>ro;;/(e/n  veritatis.  fdii  hom- 
inum, at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  the  epistle.  So 
also  the  appellation  Christus  Jesus  is  evidently"  taken 
from  the  New  Test.,  for  the  Redeemer  was  never  thus 
designated  during  his  lifetime.  Jesus  himself  declined 
the  name  of  Christ,  forbade  his  disciples  callii;g  him 
thus,  and  he  never  was  called  so  by  his  enemies.  How, 
then,  could  a  heathen  have  come  to  call  him  Christ,  end 
even  to  put  that  appellation  before  that  of  Jesus — a 
change  which  only  took  place  after  his  claim  to  he  con- 
sidered as  the  Messiah  had  been  established  beyond 
cavil.  If  it  is  claimed  that  Christ  was  called  by  the 
heathen  tlie  prophet  of  truth,  yet,  as  Christ's  activity 
during  liis  life  was  not  directed  towards  the  heathen  in 
general,  it  coidd  onlj'  apply  to  the  Romans  residing  iit 
Palestine.     Yet  these  we  do  not  find  to  liave  been  des- 


LEXTFLUS 


350 


LEO 


ignated  as  heathen,  but  as  Romans;  and  they  did  not 
interest  themselves  enough  in  the  wandering  Kabbi  to 
render  such  an  expression  general  among  them.  Nor 
was  it  otlierwise  with  the  heathen  residing  on  the  fron- 
tiers of  Palestine.  ''His  disciples  called  him  the  Son 
of  God."  Though  they  gave  him  occasionally  that  name, 
it  was  so  far  from  being  a  general  custom  that  the  gov- 
ernor himself  knew  nothing  of  it.  So  this,  like  the  fol- 
lowing sentences  on  the  raising  of  the  dead  and  healing 
of  the  sick,  is  all  taken  from  the  Gospel.  It  also  says 
that  his  hair  was  parted  after  the  manner  of  the  Naza- 
ritcs :  we  find  the  substitution  of  Nazarene  for  Nazarite, 
which  only  took  place  afterwards.  Now  a  Roman  officer 
would  know  little  or  nothing  about  the  Nazarites;  more- 
over, Christ  could  not  properly  be  called  a  Nazarite,  for 
he  drank  wine,  touched  the  dead,  and  did  many  other 
things  contrary  to  the  customs  of  the  Nazarites.  The 
remark  that  he  was  never  seeu  to  laugh,  but  often  to 
weep,  proves  him  to  have  led  a  solitary  life,  such  as 
we  have  no  example  of  at  the  supposed  time  of  the 
writing  of  this  epistle,  and  is  only  an  idea  derived  from 
the  Gospels,  and  from  the  state  of  things  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  The  last  words  also,  "  beautiful  among  the  sons 
of  men,"  are  quite  unsuited  to  tlie  mouth  of  a  Roman, 
who  would  never  have  made  use  of  such  a  Hebraism, 
and  it  is  clearly  taken  from  the  xlvth  Psalm,  which  is 
the  basis  of  the  whole  description.  This  consequently 
could  not  apply  to  our  Lentulus,  but  only  to  a  monk  of 
the  Middle  Ages. 

Having  thus  seen  how  this  epistle  carries  within  it- 
self the  proofs  of  its  spuriousness,  the  question  arises. 
When  was  it  written?  If  it  were  included  in  the  works 
of  Anselm,  we  would  have  to  consider  it  as  having  been 
composed  in  the  Uth  centur3^  Yet  it  is  simply  append- 
ed to  the  works  of  this  author,  and  was  never  made  use 
of  until  the  15th  century,  to  give  favor  to  an  opinion 
which  the  monks  had  an  interest  to  propagate.  Lau- 
rentius  Valla,  who  lived  in  the  loth  century,  -was  the 
first  who  made  any  mention  of  it  in  his  argument  against 
the  pseudo  donation  of  Constantine.  A  postscript  of 
great  interest  is  appended  to  the  2d  Jena  MS.,  and  it, 
in  our  estimation,  tends  to  reveal  the  true  character  of 
the  work :  "  Explicit  epistola  Jacobi  de  Columpna  anno 
Domini  14-21  reperit  eam  in  annalibus  Romte,  in  libro 
anti(iuissimo  in  Capitolio  ex  dono  Patriarchte  Constanti- 
nopolitani."  If  this  postscript  is  to  be  relied  on,  this 
epistle  was  sent  to  Rome  in  the  Uth  century  by  a  patri- 
arch of  Constantinople  as  a  present,  just  as  it  was  after- 
wards sent  to  the  elector  Frederick  tlie  Wise  of  Saxony 
by  pope  Leo.  But  as  from  Constantinople  there  were 
generally  sent  Greek  MSS.  only,  and  as  there  is  no  men- 
tion made  of  the  name  of  the  patriarch  supposed  to  have 
sent  it,  and  as,  moreover,  the  work  is  claimed  to  be  a 
very  old  one,  it  is  most  likely  that  this  description  is  a 
Latin  translation  of  that  of  Nieephorus,  which  we  gave 
above,  that  the  translator  added  the  postscript  with  the 
intention  of  rendering  his  spurious  work  more  credible, 
and  that  consequently  both  epistle  and  postscript  are 
spurious.  Tlie  imitator  or  translator  of  Nicephorus,  who 
gives  ample  jiroofs  in  his  work  of  the  source  whence  he 
tb-ew  when  he  speaks  of  the  stature  of  Christ  (in  a  copy 
in  (Joldast  we  find,  after  statitra  procerus, "  scilicet  xv 
palniorum  et  medii"),  gave  the  work  the  form  of  an  epis- 
tle, aud  gave  it  the  name  of  Lentulus,  taken  from  some 
tradition,  or  which  otherwise  seemed  suitable  to  him. 
It  is  now  evident  that  the  epistle  could  only  have  been 
written  at  some  lime  after  Nicei)horns,  and  before  the 
3-car  l.')0(t,  consequently  in  the  lltli  centurv.  Dr.  Ed- 
ward Robinson,  after  carefully  examining  all  flie  evi- 
dences for  and  against  the  authenticity  of  this  work, 
thus  ijrcsents  the  results  of  Ids  iniiuiry  ;  ''  In  favor  of  the 
autlu-nticity  of  the  letter  we  have  only  tlie  purport  of 
the  inscription.  There  is  no  external  evidence  what- 
ever. Afjainst  its  authenticity  we  have  'the  great  dis- 
crc])ancies  and  contradictions  of  the  inscription;  the 
fact  that  no  such  official  person  as  Lentulus  existed  at 
the  time  and  place  specified,  nor  for  many  years  before 


and  after ;  the  ntter  silence  of  history  in  respect  to  the 
existence  of  such  a  letter;  the  foreign  and  later  idioms 
of  its  style ;  the  contradiction  in  which  the  contents  of 
the  epistle  stand  with  estal)lished  historical  facts;  and 
the  probability  of  its  having  been  produced  at  some 
time  not  earlier  than  the  11th  centurj-."  See  Job.  Be- 
ned.  Carpzov,  Theolo(ji  IJelmstadiensis  protjrumma  :  de 
oris  et  corporis  Jesu  Christi,  etc.  (Helmstadt,  1774, 4to) ; 
Joh.  Phil.  Gabler,  Theologus  A  Itorfeiisis  an.  1819  ami  18-22 
in  A  uthentiam  epistolte  PuUii  Lentuli  ad  Senatum  Roma- 
num  de  Jesu  Christo  scriptxe  ;  Herzog,  Reul-Encyklopd- 
die,  viii,  29-2  sq. ;  Dr.  Robinson  in  Biblical  RejMsitory,  ii, 
367;  Schalf,  6'A. //isMii,  569 ;  Jamieson,  0«rZo?-(/,  i,  35; 
Friends^  Review,  March  3,  1867,  p.  769  sq.  See  Jesus 
Chkist. 

Leo  OF  AcHRis  or  Achridia  (now  Ohl-rida,  in  Al- 
bania), was  so  called  because  he  held  the  archbishopric 
of  Achris,  in  the  Greek  Church,  among  the  Bulgarians. 
He  joined  about  A.D.  1053,  with  Michael  Cerularius,  pa- 
triarch of  Constantinople,  in  writing  a  very  bitter  letter 
against  the  pope,  which  they  sent  to  John,  archbishop 
of  Trani,  in  Apulia,  to  be  distributed  among  tlie  mem- 
bers of  the  Latin  Church — prelates,  monks,  laity.  A 
translation  of  this  letter  is  given  by  Baronius  (Annal, 
Eccles.  ad  ann.  1053,  xxii,  etc.).  Pope  Leo  IX  replied  in 
a  long  letter,  which  is  given  in  the  Concilia  (vol.  ix,  col. 
949,  etc.,  ed.  Labbe ;  vol.  vi,  col.  927,  ed.  Hardouin ;  vol. 
xix,  col.  035,  ed.  Mansi),  and  the  following  year  both 
Cerularius  and  Leo  of  Achris  were  excommunicated  by 
cardinal  Humbert,  the  papal  legate  (Baronius,  ad  ann. 
1054,  xxv).  Leo  wrote  many  other  letters,  which  are 
extant  in  ISIS,  in  various  European  libraries,  and  are 
cited  by  Allatius,  in  his  De  Consensu  Eccles.  Orient,  et  Oc- 
cident. ;  hy  Beveridgc,  in  his  Codex  Canonum ;  by  Alex- 
is Aristenus,  in  his  Synopsis  Epistolarum  Canonicarum ; 
and  by  Comnenus  Popadopoli,  in  his  Prceiwtiones  Mys- 
tagogicce.  See  ¥abr\.c\.u»,  Biblioth.  Grmca,  ii,  715;  Cave, 
Uist.  Litt.  ii,  138,  ed.  Oxon.  1740 ;  Oudin,  De  Scripiorib. 
et  Script  is  Eccles.  ii,  003. — Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Ro- 
man Biog.  ii,  741. 

Leo  jEgypth-s,  or  the  Egyptian.  The  early  Chris- 
tian writers,  in  their  controversy  with  the  heathen,  re- 
fer not  unfrequently  to  a  Leo  or  Leon  as  having  admit- 
ted that  the  deities  of  the  ancient  Gentile  nation  had 
originally  been  men,  agreeing  in  this  respect  with  Eve- 
merus,  with  -whom  he  was  contemporary,  if  not  per- 
haps rather  earlier.  Augustine  (^De  Consensu  Evangel, 
i,  33,  and  De  Cir.  Dei,  viii,  5),  who  is  most  explicit  in 
his  notice  of  him,  says  he  was  an  Egyptian  priest  of 
high  rank,  "  magnus  antistes,"  and  that  he  expounded 
the  popular  mythology  to  Alexander  the  Great  in  a 
manner  which,  though  differing  from  those  rationalistic 
explanations  received  in  Greece,  accorded  with  them  in 
making  the  gods  (including  even  the  Dii  majorum  gen- 
tium) to  have  originally  been  men.  Augustine  refers 
to  an  account  of  the  statements  of  Leo  contained  in  a 
letter  of  Alexander  to  his  mother.  It  is  to  be  observed, 
though  Leo  was  high  in  his  priestly  rank  at  tlie  time 
when  Alexander  was  in  Egypt  (B.  C.  33-2-331),  his  name 
is  Greek ;  and  Arnobius  {adv.  Gentes,  iv,  29)  calls  him 
Leo  Pellwus,  or  Leo  of  Pella.  an  epithet  which  Fabricius 
does  not  satisfactorily  explain.  \\'orth  {Not.  ad  Tatian. 
p.  96,  ed.  Oxford,  1700)  would  identity  our  Leo  with  Leo 
of  Lampsacus,  the  husband  of  Themista  or  Thcmisto.  the 
female  Epicurean  (Diog.  Lacrt.  x,  5,  25);  Init  tlie  hus- 
liaud  of  Themista  was  more  correctly  called  Lconteus, 
while  the  Egyptian  is  never  called  by  any  other  name 
than  Leo.  Arnobius  speaks  in  such  a  way  as  to  lead  us 
to  think  that  in  his  day  the  writings  of  Leon  on  the  hu- 
man origin  of  the  gods  were  extant  and  accessible,  but 
it  is  possible  he  refers,  like  Augustine,  to  Alexander's  let- 
ter.  The  reference  to  Leon  in  Clemens  Alexandrinus 
is  not  more  exjilicit  {Stromata,  i.  21.  §  106,  p.  139,  Syl- 
burg  ;  p.  382,  edit.  Pott ;  ii,  75,  edit.  Klotz,  Lipsi;r,  1831, 
l"2mo).  But  Tatian's  distinct  mention  of  the  'VTrojurr/- 
ftara,  or  Commentaries  of  Leo,  shows  that  this  system 


LEO 


351 


LEO 


had  been  committed  to  writing  by  himself;  and  Tertul- 
lian  (Z>e  Corona,  Q.l)  directs  his  readers  "to  unroll  the 
writings  of  Leo  the  Egyptian."  Hj'ginus  (Poeticoti  A  s- 
ironomicon,  c.  20)  refers  to  Leon  as  though  he  wrote  a 
history  of  Egypt  ("  Qui  res  iEgj'ptiacus  scripsit") ;  and 
the  scholiast  on  ApoUonius  Rhodius  (iv,  262)  gives  a  ref- 
erence liere  to  what  Leon  hatl  said  respecting  the  antiq- 
uity of  the  Egyptians,  probably  depending  upon  the 
statements  of  Alexander.  See  Fabricius,  Bibl.  Grcvca, 
vii,  71B,  719;  xi,  664;  Voss,  De  Hist.  Grcec.  libri  iii,  p. 
179,  eilit.  Amsterdam,  1699. — Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and 
Romtm  Biofj.  ii,  742. 

Leo  DiACoNUS,  or  the  Deacon,  a  Bj'zantine  histo- 
rian of  the  10th  century,  of  whose  personal  history  but 
little  is  known,  except  tlie  incidental  notices  in  his  prin- 
cipal works  (collected  by  C.  B.  Hase  in  his  PraJ'atio  to 
his  edition  of  Leo),  was  born  at  Caloe,  a  town  of  Asia, 
beautifully  situated  at  the  side  or  foot  of  Mount  Traolus, 
near  the  sources  of  the  Caystrus,  in  Asia  Minor,  and  was 
at  Constantinople  pursuing  his  studies  A.D.  966,  where 
he  was  an  admiring  spectator  of  the  firmness  of  the  em- 
peror Nicephorus  II,  Phocas,  in  the  midst  of  a  popular 
tumidt  (iv-,  7).  Hase  places  his  birth  in  or  about  A.D. 
950.  He  was  in  Asia  in  or  about  the  time  of  the  depo- 
sition of  Basilius  I,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  the 
election  of  his  successor,  Antonius  III,  A.D.  973  or  974, 
and  relates  that  at  that  time  he  freciuently  saw  two 
Cappadocians,  twins  of  thirty  years'  age,  whose  bodies 
were  united  from  the  armpits  to  the  flanks  (x,3).  Hav- 
ing been  ordained  deacon,  he  accompanied  the  emperor 
Basilius  II  in  his  unfortunate  expedition  against  the 
Bulgarians,  A.D.  981,  and  when  the  emperor  raised  the 
siege  of  Tralitza  or  Triaditza  (the  ancient  Sardica),  Leo 
barely  escaped  death  in  the  heacUong  flight  of  his 
countrymen  (x,  8).  Of  his  history  after  this  nothing  is 
known;  but  Hase  observes  he  must  have  written  his 
history  after  A.D.  989,  as  he  adverts  to  the  rebellion  and 
death  of  Phocas  Bardas  (x,  9),  which  occurred  in  that 
year.  He  must  have  lived  later  than  Hase  has  remark- 
ed, and  at  least  till  A.D.  993,  as  he  notices  (x,  10)  that 
the  emperor  Basilius  II  restored  "  in  six  years  the  cu- 
pola of  the  great  church  (St.  Sophia's)  at  Constantinople, 
which  had  been  overthrown  by  the  earthquake  (comp. 
Cedren.  Compend.  ii,  438,  ed.  Bonn)  of  A.D.  987."  His 
works  are, 'laropi'a  Bi/SAi'otc  ^,  or  Ilistoria  libris  decern : 
— Oralio  ad  Basilium  Imperatorem  : — and,  unless  it  be 
the  work  of  another  Leo  Diaconus,  Ilomilia  in  Miclue- 
Iceni  A  rchangelium.  The  two  last  are  extant  only  in 
MS.  The  history  of  Leo  includes  the  period  from  the 
Cretan  expedition  of  Nicephorus  Phocas,  in  the  reign 
of  liomanus  II,  A.D.  959.  to  the  death  of  John  I,  Tzi- 
misccs,  A.D.  975.  It  relates  the  victories  of  the  emper- 
ors Nicephorus  and  Tzimisces  over  the  Mohammedans 
in  Cilicia  and  Syria,  and  the  recovery  of  those  coun- 
tries, or  the  greater  part  of  them,  to  the  Byzantine  em- 
pire, and  the  wars  of  the  same  emperors  with  the  Bul- 
garians and  Kussians.  According  to  Hase,  Leo  emploj's 
unusual  and  unappropriate  words  (many  of  them  bor- 
rowed from  Homer,  Agathias  the  historian,  and  the  Sep- 
tuagint)  in  the  place  of  simple  and  common  ones,  and 
abounds  in  tautological  phrases.  His  knowledge  of  ge- 
ography and  ancient  history  is  slight,  but  with  these  de- 
fects his  history  is  a  valuable  contemporary^  record  of  a 
stirring  time,  honestly  and  fearlessly  written.  Scylit- 
zes  and  Cedrenus  are  much  indebted  to  Leo,  and  Hase 
considers  Zonaras  also  to  have  used  his  work.  The 
Ihslorid  was  first  published  at  the  cost  of  count  Nicho- 
las Komanzof,  chancellor  of  Kussia,  by  Car.  Bened.  Hase 
(Paris,  1818).  Combefis  had  intended  to  publish  it  in 
the  Paris  edition  of  Corpiis  Historice  Byzantince,  with 
the  Ilistoria.  of  Michael  Psellus,  but  was  prevented  by 
death,  A.D.  1679.  The  Latin  version  which  he  had  pre- 
pared was  commmiicated  by  Jlontfaucon  to  Pagi,  vvho 
inserted  some  portions  in  his  Critice  in  Baronium  (ad 
ann.  960,  No.  ix).  The  papers  of  Combetis  were,  many 
years  after,  committed  to  Michael  le  Quien,  that  he 
might  publish  an  edition  of  Psellus  and  Leo,  and  part 


of  the  latter's  work  was  actually  printed.  In  the  disor- 
ders of  the  French  Eevolution  the  papers  of  Combefis 
were  finally  lost  or  destroyed.  Hase,  in  his  edition,  add- 
ed a  Latin  version  and  notes  to  the  text  of  Leo,  and  il- 
lustrated it  by  engravings  from  ancient  gems :  this  edi- 
tion is,  however,  scarce  and  dear,  the  greater  part  of  the 
copies  having  been  lost  by  shipwreck,  but  his  text,  pref- 
ace, version,  and  notes  (not  engravings)  have  been  re- 
printed in  the  Bonn  ed.  of  the  Corpus  Hist.  Byzanthm 
(1828, 8vo).  See  Fabricius,  Bill.  Graca,  vii,  684,  note  1 ; 
Cave,  Hist.  Litt.  ii,  106;  Hase,  Prff/'«?to  ad  Leon  Dincon. 
Historian.— ^xn\\h,  Did.  ofGr.  and  Rom.  Biorj.  ii,  743  sq. 

Leo  THE  Great.  See  Leo  the  Thkacian  (empe- 
ror) and  Leo  I  (pope). 

Leo  the  Isaurian  is  the  name  which  is  common- 
ly given  in  history  to  Leo  III  or  Flavils  Leo  Isau- 
Kus,  emperor  of  Constantinople  from  the  year  718  to 
741,  a  man  remarkable  on  many  accounts,  but  who,  from 
his  connection  with  the  great  contest  about  image-wor- 
ship in  the  Christian  Church,  became  one  of  the  most 
prominent  historical  names  among  the  emperors  of  the 
East. 

1.  Early  History. — He  was  born  in  or  on  the  borders 
of  the  rude  province  of  Isauria,  and  his  original  name 
was  Conon.  He  emigrated  with  his  father,  a  wealthy 
farmer  or  grazier  of  that  country,  to  Tlirace.  Young 
Conon  obtained  the  place  of  spatharius,  or  broadswords- 
man,  in  the  army  of  .Justinian  II,  and  soon,  by  his  mili- 
tary talents,  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  emperor,  as  he 
drew  the  eyes  of  the  people,  and  especially  of  the  sol- 
diers, towards  him  as  one  fitted  to  command,  and  compe-  # 
tent  even  for  the  empire.  He  was  sent  forward,  there- 
fore, with  a  few  troops,  against  the  Alani,  and  then  aban- 
doned by  the  emperor  without  succor,  in  the  hope  that 
he  would  be  cut  off  and  destroyed,  but  from  this  critical 
position  Leo  extricated  himself  with  consummate  dex- 
terity and  courage.  Anastasius  II  (A.D.  713-716)  gave 
him  the  supreme  command  of  the  troops  in  Asia,  which 
was  exposed  to  the  terrible  onslaughts  of  the  Arab  or 
Saracen  hordes,  by  whom  it  had  already  been  half  over- 
run and  conquered.  This  command  was  still  in  his 
hands  when  Theodosius  HI,  at  the  beginning  of  716, 
rose  against  Anastasius,  deposed  him,  and  seated  him- 
self upon  the  throne.  Leo,  being  summoned  to  ac- 
knowledge Theodosius,  at  once  denounced  him  as  a 
usurper,  and  attacked  him  under  pretext  of  restoring 
the  rightful  sovereign  to  the  throne,  but  probably  with 
the  design  of  seizing  for  himself  the  imperial  dignity. 
He  secured  the  support  of  the  principal  leaders  in  the 
army,  readied  the  imperial  troops  before  they  could  be 
gathered  in  sufficient  force  to  resist  him,  and  slew  them. 
At  Nicomedia  he  met  the  son  of  Theodosius,  whom  he 
defeated  and  captured.  He  next  marched  direct  upon 
Constantinople,  and  Theodosius,  seeing  no  hope  of  resist- 
ance, quietly  resigned  his  sceptre  in  March,  718,  and  re- 
tired into  a  convent,  while  the  vacant  throne  was  forth- 
with occupied  by  Leo  himself,  by  the  suffrages  of  the 
troops. 

2.  Imperial  History. — No  sooner  was  Leo  arrayed  in 
the  purple  than  the  caliph  Soleiman,  together  with  the 
noted  Moslima,  appeared  before  Constantinople  with  an 
immense  and  enthusiastic  army,  supported  by  a  pow- 
erful fleet,  determined  to  retrieve  their  sullied  fame. 
The  city  was  invested  by  sea  and  land,  and  its  cajiture 
was  considered  certain  ;  but  the  indefatigable  energy, 
military  skill,  and  fearless  courage  of  Leo,  aided  by  the 
new  invention  of  the  Greek  fire,  saved  the  capital  from 
falling,  five  centuries  before  its  time,  into  the  hands  of 
the  Moslems.  The  superstitious  people  ascribed  their 
deliverance  to  the  constant  interposition  of  the  Virgin, 
in  which  they  gave  the  greatest  possible  praise  to  the 
genius  of  Leo.  This  third  (Gil)bon  calls  it  tlie  second) 
siege  of  Constantinople  by  the  Saracens  lasted  precisely 
two  years  (Gibbon  calls  it  tliirteen  months)  from  the 
loth'of  August,  718.  On  the  15th  of  August,  720,  the 
caliph  (now  Omar,  who  had  succeeded  Soleiman  shortly 


LEO 


352 


LEO 


after  the  commencement  of  the  siege)  was  compelled  to 
raise  the  siege,  losing  in  a  storm  the  greater  part  of  the 
remnants  of  his  third  fleet  before  reaching  the  harbors 
of  Syria  and  Egypt.  So  close  had  been  tlie  investment 
of  tlic  city,  so  enormous  the  preparations,  and  so  loud 
the  boasts  of  the  Saracens,  that  in  the  provinces  Con- 
stantinople was  given  up  as  lost,  notwithstanding  all 
the  splendid  victories  of  Leo,  for  the  very  news  of  those 
victories  had  been  intercepted  by  the  vigilant  blockade 
of  tlie  besiegers.  The  whole  empire  was  in  consterna- 
tion, and  in  the  West  the  rumor  was  credited  that  the 
cali])!)  had  actually  ascended  the  throne  of  Byzantium. 
Accordingly,  Sergius,  governor  of  Sicily,  took  measures 
to  make  himself  independent,  and  to  secure  the  crown 
for  himself  in  case  of  complete  success;  but  Leo  imme- 
diately dispatched  a  small  force  to  Sicily,  which  soon 
crushed  the  rebellion.  The  deposed  monarch  Anasta- 
sius,  also,  was  tempted  to  plot  the  recovery  of  the  throne, 
and  in  the  attempt  lost  his  life.  In  spite  of  his  defeats 
before  Constantinople,  Omar  continued  the  war  for  twen- 
ty years ;  and  though,  in  726,  he  captured  Cresarea  in 
Cappadocia,  and  Neo-Cajsarea  in  Pontus,  yet  Leo  main- 
trineil  an  acknowledged  superiority.  The  great  work  of 
ecclesiastical  reform  occupied  the  attention  of  the  em- 
pire, without  any  considerable  interruption  from  the  in- 
lidels,  until  the  year  734.  What  belongs  to  this  chap- 
ter of  domestic  history,  though  it  includes  elements  and 
facts  of  political  and  military  significance,  is  reserved 
for  the  next  head.  Daring  the  last  seven  years  of  Leo's 
reign  (from  734)  falls  the  protracted  life-struggle  with 
the  Saracens.  The  caliph  Ilesham  instigated  the  Syr- 
ians to  support  an  adventurer  who  pretended  to  be  the 
son  of  Justinian  II,  and  who,  under  the  protection  of  the 
caliph,  entered  Jerusalem  arrayed  in  the  imperial  pur- 
ple. This  proved  a  mere  farce.  But  something  more  se- 
rious happened  when,  in  739,  the  Arab  general  Soleirnan 
invaded  the  empire  with  an  army  of  90,000  men,  dis- 
tributed into  three  bodies.  The  first  entered  Cappado- 
cia,  and  ravaged  it  with  fire  and  sword ;  the  second,  com- 
manded by  INIalek  and  Batak,  penetrated  into  Phrygia  ; 
the  third,  under  Solciman,  covered  the  rear.  Leo  was 
actually  taken  by  surprise ;  but  he  soon  assembled  an 
army  and  defeated  the  second  body,  in  Phrygia,  in  a 
pitched  battle,  and  obliged  Soleiman  to  withdraw  hastily 
into  Syria.  The  Saracens  had,  in  the  mean  time,  been 
routed  in  their  invasion  of  Europe  by  Charles  !Martel  in 
732,  and  the  progress  of  their  conquests  seemed  now  for 
some  time  to  be  checked  both  in  the  East  and  in  the 
West.  The  remaining  great  event  of  Leo's  reign  was 
the  terrible  earthquake  of  October,  740,  which  caused 
great  calamities  throughout  the  empire. 

3.  TI(e  Iconoclastic  Controversy. — In  this  business  Leo 
would  seem  to  have  begun  of  his  own  motion,  and  almost 
single-handed.  No  party  of  any  account  against  image- 
worship  existed  in  the  Church,  but  he  believed  that  by 
taking  the  side  of  ieonoclasra  he  coiild  hasten  the  con- 
version of  the  Jews  and  Mohammedans,  and  though  at 
first  very  cautious,  he  finally,  after  some  nine  or  ten 
years  of  his  reign,  issued  his  edict  prohibiting  the  wor- 
ship of  all  images,  whether  statues  or  pictures,  of  Christ, 
the  Virgin,  or  the  saints.  Christendom  was  astounded 
by  this  sudden  proscription  of  its  then  common  religious 
usages.  See  Icoxoclasm.  Leo,  in  fact,  found  arrayed 
against  him  not  only  the  bigoted  and  exasperated  mo- 
nastics, but  the  superstitious  masses  of  the  people  of  the 
East  and  West,  and  almost  all  the  clergy,  with  all  the 
bishops,  excepting  Claudius,  bishop  of  Nacolia  in  Phrv- 
gia,  and  Theodosius,  metropolitan  of  Kpliesus,  and  per- 
haps two  or  three  more.  Even  (iermanus,  bishop  of 
Constantinople,  joincii  with  (iregory  II  of  liome  in  the 
imiversal  outcry  against  the  emperor's  attempt,  and  thus, 
almost  for  the  first  time,  the  bishops  of  the  two  Pomes 
were  (like  Pilate  and  Ileroc])  united  in  one  common 
cause.  Whether  pmvoked  by  the  violence,  and  unrea- 
sonableness, and  relK'Uious  spirit  of  the  opposition,  or 
prompted  by  a  growing  zeal  for  the  purity  of  religion,  or 
by  the  obstinacy ^f  personal  pride  and  arbitrary  power, 


I  or  guided  by  considerations  of  presumed  policj',  or  from 
!  whatever  motives,  the  emperor  soon  after  issued  a  sec- 
I  ond  edict  far  more  stringent  and  decisive.  It  command- 
ed the  total  destruction  of  all  images  (or  statues  intend- 
ed for  worship)  and  the  effacement  of  all  pictures  by 
whitewashing  the  walls  of  the  churches.  The  image- 
worshippers  were  maddened.  The  officer  who  attempt- 
ed, in  Constantinople,  to  execute  the  edict  upon  a  statue 
of  Christ  renowned  for  its  miracles,  was  assaulted  by  the 
women  and  beaten  to  death  with  clubs.  The  emperor 
sent  an  armed  guard  to  suppress  the  tumult,  and  a 
frightful  massacre  was  the  consequence.  Leo  was  re- 
garded as  no  better  than  a  Saracen.  Even  his  successes 
against  the  common  foe  were  ingeniously  turned  against 
him.  A  certain  Cosmas  was  proclaimed  emperor  in 
Leo's  stead,  a  fleet  was  armed,  and  Constantinople  itself 
Avas  menaced ;  but  the  fleet  was  destroj^ed  by  tlie  Greek 
fire,  the  insurrection  was  suppressed,  the  leaders  either 
fell  or  were  executed  along  with  the  usurper.  A  second 
revolt  at  Constantinople  was  not  suppressed  till  after 
much  bloodshed.  Everywhere  in  the  empire  the  monks 
were  busy  instigating  and  fomenting  rebellion.  Germa- 
nus,  bishop  of  Constantinople,  already  an  octogenarian, 
as  he  could  not  conscientiously  aid  in  the  execution  of 
tlie  imperial  decree,  quietly  retired,  or  suffered  himself 
to  be  removed  from  his  see.  Not  quite  so  peaceful  was 
the  position  pope  Gregory  II  of  Kome  assumed.  Fol- 
lowing the  bent  of  his  own  superstitious  character,  he 
seized  the  opportunity  when  the  emperor  had  his  hands 
full  with  seditious  tumults  and  disturbances  at  home, 
and,  confidently  relying  upon  the  support  of  the  igno- 
rant, and  monk-ridden,  and  half-Christianized  popula- 
tion of  the  West,  dispatched  to  the  emperor  two  most 
arrogant  and  insolent  letters,  and  condemned  in  unmeas- 
ured terms  his  war  upon  images  as  a  war  upon  the 
Christian  religion  itself.  The  emperor  ordered  the  ex- 
arch of  Kavenna  to  march  upon  Pome  ;  but  the  pope,  by 
the  aid  of  the  Lombards,  compelled  him  to  retire,  and 
he  had  enough  to  do  to  maintain  himself  even  at  home. 
In  fact,  he  was  reduced  to  live  in  one  quarter  of  Paven- 
na  as  a  sort  of  captive  ;  and  finaUy  Gregory  III,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Gregorj"-  II,  in  731  held  a  council  at  Pome  in 
■vvhich  the  Iconoclasts  were  anathematized.  The  empe- 
ror hereupon  sent  a  formidable  expedition  against  Italy, 
with  special  orders  to  reduce  Ravenna.  The  expedition, 
however,  failed,  and  Ravenna,  with  the  Exarchate,  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Lombards,  and  thus  Italy  and  the 
pope  became  practically  independent  of  the  Eastern  em- 
pire. Leo  now  only  sought  the  accomplishment  of  one 
object,  viz.,  the  detachment  of  Greece,  Illyria,  and  Mace- 
donia from  the  spiritual  authority  of  the  popes,  and  he 
consequently  annexed  them  to  that  of  the  patriarchs  of 
Constantinople,  and  this  created  the  real  effective  cause 
of  the  final  schism  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  churches 
(734).  The  pope  henceforth  never  submitted  to  the 
emperor,  nor  did  he  ever  recover  the  lost  portions  of  his 
patriarchate.  Meantime,  from  the  East,  another  voice 
joined  in  the  fray — John  of  Damascus.  He  issued  his 
fidminations  against  the  emperor  securely  from  under 
the  protection  of  the  caliphs,  who  were  more  jjleased 
with  the  attacks  upon  Leo  than  scandalized  by  the  de- 
fence of  image  worship.  See  John  ok  Damascus,  It 
was  in  the  midst  of  this  wild  and  protracted  controversy 
that  Leo  died  of  dropsy  in  741,  and  left  to  his  son  the 
accomplishment  of  a  taslv  -wliich  he  had  hoped  he  would 
himself  effect. 

As  to  the  controversy  itself,  one  of  the  strongest 
points  ever  made  against  the  position  of  Leo  is  that  he 
attacked  the  fine  arts,  and  sought  to  destroy  and  abolish 
all  the  beauty  and  ornamentation  of  tlie  Christian  edi- 
fices. On  this  ground  an  earnest  ajjpeal  has  been  made 
against  him,  and  .against  all  opponents  of  image  wor- 
ship, in  the  interests  of  esthetics.  Even  Neander  seems 
(piite  to  take  sides  with  Gregory  against  the  barbarian 
emperor  in  this  point  of  view.  But,  in  the  first  place, 
it  is  by  no  means  historically  certain  that  Leo  proceeded 
to  any  such  lengths,  or  with  any  such  motives,  in  his 


LEO 


353 


LEO 


iconoclasm.  He  proposed  simply  to  destroy  objects  of 
worship.  He  made  no  war  upon  beauty  or  art.  If,  in 
accomplishing  his  juirpose,  in  the  face  of  the  furious  op- 
position he  met  with,  he  was  carried  fiu-ther,  it  was  not 
strange,  especially  considering  his  education,  the  great 
difficulty  of  making  nice  distinctions  in  such  cases  and 
under  such  circumstances,  and  the  known  propensity  of 
human  nature  to  run  to  extremes  in  the  heat  of  contro- 
versy and  conflict.  Many  of  the  holiest  and  most  or- 
thiiddx  of  the  early  fathers  would  have  proscribed  all 
classical  learning,  lest  with  it  the  classical  paganism 
should  be  imbibed.  But,  in  fact,  neither  Gregory  nor 
the  monks  defended  the  use  of  images  on  esthetic 
grounds,  and  if  they  had  they  would  have  compromised 
their  whole  cause.  It  was  not  at  all  the  beauty  of  the 
statue,  but  the  sacred  object  represented,  which  gave  it 
its  meaning  and  value.  Churches  might  be  made  as 
beautiful  and  decorated  as  highly  as  possible  without 
the  people's  adoring  or  bowing  down  to  the  chiu-ch,  or 
its  altar,  or  its  ornaments.  Besides,  it  is  not  probable 
that  the  images  or  the  pictures  of  Leo's  time  were  any 
verv  admirable  specimens  of  esthetic  achievemeiit;  and, 
if  they  had  been,  it  is  not  likely  that  they  Avould  have 
attracted  the  reverence  of  the  vulgar  so  much  as  thej' 
did.  Artistic  perfection  tends  rather  to  distract  and 
dissipate  than  to  intensify  the  religious  reverence  for 
images.  With  the  development  of  Grecian  art  Grecian 
idolatry  lost  its  hold.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the 
ugliest,  and  most  misshapen,  and  hideous  idols  among 
the  heathen  have  secured  the  widest  and  inteusest  de- 
votion; and  among  the  Christians,  it  has  been  some 
winking  or  bleeding  statue,  rudely  imitating  the  human 
form,  and  not  some  Sistine  Madonna,  that  has  bent  the 
knees  of  adoring  multitudes.  The  image  whose  toe  is 
now  devoutly  kissed  by  the  faithful  at  St.  Peter's,  in 
Rome,  is  not  remarkable  for  its  esthetic  claims.  If  Leo 
was  a  barbarian,  Gregory  was  hardly  less  so,  as  is  evi- 
dent from  the  letters  of  the  latter  to  his  emperor.  The 
ignorance  of  the  pope  is  almost  as  remarkable  as  his  im- 
pudence. He  expressly  and  repeatedly  confounds  the 
pious  Hezekiah,  who  destroyed  the  brazen  serpent,  with 
his  pious  ancestor  Uzziah,  and  under  this  last  name 
pronounces  him  a  self-willed  violator  of  the  priests  of 
God.  He  apparently  confounded  them  both  with  Ahaz, 
v/ho  was  the  grandson  of  the  one  and  the  father  of  the 
other.  It  is  true,  he  professes  to  quote  the  passage  from 
the  emperor's  edict,  but  it  is  plain  from  internal  evidence 
that,  in  the  terms  in  which  he  gives  it,  it  coidd  not  have 
been  in  that  edict ;  and  if  it  had  been,  he  did  not  know 
enough  to  correct  the  blunder.  It  is  said  that  Leo  was 
cruel  in  the  execution  of  his  ilecree.  It  may  be  so.  He 
was  a  soldier,  a  Byzantine  emperor,  and  lived  in  the  8th 
century.  But  if  the  monks,  and  the  pope,  and  the 
priests,  and  the  populace,  which  they  controlled,  had  not 
violently  resisted  the  imperial  decree,  there  would  have 
been  no  cruelty.  It  is  said  that  Leo  acted  arbitrarily, 
as  if  he  had  been  the  master  of  the  minds  and  con- 
sciences of  men,  to  make  and  unmake  their  religion  for 
them.  This  is  too  true,  and  this  was  his  mistake ;  but 
all  his  predecessors,  with  Constantine  the  Great,  had 
made  the  same  mistake.  It  was  a  Byzantine  tradition. 
It  was  the  theory  of  the  age.  Protestantism,  with  the 
same  creed  in  regard  to  images,  has  proceeded  upon  a 
different  theory,  and  has  succeeded.  It  is  said  that  the 
Church,  in  her  general  councils,  has  decided  against  Leo. 
If  so,  it  was  not  till  after,  in  his  son's  reign,  a  council 
styling  itself  axuraenical,  and  regularly  convoked  as 
such,  consisting  of  no  less  than  34S  bishops,  had  unani- 
mously decided  in  his  favor.  It  is  said  that,  at  all 
events,  the  question  has  been  historically  settled  against 
Leo  in  the  subsequent  history  of  the  Church :  that  icon- 
oclasm was  crushed  and  brought  to  naught  in  the  East 
and  in  the  West,  and  images  achieved  a  complete  tri- 
umph. Iconoclasm  was  indeed  crushed  by  the  uiniat- 
ural  and  murderous  monster  Irene,  whose  character  will 
hardly  be  regarded  as  superior  to  that  of  Leo.  In  fact, 
far  as  images  are  distinguished  i'rom  pictures,  icono- 
V,— Z 


clasm  has  thus  far  trium])hed  in  the  East;  and  in  the 
West  it  was  not  until  alter  the  earnest  and  manly  re- 
sistance of  Charlemagne  and  the  Council  of  Frankfort 
that  the  image-worshipping  pope  and  priests  finally,  or 
rather  for  a  time,  carried  their  point. 

4.  Character  of  Leo. — Almost  all  we  know  of  Leo 
comes  to  us  through  his  enemies — his  prejudiced,  bigot- 
ed, unprincipled,  deadly  enemies.  Some  of  the  most 
odious  acts  alleged  against  him,  as  the  burning  of  the 
great  library  at  Constantinople,  are  purely  their  malig- 
nant inventions.  His  motives  are  seen  only  through 
their  jaimdiced  or  infuriated  eyes.  His  verj'  words 
come  to  us,  for  the  most  part,  only  through  their  gar- 
bled versions;  yet,  with  all  their  zeal,  they  have  not 
been  able  so  to  distort,  or  blacken,  or  liide  his  true  line- 
aments, but  that  he  still  stands  out  to  an  impartial  ob- 
server one  of  the  ablest,  purest,  manliest,  and  most  re- 
spectable sovereigns  that  ever  occupied  the  Constanti- 
nopolitan  throne.  His  rapid  rise  from  obscurity  to  the 
pinnacle  of  power,  his  firm  and  successful  administration 
amid  foreign  assaults  and  domestic  plots,  and  his  reso- 
lute prosecution  of  the  reformation  of  the  Church,  all 
indicate  a  wise  and  provident  policy,  great  vigor,  and 
decision  of  wiU.  His  early  military  life  may  have  ren- 
dered him  cruel  and  obstinate,  but  did  not  taint  the  pu- 
rity of  his  manners.  He  was  in  many  respects,  and 
particularly  in  a  certain  rugged  and  straightfonvard 
honesty  and  strength  of  purpose,  just  the  man  needed 
for  the  times.  How  much  better  and  wiser  he  was  than 
he  appears  we  cannot  say,  but  there  is  every  reason  to 
believe  that  a  full  and  fair  view  of  his  historv',  if  it  could 
now  be  unearthed  from  the  monkish  rubljish,  and  rotten- 
ness, and  filth  that  have  overwhelmed  it,  would  present 
him  in  a  vastly  more  favorable  light  than  that  in  which 
he  has  been  left  to  stand.     (D.  K.  G.) 

5.  Literature.  —  See  Henke  in  Ersch  u.  Gruber,  A II- 
gemeine  EncyUopadie,  sect,  ii,  vol.  xvi  (1839),  119  sq. ; 
Smith,  iJict.  Greek  and  Roman  Bior/.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  Mars- 
den,  Hist.  Christian  Churches  and  Sects,  ii,  153 ;  IMilman, 
Hist.  Latin  Christianity,  ii,  305  sq. ;  Gibbon,  Decline  and 
Full  of  the  Roman  Empire,  v,  10  sq. ;  Reichel,  See  of 
Rome  in  the  Middle  A  ges,  p.  46  sq. ;  Leckey,  Hist,  of  Mor- 
als, ii,  '282 ;  Ffoulkes,  Christendom'' s  Divisions,  vol.  i  and 
ii ;  Hefele,  Conciliengesch.  (Freib.  1855) ;  English  transl. 
History  of  Councils  (Lond.  1872,  8vo),  vol.  i;  Baxmann, 
Politik  der  Papste  (Elbfeld,  18G8),  vol.  i ;  Hergenrother, 
Photius  (Regensb.  18C7),  vol.  i ;  and  the  references  in  the 
article  Iconoclasm. 

Leo  THE  JIagentian  {ls\ayn'Ti]i'0Q  or  Mayti'Tivoo), 
a  commentator  on  Aristotle,  flourished  during  the  first 
half  of  the  14th  century.  His  first  name,  Leo,  is  fre- 
quently omitted  in  the  MSS.  of  his  works.  He  was  a 
monk,  and  afterwards  archbishop  of  My  tilene.  He  wrote 
'E^ijY))(ng  etc;  to  Ilepi  ipf.ir}vtiaQ  'ApiaroriXovc,  Com- 
nientarius  in  Aristotelis  De  Interpretatvme  Lihrum  (pub- 
lished by  Aldus,  Venice,  1503,  folio,  with  the  commen- 
tary of  Ammonius,  from  which  Leo  borrowed  verj-  large- 
ly, and  the  paraphrase  of  Psellus  on  the  same  book  of 
Aristotle,  and  the  commentary  of  Ammonius  on  Aristo- 
tle's Catcgorice  s.  Pradicamenta.  In  the  Latin  title  of 
this  edition,  by  misprint,  the  author  is  called  Murgen- 
tinus.  A  Latin  version  of  Leo's  commentarj-,  by  J.  B. 
Rasarius,  has  been  repeatedly  printed  with  the  Latin 
version  of  Ammonius.  Another  Latin  version  by  Je- 
rome Leustrius  has  also  been  printed) : — E'^iiYr,(ng  tig 
ru  UpuTfpa  dvaXvKTiKO.  roij  'ApiaroriXovc,  Commcn- 
tarius  in  Prioi-a  Analytica  Aristotelis  ^printed  with  the 
commentary  of  .John  Philoponus  on  the  sr.me  work  by 
Trincavellus  [Venice,  153G,  fol.] ;  and  a  Latin  version  of 
it  by  Rasarius  has  been  repeatedly  printed,  either  sep- 
arately or  with  other  commentaries  on  Aristotle).  The 
following  works  in  IMS.  are  ascribed,  but  with  doubtful 
correctness,  to  Leo  jNIagentenus :  Commentariiis  in  Cale- 
gorias  Aristotelis  (extant  in  the  King's  lilirary,  Paris)  : 
— ' ApiGTO-'tXovQ  (TOfptarthiiv  tXiyxwi'  tnjn,i'tia,  Ex- 
positio  Aristotelis  De  Sophislicis  Elenchis;  and  'Apia- 
TortXovg  Trepi  tiTropiag  Trporuatwv.     Ihtse  two  works 


LEO 


35-t 


LEO 


are  mentioned  by  Mont  faucon  {Bihl.CoisUn.\\.11o)  \  the 
latter  is  jxrhaps  not  a  distinct  work,  but  a  portion  of  the 
above.  In  the  !MS.  the  author  is  called  Leontius  Magen- 
tenus : — Commentarius  in  Isago(jen  s.  Quinque  Voces  Por- 
phtjrii.  Buhle  doubts  if  this  work,  which  is  in  the  Me- 
dicean  library  at  Florence  (Bandiiii,t'«^/fo^.  Codd.  Laur. 
Medic,  iii,  239),  is  correctly  ascribed  to  IMagentenus.  In 
the  cataloc;ue  of  the  MSS.  in  the  King's  library  at  Paris 
(ii,  410,  421),  two  jMSS.,  No.  mdcccxlv  and  mcmxxviii, 
contain  scholia  on  the  C(tteffori(P,  the  Analijtica  Priora 
et  Posteriora  and  the  Topica  of  Aristotle,  and  the  Isa- 
(jor/e  of  Porphyry,  by  "  Magnentius."  Hiihle  conjec- 
tures, and  with  probability,  that  Magnentius  is  a  cor- 
ruption of  Magentenus  or  Magentinus ;  if  so,  and  the 
works  are  assigned  to  their  real  author,  we  must  add 
the  commentaries  on  Topica  and  Analijtica  Posteriora 
to  the  works  already  mentioned.  Nicolaus  Comnenus 
Popadopoli  speaks  of  many  other  works  of  Leo,  but  his 
authority  is  of  little  value.  See  Fabricius,  Bihl.  Greeca, 
iii,  210,213,  215,  218,  498;  vii,  717;  viii,  143;  xii,  208; 
Montfaucon,  I.  c,  and  p.  219 ;  Buhle,  Opera  A  ristotelis,  i, 
165,  305,  30G,  ed.  Bipont ;  Catalog.  MStor.  Biblioth.  Re- 
ffice  (Paris,  1740,  foL),  1.  c. — Smith,  Diet.  oJ'Gr.  and  Pom, 
£iog.  ii,  744  sq. 

Leo  OF  MoDENA.     See  Leon  da  Modena. 

Leo  THE  Pjhu)Sopher  (Sajnens  or  Philosophus'),  a 
surname  of  Flavius  Leo  VI,  emperor  of  Constantino- 
ple, noted  as  the  publisher  of  the  Basilica,  was  born  A. 
D.  8(35,  and  succeeded  his  father,  Basil  I,  the  Macedo- 
nian, on  ]\Iarch  1,  886.  His  reign  presents  an  uninter- 
rupted series  of  wars  and  conspiracies.  In  887  and  888 
the  Arabs  invaded  Asia  Minor,  landed  in  Italy  and  Sic- 
ily, plundered  Samos  and  other  islands  in  the  Archipel- 
ago, and  until  892  did  away  with  imperial  authority  in 
the  Italian  dominions.  By  Stylianus,  his  father-in-law 
and  prime  minister,  Leo  was  subjected  to  a  bloody  war 
with  the  Bulgarians ;  but,  by  involving  them,  through 
intrigues,  in  a  w^ar  with  the  Hungarians,  he  succeeded 
in  bringing  the  war  with  himself  to  a  speedy  termina- 
tion. The  following  years  were  rendered  remarkable 
by  several  conspiracies  against  his  life.  That  of  895 
proved  nearly  fatal;  it  was  fortunately  discovered  in 
time,  and  quelled  by  one  Samonas,  who,  in  reward,  was 
created  patrician,  and  enjoyed  the  emperor's  favor  until 
910,  when,  suspected  of  treacherj',  and  accused  of  abuse 
of  his  position,  he  was  sentenced  to  perpetual  imprison- 
ment. At  the  opening  of  the  10th  centurj',  the  Arabs 
and  northern  neighbors  of  the  empire  made  another  at- 
taclt  on  the  imperial  possessions.  The  former  once 
more  invaded  Sicily,  and  took  Tauromenium,  and  in 
904  appeared  in  the  harbor  of  Thessalonica  with  a  nu- 
merous Heet,  soon  made  themselves  masters  of  this 
splendid  city,  destroyed  a  great  portion  of  it,  plundered 
the  inhabitants  generally,  and  left  laden  with  Ijooty  and 
captives.  Leo  died  in  911.  He  was  married  four  times, 
in  consequence  of  which  he  was  excluded  from  tiie  com- 
munion with  the  faithful  by  the  patriarch  Nicolaus,  as 
the  (ireek  Cluirch  only  tolerated  a  second  marriage;  it 
censured  a  third,  and  condemned  a  fourth  as  an  atrocious 
sin. 

How  Leo  came  by  the  exalted  name  of  Philosopher 
it  is  ditHcult  to  understand,  except  it  be  taken  in  an 
ironical  sense.  Gibbon,  with  a  few  striking  words,  gives 
the  following  character  to  this  emperor:  '•  His  mind 
was  tinged  with  the  most  puerile  superstition ;  the  in- 
fluence of  the  clergy  and  the  errors  of  the  people  were 
consecrated  by  his  laws ;  and  the  oracles  of  Leo,  which 
reveal  in  prophetic  style  the  fates  of  the  empire,  are 
founded  in  tlie  arts  of  astrology  and  divination.  If  we 
still  in(|uire  the  reason  of  liis  sage  appellation,  it  can 
only  b^'  replied  that  the  son  of  I?  isil  was  only  less  igno- 
rant thaTi  the  greater  part  of  his  contemporaries  in 
Church  and  State ;  tliat  his  education  had  been  directed 
by  the  learned  Photius,  aiHl  that  several  books  of  pro- 
fane and  ecclesiastical  science  were  composed  by  the 
pen  or  in  the  name  of  the  imperial  philosopher." 

In  speaking  of  Leo's  literary  merits,  it  is  necessary  to 


say  a  few  words  of  his  legislation.  In  his  time  the  Latin 
language  had  long  ceased  to  be  the  official  language  of 
the  Eastern  empire,  and  had  gradually  fallen  into  such 
disuse  as  only  to  be  known  to  a  few  scholars,  merchants, 
or  navigators.  The  original  laws,  being  written  in  Lat- 
in, opposed  a  serious  obstacle  to  a  fair  and  quick  admin- 
istration of  justice  ;  and  the  emperor  Basil  I,  the  father 
of  Leo,  formed  and  partly  executed  the  plan  of  issuing 
an  authorized  version  of  the  code  and  digest.  This  plan 
was  carried  out  by  Leo,  who  was  ably  assisted  by  Saba- 
thius,  the  commander  of  the  imperial  life-guards.  The 
new  Greek  version  is  known  under  the  title  of  HaaiXi- 
Kai  i^iaTc't'^ng,  or,  shortly,  BacriXtKai ;  in  hatin, Basilica, 
which  means  "  Imperial  Constitutions"  or  "  Laws.''  It 
is  divided  into  sixty  books,  subdivided  into  titles,  and 
contains  the  whole  of  Justinian's  legislation,  viz.  the 
Institutes,  the  Digest,  the  Codex,  and  the  Novellas; 
also  such  constitutions  as  were  issued  by  the  successors 
of  Justinian  down  to  Leo  YI.  There  are,  however,  many 
laws  of  the  Digest  omitted  in  the  BasUica,  while  they 
contain,  on  the  other  hand,  a  considerable  number  of 
laws,  or  extracts  from  ancient  jurists,  not  in  the  Digest. 
The  Basilica  likewise  give  many  early  constitutions  not 
in  Justinian's  Codex.  They  were  afterwards  revised  by 
the  son  of  Leo,  Constantine  PorphjTogenitus.  For  the 
various  editions  published  of  the  Basilica,  see  Smith, 
Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biog.  ii,  741. 

The  principal  works  written,  or  supposed  to  be  writ- 
ten, by  Leo  VI  of  special  interest  to  us  are,  1.  Oracula, 
written  in  Greek  iambic  verse,  and  accompanied  by 
marginal  drawings,  on  the  fate  of  the  future  emperors 
and  patriarchs  of  Constantinople,  showing  the  super- 
stition of  Leo  if  he  believed  in  his  divination,  and  that 
of  the  people  if  they  believed  in  the  absurd  predictions. 
The  seventeenth  oracle,  on  the  restoration  of  Constanti- 
nople, was  published  in  Greek  and  Latin  by  John  Leun- 
clavius  (ad  caleem  Const.  Manasste,  Basil.  1573,  8vo). 
Janus  Rutgersius  edited  the  other  sixteen,  ^vith  a  Latin 
version  by  George  Dousa  (Leyden,  1G18,  4to).  Other 
editions,  Eposilione  delli  Oracoli  di  Leoni  imperatore,  by 
T.  Patricius  (Brixen,  1596),  by  Petrus  Lambecius,  with 
a  revised  text  from  an  Amsterdam  codex,  also  notes 
and  new  translation  (Par.  1655,  fob,  ad  caleem  Codini). 
A  German  and  a  Latin  translation  by  John  and  Theo- 
dore de  Bry  appeared  (Frankf.  1597,  4to).  It  is  doubt- 
ful whether  Leo  is  actually  the  author  of  the  Oracles. 
Fabricius  gives  a  learned  disquisition  on  the  subject: — 
2.  Orationes,  mostly  on  theological  subjects :  one  of  them 
appeared  in  a  Latin  version  by  F.  Metius,  in  Baronius's 
Annales;  nine  others  by  Gretserus,  in  the  14th  volume 
of  his  Opera  (Ingolstadt,  1660,  4to) ;  three  others,  to- 
gether with  seven  of  those  ]Hiblished  by  Gretserus,  by 
Combetis,  in  the  1st  volume  of  his  Biblioth.  Pat.  Grceco- 
/^H^  .4  !irfo?-.  (Paris,  1648,  folio)  ;  Oratio  de  Sfo.  Xicolo, 
Greek  and  Latin,  by  Petrus  Possime  (Toulouse,  1654, 
4to) ;  Oratio  de  Sto.  Chrysostomo,  restored  from  the  life 
of  that  father  by  Georgius  Alexandrinus  in  the  8th  vol- 
ume of  the  Savilian  ed.  of  Chrysostom  (Antwerp,  1614, 
folio) ;  some  others  in  Combefis,  Biblioth.  Concionutoria, 
in  the  Biblioth.  Patrum  Lugdun.,  and  dispersed  in  other 
works;  Leoni  Imp.  Ilomilia  nvnc primum  viilgata  Greece 
et  Latine  ejusdemqiie  qua  Photiana  est  Confutatio,  a 
Scipione  Maffei  (Padua,  1751,  8 vo):  —  3.  J-'pistoln  ad 
Omariim  Saracenum  de  Fidd  Christiana  Veritate  et  Sar- 
cenorum  Errorihas  (in  Latin  [Lyons,  1509 J  by  Champe- 
rius,  who  translated  a  Chaldean  version  of  the  (ireek 
original,  which  seems  to  be  lost :  the  same  in  the  differ- 
ent Biblioth.  Patrum,  and  separately  by  Prof.  Schwarz 
in  the  Program,  of  the  University  of  Leipsic,  in  the  year 
1786): — 4. 'H  ytyorvla  ciaTi'Trivcng  Trnod  -or  BafriMtoQ 
Aa'ifTOQ  Tov  Xofoii,  K.r.X.,  Dhpositio  facta  pir  Imper- 
atorem,  Leonlem  Sapnentem,  etc.  (Greek  and  Latin,  by  J. 
Leunclavius,  in"  .his  Grfrco-Romanum  ;  by  Jac.  (ioar,  ad 
caleem  Codini,  Par.  1648,  folio)  : — 5.  Eig  Tit  Mnvo/^iipiov, 
In  spectaculnm  Uniiis  Dei,  an  epigram  of  little  value, 
with  notes  by  Brodjeus  and  Opsopaeus,  in  Epigram,  libri 
vii,  edit.  Wechel  (Frankfort,  IGOO).    See  Zonaras,  ii,  174, 


LEO 


355 


LEO  I 


etc. ;  Cedrenus,  p.  591,  etc. ;  Joel,  p.  179,  etc. ;  Manass.  p. 
108,  etc. ;  Glycas.  p.  29(5,  etc. ;  Genesius,  p.  (!1,  etc. ;  Co- 
tlin.  p.  03,  etc. ;  Fabricius,  Bibliotheca  Gneca,  vii,  693  sq.; 
Hamberger,  Xuchichten  von  Gelehrten  Mdnntrn  ;  Cave, 
JJisf.  Lift. ;  Hankius,  Sc?-ipf.  Bi/zunt. ;  Oiidiii,  Comment, 
de  SS.  EccL  ii,  39J:  sq. — >Snutb,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Biorj.  ii,  739  stj. 

Leo  OF  Saint-.Jeax,  a  French  theologian  and  con- 
troversialist, was  born  at  Rennes  July  9,  IGOO.  He  en- 
tered the  Carmelite  convent  when  quite  young,  and,  be- 
ing greatly  esteemed  by  tlie  order,  he  successively  tilled 
nearly  all  the  positions  in  their  gift.  He  died  at  the 
convent  "des  liillettes,"  Dec.  30,  lti71.  He  wrote  Car- 
melus  restitutus  (Par.  1634, 4to) : — Encyclnp.  Prcendssum, 
sell  sapient  ice  universalis  delineatio,  etc.  (1635,  4to)  : — 
Hist.  Carmelit.  provinci(B  Turonensis  (1640,  4to).  His 
sermons  were  published  under  the  title  La  Somme  des 
Sermons  parenetiques  et  panegijriques  (1671-75,  4  vols, 
fol.).     See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biorj.  Generale,  xxx,  738. 

Leo  Stypiota,  or  Styppa,  or  Stypa  (SrtVijc)) 
patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  the  r2th  centurj'  (A.D. 
1134  to  1143),  flourished  until  about  the  time  of  the  ac- 
cession of  the  Byzantine  emperor  Manuel  Comnenus. 
A  decree  of  Leo  Stypiota  on  the  lawfidness  of  certain 
marriages  is  given  in  the  Jus  Orientule  of  Bonetidus 
(6£(T/(0(  'Ao\npaTiKoi,  Sanction.  Pontijic.  p.  59),  and  in 
the  Jus  Grwco-Romanum  of  Leunclavius  (liber  iii,  vol. 
i,  p.  217).  He  is  often  cited  by  Nicolaus  Comnenus  Po- 
padopoli.  See  Fabricius,  Bihl.  Grcec.  viii,  721 ;  xi,  606. 
— Smith,  Bict.  Greek  and  Roman  Biof/.  ii,  745. 

Leo  OF  TiiessalonTca,  an  eminent  Byzantine  phi- 
losopher and  ecclesiastic  of  the  9th  century,  character- 
ized by  his  devotion  to  learning,  studied  grammar  and 
poetry  at  Constantinople,  and  rhetoric,  philosophy,  and 
arithmetic  under  iVIichael  Psellus  on  the  island  of  An- 
dros,  and  at  the  monasteries  on  the  adjacent  part  of 
continental  Greece.  He  afterwards  settled  at  Constan- 
tinople and  became  an  instructor.  Introduced  to  the 
notice  of  emperor  Theophilus,  he  was  appointed  public 
teacher  or  professor,  and  the  Church  of  the  Forty  Mar- 
tyrs was  assigned  him  for  a  school.  Soon  after  the 
patriarch  John,  who  appears  hitherto  to  have  neglect- 
ed his  learned  kinsman,  promoted  Leo  to  the  archbish- 
opric of  Thessalonica.  Upon  the  death  of  Theophilus 
(A.D.  842),  when  the  government  came  into  the  liands 
of  Theodora,  the  iconoclastic  party  was  overthrown,  and 
Leo  and  .John  were  deposed  Irom  their  sees;  but  Leo, 
whose  worth  seems  to  have  secured  respect,  escaped  the 
sufferings  which  fell  to  his  kinsman's  lot;  and  when 
Ca'sar  Bardas,  anxious  for  the  revival  of  learning,  es- 
tablished the  mathematical  school  at  the  palace  of  Mag- 
naura,  in  Constantinople,  Leo  was  placed  at  the  head. 
Leo  was  still  living  in  A.D.  869;  how  much  later  is  not 
known.  Symeon  {I)e  Mich,  et  Theodora,  c.  40)  has  de- 
scribed a  remarkable  method  of  telegraphic  communi- 
cation invented  by  Leo,  and  practiced  in  the  reigns  of 
Theophilus  and  his  son  Jlichael.  Fires  kindled  at  cer- 
tain hours  of  the  day  conveyed  intelligence  of  hostile 
incursions,  battles,  conflagrations,  and  the  other  inci- 
dents of  war,  from  the  confines  of  Syria  to  Constantino- 
ple; the  hour  of  kindling  indicating  the  nature  of  the 
aceidcnt,  according  to  an  arranged  plan,  marked  on  the 
dial-plate  of  a  clock  kept  in  the  castle  of  Lusiis,  near 
Tarsus,  and  of  a  corresponding  one  kept  in  the  palace  at 
Constantinople.  The  Ms^oOot;  npoyi'OfjTiKi],  Methodus 
Prnrpioslicd,  or  instructions  for  divining  by  the  Gospel 
or  Psalter,  by  Leo  Saiiiens,  in  the  ]\Iedicean  Library  at 
Florence  (Bandini,  Catedof/.  Codd.  Laur.  Medic,  iii,  339), 
is  ijerhaps  by  another  Leo.  Combefis  was  disposed  to 
claim  for  Leo  of  Thessalonica  the  authorship  of  the  cel- 
ebrated Xpjjffjuoi,  Oracula,  which  are  commonly  as- 
cribed to  the  emperor  I^o  YI,  Sapiens,  or  the  Wise,  and 
have  been  repeatedly  published.  But  Leo  of  Thessalo- 
nica is  generally  designated  in  the  Byzantine  writers 
the  philosopher  (0iXoffo0ot-),  not  the  vise  (ffo^i'.r) ;  and 
if  the  published  Oracula  are  a  part  of  the  series  men- 


tioned by  Zonaras  (xv,  21),  they  must  be  older  than 
either  the  emperor  or  Leo  of  Thessalonica.  See  Fabri- 
cius, Bibl.  Gnecu,  iv,  148,  158 ;  vii,  697 ;  xi,  665 ;  Alla- 
tius.  Be  Psellis,  c.  3-0 ;  Labbe,  Be  Byzant.  Histor.  Scrip- 
torihiis  nporptTTTiKov,  pt.  ii,  p.  45. — Smith,  Bid.  ofGrk, 
ami  Rom.  Biog.  ii,  745  sq. 

Leo  THE  TiiRAciAN  (also  the  Great),  or  Fla\ti'S 
Leo  I,  emperor  of  Constantinople,  was  born  in  Thrace 
of  obscure  parents,  entered  the  military'  service,  and  rose 
to  high  rank.  At  the  death  of  the  emperor  Marcian  in 
A.D.  457,  he  commanded  a  body  of  troops  near  Selym- 
bria,  and  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  soldiers,  at" the 
instigation  of  Aspar,  a  Gothic  chief,  wlio  commanded 
the  auxiliaries.  The  senate  of  Constantinople  confirmed 
the  choice,  and  the  patriarch  Anatolius  crowned  him. 
This  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  instance  of  an  emper- 
or receiving  the  crown  from  the  hands  of  a  bishop,  a 
ceremony  which  was  aften\-ards  adopted  by  all  other 
Christian  princes,  and  from  which  the  clergy,  as  Gibbon 
justlj'  observes,  have  deduced  the  most  formidable 
consequences.  See  Investiture.  Leo  followed  the 
measures  of  Marcian  against  the  Eutychians,  who  had 
been  condemned  as  heretics,  and  who  had  recently  ex- 
cited a  tumult  at  Alexandria,  had  killed  the  bishop, 
and  placed  one  iElurus  in  his  stead.  Aspar  for  a  time 
screened  ^Elurus;  but  Leo  at  last  had  him  exiled,  and 
an  orthodox  bishop  put  in  his  place.  The  Huns,  hav- 
ing entered  the  province  of  Dacia,  were  defeated  by  the 
imperial  troops,  and  a  son  of  Attila  was  killed  in  the 
battle.  Soon  after,  Leo,  in  concert  with  Anthemius, 
emperor  of  the  West,  prepared  a  numerous  fleet,  with  a 
large  body  of  troops  on  board,  for  the  recovery  of  Afri- 
ca, which  was  occupied  by  tlie  Vandals.  Part  of  the 
expedition  attacked  and  took  the  island  of  Sardinia ;  the 
rest  landed  in  Libya,  and  took  Tripolis  and  other  towns ; 
but  the  delay  and  mismanagement  of  the  commander, 
who  was  Leo's  brother-in-law,  gave  time  to  Genseric  to 
make  his  preparations.  Coming  out  of  the  harbor  of 
Carthage  by  night,  with  fire-ships  impelled  by  a  fair 
wind,  he  set  tire  to  man}^  of  the  imperial  ships,  dispersed 
the  rest,  and  obliged  the  expedition  to  leave  the  coast 
of  Africa.  Leo  died  in  January,  474. — Enylish  Cyclopit- 
dia,  s.  V. ;  Smith,  Bict.  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography 
and  Mythology,  ii,  734. 

Leo  I,  saint  and  pope,  sumamed  the  Great,  noted  as 
the  real  founder  of  the  papacy,  was  born  about  the  year 
390,  though  the  exact  date  is  not  ascertained.  AVe 
have  also  no  precise  information  as  to  his  birthplace ;  for 
while  the  liber  povtifcalis  describes  him  as  a  Tuscan, 
and  names  Quintianus  as  his  father,  Quesnel,  on  the  au- 
thority of  an  expression  in  one  of  Leo's  own  letters 
(xxxi,  4),  and  an  account  of  his  election  by  a  certain  Pros- 
per, stated  that  he  Avas  born  at  Pome,  and  this  opinion 
has  been  accepted  without  further  inquiry  by  most  sub- 
sequent ecclesiastical  writers.  While  yet  an  acolyte,  Leo 
was  dispatched,  in  A.D.  418,  to  Carthage,  for  the  purpose 
of  conveying  to  Anrelius  and  the  other  African  bishops 
the  sentiments  of  Zosimus  concerning  the  Pelagian  doc- 
trines of  Ccelestius  (q.  v.).  Under  Celestine  (q.  v.)  he 
discharged  the  duties  of  a  deacon ;  and  the  reputation 
even  then  (431)  enjoyed  by  him  is  clearly  indicated  by 
the  terms  of  the  epistle  prefixed  to  the  seven  books  Be 
Incarnatione  Christi  of  Cassianus,  who  at  his  request 
had  undertaken  this  work  against  the  Nestorian  here- 
sy. About  this  time  he  was  applied  to  by  Cyril  of  Alex- 
andria to  settle  a  ditflculty  between  Juvenal,  bishop  of 
Jerusalem,  and  the  primate  of  the  ecclesiastical  prov- 
ince of  .Jerusalem.  Having  obtained  a  great  reputation 
for  his  knowledge,  energy,  and  untiring  activity,  he  fail- 
ed not  to  secure  the  full  confidence  of  Sixtus  III  (432- 
440),  to  whom  he  rendered  valuable  service,  in  several 
important  offices  intrusted  to  him.  Attracting  also  the 
notice  of  Valentinian  III,  he  undertook,  by  request  of 
this  emperor,  a  mission  to  (iaul,  to  soothe  the  formidable 
dissensions  existing  between  the  two  generals  Aetius 
and  Albinus.   While  Leo  was  engaged  in  this  delicate  ne- 


LEO  I 


35G 


LEO  I 


gotiatioii,  which  was  conducted  with  singular  prudence 
and  perfect  success,  Sixtus  III  died,  Aug.  3, 440,  and  by 
the  inianimons  voice  of  tlie  clergy  and  laity  the  absent 
ih'acon  Leo  was  chosen  to  till  the  vacant  seat.  Envoys 
were  at  once  sent  to  Gaul  to  apprise  him  of  his  election, 
and  liaving  returned  to  liome  he  was  duly  installed, 
Stpt.  "Jit, 440.  Both  the  State  and  the  Church  were  tlien 
in  a  critical  position ;  the  former  in  consequence  of  tlie 
frequent  invasions  of  barbarians ;  tlie  Church  tluough 
its  inner  dissensions  and  quarrels.  From  the  earliest 
aiiQS  until  this  epoch  no  man  who  combined  lofty  ambi- 
lion  with  commanding  intellect  and  political  dexterity 
Jiad  presided  over  the  Koman  see;  and  although  its  in- 
tlucnce  had  gradually  increased,  and  many  of  its  bishops 
had  sought  to  extend  and  confirm  that  influence,  yet 
they  had  merely  availed  themselves  of  accidental  cir- 
cumstances to  augment  their  own  personal  authority, 
without  acting  upon  any  distinct  and  well -devised 
scheme.  But  Leo,  while  he  zealously  watched  over  his 
own  peculiar  flock,  concentrated  all  the  powers  of  his 
energetic  mind  upon  one  great  design,  which  he  seems 
to  have  formed  at  a  very  early  period,  and  which  he 
kept  steadfastly  in  view  during  a  long  and  eventful 
life,  following  it  out  with  consummate  boldness,  per- 
severance, and  talent.  This  was  nothing  less  than  the 
establishment  of  the  "  apostolic  chair"  as  a  spiritual  su- 
premacy over  every  branch  of  the  Catholic  Church,  and 
the  exclusive  appropriation  for  its  occupant  of  the  title 
of  Papa,  or  father  of  the  whole  Christian  world.  Leo 
ma}'  therefore  be  regarded  as  the  precursor  of  Gregory 
the  Great,  and  in  this  respect  certainly  deserved  the  sur- 
name of  Great,  which  was  given  him.  The  evil  days 
amid  which  his  lot  was  cast  were  not  unfavorable,  as 
might  at  first  sight  be  supposed,  to  such  a  project.  The 
contending  parties  among  the  orthodox  clergy,  terrified 
bv  tlie  rapiil  progress  of  Arianism,  were  well  disposed  to 
refer  their  minor  disputes  to  arbitration.  Leo,  who  well 
knew,  from  the  example  of  his  predecessor  Innocent  I, 
that  the  transition  is  easy  from  instruction  to  command, 
in  the  numerous  and  elaborate  replies  which  he  address- 
ed to  incpiiries  proceeding  from  various  quarters,  studi- 
ously adopted  a  tone  of  absolute  infallibility,  and  as- 
sumed the  right  of  enforcing  obedience  to  his  decisions 
as  an  unquestionable  prerogative  of  his  office,  deriving 
authority  for  such  a  position  from  the  relation  of  Peter 
to  Christ  and  to  the  other  apostles.  He  represented  Pe- 
ter as  most  intimately  connected  with  Christ:  "Petrum 
in  consortium  individuie  unitatis  assumtum,id  quod  ipse 
erat,  voluit  nominari  dicendo :  Tu  es  Petrus  et  super 
hanc  petram  redificabo  ecclesiam  meam,  ut  asterni  tem- 
pli  redificatio,  mirabili  munere  gratia  dei,  in  Petri  solid- 
itate  consisteret;  hac  ecclesiam  suam  firmitate  corrobo- 
rans,  ut  illam  nee  humana  temeritas  posset  appetere,  nee 
jiortaj  contra  illam  inferi  pravalcrent"  {Letters,  x,  1). 
This  community  of  person  into  which  the  Lord  received 
I'eter  is  then  made  to  extend  into  a  community  of  pow- 
er :  •■  (^uia  tu  cs  Petrus,  i.  c.  cum  ego  sim  lapis  angularis, 
qui  facio  utraque  unura,  ego  fundamentum,  prreter  quod 
nemo  ])otest  aliud  ponere :  tamcn  tu  ipioque  petra  es. 
quia  mea  virtute  solidaris,  ot  quiB  mihi  potestate  sunt 
l)ropria,  sint  tibi  mecum  participatione  communia"  (Let- 
trrs,  iv,  2).  Peter  had  been  received  into  the  commu- 
nity of  |)erson  witli  the  Lord  as  a  reward  for  his  recog- 
nition and  worship  of  Christ :  true,  he  had  denied  his 
iMastcr,  but  this  the  Lord  had  intentionally  permitted  to 
li.ip]ien.  But,  in  coHii)arisou  wiih  the  other  apostles,  he 
possessed  not  onlv  all  that  every  one  of  them  did,  but 
also  much  that  tlie  others  did  not  {Letters,  iv,  2),  and 
was  their  original  chief:  "Transivit  quidem  etiam  in 
alios  apostolos  jus  potcstatis  istius  (ligandi  et  solvendi) 
et  ad  omncs  ccclesia;  principes  decreti  hnjus  constitutio 
commcavit,  sed  non  frustra  uni  commendatur,  quod  om- 
nil)us  intimetur.  Petro  cnini  ideo  hoc  singulariter  cred- 
itur,  ([ui  cunctis  ecclesia;  rectoril)Us  Petri  forma  pncjion- 
itur."  It  is  only  in  him  that  tlie  apostles  were  intrusted 
with  their  mission — in  him  they  arc  all  saved ;  and  it  is 
for  this  reason  that  the  Lord  takes  special  care  of  him, 


and  that  his  faith  is  prayed  for  specially,  '•  tanquam  alio- 
runi  status  certior  sit  futurus,  si  mens  princijiis  victa  non 
fuerit.''  After  identifying  the  Church  with  the  incar- 
nation of  Christ,  Leo  identities  Peter  witli  Christ.  This 
primacy  of  Peter  continues,  therefore,  for  while  the  faith 
of  Peter  is  retained,  all  the  privileges  attached  to  this 
faith  in  Peter  remain  also.  This  primacy  continues 
among  the  i'ollowers  of  Peter,  for  they  hold  the  same  re- 
lation towards  Peter  that  Peter  held  towards  Christ;  as 
Christ  was  in  Peter,  so  is  Peter  in  his  successors;  it  is 
still  Peter  who,  through  them,  fulfils  the  commaiul  of 
Christ,  ''Feed  my  sheep  I" — '•  Christus  tantam  potentiam 
dedit  ei,  quem  totius  ecclesiaj  principem  fecit,  ut  si  quid 
etiam  nostris  temporibus  recte  per  nos  agitur  recteque 
disponitur,  illius  operibus,  Lllius  sit  gubernaculis  depu- 
tandum,  cui  dictum  est :  Et  tu  conversus  confirma  fratres 
tuos"  {Sermon,  iv,  4).  While  affecting  the  utmost  hu~ 
mility  when  speaking  of  himself  personally  as  unwor- 
thy' of  his  high  oflSce,  he  speaks  of  that  olfice  itself  as 
the  most  exalted  station. 

It  was  more  difficult  for  Leo,  however,  to  prove  that 
the  bishop  oi  Rome  is  the  successor  of  St.  Peter.  liome, 
says  Leo,  has  been  glorified  by  the  death  of  the  two 
greatest  apostles,  Peter  and  Paul,  who  brought  the  Gos- 
pel to  the  Eternal  City;  and  Leo  claims  to  discover  a 
special  Providence  in  this  coming  of  Peter  to  Pijine,  so 
that  that  city  should  through  him  and  in  him  become 
the  centre  of  the  Christian  world.  "  Ut  hujus  enarra- 
bilis  gratia3  (incarnationis)  per  totum  mundum  dift'un- 
deretur  effectus,  Eomanum  regnum  divina  providentia 
prieparavit;  cujus  ad  eos  liraites  mcrementa  perducta 
sunt,  quibus  cunctarum  undique  gentium  viciiia  et  con- 
tigua  esset  universitas.  Disposito  namquc  divinitus 
operi  maxime  congruebat,  ut  multa  regna  uno  confwde- 
rarentur  imperio  et  cito  pervios  haberet  populos  pr^di- 
catio  generalis,  quos  unius  teneret  regimen  civitatis" 
{Serm.  Ixxxii,  2 ).  Here,  finding  dogmatical  arguments 
unavailable  for  his  purpose,  Leo  turns  to  history,  which 
he  arranges  to  suit  himself.  With  regard  now  to  the 
relation  existing  between  the  bishop  of  Rome  and  the 
other  bishops,  Leo  says  expressly,  "All  the  bishops  have 
indeed  the  same  office,  but  not  the  same  power.  For 
even  among  the  apostles,  although  they  were  all  called 
apostles,  there  existed  a  remarkable  distinction,  for  one 
only,  Peter,  held  the  first  rank.  From  this  results  the 
difference  among  the  bishops.  It  is  a  fundamental  law 
of  the  Church  that  all  have  not  the  equal  right  to  ex- 
press all  things,  but  that  in  each  province  tliore  is  one 
(the  bishop  of  the  principal  place  in  the  pro\-ince)  who 
has  the  first  voice  among  his  brethren.  Again,  those 
who  occupy  more  important  sees  (the  metropolitans  of 
dioceses)  have  still  greater  power.  But  the  direction 
of  the  whole  Church  is  the  care  of  the  chair  of  St.  Peter, 
and  no  one  can  take  anything  awa\'  from  him  who  is 
the  head  of  all."  Potent  but  unconscious  instruments  in 
forwarding  Leo's  ambitious  schemes  were  found  in  the 
barbarian  chiefs  whose  power  was  not  yet  consolidated, 
and  who  were  eager  to  propitiate  one  who  possessed 
such  weight  with  the  priesthood,  and  through  them 
could  either  calm  into  submission  or  excite  to  rebellion 
an  ignorant  and  fanatic  multitude.  But,  though  the 
minds  of  men  were  in  some  degree  prepared  and  dis- 
posed to  yield  to  such  domination,  it  ^vas  scarcely  to  be 
expected  that  the  effort  should  not  provoke  jealousy  and 
resistance.  A  strong  opposition  was  speedily  organized 
both  in  the  West  and  in  the  East,  and  soon  assumed  the 
attitude  of  open  defiance.  •  In  the  West  the  contest  was 
brought  to  an  issue  by  the  controversy  with  Hilary  of 
Aries  (see  Hilakhts  Auiii-VTENsis)  concernini;  the  dep- 
osition of  Clielidonius,  liishop  of  Vesoutio  (Besan(;,on), 
who  had  married  a  widow,  which  was  forbidden  by  the 
canons.  Chelidonius  appealed  to  Leo,  who  reinstated 
him  in  his  sec.  Hilary  was  summoned  to  K<ime  upon 
several  charges  brought  against  liim  by  other  bishops 
of  Gaul,  to  whom  his  severity  was  obnoxious ;  and  Leo 
obtained  a  rescrijit  from  the  emperor  YalentinLin  III 
susiiending  Hilary  from  his  episcopal  office.    This  sus- 


LEO  I 


357 


LEO  I 


pension,  however,  does  not  appear  to  have  been  lasting, 
akhoui^h  the  fact  has  been  taken  bold  ol'  by  controver- 
sial writers  as  a  stretch  of  jurisdiction  in  the  see  of 
Kome.  Quesnel  published  a  dissertation  upon  this  con- 
troversy in  his  edition  of  the  works  of  Leo  (Paris,  1675). 
The  total  defeat  and  severe  punishment  of  the  Galilean 
bishop  tilled  his  supporters  with  terror,  and  the  edict 
of  Yalentinian  served  as  a  sort  of  charter,  hi  virtue  of 
winch  the  IJoman  bishops  exercised  for  centuries  un- 
disputed jurisdiction  over  France,  Spain,  Germany,  and 
Britain.  In  tlie  East  the  struggle  was  much  more  com- 
plicated and  the  result  much  less  satisfactory.  The  ar- 
chimandrite Eutyches  (q.  v.),  in  his  vehement  denunci- 
ation of  Nestorius,  having  been  betrayed  into  errors,  very 
different,  indeed,  but  considered  equally  dangerous,  was 
anathematized,  deposed,  and  excommmiicated,  in  A.D. 
448,  by  the  synod  of  Constantinople.  Against  this  sen- 
tence he  sought  redress  by  solicitmg  the  interference  of 
the  bishops  of  Alexandria  and  Kome.  His  cause  was 
eagerly  espoused  by  the  former.  As  for  Leo,  he  wrote 
to  the  patriarch  Flavianus  (q.  v.),  telling  him  that  "  he 
had  been  informed  of  the  disturbances  which  had  taken 
]]lace  in  the  Church  of  Constantinople  by  the  emperor, 
and  was  surprised  that  Flavianus  had  not  at  once  writ- 
ten to  him  about  it,  and  informed  him  thereof  before 
the  subject  had  been  disclosed  to  any  one  else."  Leo 
also  informed  Flavianus  that  he  had  received  a  letter 
from  Eutyches  complaining  that  his  excommunication 
had  been  without  just  cause,  and  that  his  appeal  to 
Kome  had  not  been  considered.  Flavianus  was  to  send 
to  Kome  a  competent  envoy,  with  fuU  information  of  all 
the  particulars  of  the  case,  to  render  final  judgment  in 
the  matter.  In  a  case  like  the  present,  says  Leo,  in 
his  conclusion,  the  first  thing  of  all  to  be  attended  to  is 
"  ut  sine  strepitu  concertationum  et  custodiatur  caritas 
et  Veritas  defendatur.'"  In  a  letter  of  the  same  date  to 
the  emperor,  Leo  rejoices  that  Theodosius  has  not  only 
a  royal,  but  also  a  priestly  heart,  and  carefuUy  guarded 
against  schism,  for  "  the  state  also  is  in  the  best  con- 
dition when  the  holy  Trmity  is  worshipped  in  unity." 
Meanwhile  a  general  council  was  summoned  to  be  held 
on  the  1st  of  August,  44'J,  at  Ephesus,  and  thither  the 
ambassadors  of  Leo  repaired,  for  the  purpose  of  reading 
publicly  the  above  letter  to  Flavianus.  But  a  great 
majority  of  the  congregated  fathers,  acting  under  con- 
trol of  the  president,  Dioscurus  of  Alexandria,  refused 
to  listen  to  the  document,  passed  tumultuously  a  series 
of  resolutions  favorable  to  Eutyches,  excommunicated 
the  most  zealous  of  his  opponents,  and  not  only  treated 
the  Koman  envo}-s  with  indignity,  but  even  offered  vio- 
lence to  their  persons.  Hence  this  assembly,  whose 
acts  were  all  subsequently  annulled,  is  known  in  eccle- 
siastical liistory  as  the  tSynodus  Latrocinalis.  The  ve- 
hement complaints  addressed  to  Theodosius  by  the  or- 
thodox leaders  proved  fruitless,  and  the  triumph  of  their 
opjionents  was  for  a  time  complete,  when  the  sudden 
death  of  the  emperor,  in  450,  again  awakened  the  hopes 
and  called  forth  the  exertions  of  Leo.  In  consequence 
of  the  pressing  representations  of  his  envoys,  Anatolius, 
the  successor  of  Flavianus,  together  with  all  the  clergy 
of  Constantinople,  was  induced  to  subscribe  the  Con- 
fession of  Faith  contained  in  the  Epistle  to  Fla\-ianus, 
and  to  transmit  it  for  signature  to  all  the  dioceses  of 
the  East.  Encouraged  by  this  success,  Leo  solicited 
the  new  monarch,  JIarcian,  to  summon  a  grand  council 
for  the  final  adjustment  of  the  question  concerning  the 
natiu-e  of  Christ,  which  still  proved  a  source  of  discord, 
and  straineil  every  nerve  to  have  it  held  in  Italy,  where 
his  own  adherents  would  necessarily  have  preponderated. 
In  this,  however,  he  failed,  as  the  council  was  held  at 
Chalcedon  in  October,  451.  Although  the  Koman  leg- 
ates, whose  language  was  of  the  most  imperious  de- 
scription, did  not  fail  broadly  to  assert  the  pretensions 
put  forth  by  the  representative  of  St.  Peter,  at  first  all 
went  smoothlv.  The  Epistle  to  Flavianus  was  ad- 
mitted as  a  rule  of  faith  for  the  guidance  of  the  uni- 
versal Church,  and  no  protest  was  entered  against  the 


spirit  of  arrogant  assumption  in  which  it  was  conceived. 
But  when  the  wliole  of  the  special  business  was  cou- 
cludetl,  at  tlie  very  last  sitting,  a  formal  resolution  was 
proposed  and  passed,  to  the  effect  that  Avhile  the  Koman 
see  was,  in  virtue  of  its  antiquity,  entitled  to  take  for- 
mal precedence  of  every  other,  the  see  of  Constantino]  le 
was  to  stand  next  in  rank,  was  to  be  regarded  as  inde- 
pendent from  every  other,  and  to  exercise  full  juristiic- 
tion  over  the  churches  of  Asia,  Thrace,  and  Pontus. 
The  resistance  of  Leo  was  all  in  vain.  The  obnoxious 
canons  were  fully  contirmed,  and  thus  one  half  of  the 
sovereignty  at  which  he  aimed  -was  lost  forever,  at  the 
very  moment  when  victory  seemed  no  longer  doubtful. 
Leo  made  another  and  last  effort  on  the  '22d  of  May, 
452,  when  he  wrote  to  Mareian  and  to  Pulcheria,  threat-  ' 
enmg,  but  in  vain,  to  excommunicate  Anatolius.  In  457, 
after  the  death  of  Mareian,  the  party  of  Eutyches  made 
a  last  effort,  and  besought  the  ne\v  emperor  to  assemble 
a  council  to  condemn  the  decrees  of  that  of  Chalcti'.on, 
but  the  emperor  refused  to  yield  to  this  request. 

In  the  mean  time  serious  events  were  taking  i)lace 
at  Kome.  In  452  the  dreaded  king  of  the  Huns,  Attila, 
invaded  Italy,  and,  after  sackuig  and  iihuulering  Aqui- 
leia,  Pavia,  and  Milan,  he  marched  against  Kome.  A'a- 
lentinian,  proving  himself  unfit  for  his  high  position, 
remained  at  Kavenna,  and  ^'Etius  himself  saw  safety  in 
flight  onh\  The  Koman  senate  assembled  to  deliberate 
on  what  should  be  done  in  this  emergencj^,  and  resist- 
ance being  considered  impossible,  Leo  was  chosen  as  a 
mediator  and  sent  to  Attila.  What  the  arguments  em- 
ployed b}'  the  eloquent  suppliant  may  have  been  history 
has  failed  to  record;  but  the  Huns  spared  Kome,  and, 
in  consideration  of  a  sum  paid  by  the  inhabitants,  witli- 
drew  from  Italy  and  retired  beyond  the  Danube.  This 
action  of  Attila  appeared  so  strange  that  it  was  consid- 
ered impossible  to  account  for  it  except  by  a  miracle. 
According  to  the  legend,  Attila  confessed  to  liis  oflicers 
that  during  the  address  of  Leo  a  venerable  old  man  ap- 
peared to  him,  holding  a  sword  with  which  he  threat- 
ened to  slay  him  if  he  resisted  the  voice  of  God.  When 
again  in  455  Kome  lay  at  the  mercy  of  the  Yandals,  who, 
taking  advantage  oi'  the  disturbances  «hich  followed 
the  death  of  Yalentinian,  had  invaded  Italy,  the  senate 
had  a  second  time  recourse  to  Leo,  and  sent  him  to 
Genseric.  But  this  time  his  eloquence  did  not  prove 
so  successful.  Genseric  consented  onh'  to  promise  not 
to  burn  the  city,  and  to  spare  the  life  of  the  inhabitants, 
and  from  plunder  three  of  the  most  important  churches. 
The  other  jiarts  of  the  town  were  abandoned  to  the  sol- 
diers for  a  ibrtnight.  The  remainder  of  Leo's  life  passed 
without  further  disturbance.  While  engaged  in  his 
schemes  of  aggrandizement,  he  never  neglected  for  a 
moment  to  pursue  and  repress  heresy  within  tke  states 
Avhere  his  authority  was  recognised.  Having  learned 
that  there  were  still  a  large  number  of  Maiiicha'ans  in 
Rome,  he  caused  them  to  be  hunted  up  and  punished. 
He  acted  ^vith  as  much  severity  against  the  Pelagians 
and  the  Priscillianists.  Barbeyrac  (Traite  de  la  morale 
des  Peres,  c.  17,  §  2)  even  accuses  him  of  ha^•ing  approved, 
and  perhaj)S  instigated,  the  violent  measures  taken 
against  the  heretics  during  his  pontificate,  and  adduces 
in  proof  the  letter  of  this  pope  to  Turibius,  bishop  pri- 
mate of  Spain,  concerning  the  PriscDlianists.  Beau- 
sobre  (in  his  llistoire  dii  Manich.,  1.  9,  c.  9,  t.  2,  p.  75(5) 
goes  further,  and  charges  Leo  with  having  falsely  ac- 
cused the  INIanichreans  and  Priscillianists  of  the  mis- 
deeds for  which  they  were  condemned. 

Leo  is  said  to  have  been  the  originator  of  the  fasts 
of  Lent  and  Pentecost.  An  old  legend,  found  in  a  num- 
ber of  ancient  writers,  relates  that  in  the  latter  part  of 
his  life  Leo  cut  off  one  of  his  hands;  some,  Th.  Kay- 
naud  among  them,  give  as  the  reason  that  a  woman  of 
great  beauty  having  once,  on  Easter-day,  been  iicrmitted 
to  kiss  his  hand,  the  pope  felt  unholy  desires,  and  thus 
punished  this  rebellion  of  the  flesh,  and  they  add  that  it 
is  from  that  time  the  custom  of  kissing  the  pope's  loot 
was  introduced.     Sabellicus  and  others  assert  iliat  the 


LEO  I 


358 


LEO  II 


pope  only  punished  liimself  for  having  conferred  orders 
on  a  man  who  proved  lunvorthy.  All  state  that  his 
liand  was  finally  restored  to  him  hy  a  miracle.  He 
died  April  11,461. 

The  works  of  Leo  consist  of  discourses  delivered  on 
the  f;rcat  festivals  of  the  Church,  or  on  other  solemn 
occasions,  and  of  letters.  I.  Sekmoses. — Of  these,  the 
tirst  by  the  Koman  pontiffs  which  have  come  down  to 
posterity,  we  possess  96.  There  are  5  De  Natali  ipsius, 
preached  on  anniversaries  of  his  ordination,  6  De  Col- 
L'ctis,  9  De  Jejunio  Decimi  Mensis,  10  De  Nativitate 
Domini,  8  In  Epiphania  Domini,  19  De  Passione  Domi- 
ni. 2  De  ResurrecHone  Domini,  2  De  Ascemione  Domini, 
3  De  Pentecoste,  4  De  Jejunio  Pentecosfes,  1  /«  Natali 
Apnstolorum  Petri  et  PauU,  1  In  Natali  S.  Petri  Apos- 
toli,  1  hi  Octavis  Apostolorum  Petri  et  Pauli,  1  In  Natali 
S.  Lanrentii  Maiiyris,  9  De  Jejunio  Septimi  Mensis,  1  De 
Grarlibus  Ascensionis  ad  Beatitudinem,  1  Tractatus  con- 
tra ficeresim  Eutychis.  Milman  {Hist.  Lat.  Christianity, 
i.  258 )  thus  comments  on  these  productions  of  Leo : 
''His  sermons  singularly  contrast  with  the  florid,  des- 
ultDry,  and  often  imaginative  and  impassioned  style  of 
the  (ircek  preachers.  They  are  brief,  simple,  severe ; 
•without  fancy,  without  metaphysic  subtlety,  without 
passion ;  it  is  th.e  Koman  censor  animadverting  with 
nervous  majesty  on  the  vices  of  the  people;  the  Roman 
priBtor  dictating  the  law,  and  delivering  with  authority 
the  doctrine  of  the  faith.  They  are  singularly  Chris- 
tian—Christian as  dwelling  almost  exclusively  on  Christ, 
his  birth,  his  passion,  his  resurrection ;  only  polemic  so 
far  as  called  upon  by  the  prevailing  controversies  to  as- 
sert with  special  emphasis  the  perfect  deity  and  the 
perfect  manhood  of  Christ."  II.  Epistol.e. — These, 
extending  to  the  number  of  173,  are  addressed  to  the 
reigning  emperors  and  their  consorts,  to  synods,  to  re- 
ligious communities,  to  bishops  and  other  dignitaries, 
and  to  sundry  influential  personages  connected  with  the 
ecclesiastical  history  of  the  times.  Thjy  afford  an  im- 
mense mass  of  most  valuable  information  on  the  pre- 
vailing heresies,  controversies,  and  doubts  on  matters  of 
doctrine,  discipline,  and  Church  governmant.  Besides 
the  96  Sermones  and  173  Epistolce  mentioned  above,  a 
considerable  number  of  tracts  have  from  time  to  time 
been  ascribed  to  this  pope,  but  their  authenticity  is 
either  so  doubtful  or  their  spuriousness  so  evident  that 
they  are  now  universally  set  aside.  A  list  of  these,  and 
an  investigation  of  their  origin,  will  be  found  in  the  edi- 
tion of  the  brothers  Ballerini,  more  particularly  described 
below.  In  consequence  of  the  reputation  deserv^edly 
gained  by  Leo,  his  writings  have  always  been  eagerly 
studied.  But,  although  a  vast  number  of  MSS.  are  still 
in  existence,  none  of  these  exhibit  his  works  in  a  com- 
jilcte  form,  and  no  attempt  seems  to  have  been  made  to 
bring  together  any  portion  of  them  for  many  hundred 
years  after  his  death.  The  Sermones  were  dispersed  in 
the  Lectionaria,  or  select  discourses  of  distinguished  di- 
vines, employed  in  places  of  public  worship  until  the 
11th  century,  when  they  first  began  to  be  picked  out  of 
these  cumbrous  storehouses  and  transcribed  separately, 
while  the  Kpistolm  were  gradually  gathered  into  imper- 
fect groups,  or  remained  embodied  in  the  general  col- 
lections of  papal  constitutions  aMd  canons. 

Of  the  numerous  printed  editions  of  Leo  I's  works, 
the  first  was  published  hy  Sweynheym  and  Pannartz 
(Rome,  1 170,  fol.),  under  the  inspection  of  Andrew,  bish- 
()|)  of  Aleria,  comprising  ;)2  Sennmu'S  and  .">  Epistol(e. 
Tlie  best  two  editions  were  published  at  Paris  (167o, 
2  vols.  4to)  by  Pasipiier  ()uesnel  and  l)y  the  Ballerini 
(Verona,  17o5-o7,  3  vols.  fol.).  Of  (.^uesnel's  edition  it 
is  due  to  say  that,  l)v  the  aid  of  a  large  number  of  JMSS., 
])reservcd  chiefly  in  the  libraries  of  France,  he  %'as  en- 
abled to  introduce  such  essential  iin|)rovement*into  the 
text,  and  l)y  bis  erudite  imhijtry  illustrated  so  clearly 
the  obscurities  in  which  many  of  the  documents  were 
involved,  that  the  works  of  Loo  now  for  the  first  time 
assumed  an  unmutilated,  intelligible,  and  satisfactory 
aspect.     But  the  admiration  excited  by  the  skill  with 


which  the  arduous  task  had  been  executed  soon  received 
a  check.  Uijon  attentive  perusal  the  notes  and  disser- 
tations were  found  to  contain  such  free  remarks  upon 
many  of  the  opinions  and  usages  of  the  primitive  Church, 
and,  above  all,  to  manifest  such  unequivocal  hostility  to 
the  despotism  of  the  Koman  see,  that  the  volumes  fell 
under  the  ban  of  the  Inciuisition  very  shortly  after  their 
publication,  and  were  included  in  the  Index  Librorum 
Prohihitorum  of  1082.  Notwithstanding  these  denun- 
ciations, the  book  enjoj-ed  great  popularity,  and  was  re- 
printed, without  any  suppression  or  modification  of  the 
obnoxious  passages,  at  Lyons,  in  1700.  Hence  the 
heads  of  the  Komish  Church  became  anxious  to  supply 
an  antidote  to  the  poison  so  extensively  circulated. 
This  undertaking  was  first  attempted  by  Peter  Cacciari, 
a  Carmelite  monk  of  the  Propaganda,  whose  labors  (S. 
Leonis  Magni  Opera  omnia  [Kome,  1753-1755,  2  vols, 
fol.]  ;  Exercitationes  in  Universa  S.  Leonis  Magni  Opera 
[Kome,  1751,  fol.])  might  have  attracted  attention  and 
praise  had  they  not  been,  at  the  very  moment  when 
the}'  were  brought  to  a  close,  entirely  thrown  into  the 
shade  by  those  of  the  brothers  Peter  and  Jerome  Balle- 
rini, presbyters  of  Verona.  Their  edition,  indeed,  is  en- 
titled to  take  the  first  place,  both  on  account  of  the  pu- 
rity of  the  text,  corrected  from  a  great  number  of  MSS., 
chiefly  Koman,  not  before  collated,  the  arrangement  of 
the  different  parts,  and  the  notes  and  disquisitions.  A 
fidl  description  of  these  volumes,  as  ^vell  as  of  those  of 
Quesnel  and  Cacciari,  is  to  be  found  in  .Schiinemann 
{Bibl.  Patrum  Lat.  vol.  ii,  §  42),  who  has  bestowed  more 
than  usual  care  upon  this  section.  See  IMaimbourg, 
Histoire  du  Pontifical  de  Lion  (Paris,  1687, 4to);  Arendt, 
Leo  d.Grosse  (Mainz,  1835,  8 vo);  Gesch.  d.Rom.  Literat. 
(Supi)l.  Band.  2d  part,  §  159-162) ;  Alex,  de  Saint-Che- 
Ton,  Histoire  du  Pontifical  de  St.  Leon  le  Grand  et  de  son 
siecle  (2  vols.  8vo.) ;  Ph.  de  JNIornay,  Histoire  Pontificale 
(1612,  12mo,  p.  71);  l^mys,  Hist,  des  Papes  (La  Haye, 
1732,  5  vols.  4to),  i,  218;  Baronius,  Ammles  Ecclesiastici 
(Lucques,  1738,  19  vols,  fol.),  vii,  535-638;  viii,  1-240; 
G.  Bertazzolo,  Breve  Descrittione  della  Vita  di  san  Leone 
primo  et  di  Attila  Flagello  di  Dio  (Mantua,  1014,  4to); 
Gfrorer,  Kirchengesch.  ii,  1 ;  E.  Perthel,  Pahst  Leo's  I 
Leben  u.  Lehren  (1843) ;  C.  T.  Hefele,  Conciliengeschichte, 
vol.  ii ;  iMilman,  Hist.  Latin  Christianity,  vol.  i,  ch.  iv; 
Neander,  Church  History,  ii,  104, 169  sq.,'508  sq.,  708  sq. ; 
Dumoulin,  Vie  et  Religion  de  deux  hons  Papes  Leon  I  et 
Gregnirel  (1650) ;  Baxmann,  PoftVil-  derPdpste,  i,  13  sq.  j 
Lea,  Studies  in  Ch.  Hist.  (Phil.  1869, 8vo :  see  its  Index) ; 
Riddle,  Hist.  Papacy,  i,  171  sq.;  Schrockh,  Kirchengesch. 
xvii,  90  sq.;  Herzog,i?e«Wi«cyX-/.  viii, 290-31]-,  Smith, 
Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biog.  and  Myth,  ii,  740  sq. ; 
Migne,  Nonv.  Encyc.  Theol.  ii,  1152  ;  Bergier,  Diet,  de 
Thiol,  iv,  34  sq. ;  Hoefer,  Nonv.  Biog.  Ginirale,  xxx,  704 
-708;  Engl.  Cyclop,  s.  v.;  Christian  Remembrancer.  \Sb^, 
p.  291  sq. 

Leo  II,  Pope,  was  born  at  Cedelle.  in  Sicily,  in  the 
early  part  of  the  7th  century.  He  became  first  canon 
regular,  then  cardinal  priest,  and  finally  pope,  as  suc- 
cessor of  Agatho.  Although  his  predecessor  had  died 
in  January  of  the  same  year,  he  was  installed  as  late  as 
August.  082,  by  the  emperor  Constantine  V,  as  "the 
most  holy  and  blessed  archbishop  of  old  Rome,  and  uni- 
versal pope."  The  reasons  of  this  delay  are  unknown. 
Soon  after  his  election  Constantine  requested  him  to 
send  to  Constantinople  an  ambassador,  with  full  author- 
ity to  decide  at  once  on  all  questions  of  dogmi.s  and 
canons,  and  other  ecclesiastical  interests.  But  Loo,  per- 
ceiving the  aim  of  the  request,  sent  only  a  sub-deacon, 
who  would  not  act  iu  matters  of  any  importance  without 
first  consulting  with  Kome.  He  also  immediately  as- 
sembled a  synod  to  approve  of  the  acts  of  the  sixth 
cecumenical  oounojl  held  at  Constantinople  iu  081,  which 
had  been  brought  to  Kome  liy  the  logates  of  Agatho. 
In  083  he  sent  a  legate  to  Constantine,  with  a  letter 
anathematizing  the  heresy  of  the  IMonothelites,  and  also 
pope  Honorius  (025-038),  "who,  instead  of  purifying 
the  Apostolic  Church  by  the  doctrines  of  the  apostles, 


LEO  III 


359 


LEO  III 


has  come  near  overthrowing  the  faith  by  his  treason" 
(Labbc,  Cone,  vi,  1'24G).  Leo  sought  to  induce  all  the 
churches  to  accept  the  decisions  of  that  council,  and  for 
tliat  purpose  translated  them  from  Greek  into  Latin, 
sending  a  copy  of  tlicm  in  the  latter  language  to  the 
Spanish  bishops.  He  iippears  also  to  have  given  his 
ambassador  four  letters,  somewhat  similar  as  to  their 
contents  (sec  Mansi,  xi,  1050-1058),  addressed  to  the 
bisln)ps  of  Ustrogothia,  count  Simplicius,  king  Erwig, 
and  the  metropolitan  bishop  Quiricus  of  Toledo,  ex- 
pressing his  wish  that  all  the  bishops  of  Spain  would 
indorse  the  acts  of  the  Council  of  Constantinople.  In 
these  letters  he  saj-s :  "  Honorius  has  falsified  the  invi- 
olable rule  of  apostolic  succession  which  he  had  received 
from  his  predecessors."  Baronius,  wishing  to  rehabili- 
tate Leo,  denies  the  authenticity  of  these  letters,  while 
I'agi  attem|its  to  uphold  it ;  Gfrurer  {Kircheiir/esch.  vol. 
iii,  pt.  i,  p.  397  sq.)  also  maintains  their  genuineness,  and 
adduces  in  proof  of  it  their  corresponding  ]3reci£ely  with 
the  decisions  of  the  fourteenth  Council  of  Toledo.  Leo 
also  obtained  from  Constantine  a  promise  that  after  the 
death  of  the  titidar  archbishop  of  Kavenna  his  succes- 
sors should,  according  to  an  old  custom  fallen  into  dis- 
use, come  to  Rome  to  be  consecrated.  In  exchange  for 
this  concession,  Leo  relieved  the  see  of  Kavenna  from 
the  obligation  of  paying  the  taxes  formerly  levied  on 
the  occasion  of  sucli  consecration.  Leo  was  a  great 
friend  of  Church  music,  and  did  much  towards  improv- 
ing the  Gregorian  chant.  He  built  a  church  to  St. 
Paul,  and  is  said  to  have  originated  the  custom  of  sprink- 
ling the  people  with  holy  water.  He  died  in  July,  C83 : 
the  exact  date  is  not  ascertained,  and  the  l!<iman  Cath- 
olic Church  commemorates  him  on  the  28tli  of  June. 
See  Dupin,  Bihliolh.  des  A  uteurs  EccUs.  v,  105 ;  Platina, 
Historia  ddle  Vite  dti  Sommi  Pontcftci ;  Ciaconius,  1  eVre 
et  Res  gestce  Pontijicum  Romanorinn  (L'om.  1077,  4  vols, 
folio),  i,  478;  Heizog,  Hecd-Enci/Llo]).  viii,  311 ;  Hotter, 
Aoiiv.  Biofj.  Generule,  xxx,  708;  Baxmann,  i'oto'A;  der 
J'dpsic,  i,  185 ;  Bower,  History  of  the  Ponies,  iii,  184  sq. ; 
Kiddle,  Hist,  of  the  Papaaj,  i,  300. 

Leo  III,  Pope,  who  brought  about  the  elevation  of 
the  Prankish  king  to  the  position  of  emperor  of  the 
AVest,  and  thus  relieved  the  Peman  pontificate  of  fur- 
ther sidijection  to  the  Greek  emperors,  was  a  native  of 
the  Eternal  City,  and  was  elected  after  the  death  of 
Adrian  I,  Dec.  25,  795,  Immediately  after  his  election 
lie  communicated  the  intelligence  to  Charlemagne,  and, 
like  his  predecessor,  acknowledged  allegiance.  Charle- 
magne replied  by  a  letter  of  congratulation,  which  he 
intrusted  to  the  abbot  Angilbertus,  whom  lie  commis- 
sioned to  confer  with  the  new  pontiff  respecting  the  re- 
lations between  the  see  of  Pome  and  the  "Patrician  of 
the  Pomans,"  for  this  was  the  title  which  Charlemagne 
had  assumed.  In  796  Leo  sent  to  Charlemagne  the 
keys  of  St.  Peter  and  the  standard  of  the  city  of  Pome, 
requesting  the  king  to  send  some  of  his  nobles  to  admin- 
ister the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  people  of  Pome,  and 
thus  the  dominion  of  Cliarlemagne  was  extended  over 
the  city  and  duchy  of  Rome.  In  the  year  799,  an  atro- 
cious assault,  the  motive  of  which  is  not  clearly  ascer- 
tained, was  committed  on  the  person  of  the  pope.  While 
Leo  was  riding  on  liorseback,  followed  by  the  clergy,  and 
chanting  the  liturgy,  a  canon  by  the  name  of  Paschal 
and  a  sacristan  called  Campulus,  accompanied  by  many 
armed  rufnans,  fell  u[)on  him,  threw  him  from  his  horse, 
and  dragged  him  into  the  convent  of  St.  Sylvester, 
wlien  they  stabbed  him  in  many  ]ilaces,  endeavoring 
to  put  out  Ins  eyes  and  cut  out  his  tongue.  Leo,  how- 
ever, was  delivered  by  his  friends  from  tlie  hands  <if  tlie 
assassins,  and  taken  to  Spoleti  under  the  protection  of  the 
duke  of  Spoleti,  where  he  soon  after  recovered ;  thence  lie 
travelled  as  far  asPaderborn  in  Germany,  where  Charle- 
magne then  was,  by  whom  the  pope  was  received  with 
the  greatest  honors.  Charlemagne  sent  him  back  to 
Pome  with  a  numerous  escort  of  bishops  and  counts, 
and  also  of  armed  men.  The  pope  was  met  outside  of 
the  city  gates  by  the  clergy,  senate,  and  people,  and  ac- 


companied in  triumph  to  the  Lateran  palace.  A  court 
composed  of  the  bishops  and  counts  proceeded  to  the 
trial  of  the  conspirators  who  had  attempted  the  life  of 
the  pope,  and  the  two  chiefs.  Paschal  and  Campulus, 
were  exiled  to  France.  From  this  very  lenient  sentence 
and  other  concomitant  circumstances,  it  appears  that 
Charlemagne  had  greatly  at  heart  the  conciliation  of  the 
Romans  in  general,  in  order  to  deter  them  from  betaking 
themselves  again  to  the  protection  of  the  (ircek  emper- 
ors. In  800  Charlemagne  himself  visited  Italy,  and  w£6 
met  at  Nomentum,  outside  of  Pome,  by  the  pope,  and 
the  next  day  he  repaired  to  the  Basilica  of  the  Vatican, 
escorted  by  the  soldiers  and  the  people.  After  a  few 
days  Charlemagne  convoked  a  numerous  assembly  of 
prelates,  abbots,  and  other  persons  of  distinction,  Franks 
as  well  as  Romans,  to  examine  certain  charges  brought 
against  the  pope  by  the  partisans  of  Paschal  and  Cam- 
pulus, but  no  proofs  were  elicited,  and  Leo  himself,  tak- 
ing the  book  of  gospels  in  his  hand,  eieclarcd  himself  in- 
nocent. On  Christmas-day  of  that  year  the  pontiff  of- 
ficiated in  the  Basilica  of  the  Vatican,  in  presence  of 
Charlemagne  and  his  numerous  retinue.  As  Charle- 
magne was  preparing  to  leave  the  church,  tlie  pontiff 
stopped  him,  and  placed  a  rich  crown  upon  his  head, 
while  the  clergy  and  the  people,  at  the  same  moment, 
cried  out  "  Carolo  piissimo,"  "Augusto  magno  impera- 
tori,"  with  other  expressions  and  acclamations  wLieh 
were  wont  to  be  use  el  in  proclaiming  Roman  emperors. 
Three  times  the  acelamatie>ns  were  repeated,  after  which 
the  pope  was  the  first  to  pay  homage  to  the  new  emper- 
or. From  that  time  CLarlcmagne  left  off  the  titles  of 
king  and  patrician,  and  styled  himself  Augustus  and 
emperor  of  the  Remans,  and  he  addressed  the  emperor 
of  Constantinople  bj-  the  name  of  brother.  Thus  was 
the  Western  empire  revived  325  years  after  Odoacer  had 
deposed  Romulus  Augustulus,  the  last  nominal  successor 
of  the  Casars  on  the  throne  of  the  West,  Frem  that 
time  all  claim  of  the  Eastern  emperors  to  the  supreme 
dominion  over  the  duchj'  of  Rome  was  at  an  eid,  anil 
the  popes  from  the  same  date  assumeel  the  temporal  an- 
thority  over  the  city  and  eluchy,  in  subordination,  hew- 
ever,  to  Charlemagne  and  his  successors;  they  began, 
also,  to  coin  money,  with  the  pontiff's  name  on  one  siele 
and  that  of  the  emperor  on  the  other.  In  804  the  pope, 
during  Christmas,  visited  Charlemagne  at  his  court  at 
Aquifgrana  (Aix-la-Chapelle).  In  the  division  which 
Cliarlemagne  made  by  will  of  his  dominions  among  his 
sons,  the  city  of  Rome  was  declared  to  belong  to  him 
who  should  bear  the  title  of  emperor.  Louis  le  Dtbon- 
naire  was  afterwards  invested  with  that  title  by  Charle- 
magne himself,  and  we  find  him  accordingly,  after  the 
death  of  his  father,  assuming  the  supreme  jurisdiction 
over  that  city  on  the  occasion  of  a  fresh  conspiracy 
which  broke  out  against  Leo,  the  heads  of  which  were 
convicted  by  the  ordinary  courts  of  Pome,  and  put  to 
death.  Louis  founel  fault  with  the  rigor  of  the  sentence 
and  the  haste  of  its  execution,  and  he  ordered  his  neph- 
ew, Bernard,  king  of  Italy,  to  proceed  to  Rome  and  in- 
vestigate the  wliole  affair.  Leo,  who  stems  to  have 
been  alarmeel  at  this  proceeding,  sent  messengers  to  the 
court  of  Louis  to  justify  himself.  Meanwhile  he  feU 
seriously  ill,  anel  the  people  of  Rome  broke  out  into  in- 
surrection, and  pulleel  down  some  buildings  he  had  begun 
to  construct  on  the  confiscated  property  of  the  conspira- 
tors. The  duke  of  Speileti  was  sent  for  with  a  liody  of 
troops  to  supyiress  the  tumult,  when  Leo  suddenly  dietl 
in  816,  and  Stephen  IV  was  elected  in  his  place.  Leo 
is  praised  by  Anastasius,  a  biographer  of  the  same  cen- 
tury, fe)r  the  many  structures,  especially  chure lies,  which 
he  raised  or  repaired,  and  the  valuable  gifts  wiili  which 
he  enriched  them.  In  his  temporal  poliiy  lie  rppeara 
to  have  been  mt)re  moderate  and  prudent  than  his  pre- 
elecessor,  Adrian  I,  wlio  was  perpetually  soliciting  Char- 
lemagne in  his  letters  for  fresh  grants  of  territory  to  his 
see.  Thirteen  letters  of  Leo  are  published  in  Labbe's 
Concilia,  vii,  1111-1127.  He  is  also  considered  the  au- 
thor of  the  Ejnstoloi  tid  Carolum  Magnum  imp.,  ex  edi- 


LEO  IV 


360 


LEO  IX 


tione  et  cum  iiotis  Hermanni  Conringii  (Helmst.  IG-tT, 
4to).  The  Enchiridion  Lmiiis  jxijiw,  containing  seven 
penitential  psalms  and  some  prayers,  has  been  errone- 
ously attributed  to  him.  See  I'h.  Jaft'e,  Her/.  Pontijic. 
(Berlin,  1851, 4to),  p.  215 ;  F.  Pagi,  Breviarium  historico- 
ckronolur/ico-criticum  illustriord  pontiff.  (4:to),  ii,  1 ;  J.  G. 
Faber,  Dissertatio  de  Leone  111,  papa  Romano  (Tubing. 
1718,  -tto) ;  jMilman,  Hist.  Latin  Christianity,  ii,  454  sq. ; 
IJankc,  Hist,  of  Papaci/,  i,  24  scp;  liaKvamm,  Poiitik  der 
Pdpste,  i,  304 ;  Neander,  Ch.  /list,  ii  (see  Index) ;  Kiddle, 
Jlist.  of  Papacy,  i,  320  ;  Bower,  Jlist.  Popes,  iv,  142  sq.; 
Schrockh,  Kirchenyesch.  xix,  (500  sq. ;  xx,  510 ;  xxii,  37 
sq.;  Reichel,  Soc  of  Rmne  in  the  Middle  Ages,  p.  72  sq. ; 
Lea,  Studies  in  Church  Hist.  p.  34  s(j.,  38,  58, 88  note,  179  ; 
Knyl.  Cyclop. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bioy.  Generale,  xxx,  710 ; 
Gfrcirer,  Kirchenyesch.  iii,  1,  2. 

Leo  IV,  Pope,  was  a  native  of  Rome,  and  succeeded 
Scrgius  II  in  847.  He  was  hastily  elected,  and  conse- 
crated without  waiting  for  the  consent  of  the  emperor 
Lotharius,  because  Home  was  then  threatened  by  the 
Saracens,  who  occupied  part  of  the  duchy  of  Benevento, 
and  who  a  short  time  before  had  landed  on  the  banks  of 
the  Tiber,  and  plundered  the  basilica  of  St.  Peter's  on 
the  Vatican,  which  was  outside  of  the  walls.  Leo's  con- 
secration, however,  was  undertaken  with  the  express 
reservation  of  the  emperor's  rights,  and  when,  in  order 
to  prevent  a  recurrence  of  tlie  violence  of  the  Saracens, 
Leo  inidertook  to  surround  the  basilica  and  the  suburb 
about  it  with  waUs,  the  emperor  sent  money  to  assist 
in  the  work.  The  building  of  this  Roman  suburb  oc- 
cupied four  3'ears,  and  it  was  named  after  its  founder, 
Ciritas  Leonina.  Leo  also  restored  the  town  of  Porta, 
on  the  Tiber,  near  its  mouth,  settling  there  some  thou- 
sands of  Corsicans,  vi\\o  had  run  away  from  their  country 
on  account  of  the  Saracens.  Tow^ers  were  built  on  both 
banks  of  the  river,  and  iron  chains  drawn  across  to  pre- 
vent the  vessels  of  the  Saracens  from  ascending  to  Rome. 
Tlie  port  and  town  of  Centum  Cellfe  being  forsaken  on 
account  of  the  Saracens,  Leo  built  a  new  town  on  the 
coast,  about  twelve  miles  distant  from  the  other,  which 
was  called  Leopolis ;  but  no  traces  of  it  remain  now,  as 
the  modern  Civita  Vecchia  is  built  on  or  near  the  site 
of  old  Centum  Celte.  Leo  IV  held  a  council  at  Rome 
in  853,  in  which  Anastasius,  cardinal  of  St.  Marcel,  was 
deposed  for  having  remained  fi\'e  years  absent  from 
Rome,  notwithstanding  the  orders  of  the  pope.  Leo 
died  in  July,  855,  and  fifteen  days  after  his  death  Bene- 
dict III  was  elected  in  his  place,  according  to  the  most 
authentic  text  of  Anastasius,  who  was  a  contemporary ; 
but  later  writers  introduce  between  Leo  IV  and  Benedict 
III  the  fabulous  pope  Joan  (q.  v.).  Leo  has  left  us  two 
entire  epistles,  as  also  fragments  of  several  others,  and  a 
good  homih^  which  are  contained  in  Labbe's  Cone.  See 
Baronius,  Annal.  xiv,  340;  Ciaconius,  i,  014;  Gfrorer, 
Kirchenyeschichte,  iii,  1,  2;  Baxmann,  Politik  d.  Pdpste, 
i,  281,  352;  Lea,  Studies  in  Ch.  History,  p.  Gl,  91 ;  Rid- 
dle, 1 1  Ut.  of  Papacy,  i,  330  sq. ;  Reichel,  See  of  Rome  in 
the  Midille  Ayes,  p.  90 ;  Labbe,  Concil.  ix,  995 ;  Gieseler, 
Eccles.  Jlist.  ii,  220  sq. ;  Ucrzof;,  Real-Encyklop.  viii,  312 ; 
Mosheim,  Eccl.  Hist,  ii,  77  ;  Hoefer,  Xotw.  Bioy.  Giner. 
xxx,  711 ;  Enylish  Cyclopcedia,  s.  v. 

Leo  V,  Pope,  was  born  at  Priajii,  near  Ardea  (ac- 
cording to  some  at  Arezzo).  lie  entered  the  order  of 
Benedictines,  became  cardinal,  and  was  fuially  elected 
to  the  ])apal  chair  Oct.  28,  903.  A  few  days  afterwards, 
Christopher,  cardinal  jiriest  of  St.  Lorenzo,  in  Damaso, 
and  chaplain  of  Leo,  instigated  an  insurrection  at  Rome, 
and  made  tlic  pope  jirisoner,  under  the  plea  that  he  was 
incai>al)le  of  governing.  Christoidier  now  exacted  from 
Leo  a  formal  abdication,  and  the  promise  of  returning 
into  his  convent.  According  to  Sigonius,  Leo  died  "of 
grief"  in  his  prison  one  montli  and  nine  days  after  his 
election.  He  was  buried  in  ^t.  John  of  Lrtteran.  But 
Christo])her  himself  did  not  remain  long  in  the  papal 
chair,  as  a  new  revolt  of  the  Romans  drove  him  from  the 
usurped  see,  and  put  in  his  place  Sergius  III,  who  was 


the  favorite  of  the  celebrated  Marozia,  a  powerful  but 
licentious  woman,  who  disjwsed  of  everything  in  Rome. 
The  10th  century  may  well  be  termed  the  darkest  sera 
of  the  papacy.  See  Platina,  Historia  de  Vitis  Pontiji- 
cum,  etc. ;  Artaud  de  Montor,  Hist,  des  souverains  Pon~ 
tifes  Romains,  ii,  02  ;  Du  Chene,  Hist,  des  Popes ;  Bax- 
mann, Politik  der  Pdpste,  ii,  70  sq. ;  Bower,  Jlist,  of  the 
Popes,  V,  80;  Kiddle,  Hist,  of  the  Papacy,  ii,  30;  Gene- 
hTa.Td,Chron. ;  Herzog, Real-Encyklop.\iu, 'Sib ;  Enylish 
Cyclopu'dia  ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bioy.  Generale,  xxx,  711. 

Leo  VI,  Pope,  a  native  of  Rome,  succeeded  John  X 
July  0,  928,  and  died  seven  months  afterwards ;  some 
say  that  he  was  put  to  death  by  Marozia,  like  his  pre- 
decessor. He  was  succeeded  by  Stephen  VII. — Enylish 
Cyclopcedia ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bioyr.  Generale,  xxx,  712 ; 
Bower,  History  of  the  Popes,  x,  95. 

Leo  VII,  Pope,  a  Roman,  sometimes  called  Leo  VI, 
succeeded  Jolm  XI,  the  son  of  Marozia,  January  8,  930. 
He  mediated  peace  between  Alberic,  duke  of  Rome,  and 
Hugo,  king  of  Italy,  who  had  offered  to  marry  Marozia, 
in  order  to  obtain  by  her  means  the  possession  of  Rome, 
but  was  driven  away  by  Alberic,  also  JNIarozia's  son. 
Leo  is  said  to  have  been  a  man  of  irreproachable  con- 
duct, but  little  is  known  of  him.  He  died  in  939,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Stephen  VIII.  We  have  of  hiin  an 
epistola  to  Hugo,  abbot  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours,  pubhshed 
in  D'Acher}''s  Spicileyium ;  two  others  to  Gerard,  arch- 
bishop of  Lorch,  and  to  the  bishops  of  France  and  Ger- 
many. See  jNIabillon,  A  nnales  Ordinis  S.  Benedicii,  vols, 
ii  and  iv;  '^hvca.iori,  Rerum  Italicarum  Scriptores,  voL 
iii;  Fleury,  Hist.  Ecclesiast.;  Haxonms,  Aftnal.  cent,  x; 
Bower,  Hist,  of  the  Popes,  v,  97  sq. ;  Reichel,  Roman  See 
in  the  Middle  Ayes,  p.  121 ;  Baxmann,  Politik  der  Pdpste, 
ii,  93 ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyklop.  viii,  310 ;  Enylish  Cyclo- 
pcedia; Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bioy.  Generale,  xxx,  712. 

Leo  VIII,  Pope,  a  Roman,  succeeded  John  XII, 
who  was  deposed  for  his  misconduct  by  a  council  assem- 
bled at  Rome,  in  presence  of  the  emperor  Otho  I,  in  903. 
But  soon  after  Otho  had  left  Rome,  John  XII  came  in 
again  at  the  head  of  his  partisans,  obliged  Leo  to  run 
away,  and  resumed  the  papal  office.  John,  however, 
shortly  after  died  or  was  murdered  while  committing 
adultery,  and  the  Romans  elected  Benedict  V.  Otho,  re- 
turning with  an  army,  took  the  city  of  Rome,  exiled  Ben- 
edict, and  reinstated  Leo,  who  died  about  905,  and  was 
succeeded  by  John  XIII.  See  Baronius,  A  nnal.  xvi,  129 ; 
Platina,  Historia,  p.  14 ;  Bower,  Hist,  of  the  Popes,  v,  112 
sq. ;  Riddle,  Hist,  of  the  Papacy,  ii,  42;  Reichel,  Roman 
See  in  the  Middle  Ayes,  p.  126  sq.,  210;  Baxmann,  Pol- 
itik der  Pdpste,  ii,  1 14 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bioy.  Gen.  xxx,  713. 

Leo  IX  (Bruno),  Pofie,  bishop  of  Toul,  was  bom  in 
Alsace  in  1002,  and  was  cousin-german  of  the  emperor 
Conrad  the  Salic.  He  was  noted  for  great  scholarly  at- 
tainments, and  was  elected  in  1049  to  succeed  Damasus 
II,  at  the  joint  recommendation  of  the  emperor  Henry 
III  and  of  the  famous  Hildebrand  (afterwards  ( iregory 
VII),  who  became  one  of  Leo  IX's  most  trusted  advisers 
and  guides.  Indeed,  it  has  often  been  a  matter  of  com- 
ment that  the  reign  of  Leo  IX  was  rather  Gregorian  in 
tendency.  Leo  was  continually  in  motion  between  (ier- 
many  and  Italy,  holding  councils  and  endeavoring  to 
reform  the  discipline  and  morals  of  the  clergy,  and  also 
to  check  the  progress  of  the  Normans  in  Southern  Italy, 
against  whom  he  led  an  army,  but  was  defeated  in  Apu- 
lia and  taken  prisoner  by  the  Normans,  who  treated  liim 
witli  great  respect,  but  kept  him  for  more  than  a  year 
in  Benevento.  Having  made  peace  with  them  by  grant- 
ing to  them  as  a  fief  of  tlie  Roman  see  their  conquests 
in  Apulia  and  Calabria,  he  was  allowed  to  return  to 
Rome,  where  he  died  in  1054.  and  was  succeeded  by 
Victor  II.  Ainong  the  councils  lield  by  Leo  IX,  one 
was  convened  at  Rome  (1050)  against  Berengar  (ip  v.), 
and  in  favor  of  Lanfranc  (q.  v.).  Another  important 
council  held  during  his  pontificate  was  that  of  Rheims 
in  1049,  where  many  laws  were  enacted  against  simony, 
clerical  matrimonv,  and  the  conditions  and  relations  of 


LEO  X 


361 


LEO  X 


monks  and  priests.  Labbe  and  C<is.sart's  Cone,  contain 
nineteen  letters  of  this  iiopc  (ix,  949-1001).  Sec  Baro- 
nius,  Annul,  xvii,  l'J-107  ;  Muratori,  lucrum  Ilulicarum 
IScrijUares,  iii,  277, 278 ;  Gfrijrer,  Kirchenyeschichte,  iv,  1 ; 
Hotter,  Die  ikutschen  Pdbste,  ii,  3-214;  Baxmann,  Po^j- 
tik  der  I'dpste,  i,  359  sq. ;  ii,  191  sq. ;  Bower,  Hist,  of  the 
Popes,  V,  1(54  sq. ;  Kiddle,  Hist,  of  the  Papacji,  ii,  105  sq. ; 
Ilunkler,  Leo  JX  u.  s,  Zeit  (Mayence,  1851);  Milman, 
Jlist.  of  Latin  Christianity,  iii,  240  S(j. ;  Kanke,  Ilist.  of 
the  Papacy  ;  Keichel,  Roman  See  in  the  Middle  Ayes,  p. 
189  sq.,  191  sq.,  217,  244,  292 ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyklop. 
viii,  317  sq. ;  Enylish  Cydop.  s.  v.;  Hoefer,  Kouv.Bioy. 
Geiiirale,  xxx,  714. 

Leo  X  {Giorunni  de'  Medici),  pope  from  1513  to 
1521,  was  born  at  Florence  Dec.  11, 1475.  He  was  the 
second  son  of  the  celebrated  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  (born 
Jan.  31, 1448 ;  died  April  8, 1492),  surnamcd  "  the  Mag- 
niticent,"  and  grandson  of  Cosmo  de'  Medici  (born  in 
1389,  (lied  in  14G4).  From  infancy  Giovanni  had  been 
destined  by  his  father  to  an  ecclesiastical  career,  for  to 
the  lot  of  Pietro,  the  elder  child,  fell  the  succession  in  the 
Florentine  government,  and,  as  Giovanni  early  showed 
signs  of  ability,  the  great  aim  of  Lorenzo  was  to  secure 
for  Ids  house,  by  his  second  child,  the  intiuence  of  the 
Church.  At  the  tender  age  of  seven  Giovanni  was  sub- 
jected to  the  tonsure,  and  at  once  presented  by  Louis 
XII  of  France  with  the  rich  living  of  the  abbey  of  Font- 
douce,  and  by  pope  Sixtus  IV  himself  with  that  of 
the  wealthy  convent  of  Passignano.  Various  other  rich 
livings  were  added  to  these  successively,  and  in  1488, 
finally,  the  youthful  ecclesiastic,  of  but  thirteen  j^ears  of 
age,  was  by  pojie  Innocent  VIII  (father-in-law  of  Gio- 
vanni's sister  Maddalena)  presented  with  the  cardinal's 
rank,  limited  by  the  condition  only  that  the  insignia  of 
this  distinction  should  not  be  assumed  until  his  studies 
had  been  completed  at  Pisa.  Hitherto  Ids  education 
had  been  intrusted  to  tutors  mainly,  and  among  them 
were  the  famous  Greek  historian  Chalcondylas,  and  the 
learned  Angelo  Poliziano;  he  noAv  set  out  at  once  for 
I'isa,  and  having  there  completed  his  theological  stud- 
ies in  1492,  was  on  March  the  9th  of  this  same  year  in- 
stalled at  Florence  into  the  cardinal's  position,  and  three 
days  after  set  out  for  and  took  up  his  residence  in  the 
Eternal  City.  Scarce  had  a  month  passed  his  induction 
to  the  cardinal's  dignitj^  when  intelligence  reached  Rome 
that  Lorenzo  the  iNIagniticent  was  no  more,  and  hastily 
Giovanni  retraced  his  steps  to  Florence,  to  afford  succor 
and  sujiport  to  his  weak  but  elder  brother  Pietro,  upon 
whom  now  depended  the  continuance  of  the  power  of 
the  Medici  over  Florence.  In  July  of  this  year  (1492) 
Innocent  VIII  died,  and  as  Giovanni  had  opposed  the 
election  of  his  successor,  Alexander  VI,  the  Medici  could 
no  longer  hope  for  support  from  the  papacy.  Blind- 
ly and  madly,  amid  all  these  disadvantages,  Pietro,  un- 
satisfied with  absolute  power  mdess  he  could  display 
the  ijomp  and  exercise  the  cruelties  of  despotism,  con- 
trived, in  the  short  space  of  two  years,  to  secure,  in- 
stead of  the  love  and  good  will,  the  hatred  of  the  Flor- 
entines. Their  enthusiastic  devotion  to  the  house  of 
the  Medici  hitherto  alone  prevented  any  attempt  to 
subvert  his  authority.  They  remained  quiet  even  in 
1494,  when  Charles  VIII  of  France  came  into  Italy  to 
enforce  his  claim  to  the  throne  of  Naples,  and  when  Pi- 
etro joined  the  house  of  Aragon,  instead  of  becoming  a 
confederate  of  the  French,  as  his  ancestors  had  always 
been.  But  when  Pietro,  equally  presumptuous  in  secu- 
rity and  timid  in  danger,  terrified  by  tlie  unexpected 
success  of  the  French,  tied  to  the  camp  of  Charles,  and, 
kneeling  at  his  feet,  abandoned  himself  and  his  country 
to  his  mercy,  the  indignation  of  the  Florentines  coukl 
no  longer  be  stayed,  and,  entering  into  a  treatv  with  the 
French,  they  stipidated  especially  the  exile  of  the  :Medi- 
ci  (Nov.  1494).  After  his  capitulation  to  king  Charles, 
I'ietro  had  returned  to  Florence,  but  the  enraged  popu- 
lace made  his  stay  impossible,  and  he  quickly  tied  the 
city,  (iiovanni,  bokler  and  more  courageous  than  his 
elder  brother,  assisted  by  a  few  faithful  friends,  well- 


armed,  made  a  last  attempt  to  assert  the  Medicean  au- 
thority, and  jjut  down  the  insurrection  by  a  bold  exer- 
cise of  force.  It  soon,  however,  became  but  too  appa- 
rent to  the  young  cardinal  that  his  hope  was  all  vanity. 
"The  people  midtiplied  themselves  against  Pietro,"  as 
Guicciardiui  {Storia  Fiorentinu  [Opere  inedite],iii,  110) 
phrases  it,  and  Giovanni,  in  the  disguise  of  a  friar,  was 
glad  enough  to  find  himself  outside  the  city  gates,  and 
on  the  open  Bologna  road,  taking  the  same  road  as 
Pietro,  followed  by  their  younger  brother  Giidiano,  stiU 
a  mere  lad.  They  went  first  to  John  Bentivoglio  in 
Bologna,  but,  as  they  ^vere  not  received  here,  went  to 
Castello,  and  found  a  rel'uge  with  Vitelli.  In  this  and 
other  places,  the  Medici,  the  cardinal  included,  lived  for 
some  time,  having  frequent  endeavors  made  for  their 
restoration.  But  when  Giovanni  was  finally  persuaded 
that  all  such  efforts  were  fruitless,  he  decided  to  quit  his 
native  coimtry,  now  ravaged  by  foreign  armies,  and  be- 
trayed by  the  wretched  policy  of  pope  Alexander  \l, 
and  he  set  out  on  a  journey  to  France,  Germany,  and 
the  Netherlands.  For  the  assertion  that  the  cardinal 
undertook  this  journey  for  political  ends  there  is  not 
the  slightest  foundation.  While  abroad  he  sought  lit- 
erary associations  mainly.  He  courted  the  acciuaint- 
ance  of  men  of  learning,  and  not  unfrequently  displayed 
his  own  taste  for  literature  and  the  liberal  arts.  In 
1503,  upon  the  death  of  Alexander  VI,  against  whom  he 
cherished  a  bitter  hatred,  and  on  whose  account  only  he 
had  avoided  Home  after  the  expidsion  of  his  family  from 
Florence,  he  returned  to  the  banks  of  the  Tiber.  Pius 
III,  who  succeeded  Alexander  VI, lived  only  a  few  weeks, 
and,  upon  a  further  election,  the  pontifical  chair  was  oc- 
cupied by  Julius  II,  a  friend  and  admirer  of  Giovanni 
de'  Medici.  Our  cardinal's  elder  brother  had  died  in 
the  mean  time  (in  the  battle  of  Garigliano  in  1603  ),and, 
no  longer  distracted  by  the  imprudent  conduct  and  the 
wild  plans  of  an  imbecile,  he  gave  himseff  up  wholly  to 
the  interests  of  his  ecclesiastical  position.  By  the  friend- 
ship of  a  nephew  of  the  pontiff,  Galeotto  della  Povcre, 
he  was  brought  into  closer  relations  with  Julius  II,  and, 
after  the  latter  had  entered  Perugia  in  1506  (Sept.  12), 
cardinal  Giovanni  was  intrusted  with  the  government 
of  that  town,  and  only  a  short  time  after  was  honored 
with  the  appointment  of  papal  field  marshal,  mider  the 
title  of  "legate  of  Bologna,"  to  the  army  against  the 
French.  The  campaign,  however,  proved  rather  unsuc- 
cessful, and  at  the  battle  of  Kavenna  the  cardinal  was 
taken  prisoner  and  sent  to  Milan,  whence  he  made  his 
escape  while  the  French  soldiers  were  busy  in  prepara- 
tions for  their  removal  to  France.  The  cardinal's  great 
aim,  now  that  the  French  had  quitted  Lombardy  and  the 
Florentine  republic,  was  to  re-establish  his  house  in  the 
government  of  Flor<?nce.  During  the  first  eight  years 
of  their  exile  the  IVIedici  had  made  four  unsuccessful  at- 
tempts to  regain  their  power;  on  the  failure  of  their 
last  attempt,  their  successfid  opponent.  Pietro  Soderini, 
had  been  chosen  gonfaloniere  for  life :  to  dethrone  So- 
derini, then,  was  the  great  object  to  be  accomplished  by 
the  cardinal.  The  gonfaloniere's  reign  thus  far  had  been 
noted  for  its  moderation  and  benign  intiuence  on  Flor- 
ence, and  had  secured  to  the  coimtry  great  prosjierity; 
but  Soderini's  integrity  was  not  unimpeachable  to  the 
mind  of  the  Medici,  and  (iiovanni  appealed  to  the  Holy 
Leayue,  consisting  of  the  pope,  the  emperor,  the  Vene- 
tians, and  Ferdinand  of  Aragon,  to  imdertake  the  res- 
toration of  the  Jlcdici,  on  the  ground  that  Soderini 
showed  great  partiality  to  foreigners,  and  that  his  gov- 
ernment was  extremely  corrupt.  To  secure  the  services 
of  the  Holy  Leuyue  no  charges  against  Soderini  ivere 
really  needed,  but  he  brought  them,  and  promptly  they 
replied.  A  body  of  5000  Spaniards,  brave  to  ferdcity, 
were  marched  imdcr  Kaymond  de  Cardona  against  Flor- 
ence in  August,  1512.  On  their  way  they  stormed  the 
town  of  Prato,  and  massacred  the  citizens,  which  so  in- 
timidated the  Florentines  that  they  immediately  capit- 
ulated, and  consented  to  the  return  of  the  Medici  as  pri- 
vate citizens.     Cardinal  de'  Medici  and  his  brother  Gi- 


LEO  X 


3G2 


LEO  X 


uliano  soon  after  entered  Florence,  and,  though  they  had 
asked  only  tlioir  restoration  as  private  citizens,  without 
any  share  in  the  government,  they  had  hardly  been  re- 
admitted when  they  forced  the  signoria,  or  executive, 
to  immediately  call  a  '•  parlamento,"  or  general  assem- 
bly of  tlie  people,  in  the  great  square  (September).  This 
general  assembly  of  the  sovereign  peojile  had  repeatedly 
been  used  by  ambitious  men  as  a  ready  instrument  of 
their  views,  and  it  proved  such  on  this  occasion.  All 
the  laws  enacted  since  the  expidsion  of  the  Medici  in 
1494  were  abrogated.  A  "  balia,"  or  commission,  was  ap- 
pointed, consisting  of  creatures  of  that  family,  with  dic- 
tatorial powers,  to  reform  the  state.  No  bloodshed,  how- 
ever, accompanied  the  reaction ;  but  Soderini,  having 
been  deposed  by  the  establishment  of  this  new  form  of 
government,  he  and  other  citizens  opposed  to  the  Me- 
dici were  banished,  and  "  thus  once  again,  after  an  exile 
of  eighteen  years,  the  fatal  Medici  were  restored  to  Flor- 
ence ;  once  again  fixed  their  fangs  in  the  prey  they  had 
been  scared  away  from,  and  '  the  most  democratical  de- 
mocracy in  Europe'  was  once  again  muzzled  and  chain- 
ed. A  conspiracy  of  priest  and  soldier — that  detesta- 
ble and  ominous  combination,  more  baneful  to  human- 
ity than  any  other  of  the  poisonous  mischiefs  comjw)und- 
ed  out  of  its  evil  passions  and  blind  stupidities — had  as 
usual  trampled  out  the  hojies  and  possibilities  of  social 
civilization  and  progress"  (TroUope,  iv,  348). 

Scarcely  had  the  Medici  re-established  themselves  at 
Florence  when  news  came  from  Itome  that  the  supreme 
pontiff  had  died.  It  was  on  the  20th  of  February,  1513, 
that  "  the  furious  nature"  of  his  holiness  the  pope  Julius 
II  was  quieted  forever.  Leaving  his  brother  Giidiano, 
and  his  nejihew  Lorenzo,  son  of  Pietro,  at  the  head  of 
the  affairs  of  Florence,  "  our  cardinal  posts  up  in  all 
haste  to  Kome,"  says  Trollope  (iv,  351),  '•  to  see  whether 
mayhap  Providence,  in  the  utter  inscrutableness  of  its 
wisdom,  may  consider  him,  Giovanni  de'  IMedici,  as  the 
best  and  fittest  person  to  be  intrusted  with  heaven's 
vicegerency,"  accompanied  in  this  excursion  to  the  con- 
clave by  Filippo  Strozzi — son  of  the  great  banker,  the 
founder  of  the  still  well-known  Strozzi  palace,  possessor 
of  one  of  the  then  largest  fortunes  in  Florence,  and  "  on 
■whose  young  shoidders  was  one  of  the  longest  heads 
that  day  in  Florence" — as  his  friend,  companion,  and  .  .  . 
banker.  "  Especially  in  this  last  capacity  was  Filippo 
necessary  to  the  asi)iring  cardinal,  so  soon  to  become 
]iope  by  the  grace  of  God  and  the  capital  of  Strozzi." 
The  younger  members  of  the  conclave  had  previously 
decided  to  elect  one  of  their  own  age  as  successor  to  Ju- 
lius II.  and  upon  cardinal  de'  Medici,  only  thirty-seven 
years  old,  fell  their  choice,  infiuenced,  as  we  have  seen 
by  tlic  ((notation  from  Trollope,  in  a  great  measure  by 
the  exertions  of  the  banker  Strozzi.  One  of  the  first 
acts  of  the  new  pontiff,  who  assumed  the  name  of  Leo 
X,  was  to  appoint  two  men  of  learning,  Bembo  and  Sado- 
leto,  for  his  secretaries.  He  next  sent  a  general  amnes- 
ty to  be  iiublishcd  at  Florence,  where  a  conspiracy  had 
been  discovered  against  the  Mediciifor  which  two*  indi- 
viduals had  been  executed,  and  others,  with  the  cele- 
brated aiachiavelli  among  the  rest,  had  been  arrested 
and  put  to  the  torture.  Leo  ordered  Giuliano  even  to 
release  the  prisoners  and  recall  those  that  Avere  banished, 
Soderini  among  the  rest.  This  accomplished,  Giuliano 
•was  invited  to  Pome,  where  he  was  made  gonfalioncre 
of  the  Holy  Church.  "AH  the  rich  and  lucrative  of- 
fices of  the  apostolic  court  were  conferred  on  Florentines, 
not  a  little  to  the  disgust  of  the  Poman  world"  (Trollo]ic. 
iv,  359).  Of  course,  that  Leo  shoidd  do  anything  and 
everything  to  enhance  the  dignity  and  greatness  of  the 
Medicean  family  no  one  could  object  to,  and,  conse- 
quently, no  one  had  aught  to  say  when  he  ajipointed  his 
nephew  Lorenzo,  the  eldest  son  of  Pietro,  a  profligate 
young  scapegrace,  but  the  ohIv  heir  remaining  to  suc- 
ceed in  the  government  of  Florence,  governor  of  the  re- 
public and  general  in  cbief.  with  absolute  and  supreme 
autliority  over  all  the  Tuscan  fnrces  contributed  by  the 
commonwealth  to  the  armies  of  a  new  league  formed  in 


1515  by  the  emperor,  the  king  of  Aragon,  the  duke  of 
Milan,  and  the  Florentines  against  France  and  Venice. 
To  have  made  Lorenzo,  as  Leo  would  have  liked  to 
do,  sovereign  prince,  under  the  title  of  duke  or  some 
other  like  distinction,  would  have  been  premature,  but 
with  the  appointment  as  made  no  one  found  fault,  and  it 
passed  generally  approved.  Nor  was  any  objection  raised 
to  Leo's  further  action  in  behalf  of  Florence,  constituting 
it  a  dependency  of  Rome,  which  it  continued  during  the 
remainder  of  his  life.  His  cousin  Giulio  de'  jNIedici, 
archbishop  of  Florence,  on  the  decease  of  Julius  II,  Leo 
X  at  once  promoted  to  the  cardinal's  dignity,  and,  in  ad- 
dition, intrusted  him  with  the  legateship  of  Bologna. 
By  these  new  positions  the  influence  of  the  Medici  had 
been  greatly  improved,  but  the  ever-plotting  Leo,  far- 
seeing  as  he  was,  comprehended  clearly  that  still  more 
was  needed  to  secure  to  his  house  the  throne  of  Florence. 
Upon  his  accession  to  the  pontificate  he  found  the  war 
renewed  in  Northern  Italy.  Loius  XII  had  sent  a  fresh 
arm}-,  under  La  Trimouille,  to  invade  the  duchy  of  Mi- 
lan. The  Swiss  auxiliaries  of  duke  IMaximilian  Sforza 
defeated  La  Trimouille  at  Novara,  and  the  French  were 
driven  out  of  Italy.  The  Venetians,  however,  had  allied 
themselves  with  Louis  XII,  and  Leo  sent  Bembo  to  Ven- 
ice to  endeavor  to  break  the  alliance.  Differences  oc- 
curred between  Leo  and  Alfonso  d'Este,  duke  of  Ferrara, 
who  demanded  the  restoration  of  Eeggio,  taken  from 
him  by  Julius  II,  which  Leo  promised,  but  never  per- 
formed ;  on  the  contrary,  he  purchased  lilodena  of  the 
emperor  jMaximilian,  tlisregarding  the  rights  of  the  house 
of  Este  to  that  town.  The  pope  held  likewise  Parma 
and  Piacenza,  and  it  appears  that  he  intended  to  form 
out  of  these  a  territory  for  his  brother  Giuliano,  and  he 
made  attempts  to  surprise  Ferrara  also  with  the  same 
view.  His  predecessor  Jidius  had  had  in  view  the  in- 
dependence of  all  Italy,  and  he  boldly  led  on  the  league 
for  this  purpose;  Leo  had  a  narrower  object — his  own 
aggrandizement  and  that  of  his  family,  and  he  pursued  it 
with  a  more  cautious  and  crooked  policy.  To  secure  tlie 
adhesion  of  Louis  XII,  Leo  reopened  the  Council  of  the 
Lateran,  which  had  begun  under  Julius  II,  for  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  schism  produced  by  the  Council  of  Pisa, 
convoked  by  Louis  XII  in  order  to  check  the  power  of  Ju- 
lius, who  was  his  enem}'.  For  such  proceedings  there  was 
now  no  longer  any  reason,  and  Louis  XII  gladly  made 
his  peace  with  Leo  in  1514,  renounced  the  Council  of 
Pisa,  and  acknowledged  that  of  the  Lateran.  But  in  the 
following  year  Louis  XII  died,  and  his  successor,  Fran- 
cis I,  among  other  titles  assumed  that  of  duke  of  !Milan. 
Under  him  a  new  Italian  war  opened.  The  Venetians 
joined  Francis  I,  while  the  emperor  Maximilian,  Ferdi- 
nand of  Spain,  duke  Sforza,  and  the  Swiss  made  a  league 
to  oppose  the  French.  The  pope  did  not  openly  join 
the  league,  but  he  ncgf>tiated  with  the  Swiss  by  means 
of  the  cardinal  of  Sion,  and  paid  them  considerable 
sums  to  induce  them  to  defend  the  north  of  Italy.  The 
S^viss  were  posted  near  Susa,  but  Francis,  led  by  old  Tri- 
vulzio,  passed  the  Alps  by  the  Col  de  I'Argentier,  en- 
tered the  plains  of  Saluzzo,  and  marched  upon  Pavia, 
wliilo  the  Swiss  hastened  back  to  defend  ]Milan.  The 
battle  of  Marignano  was  fought  on  the  14th  of  Septem- 
ber, 1515.  The  Swiss  made  desperate  efforts,  and  woidd 
probably  have  succeeded  had  not  Alviano,  with  part  of 
the  Venetian  troops,  appeared  suddenly  with  cries  of 
"Viva  San  ]\Iarco,"  which  dispirited  the  Swiss,  who  be^ 
lieved  that  the  whole  Venetian  army  was  coming  to  the 
assistance  of  the  French.  The  result  was  the  retreat  of 
the  Swiss,  and  the  entrance  of  the  French  into  Milan, 
who  took  possession  of  the  duchy.  Leo  now  saw  clear- 
ly that  the  salvation  of  his  house  lay  in  a  union  with 
France,  and  at  once  made  proposals  to  Francis,  who,  in 
turn,  eagerly  embraced  the  proffered  aid  of  the  Church. 
It  was  on  the  21st  of  October,  1515,  that  news  reached 
Florence  of  this  new  alliance  concluded  by  the  holy  fa- 
ther and  the  French  king  Francis  I  for  the  mutual  de- 
fence of  their  Italian  states,  the  king  obliging  himself 
specially  to  protect  the  pontiff,  Giuliano  and  Lorenzo  de' 


LEO  X 


363 


LEO  X 


Medici,  and  the  Florentines,  and  that  both  Lorenzo  and 
Giuliano  should  receive  commissions  in  the  French  ser- 
vice, with  pay  and  pensions.  If  there  had  been  danf,'er 
to  the  Medici  government  in  Florence,  it  threatened 
from  the  side  of  France,  but  that  danger  they  escaped  by 
this  new  alliance,  brought  about,  in  a  great  measure,  by 
the  sympathy  whioh  the  two  parties  felt  for  each  other. 

At  a  meeting  which  these  new  allies  subsequently 
held  at  Bologna  (December,  1515)  a  marriage  was  agreed 
uj)on  between  Lorenzo,  the  pope's  nephew,  and  Made- 
leine de  Boulogne,  niece  of  Francis  de  Bourbon,  duke  of 
Vendome,  from  which  marriage  Catharine  de'  Medici, 
after\\-ards  queen  of  France,  was  born,  and  thus  the  un- 
ion of  the  French  and  Florentine  interests  became  more 
closely  cemented.  But  iu  ecclesiastical  affairs  also  new 
measures  were  taken  by  a  concordat,  only  abrogated  by 
the  French  Revolution,  which  regulated  the  appoint- 
ment to  the  sees  and  livings  in  the  French  kingdom. 
Listead  of  capitular  election,  the  king  was  to  nominate, 
the  pope  to  collate  to  episcopal  sees.  Annates  were  re- 
stored to  the  pope,  who  also  received  a  small  stipulated 
patronage  in  place  of  his  indefinite  prerogative  of  re- 
serving benetices.  It  is  true  the  Parliament  and  Uni- 
versity of  Paris  both  opposed  this  concordat,  but  the 
king  and  the  pope  each  secured  what  they  desired.  To 
the  king  thus  fell  the  real  power  and  the  essential  pat- 
ronage of  the  Church ;  by  the  pope  the  recognition  of 
his  own  authority  was  obtained.  The  two,  as  Reichel 
{See  of  Borne  in  the  Middle  Ages,  p.  538)  has  aptly  said, 
by  this  new  measure,  "  shared  between  them  the  ancient 
liberties  of  the  Galilean  Church.  Tlie  rising  freedom 
of  the  laity  was  thereliy  crushed ;  the  pope  recovered 
most  of  his  ancient  power."  Nothing  could  seem  bright- 
er now  than  the  Medicean  prospects  and  the  future  of 
the  papacy.  There  was  only  one  more  thing  to  be  im- 
mediately accomplished — to  make  Lorenzo  a  sovereign 
prince  ''by  grace  of  God,  or,  at  all  events,  clearly  by 
grace  of  God's  vicegerent  on  earth."  L'pon  the  most 
Hagrant  of  pretences,  the  duke  of  Urbino,  Francesco 
Maria  della  Kevcre,  Avas  deposed,  and  upon  Lorenzo  fell 
the  mantle  of  the  duchy's  sovereignty,  and  at  last  the 
measure  of  Leo's  ambition  was  nearly  full.  (In  1519, 
upon  the  death  of  Lorenzo,  the  duchy  of  Urbino  was  add- 
ed to  the  territory  of  the  Church.)  This  family  ambi- 
tion, however,  by  no  means  found  pleasure  in  the  eyes  of 
the  Koman  people,  while  the  Florentines  were  flattered 
by  the  advance  of  their  "  first  citizens"  to  the  position  of 
lirince  and  pope.  Prominent  among  the  enemies  of  the 
IVIedici  was  the  house  of  Petrucci,  headed  by  the  cardi- 
nal of  that  name,  who  wa^s  led  into  a  conspiracy  to  mur- 
der the  pope  by  the  latter's  expatriation  of  his  brother 
from  Sienna.  Not  satisfied  with  the  acquisition  of  the 
duchy  of  L^rbino,  Leo  longed  also  for  the  possession  of 
the  free  state  of  Sienna,  lying  between  the  territories  of 
the  Church  and  those  of  the  republic  of  Florence,  and  to 
this  end  sent  Borghesi,  its  governor,  into  exile.  At  first 
Borghesi's  brother,  cardinal  Petrucci,  formed  the  mad 
design  of  stabbing  Leo  on  their  first  meeting,  but  he 
finally  abandoned  this  enterprise  as  too  daring,  and  a 
conspiracy  was  formed  instead  to  cause  the  death  of  Leo 
X  by  poison.  Fortunately  for  Leo,  the  plot  to  take  his 
life  was  timely  discovered,  and  the  cardinal  expiated  the 
intended  crime  with  his  life  by  secret  strangling,  while 
many  others  of  like  social  standing  suffered  abasement 
and  othgr  punishment.  To  secure  himself  against  a 
second  attempt  of  the  kind,  Leo  now  (in  1517)  created  a 
whole  host  of  able  and  experienced  Florentines  cardinals 
— no  less  than  thirty-one  of  them  altogether. 

It  was  about  this  time  also  that  the  Lateran  Council  ap- 
proached itsclose,  and  that  the  measures  were  inaugurated 
which  resulted  so  unfavorably  to  the  cause  of  the  papacy 
and  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  have  made  the  year  1517 
forever  memorable  in  the  ecclesiastical  annals  for  the 
foundation  and  commencement  it  gave  to  the  revolution 
in  the  Church,  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Reformation  (q.  v.).     One  of  the  greatest  desires  of  Leo 


plete  strnctnre  commenced  under  .Julius  II — the  building 
of  St.  Peter's  church.  Leo,  who  had  made  for  himself  a 
name  as  the  jjrotector  and  patron  of  art,  and  had  well- 
nigh  revived  the  Periclean  age  of  the  Greeks,  could  not 
brook  the  thought  that,  while  he  was  pontiff  within  the 
walls  of  the  Paternal  City,  this  great  enterprise,  likeh'  to 
immortalize  the  name  of  its  patron  in  the  annals  of  art, 
should  be  passed  over,  and,  finding  the  coffers  of  the 
papacy  drained  by  his  predecessor,  saw  only  one  way  in 
which  to  secure  the  necessary  funds  for  so  stupendous  an 
undertaking — the  sale  of  indulgences  (q.  v.),  securing  to 
the  contributor  for  this  object  forgiveness  of  sin  in  any 
form  (comp.  Mosheim,  7icc/.  Hist,  ii,  06,  note  6 ;  Bower, 
Hist,  of  Papacij,  vii,  409  sq.;  Fvobeitson,  Ilisf.  of  Beirpi  of 
Charles  V,  Harper's  edit.,  p.  125  sq.,  especially  the  foot- 
notes on  p.  120).  Such  utter  disregard  of  the  essence 
of  religion  resulted  in  one  of  the  boldest  assaults  on  the 
Romish  Church  that  it  had  ever  sustained.  The  very 
thought  that  forgiveness  of  sin  M'as  to  be  offered  on  sale 
for  money  "  nmst  have  been  mortally  offensive  to  men 
whose  convictions  on  that  head  had  been  acquired  from 
contemplating  the  eternal  relation  l)etween  God  and 
man,  and  who,  moreover,  had  learned  what  the  doctrine 
of  Scripture  itself  was  on  the  subject"  {llanke,  Hist.  Pap. 
i,  60).  In  Saxony,  especially,  men  of  jiiety  and  thought 
generally  commended  the  interpretation  which  Lnthcr 
gave  to  this  subject.  They  all  regretted  the  delusion  of 
the  people,  who,  being  taught  to  rely  for  the  pardon  of 
their  sins  on  the  indulgences  which  they  could  secure  by 
purchase,  did  not  think  it  incumbent  on  themselves  either 
to  study  the  doctrines  of  genuine  Christianity,  or  to  prac- 
tice the  duties  which  it  enjoins.  Even  the  most  unthink- 
ing were  shocked  at  the  scandalous  behavior  of  the  Do- 
minicans— .John  Tetzel  (q.v.)  and  his  associates,  who  had 
the  sale  of  indulgences  intrusted  to  them — and  at  the 
manner  in  which  they  spent  the  funds  accumulated  from 
this  traffic.  These  sums,  which  liad  been  piously  be- 
stowed in  hopes  of  obtaining  eternal  salvation  and  hap- 
pine.is,  they  saw  squandered  by  tlie  Dominican  friars  in 
drunkenness,  gaming,  and  low  debauchery,  and  ■'  all  be- 
gan to  wish  that  some  clieck  were  given  to  this  com- 
merce, no  less  detrimental  to  society  than  destructive  to 
religion"  (Robertson,  p.  126).  Indeed,  even  the  princes 
and  nobles  objected  to  this  traffic ;  they  were  irritated  at 
seeing  their  vassals  drained  of  so  much  wealth  in  order 
to  replenish  the  treasury  of  a  profuse  pontiff,  and  when 
Luther's  warm  and  impetuous  temper  did  not  suffer  him 
any  longer  to  conceal  his  aversion  to  the  unscriptural 
doctrine  of  the  Thomists,  or  to  continue  a  silent  specta- 
tor of  the  delusion  of  his  country,  from  the  pulpit  in 
the  great  church  of  Wittenberg  he  inveighed  bitterly 
against  the  false  opinions,  as  well  as  the  Avicked  lives, 
of  the  preachers  of  indulgences  (see  Liisclif  r's  Reforma- 
tionsalcten,  i, 729).  "  Indignation  against  Roman  impost- 
ure increased;  universal  attention  and  sympathy  were 
directed  towards  the  bold  champion  of  the  triith''  (Giese- 
ler,  Eccles.  Hist.  [Harper's  edit.]  iv,  33).  On  Oct.  31, 
1517,  finally,  to  gain  also  the  suffrage  of  men  of  learn- 
ing, Luther  published  ninety-five  theses  against  the 
traffic  in  indulgences,  setting  forth  his  objections  to  this 
abuse  of  ecclesiastical  power.  Not  that  he  supposed 
these  points  fully  established  or  of  undoubted  certainty, 
but  he  advanced  them  as  the  result  of  his  own  in\  esti- 
gation,  and  as  sulyects  of  incpiiry  and  disputation  unto 
others,  that  he  might  be  corrected  ii'  his  position  could  be 
impugned.  He  sent  them  to  the  neighboring  bishops 
with  a  petition  for  the  abolition  of  the  evil  if  his  views 
were  found  to  be  well  grounded,  and  appointed  a  day  on 
which  the  learned  churchmen  might  publicly  dispute 
the  point  at  issue,  either  in  person  or  by  writing ;  sub- 
joining to  them,  however,  solemn  protestations  of  his 
high  respect  for  the  apostolic  see,  and  of  his  imjilicit 
submission  to  its  authority.  Many  zealous  champions 
immediately  arose  to  defend  opinions  on  which  the 
wealth  and  power  of  the  Church  were  founded;  in  es- 
pecial manner  the  opposition  of  the  Dominicans  (q.  v.) 


X,  as  pope  of  Rome,  was  the  continuation  of  the  incom-  !  was  roused,  for  the  spirit  of  this  order  had  become  pe- 


LEO  X 


36- 


LEO  X 


culiarly  sensitive  on  account  of  some  recent  humiliations, 
pnificiilarly  by  the  fate  of  Savonarola  (<!•  v.),  the  events 
at  J5jrnc',  and  by  the  still  surviving  controversy  with 
Ufujlilin  (q.  v.),  aside  from  the  fact  that  the  different 
mendicant  orders  cherished  constant  jealousy  against 
each  other.  (The  conjecture  of  some  that  the  jealousy 
of  the  Augustine  monk  was  apparent  in  Luther's  attack 
on  Tetzel  because  to  the  Dominicans  had  been  intrusted 
the  indulgence  traffic  is  too  ridicidous  to  need  repetition 
here.  Comp.  however.  Gieseler,  Eccks.  Hist,  iv,  "25,  note 
I"  ;  Mosheim,  Eccles.  Hist.  bk.  iv,  cent,  xvi,  sec.  i,  ch.  ii, 
note  IS.)  In  opposition  to  Luther's  theses,  Tetzel  him- 
self came  forward  with  counter  theses,  which  he  pub- 
lished at  Frankfort -on -the -Oder.  Prominent  among 
others  also  were  Eck  (q.  v.),  the  celebrated  Augsburg 
divine,  and  Prierias  (q.  v.),  the  inqiusitor  general,  who 
botli  replied  to  the  Augustine  monk  with  all  the  viru- 
lence of  scholastic  disputants.  "  But  the  manner  in 
which  they  conducted  the  controversy  did  little  service 
to  their  cause.  Luther  attemjitcd  to  combat  indulgences 
by  arguments  founded  in  reason  or  derived  from  the 
Scriptures;  they  produced  nothing  in  support  of  them 
but  the  sentiments  of  the  schoolmen,  and  the  conclusions 
of  the  canon  law,  and  the  decrees  of  popes.  The  deci- 
sion of  judges  so  partial  and  interested  did  not  satisfy 
the  people,  who  began  to  call  into  question  even  the  au- 
thority of  these  venerable  guides  when  they  foimd  them 
standing  in  direct  opposition  to  the  dictates  of  reason 
and  the  determination  of  the  divine  law"  (Robertson,  p. 
128).     SeeLuTHEii;  Kekokmation. 

At  Kome  these  controversies,  though  they  had  be- 
come a  matter  of  interest  to  all  the  German  people,  were 
looked  upon  with  great  indifference.  Leo  judged  it  sim- 
ply a  wrangling  of  two  mendicant  orders,  and  he  was 
determined  to  let  the  Augustinians  and  Dominicans  set- 
tle their  own  quarrels.  The  adversaries  of  Luther,  how- 
ever, feared  for  their  cause,  and  they  saw  no  other  way 
b}^  which  to  secure  anew  peace  to  themselves,  and  the 
respect  of  the  people,  than  by  a  wholesale  slaughter  of 
the  Reformer  and  his  friends.  The  solicitations  of  the 
Dominicans  at  the  Vatican  became  daily  more  frequent 
and  urgent;  and  when  at  last  it  became  necessary  for 
Leo  to  take  some  decided  action,  he  simply  commission- 
ed his  cardinal  legate  Cajetan  (().  v.)  to  bring  the  Au- 
gustinian  friar  to  his  senses,  and  Luther  was  summoned 
t(i  and  promptly  appeared  at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  in 
October,  1518.  If  Leo  ever  committed  a  blunder,  it  was 
done  in  this  instance  by  appointing  to  the  task  of  con- 
verting Luther  a  monastic  of  the  very,  order  he  had  so 
seriously  attacked  for  its  complicity  in  the  indulgence 
tralHc.  If  Luther  was  ever  so  much  inclined  to  yield, 
a  Dominican  was  certainly  not  the  proper  agent  to  ac- 
comiilish  such  a  purpose.  Cajetan,  moreover,  treated 
Luther  rather  imperiously,  and  peremptorily  required 
him  to  confess  his  errors,  before  the  least  attempt  had 
been  made  to  reply  to  his  arguments,  and  of  course  our 
Augustiuian,  high-spirited  as  he  was,  turned  away  in 
disgust,  and  appealed  a  pupa  noii  bene  infurmato  ad  me- 
liits  infoniuimhua ;  and  afterwards,  when  the  whole  doc- 
trine of  indulgence,  as  it  had  been  developed  up  to  the 
)>resent  time,  was  conlirmed  by  a  papal  bull,  the  new 
lieretic  api)ealed  from  the  pope  to  a  general  council  (at 
WitK'nlKTg,  \ov.  2.S,  1 0 |,s ).  I5y  this  time,  however,  the 
strife  had  assumed  m(jre  gigantic  proportions;  around 
LutluT  were  now  gathered  the  great,  and  the  strong, 
and  the  learned  of  the  Teutonic  race.  A  special  help- 
meet lie  had  found  in  liis  colleagues  of  the  lately  founded 
high  school  of  learning  at  Wittenberg;  and  as  in  the  13th 
century  from  Oxford  and  Prague  had  i)roccedcd  the 
action  against  the  Latin  system,  so  it  now  proceeded 
from  Wittenberg,  until  it  terminated  in  the  Reformation. 
A\'lien  too  late,  the  Roman  court  realized  the  mistake  it 
had  committed  in  intrusting  Cajetan  with  the  settle- 
ment of  this  difficulty,  and  another  legate,  the  pope's 
own  chamberlain,  Charles  of  IMiltitz  (q.  v.),  was  dis- 
patclie<l  in  December  (1.51H)  to  give  assurances  to  the 
electoral  prince  Frederick,  by  the  valuable  present  of  the 


consecrated  golden  rose  (q.  v.),  of  the  good  intentions  of 
pope  Leo  towards  Saxony,  and  at  the  same  time,  if  pos- 
sible, to  conciliate  Luther,  in  whom  was  now  seen  the 
representative  of  Wittenberg  University,  and  at  whose 
back  stood  one  to  whom  even  his  enemies  confess  but 
few  men  of  any  age  can  be  compared,  either  for  learning 
and  luiowledge  of  both  human  and  divine  thmgs.  or  for 
richness,  suavity,  and  facility  of  genius,  or  for  industry 
as  a  scholar — Philip  Melancthou  (q.  v.).  Unfortunately 
for  the  cause  of  the  Dominicans,  this  very  elector  of 
Saxony,  who  had  identitied  himself  with  and  become 
the  cliampion  of  the  cause  of  the  Wittenberg  reform 
movement,  was  now,  upon  the  death  of  JIaximilian  I, 
made  regent  of  the  empire  in  northern  Germany  (Jan. 
12, 1.519),  and  Miltitz  saw  only  one  way  in  which  to  set- 
tle the  controversy — by  appeasing  the  wrath  of  Luther. 
He  accordingly  flattered  '•  the  friar  of  Wittenberg,"  as 
he  was  contemptuously  called  at  Rome,  by  all  manner 
of  kindness,  assured  him  that  his  case  had  been  misrep- 
resented to  Leo,  and  actually  succeeded  in  inducing  Lu- 
ther to  promise,  not,  indeed,  recantation,  as  he  desired, 
but  a  promise  to  be  silent  if  his  opponents  were  silent, 
and  an  open  declaration  of  obedience  to  the  see  of  Rome : 
thus  the  whole  matter  apparently  had  reached  its  end. 
The  opponents,  however,  were  not  silent;  the  contro- 
versy was  renewed  with  greater  animosity  than  before. 
See  Carlstaijt;  Eck;  Leipsic  Disputation.  Lu- 
ther was  forced  to  reply ;  the  primacy  of  the  pope  and 
other  questions  became  involved,  which  obliged  addi- 
tional research  and  study  on  the  part  of  the  reformers, 
and  "  in  this  way  Luther  gained  so  thorough  an  insight 
into  the  errors  and  corruption  of  the  Roman  Church  that 
he  gradually  began  to  see  the  necessity  of  separating 
himself  from  it.  He  felt  himself  called  as  a  soldier  of 
God  to  fight  against  the  wiles  and  deceit  of  the  devil, 
by  which  the  Church  was  corrupted"  (Gieseler,  iv,  42). 
This  he  did  hereafter,  fearless  of  consequences,  by  both 
his  pen  and  tongue.  Luther's  was  a  nature  that  recoil- 
ed from  no  extremity.  The  result  was  "  the  bull  of  con- 
demnation," issued  June  15,  1520,  which  brought  about 
the  formal  abjuration  of  the  papacy  on  the  part  of  Lu- 
ther by  the  public  burning  of  the  bull,  together  with  the 
papal  law-books,  Dec.  10  of  this  very  year.  January  3, 
1521,  came  the  bull  of  excommunication,  and  a  demand 
for  its  execution  by  the  Diet  of  Worms,  the  body  to 
which  Luther  appealed.     See  Reformation. 

While  these  religious  disputes  were  carried  on  wnth 
great  warmth  in  Germany,  and  threatened  the  very 
existence  of  Romanism,  pope  Leo  was  much  more  con- 
cerned with  what  occurred  around  him  in  Italy.  A  pol- 
itician of  the  best  sort  in  the  affairs  of  his  native  coun- 
try, ever  solicitous  for  its  welfare,  he  saw  greater  danger 
calling  for  ])rompter  action  on  the  political  horizon  than 
any  that  had  yet  appeared,  in  his  estimation,  on  that  of 
ecclesiasticism.  Leo,  indeed,  trembled  for  Florence  at 
the  prospect  of  beholding  the  imperial  crown  placed  on 
the  head  of  the  king  of  Spain  and  of  Naples,  and  the 
master  of  the  New  World  ;  nor  was  he  less  afraid  of  see- 
ing the  king  of  France,  who  was  the  duke  of  Milan  and 
lord  of  Genoa,  exalted  to  that  dignity.  He  even  fore- 
told that  the  election  of  either  of  them  would  be  fatal 
to  the  independence  of  the  holy  see,  to  the  peace  of 
Italy,  and  pcrhajis  to  the  lil)erties  of  Europe.  Put  June 
28,  1519,  the  king  of  Spain  was  elected  successor  to 
Maximilian.  This  was,  indeed,  an  event  calculated  to 
cause  a  series  of  infinite  perplexities  to  God's  -vicegerent 
on  earth.  So  the  important  decision  was  taken,  a  .se- 
cret league,  offensive  and  defensive,  signed  with  the 
new  Cffisar  on  July  8, 1521,  by  which  it  was  stipulated 
that  the  duchy  of  jMilan  was  to  be  taken  from  the 
French  and  given  to  Francesco  Maria  Sforza,  and  Par- 
ma and  I'iacenza  to  be  restored  to  the  pope.  Leo 
subsidized  a  bodyof  Swiss,  and  Prospero  Colonna,  with 
the  Spaniards  from  Naples,  joined  the  papal  forces  at 
Bologna,  crossed  the  Po  at  Casalmaggiore,  joined  the 
Swiss,  and  drove  the  French  governor  Lautrec  out  of 
Milan.     In  a  short  time  the  duchy  of  Milan  was  once 


LEO  X 


365 


LEODEGAR 


more  clear  of  the  French,  and  restored  to  the  dominion 
of  Sforza.  Parma  and  Piacenza  were  again  occupied  by 
the  papal  troops.  At  the  same  time  Leo  declared  Al- 
fonso d'Este  a  rebel  to  the  holy  see  for  having  sided 
with  the  French,  while  the  duke,  on  his  part,  complain- 
ed of  the  bad  faith  of  the  pope  in  keephig  possession  of 
Slodena  and  Keggio.  The  news  of  the  taking  of  Milan 
was  celebrated  at  Pome  with  public  rejoicings,  but  in 
the  midst  of  all  tliis  Leo  fell  ill  on  Nov.  25,  and  died 
Dec.  1, 1521,  not  without  reasonable  suspicion  of  poison, 
tin«ugh  some  have  maintained  that  he  died  a  natural 
death.  (See  Trollope,  IJist.  of  Flurence,  iv,  385  sq.,  who 
quotes  strong  proof  in  favor  of  the  assertion  that  Leo  X 
tlicd  of  poison.) 

Personally  Leo  \vas  generous,  or  rather  prodigal ;  he 
was  fond  of  splendor,  luxury,  and  magnificence,  and 
therefore  often  in  want  of  money,  which  he  was  obUged 
to  raise  by  means  not  often  creditable.  He  had  a  dis- 
cerning taste,  was  a  ready  patron  of  real  merit,  was 
fond  of  wit  and  liumor,  not  always  refined,  and  at 
times  degenerating  into  buffoonery :  this  was,  indeed, 
one  of  his  principal  faidts.  His  state  policy  was  like 
that  of  his  contemporaries  in  general,  and  not  so  bad 
as  tliat  of  some  of  them.  He  contrived,  however,  to 
keep  Pome  and  the  papal  territory,  as  well  as  Flor- 
ence, in  jjrofound  peace  during  his  reign — no  trifling 
boon — while  all  the  rest  of  Italy  was  ravaged  by  French, 
and  Germans,  and  Spaniards,  who  committed  all  kinds 
of  atrocities.  He  was  by  no  means  neglectful  of  his 
temporal  duties,  although  he  was  fond  of  conviviality 
and  ease,  and  many  charges  have  been  brought  against 
his  morals.  He  did  not,  and  perhaps  could  not,  enforce 
a  strict  discipline  among  the  clergy  or  the  people  of 
Pome,  where  profligacy  and  licentiousness  had  reigned 
ahnost  uncontrolled  ever  since  the  pontificate  of  Alex- 
ander VL  It  is  to  be  regretted,  however,  that  any  one 
should  have  been  able  to  say  of  a  pope  so  distinguished 
as  a  patron  of  learning  as  Leo  X  that  in  his  splendid 
and  luxuriant  palace  Christianity  had  given  place,  both 
in  its  religious  and  moral  influence,  to  the  revived  phi- 
losophy and  the  unregulated  manners  of  Greece ;  that 
the  Vatican  was  visited  less  for  the  purpose  of  worship- 
ping the  footsteps  of  the  apostles  than  to  admire  the 
great  worlds  of  ancient  art  stored  in  the  papal  palace 
(comp.  London  Quart.  Rer.  183G,  p.  294  sq. ;  Taine,  Jtal// 
[Pome  and  Xaples],  p.  185).  As  a  pontificate,  that  of 
Leo  X,  though  it  lasted  only  nine  years,  "  forms  one  of 
the  most  memorable  epochs  in  the  history  of  modern 
Europe,  whether  we  consider  it  in  a  political  light  as  a 
period  of  transition  for  Italy,  when  the  power  of  Charles 
Y  of  Spain  began  to  establish  itself  in  that  country,  or 
whetht-r  we  look  upon  it  as  that  period  in  the  liistory 
of  the  Western  Church  wliicli  was  marked  by  the  mo- 
mentous event  of  Luther's  Reformation.  Put  there  is  a 
third  and  a  more  favorable  aspect  under  which  the  reign 
of  Leo  ought  to  be  viewed,  as  a  flourishing  epoch  for 
learning  and  the  arts,  which  were  encouraged  by  that 
pontiff,  as  they  had  been  by  his  father,  and,  indeed,  as 
they  h.".ve  been  by  his  family  in  general,  and  for  Avhich 
the  glorious  appellation  of  the  age  of  Leo  X  has  been 
given  to  the  first  part  of  the  10th  century"  (Engl.  C>j- 
('/(ip.).  The  services  wliich  Leo  rendered  to  literature 
are  many.  He  encouraged  the  study  of  tJreek,  founded 
a  (ireek  college  at  Pome,  established  a  Greek  press,  and 
gave  the  direction  of  it  to  .John  Lascaris ;  he  restored 
the  Ponian  University,  and  filled  its  numerous  chairs 
with  professors;  he  directed  the  collecting  of  MSS.  of 
tlic  classics,  and  also  of  Oriental  writers,  as  well  as  the 
searching  after  antiquities;  and  by  his  example  encour- 
aged others,  and  among  tlieni  the  wealthy  merchant 
Cliigi,  to  the  same.  He  patronized  men  of  talent,  of 
whom  a  galaxy  gathered  round  him  at  Pome.  He  cor- 
responded with  Erasmus,  JNIachiavelli,  Ariosto,  and  other 
great  men  of  his  time.  He  restored  the  celebrated  li- 
brary of  his  family,  wliich,  on  the  expulsion  of  the  Med- 
ici, had  l)een  plundered  and  dispcrsc<i.  and  which  is 
known  by  the  name  of  the  BibUoteca  Laiirenziana  at 


Florence.  In  short,  Leo  X,  if  not  the  most  exemplary 
among  popes,  was  certainly  one  of  the  most  illustrious 
and  meritorious  of  Italian  princes.  See  Guicciardini, 
Storia  d' Italia ;  Poscoe,  Life  and  Pontijicate  of  Leo  X 
(Lend.  1805, 4  vols.  4to) ;  Farroni,  Vita  Leonis  X  (1797) ; 
Audin,  Leon  X  (1844) ;  Giovio,  Vita  Leonis  X  (1C51) ; 
Artaud  de  Montor,  llistoire  des  Souvet-ains  papes,\o\.  iv. 
For  the  bulls  and  speeches  of  pope  Leo  X,  see  Fabricius, 
Bihliotheca  Lutina  Mtdim  et  Injirmai  yEtatis ;  Sismondi, 
IList.  des  liejxiMiques  Italiemies ;  Panke,  Hist,  of  the  Pa- 
imctj,  vol.  i,  ch.  ii ;  Schrcickh,  Kirchengesch.  xxxii,  491 
sq. ;  xxxiv,  83,  91 ;  and  his  Kirchengesch.  s.  d.  Ref.  i,  76 
sq.,  314  sq. ;  iii,  207  sq.,  211  sq. ;  Paumer,  Gesch.  der  Pa- 
dagogik,  i,  04  sq. ;  Bower,  IJist.  of  the  Popes,  vii,  400  sq. ; 
Trollope, //zs/or/y  of  Florence  (Lond.  1865,  4  vols.  8vo), 
especiallv  vol.  iv,  book  x ;  Leo,  Gesch.  Italiens,  vol.  v,  ch. 
iii.     (J.H.W.) 

Leo  XI,  Pope  {A  lessandro  de  Medici"),  a  descendant 
of  the  house  of  the  Medici,  was  bom  at  Florence  in  1535. 
After  representing  Tuscany  for  some  years  at  the  court 
of  pope  Pius  y,  he  was  made  bishop  of  Pistoia  in  1573, 
and  archbishop  of  Florence  in  1574.  Made  cardinal  in 
1583,  he  was  sent  by  his  predecessor,  Clement  YIH,  leg- 
ate a  latere  to  France  to  receive  Henrj'  lY  into  the 
bosom  of  the  Poman  Catholic  Church.  He  Avas  very 
old  when  elected,  on  the  1st  of  April,  1G05,  by  the  ut- 
most exertions  of  the  French,  against  the  wishes  of  the 
Spanish.  He  died  on  the  27th  of  the  same  month,  it  is 
said,  from  the  fatigue  attending  the  ceremony  of  taking 
possession  of  the  patriarchal  church  of  St.  John  the  Lat- 
eran.  See  Artaud  de  jMontor,  Histoire  des  Soiirerains 
Ponfifes  ;  Bower,  History  of  the  Pojxs,  vii,  476  ;  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Eiog.  Generale,  xxx,  725;  Engl.  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Leo  XII,  Pope  (cardinal  Annihale  della  Genga), 
was  born  in  the  district  of  Spoleto  in  17G0,  of  a  noble 
family  of  the  Pomagna;  was  made  archbishop  of  Tyre 
in  1793,  and  was  later  employed  as  nuncio  to  Germany 
and  France  by  Pius  YII,  who  made  him  a  cardinal  in 
1816.  On  the  death  of  this  pontiff  he  was  elected  pope, 
m  September,  1823.  He  was  well  acquainted  with  di- 
plomacy and  foreign  politics,  and  in  the  exercise  of  his 
authority,  and  in  asserting  the  claims  of  his  see,  he  as- 
sumed a  more  imperious  tone  than  his  meek  and  benev- 
olent predecessor.  He  re-established  the  right  of  asy- 
lum for  criminals  in  the  churches,  and  enforced  the 
strict  observance  of  fast  days.  He  was  a  declared  en- 
emy of  the  Carbonari  and  other  secret  societies.  He 
proclaimed  a  jubilee  for  the  year  1825;  and  in  his  cir- 
cular letter  accompanying  the  bull,  addressed  to  the 
patriarchs,  primates,  archbishops,  and  bishops,  he  made 
a  violent  attack  on  the  Bible  Societies,  as  acting  in  op- 
position to  the  decree  of  the  Comicil  of  Trent  (session 
iv)  -concerning  the  publication  and  use  of  the  sacred 
books.  Leo  also  entered  into  negotiations  with  the  new 
states  of  South  America  for  the  sake  of  flllLng  up  the 
vacant  sees.  He  gave  a  new  organization  to  the  uni- 
versity of  the  Sapienza  at  Pome,  which  consists  of  five 
colleges  or  faculties,  viz.,  theology-,  law,  medicine,  plii- 
losophy,  and  philology;  and  he  increased  the  number  of 
the  professors,  and  raised  their  emoluments.  He  pub- 
lished in  October,  1824,  a  Moto  l^roprio,  or  decree,  re- 
forming the  administration  of  the  papal  state,  and  also 
the  administration  of  justice,  or  Procedura  Civile,  and 
he  fixed  the  fees  to  be  paid  by  the  litigant  parties.  He 
corrected  several  abuses,  and  studied  to  maintain  order 
and  a  good  police  in  his  territories.  He  died  February 
10, 1829,  and  was  succeeded  bv  Pius  YIII.  See  Engl. 
Cyclop.  8.  v. ;  Pudoni,  Leone  XII  e  Pio  VIII  (1829) ; 
Schmid,  Trauerre  de  mif  Leo  XII  (1829) ;  Artaud  de 
IMontor,  Iliitoire  du  pajw  Leon  XII  (1843,  2  vols.  8vo) ; 
Wiseman,  Recollections  of  the  last  four  Popes  (see  In- 
dex). 

Leodegar,  a  saint  (in  French  St.IJger),  was  born 
about  616.  He  was  educated  by  his  uncle  (some  say 
his  grandfather),  the  bishop  of  Poitiers,  who  made  him 
archdeacon.     Leodegar  was  afterwards  called  to   the 


LEOX 


366 


LEON 


court  as  adviser  of  Bathilde,  and  tutor  of  her  young  son 
Chotaire.  lu  659  lie  was  appointed  bishop  of  Autun. 
That  diocese  was  tlicu  in  a  rather  dilajiidated  condition, 
an  I  Leodei^ar  api)Hcd  liiniself  at  uncc  to  its  restoration, 
lie  supported  the  poor,  instriirted  the  elcrgy  and  the  peo- 
ple, decorated  and  enriched  tlie  churches,  and  reformed 
the  morals  of  convents  by  introducing  the  rule  of  St. 
Benedict,  for  which  purpose  he  held  a  synod  at  the  end 
of  (570.  He  was  also  instrumental  in  securing  to  Cliil- 
derie  11,  of  Austrasia,  the  western  part  of  France  in 
()70 ;  but  the  tickle  monarch  did  not  long  consent  to  be 
ruled  by  his  advice,  and  Leodegar  was  finally  disposed 
of  by  public  execution  after  Chilileric's  death,  being  ac- 
cused of  complicity  in  his  murder,  in  (J78.  His  death  is 
commemorated  in  the  Eoman  Catholic  Church  Oct.  2. 

Leoii  DA  MoDKN.v  (bex-Isaac  ben-Moudecai), 
also  called  Jehudah  Arje  Modunege,  one  of  the  most  cel- 
ebrated Italian  rabbis,  the  Jewish  John  Knox  of  the 
lOth  century  in  Italy,  was  born  in  Venice  April  23, 1571, 
of  an  ancient  and  literary  family,  originalh'  from  France. 
Leon  displayed  his  talents  and  extraordinary  intellect- 
ual endowments  at  a  most  tender  age.  The  Sabbatic 
lesson  [see  HaphtarahJ,  it  is  said,  he  read  before  the 
Avhole  congregation  in  the  synagogue  when  he  was  only 
two  and  a  half  years  old,  and  he  began  to  preach  (""^Tl) 
when  he  had  scarce  reached  the  age  of  ten.  At  thir- 
teen Leon  came  before  the  pidjlic  with  a  treatise  against 
gambling  with  dice  and  cards  (entitled  "T^'O  "ID, 
first  published  in  159(3,  and  reprinted  in  French,  Latin, 
and  German),  and  thus  active,  and  retaining  all  the 
vigor  and  elasticity  of  youth,  he  remained  through  lii'e, 
though  subjected  to  great  suffering  by  the  great  misfor- 
tune of  passing  his  days  by  the  side  of  an  insane  wife, 
and  by  following  his  promising  sons  to  an  early  grave. 
With  a  genius  so  fertile,  and  a  mind  so  well  endowed, 
coupled  with  a  thirst  for  learning  and  devotedness  to 
Biblical  literature  and  exegesis,  master  of  the  Latin, 
Italian,  and  Hebrew,  he  surveyed  the  whole  theological 
and  philosophical  field  with  ease,  and  became  the  author 
of  numerous  poetical,  liturgical,  ethical,  doctrinal,  po- 
lemical, and  cxegetical  works.  Unfortimately,  ho-,v- 
ever,  for  Leon  Modena,  he  was  fickle  in  mind,  and  loth 
to  adhere  long  to  one  opinion,  in  consequence  of  which 
we  find  him  to-day  the  decided  exponent  of  jMosaism, 
to-morrow  the  staunch  defender  of  Kabbinism,  the  next 
day  in  favor  of  a  total  abrogation  of  the  whole  ceremo- 
nial law,  and  perhaps  on  the  day  following  an  apologist 
for  Christianity,  because,  as  he  expressed  it,  Judaism 
formed  its  base.  Both  the  orthodox  and  liberal  Jews 
claim  Leon  as  the  exponent  of  their  doctrines;  but  we 
think  that  justly  he  can  be  claimed  only  by  the  Re- 
formed Jewish  Church,  for  his  masterpiece  is,  after  all, 
the  Kol  Sahol  {hiZ':i  ^1p)>  ^^^^  existence  of  which  was 
long  known,  but  it  was  only  in  the  present  centur\-  that 
the  1\IS.  was  discovered  in  the  library  of  the  duke  of 
I'arma.  It  was  then  drawn  from  its  hiding-place,  and 
was  published  under  the  supervision  of  the  late  rabbi 
Reggio  in  np::pn  rj^na  (tiorz,  1852);  an  English 
translation  appeared  in  The  Jewish  Times  (New  York), 
in  the  last  numbers  of  1871.  This  work  contains  a  con- 
cise and  terse  ex|)osition  of  the  religious  philosophy  of 
Judaism,  and  of  the  ideas  embodied  in  the  various  cere- 
monial practices,  and  is  written  from  a  most  liberal 
stand-point.  He  also  wrote  "im  '3,  a  treatise  on  Me- 
tempsychosis, in  whicli  he  takes  ground  against  the 
Cahalists  (published  in  n^:p  Cr-i.  j).  Gl  sq.)  ■.—I/ebreio 
and  Italian  Dictionai'j),  caW'A  min"'  M^J  ("The  Cap- 
tivity of  Judah"),  or  "i^T  ^'rSJ  ("Explanation  of 
Words"),  in  which  he  exjilains  in  Italian  all  the  difficult 
expressions  in  the  Hebrew  Bible,  and  which  is  preceded 
by  grammatical  rules  (Venice,  I(;i2;  I'.-rdua,  ](;40;  also 
printed  in  the  margin  of  the  Hel)rew  Bibles  published 
for  the  use  of  the  Italian  Jews,  folhiwing  tiie  order  of 
the  canonical  books)  ■.—llabbinival  and  Jtalian  Vvcabu- 


lari/,  called  iT^IX  ^S  ("The  Lion's  Mouth"),  of  which 
the  Italian  title  is  RaccoUa  delle  vnci  Rubin,  non  Hehr. 
n'e  Cliulil.,  etc.  (Padua,  1040;  appended  to  the  preceding 
work ;  afterwards  printed  separately  in  Venice,  1G48) : — 
A  polemical  treatise  against  the  Cabalists,  wliom  he  de- 
spised and  derided,  on  the  genuineness  of  their  inter- 
pretation of  the  Pentateuch  {Sohar),  entitled  i"iX  "iSD 
cni:  (edited  by  Dr.  Flirst,  Leipzic,  1840)  : — Historia  dei 
Riti  Uebraici  ed  observanza  der/li  llebrei  di  quesii  tempi, 
or  the  history  of  the  rites,  customs,  and  manner  of  life 
of  the  Jews,  consisting  of  thirteen  chapters,  and  written 
in  Italian  (Paris,  1637  ;  in  a  revised  form,  Venice,  1638). 
This  celebrated  and  most  useful  manual  was  translated 
into  English  by  Edmund  Chilmead  (Lond.  IGoO);  and 
also  edited  by  Simon  Ockley,  under  the  title  Ilistory  of 
the  present  Jews  throughout  the  World  (London,  1707),  in 
Picard's  Ceremonies  and  R<H<jitius  Customs  of  the  vari- 
ous Nations  of  the  hiown  World,  vol.  i  (London,  1733)  ; 
into  French  by  father  Simon,  who  prefaced  it  with  an 
elaborate  account  of  the  Karaites  and  Samaritans  (Par. 
1674);  into  Dutch  (Amsterd.  1683),  and  into  Latin  by 
Grosgebauer,  Historia  rituum  Judaorum  (Frankfort-on- 
the-ilain,  1693) : — Commentar;/  on  the  Books  of  Samuel : 
— Commentar;/  on  the  Jive  Mef/illotli,  i.  e.  the  Song  of 
Songs,  Ruth,  Lamentations,  Ecclesiastes,  and  Esther: — 
Commentary  on  the  Psalms : — Commentary  on  Provei-bs : 
— Commentary  on  the  Sabbatic  Lessons : — and  a  polemi- 
cal work  against  Christianity,  entitled  ^^m  ');"2;  but 
several  of  these  works  have  not  as  yet  been  published. 
Leo  died  in  Venice,  where  he  was  chief  rabbi,  in  1648. 
See  his  autobiography,  entitled  «TTiiTi  ""TI,  extant  only 
in  MS.,  from  which  extracts  were  made  by  Carmoly,  i?ei'. 
Orirnfak  (1842),  p.  49  sq.,  and  Reggio,  nbnpn  rD"in3 
(1852) ;  Fiirst,  Bibl.  Judaica,  ii,  383  sq.;  Steinschneider, 
Cataloyus  Libr.  Ilebr.  in  Bibl.  Bodleiana,  col.  1345-56 ; 
Der  Israeatische  Volkslehrer  (Frankfort -on -the -Main, 
1854),  iv,  91  sq.,  186  sq.,  247  sq. ;  1855,  v,  396  sq. ;  Geiger, 
in  Liebermann's  Volkskalender-Jahrbuch,  1856;  Gratz, 
Gesch.  d.  Juden,  x,  141  sq. ;  Kitto,  Cyclop.  Bibl.  Lit.  vol. 
ii,  s.  V. 

Leon  or  Leone,  Jacob  Jehudah,  a  Jewish  \^-riter 
of  note,  who  was  born,  of  Moorish  descent,  in  1614,  in 
Holland,  and  tlourished  first  at  Jliddelburg  and  later  at 
Amsterdam,  is  noted  as  a  writer  on  the  Temple  model 
(compare  Retrato  del  Templo,  Middelb.  1642,  or  Hebrew 
Pr"^!!  r.'^DSr,  Amst.  1650),  and  as  an  illustrator  of  the 
Talraudical  writings.  He  also  figured  prominenth-  as 
a  polemical  writer,  contending  for  the  inspiration  of  the 
O.-T.  writings,  while  he  ruthlessly  attacked  the  (iospel 
doctrines.  He  is  now  generally  supposed  to  ha\e  been 
the  author  of  Colloquium  JMiddelburgense  (attributed  by 
Fabricius  to  Manasse  ben-Israel),  and  of  Con  diff'erentes 
theologos  de  la  Christianidad.  Leon  died  after  1671.  See 
Griitz,  Gesch.  d.  Juden,  x,  24  sq.,  200  sq. ;  Fiirst,  Biblioth. 
Jud.  ii,  232  s(i. 

Leon,  Luis  Ponce  de,  a  Spanish  ecclesiastic,  was 
born  at  Belmonte.  in  the  south  of  Spain,  in  1527  (ac- 
cording to  the  Tesoro  de  los  Prosadores  Espafioles  por 
Ochod  [Paris,  1841],  at  Granada;  and  according  to  St. 
Antonio  and  Ticknor  at  Belmonte  in  15281.  He  stud- 
ied at  Salamanca,  entered  in  1543  the  order  of  the  Au- 
gustines,  and  was  thereafter  known  under  the  name  of 
Luis  de  Leon.  Having  been  received  D.I).,  he  was  in 
1561  appointed  to  a  professorship  at  St.  Thomas.  His 
knowledge  and  success  created  him  many  enemies,  at 
the  head  of  whom  were  the  Dominicans  of  Granada. 
Accused  of  heresy  and  of  having  translated  parts  of  the 
Bible  into  tlic  vernacidar,  contrary  to  the  orders  of  the 
Sanctum  Olhcium,  he  was  in  1572  imprisoned  in  the 
dungeon  of  the  Inquisition  at  Valladolid,  and  appeared 
over  fifty  times  before  the  high  court.  His  defence, 
which  is  extant,  contains  200  closely-written  pages  in 
the  purest  Castilian.  Although  iniable  to  ])rove  anj'- 
thiug  against  him,  his  judges  condemned  him  to  the 


LEONARD 


367 


LEONARDONI 


rack ;  but  this  sentence  was  reversed  by  the  Inquisito- 
rial high  court  of  Madrid,  and  he  was  liberated  with 
the  advice  of  being  more  careful  in  future.  In  1578  he 
returned  to  his  convent  and  resumed  his  otHco.  He 
thereafter  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  tlieologj'  and 
to  the  duties  of  his  order;  but  his  health  never  recov- 
ered entirely  from  the  shock  it  had  undergone  while  in 
the  prisons  of  the  Inquisition.  He  became  general  and 
provincial  vicar  of  his  order  in  Salamanca,  and  died  in 
1591.  His  principal  writings  are  poems  in  Latin  and  in 
Spanish ;  the  latter  are  distinguished  for  beauty  of  lan- 
guage and  purity  cf  style.  His  original  jjieces  have 
been  published,  with  a  German  translation,  by  C.  B. 
SchlUter  and  W,  Storck  (Minister,  1853).  His  whole 
works,  consisting  of  the  above,  together  with  transla- 
tions from  the  classics,  the  Psalms,  and  jiarts  of  the  book 
of  Job,  were  collected  and  published  (iNIadrid,  1804-16,  G 
vols.).  See  Quevedo,  Vita  de  L.  de  L.  (Madrid,  1G31) ; 
Herzog,  Real-Eiicyklopddie,  s.  v. 

Leonard,  St.,  a  French  nobleman  who  flourished  in 
the  first  half  of  the  Gth  century,  was  a  convert  and  pu- 
pil of  Kemigius.  He  retired  at  first  into  a  convent  near 
Orleans,  and  aftenvards  into  a  hermitage  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Limoges.  Here  he  applied  himself  to  the 
conversion  of  the  people.  A  few  followers  soon  gath- 
ered around  him,  and  he  founded  the  convent  of  No- 
blac.  He  took  special  interest  in  prisoners,  and  the  le- 
gend relates  that  centuries  after  his  death  prisoners 
were  released  and  captives  brought  back  from  distant 
countries  through  his  intercession.  His  prayers  arc  said 
to  have  saved  the  life  of  the  queen  of  France  in  a  dan- 
gerous confinement,  and  he  became  also  the  protector  of 
travellers.  He  died  in  559,  and  is  commemorated  on 
the  6th  of  November.  He  is  especially  recognised  in 
France  and  in  England. — Herzog,  Recti- Encyklop.  viii, 
332  ;  Migne,  Nour.  Encyc.  Theolo(j.  ii,  1168.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Leonard,  Abiel,  S.T.D.,  an  army  chaplain  and 
Congregational  minister,  was  born  at  Plymouth,  Mass., 
Nov.  5, 1740;  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1759;  and 
was  ordained  pastor  of  the  original  Church  in  Woodstock, 
Conn.,  in  1763.  In  1775  he  was  appointed  chaplain  in 
the  Revolutionary  army,  and  was  in  the  service  of  his 
country  until  1778,  when  he  went  home  on  a  furlough 
to  see  his  sick  child.  Having  remained  longer  than 
the  appointed  time,  he  found,  upon  his  return,  that  he 
was  superseded,  which  news  so  affected  him  that  he  put 
an  end  to  his  life  in  the  western  part  of  Connecticut, 
Aug.  14, 1778.  Dr.  Leonard  was  an  elegant  speaker,  and 
published  two  sermons.     See  Contj.  Qiiur.  1861,  p.  350. 

Leonard,  George  (1),  a  Congregational,  and  sub- 
sequently an  Episcopal,  minister,  was  born  in  Bliddle- 
borongh,  Mass.,  April  6, 1783;  graduated  at  Dartmouth 
College  in  1805;  studied  with  Dr.  Perkins,  of  West 
Hartford;  and  was  ordained  over  the  Church  in  Can- 
terbury, Conn.,  in  1808.  After  two  years  he  was  dis- 
missed, and  preached  in  various  places  in  Massachu- 
setts. In  1817  he  was  ordained  a  deacon  in  the  Episco- 
pal Church  by  bishop  Griswold;  admitted  to  priest's 
orders  the  following  year  at  Marblehead;  and  was  rec- 
tor of  Trinity  Church,  Cornish,  N.  IL,  and  of  St.  Paul's, 
Windsor,  Vt.,  until  his  death,  which  took  place  at  the 
house  of  his  sister  in  Salisbury,  N.  IL,  June  28,  1834. 
"Disinterested  and  judicious  counsellor,  open-hearted 
and  honest  man,  and  a  sincere  Christian."  Several  of  his 
sermons  were  published.  See  Coiif/.  Qttai:  1859,  p.  354. 
Leonard,  George  (2),  a  Baptist  minister,  was  born 
in  Kaynliam,  Bristol  Co.,  Mass.,  Aug.  17,  1802;  entered 
Brown  University  in  September,  1820;  graduated  in 
1824;  and  after  being  for  some  time  a  subordinate  in- 
structor in  the  Columbia  College  at  Washington,  went 
to  the  Newton  Theological  Institution  to  study  theologv. 
In  August,  1826,  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Second 
liaptist  Church  of  Salem,  Mass.,  and  while  there  filled 
also  the  office  of  secretary  of  the  Salem  Bible  Transla- 
tion and  Foreign  Mission  Society;  but  his  health  com- 
pelled him  to  resign  that  position  iu  1829.     Having 


somewhat  recovered,  he  became  pastor  of  the  Church 
in  Portland,  Me.,  in  October,  1830.  Here  he  labored 
faithfully  and  successfully  until  his  death,  Aug.  11, 1831. 
He  wrote  a  Dissertation  on  the  Duty  of  Churches  in  ref- 
erence to  Temperance  (published  in  the  Christian  Watch- 
man, 1829).  The  year  after  his  death  (1832),  a  small 
volume  containing  twelve  of  his  Sermons,  together  with 
the  sermon  delivered  on  the  occasion  of  his  death  bj'  the 
Pev.  Dr.  Babcock,  was  published  under  the  direction  of 
his  widow.— Sprague,  A  nnals  of  the  A  mer.  Puljnt,  vi,  729. 

Leonard,  Josiah,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  Kingsborough,  IST.  Y.,  April  15, 1816.  He  grad- 
uated from  Union  College  in  1837,  and  finished  his  the- 
ological course  in  Union  Seminary.  He  was  ordained 
to  the  ministry  in  1840,  and  was  pastor  of  the  following 
churches  successively:  Mexicoville,  N.  Y.,  18i0-42; 
Oswego,  1842-45 ;  Delhi,  1845-48  ;  Fulton,  111.,  1856-71. 
In  1872  he  became  stated  supply  at  Clinton,  la.,  where 
he  died,  Feb.  22, 1880.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Leonard,  Levi  Washburn,  D.D.,  a  Congrega- 
tional minister,  was  born  at  S.  Bridgewater,  INIass.,  June 
1, 1790,  and  was  educated  at  Harvard  L^niversity,  where 
he  graduated  in  1805.  He  then  studied  theology  at 
Cambridge,  and  Sept.  6, 1820,  became  pastor  at  Dii'bhn, 
N.  H.,  where  he  continued  until  1854.  He  died  at  Ex- 
eter Dec.  12, 1864.  He  published  several  school-books 
and  other  works  of  general  interest  only. — Drake,  Diet, 
of  A  merican  Biography,  s.  v. ;  Appleton,  A  mer.  Annual 
Cyclopcedia.  1864,  p.  623. 

Leonard,  Zenas  Lockwood,  a  Baptist  preach- 
er, was  born  at  Bridgewater,  Mass.,  January  16,  1773. 
In  June,  1790.  he  was  converted,  and  shortly  after  joined 
the  church  in  ]\Iiddleborough.  In  May,  1792,  he  entered 
the  sophomore  class  of  Brown  University,  and  graduated 
with  honor  in  1794.  On  leaving  college  he  commenced 
a  course  of  theological  study  with  Rev.  W.  Williams,  of 
Wrenthani,  Mass.  In  1796  he  was  ordained  pastor  of 
the  Baptist  church  in  Sturbridge,  Mass.  The  next  year 
he  opened  a  grammar-school,  which  he  continued  for  sev- 
eral years.  Mr.  Leonard  was  active  in  procuring  a  divi- 
sion of  the  Warren,  R.  I.,  Baptist  Association,  Nov.  3, 180 1 , 
and  the  formation  of  the  Sturbridge  Association,  Sept.  30, 
1802.  He  was  particularly  active  in  promoting  promi- 
nent benevolent  objects,  especially  the  Sabbath-school, 
the  temperance  cause,  African  colonization,  and  missions. 
On  Oct.  13, 1832,  he  was,  by  his  own  request,  dismissed 
from  the  charge  of  his  congregation.  For  six  terms  he 
represented  his  district  in  the  councils  of  the  state.  Sir. 
Leonard  manifested  supreme  deference  to  the  authority, 
truth,  and  spirit  of  the  Gospel;  stability  of  purpose;  un- 
compromising advocacy  of  the  cause  of  freedom,  right- 
eousness, and  public  virtue;  and  unwearied  activity  in 
performing  the  various  duties  of  his  profession.  His  pie- 
ty was  of  steady  progress,  ripening  continually  until  his 
death.  He  died  June  24, 1841.  The  only  printed  pro- 
ductions of  his  pen,  with  the  exception  of  contributions 
to  various  periodicals,  are  the  Circular  Letters  to  the 
Association  for  the  years  1802,  1810,  1822,  and  1825.— 
Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Anier.  Pulpit,  vi,  347  sq. 

Leonardo  da  Porto  Maurizio,  a  noted  mission- 
ary priest  and  the  founder  of  the  Brotherhood  of  the 
Heart  of  Jesus,  was  born  in  Liguria  in  1676.  While 
yet  a  youth  he  became  a  pupil  of  the  Jesuits,  and  a 
member  of  the  Order  of  the  Reformed  Franciscans.  He 
was  especially  active  in  promoting  the  doctrine  of  the 
immaculate  conception.  He  died  about  the  middle  of 
the  18th  century,  and  was  sainted  by  Pius  VI  in  1796. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci.     See  Vinci. 

Leonardoni,  Francesco,  an  Italian  painter,  was 
born  at  Venice  in  1654;  visited  Spain  and  settled  at 
Madrid;  gained  great  eminence  as  a  portrait-painter; 
executed  several  historical  works  for  the  churches,  char- 
acterized by  a  grand  style  of  design  ;  and  died  at  Madrid 
in  1711.  Among  his  principal  works  are  a  large  altar- 
piece  of  the  Incarnation,  in  the  Church  of  San  Geronimo 
el  Real,  at  Madrid :— and' two  subjects  from  the  Life  of 


LEONBRUNO 


3G8 


LEONTIUS 


St.  Joseph,  in  the  Church  of  the  Colegio  de  Atocha.  See 
Spooner.  Biorj.  Hist,  of  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Leonbruno,  Lokknzo.  an  Italian  painter,  was  born 
at^Mantiia  in  14*^9;  studied  under  count  Castiglione,  the 
friend  ol'Kaphael;  appointed  painter  to  the  duke  of  Man- 
tua; t^ave  offence  to  (iiulio  Komano,  in  consequence  of 
which  lie  was  obliged  to  quit  Mantua;  settled  at  INIilan, 
and  died  there  about  1537.  Three  of  his  pictures  at  Man- 
tua are  ver\'  highly  praised,  viz.,  St.  Jerome : — The  Meta- 
morphosis of  Midas :  — and  The  Body  of  Christ  in  the  A  rms 
of  the  Virgin.    See  Spooner,  Biofj.  Hist,  of  Fine  Arts,  s.  v. 

Leonidas,  father  of  the  celebrated  Origen,  was  a 
Christian  martyr  of  the  3d  century.  Previous  to  his 
execution,  his  son,  in  order  to  encourage  him,  wrote  to 
him  as  follows :  "  Beware  that  your  care  for  us  does  not 
make  you  change  your  resolution !''  The  father  accept- 
ed the  heroic  exhortation  of  the  son,  and  yielded  his 
neck  joyfully  to  the  stroke  of  the  executioner.— Fox, 
Book-  of  Martyrs,  p.  23. 

Leouistae  is  the  name  by  which  the  Waldenses  are 
sometimes  referred  to,  and  is  derived  from  Leoua  (Lyons). 

Leontes,  an  important  river  of  northern  Palestine, 
doubtless  the  present  Litany,  which  bursts  in  a  deep 
chasm  through  the  Lebanon  range  (Kobinson,  Res.  iii, 
409  sq. ;  Kitter,  ^rcZA-.x  vii,  48  sq.;  '&m\t\\,  Diet,  of  Class. 
Geog.  s.  v.).    For  a  description,  see  Lebanon. 

Leontius,  a  Christian  martyr  and  saint,  probably 
of  Arabian  firigin,  was  born  at  Vicentia,  in  Venetia,  in 
the  3d  century  after  Christ.  He  afterwards  moved 
to  Aquileia,  in  Venetia,  where,  in  company  with  St. 
Carpophorus,  who  was  either  his  brother  or  intimate 
friend,  he  distinguished  himself  by  zeal  in  favor  of 
Christianity.  For  this  offence  they  were  both  brought 
before  the  governor  Lysias,  and  after  being  tortured  in 
various  modes,  and,  according  to  the  legend,  miracu- 
lously delivered,  they  were  at  last  beheaded,  probably 
A.U.  300.  Their  memory  is  celebrated  by  the  Romish 
Church  on  Aug.  28.  See  the  Acta  Sanctorum  (in  Aug. 
20),  where  several  difficulties  are  critically  discussed  at 
length. — Smith,  Diet,  of  Or.  and  Rom.  Biog.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Leontius  of  Antiocii,  a  learned  Syrian  theologian 
of  the  early  Church,  was  born  in  Phrygia  about  the  close 
of  the  3d  or  the  opening  of  the  4th  century.  He  was  a 
disciple  of  the  martyr  Luciaiuis,  and,  having  entered  the 
Church,  was  ordained  a  presbyter.  In  order  to  enjoy 
without  scandal  the  society  of  a  young  female,  Eusto- 
lius  or  Eustolia,  to  whom  he  was  much  attached,  he 
mutilated  himself,  but,  notwithstanding,  did  not  escape 
suspicion,  and  was  finally  deposed  from  his  office.  On 
the  deposition,  however,  of  Stephanus,  or  Stephen,  bish- 
op of  Antioch,  he  was,  by  the  favor  of  the  emperor  Con- 
stantius  and  the  predominant  Arian  party,  appointed  to 
that  see  about  348  or  349.  Leontius  died  about  A.D. 
358.  Of  his  writings,  which  were  numerous,  nothing 
remains  except  a  fragment  of  what  Cave  describes,  we 
know  not  on  what  authority,  as  Orutio  in  Passionem  S. 
Bahyhe  (cited  in  the  Paschal  Chronicle  in  the  notice  of 
the  Decian  persecution).  In  this  fragment  it  is  dis- 
tinctly asserted  that  both  the  emperor  Philip  and  his 
wife  were  avowed  Christians  (Socrates,  Hist.  Eccles.  ii, 
2G;  Sozomen,  Hut. Eccles.  iii,  20;  Theodoret,  Hist. Eccles. 
ii,  10,  24 ;  Philostorgius,  Hist.  Eccles.  iii,  15, 17, 18 ;  Atha- 
nasius,  Apolog.  de  Fuga  sua,  c.  2(5;  Hist.  Arianor.  ad 
Monachos,  c.  28 ;  Chron.  Ptisch.  i,  270,  289,  ed.  Paris ;  p. 
210,  231,  ed. Venice;  p.  503,  535,  ed.  Bonn;  Cave.  Hist. 
Lilteraiia,  i,  211,  ed.  Oxon.  1740-43 ;  Fabricius, Biblioth. 
Grcpca,  vlii,  324). — Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Rom.  Biog. 
vol.  ii,  s.  V. 

Leontius  of  Arabissus,  in  Cappadocia,  of  which 
town  he  was  bishop,  nourished  as  an  ecclesiastical  writer. 
The  period  in  which  he  lived,  however,  is  quite  uncer- 
tain. Photius  has  noticed  tw()  of  his  works*:  1.  EIq  tijv 
KTiciv  \6yoQ  {Sernio  de  Creatione^,  and,  2.  Ei'f  tov  AaZr 
apov  {De  Lazaro),  and  gives  extracts  from  both  these 
works  (Photius,  Cod.  272).     See  also  Cave,  Hist.  Liiier, 


i,  551;  Fabricius,  Bihl.  Grceca,  viii,  824;  x,  268,  771.— 
Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biog.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Leontius  of  Arelate,  or  Arles,  was  bishop  of 
tliat  city  about  the  middle  of  the  5th  century.  Several 
letters  were  written  to  him  by  pope  Ililarius,  A.D.  401- 
4G7,  which  are  given  in  the  Concilia,  and  a  letter  of  Le- 
t)ntius  to  the  pope,  dated  A.D.  4G2,  is  also  given  in  the 
j  Concilia  and  in  D'Achery's  Sjncilef/ium  (v,  578  of  the 
[original  edition,  or  iii,  302  in  the  edition  of  De  la  Barre, 
Paris,  1723,  folio).  Leontius  presided  in  a  council  at 
Ai'les,  held  A.D.  475,  to  condemn  an  error  into  which 
some  had  fallen  respecting  the  doctrine  of  predestina- 
tion. He  appears  to  have  died  in  A.D.  484.  He  ia 
mentioned  bv  Sidonius  ApoUinaris  {Epist.  vii,  6).  See 
CoHcil.  iv,  col.  1039, 1041, 1044  (1828,  ed.  Labbe) ;  Cave, 
Hist.  Lilt,  i,  449 ;  Fabricius,  Bihl.  Grceca,  viii,  324 ;  xii, 
653  ;  Bibl.  Med.  et  Infm.  Latinitatis,  v,  268  (ed.  JMansi) ; 
Tillemont,  Memoires,  xvi,  38.  —  Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek 
and  Roman  Biog.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Leontius  of  Byzantium  (1),  an  ecclesiastical  -writ- 
er of  the  latter  part  of  the  0th  and  commencement  of  tha 
7th  century,  is  sometimes  designated,  from  his  original 
profession,  Scholasticus,  i.  e.  pleader.  As  there  are  sev- 
eral works  of  that  period  which  bear  the  name  of  Leon- 
tius, distinguished  by  various  surnames,  it  is  sometimes 
doubtful  to  whom  they  should  be  assigned.  According 
to  Oudin,  Leontius  flourished  as  an  inmate  of  the  mon- 
astery which  had  been  founded  by  St.  Saba  near  .Jeru- 
salem, and  was  for  a  time  its  abbot  (/>e  Scripto?:  Eccles. 
i,  col.  1462,  etc.).  Cave,  confounding  two  different  per- 
sons bearing  this  name,  places  our  Leontius  in  the  reign 
of  Justinian,  but  from  one  of  the  works  with  which 
he  is  credited  it  is  evident  that  he  flourished  half  a  cen- 
tury later.  The  works  which  appear  to  be  by  our  Leon- 
tius are  as  follows:  1.  SxoXia  (Scholia),  taken  down 
from  the  lips  of  Theodorus  (first  published  with  Latin 
version  by  Leunclavius,  and  commonly  cited  by  the 
title  De  Sectis  in  a  volume  containing  several  other 
pieces  [Basle,  1578,  8vo],  and  reprinted  in  the  .4  uctari- 
iim  Bibiiothecce  Pafrum  of  Ducaaus,  vol.  i  [Paris,  1624, 
folio],  in  the  Bibliotheca  Patriun,  vol.  xi  [Paris,  1644, 
foL],  and  m  the  Bibliotheca  Patrum  of  Galland,  xii,  625, 
etc.  [Venice,  1728,  folio].  The  Latin  version  alone  is 
given  in  several  other  editions  of  the  Biblioth.  Patrum). 
2.  Contra  Eutychianos  et  Kestorianos  Libri  ires,  s.  con- 
futatio  utriusque  Fictionis  inter  se  contraries.  Some 
inaccurately  speak  of  the  three  books  into  which  this 
work  is  divided  as  distinct  works.  3.  Liber  adveisus  eos 
qui  prof erunt  nobis  queedam  Aj)ollinarii,falso  inscripta 
nomine  Sanctorum  Patrum,  s.  adversus  Fraudes  Apol- 
linaristurum,  4.  Solutiones  Argumentationum  Sereri. 
5.  Dubitationes  hypothetical  et  dejinientes  contra  eos  qui 
negant  in  Christo  post  Unionem  duas  veras  Naturas. 
These  pieces  have  not  been  printed  in  the  original,  but 
in  a  Latin  version  from  the  papers  of  Franciscus  Turri- 
anus  (published  by  Canisius  in  his  I^eetioties  Antique, 
vol.  iv,  or  ii,  525,  etc.,  ed.  Basnage,  and  reprinted  in  the 
Bibliotheca  Patrum,  vol.  ix  [Lyons,  1677,  folio],  and  in 
the  above-mentioned  volume  of  Galland).  6.  Apologia 
Concilii  Chalcedonensis  (printed,  with  a  Latin  version 
and  notes,  by  Antonio  Bougivianni,  in  the  Concilia,  vii, 
799,  ed.  INIansi  [Florence,  1762.  folio],  and  reprinted  by 
Galland,  /,  c).  In  the  title  of  this  work  Leontius  is 
called  Monachus  Jlierosolymitanus,  but  the  word  Hie- 
rosolymitanus  is  possibly  an  error  of  the  transcriber. 
At  any  rate,  Galland  identities  the  writer  with  our  Leon- 
tius, and  the  subject  of  the  work  makes  it  probable  that 
he  is  right.  7.  Adverstis  Eutychianvs  {s.  Sever-ianos)  et 
Nestorianos  in  octo  libros  distinctum  (described  by  Canis- 
ius as  being  extant  in  jNIS.  at  Munich,  and  by  Fabricius 
as  occurring  in  the  catalogue  of  the  Palatine  library). 
8.  Liber  de  Duplici  Xatura  in  Christo  contra  Hccresin 
Monophysitarum  (Labbe  and  Cave  speak  of  this  as  ex- 
tant in  MS.  at  Vienna,  and  they  acid  to  it  Disputatio 
contra  Philosophum  A  rianum ;  this,  however,  seems  to  be 
an  extract  from  Gelasius  of  Cyzicus),  which  probably  is 


LEONTIUS 


369 


LEOPARD 


one  of  tho  discussions  between  the  "holy  bishops"  of  the 
orthodox  party  and  the  "  philosophers"  wlio  embraced 
the  op})<>site  side,  and  the  Leontius  who  took  a  part  in  it 
was  a  bisliop  of  the  C'appadocian  Oesarea,  and  contem- 
porary of  ALhanasins.  'J.  According  to  Nicephorus  Cal- 
listus  (//.  E.  xviii,  43),  our  Leontius  wrote  also  "an  admi- 
rable work,"  in  thirty  books,  unfortunately  lost,  in  which 
he  overtlirew  the  tritheistic  heresy  of  John  the  Labori- 
ous, and  firmly  established  the  orthodox  doctrine.  Cave 
also  ascribes  to  our  Leontius  Oraiio  in  medium  Pente- 
costem  et  in  Ccecum  a  Natii'itate,necnon  in  illud:  Nolite 
judicare  secundum  fudem  (published  by  Combelis,  with 
a  Latin  version,  in  his  Auctarium  Novum,  vol.  i  [Paris, 
1648,  fol.]).  Itis  so  given  by  the  editors  oi  the  Bibliofh. 
Patrum,  vol.  ix  (Lyons,  1G71,  folio),  but  Fabricius  (Bibl. 
Orccca,  viii,  321)  ascribes  the  homily  to  Leontius  of  Ne- 
apolis,  while  Galland  omits  it  altogether.  A  homily  on 
the  parable  of  the  good  Samaritan,  printed  among  the 
supposititious  works  of  Chrysostom  {Opera,  vii,  50ti,  ed. 
Savill),  seems  also  to  be  a  production  of  our  Leontius. 
There  are  various  homilies  extant  in  MS.  by  "  Leontius 
presbyter  ConstantinopoUtanus."  See  Canisius,  Vita  Le- 
on/ii  in  Bihlioth.  Patmim,  vol.  ix  (Lyons,  1677,  fol.),  and 
Lecliones  A  ntiqiice,  i,  527,  etc.,  cd.  Basnage  :  Cave,  Hist. 
Litt.  i,  543  ;  Vossius,  De  Histoi-icis  Greeds  Liber,  iv,  c.  18  ; 
Fabricius,  Bibliotheca  Gi-csca,  viii,  309,  etc.,  318 ;  xii,  648  ; 
Oudin,  De  Scriptoribus  et  Scriptis  Ecdes.  i,  col.  1462 ; 
Mansi,  Concil.  vii,  col.  797,  etc. ;  Galland,  Bibl.  Patrum, 
xii,  Prolerjom.  c.  20. — Smith,  Did.  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Biofj.  ii,  756  sq. 

Leontius  of  Byzantium  (2),  the  author  of  a  part 
of  the  Xpoi'oypff^i'a,  lived  in  the  reign  of  Constantine 
Porphyrogenitus.  A  second  portion,  bringing  the  work 
down  to  the  second  year  of  Romanus,  son  and  successor 
of  Porphjnrogenitus,  and  probably  only  reaching  or  de- 
signed to  reach  a  later  period,  is  an  addition  by  another 
hand.  In  fact,  the  work  which  is  entitled  Xpovoyprt- 
0('a,  Chronor/raphia,  is  composed  of  tliree  parts,  by  three 
distinct  writers:  (1.)  The  history  of  the  emperor  Leo  V, 
the  Armenian,  Michael  II  of  Aurorium,  Theophilus,  the 
son  of  Michael,  and  iMichael  III  and  Theodora,  the  son 
and  widow  of  TheophUus ;  by  the  so-called  Leontius, 
from  the  materials  supplied  by  Constantine  Porphyro- 
genitus. (2.)  The  life  of  Basil  the  Macedonian,  by  Con- 
stantino himself  (though  Labbe  and  Cave  would  assign 
this  also  to  Leontius) ;  and  (3.)  The  lives  of  Leo  VI  and 
Alexander,  the  sons  of  Basil,  and  of  Constantine  Por- 
phjTogenitus,  and  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of 
liomanus  II;  by  an  unknown  later  hand.  This  third 
part  is  more  succinct  than  the  former  parts,  and  is  in  a 
great  degree  borrowed,  with  little  variation,  from  known 
and  existing  sources.  The  first  edition  of  the  Chrono- 
graphia  prepared  for  publication  with  a  Latin  version 
Avas  by  Comberis,  and  was  published  in  the  Paris  edition 
of  the  Byzantine  historians,  forming  a  part  of  the  volume 
entitled  Ol  ptrci  Qeo(t>fip]]v,  Scriptoi-es  post  Theojihanem 
(1685,  folio);  again  pubhshed  in  the  Venetian  reprint 
( 1729,  folio),  and  again,  edited  by  Bekker  (Bonn,  1838, 
8vo).  The  life  of  Basil  by  Constantine  Porphyrogeni- 
tus was  printed  separately  as  early  as  1653,  in  the  2tijtt- 
/((/c-ti  of  Allatius  (Cologne,  8vo).  See  Fabricius,  BihI. 
Grwca,  vii,  681 ;  viii,  318 ;  Cave,  Hist.  Lift,  ii,  90.— Smith, 
Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Bior/raphy,  ii,  757  sq. 

Leontius  of  Neapolis  (or  of  Hagiopolit,  accord- 
nig  to  his  own  authority),  in  Cyprus,  who  was  bishop 
of  that  city,  which  Le  Quien  {Oriens  Christianus,  ii, 
1061)  identities  with  the  Nova  Lcmissus,  or  Nemissus, 
or  Neraosa,  that  rose  out  of  the  ruins  of  Amathus, 
flourished  in  the  latter  part  of  the  6th  and  the  early 
part  of  the  7th  century.  Baronius,  Possevino,  and  oth- 
ers call  Leontius  bishop  of  Salamis  or  Constantia,  but  in 
the  records  of  the  second  Nicene  or  seventh  General 
Council,  held  A.D.  787,  Actio  iv  (Condlia,  vii,  col.  236, 
ed.  Labbe ;  iv,  col.  193,  ed.  Hardouin ;  viii,  col.  884,  ed. 
Coleti;  and  xiii,  col.  44,  ed.  Mansi),  he  is  expressly  de- 
scribed as  bishop  of  Neapolis,  in  Cvprus.  His  death  is 
v.— A  A 


said  to  have  occurred  between  620  and  630.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are  Aoyoi  inrep  rJ/c  Xpiartai'M'  anoXoyiag 
Kara,  lovSaiojv  Kal  ncpi  tlicovojv  tCjv  ayiwv,  Sermo- 
?ies  j)ro  DeJ'ensione  Cliristianorum  contra  Judaos  ac  de 
inuvjinibus  Sanctis.  A.  long  extract  from  the  fifth  of 
these  sermons  was  read  at  the  second  Nicene  Council 
{Concilia,  1.  c.)  to  support  the  use  of  images  in  worship; 
and  several  passages,  most  of  them  identical  with  those 
cited  in  the  council,  are  given  by  John  of  Damascus  in 
his  third  oration,  and  in  De  Iniaginibus  {Oj^era,  i,  373, 
etc.,  ed.  Le  Quien).  A  Latin  version  of  another  portion 
of  one  of  these  discourses  of  Leontius  is  given  in  the 
Lectiones  A  ntiquw  of  Canisius,  i,  793,  edit.  Basnage  : — 
Biog  Tov  uyiov  'itiiavvov  apxtiTTiaKoiTOV  'AXiuiT^pii- 
ac:  TOV  'EXtfiixoi'Oc,  Vita  Sandi  Joannis  A  rchiepisco/A 
A lexandriw  Cofjnomento  Eleemonis,  s.  Eleemosynarii.  See 
John  the  Aljisgiveh.  This  life  by  Leontius  was  men- 
tioned in  the  second  Nicene  Council  {Condlia,  vol.  cit., 
col.  246  Labbe,  202  Hardouin,  896  Coleti,  53  Mansi),  and 
is  extant  in  No.  8  in  the  Imperial  Library  at  Vienna. 
An  ancient  Latin  version  by  Anastasius  Bibliothccarius 
is  given  by  Kosweid  {De  Vitis  Patrum,  pars  i),  Surius 
{De  Probatis  Sanctorum  Vitis),  and  Bollandus  {Ada 
Sanctorum,  Januarj',  ii,  498,  etc.).  The  accomit  of  St. 
Vitalis  or  Vitalius,  given  in  ihaAda  Sanctorum  of  Bol- 
landus (January),  i,  702,  is  a  Latin  version  of  a  ]iart  of 
this  life  of  John  the  Almsgiver: — Bi'o^  Toi'  ualov  2i)- 
peiov  Toij  aaXoii,  Vita  Sancta  Symeonis  Simplicis,  or 
Biof  Kal  noXirtia  ruv  6/3/3a  'Svfitwv  roC  cut  XpiiTTOv 
tTTovopaaSiVTOi:  ^aXov,  Vita  et  Conversatio  Abbaiis 
Symeonis  qui  coynominatus  est  Stidtus propter  Christum, 
was  also  mentioned  in  the  Nicene  Council  (/.c),and  pub- 
lished in  the  A  da  Sanct.  of  the  BoUandists  (July),  i,  136, 
etc.  The  other  published  works  of  Leontius  are  homi- 
lies :  Sermo  in  Simc07icm  qiiando  Doniinimi  in  Ulncis  sus- 
cepit : — In  Diemfestum  medics  Pentecostes ;  both  with  a 
Latin  version  in  the  Novum  A  uctarium  of  Combefis,  vol.  1 
(Par.  1648,  fol.).  As  Leontius  is  recorded  to  have  writ- 
ten many  homilies  in  honor  of  saints  {tyKwpia  f.nd  for 
the  festivals  of  the  Church  {—ai'tiyvpiicoi  Xuyoi),  espe- 
cially on  the  transfiguration  of  our  Saviour,  it  is  not  un- 
likely that  some  of  those  extant  under  the  name  of  Le- 
ontius of  Constantinople  may  be  by  him.  He  wrote 
also  UapaXXijXwi'  Xiiyoi  /3',  Parallelorum,  s.  Locorum 
communium  Thtoloyicorum  Libri  ii;  the  first  book  con- 
sisted of  tCuv  Biiiui',  and  the  other  rwv  c'n'^pwTrirujv. 
Turrianus  possessed  the  second  book ;  but  whether  that 
or  the  first  is  extant,  we  know  not;  neither  has  been 
published.  It  has  been  thought  that  John  of  Damas- 
cus, in  his  Parallela,  made  use  of  those  of  Leontius. 
Fabricius  also  inserts  among  the  works  of  our  Leontius 
the  homily  E/^  tu  [Saia,  In  Festum  {s.  Ramos)  I'alma- 
rum,  generally  ascribed  to  Chrysostom,  and  printed 
among  his  doubtful  or  spurious  works  (vii,  334,  ed.  Sa- 
viU;  X,  767,  ed.  Montfaucon,  or  x,  915,  and  xiii,  354,  in 
the  recent  Parisian  reprint  of  Montfaucon's  edition). 
Maldonatus  {ad  Joan,  vii)  mentions  some  MS.  Commen- 
tarii  in  Joamiem  by  Leontius,  and  an  Oratio  in  laudeni 
S.  Epiphanii  is  mentioned  by  Theodore  Studita  in  his 
A  ntirrheticu^  Secmulus,  a]iud  Sismondi,6|/'/7.  v,  130.  (See 
Fabricius,  Bibl.  Grceca,  viii,  320,  etc. ;  Cave,  Hist.  Litt.  i, 
550 ;  Oudin,  De  Sci'iptor.  Ecclesiustids,  i,  col.  1575,  etc. ; 
Vossius,  De  Ilistor.  Grccc.  lib.  ii,  c.  23 ;  Le  Quien,  Oriens 
Christianus,  ii,  col.  1062;  Acta  Sanctor.  JuW,  v,  131.) — 
Smith,  Did.  of  Greek  and  Roman  Bioyraphy,  ii,  768. 

Leopard  (Ileb.  "TOS,  niima-',  so  called  as  being 
spotted,  Cant,  iv,  8  ;  Isa.  xi,  6  ;  Jer.  v,  6 ;  xiii,  23 ;  Hos. 
xiii,  7 ;  Hab.  i,  8 ;  Chald.  "1^3,  nemar',  Dan.  vii,  6 ;  Gr. 
TTc'ipoaXig,  Dan.  vii,  6 ;  Rev.  xiii.  2  ;  Ecclus.  xxviii,  23). 
Though  zoologists  differ  in  opinion  respecting  the  iden- 
tity of  the  leopard  and  the  panther,  and  dispute,  sup- 
posing them  to  be  distinct,  how  these  names  shoidd  be 
respectively  applied,  and  by  what  marks  the  animals 
should  be  distinguished,  nevertheless  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  namer  of  the  Bible  is  that  great  spotted 
feline  which  anciently  infested  the  Syrian  mountains, 


LEOPARD 


370 


LEOPOLD  II 


and  even  now  occurs  m  the  wooded  ranges  of  Lebanon, 
for  the  Arabs  still  use  ninir,  the  same  word  slightly 
modified,  to  denote  that  animal.  The  Abyssinian  name 
differs  scarcely  from  either;  and  in  all  tliese  tongues  it 
means  sjjotted.  Pigikris,  according  to  Kirscher,  is  the 
Coptic  name ;  and  in  English  "leopai-d"  has  been  adopt- 
ed as  the  most  appropriate  to  represent  both  the  Hebrew 
word  and  the  Greek  ndpoaXti;  (which  is  imitated  in  the 
Talmudic  Dbl"i2,  Mishna,/j;((6((  .1/e^.  viii,  2),  although 
the  Latin  leopardus  is  not  found  in  any  author  anterior 
to  the  fcjurth  century,  and  is  derived  from  a  gross  mis- 
take in  natural  history.  Gesenius  {TItts.  Ilt-b.  p.  443) 
contends  that  the  scriptural  animal  was  rather  striped 
than  spotted  (rm3"i5n,  Jer.  xiii,  23),  and  thinks  that 
not  improbably  the  iiffer  was  also  comprised  under  this 
name,  as  the  Hebrews  had  no  specific  name  for  that  an- 
imal {Thesaur.  p.  889).     The  panther  {Fdis  pardus  of 


Syrian  Panther  {Felis  Pardus). 


Linn.)  lives  in  Africa  (Strabo,  xvii,  828;  Pliny,  x,  94), 
Arabia  (Strabo,  xvi,  774,  777),  as  well  as  on  Lebanon 
(Seetzen,  xviii,  343 ;  Burckhardt,  Trav.  i,  99),  and  the 
hills  of  middle  Palestine  (Schubert,  iii,  119),  not  to  men- 
tion more  distant  countries,  as  India,  America,  etc.  The 
most  graphic  description  of  the  (African  and  Arabian) 
panther  is  by  Ehrenberg  (Symbol,  jiht/s.  Mammal,  dec. 
2,  pi.  17).  The  variety  of  leopard,  or  rather  panther, 
of  SjTia  is  considerably  below  the  stature  of  a  lioness, 
but  very  heavy  in  proportion  to  its  bulk.  Its  general 
form  is  so  well  known  as  to  require  no  description  be- 
yond stating  that  the  spots  are  rather  more  irregular, 
and  the  color  more  mixed  with  whitisli,  than  in  the 
other  pantherine  felinaj,  excepting  the  Felis  Uncia  or 
Felis  Irbis  of  High  Asia,  which  is  shaggy  and  almost 
white  (Sonnini,  Trai:  i,  395).  It  is  a  nocturnal,  cat-like 
animal  in  habits,  dangerous  to  all  domestic  cattle,  and 
sometimes  even  to  man  (comp.  Plin.  x,  94;  Hom.  J/;/mn 
in  Ven.  71 ;  Oppian,  Ci/ner/.  iii,  70  sq. ;  Cyrill.  Alex,  in 
JIos.  1.  c. ;  Tsetz.  Chiliad,  ii,  45;  Poiret,  Voi/age,  i,  224). 
In  the  Scriptures  it  is  constantly  placed  in  juxtaposition 
with  the  lion  (Isa.  xi,  (J ;  Jer.  v,  G  ;  Hos.  xiii,  7  ;  Ecclus. 
xxviii,  23  [27 J  ;  comp.  .Elian,  i'.  //.  xiv.  4)  or  the  wolf. 
The  swiftness  of  this  animal,  to  which  Habakkuk  (i,  8) 
compares  the  Chakkean  liorses.  and  to  which  Daniel  (vii, 
G)  alludes  in  tlie  winged  leopard,  is  well  known.  So  great 
is  the  tlc'xibility  of  its  body  that  it  is  able  to  take  sur- 
prising leaps,  to  climb  trees,  or  to  crawl  snake-like  ujion 
the  ground.  Jeremiah  and  Ilosea  (as  above)  allude  to 
the  insidious  habit  of  this  animal,  which  is  abundantlv 
confirmed  l)y  the  observations  of  travellers:  the  leop- 
ard will  take  up  its  position  in  some  spot  near  a  vil- 
lage, and  watch  for  some  favorable  opportunity  fur  plun- 
der. Erom  tlie  Canticles  (as  above)  we  learn  that  tlie 
hilly  ranges  of  Lebanon  were  in  ancient  limes  frequent- 
ed by  these  animals,  and  it  is  luiw  not  uncommonly  seen 
in  and  about  Lebanon,  anil  the  soutliern  maritime  moun- 


tains of  Syria  (Kitto,  Pict.  Bible,  note  on  Cant,  iv,  8). 
There  is  in  Asia  Minor  a  species  or  variety  of  panther, 
much  larger  than  the  Syrian,  not  unfrequent  on  the 
borders  of  the  snowy  tracts  even  of  Mount  Ida,  above 
ancient  Troy ;  and  the  group  of  these  spotted  animals 
is  spread  over  the  whole  of  Southern  Asia  to  Africa. 
From  several  names  of  places  (e.  g.  Beth-Nimrah,  etc.), 
it  appears  that,  in  the  earlier  ages  of  Israelitish  domin- 
ion, it  was  sufficiently  numerous  in  Palestine,  and  re- 
cent travellers  have  encountered  it  there  (see  Bibliotheca 
Sacra,  1848,  p.  (5(39 ;  Lynch's  Expedition,  p.  212).  Leop- 
ard skins  were  worn  as  a  part  of  ceremonial  costume  by 
the  superiors  of  the  Egyptian  priesthood,  and  by  other 
personages  in  Nubia;  and  the  animal  itself  is  represent- 
ed in  the  processions  of  tributary  nations  (Wilkinson,  i, 
285,  291,  319).  In  Dan.  vii,  7,  "the  third  .stage  of  the 
prophetical  vision  is  symbolized  under  the  form  of  a 
leopard  with  wings,  representing  the  rapidly  formed 
Macedonian  empire;  its  four  heads  corresponding  to  the 
division  of  Alexander's  dominions  among  his  four  gen- 
erals. In  Kev.  xiii,  2,  the  same  animal  is  made  a  type 
of  the  spiritual  power  of  the  Eoman  hierarchy,  support- 
ed by  the  secular  power  in  maintaining  Paganism  in 
opposition  to  Christianity.  See  generally  Bochart,  Ili- 
eroz.  ii,  100  sq. ;  Schoder,  Specim.  hieroz.  i,  4G  sq. ;  We- 
myss,  Claris  Symbolica,  s.  v.;  Wood,  Bible  Animals,  p. 
29  sq. ;  Thomson,  Land  ami  Book;  ii,  156  sq. 

Leopold  II  of  Germany  (1790-1792)  and  I  of  Tus- 
cany (1705-1790),  the  second  son  of  jNIaria  Theresa  of 
Austria  and  her  husband  Francis  of  Lorraine,  is  noted 
in  Church  History  for  the  part  he  took  in  the  ecclesias- 
tical affairs  of  Tuscany,  which,  after  Maria  Theresa  had 
succeeded  to  the  Austrian  dominions,  according  to  trea- 
ties, establishing  the  independence  of  Tuscany  as  a 
state  separate  from  the  hereditary  states  of  Austria,  de- 
volved upon  Leopold,  his  elder  brother  Joseph  being  the 
presumptive  heir  of  the  Austrian  dominions.  His  prin- 
cipal reforms  in  Tuscany  concerned  the  administration  of 
justice  and  the  discipline  of  the  clergy  in  his  dommions. 
By  his  "Motu  proprio"  in  178G,  he  promulgated  a  new 
criminal  code,  abolished  torture  and  the  pain  of  death, 
and  established  penitentiaries  to  reclaim  ofFendeis.  In 
the  ecclesiastical  department,  after  having  instituted 
various  reforms,  he  actually,  in  July,  1782,  abolished  the 
Inquisition  in  Tuscan^-,  and  placed  the  monks  and  nuns 
of  his  dominions  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  respective 
bishops.  The  discovery  of  licentious  practices  carried 
on  in  certain  nunneries  in  the  to-»nis  of  Pistoja  and  Prato 
Avith  the  connivance  cf  their  monkish  directors  induced 
Leopold  to  investigate  and  reform  the  -whole  system  of 
monastic  discipline,  and  he  intrusted  Kicci,  bishop  of 
Pistoja,  with  full  i)ower  for  that  purpose.  This  occa- 
sioned a  long  and  angrj-  controversy  with  the  court  of 
Pome,  which  pretended  to  have  the  sole  cognizance  of 
matters  affecting  individuals  of  the  clergy  and  monastic 
orders.  Leopold,  liowever,  carried  his  point,  and  the 
pope  consented  that  the  bishops  of  Tuscany  shoidd  have 
the  jurisdiction  over  the  convents  of  their  respective  di- 
oceses. Picci,  who  had  high  notions  of  religious  purity, 
and  was  by  his  enemies  accused  of  Jansenism,  attempt- 
ed other  reforms :  he  endeavored  to  enlighten  the  people 
as  to  the  proper  limits  of  image-worship  and  the  invo- 
cation of  saints ;  he  suppressed  certain  relics  which  gave 
occasion  to  superstitious  practices;  he  encouraged  the 
spreading  of  religious  works,  and  especially  of  the  Gos- 
pel, among  his  Hock  ;  and,  lastly,  he  assembled  a  dioce- 
san council  at  Pistoja  in  September,  1786,  in  which  he 
maintained  tlie  siiiritual  independence  of  the  bishops. 
He  advocated  the  use  of  the  liturgy  in  the  oral  language 
of  the  country,  he  exposed  the  abuse  of  indulgences,  ap- 
proved of  the  four  articles  of  the  (iallican  Coimcil  of 
1G82,  and,  lastly,  appealed  to  a  national  council  as  a  le- 
gitimate and  canonical  means  for  terminating  contro- 
versies. Sever.al  of  Picci's  propositions  were  condemned 
by  the  po])e  in  a  bull  as  scandalous,  rash,  and  injurious 
to  the  Holy  See.  Leo|)old  supported  IJicci,  but  he  could 
not  prevent  his  being  annoyed  in  many  ways,  and  at  last 


LEOPOLD  IV 


371 


LEPROSY 


he  saw  him  forced  to  resign  his  charge.  (For  further  de- 
tails of  tliis  curious  controversy, see  Potter,  \'ie  de  Scipion 
de  Rkei  [Brussels,  l^'io,  3  vols. 8vo].)  Leopold  liimself 
convoked  a  council  at  Florence  of  the  bishops  of  Tus- 
cany in  1787,  and  proposed  to  them  tifty-seven  articles 
concerning  the  reform  of  ecclesiastical  discipline.  He 
enforced  residence  of  incumbents,  and  forbade  plurali- 
ties; suppressed  many  convents,  and  distributed  their 
revenues  among  the  poor  benefices  —  thus  favoring  the 
parochial  clerg}%  and  extending  their  jurisdiction,  as 
he  had  supjiorted  and  extended  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
bishops.  He  forbade  the  publication  of  the  bidls  and 
censures  of  liome  without  the  approbation  of  the  gov- 
ernment ;  he  enjoined  the  ecclesiastical  courts  not  to  in- 
terfere with  laymen  in  temporal  matters,  and  restrain- 
ed their  jurisdiction  to  spiritual  affairs  only;  and  he 
subjected  clergymen  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ordinary 
courts  in  all  criminal  cases.  All  these  were  considered 
in  that  age  as  very  bold  innovations  for  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic prince  to  undertake.    See  Ricci. 

Leopold  IV,  margrave  of  Austria,  son  of  Leopold 
III,  was  born  Sept.  29,  1073.  He  was  educated  by  the 
priest  Udalrich,  under  the  direction  of  Altmann,  bishop 
of  Passau,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  1096.  His  chief 
object  during  his  whole  reign  was  to  promote  the  hap- 
piness of  his  subjects.  He  avoided  war,  and  husbanded 
the  resources  of  his  countrj-  with  great  care.  He  was 
about  to  accompany  the  emperor,  Henry  IV,  in  a  cru- 
sade to  Jerusalem,  when  the  insuiTection  of  the  emper- 
or's son,  Henry  V,  obliged  him  to  change  his  plans.  At 
first  he  went  to  assist  the  emperor  (in  1105),  but  some- 
what later  he  was  influenced  by  his  brother-in-law, 
Borzywoy  H,  duke  of  Bohemia,  and  the  promises  of 
Henry  V,  to  join  the  latter,  to  whose  sister  Agnes,  wid- 
ow of  Frederick  of  Suabia,  he  was  married  in  HOG.  The 
remainder  of  his  reign  passed  in  peace  and  prosperity, 
although  occasionally  (especially  in  1118)  he  was  sub- 
jected to  annoyances  by  the  inroads  of  the  Hungarians. 
In  11  "25,  after  the  death  of  Henry  V,  he  was  spoken  of 
for  emperor,  but  declined  in  favor  of  Lothaire,  duke  of 
Saxony.  Leopold  died  Nov.  15, 1130,  and  was  canonized 
by  pope  Innocent  YIH  in  1485.  He  founded  a  large 
number  of  convents,  among  which  are  those  of  Neuburg, 
of  ]\Iariazell,  and  of  the  H0I3'  Cross,  and  built  a  number 
of  churches.  See  A.  Klein,  Gesch.  des  Christenthums  in 
Oesterrcich  (Vienna,  1840),  vol.  i  and  ii ;  Leopold  d.  I/ei- 
liffe  (Vien.  1835) ;  L.  Lang,  B.  hi.  Leopold  (Kcullingen, 
1836);  Fez,  Vita  sancti  Leojyoldi ;  same,  Sc7i2)fores  Re- 
rum  A  iistriacarvm,  i,  575  ;  Poltzraann,  Compendium  vi- 
im  S.  Leopoldi ;  Jaffe,  Gesch.  des  deutschen  Reiches  unter 
Lothar  dem  Sachsen  (Berlin,  1843) ;  and  his  Geschichte  d. 
deutsch.  Reiches  v.  Konrad  III  (Han.  1845)  ;  Herzog, 
Real-Encyklop.  viii,  332 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale, 
XXX,  797. 

Leper  (some  form  of  '.i'^'i,  to  smite  with  a  providen- 
tial infliction ;  XtTrpMS).     See  Lepkosv. 

Leporius,  a  monastic  who  flourished  in  the  second 
half  of  the  4th  and  the  early  part  of  the  5th  century,  a 
native  of  (iaul,  embraced  asceticism  under  the  auspices 
of  Cassianus  about  the  opening  of  the  5th  centurj',  at 
Marseilles,  where  he  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  for  pu- 
rity and  holiness.  Advancing  the  view  that  man  did 
not  stand  in  need  of  divine  grace,  and  that  Christ  was 
born  with  a  human  nature  only,  he  was  excommunica- 
ted in  consequence  of  these  heretical  doctrines.  He  be- 
took himself  to  Africa,  and  there  became  familiar  with 
Aurelius  and  St.  Augustine,  by  whose  instructions  he 
profited  so  much  that  he  not  only  became  convinced  of 
his  errors,  but  drew  up  a  solemn  recantation  addressed 
to  Proculus,  bishop  of  Marseilles,  and  Cyllinnius,  the 
bishop  of  Aix  (see  below  as  to  the  title  and  value  of  this 
treatise),  while  four  African  prelates  bore  witness  to  the 
sincerity  of  his  conversion,  and  made  intercession  on  his 
behalf.  Although  now  reinstated  in  his  ecclesiastical 
privileges,  Leporius  does  not  seem  to  have  returned  to 
his  native  co.untry,  but,  laying  aside  the  profession  of  a 


monk,  was  ordained  a  presbyter  by  St.  Augustine,  A.D. 
425,  and  appears  to  be  the  same  Leporius  so  v.armly 
praised  in  the  discourse  l)e  Vita  et  Mvribus  Clei-iconim. 
We  know  nothing  further  regarding  his  career  except 
that  he  was  still  alive  in  430  (Cassianus,  De  Incurn.  i, 
4).  The  treatise  above  alluded  to  is  still  extant,  under 
the  title  Libellus  emendationis  sire  satitfuctionis  ad 
Episcopos  Gallicr,  sometimes  with  the  addition  Conjes- 
sionem  Fidei  CatholictB  continens  de  Mysterio  Incnrna- 
tionis  Christi,  cum  Lrroris  liristini  Detestatione.  It  was 
held  in  very  high  estimation  among  ancient  divines, 
and  its  author  was  regarded  as  one  of  tl>e  firmest  bul- 
warks of  orthodoxy  against  the  attacks  of  the  Nesto- 
rians.  Some  scholars  in  modern  times,  especiallj'  Ques- 
nel,  who  has  written  an  elaborate  dissertation  on  the 
subject,  have  imagined  that  we  ought  to  regard  this  as 
a  tract  composed  and  dictated  by  St.  Augustine,  found- 
ing their  opinion  partly  on  the  style,  and  partly  on  the 
terms  in  which  it  is  quoted  in  the  acts  of  the  second 
Council  of  Chalcedon  and  earlj'  documents,  and  partly 
on  certain  expressions  in  an  epistle  of  Leo  the  (Jreat 
(clxv,  edit.  Quesnel) ;  but  their  arguments  are  far  from 
being  conclusive,  and  the  hypothesis  is  generally  reject- 
ed. Fragments  of  the  Libellus  were  first  collected  by 
Sismondi  from  Cassianus,  and  inserted  in  his  collection 
of  Gaidish  councils  (i,  52).  The  entire  work  was  soon 
discovered  and  published  by  the  same  editor  in  his 
Opuscula  Dogmalica  Vetei'wn  quinque  Scriptomm  (Par. 
1630,  8vo),  together  with  the  letter  of  the  African  bish- 
ops in  favor  of  Leporius.  It  will  be  found  also  in  the 
collection  of  councils  by  Labbe  (Paris,  1671,  folio) ;  in 
Garnier's  edition  oi  Marius  Mercator  (Paris,  1673,  fol.), 
i,  224;  in  the  Bihliotheca  Patriim  Max.  (Lugd.  1677), 
vii,  14 ;  and  in  the  Bihliotheca  Patrimi  of  Galland  (Ven. 
1773).  ix,  396.  Consult  the  dissertation  of  Quesnel  in 
his  edition  of  the  works  of  Leo,  ii,  906  (ed.  Paris) ;  His- 
toire  Litteraire  de  la  France,  ii,  167;  the  second  disser- 
tation of  Garnier,  his  edition  of  M.  Mercator,  i,  230 ;  the 
Prolegomena  of  Galland ;  Schonemann,  Bihliotheca  Patr. 
Latt.  ii,  §  20. — Smith,  Dz'rf.  Greek  and  Roman  Biography, 
vol,  ii,  s.  V. 

Leprosy  (T'"'^^,tsara'dth,  a  smiling,  because  sup- 
posed to  be  a  direct  visitation  of  heaven;  Gr.  XsTrpo,  so 
called  from  its  scaliness,  hence  English  "  leper,"  etc.),  a 
name  that  was  given  by  the  Greek  jihysicians  to  a  scaly 
disease  of  the  skin.  During  the  Dark  Ages  it  was  indis- 
criminately applied  to  all  chronic  diseases  of  the  skin, 
and  more  particularly  to  elephantiasis,  to  which  latter, 
however,  it  docs  not  bear  the  slightest  resemblance. 
Hence  prevailed  the  greatest  discrepancy  and  confusion 
in  the  descriptions  that  authors  gave  of  the  disease,  un- 
til Dr.Wnian  restored  to  the  term  lepra  its  original  sig- 
nification. In  the  Scriptiu-es  it  is  applied  to  a  foul  cu- 
taneous disease,  the  description  of  which,  as  well  as  the 
regulations  connected  therewith,  are  given  in  Lev.  xiii, 
xiv  (comp.  also  Exod.  iv,  6, 7;  Numb,  xii,  10-15  ;  2  Sam. 
iii,29;  2  Kings  v,  27;  vii,  3;  xv,  5;  Matt,  viii,  2;  x,  8, 
etc.).  In  the  discussion  of  this  subject  we  base  our  ar- 
ticle upon  that  of  Ginsburg,  in  Kitto's  Cyclopcedia,  but 
with  extensive  additions  and  modifications  from  other 
sources. 

I.  Scriptural  and  Talmudical  Statements. — (I.)  Leprosy 
in  Human  Beings. — 1.  Cases  and  Symjjtejms  of  Bihliccd 
Leprosy. — Lev.  xiii,  2-44,  which  describes  this  distem- 
per as  laying  hold  of  man,  gives  six  different  circum- 
stances under  which  it  may  develop  itsel£  They  are  as 
follows : 

(1.)  The  first  circumstance  mentioned  in  Lev.  xiii, 
2-6  is  that  it  may  develop  itself  without  any  apparent 
cause.  Hence  it  is  enjoined  that  if  anj-  one  should  no- 
tice a  rising  or  swelling  (r.N?l'),  an  eruption  or  scab 
(rnao),  or  a  glossy  pimple  (n~in3)  in  the  skin  of  his 
flesh,  which  may  terminate  in  leprosy  (r""i:i),  he  is  at 
once  to  be  taken  to  the  priest,  who  is  to  examine  it  and 
pronounce  it  leprosy,  and  the  man  unclean,  if  it  exhibits 
these  two  symptoms,  viz.  a,  the  hair  of  the  affected  spot 


LEPROSY 


372 


LEPROSY 


changed  from  its  natural  black  color  to  white;  and,  6, 
the  s])Ot  deeper  than,  the  general  level  of  the  skin  of  the 
hudy  (^vcr.  "2. 3 ).  I5ut  if  these  two  symptoms  do  not  ap- 
])ear  in  the  bright  pimiile,  the  priest  is  to  shut  him  up 
fur  seven  days,  examine  him  again  on  the  seventh  day, 
.•;nd  if  the  disease  appears  to  have  made  no  progress 
(hiring  this  time,  he  is  to  remand  the  patient  for  another 
seven  days  (ver.  4,5),  and  then,  if  on  inspecting  it  again 
lie  finds  that  the  bright  spot  lias  grown  darker  (nnz), 
and  that  it  has  not  spread  on  the  skin,  he  is  to  pro- 
nounce it  a  simple  scab  (PnSD'a  mED),  and  the  per- 
son clean  after  washing  his  garments  (ver.  C).  If,  how- 
ever, the  pustule  spreads  over  the  skin  after  it  has  been 
pronounced  a  simple  scab  and  the  individual  clean,  the 
]iriest  is  to  declare  it  leprosy,  and  the  patient  unclean 
(  ver.  7, 8 ).  It  is  thus  evident  that  the  symptoms  which 
indicated  scriptural  leprosy,  as  the  Mishna  rightly  re- 
marks {Xegaim,  iii,  3),  are  bright  pimples,  a  little  de- 
]ircsscd,  turning  the  hair  white,  and  spreading  over  the 
i.kin. 

As  the  description  of  these  symptoms  is  very  concise, 
and  requires  to  be  specilied  more  minutely  for  practical 
purposes,  the  spiritual  guides  of  Israel  defined  them  as 
follows :  Both  the  bright  pimple  (rriil2)  and  the  swell- 
ing spot  (rX'13),  when  indicative  of  lepros}-,  assume  re- 
spectively one  of  two  colors,  a  principal  or  a  subordinate 
one.  The  principal  color  of  the  bright  pimple  is  as 
■white  as  snow  (3>'UD  HT"),  and  the  subordinate  resem- 
bles plaster  on  the  wall  (h'Z'^'nT^  1'^'OZ) ;  whilst  the 
principal  color  of  the  rising  spot  is  like  that  of  an  egg- 
shell (iljin  D1"ip2),  and  the  secondary  one  resembles 
white  wool  ("pb  "n^D,  Negaim,  i,  1) ;  so  that  if  the  af- 
fected spot  in  the  skin  is  inferior  in  whiteness  to  the 
film  of  an  egg  it  is  not  leprosy,  but  simply  a  gathering 
(Maimouides,  On  Leprosy,  i,  1  j.  Any  one  may  examine 
the  disease,  except  the  patient  himself  or  his  relatives, 
but  the  priest  alone  can  decide  whether  it  is  leprosy  or 
not,  and  accordingly  pronounce  the  patient  unclean  or 
clean,  because  Deut,  xxi,  5  declares  tliat  the  priest  must 
decide  cases  of  litigation  and  disease.  But  though  the 
priest  only  can  pronounce  the  decision,  even  if  he  be  a 
child  or  a  fool,  yet  he  must  act  upon  the  advice  of  a 
learned  layman  in  those  matters  {Negaim,  iii,  1 ;  Mai- 
monides,  l.  c,  ix,  1, 2).  If  the  priest  is  blind  of  one  eye, 
or  is  weak-sighted,  he  is  disqualified  for  examining  the 
distemper  (Mishna,  I.  c,  ii,3).  The  inspection  must  not 
take  place  on  the  Sabbath,  nor  early  in  the  morning,  nor 
in  the  middle  of  the  day,  nor  in  the  evening,  nor  on 
cloudy  days,  because  the  color  of  the  skin  cannot  prop- 
erly be  ascertained  in  these  hours  of  the  day;  but  in  the 
third,  fourth,  tilth,  seventh,  eighth,  or  ninth  hour  (Xe- 
gaim,  ii,  2) ;  and  the  same  priest  who  inspected  it  at  first 
must  examine  it  again  at  the  end  of  the  second  seven 
days,  as  another  one  could  not  teU  whether  it  has  spread. 
If  he  should  die  in  tlie  interim,  or  be  taken  ill,  another 
one  may  examine  him,  but  not  pronounce  him  unclean 
(Maimonides,  On  Leprosy,  ix,  4).  There  must  be  at  least 
two  hairs  white  at  the  root  and  in  t'ne  body  of  the 
bright  spot  before  the  patient  can  be  declared  unclean 
(Maimonides,  /.  c,  ii,  1).  If  a  bridegroom  is  seized  with 
this  distemper  he  must  be  left  alone  during  the  nuptial 
■week  (A>//ui/»,  iii,  2). 

(2. )  The  second  case  is  of  leprosy  reappearing  after  it 
has  been  cured  (Lev.  xiii,  0-17),  where  a  somewhat  dif- 
ferent treatment  is  enjoined.  If  a  person  who  has  once 
been  healed  of  this  disease  is  brought  again  to  the  priest, 
.mid  if  tlie  latter  finds  a  white  rising  in  the  skin  (rX'iJ 
ni^P ),  which  has  changed  the  liair  into  white  and  con- 
tains live  flesh  ("^n  "1C3),  he  is  forthwith  to  recognise 
tlierein  the  reappearance  of  the  old  malady,  and  declare 
the  patient  unclean  without'  any  qiiarantiue  whatever, 
since  the  case  is  so  evident  that  it  re()uires  no  trial  (ver. 
!)-l  1).  There  were,  however,  two  phases  of  this  return- 
ed distemper  which  exempted  tlie  patient  from  imclean- 


ness.  If  the  leprosy  suddenly  covered  the  whole  body 
so  that  the  patient  became  perfectly  white,  in  which 
case  there  could  be  no  appearance  of  live  tie.sh  (ver.  12, 
13),  or  if  the  whiteness,  after  having  once  diminished 
and  allowed  live  flesh  to  appear,  covers  again  the  whole 
body,  then  the  patient  was  clean  (ver.  14-17).  This, 
most  probably,  was  regarded  as  indicative  of  the  crisis, 
as  the  whole  evil  matter  thus  brought  to  the  surface 
formed  itself  into  a  scale  which  dried  and  peeled  off. 
The  only  other  feature  which  this  case  represents  be- 
sides the  symptoms  already  described  is  that  leprosy  at 
times  also  spread  over  the  whole  skin  and  rendered  it 
perfectly  white.  As  to  the  live  flesh  ("^n  "i-3),  the 
Sept.,  the  Chaldee,  the  Mishna,  and  the  Jewish  rabbins, 
ill  accordance  with  ancient  tradition,  take  it  to  denote 
sound  Jlesh,  or  a  spot  in  the  flesh  assuming  the  appear- 
ance of  life  after  it  had  been  paled  by  the  whiteness 
overspreading  the  whole  surface.  The  size  of  this  spot 
of  live  flesh  which  renders  the  patient  unclean  must,  ac- 
cording to  tradition,  be  at  least  that  of  a  lentil  (Mai- 
monides, /.  c,  iii,  1-3). 

(3.)  The  third  case  is  of  leprosy  developing  itself  from 
an  inflammation  ("pn'jT)  or  a  burn  ('CX  rill's),  which 
is  to  be  recognised  by  the  same  symptoms  (Lev.  xiii, 
18-28).  Hence,  when  these  suspicious  signs  were  dis- 
cernible in  that  part  of  the  skin  which  was  healed  of  an 
inflammation,  the  patient  was  to  go  to  the  priest,  who 
was  at  once  to  pronounce  it  leprosy  developed  from  an  in- 
flammation, if  the  symptoms  were  unmistakable  (ver.  19, 
20).  If  the  priest  found  these  marks,  he  remanded  the 
patient  for  seven  days  (ver.21),and  if  tlie  disorder  spread 
over  the  skin  during  the  time  the  patient  was  declared 
leprous  and  unclean  (ver.  22) ;  but  if  it  remained  in  the 
same  condition,  he  pronounced  it  the  cicatrix  of  the  in- 
flammation ("pncn  r3"ijl)  and  the  patient  clean  (ver. 
23).  The  same  rules  applied  to  the  suspicious  appearance 
of  a  burn  (ver.  24-28).  According  to  the  Hebrew  canons, 
■pn'13  is  defined  inflammation  arising  from  '"an  injury 
received  from  the  stroke  of  wood  or  a  stone,  or  from  hot 
olive  husks,  or  the  hot  Tiberian  water,  or  from  anything, 
the  heat  of  which  docs  not  come  from  fire,  whilst  Til-O 
denotes  a  burn  from  live  coals,  hot  ashes,  or  from  any 
heat  which  proceeds  from  fire"  (Negaim,  ix,  1 ;  Maimon- 
ides. 0«  Lep)-6sy,  V,  1).  It  will  be  seen  that  there  is  a 
difference  in  the  treatment  of  the  suspicious  symptoms 
in  (1.)  and  (3.).  In  the  former  instance,  where  there  is 
no  apparent  cause  for  the  symptoms,  the  suspected  in- 
valid has  to  undergo  two  remands  of  seven  days  before 
his  case  can  be  decided ;  whilst  in  the  latter,  where  the 
inflammation  or  the  burn  visibly  supplies  the  reason  for 
this  suspicion,  he  is  only  remanded  for  one  week,  at  the 
end  of  which  his  case  is  finally  determined. 

(4.)  The  fourth  case  is  leprosy  on  the  head  or  chin 
(Lev.  xiii,  29-37),  which  is  to  be  recognised  by  the  af- 
fected spot  being  deeper  than  the  general  level  of  the 
skin,  and  by  the  hair  thereon  having  become  thin  and 
yellowish.  When  these  symptoms  exist,  the  priest  is 
to  pronounce  it  a  scall  (pTI),  which  is  head  or  chin 
leprosy,  and  declare  the  patient  unclean  (ver.  30).  But 
if  this  disonh'r  on  the  head  or  chin  does  not  exhibit  these 
symptoms,  tlie  patient  is  to  be  remanded  for  seven  days, 
when  the  priest  is  again  to  examine  it,  and  if  he  finds 
that  it  has  neither  epread  nor  exhibits  the  required  cri- 
teria, he  is  to  order  the  patient  to  cut  off  all  the  liair  of 
his  head  or  cliin,  except  that  which  grows  on  the  af- 
flicted spot  itself  and  remand  liim  for  another  ^veek,  and 
then  pronounce  liim  clean  if  it  continues  in  the  same 
state  at  the  expiration  of  this  period  (ver.31-34);  and  if 
it  spreads  after  lie  has  been  pronounced  clean,  the  priest 
is  forthwith  to  declare  him  unclean  without  looking  for 
anj'  yellow  hair  (ver.  35, 3(5).  The  Jewish  canoiis  define 
pr'i  by  "an  affection  on  the  head  or  chin  which  causes 
the  hair  on  these  affected  parts  to  fall  off  by  the  roots, 
so  that  the  [ilace  of  the  hair  is  quite  bare"  (Maimonides, 
On  Lejyrosy,  viii,  1).     The  condition  of  the  hair,  consti- 


LEPROSY 


373 


LEPROSY 


tuting  one  of  the  leprous  symptoms,  is  described  as  fol- 
lows :  "  pi  is  small  or  short,  but  if  it  be  long,  though  it 
is  yellow  as  gold,  it  is  no  sign  of  uneleanness.  Two  yel- 
low and  short  hairs,  whether  close  to  one  another  or  far 
from  each  other,  whetlier  in  the  centre  of  the  neihek  or 
on  the  edge  thereof,  no  matter  whether  the  netheh  pre- 
cedes the  yellow  hair  or  the  yellow  hair  tl(e  nethek,  are 
symptoms  of  uncleanness"  (Maimonides.  /.  c,  viii,  5). 
The  manner  of  shaving  is  thus  described :  "  The  hair 
round  the  scall  is  all  shaved  off  except  two  hairs  which 
are  close  to  it,  so  that  it  might  be  known  thereby  ^vhetller 
it  spread"  {Neyaim,  x,  5). 

(5.)  The  fifth  case  is  leprosy  which  shows  itself  in 
white  polished  spots,  and  is  not  regarded  as  unclean 
(Lev.  xiii,  38, 39).  It  is  called  hohak  (pri3,  from  pr!3, 
tobe  n'hite),  or,  as  the  Sept.  has  it,  aX(t>ug,  vitilirjo  alba, 
white  scurf. 

(6.)  The  sixth  case  is  of  leprosy  either  at  the  back  or 
in  the  front  of  the  head  (Lev.  xiii,  40-44).  When  a 
man  loses  his  hair  either  at  the  back  or  in  the  front  of 
his  head,  it  is  a  simple  case  of  baldness,  and  he  is  clean 
(ver.40,4]).  But  if  a  wliitish  red  spot  forms  itself  on  the 
bald  place  at  the  back  or  in  the  front  of  the  head,  then 
it  is  leprosy,  which  is  to  be  recognised  b}'  the  fact  that 
tlie  swelling  or  scab  on  the  spot  has  the  appearance  of 
leprosy  in  the  skin  of  the  body;  and  the  priest  is  to 
declare  the  man's  head  leprous  audimclean  (ver.  42-44). 
Though  there  is  only  one  symptom  mentioned  whereby 
head  leprosy  is  to  be  recognised,  and  nothing  is  said 
about  remanding  the  patient  if  the  distemper  should 
appear  doubtful,  as  in  the  other  cases  of  leprosy,  yet  the 
ancient  rabbins  inferred  from  the  remark, "  It  is  like  lep- 
rosy in  the  skin  of  the  flesh,"  that  all  the  criteria  spec- 
ified in  the  latter  are  implied  in  the  former.  Hence  the 
Hebrew  canons  submit  that  "there  are  two  symptoms 
which  render  baldness  in  the  front  or  at  the  back  of  the 
head  unclean,  viz.  live  or  sound  flesh,  and  spreading; 
tlic  patient  is  also  shut  up  for  them  two  weeks,  because 
it  is  said  of  them  that '  they  are  [and  therefore  must  be 
treated]  like  leprosy  in  tlie  skin  of  the  flesh'"  (Lev. 
xiii,  43).  Of  course,  the  fact  that  the  distemper  in  this 
instance  develops  itself  on  baldness^  precludes  white 
hair  being  among  the  criteria  indicating  uncleanness. 
The  manner  in  which  the  patient  in  question  i*  de- 
clared luiclean  by  two  symptoms  and  in  two  weeks  is  as 
follows:  "  If  live  or  sound  flesh  is  found  in  the  bright 
sjxit  on  the  baldness  at  the  back  or  in  the  front  of  the 
head,  he  is  pronounced  unclean  ;  if  there  is  no  live  flesh 
he  is  shut  up  and  examined  at  the  end  of  the  week,  and 
if  live  flesh  has  developed  itself,  and  it  has  spread,  he 
is  declared  unclean,  and  if  not  he  is  shut  up  for  another 
week.  If  it  has  spread  during  this  time,  or  engendered 
live  flesh,  he  is  declared  unclean,  and  if  not  he  is  pro- 
noimced  clean.  He  is  also  pronounced  unclean  if  it 
spreads  or  engenders  sound  flesh  after  he  has  been  de- 
clared clean"  {Negaim,  x,  10 ;  Maimonides,  On  Leprosy, 
V,  9, 10). 

2.  Reyidations  about  the  Conduct  and  Purification  of 
leprous  Men. — Lepers  w'ere  to  rend  their  garments,  let 
the  hair  of  their  head  hang  down  dishevelled,  cover 
themselves  up  to  the  upper  lip,  like  mourners,  and  warn 
off  every  one  whom  they  happened  to  meet  by  calling  out 
"  Unclean !  unclean  !"  since  they  defiled  every  one  and 
everytliing  they  touched.  For  tliis  reason  they  were 
also  obliged  to  live  in  exclusion  outside  the  camp  or 
city  (Lev.  xiii,  45,  4G ;  Numb,  v,  1-4;  xii,  10-15;  2 
Kings  vii,  3,  etc.).  "  The  very  entrance  of  a  leper  into 
a  house,"  according  to  the  Jewish  canons,  "  renders  ev- 
erything in  it  unclean"  {Neyaim,  xii,  11;  Kelim,  i,  4). 
"  If  he  stands  under  a  tree  and  a  clean  man  passes  by, 
he  renders  him  unclean.  In  the  synagogue  which  he 
wislies  to  attend  they  are  obliged  to  make  him  a  sep- 
arate compartment,  ten  handbrcadths  high  and  four  cu- 
bits long  and  broad ;  he  has  to  be  the  first  to  go  hi,  and 
the  last  to  leave  the  synagogue"  {Neyaim.,  xii,  12 ;  Mai- 
monides, On  Leprosy,  x,  12)  ;  and  if  he  transgressed  the 


prescribed  boundaries  he  was  to  receive  forty  stripes 
{Pesachim,  G7,  «).  All  this  only  applies  to  those  who 
had  been  jironounced  lepers  by  the  priest,  but  not  to 
those  who  were  on  quarantine  {Neyaim,  i,  7).  The 
rabbinic  law  also  exempts  women  from  the  obligation 
to  rend  their  garments  and  let  the  hair  of  their  head 
fall  down  {Sota,  iii,  8).  It  is  tlierefore  no  wonder  that 
the  Jews  regarded  leprosy  as  a  living  death  (comp.  Jo- 
sephus,  ^4  ?if.  iii,  11,3,  and  the  well-known  rabbinic  say- 
ing r'23  SViTn  ""ll^J'S),  and  as  an  awful  punishment 
from  the  Lord  (2  Kings  v,  7  ;  2  Chron.  xxvi,  20),  which 
they  wished  all  their  mortal  enemies  (2  Sam.  iii,  29 ;  2 
Kings  V,  27). 

The  healed  leper  had  to  pass  through  two  stages  of 
purification  before  he  could  be  received  back  into  the 
community.  As  soon  as  the  distemper  disappeared  he 
sent  for  the  priest,  who  had  to  go  outside  the  camp  or 
town  to  convince  himself  of  the  fact.  Thereupon  the 
priest  ordered  two  clean  and  live  birds,  a  piece  of  cedar 
wood,  crimson  wool,  and  hyssop ;  killed  one  bird  over  a 
vessel  containing  spring  water,  so  that  the  blood  might 
run  into  it,  tied  together  the  hyssop  and  the  cedar  wood 
with  the  crimson  wool,  put  about  them  the  tops  of  the 
wings  and  the  tip  of  the  tail  of  the  living  bird,  dipped 
all  the  four  in  the  blood  and  water  which  were  in  the 
vessel,  then  sprinkled  the  hand  of  the  healed  leper  seven 
times,  let  the  bird  loose,  and  pronounced  the  restored 
man  clean  (Lev.  xiv,  I  7;  Neyaim,  yM,  1).  The  healed 
leper  was  then  to  wash  his  garments,  cut  off  all  his  hair, 
be  immersed,  and  return  to  the  camp  or  city,  but  re- 
main outside  his  house  seven  daj-s,  which  the  Mishna 
{Neyaim,  xiv,  2),  the  Chaldee  Paraphrase,  Maimonides 
{On  Leprosy,  xi,  1),  etc.,  rightly  regard  as  a  euphemism 
for  exclusion  from  connubial  intercourse  during  that  time 
(ver.  8),  in  order  that  he  might  not  contract  impurity 
(comp.  Lev.  xv,  18).  With  this  ended  the  first  stage 
of  purification.  According  to  the  Jewish  canons,  the 
birds  are  to  be  "  free,  and  not  caged,"  or  sparrows ;  the 
piece  of  cedar  wood  is  to  be  "  a  cubit  long,  and  a  quar- 
ter of  the  foot  of  the  bed  thick ;"  the  crimson  wool  is  to 
be  a  shekel's  weight,  i.  e.  320  grains  of  barley ;  the  hys- 
sop must  at  least  be  a  handbreadth  in  size,  and  is  nei- 
ther to  be  the  so-called  Greek,  nor  ornamental,  nor  Ko- 
man,  nor  wild  hyssop,  nor  have  any  name  whatever ; 
the  vessel  must  be  an  earthen  one,  and  new ;  and  the 
dead  bird  must  be  buried  in  a  hole  dug  before  their 
ej'es  {Neyaim,  xiv,  1-G ;  Maimonides,  On  Leprosy,  xi,  1), 

The  second  stage  of  purification  began  on  the  seventh 
day,  when  the  leper  had  again  to  cut  off  the  hair  of  his 
head,  his  beard,  eyebrows,  etc.,  wash  his  garments,  and 
be  immersed  (Lev.  xiv,  9).  On  the  eighth  day  he  had 
to  bring  two  he-lambs  without  blemish,  one  ewe-lamb 
a  year  old,  three  tenths  of  an  ephah  of  fine  flour  mixed 
with  oil,  and  one  log  of  oil ;  the  one  he-lamb  is  to  be  a 
trespass-offering,  and  the  other,  with  the  ewe-lamb,  a 
burnt  and  a  sin-offering ;  but  if  the  man  was  poor  he 
was  to  bring  two  turtle-doves,  or  two  yomig  pigeons, 
for  a  sin-offering  and  a  burnt-offering,  instead  of  a  he- 
lamb  and  a  ewe-lamb  (ver.  10, 11,  21).  With  tliese  of- 
ferings the  priest  conducted  the  healed  leper  before  the 
presence  of  the  Lord.  What  the  offerer  had  to  do,  and 
how  the  priest  acted  when  going  through  these  cere- 
monies, cannot  be  better  described  than  in  the  following 
graphic  language  of  the  Jewish  tradition.  '•  The  priest 
approaches  the  trespass-offering,  lays  both  his  hands  on 
it,  and  kills  it,  when  two  priests  catch  its  blood,  one 
into  a  vessel,  and  the  other  in  his  hand ;  the  one  Avho 
caught  it  into  the  vessel  sprmkles  it  against  the  wall  of 
the  altar,  the  other  goes  to  the  leper,  who,  having  been 
immersed  in  the  leper's  chamber  [which  is  m  the  wom- 
en's court],  is  waiting  [outside  the  court  of  Israel,  or  the 
men's  court,  opposite  the  eastern  door]  in  the  porch  of 
Nicanor  [with  his  face  to  the  west].  He  then  puts  his 
head  into  [the  court  of  Israel],  and  the  priest  puts  some 
of  the  blood  upon  the  tip  of  his  right  ear;  he  next  puts 
in  his  right  hand,  and  the  priest  puts  some  blood  upon 
the  thumb  thereof;  and,  lastly,  puts  in  his  right  le<j, 


LEPROSY 


374 


LEPROSY 


and  the  priest  puts  some  blood  on  the  toe  thereof.  The 
priest  then  takes  some  of  the  log  of  oil  and  puts  it  into 
the  left  hand  of  his  fellow-priest,  or  into  his  own  left 
liand,  dips  the  finger  of  his  right  hand  in  it,  and  sprin- 
kles it  seven  times  towards  the  holy  of  holies,  dipping 
his  finger  every  time  he  sprinkles  it ;  whereujton  he  goes 
to  the  leper,  puts  oil  on  those  parts  of  his  body  on  which 
he  had  previously  put  blood  [i.  e.  the  tip  of  tlie  ear,  the 
thumb,  and  the  toe],  as  it  is  written, '  on  the  place  of 
tlic  blood  of  the  trespass-offering'  [Lev.  xiv,  28],  and 
what  remains  of  the  oil  in  the  hand  of  the  priest  he 
puts  on  the  head  of  him  who  is  to  be  cleansed,  for  an 
atonement"  {Xt'ffaim,  xiv,  8-10  ;  Maimonides,  Hilchoth 
Mi'chosrei  Kepora,  iv).  It  is  in  accordance  with  this 
]ircrogative  of  the  priest,  who  alone  could  pronounce  the 
leper  clean  and  readmit  him  into  the  congregation,  that 
(lirist  commanded  the  leper  whom  he  had  healed  to 
show  himself  to  this  functionary  (Matt,  viii,  2,  etc.). 

(II.)  Leprous  Garments  and  Vessels. — Leprosy  in  gar- 
ments and  vessels  is  indicated  by  two  symptoms,  green 
or  reddish  spots,  and  spreading.  If  a  green  or  reddish 
spot  shows  itself  in  a  woollen  or  linen  garment,  or  in  a 
leather  vessel,  it  is  indicative  of  leprosy,  and  must  be 
shown  to  the  priest,  who  is  to  shut  it  up  for  a  week. 
If,  on  inspecting  it  at  the  end  of  this  time,  he  finds  that 
the  spot  has  spread,  he  is  to  pronounce  it  inveterate 
leprosy  (n"iX"2"2  T""!^),  and  unclean,  and  burn  it  (Lev. 
xiii,  47-52) ;  if  it  has  not  spread  he  is  to  have  it  washed, 
and  shut  it  up  for  another  week,  and  if  its  appearance 
has  then  not  changed,  he  is  to  pronounce  it  unclean  and 
burn  it.  though  it  has  not  spread,  since  the  distemper 
rankles  in  the  front  or  at  the  back  of  the  material  (ver. 
53-55).  But  if,  after  washing  it,  the  priest  sees  that 
the  spot  has  become  weaker,  he  is  to  cut  it  out  of  the 
material;  if  it  reappears  in  any  part  thereof,  then  it  is  a 
developed  distemper,  and  the  whole  of  it  must  be  burned ; 
and  if  it  vanishes  after  washing,  it  must  be  washed  a 
second  time,  and  is  clean  (ver.  56-59).  The  Jewish 
canons  define  the  color  green  to  be  like  that  of  herbs, 
ami  red  like  that  ofj'air  crimson,  and  take  this  enact- 
ment literally  as  referring  strictly  to  wool  of  sheep  and 
flax,  but  not  to  hemp  and  other  materials.  A  material 
made  of  camel's  hair  and  sheep's  wool  is  not  rendered 
imclean  by  leprosy  if  the  camel's  hair  preponderate,  but 
is  unclean  when  the  sheep's  wool  preponderates,  or  when 
both  are  equal,  and  this  also  applies  to  mixtures  of  flax 
and  hemp.  Dyed  skins  and  garments  are  not  rendered 
unclean  by  leprosy ;  nor  are  vessels  so  if  made  of  skins 
of  aquatic  animals  exposed  to  leprous  uncleanness  {Xe- 
f/aim,xi,2,3;  Maimonides,  ?<^ *■(//). xi,l;  xii,10;  xiii,l-3). 

(III.)  Leprous  Houses.  —  Leprosy  in  houses  is  indi- 
cated by  the  same  three  symptoms,  viz.  spots  of  a  deep 
green  or  reddish  hue,  depressed  beyond  the  general 
level,  and  spreading  (Lev.  xiv,  33-48).  On  its  appear- 
ance the  priest  was  at  once  to  be  sent  for,  and  the  house 
cleared  of  everything  before  his  arrival.  If,  on  inspect- 
ing it,  he  found  the  first  two  symptoms  in  the  walls,  viz. 
a  green  or  red  spot  in  the  wall,  and  depressed,  he  shut  the 
house  up  for  seven  days  (ver.  34-38),  inspected  it  again 
on  the  seventh  day,  and  if  the  distemper  spread  in  the 
wall  he  had  the  atfect(<l  stones  taken  out,  the  inside  of 
tlie  house  scraped  all  round,  the  stones,  dust,  etc.,  cast 
into  an  unclean  jilace  without  the  city,  and  other  .stones 
and  plaster  put  on  the  wall  (ver.  39-42).  If,  after  all  this, 
the  spot  rcai)pcared  and  sjiread,  he  pronounced  it  invet- 
erate leprosy,  and  luulean,  had  the  house  pulled  down, 
and  the  stones,  timlier,  jilaster,  etc.,  cast  into  an  unclean 
phice  withiiut  the  city,  declared  every  one  unclean,  till 
evening,  who  had  entered  it.  and  ordered  every  one  who 
had  either  slept  or  eaten  in  it  to  wash  his  garments 
(ver.  43^7). 

As  to  the  purification  of  the  houses  wliicli  haVe  been 
cured  of  leprosy,  the  process  is  t4ie  same  as  tluit  of  healed 
men,  except  that  in  the  case  of  man  the  priest  sprinkles 
seven  times  u|)on  his  hand,  while  in  tliat  of  tlie  liouse 
he  sprinkles  seven  times  on  the  u]iper  door-post  without. 
Of  course  the  sacrifices  which  the  leprous  man  had  to 


bring  in  his  second  stage  of  purification  are  precluded 
in  the  case  of  the  house  (Maimonides,  On  Leprosi/,  xv,  8). 

3.  Prevalence,  Contagion,  and  Curahleness  of  Leprosy. 
— Though  the  malicious  story  of  Manetho  that  the 
Egyptians  expelled  the  Jews  because  they  were  afflict- 
ed with  leprosy  (Josephus,  Ap.  i,  20),  which  is  rejieated 
by  Tacitus  (lib.  v,  c.  3),  is  rejected  by  modern  histo- 
rians and  critics  as  a  fabrication,  yet  Michaclis  {Lau-s 
of  Moses,  art.  209),  Thomson  {The  Land  and  tlie  Hook, 
p.  652),  and  others  stiU  maintain  that  this  disease  was 
'•extremely  prevalent  among  the  Israelites."  Against 
this,  however,  is  to  be  urged  that,  1.  The  very  fact  that 
such  strict  examination  was  enjoined,  and  that  every 
one  who  had  a  pimple,  spot,  or  boil  was  shut  up,  shows 
that  leprosy  could  not  have  been  so  widespread,  inas- 
much as  it  would  require  the  imprisonment  of  the  great- 
mass  of  the  people.  2.  In  cautioning  the  people  against 
the  evil  of  leprosy,  and  urging  on  them  to  keep  strict- 
ly to  the  directions  of  the  priest,  Moses  adds,  '■•Remem- 
ber what  the  Lord  thy  God  did  to  Miriam  on  the  way 
when  you  came  out  of  Egypt"  (Dent,  xxiv,  9).  Now 
allusion  to  a  single  instance  which  occurred  on  the  way 
from  Egypt,  and  which,  therefore,  was  an  old  case,  nat- 
urally implies  that  leprosy  was  of  rare  occurrence  among 
the  Jews,  else  there  would  have  been  no  necessity  to 
adduce  a  by-gone  case ;  and,  3.  Wherever  leprosy  is  spo- 
ken of  in  later  books  of  the  Bible,  which  does  not  often 
take  place,  it  is  only  of  isolated  cases  (2  Kings  vii,  3 ; 
XV,  5),  and  the  regulations  are  strictly  carried  out,  and 
the  men  are  shut  up  so  that  even  the  king  himself 
formed  no  exception  (2  Kings  xv,  5). 

That  the  disease  ^vas  not  contagious  is  evident  from 
the  regulations  themselves.  The  priests  had  to  be  in 
constant  and  close  contact  with  lepers,  had  to  examine 
and  handle  them;  the  leper  who  was  entirely  covered 
was  pronounced  clean  (Lev.  xiii,  12,  13) ;  and  the  priest 
himself  commanded  that  all  things  in  a  leprous  house 
should  be  taken  out  before  he  entered  it,  in  order  that 
they  might  not  be  pronounced  unclean,  and  that  they 
might  be  used  agam  (Lev.  xiv,  36),  which  most  unquee- 
fionablj'  implies  that  there  was  no  fear  of  contagion. 
This  is,  moreover,  corroborated  by  the  ancient  Jewish 
canons,  which  were  made  by  those  very  men  who  had 
personally  to  deal  with  this  distemper,  and  according  to 
which  a  leprous  minor,  a  heathen,  and  a  proselyte,  as 
well  as  leprous  garments,  and  houses  of  non-Israelites,  do 
not  render  any  one  luiclean ;  nor  does  a  bridegroom, 
who  is  seized  with  this  malady  during  the  nuptial  week, 
defile  any  one  during  the  first  seven  days  of  his  mar- 
riage (com p.  Xegaim,  iii,  1,2;  vii,  1 ;  xi,  1 ;  xii,  1 ;  Mai- 
monides, On  Leprosy,  vi,  1;  vii,  1,  etc.).  These  canons 
would  be  utterly  inexplicable  on  the  hypothesis  that  the 
distemper  in  question  was  contagious.  The  enactments, 
therefore,  about  the  exclusion  of  the  leper  from  society, 
and  about  detilement,  were  not  dictated  by  sanitarv  cau- 
tion, but  had  their  root  in  the  moral  and  ceremonial 
law,  like  the  enactments  about  the  separation  and  un- 
cleanness of  mensfruous  women,  of  those  who  had  an 
issue  or  touched  the  dead,  which  are  joined  with  lepro- 
sy. Being  regarded  as  a  punishment  for  sin.  which  (iod 
himself  intlicted  ui)ou  the  dis(jl)edient  ( Ivxod.  xv.  2(); 
Lev.  xiv,  35),  this  loathsome  disease,  with  the  jjcculiar 
rites  connected  therewith,  was  especially  selected  as  a 
typical  representation  of  the  pollution  of  sin,  in  which 
light  the  Jews  always  viewed  it.  Thus  we  are  told  that 
"  leprosy  comes  upon  man  for  seven,  ten.  or  eleven 
things:  for  idolatry,  profaning  the  name  of  God,  un- 
chastity,  theft,  slander,  false  witness,  false  judgment, 
perjur\-,  infringing  the  borders  of  a  neigldior,  devising 
malicious  plans,  or  creating  discord  between  brothers" 
{Erachin,  16,  17;  Baba  Bathra,  164;  Aboth  de  R.  Xa- 
than,  ix  ;  Midrash-Rabba  on  Lerit.  xiv).  "  Cedar  wood 
and  hyssop,  the  highest  and  the  lowest,  give  the  leper 
liurity.  Why  these?  Because  pride  was  the  cause  of 
the  distemper,  which  cannot  be  cured  till  man  becomes 
humble,  and  keeps  himself  as  low  as  hyssop"  (Midrash 
Kabba,  Koheleth,  p.  104). 


LEPROSY 


375 


LEPROSY 


As  to  ihe  curahleness  of  the  disease,  this  is  unques- 
tionably irapUed  in  the  minute  regulations  about  the 
sacritices  and  conduct  of  those  ^vho  were  restored  to 
health.  Besides,  in  the  case  of  jNIiriam,  we  (ind  that 
shutting  her  up  for  seven  days  cured  her  of  leprosy 
(Numljixii,  11-13). 

II.  Identity  of  the  Biblical  Leprosy  u-ith  the  modem 
Distemper  hecn-ing  this  Name.  —  It  would  be  useless  to 
discuss  the  different  disorders  which  have  been  palmed 
upon  the  Mosaic  description  of  leprosy.  A  careful  clas- 
sification and  discrimination  is  necessary. 

1.  The  Greeks  distinguished  three  species  of  lej^ra, 
the  specific  names  of  which  were  aXcpocXtvKt),  and  fii- 
\ac,  which  may  be  rendered  the  ritiliyo,  the  u-hite  and 
the  black:  Now,  on  turning  to  the  Mosaic  account,  we 
also  find  three  species  mentioned,  which  were  all  in- 
cluded under  the  generic  term  of  r"lil3,  hahereth,  or 
"  bright  spot"  (Lev.  xiii,  2-4, 18-28).  The  first  is  called 
pilia,  hohak,  which  signifies  "  brightness,"  but  in  a  sub- 
ordinate degree  (Lev.  xiii,  39).  This  species  did  not 
render  a  person  unclean.  The  second  was  called  H'liia 
n3a!f>,  hahereth  lebandh.  or  a  bright  white  bahereth.  The 
characteristic  marks  of  the  hahereth  lebandh  mentioned 
by  Moses  are  a  glossy  white  and  spreading  scale  upon 
an  elevated  base,  the  elevation  depressed  in  the  middle, 
the  hair  on  the  patches  participating  in  the  whiteness, 
and  the  patches  themselves  perpetually  increasing.  This 
was  evitlently  the  true  leprosy,  probably  corresponding 
to  the  vrhite  of  the  Greeks  and  the  viilyaris  of  modern 
science.  The  third  was  tltlS  T'lna,  bahereth  Icehdh, 
or  dusky  bahereth,  spreading  in  the  skin.  It  has  been 
thought  to  correspond  with  the  black  leprosy  of  the 
Greeks  and  the  nif/ricans  of  Dr.Willan.  These  last  two 
were  also  called  r?"^^,  tsardaih  (i.  e.  proper  leprosy), 
and  rendered  a  person  unclean.  There  are  some  other 
slight  affections  mentioned  by  name  in  Leviticus  (chap, 
xiii),  which  the  priest  was  reqiured  to  distinguish  from 
leprosy,  such  as  rxilJ,  seeth ;  PStJ,  shaphdl;  pr,3,  ne- 
thek;  "pHT,  shechen,  i.  e.  "elevation,"  "  depressed,"  etc. ; 
and  to  each  of  these  Dr.  Good  (Study  of  Med.  v,  590)  has 
assigned  a  modern  systematic  name.  But,  as  it  is  use- 
less to  attempt  to  recognise  a  disease  otherwise  than  by 
a  description  of  its  symptoms,  we  can  have  no  object  in 
discussing  his  interpretation  of  these  terms.  We  there- 
fore recognise  but  two  species  of  real  leprosy. 

(I.)  Proper  Leprosy. — This  is  the  kind  specifically  de- 
nominated ri";in3,  Jo /;ere?/?,  whether  white  or  black,  but 
usuall}'  called  ichite  leprosy,  by  the  Arabs  hurras;  a  dis- 
ease not  unfrequent  among  the  Hebrews  (2  Kings  v,  27 ; 
Exod.  iv,  6;  Numb,  xii,  10),  and  often  called  lepra  Mo- 
saica.  It  was  regarded  by  them  as  a  divine  infliction 
(hence  its  Heb.  name  ri^"niS,  tsardath,  a  stroke  i.  e.  of 
God),  and  in  several  instances  we  find  it  such,  as  in  the 
case  of  Miriam  (Numb,  xii,  10),  Gehazi  (2  Kings  v,  27), 
and  Uzziah  (2  Chron.  xxvi,  16-23),  from  which  and  oth- 
er intlications  it  appears  to  have  been  considered  hered- 
itary-, and  incurable  by  human  means  (comp.  2  Sam.  iii, 
29;  2  Kings  v,  7).  From  Deut.  xxiv,  8,  it  appears  to 
have  been  weU-known  in  Egypt  as  a  dreadful  disease 
(comp.  Description  de  PEyypte,  xiii,  159  sq.).  The  dis- 
tinctive marks  given  by  Moses  to  indicate  this  disease 
(Lev.  xiii)  are,  a  depression  of  the  sutface  and  whiteness 
or  yellowness  of  the  hair  in  the  spot  (ver.  3,  20, 25, 30),  or 
a  spreading  of  the  scaliness  (ver.  8,  22,  27,  30),  or  raw 
Jlesh  in  it  (ver.  10,  14),  or  a  white-reddish  sore  (ver.  43). 

The  disease,  as  it  is  known  at  the  present  day,  com- 
mences by  an  eruption  of  small  reddish  spots  slightly 
raised  above  the  level  of  the  skin,  and  grouped  in  a  cir- 
cle. These' spots  are  soon  covered  by  a  very  thin,  semi- 
transparent  scale  or  epidermis,  of  a  whitish  color,  and 
very  smooth,  which  in  a  httle  time  falls  off,  and  leaves 
the  skin  beneath  red  and  uneven.  As  the  circles  in- 
crease in  diameter,  the  skin  recovers  its  healthy  appear- 
ance towards  the  centre ;  fresh  scales  are  formed,  which 


are  novr  thicker,  and  superimposed  one  above  the  other, 
especially  at  the  edges,  so  that  the  centre  of  the  scale 
appears  to  be  depressed.  The  scales  are  of  a  grayish- 
white  color,  and  have  something  of  a  micaceous  or  pearly 
lustre.  The  circles  are  generallj'  of  the  size  of  a  shil- 
ling or  half  crown,  but  they  have  been  known  to  attain 
half  a  foot  in  diameter.  Tlie  disease  generally  affects 
the  knees  and  elbows,  but  sometimes  it  extends  over  the 
whole  body,  in  which  case  the  circles  become  contiucnt. 
It  does  not  at  aU  affect  the  general  health,  and  the  only 
inconvenience  it  causes  the  patient  is  a  slight  itching 
when  the  skin  is  heated;  or,  in  inveterate  cases,  when 
the  skin  about  the  joints  is  much  thickened,  it  may  in 
some  degree  impede  the  free  motion  of  the  limbs.  It  is 
common  to  both  sexes,  to  almost  all  ages,  and  all  ranks 
of  society.  It  is  not  in  the  least  infectious,  but  it  is  al- 
ways diflicult  to  be  cured,  and  in  old  persons,  when  it  is 
of  long  standing,  may  be  pronounced  incurable.  It  is 
commonly  met  with  in  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  occasion- 
ally in  America.    Its  systematic  name  is  Lepra  vidgaris. 

Moses  prescribes  no  natural  remedy  for  the  cure  of  lep- 
rosy (Lev.  xiii).  He  requires  only  that  the  diseased 
person  should  show  himself  to  the  priest,  and  that  the 
priest  should  judge  of  his  leprosy ;  if  it  appeared  to  be  a 
real  leprosy,  he  separated  the  leper  from  the  company 
of  mankind  (Lev.  xiii,  45, 46 ;  comp.  Numb,  v,  2 ;  xii,  10, 
14;  2  Kings  vii,  3;  xv,  5;  Josephus,  .J^jw?,  i,  31;  Ant. 
iii,ll,3;  jr«r«,v,5,6;  see  Wetstein,A''.  7'.i,175;  Light- 
foot,  Ilor.  Heb.  p.  861 ;  Withob,  Ojmsc.  p.  169  sq.).  Al- 
though the  laws  in  the  jMosaic  cotie  respecting  this  dis- 
ease are  exceedingly  rigid  (see  Michaelis,  Orient.  BibL 
xvii,  19  sq. ;  Medic,  hermeneut.  Untersitch.  p.  240  sq.),  it 
is  by  no  means  clear  that  the  leprosy  was  contagious. 
The  fear  or  disgust  which  was  felt  towards  such  a  pe- 
culiar disease  might  be  a  sufficient  cause  for  such  severe 
enactments.  AU  intercourse  with  society,  however,  was 
not  cut  off  (Matt,  viii,  2  ;  Luke  v,  12;  xvii,  12),  and  even 
contact  with  a  leper  did  not  necessarily  impart  unclean- 
ness  (Luke  xvii,  12).  They  were  even  admitted  to  the 
synagogue  (Lightfoot,  Hor.  Heb.  p.  802).  Similar  liber- 
ties are  still  allowed  them  among  the  Arabians  (Nie- 
buhr,  Beschr.  p.  136) ;  so  that  we  are  probably  to  regard 
the  statements  of  travellers  respecting  the  utter  exclu- 
sion of  modern  lepers  in  the  East  as  relating  to  those 
affected  with  entirely  a  different  disease,  the  elephanti- 
asis. In  Lev.  xiv  are  detailed  particular  ceremonies 
and  offerings  (compare  Matt,  viii,  4)  to  be  officially  ob- 
served by  the  priest  on  behalf  of  a  leper  restored  to- 
health  and  purity.  See  D.  C.  Lutz,  De  duab.  avib.  pur- 
gationi  leprosi destinatis  eanmdemgue  mysterio, Hal.  1737 ; 
Biihr,  Symbol,  ii,  512  sq. ;  Baumgarten,  Comment.  I,  ii, 
170  sq. ;  Talmud,  tract  Negaim,  vi,  3 ;  Otho,  Lex.  Rahb, 
p.  365  sq. ;  Ehenferd,  in  Meuschen,  N.  T.  Tedmud.  p.  1057. 

(II.)  Elephantiasis.  —  This  more  severe  form  of  cu- 
taneous, or,  rather,  scrofulous  disease  has  been  con- 
founded with  leprosy,  from  which  it  is  essentially  differ- 
ent. It  is  usually  called  tubercular  leprosy  (Lepra  nodosa, 
Celsus,  Med.  iii,  25),  and  has  generally  been  thought  to 
be  the  disease  with  which  Job  was  afflicted  (""l  "i"!^^, 
Job  ii,  7 ;  comp.  Deut.  xxviii,  35).  See  Jon's  Disease. 
It  has  been  thought  to  be  alluded  to  by  the  term  ''botch 
of  Egypt"  (nin:a-3  "pn-a,  Deut.  xxviii,  27),  where  it  is 
said  to  have  been  endemic  (Pliny,  xxvi,  5;  Lucret.  vi, 
1 1 12  sq. ;  comp.  AretiEus,  Cappod.  morh.  diut.  ii,  13  ;  see 
Ainslie,  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Asiatic  Society,  i,  282 
sq.).  The  Greeks  gave  the  name  of  elephantiasis  to 
this  disease  because  the  skin  of  the  person  affected  with 
it  was  thought  to  resemble  that  of  an  elephant,  in  dark 
color,  ruggedness,  and  insensibility,  or,  as  some  have 
thought,  because  the  foot,  after  the  loss  of  the  toes, 
when  the  hollow  of  the  sole  is  filled  up  and  the  ankle 
enlarged,  resembles  the  foot  of  an  elephant.  The  Arabs 
called  it  Judhum,  which  means  '•  mutilation,"  ''  amputa- 
tion," in  reference  to  the  loss  of  the  smaller  members. 
They  have,  however,  also  described  another  disease,  and 
a  very  different  one  from  elephantiasis,  to  which  they 


LEPROSY 


sve 


LEPROSY 


gave  the  name  of  Da'L  fil,  wliich  means  literally  mor- 
hus  ekphas.  The  disease  to  which  they  applied  this 
name  is  called  by  modern  writers  tlie  tumid  Barbadoes 
leg,  and  consists  in  a  thickening  of  the  skin  and  subcu- 
taneous tissues  of  the  leg,  but  presents  nothing  resem- 
bling  tlie  tubercles  of  elephantiasis.  Now  the  Latin 
translators  from  the  Arabic,  tinding  that  the  same  name 
existed  both  in  the  Greek  and  Arabic,  translated  DcCl 
fil  by  elephantiasis,  and  thus  confounded  the  Barbadoes 
k'g  with  the  Arabic  Jndliuin,  while  this  latter,  which 
was  in  reality  elephantiasis,  they  rendered  by  the  Greek 
term  lepra.  See  Kleyer,  in  Miscell.  iwt.  curios.  1G83,  p. 
8 ;  Bartholin.  Morb.  J3ibl.  c.  7  ;  Michaelis,  Einkit.  iiis  A . 
T.  i,  58  sq. ;  Eeinhard,  Bibelkrank.  iii,  52. 

Elephantiasis  first  of  all  makes  its  appearance  by 
spots  of  a  reddish,  yellowish,  or  livid  hue,  irregularly 
disseminated  over  the  skin  and  slightly  raised  above  its 
surface.  These  spots  are  glossy,  and  appear  oily,  or  as 
if  they  were  covered  with  varnish.  After  they  have 
remained  in  this  way  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  they 
are  succeeded  by  an  eruption  of  tubercles.  These  are 
soft,  roundish  tumors,  varying  in  size  from  that  of  a  pea 
to  that  of  an  olive,  and  are  of  a  reddish  or  livid  color. 
They  are  principally  developed  on  the  face  and  ears, 
but  in  the  course  of  years  extend  over  the  whole  body. 
The  ftice  becomes  frightfully  deformed ;  the  forehead  is 
traversed  by  deep  lines  and  covered  with  numerous  tu- 
bercles; the  eyebrows  become  bald,  sv/eUed,  furrowed 
by  oblique  lines,  and  covered  with  nipple-like  eleva- 
tions ;  the  eyelashes  fall  out,  and  the  eyes  assume  a  fixed 
and  staring  look ;  the  lips  are  enormously  thickened  and 
shining;  the  beard  falls  out;  the  chin  and  ears  are  en- 
larged and  beset  with  tubercles;  the  lobe  and  alae  of  the 
nose  are  frightfully  enlarged  and  deformed ;  the  nostrils 
irregidarly  dilated,  internally  constricted,  and  excoria- 
ted ;  the  voice  is  hoarse  and  nasal,  and  the  breath  intol- 
erably fetid.  After  some  time,  generally  after  some 
years,  many  of  the  tubercles  idcerate,  and  the  matter 
which  exudes  from  them  dries  to  crusts  of  a  brownish 
or  blackish  color;  but  this  process  seldom  terminates  in 
cicatrization.  The  extremities  are  affected  in  the  same 
way  as  the  face.  The  hollow  of  the  foot  is  swelled  out, 
so  that  the  sole  becomes  fiat;  the  sensibility  of  the  skm 
is  greatly  impaired,  and,  in  the  hands  and  feet,  often 
entirely  lost;  the  joints  of  the  toes  ulcerate  and  fall  off 
one  after  the  other;  insupportable  foetor  exhales  from 
the  whole  body.  The  patient's  general  health  is  not 
affected  ftr  a  considerable  time,  and  his  sufferings  are 
not  always  of  the  same  intensity  as  his  external  defor- 
mity. Often,  however,  his  nights  are  sleepless  or  dis- 
turl)P(l  by  frightful  dreams;  he  becomes  morose  and 
melancholy;  he  shuns  the  sight  of  the  healthy  because 
he  feels  what  an  object  of  disgust  he  is  to  them,  and  life 
becomes  a  loathsome  burden  to  him ;  or  he  falls  into  a 
state  of  apathy,  and,  after  many  years  of  such  an  exist- 
ence, he  sinks  either  from  exhaustion  or  from  the  super- 
vention of  internal  disease. 

About  the  period  of  the  Crusades  elephantiasis  spread 
itself  like  an  epidemic  over  all  Europe,  even  as  far  north 
as  the  Faroe  Islands;  and  henceforth,  owing  to  the 
above-named  mistakes,  every  one  became  familiar  with 
leprosy  under  the  form  of  tiic  terrible  disease  that  has 
just  been  described.  Leper  or  lazar-houses  abounded 
everywhere :  as  many  as  2000  are  said  to  have  existed 
iu  France  alone.  In  the  leper  hospital  in  Edinburgh 
the  imnates  begged  for  the  general  community— sitting 
for  the  purpose  at  the  door  of  the  hospital.  They  were 
obliged  to  warn  those  approaching  them  of  the  presence 
of  an  infected  fellow-mortal  by  using  a  wood  rattle  or 
clapper.  The  infected  in  European  countries  were 
obliged  to  enter  leper  hospitals,  and  were  considered  le- 
gfilly  and  politically  dead.  The  Church,  taking  the 
same  view  of  it.  performed  over  them  the  solemn  cere- 
monies for  the  burial  of  tlie  dead — the  priest  closing 
the  ceremony  by  throwing  u|ion  them  a  shovelful  of 
earth.  The  disease  was  considered  to  be  contagious 
possibly  only  on  account  of  the  belief  that  was  enter- 


tained respecting  its  identity  with  Jewish  leprosy,  and 
the  strictest  regulations  were  enacted  for  secluding  the 
diseased  from  society'.  Towards  the  commencement  of 
the  17th  century  the  disease  gradually  disapijearetl  from 
Europe,  and  is  now  mostly  confined  to  intertropical 
coimtries.  It  existed  in  Faroe  as  late  as  1G7G,  and  in 
the  Shetland  Islands  in  173G,  long  after  it  had  ceased  in 
the  southern  parts  of  Great  Britain.  This  fearful  dis- 
ease made  its  appearance  in  the  island  of  Guadaloupe 
iu  the  year  1730,  introduced  by  negroes  from  Africa, 
producing  great  consternation  among  the  iidiabitants. 
In  Europe  it  is  now  principally  confined  to  Norway, 
where  the  last  census  gave  2000  cases.  It  visits  occa- 
sionally some  of  the  sea-port  localities  of  Spain.  It  has 
made  its  appearance  in  the  most  different  climates,  from 
Iceland  through  the  temperate  regions  to  the  arid  plains 
of  Arabia — in  moist  and  drj^  localities.  It  still  exists 
in  Palestine  and  Egypt — the  latter  its  most  familiar 
home,  although  Dr.  Kitto  thinks  not  in  such  numerous 
instances  as  in  former  ages.  The  physical  causes  of  the 
malady  arc  uncertain.  The  best  authors  of  the  present 
day  who  have  had  an  opportmiity  of  observing  the  dis- 
ease do  not  consider  it  to  be  contagious.  There  seems, 
however,  to  be  little  doubt  as  to  its  being  hereditarj'. 
See  Good's  Study  of  Medicine,  iii,  421 ;  Kayer,  Mai.  de 
la  Peau,  ii,  296;  Simpson,  On  the  Lepers  and  Leper- 
houses  of  Scotland  and  England,  in  Edinb.  Medical  and 
Surgiccd  Journal,  Jan.  1, 1842 ;  J.  Gieslesen,  De  elephan- 
tiasi  Norvegica  (Havn.  1785) ;  Michael.  U.  orient  Bibl. 
iv,  1G8  sq. ;  B.  Haubold,  Vitiliginis  leproseB  rarioris  his- 
ioria  c.  ejncrid  (Lips.  1821) ;  C.  J.  HiUe,  Rai-ioris  morbi 
elejihantiasi  paiiicdi  similis  histor.  (Lips.  1828)  ;  Kosen- 
baum,  in  the  Hall.  Encyklop.  xxxiii,  254  sq. 

Elephantiasis,  or  the  leprosy  of  the  Middle  Ages,  is 
the  disease  from  which  most  of  the  prevalent  notions 
concerning  leprosy  have  been  derived,  and  to  which  the 
notices  of  lepers  contained  in  modem  books  of  travels 
exclusively  refer.  It  is  doubtful  whether  ain-  of  the 
lepers  cured  by  Christ  (Matt,  viii,  3 ;  ]\Iark  i,  42 ;  Luke 
V,  12,  13)  were  of  this  class.  In  nearly  all  Oriental 
towns  persons  of  this  description  are  met  with,  excluded 
from  intercourse  with  the  rest  of  the  community,  and 
usually  confined  to  a  separate  quarter  of  the  town.  Dr. 
Kobinson  says,  with  reference  to  Jerusalem,  '"Within 
the  Zion  Gate,  a  httle  towards  the  right,  are  some 
miserable  hovels,  inhabited  by  persons  called  lepers. 
Whether  their  disease  is  or  is  not  the  leprosy  of  Scrip- 
ture I  am  unable  to  affirm ;  the  symptoms  described  to 
us  were  similar  to  those  of  elephantiasis.  At  any  rate, 
they  are  pitiable  objects,  and  miserable  outcasts  from 
society.  They  all  live  here  together,  and  intermarry 
only  with  each  other.  The  children  are  said  to  be 
healthy  until  the  age  of  puberty  or  later,  when  the  dis- 
ease makes  its  appearance  in  a  finger,  on  the  nose,  or  in 
some  like  part  of  the  body,  and  gradually  increases  as 
long  as  the  victim  survives.  They  were  said  often  to 
live  to  the  age  of  forty  or  fifty  years"  {Bib.  Res.  i,  359). 
With  reference  to  their  presence  elsewhere,  he  remarks, 
'•  There  are  said  to  be  leprous  persons  at  Nablus  (She- 
chem)  as  well  as  at  Jerusalem,  but  we  did  not  here  meet 
with  them"  (ih.  iii,  113  note).  On  the  reputed  site  of 
the  house  of  Naaman.  at  Damascus,  stands  at  the  pres- 
ent day  a  hospital  filled  with  unfortunate  patients,  the 
victims  affected  like  him  with  leprosy.     See  Plague. 

2.  That  the  Mosaic  cases  of  true  leprosy  were  confined 
to  the  former  of  these  two  dreadful  forms  of  disease  is 
evident.  The  reason  why  this  kind  of  cutaneous  dis- 
temper alone  was  taken  cognizance  of  by  the  law  doubt- 
less was  because  the  other  was  too  well  marked  and  ob- 
vious to  require  any  diagnostic  particularization.  With 
the  scriptural  symptoms  before  us,  let  us  c(mipare  the 
most  recent  description  of  modern  leprosy  oT  the  malig- 
nant type  given  by  an  eye-witness  who  examined  this 
subject:  "The  scab  comes  on  by  degrees,  in  different 
parts  of  the  body ;  tlie  hair  falls  from  the  head  and  eye- 
brows; the  nails  loosen,  decay,  and  drop  oft";  joint  alter 
joint  of  the  fingers  and  toes  shrink  up,  and  slowly  fall 


LEPROSY 


377 


LEPROSY 


away ;  the  gums  arc  absorbed,  and  the  teeth  disappear ;  i 
the  nose,  the  eyes,  the  tongue,  and  the  palate  arc  slowly 
consumed ;  and,  linally,  the  wretched  victim  shrinks 
into  the  earth  and  disappears,  while  medicine  has  no 
power  to  stay  the  ravages  of  this  fell  disease,  or  even  to 
mitigate  sensibly  its  tortnrcii'\'lhomson,  Lund  and  Bool; 
p.  Goo,  etc.) ;  and  again,  "  Sauntering  down  the  Jaffa 
road,  on  my  approach  to  the  Holy  City,  in  a  kuid  of 
dreamv  maze,  ,  ,  .  I  was  startled  out  of  my  reverie  by 
the  suilden  apparition  of  a  cnjwd  of  beggars, '  sans  eyes, 
sans  nose,  sans  hair,  sans  everything.'  They  held  up 
towards  me  their  handless  arms,  miearthly  sounds  gur- 
gled through  throats  without  palates"  (ibid.  p.  651). 
We  merely  ask  by  what  rules  of  interpretation  can  we 
deduce  from  the  Biblical  leprosy,  which  is  described  as 
consisting  in  a  rising  scab,  or  bright  spot  deeper  than 
the  general  level  of  the  skin,  and  spreading,  sometimes 
exhibiting  live  tlesh,  and  which  is  non-contagious  and 
curalile,  that  loathsome  and  appalling  malady  described 
by  Dr. Thomson  and  others? 

3.  x\s  to  the  leprosy  of  garments,  vessels,  and  houses, 
the  ancient  Jewish  tradition  is  that  "  leprosy  of  gar- 
ments and  houses  was  not  to  be  found  in  the  world  gen- 
erallv,  but  was  a  sign  and  a  miracle  in  Israel  to  guard 
them  against  an  evil  tongue"  (Maimonides,  O/i  Leprosij, 
xvi,  10).  Some  have  thought  garments  worn  by  lep- 
rous patients  intended.  The  discharges  f)f  the  diseased 
skin  absorbed  into  the  apparel  would,  if  infection  were 
possible,  probably  convey  disease,  and  it  is  known  to  be 
highly  dangerous  in  some  cases  to  allow  clothes  which 
have  so  imbibed  the  discharges  of  an  ulcer  to  be  worn 
again.  The  words  of  Jude,  ver.  23,  may  seem  to  counte- 
nance this^  "  Hating  even  the  garment  spotted  by  the 
flesh."  But,  1st,  no  mention  of  infection  occurs;  2d,  no 
connection  of  the  leprous  garment  with  a  lejjrous  human 
wearer  is  hinted  at;  3d,  this  would  not  help  us  to  ac- 
count for  a  leprosy  of  stone  walls  and  plaster.  Thus 
Dr.  Mead  («;;  stq^.)  speaks  at  any  rate  plausibly  of  the 
leprosy  of  garments,  but  becomes  unreasonable  when  he 
extends  his  explanation  to  that  of  walls.  There  is  more 
probability  in  the  idea  of  Sommer  (Bibl.  A  bhandlungen, 
i,  2"24)  that  what  is  meant  are  the  fusting-stains  occa- 
sioned by  damp  and  want  of  air,  and  which,  when  con- 
firmed, cause  the  cloth  to  moidder  and  fall  to  pieces. 
Micliaelis  thought  that  wool  from  sheeji  which  had  died 
of  a  particular  disease  might  fret  into  holes,  and  exhib- 
it an  appearance  like  that  described  in  Lev.  xiii,  47,  59 
(Michaelis,  art.  ccxi,  iii,  290,  291).  But  woollen  cloth 
is  far  from  being  the  only  material  mentioned ;  nay, 
there  is  even  some  reason  to  think  that  the  words  ren- 
dered in  the  A.V.  "  warp"  and  "  woof"  are  not  those  dis- 
tinct parts  of  the  texture,  but  distinct  materials.  Linen, 
however,  and  leather  are  distinctly  particularized,  and 
the  latter  not  only  as  regards  garments,  but  "  anything 
(ht.  vessel)  made  of  skin" — for  instance,  bottles.  This 
classing  of  garments  and  house-walls  with  the  human 
epidermis  as  leprous  has  moved  the  mirth  of  some  and 
the  wonder  of  others.  Yet  modern  science  has  estab- 
lished what  goes  far  to  vindicate  the  Mosaic  classifica- 
tion as  more  philosophical  than  such  cavils.  It  is  now 
known  that  there  are  some  skin-diseases  which  originate 
in  an  acarus,  and  others  which  proceed  from  a  fungus. 
In  these  we  may  probably  find  the  solution  of  the  para- 
dox. The  analogy  between  the  insect  which  frets  the 
human  skin  and  that  which  frets  the  garment  that  cov- 
ers it,  between  the  fungous  growth  that  lines  the  crev- 
ices of  the  epidermis  and  that  which  creeps  in  the  inter- 
stices of  masonry,  is  close  enough  for  the  purposes  of  a 
ceremonial  law,  to  which  it  is  essential  that  there  should 
be  an  arbitrary  element  intermingled  with  provisions 
manifestly  reasonable.  Michaelis  {ibid.  art.  ccxi,  iii, 
293-9)  has  suggested  a  nitrous  efilorescence  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  stone,  produced  by  saltiietre,  or  rather  an  acid 
containing  it,  and  issuing  in  red  spots,  and  cites  the  ex- 
ample of  a  house  in  Lubeck ;  he  mentions,  also,  exfolia- 
tion of  the  stone  from  other  causes;  but  probably  these 
appearances  would  not  be  developed  without  a  "greater 


degree  of  damp  than  is  common  in  Palestine  and  Arabia. 
It  is  manifest,  also,  that  a  disease  in  the  human  subject 
caused  by  an  acarus  or  a  fungus  would  be  certainly  con- 
tagious, since  the  propagative  cause  coidd  be  transferred 
from  person  to  person.  Some  physicians,  indeed,  assert 
that  only  such  skin-diseases  are  contagious.  Hence, 
perhaps,  arose  a  further  reason  for  marking,  even  in  their 
analogues  among  lil'eless  substances,  the  strictness  with 
■which  forms  of  disease  so  arising  were  to  be  shunned. 

Whatever  the  nature  of  the  disorder  might  be,  there 
can  be  no  doubt,  as  Bauragarten  has  remarked  (Comm. 
ii,  175),  that  in  the  house  respect  was  had  to  its  pos- 
sessor, since  when  it  came  to  be  in  a  good  condition  a 
cleansing  or  purification  quite  analogous  to  the  man's 
was  prescribed.  He  was  thus  taught  to  see  in  his  ex- 
ternal environments  a  sign  of  what  was  or  might  be  in- 
ternal. The  later  Jews  appear  to  have  had  some  idea 
of  this,  though  others  viewed  it  differently.  Some  rab- 
bins say  that  God  sent  this  plague  for  the  good  of  the 
Israelites  into  certain  houses,  that,  they  being  pulled 
down,  the  treasure  which  the  Amorites  had  hidden  there 
might  be  discovered  (Patrick  on  Lev.  xiv,  34).  But 
"  there  is  good  reason,"  adds  the  learned  prelate,  '•  from 
these  words  ['I  put  the  plague  of  leprosy  upon  a  house'], 
to  think  that  this  plague  was  a  supernatural  stroke. 
Thus  Aberbanel  understands  it :  '  When  he  saith  "  I  put 
the  plague,"  it  shows  that  this  thing  was  not  natural, 
but  proceeded  from  the  special  providence  and  pleasure 
of  the  blessed  God.'  So  the  author  of  Seplier  Cosri  (pt. 
ii,  §  58) :  God  inflicted  the  plague  of  leprosy  upon  houses 
and  garments  as  a  punishment  for  lesser  sins,  and  when 
men  continued  still  to  midtiply  transgressions,  then  it 
invaded  their  bodies.  Maimonides  will  have  this  to  be 
the  punishment  of  an  evil  tongue,  i.  e.  detractions  and 
calumny,  which  began  in  the  walls  of  the  offender's 
house,  and  went  no  farther,  but  vanished  if  he  repented 
of  his  sin  ;  but  if  he  persisted  in  his  rebellious  courses, 
it  proceeded  to  his  household  stuff;  and  if  he  still  went 
on,  invaded  his  garments,  and  at  last  his  body"  {More 
Niboclnm,  [it.  iii,  cap.  47). 

Finally,  as  to  the  moral  design  of  all  these  enactments. 
"  Every  leper  was  a  living  sermon,  a  loud  admonition  to 
keep  unspotted  from  the  world.  The  exclusion  of  lepers 
from  the  camp,  from  the  holy  city,  conveyed  figuratively 
the  same  lesson  as  is  done  in  the  New  Testament  pas- 
sages (Kev.  xxi,  27;  Eph.  v,  5).  . .  .  It  is  only  when  we 
take  this  view  of  the  leprosy  that  we  account  for  the 
fact  that  just  this  disease  so  frequently  occurs  as  the 
theocratic  punishment  of  sin.  The  image  of  sin  is  best 
suited  for  reflecting  it :  he  who  is  a  sinner  before  (iod  is 
represented  as  a  sinner  in  the  eyes  of  man  also,  by  the 
circumstance  that  he  must  exhibit  before  men  the  image 
of  sin.  God  took  care  that  ordinarily  the  image  and 
the  thing  itself  were  perfectly  coincident,  although,  no 
doubt,  there  were  exceptions"  (Hengstenberg,  Christol. 
on  Jer.  xxxi,  39).     See  LTxcleanness. 

Literature. — Besides  the  above  notices  and  canons  on 
leprosy  given  in  the  Mischna,  tract  Ne(/aim ;  also  by  INIai- 
monides,  Yod  Ila-Chezaka  Hilchoth  Mechosse  Kajxini, 
cap.  iv,  and  Hilchoth  Tamaih  Tsoraoth ;  and  by  Kashi 
and  Pashbam,  Commentar.  on  Lev.  xiii,  xiv;  see,  among 
modern  Avriters,  Mead,  Medica  Sacra,  in  his  Medical 
Works  (Edinb.  1765),  iii,  160,  etc.;  Michaelis,  Laws  of 
Moses  (Lond.  1814),  iii,  257-305;  Mason  i\ooA,The  Study 
of  Medicine  (Lond.  1825),  v,  585  sq. ;  Schilling,  L)e  lepra 
Commentationes  (Lugd.  Bat.  1778);  Hensler,  J 'oni  abend- 
Idndischen  Aussatze  im  Mitielalter  (Hamb.  1790) ;  Jahn, 
Biblische  Archdolo(/ie  (Vienna,  1818),  I,  ii,  355  sq.;  Biihr, 
Symbolik  des  Moscnschen  Cultus  (Heidclb.  Is.'lO),  ii,  459 
sq.,  512  sq. ;  Sommer,  Biblische  Abharidlinnjen,  vol.  i 
(Bonn,  1846)  ;  I'runer,  Die  Krankheiten  des  Orients  (Er- 
lang.  1847),  p.  163  sq. ;  Trusen,  Die  Sitten,  Gebrauche  tmd 
Krankheiten  der  Allen  Ilebr.  (Bresl.  1833)  ;  Saalschlitz, 
Das  Mosai^che  Recht  (Berlin,  1853),  i,  217  sq.;  Keil, 
Ihmdbuch  der  Biblischen  A  rchaolofjie  (Frankfort-on-the- 
Main,  1858),  i,  270  sq.,  288  sq. ;  Bonorden,  L^epra  squa- 
mosa (HaL  1795) ;  Lutz,  Le  avibus  purgat.  leprosi  (Hal. 


LE  QUIEX 


3V8 


LESLEY 


IT')?");  ■\Vithof,  De  Uprosariis  vet.  Ifebrworum  (Duisb. 
17,')ti):  Murray, Ni^tuiid  hprce  (Giitt.  1749);  J.Thomas. 
Ik-  lipra  Gra'cor.ct  JiidiFor.  (Basil.  1708);  Norberg,  Z'e 
hprn  A  rubum  (Lond.  I7!l()) ;  Hilan*,  Observ.  on  the  £>is- 
(((.sr.s-  of  Barbmhes  (Lond.  1769),  p.  326  .sq. ;  Sprengel, 
Pathol,  iii,  79-1-835;  Frank,  De  curandis  homin.  morUg, 
I.  ii,  476 ;  Scbnurrer,  in  the  Halle  Encyhlop.  vi,  451  sq. ; 
Itiist.  llandb.  d.  Chirurij.  ii,  581  sq. ;  Roussille-Chamseru. 
Ui  rlitrches  sur  le  veritable  Caractere  de  la  Lepre  des 
I/ebiiii.T,  and  Relation  Chirurr/.  de  VArviee  de  VOi'ient 
(Paris,  1804);  Cazcnave  and  Hchedel,  yl  i/%«  Pratique 
des  Maladies  de  la  Peau  ;  Aretreus,  Morb,  Chron.  ii,  13  ; 
Fracastorius,  De  Moi-bis  Contagiosis ;  Johajines  Manar- 
dus,  Epist.  Medic,  vii,  2,  and  to  iv,  3,  3,  §  1 ;  Avicenna, 
De  Medic,  v,  28,  §  19;  also  Dr.  Sim  in  tlie  North  Amer- 
ican  Chirm-gical  Review,  Sept.  1859,  p.  876  ;  Hecker,  Die 
Elephantiasis  oder  Lep)ra  Arabica  (Lchr,  1858) ;  also  the 
monographs  cited  by  Volbeding,  Index,  p.  42 ;  and  by 
Hase,  Leben  Jcsii,  p.  137.  The  ancient  authorities  are 
Hippocrates,  Proi-rhetica,  lib.  xii,  ap.  fin. ;  Galen,  Expli- 
catio  Une/uarum  Hippocratis,  and  De  A  rt.  Curat,  lib,  ii ; 
Cclsus.  De  Medic,  v,  28,  §  19.     See  Disease. 

Le  Quien,  Michael,  a  Dominican,  who  was  bom  at 
Boulogne  in  1661,  was  remarkable  for  bis  learning  in 
Greek,  Hebrew,  and  Arabic,  and  in  Oriental  Church  His- 
tory. His  Joannis  Damasceni  opera  (Paris,  1712,  in  two 
folio  volumes)  is  a  superior  edition  of  that  father.  His 
most  important  work  is  Oriem  Christianus,  insiiper  et 
Africa,  an  account  of  the  churches,  patriarchs,  etc.,  of 
the  East  (3  vols.  8vo),  the  first  part  of  which  appeared 
before,  the  second  part  after  the  author's  death,  which 
took  place  at  the  convent  in  St.  Honore  in  1733. 

Lerins,  Convent  of,  one  of  the  oldest,  and  once 
one  of  the  most  important  monastic  establishments  in 
France,  is  situated  in  the  island  of  St.  Honore,  on  the 
coast  of  Provence,  opposite  Antibes.  The  legend  con- 
cerning its  origin  is  as  follows:  Honoratus,  a  man  of 
noble  descent,  and  who  had  even  been  once  consul,  em- 
braced the  Christian  faith,  together  with  his  brother,  in 
spite  of  the  remonstrances  of  liis  family.  They  first  re- 
lired  to  an  island  near  Marseilles,  but  Honoratus  after- 
wards went  back  to  Provence,  where  he  settled  at  Le- 
rins, under  the  protection  of  the  bishop  of  Fryus.  His 
re])utation  for  sanctity  induced  many  to  join  him,  and 
they  lived,  some  in  communities  {coenobites'),  others  as 
hermits  in  separate  cells.  It  was  the  time  when  raon- 
achism  was  lately  introduced  into  Europe  from  the  East, 
and  convents  were  arising  along  the  shores  of  the  ]Med- 
iterranean,  and  on  the  coasts  of  Italy  (Gallinara,  Gor- 
gona,  Capraja),  of  Dahnatia,  and  of  France.  Slartinus 
had  just  established  a  convent  at  Turonum,  whose  rules 
■were  adopted  in  those  that  were  established  by  Cassian. 
The  statement  that  the  Cassian  rules  were  first  intro- 
duced at  Lerins  is  therefore  erroneous.  Under  Honora- 
tus, who  was  aftero'ards  appointed  bishop  of  Aries,  the 
last-named  convent  made  rapid  progress.  Lerins  be- 
came one  of  the  most  important  schools  for  the  clergy 
of  Southern  Gaul,  and  furnished  a  large  number  of  bish- 
ops, among  whom  we  will  mention  Hiiarius  of  Aries  and 
Eucherius  of  Lyons:  at  that  time  monks  were  often 
made  bisliops.  In  the  5th  century  the  convent  became 
imbued  with  semi-1'elagiaii  ideas,  wliich  thence  spread 
into  Southern  France.  In  tlie  7tli  century  the  monks  of 
Lerins  seem  to  have  relaxed  in  their  obedience  to  their 
rule,  for  (iregory  wrote  to  the  abbot  Conon  inviting 
him  to  reform  their  morals.  This  reform  was  accom- 
plished by  a  Benedictine  abbot,  Aigulf,  but  only  after  a 
struggle  which  for  a  while  threatened  to  destroy  the 
convent,  the  opposition  party  going  so  far  as  to  call  in 
the  assistance  of  ncigbiioring  \ords,  and  murdering  the 
abbot  and  some  of  his  followers.  Still,  as  the  reform 
liad  been  inaugurated,  the  convent  resumed  its  former 
jirosperit}-,  and  in  the  beginnfng  of  the  8th  century'  its 
abbot  counted  3700  monks  mider  his  command.  Soon 
after,  however,  it  was  overrun  by  the  Saracens  from 
Spain ;  the  abbot  Porcarius,  in  prevision  of  this  event. 


sent  thirty-six  of  tlie  younger  monks  and  forty  children 
to  Italy,  while  be  and  those  who  remained  were  mur- 
dered, with  the  exception  of  four,  who  were  retained 
prisoners.  They  escaped  after  a  while,  and,  having  re- 
turned to  Lerins,  formed  the  nucleus  of  a  new  convent. 
In  997,  under  the  renowned  Odilo,  the  convent  once  more 
rose  to  eminence,  and  attained  its  greatest  fame  under 
Adalbert  (1030-1066).  Eaymvmd,  count  of  Barcelona, 
gave  the  monks  a  whole  convent  in  Catalonia,  and  they 
had  possessions  in  France,  Italy,  Corsica,  and  the  islands 
belonging  to  Italj\  A  nunnen,-  at  Tarascon,  established 
by  the  seneschal  of  Provence,  was  also  subject  to  their 
rule,  together  with  a  large  number  of  canonici  retfuhires, 
to  whom  the  abbot  Giraud  gave  two  churches  in  1226, 
under  the  condition  that  they  should  always  remain 
subject  to  the  rule  of  Lerins.  Their  prosperity  decreas- 
ing, the  abbot,  Augustin  Grimald,  afterwards  bishop  of 
Grasse,  connected  them  with  the  Benedictines  in  1505, 
and  this  fusion  received  in  1515  the  sanction  of  pope 
Leo  X  and  of  Francis  I.  In  1635  the  island  was  taken 
by  the  Spaniards,  who  retamed  it  until  1657;  and,  al- 
though the  convent  continued  to  exist,  it  lost  hence- 
forth all  its  importance.  SeeVincentius  Barralis,  Chro- 
nolofjium  Sanctorum  et  aliorum  clarorum  virorum  insu- 
la Lerinensis  (1613);  Abrege  de  VHistoii-e  de  I'Ordre  de 
S.  Benoist,  par  la  Congregation  de  St.Maur,  i,  215  sq., 
468  sq. ;  ii,  245 ;  Hist,  des  Ordres  Monastiqites,  i,  116  sq. 
— Herzog,  Rectl-EncyUojmdie,  viii,  333  sq. 

Lesbonax  (At o-/3wi'a^,  a  son  of  Potamon  of  IMyt- 
ilene,  a  philosopher  and  sophist,  lived  in  the  time  of  Au- 
gustus. He  was  a  pupil  of  Tiraocrates,  and  the  father 
of  Polemon,  who  is  known  as  the  teacher  and  friend  of 
Tiberius.  Suidas  says  that  Lesbonax  wrote  several  iihil- 
osophical  works,  but  does  not  mention  that  he  was  an 
orator  or  rhetorician,  although  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  he  is  the  same  person  as  the  Lesbonax  who  wrote 
fjeXtra'i  fJijTopiKai  and  ipwrtKai  t—t<Tro\ai  (see  Photius, 
Bibl.  cod.  74,  p.  52). — Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Biograjihy,  ii,  772. 

Le'shem  (Heb.  id.  C;^?,  agent,  as  in  Exod.  xxviii, 
19,  etc, ;  Sept.  Aiaip  v.  r.  Aaxic),  a  city  in  the  northern 
part  of  Palestine  (Josh,  xix,  47) ;  elsewhere  called  La- 
ISH  (Judg.  xviii,  7).     See  Dan. 

Leshem.     See  Ligure. 

Lesley,  John,  a  very  celebrated  Scotch  prelate,  was 
born  in  1527,  and  was  educated  in  the  Laiiversity  of 
Aberdeen.  In  1547  he  was  made  canon  of  the  cathedral 
chiu-ch  of  Aberdeen  and  Murray,  and  after  this  he  trav- 
elled into  France,  and,  pursuing  his  studies  in  the  uni- 
versities of  Toulouse,  Poitiers,  and  I'aris,  finally  took 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  laws.  He  continued  abroad  till 
1554,  when  he  was  commanded  home  by  the  queen  re- 
gent, and  made  official  and  vicar  general  of  the  diocese 
of  Aberdeen ;  and,  entering  into  the  priesthood,  he  be- 
came parson  of  Une.  About  this  time,  the  Keformed 
doctrine,  beginning  to  spread  in  Scotland,  was  zeal- 
ously opposed  by  Lesley ;  and  at  a  solemn  dispute  be- 
tween the  Protestants  and  Papists,  held  in  1560  at  Ed- 
inburgh, Lesley  was  a  principal  chamjiion  on  the  side 
of  the  latter.  However,  this  was  so  far  from  putting  an 
end  to  the  divisions  that  they  daily  increased,  and,  occa- 
sioning many  disturbances  and  commotions,  both  parties 
agreed  to  invite  home  the  queen,  who  was  then  absent 
in  Franco.  On  this  errand  Lesley  was  employed  by  the 
Roman  Catholics,  and  made  such  dispatch  that  he  came 
to  Yitri.  where  queen  IMarj-  was  then  lamenting  the  death 
of  her  husband,  tlie  king  of  France,  several  days  before 
lord  James  Stuart,  sent  by  the  Protestants.  Having  de- 
livered to  her  his  credentials,  he  told  her  majesty  of  lord 
James  Stuart's  mission,  and  actually  succeeded  in  per- 
suading her  to  embark  with  him  for  Scotland.  Imme- 
diately upon  his  arrival  home  he  was  appointed  senator 
to  the  College  of  Justice  and  a  privy  councillor,  and  a 
short  time  after  was  presented  with  the  living  of  Lun- 
dores,  and,  upon  the  death  of  Sinclair,  was  made  bishop 


LESLIE 


379 


LESS-(IUS) 


of  Ross.  While  in  this  position  he  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  civil  as  well  as  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  his  coun- 
try, and  secured  to  the  Scots  what  are  commonly  called 
'•the  black  acts  of  Parliament"  (ISGO).  During  the 
flight  of  queen  INIary  to  England  he  defended  her  cause 
against  the  Covenanters.  In  1579  he  was  made  suffra- 
gan bishop  and  vicar  general  of  Kouen,  in  Normandy, 
and,  after  persecution  and  imprisonment,  died  in  159(5. 
His  writings  are  not  of  particidar  interest  to  theological 
students.  See  AUibone,  Diet,  of  BritisK  and  A  merican 
A  ut/iors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  Collier,  Eccl.  Hist,  of  Enrjland  (see 
Index,  vol.  viii). 

Leslie,  Charle.s,  a  prominent  writer  in  the  politi- 
cal and  theological  controversies  of  the  17th  century, 
was  the  son  of  bishop  John  Leslie,  of  the  Irish  sees  of 
Kaphoe  and  Clogher,  and  was  born  in  Ireland  about 
1650,  and  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  His 
course  in  life  was  very  eccentric.  In  1671  he  went  to 
England  to  study  law,  but  in  a  few  years  turned  him- 
self to  divinity,  was  admitted  into  orders,  and,  settling 
in  Ireland,  became  chancellor  of  Connor.  He  was  living 
in  Ireland  at  the  time  of  the  lievolution,  and  distin- 
guished himself  in  some  disputations  with  the  IJoman 
Catholics  on  the  side  of  the  Protestant  Church.  Though 
a  zealous  Protestant,  he  scrupled  to  renounce  his  alle- 
giance to  king  James,  and  to  acknowledge  king  William 
as  his  rightful  sovereign.  There  was  thus  an  end  to 
his  prospects  in  the  Church,  and,  leaving  Ireland,  he 
went  to  luigland,  and  there  employed  himself  in  writing 
many  of  his  controversial  works,  especially  those  on  the 
political  state  of  the  country.  When  James  II  was 
dead,  Leslie  transferred  his  allegiance  to  his  son,  the 
Pretender;  and,  as  he  made  frequent  visits  to  the  courts 
of  the  exiled  princes,  he  so  far  fell  under  suspicion  at 
home  that  he  thought  proper  to  leave  England,  and 
join  himself  openly  to  the  court  of  the  Pretender,  then 
at  Bar-le-Duc.  He  was  still  a  zealous  Protestant,  and 
had  in  that  court  a  private  chapel,  in  which  he  was  ac- 
customed to  officiate  as  a  minister  of  the  Protestant 
Church  of  England.  When  the  Pretender  removed  to 
Italy,  Leslie  accompanied  him  ;  but,  becoming  at  length 
sensible  of  the  strangeness  of  his  position,  a  Protestant 
clergyman  in  the  court  of  a  zealous  Roman  Catholic, 
and  age  coming  on,  and  with  it  the  natural  desire  of 
dying  in  the  land  which  had  given  liim  birth,  he  sought 
and  obtained  from  the  government  of  king  George  I,  in 
1721,  permission  to  return.  He  died  at  Glaslough,  in 
the  county  of  llonaghan,  in  1722.  Leslie's  writings  in 
the  political  controversies  of  the  time  were  all  in  sup- 
port of  high  monarchical  principles.  His  theological 
writings  were  controversial;  they  have  been  distributed 
into  the  six  following  classes:  those  against,  1,  the 
Quakers;  2,  the  Presbyterians;  3,  the  Deists;  4,  the 
Jews;  5,  the  Socinians;  and,  G,  the  Papists.  Some  of 
them,  especially  the  book  entitled  A  short  and  easy 
Method  with  the  Deists,  are  still  read  and  held  in  esteem. 
Towanls  the  close  of  his  life  he  collected  his  theological 
writings,  and  published  them  in  two  folio  volumes  (1721). 
They  were  reprinted  at  Oxford  (1832,  7  vols.  8vo).  His 
other  numerous  works  have  not  been  published  uniform- 
ly. Among  them  we  notice  A  View  of  the  Times,  their 
J'rincipks  and  Practices,  etc.  (2d  ed.  Lond.  1750,  6  vols. 
12mo):  —  The  Massacre  of  Glencoe  (Anon.,  Lond.  1703, 
4t()); — The  Axe  laid  to  the  Root  of  Christianity,  etc. 
(Lond.  1706,  4to)  : — Querela  temporum,  or  the  Danger  of 
the  Church  of  England  (Lond.  1695, 4to) : — A  Letter,  etc., 
against  the  sacramental  Test  (Lond.  1708,  4to) : — Answer 
to  the  Remarks  on  his  first  iJialogue  against  the  Socin- 
ians. Bayle  styles  him  a  man  of  great  merit  and  learn- 
ing, and  adds  that  he  was  the  lirst  who  wrote  in  Great 
Britain  against  the  fanaticism  of  Madame  Bourignon : 
his  books,  he  further  says,  are  much  esteemed,  and  es- 
pecially his  treatise  The  Snake  in  the  Crass.  Salmon 
observes  that  his  works  must  transmit  him  to  posterity 
as  a  man  thoroughly  learned  and  truly  pious.  Dr. 
Hickes  says  that  he  made  more  converts  to  a  sound 
faith  and  iioly  life  than  any  man  of  the  age  in  which  he 


lived;  that  his  consummate  learning,  attended  by  the 
lowest  humility,  the  strictest  piety  without  tlie  least 
tincture  of  narrowness,  a  conversation  to  the  last  degree 
lively  and  spirited,  yet  to  the  last  degree  innocent, 
made  him  the  delight  of  mankind.  See  Biog.  Brit. ; 
Enci/c.  Brit. ;  Jones,  Christ.  Biog. ;  Engl.  Cyclop,  s.  v. ; 
Darling,  Cyclop.  Bibliog.  ii,  1825 ;  Allibone,  Bictioiun-y 
of  British  and  A  mei-ican  A  uthors^  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Leslie,  John,  D.D.,  a  noted  prelate  of  the  Irish 
Church,  father  of  the  celebrated  Charles  Leslie,  was  de- 
scended from  an  ancient  family,  and  born  in  the  north 
of  Scotland  about  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century, 
and  was  educated  at  Aberdeen  and  at  Oxford.  Af- 
terwards he  travelled  in  Spain,  Italy,  Germany,  and 
France.  He  spoke  French,  Spanish,  and  Italian  with 
the  same  propriety  and  fluency  as  the  natives;  and  wa;; 
so  great  a  master  of  the  Latin  that  it  was  said  of  him 
when  in  Spain,  "  Solus  Lesleius  Latine  loquitur."  He 
continued  t^venty-two  years  abroad,  and  during  that 
time  was  at  the  siege  of  Rochelle,  and  in  the  expedition 
to  the  isle  of  Rlie  with  the  duke  of  Buckingham.  He 
was  all  along  conversant  in  courts,  and  at  home  was 
happy  in  that  of  Charles  I,  who  admitted  him  into  his 
privy  council  both  in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  in  which 
stations  he  was  continued  by  Charles  II  after  the  Resto- 
ration. His  chief  preferment  in  the  Church  of  Scotland 
was  the  bishopric  of  the  Orknej's,  whence  he  was  trans- 
lated to  Raphoe,  in  Ireland,  In  1633,  and  the  same  year 
sworn  a  privy  councillor  in  that  kingdom.  During  the 
Rebellion  he  openly  and  valiantly  espoused  the  cause 
of  his  royal  master,  and  after  the  Restoration  was  trans- 
lated to  the  see  of  Clogher.  He  died  in  1671.  See  Cham- 
bers, Biog.  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,  s.  v. 

Less,  Gottfried,  a  noted  German  theologian  of 
the  Pietistic  school,  was  born  in  1736  at  Conitz,  in  West 
Prussia.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Baumgarten,  professor  of 
theology  at  Gottingen.  He  studied  at  the  universities 
of  Halle  and  Jena,  and  in  1762  became  court  preacher  at 
Hanover.  He  was  rather  a  practical  than  scholastic 
theologian,  and  was  inclined  both  to  Mysticism  and  Pi- 
etism. Less  was  author  of  a  work  on  the  authenticity, 
uncorrupted  preservation,  and  credibility  of  the  New 
Testament,  which  has  been  translated  from  German  into 
English,  and  highly  commended  by  Michaelis  and 
Marsh.  It  is  not  .so  prolix  as  Lardner.  The  (ierman 
title  is  Betceis  der  Wahrheit  der  christlichen  Religion, 
(1768).  He  also  wrote  Ueher  die  Religion  (1786):  ■ — Ver- 
such  ehwr  praktischen  Dogmatik  (1779)  :  —  Christliche 
Moral  (1777). 

Less(ius),  Leoxiiard,  a  Jesuit  moralist,  was  born 
at  Brecht,  in  Brabant,  Oct.  1, 1554,  and  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Leyden,  to  which,  after  a  two  years' 
stay  at  Rome,  he  was  called  as  professor  of  philosophy 
and  theology  in  1585.  The  pope  had  just  condemned 
seventy-six  propositions  of  Bajus,  whom  the  Jesuits,  dis- 
ciples of  Scotus,  had  attacked;  but  soon  Less  and  Hamel 
falling  into  the  opposite  extreme  of  Pelagianism,  the 
faculty,  after  due  remonstrance,  solemnly  condemned 
also  fifty-four  ]iropositions  contained  in  their  lectures. 
Still,  as  several  universities  of  note  were  inclined  to 
judge  moderately  of  Less's  heretical  tendency,  he  re- 
tained his  position,  and  remained  in  high  standing,  es- 
pecially with  his  order.  He  died  Jan.  5, 1623.  His  nu- 
merous and  well-written  essays  on  morals  partake  of 
the  sophistry  so  often  employed  in  his  order.  Among 
the  most  important,  we  notice  his  Libri  iv  dejustitia  et 
jure,  cetei'isque  virtutibus  cardinalibus,  often  reprinted 
since  1605  (last  edit.  Lugd.  1653,  folio),  with  an  appen- 
dix by  Theophile  Ra3-naud  pro  Leon.  Less,  de  licito  iisu, 
cequivocationum  et  mentulium  reservationum.  Also  the 
first  volume  of  his  0pp.  theol.  (Paris,  1651,  foL;  Antw. 
1720);  and  his  essays  De  libero  arbitrio,  De  providen- 
tia,  De  perfectionibus  divinis,  etc.  He  followed  the  sys- 
tem of  the  scholastic  moralists,  of  whom  Schrockh  (A'jV- 
chengesch.  seit  d.  Reform,  iv,  104)  says:  "They,  in  fact, 
continued  the  old  method  of  their  predecessors  since  the 


LESSER 


380 


LESSING 


13th  century,  in  so  far  as  that  branch  of  theology  was 
then  advanced,  i.  e.  treating  it  as  a  dependence  of  the 
dogmatic  sj'stem;  yet  they  differed  from  them  inas- 
nuieh  as  they  set  forth  their  views  in  large  works  of 
tlieir  own,  evinced  more  learning,  a  better  style,  and  a 
certain  regartl  for  the  times  in  which  they  lived.''  Less 
attacked  also  the  Protestant  Church  in  his  Consnltatio. 
gtite  Jides  et  I'elirjio  sit  capessenda  (Amstelod.  1609;  last 
edit.  1701).  His  chief  argument  was  that  that  Church 
did  not  exist  before  the  Reformation ;  he  was  triumph- 
antly answered  on  this  point  by  Balthasar  ]\Ieisner,  of 
Wittenberg  (f  162C),  in  his  Consnltatio  catholica  dejide 
Luthcrana  capessenda  et  Romano -])apistira  deserenda 
(l()"2o).  Still  Less  always  retained  the  highest  consider- 
ation in  his  Church,  was  even  reputed  to  work  miracles, 
and  was  finally  canonized.  See  Herzog,  Real-Encyklo- 
^)a(/tV,  viii,  340 ;  Gieseler,  Kirchen  6'e«V;.  vol.  iii;  Linsen- 
mann,  Michael  Baius  (Tiib.  18G7). 

Lesser,  Friedrich  Ciikistian,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, was  born  ]\Iay  29, 1692,  at  Nordhausen.  \i\  early  life 
he  manifested  a  desire  for  the  knowledge  of  natural  his- 
torv,  and  m  this  department  he  afterwards  distinguished 
himself  greatly.  In  1712  he  entered  the  University  of 
Halle,  to  study  medicine,  but  soon  altered  his  plan,  and 
entered  on  the  study  of  theology,  by  the  advice  of  the 
learned  theological  professor  Francke.  He  finished  his 
theological  studies  at  the  University  of  Leipsic,  and  be- 
came pastor  of  a  Church  in  his  native  city  in  1716;  in 
addition  to  it, he  assumed  in  1724  the  supervision  of  the 
Orphan  House.  In  1739  he  became  pastor  at  the  col- 
legiate church  of  St.  Martin,  and  in  1743  of  St.  Jacob's 
Church.  He  died  Sept,  17, 1754.  Besides  his  works  on 
natural  history,  in  some  of  which  he  endeavored  to  com- 
bine natural  history  with  theology,  e.  g.  Theology  of 
Stones  (Lithotheoloffia,  Hamh.  1735, 8 vo);  Theology  of 
Insects  (De  sapientia,  omnipotentia  et providentia  ex  par- 
iilrns  insectorum  coffnoscenda,  etc.,  Nordh.  1735, 8vo),  etc., 
he  left  productions  of  a  theological  character,  of  which 
a  complete  list  is  given  by  Doring  in  his  Gelthrt.  Theejl. 
Dtutschlands,  ii,  287  sq. 

Lessey,  Theophilus,  a  distinguished  English  AV(  s- 
leyan  minister,  was  born  in  Cornwall  April  7, 1787;  en- 
tered the  regidar  ministry  about  1808;  and  after  labor- 
ing with  great  ability  and  success  in  most  parts  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  was  in  1839  made  president  of  the 
Conference,  and  died  June  10,  1841.  Mr.  Lessey  was 
one  of  the  most  eminent  preachers  and  eloquent  plat- 
form speakers  of  his  time,  and  was  the  familiar  friend 
of  James  Montgomery,  the  poet,  Richard  Watson,  and 
Hubert  Hall.  Many  instances  of  his  remarkable  elo- 
cpience  are  recorded,  and  many  souls  were  saved  bj'  his 
preaching. — Wakeley,  Heroes  of  Methodism,  p.  396 ;  Ste- 
vens, IJist.  of  Methodism  (see  Index).      (G.  L.  T.) 

Lessing,  Gotthold  Ephraim,  the  generator  of 
modern  Gorman  literature  of  the  18th  century,  both  sec- 
ular and  ecclesiastic,  declared  by  Macaulay  to  have  been 
''  beyond  dispute  the  first  critic  in  Europe,"  who  ''  in  the 
same  breath  convulsed  powerfully  both  the  dramatic 
and  theological  world,  and  by  Ins  critical  acuteness  has 
laid  hands  on  both,  and  has  produced  polemics  and  called 
forth  controversy  in  art  as  well  as  in  religion,  without 
having  left  behind  him  a  linished  system  in  either  de- 
(lartment,  indeed  without  having  been  a  professional 
jioet  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  or  a  professional 
theologian." 

Life. — Lessing  was  born  at  Kamcntz  (Camenz),  in 
Upper  Lusatia,  Jan.  22,  1729.  His  father  was  the  Prot- 
estant (Lutheran)  "pastor  primarius"  of  the  place,  and 
was  widely  noted  for  his  learning,  especially  in  the  his- 
torical department.  Designed  for  the  ministry,  young 
Lessing  was  trained  by  his  pious  jvirents  "  in  the  way  he 
should  go;"  and  he  was  not  sim[)ly  taught  what  he 
should  believe,  but  how  and  why  he  should  believe. 
Long  before  he  was  old  enough  to  be  sent  to  school  the 
youth  displayed  an  uncommon  desire  for  books.  After 
thorough  preparation  at  an  elementary  school,  he  en- 


tered at  the  age  of  twelve  the  high-school  at  Meissen, 
and  of  his  extraordinary  diligence  in  study  a  sufficient 
idea  may  be  formed  when  it  is  stated  that  while  there 
he  perused  a  number  of  classic  authors  besides  those 
which  entered  into  the  regular  course,  translated  the 
third  and  fourth  books  of  EncUd,  drew  up  a  history  of 
mathematics,  and,  on  taking  leave  of  it,  delivered  a  dis- 
course "  De  Mathematica  Barbarorum."  In  1746  he  was 
ready  to  proceed  to  the  university,  and,  as  his  parents 
liad  fondly  hoped,  to  enter  upon  the  studies  which  should 
fit  him  for  the  ministry  of  the  word  of  God.  His  moth- 
er, in  particular,  designed  that  her  Gotthold  Ephraim 
"  should  be  a  real  man  of  (lod." 

Like  an  earnest  and  artlent  student,  which  he  always 
proved  himself,  Lessing  now  devoted  his  time  to  all  the 
studies  which  that  university  encouraged,  except  the 
one  upon  which  the  family  hopes  were  set — theology; 
and  this  need  not  be  wondered  at,  if  we  will  but  glance 
for  a  moment  at  a  programme  of  the  lectures  in  the  four 
faculties  of  that  high-scliool  upon  Lessing's  entry.  In 
theology,  jurisprudence,  medicine,  and  philosophy  twen- 
ty-two lectures  were  delivered  weekly,  yet  the  names 
of  the  lecturers  were  prominent  only  in  the  last-named 
department ;  they  were  notably  obscure  in  that  of  the- 
ology. In  philosophy  Gottsched  was  lecturing  ujion  the 
early  Greek  philosophers,  Christ  upon  Horace  and  Ovid, 
.Tocher  upon  the  Reformation,  Winckler  upon  Epictetus, 
3Iuller  upon  logic.  May  upon  ethics,  and  Heinsius  upon 
rectihnear  and  spherical  trigonometry.  Ernesti,  the  fu- 
ture noted  theologian,  was  yet  lecturing  in  the  depart- 
ment of  ancient  literature,  and  it  was  by  his  direct  and 
jjermanent  influence,  as  well  as  by  the  exertions  of  pro- 
fessor Christ,  that  Lessing  was  led  to  enter  upon  the  pro- 
found philological  studies,  which  finalh'  resulted  in  such 
great  service  to  classical  literature  and  art.  Thrown 
into  company  with  IMylius,  an  old  schoolmate  of  his, 
and  an  ardent  advocate  of  the  stage  as  a  means  of  moral 
reform,  and  other  auditors  of  professor  Kiistner,  who  was 
then  lecturing  on  dramatic  art,  Lessing  acquired  a  de- 
cided taste  for  the  theatre,  and  ■was  tinally  led  to  aban- 
don his  classical  studies  altogether,  not  only  devoting 
himself  more  fully  to  this  one  study,  but  actually  com- 
ing to  entertain  the  thought  of  going  on  the  stage  him- 
self. His  conduct  greatly  displeased  his  parents  and  his 
sister,  who  warned  him  against  it  as  being  not  merely 
trifling,  but  sinful.  But  Lessing  continued  in  his  course. 
Driven  further,  also,  by  the  announcement  that  the  fam- 
ily could  contribute  no  allowance  for  his  sujiport  except 
with  extreme  difficulty,  he  determined  to  shift  for  him- 
self, and  decided  for  his  subsistence  hereafter  to  devote 
his  talents  to  poetry,  criticism,  and  belles-lettres,  as  that 
field  of  literature  which  had  been  least  of  all  cultivated 
by  his  countrymen,  and  where,  besides  having  fe\v  rivals, 
he  might  employ  his  pen  with  greater  advantage  to  oth- 
ers as  well  as  to  himself.  His  first  productions  were  one 
or  two  minor  dramatic  pieces,  which  were  printed  in  a 
journal  entitled  Ermnntei'iuu/en  ziim  Ver(piiir/en,  In  the 
meanwhile  the  gossip  about  his  relation  to  the  ungodly 
Mylius,  who  had  by  this  time  become  his  most  intimate 
associate,  spread,  and  reached  the  ears  of  his  aged  par- 
ents. Desperate  measures  only  could  secure  his  return 
to  the  parental  hearthstone.  IMadame  Lessing  was  over- 
whelmed with  grief;  her  (iotthold  Ephraim  must  be  re- 
stored to  her  innnediate  influence,  or  he  would  forever 
be  lost  to  the  Church  and  the  blessings  of  religion,  and 
for  once  the  end  should  justify  the  means.  Accordingly, 
the  youthful  sinner  was  written  to:  "On  receipt  of  this, 
start  at  once ;  your  mother  is  dying,  and  wishes  to  speak 
to  you  before  her  death."  Of  course,  no  sooner  had  the 
letter  reached  Lessing  than  we  find  him  starting  for  the 
little  country  to\vn.  His  personal  appearance  and  as- 
surances of  his  good  intentions,  both  as  a  Christian  and 
an  obedient  son,  soon  quieted  the  disconsolate  jiarents, 
and  he  was  suffered  once  more  to  return  to  Leipsic. 
From  this  place  he  removed  in  1750  to  Berlin — the  home 
of  freethinkers,  whither  the  arch-atheist  Mylius  had  pre- 
ceded him  some  time — certainly  not  a  very  comforting 


LESSING 


381 


LESSING 


turn  in  his  personal  history  for  his  well-nigh  despairing 
parents. 

Lessing  was  now  t^venty  years  of  age.  He  had  no 
money,  no  recommendations,  no  friends,  scarcely  any  ac- 
quaintances— nothing  but  his  cheerful  courage,  his  con- 
fidence in  his  own  powers,  and  the  discipline  acquired 
through  past  privations.  He  was  so  poor  that  he  was 
unable  to  obtain  even  the  decent  clothing  necessary  to 
make  a  respectable  appearance.  He  applied  for  aid  to 
his  parents,  but  they  neither  felt  able  nor  willing  to  grant 
his  recpiest,  and  he  had  no  other  course  open  to  him  but 
to  throw  himself  upon  the  influence  and  resources  of  his 
old  schoolmate,  INIylius,  who  was  now  editing  a  paper  in 
Berlin.  By  this  friend's  exertions,  oftentimes  not  stop- 
ping short  of  real  sacrifices,  Lessing  managed  to  exist. 
Master  of  English,  French,  Italian,  and  Spanish,  he  found 
work  in  translating  from  these  languages,  while  he  also 
contributed  largely  to  different  literary  journals  of  the 
Prussian  metropolis.  Gradually  he  was  introduced  to 
the  notice  of  the  scholars  of  the  citj",  among  them  Men- 
delssohn, the  Jewish  philosopher,  and  Nicolai,  the  noted 
publisher  and  author  of  works  of  value  in  the  depart- 
ment of  secular  German  literature.  Indeed,  the  associa- 
tion of  Mendelssohn  the  Jew,  and  Lessing  the  Chris- 
tian, has  perhaps  had  greater  influence  on  the  position 
which  Lessing  assumed  in  after  life  than  any  he  had 
with  other  persons.  Both  were  j-et  young  rpen.  The 
former  had  come  to  Berlin  from  Dessau  in  indigent  cir- 
cumstances, ignorant  of  the  German  language,  but  de- 
termined, nevertheless,  to  rise  above  his  condition,  and 
to  master  not  only  the  German,  Latin,  and  English,  but 
also  the  intricate  subject  of  philosophy ;  and  in  this  at- 
tempt he  hail  so  wcU  succeeded  that  at  the  first  meethig 
of  Lessing  and  IMendelssohn,  in  1751,  the  latter  was  al- 
ready acknowledged  a  man  of  superior  ability  and  a 
scholar.  They  recognised  in  each  other  qualities  that 
could  well  be  used  vniitedly  for  the  good  of  humanity, 
and  they  soon  were  content  only  when  in  each  other's 
society.  For  two  hours  every  day  regularly  they  met 
and  discussed  together  literary  and  philosophical  sub- 
jects. Lessing  came  to  comprehend  the  truth  that  vir- 
tue, honor,  and  nobility  of  character  coiUd  be  found  in  the 
Jew  also,  which  the  people  of  his  day,  led  by  a  narrow- 
minded  clergy,  were  prone  to  disbelieve:  and  this  gave 
rise  first  to  his  important  play  entitled  iJie  Judcn,  and 
later  to  his  chef-d'oeuvre,  Xfit/ia7i  der  Weise  (transL  by 
j;ilen  Frothingham,  N.Y.  1871, 12mo,  with  which  compare 
the  essays  by  Ktmo  Fischer  [Mannheim,  18G5]  and  David 
Strauss  [Berlin,  1866, 8vo,  2d  ed.],  and  Griitz,  Gesc/i.der 
Juden,  xi,  35  sq.;  also  the  works  on  German  literature  at 
the  end  of  this  article).  Near  the  close  of  1751  Lessing 
decided  to  return  once  more  to  the  university,  and  this 
time  chose  Wittenberg,  to  penetrate  into  '•  the"  innermost 
sanctuary  of  book-worm  erudition."  For  nearly  a  year 
he  here  gave  himself  up  to  the  study  of  jjhilology  and 
history,  especially  that  of  the  Reformation  and  the  Re- 
formers. His  reputation  as  a  critic  grew  daily,  and  in 
five  years  after  his  first  entry  at  Berlin  lie  was  counted 
among  the  most  eminent  literati  of  the  Prussian  capital. 
Even  at  this  early  age  Lessing  had  ventured  into  the 
whole  circle  of  a;sthetic  and  literary  interests  of  the  day, 
never  faiUng  to  bring  their  essential  points  into  notice, 
and  subjecting  them  to  an  exhaustive  treatment,  not- 
withstanding the  fragmentary  form  of  the  composition, 
while  in  point  of  style  he  had  already  attained  an  apt- 
ness and  elegance  of  language,  a  facile  grace  and  sport- 
ive humor  of  treatment,  sucli  as  few  writers  of  that  day 
had  even  dreamed  of.  "  His  manner  lent  enchantment 
to  the  dryest  subjects,  and  even  the  dullest  books  gained 
interest  from  his  criticisms."  It  was  during  his  sojourn 
at  Berlin  that,  with  his  and  Mendelssohn's  assistance, 
Nicolai  (q.v.)  started  the  Lihrury  of  Polite  Literat.  (1757) 
and  the  Unicersal  (.'ennmi  Library  (1765).  (See  Hurst's 
Hagenbach,  Ck.  Iligf.  mh  and  19/A  Cent.  i.  278,  307.) 

In  1760  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Berlin  honored 
itseh  by  conferring  membership  on  Lessing,  and  shortlv 
alter  a  somewhat  lucrative  position  fell  to  his  lot  i'n 


Breslau,  whither  he  at  once  removed,  and  where  he  re- 
mained five  years.  It  is  in  this,  the  chief  city  of  Silesia, 
that  most  of  Lessing's  valuable  contributions  to  the  de- 
partment of  general  literature  were  prepared.  After  a 
short  visit  to  his  parents,  Lessing  returned  in  1765  to 
Berlin,  then  removed  to  Hamburg,  and  iu  1770  finally 
started  for  Wolfenblittel,  to  assume  the  duties  of  libra- 
rian to  the  duke  Frederick  ^^'illiam  Ferdinand  of  Bruns- 
wick, a  position  congenial  to  his  taste,  and  here  he  re- 
mained until  his  death,  Feb.  15, 1781. 

Theolof/ical  Position. — We  here  consider  Lessing  as  a 
writer  and  thinker  of  the  18th  centuiy,  but  in  so  far  only 
as  the  works  which  he  published,  both  his  own  produc- 
tions and  those  that  were  sent  forth  with  his  approval, 
affected  the  theological  world  in  his  day  and  since,  more 
especially  in  Germany.  Originally  intended  for  the 
pulpit,  Lessing  suddenly  came  to  entertain  the  belief 
that  morality,  which  to  him  was  only  a  synonym  of  re- 
ligion, should  be  taught  not  only  from  the  puljiit,  but 
also  on  the  stage.  Germany,  in  his  day,  was  altogeth- 
er Frenchified.  "  We  are  ever,"  said  he  himself,  '•  the 
sworn  imitators  of  everything  foreign,  and  especially 
are  we  humble  admirers  of  the  never  sufficiently  ad- 
mired French.  Everything  that  comes  to  us  from  over 
the  Khine  is  fair,  and  charming,  and  beautilul,  and  di- 
vine. We  rather  doubt  our  senses  than  doubt  this. 
Rather  woidd  we  persuade  ourselves  that  roughness  was 
freedom;  license,  elegance;  grimace,  expression ;  a  jingle 
of  rhymes,  poetry;  and  shrieking,  music,  than  entertain 
the  slightest  misgiving  as  to  the  superiority  which  that 
amiable  people,  that  first  people  in  the  world  (as  they 
modestly  term  themselves),  have  the  good  fortune  to 
possess  in  eventhing  which  is  becoming,  and  beautiful, 
and  noble."  Such  had  been  the  doctrines  taught  by  the 
great  rider  Frederick  II  himself,  and  no  wonder  the  peo- 
ple soon  fell  into  the  frivolous  ways  of  the  French ;  and, 
as  the  literature  is  said  to  be  the  index  of  a  people, 
we  need  feel  no  surprise  at  Lessing's  great  onslaught 
on  Gottsched  and  his  followers  while  yet  a  student  of 
the  university  in  which  this  leader  of  the  school  of 
French  taste  held  a  j  n.f^ssorship.  Nor  must  it  be  for- 
gotten that  the  history  of  literature  stands  in  unmis- 
takable connection  with  the  history  of  the  thinking 
and  struggling  intellect  generally,  and  consequently, 
also,  with  the  historj'  of  rehgion  and  philosophy.  One 
is  reflected  in  the  other.  The  uifluence  of  the  vapid 
spirit  of  French  literature  of  the  age  of  Voltaire  was 
transferred  to  (ierman  ground,  and  soon  the  fruits  be- 
came apparent  in  the  general  spread  of  French  illumin- 
ism  (q.  V.)  and  a  sort  of  hmnanism.  See  Rousseau. 
The  great  German  philosopher  Wolf,  following  closely 
in  the  footsteps  of  Leibnitz,  had  sought  to  check  this 
rapid  flow  of  the  Germans  towards  infidelity  by  a  sys- 
tem of  philosophy  that  shoidd  lay  securely  the  foiuida- 
tions  for  religion  and  moralitj',  '-fully  persuaded  that 
the  so-called  natural  religion,  which  he  .  . .  expected  to 
be  attained  by  the  efforts  of  reason,  and  which  related 
more  to  the  belief  in  God  and  in  immortality  than  to 
anything  else,  would  become  the  very  best  stepping- 
stone  to  the  temple  of  revealed  religion"  (Hagenbach, 
C/i.  Ilist.  IHth  and  19th  Cent,  i,  78).  Indeed,  the  theolo- 
gians themselves  sought  to  prove,  by  the  malhcmatioal, 
demonstrative  method,  the  truth  of  the  doctrines  of  rev- 
elation, and  the  fiilsity  of  infidelity,  forgetting  altogether 
the  great  fact  tliat  '"that  sharp  form  of  thought  which 
bends  itself  to  mathematical  formulas  is  not  for  every 
man,  least  of  all  for  the  great  mass ;"  and  had  it  not  been 
for  the  influence  which  pietism  was  exerting  in  the  18th 
century  upon  orthodox  Christianity,  the  latter  must 
have  suffered  beyond  even  the  most  ardent  expectations 
of  the  most  devoted  German  Yoltaireans.  As  it  was, 
even,  there  gradually  arose  a  shallow  theology,  destitute 
of  ideas,  and  limited  to  a  few  moral  commonjilaccs,  known 
under  the  name  of  neoloyy  (q.  v.),  which,  at  tlie  time  of 
Lessing's  appearance,  controlled  the  German  mind.  Sec 
Semleu.  An  active  thinker  like  Lessing.  who,  when  yet 
a  youth,  could  write  to  his  father  that  "  the  Christian 


LESSING 


382 


LESSING 


religion  is  not  a  thing  whioli  one  can  accept  upon  the 
word  and  honor  of  a  parent,"  but  that  the  way  to  tlie 
possession  of  the  truth  is  for  him  only  '-who  has  once 
wisely  doubted,  and  by  the  ]iiUh  of  inquiry  attained  con- 
viction, or  at  least  striven  to  attain  it,"  such  a  one  was 
not  liicely  to  remain  passive  in  this  critical  period  of  the 
history  of  thouglit.    Unfortunately,  however,  the  mature 
Les.sing  had  sliifted  from  the  position  of  the  youthful 
in(iuirer,  and,  instead  of  accepting  the  truth  when  at- 
tained by  conviction,  he  had  come  to  believe  that  truth 
is  never  to  be  accepted.     "  It  is  not  the  truth  of  which 
a  man  is,  or  thinks  he  is,  in  possession  that  measures 
the  worth  of  the  man,  but  the  honest  eftbrt  he  has  made 
to  arrive  at  the  truth ;  for  it  is  not  the  possession  of 
truth,  but  the  search  for  it,  that  enlarges  those  powers 
in  which  an  ever-growing  capacity  consists.    Possession 
satisties,  enervates,  corrupts."     "  If  God,"  he  says,  "  held 
ail  truth  in  his  right  hand,  and  in  his  left  hand  nothing 
but  the  ever-restless  instinct  for  truth,  though  with  the 
condition  of  forever  and  ever  erring,  and  should  say  to 
mc.  Choose,  I  Avould  bow  reverently  to  his  left  hand 
and  say,  Father,  give;  pure  truth  is  for  thee  alone!" 
Thus,  forgetting  altogether  that  Christianity  is  not  a 
striving  after  truth,  but  possession  of  the  truth,  Lessing 
became  unconsciously  one  of  the  greatest  promoters  of 
liationalism  in  its  worst  form  (corny).  lluTSt,IJ istori/  of 
Ihitioiudisiii,  p.  147, 149).     We  say  Lessing  imconsciously 
became  the  promoter  of  Uationalism ;  for,  with  Dorner 
(^Gesch.  (/.  Protest.  Theol.  p.  731),  we  believe  that  his  ob- 
ject was  not  to  write  against  religion,  but  against  theol- 
ogy ;  not  against  Christianity,  but  onlj'  against  the  poor 
proofs  that  were  advanced  in  its  behalf.     Indeed,  his 
own  words  on  Diderot's  labors  condemn  the  charge  so 
often  brought  against  Lessing,  that  he  was  an  outright 
opponent  of  Christianity,  a  pure  deist,  and  nothing  more. 
In  reviewing  one  of  Diderot's  works,  he  says :  "A  short- 
sighted dof/matisf,  u-ho  avoids  nothing  so  carefully  as  o 
doubt  of  the  niemorial  maxims  that  make  his  system,  will 
fjather  a  host  of  errors  from  this  worh     Our  author  is 
one  of  those  philosophers  who  give  themselves  more 
trouble  to  raise  clouds  than  to  scatter  them.    Wherever 
the  fatal  glance  of  their  eyes  fall,  the  pillars  of  the  firm- 
est truth  totter,  and  that  which  ^ve  have  seemed  to  see 
quite  clearly  loses  itself  in  the  dim,  uncertain  distance ; 
instead  of  leading  us  by  twilight  colonnades  to  the  lumin- 
ous throne  of  tnith,  they  lead  lis  by  the  ways  of  fancied 
splendor  to  the  dusky  throne  of  falsehood.     Suppose, 
then,  such  philosophers  dare  to  attack  opinions  that  are 
sacred.     The  danger  is  small.     The  injury  which  their 
dreams,  or  realities — the  thing  is  one  with  them — inflict 
npon  society  is  as  small  as  tliat  is  great  which  they  in- 
flict who  would  bring  the  consciences  of  all  imder  the 
yoke  of  their  own." 

While  librarian  of  Wolfenblittel,  Lessing  discovered 
there  a  IMS.  co])y  of  the  long-forgotten  work  of  Berengar 
Ol.  V.)  of  Tours  against  l-,anfranc  ((j.  v. \  which  proved 
t  hat  some  of  the  views  of  the  Lutheran  Church  concern- 
ing the  doctrine  of  the  Eucharist  had  already  been  ad- 
vanced by  one  of  the  most  eminent  teachers  of  the  11th 
centurj-.  Here  was  an  evident  service  to  theologj',  and 
for  it  he  was  commended  bj'  the  theological  world.  Not 
so,  however,  when,  with  the  same  intent  to  serve,  he  sent 
forth  a  work  which  for  years  had  been  waiting  for  a 
printer  and  an  e(Utor.  It  is  true  the  work  was  of  de- 
cided infidel  tendency,  but  Lessing  never  could  hesitate 
on  that  account  to  give  to  the  world  what  had  been  in- 
tended fur  its  perusal  and  judgment,  and  he  therefore 
sent  forth  "the  Wolfenbiittel  Fragments,''  as  they  are 
termed,  in  his  Beilriiye  zur  Gesch.  der  Liferatur  (1774- 
1778),  which  treat,  1,  of  the  tolerance  of  tlie  Deists;  2,  of 
the  accusations  brought  against  human  reason  in  the 
pulpit;  3,  of  the  imiK)Ssibility  of  a  revelation  \vhich  all 
men  could  believe  in  in  the  same  manner;  4,  of  the  pas- 
sage of  the  Israelites  through'the  lied  Sea?  5,  of  the  O. 
Test,  not  having  been  written  with  the  intention  of  re- 
vealing a  religion ;  G,  of  the  history  of  the  resurrection. 
The  last  essay,  especially,  called  forth  a  storm  of  oppo- 


sition, but  this  did  not  prevent  Lessing's  publishing  in 
1778  a  final  essay  on  the  object  of  Jesus  and  of  the  apos- 
tles.    With   the  views  of  these  fragments,  however, 
Lessing  by  no  means  himself  coincided.     See  AVolfen- 
BUTTEL  Fkagmknts.     They  were  intended  simply  to 
induce  deeper  researches  on  the  part  of  theologians,  and 
to  establish  a  more  stringent  system  of  criticism.     He 
desired  to  raise  from  a  deep  lethargj-,  and  to  purify  from 
all  imcritical  elements,  the  orthodox  whom  he  had  so 
valiantly  defended  against  neology,  and  proved  that  this 
was  his  intention  by  the  manner  in  which  he  opposed 
the  attempt  of  the  nationalists  to  substitute  the  intui- 
tions of  reason  for  the  dictates  of  the  heart  and  for  the 
promptings  of  faith.     "  What  else,"  he  asks,  "  is  this 
modern  theologj'^  when  compared  with  orthodoxy  than 
filthy  water  with  clear  water?     With  orthodoxy  we 
had,  thanks  to  God,  pretty  much  settled ;  between  it  and 
philosophy  a  barrier  had  been  erected,  behind  which 
each  of  these  could  walk  in  its  own  waj'  without  mo- 
lesting the  other.     But  what  is  it  that  they  are  now 
doing?     They  pull  down  this  barrier,  and,  under  the 
pretext  of  making  us  rational  Christians,  they  make  us 
most  irrational  j)hilosophe7-s.    In  this  ^^•e  agree  that  our 
old  religious  sj-stem  is  false,  but  I  should  not  like  to  say 
with  you  [he  is  writing  to  his  brother]  that  it  is  a  patch- 
work got  up  by  jugglers  and  scmiphilosophcrs.    I  do  not 
knovi'  of  anything  m  the  world  in  which  human  inge- 
nuity has  more  shown  and  exercised  itself  than  in  it.    A 
patchwork  by  jugglers  and  scmiphilofophcrs  is  that  re- 
ligious sj-stem  which  they  would  put  in  the  place  of  the 
old  one,  and,  in  doing  so,  would  pretend  to  more  rational 
philosophy  than  the  old  one  claims."     When  assailed 
by  Gcitzc  (q.  V.)  as  attacking  the  faith  of  the  Church  by 
his  publication  of  the  Fragments,  he  replied  that,  even  if 
the  Fragmcntists  were  right,  Christianity  was  not  there- 
by endangered.    Lessing  rejected  the  letter,  but  reserved 
the  spirit  of  the  Scriptures.     With  him  the  letter  is  not 
the  spirit,  and  the  Bible  is  not  religion.     "Consequent- 
ly, objections  against  the  letter,  as  well  as  against  the 
Bible,  are  not  precisely  objections  against  the  spirit  and 
religion.     For  the  Bible  evidently  contains  more  than 
belongs  to  religion,  and  it  is  a  mere  supposition  that,  in 
this  additional  matter  which  it  contains,  it  must  be 
equally   infallible.     Moreover,  religion   existed  before 
there  was  a  Bible.     Christianity  existed  before  evan- 
gelists and  apostles  had  written.    However  much,  there- 
fore, may  depend  upon  those  Scriptures,  it  is  not  possi- 
ble that  the  whole  truth  of  the  Christian  religion  should 
depend  upon  them.     Since  there  existed  a  period  in 
which  it  was  so  far  spread,  in  which  it  had  already 
taken  hold  of  so  many  souls,  and  in  which,  neverthe- 
less, not  one  letter  was  written  of  that  which  has  come 
down  to  us,  it  must  be  possible  aleo  that  everything 
which  evangelists  and  prophets  have  written  might  be 
lost  again,  and  yet  the  religion  taught  by  them  stand. 
The  Christian  religion  is  not  true  because  the  evange- 
lists and  apostles  taught  it,  but  they  taught  it  because 
it  is  true.     It  is  from  their  internal  truth  that  all  writ- 
ten documents  cannot  give  it  internal  truth  when  it  has 
none"  (Lessing's  Werlce,  ed.  by  Lachmann,  x,  10,  as  cited 
by  Kahnis,  Hist,  of  German  Protestantism,  p.  152, 153). 
Lessing  also  distinguished  between  the  Christian  relig- 
ion an<l  the  religion  of  Christ;  "the  latter,  being  a  life 
immediately  implanted  and  maintained  in  our  heart, 
manifests  itself  in  love,  and  crai  neither  stand  nor  fall 
with  the  [facts  of  the]  Gospel.     The  truths  of  religion 
have  nothing  to  do  with  the  facts  of  historj'"  (Hurst, 
Rationalism,  p.  154).     "Althougli  I  may  not  have  the 
least  objection  to  the  facts  of  the  Gospel,  this  is  not  of 
the  slighest  consequence  for  my  religious  convictions. 
Although,  historically,  I  may  have  nothing  to  object  to 
Christ's  having  even  risen  from  the  dead,  must  I  for 
that  reason  accept  it  as  true  that  this  very  risen  Christ 
was  the  Son  of  God?"     Scripture  stands  in  the  same 
relation  to  the  Church  as  the  plan  of  a  large  building  to 
the  building  itself.     It  woidd  be  ridiculous  if,  at  a  con- 
flagration, people  were  first  of  all  to  save  the  jilan ;  but 


LESSING 


383 


LESSING 


just  as  ridiculous  is  it  to  fear  any  clanger  to  Christianity 
from  an  attack  upon  Scripture.  In  liis  Diiplix  Lessing 
maintained,  in  reference  to  tlic  history  of  the  resurrec- 
tion, tliat  it  contains  irreconcilable  contradictions ;  but 
he  held  also  that  it  does  not  follow  from  this  circumstance 
that  the  resurrection  is  unhistorical.  "Wlio  has  ever 
ventured  to  draw  the  same  inference  in  profane  history? 
If  Livy,  Polybius,  Dionysius,  and  Tacitus  relate  the  very 
same  event,  it  may  be  the  very  same  battle,  the  very 
same  siege,  each  one  differing  so  mucli  in  the  details 
that  those  of  the  one  completely  give  the  lie  to  those  of 
the  other,  has  any  one,  i'or  that  reason,  ever  denied  the 
event  itself  in  which  thej'  agree  ?" 

Such  are  the  thoughts  which  Lessing  advanced  in 
his  theological  polemical  writings,  particularly  in  the 
controversy  with  pastor  Gotze  after  the  ]Hiblication  of 
the  so-called  "  WolfenbiUtel  Fragments,"  but  to  present 
from  them  a  connected  theological  system  strictly  de- 
liuiiig  Lessing's  stand-point  has  not  yet  been  made  pos- 
sible. Indeed,  we  would  say  with  Hagenbach  (Church 
Hist.  ofiSth  and  19/A  Cent.'i,  288)  that  "he  had  none." 
But  just  as  much  difficulty  we  woidd  find  in  assigning 
Lessing  a  place  anywhere  in  any  theological  system  of 
thought  already  in  vogue.  Eeally,  we  think  all  that 
can  be  done  for  Lessing  is  to  consider  in  how  far  his 
writings  justify  the  disposition  that  has  been  made  of 
him  as  a  theological  writer.  There  are  at  present  three 
different  classes  of  theologians  who  claim  him  as  their 
ally  and  support.  By  some  he  has  been  judged  to  have 
hold  the  position  of  a  rather  positive,  though  not  exact- 
ly orthodox  character.  This  judgment  is  based  upon 
liis  views  on  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  in  his  Erziehung 
des  Menschenr/eschkcktes.  (He  there  says:  "What  if  this 
doctrine  [of  the  Trinity]  should  lead  human  reason  to 
acknowledge  that  God  cannot  possibly  be  understood  to 
bo  one,  m  that  sense  in  which  all  finite  things  are  one? 
that  his  unity  must  be  a  transcendental  unity,  which 
does  not  exclude  a  kind  of  plurality,"  evidently  explain- 
ing the  Trinity  as  referring  to  the  essence  of  the  Deity.) 
By  others,  either  in  praise  or  condemnation,  he  has  been 
adjudged  a  "freethinker;"  while  still  others  have  pro- 
nounced him  guilty  not  only  of  a  change  of  opinion — of 
a  change  from  the  camp  of  orthodoxy  to  heterodoxy — 
but  have  also  given  him  up  in  despair,  as  incapable  of 
having  cherished  any  positive  opinion,  because  he  was 
so  many-sided  in  his  polemics ;  indeed,  he  had  himself 
explicitly  declared  that  he  preferred  the  search  for  the 
possession  of  the  truth.  The  first  to  break  a^vay  from 
one  and  all  of  these  classifications  has  been  Dr.  J.  A. 
"  Dorner  (^Gesch.  der  protest.  Theol.  [Munich,  18G7,  8vo], 
p.  722  sq.),  who  assigns  Lessing  a  position  similar  to 
that  generally  credited  to  Jacobi,  the  so-called  "philos- 
ojiher  of  faith"  (see  Jacobi),  and  for  this  there  is  cer- 
tainly much  in  favor  in  Lessing's  own  declarations ;  for, 
like  Jacobi,  he  held  that  reason  and  faith  have  nothing 
in  conriict  with  each  other,  but  are  one.  He  held  fast, 
likewise,  to  a  self-conscious  personal  God  of  providence, 
to  a  living  relation  of  the  divine  spirit  to  the  world,  to 
whom  a  place  belongs  in  the  inner  revelation,  notwith- 
standing that  he  assails  the  outer  revelation  in  its  his- 
torical credibility,  and  assigns  it  simply  a  place  in  the 
faith  of  authority  (Autoritiitsglauben).  "  It  is  true," 
says  Dorner  (p.  737),  "Lessing  has  particularly  aimed 
to  secure  for  the  purely  human  and  moral  a  jjlace  right 
by  the  side  of  that  general!}'  assigned  only  to  Christi- 
anity. But  lie  is  far  from  asserting  tliat  the  understand- 
ing (Vernunft)  of  humanity  was  from  the  beginning  per- 
fect, or  even  in  a  normal  development,  but  rather  holds 
it  to  be  developing  in  character,  and  in  need  of  educa- 
tion by  the  divine  Spirit,  whom  also  he  refuses  to  regard 
as  a  passive  beholder  of  the  acting  universe."  (We  have 
here  a  number  of  premises,  which  later  writers,  partic- 
ularly Schleiermacher,  have  taken  to  secure  for  histor- 
ical religion  a  more  worthy  position.)  Indeed,  right 
here,  in  the  attempt  to  make  humanity  progressive,  and 
this  progress  dependent  upon  revelation,  centred  the 
whole  of  Lessing's  theological  views.    "To  the  reason," 


he  said,  "  it  must  be  much  rather  a  proof  of  the  truth 
of  revelation  than  an  objection  to  it  when  it  meets  with 
things  that  suri)ass  its  own  conceptions,  for  what  is  a 
revelation  wliich  reveals  nothing?"  (Comp.  Hegel  on 
this  point  as  viewed  by  Hagenbach,  Ch.  Hist,  of  18th 
and  19//*  Cent,  ii,  30-1  sq.)  Thus  he  acknowledged  the 
truth  of  revelation,  though  he  woukl  not  regard  the  idea 
of  a  revelation  as  settled  for  all  time,  but  rather  as  (iod's 
gradual  act  of  training ;  and  to  elucidate  this  thought 
he  wrote,  in  1780,  iJle  Krzieltung  des  Menschencjeschlechtes 
(the  authorship  of  which  has  sometimes  been  denied 
him  :  comp.  Zeitsehr.  f.  d.  hist,  theol.  1839,  No.  3  ;  Guh- 
rauer,  Erziehung  des  Menschengeschlechtes  kritisch  und 
jihilosophisch  erortert  [Berlin,  18-H]),  a  work  in  which, 
concentrated  in  a  hundred  short  paragraphs,  is  a  system 
of  religion  and  philosophy — the  germ  of  Herder's  and 
all  later  works  on  the  education  of  the  human  race. 
"  Something  there  is  of  it,"  says  a  writer  in  the  West- 
minster Rev.  (Oct.  1871,  p.  222,  223), "that  reminds  the 
reader  of  Plato.  It  has  his  tender  melancholy  and  his 
undertone  of  Inspired  conviction,  and  a  grandeur  which 
recalls  that  moving  of  great  figures  and  shifting  of  vast 
scenes  which  we  behold  in  the  myth  of  Er.  There 
speaks  in  it  a  voice  of  one  crying  words  not  his  own  to 
times  that  are  not  yet  come." 

The  English  Deists,  as  Bolingbroke  and  Hobbcs,  had 
regarded  religion  only  from  the  stand-point  of  politics. 
"  Man,"  they  held,  "  can  know  nothing  except  what  his 
senses  teach  him,  and  to  this  the  intelligent  confine 
themselves ;  a  revelation,  or,  rather,  what  pretends  to 
be  one,  might  be  a  good  thing  for  the  populace."  Sec 
Deism.  Lessing  came  forward,  atul,  while  seeking  to 
make  morality  synonymous  with  religion,  aye,  with 
Christianity,  taught  that  in  revelation  only  lies  man's 
strength  for  development.  "  Revelation,"  says  Lessing, 
"is  to  the  whole  human  race  what  education  is  to  the 
individual  man.  Education  is  revelation  which  is  im- 
parted to  the  individual  man,  and  revelation  is  educa- 
tion which  has  been  and  still  is  imparted  to  the  human 

race Education  no  more  presents  everything  to 

man  at  once  than  revelation  does,  but  makes  its  com- 
munications in  gradual  development."  First  Judaism, 
then  Christianity ;  first  unity,  then  trinity ;  first  hap- 
piness for  this  life,  then  immortality  and  never-ending 
bliss.  (See  the  detailed  review  on  these  points  in 
Hurst's  Hagenbach,  Ch.  Hist,  of  18th  and  19th  Cent,  i, 
291  sq.)  The  elementary  work  of  education  was  the 
O.  T.  The  progress  to  a  more  advanced  book  is  marked 
by  the  timely  coming  of  Christ,  "  the  reliable  and  ])rac- 
tical  teacher  of  immortality ;  .  .  .  .  reliable  through  the 
prophecies  which  appeared  to  be  fulfilled  in  him,  through 
the  miracles  which  he  performed,  and  through  his  own 
return  to  life  alter  the  death  by  which  he  had  sealed  his 
doctrine;"  whose  disciples  collected  and  transmitted  in 
writing  his  doctrines, "  the  second  and  better  elementary 
book  for  the  human  race,"  expecting  (according  to  Bit- 
ter [Lessing's  philosophische  ii.  religiose  Grundsatze,  p. 
56  sq.])  the  complete  treatise  itself  in  the  fulfilment  of 
the  promises  of  Christianity.  Some  have  interpreted 
Lessing,  because  Christianity  is  spoken  of  as  the  sec- 
ond elementarg  work,  as  anticipating  another  religion, 
to  be  universally  enjoyed,  to  supersede  Christianity,  but 
for  this  we  can  see  no  reason,  and  side  with  Bitter. 

The  position  of  Lessing  has  sometimes  become  equiv- 
ocal by  the  peculiar  interpretation  of  his  Nathan  the 
Wise.  In  his  Education  of  Humanity,  Christianity  un- 
questionably is  the  highest  religion  in  the  scale;  in  his 
"  Nathan"  it  is  not  so.  Hence  it  has  been  asserted  by 
many.  Christian  writers  especially,  that  in  his  later 
years  Lessing  had  become  a  most  decided  Bationalist, 
and  Jacobi  even  asserted  that  he  had  died  a  Spino/.ist. 
(Compare  the  article  Jacobi,  and  the  literature  at  the 
end  of  this  article.)  The  former  interpretation  is  due, 
however,  to  wrong  premises.  Lessing  wrote  Nathan  the 
Wise  simply  for  one  object:  not  to  aggrandize  and  en- 
noble his  associate  and  friend  ^lendelssohn  the  Jew,  not 
to  dei)rive  Christianity  of  tlie  best  of  her  beauty,  but  only 


LESSING 


384 


LESSING 


to  toach  liumanity— ay,  to  the  followers  of  the  Christ 
of  the  Gospel  in  the  18rh  century,  the  great  lesson 
of  toleration.  The  great  French  infidel -jihilosoiiher 
Voltaire  had  sought  to  do  this,  hut  he  had  failed — had 
failed  utterly — and  only  because  his  idea  of  tolerance 
■was  rt'dly  intohraim.  lie  meant  entirely  too  much  by 
tolerance,  for  he  demanded  of  the  party  tolerating  not 
only  to  esteem  all  religions  alike,  to  be  content  with  any 
and  every  belief,  to  have  no  rights  in  conflict  with  an- 
other in  religious  matters,  but  to  be  obliged  to  conform 
to  the  notions  and  inclinations  of  others  out  of  mere 
politeness;  and  we  do  not  wonder  when  Hagenbach  (i, 
29)  says  that  '•  this  is  the  toleration  of  shallowness,  of 
cowardice,  of  religious  indecision,  of  religious  indiffer- 
ence— a  toleration  that  finally  and  easily  degenerates  into 
intolerance,  which  is  the  hatred  of  every  one  who  wish- 
es to  hold  and  to  profess  a  firm  and  positive  religion. 
Such  persons  must  come  at  last  to  regard  the  tolerating 
party  as  unj-ielding  and  stiff-necked.  Such  was  the 
toleration  of  the  Itomans,  which  was  so  much  praised 
by  Voltaire.  It  soon  came  to  an  end  with  the  Chris- 
tians, because  they  neither  coidd  nor  would  submit  to  a 
strange  worship.  Nothing,  however,  is  more  foolish  or 
more  opposed  to  true  toleration  than  precisely  this  ef- 
fort to  force  such  toleration  upon  those  who  do  not  agree 
with  us  in  opinion,  for  toleration  no  more  admits  of 
force  than  religion  does."  Leasing  believed  that  this 
grand  lesson  -^vas  yet  to  be  taught.  He  v.ould  teach  it 
especially  to  the  Christian,  who  stood  higher  in  the 
scale,  and  could  easily  influence  those  below  him ;  nay, 
he  believed  that  he  should  teach  it,  and  that  most  ef- 
fectually, by  practicing  it  upon  his  inferiors  in  belief. 
He  therefore  would  sha"me  the  Christian  by  examples 
most  noble  from  religions  generally  regarded  as  inferior, 
and  its  followers  as  more  fanatical.  Yet  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  Lessing  never  went  so  far  as  to  ignore 
his  own  religion,  for  these  grand  specimens  of  Judaism 
and  Blohammedanism  reveal  their  Christian  painter 
after  all,  when  once  the  lay  brother  is  made  to  say, 
"  Nathan,  you  arc  a  Christian.  Never  was  a  better" 
(act  iv,  scene  vii,  line  2).  He  would  teach  us  that  Chris- 
tianity is  the  most  perfect  of  all  religions,  but  that  the 
others  also  have  in  them  many  jiarts  which  go  to  make 
it  up ;  that  as  they  shall  modify  in  course  of  time,  so 
shall  also  Christianity  grow  on  to  iierfection  (see  above, 
Eitter's  view).  His  principal  fault  was  this,  that  his 
peculiar  view  of  revelation  led  him  to  believe  that  no 
religion  is  as  yet  absolutely  perfect,  and  that  therefore 
none  of  the  positive  religions  could  justly  claim  the  char- 
acter of  universality,  and  of  exclusive  privileges  and 
riglits ;  and  hence  he  regarded  all  religions  as  an  indi- 
vidualization of  reason,  according  to  time  and  place,  and 
a  product,  on  the  one  hand,  of  the  culture  of  a  people, 
and,  on  the  other,  of  divine  education  and  communica- 
tion, thus  making  Christianity  capable  also  of  an  objec- 
tive perfectibiUty.  (This  is  a  view  which  has  been  ad- 
vanced of  late  by  many  Christian  writers  of  Moham- 
medanism: comp.  Freeman,  The  Saracens  [Oxford  and 
London,  1870, 12mo],  lect.  i.)  Regarding  the  charge  of 
his  Spinozaism,  we  would  say  with  Mendelssohn,  who 
defended  Lessing  from  this  charge  after  his  death:  "  If 
Lessing  was  able  absolutely  and  without  all  further  lim- 
itation to  declare  for  the  system  of  any  man,  he  was  at 
that  time  no  more  with  himself,  or  he  was  in  a  strange 
humor  to  make  a  para<loxical  assertion  which,  in  a  seri- 
ous hfiur,  he  himself  again  rejected"  (Jacobi,  llV?-A'e,  vol. 
iv,  pt.  i,  ]i. 44  :  comp.  Knhnis.  <!trm.  Prof.  p.  104  sq. ;  Dor- 
ncr.  CiKch.  pniti.'il.  Tliaih  \\  I'l'^^.  See  Mkndei.ssohn. 
All  that  .lacobi  had  for  his  assertion  that  Lessing  died  a 
Pantheist  was  a  conversation  with  him  a  few  years  before 
Lessing's  death.  Upon  this  fact  I'rof.  Nichol  justly  ob- 
serves; "The  reporting  of  such  conversation  must  ever 
bo  protested  against  as  breach  of  confidejncc,  and  it  is 
almost  as  certainly  a  source  of  misrepresentation.  What 
thinker  does  not,  in  the  frankness  and  confidence  of  in- 
tercourse, give  utterance  at  times  to  momentary  impres- 
sions, as  if  thev  were  his  abiding  onesV     This  much  is 


unquestionable :  Lessing  has  not  written  one  solitary 
word  inconsistent  with  a  firmest  persuasion  in  the  per- 
sonality of  man.  This  great  writer,  indeed,  belongs  to 
a  class  of  minds  very  easily  misapprehended — minds 
which  none  but  others  in  so  far  akin  to  them  can  ritrht- 
ly  understand.  Oftenest  in  "antagonism,  or  in  a  critical 
attitude,  thinkers  like  Lessing  do  not  generally  express 
their  ichole  thought;  they  dwell  only  on  the  part  of  the 
common  thought  from  which  they  dissent.  So  far, 
however,  from  being  ruled  by  mere  negations,  it  is  cer- 
tainly more  probable  that  their  dissent  arises  from  a 
completer  view  and  possession  of  truth ;  and  that  their 
effort  is  confined  to  the  desire  to  separate  truth  from  er- 
ror, or,  at  all  events,  from  non-essentials."  Not  even  the 
modest  charge  that  Lessing  in  his  latest  j'ears,  by  reason 
of  his  affiliation  with  Nicolai  and  Mendelssohn,  inclined 
towards  liationalism,  can,  upon  examination,  be  sub- 
stantiated. His  own  words  from  Vienna,  whither  he 
had  gone  on  a  call  from  Joseph  H,  who  in  1769  invited 
all  the  great  and  learned  men  of  the  times  to  his  capital 
for  a  general  assemblage,  addressed  to  Nicolai,  who  had 
taken  this  occasion  to  ridicule  Vienna,  and  praise  his 
own  Berlin  by  contrast,  go  far  to  disprove  any  such  as- 
sertion :  "  Say  nothing,  I  pray  you,  about  your  Berlin 
freedom  of  thinking  and  writing.  It  is  reduced  simply 
and  solely  to  the  freedom  of  bringing  to  market  as  many 
gibes  and  jeers  against  religion  as  you  choose,  and  a 
decent  man  must  sjjeedily  be  ashamed  to  avail  himself 
of  this  freedom."  If  Lessing  is  to  be  classed  at  all  with 
Kationalists,  we  should  first  distinguish  between  the 
higher  Kationalism  of  humanity  and  its  doidjle-sighted 
compeer,  trivial  and  vulgar  Eationalism,  and  then  assign 
Lessing  a  ]ilacc  in  that  of  the  former,  for  to  it  alone  can 
he  be  claimed  to  have  rendered  intentional  aid. 

Of  his  .service  to  German  literature  generally,  it  maybe 
truly  said  "  he  found  Germany  without  a  national  litera- 
ture ;  when  he  died  it  had  one.  He  pointed  out  the  ways 
in  poetrv',  philosophy,  and  religion  by  which  the  nation- 
al mind  should  go,  and  it  has  gone  in  them"  ( Westm.Eev. 
Oct.  1871.  p.  223).  "  Honor,"  says  Menzel  {Gei-man  Lit. 
[transl.  by  C.  C.  Felton,  Bost.  1840, 3  vols.  12mo],  ii,  405), 
'■  was  the  principle  of  Lessing's  whole  life.  He  composed 
in  the  same  spirit  that  he  lived.  He  had  to  contend 
with  obstacles  his  whole  life  long,  but  he  never  bowed 
down  his  head.  He  struggled  not  for  posts  of  honor, 
but  for  his  own  independence.  He  might,  with  his  ex- 
traordinarj'  abilitj-,  have  rioted  in  the  favor  of  the  great, 
like  Goethe,  but  he  scorned  and  hated  this  favor  as  un- 
worthy a  free  man.  His  long  continuance  in  jirivate 
life,  his  services  Jis  secretarj'  of  the  brave  general  Tau- 
enzien  during  the  Seven  Years' War,  and  afterwards  as 
librarian  at  WolfenbUttel.  proved  that  he  did  not  aspire 

to  high  places He  ridiculed  Gellert,  Klopstock, 

and  all  who  bowed  their  laurel-crowned  heads  to  heads 
encircled  with  golden  crowns ;  and  he  himself  shunned 
all  contact  with  the  great,  animated  by  that  stainless 
spirit  of  pride  which  acts  instinctively  upon  the  motto 
Koli  me  tamierer 

Literature. — The  complete  works  of  Lessing  were 
first  published  at  Berlin  (1771,  32  vols.  12mo).  then  with 
annotations  by  Lachmann  (1839, 12  vols.),  and  by  Von 
jMaltzahn  (ISfw.  12  vols).  See  Karl  Gotthelf  Lessing, 
Lessimjs  Biofjraphie  (Berl.  1793,  2  vols.) ;  Danzel.  Less- 
ing, sein  Lthen  iind  seine  Werke  (1850),  continued  by 
Guhrauer  (18,53-541 ;  Stahr,  G.  E. Lessimj,  sein  L<h<n  ii.  s. 
Werke  (Oth  ed.  Berl.  1^<59,  2  vols.  12mo,  transl,  by  E,  P, 
Evans,  late  profc  ssor  at  i\Iich.  Univ.,  Boston,  18{i7,  2  vols. 
12mo) ;  H.  L'itter,  in  the  (wttineien  Studien  (1847);  Eit- 
ter,  Gesch.  d.  christl.  Pliilos.  ii,  480  sq, ;  Bohtz,  Lessimjs 
Pi-otestantismvs  und  Nath.  der  Weise ;  Lanp;,  Belif/ivse 
C/iaraktere,i,  2lb  f>q.x  Hope,  Lessinrj  und  Guize;  Eohr, 
Kleine  t/ieoltu/ische  Schriftei}  (Schleusingen,  1841,vol.  i); 
Schwarz,  Lessinr/  nls  Theolofje  (1854) ;  Gervinns,  Niition- 
al-Litcr.  d.  Dentschen,  iv,  318  sq.;  Mohnike,  Lessinf/iana 
(Lpz.  1843,  Svo) ;  Schlosser,  Gescli.  d.\W">.JnhrJnind.  iii,  2; 
Sclimidt.  Gesch.  d.</eist.  Lehens  in  Deutschld.  I'on  Leibnitz 
bis  an f  Lessing's  Tod;  Hurst's  Hagenbach,  Ch.  History 


LESSONS 


385 


LEUCOPETRIANS 


iSfh  and  IM  Cent.  vol.  i,  lect.  xiii ;  For.  Quart.  Rerieu-, 
XXV,  233  sq. ;  Westminst.  Rev.  1871,  Oct.,  art.  viii ;  Her- 
zog,  Real-EncyUop.  viii,  336  sq. ;  Kahnis,  Hist,  of  Ger- 
man Protestantism,  p.  145  sq.      (J.  H.  W.) 

Les-gons.     See  Lectionarium. 

Lestines.     See  Liptines. 

Iietaah.     See  Lizard. 

Lethe  (\!i^r],  oblivion),  in  the  Grecian  mythology, 
tlie  stream  of  forgetfulness  in  the  lower  world,  to  which 
the  departed  spirits  go,  before  passing  into  the  Elysian 
fields,  to  be  cleansed  from  all  recollection  of  earthly  sor- 
rows.    See  Hades. 

Le'thech  {T\\'^,  le'thel;  Septuag.  vijitk),  a  Hebrew 
word  which  occurs  in  the  margin  of  Hos.  iii,  2 ;  it  signi- 
fies a  measure  for  grain,  so  called  from  em ptijiufj  ox  pour- 
ing out.  It  is  rendered  "  a  half  homer'"  in  the  A.  V.  (af- 
ter the  Vulg.),  which  is  probably  correct.     See  Homer. 

Leti,  Gregory,  a  historian,  born  at  Milan  in  1G30, 
who  travelled  in  various  countries,  became  Protestant 
at  Lausanne,  was  for  a  time  well  received  at  the  court 
of  Charles  H  in  England,  and  died  at  Amsterdam  in 
1701.  He  wrote,  among  other  things.  Life  of  Sixtus 
V: — Life  of  Philip  II : — Monarchy  of  Louis  XIV: — 
Life  of  Cromwell; — Life  of  Queen  Elizabeth : — Life  of 
Charles  V. 

Letter  stands  in  only  two  passages  of  the  Bible 
in  its  narrow  sense  of  an  alphabetical  character  {ypa^i- 
fia,  in  the  plural,  Luke  xxiii,  38;  and  prob.  Gal.  vi,  11, 
7r»;X('Kotf  ypcifiixam  ;  A.  V.  "  how  large  a  letter,"  rather 
in  what  a  bold  hand) ;  elsewhere  it  is  used  (for  ISO,  a 
book;  ypdr/jjua, either  sing. or  plur. ;  but  more  definitely 
for  the  later  lleb.n'iSX  [Chald.X'^.nx], 'ind?  [Chald. 
id.  also  C5ri5J  ;  tTriaroXij)  in  the  sense  of  an  ejiistle  (q. 
v.).     See  Alphabet;  Writing. 

LETTER,  the,  a  term  used  especially  by  the  apostle 
Paul  in  opposition  to  the  spirit;  a  way  of  speaking  very 
common  in  the  ecclesiastical  style  (Kom.  ii,  27,  29 ;  vii, 
6 ;  2  Cor.  iii,  6,  7).  In  general,  the  word  letter  {yfjajx- 
jxa)  is  used  to  denote  the  Mosaic  law.  The  law,  con- 
sidered as  a  simple  collection  of  precepts,  is  but  a  dead 
form,  which  can  indeed  command  obedience,  but  cannot 
awaken  love.  This  distinction  is  shown  with  great  skiU 
in  Schloiermacher's  Sermon:  Christus,  d.Befreier  r.d. 
Siinde  u.  d.  Gesetz  (in  his  Sdmmt.  Werlce,  ii,  25  sq.).  The 
law  cannot  but  be  something  outward,  which,  as  the 
expression  of  another's  wiU,  appeals  more  to  our  com- 
prehension than  to  our  will  or  to  our  feelings.  This  is 
the  reason  why  the  law  is  the  source  of  the  knowledge 
of  sin,  and  does  not  impart  the  life-giving  power.  But 
that  the  Mosaic  law  was  called  the  letter  (jQapjict')  re- 
sults from  the  fact  of  its  being  the  irrittc7i  law.  So  liom. 
ii,  27,  29:  '-And  shall  not  uncircumcision,  which  is  by 
nature,  if  it  fulfil  the  law,  judge  thee,  who  by  the  letter 
and  circumcision  dost  transgress  the  law?  For  he  is 
not  a  Jew  which  is  one  outwardly,  neither  is  that  cir- 
cumcision which  is  outward  in  the  flesh;  but  he  is  a 
Jew  which  is  one  inwardl}-,  and  circumcision  is  that  of 
the  heart,  in  the  spirit,  and  not  in  the  letter,  whose 
praise  is  not  of  men,  but  of  God."  The  meaning  of 
this  passage  is,  When  the  heathen  does  by  nature  that 
which  the  law  requires,  he  puts  to  shame  the  Jew  who 
in  Scripture  and  by  circumcision  transgresses  the  law. 
For  he  is  not  a  true  Israelite  who  is  so  outwardlj-  only, 
and  merely  through  physical  circumcision  (as  the  sign 
of  the  covenant) ;  but  he  only  who  is  in^vardly  a  Jew, 
his  heart  also  being  circumcised,  and  consequently  after 
the  spirit,  and  not  merely  after  the  letter  (or  outward 
form).  Such  a  one  is  not  merely  praised  by  men,  but 
loved  by  God.  Again,  Rom.  vii.G:  "But  now  we  are 
delivered  from  the  law,  that  being  dead  wherein  we 
were  held ;  that  we  should  serve  in  newness  of  spirit, 
and  not  in  the  oldness  of  the  letter."  Being  now  Chris- 
tians, we  ought  to  carry  the  law  in  our  heart,  and  not 
merely  fulfil  it  outwardly  as  a  mere  letter.  2  Cor.  iii,  6, 
v.— Bb 


for  the  letter  (i.  e.  the  IMosaic  law)  killeth  (brings  about 
death  inasmuch  as  it  discovers  sin,  Kom.  vii,  9 ;  vi,  23  ; 
1  Cor.  XV,  56),  but  the  Spirit  (the  holy  Spirit  imparted 
through  faith)  giveth  life  (i.  e.  eternal  life,  Kom.  viii,  10). 
Once  more,  2  Cor.  iii,  7 :  "  But  if  the  ministration  of 
death  (of  the  letter),  written  and  engraven  in  stones, 
was  glorious  .  .  .  how  shall  not  the  ministration  of  the 
Spirit  be  rather  glorious?"  The  law  of  Moses  is  inca- 
pable of  giving  life  to  the  soul,  and  justifying  before 
God  those  who  are  most  servilely  addicted  to  the  literal 
observance  of  it.  These  things  can  be  effected  only  by 
means  of  the  Gospel  of  Christ,  and  of  that  Spirit  of  truth 
and  holiness  which  attends  it,  and  makes  it  effectual  to 
the  salvation  of  the  soul. — Krchl,  Keu-Test.  Handwijr- 
terbuch.     See  Law  of  Moses. 

Letters,  EncyclicaL    See  Literje  Encyclics. 

Letters  of  Orders,  a  document  usually  of  parch- 
ment, and  signed  by  the  bishop,  with  his  seal  appended, 
in  v.'hich  he  certifies  that  at  the  specified  time  and  place 
he  ordained  to  the  office  of  deacon  or  priest  the  clergy- 
man whose  name  is  therein  mentioned. 

Lettice,  John,  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman  and  poet, 
was  born  in  Northamptonshire  in  1737,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  first  degree  in 
1761.  He  soon  obtained  eminence  as  a  pulpit  orator. 
In  1785  he  was  presented  to  the  living  of  Peasemarsh, 
and  later  with  a  prebend  in  the  cathedral  of  Chichester. 
He  died  in  1832.  Among  his  works  are  The  Conversion 
of  St.  Paul,  a  poetical  essay,  which  secured  him  a  prize 
from  his  alma  mater  in  1764: — The  Antiqtdties  of  Iler- 
culaneum,  a.  translation  from  the  Italian  (1773): — The 
Immortality  of  the  Soul,  translated  from  the  French 
(1795).  See  Bioff.  Diet,  of  Living  A  uthors  (Lond.  181(5)  ; 
Alllbone,  Diet,  of  Authors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v.;  Thomas,  Biogr. 
Diet.  s.  V. 

Let'tus  (Aarroiic  v.  r.  'Attovq;  Vulg.  Acchus),  a 
"  son  of  Sechenias,"  one  of  the  Levites  who  returned 
from  Babylon  (1  Esd.  viii,  29),  evidently  the  Hattush 
(q.  V.)  of  the  Heb.  text  (Ezra  viii,  2). 

Letu'shim  (Heb.  Letushim',  dipiiz:?,  hammered, 
plur. ;  Sept.  AaTovmelp),  the  second  named  of  the  three 
sons  of  Dedan  (grandson  of  Abraham  by  Keturah),  and 
head  of  an  Arabian  tribe  descended  from  him  (Gen. 
XXX,  3  ;  and  Vulg.  at  1  Chron.  i,  32).  B.C.  considera- 
bly post  2024.  See  Arabia.  "Fresnel  (Journ.  Asiat. 
iii"  serie,  vi,  217)  identifies  it  with  Tasm,  one  of  the  an- 
cient and  extinct  tribes  of  Arabia,  just  as  he  compares- 
Leummim  with  Umeiyim.  The  names  may  perhaps  be 
regarded  as  commencing  with  the  article.  Neverthe- 
less, the  identification  in  each  case  seems  to  be  quite  un- 
tenable. It  is  noteworthy  that  the  three  sons  of  the 
Keturahite  Dedan  are  named  in  the  plural  form,  evi- 
dently as  tribes  descended  from  him"  (Smith).  "  Fors- 
ter  supposes  {Geogr.  of  Arabia,  i,  334)  that  the  Letushim 
were  absorbed  in  the  generic  appellation  of  Dedanira 
(Jer.  XXV,  23 ;  Ezek.  xxv,  13 ;  Isa.  xxi,  13).  and  that 
they  dwelt  in  the  desert  eastward  of  Edom"  (Kitto). 
See  Leujijiim. 

Leucippus,  the  founder  of  the  atomistic  school  of 
Grecian  philosophy,  and  forerunner  of  Democritus  (q. 
v.).  Nothing  is  known  concerning  him,  neither  the 
time  nor  the  place  of  his  birth,  nor  the  circumstances 
of  his  life. 

Leucopetrians,  the  name  of  a  fanatical  sect  which 
sprinig  up  in  the  Greek  and  Eastern  churches  towards 
the  close  of  the  12th  century;  they  professed  to  believe 
in  a  double  trinity,  rejected  wedlock,  abstained  from 
flesh,  treated  with  "the  utmost  contempt  the  sacraments 
of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  all  the  various 
branches  of  external  worship ;  placed  the  essence  of  re- 
ligion in  internal  prayer  alone ;  and  maintained,  as  it  is 
said,  that  an  evil  being  or  genius  dwelt  in  the  breast  of 
every  mortal,  and  could  be  expelled  from  thence  by  no 
other  method  than  by  peqietual  supplication  to  the  Su- 
preme Being.    The  fomider  of  this  sect  is  said  to  have 


LEUMMIM 


386 


LEVELLERS 


been  a  person  called  Leucopeinis,  and  his  chief  disciple 
Tychicus,  who  corrupted  by  fanatical  interpretations 
several  boolis  of  Scripture,  and  particularly  the  Gospel 
of  Jlatthew.  This  account  is  not  undoubted. — Hender- 
son's Buck,  s.  V. 

Leiiin'mim  (Heb.  Leummim',  C^BXb,  peoples,  as 
often ;  Sept.  Xaw^idp),  the  last  named  of  the  three  sons 
of  Dctlan  (grandson  of  Abraham  by  Keturah),  and  head 
of  an  Arabian  tribe  descended  from  hira  (Gen.  xxv,  3 ; 
and  Vulsate  at  1  Chron.  i,  32).  B.C.  considerably  post 
2i)24.  See  Arabia.  They  are  supposed  to  be  the  same 
with  the  AUumaoUe  (AWovfiaiwrai),  named  by  Ptol- 
emy (vi,7, 24)  as  near  the  Gerrha.>i,  which  appears  to  be 
a  corruption  of  the  Hebrew  word  with  the  art.  jirefixed. 
'•  He  also  enumerates  lAima  among  the  towns  of  Arabia 
Deserta  (v,  19),  and  Forster  (^Geogr.  of  Arabia,  i,  335) 
suggests  that  this  may  have  been  an  ancient  settlement 
of  the  same  tribe"  (Kitto).  "They  are  identified  by 
Frcsnel  (in  the  Journ,  Asiat.  iii"  serie,  vi,217)  with  an 
Arab  tribe  called  Umeiyim,  one  of  the  very  ancient  tribes 
of  Arabia  of  which  no  genealogy  is  given  by  the  Arabs, 
and  who  appear  to  have  been  ante-Abrahamic,  and  pos- 
sibly aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the  country"  (Smith). 
See  Letushim. 

Leun,  JoHAXN  Georg  Friedrich,  a  German  theo- 
logian, was  born  Aug.  9, 1757,  at  Giessen.  In  1774  he 
entered  the  university  of  his  native  place;  in  1797  he 
became  deacon  at  Butzbach,  near  Giessen,  and  there  he 
remained  until  his  death,  March  15, 1823.  He  possessed 
an  extensive  knowledge  of  the  Oriental  languages,  and 
was  a  profound  theologian.  Among  his  wurks  deserve 
special  notice.  Von  der  besien  Methodc,  die  liehrdische 
Sprache  zu  erlernen  (Giessen,  1787-8)  : — Handbuch  zur 
cursorischen  LeciUre  der  Blbelfiir  Anfdnger,  etc.  (Leg- 
mo,  1788-91,  4  th.  8)  : — Handbuch  zur  cursorischen  Lec- 
iUre der  Bibel  des  N.  T.  etc.  (ibid.  1795-9G,  3  th.  8).— 
Doring,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutschlands,  ii,292. 

Leusdeu,  Johanx,  a  very  celebrated  Dutch  Orien- 
talist and  theologian,  was  born  at  Utrecht  in  1624,  and 
was  educated  at  the  then  recently  founded  university  of 
his  native  place  and  at  Amsterdam,  paying  particular 
regard  to  the  Oriental  languages,  especially  the  He- 
brew. In  1649  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew 
at  Utrecht,  and  for  nearly  tifty  years  he  most  creditably 
discharged  the  duties  of  this  office,  for  which  he  had  fit- 
ted himself,  not  simply  at  the  universities  already  men- 
tioned, but  also  by  private  study  with  several  learned 
Jewish  rabbis.  He  died  in  1699,  regarded  by  all  as  one 
of  the  best  Hebrew  scholars  of  his  day,  the  Buxtorfs 
only  taking  precedence  in  rank.  Of  his  works  we  may 
say  that  the  writings  of  but  few  Biblical  scholars  of  that 
day  have  descended  to  us  which  can  be  said  to  be  of 
more  solid  utility  than  Leusden's.  "  If  they  are  defec- 
tive in  originality  of  genius  (the  amount  of  which  qual- 
ity, however,  it  is  impossible  rightly  to  determine  in 
works  like  our  author's),  they  undoubtedly  afford  evi- 
dence of  their  author's  varied  resources  of  learning, 
adorned  by  clearness  of  method  and  an  easy  style,  char- 
acteristics which  made  Leusden  one  of  the  most  re- 
nowned and  successful  teachers  of  his  age."  His  nu- 
merous works,  which  were  all  Biblical,  may  be  classed 
as  follows:  (1)  Critical,  (2)  Introductory,  and  (3)  Exe- 
getical.  Under  the  first  head  we  have  his  valuable 
Biblia  Ifehrcea  accuratissiina  notis  Ilebraicis  ei  lemmali- 
hus  illiistrafa:  ii/pis  Josephi  Athias  (Amstel.  1617  [2d 
ed.  1667],  the  first  critical  edition  by  a  Christian  editor 
["/Estimatissima  |)rimum  numeratis  vcrsibus,  primaque 
a  Christiano  adhibitis  jNISS.  facta."  Steinschneider,  Ca- 
tal.  Bndl.])  In  1694  he  joined  Eiscnmenger  in  publish- 
ing a  Hebrew  Bible  without  points.  The  (ircek  Scrip- 
tures also  received  his  careful  attention,  as  is  proved  by 
his  editions  of  the  (ireek  Test,  in  1675, 1688, 1693, 1698, 
1701,  and  by  his  edition  of  t'he  Seiituagint  (Amsterdam, 
1683).  After  his  death,  Schaaf  completed  a  valuable 
edition  of  the  Syriac  New  Test,  (with  Tremellius's  ver- 
eiou)  which  Leusden  had  begun.     Under  this  first  bead 


we  may  also  place  his  Hebrew  Lexicon  (1688) ;  Ele- 
mentary Heb.  Gram.,  which  was  translated  into  English, 
French,  and  German  (1668) ;  his  Compendia  of  the  O.  T. 
and  the  N.  Test,  (comprising  selections  of  the  originals, 
with  translations  and  grammatical  notes  in  Latin),  fre- 
quently reprinted;  his  Onomasticon  Sac?:  1665,  1684), 
and  his  still  useful  Claris  Hebr.  Vet.  Test,  (containing 
the  Masoretic  notes,  etc.,  besides  much  grammatical  and 
philological  information),  first  published  in  1683,  and 
his  Claris  Grcec.  N.  T.  (1672).  His  contributions  to  the 
second  head  of  Introduction  {Kinleiliiiiff)  and  sacred 
archasology  were  not  less  valuable  than  tlie  ^\orks  we 
have  already  commended.  Of  these  we  mention  three 
(sometimes  to  be  met  with  in  one  volume)  as  very  use- 
ful to  the  Biblical  student:  Philologiis  Hehr.  continens 
Qucesfiones  Hebr.  quce  circa  V.  Test.  Hebr. fere  moveri  so- 
lent  (Utrecht,  1656,  1672,  1695,  Amst.  1686,  are  the  best 
editions,  and  contain  his  edition  and  translation  of  Mai- 
monides's  Precepts  of  Moses,  p.  56)  ;  Philoloyus  Hebrceo- 
ntixtus,  una  cum.  Spidleff.  Philol.  (Utr.  1663,  etc.,  con- 
tains treatises  on  several  interesting  points  of  Hebrew 
antiquities  and  Talraudical  science);  Philolofjiis Hebrceo- 
Grcecus  e/eneralis  (Utr.  1670,  etc.)  treats  questions  relat- 
ing to  the  sacred  Greek  of  the  Christian  Scriptures,  its 
Hebraisms,  the  Syriac  and  other  translations,  its  in- 
spired authors,  etc.,  well  and  succinctly  handled  (with 
this  work  occurs  Leusden's  translation  into  Hebrew  of  all 
the  Chaldee  portions  of  the  O.  T.).  Under  the  last,  or 
Exegetical  head,  we  have  less  to  record.  In  1656  (re- 
printed in  1692)  Leusden  published  in  a  Latin  transla- 
tion David  Kimchi's  Commentari-  on  the  prophet  Jo- 
nah {Jonas  illustratus),  and  in  the  following  year  a 
similar  work  (again  after  David  Kimchi)  on  Joel  and 
Obadiah  (Joel  ea-jdicatus,  adjunctus  Obadjas  illustratus). 
Well  worthy  of  mention  are  also  his  editions  (prepared 
with  the  help  of  Yillemandy  and  Morinus)  of  Bochart's 
works,  and  the  works  of  Lightfoot  (which  he  published 
in  Latin,  in  3  vols,  folio,  in  the  last  year  of  his  life)  and 
Poole  (whose  Synopsis  occurs  in  its  verj'  best  form  in 
Leusden's  edition,  1684,  5  vols,  folio).  See  Burmann, 
Trajectum  eruditorum ;  De  Vries,  Oratio  in  Obitum  J. 
Leusdenii  (1699);  Fahncim,Hist.Biblioth.  Grmc.  i,  244; 
Walch,  Biblioth.  Theol.  Selecta,  vols,  iii,  iv ;  Bu^graphie 
universelle  anc.  et  mod.  (1819)  xxiv,  357 ;  Elogia  Philo- 
gorum  qnorundeim  Hebrceonini  (Lub.  1708,  8vo) ;  Meyer, 
Gesch.  d.  Schrifterklarung,  p.  1 1 1, 174  sq. ;  Hoefer, Nouv. 
Bie>g.  Genercde,  xxxi,  11  sq. ;  Kalisch,  Heb.  Gram.  pt.  ii 
(Historical  Introd.),  p.  37 ;  and  in  Herzog, Reed-Encyklop. 
viii,  345,  346 ;  Kitto,  Cyclop.  Biblical  Literature,  vol.  ii, 
s.  V. 

Leutard  orLeuthard,  a  French  fanatic,  flourished 
among  the  peasants  of  Chalons-sur-ilarne  about  A.D. 
1000.  He  claimed  the  enjoyment  of  spiritual  visions, 
and  authority  from  on  high  for  separation  from  his  fam- 
ily and  his  iconoclastic  idiosyncracies.  He  also,  by  like 
inspirations,  became  the  opponent  of  many  practices  of 
the  Church  which  had  their  authority  in  the  sacred 
Scriptures  of  both  the  O.  and  N.  T.,  and  supjiorted  his 
position  likewise  by  the  inspired  word  of  (iod.  The 
bishop  of  the  diocese  in  which  Leutliard  flourished — 
Gebuin  by  name — treated  him  with  perfect  contempt, 
believing  him  insane,  and,  for  want  of  opposition,  few 
followers  were  found  by  Leuthard,  who  in  des]iair  de- 
stroyed himself  by  drowning. 

Levellers  or  Radicals,  a  political  and  religious 
sect  of  fanatics,  which  arose  in  the  army  of  Cromwell  at 
the  time  of  the  difficulty  between  the  Independents  and 
the  Long  Parliament  (1647),  advocating  entire  civil  and 
religious  liberty.  They  were  not  only  treated  as  trai- 
tors by  the  king,  but  persecuted  also  by  Crdmwell  as 
dangerous  to  the  state.  From  one  of  their  own  works. 
The  Leveller,  o'r  the  Principles  and  Maxims  conreming 
Govei-nment  and  Religion  of  those  commonly  called  Lev- 
ellers (Lond.  1658),  we  see  that  their  fundamental  prin- 
ciples included,  in  politics,  1,  the  impartial,  sovereign 
authority  of  the  law ;  2,  the  legislative  power  of  Parlia- 


LEVER 


387 


LEVI 


ment;  3,  absolute  equality  before  the  law;  and,  4,  the 
armini;'  of  the  people  in  order  to  enable  all  to  secure  the 
enforcement  of  the  laws,  and  also  to  protect  their  liber- 
ties. In  religion  they  claimed,  1,  absolute  liberty  of  con- 
science, as  true  religion,  with  them,  consisted  in  inward 
concurrence  with  revealed  religion ;  2,  freedom  for  every 
one  to  act  according  to  the  best  of  his  knowledge,  even 
if  this  knowl'  dgc  should  be  false — the  government  act- 
ing on  the  knowledge  and  conscience  of  the  people 
through  the  ministers  it  appoints;  3,  religion  to  be  con- 
sidered under  two  aspects:  one  as  the  correct  under- 
standing of  revelation,  and  this  is  quite  a  private  affair, 
in  regard  to  which  every  one  must  stand  or  fall  by  him- 
self; the  other  is  its  effects  as  manifested  in  actions, 
and  these  are  subject  to  the  judgment  of  others,  and  es- 
jjccially  of  the  authorities;  4,  they  condemned  all  strife 
on  matters  of  faith  and  forms  of  worship,  considering 
these  as  only  outward  signs  of  different  degrees  of  spir- 
itual enlightening.  This  sect,  like  many  others,  disap- 
peared at  the  time  of  the  Restoration.  See  Weingarten, 
Revuliitions  Kirchen  Enfjlands  (Lpz.  18G8) ;  Neale,  Hist, 
o/'ike  Purita)is  (see  Index,  vol.  ii.  Harper's  edition). 

Lever,  Thomas,  an  eminent  English  divine,  was 
born  in  Lancashire  in  the  early  part  of  the  IGth  centur\-. 
He  was  ordained  a  Protestant  minister  in  1550.  On 
the  accession  of  IMary  (1553)  he  retired  to  the  Conti- 
nent. He  afterwards  dissented  i'rom  the  Anglican 
Church  from  a  partiality  to  Calvinism.  He  died  in 
1577.  No  man  was  more  vehement  in  his  sermons 
against  the  waste  of  Church  revenues,  and  other  pre- 
vailing corruptions  of  the  court,  which  occasioned  bis'"- 
op  liidley  to  rank  him  with  Latimer  and  Knox.  Be- 
sides a  number  of  sermons,  he  published  a  Meditation  on 
tlie  Lorde's  Prayer  (1551) : — Ccrtaijne  Godly  Exercises: 
— and  a  Treatise  on  the  Danger  from  Synne,  etc.  (1571- 
1575).  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  ami  Ainer.  Authors, 
Tol.  ii,  s.  V. ;  Thomas,  Biog.  Dictionary,  s.  v. 

Le'vi  (Heb.  iei-i',  "^ib,  toreaihed  [see  below],  being 
the  same  Heb.  word  also  signifying  "  Levite ;"  Sept,  and 
N.  T.  AivL  or  Aivd),  the  name  of  several  men. 

1.  Tlie  third  son  of  Jacob  by  his  wife  Leah.  This, 
like  most  other  names  in  the  patriarchal  history,  was 
connected  with  the  thoughts  and  feelings  that  gathered 
round  the  child's  birth.  As  derived  from  tllb,  to  ticinc, 
and  hence  to  adhere,  it  gave  utterance  to  the  hope  of 
the  mother  that  the  affections  of  Iier  husband,  which 
had  liitherto  rested  on  the  favored  Rachel,  would  at 
last  be  drawn  to  her.  "  This  time  will  my  husband  be 
joined  (rt'12'^)  unto  me,  because  I  have  borne  him  three 
sons"  ((ien.  xxix,  34).  B.C.  1917.  The  new-born  child 
was  to  be  a  Koii'wi-iaQ  fitfSaidjrijr  (.losephus,  Ant.  i,  19, 
8),  a  new  link  binding  the  parents  to  each  other  more 
closely  than  before.  The  same  etymology  is  recognised, 
though  with  a  higher  significance,  in  Numb,  xviii,  2 
(^T2^).  One  fact  only  is  recorded  in  which  he  appears 
jirominent.  The  sons  of  Jacob  had  come  from  Padan- 
Aram  to  Canaan  with  their  father,  and  were  with  him 
'•at  Shalem,  a  city  of  Shechem."  Their  sister  Dinah 
went  out "  to  see  the  daughters  of  the  land"  (Gen.  xxxiv, 
1 ).  i.  e.  as  the  words  probably  indicate,  and  as  Josephus 
distinctly  states  (A  nt.  i,  21),  to  be  present  at  one  of  their 
great  annual  gatherings  for  some  festival  of  nature-wor- 
ship, analogous  to  that  which  we  meet  with  afterwards 
among  the  Midianites  (Numb,  xxv,  2).  The  license  of 
the  time  or  the  absence  of  her  natural  guardians  ex- 
posed her,  though  yet  in  earliest  youth,  to  lust  and  out- 
rage. A  stain  was  left,  not  only  on  lier,  but  on  the  hon- 
or of  her  kindred,  which,  according  to  the  rough  justice 
of  the  time,  nothing  but  blood  could  wash  out.  The 
duty  of  extorting  that  revenge  fell,  as  in  the  case  of  Am- 
noii  and  Tamar  (2  Sam.  xiii,  22),  and  in  most  other 
states  of  society  in  which  polygamy  has  prevailed  (com- 
pare, for  the  customs  of  modern  Arabs,  J.  D.  Michaelis, 
quoted  by  Kurtz,  Hist,  of  Old  Crenanf,  i,  §  82,  p.  340), 
on  the  brothers  rather  than  the  father,  just  as,  in  the 


case  of  Rebekah,  it  belonged  to  the  brother  to  conduct 
the  negotiations  for  the  marriage.  We  are  left  to  con- 
jecture why  Reuben,  as  the  first-born,  was  not  foremost 
in  the  work,  but  the  sin  of  which  he  was  afterwards 
guilty  makes  it  possible  that  his  zeal  for  his  sister's 
purity  was  not  so  sensitive  as  theirs.  The  same  ex- 
planation may  perhaps  apply  to  the  non-appearance  of 
Judah  in  the  history.  Simeon  and  Levi,  as  the  next  in 
succession  to  the  first-born,  take  the  task  upon  them- 
selves. Though  not  named  in  the  Hebrew  text  of  the 
O.  T.  till  xxxiv,  25,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  they 
were  "the  sons  of  Jacob"  who  heard  from  their  father 
the  wrong  over  which  he  had  brooded  in  silence,  and 
who  planned  tlieir  revenge  accordingly.  The  Sept.  does 
introduce  their  names  in  ver.  14.  The  history  tliat  fol- 
lows is  that  of  a  cowardly  and  repulsive  crime.  The  two 
brothers  exhibit,  in  its  broadest  contrasts,  that  union  of 
the  noble  and  the  base,  of  characteristics  above  and  be- 
low the  level  of  the  heathen  tribes  around  them,  ;vhich 
marks  much  of  the  history  of  Israel.  They  have  learned 
to  loathe  and  sconi  the  impurity  in  the  midst  of  which 
they  lived,  to  regartl  themselves  as  a  peculiar  people,  to 
glory  in  the  sign  of  the  covenant.  They  have  learned 
only  too  well  from  Jacob  an<l  from  Laban  the  lessons  of 
treachery  and  falsehood.  Tliey  lie  to  the  men  of  She- 
chem as  the  Druses  and  the  Maronites  lie  to  each  other 
in  the  prosecution  of  their  blood-feuds.  For  the  offence 
of  one  man  they  destroj^  and  plunder  a  whole  city. 
They  cover  their  murderous  schemes  with  fair  words 
and  professions  of  friendship.  They  make  the  very 
token  of  their  religion  the  instrument  of  their  perfidy 
and  revenge.  (Josephus  [A7it.  1.  c]  characteristically 
glosses  over  all  that  connects  the  attack  with  the  cir- 
cumcision of  the  Shechemitcs.  and  rejjresents  it  as  made 
in  a  time  of  feasting  and  rejoicing.)  Their  father,  timid 
and  anxious  as  ever,  utters  a  feeble  lamentation  (Blunt, 
Script.  Coincidences,  pt.  i,  §  8),  "  Ye  have  made  me  a 
stench  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  land  ...  I  being 
few  in  number,  they  shall  gather  themselves  against 
me."  With  a  zeal  that,  though  mixed  with  baser  ele- 
ments, foreshadows  the  zeal  of  Phinehas,  they  glory  in 
their  deed,  and  meet  all  remonstrance  with  the  question, 
•'  Should  he  deal  with  our  sister  as  with  a  harlot?"  Of 
other  facts  in  the  life  of  Levi,  there  are  none  in  which 
he  takes,  as  in  this,  a  prominent  and  distinct  part.  He 
shares  in  the  hatred  which  bis  brothers  bear  to  Joseph, 
and  joins  in  the  plots  against  him  (Gen.  xxxvii,  4). 
Reuben  and  Judah  interfere  severally  to  prevent  the 
consummation  of  the  crime  (Gen.  xxxvii,  21, 26).  Sim- 
eon appears,  as  being  made  afterwards  the  subject  of  a 
sharper  discipline  than  the  others,  to  have  been  fore- 
most— as  his  position  among  the  sons  of  Leah  made  it 
likely  that  he  woidd  1« — in  this  attack  on  the  favored 
son  of  Rachel ;  and  it  is  at  least  probable  that  in  this,  as 
in  their  former  guilt,  Simeon  and  Levi  were  brethren. 
The  rivalry  of  the  mothers  was  perpetuated  in  the  jeal- 
ousies of  their  children ;  and  the  two  who  had  shown 
themselves  so  keenly  sensitive  when  their  sister  had 
been  wronged,  make  themselves  the  instruments  and 
accomplices  of  tlie  hatred  which  originated,  we  are  told, 
with  the  baser-born  sons  of  the  concubines  (Gen.  xxxvii, 
2).  Then  comes  for  him,  as  for  the  others,  the  disci- 
pline of  suffering  and  danger,  tlie  special  education  by 
which  the  brother  whom  they  had  wronged  leads  them 
back  to  fiiithfulness  and  natural  affection.  The  deten- 
tion of  Simeon  in  Egypt  may  have  been  designed  at 
once  to  be  the  punishment  for  the  large  share  which  he 
had  taken  in  the  common  crime,  and  to  separate  the 
two  brothers  who  had  hitherto  been  such  close  compan- 
ions in  evil.  The  discipline  did  its  work.  Those  who 
had  been  relentless  to  Joseph  became  self-sacrificing  for 
Benjamin. 

After  this  we  trace  Levi  as  joining  in  the  migration 
of  the  tribe  that  owned  Jacob  as  its  patriarcli.  He,  with 
his  three  sons,  Gershon,  Kohath,  IMerari,  went  dowi  into 
Egypt  (Gen.  xlvi,  11).  As  one  of  the  four  eldest  sons 
we  may  think  of  him  as  among  the  five  (Gen.  xlvii,  2) 


LEVIATHAN" 


388 


LEVIATHAN 


that  were  specially  presented  before  Pharaoh.  (The  1 
Jewish  tradition  [^Tarrj.  Psmdojvn.']  states  the  five  to  | 
liave  been  Zebulun,  Dan,  Naphtali.  (iad,  and  Asher.)  \ 
Then  comes  the  last  scene  in  -wliich  his  name  appears. 
When  his  father's  death  draws  near,  and  the  sons  are 
gathered  round  him,  he  hears  the  old  crime  brought  up 
again  to  receive  its  sentence  from  the  lips  that  are  no 
longer  feeble  and  hesitating.  They,  no  less  than  the 
incestuous  first-born,  had  fori'eited  the  privileges  of  their 
birthright.  ''In  tlieir  anger  they  slew  men,  and  in  their 
wantonness  they  maimed  oxen"  (marg.  reading  of  the  A. 
Y. ;  Sept.  ii'tupoKoTTj/ffav  rafipoi').  Therefore  the  sen- 
tence on  those  who  had  been  united  for  evil  was,  that 
they  were  to  be  "divided  in  Jacob  and  scattered  in  Is- 
rael." How  that  condemnation  was  at  once  fidfilled  and 
turned  into  a  benediction,  how  the  zeal  of  the  patriarch 
reappeared  purified  and  strengthened  in  his  descend- 
ants, how  the  very  name  came  to  have  a  new  signifi- 
cance, will  be  foiuid  elsewhere.     See  Levite. 

The  history  of  Levi  has  been  dealt  with  here  in  what 
seems  the  only  true  and  natural  way  of  treating  it,  as  a 
histor}^  of  an  individual  person.  Of  the  theory  that 
sees  in  the  sons  of  Jacob  the  mythical  Eponymi  of  the 
tribes  that  claimed  descent  from  them — which  finds  in 
the  crimes  and  chances  of  their  lives  the  outlines  of  a 
national  or  tribal  chronicle — which  refuses  to  recognise 
tliat  Jacob  had  twelve  sons,  and  inaists.that  the  history 
of  Dinah  records  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  Canaan- 
ites  to  enslave  and  degrade  a  Hebrew  tribe  (Ewald,  Ge- 
gchic]ite,\,A6G^'M) — of  this  one  may  be  content  to  say, 
as  the  author  says  of  other  hypotheses  hardly  more  ex- 
travagant, '•  Die  Wissenschaft  verscheucht  alle  solche 
(lespenster"  {ibid,  i, 4G6).  The  book  of  Genesis  tells  us 
of  the  lives  of  men  and  women,  not  of  ethnological  phan- 
toms. A  3'et  wilder  conjecture  has  been  hazarded  by 
another  (jerman  critic.  P.  Redslob  {Die  alttesfamenil. 
j\amen,  Ilamb.  1846,  p.  24, 25),  recognising  the  meaning 
of  the  name  of  Levi  as  given  above,  finds  in  it  evidence 
of  the  existence  of  a  confederacy  or  synod  of  the  priests 
tliat  had  been  connected  with  the  several  local  worships 
of  Canaan,  and  who,  in  the  time  of  Samuel  and  David, 
were  gathered  together,  ;oi«ef/, " round  the  Central  Pan- 
theon in  Jerusalem."  Here,  also,  we  maj^  borrow  the 
terms  of  our  judgment  from  the  language  of  the  writer 
himself.  If  there  are  "  abgeschmackten  ctymologischen 
INlahrchen"  (Redslob,  p.  82)  connected  with  the  name  of 
Levi,  they  are  hardly  those  we  meet  with  in  the  narra- 
tive of  Genesis. — Smith.     See  Jacob. 

2.  Tlie  father  of  Jlatthat  and  son  of  Simeon  (INIaase- 
iah),  of  the  ancestors  of  Christ,  in  the  private  maternal 
line  between  David  and  Zerubbabel  (Luke  iii,  29).  B.C. 
post  876.  Lord  Hervey  thinks  that  the  name  of  Levi 
reappears  in  his  descendant  Lebbieus  (Geneal.  of  Cln-ist, 
p.  132).    See  Genealogy  of  Jesus  Chijist. 

3.  Father  of  another  Matthat  and  son  of  Melchi, 
third  preceding  IMarv,  among  Christ's  ancestors  (Luke 
iii,  24  ).     B.C.  considerably  ante  22. 

4.  (Afi'iV.)  Gne  of  the  apostles,  the  son  of  Alphseus 
(Mark  ii.  14;  Ijuke  v,  27,  29),  elsewhere  called  Mat- 
thew (Matt,  ix, 9). 

Levi'athan  (Ileb.  livyathan',  ''\^'^i^,  usually  de- 
rived from  !T^15,  a  vreuth,  with  adject,  ending  "i  ;  but 
perhaps  compounded  of  ^^7,  in-cathcd,  and  "jri,  a  sea- 
viunxtcr ;  occurs  Job  iii,  8;  xli,  1  [  Hebrew  xl,  25]  ^  Psa. 
Ixxiv,  14;  civ,  26;  Is.i.  xxvii,  1 ;  Sej)!.  ^ookiov,  but  to 
litya  Kiirotj  in  Job  iii,  8;  Vulg.  Lmatliaii,  but  draco  in 
Psa. ;  Auth.  Vers.  '•  Leviathan,"  l)ut  "  their  mourning" 
in  Job  iii,  8)  probalily  has  different  significations,  e.  g.  ; 
(1.)  A  serpent,  especially  a  large  one  (.fob  iii,  8),  hence 
as  the  symbol  of  the  hostile  kingdom  of  Babylon  (Isa. 
xxvii,  1).  (2.)  Specially,  the  rro(v;r///r  (.loli  xli,.!).  (3.) 
A  sea-monster  (Psa,  civ.  26  ) ;  troiiically.  for  a  cruel  ene- 
my (Psa.  Ixxiv,  14 ;  compare  Isa.  li,  9  ;  K/i'k.  xxix,  3). 
This  Heb;  word,  which  denotes  any  twisted  animal,  is 
especially  applicable  to  every  great  tenant  of  the  waters, 
such  as  the  great  marine  serpents  and  crocodiles,  and,  it 


may  be  added,  the  colossal  serpents  and  great  monitors 
of  the  desert.  See  Behemoth  ;  Dragon.  In  general 
it  points  to  the  crocodile,  and  Job  xli  is  unequivocally 
descriptive  of  that  saurian.  But  in  Isaiah  and  the 
I'salms  foreign  kings  are  evidently  apostrophized  under 
the  name  of  Leviathan,  though  other  texts  more  natu- 
rally api)ly  to  the  whale,  notwithstanding  the  objections 
that  have  been  made  to  that  interpretation  of  the  term. 
"  It  is  (pute  an  error  to  assert,  as  Dr.  Harris  {Did.  Xat, 
Hist.  Bib.),  Mason  Good  {Book  of  Job  translated^.  Mi- 
chaelis  {Supp.  1297),  and  Kosenmiiller  (quoting  Micha- 
elis  in  not.  ad  Bochart  Hieroz.  iii,  738)  have  done,  that 
the  whale  is  not  found  in  the  Mediterranean.  The  Orca 
ejladiator  (Gray) — the  grampus  mentioned  by  Lee — the 
Physalus  antiquoruni  (Gray),  or  the  Rorqucd  de  hi  Jlfedi- 
terranee  (Cuvier),  are  not  uncommon  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean (Fischer,  Synops.  Mamm.  p.  525,  and  Lacepede, 
//.  A',  des  C'etaf.  p.  115),  and  in  ancient  times  the  species 
may  have  been  more  numerous"  (Smith).  See  Whale. 
The  word  crocodile  docs  not  occur  in  the  Auth.  Vers., 
although  its  Greek  form  KpoKoCtiXoQ  is  found  in  the 
Sept.  (Lev.  xi,  29,  where  for  the  "  tortoise,"  3U,  it  has 
KQOKO^iiKoq  \t()(jcnoc,  Vulg.  crocodilus)  ;  but  there  is  no 
specific  word  in  the  Hebrew  of  which  it  is  the  acknowl- 
edged representative.  "  Bochart  (iii,  769,  edit.  Rosen- 
mliller)  says  that  the  Talmudists  use  the  word  livyathan 
to  denote  the  crocodile ;  this,  however,  is  denied  by 
Lewysohn  (Zool.  des  Talm.  p.  155,  355),  who  says  that 
in  the  Talmud  it  always  denotes  a  ichale,  and  never  a 
crocodile.  For  the  Talmudical  fables  about  the  levia- 
than, see  Lewysohn  {Zool.  des  Talm.),  in  passages  re- 
ferred to  above,  and  Buxtorf,  Lexicon  Chald.  Talm.  s.  v. 
"ITilP"  (Smith).  Some  of  these  seem  to  be  alluded  to 
in  2  Esdr.  vi,  49, 52.  The  Egyptians  called  it  fsmok  (see 
Bunsen's  yEgyptens  Stellung,  i,  581),  the  Arabs  name  it 
tanise  (compare  x«/lh//7J,  Herod,  ii,  69);  but  Strabo  says 
that  the  Egyptian  crocodile  was  known  by  the  name  su- 
clms,  (sovxo'^1  probably  referring  to  the  sacred  species). 
It  is  not  only  denoted  by  the  leriallian  of  Job  xli,  1,  but 
probably  also  by  the  tannin  of  Ezek.  xxix,  3 ;  xxxii,  2 
(compare  Isa.  xxvii,  1 ;  li,  9)  ;  and  perhaps  by  the  ?ec-c/- 
beast  {Tiyp  P^n,  "spearmen")  of  Psa.  Ixviii,  30.  Others 
confound  the  leviathan  with  the  orca  of  Pliny  (ix,  5),  i. 
e.  probably  the  Physter  macrocephalus  of  Linn,  (see  Th, 
Hase,  De  Lenathan  Jobi,  Brem.  1723) ;  Schultens  under- 
stands the  fabulous  dragon  {Comment,  in  Job.  p.  1174 
sq. ;  compare  Oedmann,  Samml.  iii,  1  sq.)  ;  not  to  dwell 
upon  the  supposed  identification  with  fossil  species  of 
lizards  (Koch,  in  Llidde's  Zeitsclirift  f.  veryhicli  Erdl: 
jMagdeb.  1844 ).  In  the  detailed  description  of  Job  (^ch, 
xli),  probably  "  the  Egyptian  crocodile  is  depicted  in  all 
its  magnitude,  ferocity,  and  indolence,  such  as  it  was  in 
early  days,  when  as  j-et  unconscious  of  the  power  of 
man,  and  only  individually  tamed  for  the  purposes  of  an 
imposture,  wliich  had  sufficient  authority  to  intimidate 
the  public  and  protect  the  species,  under  the  sanctified 
pretext  that  it  was  a  type  of  pure  water,  and  an  emblem 
of  the  importance  of  irrigation;  though  the  people  in 
general  seem  ever  to  have  been  disposed  to  consider  it  a 
personification  of  the  destructive  jirinciple.  At  a  later 
period  the  Egyptians,  probably  of  such  places  as  Ten- 
tyris,  where  crocodiles  were  not  held  in  veneration,  not 
only  hunted  and  slew  them,  but  it  apjiears  from  a  statue 
that  a  sort  of  Bestiarii  could  tame  them  sufticicntly  to 
jierform  certain  exhibitions  mounted  on  their  backs. 
The  intense  musky  odor  of  its  fiesh  must  have  rendered 
the  crocodile  at  aU  times  very  unjialatable  food,  but 
breast-armor  was  made  of  the  horny  and  ridged  parts 
of  its  back.  Viewed  as  the  crocodile  of  the  Tliebaid,  it 
is  not  clear  that  the  leviathan  symbolized  the  Pharaoh, 
or  was  a  type  of  Egvpt,  any  more  than  of  several  Ro- 
man colonies  (even  where  it  was  not  indigenous,  as  at 
Nismes,  in  (iaul,  on  the  ancient  coins  of  which  the  fig- 
ure of  one  cliained  occurs),  and  of  cities  in  Phaniicia, 
Egypt,  and  other  parts  of  the  coast  of  Africa.  During 
the  Roman  sway  in  Egypt,  crocodiles  had  not  disap- 


LEVI  BEN-GERSON 


389 


LEVIRATE 


peared  in  the  Lower  Nile,  for  Seneca  and  others  alhide 
to  a  great  battle  fought  by  them  and  a  school  of  dolpliins 
in  the  Hcracleotic  branch  of  the  Delta.  During  the 
decline  of  the  state  even  the  hippopotamus  reappeared 
about  Pelusinm,  and  was  shot  at  in  the  17th  centur}^ 
(Hadzivil).  In  the  time  of  the  Crusades  crocodiles  were 
found  in  the  Crocodilon  river  of  earl}'  writers,  and  in 
the  Crocodilorum  lacus,  still  called  Moiat  el-Temsah, 
wliich  appear  to  be  the  Kerseos  river  and  marsh,  three 
miles  south  of  Cajsarea,  though  the  nature  of  the  local- 
ity is  most  appropriate  at  Nahr-el  Arsuf  or  el-Haddar" 
(Kitto).  (For  a  full  account  of  the  treatment  of  the 
crocodile  and  its  worship  in  Egypt,  see  Wilkinson's  .4  w. 
Ejupt.  i,  243  sq.)-     See  Kaiiah. 

Most  of  the  popular  accounts  of  the  crocodile  have 
been  taken  from  the  American  aUif/afor,  a  smaller  ani- 
mal, but  very  similar  in  its  habits  to  the  true  crocodile. 
See  generally  Herod,  ii,  (58  sq. ;  Diod.  Sic.  i,  35 ;  ^lian, 
Ilisi.  Amm.Y,2o\  xvii,  G;  xii,  15;  Ammianus  Marcell. 
xxii,  15;  Hasselquist,  Trm\  p.  344  sq. ,  Pococke,  East, 
i,  301  sq. ;  Oken,  Naturffesc/iickte,  III,  ii,  329  sq. ;  Cuvier, 
Anim.  K'uujd.  li,  21 ;  Thom,  in  the  JIalle  Enq/kloj}.  xxi, 
45G  sq. ,  Bochart,  Hieroz.  iii,  737  sq.;  Oedmann,  iii,  1 
sq. ;  vi,  53  sq. ;  A  nnales  du  Museum  dldstoire  natur.  vol. 
ix,  X ;  Jlinutoli,  Trav.  p.  246 ;  Koseiimiiller,  A Iterthumsk. 
IV,  ii,  244  sq.;  Denon,  Truv.  p.  291;  Norden,  Reise,  p. 
302.     Comp.  Crocodile. 

Levi  ben-Gerson.     See  Ralbag, 

Levi,  David,  a  noted  English  Jewish  writer,  was 
born  at  London  in  1740.  He  was  a  hatter  by  profession, 
but  ardently  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  Jewish  lit- 
erature, and  gained  great  reputation  by  several  learned 
]iublications,  of  which  the  principal  is  his  Linfjiia  Sacra, 
a  dictionary  and  grammar  of  the  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  and 
Tahnudic  dialects  (London,  1785-89,  3  vols.  8vo).  He 
wrote  also  Dissertations  on  the  Proiihedes  of  the  Old 
Testament  (1793,  2  vols.  8vo)  -.—Defence  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, in  Letters,  in  answer  to  Thomas  Paine's  Affe  of 
Reason  (1797,  8vo).  Levi  died  in  1799.  See  Lj'son's 
Environs,  sup.  vol.  European  Magazine  (1799) ;  London 
Gent.  Mag.  (1801) ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  ami  Amer. 
A  uthors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Levings,  Noah,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Methodist  Epis- 
copal minister,  was  born  in  Cheshire  County,  N.  H., 
Sept.  29,  179G,  and  early  removed  to  Troy,  N.  Y. ;  was 
converted  about  1812 ;  entered  the  New  York  Conference 
in  1818;  was  stationed  at  New  York  in  1827-8;  at 
Brooklyn  in  1829-30 ;  at  New  Haven  in  1831-2 ;  at  Al- 
bany in  1833  j  on  Troy  District  in  1838  ;  in  1843  at  Ves- 
try Street,  New  York ;  in  1844  was  finally  elected  finan- 
cial secretary  of  the  American  Bible  Society.  He  died 
at  Cincinnati  Jan.  9, 1849.  In  early  life  his  advantages 
for  education  were  limited,  but  the  vigor  of  his  mind 
and  untiring  effort  bore  him  above  all  obstacles,  and  he 
became  one  of  the  most  popular  and  useful  ministers  of 
his  time.  During  his  eighteen  pastoral  appointments. 
Dr.  Levings  is  said  to  have  "  preached  nearly  4000  ser- 
mons, delivered  65  addresses  and  orations,  and  to  have 
travelled  over  no  less  than  36,500  miles.  He  also  de- 
livered 275  addresses  for  the  American  Bible  Societj-." 
He  was  an  earnest  and  accomplished  minister ;  many 
souls  were  converted  under  his  labors ;  and  as  a  platform 
speaker  he  had  few  equals  amongst  the  ministry  of  his 
age.— Con/:  Min.  iv,  327 ;  Meih.  Qu.  Rev.  1849,  p.  515. 

Levirate  (from  the  law-Latin  term  lerir,  a  hus- 
band's Ijrother),  the  name  applied  to  an  ancient  usage 
of  the  Hebrews  (Gen.  xxxviii,  8  sq.),  reordained  by  Mo- 
ses (Deut,  XXV,  5-10;  comp.  Josephus,  Ant.  iv,  8,  23; 
Matt,  xxii,  24  sq.),  that  when  an  Israelite  died  without 
leaving  male  issue,  his  brother  (CS'^,  yaham',  which  was 
the  specific  term  applied  to  this  relation),  resident  with 
him,  was  compelled  to  marry  the  widow,  and  continue 
his  deceased  brother's  family  through  the  first-bom  son 
issuing  from  such  union  as  the  heir  of  the  former  hus- 
band (comp.  Jul.  Afric.  in  Eusebius,  Hist.  Ev.  i,  7).  If 
he  was  unwilling  to  do  so,  he  could  only  be  released 


from  the  obligation  by  undergoing  a  species  of  insult 
(Deut.  XXV,  9).  This  is  illustrated  in  the  case  of  Kuth 
(ch.  iii,  iv),  where,  however,  as  an  estate  was  involved, 
Boaz  is  styled  by  a  different  terra  (3Xi>,  an  avenger). 
The  Talmud  contains  a  very  subtile  exposition  of  this 
statute  (see  Mishna,  Jebanioth,  iii,  1 ;  comp.  Eduj.  iv,  8, 
on  Deut.  xxv,  9 ;  see  also  Jeham.  xii,  6 ;  comp.  Selden, 
Uxor  Hehr.  i,  12 ;  Cans,  Eherecht,  i,  167  sq.).  The  high- 
priest  appears  to  have  been  free  from  this  law  (Lev.  xxi, 
13),  and  there  must  doubtless  have  been  other  excep- 
tions, especially  in  the  case  of  aged  persons  and  pros- 
elytes (Mishna,  Jebam.  xi,  2).  A  similar  law  prevails 
among  the  natives  of  Central  Asia  (Bernary,  p.  34  sq. ; 
Niebuhr,  Beschr.  p.  70  ;  Bergeron,  Voyages,  i,  28)  and 
Abyssinia  (Bruce,  Trav.  ii,  223),  and  traces  of  it  existed 
among  the  ancient  Italians  (Diod.  Sic.  xii,  18).  This 
law  no  doubt  originated  in  the  love  of  offspring,  prover- 
bially strong  in  the  Eastern  bosom,  which  sought  this 
method  at  once  of  perpetuating  a  deceased  person's 
name  and  of  procuring  progeny  for  the  widow  (Jahn's 
Archceol.  §  157).  See  Kinsman.  The  law,  however, 
was  unquestionably  attended  with  great  inconveniences, 
for  a  man  cannot  but  think  it  the  most  unpleasant  of  all 
necessities  if  he  must  marry  a  woman  whom  he  has  not 
chosen  himself.  Thus  we  find  that  the  brother  in  some 
instances  had  no  inclination  for  any  such  marriage  (Gen. 
xxxviii ;  Ihith  iv),  and  stumbled  at  this,  that  the  first 
son  produced  from  it  could  not  belong  to  him.  Whether 
a  second  son  might  follow  and  continue  in  life  was  very 
uncertain;  and  among  a  people  who  so  highly  prized 
genealogical  immortality  of  name,  it  was  a  great  hard- 
sliip  for  a  man  to  be  obliged  to  procure  it  for  a  person 
already  dead,  and  to  run  the  risk  meanwhile  of  losing  it 
himself.  Nor  was  this  law  very  much  in  favor  of  the 
morals  of  the  other  sex ;  for,  not  to  speak  of  Tamar, 
who,  in  reference  to  it,  conceived  herself  justified  in  hav- 
ing recourse  to  most  improper  conduct,  it  may  be  ob- 
served that  what  Ruth  did  (iii,  G-9),  in  order  to  obtain 
for  a  husband  the  person  whom  she  accounted  as  the 
nearest  kinsman  of  her  deceased  husband,  is,  to  say  the 
least,  by  no  means  conformable  to  that  modesty  and  del- 
icacy which  we  look  for  in  the  other  sex.  A  wise  and 
good  legislator  coidd  scarcely  have  been  inclined  to  pat- 
ronize any  such  law;  but  then  it  is  not  advisable  direct- 
ly to  attack  an  inveterate  point  of  honor,  because,  in 
such  a  case,  for  the  most  part  nothing  is  gained ;  and  in 
the  present  instance,  as  the  point  of  honor  placed  im- 
mortalit)'  of  name  entirely  in  a  man's  leaving  descend- 
ants behind  him,  it  was  so  favorable  to  the  increase  of 
population  that  it  merited  some  degree  of  forbearance 
and  tenderness.  Jloses  therefore  left  the  Israelites  still 
in  possession  of  their  established  right,  but,  at  the  same 
time,  he  studied  as  much  as  possible  to  guard  against 
its  rigor  and  evil  effects  by  limiting  and  moderating  its 
operation  in  various  respects.  In  the  first  place,  he  ex- 
pressly prohibited  the  marriage  of  a  brother's  widow  if 
there  were  children  of  his  own  alive.  Before  this  time, 
brothers  were  probably  in  the  practice  of  considering  a 
brother's  widow  as  part  of  the  inheritance,  and  of  ap- 
propriating her  to  themselves,  if  unable  to  buy  a  wife, 
as  the  Mongols  do,  so  that  this  was  a  very  necessary 
prohibition.  For  a  successor  jwcesumptivus  in  thoro,  whom 
a  wife  can  regard  as  her  future  husband,  is  rather  a  dan- 
gerous neighbor  for  her  present  one's  honor,  and  if  she 
happen  to  conceive  any  predilection  for  the  younger 
brother,  her  husband,  particularh'  in  a  southern  climate, 
will  hardly  be  secure  from  the  risk  of  poison.  In  the 
second  place,  Moses  allowed,  and,  indeed,  enjoined  the 
brother  to  marry  the  widow  of  his  childless  brother; 
but  if  he  was  not  disposed  to  do  so,  he  did  not  absolutely 
compel  him,  but  left  him  an  easy  means  of  riddance,  for 
he  had  only  to  declare  in  court  that  he  had  no  inclina- 
tion to  marry  her,  and  then  he  was  at  liberty.  This,  it 
is  true,  subjected  him  to  a  punishment,  which  at  first  ap- 
pears sufficiently  severe — the  slighted  widow  had  a  right 
to  revile  him  in  court  as  much  as  she  pleased ;  and  from 
his  pulling  off  his  shoe  and  delivermg  it  to  the  wido\v, 


LEVIS 


390 


LEVITE 


he  received  the  appellation  of  Barcsole,  which  anybody 
niight  apply  to  him  without  being  liable  to  a  prosecu- 
tion. 15ut  "this  intlictiou  was,  after  all,  merely  nominal, 
and  we  lind  that  it  did  not  prevent  the  rejection  of  the 
widow  wlien  there  was  a  decided  aversion  to  it  on  the 
]iart  of  the  surviving  relative  (Kuth  iv,  8).  The  law, 
however,  only  extended  to  a  brother  living  in  the  same 
city  or  countrj-,  not  to  one  residing  at  a  greater  dis- 
tance. Nor  did  it  affect  a  brother  havmg  already  a 
wife  of  his  own.  At  least,  if  it  had  its  origin  in  this, 
that  by  reason  of  the  price  required  for  a  wife,  often 
onlv  one  brother  could  marry,  and  the  others  also  wished 
to  do  the  same,  it  could  only  affect  such  as  were  unmar- 
ried ;  and  in  the  two  instances  that  occur  in  Genesis  (ch. 
xxxviii )  and  Kuth  (ch.  iv),  we  tind  the  brother-in-law, 
wliose  duty  it  was  to  marry,  apprehensive  of  its  proving 
hurtful  to  himself  and  his  inheritance,  which  could 
hardly  have  been  the  case  if  lie  had  previously  had  an- 
other wife,  or  (but  that  was  at  least  expensive)  could 
have  taken  one  of  his  own  choice.  When  there  was 
no  brother  alive,  or  when  he  declined  the  duty,  the 
levirate  law,  as  we  see  from  the  case  of  Kuth,  extended 
to  the  nearest  relation  of  the  deceased  husband,  as, 
for  instance,  to  his  paternal  uncle  or  nephew;  so  that 
at  last  even  quite  remote  kinsmen,  in  default  of  nearer 
ones,  might  be  obliged  to  undertake  it.  Boaz  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  very  nearly  related  to  Kuth,  as  he 
did  not  so  much  as  know  who  she  was  when  he  met  her 
gleaning  in  tlie  fields.  Nor  did  she  know  that  he  was 
any  relation  to  her  until  apprised  of  it  by  her  mother- 
in-law.  Among  the  Jews  of  the  present  day  levirate 
marriages  liave  entirely  ceased,  so  much  so  that  in  the 
marriage  contracts  of  the  very  poorest  people  among 
them  it  is  generally  stipulated  that  the  bridegroom's 
brother  shall  abandon  all  those  rights  to  the  bride  to 
which  he  could  lay  claim  by  the  law  in  question  (Mi- 
chaelis,  Mos.  Recht.  ii,  197  sq.).  See  Perizon.  De  consii- 
iutione  die.  super  dcfuncti  fruiris  more  dvcendu  (Hal. 
1 742) ;  F.  Bernarj',  De  Ilehrceor.  leviraiu  (Berlin,  1835) ; 
J.  JM.  Kedslob,  Die  Leviratsc/ie  bei  dm  IJehrdern  (Leip- 
sic,  1836) ;  C.  W.  F.  Walch,  De  lege  levir.  adfratres  non 
fjerm.sed  trihides  referenda  (Getting.  1703)  ;  HuUman, 
8taatsverf.  d.  Israel,  p.  190  sq. ;  Rauschenbusch,  De  lege 
leriratus  (Getting.  1765).     See  MARiaAGK. 

Le'vis  (A£j»('f)>  given  (1  Esdr.  ix,  14)  as  a  proper 
name,  but  meaning  simply  a  Levite,  as  correctly  ren- 
dered in  the  parallel  Hebrew  passage  (Ezra  x,  15). 

Le vison,  Mop.decai  Gujipei-,  a  learned  .Jewish  phy- 
sician and  commentator,  was  born  and  educated  at  Ber- 
lin, where  he  was  fellow-student  of  the  celebrated  phi- 
losopher Moses  Mendelssohn.  He  afterwards  removed 
to  London,  and  was  physician  in  one  of  the  hospitals 
(1790);  was  then  nominated  by  Gnstavus  HI,  of  Swe- 
den, to  a  professorial  chair  in  Upsala.  In  1781  he  re- 
turned to  his  native  place,  but  left  again  three  years 
later  for  Hamburg,  where  he  died  February  10.  1797. 
His  works  ilhistrativc  of  the  Bible  are  ^1  Commentary  on 
Ecclesiastes,  cahed  flbs^a  mSTP,  dedicated  to  Gusta- 
vus  III  (Hamburg,  1784).  This  elaborate  work  is  pre- 
ceded liy  live  introductions,  which  respectively  treat  on 
tlie  import  of  the  book,  the  appropriateness  of  its  name, 
Hebrew  synonymes,  roots,  the  verb  and  its  inflexions, 
the  names  of  the  Deity,  on  the  design  of  the  Bible,  etc. ; 
wlu  reupon  follows  the  Hebrew  text  with  a  double  com- 
nuntary :  one  explains  tlie  words  and  their  connection, 
and  the  other  gives  an  exjiosition  of  the  argument  of  the 
hook: — A  Treatise  on  Ilohj  Scripture,  pnljhshcd  at  the 
request  of  the  king  of  Sweden  (Lond.  1770) :— .1  Treatise 
on  tlie  Pintateuch,  the  Prophets,  and  the  Talmud,  entitled 
nb'ba  nnr-a  rbo  (Hamb.  I797):— .4  Hebrew  Lexicon, 
called  C^'i'l  wT  :— .4  Work  on  Jlebreio  Sijnohynws,  en- 
titled C'^ST'in  "£0  : — and'a  Hebrew  Grhmmar,  called 
iTmnn  "i'lpn  """.  The  last  three  Avorks  have  not 
as  yet  been  published.  See  Fiirst,  Bibliotheca  Judaica, 
ii,  238  sq. ;  Kitto,  Cyclop.  Bibl.  Lit.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 


Le'vite  C^^i^''^,  son  of  Levi,  ox  simply  *^)':i,Lev{, 
for  "I*;',  Dent,  xii,  18;  Judg.  xvii,  9, 11 ;  xviii,  3;  usu- 
ally in  the  plur.  and  with  the  art,  D"i'|ilbn;  Sejjt.  \tv- 
Irai),  a  patronymic  title  which,  besides  denoting  all  the 
descendants  of  the  tribe  of  Levi  (Exod.  vi,  25 ,  Lev.  xxv, 
32,  etc.;  Numb,  xxxv,  2;  Josh,  xxi,  3,  41),  is  the  dis- 
tinctive title  of  that  portion  of  it  which  was  set  apart 
for  the  subordinate  offices  of  the  sanctuary',  to  assist  the 
other  and  smaller  portion  of  their  own  tribe,  invested 
with  the  superior  functions  of  the  hierarchy  (1  Kings 
viii,  4;  Ezra  ii,  70,  John  i,  19,  etc.),  and  this  is  the  mean- 
ing which  has  perpetuated  itself.  Sometimes,  again,  it 
is  added  as  an  epithet  of  the  smaller  portion  of  the  tribe, 
and  we  read  of  "  the  priests  the  Levites".  (Josh,  iii,  3 ; 
Ezek.  xliv,  15).  See  Priest.  In  describing  the  insti- 
tution and  development  of  the  Levitical  order,  we  shall 
treat  of  it  in  chronological  order,  availing  ourselves 
largely  of  the  articles  in  Kitto's  and  Smith's  Dictionaries. 
I.  Fivm  the  Exode  till  the  Monarchy. — This  is  the 
most  interesting  and  important  period  in  the  history  of 
the  Levitical  order,  and  in  describing  it  we  must  first  of 
all  trace  the  cause  which  called  it  into  existence. 

1.  Origin  and  Institution  of  the  Levitical  Order.  The 
absence  of  all  reference  to  the  consecrated  character 
of  the  Levites  in  the  book  of  Genesis  is  noticeable 
enough.  The  prophecy  ascribed  to  .Jacob  (Gen.  xlix, 
5-7)  was  indeed  fulfilled  with  singular  precision,  but  the 
terms  of  the  prophecy  are  hardly  such  as  would  have 
been  framed  by  a  later  writer,  after  the  tribe  had  gained 
its  subsequent  pre-eminence.  The  only  occasion  on 
which  the  patriarch  of  the  tribe  appears — the  massacre 
of  the  Shechemites — may  indeed  have  contributed  to 
influence  the  history  of  his  descendants,  by  fostering  in 
them  the  same  fierce,  wild  zeal  against  all  that  threat- 
ened to  violate  the  purity  of  their  race,  but  generally 
what  strikes  us  is  the  absence  of  all  recognition  of  the 
later  character.  In  the  genealogy  of  Gen.  xlvi,  11,  in 
like  manner,  the  list  does  not  go  lower  down  than  the 
three  sons  of  Levi,  and  they  are  given  in  the  order  of 
their  birth,  not  in  that  which  would  have  corresponded 
to  the  official  superiority  of  the  Kohathites.  There  are 
no  signs,  again,  that  the  tribe  of  Levi  had  any  special 
pre-eminence  over  the  others  during  the  Egyptian  bond- 
age. As  tracing  its  descent  from  Leah,  it  would  take 
its  place  among  the  six  chief  tribes  sprung  from  the 
wives  of  Jacob,  and  share  with  them  a  recognised  supe- 
riority over  those  that  bore  the  names  of  the  sons  of 
Bilhah  and  Zilpah.  Within  the  tribe  itself  there  are 
some  slight  tokens  that  the  Kohathites  were  gaining  the 
first  place.  The  classification  of  Exod.  vi,  16-25  gives 
to  that  section  of  the  tribe  four  clans  or  houses,  while 
those  of  Gershon  and  JMerari  have  but  two  each.  To  it 
belonged  the  house  of  Amram,  and  "Aaron  the  Levite" 
(Exod.  iv,  14)  is  spoken  of  as  one  to  Avhom  the  people 
woidd  be  sure  to  listen.  He  married  the  daughter  of  the 
chief  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Exod.  vi,  23).  The  work  ac- 
complished by  him,  and  by  his  yet  greater  brotlier,  would 
naturally  tend  to  give  prominence  to  the  family  and  the 
tribe  to  which  they  belonged,  but  as  yet  there  are  no 
traces  of  a  caste-character,  no  signs  of  any  intention  to 
establish  a  hereditary  priesthood.  L^p  to  this  time  the 
Israelites  had  worshipped  the  God  of  their  fathers  after 
their  fathers'  manner.  The  first-born  of  the  ])cop]e  were 
the  priests  of  tlie  people.  The  elilest  son  of  eaih  house 
inherited  the  priestly  office.  His  youth  made  him,  in 
his  father's  lifetime,  the  representative  of  the  jiurity 
which  was  connected  from  the  beginning  with  the 
thought  of  worsliip  (I^wald,  ,1  Iterthiim.  p.  273.  and  corap. 
Priest).  It  was  apparently  with  this  as  their  ances- 
tral worship  that  tlic  Israelites  came  up  out  of  Egypt. 
The  "young  me.n"  of  the  sons  of  Israel  offer  sacrifices 
(Exod.  xxiv,  5).  They,  we  may  infer,  are  the  priests 
who  remain  -with  tlie  people  while  Moses  ascends  the 
heights  of  Sinai  (xix,  22-24).  They  represented  the 
truth  that  tlie  wliole  people  were  "a  kingdom  of  priests" 
(xix,  0).     Neither  they,  nor  the  '•officers  and  judges" 


LEVITE 


391 


LEVITE 


appointed  to  assist  Moses  in  administering  justice  (xviii, 
25),  are  connected  iu  any  special  manner  with  the  tribe 
of  Levi.  The  first  step  towards  a  change  was  made  in 
the  institution  of  a  liereditary  priesthood  in  the  family 
of  Aaron  during  the  tirst  withdrawal  of  Moses  to  the 
solitude  of  Sinai  (xxviii,  1).  This,  however,  was  one 
thing ;  it  was  quite  another  to  set  apart  a  whole  tribe 
of  Israel  as  a  priestly  caste.  The  directions  given  for 
the  construction  of  the  tabernacle  imply  no  pre-emi- 
nence of  the  Levites.  The  chief  workers  in  it  are  from 
the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Dan  (Exod.  xxxi,  2-6).  The 
next  extension  of  the  idea  of  the  priesthood  grew  out 
of  the  terrible  crisis  of  Exod.  xxxii.  If  the  Levites  had 
been  sharers  in  the  sin  of  the  golden  calf,  they  were,  at 
any  rate,  the  foremost  to  rally  round  their  leader  when 
he" called  on  them  to  help  him  in  stemming  the  progress 
of  the  evil.  Then  came  that  terrible  consecration  of 
themselves,  when  every  man  was  against  his  son  and 
against  his  brother,  and  the  offering  with  which  they 
filled  their  hands  (D3i;;i  ^ixbri,  Exod.  xxxii,  29  ;  comp. 
Exod.  xxviii,  41)  was  the  blood  of  their  nearest  of  kin. 
The  tribe  stood  forth  separate  and  apart,  recognising 
even  in  this  stern  work  the  spiritual  as  higher  than  the 
natural,  and  therefore  counted  worthy  to  be  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  ideal  life  of  the  people,  "an  Israel  with- 
in an  Israel"'  (Ewiild,  Alterthiim.  p.  279),  chosen  in  its 
higher  representatives  to  offer  incense  and  burnt-sacri- 
fice before  the  Lord  (Deut.  xxxiii,  9, 10),  not  without  a 
share  in  the  glory  of  the  Urim  and  Thummim  that  were 
worn  by  the  prince  and  chieftain  of  the  tribe.  From 
this  time,  accordingly,  they  occupied  a  distinct  position. 
Experience  had  shown  ho\v  easily  the  people  might  fall 
back  into  idolatr}^ — how  necessary  it  was  that  there 
should  be  a  body  of  men,  an  order,  numerically  large, 
and,  when  the  people  were  in  their  promised  home, 
equally  diffused  throughout  the  country,  as  attestators 
and  guardians  of  the  truth.  Without  this  the  individ- 
ualism of  the  older  worship  would  have  been  fruitful  in 
an  ever-multiplying  idolatry.  The  tribe  of  Levi  was 
therefore  to  take  the  place  of  that  earlier  priesthood  of 
the  first-born  as  representatives  of  the  holiness  of  the 
people. 

The  tabernacle,  with  its  extensive  and  regular  sacri- 
ficial service,  which  required  a  special  priestly  order  reg- 
ularly to  perform  the  higher  functions  of  the  sanctuary, 
was  the  special  occasion  which  also  called  into  being  the 
Levitical  staff  to  aid  the  priests  in  their  arduous  task, 
inasmuch  as  the  primitive  and  patriarchal  mode  of  wor- 
ship which  obtained  till  the  erection  of  the  tabernacle, 
and  according  to  which  the  first-born  of  all  Israelites 
performed  the  priestly  offices  (comp.  Exod.  xxiv,  5  with 
xix,  24,  and  see  First-born),  could  not  be  perpetuated 
under  the  newly-organized  congregational  service  with- 
out interfering  with  the  domestic  relations  of  the  people. 
It  was  for  this  reason,  as  wcU  as  to  secure  greater  effi- 
ciency in  the  sacred  offices,  that  the  religious  primogen- 
iture was  conferred  upon  the  tribe  of  Levi,  Avhich  were 
henceforth  to  give  their  undivide<l  attention  to  the  re- 
quirements of  the  sanctuary  (Numb,  iii,  11-13).     The 
tribe  of  Levi  were  selected  because  they  had  manifested 
a  very  extraordinary  zeal  for  the  glory  of  God  (Exod. 
xxxii,  2G,  etc.),  had  already  obtained  a  part  of  this  re- 
ligious primogeniture  by  the  institution  of  the  hered- 
itary ]irlesthood  in  the  family  of  Aaron  (Exod.  xxviii, 
1),  and  because,  as  the  tribe  to  which  jMoses  and  Aaron 
belonged,  tliey  would  most  naturally  support  and  pro- 
mote the  institutions  of  the  lawgiver.     To  effect  this 
transfer  of  office,  the  first-born  males  of  all  the  other 
tribes  and  all  the  Levites  were  ordered  to  be  numbered, 
from  the  age  of  one  month  and  upwards;  and  when  it 
was  found  that  the  former  were  22,27;!,  and  tlie  latter 
22,000  (see  below),  it  was  arranged  tliat  22,000  of  the 
first-born  should  be  replaced  by  the  22,000  Levites,  that 
the  273  first-born  who  were  in  excess  of  the  Levites 
should  be  redeemed  at  the  rate  of  five  shekels  each,  be- 
ing the  legal  sum  for  the  redemption  of  the  first-born 
child  (Numb,  xviii,  10),  and  that  the  1305  shekels  be 


given  to  Aaron  and  his  sons  as  a  compensation  for  the 
odd  persons  who,  as  first-born,  belonged  to  Jehovah.  As 
to  the  difficulty  how  to  decide  which  of  the  first-born 
should  be  redeemed  by  paying  this  money,  and  which 
should  be  exchanged  for  the  Levites,  since  it  was  natu- 
ral for  every  one  to  wish  to  escape  this  expense,  the 
Jlidrash  (0/*  Numb,  iii,  17)  and  the  Talmud  relate  that 
"  Moses  wrote  on  22,000  tickets  Levite  C^lb  'p),  and  on 
273  Five  Shekels  (D'^^p'^U  U:^n),  mixed  them  all  up, 
put  them  into  a  vessel,  and  then  bid  every  Israelite  to 
draw  one.  He  who  took  out  one  with  Levite  on  it  waz 
redeemed  by  a  Levite,  and  he  who  drew  one  with  Fire 
Shekels  on  it  had  to  be  redeemed  by  payment  of  this 
sum"  {Sanhedrin,  17,  a).  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt 
this  ancient  tradition.  It  was  further  ordained  that  the 
cattle  which  the  Levites  then  happened  to  possess  should 
be  considered  as  equivalent  to  all  the  first-born  cattle 
which  all  the  Israelites  had,  without  their  being  num- 
bered and  exchanged  one  for  one,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
human  beings  (Numb,  iii,  41-51),  so  that  the  firstlings 
should  not  now  be  given  to  the  priest,  or  be  redeemed, 
which  the  Israelites  were  hereafter  required  to  do 
(Numb,  xviii,  15).  In  this  way  the  Levites  obtained  a 
sacrificial  as  well  as  a  priestly  character.  They  for  the 
first-born  of  men,  and  their  cattle  for  the  firstlings  of 
beasts,  fulfilled  the  idea  that  had  been  asserted  at  the 
time  of  the  destruction  of  the  first-born  of  Egypt  (Exod. 
xiii,  12, 13). 

There  is  a  discrepancy  between  the  total  number  of 
the  Levites,  which  is  given  in  Numb,  iii,  39  as  22,000, 
and  the  separate  number  of  the  three  divisions  which 
is  given  in  verses  22,  28,  and  34,  as  follows :  Gershon- 
ites,7500-|-Kohathites,  8G00  +  Merarites,  6200  =^  22,30_0. 
Compare  also  verse  46,  where  it  is  said  that  the  22,273 
first-born  exceeded  the  total  number  of  Levites  by  273. 
The  Talmud  (Bechnroth,  5,  a)  and  the  Jewish  commen- 
tators, who  are  followed  by  most  Christian  expositors, 
submit  that  the  300  surplus  Levites  were  the  fir^t-born 
of  this  tribe,  who,  as  such,  could  not  be  substituted  for 
the  first-born  of  the  other  tribes,  and  therefore  were 
omitted  from  the  total.  To  this,  however,  it  is  objected 
that  if  such  an  exemption  of  first-born  had  been  intend- 
ed, the  text  would  have  contained  some  intimation  of  it, 
whereas  there  is  nothing  whatever  in  the  context  to  indi- 
cate it,  Iloubigant  therefore  suggests  that  a  h  has  drop- 
ped out  of  the  word  'db^  in  verse  28,  making  it  T:j':i,  and 
that  by  retaining  the  former  word  we  obtain  8300  instead 
of  8600,  which  removes  all  the  difficulty,  Philippson, 
Keil,  and  others  adopt  this  explanation.  The  number  of 
the  first-born  appears  disproportionately  small  as  com- 
pared with  the  population.  It  must  be  remembered, 
however,  that  the  conditions  to  be  fulfilled  were  that 
they  should  be  at  once  (1)  the  first  child  of  the  father, 
(2)  "the  first  child  of  the  mother,  and  (3)  males.  (Com- 
pare on  this  question,  and  on  that  of  the  difference  of 
numbers,  Kurtz,  History  of-the  Old  Covenant,  iii,  201.) 

2.  Division  of  the  Tribe  of  Levi. — As  different  fmtctions 
were  assigned  to  the  separate  houses  of  the  Levitical 
branch  of  the  tribe,  to  ivhich  frequent  references  are 
made,  wc  subjoin  the  following  table  from  Exod.  vi,  16- 
25,  italicizing  the  Aaronic  or  priestly  branch  in  order  to 
facilitate  these  references. 


«-"--{Sei. 


TAmram  ~ 


(.4f 


LEVI  {  KouATu 


(Moses. 
nCorah. 
<  NeriheK 


jEIcazar. 
\Ithainar. 


Izhar      ,-^,  ---, 
(Zithri. 
Hebron. 

jMishael. 
iUzzicl    -^Elzapliau. 

(Zithri. 
(Mahali. 
■\Mushi. 

N  B.— Those  mentioned  in  the  above  list  are  by  no 
means  the  only  descendants  of  Levi  iu  tlieir  respective 
generations,  as  is  evident  from  the  fact  that,  though  no 


Merari 


LEVITE 


392 


LEVITE 


sons  of  Libui,  Shiniei,  Hebron,  etc.,  are  here  given,  yet 
meulion  is  made  in  Numb,  iii,  21,  of  "the  family  of  the 
Libuitesaiid  the  family  of  the  8himeites;"  in  Numb,  xxvi, 
2S,  of  "  the  family  of  the  Libuites  ;"  and  in  Numb,  iii,  2T ; 
xxvi,  5S,  of  "the  family  of  the  Ilebronites;"  whilst  in  1 
Chrou.  xxlii,  several  sous  of  these  men  are  mentioned  by 
name.  Again,  no  sons  of  Mahali  and  Mushi  are  given, 
and  yet  they  appear  in  Numb,  iii  as  fathers  of  families  of 
the  Levites.  The  design  of  the  genealogy  in  question  is 
simply  to  give  the  pedigrees  of  Moses  and  Aaron,  and 
some  other  principal  heads  of  the  family  of  Levi,  as  is  ex- 
pressly stated  in  Exod.vi,  25:  "These  are  the  heads  ofthe 
fathers  of  the  Levites  according  to  their  families."  In 
these  heads  all  the  other  members  of  their  families  were 
included,  according  to  the  principle  laid  down  in  1  Chron. 
xxiii,  11 :  "Therefore  they  were  in  one  reckoning,  accord- 
ing to  their  father's  house."  ISome  names  are  also  men- 
tioned for  a  special  purpose,  e.  g.  the  sons  of  Izhar,  on  ac- 
count of  Ivorah,  who  was  the  leader  ofthe  rebellion  against 
liloses.  These  observations  afford  an  answer  to  a  consid- 
erable extent  to  the  conclusions  of  bishop  Coleuso  upon 
the  number  of  the  Levites  (The  Pentateuch  and  tlie  Hook 
of  Joshua  critically  examined,  i,  lOT-11'2). 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  Levitical  order  comprises 
the  whole  of  the  descendants  of  Gershon  and  Merari, 
and  those  of  Kohath  tlirough  Izhar  and  Uzziel,  as  well 
as  through  Amram's  second  son,  Moses ;  whilst  Aaron, 
Amram's  first  son,  and  his  issue,  constitute  the  priestly 
order.  It  must  here  be  remarked  that,  though  Kohath 
is  the  second  in  point  of  age  and  order,  yet  his  family 
■will  be  found  to  occupy  the  first  position,  because  they 
are  the  nearest  of  kin  to  the  priests. 

3.  A^e  and  Qucdljicatwns  for  Levitical  Service The 

only  qualification  for  active  service  specitied  in  the  Mo- 
saic law  is  mature  age,  which  in  Numb,  iv,  3,  23, 30,  39, 
43. 47  is  said  to  be  from  thirty  to  fift)-,  whilst  m  Numb, 
viii,  24,  25  it  is  said  to  commence  at  ticenty-five.  Vari- 
ous attempts  have  been  made  to  reconcile  these  two  ap- 
parently contradictory  injunctions.  The  Talmud  {Choi. 
24,  a),  Kashi  {Comment,  ad  loc),  and  Maimonides  {Joel 
Ha-Chezaha,  iii,  7, 3),  who  are  followed  by  some  Chris- 
tian commentators,  affirm  that  from  twenty-five  to  thirty 
the  Levites  attended  in  order  to  be  instructed  in  their 
duties,  but  did  not  enter  upon  actual  duties  until  they 
were  full  thirty  years  of  age.  But  this  explanation,  as 
Abrabanel  rightly  remarks,  "is  at  variance  with  the 
plain  declaration  ofthe  text,  that  the  Levites  were  called 
at  twenty-five  years  of  age  to  wait  vpon  the  service  of 
the  tahernacle,  which  clearly  denotes  not  instruction  for 
their  ministry,  but  the  ministry  itself"  {Commentar.  on 
Numh.  viii,  24).  Besides,  the  text  itself  does  not  give 
the  slightest  intimation  that  any  period  of  the  Levitical 
life  was  devoted  to  instruction.  Hence  Kashbam,  Aben- 
Ezra,  and  Abrabanel,  who  are  followed  by  most  modern 
expositors,  submit  that  the  twenty-five  years  of  age  re- 
fers to  the  Levites'  entering  upon  the  lighter  part  of 
their  service,  such  as  keeping  watch  and  performing  the 
lighter  duties  in  the  tabernacle,  whilst  the  thirty  years 
of  age  refers  to  their  entering  upon  the  more  onerous 
duties,  such  as  carrying  heavy  weights,  when  the  taber- 
nacle was  moved  about  from  place  to  jilace,  which  re- 
(piired  the  full  strength  of  a  man,  maintaining  that  this 
distinction  is  indicated  in  the  text  by  the  words  1125Jb 
Nw^?:bl,yb?-  labor  and  burdens,  when  the  thirty  years' 
work  is  spoken  of  (Numb,  iv,  30, 31),  and  by  the  omission 
of  the  word  Xw"^,  burden,  when  the  twenty-five  years' 
work  is  spoken  of  (Xnmb.  viii,  24,  etc.").  But  it  maj' 
fairly  be  ([uestioned  whctlior  man  is  more  fitted  for  ar- 
(hious  work  from  thirty  to  thirty-five  than  from  twenty- 
live  to  thirty.  Besides,  the  (iershonitcs  and  the  Mera- 
riies,  who  had  the  charge  of  the  heavier  burdens,  did  not 
carry  them  at  all  (coni|i.  Numb,  vii,  3-0,  and  sec.  4  be- 
low). According  to  another  ancient  .lewisli  interpreta- 
tion adojited  by  Biihr  {Symbol,  ii,  41)  and  others,  Numb, 
iv  treats  of  the  necessary  age  of  the  l.,evites  for  the  im- 
mediate rctiuircments  in  the  tcilderness,  whilst  Numb,  viii 
gives  their  His.fi  for  the  promised  land,  wlien  they  shall 
be  di\-idcd  among  the  tribes  arrd  a  larger  number  shall 
be  wanted  (Siphri  on  Numb.  riii).  Somewhat  similar 
is  Philippson's  explanation,  wlio  aflirms  that  at  the  first 
election  of  the  Levitical  order  the  required  age  for  ser- 


vice was  from  thirty  to  fifty,  but  that  all  future  Levites 
Iiad  to  commence  service  at  twenty-five.  The  Sept. 
solves  the  difficulty  by  uniformly  readmg  twenty-five 
instead  of  thirty. 

4.  Duties  and  Classification  ofthe  Levites. — The  com- 
mencement of  the  march  from  Sinai  gave  a  prominence 
to  their  new  character.  As  the  tabernacle  was  the  sign 
of  the  presence  among  the  people  of  their  unseen  King, 
so  the  Levites  were,  among  the  other  tribes  of  Israel,  as 
the  royal  guard  that  waited  exclusively  on  liim.  The 
warlike  title  of  "host"  is  specially  applied  to  them 
(comp.  use  of  N^2,  in  Numb,  iv,  3,  30 ;  and  of  ii:np,  in 
1  Chron.  i,  19).  As  such  they  were  not  included  in  the 
number  of  the  armies  of  Israel  (Numb,  i,  47 ;  ii,  33 ; 
xxvi,  02),  but  were  reckoned  separately  by  themselves. 
When  the  people  were  at  rest  they  encamped  as  guar- 
dians aroimd  the  sacred  tent;  no  one  else  might  come 
near  it  under  pain  of  death  (Numb,  i,  51 ;  xviii,  22). 
The  different  families  pitched  their  tents  around  it  in 
the  following  manner :  the  Gershonites  behind  it  on  the 
west  (Numb,  iii,  23),  the  Kohathites  on  the  south  (iii, 
29),  the  Merarites  on  the  north  (iii,  35),  and  the  priests 
on  the  east  (iii,  38).  See  Cajmp.  They  were  to  occupy 
a  middle  position  in  that  ascending  scale  of  consecration 
wliich,  starting  from  the  idea  of  the  whole  nation  as  a 
priestly  people,  reached  its  culmuiating  point  in  the 
high-priest,  who  alone  of  all  the  people  might  enter 
"  within  the  veil."  The  Levites  might  come  nearer 
than  the  other  tribes,  but  they  might  not  sacrifice,  nor 
burn  incense,  nor  see  the  "  holy  things"  of  the  sanctuary 
tiU  they  were  covered  (Numb.  iv.  15).  When  on  tlie 
march,  no  hands  but  theirs  might  strike  the  tent  at 
the  commencement  of  the  day's  journey,  or  carry  the 
parts  of  its  structure  during  it,  or  pitch  the  tent  agam 
when  they  halted  (Numb,  i,  51).  It  was  obviously  es- 
sential for  such  a  work  that  there  should  be  a  fixed  as- 
signment of  duties,  and  now,  accordingly,  we  meet  Avith 
the  first  outlines  of  the  organization  which  afterwards 
became  permanent.  The  division  of  the  tribe  into  the 
three  sections  that  traced  their  descent  from  the  sons  of 
Levi  formed  the  groundwork  of  it.  The  Levites  were 
given  as  a  gift  ('?  CSTS,  Nethirdm)  to  Aaron  and  his 
sons,  the  priests,  to  wait  upon  them,  and  to  do  the  sub- 
ordinate work  for  them  at  the  service  of  the  sanctuarj^ 
(Numb.  viii.  19;  xvii,  2-()).  They  had  also  to  guard 
the  tabernacle  and  take  charge  of  certain  vessels,  whilst 
the  priests  had  to  watch  the  altars  and  the  interior  of 
the  sanctuary  (i,  50-53;  viii,  19;  xviii,  1-7).  To  carry 
this  out  effectually,  the  charge  of  certain  vessels  and 
portions  of  the  tabernacle,  as  well  as  the  guarding  of  its 
several  sides,  was  assigned  to  each  of  the  tliree  sections 
into  which  the  tribe  was  divided  by  their  respective  de- 
scent from  the  three  sons  of  Levi,  i.  e.  Gerslion,  Kohath, 
and  INIerari,  as  follows : 

(1.)  The  Kohathites,  who  out  of  8600  persons  yielded 
2750  qualified  for  active  service  according  to  the  pre- 
scribed age,  and  who  were  under  the  leadership  of  Eliz- 
aphan,  had  to  occupy  the  south  side  of  the  tabernacle, 
and,  as  the  family  to  whom  Aaron  the  high-priest  and 
his  sons  belonged,  hatl  to  take  charge  of  the  lioly  things 
(Clpn  niT^'i'^),  viz.,  the  ark,  the  table  of  shew-liread, 
the  candlestick,  the  two  altars  of  incense  and  burnt-offer- 
ing, as  well  as  of  the  sacred  vessels  used  at  tlie  service 
of  these  holy  things,  and  tlie  curtains  of  the  holy  of  ho- 
lies. All  these  things  they  had  to  carry  on  tlieir  own 
shoulders  when  the  camp  was  broken  up  (Numb.  iii. 
27-32;  iv,  5-15;  vii,  9;  Dent,  xxxi,  25),  after  the  ])riests 
had  covered  them  with  the  dark  blue  cloth  which  was 
to  hide  them  from  all  profane  gaze;  and  thus  they  be- 
came also  the  guardians  of  all  the  sacred  treasures  which 
the  people  had  so  freelv  offered.  Eleazar,  the  head  of 
the  priests,  who  belonged  to  the  Kohathites,  and  was 
the  chief  commander  of  the  three  Levitical  divisions, 
had  the  charge  ofthe  oil  for  the  candlestick,  the  incense, 
the  daily  meat-offering,  and  the  anointing  oil  (Numtt 
iii,  32;  iv,  16). 


LEVITE 


393 


LEVITE 


(2.)  The  Gershonites,  who  out  of  7500  men  yielded 
2630  for  active  service,  and  who  were  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Ehasaph,  had  to  occupy  the  west  side  of  the  tab- 
ernacle, and  to  take  charge  of  the  tapestry  of  the  taber- 
nacle, all  its  curtains,  hangings,  and  coverings,  the  pil- 
lars of  the  tapestry  hangings,  the  implements  used  in 
connection  therewith,  and  to  perform  all  the  work  con- 
nected with  the  taking  down  and  putting  up  of  the  arti- 
cles over  which  they  had  the  charge  (Numb,  iii,  21-2(5 ; 
iv,  22-28). 

(3.)  The  Merarites,  who  out  of  G200  yielded  3200  ac- 
tive men.  and  who  were  under  the  leadership  of  Zuriel, 
had  to  occupy  the  north  side  of  the  tabernacle,  and  take 
charge  of  the  boards,  bars,  pillars,  sockets,  tent-pins,  etc. 
(Numb,  iii,  33-37 ;  iv,  39,  40).  The  two  latter  compa- 
nies, however,  were  allowed  to  use  the  six  covered  wag- 
ons and  the  twelve  oxen  which  were  offered  as  an  obla- 
tion to  Jehovah ;  tlie  Gershonites,  having  the  less  heavy 
portion,  got  two  of  the  wagons  and  four  of  the  oxen ; 
whilst  the  Merarites,  who  had  the  heavier  portions,  got 
four  of  the  wagons  and  eight  of  the  oxen  (Numb,  vii, 
3-'J ). 

Thus  the  total  number  of  active  men  which  the  three 
divisions  of  the  Levites  yielded  was  8580.  When  en- 
camped around  the  tabernacle,  they  formed,  as  it  were, 
a  partition  between  the  people  and  the  sanctuary ;  they 
had  so  to  guard  it  that  the  children  of  Israel  should  not 
come  near  it,  since  those  who  ventured  to  do  so  incurred 
the  penalty  of  death  (Numb,  i,  51 ;  iii,  38;  xviii,  22) ; 
nor  were  they  themselves  allowed  to  come  near  the  ves- 
sels of  the  sanctuary  and  the  altar,  lest  they  die,  as 
well  as  the  priests  (Numb,  xviii,  3-G).  Israelites  of  any 
other  tribe  were  strictly  forbidden  to  perform  the  Levit- 
ical  office,  in  order  '•  that  there  might  be  no  plague  when 
the  children  of  Israel  approach  the  sanctuarj'"  (Numb, 
iii,  10  ;  viii,  19;  xviii,  5) ;  and,  according  to  the  ancient 
Hebrew  canons,  even  a  priest  was  not  allowed  to  do  the 
work  assigned  to  the  Levites,  nor  was  one  Levite  per- 
mitted to  perform  the  duties  which  were  incumbent 
upon  his  felloAv  Levite  under  penalty  of  death  (^laimon- 
ides,  Ililchoth  Kele  Ila-Mikdush,  iii,  10). 

The  book  of  Deuteronomy  is  interesting  as  indicating 
more  clearly  than  had  Ijeen  done  before  the  other  func- 
tions, over  and  above  their  ministrations  in  the  taber- 
nacle, wliich  were  to  be  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Levi. 
Through  the  whole  land  they  were  to  take  the  place  of 
the  old  household  priests  (subject,  of  course,  to  the  special 
riglits  of  the  Aaronic  priesthood),  sharing  in  all  festivals 
and  rtgoicings  (Deut.  xii,  19;  xiv,  26,  27;  xxvi,  11). 
Every  third  year  they  were  to  have  an  additional  share 
hi  the  produce  of  the  land  (Deut.  xiv,  28;  xxvi,  12). 
The  people  were  charged  never  to  forsake  them.  To 
"  the  priests  the  Levites"  was  to  belong  the  office  of  pre- 
serving, transcribing,  and  interpreting  the  law  (Deut. 
xvii,  9-12;  xxxi,  26).  They  were  solemnly  to  read  it 
every  seventh  year  at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  (Deut. 
xxxi,  9-13).  They  were  to  pronounce  the  curses  from 
Mount  Ebal  (Deut.  xxvii,  14). 

Such,  if  one  may  so  speak,  was  the  ideal  of  the  relig- 
ious organization  which  was  present  to  the  mind  of  the 
lawgiver.  Details  were  left  to  be  developed  as  the  al- 
tered circumstances  of  the  people  might  require.  The 
great  principle  was,  that  the  warrior -caste  who  had 
guarded  the  tent  of  the  captain  of  the  hosts  of  Israel 
should  be  throughout  the  land  as  witnesses  that  the 
people  still  owed  allegiance  to  him.  It  deserves  notice 
that,  as  yet,  with  the  exception  of  the  few  passages  that 
refer  to  the  priests,  no  traces  appear  of  their  character 
as  a  learned  caste,  and  of  the  work  which  afterwards  be- 
longed to  them  as  hymn-writers  and  musicians.  The 
hymns  of  this  period  were  probably  occasional,  not  re- 
curring (comp.  Exod.  XV ;  Numb,  xxi,  17  ;  Deut.  xxxii). 
Women  bore  a  large  share  in  singintj  them  ( Exod.  xv, 
20;  Psa.  Ixviii,  25).  It  is  not  unlikely  that  the  wives 
Olid  daughters  of  the  Levites,  who  must  have  been  with 
them  in  all  their  encampments,  as  afterwards  in  their 
cities,  took  the  foremost  part  among  the  "  damsels  play- 


ing with  their  timbrels."  or  among  the  "  wise-hearted," 
wlio  wove  hangings  for  the  decoration  of  the  tabernacle. 
There  are,  at  any  rate,  signs  of  their  presence  there  in 
the  mention  of  the  "  women  that  assembled"  at  its  door 
(Exod.  xxxviii,  8,  and  comp.  Ewald,  A  Iterthilm.  p.  297). 

5.  Consecration  of  the  Levites, — The  first  act  in  the 
consecration  of  the  Levites  was  to  sprinkle  them  with 
the  water  of  purifying  (nXIJn  i73),  which,  according  to 
tradition,  was  the  same  used  for  the  purification  of  per- 
sons who  became  defiled  by  dead  bodies,  and  in  which 
were  mingled  cedar-wood,  hyssop,  scarlet,  and  ashes  of 
the  red  heifer  (Numb,  xix,  6, 9, 13),  and  was  designed  to 
cleanse  them  from  the  same  defilement  (comp.  Raslii, 
On  Numb,  viii,  7).  They  had,  in  the  next  place,  as  an 
emblem  of  further  purification,  to  shave  off  all  the  hair 
from  their  body,  "  to  teach  thereby,"  as  Ralbag  says, 
"  that  they  must  renounce,  as  much  as  was  in  their 
power,  all  worldly  things,  and  devote  themselves  to  the 
service  of  the  most  high  God,"  and  then  wash  their  gar- 
ments. After  this  triple  form  of  purification,  they  were 
brought  before  the  door  of  the  tabernacle,  along  with 
two  bullocks  and  thie  fiour  mingled  with  oil,  when  the 
whole  congregation,  through  the  elders  who  represented 
them,  laid  their  hands  upon  the  heads  of  the  Levites, 
and  set  them  apart  for  the  service  of  the  sanctuary,  to 
occupy  the  place  of  the  first-born  of  the  whole  congre- 
gation; whereupon  the  priests  waved  them  before  the 
Lord  (Numb,  viii,  5-14),  which  in  all  probability  was 
done,  as  Abrabanel  says,  by  leading  them  forward  and 
backward,  up  and  down,  as  if  saying.  Behold,  these  are 
henceforth  the  servants  of  the  Lord,  instead  of  the  first- 
born of  the  children  of  Israel.  '  The  part  which  the 
whole  congregation  took  in  this  consecration  is  a  very 
important  feature  in  the  Hebrew  constitution,  inasmuch 
as  it  most  distinctly  shows  that  the  Levitical  order  pro- 
caededj'roni  the  midst  oj' the  people  (Exod.  xxvLii,!),  was 
to  be  regarded  as  essentially  identical  with  it,  and  not 
as  a  sacred  caste  standing  in  proud  eminence  above  the 
rest  of  the  nation.  This  principle  of  equality,  which, 
according  to  the  Mosaic  law,  was  not  to  be  infringed  by 
the  introduction  of  a  priesthood  or  monarchy  (Deut. 
xvii,  14-20),  was  recognised  throughout  the  existence 
of  the  Hebrew  commonwealth,  as  is  evident  from  the 
fact  that  the  representatives  of  the  people  took  part  in 
the  coronation  of  kings  and  the  instalment  of  high- 
priests  (1  Kings  ii,  35 ;  with  1  Chron.  xxix,  32),  and  even 
in  the  daj's  of  the  Maccabees  we  see  that  it  is  the  people 
who  installed  Simon  as  high-priest  (1  Maccab.  xiv,  35). 

6.  Revenues  of  the  Leintes. — Thus  consecrated  to  the 
service  of  the  Lord,  it  was  necessary  that  the  tribe  of 
Levi  should  be  relieved  from  the  temporal  pursuits  of 
the  rest  of  the  people,  to  enable  them  to  give  themselves 
wholly  to  their  spiritual  functions,  and  to  the  cultivation 
of  the  arts  and  sciences,  as  well  as  to  preserve  them  from 
contracting  a  desire  to  amass  earthly  possessions.  For 
this  reason  they  were  to  have  no  territorial  possessions, 
but  Jehovah  was  to  be  their  inheritance  (Numb,  xviii, 
20;  xxvi,  62;  Deut.  x,  9;  xviii,  1,  2;  Josh,  xviii,  7). 
To  reward  their  labor,  which  they  had  henceforth  to 
perform  instead  of  the  first-bom  of  the  whole  peojjle,  as 
well  as  to  compensate  the  loss  of  their  share  in  the  ma- 
terial wealtli  of  the  nation,  it  was  ordained  that  they 
should  receive  from  the  other  tribes  the  tithes  of  the 
produce  of  the  land,  from  which  the  non-priestly  portion 
of  the  Levites  in  their  turn  had  to  offer  a  tithe  to  the 
priests  as  a  recognition  of  their  higher  consecration 
(Numb,  xviii,  21-24,  26-32;  Neh.  x,  37).  If  they  had 
had,  like  other  tribes,  a  distinct  territorj'  assigned  to 
them,  their  influence  over  the  people  at  large  would 
be  diminished,  and  they  themselves  would  be  likely  to 
forget,  in  labors  common  to  them  with  others,  their  own 
peculiar  calling  (Neh.  x,  37).  As  if  to  provide  for  the 
contingency  of  failing  crops  or  the  like,  and  the  conse- 
quent inadequacy  of  the  tithes  thus  assigned  to  them, 
the  Levite,  not  less  than  the  widow  and  the  orphan, 
was  commended  to  the  special  kinchiess  of  the  people 
(Deut.  xii,  19 ;  xiv,  27,  29). 


LEYITE 


394 


LEVITE 


But,  though  they  were  to  have  no  territorial  posses- 
sions, still  they  required  a  place  of  abode.  To  secure 
this,  and  at  the  same  time  to  enable  the  Levites  to  dis- 
soininate  a  knowledge  of  tlie  law  and  exercise  a  refined 
anil  intellectual  intluence  among  the  people  at  large, 
iijjon  whose  conscientious  paj'ment  of  the  tithes  they 
were  dependent  for  subsistence,  forty-eight  cities  were 
assigned  to  them,  six  of  which  were  to  be  cities  of  ref- 
uge for  those  who  had  inadvertently  killed  any  one 
(Numb.  XXXV,  1-8).  From  these  forty-eight  cities, 
which  they  obtained  immediately  after  the  conquest  of 
Canaan,  and  which  were  made  up  by  taking  four  cities 
from  the  district  of  every  tribe,  thirteen  were  allotted  to 
the  priestly  portion  of  the  Levitical  tribe.  Which  cit- 
ies belonged  to  the  priestly  portion  of  the  tribe,  and 
which  to  the  non-priestly  portion,  and  how  they  were 
distributed  among  the  other  tribes,  as  recorded  in  Josh. 
xxi,  will  be  seen  from  the  following  table: 

i.  KOUATUITES  : 

a  Pnp«t«  ( Jndah  and  Simeon 0 

ai^i^^s,ti, \Benjamin 4 

j Ephraim 4 

h  Not  Priests. . .  -I  Dan 4 

(Half  Mauasseh  (west) 2 

fHalf  Mauasseh  (east) 2 

..   „  Issachar 4 

11.  Geesuonites. ...-^  Asher 4 

t Naphtali. '.  3 

I  Zebulun 4 

iii.  Meeaeites <  Reuben 4 

(.Gad J 

Total 48 

Each  of  these  cities  was  required  to  have  an  outlying 
suburb  (T"i^'2,  TipodartLo)  of  meadow  land  for  the  pas- 
ture of  the  flocks  and  herds  belonging  to  the  Levites, 
the  dimensions  of  which  are  thus  described  in  Numb. 
XXXV,  4,  6 :  '•  And  the  suburbs  [or  pasture-ground  ]  of 
the  cities  which  ye  shall  give  unto  the  Levites  are  from 
the  wall  of  the  city  to  the  outside  a  thousand  cubits 
round  about;  and  ye  shall  measure  from  without  the 
city  the  east  corner  two  thousand  cubits,  and  the  south 
comer  two  thousand  cubits,  and  the  west  corner  two 
thousand  cubits,  and  the  north  corner  two  thousand  cu- 
bits, and  the  city  in  the  centre."  These  dimensions 
have  occasioned  great  difficulty,  because  of  the  apparent 
contradiction  in  the  two  verses,  as  specifying  first  1000 
cubits  and  then  2000.  The  Sept.,  Josephus  (^Ant.  iv,  4. 
3),  and  Philo  (Z>e  sacerd.  honorihus)  get  over  the  diffi- 
culty by  reading  2000  in  both  verses,  as  exhibited  in 
diagram  I,  a,  while  ancient  and  modern  commentators. 


Levitical  City. — Diagram  I,  a. 

who  rightly  adhere  to  the  text,  have  endeavored  to  rec- 
oncile the  two  verses  by  advancing  different  tlieories, 
of  which  the  following  are  the  most  noticeable:  1.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Talmud  (Kruhin,  b\,  a),  the  .sjiace  "  meas- 
ured from  the  wall  1000  cubits  round  about"'  was  used 
as  a  common  or  suburb,  and  the  space  measured  "from 
without  the  city  on  the  east  side,"  etc..  was  a  further 
tract  of  land  of  2000  cubits,  used  for  fields  and  vino- 
yards,  the  former  being  "  the  suburbs"  properly  ^o  called, 
and  the  latter  "  the  fields  of  the  suburbs,"  as  represented 
in  diagram  I,  h.  Against  this  view,  however,  which  is 
tlie  most  simple  and  rational,  and  which  is  adopted  by 
^Mainionidcs  {liilrhoth  Shnnitii  Ve-.Iohil,  xiii,  2),  bishop 
I'atrick,  and  most  English  expositors,  it  is  urged  that 


Levitical  City. — Diagram  I,  h. 

it  is  not  said  that  the  2000  cubits  are  to  be  measured  in 
aU  directions,  but  only  in  the  east,  south,  etc.,  direction, 
or,  as  the  Hebrew  has  it,  east,  south,  etc.,  corner  (nx£). 
2.  It  means  that  a  circle  of  1000  cubits  radius  was  to  be 
measured  from  the  centre  of  the  city,  and  then  a  square 
circumscribed  about  that  circle,  each  of  whose  sides  was 
2000  cubits  long,  as  exhibited  in  diagram  II.  But  the 
sono  cubits  aonooiiV.ts 


two  cubits 

Diagram  II. 


•2IXXI  cokita 

Diagram  III. 


Levitical  City. 

objection  to  this  is  that  the  1000  cubits  were  to  be 
measured  "  from  the  wall  of  the  city,"  and  not  from  the 
centre.  3.' The  1000  cubits  were  measured  perpendicu- 
larly to  the  wall  of  the  city,  and  then  perpendicular  to 
these  distances,  i.  e.  parallel  to  the  walls  of  the  city,  the 
2000  cubits  were  measured  on  the  north,  south,  east,  and 
west  sides,  as  shown  in  diagram  III.  This,  however,  is 
obviously  incorrect,  because  the  sides  would  not  be  2000 
cubits  long  if  the  city  were  of  finite  dimensions,  but 
plainly  longer.  4.  It  is  assumed  that  the  city  was  built 
in  a  circular  form,  with  a  radius  of  1500  cubits,  that  a 
circle  was  then  described  with  a  radius  of  2500  cubits 
from  the  centre  of  the  city,  i.  e.  at  a  distance  of  1000 
cubits  from  the  walls  of  the  citj',  and  that  the  suburbs 
were  inclosed  between  the  circumferences  of  the  two 
circles,  and  that  the  corner  of  the  circumscribed  square 
was  1000  cubits  from  the  circumference  of  the  outer  cir- 
cle.    Compare  diagram  IV.     But  the  objection  to  this 


Levitical  City.— Diagram  IV. 

is  that  by  Euclid,  i,  47,  the  square  of  the  diagonal  equals 
the  sum  of  the  stpiare  of  the  sides,  whereas  in  this  figure 
3.500=  does  n'jt  equal  2500=  -|- 2500\    The  assigned  length 


LEVITE 


395 


LEVITE 


of  the  diagonal  varies  about  35  cubits  from  its  actual 
value.  5.  The  city  is  supposed  to  be  of  a  circular  form  ; 
round  it  a  circle  is  described  at  a  distance  of  1000  cubits 
from  its  walls;  tlien  from  the  walls  2000  cubits  are 
measured  to  the  north,  south,  east,  and  west  corners — 
the  whole  forming  a  starliice  hgure,  as  exliibited  in  dia- 
gram V.    This  view,  which  is  somewhat  fanciful,  strict- 


Levitical  Citj'.— Diagram  V. 

ly  meets  the  requirements  of  the  Hebrew  text.  6.  The 
1000  cubits  are  measured  from  the  centre  in  four  direc- 
tions at  right  angles  to  one  auotlier,  and  perpendicular 
to  each  of  these  a  side  of  2000  cubits  long  is  drawn,  the 
■whole  forming  a  square.  But  in  this  case  the  condition 
of- 1000  cubits  round  about"  is  not  fulfilled,  the  distance 
of  the  centre  from  the  corners  of  the  square  being  plain- 
ly more  than  1000  cubits.  7.  The  '•  1000  cubits  round 
about"  is  equivalent  to  1000  cubits  square,  or  305  Eng- 
lish acres.  8.  The  city  is  supposed  to  be  square,  each 
side  measuring  1000  or  500  cubits,  and  then,  at  a  dis- 
tance of  1000  cubits  in  all  directions  from  the  square, 
another  square  is  descril)e(l,  as  represented  in  diagrams 
VI,  (I,  and  VI,  b.     But  this  incurs  the  objection  urged 


•2(100  cuWts 

2000  cuWIS 

- 

N 

w 

S 

E 

Levitical  City— Di:ii:;iain  VI, 


:d; 


against  (i,  that  the  1000  cubits  can- 
not be  said  to  be  measured  "  round 
about,"  the  distance  from  the  corner 
of  the  city  to  the  corner  of  the  pre- 
cincts being  plainly  more  than  1000 
cubits.  Upon  a  review  of  all  these 
theories,  we  incline  to  the  ancient 
Jewish  view,  which  is  stated  first, 
Leviiiial  City.— Di-  and  against  which  nothing  can  be 
agmm  VI,  b.  g^iti^  if  wq  take  "  on  the  south,  east," 
etc.,  simply  to  mean,  as  it  often  does,  in  all  dii-ections, 
instead  of  fuur  distinct  points.  It  presupposes  that  the 
cities  were  built  in  a  circular  form,  which  was  usual  in 
the  cities  of  antiquity,  botli  because  the  circle  of  all  fig- 
ures comprises  the  largest  area  witliin  the  smallest  per- 
iphery, and  because  the  inhabitants  could  reach  every 
part  of  the  walls  in  the  shortest  time  from  all  directions, 
if  necessarj-,  for  purposes  of  defence. 

These  revenues  have  been  thought  exorbitant  beyond 


all  bounds;  for,  discarding  the  unjustifiable  conclusion 
of  bishop  Colenso,  that  "  forty-four  people  [  Levites  ],  with 
the  two  priests,  and  their  families,  had  forty-eight  cit- 
ies assigned  to  them"  (The  Pentateuch,  etc.,  i,  112),  and 
adhering  to  the  scriptural  numbers,  we  still  have  a  tribe 
which,  at  the  second  census,  numbered  23,000  males, 
with  no  more  than  12,000  arrived  at  man's  estate,  re- 
ceiving the  tithes  of  000,000  people;  "consequently,"  it 
is  thought "  that  each  individual  Levite,  without  having 
to  deduct  seed  and  the  charges  of  husbandry,  had  as 
much  as  five  Israelites  reaped  from  their  fields  or  gain- 
ed on  their  cattle"  (Michaelis,  Laics  of  Moses,  i,  252). 
Add  to  this  that,  though  so  small  in  number,  the  Le- 
vites received  forty-eight  cities,  while  other  tribes  which 
consisted  of  more  than  doidile  the  number  of  men  re- 
ceived less  cities,  and  some  did  not  get  more  than  twelve 
cities.  But  in  all  these  calculations  the  following  facts 
are  ignored  :  1.  The  tithes  were  not  a  regular  tax,  but  a 
religious  duty,  which  was  greatly  neglected  by  the  peo- 
ple ;  2.  Even  from  these  irregular  tithes  the  Levites  had 
to  give  a  tithe  to  the  priests ;  3.  The  tithes  never  in- 
creased, whereas  the  Levites  did  increase.  4.  Thirteen 
of  the  forty-eight  cities  were  assigned  to  the  priests,  and 
six  were  cities  of  refuge ;  and,  5.  Of  the  remaining  twen- 
ty-nine cities,  the  Levites  were  by  no  means  the  sole 
occupants  or  proprietors ;  they  were  simply  to  have  in 
them  those  houses  which  they  required  as  dwellings, 
and  the  fields  necessary  for  the  pasture  of  their  cattle. 
This  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  the  Levites  -were  al- 
lowed to  sell  their  houses,  and  that  a  special  clause  bear- 
ing on  this  subject  was  inserted  in  the  Jubilee  law  [see 
Jcdilee]  ;  inasmuch  as  Lev.  xxv,  32-34,  woidd  have 
no  meaning  unless  it  is  presumed  that  other  IsraeUtes 
lived  together  with  the  Levites. 

These  provisions  for  abode,  of  course,  did  not  apjily 
to  the  Levites  in  the  time  of  Moses.  While  wandering 
in  the  wilderness,  they  were  supported  like  the  other 
Israelites,  with  but  slight  emoluments  or  perquisites, 
and  at  first  with  comparatively  little  honor,  amid  their 
considerable  burdens  in  caring  for  the  religious  cidtus. 
But  how  ra])idly  the  fcding  of  reverence  gained  strength 
we  may  judge  from  the  share  assigned  to  them  out  of 
the  flocks,  and  herds,  and  women  of  the  conquered  JMid- 
ianites  (Numb,  xxxi,  27,  etc.).  The  same  victory  led  to 
the  dedication  of  gold  and  silver  vessels  of  great  value, 
and  thus  increased  the  importance  of  the  tribe  as  guar- 
dians of  the  national  treasures  (Numb,  xxxi,  50-54). 

7.  Modifications  under  Joshua  and  ike  Judges. — The 
submission  of  the  Gibeonites,  after  they  had  obtained  a 
promise  that  their  lives  should  be  spared,  enabled  Joshua 
to  relieve  the  tribe-divisions  of  Gershon  and  IMerari  of 
the  most  burdensome  of  their  duties.  The  conquered 
Hivites  became  "  hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of  water" 
for  the  house  of  Jehovah  and  for  the  congregation  (Josh. 
ix,  27).  The  Ncthinim  (^l)eo  dati)  of  1  Chron.  ix,  2; 
Ezra  ii, 43,  were  probably  sprung  from  captives  taken  by 
David  in  later  wars,  who  were  assigned  to  the  service 
of  the  tabernacle,  replacing  possibly  the  Gibeonites  who 
had  been  slain  by  Saul  (2  Sam.  xxi,  1).  See  Netiiisiji. 
The  scanty  memorials  that  are  left  us  in  the  book  of 
Judges  are  rather  unfavorable  to  the  inference  that  for 
any  length  of  time  the  reality  answered  to  the  IMosaic 
idea  of  the  Levitical  institution.  The  ravages  of  inva- 
sion, and  the  pressure  of  an  alien  rule,  marred  the  work- 
ing of  the  organization  which  seemed  so  perfect.  Le- 
vitical cities,  such  as  Aijalim  (Josh,  xxi,  24 ;  Judg.  i,35) 
and  Gezer  (Josh,  xxi,  21 ;  1  Chron.  vi,  67),  fell  into  the 
hands  of  their  enemies.  Sometimes,  as  in  the  case  of 
Nob,  others  ajiparently  toolc  their  place.  The  wander- 
ing, unsettled  habits  of  such  Levites  as  are  mentioned 
in  the  later  chapters  of  Judges  are  probably  to  be  traced 
to  this  loss  of  a  fixed  abode,  and  the  consequent  neces- 
sity of  taking  refuge  in  other  cities,  even  though  tlieir 
trilie  as  such  had  no  portion  in  them.  The  tendency 
of  the  people  to  fall  into  the  idolatrj'  of  the  neighboring 
nations  showed  either  that  the  Levites  failed  to  bear 
their  witness  to  the  truth  or  had  no  power  to  enforce  it. 


LEVITE 


39G 


LEVITE 


Even  in  the  lifetime  of  riiinehas,  when  the  high-priest 
was  still  consulted  as  an  oracle,  the  very  reverence  which 
the  people  felt  for  the  tribe  of  Levi  becomes  the  occasion 
of  a  rival  worship  (Judg.  xvii).  The  old  household 
priesthood  revives  (see  Kaliseh,  On  Ge/iesis  xlir,  7),  and 
there  is  the  risk  of  the  national  worship  breaking  up  into 
individualism.  Micah  first  consecrates  one  of  his  own 
sons,  and  then  tempts  a  homeless  Levite  to  dwell  with 
him  as  "  a  father  and  a  priest"  for  little  more  than  his 
food  and  raiment.  The  Levite,  though  probably  the 
grandson  of  Moses  himself,  repeats  the  sin  of  Korah. 
See  Jonathan.  First  in  the  house  of  Micah,  and  then 
for  the  emigrants  of  Dan,  he  exercises  the  office  of  a 
priest  with  -'an  ephod.  and  a  teraphim,  and  a  graven 
image."  'Witli  this  exception  the  whole  tribe  appears 
to  have  fallen  into  a  condition  analogous  to  that  of  the 
clergy  in  the  darkest  period  and  in  the  most  outlyuig 
districts  of  the  medireval  Church,  going  through  a  ritual 
routine,  but  exercising  no  influence  lor  good,  at  once 
corrupted  and  corrupting.  The  shameless  license  of  the 
sons  of  Eli  maj'  be  looked  upon  as  the  result  of  a  long 
period  of  decay,  affecting  the  whole  order.  When  the 
priests  were  such  as  Hophni  and  Phinehas,  we  may  fairly 
assume  that  the  Le\ites  were  not  doing  nnich  to  sustain 
the  moral  life  of  the  people. 

The  work  of  Samuel  was  the  starting-point  of  a  bet- 
ter time.  Himself  a  Levite,  and,  though  not  a  priest, 
belonging  to  that  section  of  the  Levites  which  was  near- 
est to  the  priesthood  (1  Chron.vi, 28),  adopted,  as  it  were, 
by  a  special  dedication  into  the  priestly  line  and  tramed 
for  its  offices  (I  Sam.  ii,  18),  he  appears  as  infusing  a 
fresh  life,  the  author  of  a  new  organization.  There  is 
no  reason  to  think,  indeed,  that  the  companies  or  schools 
of  the  sons  of  the  prophets  which  appear  in  his  time  (I 
Sam.  x,o),  and  are  traditionally  said  to  have  been  found- 
ed by  hmi,  consisted  exclusively  of  Levues;  but  there 
are  many  signs  that  the  members  of  that  tribe  formed 
a  large  element  iu  the  new  order,  and  received  new 
strength  from  it.  It  exhibited,  indeed,  the  ideal  of  the 
Levitical  life  as  one  of  praise,  devotion,  teachhig;  stand- 
ing in  the  same  relation  to  the  priests  and  Levites  gener- 
ally as  the  monastic  institutions  of  the  5th  century,  or 
the  mendicant  orders  of  the  13th  did  to  the  secular  cler- 
gy of  Western  Europe.  The  fact  that  the  Levites  were 
thus  brought  under  the  influence  of  a  system  which  ad- 
dressed itself  to  the  mind  and  heart  in  a  greater  degree 
than  the  sacrificial  functions  of  the  priesthood,  may  pos- 
sibly have  led  them  on  to  apprehend  the  higher  truths 
as  to  the  nature  of  worship  -which  begin  to  be  asserted 
from  this  period,  and  Avhich  are  nowhere  proclaimed 
more  clearly  than  in  the  great  hymn  that  bears  the 
name  of  Asaph  (Psa.  1,7-15).  The  man  who  raises  the 
name  of  prophet  to  a  new  significance  is  himself  a  Levite 
(1  Sam.  ix,  9).  It  is  among  the  prophets  that  we  find 
the  first  signs  of  the  musical  skill  which  is  afterwards  so 
conspicuous  in  the  Levites  (1  Sam.  x,  5).  The  order  in 
which  the  Temple  services  were  arranged  is  ascribed  to 
two  of  the  prophets,  Nathan  and  Gad  (2  Chron.  xxix, 
25),  who  nuist  have  grown  up  mider  Samuel's  superin- 
tendence, and  in  jiart  to  Samuel  himself  (1  Chron.  ix,  22). 
Asaph  and  Hcman,  the  psalmists,  bear  the  same  title  as 
Samuel  the  Seer  (1  Chron.  xxv,  5;  2  Chron.  xxix,  30). 
The  very  word  "prophesying"  is  applied  not  only  to 
sudden  bursts  of  song,  but  to  the  organized  psalmody  of 
the  Temple  (1  Chron.  xxv,  2,  .■!).  Even  of  those  who 
bore  the  name  (if  a  projihct  in  a  higher  sense  a  large 
number  are  traceably  of  this  tribe. 

The  ca])turc  of  the  ark  by  the  Philistines  did  not  en- 
tirely interrupt  the  worship  of  the  Israelites,  and  the 
ministrations  of  the  Levites  went  on,  first  at  Shiloh  (1 
Sam.  xiv,  o),  then  for  a  time  at  Nob  (1  Sam.  xxii,  11), 
afterwards  at  (Jilieon  (1  Kings  iii,  2;  1  Chron.  x-vi,  39). 
The  history  <>f  the  return  of  the  ark  to  Beth-shemesh 
after  its  capture  by  the  Philistines,  and  its  subsequent 
removal  to  Kirjath-jearim,  points  apparently  to  some 
strange  complications  rising  out  of  the  anomalies  of  this 
period,  and  affecting,  in  some  measure,  the  position  of 


the  tribe  of  Lc\-i.  Beth-shemesh  was,  bj'  the  original 
assignment  of  the  conciuered  countrj',  one  of  the  cities 
of  the  priests  (Josh,  xxi,  IG).  They,  however,  do  not 
appear  in  tlie  narrative,  unless  we  assume,  against  all 
probability,  that  the  men  of  Beth-shemesh  who  wore 
guilty  of  the  act  of  profanation  were  themselves  of  the 
priestly  order.  Levites,  indeed,  are  mentioned  as  doing 
their  appointed  work  (1  Sam.  vi,  15),  but  the  sacrifices 
and  burnt-offerings  are  offered  by  the  men  of  the  city, 
as  though  the  special  function  of  the  priesthood  had 
been  usurped  by  others,  and  on  this  supposition  it  is 
easier  to  mtderstand  how  those  who  had  set  aside  the 
law  of  Jloses  liy  one  offence  should  defy  it  also  by  an- 
other. The  singidar  reading  of  the  Sept.  in  1  Sam.  vi, 
19  {icai  oi/K  i)cii'ivi(7av  o\  v'loi  'lt\oviov  tv  roiq  dv?.paai 
BaiOaafivg  vri  fiSov  Kif3wTuv  Ki'p/of)  mdicates,  if  we 
assume  that  it  rests  upon  some  corresponding  Hebrew 
text,  a  struggle  between  two  opposed  parties,  one  guilty 
of  the  profanation,  the  other — possibly  the  Levites  who 
had  been  before  mentioned  —  zealous  in  their  remon- 
strances against  it.  Then  comes,  either  as  the  result 
of  this  collision,  or  by  direct  supernatural  infliction,  the 
great  slaughter  of  the  Beth-shemites,  and  they  shrink 
from  retaining  the  ark  any  longer  among  them.  The 
great  Eben  (stone)  becomes,  by  a  slight  paronomastic 
change  in  its  form,  the  ''great  Abel"  (lamentation),  and 
the  name  remains  as  a  memorial  of  the  sin  and  of  its 
punishment.  See  Eetii-shemesh.  We  are  left  en- 
tirely in  the  dark  as  to  the  reasons  which  led  them, 
after  this,  to  send  the  ark  of  Jehovah,  not  to  Hebron  or 
some  other  priestly  city,  but  to  Kirjath-jearim,  round 
which,  so  far  as  we  know,  there  gathered  legitimately 
no  sacred  associations.  It  has  been  commonly  assumed, 
indeed,  that  Abinadab,  under  whose  guardianship  it  rc- 
mamed  for  twenty  years,  must  iieces;arily  have  been  of 
the  tribe  of  Levi.  See  Abinadab.  Of  this,  however, 
there  is  not  the  slightest  direct  evidence,  and  against  it 
there  is  the  language  of  David  in  1  Chron.  xv,  2, "  None 
ought  to  carry  the  ark  of  God  but  the  Levites,  for  them 
hath  Jehovah  chosen,"  which  would  lose  half  its  force 
if  it  were  not  meant  ns  a  protest  against  a  recent  inno- 
vation, and  the  ground  of  a  return  to  the  more  ancient 
order.  So  far  as  one  can  see  one's  way  through  these 
perplexities  of  a  dark  period,  the  most  probable  explana- 
tion— already  suggested  under  Kirjath-jearui — seems 
to  be  the  following :  The  old  names  of  Baaleh  (.Josh,  xv, 
9)  and  Kirjath-baal  (Josh,  xv,  GO)  suggest  there  had  been 
of  old  some  special  sanctity  attached  to  the  place  as  the 
centre  of  a  Canaaniiish  local  worship.  The  fact  that  the 
ark  was  taken  to  the  house  of  Abinadab  in  the  hill  (1 
Sam.  vii,  1),  the  Gibeah  of  2  Sam.  vi,  3,  connects  itself 
with  that  old  Canaanitlsh  reverence  for  high  places 
which,  through  the  whole  history  of  the  Israelites,  con- 
tinued to  have  such  strong  attractions  for  them.  These 
may  have  seemed  to  the  panic-stricken  inhabitants  of 
that  district,  mingling  old  things  and  new,  the  worship 
of  Jehovah  with  the  lingering  superstitions  of  the  con- 
quered people,  sufficient  grounds  to  determine  their 
choice  of  a  locality.  The  consecration  (the  word  used 
is  the  special  sacerdotal  term)  of  Eleazar  as  the  guar- 
dian of  the  ark  is,  on  this  hypothesis,  analogous  in  its 
way  to  the  otlier  irregular  assumptions  which  charac- 
terize this  period,  though  here  the  offence  was  less  fla- 
grant, and  did  not  involve,  apparently,  the  performance 
of  any  sacrificial  acts.  While,  however,  this  aspect  of 
the  religious  conditi<in  of  the  people  brings  the  Levit- 
ical and  priestly  orders  before  us  as  having  lost  the  po- 
sition they  had  previously  occupied,  there  were  other 
influences  at  work  tending  to  ninstate  them. 

II.  Jhtriiif)  the  Mnmnrhy. — Tlie  dcplorablj'  disorgan- 
ized condition  of  the  Levitical  order  was  not  much 
improved  in  the  reign  of  the  first  Hebrew  monarch. 
The  rule  of  Samuel  and  his  sons,  and  the  prophetical 
character  now  connected  with  the  tribe,  tended  to  give 
them  the  position  of  a  ruling  caste.  In  the  strong  de- 
sire of  the  people  for  a  king  wc  may  perhaps  trace  a 
protest  against  the  assumption  by  the  Levites  of  a  higher 


LEVITE 


397 


LEVITE 


position  than  that  originally  assigned  them.  The  reign 
of  Saul,  in  its  later  period,  was  at  any  rate  the  assertion 
of  a  self-willed  power  against  the  priestly  order.  The 
assnmption  of  the  saeridcial  office,  the  massacre  of  the 
priests  at  Nob,  the  slaughter  of  the  (iibeonites  who  were 
attached  to  their  service,  were  parts  of  the  same  policy, 
and  the  narrative  of  the  cojidemnation  of  Saul  for  the 
two  former  sins,  no  less  than  of  the  expiation  required 
for  the  latter  (2  Sam.  xxi ),  shows  by  what  strong  meas- 
ures the  truth,  of  which  that  pohcy  was  a  subversion, 
had  to  be  impressed  on  the  minds  of  the  Israelites.  The 
reign  of  David,  however,  brought  the  change  from  per- 
secution to  honor.  The  Levites  ^verc  ready  to  welcome 
a  king  who,  though  not  of  their  tribe,  had  been  brought 
up  under  their  training,  was  skilled  in  their  arts,  pre- 
parctl  to  share  even  in  some  of  their  ministrations,  and 
to  array  himself  in  their  apparel  (2  Sara,  vi,  14) ;  and 
4C00  of  their  number,  with  3700  priests,  waited  upon  Da- 
vid at  Hebron — itself,  it  should  be  remembered,  one  of 
the  priestly  cities — to  tender  their  allegiance  (1  Chron. 
xii,  26).  When  his  kingdom  was  established,  there  came 
a  fuller  organization  of  the  whole  tribe.  Its  position  in 
relation  to  the  priesthood  was  once  again  definitely  rec- 
ognised. When  the.  ark  was  carried  up  to  its  new  rest- 
ing-place in  Jerusalem,  their  claim  to  be  the  bearers  of 
it  was  publicly  acknowledged  (1  Chron.  xv,  2).  When 
the  sin  of  Uzza  stopped  the  procession,  it  was  placed 
for  a  time  under  the  care  of  Obed-edom  of  Gath — prob- 
ably Gath-rimmon — as  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  Kohath- 
ites  (1  Chron.  xiii,  13,  .Josh,  xxi,  24;  1  Chron.  xv,  18). 
In  the  procession  which  attended  the  ultimate  convey- 
ance of  tlie  ark  to  its  new  resting-] jlace  the  Levites  were 
conspicuous,  wearing  their  linen  ephods,  and  appearing 
in  their  new  character  as  minstrels  (1  Chron.  xv,  27, 28). 
The  Levites  engaged  in  conveying  the  ark  to  Jerusalem 
were  divided  into  six  father's  houses,  headed  by  six 
chiefs,  four  belonging  to  Kohath,  one  to  Gershon,  and 
one  to  INIerari  (1  Chron.  xv,  .5,  etc.).  The  most  remark- 
able feature  in  the  Levitical  duties  of  this  period  is  their 
being  employed  for  the  first  time  in  choral  service  (1 
Chron.  xv,  16-24 ;  xvi,  4-36) ;  others,  again,  were  ap- 
pointed as  door-keepers  (xv,  23, 24).  Still  the  thorough 
reorganization  of  the  whole  tribe  was  effected  by  the 
shepherd-king  in  the  last  days  of  his  eventful  life,  that 
the  Levites  might  be  able  at  the  erection  of  the  Tem- 
ple '-to  wait  on  the  sons  of  Aaron  for  the  service  of  the 
house  of  Jehovah,  in  the  courts  and  the  chambers,  and 
the  purifj-ing  of  all  holj^  things,  and  the  work  of  the 
service  of  the  house  of  God"  (1  Chron.  xxiii,  28).  This 
reorganization  may  be  described  as  follows: 

1.  Number  of  Levites  and  Aye  for  Service. — The  Le- 
vites from  thirty  years  of  age  and  upwards  were  first  of 
all  numbered,  when  it  was  Ibund  that  they  were  38,000 
(1  Chron.  xxiii,  2,3) ;  this  being  about  29,500  more  than 
at  the  first  Mosaic  census.  It  will  be  seen  that,  accord- 
ing to  this  statement,  the  Levites  were  to  commence 
service  at  thirty  years  of  age,  in  harmony  with  the  Mo- 
saic institution  (Numb,  iv,  3,  23,  30) ;  while  in  ver.  27 
of  the  same  chapter  (i.  e.  1  Chron.  xxiii,  27)  it  is  said 
that  they  were  to  take  tlieir  share  of  duty  at  twenty 
years  of  age.  Kimchi,  wlio  is  followed  by  bishop  Pat- 
rick, Michaelis,  and  others,  tries  to  reconcile  this  appar- 
ent contradiction  by  submitting  that  the  former  refers 
to  a  census  which  David  matle  at  an  earlier  period, 
which  was  according  to  the  Mosaic  law  (Numb,  iv,  3) ; 
while  the  latter  speaks  of  a  second  census  which  he 
made  at  the  close  of  his  life,  when  he  found  that  the  du- 
ties of  the  fixed  sanctuary  were  much  lighter  and  more 
numenms,  and  coidd  easily  be  performed  at  the  age  of 
twenty,  but  at  the  same  time  required  a  larger  staff  of 
men.  Against  this,  however,  Bertheau  rightly  urges 
that,  1.  The  38,000  Levites  of  thirty  years  of  age  given 
in  the  census  of  ver.  3  are  the  only  persons  appointed 
for  the  different  Levitical  offices,  and  that  it  is  nowhere 
stated  that  this  number  was  insufficient,  or  that  the  ar- 
rangements based  thereupon,  as  recorded  in  vers.  4  and 
5,  were  not  carried  out;  and,  2.  The  chronicler  plainly 


indicates,  in  ver,  25,  etc.,  that  he  is  about  to  impart  a 
different  statement  from  that  communicated  in  ver.  3 ; 
for  he  mentions  therein  the  reason  which  induced  David 
not  to  abide  by  the  Mosaic  institution,  which  prescribes , 
the  age  of  service  to  commence  at  thirty,  and  in  ver.  27 
expressly  points  out  the  source  from  which  he  derived 
this  deviating  account.  The  two  accounts  are,  there- 
fore, entirely  different;  the  one  records  that  the  Le- 
vites, in  David's  time,  were  numbered  from  their  thir- 
tieth year;  whUe  the  other, which  appears  to  the  chron- 
icler more  trustworthy,  states  that  David  introduced  the 
practice  which  afterwards  obtained  (2  Chron.  xxxi,  17 ; 
Ezra  iii,  8)  of  appointing  Levites  to  office  at  the  age  of 
twenty. 

2.  Division  of  the  Levites  according  to  the  three  great 
Families. — Having  ascertained  their  number,  David,  fol- 
lowing the  example  of  the  Mosaic  institution,  divided 
the  Levitical  fathers'  houses,  according  to  their  descent 
from  the  three  sons  of  Levi,  when  it  was  ascertained 
that  these  three  sons,  Gershon,  Kohath,  and  Merari,  were 
represented  by  twenty-four  heads  of  fathers'  houses  (1 
Chron.  xxiii,  0-23 ;  xxiv,  20-31),  as  follows: 

fJehiel. 

I  Zetliam. 

!  Joel. 

I  Shelomith  or  Shelomoth. 

I  Haziel. 

l^IIaran. 
Jahath. 
Zina  or  Ziza. 
Jeush  and  Beriah,  counted  as  one. 

|Shiil)ael. 

(Kehabirth. 


Gekshon  < 


-Laadan 


-Shimei 


Kohath 


Mekabi 


'Amram 
Izhar . . . 


"1  Hebron 


Uzziel 


Shelomith  or  Shelomoth. 
Jeriali. 
Aniariah. 
Jahazicl. 
Jekameam. 
(Michah. 
(Isshiah. 
(■Shohara. 
f  Jaaziah  <  Zaccur. 
I  (ibri. 

Jereraeel. 


"|Mahli....Kish-, 

Uiushi  {f^;«;;;,oth. 

3.  Classification  and  Duties  of  the  Leintes.  —  These 
twenty-four  fathers'  houses,  numbering  38,000  men  qual- 
ified for  active  service,  were  then  divided  into  four  class- 
es, to  each  of  which  different  duties  were  assigned. 

(1.)  The  first  class  consisted  of  24,000  Levites.  These 
were  appointed  to  assist  the  priests  in  the  work  of.the 
sanctuary  {\nTOvpyovi>Ttq).  They  had  the  custody  of 
the  official  garments  and  sacred  vessels,  had  to  deliver 
them  when  wanteil,  and  collect  and  lock  them  up  again 
after  they  had  been  used;  to  replenish  the  sacrificial 
storehouse  with  cattle,  fiour,  wine,  oil,  incense,  and  other 
articles  used  as  sacrifices,  and  mete  out  each  time  the 
required  quantity ;  to  provide  the  different  spices  from 
which  the  priests  compounded  the  incense  (1  Chron. 
ix,  30) ;  to  prepare  the  shewbread  and  the  other  baked 
things  used  at  sacrifices ;  to  assist  the  priests  in  slaugh- 
tering the  victims,  and  to  attend  to  the  cleaning  of  the 
Temple,  etc.  (1  Chron.  xxiii,  28-32;  ix,  29).  They  had 
most  probably,  also,  the  charge  of  the  sacred  treasury 
(1  Chron.  xxvi,  20-28).  Like  the  priests,  they  -were 
subdivided  into  twenty-four  courses  or  companies,  ac- 
cording to  the  above-named  twenty-four  Levitical  fa- 
thers' houses,  and  were  headed  respectively  by  one  of 
the  twenty-four  representatives  of  these  houses.  Each 
of  these  courses  was  a  week  on  duty,  and  was  relieved 
on  the  Sabbath  (2  Kings  xi)  by  the  company  -vdiose 
turn  it  was  to  serve  next,  so  that  there  were  always  a 
thousand  men  of  this  class  on  duty,  and  each  man  had 
to  serve  two  weeks  during  the  year.  The  menial  work 
was  done  by  the  Nethinim,  who  were  appointed  to  assist 
the  Levites  in  these  matters.     See  Nethiniji. 

(2.)  The  second  class  consisted  of  4000,  who  were  the 
musicians  (C'ni'lC^a,  vfivtpSoi).  They  too  were  sub- 
divided into  twenty-four  courses  or  choirs,  each  lieaded 
by  a  chief  (1  Chron.  xxv),  and  are  to  be  traced  back  to 
the  three  great  families  of  Levi,  inasmuch  as  four  of  the 


LEVITE 


398 


LEVITE 


chiefs  were  sons  of  Asaph,  a  descendant  of  Gershon  (1  ] 
Chron.  vi,  24-2S)  ;  six  wore  sons  of  Jcduthun,  also  called 
Ethan  (1  Chron.  xv,  17),  a  descendant  of  Merari  (1  ; 
Chnin.  vi.  '2S) ;  and  fourteen  were  sons  of  Haman,  a  de- 
scendant of  Koliath  (1  Chron.  vi,  18).  Each  of  these 
chiefs  had  eleven  assistant  masters  from  his  own  sons 
and  brothers,  thus  maliing  together  288  (1  Chron.  xxv, 
7).  Hence,  when  these  are  deducted  from  the  4000, 
there  remain  for  each  band  consisting  of  twelve  chief 
nnisicians,  154  or  155  subordinate  musicians.  As  twelve 
nnisieians  were  reqnired  to  be  present  at  the  daily  morn- 
ing and  evening  service,  thus  demanding  1G8  to  be  on 
duty  every  week,  the  twenty-four  courses  which  re- 
lieved each  other  in  hebdomadal  rotation  must  have 
consisted  of  4032,  and  4000  given  by  the  chronicler  is 
simply  to  be  regarded  as  a  round  number.  Of  this  class, 
therefore,  as  of  the  former,  each  individual  had  to  serve 
t^vo  weeks  during  the  year. 

(o.)  The  third  class  also  consisted  of  4000.  They  were 
the  gate-keepers  (D'^1"1^\  TTvXwpoi,  1  Chron.  xxvi,  1- 
10),  and,  as  such,  bore  arms  (ix,  19.  2  Chron.  xxxi,  2). 
They  had  to  open  and  shut  the  gates,  to  keep  strangers 
and  excommunicated  or  unclean  persons  from  entering 
the  courts,  and  to  guard  the  storehouse,  the  Temple,  and 
its  courts  at  night.  They,  too,  were  subdivided  into 
twenty-four  courses,  and  were  headed  by  twenty-four 
chiefs  from  the  three  great  families  of  Levi ;  seven  were 
sons  of  Meshelmiah,  a  descendant  of  Kohath ;  thirteen 
were  from  Obed-edom,  a  descendant  of  tJershon ;  and 
four  were  sons  of  Hosah,  a  descendant  of  Merari.  These 
three  families,  including  the  twenty-four  chiefs,  consist- 
ed of  ninety-three  members,  who,  together  with  the 
three  heads  "of  the  families,  viz.  Meshelmiah,  Obed-edom, 
and  Hosah,  made  ninety-six,  thus  yielding  four  chiefs 
for  each  course.  We  thus  obtain  a  watch-course  every 
week  of  1G2  or  163  persons,  under  the  command  of  four 
superior  watches,  one  of  whom  was  the  commander- 
in-chief.  As  24  sentinel  posts  are  assigned  to  these 
guards,  thus  making  1G8  a  week,  it  appears  that  each 
nerson  only  served  one  day  in  the  week  (1  Chron.  xxvi). 
(4.)  The  foiu-th  class  consisted  of  6000,  who  were  ap- 
pointed for  outward  affairs  (n:"i:jinn  (izs'b'in),  as 
scribes  and  judges  (1  Chron.  xxvi,  29-32),  m  contradis- 
tinction to  the  work  connected  with  the  service  of  the 
sanctuary.  It  appears  that  this  class  was  subdivided 
into  three  branches:  Chenaniah  and  his  sons  were  for  the 
outward  business  of  Israel  (1  Chron.  xSvi,  29)-,  Ilasha- 
liiah  of  Hebron  and  his  brethren,  numbering  1700,  Mere 
olHcers  west  of  Jordan,  "  in  all  the  Ijusiness  of  the  Lord 
and  in  tl\e  service  of  the  king"  (ver.  30)  ;  whilst  Jerijah, 
also  of  Hebron,  and  his  brethren,  numbering  2700  active 
men,  ;vere  rulers  east  of  Jordan  "  for  every  matter  per- 
taining to  (Jod  and  affairs  of  the  king"  (vers.  31, 32).  It 
will  thus  be  seen  that  this  class  consisted  of  Kohathites, 
being  descendants  of  Izhar  and  Hebron. 

Tlie  Levites  lived  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year  in 
their  own  cities,  and  came  up  at  fixed  periods  to  take 
their  turn  of  work  (1  Chron.  xxv,  xxvi).  The  predom- 
inance of  the  number  twelve  as  the  basis  of  classifica- 
tion might  seem  to  indicate  monthly  periods,  and  the 
festivals  of  the  new  moon  would  naturally  suggest  such 
an  arrangement.  The  analogous  order  in  the  civil 
and  nnlitary  administration  (I  Chron.  xxvii,  1)  would 
tend  to  the  same  conclusion.  It  api)ears,  indeed,  that 
there  was  a  change  of  some  kind  every  week  (1  Chron. 
ix,  25 ;  2  Chron.  xxiii,  4,  8) ;  but  this  is,  of  course,  com- 
patible with  a  system  of  rotation,  which  would  give  to 
each  a  longer  period  of  residence,  or  with  the  jierma- 
nent  residence  of  the  leader  of  each  division  within  the 
precincts  of  the  sanctuary.  M'hatever  may  have  been 
tlie  system,  we  must  liear  in  mind  that  the  duties  now 
imposed  ujion  the  Levites  were  such  as  to  require  al- 
most ciiutinuous  practice.  They  would'  need,  when 
their  turn  came,  to  be  able  to  bear  their  ]>arts  in  the 
great  choral  hymns  of  the  Temple,  and  to  take  each  his 
appomted  share  in  the  complex  structure  of  a  sacrificial 


liturgy,  and  for  this  a  special  study  would  be  required. 
The  education  which  the  Levites  received  for  their  pe- 
culiar duties,  no  less  than  their  connection,  more  or  less 
intimate,  with  the  schools  of  the  prophets  (see  above), 
would  tend  to  make  them,  so  far  as  there  was  any  edu- 
cation at  all,  the  teachers  of  the  others  (there  is,  how- 
ever, a  curious  Jewish  tradition  that  the  schoolmasters 
of  Israel  were  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon  [Solom.  Jarchi  on 
Gen.  xlix,  7,  in  Godwyn's  Moses  and  A  a?-(5»]),  the  tran- 
scribers and  interiireters  of  the  law,  the  chroniclers  of 
the  times  in  which  they  lived.  We  have  some  striking 
instances  of  their  appearance  in  this  new  character. 
One  of  them,  Ethan  the  Ezrahite,  takes  his  place  .among 
the  old  Hebre\v  sages  who  were  worthy  to  be  compared 
with  Solomon,  and  (Psa.  Ixxxix,  title)  his  name  ap- 
pears as  the  writer  of  the  39th  Psalm  (1  Kings  iv,  31 ; 
1  Chron.  XV,  17).  One  of  the  first  to  bear  the  title  of 
•'  scribe"  is  a  Levite  (1  Chron.  xxiv,  G),  and  this  is  men- 
tioned as  one  of  their  special  offices  under  Josiah  (2 
Chron.  xxxiv,  13).  They  are  described  as  "  officers  and 
judges"  under  David  (1  Chron.  xxvi,  29),  and,  as  such, 
are  employed  '-in  all  the  business  of  Jehovah,  and  in 
the  service  of  the  king."  They  are  the  agents  of  Je- 
hoshaphat  and  Hezekiah  in  their  work  of  reformation, 
and  are  sent  iV)rth  to  jiroclaim  and  enforce  the  law  (2 
Chron.  xvii,  8 ;  xxx,  22).  Under  Josiah  the  function 
has  passed  into  a  title,  and  they  are  "  the  Levites  that 
taught  all  Israel"  (2  Chron.  xxxv,  3).  The  two  books 
of  Chronicles  bear  unmistakable  marks  of  liaving  been 
written  by  men  whose  interests  were  all  gathered  round 
the  services  of  the  Temple,  and  who  were  familiar  with 
its  records.  The  materials  from  which  they  compiled 
their  narratives,  and  to  which  they  refer  as  the  works 
of  seers  and  prophets,  were  written  by  men  ^\•ho  were 
probably  Levites  themselves,  or,  if  not,  were  associated 
with  them. 

This  reorganization  effected  by  David,  we  are  told, 
was  adojited  by  his  son  Solomon  when  the  Temple  was 
completed  (2  Chron.  viii,  14,  etc.).  The  revolt  of  the 
ten  tribes,  and  the  policy  pursued  by  Jeroboam,  led  to  a 
great  change  in  the  position  of  the  Levites.  They  were 
the  witnesses  of  an  appointed  order  and  of  a  central  wor- 
ship. Jeroboam  wished  to  make  the  priests  the  creatures 
and  instruments  of  the  king,  and  to  establish  a  provin- 
cial and  divided  worship.  The  natural  result  was  that 
they  left  the  cities  assigned  to  them  in  the  territory  of 
Israel  and  gathered  round  the  metropolis  of  Judah  (2 
Chron.  xi,  13,  14).  Their  influence  over  the  peo]ilc  at 
large  was  thus  diminished,  and  the  design  of  the  Mosaic 
polity  so  far  frustrated;  but  their  power  as  a  religious 
order  was  probably  increased  by  this  concentration  with- 
in narrower  limits.  In  the  kingdom  of  Judah  they  were 
from  this  time  forward  a  powerful  body,  politically  as 
well  as  ecclesiastically.  They  brought  with  them  the 
prophetic  element  of  influence,  in  the  wider  as  well  as 
in  the  higher  meaning  of  the  word.  We  accordingly 
lind  them  ]irominent  in  the  war  of  Abijah  against  Jero- 
boam (2  Chron.  xiii,  10-12).  They  are,  as  before  no- 
ticed, sent  out  by  Jehoshaphat  to  instruct  and  judge 
the  people  (2  Chron.  xix,  8-10).  Prophets  of  their  or- 
der encourage  the  king  in  his  war  against  IMoab  and 
Ammon,  and  go  before  his  army  with  their  loud  halle- 
lujahs (2  Chron.  xx,  21),  and  join  aftenvards  in  the  tri- 
umph of  his  return.  The  apostasy  that  inllowed  on  the 
marriage  of  Jehoram  and  Athaliah  exposed  them  for  a 
time  to  the  dominance  of  a  hostile  system  ;  but  the  serv- 
ices of  the  Temple  appear  to  have  gone  on,  and  the  Le- 
vites were  again  conspicuous  in  the  counter-revolution 
effected  by  Jehoiada  (2  Chron.  xxiii),  and  in  restoring 
the  Temple  to  its  former  stateliness  under  Jehoash  (2 
Chron.  xxiv,  5).  They  shared  in  the  disasters  of  the 
reign  of  Amaziah  (2  Chron.  xxv,  24)  and  in  the  pros- 
perity of  Uzziahj  and  were  ready,  we  may  believe,  to 
support  the  priests,  who,  as  representing  their  order,  op- 
posed the  sacrilegious  usuqjatiou  of  the  latter  king  (2 
Chron.  xxvi,  17).  The  closing  of  the  Temple  under 
Ahaz  involved  the  cessation  at  once  of  their  work  and 


LEYITE 


399 


LEVITE 


of  their  privileges  (2  Chron.  xxviii,  24),  Under  Heze- 
kiah  they  again  became  prominent,  as  consecrating 
themselves  to  the  special  work  of  cleansing  and  repair- 
ing the  Temple  (2  Chron.  xxix,  12-15) ;  and  the  hymns 
of  David  and  of  Asaph  were  again  renewed.  In  this 
instance  it  was  thought  worthy  of  special  record  that 
those  who  were  simply  Levites  were  more  "  upright  in 
heart"  and  zealous  than  the  priests  themselves  (2  Chron. 
xxix,  34) ;  and  thus,  in  that  great  Passover,  they  took 
the  place  of  the  unwilling  or  unprepared  members  of 
the  priesthood.  Their  old  privileges  were  restored,  they 
were  put  forward  as"  teachers  (2  Chron.  xxx,  22),  and 
the  payment  of  tithes,  which  had  probably  been  discon- 
tinued under  Ahaz,  was  renewed  (2  Chron.  xxxi,  4). 
The  genealogies  of  the  tribe  were  revised  (ver.  17),  and 
the  old  classification  kept  its  ground.  The  reign  of 
jManasseh  was  for  them,  during  the  greater  part  of  it,  a 
period  of  depression.  That  of  Josiah  witnessed  a  fresh 
revival  and  reorganization  (2  Chron.  xxxiv,  8-13).  In 
tli8  great  Passover  of  his  eighteenth  year  they  took 
their  place  as  teachers  of  the  people,  as  well  as  leaders 
of  their  worship  (2  Chron.  xxxv,  3,  15).  Then  came 
tlie  Egyptian  and  Chaldasan  invasions,  and  the  rule  of 
cowardly  and  apostate  kings.  The  sacred  tribe  likewise 
sliowed  itself  unfaithful.  The  repeated  protests  of  the 
priest  Ezekiel  intlicate  that  they  had  shared  in  the  idol- 
atry of  the  people.  The  prominence  into  which  they 
had  been  brought  in  the  reigns  of  the  two  reforming 
kings  had  apparently  tempted  them  to  think  that  they 
might  encroach  permanently  on  the  special  functions  of 
the  priesthood,  and  the  sin  of  Korah  was  renewed  (Ezek. 
xliv.  10-14;  xlviii,  11).  They  had,  as  the  penalty  of 
their  sin,  to  witness  the  destruction  of  the  Temple  and 
to  taste  the  bitterness  of  exile. 

Ill,  After  the  Captivity. — The  position  taken  by  the 
Levites  in  the  first  movements  of  the  return  from  liab- 
ylon  indicates  that  they  had  cherished  the  traditions 
and  maintained  the  practices  of  their  tribe.  They,  we 
may  believe,  were  those  who  were  specially  called  on  to 
sing  to  their  conquerors  one  of  the  songs  of  Zion  (De 
Wette  on  Psa.  cxxxvii).  It  is  noticeable,  however,  that 
in  the  first  body  of  returning  exiles  they  were  present 
in  a  disproportionately  small  number  (Ezra  ii,  3G-42). 
Those  who  did  come  took  their  old  parts  at  the  founda- 
tion anil  dedication  of  the  second  Temple  (Ezra  iii,  10; 
vi,  18).  In  the  next  movement  under  Ezra  their  re- 
luctance (whatever  may  have  been  its  origm)  was  even 
more  strongly  marked.  None  of  them  presented  them- 
selves at  the  first  great  gathering  (Ezra  viii,  15).  The 
special  efforts  of  Ezra  did  not  succeed  in  bringing  to- 
gether more  than  38,  and  their  place  had  to  be  filled  by 
220  of  the  Nethinim  (ib.  20).  There  is  a  Jewish  tra- 
dition (Surenhusius,  Mishna,  Sota,  ix,  lOj  to  the  effect 
that,  as  a  punishment  for  this  backwardness,  Ezra  de- 
prived them  of  their  tithes,  and  transferred  the  right  to 
the  priests.  Those  who  returned  with  him  resumed 
their  functions  at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  as  teachers 
and  interpreters  (Neh.  viii,  7),  and  those  who  were  most 
active  in  tliat  work  were  foremost  also  in  chanting  the 
hymn-like  prayer  which  ajjpears  in  Neh.  ix  as  the  last 
great  effort  of  Jewish  psalmody.  They  were  recognised 
in  the  great  national  covenant,  and  the  offerings  and 
tithes  which  were  their  due  were  once  more  solemnly 
secured  to  them  (Neh.  x,  37-39).  They  took  their  old 
places  in  the  Temple  and  in  tlie  villages  near  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  xii,  20),  and  are  present  in  full  array  at  the  great 
feast  of  the  Dedication  of  the  Wall.  The"  two  prophets 
who  were  active  at  the  time  of  the  return,  Haggai  and 
Zecliariah,  if  they  did  not  belong  to  the  tribe,  helped 
it  forward  in  the  work  of  restoration.  Tlie  strongest 
measures  were  adopted  by  Neheraiah,  as  before  by  Ezra, 
to  guard  the  purity  of  their  blood  from  the  contamina- 
tion of  mixed  marriages  (Ezra  x,  23),  and  thev  were 
made  the  special  guardians  of  the  holiness  of  the  Sab- 
bath (Neh.  xiii,  22).  The  last  propliet  of  the  O.  T.  sees, 
as  part  of  liis  vision  of  the  latter  davs,  the  time  when 
the  Lord  "  shall  purify  the  sons  of  Levi"  (MaL  iii,  3). 


The  guidance  of  the  O.  T.  fails  us  at  this  point,  and 
the  history  of  the  Levites  in  relation  to  the  national 
life  becomes  consequently  a  matter  of  inference  and  con- 
jecture. The  synagogue  worship,  then  originated,  or 
receiving  a  new  development,  was  organized  irrespect- 
ively of  them  [see  Synagogue],  and  thus  throughout 
the  whole  of  Palestine  there  were  means  of  instruction 
in  the  law  with  which  they  were  not  connected.  This 
would  tend  materially  to  diminish  their  peculiar  claim 
on  the  reverence  of  the  people :  but  where  priests  or  Le- 
vites were  present  in  the  synagogue  they  were  still  en- 
titled to  some  kind  of  precedence,  and  special  sections 
in  the  lessons  for  the  day  were  assigned  to  them  (Light- 
foot,  Ilor.  Heb.  on  IMatt.  iv,  23).  During  the  period 
that  followed  the  captivity  they  contributed  to  the  for- 
mation of  the  so-called  Great  Synagogue,  The  Levites, 
witli  the  priests,  theoretically  constituted  and  jiractically 
formed  the  majority  of  the  permanent  Sanhedrim  (Mai- 
mouides  in  Lightfoot,  Uor.  Heb.  on  j\Iatt.  xxvi,  3),  and 
as  such  had  a  large  share  in  the  admuiistration  of  jus- 
tice even  in  capital  cases.  In  the  characteristic  feature 
of  this  period,  as  an  age  of  scribes  succeeding  to  an  age 
of  prophets,  they,  too,  were  likely  to  be  sharers.  The 
training  and  previous  history  of  the  tribe  would  predis- 
pose them  to  attach  themselves  to  the  new  system  as 
tliey  had  done  to  the  old.  They  accordingly  may  have 
been  among  the  scribes  and  elders  who  accumulated 
traditions.  They  may  have  attached  themselves  to  the 
sects  of  Pharisees  and  Sadducees.  But  in  proportion  as 
they  thus  acquired  fame  and  reputation  individually, 
their  functions  as  Levites  became  subordinate,  and  they 
were  known  simply  as  the  inferior  ministers  of  the  Tem- 
ple. They  take  no  prominent  part  in  the  MaccaboBan 
struggles,  though  they  must  have  been  present  at  the 
great  purification  of  the  Temple. 

How  strictly  during  this  post-exilian  period  the  Le- 
vitical  duties  were  enforced,  and  how  severely  any  neg- 
lect in  performing  them  was  punished,  may  be  gathered 
from  the  following  description  in  the  Mishna:  '"The 
Levites  had  to  guard  twenty-four  places;  five  were  sta- 
tioned at  the  five  gates  of  the  Jlountain  of  the  House 
(rr^uD  in  "^"Wa),  four  at  the  four  corners  inside,  five 
at  the  five  gates  of  the  outer  court,  four  at  its  four  cor- 
ners inside,  one  at  the  sacrificial  storehouse,  one  at  the 
curtain  depository,  and  one  behind  the  holy  of  holies. 
The  inspector  of  the  Mountain  of  the  House  went  round 
through  all  the  guards  [every  night]  with  burning 
torches  before  him.  If  the  guard  did  not  immediately 
stand  up,  the  inspector  of  the  Jlountain  of  tlie  House 
called  out  to  him, '  Peace  be  with  thee !'  and  if  he  per- 
ceived that  he  was  asleep,  he  struck  him  with  his  stick, 
and  even  had  the  liberty  of  setting  his  garments  on  fire; 
and  when  it  was  asked,  -What  is  that  noise  in  the 
court  V  they  were  told, '  It  is  the  noise  of  a  Levite  who  is 
beaten,  or  whose  clothes  have  been  burnt,  because  he 
slept  when  on  duty'  "  (Middot/i,  i,  1,  2).  It  is  thought 
that  allusion  is  made  to  the  fact  in  the  Apocalypse 
when  it  is  said  "  Blessed  is  he  that  watcheth  and  keep- 
eth  his  garments"  (Picv.  xvi,  15).  As  for  the  Levites 
who  were  the  singers,  they  were  summoned  by  the  blast 
of  the  trumpet  after  the  incense  was  kindled  upon  the 
altar,  when  they  assembled  from  all  parts  of  the  spacious 
Temple  at  the  orchestra  ;vhich  was  joined  to  the  fifteen 
steps  at  the  entrance  from  the  women's  outer  court  to 
the  men's  outer  court.  They  sung  psalms  in  antipho- 
nies,  accompanied  by  three  musical  instruments — the 
harp,  the  cithern,  and  cymbals — while  the  priests  were 
pouring  out  on  the  altar  the  libation  of  wine.  On  Sun- 
day they  sung  Psa.  xxiv,  on  jSIonday  Psa.  xlviii,  on 
Tuesday  Psa.  Ixxxii,  on  Wednesday  Psa.  xciv,  on  Tluirs- 
day  Psa.  Ixxxi,  on  Friday  Psa.  xciii,  and  on  the  Sab- 
bath Psa.  xcii.  Each  of  tliese  iisalms  was  sung  in  nine 
sections,  with  eight  pauses  (QipiS),  and  at  each  pause 
the  priests  blew  trombones,  when  the  whole  congrega- 
tion fell  dfiwn  every  time  worshipping  on  their  faces 
{Tamid,  vii,  3,  4). 


LEVITE 


400 


LEVITICUS 


The  Levites  had  no  prescribed  canonical  dress  like 
the  priosts,  as  may  be  seen  from  tlie  fact  which  Jose- 
phu.s  narrates,  tliat  the  singers  requested  Agrippa  "to 
asseniMe  the  Sanhedrim  in  order  to  obtain  leave  for 
them  to  wear  linen  garments  like  the  priests  .  .  .  con- 
trary to  the  laws"  {Aiit.  xx,  9,  G).  But,  though  they 
wore  no  official  garments  at  the  service,  yet  the  Talmud 
says  that  they  ordinarily  wore  a  linen  outer-garment 
with  sleeves,  and  a  liead-dress;  and  on  journeys  were 
pr(jvided  with  a  staff,  a  pocket,  and  a  cojiv  of  the  Pen- 
tateuch (Joma,  122,  a).  Some  modifications  were  at 
this  period  introduced  in  what  was  considered  the  nec- 
essary qualification  for  service.  The  Mosaic  law,  it  will 
be  remembered,  regarded  age  as  the  only  qualification, 
and  freed  the  Levite  from  his  duties  when  he  was  fifty 
years  old;  now  that  singing  constituted  so  essential  a 
part  of  the  Levitical  duties,  any  Levite  who  had  not  a 
good  voice  was  regarded  as  disqualified,  and  if  it  con- 
tinued good  and  melodious,  he  was  retained  in  service 
all  liis  lifetime,  irrespective  of  age,  but  if  it  failed  he 
was  removed  from  that  class  which  constituted  the 
clioristers  to  the  gate-keepers  (jNIaimonides,  Ililchoth 
Kde  Ila-Kodesh,  iii,  8).  During  the  period  of  mourn- 
ing a  Levite  was  exempt  from  his  duties  in  the  Temple, 

The  Levites  appear  but  seldom  in  tlie  history  of  the 
X.  T.  Where  we  meet  with  their  names  it  is  as  the 
type  of  a  formal,  heartless  worship,  without  sympathy 
and  without  love  (Luke  x,  32).  The  same  parable  in- 
dicates Jericho  as  having  become — what  it  bad  not  been 
originally  (see  Josh,  xxi  1  Chron.  vi) — on»,  of  the  great 
stations  at  which  they  and  the  priests  resided  (Light- 
foot,  Cent.  Chorof/raph.  c.  47).  In  John  i,  19  they  appear 
as  delegates  of  the  Jews — that  is,  of  the  Sanhedrim — 
coming  to  inquire  into  the  credentials  of  the  Baptist,  and 
giving  utterance  to  their  own  Messianic  expectations. 
The  mention  of  a  Levite  of  Cyprus  in  Acts  iv,  3G,  shows 
that  the  changes  of  the  previous  century  had  carried 
that  tribe  also  into  "  the  dispersed  among  tlie  Gentiles." 
The  conversion  of  Barnabas  and  ]Mark  was  probably  no 
solitary  instance  of  the  reception  by  them  of  the  new 
faith,  which  was  the  fulfilment  of  the  old.  If -'a  great 
company  of  the  priests  were  obedient  to  the  faith"  (Acts 
vi,  7),  it  is  not  too  bold  to  believe  that  their  influence 
may  have  led  Levites  to  follow  their  example ;  and  thus 
the  old  psalms,  and  possibly  also  the  old  chants  of  the 
Temple  service,  might  be  transmitted  through  the  agen- 
cy of  those  who  had  been  specially  trained  in  them  to 
be  the  inheritance  of  the  Christian  Church.  Later  on 
in  the  history  of  the  first  century,  when  the  Temple  had 
received  its  final  completion  under  the  younger  Agrippa, 
we  find  one  section  of  the  tribe  engaged  in  a  new  move- 
ment. AVlth  that  strange  unconsciousness  of  a  coming 
diMjm  whicli  so  often  marks  the  last  stage  of  a  decaying 
system,  tlie  singers  of  the  Temple  thought  it  a  fitting 
time  to  apply  for  the  right  of  wearing  the  same  linen 
garment  as  the  priests,  and  jiersuaded  the  king  that  the 
concession  of  this  privilege  would  be  the  glory  of  his 
reign  (.Joseph.  A  n1.  xx,  8,  G).  The  other  Levites  at  the 
same  time  aslted  for  and  obtained  the  privilege  of  join- 
ing ill  the  Teni]ilc  choruses,  from  which  hitherto  they 
had  been  excluded.  Tlie  destruction  of  the  Temple  so 
soon  after  they  had  attained  the  object  of  their  desires 
came  as  with  a  grim  irony  to  sweep  away  their  occupa- 
tion, and  so  to  deprive  them  of  every  vestige  of  that 
wliich  had  distinguished  tlieni  from  other  Israelites. 
They  were  merged  in  the  crowd  of  captives  that  were 
scattered  over  the  Roman  world,  and  disappear  from  the 
stage  of  liistorv.  The  rabbinic  scliools,  tliat  rose  out  of 
tlie  ruins  of  tlie  Jewish  polity,  fostered  a  studied  and 
habitual  depreciation  of  the  lA'vitical  order  as  compared 
with  llieir  own  teachers  (S\-(^a\\\.  (lid  I'tiths.  \>.  A'iih). 
liulividiial  families,  it  may  be,  elierishcd  the  tradition 
that  their  fathers,  as  priests  or  Levites,  had  taken  part 
ill  the  services  of  the  Temple,  'If  their  claims  were  rec- 
ognised, they  received  the  old  marks  of  reverence  in  the 
worship  of  the  synagogue  (comp,  the  Kegidations  of  the 
Great  Synagogue  of  London,  in  JlargoLiouth's  Hist,  of 


the  Jews  in  Great  Britain,  iii,  270),  took  precedence  in 
reading  the  lessons  of  the  day  (Lightfoot,  Ilor.  Ileb.  on 
Matt,  iv,  23),  and  pronounced  the  blessing  at  the  close 
(Basnage,  Jlist.  des  Juifs,  vi,790).  Their  existence  was 
acknowledged  in  some  of  the  laws  of  the  Christian  em- 
perors (Basnage,  /.  c).  The  tenacity  with  which  the 
exiled  race  climg  to  these  recollections  is  shown  in  the 
prevalence  of  the  names  (Cohen,  and  Levita  or  Levy) 
which  imply  that  those  who  bear  them  are  of  the  sons 
of  Aaron  or  the  tribe  of  Levi,  and  in  the  custom  which 
exempts  the  first-born  of  priestly  or  Levitical  families 
from  the  payments  which  are  still  offered,  in  the  case  of 
others,  as  the  redemption  of  the  first-born  (Leo  of  ^NIo- 
dena,  in  Picart's  Ceremonies  Religieuses,  i,  26;  Allen's 
Modern  Judaism,  p.  297).  In  the  mean  time,  the  old 
name  had  acquired  a  new  signification.  The  early  writ- 
ers of  the  Christian  Church  applied  to  the  later  hierar- 
chy the  language  of  the  earlier,  and  gave  to  the  bishops 
and  presbyters  the  title  (ifpstf)  that  had  belonged  to 
the  sons  of  Aaron,  while  the  deacons  were  habitually 
spoken  of  as  Levites  (Suicer,  Thes.  s.  v.  Atviri-ic). 

Though  the  destruction  of  the  Temple  and  the  dis- 
persion of  the  Jews  have  necessarily  done  away  with, 
the  Levitical  duties  which  were  strictly  local,  yet  the 
Levites,  like  the  priests,  still  exist,  have  to  this  day  cer- 
tain functions  to  perform,  and  continue  to  enjoy  certain 
privileges  and  immunities.  On  those  festivals  whereon 
the  priests  pronounce  the  benediction  on  the  congrega- 
tion of  Israel  during  the  morning  service,  as  prescribed 
in  Numb,  vi,  22-27,  the  Levites  have  "  to  wait  on  the 
priests,"  and  wash  their  hands  prior  to  the  giving  of  the 
said  blessing.  At  the  reading  of  the  law  in  the  syna- 
gogue, the  Levite  is  called  to  the  second  section,  the 
first  being  assigned  to  the  priest.  See  Haphtakaii. 
Moreover,  like  the  priests,  the  Levites  are  exempt  from 
redeeming  their  first-born,  and  this  exemption  even  ex- 
tends to  women  of  the  tribe  of  Levi  who  marrj'  Israel- 
ites, i.  e.  Jews  of  any  other  tribe. 

IV.  Literature. — ^Slishna,  Eracliin,  ii,  3-G ;  Tamid,  vii, 
3,4;  Siicca,\,A:;  Biklurim,  iu,i;  Maimonidcs, ./of///a- 
Chezaka,  Uilchoth  Kele  Ila-Mikdash,  iii,  1-11 ;  INIichael- 
is.  Commentaries  on  the  Laivs  of  Moses,  sec.  52  (English 
translation,  i,  252  sq.) ;  Biihr,  Si/mbolik  des  Mosaischen 
Cultus,  ii,  3,  39,  1G5,  342,  428  ;  Herzfeld,  Geschichte  des 
Volkes  Israel  von  der  Ztrstdrung  des  ersten  Tempels,  p. 
12G,  204,  387-424  (Bruns.  1847) ;  the  same,  Geschichte  des 
Volkes  Israel  von  der  Vollendung  des  ziceiten  Tempels,  i, 
55-58,  G3-GG,  141  (Nordhausen,  1855) ;  Saalschlitz,  Das 
Mosaische  liecht,  i,  89-lOG  (Beri.  1853) ;  the  same,  Arch- 
aologie  der  llebrder,  vol.  ii,  ch.  Ixxviii,  p.  342  (Konigsb. 
1856) ;  Kcil,  Ilandhuch  der  hihlischen  A  rchaoloyie,  i,  IGO 
(Frankfort-on-the-Main,  1858) ;  Kalisch,  Historical  and 
Critical  Commentary  on  Genesis,  p.  735-744  (Lond.  1848); 
Brown,  Antiquities,  i,  301-347 ;  Godwyn,  Moses  amlAa- 
7-on,  i,  5;  AVitsius,  Dissert.  II.  de  Theocrat.  Israelitar.; 
Jennings,  Antiquities,  p.  184-206;  Carpzov,  Apparut. 
Crit.  (see  Index) ;  Saubert,  Comm.  de  Sacerdot.  et  sacris 
Hahr.  personis,  in  0pp.  p.  283  sq. ;  Grambcrg,  Krit.  Ge- 
schichte d.  lieligionsideen  des  Alten  Test,  vol.  i,  c.  iii ;  Re- 
land,  A  ntiq.  Sacr.  ii,  G ;  Ugolino,  Sacerdot.  Ilebr.  ch.  xii, 
in  his  Thesaur.  vol.  xiii;  }ich&c\\t,  Animadvers.  ad  1  ken. 
p.  525  sq. ;  Bauer,  Gottesd.Verfassung.  ii,  377  sq. ;  Otho, 
Lex.  Bab.  p.  3G8  sq. ;  Willisch,  Be  f  liis  Levitaruni  (Lips. 
1708). 

Levites,  Military,  a  name  given  to  such  ministers 
in  the  time  of  the  Commonwealth  as  filled  the  oflice  of 
chaplain  in  the  regiments  of  the  ParUamentary  army. — 
Muck,  Theol.  I )ict.\..x. 

Levit'icus,  so  called  in  the  Vulgate  from  treating 
chiefly  of  the  Levitical  service ;  in  tlie  Ileb.  S"ip^1,  and 
he  called, being  the  Avord  with  which  it  begins;  in  the 
Sept.  Afi^iViKoj';  the  third  book  of  the  Pentateuch,  call- 
ed also  by  the  later  Jews  Ci:ri3  S^'niFl,  '"law  of  the 
priests,"  and  m33"ip  rnin,  '•  law  of  offerings."  In  our 
treatment  of  it  we  largely  avail  ourselves  of  the  articles 
on  the  subject  in  Smith's  and  Kitto's  Bictionaries. 


LEVITICUS 


401 


LEVITICUS 


I.  Contents. — Leviticus  contains  the  further  statement 
and  development  of  the  Sinaitic  legislation,  the  begin- 
nings of  which  arc  described  in  Exodus.  It  exhibits 
the  historical  progress  of  this  legislation;  consequently, 
we  must  not  expect  to  tind  the  laws  detailed  in  it  in  a 
systematic  form.  There  is,  nevertheless,  a  certain  order 
obsened,  which  arose  from  the  nature  of  the  subject, 
and  of  which  the  plan  may  easily  be  perceived.  The 
whole  is  intimately  connected  with  the  contents  of  Ex- 
odus, at  the  conclusion  of  which  book  that  sanctuary  is 
described  with  which  all  external  worship  was  comiect- 
ed  (Exod.  xxxv-xl). 

LeviticuG  begins  by  describing  the  worship  itself  (ch. 
i-xvii),  and  concludes  with  personal  distinctions  and  ex- 
hortations as  to  the  worshippers  (ch.  xviii-xxvii).  More 
specifically  the  book  may  be  divided  into  seven  leading 
sections. 

(I.)  The  Laws  directly  relatinrj  to  Sacrifices  (ch.  i-vii). 
• — At  first  God  spoke  to  the  people  out  of  the  thunder 
and  lightning  of  Sinai,  and  gave  them  his  holy  com- 
mandments by  the  hand  of  a  mediator;  but  henceforth 
his  presence  is  to  dwell  not  on  the  secret  top  of  Sinai, 
but  in  the  midst  of  his  people,  both  in  their  wanderings 
through  the  wilderness  and  afterwards  in  the  Land  of 
Tromise.  Hence  the  first  directions  which  Moses  re- 
ceives after  the  work  is  finished  have  reference  to  the 
offerings  which  were  to  be  brought  to  the  door  of  the 
tabernacle.  As  .Jehovah  draws  near  to  the  people  in 
the  tabernacle,  so  the  people  draw  near  to  Jehovah  in 
the  offering.  Without  offerings  none  may  approach 
him.  The  regulations  respecting  the  sacrifices  fall  into 
three  groups,  and  each  of  these  groups  again  consists  of 
a  decalogue  of  instructions.  Bertheau  has  observed  that 
this  principle  runs  through  all  the  la;vs  of  Moses.  They 
are  all  modelled  after  the  pattern  of  the  ten  command- 
ments, so  that  each  distinct  subject  of  legislation  is  al- 
ways treated  of  under  ten  several  enactments  or  provi- 
sions. 

1.  The  first  group  of  regulations  (ch.  i-iii)  deals  with 
three  kinds  of  offerings:  the  burnt-offering  (nbl").  the 
meat-offering  (Hni'C),  and  the  thank-offering  (n2'r 

a.  The  burnt-offering  (chap,  i)  in  three  sections.  It 
might  be  either  (1)  a  male  without  blemish  from  the 
herds  ("i)^3n  TP)  (ver.  3-9),  or  (2)  a  male  without  blem- 
ish from  Xha  flocks,  or  lesser  cattle  ("XStl)  (ver.  10-13), 
or  (3)  it  might  be  fowls,  an  offering  of  turtle-doves  or 
young  pigeons  (ver.  14-17).  The  subdivisions  are  here 
marked  clearly  enough,  not  only  by  the  three  Idnds  of 
sacrifice,  but  also  by  \h&  form  in  which  the  enactment 
is  put.  Each  begins  with,  "If  his  offering,"  etc.,  and 
each  ends  -vvith,  "An  offering  made  by  fire,  of  a  sweet 
savor  unto  Jehovah." 

h.  The  next  group  (ch.  ii)  presents  many  more  diffi- 
culties. Its  parts  are  not  so  clearly  marked,  either  by 
prominent  features  in  the  subject-matter,  or  by  the  more 
technical  boundaries  of  certain  initial  and  final  phrases. 
"We  have  here  the  meat-offering,  or  bloodless  offering,  in 
four  sections :  (1)  in  its  uncooked  form,  consisting  of  fine 
flour  with  oil  and  frankincense  (ver.  1-3) ;  (2)  in  its 
cooked  form,  of  which  three  different  kinds  are  speci- 
fied—baked in  the  oven,  fried,  or  boiled  (verses  4-10) ; 
(3)  tlio  prohibition  of  leaven,  and  the  direction  to  use 
salt  in  aU  the  meat-offerings  (ver.  1 1-13) ;  (4)  the  obla- 
tion of  first-fruits  (ver.  14-1 G).  ^ 

c.  The  Shelamim,  "peace-offering"  (A.  V.),  or  "thank- 
offering"  (Ewald)  (chap,  iii),  in  three  sections.  Strictly 
speaking,  this  falls  under  two  heads:  first,  when  it  is  of 
the  herd;  and,  secondly,  when  it  is  of  the  flock.  But 
this  last  has  again  its  subdivision ;  for  the  offering,  when 
of  the  tlock,  may  be  either  a  lamb  or  a  goat.  Accord- 
mgly,  the  three  sections  are,  verses  1-5;  7-11;  12-16. 
Ver.  (J  is  merely  introductory  to  the  second  class  of  sac- 
rifices, and  ver.  17  a  general  conclusion,  as  in  the  case 
of  other  laws.  This  concludes  the  first  decalogue  of  the 
book. 

v.— Cc 


2.  The  laws  concerning  the  sin-offering  and  the  tres- 
pass- (or  guilt-)  offering  (chap,  iv,  v).  The  sin-offering 
(chap,  iv)  is  treated  of  under  four  specified  cases,  after  a 
short  introduction  to  the  whole  in  ver.  1,  2 :  (1)  the  sin- 
offering  for  the  priest,  3-12 ;  (2)  for  the  whole  congre- 
gation, 13-21 ;  (3)  for  a  ruler.  22-26 ;  (4)  for  one  of  the 
common  people,  27-35. 

Alter  these  four  cases,  in  which  the  offering  is  to  be 
made  for  four  different  classes,  there  follow  provisions 
respecting  three  several  kinds  of  transgression  for  which 
atonement  must  be  made.  It  is  not  quite  clear  whether 
these  should  be  ranked  under  the  head  of  the  sin-offering 
or  of  the  trespass-offering.  See  Offering.  We  may, 
however,  follow  Bertheau,  Baumgarten,  and  Knobel  in 
regarding  them  as  special  instances  in  which  a  «z'n-offer- 
ing  was  to  be  brought.  The  three  cases  are :  first,  when 
any  one  hears  a  curse,  and  conceals  what  he  hears  (ver. 
1) ;  secondly,  when  any  one  touches,  without  knowing 
or  intending  it,  any  unclean  thing  (ver.  2,  3) ;  lastly, 
when  any  one  takes  an  oath  inconsiderately  (verse  4). 
For  each  of  these  cases  the  same  trespass-offering,  "  a 
female  from  the  flock,  a  lamb  or  kid  of  the  goats,"  is  ap- 
pointed ;  but,  with  that  mercifulness  which  character- 
izes the  Jlosaic  law,  express  provision  is  made  for  a  less 
costly  offering  where  the  offerer  is  poor. 

This  decalogue  is  then  completed  by  the  three  regu- 
lations respecting  the  guilt-offering  (or  trespass-offer- 
ing) :  first,  when  any  one  sins  "  through  ignorance  in 
the  holy  things  of  Jehovah"  (ver.  14, 16) ;  next,  when  a 
person,  without  knowing  it,  "commits  any  of  these  thuigs 
which  are  forbidden  to  be  done  by  the  commandments 
of  Jehovah"  (17-19) ;  lastly,  when  a  man  lies  and  swears 
falsely  concernmg  that  which  was  intrusted  to  him,  etc. 
(verses  20-26).  This  decalogue,  like  the  preceding  one, 
has  its  characteristic  words  and  expressions.  The  prom- 
inent word  which  introduces  so  many  of  the  enactments 
is  dS.3,  "  soul"  (see  iv,  2,  27 ;  v,  1,  2,  4, 15, 17 ;  vi,  2),  and 
the  phrase,  "  If  a  soul  shall  sin"  (iv,  2),  is,  with  occasional 
variations  having  an  equivalent  meaning,  the  distinctive 
phrase  of  the  section.  As  in  the  former  decalogue  the 
nature  of  the  offerings,  so  in  this  the  person  and  the  na- 
ture of  the  offence  are  the  chief  features  in  the  several 
statutes. 

3.  Naturally  upon  the  law  of  sacrifices  foUows  the 
law  of  the  priests'  duties  when  they  offer  the  sacrifices, 
(ch.  vi,  vii).  Hence  we  find  Moses  chrected  to  address 
himself  immediately  to  Aaron  and  his  sons  (vi,  2, 18  = 
vi,  9,  25,  A.V.).  In  this  group  the  different  kmds  of 
offerings  are  named  in  nearly  the  same  order  as  in  the 
two  preceding  decalogues,  except  that  the  offering  at 
the  consecration  of  a  priest  follows,  instead  of  the  thank- 
offering,  immediately  after  the  meat-offering,  which  it 
resembles,  and  the  thank-offering  now  appears  after  the 
trespass-offering.  There  are,  therefore,  in  all,  six  kinds 
of  offering,  and  in  the  case  of  each  of  these  the  priest  has 
his  distinct  duties.  Bertheau  has  very  ingeniously  so 
distributed  the  enactments  in  which  these  duties  are 
prescribed  as  to  arrange  them  all  in  five  decalogues. 
We  wiU  briefly  indicate  his  arrangement. 

(1.)  The  first  decalogue.  ((/.)  "  This  is  the  law  of  the 
burnt -offering"  (vi,  9,  A.Y.),  in  five  enactments,  each 
verse  (ver.  9-13)  containing  a  separate  enactment,  (b.) 
'•'And  this  is  the  law  of  the  meat-offering"  (verse  14), 
again  in  five  enactments,  each  of  which  is,  as  before, 
contained  in  a  single  verse  (ver.  14-18). 

(2.)  The  next  decalogue  is  contained  in  verses  19-30. 
(fl.)  Ver.  19  is  merely  introductory;  then  foOow,  in  five 
verses,  five  distinct  directions  with  regard  to  the  offer- 
ing at  the  time  of  the  consecration  of  the  priests,  the  first 
in  ver.  20,  the  next  two  in  ver.  21,  the  fourth  in  the  for- 
mer part  of  ver.  22,  and  the  last  in  the  latter  part  of  ver. 
22  and  ver.  23.  (6.)  "  This  is  the  law  of  the  sin-offer- 
ing" (ver.  25).  Then  the  five  enactments,  each  in  one 
verse,  except  that  two  verses  (27,  28)  are  given  to  the 
third. 

(3.)  The  third  decalogue  is  contained  in  ch.  vii,  1-10, 
the  laws  of  the  trespass-offering.     But  it  is  impossible 


LEVITICUS 


402 


LEVITICUS 


to  avoid  a  misgiving  as  to  the  soundness  of  Bertheau's 
system  when  we  tind  him  making  the  words  '•  It  is  most 
hOlv  "  in  verse  1,  the  tirst  of  the  ten  enactments.  This 
lie  is'  obliged  to  do,  as  verses  3  and  4  evidently  form  but 
one. 

(•1.)  The  fourth  decalogue,  after  an  introductory  verse 
(verse  11),  is  contained  in  ten  verses  (verses  12-21). 

(.J.)  The  last  decalogue  consists  of  certain  general 
laws  about  the  fat,  the  blooil,  the  wave-breast,  etc.,  and 
is  comprised  agam  in  ten  verses  (ver.  23-33),  the  verses, 
as  before,  marking  the  divisions. 

The  chapter  closes  with  a  brief  historical  notice  of 
the  fact  that  these  several  commands  were  given  to  Mo- 
ses on  Mount  Sinai  (verse  35-38). 

(II.)  A  n  entirely  historical  section  (chap,  viii-x),  in 
three  parts.— 1.  In  ch.  viii  we  have  the  account  of  the 
consecration  of  Aaron  and  his  sons  by  Moses  before  the 
whole  congregation.  They  are  washed ;  lie  is  arrayed 
in  the  priestly  vestments  and  anointed  with  the  holy 
oil ;  his  sons  also  are  arrayed  in  their  garments,  and  the 
various  offerings  appointed  are  offered.  2.  In  chap,  ix 
Aaron  offers,  eight  days  after  his  consecration,  his  first  of- 
fering for  himself  and  the  people :  this  comprises  for  him- 
self a  sin-  and  burnt-  offering,  and  a  peace-  (or  thank-) 
offering.  He  blesses  the  people,  and  fire  comes  down 
from  heaven  and  consumes  the  burnt-offering.  3.  Ch. 
X  tells  how  Nadab  and  Abihu,  the  sons  of  Aaron,  eager 
to  enjoy  the  privileges  of  their  new  office,  and  perhaps 
too  much  elated  by  its  dignity,  forgot  or  despised  the 
restrictions  by  which  it  was  fenced  round  (Exod.  xxx, 
7,  etc.),  and,  daring  to  "  offer  strange  fire  before  Jeho- 
vah," perished  because  of  their  presumption. 

With  the  house  of  Aaron  began  this  wickedness  in 
the  sanctuary ;  with  them,  therefore,  began  also  the  di- 
vine punishment.  Very  touching  is  the  story  which 
follows.  Aaron,  though  forbidden  to  mourn  his  loss 
(ver.  G,  7),  will  not  eat  the  sin-offering  in  the  holy  place ; 
and  when  rebuked  by  jNIoses,  jileads  in  his  defence, 
"  Such  things  have  befallen  me :  and  if  I  had  eaten  the 
sin-offering  to-day,  should  it  have  been  accepted  in  the 
sight  of  Jehovah  ?"  Moses,  the  lawgiver  and  the  judge, 
admits  the  plea,  and  honors  the  natural  feelings  of  the 
father's  heart,  even  when  it  leads  to  a  violation  of  the 
letter  of  the  divine  commandment. 

(III.)  The  laws  concerning  j)^'ritii  and  imjmriti/,  and 
the  appropriate  sacrifices  and  ordinances  for  putting 
away  impurity  (chap,  xi-xvi).  The  first  seven  deca- 
logues had  reference  to  the  putting  away  oC guilt.  By 
the  appointed  sacrifices  the  separation  between  man  and 
God  was  healed.  The  next  seven  concern  themselves 
with  the  putting  away  of  impurity.  That  chap,  xi-xv 
hang  together  so  as  to  form  one  series  of  laws  there 
can  be  no  doubt.  Besides  that  they  treat  of  kindred 
subjects,  they  have  their  characteristic  words,  K -li, 
nS":"J,  "  unclean,"  "  nncleanness,"  "lini!,  "iHi:, "  clean," 
whicli  occur  iu  almost  every  verse.  The  only  question 
is  about  ch.  xvi,  which  by  its  opening  is  connected  im- 
mediately with  the  occurrence  related  in  ch.  x.  His- 
torically it  would  seem,  therefore,  that  ch.  xvi  ought  to 
have  followed  ch.  x.  As  this  order  is  neglected,  it  would 
lead  us  to  suspect  that  some  other  principle  of  arrange- 
ment than  that  of  historical  sequence  has  been  adopted. 
This  we  find  in  the  solemn  significance  of  the  great  day 
of  atonement.  The  high-priest  on  that  day  made  atone- 
ment "because  of  the  uitckanness  of  the  children  of  Is- 
rael, and  because  of  their  transgressions  in  all  their  sins" 
(xvi,  1(J),  and  he  "reconciled  the  holy  place  and  the 
tabernacle  of  the  congregation,  and  the  altar"  (ver.  20). 
Delivered  from  their  guilt  and  cleansed  from  their  pol- 
lutions, from  that  day  forward  the  children  of  Israel  en- 
tered upon  a  new  and  holy  life.  This  was  typified  both 
by  the  ordinance  that  tlie  bullock  and  the  goat  for  the 
sin-offering  were  burnt  without  the  camp  "(ver.  27),  and 
also  bv  the  sending  away  of  the  goat  laden  with  the 
ini(iuities  of  the  people  into  the  wilderness.  Hence  ch. 
xvi  eeems  to  stand  most  fitly  at  the  end  of  this  second 


group  of  seven  decalogues.  It  has  reference,  we  be- 
lieve, not  only  (as  Bertheau  supposes)  to  the  putting 
away,  as  by  one  solemn  act,  of  all  those  uncleannesses 
mentioned  in-  ch.  xi-xv,  and  for  which  the  various  ex- 
piations and  cleansings  there  appointed  were  temporary 
and  insufficient,  but  also  to  the  making  of  atonement,  in 
the  sense  of  hiding  sin  or  putting  away  its  guilt.  For 
not  only  do  we  find  the  idea  of  cleansing  as  from  defile- 
ment, but  far  more  prominently  the  idea  of  reconcilia- 
tion. The  often-repeated  word  "iS-,  "to  cover,  to 
atone,"  is  the  great  word  of  the  section. 

1.  The  first  decalogue  in  this  group  refers  to  clean 
and  unclean  flesh  (ch.  xi).  Five  classes  of  animals  are 
pronounced  unclean.  The  first  four  enactments  declare 
what  animals  may  or  may  not  be  eaten,  whether  (1) 
beasts  of  the  earth  (ver.  2-8),  or  (2)  fishes  (ver.  9-12), 
or  (3)  birds  (verse  13-20),  or  (4)  creeping  things  with 
wings.  The  next  four  are  intended  to  guard  against 
pollution  by  contact  with  the  carcase  of  any  of  these 
animals :  (5)  ver.  24-2G ;  (6)  ver.  27,  28 ;  (7)  ver.  29-38 ; 
(8)  verse  39-40.  The  ninth  and  tenth  specify  the  last 
class  of  animals  which  are  unclean  for  food,  (9)  ver.  41, 
42,  and  forbid  any  other  kind  of  pollution  by  means  of 
them,  (10)  verse  43-45.  Terse  46  and  47  are  merely  a 
concluding  summarj'. 

2.  (rt.)  Women's  purification  in  childbed  (cliap.  xii). 
The  whole  of  this  chapter,  according  to  Bertheau,  con- 
stitutes (1)  the  first  law  of  this  decalogue.  {]>.)  The  re- 
maining nine  are  to  be  found  in  the  next  chapter  (xiii), 
which  treats  of  the  signs  of  leprosy  in  man  and  in  gar- 
ments: (2)  ver.  1-8;  (3)  ver.  9-17;  (4)  ver.  18-23;  (5) 
ver.  24-28 ;  (G)  ver.  29-37 ;  (7)  ver.  38,  39 ;  (8)  ver.  40, 
41;  (9)  ver.  42-46;  (10)  ver.  47-59.  This  arrangement 
of  the  several  sections  is  not  altogether  free  from  objec- 
tion, but  it  is  certainly  supported  by  the  characteristic 
mode  in  which  each  section  opens.  Thus,  for  instance, 
ch.  xii,  2  begins  with  S'^"iTn  "^3  iTi'X;  ch.  xiii,  2  with 

n'^ri'^  -^s  nnx,  ver.  9  with  ni^rin  "is  t^jj-^-i  r«,  and 

so  on,  the  same  order  being  always  observed,  the  sub- 
stantive being  placed  first,  then  "^S,  and  then  the  verb, 
except  only  in  ver.  42,  where  the  substantive  is  placed 
after  the  verb. 

3.  "  The  law  of  the  leper  in  the  day  of  his  cleansing," 
i.  c.  the  law  which  the  j^riest  is  to  observe  in  purifying 
the  leper  (xiv,  1-32).  The  priest  is  mentioned  in  ten 
verses,  each  of  which  begins  one  of  the  ten  sections  of 
this  law  :  ver.  3,  4,  5,  11, 12, 14, 15,  IC,  19,  20.  In  each 
instance  the  word  "rtSil  is  preceded  by  1  consecut.  with 
the  perf.  It  is  true  that  in  verse  3,  and  also  in  verse  14, 
the  word  'nsn  occurs  twice ;  but  in  both  verses  there 
is  MS.  authority,  as  well  as  that  of  the  A'ulg.  and  Arab, 
versions,  for  the  absence  of  the  second.  Verses  21-32 
may  be  regarded  as  a  supplemental  yirovision  in  cases 
where  the  leper  is  too  poor  to  bring  the  required  offering, 

4.  The  leprosy  in  a  house  (xiv,  33-57).  It  is  not  so 
easy  here  to  trace  the  arrangement  noticed  in  so  many 
other  laws.  There  are  no  characteristic  Avords  or  phrases 
to  guide  us.  Bertheau's  division  is  as  follows:  (1)  ver. 
34,35;  (2)  ver.  3G,  37 ;  (3)  ver.  38;  (4)  ver.  39;  (5)  ver. 
40 ;  (G)  ver.  41,  42 ;  (7)  ver.  43-45.  Then,  as  usual,  fol- 
lows a  short  summary  which  closes  the  statute  concern- 
ing leprosy,  ver.  54-57. 

5.  G.  The  law  of  nncleanness  by  issue,  etc.,  in  two 
decalogues  (xv,  1-15;  xv,  lG-31).  The  division  is 
clearly  marked,  as  Bertheau  observes,  by  the  form  of 
cleansing,  wliich  is  so  exactly  similar  in  the  two  princi- 
pal cases,  and  which  closes  each  series:  (1)  ver.  13-15; 
(2)  ver.  28-30.  We  again  give  his  arrangement,  though 
we  do  not  profess  to  regard  it  as  in  all  respects  satisfac- 
torv. 

(«.)  (1)  Ver.  2,  3;  (2)  ver.  4;  (3)  ver.  5;  (4)  ver.  6; 
(5)  ver.  7;  (6)  ver.  8;  (7)  ver.  9;  (8)  ver.  10;  (9)  ver. 
11, 12  [these  Bertheau  considers  as  one  enactment,  be- 
cause it  is  another  way  of  saying  that  cither  the  man 
or  tliiny  which  the  unclean  person  touches  is  luiclean; 


LEVITICUS 


403  LEVITICUS 


but,  on  the  same  principle,  verses  4  and  5  might  just  as 
well  form  one  enactment]  ;  (10)  ver.  l.'5-15. 

(6.)  (1)  Ver.  IG  ;  (2)  ver.  17  ;  (3)  ver.  18 ;  (4)  ver.  19  ; 
(5)  ver.  20;  (6)  ver.  21;  (7)  ver.  22;  (8)  ver.  23;  (9) 
ver.  2-1;  (10)  ver.  28-30.  In  order  to  complete  this  ar- 
rangement, he  considers  ver.  25-27  as  a  kind  of  supple- 
mentary enactment  provided  for  an  irregular  unclean- 
ness,  leaving  it  as  quite  uncertain,  however,  whether 
this  was  a  later  addition  or  not.  Verses  32  and  33  form 
merely  the  same  general  conclusion  which  we  have  had 
before  in  xiv,  5rl:-o7. 

7.  The  last  decalogue  of  the  second  group  of  seven  dec- 
alogues is  to  be  found  in  chap,  xvi,  which  treats  of  the 
great  day  of  atonement.  The  law  itself  is  contained  in 
verses  1-28.  The  remaining  verses,  29-34,  consist  of  an 
exhortation  to  its  careful  observance.  In  the  act  of 
atonement  three  persous  are  concerned :  the  high-priest, 
in  this  instance  Aaron ;  the  man  who  leads  away  the  goat 
for  Azazel  into  the  wilderness ;  and  he  who  bums  the 
skin,  flesh,  and  dung  of  the  bullock  and  goat  of  the  sin- 
offering  without  the  camp.  The  last  two  have  special 
purilications  assigned  them — the  second  because  he  has 
touched  the  goat  laden  with  the  guilt  of  Israel,  the  third 
because  he  has  come  in  contact  with  the  sin-oftering. 
The  ninth  and  tenth  enactments  prescribe  what  these 
puriticatious  are,  each  of  them  concluding  with  the  same 

formula,  n:n52n  PX  Sli:;  "i?  "^"inxi,  and  hence  distin-  |  ^g^^"  ^^p^,^  j,^g  ^^j^^^g  3,,^,  meaning  of  the  sacrifice  to  Je- 
guished  from  each  other.  The  duties  of  Aaron,  conse-  ^  hovah  as  compared  with  the  sacrifices  offered  to  false 
quently,  ought,  if  tlie  division  into  decades  is  correct,  to  ,  go^ig,  it  would  seem,  too,  that  it  was  necessary  to  guard 
be  comprised  in  eight  enactments.  Now  the  name  of  1  against  any  license  to  idolatrous  practices  which  might 
Aaron  is  repeated  eight  times,  and  in  six  of  these  it  is    possibly  l)e  drawn  from  the  sending  of  the  goat  for  Aza- 


Here  again  we  may  trace,  as  before,  a  group  o*"  seven 
decalogues ;  but  the  several  decalogues  are  not  so  clearly 
marked,  nor  are  the  characteristic  phrases  and  the  intro- 
ductions and  conclusions  so  common.  In  ch.  xviii  there 
are  twenty  enactments,  and  in  ch.  xix  thirty.  In  eh. 
xvii,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  only  six,  and  in  ch.  xx 
there  are  fourteen.  As  it  is  quite  manifest  that  the  en- 
actments in  ch.  xviii  are  entirely  separated  by  a  fresh 
introduction  from  those  in  ch.  xvii,  Bertheau,  in  order 
to  preserve  the  usual  arrangement  of  the  laws  in  deca- 
logues, would  transpose  this  cliapter,  and  place  it  after 
ch.  xix.  He  observes  that  the  laws  in  ch.  xvii,  and  those 
in  chap,  xx,  1-9,  are  akin  to  one  another,  and  may  very 
well  constitute  a  single  decalogue,  and,  what  is  of  more 
importance,  that  the  words  in  xviii,  1-5  form  the  natu- 
ral introduction  to  this  whole  group  of  laws:  ''And  Je- 
hovah spake  unto  Moses,  saying,  Speak  unto  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel,  and  say  unto  them,  I  am  Jehovah  j'our 
God.  After  the  doings  of  the  land  of  Egypt,  wherein 
ye  dwelt,  shall  ye  not  do;  and  after  the  doings  of  the 
land  of  Canaan,  whither  I  bring  you,  shall  ye  not  do ; 
neither  shall  ye  walk  in  their  ordinances,"  etc.  There 
is,  however,  a  jjoint  of  connection  between  chapters  xvii 
and  xviii  wliich  must  not  be  overlooked,  and  which 
seems  to  indicate  that  their  position  in  our  present  text 
is  the  right  one.  All  the  six  enactments  in  chap,  xvii 
(ver.  3-5,  ver.  G,  7,  ver.  8,  9,  ver.  10-12,  ver.  13, 14,  ver.  15) 


preceded  by  tlie  perf.  with  1  consecut.,  as  we  observed 
was  the  case  before  when  "the  priest"  was  the  prominent 
figure.  According  to  this,  then,  the  decalogue  will  stand 
thus :  (1)  Verse  2,  Aaron  not  to  enter  the  holy  place  at  all 
times ;  (2)  verses  3-5,  with  what  sacrifices  and  in  what 
dress  Aaron  is  to  enter  the  holy  place;  (3)  verses  G,  7, 
Aaron  to  offer  the  bullock  for  himself,  and  to  set  the  two 
goats  before  Jehovah ;  (4)  Aaron  to  cast  lots  on  the  two 


zel  into  the  wilderness  [see  Atonement,  Day  of],  es- 
pecially, perhaps,  against  the  Egyptian  custom  of  ap- 
peasing the  evil  spirit  of  the  wilderness  and  averting 
his  malice  (Hengstenberg,  Mose  u.  ^Egypten,  p.  179 ;  Mo- 
vers, Phonicier,  i,  369).  To  this  there  may  be  an  allu- 
sion in  ver.  7.  Perhaps,  however,  it  is  better  and  more 
simple  to  regard  the  enactments  in  these  two  chapters 
(with  Bunsen,  Bihelwerk,  II,  i,  245)  as  directed  against 


goats ;  (5)  verses  9, 10,  Aaron  to  offer  the  goat  on  which  |  two  prevalent  heathen  practices,  the  eating  of  blood  and 
the  lot  falls  for  Jehovah,  and  to  send  away  the  goat  for  j  fornication.  It  is  remarkable,  as  showing  how  inti- 
Azazel  into  the  wilderness;  (G)  verses  11-19,  Aaron  to  I  mately  moral  and  ritual  observances  were  blended  to 
sprinkle  the  blood  both  of  the  bullock  and  of  the  goat  j  gether  in  the  Jewish  mind,  that  abstinence  "from  blood 
to  make  atonement  for  himself,  for  his  house,  and  for  the  and  things  strangled,  and  fornication,"  was  laid  down  by 
whole  congregation,  as  also  to  purify  the  altar  of  incense  [  the  apostles  as  the  only  condition  of  communion  to  be 
with  the  blood ;  (7)  verses  20-22,  Aaron  to  lay  his  hands  j  required  of  Gentile  converts  to  Christianity.  Before  we 
on  the  living  goat,  and  confess  over  it  all  the  sins  of  the  |  quit  this  chapter  one  observation  may  be  made.  The 
children  of  Israel ;  (8)  verses  23-25,  Aaron  after  this  to  |  rendering  of  the  A.V.  in  ver.  11,"  for  it  is  the  blood  that 
take  off  his  linen  garments,  bathe  himself,  and  put  on  '  maketh  an  atonement  for  the  soul,"  should  be,  "  for  it  is 
his  priestly  garments,  and  then  offer  his  burnt-offering    the  blood  that  maketh  an  atonement  6y  means  of  the 


and  that  of  the  congregation ;  (9)  verse  2G,  the  man  by 
whom  the  goat  is  sent  into  the  wilderness  to  purify  him- 
self; (10)  verses  27-28,  what  is  to  be  done  by  him  who 
burns  the  sin-offering  without  the  camp, 

(IV.)  Laws  cJdefii)  intended  to  mark  the  Separation  be- 
tween Israel  and  the  Heathen  Nations  (cliap.  xvii-xx). —  i  ,  ,-,,/-,  j  i  ■  i 
We  here  reach  the  great  central  point  of  the  book.  All  I  ^li-eady  alluded,  ver.  1-5-and  in  which  God  claims  obe- 
going  before  was  but  a  preparation  for  this.  Two  great  I  'lience  on  the  double  ground  that  he  is  Israel  s  God,  and 
truths  have  been  established:  first,  that  God  can  only  !  t^iat  to  keep  his  commandments  is  life  (ver.  D)--there 
be  approached  bv  means  of  appointe.l  sacrifices;  next,  1  *"oll«^^'  twenty  enactments  concerning  unlawful  mar- 
that  man  in  nature  and  life  is  full  of  pollution,  which  I  ^ages  and  unnatural  lusts.      I  he  hrst  ten  are  contained 


lifer  This  is  important.  It  is  not  blood  merely  as 
such,  but  blood  as  having  in  it  the  principle  of  life  that 
God  accepts  in  sacrifice  ;  for,  by  thus  giving  vicariously 
the  life  of  the  dumb  animal,  the  sinner  confesses  that  his 
own  life  is  forfeit. 

In  ch.  xviii.  after  the  introduction  to  which  we  have 


full  of  pollution, 
must  be  cleansed.  Now  a  third  is  taught,  viz.,  that  not 
by  several  cleansings  for  several  sins  and  pollutions  can 
giult  be  put  away.  The  several  acts  of  sin  are  but  so 
many  manifestations  of  the  sinful  nature.  For  this, 
therefore,  also  must  atonement  be  made  by  one  solemn 
act,  which  shall  cover  all  transgressions,  and  turn  away 
God's  righteous  displeasure  from  Israel.  Israel  is  now 
reminded  that  it  is  the  holy  nation.  The  great  atone- 
ment offered,  it  is  to  enter  upon  a  new  life.  It  is  a  sep- 
arate nation,  sanctified  and  set  ajiart  for  the  service  of 
God.  It  may  not,  therefore,  do  after  the  abominations 
of  the  heathen  by  whom  it  is  surrounded.  Here,  conse- 
quentl}',  we  find  those  laws  and  ordinances  ^vhich  espe- 
cially distinguish  the  nation  of  Israel  from  all  other  na- 
tions of  the  earth. 


one  in  each  verse  (verses  G-15).  The  next  ten  range 
themselves  in  like  manner  with  the  verses,  except  that 
verses  17  and  23  contain  each  two.  Of  the  twenty  the 
first  fourteen  are  alike  in  form,  as  well  as  in  the  repeated 

In  chap,  xix  are  three  decalogues,  introduced  by  the 
words,  "  Ye  shall  be  holy,  for  I  Jehovah  your  God  am 
holy,"  and  ending  with,  "  Ye  shall  observe  all  my  stat- 
utes, and  all  my  judgments,  and  do  them.  I  am  Jeho- 
vah." The  laws  here  are  of  a  very  mixed  character, 
and  many  of  them  a  repetition  merely  of  previous  laws. 
Of  the  three  decalogues,  the  first  is  comprised  in  verses 
3-13,  and  may  be  thus  distributed:  (1)  verse  3,  to  honor 
father  and  mother;  (2)  ver.  3.  to  keep  the  Sabbath;  (3) 
ver.  4,  not  to  turn  to  idols ;  (4)  ver.  4,  not  to  make  mol- 


LEVITICUS 


404 


LEVITICUS 


ten  gods  (tliese  two  enactments  being  separated  on  the 
same  principle  as  the  first  and  second  commandments 
in  tlie  (Jrcat  Decalogue  or  Two  Tables) ;  (5)  verses  5-S, 
of  thank-offerings;  (U)  ver.  9, 10,  of  gleaning;  (7)  verse 
11.  not  to  steal  or  lie;  (8)  verse  12,  not  to  swear  falsely; 
(9)  verse  13,  not  to  defraud  one's  neighbor;  (10)  verse 
13.  the  wages  of  him  that  is  hired,  etc. 

The  next  decalogue,  verses  14-'25,  Bertheau  arranges 
thus:  ver.  14,  ver.  15,  ver.  16a,  ver.  1Gb,  ver.  17,  ver.  18, 
ver.  19((,  ver.  1%,  ver.  '20-22j  ver.  23-25.  "We  object, 
however,  to  making  the  Avords  in  19a,  "  Ye  shall  keep 
niv  statutes,"  a  separate  enactment.  There  is  no  reason 
lor  this.  A  much  better  plan  would  be  to  consider  ver. 
17  as  consisting  of  two  enactments,  which  is  manifestly 
the  case. 

The  third  decalogue  may  be  thus  distributed :  verse 
2Ga,  ver.  2Gb,  ver.  27,  ver.  28,  ver.  29,  ver.  30,  ver.  31,  ver. 
32.  ver.  33,  34,  ver.  35,  36. 

We  have  thus  found  five  decalogues  in  this  group. 
Bertheau  completes  the  number  seven  by  transposing, 
as  we  have  seen,  chap,  xvii,  and  placing  it  immediately 
before  ch.  xx.  He  also  transfers  ver.  27  of  ch.  xx  to 
what  he  considers  its  proper  place,  viz.,  after  ver.  6.  It 
must  be  confessed  that  the  enactment  in  ver.  27  stands 
very  awkwardly  at  the  end  of  the  chapter,  completely 
isolated  as  it  is  from  all  other  enactments ;  for  ver.  22- 
20  are  the  natural  conclusion  to  this  whole  section.  But, 
admitting  this,  another  dilWculty  remains,  that,  accord- 
ing to  him,  the  seventh  decalogue  begins  at  ver.  10,  and 
another  transjiosition  is  necessan,-,  so  that  ver.  7,  8  may 
stand  after  verse  9,  and  so  conclude  the  preceding  series 
of  ten  enactments.  It  is  better,  perhaps,  to  abandon 
the  search  for  complete  symmetry  than  to  adopt  a  meth- 
od so  violent  in  order  to  obtain  it. 

It  should  be  observed  that  ch.  xviii,  6-23,  and  ch.  xx, 
10-21,  stand  in  such  a  relation  to  one  another  that  the 
latter  declares  the  penalties  attached  to  the  transgres- 
sion of  many  of  the  commandments  given  in  the  former. 
But,  though  we  may  not  be  able  to  trace  in  chap,  xvii 
-XX  seven  decalogues,  in  accordance  with  the  theory  of 
which  we  have  been  speaking,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  they  form  a  distinct  section  of  themselves,  of  which 
XX,  22-26  is  the  proper  conclusion. 

Like  the  other  sections,  it  has  some  characteristic 
expressions:  («)  •'  Ye  shall  keep  my  judgments  and  my 
statutes"  (■'^pn,  ■'MSp^)  occurs  xviii,  4,  5,  26;  xix, 
37 ;  XX,  8,  22,  but  is  not  met  with  either  in  the  preced- 
ing or  the  following  chapters,  (i)  The  constantly  re- 
curring phrases,  "  I  am  .Jehovah,"  "  I  am  .Jehovah  your 
God,'  '•  Be  ye  holy,  for  I  am  holy,"  " I  am  Jehovah 
which  hallow  you,"'  In  the  earlier  sections  this  phrase- 
ology is  only  found  in  Lev,  xi,  44,  45.  and  Exod.  xxxi, 
13.  In  the  section  which  follows  (chap,  xxi-xxv)  it  is 
mucVi  more  common,  this  section  being  in  a  great  meas-  ! 
are  a  continuation  of  the  preceding. 

(Y.)  We  come  now  to  the  last  group  of  decalogues — 
that  contained  in  ch.  xxi-xxvi,  2.  The  subjects  com- 
prised in  these  enactments  are — 1.  The  personal  purity 
of  the  priests.  They  may  not  defile  themselves  for  the 
dead;  their  wives  and  daughters  must  be  pure,  and 
they  themselves  must  be  free  from  all  personal  blemish 
(ch.  xxi).  2.  The  eating  of  the  holy  things  is  permit- 
ted only  to  priests  who  are  free  from  all  uncleamiess: 
they  and  their  household  only  may  eat  them  (ch.  xxii,  1- 
16).  3.  The  offerings  of  Israel  are  to  he  pure  and  with- 
out iilemish  (ch.  xxii.  17-33  ).  4.  The  last  series  provides 
for  the  due  celebration  of  the  great  festivals  when  priests 
and  peo|)le  were  to  be  gathered  together  before  Jehovah 
in  holy  convocation  (ch.  xxiii,  xxv),  with  an  episode 
(ch.  xxiv). 

L'p  to  this  point  we  trace  system  and  purpose  in  the 
order  of  the  legislation.  Thus,  for  instance,  ch.  xi~xvi  i 
treats  of  external  juirity:  ch.  xvii-xx  of  moral  iiurity; 
chap,  xxi-xxiii  of  the  holiness  of  the  priestsj  and  their 
duties  with  regard  to  holy  things ;  the  whole  concluding 
•with  provisions  for  the  solemn  feasts  on  which  all  Israel  | 
appeared  before  Jehovah.     We  will  again  brietiy  indi-  | 


cate  Bertheau's  groups,  and  then  append  some  general 
observations  on  this  whole  section. 

u.  Chapter  xxi,  ten  laws,  as  follows:  (1)  ver.  1-3;  (2) 
ver.  4  ;  (3)  ver.  5,  6  ;  (4)  ver.  7,  8  ;  (5)  ver.  9 ;  (6)  ver.  10, 
11 ;  (7)  ver.  12 ;  (8)  ver.  13, 14 ;  (9)  ver.  17-21 :  (10)  ver. 
22,  23.  The  first  five  laws  concern  all  the  priests  ;  the 
sixth  to  the  eighth,  the  high-priest ;  the  ninth  and  tenth, 
the  effects  of  bodily  blemish  in  particular  cases. 

b.  Chap,  xxii,  1-16.  (1)  ver.  2 ;  (2)  ver.  3 ;  (3)  ver.  4 ; 
(4)  ver.  4-7  ;  (5)  ver.  8,  9;  (0)  ver.  10  ;  (7)  ver.  11 ;  (8) 
ver.  12;  (9)  ver.  13;  (10)  ver.  14-16. 

c.  Chap,  xxii,  17-33.  (1)  ver.  18-20 ;  (2)  ver.  21 ;  (3) 
ver.  22 ;  (4)  ver.  23 ;  (5)  ver.  24 ;  (6)  ver.  25 ;  (7)  ver. 
27;  (8)  ver.  28;  (9)  ver.  29;  (10)  ver.  30;  and  a  general 
conclusion  in  verse  31-33. 

(/.  Chap,  xxiii.  (1)  ver.  3 ;  (2)  ver.  5-7 ;  (3)  ver.  8 ; 
(4)  ver.  9-14;  (5)  ver.  15-21;  (6)  ver.  22;  (7)  ver.  24, 
25 ;  (8)  ver.  27-32 ;  (9)  ver.  34,  35 ;  (10)  ver.  36  ;  verses 
37,  38  contain  the  conclusion,  or  general  summing  up  of 
the  Decalogue.  On  the  remainder  of  the  chapter,  as 
well  as  chapter  xxiv,  see  below. 

e.  Chap,  xxv,  1-22.  (1)  ver.  2 ;  (2)  ver.  3, 4 ;  (3)  ver. 
5 ;  (4)  ver.  6 ;  (5)  ver.  8-10 ;  (6)  ver.  11, 12 ;  (7)  ver.  13  ; 
(8)  ver.  14  ;  (9)  ver.  15 ;  (10)  ver.  16  ;  with  a  concluding 
formula  in  verse  18-22. 

j:  Chap,  xxv,  23-38.  (1)  ver.  23,  24 ;  (2)  ver.  25 ;  (3) 
ver.  26,  27 ;  (4)  ver.  28 ;  (5)  ver.  29 ;  (6)  ver.  30 ;  (7)  ver. 
31 ;  (8)  ver.  32,  33 ;  (9)  ver.  34 ;  (10)  ver.  35-37  ;  the 
conclusion  to  the  whole  in  verse  38. 

g.  Chap,  xxv,  39-xxvi, 2.  (1)  ver.  39 ;  (2)  ver.  40-42; 
(3)  ver.  43 ;  (4)  ver.  44, 45 ;  (5)  ver.  46 :  (6)  ver.  47-49 ; 
(7)  ver.  50;  (8)  ver.  51,  52;  (9)  ver.  53;   (10)  ver.  54. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  above  arrangement  is  only 
completed  by  omitting  the  latter  part  of  ch.  xxiii  and  the 
whole  of  ch.  xxiv.  But  it  is  clear  that  ch.  xxiii,  39-44 
is  an  addition,  containing  further  instructions  respect- 
ing the  Feast  of  Tabernacles.  Verse  39,  as  conijiared 
with  verse  34,  shows  that  the  same  feast  is  referred  to; 
while  ver.  37, 38  are  no  less  manifestly  the  original  con- 
clusion of  the  laws  respecting  the  feasts  which  are  enu- 
merated in  the  previous  part  of  the  chapter.  Ch.  xxiv, 
again,  has  a  peculiar  character  of  its  own.  First,  we 
have  a  command  concerning  the  oil  to  be  used  in  the 
lamps  belonging  to  the  tabernacle,  but  tliis  is  only  a 
repetition  of  an  enactment  already  given  in  Exod.  xxvii, 
20,  21,  which  seems  to  be  its  natural  place.  Then  fol- 
low directions  about  the  shewbread.  These  do  not  oc- 
cur previously.  In  Exoc'.us  the  shewbread  is  spoken 
of  always  as  a  matter  of  course,  concerning  which  no 
regulations  arc  necessary  (comp.  Exod.  xxv,  30 ;  xxxv, 
13;  xxxix,  30).  Easily  come  certain  enactments  aris- 
ing out  of  a  historical  occurrence.  The  son  of  an  Eg^-p- 
tian  father  by  an  Israelitish  woman  blasphemes  the 
name  of  Jehovah,  and  Moses  is  commanded  to  stone 
him  in  conseciuence;  and  this  circumstance  is  the  occa-  • 
sion  of  the  f(>llowing  laws  being  given :  (1)  That  a  blas- 
phemer, whether  Israelite  or  stranger,  is  to  be  stoned 
(comp.  l*;xod.  xxii,  28) ;  (2)  That  he  that  kills  any  man 
shall  surely  i)e  put  to  death  (comp.  Exod.  xxi,  12-27) ; 
(3)  That  he  that  kills  a  beast  shall  make  it  good  (not 
found  where  we  might  have  expected  it,  in  the  series 
of  laws  Exod.  xxi.  28-xxii.  16) ;  (4)  That  if  a  man  cause 
a  blemish  in  his  neighbor  he  shall  be  requited  in  like 
manner  (comp.  Exod.  xxi.  22-25).  (5)  We  have  then 
a  repetition  in  an  inverse  order  of  verses  17,  18;  and  (6) 
the  injunction  that  there  shall  be  one  law  for  the  stran- 
ger and  the  Israelite;  (7)  finally,  a  brief  notice  of  the 
infliction  of  the  punishment  in  the  case  of  the  son  of 
Shelomith.  who  blasphemed.  Not  another  instance  is 
to  be  found  in  the  whole  collection  in  which  any  histor- 
ical circumstance  is  made  the  occasion  of  enacting  a  law. 
Then,  again,  the  laws  (2),  (3),  (4),  (5),  are  mostly  rep- 
etitions of  existing  laws,  and  seem  here  to  have  no  con- 
nection with  the  event  to  which  they  are  referred. 
Either,  therefore,  some  other  circumstances  took  place 
at  the  same  time  with  which  we  are  not  acquainted,  or 
these  isolated  laws,  detached  from  their  proper  connec- 


LEVITICUS 


405 


LEVITICUS 


tion,  were  grouped  together  here,  in  obedience  perhaps 
to  some  traditional  association. 

(VI.)  These  decalogues  are  now  fitly  closed  by  words 
iii promise  and  threat — promise  of  largest,  richest  bless- 
ing to  those  that  hearken  unto  and  do  these  command- 
ments; threats  of  utter  destruction  to  those  that  break 
the  covenant  of  their  God.  Thus  the  second  great  di- 
vision of  the  law  closes  like  the  first,  except  that  the 
first  part,  or  Book  of  the  Covenant,  ends  (Exod.  xxiii, 
20-33)  with  promises  of  blessing  only.  There  nothing 
is  said  of  the  judgments  which  are  to  foUow  transgres- 
sion, because  as  yet  the  covenant  had  not  been  made. 
But  when  once  the  nation  had  freely  entered  into  that 
covenant,  they  bound  themselves  to  accept  its  sanctions, 
p  its  penalties,  as  well  as  its  rewards.  Nor  can  we  won- 
der if  in  these  sanctions  the  punishment  of  transgression 
holds  a  larger  place  than  the  rewards  of  obedience ;  for 
already  was  it  but  too  plain  that  "Israel  would  not 
obey."  From  the  first  they  were  a  stiff-necked  and  re- 
Ijellious  race,  and  from  the  first  the  doom  of  disobedience 
hung  like  a  fiery  sword  above  their  heads. 

(VII.)  Oh  Vows. — The  legislation  is  evidently  com- 
l^lcted  in  the  last  words  of  the  preceding  chapter: 
'•  These  are  the  statutes,  and  judgments,  and  laws  which 
.lehovah  made  between  him  and  the  children  of  Israel 
in  Mount  Sinai  by  the  hand  of  jMoses."  Chap,  xxvii  is 
an  appendix,  again  closed,  however,  by  a  similar  formu- 
la, which  at  least  shows  that  the  transcriber  considered 
it  to  be  an  integral  part  of  the  original  Mosaic  legisla- 
tion, though  he  might  be  at  a  loss  to  assign  it  its  place. 
Bertheau  classes  it  with  the  other  less  regularly  grouped 
laws  at  the  beginning  of  the  book  of  Numbers.  He 
treats  the  section  Lev.  xxvii-Numb.  x,  10  as  a  series  of 
supplements  to  the  Sinaitic  legislation. 

II.  Integrity,  —  This  is  very  generally  admitted. 
Those  critics  even  who  are  in  favor  of  different  docu- 
ments in  the  Pentateuch  assign  nearly  the  whole  of  this 
book  to  one  -wTiter,  the-Elohist,  or  author  of  the  original 
document.  According  to  Knobel,  the  only  portions 
which  are  not  to  be  referred  to  the  Elohist  are — jMoses's 
rebuke  of  Aaron  because  the  goat  of  the  sin-offering 
had  been  biu-nt  (x,  16-20) ;  the  group  of  laws  in  chap, 
xvii-xx;  certain  additional  enactments  respecting  the 
Sabbath  and  the  feasts  of  Weeks  and  of  Tabernacles 
(xxiii,  part  of  ver.  2,  from  T\MV^  i'n"1"2,  and  ver.  3,  ver, 
18, 19,  22,  39^4);  the  punishments  ordained  for  blas- 
phemy, murder,  etc,  (xxiv,  10-23) ;  the  directions  re- 
specting the  sabbatical  year  (xxv,  18-22),  and  the  prom- 
ises and  warnings  contained  in  ch.  xxvi. 

With  regard  to  the  section  ch.  xvii-xx,  Knobel  does 
not  consider  the  whole  of  it  to  have  been  borrowed  from 
the  same  sources.  Ch.  xvii  he  believes  was  mtroduced 
here  by  the  Jehovist  from  some  ancient  document,  whUe 
he  admits,  nevertheless,  that  it  contains  certain  Elohis- 
tic  forms  of  expression,  as  "lb3  bis,  "aU  flesh,"  ver.  14; 
\bS3,  "soul"  (in  the  sense  of  "person"),  ver.  10-12, 15 
il^n,  "beast,"  ver.  13,  'i^'^ii^,  "offering,"  ver.  4;  n^'H 
rnni3,  "a  sweet  savor,"  verse  6,  "a  statute  forever," 
and  "  after  your  generations,"  ver,  7.  But  it  cannot  be 
from  the  Elohist,  he  argues,  because  (a)  he  would  have 
placed  it  after  ch.  vii,  or  at  least  after  ch.  xv,  {b)  he 
would  not  have  repeated  the  prohibition  of  blood,  etc., 
which  he  had  already  given;  (c)  he  would  have  taken 
a  more  favorable  view  of  his  nation  than  that  implied 
in  ver.  7 ;  and,  lastly,  (d)  the  phraseology  has  something 
of  the  coloring  of  ch.  xviii-xx  and  xxvi,  which  are  cer- 
tainly not  Elohistic.  Such  reasons  are  too  transparent- 
ly unsatisfactory  to  need  serious  discussion.  He  ob- 
serves further  that  the  chapter  is  not  altogetlier  Mosaic. 
The  first  enactment  (ver.  1-7)  docs  indeed  apply  only  to 
Israelites,  and  holds  good,  therefore,  for  the  time  of  Mo- 
ses. But  the  remaining  three  contemplate  the  case  of 
strangers  living  among  the  people,  and  have  a  reference 
to  all  time. 

Ch.  xviii-xx,  though  they  have  a  Jehovistic  colormg, 


cannot  have  been  originally  from  the  Jehovist.  The 
following  peculiarities  of  language,  which  are  worthy 
of  notice,  according  to  Knobel  {Exod.  und  Leviticus  er- 
llart,  in  the  "Kitrzrj.  Exeg.  JIdbuch."  1857),  forbid  such 
a  supposition,  the  more  so  as  they  occur  nowhere  else  in 
the  O.  T. :  "n"i,  "  lie  down  to"  and  "  gender,"  xviii,  23 ; 
xix,  10,  XX,  IG,  PSt^i,  "confusion,"  xviii,  23;  xx,  12; 
Z^ph,  "gather,"  xix,  9  ;  xxiii,  22;  U'lB,  "grape,"  xix, 
10 ;  il"i5<"u3,  "  near  kinswomen,"  xviii,  17 ;  r^lpS, 
"scourged,"  xix,  20;  tlirJEn,  "free,"  ibid.;  "pJ'i? 
r3ri3,  "  print  marks,"  xix,  28 ;  X'lpil,  "  vomit,"  in  the 
metaphorical  sense,  xviii,  25,  28;  xx,  22;  ilh'}V,  "un- 
circumcised,"  as  applied  to  fruit-trees,  xix,  23;  and 
rTlbilS,  "born,"  xviii,  9, 11 ;  as  well  as  the  Egyptian 
word  (for  such  it  probably  is)  TSipi'O,  "garment  of  di- 
vers sorts,"  which,  however,  does  occur  once  beside  in 
Dent,  xxii,  11. 

According  to  Bunsen,  chap,  xix  is  a  genuine  part  of 
the  Mosaic  legislation,  given,  however,  in  its  original 
form,  not  on  Sinai,  but  on  the  east  side  of  the  Jordan ; 
while  the  general  arrangement  of  the  Blosaic  laws  may 
perhaps  be  as  late  as  the  time  of  the  judges.  He  re- 
gards it  as  a  very  ancient  document,  based  on  the  Two 
Tables,  of  which,  and  especially  of  the  first,  it  is,  in  fact, 
an  extension,  consisting  of  two  decalogues  and  one  pen- 
tad of  laws.  Certain  expressions  in  it  he  considers  as  im- 
plying that  the  people  were  already  settled  in  the  land 
(ver,  9, 10, 13, 15),  while,  on  the  other  hand,  ver.  23  suj>- 
poses  aj'utui-e  occupation  of  the  land.  Hence  he  con- 
cludes that  the  revision  of  this  document  by  the  tran- 
scribers was  incomplete;  whereas  all  the  passages  may 
fairly  be  interpreted  as  looking  forward  to  a  future  set- 
tlement in  Canaan.  The  great  simplicity  and  lofty 
moral  character  of  this  section  compel  us,  says  Bunsen, 
to  refer  it  at  least  to  the  earlier  time  of  the  judges,  if 
not  to  that  of  Joshua  himself, 

III.  A  uthenticitg,  etc. — Some  critics,  however,  such  as 
De  Wette,  Gramberg,  Vatke,  and  others,  have  strenu- 
ously endeavored  to  prove  that  the  laws  contained  in 
Leviticus  originated  in  a  period  much  later  than  is  usu- 
ally supposed;  but  the  following  observations  sufficient- 
ly support  their  Mosaical  origin,  and  show  that  the 
whole  of  Leviticus  is  historically  genuine.  The  la^vs  in 
chap,  i-vii  contain  manifest  vestiges  of  the  Mosaical  pe- 
riod. Here,  as  well  as  in  Exodus,  when  the  priests  are 
mentioned,  Aaron  and  his  sons  are  named;  as,  for  in- 
stance, in  chap,  i,  4,  7,  8, 11,  etc.  The  tabernacle  is  the 
sanctuary,  and  no  other  place  of  worship  is  mentioned 
anywhere  (i,  3  ;  iii,  8, 13,  etc.).  The  Israelites  are  al- 
ways described  as  a  congregation  (iv,  13  sq.),  under  the 
command  of  the  elders  of  the  congregation  (iv,  16),  or  of 
a  rider  (iv,  22).  Everything  has  reference  to  life  in 
a  camp,  and  that  camp  commanded  by  Moses  (iv,  12, 
21;  vi,  11;  xiv,  8  ;  xvi,  26,  28).  A  later  writer  could 
scarcely  have  placed  himself  so  entirely  in  the  times, 
and  so  completely  adopted  the  modes  of  thinking  of  the 
age  of  Moses;  especially  if,  as  has  been  asserted,  these 
laws  gradually  sprung  from  the  usages  of  the  people, 
and  were  written  down  at  a  later  period  with  the  object 
of  sanctioning  them  by  the  authority  of  Moses.  They 
so  entirely  befit  the  JMosaical  age  that,  in  order  to  adapt 
them  to  the  requirements  of  any  later  period,  they  must 
have  undergone  some  modification,  accommodation,  and 
a  peculiar  mode  of  interpretation.  This  inconvenience 
would  have  been  avoided  by  a  person  -who  intended  to 
forge  laws  in  favor  of  the  later  modes  of  Levitical  wor- 
ship. A  forger  vrould  have  endeavored  to  identify  the 
past  as  much  as  possible  with  the  present. 

The  section  in  cha[i.  viii-x  is  said  to  have  a  mj-thical 
coloring.  This  assertion  is  groimded  on  the  miracle 
narrated  in  ch.  ix,  24.  But  what  could  have  been  the 
inducement  to  forge  this  section?  It  is  said  that  the 
priests  invented  it  in  order  to  support  the  authority  of 
the  sacerdotal  caste  by  the  solemn  ceremony  of  Aaron's 
consecration.     But  to  such  an  intention  the  narration 


LEVITICUS 


406 


LEVY 


of  the  crime  committed  by  Nadab  and  Abihu  is  striking- 
1\-  opposetl.  Even  Aaron  liimself  here  ajjpears  to  be 
ratlier  remiss  in  tlie  observance  of  the  law  (comp.  x,  IG 
SI}.,  with  iv,  22  sci-).  Hence  it  v/ould  seem  that  the  for- 
•■erv  arose  from  an  opposite  or  anti-hierarchical  tenden- 
cy." The  liction  would  thus  appear  to  have  been  con- 
trived without  any  motive  whicli  could  account  for  its 
oriicin. 

in  ch.  xvii  occurs  the  law  which  forbids  the  slaugh- 
ter of  any  beast  except  at  the  sanctuary.  This  law 
could  not  be  strictly  kept  in  Palestine,  and  had  there- 
fore to  undergo  some  niodificatiou  (Ueut.  xii).  Our 
ojiponents  cannot  show  any  rational  inducement  for  con- 
triving such  a  liction.  The  law  (xvii,  (5,  7)  is  adapted 
to  the  nation  onh-  while  emigrating  from  Egypt,  It 
was  the  object  of  this  law  to  guard  the  Israelites  from 
falling  into  the  temptation  to  imitate  the  Egyptian  rites 
and  sacrifices  offered  to  he-goats  (C^'^'^yb,  se'irim, 
"  devils,"  Sept.  iMToia,  Yulg.  dumoncs),  which  word 
signifies  also  daemons  represented  under  the  form  of  he- 
goats,  and  which  were  supposed  to  inhabit  the  desert 
(comp.  Jablonsky,  Pantheon  ^Hgyptiacum,  i,  272  sq.). 

The  laws  concerning  food  and  purifications  appear 
especially  important  if  we  remember  that  the  people 
emigrated  from  Egypt.  The  fundamental  principle  of 
these  laws  is  undoubtedly  Mosaical,  but  in  the  individ- 
ual application  of  them  there  is  much  that  strongly  re- 
minds us  of  Egypt.  This  is  also  the  case  in  Lev.  xviil 
sq.,  where  the  lawgiver  has  manifestly  in  view  the  two 
opposites,  Canaan  and  Egypt.  That  the  lawgiver  was 
intimately  acquainted  with  Egypt  is  proved  by  such 
remarks  as  hint  at  the  Egyptian  marriages  with  sisters 
(xviii,3) ;  a  custom  which  stands  as  an  exception  among 
the  prevailing  habits  of  antiquity  (Diod.  Siculus,  i,  27  ; 
Pausanias,  A  Idea,  i,  7). 

The  book  of  Leviticus  has  a  prophetical  character. 
This  is  especially  manifest  in  ch.  xxv,  xxvi.  where  the 
law  appears  in  a  truly  sublime  and  divine  attitude,  and 
when  its  predictions  refer  to  the  whole  futurity  of  the 
nation.  It  is  impossible  to  say  that  these  were  vaticinia 
ex  eventu,  unless  we  would  assert  that  this  book  was 
written  at  the  close  of  IsraeUtish  history.  We  must 
rather  grant  that  passages  like  this  are  the  real  basis 
on  which  the  authority  of  later  prophets  is  chiefly  built. 
Such  passages  prove  also  in  a  striking  manner  that  the 
lawgiver  had  not  merely  an  external  aim,  but  that  his 
law  had  a  deeper  purpose,  Avhich  was  clearly  understood 
by  JMoses  himself.  That  purpose  was  to  regulate  the 
national  life  in  all  its  bearings,  and  to  consecrate  the 
whole  nation  to  God.  See,  especially,  chap,  xxv,  18  sq. 
Although  this  section  has  a  general  bearing,  it  is  never- 
theless manifest  that  it  originated  in  the  times  of  Moses. 
At  a  later  period,  for  instance,  it  would  have  been  im- 
practicable to  promulgate  the  law  concerning  the  Sab- 
liath  and  the  year  of  jubilee;  for  it  was  soon  sufficiently 
jiroved  how  far  the  nation  in  reality  remained  behind 
the  ideal  Israel  of  the  law.  The  sabbatical  law  bears 
the  impress  of  a  time  when  the  whole  legislation,  in  its 
fulness  and  glory,  was  directly  communicated  to  the 
]ieopl(^  in  such  a  mamier  as  to  attract,  penetrate,  and 
command. 

IV.  We  must  not  quit  tliis  book  without  a  word  on 
AThat  may  be  called  its  .ipiritiiril  mcanwg.  That  so  elal)- 
orate  a  ritual  looked  beyond  itself  we  cannot  doubt.  It 
was  a  prophecy  of  tilings  to  come;  a  shadow  whereof 
the  sul)stance  was  Christ  and  his  kingdom.  We  may 
not  always  be  able  to  say  what  the  exact  relation  is  be- 
tween the  type  and  the  antilype.  Of  many  things  we 
may  l)e  sure  that  they  belonged  only  to  the  nation  to 
whom  they  were  given,  containing  no  ]irophetic  signifi- 
cance, but  serving  as  witnesses  and  signs  to  them  of 
(Jod's  covenant  of  grace.  We  may  hesitate  to  pro- 
nounce with  .Jerome  that  "e\-cry  sacrifice,  nay,  almost 
every  syllable — the  garments  of  Aaron  and  the  whole 
Levitical  system — breathe  of  heavenly  mysteries;"'  but 
•we  cannot  read  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  and  not  ac- 
knowledge that  the  Levitical  priests  "  served  the  pat- 


tern and  type  of  heavenly  things" — that  the  sacrifices 
of  the  law  pointed  to  and  found  their  interpretation  in 
the  Lamb  of  God — that  the  ordinances  of  outward  puri- 
fication signified  the  truer  inward  cleansing  of  the  heart 
and  conscience  from  dead  works  to  serve  the  living  God. 
One  idea,  moreover,  penetrates  the  whole  of  this  vast 
and  burdensome  ceremonial,  and  gives  it  a  real  glorj-, 
even  apart  from  any  prophetic  signilicancc.  Holiness 
is  its  end.  Holiness  is  its  character.  The  tabemacle  is 
holy — the  vessels  are  holy — the  offerings  are  most  holy 
unto  Jehovah — the  garments  of  the  priests  are  holy. 
All  who  approach  him  whose  name  is  "  Holy,"  whether 
priests  who  minister  to  him  or  people  who  worship  be- 
fore him,  nuist  themselves  be  holy.  It  would  seem  as 
if,  amid  the  camp  and  dwellings  of  Israel,  was  ever  to 
be  heard  an  echo  of  that  solemn  strain  which  fills  the 
courts  above,  where  the  seraphim  cry  one  to  another, 
Holy,  Holy,  Holy. 

V.  Commentaries. — The  following  are  the  special  ex- 
egetical  helps  on  the  whole  or  major  part  of  this  book, 
to  the  most  important  of  which  we  prefix  an  asterisk : 
Origen,  Sekcta.  (in  0pp.  ii,  179) ;  also  Iloniilice  (ibid,  iv, 
184);  Ephrem  ^yTu»,  £x2)laJiaiio  (in  Syriac,  in  0pp.  ii, 
236) :  Theodoret,  Qucestiones  (in  Greek,  in  0pp.  i) ;  Isi- 
dorus  Hispalensis,  Commeniaria  (in  0pp.  i)  ;  Bede,  QiKes- 
iiones  (in  0pp.  viii) ;  also  In  Levit:  {ibid,  iv) ;  Hesychi- 
us,  In  Levit.  (in  Greek,  Paris,  1581,  4to ;  also  in  the  Eih- 
lia  Max.  Pair,  xii) ;  Claudius  Taurinensis,  Prcpfaiio  (in 
Mabillon,  Veter.  Anedect.  p.  90) ;  Hugo  a  St.  Victor,  ^72- 
notationes  (in  Opj}.  i) ;  Eupertus  Tuitiensis,  In  Levit.  (iu 
Opp.  i,  220) ;  Eadulphus  Flaviacensis,  Commeniaria  (Col. 
1536,  folio  ;  also  in  the  Biblia  Max.  Pair,  xvii,  47) ;  Pe- 
siktha-^Iinus,  Commentarius  (includ.  Nimib.  and  Deut,] 
(from  the  Heb.  in  LTgolino,  Thesaur.  xv,  997 ;  x-\i  sq.) ; 
Phrvgio,  Erplanatio  [together  with  1  Tim.]  (Basil. 
1543,  4to;  1,596,  8vo);  Brentius,  Commeniarii  (in  Opp. 
i);  Chytrteus,  Enarraiiones  (Vitemb.  1569,  1575,  8vo) ; 
Serranus,  Commentarius  (Antwp.  1572,  1609,  fol.) ;  Bro- 
cardus,  Interpi-eiaiio  (L.  B.  1580,  8vo) ;  Babington,  Notes 
(in  TrorA\«,  p.  349) ;  Pelargus,  Commentarius  (Lips.  1604, 
4to);  Lorinus,  Commeniarii  (Ludgun.  1619, 1622;  Duac. 
1620;  Antwerp,  1620,  fol.);  \\"\\M,  Sixfold  Commcutarie 
(Lond.  1631,  fol.);  Franzius,  Commentarius  (Lips.  1696, 
4to) ;  Spanheim,  Observationes  (in  Opp.  iii,  617) ;  Coc- 
ceius,  Observationes  (in  Opp.  i,  158):  *Patrick,  Commen- 
tary (Lond.  1.698, 4to ;  also  in  Patrick,  Lowth,  and  Whit- 
by's Commentary^;  Dassovius,  Scholia  (Kilom.  1707, 
4to) ;  Hagemann,  Betrachiunf/en  (Brunswick,  1741,  4to)  ; 
*Rosenmidler.  »Sc/(o/m  (Lips.  1824,  8 vo)  ;  Horsley,  A'o/fs 
(in  Bibl.Crit.  i) ;  *Berfheau,  Die  Sieben  Grvj>pen  Mos.  Ge- 
seize  (Lpz.  1840, 8vo) ;  James,  Sei-mons  (Lond.  1847, 8vo) ; 
*Bonar,  Commentary  (Lond.  1851  [3d  ed.],  1861;  N.Y. 
1851,  8vo);  *Bush,  A'o/f«(N.Y.1852, 12mo);  Cumming, 
Readinfis  (Lond.  1854,  12mo) ;  *Knobel,  ErlUirnn;/  [in- 
clud. Exod.]  (vol.  ii  of  the  Kxirizfief.  Exeg.  lldbch.  Lpz. 
1857,  8vo)  ;  Newton.  Thoughts  (Lond.  1857, 12mo);  *Ka~ 
Usch,  Commentary  (London.  1857  sq.,  2  vols.  8 vo);  Seiss, 
Gospel  in  Levii.  (Phila.  1860, 12mo);  *Keil,  Commentar 
(in  vol.  ii  of  his  Pentateuch,  Leipsic,  1862,  Edinb.  1866, 
8vo)  ;  Siphra,  Commentar  (in  Heb.  Vienna,  1862,  folio) ; 
Wogue,  Leviiique  (vol.  iii  of  his  Pentatevque,  Par.  1864, 
8vo) ;  *Murphy,  Commentary  (Lond.  and  Andover,  1872, 
8vo).     See  Pentateuch. 

Levity  is  a  term  used  to  designate  a  certain  lights 
ness  of  spirit  in  opposition  to  gravity.  Nothing  can  be 
more  proper  than  for  a  Christian  to  wear  an  air  of  cheer- 
fulness, and  to  watch  against  a  morose  and  gloomy  dis- 
position. But,  though  it  be  his  privilege  to  rejoice,  yet 
he  must  be  cautious  of  that  volatility  of  spirit  which 
characterizes  the  unthinking,  and  marks  the  vain  pro- 
fessor. To  be  cheerful  without  levity,  and  grave  with- 
out austerity,  forois  both  a  happy  and  dignified  charac- 
ter.—Buck,  7'/(w/.  Diet.  s.  V.     See  Idle  Woisds. 

Levy  (C^,  mas,  tribute,  as  usually  rendered),  a  tax 
or  requirement  of  service  imposed  by  Eastern  kings  for 
public  works,  hence  ngcng  or  company  of  men  impressed 
into  such  service  (1  Kings  v,  13,  14;  ix,  15).     In  two 


LEW  CHEW 


407 


LEYDECKER 


passages  other  terms  (n5i\  1  Kings  ix,  21 ;  12*1"!,  Numb. 
xxxi,  28)  are  employed  in  connection  with  this,  to  de- 
note the  exaction  of  tribute.     See  Tribute. 

Lew  Cliew.     See  Loo  Choo. 

Levrd  (;roj'j;,ooc,  bud,  Acts  xvii,  5),  Lewdness 
(paoiovpyij^in,  mischief,  Acts  xviii,  14),  are  used  else- 
where in  tlieir  proper  sense  of  licentiousness  (nST,  etc., 
Jadg.xx,G;  Ezek.  often;  Jer.xi,15;  xiii,27;  Hos.vi,9; 
once  for  nib33,  the^>a)-^*"  of  shame,  Hos.  ii,  10). 

LeTwin,  IIirschki.,  a  Jewish  rabbi  who  was  born  in 
1721  ill  Poland,  and  died  at  Berlin  in  1800,  is  noted  for 
his  attitude  towards  :Moscs  Mendelssohn.  Lewiu  was 
chief  rabbi  of  Prussia  in  the  days  of  the  great  Jewish  phi- 
losopher, and  severely  censured  INIendelssohn  for  ration- 
alistic views  expressed  in  his  correspondence  with  La- 
vater  [see  Mendelssohn],  and  hi  his  translation  of  the 
Pentateuch  into  German.  To  the  credit  of  Lewin,  how- 
ever, it  must  be  stated  that  he  by  no  means  condemned, 
or  permitted  the  condemnation  of  ^Mendelssohn  as  a  her- 
etic, as  Landau  and  other  Polisli  rabbis  were  inclined  to 
do.     See  Griitz.  Gesch.  cler  Juden,  xi,  45  sq. 

Lewis,  Isaac,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
born  Jan.  21. 174(j  (O.  S.),  in  Stratford  (now  Huntington), 
Conn. ;  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  17G5 ;  entered  the 
ministry  in  March,  1768;  and  was  ordained  pastor  at 
Wilton,  Conn.,  Oct.  26, 1768.  He  resigned  his  charge  in 
June,  178G,  and  was  installed  October  18, 17S6,  pastor  in 
Greenwich,  and  there  he  labored  until  Dec.  1, 1818,  when 
he  gave  up  the  work  on  account  of  the  infirmities  of  age. 
He  died  Aug.  27, 1840.  Li  1816  he  was  made  a  member 
of  Yale  College  Corporation,  but  resigned  in  1818.  He 
published  a  few  occasional  sermons. — Sprague,  .4  nnals 
of  the  American  Pulpit,  i,  662. 

Lewis,  John  Nitchie,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  in  Westchester  Co.,  N.  Y.,  in  1808.  He  grad- 
uated at  Yale  College  in  1828,  and  studied  theology  both 
at  Andover  and  Princeton,  and  was  licensed  at  Goshen, 
N.  Y.,  in  1832.  He  preached  for  a  number  of  years, 
principally  in  the  State  of  New  York,  and  was  then 
chosen  secretary  of  the  Central  American  Education  So- 
ciety in  New  York.  He  was  for  some  time  editor  of  the 
Seaman's  Muf/azine,  and  wrote  a  Jlanual  for  the  Pres- 
byterian Church.  He  died  in  1861. — Wilson,  rreshj- 
terian  Historical  Almanac,  1863. 

LeTwis,  Moses,  a  Jlethodist  minister,  was  born  in 
Koxbury,  Vt.,  jNIaj'  1',),  1707,  and  early  decided  upon  the 
ministry  as  his  work  of  life.  He  entered  the  travelling 
connection  in  1831  in  the  New  Hampshire  Conference. 
After  five  years  of  faitliful  and  successful  labors  as  an 
itinerant,  failing  health  compelled  him  to  retire  from 
the  effective  ranks,  with  the  hope  of  resuming  his  place 
as  a  pastor  at  no  distant  day  with  recuperated  i)hysical 
strength,  which,  however,  he  never  realized.  During 
thirty-four  years  he  sustained  either  a  supernumerary  or 
superannuated  relation  to  his  Conference.  In  1844  tlie 
New  Hampshire  Conference  was  divided,  and  the  Ver- 
mont Conference  constituted,  and  of  it  Lewis,  living 
within  the  limits  of  the  new  Conference,  became  a  mem- 
ber. He  died  Sept.  26, 1869.  "  In  the  domestic  circle 
brother  Lewis  was  beloved  and  honored ;  in  the  com- 
munity, active  and  reliable ;  and  in  the  Church,  a  pillar 
of  strength,  a  safe  counsellor,  and  a  liberal  contributor  to 
all  the  interests  of  the  Church  of  his  choice." — Minutes 
ofConf.  1870  (see  Index). 

Le'wis,  Thomas,  an  Independent  minister,  was  born 
in  1 1 77.  He  was  pastor  of  an  Independent  congregation 
at  Islington,  England,  from  1804  till  1852,  the  year  of  his 
deatli.  His  published  works  are,  1.  Christian  Duties  in 
the  various  Relations  of  Life  (1839) :— 2.  Religious  State 
of  Islimjton  for  the  last  Forty  Years  (1842)  :— 3.  Chris- 
tian Privileges  (1847).— Allibone,  Dictionary  of  British 
and  American  Authors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lewis,  Zechariah,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  stud- 
ied theology  at  Philadelphia,  anil  was  licensed  by  the 


Fairfield  West  Association  in  1796.  In  the  autumn  of 
that  year  he  became  tutor  in  Yale  College,  and  held  that 
office  until  1799.  He  was  elected  a  trustee  of  Princeton 
Seminary  in  1812.  For  six  years  he  acted  as  correspond- 
ing secretary  of  the  Religious  Tract  Society,  afterwards 
the  American  Tract  Society.  Having  resigned  that  po- 
sition in  1820,  he  was  elected  one  of  the  secretaries  of  the 
United  Foreign  INIissionary  Societj-.  He  died  in  1862. — 
Wilson,  Presh.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1863,  s.  v. 

Leyczon  Nobla  is  the  name  of  a  poem  which  was 
extensively  circulated  among  the  ^Valdcnses  in  the  15th 
century.  It  exhorts  to  repentance  and  to  Christian  life, 
and  treats  of  the  temptations  to  which  the  wicked  sub- 
ject the  pious  and  the  good,  and  of  the  punishments  for 
sin.  Some,  among  them  Dickhoff,  contend  that  the 
poem  originated  with  the  Bohemian  Brethren,  but 
Ebrard  and  Herzog  incline  to  the  general  opinion  that  the 
"Leyczon"  belongs  to  the  Waldensian  literature.  Tlie 
name  it  bears  is  derived  from  the  lirst  words  of  the  poem, 
which  are  ^^ Leyczon  nobla"  (lectio,  sermon).  See  Zeit- 
schriftf.  hist,  theol.  1864, 1865 ;  Herzog, i^ie  romanischen 
Waldenser,  etc.  (Halle,  1853). 

Leydeclier,  Melciiiok,  a  Calvinistic  theologian, 
was  burn  at  Middelburg  in  1642.  He  became  pastor  in 
the  province  of  Zealand  in  1662,  was  appointed  professor 
at  Utrecht  in  1678,  and  died  in  1721.  He  was  an  ardent 
exponent  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformed  Church,  and 
violently  opposed  the  systems  of  Cocceius  and  Descartes, 
the  works  of  Drusius,  S[iencer's  book  De  Legibus  Ilebrce- 
orum,  and  the  Lutheran  tendencies  of  Witsius.  Verj' 
learned  in  theological,  rabbinical,  and  ecclesiastical  lit- 
erature, he  distinguished  himself  by  wielding  a  strong 
pen  in  favor  of  the  Reformed  theological  system.  Among 
his  apologetical  works  are  De  reritatejidei  Refurmatm 
ejusdemque  sanctitate,  s.  Commentarius  ad  Catech.  Pala- 
tin.  (Ultrajecti,  1694,  4to)  : — De  aconomia  trium  perso- 
narum  in  negotio  salutis  hum.  libri  iv,  quibus  miiversa 
Reformata  fdes  certis  principiis  congruo  nexu  explicatur 
(Traj.  ad  Rhen.  1682, 12mo)  : — Veritas  evangelic  irium- 
plians  de  erroribus  quorumris  seculoi'um  —  opus,  quo 
j)rincipia  fidei  Reformatm  demonstrantur  (Traj.  1688, 
4to)  :  —  also,  Ilistoria  ecclesice  Africanm  iUustrata  pro 
ecclesice  Reformatee  vei'itate  et  libertate  (Ultraj.  1690, 4to). 
His  controversial  works  against  Cocceius  met  with  great 
success,  because  they  discussed  the  question  with  great 
clearness.  Among  them  we  notice  liis  Synopsis  contro- 
versiai-um  de  fccdere  et  testamento  Dei,  quce  hodie  in  Bel- 
gio  nioventur  (Traj.  1690,  8vo) : — Vis  veritatis  s.  disqui- 
siiionum  ad  nonnullas  controversias,  quce  hodie  in  Bel- 
gio  moventur  de  aconomia  fcederum  Dei,  libri  v  (Traj. 
1679,  4to)  :  —  Fax  veritatis  (Leida?,  1677,  4to).  When 
yet  a  youthful  student  at  tlie  university  Leydecker  had 
paid  special  attention  to  Biblical  studies,  and,  guided 
by  a  learned  rabbi,  made  rapid  strides  in  the  explora- 
tion of  Biblical  lore.  In  after  life,  when,  tired  of  polemi- 
cal and  clerical  pursuits,  he  looked  about  for  a  field  on 
which  he  might  profitably  venture,  this  department  of 
theological  study  allured  him  anew.  Attempting  to  fit 
the  works  of  Godwin  {Moses  and  Aaron)  and  Cunteus 
(De  Repiiblica  Hebrceor.)  to  his  academical  purposes,  he 
soon  discovered  their  insufficiency,  and  set  about  to  pre- 
pare himself  a  more  copious  treatise,  ^vhich  is  every- 
where marked  by  a  vigorous  and  independent  judgment. 
Wliile  he  conceals  not  his  aversion  to  the  "futilities"  of 
the  Talmutl,  he  quotes  the  great  rabbins  with  respect. 
He,  moreover,  keeps  a  sharp  eye  on  the  extravagancies 
of  Christian  writers,  and  his  ^vork  censures  with  eveu- 
handed  justice  the  well-known  rabbinism  of  the  Bux- 
torfs  and  the  Fgyptism  of  Spencer  (De  Legibus  Jlebr.). 
It  is  only  characteristic  of  this  unsparing  criticism  of  the 
orthodox  author  that  lie  adds  an  appendix  of  severe  an- 
imadversion against  the  cosmogony  of  Thomas  Burnet, 
to  whose  Theoria  telluris  he  prefixes  the  predicate  pro- 
fana.  Tlie  six  dissertations  of  this  appendix,  what- 
ever may  be  thought  of  the  author's  views,  are  valuable 
for  their  learning,  and  interesting  as  closely  bearing  on 
the  questions  now  raised  on  the  Mosaic  cosmogony. 


LEYDEN 


408 


LEYDEN,  SCHOOL  OF 


Especial  mention  among  his  IJiblical  works  is  due  to  his 
archffiological  treatise  entitled  Dt  Repuhlka  Htbneoi-um 
(Amst.  17U4,  thick  foh  voh ),  which  is  one  of  the  largest 
repertories  ever  written  on  the  wide  snbject  of  Hebrew 
anticiuitics,  and  exhibits  in  an  eminent  degree  vast 
stores  of  scriptural,  rabbinical,  and  historical  learning. 
Atlded  to  the  interest  of  the  subject  are  dissertations  on 
the  Hebrew  laws  and  customs,  both  political  and  relig- 
ious, interwoven  in  a  historical  narrative,  in  which  the 
sacred  history  is  developed,  by  epochs,  from  the  earliest 
period  to  the  latest.  The  author,  in  his  progress,  learn- 
edly investigates  the  history,  2}ari passu,  of  the  leading 
Gentile  nations,  very  much  after  the  manner  of  Shuck- 
ford  and  Russell  in  their  Connections.  This  valuable 
work,  on  which  Leydecker's  fame  deserves  mainly  to 
de]iend,  is  singularly  enough  ignored  in  Schweizer's 
sketch  of  the  author  in  Herzog  (see  below-).  A  com- 
plete list  of  his  works  is  to  be  found  in  the  Unparthei- 
ische  Kirchen-Ilist.  A.  u.  iV.  Test.,  etc.,  ii,  625. — Herzog, 
Real-Encyklop.  viii,  360  ;  Gass,  Dor/mengesckkhte,  vol.  i- 
iii;  Kitto,  Cyclop).  Bill.  Lit.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Leyden,  John  of.     See  Bockiiold. 

Leydeu,  Lucas  van,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
painters  of  the  early  Dutch  school,  noted  for  his  success 
in  sacred  art,  was  born  in  Leyden  in  1494.  His  talents 
were  early  developed  in  the  school  of  Cornelius  Engel- 
brechsten,  an  artist  of  repute  in  his  day.  He  commenced 
engraving  when  scarcely  nine  years  of  age.  His  pic- 
ture of  St.  Hubert,  painted  when  ho  was  only  twelve, 
brought  him  very  high  commendation;  and  the  cele- 
brated print,  so  well  known  to  collectors  by  the  name 
of ''  ^lohammed  and  the  Monk  Sergius,"  was  published 
in  1508,  when  he  was  only  fourteen.  He  practiced  suc- 
cessfully almost  every  branch  of  painting,  w-as  one  of 
the  ablest  of  those  early  painters  who  engraved  their 
own  works,  and  he  succeeded,  like  Albert  Durer,  in  im- 
parting certam  qualities  of  delicacy  and  finish  to  his 
engravings  that  no  mere  engraver  ever  attained.  His 
pictures  are  noted  for  clearness  and  delicacy  in  color, 
variety  of  character,  and  expression ;  but  his  drawing  is 
hard  and  Gothic  in  form.  His  range  of  subjects  was 
very  wide,  and  embraced  events  in  sacred  history,  inci- 
dents illustrative  of  the  manners  of  his  own  period,  and 
portraits.     He  died  in  1533.— Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Leyden,  School  of,  Theologians  of  the,  is  the 
name  given  to  that  class  of  Dutch  theologians  who  fol- 
low in  the  wake  of  the  rationalistic  professors  of  the 
University  of  Leyden  (founded  in  1575).  and  of  whom 
J.  H.  Scholten  (in  1840  professor  in  Franeker,  since  1843 
in  Leyden)  and  his  pupils  are  at  present  the  main  inter- 
preters. The  Leyden  school  is  in  reality  nothing  more 
nor  less  than  a  Dutch  Tiibingen  school.  In  his  younger 
days  Scholten  belonged  to  the  orthodox  school,  and  at 
one  time  (1856)  even  went  forth  to  battle  against  the 
negative  criticism  of  Baur  and  his  Tubingen  confreres; 
but  in  1864  he  came  out  boldly  in  defence  of  the  very 
man  and  (irinciples  he  had  previously  warred  against, 
and  in  a  sliort  time  became  the  principal  leader  in  the 
movement  of  modern  Dutch  theologians  "  to  establish  a 
connection  between  the  faith  of  the  Reformers  and  our 
own  .  .  .  to  unite  the  old  traditions  with  the  new  opin- 
ions" (the  Rationalism  of  the  Tiibingen  theologians). 
"IVIan,"  the  Leyden  school  feaches,  "arrives  at  a  knowl- 
eilge  of  the  truth  by  the  holy  Scriptures,  but  they  must 
not  be  understood  as  containing  the  oidy  revelation  from 
God;  he  also  reveals  himself  to  the  worhl  through  the 
hearts  of  all  believers.  The  Rible  is  the  source  of  the 
original  religion.  There  is  a  dirt'erencc  between  the 
Scriptures  and  tlie  word  of  (iod.  The  latter  is  what 
God  reveals  in  the  human  sjiirit  concerning  his  will  and 
himself.  The  writing  down  of  the  communication  is 
purely  human;  therefore  the  Bible  cannot  be  called  a 
revelation.  .  .  .  To  prove  the  certainty  of  tjie  facts  of 
revelation  historical  criticism  must  be  called  in."  Un- 
fortunately, however,  with  them  "  historical  criticism" 
means  nothing  else  than  the  application  of  that  nega- 


tive criticism  of  the  German  Rationalists  De  Wettc, 
Ewald,  and  Ilitzig,  and  they  dispose  of  the  "  historical" 
by  asserting  (e.  g.  Kuenen)  that  we  cannot  go  further 
back  than  the  middle  of  the  8th  century  before  Christ, 
or  the  time  of  liosea  and  Amos;  that  "all  the  preced- 
ing times  are  enveloped  in  hopeless  myth.  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob,  the  founders  of  Israel,  are  not  persons, 
but  personifications.  They  are  purely  ideal  figures,  for 
modern  '  historical'  inquiry  teaches  us  that  races  are 
not  derived  from  one  progenitor,  but  many.  The  devel- 
opment and  preservation  of  Israel — its  whole  history — 
were  the  result  of  purely  national  causes."  Christianity 
itself,  they  came  naturally  enough,  from  such  grounds, 
to  regard  as  "  neither  superhuman  nor  supernatural.  It 
is  the  highest  point  of  the  development  of  human  nature 
itself,  and  in  vhis  sense  it  is  natural  and  human  in  the 
highest  acceptation  of  those  terms.  It  is  the  mission 
of  science  to  put  man  in  a  condition  to  comprehend  the 
divine  volume  presented  by  Christianity."  But  what 
the  idea  of  the  modern  theologians  of  Holland  is  on  the 
relation  of  science  to  faith  we  may  well  learn  from  Prof. 
Opzoomer,  of  Utrecht  University  {The  Truth  and  its 
Sources  of  Knowledge,  p.  43) :  "  Science  is  not  to  appear 
before  the  bar  of  faith,  but  faith  before  that  of  science; 
for  It  is  not  the  credibility  of  knowledge,  but  of  faith, 
that  is  to  be  proved.  .  .  .  Science  needs  no  justification. 
.  .  .  The  believer,  on  the  contrary,  must  justify  his  faith, 
and  that  before  the  bar  of  science.  Thus,  as  a  matter 
of  course,  the  final  decision  and  the  supreme  power  rest 
with  science."  Great  indeed  is  the  science  of  Opzoo- 
mer, and  in  like  ratio  is  the  insignificance  of  the  thing 
he  calls  faith.  His  manner  of  rejecting  miracles  is 
the  old  threadbare  argument  of  Hume.  "  Modern  sci- 
ence is  established  on  the  experience  acquired  by  the 
observance  of  nature.  What  experience  teaches  is  the 
touchstone  for  testing  the  historical  value  of  the  ac- 
counts that  reach  us  from  past  ages."  Again,  and  more 
positively :  "  It  is  the  duty  of  the  historian  to  reject 
every  narrative  which  is  in  manifest  contradiction  with 
everything  known  to  him  concerning  the  time  of  its  al- 
leged occurrence.  .  .  .  Nothing  in  all  nature  gives  prob- 
ability to  the  supposition  that  moral  and  religious 
greatness  can  be  estabUshed  by  dominion  over  natural 
phenomena"  {The Nature  o/Kno2cled(/e,p.Sl,iio).  "We 
know  nothing  of  the  supernatural ;  to  us  there  is  not  a 
single  miracle"  {The  Spirit  of  the  new  Tendency,  p.  28). 
"  Experience — it,  and  it  alone !  What  is  beyond  it  is 
from  an  evil  source.  For  our  knowledge  there  is  but 
one  way — the  way  of  observation"  {Free  Science,  p.  26). 
Perhaps  we  can  do  no  better  than  insert  here  a  resume 
by  Dr.  Hurst  of  the  object  of  the  Dutch  modern  theo- 
logians, as  follows :  "  1.  History  must  be  reconstructed ; 
for  every  miracle  must  disappear  from  the  Biblical  nar- 
rative, since  philosophy  teaches  that  there  can  be  no 
miracles.  2.  Philosophy  must  be  liberated  from  the  so- 
called  divine  revelation,  because  the  history  of  the  pres- 
ent time,  or  experience,  teaches  that  there  can  be  noth- 
ing supernatural;  hence  there  never  was.  Thus  the 
argument  whirls  in  a  hopeless  circle;  historj'  demon- 
strates from  (untrue)  philosophy,  and  philosophy  from 
(untrue)  history,  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  miracle, 
nor  even  anytliing  supernatural!  Can  we  wonder  at 
the  sorry  j)light  of  the  modern  theologians  which  Pier- 
son  (formerly  pastor  of  the  Walloon  Church  in  Rotter- 
dam, now  professor  at  Heidelberg  University)  divulges 
on  the  very  first  page  of  his  Mirror  of  the  Times:  We 
do  not  conceal  the  fact  that  our  theology^  is  involved  in 
ceaseless  vacillation  V"  Besides  Scholten  we  have  Kue- 
nen, the  great  exegetical  scholar,  and  RavenhofF,  the 
ecclesiastical  historian,  both  professors  at  Lej-den,  ac- 
tively engaged  in  promoting  the  interests  of  these  Ra- 
tionalistic opinions,  and,  unfortunately  enough  for  Chris- 
tianity in  Holland, -it  must  be  confessed  that  at  present 
no  Dutch  theologians  exert  more  influence  over  the 
young  theologians  of  that  countiy  than  professor  Schol- 
ten and  his  associates  just  mentioned.  See  Dr.  Hurst 
in  the  Meth.  Quart,  liec.  1871  (AprU),  p.  250  sq. ;  and 


LEYDT 


409 


LIBATION 


his  Hist  of  Rationalism,  p.  3GS  sq. ;  Scholten,  De  Leer 
der  llervormde  Kerk  in  hare  f/romlbeffinselen  nit  de  hron- 
neii  voorgesteld  en  be.ordeeld.  (1848;  "^d  ed.  1850;  4th  ed. 
18G1) ;  and  his  article  on  "Modern  Jlaterialism  and  its 
Causes"  in  Progress  of  Religious  Thought  in  the  Protest, 
Ch.  of  France  (Lend.  1861),  p.  10  sq.  See  Eeformed 
(Dutch)  Church.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Leydt,  Johannes,  a  prominent  minister  of  the  Re- 
formed Dutch  Church,  was  born  in  Holland  in  1718,  and 
came  early  to  America.  He  studied  thcoloi^y  under  tlie 
Ilev.  John  Frelinghuysen  and  J.  II.  Goetschius,  was  li- 
censed in  1748,  and  became  pastor  of  the  united  church- 
es of  New  Brunswick  and  Six-mile  Kun,  New  Jersey. 
In  the  great  Coetus  and  Conferentic  conflict  he  was  ac- 
tively identified  with  the  former,  which  insisted  upon 
the  education  of  ministers  in  this  country,  and  upon  an 
independent  Church  organization  separate  from  the  Re- 
formed Church  of  the  mother  country.  In  this  "liberal 
and  progressive"  movement  Jlr.  Leydt  was  a  powerfid 
leader.  He  published  several  pamphlets  in  its  favor, 
and  was  one  of  the  most  prominent  men  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  Queen's  College  (now  Rutgers)  in  1770.  He 
was  one  of  its  first  trustees.  He  was  president  of  the 
General  Synod  in  1778.  An  ardent  patriot  of  the  Rev- 
olutionary War,  he  preached  boldly  on  the  great  ques- 
tions of  the  time,  arousing  much  enthusiasm  among  the 
people,  "and  counselling  the  young  men  to  join  the 
army  of  freedom."  His  active  and  useful  ministry  closed 
only  with  his  life  in  1783.  He  is  represented  to  have 
been  an  instructive,  laborious,  and  faithful  minister,  an 
impressive  preacher,  a  favorite  at  installations  of  pastors, 
organization  of  churches,  and  other  public  services.  He 
was  a  healer  of  the  breaches  of  Zion,  as  well  as  an  in- 
trepid leader  in  an  important  crisis  of  the  Church  and  of 
the  country. — Historical  Sermon  by  R.  H.  Steele,  D.D. ; 
d^xv;m,  Manual  of  the  Reformed  Church,  s.  v,  (W.  J. 
R.T.) 

Leyser.     See  Lyskr. 

L'Hopital.     See  HorixAL. 

Liar.     See  Lie. 

Libanius,  a  celebrated  sophist  of  the  4th  centurj-, 
noted  as  a  friend  of  the  emperor  Julian,  was  bom  about 
A.D.  314  at  Antioch,  where  he  studied  in  early  youth, 
devoting  his  attention  to  the  purest  classic  models.  Af- 
ter a  stay  of  four  years  at  Athens,  where  he  attracted 
nuich  attention,  he  pursued  his  studies  at  Constantino- 
])le,  and  here  entered  upon  a  brilliant  career  as  teacher, 
which  excited  the  envy  of  others,  especially  of  the  soph- 
ist Bemarchius,  liis  former  instructor.  The  latter  falsely 
charged  him  with  the  practice  of  sorcery  and  many 
vices,  so  that  the  prefect  was  persuaded  to  expel  him 
from  the  city,  A.D.  346.  He  went  to  Nice,  and  shortly 
after  to  Nicomedia,  and  there  pleasantly  passed  five 
years  with  great  success  as  an  instructor,  and  returned, 
by  invitation  of  emperor  Julian,  who  had  frequentlv  at- 
tended his  lectures,  to  Constantiuojjle,  only  to  leave  it, 
however,  shortly  after,  on  account  of  the  opposititm  still 
existing.  He  retired,  by  permission  of  Cajsar  Gallus,  to 
his  native  city.  Here  he  continued  to  reside  till  hisdeath, 
which  is  supposed  to  have  occurred  after  the  accession  of 
Arcadius,  A.D.  395.  In  the  death  of  Julian,  Libanius  lost 
much  of  his  hope  for  the  restoration  of  paganism.  He 
complains  to  the  gods  that  they  liad  granted  so  long  a 
life  to  Constantius,  and  only  so  brief  a  career  to  Julian. 
He  interchanged  many  letters  with  Julian.  Under  Va- 
lens  he  defended  himself  successfully  against  a  charge 
of  treason,  and  seems  to  have  obtained  the  emperor's 
fa\or.  He  besought  from  him  a  law,  in  wliich  Libanius 
himself,  on  account  of  his  own  natural  offspring  by  a 
mistress,  was  personally  interested,  granting  to  natural 
chikh-en  a  share  in  their  father's  property  at  his  death. 
Liljanius  was  the  preceptor  of  Basil  and  Chrysostom ; 
and,  although  himself  a  pagan  to  the  end,iilways  main- 
tained friendly  relations  with  these  Christian  fathers. 
He  was  a  warm  advocate  for  tolerance,  and  sought  to 
defend  the  Manichajans  of  the  East  from  the  violent 


measures  directed  against  them.  He  addressed  Theo- 
dosius  in  one  oiXm,  Discourses  in  defence  of  the  heathen 
temjiles,  which  the  monks  were  eager  to  despoil.  He 
lived  long  enough  to  see  Christianity  everywhere  tri- 
umphant, and  his  personal  efforts  no  longer  applauded. 
Separate  works  of  Libanius  have  from  time  to  time  been 
discovered  and  edited,  but  many  yet  lie  in  MS.  only  in 
difierent  libraries.  His  style  is  rhetorically  correct,  but, 
in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  his  times,  highly  artiti- 
cial.  Gibbon's  criticism  may  be  considered  too  severe 
{Decline  and  Full,  ch.  xxiv).  Among  the  writings  of 
Libanius  are  his  Progipnnasmata,  or  Examples  of  Rhe- 
torical Exercises,  divided  into  thirteen  sections;  and 
Discourses,  many  of  which  were  never  pronounced,  nor 
designed  for  that  purpose.  Some  of  the  latter  are  moral 
dissertations,  after  the  fashion  of  the  times,  on  such  sub- 
jects as  Friendship,  Riches,  Poverty.  One  is  entitled 
MovifjOLa,  a  lament  on  the  death  of  Julian.  Another, 
the  most  interesting  of  aU  his  writings,  is  his  autobiog- 
raphy, which  he  first  wrote  at  the  age  of  sixty  years, 
entitled  Biof,-  »"/  Xoyoc  TTipi  rj/c  hivtov  rvxrjg.  A  frag- 
ment of  his  Discourses,  addressed  to  Theodosius  in  de- 
fense of  the  heathen  temples,  was  discovered  by  Mai  in 
1823  in  the  Vatican.  The  Declamations,  exceeding 
fjrtj-  in  number,  are  exercises  on  imaginary  suljjects. 
There  are  not  less  than  2000  Letters  addressed  to  over 
500  persons,  among  whom  are  Athanasius,  Basil,  Greg- 
ory of  Nyssa,  and  Chrysostom.  He  wrote  also  a  Life 
of  Demosthenes,  and  A  rguments  to  the  Orations  of  De- 
mosthenes. There  is  no  comjjlete  edition  of  Libanius. 
His  Discourses  and  Declamations  were  edited  by  Reiske 
(Lips.  1791-97, 4  vols.  8vo).  The  most  copious  edition 
of  his  Letters  (1G05  in  the  Greek,  and  522  translated  into 
Latin)  is  that  by  J.  C.Wolf  (Amsterd.  1738,  fol.).  See 
Herzog,  Real-FncyJdop.  vol.  viii,  s.  v.;  Wetzer  n.  Welte, 
Kirchen-Lexikon,  vol.  vi,  s.  v. ;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Gr.  and 
Rom.  Biog.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  ch.  xxiii,  xxiv;  Sievers,  Leben  des  Li- 
banius (Berl.  1868).     (E.  B.  O.) 

Lib'anus  (Ai/Saroc),  the  Graecized  form  of  the 
name  of  Mount  Lebanon  (q.  v.),  used  in  the  Apocrypha 
(1  Esdr.  i\-,  48 ;  v,  55 ;  2  Esdr.  xv,  20 ;  Judith  i,  7  ;"  Ec- 
clus.  xxiv,  13 ;  1, 12)  and  by  classical  writers.  See  also 
Antilibanus. 

Libation  (Lat.  libatio,  from  libare, "  to  pour  out ;"  lit- 
erally any  thing  poured  out)  is  used,  in  the  sacrificial  lan- 
guage of  the  ancients,  to  express  an  affusion  of  liquors 
poured  upon  victims  to  be  sacrificed  to  a  deity.  The 
quantity  of  wine  for  a  libation  among  the  Hebrews  was 
the  fourth  part  of  a  hin,  rather  more  than  two  pints.  Li- 
bations were  poured  on  the  victim  after  it  was  killed,  and 
the  several  pieces  of  it  were  laid  on  the  altar,  ready  to  be 
consumed  by  the  flames  (Lev.  vi,  20 ;  viii,  25,  26 ;  ix,  4 ; 
xvi,  12,  20).  These  libations  usually  consisted  of  un- 
mixed wine  {iv(7TTOvCoc,  mer-um),  but  sometimes  also  of 
milk,  honey,  and  other  fluids,  either  pure  or  diluted  with 
water.  The  libations  offered  to  the  Furies  were  always 
without  wine.  The  Greeks  and  Latins  offered  libations 
with  the  sacrifices,  but  they  were  poured  on  the  victim's 
head  while  it  was  living.  So  Sinon,  relating  the  man- 
ner in  which  he  was  to  be  sacrificed,  says,  he  was  in  the 
priest's  hands  ready  to  be  slain,  was  loaded  with  bands 
and  garlands;  that  they  were  preparing  to  pour  u]3on 
him  the  libations  of  grain  and  salted  meal  {^Fn.  ii,  130, 
131).  Likewise  Dido,  beginning  to  sacrifice,  pours  wine 
between  the  horns  of  the  victim  (^En.  iv).  The  wine 
was  usually  poured  out  in  three  separate  streams.  Li- 
bations alwaj-s  accompanied  a  sacrifice  which  was  of- 
fered in  concluding  a  treaty  with  a  foreign  nation,  and 
that  here  they  formed  a  prominent  part  of  the  solemni- 
ty is  clear  from  the  fact  that  the  treaty  itself  was  called 
anovooi.  But  libations  were  also  made  independent 
of  any  other  sacrifice,  as  in  solemn  prayers,  and  on  many 
other  occasions  of  public  and  private  life,  as  before  drink- 
ing at  meals,  and  the  like.  St.  Paul  describes  himself, 
as  it  were,  a  victim  about  to  be  sacrificed,  and  that  the 
accustomed  libations  of  meal  and  wine  were  already,  in 


LIBEL 


410 


LIBERALITY 


a  measure,  poured  upon  him  :  '•  For  I  am  ready  to  be  of- 
feriMi,  and  the  time  of  my  departure  is  at  liand"  (2  Tim. 
iv,  G ).  Tlie  same  expressive  sacrificial  term  occurs  in 
I'hil.  ii,  17,  wliere  the  apostle  represents  the  faith  of  the 
rhilippians  as  a  sacrifice,  and  his  own  blood  as  a  liba- 
tion jKiurcd  forth  to  hallow  and  consecrate  it :  "  Yea,  and 
if  1  be  offered,  (7wevCoi.iat,  upon  the  sacrifice  and  service 
of  your  faith,  tTvi  ry  Gvaicf  Kcti  Xttrovpyia,  I  joy  and 
rejoice  with  you  all."  Tlie  word  libation  was  frequent- 
ly extended  in  its  signification,  however,  to  the  whole 
offering  of  unbloody  sacrifices  of  which  this  formed  a 
part,  and  which  consisted  not  only  in  the  pouring  of  a 
liltle  wine  upon  the  altar,  but  were  accompanied  by  the 
presentation  of  fruit  and  cakes.  Cakes  in  particular 
were  peculiar  to  the  worship  of  certain  deities,  as  to  that 
of  Apollo.  They  were  either  simple  cakes  of  Hour,  some- 
times also  of  wax,  or  they  were  made  in  the  shape  of 
some  animal,  and  were  then  offered  as  symbolical  sac- 
rifices in  the  place  of  real  animals,  either  because  they 
oould  not  easily  be  procured,  or  were  too  expensive  for 
the  sacrificer.  This  custom  prevailed  even  in  the  houses 
of  the  Romans,  who  at  their  meals  made  an  offering  to 
the  Lares  in  the  fire  which  burned  upon  the  hearth. 
The  libation  was  thus  a  sort  of  heathen  "grace  before 
meat."  See  Watson,  Bibl.  and  Theol.  Did.  s.  v. ;  Cham- 
bers, Cyclop,  s.  V. 

Libel  is  the  technical  name  of  the  document  which 
contains  the  accusation  framed  against  a  minister  be- 
fore ecclesiastical  courts.  See  Fama  Clamosa.  In 
England,  libel,  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  is  the  name 
given  to  the  formal  written  statement  of  the  complain- 
ant's ground  of  complaint  against  the  defendant.  It  is 
the  first  stage  in  the  pleadmgs  after  the  defendant  has 
been  cited  to  appear.  The  defendant  is  entitled  to  a 
cojiy  of  it,  and  must  answer  the  allegations  contained 
in  it  upon  oath.  In  Scotland,  the  libel  is  a  document 
drawn  up,  as  usual,  in  the  form  of  a  syllogism,  the  major 
proposition  stating  the  name  and  nature  of  the  crime, 
as  condemned  by  the  Word  of  God  and  the  laws  of  the 
Church ;  the  minor  proposition  averring  that  the  party 
accused  is  guilty,  specifying  facts,  dates,  and  places;  and 
then  follows  the  conclusion  deducing  the  justice  of  the 
sentence,  if  the  accusation  should  be  proven.  B}'  the 
term  relevancy  is  meant  whether  the  charge  is  one  real- 
ly deserving  censure,  or  whether  the  facts  alleged,  if 
proved,  would  afford  sufficient  evidence  of  the  charge. 
A  list  of  witnesses  is  appended  to  the  copy  of  the  libel 
served  in  due  time  and  form  on  the  person  accused. 
One  of  the  forms  is  as  follows :  "  Unto  the  Rev.  the 
Moderator  and  Remanent  Members  of  the  • •  Pres- 
bytery of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church,  The  Com- 
plaint of  A  and  B,  a  committee  appointed  to  prosecute 
the  matter  after-mentioned  (or  of  Mr.  A.  B.,  merchant 

in  ,  a  member  of  said  Church) ;  Sheweth,  That 

tiie  Rev.  C.  D.,  minister  of  the  ■ Congregation  of 

,  has  been  guilty  of  the  sin  of  [hei-e  state  the  de- 
nomination of  the  offence,  such  as  "drunkenness,'"  "Joj'ni- 

cation,"  or  such  like').    In  so  far  as,  upon  the day 

of ,  1800,  or  about  that  time,  and  within  the  house 

of ,  situated  in street, ,  he,  the  said 

C.  D.  {here  the  circumstances  attending  the  offence  charged 
are  described,  as,  for  example, "  did  di'inh  vhishey  or  some 
other  spirituous  liquor  to  excess,  whereby  he  became  in- 
toxicated"), to  the  great  scandal  of  religion  and  disgrace 
of  his  sacred  i)rofession ;  may  it  therefore  please  your 
reverend  court  to  ajipoint  service  of  this  libel  to  be 
made  on  the  said  Rev.  C.  D.,  and  him  to  ajipear  before 
j'ou  to  answer  to  the  same;  and  on  his  admitting  the 
charge,  or  on  the  same  being  proved  against  him,  to 
visit  liitn  with  sucli  censure  as  the  Word  of  God  and 
the  rules  and  disci])line  of  tlie  Church  in  such  cases  pre- 
scribe, in  order  tliat  he  and  all  others  may  be. deterred 
from  connnittiug  the  like  offences  in  all  time  coming, 
or  to  do  otlierwise  in  the  premises  as  toyoU  may  appear 
expedient  and  proper.  According  to  justice,  etc.  List 
of  ^vitnesses." — Eaiiie,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. 

liibellatici  is  the  name  of  that  class  of  the  lapsed 


who  received  from  the  heathen  magistrate  a  written 
certificate  {libellum)  as  a  warrant  for  their  security ; 
either  testifying  that  they  were  not  Christians,  or  con- 
taining a  dispensation  from  tlie  necessity  of  sacrificing 
to  the  gods  in  confirmation  of  their  adherence  to  hea- 
thenism. Another  class  of  the  lapsed  were  the  sacri- 
ficati— that  is,  those  who  had  offered  sacrifice  to  the 
heathen  gods  in  testimony  of  their  renunciation  of  tlie 
faith ;  another  the  traditoi-es,  because  they  had  deliv- 
ered up  into  the  hands  of  the  heathen  either  copies  of 
the  sacred  writings,  baptismal  registers,  or  any  other 
jjroperty  of  the  Church.  See  Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. ; 
Schaflf,  Ch.  Hist,  i  (see  Index) ;  Mosheim,  Commentary 
(see  Index).     See  Lapsed. 

Libelli  Pacis,  or  Letters  of  Peace.  In  Egypt 
and  Africa  many  of  those  who  had  fallen  away  in  time 
of  persecution,  in  order  the  more  readily  to  obtain  par- 
don for  their  offences,  resorted  to  the  intercession  of 
persons  destined  to  suffer  martyrdom  by  securing  from 
them  libelli  pacis,  letters  of  peace ;  papers  in  which  these 
returning  apostates  were  commended  as  worthy  of  com- 
munion and  Church  membersliip.  In  this  way  they 
were  again  taken  into  communion  sooner  than  the  rules 
of  the  Church  otherwise  allowed.  From  this  practice 
the  pope  claims  a  precedent  for  the  exercise  of  his  pre- 
tended power  to  grant  spiritual  indulgences,  which  seem 
to  have  been  used  first  about  the  middle  of  the  second 
century.  See  Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Mosheim,  Com- 
mentary  (see  Index).     See  Indulgences  ;  Lapsei*^ 

Liberalism.     See  Rationalism. 

Liberality  is  a  term  denoting  a  generous  disposi- 
tion of  mind,  exerting  itself  in  giving  largely.  It  is 
thus  distinguished  from  its  synonymcs  generosity  and 
boiuity.  Liberality  implies  acts  of  mere  giving  or 
spending ;  generosit  j',  acts  of  greatness ;  bounty,  acts  of 
kindness.  Liberality  is  a  natural  disposition ;  generos- 
ity proceeds  from  elevation  of  sentiment;  bounty  from 
religious  motives.  Liberality  denotes  freedom  of  spirit ; 
generosity,  greatness  of  soul;  bounty,  openness  of  heart. 
— Buck,  Theol.  Diet.  s.  v. 

LIBERALITY  OF  SENTIMENT,  a  generous  dis- 
position a  man  feels  towards  another  who  is  of  a  differ- 
ent opinion  from  himself;  or,  as  one  defines  it,  '-that 
generous  expansion  of  mind  which  enables  it  to  look 
beyond  all  petty  distinctions  of  party  and  system,  and, 
in  the  estimate  of  men  and  things,  to  rise  superior  to 
narrow^  prejudices."  Unfortunately,  liberality  of  senti- 
ment is  often  a  cover  for  error  and  scepticism  on  the 
one  hand,  and  is  most  generally  too  little  attended  to 
by  the  ignorant  and  bigoted  on  the  other.  "A  man 
of  liberal  sentiments,"  says  an  eminent  English  writer, 
"must  be  distinguished  from  him  who  has  no  relig- 
ious sentiments  at  all.  He  is  one  who  has  serioush-  and 
effectually  investigated,  both  in  his  Bible  and  on  his 
knees,  in  public  asscmbUes  and  in  private  conversations, 
the  important  articles  of  religion.  lie  has  laid  down 
principles,  he  has  inferred  consequences;  in  a  word,  he 
has  adopted  sentiments  of  his  own.  He  must  be  dis- 
tinguished also  from  that  tame,  undiscerning  domestic 
among  good  people,  who,  though  he  has  sentiments  of 
his  own,  yet  has  not  judgment  to  estimate  the  worth 
and  value  of  one  sentiment  beyond  another.  Now  a 
generous  believer  of  the  Christian  religion  is  one  who 
will  not  allow  himself  to  try  to  jiropagate  his  sentiments 
by  the  commission  of  sin.  No  collusion,  no  bitterness, 
no  wrath,  no  undue  influence  of  any  kind,  will  he  ajiply 
to  make  his  sentiments  receivable;  and  no  living  thing 
will  be  less  happy  for  his  being  a  Christian.  He  will  ex- 
ercise his  liberality  by  allowing  to  those  who  differ  from 
him  as  much  virtue  and  integrity  as  he  possibly  can." 

There  are.  among' a  nndtitude  of  arguments  to  en- 
force such  a  dis|)(isition.  the  folldwing  worthy  of  our  at- 
tention :  '■  I.^^'e  should  exercise  lil)crality  in  union  with 
sentiment  because  of  the  different  capacities,  advanta- 
ges, and  tasks  of  mankind.  Religion  employs  the  ca- 
pacities of  mankind  just  as  the  air  employs  their  lungs 


LIBERALITY 


411 


LIBER  DIURNUS 


and  their  organs  of  speech.     The  fancy  of  one  is  livel}-, 
of  another  dull.     The  judgment  of  one  is  elastic,  of  an- 
other feeble,  a  damaged  si)ring.     The  memory  of  one  is 
retentive,  that,  of  another  is  treacherous  as  the  wind. 
The  passions  of  this  man  are  lofty,  vigorous,  rapid ; 
those  of  that  man  crawl,  and  hum,  and  buzz,  and,  when 
on  wing,  sail  only  round  the  circumference  of  a  tulip. 
Is  it  conceivable  that  capability,  so  different  in  every- 
thing else,  should  be  all  alike  in  religion  ?    The  advan- 
tages of  mankind  differ.     How  should  he  who  lias  no 
parents,  no  bouliS,  no  tutor,  no  companions,  equal  him 
whom   Providence  lias  gratitied  with  them  all;  who, 
when  he  looks  over  tlie  treasures  of  his  own  knowledge, 
can  say,  this  I  had  of  a  Greek,  that  I  learned  of  a  Ko- 
man ;  this  information  I  acquired  of  my  tutor,  that  was 
a  present  of  my  father ;  a  friend  gave  me  this  branch 
of  knowledge,  an  acquaintance  betpieathed  me  that? 
The  tasks  of  mankind  differ ;  .so  I  call  the  employments 
and  exercises   of  life.     In   my  opinion,  circumstances 
make  great  men;  and  if  we  have  not  Cffisars  in  the 
State,  and  Pauls  in  the  Church,  it  is  because  neither 
Ciiurch  nor  State  are  in  the  circumstances  in  which 
they  were  in  the  days  of  those  great  men.    I'usli  a  dull 
man  into  a  river,  and  endanger  his  life,  and  suddenly  he 
wiU  discover  invention,  and  make  efforts  beyond  him- 
self.    The  world  is  a  fine  school  of  instruction.     Pov- 
erty, sickness,  pain,  loss  of  children,  treachery  of  friends, 
malice  of  enemies,  and  a  thousand  other  things,  drive 
the  man  of  sentiment  to  his  Bible,  and,  so  to  speak, 
bring  him  home  to  a  repast  with  his  benefactor,  God. 
Is  it  conceivable  that  he  whose  young  and  tender  heart 
is  yet  unpracticed  in  trials  of  tliis  kind  can  have  ascer- 
tained and  tasted  so  many  religious  truths  as  the  suf- 
ferer has '?     2.  We  should  believe  the  Christian  religion 
with  liberality,  because  every  part  of  the  Christian  re- 
ligion inculcates  generosity.     Christianity  gives  us  a 
character  of  God;  but  what  a  character  does  it  give! 
God  is  Love.    Christianity  teaches  the  doctrine  of 
Providence ;   but   what   a  providence !      Upon  whom 
doth  not  its  light  arise?     Is  there  an  animalcule  so  lit- 
tle, or  a  wretch  so  forlorn,  as  to  be  forsaken  and  forgot- 
ten of  his  God?     Christianity  teaches  the  doctrine  of 
redemption;   but  the  redemption  of  whom?  —  of  all 
tongues,  kindred,  nations,  and  people ;  of  the  infant  of  a 
span,  and  the  sinner  of  a  hundred  years  old :  a  redemp- 
tion generous  in  its  principle,  generous  in  its  price,  gen- 
erous in  its  effects ;  fixed  sentiments  of  divine  muniti- 
cence,  and  revealed  with  a  liberality  for  whicli  we  have 
no  name.    In  a  word,  the  illiberal  Christian  always  acts 
contrary  to  the  spirit  of  his  religion :  the  liberal  man 
alone  tlioroughly  understands  it.     3.  We  should  be  lib- 
eral, because  no  other  spirit  is  exemplified  in  the  infalli- 
ble guides  whom  we  profess  to  follow.     I  set  one  Paul 
against  a  whole  array  of  uninspired  men  :  '  Some  preach 
Christ  of  good-will,  and  some  of 'envy  and  strife.    What 
then?     Christ  is  preached  ;  and  I  therein  do  rejoice,  yea, 
and  will  rejoice.     One  eateth  all  things,  another  eateth 
herbs;  but  why  dost  thou  judge  thy  brother?     We 
shall  all  stand  before  the  judgment  seat  of  Christ.'    We 
often  incpiire.  What  was  the  doctrine  of  Christ,  and  what 
was  the  practice  of  Christ?     Suppose  we  Avere  to  insti- 
tute a  third  question.  Of  what  TiiMPER  was  Christ?    4. 
We  should  be  liberal  as  well  as  orthodox,  because  truths, 
especially  the  truths  of  Christianity,  do  not  want  any 
support  fnini  our  illiberality.     Let  the  little  bee  guard 
its  little  honey  with  its  little  sting ;  perhaps  its  little  life 
may  depend  a  little  while  on  that  little  nourishment. 
Let  the  tierce  bull  shake  his  head,  and  nod  liis  horn, 
and  tlireaten  his  enemy,  who  seeks  to  eat  his  flesh,  and 
wear  his  coat,  and  live  by  his  dcatli :  poor  fellow  !  his 
life  is  in  danger;  I  forgive  his  bellowing  and  his  rage. 
But  the  Christian  religion — is  tliat  in  danger?     And 
what  human  efforts  can  render  that  false  which  is  true, 
that  odious   which  is  lovely?     Christianity  is  in  no 
danger,  and  therefore  it  gives  its  professors  life  and 
breath,  and  all  things  except  a  power  of  injuring  others. 
5.  Liberality  in  the  profession  of  religion  is  a  wise  and 


innocent  policy.  The  bigot  lives  at  home ;  a  reptile  he 
crawled  into  existence,  and  there  in  his  hole  he  lurks  a 
reptile  still.  A  generous  Christian  goes  out  of  his  own 
party,  associates  with  others,  and  gains  improvement 
by  all.  It  is  a  Persian  proverb,  'A  liberal  hand  is  bet- 
ter than  a  strong  arm.'  The  dignity  of  Christianity  is 
better  supported  by  acts  of  liberality  than  by  accuracy 
of  reasoning;  but  when  both  go  together,  when  a  man 
of  sentiment  can  clearly  state  and  ably  defend  his  relig- 
ious principles,  and  when  his  heart  is  as  generous  as  his 
principles  are  inflexible,  he  possesses  strength  and  beau- 
ty in  an  eminent  degree."  See  Theol.  Miscellany ,  i,  39; 
Draper,  On  Bigotry ;  Newton,  Cecil,  and  FuUer's  YVorks  ; 
Wayland,  Discou7-ses ;  Buck,  Theol.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Liberatus,  a  deacon  of  the  Church  of  Carthage, 
flourished  in  the  Gth  centuiy.  He  was  in  Rome  A.D. 
533,  when  pope  John  II  received  the  bishops  sent  by 
the  emi)eror  Justinian  I  to  consult  him  on  the  heresies 
broached  by  the  monks,  designated  Acoemet;e  (or,  as 
Liberatus  terms  them,  Acumici),  who  had  imbibed  Nes- 
torian  opinions.  He  was  again  at  Kome  in  535,  having 
been  sent  the  previous  year,  together  with  the  bishops 
Caius  and  Petrus,  by  the  synod  held  at  Carthage  under 
Keparatus,  bishop  of  that  see,  to  consult  pope  John  II 
on  the  reception  into  the  Church  of  those  Arians  who 
recanted  their  heresies.  John  was  dead  before  the  ar- 
rival of  the  African  delegates ;  but  they  were  received 
by  pope  Agapetus,  his  successor.  When,  in  552,  Repara- 
tus  was  banished  by  Justinian  to  Enchaida,  or  Eucayda, 
Liberatus  accompanied  him,  and  probably  remained  with 
him  till  the  bishop's  death  in  563.  Nothing  further  is 
known  of  him.  Liberatus  is  the  author  of  a  valuable 
contribution  to  ecclesiastical  history,  entitled  Breviu- 
rium  Caussm  Nestorianorum  et  Eutychianorum  (from 
the  ordination  of  Nestorius,  A.D.  428,  to  the  time  of  the 
fifth  oecumenical  [or  second  Constantinopolitan]  coun- 
cil, A.D.  553).  In  this  work  he  is  charged  with  par- 
tiality to  the  Nestorians,  or  with  following  the  Nesto- 
rians  too  implicitly.  It  is  contained  in  most  editions 
of  the  Concilia  (vol.  v,  edit.  Labbe ;  vol.  vi,  edit.  Co- 
leti ;  vol.  ix,  edit.  INIansi).  In  those  of  Crabbe  (vol. 
ii,  fol.,  Cologn.,  1538  and  1551)  are  some  subjoined  pas- 
sages derived  from  various  extant  sources  illustrative 
of  the  historj',  which  are  omitted  by  subsequent  editors. 
Hardouin  omitted  the  Breviarium.  It  was  separately 
published,  with  a  revised  text,  and  a  learned  preface 
and  notes,  and  a  dissertation,  in  the  Bibliatheca  Palnim 
of  Galland,  vol.  xii  (Venice,  1778,  fol.).— Smith,  Did.  of 
Greek  and  Roman  Biof/rapfty,  ii,  777. 

Liber  Diurnus  Komanorum  Pontifictm  is  the 
name  given  by  the  see  of  Rome  to  a  collection  of  formu- 
las used  in  its  correspondence  and  other  business  trans- 
actions. These  formulas  are  very  like  those  written  for 
secular  affairs  by  the  monk  Marcnlph  (about  600)  and 
others,  and  received  fr(Kn  the  compiler  the  name  of  Li- 
ber Diurmis  because  they  relate  to  negotia  diurna  (see 
Marino  Marini,  Diplomaticapontijicia,  ed.  nov.  Rom.  1852 
sq.,  p.  64).  They  are  interesting  as  scientific  and  his- 
torical monuments  as  well  as  for  their  practical  use; 
and  this  is  specially  the  case  with  the  Liber  Diurnus 
Pontificalis,  which  contains  copies  of  the  letters  ad- 
dressed by  the  Roman  bishops  to  the  emperor,  the  em- 
press, consuls,  kings,  patriarchs,  bishops,  and  other  mem- 
bers of  the  clergy,  and  in  general  to  all  who  were  in  any 
way  concerned  in  the  nomination  of  the  Roman  bish- 
ops; the  pi-o/essio  ponfificia,  the  exemptions  granted  on 
the  occasion  of  nominating  neighboring  bishops,  on  be- 
stowing the  pallium  (q.  v.),  conferring  privileges  and 
immunities,  etc.  On  all  these  points,  and  the  manner 
in  which  these  things  were  practiced  from  the  6th  to 
the  8th  ccntnry,thc  Liber  Diurmis  contams  more  or  less 
compleic  information,  particidarly  on  the  relations  ex- 
isting between  the  see  of  Rome  and  the  emperor,  the 
mode  of  election  of  the  Roman  bishops,  the  ritual,  etc. 
To  judge  from  its  contents,  this  collection  was  probably 
written  before  the  year  752,  for  it  speaks  of  the  relation 
between  the  see  of  Rome  and  the  eparchs,  who  were 


LIBER  DIURNUS 


412 


LIBERIA 


abolished  in  that  year;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  must 
be  ]iosterior  to  G85,  for  in  caput  ii,  tit.  ix,  the  emperor 
(Jonstantine  (Pogonatus)  is  spoken  of  as  being  akeady 
(lead.  It  must  also  have  been  written  under  some  suc- 
cessor of  Agatho  (f  G82),  as  this  Koman  bishop  is  also 
mentioned  as  dead.  Garnerius  supposed  it  to  have  been 
composed  in  the  time  of  Gregory  II,  somewhat  after 
714,  on  the  ground  that  in  the  second  pi-q/'essio  Jidei 
jMiitip'ris,  given  in  the  Liher  Diiirnus,  there  are  expres- 
sions and  views  which  correspond  exactly  to  those  we 
find  in  the  letters  of  that  pope  to  the  emperor  Leo.  It 
is  likely,  though,  that  the  Liber  iJiurnus  existed  orig- 
inally in  a  more  elementary  fonn  before  it  assumed  that 
muler  which  it  is  known  at  present,  for  the  different 
MS.  copies  of  it  differ  somewhat  from  each  other.  The 
Liher  Diiirnus  was  frequently  consulted  by  all  writers 
on  canon  law,  such  as  Ino  of  Chartres,  Anselm  of  Lucca, 
Deusdedit,  Gratian  (c.  8,  dist.  xvi).  As  the  ritual  and 
various  points  of  law  underwent  modifications  in  the 
course  of  time,  it  was  less  used,  and  its  existence  even 
came  to  be  concealed  by  the  popes  for  fear  lest  it  might 
recall  their  former  dependence  upon  the  emperors  and 
eparehs.  Still  there  were  copies  of  it  in  existence,  and 
a  codex  contained  in  the  library  of  the  Vatican  was 
published  in  IGGO  by  the  care  of  Lucas  Holstenius;  it 
was.  however,  at  once  suppressed  by  the  Roman  see. 
Hoffmann  (Xovu  coUectio  scriptorum  ac  nionumentorum, 
Lipsi:e,  1733.  4to,  i,  389)  attributes  to  Baluze  (in  the  re- 
marks on  Petrus  de  Marca,  Be  concordia  sacerdotii  ac 
imperii,  lib.  i,  cap.  ix,  No.  viii)  the  statement  that  at 
the  time  of  Holstenius  the  Vatican  library  possessed  no 
codex  of  the  Liher  Diurnus,  and  that  his  publication  was 
based  upon  a  j\IS.  intrusted  to  him  by  the  Cistercian 
monk  Hilarius  Kancatus.  But  as  both  editions  of  the 
works  of  P.  de  ]\Iarca,  published  at  Paris  by  Baluze, 
state  only  (lib.  ii,  cap.  xvi.  No.  viii)  that  Holstenius's 
l)ublication  of  the  Liher  Diurnus  was  suppressed,  and 
Baluze  again,  in  his  notes  appended  to  Anton.  Augus- 
tinus,  De  emendatione  Grutiani,  lib.  i,  dialogus  xx,  §  13 
(ed.  Par.  1760,  p.  433),  saj-s  that  there  were  various  cop- 
ies of  the  Liber  Diurnus  in  existence,  from  one  of  which, 
that  in  the  Vatican  Ubrary,  Holstenius  published  his 
edition,  it  seems  reasonable  to  suppose  that  Hoffmann's 
statement  lacks  support.  As  for  Rancatus,  MabiUon 
names  Leo  Allatius,  and  not  Holstenius,  as  the  party  to 
whom  he  imparted  the  IMS.  (see  also  Cave,  Scriptonnn 
eccl.  hut.  literaria,  Basle,  1741,  i,  621).  The  MS.  of  the 
Vatican  has  actually  been  described  by  Pertz  {Italien- 
ische  Rtise,\\\  Archiv.f.dltere  deutsche  Geschic/itshinde, 
v,  27).  He  says  that  it  is  an  8vo  vol.  of  parchment, 
and  that,  according  to  the  statement  found  on  its  first 
pages,  it  dates  from  the  8th  century.  The  Jesuit  Jo- 
annes Garnerius,  with  the  aid  of  a  similar  codex  and  a 
MS.  found  in  Paris,  published  in  1680  another  edition 
of  the  Liher  Diurnus,'' cum  privilegio  regis  Christianis- 
simi."  ^Maliillon,  in  the  Museum  Ifalicum  (folio  II,  ii, 
32  sq.).  ]iu1ilished  additions  to  it  by  means  of  the  MS. 
which  ha<l  been  used  by  Leo  Allatius.  With  the  aid 
of  all  these  works,  Hoffmann  published  a  new  edition 
of  it  in  the  Xora  colkrfio  cit.  (vol.  ii),  which  was  sub- 
sequently done  also  by  Riegger  (V^ienna,  17G2, 8vo).  All 
this  gave  rise  afterwards  to  collections  of  formulas  to 
replace  the  obsolete  TAher  Diurnus.  There  are  several 
such  collections  still  extant  in  MS.  Among  them  the 
luirmuhirium  et  stylus  scriptorum  curice.  Rnman<v,  from 
John  XXII  to  Gregory  XII  and  John  XXIII,  in  Sum- 
nid  rmiri/ftiriii  Joannh  XXI I.  W'c  may  also  consider 
as  belonging  to  this  class  of  works  the  Rituum  ecclesi- 
ostirorum  sire  cei'emoniminn  lihri  tres  of  bishop  Augus- 
tinus  Patricius  Piccolomini,  printed  by  Hoffmann  (ii, 
26i>  s(|.),  and  containing  a  description  of  the  rites  accom- 
panying the  election  of  the  ])opcs  in  the  14th  cx-ntury. 
Cnllectious  of  formulas  similar  to  the  Liher  Diurnus 
were  also  made  for  the  use  of  l)isho|)S,  ablwfs,  etc.  See 
Rockinger,  Xarlnreisuuf/en  iiher  Formelbiiche.r  v.  xiii^xvi 
.Tahrhuud.  (]\Iunich,  1855,  \\  64,  126,  173, 18.3,  etc.)  ;  Pa- 
\Mk\,Ueber  Formelbiicher  (yraguc,  1842)  ;  llerzog,  7?ea/- 


EncyUop.  viii,  366;  Wetzer  u.Welte,  Kirchen-Lex.  voL 

V,  s.  V. 

Liberia,  or  the  United  States  of-  Liberia,  a  negro 
re]nil)lic  in  Western  Africa,  on  the  upper  coast  of  LTpper 
Guinea.  The  boundaries  are  not  definitely  fixed,  but 
provisionally  the  River  Thebar  has  been  adopted  as  the 
north-western,  and  the  San  Pedro  as  the  eastern  frontier. 
The  rejiublic  has  a  coast-line  of  600  miles,  and  extends 
back  100  miles,  on  an  average,  but  with  the  probability 
of  a  vast  extension  into  the  interior  as  the  tribes  near 
the  frontier  desire  to  conclude  treaties  providing  for  the 
incorporation  of  their  territories  with  Liberia.  The 
present  area  is  estimated  at  9700  square  miles.  The 
republic  owes  its  origin  to  the  "American  Colonization 
Society,"  which  was  established  in  December,  1816,  for 
the  purpose  of  removing  the  negroes  of  the  United 
States  froin  the  cramping  influences  of  American  slav- 
ery, and  placing  them  in  their  own  fatherland.  There, 
it  was  hoped,  they  would  be  able  to  refute,  by  practical 
demonstration,  the  views  of  those  American  politicians 
who  contended  that  the  institution  of  American  slavery 
was  essentially  righteous  and  signally  beneficent.  The 
society,  in  November,  1817,  sent  two  agents  to  Western 
Africa,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Ebenezer  Burgess  and  Samuel  J. 
Mills,  to  select  a  favorable  location  for  a  colony  of 
American  negroes.  After  visiting  Gambia,  Sierra  Le- 
one, and  Sherbro,  they  fixed  upon  the  last-named  place. 
The  first  expedition  of  emigrants,  86  in  nnmlier,  was 
sent  out  in  Februarj^,  1820,  After  various  disappoint- 
ments, the  emigrants  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  foothold 
on  Cape  INIesurado,  in  lat,  6°  19'  N.,  long.  10°  49'  W., 
where  now  stands  Monrovia,  the  capital  of  the  republic 
of  Liberia.  The  purchase  of  the  Mesurado  territory, 
including  Cape  ISIesurado  and  the  lands,  forming  near- 
ly a  peninsula,  between  the  Mesurado  and  the  Junk 
rivers,  about  36  mUes  along  the  coast,  with  an  average 
breadth  of  about  two  miles,  was  effected  in  December, 
1821.  For  a  hundred  years  the  principal  powers  of  Eu- 
rope, in  particular  France  and  England,  had  repeatedly 
tried  to  gain  possession  of  this  territorj',  but  the  native 
chiefs  had  invariably  refused  to  part  with  even  one  acre, 
and  were  known  to  be  extremely  hostile  to  the  whites. 
On  January  7, 1822,  the  smaller  of  the  two  islands  lying 
near  the  mouth  of  the  IMesurado  River  was  occupied  by 
the  colonists,  who  called  it  Perseverance  Island.  They 
remained  here  until  April  25,  when  they  removed  to 
jMesurado  Heights,  and  raised  the  American  flag.  The 
colony  henceforth  grew,  and  expanded  in  territory  and 
influence,  taking  under  its  jurisdiction-  from  time  to 
time  the  large  tribes  contiguous.  In  1846  the  boar<l  of 
directors  of  the  American  Colonization  Societj'  invited 
the  colony  to  proclaim  their  independent  sovereignty, 
as  a  means  of  protection  against  the  oppressive  inter- 
ference of  foreigners,  and  a  special  fund  of  815,000  was 
raised  to  buy  up  the  national  title  to  all  the  coast  from 
Sherbro  to  Cape  Palmas,  in  order  to  secure  to  the  new 
nationality  contimuty  of  coast.  In  July,  1847,  the  dec- 
laration of  independence,  prepared  by  Hilary  Teoge, 
was  published.  Representatives  of  the  people  met  in 
convention,  and  promulgated  a  constitution  similar  to 
that  of  the  United  States.  Soon  after  the  new  re]iublic 
tvas  recognised  by  England  and  France ;  in  1852  it  Avas 
in  treaty  stijiulations  with  England,  France,  Belgium, 
Prussia,  Italy,  the  United  States,  Denmark,  Holland, 
Hayti,  Portugal,  and  Austria. 

'ihe  constitution  of  Liberia,  like  that  of  the  United 
States,  establishes  an  entire  separation  of  the  Church 
from  the  State,  and  places  all  religious  denominations  on 
an  equal  footing,  but  all  citizens  of  the  republic  must  be- 
long to  the  negro  race.  In  1872  the  total  pojiulation  of 
Liberia  was  estimated  to  number  720,000,  of  which  num- 
ber about  19,000  were  Americo-Liberians.  and  the  re- 
maining 701,000  aboriginal  inhabitants.  The  most  im- 
portant tribes  within  and  near  the  limits  of  the  republic 
are  the  following:  1.  The  Veys,  extending  from  Gallinas, 
their  northern  boundarA',  southward  to  Little  Cape  jMount  : 
they  stretch  inland  about  two  days'  journey.     They  in- 


LIBERIA 


413 


LIBERIA 


vented,  some  20  j'ears  ago,  an  alphabet  for  writing  their 
own  language,  and,  next  to  the  Mandingoes,  they  are  re- 
garded as  the  most  intelligent  of  the  aboriginal  tribes. 
As  they  hold  constant  intercourse  with  the  Mandingoes 
and  other  jNIoharamedan  tribes  in  the  far  interior,  ]Mo- 
hammedanism  is  making  rapid  progress  among  them. 
The  Anglican  missionary,  bishop  Payne,  has  recently 
suggested  a  plan  of  occupying  the  country  of  the  Veys 
with  an  extensive  and  vigorous  mission,  and  the  mission- 
school  opened  by  the  Episcopalians  at  Totocorch,  which 
is  nearer  to  Cape  Jlount  than  to  Monrovia,  is  regarded 
as  the  first  outpost  towards  the  vast  interior.  2.  The 
Pessehs,  who  are  located  about  seventy  miles  from  the 
coast,  and  extend  about  one  hundred  miles  from  north 
to  south,  are  entirely  pagan.  They  may  be  called  the 
peasants  of  West  Africa,  and  supply  most  of  the  domes- 
tic slaves  fur  the  Veys,  Bassas,  Mandingoes,  and  Kroos. 
A  missionary  effort  was  attempted  among  them  about 
fifteen  years  ago  by  the  Presbyterian  Board  of  Foreign 
Missions,  but  it  was  abandoned  in  consequence  of  the 
death  of  the  first  missionary,  George  L.  Seymour.  3. 
The  Barline  tribe,  living  about  eight  days'  journey 
north-east  from  jMonrovia,  and  next  interior  to  the  Pes- 
sehs, lias  recently  been  brought  into  treaty  relations 
with  Liberia.  According  to  a  report  of  1858,  half  the 
population  of  their  capital,  Palaka,  consisted  of  Moham- 
medans who  had  come  from  the  Manni  country,  but  the 
latest  explorer,  W.  Spencer  Anderson,  states  that  there 
are  at  present  no  IMohammedans  in  the  Barline  countrj% 
4.  The  Bassas  occupy  a  coast-line  of  over  sixty  miles, 
and  extend  about  the  same  distance  inland.  They  are 
the  great  producers  of  palm-oil  and  canewood,  which 
are  sold  to  foreigners  by  thousands  of  tons  annually.  In 
1835  a  mission  was  begun  among  these  people  by  the 
American  Baptist  Missionary  Union,  whose  missionaries 
studied  the  language,  organized  three  schools,  embra- 
cing in  all  nearly  a  himdred  pupils,  maintained  preach- 
ing statedly  at  three  places,  and  occasionally  at  a  great 
many  more,  and  translated  large  portions  of  the  New 
Testament  into  the  Bassa  language.  Notwithstanding 
this  promising  commencement,  the  mission  has  been 
now  (1872)  for  several  years  suspended.  But  the  South- 
ern Baptist  Convention  has  lately  resumed  missionary 
operations  among  the  Bassas.  Great  results  for  the 
spreading  of  Christianity  are  expected  from  the  mis- 
sionary labors  of  j\Ir.  Jacob  W.  Yonbrunn,  a  son  of  a 
subordinate  king  of  the  Grand  Bassa  people.  5.  The 
Kroo,  who  occupy  the  region  south  of  the  Bassa,  extend 
about  seventy  miles  along  the  coast,  and  only  a  few 
miles  inland.  They  are  the  sailors  of  West  Africa,  and 
never  enslave  or  sell  each  other.  About  thirty  years 
ago  a  mission  was  established  among  them  by  the  Pres- 
byterian Board  of  Foreign  Missions  at  Settra  Kroo,  but 
it  lias  long  since  ceased  operations.  6.  The  Greboes, 
^vho  border  upon  the  south-eastern  boundaries  of  the 
Kroos,  extend  from  Grand  Sesters  to  the  Cavalla  River, 
a  distance  of  about  seventy  miles.  In  ISii-I  a  mission 
was  established  among  them  by  the  American  Board  of 
Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions,  Avhich  continued 
in  operation  for  seven  years.  A  Church  was  organized, 
the  language  reduced  to  writing,  and  parts  of  the  New 
Testament  and  other  religious  books  translated  into  it ; 
but  in  1842  the  mission  was  transferred  to  Gabun.  A 
mission  established  by  the  Protestant  I^piscopal  Church 
of  the  United  States  among  the  same  tribe  a  few  years 
previously  still  continues  in  operation,  and  has  recently 
established  at  Bohlen  a  missionary  station,  about  sev- 
enty miles  from  the  coast,  7.  The  Mandingoes,  who  are 
found  on  the  whole  eastern  frontier  of  the  republic,  and 
extend  back  to  the  heart  of  Soudan,  are  the  most  intel- 
ligent tribe  within  the  limits  of  Liberia.  They  have 
schools  and  mosques  in  every  large  town,  and,  by  their 
great  influence  upon  the  neighboring  tribes,  they  have 
contributed  in  no  little  degree  to  abate  the  ignorance 
and  soften  the  manners  of  the  native  population  of  Li- 
beria. One  of  the  greatest  obstacles  to  the  jirogress  of 
Christian  missions  among  the  aboriginal  tribes  is  the 


climate,  and  the  difficulty  of  acclimatization.  Thus  the 
Basle  Missionary  Society,  which  in  1827  established  a 
promising  mission,  was  in  1831  compelled  to  abandon  it 
when  four  of  the  eight  missionaries  had  succumbed  to 
the  climate. 

At  the  close  of  the  year  1871  the  churches  among  the 
Americo-Liberians  and  the  missions  among  the  natives 
were  all  more  or  less  connected  with  the  Protestant 
churches  of  the  United  States.  The  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Churcli,  which  sent  her  first  missionary  to  Liberia 
in  1832,  has  subsequently  organized  the  Liberia  INlission 
into  an  Annual  Conference,  with  a  missionary  bishop 
(in  1872  John  Wright  Koberts)  at  its  head.  In  1872 
the  mission  had  24  missionaries  (embracing  8  supplies 
— supernumeraries  and  assistant  preachers  on  native 
stations),  15  assistant  missionaries  (including  5  school- 
teachers among  the  natives),  87  local  preachers,  2065 
members,  174  probationers,  15  day-schools,  with  over 
400  scholars,  1425  Sunday-school  scholars,  26  churches, 
of  an  aggregate  value  of  $22,907,  and  7  parsonages, 
valued  at  $3991.  The  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
of  the  United  States  likewise  supports  at  the  head 
of  its  mission  a  missionary  bishop.  The  mission,  in 
1871,  contained  10  Liberian  and  14  native  stations, 
13  clergymen  (2  foreign,  including  the  bishop,  8  Libe- 
rian, and  3  native),  6  camlidates  for  holy  orders  (3  Li- 
berian and  3  native),  9  churches  and  1  chapel,  64  other 
preaching-places,  231  Christian  families  and  595  persons 
attending  church,  93  infant  and  22  adult  baptisms,  453 
communicants,  102  Simday-school  teachers  and  1104 
scholars,  and  22  teachers  and  301  pupils  of  vernacular 
schools.  The  number  of  marriages  was  31,  and  of  bur- 
ials 38.  The  missionary  bishop,  John  Payne,  after 
having  labored  upon  the  coast  of  Africa  for  thirty-three 
years,  resigned  his  jurisdiction  at  the  meeting  of  the 
Board  of  Missions  held  in  October,  1871.  At  the  same 
meeting  a  special  committee  of  the  Board  on  the  Organ- 
ization of  the  Church  in  Africa,  which  had  been  ap- 
pointed in  1870,  recommended  as  a  suitable  plan,  which 
the  Church  should  put  into  operation  at  the  earliest 
practical  moment,  the  appointment  of  three  missionary 
episcopates,  one  whose  centre  shall  be  Cape  Palmas,  to 
carrj'  on  important  operations  already  begun  in  that 
neighborhood  and  near  the  Cavalla  Eiver;  one  whfise 
centre  shall  be  Cape  JNIount,  to  enter  into  the  remarkable 
openings  for  Christian  missions  among  the  interesting 
tribes  to  the  north  and  north-east ;  and  one  whose  centre 
shall  be  Monrovia,  and  whose  jurisdiction  shall  com- 
prise the  countries  of  ^Mcsurado,  Bassa,  and  Sinoe.  The 
Baptist  churches  in  Liberia  have  mostly  been  organized 
by  the  Southern  Board  of  American  Baptists.  Tlieir 
work  was  suspended  during  the  war,  and  the  American 
Baptist  Missionary  Union  commenced  their  work  in 
Liberia  with  the  understanding  that  the  Southern  Board 
would  not  resume  the  work ;  but  in  1870  the  Southern 
Baptists  sent  an  agent  to  Africa  with  a  view  of  renew- 
ing their  labors  there.  The  Missionary  Union  contin- 
ued, however,  to  give  a  partial  support  to  several  pas- 
tors. In  March,  1868,  the  Baptist  churches  of  Liberia 
organized  the  "  Liberian  Baptist  Missionary  Union"  for 
'•  the  evangelization  of  the  heathen"  within  the  borders 
of  the  Republic  of  Liberia,  "and  contiguous  thereto." 
At  this  first  meeting  of  the  union  ten  Baptist  churches 
were  represented,  and  twelve  fields  of  missionary  labor 
were  designated  and  commended  to  the  care  of  the 
nearest  churches.  The  Baptist  churches  have  a  train- 
ing-school for  preachers  and  teachers  at  Virginia.  The 
Presbyterian  Cliurch  of  the  United  States  has  congre- 
gations at  JMonrovia,  Kentucky,  Harrisburg,  Greenville 
or  Sinou,  Marshall,  Robertsport,  and  a  few  other  places, 
with  an  aggregate  membership  of  about  250.  The  Li- 
berian churclics  in  union  with  those  of  Gaboon  and  Co- 
risco  form  the  presbytery  of  Western  Africa.  The 
Alexander  High-school  is  intended  to  be  an  academy 
of  high  grade,  conducted  under  the  supervision  of  the 
Presbytery,  and  designed  especially  to  aid  young  men 
preparing  for  the  ministry.    It  is  situated  on  a  farm  of 


LIBERIUS 


414 


LIBER  PONTIFICALIS 


about  twenty  acres,  eighteen  miles  from  ]Monrovia,  near 
the  St.  Taurs  liiver.  The  American  Lutherans  have 
one  station  in  Liberia.  See  Newcomb,  Cyclopmdia  of 
Missions ;  Annual  Reports  of  the  Board  of  Foreign  Mis- 
sions of  the  Presbi/terian  Church ;  Baptist  Missionary 
Magazine,  July,  1872;  Proceedings  of  the  Board  ofjifis- 
sions  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  October,  1871 ; 
Annual  Reports  of  the  Missionary  Society  of  the  Meth- 
odist EpiscojKil  Church;  Grundemanii,  Missionsatlas ; 
Stockwell,  The  Republic  of  Liheiia  (New  York,  1868) ; 
I'lyilen  (professor  in  Fourali  Bay  College,  Sierra  Leone, 
^^'.  A.),  The  Republic  of  Liberia,  its  Status  and  its  Field 
{Jfeth.  Quart.  Rev.  July,  1872,  art.  vi).     (A.  J.  S.) 

Liberius,  St.,  pope  of  Kome,  M-as  a  native  of  the 
Eternal  City.  He  succeeded  Julius  I  May  22,  353.  The 
Serai- Arians,  countenanced  by  the  emperor  Constantius, 
had  then  the  ascendency ;  and  both  the  Council  of  Aries 
(353)  and  that  of  IMilan  (355)  condemned  Athanasius, 
bishop  of  Alexandria.  As  Liberius,  together  with  some 
other  Western  bishops,  refused  to  subscribe  to  this  con- 
demnation, he  was  aiTested  by  order  of  the  emperor,  and 
taken  to  IMilan,  where  he  held  a  conference  with  Con- 
stantius, which  terminated  in  a  sentence  from  the  em- 
peror deposing  Liberius  from  his  office,  and  banishing 
liira  to  Beroea,  in  Thrace.  Felix,  a  deacon  at  Rome,  was 
consecrated  bishop.  A  petition  was  presented  to  the  em- 
peror by  the  principal  ladies  of  Rome  in  favor  of  Liberius, 
but  it  was  not  till  358  that  Liberius  was  restored  to  his 
see.  The  assertion  that  Liberius,  during  his  continement 
at  Bercea,  a])proved  in  several  letters  of  the  deposition 
of  Athanasius,  and  subscribed  to  the  confession  of  faith 
drawn  up  by  the  coiu-t  party  at  the  Council  of  Sirmium, 
is  a  matter  of  great  improbability,  and  depends  chiefly 
upon  the  genuineness  of  his  correspondence  with  Atha- 
nasius. The  dependence  of  Liberius  on  the  emperor 
had  a  mischievous  influence  upon  many  of  the  Italian 
bishops,  and  we  need  not  wonder  that  at  the  Council  of 
Kimini  Arianism  was  openly  countenanced.  It  is  not 
true,  as  asserted  by  some,  that  Liberius  subscribed  the 
Rimini  confession  of  faith.  He  ended  his  career  in  or- 
thodoxy, and  died  in  3(i(J.  He  was  succeeded  by  Da- 
masus  I.  Liberius  is  said  to  have  built  the  Basilica  on 
the  ]]s((uiline  IMount,  which  has  been  called  Liberiana, 
from  his  name,  and  is  now  known  by  the  name  of  Santa 
iMaria  Maggiore.  He  is  commemorated  in  the  Romish 
Church  Aug.  27,  and  in  the  Creek  Church  Sept.  23.  See 
( ifrijrer,  Kirchengesch.  II,  i,  254—285 ;  Hefelo,  P.  Liberius, 
in  the  Tilb.  theol.  Quarfalschr.  (1853),  ii,  2tJl  sq. ;  and 
<  'onciliengesch.  i,  626-714 ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyklop.  viii, 
372. 

Liber  Pontificalis  de  vitis  Romanorum  Pontif- 
cum,  Gksta  Rojianorum  Pontificum,  Liber  gesto- 
i:uM  roxTiFicALirM,  are  the  names  of  a  history  of  the 
bishops  of  Rome  from  the  apostle  Peter  down  to  Nicolas 
I  (f  867),  to  which  those  of  Adrian  II  and  of  Ste])hen 
VI  (t  891)  were  subsequently  added.  On  the  author- 
ity of  Onuphrio  Pavini,  the  first  editors  of  this  Liber 
Pontifc(dis  considered  as  its  author  Anastasius,  abbot  of 
a  convent  at  Rome,  and  librarian  of  the  church  under 
Nicolas  I ;  Init  more  thorough  researches  have  proved 
tliis  liber  to  vary  greatly  in  style,  and  even  in  views 
manifested  in  the  different  biographies,  and  therefore 
led  to  the  supposition  that  the  work  is  not  all  by  the 
same  author.  This  belief  is  further  strengthened  by 
the  fact  that  already  Anastasius,  on  some  occasions, 
m.-ide  use  of  passages  from  the  Libir  Pou/if calls,  and 
that  there  arc  MSS.  extant  which  can  with  certainty  be 
ascrilied  to  the  close  of  the  7th  or  the  beginning  of  the 
8th  centurj-,  and  which  contain  extracts  from  the  Liber 
Pontif  calls.  In  the  early  part  of  the  17th  century, 
several  writers  put  forth  arguments  in  favor  of  the  last- 
mentioned  views.  Among  them  are  EmanueJ  of  Schel- 
strate.  lilirarian  of  the  Valiijan  {IHssertalio  de  antiquis 
Romanorum  Poutifcum  catalogis,  ex  guibu's  fAber  Pontifi- 
calis concinnatus  sit,  et  de  Libri  L'outif  calls  aiictore  ac 
pi-cEstantia  [Rom;e,  1692,  fob;  reprinted  in  Muratori, 
Rerum  Italicarum  scriptores,  iii,  1  sq.]),  Joannes  Ciam- 


pini  (magister  brevium  gratiae :  Examen  Libri  Pontifica- 
lis sire  vitarum  Romanormn  Pontificum,  quce  sub  nomine 
Anastasii  bibliothecarii  circumferuntur  [Rom.  1688,  4to; 
reprinted  in  Muratori,  p.  33  sq.]),  and  others.  The  sup- 
position that  the  codex  was  compiled  by  pope  Damasus, 
the  successor  of  Liberius,  as  maintained  by  the  authors 
of  the  Origines,  is  untenable.  The  correspondence  be- 
tween Damasus  and  Jerome  which  is  adduced  in  support 
of  this  view  is  evidently  spurious  (see  Schelstrate,  Dis- 
sertatio,  etc.).  The  author  or  authors  are  unknown,  but 
the  information  it  contains  is  valuable.  It  is  now  gen- 
erally thought  to  have  been  written  about  the  4th  cen- 
tury. 

The  oldest  source  known  at  present  of  the  liber  is 
generally  considered  to  have  been  a  list  of  the  popes 
down  to  Liberius,  and  probably  written  during  his  life 
(352-366),  as  it  makes  no  mention  of  his  death  (see 
Schelstrate,  LHssertatio,  etc.,  cli.  ii,  iii ;  Hefele,  Tiibinger 
theolog.  Quartalschrift,  1845,  p.  312  sq.).  The  original 
MS.  of  this  so-called  Codex  Liberii  is  now  lost.  In  1634 
a  co]>y  was  made  of  it  from  an  Antwerp  MS.  by  Bucher, 
the  Bollandists  give  one  in  the  Acta  Sanctorum,  April, 
vol.  i,  1675,  and  Schelstrate  another  I'rom  a  Vienna  co- 
dex. These  three  texts  are  given  side  by  side  in  the 
Origines  de  Veglise  Romaine,  par  les  membres  de  la  com- 
munaute  de  Solermes  (Paris,  1826),  vol.  i. 

Another  list  of  the  popes  extends  down  to  Felix  IV 
(f  530).  It  was  first  published  in  a  codex  of  the  Vati- 
can Library  by  Christine  of  Sweden,  afterwards  by  Syl- 
vester of  Henschen  and  Papebroch,  and  is  also  found  in 
the  introduction  of  the  first  volume  of  the  Acta  Sancto- 
rum for  April,  in  Schelstrate,  and  in  the  above-mention- 
cil  Origines,  p.  212.  There  are  transcripts  of  French 
origin,  and  the  original  MS.  of  this  so-called  Catalogus 
Feliris  /ris  lost,  but  the  two  at  jiresent  in  existence 
are  evidently  copies  of  the  same  original,  as  results  from 
a  careful  comparison  of  them  by  Schelstrate.  That  the 
author  of  it  must  have  consulted  the  Cafalogifs  Libeiil 
is  evident  from  the  fact  that  its  errors  are  repeated  in 
it.  Thej'  both  omit  the  names  of  the  consuls  and  em- 
perors between  Liberius  and  John  I  (523),  and  com- 
mence again  at  the  reign  of  the  latter,  and  of  his  suc- 
cessor, Felix  IV  (al.  III).  Schelstrate  already  correctly 
surmised  from  this  fact  that  the  author  lived  in  the 
time  of  these  two  popes,  which  view  is  also  supported 
by  the  completeness  and  thoroughness  with  ^vhich  their 
history,  in  particular,  is  treated.  Still,  as  to  the  author, 
there  is  no  definite  information.  The  numerous  refer- 
ences to  the  archives  of  the  Roman  Church,  in  which, 
moreover,  the  first  MS.  was  discovered,  would  make  it 
probable  that  the  author  was  himself  a  librarian  of  the 
archives,  if  the  confusion  and  even  incorrectness  of 
some  parts  did  not  militate  against  this  view.  Aside 
from  the  similarity  of  this  collection  with  the  Catalogus 
Liberii,  which  extends  so  far  that  whole  jiassagcs  are 
copied  literall}',  or  nearly  so,  from  the  one  into  the  other, 
the  Catalogus  Felicis  7  L  differs  from  the  Liberii  prin- 
cipally by  its  full  particulars  on  the  ordination,  by  its 
mention  of  the  birthplace  of  the  popes,  and  their  fune- 
rals, which  the  author  may  have  derived  from  tradition 
and  other  similar  sources,  pseudo-decretals  and  canons, 
martyrologies,  etc.  The  only  parts  which  have  licrcto- 
fore  been  considered  worthy  ol'  full  confidence  are  those 
which  coincide  with  the  Catalogus  Liberii,  and  those 
which  refer  to  the  times  of  John  and  Felix,  wlicn  the 
author  would  be  better  acquainted  with  the  lacts  than 
with  those  of  precedhig  periods. 

I?oth  lists  were  subsequently  continued,  and  tliis  is 
what  produced  the  Liber  Pontificalia.  This  filiation, 
however,  can  only  be  traced  by  the  aid  of  MSS.  The 
oldest  copy  known  belongs  to  the  close  of  the  7th  or  the 
beginning  of  the  8th  century.  It  ends  at  the  death  of 
Conon  ((■)8(i-6.s7).  A  rather  incomi)lete  Codex  rescrip- 
tus,  discovered  by  Pertz  (Archir.  \\  50  sq.)  at  Naples, 
gives  the  list  of  the  popes  down  to  Conon  ;  it  must  have 
been  written,  at  the  latest,  in  the  early  part  of  the  8th 
century.     Another  is  found  in  a  codex  of  the  cathedral 


LIBER  PONTIFICALIS 


415 


LIBER  PONTIFICALIS 


chapter  of  Verona,  endinf;  also  with  Conon,  but  to  it  was 
adilc<l  afterwards  a  list  of  the  names  of  the  popes  down 
to  Paul  I  (t  7G7).  Tliis  3IS.  was  published  in  the  fourth 
volume  of  Bianchini's  collection,  but,  unfortunately,  we 
have  no  description  of  this  codex;  it  was  to  have  been 
given  in  the  tifth  volume,  which  never  appeared  (see 
Kostell,  Beschreibung  iler  Stadt  Rum.  i,  209,  210),  so  that 
it  is  impossible  clearly  to  establish  its  relation  to  the 
Neapolitan  MS.  A  continuation  of  this  tirst  work  goes 
down  to  Gregory  II  (from  714),  and  is  to  be  found  in 
the  Codex  of  the  Vatican,  No.  52G9,  which  must  be  a 
copy  of  an  older  MS.  (Schelstrate,  ch.  v,  §  3).  Then 
there  is  another  continuation  from  the  second  part  of 
the  8th  century,  contained  in  a  codex  of  the  Ambrosian 
Library  of  Milan  (^I.  no.  77,  4to),  which  is  of  the  same 
date.  The  biographies  close  with  Stephen  III  (f  757), 
and  at  the  end  is  simply  remarked,  "xcv  Paulus  sedit 
annis  x,  mensibus  ii,  diebus  v"  (Muratori,  Rerum  Itul. 
Svriptores,  iii,  7).  The  variations  on  this  MS.  are  given 
by  ]\Iuratori  under  the  letter  A.  It  belonged  originally 
to  the  convent  of  Bobbio.  According  to  a  very  plausi- 
ble supposition  of  Niebuhr,  the  above-mentioned  Nea- 
liolitan  Codex  came  also  from  that  convent.  It  will 
])rol)ably  be  possible,  when  the  subject  shall  have  been 
more  thoroughly  studied,  to  trace  a  connection  between 
the  two,  and  the  Liber  Fontificalis  also.  After  the  mid- 
dle of  the  8th  century  there  appeared  several  continua- 
tions, as  is  shown  by  the  numerous  MSS.  of  them  in 
existence  (see,  in  jNIuratori,  B,  C,  D;  and  Pertz,  who 
gives  notices  of  several  MSS.  of  the  kind).  Some  of 
these  codices  extend  down  to  Nicolas  I  (f  807),  others 
to  Stcplien  VI  (t  891),  which  is  as  far  as  the  so-called 
LihiT  Pimtificulis  extends. 

If  from  what  we  have  stated  it  is  concluded  that  the 
work  dates  back  as  far  as  tlie  7th  century,  it  is  clearly  im- 
possible that  the  librarian  Anastasius  should  have  been 
its  author.  He  could  at  best  only  have  continued  it. 
Schelstrate  thinks  that  the  biography  of  Nicolas  I  can 
alone  be  ascribed  to  him  (c.  viii,  §  10) ;  while  Ciampini 
is  induced  by  some  peculiarities  of  the  style  to  consider 
him  also  as  the  author  of  the  four  preceding  ones  (/.  c. 
sect.  V,  vi).  In  the  present  state  of  the  question  it  is 
impossible  to  decide  between  the  two  opinions.  But 
it  is  clearly  a  mistake  to  attribute  the  biographies  of 
Adrian  II  and  Stephen  IV  to  a  certain  Bibliothecarius 
GiiUditms,  as  is  generally  done  (Ciampini  names  the 
lil)rariau  Zachary,  sect,  iv,  vii,  viii).  This  error  orig- 
inated in  an  inscription  in  the  Vatican  Codex  (3702,  fol. 
90  b-9(j),  which,  however,  states  only  that  a  certain  Pe- 
ter Guillermus  of  Genoa,  librarian  of  the  convent  of 
S.  .Egidius,  wrote  this  Vatican  Codex  in  the  year  1142 
(see  (iiesebrecht,  in  X\\e  Kieler  A  llr/em.  Moriatsschriff, 
etc.,  April,  1852,  p.  2G6.  267 ;  Monumenta  Germaniic,  xi, 
.318). 

The  sources  of  the  Liber  PonHficalis,  besides  those 
above  mentioned,  consist  partly  in  traditions,  partly  in 
MS.  documents,  and  remaining  monuments,  euch  as 
buildings,  inscriptions,  etc.  The  collection  of  canon 
law  of  the  7th  or  8th  centur\%  published  by  Zachary 
from  a  codex  of  Modena,  stands  in  close  connection  with 
the  Liber  PouHjicalis  (see  Zaccaria,  Dissertazioni  varie 
Italiane  a  storia  ecclesiasticn  nppnrtenenti,  Rom.  1780, 
vol.  ii,  diss,  iv ;  reproduced  by  Galland,  De  velitstis  ca- 
nonum  coUectionibus  dissert ationiim  si/Uoffe,'Moi<;unt.  1770, 
4to,  ii,  679  sq.) ;  yet  it  is  not  to  be  considered  as  one  of 
its  sources,  but  rather  appears  to  have  been  based  on 
the  Liber  Pontijicalis.  The  Liber  Pon/ijicalis  has  be- 
come particidarly  valuable  for  the  correctness  of  the  in- 
formation since  the  latter  part  of  the  7th  centurj',  when 
tlie  Roman  archives  were  regidarly  organized,  and  the 
contiiuiation  of  the  Liber  Pontijicalis  could  only  be  in- 
trusted to  the  librarians  or  other  members  of  the  clergy 
having  free  access  to  the  archives.  The  Liber  Pontiji- 
calis is  especially  useful  for  the  history  of  particular 
churches,  ecclesiastical  institutions,  the  "discipline,  etc. 
Schelstrate  names  as  its  first  edition  Peter  Crabbe's 
Concilien  (Cologne,  1538) ;  but  this  is  neither  complete 


nor  well  connected.  It  only  contains  extracts  on  each 
pope,  like  Baronius's  Annales  and  subsecjuent  collec- 
tions of  canons,  and  as  the  "  editio  jirinceps,"  the  edi- 
tion of  J.  Busiius  (Mayence,  1602,  4to)  is  generally  ac- 
cepted, which  is  based  on  a  MS.  of  Marcus  Welser,  of 
Augsburg.  It  was  followed  by  the  edition  of  Hannibal 
Fabrotti  (Par.  1649),  for  which  several  codices  were  con- 
sulted. Lucas  Holstenius  prepared  another  by  collating 
BusLius's  with  a  number  of  MSS.,  and,  although  never 
published,  it  was  greatly  used  by  Schelstrate  and  others 
(see  Schelstrate,  cap.  v,  No.  3  sq.).  From  the  hands 
of  Schelstrate  the  MS.  of  Holstenius  passed  into  the  li- 
brary of  the  Vatican  in  1734  (see  Dudik,  Iter  Romanuin, 
pt.  i  [Vienna,  1855,  p.  169]).  The  next  edition  was 
published  by  Francis  Bianchini  (Rom.  1718,  folio),  and 
this  served  as  a  basis  for  Muratori's,  contained  in  the 
3d  volume  of  his  Sci-iptores  rerum  Jtalicarum  (1723); 
Bianchini's  work  was  continued  by  his  nei)hew,  Joseph 
Bianchini  (vols,  ii-iv,  Rom.  1735 ;  there  was  to  have 
been  a  5th  volume,  but  it  never  appeared).  There  also 
appeared  at  Rome  an  edition  by  John  and  Peter  Joseph 
Vignoli  (1724, 1752, 1755, 3  vols.  4to).  RiJstell  recently 
undertook  another  for  the  Monumenta  Germanue,  while 
Giesebrecht  announced  for  the  same  work  a  continua- 
tion of  the  Liber  Puntijicalis  (see  Giesebrecht,  Ueber  die 
Quellen  d./riiheren  Papstc/escli.,  art.  ii  in  the  Kiekr  All- 
gem.  Monatsschrift  f.  WissenschaJ't  u.  Literutur,  April, 
1852,  p.  257-274). 

The  investigations  made  on  this  subject  permit  us  to 
distuiguish  three  continuations  of  the  Liber  Pontijica- 
lis. 1.  From  an  unknown  source  have  been  composed 
three  histories  of  the  popes:  («)  one  is  contained  in  the 
Vatican  Codex,  3764,  extending  from  Laudo  (912)  to 
Gregory  VII,  and  belonging  to  the  end  of  the  11th  cen- 
tury. It  is  reproduced  in  the  tirst  volume  of  Vignoli's 
edition  of  the  Liber  Pontijicalis.  (b)  The  second,  in 
the  codex  of  the  library  of  Este,  vi,  5,  and  extending 
as  far  down,  was  written  during  Gregory's  lifetime. 
(c)  The  third,  dating  from  the  time  of  Paschal  II,  in  the 
early  part  of  the  12th  century  (in  the  library  of  Ma- 
ria sopra  Minerva  at  Rome).  2.  Another  continuation 
of  the  Liber  Pontijicalis,  composed  in  the  Pith  century, 
extends  from  Gregory  VII  to  Honorius  II  (1124-1129). 
Onuphrius  Paiivini  and  Baronius  name  as  its  author 
either  the  subdeacon  Pandulph  of  Pisa  or  a  Roman  li- 
brarian named  Peter  Constant.  Gaetani  published  in 
1638  a  biography  of  Gelasius  II  alone,  and  asserted  that 
the  continuation  of  the  Liber  Pontijicalis  tlown  to  Inno- 
cent III  was  due  to  cardinal  Pandulph  Masca  of  Pisa, 
and  was  written  in  the  time  of  Innocent  III.  But 
Papebroch  brings  forth  very  plausible  arguments  to 
prove  that  the  subdeacon  Peter  of  Pisa  wrote  only  the 
biography  of  Paschal  II,  and  that  the  subsequent  ones 
are  due  to  the  subdeacon  Peter  of  Alatri,  still  Muratori, 
in  the  3d  vol.  of  the  Scripfo7-es,  gives  this  collection  of 
biographies  under  the  name  of  Pandulph  of  Pisa,  and 
the  question  of  authorship  has  not  been  further  inquired 
into  since.  Giesebrecht  (p.  262  sq.)  maintains  that  the 
Codex  Vaticanus  3762,  of  the  Pith  century,  is  the  orig- 
inal from  which  all  the  other  MSS.  were  copied  (also 
the  codex  No.  2017,  of  the  14th  century,  in  the  Barbe- 
rini  Library  at  Rome ;  comp.  Vignoli,  IJber  Pontif.  vol. 
iii;  Pertz,  Archie,  p.  54),  and  also  that  the  author  of 
the  life  of  Paschal  I  Avas  tlie  cardinal-deacon  Peter. 
The  life  of  Gelasius  II  and  that  of  Calixtus  II  were  writ- 
ten by  Pandulph  after  1130,  as  is  shov.-n  by  his  own 
statement  (^Muratori,  iii,  389,  419).  The  similarity  of 
style  shows  that  he  wrote  also  the  life  of  Honorius  II. 
But  it  is  highly  probable  that  Pandulph  is  the  same 
person  afterwards  designated  as  the  cardinal-deacon  of 
the  church  of  St.  Cosmas  and  Damianus,  a  nephew  of 
Hugo  of  Alatri,  cardinal-iiriest  and  for  a  long  time  gov- 
ernor of  Benevento.  Peter  and  Pandul]ih  were  jiartisans 
of  Anaclctus  II,  and  were  afterwards  declared  schismatics 
by  the  adherents  of  Innocent  II;  this  jiut  an  end  to 
their  work.  3.  xYnother  continuation  originated  at  the 
close  of  the  r2th  century.     Baronius  designates  it  as 


LIBER  SEXTUS 


416 


LIBERTINE 


the  Acta  Vaticana , hut  iMiiratori  published  it  under  the 
name  of  the  cardinal  of  Arai^on.  Nicolas  Koselli  (a 
Dominican,  made  cardinal  in  lool,  f  in  13G2)  caused  a 
collection  of  old  historical  documents  to  be  prepared, 
which  contained  the  lives  of  the  jiopes  from  Leo  IX  to 
Alexander  III  (omitting  Victor  III  and  Urban  II),  and 
also  the  bioj^raphy  of  Gregory  IX.  Pertz  (Archiv.  p. 
97)  says  that  these  biographies  are  borrowed  from  the 
Liher  censuum  camerce  cipostoliccB  of  Cencius  Camera- 
rius,  who  in  1216  became  pope  under  the  name  of  Hono- 
rius  III.  But  these  also  are  not  the  work  of  Cencius 
himself,  but  of  some  anterior  writer.  The  life  of  Adrian 
IV  was  written  by  his  relative,  cardinal  Boso,  from  ma- 
terials furnished  by  himself,  during  the  reign  of  Alex- 
ander III.  The  life  of  Alexander  III  was  written  at 
the  same  time,  and  most  likely  also  by  Boso,  who  prob- 
ably wrote  most  of  the  whole  collection.  The  introduc- 
tion is  taken  from  Bonizo's  collection  of  canons,  the  bi- 
ographies of  John  XII,  and  from  Leo  IX  down  to  Greg- 
ory A'll  are  adapted  from  the  ad  Amiciim  of  the  same 
writer;  subsequent  ones  down  to  Eugenius  III  are  based 
on  the  records,  but  after  that  they  become  more  com- 
jilete,  resting  on  Boso's  own  experience,  as  he  then  lived 
at  Home.  For  subsequent  biographies  the  sources  are 
much  more  numerous.  We  might  also  mention,  as  a 
compendium  of  the  whole,  the  .1  ctiis  Poniijicum  Ro- 
manorum  of  the  Augustinian  monk  Amalricus  Angerii, 
written  in  1365,  and  extending  from  St.  Peter  to  John 
XII  (1321),  which  is  to  be  found  in  Eccard,  Coi-pus 
hist,  viedii  mvi,  ii,  1641  sq.,  and  in  iMuratori,  vol.  iii,  pt.  ii. 
— Herzog,  Real-Enq/Jdop.  viii,  367  sq.  See  Baxmann, 
Polifik  der  Piipste  (Elberfeld,  1868),  vol.  i  (see  Index) ; 
Watterich,  Vitm  Romuiwrum  Poniijicum  (Lpz.  1862) ;  Pi- 
per, Einleit.  in  die  mouuineiitide  Theoloyie  (Gotha,  1867)  ; 
De  Rossi,  Roma  Sotterunea  (1857). 

Liber  Sextus  and  Septimus.  See  Canons 
AND  Decretals,  Collections  ok. 

Lib'ertine  (At/SEprlvoe,  for  the  Latin  liheiiinus,  a 
fncd-maii)  occurs  but  once  in  the  N.  T.,  ''Certain  of  the 
synagogue,  which  is  called  (the  s^-nagogue)  of  the  Lib- 
ertines, and  Cyrenians,  and  Alexandrians,"  etc.  (Acts  vi, 
9).  There  has  been  much  diversity  in  the  inteqireta- 
tion  of  this  ^\•ord.  The  structure  of  the  passage  leaves 
it  doubtful  how  many  synagogues  are  implied  in  it. 
Some  (Calvin,  Beza,  Bengel)  have  taken  it  as  if  there 
were  but  one  synagogue,  including  men  from  all  the  dif- 
ferent cities  that  are  named.  Winer  {N.  T.  Gramm.  p< 
179),  on  grammatical  grounds,  takes  the  repetition  of 
the  article  as  indicating  a  fresh  group,  and  finds  accord- 
ingly two  synagogues,  one  inchuling  Libertines,  Cyre- 
nians, Alexandrians;  the  other  those  ofCUicia  and  Asia. 
Meyer  (^Comment,  ad  loc.)  thinks  it  unlilsely  that  out  of 
480  synagogues  at  Jerusalem  (the  number  given  by 
rabbinic  writers,  Meriill.  Ixxiii,  4;  Ketub.  cv,  1)  there 
should  have  been  one,  or  even  two  only,  for  natives  of 
cities  and  districts  in  which  the  Jewish  population  was 
so  numerous  (in  Cyrene  one  fourth,  in  Alexandria  two 
fifths  of  the  whole  [  Josephus,  Ant.  xiv,  7,  2 ;  xiv,  10,  1 ; 
xix,  5,  2 ;  War,  ii,  13,  7 ;  Ap.  2,  4J),  and  on  that  ground 
assigns  a  separate  synagogue  to  each  of  the  proper 
names.  Of  the  name  itself  there  have  been  several  ex- 
planations. 

1.  The  other  names  being  local,  this  also  has  been  re- 
ferred to  a  town  called  Libertum,  in  the  proconsular 
province  of  Africa.  This,  it  is  said,  would  explain  the 
close  juxtaposition  with  CjTene.  Suidas  recognises 
AifiipTivoi  as  wo(.ia  i^vovc,  and  in  the  CouncU  of  Car- 
thage in  411  (Mansi,  iv,  265-274,  quoted  in  Wiltsch, 
Haiidbuch  der  Kirchlich.  Geogr.  §  96)  we  find  an  Epis- 
copus  Libertinensis  (Simon.  Ononiaslicon  N.  Test.  p.  99). 
Against  this  hypothesis  it  has  been  urged  (1)  that  the 
existence  of  a  tovn  Libertum,  in  the  1st  century,  is  not 
estabhshed;  and  (2)  that  if  it  existed,  it  can  hardly 
have  been  important  enough  either  to  have  ti  synagogue 
at  Jerusalem  for  the  Jews  belonging  to  it,  or  to  take 
precedence  of  Cyrene  and  Alexandria  in  a  sjiiagogue 
common  to  the  three. 


2.  Conjectural  readings  have  been  proposed,  especially 
Libyans,  either  in  the  form  AijiodTivtiiv  (Gicumen., 
Beza,  Clericus,  Valckenaer),  or  AiftvMv  (Schultness.  J)e 
Char.  Sp.  S.  p.  162,  in  jMeyer,  ad  loc.) ;  inasmuch  as  Lib- 
ertini  here  occurs  among  the  names  of  nations,  and  Jo- 
sephus (^Ant.  xii,  1,  and  Apion,  ii,  4)  has  tuld  us  that 
many  Jews  were  removed  by  Ptolemy,  and  placed  in 
the  cities  of  Libya.  The  difticidty  is  thus  removed,  but 
every  rule  of  textual  criticism  is  against  the  reception 
of  a  reading  unsupported  by  a  single  MS.  or  version. 

3.  Taking  the  word  in  its  received  meaning  as  = 
freedmen,  Lightfoot  finds  in  it  a  description  of  natives 
of  Palestine,  who,  having  faUen  into  slavery,  had  been 
manumitted  bj'  Jewish  masters  {Exc.  on  A  els  vi,  9).  In 
this  case,  however,  it  is  hardly  likely  that  a  body  of 
men  so  circumstanced  woidd  have  received  a  Boman 
name. 

4.  Grotius  and  Vitringa  explain  the  word  as  describ- 
ing Italian  freedmen  v/ho  had  become  converts  to  Ju- ' 
daism.  In  this  case,  however,  the  word  "  proseh'tes" 
would  most  probablj'  have  been  used ;  and  it  is  at  least 
milikely  that  a  body  of  converts  would  have  had  a  syn- 
agogue to  themselves,  or  that  proselytes  from  Italy 
would  have  been  united  with  Jews  from  Cyrene  and 
Alexandria. 

5.  The  earliest  explanation  of  the  word  (Chrs-sostom) 
is  also  that  which  has  been  adopted  by  the  most  recent 
authorities.  The  Libertini  are  Jews  who,  having  been 
taken  prisoners  by  Pompey  and  other  Eoman  generals 
in  the  Syrian  wars,  had  been  reduced  to  slavcrA%  and 
had  afterwards  been  emancipated,  and  returned,  perma- 
nently or  for  a  time,  to  the  country  of  their  fathers.  Of 
the  existence  of  a  large  body  of  Jews  in  this  position  at 
Kome  we  have  abundant  evidence.  Under  Tiberius, 
the  Senatus-Consultum  for  the  suppression  of  Egyptian 
and  Jewish  mysteries  led  to  the  banishment  of  4000 
"Ubertini  generis"  to  Sardinia,  under  the  pretence  of 
militarj'  or  police  duty,  but  really  in  the  hope  that  the 
malaria  of  the  island  might  be  fatal  to  them.  Others 
were  to  leave  Italy  unless  they  abandoned  their  religion 
(Tacitus,  Anal,  ii,  85;  comp.  Sueton.  Tiber,  c.  36).  Jo- 
sephus (A  nt.  xviii,  3, 5),  narrating  the  same  fact,  speaks 
of  the  4000  who  were  sent  to  Sardinia  as  Jews,  and  thus 
identifies  them  with  the  '•  libertinum  genus"  of  Tacitus. 
Philo  (Ler/af.  ad  Cuium,  p.  1014,  C)  in  Uke  manner  says 
that  the  greater  part  of  the  Jews  of  Rome  were  in  the 
position  of  freedmen  {c'nrtkev'SieowSrivTtc),  and  had  been 
allowed  by  Augustus  to  settle  in  the  Trans-Tiberine 
part  of  the  city,  and  to  follow  their  own  religious  cus- 
toms unmolested  (comp.  Horace,  Sat.  i,  4, 143 ;  i,  9,  70). 
The  expulsion  from  Rome  took  place  A.D.  19 ;  and  it  is 
an  ingenious  conjecture  of  Mr.  Hurhphreys  (Comm.  on 
Acts,  ad  loc.)  that  those  who  were  thus  banished  from 
Italy  may  have  found  their  way  to  Jerusalem,  and  that, 
as  having  suffered  for  the  sake  of  their  religion,  they 
were  likely  to  be  foremost  in  the  opposition  to  a  teacher 
like  Stephen,  whom  they  looked  on  as  impugning  the 
sacredness  of  all  that  they  most  revered.  The  syna- 
gogue in  question  had  doubtless  been  built  at  the  ex- 
pense of  these  manumitted  Jews,  and  was  occupied  by 
them.  Libertini  is  thus  to  be  regarded  as  a  word  of 
Roman  origin,  and  to  be  explained  with  reference  to 
Roman  customs.  Among  the  Romans  this  term  was 
employed  to  denote  those  who  had  once  been  slaves, 
but  had  been  set  at  liberty,  or  the  children  of  such  ])er- 
sons  (see  Adarm's  Rom.  A  tit.  p.  34,  41  sq. ;  Smith's  JJict. 
of  Class.  Antiq.  s.  v.  Ingenui,  Libertus).  This  view  is 
further  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  the  word  avvaydoyiiQ 
does  not  occur  in  the  middle  of  the  national  names,  but 
stands  first,  and  is  followed  by  r»)c  ^tyopii  rjc,  whence 
it  clearly  appears  that  hijiep-Xvoi  is  at  least  not  the 
name  of  a  country  or  region. — Smith;  Kitto.  On  this 
subject,  see  further  in  Bloomfield,  Kuin61,Wetstein,  etc., 
on  Acts  vi,  9 ;  and  comp.  D.  Gerdes,  De  St/naff.  Liberti- 
norum  (Gron.  1736) ;  J.  F.  Scherer,  De  Si/naff.  Libertin, 
(x\rgent.  1754) ;  Briim,  De  IJbertinis  (Hafn.  1698) ;  Ca- 
demann,  De  schola  Libertinorum  (Lips.  1704) ;  Loesncr, 


LIBERTINES 


41' 


LIBERTINES 


Ohs.  in  N.  Test.  p.  180;  Deyllng,  Ohserv.  ii,  437  sq. ;  K. 
Diiring,  Ep,  qua  symigogam  Libert,  scholam  Latinam 
fuisse  conjicit  (Laubae,  1755).  See  Dispersed;  Sla- 
very. 

Libertines,  The,  or,  as  they  called  themselves, 
Sinritualists,vicre:  a  Pantheistic  and  Antinomian  sect  of 
the  Reformation  days.  They  appeared  first  in  the  Neth- 
erlands as  an  ultra  division  of  the  "  Brethren  of  the  Free 
Spirit."  They  spread  into  B'ranco,  and,  by  the  interest 
they  manifested  in  political  affairs,  gained  considerable 
influence  also  in  Switzerland,  especially  in  Geneva.  The 
impulse  given  to  thought  by  the  Reformation  gave  rise 
also  to  many  errors,  which  flourished  by  the  side  of  evan- 
gelical truth.  "  Lofty  as  our  ideas  of  the  Reformation 
should  be,  we  must  not  be  blind  to  the  fact  that  .... 
Protestantism  [referring  especially  to  the  Continent] 
bears  sad  evidence  of  early  mismanagement"  (Hurst, 
Hist,  of  Rationalism,  p.  37).  Foremost  among  the  her- 
etics of  this  period  were  the  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit, 
who,  although  hotly  persecuted,  had  never  been  entirely 
exterminated,  and  who  were  yet  numerous  in  Germany 
and  the  Netherlands.  They  now  suddenly  emerged 
from  the  secrecy  in  which  they  had  lately  hidden  them- 
selves, as  soon  as  the  power  of  the  Church  began  to 
wane.  Luther  clearly  saw,  however,  that  not  to  Roman- 
ism, but  to  Protestantism  as  well,  the  influence  of  the 
Libertines  must  be  baneful,  and  he  took  an  early  oppor- 
tunity to  warn  the  Christians  of  those  countries  against 
them  {Gieseler,  Kirckenr/esch.  iii  [1],  557).  Calvin  also 
had  to  contend  against  the  influence  of  these  Rational- 
ists, and,  in  speaking  of  them,  mentions  a  certain  Coppin, 
of  Lille,  as  the  first  who  attempted  to  introduce,  as  early 
as  1529,  the  doctrines  of  the  Free  Spirit  in  his  native  city. 
This  Coppin  was  soon  eclipsed  by  his  disciple  Quintin, 
of  Hennegau,  who,  with  his  companion  Bertrand,  be- 
came the  leader  of  the  sect  in  France  in  153-1,  and  with 
whom  a  priest  called  Pecquet  (Pocques)  connected  him- 
self. These  two,  for  Bertrand  soon  died,  are  represent- 
ed as  uneducated  but  shrewd  men,  who  made  religion  a 
means  of  securing  earthly  goods,  and  who  were  very 
successful  in  the  attempt.  They  openly  professed  to 
have  found  the  principle  of  "  moral  falsehood"  (or  men- 
tal reservation)  inculcated  in  the  Scriptures,  and,  in  con- 
sequence, thought  it  but  right  to  profess  Roman  Cathol- 
icism when  among  Roman  Catholics,  and  Protestantism 
when  with  Protestants.  They  are  said  to  h.ave  made 
4000  proselytes  in  France  alone.  Tiiey  did  not,  more- 
over, confine  their  attempts  at  deceit  to  the  lower  class- 
es, but,  on  the  contrary,  endeavored  to  gain  proselytes 
among  the  learned  and  in  the  higher  walks  of  society; 
they  succeeded  even  in  gaining  the  ear  of  the  queen 
Margaret  of  Navarre,  sister  of  Francis  I,  who  received 
them,  as  also  a  certain  Lef'evre  d'Etaples  and  others,  at 
her  court,  and  daily  consulted  with  them.  They  made 
great  use  of  aUegorj-,  figures  of  speech,  etc.,  taking  their 
authority  from  the  precept, "  The  letter  killeth,  but  the 
spirit  giveth  life." 

We  have  said  above  that  the  system  of  the  Libertines 
was  pantheistic ;  it  was,  in  fact,  pure  pantheism.  They 
held  that  there  is  one  universal  spirit,  which  is  found  in 
every  creature,  and  is  the  Spirit  of  God.  This  one  spirit 
and  God  is  distinguished  from  itself  according  as  it  is 
considered  in  heaven  or  on  earth.  ''  Deum  a  se  ipso  di- 
versum  esse,  quod  alius  omnino  in  hoc  mundo  sit  quam 
in  coelo"  (Calvin,  Instr.  adv.  Libert,  c.  1 1).  All  creatures, 
angels,  etc.,  are  nothing  in  themselves,  and  have  no  real 
existence  aside  from  God.  Man  is  preserved  only  by 
the  Spirit  of  God,  which  is  in  him,  and  exists  only  until 
that  spirit  again  departs  from  him;  instead  of  a  soul,  it 
is  (iod  himself  who  dwells  in  man,  and  all  his  actions, 
all  that  takes  place  in  the  world,  is  direct  from  him,  is 
the  immediate  work  of  God  ("  (iuid([uid  in  mundo  fit, 
opus  ipsius  [Dei]  directo  censendum  esse,"  c.  13).  Ev- 
erything else,  the  world,  the  flesh,  the  devil,  souls,  etc., 
are  by  this  system  considered  as  illusions,  mere  supposi- 
tions (opinatio).  Even  sin  is  not  a  mere  negation  of 
right,  but,  since  God  is  the  active  agent  of  all  actions,  it 
v.— Dd 


can  be  but  an  illusion  also,  and  will  disappear  as  soon  as 
this  princiiile  is  recognised  ("  Peccatum — non  solum 
aiunt  boni  privationem  esse,  sed  est  illis  opinatio,  qua3 
evanescit  et  aboletur,  cum  nulla  habetur  ejus  ratio,"  c. 
12.  Pecquet  says,  in  regard  to  that,  "  Et  quia  omnia 
qure  liunt  extra  Deum,  nihil  sunt  quam  vanitas,"  c.  23). 
There  is,  therefore,  but  one  evil,  and  that  evil  is  this 
very  illusion,  this  imagination  of  evil,  of  a  distinction 
between  it  and  the  right.  Thus  the  original  fall  or  sin 
was  nothing  else  than  a  separation  of  man  from  God,  or 
rather  the  result  of  man's  desire  to  be  something  by  him- 
self, separating  himself  from  union  and  identity  with 
God.  Thus  unintentionally  man  subjected  himself  to 
the  world  and  to  Satan,  and  became  himself  an  illusion, 
a  smoke  which  passes  away  and  leaves  nothing  behind. 
So  Pocquet  says.  "  Ideo  scriptum  est  ('?),  '  Qui  videt 
peccatum,  peccatum  ei  manet  et  Veritas  in  ipso  non  est' " 
(in  Calvin,  c.  23).  From  the  Libertine  point  of  view 
the  nature  of  Christ  did  not  materially  differ  from  ours; 
he  consisted,  like  other  human  beings,  in  divine  spirit, 
such  as  dwells  in  us  all,  and  in  the  sacrifice  only  the  illu- 
sionary,  or  worldly  part,  was  lost.  However  considered, 
the  whole  history  of  Christ,  and  especially  his  crucifix- 
ion, death,  and  resurrection,  had  for  them  but  a  symbol- 
ical significance ;  his  passion,  etc.,  was,  according  to  Cal- 
vin's strong  expression,  only  "  une  farce  ou  moralite 
jouee  pour  nous  figurer  le  mystere  de  notre  salut" — only 
a  type  of  the  idea  that  sin  was  effaced  and  atoned  for, 
while  in  reality,  and  in  God's  view,  it  was  of  no  account 
in  itself  ("  Chr.  solum  velut  typus  fuit,  in  quo  contera- 
plamur  ea,  quaj  ad  salutem  nostram  requirit  scriptura ; 
e.  g.  cum  aiunt,  Christum  abolevisse  peccatum,  sensus 
eorum  est,  Christum  abolitionem  illam  in  persona  sua 
repn-esentasse,"  c.  17).  But  in  so  far  as  we  are  one  in 
spirit  with  Christ,  all  that  he  underwent  is  as  if  we  had 
undergone  it;  his  exclamation, " It  is  finished,"  is  true 
as  well  for  us  as  for  himself;  sin  has  lost  all  significance 
so  far  as  we  are  concerned,  and  the  fight  against  sin,  re- 
pentance, mortification  of  the  flesh,  etc.,  are  no  longer 
necessary.  Neither  can  nor  should  the  spiritualist  be 
any  longer  subject  to  suffering,  since  Christ  has  suffered 
all.  Here  the  idea  and  the  reality,  however,  are  in  con- 
flict ("Nam  scriptum  est:  Factus  sum  totus  homo.  Cum 
factus  sit  totus  homo  [tout  homme,  in  a  twofold  sense], 
accipiens  naturam  humanam,  ac  mortuus  sit,  potestne 
adluic  in  his  inferioribus  locis  mori?  Magni  esset  er- 
roris  hoc  credere,"  etc.,  ibidem,  c.  23).  Of  course  man 
should  be  born  anew,  but  this  new  birth  is  seciu'ed  when 
he  regains  the  state  of  innocence  of  Adam  before  the 
fall;  when  in  absolute  filial  unity  with  God,  he  neither 
sees  nor  knows  sin,  or,  in  other  words,  when  he  is  no 
longer  able  to  distinguish  it  from  righteousness  (riiodo 
ne  amplius  opinemur),  and  when  able  to  follow  the  dic- 
tates of  God's  Spirit  by  virtue  of  natural  impulse  ('•  Sed 
si  adhuc  commitfamus  delictum  et  ingrediamur  hortum 
voluptatis,  qui  adhuc  nobis  prohibitus  est,  ne  quid  veli- 
mus  facere,  sed  sinamus  nos  duci  a  voluntate  Dei.  Ali- 
oqui  non  essemus  exuti  veteri  serpente,  qui  est  primus 
parens  noster  Adam,  et  videremus  peccatum,  sicut  ipse 
et  uxor  ejus,  etc.  Nunc  vivificati  suraus  cum  secundo' 
Adamo;  qui  est  Christus,  non  cernenilo  amplius  pecca- 
tum, quia  est  mortuum,"  etc.:  ibidem;  compare  c.  18). 
Such  a  twice-born  one  is  Christ,  is  God  himself,  to  whom 
the  Libertine  returns  after  death,  to  be  absorbed  in  him- 
("Hoc  enim  imaginantur,  animam  hominis,  quae  est 
Deus,  ad  seipsam  redire,  cum  ad  mortem  ventum  est,  non 
ut  tanquam  anima  humana,  sed  tanquam  Deus  ipse  vi- 
vat,  sicuti  ab  initio,"  c.  3  and  22). 

The  consequences  of  such  principles  are  obvious :  they 
lead  naturally  to  sensuality,  to  the  emancipation  of  the 
flesh  and  the  laying  aside  of  all  restrictions;  make  men 
look  upon  propriety  or  ownership  as  a  wrong,  as  opposed 
to  the  principles  of  love,  and,  in  fact,  a  theft,  though  this 
principle  was  not  carried  into  practice.  Calvin  called 
its  principal  advocates  "  doctores  passivce  caritatis."  Or- 
dinary or  legal  marriage  comes  to  be  looked  upon  as  a 
mere  carnal  bond,  and  therefore  dissoluble ;  true  mar- 


LIBERTY 


418 


LIBERTY 


riage,  such  as  satisfie^both  body  and  mind,  being  a 
union  of  each  to  each  ;  communion  of  saints  extended 
not  merely  to  the  worldly  possessions,  but  also  to  the 
very  bodies  of  the  saints.  In  short,  spiritualism  soon 
degenerated  into  open  and  avowed  sensualism  and  ma- 
terialism. But  this  is  the  very  feature  which  gave  it  its 
influence  with  some  classes  in  Geneva.  The  example  of 
tlieir  bishops  and  of  the  cathedral  canons  had  excited 
their  imagination  bj'  inclining  them  to  self-indulgence 
and  licentiousness,  and  political  circumstances  operated 
in  favor  of  the  same  result.  Soon,  however,  the  real 
principles  of  the  Libertines  appeared  in  their  full  light, 
and  created  a  reaction,  some  women  having  gone  so  far 
as  to  quote  Scripture  to  authorize  their  excesses,  in- 
sisting especially  on  the  fact  of  God's  first  command  to 
our  first  parents  having  been  "  to  increase  and  multiply" 
("Crescite  et  multiplicamini  super  terrara.  En  prima 
lex,  quam  ordinavit  Dens,  quaj  vocabatur  lex  naturte," 
c.  "23).  See  Communism  ;  "  Free  Love"  in  the  article 
Marriage.  As  Calvin  had  favored  political  libertin- 
ism, those  who  considered  themselves  aggrieved  by  the 
practice  of  the  spiritualists  turned  also  against  him,  and 
this  politico-reUgious  reaction  went  as  far  as  irrehgion 
and  atheism,  as  in  the  case  of  Jacob  Gruet,  whose  ultra- 
radical principles  in  politics  and  rationalism  in  religion 
led  to  his  trial  before  the  courts  of  Geneva  July  27, 1547. 
Yet  no  one  really  did  more  to  counteract  the  principles 
of  the  Libertines  than  did  Calvin  himself.  First,  in  1544, 
he  brought  all  their  secret  principles  to  light  in  one  of 
his  works  (see  Instit.  iii,  3,  §  14).  Afterwards,  in  1547, 
he  warned  the  faithful  of  Rouen  against  an  ex-Francis- 
can monk  who  was  inculcating  libertine  doctrines,  and 
who  met  with  some  success,  especially  among  women  of 
the  higher  classes.  Under  Calvin's  influence  Farel  also 
took  up  the  pen  against  the  Libertines  {Le  (jlaive  de  la 
parole  veritable,  tire  contre  le  houclier  de  defense,  ditquel 
un  'cordelier  s'est  voulti  servir  pour  approuver  sesfaiisses 
et  dumiiubles  opinions  [Geneva,  1550 ;  see  Kirchhofer, 
Theol.  Studien  tuulKrif.  1831]).  The  queen  of  Navarre 
was  highly  offended  at  Calvin  for  denouncing  the  lead- 
ers of  the  Libertines  who  were  then  at  her  court;  he 
therefore  wrote  to  her  a  letter  which  is  a  remarkable 
specimen  of  respectful  remonstrance  (Aug.  28, 1545  ;  in 
French,  see  J.  Bonnet,  Lettres  de  J.  Calvin,  i.  Ill  sq. ; 
Latin,  Epist.  et  Resp.  ed.  Amst.  p.  33).  It  is,  in  fact, 
due  to  his  efforts  that  this  sect,  this  banefid  curse,  left 
France  to  take  refuge  in.  its  native  country,  Belgium, 
and  tliat  it  finally  (Usappeared  altogether.  Against  the 
Libertines  of  Geneva  the  attacks  were  for  a  long  time 
unavailing;  they  cannot  be  considered  to  have  been 
successfully  ended  until  after  the  insurrection  of  May  15, 
1555,  when  the  principal  leaders  were  either  exiled  or 
imprisoned.  See  Calvin,  Aux  ministi-es  de  Veglise  de 
Neujchastel  contre  In  saic  fiiimtique  etfurievse  des  Lih- 
ertins  qui  se  nomment  Sjiiiilii<ls  (Gen.  1544,  8 vo;  1545, 
and  other  editions) ;  Contre  iiii  Franciscain,  sectateitr  des 
eiTeurs  des  Liberiins,  adresse  a  l\ylke  de  Rouen  (20 
Aoilt,  1547  [both  these  have  been  published  together  in 
1547,  in  the  Opuscides,  p.  817  sq.,  and  by  P.  Jacob,  p.  293 
sq. ;  Lat.  by  Des  Gallars,  in  Opusc.  omn.  Gen.  1552 ;  0pp. 
ed.  Amst. viii, 374  sq.J);  Vicot,// isi.de  Geneve;  Gieseler, 
Kirclaii<i<sch.  iii,  1,  p.  385 ;  Ilundeshagen,  in  the  Theol. 
Stud,  uud  Ki-it.  (1845) ;  Herzog,  Real-£iicyklop,\iu,  874- 
380.     (J.  II.  W.) 

Liberty.  "The  idea  of  liberty,"  says  Locke,  "is 
the  idea  of  a  power  in  any  agent  to  do  or  forbear  any 
particular  action,  according  to  the  determination  or 
thought  of  the  mind,  whereby  either  of  tlicm  is  preferred 
to  the  other.  AVlien  either  of  them  is  not  in  the  power 
of  the  agent,  to  be  produced  by  him  according  to  his 
volition,  then  he  is  not  at  liberty,  but  under  necessity." 
From  this,  and  the  extract  whicli  follows,  it  will  be  seen 
that  Locke's  ideas  of  libcrl;/  and  eti power  are  veiy  nearly 
the  same.  "Every  one,"  he  observes,  "finds  in  himself 
a  power  to  begin  or  forbear,  continue  or  put  an  end  to, 
several  actions  in  himself.  From  the  consideration  of 
the  extent  of  this  power  of  the  mmd  over  the  actions 


of  the  man,  which  every  one  finds  in  himself,  arise  tha 
ideas  of  liberty  and  necessity."  These  definitions,  how- 
ever, merely  extend  to  the  ability  of  the  individual  to 
execute  his  own  purposes  without  obstruction  ;  where- 
as Locke,  in  order  to  do  justice  to  his  own  decided 
opinion  on  the  subject,  ought  to  have  included  also  in 
his  idea  of  liberty  a  power  over  the  determinations  of 
the  wiU.  "  By  the  liberty  of  a  moral  agent,"  says  Dr. 
Keid,  "  I  understand  a  power  over  the  determinations 
of  his  own  will.  If,  in  any  action,  he  had  power  to  will 
what  he  did,  or  not  to  will  it,  in  that  action  he  is  free. 
But  if,  in  every  voluntary  action,  the  determination  of 
his  will  be  the  necessary  consequence  of  something  in- 
volimtary  in  the  state  of  his  mind,  or  of  something  in 
his  external  circumstances,  he  is  not  free ;  he  has  not 
what  I  call  the  liberty  of  a  moral  agent,  but  is  subject  to 
necessity."  On  the  other  hand,  some  affirm  that  neces- 
sity is  perfectly  consistent  with  human  hberty ;  that  is, 
that  the  most  strict  and  inviolable  connection  of  cause 
and  effect  does  not  prevent  the  full,  free,  and  unrestrain- 
ed development  of  certaui  powers  in  the  agent,  or  take 
away  the  cUstinction  between  the  nature  of  virtue  and 
vice,  praise  and  blame,  reward  and  punishment,  but  is 
the  foundation  of  all  moral  reasoning.  "  I  conceive," 
says  Hobbes,  "  that  nothing  taketh  beginnuig  from  it- 
self, but  from  the  action  of  some  other  immediate  agent 
without  itself;  and  that  therefore,  when  first  a  man 
hath  an  appetite  or  will  to  do  something  to  which  im- 
mediately before  he  had  no  appetite  nor  will,  the  cause 
of  his  wiO  is  not  the  wLU  itself,  but  something  else  not 
in  his  own  disposing;  so  that  whereas  it  is  out  of  con- 
troversy that  of  voluntary  action  the  will  is  the  neces- 
sary cause,  and  by  this  which  is  said  the  will  is  also 
caused  by  other  things  whereof  it  disposeth  not,  it  fol- 
loweth  that  voluntary  actions  have  all  of  them  neces- 
sary causes,  and  therefore  are  necessitated.  I  hold  that 
to  be  a  sufficient  cause  to  which  nothing  is  wanting  that 
is  needful  to  the  producing  of  the  effect.  The  same  is 
also  a  necessary  cause.  For  if  it  be  possible  that  a  suf- 
ficient cause  shall  not  bring  forth  the  effect,  then  there 
wanteth  somewhat  which  was  needful  to  the  jiroducing 
of  it,  and  so  the  cause  was  not  sufficient ;  but  if  it  be 
impossible  that  a  sufficient  cause  should  not  produce  the 
effect,  then  is  a  sufficient  cause  a  necessary  cause  (for 
that  is  said  to  produce  an  effect  necessarily  that  cannot 
but  produce  it).  Hence  it  is  manifest  that  whatsoever 
is  produced  hath  had  a  sufficient  cause  to  produce  it,  or 
else  it  had  not  been,  and  therefore  also  voluntar}-  actions 
are  necessitated."  "I  conceive  liberty,"  he  observes, 
"  to  be  rightly  defined  in  this  manner :  Liberty  is  the 
absence  of  all  impediments  to  action  that  are  not  con- 
tained in  the  nature  and  uitrinsical  quality  of  the  agent : 
as,  for  example,  the  water  is  said  to  descend  freely,  or 
to  have  liberty  to  descend  by  the  channel  of  the  river, 
because  there  is  no  impediment  that  way,  but  not  across, 
because  the  banks  are  impediments;  and,  though  the 
water  cannot  ascend,  yet  men  never  say  it  wants  the 
liberty  to  ascend,  but  the  faculty  or  po;ver,  because  the 
impediment  is  in  the  nature  of  the  water,  and  intrinsi- 
cal.  So  also  we  say,  he  that  is  tied  wants  the  liberty 
to  go,  because  the  impediment  is  not  in  him.  but  in  his 
bands;  whereas  Ave  say  not  so  of  him  that  is  sick  or 
lame,  because  the  impediment  is  in  himself.  I  hold 
that  the  ordinary  definition  of  a  free  agent — namely, 
that  a  free  agent  is  that  which,  when  all  things  are 
present  that  are  needfid  to  produce  the  effect,  can  nev- 
ertheless not  produce  it — implies  a  contradiction,  and  is 
nonsense;  being  as  much  as  to  saj'  the  cause  may  be 
sufficient,  that  is  to  say,  necessarj^,  and  yet  the  effect 
shall  nut  follow."  He  afterwards  defines  a  moral  agent 
to  be  one  that  acts  from  deliberation,  choice,  or  will,  not 
from  indifference ;  and,  speaking  of  the  supposed  incon- 
sistency between  choice  and  necessity,  he  adds :  "  Com- 
monh',  when  we  see  and  know  the  strength  that  moves 
us,  we  acknowledge  necessity ;  but  when  we  do  not,  or 
mark  not  the  force  that  moves  us,  we  then  think  there 
is  none,  and  thus  conclude  that  it  is  not  cause,  but  lib- 


LIBERTY 


419 


LIBERTY 


erty,  that  produceth  the  action.  Hence  it  is  that  we 
are  apt  to  tliink  tliat  one  doth  not  choose  this  or  that 
who  of  necessity  chooses  it;  but  we  might  as  well  say 
fire  doth  not  burn  because  it  burns  of  necessity."  The 
general  question  is  thus  stated  by  Hobbes  in  the  begin- 
ning of  his  treatise :  the  point  is  not,  he  says,  "  whether 
a  man  can  be  a  free  agent ;  that  is  to  say,  whether  he 
can  write  or  forbear,  speak  or  be  silent,  according  to  his 
will,  l)ut  whether  the  will  to  write  or  the  will  to  for- 
bear come  upon  him  according  to  his  will,  or  according 
to  anything  else  in  his  power.  I  acknowledge  this  lib- 
erty, that  i  can  do  if  I  will;  but  to  say  I  can  will  if  1 
will,  I  take  to  be  an  absurd  speech.  In  fine,  that  free- 
dom which  men  commonly  find  in  books,  that  which 
the  poets  chant  in  the  theatres  and  the  shepherds  on 
the  mountains,  that  which  the  pastors  teach  in  the  pul- 
pits and  the  doctors  in  the  universities,  and  that  which 
the  common  people  in  the  markets,  and  all  mankind  in 
.  the  whole  world,  do  assent  unto,  is  the  same  that  I  as- 
sent unto,  namely,  that  a  man  hath  freedom  to  do  if  he 
will;  but  whether  he  hath  freedom  to  will  is  a  question 
neither  the  bishop  nor  they  ever  thought  on."  Thus  it 
will  readily  be  perceived  that  Hobbes  entirely  denies 
the  main  point  at  issue,  namely,  the  freedom  of  the 
will  itself,  and  confines  the  subject — as  his  definition — 
purely  to  liberty  of  action.  This  latter  is  simply  a  phijs- 
ical  question,  and  applies  to  all  agents,  whether  human, 
animal,  or  even  material;  that  liberty  which  concerns, 
and  indeed  constitutes,  a  being  as  a  moral  agent,  is  quite 
a  different  thing.  Hobbes  as  a  materialist,  and  there- 
fore a  necessitarian,  of  course  finds  no  room  for  this 
kind  of  moral  or  self-determining  power. 

It  is  unquestionable  that  the  source  of  most  of  the 
confusion  on  the  subject  is  in  the  ambiguity  lurking  un- 
der the  term  necessit;/,  which  includes  both  kinds  of  ne- 
cessity, moral  and  physical.  The  double  meaning  of 
the  word  has  been  the  chief  reason  why  persons  who 
were  guided  more  by  their  own  feelings  and  the  custom- 
ary associations  of  language  than  by  formal  definitions 
have  altogether  rejected  the  doctrine,  while  persons  of  a 
more  logical  turn,  who  could  not  deny  the  truth  of  the 
abstract  principle,  have  yet,  in  their  explanation  of  it 
and  inference  from  it,  fallen  into  the  same  error  as  their 
opponents.  The  partisans  of  necessity  have  given  up 
their  common  sense,  as  they  supposed,  to  their  reason, 
while  the  advocates  of  liberty  rejected  a  demonstrable 
truth  from  a  dread  of  its  consequences,  and  both  have 
been  the  dupes  of  a  word.  The  obnoxiousness  of  the 
name  unquestionably  has  been  the  cause  of  nearly  all 
the  difficulty  and  repugnance  which  many  who  really 
hold  the  doctrine  find  in  admitting  it.  It  was  to  remove 
this  i)rejudice  that  Dr.  Jonathan  Edwards  was  induced 
to  write  his  celebrated  treatise  on  the  Will.  In  a  letter 
written  expressly  to  vindicate  himself  from  the  charge 
of  having,  in  his  great  work,  confounded  moral  with 
physical  necessity,  he  says:  "On  the  contrarj',  I  have 
largely  declared  that  the  connection  between  antecedent 
things  and  consequent  ones,  which  take  place  with  re- 
gard to  the  acts  of  men's  wills,  which  is  called  moral  ne- 
cessity, is  called  by  the  name  of  necessity  improperly, 
and  that  all  such  terms  as  iiuisf,  cannot,  impossible,  Jin- 
able,  irresistible,  nnavoidiible,  invincible,  etc.,  when  applied 
here,  are  not  employed  in  their  pro])er  signification,  and 
are  either  used  nonsensically  and  with  perfect  insignifi- 
cance, or  in  a  sense  quite  diverse  from  their  original  and 
proper  meaning  and  their  use  in  common  speech,  and 
that  such  a  necessity  as  attends  the  acts  of  men's  wills 
is  more  properly  called  certainty  than  necessiti/."  The 
well-known  definition  of  Edwards  on  this  subject  is  in 
the  following  words ;  "  The  plain  and  obvious  meaning 
of  the  words  freedom  and  liberty,  in  common  speech,  is 
pou-er,  opportunity,  or  advantaye  that  any  one  has  to  do 
as  he  pleases,  or,  in  other  words,  his  being  free  from  hin- 
derance  or  impediment  in  the  way  of  doing  or  conduct- 
ing in  any  respect  as  he  wills.  I  say  not  only  doing,  but 
conducting,  because  a  voluntary  forbearing  to  do,  sitting 
still,  keeping  silence,  etc.,  are  instances  of  persons'  con- 


duct about  which  liberty  is  exercised,  though  they  are 
not  so  properly  called  doing.  And  the  contrary  to  lib- 
erty, whatever  name  we  call  that  by,  is  a  person's  being 
hindered  or  unable  to  conduct  as  he  will,  or  being  neces- 
sitated to  do  otherwise."  The  radical  defect  in  this  defi- 
nition as  to  the  question  in  hand  is  that  liberty,  as  thus 
defined,  relates  solely  to  action  (or  non-action,  as  the 
case  may  be),  and  not  to  the  will  at  all.  Thus,  by  a 
singular  method  of  pet itio  principii,  the  very  possibility 
of  all  freedom  of  wUl  is  excluded.  The  real  point  at  is- 
sue is  but  casually  named,  and  arbitrarily  dismissed  as 
a  contradiction.  That  point  is  not  whether  a  man  may 
act  as  he  wills  (this,  again,  is  mere  physical  liberty),  but 
whether  the  will  has  a  self-determining  power ;  wheth- 
er, in  other  words,  a  man  may  ivill  in  opposition  to  ex- 
ternal influences,  usually  called  motives.  This  question 
the  universal  experience  of  mankind  has  determined  in 
the  affirmative.  On  these  two  grounds,  1,  the  essential 
fallacj^  as  to  the  point  in  dispute,  and,  2,  the  unanimous 
testimon}^  of  consciousness  as  to  the  spontaneity  of  voli- 
tion, the  fundamental  position  of  Edwards  has  been  so 
successfully  attacked,  as,  for  instance  (to  name  only  Cal- 
vinistic  writers),  by  Tappan  and  Bledsoe,  that  it  may 
now  be  regarded  as  failing  to  meet  the  present  theolog- 
ical status  of  the  question.     See  Will. 

True  liberty  evidentlj'  consists  simply  in  freedom 
from  external  constraint.  That  God  is  free  in  this 
sense,  at  least  in  his  acts,  all  must  admit,  inasmuch  as 
there  is  no  conceivable  power  that  could  coerce  him.  It 
is  likewise  obvious  that  he  is  equally  free  in  his  voli- 
tions, unless  we  suppose  a  system  of  arbitrary  latrs  or 
absolute  line  of  j^oHcy  which  shuts  him  up  to  a  certain 
line  of  conduct.  So  far  as  these  may  be  the  resultant 
or  expression  of  his  own  nature,  they  might  perhaps  be 
admitted  without  essentially  impairing  our  notions  of 
his  freedom.  So,  again,  of  man;  if  the  motives,  by 
which  alone,  if  at  all,  it  is  claimed  that  his  volitions  are 
governed,  are  self-originated,  or  derive  their  governing 
weight  from  the  influence  which  his  o\vn  mind  imparts 
to  them,  he  may  still  be  said  to  be  free  in  at  least  the 
strict  sense  of  the  definition.  If,  however,  these  prepon- 
derating elements  consist  in  his  own  desires,  and  if,  fur- 
ther, these  desires  are  beyond  his  own  control  (whether 
by  reason  of  natural  predisposition,  inveterate  habit,  or 
the  divine  or  satanic  interposition),  then  it  must  still  re- 
main dubious  if  his  liberty  amounts  to  the  measure  of  a 
rational,  moral,  and  accountable  agent.  In  the  human 
sphere  this  is  precisely  the  point  of  difliculty,  but  its  de- 
termination as  a  matter  of  fact,  if  indeed  possible,  be- 
longs properh'  under  another  head.  See  JIotive.  In 
the  divine  sphere,  on  the  other  hand,  the  difficulty  arises 
from  the  so-called  system  of  fore-ordination,  which  is 
tenaciously  held  by  Calvinistic  divines,  being  either  as- 
sumed as  a  metaphysical  dogma,  or  inferred  from  certain 
scriptural  statements,  and  as  strenuously  denied  by  oth- 
ers.    See  Prkdestixation. 

The  ground  assumed  on  this  vexed  question  by  Sir 
William  Hamilton  and  Mansell  is  that  liberty  and  ne- 
cessity are  both  incomprehensible,  both  being  beyond 
the  limits  of  legitimate  thought ;  that  they  are  among 
those  questions  which  admit  of  no  certain  answer,  the 
very  inabiUty  to  answer  them  proving  that  dogmatic 
decisions  on  either  side  are  the  decisions  of  ignorance, 
not  of  knowledge.  '■' Iloin  the  wiU  can  possibly  be 
free,"  says  Hamilton,  "  must  remain  to  us,  under  the 
present  limitation  of  our  faculties,  wholly  incomprehen- 
sible. We  are  unable  to  conceive  an  absolute  com- 
mencement ;  we  cannot,  therefore,  conceive  a  free  voli- 
tion. A  determination  by  motives  cannot,  to  our  under- 
standing, escape  from  necessitation — nay,  were  we  even 
to  admit  as  true  what  we  cannot  think  as  possible,  still 
the  doctrine  of  a  motiveless  volition  would  be  only  cas- 
ualistic,  and  the  free  acts  of  an  indift'ercnt  are  morally 
and  rationally  as  worthless  as  the  fore-ordained  passions 
of  a  determined  will.  How,  therefore,  I  repeat,  moral 
liberty  is  possible  in  man  or  God  we  are  utterly  unable 
speculatively  to  understand.     But  practically  the  fact 


LIBERTY 


420 


LIBNAH 


that  vrc  are  free  is  given  to  us  in  the  consciousness  of 
our  moral  accountability ;  and  this  fact  of  liberty  cannot 
l)e  riarnucd  on  the  ground  that  it  is  incomprehensible, 
for  I  lie  philosophy  of  the  conditions  proves,  against  the 
necessitarian,  that  things  there  are  which  mat/,  nay, 
must  be  true,  of  which  the  understanding  is  wholly  un- 
able to  construe  to  itself  the  possibility.  But  this  phi- 
losophy is  not  only  competent  to  defend  the  fact  of  our 
moral  liberty,  possible,  though  inconceivable,  against 
the  assault  of  the  fatalist;  it  retorts  against  himself  the 
very  objection  of  inconceivability  by  which  the  fatalist 
had  thought  to  triumph  over  the  libertarian.  It  shows 
tliat  the  scheme  of  freedom  is  not  more  inconceivable 
than  the  scheme  of  necessity;  for,  whilst  fatalism  is  a 
recoil  from  the  more  obtrusive  inconceivability  of  an 
absolute  commencement,  on  the  fact  of  which  commence- 
ment the  doctrine  of  liberty  proceeds,  the  fatalist  is 
shown  to  overlook  the  equal  but  less  obtrusive  incon- 
ceivability of  an  infinite  non-commencement,  on  the  as- 
sertion of  which  non-commencement  his  own  doctrine 
of  necessity  must  ultimately  rest.  As  equally  unthink- 
able, the  two  counter,  the  two  one-sided  schemes,  are 
thus  theoretically  balanced."  Sir  William,  however, 
as  it  seems  to  us,  in  this  extract  does  not  closely 
adhere  to  the  conditions  of  the  problem.  According 
to  his  own  admission,  it  is  not  the  fact  of  a  self-de- 
termining power  in  the  will  that  is  "inconceivable," 
but  only  the  mode  (the  how)  of  its  exercise.  This,  like 
many  other  well-known  processes,  is  a  mystery.  Again, 
it  is  not  claimed  that  the  wiU  acts  icithout  motive,  but 
only  that  it  is  not  conti-olled  by  external  motive;  that  it 
has  the  power  of  itself  choosing  what  motive  shall  be 
strongest  with  it,  irrespective  of  the  intrinsic  force  of 
that  motive.  It  is  this  distinction  that  preserves — as 
no  other  can — the  truly  moral  character  of  the  agent. 

'•The  endless  controversy  concerning  predestination 
and  free-willj"  says  Mansell,  "  whether  viewed  in  its 
speculative  or  in  its  moral  aspect,  is  but  another  exam- 
ple of  the  hardihood  of  human  ignorance.  The  ques- 
tion has  its  philosophical  as  well  as  its  theological  as- 
pect :  it  has  no  difficulties  peculiar  to  itself;  it  is  but  a 
special  form  of  the  fundamental  mystery  of  the  co-ex- 
istence of  the  infinite  and  the  finite."  "  The  vexed 
question  of  liberty  and  necessity,  whose  counter  argu- 
ments become  a  by-word  for  endless  and  improfitable 
wrangling,  is  but  one  of  a  large  class  of  problems,  some 
of  wliich  meet  us  at  every  turn  of  our  daily  life  and 
conduct,  whenever  we  attempt  to  justify  in  theory  that 
which  we  are  compelled  to  carry  out  in  (iractice.  Such 
problems  arise  inevitably  whenever  we  attempt  to  pass 
from  the  sensible  to  the  intelligible  world,  from  the 
sphere  of  action  to  that  of  thought,  from  that  which 
appears  to  us  to  that  which  is  in  itself.  In  religion,  in 
morids,  in  our  daily  business,  in  the  care  of  our  lives,  in 
the  exercise  of  our  senses,  the  rules  which  guide  our 
practice  cannot  be  reduced  to  principles  which  satisfy 
our  reason."  Those  theologians,  on  the  other  hand, 
who  deny  that  the  divine  predestination  extends  to  the 
individual  acts  of  men  in  general,  think  that  they  thits 
more  effectually  obviate  tlie  whole  difficulty.  In  the 
divine  furekuowledge  of  all  human  actions  they  admit 
the  nrtdinty  of  their  occurrence,  but  find  no  causative 
power,  such  as  seems  to  enter  essentially  into  the  prede- 
terminations of  an  Almighty  will.  As  to  the  argument 
that  such  foreknowledge  rests  upon,  and  therefore  im- 
plies fore-ordination,  they  coiUend  that  this  is  a  reversal 
of  the  true  order  (comj).  l!om.  viii,  29),  and  that  God's 
jirescience  is  a  simple  knowing  belbrehand  by  his  pe- 
culiar power  of  intuition,  not  any  conclusion  or  infer- 
ence from  what  he  may  or  may  not  determine.  Sec 
Prescience. 

See  Hobbes's  treatise  Of  Liberty  and  Necessity ;  also 
his  Opinion  about  Liberty  and  Necessity ;  also  Questions 
concernimf  Liberty,  Necessity,  (Did  Chance  clearly  stated 
and  <)(bated  between  Dr.  Jiramhall  and  Thomas  Jlobbes ; 
Leibnitz's  Lssai-s  de  Theodicee,  a  collection  of  jiapers 
which  passed  between  Mr.  Leibnitz  and  Dr.  Clarke; 


Collins's  Philosophical  Inquiry  conceminy  Human  Lib- 
erty ;  Clarke's  Remarks  upon  a  Book  entitled  ".1  Philo- 
sophicul  Liquiry  concerning  Human  Liberty  ;'  Edwards's 
Inquiry  into  tlie  Freedom  of  the  Will;  Essay  on  the  Ge- 
nius and  Writings  of  Edwards,  prefixed  to  the  London  ' 
edition  of  his  works,  1834,  by  H.  Kogers ;  J.  Taylor's 
introduction  to  his  edition  of  Edwards  On  the  Will; 
Hartley's  Observatiotis  on  Man ;  Bchham's  Elements  of 
the  Philosophy  of  the  Mind ;  Cousin's  Elements  of  Psy- 
chology (Prof.  Henr}''s  translation) ;  Sir  William  Ham- 
ilton's Philosophy,  and  Lectures  on  Metaphysics ;  ]\Ian- 
sell's  Limits  of  Religious  Thought ;  Herbert  Spencer's 
First  Principles  ;  Stewart's  Philosophy  of  the  A  ctive  and 
Moral  Poicers  of  Man;  Tappan's  Pevieiv  of  Edwards's 
Inquiry  into  the  Freedom  of  the  Will;  MilX.s  System  of 
Logic;  Jouffroy's  Introduction  to  Ethics;  Elakey's  His- 
tory of  the  Philosophy  of  Miiul;  Hazard,  On  the  Will; 
Bledsoe,  On  the  Will;  Whedon,  On  the  Will.  See  Ne- 
CESSITAIUANS.     (E.  de  P.) 

Lib'iiah  (Heb.  Libnah',  n32?,  transparency,  as  in 
Exod.  xxiv,  10),  the  name  of  two  places.     See  also 

SlIIIIOR-LIBXATlI. 

1.  (Sept.  Aifiiuva  v.  r.  Atjibjva.')  The  twenty-first 
station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  desert,  between  Ilimmon- 
parez  and  Eissah  (Numb,  xxxiii,  20,  21) ;  probably 
identical  with  Laban  (Deut.  i,  1),  and  perhaps  situated 
near  wady  el-Ain,  west  of  Kadesh-Barnea.    See  Exode, 

2.  (Sept.  Af/Svo,  sometimes  Ao(3vd,  occasionally 
Ao/3f«v,  and  even  Af/3ova.)  One  of  the  royal  cities 
of  the  Canaanites  (Josh,  xii,  15),  taken  and  destroyed 
by  Joshua  immediately  after  Makkedah  and  before  La- 
chish  (Josh,  x,  29-32,  39).  It  lay  in  the  plain  within 
the  territory  assigned  to  Judah  (Josh,  xv,  42\  and  be- 
came one  of  the  Levitical  towns  in  that  tribe,  as  well  as 
an  asylum  (Josh.  xxi,'13  ;  1  Chron.  vi,  57).  In  the  reign 
of  king  .Jehoram,  Libnah  is  said  to  have  revolted  from 
him  (2  Kings  viii,  22 ;  2  Chron.  xxi,  10).  From  the  cir- 
cumstance of  this  revolt  having  happened  at  the  same 
time  with  that  of  the  Edomites,  it  has  been  supposed  by 
some  to  have  reference  to  another  town  of  the  same 
name  situated  in  that  country.  But  such  a  conjecture 
is  mmecessary  and  improbable,  for  it  ajjpears  that  the 
Philistines  and  Arabians  revolted  at  the  same  time  (2 
Chron.  xxi,  IG).  Libnah  of  Judah  rebelled  because  it 
refused  to  admit  the  idolatries  of  Jehoram  ;  and  it  is  not 
said  in  either  of  the  passages  in  which  this  act  is  record- 
ed, as  of  Edom,  that  it  continued  in  revolt  '•  unto  this 
day."  It  may  be  inferred  either  that  it  was  speedily 
reduced  to  obedience,  or  that,  on  tlie  re-establishment 
of  the  true  worship,  it  spontaneously  returned  to  its  al- 
legiance, for  we  find  it  was  the  native  place  of  the  grand- 
father of  two  of  the  last  kings  of  Judah  (2  Kings  xxiii, 
31 ;  xxiv,  18;  Jer.  lii,  1).  It  appears  to  have  been  a 
stronglj'  fortified  place,  for  the  Assyrian  king  Sennach- 
erib was  detained  some  time  before  it  when  he  invaded 
Judsea  in  the  time  of  Hezekiah.  See  Hezekiaii.  On 
completing  or  relincpiishing  the  siege  of  Lachish — which 
of  the  two  is  not  quite  certain — Sennacherib  laid  siege 
to  Libnah  (2  Kingsxix,8;  Isa.  xxxvii,8).  While  there 
he  was  joined  by  Kabshakeh  and  the  part  of  the  army 
which  had  visited  Jerusalem  (2  Kings  xix,  S ;  Isa. 
xxxvii,  8),  and  received  the  intelligence  of  Tirhakah's 
apjiroach ;  and  it  would  apiicar  that  at  Libnah  the  de- 
struction of  the  Assyrian  army  took  place,  though  the 
statements  of  Herodotus  (ii,  141)  and  of  Josephus  (A7}f. 
X,  1,  4)  place  it  at  Pelusium  (see  Rawlinson,  Herod,  i, 
480).  Libnah  was  the  native  place  of  Hamutal  or  Ha- 
mital,  the  queen  of  Josiali,  and  mother  of  Jchoahaz  (2 
Kings  xxiii, 31)  and  Zedckiah  (xxiv,  18;  Jer.lii,!).  It 
is  in  tliis  connection  that  its  name  ajipears  for  the  last 
time  in  the  Bible.  It  existed  as  a  village  in  the  time 
of  Eusebius  and  Jerome,  and  is  placed  by  them  in  the 
district  of  Elcutheropolis  (Onomast.  s.  v.  AofSavd ;  com- 
pare Josephus,  Ant.  x,  5,  2).  Dr.  Robinson  M-as  unable 
to  discover  the  least  trace  of  its  site  (Bib.  Pes.  ii,  389). 
Stanley  inclines  to  find  the  site  at  Tell  es-Safieh  (Sinai 


LIBNATII 


421 


LICE 


and  Pal.  p.  207,  258) ;  but  this  is  probably  Gath.  Van 
(le  Vekle  suggests  Arak  el-Mciis/ni/ch,  a  hill  about  four 
miles  west  of  Beit-jebriu  {Moiiuir,  \).  8oO),  which  seems 
to  answer  to  the  requirements  of  location.  It  stood 
near  Lachisb,  west  of  jNIakkcdah,  and  probably  also  west 
of  Eleutheropolis  (Keil,  Comment,  on  Josh,  x,  29),  and 
M-as  situated  in  the  district  immediately  west  of  the  hill 
region,  in  the  vicinity  of  Ether,  Ashan,  etc.  (Josh,  xv, 
42). 

Libnath.     See  Shiiior-lidnatii. 

Libneh.     See  Poplak. 

Lib'ni  (Heb.  Libiii',  "^33^,  n-hite;  Sept.  Ko^svu, 
AofSipi),  the  first-named  of  the  two  sons  of  Gershon, 
the  son  of  Levi  (Exod.vi,  17;  Numb.iii,  18, 21 ;  1  Chron. 
vi,  17 ;  comp.  Numb,  xxvi,  58) ;  elsewhere  called  Laa- 
DAN  (1  Chron.  xxiii,  7  ;  xxvi,  21).  B.C.  post.  1856.  His 
son  is  called  Jahath  (1  Chron.  vi,  20,  43),  and  his  de- 
scendants were  named  Libxites  (Numb,  iii,  21 ;  xxvi, 
58).  In  1  Chron.  vi,  29,  by  some  error  he  is  called  the 
son  of  Mahli  and  the  father  of  Shimei. 

Lib'nite  (Heb.  Libni',  "^SSb,  being  a  patronymic  of 
the  same  form  from  Libni;  Sept.  Ao(isi'i).  a  descendant 
of  Libni  the  Levite  (Numb,  iii,  21 ;  xxvi,  58). 

Liborius,  St.,  fourth  bishop  of  Mans,  a  disciple  of 
Si.Pavacius,  flourished  from  the  middle  to  the  close  of 
the  4th  century.  The  existing  documents  on  his  life  arc 
((uite  untrustworth}',  and  relate  only  that  he  was  a  pious 
man,  performed  sundry  miracles,  and  that  he  was  a  fast 
friend  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours.  See  the  Bollandists  for 
July  23 ;  Tillemont,  Memoires,  x,  307 ;  Mabillon,  De  Pon- 
tif.  Cenomannensibus.  His  body  was  transferred  in  the 
9th  century  from  Mans  to  I'aderborn  by  order  of  Biso, 
bishop  of  the  latter  place.  See  Pertz,  Script,  iv  (vi), 
149  sq. ;  Herzog,  Real-EncyMopmRe,  viii,  380. 

Libr^  (pound),  the  name  sometimes  given  to  the 
seventy  suffragans  of  the  bishop  of  Rome,  from  the  cir- 
cumstance that  there  were  seventy  solidi  or  parts  in  the 
Roman  libra. 

Libraries.  In  the  early  Church,  as  soon  as  church- 
es began  to  be  erected,  it  was  customary  to  attach  libra- 
ries to  them.  In  these  were  included  not  only  the  litur- 
gical and  other  Church  books,  and  MS.  copies  of  the 
lioly  Scriptures  in  the  original  languages,  but  also  hom- 
ilies and  other  theological  works.  That  they  Avere  of 
some  importance  is  evident  from  the  manner  in  which 
they  are  referred  to  by  Eusebius  and  Jerome,  who  men- 
tion having  made  use  of  the  libraries  at  Jerusalem  and 
Cassarea.  Eusebius  says  he  found  the  principal  part  of 
the  materials  for  his  Ecclesiastical  History  in  the  library 
at  Jerusalem.  One  of  the  most  famous  was  that  at- 
tached to  the  church  of  St.  Sophia,  which  is  supposed 
to  have  been  commenced  by  Constantine,  but  was  after- 
wards greatly  augmented  by  Theodosius  the  Younger, 
in  whose  time  there  were  not  fewer  than  one  hundred 
thousand  books  in  it,  and  a  hundred  and  twenty  thou- 
sand in  the  time  of  Basilicus  and  Zeno.  No  doubt  a 
particidar  reason  for  thus  collecting  books  was  their 
great  expense  and  rarity  before  the  art  of  printing  en- 
abled men  to  possess  themselves  the  works  they  needed 
for  thorough  research.  In  churches  where  the  itinerant 
system  prevailed  libraries  possessed  by  churches  woiUd 
even  in  our  very  day  prove  a  soiu'ce  of  pleasure,  and 
timesaving  as  well.  Indeed,  in  some  of  the  larger  cities 
here  and  there,  congregations  are  already  advocating 
this  plan. — Farrar,  Ecclesiastical  Dictionai-ij. 

Libri  Carolini.     See  Caroline  Books. 

Lib'ya  (At/3i'a  or  AijSin]),  a  name  which,  in  its 
largest  acceptation,  was  used  by  the  (ireeks  to  denote 
the  whole  of  Africa  (Strabo,  ii,  131);  but  Lihi/a  Proper, 
whicli  is  the  Libya  of  the  New  Testament  (Acts  ii,  10), 
and  the  country  of  the  Liibiia  in  the  Old,  was  a  large 
tract  lying  along  the  Mediterranean,  to  the  west  of 
Egypt  (Strabo,  xvii,  824).  It  is  called  PentapoUtana 
Reyio  by  Pliny  (Uist.Nat.x,  5),  from  itd  five  cities,  Ber- 


enice, Arsinoe,  Ptolemais,  Apollonia,  and  Cyrene;  and 
Libijd  Cyrenuica  by  Ptolemy  {Geog.  iv,  5),  from  Cy- 
rene, its  capital.  See  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Georjr.  s.  v. 
The  name  of  Libya  occurs  in  Acts  ii,  10,  where  "  the 
dwellers  in  the  parts  of  Libya  about  Cyrene"  are  men- 
tioned among  the  stranger  Jews  who  came  up  to  Jeru- 
salem at  the  feast  of  Pentecost.  This  obviously  means 
the  Cyrenaica.  Similar  expressions  are  used  by  Dion 
Cassius  (A(/3i'/r/  r)  TTfpi  Ki'p)jv>;i',  liii,  12)  and  Josephus 
(j/  Trpoc  Ki'p/;vr/v  Atfivt],  Ant.  xvi,  6, 1).  See  Cvrenk. 
In  the  Old  Test,  it  is  the  rendering  sometimes  adopted 
of  13^3  (Jer.  xlvi,  9;  Ezek.  xxx,  5;  xxxviii,  5),  else- 
where rendered  Phut  (Gen.  x,  6  -,  Ezek.  xxvii,  10). 

Libya  is  supposed  to  have  been  first  peopled  by.  and 
to  have  derived  its  name  from,  the  Lehabim  or  Lubini 
(Gen.  X,  13 ;  Nah.  iii,  9 ;  see  Gesenius,  Moniim.  P/ian.  p. 
211 ;  comp.  Michaelis,  Spieil.  i,  262  sq. ;  Yater,  Comment. 
i,  132),  These,  its  earliest  inhabitants,  appear,  in  the 
time  of  the  Old  Testament,  to  have  consisted  of  wan- 
dering tribes,  who  were  sometimes  in  alliance  with 
Egypt  (compare  Herod,  iv,  159),  and  at  others  with  the 
Ethiopians,  as  they  are  said  to  have  assisted  both  Shi- 
shak,  king  of  Egypt,  and  Zerah  the  Ethiopian  in  their 
expeditions  against  Juda-a  (2  Chron.  xii,  4;  xiv,  8;  xvi, 
9).  In  the  time  of  Cambj'ses  they  appear  to  have 
formed  part  of  the  Persian  empire  (Herod,  iii,  13),  and 
Libyans  formed  part  of  the  immense  army  of  Xerxes 
(Herod,  vii,  71,  86).  They  are  mentioned  by  Daniel 
(xi,  43)  in  connection  with  the  Ethiopians  and  Cushites. 
"  They  were  eventually  subdued  by  the  Carthaginians : 
and  it  was  the  policy  of  that  people  to  bring  the  nomade 
tribes  of  Northern  Africa  which  they  mastered  into  the 
condition  of  cidtivators,  that  by  the  produce  of  their  in- 
dustry they  might  be  able  to  raise  and  maintain  the 
numerous  armies  with  which  they  made  their  foreign 
conquests.  But  Herodotus  assures  us  that  none  of  the 
Libyans  bej'ond  the  Carthaginian  territory  were  tillers 
of  the  ground  (Herod,  iv,  186, 187  ;  compare  Polybius,  i, 
161, 1G7, 168, 177,  ed.  Schweighaeuser).  Since  the  tmie 
of  the  Carthaginian  supremacy,  the  country,  with  the 
rest  of  the  East,  has  successively  passed  into  the  hands 
of  the  Greeks,  Romans,  Saracens,  and  Turks"  (Kitto). 
See  Africa. 

Lib 'y an  (only  in  the  plur.),  the  rendering  adopted 
in  the  A.V.  of  two  Heb.  names,  C^Sp  (Liibbim',  Sept. 
Aijiveg),  Dan.  xi,  43  (elsewhere  M-ritten  C^l?,  "Lnbim,'" 
2  Chron.  xii,  3;  xvi,  8;  Nah.  iii,  9;  prob.  i.  q.  t"i2il3, 
"LebaMjnr  Gen.  x,  13;  1  Chron.  i,  11)  and  "JilQ  (Put, 
Jer.  xlvi,  9;  Sept.  AijSvsc;  elsewhere  rendered  "Lib- 
ya," Ezek.  xxx,  5 ;  xxxviii,  5;  "Phut,"  or  "Put").  See 
Libya. 

Lice  ("jS,  ken,  perh.  from  '33,  to  nip ;  onh'  once  in  the 
sing,  used  collectively,  Isa.  Ii,  6,  and  there  doubtful,  where 
the  Sept.,Yulg.,  and  Engl.  Vers,  confound  with  "3,  so, 
and  render  raura,  liwc,  "  m  like  manner ;"  elsewhere 
plural,  n-ip,  Exod.  viii,  16,  17,  18 ;  Psa.  cv,  31 ;  Sept. 
<jKvl<pic,\&r.  17  OKvlxp,  v.  r.  (TKvTiveg  ;  YiUg.  sciniphes,  in 
Psa.  cinifes;  also  the  cognate  sing,  collective  Ci3,  hin- 
nam,  Exod.  viii,  17,  18,  Sept.  and  Yulg.  cr/crT^fc,  scini- 
2)hes),  the  name  of  the  creature  employed  in  the  third 
plague  upon  Egypt,  miraculously  produced  from  the  dust 
of  the  land.  Its  exact  nature  has  been  much  disputed. 
Dr.  A.  Clarke  has  inferred,  from  the  words  "  in  man  and 
in  beast,"  that  it  was  the  acai-us  sanfftiisuqus,  or  "  tick" 
{Comment,  on  Exod.  viii,  IG).  jMichaelis  remarks  (Suppl. 
ad  Lex.  1174)  that  if  it  be  a  Hebrew  word  for  lice  it  is 
strange  that  it  should  have  disappeared  from  the  cog- 
nate tongues,  the  Aramaic,  Samaritan,  and  Ethiopic. 
The  rendering  of  the  Sept.  seems  highly  valuable  when 
it  is  considered  that  it  was  given  by  learned  Jews  resi- 
dent in  Egypt,  that  it  occurs  in  the  most  ancient  and 
best  executed  portion  of  that  version,  and  that  it  can  be 
elucidated  by  the  writings  of  ancient  Greek  naturalists, 
etc.    Thus  Aristotle,  who  was  nearly  contemporary  with 


LICE 


422 


LICE 


the  Sept.  translators  of  Exodus,  mentions  the  ki'itteq 
(the  (T/cj'T0s(."  of  the  Sept.)  among  insects  able  to  distin- 
guish the  smell  of  honey  (  //^V.  A  nimal.  iv,  8),  and  refers 
to  species  of  birds  which  he  calls  (jKimropuya,  that  live 
by  hunting  (jKin-mg  (viii,  G).     His  pupil  Theophrastus 
savs,  '•  The  Kvling  are  born  in  certain  trees,  as  the  oak, 
the  fig-tree,  and  they  seem  to  subsist  upon  the  sweet 
moisture  which  is  collected  under  the  bark.     They  are 
also  produced  on  some  vegetables"  {Hist.  Plant,  iv,  17, 
and  ii,  ult.).    This  description  applies  to  aphides,  or  rath- 
er to  tlie  various  species  of  "  gall-flies"  {Ci/nips,  Linn.). 
Hesvchius,  in  the  beginning  of  the  third  century,  ex- 
plains (TKvrijj  as  "a  green  four -winged  creature,"  and 
quotes  Phrynichus  as  applying  the  name  to  a  sordid 
wretch,  and  adds,  "From  the  little  creature  among  trees, 
which  sjteedily  devoiu-s  them."     Philo  (A.D.  40)  and 
Origen,  in  the  second  century,  who  both  lived  in  Egypt, 
describe  it  in  terms  suitable  to  the  gnat  or  mosquito 
(Philo,  I'iVa  lUosis,  i,  97,  2,  ed.  Mangey ;  Origen,  IlomUia 
tertia  in  Exod.'),  as  does  also  Augustine  in  the  third  or 
fourth  century  (Z'e  Convenientia,  etc.).     But  Theodore t, 
in  the  same  age,  distinguishes  between  ckvIttiq  and  kw- 
VMTvtQ  (Vita  Jacohi).     Suidas  (A.D.  1100)  says  (jKfiip. 
'•resembling  gnats,"  and  adds,  "a  little  creature  that 
cats  wood."    These  Christian  fathers,  however,  give  no 
authority  for  their  explanations,  and  Bochart  remarks 
that  they  seem  to  be  speaking  of  gnats  under  the  name 
aKi'liTEc,  which  word,  he  conjectures,  biased  them  from 
its  resemblance  to  the  Hebrew.    Schleusner  adds  {Glos- 
seina  in  Octateucli)  CKvlcjiiQ,  "  less  than  gnats,"  and  {Lex. 
Q/r(7?«,  MS.  Brem.),  "  very  small  creatures  like  gnats." 
From  this  concurrence  of  testimonj-  it  would  appear  that 
not  lice,  but  some  species  of  gnats,  is  the  projier  render- 
ing, though  the  ancients,  no  doubt,  included  other  spe- 
cies of  insects  under  the  name.     Mr.  Bryant,  however, 
gives  a  curious  turn  to  the  evidence  derived  from  ancient 
naturalists.     He  quotes  Theophrastus,  and  admits  that 
a  Greek  must  be  the  best  judge  of  the  meaning  of  the 
Greek  word,  but  urges  that  the  Sept.  translators  con- 
cealed the  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  word,  which  he  la- 
bors to  prove  is  lice,  for  fear  of  offending  the  Ptolemies, 
imder  w  hose  inspection  they  translated,  and  the  Egyp- 
tians in  general,  w-hose  detestation  of  lice  was  as  ancient 
as  the  time  of  Herodotus  (ii,  37)  (but  who  includes  "any 
other  foul  creature"),  and  whose  disgust,  he  thinks,  would 
have  been  too  much  excited  by  reading  that  their  na- 
tion once  swarmed  with  those  creatures  through  the  in- 
strumentality of  the  servants  of  the  God  of  the  Jews 
{riacpies  of  Ecjijpt,  Lond.  179-1,  p.  50,  etc.).     This  sus)ii- 
cion,  if  admitted,  upsets  all  the  previous  reasoning.    But 
a  jilague  of  lice,  upon  Brj'ant's  own  principles,  could  not 
have  been  more  oifensive  to  the  Egyptians  than  the 
plague  on  the  liiver  Nile,  the  frogs,  etc.,  which  the  Sept. 
translators  have  not  mitigated.     Might  it  not  be  sug- 
gested ^vith  equal  probability  that  the  Jews  in  later 
ages  had  been  led  to  interpret  the  word  lice  as  being 
peculiarly  humiliating  to  the  Egyptians  (see  Josephus, 
ii,  14,  .S,  who,  liowever,  makes  the  Egyptians  to  be  afflict- 
ed with  phthiriasis).    The  rendering  of  the  Yulg.  affords 
us  no  assistance,  being  evidently  formed  from  that  of  the 
Sept.,  and  not  being  illustrated  by  any  Koman  natural- 
ist, but  found  only  in  Christian  Latin  writers  (see  Fac- 
ciolati,  s.  v.").    The  other  ancient  versions,  etc.,  are  of  no 
value  in  this  incpiiry.     They  adopt  the  jiopular  notion 
of  the  times,  and  Bochart's  reasonings  upon  them  in- 
volve, as  Kosenmiiller  (apud  Bochart)  justly  complains, 
many  imsafe  permutations  of  letters.    If,  then,  the  Sept. 
be  discarded,  we  are  deprived  of  the  highest  source  of 
infomialion.     Bochart's  reasoning  upon  the  form  of  the 
•word  (liieroz.  iii,  .518)  is  unsound,  ns,  indeed,  tliat  of  aU 
others  who  have  relied  upon  etymolngy  to  finuish  a  clew 
to  the  insect  intended.     It  is  strange  that  it  did  not  oc- 
cur to  Bochart  that  if  the  plague  had  been  lice  it  would 
have  been  easily  imitated  b_\'the  magicians,  which  was 
attempted  by  them,  but  in  vain  (Exod.  viii,  18).     Nor 
is  the  objection  valid  that  if  this  plague  were  gnats,  etc., 
the  plague  of  flies  would  be  anticipated,  since  the  latter 


most  likely  consisted  of  one  particular  species  having  a 
different  destination  [see  Fly],  whereas  this  may  have 
consisted  not  only  of  mosquitoes  or  gnats,  but  of  some 
other  species  which  also  attack  domestic  cattle,  as  the 
cestrus,  or  tahunus,  or  zimh  (Bruce,  Travels,  ii,  815.  8vo), 
on  which  supposition  these  two  plagues  would  be  suf- 
ficiently distinct.  See  Plaguks  of  Egypt,  But, 
since  mosquitoes,  gnats,  etc.,  have  ever  beeii  one  of 
the  evils  of  Egypt,  there  must  have  been  some  pecidiar- 
ity  attending  them  on  this  occasion  which  proved  the 
plague  to  be  "  the  finger  of  God."  From  the  next  chap- 
ter, ver.  31,  it  appears  that  the  flax  and  the  barley  were 
smitten  by  the  hail ;  that  the  former  was  beginning  to 
grow,  and  that  the  latter  was  in  the  ear,  which,  accord- 
ing to  Shaw,  takes  place  in  Egypt  in  IMarch.  Hence 
the  hinnim  would  be  sent  about  February,  i.  c.  before  the 
increase  of  the  Nile,  w^hich  takes  place  at  the  end  of 
May  or  beginning  of  Jime.  Since,  then,  the  innumer- 
able swarms  of  mosquitoes,  gnats,  etc.,  which  every  year 
affect  the  Egyptians,  come,  according  to  Hassehiuist,  at 
the  increase  of  the  Nile,  the  appearance  of  them  in  Feb- 
ruary would  be  as  much  a  variation  of  the  course  of  na- 
ture as  the  appearance  of  the  astnis  in  January  would 
be  in  England.  They  were  also  probably  numerous  and 
fierce  beyond  example  on  this  occasion,  and,  as  the  Egyp- 
tians would  be  utterly  unprepared  for  them  (for  it  seems 
that  this  plague  w^as  not  announced),  the  effects  would 
be  signally  distressing.  Bochart  adduces  instances  in 
which  both  mankind  and  cattle,  and  even  wild  beasts, 
have  been  driven  by  gnats  from  their  localities.  It  may 
be  added  that  the  proper  Greek  name  for  the  gnat  is 
iinric,  and  that  probabl}'  the  word  icwvuiip,  which  much 
resembles  Ki'itp,  is  appropriate  to  the  mosquito.  Har- 
douin  observes  that  the  KilTrie;  of  Aristotle  are  not  the 
tUTTtSec,  which  latter  is  by  Pliny  always  rendered  cidices, 
a  word  which  he  employs  with  great  latitude.  See 
Gnat.  For  a  description  of  the  evils  inflicte^l  bj'  these 
insects  upon  man,  see  Kirby  and  Spence,  Introduction  to 
Entomolof/i/,  Lond.  1828,  i,  115,  etc. ;  and  for  the  annoy- 
ance they  cause  in  I'.gypt,  Maillet,  Descript.  de  VEgypte 
par  I'Abbe  jMascrier  (Paris,  1755),  xc,  37 ;  Forskal,  Descr. 
A  nimal.  p.  85.  Michaelis  proposed  an  inquiiy  into  the 
meaning  of  the  word  aKvT^ic  to  the  Societe  des  Savants, 
with  a  full  description  of  the  qualities  ascribed  to  them 
by  Philo,Origen,  and  August  ine  {Reciieil,  etc.  Amst.  1744). 
Niebuhr  inquired  after  it  of  the  Greek  patriarch,  and 
also  of  the  metropolitan  at  Cairo,  who  thought  it  to  be 
a  species  of  gnat  found  in  great  quantities  in  the  gar- 
dens there,  and  whose  bite  was  extremely  painful.  A 
merchant  who  was  present  at  the  incjuiry  called  it  dubub- 
el-keb,  or  the  dofj-fnj  {Description  de  VA  ruhie,  Pref.  p.  39, 
40).  Besides  the  references  already  made,  see  Itosen- 
miiUer,  Scholia  in  Exod. ;  jNIichaelis,  Siippl.  ad  Lex.  He- 
braic. 1203  sq. ;  Oedmann,  Verm.  Samml.  aiis  der  Na- 
turhunde,  i,  6, 74-91 ;  Bakerus,  A  nnotat,  in  Ef.  M.  ii,  1090 ; 


Egyptian  Gnat  mngnitied. 


LICENSE 


423 


LIE 


Harenbcrg,  Ohserr.  Crit.  de  Insectis  JErjypt.  infest ariHbus, 
ill  MisccU.  Lips.  Nov.  ii,  4, 617-20 ;  Geddes,  Crit.  Rem.  on 
Exod.  viii,  17  ;  Montanus,  Critic.  Sac.  on  Exod.  viii,  12 ; 
Kitto,  Daily  Bible  Illust.  ad  loc. ;  Bochart,  Ilieroz.  ii,  572. 
— Kitto.     See  Gnat. 

"  The  advocates  of  the  other  theory,  that  lice  are  the 
animals  meant  by  Idnnim,  and  not  (/nuts,  base  their  ar- 
guments upon  these  facts :  (1)  because  the  liiinim  sprang 
from  the  dust,  whereas  gnats  come  from  the  waters ;  (2) 
because  gnats,  though  they  may  greatly  irritate  men 
and- beasts,  cannot  properly  be  said  to  be  'in'  them;  (3) 
because  their  name  is  derived  from  a  root  ('|*13)  which 
signifies  to  '  establish,'  or  to  '  fix,'  which  cannot  be  said 
of  c/nats ;  (4)  because,  if  c/nats  are  intended,  tlien  the 
fourth  plague  of  flies  would  be  unduly  anticipated ;  (5) 
because  the  Talmudists  use  the  word  kinnah  in  the  sin- 
gular number  to  mean  a  louse ;  as  it  is  said  (S/iab.  xiv, 
107,  b),  'As  is  the  man  who  slays  a  camel  on  the  Sab- 
bath, so  is  he  who  slays  a  louse  on  the  Sabbath' " 
(Smith).  "  The  entomologists,  Kirby  and  Spence,  place 
these  minute  but  disgusting  insects  in  the  very  front 
rank  of  those  which  inflict  direct  injury  upon  man.  A 
terrible  list  of  examples  they  have  collected  of  the  rav- 
ages of  this  and  closely  allied  parasitic  pests.  They 
remark  that,  'for  the  quelling  of  human  pride,  and  to 
pull  down  the  high  conceits  of  mortal  man,  this  most 
loathsome  of  all  maladies,  or  one  equally  disgusting,  has 
been  the  inheritance  of  the  rich,  the  wise,  the  noble,  and 
the  mighty ;  and  in  the  list  of  those  that  have  fallen 
victims  to  it,  you  wiU  find  poets,  philosophers,  prelates, 
princes,  kings,  and  emperors.  It  seems  more  particu- 
larly to  have  been  a  judgment  of  God  upon  oppression 
and  tyranny,  whether  civil  or  religious.  Thus  the  in- 
human I'heretima  mentioned  by  Herodotus,  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  the  dictator  Sylla,  the  two  Herods,  the  em- 
peror Maximin,  and,  not  to  mention  more,  the  persecu- 
tor of  the  Protestants,  Philip  the  Second,  were  carried 
ofT  by  it'  {Iiitrod.  to  Entomol.  vol.  iv).  The  Egyptian 
plague  may  have  been  somewliat  like  that  dreadful  dis- 
ease common  in  Poland,  and  known  as  jjUcbi  Poloiiica, 
in  which  the  hair  becomes  matted  together  in  the  most 
disgusting  manner,  and  is  infested  with  sv/arms  of  ver- 
min. Each  hair  is  highly  sensitive,  bleeds  at  the  root 
on  the  least  violence,  and  if  but  sliglitly  pulled  feels  ex- 
quisite pain.  Lafontaine,  whom  Hermann  calls  a  very 
exact  describer,  affirms  that  millions  of  lice  appear  on 
the  wretched  patient  on  the  third  day  of  this  disease 
{Mem.  Apterol.  p.  78).  These  insects  form  the  order 
Anoplura  of  Leach,  and  Parasita  of  LatreiUe.  jMost 
mammalia,  if  not  all,  and  probably  all  birds,  are  infested 
by  them ;  each  beast  and  bird,  as  is  stated,  having  its 
own  proper  species  of  louse,  and  sometimes  two  or  more. 
Three  distinct  species  make  the  human  body  their 
abode"  (Fairbairn).     See  Inskct. 

License,  the  name  given  to  the  liberty  and  icar- 
raiit  to  preach. 

(I.)  In  the  Presbyterian  Church  it  is  regularly  con- 
ferred by  the  Presbj'tery  on  tliose  who  have  passed  sat- 
isfactorily through  the  prescribed  curriculum  of  study. 
When  a  student  has  fully  comfileted  his  course  of  study 
at  the  theological  hall,  he  is  taken  on  trials  for  license  by 
the  Presbytery  to  which  he  belongs.  These  trials  consist 
of  an  examination  on  the  different  subjects  taught  in  the 
theological  hall,  his  personal  religion,  and  his  motives 
for  seeking  to  enter  the  ministerial  office.  He  also  de- 
livers a  lecture  on  a  passage  of  Scriptiu-e,  a  homily,  an 
exercise  and  additions,  a  popular  sermon,  and  an  exe- 
gesis ;  and,  lastly,  he  is  examined  on  Church  History, 
Hebrew  and  Greek,  and  on  divinity  generally.  It  is 
the  duty  of  the  presbytery  to  criticise  each  of  these  by 
itself,  and  sustain  or  reject  it  separately,  as  a  part  of 
the  series  of  trials,  and  then,  when  the  trials  are  com- 
pleted, to  pass  a  judgment  on  the  whole  by  a  regular 
vote.  If  the  trials  are  sustained,  the  candidate  is  re- 
quired to  answer  the  questions  in  the  formula,  and, 
after  prayer,  is  hcensed  and  authorized  to  preach  the 
Gospel  of  Clirist,  and  exercise  bis  gifts  as  a  probationer 


for  the  holy  ministry,  of  which  license  a  regular  certifi- 
cate is  given  if  required.  He  is  simply  a  layman  or  lay 
candidate  for  the  clerical  office,  preaching,  but  not  dis- 
pensing the  sacraments.     See  Ordination. 

(2.)  In  the  Methodist  churches  it  is  conferred  on  lay- 
men who  are  believed  to  be  competent  for  this  office, 
and  it  is  from  persons  thus  brought  into  the  ministry 
[see  Lay  Preaching]  that  the  Church  is  supplied  with 
ministers.     See  Local  Preachers  ;  Licentiate. 

(3.)  In  the  Church  of  England  and  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States  the  word  license 
is  used  to  designate  the  grant  given  by  the  bishop  to  a 
candidate  for  orders,  authorizing  him  to  read  services 
and  sermons  in  a  church  in  the  absence  of  a  minister ; 
also  the  liberty  to  preach,  which  the  bishop  may  give 
to  those  who  have  been  ordained  deacons  if  he  judge 
them  to  be  qualified.  See  the  Ordering  of  Deacons  in 
the  Prayer-book,  where  the  bishop  says  to  those  he  is 
ordaining,  "  Take  thou  the  authority  to  read  the  Gospel 
in  the  Church  of  God,  and  to  preach  the  same,  if  thou 
be  thereto  licensed  by  the  bishop  himself." 

See  Staunton's  Ecclesiastical  Dictionary,  s.  v. ;  Eadie, 
Ecclesiastical  Dictionary,  s.  v.     See  Preachinc;. 

Licentiate  (from  Lat.  licet,  it  is  lawful),  one  of  the 
four  ancient  university  degrees.  It  is  no  longer  in  use 
in  England,  except  at  Cambridge  as  a  degree  of  medi- 
cine. In  France  and  Germany,  however,  where  it  is 
more  general,  a  licentiate  is  a  person  who,  having  un- 
dergone the  prescribed  examination,  has  received  per- 
mission to  deliver  lectures  in  the  universitj-.  When  the 
degree  is  given  as  an  lionor,  it  is  intermediate  between 
Bachelor  of  Arts  and  Doctor. 

LICENTIATE  is  a  person  authorized  by  the  Church 
authorities  to  preach,  and  ^vho  thus  becomes  eligible  to 
a  pastoral  charge.     See  License. 

Licinius.     See  Constantine  the  Great. 

Lichtenberg,  Johann  Conrad,  a  German  theo- 
logian, was  born  at  Darmstadt  Dec.  9, 1689.  In  1707  he 
entered  the  University  of  Giessen,  and  tlien  aircnded 
successively  those  of  Jena,  Leipsic,  and  Halle ;  in  the 
latter  he  finished  his  academical  course  in  1711.  Soon 
after  he  accepted  a  call  as  vicar  to  Neun-Kirchen,  in 
the  grand-duchy  of  Hesse  ;  in  1716  he  became  pastor 
of  the  same  place;  in  1719,  pastor  of  Upper  Kamstadt; 
in  1733,  metropolitan  of  the  diocese  of  the  bailiwick 
Lichtenberg;  in  1745,  town  pastor  at  Darmstadt,  and 
examiner  of  teachers ;  and  in  1749,  superintendent.  He 
died  July  17, 1751.  His  knowledge  was  extensive,  em- 
bracing not  ovlIj  theology,  but  also  mathematics  and 
physics.  Astronomical  studies,  especially,  had  a  lasting 
interest  for  him ;  the  latter  he  knew  skilfully  how  to 
weave  into  his  sermons  in  a  simple  and  popular  manner, 
thus  captivating  the  attention  of  the  audience.  He 
contributed  largely  to  Church  music.  The  various 
books  which  he  composed  are  all  of  an  ascetical  charac- 
ter; we  only  mention  Texte  zur  Kirchenmusik  (Darmst. 
1719,  1720,  8vo) ;  Ermuntertule  Stimmen  atis  Zion  (ibid. 
1722,  8vo) ;  Geistliche  Betrachtunyen  iiber  gewisse  in  den 
Erangeliis  enthaltene  Mati-rieu  (ibid.  1721,  8vo).  —  Dor- 
ing,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutschlunds,  ii,  296  sq. 

Lidbir.     See  Lo-debar. 

Lie  (prop.  213,  \pci'Coc),  an  intentional  violation  of 
truth.  In  Scripture  we  find  the  word  used  to  designate 
all  the  ways  in  which  mankind  denies  or  alters  truth  in 
word  or  deed,  as  also  evil  in  general.  In  general  the 
good  is  in  it  designated  as  the  truth,  evil  as  its  opposite, 
or  lie,  and  consequently  the  devil  (being  the  contrary 
to  God)  as  the  father  of  lies,  and  liars  or  impious  per- 
sons as  children  of  the  devil.  Hence  the  Scriptures 
most  expressly  condenm  lies  (John  viii,  44 ;  1  Tim.  i,  9, 
10 ;  Rev.  xxi,  27  ;  xxii,  15).  When,  in  Kom.  iii,  4,  it  is 
said  tliat  all  men  are  liars,  it  is  synonymous  with  say- 
ing tliat  all  are  bad.  The  Bible  nowhere  admits  of  per- 
mitted, praiseworthy,  or  pious  lies,  yet  it  recommends 
not  to  proclaim  the  truth  wlien  its  proclamation  might 
prove  injurious.    Hence  Christ  commands  (Matt,  vii,  6) 


LIE 


424 


LIFE 


not  to  present  the  tnith  of  the  Gospel  to  those  who  arc 
unworthy  wlien  lie  recommends,  "  liive  not  that  which 
is  holy  unto  the  dogs,  neither  cast  ye  your  pearls  before 
swine."  In  John  xvi,  12  we  see  that  he  could  not  tell 
his  disciples  all  that  he  would  have  wished  to  tell  them 
on  accoinit  of  their  weakness.  He  did  not  answer  the 
in(iuiries  of  Pilate  (John  xix,  9),  nor  of  Caiaphas  (Matt, 
xxvi,  (il!).  But  we  nowhere  lind  that  either  in  levity, 
or  to  do  others  good,  or  to  glorify  God,  Christ  ever  spoke 
iui  untruth.  Peter,  on  the  contrary,  denied  both  Christ 
by  wnrd  in  the  moment  of  danger  (]Matt.  xxvi,  G9  sq. ; 
Alark  xiv,  GG  sq. ;  Luke  xxii,  5G  sq. ;  John  xviii,  17  sq.) 
and  the  evangelical  truth  by  his  actions  (Gal.  ii,  1"2, 1-4). 
But  Paul,  in  Acts  xxiii,  5,  made  use  of  an  implication 
to  clear  himself,  or,  at  any  rate,  concealed  part  of  the 
trutli  in  order  to  create  dissension  between  the  Phari- 
sees and  the  Sadducecs,  and  thus  save  himself.  Strict 
tnithfulncss  requires  that  we  should  never  alter  the 
truth,  either  in  words  or  actions,  so  as  to  deceive  others, 
whether  it  be  for  pleasure,  or  to  benefit  others  or  our- 
selves, or  even  for  the  best  cause.  Yet,  although  there 
can,  absolutely  considered,  be  no  injurious  truth,  it  is 
not  cxiie(Uent  to  tell  all  truth  to  those  wlio  are  not  able 
to  receive  or  comprehend  it.  Thus  evil  might  result 
from  telling  everything  to  children,  fools,  mischief- 
makers,  spies,  etc.  But  this  does  not  imply  tliat  we 
may  tell  them  that  wliich  is  not  true,  only  that  we  are 
to  remain  silent  when  we  perceive  that  the  truth  would 
be  useless,  or  might  result  in  inflicting  injury  on  our- 
selves or  others.  This,  of  course,  does  not  apply  to  per- 
jury, as  this  is  positive  lying,  and  indeed,  by  its  calling 
on  God,  becomes  diabolical  lying,  the  Father  of  truth 
being  invoked  to  confirm  a  lie,  and  the  highest  attribute 
of  man,  his  consciousness  of  God,  is  made  use  of  to  de- 
ceive others,  and  to  gain  an  advantage.  See  Oath. 
But  there  are  varieties  of  untruthfulness  which  do  not 
belong  to  the  domain  of  ethics,  but  to  aesthetics.  Such 
are  ]iarables,  jests  in  word  or  deed,  tales  and  fables,  the 
usual  formulas  of  politeness,  mimicry  (v-n-uxpicng},  etc., 
which  are  not  calculated  to  deceive.  But  the  esthetic 
untrutlifulness  or  sup|iression  of  the  truth  can  also  be 
abused.  In  morals,  however,  all  depends  on  the  im- 
provement of  conscience,  and  a  correct,  firm  conscious- 
ness of  God's  presence  and  knowledge.  These  cannot 
be  obtained  by  mere  commandments  or  moral  formulas, 
but  by  strengthening  the  moral  sense,  fortifying  the 
will  —  in  fact,  by  awakening  and  strengthening  the 
moral  power.  jMorality  is  an  inner  life ;  those  only  can 
be  called  liars  who  ^vilfully  oppose  the  truth  by  word 
or  deed,  or  by  conscious  untruthfulness  seek  to  lead 
others  into  error  or  sin ;  in  short,  to  injure  them  pliysi- 
cally  or  spiritually.  As  regards  so-called  "necessary" 
lies,  they  also  are  condemned  by  the  God  of  all  truth ; 
nor  even  in  this  world  of  imperfection,  where  there  are 
so  many  ingenious  illusions,  is  there  any  just  occasion 
for  their  use.  That  truthfulness  is  a  limited  duty  must 
necessarily  be  conceded,  since  the  non-expression  of  the 
truth  is  in  itself  a  limitation  of  it.  The  Bible  men- 
tions instances  of  lies  in  good  men,  but  without  approv- 
ing them,  as  that  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xii,  12;  xx,  2), 
Isaac  ((Jen.  xxvi),  Jacob  (Gen.  xxvii),  the  Hebrew  mid- 
wives  (Exod.  i,  15-19),  ;Michal  (1  Sam.  xix,  14  sq.),  Da- 
vid (1  Sam.  xx),  etc. — Krchl,  Xeiitesi.  Wurterhuch. 

Tliere  are  various  kinds  of  lies.  1.  The  pernicious 
lie.  uttered  for  the  hurt  or  disadvantage  of  our  neighbor. 
2.  Tlie  olUcious  lie,  uttered  for  our  own  or  our  neigh- 
bor's advantage.  3.  Tlie  ludicrous  and  jocose  lie,  utter- 
ed by  way  of  jest,  and  only  for  mirth's  sake  in  common 
converse.  4.  Pious  frauds,  as  they  are  impro]MTly  call- 
ed, pretended  inspirations,  forged  books,  comiterfeit  mir- 
iicles,  are  species  of  lies.  5.  Lies  of  the  conduct,  for  a 
lie  may  be  told  in  gestures  as  well  as  in  words;  as 
when  a  tradesman  shuts  uji  his  windows  to  induce  his 
creditors  to  believe  that  he  is  abroad.  G.  Lies  of  omis- 
sion, .as  when  an  autlior  wilfully  omits  what  ought  to  be 
related ;  and  may  we  not  a<lil,  7.  Tliat  all  eciuivoeation 
and  mental  reservation  come  under  the  guilt  of  lying'? 


The  evil  and  injustice  of  lying  appear,  1.  From  its 
being  a  breach  of  the  natural  and  universal  right  of 
mankind  to  trutli  in  the  intercourse  of  speech.  2.  From 
its  being  a  violation  of  God's  sacred  law  (Phil,  iv,  8 ; 
Lev.  xix,  11 ;  Col.  iii,  9).  3.  The  faculty  of  speech  was 
bestowed  as  an  instrument  of  knowledge,  not  of  deceit ; 
to  communicate  our  thoughts,  not  to  hide  them.  4.  It 
is  esteemed  a  reproach  of  so  heinous  and  hateful  a  na- 
ture for  a  man  to  be  called  a  liar  that  sometimes  the  life 
and  blood  of  the  slanderer  have  paid  for  it.  5.  It  has  a 
tendency  to  dissolve  all  societ}',  and  to  indispose  the 
mind  to  religious  impressions.  (>.  The  punishment  of  it 
is  very  severe ;  the  loss  of  credit,  the  hatred  of  those 
whom  we  have  deceived,  and  an  eternal  separation  from 
God  iu  the  world  to  come  (Rev.  xxi,  8;  xxii,  15;  Psa. 
ci,  7).  See  Grove's  Moi-al  Philos.  vol.  i,  ch.  xi ;  Paley's 
Moral  Pliilvs.  vol.  i,  ch.  xv ;  Doddridge's  Led.  lect.  G8 ; 
Watts's  Sermons,  vol.  i,  serm.  22 ;  Evans's  Serm.  vol.  ii, 
serm.  13;  South's  Serm.  voL  i,  serm.  12;  Dr.  Lamoiit's 
Serm.  vol.  i,  serm.  11  and  12. — Buck,  Theolog.  Diet.  s.  v. 
See  Tkutii. 

Liebknecht,  Johann  Georg,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  Wasungen  April  23,  1679.  In  1G99 
he  entered  the  University  of  Jena.  Besides  pursuing 
the  common  coiu-se,  he  was  led  by  Dr.  Danz  into  a  thor- 
ough study  of  the  Talmud  and  Kabbinical  literature. 
He  also  gave  especial  attention  to  the  science  of  mathe- 
matics. On  the  latter  he  gave  lectures  after  he  was 
graduated  A.M.  iu  1703.  These  were  highly  approved 
by  many  scholars,  e.  g.  by  the  philosopher  Leiljnitz, 
with  whom  he  corresponded.  His  devotion  to  mathe- 
matics, however,  did  not  cause  him  to  neglect  his  theo- 
logical studies,  for  lie  afterwards  lectured  -with  success 
on  exegesis  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  In  1706 
he  was  called  as  professor  of  mathematics  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Halle,  but  was  obliged  to  decline  this,  as  well 
as  the  call  of  tutor  to  two  princes,  in  1707,  because  his 
health  failed  him.  In  the  same  year,  however,  he  ac- 
cepted a  call  as  professor  of  mathematics  to  the  Univer- 
sity of  Giessen.  In  1715  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Imperial  Leopold  Society,  and  in  171G  of  tlie  Loyal 
Prussian  Society  of  Sciences.  In  1719  he  became  doc- 
tor of  divinity,  in  1721  professor  extraordinary  of  theol- 
ogy, and  in  1725  was  advanced  to  the  ordinarj'  or  full 
professorship ;  and  was  also  made  assessor  of  the  consis- 
tory and  superintendent  at  (iiessen.  He  died  Sept.  17, 
1749.  Although  many  of  his  numerous  productions  are 
in  the  department  of  mathematics,  yet  his  dissertations 
on  exegesis.  Church  history,  and  dogmatical  theology 
prove  him  to  have  been  a  profound,  acute,  and  investi- 
gating theologian.  Besides  his  contributions  to  the  A  c- 
ta  Eruditorum,  we  mention  Proejr.  penttcostede,  effusoR 
Spiritus  S.  cariiaiis  immemoi'em  hceretificem,  etc.  (Gissae, 
1717,  4to) : — Diss.  hist,  theol.  de  ei-anr/tlicm  veritcitis  ante 
reformationem  in  Ilassia  confessionibits  (ibid.  1727, 4to): 
—  Von  dem  Tode  ti.  (lessen  eingehildete  Bitterkeit  (ibid. 
1733,  8vo)  : — Diss,  theol.  de  Deo  et  attrihutis  dirinis,  in 
qua  Art.  I  Av(j.  Conf.  etc.  (ibid.  173G, 4to)  : — Adscensio 
Christi  ante  adscemionem  in  valos  nulla,  Diss.  theoL  qua 
Socinianorum  commenta,  etc.  (ibid.  1737, 4to). — Dciring, 
Gelehrte  Theol.  ] )eutschlands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lieutenant  (only  in  the  plur.  D'^JQ'n^'u.'nN,  ach- 
ashdarpenini',iu>m  the  Sanscrit  A«//?-o/)ff,  whence  the 
Greek  ilarpdirtiQ,  and  finally  aaTpcnrijc,  a  satrap,  see 
Guttinr).  Gel.  Anz.  1839,  p.  805  ;  Lassen,  Zeitsclir.  J'ur  d. 
Morgenl.  iii,  161 ;  Bockh,  Corpus  Inscr.  No.  2G9],  c)  oc- 
curs in  Esth.  iii,  12;  viii,  9;  ix,  3;  Ezra  viii,  38;  so  in 
the  Cliald.  form  (rendered  "princes,"  Dan.  iii,  2,  3,  27; 
vi,  1-7)  a  satrap,  i.  e.  governor  or  viceroy  of  the  large 
l)rovinces  among  tlie  ancient  Persians,  possessing  both 
civil  and  military  power,  and  being  iu  the  provinces  the 
representatives  of  the  sovereign,  whose  state  and  splen- 
dor they  also  rivalled  (see  Brisson,  De  reijio  Pers.prin- 
cijiatu,  i,  §  1C8  ;  Hceren,  Ideen,  i,  489  scj.).     See  Satkap. 

Life  (properly  "^H,  usually  in  the  plur.  with  a  suig. 
meaning,  D"''|'n ;  Gr.  ^w//),  generally  of  physical  life  and 


LIFT 


425 


LIGHT 


existence,  as  opposed  to  death  and  non-existence  (Gen. 
ii,  7  ;  XXV,  7 ;  Luke  xvi,  "25 ;  Acts  xvii,  25;  1  Cur.  iii, 
22;  XV,  19;  Heb.  vii,  3;  James  iv,  14;  l{ev\xi,  11;  xvi, 
3).  See  Longevity,  The  ancients  generally  enter- 
tained the  idea  that  the  vital  principle  (which  they  ap- 
pear to  have  denoted  by  the  term  qnrit,  in  distinction 
from  the  soul  itself,  comp.  1  Thess,  v,  23)  resided  par- 
ticularly in  the  blood,  which,  on  that  account,  the  Jews 
were  forbidden  to  use  as  food  (Lev.  xvii,  11).  See 
15looi).  Other  terms  occasionally  rendered  ''life"  in 
the  Scriptures  are  ^S3  (iie'phesh,  a  living  creainxo),  DT^ 
{yom,  a  day,  i.  e.  a  lifetime), /ii'oc  (lifetime),  Trvevfia 
{brcdt/i,  i.  e.  spirit),  ip^X'!  (soul,  or  animating  principle). 
The  term  life  is  ailso  used  more  or  less  figuratively  in 
the  following  acceptations  in  Scripture :  (i.)  For  exist- 
ence, life,  absolutely  and  without  end,  immortality  (Heb. 
vii,  IG).  So  also  "  tree  of  life,"  or  of  immortality,  which 
preserves  from  death  (Rev.  ii,  7;  xxii,  2.  14;  Gen.  ii,  0; 
iii,  22) ;  "  bread  of  life''  (John  vi,  35,  51 ) ;  ''  way  of  life" 
(Psa.  xvi,  11;  Acts  ii,  28);  "water  of  life,"  i.  e.  living 
fountains  of  water,  perennial  (Rev.  vii,  17) ;  crown  of 
life,  the  reward  of  eternal  life  (James  i,  12;  Rev.  ii,  10). 
See  Book  ;  Bread  ;  Ckown  ;  Fountain  ;  Tree,  etc. 
(2.)  Tlie  manner  of  life,  conduct,  in  a  moral  respect ; 
'•newness  of  life"  (Rom.  vi,  4) ;  "  the  life  of  God,"  i.  e. 
the  life  which  God  requires,  a  godly  life  (Eph.  iv,  18 :  2 
Pet.  i,  3).  (3.)  The  term  '"/{/t"  is  also  used  for  spiritual 
life,  or  the  holiness  and  happiness  of  salvation  procured 
by  the  Sa\iour's  death.  In  this  sense,  life  or  eternal  life 
is  the  antithesis  of  death  or  condemnation.  Life  is  the 
image  of  aU  good,  and  is  therefore  employed  to  express 
it  (Ueut.  XXX,  15 ;  John  iii,  IC,  17, 18,  36;  v,  24,  39, 40 ; 
vi,  47  ;  viii,  51 ;  xi,  26  ;  Rom.  v,  12,  18  ;  1  John  v,  11)  ; 
death  is  the  consummation  of  evil,  and  so  it  is  frequent- 
ly used  as  a  strong  expression  in  order  to  designate  ev- 
ery kind  of  evil,  whether  temporal  or  spiritual  (Jer.  xxi, 
8;  Ezck.  xviii,  28;  xxxiii,  11;  Rom.  i,  32;  vi,  21;  vii, 
5,  10,  13,  24;  John  vi,  50,  viii,  21).  (4.)  Life  is  also 
used  for  eternal  life,  i.  e.  the  life  of  bliss  and  glory  in 
the  kingdom  of  (iod  which  awaits  the  true  disciples  of 
Christ  (Matt,  xix,  10,  17;  .John  iii,  15;  1  Tim.  iv,  8; 
Acts  V,  20  ;  Rom.  v,  17 ;  1  Pet.  iii,  7  ;  2  Tim.  i,  1).  (5.) 
The  term  life  is  also  used  of  God  and  Christ  or  the 
Word,  as  the  absolute  source  and  cause  of  all  life  (John 
i,  4 ;  V,  26,  39 ;  xi,  25  ;  xii,  50 ;  xiv,  6 ;  xvii,  3  ;  Col.  iii, 
4 ;  1  John  i,  1, 2 ;  v,  20).     See  Death. 

LIFE  EVERLASTING.  See  Eternal  Life;  Fu- 
ture Life. 

Lift  (prop.  X'^5,  a'ipio),  besides  having  the  general 
sense  of  raising,  is  used  in  several  peculiar  phrases  iu 
Scripture.  To  lift  up  the  Hands  is,  among  the  Ori- 
entals, a  common  part  of  the  ceremony  of  taking  an 
oath:  "I  have  lift  up  mine  hand  unto  the  Lord,"  says 
Abraham  (Gen.  xiv,  22);  '-I  will  bring  you  into  the 
land  concerning  which  I  lift  up  my  hand"  (Exod.  vi,  8), 
which  I  promised  with  an  oath.  To  lift  up  one's  hand 
against  any  one  is  to  attack  him,  to  fight  him  (2  Sam. 
xviii,  28;  1  Kings  xi,  2G).  To  lift  up  one's  face  in  the 
presence  of  any  one  is  to  appear  boklly  in  his  presence 
(2  Sam.  ii,  22;  Ezra  ix,  6.  (See  also  Job  x,  15  ;  xi,  15.) 
To  lift  up  one's  hands,  eyes,  soul,  or  heart  unto  the  Lord 
are  expressions  describing  the  sentiments  and  emotion 
of  one  who  prays  earnestly  or  desires  a  thing  Avith  ar- 
dor— Calmet,  s.  v. 

Lifters  and  ANTILIFTERS,  a  name  given  about 
the  opening  of  the  18th  century  to  the  congregations  at 
Killraaruock,  in  the  west  of  Scotland,  who,  according  to 
Sir  John  Sinclair,  differed  on  the  paltry  question  wheth- 
er it  was  necessary  for  the  minister  to  lift  iu  his  hand 
the  plate  of  bread  before  its  distriljutioii  in  the  Lord's 
Supper,  the  Lifters  holding  tliis  to  be  essential,  the 
others  regarding  it  as  a  matter  of  no  moment,  Thev 
were  also  called  New  Lights,  and  the  others  Old  Lights, 
terms  that  have  been  applied  in  other  cases  somewhat 
similar.  — Gregoire, //wf.  i,  61 ;  quoted  from  Sinclair, 
Wor/cs,  ix,  375-6 ;  Williams,  Religious  Lncyclop.  s.  v. 


Light  (properly  "nN,  or,  (fiuuc,  from  its  shining)  is 
represented  in  the  Scriptures  as  the  immediate  result 
and  otfspring  of  a  divine  command  (Gen,  i,  3),  where 
doubtless  we  are  to  understand  a  reappearance  of  the 
celestial  luminaries,  still  partially  obscured  by  the  haze 
that  settled  as  a  pall  over  the  grave  of  nature  at  some 
tremendous  cataclysm  which  well-nigh  reduced  the 
globe  to  its  pristine  chaos,  rather  than  their  actual  for- 
mation, although  they  are  subsequently  introduced  (Gen, 
i,  14  sq,).  In  consequence  of  the  intense  brilliancy  and 
beneficial  influence  of  light  in  an  Eastern  climate,  it 
easily  and  naturally  became,  with  Orientals,  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  highest  human  good.  From  this  idea 
the  transition  was  an  easy  one,  in  corrupt  and  supersti- 
tious minds,  to  deify  the  great  sources  of  light.  See 
Sun;  Moon,  When  "Eastern  nations  beheld  the  sun 
shining  in  his  strength,  or  the  moon  walking  in  her 
brightness,  their  hearts  were  secretly  enticed,  and  their 
mouth  kissed  their  hand  in  token  of  adoration  (Job 
xxxi,  26,  27),  See  Adoration,  This  'iniquity'  the 
Hebrews  not  only  avoided,  but  when  they  considered 
the  heavens  they  recognised  the  work  of  God's  fingers, 
and  learnt  a  lesson  of  humility  as  well  as  of  reverence 
(Psa,  viii,  3  sq.).  On  the  contrary,  the  entire  residue 
of  the  East,  with  scarcely  any  exception,  worshijiped 
the  sun  and  the  light,  primarily,  perhaps,  as  symbols  of 
divine  power  and  goodness,  but,  in  a  more  degenerate 
state,  as  themselves  divine ;  whence,  in  conjunction  with 
darkness,  the  negation  of  light,  arose  the  doctrine  of 
dualism,  two  principles,  the  one  of  light,  the  good  power, 
the  other  of  darkness,  the  evU  power,  a  corruption  which 
rose  and  spread  the  more  easily  because  the  whole  of 
human  life,  being  a  checkered  scene,  seems  divided  as 
between  two  conflicting  agencies,  the  bright  and  the 
dark,  the  joyous  and  the  sorrowful,  what  is  caUetl  pros- 
perous and  what  is  called  adverse"  (Kitto).  But  in  the 
Scriptures  the  purer  symbolism  is  everywhere  main- 
tained (see  Wemyss,  Symbol.  Diet.  s.  v.).  "  AU  the  more 
joyous  emotions  of  the  mind,  all  the  pleasing  sensations 
of  the  frame,  all  the  happy  hours  of  domestic  intercourse, 
were  habitually  described  among  the  Hebrews  under 
imagery  derived  from  light  (1  Kings  xi,  36 ;  Isa.  Iviii, 
8,  Esth.  viii,  16;  Psa.  xcvii,  11).  The  transition  was 
natural  from  earthly  to  heavenly,  from  corporeal  to  spir- 
itual things,  and  so  light  came  to  typify  true  religion 
and  the  felicity  which  it  imparts.  But  as  light  not  only 
came  from  God,  but  also  makes  man's  way  clear  before 
him,  so  it  was  employed  to  signify  moral  truth,  and  pre- 
eminently that  divine  system  of  truth  which  is  set  forth 
in  the  Bible,  from  its  earliest  gleamings  onward  to  the 
perfect  day  of  the  great  sun  of  righteousness.  The  ap- 
plication of  the  term  to  religious  topics  had  the  greater 
propriety  because  the  light  in  the  world,  being  accom- 
panied by  heat,  purifies,  quickens,  enriches,  which  efforts 
it  is  the  peculiar  province  of  true  religion  to  produce  in 
the  human  soul  (Isa.  viii,  20,  Matt,  iv,  16;  Psa.  cxix, 
105;  2  Pet.  i,  19;  Eph.  v,  8;  2  Tim.  i,  10;  1  Pet.  ii,  9)" 
(Kitto). 

Besides  its  phj-sical  sense  (Matt,  xvii,  2 ;  Acts  ix,  3 ; 
xii,  7 ;  2  Cor.  iv,  6),  the  term  light  is  used  by  metonj'my 
for  a  fire  giving  light  (iNIark  xiv,  54;  Luke  xxii,  56); 
for  a  torch,  candle,  or  lamp  (Acts  xvi,  29) ;  for  the  ma- 
terial light  of  heaven,  as  the  sun,  moon,  or  stars  (Psa, 
cxxxvi,  7 ;  James  i,  17),  In  figurative  language  it  sig- 
nifies a  manifest  or  open  state  of  things  (Matt,  x,  27; 
Luke  xii,  3),  and  in  a  higher  sense  the  eternal  source  of 
truth,  purity,  and  joy  (1  John  i,  5).  God  is  said  to 
dwell  in  light  inaccessible  (1  Tim.  vi,  16),  which  seems 
to  contain  a  reference  to  the  glory  and  splendor  that 
shone  in  the  holy  of  holies,  where  Jehovah  appeared  in 
the  luminous  cloud  above  the  mercy  seat,  and  which 
none  but  the  high-priest,  and  he  only  once  a  year,  was 
permitted  to  approach  (Lev.  xvi,  2 ;  Ezek.  i,  22,  26,  28). 
This  light  was  typical  of  the  glory  of  the  celestial  world. 
See  Shekinah.  Light  itself  is  employed  to  signify  the 
edicts,  laws,  rules,  or  directions  that  proceed  from  ruling 
powers  for  the  good  of  their  subjects.    Thus  of  the  great 


LIGPIT 


426 


LIGHTFOOT 


kins  of  all  the  earth  the  Psalmist  says,  "  Thy  word  is  a 
lij^ht  unto  ray  path"  (Pisa,  cxix,  105),  and  "Thy  judg- 
ments are  as  the  light"  (Hos.  vi,  5).  Agreeably  to  the 
notion  of  lights  being  the  symbols  of  good  government, 
liglit  also  signifies  protection,  deliverance,  and  joy. 
Light  also  frequently  signifies  instruction  both  by  doc- 
trine and  example  (Matt,  v,  IG ;  John  v,  35),  or  persons 
considered  as  giving  such  light  (Matt,  v,  14 ;  Kom.  ii,  19). 
It  is  applied  in  the  highest  sense  to  Christ,  the  true 
liglit,  the  sun  of  righteousness,  who  is  that  in  the  spirit- 
ual which  the  material  light  is  in  the  natural  world,  the 
great  author  not  only  of  illumination  and  knowledge, 
but  of  spiritual  life,  healtli,  and  joy  to  the  soids  of  men 
(Isa.  Ix,  1).  "Among  the  pcrsonitications  on  this  point 
wliich  Scripture  presents  we  may  specify,  (1.)  God.  The 
ajiostle  James  (i,  17)  declares  that  •  every  good  and  per- 
fect gift  cometh  down  from  the  Father  of  lights,  with 
whom  is  no  variableness,  neither  shadow  of  turning,' 
obviously  referring  to  the  faithfidness  of  God  and  the 
constancy  of  his  goodness,  which  shine  on  imdimmed 
and  unshadowed.  So  Paul  (I  Tim.  vi,  16),  'God  who 
dwelleth  in  the  light  which  no  man  can  approach  unto.' 
Here  the  idea  intended  by  the  imagery  is  the  incom- 
prehensibleness  of  the  self- existent  and  eternal  God. 
(2.)  Light  is  also  applied  to  Christ:  'The  people  who 
sat  in  darkness  have  seen  a  great  light'  (Matt,  iv,  16 ; 
Luke  ii,  32;  John  i,  4  scj.).  'He  was  the  true  light;' 
'I  am  the  light  of  the  world'  (John  viii,  12  ;  xii,  35,  36). 
(3.)  It  is  further  used  of  angels,  as  in  2  Cor.  xi,  14: 
'  Satan  himself  is  transformed  into  an  angel  of  light.' 
(4.)  Light  is  moreover  employed  of  men :  John  the  Bap- 
tist '  was  a  burning  and  a  shining  light'  (John  v,  35) ; 
'Ye  are  the  light  of  the  world'  (Matt,  v,  14;  see  also 
Acts  xiii,  47;  Eph.  v,  8)"  (Kitto).     See  Lights. 

LIGHT,  Div'iNE.     See  Knowledge;  Religion. 

LIGHT,  Inward.     See  Quakers. 

LIGHT  OF  Nature.     See  Nature. 

Light,  Friends  of.     See  Free  Congregations. 

Light,  George  C,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  born  in  Westmoreland  County,  Va.,  Feb.  28,  1785. 
In  1792  liLs  father  removed  to  Kentucky,  and  in  1799 
to  Ohio,  where  in  1803  he  joined  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church.  In  1804  the  son  was  converted  at  a  camp- 
meeting;  in  1806  he  entered  the  itinerant  ministry  in 
the  Western  Conference,  and  in  1807  he  was  ordained 
deacon.  Locating  after  his  marriage  in  1808,  he  was 
employed  as  a  surveyor  till  1822,  when  he  entered  the 
Kentucky  Conference,  Yrom  this  time  until  1859  he 
labored  actively  as  an  itinerant  preacher,  tilling  the 
most  important  stations  in  Kentucky,  Missouri,  and 
Mississippi.  He  died  Feb.  27,  1859.  Mr.  Light  was 
held  to  lie  one  of  the  most  eloquent  and  useful  ministers 
in  the  \\'cst  during  many  years.  No  man  of  his  day,  it 
is  thought,  liad  greater  control  over  the  popular  mind. — 
Camp,  ,Sk(fr/i  of  the  Rev.  G.  C.  L'njht  (Nashville,  1860). 

Light,  Old  and  New.  See  United  Presby- 
terians. 

Lightfoot,  John  (1),  D.D.,  a  noted  English  divine 
and  Hebraist,  was  born  at  Stoke-upon-Trent  in  1G02. 
He  was  educated  first  at  a  grammar-school  at  Morton 
Green,  in  Cheshire,  and  afterwards  at  Cambridge.  He 
was  remarkable,  at  Cambridge  and  afterwards,  for  his 
eloquence  and  his  proficiency  in  Latin  and  (Jreek.  Quit- 
ting tlie  university,  he  became  assistant  at  the  well- 
known  school  of  Hepton,  in  Derbyshire.  A  yc(ir  or  two 
after  he  entered  into  orders,  and  Settled  at  Norton-un- 
der-Hales,  in  Shropshire,  where  he  began  the  study  of 
the  Hebrew,  which  ripeneil  into  the  most  familiar  and 
consummate  knowledge  of  the  whole  range  of  Biblical 
and  I{abt)inical  literature.  In  1G27  he  accei)ted  the 
cure  of  Stone,  in  Staffordshire.  Two  years  later  he 
removed  to  Ilornsey,  in  order  to  be  near  tlie  librarj-  of 
Sion  College,  and  later  accepted  the  rectory  of  Ashford, 
in  Stattbrdshire.  Here  he  remained  during  the  tur- 
bulent vears  which  led  to  the  death  of  Charles  I,  the 


establishment  of  the  Commonwealth,  and  the  tempa- 
rary  subversion  of  the  Church  of  England.  During 
the  civil  war  he  was  identified  with  the  Presbyterians, 
and  became  a  member  of  the  Assembly  of  Divines  at 
Westminster,  where  he  dis]jlayed  great  courage  and 
learning  in  opposing  many  of  those  tenets  which  the 
divines  were  endeavoring  to  establish.  While  in  Lon- 
don he  was  minister  of  St.  Barthokimew's.  In  1G53 
he  was  presented  by  Parliament  with  the  living  of 
Great  Munden,  in  Hertfordshire.  In  1G55  he  entered 
upon  the  ofHce  of  vice-chancellor  of  Cambridge,  to  which 
he  was  chosen  that  year,  having  takeil  tlie  degree  of 
doctor  in  divinity  in  1652.  The  living  of  Great  Mun- 
den was  given  to  Dr.  Lightfoot  by  Parliament,  and  upon 
the  restoration  of  Charles  II  it  was  bestowed  upon  an- 
other person.  Through  the  influence  of  Sheldon,  then 
bishop  of  London,  Lightfoot  was,  however,  reinstated  in 
his  living,  as  well  as  confirmed  in  the  mastership  of 
Catharine  Hall,  which  he  had  offered  to  resign,  he  hav- 
ing previously  complied  with  the  terms  of  the  Act  of 
Uniformity.  Tlirough  the  influence  of  Sir  Orlando 
Bridgeman  he  was  appointed  to  a  prebendal  stall  in  the 
cathedral  of  Ely,  where  he  died  peaceablj^,  Dec.  6, 1675. 
"  Lightfoot  was  a  very  learned  Hebraist  for  his  time, 
but  he  was  not  free  from  the  unscientific  crotchets  of 
the  period,  holding,  for  example,  the  inspiration  of  the 
vowel-points,  etc.  He  has  done  good  service  to  theol- 
ogy by  pointing  out  and  insisting  upon  the  close  con- 
nection between  the  Talmudical  and  IMidrashic  writings 
and  the  New  Testament,  which,  to  a  certain  extent,  is 
only  to  be  understood  by  illustrations  from  the  anterior 
and  contemporaneous  religious  literature"  (Chambers). 
His  object  at  first  was  "to  jiroduce  one  great  and  per- 
fect work — a  harmony  of  the  four  evangelists,  with  a 
commentary  and  prolegomena.  But  the  little  probabil- 
ity of  his  being  able  to  publish  at  once  so  vast  a  work 
as  he  saw  it  would  become  were  he  to  carry  out  the  idea 
in  its  completeness — in  an  age  when  brevity  was  essen- 
tial to  everything  which  issued  from  the  press — deter- 
mined him  to  give  to  the  world  from  time  to  time  the 
result  of  his  labors  in  separate  treatises.  The  subject- 
matter  of  these  treatises  may  be  classed  under  the  gen- 
eral heads  of  chronology,  chorography,  investigation  of 
original  texts  and  versions,  examination  of  Kabbinical 
comments  and  paraphrases"  (Kitto).  Lightfoot's  works 
are :  Eruhhin,  or  Miscellanies,  Christian  and  Judaical 
(1G29)  : — A  J'eio  and  new  Observations  vpon  the  Book  of 
Genesis  (1642);  —  A  Ilandfid  of  Gleaninr/s  out  of  the 
Book  of  Exodus  (1643): — The  Harmony  of  the  four 
Evangelists  amourj  themselves  andvith  the  0.  T.  (1644): 
— A  Commentarij  upon  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  1st  part 
(1645) : — The  Harmony,  2d  part  (no  date): — The  Tem- 
ple Service  in  the  Days  of  our  Saviour  (1649) : — The 
Harmony,  3d  part  (1649)  : — The  Temple  (1650)  : — Harm 
HehixnccB  et  Talmudicce  (1658);  —  Horae,  etc.,  vpo?i  the 
Gospel  of  St.Mai-k  (16G1;  new  ed.  bj-  Eev.  R.  GandeU, 
Oxf.  1859,  4  vols.  8vo)  : — Jewish  and  Talmudical  Exer- 
citations  vpon  St. Luke: — Jetrish,  etc.,  upon  St.  John: — 
Horce  Hebraico',  etc.,  Acts  of  the  Apostles: — Horw,  etc., 
upon  the  first  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  During  the 
latter  j'ears  of  his  life  he  contributed  the  most  valuable 
assistance  to  the  authors  of  A^'alton's  Polyijlot  Bible,  Cas- 
tell's  Heptaylot  Lexicon,  and  I'ool's  Synojms  Criticorum. 
His  works  were  published  entire,  (1)  with  a  preface  by 
Dr.  Bright  and  a  life  by  tlie  editor,  John  Stryjie,  at  Lon- 
don in  1684  (2  vols,  fob);  (2)  at  Amsterdaiii  in  16^6  (2 
vols,  fol.) ;  (3)  at  Utrecht,  by  John  Leusden,  in  1699  (3 
vols,  fol.)  ;  and  (4)  by  Pitman,  at  London,  in  from  1822- 
25  (13  vols.  8vo),  which  is  the  best  edition,  and  contains 
a  very  elaborate  liiography  of  Lightfoot.  Dr.  Adam 
Clarke  says;  "In  Biblical  criticism  I  consider  Liglitfoot 
the  first  of  aU  English  writers;  and  in  this  I  include 
his  learning,  his  judgment,  and  his  usefulness."  See,  be- 
sides the  biographies  connected  with  the  various  collec- 
tions of  his  works, />'?-efi.s'  Desaiptio  Vitce  J.  Liahlfooti 
(1699);  Kitto,  Cyclop,  Bib.  Lit.  vol.  ii,  s.  v.;  Ilcrzog, 
Real-Encyklopddie,  vol.  viii,  s.  v.     (C.  R.  B.) 


LIGHTFOOT 


427 


LIGN-ALOE 


Lightfoot,  John  (2),  an  English  divine  and  bota- 
nist, was  born  in  Gloucestershire  in  1735.  He  was  ed- 
ucated I'or  the  Church,  became  chaplain  to  the  duchess 
of  Portland,  and  obtained  the  livings  of  Sheldon  and 
Gotham.  He  also  devoted  himself  specially  to  the  study 
of  botany,  and,  in  company  with  Pennant,  explored  the 
Hebrides  about  1772,  and  published  in  1777  a  valuable 
"  Flora  of  Scotland"  (Fiord  &'cotica,  2  vols.),  with  excel- 
lent figures.  He  died  in  1788. — Thomas,  Biorjrcqjhical 
Dicfidiutri/,  p.  1425. 

Lightning  ([iroperly  p'^3,  barak',  Dan.  x,  6 ;  collec- 
tively H'/Zi/uiiif/s,  Psa.  cxliv,  G;  2  Sam.  xxii,  15;  Ezra  i,  13; 
plur.Jo!)  xxxviii,  35;  Psa.  xviii,  15;  Ixxvii,  19,  etc.;  trop. 
the  brvjhtness  of  a  glittering  sword,  Ezek.  xxi,  15,  33; 
Deut.  xxxii,  41,  etc. ;  aoTpcnrl],  Matt,  xxiv,  27 ;  xxviii, 
3;  Luke  x,  18;  xi,  36;  xvii,  24;  Eev.  iv,  5;  viii,  5;  xi, 
19;  xvi,  18 ;  once  pT3,  huzak',  ajhtsh  of  lightning,  Ezek. 
i,  14;  less  properly  "lix,  6?;  light,  Job  xxxvii,  3,  11,  25; 
T^sb,  lappid',  a  burning  iorc/i,  Exod.  xx,  18 ;  lig.  PTn, 
chaziz',  an  arrow,  i.  e.  tlwrndcr-Jlash,  Zech.  x,  1 ;  comp. 
Job  xxviii,  26;  xxxviii,  25).  Travellers  state  that  in 
Syria  lightnings  are  frequent  in  the  autumnal  months. 
Seldom  a  night  passes  without  a  great  deal  of  lightning, 
which  is  sometimes  accompanied  by  thunder  and  some- 
times not.  A  squall  of  wind  and  clouds  of  dust  are  the 
usual  fiircrunners  of  the  iirst  rains.  See  Palestine. 
To  these  natural  phenomena  the  sacred  writers  fre- 
quently allude.  In  directing  their  energies,  "  the  Lord 
hath  his  way  in  the  whirlwind  and  in  the  storm,  and 
the  clouds  are  the  dust  of  his  feet;  the  mountains  quake 
at  him,  and  the  hills  melt,  and  the  earth  is  burned  at 
his  presence ;  his  fury  is  poured  out  like  fire,  and  the 
rocks  are  thrown  down  by  him"  (Nah.  i,  3-C).  The 
terrors  of  tlie  divine  wrath  are  often  represented  by 
thunder  and  lightning;  and  thunder,  on  account  of  its 
awful  impression  on  the  minds  of  mortals,  is  also  spoken 
of  in  Scripture  as  the  "  voice  of  the  Lord"  (Psa.  cxxxv, 
7;  cxliv,  6;  2  Sam.  xxii,  15;  Job  xxviii,  26;  xxxvii,  4, 
6;  xxxviii,  25;  xl,  9;  Zech.  ix,  14;  Rev.  i\%  5  ;  xvi,  18 
-21).  On  account  of  ihcjire  attending  their  light,  they 
are  the  symbols  of  edicts  enforced  with  destructi'ia  to 
those  who  oppose  them,  or  who  hinder  others  from  giving 
obedience  to  them  (Psa.  cxliv,  6 ;  Zech.  ix,  14 ;  Psa. 
xviii,  14;  liev.  iv,  5;  xvi,  18).  Thunders  and  light- 
nings, when  they  proceed  from  the  throne  of  God  (as  in 
Pev.  iv,  5),  are  fit  representations  of  God's  glorious  and 
awfid  majesty;  but  vfhcnjire  comes  down  from  heaven 
upon  the  earth,  it  expresses  some  judgment  of  God  on 
the  world  (as  in  Rev.  xx,  9).  The  voices,  thunders, 
lightnings,  and  great  hail,  in  Rev.  xvi,  18-21,  are  inter- 
preted expressly  of  an  exceeding  great  plague,  so  that 
men  blasphemed  on  account  of  it  (see  Wemyss,  Sgrnb. 
Diet.  s.  v.).     See  Thundkr. 

Lights.  L  The  use  of  artificial  light  in  baptism  was 
practiced  in  the  Church  at  an  early  day,  although  it 
was  opposed  in  this  instance  as  in  its  use  for  communion 
service,  etc.  But  where  it  was  used  it  was  the  practice, 
in  addition  to  the  ceremony  of  putting  on  white  gar- 
ments at  baptism,  to  place  lighted  tapers  in  the  hands 
of  the  baptized.  Gregory  Nazianzen  says :  "  The  station 
where,  immediately  after  baptism,  thou  shalt  be  placed 
before  the  altar,  is  an  emblem  of  the  glory  of  the  life  to 
come;  the  psalmody  witli  which  thou  shalt  be  received 
is  a  foretaste  of  those  hymns  and  songs  of  a  better  life ; 
and  the  lamps  which  thou  shalt  light  are  a  figure  of 
those  lamps  of  faith  wherewith  bright  and  virgin  souls 
shall  go  forth  to  meet  the  Bridegroom."  Others  say 
that  the  lamp  was  designed  to  be  a  symbol  of  their  own 
illumination,  and  to  remind  the  candidates  of  the  words 
of  Christ,  "  Let  your  light  so  shine  before  men  that  they 
may  see  your  good  works,  and  glorify  your  Father  which 
is  in  heaven."  In  some  baptisms  the  attendi\nts  were 
clothed  in  white,  and  carried  tapers.  At  the  baptism 
of  the  younger  Theodosius,  the  leaders  of  the  people 
were  all  clothed  in  white,  and  all  the  senators  and  men 
of  quality  carried  lamps. 


Lighted  candles  were,  according  to  St.  Jerome  (Epist, 
cord.  Vigilant,  cap.  3.;  comp.  also  Cave,  Prim.  Cltrist.  lib. 
i,  c.  7,  p.  203),  sometimes  used  in  the  Eastern  chiurches 
when  the  Gospel  was  read,  and  were  designed  to  show 
the  joy  of  those  who  received  the  glad  tidings,  and  also 
to  be  a  symbol  of  the  light  of  truth.  The  lighting  of 
candles  on  the  communion  table  is  observed  only  in  the 
Romish  Church.  See  Farrar,  Eccks.  Dictionary,  s.  v. ; 
Bingham,  Antiquities  of  the  Christ.  Church,  bk.  xii.  ch, 
i\^,  sect.  4;  A\t,  Christlich.  Cultits  (1851),  p.  95;  Ilerzog, 
Real-Encyklop.  viii,  517  sq. ;  Aschbach,  A!'t/-c/ie/i-Lea-jX'on, 
iii,  769  (Kerzen).     See  Candi.es. 

II.  Lights  were  emjjloyed  by  the  Apostolic  Church, 
but  for  no  other  purpose  tlian  to  obviate  the  inconven- 
ience of  assembling  for  worship  in  the  dark.  Their  use 
as  a  matter  of  religion,  or,  rather,  of  superstition,  is  of 
far  less  ancient  date,  although  it  has  been  defended  as  a 
primitive  custom,  and  might,  of  course,  be  traced  even 
to  Jewish  anticjuity,  if  such  a  precedent  were  esteemed 
of  any  value.  In  all  probability,  artificial  light  was  used 
during  the  daj^time,  and  for  a  sj'mbolical  purpose,  about 
the  4th  century,  if  we  accept  the  statement  of  St.Pauli- 
nus,  bishop  of  Sola  (A.D.  353-431),  who,  speaking  of  the 
great  numbers  of  wax-lights  which  burned  about  the 
altars,  making  the  night  more  splendid  than  the  day, 
adds  that  the  light  of  the  day  itself  was  made  more  glo- 
rious by  the  same  means : 

"Nocte  dieque  niicnnt.     Sic  nox  splendore  did 
Fulget:  et  ipsa  dies  ccelesti  ilkistris  houore 
Plus  micat  innunieris  lucem  geminata  lucernis." 

(Pauliu.  Nat.  iii,  .S'.  Felicis.) 
(Compare  also  Isidore,  Origin,  vii,  12.)     But  this  custom 
\vas  severely  condemned  by  many.     Comp.  Lamps. 

HI.  The  practice  of  lighting  candles  on  the  altar, 
which  prevailed,  and  stiU  prevails,  in  the  Romish  Church, 
was  abolished  in  England  at  the  Reformation. 

Those  candles  which  (according  to  one  of  the  Injunc- 
tions of  Edward  VI,  set  forth  in  1547)  have  been  suf- 
fered to  remain  upon  the  Lord's  table  are  sometimes 
designated  as  "lights  on  the  communion  table.''  But 
it  is  to  be  noticed  that  no  lights  are  ever  used  in  the 
English  churches,  onl}-  candles,  which  are  never  light- 
ed, the  lighting  of  any  such  candles  at  an  evening  serv- 
ice being  merely  for  a  necessary  purpose.  See  Eden, 
Theol.  Diet.  s.  v.     See  Altar. 

Light.s,  Feast  of.     See  Epiphany. 

Lign-aloe (only  in  the  plur. D''?nx,  ahalim', Numb, 
xxiv,  6,  Sept.  (Tici/i'oi,  Yulg.  tabernacula ;  Prov.  vii,  17. 
Sept.  o7ko)',  Vidg.  aloe,  A.  V.  "  aloes ;"  or  fem.  J^iPi^X, 
ahaloth',  Psa.  xlv,  8,  Sept.  araK-n),  Vulg.  gutia,  A.  V. 
"  aloes ;"  Cant,  iv,  14,  aXioB,  aloe,  "  aloes"),  a  kind  of 
perfume  which  interpreters  have  by  common  consent 
regarded  as  derived  from  some  Oriental  tree,  and  com- 
pared w^ith  the  agallochiim  (dydXXoxov')  or  aloe-trood 
{t,v\a\m]),  described  by  Dioscorides  (i,  21)  in  the  fol- 
lowing terms :  "  It  is  a  wood  brought  from  India  and 
Arabia,  resembling  thyine-wood,  compact,  fragrant,  as- 
tringent to  the  taste,  with  great  bittemess ;  having  a 

skin-like   bark It  is   burned  for  frankincense." 

Pliny  likewise  speaks  of  it  as  being  derived  from  the 
same  region  (Nat.  Hist,  xxvli,  5).  Later  writer.?,  as 
Orobasius,  ^tius,  and  P.  yEgineta,  mention  it,  but  give 
no  further  description.  Arabic  authors,  however,  as 
Phases,  Serapion,  and  others,  were  well  acquainted  with 
the  substance,  of  which  they  describe  several  varieties; 
and  the  Latin  translator  c)f  Avicenna  (Iii,  132)  gives 
"agallochum,"  "xylaloe,"  and  "lignum  aloes"  as  equiv- 
alent to  the  aghlajun,  aghalukhi,  and  I'ld  of  the  text. 
Royle  (Illustr.  ofliimal.  Hot.  p.  171)  has  traced  the  same 
substance  in  the  aggur,  a  famous  aromatic  wood  obtain- 
ed in  the  bazaars  of  Northern  India  under  three  names: 
1,  aod-i-hindi ;  2,  a  variety  procured  from  Surat,  but 
not  differing  essentially  from  3,  aod-i-kimari,  said  to 
come  from  China,  doubtless  the  alcanierium  of  Avicen- 
na. Garcias  ab  Hosto  (Clusius,  Exot.  I/ist.), v.ntmix  on 
this  subject  near  Surat,  says  that  "  it  is  called  in  Ma- 
lacca garo,  but  the  choicest  sort  calambac."     Paul  a 


LIGN-ALOE 


428 


LIGN-ALOE 


Bartholin  (in  Vyacarana,  p.  205)  likewise  distinsyuishes 
three  sorts. '"one  common,  very  odorous,  and  of  j^reat 
priee,  called  ayhil;  the  black,  which  is  termed  kdr-aghhil 
or  kal-uf/am ;  the  third,  producing  a  Hower,  named  nw- 
f/ariiii,  properly  marKjahjam  or  maU'KjandMijaL" 

There  i.s  considerable  confusion  among  naturalists  in 
their  attempts  to  identify  the  exact  tree  which  yields 
the  far-famed  wood.  "  Dr.  Roxburgh  states  that  uguru 
is  the  Sanscrit  name  of  the  incense  or  aloe-wood,  which 
in  Ilindostanee  is  called  lu/iir,  and  in  Persian  aod-hindi, 
and  that  there  is  little  doubt  that  the  real  calamhac,  or 
afiallochum  of  the  ancients,  is  yielded  by  an  immense 
tree,  a  native  of  the  mountainous  tracts  east  of  and 
southeast  from  Silhet,  in  about  24°  of  N.  latitude.  This 
plant,  he  says,  cannot  be  distinguished  from  thriving 
plants,  exactly  of  the  same  age,  of  the  Garo  de  Malacca, 
received  from  that  place,  and  growing  in  the  garden  of 
Calcutta.  He  further  states  that  small  cpiantities  of 
agallochum  are  sometimes  imported  into  Calcutta  by 
sea  from  the  eastward,  but  that  such  is  always  deemed 
inferior  to  that  of  Silhet  (Flora  Ind.  ii,  423).  The  Guro 
de  Malacca  was  tirst  described  by  Lamarck  {Encyclopedie 
Methodique,  i,  47  sq.),  from  a  specimen  presented  to  him 
by  Sonnerat  as  that  of  the  tree  which  yielded  the  hois 
d'aiffle  of  commerce.  Lamarck  named  this  tree  Aqui- 
laria  Malaccemis,  which  Cavanilles  afterwards  changed 
mmecessarily  to  .1  quilaria  ovata.  As  Dr.  Eoxburgh 
found  that  his  plant  belonged  to  the  same  genus,  lie 
named  it  Aquilaria  agallochum,  but  it  is  printed  Agal- 
loc/ri  in  Ins  Flora  Tndica,  probably  by  an  oversight.  He 
is  of  opinion  that  the  A  gal lochum  secundariiim  of  Rura- 
pbius  i^IIerb.  Ami.  ii,  34,  t.  10),  which  that  author  re- 
ceived under  the  name  oi  Agallochum  Malacceiise,  also 
belongs  to  the  same  genus,  as  well  as  the  Swfu  of 
Kiempfer  {Aman.  Exot.  p.  903),  and  the  Ophispei-mum 
sinense  of  Loureiro.  This  last-named  missionary  de- 
scribes a  third  plant,  which  he  names  Aloexylum  agal- 
lochum, representing  it  as  a  large  tree  growing  in  the 
lofty  mountains  of  Champava,  belonging  to  Cochin 
China,  about  13°  of  N.  lat.,  near  the  great  river  La\'um, 
and  producing  calamhac  (^Flo)-a  Cochin  Chinensis,  edit. 
Wildenow,  i,  327).  This  tree,  belonging  to  the  class 
and  ortler  Decandria  monogynia  of  Linnrous,  and  the  nat- 
ural family  of  Leguminosce,  has  always  been  admitted  as 
one  of  tlie  trees  yielding  agallochum.  But,  as  Loureiro 
himself  confesses  that  he  had  only  once  seen  a  muti- 
lated branch  of  the  tree  in  flower,  which,  by  long  cai- 
riage,  had  tlie  petals,  anthers,  and  stigma  much  bruised 
and  torn,  it  is  not  impossible  that  this  may  also  belong 
to  tlie  genus  Aquilaria,  especially  as  his  tree  agrees  in 
so  many  points  with  that  descrilied  by  Dr.  Roxburgh. 
Rumphius  has  described  and  tigured  a  third  plant,  which 
he  named  A  rhor  excacans,  from  '  Blindhout,'  in  conse- 
quence of  its  acrid  juice  destroying  sight,  whence  the 
generic  name  of  Excwcaria ;  the  specilic  one  of  agallo- 
chum he  ajiplied  because  its  wood  is  similar  to,  and  often 
substituled  for  agallochum,  and  he  states  that  it  was 
sometimes  exported  as  such  to  Europe,  and  even  to 
China.  This  tree,  the  Excwcaria  agallochum,  of  the 
Liniiffian  class  and  order  Diacia  triandria,  and  the  nat- 
ural family  of  Euphorbiacece,  is  also  very  common  in  the 
delta  of  tlie  (Jangcs,  where  it  is  called  Geria;  'but  the 
wood-cutters  of  the  Sundcrbunds,'  Dr.  Roxburgh  says, 
'  who  are  the  people  best  acquauited  with  the  nature  of 
this  tree,  report  the  pale,  white,  milky  juice  thereof  to 
be  liigldy  acrid  and  very  dangerous.'  The  only  use 
made  of  tlie  tree,  as  far  as  Dr.  Roxburgh  could  learn, 
was  for  cliarcoal  and  firewood.  Agallochum  of  any  sort 
is,  he  believed,  never  found  in  this  tree,  which  is  often 
the  only  one  ((uoted  as  that  yielding  agila-wood;  but, 
notwitlistandiug  the  negative  testimony  of  Dr.  Rox- 
burgli,  it  may,  in  particular  situations,  as  stated  by 
L'umiiliius,  yield  a  substitute  for  that  fragrant  and  long- 
famed  wood.  In  Arabian  authors  numerous  varieties 
of  agalloclium  arc  mentioned  (Celsus,  llierobof.  p.  143), 
Persian  authors  mention  only  three:  \.  Aod-i-hindi ; 
that  i5,  the  Indian;  2.  Aod-i-chini,  or  Chinese   kind 


(probably  that  from  Cochin  China) ;  3.  Sumunduri,  a 
term  generally  applied  to  things  brought  from  sea,  which 
may  have  reference  to  the  inferior  variety  from  the  In- 
dian islands.  In  old  works,  such  as  those  of  Bauhin  and 
Ray,  three  kinds  are  also  mentioned:  \.  Agallochum 
prwsfantissimum,  also  called  Calamhac;  2.  A .  Ojficina- 
rum,  or  Palo  de  Aguilla  of  Linschoten  ;  3.  A.  sylvestre, 
or  Aguilla  brava.  But,  besides  these  varieties,  obtained 
from  different  localities,  perhaps  from  different  plants, 
there  are  also  distinct  varieties,  obtainable  from  the 
same  plant.  Thus,  in  a  MS.  accomit  by  Dr.  Roxburgh, 
to  which  Dr.  Royle  had  access,  it  is  stated,  in  a  letter 
from  R.  K.  Dick,  at  Silhet,  that  four  different  qualities 
may  be  obtained  from  the  same  tree  :  1st,  Ghta-ki, -which 
sinks  in  water,  and  sells  from  12  to  IG  rupees  per  seer  of 
2  lbs.;  '^d,  Doim,  G  to  8  rupees  per  seer;  3d,  Simula, 
which  floats  in  water,  3  to  4  rupees;  and,  4th,  Churum, 
which  is  in  small  pieces,  and  also  floats  in  water,  from  1 
to  1^  rupees  per  seer,  and  that  sometimes  80  lbs.  of 
these  four  kinds  may  be  obtained  from  one  tree.  AU 
these  tuggu7--trees,  as  they  are  called,  do  not  produce  the 
aggur,  nor  does  ever}'  part  of  even  the  most  productive 
tree.  The  natives  cut  into  the  wood  until  they  observe 
dark-colored  veins  yielding  the  perfume ;  these  guide 
them  to  the  place  containing  the  aggur,  which  generally 
extends  but  a  short  way  through  the  centre  of  the  trunk 
or  branch.  An  essence,  or  cdtur,  is  obtained  by  bruising 
the  wood  in  a  mortar,  and  then  infusing  it  in  boiling 
water,  when  the  attur  floats  on  the  surface.  Early  de- 
cay does  not  seem  incident  to  all  kinds  of  agallochum, 
for  -we  possess  specimens  of  the  wood  gorged  with  fra- 
grant resin  {Illustr,  Him.  Bot.  p.  173)  which  show  no 
symptoms  of  it,  but  stiU  it  is  stated  that  the  wood  is 
sometimes  buried  in  the  earth.  This  may  be  for  the 
purpose  of  increasing  its  specific  gravity.  A  large  spec- 
imen in  the  museum  of  the  East-India  House  displays  a 
cancellated  structure  in  which  the  resinous  parts  remain, 
the  rest  of  the  wood  having  been  removed,  apparently 
by  decay"  (Kitto).  Notwithstanding  the  uncertainty 
respecting  the  identity  of  some  of  the  above-described 
varieties,  we  have,  at  all  events,  two  trees  ascertained  as 
yielding  this  fragrant  wood — one,  Aquilaria  agallochum, 
a  native  of  Silhet,  and  the  other  A .  ovafa  or  Malaccen- 
sis,  a  native  of  Malacca,  although  it  is  still  not  clear  that 
thev  are  anvthing  more  than  local  variations  of  the 


Aquilaria  Agallochum. 

same  species.  The  former  is  described  as  a  magnificent 
tree,  growing  to  the  height  of  120  feet,  being  12  feet  in 
girth.  "  The  bark  of  the  trunk  is  smooth  and  ash-col- 
ored, that  of  the  branches  gray  and  lightly  striped  with 
brown.  The  wood  is  white,  and  very  light  and  soft.  It 
is  totally  without  smell,  and  the  leaves,  bark,  and  flOwers 
are  equally  inodorous"  {Sc)-ipt.  IJcrh.  p.  238),     The  fra- 


LIGN-ALOE 


429 


LIGUORI 


grance  appears  to  reside  wholly  iia  the  resin  deposited 
ill  the  pores,  and  is  developed  by  heat.  Both  plants 
belong  to  the  Linnrean  class  and  order  Decandria  mono- 
gynia,  and  the  natural  family  of  A  qiii/driiicce. 

"  It  is  extremely  interesting  to  fnid  that  the  Malay 
name  of  the  substance  in  question,  which  is  agila,  is  so 
little  different  from  the  ahalim  of  the  Hebrew ;  not 
more,  indeed,  than  may  be  observed  in  many  well-known 
words,  where  the  hard  g  of  one  language  is  turned  into 
the  aspirate  in  another.  It  is  therefore  probable  that 
it  was  by  the  name  ar/ila  (arjliil  in  Kosenmliller,  Bihlic. 
Bot.  p.  234)  that  this  wood  was  first  known  in  com- 
merce, being  conveyed  across  the  bay  of  Bengal  to  the 
island  of  Ceylon  or  the  peninsula  of  India,  which  the 
Arab  or  Phoenician  traders  visited  at  very  remote  pe- 
riods, and  where  they  obtained  the  early-known  spices 
and  precious  stones  of  India.  It  is  not  a  little  curious 
that  captain  Hamilton  (Account  of  the.  East  Indies,  i,  G8) 
mentions  it  by  the  name  of  agala,  an  odoriferous  wood 
at  Muscat.  We  know  that  the  Portuguese,  when  they 
reached  the  eastern  coast  from  the  peninsula,  obtained 
it  uniler  this  name,  whence  they  caUed  it  pao  d\iguila, 
or  ear/le-tcood,  which  is  the  origin  of  the  generic  name 
Aquiluria. 

"  It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that,  notwithstand- 
ing all  that  has  been  written  to  prove  the  identity  of 
the  aha/im-trees  with  the  aloes -wood  of  commerce, 
and  notwithstanding  the  apparent  connection  of  the 
Hebrew  word  with  the  Arabic  etgldugun  and  the  Greek 
agallochon,  the  opinion  is  not  clear  of  difficulties.  In 
the  lirst  place,  the  passage  in  Numb,  xxiv,  6,  '  as  the 
ahalim  which  Jehovah  hath  planted,'  is  an  argument 
against  the  identification  with  the  Aquilaria  agallo- 
chum.  The  Sept.  seem  to  have  read  D'^PilN,  olialim', 
tents ;  and  they  are  followed  by  the  Vulg.,  the  Syriac,  the 
Arabic,  and  some  other  versions.  If  this  is  not  the  true 
reading — and  the  context  is  against  it — then  if  ahalim 
be  the  Aq.  agallochum,  we  must  suppose  that  Balaam 
is  speaking  of  trees  concerning  which,  in  their  growing 
state,  he  could  have  known  nothing  at  all.  Eosenmlil- 
ler  (Schol.  in  V.  T.  ad  Numb,  xxiv,  G)  allows  that  this 
tree  is  not  found  in  Arabia,  but  thinks  that  Balaam 
might  have  become  acquainted  with  it  from  the  mer- 
chants. Perhaps  the  prophet  might  have  seen  the 
wood.  But  the  passage  in  Numbers  manifestly  implies 
that  he  had  seen  the  ahalim  growing,  and  that  in  all 
probability  they  were  some  kind  of  trees  sufficiently 
known  to  the  Israelites  to  enable  them  to  understand 
the  allusion  in  its  full  force.  But  if  the  ahalim  be  the 
agalli)<:hi(m,  then  much  of  the  illustration  would  have 
been  lost  to  the  people  who  were  the  suljject  of  the 
prophecy ;  for  the  A  q.  agallochum  is  found  neither  on 
the  banks  of  the  Euphrates,  where  Balaam  lived,  nor  in 
Moab,  where  the  blessing  was  enunciated.  Michaelis 
(Supp.  p.  3-t,  35)  believes  the  Sept.  reading  to  be  the 
correct  one,  though  he  sees  no  difficulty,  but  rather  a 
beauty,  in  supposing  that  Balaam  was  drawing  a  simil- 
itude from  a  tree  of  foreign  growth.  lie  confesses  that 
the  parallelism  of  the  verse  is  more  in  favor  of  the  tree 
than  the  tent ;  but  he  objects  that  the  lign-aloes  should 
be  mentioned  before  the  cedars,  the  parallelism  requir- 
ing, he  thinks,  the  inverse  order.  But  this  is  hardly  a 
valid  objection,  for  what  tree  was  held  in  greater  esti- 
mation than  the  cedar?  And  even  if  ahalim  be  the 
A  q.  agcdlochuni,  yet  the  latter  clause  of  the  verse  does 
no  violence  to  the  law  of  parallelism,  for  of  the  two  trees 
the  cedar  'is  greater  and  more  august.'  Again,  the 
passage  in  Psa.  xlv,  8  would  perhaps  be  more  correctly 
translated  thus:  'The  myrrh,  aloes,  and  cassia,  per- 
fuming all  thy  garments,  brought  from  the  ivory  palaces 
of  the  Minni,  shall  make  thee  glad.'  The  Minni,  or 
Minrei,  were  inhabitants  of  sjiicy  Arabia,  and  carried  on 
a  great  trade  in  the  exportation  of  spices  and  perfumes 
(Pliny,  xii,  14, 16 ;  Bochart,  Bhaleg,  ii,  22, 135).  As  the 
mgrrh  and  cassia  are  mentioned  as  coming  from  the 
Minni,  and  were  doubtless  natural  productions  of  the 
country,  the  inference  is  that  aloes,  being  named  with 


them,  were  also  a  production  of  the  same  region"  (Kit- 
to).     But  see  jMinni. 

See  generally  Abulfeda,  in  Biisching's  Magazin,  iv, 
277 ;  Bokin,  in  Notices  et  Extraits  de  la  Bihlioth.  du  Roi, 
ii,  397;  Linnajus,  Pflanzensystem  nach  Ilouttyn  (Noimb. 
1777),  ii,  422  sq. ;  Michaelis,  Supplem.  p.  32;  Wahl,  Os- 
tindien,  ii,  772 ;  the  Eundgruhen  des  Orients,  v,  372 ;  Bon- 
di,  Or-Esther,  p.  13 ;  Sylv.  de  Saez,  ad  Abdollatiphi  De- 
scrip.  yEg.  p.  320.     Compare  Aloe. 

Liguori,  Alfonzo  jMaria  de,  a  Roman  Catholic 
bishop,  and  founder  of  the  Order  of  Eedemptorists,  was 
born  Sept.  27, 1G90,  at  Naples.  He  was  descended  from 
a  noble  family,  and  the  son  of  a  royal  officer;  from  his 
mother,  who  was  a  fervid  Catholic,  he  imbibed  in  early 
childhood  a  glowing  devotedness  to  the  Church  of  Rome. 
Educated  in  an  institution  of  the  priests  of  the  Oratory, 
he  made  such  rapid  progress  that  he  obtained  in  the  six- 
teenth year  of  his  life  the  degree  of  LL.D.  In  accord- 
ance with  the  wish  of  his  parents  he  became  a  lawj'er, 
but  the  loss  of  an  important  lawsuit  so  mortified  him 
that  he  resolved  to  enter  the  priesthood.  He  overcame 
the  violent  opposition  of  his  father,  and  took  orders  in 
1725.  Soon  after  he  entered  the  Congregation  of  the 
Propaganda  at  Naples,  and  began  to  labor  with  great 
zeal  for  the  religious  awakening  of  the  lowest  classes  in 
Naples  and  the  neighboring  provinces.  In  order  to  en- 
large the  sphere  of  his  labors  he  concluded  to  establish 
a  new  religious  congregation.  The  first  house  of  the 
new  congregation  was  established  with  the  assistance  of 
twelve  companions  at  Scala ;  the  chief  task  of  the  mem- 
bers was  declared  to  be  "  to  devote  themselves  to  the 
service  of  the  poorest  and  most  abandoned  souls."  Three 
years  later  the  second  house  was  established  at  Cionani, 
in  the  diocese  of  Salerno.  The  rule  of  the  new  congre- 
gation, which  Liguori  had  drawn  up  with  the  assist- 
ance of  several  prominent  men,  was  confirmed  by  a  brief 
of  pope  Benedict  XIV,  dated  Feb.  22,  1749,  and  Ligu- 
ori was  elected  superior  general  for  his  lifetime.  The 
archbishopric  of  Palermo,  which  king  Charles  III  of 
Naples  offered  to  him,  Liguori  declined,  but  in  17G2  he 
had,  at  the  request  of  pope  Clement  XIII,  to  accept  the 
bishopric  of  Sta.  Agata  de'  Goti.  A  general  chapter  of 
the  congregation  unanimously  declared  that  no  new  su- 
perior general  should  be  elected  in  place  of  Liguori, 
but  that  the  latter  should  appoint  a  vicar  general  to 
preside  over  the  congregation  in  his  place.  The  feeble 
state  of  his  health  repeatedly  induced  him  to  ask  the 
pope  to  accept  his  resignation,  but  his  Mish  was  not 
granted  until  1775.  He  retired  to  the  house  of  his  con- 
gregation at  Nocera  de'  Pagani,  where  he  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life  in  composing  theological  and,  in 
particular,  ascetical  works.  In  consequence  of  the  in- 
trigues of  several  prominent  members  of  his  order,  and 
the  government  of  Naples,  which,  against  his  will,  caused 
iha  rules  of  his  order  to  be  changed,  he  was  compelled 
to  resign  its  supreme  management.  He  died  August  1, 
1787.  In  179G  he  received  from  Pius  VI  the  title  "  Ven- 
erable," in  1816  he  was  beatified,  and  on  May  26, 1839, 
was  canonized  by  pope  Gregory  XVI.  In  1871  Pius 
IX  conferred  upon  him  the  title  and  rank  of  a  "  Doctor 
EcclesiiE."  Liguori  was  a  very  prolific  writer,  the  best 
known  among  his  works  being  the  Theologia  Moralis 
(Naples,  3  vols.):^ — Homo  Ap)ostolicus  (V^enice,  1782,  3 
vols.) : — Imtitutio  Catechetica  (Bassano,  1768) : — P?-axis 
Confessarii.  Complete  editions  of  his  works  have  been 
published  at  Paris  (1835  sq.,  in  IG  vols.),  at  Monza  (70 
vols.),  and  other  places,  llis  works  have  been  trans- 
lated into  French  and  (Jerman,  and,  in  great  part,  into 
English,  Spanish,  Polish,  and  other  European  language?. 
The  principles  of  casuistry  explained  b)'  Liguori  have 
been  received  with  much  favor  by  the  Ultramontane 
school  of  the  Roman  Cathohc  theologians,  and  his  moral 
theology,  which  is  a  modification  of  the  so-called  "  prob- 
abilistic system"  of  the  age  immediately  before  his  own, 
is  largely  used  in  the  direction  of  consciences.  Few 
writers  in  modern  times  have  gone  so  far  in  the  defence 
of  the  extremest  ultra-papal  theories  and  practices  as 


LIGUORIANS 


430 


LILIENTHAL 


Liguori,  antl,  while  his  honesty  and  zeal  are  undoubted, 
he  stands  forth  in  the  recent  history  of  the  Koman 
Churcli  as  a  representative  of  the  very  worst  tendencies 
of  casuists.  In  the  ordinary  concerns  of  life,  where 
there  is  no  suspicion  and  no  warnintf,  he  elaborate]}' 
teaches  how  falsehood  and  trickery  between  man  and 
man  may  be  most  advantageously  practiced,  and  how 
far  cheating  and  stealing  on  the  part  of  tradesmen  and 
servants  may  be  venially  carried  on,  and  without  incur- 
ring rriortal  sin.  See  Connelly,  Reasons  for  abjui-ing 
A  llerjiance  to  the  See  of  Rome  (Lond,  1852) ;  Lond.  Qii. 
Rev.  185G,  p.  39G ;  Chriitidn  Remvmhr.  185-1  (Jan.),  p.  38  ; 
1855  (Oct.),  p.  407.  Biographies  of  Liguori  have  been 
written  by  Giatini  (  T7?«  del  heuto  A  Ifons.  Liyuori,  Rome, 
1815),  Jeancard  (Tie  du  C.  A.  Liguori,\jO\iva.m,  1829), 
Klotts  (Aix-la-Chapelle,  1835),  Schick  (Schaffhausen, 
1853),  and  others.  In  English  we  have  a  very  good  bi- 
ographical Z(/e  of  St.  A.M.  de  Liguori  (London,  1848,  2 
vols.  8vo).  For  an  account  of  the  religious  order  found- 
ed by  Liguori,  see  Eedejiptokists.     (A.  J.  S.) 

Liguoriaus.     See  Eedemptorists. 

Li'Sure  (D'4-;?>  le'shem,  supposed  to  be  from  an  old 
root  preserved  in  the  Arab.,  and  signifying  to  taste)  oc- 
curs but  twice  (Exod.  xxviii,  19 ;  xxxix,  12)  as  the  name 
of  the  first  stone  in  the  third  row  on  the  high-priest's 
breastplate,  where  the  Sept. renders  \iyvpiov  (apparently 
alhiduig  to  the  above  derivation),  and  is  followed  by  the 
Vulg.  ligurius,  as  well  as  the  A.V.  So  also  Josephus 
(\Vur,  V,  5,  7).  "  The  word  ligure  is  unknown  in  mod- 
ern mmeralogy.  Phillips  (^Mineralogy,  p.  87)  mentions 
ligurite,  the  fragments  of  which  are  mieven  and  transpa- 
rent, with  a  vitreous  lustre.  It  occurs  in  a  sort  of  talcose 
rock  in  the  banks  of  a  river  in  the  Apennines"  (Smith). 
The  classical  ligure  (or  XvyKovpiot^)  was  thought  to 
be  a  species  of  amber  (see  Moore,  A  nc.  Min.  p.  lOG),  al- 
though ancient  authors  speak  uncertainly  respecting  it 
(Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  xxxvii,  11,13;  Theophrastus,  De  lapid. 
c.  50),  and  assign  a  false  derivation  to  the  name  (see 
Gesenius,  Thesaur.  Ileb.  p.  7G3).  The  Hebrew  word  has 
been  thought  to  designate  the  same  stone  as  the  jacinth 
(Braunius,  Be  vestitu  sacerd.  ii,  14),  although  others  ail- 
here  to  the  opal  as  corresponding  better  with  the  ancient 
ligure  (KosenmiiUer,  Sch.  in  Exod.  xxviii,  19).  "Dr. 
Woodward  and  some  old  commentators  have  supposed 
that  it  was  some  kind  of  helemnite,  because,  as  these  fos- 
sils contain  bituminous  particles,  they  have  thought 
that  they  have  been  able  to  detect,  upon  heating  or  rub- 
bing pieces  of  them,  the  absurd  origin  which  Theophras- 
tus {Frag,  ii,  28,  31 ;  xv,  2,  edit.  Schneider)  and  Pliny 
(ff.X.  xxxvii,  iii)  ascribe  to  the  Ignajrium.  As  to  the 
belief  that  amber  is  denoted  by  this  word,  Theophrastus, 
in  the  passage  cited  above,  has  given  a  detailecl  descrip- 
tion of  the  stone,  and  clearly  distinguishes  it  from  elec- 
tron, or  amber.  Amber,  moreover,  is  too  soft  for  engrav- 
ing upon,  while  the  Ignn/riiim  was  a  hard  stone,  out  of 
wliiih  seals  were  made"  (Smith).  See  Gem.  Beckmann 
{//isl.  /iirent.  i,  87,  Bohn)  believes,  with  Brann,  Epiplia- 
nius,  and  J.  de  Laet,  that  the  description  of  the  Ignajr- 
ium  agrees  well  with  the  liyacinth-stone  of  modern  min- 
eralogists, especially  that  species  which  is  described  as 
iK'ing  of  an  orange-j'ellow  color,  passing  on  into  a  red- 
dish-brown (see  iiosenm idler,  Bibl.  Alterth.  IV,  i,  28). 
The  liyncinth  is  a  variety  of  crj-stullized  zircon,  contain- 
ing also  iron,  which  usually  gives  it  a  reddish  or  brown 
color.  It  generally  occnrs  in  fiiur-sided  prisms,  termi- 
nated by  four  rhombic  planes.  It  is  diaphanous,  glossy, 
and  hard.  It  occurs  in  the  beds  of  rivers,  the  best  being 
lirought  from  the  West  Indies,  but  is  now  little  esteemed 
as  a  gem,  although  the  ancients  used  it  for  engraving. 
"  With  this  supposition  (that  the  h/nryriiim  is  identical 
witli  the  jacinth  or  hyacinth)  IliU  (Xotes  on  Theophras- 
tus on  Stones,  §  50,  p.  IGG)  and  Rosenmidler  {Mineral,  of 
Bible,  ]).  30 ;  Bib.  Cab.)  agree.  It  must  be  confessed, 
however,  that  this  opinion  is  far  from  satisfactory;  for 
Theophrastus,  speaking  of  tlie  properties  of  the  Ignajr- 
iuvi,  says  that  it  attracts  not  only  light  particles  of 


wood,  but  fragments  of  iron  and  brass.  Now  there  is  no 
peculiar  attractive  power  in  the  hyacinth;  nor  is  Beck- 
niann's  explanation  of  this  point  sufficient.  He  savs: 
'If  we  consider  its  (the  lyncyrium's)  attracting  of  small 
bodies  in  the  same  light  which  our  hyacinth  has  in  com- 
mon with  all  stones  of  the  glassy  species,  I  cannot  see 
anything  to  controvert  this  opinion,  and  to  induce  us  to 
believe  the  lyncyrium  and  the  tourmaline  to  be  the 
same.'  But  surely  the  lyncyrium,  whatever  it  be,  had 
in  a  marked  manner  magnetic  jn-ojierties ;  indeed,  the 
term  was  applied  to  the  stone  on  this  very  account,  for 
the  Greek  name  ligurion  appears  to  be  derived  from 
Xfi\'£ii', '  to  lick,' '  to  attract,'  and  doubtless  was  selected 
by  the  Sept.  for  this  reason  to  express  the  Hebrew  word, 
which  has  a  similar  derivation.  Hence  Dr.  Watson 
{F'hilos.  Trans.  Ii,  394)  identities  the  Greek  lyncyrium 
with  the  tourmaline,  or,  more  definitely,  with  the  red 
variety  known  as  rubeUite,  which  is  a  hard  stone,  and 
used  as  a  gem,  and  sometimes  sold  for  i-ed  sapphii-e. 
Tourmaline  becomes,  as  is  well  known,  electrically  polar 
when  heated.  Beckmann's  objection,  that, '  had  Theo- 
phrastus been  acquainted  with  the  tourmaline,  he  would 
have  remarked  that  it  did  not  acquire  its  attractive 
power  till  it  was  heated,'  is  answered  by  his  own  admis- 
sion on  the  passage,  quoted  from  the  Hist,  de  I' A  cudemie 
for  1717,  p.  7  (see  Beckmann,  i,  91).  Tourmaline  is  a 
mineral  found  in  many  parts  of  the  world.  The  duke 
de  Noya  purchased  two  of  these  stones  in  Holland,  which 
are  there  called  aschentrikker.  Linnseus,  in  his  preface 
to  the  Flora  Zeylandica,  mentions  the  stone  under  the 
name  of  kqns  electricus  from  Ceylon.  The  natives  call 
it  toumamal  {Phil.  Trans,  1.  c).  Many  of  the  precious 
stones  which  were  in  the  possession  of  the  Israelites 
durirg  their  wanderings  were  no  doubt  obtained  from 
the  Lgyptians,  who  might  have  procured  from  the  Tyr- 
ian  merchants  specimens  from  even  India  and  Ceylon, 
etc.  The  fine  specimen  of  rubellite  now  in  the  British 
Museum  belonged  formerly  to  the  king  of  Ava"  (Smith). 
Lik'hi  (Hel).  Likchi',  ^rip5,  learned,  otherwise  cap- 
tivator;  Sept.  AaKtici  v.  r.  Aaici^i,  Vulg.  Leci),  the  third 
named  of  the  four  sons  of  Shemidah  or  Shemida,  son  of 
Manasseh  (1  Chron.  vii,  19;  comp.  Josh,  xvii,  2).  He 
does  not  appear  to  have  had  a  numerous  if  any  progeny, 
as  his  name  does  not  occur  in  the  account  of  the  Ma- 
nassite  families  (Numb,  xxvi,  32).     B.C.  post  1860. 

Lilbiirne,  John,  a  Quaker  preacher,  noted  for  his 
republicanism,  was  born  of  an  old  family  in  Durham 
County  in  1G13.  In  liis  earl}'  youth  he  was  a  clothier. 
He  entered  the  ministry  after  he  had  suffered  great- 
ly by  prosecution  for  his  opposition  to  the  government. 
His  intrepid  defence  of  his  rights  as  a  free-born  Eng- 
lishman before  the  dreaded  bar  of  the  High -Church 
party  gained  for  him  the  familiar  appellation  of  •'  free- 
born  John."  He  was  condemned  to  receive  five  hun- 
dred lashes  at  the  cart-tail,  and  to  stand  in  the  pil- 
lory ;  but  his  spirit  was  only  aroused  by  this  disgrace- 
ful punishment.  His  name  became  the  watchword  of 
the  party  known  as  Levellers.  During  the  Kcvolution 
he  fought  bravely  against  the  king  at  Edge  Hill  and 
Marston  jNIoor,  where  he  led  a  regiment.  Lilburne's. 
chief  fault  was  the  want  of  a  more  statesmanlike  spirit, 
so  that  he  was  continually  sinking  from  the  leading  po- 
sition he  might  have  held,  in  virtue  of  his  integrity  and 
intrepidity,  to  that  of  a  demagogue.  He  boldly  ac- 
cused Oomwell  and  Ireton  of  treason,  and  the  former 
tried  in  vain  to  make  him  comprehend  the  real  situation 
of  affairs,  and  seems  at  last  to  have  given  him  uj)  in  de- 
spair, and  to  have  jirosecuted  him  from  necessity,  while 
he  valued  his  steady  qualities  and  incorru]itilile  nature. 
Reduced  to  (iniesccnce  under  the  iron  hand  of  the  ]iro- 
tector.  his  ]i()litical  enthusiasm  subsided  info  the  relig- 
ious, and  the  farrious  John  Lilburne  became  a  ])reacher 
among  the  Quakers.  He  died  in  1G57. — Appleton's  Cy- 
clop.  of  liiography.  ]).  497. 

Lilienthal,  Michael,  a  Gorman  theologian,  was 
born  at  liebstadt.  in  Prussia,  Sept.  8, 1GS6.    He  studied 


LILIENTHAL 


431 


LILY 


theology  at  Konigsberg  and  Jena,  and  became  professor 
in  the  University  of  Kostock.  He  afterwards  visited 
Holland,  where  he  studied  ])hilology  and  archiEology, 
and  after  his  return  was  for  some  years  professor  at  Ko- 
nigsberg.  In  17  U  he  became  assistent  librarian  of  that 
university,  and  in  1719  was  appointed  deacon  of  one  of 
the  churches  at  Heidelberg.  He  was  made  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Berlin  in  1711,  and  of  that  of  Strasburg 
in  1733.  He  died  at  Konigsberg  Jan.  23,  1750.  His 
principal  works  are  Biblisch-exegetische  Bibliothek  (Ko- 
nigsb.  1740-1744,  3  vols.  8vo)  •.—Bibiischer  Archivurius 
d.  tieiligen  Schrift  (Konigsb.  1745-1746,  2  vols.  4to  :  it 
contains  a  list  of  Biblical  commentators,  arranged  in 
the  order  of  the  difficult  passages)  ■.—  Theolo;iisch-humelit. 
A  rckivarius  (Konigsberg,  1749, 4to).  See  Herzog,  Real- 
Enryklop.  viii,  413  ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generule,  xxxi, 
225.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Lilienthal,  Theodor  Christopher,  an  eminent 
German  theologian  and  writer,  was  born  at  Konigsberg 
Oct.  8, 1711.  He  studied  at  the  university  of  his  na- 
tive place,  and  afterwards  at  Jena  and  Tubingen,  and, 
after  making  a  journey  through  Holland  and  England, 
spent  some  time  in  the  University  of  Halle.  He  was 
soon  after  appointed  adjunct  professor  at  Konigsberg, 
and  in  1744  became  extraordinary  professor  and  doctor 
of  theology.  In  174G  he  was  made  pastor  of  the  com- 
munity of  Neu-Kossgiirten,  and  subsequently  became 
ordinary  professor  of  theology,  and  church  and  school 
counsellor.  He  died  March  17, 1782.  Among  his  works 
we  notice  Die  gute  Sache  der  gottlichen  Offhibarung  wi- 
dei'  die  Feinde  derselben  enviesen  it.  gerettet  (Konigsberg, 
1750-82,  16  vols. :  additions  and  variations  to  the  first 
four  parts  appeared  in  1778,  and  also  an  augmented  ad- 
dition in  the  same  year).  It  gives  a  full  collection  of 
the  divers  objections  that  have  been  urged  agamst  Chris- 
tianity, and  answers  every  one.  It  is  consequently  use- 
ful as  a  book  of  reference  on  this  subject,  like  Lardner's 
Credibility  of  the  Gosjjel  History,  although,  on  account 
of  its  bulk  and  its  antiquated  apologetic  stand-point,  it 
is  less  lit  to  be  in  itself  used  as  a  weapon  against  incre- 
dulity. He  wrote  also  De  Canone  Missm  Gregoriano 
(Leyden,  1739,  8vo)  : — Historia  beatce  Dorothea,  Prus- 
sia} j^i^fronce,  fabulis  variis  muculata  (Dantzig,  1743, 
4to) : — Commentatio  critica  duorum  codicum  Biblia  He- 
braica  continentium  (Dantzig,  1769,  4to),  and  a  large 
number  of  sermons,  dissertations,  etc.  See  Schrockh,  K. 
Gesch.seit  d.  Reformation,  vi,  291 ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyklo- 
padic,  viii, 413 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxxi,  226. 
(J.  N.  P.) 

Lilith.     See  Screech-owl. 

Lillie,  John,  D.D.,  a  minister  originally  of  the  Re- 
formed (Uutcli),  but  afterwards  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  was  born  in  Kelso,  Scotland,  Dec.  16,  1812; 
graduated  with  the  highest  honors  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh  at  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  prosecuted 
his  theological  studies  for  two  years  at  Edinburgh,  then 
came  to  America,  and  completed  his  course  at  tlie  The- 
ological Seminary  of  the  Keformed  (Dutch)  Church, 
New  Brunswick,  N.  J.  In  1835  he  was  installed  pastor 
of  the  Keformed  Dutch  Church  in  Kingston,  N.  Y,  In 
1841  he  took  charge  of  the  grammar-school  of  the  New 
York  University,  and  in  1843  of  a  congregation  which 
had  gathered  about  him  in  the  University  Chapel,  ijnd 
afterwards  (1816)  occupied  their  new  church  in  Stanton 
Street.  From  1844  until  1848  he  was  the  editor  of  the 
Jewish  Chronicle.  He  was  employed  by  the  American 
(Bai>tist)  Bible  Union  as  one  of  its  translators  from  1851 
to  1857.  In  1855  he  received  the  degree  of  D.D.  from 
the  University  of  Edinburgh.  In  1858  he  accepted  the 
call  offered  to  him  by  the  Presbyterian  Church,  King- 
ston, N.  Y.,  and  he  there  labored  until  his  death  in  1867. 
Dr.  Lillie's  published  productions  are  not  numerous,  but 
highly  creditable.  His  revision  and  translation  of  the 
Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians,  the  Seroml  Epistla  of  Peter, 
those  of  John  and  Jitde,  and  the  Rerebi/ion,  for  the  Anglo- 
American  edition  of  "  Lange's  Commentary,"  have  won 


the  highest  encomiums.  He  was  also  the  author  of  a 
small  work  on  The  Perpetuity  of  the  Earth,  in  which  he 
developed  his  premillennial  views.  Dr.  Lillie  was  an  ear- 
nest Christian,  a  ripe  scholar,  and  a  faithful  pastor.  See 
Wilson,  Fresb.  Hist.  Aim.  1868,  p.  117;  Kingston  Argus 
and  Journal,  Feb.  1867  ;  Mem,  Sermon  by  Rev.  W.  Irviu ; 
British  and  Foreign  Evangelical  Review,  Ixix,  619. 

Lily  (yii Vii,  shushan',  from  its  whiteness,  1  Kings  vii, 
19  ;  also  "idi'j,  shoshan',  1  Kings  vii,  22,  26  ;  Cant,  ii,  16; 
iv,  5;  V,  13;  vi,  2,  3;  vii,  2;  and  iiy^ivc:,  shoshannah', 
2  Chron.  iv,  5;  Cant,  ii,  1,  2;  Hos.  xiv,  5  [see  Shu- 
shan; Shoshanniji]  ;  Sept.  and  N.  T.  (cpiVoi^  Matt,  vi, 
28 ;  Luke  xii,  27),  "  There  are,  no  doubt,  several  plants 
indigenous  in  Syria  which  might  come  under  the  de- 
nomination of  lily,  when  tliat  name  is  used  hi  a  general 
sense,  as  it  often  is  by  travellers  and  others.  The  term 
shoshan  or  sosun  seems  also  to  have  been  employed  in 
this  sense.  It  was  known  to  the  Greeks  {(toiktop),  for 
Dioscorides  (iii,  116)  describes  the  mode  of  preparing  an 
ointment  called  susinon,  which  others,  he  says,  call  koi- 
invov,  that  is,  lilinum.  So  Athenceus  (xii,  513)  identi- 
fies the  Persian  suson  with  the  Greek  krinon.  The  Ar- 
abic authors  also  use  the  word  in  a  general  sense,  several 
varieties  being  described  under  the  head  sosun.  The 
name  is  appUed  even  to  kinds  of  Iris,  of  which  several 
species,  with  various  colored  flowers,  are  distinguished. 
But  it  appears  to  us  that  none  but  a  plant  which  was 
well  known  and  highly  esteemed  would  be  found  occur- 
ring in  so  many  different  passages.  Thus,  in  1  Kings 
vii,  19-26,  and  2  Chron.  iv,  5,  it  is  mentioned  as  forming 
the  ornamental  work  of  the  pillars  and  of  the  brazen 
sea,  made  of  molten  brass,  for  the  house  of  Solomon,  by 
Hiram  of  Tyre.  In  Canticles  the  word  is  frequently 
mentioned ;  and  it  is  curious  that  in  five  passages.  Cant, 
ii,  2  and  16;  iv,  5;  vi,  2  and  3,  there  is  a  reference  to 
feeding  among  lilies,  which  appears  unaccountable 
when  we  consider  that  the  allusion  is  made  simply  to 
an  ornamental  or  sweet-smelling  plant;  and  this  the 
shushan  appears  to  have  been  from  the  other  passages 
in  which  it  is  mentioned.  Thus,  in  Cant,  ii,  1,  'I  am 
the  rose  of  Sharon  and  the  lily  of  the  valleys;'  verse  2, 
'as  the  lily  among  thorns,  so  is  my  love  among  the 
daughters ;'  v,  13,  '  his  lips  like  lilies,  dropping  sweet- 
smelling  myrrh;'  vii,  2,  'thy  belly  is  like  an  heap  of 
wheat  set  about  with  lilies.''  If  we  consider  that  the 
book  of  Canticles  is  supposed  to  have  been  written  on 
the  occasion  of  tiie  marriage  of  Solomon  with  a  princess 
of  Egypt,  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that  some  of  the  im- 
agery may  have  been  derivetl  from  her  native  country, 
and  that  the  above  lily  may  be  a  plant  of  Egypt  rather 
than  of  Palestine.  Especially  does  the  water-lily,  or 
lotus  of  the  Nile,  scorn  suitable  to  most  of  the  above  pas- 
sages. Thus  Herodotus  (ii,  92)  says.  'When  the  wa- 
ters have  risen  to  their  extremest  height,  and  all  the 
fields  are  overflowed,  there  appears  above  the  surface  an 
immense  quantity  of  plants  of  the  lily  species,  which 
the  Egyptians  call  the  lotus ;  having  cut  down  these, 
they  dry  them  in  the  sun.  The  seed  .of  the  flo^vers, 
which  resembles  that  of  the  poppy,  they  bake,  and  make 
into  a  kind  of  bread :  they  also  eat  the  root  of  this  plant, 
which  is  round,  of  an  agreeable  flavor,  and  about  the 
size  of  an  apple.  There  is  a  second  species  of  the  lotus, 
which  grows  in  the  Nile,  and  which  is  not  unlike  a  rose. 
The  fruit,  which  grows  from  the  bottom  of  the  root,  re- 
sembles a  wasp's  nest:  it  is  found  to  contain  a  number 
of  kernels  of  the  size  of  an  olive-stone,  which  are  very 
grateful  either  fresh  or  dried.'  All  this  exists  even  to 
the  present  day.  Both  the  roots  and  the  stalks  form 
articles  of  diet  in  Eastern  countries,  and  the  large  fari- 
naceous seeds  of  both  the  nymphiEa  and  nelumbium  are 
roasted  and  eaten.  Hence  possibly  the  reference  to 
feeding  among  lilies  in  the  above-quoted  passages" 
(Kitto\  This  flower  (the  Xymjihaa  Lotus  of  Linnanis, 
and  the  beshnin  of  the  modern  Arabs)  grows  plentifully 
in  Lower  Egypt,  flowering  during  the  period  of  the  an- 
nual inundation.     There  can  be  little  doubt  the  "  lily- 


LILY 


432 


LILY 


work"  spoken  of  in  1  Kings  vii,  19,  22,  was  an  ornament 
in  tlic  form  of  the  Egyptian  lotus.  There  were  formerly 
three  descriptions  of  \vater-lily  in  Egypt,  but  one  (the 
ved-tiowered  lotus)  has  disappeared.  '•  The  flower," 
says  IJurckhardt,  speaking  of  the  white  variety,  or 
Ni/mji/iua  lotus,  "generaily  stands  on  the   stalk  from 


Tht  \\  uei-lil>  (\  /  q  Una  Lotus). 


one  to  two  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  water.  When 
tlie  flowers  open  completely,  the  leaves  form  a  horizon- 
tal disk,  with  the  isolated  seed-vessel  in  the  midst, 
which  bends  down  the  stalk  by  its  weight,  and  swims 
npon  the  surface  of  the  water  for  several  days  until  it  is 
ingulfed.  This  plant  grows  at  Cairo,  in  a  tank  called 
Birket  el-Eotoli,  near  one  of  the  northern  suburbs  where 
I  happen  to  reside.  It  is  not  found  in  Upper  Egypt,  I 
believe,  but  abounds  in  the  Delta,  and  attains  maturity 
at  the  time  when  the  Nile  reaches  its  full  height.  I 
saw  it  in  great  abundance  and  in  fidl  flower,  covering 
the  whole  inundated  plain,  on  October  12, 1815,  near  the 
ruins  of  Tiney,  about  twelve  miles  south-east  from  jMan- 
soiu-a,  on  the  Damietta  branch.  It  dies  when  the  water 
retires."  Among  the  ancient  Egyptians  the  lotus  was 
introduced  into  all  subjects  as  an  ornament,  and  as  the 
favorite  flower  of  the  country,  but  not  with  the  holy 
character  usually  attributed  to  it,  though  adopted  as  an 
emblem  of  the  god  Nophre-Atmii  (Wilkinson's  A  ncient 
Ef/iiptians,  i,  57,  256).  As  the  Hebrew  architecture  was 
of  the  Phoenico-Egyptian  style,  nothing  was  more  natu- 
ral than  the  introduction  of  this  ornament  by  Solomon 
into  the  Temple.  It  was  in  like  manner  borrowed  by 
the  Assyrians  in  their  later  structures  (Layard's  Nine- 
rch,  ii,  356).  ]\lr.  Bardwell,  the  architect,  in  his  work 
entitled  Temples,  Ancient  and  Modern  (IS'il),  says,  "The 
two  great  columns  of  the  pronaos  in  Solomon's  Temple 
were  of  the  usual  proportions  of  Egyptian  columns,  being 
live  and  a  half  diameters  high ;  and  as  these  gave  the 
great  characteristic  feature  to  the  building,  Solomon 
sent  an  embassy  to  fetch  the  architect  from  Tyre  to  su- 
perintend the  moidding  and  casting  of  these  columns, 
which  were  intended  to  be  of  brass.  Observe  how  con- 
spicuous is  tlie  idea  of  the  vase  (the  'bowl'  of  our  trans- 
lation), rising  from  a  cylinder  ornamented  with  lotus- 
flowers  ;  the  bottom  of  the  vase  was  partly  hidden  by 
the  flowers,  the  belly  of  it  was  overlaid  with  net-work, 
ornamented  In-  seven  wreatlis,  the  Hebrew  number  of 
hapi)iness,  and  l)eneath  the  lip  of  the  vase  were  two 
rows  of  pomegranates,  one  hundred  in  each  row.  These 
superb  pillars  were  eight  feet  in  diameter  and  forty-four 
feet  high,  supporting  a  noble  entablature  fourteen  feet 
high."  See  .Jachin  and  Boaz.  "In  confirmation  of 
the  above  identification  of  the  lily  of  the  O.  T.  with  the 
lotus-flower,  we  may  adduce  also  the  remarks  of  Dr.  W. 
C.  Taylor  in  his  Bible  lllnstrated  hy  F.rpjptinn  Monu- 
ments, where  he  says  that  the  lilies  of  the  45th  and  59th 
Psalms  have  jiuzzled  all  Bil)ljeal  critics.  The  title,  'To 
the  chief  musician  upon  Slinslidmnni,'  has  been  supposed 
to  be  the  name  of  some  unknown  tune  to  which  the 
psalm  was  to  be  sung.  But  Dr.  Taylor  says  '  the  word 
shoshannim  is  universally  acknowledged  to  signify  lil- 


ies, and  lilies  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  subject  of  the 
ode.  But  this  hymeneal  ode  was  intended  to  be  sung 
by  the  female  attendants  of  the  Egyptian  princess,  and 
they  are  called  "  the  lilies,"  not  only  by  a  poetic  reference 
to  the  lotus  lilies  of  the  Nile,  but  by  a  direct  allusion  to 
their  custom  of  making  the  lotus  lily  a  conspicuous  or- 
nament of  their  head-dress.'  Thus,  therefore,  all  the 
passages  of  O.-T.  Scripture  in  which  shushan  occurs. ap- 
pear to  be  explained  by  considering  it  to  refer  to  the 
lotus  lily  of  the  Nile"  (Kitto).  '•  Lynch  enumerates  the 
'  lily'  as  among  the  plants  seen  by  him  on  the  shores  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  but  gives  no  details  which  coidd  lead  to 
its  identification  {Exped.  to  the  Joixlan,  p.  286).  He  had 
l)reviously  observed  the  water-lily  on  the  Jordan  (p. 
173),  but  omits  to  mention  whether  it  was  the  yellow 
(Xup/iar  lutecC)  or  the  white  {Xympihaa  alba).  'The 
only  "  lilies"  which  I  saw  in  Palestine,'  says  Prof.  Stan- 
ley, '  in  the  months  of  INIarch  and  April,  were  large  yel- 
low water-lilies,  in  the  clear  spring  of  'Ain  Mellahah, 
near  the  lake  of  Merom'  (»S'.  and  Pal.  p.  429).  He  sug- 
gests that  the  name  'lily'  'may  include  the  numerous 
flowers  of  the  tulip  or  amaryllis  kind  which  appear  in 
the  early  summer  or  the  autumn  of  Palestine.'  The 
following  description  of  the  HCdeh-lily  Ijy  Dr.  Thomson 
(The  Land  and  the  Bool;  i,  39-i),  were  it  more  precise, 
woidd  perhaps  have  enabled  botanists  to  identify  it: 
'This  Huleh-lily  is  very  large,  and  the  three  inner  pe- 
tals meet  above  and  form  a  gorgeous  canopy,  such  as 
art  never  approached,  and  king  never  sat  under,  even 
in  his  utmost  glory.  .  .  .  We  call  it  Huleh-lily  because 
it  was  here  that  it  was  first  discovered.  Its  botanical 
name,  if  it  have  one,  I  am  unacquainted  with.  .  .  .  Our 
flower  delights  most  in  the  valleys,  but  is  also  found  on 
the  mountains.  It  grows  among  thorns,  and  I  ha\e 
sadly  lacerated  mj'  hands  in  extricating  it  from  them. 
Nothing  can  be  in  higher  contrast  than  the  luxuriant 
velvety  softness  of  this  lily,  and  the  crabbed,  tangled 
hedge  of  thorns  about  it.  Gazelles  still  delight  to  feed 
among  them ;  and  you  can  scarcely  ride  through  the 
woods  north  of  Tabor,  where  these  lilies  abound,  without 
frightening  them  from  their  flowerj'  pasture'"  (Smith). 
On  the  other  hand,  some  of  the  passages  in  which 
shoshan  occurs  evidently  refer  to  afield  variety,  as  Cant, 
ii,  1, 2,  and  the  tubular  shape  of  the  trumpet  is  sufficient 
to  explain  the  transfer  of  the  word  to  that  musical  in- 
strument. See  Shoshannim.  "  The  Hebrew  word  is 
rendered  'rose'  in  the  Chaldee  Targum,  and  by  jMaimon- 
ides  and  other  Eabbinical  writers,  with  the  exception 
of  Kimclu  and  Ben-Melech,  who  in  1  Kings  vii,  19  trans- 
lated it  by  '  violet.'  In  the  Judajo-Spanish  version  of 
the  Canticles  shushan  and  shushanndh  are  always  trans- 
lated by  rosa.  but  in  Hos.  xiv,  5  the  latter  is  rendered 
lirio.  But  Kpivov,  or  'lily,'  is  the  imiform  rendering  of 
the  Sept.,  and  is,  in  all  proljability,  the  true  one,  as  it  is 
supported  by  the  analogy  of  the  Arabic  and  Persian  sti- 
san,  which  has  the  same  meaning  to  this  day,  and  by 
the  existence  of  the  same  word  in  Sj'riac  and  Coptic. 
The  Spanish  azufena,  'a  white  lily,'  is  merely  a  modifi- 
cation of  the  Arabic,  but,  although  there  is  little  doubt 
that  the  word  denotes  some  plant  of  the  lily  species,  it 
is  by  no  means  certain  what  individual  of  this  class  it 
especially  designates.  Father  Soucict  (Rectieil  de  diss, 
Crit.  1715)  labored  to  prove  that  the  lily  of  Scripture  is 
th(j  'crown  imperial,'  the  Persian  tusa'i,  the  Kpivov  (5a- 
atXiKov  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  Fritillaria  imperialis  of 
Linnreus.  So  common  was  this  plant  in  Persia  that  it 
is  supposed  to  have  given  its  name  to  Susa,  the  capital 
(Athen.  xii,  1 ;  Bochart, /'/(«/c'7,  ii,  14);  but  there  is  no 
l)roof  that  it  was  at  any  time  common  in  Palestine,  and 
'  the  lily'  par  excellence  of  Persia  would  not  of  necessity 
be  '  the  lily'  of  the  Holy  Land.  Dioscorides  (i,  62)  bears 
witness  to  the  beauty  of  the  lilies  of  Syria  and  I'isidia, 
from  which  the  "best  perfume  was  made.  He  says  (iii, 
106  [116])  of  the  Kpu'ov  liaaiKiKov  that  the  Syrians 
call  it  (Tana  (^  —  shushan).  and  the  Africans  «/j(/3Ao/3oj', 
which  Bochart  renders  in  Hebrew  characters  "p?  3'^3N, 
'  white  shoot.'    Ktihn,  in  his  note  on  the  passage,  iden- 


LILY 


433 


LILY 


tlfies  the  plant  in  question  with  tlie  Lilhtm  cmididum  of 
Linn:i?iis,  It  is  probably  the  same  as  that  called  in  the 
IMishna  •  king's  lily'  (Kitaim,  v.  8).  Pliny  (xxi,  5)  de- 
fines KQivov  as  'rubens  lilium;'  and  Dioscorides,  in  an- 
other passage,  mentions  the  fact  that  there  are  lilies 
with  purple  flowers,  but  whether  by  this  he  intended 
the  Lilium  martagon  or  Chalcedonicum,  Kiihn  leaves 
undecided.  Now  in  the  passage  of  Athenajus  above 
quoted  it  is  said,  Eovaov  yap  tivai  ry  'EWIivujv  (piovy 
TO  Kpivov.  But  in  the  Etymologicum  Magnum  (s.  v. 
'Siovaa)  we  find  rd  yap  Xelpia  vtto  ruiv  ^oji^iicaiv  crovcra 
Xeytrai.  As  the  shushan  is  thus  identified  both  with 
Kpivov,  the  red  or  purple  lily,  and  with  \tipLov,  the 
white  lily,  it  is  evidently  impossible,  from  the  word  it- 
self, to  ascertain  exactly  the  kind  of  lily  which  is  refer- 
red to.  If  the  shushan  or  shoshannah  of  the  O.  T.  and 
the  Kpivov  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  be  identical, 
which  there  seems  no  reason  to  doubt,  the  plant  desig- 
nated by  these  terms  must  have  been  a  conspicuous  ob- 
ject on  the  shores  of  the  Lake  of  Gennesaret  (JMatt.  vi, 
28;  Luke  xii,  27);  it  must  have  flourished  in  the  deep, 
broad  valleys  of  Palestine  (Cant,  ii,  1),  among  the  thorny , 
shrubs  (ib.  ii,  2)  and  pastures  of  the  desert  {ih.  ii,  16 ;  iv, 
5 ;  vi,  3),  and  must  have  been  remarkable  for  its  rapid 
and  luxuriant  growth  (Hos.  xiv,  5  ;  Ecchis.  xxxix,  14). 
The  purple  flowers  of  the  Jchoh,  or  wild  artichoke,  which 
abounds  in  the  plain  north  of  Tabor  and  in  the  vallej^ 
of  Esdraelon,  have  been  thought  by  some  to  be  the  '  lil- 
ies of  the  field'  alluded  to  in  Matt,  vi,  28  (Wilson,  Lands 
of  the  Bible,  ii,  110).  A  recent  traveller  mentions  a 
plant,  with  lilac  flowers  like  the  hyacinth,  and  called  by 
the  Arabs  tisweih,  which  he  considered  to  be  of  the  spe- 
cies denominated  lily  in  Scripture  (Bonar,  Desert  of  iSi- 
na'i,  p.  329)"  (Smith).  Tristram  strongly  inclines  to 
identify  the  scarlet  anemone  {Anemone  coronaria)  with 
the  Scripture  "  lily"  (_Nat.  Hist,  of  Bible,  p.  4G4). 

In  the  N.  Test,  the  word  "  lily"  occurs  "  in  the  well- 
known  and  beautiful  passage  (Matt,  vi,  2G), 'Consider 
the  lilies  of  the  field,  how  they  grow ;  they  toil  not,  nei- 
ther do  they  spin,  and  yet  I  say  unto  you  that  even 
Solomon,  in  all  his  glory,  was  not  arrayed  like  one  of 
these;'  so  also  in  Luke  xii,  27.     Here  it  is  evident  that 
the  plant  alluded  to  must  have  been  indigenous  or 
grown  wild  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Sea  of  GaUlee,  must 
have  been  of  an  ornamental  character,  and,  from  the 
Greek  term  Kpivov  being  applied  to  it,  of  a  liliaceous  na- 
ture.    The  name  koivov  occurs  in  all  the  old  Greek 
writers  (see  Dioscor.  iii,  116 ;  compare  Claudian.  Epithed. 
seren.  126  ;  Martial,  v,  37,  G  sq. ;  Calpurn.  vi,  33  ;  Athen. 
XV,  677,  C80;  Virgil,  Eel.  x,  25;  Pliny,  xv,  7;  xxi,  11). 
Theophrastus  first  uses  it,  and  is  supposed  bj'  Sprengel 
to  apply  it  to  species  of  Narcissus  and  to  Lilium  can- 
didum.     Dioscorides  indicates  two  species,  but  very  im- 
perfectly :  one  of  them  is  supposed  to  be  the  Liliuvi 
camlidum,  and  the  other,  with  a  reddish  flower,  may  be 
L.  viartagon  or  /,.  Chalcedonicum.     He   alludes   more 
particularly  to  the  lilies  of  Sj-ria  and  of  PamphyUa  be- 
ing well  suited  for  making  the  ointment  of  lily.     Plinj' 
enumerates  three  kinds,  a  white,  a  red,  and  a  purple- 
colored  lily.     Travellers  in  Palestine  mention  that  in 
the  month  of  January  the  fields  and  groves  everywhere 
abound  in  various  species  of  lily,  tulip,  and  narcissus. 
Benard  noticed,  near  Acre,  on  Jan.  18th,  and  about  Jaffa 
on  the  23d,  tulips,  white,  red,  blue,  etc.     Gnmpenberg 
saw  the  meadows  of  Galilee  covered  with  the  same  flow- 
ers on  the  31st.    Tulips  figure  conspicuously  among  the 
flowers  of  I'alestine,  varieties  probably  of  Tulipa  Ges- 
neriuna  (Kitto's  Pcdestine,  p.  ccxv).     So  Pococke  says, 
'  I  saw  many  tulips  growing  wild  in  the  fields  (in  March), 
and  any  one  who  considers  how  beautiful  those  flowers 
are  to  the  eye  would  be  apt  to  conjecture  that  these  are 
the  lilies  to  which  Solomon  in  all  his  glory  was  not  to 
be  compared.'    This  is  much  more  hkely  to"  be  the  plant 
intended  than  some  others  which  have  been  adduced, 
as,  for  instance,  the   scarlet  amuryUis,  having  white 
flowers  with  bright  purple  streaks,  fdund  by  Salt  at 
Adowa.     Others  have  preferred  the  Croicn  imjierial, 
Y.— E  E 


which  is  a  native  of  Persia  and  Cashmere.  Most  au- 
thors have  united  in  considering  the  white  lily,  Lilium 
candidum,  to  be  the  ijlant  to  which  our  Saviour  referred ; 


^Vhite  Lily  {Lilium  Candidum). 

but  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  has  ever  been  found  in  a 
wild  state  in  I'alestine.  Some,  indeed,  have  thought  it 
to  be  a  native  of  the  New  World.  Dr.  Lindley,  how- 
ever, in  the  Gardeners'  Chronicle  (ii,  744),  says,  'This 
notion  cannot  be  sustained,  because  the  white  lily  occurs 
in  an  engraving  of  the  annunciation,  executed  some- 
where about  1480  by  Martin  Schongauer;  and  the  first 
voj-age  of  Columbus  did  not  take  place  till  1492.  In 
this  veiy  rare  print  the  lily  is  represented  as  growing  in 
an  ornamental  vase,  as  if  it  were  cultivated  as  a  curious 
object.'  This  opinion  is  confirmed  by  a  correspondent 
at  Aleppo  {Gardeners'  Chronicle,  iii,  429),  who  has  re- 
sided long  in  Syria,  but  is  acquainted  only  with  the  bot- 
any of  Aleppo  and  Antioch :  '  I  never  saw  the  white  lily 
in  a  wild  state,  nor  have  I  heard  of  its  being  so  in  Syria. 
It  is  cultivated  here  on  the  roofs  of  the  houses  in  potS 
as  an  exotic  bulb,  like  the  dalfodil.'  In  consequence  of 
this  difficidty,  the  late  Sir  J.  E.  Smith  was  of  opinion 
that  the  plant  alluded  to  under  the  name  of  lily  was  the 
Amaryllis  lutea  (now  Oporanthus  luteus),  'whose  golden 
liliaceous  flowers  in  autumn  afford  one  of  the  most  bril- 
liant and  gorgeous  objects  in  nature,  as  the  fields  of  the 
Levant  are  overrun  with  them ;  to  them  the  expression 
of  Solomon,  in  all  his  glory,  not  being  arrayed  like  one 
of  them,  is  peculiarly  appropriate.'  Dr.  Lindley  con- 
ceives '  it  to  be  much  more  probable  that  the  plant  in- 
tended by  our  Saviour  was  the  Ixiolirion  montanum,  a 
plant  allied  to  the  amaryllis,  of  very  great  beauty,  with 
a  slender  stem,  and  clusters  of  the  most  delicate  violet 
flowers,  abounding  in  Palestine,  where  colonel  Chesney 
found  it  m  the  most  brilliant  profusion'  (?.  c.  p.  744).  In 
reply  to  this,  a  correspondent  furnishes  an  extract  of  a 
letter  from  Dr.  Bowring,  which  throws  a  new  light  upon 
the  subject :  '  I  cannot  describe  to  j^ou  with  botanical 
accuracy  the  Uly  of  Palestine.  I  heard  it  called  by  the 
title  of  lAlia  Syriaca,  and  I  imagine  under  this  title  its 
botanical  characteristics  may  be  hunted  out.  Its  color 
is  a  brilliant  red;  its  size  about  half  that  of  the  common 
tiger  lily.  The  white  lily  I  do  not  remember  to  have 
seen  in  any  part  of  Syria.  It  was  in  April  and  May 
that  I  observed  my  flower,  and  it  was  most  abundant  in 
the  district  of  Galilee,  where  it  and  the  Rhododendron 
(which  grew  in  rich  abundance  round  the  paths)  most 


LIMBO 


434 


LIMBO 


strongly  excited  my  attention.'  On  this  Dr.  Lindley 
observes,  'It  is  clear  that  neitlier  the  white  lily,  nor  the 
Oponiiitlius  luteus,  nor  Ixiullrion,  will  answer  to  Dr. 
Ik)wring's  ilescription,  which  seems  to  point  to  the  Chal- 
cedonian  or  scarlet  marttigon  lily,  formerly  called  the 
lily  of  Byzantium,  found  from  the  Adriatic  to  the  Le- 
-\ant,  and  which,  with  its  scarlet  turban-like  flowers,  is 
indeed  a  most  stately  and  striking  object'  {Gardeners' 
Chronicle,  ii,  854)"  (Kitto).  As  this  lily  (the  Lilium 
Chalcedonicum  of  botanists)  is  in  flower  at  the  season  of 


Scarlet  Martagon  {Lilium  Chalcedonicum), 

the  year  when  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  is  supposed  to 
have  been  spoken  (May;  but  it  is  probable  that  our 
.Saviour's  discourse  on  Providence,  containing  the  allu- 
sion to  the  lily,  occurred  on  a  diiferent  occasion,  appar- 
ently about  October;  see  Strong's  Harmony  of  the  Gos- 
pels, §  52),  is  indigenous  in  the  very  locality,  and  is 
conspicuous,  even  in  the  garden,  for  its  remarkable 
showy  flowers,  there  can  now  be  little  doubt  that  it  is 
tlie  plant  alluded  to  by  our  Saviour.  "  Strand  (Flor. 
Palicst.')  mentions  it  as  growing  near  Joppa,  and  Kitto 
{Phys.Hist.  of  Palest,  p.  219)  makes  especial  mention  of 
the  L.  cundidum  growing  in  Palestine ;  and,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  habitat  given  by  Strand,  it  is  worth  ob- 
serving that  the  lily  is  mentioned  (Cant,  ii,  1)  with  the 
rose  of  iShamn"  (Smith). 

Hy  some  the  lily  is  supposed  to  be  meant  by  the  term 
r?U2n  (chabatstse'leth,  "rose"),  in  Isa.  xxxv,  1 ;  Cant, 
ii,  1.  For  further  details,  consult  Oken,  Lehrb.  d.  Xatur- 
gesch.  II,  i,  757  ;  IJosenmuller,  Bihl.  A  Iterth.  iv,  138 ;  Cel- 
sius, niei-ohot.  i,  383  sq. ;  BiUcrbeck,  Flora  Class,  p.  90 
sq. ;  (Jesenms,  Thes.  Ihh.  p.  1385 ;  Penny  Cyclopwdia,  s. 
V.  Lotus. 

Limbo  or  Limbus,  meaning  a  border  or  depart- 
ment, is  used  by  Komanists  as  the  name  of  the  place  of 
some  of  the  departed,  which  the  schoolmen  who  first 
held  this  doctrine  (see  below)  believed  to  be  situated  on 
the  hmb,  i.  e.  the  edge  or  border  of  hell.  See  Inter- 
jiEDiATt;  State.  There  are  five  places  to  which  the 
Churdi  (if  liome  consigns  departed  spirits.  Heaven  is 
the  residence  of  the  holy,  and  hell  of  the  (inally  damned. 
Besides  these  she  enumerates  limbus  infinitum,  the  de- 
partment for  infants;  limbus patrum,  the  department  of 
the  fathers;  and pui-t/atory.  Hell  is  placed  lowest,  pur- 
gatory next,  then  limbus  for  infants;  and  finally  is  enu- 
merated a  place  for  those  who  died  before  the  advent 


of  Christ.  According  to  the  Roman  Catholic  view,  un- 
til Christ's  death  and  resurrection,  which  constituted 
the  decisive  moments  of  the  work  of  redemption,  the 
doors  of  heaven  were  closed  to  all  {Catech.  Rom.  i,  2,  7) ; 
since  then  they  have  been  permanently  open  to  siWjKr- 
fect  saints.  This  doctrine  was  first  advanced  by  pope 
Benedict  XII,  and  afterwards  sanctioned  by  the  Council 
of  Florence  (Perrone,  v,  213).  According  to  this  theory, 
until  the  coming  of  Christ,  the  souls  of  all  departed  were, 
without  exception,  sent  into  the  place  of  punishment, 
or  infernus,  as  is  (according  to  liomish  views)  still  the 
case  with  those  who  die  without  having  arrived  at  per- 
fection, or  with  some  penance  stiU  to  be  performed  for 
sin.  At  present  they  use  the  word  infenius  to  convey 
the  idea  that  all  sinners  are  in  some  place  outside  of 
heaven,  and  that,  on  account  of  their  different  personal 
qualities,  thej-  are  divided  into  different  classes,  which 
have  nothing  in  common  except  their  exclusion  from 
the  happiness  of  heaven,  and  therefore  divide  these  ab- 
dita  receptacula  (Augustine,  Enchiridion  ad  Laurent.  § 
109),  of  which  the  place  of  punLshment  consists,  into,  1, 
hell,  in  its  fullest  sense,  that  terrible,  immense  prison  in 
which  the  damned,  who  died  in  a  state  of  mortal  sin, 
are  to  remain  forever  {Cat.  Rom.  i,  G,  3,  5) ;  2,  purga- 
tory, in  which  the  souls  of  believers,  and  of  those  who 
are  justified,  suffer  until  they  are  entirely  free  from  sin; 
3,  the  bosom  of  Abraham,  where  the  saints  who  died 
before  the  coming  of  Christ  were  received,  and  where, 
while  free  from  torments,  they  were  nevertheless,  on 
account  of  original  sin,  prevented  by  the  dremons  from 
beholding  the  glory  of  God  until  the  coming  of  the  Ee- 
deemer,  whose  merits  freed  them  from  these  bonds,  and 
opened  to  them  the  doors  of  heaven.  Compare  here  the 
statement  of  the  early  English  reformers  in  "  the  Insti- 
tution of  a  Christian  Man,"  on  the  fifth  article  of  their 
creed :  "  Our  Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  at  his  entry  into  hell, 
first  conquered  and  oppressed  both  the  devil  and  hell, 
and  also  death  itself  ,  ,  ,  afterwards  he  spoiled  hell,  and 
delivered  and  brought  with  him  from  thence  all  the 
souls  of  those  righteous  and  good  men  which,  from  the 
fall  of  Adam,  died  in  the  favor  of  God,  and  in  the  faith 
and  belief  of  this  our  Saviour,  which  was  then  to  come." 
The  doctrine  of  the  Church,  as  expressed  in  the  sym- 
bols, names  no  otlier  divisions.  The  third  place  which, 
in  ecclesiastical  phraseology,  is  usually  called  Limbus 
patrum,  is  even  represented  sometimes  as  a  quiet  habi- 
tation, and  at  other  times  as  an  unpleasant  prison  (mis- 
era  illius  custodies  molestia'),  which  two  views,  being 
difficult  to  conciliate,  gave  rise  to  manj-  intricate  ques- 
tions unavoidable  as  soon  as  an  attempt  is  made  to  es- 
tablish such  a  detailed  topography  of  the  places  of 
future  life.  The  limbo  of  Dante  is  placed  in  the  outer- 
most of  the  nine  circles  of  his  Inferno.  No  weeping 
is  heard  within  it,  but  perpetual  sighs  tremble  on  the 
air,  breathed  by  an  infinite  crowd  of  women,  men,  and 
children.  atHictecl,  but  not  tormented.  These  inhabi- 
tants are  not  condemned  on  account  of  sin,  but  solely 
because  it  was  their  fortune  to  live  before  the  birth  of 
Christ,  or  to  die  unbaptized.  The  poet  was  grieved  at 
heart,  as  well  he  might  be,  when  he  recognised  in  this 
sad  company  many  persons  of  great  worth  (comp.  Mil- 
mauj  Latin  Christianity,  bk.  xiv,  chap.  ii). 

From  the  authorities  of  the  Church,  we  find  that  the 
admission  of  tlie  belief  in  a  purgatory  had  in  the  West 
great  influence  on  the  ideas  concerning  the  future.  The 
scholastics,  in  the  course  of  time,  erected  these  views  into 
a  system.  Besides  the  above-named  three  plac  ;s  of  abode 
for  departed  spirits  deprived  of  hea\enly  felicity  recog- 
nised in  the  Itoman  Catholic  Catechism,  they  asserted 
the  existence  of  a  fourth,  intended  for  children  who  died 
previous  to  Ijaptisni.  Bellarmine  (Purr;,  ii,  7)  considers 
it  a  very  dillicult  (picstion  to  decide  whether  there  may 
not  be  a  fifth,  inwhich  the  purified  souls  remain  until 
their  final  admittance  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  and 
which  must  conseipiently  be  situated  somewhere  be- 
tween purgatory  and  heaven  (Boda,  Hist,  v,  13  ;  Diony- 
sius  Carthusianus,  X'jt//.  de  jud.  imrticul.  31;  Lud.  Bio- 


LIMBO 


435 


LIMBO 


sius,  Monil.  Spirit.  13).  The  necessity  of  ascribing  to 
each  of  these  loca  jjcenalia  its  special  position  accounts 
sufficiently  for  the  fact  that  the  word  limbus  is  made  to 
answer  both  for  the  place  where  the  saints  who  lived 
before  Christ  remain,  and  for  the  abode  of  children  who 
died  without  baptism.  It  appears  to  have  been  first  set 
forth  by  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  to  have  been  at  once 
adopted  by  the  Church.  Hell  is  considered  as  situated 
ill  the  centre  of  the  earth ;  next  comes  purgatory,  which 
surrounds  hell ;  then  the  Limbus  infantum,  or  j)uerorum ; 
and  finally,  as  the  central  point  between  hell  and  heav- 
en, the  Limbus  patrum,  or  Sinus  AbraJue.  Of  course 
each  different  place  has  its  own  special  punishments :  in 
hell  it  is  poena  ceterna  damni  et  sensus ;  in  purgatory, 
pmia  temporalis  damni  et  sensus ;  in  the  Limbus  miaw- 
X.\xm,2mna  damni  ceterna;  and  in  the  Limbus  patrum, 
poe7ta  damni  temporalis  (Thom.  Aq.  iii,  d.  22,  q.  2,  a.  1, 
q.  2,  4;  d.  21,  q.  1,  a.  1,  q.  2;  d.  45,  q.  1,  a.  1,  q.  2,  3,  3, 
q.  62,  2,  4,  4;  d.  45,  q.  1,  a.  q.  2,  etc.  ^  Eleucidar.  G4; 
Dante,  Inf.  4;  comp.  31  sq. ;  Durand,  De  S.  Port.  Sentt. 

3,  d.  22,  q.  4;  Sonnius,  Demonstr.  rel.  Chr.  ii,  3,  15,  and  ii, 

4,  1 ;  Bellarmiue,  Purg.  ii,  G ;  Andradius,  Defens.  Trid. 
Synod,  ii,  299). 

The  Limbus  patrum  is  exclusively  reserved  to  the 
saints  of  the  Mosaic  dispensation.  They  suffer  only  by 
the  consciousness  that  they  are  deprived,  in  consequence 
of  original  sin,  from  beholding  God,  and  by  an  ardent 
longing  for  the  coming  of  their  IMessiah.  Since  Christ 
has  atoned  for  original  sin,  and  freed  them  from  impris- 
onment, this  limbo  is  empty,  and  no  longer  of  any  im- 
portance in  a  religious  sense.  It  is  called  Limbus  infer- 
ni,  -'quia  erat  poena  carentite,"  Sinus  Abrahce  "propter 
requiem,  quia  erat  exspectatio  gloria:"  (Bellarmine,  De 
Christo,  iv,  10;  Becanus,  Append,  purrj.  Calv.').  This 
view  is  defended  partly  by  means  of  some  passages  in 
Scripture  (such  as  Gen.  xxxvii,  35;  1  Sam.  xxviii; 
Zech.  ix,  11;  Luke  xvi,  23;  xx,  37;  xxiii,  43;  John 
viii,  56;  Heb.  xi,  6 ;  1  Peter  iii,  19);  but  especially  by 
oral  tradition.  This  last  is  the  more  available  because, 
with  the  exception  of  the  later  attempts  at  locatuig  the 
different  places,  the  Western  Church  has  always  taught 
the  same  things  on  this  point,  at  least  since  St.  Augus- 
tine {De  civ.  Dei,  xx,  15),  that  the  limbus  in  general  was 
only  the  caput  mortuum  which  the  doctrine  of  the  pur- 
gatory had  yet  left  to  the  old  Church.  The  Greek 
Chiurch,  on  the  other  hand,  holds  no  such  views  (Smith, 
De  Locks.  Grcec.  statu,  1678,  p.  103;  Heineccius,  Abbil- 
dmvj  d.  alten  u.  neuen  griech.  Kirche,  1711,  ii,  103). 

The  doctrine  of  the  Limbus  infantum,  or,  rather,  of 
the  fate  of  unbaptized  children,  is  insisted  on  with  much 
greater  Ibrce.  On  this  point,  however,  the  consequences 
of  the  system  and  the  natural  feelings  of  humanity 
come  into  conflict,  and  therefore  the  Church  has  never 
officially  proclaimed  its  views  as  to  the  exact  nature  of 
it,  so  that  a  certain  latitude  is  given  for  different  opin- 
ions concerning  it.  The  fathers  early  held  different 
opinions  on  this  point.  Ambrosius  (Orat.  40)  does  not 
venture  to  give  any  A'iew  concerning  unbaptized  chil- 
dren. Gregory  of  Nazianzum  {Orat.  in  s.  Bapt.  xl,  21) 
claims  that  tol'Q  ni]Ti  (iot.aa^ijaiaiai,  fii]Tt  KoXaa^))- 
ci(TSrai  TTspi  Tov  ciKaiov  KpiTov  ;  and  Gregory  of  Nys- 
sa  (eii.  Paris,  1615,  ii,  770)  only  denies  in  the  very  mild- 
est manner  their  being  tv  d\y(ivoi(:.  Pelagius  knew 
better  wliere  they  do  not  go  to  than  where  they  do  go. 
Ill  accordance  with  his  general  theory,  St.  Augustine 
consigns  them  "  ad  ignem  aitornum  damnaturum  iri ;" 
but  at  the  same  time  he  admits  that  theirs  is  the  slight- 
est punishment  consequent  to  original  sin ;  their  dam- 
nation is  even  so  very  slight  that  he  expresses  the  doubt, 
"  an  eis,  ut  nuUi  essent,  quam  nt  ibi  essent,  potius  ex- 
pediret,"  and  declares  '"definirc  se  non  posse,  quse,  qiialis 
et  quanta  erit"  (Sermo  294,  n.  3  sq. ;  Enchirid.  c.  93  ;  De 
pecc.  merit,  i,  c.  16,  n.  2 ;  Contra  Julian,  v,  44 ;  Epist.  ad 
Ilieron.  131).  This  is  the  view  most  generally  held  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  General  coimcils  held  at 
Lyons  and  at  Florence  decided  that  both  those  who  died 
in  mortal  sin  and  those  who  were  only  tainted  by  orig- 


inal sin  went  down  to  the  infemus,  but  that  their  pun- 
ishments were  different.  In  this  respect  the  damnation 
of  unbaptized  children  became  defidc,  as  it  had  to  be  in 
some  way  distinguished  from  that  of  adults.  Carrying 
out  this  view,  the  most  distinguished  scholastics,  such 
as  Peter  Lombard  (^SenU  2,  d.  33),  Thomas  Bonaventura, 
and  Scotus,  assign  to  them  only  j^eena  damni,  in  contra- 
distinction from  jjcena  sensus.  The  contrary  assertion 
of  Petavius  {De  Deo,  ix,  10,  10)  is  based  on  an  error. 
Gregory  of  Itimini  alone  makes  an  exception,  and  for 
this  reason  received  the  name  of  tortor  infantum  (Sar- 
pi,  Storia  del  Cone,  di  Trento,  ii ;  Fleim',  Hist.  Eccl.  i, 
142,  n.  128). 

Now,  although  the  essential  nature  of  the^ja?;«  damni 
consists  in  the  deprivation  of  the  happiness  of  seeing 
God,  there  exists  a  difference  in  the  manner  of  applying 
the  idea  to  children  and  their  inheritance  of  original 
sin.  Ill  the  fifth  session  of  the  Council  of  Trent  the 
Dommicans  advocated  the  stricter  view,  making  of  the 
limbus  infantum  a  dark,  midergromid  prison,  while  the 
Franciscans  placed  it  above  in  a  region  of  light.  Oth- 
ers made  the  condition  of  these  children  still  better: 
they  supposed  them  occupied  with  studying  nature, 
philosophizing  on  it,  and  receivmg  occasional  visits  from 
angels  and  samts.  As  the  council  thought  it  best  not 
to  decide  this  point,  theologians  have  since  been  free  to 
embrace  either  view.  Bellarmine  {De  amiss,  grat.  vi,  6) 
considers  their  state,  like  Lombard,  as  one  of  sorrow. 
On  the  contrary,  cardinal  Sfondrani  {Nodus  prcedest. 
dissol.  i,  1,  23,  and  i,  2,  16)  and  Peter  Godoy  (compare 
Thomas,  Qucest.  5  de  malo,  a.  2)  consider  them  as  enjoy- 
ing all  the  natural  happiness  of  which  they  are  capable. 
They  do  not  even  know  that  supernatural  happiness 
consists  in  the  visio  clara  Dei,  and  can  feel  no  pain  from 
this,  to  them  unknown,  exclusion.  Finally,  Perrone  (v, 
275),  who  takes  Concil.  Tr.  sess.  v,  c.  4,  as  including  in 
de  fide  only  the  want  of  the  siqxrnaturalis  beatitudo, 
says :  "  Si  spectetnr  relative  ad  supernaturalem  beatitu- 
dinem  habet  talis  status  rationem  posnaj  et  damrj  lionis; 
si  vero  spectetnr  idem  status  in  se  sive  absolute,  cum  per 
peccatum  de  naturalibus  nihil  amiserint,  talis  erit  ipso- 
rum  conditio,  qualis  fuisset,  si  Adam  neque  peccasset 
neque  elevatus  ad  supernaturalem  statum  fuisset,  i.  e.  in 
conditione  puroe  nature."  This  attempt  at  conciliation 
agrees  so  well  with  the  Roman  Catholic  view  of  original 
sin,  that  on  this  account  it  has  been  admitted  {Cone.  Tr. 
sess.  V,  2,  3,  5,  and  sess.  vi;  Bellarmine,  De  grat.  prim, 
horn.  v).  ^Moreover,  it  is  well  known  that  Roman  Cath- 
olic principles  are  of  great  elasticitj-  in  their  application, 
so  that  there  is  always  some  way  for  the  Church  of  get- 
ting out  of  difficulties.  Thus,  while  the  Catechism  (ii, 
2,  28)  continues  to  assert  that,  aside  from  baptism,  there 
is  "  nulla  alia  salutis  comparand^  ratio,"  we  learn  from 
the  theologians,  from  Duns  Scotus  down  to  Klee  {Dogm. 
iii,  119),  that  the  mere  deslderium  haptismi  can  be  con- 
sidered as  valid  for  the  children  while  yet  in  tlie  moth- 
ers' womb,  and  is  eqidvalent  to  the  actual  performance 
of  the  rite  of  baptism  on  the  child.  What  becomes  of  the 
children  who,  though  baptized,  die  soon  after  baptism, 
and  who  thus  lose  the  meritum  e  congruo  necessary  for 
justification,  cannot  here  be  taken  into  consideration. 

Protestantism  has  taken  but  little  notice  of  all  these 
views.  It  was  considered  by  many  that  these  theories 
were  too  unimportant.  The  old  Protestant  Church,  on 
the  contrary,  tried  to  prove  the  untenability  on  Biblical 
or  philosophical  grounds  of  this  changeable  doctrine,  its 
late  origin,  and  its  inner  contradictions.  Neither  did  it 
forget  the  impossibility  of  separating  the^jajja  damni  and 
poena  sensus  (Calvin,  iii,  16,  9 ;  Aretius,  Loci,  17 ;  Rys- 
senius,  Summa,  xviii,  3,  4 ;  B.  Pictet,  ii,  265 ;  Gerhard, 
xxvii,  8,  3 ;  S.  Niemann,  De  distinct.  Pontif.  in  interna 
classib.  1689).  The  old  Protestant  theologians  consid- 
ered it  as  an  undeniable  truth  that  there  exist  no  other 
divisions  than  heaven  and  hell  in  the,  to  us,  unknown 
world ;  also  that  there  can  be  no  further  distinction  be- 
tween the  souls  of  the  departed  than  that  based  on  be- 
lief anil  mibelief,  causing  the  former  to  be  blessed  and 


-  LIMBORCH 


436 


LIME 


the  latter  to  be  damned.  Still  there  arose  questions 
which  it  was  difficidt  for  them  to  settle :  the  lleformed 
theologians  disposed  of  them  in  a  comparatively  easy 
manner,  for,  as  they  admitted  only  of  a  gradual  differ- 
once  between  the  two  dispensations,  and  upheld  the 
identity  of  tlte  action  of  grace  and  faith  possible  to  both, 
they  fiiund  no  dithculty  in  ascribing  blessedness  to  the 
saints  of  the  old  dispensation.  It  is  well  known  that 
Zwingle  went  even  further.  Thus  they  also  disposed 
of  the  doctrme  of  predestination,  at  least  in  regard  to 
elect  children,  in  which  the  Jiiks  seminalis  was  presup- 
posed, and  no  one  could  deny,  in  view  of  Matt,  xix,  14, 
that  children  dying  in  infancy  can  also  be  among  the 
elect.  Tlie  Lutherans  solved  the  two  questions  in  a 
different  manner:  in  order  to  justify  the  qualitative 
equality  of  the  Jewish  and  Christian  faith,  they  were 
obliged  to  assert  the  retrospective  power  of  Christ's 
merits.  With  regard  to  children,  they  found  a  still 
greater  difficulty  on  account  of  their  stricter  conception 
of  original  sin  and  their  doctrine  concerning  baptism, 
which  bears  such  close  resemblance  to  that  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church.  The  only  way  in  which  they 
could  dispose  of  it  was  to  have  recourse  to  the  free  pow- 
er of  God,  who  can  give  salvation  in  other  than  the 
general  way.  Thus  reasons  Gerhard  when  he  says, 
"Quasi  non  possit  Deus  extraordinarie  cum  infantibus 
Christianorum  parentura  per  preces  ecclesiaj  et  paren- 
tum  sibi  oblatis  agere''  (ix,  282).  Also  Buddeus  (v,  1, 
(j) :  '"In  infantibus  parentum  Christianorum,  qui  ante 
baptismum  moriuntur  per  gratiam  quamdam  extraordi- 
nariam  fltlem  produci ;  ad  infidelium  autem  infantes 
quod  attinet,  salutem  ajternam  lis  tribuere  non  aude- 
mus."'  See  Herzog,  i^ea^-A'wc^Wo/?.  viii,  415;  Biblioth. 
Sacra,  1863,  i.  See  Life,  Eternal  ;  Predestination  ; 
Election;  Salvation;  Grace;  Sin;  Infants;  Bap- 
tism (OF  Infants). 

Limborch,  Philip  van,  an  eminent  Dutch  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  Amsterdam  Jmie  19,  1633.  He  first 
studied  ethics,  history,  and  philosophj'  at  his  native  place, 
and  then  applied  himself  to  divinity  under  the  Remon- 
strants. From  Amsterdam  he  went  to  Utrecht,  and  at- 
tended the  lectures  of  Yoetius,  and  other  divines  of  the 
Reformed  religion.  In  1657  he  became  pastor  of  the 
Remonstrants  at  Gonda,  and  remained  there  until  1667, 
when  he  removed  to  Amsterdam  as  pastor.  The  fol- 
lowing year  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  divinity  in 
the  Remonstrant  college  at  the  latter  place,  which  po- 
sition he  held  until  his  death,  April  30, 1712.  Limborch 
was  on  intimate  terms  with  Locke,  and  corresponded 
with  him  regularly  for  several  years  on  the  nature  of 
human  liberty  (see  Locke's  Letters,  Lond.  1727,  3  vols, 
fob).  Limborch  was  gentle  in  his  disposition,  tolerant 
of  the  views  of  others,  learned,  methodical,  of  a  reten- 
tive memory,  and,  above  all,  had  a  love  for  truth,  and 
engaged  in  the  search  of  it  by  reading  the  Scriptures 
with  tlie  best  commentators.  Next  to  Arminius  him- 
self, and  Simon  Episcopius,  Limborch  was  one  of  the 
most  ilistinguished  of  the  Arminian  theologians,  "  who 
exerted  a  beneticial  reaction  upon  Protestantism  by  their 
thorough  scientilic  attainments,  no  less  than  by  the 
mildness  of  their  sentiments"  (Hagenbach's  History  of 
Doctrines,  ii,  214).  In  1660,  having  found  among  the 
papers  of  Episcopius,  his  maternal  uncle,  several  letters 
relating  to  ecclesiastical  affairs,  he  arranged  a  collection 
with  Ilartsocker,  Kpistohr  prwstdnlinm  et  ei-iiditornm 
Virortiiii  (8vo).  Limborch  was  special!}''  noted  for  his 
doetrinal  works.  His  principal  work  is  Theolnr/ia 
Chrintiana  (1686;  4th  cd.  Amst,  1715,  4to),  translated, 
with  improvements  from  Wilkins,  Tillotson,  Scott,  and 
others,  by  William  Jones,  under  the  title,  .1  complete 
System  or  Body  of  Dirinity,  hot/i  speciilatire  and practi- 
C(il,J'ourided  on  Scripture  and  Reason  (Lond.  17.02,  2  vols. 
8vo).  This  was  the  first  and  most  complete  exposition 
of  the  Arminian  doctrine,  dfsplaying  greit  originality 
of  arrangement,  and  admiral)le  perspicuity  and  judicious 
selection  of  material.  Tlie  preparation  of  the  work  was 
undertaken  at  the  request  of  the  Remonstrants  (q,  v.). 


His  other  works  are.  Be  veritate  religioms  Cliristiance 
(1687),  the  result  of  a  conference  with  the  learned  Jew, 
Dr.  Orohius, :  —  Historia  Inquisitionis  (1692,  fob;  trans- 
lated by  Samuel  Chandler,  under  the  title  The  History 
of  the  Inquisition,  to  which  is  prefixed  a  large  introduc- 
tion concerning  the  rise  and  progress  of  persecution,  and 
the  real  and  pretended  causes  of  it,  London,  1731,  2  vols. 
4to).  He  is  also  the  author  of  an  exegetical  work, 
Commentarius  in  A  eta  Apos.  et  in  Fpistolas  ad  Roma- 
nos  et  ad  Ilehi-eeos  (Rotterdam,  1711,  fob).  '•  This  com- 
mentary, though  written  in  the  interest  of  the  author's 
theological  views,  is  desers-ing  of  attention  for  the  good 
sense,  clear  thought,  and  acute  reasoning  by  which  it  is 
pervaded"  (Kitto).  In  addition,  he  edited  many  of  the 
works  of  the  principal  Arminian  theologians.  See  Ni- 
ceron,  Hist,  des  Honimes  illustres,  xi,  39-53;  Abrah.  des 
Armorie  van  der  Hoeven,  De  Jo.  Clerico  et  Philippo  a 
Limborch.  (Amstelod.  1845,  8vo)  ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bioyr, 
Generale,  xxxi,  s.  v. ;  Herzog,  Recd-Encyklop.  viii,  s.  v. ; 
Farrar,  Crit.  History  of  Free  Thovyht,  p.  386,  392 ;  Meth- 
odist Quarterly  Review,  July,  1864,  p.  513.     (C.  R.  B.) 

Limbus.     See  Limbo. 

Lime  (T^'JJ,  «!c/,  perh.from  its  boiliny  or  effervescing 
when  slaked;  Isa.  xxxiii,  12;  Amos  ii,  1;  rendered 
"plaster"  in  Dent,  li,  2,  4;  the  same  word  is  used  for 
Ume  in  Arab,  and  Syr.),  a  well-known  mineral  substance, 
which  is  a  very  prevalent  ingredient  in  rocks,  and,  com- 
bined with  carbonic  acid,  forms  marble,  chalk,  and  lime- 
stone, of  various  degrees  of  hardness  and  everv  variety 
of  color.  Limestone  is  the  prevailing  constituent  of  the 
momitains  of  Syria;  it  occurs  under  various  modifica- 
tions of  texture,  color,  form,  and  intermixture  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  country.  The  purest  carbonate  of  lime 
is  found  in  calcareous  spar,  whose  crj'stals  assume  a  va- 
riety of  forms,  all,  however,  resulting  from  a  primary 
rhomboid.  Under  the  action  of  fire,  carbonate  of  lime 
loses  its  carbonic  acid  and  becomes  caustic  lime,  which 
has  a  hot,  pungent  taste.  See  Chalk.  Iflime  be  sub- 
jected to  an  intense  heat,  it  fuses  into  transparent  glass. 
When  heated  under  great  pressure,  it  melts,  but  retains 
its  carbonic  acid.  The  modern  mode  of  manufacturing 
common  or  ''quick"  lime  was  known  in  ancient  times. 
Lime  is  obtained  by  calcining  or  burning  marble,  lime- 
stone, chalk,  shells,  bones,  and  other  substances  to  drive 
off  the  carbonic  acid.  From  Isa.  xxxii,  12  it  appears 
that  lime  was  made  in  a  kiln  lighted  with  thorn-bushes. 
Dr.  Thomson  remarks,  "It  is  a  curious  fidelity  to  real 
life  that,  when  the  thorns  are  merely  to  be  destroyed, 
they  are  never  cut  up,  but  are  set  on  fire  where  they 
grow.  They  are  only  cut  vp  for  the  lime-kiln"  {Land 
and  Book,  i,  81).  See  J'urnace.  In. Amos  ii,  1  it  is 
said  that  the  king  of  Moab  "  burned  the  bones  of  the 
king  of  Edom  into  lime."  The  interpretation  of  the 
Targnm  and  some  of  the  rabbins  is  that  the  burnt  bones 
were  made  into  lime  and  used  by  the  conqueror  for  plas- 
tering his  palace.  The  same  Hebrew  word  occurs  in 
Dent,  xxvii,  2-4 :  "  Thou  shall  set  thee  up  great  stones, 
and  plaister  them  with  plaister;  and  thou  shalt  write 
upon  them  all  the  words  of  this  law."  It  is  probable 
that  the  same  mode  of  perpetuating  inscriptions  was  fol- 
lowed as  we  know  was  customary  in  Egypt.  In  that 
country  wc  find  paintings  and  hieroglyphic  writing  upon 
plaster,  which  is  frequenth'  laid  upon  the  natural  rock, 
and,  after  the  lapse  of  perhajis  more  than  three  thousand 
years,  we  find  the  plaster  stiU  firm,  and  the  colors  of  the 
figures  painted  on  it  still  remarkably  fresh.  The  pro- 
cess of  covering  the  rock  with  plaster  is  thus  described : 
"The  ground  was  covered  with  a  thick  laj-er  of  fine 
plaster,  consisting  of  lime  and  gypsum,  which  was  care- 
fully smoothed  and  polished.  Upon  this  a  thin  coat  of 
lime  white-wash  was  laid,  and  on  it  the  colors  were 
pamted,  whicli  were  boimd  fast  either  with  animal  glue 
or  occasionally  with  wax"  (Kf/yptian  Antiq.,  in  Lib.  of 
Enlertaininy  Knowl.).  See  Plaster.  If  it  be  insisted 
that  the  words  of  the  law  were  actually  cut  in  the  rock, 
it  would  seem  best  to  understand  that  the  Hebrew  word 


LIMINA  MARTYRUM 


437     ~ 


LINDSEY 


sid  does  not  here  mean  a  "  plaister,"  but  indicates  that 
the  stones,  after  they  had  been  engraved,  were  covered 
■with  a  coat  of  tenacious  hme  white-wash,  employed  for 
similar  purposes  by  the  Egyptians,  who,  when  the  face 
of  a  rock  had  been  sculptured  in  relievo,  covered  the 
whole  with  a  coat  of  this  wash,  and  then  painted  their 
scidptured  figures  (Kitto's  Pict.  Bible,  note  ad  loc).    See 

IMOKTAK. 

Limina  Mart^rum  {the  houses  of  the  martyr s\  a 
phrase  sometimes  used  in  ancient  writers  to  designate 
churches. — Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Limiter  Qimitour'),  the  name  given  to  an  itinerant 
and  begging  friar  employed  by  a  convent  to  collect  its 
dues  and  promote  its  temporal  interests  within  certain 
limits,  though  under  the  direction  of  the  brotherhood 
who  employed  him.  Occasionally  the  limiter  is  a  per- 
son of  considerable  importance.  See  Eussell's  Notes; 
Works  of  the  Emjlish  and  Scottish  Reformers,  ii,  536, 5-12. 
—]^\^ck',  Theol.  Did.  s.  v. 

Lincoln,  Ensigx,  a  noted  philanthropist  and  lay 
minister  in  the  Baptist  Church,  was  born  at  Hingham, 
]\lass.,  Jan.  8, 1779.  He  was  brought  into  the  Church 
when  about  nineteen  years  old,  under  the  ministry  of 
the  Kev.  Dr.  Baldwin.  He  had  been  apprenticed  to  a 
printer,  and  in  1800  he  commenced  business  on  his  own 
account.  He  also  advanced  the  interests  of  Christian 
truth  by  preaching,  for  which  he  was  licensed  about 
1801,  and,  though  he  was  not  ordained,  and  therefore 
never  rehnquished  his  secidar  profession,  he  preached, 
and  prayed,  and  performed  the  ordinary  offices  of  a  min- 
ister of  the  Gospel  with  all  the  holy  fervor  of  an  apostle. 
He  «'on  the  unaffected  respect  of  all  men,  as  a  generous 
neiglibor,  an  honest  friend,  and  a  virtuous  citizen.  He 
died  Dec.  2, 1832.  "  If  I  should  live  to  the  age  of  Methu- 
selah," he  remarked,  "  I  could  find  no  better  time  to  die." 
Mr.  Lincoln  was  prominent  in  the  organization  of  the 
Evangelical  Tract  Society,  the  Howard  Benevolent  So- 
ciety, the  Boston  Baptist  Foreign  Mission  Society,  the 
^Massachusetts  Baptist  Education  Society,  and  other  m- 
stitutions  of  a  similar  character.  He  edited  Winchell's 
Watts,  the  Pronouncing  Bible,  and  the  series  of  beautiful 
volumes  styled  The  Christian  Librari/.  His  own  Scrip- 
ture Questions  and  Sabbath-school  Class-book  are  weU 
known.  See  Dr.  Sharp's  Funeral  Sermon ;  A  merican 
Baptist  Mar/azine,  April,  1833.      (J.  H.  W.) 

Linda  or  Lindanus,  William  Dasiasus  van,  a 

Roman  Catholic  prelate,  noted  as  a  controversialist,  born 
at  Dordrecht,  Holland,  in  1525,  was  professor  of  Romish 
theology  at  Louvain  and  DiUingen;  later,  dean  in  the 
Hague,  and  then  bishop  of  Ghent.  He  is  remarkable 
for  the  severity  which  characterized  his  acts  as  inquis- 
itor. In  1562  he  was  appointed  by  Philip  II  bishop  of 
Rusemond.  He  died  in  15G8  or  1588.  His  most  popu- 
lar work  was  Panoplia  Evangelica  (1563).  See  A.  Ha- 
vensius,  Vita  G.  Lindani  (1609). — Thomas,  Biogr.  Diet.  p. 
1433 ;  Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lexikon,  vol.  xii,  s.  v. 

Lindblom,  Jacob  Axel,  a  Swedish  prelate,  was 
born  in  Ostrogothia  in  1747.  He  was  professor  of  belles- 
lettres  in  the  University  of  Upsal,  became  bishop  of 
Linkiiping  in  1789,  and  was  afterwards  chosen  archbish- 
op of  Upsal.  He  died  in  1819. — Thomas,  Biographical 
Dictionary,  p.  1433. 

Linde,  Ciikistopii  Ludwig,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  Schmalkalden  June  5,  1G7G.  In  1698  he 
attended  the  University  of  Erfurt,  and  the  f(jllowing 
year  that  of  Leipsic.  After  he  was  graduated  he  be- 
came tutor,  first  at  Leipsic,  in  order  to  develop  his 
knowledge  more  fully,  and  in  1705  at  his  native  place. 
In  1700  he  accepted  a  call  as  preacher  to  Farnbach,  in 

1729  he  returned  to  Schmalkalden  as  subdean,  and  in 

1730  was  chosen  pastor.  He  died  Aug.  27, 1753.  His 
productions  are  mostly  dedicated  to"  the  youth  and 
Gchool-teachers  of  the  Lutheran  Church ;  we  mention 
or.ly  his  Theologia  in  Hymnis  (Schmalkalden,  1712,  8vo). 
— Doring,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutschlands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 


Lindevrood,  Lind^vood,  or  Lynde^vood, 
William,  an  English  prelate  who  flourished  in  the  15th 
centurj-,  was  divinity  professor  at  Oxford  in  the  time  of 
Henry  V,  and  bishop  of  St.  David's  in  1434.  He  died 
in  144G.  He  \\TOte  Const  it  utiones  Provinciales  Ecclesim 
Anglicanm  (Oxon.  1679,  fol.). — Lowndes's  Bibl.  Man.  p. 
1135;  Marvin's  Leg.  Bibl.  p.  482;  AUibone's  Dictionary 
of  British  and  American  Authors,  ii,  1101. 

Lindgerus  (Ludgerus),  St.,  a  noted  theologian, 
was  born  about  the  year  743  in  Friesland.  He  became 
a  cUsciple  of  St.  Boniface,  who  admitted  him  to  holy  or- 
ders, and  afterwards  he  went  for  four  years  and  a  half 
to  England  to  perfect  himself  under  the  renowned  Al- 
cuin,  then  at  the  head  of  the  school  of  York.  He  re- 
turned in  773,  and  in  776  was  ordained  priest  by  Alberic, 
successor  of  St,  Gregory.  He  preached  the  Gospel  with 
great  success  in  Friesland,  converted  large  numbers,  and 
ibmaded  several  convents,  but  was  obliged  to  quit  the 
country  in  consequence  of  the  invasion  of  the  Saxons. 
He  then  went  to  Rome  to  consult  with  the  pope,  Adrian 
II,  and  withdrew  for  three  years  to  the  monastery  of 
Mount  Cassin.  Charlemagne  having  repulsed  the  Sax- 
ons and  liberated  Friesland,  Lindgerus  returned,  preached 
the  Gospel  to  the  Saxons  with  great  success,  as  also  in 
Westphalia,  and  founded  the  convent  of  Werden.  In 
802  he  was,  against  his  wishes,  appointed  bishop  of  Mi- 
migardeford,  which  was  afterwards  called  Munster.  He 
always  enjoyed  the  favor  of  Charlemagne,  notwithstand- 
ing the  intrigues  of  enemies  jealous  of  his  usefuhiess. 
He  died  iu  A^D.  809.— Herzog,  Real-EncyUop.  vol.  xix, 
s.  V. 

Lindsay,  John  (1),  a  learned  English  divine,  who 
flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century,  was  ed- 
ucated at  St.  Mary's  Hall,  Oxford,  and  for  many  years 
officiated  as  a  minister  of  the  nonjuring  society  in  Trin- 
ity Chapel,  Aldersgate  Street,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
their  last  minister.  He  was  also  for  some  time  a  cor- 
rector of  the  press  for  Mr.  Bowyer,  the  printer.  He  fin- 
ished a  long  and  useful  life  June  21, 1708.  Mr.  Lindsay 
published  a  Short  History  of  the  Regal  Succession,  etc., 
icith  Remarks  on  Wkiston's  Sc?-iptU7-e  Politics,  etc.  (1720, 
8vo) ;  a  translation  of  Mason's  Vindication  of  the  Church 
of  England  (1726,  reprinted  in  1728),  which  has  a  large 
and  elaborate  preface,  containing  "  a  fuU  and  particular 
series  of  the  succession  of  our  bishops,  through  the  sev- 
eral reigns  since  the  Reformation,"  etc.  In  1747  he  pub- 
lished Mason's  Two  Sermons  irreached  at  Court  in  1620. 
See  Gen.  Biog.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Lindsay,  John  (2),  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  born  at  Lynn,  Mass.,  July  18,  1788;  was  con- 
verted in  1807 ;  entered  the  New  England  Conference  in 
1809 ;  was  agent  for  the  Wesleyan  University  in  1835-6 ; 
in  1837  was  transferred  to  the  New  York  Conference,  and 
made  presiding  elder  on  New  Haven  District;  next  he 
fiUed  two  stations  in  New  York  City;  in  1842  he  was 
agent  for  the  American  Bible  Society ;  was  transferred 
in  1845  to  the  Troy  Conference ;  was  appointed  to  the 
Albany  District  in  1846 ;  and  died  at  Schenectady  Feb. 
10, 1850.  Mr.  Lindsay  was  an  impressive  and  success- 
ful preacher,  and  a  man  of  noble  benevolence.  He  was 
very  active  in  the  founding  of  the  Wesleyan  Academy 
at  Wilbraham,  and  the  Wesleyan  University. — Minutes 
of  Conf.  iv,  460 ;  Stevens,  Memorials  of  Methodism,  voL 
ii.ch.xli.     (G.L.T.) 

Lindsey,  Theopiiilus,  an  eminent  English  L^ni- 
tarian  minister,  was  born  at  Middlewich,  in  Cheshire, 
June  20,  1723  (O.  S.).  He  entered  St.  John's  College, 
Cambridge,  in  1741,  and,  after  taking  his  degrees,  was 
elected  fellow  in  1747.  About  this  time  he  commenced 
his  clerical  duties  at  an  Episcopal  chapel  in  Spital  Square, 
London.  Later  he  became  domestic  chaplain  to  Alger- 
non, duke  of  Somerset,  aftc*  whose  death  he  travelled 
two  years  on  the  Continent  with  Algernon's  son.  On 
his  return,  about  1753,  he  was  presented  to  the  living 
of  Kirkby  Wiske,  in  the  North  Riding  of  Yorkshire, 
and  in  1756  he  removed  to  that  of  Piddletown,  in  Dor- 


LINDSEY 


438 


LINE 


setshire.  In  1760  he  married  a  step-daughter  of  his 
intimate  friend  archdeacon  Blackhurne,  and  in  1703, 
chiefly  for  the  sake  of  enjoying  his  society,  took  the 
living  of  Catterick.  Lindsey,  who  had  felt  some  scru- 
ples "respecting  subscription  to  the  Thirty-nine  Arti- 
cles even  whUe  at  Cambridge,  began  now  to  entertain 
serious  doubts  concerning  the  Trinitarian  doctrines,  and 
by  1709  his  association  with  the  llev.  William  Turner, 
a"  Presbyterian  minister  at  Wakefield,  and  Dr.  Priest- 
ley, then  a  Unitarian  miiustcr  at  Leeds,  gave  a  more 
decided  coloring  to  his  Antitrinitarian  views,  and  he 
actually  began  to  contemplate  the  duty  of  resigning 
his  living.  He  was  induced  to  defer  that  step  by  an 
attempt  which  was  made  in  1771,  by  several  clergymen 
and  gentlemen  of  the  learned  professions,  to  obtain  re- 
lief from  Parliament  in  the  matter  of  subscription  to  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles,  and  in  which  he  joined  heartily, 
travelling  upwards  of  2000  miles  in  the  winter  of  that 
year  to  obtain  signatures  to  the  petition  which  was  pre- 
pared. The  petition  was  presented  on  the  6th  of  Feb- 
ruar\',  1772,  with  nearly  250  signatures,  but,  after  a  spir- 
ited debate,  its  reception  was  negatived  by  217  to  71. 
It  being  intended  to  renew  the  application  to  Parliament 
at  the  next  session,  Lindsey  still  deferred  his  resigna- 
tion, but  when  the  intention  was  abandoned  he  began 
to  prepare  for  that  important  step.    He  drew  up,  in  July, 

1773,  a  copious  and  learned  "Apology,"  and,  notwith- 
standing the  attempts  of  his  diocesan  and  others  to  dis- 
suade him  from  the  step,  he  formally  resigned  his  con- 
nection with  the  Established  Church,  and,  selling  the 
greatest  part  of  his  library  to  meet  his  pecuniary  exigen- 
cies, he  proceeded  to  London,  and  on  the  17th  of  April, 

1774,  began  to  ofhciate  in  a  room  in  Essex  Street,  Strand, 
which,  by  the  help  of  friends,  he  had  been  enabled  to 
convert  into  a  temporary  chapel.  His  desire  being  to 
deviate  as  little  as  possible  from  the  mode  of  worship 
mlopted  in  the  Church  of  England,  he  used  a  liturgy 
very  slightly  altered  from  that  modification  of  the  na- 
tional chiu-ch-ser\'ice  which  had  been  previously  pub- 
lished by  Dr.  Samuel  Clarke.  This  modified  liturgy, 
as  well  as  his  opening  sermon,  Lindsey  published.  His 
efforts  to  raise  a  Unitarian  congregation  proving  suc- 
cessful, he  commenced  shortly  afterwards  the  erection 
of  a  more  permanent  chapel  in  Essex  Street,  which 
was  opened  in  1778.  Ilis  published  "Apology"  having 
lieen  attacked  in  print  by  Mr.  Biu-gh,  an  Irish  M.P.,  by 
Mr.  Bingham,  and  by  Dr.  Randolph,  Lindsey  published  a 
"  Sequel"  to  it  in  1776,  in  which  he  answered  those  writ- 
ers. In  1781  he  published  The  Catechist,  or  an  Inquiry 
into  the  Doctrine  of  the  Scriptui-es  concerning  the  only 
True  God  and  Object  of  Relir/ious  Worship ;  in  1783.  A 
Historical  View  of  the  State  of  the  Unitarian  Doctrine 
and  Worship  from  the  Reformation  to  ourovn  Times,  an 
elaborate  work,  which  had  been  several  years  in  prepa- 
ration; and  in  1785,  anonymoush",  ^1 «  Examination  of 
Mr.  Robinson  of  Cambridge  s  Plea  for  the  Divinity  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  by  a  late  Member  of  the  University. 
In  1788  he  published  Vindicia-  Priestleiance,  a  defence  of 
his  friend  Dr.  Priestley,  in  the  form  of  an  address  to  the 
students  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge ;  and  this  was  fol- 
lowed, in  1790,  by  a  Second  Address  to  the  Students  of 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  7-elating  to  Jesus  Christ  and  the 
Origin  of  the  great  Errors  concerning  him.  In  1782  he 
invited  Dr.  Disney,  who  then  left  the  Established  Church 
for  the  same  reasons  as  himself,  to  become  his  colleague 
in  the  ministrj'  at  Essex  Street ;  and  in  1793,  on  account 
of  age  and  growing  infirmities,  he  resigned  the  pastorate 
entirely  into  his  hands,  publishing  on  the  occasion  a 
farewell  discourse  (which  he  felt  himself  unable  to 
preach)  and  a  revised  edition,  being  the  fourth,  of  his 
liturgy.  In  1795  he  reprinted,  with  an  original  pref- 
ace, the  Letters  to  a  Philosophical  Unbeliever  which  Dr. 
Priestley  had  recently  published  in  America  in  reply 
to  Paine's  Age  of  Reason ;  and  in  1800  he  republished 
in  like  manner  another  of  Priestley's  works,  on  the 
knowledge  which  the  Hebrews  had  of  a  future  state. 
Lindscy's  last  work  was   published  in   1802,  entitled 


Conversations  on  the  Divine  Government,  showing  that 
everything  is  from  God  and  for  good  to  all.  He  died 
on  the  3d  of  November,  1808.  Besides  copious  bio- 
graphical notices  of  Lindsey,  which  were  published  in 
the  Monthly  Repository  and  Monthly  Magazine  of  Dec, 
1808,  the  Kev.  Thomas  Belsham  published,  in  1812,  a 
thick  octavo  volume  of  Memoirs,  in  which  he  gives  a 
full  analysis  of  Lindsey's  works  and  extracts  from  his 
correspondence,  together  with  a  complete  list  of  his  pub- 
lications. Two  volumes  of  his  sermons  were  printed 
shortly  after  his  death.  See  Engl.  Cyclop,  s.  v. ;  Robert 
Hall,  in  his  Works  (Uth  ed.  1853),  iv,  188  sq.;  London 
Quarterly  Revieiv,  viii,  422  sq. 

Lindsley,  James  Harvey,  a  Baptist  preacher, 
was  born  in  North  Branford,  Connecticut,  May  5,  1787. 
Brought  to  consider  his  spiritual  condition  through  a 
severe  illness,  he  sought  and  found  pardon  in  December, 
1810.  Shortly  after  he  began  a  course  of  study  with, 
the  view  of  entering  the  ministry,  and  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  1817.  For  a  number  of  years  his  health 
was  so  poor  as  to  forbid  his  preaching,  and  he  was  en- 
gaged in  teaching.  He  introduced  into  the  Baptist  de- 
nomination the  religious  meetings  styled  "Conference 
of  the  Churches,"  and  was  chairman  of  the  first  two. 
His  first  regular  preaching  was  in  Stratford,  in  a  store 
hired  by  himself  in  1831,  and  in  the  same  year  he  re- 
ceived a  regular  license  to  preach.  For  five  jxars  he ' 
had  charge  of  the  churches  in  Milford  and  Strat  field. 
In  1836  his  health  became  impaired.  He  ceased  preach- 
ing, and  for  a  part  of  the  j^ear  assisted  in  the  C(jmpila- 
tion  of  the  Baptist  Select  Hymns.  He  died  Dec.  29, 1843. 
Mr.  Lindsley  was  a  ready  writer,  and  a  large  contribu- 
tor to  several  of  the  periodicals  of  the  day.  His  articles 
took  a  wide  range,  including  politics,  religion,  moral  re- 
form, literature,  and  especially  natural  science. — Sprague, 
Annals  of  the  American  Pulpit,  vol.  yi. 

Lindsley,  Philip,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  near  Morristown,  N.  J.,  Dec.  21, 1780,  and  grad- 
uated in  the  College  of  New  Jersey  (Princeton)  in  1804. 
After  teaching  for  some  time,  and  completing  his  tlieo- 
logical  coiu-se,  he  was  licensed  in  1810,  and  went  to 
Newtown,  L.  I.,  where  he  preached  as  a  stated  supply. 
In  1812  he  became  senior  tutor  in  Princeton  College, 
and  in  1813  was  appointed  to  the  professorship  of  lan- 
guages, and  chosen  secretary  of  the  board  of  trustees. 
To  these  offices  were  added  those  of  librarian  and  inspect- 
or of  the  college,  and  in  1817,  when  he  was  ordained,  that 
of  vice-president.  In  1824  he  agreed  to  go  to  Nashville, 
solely  induced  thereto  by  the  new  and  wide  field  of  ex- 
ertion which  lay  before  him  there.  He  continued  more 
than  a  quarter  of  a  century  at  Nashville,  and  his  repu- 
tation as  a  teacher  was  so  high  in  the  South  and  AVest 
that  it  was  said  that  everj'  university  in  those  regions 
had  solicited  him  to  accept  its  headship.  He  was  twice 
invited  to  preside  over  Dickinson  College,  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  was  actually  elected  provost  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania  in  1834.  From  this  period  he  was 
successively  nioilerator  of  the  General  Assemblj^  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  of  the  United  States,  member  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  Northern  Antiquaries  at  Copenha- 
gen, professor  of  ecclesiastical  polity  and  Biblical  archae- 
ology in  the  New  Albany  Seminary  (Indiana),  1850.  He 
removed  from  New  Albany  in  April,  1853.  and  returned 
to  Nashville,  where  he  died  in  May,  1855.  Dr.  Linds- 
ley's  works  have  been  published  entire,  with  an  intro- 
ductorj'  notice  of  his  life  and  labors  by  Leroy  J.  Halsey 
(Philadel.  1865,  3  vols.  8vo).  Their  contents  are  as  fol- 
lows: vol.  i.  Educational  Discourses ;  vol.  ii.  Sermons 
and  Religious  Discourses;  vol.  iii.  Miscellaneous  Dis- 
courses and  Essays. — Sprague,  Annals,  iv,  465. 

Liudwood.     See  Lindewood. 

Line  (rejiresented  by  the  following  terms  in  the 
original:  ^Sn,  che'bel,  a  measuring-lint,  2  Sam.  viii,  2; 
Amos  vii,  17;  hence  &  jwrtion  as  divided  out  by  a  line, 
Psa.  xvi,  6;  elsewhere  "cord,"  "portion,"  etc.  Ip  or 
1 P,  kav,  a  measuring-line,  Isa.  xxxiv,  17 ;  Ezek.  xlvii. 


LINEAGE 


439 


line:n" 


3 ;  either  for  construction,  Job  xxxviii,  5 ;  Isa.  xliv,  13 ; 
Jcr.  xxxi,  39 ;  Zecli.  i,  16,  or  for  destruction,  2  Kings 
xxi,  13;  Lam.  ii,  8;  Isa.  xxxiv^,  11;  metaph.,  a  rule  or 
norm,  Isa.  xxviii,  17, 10,  13 ;  like  the  Gr.  Kaviov,  2  Cor. 
X,  13,  15,  16 ;  Gal.  vi,  16 ;  Phil,  iii,  16  ;  also  the  rim,  e.  g. 
of  a  layer,  1  Kings  vii,  23  ;  2  Chron.  iv,  2 ;  or  string  of  a 
musical  instrument,  put  for  sound,  q.  d.  accord,  Psa.  xix, 
4;  where  Sept.  6  (pSruyyog,  and  so  Rom.  x,  18,Vulg.  so- 
VHX ;  once,  strength,  Isa.  xviii,  2,  where  "  a  nation  meted 
out"  should  be  rendered  a  most  mvjhtii  nation :  in  three 
of  the  above  passages,  1  Kings  vii,  23 ;  Jer.  xxxi,  39 ; 
Zcch.  i,  16,  the  text  reads  t\'\^_,  Ice'veh,  of  the  same  im- 
port; and  in  Josh,  ii,  18,  21,  occurs  WpO,  tikvah',  a 
cord,  from  the  same  root.  Other  terms  less  proper  are : 
kJW,  chut,  a  thread,  for  measuring  a  circumference,  1 
Kings  vii,  15;  "fillets,"  Jer.  Iii,  21 ;  elsewhere  generally 
a  "  thread."  bitnQ,  pathil',  a  cord,  for  measuring  length, 
Ezek.  xl,3;  elsewhere  a  "thread,"  "lace,"  etc.,  especially 
the  string  for  suspending  the  signet-ring  in  the  bosom, 
rendered  "bracelets"  in  Gen.  xxxviii,  18,  25.  ^')V., 
se'red,  the  awl  or  stylus  with  which  an  artist  graves  the 
sketch  of  a  figure  in  outline,  to  be  afterwards  sculptured 
in  full,  Isa.  xliv,  13).  There  can  be  little  doubt  that 
the  Hebrews  acquired  the  art  of  measuring  land  from 
the  ancient  Egyptians,  with  whom  it  was  early  preva- 
lent ("Wilkinson's  Anc.  Egypt,  ii,  256).  In  Josh,  xviii,  9 
we  read,  "  And  the  men  went  out  and  passed  through 
the  land,  and  described  it  by  cities  into  seven  parts  in  a 
book,  and  came  again  to  Joshua  to  the  host  at  Shiloh." 
These  circumstances  clearly  indicate  that  a  survey  of 
the  whole  country  was  made,  and  the  results  entered 
carefully  in  a  book  (see  Kitto's  Dailg  Bible  Illust.  ad 
loc).  This  appears  to  be  the  earliest  example  of  a  top- 
ographical srn-vey  on  record,  and  it  proves  that  there 
must  have  been  some  knowledge  of  mensuration  among 
the  Hebrews,  as  is  moreover  evinced  by  the  other  topo- 
graphical details  in  the  book  of  Joshua. 

Lineage  (Trarptd,  paternal  descent,  "kindred,"  Acts 
iii,  25;  "family,"  Eph.  iii,  15),  a  family  or  race  (Luke 
ii,  4).     See  Genealogy. 

Linen  has  been  made  in  the  A.  Version  or  elsewhere 
the  representative  of  a  considerable  number  of  Ileb.  and 
Greek  terms,  to  most  of  which  it  more  or  less  nearly 
corresponds.  The  material  designated  by  them  in  gen- 
eral is  no  doubt  principally,  and  perhaps  b}'  S(3me  of 
them  exclusively,  the  product  of  the  flax-plant ;  but 
there  is  another  plant  which,  as  being  a  probable  rival 
to  it,  may  be  most  conveniently  considered  here,  name- 
ly, HEMP.     See  also  Silk;  Wool. 

Hemi^  is  a  plant  which  in  the  ]irescnt  day  is  exten- 
sively distributed,  being  cultivated  in  Europe,  and  ex- 
teniling  through  Persia  to  the  southernmost  parts  of 
India.  In  the  plains  of  that  country  it  is  cultivated 
on  account  of  its  intoxicating  product,  so  well  known  as 
hang ;  in  the  Himalayas  both  on  this  account  and  for  its 
yielding  the  Ugneous  fibre  which  is  used  for  sack  and 
rope  making.  Its  European  names  arc  no  doubt  derived 
from  the  Arabic  kinnab,  which  is  supposed  to  be  con- 
nected with  the  Sanscrit  shanapee.  There  is  no  doubt, 
therefore,  that  it  might  easily  have  been  cultivated  in 
Egypt.  Herodotus  mentions  it  as  being  employed  by 
the  Thracians  for  making  garments.  "  These  were  so 
like  linen  that  none  but  a  very  experienced  person  could 
tell  whether  they  were  of  hemp  or  flax ;  one  who  had 
never  seen  hemp  would  certainly  suppose  them  to  be 
linen."  Hemp  is  used  in  the  present  day  for  smock- 
frocks  and  tunics;  and  Russia  sheeting  and  Russia  duck 
are  well  known.  Cannabis  is  mentioned  in  the  works 
of  Hippocrates  on  account  of  its  medical  properties. 
Dioseorides  describes  it  as  being  employed  for  making 
ropes,  and  it  was  a  good  d™  cultivated  by  the  Greeks 
for  this  purpose.  Though  we  are  unable  at  present  to 
prove  that  it  was  cultivated  in  Egj'pt  at  an  early  period, 
and  used  for  making  garments,  yet  there  is  nothing  im- 
probable in  its  having  been  so.    Indeed,  as  it  was  known 


to  various  Asiatic  nations,  it  could  hardly  have  been 
unknown  to  the  Egyptians,  and  the  similarity  of  the 
word  husheesh  to  the  Arabic  shesh  would  lead  to  a  belief 
that  they  were  acquainted  with  it,  especially  as  in  a 
language  like  the  Hebrew  it  is  more  probable  that  dif- 
ferent names  were  applied  to  totally  different  things, 
than  that  the  same  thing  had  two  or  three  different 
names.  Hemp  might  thus  have  been  used  at  an  early 
period,  along  with  fiax  and  wool,  for  making  cloth  for 
garments  and  for  hangings,  and  would  be  much  valued 
until  cotton  and  the  finer  kinds  of  linen  came  to  be 
known. — Kitto. 

1.  PisHTEii'  (ilfiliJQ,  or,  rather,  according  to  Gese- 
nius,  W13Q,  pe'sheth,  from  ddS,  to  cajxl)  is  rendered 
"  linen"  in  Lev.  xiii,  47,  48,  52,  59 ;  Deut,  xxii,  11 ;  Jer. 
xiii,l;  Ezek.  xliv,  17,  18;  and  "flax"  in  Josh,  ii,  6; 
Judg.  XV,  14;  Prov.  xxxi,  13 ;  Isa.  xix,  9;  Ezek.  xl,  3; 
Hos.  ii,  5,  9.  It  signifies  (1.)  /lax,  i.  e.  the  material  of 
linen,  Isa.  xix,  9 ;  Deut.  xxii,  11 ;  Prov.  xxxi,  13,  where 
its  manufacture  is  spoken  of;  also  a  line  or  rope  made 
of  it,  Ezek.  xl,  3;  Judg.  xiv,  4;  so  "stalks  of  flax,"  i.  e. 
woody  flax,  Josh,  ii,  6  (where  the  Sept.  has  \ivoica\dfii], 
Vulg.  stijndce  lini,hut  the  Arabic  Vers,  stalks  of  cotton); 
and  (2.)  wTought  flax,  i.  e.  linen  cloth,  as  made  into  gar- 
ments, e.  g.  generally.  Lev.  xiii,  47,  48,  52,  59 ;  Deut. 
xxii,  11 ;  Ezek.  xliv,  17;  a  girdle,  Jer.  xiii,  1 ,  a  mitre, 
a  pair  of  drawers  worn  by  the  priests,  Ezek.  xliv,  18.  A 
cognate  term  is  itU'012,  pistah',  the  plant  "flax"  as 
growing,  Exod.  ix,  31 ;  spec,  a  tvick;  made  of  linen,  i.  e. 
of  "  flax,"  Isa.  xhi,  3,  or  "  tow,"  Isa.  xliii,  17.  To  this 
exactly  corresponds  the  Greek  \ivov  (whence  English 
linm),  which,  indeed,  stands  for  pishteh  or  pishtah  in  the 
Sept.  (at  Exod.  ix,  31 ;  Isa.  xix,  9;  xliii,  3).  It  signi- 
fies properly  the  Jiax-plant  (Xenophon,  .4^/j.  ii,  11, 12), 
but  in  the  N.  T.  is  only  used  of  linen  raiment  (Rev.  xv, 
6 ;  comp.  Homer,  II.  Lx,  661 ;  Od.  xiii,  73),  also  the  wick 
of  a  lamp,  as  being  composed  of  a  strip  or  ravellings  of 
linen  (Matt,  xii,  20),  where  the  half-expiring  flame  is 
made  the  sj-mbol  of  an  almost  despairing  heart,  which 
will  be  cheered  instead  of  having  its  religious  hopes  ex- 
tinguished by  the  Redeemer.  In  John  xiii,  4,  5  occurs 
the  Latin  term  linteum,  in  its  Greek  form  Xsvriov,  liter- 
ally a  linen  clothj  hence  a  "  towel"  or  api-on  (comp.  Ga- 
len, Comp.  Med.  9 ;  Suetonius,  Ctdig.  xxvi). 

This  well-lmown  plant  was  early  cultivated  in  Egypt 
(Exod.  ix,  31 ;  Isa.  xix,  9  ;  comp.  Pliny,  xix,  2 ;  Herod, 
ii,  105;  Hasselquist,  Trar.  p.  500),  namely,  in  the  Delta 
around  Pelusium  ("  linum  Pelusiacum,"  Sil.  Ital.  iii,  25, 
375;  "linteum  Pelusium,"  Phrodr.  ii,  6,  12);  but  also  in 
Palestine  (Josh,  ii,  6  ,  Hos.  ii,  7  ;  compare  Pococke,  East, 
i,  260),  the  stalk  attaining  a  height  of  several  feet  (see 
Josh,  ii,  6 ;  compare  Hartmann,  Ilebr.  i,  116).  Linen  or 
tow  was  employed  by  the  Hebrews,  especially  as  a 
branch  of  female  domestic  manufacture  (Prov.  xxxi,  13), 
for  garments  (2  Sam.  vi,  14 ;  Ezek.  xliv,  17 ;  Lev.  xiii, 
47 ;  Rev.  xv,  G ;  comp.  Philo,  ii,  225),  girtUes  (Jer.  xxxi, 
1),  thread  and  ropes  (Ezek.  xl,  3;  Judg.  xv,  13),  nap- 
kins (Luke  xxiv,  12 ;  John  xix,  40),  turbans  (Ezek.  xliv, 
18),  and  lamp-wick  (Isa.  xl,  3;  xliii,  17;  Matt,  xii,  20). 
For  clothing  they  used  the  "  fine  linen"  ("13,  o^ovij,  1 
Chron.  xv,  27,  where  the  Sept.  has  '^vaaivoq :  see  Hart- 
mann, iii,  38 ;  compare  Lev.  xvi,  4,  23 ;  Ezek.  xliv,  17), 
perhaps  the  Pelusiac  linen  of  Egypt  (see  Mishna,  Joma, 
iii,  7),  of  remarkable  whiteness  (comp.  Dan.  xii,  6 ;  Rev. 
XV,  6  ;  see  Plutarch,  Isis,  c.  4),  with  which  the  fine  Bab- 
ylon linen  manufactured  at  Borsippa  doubtless  corre- 
sponded (Strabo,  xvi,  739),  being  the  material  of  the 
splendid  robes  of  the  Persian  monarchs  (Strabo,  xiv,  719 ; 
Curt,  viii,  9),  doubtless  the  karpas,  DS"i3,  of  Esth.  i,  6 
(see  Gesenius,  Thesaur.  Ileh.  p.  715).  Very  poor  persons 
wore  garments  of  unbleached  flax  {w/iioXn'ov,  linum  cru- 
dum,  1.  q.  tow-cloth,  Ecclus.  xl,  4).  The  refuse  of  flax  or 
toio  is  called  in  Heb.  n-li'D,  neo'reth  (Judg.  xvi,  9;  Isa. 
i,  31).  (See  generally' Celsius,  Uierobot.  ii,  283  sq.)^ 
Winer,  i,  375.     See  Flax, 


LINEN 


440 


LINEN 


2.  BPts  (V12,  from  a  root  signifying  u-hifeness)  occurs 
in  1  Chron.  iv,  21 ;  xv,  27 ;  2  Chron.  ii,  14 ;  iii,  14 ;  v,  12 ; 
Ksth.  i,  6 ;  viii,  15 ;  Ezek.  xxvii,  16,  in  all  which  passages 
the  A.Y.  renders  it "  tine  linen,"  except  in  2  Chron.  v,  12, 
where  it  translates  "  white  linen."  The  word  is  of  Ara- 
m;van  origin,  being  found  in  substantially  the  same  form 
in  all  the  cognate  dialects.  It  is  spoken  of  the  finest 
and  most  precious  stuffs,  as  worn  by  kings  (1  Chron. 
XV.  27),  by  priests  (2  Chron.  v,  12),  and  by  other  persons 
of  high  rank  or  honor  (Esth.  i,  6,  8, 15).  It  is  used  of 
the  Syrian  bi/ssits  (Ezek.  xxvii,  16),  which  seems  there 
to  be  distinguished  from  the  Egyptian  bi/ssus  or  TIJ'^. 
s/tesk  (ver.  7).  Elsewhere  it  seems  not  to  differ  from 
this  last,  and  is  often  put  for  it  in  late  Hebrew  (e.  g. 
1  Chron.  iv,  21;  2  Chron.  iii,  14;  comp.  Exod.  xxvi,  31; 
so  the  Syr.  and  Chald.  eqidvalents  of  huts  occur  in  the 
O.  and  N.  T.  for  the  Heb.  d'J  and  Gr.  jSvaaoc).  That 
the  Ileb.  garments  made  of  this  material  were  white  may 
not  only  be  certainly  concluded  from  the  etymology 
(which  that  of  TIJIIJ  confirms),  but  from  the  express  lan- 
guage of  Rev.  xix,  4,  where  the  white  and  shining  rai- 
ment of  the  saints  is  emblematical  of  their  purity.  Yet 
we  should  not  rashly  reject  the  testimony  of  Pausanias 
(v,  5),  who  states  that  the  Hebrew  byssus  was  yellow,  for 
cotton  of  this  color  is  found  as  well  in  Guinea  and  India 
(Gossypium  7-elif/iosum)  as  in  Greece  at  this  day  (comp. 
Yossius,  (ul.  Virff.  Geo.  ii,  220),  although  white  was  doubt- 
less the  prevailing  color,  as  of  linen  with  us.  J.  E.  Faber 
(in  Harmar,  Obserr.  ii,  382  sq.)  suspects  that  the  bufs  was 
a  cotton-plant  common  in  Syria,  and  different  from  tlie 
s/iesh  or  tree-cotton.  It  has  long  been  disputed  whether 
the  cloths  of  bysstis  were  of  linen  or  cotton  (see  Celsius, 
Hlerobot.  ii,  167  sq. ;  Forster,  De  bysso  antiquor.  London, 
177G),  and  recent  microscopic  experiments  upon  the 
minnm3'-cloths  brought  to  London  from  Egypt  have 
been  claimed  as  determining  the  controversy  by  discov- 
ering that  the  threads  of  these  are  linen  (Wilkinson, 
Anc.  Egypt,  iii,  115).  But  this  is  not  decisive,  as  there 
may  have  existed  religious  reasons  for  employing  linen 
for  this  particular  purpose,  and  the  cloths  used  for  ban- 
daging the  bodies  are  not  clearly  stated  to  have  been  of 
byxsn.t.  On  the  contrary,  the  characteristics  ascribed  to 
this  latter  are  such  as  much  better  agree  with  the  qual- 
ities of  cotton  (see  Forster,  De  bysio,  ut  sup.).  "  The 
corresponding  Greek  word  /StcrffOf  occurs  in  Luke  xvi, 
19,  where  the  rich  man  is  described  as  being  clothed  in 
purple  and_^'»e  linen,  and  also  in  Rev.  xviii,  12, 16,  and 
xix,  8,  14,  among  the  merchandise  the  loss  of  which 
would  be  mourned  for  by  the  merchants  trading  with 
the  mystical  Babylon.  But  it  is  by  many  authors  still 
considered  uncertain  whether  this  byssus  was  of  flax  or 
cotton  ;  fur,  as  RosenmiiUer  says, '  The  Heb.  word  sliesfi, 
which  occurs  thirty  times  in  the  two  tirst  books  of  the 
Pentateuch  (see  Celsius,  ii,  259),  is  in  these  places,  as 
well  as  in  I'rov.  xxxi,  22,  by  the  Greek  Alexandrian 
translators  interpreted  byssus,  which  denotes  Egyptian 
cotton,  and  also  the  cotton  cloth  made  from  it.  In  the 
later  writings  of  the  O.  T.,  as.  for  example,  in  tlie  Chron- 
icles, the  book  of  Esther,  and  Ezekiel,  buts  is  commonly 
used  instead  of  skesh  as  an  expression  for  cotton  cloth.' 
This,  however,  seems  to  be  inferred  rather  than  proved, 
and  it  is  just  as  likely  that  improved  civilization  may 
have  introduced  a  substance,  suck  u  .otton,  which  was 
unknown  at  the  times  when  .'i/iesh  was  sjjoken  of  and 
employed,  in  the  same  manner  as  we  know  that  in  Eu- 
rope woollen,  hempen,  linen,  and  cotton  clothes  have  at 
one  period  of  society  been  more  extensively  worn  than 
at  another"  (Kitto). 

Cotton  is  the  product  of  a  plant  apparently  cultivated 
in  the  earliest  ages  not  only  in  India,  Cyprus,  and  other 
well-known  localities,  but  also  in  Egypt  (Pliny,  -xix,  2 ; 
comp.  Descript.  de  VEgypte,  xvji,  104  sq.),  and  even  in 
Syria  (Ezek.  xxvii,  16)  and  Palestine  (1  Chron.  iv,  21 ; 
Pausan.  v,  5,  2;  Pococke,  luist,  ii,  88;  Arvicux,  i,  oOG). 
Two  kinds  of  cotton  are  usually  distinguished,  the />/n«i 
{Gossypium  herbaceum)  and  the  tree  (Jjossyp.  arboreuni), 


although  the  latest  investigations  appear  to  make  them 
essentially  one.  Tlie  former,  which  in  Western  Asia  is 
found  growing  in  fields  (Olearius,  Travels,  p.  297 ;  Korte, 
Reis.  p.  437),  is  an  annual  shrub  two  or  three  feet  high, 
but  when  cultivated  (Olivier,  Truv.  ii,  461)  it  becomes 
a  bush  from  three  to  five  feet  in  height.  The  stalks  are 
reddish  at  the  bottom,  the  branches  short,  furzy,  and 
speckled  with  black  spots;  the  leaves  are  dark  green, 
large,  five-lobed,  and  weak.  The  flowers  spring  from 
the  junction  of  the  leaves  with  the  stem  ;  they  are  bell- 
shaped,  pale  yellow,  but  purplish  beneath.  They  arc 
succeeded  by  oval  capsules  of  the  size  of  a  hazel-nut, 
which  swell  to  the  size  of  a  walnut,  and  (in  October) 
burst  spontaneously.  They  contain  a  little  ball  of  white 
filaments,  which  in  warm  situations  attains  the  size  of  an 
apple.  Imbedded  in  this  are  seven  little  egg-shaped, 
woolly  seeds,  of  a  brown  or  black-gray  color,  which  con- 
tain an  oily  kernel.  The  Gossypium  arboreuni  {i)ir?oov 
ioio(j>6piov  of  Theophrastus)  was  anciently  (see  Theoph. 
Plant,  iv,  9,  p.  144,  ed.  Schneider),  and  still  is  indigenous 
in  Asia  (i.  c.  India),  and  attains  a  height  of  about  twelve 
feet,  but  differs  very  little  as  to  the  leaves,  blossoms,  or 
fruit  from  the  herbaceous  cotton.  See  generally  Belon, 
in  Paulus's  Samml.  i,.214  sq. ;  Kurrer,  in  the  Hall.  Encykl. 
viii,  209  sq. ,  Oken,  Lehrb.  d.  Naturyesch.  II,  ii,  1262  sq. ; 
Ainslie,  Mater.  Ind.  p.  282  sq. ;  Patter,  Erdk.  vii,  1058  sq. 

Cotton  (Ui  w,  shesh,  according  to  Rosenmtiller,  ^4  Itert/i. 
TV,  i,  175;  comp.  Tuch,  Gen.  p.  520  sq. ;  later  "/^3,  buts, 
see  Faber,  in  Harmar,  ii,  383 ;  comp.  Gesenius,  Thesaur. 
p.  190)  was  not  only  manufactured  in  Egypt  into  state 
apparel  (Gen.  xli,  42 ;  comp.  Pliny,  xix,  2),  and  in  Persia 
into  cords  (Esth.  i,  6),  but  the  Israelites  even  made  use 
of  byssus  cloth  (Exod.  xxvi,  1 ;  xxvii,  9)  and  clothing 
(Exod.  xxviii,  89),  and  the  Hebrew  women  were  accus- 
tomed to  similar  fabrics  (Prov.  xxxi,  32).  It  has  also 
been  regarded  as  the  sumptuous  apparel  which  onlj-  the 
rich  were  able  to  afford  (Luke  xvi,  19;  on  the  byssus  of 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  see  Celsius,  ii,  170, 177,  and  Wet- 
stein,  ii,  767).  Nevertheless,  the  Hebrew  shesh  does  not 
designate  exclusively  cotton,  but  also  stands  sometimes, 
like  the  Gr.  byssus  often  (as  the  product  of  a  tree.Philostr, 
Apoll.  ii,  2G ;  comp.  Pollux,  Ononi.  vii,  17;  Strabo,  xv, 
693;  Arrian, //icZif.  vii),  for  the  finest  (Egyptian)  white 
linen  (certainly  in  Exod.  xxxix,  28  ;  comp.  xxviii,  42  ; 
Lev.  xvi,  4 ;  see  Pliny,  xix,  2, 3),  which  in  softness  com- 
pared with  cotton  (Hartmann,  Hebr.  iii,  37  sq.).  Indeed, 
the  Jewish  tradition  of  the  use  of  linen  for  sacred  pur- 
poses (Bilhr,  Symbol,  i,  264)  is  based  altogether  upon  the 
custom  of  the  Itlgyptians,  whose  priests  were  exclusively 
clothed  in  linen  (Pliny,  xix,  1,  2;  comp.  Philostr.  .4/;o/^. 
ii,  20),  >\-hich  it  has  likewise  been  contended  was  the  an- 
cient byssus  (Rosellini,  j1/o7i.  cii:  1,341;  comp.  Becker, 
Charikl.S33  sq.).  In  fine,  the  Orientals  often  employed 
a  single  term  to  designate  both  cotton  and  linen,  but 
Celsius  was  wrong  when  he  insisted  (Ilicrobot.  ii,  259 
sq.,  167  sq.)  that  shesh  stands  only  for  (fine)  linen  (see 
Faber,  in  Harmar,  ii,  380  sq. ;  Hartmann,  Hebr.  iii,  34 
sq.).  The  same  ambiguity  that  thus  applies  to  [ivaaoQ 
is  also  found  in  the  use  of  *  W  (chur,  Esth.  i,  6 ;  viii,  15 ; 
Sept,  /St'crffoc),  bj'  which  perhaps  cotton  is,  after  all,  in- 
tended. See  generally  J.  R.  Forster,  Be  bysso  antiquor. 
(Lond.  1776)  ;  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  A  ntiq.  s.  v.  Byssus ; 
Eyypt.  Antiq.  in  the  lAb.  of  Entertaining  Kncnd.  ii,  182- 
192;  Penny  Cyclopadia,  s.  v.  Cotton,  Gossj-pium.  See 
Cotton. 

3.  Bad  ("12,  perha]3S  from  its  separation  for  sacred 
uses)  occurs  Exod.  xxviii,  42;  xxxix,  28;  Lev.  vi,  10; 
xvi,  4,  23,  32;  1  Sam.  ii,  18;  xxxii,  IS;  2  Sam.  vi,  14; 
1  Chron.  xv,  27 ,  Ezek.  ix,  2,  3,  11 ;  x,  2.  6.  7 ;  Dan.  x, 
5;  xii,  6,  7,  in  all  which  passages  it  is  rendered  '"linen" 
in  the  Auth.  Yers.  It  is  u^ormly  applied  to  the  sacred 
vestments  (e.  g.  drawers,  nm-c,  eplKxl,  etc.)  of  the  priests, 
or  (in  the  passages  in  Ezekiel  and  Daniel)  of  an  angel 
(comp.  .John  xx,  12 ;  Acts  i,  20),  In  these  last  instances 
it  is  in  the  plural,  D'^'na,  baddim',  in  the  concrete  sense 
of  clothes  of  this  material,  Sept.  in  the  Pent,  invariably 


LINEN 


441 


LINEN 


XiVfoc,  but  in  1  Chron.  jSvacnvog.  It  is  well  known 
that  the  official  garments  of  the  Egyptian  (as  of  the 
Brahmin)  priests  were  always  of  linen  (Koscnmiiller, 
Bot.  of  Ike  Bible,  p.  175),  and  hence  the  custom  among 
the  Hebrews  (compare  Ezek.  xliv,  17,  where  the  sacred 
apparel  is  expressly  described  as  the  product  of  tlax, 
D7P'rD  ).  Celsius,  however,  is  of  opmion  {/lierobot.  ii, 
509)  that  bad  does  not  signify  the  common  linen,  as 
some  have  imagined,  but  the  finest  and  best  Ef/yptian 
linen;  and  he  quotes  (p.  510)  Aben-Ezra  as  asserting 
that  bud  is  the  same  as  hits,  namely,  a  species  of  linen 
in  Eg\-pt.  With  this  view  Gesenius  concurs  (Thesaur. 
Ileb.  p.  179).  The  Talmudlsts  appear  to  have  been  of 
the  same  opinion,  from  their  fanciful  etymology  of  the 
term  bad  as  of  a  plant  with  a  single  stem  springing  up- 
right from  the  earth  from  one  seed  (Braun,  De  vest,  sa- 
cei'd.  p.  101).  This  interpretation  is  finally  confirmed 
by  the  Arabic  versions,  which  have  a  term  equivalent 
to  hi/s.vis.  See  No.  1  above.  Perhaps,  however,  the 
requirement  of  the  material  in  question  for  priestly  gar- 
ments may  only  signify  that  no  icool  should  be  employ- 
ed in  them,  and  they  may  therefore  have  consisted  in- 
dilferenlly  of  either  linen  or  cotton,  provided  it  was 
entirely  jmre,  and  thus  be  represented  by  the  equivocal 
term  byssus.     See  No.  2  above. 

4.  SiiEsii  ("i"^,  prob.  from  the  Egjq^tian  sheush,  in 
ancient  Egyptian  cheuti,  i.  e.  linen,  Bunsen,  ^Eg.  i,  606, 
which  the  Hebrews  appear  to  have  imitated  as  if  from 
UJ-TJ,  to  be  ichite ;  Sept.  everywhere  (ivarjoQ)  occurs 
Gen.  xli,  42-,  Exod.  xxv,  4;  xxvi,  1,  31,  36;  xxvii,  9, 
16,18;  xxviii,  5,  6,  8,15,39;  xxxv,  6, 23, 25, 35 ;  xxxvi. 
8.  35,  37  ;  xxxviii,  9,  16, 18,  23 ;  xxxix,  2,  3,  5,  8,  27,  28, 
29;  Prov.  xxxi,  22;  Ezek.  xvi,  10,  13;  xxvii,  7;  in  all 
which  passages  it  is  rendered  "  fine  linen"  in  the  Auth. 
Vers,  (except  Prov. xxxi, 22,  where  it  is  rendered  "silk;" 
in  Esth.  i,  6 ;  Cant,  v,  15^  the  same  term  occurs,  but  is 
rendered,  as  it  there  signifies,  "  marble") ;  once  siieshi' 
C'^r,  from  the  same),  Ezek.  xvi,  13,  text,  "fine  linen." 
This  word  appears  to  designate  Egj-ptian  Imen  of  pe- 
culiar whiteness  and  fineness,  and  as  such  it  is  stated 
to  have  been  imported  from  Egypt  by  way  of  Tyre 
(Ezek.  xxvii,  7),  in  distinction  from  the  Syrian  Unen  or 
bills  ("i"13,  verse  16).  In  the  Pentateuch  it  is  several 
times  applied  to  byssus,  of  which,  both  as  material  spon- 
taneously offered  (Exod.  xxv,  4;  xxxv,  6,  23)  and  as 
woven  fabrics  (Exod.  xxxv,  25,  35;  xxxviii,  23),  were 
made  both  the  curtains  and  veils  of  the  sacred  taberna- 
cle (Exod.  xxvi,  1,31,  36  ;  xxvii,  9, 10, 18  ;  xxxvi,  8,  35, 
37 ;  xxxviii,  9, 16, 18),  and  the  priestly  garments,  espe- 
cially the  high-priest's  ephod  or  shoulder-piece  (Exod. 
xxviii,  5,  6,  8,  15,  39;  xxix,  2,  5,  8,  27,  28,  29).  Eai- 
ment  of  this  description  is  stated  to  have  been  Avorn  by 
noble  ]jers()ns  besides  priests,  e.  g.  by  Joseph  as  prefect 
of  Egypt  (Gen.  xli,  42),  and  women  of  eminence  (Prov. 
xxxi,  22).  But  that  shesk  is  also  spoken  of  liwn  arti- 
cles is  apparent  from  Exod.  xxxix,  28,  where  the  "  linen 
breeches"  (12rt  "^ops^)  are  said  to  have  been  made 
"of  fine-twined  linen"  (It 'vT "3  Od),  as  well  as  from  the 
fact  that  n^Jn":3D,  pislifim,  linen  garments,  are  some- 
times (e.  g.  Isa.  xliii,  17 ;  Ezek.  xliv,  18)  rendered  by 
the  Chaldee  interpreter  by  y^'Z,  bills.  It  thus  appears 
that  s/iesh  is  equivalent  in  general  to  byssus.  See  No.  2 
above.  See  generally  Celsius,  Ilicrobot.  ii,  259 ;  J.  E. 
Foretcr,  Liber  sinyularis  de  bysso  antiquorum  (London, 
1776) ;  J.  E.  Fabcr,  Observat.  ii,  282  sq. ;  Hartmann,  He- 
braeriii,  iii,  34  sq. ;  Rosenmliller,  Bibl.  A  Iterth.  IV,  i,  175 
6(1.— tJesenius,  Thes.  Heb.  s.  v. 

5.  Ciiuu  ("lin,  from  its  u-hiteness)  occurs  Esth.  i,  6; 
viii,  15,  where  the  Auth. Version  renders  "white,"  Sept, 
jivaaoc,  besides  other  passages  where  it  signifies  a 
"  hole"  risa.  xi,  8 ;  xUi,  22,  etc.) ;  once  I'lH,  chor,  plural 
poet,  -inin,  Isa.  xLx,  9  (Auth.  Vers,  "net-works,"  Sept. 
/3t'r(T(Toc,Vidg.  sH&^tVw,  Kimchi  while  garments).  This 
term  likewise  appears  to  designate  fine  and  white  Unen, 


or  in  general  byssus,  although  Saadias  and  other  inter- 
preters understand  silk  (see  Schroder,  De  Vest.  Mul.  Heb. 
p.  40,  245).     See  No.  2  above. 

6.  Etltn'  ("i^^N,  from  an  obsolete  root  perhaps  signi- 
fying to  bind,  referring  to  the  use  of  the  material  for 
ropes)  occurs  only  in  Prov.vii,16,  as  a  product  of  Egypt, 
"  I  have  decked  my  bed  with  coverings  of  tapestry,  with 
carved  works,  with^«e  linen  of  Egypt."  As  Egypt  was 
from  very  early  times  celebrated  for  its  cultivation  of 
flax  and  manufactures  of  linen,  there  can  be  little  doubt 
that  elUH  is  correctly  rendered,  though  some  have'  thought 
ihat  it  may  signify  rope  or  string  of  Egypt,  "  funis 
iEgyptius,"  "  funis  salignus  v.  intubaceus;"  a  sense  that 
it  bears  in  Chaldee,  for  the  Targums  employ  "i^wX  in 
the  sense  oirope  for  the  Heb.  ban  and  "irT'p  (Josh,  ii, 
15 ,  Numb,  iv,  32 ;  1  Kings  xx,  32 ;  Esth.  i,  6,  etc.). 
But,  following  the  suggestion  of  Alb.  Schultens,  Celsius 
{Ilierobot.  ii,  p.  89)  observes  that  eliui  designates  not  a 
rope,  but  flax  and  linen,  as  even  the  Greek  o^ovi]  and 
o5vviov,  derived  from  it,  sufliciently  demonstrate.  "So 
]\Ir.  Yates,  in  his  Texli-iniim  Antiquorum,  p.  265,  says  of 
oSsuvt]  that '  it  was  in  all  probability  an  Egyptian  word, 
adopted  by  the  Greeks  to  denote  the  commodity  to 
which  the  Egyptians  themselves  applied  it.'  For  "(^-i?, 
put  into  Greek  letters  and  with  Greek  terminations,  be- 
comes o^oi'i)  and  65i6viov.  Hesychius  states,  no  doubt 
correctly, '  that  63i6vi]  was  applied  by  the  Greeks  to  any 
fine  and  thin  cloth,  though  not  of  linen.'  Mr.  Yates  fur- 
ther adduces  from  ancient  scholia  that  o^ovai  were 
made  both  of  flax  and  of  wool,  and  also  that  the  silks 
of  India  are  called  o^ovai  ai]piKai  by  the  author  of  the 
Periplus  of  the  Erythrcean  Sea.  It  also  appears  that 
the  name  o^oviov  was  applied  to  cloths  exported  from 
Cutch,  Ougein,  and  Baroach,  and  which  must  have  been 
made  of  cotton.  ]\Ir.  Yates  moreover  observes  that, 
though  o^^ovT],  like  aivcwv,  originally  denoted  linen, 
yet  we  find  them  both  applied  to  cotton  cloth.  As  the 
manufacture  of  linen  extended  itself  into  other  coun- 
tries, and  as  the  exports  of  India  became  added  to  those 
of  Egypt,  all  varieties,  either  of  linen  or  cotton  cloth, 
wherever  woven,  came  to  be  designated  by  the  origi- 
nall}^  Egyptian  names  '0^6v>;  and  llivSibv'  (Kitto). 
Forster  {Ue  bysso  aniiquor.  p.  75)  endeavors  to  trace  the 
Egyptian  form  of  the  word,  and  Ludolf  (Comment,  ad 
hist.  ^Elhiop.  p.  204)  renders  it  by  the  Ethiopic  term  for 
frankincense.  But  these  eftbrts,  as  Gesenius  remarks 
(  Thesaur.  lleb.  p.  77),  are  wide  of  the  mark.  Among  the 
Hebrews  the  term  "thread  of  Egypt"  (D^Ti:?'?  'i^-^) 
may  properly  have  designated  a  linen  or  even  cotton 
material,  similar  to  silk  or  byssus  in  fineness,  such  as  we 
know  was  manufactured  in  Egj'pt  (Isa.  xix,  9;  Ezek. 
xxvii,  7  ;  Barhebr.  p.  218),  q.  d.  Egyptian  yarn,  not  less 
famous  among  the  ancients  than  "Turkish  yarn"  has 
been  among  moderns.  Kimchi,  the  Venetian  Greek, 
and  others  understand /"««2c«/;«n,  and  apply  it  to  cords 
hanging  from  the  side  of  a  bed,  or  something  of  that 
sort ;  rabbi  Parchon,  a  girdle  woven  in  Egypt — evident- 
ly mere  conjectures. 

"  h\  the  N.  T.  the  word  oSroviov  occurs  in  John  xix, 
40 ;  '  Then  took  they  the  body  of  Jesus  and  wound  it 
in  Unen  clothes'  {obovioic) ;  in  the  parallel  passage  (iMatt, 
xxvii,  59)  the  term  used  is  crivdovi,  as  also  in  Mark  xv, 
46,  and  in  Luke  xxiii,  53.  We  meet  with  it  again  in 
John  XX,  5,  'and  he,  stooping  down,  saw  the  linen  clothes 
lying.'  It  is  generally  used  in  the  plural  to  denote 
'Unen  bandages.'  'O^ovrf,  its  primitive,  occurs  in  Acts 
X,  11,  'and  (Peter)  saw  heaven  opened,  and  a  certain 
vessel  descending  unto  him,  as  it  had  been  a  great  sheet 
knit  at  the  four  corners,  and  let  down  to  the  earth,"  and 
also  in  xi,  5,  where  this  passage  is  repeated"  (Kitto). 
In  Homer  it  signifies  either  the  matriae  {Odys.  vii,  107), 
or  ^\TOught  veils  and  under-garments  for  women  (//.  iii, 
141;  xviii,  195) ;  in  later  writers  linen  clotlis  (Lucilius, 
Bial.  Mori,  iii,  2),  especially  for  sails  (^lel.  80 ;  AiUh.  x, 
5;  Luc.  Jup.  Trag.AG).  From  the  preceding  observa- 
tions it  is  evident  that  cSioviov,  whether  answering  to 


LINEN" 


442 


LINEN 


the  Heb.  elvn  or  not,  may  signify  cloth  made  either  of 
linen  or  cotton,  but  most  probably  the  former,  as  it  was 
more  common  than  cotton  in  Syria  and  Egypt.  In 
cla.ssical  writers  the  word  signifies  linen  bandages  (Luc. 
PliUiips.  34),  espec.  lint  for  wounds  (Hipp.  p.  772,  etc.; 
Ar.  Ach.  117G) ;  also  sail-cloth  (Polybius,  v,  89,  2;  Dem. 
1145,  G).     See  Cotton;  also  Nos.  7  and  10  below. 

7.  S.vdin'  ('■'"13,  from  an  obsolete  root  signifying  to 
loosen  or  let  down  a  garment,  as  a  veil)  occurs  in  Judg. 
xiv,  12, 13  (where  the  Auth.Vers.  has  "sheets,"  margin 
"shirts"),  and  Prov.  xxxi,  24;  Isa.  iii,  23  (A. Vers,  "tine 
Unen").  From  these  passages  it  appears  to  have  been 
an  ample  garment,  probably  of  linen,  worn  under  the 
other  clothing  in  the  manner  of  a  shirt  by  men  (Judg. 
xiv,  12, 13),  or  as  a  thin  chemise  by  women  (Isa.  iii,  23). 
The  Talmud  describes  it  as  made  of  the  tinest  lineu 
("  the  sinclon  is  suitable  for  summer,"  Meiuich.  xli,  1). 
The  Targums  similarly  explain  Psa.  civ,  2 ;  Lam.  ii,  20. 
The  corresponding  Syriac  is  employed  in  the  Peshito  for 
aovcapiov,  Luke  xix,  20;  \kvTiov,  John  xiii,  4.  The 
Sept.  has  (Tii/cTaij',  Vulgate  sindo ;  but  in  Isa.  iii,  23  the 
Sept.  appears  to  have  a  paraphrase  Ty)v  jivaaov  avv 
\<jv(yuij  Kctl  iiaKivSr({i  (TvyKa^v(paafiivr]v.  The  passage 
in  Prov.  seems  to  refer  to  the  manufacture  of  the  cloth 
or  material,  probably  linen,  but  possibly  sometimes  of 
cotton;  in  Judges  shirts  or  male  under-apparel  are  evi- 
dently referred  to;  and  in  Isaiah  we  may  infer  that  fe- 
male under-clothing  is  iii  like  manner  alluded  to. 

From  this  Heb.  term  many  have  thought  is  derived 
the  Greek  word  oivcw,  which  occurs  of  linen  or  muslin 
cloth,  e.  g.  a  loose  garment  worn  at  night  instead  of  the 
day-clothes,  q.  d.  night-gown  (IMark  xiv,  51,  52,  "linen 
cloth");  used  also  for  wrapping  around  dead  bodies, 
q.  d.  grave-clothes,  cerements  ("  fine  linen,"  JMark  xv, 
4();  "linen  cloth,"  Matt,  xxvii,  59,  "linen,"  Mark  xv, 
4(5;  Luke  xxiii,  53).  This  appears  to  have  been  a  fine 
fabric  (probably  usually,  but  not  necessarily  of  linen), 
either  the  Egyptian  (Pollux,  vii,  16,  72)  or  Indian; 
called  in  Egypt  sentei-  (Peyron,  p.  299),  the  Sanscrit 
sindhu  (Jablonski,  Opusc.  i,  297  sq.).  Others  trace  a 
connection  with  Ti'^oc,  Sind  (Passow,  Lex.  s.  v.) ;  some 
(as  Etymol.  Marj.)  from  the  city  Sidon,  etc.  It  appears 
to  have  specially  denoted  a  fine  cotton  cloth  from  India 
(Herod,  i,  200 ;  ii,  95 ;  iii,  86 ;  vii,  181) ;  also  generally  a 
linen  cloth,  used  as  a  signal  (Polyb.  ii,  G6, 10),  for  sur- 
geons' bandages  (Herod,  vii,  181),  for  mummy-cloth 
(Herod,  ii,  86),  or  other  purposes  (Sophocles,  Ant.  1222; 
Thuc.  ii,  49).  This  word  is  therefore  not  decisive  as  to 
the  material.  See  Schroder,  i)e  Vest.  Mid,  p.  339;  Mi- 
chaeVis,  Sitppl.  1720;  Wetstein,  N.  T.  i,  631.— Gesenius, 
7'hes.  Neb.  s.  v. 

8.  Karpas'  (03"i3,  Sept.  KapTrami'og,  Yulg.  carbasi- 
mis^  "  occurs  in  the  book  of  Esther  (i,  6),  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  hangings  'in  the  court  of  the  garden  of  the 
king's  palace,'  at  the  time  of  the  great  feast  given  in  the 
city  Shushan,  or  Susan,  by  Ahasuerus,  who  '  reigned 
from  India  even  unto  Ethiopia.'  We  are  told  that 
there  were  white,  rp-een,  and  blue  hangings  fastened 
with  cords  of  fine  linen  and  purple  to  silver  rings  and 
pillars  of  marl)le.  Kai-jms  is  translated  green  in  our 
version,  on  the  authority,  it  is  said, '  of  the  Chaldee  par- 
aphrase,' where  it  is  interpreted  leek-rjiren.  Rosenmiiller 
and  others  derive  the  Hel)rew  word  from  the  Arabic  hi- 
?•»(/>,  which  signifies  'garden  \\arAcy,'  A pium  petroseli- 
7iiim,  as  if  it  alluded  to  the  green  color  of  this  plant;  at 
the  same  time  arguing  tliat  as  '  the  word  karpas  is 
placed  before  two  other  words  which  undoubtedly  de- 
nfite  colors,  viz.  the  u-hite  and  the  putplc-bli/e^  it  proba- 
bly also  does  the  same.'  But  if  two  of  the  words  denote 
colors,  it  would  appear  a  good  reason  why  the  third 
should  refer  to  the  substance  which  was  colored.  This, 
there  is  little  doubt,  is  what  v.-as  intended.  If  we  con- 
sider that  the  occurrences  related  took  place  at  the  Per- 
sian court  at  a  time  when  it  held  sway  as  far  as  India, 
and  that  the  account  is  bj'  some  supposed  to  have  been 
originally  written  in  the  ancient  language  of  Persia,  we 


may  suppose  that  some  foreign  words  may  have  been 
introduced  to  indicate  even  an  already  well-known  sub- 
stance ;  but  more  especially  so  if  the  substance  itself 
was  then  first  made  known  to  the  Hebrews.  The  He- 
brew Icarjms  is  very  similar  to  the  Sanscrit  karpasinn, 
karpnsa,  or  karpase,  signifying  the  cotton-plant,  whence 
the  Armen.  kierbas,  and  the  Greek  KvpjSaaia,  Kvplic'imc, 
etc.  (^Asiat.  Researches,  iv,  231,  Calcutta).  Celsius  {Ili- 
erobot.  i,  159)  states  that  the  Arabs  and  Persians  have 
karpkas  and  kiibas  as  names  for  cotton.  These  must 
no  doubt  be  derived  from  the  Sanscrit,  while  the  word 
karpas  is  now  applied  throughout  IntUa  to  cotton  with 
the  seed,  and  may  even  be  seen  in  English  prices-cur- 
rent. KapTTOCTOc  occurs  in  the  Periplus  of  Arrian,  who 
states  (p.  165)  that  the  region  about  the  Gidf  of  Barj^- 
gaze,  in  India,  was  productive  of  carpasus,  and  of  the 
fine  Indian  muslins  made  of  it.  The  word  is  no  doubt 
derived  from  the  Sanscrit  karpasa,  and,  though  it  has 
been  translated ^'?ie  muslin  by  Dr.  Vincent,  it  may  mean 
cotton  cloths,  or  calico  in  general.  Mr.  Yates,  in  his 
recently  published  and  valuable  work,  Textrinvm  A  nti- 
quorum,  states  that  the  earliest  notice  of  this  Oriental 
name  in  any  classical  author  which  he  has  met  with  is 
the  Ime  '  Cai-basina,  molochina,  ampelina'  of  Cascilius 
Statins,  who  died  B.C.  169.  Mr.  Yates  infers  that  as 
this  poet  translated  from  the  Greek,  so  the  Greeks  must 
have  made  use  of  muslins  or  cahcoes,  etc.,  which  were 
brought  from  India  as  early  as  200  j-ears  B.C.  See  his 
work,  as  well  as  that  of  Celsius,  for  numerous  quotations 
from  classical  authors,  where  carbasus  occurs;  proving 
that  not  only  the  Avord,  but  the  substance  which  it  indi- 
cated, was  known  to  the  ancients  subsequent  to  this  pe- 
riod. It  might,  indeed  must,  have  been  known  long 
before  to  the  Persians,  as  constant  communication  took 
plaoj  by  caravans  between  the  north  of  India  and  Per- 
sia, as  has  been  clearly  shown  by  Heeren.  Cotton  was 
known  to  Ctcsias,  who  lived  so  long  at  the  Persian  court. 
PUny  describes  it  as  a  Spanish  article  {Nat.  If.  xix,  1), 
but  other  ancient  writers  call  it  a  product  of  India  and 
the  East  (Strabo,  xiv,  719;  Curtius,  viii,  9).  Xothing 
can  be  more  suitable  than  cotton,  white  and  blue,  in  the 
above  passage  of  Esther,  as  J.  F.  Royle  long  since  (1837) 
remarked  in  a  note  in  his  Essay  on  the  A  ntiqiiity  of 
Hindoo  Medicine,  p.  145 :  '  Hanging  curtains  made  with 
calico,  usually  in  stripes  of  different  colors  and  padded 
with  cotton,  called  purdahs,  are  employed  throughout 
India  as  a  substitute  for  doors.'  They  may  be  seen  used 
for  the  very  purposes  mentioned  in  the  text  in  the  court 
of  the  king  of  Delhi's  palace,  where,  on  a  paved  mosaic 
terrace,  rows  of  slender  pillars  support  a  light  roof,  from 
which  hang  by  rings  immense  padded  and  stri]ied  cur- 
tains, which  may  be  rolled  up  or  removed  at  pleasure. 
These  either  increase  light  or  ventilation,  and  form,  in 
fact,  a  kind  of  movable  wall  to  the  building,  which  is 
used  as  one  of  the  halls  of  audience.  This  kind  of  struc- 
ture was  probably  introduced  by  the  Persian  conc]uerors 
of  India,  and  therefore  maj'  serve  to  explain  the  object 
of  the  colonnade  in  front  of  the  palace  in  the  ruins  of 
Persepolis''  (Kitto).  See  Abulpharag.  Hist,  dynast,  p. 
433 ;  Salmasius, //o/Honym.  c.81 ;  C&l&ins,  Hierobvt.  ii,  157; 
Schroder,  Be  Vest.  Mnl.  p.  108  sq.     See  Cotton. 

9.  Shaatnez'  (TDipj."^),  a  kind  of  garments  woven 
of  two  sorts  of  thread,  linen  and  wool,  like  the  (ireek 
v(ptt(Tpa  aii<pi;.UTor,  Eng.  linsey-woolsey,  which  the  He- 
brews were  forbidden  to  use,  as  appears  from  the  two 
passages  in  the  Mosaic  law  where  the  word  occurs: 
Lev.  xix,  19,  "  Neither  shall  a  garment  mingled  of  linen 
andu-oolen  come  upon  thee ,-"  Deut.  xxii,  11,"  Tliou  shalt 
not  wear  a  garment  of  dirers  sorts,  as  of  linen  and  wool- 
en together."  In  the  former  of  these  passages  the  term 
Shaatnez  is  interpreted  by  CNpS  "152,  a  garment  of 
two  dijfei-ent  kinds,  i,  e.  of  heterogeneous  materials ;  and 
in  the  latter  by  the  explicit  definition,  C^PwEI  "l'22E 
"p'nri^,  of  wool  and  fax  threads  together.  The  Sept. 
renders  KijSSrjXov,  i.  e.  adulterated ;  Aquila,  ch'Ticia- 
Ktijxivov,  i.  e.  various,  of  different  sorts ;  the  Peshito  and 


LINGA 


443 


LINGENDES 


Samaritan,  variegated.  Other  ancient  interpreters  have 
either  retained  the  original  word,  as  Onkelos,  or  have 
entirely  neglected  it,  as  the  Vidg.,  usually  introducing 
the  interpretation  from  Dent,  into  Levit,,  as  the  Vene- 
tian Greek  (tQioXivov),  Saadias,  the  Armenian,  Erpeni- 
us,  and  the  Persic.  The  derivation  is  uncertain.  The 
early  etymologists  have  sought  in  vain  a  Samar.  origin 
for  the  word,  as  Bochart  {Hieroz.  i,  545).  The  Talmud 
gives  only  fanciful  derivations  (Mishna,  Kilaim,  ix,  8 ; 
comp.  Nidda,  61  b ;  Buxtorf,  Lex.  Tain.  s.  v. ;  Abr.  Gei- 
ger,  Lehrbuch  d.  Miscknah,  ii,  75)  ;  and  the  Targums  are 
little  better  (see  Pseudojon.  mj  i>e«^  ad  loc).  Ernest 
Meyer  proposes  the  signitication  fjradually  formed,  from 
a  transposition  of  the  letters  and  comparison  with  the 
Arabic  and  Ethiopic  {Lex  rad.  Ileb.  p.  68G).  The  word 
is  prob.  of  Egyptian  origin,  although  Forster  {L)e  bysso 
antiquorum,  p.  95)  and  Jablonski  {Opusc.  i,  29'4  sq.)  have 
not  fidly  succeeded  in  tracing  its  original  in  the  Coptic, 
which  language,  however,  furnishes  the  nearest  etymon 
(see  Peyron,  L^exicon,  s.  v.  KijSSrjXoQ). — Gesenius,  Thes. 
JJeb.  s.  V.     See  Woollen. 

10.  MiKVEii'  (nip's,  a  collection,  as  often)  occurs  only 
in  connection  with  this  subject  in  1  Kings  x,  28,  "And 
Sdlomon  had  horses  brought  out  of  Egypt,  and  liiK7i 
yarn ;  the  king's  merchants  received  the  liiieii  yarn  at 
a  price ;"  also  2  Chron.  i,  IG,  where  the  same  language 
occurs.  In  these  passages  it  evidently  signifies  a  com- 
pany of  horses,  i.  e.  a  drove  or  string,  as  brought  from 
Egypt  at  a  fixed  valuation.  The  Sept.  in  most  copies 
renders  Ik  Oikovs  or  t|  'E/couf,  otherwise  e^oSoq,  as  in 
2  Chron. ;  the  Vulg.  has  Coa  in  both  places,  as  a  proper 
name,  referring,  as  some  have  thought,  to  Michoe  (Pliny, 
vi,  29),  the  country  of  the  Troglodytes  (see  CaXm&t,  Diet. 
s.  V.  Coa).  Others  have  sought  less  direct  elucidations 
(see  Bochart,  I/ieroz.  i,  171, 172;  Lud.  de  Dieu,  ad  loc; 
Clericus  and  Dathe  On  Kings,  ad  loc;  JiQc^Q, Paraphr, 
Chald.  ad  Chron.,  ad  loc,  p.  7 ;  Michaelis,  Supplem.  1271, 
and  In  Jure  Mosaico,  iii,  332,  Bijttcher,  Specim,  p.  170). 
But  of  these  far-fetched  explanations  there  is  no  occa- 
sion ;  the  passages  simply  refer  to  a  caravan  of  horse- 
merchants  carrying  on  the  commerce  of  Solomon  with 
Egvpt  (see  Taylor,  Fragments,  No.  190). — Gesenius,  Thes. 
lieb.  s.  V. 

Liiiga  (a  Sanscrit  word  which  literally  means  a  sign 
or  symbol)  denotes,  in  the  sectarian  worship  of  the  Hin- 
dus, tha  phallus,  as  an  emblem  of  the  male  or  generative 
power  of  nature.  The  Liuga-worship  prevails  with  the 
Saivas,  or  adorers  of  Siva.  See  Hinuuisji.  Originally 
of  an  ideal  and  mystical  nature,  it  has  degenerated  into 
practices  of  the  grossest  description,  thus  taking  the 
same  course  as  the  similar  worship  of  the  Chaldasans, 
Greeks,  and  other  nations  of  the  East  and  West.  The 
accounts  how  Linga  became  a  representative  of  Siva 
vary  greatly,  but  coincide  in  the  main  in  that  Siva,  hav- 
ing scandalized  the  penitent  saints  by  his  amour  with 
Parwati,  was  cursed  by  them  to  be  changed  into  what 
occupied  so  much  his  being,  and  to  lose  his  genitals,  by 
which  he  had  given  offence;  later,  when  finding  the 
punishment  not  in  proportion  to  the  result,  they  resolved 
to  hold  that  very  sign  in  reverence.  It  is  most  proba- 
ble that  the  organ  of  generation  was  here  considered  in 
the  same  light  as  Phallos  and  Priapus  in  Egypt  and 
Greece.  The  manner  in  which  the  Linga  is  represented 
is  generally  inoffensive — the  pistil  of  a  tlower,  a  pillar  of 
stone,  or  other  erect  and  cylindrical  objects  being  held 
as  appropriate  symbols  of  the  generative  power  of  Siva. 
Its  counterpart  is  Yoni,  or  the  symbol  of  female  nature 
as  fructified  and  productive.  The  Siva-Purana  names 
twelve  Lingas  which  seem  to  have  been  the  chief  ob- 
jects of  this  worship  in  India.  See  Chambers,  Cyclop. 
s.  v.;  VoUmer,  Mythol.  Wurterb.  s.  v. 

Lingard,  John,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  and  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  modern  histo- 
rians, was  born  at  Winchester,  England,  Feb.  5,  1771. 
He  studied  at  the  Roman  Catholic  College  of  Douai, 
France,  and  remained  there  until  obliged  by  the  horrors 


of  the  French  Revolution  to  return  to  England.  The 
college  was  finally  settled  at  Ushaw,  near  the  city  of 
Durham,  and  IMr.  Lingard  there  performed  the  duties  of 
some  of  its  offices.  He  revisited  France  for  a  short 
time  during  the  dangerous  period  of  the  Revolution,  and 
on  one  occasion  barely  escaped  being  mobbed  as  a  priest. 
In  1805  he  wrote  for  the  Newcastle  Courant  a  series  of 
letters,  which  were  collected  and  published  under  the 
title  of  Catholic  Loyalty  vindicated  (12mo).  He  after- 
wards wrote  several  controversial  pamphlets,  which  in 
1813  were  published  in  a  volume  having  the  title  of 
Tracts  on  several  Subjects  connected  ivith  the  Civil  ami 
Religious  Principles  of  the  Catholics  (reprinted  by  F. 
Lucas,  Jr.,  at  Baltimore,  1823,  12mo,  and  often).  Dr. 
Lingard's  great  work,  however,  is  his  History  of  Eng- 
land from  the  First  Invasion  by  the  Romans  to  the  Ac- 
cession of  William  and  Mary  in  1688  (London,  1819- 
25,  6  vols.  4to ;  2d  edit.  1823-31, 14  vols.  8vo ;  4th  edit. 
1837,  13  vols.  12mo ;  5th  ed.  1849-50, 10  vols.  8vo ;  6th 
ed.  1854-55, 10  vols.  8vo;  American  editions,  published 
by  Dunigan,  N.  Y.,  13  vols.  12mo ;  by  Sampson  &  Co.,  of 
Boston,  1853-54, 13  vols.  12mo,  of  which  the  last  is  the 
best).  It  is  a  work  of  great  research,  founded  on  an- 
cient writers  and  original  documents,  displaying  much 
erudition  and  acuteness,  and  opening  fields  of  inquiry 
previously  unexplored.  The  narrative  is  clear,  the 
dates  are  accurately  given,  and  the  authorities  referred 
to  distinctly.  The  style  is  perspicuous,  terse,  and  unos- 
tentatious. The  work,  perhaps,  exhibits  too  exclusive- 
ly the  great  facts  and  circumstances,  militarj',  civil,  and 
ecclesiastical,  and  enters  less  than  might  be  desirable 
into  the  manners,  customs,  arts,  and  condition  of  the 
people.  In  all  matters  connected  with  the  Romish 
Church  the  work  is,  as  might  have  been  expected,  col- 
ored by  the  very  decided  religious  opinions  of  the  au- 
thor, but  these  arc  not  offensively  set  forth.  Dr.  Lin- 
gard, after  the  completion  of  his  "  History  of  England," 
paid  a  visit  to  Rome,  where  pope  Leo  XII  offered  to 
make  him  cardinal,  but  he  refused  the  dignity,  partly 
because  he  did  not  feel  qualified  for  the  office,  and  partly 
because  it  woulil  have  interfered  with  his  favorite  stud- 
ies. He  spent  the  last  forty  years  of  his  life  in  the 
small  preferment  belonging  to  the  Roman  Catholic  church 
at  the  village  of  Hornby,  near  Lancaster,  enjoying  the 
esteem  and  friendship  of  all,  both  Protestants  and  Ro- 
man Catholics.  He  died  July  13, 1851,  and  was  buried 
in  the  cemetery  of  St.  Cuthbert's  College,  at  Ushaw,  to 
which  institution  he  bequeathed  his  librarj%  Lingard 
was  also  the  author  of  Catechetical  Instructions  on  the 
Doctrines  and  Worship  of  the  Catholic  Church  (2d  edit. 
Lond.  1840, 12mo;  3d  ed'it.  1844, 18mo) :— .4  Revieio  of 
certain  Anti-Catholic  Publications  (Lond.  1813,  8vo)  : — 
Examination  of  certain  Opinions  advanced  by  Bishop 
Burgess  (anon.)  (Manchester,  1813,  8vo)  :  —  Strictures 
on  Dr.  Marsh's  Comparative  View  of  the  Churches  of 
England  and  Rome  (Lond.  1815,  8vo)  : — Observations  on 
the  Laws  and  Ordiriances  which  exist  in  Foreign  States 
relative  to  the  Religious  Concerns  of  their  Roman  Catholic 
Subjects  (anon.)  (Lond.  1817, 8vo) : — Documents  to  ascer- 
tain the  Sentiments  of  British  Catholics  in  former  Ages 
respecting  the  Power  of  the  Popes  (Lond.  1819,  8vo)  : — 
The  Ilistori/  and  Antiquities  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church 
(Lond.  1806;  1845,  2  vols.  8vo;  Phil.  1841,  12mo).  In 
1836  he  published  anonymously  an  English  translation 
of  the  N.  T.,  which  is  said  to  be  accurate  and  faithful  in 
several  passages  where  the  Douai  translation  is  faulty. 
See  Engl.  Cycl.  s.  v.;  the  London  Times  (July  25, 1851) ; 
Gentleman's  Magazine  (Sept.  1851,  p.  323  sq.)  ;  Herzog, 
Real-Encyklvp.  vol.  viii,  s.  v. ;  Lowndes,  Brit.  Lib.  p.  1096 
sq. ;  Bi-it.  and  For.  Rev.  1844,  p.  374  sq. ;  and  the  excel- 
lent article  in  Allibone,  Diet.  By-it.  and  A  mer.  A  uthors, 
ii,  1102-1105.     (J.  H.W.) 

Lingendes,  Claude  de,  a  noted  French  pulpit 
orator  of  the  Jesuits,  was  bom  at  iMoulins  in  1591.  He 
entered  the  order,  and  soon  rose  to  high  distinction. 
He  was  intrusted  with  several  important  missions.  He 
died  at  Paris,  where  he  was  superior  of  his  order,  April 


LINGENDES 


444 


LINUS 


12, 1660.     See  Hoefcr,  Xoin:  Biograph.  GeneraJe,  xxxi, 
'27.S. 

Lingendes,  Jean  de,  a  French  pulpit  orator,  a 
relative  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  IMoulins  in  1595. 
As  chaplain  to  Louis  XIII,  he  became  quite  eminent  for 
liis  i,'reat  talents  in  the  pulpit.  lie  was  made  bishop 
of  Macon  in  1650.  He  died  in  1GG5.  See  Hoefer,  A'ouf. 
Biog.  Geni'r.  xxxi,  278. 

Link,  Johann  Wolfgang  Conrad,  a  German 
theologian,  was  born  at  Pirmasens  April  23,  1753.  In 
1771  he  entered  the  University  of  Giessen,  and  in  177-1 
was  graduated  A.M.  In  1775  he  obtained  the  chair  of 
philosophy  at  that  university  as  professor  extraordinary, 
and  in  1778  he  became  pastor  at  Bischofsheim,  near 
Darmstadt.  He  died  suddenly  Dec.  23, 1788.  In  addi- 
tion to  liis  theological  researches,  his  extensive  knowl- 
etlge  of  modern  languages  enabled  him  to  translate  Eng- 
lisii  ^vorks  into  German  and  German  productions  into 
English,  the  latter  for  the  "Universal  English  Library." 
Of  his  own  compositions  we  mention  Ueber  das  hehrd- 
isdie  Spnichstudium  (Giess.  1777,  8vo)  : — Diss.de  Schilo 
a  Jacoho  predicto  Genes.  -19, 10  (il)id,  1774, 4to).  See  Do- 
ring,  Gekhrte  Theol.  Leittschl.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Link,  "Wenceslaiis,  a  German  theologian,  noted 
for  his  eft'orts  in  behalf  of  Martin  Luther  and  the  cause 
of  the  reformatory  movement,  was  born  at  Colditz,  near 
^Meissen,  Saxony,  about  1483.  He  was  an  Augustinian 
monk  of  the  convent  ^^'aldheim  when  he  went  to  the 
"Wittenberg  University  to  pursue  theological  studies, 
and,  after  attaining  to  the  distinction  of  doctor  of  the- 
ology, became  successively  prior  of  the  convents  at  Wit- 
tenberg, Munich,  Nuremberg,  etc.  He  enjoyed  great 
notoriety  and  popularity  when  the  Keformation  was 
first  assuming  shape,  but  his  leaning  towards  it  made 
him  unpojiular  with  Romanists,  and  he  gradually  went 
over  to  the  new  cause.  In  1523  he  married,  and  two 
years  lattr  appeared  as  Protestant  preacher  at  Nurem- 
berg. He  died  there  March  11,1547.  His  works  are 
not  of  any  special  merit.  A  list  of  them  is  given  in 
Jijeher,  Gelelirten  Lexikon,  ii,  2442  sq. 

Linn,  John  Blair,  D.D.,  son  of  the  succeeding,  a 
Presbyterian  minister,  was  born  at  Shippensburg,  Pa., 
March  14, 1777,  and  graduated  in  1795  at  Columbia  Col- 
lege, where  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  proficiency 
in  polite  literature.  Having  abandoned  the  study  of 
law,  he  removed  to  Schenectady,  where  he  studied  the- 
ology, and  was  licensed  in  1798.  He  was  ordained  in 
1799,  and  installed  in  the  First  Presbyterian  Church, 
Philadelphia,  where  he  continued  mitil  his  sudden  death, 
August  30, 1804.  Linn  was  quite  a  poet,  and  most  of 
his  publications  are  of  a  poetical  nature.  His  best  works 
are,  Pieces  in  Prose  and  Poetry : — A  Sermon  on  the  Death 
ofDr.Eirintj  (1802) : — -4  Poem  on  t/ie  Influence  ofChris- 
iianiti/: — a  narrative  poem,  entitled  ]'aJe7ian,  with  a 
.sketch  of  his  life  by  Charles  Brockden  Brown  (1805, 
8vo) ;  and  two  tracts  against  the  doctrine  of  Dr.  Priest- 
ley. See  Sjjrague,  A  nnals,  iv,  210  ;  Allibone,  Diet.  Brit, 
and  Arncr.  A  iithors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Linn,  William,  D.D.,  a  Reformed  (Dutch)  minis- 
ter, was  born  near  Shippensburg,  Pa.,  Feb.  27, 1752.  He 
graduated  from  Princeton  College  in  1772  with  honor, 
.studied  divinity  with  Rev.  Dr.  Robert  Cooper,  of  jMiddle 
Spring,  Pa.,  and  in  1775  was  licensed  to  preach  by  Done- 
gal Presbytery.  Fired  with  the  patriotism  of  the  Rev- 
t)hition,  he  became  a  chaplain  in  (ien.  Thompson's  regi- 
ment, and  was  ordained  to  the  ministry  at  this  period. 
His  regiment  being  soon  ordered  to  Canada,  for  domes- 
tic reasons  he  resigned  his  chaplaincy.  After  a  brief  set- 
tlement at  Big  Spring,  he  taught  an  academy  in  Somer- 
set County,  ^Id.,  with  success,  until  in  1786  he  became 
jiastor  of  a  Presbyterian  church  at  Elizabethto\yn,  N.  ,1., 
from  whence  he  removed  to  New  York  in  the  same  year 
as  one  of  tlie  pastors  of  the  Collegiate  lieftrrmcd  Dutch 
Church.  He  was  full  of  genius  and  [lOwer.  His  sermons 
were  written,  and  committed  to  memory.  His  delivery 
was  graceful, natural,  animated,  and  accompanied  by  that 


electric  power  which  thrills  and  sways  an  audience.  His 
imagination  was  vivid,  his  language  choice  and  classical, 
and  his  pictorial  ability  remarkable.  He  was  celebrated 
for  his  missionary  and  charitable  discourses.  "  Earnest, 
pathetic,  persuasive,  and  alarming  in  his  addresses,  he 
peculiarly  excelled  in  awakening  sinners  and  urging 
them  to  the  refuge  of  the  Gospel.  On  special  occasions 
he  shone  with  conspicuous  lustre,  aad  rose  above  him- 
self." In  consequence  of  the  failure  of  his  health,  he 
retired  from  the  active  ministry  in  1805,  and  died  at 
Albany  Jan.  8,  1808.  Among  his  published  addresses 
are  some  of  his  celebrated  missionary  and  charity  ser- 
mons, historical  discourses,  controversial  sermons,  a  eu- 
logy on  Washington,  delivered  before  the  New  York  State 
Society  of  the  Cincinnati,  and  a  sermon  preached  in  1776 
to  a  regiment  of  soldiers  who  were  about  to  join  the 
army. — Sprague,  A  nnals,  vol.  ix ;  Dr.  De  Witt's  Histori- 
cal Discourse ;  Dr.  Bradford's  Funeral  Sermon,  etc.  (W. 
J.  R.  T.) 

Lintel  (prop,  kjlp^p,  mashlvjih',  lit.  a  projecting 
cover ;  Exod.  xii,  22,  33 ;  '•  upper  door-post,"  ver.  7 ;  also 
inSS,  haphtor',  a  chaplet,  i.e.  capital  of  a  column,  Amos 
ix,  1 ;  Zeph.  ii,  14;  elsewhere  a  "knop"  of  the  candela- 
brum ;  and  P""?*,  a't/il,  a  "  ram,"  as  often ;  hence  aj^Haster 
or  pillar  in  a  wall,  1  Kings  vi,  31,  elsewhere  "  post"),  the 
head-])lece  of  a  door,  or  the  horizontal  beam  covering  the 
side-posts  or  jambs.  See  Post.  This  the  Israelites  were 
commanded  to  mark  with  the  blood  of  the  paschal  lamb 
on  the  memorable  occasion  when  the  Passover  was  in- 
stituted.    See  Passover, 

Li'niis  (usually  Alvoc,  but  prop.  AiVor,  the  name 
originally  of  a  mythological  and  musical  personage,  per- 
haps from  \ivov,  linen),  one  of  the  Christians  at  Rome 
whose  salutations  Paul  sent  to  Timothy  (2  Tim.  iv,  21). 
A.D.  64.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  bishop  of 
Rome  after  the  mart^-rdom  of  Peter  and  Paid  (Ircn.TJus, 
Adv.  Ilceres.  iii,  3  ;  Eusebius.  Hist.  Eccles.  iii,  2,  4, 13,  14, 
31;  v,  G;  comp.  Jerome, Z'e  17 w. ///«s^  15;  Augustine, 
Epist.  liii,  2 ;  Theodoret,  ad  2  Tim.  iv,  21),  but  there  is 
some  discrepancy  in  the  early  statement  respecting  his 
date  (see  Heinichen  ud  Euseh.  iii,  187 ;  Burton,  Ilist.  of 
the  Christ.  Church  ;  Lardner,  Works,  ii,  31,  32, 176.  187), 
"  Eusebius  and  Theodoret,  followed  by  Baronius  and 
TiUemont  {IJist.  Eccles.  ii.  165,  591),  state  that  he  be- 
came bishop  of  Rome  after  the  death  of  St.  Peter.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  Avords  of  Irena?us, '  [Peter  and  Paul] 
when  they  founded  and  built  up  the  Church  [of  Rome], 
committed  the  office  of  its  episcopate  to  Linus,'  certain- 
ly admit,  or  rather  imply  the  meaning  that  he  held  that 
office  before  the  death  of  St.  Peter;  as  if  the  two  great 
apostles,  having,  in  the  discharge  of  their  own  peculiar 
office,  completed  the  organization  of  the  Church  at  Rome, 
left  it  under  the  government  of  Linus,  and  passed  on  to 
preach  and  teach  in  some  new  region.  This  proceeding 
would  be  in  accordance  with  the  practice  of  the  apostles 
in  other  places.  The  earlier  appointment  of  Linus  is  as- 
serted as  a  fact  by  Ruffinus  {Pr(ef.  in  Clem.  liecor/n.),  and 
by  the  author  of  ch.  xlvi,  bk.  vii  of  the  Apostolic  Consti- 
tutions. It  is  accepted  as  the  true  statement  of  the  case 
by  bishop  I'earson  (De  Seiie  et  Successione  Pi-ioruni 
Romcv  Episcoporum,  ii,  5,  §  1)  and  by  Fleury  (Hist.  Eccl. 
ii,  26).  Some  persons  have  objected  that  the  undistin- 
guished mention  of  the  name  of  Linus  between  the 
names  of  two  other  Roman  Christians  in  2  Tim.  iv,  21  is 
a  proof  that  he  was  not  at  that  time  bishop  of  Rome. 
But  even  Tillcmont  admits  that  such  a  way  of  introduc- 
ing the  bishop's  name  is  in  accordance  with  the  simplic- 
ity of  that  early  age.  No  lofty  pre-eminence  was  at- 
tributed to  the  episcopal  office  in  the  apostolic  times" 
(Smith). 

According  to  the  Roman  Breviarj-,  Linus  was  born  at 
Volterra,  but  an  old  papal  catalogue  represents  him  as 
an  Etrurian.  According  to  tradition,  he  went  to  Rome 
when  22  j'ears  of  age,  made  there  the  acquaintance  of 
Peter,  and  was  sent  by  him  to  Besan^on,  in  France,  to 
preach  the  Gospel.     After  his  retiurn  to  Rome  Peter  ap- 


LINUS 


445 


LION 


pointed  liim  his  coadjutor;  but,  according  to  the  Brev- 
iary, he  was  the  one  who  primus  2MSt  I'etrum  r/uheniavit 
eccksia/i).  He  is  said  to  liave  enacted,  on  his  accession 
to  the  bishopric,  that,  in  accordance  with  1  Cor.  xi,  5, 
women  sliould  never  enter  the  church  with  tlieir  heads 
uncovered. 

The  duration  of  his  episcopate  is  given  by  Eusebius 
(whose  //.  E.  iii,  16,  and  Chronicon  give  inconsistent  evi- 
dence) as  A.D.  G8-80;  by  Tilleniont,  who,  however,  re- 
proaches Pearson  with  departing  from  the  chronology 
of  Eusebius,  as  66-78;  by  Baronius  as  67-78;  and  by 
I'earson  as  55-67.  Pearson,  in  the  treatise  already 
(juoted  (i,  10),  gives  weighty  reasons  for  distrusting  the 
chronology  of  Eusebius  as  regards  the  years  of  the  early 
bishops  of  Rome,  and  he  derives  his  own  opinion  from 
certain  very  ancient  (Ijut  interpolated)  lists  of  those 
bishops  (see  i,  13,  and  ii,  5).  This  point  has  been  sub- 
sequently considered  by  Baraterius  {De  Successimie  A  nii- 
quisainm  Episc.  Rom.  1740),  who  gives  A.D.  56-67  as  the 
date  of  the  episcopate  of  Linus. 

"  The  statement  of  Kuffinus,  that  Linus  and  Cletus 
were  bishops  in  Rome  while  St.  Peter  was  alive,  has 
been  quoted  in  support  of  a  theory  which  sprang  up  in 
the  17th  century,  received  the  sanction  even  of  Ham- 
mond in  his  controversy  with  Blondel  (  Worls,  ed.  1684, 
iv,  825 ;  Episcopatus  Jura,  v.  1,  §  1 1),  was  held  with  some 
.  slight  modification  by  Baraterius,  and  has  recently  been 
revived.  It  is  supposed  that  Linus  was  bishop  in  Rome 
only  of  the  Christians  of  Gentile  origin,  while  at  the 
same  time  another  bishop  exercised  the  same  authority 
over  the  Jewish  Christians  there.  Tertullian's  assertion 
(i)e  Prcfscr.  llaret.  §  32)  that  Clement  [the  third  bish- 
op] of  Rome  was  consecrated  by  St.  Peter  has  been 
quoted  also  as  corroborating  this  theory,  but  it  does  not 
follow  from  the  words  of  Tertullian  that  Clement's  con- 
secration took  place  immediately  before  he  became  bish- 
op of  Rome ;  and  the  statement  of  Ruffinus,  so  far  as  it 
lends  any  support  to  the  above-named  theory,  is  shown 
to  be  without  foundation  by  I'earson  (ii,  3,  4).  Tille- 
mont's  observations  (p.  590)  in  reply  to  Pearson  only 
show  that  the  establishment  of  two  contemporary  bish- 
ops in  one  city  was  contemplated  in  ancient  times  as  a 
possible  provisional  arrangement  to  meet  certain  tempo- 
rary difficulties.  The  actual  limitation  of  the  authority 
of  Linus  to  a  section  of  the  Church  in  Rome  remains  to 
be  proved.  Ruthnus's  statement  ought,  doubtless,  to  be 
interpreted  in  accordance  with  that  of  his  contempo- 
rary Epiphanius  {Adv.  liar,  xxvii,  6,  p.  107),  to  the  ef- 
fect that  Linus  and  Cletus  were  bishops  of  Rome  in  suc- 
cession, not  contemporaneously.  The  facts  were,  how- 
ever, ditferently  viewed,  (1)  by  an  interpolator  of  the 
Gestu  Pontijicum  Damasi,  quoted  by  J.  Voss  in  his  sec- 
ond epistle  to  A.  Rivet  (App.  to  Pearson's  Vindicice  Igna- 
iiancE) ;  (2)  by  Bede  {Vita  S.  Benedicti,  §  7,  p.  146,  edit. 
Stevenson),  when  he  was  seeking  a  precedent  for  two 
contemporaneous  abbots  presiding  in  one  monasterj' , 
and  (3)  by  Rabanus  Maurus  {De  Chon-piscopis,  in  0pp. 
cd.  Migne,  iv,  1197),  who  ingeniously  claims  primitive 
authority  for  the  institution  of  chorepiscopi  on  the  sup- 
position that  Linus  and  Cletus  were  never  bishops  with 
fidl  powers,  but  were  contemporaneous  chorepiscopi  em- 
l)loycd  by  St.  Peter  in  his  absence  from  Rome,  and  at  his 
request,  to  ordain  clergymen  for  the  Church  at  Rome" 
(Smith). 

Linus  is  reckoned  by  Pseudo-Hippolj'tus,  and  in  the 
Greek  Menxa,  among  the  seventy  disciides.  According 
to  the  Breviary,  he  cured  the  possessed,  raised  the  dead, 
and  was  beheaded  at  the  instigation  of  the  consul  Satur- 
ninus,  although  he  had  restored  the  latter's  daughter 
from  a  dangerous  illness.  He  was  buried  in  the  Vatican, 
by  the  side  of  St.  Peter.  Various  days  are  statcil  by  dif- 
ferent authorities  in  the  Western  Church,  and  by  the 
Eastern  Church,  as  the  day  of  his  death.  According  to 
the  most  generally  received  tradition,  he  died  on  Sept. 
23.  A  narrative  of  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paid,  printed  in  the  Bihliotluca  Put  rum  (Paris,  1644,  vol. 
viii),  and  certain  pontifical  decrees,  are  incorrectly  as- 


cribed to  Linus,  but  he  is  generally  considered  as  the 
author  of  a  history  of  Peter's  dispute  with  Simon  Magus. 
See  Ilerzog,  lieui-Eiic/jklop.  viii,  421 ;  Lipsius,  Die  Pujjst 
Katalocje  dts  Eusebius  (Kiel,  1868,  8vo). 

Iiinz  or  Lintz,  The  Peace  of,  so  named  after  the 
place  where  it  was  concluded,  Dec.  13,  1645,  between 
Rakoczy,  prince  of  Transylvania,  and  the  emperor  Fer- 
dinand HI,  as  king  of  Hungary,  was  an  event  of  great 
importance  for  the  legal  existence  of  the  Evangelical 
Church  in  Ilungarj'.  Ralioczy,  who  aimed  at  the  crown 
of  that  country,  and  relied  on  the  Protestant  party  for 
support,  had  concluded  in  April,  1643,  with  Sweden  and 
France,  a  defensive  and  offensive  alliance  against  Fer- 
dinand. In  an  address  to  the  Hungarians,  in  which  he 
enumerated  their  various  grievances,  he  laid  great  stress 
on  the  oppression  of  the  evangelical  party.  He  suc- 
ceeded in  assembling  an  army,  and  in  obtaining  John 
Kemenyi,  an  experienced  general,  to  command  it.  Swe- 
den sent  him  soldiers  under  tlie  renowned  Dugloss,  and 
France  furnished  him  with  large  amounts  of  money. 
His  troops  obtained  some  unimportant  advantages  over 
those  of  Frederick,  and  the  Swedish  soldiers  succeeded 
in  driving  the  Imperialists  out  of  several  towns.  This, 
however,  did  not  continue,  and  in  October,  1644,  Rakoc- 
zy began  negotiations  for  peace  with  Ferdinand.  The 
advantages  he  asked,  namely,  the  absolute  religious  lib- 
erty of  Hungary,  etc.,  were  approved  at  Vienna  August 
8,  i645,  and  the  peace  finally  signed  as  above.  The 
most  important  feature  of  the  treaty  is  the  grant  of  re- 
ligious liberty  to  the  Hungarians.  It  gave  permission 
to  all  to  attend  whatever  Church  they  might  choose; 
ministers  and  preachers  of  all  the  different  confessions 
were  to  be  left  undisturbed,  and  such  as  had  previously 
been  persecuted  and  driven  away  on  account  of  their 
religious  principles  were  allowed  to  return,  or  to  be  re- 
called by  their  congregations.  The  churches  and  Church 
property  taken  from  the  evangelical  party  were  restored 
to  their  previous  owners.  The  eighth  article  of  the  sixth 
decree  of  king  Wladislaus  VI  was  re-enacted  against 
those  who  infringed  these  regulations,  and  made  them 
subject  to  a  trial  and  punishment  at  the  next  session  of 
the  Diet.  These  regulations,  however,  so  favorable  to 
the  Protestants,  met  with  great  opposition  at  the  Diet 
of  Presburg  in  1647,  and  were  most  violently  opposed  bj' 
the  Jesuits.  The  Roman  Catholics  refused  to  surrender 
to  the  Protestants  the  churches  they  had  taken  from 
them,  and  the  evangelical  party  finally  agreed  to  accept, 
instead  of  some  400  churches  which  had  been  taken 
from  it,  the  small  number  of  90,  which  had  been  assured 
to  it  by  a  royal  edict,  under  date  of  Feb.  10, 1647.  See 
Steph.  Katona,  llistoria  mtica  regum  Hungaricorum, 
xxii,  332  sq. ;  Dumont,  Cor/js  iiniversel  diplomatique  da 
droit  des  gem,  vi,  1  sq. ;  J.  A.  Fessler,  Die  Gesch.  d.  Un- 
garn,  etc.,  ix,  25  sq. ;  Johann  Mailath,  D.  Religionswir- 
ren  in  Ungarn  (Regensb.  1845),  pt.  i,  p.  30  sq. ;  Gesch.  d. 
Erangelischen  Kirche  in  Ungarn  (Berlin,  1854),  p.  199 
sq. ;  History  of  the  Protestant  Church  in  Hungary,  transl. 
by  J.  Craig  (Boston  and  New  York,  1856, 12mo).     See 

HUXGAUY. 

Lion  (prop.  I'^X,  ari',  or  n."''1X,  aryeh' ;  Sept.  and 
N. T.  X'tiov),  the  most  powerful,  daring,  and  impressive 
of  all  carnivorous  animals,  the  most  magniticent  in  as- 
pect and  awful  in  voice.  Being  very  common  in  Syria 
in  early  times,  the  lion  naturally  supplied  many  forcible 
images  to  the  poetical  language  of  Scripture,  and  not  a 
few  historical  Incidents  in  its  narratives.  This  is  shown 
b}^  the  great  number  of  passages  where  this  animal,  in 
all  the  stages  of  existence  —  as  the  whelp,  the  young 
adult,  the  fully  mature,  the  lioness— occurs  under  differ- 
ent names,  exhibiting  that  multiplicity  of  denomina- 
tions which  always  results  when  some  great  image  is 
constantly  present  to  the  popular  mind.  Thus  we  have, 
1.  "is,  gov,  or  "i^lS,  gur  (a  sncHing),  a  lion's  "whelp,"  a 
very-  young  lion  (Gen.  xlix,  9 ;  Deut.  xxxiii,  20 ;  Jer. 
U,  38 ,'  Ezek.  xix,  2,  3,  5  ;  Nahum  ii,  11, 12).  2.  T'SS, 
kephir'  (the  shaggy),  a  '•  young  lion,"  when  first  leaving 


LION 


446 


LION" 


the  protection  of  the  old  pair  to  hunt  independently 
(Ezek.  xix,  2,  3,  6,  6;  xli,  19;  Rsa.  xci,  13;  I'rov.  xix, 
12;  XX,  2;  xxviii,  1;  Isa.  xxxi,  4;  Jer.  xli,  3«  ;  lios. 
V,  14;  Nah.  ii,  11;  Zech.  xi,  3),  old  enough  to  roar 
(Judg.  xiv,  5 ;  Psa.  civ,  21 ;  Prov.  xix,  12 ;  Jer.  ii,  lo ; 
Amcis  iii,  4) ;  beginning  to  seek  prey  for  itself  (Job  iv, 
10;  xxxviii,  39;  Isa.  v,  29;  Jer.  xxv,  38;  Ezek.  xix,  3; 
jNIic.  V,  8 ) ;  and  ferocious  and  blood-thirsty  in  his  youth- 
ful strength  (Psa.  xvii,  12 ;  xci,  13 ;  Isa.  xi,  6).  This 
term  is  also  used  tropically  for  cruel  and  blood-thirsty 
enemies  (Psa.  xxxiv,  10 ;  xxxv,  17 ;  Iviii,  G  ;  Jer.  ii,  15) ; 
I'haraoh,  king  of  Egypt,  is  called  a  "  young  lion  of  the 
nations,"  i.  e.  an  enemy  prowling  among  them  (Ezek. 
xxxii,  2) ;  it  is  also  used  of  the  young  princes  or  war- 
riors of  a  state  (Ezek.  xxxviii,  13;  Nah.  ii,  13),  3, 
11X,  ari'  (the  pullei-  in  pieces,  plur.  masc.  in  1  Kings  x, 
20,  elsewhere  fem.),  or  fT^"iX,  unjeh'  (the  same  with  H 
paragogic,  also  Chald.),  an  adidt  and  vigorous  lion,  a 
lion  having  paired,  vigilant  and  enterprising  in  search 
of  prey  (Nah.  ii,  12;  2  Sam.  xvii,  10;  Numb,  xxiii,  24, 
etc.).  This  is  the  common  name  of  the  animal.  4. 
^n'^,  sha'chal  (the  roarer),  a  mature  lion  in  fidl 
strength  (Job  iv,  10;  x,  IG;  xxviii,  8;  Psa.  xci,  13; 
Prov.  xxvi,  13  ;  Hos.  v,  14 ;  xiii,  7).  Bochart  (Hieroz. 
i,  717)  understands  the  sicarthy  lion  of  Syria  (Pliny,  //. 
iV.  viii,  17),  deriving  the  name  from  "ilTCJ,  blach,  by  an 
interchange  of  liquids.  This  denomination  may  very 
possibly  refer  to  a  distinct  variety  of  lion,  and  not  to  a 
l)lack  species  or  race,  because  neither  black  nor  white 
lions  are  recorded,  excepting  in  Oppian  {De  Venat.  iii, 
43) ;  but  the  term  may  be  safely  referred  to  the  color  of 
the  skin,  not  of  the  fur ;  for  some  lions  have  the  former 
fair,  and  even  rosy,  while  in  other  races  it  is  perfectly 
black.  An  Asiatic  lioness,  formerly  at  Exeter  Change, 
hatl  the  naked  part  of  the  nose,  the  roof  of  the  mouth, 
and  the  bare  soles  of  all  the  feet  pure  black,  though  the 
fur  itself  was  very  pale  buff.  Yet  albinism  and  mela- 
nism are  not  uncommon  in  the  felinre ;  the  former  oc- 
curs in  tigers,  and  the  latter  is  frequent  in  leopards, 
panthers,  and  jaguars.  5.  D*?,  lu'yish  (the  sti-ong),  a 
fierce  lion,  one  in  a  state  of  fury,  or  rather,  perhaps,  a 
poetical  term  for  a  lion  that  has  reached  the  utmost 
growth  and  effectiveness  (Job  iv,  11;  Prov.  xxx,  30; 
Isa,  xxx,  6).  6.  SJ'^n^,  IMa',  or  "^ab,  lehi'  {loioing, 
roaring),  hence  a  Uon,  lioness  (Numb,  xxiv,  9 ;  Hos,  xiii, 
8 ;  Joel  i,  G ;  Dent,  xxxiii,  20 ;  Psa,  Ivii,  4  ;  Isa,  v,  29), 
Bochart  (^Hieroz.  i,  719)  supposes  this  word  not  to  de- 
note the  male  lion,  but  the  lioness ;  and  Gesenius  (Thes. 
p.  738)  says  this  rests  on  good  grounds,  as  it  is  coupled 
witli  other  nouns  denoting  a  lion,  where  it  can  hardly 
be  a  mere  synonyme  (Gen,  xlix,  9 ;  Numb,  xxiv,  9 ;  Isa, 
xxx,  6;  Nah,  ii,  11);  and  the  passages  in  Job  iv,  11; 
xxxviii,  39 ;  Ezek,  xix,  2,  accord  much  better  -with  a 
lioness  than  with  a  lion,  7.  In  Job  xxviii,  8,  tlie  Heb. 
words  yn'J  '^^'2,  betwy  sha'chats,  are  rendered  '■'■the 
lion's  vhelpsT  The  terms  properly  signify  "  sons  of 
]>ri(le,"  and  are  apjjlied  to  the  larger  beasts  of  prey,  as 
tlie  lion,  leriathan,  so  called  from  their  proud  gait,  bold- 
ness, and  courage.  The  lion  is  often  spoken  of  as  "  the 
king  of  the  forest,"  or  "the  king  of  beasts;"  and  in  a 
similar  sense,  in  Job  xli,  34,  the  leviathan  or  crocodile 
is  called  the  "  king  over  all  the  children  of  pride,"  that 
is,  the  head  of  the  animal  creation  (see  Bochart,  Hie- 
roz. i,  718).     See  Whkli". 

As  "  king  of  beasts,"  "  the  lion  is  the  largest  and 
most  formidably  armed  of  all  carnassier  animals,  the 
Indian  tiger  alone  claiming  to  be  his  ecpial.  One  full 
grown,  of  Asiatic  race,  weighs  above  450  pounds,  and 
those  of  Africa  often  above  500  pounds.  The  fall  of  a 
fore-paw  in  striking  lias  been  estimated  to  be. equal  to 
twenty-five  pounds'  weight,  and  tins,  with  the  grasp  of 
the  claws,  cutting  four  inches  in  depth,  i§  sufficiently 
))i)wcrful  to  break  the  vertebra;  of  an  ox.  The  huge 
laniary  teeth  and  jagged  molars,  worked  by  powerful 
jaws,  and  the  tongue  entirely  covered  with  horny  papil- 


lae, hard  as  a  rasp,  so  as  to  crush  the  frame  of  the  victim 
and  clean  its  bones  of  the  tlesh,  are  all  subservient  to  an 
otherwise  immensely  strong,  muscular  structure,  capable 


-^^w^? 


African  Lion. 


of  prodigious  exertion,  and  minister  to  the  self-confi- 
dence which  these  means  of  attack  inspire.  In  Asia  the 
lion  rarely  measures  more  than  nine  feet  and  a  half  from 
the  nose  to  the  end  of  the  tail,  though  a  tiger-skin  has 
been  known  of  the  dimensions  but  a  trifle  less  than  thir- 
teen feet.  In  Africa  they  are  considerably  larger,  and 
supplied  with  a  much  greater  quantity  of  mane.  Both 
lion  and  tiger  are  furnished  with  a  small  horny  apex  to 
the  tail — a  fact  noted  by  the  ancients,  but  only  verified 
of  late  years  (see  the  Proceedings  of  the  Council  of  the 
Zoological  Society  of  London,  1832,  p.  146),  because  this 
object  lies  concealed  in  the  hair  of  the  tip,  and  is  very 
liable  to  drop  off"  (Kitto).  Yet  this  singidar  circum- 
stance has  not  escaped  the  attention  of  the  Assyrians, 
and  it  is  found  represented  on  the  ruined  inscriptions  of 
Nineveh  (Bonomi's  Nineveh,  p.  245,  24G). 


Claw  in  Lion's  Tail. 
"All  the  varieties  of  the  lion  are  spotted  when  whelps, 
but  they  become  gradually  buff  or  pale.  One  African 
variety,  very  large  in  size,  perhaps  a  distinct  species, 
has  a  peculiar  and  most  ferocious  physiognomy,  a  dense 
blaclv  mane  extending  half  way  down  the  back,  and  a 
black  fringe  along  the  abdomen  and  tip  of  the  tail,  while 
those  of  Southern  Persia  anil  the  Dekkan  are  nearly  des- 
titute of  that  defensive  ornament.  The  roaring  voice 
of  the  species  is  notorious  to  a  proverb,  but  the  warning 
cry  of  attack  is  short,  snappish,  and  shaqi"  (Kitto).  This 
is  always  excited  by  opposition,  and  upon  those  occa- 
sions when  the  lion  summons  up  all  its  terrors  for  the 
combat,  nothing  can  be  more  formidable.  It  then  lash- 
es its  sides  with  its  long  tail,  its  mane  seems  to  rise  and 
stand  like  bristles  round  its  head,  the  skin  and  mus- 
cles of  its  face  are  all  in  agitation,  its  huge  eyebrows 
half  cover  its  glaring  eyeballs,  it  discovers  its  formida- 
ble teeth  and  tongue,  and  extends  its  powerful  claws. 
AVhcn  it  is  tluis  prejiareil  for  war.  even  the  boldest  of 
the  human  kind  iu-c  daunted  at  its  approach,  and  there 
are  few  animals  that  will  venture  singly  to  engage  it. 
Like  all  the  felina;,  it  is  more  or  less  nocturnal,  and  sel- 
dom goes  abroad  to  pursue  its  prey  till  after  sunset. 
When  not  pressed  by  hunger  it  is  naturally  indolent, 
and,  from  its  habits  of  uncontrolled  superiority,  per- 


LION 


447 


LION 


haps  capricious,  but  often  less  sanguinary  and  vindic- 
tive than  is  expected.  In  those  regions  where  it  has 
not  experienced  the  dangerous  arts  and  combinations  of 
man  it  has  no  apprehensions  from  his  power.  It  bold- 
ly faces  him,  and  seems  to  brave  the  force  of  his  arms. 
Wounds  rather  serve  to  provoke  its  rage  than  to  repress 
its  ardor.  Nor  is  it  daunted  by  the  opposition  of  num- 
bers ;  a  single  lion  of  the  desert  often  attacks  an  entire 
caravan,  and  after  an  obstinate  combat,  when  it  tinds 
itself  overpowered,  instead  of  Hying,  it  stLU  continues  to 
combat,  retreatmg  and  still  facing  the  enemy  until  it  dies. 
"  Lions  are  monogamous,  the  male  living  constantly 
with  the  lioness,  both  hunting  together,  or  for  each  oth- 
er when  there  is  a  litter  of  whelps,  and  the  mutual  affec- 
tion and  care  for  their  offspring  which  they  display  are 
remarkable  in  animals  doomed  by  natm-e  to  live  by  blood 
and  slaughter.  It  is  while  seeking  prey  for  their  young 
that  they  are  most  dangerous;  at  other  times  they  bear 
abstinence,  and  when  pressed  by  hunger  will  sometimes 
feed  on  carcasses  found  dead.  They  live  to  more  than 
fifty  years;  consequently,  having  annual  litters  of  from 
three  to  five  cubs,  they  multiply  rapidly  when  not  seri- 
ously opposed.  Zoologists  consider  Africa  the  primitive 
abode  of  lions,  their  progress  towards  the  north  and  west 
having  at  one  time  extended  to  the  forests  of  iMacedonia 
and  Greece,  but  in  Asia  never  to  the  south  of  the  Ner- 
budda  nor  east  of  the  Lower  Ganges.  Since  the  invention 
of  gunpowder,  and  even  since  the  havoc  which  the  osten- 
tatious barbarism  of  Roman  grandees  made  among  them, 
they  have  diminished  in  number  exceedingly,  although 
at  the  present  day  mdividuals  are  not  unfrequently  seen 
in  Barbary,  within  a  short  distance  of  Ceuta"  (Kitto). 
"At  present  lions  do  not  exist  in  Palestine,  though  they 
are  said  to  be  found  in  the  desert  on  the  road  to  Egypt 
(Schwarz,  Desc.  of  Pal. ;  see  Isa.  xxx,  G).  They  abound 
on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates,  between  Bussorah  and 
Bagdad  (Russell,  Aleppo,  p.  61),  and  in  the  marshes  and 
jungles  near  the  rivers  of  Babylonia  (Layard,  Nineveh 
and  Bahtjlon,  p.  oGG).  This  species,  according  to  Layard, 
is  without  the  dark  and  shaggy  mane  of  the  African  lion 
(ibid.  487),  though  he  adds  in  a  note  that  he  had  seen 
lions  on  tlie  River  Karun  with  a  long  black  mane.  Dut, 
though  lions  have  now  disappeared  from  Palestine,  they 
must  in  ancient  times  have  been  numerous.  The  names 
Lebaoth  (Josh,  xv,  32),  Beth-Lebaoth  (Josh,  xix,  6), 
Arieh  (2  Kings  xv,  25),  and  Laish  (Judg.  xviii,7;  1  Sam. 
XXV,  44)  were  probabl}'  derived  from  the  presence  of,  or 
connection  with  lions,  and  point  to  the  fact  that  they 
were  at  one  time  common.  They  had  their  lairs  in  the 
forests  which  have  vanished  with  them  (Jer.  v,  6;  xii, 
8;  Amos  iii,  4),  in  the  tangled  brushwood  (.Jer.  iv,  7; 
XXV,  38 ;  Job  xxxviii,40),  and  in  the  caves  of  the  moun- 
tains (Cant,  iv,  8 ;  Ezek.  xix,  9  ,  Nah.  ii,  12).  The  cane- 
brake  on  the  banks  of  the  Jordan,  the  '  pride'  of  the 
river,  was  their  favorite  haunt  (Jer.  xlix.  19 ;  1, 44 ;  Zech. 
xi,  3),  and  in  this  reedy  covert  (Lam.  iii,  10)  they  were 
to  be  found  at  a  comparatively  recent  period,  as  we  learn 
from  a  passage  of  Johannes  Pliocas,  who  travelled  in  Pal- 
estine towards  the  end  of  the  12th  century  (Reland,  Po^. 
i,  274).  They  abounded  in  the  jungles  which  skirt  the 
rivers  of  Mesopotamia  (Ammian.  3Iarc.  xviii,  7,  5),  and 
in  the  time  of  Xenophon  {De  Veiiut.  xi)  were  found  in 
Nysa"  (Smith), 


■VSi#*%P^ 


Persian  Lion. 


"Naturalists  are  disposed  to  consider  the  lion  as  a 
genus,  consisting  of  some  three  or  four  species.  Two  of 
these  are  found  in  Asia,  the  one  called,  from  the  scanti- 
ness of  its  mane,  the  maneless  lion  (Leo  Goozeratensis), 
found  only  in  Western  India,  and  the  other  furnished 
with  that  appendage  in  its  ordmary  profusion  {L.Asiai- 
icus), -which,  is  spread  over  Bengal, Persia,  the  Euphrate- 
an  Valley,  and  some  parts  of  Arabia.  This  is  smaller, 
and  more  slightly  built  than  the  African  lions,  with  a 
fur  of  a  lighter  yellow.  It  is  doubtfiU,  however,  wheth- 
er it  is  really  more  than  a  variety"  (Fairbairn). 

"The  lion  of  Palestine  was  in  all  probability  the 
Asiatic  variety,  described  by  Aristotle  {H.  A.  ix,  44) 
and  Pliny  (viii,  18)  as  distinguished  by  its  short  curly 
mane,  and  by  being  shorter  and  rounder  in  shape,  like 
the  scidptured  lion  found  at  Arban  (Layard,  A7«ciY A  and 


Lion  at  Arbau. 


Bahtjlon,  p.  278),  It  was  less  daring  than  the  longer- 
maned  species,  but  when  driven  by  hmiger  it  not  only 
ventured  to  attack  the  flocks  in  the  desert  in  presence 
of  the  shepherd  (Isa.  xxxi,  4 ;  1  Sam.  xvii,  84),  but  laid 
vaste  towns  and  villages  (2  Kings  xvii,  25,  26 ;  Prov, 
xxii,  13  ;  xxvi,  13),  and  devoured  men  (1  Kings  xiii,  24 ; 
XX,  36  ;  2  Kings  xvii,  25 ;  Ezek.  xix,  3,  6).  The  shep- 
herds sometimes  ventured  to  encounter  the  lion  single- 
handed  (1  Sam.  xvii,  34),  and  the  vivid  figure  employed 
by  Amos  (iii,  12),  the  herdsman  of  Tekoa,  was  but  the 
transcript  of  a  scene  which  he  must  have  often  wit- 
nessed. At  other  times  they  pursued  the  animal  in 
large  bands,  raising  loud  shouts  to  intimidate  him  (Isa. 
xxxi,  4)  and  drive  him  into  the  net  or  pit  they  had  pre- 
pared to  catch  him  (Ezek.  xix,  4,  8).  This  method  of 
capturing  wild  beasts  is  described  by  Xenophon  {De  Ven. 
xi,  4)  and  by  Shaw,  who  says,  '  The  Arabs  dig  a  pit 
where  they  are  observed  to  enter,  and,  covering  it  over 
lightly  with  reeds  or  small  branches  of  trees,  they  fre- 
quently decoy  and  catch  them'  {Travels,2i\  ed. p.  172). 
Benaiah,  one  of  David's  heroic  body-guard,  had  distin- 
guished himself  by  slaying  a  lion  in  his  den  (2  Sam. 
xxiii,  20).  The  kings  of  Persia  had  a  menagerie  of 
lions  (35,  guh,  Dan.  vi,  7,  etc.).  When  captured  alive 
they  were  put  in  a  cage  (Ezek.  xix,  9),  but  it  does  not 
appear  that  they  were  tamed.    In  the  hunting  scenes  at 


Lion-huntins— Lion  being  let  out  of  a  Cage.    ^Fn)m  the 
bas-relief  of  Sardanapahia  III,  British  Museum.) 


LION 


448 


LION^ 


Beni-Hassan  tame  lions  are  represented  as  used  in  hunt- 
iiiy  (Wilkinson,  A  nc.  E'jypi.  iii,  17).     On  the  bas-reliefs 


Ilanting  with  a  Liou,  which  has  beized  an  Ibex. 

at  Kouyunjik  a  lion  led  by  a  chain  is  among  the  pres- 
ents brought  by  tlie  conquered  to  their  victors  (Layard, 
Nineveh  and Bahi/lon,  p.  138)"  (Smith).  Wilkinson  says : 
"  The  worship  of  the  lion  was  particularly  regarded  in 
the  city  of  Leontopolis,  and  other  cities  adored  this  an- 
imal as  the  emblem  of  more  than  one  deity."  It  was  the 
svmbiil  of  strength,  and  therefore  typical  of  the  Egyp- 
tian Hercules  (Wilkinson,  A  nc.  E</i/pt.  v,  169).  In  Baby- 
lon it  appears  to  have  been  the  custom  to  throw  offend- 
ers to  be  devoured  by  lions  kept  in  dens  for  that  pur- 
pose (Dan.  vi,  7-28).  This  is  thought  to  be  contirmed 
by  the  evidence  of  several  ancient  monuments,  brought 
to  light  by  the  researches  of  recent  travellers,  on  the 
sites  of  Babylon  and  Susa,  which  represent  lions  destroy- 
ing and  preying  upon  human  beings.     See  Den.     The 


Supposed  repiesentatiou  of  a  Lion  devouring  a  Man. 
(From  the  Babylonian  Remains.) 

Assyrian  monuments  abound  in  illustrations  of  lion- 
hunting,  which  appears  to  have  been  a  favorite  pastime, 
especially  with  royalty  (Layard,  Xineveh,  i,  120).  See 
Hunting. 

"  The  terrible  roar  of  the  lion  is  expressed  in  Hebrew 
Iiy  four  different  words,  between  which  the  following  dis- 
tinction appears  to  be  maintained:  '^'i<0,shdag'  (Judg. 
xiv,  5 ;  Psa.  xxii,  13 ;  civ,  21 ;  Amos  iii,  4),  also  used  of 
the  thunder  (Job  xxxvii,  4),  denotes  the  roar  of  the  lion 
while  seeking  his  prey;  0^3,  ndham'  (Isa.  v,  29),  ex- 
presses the  cry  which  he  utters  when  he  seizes  his  vic- 
tim ;  riyn,  liatjah'  (Isa.  xxxi,  4),  the  growl  with  which 
he  defies  any  attempt  to  snatch  the  prey  from  his  teeth ; 
while  ^"D,  na'ar'  (Jer.  li,  38),  which  in  Sj'riac  is  applied 
to  the  braying  of  the  ass  and  camel,  is  descriptive  of  the 
crj'  of  the  young  lions.  If  this  distinction  be  correct, 
the  meaning  attached  to  ndham  will  give  force  to  Prov. 
xix,  12.  The  terms  which  describe  the  movements  of 
the  animal  arc  equally  distinct:  'TS"!,  i-ubats' (Gen.  xlix, 
9 ;  Ezek.  xix,  2),  is  applied  to  the  crouching  of  the  lion, 
as  well  as  of  any  wild  beast,  in  his  lair;  riH'^,  shdchuh', 
S'^J^,  ydshah'  (Job  xxxviii,  40),  and  ^^X,  drah'  (Psa.  x, 
9),  to  his  lying  in  wait  in  his  den,  the  two  former  denot- 
ing the  position  of  the  animal,  and  the  latter  the  secrecy 
of  the  act;  i^^^,  rdnias'  (Psa,  civ,  20),  is  used  of  the 
stealthy  creeping  of  the  lion  after  his  prey;  and  pSt^ 
zinnvk'  (Deut,  xxxiii,  22\  of  the  leap  with  which  he 
hurls  himself  upon  it"  (Smith).  "The  Scriptures  pre- 
sent many  striking  jiictures  of  lions,  touched  with  won- 
derful force  and  fiilelity ;  even  where  the  animal  is  a  di- 
rect instrument  of  the  ^Vlmightv,  while  true  to  his  mis- 


sion, he  stiU  remains  so  to  his  nature.  Tluis  nothing 
can  be  more  graphic  than  the  record  of  the  man  of  (iod 
(1  Kings  xiii,  28),  disobedient  to  his  charge,  struck  down 
from  his  ass,  and  lying  dead,  while  the  lion  stands  by 
him,  without  touching  the  lifeless  body  or  attacking  the 
living  animal,  usually  a  favorite  prey.  (See  also  Gen. 
xlix,  9 ;  Job  iv,  10, 11 ;  Nah.  ii,  11, 12.)  Samson's  adven- 
ture also  with  the  young  lion  (Judg.  xiv,  5,  6),  and  the 
picture  of  the  young  lion  coming  up  from  the  underwood 
cover  on  the  banks  of  the  Jordan,  all  attest  a  perfect 
knowledge  of  the  animal  and  its  habits.  Finally,  the 
lions  in  the  den  with  Daniel,  miracidously  leaving  him 
unmolested,  still  retain,  in  all  other  respects,  the  real 
characteristics  of  their  nature"  (Kitto), 

"  The  strength  (Judg,  xiv,  18,  Prov,  xxx,  30 ;  2  Sam, 
i,  23),  courage   (2  Sam.  xvii,  10;  Prov.  xxviii,  1;  Isa, 
xxxi,  4;  Nah.  ii,  11),  and  ferocity  (Gen.  xlix,  9;  Numb, 
xxiv,  9)  of  the  lion  were  proverbial.     The  '  lion-faced' 
warriors  of  Gad  were  among  David's  most  valiant  troops 
(1  Chron.  xii,  8) ;  and  the  hero  Judas  MaccabiEus  is  de- 
scribed as  '  like  a  lion,  and  like  a  lion's  whelp  roaring  for 
his  prey'  (1  Mace,  iii,  4)"  (Smith).     Hence  the  lion,  as 
an  emblem  of  power,  was  symbolical  of  the  tribe  of  Ju- 
dah  (Gen.  xlix,  9).    Grotius  thinks  the  passage  in  Ezek. 
xix,  2, 3,  alludes  to  this  fact  that  Judtea  was  among  the 
nations  like  a  lioness  among  the  beasts  of  the  forest ; 
she  had  strength  and  sovereignty.     The  same  type  of 
sovereignty  recurs  in  the  prophetical  visions,  and  the 
figure  of  this  animal  was  among  the  few  which  the  He- 
brews admitted  in  sculpture  or  in  cast  metal,  as  exem- 
plified in  the  throne  of  Solomon  (1  Kings  x,  19,  20)  and 
the  brazen  sea  (1  Kings  vii,  29,  36).     The  heathen  as- 
sumed the  lion  as  an  emblem  of  the  sun,  of  the  god  of 
war,  of  Arcs,  Ariel,  Arioth,  Re,  the  Indian  Siva,  of  do- 
minion in  general,  of  valor,  etc. ;  and  it  occurs  in  the 
names  and  standards  of  many  nations.     This  illustrates 
Dan,  vii,  4,  "  The  first  was  like  a  lion,  and  had  eagle's 
wings,"     The  Chaldajan  or  Babylonian  empire  is  here 
represented  (see  Jer.  iv,  7).     Its  progress  to  what  was 
then  deemed  universal  empire  Avas  rapid,  and  therefore 
it  has  the  wings  of  an  eagle  (see  Jer.  xlviii,  40,  and 
Ezek.  xvii,  3).     It  is  said  bj'  Megasthenes  and  Strabo 
that  this  power  advanced  as  far  as  Spain.     W'hen  its 
wings  were  plucked  or  torn  out,  that  is,  when  it  was 
checked  in  its  progress  h\  frequent  defeats,  it  became 
more  peaceable  and  humane,  agreeably  to  that  idea  of 
Psa.  ix,  20.   A  remarkable  coincidence  between  the  sj-m- 
bolical  figure  of  Daniel's  vision  and  the  creations  of  an- 
cient Assj-rian  art  has  lately  been  brought  to  light  bj' 
the  researches  of  Layard  and  Botta  on  the  sites  of  Bab- 
ylon and  Nineveh.    SeeCiiERLB.    In  Isa.  xxix,  l,"Woe 
to  the  lion  of  God,  the  city  where  David  dwelt,"  Jeru- 
salem is  denoted,  and  the  terms  used  appear  to  signify 
the  strength  of  the  place,  by  which  it  was  enabled  to 
resist  and  overcome  all  its  enemies.     See  Ariel.     The 
ajjostle  Paid  says  (2  Tim,  iv,  17), "  I  was  delivered  out 
of  the  mouth  of  the  lion,''     The  general  opinion  is  that 
Nero  is  here  meant,  or,  rather,  his  prefect  JElius  Caesari- 
anus,  to  whom  Nero  committed  the  government  of  the 
city  of  Rome  during  his  absence,  with  power  to  put  to 
death  whomsoever  he  pleased.    See  Paul,    So,  when  Ti- 
berius died,  Marsyas  said  to  Agrippa, "  The  lion  is  dead,'' 
So  likewise  speaks  Esther  of  Artaxerxes,  in  the  apocrj'- 
phal  chapters  of  that  book  (ch,  xiv,  13), "  Put  a  word 
into  my  mouth  before  the  lion,"     There  are  some  com- 
mentators who  regard  the  ajiostle's  expression  as  a  pro- 
verbial one  for  a  deliverance  from  any  great  or  immi- 
nent danger,  but  others  conclude  that  he  had  been  actu- 
ally delivered  from  a  lion  let  loose  against  him  in  the 
amphitheatre.     That  the  same  symbol  should  some- 
times be  applied  to  opposite  characters  is  not  at  all  sur- 
prising or  inconsistent,  since  different  qualities  may  re- 
side in  the  symbol,  of  which  the  good  may  be  referred 
to  the  one,  the  bad  to  another.    Thus  in  the  lion  reside 
courage  and  victorj-  over  antagonists.    In  these  respects 
it  may  be  and  is  employed  as  a  symbol  of  Christ,  called 
the  Lion  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Rev.  v,  5),  as  being  the 


LIONESS 


449 


LIPPE 


illustrious  descendant  of  that  tribe,  whose  emblem  was 
the  lion.  In  the  lion  also  reside  fierceness  and  rapacity. 
In  this  point  of  view  it  is  used  as  a  fit  emblem  of  Satan  : 
"  Be  sober,  be  vigilant;  because  your  adversary  the  dev- 
il, as  a  roaring  lion,  walketh  about,  seeking  wliom  he 
may  devour"  (1  Peter  v,  8).  On  the  subject  generally, 
see  Bochart,  Ilieroz.  ii,  1  sq.;  Kosenmiiller,  Alterth.  IV, 
ii.  Ill  sq. ;  Wemyss,  Clavis  Symholica,s.\.\  renmj  Cy- 
clopedia, s.  V. ;  Wood,  Bible  A  ninials,  p.  18  sq. ;  Tristram, 
Natural  History  of  the  Bible,  p.  115  sq. 

Lioness.     See  Lion. 

Lip  (nsb,  saphah',  usually  in  the  dual;  Gr.  xctAo^), 
besides  its  literal  sense  (e.  g.  Isa.  xxxvii,  29 ;  Cant,  iv, 
3, 11 ;  V,  13  ;  Prov.  xxiv,  28),  and  (in  the  original)  met- 
aphorically for  an  edge  or  border,  as  of  a  cui)  (1  Kings 
vii,  2G),  of  a  garment  (Exod.  xxvii,  32),  of  a  curtain 
(Exod.  xxvi,  4;  xxxvi,  11),  of  the  sea  (Gen.  xxii,  17; 
Exod.  ii,  3 ;  Heb.  xi,  12),  of  the  Jordan  (2  Kings  ii,  13 ; 
Judg.  vii,  22),  is  often  put  as  an  organ  of  speech,  e.  g. 
to  "  open  the  lips,"  i.  e.  to  begin  to  speak  (Job  xi,  5 ; 
xxxii,  20),  also  to  "  open  the  lips"  of  another,  i.  e.  cause 
him  to  speak  (Psa.  Ii,  17),  and  to  "refrain  the  lips,"  i.  e. 
tu  keep  silence  (Psa.  xl,  10;  Prov.  x,  19).  So  speech 
or  discourse  is  said  to  be  "  upon  the  lips"  (Prov.  xvi, 
10;  Psa.  xvi,  4),  once  "under  the  lips"  (Psa.  cxl,  4; 
Kom.  iii,  13 ;  comp.  Ezek.  xxxvi,  3),  and  likewise  "sin- 
ning with  lips"  (Job  ii,  10;  xii,  20;  Psa.  xlv,  3),  and 
"  uncircumcised  of  lips,"  i.  e.  not  of  ready  speech  (Exod. 
vi,  12),  also  "  fruit  of  the  lips,"  i.  e.  praise  (Heb.  xiii, 
15 ;  1  Pet.  iii,  5),  and,  by  a  bolder  figure, "  the  calves  of 
the  lips,"  i.  e.  thank-offering  (Hos.  xiv,  2) ;  finally,  the 
moilon  of  the  lips  in  speaking  (Matt,  xv,  8;  Mark  vii, 
6;  from  Isa.  xxix,  13).  By  mctonomy,  "lip"  stands  in 
Scripture  for  a  manner  of  speech,  e.  g.  in  nations,  a  dia- 
lect (Gen.  xi,  1,  G,  7,  9;  Isa.  xix,  18;  Ezek.  iii,  5,  6;  1 
Cor.  xiv,  21,  alluding  to  Isa.  xxviii,  11),  or,  in  individ- 
uals, the  moral  quality  of  language,  as  "  lying  lips,"  etc., 
i.  e.  falsehood  (Prov.  x,  18;  com]),  xvii,  4,  7)  or  wicked- 
ness (Psa.  cxx,  2),  truth  (Prov.  xii,  19)  ;  "  burning  lips," 
i.  e.  ardent  professions  (Prov.  xxvi,  23) ;  "  sweetness  of 
lips,"  i.  e.  pleasant  discourse  (Prov.  xvi,  22 ;  so  Zeph. 
iii,  9 ;  Isa.  vi,  5 ;  Psa.  xii,  3, 4).  To  "  shoot  out  the  lip" 
at  any  one,  i.  q.  to  make  mouths,  has  always  been  an 
expression  of  the  utmost  scorn  and  defiance  (Psa.  xxii, 
8).  In  like  manner,  "  unclean  lips"  are  put  as  a  repre- 
sentation of  unfitness  to  impart  or  receive  the  divine 
communications  (Isa.  vi,  5,  7).  Also  the  "  word  of  one's 
lips,"  i.  e.  communication,  e.  g.  Jehovah's  precepts  (Psa. 
xvii,  4;  comp.  Prov.  xxiii,  1(5:  spoken  of  as  something 
before  unknown,  Psa.  Ixxxi,  G) ;  elsewhere  in  a  bad 
sense,  i.  q.  lip-talk,  i.  e.  vain  and  empty  words  (Isa. 
xxxvi,  5;  Prov.  xiv.  23),  and  so  of  tlie  person  uttering 
them,  e.  g.  a  man  of  talk,  i.  e.  an  idle  talker  (Job  xi,  2), 
a  prating  fool  (Prov.  x,  8 ;  comp.  Lev.  v,  4 ;  Psa.  cvi,  33). 
See  Tongue. 

The  "upper  lip"  (DS'IJ,  sapham',  a  derivative  of  the 
above),  wliich  the  leper  was  required  to  cover  (Lev. 
xlii,  45),  refers  to  the  lip-beard  or  mustachios,  as  the 
Venet.  Greek  (/.wara^}  there  and  the  Sept.  in  2  Sam. 
xix,  24,  render  it,  being  the  beard  (in  the  latter  passage), 
which  jMcpliibosheth  neglected  to  trim  during  David's 
absence  in  token  of  grief.  The  same  practice  of  "cov- 
ering the  lip"  with  a  corner  of  one's  garment,  as  if  pol- 
luted (comp.  "  unclean  lips"),  as  a  sign  of  mourning,  is 
alluded  to  in  Ezek.  xxiv,  17,  22 ;  Mic.  iii,  7,  where  the 
•  Sept.  has  ryrojia,  xfi'X'?.     See  MouTir. 

Lipmann,  Jomtob  (of  IMiihlhausen),  also  called 
Tab-Jomi  (i-31in-J  i=  21::  CT^),  a  Jewish  writer  and 
rabbi  of  the  Middle  Ages,  was  born,  according  to  some, 
at  Craco\v,  Pcdand,  but  most  authorities  are  now  agreed 
that  he  flourished  at  Prague  about  the  mitldle  of  the 
14th  century.  While  a  resident  of  the  Bohemian  cap- 
ital he  brought  forward  his  Nitsachon  (■,in:J3,  Victory), 
an  important  polemical  work.  It  consists  of  seven  parts, 
divided,  he  tells  us  himself  in  liis  preface, "  according 
v.— Ff 


to  the  seven  days  of  the  week,"  and  of  354  sections, 
"  according  to  the  number  of  days  in  the  lunar  year, 
which  is  the  Jewish  mode  of  calculation  to  indicate 
that  every  Israelite  is  bound  to  study  his  religion  ev- 
ery day  of  his  life,  and  to  remove  every  obstruction 
from  the  boundaries  of  his  faith."  In  his  treatment  of 
the  subject,  the  denial  of  the  authenticity  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion,  Lipmann  does  not  adopt  any  systematic 
plan,  but  discusses  and  explains  every  passage  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible  which  is  either  adduced  by  Christians  as 
a  INIessianic  prophecy  referring  to  Christ,  or  is  used  by 
sceptics  and  blasphemers  to  su]iport  their  scepticism  and 
contempt  for  revelations,  or  is  appealed  to  bj'  rational- 
istic Jews  to  corroborate  their  rejection  of  the  doctrine 
of  creation  out  of  nothing,  tlie  resurrection  of  the  body, 
etc.,  beginning  with  (renesis  and  ending  with  Chroni- 
cles, according  to  the  order  of  the  books  in  the  Hebrew 
Bible,  so  that  any  passage  in  dispute  might  easily  be 
found.  The  work,  which,  as  we  have  seen  from  its  di- 
visions, partook  botli  of  the  character  of  a  Jewish  po- 
lemic and  an  O.-T.  apologetic,  was,  until  near  the  middle 
of  the  IGth  century,  entirely  controlled  by  Jews.  They 
largely  transcribed  and  circulated  it  in  MS.  form  among 
their  people  throughout  the  world;  and  in  the  numer- 
ous attacks  whicli  they  had  to  sustain  both  from  Chris- 
tians and  rationalists  during  the  time  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, this  book  constituted  their  chief  arsenal,  supplying 
them  with  weapons  to  defend  themselves.  About  1642 
the  learned  Hascapan,  then  professor  in  the  Bavarian 
University  at  Altdorf,  was  engaged  in  a  controversy 
on  the  questions  at  issue  between  Judaism  and  Chris- 
tianity with  a  neighboring  rabbi  residing  in  Schnei- 
tach,  who  in  his  dissertations  frequently  referred  to  this 
Nitsachon  (a  MS.  copy  made  in  1589),  which  Hasca- 
pan asked  the  privilege  to  examine.  Refused  again 
and  again,  he  at  last  called  with  three  of  his  students 
on  the  rabbi,  when  he  pressed  him  in  such  a  man- 
ner to  produce  the  IMS.  tliat  lie  could  not  refuse.  He 
pretended  to  examine  it,  and  when  the  students  had 
fairly  surrounded  the  rabbi,  the  professor  made  his  way 
to  the  door,  got  into  a  conveyance  which  was  waiting 
for  him,  had  the  MS.  speedily  transcribed,  and  only  re- 
turned it  to  the  rabbi  after  much  earnest  soUcitation. 
The  professor  enriched  it  by  valuable  notes  and  an  in- 
dex, and  then  presented  the  work  procured  in  such  a 
dastardly  manner  to  the  Christian  world  (Altdorf,  1G44). 
It  was  rapidly  reprinted,  translated  into  Latin,  correct- 
ed and  refuted  by  Blendinger,  Lipmanni  Nizzachon  in 
Christianos,  etc.,  Latine  concersum  (Altdorf,  1G45)  ;  Wa- 
genseil.  Tela  iynea  Satance  (Altdorf,  1681) ;  Sofa,  Liber 
Mischnicus  de  Uxore  Adulterii  iSuspecta  (Altdorf.  1674), 
Appendix,  and  others  (see  Wolf,  Bibl.  Jud.  i,  347  sq.)v 
Lipmann's  ])ersonal  history  is  to  our  day  very  ob- 
scure. Jewish  historians  represent  him  as  having  been 
among  the  prisoners  arrested  at  Prague  (Aug.  3, 1399) 
for  irreverent  mention,  etc.,  of  the  name  of  Jesus.  AVhat 
punishment  he  suffered  is  not  known ;  certain  it  is  that 
he  was  not  one  of  the  seventy-seven  Jews  who  v/ere  ex- 
ecuted on  the  day  of  the  dethronement  of  king  Wences- 
laus  (Aug.  22, 1400),  for  he  mentions  the  fact  himself  in 
the  Nitsachon.  See  Griitz,  Gesch.  der  Juden,  viii,  76  sq.; 
Fiirst,  Biblioth.  Judaica,  ii, 403  sq. ;  Stemschneider,.C«^a- 
lor/us  Libr.  Hebr.  in  Biblioth.  Bodleiana,  col.  1410-1414; 
Geiger,  Proben  Jiid.  Vertheidigimg  gegen  Christliche  Au- 
grife  im  Mittelalter  in  Liehermann^s  Deutscher  Volks- 
Kalemler  (Brieg,  1854),  p.  9  sq.,  47  sq. ;  Kitto,  CycLBibl. 
Lit.  vol.  ii,  s.  V. 

Lippe,  sometimes  also  (but  less  properly)  Lippk- 
Detmold,  a  small  principality  of  Northern  Germany, 
surrounded  on  the  M''.  and  S.  by  WestphaUa,  and  on  the 
E.  and  N.  by  Hanover,  Brunswick,  Waldeck,  and  a  de- 
tached portion  of  Ilesse-Cassel,  extends  over  an  area  of 
432  square  miles,  and  has  a  population  (1871)  of  111,153, 
mainly  belonging  to  the  Reformed  Church.  The  earli- 
est inhabitants  were  the  Cherusci ;  subsequently  it  was 
a  part  of  the  country  of  the  Saxons.  The  first  estab- 
lishment of  Christianity  in  that  province  dates  back  to 


LIPPE 


450 


LIPSCOMB 


Charlemagne.  In  the  very  beginning  of  his  war  against 
the  Saxons,  in  772,  he  took  the  caslrum  j-Ereshurguni 
(probably  Kadtberg,  on  the  Diemcl,  near  the  southern 
frontier  "of  the  principahty),  and  there  destroyed  the 
statue  of  the  idol  Irmansaul.  In  770  he  went  to  Lipp- 
spriiigo,  and  the  following  year  to  I'adrabrun  (Fader- 
born),  both  on  the  southern  frontier  of  the  province, 
obliging  whole  tribes  of  the  con(iuered  Saxons  to  receive 
baptism.  In  783  Charlemagne  again  vanquished  the 
Saxons  in  the  great  battle  of  Theotmelli  (Detmold),  in 
the  very  heart  of  the  present  principalit}%  The  Saxon 
army  was  entirely  destroyed,  and  Charlemagne,  in  com- 
memoration of  this  event,  erected  a  church  which  is  still 
in  existence.  The  next  Christmas  he  spent  at  Ski- 
droburg-supra-Ambram,  now  Schieder,  on  the  Emmer, 
where  it  is  said  he  also  erected  a  church.  But  his  most 
important  measure  for  Christianizing  the  country  was 
his  establishment  of  the  bishopric  of  Paderborn,  embra- 
cing the  district  of  Lippe  within  its  diocese,  for  which 
the  house  of  the  princes  of  Lippe  furnished  many  a 
bishop. 

The  Reformation  early  found  strong  supporters  in 
Lippe.     The  first  city  of  the  province  to  adopt  it  was 
Lemgo,  moved  to   such  a  course  by  Luther's  theses 
against  indulgences.     By  1524  the  Reformation  was 
further  advanced  in  this  part  of  Germany  by  the  adhe- 
rents it  had  gained  in  the  town  of  Herford,  adjoining 
Lemgo,  where  the  works  of  Luther  and  Melancthon 
liad  been  circulated  freely.     Foremost  among  Luther's 
supporters  there   were  his   colleagues   the  Augustine 
monks.    One  of  them,  Dr.  John  Dreyer,  a  native  of  Lem- 
go and  a  personal  friend  of  Luther,  distinguished  for  his 
learning  and  eloquence,  was  the  first  to  preach  the  Gos- 
pel in  Herford.     In  spite  of  the  priests,  the  people  in- 
troduced the  singing  of  the  German  hymns  of  Luther 
into  their  churches,  and  all  attempts  to  put  an  end  to  this 
by  violence  gave  way  before  the  unanimous  will  of  the 
people.    The  first  to  take  the  decided  step  of  separation 
was  Moriz  Piderit,  a  priest,  and  formerly  one  of  the  most 
determined  adversaries  of  the  evangelical  doctrines,  and 
by  his  influence  the  city  was  carried  for  Luther's  doc- 
trines.    Lippstadt  embraced  them  nearly  at  the  same 
time.     The  monks  of  the  Augustine  convent  in  that 
city,  who  had  sent  t;vo  of  their  number  to  Wittemberg 
to  be  instructed  by  Luther,  on  their  return  preached  the 
Gospel  with  great  success  to  the  people  of  Lippe  and  of 
neighboring  places ;  and  they  so  quickly  advanced  the 
cause  of  the  Reformers,  that  when  an  inquisitor  was 
sent  to  Lippe  from  Cologne  in  1526  to  stay  the  heresy, 
he  found  the  evangelical  party  so  strong  that  he  gave 
up  all  attempts  to  control  it,  and  returned  to  his  home. 
In  1533  the  town  was  besieged  by  the  dukes  of  Cleves 
and  Juliers,  and  the  count  of  Lippe  forced  to  surrender. 
The  evangelical  ministers  were  of  course  driven  away, 
but  it  was  not  long  before  permission  was  granted  for 
the  preaching  by  Lutheran  ministers  again.     After  the 
death  of  the  zealous  Roman  Catholic  count  Simon  V,  in 
1536,  the  Reformation  made  more  rapid  progress  in  the 
province.     The  landgrave  Philip  of  Hessia  and  count 
Jobst  von  Hoya,  two  determined  partisans  of  the  Refor- 
mation, became  guardians  of  the  children  of  the  deceased 
count,  and  caused  them  to  be  diligently  instructed  in  the 
Protestant  doctrines ;  and  when,  in  1538,  both  the  no- 
bility and  the  people  loudly  demanded  a  reform  in  the 
Church  of  the  count  de  Hoya,  John  Timann,  surnamed 
Amstolrodamus,  and  Adrian  Buxschoten,  both  of  Brem- 
en, were  called  and  sent  to  Lipjie  to  frame  a  plan  of  evan- 
gelical church  organization,  which  was  submitted  to  the 
States  and  to  Luther,  and,  upon  api)roval  (1538),  it  was 
promulgated  throughout  the  principality,  and  Protest- 
ant ministers  were  everywhere  appointed.    Under  John 
von  Eyter,  of  Wittemberg,  then  general  superintend- 
ent of  Lippe,  a  new  church  organization  was  drawn  up 
and  i)rinted  in  1571,  with  the  authorization  of  the  au- 
thorities, and  it  is  still  in  our  day  in  force  among  the 
Lutheran  communities  of  the  country. 

In  1600,  during  the  reign  of  count  Simon  YI  (ruled 


1583-1613),  who  had  imbibed  Calvinistic  views  at  the 
court  of  Cassel,  Calvinism  found  an  entrance  in  Lippe, 
It  commenced  by  the  appointment  of  a  Calvinistic  min- 
ister to  preach  at  Horn  in  1602.  This  preacher  at  once 
forbade  the  use  of  the  Lutheran  Catechism  ui  the  schools, 
administered  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in  strict 
Calvinistic  form,  and  established  the  Reformed  mode  of 
worship  in  spite  of  the  local  authorities  and  of  tlie  peo- 
ple. In  1605  the  same  step  was  taken  at  Detmold,  and 
was  supported  by  the  government,  notwithstanding  the 
opposition  of  the  people  and  city  authorities.  In  this 
manner  Calvinism  was  established  throughout  the  coun- 
try, the  nobility  alone  and  the  city  of  Lemgo  remaining 
Lutheran.  It  was  not,  however,  until  1684  that  Calvin- 
ism was  sanctioned  as  the  state  reUgion.  In  that  year 
comit  Simon  Henrich  promulgated  the  Reformed  eccle- 
siastical organization,  which  recognises  as  its  formula  of 
confession  the  Catechism  of  Heidelberg,  and  is  in  force 
in  our  day.  The  city  of  Lemgo  resisted  these  meas- 
ures, and  succeeded  in  obtaining  in  1717  an  edict  assur- 
ing its  inhabitants  the  fullest  religious  liberty,  the  right 
of  appointing  their  own  ministers,  etc.  But  as  Ration- 
alism had  obtained  lull  control  of  the  Reformed  Church 
of  Lippe  in  the  18th  century,  upon  reaction  towards  the 
middle  of  the  19th  century  the  whole  countr}-,  including 
Lemgo,  was  subjected  to  the  Reformed  consistory,  which, 
however,  by  the  admission  of  one  Lutheran  member, 
became  a  mixed  consistory.  As  an  outline  of  doctrine, 
the  Heidelberg  Catechism  was  introduced. 

In  1871  the  principality  numbered  about  2700  Roman 
Catholics,  6500  Lutherans,  1150  Israelites;  the  remain- 
der belonged  to  the  Reformed  Church.  The  latter  is 
divided  into  three  classes,  at  the  head  of  each  of  which 
is  a  superintendent;  at  the  head  of  the  whfile  clergy  is 
a  superintendent  general  at  Detmold.  The  supreme 
ecclesiastical  board  for  both  Reformed  and  Lutherans  is 
the  consistory  at  Detmold.  The  principality  has  43  Re- 
formed, 5  Lutheran,  and  6  Catholic  parishes ;  the  Cath- 
olics belong  to  the  diocese  of  Paderborn,  in  Westphalia. 
See  llerzoi^,Real-]'Mcyklojmdie,\in,'i2'&\  Falkmann  und 
Preuss,  LippescJie  Regesten  (Lemgo,  1860-63, 2  vols.  8vo) ; 
Falkmann,  Eeitrage  ziir  Gesch.  tier  Fiirstenth.  (ibid.  1847 
-56) ;  and  his  Graf  Simon  VI  zur  Lijtpe  (Detm.  1869, 
vol,i).     (A.J.S.) 

Lippomani,  Aloysius  {or  Ludovicus),  horn  in  Yen- 
ice  in  1500,  was  alike  renowned  for  his  historical  and 
linguistic  learning  and  for  the  purity  of  his  life.  He 
was  in  turn  bishop  of  IModena,  Yerona,  and  Bergamo, 
He  was  active  in  securing  the  pope's  assent  to  the 
transfer  of  the  Tridentine  Council  to  Bologna ;  was  for 
two  years  after  the  interruption  of  the  council  pajial 
nuncio  in  Germany,  and  in  1549  one  of  the  tliree  pres- 
idents of  the  council.  In  Poland  the  Reformation  had 
made  great  advances  through  the  influence  of  the  Huss- 
ites and  of  the  Bohemian  Brethren,  as  also  through 
the  Socinian  movement.  At  the  national  Diet  of  Pet- 
rikau  in  1550,  1551,  and  especially  1555,  the  preroga- 
tives of  the  Catholic  bishops  Avere,  through  special  in- 
fluence of  the  king,  Sigismund  II,  greatly  diminished, 
and  the  Protestant  theologians  —  such  as  Calvin,  Me- 
lancthon, Bcza — were  recognised  as  important  authori- 
ties in  matters  of  faith.  The  Confession  of  Hosius, 
adopted  in  a  provincial  synod  at  Petrikau,  obtained 
great  acceptance  with  the  people.  Liiipomani  was 
specially  commissioned  by  iiope  Paul  l\,  in  1556,  as 
nuncio  in  Poland,  to  exert  himself  against  this  rapid 
progress  of  reform.  His  efforts  made  him  peculiarly 
obnoxious  to  the  adherents  of  Protestantism,  but  were 
without  marked  success.  He  died  as  bishop  of  Bergamo 
in  August,  1559.  He  wrote  commentaries  on  Genesis, 
Exodus,  and  the  Psalms,  but  they  are  of  no  special  value 
to  the  exegetist  of  to-day.  See  A\'etzer  u.  Welte,  /ur- 
chen-Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Krasinski,  Hist.  Sketch  of  the  Refor- 
mation in  roland,  vol.  i,  chap.  vi.     (E.  B.  O.) 

Lipscomb,  Philip  D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  born  in  Georgetown,  D.  C,  in  October,  1798. 


LIPSIUS 


451 


LITANY 


He  was  converted  probably  in  early  life,  and  joined  the 
Baltimore  Conference  in  lS-22.  Among  his  brethren  in 
Conference  assembled  he  was  pleasant,  cattentive  to  bus- 
iness, safe  in  council.  ^He  v/as  many  years  one  of  the 
stewards  of  the  Conference.  He  was  also  for  a  time 
treasurer  of  the  Preachers'  Fund  Society.  A  number  of 
the  years  of  his  mmistry  were  given  to  the  service  of 
the  American  Colonization  Society,  and  from  that  work 
he  retired  in  18G3  to  a  place  on  the  superannuated  list. 
A  minister  of  this  Conference,  who  knew  him  long  and 
intimately,  says,  '•  His  life  was  beautiful  in  its  consist- 
ency." lie  died  in  January,  1870.— 6'o«/.  Minutes,  1871. 
Lipsius.-JrsTus,  a  Iloman  Catholic,  renowned  as  a 
scholar  in  the  16th  century,  was  born  near  Brussels  in 
1547.  His  talent  was  precocious,  and  he  edited  his  Va- 
rue  lecfiones  at  the  age  of  19.  He  was  secretary  to 
cardinal  Granville  about  this  time  (1572-74).  Later, 
as  professor  of  history  at  Jena,  he  became  a  Protestant, 
and  remained  such  for  13  years  while  professor  of  an- 
cient languages  at  Leyden,  but  subsequently  he  returned 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  was  made  professor 
at  Louvain  (1602).  He  died  March  23,  IGOG,  holding  at 
that  time  the  appointment  of  historiographer  to  the  king 
of  Spain.  His  scholarship  was  honored  by  the  pope  and 
at  several  European  courts.  He  distinguished  himself 
especially  by  his  commentary  upon  Tacitus,  whose  works 
he  could  repeat  word  for  word,  and  by  his  enthusiastic 
regard  for  the  stoical  philosophy.  He  wrote  De  Con- 
stimtia  manudiictia  ad  philosojjhiam  Stoicam: — Pfi)/si- 
olof/iie  Stoicorum  Hbri  tres  (new  edit.  Antv.  1605,  fol.)  : 
— also  De  una  relirjioiie,  etc.  His  works  were  collected 
under  the  title  Opera  Omnia  (Antv.  1585 ;  2d  edit.  ]  637). 
See  Wetzer  u. Welte,  Kirchen-Lexikon,  vol.  ii,  s. v. ;  Theol. 
Univ.  Lex.  (Elberf.  1860),  vol.  i,  s.  v. 

Iiiptines  or  Lestines,  Synod  of  {Concilium  Lip- 
tincnsc).  This  synod  was  held  at  Liptinil  or  Lestines, 
near  the  convent  of  Laubcs,  in  Hennegau,  in  743,  by 
order  of  Carloman,  Bonifacius  presiding.  Four  canons 
■were  published.  The  bishops,  earls,  and  governors  prom- 
ised in  this  council  to  observe  the  decrees  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Germany  (A.D.  742).  All  the  clergy,  moreover, 
promised  obedience  to  the  ancient  canons-,  the  abbots 
and  monks  received  the  order  of  St.  Benedict,  and  a 
part  of  the  revenue  of  the  Church  was  assigned  for  a 
time  to  the  prince,  to  enable  him  to  carry  on  the  wars 
then  raging.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Liquor  ("^'n,  de'ma,  a  tear,  fig.  of  the  juice  of  olives 
and  grapes,  Exod.  xxii,  29 ;  jtp,  me'zeg,  mixed,  i.  e.  high- 
ly flavored  wine,  Cant,  vii,  3  ;  iTTJ"a,  mishrah',  macera- 
tion, i.  e.  drink  prepared  by  steepuig  grapes,  Numb,  vi,  3). 
See  Wine. 

Lismaniui,  Fuancis,  a  Socinian  theologian,  was 
born  at  Corfu  in  the  beginning  of  the  IGth  century. 
He  studied  in  Italy,  joined  the  Franciscans,  and  a  few 
years  after  became  doctor  of  theology ;  removed  to  Po- 
land, and  was  appointed  by  queen  Bona,  \vife  of  Sigis- 
mund  I,  her  preacher  and  confessor.  He  became  also 
superior  of  the  Franciscans  of  Poland,  director  of  all  the 
convents  of  the  nuns  of  St.  Clara,  etc.  The  society  of 
Andrew  Frlcesio  and  the  reading  of  Ochin's  works  led 
him  to  question  the  authority  of  the  Roman  Church, 
yet  he  was  not  displaced  on  account  of  it,  but  continued 
in  favor  with  the  quoen,  and  was  sent  by  her  to  Rome, 
in  1549,  to  congratulate  Julius  HI  on  his  election  as 
pope.  On  his  return  to  Poland  in  1551,  Lismanini  be- 
came acquainted  with  Socinius,  and  it  is  this  association 
that  no  doubt  gave  rise  to  the  mission  with  which  he 
was  intrusted  by  the  king  of  Poland,  ostensibly  for  the 
purpose  of  collecting  works  for  the  royal  library,  but  in 
reality  to  study  the  position  of  the  Reformation,  and  to 
report  concerning  it.  Lismanini  accordingly  visited 
Padua,  :\Iilan,  and  Switzerland,  where  he  finally  left  his 
order,  embraced  the  Helvetic  confession,  and  married. 
The  king,  fearing  to  be  compromised  by  this  overt  act, 
broke  all  connection  with  him,  ceased  to  supply  him 


with  funds,  and  Calvin,  Bullinger,  and  Gesuer-in  vain 
sought  to  obtain  for  Lismanini  leave  to  return  to  Po- 
land. It  was  not  until  1556  that  he  was  permitted  to 
return,  but  the  king's  favor  he  never  regained,  notwith- 
standing the  efforts  of  a  large  number  of  the  Polish 
nobility  in  his  behalf.  His  Socinian  views  on  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity  served  still  more  to  bring  him  into 
discredit.  As  he  attempted  to  make  converts  he  was 
exiled  from  Poland.  He  retired  to  Konigsberg,  where 
he  became  counsellor  of  duke  Albrecht.  About  1563 
he  became  distracted  on  account  of  family  difficulties, 
and  committed  suicide  by  drowning.  His  chief  pro- 
duction is  Brevis  ExpUcatio  doctriiuB  de  sanctissima 
Trinitate,  quani  Stancaro  et  aliis  quihusdam  opposuit 
(1565,  8 vo).  See  Bibl.  antitrinitai-iorum,  p.  34;  Bayle, 
Hist.  Diet. ;  Friese,  Beitrdge  z.  Ref.-Gesch.  in  Polen,  ii,  1, 
p.247sq.;  Yock,Der Socinianismus,\,\^b;  Herzug, Real- 
Encyklopddie,  x,  426 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Gen.  xxxi,  356. 
(J.H.W.) 

LLst,  Carl  Benjajiin,  a  German  theologian,  was 
born  at  JMannheim,  in  the  grand-duchy  of  Baden,  Feb. 
5, 1725.  He  attended  the  universities  of  Jena  and  Stras- 
burg,  and  afterwards  spent  some  time  in  Neufchatel  to 
acquire  I*"rench.  About  1749  he  was  appointed  court 
dean,  in  1753  third  pastor  of  his  native  city,  and  in  1756 
first  pastor  of  the  Evangelical-Lutheran  Church,  togeth- 
er with  the  dignity  of  counsellor  of  the  Consistory.  He 
died  Jan.  16, 1801.  He  possessed  a  pure,  liberal,  and  re- 
forming character,  and  to  him  is  due  the  honor  of  hav- 
ing abrogated  the  custom  of  paying  for  confession  in  the 
Evangelical-Lutheran  Church.  His  productions,  mostly 
of  a  corrective  character  in  liturgy  and  hymns,  were  of 
great  service  to  the  Church  to  which  he  belonged.  We 
mention  Die  Geschichte  der  Evangelisch  - Lutherischen 
Gemeinde  zu  Mannheim  (Mannheim,  1767,  8vo) : — Neue 
Liturgie  fur  die  Evangelisch-Lutherische  Kirche  in  der 
Churjifalz  (ibid.  1783, 8vo).  See  Doring,  Gelehrte  Theol. 
Deutschlands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Litany  (Xiravda,  entreaty'),  a  word  the  specific 
meaning  of  which  has  varied  considerably  at  different 
times,  is  used  in  the  liturgical  services  of  some  churches 
to  designate  a  solemn  act  of  supplication  addressed  with 
the  object  of  averting  the  divine  anger,  and  especially  on 
occasions  of  public  calamity.  Hooker,  in  his  Ecclesias- 
tical Polity  (book  v,  p.  265),  has  the  following :  "  As 
things  invented  for  one  purpose  are  by  use  easily  con- 
verted to  more,  it  grew  that  supplications  with  this  so- 
lemnity for  the  appeasing  of  (Jod's  wrath  and  the  avert- 
ing of  public  evils  were  of  the  Greek  Church  termed 
litanies ;  rogations,  of  the  Latins." 

The  term  litany  for  a  supplicatory  form  of  worship 
among  the  pagans  was  early  adopted  by  Christian  writ- 
ers. In  the  fourth  century  we  find  such  occasions  as 
litanies  connected  with  processions,  the  clergy  and  peo- 
ple in  solemn  procession  using  certain  forms  of  sup- 
phcation  and  making  special  entreaty  for  deliverance. 
Whether  anything  of  this  kind  would  have  been  ven- 
tured before  Christianity  became  a  '-religio  licita"  (A.D. 
270)  may  be  doubted.  The  predominance  of  a  Chris- 
tian popidation,  however,  in  certain  localities,  and  the 
intervals  of  repose  between  persecutions,  admit  of  their 
possibility  at  an  earlier  period.  In  these  earliest  de- 
velopments, moreover,  of  the  processional  litany,  wheth- 
er before  or  during  the  fourth  century,  they  rested, 
doubtless,  upon  an  earlier  Christian  habit  and  custom 
— that  of  special  seasons  of  prayer  and  supplication. 
These,  in  some  cases,  would  be  by  the  assembled  body 
of  believers  in  their  houses  or  places  of  assembling;  in 
others,  for  purposes  of  safety  from  the  fury  of  their  en- 
emies, in  their  individual  homes  and  places  of  abode. 
Certainly  the  Church  was  not  wanting  in  such  occa- 
sions during  the  first  centuries  of  her  existence,  when 
the  course  pursued  by  the  disciples  at  Jerusalem  (Acts 
xii,  5),  and  for  similar  reasons,  would  need  to  be  repeat- 
ed. Occasions  of  this  particular  kind  woidd  of  course 
pass  away  with  the  passing  away  of  persecution.     But 


LITANY 


452 


LITANY 


others  of  a  different  character  would  take  their  place. 
As  early,  indeed,  as  the  times  of  Tertullian  and  Cyprian 
we  linoi  allusions  to  Christian  prayers,  and  fastings,  and 
.supplications  for  the  removal  of  drought,  the  repelling 
of  enemies,  the  moderation  of  calamities ;  and  later,  in 
the  fourth  and  tifth  centuries,  we  find  the  same  thing, 
on  a  larger  scale  and  in  a  more  formal  manner.  Theo- 
(losius,  preliminary  to  a  battle,  spent  the  whole  night  in 
fasting  and  prayer,  and  in  sackcloth  went  with  the 
])riests  and  people  to  make  supplication  in  all  the 
clmrches.  So,  again,  in  the  reign  of  one  of  his  suc- 
cessors, a  solemn  litany  or  supplication  on  account  of  a 
great  earthquake  was  made  at  Constantuiople.  In  these 
last  cases,  the  element,  to  which  allusion  has  been  made, 
that  of  the  procession,  was  undoubtedly  present,  and  so 
continued  until  the  time  of  the  Keformation ;  the  name 
litany,  indeed,  being  sometimes  used  simply  to  describe 
this  part  of  it,  as  where  seven  litanies  are  directed  by 
(iregory  the  Great  to  proceed  from  seven  different 
churches  (see  below).  The  processions  of  the  Arians  in 
the  times  of  Chrysostom,  and  the  counter  movement,  on 
his  part,  by  more  splendid  and  imposing  ones,  to  detract 
from  any  popularity  which  the  j^ians  may  have  at- 
tained in  this  way,  are  described  by  Socrates.  It  is  not 
at  all  improbable  that  in  somewhat  the  same  manner 
the  hymns  of  Arius  became  circulated  in  Alexandria  in 
the  early  part  of  the  fourth  centurj-,  and  found  lodgment 
in  the  minds  of  the  populace. 

The  prevalence  of  litanies  in  the  Western  Church  may 
be  recognised  after  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century ; 
and  during  the  time  of  Charlemagne  we  find  allusion  to 
large  numbers  of  them,  to  be  attended  to  as  a  matter  of 
special  appointment.  The  Council  of  Orleans,  A.D.  511, 
expressly  recognises  litanies  as  peculiarly  solemn  suppli- 
cat ions,  and  enjoins  their  use  preparatory  to  the  celebra- 
tion of  a  high  festival.  In  tlie  Spanish  Church,  in  like 
manner,  they  were  observed  in  the  week  after  Pentecost. 
Other  councils  subsequently  appointed  them  at  a  variety 
of  other  seasons,  till,  in  the  seventeenth  Council  of  To- 
ledo, A.D.  G94,  it  was  decreed  that  they  should  be  used 
once  in  each  month.  By  degrees  they  were  extended 
to  two  days  in  each  week,  and  Wednesday  and  Friday, 
being  the  ancient  stationary  days,  were  set  apart  for  the 
purpose.  Gregory  the  Great  instituted  a  service  at 
Kome  for  the  25th  of  April,  which  was  named  Litania 
Septiformis,  because  a  procession  was  formed  in  it  of 
seven  different  classes.  This  service  is  distinguished 
as  Litania  Major,  from  its  extraordinary  solemnity. 
The  Lilanice  Jllinores,  on  the  other  hand,  are  supposed 
by  Bingham  to  consist  only  of  a  repetition  of  Kvpif 
tXiijaou,  the  customarj'  response  in  the  larger  supplica- 
tions. "It  was  a  short  form  of  supplication,  used  one 
way  or  other  in  all  churches,  and  that  as  a  part  of  all 
their  daily  offices,  whence  it  borrowed  the  name  of  the 
Lesser  Litany,  in  opposition  to  the  greater  litanies, 
which  were  distinct,  complete,  and  solemn  services, 
adapted  to  particular  times  or  extraordinary  occasions. 
I  must  note,  fiu-ther,  that  the  greater  litanies  are  some- 
times termed  •  exomolorjeses' — confessions — because  fast- 
ing, and  weeping,  and  mourning,  and  confession  of  sins 
were  usually  enjoined  with  supplication,  to  avert  God's 
wrath,  and  reconcile  him  to  a  sinful  people."  Du  Cange 
cites  a  passage  from  the  acts  of  the  Cone.  Cloveskoviense, 
A.D.  747,  conlirmiiig  tlie  i<lentity  oi  litania  and  rogatio, 
but  showhig  that  originally  there  was  a  distinction  be- 
t\veeii  Utauiu  and  ixomologcsis.  Johannes  de  Janua 
terms  litany,  proi)erly,  a  service  for  the  dead.  But  Du 
(Jange,  by  the  authorities  he  cites  for  the  early  litanies, 
hazards  the  assertion  that  they  differ  but  little  from 
those  in  modern  usage.  In  the  AVestern  litanies  two 
features  are  to  be  foinid  not  jirevalent  in  the  Eastern — 
the  invocation  of  saints,  and  the  appointment. of  stated 
annual  seasons  for  tlieir  use,  as  the  rogation  days  of  the 
Komish,  and  the  iri-weekly  usage  of  the  EnJ^lish  Ciiurch. 
There  is,  indeed,  mention  made  of  an  annual  litany  in 
commemoration  of  the  great  earthquake  in  the  reign  of 
Justinian.     But  the  general  and  present  habit  of  the 


patriarchate  of  Constantinople  has  been  and  is  to  con- 
fine such  services  to  their  original  purpose — extraordi- 
nary occasions. 

Freeman  {Principles  of  Biviii^,  Service,  ii,  325)  insists 
that  in  its  origin  the  litany  is  distinctly  a  '■  cucharistic 
feature,"  a  series  of  intercessions  closely  associated  with 
the  eucharistic  sacrifice.  So  we  find  in  the  East,  and 
so  it  was  originally  in  the  West  also,  one  most  notable 
feature  being  the  pleading  of  the  work  of  Christ  in  be- 
half of  his  Church.  In  a  Syriac  form  given  by  Kenau- 
dot,  the  priest,  taking  the  paten  and  cup  in  his  right  and 
left  hand,  commemorates  (1)  the  annunciation ;  (2)  the 
nativity  ;  (3)  the  baptism  ;  (4)  the  passion;  (5)  the  lift- 
ing up  on  the  cross ;  (G)  the  life-giving  death ;  (7)  the 
burial ;  (8)  the  resurrection ;  (9)  the  session.  Then 
follows  the  remembrance  of  the  departed,  and  then  sup- 
plication for  all,  both  living  and  departed,  ending  with 
three  kyries  and  the  Lord's  Prayer.  This  extended  eu- 
charistic intercession  St.  Ephraem  the  Syrian  rendered 
into  a  very  solemn  hymn  (comp.  Ulunt,  JJict.  of  Ductr. 
and  Hist.  TheoL  p.  417). 

As  to  the  peculiar  structure  of  litanies,  which  are 
prayers,  certain  features  may  be  mentioned  that  distin- 
guish them  from  other  prayers  (the  collects  and  the  so- 
called  common  prayers),  for  in  the  litany  the  priest  or 
minister  does  not  pray  alone,  the  people  responding  after 
each  separate  petition.  It  is  even  not  absolutely  neces- 
sary that  the  minister  should  lead,  as  the  whole  may  be 
divided  between  two  choirs;  for  we  must  also  notice 
that  the  litany,  occupying  a  medium  position  between 
prayer  and  singing,  may  be  sung  or  spoken,  according 
to  the  custom  of  the  place  where  it  is  used.  Some  com- 
positors even — Mozart,  for  instance — sometimes  treated 
it  in  the  same  manner  as  the  usual  Church  chants  (the 
Stabat  Mater,  Requiem,  etc.)  ;  but  in  this  case,  by  losing 
the  distinction  between  petitions  and  responses,  the  lit- 
any entirely  changed  its  character.  In  the  next  place, 
it  must  be  noticed  that  in  all  litanies  preceding  the  Ref- 
ormation there  is  great  uniformity.  They  all  begin 
alike — Kyrie  eleison,  Christe  eleison,  and  end  alike — Ag- 
nus Dei,  qui  tollis,  etc.  In  this  respect  they  resemble 
the  mass.  A  form  of  supplication  somewhat  resembUng 
a  litany  exists  in  the  Apostolical  Constitutions;  as  the 
deacon  named  the  subjects  of  petition,  the  people  an- 
swered to  each.  Lord,  have  mercy.  That  of  the  Church 
of  England  begins  with  an  invocation  of  the  persons  of 
the  Trinity,  but  uses  the  old  invocations  in  its  progress 
and  close.  In  their  origmal  purpose  litanies  were  con- 
nected with  fasting  and  humiliation,  and  were  therefore 
inappropriate  to  the  festal  character  of  the  Sunday  ser- 
vice. In  this  respect  their  usage  has  been  changed,  and 
they  are  now  part  of  divine  service  not  only  on  Sundays, 
but  on  the  most  joyous  seasons  of  Christian  commemo- 
ration, such  as  Easter  and  Christmas  day.  One  of  the 
last  efforts,  indeed,  in  this  kind  of  composition  is  the 
litany  of  Zuizcndorf  for  Easter  morning.  The  ordmary 
arrangement  of  litany  material  may  be  described  as,  first, 
the  invocations,  where  we  find  the  greatest  difference 
between  Eomish  and  Protestant  litanies ;  these  are  fol- 
lowed b}'  the  deprecations,  from  which  this  kind  of  ser- 
vice originally  took  its  predominant  character;  next 
come  intercessions  for  various  classes  and  conditions 
of  men,  the  whole  closing  with  supplications  for  divine 
audience,  and  blessing  upon  the  worshippers.  The  lit- 
any of  the  Church  of  Kome  is  that  of  Gregory,  with 
subsequent  additions,  especially  in  the  material  of  invo- 
cation to  the  body  of  Christ,  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  all 
the  saints.  There  was  an  earlier  form, bearing  the  name 
of  Ambrose,  agreeing  in  many  respects  with  the  Luther- 
an and  English  (see  below).  There  was  another,  put  in 
shape  by  Mamertius,  bishop  of  Vienna,  about  the  year 
460,  which  was  used  by  Sidonius  of  Arranque  soon  after, 
in  connection  witli  an  invasion  of  the  Goths,  the  annual 
usage  of  which  the  Council  of  Orleans  enjoined.  That 
of  (iregory,  however,  composed  during  the  next  centurj", 
became  the  prevailing  one,  or  rather  the  typical  form  of 
others  in  subsequent  use. 


LITAKY 


io'i 


LITERS  FORMATS 


The  three  different  forms  now  in  use  in  the  Eomish 
churches  are  called  the  '-litany  of  the  saints"  (which  is 
the  most  ancient),  the  "litany  of  tlie  name  of  Jesus," 
and  the  "  litany  of  Our  Lady  of  Loretto."  Of  these  the 
first  alone  has  a  place  in  tlie  public  service-books  of  the 
Church,  on  the  rogation  days,  in  the  ordination  service, 
the  service  for  the  consecration  of  churches,  the  conse- 
cration of  cemeteries,  and  many  other  offices.  The  one 
called  by  the  name  of  litaiiij  of  the  saints  bears  its  name 
from  the  praj-ers  it  contains  to  the  saints  for  their  help 
and  intercession  in  behalf  of  the  worshipjDers.  Almost 
every  saint  in  the  calendar  of  the  Romish  Church  has  his 
particular  form  in  the  litany.  Tlie  people's  response  in 
the  prayer  is  Orn  pi-o  nobis,  "  Pray  for  us."  Tlie  litany 
of  Jesus  consists  of  a  number  of  addresses  to  Christ  under 
liis  various  relations  to  men,  in  connection  with  the  sev- 
eral details  of  his  passion,  and  of  adjurations  of  him 
through  the  memory  of  what  he  has  done  and  suffered 
for  the  salvation  of  mankind.  The  date  of  this  form  of 
prayer  is  uncertain,  but  it  is  referred,  with  much  proba- 
bility, to  the  time  of  St.  Bernardino  of  Siena,  in  the  15th 
century.  The  litanT/  of  Loretto  [see  Loretto]  resem- 
bles both  the  above-named  litanies  in  its  opening  ad- 
dresses to  the  Holy  Trinity  and  in  its  closing  petitions 
to  the  "  Lamb  of  God,  who  taketh  away  the  sins  of  the 
world;"  but  the  main  body  of  the  petitions  are  address- 
ed to  the  Virgin  Mary  under  various  titles,  some  taken 
from  the  Scriptures,  some  from  the  language  of  the 
fathers,  some  from  the  mystical  writers  of  the  mediasval 
Church.  Neither  this  litany  nor  that  of  Jesus  has  ever 
formed  part  of  any  of  the  ritual  or  liturgical  offices  of 
the  Catholic  Church,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
both  have  in  various  ways  received  the  sanction  of  the 
highest  authorities  of  the  Romish  Church.  Tliose  of 
the  Lutheran  and  English  churches,  which  are  very 
much  alike,  are  derived  from  the  same  source,  being 
shorter  in  that  these  invocations  are  expunged. 

In  the  Church  of  England  it  was  originally  a  distinct 
service,  and  seems  to  have  been  used  at  a  different  time 
of  day  from  the  ordinary  morning  service,  and  only  on 
certain  occasions.  In  1544  it  was  given  to  the  people 
in  a  revised  form  by  Henry  VIII.  Upon  its  insertion 
in  the  Prayer-book  published  by  Edward  VI,  A.D.  1549, 
the  litany  was  placed  between  the  communion  office 
and  the  office  of  baptism,  under  the  title  "  The  Litany 
and  Suffrages,"  without  any  rubric  for  its  use ;  but  at 
the  end  of  the  communion  office  occurred  the  follow- 
ing rubric :  "  Upon  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  the  Eng- 
lish litany  shall  be  said  or  sung  in  aU  places,  after 
such  form  as  is  appointed  by  his  majesty's  injunc- 
tions, or  as  it  shall  be  otherwise  appointed  by  his  high- 
ness." In  the  revision  of  the  Common  Prayer  in  1552, 
the  litany  was  placed  where  it  now  stands,  and  the  ru- 
bric was  added  to  "be  used  on  Sundays, Wednesdays, 
and  Fridays,  and  at  other  times  when  it  shall  be  com- 
manded by  the  ordinary."  So  late  as  the  last  revision 
in  1661,  the  litany  continued  a  distinct  service  by  itself, 
used  sometimes  after  the  morning  prayer  (then  read  at 
a  very  early  hour)  was  concluded,  the  people  returning 
home  between  them.  The  rubric  which  inserts  the  lit- 
any after  the  third  collect  in  morning  prayer  is  formed 
from  a  similar  rubric  in  the  Scotch  Common  Prayer- 
bool;  with  this  difference,  that  the  English  rubric  en- 
joins the  omission  of  certain  of  the  ordinary  interces- 
sional  prayers;  the  Scotch  rubric,  on  the  other  hand, 
states  expressly,  "  without  the  omission  of  any  part  of 
the  other  daily  service  of  the  Church  on  those  days." 

The  litany  of  the  German  and  Danish  Lutherans 
closely  resembles  that  of  the  Church  of  England  and  that 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States 
of  America,  and  needs,  therefore,  no  special  mention  here. 
The  processional  feature  is  still  retained  in  the  Greek 
and  Roman  litanies  on  special  occasions,  but  is  not  their 
special  accompaniment.  Efforts  towards  its  restoration 
in  the  English  and  American  Episcopal  Church  have 
for  the  past  ten  years  been  in  progress.  Judging  from 
the  prevalent  sentiment  of  the  episcopate  in  both  coun- 


tries, and  the  tone  of  the  last  General  Convention  in  this, 
the  prospects  of  success  are  not  very  favorable.  See 
Procter,  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  p.  246  sq. ;  Palmer, 
Ori(/ines  Liturgiccr,  i,  264  sq.;  Wheatly,  Common  Prayer, 
p.  163  sq.;  Dean  Stanley  in  Good  Words  for  1868  (June) ; 
Co\(ixasm,  Manual  of  Prelacy  and  Ritualism,  p.  392  sq. ; 
Ch ristiun  A ntiq.  p.  66 1 ;  Blunt,  Did. Doct.  and  Hist.  Theol. 
S.V.;  iL&die,  Ecclesiastical  Dictionary,  s.  v.;  Walcott,  »S'a- 
cred  A  rchcEolor/y,  p.  353.     See  Liturgy. 

Literae  Encyclicae,  a  term  used  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  to  denote  letters  addressed  by  the  pope 
to  the  whole  Church,  but  primarily  to  the  clergy  at 
large,  as  representatives  of  the  Church.  They  are  to 
be  distinguished  from  apostolical  briefs  and  buUs  as 
never  being  applicable  to  local  or  individual  cases  only. 
They  relate  to  some  general  need  or  tendency  of  a  mor- 
al or  doctrinal  kind  within  the  Church,  or  to  any  sup- 
posed dangers  from  without,  and  contain  the  pope's 
views  on  the  matters  alluded  to,  with  exhortations  to 
co-operation  on  the  part  of  the  clergy  and  the  Church 
at  large  in  the  course  of  conduct  advised.    See  E^'cvc- 

LICA. 

Literse  Formatae,  or  simply  Forjiat.e,  are  the 
epistles  of  bishops  and  churches  to  others  of  like  char- 
acter, and  are  so  called  because  they  are  framed  after  cer- 
tain prescribed  canonical  rules.  There  have  been  need- 
less discussions  over  the  fitness  of  the  expression  for- 
mata,  and  some  would  have  it  to  heformalis  (Suetonius, 
Domitian,  13) ;  others  will  derive  it  hom  forma,  tvttoq, 
seal  (hence  formata,  T(TV!rojfji.kin],  equivalent  to  sigil- 
lata),  etc.  Originally  they  were  termed  KavoviKai,  ca- 
nonicw,  but  afterwards  formatce.  The  adoption  of  a 
particular  form  was  early  necessary,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  alteration  of  and  tampering  with  letters,  of  which 
Dionysius,  bishop  of  Corinth  (f  c.  a.  167),  complained, 
according  to  Eusebius  {hist.  Eccl.  lib.  iv,  cap.  23),  as  also 
Cyprian  (Ejnst.  3).  From  the  earliest  times  the  brother- 
ly union  of  the  churches  was  cultivated  by  means  of  a 
regular  correspondence,  of  which  Optatus  of  Mileve  says 
in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century :  "  Totus  orbis  com- 
mercio  formatarum  in  una  communionis  societate  con- 
cordat." The  holy  Scriptures  themselves,  namely,  the 
epistles  of  the  apostles,  served  as  the  first  models.  Let- 
ters of  introduction  and  recommendation  of  brethren  to 
the  different  churches  were  in  the  infancy  of  the  Church 
the  chief  subject  of  this  correspondence ;  these  were 
called  by  the  apostles  avaraTiKal  iTzmroXai  (2  Cor.  iii, 
1),  lite7-(e  commendaiitice.  They  are  mentioned  by  Ter- 
tullian  {Adcersus  hccreses,  cap.  20),  Gregory  of  Nazian- 
zum  (Oratio,  iii),  and  Sozomen  {Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  v,  cap. 
16),  etc.  The  demand  for  such  letters  of  recommenda- 
tion became  so  numerous  that  it  was  necessary  to  frame 
regulations  determining  who  was  and  who  was  not  en- 
titled to  them,  and  in  what  form  they  shoidd  be  writ- 
ten. The  Council  of  Elvira,  a.  305  (?  310),  c.  25,  that 
of  Aries,  a.  314,  c.  9,  etc.,  decided  that  bishops  alone 
should  be  authorized  to  write  them.  Every  traveller, 
whether  laic  or  clerical,  was  to  provide  himself  with 
one.  It  is  said,  cap.  32  (al.  34)  :  "  Nullus  episcopus 
peregrinoruni  aut  presbyteroriim  aut  diaconorum  sine 
commendatitiis  recipiatur  epistolis ;  et  cum  scripta  de - 
tulerint,  discutiantnr  attentius,  et  ita  suscipiantur,  si 
prc-cdicatores  pietatis  extiterint;  sin  minus,  base  qute 
sunt  necessaria  subministrantur  eis,  et  ad  communionem 
nullatenus  admittantur,  quia  per  subreptionem  multa 
proveniunt"  (see  Cone.  Antioch.  a.  341  [?  332],  c.  7,  in  c, 
9,  dist.  Ixxi;  African,  i,  a.  506,  c.  2  [c.  21,  dist.  1],  c. 
5),  The  defence  of  the  right  of  these  members  of  the 
clergy  to  officiate  was  often  withdrawn,  as  by  the  Cone. 
Chalcedon.  a.  451,  c,  13,  in  c,  7,  dist.  Ixxi,  etc.  The 
form  of  the  writings  was  taken  from  the  apostolic  mod- 
els. Atticus,  bishop  of  Constantinople,  stated  in  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon,  451,  that  there  was  a  formiUa 
established  by  the  Council  of  Nicrea,  325 :  "  Nic;\?»  .... 
constitutum,  ut  epistohc  formatie  banc  calculationis  seu 
supputationis  habeant  rationem,  id  est,  ut  assumantur 
in  supputationem  prima  Grteca  elementa  Patris  et  Filii 


LITPI 


454 


LITHUANIA 


et  Spiritus  Sancti,  hoc  est  tt.  v.  a.  qure  elementa  octo- 
gcnariuin,  et  quadringentesimum,  et  primiim  signiiiicant 
nimierura.     Tetri  quoquc  apostuli  prima  litera,  id  est 

TT :  ejus  quoque,  qui  scribit,  episcopi  prima  litera ; 

cui  scribitur  secuiida  litera ;  accipientis  tertia  litera ; 
civitatis  quoque,  de  qua  scribitur,  quarta :  et  indictioiiis, 
quix'cunque  est  illius  temporis,  Humerus  assumatur.  At- 
quc  ita  his  omnibus  Grajcis  literis  .  .  .  .  iu  mium  ductis, 
unam,  quajcunque  fuerit  collecta,  sumraam  epistola  te- 
neat,  hauc  qui  suscipit  omni  cum  cautela  requirat  ex- 
presse.  Addat  prasterea  separatim  iu  epistola  etiam 
iionagenarium  et  nonum  numerum,  qui  secundum  Grjeca 
elementa  signiticat  ap]i>y  From  these  letters  of  rec- 
ommendation must  be  distinguished  the  ilpipnKai  tiri- 
(TToXai,  UtercE  pacijine,  a  kind  of  letters  of  dismission 
(hence  also  called  cnroXnTiKai),  stating  that  the  giver 
was  privy  to  the  bearer's  intention  of  traveUing  (c.  7,  8, 
Cone.  Antioch.  a.  332,  c.  11 ;  Coiic.  Chalced.  451;  Cone. 
Trnllan.  a.  672,  c.  17,  etc.).  Formatce  also  contamed 
the  communications  of  one  community  to  another,  such 
as  the  information  concerning  the  election  of  bishops, 
etc.  (ypdj^ii^icira  ii'SrpoinariKii,  Euscbius,  Hist.  Ecel.  lib. 
vii,  cap.  30 ;  Evagrius,  Hist.  Keel.  lib.  4,  cap.  iv)  ;  no- 
tices of  festivals,  particularly  Easter,  etc.  (ypiifiiJiaTa 
iopraariKci,  Traaxu^ta,  epistoke  Jestales,  puschales,  etc. ; 
Cone.  A relat.  i,  a.  314,  c.  1 ;  Carthu;j.  v,  a.  401,  c.  7 ;  Bia- 
car.  ii,  a.  572,  c.  7 ;  Gratian.  c.  24-26,  dist.  iii,  "  de  con- 
secr.").  The  publication  of  ordinations  was  also  made 
by  J'u?-matce,  as  circulars,  tyKVK\ia,  tTrtaToXai,  circu- 
hires,tractorice.  See  Du  Fiesne,  Glossa?:  Lat.;  Suicer, 
Thesaur.  ecel.  s.  v.  tipijviKog ;  F.  B.  Ferrarii  Be  antiquo 
epistolarum  ecelesiastiearum  genere  (Meliol.  1613 ;  and 
edit.  G.  Th.  Meier,  Helmstadt,  1678,  4to)  ;  Phil.  Priori! 
De  literis  canonieis  diss,  eum  appendice  de  traetoriis  et 
synodicis  (Paris,  1675) ;  J.  R.  Kiesling,  De  stabili  primi- 
tirce  ecclesire  opie  literarum  conmnmicatoriartim  connitbio 
(Lipsioe,  1745,  4to) ;  Gonzalez  Tellez,  Kommenhir  z.  d. 
Deeretakn  (lib.  ii,  tit.  xxii,  "Z'e  clerieis  p)erefirinis,^''  cap. 
3);  Rheinwald,  A'iVc/(?2c/;e  Archdoloc/ie  (Berlin,  1830). 
— Herzog,  Real-EncyUoj).  s.  v. 

Iiith,  JoHANN  WiLiiELM  ■\'OX,  a  German  theologian, 
was  bom  at  Anspach,  in  Bavaria,  Fel).  4. 1678.  In  1693 
he  entered  the  University  of  Jena,  and  became  in  1694 
A.M.  In  the  following  year  he  went  to  the  University 
of  Altdorf  to  continue  his  studies ;  in  1697  he  studied  at 
the  University  of  Halle,  and  in  1698  he  was  admitted  to 
the  philosophical  faculty  of  that  universit}-.  His  health 
failing,  he  was  obliged  to  leave  for  his  native  city.  In 
1707  he  became  dean  at  Wassertrlidingen.  In  1710  he 
accepted  a  call  to  his  native  city  as  preacher  of  a  foun- 
dation and  counsellor  of  the  Consistory;  in  addition  to 
this,  he  became  in  1714  city  pastor.  He  died  March 
13,  1743.  Yon  Lith  repeatedly  declined  calls  to  far 
higher  dignities  abroad.  His  polemics  against  Cathol- 
icism prove  him  to  have  been  a  man  of  wide  knowledge 
and  great  acuteness ;  and  his  repeatedly  reprinted  ser- 
mons, and  liis  valuable  contributions  to  the  history  of 
the  lieformation,  give  evidence  of  his  success  as  a  great 
preacher  and  historian.  We  mention  Evlduterung  der 
Reformationshistorie  von  1524-28  (Schwabach,  1733, 
8vo;  2d  edit.  ibid.  1739,  8vo): — Disquisitio  de  ndora- 
iione  pcinis  consecrati,  etc.  (Suabaji,  1754,  8vo).  See 
Diiring,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Dcutschlands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lithuania,  a  grand-duchy  in  Eastern  Europe, 
which  fiirmerly  constituted  a  y)art  of  the  kingdom  of 
I'olaud,  and  whicli  at  the  partition  of  the  kingdom  was 
partly  united  with  Russia  (the  governments  of  Vilna, 
Grodno,  ]\Iohilev,  Minsk,  and  A'itebsk ),  jiartly  with  Prus- 
sia (the  administrative  district  of  (jombiimen).  Tlie 
area  of  Lithuania  is  about  105,000  square  miles.  In 
the  earliest  historic  times  the  country  of  the  Lithu- 
anians was  subject  to  tlie  neighboring  tribes,  in  partic- 
ular to  the  Russians  of  Polocz.  Asum  independent 
state  it  appears  for  the  first  time  about  1217  under 
Ercziwil,  who  threw  off  the  yoke  of  Polock,  and  con- 
quered Podlesia,  Grodno,  and  Brzesk.    Eberwand,  about 


1220,  began  to  expel  the  Tartars  from  Lithuania,  and 
Ringold,  about  1235,  was  the  first  independent  grand- 
duke.  His  son  Mindore,  who  had  to  cede  Podlesia, 
Samogitia,  and  Courland  to  the  prince  of  Ilalicz  Nov- 
gorod and  to  the  Teutonic  Order,  was  in  1245  baptized 
by  the  archbishop  of  Riga  and  crowned  as  king ;  but  in 
1261  he  apostatized  from  Christianity,  and  in  1263  he 
was  slaiit  by  Svintorog,  the  governor  of  Samogitia,  who 
in  1268  obtained  control  of  the  country.  In  1281  Pod- 
lesia was  reunited  with  Lithuania.  In  1282  Witen  be- 
came ruler  of  Lithuania,  after  murdering  his  predeces- 
sor. His  son  Gedinim  (1315-1328)  conquered  Samo- 
gitia and  a  portion  of  lUissia,  inclusive  of  Kiev,  and 
founded  the  towns  of  Yilna  and  Troki.  The  son  of 
Gedinim,  Olgerd,  wholly  expelled  the  Tartars  from  Po- 
dolia,  and  conquered  the  pruice  Demetrius  of  Russia  at 
Moscow,  in  1333  at  Mosaisk.  His  son  Jagello  was  bap- 
tized on  F'eb.  14,  1386,  at  Cracow,  and  on  this  occasion 
received  the  name  of  Vladislav.  The  maiTiage  of  Ja- 
gello with  the  princess  Hedwig  of  Poland  led  to  the 
union  of  Lithuania  with  Poland,  and  made  the  latter 
countrj'  the  greatest  power  of  Eastern  Europe.  In  1401, 
and  again  in  1413,  it  was  stipulated  that  the  jmnces  of 
Poland  and  Lithuania  should  only  be  elected  with  the 
consent  of  both  nations.  L'nder  Witold,  who  in  1413 
conquered  Smolensk,  Lithuania  was  a  powerful  state, 
which  emliraced,  besides  Lithuania  proper,  the  larger 
portion  of  White  and  Red  Russia,  Samogitia,  and  otlier 
districts.  After  a  brief  separation  from  I'oland  in  the 
15th  century,  Lithuania  and  Poland  were  reunited  in 
1501,  and  after  this  time  the  union  was  not  again  inter- 
rupted. In  1569  even  the  administrative  union  with 
Poland  was  carried  through,  and  the  history  of  Lithu- 
ania fully  coincides  with  that  of  Poland.  For  an  ac- 
count of  the  Reformation,  and  the  subsequent  contiicts 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  hierarchy  with  the  Russian  gov- 
ernment, see  Poland  and  Russia.  The  Lithuanians, 
who  still  number  about  1,340,000  inhabitants,  are  di- 
vided into  three  branches:  1,  the  Lithuanians  proper, 
about  717,000,  in  the  Russian  government ;  2,  tlie  Sa- 
mogitians  or  Shamaites,  of  whom  about  308,000  live  in 
the  district  of  Samogitia,  which  in  1795  was  incorpo- 
rated with  Russia,  and  belongs  to  the  government  of 
Vilna,  and  184,000  in  the  former  government  of  Au- 
gustovo  of  Poland;  3,  the  Prussian  Lithuanians,  about 
137,000.  Before  the  partition  of  Poland,  nearly  the 
entire  popidation  of  Lithuania,  which  embraced  Lithu- 
anians, Poles,  and  Little  Russians  or  Ruthenians,  be- 
longed to  the  Catholic  Church :  the  Lithuanians  and 
Poles  to  the  Latin  rite,  and  the  Little  Russians  or  Ru- 
thenians to  the  Greek  rite.  The  united  Greek  bishops 
were  in  1839  prevailed  upon  to  sever  their  connection 
with  the  pope  and  unite  with  the  orthodox  Greek 
Church,  whereu]ion  the  Russian  government  officially 
regarded  the  entire  population  of  their  dioceses  as  being 
part  of  the  Greek  Church.  The  Catholics  now  consti- 
tute a  majority  only  in  the  government  of  Vilna :  they 
have  within  the  boundaries  of  the  ancient  Lithuania 
the  archdiocese  of  Mohilev,  and  the  dioceses  of  Vilna, 
Samogitia,  and  iMinsk.  The  Protestants  belong  mostly 
to  the  Reformed  (Tiurch,  which  is  divided  into  four  dis- 
tricts, each  of  which  has  a  superintendent  and  vice-su- 
perintendent at  its  head.  It  has  about  30  ministers, 
and  aninially  holds  a  synod  which  often  lasts  three  or 
four  weeks,  and  which  has  to  be  attended  by  all  tlie  lay 
members,  aiul  by  those  ministers  in  whose  district  the 
synod  assembles.  Every  district  must  be  represented 
either  by  the  president  or  by  the  vice-president.  The 
meeting  of  the  synod  takes  place  every  year  in  a  dif- 
ferent district  and  parish,  the  clergyman  of  the  latter 
receiving  a  compensation  for  entertaining  the  members 
of  the  synod.  The  synod  rules  the  Reformed  Church 
under  the  superintendence  of  the  ministry  of  St.  Peters- 
burg. It  ]iays  the  salaries  of  the  clergymen,  attends  to 
the  repairs  of  the  churches,  and  has  also  the  care  of  all 
schools  and  poor-houses.  It  has  from  dotations  an  an- 
nual revenue  of  22,000  silver  rubles.     The  Lutheran 


LITTER 


455 


LITTLE  CHRISTIANS 


congregations  of  Lithuania,  which  are  less  numerous, 
belong  to  the  diocese  of  Courland.  The  orthodox  Greek 
Church  has  within  the  limits  of  Lithuania  the  arch- 
bishop of  White  Kussia  and  Lithuania,  the  bishop  of 
Mohilev,  the  bishop  of  A'ilna,  and  the  bishop  of  Vi- 
tebsk. The  dioceses  of  the  two  former  belong  to  the 
eparchies  of  the  second,  those  of  the  two  latter  to  the 
eparchies  of  the  third  and  fourth  class.  The  following 
table  of  the  live  governments  formerly  belonging  to 
Lithuania  exhibits  the  total  population,  the  Jioman 
Catholics,  Protestants,  and  Israelites ;  the  remainder  be- 
long chietly  to  the  orthodox  Greek  Church  : 


Govern- 

Roman 

Per 

Prot-   1  Per 

Israel- 

Per 

ment. 

Catholics. 

Cent. 

estHnts. 

ct. 

ites. 

Cent. 

a  . 

Grodno . 

265,506 

29.7 

7,339 

0.8 

99,473 

11.1 

■  958,852 

Minsk. . . 

1S.5,3S0 

18.5 

1,.360 

0.1 

97,830 

9.8 

l,135,58s 

Mohilev. 

37,on3 

4.0 

525 

. — 

122,662 

13.3 

908,858 

Vlhm  . . . 

568,890 

61.0 

1,879 

0.2 

104,007 

11.6 

973,57-! 

Vitebsk . 
Total . . 

200,381 

26.6 

12,343 

1.6 

70,520 
494,492 

9.1 

838,046 

1,263,161 

27.9  23,446 

0.7 

11.0 

4,814,9ls 

See  Krause,  Lithauen  u.  (lessen  Bewohiier  (Halle,  1834) ; 
Glagau,  Lithauen  unci  Lithauer,  gesummelte  Skizzen  (Til- 
sit, 18G'.>).     (A.  J.  S.) 

Litter  occurs  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  as  a  translation  of 
S^  {tsab,  from  33^,  to  move  slowly),  in  Isa.  Ixvi,  20, 
(Sept.  XafiTTiji'ii),  where  a  sedan  or  palanquin  for  the 
conveyance  of  a  princely  personage,  borne  by  hand  or 
upon  the  shoulders,  or  perhaps  on  the  backs  of  ani- 
mals, is  evidently  referred  to.  The  original  term  oc- 
curs elsewhere  only  in  Numb,  vi,  3,  in  the  phrase  "73" 
2^  (ef/loth'  tsab,  carts  oj' the  lifte?-  kind,  A.  Y.  "covered 
wagons"),  where  it  is  used  of  the  large  and  commodious 
vehicles  employed  for  the  transportation  of  the  mate- 
rials anil  furniture  of  the  tabernacle,  being  drawn  by 
oxen.  The  term  therefore  signifies  properly  a  hand- 
litter,  and  secondarily  a  wain  or  wheel-carriage.  Lit- 
ters or  palanquins  were,  as  we  know,  in  use  among  the 
ancient  Egyptians.     They  were  borne  upon  the  shoul- 


Ancieul  Egyptian  Palaiu|uiii,  coutainiug  a  military  chief, 
borne  by  four  men,  with  an  attendant  carrying  a  para- 
sol behind  him. 

ders  of  men,  and  appear  to  have  been  used  for  carrying 
persons  of  consideration  short  distances  on  visits,  like 
the  sedan  chairs  of  a  former  day  in  England  (see  Wil- 
kinson, .1  iw.  E(j.  i,  73).  In  Cant,  iii,  9,  we  tind  the  wortl 
*|i"'"IQ><,  appirijon'  (perhaps  a  foreign  [Egyptian]  word), 
Sept.  cpoptiov,  Vidg.  ferculum,  which  occurs  nowhere 
else  in  Scripture,  and  is  applied  to  a  vehicle  used  by 
king  Solomon.  In  the  immediate  context  it  is  described 
as  consisting  of  a  framework  of  cedar-wood,  in  which 
were  set  silver  stanchions  supporting  a  gold  raUing, 
with  a  purple-covered  seat,  and  an  embroidered  rug, 
the  last  a  present  from  the  -Jewish  ladies.  This  word  is 
rendered ''  chariot"  in  our  Authorized  Version,  although 
unlike  any  other  word  so  rendered  in  that  version.  It 
literallj'  means  a  moving  couch,  and  is  usually  conceived 
to  denote  a  kind  of  sedan,  litter,  or  rather  palanquin, 
in  which  great  personages  and  women  were  borne  from 
place  to  place.  "  The  name  as  well  as  tlie  object  im- 
mediately suggests  that  it  may  have  been  nearly  the 
same  tbing  as  the  takht-ravan,  the  morhuj  throne  or 
seat  of  the  Persians,     It  consists  of  a  light  frame  fixed 


Modern  Persian  covered  Palanquin. 


on  two  strong  poles,  like  those  of  our  sedan  chair.  This 
frame  is  generally  covered  with  cloth,  and  has  a  door, 
sometimes  of  lattice-work,  at  each  side.  It  is  carried  by 
two  mides,  one  between  the  poles  before,  the  other  be- 
hind. These  conveyances  are  used  by  great  persons 
when  disposed  for  retirement  or  ease  during  a  journey, 
or  when  sick  or  feeble  through  age ;  but  they  are  chietly 
used  by  ladies  of  consideration  in  their  journeys"  (Ivit- 
to).  Some  readers  may  remember  the  "litter  of  red 
cloth,  adorned  with  pearls  and  jewels,"  together  with  ten 
mules  (to  bear  it  by  turns),  which  king  Zahr-Shah  pre- 
pared for  the  journey  of  his  daughter  (Lane's  Arabian 
Nights,  1,  528).  This  was  doubtless  of  the  kind  which 
is  borne  by  four  mules,  two  behind  and  two  before.  In 
Arabia,  or  in  countries  where  Arabian  usages  prevail, 
two  camels  are  usually  employed  to  bear  the  takht- 
ravan,  and  sometimes  two  horses.  When  borne  by 
camels,  the  head  of  the  hindmost  of  the  animals  is  bent 
painfully  down  under  the  vehicle.     This  is  the  most 


Double  Palanquin  of  Modern  Syria, 
comfortable  kind  of  litter,  and  two  light  persons  may 
travel  in  it.     "  The  shibrieyeh  is  another  kind  of  camel- 
litter,  resemblitig  the  Indian  howdah,  h\  which  name 
(or  rather  hodaj)  it  is  sometimes  called.     It  is  com- 


Camel  beaini^  the  Hudaj. 

posed  of  a  small  square  platform  with  a  canopy  or  arched 
covering.  It  accommoilates  but  one  person,  and  is  ]ilaced 
upon  the  back  of  a  camel,  and  rests  upon  two  siptare 
camel-chests,  one  on  each  side  of  the  animal"  (Kitto), 
See  Cakt;  Camel. 

Little  Christians  is  the  name  of  a  new  sect,  com- 


LITTLE  HORN 


456 


LITURGY 


posed  of  members  lately  (1868)  seceded  from  the  Eus- 
so-(;reek;  Churcli  at  Atkarsk,  in  the  province  of  Sar- 
atof,  and  diocese  of  the  bishop  of  Tsaritzin.  The  se- 
ceders  from  the  orthodox  Church,  or  founders  of  this 
new  sect,  were  only  sixteen  persons  in  number.  "  They 
set  up  a  new  religion,  and  began  to  preach  a  gospel  of 
their  own  devising."  They  condemned  saints  and  altar- 
pieces  as  idolatrous,  and  abandoned  the  use  of  bread  and 
wine  in  the  sacrament.  Before  they  founded  the  new 
Church,  which,  they  claim,  Christ  commanded  them  to 
do,  they  were  immersed,  and  also  fasted  and  clianged 


secular  character — those,  for  instance,  which  had  refer- 
ence to  the  supervision  of  theatrical  exhibitions  or  the 
presiding  in  the  public  assemblies.  The  religious  mean- 
ing of  the  word  in  such  case  was  not  necessarily  in- 
volved. In  Isa.  vii,  30  (Sept.),  the  idea  of  religions  ser- 
vice predominates;  in  IJom.  xiii,  6,  that  of  the  secular,  as 
under  God;  and  again,  in  Luke  i,  23,  and  in  Heb.  x,  11, 
it  refers  to  the  priestly  function.  At  a  later  period  we 
find  it  used  by  Eusebius  {Life  of  Constuniine,  iv,  47)  in 
speaking  of  the  work  of  the  Christian  ministry.  By  a 
very  natural  process,  the  word,  which  thus  designated 


their  names.  "  Tliey  have  no  priests,  and  hardly  any .  the  public  function  or  service  performed  by  the  minis- 
form  of  prayer.  They  keep  no  images,  use  no  wafers,  |  trj-,  became  restricted  in  its  meaning  to  the  form  it- 
and  make  no  sacred  "oil.  Instead  of  the  consecrated  i  self— the  form  of  words  in  which  such  ser^-ice  was  ren- 
bread,  they  bake  a  cake,  which  they  afterwards  worship,  I  dered,  and  thus,  certainly  before  the  middle  of  the  fifth 
as  a  special  gift  from  God.  This'cake  is  like  a  penny,  century,  we  find  in  the  Chmch,  in  the  present  sense  of 
bun  in  shape  and  size,  but  in  the  minds  of  these  Liitle\  the  word  liturgies,  forms  for  the  conducting  of  public 


Christians  it  possesses  a  potent  virtue  and  a  mystic 
charm"  (Dixon,  />ee  Russia,  ]).  143,  144).  The  name 
they  bear  they  gave  themselves.  Persecuted  by  the 
goverimient,  they  have  increased  and  are  daily  increas- 
ing in  numbers.     See  Russlv.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Little  Horn.     See  Antichrist;  Daniel. 

Littlejohn,  John,  an  early  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  born  in  Penrith,  Cumberland  Co.,  Eng., 
Dec.  7,  1756;  emigrated  to  Maryland  about  17G7;  re- 
ceived a  respectable  education;  was  converted  in  1774; 
entered  the  Baltimore  Conference  in  177G ;  located  on  ac- 
count of  poor  health  in  1778;  removed  to  Kentucky  in 
1818 ;  re-entered  the  Baltimore  Conference  in  1831,  and 
was  the  same  j-ear  transferred  to  the  Kentucky  Confer- 
ence as  a  superannuate,  and  died  May  13, 1836.  He  pos- 
sessed considerable  mental  power  and  much  eloquence. 
His  piety  was  deep  and  fruitful,  and  his  ministrations 
were  weighty  and  very  useful. — 3Iinut€s  of  Conferences, 
ii,  486.     (G.  L.  T.) 

Littleton,  Adam,  D.D.,  a  learned  English  divine, 
was  bom  Nov.  8, 1627,  at  Hales  Owen,  Shropshire,  and 
was  educated  first  at  Westminster  School,  and  later 
(1647)  at  Christ-church,  Oxford,  where  he  was  ejected 
by  the  Parliamentary  visitors  in  1G48.  He  was  after- 
ward usher,  and  taught  as  second  master  at  Westmin- 
ster School  (1658).  He  became  rector  of  Chelsea  in 
1674,  and  the  same  year  was  made  prebendary  of  West- 
minster, and  received  a  grant  to  succeed  Dr.  Busby  in 
the  mastership  of  that  school.  He  had  for  some  years 
been  the  king's  chaplain,  and  in  1670  received  his  de- 
gree in  divinity,  which  was  conferred  upon  him  with- 
out taking  any  in  arts,  on  account  of  his  extraordinary 
merit.  He  was  for  some  time  subdean  of  Westminster, 
and  in  1687  was  transferred  to  the  church  of  St.  Botolph, 
Aldersgate,  London,  which  he  held  four  years.  He  died 
June  30,  1694.  He  was  an  excellent  philologist  and 
grammarian,  learned  in  the  Oriental  languages  and  Rab- 
binical lore.  He  was  the  author  of  a  Latin  Dictionary, 
long  popular,  but  finally  superseded  by  Ainsworth's.  He 
also  ijublished  many  sermons  and  other  works. — Thomas, 
Bior/r.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Darling,  Cijclop.  Bibliog.  s.  v. 

Littleton,  Edward,  LL.D.,  an  English  divine, 


worship  and  the  administration  of  sacraments. 

I.  Jewish  Liturgies. — This  subject  has,  of  course,  its 
connection  with  the  question  of  a  similar  state  of  things 
under  the  Jewish  dispensation.  Were  there  liturgical 
forms  among  the  Jews,  and,  if  so,  to  what  extent?  We 
find  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  certain  set  forms  in 
connection  with  their  sacrifices,  passing,  it  would  seem, 
from  mouth  to  mouth  of  successive  priestly  generations, 
and  a  usual  form  of  prayer  for  the  civil  magistrate 
(DtiUinger's  Heathenism  and  Judaism,  i,  221-225)  ; 
among  the  sacred  books  of  India,  hymns  and  prayers 
to  be  used  on  stated  occasions  (MiiUer's  Chips  from  a 
German  Workshop,  i,  297) ;  and  in  the  Roman  and  in  the 
Mohammedan  worship,  formulaj  of  a  similar  character 
(Lane's  Mod.Egypt.  i,  120  sq.).  How  was  it  in  this  mat- 
ter with  the  Jews?  There  was,  of  course,  a  ritual  of 
form  ,  but  was  there  with  it  also  a  form  of  words  ?  The 
reading  of  the  law,  although  enjoined,  could  hariUy  be 
said  to  meet  this  demand.  There  are,  however,  special 
forms  in  the  Pentateuch  which  are  litiu-gieal  in  the 
stricter  sense  of  that  expression.  Some  of  these  have 
reference  to  possible  contingencies,  and  would  therefore 
be  only  occasional  in  their  employment.  Instances  of 
this  class  may  be  found  in  the  formula  (Deut.  xxi,  19), 
where  complaint  shoidd  be  made  to  the  elders  by  par- 
ents against  a  rebellious  and  incorrigible  son.  Of  sim- 
ilar character  is  the  formula  (Deut.  xxv,  8,  9)  connected 
with  the  refusal  to  take  the  widow  of  a  deceased  broth- 
er or  nearest  kinsman,  and  so  perpetuate  his  name  in 
Israel.  Another,  again,  of  the  same  class,  was  that  ap- 
pointed to  be  used  by  the  elders  and  priests  (Deut.  xxi, 
1-9)  of  any  locality  in  which  the  body  of  a  murdered 
person  should  be  found ;  and  still  another,  and  more  of 
the  nature  of  a  stated  religious  ser^-ice,  was  the  pre- 
scribed declaration  and  mode  of  proceeding  connected 
with  the  going  out  to  battle  (Deut.  xx,  1-8).  These 
were  occasional  and  contingent.  For  some  of  them 
there  might  never  be  the  actual  usage,  as  was  probably 
the  case  with  the  first — that  of  the  complaint  against 
and  the  execution  of  a  rebellious  son.  But  there  were 
others  of  a  more  stated  character,  having  reference  to 
regularly  occurring  seasons  and  ceremonies  when  they 
were  required  to  be  used.  The  priestly  benediction, 
repeated,  it  would  seem,  upon  everj'  special  gathering 


was  born  about  tlie  opening  of  the  last  cent ur_v,  and  was  |  of  the  people  (Numb.  vi.  23-27),  is -an  instance  of  this 
educated  at  Eton  and  King's  College,  Cambridge,  enter-  j  class.     The  form  of  offering  of  the  first-fruits  (Deut. 


the  latter  in  1716.  He  early  turned  his  attention 
to  poetry,  but  he  also  studied  philosophy.  In  1720  Mr. 
Littleton  was  recalled  to  Eton  as  an  assistant  in  the 


xxvi,  1-15)  is  another :  in  this  latter  the  person  making 
the  offering  uses  the  formula,  the  priest  receiving  the 
offering ;  and  still  another  is  the  appointed  formula  of 


school,  and  in  1727  was  elected  a  fellow,  and  presented  ■  commination  by  the  tribes  at  Ebal  and  Gerizim,  the 
to  the  living  of  Maple  Dcrham  in  Oxfordshire.     He    Levites  repeating  the  curse,  the  whole  people  following 


was  aiijxiirUed  June  9, 1730,  chajilain  in  ordinary  to  the 
king,  and  died  in  1734.  He  published  poems  and  sev- 
eral discourses.  He  was  an  admired  preacher  and  ex- 
cellent scholar. — General  Biog.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Liturgy  (Greek  Xiirovpyia),  a  function,  service,  or 
duty  of  a  public  character.  These  public>  services  or 
duties  among  the  Greeks  were  frequently,  if  not  al- 
ways, connected  with  religious  ideas  or  ceremonies  of 
some  kind,  even  when  the  duties  themselves  were  of  a 


with  the  solemn  amen.  Distinct,  moreover,  from  these 
were  certain  transactions,  in  which,  without  any  specified 
form,  the  official  was  required  to  use  certain  words.  The 
confession  by  the  high-priest  of  the  sins  of  the  people 
over  the  head  of  the  scape-goat  is  one  of  these ;  in  any 
such  case,  a  set  form,  passing  from  priestly  father  to  son, 
not  improbably  came  into  use.  The  liturgical  use  of 
the  I'salnis  in  the  Temple  worship  was,  of  course,  a 
matter  of  much  later  arrangement.    The  fiftieth  chapter 


LITURGY 


457 


LITURGY 


of  Ecclesiasticus  describes  an  exceptional  service,  and  is, 
moreover,  too  indefinite  in  its  lan!j;iiage  to  justify  any 
conclusion  as  to  its  liturgical  character.  During  this 
period,  however,  between  the  captivity  and  the  times 
of  the  New  Testament,  there  comes  to  view  another 
ecclesiastical  development  of  Judaism  which  has  its 
connection  with  this  subject — that  of  the  worship  of  the 
synagogue.  This,  which  in  all  probability  originated 
during  the  captivity,  and  in  the  efibrt  to  supply  the 
want  occasioned  by  the  loss  of  the  worship  of  the  Temple, 
would  in  many  respects  be  like  that  Temple  worship  ;  in 
others,  and  from  the  necessity  of  the  case,  it  would  be 
very  different.  The  greatest  of  these  diversities  would 
be  in  the  fact  of  the  necessary  presence  of  the  sacriticial 
and  priestly  element  in  the  service  of  the  Temple,  their 
absence  in  that  of  the  synagogue.  In  the  Temple  the 
Levites  sang  psalms  of  praise  before  the  altar,  and  the 
priests  blessed  the  people.  In  the  synagogue  there 
were  prayers  connected  with  the  reading  of  certain  spe- 
cific passages  of  Scripture,  of  which  are  distinctly  dis- 
cernible two  "  chief  groups,  around  which,  as  time  wore 
on,  an  enormous  mass  of  liturgical  poetry  clustered — 
the  one,  the  Sheina  ('Hear,  Israel,'  etc.),  being  a  collec- 
tion of  the  three  Biblical  pieces  (Deut.  vi,  4-9  ;  xi,  13- 
21 :  Numb,  xv,  37-41),  expressive  of  the  unity  of  God 
and  the  memory  of  his  government  over  Israel,  strung 
together  without  any  extraneous  aildition ;  the  second, 
the  Tcphillah,  or  Prayer,  by  way  of  eminence  (adopted 
in  the  Koran  as  Salavat,  Sur.  ii,  40 ;  comp.  v.  15),  consist- 
ing of  a  certain  number  of  supplications,  with  a  hymnal 
introduction  and  conclusion,  and  followed  by  the  priest- 
ly blessing.  The  single  portions  of  this  prayer  grad- 
ually increased  to  eighteen,  and  the  prayer  itself  re- 
ceived the  najae Shemonah Esveh  (eighteen;  afterwards, 
however,  increased  to  nineteen;  the  additional  one  is 
noiv  twelfth  in  the  prayer,  and  is  against  apostates  [to 
Christianity]  and  heretics  [all  who  refused  the  Talmud], 
including  consequently  the  Karaites).  The  first  addi- 
tion to  the  Shema  formed  the  introductory  thanksgiv- 
ing for  the  renewed  day  (in  accordance  with  the  ordi- 
nance that  every  supplication  must  be  preceded  by  a 
prayer  of  thanks)  called  Juzer  (Creator  of  Light,  etc.),  to 
which  were  joined  the  three  Holies  {Ophan),  and  the  sup- 
plication for  spiritual  enlightening  in  the  divine  law 
(,1  habah).  Between  the  Shema  and  the  Tephillah  was 
ulserted  the  Geulah  (Liberation),  or  praise  for  the  mirac- 
iilous  deliverance  from  Egypt  and  the  constant  watch- 
ings  of  providence.  A  Kuddish  (Sanctitication  or  Ben- 
ediction) and  certain  psalms  seem  to  have  concluded 
the  service  of  that  period.  This  was  the  order  of  the 
Shaharith,  or  morning  prayer,  and  very  similar  to  this 
was  the  Maarih,  or  evening  prayer ;  while  in  the  Min- 
chah,  or  afternoon  prayer,  the  Shema  was  omitted.  On 
new  moons.  Sabbath  and  feast  days,  the  general  order 
was  the  same  as  on  week  days;  but  since  the  festive 
joy  was  to  overrule  all  individual  sorrow  and  supplica- 
tion, the  intermediate  portion  of  the  Tephillah  was 
changed  according  to  the  special  significance  and  the 
memories  of  the  day  of  the  solemnity,  and  additional 
prayers  were  introduced  for  these  extraordinary  occa- 
sions, corresponding  to  the  additional  sacrifice  in  the 
Temple,  and  varymg  according  to  the  special  solemnity 
of  the  day  (^Mussaph,  Neilah,  etc.)"  (Chambers).  Com- 
pare Etheridge,  Introduction  to  llebreto  lAteraturc,  p.  3G7 
S(i. ;  Prideaux,  ii,  160-170.  It  is  likewise  to  be  noted 
that  in  the  Temple  worship  there  were  occasions  and 
o[)portunities  in  which  the  individual  worshipper  might 
confess  the  plague  of  his  own  heart,  make  individual 
supplication,  or  oifer  individual  thanksgiving.  Thus  it 
was  at  the  time  of  the  coming  of  Christ.  The  Jewish 
liturgies  since  then,  under  the  iuHuence  of  Rabbinisra, 
and  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  synagogue,  so  far  as 
p(jssible,  supplies  the  absence  of  the  Temjile,  have  been 
very  much  enlarged,  and  extend  to  numberless  partic- 
ularities. It  may,  in  fact,  be  said  that  the  whole  life 
of  the  modern  Jew  is  regulated  by  Rabbinic  forms,  that 
there  is  a  rubric  for  every  moment  and  movement  of 


social  as  of  individual  existence.  "  The  first  compila- 
tion of  a  liturgy  is  recorded  of  Amram  Gaon  (A.D.  870- 
880) ;  the  first  that  has  survived  is  that  of  Saadja  Gaon 
(d.  A.D.  942).  These  early  collections  of  prayers  gen- 
erally contained  also  compositions  from  the  hand  of  the 
compiler,  and  minor  additions,  such  as  ethical  tracts, 
almanacs,  etc.,  and  were  called  Siddurini  (Orders,  Ritu- 
als), embracing  the  whole  calendar  year,  week-days  and 
new  moons,  fasts  and  festivals.  Later,  the  term  was 
restricted  to  the  week-day  ritual,  that  for  the  festivals 
being  called  Machzor  (Cycle).  Besides  these,  we  find 
the  iielichoth,  or  Penitential  Prayers ;  Kinoth,  or  Elegies ; 
Hoshanuhf,  or  Hosannahs  (for  the  seventh  day  of  the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles) ;  and  Bakashoth,  or  Special  Sup- 
plications, chiefly  for  private  devotion.  The  Karaites 
(q.  v.),  being  harshly  treated  in  these  liturgies,  especial- 
ly by  Saadja,  have  distinct  compilations.  The  first  of 
these  was  made  by  David  ben-Hassan  about  A.D.  9G0 
(compare  Rule,  Karaites,  p.  88, 104  sq.,  118, 135  sq.,  173 
note).  The  public  prayers  were  for  a  long  time  only 
said  by  the  public  reader  (Chasan,  Sheliach  Zibbur),  the 
people  joining  in  silent  responses  and  amens.  These 
readers  by  degrees — chiefly  from  the  10th  century — in- 
troduced occasional  prayers  (I'iutim)  of  their  own,  over 
and  above  those  used  of  yore.  The  materials  -were 
taken  from  the  Halachah  as  well  as  the  Haggadah  (q. 
V.) ;  religious  doctrine,  history,  saga,  angelology,  and 
mysticism,  interspersed  with  Biblical  verses,  are  thus 
found  put  together  like  a  mosaic  of  the  most  original 
and  fantastic,  often  grand  and  brilliant,  and  often  ob- 
scure and  feeble  kind;  and  the  pure  Hebrew  in  manj^ 
cases  made  room  for  a  corrupt  Chaldee.  We  can  only 
point  out  here  the  two  chief  groups  of  religious  poetry 
— viz.  the  Arabic  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  French- 
German  school  on  the  other.  The  most  eminent  repre- 
sentative of  the  Pajtanic  age  (ending  c.  1100)  is  Eleazar 
Biribi  Kalir.  Among  the  most  celebrated  poets  in  his 
manner  are  Meshulam  b.-Kalonymos  of  Lucca,  Solomon 
b.-Jehuda  of  Babylon,  R.  Gerson,  Elia  b.-Menahem  of 
Mans,  Benjamin  b.-Serach,  Jacob  Zom  Elem,  Eliezer 
b.-Samuel,  Kalonymos  b.-Moses,  Solomon  Isaaki.  Of 
exclusively  Spanish  poets  of  this  period,  the  most  bril- 
liant are  Jehuda  Halevi,  Solomon  b.-Gabirol,  Josef  ibn- 
Abitur,  Isaac  ibn-Giat,  Abraham  Abn-Esra,  Moses  ben- 
Nachman,  etc.  When,  however,  in  the  beginning  of 
the  13th  centurj',  secret  doctrine  and  philosophy,  casu- 
istry and  dialectics,  became  the  paramount  study,  the 
cultivation  of  the  Pint  became  neglected,  and  but  few, 
and  for  the  most  part  insignificant,  are  the  writers  of 
liturgical  pieces  from  this  time  downwards"  (Chambers). 
Comp.  Zunz,  Synagor/ale  Poesie  des  Mittelalters,  p.  69  sq. 
These  liturgies,  adopted  by  the  Jews  in  different  coun- 
tries, were  naturally  subject  to  great  variation,  not  only 
in  their  order,  but  also  in  their  contents.  Even  in  our 
day  there  exists  the  greatest  variety  imaginable  in  the 
synagogues  of  even  one  and  the  same  country,  due,  in  a 
measure,  also  to  the  influence  of  the  reformatory  move- 
ments. See  Judaism.  Particidarly  worthy  of  note  are 
the  rituals  of  Germany  (Poland),  of  France,  Spain,  and 
Portugal  (Sefardim),  Italy  (Rome),  the  Levant  (Ro- 
magna),  and  even  of  some  special  towns,  like  Avignon, 
Carpentras,  Montpellier.  The  rituals  of  Barbary  (Al- 
giers, Tripoli,  Oran,  IMorocco,  etc.)  are  of  Spanish  origin. 
The  Judieo-Chinese  liturgy,  it  may  be  observed  by  the 
way,  consists  only  of  pieces  from  the  Bible.  Yet,  in 
the  main  body  of  their  principal  prayers,  all  these  lit- 
urgies agree.  As  illustrative  of  these  unessential  di- 
versities, we  give  the  jirayer  of  the  Shemonah  Esreh, 
which  has  been  added  to  the  number  since  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  second  Temple,  but  which  now  stands  as  the 
twelfth,  and  shows  its  manifest  reference  to  the  follow- 
ers of  the  Nazarene :  "  Let  there  be  no  hope  to  those 
who  apostatize  from  tiie  true  religion ;  and  let  heretics, 
how  many  soever  they  be,  all  perish  as  in  a  moment ; 
and  let  the  kingdom  of  pride  be  speedily  rooted  out  and 
broken  in  our  days.  Blessetl  art  thou,  O  Lord  our  God, 
who    destroyest   the   wicked,  and  bringest    down   the 


LITURGY 


458 


LITURGY 


proud"  (Priiloaux).  "  Let  slanderers  have  no  hope,  and 
all  ])r('suniiitiious  apostates  perish  as  in  a  moment;  and 
may  thine  enemies,  and  those  who  hate  thee,  be  sudden- 
ly cut  oil',  and  all  those  who  act  wickedly  be  suddenly 
broken,  consumed,  and  rooted  out;  and  humble  thou 
tlu  in  speedily  in  our  days.  Blessed  art  thou,  O  Lord, 
who  destroyest  the  enemies  and  humblest  the  proud" 
(Spanish  and  Portuguese  Jews'  Prayer-book).  That  in 
the  German  and  Polish  Jews'  Prayer-book  is  more  brief, 
and  less  pointed  in  its  application  to  apostates,  i.  e.  Jews 
converted  to  Christianity.  There  are  translations  and 
commentaries  on  them  in  most  of  the  modern  languages. 
In  the  orthodox  congregations,  these  forms  of  prayer, 
whether  for  the  worship  of  the  synagogue  or  for  domes- 
tic and  private  use,  are  all  appointed  to  be  said  in  He- 
brew, One  of  the  best  moves  in  this  direction  is  the 
effort  within  the  last  century  to  remedy  this  evil  by 
parallel  translations.  In  this  country  the  service-books 
in  the  synagogues  are  usually  of  this  kind :  either  the 
Hebrew  on  one  page  and  the  English  on  the  other,  or 
both  in  parallel  columns  on  the  same  page, 

II.  Early  Christian  Lititrfjies.  —  1.  Their  Origin.  —  So 
far  as  regards  the  primitive  or  apostolic  age,  the  only 
trace  of  anything  of  that  kind  is  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and 
the  Amen  alluded  to  in  1  Cor.  xiv,  IG ;  this  latter  an  un- 
doubted importation  from  the  synagogue.  As,  more- 
over, \\Q  tiud  the  Master,  with  the  twelve,  singing  a  hymn, 
one  of  the  psalms  probably,  on  the  night  of  the  last  sup- 
per, it  is  not  improbable  that  such  portions  of  Old-Testa- 
ment Scripture,  with  which  the  early  believers  had  been 
already  familiar  in  the  synagogue,  should  have  still  found 
favor  in  the  Church.  Even  in  free  prayer  fragments  and 
sentences  of  old  devotional  forms,  almost  spontaneous 
through  earUer  use  and  sacred  association,  would  natu- 
rally tind  utterance.  This,  however,  would  be  the  ex- 
ception. Christian  prayer,  for  its  own  full  and  peculiar 
utterance,  must  find  its  own  peculiar  modes  of  expres- 
sion; and  it  would  baptize  into  a  new  life  and  meaning 
any  of  those  familiar  expressions,  tl;e  fragments  of  an 
earlier  devotion.  That  men,  however,  who  had  been 
accustomed  to  liturgical  worship  under  the  old  system 
should  gradually  go  into  it  under  the  new,  is  not  at  all 
surprising ;  and  to  this  special  inducements  before  very 
long  were  presented.  The  demand  for  some  form  of  pro- 
fession of  faith,  of  a  definition  of  the  faith,  as  dissensions 
and  heresies  arose,  would  be  one  of  these  occasions.  The 
form  of  prayer  given  by  the  Master,  in  its  present  usage, 
would  become  the  nucleus  of  others.  The  fact,  again, 
that  the  most  solemn  act  of  Christian  communion,  the 
Lord's  Supper,  involved  in  the  distribution  of  the  ele- 
ments a  form  of  action,  and  that  this  action,  in  its  origi- 
nal institution,  had  been  accompanied  by  words,  would 
have  a  like  influence.  That  every  thing  in  this  respect, 
if  not  pureh'  extemporaneous,  was  exceedingly  simple  in 
the  time  of  Justin  Mart}T,  is  very  manifest  from  his  own 
writings.  The  same  remark  is  applical)le  to  the  state- 
ment (if  Pliny  {Kp.  ad  Traj.  in  Ep.  x,  97). 

2.  Primitive  Type. — The  earUest  form  in  which  litur- 
gical arrangement,  to  any  extent,  is  found,  is  that  which 
presents  itself  in  the  Apostolical  Constitutions.  The  fol- 
lowing is  the  order  of  daily  service,  as  given  in  these 
Constitutions :  After  the  morning  psalm  (the  sixty-third 
of  our  enumeration),  prayers  were  offered  for  the  several 
classes  of  catechumens,  of  persons  possessed  by  evil  spir- 
its, and  candidates  for  bajitism,  for  penitents,  and  for  the 
faithful  or  communicants,  fur  the  i)eace  of  the  world,  and 
for  tlie  wIkjIc  state  of  Christ's  Church.  Tliis  was  follow- 
ed by  a  short  bidding  ])rayer  for  {(reservation  in  the  en- 
suing day,  and  by  the  bishop's  commendation  or  thanks- 
giving, and  by  his  imposition  of  hands  or  benediction. 
The  morning  sen'ice  was  much  frequented  by  people 
of  all  sorts.  The  evening  service  was  much  the  same 
with  that  of  the  mornmg,  excML-pt  that  Psahn  cxl  (Psalm 
cxli  of  the  present  enumeration)  introduced  the  ser- 
vice, and  that  a  special  collect  seems  to  have  been  used 
sometimes  at  the  setting  up  of  the  lights.  See  Seiivice. 
This  work,  a  fabrication  by  an  unknown  author,  and  tak- 


ing its  present  form  about  the  close  of  the  third  century^ 
contains  internal  evidence  (see  Schaif,  C'/(U/t/(  IHstoi-y,i, 
441)  that  much  of  its  material  belongs  to  an  earlier  date. 
It  may  be  regarded  as  affording  a  type  of  the  liturgi- 
cal worship  in  use  during  the  latter  part  of  the  ante- 
Nicene  period.  Bunsen  (^Christianity  and  ManMnd,  vol. 
ii)  has  attempted  to  construct,  out  of  fragments  of  this 
and  other  liturgies,  the  probable  form  of  worship  then 
prevailing.  Krabbe,  in  his  prize  essay  on  this  suliject, 
regards  the  eighth  book  as  of  later  date  than  the  oth- 
ers. Kurtz,  agreeing  with  Bunsen,  substantially  finds 
in  this  work  the  earliest  extant  form  of  liturgical  ar- 
rangement, and  the  type  of  those  of  a  later  jioriod. 
While,  therefore,  apocryphal  as  to  its  name  and  claims, 
yet  in  the  character  of  its  material,  in  its  peculiarity  of 
structiu-e,  in  the  estimation  which  it  enjoyed,  and  in  its 
influence  upon  later  forms  of  devotion,  it  is  of  great  his- 
torical significance.  Taking  it  as  it  comes  to  our  day, 
the  eighth  book  contains  an  order  of  prayer,  praise,  read- 
ing, and  sermon,  followed  by  the  dismissal  successivelj'' 
of  the  catechumens,  the  penitents,  and  the  possessed. 
After  this  comes  the  order  of  the  Lord's  Supper  for  the 
faithful,  beginning  with  intercessory  prayer,  this  follow- 
ed by  collects  and  responses,  the  fraternal  kiss,  warnings 
against  unworthy  reception  of  communion,  with  suita- 
ble hymns,  pra3-ers,  and  doxologies.  jNIuch  of  this  ma- 
terial, as  already  hinted,  is  probably  of  a  much  earlier 
date  than  that  of  its  unknown  last  compiler.  The  hymn 
Gloria  in  Excelsis  may  have  been  the  same  of  which 
Justin  and  Pliny  speak,  or  an  enlargement  of  it.  This 
liturgy  is  remarkable,  as  contrasted  with  subsequent  lit- 
urgies, in  that  it  wants  the  Lord's  Prayer.  The  gen- 
eral spirit  and  tone  pervading  all  its  forms  afford  grate- 
ful indication  of  the  interior  Christian  life  of  that  jieriod. 
3.  Class! jication. — This  brings  us  to  the  particular  lit- 
urgies which  found  acceptance  and  usage  in  particular 
communities.  One  remark  in  connection  with  these 
needs  to  be  made.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  litur- 
gical influences  of  the  synagogue  in  shaping  the  wor- 
ship of  the  early  Church,  they  had,  b}'  this  time,  been 
superseded  by  another  of  a  much  more  objectionable 
character,  that  of  the  Temple.  In  other  words,  the  sac- 
erdotal idea  of  the  Christian  mmistrj',  and  the  sacrificial 
idea  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  were  makmg  themselves  felt, 
not  only  in  the  substance,  but  in  the  minutiae  of  form 
which  the  liturgies  were  assuming.  Of  these  liturgies 
there  is  to  be  made  the  general  division  of  Eastern  and 
W^estern, 

(a.)  Liturgies  of  the  Eastern  Churches. — Chronologi- 
cally those  of  the  Oriental  Church  first  demand  exami- 
nation. (1.)  The  earliest,  perhaps,  is  that  of  Jerusalem 
or  Antioch,  ascribed  to  the  apostle  James ;  the  first  word 
in  it,  6  'itpivQ — a  word  never  used  by  apostolic  men  in 
speaking  of  the  Christian  ministrj- — puts  the  seal  of  rep- 
robation upon  every  such  claim.  The  same  may  be  said 
as  to  another  anachronism,  the  word  vpoovaioc  applied 
to  the  third  person  of  the  Trinity.  Putting  aside,  there- 
fore, such  claim,  as  also  the  stranger  notion  that  the 
apostle  in  1  Cor.  ii,  9,  quotes  from  this  liturgj-  rather 
than  that  the  liturgist  quotes  from  him,  we  may  still  rec- 
ognise in  this  early  form  of  Christian  worship  features 
of  peculiar  interest.  It  is  still  used  on  St.  James's  day 
in  some  of  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago,  and  is  the  pat- 
tern of  two  others,  those  of  Basil  and  Chrj-sostom.  I'or- 
tions  of  it  may  have  existed  at  an  earlier  period,  but  in 
its  present  form  it  dates  from  the  last  half  of  the  fourth 
centur}-.  For  the  distinction  between  the  orthodox 
Greek  and  the  Monophysite  Syrian  forms  of  this  litur- 
gy, see  Palmer,  Origines  JAturgicev,  vol.  i.  The  latter, 
the  Monophysite  form,  it  is  to  be  observed,  is  still  in  use, 
and  in  both  are  portions  of  the  material  to  be  fomul  in 
that  of  the  Apostolical  Constitutions. 

(2.")  The  second  of  these  liturgies  is  that  of  the  Alex- 
andrian Church,  called  that  of  St.  Mark,  but.  quite  ss 
clearly  as  that  of  St.  James,  betraying  its  later  origin. 
In  this,  as  in  the  other  two,  there  may  be  materials  pre- 
viously existing  ;  but  the  probabilities  indicate  Cyril  of 


LITURGY 


459 


LITURGY 


Alexandria  as  the  author  of  it  in  its  present  shape.  Tlie 
effort  lias  been  made  to  sejiarate  in  it  the  apostolic  from 
the  later  elements,  as  is  also  attempted  by  Neale  with 
that  of  St.  James.  As  the  object  of  this  effort  seems  to  be 
to  prove  the  sacerdotal  character  of  apostolic  Christiani- 
ty, so  all  sacerdotal  elements  become  proof  of  apostolic 
authorship.  The  conclusion  is  as  false  as  the  premise. 
The  special  historical  interest  of  this  liturgy  of  St. 
aiark  is  its  relation  to  those  of  the  Coptic  and  Ethio- 
pic  churches,  of  which  it  forms  the  main  constituent. 
The  remark  of  Palmer  as  to  its  claim  to  inspired  author- 
ship is  well  worthy  of  attention.  '•  In  my  opinion,"  says 
he, "this  appellation  of  St. I\Iark's  liturgy  began  about 
the  end  of  the  fourth  or  beginning  of  the  fifth  century, 
after  Basil  had  composed  his  liturgy,  which  was  the  first 
that  bore  the  name  of  any  man.  Other  churches  then 
gave  their  liturgies  the  names  of  their  founders,  and  so 
the  Alexandrians  and  Egyptians  gave  theirs  the  name  of 
jNIark,  while  they  of  Jerusalem  and  Antioch  called  theirs 
St.  James's,  and  early  in  the  fifth  century  it  appears  that 
Cyril,  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  perfected  and  improved 
tlie  liturgy  of  St.  Mark,  from  whence  this  improved  lit- 
urgy came  to  be  called  by  the  Jlonophysites  St.  Cyril's, 
and  by  the  orthodox  St.  Mark's."  The  peculiarity  of 
tliis  last,  in  Neale's  estimation,  is  the  difference  from 
other  liturgies  in  the  position  of  the  great  intercession 
for  quick  and  dead.  That  such  intercession  found  place 
in  any  of  them  is  evidence  of  their  post-apostolic  origin. 
(3.)  The  third  and  last  of  these  liturgies  is  that  of 
Ci^sarea  or  Byzantium,  composed  probably  by  Basil  of 
C«sarea,  and  held  to  have  been  recast  and  enlarged  by 
Chrysostom ;  but  more  properly,  perhaps,  both  these  are 
to  be  regarded  as  elaborations  of  that  of  St.  James.  Thej', 
moreover,  have  historical  and  moral  significance  in  the 
fact  that,  through  the  Byzantine  Church,  they  have  been 
received  into  that  of  Russia,  and  are  used  in  its  patriarch- 
ates, each  for  special  occasions,  at  the  present  time. 
Such  additions,  of  course,  have  been  made  as  have  been 
rendered  necessary  through  peculiarities  of  Greek  wor- 
ship, and  accumulation  of  ritualistic  minutiai  coming  into 
use  since  these  liturgies  in  their  original  forms  were  in- 
troduced. They  now  contain  expressions  not  to  be  f  lund 
in  the  wTitings  of  Chrysostom  :  e.  g.  the  appellation  of 
Mother  of  God,  given  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  which  was 
not  heard  of  until  after  the  third  General  Council  at 
Ephesus  [A.D.431] — the  bod}'  which  condemned  the 
doctrines  of  Nestorius — held  2-1  years  after  the  death  of 
Chrvsostom. 

From  these  Oriental  liturgies  have  sprung  others,  va- 
riously modified  to  meet  doctrinal  and  other  exigencies. 
The  largest  number  is  from  that  of  Jerusalem,  the  next 
from  that  of  Basil.  The  most  important  is  that  of  the 
Armenians,  Monophysite,  those  of  the  Nestorians,  and 
that  of  Malabar.  For  discussion  as  to  the  special  origin 
of  these  subordinate  forms,  and  the  principles  of  classi- 
fication, see  Falmci's  Oriffines  Liturgka,\o\.  i;  Neale's 
Primitive  Liturgies ;  Riddle,  Christian  Antiquities,  bk.  iv, 
ch.  i,  sec.  6. 

(h.)  Liturgies  of  the  Wesfei-ii  Church.  —  In  the  West 
liturgical  development  went  on  with  less  rapidity.  (1.) 
That  of  the  Roman  Church,  under  the  infiuence  of  the 
sort  of  feeling  alluded  to  above  in  the  quotation  from 
Palmer,  after  it  came  into  use,  received  the  name  of  Pe- 
ter, and  was  traced  to  his  authorship.  In  point  of  fact, 
it  probably  first  assumed  definite  shape  under  Leo  the 
Great  during  the  first  half  of  tlie  fifth  century,  was  add- 
ed to  by  Gelasius  during  the  latter  half  of  the  same 
century,  elaborated  again  by  Gregory  the  Great  not 
very  long  after,  and  through  his  infiuence  secured  its 
reputation  and  position.  "His  Ordo  et  Canon  Misste, 
making  allowance  for  the  unavoidable  changes  taking 
place  in  it  during  the  centuries  mtervening,  was  settled 
under  Pius  V,  liJTO,  as  the  Missale  Komanorum.  It  was 
revised  under  Clement  VII  and  Urban  VIII,  and  forms 
at  the  ]iresent  time  the  liturgical  text  of  Romish  wor- 
ship" (Palmer,  in  Herzog).  The  Liturgy  of  Milan  seems 
to  have  been  very  much  the  same  as  that  of  Rome  prior 


to  the  alterations  of  the  latter  under  Gregory.  These 
differences,  at  the  greatest,  were  not  of  an  essential  char- 
acter. The  question  of  the  independence  of  the  Mi- 
lanese and  the  supremacy  of  the  Romans  was  probably 
the  great  issue  upon  which  these  differences  turned. 
As  nothing  less  than  apostolicity  could  enable  the  lit- 
urgy of  Milan  to  sustain  itself  in  such  a  conflict,  its  ori- 
gin was  traced  to  Barnabas;  and  miracles,  it  was  be- 
lieved, had  been  wrought  for  its  preservation  against 
the  efforts  of  Gregory  and  Hadrian  to  bring  it  to  the 
form  of  that  of  Rome.  The  severest  point  of  this  con- 
flict was  doubtless  when  Charlemagne  abolished  the 
Ambrosian  Chant  throughout  the  West  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  singing-schools  under  Roman  instructors  to 
teach  the  Gregorian.  The  attachment  of  the  people 
and  clergy  of  Milan,  however,  to  their  liturgy  could  not 
be  overcome,  and  it  is  stiU  in  their  possession.  Alex- 
ander VI  established  it  expressly  as  the  "  Ritus  Ambro- 
sianus." 

Of  even  greater  interest  than  the  Roman  liturgy  are 
the  Galilean  and  the  IMozarabic. 

(2.)  The  former  of  these,  the  Gallican,  claims,  and  it 
would  seem  justly,  an  antiquity  greater  than  that  of 
Rome.  The  connection  of  Gaulish  Christianity  with 
that  of  Asia,  whether  through  the  person  of  IreuKus  or 
by  earlier  missionaries,  would  lead  to  a  liturgical  devel- 
opment of  an  independent  character.  It  was  displaced 
by  the  Roman  liturgy  during  the  Carolingian  a?ra,  and 
for  a  long  time  was  almost  lost  sight  of  and  forgotten. 
It  does  not  seem  to  have  been  used  or  appealed  to  in 
the  various  conflicts  of  prerogative  between  the  French 
monarchs  and  the  pope,  and  no  allusion  to  its  existence 
is  made  in  the  Pragmatic  Sanction.  PubUc  attention 
was  again  called  to  it  during  the  controversies  of  the 
16th  century.  Interest  both  of  a  literary  and  doctrinal 
character  has  been  exhibited  in  connection  with  this 
liturgy.  But  there  seems  to  be  but  little  probability 
of  its  restoration  to  use.  While  unlike  in  certain  spe- 
cialities, its  differences  from  the  Roman  hturgy  are  not 
essential.  Like  the  others  preceding,  it  has  been  traced 
to  the  hand  of  an  apostle — to  the  Church  at  Lyons, 
through  that  of  Ephesus,  from  the  apostle  John !  The 
apex  upon  which  this  inverted  historical  pjTamid  rests 
is  the  single  fact,  which  has  been  questioned,  that  Chris- 
tianity was  introduced  into  Gaul  by  missionaries  from 
I  the  Church  at  Ephesus. 

(3.)  The  JNIozarabic,  that  of  the  Spanish  churches  un- 
der Arabic  dominion,  has  so  many  resemblances  to  the 
Gallic  liturgy  that  it  would  seem  probable  they  proceed- 
ed from  the  same  source.  It  is  described  by  Isidore  His- 
palensis  in  the  6th  century.  During  the  INIiddle  Ages, 
and  in  the  time  of  the  cardmal  Ximenes,  it  received  an 
addition  of  several  rites.  As  Spanish  territory  was  re- 
conquered from  the  IMoors,  and  came  more  fully  under 
the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  of  the  papacy  in  other  re- 
spects, the  effort  was  made,  and  eventually  succeeded, 
although  at  times  warmly  resisted  by  the  people,  to 
displace  the  jMozarabic,  and  introduce  the  Roman  lit- 
urgJ^  In  the  beginning  of  the  IGth  century  cardi- 
nal Ximenes  endowed  a  college  and  chapel  at  Toledo 
for  the  celebration  of  the  ancient  rites,  and  this  is  now, 
perhaps,  the  only  i)lace  in  Spain  where  the  primitive 
liturgy  of  that  country  and  of  Gaid  is  in  some  degree 
observed.  The  old  P>ritish  liturgy,  which  was  displaced 
by  the  Gregorian  alter  the  decision  of  Oswy  in  664, 
seems,  like  the  Mozarabic,  to  have  been  essentiaUy  the 
same  with  the  Gallican. 

(4.)  One  other  liturgical  composition  of  some  interest, 
dating  from  the  close  of  the  4th  century,  is  that  of  the 
Cathari,  published  by  E.  Kunitz  (Jena,  1852).  It  is  of 
interest  as  giving  a  more  favorable  view  of  the  com- 
munity for  which  it  was  composed  than  had  been  pre- 
viouslv  entertained.  It  is  to  be  remembered  in  connec- 
tion w-ith  all  these  liturgies  of  the  W^est,  as  already  re- 
marked of  those  of  the  East,  that  they  are  the  names 
of  manv  subordinate  offshoots  in  use  and  prevalence  in 
different  portions  of  the  Church.     The  discretionary 


LITURGY 


4G0 


LITURGY 


power  of  the  bishops,  both  at  this  and  at  earlier  periods, 
to  modii'y  and  adapt  prevalent  liturgies  to  peculiar  exi- 
gencies of  time  and  place,  naturalh'  produced  after  a  time 
this  kind  of  diversity.     The  ecclesiastical  confusion  of 


mediteval  times,  and  clerical  ignorance  and  carelessness, 
would  of  course  increase  it.  The  traces,  however,  of  the 
parent  stock  in  any  such  case  would  not  be  difficidt  of 
recotrnition. 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  DESCENT  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  LITURGIES  NOW  USED  IN  THE  CHURCH. 

OUR  LORD'S  WORDS  OF  INSTITUTION. 

I 
Apostolic  Nucleus  of  a  Litur^'.     [See  Lord's  Prayer,  and  Lord's  Supper.] 

I 

III  I 

Liturgj'  of  St.  John,  St.  Paul, 
or  Ephesus. 


Present  Liturgy  of      Ambrosian  Liturgy. 
Egypt.  I 


Liturgy  of  Lyons, 


Liturgy  of  St.  Chrysoston 


Present  Liturgy  of  OrienI 
and  Russian  Church. 


[Monophysito 
Liturgies.] 


.  Liturgy  of  Dio-     Sacrnmentary 
e  of  Milan.  of  (jlelasius. 


Sacranientary 
of  St.  Gregory. 

Present  Liturgy  o 
Church  of  Rome. 


Mozarabic, 
or  Spanish 
Liturgy. 


Liturgy  of  =  Liturgy  of 
Britain.      1       Tours, 

Augustine's  revised 
Liturgy  of  Britain. 

Salisbury,  York,  and  other 
Missals  of  English  Church. 

Present  LituTQj/  of  the 
English  cXurch, 


Liturgy  of  Scottish        Liturgy  of 
Church.  American 


4.  Structure  of  Liturgies.  —  The  variations  of  detail 
which  are  found  in  the  parent  liturgies  of  the  Christian 
world  arc  all  ingrafted  on  a  structural  arrangement 
which  they  possess  in  common,  much  as  four  buildings 
might  differ  in  the  style  and  form  of  their  decorations, 
and  yet  agree  in  their  [)lans  and  elevation,  in  the  posi- 
tion of  their  several  chambers,  and  in  the  number  of 
their  principal  columns, 

i.  There  is  invariably  a  division  of  the  liturgy  into 
three  portions — the  office  of  the  Prothesis,  the  l*ro-An- 
aphora,  and  the  Anaphora,  the  latter  being  the  "  Canon" 
of  the  Western  Church,  and  the  ofiice  of  the  Prothesis 
being  a  preparatory  part  of  the  service  corresponding  to 
the  "  Pra^paratio"  of  the  \Yestern  Liturgy,  and  not  used 
at  the  altar  itself.  In  the  Pro-Anaijhora  the  central  feat- 
ures are  two,  viz. :  (1)  the  reading  of  holy  Scripture,  and 


(2)  the  recitation  of  the  Creed.  In  the  Anaphora  they 
are  four,  viz. :  (1)  the  Triumphal  Hymn,  or  Tkisagion  ; 
(2)  the  formula  of  Consecration ;  (3)  the  Lord's  Prayer ; 
and  (4)  the  Communion.  These  four  great  acts  of 
praise,  benediction,  intercession,  and  communion  gather 
around  our  Lord's  words  of  institution  and  his  pattern 
prayer,  which  form,  in  reaUty,  the  integral  germ  of  the 
Christian  liturgies.  They  are  also  associated  with  other 
jjrayers,  intercessions,  and  thanksgivings,  by  which  each 
is  expanded  and  developed,  the  whole  blending  into  a 
comprehensive  service,  by  means  of  which  the  worship 
of  the  Church  ascends  on  the  wings  of  the  eucharistic 
service,  and  her  strength  descends  in  eucharistic  grace. 
The  order  in  which  these  different  portions  of  the  lit- 
ui'gy  are  combined  in  the  four  ancient  parent  forms  is 
shown  by  the  following  table  : 


COMPARATIVE  TABLE,  SHOWING  THE  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  FOUR  PARENT  LITURGIES  OF  THE 

CHURCH. 


ST.  JAMES  (Palestine). 

ST.  MARK  (Alexandria). 

ST.  JOHN  (Gallican.Mozakabic, 

AND   EpHESIAN). 

ST.  PETER  (Roman). 

Prefatory  Prayer. 
Inlroit. 

Prefatory  prayer. 
Introit. 

'Prefatory  prayer. 
Introit. 

'Prefatory  praj'er, 
Introit. 

The  little  entrance. 

<s 

The  little  entrance. 

a 

Gloria  in  ezcelsia. 

£ 

Gloria  in  excelsis. 

1 

Trisagion. 

Lections  from  Old  and  New  Ttt- 
tament. 

g- 

Trisagion. 

Epistle  and  Gospel. 

i. 

Epistle  and  Gospel. 

Epistle  and  Gospel, 

G, 

Pniver  after  Gospel. 

Oblation  of  elements. 

; . 

c 

Prayer. 

< 

Exp"ulBion  of  Catechumens. 

< 

•^ 

< 

E.xp"ulsion  of  Catechumens. 

£ 

The  great  entrance. 

£ 

o 

£ 

Tile  great  entrance. 
Nicene  Creed. 

Kiss  of  peace. 
Creed. 

Ph 

Ifieene  Creed. 

Nieene  Creed, 

Kiss  of  peace. 

Prayer  for  all  conditions. 

Sursum  corda. 

Expulsion  of  Catechumens. 

^• 

Oblation  of  elements. 

Prayer  for  Church  militant. 

'Prayer  for  the  Church. 

« 

Sursum  corda. 

Sursum  corda. 

Prayer  for  the  departed. 

1" 

Triumphal  Bf/mn. 

Triumphal  Hymn. 

Triumphal  Ili/mn. 

Triumphal  Hymn. 

Prayer  for  quick  and  dead. 

'Commemoration  of  living  ("Te 

Kiss  of  peace. 

igitur"). 

Commemoration  of  Institution. 

Commemoraiion  of  Institution, 

Commemoration  of  Institution. 

Ilorrf*  ff  Institution, 

Oblation. 

Oblation. 

Elevation  and  fraction  of  host 

Oblation. 

Invocation. 

Invocation. 

into  nine  parts. 

Commemoration  of  dead. 

s 

Prayer  for  quick  and  dead. 

j= 

ITnion  of  consecrated  elements. 
Prayer. 

i 

Invocation. 

Union  of  consecrated  elements. 
Elevation, 

J= 

s. 

Lord's  Praver. 

■&• 

^ 

J.ord^ji  Prayer. 

B 

Embolismus. 

Lord's  Prayer. 

c  • 

Lord's  Prayer, 

c 

Embolismus. 

<; 

Prayer  of  intense  adoration. 

<; 

Embolismus. 

Embolismus. 

< 

Union  of  consecrated  elements. 
Elevation.                    _    ■ 
Fraction. 

Fraction. 
Confession. 

Union  of  consecrated  elements. 

O 

Comvnmiim. 

Cnmmnmon. 

Communion, 

Communion. 

Thanksgiving. 

Thanksgiving. 

Prayer. 

Thanksgiving. 

Dismissal  with  pax. 

Dismissal  with  blessing. 

Dismissal  by  the  deacons'  dec- 
laration,'' The  mysteries  are 
complete." 

Dismissal  with  blessing. 

ii.  There  is  also,  in  the  second  place,  a  substantial 
agreement  among  all  the  four  great  parent  liturgies  as 
to  the  formula  of  consecration  (see  Coxseckatiox  ;  and 
conip.  IJliuit.  Diet,  of  Doct,  nndjiist,  Tkeol.  \\.  42.5-42*!). 

iii.  Another  point  in  which  the  four  parent  liturgies 
of  the  Church  uniformly  agree  is  in  the  well-defined 
sacerdotal  character  of  their  language.  This  is  suffi- 
ciently illustrated  by  the  preceding  comparative  view. 


iv.  The  intercessory  character  of  the  primitive  litur- 
gies is  also  a  very  conspicuous  feature  common  to  them 
all.  The  holy  Eucharist  is  uniformly  set  forth  and  used 
in  them  as  a  service  offered  up  to  God  for  the  benefit  of 
all  classes  of  Christians,  living  and  departed,  ''  Then," 
says  St,  Cyril  of  Jerusalem, ''  after  the  spiritual  sacri- 
fice is  perfected,  the  bloodless  service  upon  that  altar  of 
propitiation,  we  entreat  God  for  the  common  peace  of 


LITURGY 


461 


LITURGY 


the  Church  ;  for  the  tranquillity  of  the  world  ;  for  kings ; 
for  soldiers  and  allies ;  for  the  sick  ;  fur  the  aihicted ; 
and,  in  a  word,  for  all  who  stand  in  need  of  succor  Ave 
all  supplicate  and  otfer  this  sacrifice.  Then  we  com- 
memorate also  those  who  have  fallen  asleep  before  us, 
first,  patriarchs,  prophets,  apostles,  martyrs,  that  at  their 
prayers  and  intervention  God  would  receive  our  petition. 
Afterward  also  on  behalf  of  the  holy  fathers  and  bishops 
who  have  fallen  asleep  before  us,  and,  in  a  word,  of  all 
who  in  past  years  have  fallen  asleep  among  us,  believing 
that  it  will  "be  a  very  great  advantage  to  the  souls  for 
whom  the  supplication  is  put  up  while  that  holy  and 
most  awful  sacrifice  is  presented"  (Cafec/i.  Lecf,  xxiii,  9, 
10).  St.  Cyril  was  speaking  thus  in  Jerusalem,  where 
the  liturgy  used  was  that  of  St.  James,  and  in  that  lit- 
urgy we  find  a  noble  intercession  exactly  answering  to 
the  description  there  given  (Neale's  Trumlation,  p.  52 ; 
Blunt's  Annot.Book  of  Com.  Prayer,  p.  156).  A  simi- 
lar intercession  is  to  be  found  in  the  other  liturgies,  and 
it  is  evident  that  its  use  was  one  of  the  first  principles 
of  the  Church  of  that  day. 

III.  ]\Iodern  Greek  amlEastern  Lituy-gies. — Three  litur- 
gies are  in  use  in  the  modern  Greek  or  Constantinopolitan 
Church,  viz.,  those  of  Basil  and  of  Chrysostom,  and  the 
liturgy  of  the  Presanctificd.  The  liturgy  bearing  the 
name  of  Basil  is  used  b\'  the  Constantinopolitan  Church 
ten  times  in  the  year,  viz.,  on  the  eve  of  Christmas 
Day ;  on  the  festival  of  St.  Basil ;  on  the  eve  of  the 
'Feast  of  Lights,  or  the  Epiphany ;  on  the  several  Sun- 
days in  Lent,  except  the  Sunday  before  Easter ;  on  the 
festival  of  the  Virgin  Mary ;  and  on  Good  Friday,  and 
the  following  day,  which  is  sometimes  termed  the  great 
Sabbath.  The  liturgy  ascribed  to  Chrysostom  is  read  on 
all  those  days  in  the  year  on  which  the  liturgies  of  Basil 
and  of  the  Presanctitied  are  not  used.  The  liturgy  of 
the  Presanctified  is  an  office  for  the  celebration  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  on  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  during  Lent, 
with  the  elements  which  had  been  consecrated  on  the 
preceding  Sunday.  The  date  of  this  liturgy  is  not 
linown,  some  authors  ascribing  it  to  Gregory  Thauma- 
turgus  in  the  third  century,  while  others  ascribe  it  to 
Germanus,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  in  the  eighth 
century.  These  liturgies  are  used  in  all  those  Greek 
churches  which  are  subject  to  the  patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinojjle,  and  in  those  countries  which  were  originally 
converted  by  Greeks,  as  in  Eussia,  (ieorgia,  Mingrelia, 
and  by  the  Melchite  patriarchs  of  ^Vlexandria,  Antioch, 
and  Jerusalem  (King's  Rites  of  the  Greek  Church,  p.  131- 
134;  Kichard  et  Giraud's  Biblioth'eque  Sacree,  xv,  222- 
224).  The  Coptic  Jacobites,  or  Christians  in  Egypt, 
make  use  of  the  Liturgy  of  Alexandria,  v.'hich  formerly 
v,as  called  indiflferentlj^  the  Liturgy  of  St.  Mark,  the  re- 
puted founder  of  the  Christian  Clmrch  at  Alexandria,  or 
the  Liturgy  of  St.  Cyril,  who  caused  it  to  be  committed 
to  writing.  The  Egyptians  had  twelve  liturgies,  which 
are  still  preserved  among  the  Abyssinians;  but  the  patri- 
archs commanded  that  the  Egyptian  churches  should 
use  only  three,  viz.,  those  of  Basil,  of  Gregory  the  The- 
ologian, and  of  CjTil.  The  earliest  liturgies  of  the 
Church  of  ^Vlexandria  were  written  in  Greek,  which  was 
tlie  vernacular  language,  until  the  fourth  and  fifth  cen- 
turies; since  that  time  they  have  been  translated  into 
tlie  Coptic  and  Arabic  languages.  The  Abyssinians  or 
Ethiopians  receive  the  twelve  liturgies  which  were  for- 
merly in  use  among  the  Coptic  Jacobites :  they  are  com- 
monly found  in  the  following  order,  viz.,  l.The  liturgy 
of  St.  John  the  Evangelist.  2.  That  of  the  three  hundred 
and  eighteen  fathers  present  at  the  Council  of  Nice.  3. 
That  of  Epiphanius.  4.  That  of  St.  James  of  Sarug  or 
Syrug.  5.  That  of  St.  John  Chrysostom.  6.  That  of 
Jesus  Christ.  7.  That  of  the  Apostles.  8.  That  of  St. 
Cyriac.  9.  That  of  St.  Gregory.  10.  That  of  their  patri- 
arch Uloscurus.  11.  That"of"St.  Basil.  12.  That  of  St. 
Cyril.  The  Armenians  who  were  converted  to  Christi- 
anity by  Gregory,  surnamed  the  Illuminator,  have  only 
one  liturgy,  which  is  supposed  to  be  that  of  the  Church 
of  Csesarea  ia  Cappadocia,  in  wliich  city  Gregory  re- 


ceived his  instruction.  This  liturgy  is  used  on  every 
occasion,  even  at  funerals.  The  Syrian  Catholics  and 
Jacobites  have  numerous  litm-gies,  bearing  the  names 
of  St.  James,  St.  Peter,  St.  John  the  EvangeUst,  St.  Mark, 
St.  Dionysius,  Ijishop  of  Athens,  St.  Xystus,  bishop  of 
Korae,  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  of  St.  Ignatius,  of  St.  Ju- 
lius, bishop  of  Korae,  of  St.  Eustathius,  of  St.  Chrysostom, 
of  St.Maruthas,  etc.  Of  these,  the  liturgy  of  St.  James 
is  most  highly  esteemed,  and  is  the  standard  to  which 
are  referred  all  the  others,  which  are  chiefly  used  on  the 
festivals  of  the  saints  whose  names  they  bear.  The 
INIaronites,  who  inhabit  ]\Iount  Lebanon,  make  use  of  a 
missal  printed  at  Rome  in  1594  in  the  Chaldeo-Syriac 
language:  it  contains  thirteen  liturgies  under  the  names 
of  St.  Xystus,  St.  John  Chrysostom,  St.  John  the  P^vange- 
list,  St."Peter,  St.  Dionysius,  St.  Cyril,  St.  Matthew,  St. 
John  the  Patriarch,  St.  Eustathius,  St.  Maruthas,  St. 
James  the  Apostle,  St.  Mark  the  Evangelist,  and  a  second 
liturgy  of  St.  Peter.  The  Nestorians  have  three  Utur- 
gies — that  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  that  of  Theodoras, 
surnamed  the  Interpreter,  and  a  third  under  the  name 
of  Nestorius.  The  Indian  Christians  of  St. Thomas  are 
said  to  make  use  of  the  Nestorian  liturgies  (Richard  et 
Giraud,  Bibliotheque  Sacree,  xv,  221-227). 

IV.  LAturgies  of  the  Church  of  Rome. — There  are  va- 
rious liturgical  books  in  use  in  the  modern  Church  of 
Rome,  the  greater  part  of  which  are  common  and  gen- 
eral to  all  the  members  in  communion  with  that  Church, 
while  others  are  permitted  to  be  used  only  in  particular 
places  or  by  particular  monastic  orders. 

1.  The  Breviary  (Latin  hreviurium)  is  the  book  con- 
taining the  daily  service  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  It  is 
frequently,  but  erroneously,  confounded  with  Missal  and 
Ritual.  The  Breviary  contains  the  matins,  lauds,  etc., 
with  the  several  variations  to  be  made  therein,  accord- 
ing to  the  several  days,  canonical  hours,  and  the  like. 
It  is  general,  and  may  be  used  in  every  place ;  but  on 
the  model  of  this  have  been  formed  various  others,  spe- 
cially appropriated  to  different  religious  orders,  such  as 
those  of  the  Benedictines,  Carthusians,  Dominicans, 
Franciscans,  Jesuits,  and  other  monastic  orders.  The 
difference  between  these  books  and  that  which  is  by 
way  of  eminence  designated  the  Roman  Breviary,  con- 
sists chiefly  in  the  number  and  order  of  the  psalms, 
hymns,  ave-marias,  pater-nosters,  misereres,  etc.,  etc. 
Originally  the  Breviary  contained  only  the  Lord's 
Prayer  and  the  Psalms  which  were  used  in  the  divine 
offices.  To  these  were  subsequently  added  lessons  out 
of  the  Scriptures,  according  to  the  institutes  of  the 
monks,  in  order  to  diversify  the  service  of  the  Church. 
In  the  progress  of  time  the  legendary  lives  of  the  saints, 
replete  with  ill-attested  facts,  were  inserted,  in  compli- 
ance with  the  opinions  and  superstition  of  the  times. 
This  gave  occasion  to  many  revisions  and  reformations 
of  the  Roman  Breviary  by  the  councils,  particularly  of 
Trent  and  Cologne,  and  also  by  several  popes,  as  Greg- 
ory IX,  Nicholas  III,  Pius  V,  Clement  VIII,  and  Urban 
VIII ;  as  likewise  by  some  cardinals,  especially  cardinal 
Quignon,  by  whom  various  extravagances  were  removed, 
and  the  work  was  brought  nearer  to  the  simplicity  of 
the  primitive  oflices.  In  its  present  state  the  Breviary 
of  the  Church  of  Rome  consists  of  the  services  of  matins, 
lauds,  prime,  third,  sixth,  nones,  vespers,  complines,  or 
the  jwst-communion,  that  is  of  seven  hours,  on  account 
of  the  saying  of  David,  Septies  in  die  laudem  dixi — "  Sev- 
en times  a  day  do  I  praise  thee"  (Psa.  cxix,  164).  The 
obligation  of  reading  this  service-book  everj'  day,  which 
at  first  was  imiversal,  was  by  degrees  reduced  to  the 
beneficiary  clergy  alone,  who  are  bound  to  do  it  on  pain 
of  being  guilty  of  mortal  sin,  and  of  refunding  their  rev- 
enues in  proportion  to  their  delinquencies  in  discharg- 
ing this  duty.  The  Roman  Breviary  is  recited  in  the 
Latin  language  throughout  the  Romish  Church,  ex- 
cept among  the  IMaronites  in  Syria,  the  Armenians,  and 
some  other  Oriental  Christians  in  communion  with  that 
Church,  who  rehearse  it  in  their  vernacular  dialects. 

2.  The  Missal,  or  volume   employed  in  celebrating 


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462 


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mass.  According  to  a  tradition  generally  believed  by 
members  of  the  Romish  Church,  this  liturgy  owes  its 
origin  to  St.  Peter.  The  canon  of  the  mass  was  com- 
mitted to  -writing  about  the  middle  of  tlie  fifth  century. 
Various  additions  were  subsequently  made,  especially  by 
Gregory  the  Great,  who  reduced  the  whole  into  better 
order.  This  Missal  is  in  general  use  throughout  the 
Romish  Church.     See  Mass. 

3.  The  Ceremoniale  contains  the  various  offices  peculiar 
to  the  pope.  It  is  divided  into  three  books,  the  first  of 
wliich  treats  of  the  election,  consecration,  benediction, 
and  coronation  of  the  pope,  the  canonization  of  saints, 
creation  of  cardinals,  the  form  and  manner  of  holding  a 
council,  and  the  funeral  ceremonies  on  the  death  of  a 
pope  or  of  a  cardinal,  besides  various  public  ceremonies 
to  be  performed  by  the  pope  as  a  sovereign  prince.  The 
second  book  prescribes  what  divine  offices  are  to  be  cel- 
ebrated by  the  pope,  and  on  what  days;  and  the  third 
discusses  the  reverence  which  is  to  be  shown  to  popes, 
cartlinals,  bishops,  and  other  persons  performing  sacred 
duties;  the  vestments  and  ornaments  of  the  popes  and 
cardinals  when  celebrating  divine  service ;  the  order  in 
which  they  are  severally  to  be  seated  in  the  papal  chapel; 
incensing  the  altar,  etc.  The  compiler  of  this  liturgi- 
cal work  is  not  known. 

4.  The  Pontificale  describes  the  various  functions 
which  are  pecidiar  to  bishops  in  the  Komish  Church, 
such  as  the  conferring  of  ecclesiastical  orders;  the  pro- 
nouncing of  benedictions  on  abbots,  abbesses,  and  nuns; 
the  coronation  of  sovereigns ;  the  form  and  manner  of 
consecrating  churches,  burial-grounds,  and  the  various 
vessels  used  in  divine  service ;  the  public  expulsion  of 
penitents  from  the  Church,  and  reconciling  them ;  the 
mode  of  holding  a  synod ;  suspending,  reconciling,  dis- 
pensing, deposing,  and  degrading  priests,  and  of  restor- 
ing them  again  to  orders;  the  manner  of  excommuni- 
cating and  absolving,  etc.,  etc. 

6.  The  Ritiude  treats  of  all  those  functions  which  are 
to  be  performed  by  simple  priests  or  the  inferior  clergy, 
both  in  the  public  service  of  the  Church,  and  also  in  the 
exercise  trf  their  private  pastoral  duties.  The  Pasfoi-ale 
corresponds  with  the  Pitnale,  and  seems  to  be  only  rai- 
other  name  for  the  same  book. 

V.  Continental  Reformed  or  Protestant  Liturgies. — At 
the  time  of  the  Reformation  there  were,  of  necsssitj', 
great  changes  in  the  matter  of  public  worship.  The 
liturgies  in  use  at  its  commencement  included  the  prev- 
alent doctrinal  system,  especially  as  connected  with  the 
Lord's  Supper;  and  very  soon  changes  were  made  hav- 
ing in  view  the  repudiation  of  Romish  error,  and  the 
adaptation  of  reformed  worship  to  the  restored  system  of 
scriptural  doctrine.  The  old  forms,  moreover,  had  there 
been  no  objection  to  them  doctrinally,  were  liable  to  the 
practical  objection  that  they  were  locked  up  from  popu- 
lar use  in  a  dead  language.  The  Reformation,  to  a  very 
great  degree,  had  opened  the  ears  of  the  people  to  the 
intelligent  hearing  and  recei)tion  of  Christian  doctrine. 
Its  task  now  was  to  open  their  mouths  to  the  intelligent 
utterance  of  supplication  —  in  other  words,  to  provide 
forms  of  worship  in  the  vernacular.  This  was  done 
very  largely  by  selection  and  translation  from  old  forms, 
and,  as  was  necessari-.  by  the  preparation  of  new  ma- 
terial. With  the  English  and  Lutheran  Reformers,  the 
oliject  seems  to  have  been  to  make  as  few  changes  in 
existing  forms  as  ])ossible.  Doubtful  expressions,  which 
admitted  of  a  Protestant  interjiretation,  but  which,  for 
their  own  merits,  would  never  have  been  selected,  were 
thus  retained.  It  is  to  be  said  for  the  Reformers  that 
they  seem  to  have  acted  in  view  of  the  existing  circum- 
stances of  the  communities  b_v  which  they  were  sur- 
rounded, and  from  one  of  tliem,  the  most  eminent  of  all, 
Luther,  we  have  the  liistinct  disavowal  of  all  wish  and 
expectation  that  his  work,  in  this  respect,  should  be  im- 
posed upon  other  churches  or  continued  in  4iis  own  any 
longer  than  it  was  found  for  edification. 

a.  Lutheran  Liturr/ies. — As  first  among  the  Reform- 
ers we  notice  these  liturgical  works  of  Luther.    Differ- 


ent offices  were  prepared  by  him,  as  needed  by  the 
churches  tuider  his  influence,  the  earliest  in  1523,  the 
latest  in  1534.  These  were  afterwards  collected  in  a 
volume,  and  became  a  model  for  others.  In  his  "  Or- 
der of  Service"  provision  is  made  for  daily  worship  in  a 
service  for  morning  and  evening,  and  a  third  might  be 
held  if  desirable.  These  services  consist  of  reading  the 
Scriptures,  preaching  or  expounding,  with  psalms  and 
responsoria,  with  the  addition,  for  Sundays,  of  mass  or 
communion.  lie  dwells  earnestly,  however,  upon  the 
idea,  already  mentioned,  that  these  forms  are  not  to  be 
considered  binding  otherwise  than  in  their  appropriate 
times  and  localities.  These  views  and  this  action  of 
Luther  were  responded  to  by  similar  action  on  the  part 
of  the  churches  which  through  him  had  received  the 
doctrines  of  the  Reformation.  These  drew  up  liturgies 
for  themselves,  some  of  them  bearing  a  close  resem- 
blance to  that  of  Wittemberg,  others  differing  from  it 
widely;  the  differences,  in  one  direction,  being  condi- 
tioned by  the  Zwinglian  or  Calvinistic  element,  in  the 
opposite  by  the  Romish.  These,  in  particular  localities, 
have  been  changed  at  different  times  as  circumstances 
seemed  to  require.  No  one  Lutheran  form  has  ever 
been  accepted  as  obligator^'  upon  all  Lutheran  church- 
es, as  is  the  case  with  the  liturgy  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land in  all  its  dependencies ;  although  it  is  claimed  that 
there  is  essential  unity — an  essential  unity  of  life  and 
spirit  in  all  these  unessential  diversities  as  to  outward 
form  of  particular  states  and  churches.  The  tendency 
of  the  Rationalism  of  the  last  centurj'  was  to  neglect,  to 
depreciate,  and  to  mutilate  the  old  liturgies,  and  then 
to  procure  changes  which  would  substitute  others  in 
their  stead.  From  this,  and  in  connection  with  another 
movement,  has  followed  a  healthful  reaction.  This  re- 
action may  be  seen  in  its  effects  upon  the  two  great 
classes  into  which  Lutheran  Germany  is  now  divided. 
It  has  controlled  to  a  very  great  degree  the  efforts  of 
the  Unionists,  has  given  form  to  the  Union  liturgy,  and 
it  is  leading  those  v/ho  are  opposed  to  this  movement 
to  a  more  careful  study  and  diligent  use  of  the  older 
liturgies.  The  object  of  this  new  liturgy,  that  of  the 
king  of  Prussia,  first  published  in  1822,  revised  once  or 
twice  since  then,  is  to  unite  the  worship  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  churches  in  the 
Prussian  dominions.  The  excitement  connected  with 
this  movement,  in  the  way  of  attack  and  defence,  has 
given  a  deeper  and  wider  interest  to  all  liturgical  ques- 
tions— an  interest  deeply  felt  by  the  Lutheran  churches 
of  this  country.  Here,  where  the  use  of  such  forms  is 
optional,  the  number  of  congregations  returning  to  such 
use  is  on  the  increase.     See  Lutheraxism. 

In  Sweden,  which,  although  Lutheran,  retains  the 
episcopate,  and  may  seem  to  demand  a  more  special  no- 
tice, there  was  published  in  1811  a  new,  revised  edition 
of  the  Liturgy,  prepared  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation. 
This  is  divided  into  chapters,  and  contains  the  usual 
parts  of  a  Church  service,  with  forms  for  bajitism,  mar- 
riage, etc.  In  Denmark  there  is  also  a  regidarly  con- 
stituted liturgy,  of  Bugcnhagen's,  which,  besides  morn- 
ing and  evening  service  for  Sundays,  contains  three 
services  for  each  of  the  three  great  festivals  of  Christ- 
mas, Easter,  and  Pentecost. 

b.  Moravian  Litur(fy.  —  The  liturgy  of  the  Moravi- 
ans, as  recipients,  through  their  great  leader,  of  the 
Augsburg  Confession,  is  not  without  its  interest  in  this 
connection.  It  was  first  published  in  1632.  Tli;it  which 
has  been  adopted  by  the  renewed  Moravian  Clnirch  is 
mauily  the  work  of  count  Zinzendorf,  who  com]iilcd  it 
chiefly  from  the  services  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  church- 
es, but  who  also  availed  himself  of  the  valuable  labors 
of  Luther  and  of  the  English  Reformers.  The  L'nited 
Brethren  at  present  make  use  of  a  Church  litany,  intro- 
duced into  the  morning  service  of  every  Sunday ;  a  lit- 
any for  the  morning  of  Easter-day,  containing  a  short 
but  comprehensive  confession  of  faith ;  two  oflSces  for 
the  baptism  of  adults,  and  two  for  the  baptism  of  chil- 
dren: two  litanies  at  burials;  and  oftices  for  confirma- 


LITURGY 


463 


LITURGY 


tion,  the  holy  communion,  and  for  ordmation ;  the  Te 
Deum,  and  doxologies  adapted  to  various  occasions.  All 
these  liturgical  forms  in  use  in  England  are  comprised 
in  the  new  and  revised  edition  of  the  Litutyjy  and  Ifijmns 
for  the  Use  of  (he  Protestant  Church  of  the  United  Bi-eth- 
ren  (London,  18-49).  Other  services  peculiar  to  this 
Church,  which  are  called  "liturgies,"  consist  mainly  of  a 
choral,  with  musical  responsoria  as  a  litany.  This  litany 
is  for  Sundays,  There  is  a  short  prayer  of  betrothal, 
a  baptismal  office,  also  a  form  on  Easter,  used  in  the 
church-yards,  of  expressing  their  confidence  in  regard  to 
tlie  brethren  departed  of  the  year  preceduig.  The  daily 
service,  which  is  in  the  evening,  is  a  simple  prayer- 
meeting.  In  this,  as  in  the  Sunday  service,  the  prayers 
and  exhortations  are  extemporaneous. 

c.  Calrinislic  Liturgies.  —  The  liturgy  of  Calvin, 
which,  like  that  of  Luther,  constitutes  the  type  of  a 
class,  differs  from  this  latter  in  two  imjwrtant  respects — 
the  absence  of  responsive  portions,  and  the  discretion 
conferred  npon  the  officiator  in  the  performance  of  pub- 
lic worship.  This  discretion  seems  to  have  been  limit- 
ed, however,  to  the  use  of  one  form  of  prayer  rather 
than  another,  given  in  the  Directory.  These  prayers 
were  read  by  the  pastor  from  the  pulpit.  The  service 
began  with  a  general  confession,  was  followed  by  a 
psalm,  prayer  again,  sermon,  prayer,  the  Apostles'  Creed, 
and  benediction.  Two  additional  prayers  were  pro- 
vided for  occasions  of  communion,  one  coming  before, 
the  other  after ;  also  a  very  long  one  of  deprecation  in 
times  of  war,  calamity,  etc.  For  the  administration  of 
the  Lord's  Supper  there  is  an  exhortation  as  to  its  in- 
tent— "fencing  the  tables,"  as  it  is  called  in  Scotland. 
This  is  followed  by  the  distribution  of  the  elements, 
with  psalms  and  passages  of  Scripture  appropriate  to 
the  occasion.  The  offices  of  baptism  and  marriage  are 
simple,  but  not  discretionary  as  to  their  form.  In  ac- 
cordance with  what  seems  to  be  the  peculiar  Genevan 
characteristic,  they  are  not  wanting  in  length. 

The  present  liturgy  of  Geneva  is  a  development  of 
that  of  Calvin,  with  certain  modifications.  It  has  no 
responses.  Several  additional  prayers  have  been  added. 
A  distinct  service  for  each  day  in  the  week  is  provided, 
also  for  the  principal  festivals,  and  for  certain  special 
occasions.  So  also  as  to  the  churches  in  sj'mpathy  with 
the  system  of  Calvin.  They  have  liturgies  similar  to 
that  of  Geneva,  although  not  identical.  Such  is  the 
case  with  the  churches  of  Holland  and  Neufchatel,  and 
the  Keformed  churches  of  France.  A  new  edition  of 
the  old  French  Liturgy  of  15G2  was  published  in  1826, 
with  additional  forms  for  special  occasions.  The  liturgy 
of  the  Church  of  Scotland  is  in  some  respects  different. 
It  was  drawn  up  at  Frankfort  by  Knox  and  others,  after 
tlie  model  of  Calvin's,  and  was  first  used  by  Knox  in  a 
congregation  of  English  exiles  at  Geneva.  It  was  af- 
terwards introduced  by  him  into  Scotland;  its  use  en- 
joined in  15G-1,  and  such  usage  was  continued  until  after 
his  death.  An  edition  of  this  liturgy  was  published  in 
1811  by  Dr.  Gumming.  It  differs  from  that  of  Calvin 
in  that  it  more  clearly  leaves  to  the  minister  officiating 
to  decide  whether  he  shall  use  any  form  of  prayer  given 
or  one  of  his  own  compositions  extemporaneously  or 
otherwise.  It  begins  with  the  confession,  as  in  Calvin's, 
and  with  the  same  form.  This  is  followe<l  by  a  psalm, 
by  prayer,  the  sermon,  prayer,  psalm,  and  benediction. 
The  book  contains  various  offices  and  alternate  forms; 
among  other  things,  an  order  of  excommunication,  and 
a  treatise  on  fasting,  with  a  form  of  prayer  for  private 
houses,  and  grace  before  and  after  meals.  The  new 
book  of  Scotland  of  1G4-1  may  be  regarded  as  a  modifi- 
cation of  those  of  Knox  and  Calvin.  In  the  Directory 
of  the  Westminster  Assembly  the  discretionary'  power 
is  greatly  enlarged.  Scriptural  lessons  are  to  be  read 
in  regular  course,  the  quantity  at  the  discretion  of  the 
minister,  with  liberty,  if  he  see  fit,  of  expounding. 
Heads  of  prayer  in  that  before  the  sermon  are  pre- 
scribed, and  rides  for  the  arrangement  of  the  sermon. 
The  Lord's  Prayer  is  recommended  as  the  most  perfect 


form  of  devotion.  Private  and  lay  baptism  are  forbid- 
den. The  arrangement  of  the  Lord's  table  is  to  be  such 
that  communicants  may  sit  about  it,  and  the  dead  are 
to  be  buried  without  prayer  or  religious  ceremony. 

d.  Intermediate  between  these  two  great  families  of 
liturgies,  the  Lutheran  and  Calvinistic,  are  those  of  the 
other  Reformed  churches  on  the  Continent.  It  may 
be  said,  in  general,  that  the  German-speaking  portion 
of  these  churches  approach  and  partake  of  the  Lutheran 
spirit  and  forms,  and  the  Swiss  of  the  Calvinistic,  though 
there  are  individual  exceptions.  In  15'23,  the  same  j-ear 
with  Luther's  work  already  mentioned,  Zwingle  and  Leo 
Judah  published  at  Zurich  offices  for  baptism,  the  Lord's 
Supper,  marriage,  commtin  prayer,  and  burial.  This 
was  followed  by  a  more  complete  work  in  1525,  and  sub- 
sequently by  others.  Similar  works  were  published  at 
Berne,  Schaffhausen,  and  Basle  at  a  later  period.  The 
peculiarity  of  these,  according  to  Ebrard,  quoted  in  Iler- 
zog,  "is  the  liturgical  character  in  the  celebration  of 
the  Lord's  Supper,  in  which  they  compare  favorably 
with  the  Calvinistic  liturgies;  also  the  custom  of  an- 
noimcing  the  dead,  and  the  special  prayers  for  the  fes- 
tivals." The  liturgical  issues  which  during  this  cen- 
tury have  agitated  the  Lutheran  Church  have  extended 
to  those  of  the  Keformed,  not,  however,  to  the  same  ex- 
tent, nor  with  results  of  such  decided  character. 

VI.  Litui'gies  in  the  English  Language. — Previous  to 
the  introduction  of  the  Reformation  on  Anglican  ground, 
the  public  service  of  the  English  churches  was,  like 
that  of  other  Western  churches,  performed  in  the  Lat- 
in language.  But,  though  the  language  was  univer- 
sally Latin,  the  liturgy  itself  varied  greatly  in  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  kingdom.  The  dioceses  of  Bangor, 
Hereford,  Lincoln,  Sarum,  York,  and  other  churches, 
used  liturgies  which  were  commonly  designated  by  the 
"  Uses,"  and  of  these  the  most  celebrated  were  the 
Breviary  and  Missal,  etc.,  secundum  vsum  Sarum,  com- 
piled by  Osmund,  bishop  of  Salisbury,  about  the  year 
1080,  and  reputed  to  be  executed  -with  such  exact- 
ness according  to  the  rules  of  the  Romish  Church  that 
they  were  also  employed  in  divine  service  in  many 
churches  on  the  Continent.  They  consiste^I  of  prayers 
and  offices,  some  of  which  had  been  transmitted  from 
very  ancient  times,  and  others  were  of  later  origin,  ac- 
commodated to  the  Romish  religion.  Compare  MaskeU, 
The  Ancient  Liturgy  of  the  Church  of  England,  accord- 
ing to  the  Uses  of  Sarum,  Bangor,  York,  Hereford,  and 
the  Modern  Roman  Liturgy  (London,  1844,  8vo).  Also 
by  the  same,  Monumenta  Ritualia  Ecclesia  A  nglicance ; 
or,  Occasional  Offices  of  the  Church  of  England,  ac- 
cording to  the  Ancient  Use  of  Salisbury ;  the  Prymer  in 
English,  and  other  Prayeis  and  Foi'ms  (Loudon,  1846,3 
vols.  8vo). 

Tlie  first  attempt  in  England  to  introduce  the  ver- 
nacular was  made  in  1536,  when,  in  pursuance  of  Henry 
VIH's  injunctions,  the  Bible,  Pater-noster,  Creed,  and 
Decalogue  were  set  forth  and  placed  in  churches,  to  be 
read  in  English.  In  1545  the  King's  Primer  was  pub- 
lished, containing  a  form  of  morning  and  evening  prayer 
in  English,  besides  the  Lord's  Prayer,  Creed,  and  Ten 
Commandments,  the  Seven  Penitential  Psalms,  Litany, 
and  other  devotions,  and  in  1547,  on  the  accession  of  Ed- 
ward VI,  archbishop  Cranmer,  bishop  Ridley,  and  elev- 
en other  eminent  divines,  martyrs,  and  confessors,  v.ere 
commissioned  to  draw  up  a  liturgy  in  the  English  lan- 
guage "  free  from  those  unfounded  doctrines  and  super- 
stitious ceremonies  which  had  disgraced  the  Latin  litur- 
gies ;"  and  this  was  ratified  by  act  of  Parliament  in  1548, 
and  published  in  1549.  This  liturgy  is  commonly  known 
and  cited  as  the  First  Prayer-Bouk  of  Edward  VL  In 
the  great  body  of  their  work  Cranmer  and  his  associates 
derived  their  materials  from  the  earlier  services  which 
had  been  in  use  in  England;  "  but  in  the  occasional  of- 
fices they  were  indebted  to  the  labors  of  IMelancthon 
and  Buccr,  and  through  them  to  the  older  liturgy  of  Nu- 
remberg, which  those  reformers  were  instructed  to  fol- 
low" (Dr.Cardwell's  Two  Books  of  Common  Prayer,  set 


LITURGY 


464 


LIVER 


forih  .  .  .  in  the  reirfn  of  Kim/  Echcard  the  Sixth,  com- 
jHirtd,  p.  xiv,  Oxford,  1838).  In  consequence,  however, 
of  exceptions  being  taken  at  some  things  in  this  book, 
wliicli  were  thought  to  savor  too  much  of  superstition, 
it  underwent  another  revision,  and  was  further  altered 
ill  I.").') I,  when  it  was  again  confirmed  by  Parliament. 
This  edition  is  usuallj'  cited  as  the  Second  Prai/er-book 
of  I'.dwttrd  VI.:  it  is  very  nearly  the  same  with  that 
whicli  is  at  present  in  use.  The  two  Liturgies,  A.D. 
1549  and  A.D.  1552,  icith  other  Documents,  set  forth  hy 
Authority  in  the  Reiyn  of  King  Edicard  VI,  were  very 
carefully  edited  for  the  I'arker  Society  by  the  Kev.  Jo- 
seph Ketley,  M.A.,  at  the  Cambridge  University  Press, 
in  1844,  in  octavo.  The  two  acts  of  Parliament  (2  and 
3  Edward  YI,  c.  1,  and  5  and  6  Edward  VI,  c.  1)  which 
had  been  passed  for  establishing  uniformity  of  divine 
ser\ice  were  repealed  in  the  first  year  of  Queen  Mary, 
who  restored  the  Latin  litiu-gies  according  to  the  popish 
forms  of  worship.  On  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  how- 
e^•er,  the  Prayer-book  was  restored,  and  has  been  in  use 
ever  since.  For  the  later  history  of  the  subject,  includ- 
ing liturgical  books  in  England,  Scotland,  and  America, 
see  Common  Prayer. 

Among  the  curiosities  of  the  subject  we  notice  the 
following : 

(«.)  Liturgy  of  the  P?-imitive  Episcopal  Church.  — 
"  The  Hook  of  Common  Prayer,  and  A  dministration  of 
the  Sacraments  and  other  Rites  and  Ceremonies  of  the 
Church,  according  to  the  Use  of  the  Primitive  Ejiiscopal 
Church,  revived  in  England  in  the  Year  of  our  Redemp- 
tion One  thousand  eight  hundred  and  thirty-one,  together 
icith  the  Psalter  or  Psalms  of  David, ^^  though  bearing 
the  imprint  of  London,  was  printed  at  Liverpool,  but 
was  never  published.  It  was  edited  by  the  Kev.  George 
IMontgomery  AVest,  M.A.,  a  presbyter  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  in  the  state  and  diocese  of  Ohio,  in 
North  America.  This  volume  is  of  great  raritj',  not 
more  than  five  or  six  copies  being  found  in  the  libraries 
of  tlie  curious  in  ecclesiastical  matters.  The  liturgy  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States 
of  America  is  the  basis  of  this  edition,  excepting  two  or 
three  alterations  in  the  office  for  the  ministration  of 
liaptism,  and  a  few  verbal  alterations  to  fit  it  for  use  in 
England  and  in  Ireland.  "The  Primitive  Episcopal 
Cliurch,  revived  in  England  in  1831,"  had  a  short  exist- 
ence of  little  more  than  twelve  months. 

(h.)  Deistical  Liturgy.  —  In  1752  a  liturgy  was  pub- 
lished in  Liverpool  by  some  of  the  Presbyterians,  as 
Antitrinitarians  are  often  called  in  England,  but  Christ's 
name  is  hardly  mentioned  in  it,  and  the  third  part  of 
the  (iodhead  is  not  at  aU  recognised  in  it.  It  is  known 
als(3  by  the  name  of  "  Liverpool  Liturgy."  In  1776  was 
jiublishcd  ",1  lAturgy  on  the  universal  Principles  of  Re- 
ligion and  Morality:"  it  was  compiled  by  David  Wil- 
liams, with  the  chimerical  design  of  uniting  all  parties 
and  persuasions  in  one  comprehensive  form.  This  lit- 
urgy is  composed  in  imitation  of  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer,  with  responses  celebrating  the  divine  perfec- 
tions and  works,  with  thanksgivings,  confessions,  and 
supplications.  The  principal  part  of  three  of  tlic  hj'mns 
for  morning  and  evening  service  is  selected  from  the 
Works  of  j\lilton  and  Thomson,  though  considerable  use 
is  made  of  the  language  of  the  Scriptures  (see  Orton, 
Eetters,  i,  80  sq.;  Bogue  and  Bennett, //jV.  (fthe  Dis- 
senters, iii,  342), 

VII.  Literatu7-e. — Of  bibliographical  treatises  on  the 
literature  of  liturgy  we  may  name  Zaccaria,  Bihliotheca 
Ritualis  (Rome,  177G-8,  4  vols.  4to);  Gueranger,  Institu- 
tidiis  Liturgiques  (Paris,  1840-51);  Kcacher,  Bihliotheca 
Liturgica,  etc.,  p.  699-8()();  Liturgies  and  other  Documents 
of  the  Ante-Nicene  /"en'orf  (Ante-Nicene  Library,  Edinb. 
1872,  8vo).  Special  works  of  note  on  the  subject  of  lit- 
urgy are:  J.  (loar,  Ki');^oX(')yioj',  sive  Rituale  (Jrdcoi-um, 
etc.,  Gr.  and  Lat.  (Par.  1(547  ;  Venice,  1740) ;  „Tos.  Aloys. 
Assemani  (K.  C),  Codex  Liturgicus  ecclesiir  niiinrsa' .... 
in  quo  continentur  libri  rituales,  missalcs.jiiiiitifralis,  of- 
Jicia,  dypticha,  etc.,  ecclesiurum  Occidintis  et  Orientis 


(published  under  the  auspices  of  pope  Boniface  XR^, 
Kome^  1749-0(5,  13  vols.);  Euseb.  Renaudot  (R.  C),  Li- 
turgiarum  Orientalium  colkctio (VsLris,  1716  ;  reprinted  in 
1847,  2  vols.) ;  L.  A.  Muratori  (K.  C),  Liturgia  Romana 
velus  (Venet.  1748,  2  vols.),  contains  the  three  Roman 
sacramentaires  of  Leo,  Gelasius,  and  Gregory  I,  also  the 
Missale  Gothicum,  and  a  leanied  introductory  disserta- 
tion— De  rebus  liturgicis ;  \V.  Palmer  (Anglican),  Ori- 
gines  Liturgical  (Loud.  1832  and  1845,  2  vols.  8vo)  [with 
special  reference  to  the  Anglican  liturgy] ;  Thos.  Brett, 
Collection  of  the  Principal  Liturgies  used  in  the  Christian 
Church  in  the  celebration  of  the  Eucharist,  particularly 
the  ancient  (translated  into  English),  ivith  a  Dissertation 
upon  them  (London,  1838) ;  W.  TroUope  (Anglican),  The 
Greek  Liturgy  of  St.  James  (Edinb.  184S)  ;  Daniel  (Lu- 
theran, the  most  learned  German  liturgist).  Codex  Litur- 
gicus ecclesice  unive7-scp.  in  epitomem  redactus  (Lips.  1847 
sq.,  4  vols. ;  vol.  i  contains  the  Roman,  vol.  iv  the  Orient- 
al liturgies) ;  Fr.  J.  Mone  (R.  C),  Lateinische  u.  Griech- 
ische  JMessen  aus  dem  2'"'  bis  6'"'  Jahrhundert  {Yrankf.  a. 
M.  1850),  contains  valuable  treatises  on  the  Gallican,  Af- 
rican, and  Roman  Mass ;  J.M.Neale  (Anglican,  the  most 
learned  English  ritualist  and  liturgist),  Tetralogia  litur- 
gica ;  sice  St.  Chiysostom,  St.  Jacohi,  St.  Muixi  divince 
misscB  :  quibus  accedit  oi-do  Mozairibicus  (Lond.  1849)  ; 
the  same,  The  Liturgies  of  St.  Mark,  St.  James,  St.  Clem- 
ent, St.  Chrysostom,  St.  Basil,  or  according  to  the  U.se  of 
the  Chui-ches  of  Alexandria,  Je?-usalem,  Constantinople 
(Lond.  1859,  folio,  in  the  Greek  original ;  and  the  same 
liturgies  in  an  English  translation,  with  an  introduction 
and  appendices,  also  at  London,  1859) ;  the  same.  Hist,  of 
the  Holy  Eastern  Ch.  (Lond.  1850-72,  5  vols.  8vo;  Gen. 
Introd.  vol.  ii) ;  the  same.  Essays  on  Liturgiology  and  Ch. 
History  (Lond.  1863)  [this  work,  dedicated  to  the  metro- 
poUtan  Philaret  of  Moscow,  is  a  collection  of  various 
learned  treatises  of  the  author  from  the  Christian  Re- 
membrancer, on  the  Roman  and  Gallican  Breviary-,  the 
Church  CoUects,  the  Mozarabic  and  Ambrosian  liturgies, 
liturgical  quotations,  etc.]  ;  Bintcrim,  Denkwiirdigkeiten 
d.  Christ.-Kathol.  Kirche ,  Freeman,  Principles  of  Divine 
Sei-vice  (Oxf.  1855,  8vo,  enlarged  in  1863) ;  IMabillon,  De 
lAturgia  Gallicana,  etc.  (1865) ,  Etheridge,  Syrian  Ch. 
p.  188  sq. ;  Coleman,  Ancient  Christianity  Exemplified,  p. 
284  sq. ;  and  his  Manual  of  Prelacy  and  Ritualism  (Phila. 
1869, 12mo),  p.  275  sq. ;  Riddle,  Chi-istian  Antiquities,  p. 
396  sq.,  602  sq. ;  Siege],  Handb.  d.  Christl.  Kirchl.  A  Iter- 
thianer,  iii,  202  sq. ;  Augusti,  Handb.  d.  Christl.  A  ixliwol. 
i,  191  sq. ;  ii,  537  sq. ;  iii,  704  sq.,  714  sq. ;  Bliuit,  Diet,  of 
Hist,  and  Docir.  Theol.  s.  v.,  and  Eadie,  Eccles.  Diet,  s.  v. ; 
Bimsen,  Christianity  and  Mankind  (Lond.  1854),  vol.  vii, 
which  contains  Reliquia  Liturgicce  (the  Irvingitc  work) ; 
Readings  upon  the  Liturgy  and  other  Divine  Offices  (fthe 
C7»/;-c/i  (London,  1848-54) ;  HijAing, Liturgisches  Urkun- 
denbuch  (Leipz.  1854) ;  Hefele  (C.  Jos.),  Bcitr,  zu  Kirch- 
engesch,  A  rchdol.  u.  Liturgik  (Tub.  1864),  vol.  ii :  Diillin- 
ger.  Heathenism  and  Judaism ;  Schaff,  Ch.  Hist,  ii,  §  lUO ; 
Edinb,  Revietc,  1852  (April) :  The  Round  Table,  1867  (Au- 
gust 10);  Neiu  Englander,  1861  (July),  art.  vi;  Mercers- 
burg  Review,  1871  (January),  art.  v ;  Brit,  and  For,  Miss, 
Rev,  1857  (July).     (C.W.) 

Liutpraiid.     Sec  LuirrRAXD. 

Liver  ("I^S,  kdbed',  so  called  as  being  the  heaviest  of 
the  viscera)  occurs  in  Exod.  xxix,  13, 22 ;  Lev.  iii,  4, 10, 
15;  iv,  9;  vii,  4;  viii,  16,  25;  Lx,  10,  19;  Prov.  vii,  23; 
Lam.  ii,  11 ;  Ezek.  xxi,  21.  In  the  Pentateuch  it  forms 
part  of  the  phrase  translated  in  the  Authorized  A'ersion 
'•  the  caul  that  is  above  the  liver,"  but  which  Gesenius 
{Thesaur,  Heb.  p.  645,  646),  reasoning  from  the  root,  un- 
derstands to  be  the  great  lobe  of  the  liver  itself  rather 
than  the  caul  over  it,  wliich  latter,  he  observes,  is  incon- 
siderable in  size,  and  lias  but  little  fat.  Jahn  thinks  the 
smaller  lobe  to  be  meant.  The  phrase  is  also  rendered 
in  the  Sept.  "  tlie  lobe  or  lower  pendent  of  the  liver,"  the 
chief  object  of  attention  in  the  art  of  hepatoscopy,  or 
divination  by  the  liver,  among  the  ancients.  (Jerome 
gives  "  the  net  of  the  liver,"  "  the  suet,"  and  "  the  fat;" 


LIVERPOOL  LITURGY 


465 


LIVING  CREATURES 


see  Bochart,  llieroz.  i,  498.)  See  Cauu  It  appears 
from  the  same  passages  tliat  it  was  burnt  upon  the  al- 
tar, and  not  eaten  as  sacriticial  food  (Jahn,  Bibl.  A  r- 
chmol.  §  378,  n.  7).  The  liver  was  supposed  by  the  an- 
cient Greeks  and  Romans  to  be  the  seat  of  the  passions 
— pride,  love,  etc.  (see  Anacreon,  Ode  iii,  fin. ;  Theocritus, 
IdijU.  xi,  IG;  Horace,  Carm.  i,  13,  4 ;  25,  15;  iv,  1,  12; 
and  the  Notes  of  the  Delphin  edition.  Comp.  also  Per- 
sius,  Sat.  V,  129 ;  Juvenal,  Sat.  v,  047).  Some  have  ar- 
gued that  the  same  symbol  prevailed  among  the  Jews 
(rendering  "^"ibs,  in  Gen.  xlix,  G, "  my  licer"  instead  of 
"  my  honor,"  Sept.  to.  i'^iraTa  ;  compare  the  Hebrew  of 
Psa.  xvi,  9;  Ivii,  9;  cviii,  2),  but  Gesenius  {llcbr.  Lex. 
s.  v.  1133)  denies  this  signification  in  those  passages. 
Wounds  in  the  liver  were  supposed  to  be  mortal ;  thus 
the  expression  in  Prov.  vii,  23, ''  a  dart  through  his  liv- 
er," and  Lam.  ii,  11,  "my  liver  is  poured  out  upon  the 
earth,"  are  each  of  them  a  periphrasis  for  death  itself, 
^schylus  uses  a  similar  phrase  to  describe  a  mortal 
wound  (-4 gamemnon,  1. 442).     See  Heart. 

The  passage  in  Ezekiel  (xxi,  21)  contains  an  interest- 
ing reference  to  the  most  ancient  of  all  modes  of  divina- 
tion, by  the  inspection  of  the  viscera  of  animals,  and 
even  of  mankind,  sacrificially  slaughtered  for  the  pur- 
pose.    It  is  there  said  that  the  king  of  Babylon,  among 
other  modes  of  divination  referred  to  in  the  same  verse, 
"  looked  upon  the  liver."     The  liver  was  always  con- 
sidered the  most  important  organ  in  the  ancient  art  of 
L'xti<piciujn,  or  divination  by  the  entrails.     Philostra- 
tus  felicitously  describes  it  as  "  the  prophesying  tripod 
of  all  divination"  (Life  of  Apollonius,  viii,  7,  5).     The 
rules  by  which  the  Greeks  and  Romans  judged  of  it  are 
amply  detailed  in  Adams's  Roman  Antiquities,  p.  261  sq. 
(Lond.  1834),  and  in  Potter's  Aj-chaeologia  Grceca,  i,  316 
(Lond.  1775).    Vitruvius  suggests  a  plausible  theory  of 
the  first  rise  of  hepatoscopy.     He  says  the  ancients  in- 
spected the  livers  of  those  animals  which  frequented  the 
places  where  they  wished  to  settle,  and  if  they  found 
the  liver,  to  which  they  chiefly  ascribed  the  process  of 
sanguification,  was  injured,  they  concluded  that  the  wa- 
ter and  nourishment  collected  in  such  localities  were 
unwholesome  (i,  4).     But  divination  is  coeval  and  co- 
extensive with  a  belief  in  the  divinity.    Cicero  ascribes 
divination  by  this  and  other  means  to  what  he  calls 
'•  the  heroic  ages,"  by  which  term  we  know  he  means  a 
period  antecedent  to  aU  historical  documents  {De  Ijii-i- 
natione').     Prometheus,  in  the  play  of  that  title  (i,  474 
sq.),  lays  claim  to  having  taught  mankind  the  different 
kinds  of  divination,  and  that  of  extispicy  among  the  rest; 
and  Prometheus,  according  to  Servius  (ad  Virg.  Eel.  vi, 
42),  instructed  the  Assyrians ;  and  we  know  from  sacred 
record  that  Assyria  was  one  of  the  countries  first  peo- 
pled.    It  is  further  important  to  remark  that  the  first 
recorded  instance  of  divination  is  that  of  the  teraphim 
of  Laban,  a  native  of  Padan-Aram,  a  district  bordering 
on  that  country  (1  Sam.  xix,  13, 16),  but  by  which  tera- 
phim both  the  Sept.  and  Josephus  understood  "  the  lii-er 
of  goats"  (.4  h/.  vi,  11,4).     See  Teraphim.     See  gener- 
ally Whiston's  Josephus,  p.  169,  note  (Edinb.  1828) ;  Bo- 
chart, i,  41,  Z>e  Caprarum  Nominihus ;  Encyclopeedia  Me- 
tropolitana,  s.  v.  Divination ;  Rosenmiiller's  Scholia  on 
the  several  passages  referred  to ;  Perizonius,  ad  ^-Elian, 
ii,  31 ;  Peucer,  Be  Preecipins  Divinationum  Generibus, 
etc.  (Wittemberg,  15G0). — Kitto.     See  Divination. 
Liverpool  Liturgy.     See  Liturgy. 
Living  Creatures.    These,  as  presented  in  Ezek. 
i-x,  and  Rev.  iv  sq.,  are  identical  with  the  cherubim. 
Besides  the  general  resemblance  in  form,  position,  and 
service,  we  have,  Ezek.  x,  20 :  "  I  knew  that  they  were 
the  cherubim."     Ezekiel,  being  a  priest,  was  familiar 
With  these  symbolical  forms.     The  living  ones  present 
some  variations  from  the  cherubim,  but  not  greater  than 
appear  in  the  cheruljim  themselves.     The  discussion  of 
their  forms  and  probalile  uses  has  already  been  given, 
and  is  not  here  resumed.    See  CnERfB.    They  are  taken 
up  here  to  give  a  more  careful  attention  to  their  symbol- 
V.— Gg 


iVa?  utility.  The  importance  of  these  symbols  is  mani- 
fest, 1,  in  the  very  minute  description  of  them  ;  2,  in  the 
fact  that  they  do  in  some  way  pervade  the  entire  pe- 
riod of  grace,  from  the  expulsion  of  Adam  till,  in  the 
apocalyptic  vision,  we  arrive  at  the  gates  of  the  city, 
having  a  right  to  the  tree  of  life  in  the  midst  of  the  par- 
adise of  God — such  a  right  as  man  in  innocence  never 
attained.  They  were  placed  first  at  the  front  of  the 
garden  of  Eden ;  renewed  in  the  tabernacle ;  extended 
in  the  Temple ;  resumed  in  the  visions  of  Ezekiel ;  in- 
corporated in  the  book  of  Psalms ;  and  in  the  prospec- 
tive history  of  Revelation  they  are  left  with  us  till  the 
end  of  the  world.  The  seraphim  of  Isaiah  (ch.  vi)  ap- 
pear in  all  respects  to  be  the  same ;  though  differing  in 
name  and  in  position,  they  perform  the  same  service. 
Even  the  idolatrous  images,  the  teraphim,  were  proba- 
bly «n  miwarranted  and  superstitious  imitation  of  the 
figures  at  the  east  of  Eden.  True,  there  are  periods 
when  they  are  under  a  cloud,  e.  g.  from  the  Deluge  till 
the  erecting  of  the  tabernacle ;  still,  we  dare  not  say 
they  were  extinct,  for  before  the  tabernacle  was  built  in 
the  wilderness  we  read  of  another,  called  the  tabernacle 
of  the  congregation  (Exod.  xxxiii,  7-11).  There  is 
much  mystery  about  them,  and  many  mistakes  occur 
among  expositors  in  relation  to  them.  1.  They  are  not 
angels,  nor  do  they  represent  the  peculiar  ministry  of 
angels.  («)  The  Scriptures  know  no  such  orders  as 
angels,  archangels,  cherubim,  and  seraphim ;  the  orders 
of  angelic  nature  are  described  as  thrones,  dominions, 
principalities,  powers  (Col.  i,  16).  (b)  Angelic  power 
woidd  have  been  a  very  ineffectual  agency  for  offsetting 
the  sword  of  flame,  and  was  not  needed  to  wield  that 
sword  w'hicli  turns  on  its  own  axis,  (c)  The  living 
ones  are  distinguished  from  angels  in  Rev.  xv,  7.  (c^) 
They  join  the  elders  in  the  new  song, "  Hast  redeemed 
us  to  God  by  thy  blood,"  etc.  (Rev.  v,  9).  (e)  Angels 
take  but  a  small  part  in  the  direct  administration  of 
grace;  they  rather  point  the  inquirer,  and  furnish  as- 
sistance to  the  administrator  (Acts  x,  3  ;  Rev.  i,  1 ;  1 
Chron.  xxi,  18 ;  Acts  xii,  7).  2.  Nothing  vindictive  or 
judicial  belongs  to  them,  (jt)  There  is  no  need  of  such 
power ;  the  sword  and  the  fire  imbody  the  whole  power 
of  justice,  (b)  We  never  find  them  executing  ^uAgment, 
though  they  concur  in  it  when  executed,  (c)  They 
warn  of  danger  from  divine  justice  (Isa.  vi,  3-5).  (rZ) 
They  call  attention  to  justice  (Rev.  vi,  1,  3,  5,  7).  (<?) 
They  deliver  the  commission  to  those  who  execute  it 
(Ezek.  X,  2,  7;  Rev.  xv,  7).  (_/')  They  join  in  celebra- 
ting the  triumph  over  the  victims  of  judgment  (Rev. 
xix,  4).  Very  different  is  their  function  in  the  admin- 
istration of  grace ;  there  they  make  application  of  the 
remedy  to  the  very  spot  (Isa.  vi,  6,  7),  3.  They  are  not 
devoid  of  human  sympathy,  (ct)  I'hey  have  the  face 
of  a  man.  (b)  They  have  the  hands  of  a  man  under 
their  wings  (Ezek.  i,  8).  (c)  When  the  prophet  was 
alarmed  ("  undone"),  one  of  them  brought  him  instant 
relief— just  such  relief  as  he  felt  in  need  of.  (d)  The 
throne  Avhich  they  bear  has  a  man  above  upon  it  (Ezek. 
i,  26).  (e)  In  Rev.  iv,  6,  we  find  them  in  the  midst  of 
the  same  throne,  and  round  about  it.  (f)  They  asso- 
ciate with  the  elders  in  sympathy  with  the  one  hundred 
and  forty-four  thousand  who  sing  the  new  song  (Rev. 
xiv,  3),  and  with  the  Church  in  celebrating  the  over- 
throw of  her  enemies  (Rev.  xix,  4).  They  thus  abound 
in  the  sympathies  of  a  redeemed  humanity. 

(I.)  In  general  terms  they  represent  mercy,  as  contra- 
distinguished from  justice.  1.  They  are  distinct  from 
the  sword,  as  already  shown.  If,  in  Ezek.  i,  6,  they 
seem  to  be  evolved  out  of  the  fire,  this  is  no  more  than 
we  have  already  in  the  first  promise,  where  the  death  of 
death  is  our  life;  and  in  Psa.  cxxxvi,  10  sq.  2.  They 
were  united  to  the  iXaariipiov,  the  mercy-scat  itself. 
3.  They  belonged  to  the  holy  of  holies,  both  the  larger 
figures  of  olive-tree,  and  the  smaller  of  pure  gold ;  but 
this  chamber  was  a  type  of  heaven  (Heb.  ix.  24).  4. 
Other  cherubic  emblems  were  wrought  on  the  inner  cur- 
tains of  the  tabernacle,  and  inner  walls  of  the  Temple, 


LIVINGSTON 


46G 


LIVINGSTON 


both  Solomon's  and  Ezekiel's  (1  Kings  vi,  29 ;  Ezek.  xli, 
18-20).  All  is  mercy  inside  of  the  Temple.  5.  The  like 
figures  were  made  on  the  washstands  of  the  Temple,  in- 
terspersed with  lions  and  oxen  (1  Kings  vii,  29 ;  "  lions 
and  palm-trees,"  ver.  3() ;  comp.  Eph.  v,  20 ;  Titus  iii,  6). 
0.  The  lirraament  over  their  heads,  with  its  throne  and 
man  upon  it  (Ezek.  i,  20,  27,  combines  Exod.  xxiv,  10 
with  Kev.  i,  15).  7.  The  i7'is  surroimding  all  this  glorj' 
of  the  Lord  puts  on  the  finish  to  that  institution  where 
mercy  rejoices  against  judgment  (Ezek.  i,  28). 

(II.)  They  seem  to  represent  mercy  in  its  dispensa- 
tion, so  to  speak — in  its  instrumentalities,  with  all  their 
hiteresting  and  happy  varieties.  AVhile  the  swoj-d=the 
whole  power  of  justice,  deters  man  from  entering  the 
earthly  paradise ;  drives  men  away  in  their  wickedness ; 
awakes  against  the  Shepherd;  torments  enemies  in  the 
second  death ;  on  the  contrary,  the  living  ones  represent 
the  entire  administration  of  mercy  (Ezek.  i,  12 :  '•  Whith- 
er the  spirit  was  to  go,  they  went ;"  ver.  20  :  "  Thither 
was  their  spirit  to  go").  "Wliether  an  organized  Church, 
an  open  Bible,  an  altar,  or  a  temple ;  whether  patriarchs 
or  prophets,  priests  or  presbyters ;  apostles,  John  the 
Baptist,  or  Christ  himself;  evangelists,  pastors,  or  teach- 
ers ;  whether  angelic  messengers,  or  httle  children,  be 
the  instrumentalities  in  dispensing  the  grace  of  God, 
the  qualities  of  cherubim  are,  and  ought  to  be,  the  char- 
acteristics with  which  they  are  imbued :  the  courage 
and  power  of  the  lion ;  the  patience  and  perseverance 
of  the  ox ;  the  sublimity,  rapidity,  and  penetration  of 
the  eagle  ;  with  the  sympathetic  love  and  prudent  fore- 
cast of  our  own  humanity ;  each  one  full  of  eyes,  within 
and  without  (Eph.  iv,  IG).  In  this  view  they  do,  as  it 
were,  bring  God  near  to  men. 

(III.)  The  cherubim,  in  this  dispensation  of  mercy, 
bring  out  prominently  the  idea  of  the  throne  of  God — 
the  throne  of  grace  (Ezek.  i,  26:  "  Likeness  of  a  throne"). 
In  I'salm  xcix,  1,  "  The  Lord  reigneth"  is  parallel  with 
"inhabiting  the  cherubim."  Both  in  the  tabernacle 
and  Temple  the  Shekinah  was  between  the  two  cher- 
ubim, which  seemed  to  constitute,  with  the  lid  of  the 
ark,  the  verj'  throne  itself,  according  to  Exod.  xxv,  22, 
and  Ezek.  xliii,  7.  In  the  versions  of  Ezekiel,  the  cher- 
ubim seem  to  support  the  throne  ;  in  Isa.  vi,  2,  and  Rev. 
iv,  G-9,  they  appear  as  attendants.  To  the  English 
reader  the  seraphim  might  seem  to  be  above  the  flu-one, 
but  the  original  places  them  above  the  Temple,  in  which 
position  they  ma}'  still  be  below  the  throne,  for  the 
skirts  of  his  robe  tiow  down  and  till  the  holy  house. 

(IV.)  The  idea  of  carrying  tlie  throne,  or  bearing 
royalty  in  his  throne  from  one  place  to  another,  brings 
us  to  the  acme  of  the  whole  cherubic  system — "the 
chariot  of  the  Lord.'''  The  key-note  of  this  is  given  in 
1  Chron.  xxviii,  18:  '-Gold  for  the  pattern  of  the  char- 
iot...  .  the  cherubim  that  spread  out  their  wings  and 
covered  the  ark  of  the  covenant  of  the  Lord ;"  compare 
Psa.  xviii,  10  :  "  He  rode  upon  a  cherub ;"  and  Hab.  iii, 
8, 13, 15.  These  figures  constituted  a  "  moving  throne." 
Sec  Ci'.KATrRE.     (K.  II.) 

Livingston,  Gilbert  Robert,  D.D.,  a  (Dutch) 
Eeformed  minister,  a  descendant  of  the  celebrated  Ilev. 
John  Livingston  (q.  v.),  was  born  at  Stamford,  Conn., 
Oct.  8,  1786,  and  graduated  at  Union  College  in  1805. 
He  studied  theologj'  imder  Kev.  Dr.  Perkins,  of  Great 
Hartford,  Conn.,  and  Rev.  Dr.  John  Henry  Livingston 
(q.  v.).  In  1811  he  l)ecame  i)astor  of  the  Reformed  Dutch 
Church  in  Coxsackic,  N.Y.,  where  about  six  hundred  per- 
sons were  the  fruits  of  his  ministry  of  fifteen  years.  In 
1826  he  removed  to  Philadeliihia  as  pastor  of  the  First 
(Dutch)  Reformed  (or  Crown  Street)  Church.  Here 
again  his  ministry  was  greatly  blessed,  three  hundred 
and  twenty  persons  being  added  to  the  Church,  and 
over  one  hundred  in  a  single  year.  He  died  jNIarch  9, 
1834.  He  was  a  man  of  large, physical  frame,  benevo- 
lent countenance,  and  amiable  temjier.  His  |ireacliing 
was  practical,  and  addressed  more  to  the  understanding 
and  conscience  of  the  people  than  to  their  feelings.  His 
pastoral  labors  were  incessant  and  successful.     At  one 


period  of  his  life  he  embraced  what  were  generally 
known  as  "New  Measures,"  but  he  lived  to  abandon 
them  in  his  later  ministry.  A  single  sermon  and  a 
tract  are  all  that  he  is  known  to  have  published. — 
Sprague,  Annals;  Corwin's  Manual  Eef.  Chttrch ;  Fu- 
neral Sermon  bv  C.  C.  Cuvler,  D.D. ;  Historical  Dis- 
course by  W.  J.  R.  Taylor,  D.D.     (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

Livingston,  Henry  Gilbert,  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, was  born  at  Coxsackie,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  3, 1821,  graduated 
at  Williams  College  in  1840,  was  principal  of  Clinton 
Academy  (now  Hamilton  College)  for  two  j'ears,  studied 
theology  in  Union  Theological  Seminar}',  N.  Y.,  where 
he  graduated  in  1844,  and  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the 
Presbytery  of  Long  Island  in  the  following  autumn.  He 
became  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  church  of  Carmel,  N. 
Y.,  in  1844,  but  removed  in  1849  as  pastor  of  the  Tliird 
Reformed  Dutch  Church  of  Philadelphia.  Resigning 
in  1854  on  account  of  feeble  health,  he  returned  to  Car- 
mel, and  became  principal  of  the  Raymond  Institute, 
and  also  supplied  the  vacant  church  of  which  he  was 
formerly  pastor.  He  died  suddenly,  Jan.  25, 1855.  "  No 
doubts,  no  fears,  no  darkness"  beclouded  his  dying 
hours.  IMr.  Livingston  was  a  man  of  noble  mould,  tall, 
massive,  intellectual,  modest,  amiable,  dignified  in  man- 
ners, somewhat  reserved,  diffident,  and  self-distrustful. 
His  character  was  finely  balanced.  True  manliness, 
transparent  simplicity,  moral  purity,  generosity,  and  the 
most  delicate  sensibility,  were  blended  with  deep  jiiety 
and  beautifid  consistency  of  life,  with  a  holy  ministry 
and  a  full  use  of  all  his  talents.  Only  two  of  his  dis- 
courses \vere  published.  See  Memorial  Sermon  by  W. 
J.  R.  Tavlor,  D.D.,  and  Sprague's  Annals,  vol.  ix.  (W, 
J.  R.  T.) 

Livingston,  John,  a  noted  Scottish  Presbyterian 
divine,  was  born  in  1003,  and  was  educated  at  Glasgow, 
where  he  took  the  degree  of  A.M.  in  1021.  He  entered 
the  ministry,  and  soon  distinguished  himself  as  an  able 
preacher.  A  zealous  Covenanter,  he  opposed  the  ejiis- 
copal  government  of  the  Church  after  the  Restoration, 
and  on  this  account  suftered  many  inconveniences. 
Very  remarkable  in  his  life  was  the  result  wliich  fol- 
lowed his  preaching  on  a  special  fast-day  appointed  by 
the  "Kirk  of  Shotts,"  June  21, 1630.  He  was  at  this 
time  domestic  chaplain  to  the  countess  of  Wigton. 
Later  he  became  minister  at  Ancram.  He  was  twice 
suspended  from  his  pastoral  office,  but,  his  opposition  to 
the  government  continuing,  he  was  banished  the  king- 
dom in  1603.  He  retired  to  Holland,  and  became  min- 
ister of  a  Scottish  church  at  Rotterdam.  There  he  died 
in  1672.  He  -wrote  his  Autobioi/raphi/  (Glasgow,  1754, 
12mo) ;  also  Lives  of  eminent  Scottish  Divines  (1754, 
8vo).  See  Chambers,  Biog.  Diet,  of  eminent  Scotsmen,  s. 
v.;  A.  Gunn,  Memoirs  oj'  John  Livingsion  (N.  Y.  1829)  ; 
Gorton,  Biog.  Diet.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Livingston,  John  Henry,   D.D.,  S.T.P.,  the 

"father  of  the  Refornud  Dutch  (.'hiuTh  in  this  coun- 
try," and  ill  many  respects  its  most  celebrated  re]ircsciit- 
ativc,  was  born  at  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  May  30,  1746, 
son  of  Henry  Livingston,  and  a  Uneal  descendant  in  the 
fourth  generation  from  the  Rev.  John  Livingston,  of 
Scotland.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1762,  and 
then  studied  law  for  two  years,  when  his  healtli  gave 
way  under  his  close  application,  and  he  was  obliged  to 
discontinue  it.  About  this  time  he  was  converted,  and 
then  directed  his  attention  to  the  Christian  nunistry. 
By  advice  of  Dr.  Laidhe,  of  New  York,  he  went  to  Eu- 
rope to  complete  his  theological  studies  at  the  L'nivcrsi- 
ty  of  Utrecht,  in  Holland,  where  he  remained  four  years, 
and  was  licensed  to  preach  tlie  CJospel  by  the  Classis  of 
Amsterdam.  Having  received  a  call  to  become  pastor 
and  second  preacher  in  English  of  the  Churcli  of  New 
York,  he  passed  examination  at  the  university  fur  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  divinity,  returned  to  New  York  Sept. 
3,  1770,  and  at  once  began  his  labors  as  pasttjr  of  the 
Church.  Here  he  soon  established  his  great  reputation 
as  a  pulpit  orator  and  as  a  learned  theologian ;  but  his 


LIVONIA 


467 


LIVONIA 


gjrand  ecclesiastical  achievement  was  the  settlement  of 
the  old  and  bitter  controversy  between  the  "Coetus"  and 
"  Conferentie''  parties  of  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church, 
and  the  consummation  in  about  two  years  of  the  union, 
which  has  never  since  been  broken.  His  pastoral  rela- 
tion to  the  Church  in  New  York  continued  forty  years — 
1770  to  1810 — although  during  the  Revolutionary  War 
he  was  obliged  to  leave  the  city,  and  upon  his  return 
in  1783  he  found  himself  the  sole  pastor,  and  so  re- 
mained for  three  years.  The  next  year  he  was  appoint- 
ed professor  of  theology,  and  retained  this  office,  with 
his  pastorate,  until  1810,  when  he  removed  to  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.,  at  the  request  of  the  spiod,  and  open- 
ed the  theological  seminary  in  that  city,  occupying,  in 
connection  with  it,  the  presidency  of  Queens,  now  Rut- 
gers College.  These  two  offices  he  held  until  his  death 
in  1825.  It  is  difficult,  in  this  brief  notice,  even  to  sum 
up  the  services  and  character  of  this  eminent  man. 
More  than  four  hundred  souls  were  received  into  the 
Church  on  profession  of  their  faith  during  the  three 
years  of  his  sole  pastorate  after  the  war.  Nearly  two 
luuidred  young  men  were  trained  by  him  for  the  min- 
istry of  the  Church.  To  him,  more  than  to  any  other 
man,  is  due  the  credit  of  the  separate  organization  of 
the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church  in  this  country.  He 
principally  shaped  its  Constitution ;  he  prepared  its  first 
psalm  and  h3-mn  book.  His  theological  lectures  still 
form  the  basis  of  didactic  and  polemic  instruction  in  th^ 
theological  seminary  of  which  he  was  the  founder  and 
father.  The  whole  denomination  is  reaping  to-day  the 
fruits  of  the  sacrifices  which  lie  made  for  it.  His  influ- 
ence in  the  Church  was  like  that  of  Washington  in  the 
nation.  His  grand  and  eloquent  sermon,  preached  be- 
fore the  New  York  Missionary  Society  in  1804,  from 
Rev.  xi\-,  6,  7,  was  one  of  the  leading  influences  in  that 
revival  of  the  missionary  spirit  which  gave  Samuel  J. 
]\lills  and  his  j'oung  friends  to  the  work,  and  which  re- 
sulted in  the  subsequent  organization  of  the  "American 
Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions''  in  1813. 
Several  of  Dr.  Livingston's  occasional  productions  were 
published  by  himself,  and  a  posthumous  volume,  con- 
taining a  syllabus  of  his  theological  lectures,  was  issued 
by  the  Rev.  Jesse  Fonda,  one  of  his  pupils.  His  death, 
at  his  residence  in  New  Brunswick,  January  19,  18-25, 
was  like  a  translation,  without  pain  or  complaint,  "  in 
a  moment,  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye."  His  wife, 
Sarah  Livingston,  whom  he  married  in  October,  1775, 
■was  the  daughter  of  Philip  Livingston,  one  of  the  sign- 
ers of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  Like  him.  Dr. 
Livingston  was  an  ardent  and  fearless  patriot,  and  dur- 
ing all  of  the  Revolutionary  struggle  he  earnestly  sus- 
tained the  cause  of  freedom.  In  person  Dr.  Livingston 
was  tall,  commanding,  dignified,  and  imposing.  His 
features  were  regular  and  handsome.  His  manners 
were  refined  and  studiously  polite.  He  was  the  model 
of  the  Christian  gentleman.  In  his  later  years  his  ap- 
pearance was  truly  patriarchal.  His  piety  was  all-per- 
vading. As  a  preacher,  he  possessed  eminent  abilities. 
Ills  oratory  was  pecidiar  to  himself,  and  very  effective. 
It  was  fiUl  of  action,  variety,  and  power.  As  a  theo- 
logical teacher,  he  was  clear,  concise,  learned,  syste- 
matic, and  practical.  His  influence  over  his  students 
was  wonderful.  His  great  aim  was  to  make  them  ex- 
perimental ministers  of  Christ,  and  they  loved  and  rev- 
erenced him  almost  as  an  apostle.  Whatever  faults  he 
had  were  more  than  covered,  to  the  eyes  of  his  friends, 
by  his  majestic  bearing,  his  admirable  character,  his  pi- 
ous hfe,  and  fruitful  ministry,  and  by  his  services  to  the 
Church  of  Christ.  See  Dr.  (iunn's" /.j/c,  etc.,  abridged 
by  Dr.  T.  W.  Chambers ;  also  Sprague,  A  wiak,  vol.  ix,  an 
admirable  portraiture;  also  several  funeral  discourses, 
etc.     (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

Livonia,  the  largest  of  the  Baltic  provinces  of 
Russia  ;  area,  17,801  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  980,784.  The 
Oermans,  who  chiefly  live  in  the  towns,  number  about 
64,000  inhabitants;  the  remainder  are  mostly  cither 
Letts  (a  branch  of  the  Slavi,  kindred  to  the  Lithuanians) 


or  Esthonians,  who  are  of  Finnish  descent.  Christian- 
ity was  first  introduced  at  Riga  about  1180  by  merchants 
from  Bremen.  The  great  missionary  was  the  Augus- 
tinian  monk  Meinhard,  who  in  118G  established  the  first 
church  at  WexkUll,  on  the  Duna,  and  in  1191  was  con- 
secrated bishop  of  Livonia.  His  successor,  abbot  Ber- 
thold,  of  Loccum,  endeavored  to  accelerate  the  conver- 
sion of  the  Livonians  by  force  of  arms,  and  in  1198  fell 
in  a  victorious  battle  of  the  Crusaders.  Bishop  Albert, 
of  Apeldern,  in  1202  founded  the  Order  of  the  Knights  of 
the  Sword,  and  gradualh'  overcame  the  persistent  oppo- 
sition of  the  Livonians  to  the  enforcement  of  Christian- 
ity. After  his  death  (in  1229)  the  see  of  Riga  was  sep- 
arated from  the  ecclesiastical  province  of  Bremen,  and 
in  1246  made  an  independent  archbishopric.  The  union 
of  the  Order  of  the  Sword  with  the  Teutonic  Knight  se- 
cured the  subjection  and  Christianization  of  Livonia, 
but  involved  the  bishops  in  long-protracted  conflicts 
with  the  order,  which  hastened  the  decay  of  the  Church. 
The  army-master,  Walter  of  Plcttenberg  (1494-1531), 
adopted  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation,  and  converted 
Livonia  into  a  secular  duchy  imder  Polish  sovereignty. 
The  centre  of  the  reformatory  movement  was  in  Riga, 
where  the  Hussite  Nicolaus  Russ,  of  Rostock,  had,  from 
1511  to  1516,  prepared  the  way  for  a  religious  reforma- 
tion. Among  the  first  promoters  of  the  Lutheran  Ref- 
ormation were  Andreas  Knopken,  a  Lutheran  school- 
teacher from  Treptow,  in  Pomerania,  who  arrived  in 
Riga  in  1521,  and  Sylvester  Tagetmeier,  from  Hamburg, 
who  arrived  in  the  following  year.  Both  were  appoint- 
ed preachers  by  the  town  council,  in  spite  of  the  remon- 
strances of  the  archbishop.  In  Wolmar  and  Dorpat, 
Melchior  Hoffmann  labored  so  violently  in  behalf  of  the 
Reformation  that  he  created  dissatisfaction  even  among 
the  friends  of  the  movement,  and  had  to  leave  Livonia. 
Luther's  epistle  of  congratulation  and  exhortation  (1523) 
to  the  congregations  of  Riga,  Revel,  and  Dorpat  shows 
that  at  that  time  the  Reformation  had  made  considera- 
ble progress.  In  1524,  the  archbishop,  Caspar  Lindc,  of 
Riga,  died,  deeply  mortified  at  the  utter  failure  of  his 
zealous  efforts  for  saving  the  Catholic  Church.  His  suc- 
cessor, John  VII  Blankenfeld,  previously  bishop  of  Dor- 
pat and  Revel,  was  no  longer  recognised  by  the  town 
coimcil  of  Riga  as  sovereign,  and  in  1525  he  was  even 
made  a  prisoner.  LTndcr  the  archbishop  Wilhelm,  mar- 
grave of  Brandenburg,  who  in  1539  succeeded  Thomas 
Schonnig,  the  Reformation  spread  throughout  Livonia ; 
the  archbishop  himself  became  favorable  to  the  new 
doctrine,  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  the  Catholic 
Church  in  Livonia  had  almost  ceased  to  exist.  Johann 
Briesmann  (1527-31),  who  was  called  from  Kcinigsberg 
to  Riga,  drew  up  in  1530  the  first  agenda.  The  liturgy 
for  Revel  appeared  in  1561,  but  had  in  1572  to  yield  to 
that  of  Coiu-land.  The  Esthonian  catechism  and  the 
Livonian  hymn-book  of  IMathias  Knopken  were  likewise 
published  in  1561.  In  the  same  year  the  armj'-master 
Ketteler  concluded  a  treaty  with  Poland,  by  virtue  of 
which  Livonia  was  placed  under  the  sovereignty  of  Po- 
land; it  was  stipulated,  however,  that  the  Lutheran 
Church  of  Livonia  should  not  be  interfered  with.  In 
violation  of  this  treaty,  the  Jesuits  at  once  began  their 
agitation  for  the  restoration  of  the  Catholic  Church,  but 
the  Swedish  rule  again  secured  the  predominance  of 
Protestantism,  and  greatly  strengthened  it  by  establish- 
ing the  University  of  Dorpat.  A  new  liturgy  was  in- 
troduced in  1632,  a  new  agenda  in  1633 ;  at  the  same 
time,  a  Lettish  and  Esthonian  translation  of  the  Bible 
was  published.  In  the  18th  century  the  religious  life 
of  the  province  suffered  greatly  from  the  fact  that  most 
of  the  preachers,  being  called  from  Germany,  were  una- 
ble to  preach  in  the  native  languages.  The  sjiiritual 
destitution  of  many  country  districts  attracted  the  Mo- 
ravians, who  continued  their  zealous  labors  even  when, 
in  1743,  their  meetings  had  been  forbidden.  For  a  long 
time  they  conthied  themselves  to  the  Lutheran  Church  ; 
but  the  large  attendance  at  their  meetings  led  them 
(since  1817)  to  separate  from  the  Lutheran  Church. 


LIZARD 


468 


LIZARD 


The  latter  therefore,  began,  iii  1843,  to  engage  in  a  vig- 
orous contest  with  the  Moravians,  invoking  the  stipula- 
tions of  the  peace  of  Nystiidt  (1721),  in  which  Sweden 
had  cedoil  Livonia  to  Russia,  while  the  latter  contirmed 
the  privileges  of  the  Lutheran  Church.  The  Russian 
government  supported  the  Lutherans  against  the  Mo- 
ravians, but,  on  the  other  hand,  began  (1841)  to  make 
great  efforts  to  prevail  upon  the  Lettish  peasants  to  join 
the  Greek  Church.  Several  thousands  of  Letts  and  Li- 
vonians  succumbed  to  the  pressure  brought  upon  them 
bv  the  government,  and,  after  having  once  joined  the 
orthodox  Greek  Church,  they  were  forbidden  (as  many 
soon  desired)  to  return  to  the  Lutheran  Church.  iVll 
the  children  born  of  mixed  marriages  (Lutheran  and 
Greek)  must  be  educated  in  the  Greek  religion.  In 
1863,  the  Lutheran  bishop  Walter,  who  vigoroush'  stood 
up  for  the  defence  of  the  rights  of  his  Church,  had  to 
yield  to  an  intrigue,  and  not  until  1868  was  the  rigor  of 
the  Russian  government  against  the  Lutheran  Church 
somewhat  relaxed.  These  conflicts  have  awakened  a 
general  interest  in  the  religious  community,  to  which 
the  re-establishment  of  the  University  of  Dorpat  (1802) 
has  been  greatly  instrumental.  The  number  of  Roman 
Catholics  is  about  5000,  that  of  Greek  Catholics  is  esti- 
mated at  143,000 ;  the  remainder  are  Lutherans.  (A.  J.  S.) 

Lizard  appears  in  the  Auth.Vers.  in  but  one  pas- 
sage (Lev.  xi,  30)  as  the  rendering  of  ilJ<I35,  letadh'; 
but  different  species  of  the  animal  seem  to  be  desig- 
nated by  several  Hebrew  terms,  variously  rendered  in 
the  English  translation.  In  the  East  numerous  varie- 
ties of  these  reptiles  are  met  with  in  great  abundance, 
several  of  which  are  regarded  as  venomous  (Hasselquist, 
Trav.  p.  241,  344  sq.).  Others,  again,  are  used  by  the 
modern  Arabs  for  food  (comp.  also  Arrian,  Mai:  Eryth. 
p.  17,  ed.  Hudson),  whereas  the  Mosaic  law  (Lev.  xi) 
classes  them  among  unclean  animals. 

(1.)  Ko'ach  (ns,  s^;vh7//(,  Lev.  xi,  30;  Sept.  ;^a;uai- 
Xftur,  Auth.Vers.  "chameleon"),  prob.  the  Lacerta  siel- 
lio,  an  olive-brown  lizard,  with  black  and  white  spots, 
and  a  tail  about  a  span  long,  while  the  body  itself  is 
scarcely  of  this  length  (Hasselquist,  Tt-ai'.  p.  352;  fig- 
ure in  Riippel,  .4//(/.t,  tab.  2).  Bochart  {Ilieroz.  ii,  493 
sq.)  understands  this  term  to  refer  to  the  species  called 
El-waral,  which  exhibits  its  great  strength  (hence  its 
name)  in  combat  with  the  crocodile  and  serpents,  is  dis- 
gusting in  appearance,  and  said  to  be  poisonous  (Leon. 
Afric.  Descript.  Afric.  ix,  53).  But  Michaelis  {Suppl. 
2221)  and  Rosenmiiller  have  long  since  remarked  that 
the  derivation  of  the  name  koiich  is  perhaps  from  a  dif- 
ferent root.  According  to  the  Arabic  interpreters,  it  is 
the  land  crocodile,  or  a  species  of  it,  perhaps  the  Wai-an 
el-hard  or  shinh  (Lacei-fa  sciiicus),  which  sometimes  at- 
tains a  length  of  six  feet  or  more.     See  Chameleon. 

(2.)  Letaaii'  (nXi3^,perh.  so  called  from  its  hiding; 
Lev.  xi,  30;  Sept.  ^aXa/3air7/c,Yulg.  .s/c//to,  Auth.Vers. 
"lizard"),  perhaps  the  species  called  in  Egypt  Shecha- 
lit,  described  by  Forskal  (Descr.  p.  13)  as  a  delicate  lit- 
tle anitnal,  about  a  span  in  length  and  of  the  thickness 
of  the  thumb,  found  in  the  neighborhood  of  houses. 
Bochart  {Hieroz.  ii,  497  sq.)  maintains  that  it  is  the  wa- 
(jrat  of  the  Arabs,  a  kind  of  lizard  that  clings  close  to 
the  ground  (hence  his  derivation  from  an  Arabic  root, 
signifying  to  stick  to  the  earth),  to  which  also  the  Sept. 
alludes  (comp.  Oken,  Natiirr/esch.  Ill,  ii,  203).  Geddes 
regards  it  as  identical  with  the  Lacerta  fjecko. 

(3.)  Cho'met  (l3^H.  so  called  from  li/iiif/  close  to  the 
ground;  Lev.  xi^30;  Sept.  rrcj/'prr,  Auth.Vers.  "snail") 
has  been  supposed  by  Bochart  (ii,500  sq.)  to  mean  the 
Galkan,  a  species  of  lizard  that  burrows  in  the  sand  (on 
the  precarious  interpretation  of  the  Talmud).  The  in- 
terpretation snail  rests  on  no  better  foundation.  Both 
the  Aral)ic  interpreters  understand  the  chavidcon.  The 
species  intended  is  uncertain.    (See  Fuller, Miscell.  vi, 9.) 

(4.)  Anakah' (njrjX,  a  shriek;  Lev.  xi,  30;  Sept. 
and  Vulg.  shrewmouse,  A\it\\.\ firs,  "ferret")  is  regarded 


by  the  Arab.  Erpen.  as  the  Waral,  considered  by  some  as 
identical  with  the  Laceiia  Nilotica  (Hasselquist,  Trav. 
p.  3G1  sq.),  but  which  last  Forskal  {Descript.  A  niiniil.  p. 
13)  calls  Waran  (comp.  Robinson,  ii,  253).  The  Waral 
is  described  by  those  who  have  personally  seen  it  (see 
Leo  Afric.  Descr.  ix,  51)  as  having  a  length  of  three  or 
four  feet,  a  scaly,  very  strong,  grayish-yellow  skin,  and 
is  regarded  as  poisonous  in  every  part.  (See  Rosen- 
miiller, Alterth.  IV,  ii,  256  sq. ;  Gesen.  Thesaur.  p.  128.) 

(5.)  TsAB  (31£,  prob.  from  its  slufff/ishness ;  Lev.  xi, 
29 ;  Sept,  and  Vulg.  the  crocodile,  Auth.Vers. "  tortoise") 
is  doubtless  the  species  of  lizard  still  called  by  the  Arabs 
JJhab  (see  Bochart,  Hieroz.  ii,  463  sq.),  a  stupid  creature 
tenanting  rocky  waters.  According  to  Leo  Afric.  (ix, 
52),  it  is  about  a  yard  long,  without  poisonous  qualities, 
and  incapable  of  drinking.  They  are  caught  and  eaten 
in  the  desert.  Forskal  {Descript.  Animal,  p.  13)  and 
Hasselquist  {Trav.  p.  353  sq.)  appear  to  have  described 
it  under  the  name  oi Lacerta  ^Er/yjitiaca  (comp.  Paulus, 
Samml.  ii,  263).  According  to  Burckhardt  (11,863  sq.), 
it  has  a  scaly  skin  of  a  yeUow  color,  and  sometimes  at- 
tains a  length  of  eighteen  inches. 

(6.)  Tinshe'meth  (H'QkJSO,  the  hard  Jrea^Af?-;  Sept., 
Vulgate,  and  Auth.  Vers,  mole ;  Lev.  xi,  30 ;  being  the 
same  Heb.  word  used  in  Lev.  xi,  18 ;  Deut.  xiv,  16,  to 
describe  a  bird,  rendered  "  swan")  is  (according  to  Sa- 
adias)  a  species  of  lizard,  probably  the  Gecko  (Hassel- 
quist, Trav.  p.  356  sq.),  a  kind  described  as  having  a 
round  tail  of  moderate  length,  and  tufted  feet,  lamellated 
lengthwise  on  the  bottom,  said  to  be  peculiar  for  ex- 
uding poison  from  the  divisions  of  its  toes,  eagerly  seek- 
ing spots  imbued  with  salt,  which  it  leaves  infected  with 
a  virus  that  engenders  leprosy  (see  also  Forskal,  p.  13). 
Bochart  (ii,  503  sq.)  understands  the  chameleon,  deriving 
the  etymology  from  the  ancient  belief  that  this  crea- 
ture lived  upon  the  air  (Pliny,  Hist,  Nut.  viii,  33,  51),  a 
notion  probably  derived  from  its  long  endurance  of  hun- 
ger. (See  Hasselquist,  Trav.  p.  348  sq. ;  Sonnini,  Trav. 
i,  87;  Oken,  iVa^u/'^escA.  Ill,  ii,  306  sq. ;  'R\xss&\,  Aleppo, 
ii,  128  sq.)     See  Chameleon. 

(7.)  Semamith'  (rr^^^b,  prob.  as  being  held  poi- 
sonous;  Prov.  XXX.  28;  Sept.  (caXo/3wr»;c,  Vulg.  stellio, 
Auth.Vers.  "spider")  is  mentioned  as  a  small  creature 
of  active  instmcts;  prob.  the  Arabic  saum,  a  poisonous 
lizard  with  leopard-like  spots  (Bochart,  Hieroz.  ii,  1084). 
Comp.  Rosenmuller,  Alterth.  IV,  ii,  268.     See  Spider. 

(8.)  Tannin'  ('piP)  or  Taknim'  (a^^iPl),  othersvise 
Tan  ("Fl),  seems  occasionally  to  signify  a  huge  land 
serpent  or  saurian.     See  Dkagon. 

(9.)  Liattathan'  ("rrilb)  sometimes  stands  for  the 
largest  of  the  lizard  tribe,  the  crocodile. — "Winer.  See 
Leviathan. 

Under  the  denomination  of  lizard  the  modern  zoolo- 
gist places  all  the  cold-blooded  animals  that  have  the 
conformation  of  seqients  with  the  addition  of  four  feet. 
Thus  viewed  as  one  great  family,  they  constitute  the 
Saurians,  Lacertinw,  and  Lacertidai  of  authors,  embra- 
cing numerous  geuerical  divisions,  which  commence 
w'ith  the  largest,  that  is,  the  crocodile  group,  and  pass 
through  sundry  others,  a  variety  of  species,  formidalde, 
disgusting,  or  pleasing  in  appearance — some  equally  fre- 
quenting the  land  and  water,  others  absolutely  conlined 
to  the  earth  and  to  the  most  arid  deserts;  and,  tliough 
in  general  harmless,  there  are  a  fe^\•  with  disputed  prop- 
erties, some  being  held  to  jjoison  or  corrode  by  means  of 
the  exudation  of  an  ichor,  and  others  extolled  as  aphro- 
disiacs, or  of  medical  use  in  pharmacy  ;  but  these  prop- 
erties in  most,  if  not  in  all,  are  undetermined  or  illusory. 
One  of  the  best  known  of  these  is  the  common  chame- 
leon {Chamaleo  ridgarig).  See  Chameleon.  When  it 
is  considered  that  the  regions  of  Syria,  Arabia,  and  Egypt 
are  overrun  with  animals  of  this  family,  there  is  every 
reason  to  expect  allusion  to  more  than  one  genus  in  the 
Scriptures,  where  so  many  observations  and  similes  are 
derived  from  the  natural  objects  vv'hich  were  familiar 


LIZARD 


469 


LIZARD 


to  the  various  writers. 


and  in  ruins  in  even'  part  of  Palestine  and  the 
adjacent  comitries.  There  is  one  species  partic- 
idarly  abundant  and  small,  well  known  in  Arabia 
by  the  name  of  Sarabcvidi.  We  now  come  to  the 
SfeUiones,  wliich  have  been  confounded  with  the 
noxious  geckos  and  otliers  from  the  time  of  Al- 
drovandus,  and  tlience  have  been  a  source  of  in- 
extricable trouble  to  commentators.  They  are 
best  known  by  the  bundles  of  starlike  spines  on 
the  body.  Among  these  Lacerta  stellio,  Sttllio 
Oi'ientalis,  the  kooklCh\oq  of  the  Greeks,  and 
hardiai  of  the  Arabs,  is  abundant  in  the  East,  and 
a  great  frequenter  of  ruinous  walls.  The  genus 
Uroinastix  offers  SielJio  fpim'pes  of  Daudin  or  Ur- 
sjnnipes,  two  or  three  feet  long,  of  a  fine  green, 
and  is  the  species  which  is  believed  to  strike  v.-itli 
the  tail ;  hence  formerly  denominated  Caudce  vcr- 
bera.  It  is  frequent  in  the  deserts  around  Egj-pt, 
and  is  probably  the  Guaril  of  the  Arabs.  Another 
subgenus,  named  Trapelus  by  Cuvier,  is  exempli- 
fied in  the  7V.  ^■Er/ypliacus  of  Geoff.,  with  a  spi- 
nous swelled  body,  but  remarkable  for  the  faculty 
Among  the  names  enumerated  i  ofchanging  color  more  rapidly  than  the  chameleon.   Next 


Chamcelco  Vulgaris. 


above,  Bochart  refers  3iJ,  tsuh  (Lev.  xi,  29),  to  one  of  the 
group  of  Monitors  or  Varanus,  the  Nilotic  lizard,  Z(/ce?-- 
ta  Nilotica,  Varanus  I^'iloticus,  or  Waran  of  the  Arabs. 
Like  the  others  of  this  form,  it  is  possessed  of  a  tail 
double  the  length  of  the  body,  but  is  not  so  well  known 
in  Palestine,  where  there  is  only  one  real  river  (Jordan), 
and  that  not  tenanted  by  this  species.  It  appears  that 
tlic  true  crocodile  frequented  the  shores  and  marshes  of 
the  coast  down  to  a  comparatively  late  period,  and  there- 
fore it  may  well  have  had  a  more  specific  name  than 
leviathan — a  ^vord  apparently  best  suited  to  the  digni- 
fied and  lofty  diction  of  the  prophets,  and  clearly  of 
more  general  signification  than  the  more  colloquial  des- 
ignation. Jerome  was  of  this  opinion ;  and  it  is  thus 
likely  that  fsab  was  applied  to  both,  as  Wcu-an  is  now 
considered  only  a  variety  of,  or  a  young,  crocodile. 
There  is  a  second  of  the  same  group,  Lacerta  scinciis 
of  iMerrem  {Varanus  arenarius),  Waran  el-hard,  also 
reaching  to  six  feet  in  length ;  and  a  third,  not  as  yet 
clearly  described,  which  appears  to  be  larger  than  either, 
growing  to  nine  feet,  and  covered  with  bright  cupreous 
scales.  This  last  prefers  rocky  and  stony  situations. 
One  of  the  last  mentioned  pursues  its  prey  on  land  with 
a  rapid  bounding  action,  feeds  on  the  larger  insects,  and 
is  said  to  attack  game  in  a  body,  sometimes  destroj'ing 
even  sheep.  The  Arabs,  in  agreement  with  the  an- 
cients, assert  that  this  species  will  do  fierce  and  victori- 
ous battle  with  serpents.  Considerations  like  these  in- 
duce us  to  assign  the  Hebrew  name  Xyz,  Lvach  (a  desig- 
nation of  strength)  to  the  species  of  the  desert ;  and  if 
the  Nilotic  tcaran  be  the  tsab,  then  the  Arabian  dhab, 
as  Bruce  asserts,  will  be  Varanus  arenarius,  or  waran 
el-hard  of  the  present  familiar  language,  and  chardaun 
the  larger  copper-colored  species  above  noticed.  But  it 
is  evident  from  the  Arabic  authorities  quoted  by  Bo- 
chart, and  from  his  own  conclusions,  that  there  is  not 
only  confusion  among  the  species  of  lizard,  but  that  the 
ichneumon  of  EgjiDt  (Jlorpestes  rharaunis)  is  mixed  up 
with  the  historj'  of  these  saurians. 

We  come  next  to  the  group  of  lizards  more  properly 
so  called,  which  Hebrew  commentators  take  to  be  the 
ilNub,  letaah,  a  name  having  some  allusion  to  poison 
and  atlhesiveness.  The  word  occurs  only  once  (Lev.  xi, 
30),  where  saurians  alone  appear  to  be  indicated.  If 
the  Heb.  root  were  to  guiiie  the  decision,  letaah  would 
be  another  name  for  the  yecko  or  anaka/i,  for  there  is  but 
one  species  which  can  be  deemed  venomous ;  and  with 
regard  to  the  quality  of  adhesiveness,  though  the  geckos 
possess  it  most,  numerous  common  lizards  run  up  and 
down  perpendicular  walls  with  great  facility.  We 
therefore  take  i:'ain,  chomet,  or  the  sand  lizard  of  Bo- 
chart, to  be  the  true  lizard,  several  (probably  many) 
species  existing  in  myriads  on  the  rocks  in  sandy  places, 


we  place  the  Geckotians,  among  which  comes  Hpi  N,  ana- 
kah,  in  our  versions  denominated/e?7-e^,  but  which  is  with 
more  propriety  transferred  to  the  noisy  and  venomous 
abu-hurs  of  the  Arabs.  There  is  no  reason  for  admitting 
the  verb  p3X,  anak,  to  groan,  to  cry  out,  as  radical  for  the 
name  of  the  ferret,  an  animal  totally  unconnected  with 
the  preceding  and  succeeding  species  in  Lev.  xi,  29,  30, 
and  originally  found,  so  far  as  Ave  know,  only  in  West- 
ern Africa,  and  thence  conveyed  to  Spain,  prowling 
noiselessly,  and  beaten  to  death  without  a  groan,  though 
capable  of  a  feeble,  short  scream  when  at  play,  or  when 
suddenly  wounded.  Taking  the  interpretation  •'  to  cry 
out,"  so  little  applicable  to  ferrets,  in  conjunction  with 
the  whole  verse,  Ave  find  the  gecko,  like  all  the  species 
of  this  group  of  lizards,  remarkable  for  the  loud  i: rating 
noise  Avhicli  it  is  apt  to  i\tter  in  the  roofs  and  walls  of 
houses  all  the  night  through ;  one,  indeed,  is  sufficient 
to  dispel  the  sleep  of  a  Avhole  family.  The  particidar 
species  most  probably  meant  is  the  Lacerta  gecko  of 
Hasselquist,  the  Gecko  lobatus  of  GeoffroA',  distingidshed 
by  having  the  soles  of  the  feet  dilated  and  striated  like 
open  fans,  from  Avhich  a  poisonous  ichor  is  said  to  ex- 
ude, inflaming  the  human  skin,  and  infecting  food  that 
may  have  been  trod  upon  by  the  animal.  See  Fkreet. 
Hence  the  Arabic  name  of  abn-burs,  or  '•  father  of  lepro- 
sy," at  Cairo.  The  species  extends  northAvards  in  Syria, 
but  it  may  be  doubted AAhether  the  Gecko  Jascicularis,  or 
tarentola  of  South-eastern  Europe,  be  not  also  an  inhabi- 
tant of  Palestine;  and  in  that  case  the  ri^TZ^p,  sema- 
mith  of  Bochart,  Avould  find  an  appropriate  location.  To 
these  AA'e  add  the  Chameleons  proper;  and  then  folloAvs 
the  Scincus  (in  antiquity  the  name  of  Varanus  arena- 
rius), among  Avhicli  Lacerta  scincus,  Linn.,  or  Scincus 
officinedis,  is  the  El-adda  of  the  Arabs,  figured  by  Bruce, 
and  Avell  knoAA-n  in  the  old  pharmacy  of  Europe.  S. 
Cyprius,  or  Lacerta  Cypritis  scincoides,  a  large  greenish 
species,  marked  Avith  a  pale  line  on  each  tlank,  occurs 
also;  and  a  third,  <SV/«rKs  variegafus  or  ocillatus,  often 
noticed  on  account  of  its  round  black  spots,  each  marked 
Avitli  a  pale  streak,  and  commonly  haA-ing  likewise  a 
stripe  on  each  flank,  of  a  pale  color.  Of  the  species  of 
Seps,  that  is,  viviparous  serpent-lizards,  having  the  body 
of  snakes,  AA-ith  four  Aveak  limbs,  a  species  Avith  only 
three  toes  on  each  foot,  the  Lacerta  chaleides  of  Linn., 
appears  to  extend  to  Syria.— Kitto.  See  further  details 
in  the  Penny  CyclopcBclia,  s.  y.  Yaranida; ;  Wood,  £ible 
A  nimals,  p.  534  sq. 

From  this  examination,  it  appears  probable  that  the 
generic  name  for  the  lizard  among  the  HebreAvs  (being 
the  only  one  thus  rendered  in  the  Auth.  Version)  is  the 
nx::?,  letaah,  Avliich,  although  an  unclean  animal,  does 
not  usually  designate  a  poisonous  species.     Among  the 


LIZEL 


470 


LLORENTE 


various  kinds  with  which  the  East  abounds,  the  Lacerta 
stellio,  or  starry  Hzard,  may  be  selected  as  probably  af- 
fordinjij  the  best  type  of  the  scriptural  terms,  or  at  least 
oi  letaiih  in  general,  as  it  is  the  most  common  in  Egypt 
and  Palestine.  It  is  covered  with  tubercles,  and  is  of  a 
gray  color.  It  lives  in  the  holes  of  walls,  and  under 
stones,  and  covers  itself  with  dirt.     Belon  states  that  it 


Lcutita  'iUllio 


sometimes  attains  the  size  of  a  weasel.  This  is  said  to 
be  the  lizard  which  infests  the  Pyramids,  and  in  other 
countries  where  it  is  found,  harbors  in  the  crevices  and 
between  the  stones  of  old  walls,  feeding  on  flies  and  oth- 
er winged  insects.  This  may  be  the  species  intended 
by  Bruce  when  he  says, ''  The  number  I  saw  one  day,  in 
the  great  court  of  the  Temple  of  the  Sun  at  Baalbek, 
amounted  to  many  thousands;  the  ground,  the  walls, 
the  stones  of  the  ruined  buildings,  were  covered  with 
them ;  and  the  various  colors  of  which  they  consisted 
made  a  verj^  extraordinary  appearance,  glittering  under 
the'  sun,  in  which  they  lay  sleeping  and  basking."  Lord 
Lindsay  also  describes  the  ruins  at  Jerash  (the  ancient 
Gerasa)  as  "absolutely  alive  with  lizards."  Near  Suez, 
he  speaks  of  "  a  species  of  gray  lizard ;"  and  on  the  as- 
cent towards  Mount  Sinai,  "  hundreds  of  little  lizards  of 
the  color  of  the  sand,  and  called  by  the  natives  scn-a- 
bandi,  were  darting  about."  In  the  Syrian  desert.  Ma- 
jor Skinner  says,  "  The  ground  is  teeming  with  lizards ; 
the  sun  seems  to  draw  them  from  the  earth,  for  some- 
times, when  I  have  fixed  my  eye  upon  one  spot,  I  have 
fancied  that  the  sands  were  getting  into  life,  so  many 
of  these  creatures  at  once  crept  from  their  holes."  Wil- 
kinson says,  '•  In  Egypt,  of  the  lizard  tribe,  none  but  the 
crocodile  seems  to  have  been  sacred.  Those  which  oc- 
cur in  the  hieroglyphics  are  not  emblematical  of  the 
gods,  nor  connected  with  religion."     See  Snail. 

Lizel,  Geoiig,  a  German  theologian,  was  born  at 
Ulm,  in  Wurtemberg,  Nov.  23,  1G94;  attended  succes- 
sively the  universities  of  Strasburg,  Leipsic,  Jena,  Halle, 
Wittenberg,  Altdorf,  and  Tubingen,  and  in  1735  became 
vicar  at  Weidenstettcn,  and  soon  after  pastor  at  Steinen 
Kirch;  but  in  173G,  ou  account  of  false  charges  against 
his  character,  he  lost  his  situation.  In  1737  he  was  ap- 
pointed subrector  at  the  Gymnasium  of  Ulm,  afterwards 
inspector  of  the  alumni  and  imperial  poet  laureate.  The 
Prussian  Koyal  Society  of  Duisburg,  and  the  German 
Society  of  Jena,  elected  him  a  member  of  their  respect- 
ive bodies.  He  died  jMar.  22, 17GI.  His  life  was  spent 
ill  the  investigation  of  science,  and  in  the  cause  of  re- 
ligion and  education.  While  at  the  universities  he  ex- 
plored numerous  antique  libraries,  and  the  results  he 
gave  to  the  jniblic  in  more  than  twenty  volumes.  As  a 
theologian  Lizel  was  faithful  to  his  Church,  and  con- 
fronted and  challenged  Romanism.  For  a  list  of  his 
works,  see  Diiring,  Gelehrte  T/ieol,  Deufsc/iL  vol,  ii,  s.  v. 

Llorente,  Don  Juan  Antonio,  the  noted  author 
of  a  historj'  of  the  Inquisition,  etc.,  was  borit  at  Eincon 
del  Soto,  near  Calahorra,  Spain,  March  30,  1756.  He 
studied  at  Tarascone  with  great  success,  and  received 
the  tonsure  when  but  fourteen  years  of  age.     In  1779 


he  was  ordained  priest,  and  took  his  degree  in  canon  law. 
At  tliis  time  the  liberal  ideas  prevailing  in  France  were 
beginning  to  make  their  way  into  Spain,  and  Llorente 
became  interested  in  them.  In  1781  he  was  named 
advocate  of  the  Council  of  Castile,  and  in  the  year  fol- 
lowing was  made  general  vicar  of  the  bishopric  of  Cala- 
horra. WhUe  in  this  position  he  appears  to  have  con- 
nected himself  with  the  Freemasons,  and,  although  this 
rumor  seems  to  have  been  generally  credited,  he  was 
nevertheless  appointed  commissary  of  the  Inquisition  in 
1785,  and  general  secretary  in  1789.  After  the  down- 
fall of  the  grand  inquisitor  he  attached  himself  to  the 
Liberal  minister  Jovellanos,  who  contemplated  a  relig- 
ious and  political  regeneration  of  Spain.  The  minister 
fell,  and  Llorente  was  involved  in  his  fall,  the  more 
surely  as  he  openly  expressed  his  sympathy  for  him. 
Suspected  by  his  superiors,  he  was  closely  watched.  He 
was  subjected  to  innumerable  petty  annoyances,  his  let- 
ters were  opened,  and,  without  any  reason  being  given 
for  the  measure,  was  deposed  from  his  situation,  and 
imprisoned  in  a  convent  for  one  month.  In  1805  he 
was  again  received  into  favor  as  the  reward  of  a  liter- 
ary service  of  a  very  questionable  character  which  he 
rendered  to  the  minister  Godoy.  The  latter  purposed 
abolishing  the  ancient  privileges  of  the  Basque  Prov- 
inces, and  carrying  out  in  Sixain  a  thorough  system  of 
centralization ;  to  accomplish  this,  he  deemed  it  advan- 
tageous to  prepare  the  way  by  means  of  a  historical  es- 
say, disproving  the  ancient  liberties  of  those  province*. 
The  mission  was  given  to  Llorente,  who  wrote  No- 
iicias  historicas  sohre  las  ires  provincias  Bascongadas 
(Madrid,  1806-8,  3  vols.  8vo),  a  work  not  in  any  way  re- 
markable for  historical  truthfidncss.  Llorente  was  now 
again  favored  with  several  high  offices.  His  tendency 
towards  the  French  ideas,  centralization  among  others, 
led  him  perhaps  to  accept  offers  which  he  would  other- 
wise have  rejected.  Upon  the  intrusion  of  the  French 
(1807),  Llorente  found  himself  placed  between  the  na- 
tional government  which  opposed  all  progress,  and  that 
of  a  foreign  sovereign  which  offered  both  political  and 
religious  liberty.  Unable  to  serve  at  once  the  cause  of 
the  hereditary  monarch  and  that  of  progress,  Llorente 
and  the  Josephinos  chose  the  latter;  but  the  accusation 
preferred  against  them  of  having  sold  themselves  to 
France  (Hefele,  in  Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lexikon, 
vi,  557  sq.)  is  unsupported  by  proof,  and  unlikely ;  they 
simply  chose  a  foreign  master  rather  than  religious  and 
political  slavery.  In  1809  the  Spanish  Inquisition  was 
abolished  in  Spain,  and  Llorente  was  commissioned  to 
search  its  records  for  the  jnirpose  of  writing  a  history 
of  that  tribunal.  He  had  already,  as  early  as  1789,  be- 
gan to  collect  materials  for  this  purpose,  yet  two  more 
years  were  spent,  with  the  aid  of  several  assistants,  in 
compiling  the  voluminous  records.  AVhen  the  convents 
were  abolished  he  was  given  the  direction  of  the  pro- 
ceedings, and  the  charge  of  the  sequestered  goods,  as 
also  the  administration  of  the  national  properties,  an 
ungrateful  and  not  verj'  creditable  task,  for  these  prop- 
erties were  the  result  of  sequestration ;  yet  he  claimed 
afterwards  to  have  introduced  many  favorable  changes 
in  the  administration,  such,  for  instance,  as  that  of 
leaving  the  management  of  the  property  belonging  to 
parties  put  under  the  ban  to  the  members  of  their  fam- 
ily, and  the  many  distinguished  persons  of  Spain  to 
whom  he  appealed  in  corroboration  of  his  assertion  have 
never  denied  its  truth.  He  was,  however,  accused  of 
embezzlement  to  the  amount  of  11,000,000  reals,  and 
lost  his  position ;  but  the  accusation  not  being  substan- 
tiated, he  was  indemnitied  by  another  situation.  In  the 
mean  time  he  continued  to  advocate  the  cause  of  Joseph 
Bonaparte  both  by  his  pen  and  in  pubUc  addresses,  and 
when  the  celebrated  Constitution  of  the  Cortes  of  Cadiz 
was  proclaimed  he"  was  one  of  its  most  zealous  oppo- 
nents. When  Joseph  lost  the  Spanish  throne  (1814) 
Llorente  was  obliged  to  quit  the  country  in  haste.  Af- 
ter his  night,  banishment  was  pronounced  against  him, 
and  his  property,  and  his  hbrary  of  8000  volumes,  some 


LLOYD 


471 


LLOYD 


of  which  were  rare  and  costly  manuscripts,  were  seques- 
tered. After  stopping  a  short  time  in  London,  Llorente 
settled  in  Paris,  where  he  completed  the  work  of  which 
he  had  published  a  sketch  in  Spain :  Histoire  critique 
de  V Inquisition  cVEspaync  (4  vols.  8vo).  It  was  written 
in  Spanish,  but  was  immediately  translated  into  French 
by  Alexis  FelUer,  under  Llorente's  own  supervision  (Par. 
1817-18).  Translations  into  most  of  the  languages  of 
Europe  were  made  shortly  afterwards.  One  of  the  best 
English  editions  was  published  in  London  in  1826.  (For 
a  review,  see  British  Critic,  i,  119.)  Llorente  was  now 
the  outspoken  enemy  of  the  Church,  and  he  was  forbid- 
den to  officiate  as  priest  in  Paris,  and  thus  deprived  of 
his  regular  means  of  support.  He  next  attempted  to 
earn  a  living  by  teaching  Spanish,  but  the  University 
of  Paris  forbade  him  teaching  in  public,  and  he  became 
altogether  dependent  on  his  literary  labors  and  the  as- 
sistance of  his  masonic  brethren  for  a  support.  To 
what  straits  he  found  liimself  reduced  is  seen  in  the 
fact  that  he  translated  Faublas  into  Spanish.  In  1822 
he  published  his  Portraits  politiques  des  Fcqjes,  which 
still  increased  the  animosity  of  the  clergy  against  him, 
and  in  this  instance  it  must  be  granted  that  he  reck- 
lessly provoked  this  enmity  by  accepting  as  undoubted 
facts  such  legends  as  that  of  the  popess  Joanna,  etc., 
while  his  friends  were  obliged  to  admit  that  the  nature, 
tendencies,  and  even  the  tone  of  the  work  were  not  be- 
coming the  character  of  a  priest.  In  December  of  the 
same  year  (1822)  he  received  orders  to  leave  France 
within  three  days.  Exiled  from  the  land  of  his  adop- 
tion, he  returned  to  that  of  his  birth,  but  died  shortly 
after  (Feb.  5,  1823)  at  Madrid,  in  consequence  of  the 
hardships  he  had  undergone  during  his  journey. 

Llorente's  character  and  writings  have  been  the  object 
of  as  extravagant  praise  by  some  as  of  extravagant  cen- 
sure by  others.  He  lived  in  a  time  of  great  fermenta- 
tion, and  in  a  country  where  the  struggle  between  prog- 
ress and  conservatism  gave  rise  to  innumerable  par- 
ties: under  these  circumstances  he  remained  true  to 
progress,  and  if  he  did  not  remain  true  also  to  any  of 
the  divers  political  parties,  it  was  because  he  could  not 
maintain  his  tideUty  to  both.  When  writing  the  his- 
tory of  the  Inquisition,  he  was  j'et  a  fervent  Koman 
Catholic ;  and  in  attacking  an  institution  which  he  con- 
sidered and  proved  to  have  been  more  political  than  re- 
ligious, he  undeservedly  received  the  censure  of  a  large 
proportion  of  the  Roman  CathoUc  world;  he  did  not 
mean  to  attack  the  Komish  Church,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
to  vindicate  it  from  the  imputation  of  having  been  sol- 
idly concerned  in  the  transaction  of  that  fell  tribunal. 
If  in  his  subsequent  works  he  went  further,  and  attack- 
ed the  Koman  Catholic  Church  itself,  the  reason  is  to  be 
found  in  the  persecutions  he  endured  at  the  hands  of 
that  Church.  Llorente  is  not  to  be  considered  as  a  his- 
torian; neither  his  literary  talents,  nor  his  historical 
knowledge,  nor  the  gift  of  correctly  combining  and  con- 
necting events,  gave  him  any  title  to  that  appellation. 
His  greatest  production,  the  Ci-itical  History  of  the  In- 
quisition, such  Protestant  historians  as  Prescott  and 
Kanke  judge  to  be  of  but  little  value,  because  of  its  par- 
tisan character,  and  the  exaggerations  in  which  it 
abounds,  and,  as  the  readers  of  this  Cyclopedia  must 
have  noticed,  in  the  article  Inquisition  (see  especially 
p.  603,  col.  1),  he  has  rarely  been  quoted.  His  only 
credit  in  the  work  is  that  lie  brought  together  much 
material  before  inaccessible.  We  might  say  Llorente 
was  a  good  and  diligent  compiler,  but  too  ardent  a  par- 
tisan to  be  aught  of  a  historian.  See  his  autobiography 
entitled  Notitia  biograjica  o  Memorias  para  la  Ilistoria 
de  su  Vidu  (1818) ;  IMahul,  A'o/ice  bior/raphique  siir  Don 
J.  II.  Llorente  (1823);  Prescott,  Hist,  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,  i,  pt.  i ;  Ranke,  Hist,  of  the  Papacy,  i,  142,  272 ; 
ii,  293 ;  Monthly  Revieiv,  xci  (1820),  Append. ;  Revue  En- 
cyclopedique  (1823).     (J.  H.W.) 

Lloyd,  Charles  Hooker,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Feb.  21, 1833.  His 
early  life  was  spent  m  mercantile  pursuits  in  New  York 


City.  In  1856,  however,  purposing  to  become  a  mis- 
sionary to  the  heathen,  he  entered  New  York  Universi- 
ty ;  later  he  studied  divinity  in  the  theological  semina- 
ry at  Princeton,  N.J.,  and  graduated  in  1862.  He  was 
licensed  and  ordained  as  an  evangelist  by  the  New  York 
Presbytery  April  29, 1862,  and  appointed  (June  21, 1862) 
by  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign 
Missions  to  South  Africa.  He  did  not,  however,  do 
much  eifective  mission  work,  as  he  died  Feb.  10, 1865. 
Mr.  Lloyd,  as  a  preacher,  was  eminently  wise  to  win  souls. 
He  was  gifted  with  a  strong  passion  for  music,  and  wrote 
and  arranged  many  chants  and  hjonns  for  the  African 
converts.    See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1867,  p.  169. 

Lloyd,  Thomas,  a  noted  Quaker  preacher,  was 
born  in  North  Wales  in  1619.  While  a  student  at  Ox- 
ford University,  he  visited,  during  a  vacation,  his  broth- 
er Charles,  who  had  been  imprisoned  for  Quakerism  at 
Welch-Pool,  and  by  the  latter's  influence  became  him- 
self a  convert  to  the  religion  of  the  Friends.  He  imme- 
diately left  Oxford,  suffered  with  the  Quakers  in  their 
persecutions,  and  became  an  "  instructor"  on  their  "  First- 
days."  On  account  of  persecution,  reproach,  and  loss  of 
property  for  his  religion's  sake,  he  emigrated  to  Penn- 
sylvania soon  after  the  first  settlement  of  that  province. 
He  died  July  10,  1691.  As  president  of  the  council, 
and  subsequently  as  deputy  governor  of  Pennsylvania, 
he  exercised  a  most  salutary  influence  upon  the  inter- 
ests and  progress  of  the  colony.  See  Januey's  History 
of  Friends,  ii,  ch.  xvii;  iii,  ch.  ii. 

Lloyd,  'William,  a  noted  English  prelate,  was 
born  in  Berksliire  in  1627,  and  was  educated  at  Oriel 
Coflcge,  Oxford.  In  1640  he  removed  to  Jesus  College, 
where  he  became  fellow  in  1646.  He  took  deacon's  or- 
ders from  Dr.  Skinner  at  the  time  of  Charles's  execution. 
In  1656  he  was  ordained  priest,  and  acted  as  tutor  of 
John  Backhouse,  son  of  Sir  Wm.  Backhouse,  at  Wadham 
College,  Oxford.  In  1660  he  became  master  of  arts  at 
Cambridge,  and  was  also  made  a  prebendary  of  Ripon, 
in  Yorkshire.  In  1666  he  was  appointed  king's  chap- 
lain, and  in  1667  was  collated  to  a  prebend  of  Salisbury, 
and  proceeded  doctor  of  divinity  at  Oxford.  In  16(i8 
he  was  presented  to  the  vicarage  of  St.  Marj-'s,  in  Read- 
ing, and  also  installed  archdeacon  of  Merioneth,  in  the 
church  of  Bangor,  of  which  he  became  deacon  in  1672, 
besides  being  made  prebend  in  St.  Paul's  Church,  Lon- 
don. In  1674  he  was  made  residentiary  of  Salisburj', 
and  in  1676  promoted  to  the  see  of  Exeter,  the  vicarage 
of  St.  Martin's-in-the-Fields,  Westminster.  In  1680  he 
was  appointed  bishop  of  St.  Asaph,  was  translated  to 
Lichfield  in  1692,  and  to  Worcester  m  1699-1700.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  the  troubles  between  the  Roman- 
ists and  Protestants  in  1678.  He  preached  the  funeral 
sermon  of  Sir  Edmondbury  Godfrey,  believed  to  have 
been  murdered  in  carrying  out  what  is  known  as  the 
popish  plot  for  overthrowing  Protestantism  in  England. 
In  1688,  with  six  other  bishops,  he  signed,  and,  as  spokes- 
man, presented  to  the  king,  a  memorial  against  the  pub- 
lication of  his  declaration  of  indidgence  to  Romanists 
and  Dissenters.  He  was  one  of  the  six  bishops  who, 
together  with  archbishop  Sancroft,  composing  the  illus- 
trious seven  bishops,  for  their  refusal  to  publish  the 
king's  declaration,  were  shortly  after  imprisoned  by 
James  II  in  the  Tower,  and,  after  trial,  acquitted,  to  the 
great  joy  of  aU  England.  He  became  almoner  to  Wil- 
liam III,  and  later  also  to  queen  Anne.  He  died  at 
Hartleburj'  Castle  Aug.  30, 1717.  Lloyd  furnished  val- 
uable materials  to  Burnet's  History  of  his  Oicn  Times, 
and  wrote  Considerations  touching  the  true  Way  to  sup- 
press Popery  in  this  Kingdom,  etc.  (Lond.  1684,  8vo,  2d 
edit.)  [a  work  which  was  attacked  by  JIacKenzie  {De- 
fence  of  the  A  ntiquity  of  the  Royal  Line  of  Scotland,  etc.), 
and  was  defended  by  bishop  Stillingfleet  {OriginesBrit.), 
who  reprinted  it,  with  Notes  by  T.  P.  Panton  (Oxford, 
1842,  2  vols.  8vo)]: — History  of  the  Government  of  the 
Church  of  Great  Britain  : — A  Dissertation  on  Daniel's 
Seventy  Weeks: — A  System  of  Chronology  (1712)  : — Har- 


LOAF 


472 


LOAX 


Tnomj  of  the  Gospels,  etc.,  etc.  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of 
Brit,  and  Am.  A  uthors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  Stoughton,  Eccles. 
II  1st.  {Restoi-ation),  i,  500;  ii,  5,  28, 141  sq.,  14G;  Strick- 
lainl.  Lives  of  the  Seven  Bishojis. 

Loaf  (properly  ^35,  Mkkar',  a  circle,  in  the  phrase 
Cn5  "133,  (I  1-ound  of  bread,  i.  e.  circular  cake,  being 
the  form  of  Oriental  bread,  or  rather  biscuit,  Exod. 
XXIX,  23 ,  Judg.  viii,  5 ,  1  Sam.  x,  3  ;  1  Chron.  xvi,  3  ; 
rendered  "  piece"  or  "  morsel"  of  bread  in  Prov.  vi,  26 ; 
Jer.  xxxvii,  21  ^  1  Sam.  ii,  2G;  sometimes  simply  CH^, 
le'chem,  bread,  Lev.  xxiii,  17 ;  1  Sam.  xvii,  17  ;  xxv,  18 ; 
1  Kings  xiv,  3;  2  Kings  iv,  42;  and  so  likewise  the 
(ireek  uoroc,  bread,  espec,  in  the  plural,  Matt,  xiv,  17, 
I'J,  XV,  34,  36;  xvi,  9, 10;  Mark  vi,  38,  41,  44,  52;  viii, 
5.6,14,19;  Lukeix,  13, 16;  xi,  5;  John  vi,  9, 11, 13,  26), 
a  round  cake,  the  usual  form  of  bread  among  the  an- 
cients. See  Shew-bkead.  The  bread  of  the  Jews  was 
either  in  small  loaves,  or  else  in  broad  and  thick  cakes, 
as  is  the  present  custom  in  the  East.  Bread  was  al- 
ways broken  into  such  portions  as  were  required,  and 
distributed  by  the  master  of  the  family.     See  Bread. 


Ancient  Roman  Bread  (from  a  painting  on  the  walls  of  the  Parthe- 
non). 


The  two  wave  loaves  mentioned  in  Lev.  xxiii,  17  are 
called  in  Hebrew  tlE^iri  CHt:,  le'chem  tenuphah',  sig- 
nifying the  act  of  waving  or  moving  to  and  fVo  before 
Jehovah,  a  ceremony  observed  in  the  consecration  of 
offerings ;  hence  applied  as  a  name  to  anything  conse- 
crated in  this  manner.     See  Offering. 

Lo-am'nii  {Wch.  Lo- A  mmi',  '^TZV  N?,  not  my  peo- 
ple,  as  it  is  explained  in  the  context,  Hos.  i,  9 ;  Sept, 
Ou  Xaiig  pov,\u]g.  Non  populus  meus ;  in  the  parallel 
passage,  Hos.  ii,  23,  ''IZ'^'t^,  Sept.  ov  \a<f  /joii,Vulg. 
mm  jKipulo  meo,  Auth.  Vers.  "  not  my  people"),  a  sym- 
bolical name  given  by  the  prophet  Hosea  at  the  divine 
instance  to  his  second  son,  in  tolien  of  Jehovah's  rejec- 
tion and  suVisequent  restoration  of  his  people,  alluding 
to  the  Babylonian  captivity  (Hos.  i,  9 ;  ii,  23 ;  comp.  ii, 
1).     B.C.  cir.  725.     See  Hosea. 

XiOan  (n5X'J,  sheelah';  1  Sam.  ii,  20,  a  petition  or 
request,  as  elsewhere  rendered).  The  law  of  jMoses  did 
not  contemplate  any  raising  of  loans  for  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  capital,  a  condition  perhaps  alluded  to  in  the 
parables  of  the  '•'  pearl"  and  "  hidden  treasure"  (Matt. 
xiii,  44, 45 ;  Michaelis,  Comm.  on  Latcs  of  Mo- 
ses, art.  147,  ii,  297,  edit.  Smith).  See  Com- 
merce. Such  persons  as  bankers  and  sure- 
ties, in  the  commercial  sense  (Prov.  xxii,  26 ; 
Neh.  V,  3),  were  unknown  to  the  earlier  ages 
(if  the  Hebrew  commonwealth.  The  INIosaic 
Laws  which  relate  to  the  subject  of  borrowing, 
h'nding,  and  repaying  are  in  substance  as  fol- 
lows :  If  an  Israelite  became  poor,  what  he  de- 
sired to  borrow  was  to  be  freely  lent  to  him, 
and  no  interest,  either  of  money  or  produce, 
could  be  exacted  from  him ;  interest  might  be 
taken  of  a  foreigner,  but  not  of  an  Israelite  by 
another  Israelite  (Exod.  xxii, 25;  Dent,  xxiii, 
19,  20 ;  Lev.  xxv,  35-38).  At  the  end  of  ev- 
er}' seven  years  a  remission  of  debts  was  or- 
dained ;  everj'  creditor  was  to  remit  what  he 
had  lent :  of  a  foreigner  the  loan  might  be  ex- 
acted, but  not  of  a  brother.  If  an  Israelite 
wislied  to  borrow,  he  was  not  to  be  refused  because  the 
year  of  remission  was  at  hand  (Dent,  xv,  1-11).  Pledges 
might  be  taken,  but  not  as  such  the  mill  or  the  upper 
millstone,  for  that  would  be  to  take  a  man's  life  in  pledge. 
If  the  pledge  was  raiment,  it  was  to  be  given  back  before 
sunset,  as  being  needful  for  a  covering  at  night.  The 
widow's  garment  could  not  be  taken  in  pledge  (Exod. 
xxii,  26,  27 ;  Deut.  xxiv,  6,  17).  The  law  thus  strictly 
forbade  any  interest  to  be  taken  for  a  loan  to  any  poor 
person,  either  in  the  shape  of  money  or  of  produce,  and 
at  tirst,  as  it  seems,  even  in  the  case  of  a  i'oreigner ;  but 
this  prohibition  was  afterwards  limited  to  Hebrews  only, 
from  whom,  of  whatever  rank,  not  only  was  no  usury 
on  any  pretence  to  be  exacted,  but  relief  to  the  poor  by 
way  of  loan  was  enjoined,  and  excuses  for  evading  this 
duty  were  forbidden  (Exod.  xxii,  25 ;  Lev.  xxv,  35, 37 ; 
Dent,  XV,  3,  7-10;  xxiii,  19,  20).  The  instances  of  ex- 
tortionate conduct  mentioned  with  disapprobation  in 
the  book  of  Job  probably  represent  a  state  of  tilings  pre- 
vious to  the  law,  and  such  as  the  law  was  intended  to 
remedy  (Job  xxii,  6;  xxiv,  3,  7).  As  commerce  in- 
creased, the  practice  of  usury,  and  so  also  of  suretyship, 
grew  uj),  but  tlie  exaction  of  it  from  a  Hebrew  appears 
to  have  been  regarded  to  a  late  period  as  <liscrr(litable 
(Prov.  vi,  1,  4;  xi,15;  xvii, 18;  xx,  16;  xxii,  26;  Psa, 
XV,  6;  xxvii,  13;  Jer.  XV,  10;  Ezek.  xviii,  13;  xxii,  12). 
Systematic  breach  of  the  law  in  this  respect  was  cor- 
rected by  Xeliemiah  after  the  return  from  captivity 
(Neh.  V,  1,  13;  see  jMichaelis,  ibid.  arts.  148,  151).  In 
later  times  tlie  practice  of  borrowing  money  appears 
to  have  prevailed  without  limitation  of  race,  and  to 
have  been  carried  on  upon  systematic  principles,  though 


Ancient  Egyptian  Bread.  (Tlie  tiist  two  fiffnres  are  from 
the  Monuments,  the  others  from  epecimens  in  the  Brit- 
isli  Museum.) 

The  word  nsn,  channh',"cake"  (2  Sam.  vi,  19),  of- 
ten refers  to  a  cake  of  oblation  (Exod.  xxix,  23;  Lev. 
viii,  26 ,  Numb,  vi,  15  ;  etc.),  from  the  root  hhri,  chalal, 

to  pierce  through,  because  they  were  pricked,  as  among  tlie  original  spirit  of  the  law"  was  approved  bv  our  Lord 
the  Arabians  and  Jews  of  the  present  day.  We  also  (^Matt.  v,  42;  xxv,  27;  Luke  vi,  35;  xix,  23).  The 
find,  on  the  paintings  in  the  monuments  of  Egypt,  rep-  I  money-changers  (/cfo/xa-iff-ni  and  KoWnjStcrTai),  who 
resentations  of  offerings  of  cakes  pricked.     See  Cake.     I  had  seats  and  tablcsin  the  Temple,  were  traders  whose 


LOAN 


473 


LOAN 


profits  arose  chiefly  from  the  exchange  of  money  "with 
those  who  came  to  pay  their  annual  half  shekel  (I'ol- 
lux,  iii,  84 ;  vii,  170 ;  Schlcusner,  Lex.  N.  T.  s.  v. ;  Light- 
foot, //o?-.  Ihhr.  at  jNIatt.  xxi,  12).     The  documents  re- 
lating to  loans  of  money  appear  to  have  been  deposited 
in  public  otlices  in  Jerusalem  (Josephus,  TFar,  ii,  17,  6). 
In  making  loans  no  prohibition  is  pronomiced  in  the 
law  against  taking  a  pledge  of  the  borrower,  but  certain 
limitations  are  prescribed  in  favor  of  the  poor.     1.  The 
outer  garment,  which  formed  the  poor  man's  principal 
covering  by  niglit  as  %\ell  as  by  day,  if  taken  in  pledge, 
was  to  be  returned  before  sunset.     A  bedstead,  how- 
ever, might  be  taken  (Exod.  xxii,  26,  27 ;  Deut,  xxiv, 
12,  13 ;  comp.  Job  xxii,  6 ;  Prov.  xxii,  27 ;  Shaw,  Trav. 
p.  224;  Burckhardt,  iVo^fs  on  Bed.  i,  47,  231;  Niebuhr, 
Descr.  de  I' A?:  p.  56;  Lane,  Mod.  Eg.  i,  57,  58;  Gesen. 
Thesaur.  p.  403 ;  Michaelis,  Laics  of  Moses,  arts.  143  and 
150).     2.  The  prohibition  was  absolute  in  the  case  of 
(o)  the  widow's  garment  (Deut.  xxiv,  17),  and  (6)  a 
millstone  of  cither  kind  (Deut.  xxiv,  6),     Michaelis 
(art.  150,  ii,  321)  supposes  also  all  indispensable  animals 
and  utensils  of  agriculture ;  see  also  Mishna,  Mauser 
Sheni,  i.     3.  A  creditor  was  forbidden  to  enter  a  house 
to  reclaim  a  pledge,  but  was  to  stand  outside  till  the 
borrower  should  come  forth  to  return  it  (Deut.  xxiv,  10, 
11).     4.  The  original  Komau  law  of  debt  permitted  the 
debtor  to  be  enslaved  by  his  creditor  until  the  debt  was 
discharged  (Livy,  ii,  23 ;  Appian,  liul.  p.  40) ;  and  he 
might  even  be  put  to  death  by  him,  though  this  ex- 
tremity does  not  appear  to  have  been  ever  practiced 
(Gell.  XX,  1,  45,  52;  Smith,  Lict.  of  Class.  Aniiq.  s.  v. 
Bonorum  Cessio,  Nexum).     In  Athens  also  the  creditor 
had  a  claim  to  the  person  of  the  debtor  (Plutarch,  Vit. 
Sol.  15).     The  Jewish  law,  as  it  did  not  forbid  tem- 
porary bondage  in  the  case  of  debtors,  yet  forbade  a 
Hebrew  debtor  to  be  detained  as  a  bondsman  longer 
than  the  seventh  year,  or  at  furthest  the  year  of  jubilee 
(Exod.  xxi,  2;  Lev.  xxv,  39,  42;  Deut.'xv,  9).     If  a 
Hebrew  was  sold  in  this  way  to  a  foreign  sojourner,  he 
might  be  redeemed  at  a  valuation  at  any  time  previous 
to  the  jubilee  year,  and  in  that  year  was,  under  any  cir- 
cumstances, to  be  released.     Foreign  sojourners,  how- 
ever, were  not  entitled  to  release  at  that  time   (Lev. 
xxv,  44,  46,  47,  54;  2  Kings  iv,  2;  Isa.  1,  1;  Iii,  3). 
Land  sold  on  account  of  debt  was  redeemable  either  by 
the  seller  himself,  or  by  a  kinsman  in  case  of  his  inabil- 
ity to  repurchase.      Houses  in  walled  towns,  except 
such  as  belonged  to  Levites,  if  not  redeemed  within  one 
year  after  sale,  were  alienated  forever.    Michaelis  doubts 
■whether  all  debt  was  extinguished  by  the  jubilee;  but 
Josephus's  account  is  very  precise  (^Ani.  iii,  12,  3;  comp. 
Lev.  xxv,  23, 34 ;  Ruth  iv,  4, 10 ;  see  Michaelis,  §  158,  ii, 
360).     In  later  times  the  sabbatical  or  jubilee  release 
was  superseded  by  a  law,  probably  introduced  by  the 
Romans,  by  which  the  debtor  was  liable  to  be  detained 
in  prison  until  the  full  discharge  of  his  debt  (Matt,  v, 
26).     Michaelis  thinks  this  doubtful.     The  case  imag- 
ined in  the  parable  of  the  unmerciful  servant  belongs 
rather  to  despotic  Oriental  than  Jewish  manners  (Matt, 
xviii,  34,  Michaelis,  ibid.  art.  149;  'French,  Parables,  \). 
141).     Subsequent  Jewish  ojiinions  on  loans  and  usury 
may  be  seen  in  the  Mishna,  Baba  Meziah,  c.  iii,  x.     See 

JUBILKE. 

These  laws  relating  to  loans  may  wear  a  strange  and 
somewhat  unreasonable  aspect  to  the  mere  modern  read- 
er, and  cannot  be  understood,  either  in  their  bearing  or 
their  sanctions,  unless  considered  from  the  Biblical  point 
of  view.  The  land  of  Canaan  (as  the  entire  world)  be- 
longed to  its  Creator,  but  was  given  of  God  to  the  de- 
scendants of  Abraham  under  certain  conditions,  of  which 
this  liberality  to  the  needy  was  one.  The  power  of 
getting  loans,  therefore,  was  a  part  of  the  poor  man's 
inheritance.  It  was  a  hen  on  the  land  (the  source  of 
all  property  with  agricultural  people),  which  was  as  valid 
as  the  tenure  of  any  given  portion  hy  the  tribe  or  fam- 
ily to  whose  lot  it  had  fallen.  This  is  the  light  in 
Which  the  Mosaic  polity  represents  the  matter,  and  in 


this  light,  so  long  as  that  polity  retained  its  force,  would 
it,  as  a  matter  of  course,  be  regarded  by  the  o^vners  of 
property.  Thus  the  execution  of  this  particular  law 
was  secured  by  the  entire  force  with  which  the  consti- 
tution itself  was  recommended  and  sustained.  But  as 
human  seltishness  might  in  time  endanger  this  particu- 
lar set  of  laws,  so  INIoses  applied  special  support  to  the 
possibly  weak  part.  Hence  the  emphasis  Avith  which 
he  enjoins  the  duty  of  lending  to  the  needy.  Of  this 
emphasis  the  real  essence  is  the  sanction  supplied  by 
that  special  providence  which  lay  at  the  very  basis  of 
the  Mosaic  commonwealth,  so  that  lending  to  the  des- 
titute came  to  be  enforced  with  all  the  power  derivable 
from  the  express  will  of  God.  Nor  are  there  wanting 
arguments  sufficient  to  vindicate  these  enactments  in 
the  light  of  sound  political  economy,  at  least  in  the  case 
of  the  Jewish  people.  Had  the  Hebrews  enjoyed  a  free 
intercourse  with  other  nations,  the  permission  to  take 
usury  of  foreigners  might  have  had  the  effect  of  im- 
poverishing Palestine  by  affording  a  strong  inducement 
for  employing  capital  abroad ;  but,  under  the  actual  re- 
strictions of  the  Mosaic  law,  this  evil  was  impossible. 
Some  not  inconsiderable  advantages  must  have  ensued 
from  the  observance  of  these  laws.  The  entire  aliena- 
tion and  loss  of  the  lent  property  were  prevented  by 
that  pecidiar  institution  which  restored  to  every  man 
his  property  at  the  great  year  of  release.  In  the  in- 
terval between  the  jubilees  the  system  under  considera- 
tion would  tend  to  prevent  those  inequalities  of  social 
condition  which  alwa3's  arise  rapitUy,  and  which  have 
not  seldom  brought  disaster  and  ruin  on  states.  The 
affluent  were  required  to  part  with  a  portion  of  their 
affluence  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  needy,  without  ex- 
acting that  recompense  which  would  only  make  the  rich 
more  wealthy  and  the  poor  more  needy,  thus  superin- 
ducing a  state  of  things  scarcely  more  injurious  to  the 
one  than  to  the  other  of  these  two  parties.  There  was 
also  in  this  S3-stem  a  strongly  conservative  influence. 
Agiiculture  was  the  foundation  of  the  constitution. 
Had  money-lending  been  a  trade,  money-making  would 
also  have  been  eagerly  pursued.  Capital  would  be  with- 
drawn from  the  land;  the  agriculturist  would  pass  into 
the  usurer;  huge  inequalities  would  arise;  commerce 
would  assume  predominance,  and  the  entire  common- 
wealth be  overturned^ — changes  and  evils  which  were 
prevented,  or,  if  not  so,  certainly  retarded  and  abated 
by  the  code  of  laws  regarding  loans.  As  it  was,  the 
gradually  increasing  wealth  of  the  country  was  in  the 
main  laid  out  on  the  soil,  so  as  to  augment  its  produc- 
tiveness and  distribute  its  bounties.  The  same  regida- 
tions,  moreover,  prevented  those  undue  expansions  of 
credit  and  those  sudden  fluctuations  in  the  relative  value 
of  money  and  staple  commodities  which  have  so  often 
brought  on  financial  collapses  and  prostration  in  mod- 
ern communities.  AVliile,  however,  the  benign  tend- 
ency of  the  laws  in  question  is  admitted,  and  special  ob- 
jects may  be  adduced  as  attainable  by  them,  may  it  not 
be  questioned  whether  they  were  strictly  just  V  Such 
a  doubt  could  arise  only  in  a  mind  which  viewed  the 
subject  from  the  position  of  our  actual  society.  A  mod- 
ern might  plead  that  he  had  a  right  to  do  what  he 
pleased  with  his  own ;  that  his  property  of  every  kind 
— land,  food,  money  —  was  his  own;  and  that  he  was 
justified  to  turn  all  and  each  part  to  account  for  his 
own  benefit.  Apart  frotn  religious  considerations,  this 
position  is  impregnable.  But  such  a  view  of  property 
finds  no  support  in  the  Mosaic  institutions.  In  them 
property  has  a  divine  origin,  and  its  use  is  intrusted  to 
man  on  certain  conditions,  which  conditions  arc  as  valid 
as  is  the  tenure  of  property  itself.  In  one  sense,  in- 
deed, the  entire  land— all  property — was  a  great  loan,  a 
loan  lent  of  God  to  the  people  of  Israel,  who  might  well, 
therefore,  acquiesce  in  any  arrangement  which  rccpiircd 
a  portion — a  small  portion — of  this  loan  to  be  under  cer- 
tain circumstances  accessible  to  the  destitute.  'Ihis 
view  receives  confirmation  from  the  fact  that  interest 
might  be  taken  of  persons  wlio  were  not  Hebrews,  and 


LOAYSA 


474 


LOBETHAN 


therefore  lay  beyond  the  sphere  embraced  by  this  spe- 
cial arraiit(ement.  It  would  open  too  wide  a  field  did 
we  proceed  to  consider  liow  far  the  Mosaic  system  might 
be  applicable  in  the  world  at  large ;  but  this  is  very 
clear  to  our  mind,  that  the  theory  of  property  on  which 
it  rests— that  is,  making  property  to  be  divine  in  its  or- 
igin, and  therefore  tenable  only  on  the  fidlilmcnt  of  such 
conditions  as  the  great  laws  of  religion  and  morality 
enforce — is  more  true  and  more  philosophical  (except  in 
a  college  of  atheists)  than  the  narrow  and  baneful  ideas 
which  ordinarily  prevail. 

These  vie^vs  may  prepare  the  reader  for  considermg 
the  tloctrine  of  "  the  Great  Teacher"  on  the  subject  of 
loans.  It  is  found  forcibly  expressed  in  Luke's  Gospel 
(vi,  34, 35)  :  "  If  ye  lend  to  them  of  whom  ye  hope  to  re- 
ceive, what  thank  have  ye?  for  sinners  also  lend  to  sin- 
ners, to  receive  as  much  again;  but  love  ye  your  ene- 
mies, and  do  good,  and  lend,  hoping  for  nothing  again ; 
and  wiir  reward  shall  be  great,  and  ye  shall  be  the  chU- 
dron  of  the  Highest;  for  he  is  khid  unto  the  unthank- 
fid  and  to  the  evil."  The  meaning  of  the  passage  is 
distinct  and  full,  unmistakable,  and  not  to  be  evaded. 
He  commands  men  to  lend,  not  as  Jews  to  Jews,  but 
even  to  enemies,  without  asking  or  receiving  any  re- 
turn, after  the  manner  of  the  Great  Benefactor  of  the 
universe,  who  sends  down  his  rains  and  bids  his  sun  to 
shine  on  the  fields  of  the  unjust  as  well  as  of  the  just. 
To  attempt  to  view  this  command  in  the  light  of  reason 
and  experience  would  require  space  which  cannot  here 
be  given ;  but  we  must  add,  that  any  attempt  to  ex- 
plain the  injunction  away  is  most  unworthy  on  the  part 
of  professed  disciples  of  Christ ;  and  that,  not  impossi- 
bly at  least,  fidelity  to  the  behests  of  him  whom  we  call 
Lord  and  Master  would  of  itself  answer  all  doubts  and 
remove  aU  misgivings  by  practically  showing  that  this, 
as  every  other  doctrine  that  fell  from  his  lips,  is  indeed 
of  God  (Jolin  vii,  17). — Kitto;  Smith.  Yet,  while  we 
must  maintain  the  paramount  obligation  of  our  Sav- 
iour's precept,  corroborative — and,  indeed,  expansive — 
as  it  is,  of  the  essential  principle  of  the  Mosaic  economy, 
namely,  the  inculcation  of  universal  brotherly  love,  nev- 
ertheless common  sense,  no  less  than  sound  morality, 
dictates  at  least  the  following  co-ordinate  considera- 
tions, which  should  likewise  be  taken  into  the  account 
in  the  exercise  of  Christian  liberality,  in  loans  as  well  as 
in  gifts :  1.  Due  inquiry  should  be  instituted,  so  as  to 
satisfy  the  lender  of  the  moral  worthiness  of  the  cred- 
itor, lest  the  loan,  instead  of  being  a  benefaction,  should 
really  be  but  a  stimulus  to  vice,  or,  at  least,  an  encour- 
agement to  idleness.  2.  The  wants  of  one's  own  family 
and  nearer  dependents  must  not  be  sacrificed  by  ill- 
judged  and  untimely  generosity.  3.  Funds  held  in 
trust  should  be  carefully  discriminated  from  one's  own 
personal  property,  and  a  greater  degree  of  caution  exer- 
cised in  their  administration.  4.  We  have  no  right  to 
loan  what  is  already  due  for  our  own  debts — "We  must 
be  just  before  we  are  generous."  5.  In  tine,  the  great 
fact  that  Ave  arc  but  stewards  of  God's  bounty  should  be 
the  ruling  thought  in  all  oiur  benefactions,  whether  in 
the  form  of  loans  or  gifts,  and  we  should  therefore  dis- 
pense funds  so  as  to  contribute  most  to  the  divine  glory 
and  the  highest  good  of  the  recipients.  This  principle 
alone  is  the  true  corrective  of  all  selfishness,  whether 
parsimony  on  the  one  hand,  or  prodigaUty  on  the  other. 
See  Ijonuow;  LiiND,  etc. 

Loaysa,  (iuAci  a  de,  an  eloquent  Dominican  preach- 
er and  Spanish  cardinal,  was  born  in  1479  at  Talavera, 
Castile ;  entered  the  Dominican  Order  at  St.  Paul  de 
renneliel  in  141)5,  and  was  made  successively  professor 
of  philosophy,  next  of  theology,  director  of  studies,  rec- 
tor at  St.(iregory,  prior  of  the  convent  of  Avila  and  of 
Valladolid,  provincial  of  Spain  (151H),  and  finally  gen- 
eral of  his  order.  In  1532  he  was  chosen  confessor  to 
Charles  V,  of  whom  he  liad  previously  be6n  a  teacher. 
In  the  following  year  Charles  V  made  him  bishop  of 
Osma.  He  admitted  him  into  his  private  council,  and 
very  soon  made  him  president  of  the  Ivoyal  Council  of 


the  Indies,  and  president  of  the  Crusade.  Loaysa 
strongly  opposed  the  release,  without  ransom  or  condi- 
tion, of  Francis  I,  king  of  France,  made  prisoner  by 
Charles  at  Pavia.  Succeeding  events  proved  his  coun- 
sel good.  In  1530  Charles  V  obtained  a  cardinalship 
for  him  from  pope  Clement  YII,  and  also  the  title  St. 
Suzanne.  In  the  same  year  he  named  him  bishop  of 
Siguenza,  and  also  archbishop  of  Seville.  Loaysa  final- 
ly became  grand  inquisitor  of  Spain.  He  was  frequent- 
ly ambassador  for  Charles  V,  and  kept  up  a  private  cor- 
respondence with  him,  some  of  the  letters  of  which 
(from  1530  to  1.532),  embracing  Charles's  stay  in  Ger- 
many, the  most  important  period  in  the  history  of  the 
Reformation,  are  published  by  G.  Heine  from  the  ar- 
chives of  Simancas.  These  letters  prove  Loaysa  very 
bitter  against  the  "heretics."  Loaysa  died  April  21, 
154G,  at  IMadrid.  See  Antonio,  Bihlioth.  Hispana  Nova, 
iii,  514 ;  Echard,  Saiptores  Ordinis  PrcBdicatorum,  ii,  39 ; 
Le  P.  Touron,  Honinies  illustres  de  VOrdre  de  Saint-Dom- 
inique, iv,  93 ;  Table  du  Journ.  des  Savans,  vol. vi ;  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Bioy.  Generale,  vol.  xxxi,  s.  v. ;  Vehse,  Memoirs  of 
the  Court  of  Austria,  \,  158  sq. ;  Thomas,  ZfiW.  of  Biog. 
and  Mytliol.  s.  v. 

Lobbes,  a  celebrated  convent  in  Hennegau,  near 
Liege,  in  Uelgium,  founded  by  St.Laudelin,  is  noted  par- 
ticularly because  it  educated,  and  at  one  time  had  as  its 
abbot,  the  celebrated  monk  Heriger,  Avho  fiourished  to- 
wards the  close  of  the  10th  century.  His  whole  history 
is  so  thoroughly  entangled  in  mythical  narratives  that 
it  is  well-nigh  impossible  to  teU  when  Heriger  first 
came  to  Lobbes.  Yogel,  in  Herzog  {Iteal-Encyklopddie, 
V,  753),  thinks  it  probable  that  Heriger  entered  Lobbes 
in  9G0,  and  that  he  could  not,  because  of  the  low  condi- 
tion of  the  inmates  of  that  monaster}'  previous  to  this 
date,  have  been  educated  there.  Heriger  wrote  Vita  St. 
Ursmari: — Gesta  episcoporum  Tunrji-ensiuni  et  Leodien- 
sium  (about  A.D.  979) : — Vita  St.  Laudoaldi  (about  980), 
etc.     He  died  Oct.  31, 1007. 

Lober,  Gotthilf  Friedemann,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  Bonneburg,  in  the  duchy  of  Sachsen- 
Altenburg,  Oct.  22, 1722.  In  1738  he  entered  the  Uni- 
versity of  Jena,  where,  in  1741,  he  lectured  on  linguis- 
tics of  the  Old  and  New  Test.,  and  later  on  philosophy. 
Notwithstanding  liis  splendid  prospects  in  this  sphere, 
he  gave  up  academical  life  in  1743,  and  removed  to  Al- 
tenburg  as  assistant  court  preacher  (his  aged  father  was 
then  chief  court  preacher).  In  1745  he  became  assessor 
of  the  Consistory;  in  1747,  archdeacon;  in  1751,  preach- 
er of  a  foundation  and  councillor  of  the  Consistory ;  in 
17G8,  superintendent  general ;  in  1792,  privj''  councillor 
of  the  Consistory ;  in  the  following  year  he  celebrated 
his  jubilee  of  fifty  years  of  office.  He  died  August  22, 
1799.  By  reason  of  his  extensive  learning,  profound 
linguistic  attainments,  accurate  knowledge  of  all  the 
brandies  of  theologj',  and  great  piety,  he  is  considered 
one  of  the  greatest  Lutheran  theologians  of  the  18th 
centur\'.  Of  his  productions,  we  mention  Observationes 
ad  historiam  vita;  et  mortis  Jesu  Christi  in  ipsa  a;tatM 
fore  obitce  spectantes  (Altenburg,  1767,  8vo). — Doring, 
Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutscklands,  s.  v. 

Lobethan,  Johann  Konrad,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  Hebel,  near  Homburg,  Sept.  29, 1G88.  In 
1705  he  entered  the  University  of  Marburg ;  later,  he 
spent  three  years  in  Cassel.  and  in  1711  went  to  Bremen 
to  continue  his  studies.  In  1714  he  accepted  a  call  to 
Weimar  as  court  preacher  of  the  duchess  dowager  Char- 
lotte Dorothea  Sophie ;  in  1720,  to  Ctithen,  as  chief  min- 
ister and  superintendent,  with  the  dignity  of  a  council- 
lor of  the  Consistory.  Subsequently  he  was,  for  several 
years,  tlie  first  minister  and  councillor  of  the  Consistory 
of  the  German  Reformed  Church  at  Magdeburg.  The 
latter  portion  of  liis  life  he  spent  at  Cothen,  where  he 
died  Nov.  29, 1735.  Lobethan  was  noted  as  an  eminent 
preacher ;  the  earnest  and  warm  mode  of  his  delivery 
always  captivated  the  attention  of  his  audience.  Of 
his  productions,  mostly  of  an  ascetical  character,  we 


LOBO 


47^ 


LOCAL  PREACHERS 


mention  Dissert,  de  mar/istaio  gi-atim  suh  Novo  Testam. 
(Bremse,  1711,  4to). — Dijring,  Gelehrte  Th,  Deutschl.  s.  v. 

Lobo,  Jeronimo,  a  noted  Portuguese  missionary 
of  the  Order  of  the  Jesuits,  was  born  at  Lisbon  in  1593. 
He  was  at  first  a  professor  in  the  Jesuits'  College  at 
Coimbra,  wlience  he  was  ordered  to  the  missions  in 
India,  and  removea  to  Goa  in  1G22.  In  16'23  he  vol- 
unteered for  the  mission  to  Abyssinia  to  Christianize 
tliat  countrj',  whose  sovereign,  by  Lobo  called  sultan 
Segued,  had  turned  Roman  Catholic  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  father  Paez,  who  in  1G03  had  gone  to  Abys- 
sinia (q.  v.).  Lobo  sailed  from  Goa  in  162-1,  and  landed 
at  Pate,  on  the  coast  of  Mombaza,  thinking  to  reach 
Abyssinia  by  land.  He  proceeded  some  distance  from 
Pat(i  to  the  northward  among  the  GaUas,  of  whom  he 
gives  an  account,  but,  finding  it  impracticable  to  pene- 
trate into  Abyssinia  by  that  way,  he  retraced  his  steps 
to  the  coast,  and  embarked  for  India.  In  1625  he  start- 
ed out  again,  this  time  in  company  with  Mendez,  the 
newly-appointed  patriarch  of  Etliiopia,  and  other  mis- 
sionaries. After  sailing  up  tlie  Red  iiea  they  landed  at 
Belur,  or  Belal  Bay  (13<^  14'  N.  lat.),  on  the  Dancali 
coast,  whose  sheik  was  tributary  to  Abyssinia,  and 
thence,  crossing  the  salt  plain,  Lobo  entered  Tigre  by  a 
mountain  pass,  and  arrived  at  Fremona,  near  Duan, 
where  the  missionary  settlement  was.  Here  he  spent 
several  years  as  superintendent  of  the  missions  in  that 
kingdom.  A  revolt  of  the  viceroy  of  Tigre,  Tecla 
Georgis,  put  Lobo  in  great  danger,  for  the  rebels  ^vere 
joined  by  the  Abyssinian  priests,  who  hated  tlie  Roman 
Catholic  missionaries,  and  indeed  represented  the  pro- 
tection given  to  them  by  the  emperor  Segued  as  the 
greatest  cause  of  complaint  against  him.  The  viceroy, 
however,  was  defeated,  arrested,  and  hanged ;  and  Lobo, 
having  repaired  to  tlie  emperor's  court,  was  afterwards 
sent  by  his  superiors  to  the  kingdom  of  Damot.  From 
Damot,  Lobo,  after  some  time,  returned  again  to  Tigre, 
where  the  persecution  raised  by  the  son  and  successor 
of  Segued  overtook  him.  All  the  Portuguese,  to  the 
number  of  400,  with  the  patriarch,  a  bishop,  and  eigh- 
teen Jesuits,  were  compelled  to  leave  the  country  in 
1G34.  Lobo  now  sailed  for  Europe,  but  on  his  way  was 
shipwrecked  on  the  coast  of  Natal,  and  some  time 
elapsed  before  he  arrived  in  Portugal,  where  he  sought 
to  enlist  the  government  in  behalf  of  his  scheme,  the 
reclamation  of  Abyssinia  to  the  Romish  Church.  Nei- 
ther here  nor  at  the  court  of  Rome  did  his  plan  find 
favor,  and  he  left  in  1640  for  India,  and  became  provin- 
cial of  the  Jesuits  in  Goa.  In  1656  he  returned  to  Lis- 
bon, and  published  the  narrative  of  his  journey  to  Abys- 
sinia, entitled  Ilistoi-y  of  Ethiopia  (1659),  which  was 
afterwards  translated  into  French  by  the  abbe  Legrand, 
who  added  a  continuation  of  the  history  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  missions  in  Abyssinia  after  Lobo's  departure, 
and  also  an  account  of  the  expedition  of  Poncet,  a 
French  surgeon,  who  reached  that  countrj'  from  Egypt, 
and  a  subsequent  attempt  made  by  Du  Roule,  who  bore 
a  sort  of  di[)lomatic  character  from  the  French  court, 
but  was  murdered  on  his  way,  at  Sennaar,  in  1705. 
This  is  followed  by  several  dissertations  on  the  historj', 
religion,  government,  etc.,  of  Abyssinia.  The  whole 
was  translated  into  English  by  Dr.  Johnson  in  1735. 
Lobo  died  at  Lisbon  in  1678. — Enrj.  Ci/cl.s.x, 

Lobstein,  Johanx  jMichael,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  Lampertheim,  near  Strasburg,  May,  1740. 
In  1755  he  entered  the  university  of  his  native  place, 
went  to  Paris  in  1767,  and  at  the  expiration  of  nearly 
two  years  returned  to  Strasburg,  and  became  pastor  of 
the  French  Nicolai  Church.  In  addition  to  this  he  be- 
came, after  a  few  years,  preacher  of  the  German  Peter's 
Church,  and  assistant  at  the  Gymnasium.  In  1764  he 
obtained  a  position  as  assistant  of  the  philosophical  fac- 
ulty of  the  university  of  the  same  place.  In  1775  he 
accepted  a  call  to  the  University  of  tiiessen  as  prof.  ord. 
of  divinity  and  assessor  of  the  Consistory ;  in  1777  he 
received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  divinitj*,  and  was  ap- 


pointed inspector  and  first  preacher  at  Butzbach,  In 
1790  he  again  returned  to  Strasburg  as  professor  and 
preacher,  and  there  died,  June  29,  1794.  Lobstein's 
above-mentioned  stay  in  Paris  not  only  offered  him  the 
opportimity  of  hearing  some  of  the  best  Orientalists  of 
the  day  (a  fact  which  chiefly  contributed  to  his  exten- 
sive and  accurate  knowledge  of  the  Oriental  languages), 
but  also  made  him  acquainted  with  many  great  men 
of  that  city.  Of  his  scholarly  productions  we  only 
mention  Diss,  de  dicinu  animi  pace,  sanctce  comite  (Ar- 
gentorati,  1766, 4to)  : — Commentatio  /listorico-jihiloloi/ica 
de  moniibusEbal  et  Garizim  (ibid.  1770, 4to)  : — Ohserva- 
tiones  criiicce  in  loca  Pentateuchi  illustria  (Gissae  et  Fran- 
cof.  1787, 8vo).  He  published  also  the  Samaritan  Codex, 
after  the  MSS.  of  the  Royal  Library  at  Paris. — Doring, 
Gelehrte  Theol,  JJeutsch.  a,  v. 

Lobwasser,  Ajibrosius,  a  German  Protestant  poet, 
was  born  at  Schneeburg,  in  Saxony,  April  4, 1515.  He 
studied  law,  and  became  chancellor  of  Misnia,  which  po- 
sition he  resigned  in  1563,  to  assume  the  duties  of  a  pro- 
fessorship at  the  University  of  Kcinigsberg.  He  died 
Nov.  25,  1585.  Lobwasser  exerted  great  influence  over 
the  religious  concerns  of  the  duchy  of  Prussia,  which, 
being  at  first  exclusively  Lutheran,  finally  came  to  be 
about  equally  divided  among  Lutherans  and  Calvinists, 
His  reputation  chiefly  rests,  however,  on  his  German 
version  of  the  Psalms  (based  upon  the  French  transla- 
tion of  Clement  Marot  and  Theodore  Beza),  published 
under  the  title  Die  I'salmen  Davids  nach  frunz.  ilelodey 
in  deiitsche  Reymen  f/tbracht  (Lpz.  1573,  8vo ;  Heidelb. 
1574;  Lpz.  1579;  Strasb.  1597,  Amsterd.  171' 4).  The 
translation  was  so  symmetrical  that  the  music  made  for 
the  French  by  Claude  Gondimel  was  exactly  adapted  to 
the  German.  At  the  same  time,  it  must  be  acknowl- 
edged that  it  is  entirely  devoid  of  poetical  merit,  as 
might  naturally  be  expected,  for  a  translation  from  a 
translation  can  seldom  have  any  of  the  original  spirit. 
These  Psalms  were  nevertheless  used  in  the  German 
Reformed  churches  until  the  middle  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury, on  account  of  the  people's  aversion  against  sing- 
ing any  but  sacred  productions.  Lobwasser  wrote  also 
Summarien  aller  Kupitel  d.lieilif/en  Schrift,  in  deutschen 
Reimen  (Lpz.  1584,  8vo).  See  Jticher,  Gelehrten  Lexi- 
con ;  Koch,  Gesch.  d.  Kirche  ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyliop.  x, 
447  ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gen.  xxxi,  428,     (J.  N.  P.) 

Local  Preachers.  The  term  "local,"  as  applied 
to  preachers  in  Methodist  churches,  is  used  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  term  '•itinerant"  or  "travelling," which 
designates  members  of  Annual  Conferences.  Local 
preachers  are  lay  preachers.  They  are  not  subject  to 
appointment  by  bishops  or  stationing  committees,  as 
are  itinerant  ministers.  Nevertheless,  they  are  formally 
licensed,  and  subject  to  the  direction  and  friendly  requi- 
sitions of  the  pastoral  authority  in  the  charge  in  which 
they  reside.  By  special  arrangement,  and  by  authority 
of  the  presiding  elder,  a  local  preacher  is  sometimes  ap- 
pointed preacher  in  charge  or  pastor  for  a  longer  or 
shorter  period. 

In  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  the  following  is 
the  process  of  the  appointment  of  any  person  as  a  local 
preacher.  1.  He  must  be  recommended  by  the  leaders' 
meeting  of  the  Church  to  which  he  belongs.  He  must 
be  elected  by  a  Quarterly  Conference  bel'ore  which  he 
has  been  examined  on  the  subject  of  doctrines  and  dis- 
cipline. 2.  An  election  by  the  Quarterly  Conference  at 
this  stage  appoints  a  candidate  to  the  oiiice  of  a  local 
preacher.  In  proof  of  his  appointment,  he  is  furnished 
with  a  license  signed  by  the  president  of  the  Confer- 
ence. The  license  is  given  for  one  year  only,  and,  in 
order  to  validity,  must  be  renewed  every  year  thereaf- 
ter. 3.  Subject  to  the  following  prerequisites,  a  local 
preacher  may  be  ordained:  (1.)  He  must  have  held  a 
local  preacher's  license  for  four  consecutive  years  before 
his  ordination.  (2.)  He  must  have  been  examined  in 
the  Quarterly  Conference  on  the  subject  of  doctrines 
and  discipline.     (3.)  He  must  have  received  a  "  testi- 


LOCAL  PREACHERS 


4V6   LOCI  COMMUNES  THEOLOGICI 


inonial"  from  the  Quarterly  Conference,  signed  by  the 
president  and  countersigned  by  the  secretary.  This 
testimrinial  must  recommend  the  apphcant  as  a  suitable 
person  to  receive  ministerial  orders.  (4.)  He  must  pass 
an  examination  as  to  character  and  accjuirements  before 
the  Annual  Conference,  and  obtain  its  approbation  and 
election  to  orders. 

Local  preachers  are  amenable  to  the  Quarterly  Con- 
ftrences  of  which  they  are  members.  An  ordained 
local  preacher  is  not  required  to  have  his  credentials  re- 
newed annually,  although  his  character  must  be  ap- 
proved each  year  by  the  Quarterly  Conference.  No 
person  is  eligible  to  admission  on  trial  in  an  Annual 
Conference  who  is  not  a  local  preacher,  and  specially 
recommended  by  the  Quarterly  Conference  as  a  suitable 
candidate  for  the  ''  travelling  connection."  Thus  the 
local  or  lay  preacher's  office  is  made  preparatory  to  the 
itinerant  or  fully-constituted  ministry.  Local  preachers 
are  subject  to  all  the  moral  and  religious  obligations  of 
the  regular  ministry.  Although  expected  to  devise  and 
execute  plans  for  doing  good  to  the  extent  of  their  in- 
dividual ability,  they  are  nevertheless  required  to  act 
under  the  direction  of  their  pastors  or  presiding  elders, 
who  are  on  their  part  required  by  the  Discipline  of  the 
Church  to  give  local  preachers  regular  and  systematic 
employment  on  the  Sabbath. 

On  large  circuits,  and  on  stations  embracuig  mission- 
ary work,  and  where  the  number  of  local  preachers  is 
considerable,  it  is  customary  to  arrange  and  print  a 
Plan  covering  all  the  appointments  of  a  quarter,  and 
designating  the  time  and  place  of  each  individual's  ser- 
vices. In  the  Wesleyan  jNIethodlst  Church  of  Great 
Britain  the  insertion  of  a  local  preacher's  name  on  the 
current  plan  of  the  charge  is  deemed  a  sufficient  license 
and  public  authentication  for  his  office.  In  his  meas- 
ures for  training  and  employing  lay  workers  in  the  Con- 
gregational Church,  Kev.  T.  Dewitt  Talraage,  of  Brook- 
lyn, has  adopted  the  system  of  mapping  out  the  work 
of  his  lay  preachers  in  a  printed  plan,  after  the  manner 
above  alluded  to. 

According  to  official  statistics,  the  number  of  local 
preachers  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  at  the 
close  of  1871  was  11,382,  a  number  greater  by  2G83  than 
that  of  the  itinerant  ministers  of  the  same  Church. 
The  number  of  local  preachers  in  the  eight  other  IMeth- 
odist  bodies  of  the  United  States  is  supposed  to  be  about 
10,000.  In  all  but  a  few  exceptional  cases,  the  individ- 
uals forming  this  great  body  of  evangelical  workers  ren- 
der their  services  to  churches  and  people  without  fee  or 
re\vard.  ilany  of  them  faithfully  and  zealously  obey 
the  commands  of  the  great  Teacher :  "  Go  out  quickly 
into  the  streets  and  lanes  of  the  city,  and  bring  in  hith- 
er the  poor,  and  the  maimed,  and  the  halt,  and  the 
blind;"  also,  "Go  out  into  the  highways  and  hedges, 
and  compel  them  to  come  in,  that  my  house  may  be 
filled."  While  preaching  laboriously  on  the  Sabbath, 
they  support  themsilves  bj'  diligence  in  business  during 
the  week. 

Witliin  a  few  years  past  a  spirited  effort  has  been 
made  among  the  local  preachers  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  for  mutual  improvement,  and  the  general 
increase  of  the  intellectual  and  spiritual  power  of  the 
boily.  A  National  I^ocal  Preachers'  Association  has  been 
formed,  which  has  held  public  sessions  in  various  parts 
of  the  United  States.  ••  At  these  annual  gatherings  rep- 
resentatives from  all  parts  of  the  world  come  together 
for  counsel,  and  for  the  comparison  of  personal  experi- 
ence, and  observations,  and  methods  of  labor;  also  to 
discuss  (luestions  bearing  u|ion  their  worlc  generally." 
This  association  also  encourages  the  organization  of 
branch  associations  in  dilferent  sections  of  the  country. 
The  National  Association  referred  to  memorialized  the 
General  Conference  of  1872,  requesting  the  following 
legislation,  viz. : 

\l.)  To  organize  in  each  presiding  elder's  district  a  Dis- 
trict Conference,  to  be  composed  of  all  tlie  travelling  and 
local  preachers  in  the  district,  and  to  be  presided  over  by 
the  presiding  elder,  and  meet  semi-uunually. 


(2.)  To  give  this  District  Conference  authority  to  re- 
ceive, license,  try,  and  expel  local  preachers,  and  also  to 
recommend  suitable  persons  to  tue  Annual  Conference 
to  be  received  into  tlie  travelling  connection,  and  for  or- 
dination as  local  deacons  and  elders. 

(3.)  To  authorize  the  District  Conference  to  assign  each 
local  preacher  to  a  field  of  labor  for  the  quarter,  and  to 
hold  him  strictly  responsible  for  an  efiicieut  performance 
of  his  work. 

This  scheme  of  District  Conferences  being  analogous  to 
that  long  practiced  by  the  Wesleyans  of  Great  Britain, 
was,  with  sundry  additions  and  modifications,  adopted, 
but,  nevertheless,  made  subject  to  the  option  of  a  ma- 
jority of  the  (Quarterly  Conferences  in  any  given  dis- 
trict. The  local  preacher's  ofHce  may  be  considered  a 
feature  of  Methodist  churches,  in  all  their  branches  and 
in  all  parts  of  the  world.  By  means  of  it  lay  preaching 
is  not  only  sanctioned,  but  regulated  and  made  auxil- 
iary to  regular  Church  and  missionary  movements.  In 
England  a  monthly  magazine  is  published,  entitled  The 
Local  Preacher's  Magazine,  to  furnish  lay  preachers 
material  for  study,  etc.,  since  1851.  See  also  J.  11.  Carr, 
The  Local  Ministi-y,  its  Character,  Vocation,  and  Position 
(Lond.  1851) ;  G.  iim\ih,Wesleijan  Local  Preacher's  Man- 
ual (Lond.  1861) ;  Mills,  ioc«^  or  Lay  Ministry  (Lond./ 
1851).     (D.P.K.) 

Lochman,  J.  George,  D.D.,  a  Lutheran  minister, 
widely  and  favorably  known,  was  bora  in  Philadelphia 
Dec.  2, 1773.  After  the  proper  preparation,  he  entered 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  at  which  he  was  grad- 
uated in  1789,  and  from  which  institution  he  subse- 
quently received  the  doctorate.  He  studied  theology 
under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Helmuth,  and  was  licensed  to 
preach  the  Gospel  in  1794.  Soon  after,  he  accepted  a 
call  to  Lebanon,  Penn.,  where  he  remained  twenty-one 
years,  laboring  with  great  fidelity  and  the  most  satisfac- 
tory results.  In  1815  he  was  elected  pastor  of  the  Lu- 
theran Church  at  Harrisburg,  Penn.  His  successful  la- 
bors here  were  terminated  by  death  July  10, 182(5.  Dr. 
Lochman  was  an  able  and  popular  preacher.  He  was 
held  in  high  estimation  by  the  Church,  and  exercised 
an  unbounded  infiuence.  See  Sprague,  A  nnals  A  m.  Pul- 
7;/V,  ix,110sq.     (M.  L.  S.) 

Loci  Communes  Theologici  is  the  name  giv- 
en to  expositions  of  evangelical  dogmatics  in  the  early 
times  of  the  Keformation.  It  originated  with  Jlelanc- 
thon,  and  was  retained  by  many  as  late  as  the  17th  cen- 
tury. INIelancthon  was  led  to  adopt  it  in  consequence 
of  its  classical  signification,  the  word  loci  being  then 
used  to  denote  the  fundamental  principles  of  any  system 
or  science,  and  he  considered  it  desirable  that  the  loci  of 
theology  should  also  be  regularly  established  and  de- 
fined :  "E  quibus  rerum  summa  pendeat,  ut  quorsum  di- 
rigenda  sint  studia  inteUigatur"  (/>o«  communes  s.  hypo- 
typoses  theolor/icce,  1521);  "  Prodest  in  doctrina  Christ, 
ordine  colligere  prsecipuos  locos  ut  inteUigi  possit ;  quid 
in  summa  profiteatur  doctrina  Christiana,  quid  ad  earn 
portineat,  quid  non  pertineat"  {Loci  communes,  1533, 
init.).  But,  as  the  very  first  principle  of  the  Keforma- 
tion was  the  Bible  as  a  source  of  saving  truth,  it  is  evi- 
dent the  Loci  communes  theologici  could  be  nothing  else 
than  the  Scriptures  themselves.  In  the  first  edition  of 
his  Loci  Melancthon  confined  himself  almost  exclusive- 
ly to  the  Epistle  to  the  Piomans,  in  the  exposition  of 
which  he  collected  the  Communissimi  rerum  thenlof/ica- 
nim  loci:  in  his  second  work  (1533)  he  extended  his 
field,  following  the  historical  ortier,  and  this  plan  has 
been  generally  adopted  since.  The  most  striking  prog- 
ress accomplished  by  this  method,  compared  with  the 
former  scholastic  treatment  of  dogmatics,  is,  as  Melanc- 
thon himself  pointed  out,  a  return  to  the  Bible  on  all 
points,  instead  of  to  the  sentences  of  Peter  Lombard, 
"(Jni  ita  reci tat  dogmata  ut  nee  muniat  lectorcm  Scrip- 
tune  testimoniis  nee  de  summa  Scriptura;  disputet." 
As  the  Keformation  restored  the  Bible  to  the  people,  it 
was  natural  that  the  Loci  theol.  also  should  be  less  scien- 
tific and  learned  works  than  such  as  could  help  the  peo- 
ple to  a  cleared  understanding  of  the  Scriptures.    Hence 


LOCK 


477 


LOCKE 


they  -were  published  in  German  by  Spalatin  (1521).  af-  I  has  small  pins,  made  to  correspond  with  the  holes,  into 


tenvards  by  J.  Jonas  (153G),  and  tiually  by  Melancthon 
himself  (1542),  and  designated  by  them  as  the  chief  ar- 
ticles and  principal  point  of  Scripture  (IhaqHartikel  u. 
fiirnehmste  Funkte  d.  ganzen  heil.  Svliri/t),  or  of  Chris- 
tian doctrine  {Hauptartikd  christlichcr  Lehrt).  Me- 
lancthon, however,  in  the  third  part  of  his  Loci  (1543- 
59),  gradually  withdrew  from  this  position,  and  adopted 
a  manner  of  treating  the  subject  more  akin  to  scholas- 
ticism. This  was  subsequently  the  case  with  the  Loci 
theohxjici  of  Abdias  Prffitorius  (Schulze)  (Wittemberg, 
15G9)  and  Strigel  (ed.  Fezel,  Neust,  1581),  who  held  the 
same  views,  as  well  as  with  those  of  Martin  Chemnitz 
(ed.  P.  Lysef,  Francf.  a.  M.  1591)  and  Hafenreffer  (Tlib. 
IGOO),  who  diflfered  from  him;  also  of  Leonard  Hlit- 
ter  (Wittemb.  1619),  who  went  on  an  entirely  different 
])rinciplc,  which  John  Gerhard  tried  to  soften  down  in 
his  renowned  Loci  theol.  (Jena,  1010),  while  A.  Calov, 
in  his  ASt/stema  locor.  theol.  (Wittemb.  1G55),  carried  it 
to  its  fidi  extreme.  After  this  time  the  expression  Loci 
t/ieolof/ici  ceased  to  be  used  in  Lutheran  dogmatics.  In 
the  IJeformed  Church  it  was  used  by  Hyperius  (Basle, 
15GG),W.  Muscidus  (Berne,  15G1),  Peter  Martyr  (Basle, 
1580),  J.  Maccov  (Franeker,  1G39),  and  D.  Chamier  (Ge- 
neva, 1653).  See  Gass,  Gesch.  d.  prot.  Dogmatik  (1854, 
vol.  i)  ;  Heppe,  Dofpnatik  des  deutsch.  Protestantismus, 
etc.  (1857,  vol.  i) ;  C.  Schwarz,  Studitn  ii.  Ki-itiken  (1855, 
i,  and  1857,  ii). — Herzog,  Eeal-Encyklojmdie,  viii,  449. 
(J.N.  P.) 

IiOCk  (?"3,  nadV,  to  bar  up  a  door,  Judg.  iii,  23,  24 ; 
rendered  "  bolt,"  2  Sam.  xiii,  17,  18,  "  inclose,"  "  shut 
up,"  in  Cant,  iv,  12;  hence  Pl"3iO,  manul',  the  holt  or 
fastening  of  a  door,  Neh.  iii,  3,  6, 13, 14, 15;  Cant,  v,  5). 
The  doors  of  the  ancient  Hebrews  were  secured  by  bars 
of  wood  or  iron,  though  the  latter  were  almost  entirely 
appropriated  to  the  entrance  of  fortresses,  prisons,  and 
towns  (comp.  Isa.  xlv,  2).  Thus  we  find  it  mentioned 
in  1  Kings  iv,  13  as  something  remarkable  concerning 
Bashan  that  "  there  were  threescore  great  cities,  hav- 
ing walls  and  brazen  bars."  These  were  almost  the 
only  locks  known  in  early  times,  and  they  were  fur- 
nished with  a  large  and  clumsy  key,  which  was  applied 
to  tlie  bar  through  an  orifice  on  the  outside,  by  means 
of  which  the  bolt  or  bar  was  slipped  forward  as  in  mod- 
ern locks  (Judg.  iii,  24).  There  were  smaller  contri- 
vances for  inner  doors,  and  probably  projecting  pieces 
by  which  to  shove  the  bolt  with  the  hand  (Cant,  v,  5). 
See  Key.  Lane  thus  describes  a  modern  Egyptian  lock  : 
'■  Every  door  is  furnished  with  a  wooden  lock,  called 
ddhbeli,  the  mechanism  of  which  is  shown  by  a  sketch 
here  inserted.  No.  1  is  a  front  view  of  the  lock,  with 
the  bolt  drawn  back;  Nos.  2,  3,  and  4  are  back  views  of 
the  separate  parts  and  the  key.  A  number  of  small 
iron  pins  (four,  five,  or  more)  drop  into  corresponding 
holes  in  the  sliding  bolt  as  soon  as  the  latter  is  pushed 
into  the  hole  or  staple  of  the  door-post.     The  key  also 


r^ 


izz 


o 


f=^^^ 


Modern  Egyptian  wooden  Lock. 


which  they  are  introduced  to  open  the  lock,  the  former 
pins  being  thus  puslicd  up,  the  bolt  may  be  drawn  back. 
The  wooden  lock  of  a  street  door  commonly  has  a  slid- 
ing bolt  about  fourteen  inches  long ;  those  of  the  doors 
of  apartments,  cupboards,  etc.,  are  about  seven,  eight, 
or  nine  inches.  The  locks  of  the  gates  of  quarters,  pub- 
lic buildings,  etc.,  are  of  the  same  kind,  and  mostly  two 
feet  in  length,  or  more.  It  is  not  difficult  to  pick  this 
kind  of  lock"  {Mod.  Er/yptians,  i,  25).  Hence  they  were 
sometimes,  as  an  additional  security,  covered  with  clay 
(q.  v.),  and  on  this  a  seal  (q.  v.)  impressed  (conip.  Job 
xxviii,  14).  (See  KauwoUff,  Trav.  in  Eay,  i",  17;  Eus- 
seU.,  Aleppo,  i,  22;  Volnej',  Trav.  ii,  438;  Chardin,  Toy. 
iv,  123;  Wilkinson,  Anc.  Egypt.,  abridgment,  i,  15,  16.) 
See  UooR. 

The  other  terms  rendered  "lock"  in  the  Auth.Yers. 
refer  to  the  hair  of  the  head,  etc. ;  they  are  the  foUow- 
mg:  nis?)!'?,  viachlajjhoth' ,  braids  or  plaits,  e.  g.  of 
the  long  hair  of  Samson  (Judg.  xvi,  13,  19);  n'^II^Ii 
tsitsith',  the  Jo7-elock  of  the  head  (Ezek.  viii,  3;  also  a 
"  fringe"  or  tassel.  Numb,  xv,  38, 39 ;  comp.  Matt,  xxiii, 
5) ;  S'"nS,/)e'?-o,  the  locks  of  hair,  as  being  shorn  (Numb, 
vi,  5;  Ezek.  xliv,  20;  and  niSIp,  kevntstsoth' ,  thefoi-e- 
locks  or  sidelocks  of  a  man's  or  woman's  hair  (Cant,  v,  2, 
12;  comp.  Schidtens,  Op.  min.  p.  246);  but  tlS^,  tsam- 
muh',  is  a  veil  or  female  covering  for  the  head  and  face, 
usual  in  the  East  (Cant,  iv,  1,  3 ;  vi,  7 ;  Isa.  xlvii,  2). 
See  Hair. 

Locke,  George,  a  Methodist  preacher,  was  born 
in  Cannonstown,  Pa.,  June  8,  1797,  and  reared  in  Ken- 
tucky. His  early  educational  advantages  were  few, 
but  he  improved  all  opportunities  to  secure  knowledge. 
His  parents  were  Presbyterians,  but  George  was  made 
a  Methodist  through  the  preaching  of  Edward  Talbot 
when  a  saddler's  apprentice.  In  1817  he  was  licensed  to 
exhort,  and  soon  began  to  preach.  In  1819  he  entered 
Tennessee  Conference,  and  was  successively  appointed 
to  Little  Kiver  Circuit,  to  Powell's  Talley,  and  to  Bowl- 
ing Green  Circuit,  Ky.  In  1822  he  located  in  Shelby- 
ville,  and  engaged  in  secular  business.  His  conscience 
forced  him  to  re-enter  the  ministrj',  and  he  success- 
ively preached  on  Jefferson  Circuit  and  Hartford  Cir- 
cuit (Kentucky  Conference).  In  1826  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  Corydon  Circuit,  Illinois  Conference.  In  1828 
he  labored  on  Charleston  Circuit,  and  was  the  means 
of  one  of  the  greatest  revivals  that  Southern  Indiana 
ever  witnessed.  The  same  year  he  was  appointed  pre- 
siding elder  of  Wabash  District,  which  embraced  an 
area  of  territory  in  Indiana  and  Illinois  of  at  least  100 
miles  from  east  to  west,  by  200  miles  from  north  to 
south,  on  either  side  of  the  Wabash  Eiver.  While  on 
this  district  he  contracted  the  consumption,  and  was 
obliged  to  become  supernumerarj'.  He  died  in  New 
Albany,  Ind.,  in  July,  1834.  See  Spraguc,  Annuls  of 
the  American  Pulpit,  vii,  608. 

Locke,  John,  the  most  notable  of  modem 
English  philosophers,  who  has  exercised  the  great- 
est influence  on  all  subsequent  speculation,  in  both 
psychology  and  politics,  and  whose  doctrines,  un- 
der various  modifications  or  exaggerations,  still 
contribute  largely  to  mould  the  opmions  of  the 
civilized  world.  He  has  in  great  measure  deter- 
mined the  complexion  of  British  psychologj^  As 
the  most  strenuous  antagonist  of  Cartesianism ; 
as  the  precursor  and  teacher  alike  of  the  French 
encyclopasdists  and  of  the  Scotch  school ;  as  the 
oracle  of  the  freethinkers,  the  target  of  Leib- 
nitz, and  the  stimulator  of  Hartley,  Berkeley,  and 
Hume,  Locke  must  always  attract  the  earnest  con- 
sideration of  the  student  of  metaphysics.  For 
nearly  two  centuries  his  name  has  been  a  battle- 
cry,  and  his  dogmas  have  been  fought  over  bj-  the 
shadowy  hosts  of  warring  ideologues  with  the  zeal 
and  the  fury  with  which  the  Greeks  and  the  Tro- 


LOCKE 


478 


LOCKE 


jans  contended  over  the  body  of  Patroclus.  His  labors 
ill  tlie  department  of  mental  ])lulosophy  constitute  only 
a  part  of  bis  claims  to  enduring  regard.  His  inquiries 
liavc  been  scarcely  less  fruitful  in  political  ]ilnlo.sopby 
and  political  economy.  In  the  former  he  is  the  acant- 
conrier  of  Kousseau;  in  the  latter  science,  of  Adam 
Smith;  and  in  each  he  has  laid  the  foundations  on 
wliich  later  theorists  and  later  statesmen  have  been  con- 
tent to  build. 

LiJ'e. — John  Locke  ^yas  born  Aug.  29, 1632,  at  Wring- 
ton,  Somersetshire,  and  was  educated  first  at  Westminster 
School,  and  later  at  Christ  Church  College, Oxford.  Here 
he  prosecuted  the  prescribed  studies  with  diUgence  and 
success,  but  deviated  from  the  beaten  path  by  devoting 
himself  to  the  discountenanced  writings  of  Des  Cartes, 
who  had  died  a  few  years  beibre.  He  obtained  the  bac- 
calaureate in  1G55,  and  the  master's  degree  in  1G58,  and 
then  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  medicine,  rather 
for  the  sake  of  knowledge  and  of  his  sickly  frame  than 
with  the  purpose  of  practicing  his  profession. 

In  1064  Locke  accompanied  the  embassy  to  the  elec- 
tor of  Brandenburg  as  secretary  of  legation,  but  he  re- 
turned to  Oxford  within  the  year,  and  applied  him- 
self to  experimental  philosophy,  then  rising  mto  favor. 
An  accident  now  decided  his  course  of  life,  and  occa- 
sioned his  acquaintance  with  lord  Ashley — the  celebra- 
ted earl  of  Shaftesbury — with  whom  he  was  persuaded 
to  take  up  his  abode  the  next  year.  By  his  sldll  and 
good  luck  he  relieved  his  patron  of  an  abscess  which 
endangered  his  life,  and  was  induced  to  confine  his  med- 
ical practice  to  a  small  circle  of  the  lord's  friends,  and 
to  give  his  chief  attention  to  political  speculation  and 
questions  of  state.  He  thus  became  a  man  of  the  world 
before  he  became  a  philosopher.  In  1(508  Locke  ac- 
companied the  earl  and  countess  of  Northumberland  to 
France.  The  earl  proceeded  towards  Rome,  and  died 
on  the  way.  Locke  returned  with  the  countess  to  Eng- 
land, and  again  found  a  home  with  Ashley — chancellor 
of  the  exchequer  after  Clarendon's  fall.  The  future 
sage  was  employed  to  superintend  the  education  of  Ash- 
ley's heir,  a  feeble  boy  of  sixteen.  He  was  afterwards 
commissioned  to  select  a  wife  for  him,  and  did  so  satis- 
factorily. In  due  course  of  time  he  took  charge  of  the 
education  of  the  eldest  son  of  this  marriage,  the  author 
of  "  the  Characteristics."  "  To  such  strange  uses  may 
^ve  come  at  last !" 

Though  residing  with  lord  Ashley,  Locke  retained  his 
connection  with  Oxford,  which  he  frequently  visited. 
On  one  of  these  visits,  in  1670,  the  conversation  of  Dr. 
Thomas  and  other  friends  turned  his  thoughts  to  the 
difficult,  still  unsettled,  and  perhaps  insoluble  question 
of  the  nature  and  limits  of  human  knowledge.  This 
supplied  the  germ  of  the  L'ssay  on  the  Human  Uiuler- 
standimj,  though  nearlj^  twenty  years  elapsed  before  the 
completion  and  publication  of  the  work.  In  1672,  Ash- 
ley, the  master-spirit  in  Charles  H's  "  Cabal,"  was  cre- 
ated earl  of  Sliaftesbury,  and  soon  after  he  was  made 
lord  high  chancellor.  Locke  was  appointed  secretary 
of  Plantations.  Next  summer  Shaftesbury  surrendered 
the  great  seal,  and  became  president  of  the  Board  of 
Trade  and  Plantations.  Locke  was  named  secretary  of 
the  board.  It  was  at  this  time  that  he  produced  for  his 
noble  friend  and  the  other  proprietors  the  Constitution 
of  the  Carolinas.  In  another  year  the  Commission  of 
Trade  was  dissolved,  Locke  lost  liis  post,  and  he  dreamt 
of  making  a  livelihood  by  Ids  profession.  But  his  health 
was  feeble,  and  he  travelled  in  France,  acquiring  at 
Montpellier  the  intimacy  of  the  earl  of  Pembroke,  to 
whom  lie  afterwanls  dedicated  his  "  KssaijP 

On  Sliaftesbury 's  restoration  to  office  as  lord  presi- 
dent of  the  council,  167'.>,  lie  sent  for  Locke,  but  the 
minister  was  dismissed  in  October  of  the  same  year. 
In  two  years  more  he  was  brought  to  trial  for  treason, 
but  the  grand  jurj-  ignored  the  indictment.  Shaftes- 
bury, however,  was  compelled  to  escape  secretly  to  Hol- 
land, where  he  died,  .luiie  21, 1683.  Locke  had  followed 
him,  and  wrote  an  affectionate  tribute  to  his  memory. 


The  hostile  testimony  of  bishop  Fell  proves  that 
Locke  had  held  himself  aloof  from  the  intrigues  in 
^\•hich  Shaftesbury  was  involved.  He  did  not  avoid 
tlie  malice  which  such  an  intimacy  invited.  He  was 
deprived  of  his  studentship  at  Christ  Church,  and  vain- 
ly attempted  to  regain  it  at  the  Kevolution.  On  the 
accession  of  James  II  his  surrender  was  demanded  from 
the  states'  general  on  the  charge  of  complicity  in  IMon- 
mouth's  insurrection.  He  was  concealed  by  his  Dutch 
friends.  AVilliam  Penn  offered  to  procure  his  pardon, 
but  the  office  was  nobly  declined.  During  this  exUe 
Locke  composed  his  first  Letter  on  Toleration,  and  pro- 
duced his  plan  of  "A  Commonplace  Book" — if  it  be  his 
— a  cumbrous  and  inadequate  device,  which  admits  of 
easy  improvement.  Dui.'jig  this  period — towards  the 
close  of  1687 — he  finished  the  Essay  concerninr/  the  Hu- 
man Umlerstandim/.  The  mode  of  its  composition  has 
left  painful  traces  on  the  completed  work,  as  was  appre- 
hended and  acknowledged  by  its  author. 

The  Kevolution  of  1688  restored  Locke  to  his  native 
land.  He  signalized  his  return  by  the  publication  of 
his  great  philosophical  work.  An  attempt  was  made  to 
prohibit  its  introduction  into  the  University  of  Oxford. 
In  1690  he  issued  his  two  treatises  On  Government.  They 
controverted  the  doctrine  of  the  divine  right  of  kings, 
and  referred  the  origin  of  government  to  a  social  com- 
pact, which  is  equally  disproved  by  theory  and  by  his- 
tory. They  rendered  a  greater  service  by  recognising 
labor  as  the  foundation  of  property,  though  the  tenet 
was  pressed  too  far. 

Locke  continued  to  decline  diplomatic  honors,  but  ac- 
cepted the  place  of  Commissioner  of  Appeals,  with  the 
modest  salary  of  £200.  He  directed  his  regards  in 
these  years  to  the  coinage  of  the  realm,  which  was 
much  debased;  and  published  in  1691  his  Considerations 
on  the  Loiverinf)  of  Interest  and  Raisinfj  the  Value  of 
Money,  which  was  followed  in  1695  by  Further  Consid- 
erations on  liaising  the  Value  cfAfoney.  He  was  in  fre- 
quent consultation  with  the  earl  of  Pembroke  on  the 
subject  of  that  restoration  of  the  British  coinage  which 
was  brought  about  by  the  concurrent  action  of  lord 
Somers  and  Sir  Isaac  Newton. 

In  1693  Locke  withdrew  from  the  dull,  heavy  atmos- 
phere of  London,  and  accepted  a  pleasant  retreat  for  his 
increasing  asthma  and  advancing  age  at  Oates,  in  Es- 
sex, the  seat  of  Sir  Francis  Masham,  who  had  married 
the  accomplished  daughter  of  Dr.  Cudworth.  It  had 
been  the  fortune  of  Locke  through  life  to  live  "quadris 
alienist  His  last  quarters  were  at  Oates.  This  was 
his  home  till  he  found  a  quieter  home  in  the  grave, 
where  he  waited  in  cold  abstraction's  apathy  lor  a  mir- 
acle to  reanimate  his  spirit,  according  to  the  dogma  of 
The  Reasonableness  of  Christianity  (produced  in  1G95). 
This  work  sought  the  union  of  aU  Christian  believers 
by  advancing  the  doctrine  that  the  only  necessary  arti- 
cle of  Christian  belief  is  comprised  in  the  acceptance  of 
Jesus  as  the  Messiah,  making  all  the  requirements  be- 
yond this  to  consist  of  2}7-acticfd  duties,  of  repentance  for 
sin,  and  obedience  to  the  moral  precepts  of  the  Gospel. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  king  William  HI,  of  Eng- 
land, entertained  the  design  of  uniting  Conformists  and 
Dissenters  on  some  common  ground,  and  to  further  this 
scheme  Locke  wrote  The  Reasonableness  of  Chi-istianity 
(comp.  Quarterly  Review,  Lond.  186-1,  July).  About  the 
time  of  his  retirement  from  the  city  Locke  published  his 
third  Letter  on  Toleration,  and  in  the  first  year  of  his  se- 
clusion wrote  his  little  tract  on  the  Education  of  Chil- 
dren. The  same  year  which  brought  out  his  exceed- 
ingly heterodox  essay  on  Christianit}'  was  marked  by 
his  philosophical  controversy  with  Dr.  Stillingtieet,  bish- 
op of  Worcester. 

Locke's  circumstances  were  now  rendered  perfectly 
easy  by  his  appointment  as  commissioner  of  Trade  and 
Plantations,  with  emoluments  amounting  to  £1000  per 
amium.  Locke,  however,  had  an  aptitude  for  losing  or 
dropping  the  gifts  of  the  fairies.  Increasing  debility 
made  him  resign  his  comfortable  sinecure  in  1700,  and. 


LOCKE 


479 


LOCKE 


four  years  later,  he  died  calmly  at  Gates,  Oct.  28, 1704. 
lie  was  buried  at  the  neighboring  church  of  High  La- 
yer, (^ueen  Caroline,  one  of  those  fommes  preeicitses 
who,  like  Christina  of  Sweden  or  Eider's  princess,  fol- 
lowed with  her  sympathies  the  studies  she  could  not 
understand,  placed  Locke's  bust  with  those  of  Bacon, 
Newton,  and  Clarke,  in  the  mausoleum  erected  by  her 
at  Kiehmond  Park  to  commemorate  the  glories  of  Eng- 
lish philosophy. 

Locke's  health  was  always  exceedingly  feeble,  and 
his  existence  was  prolonged  only  by  constant  vigilance 
and  care.  This  doubtless  contributed  to  his  abstinence 
from  any  energetic  vocation,  and  probably  influenced 
his  theories  as  well  as  his  character  and  conduct.  It 
rendered  his  existence  a  career  of  tranquil  and  learned 
leisure,  except  so  far  as  it  was  interrupted  by  the  suspi- 
cions and  malice  which  civil  discord  directs  against  ev- 
ery man  of  note.  The  self-regarding  habits  of  a  vale- 
tudinarian may  have  impelled  the  thoughts  of  the  phi- 
losopher to  tliat  continual  introspection  and  that  exag- 
geration of  personal  impressions  which  so  strongly  mark 
his  philosophy.  His  love  of  ease  and  security  showed 
itself  in  his  general  demeanor.  He  was  cautious  and 
retiring,  affable  and  genial  in  his  intercourse,  kindly 
and  affectionate  in  his  nature,  free  from  jiersonal  ani- 
mosities, notwithstanding  his  transitory  difference  with 
Newton  and  his  controversy  with  bishop  StiUingfleet. 
He  avoided  the  incumbrances  of  matrimony;  and  the 
delicient  experiences  of  an  old  bachelor — the  want  of 
that  most  suggestive  knowledge,  the  dawn  of  intelli- 
gence in  infancy — may  be  noted  in  his  whole  psychol- 
ogy. His  life  was,  however,  worthy  of  his  eminence, 
and  was  such  as  to  make  him  a  suitable  compeer  of 
thosejhrtunate  nimium — those  hapjn'  philosophic  dispo- 
sitions which  are  represented  by  Malcbranche,  Spinoza, 
Leibnitz,  Berkeley,  and  Hume. 

Pliilosophy. — The  philosophy  of  Locke  is  very  sim- 
ple, if  not  very  coherent,  and  very  unsystematic  in  its 
treatment  by  himself.  It  consists  rather  of  one  pro- 
litic  principle  and  its  explanations  than  of  any  complete 
and  orderly  scheme.  That  principle  furnishes  a  foun- 
dation for  a  distinctive  method,  which  was  only  im- 
perfectly and  inconsistently  developed  by  him.  That 
method  is  psychological,  and  Locke  has  been  too  hastily 
regarded  as  its  inventor,  whereas  he  only  applied  it  too 
exclusively  and  within  too  narrow  limits.  Locke's  con- 
troversial works  are  naturally  directed  to  the  removal 
of  the  numerous  objections  and  misapprehensions  to 
which  his  fundamental  tenet  and  its  applications  are 
obnoxious:  but  even  the  Essay  itself  is  mainly  employ- 
ed in  the  discussion  of  topics  which  illustrate  the  dog- 
ma rather  than  establish  a  formal  body  of  doctrine,  and 
which  belong  to  the  preliminaries  or  prolegomena  of 
philosojihy  much  more  than  to  philosophy  proper. 

An  examination  of  the  analysis  usually  prefixed  to 
the  "  Essay"  will  show  how  small  a  portion  of  the  work 
really  belongs  to  the  regular  exposition  of  a  metajihys- 
ical  system ;  how  much  is  occupied  with  the  anticipa- 
tion of  objections,  or  the  simplification  of  apprehended 
difficulties.  The  treatise  is  di\-ided  into  four  books. 
The  first  repudiates  the  Cartesian  doctrine  of  innate 
ideas,  and  is  therefore  controversial  and  negative.  It 
does  not  seem  to  have  been  verj^  highly  regarded  by 
Locke  himself.  The  second  is  an  inquiry  into  the  ori- 
gin and  limits  of  human  knowledge,  and  is  the  charac- 
teristic portion  of  Locke's  philosophy.  The  third  is 
given  to  the  consideration  of  words,  and  is  in  many  re- 
spects the  most  valuable  part  of  the  book,  affording  use- 
ful suggestions  for  guarding  against  the  multitudinous 
seductions  of  the  hlola  Fori.  It  is  dialectical  rather 
than  philosophical,  though  it  affords  frequent  opportuni- 
ties of  confhrming  or  expounding  his  cardinal  tenet,  and 
many  of  exhibiting  its  inadequacj'.  The  fourth  book 
is  on  the  nature  of  knowledge  in  general,  and  does  little 
more  than  apply  the  conclusion  already  reached  to  the 
determination  of  the  degree,  extent,  and  quality  of  hu- 
man knowledge,  which  is  reduced  by  him  not  merely 


to  relativity,  but  to  a  beggarly  and  unsatisfactory  rela- 
tivity. 

The  circumstances  which  provoked  the  composition 
of  Locke's  celebrated  treatise  account  in  a  most  instruc- 
tive manner  for  the  character  of  his  doctrine.  His  ad- 
diction to  the  writings  of  Des  Cartes  in  his  college  days 
— his  rejection  of  his  postulates  and  conclusions — his 
fondness  for  the  physical  and  natural  sciences — his  ut- 
ter defect  of  poetic  sensibility — his  association  with  the 
great  and  with  the  beau  monde — his  political  and  prac- 
tical proclivities,  confined  his  attention  to  observed  phe- 
nomena, cramped  and  discouraged  the  criticism  of  those 
phenomena,  and  withdrew  his  thoughts  from  what  lay 
beyond,  and  was  required  for  the  intelligent  observation 
and  interpretation  of  the  phenomena  supposed  to  be  ob- 
served. Hence  he  was  led  to  ignore  the  spirit  of  hu- 
man thought  —  to  exaggerate  the  importance  of  the 
words  which  served  for  the  counters  of  metaphysical 
speculation — to  make  much  of  his  philosophy  turn  upon 
the  precision  and  determinateness  of  terms,  and  to  con- 
sider that  a  scrupulous  recognition  of  their  import  in 
their  acceptance  and  employment  constituted  the  main 
part  of  philosophy.  Hence,  when  he  undertook  ■'  to  ex- 
amine our  own  abilities,  and  see  what  objects  our  under- 
standings were  or  were  not  fitted  to  deal  with,"  the  ex- 
amination scarcely  reached  to  that  primary  and  essen- 
tial problem  of  metaphysics,  but  revolved  tediously  and 
with  needless  prolixity  around  the  limits  of  the  mean- 
ings of  words.  He  thus  necessarily  arrived  at  an  ex- 
cessive, though  far  from  rigorous  nominalism. 

Locke's  point  of  departure  was  that  of  all  the  philoso- 
phers of  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  and  the  first  quarter 
of  the  18th  ccnturj' — Cartesianism.  The  influence  of 
the  suspected  doctrine  was  manifested  at  the  outset  of 
his  labors  by  his  proposition  to  substitute  the  phrase 
determinate  ideas  for  clear  and  distinct  ideas — though  a 
mere  change  of  name,  and  such  a  change,  could  effect 
little  in  producing  a  complete  reform  of  system.  It  is  a 
startling  commentary  on  the  insufficiency  of  this  sub- 
stitution that  no  writer  has  been  more  capricious  and 
vacillating  in  his  employment  of  terms  than  Locke  him- 
self, and  that  the  very  term  idea,  which  he  elaborately 
defines,  is  used  by  him  without  determinate  meaning, 
and  in  almost  every  possible. sense  except  its  true  one. 
He,  however,  furnished  neither  the  first  nor  the  solitary 
example  of  the  abuse  of  this  fine  Platonic  invention. 
Locke's  popularity  may  be  due  to  the  ease,  and  vigor, 
the  vivacity,  and  homeliness  of  his  style;  but  the  style 
is  rugged,  ambiguous,  conversational,  and  as  far  removed 
from  philosophical  propriety  as  it  is  from  literary  ele- 
gance. 

The  influence  of  Des  Cartes,  educing  antagonism, 
tempted  Locke  to  commence  his  investigations  by  an 
assault  on  the  hypothesis  of  innate  ideas,  which  ini- 
questionably  formed  the  latent  substratum  of  the  Car- 
tesian delusions.  Certainly  the  clear  and  distinct  ideas 
of  Des  Cartes  had  no  title  to  be  accepted  as  innate. 
Locke  had  thus  an  easy  task  in  refuting  the  Cartesian 
positions.  He  failed  to  recognise  that  the  incriminated 
doctrine  was  not  thereby  refuted.  The  "  tabula  7asu" 
of  Locke  was  just  as  much  an  assumption  and  as  much 
a  fallacy  as  the  innate  truths  of  his  opponent — unless  by 
the  tabula  7-asa  is  understood,  what  Locke  woidd  not 
have  understood,  the  sensitive  and  sympathetic  tablet 
ready  to  restore  in  the  sunlight  of  life  all  images  pre- 
sented to  it.  It  is  perfectly  true  that  distinct  concep- 
tions and  formulated  maxims  are  not  innate,  or  anterior 
to  all  excitation.  This  admission  does  not  disprove  the 
reality  of  congenital  and  constitutional  preadaptations 
of  the  intellectual  faculties  for  the  acceptance  of  such 
conceptions  and  propositions  when  suitably  presented  to 
the  mind  and  apprehended  by  it.  Locke's  doctrine  on 
this  point  has  consequently  been  surrendered,  and  the 
doctrine  opposed  by  him  has  been  accepted,  imder  juster 
limitations,  by  many  who  continue  to  entertain  the  pro- 
foundest  reverence  for  his  general  procedure.  The  Car- 
tesian postulate  compelled  the  assertion  of  a  divme  in- 


LOCKE 


480 


LOCKE 


flux  to  explain  the  operations  of  the  mind,  and  suggest- 
ed Malebraiic'he's  celebrated  thesis  of  "seeing  all  things 
in  God."  Locke,  who  had  assailed  the  heresiarch,  felt 
the  necessity  of  controverting  the  hazardous  moditica- 
tion  proposed  by  the  fervent  acolyte.  But  the  tenet  to 
which  Locke  was  himself  driven  by  the  compulsion  of 
his  own  erroneous  principles  was  equally  hazardous  and 
still  more  fallacious — that  our  idea  of  God  is  obtained 
by  sensation  and  reflection. 

Having  got  rid  of  innate  ideas — tenues  sine  corpore 
ritce — the  English  philosopher  proceeded  to  investigate 
the  origin  of  human  knowledge — the  avowed  object  of 
his  main  inquiry.  There  was  an  inversion  of  logical 
order,  as  Morell  has  observed,  in  seeking  the  ratio  es- 
sendi  of  the  phenomena  before  ascertaining  the  phenom- 
ena themselves ;  but  the  accidental  connection  between 
the  first  and  second  pairs  of  the  Essay  is  very  intimate. 
If  knowledge  be  not  deduced  ub  intra,  it  might  natural- 
ly appear  to  be  derived  ab  extra.  Hence  Locke  con- 
cluded that  all  knowledge  is  obtained  from  sensation 
and  reflection.  This  is  his  principle,  and  his  principle 
is  his  philosophy — the  curtain  is  the  picture.  The  dis- 
tinction between  the  sensation  and  its  intellectual  ap- 
preciation was  unsuspected  by  him ;  nor  did  he  observe 
that  if  sensation  and  reflection  upon  sensation  are  the 
exclusive  sources  of  knowledge,  the  knowledge  of  reflec- 
tion is  derivative  from  and  dependent  upon  sensation, 
and  all  knowledge  springs  from  sensation  alone.  This 
oversight  occasioned  his  very  inadequate  explanations 
of  space,  time,  power,  cause,  good  and  evil,  and  God ; 
it  furnished  Hume  with  his  cardinal  positions  in  regard 
to  impressions  and  ideas;  it  rendered  Locke  a  suitable 
patron  for  the  French  encyclopaedists  and  the  material- 
ists, and  created  the  belief  that  he  espoused  the  tenet 
^'  Xi/iil  in  intellectu  quod  non prius  in  sensu."  This  te- 
net was  held  by  neither  Aristotle  nor  Locke,  but  Locke's 
development  of  his  own  principle  often  seems  to  assert 
and  to  rest  upon  that  tenet,  and  both  provoked  and 
justitted  the  celebrated  response  and  refutation  off^ered 
by  Leibnitz  in  the  proposed  addition  to  the  maxim  of 
the  words  •'  ?iisi  intdlectus  ipse.''  Locke  might  have  ac- 
cepted that  addition,  but  it  was  not  declared  by  his  lan- 
guage, nor  clearly  indicated  by  his  teachings ;  and  its 
frank  acceptance  would  have  been  fatal  to  his  philo- 
sophical expositions ;  for,  if  reflection  be  considered  as 
a  source  of  knowledge  distinct  from  sensation,  it  must 
be  different  from  sensation,  and  must  be  a  contribution 
of  the  mind  itself  to  the  intellectual  product.  Locke's 
original  attitude  was  that  of  a  polemic  engaged  in  the 
refutation  of  Des  Cartes;  this  attitude  he  never  alto- 
gether abandoned ;  it  determined  his  habits  of  specula- 
tion, and  continually  misled  him.  Locke  was  still  fur- 
ther misled  by  the  looseness,  awkwardness,  obscurity, 
and  prolixity  of  his  style,  bj'  its  colloquial  negligence  of 
phrase,  by  that  wavering  of  expression  and  impalpabil- 
ity of  figurative  illustration  which  have  been  noted  by 
Sir  William  Hamilton,  iMaurice,  and  nearly  every  other 
student  of  his  works.  The  equivocation  of  the  terms 
employed  by  liim  escaped  his  recognition,  while  it  per- 
plexes his  readers,  and  producetl  much  the  same  effect 
upon  his  reasoning  as  was  produced  upon  Hume's  by  a 
similar  agency.  With  Locke  there  might  be  delusion ; 
there  was  no  sophistry ;  there  was  an  open,  manly  spir- 
it, a  candor  and  honesty  of  investigation  which  often 
slighted  or  ignored  consistency  in  the  determined  ap- 
]irehensioii  of  what  was  felt  instinctively  to  be  right. 
His  book  accordingly  exercises  a  most  wholesome  influ- 
ence even  when  tlie  developments  of  his  doctrine  are 
most  aberrant,  and  its  perversions  most  perilous.  The 
practical  character  of  his  own  disposition,  the  predilec- 
tion for  the  studies  of  observation,  and  the  innocence 
and  simplicity  of  his  own  nature,  guarded  him  from  the 
effects  as  well  as  from  thcperception  of  his  errors,  but 
at  the  same  time  rendered  those  errors  less  apparent  and 
more  setiuctive  to  others.  They  preserved  his  own  pie- 
ty, while  his  system  became  a  templum  impietatis. 

This  practical  appetency  of  Locke's  mind  was  so  en- 


grossing as  to  leave  him  utterly  without  imagination  or 
poetic  sensibility.  Poetry  he  discountenanced  from 
want  of  taste,  but  professetUy  for  the  more  ignoble  rea- 
son that  "  no  gold  was  found  at  the  roots  of  Parnassus." 
The  absence  of  imagination  was  a  very  serious  defect. 
It  was  not  true  in  his  case  that  omite  irpiotum  p)ro  mira- 
bili.  On  the  contrary,  the  wondrous  domain  of  the  un- 
known and  the  unapprehended  was  "  undreamt  of  in  his 
philosophy."  These  intellectual  peculiarities  became 
very  manifest  in  his  religious  and  political  treatises — 
sometimes  inducing  point,  perspicuity,  and  popularity; 
sometimes  generating  prosaic  assumptions  for  want  of 
penetrating  vision.  Thus  were  probably  occasioned  the 
denial  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  in  the  Reasoiuible- 
ness  of  Christianiti/ — the  ascription  of  all  value  to  labor 
originally  expended  in  his  economical  speculations — - 
the  allegation  of  a  social  contract  and  of  a  state  of  nature 
— pure  and  untenable  hypotheses — in  his  treatises  On 
Government,  and  other  less  prominent  vagaries.  These 
points  merit  careful  consideration,  but  they  can  be  onlj' 
notetl  here.  We  should  not,  however,  omit  to  mention 
that  Locke's  amiable  and  tolerant  disposition,  the  asso- 
ciations of  his  life,  the  tenor  of  his  philosophy,  his  love 
of  justice  and  freedom,  rendered  efficient  service  towards 
the  extension  of  civil,  political,  and  religious  liberty  at 
home  and  abroad,  and  entitle  him  to  reverential  regard 
as  one  of  the  chief  benefactors  of  humanity. 

Literature. — The  literature  illustrative  of  Locke's  phi- 
losophy is  endless.  It  includes  the  greater  part  of  the 
metaphysical  treatises  written  since  tlie  close  of  the  17th 
century.  It  must  suffice,  therefore,  to  mention  here  only 
the  works  of  most  direct  importance,  and  most  readily 
accessible.  Of  such  is  the  following  list  composed. 
Locke,  Worlds  (London,  182-i,  9  vols.  8vo) ;  Locke,  Philo- 
sophical Works,  by  J.  A.  St.  John  (London,  1854,  2  vols. 
12mo);  Leibnitz,  Nouveaux  Essais  sur  rEntendement 
Humain ;  .Joannes  Clericus,  Lockii  Vita ;  "  Life  of  John 
Locke,"  in  the  Biographica  Britannica ;  Lord  King,  The 
Life  of  John  Locke,  etc.  (Lond.  18.30,  2  vols.  8vo) ;  Fors- 
ter.  Original  I^etters  of  John  Locke,  etc.  (London,  1847)  ; 
Browne,  "  Life  of  John  Locke,"  in  the  Encyclop.  Britan- 
nica ;  Dugald  Stewart,  Supplement  to  the  Encyclop.  Bri- 
tannica; Sir  James  Mackintosh,  On  the  philosophical 
Genius  of  Bacon  and  Locke ;  Henry  Rogers,  Miscellanies 
(Lond.  1855, 3  vols.  8vo)  ;  Ritter,  Gesch.  d.  Christl.  Philos. 
vii,  449  sq. ;  V.  Cousin,  Hist,  de  la  Philosophic ;  Lewes, 
Biograph.  Hist,  of  Philosophy  (Lond.  1857,  2  vols.  8vo), 
ii,  237  sq. ;  Farrar,  Critical  Hist.  ofEree  Thought,  p.  124 
sq. ;  Blakey,  Hist.  Philosophy  of  Mind  (London,  1850,4 
vols.  8vo) ;  Morell,  Crit.  Histoi-y  of  Modern  Philosophy 
(Lond.  1847,  2  vols.  8vo);  Brit.  Quar.Rev.  1847  (May); 
North  Brit.  Rev.  1864  (July),  p.  37  sq. ;  Edinb.  Rev.  1864 
(April),  1854;  Lond.  Quar.  Review,  1864  (July),  p.  41  sq. 
(G.  F.  H.) 

Locke,  Nathaniel  C,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  born  June  1, 1816,  at  Salem,  N.  J.,  graduated 
from  Middlebury  College,  Vt.,  in  1838;  from  Union  The- 
ological Seminary,  New  York,  in  1844 ;  was  immediately 
licensed  by  the  New  York  Third  Presbytery,  and  soon 
after  entered  upon  the  duties  of  his  first  charge  at  East- 
ville,  Northampton  County,  Va. ;  accepted  a  call  to  the 
Central  Church,  Brooklyn,  in  1847;  three  years  later 
took  charge  of  the  Church  at  Hempstead,  L.  I.,  N.  Y., 
and  there  labored  until  1860,  when  failing  health  com- 
pelled him  to  seek  for  a  dismission.  Dr.  I^ocke  was  a 
member  of  the  General  Assembly  of  1860,  which  met  in 
Rochester,  N.  Y.  A  number  of  his  discourses  were  ]Hib- 
lished,  and  he  was  also  a  large  contributor  to  the  relig- 
ious press.  He  died  July  21,  1862.  He  was  gifted 
with  a  well-trained  and  well-stored  mind,  and  was  emi- 
nently genial  and  social  as  a  pastor  and  friend,  and  ear- 
nest and  eloquent  as  a  preacher.  See  Wilson,  Presbyte- 
rian Historical  Almanac.  1863,  p.  188.      (J.  L.  S.) 

Locke,  Samuel,  D.D.,  a  noted  American  divine 
and  educator,  was  born  at  Woburn,  Mass.,  Nov.  23, 
1732,  and  was  educated  at  Harvard  University  (class 
of  1755),     He  was  ordained  minister  of  the  Gospel  at 


LOCKE 


481 


LOCUST 


Sherburne,  Mass.,  Nov.  7,  1759,  and  remained  in  the 
ministry  until  17G9,  wlien  he  was  called  to  preside  over 
his  alma  mater,  and  was  inducted  to  the  office  March  21, 
1770.  Three  years  later  he  was  honored  by  the  college 
authorities  with  the  doctorate  of  divinity,  but  some 
troubles  must  have  arisen  shortly  after,  for  in  December 
of  this  self-same  year  Locke  resigned  his  position  at 
Harvard,  and  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  retire- 
ment. He  died  at  Sherburne,  Mass.,  Jan.  15, 1788.  An 
estimate  of  the  man  we  find  in  t^vo  letters  written  by  Dr. 
Andrew  P^liot,  of  Boston,  to  Mr.  Hollis,  of  London,  the 
distinguished  benefactor  of  the  college,  about  the  time  of 
Locke's  election  to  the  presidency  of  Harvard  Univer- 
sit}^,  in  which  he  is  represented  as  "  a  clergyman  of  a 
small  parish  about  twentj"^  miles  from  Cambridge ;  of 
tine  talents — a  close  thinker,  having  when  at  college  the 
character  of  a  first-rate  scholar — of  an  excellent  spirit, 
and  generous,  catholic  sentiments — a  friend  to  liberty — 
his  greatest  defect  a  want  of  knowledge  of  the  world, 
having  lived  in  retirement,  and  perhaps  not  a  general 
acquaintance  with  books."  The  only  production  of  Dr. 
Locke's  that  exists  in  print  is  the  Convention  Sermon 
preached  in  1772.  "  His  manner  in  the  pulpit  is  said 
to  have  been  marked  by  great  dignity  and  impressive- 
ness."    See  The  N.  1'.  Observer,  March,  1865. 

Locke,  "William  E.,  a  minister  and  instructor, 
first  in  the  Baptist,  and  later  in  the  Presbyterian  Church, 
was  born  in  New  York  City,  where  he  received  a  good 
education  at  the  high  school,  in  which  he  subsequently 
became  an  assistant  teacher.  In  1832  he  took  charge 
of  the  Jlantua  Manual  Labor  Institute  in  New  York, 
and  in  1833  was  licensed  to  preach  in  the  Baptist 
Church.  He  entered  the  junior  class  of  Hamilton  In- 
stitute (now  Madison  University) ;  in  1835  he  accepted 
his  first  call  from  the  Church  in  Messina,  N.  Y.,  and  was 
ordained  Aug.  18,  1830.  He  remained  in  the  Baptist 
connection  until  1849,  when  his  views  concerning  bap- 
tism led  him  to  a  change  of  his  ecclesiastical  relations. 
He  was  called  in  1850  to  the  Presbyterian  Church  at 
Springfield,  N.  J.,  where,  because  of  impaired  health,  he 
quit  preaching.  He  subsequently  took  charge  of  the 
Female  Collegiate  Institute  in  Lancaster,  Pa.,  and  in 
August,  1857,  removed  to  Missouri,  and  took  charge  of 
the  Van  Kensselaer  Presbyterial  Academy.  At  the  end 
of  his  first  quarter  in  this  new  position  he  was  taken  ill, 
and  died  Nov.  15, 1858.  Mr.  Locke's  talents  as  a  teacher 
were  of  a  high  order,  and  Ln  the  various  places  in  which 
he  labored  he  made  manv  warm  friends.  See  Wilson, 
Presb.  Hist.  A  Im.  1860,  p.  73.      (J.  L.  S.) 

Lockyer,  Nicholas,  a  Presbyterian  divine  and 
pious  Nonconformist,  was  born  in  1612.  He  studied  at 
New  Inn  Hall,  Oxford,  and  became  provost  of  Eton 
College  in  1658,  but  was  ejected  at  the  Restoration.  He 
died  in  1681.  His  writings  show  him  to  have  been 
very  zealous  and  affectionate,  earnestly  bent  on  the  con- 
version of  souls.  Some  of  his  most  important  works 
are  the  following :  Baulme  for  bleeding  England  and  Ire- 
land, or  seasonable  Instructions  for  2'»ersecuted  Christians, 
delivered  in  several  sermons  [on  Col.  i,  11, 12]  (London, 
1644) : — Chrisfs  Communion  with  his  Church  militant 
[on  John  xiv,  18]  (5th  ed.  London,  1672, 12mo)  •.—Eng- 
land faithfully  waicht  with  her  Wounds,  or  Christ  as  a 
Father  sitting  vp  with  his  Children  in  their  sioooning 
State;  which  is  the  summe  of  several  Lectures  j)uinftdly 
preached  upon  Colossians  i  (Lond.  1646,  4to).  See  Alli- 
bone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer.  Auth.  s.  v. ;  Darling,  Cy- 
clop. Bibliogr.  a.  v. 

Locust,  a  well-known  insect,  which  commits  terri- 
ble (levastation  to  vegetation  in  the  countries  which  it 
visits.  In  the  following  account  we  shall  chiefiy  follow 
the  articles  on  the  subject  in  Kitto's  and  Smith's  Dic- 
tionaries,  with  additions  from  other  sources. 

I.  There  are  ten  Hebrew  words  which  appear  to  sig- 
nify locust  ill  the  Old  Testament,  while  in  the  Greek 
the  general  term  is  cikmq,  which  is  employed  in  the 
New  Testament.  It  has  been  supposed  that  some  of 
v.— H  H 


these  words  denote  merely  the  different  states  through 
which  the  locust  passes  after  leaving  the  cs^g,  viz.  the 
larva,  the  pupa,  ami  the  perfect  insect — all  which  much 
resemble  each  other,  except  that  the  larva  has  no  wings, 
and  that  the  pupa  possesses  only  the  rudiments  of  those 
members,  which  are  fully  developed  only  in  the  adult 
locust  (Michaelis,  Supplem.  ad  Lex.  Ilebr.  ii,  667, 1080). 
But  this  supposition  is  manifestly  wrong  with  regard  to 
several  of  these  terms,  because,  in  Lev.  xi,  22,  the  word 
iJi'Cp,  "after  his  kind,"  or  species,  is  added  after  each 
of  them  (compare  ver.  14, 15, 16).  It  is  most  probable, 
therefore,  that  all  the  rest  are  also  the  names  of  species. 
But  the  problem  is  to  ascertain  the  particular  species 
intended  by  them  respectively. 

(1.)  Arbeii'  (na'IX,  occurs  in  Exod.  x,  4 ;  Sept.  d/cpi- 
da  TToXX//!',  a  vast  flight  of  locusts,  or  perhaps  indica- 
ting that  several  species  were  emploj'ed,  Yulg.  locustam ; 
and  inverses  12, 13, 14, 19,  a/cpi'c  and  locusta,  Eng.  "lo- 
custs;" Lev.  xi,  22,  /Jpoi^xoi',  bruchus,  "locust;"  Deut. 
xxviii,  38,  uKpig,  locusta?,  "locust;"  Judg.  vi,  5;  vii,  12, 
aKpig,  locustarum,  "grasshoppers;"  1  Kings  viii,  87, 
(SpovXOQ,  locusta,  "  locust ;"  2  Chron.  vi,  28,  a/cp/c,  lo- 
custa, "locusts;"  Job  xxxix,  20,  oKpiSig,  locustas, 
"grasshopper;"  Psa.  Ixxviii,  46,  aKpiSt,  Symm.  aKwXr]- 
Ki,  locusta,  "locust;"  Psa.  cv,  34,  aKpiQ,  locusta,  "lo- 
custs;" Psa.  cix,  23,  uKpiStg,  locusta,  "locust;"  Prov, 
xxx,  27,  aKple;,  locusta,  "locusts;"  Jer.  xlvi,  23,  c'tKpica, 
locusta,  "grasshoppers;"  Joel  i,  4;  ii,  25,  ciKpi^,  locusta, 
"locust;"  Nah.  iii,  15,  (ipovxog,  bruchus,  "locusts;"  ver. 
17,  drTsXaj3og,  locustce,  "locusts").  In  almost  every 
passage  where  arbeh  occurs,  reference  is  made  to  its  ter- 
ribly destructive  powers. 

It  is  the  locust  of  the  Egyptian  plagues  described  in 
Exod.  X,  where,  as  indeed  everj'where  else,  it  occurs  in 
the  singular  number  only,  though  it  is  there  associated 
with  verbs  both  in  the  singular  and  plural  (ver.  5,  6),  as 
are  the  corresponding  words  in  the  Sept.  and  Vulgate. 
This  it  might  be  as  a  noun  of  multitude,  but  it  will  be 
rendered  probable  that  four  species  were  employed  in 
the  plague  on  Egypt,  of  which  this  is  named  first  (Psa. 
Ixxviii,  46,  47 ; .  cv,  34).  These  may  all  have  been 
brought  into  Egypt  from  Ethiopia  (which  has  ever  been 
the  cradle  of  all  kinds  of  locusts),  by  what  is  called  iu 
Exodus  "  the  east  wind,"  since  Bochart  proves  that  the 
word  which  properly  signifies  "east"  often  means 
"  south"  also.  The  word  cn-beh  may  be  used  in  Lev.  xi, 
22  as  the  collective  name  for  the  locust,  and  be  put  first 
there  as  denoting  also  the  most  numerous  species ;  but 
in  Joel  i,  4,  and  Psa.  Ixxviii,  46,  it  is  distinguished  from 
the  other  names  of  locusts,  and  is  mentioned  second,  as 
if  of  a  different  species;  just,  perhaps,  as  we  use  the 
^\ord  fly,  sometimes  as  a  collective  name,  and  at  others 
for  a  particular  species  of  insect,  as  when  speakuig  of 
the  hop,  turnip,  meat  fly,  etc.  When  the  Hebrew  word 
is  used  in  reference  to  a  particular  species,  it  has  been 
supposed,  for  reasons  which  will  be  given,  to  denote  the 
Gryllus  gregarius  or  migratorius.  Moses,  therefore,  in 
Exodus,  refers  Pharaoh  to  the  visitation  of  the  locusts, 
as  well  known  in  Egypt ;  but  the  plague  would  seem  to 
have  consisted  in  bringing  them  into  that  countrj'  in 
unexampled  numbers,  consisting  of  various  species  never 
previously  seen  there  (comp.  Exod.  x,  5,  6, 15). 

It  is  one  of  the  flying  creeping  creatures  that  were 
allowed  as  food  by  the  law  of  Moses  (Lev.  xi,  21).  In 
this  passage  it  is  clearly  the  representative  of  some  spe- 
cies of  winged  saltatorial  orthoptei'a,  which  must  have 
possessed  indications  of  form  sufficient  to  distinguish 
the  insect  from  the  three  other  names  which  belong  to 
the  same  division  of  orthoptera,  and  are  mentioned  in 
the  same  context.  The  opinion  of  Michaelis  (^Si/ppl. 
667,  910),  that  the  four  words  mentioned  in  Lev.  xi,  22 
denote  the  same  insect  in  four  different  ages  or  stages 
of  its  growth,  is  quite  untenable,  for,  whatever  particu- 
lar species  are  intended  by  these  words,  it  is  quite  clear 
from  verse  21  that  they  must  all  be  winged  orthopitera. 
The  Septuagint  word  fipoiJxog  there  clearly  shows  that 


LOCUST 


482 


LOCUST 


the  translator  uses  it  for  a  winged  species  of  locust,  con- 
trary tu  the  Latin  fathers  (as  Jerome,  Augustine,  Greg- 
ory, etc.),  who  all  dertne  the  bruc/ius  to  be  the  unfledged 
young  or  larva  of  the  locust,  and  who  call  it  utteUihus 
when  its  wings  are  partially  developed,  and  locnsta  wlien 
abli!  to  fly ;  although  both  Sept.  and  Vulg.  ascribe  flight 
to  the  bruc/ius  here,  and  in  Xah.  iii,  17.  The  Greek  fa- 
thers, on  the  other  hand,  uniformly  ascribe  to  the  j3pou- 
X(>(;  both  wings  and  flight,  and  therein  agree  with  the 
descriptions  of  the  ancient  Greek  naturalists.  Thus 
Theophrastus,  the  pupil  of  Aristotle,  who,  with  his  pre- 
ceptor, was  probably  contemporaneous  with  the  Septua- 
gint  translators  of  the  Pentateuch,  plainly  speaks  of  it 
as  a  distinct  species,  and  not  a  mere  state  :  "  The  aKpi- 
Cit;  (the  best  ascertained  general  Greek  word  for  the  lo- 
cust) are  injurious,  the  nrriXaiioi  still  more  so,  and 
those  most  of  all  which  they  call  l3povxoi"  (De  Anim). 
The  Sept.  seems  to  recognise  the  peculiar  destructive- 
ness  of  the  (ipovxpq  in  1  Kings  viii,  37  (but  has  merged 
it  in  the  parallel  passage,  2  Chron.),  and  in  Nah.  iii,  15, 
by  adopting  it  for  arbeh.  In  these  passages  the  Sept. 
translators  may  have  understood  the  G.  mif/ratorius  or 
gregarius  (Linn.),  which  is  usually  considered  to  be  the 
most  destructive  species  (from  i3pioaK(D,  I  devour).  Yet, 
in  Joel  i,  4 ;  ii,  25,  they  have  applied  it  to  the  yelel; 
which,  however,  appears  there  as  engaged  in  the  work 
of  destruction,  Hesychius,  in  the  3d  century,  explains 
the  lipovxog  as  "  a  species  of  locust,"  though,  he  ob- 
serves, applied  in  his  time  by  different  nations  to  differ- 
ent species  of  locusts,  and  by  some  to  the  rirrf  Xa/ioc. 
May  not  his  testimony  to  this  effect  illustrate  the  vari- 
ous uses  of  the  word  by  the  Sept,  in  the  minor  prophets? 
Our  translators  have  wrongly  adopted  the  word  "grass- 
hopper" in  Judges  and  Jer.  xlvi,  23,  where  "  locusts" 
•would  certainly  have  better  illustrated  the  idea  of  "  in- 
numerable miUtitudes  ;"  and  here,  as  elsewhere,  have 
departed  from  their  professed  rule  '"not  to  vary  from 
the  sense  of  that  which  they  had  translated  before,  if 
the  word  signiiied  the  same  in  both  places"  (translators 
to  the  reader,  ad  finem). 

The  Hebrew  word  in  question  is  usually  derived  from 
nS"!,  "to  multiply,"  op-"be  numerous,"  because  the  lo- 
cust is  remarkably  prohfic ;  which,  as  a  general  name,  is 
certainly  not  inapplicable  ;  and  it  is  thence  also  inferred 
that  it  denotes  the  G.  migratorius,  because  that  species 
often  appears  in  large  numbers.  However,  the  largest 
flight  of  locusts  upon  record,  calculated  to  have  extend- 
ed over  five  hundred  miles,  and  which  darkened  the  air 
like  an  eclipse,  and  was  supposed  to  come  from  Arabia, 
did  not  consist  of  the  G.  migratorius,  but  of  a  red  spe- 
cies (Kirby  and  Spence,  Iiitrod.  to  Entomology,  i,  210); 
and,  according  to  Forskal,  the  species  which  now  chiefly 
infests  Arabia,  and  which  he  names  G.  gregarius,  is  dis- 
tinct from  the  G.  migratorius  of  Linn.  {Encyc.  Brit.  art. 
Entomology,  p.  193).  Others  derive  the  word  from 
2'^X.  "to  lie  hid"  or  "in  ambush,"  because  the  newly- 
hatched  locust  emerges  from  the  ground,  or  because  the 
locust  besieges  vegetables.  Rosenmiiller  justly  remarks 
upon  such  etymologies,  and  the  inferences  made  from 
tliem  (Scholia  i/J  Jof?,  i,  4),  "How  precarious  truly  the 
reasoning  is,  derived  in  this  manner  from  the  mere  ety- 
mology of  the  word,  everybody  may  understand  for 
himself.  Nor  is  the  principle  otherwise  in  regard  to 
the  rest  of  the  species,"  He  also  remarks  that  the  ref- 
erences to  the  dcstructivcness  of  locusts,  which  are  of- 
ten derived  from  the  roots,  simply  concur  in  this,  that 
locusts  consume  and  do  mischief.  Illustrations  of  the 
[iropriety  of  his  remarks  will  abound  as  we  proceed. 
Still,  it  by  no  means  follows  from  a  coincidence  of  the 
Hebrew  roots,  in  this  or  any  other  meaning,  that  the 
fcarnwi  among  the  ancient  Jews  did  not  recognise  differ- 
ent species  in  the  different  names  of  locusts.  "The  Eng- 
lish wordy/y,  from  the  Saxmi  Jh'on,  the  Heb.  t\''J,  and 
its  representative  "fowl,"  in  the  English  version  (Gen.i. 
20,  etc.),  all  express  both  a  general  and  specific  idea. 
Even  a  modern  entomologist  might  speak  of  "  the  flies" 


in  a  room,  while  aware  that  from  fifty  to  one  hundred 
different  species  annually  visit  our  apartments.  The 
Scriptures  use  popular  language;  hence  "  the  multitude," 
"  the  devourer,"  or  "  the  darkener,"  may  have  been  the 
familiar  appellations  for  certain  species  of  locusts.  The 
common  Greek  words  for  locusts  and  grasshoppers,  etc., 
are  of  themselves  equally  indefinite,  yet  they  also  served 
for  the  names  of  species,  as  a/cpif,  the  locust  generally, 
from  the  tops  of  vegetables,  on  which  the  locust  feeds ; 
but  it  is  also  used  as  the  proper  name  of  a  particular 
species,  as  the  grasshopper:  TtTpaTrrtpvXXic,  "four- 
winged,"  is  applied  sometimes  to  the  grasshopper;  rpw^- 
aWig,  from  rpioyw,  "to  chew,"  sometimes  to  the  cater- 
pillar. Yet  the  Greeks  had  also  distinct  names  restrict- 
ed to  particidar  species,  as  ovog,  ^oXovpic,  /ctpicwn;,  etc. 
The  Hebrew  names  may  also  have  served  similar  pur- 
poses, 

(2,)  Gkb  (35,  Isa.  xxxiii,  4;  Sept.  nK-pitTtr,  Vulgate 
omits,  Engl,  "locusts"),  or  Gob  (3iii,  Amos  vii,  1,  tni- 
yovr)  aKpiC'UJv;  Aquila, /Sopci^ov  [voratrices],  locustce, 
"grasshoppers;"  1^&\\.\\\,V1 ,  ciTTiXajioc, locustce,  "grass- 
hoppers"). Here  the  lexicographers,  finding  no  Hebrew 
root,  resort  to  the  Arabic,  X35,  "  to  creep  out"  (of  the 
ground),  as  the  locusts  do  in  spring.  But  tliis  applies 
to  the  young  of  all  species  of  locusts,  and  Bochart's  quo- 
tations from  Aristotle  and  Plinj'  occur  unfortunately  in 
general  descriptions  of  the  locust,  Castell  gives  anoth- 
er Arabic  root,  3N3, "  to  cut"  or  "  tear,"  but  this  is  open 
to  a  similar  objection.  Parkhurst  proposes  35,  anj-thing 
gibbous,  curved,  or  arched,  and  gravely  adds,  "  The  lo- 
cust in  the  catei-jnllur  state,  so  called  from  its  shape  in 
general,  or  from  its  continually  hunching  out  its  back  in 
moving."  The  Sept.  word  in  Nahum,  ciTTtXajioc,  has 
already  been  shown  to  mean  a  perfect  insect  and  species. 
Accordingly,  Aristotle  speaks  of  its  parturition  and  eggs 
{/list.  Anim.  v,  29;  so  also  Plutarch,  iJe  JsiJ.  et  Osir.). 
It  seems,  however,  not  unlikely  that  it  means  a  wing- 
less species  of  locust,  genus  Podisnui  of  Latreille.  Grass- 
hoppers, which  are  of  this  kind,  he  includes  luider  the 
genus  Tettix.  Hesychius  defines  the  UTTtXa^ioq  as  "a 
small  locust,"  and  Pliny  mentions  it  as  "  the  smallest  of 
locusts,  without  wings"  (^Ilistor.  Kat.  xxix,  5).  Accord- 
ingly, the  Sept.  ascribes  only  leaping  to  it.  In  Nahum 
we  have  the  construction  '^315  315,  locust  of  the  locusts, 
which  the  lexicons  explain  as  a  vast  multitude  of  lo- 
custs. Archbishop  Newcome  suggests  that "  the  phrase 
is  either  a  double  reading  where  the  scribes  had  a  doubt 
which  was  the  true  reading,  or  a  mistaken  repetition  not 
expunged."  He  adds,  that  we  may  suppose  ''315  the 
contracted  plural  for  Q'^'^^'f  {Improved  Version  of  the  Mi- 
nor Prophets,  Pontefr.  1809,  p.  188).  Henderson  imder- 
stands  the  reduplication  to  express  "  the  largest  and  most 
formidable  of  that  kind  of  insect"  {Comment,  on  the  Mi- 
nor Prophets,  ad  lf)C.).  Some  writers,  led  by  this  pas- 
sage, have  believed  that  the  guh  represents  the  larva 
state  of  some  of  the  large  locusts;  the  haliit  of  halting 
at  night,  however,  and  encamping  under  the  hedges,  as 
described  by  the  prophet,  in  all  probability  belongs  to 
the  winged  locust  as  well  as  to  the  larvce :  see  Exod.  x, 
13 :  "  The  Lord  brought  an  east  wind  upon  the  land  aU 
that  day  and  all  that  night;  and  when  it  was  morning, 
the  east  wind  brought  the  locusts."  Mr.  Barrow  (i,  257 
S),  speaking  of  some  species  of  South  African  locusts, 
says  that  when  the  larv.T,  which  are  still  more  voracious 
than  the  parent  insect,  are  on  the  march,  it  is  impossible 
to  make  them  turn  out  of  the  way,  which  is  usually  that 
of  the  wind.  At  sunset  the  troop  halts  and  divides  into 
separate  groups,  each  occupying  in  bee-like  clusters  the 
neighboring  eminences  for  the  night.  It  is  quite  possi- 
ble that  the  gob  may  represent  the  l(i7Ta  or  nympha  state 
of  the  insect;  nor  is  the  passage  from  Nahum,  "When 
the  sun  ariseth  they  flee  away,"  any  objection  to  this 
supposition,  for  the  last  stages  of  the  larra  differ  but 
slight!}'  from  the  nyrnpha,  both  which  states  may  there- 
fore be  comprehended  under  one  name ;  the  gob  of  Nah. 


LOCUST 


483 


LOCUST 


iii,  17  may  easily  have  been  the  vymphm  (which  in  all 
the  A  vietabula  continue  to  Iced  as  in  their  larva  condi- 
tion) encamping  at  night  under  the  hedges,  and,  ob- 
taining their  wings  as  the  sun  arose,  are  then  represent- 
ed as  hying  away  (so  too  Kitto,  I'ict.  Bible,  note  on  Nah. 
iii,  17 ).  It  certainly  is  improbable  that  the  Jews  should 
have  had  no  name  for  the  locust  in  its  larva  or  nympha 
state,  for  they  must  have  been  quite  familiar  with  the 
sight  of  such  devourers  of  every  green  thing,  the  larva? 
being  even  more  destructive  than  the  imago ;  perhaps 
some  of  the  other  nine  names,  all  of  which  Bochart  con- 
siders to  be  the  names  of  so  many  species,  denote  the 
insect  in  one  or  other  of  these  conditions.  See  Grass- 
hopper. 

(3.)  Gazaji'  (QT5,  Joel  i,4;  ii,25;  Amos  iv,9;  in  all 
which  the  Sept.  reads  K«/i7r?/,  the  Vulg.  eruca,  and  the 
English  "palmer-worm").  Bochart  observes  that  the 
Jews  derive  the  word  from  T^S  or  tt3,  "to  shea?"  or 
"clip,"  though  he  prefers  CT!5,  "  to  cut,"  because,  he  ob- 
serves, the  locust  gnaws  the  tender  branches  of  trees  as 
well  as  the  leaves.  Gesenius  urges  that  the  Chaldee 
and  Syriac  explain  it  as  the  young  unhedged  hruchus, 
■which  he  consiflers  very  suitable  to  the  passage  in  Joel, 
where  the  gazam  begins  its  ravages  before  the  locusts  ; 
but  Dr.  Lee  justly  remarks  that  there  is  no  dependence 
to  be  placed  on  this.  Gesenius  adds  that  the  root  tTy 
in  Arabic  and  the  Talmud  is  kindred  with  DD3,  "to 
shear' — a  derivation  which,  however,  applies  to  most 
species  of  locusts.  Michaelis  follows  the  Sept.  and  Vul- 
gate, where  the  word  in  each  most  probably  means  the 
caterpillar,  the  larviB  of  the  lepidopterous  tribes  of  in- 
sects (iSupplem.  ad  Lex.  290,  compared  with  Recueil  de 
Quest,  p.  (53).  We  have,  indeed,  the  authority  of  Colu- 
mella, that  the  creatiu-es  which  the  Latins  call  erurxe 
are  by  the  Greeks  called  Kapirai,  or  caterpillars  (xi,  3), 
which  he  also  describes  as  creeping  upon  vegetables  and 
devouring  them.  Nevertheless,  the  depredations  as- 
cribed to  the  rjuzam,  in  Amos,  better  agree  with  the 
characteristics  of  the  locust,  as,  according  to  Bochart,  it 
was  understood  by  the  ancient  versions.  The  English 
word  ^•palmer-icorm,"  in  our  old  authors,  means  properly 
a  hairy  caterpillar,  which  wanders  like  a  palmer  or  pil- 
grim, and,  from  its  being  rough,  called  also  "  beareworm" 
(^Mouftet,  Insectoi-um  Theatrum,  p.  186).     See  Palmer- 

WOIiJI. 

(4.)  Chagab'  (SSn,  Lev.  xi,  22 ;  Numb,  xiii,  33  ;  Isa. 
xl,  22;  Eccles.  xii,  5,  and  2  Chron.  vii,  13,  in  all  which 
the  Sept.  reads  ri/cpi'e,  Vulg.  locnsta,  and  Engl,  "grass- 
hopper," except  the  last,  where  the  Engl,  has  "  locusts." 
The  manifest  impropriety  of  translating  this  word 
"  grasshoppers"  in  Lev.  xi,  22,  according  to  the  English 
acceptation  of  the  word,  appears  from  its  description 
there  as  being  winged  and  edible ;  in  all  the  other  ixi- 
stances  it  most  probably  denotes  a  species  of  locust. 
Our  translators  have,  indeed,  properly  rendered  it  "  lo- 
cust" in  2  Chron. ;  but  in  all  the  other  places  "  grasshop- 
per," probably  with  a  view  to  heighten  the  contrast  de- 
scribed in  those  passages,  but  with  no  real  advantage. 
Oedman  {Verm.  Samml.  ii,  90)  infers,  from  its  being  so 
often  used  for  this  purpose,  that  it  denotes  the  smallest 
species  of  locust ;  but  in  the  passage  iu  Chronicles  vo- 
racity seems  its  chief  characteristic.  An  Arabic  root, 
3?t^,  signifying  "  to  hide,"  is  usually  adduced,  because 
it  is  said  that  locusts  fly  in  such  crowds  as  to  hide  the 
sun;  but  others  sa}^,  from  their  hiding  the  ground  when 
they  alight.  Even  Parkhurst  demurs  that  "  to  veil  the 
sun  and  darken  the  air  is  not  peculiar  to  any  kind  of 
locust;"  and  with  no  better  success  proposes  to  under- 
stand the  cucuUated,  or  hooded,  or  veiled  species  of  lo- 
cust. Tychsen  {Comment,  de  Locust,  p.  7G)  supposes 
that  chagab  denotes  the  Gryllus  coronatus,  Lum. ;  but 
this  is  the  Acanthodis  corotiatus  of  And.  Serv.,  a  South 
American  species,  and  probal)ly  confined  to  that  conti- 
nent. Michaelis  (Siipplem.  CG8),  who  derives  the  word 
from  an  Arabic  root  signifying  "  to  veil,"  conceives  that 


chagab  represents  either  a  locust  at  the  fourth  stage  of 
its  growth,  "ante  quartas  exuvias  "quod  adhuc  velata 
est,"  or  else  at  the  last  stage  of  its  growth,  "  post  quar- 
tas exuvias,  quod  jam  volans  solem  calumque  obvelat." 
To  the  first  tlieory  the  passage  in  Lev.  xi  is  opposed. 
The  second  theory  is  more  reasonable,  but  chagab  is 
probably  derived  not  from  the  Arabic,  but  the  Hebrew. 
From  what  has  been  stated  above,  it  will  appear  better 
to  own  our  complete  inability  to  say  what  species  of  lo- 
cust chagab  denotes,  than  to  hazard  conjectures  which 
must  be  grounded  on  no  solid  foundation.  In  the  Tal- 
mud chagab  is  a  collective  name  for  many  of  the  locust 
tribe,  no  less  than  eight  hundred  kinds  of  chagabim  be- 
ing supposed  by  the  Talmud  to  exist !  (Lewysohn,  Zoo- 
log,  des  Talin.  §  384).  Some  kinds  of  locusts  are  beau- 
tifully marked,  and  were  sought  after  by  young  Jewish 
children  as  playthings,  just  as  butterflies  and  cockchaf- 
ers are  nowadays.  M.  Lewysohn  says  (§  384)  that  a 
regular  traffic  used  to  be  carried  on  with  the  chagabim, 
which  were  caught  in  great  numbers,  and  sold  after 
wine  had  been  sprinkled  over  them ;  he  adds  that  the 
Israelites  were  only  allowed  to  buy  them  before  the 
dealer  had  thus  prepared  them.     See  Grasshopper. 

(5.)  Ciianamal'  (^^il^I,  occurs  only  in  Psa.  Ixxviii, 
47  ;  Sept.  iraxviri ;  Aq.  iv  Kpvei ;  Vulg.  in  prui7ia  ;  Eng. 
"frost").  Notwithstanding  this  concurrence  of  Sept., 
Vulg.,  and  Aquila,  it  is  objected  that  "frost"  is  nowhere 
mentioned  as  having  been  employed  in  the  plagues  of 
Egypt,  to  which  the  Psalmist  evidently  alludes ;  but 
that,  if  his  words  be  compared  with  Exod.  x,  5, 15,  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  locusts  succeeded  the  hail.  The 
Psalmist  observes  the  same  order,  putting  the  devourer 
after  the  hail  (comp.  Mai.  iii,  11).  Hence  it  is -thought 
to  be  another  term  for  the  locust.  If  this  inference  be 
correct,  and  assuming  that  the  Psalmist  is  describing 
facts,  this  would  make  a  fourth  species  of  locust  era- 
ployed  against  Egj'pt,  two  of  the  others,  the  arbeh  and 
chasil,  being  mentioned  in  the  preceding  verse.  Pro- 
posed derivation,  tliPI,  to  seHle,  and  PI^O,  to  cut  off,  be- 
cause where  locusts  settle  they  cut  off  leaves,  etc.,  or  as 
denoting  some  non-migrating  locust  which  settles  in  a 
locality  (see  Bochart,  in  roc").  Michaelis  (Sujiplem. 
846)  suggests  the  signification  of  aitfs,  comparing  the 
Arabic  name  for  that  insect,  with  PI  prefixed.  Gesenius 
regards  it  as  a  quadriliteral,  and  argues  from  the  term 
1"i3,  hail,  in  the  parallel  member,  that  it  denotes  some- 
thing peculiarly  destructive  to  trees.     See  Frost. 

(6.)  Chasil'  (b'lOri,  1  Kings  viii,37 ;  2  Chron.  vi,  28 ; 
Psa.  Ixxviii,  46;  Isa.  xxiii,  4;  Joel  i,  4;  ii,  2,5;  Septuag. 
oKpiQ,  but  in  2  Chron.  l3povx(^i: ;  Vulg.  rubigo,  bruchiis, 
cerugo ;  Engl,  always  "caterpillar").  Gesenius  derives 
it  from  the  root  ^BH,  to  eat  off,  Deut.  xxxiii,  38.  It 
thus  points  to  the  same  generic  idea  of  destructiveness 
prominent  in  all  this  genus.     See  Caterpillar. 

(7.)  Chargol'  (PS'nn,  only  in  Lev.  xi,  22;  Septuag, 
60(o/(«%>;c,  Vulg.  ophivmachus,  Auth.  Vers,  "beetle"),  de- 
rived by  Gesenius  from  the  Arabic  quadriliteral  root 
by^n,  to  gallop  as  a  horse,  and  applied  by  the  Arabs  to 
a  flight  of  wingless  locusts,  but  thought  by  him  to  in- 
dicate in  Leviticus  a  winged  and  edible  locust.  Beck- 
mann  has  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  some  insect  of 
the  sphex  or  ichneumon  kind  was  meant  (apud  Bochart, 
a  Ilosenmiiller,  iii,  264).  The  genus  of  locusts  called 
Truxalis,  said  to  live  upon  insects,  has  been  thought  to 
answer  the  description.  But  is  it  a  fact  that  the  genus 
Truxalis  is  an  exception  to  the  rest  of  the  Acridites, 
and  is  pre-eminently  insectivorous?  ServiUe  {Orthop)t. 
p.  579)  believes  that  in  their  manner  of  living  the  Trux- 
alides  resemble  the  rest  oi  the.  Acridites,  but  seems  to 
allow  that  further  investigation  is  necessary.  Fischer 
(Orthop.  Europ.  p.  292)  says  that  the  nutriment  of  this 
family  is  plants  of  various  kinds.  It  is  some  excuse  for 
the  English  rendering  "  beetle"  in  this  place,  that  Plmy 
classes  one  species  of  gryllus,  the  house-cricket,  G. domes- 


LOCUST 


484 


LOCUST 


iicus,  under  the  scaraban  (Tlist.  Xaf.  xi,  8).  The  Jews 
interpret  charr/ul  to-mean  a  species  of  yrussJiopper,  Ger- 
man heuschrecke,  which  ]\[.  Lewysohn  identities  with 
Locusta  viridissima,  adopting  the  etymology  of  Bochart 
and  Gesenius.  The  Jewisli  women  used  to  carry  the 
eggs  of  the  charr/ul  in  their  ears  to  presence  them  from 
tiie  earache  (Buxtorf,  Lex.  Chuld.  et  Rabbin,  s.  v.  Char- 
gul).     See  Beetle. 

(8.)  Ye'lek  (pb)|',Psa.cv,3-i,/3por'xoc,i'"2'c7(«s,"  cat- 
erpillars ;"  Jer.  li,  14,  27,  ciKpiq,  hnichiis,  "  caterpillars  ;" 
and  in  the  latter  passage  the  Vulgate  reads  bruchus  acu- 
leatus,  and  some  copies  liorripilantes ;  Joel  i,  4 ;  ii,  25, 
^QovxoQ,  hruchus,  "canker-worm;"  Nah.  iii,  15,  16, 
aicniQ  and  /3poSxoe,  "  canker-worm").  Assuming  that 
the  Psalmist  means  to  say  that  the  ijdek  was  really  an- 
other species  employed  in  the  plague  on  Egypt,  the 
English  word  caterpillar  in  the  common  acceptation  can- 
not be  correct,  for  we  can  liardly  imagine  that  the  larvae 
of  the  Papilionidae  tribe  of  insects  could  be  carried  by 
'•  winds."  Canker-worm  means  any  icorm  that  preys  on 
fruit.  Bpoi'xoQ  could  hardly  be  understood  by  the  Sept, 
translators  of  the  minor  prophets  as  an  untledged  locust, 
fur  in  Nah.  iii,  10  they  give  tlie  lipovxoQ  flies  mcay.  As 
to  the  etymology,  the  Arabic  p5^,  to  be  white,  is  oifered ; 
hence  the  white  locust  or  the  chafer-worm,  which  is 
white  (Michaelis,  ^e«/«7  rfe  Quest,  y>.Q\;  Supp.ad  Lex. 
Hcb.  1080).  Others  give  pp5,  to  lick  off,  as  Gesenius, 
who  refers  to  Numb,  xxii,  4,  where  this  root  is  applied 
to  the  ox  "  licking"  up  his  pasturage,  and  which,  as  de- 
scriptive of  celerity  in  eating,  is  supposed  to  apply  to 
the  ytlek.  Others  suggest  the  Arabic  pp\  to  hasten,  al- 
luding to  the  quick  motions  of  locusts.  The  passage  in 
Jer.  li,  27  is  the  only  instance  where  an  epithet  is  ap- 
plied to  the  locust,  and  there  we  find  p5^  I^D,  "rough 
caterpillars."  As  the  noun  derived  from  this  descriptive 
term  ("1  ^DCO)  means  "  nails,"  "  sharp-pointed  spikes," 
Michaelis  refers  it  to  the  rough,  sharp-pointed  feet  of 
some  species  of  chafer  (iit  supra).  Oedman  takes  it  for 
the  G.  cristatus  of  Linn.  Tychsen,  with  more  proba- 
bility, refers  it  to  some  rough  or  bristly  species  of  locust, 
as  the  G.  hmnatopus  of  Linn.,  whose  thighs  are  cihated 
■with  hairs.  Many  grj-lli  are  furnished  with  spines  and 
bristles ;  the  whole  species  -4  cheta,  also  the  jjupa  species 
of  Linn.,  called  by  Degeer  Locusta  jnipu  s2)inosa,  which 
is  thus  described :  Thorax  ciliated  with  spines,  abdo- 
men tuberculous  and  spinous,  posterior  thighs  armed  be- 
neath with  four  spines  or  teeth ;  inhabits  Ethiopia.  The 
allusion  in  Jeremiah  is  to  the  ancient  accoutrement  of 
war-horses,  bristling  with  sheaves  of  arrows.    See  Can- 

KEK-WORil. 

(9.)  Salam'  (C"bO),  only  in  Lev.  xi,  22,  arra;«j,  at- 
facus,  "  the  bald  locust."  A  Chaldee  quadriliteral  root 
is  given  l)y  Bochart,  C^fba,  to  devour.  Another  has 
been  proposed,  vh'D,  a  rock  or  stone,  and  fib",  to  go  up; 
licnce  the  locust,  which  climbs  up  stones  or  rocks ;  but, 
as  Bochart  observes,  no  locust  is  known  answering  to 
this  characteristic.  Others  give  TpD,  a  stone,  and  Ca^, 
to  hide  under;  equally  futile.  Tychsen,  arguing  from 
what  is  said  of  the  salam  in  the  Talmud  (Tract,  Choliu), 
viz.  that  "  this  insect  has  a  smooth  head,  and  that  the 
female  is  without  the  sword-shaped  tail,"  conjectures 
that  the  species  here  intended  is  Gri/llus  eversor  (Asso), 
a  synonyme  that  it  is  difiicult  ti'  iilentify  with  any  re- 
corded si)ecies.  From  the  text  wliere  it  is  mentioned  it 
only  appears  that  it  was  some  species  of  locust  winged 
and  edilile. 

(10.)  Tsei-atsal'  (3S3:i,  as  the  name  of  an  insect 
only  in  Deut. xxviii, 42,  tpvaifit],  lubigo, "  locust").  The 
root  commonly  assigned  is  ?sS,  to  sound  (whence  its 
use  for  a  irkizzinr/  of  wings,  Isa.  xviii,  1 ;  fot  ci/tnbals,  2 
Sam.  vi,  5;  Psa.  cl,  5;  or  any  ringing  instrument,  as  a 
harj)oon,Joh  xli,  7);  hence,  says  Gesenius,  a  species  of 
locust  that  makes  a  shrill  noise.     Dr.  Lee  savs  a  tree- 


cricket  that  does  so.  Tychsen  suggests  the  G.  stridulus 
of  Linn.  The  song  of  the  gr;jllo-talp)a  is  sweet  and  loud. 
On  similar  principles  we,  might  conjecture,  although 
with  ])erhaps  somewhat  less  certainty,  a  derivation  from 
the  Chald.  Xs^,  to  pray,  and  thence  infer  the  Mantis  re- 
liyiosa,  or  Prier  Dieu,  so  called  from  its  singidar  atti- 
tude, and  wliich  is  found  in  Palestine  (Kitto's  Physical 
History,  p.  419).  The  words  in  the  Septuag.  and  Yulg. 
properly  mean  the  mildew  on  corn,  etc.,  and  are  there 
applied  metaphorically  to  the  ravages  of  locusts.  This 
mildew  was  anciently  believed  by  the  heathens  to  be 
a  divine  chastisement;  hence  their  religious  ceremony 
called  Kubigalia  (Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  xviii,  29).  The  word 
is  evidently  onomatopoietic,  and  is  here  perhajis  a  syn- 
onyme for  some  one  of  the  other  names  for  locust.  Mi- 
chaelis (^Supplem.  2094)  believes  the  word  is  identical 
with  chasil,  which  he  says  denotes  perhaps  the  mole- 
cricket,  Gryllus  talpiformis,  from  the  stridulous  sound 
it  produces.  Tychsen  (p.  79,  80)  identifies  it  witli  the 
Gryllus  stridulus,  Linnaeus  (=^Gi^dipoda  stridula.  And. 
Serv.).  The  notion  conveyed  by  the  Hebrew  word  will, 
however,  apply  to  almost  any  kind  of  locust,  and,  in- 
deed, to  many  kinds  of  insects;  a  similar  word,  ^*«/6'«fe(;, 
was  applied  by  the  Ethiopians  to  a  ti}^  which  the  Arabs 
called  zimb,  apparently  identical  with  the  tsetse  fly  of  Dr. 
Livingstone  and  other  African  travellers.  In  the  pas- 
sage in  Deuteronomy,  if  an  insect  be  meant  at  all,  it 
may  be  assigned  to  some  destructive  species  of  grass- 
hopper or  locust. 

(11.)  The  Greek  term  for  the  locust  is  aK-pi'c,  which 
occurs  in  Rev.  ix,  3,  7,  with  undoubted  allusion  to  the 
Oriental  devastating  insect,  which  is  represented  as  as- 
cending from  the  smoke  of  the  infernal  pit,  as  a  type  of 
the  judgments  of  God  upon  the  enemies  of  Christianity. 
They  are  also  mentioned  as  forming  part  of  the  food  of 
John  the  Baptist  (Matt,  iii,  4;  Mark  i,  6),  where  it  is 
not,  as  some  have  supposed,  any  plant  that  is  intended, 
but  the  insect,  which  is  still  universally  eaten  by  the 
poorer  classes  in  the  East,  both  in  a  cooked  and  raw 
state  (Hackett's  Illustra.  of  Script,  p.  97). 

IL  Locusts  belong  to  that  order  of  insects  known  by 
the  term  Orthoptera  (or  sti-aiykt-icinyed).  This  order 
is  divided  into  two  large  groups  or  divisions,  viz.  Cur- 
soria  and  Saltatoria.  The  first,  as  the  name  imports, 
includes  only  those  families  of  Orthopitera  which  have 
legs  ibrmed  for  creeping,  and  which  are  considered  un- 
clean by  the  Jewish  law.  Under  the  second  are  com- 
prised those  wliose  two  posterior  legs,  by  their  peculiar 
structure,  enable  them  to  move  on  the  ground  by  leaps. 
This  group  contains,  according  to  Serville's  arrange- 
ment, three  families,  the  Gryllides,  Locustariec,  and  the 
Acridites,  distinguished  one  from  the  other  by  some  jie- 
culiar  modifications  of  structure.  The  common  house- 
cricket  (Gryllus  domesticus,  Oliv.)  may  be  taken  as  an 
illustration  of  the  Gryllides ;  the  green  grasshopper 
(Locusta  viridissima,  Fabr.),  which  the  French  call 
Sauterelle  verfe,  will  represent  the  family  Locustarice ; 
and  the  Acridites  may  be  typified  by  the  common  mi- 
gratory locust  (Oulipoda  migratoi-ia,  Aud.  Serv.),  which 


OWpoda  Migratoria. 

is  an  occasional  visitor  to  Europe  (see  the  Gentleman's 
Magazine  Jidy.  174H,  p.  331,  414;  also  7'he  Times.  Oct. 
4,  1845).  Of  the  Gryllides,  G.  cerisyi  has  been  found 
in  Egypt,  antl  G.  domesticus,  on  the  authority  of  Dr. 
Kitto,  in  Palestine ;  but  doubtless  other  species  also  oc- 
cur in  tliese  countries.  Of  the  Locustariw,  Phaiierop- 
terafalcuta,  Serv.  (G.falc.  Scopoli),  has  also,  according 
to  Kitto,  been  found  in  Palestine,  Bradyporus  dasypus 
in  Asia  Minor,  Turkey,  etc.,  Saga  NatolicB  near  Smyr- 


LOCUST 


485 


LOCUST 


na.  Of  the  locusts  proper,  or  A  cridites,  four  species  of 
the  genus  Truxalis  are  recorded  as  having  been  seen  in 
Egypt,  Syria,  or  Arabia,  viz.  T.  nasiita,  T.  variabilis, 
T.  pi-oceni,  and  T.  miniata,  Tlie  following  kinds  also 
occur :  Opsomalu  pisciformis,  in  Egypt,  and  the  oasis 
of  Harrat;  J'a/dloreros  hicronhjphicus,  P.  hnfonius,  P. 
jmndicentris,  P.  vulcanus,  in  the  deserts  of  Cairo ;  De- 
ricoi-ys  albidula  in  Egypt  and  Mount  Lebanon.  Of  the 
genus  A  criiHum,  A .  mcestmn,  the  most  formidable  per- 
haps of  all  the  .-1  cridites,  A .  lineola  (  =  G.  ^Er/ypt.  Linn.), 


e 


'<<, 


Acridium  Lineola. 

which  is  a  species  commonly  sold  for  food  in  the  mar- 
kets of  Bagdad  (Ser\'.  Orthop.  G57),  A.  semifasciatum, 
A.jxregrinum,  one  of  the  most  destructive  of  the  spe- 
cies, and  A .  morbosum,  occur  either  in  Egypt  or  Arabia. 
Culliptamus  sei'opis  and  Chrotof/onus  lugiihris  are  found 
in  Egypt,  and  in  the  cultivated  lands  about  Cairo ;  Ere- 
viohia  curinuta,  in  the  rocky  places  about  Sinai.  E. 
cisli,  E.  pidchripennis,  (EkUpoda  octofasciata,  and  Cffd. 
migratoiia  (  =  6".  ?)wV/?'«^  Linn.),  complete  the  list  of 
the  Saltatorial  Orthoptera  of  the  Bible  lands.  Of  one 
species  M.  Olivier  {Voyage  dans  VEminre  Othoman,  ii, 
424)  thus  writes :  "  With  the  burning  south  winds  (of 
Syria)  there  come  from  the  interior  of  Arabia  and  from 
the  most  southern  parts  of  Persia  clouds  of  locusts 
(Auidiiim  2^etcg) mum),  whose  ravages  to  these  couii- 


A  eridiuni  Pcrccjrinum. 


tries  are  as  grievous  and  nearly  as  sudden  as  those  of 
the  heaviest  hail  in  Europe.  Wc  witnessed  them  twice. 
It  is  difficult  to  express  the  effect  produced  on  us  by  the 
sight  of  the  whole  atmosphere  filled  on  all  sides  and  to 
a  great  height  by  an  innumerable  quantity  of  these  in- 
sects, whose  flight  was  slow  and  uniform,  and  whose 
noise  resembled  tliat  of  rain :  the  sky  was  darkened, 
and  the  light  of  the  sun  considerably  weakened.  In  a 
moment  the  terraces  of  the  houses,  the  streets,  and  all 
the  fields  were  covered  by  these  insects,  and  in  two  days 
they  had  nearly  devoured  all  the  leaves  of  the  plants. 
Happily  they  lived  but  a  short  time,  and  seemed  to 
have  migrated  only  to  reproduce  themselves  and  die ; 
in  fact,  nearly  all  those  we  saw  the  next  day  had  paired, 
and  the  day  following  the  fields  ;vero  covered  with  their 
dead  bodies."  This  species  is  found  in  Arabia,  Egypt, 
Mesopotamia,  and  Persia.  Tlie  ordinary  Syrian  locust 
greatly  resembles  the  common  grasshopper,  but  is  larger 
and  more  destructive.  It  is  usually  about  two  inches 
and  a  half  in  length,  and  is  chiefly  of  a  green  color,  with 
dark  spots.  It  is  provided  witli  a  pair  of  antennas  or 
"  feelers"  about  an  inch  in  length,  projecting  from  the 
head.  The  mandibles  or  jaws  are  black,  and  the  wing- 
coverts  are  of  a  bright  brown,  spotted  with  black.  It 
has  an  elevated  ridge  or  crest  upon  tlie  thorax,  or  that 


portion  of  the  body  to  which  the  legs  and  wings  are  at- 
tached. The  legs  and  thighs  of  these  insects  are  so 
powerful  that  they  can  leap  to  a  height  of  two  hundred 
times  the  length  of  their  bodies;  when  so  raised  they 
spread  their  wings,  and  fly  so  close  together  as  to  appeaj 
like  one  compact  moving  mass. 


Locust  flyinj; 


Locusts,  like  many  other  of  the  general  provisions  of 
nature,  may  occasion  incidental  and  partial  evil,  but, 
upon  the  whole,  they  are  an  immense  benefit  to  those 
portions  of  the  workl  which  they  inhabit ;  and  so  con- 
nected is  the  chain  of  being  that  we  may  safely  believe 
that  the  advantage  is  not  confined  to  those  regions. 
"  They  clear  the  way  for  the  renovation  of  vegetable 
productions  which  are  in  danger  of  being  destroyed  by 
the  exuberance  of  some  particular  species,  and  are  thus 
fulfilling  the  law  of  the  Creator,  that  of  all  which  he  has 
made  should  nothing  be  lost.  A  region  which  has  been 
choked  up  by  shrubs,  and  perennial  plants,  and  hard, 
half-withered,  impalatable  grasses,  after  having  been 
laid  bare  by  these  scourges,  soon  appears  in  a  far  more 
beautiful  dress,  with  new  herbs,  superb  lilies,  fresh  an- 
nual grasses,  and  young  and  juicy  shrubs  of  pereiniial 
kinds,  affording  delicious  herbage  for  the  wild  cattle 
and  game"  (Sparman's  Voyage,  i,  3(J7).  Meanwhile  their 
excessive  multiplication  is  repressed  by  numerous  causes. 
Contrary  to  the  order  of  nature  with  all  other  insects, 
the  males  are  far  more  numerous  than  the  females.  It 
is  believed  that  if  they  were  equal  in  number  they 
would  in  ten  j'ears  annihilate  the  vegetable  system. 
Besides  all  the  creatures  that  feed  upon  them,  rains  are 
very  destructive  to  their  eggs,  to  the  larvre,  pupte,  and 
perfect  insect.  When  perfect  they  always  fly  with  the 
\vinds,  and  are  therefore  constantly  carried  out  to  sea, 
and  often  ignorantly  descend  upon  it  as  if  upon  land. 
(See  below.  III.)  Myriads  are  thus  lost  in  the  ocean 
every  year,  and  become  the  food  of  fishes.  On  land 
they  afford  in  all  their  several  states  sustenance  to  count- 
less tribes  of  birds,  beasts,  reptiles,  etc. ;  and  if  their  of- 
fice as  the  scavengers  of  nature,  commissioned  to  remove 
all  superfluous  productions  from  the  face  of  the  earth, 
sometimes  incidentally  and  as  the  operation  of  a  general 
law,  interferes  with  the  labors  of  man,  as  do  storms, 
tempests,  etc.,  they  have,  from  all  antiquity  to  the  pres- 
ent hour,  afforded  him  an  excellent  supply  till  the  land 
acquires  the  benefit  of  their  visitations,  by  yielding  him 
in  the  mean  time  an  agreeable,  wholesome,  and  nutri- 
tious aliment. 

There  arc  different  ways  of  preparing  locusts  for  food : 
sometimes  they  are  ground  and  pounded,  and  then  mixed 
with  flour  and  water  and  made  into  cakes,  or  they  are 
salted  and  then  eaten ;  sometimes  smoked ;  boiled  or 
roasted;  stewed,  or  fried  in  butter.  Dr.  Kitto  {Pict. 
Bible,  note  on  Lev.  xi,  21),  who  tasted  locusts,  says  they 
are  more  like  shrimps  than  anything  else ;  and  an  Eng- 
lish clergyman,  some  years  ago,  cooked  some  of  the 
green  grasshoppers,  Locusta  viridissima,  boiling  them 
in  water  half  an  hour,  throwuig  away  the  head,  wings, 
and  legs,  and  then  sprinkling  them  with  pepper  and 


LOCUST 


486 


LOCUST 


salt,  and  adding  butter :  he  found 
tliem  excellent.  How  strange,  then, 
nay,  "  how  idle,"  to  quote  the  words 
of  Kirby  and  Spence  {Entom.  i,  305), 
"  was  the  controversy  concerning  the 
locusts  which  formed  part  of  the  sus- 
tenance of  John  the  Baptist,  .  .  .  and 
how  apt  even  learned  men  are  to  per- 
plex a  plain  question  from  ignorance 
of  the  customs  of  other  coimtries!" 
They  are  even  an  extensive  article  of 
commerce  (Sparman's  Voyage,  i,  367, 
etc.).  Diodorus  Siculus  mentions  a 
peojjle  of  Ethiopia  who  were  so  fond 
of  eating  them  that  they  were  called 
A  criJophagi, "  eaters  of  locusts"  (xxiv, 
3).  Whole  armies  have  been  relieved 
by  them  when  in  danger  of  perishing 
(Porphyrins,  De  Absiinentia  Carnis). 
We  learn  from  Aristophanes  and  Aris- 
totle that  they  were  eaten  by  the  in- 
habitants of  Greece  (Aristoph.  Achar- 

^''"W        '"'"■  ^^^^'  ^^^~'  ^^^^''"  ^™'^-'-'  Aristotle, 
"^rj^M*  Hist.  A  nim.  v,  30,  where  he  speaks  of 

them  as  delicacies).    (See  below,  III.) 
Dried  Locusts  on  That  they  were  eaten  in  a  preserved 
rods    borne    in   state  by  the  ancient  Assyrians  is  evi- 
pr.)cession    (On   j    ,t  f^  ^  j^g  monuments  (Layard, 
sculptures  fi-om    „   ,         ,  ,„         ,,^„,  ^     •'       ' 

K  o  u  y  u  n  j  i  k,  ^"O;  «««  ^  w.  p.  289). 
now  ill  the  Bi-it-  Birds  also  eagerly  devour  them 
ish  Mnsenm.)  (Russell,  Natural  History  of  Aleppo, 
p.  1'27  ;  Yolney,  Travels,  i,  237 ;  Kitto's  Physical  History 
of  Pal.  p.  410).  The  locust-bird  referred  to  by  travel- 
lers, and  which  the  Arabs  call  smurmur,  is  no  doubt, 
from  Dr.  Kitto's  description,  the  "rose-colored  starling," 
Pastor  roseiis.  The  Kev.  H.  B.  Tristram  saw  one  speci- 
men in  the  orange-groves  at  Jaffa  in  the  spring  of  1858, 


.^m. 


The  Ssniurmur,  or  Locust-eating  Bud 

l)Ut  makes  no  allusion  to  its  devouring  locusts.  Dr. 
Kitto  in  one  place  (p.  410)  says  the  locust-bird  is  about 
the  size  of  a  starling ;  in  another  place  (p.  420)  he  com- 
pares it  in  size  to  a  swallow.  The  bird  is  about  eiglit 
inches  and  a  half  in  length.  Yarrell  (British  Birds,  ii, 
51,  2d  ed.)  says  "it  is  held  sacred  at  Aleppo  because  it 
feeds  on  the  locust;"  and  Col.  Sykes  bears  testimony  to 
the  immense  flocks  in  which  they  fly.  He  says  (Cata- 
loffiie  of  the  Birds  of  Dnkhnn)  "they  darken  the  air  by 
their  numbers  .  .  .  forty  Oi'  fifty  liave  been  killed  at  "a 
shot."  But  he  says  "  they  prove  a  calamity  to  the  hus- 
bandman, as  they  are  as  destructive  as  locusts,  and  not 
much  less  numerous." 

Tlie  great  tliglits  of  locusts  occur  only  every  fourth 
or  fifth  season.  Those  locusts  which  come  in  the  first 
instance  only  fix  on  trees,  and  do  not  destroy  grain:  it 
is  the  young,  before  thej-  are  able  to  Hy,  %vhich  are 
chiefly  injurious  to  the  crops.  Nor  do  all  the  species 
feed  upon  vegetables ;  one,  comprehending  many  vari- 
eties, the  truxalis,  according  to  some  authorities,  feeds 
upon  insects.  Latreille  says^the  house-cricket  will  do 
so.  "Locusts,"  remarks  a  very  sensible  tourist,  "seem 
to  devour  not  so  much  from  a  ravenous  appetite  as  from 
a  rage  for  destroying."  Destruction,  therefore,  and  not 
food,  is  the  chief  impulse  of  their  devastations,  and  in 


this  consists  their  utility;  they  are,  in  fact,  omnivo- 
rous. The  most  poisonous  plants  are  indifferent  to 
them ;  they  wiU  prey  even  upon  the  crowfoot,  whose 
causticity  bums  the  very  hides  of  beasts.  They  simply 
consume  everythiny  without  jircdilection,  vegetable  mat- 
ter, linen,  woollen,  silk,  leather,  etc. ;  and  I'liny  does  not 
exaggerate  when  he  says,  "Fores  quocjue  tectorum," 
"  and  even  the  doors  of  houses"  (xi,  29),  for  they  have 
been  known  to  consume  the  very  varnish  of  furniture. 
They  reduce  everything  indiscriminately  to  shreds, 
which  become  manure.  It  might  serve  to  mitigate 
popidar  misapprehensions  on  the  subject  to  consider 
what  would  have  been  the  consequence  if  locusts  had 
been  carnivorous  like  wasps.  All  terrestrial  beings,  in 
such  a  case,  not  excluding  man  himself,  would  have  be- 
come their  victims.  There  are,  no  doubt,  many  things 
respecting  them  yet  unlinown  to  us  which  would  stiU 
further  justify  the  belief  that  this,  like  "every"  other 
"  work  of  God,  is  good" — benevolent  upon  the  whole 
(see  Dillon's  Ti-av,  in  Spain,  p.  256,  etc.,  London,  1780, 
4to). 

in.  The  general  references  to  locusts  in  the  Scrip- 
tures are  well  collected  by  Jahn  {Bibl.Archaol.  §  23), 
while  Wemyss  gives  many  of  the  symbolical  apjilica- 
tions  of  this  creature  {Claris  Symholica,  s.  v.).  It  is  well 
known  that  locusts  live  in  a  republic  like  ants.  Agur, 
the  son  of  Jakeh,  correctly  says,  "  The  locusts  have  no 
king."  But  Mr.  Home  gives  them  one  {Introduction, 
etc.,  1839,  iii,  76),  and  Dr.  Harris  speaks  of  their  having 
"  a  leader  whose  motions  they  invariably  observe"  {Xat. 
Hist,  of  the  Bible,  London,  1825).  See  this  notion  re- 
futed by  Kirby  and  Spence  (ii,  16),  and  even  by  Moufi'et 
{Theat.  Insect,  p.  122,  Lond.  1034).  It  is  also  worthy  of 
remark  that  no  Hebrew  root  has  ever  been  offered  fa- 
voring this  idea.  Our  translation  (Nah.  iii,  17)  repre- 
sents locusts,  "great  grasshoppers,"  as  "camping  in  the 
Ifldges  in  the  cold  day,  but  when  the  sun  ariseth  as 
fleeing  away."  Here  the  locust,  gob,  is  undoubtedly 
spoken  of  as  a  perfect  insect,  able  to  fly,  and  as  it  is  well 
known  that  at  evening  the  locusts  descend  from  their 
flights  and  form  camps  for  the  night,  may  not  the  cold 
day  mean  the  cold  portion  of  the  daj',  i.  e.  the  niglit,  so 
remarkable  for  its  coldness  in  the  East,  the  word  DTi 
being  used  here,  as  it  often  is,  in  a  comprehensive  sense, 
like  the  Gr.  ypipa  and  Lat.  dies  ?  Gesenius  suggests 
that  rms,  "hedges,"  should  here  be  understood  like 
the  Gr.  a'lpaaui,  shrubs,  brushwood,  etc.  (See  above, 
I,  2.)  With  regard  to  the  description  in  Joel  (chap,  ii), 
it  is  considered  by  many  learned  writers  as  a  figurative 
representation  of  the  ravages  of  an  invading  "  army"  of 
human  beings,  as  in  Rev.  ix,  2-12,  rather  tlian  a  literal 
account,  since  such  a  devastation  would  hardly,  they 
tliink,  have  escaped  notice  in  the  books  of  Kings  and 
Chronicles.  Some  have  abandoned  all  attempt  at  a  lit- 
eral interpretation  of  Lev.  xi,  22,  and  understand  by  the 
four  species  of  locusts  there  mentioned,  Shalmaneser, 
Nebuchadnezzar,  Antiochus,  and  the  Komans.  Theodo- 
ret  explains  them  as  the  four  Assyrian  kings,  Tiglath- 
pileser,  Shalmaneser,  Sennacherilj,  and  Nebuchadnezzar ; 
and  Abarbanel,  of  the  four  kingdoms  inimical  to  the 
Jews,  viz.  the  Babylonians,  Persians,  Greeks,  and  Ko- 
mans (Pococke's  H'or/iVt,  i,  214,  etc.,  Lond.  1740;  Kosen- 
m tiller.  Scholia  in  Joel.  c.  i). 

From  the  Scriptures  it  appears  that  Egypt,  Palestine, 
and  the  adjacent  countries  were  frequently  laid  waste 
by  vast  bodies  of  migrating  locusts,  which  are  especial- 
ly represented  as  a  scourge  in  the  hand  of  divine  Prov- 
idence for  the  punishment  of  national  sins;  and  the 
brief  notices  of  the  inspired  writers  as  to  the  habits  of 
the  insects,  their  numbers,  and  the  devastation  they 
cause,  are  amply  borne  out  by  the  more  labored  details 
of  modem  travellers.  1.  Locusts  occur  in  great  num- 
bers, and  sometimes  obscure  the  sun  (Exod.  x,  15;  Jcr. 
xlvi,  23;  Judg.  vi,  5;  vii,  12;  Joel  ii,  10;  Nah.  iii,  15; 
compare  Livy,  xlii,  2 ;  ..-Elian,  A'.  .4 .  iii,  12 ;  Phnv,  X.  H. 
xi,  29 ;  Shaw,  Travels,  p.  187  [fol.  2d  ed.] ;  Ludolf,  JJist. 


LOD 


487 


LODGE 


^fJiiop.  i,  13,  and  De  Locusiis,  i,  4 ;  Volney,  Travels  in 
Sijriii,  i,  236).  2.  Their  voracity  is  alluded  to  in  Exod. 
X,  12, 15;  Joel  i,  4,  7, 12,  and  ii,3 ;  Dent.  xxviii,38;  Psa. 
Ixxviii,  46 ;  cv,  34 ;  Isa.  xxxiii,  4  (comp.  Shaw,  Travels, 
p.  187,  and  travellers  in  the  East,  passim).  3.  They  are 
compared  to  horses  (Joel  ii,4;  Kev.  ix,  7.  The  Italians 
call  the  locust  "  Cavaletta ;"  and  Ray  says,  "  Caput  ob- 
longum,  equi  instar  prona  spectans."  Compare  also  the 
Arab's  description  to  Niebuhr,  Descr.  de  VA  rahie),  4. 
They  make  a  fearful  noise  in  their  flii>'ht  (Joel  ii,  5 ;  Rev. 
ix,  9;  comp.  Forskal,  Descr.  p.  81 :  "Transeuntes  grylli 
super  verticem  nostrum  sono  magnre  cataractaj  ferve- 
bant ;"  Yolney,  Trav.  i,  235).  5.  Their  irresistible  prog- 
ress is  referred  to  in  Joel  ii,  8,  9  (comp.  Shaw,  Trav.  p. 
187).  6.  They  enter  dwellings,  and  devour  even  the 
wood-work  of  houses  (Exod.  x,  G ;  Joel  ii,  9, 10 ;  comp. 
Pliny,  N.  H.  xi,  29).  7.  They  do  not  tiy  in  the  night 
(Nah.  iii,  17  ;  comp.  Niebuhr,  Descr.  de  VA  rahie,  p.  173). 
8.  Tlio  sea  destroj-s  the  greater  number  (Exod.  x,  19: 
Joel  ii,  20  ;  compare  Pliny,  xi,  35 ;  Hasselquist,  Trav.  p. 
445  [Engl,  transl.  1766]  ;  also  Iliad,  xxi,  12).  9.  Their 
dead  bodies  taint  the  air  (Joel  ii,  20 ;  comp.  Hasselquist, 
Trav.  p.  445).  10.  They  are  used  as  food  (Lev.  xi,  21, 
22;  Matt,  iii,  4;  Mark  i,  6;  compare  Pliny,  iV. //.  vi,  35  ; 
xi,35;  Diod.  Sic.  iii,29;  Aristoph. -4e/;«r.  1116  ;  Ludolf, 
//.  ^-Ethiop.  p.  67  [Gent's  transl.J  ;  Jackson,  Morocco,  p. 
52 ;  Niebuhr,  Descr.  de  I'A  rahie,  p.  150  ;  Sparman,  Trav. 
i,  367,  who  says  the  Hottentots  are  glad  when  the  lo- 
custs come,  for  they  fatten  upon  them;  Hasselquist, 
Travels,  p.  232,419;  Kirby  and  Spence,  Eniom.  i,  305). 
There  are  people  at  this  day  who  gravely  assert  that 
the  locusts  which  formed  part  of  the  food  of  the  Baptist 
were  not  the  insect  of  that  name,  but  the  long,  sweet 
pods  of  the  locust-tree  (Ceratonia  siliqua),  Johannis 
brodt,''iit.  John's  bread,"  as  the  monks  of  Palestine  call 
it.  For  other  equally  erroneous  explanations,  or  unau- 
thorized alterations  of  ciKpiSic,  see  Celsii  Hieroh.  i,  74. 

IV.  The  following  are  some  of  the  works  which  treat 
of  locusts-:  Ludolf,  Dissertatio  de  Locustis  (Franco f.  ad 
Moen.  1694)  [this  author  believes  that  the  quails  which 
fed  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness  were  locusts  (vid.  his 
Diutriba  qua  senfentiu  nova  de  Selavis  siv'e  Locusiis  de- 
fenditur,  Francof.  1694),  as  do  the  Jewish  Arabs  to  this 
day.  So  does  Patrick,  in  his  Comment,  on  Numbers.  A 
more  absurd  opinion  -(vas  that  held  by  Norrelius,  who 
maintained  that  the  four  names  of  Lev.  xi,22  were  birds 
(see  his  Schediasma  de  A  vibus  sacris,  A  I'heh,  Chagab, 
Solam,  et  Charrjol,  Upsal.  1746,  and  in  the  Bill.  Brem. 
iii,  36)]  ;  Faber,  De  Locusiis  Biblicis,  et  sir/illatim  de  A  vi- 
bus Quadrupedibus,  ex  Lev.  xi,  20  (Wittenb.  1710-11); 
Asso,  Abhaiullung  vnn  den  Heuschrecl-en  (Rostock,  1787  ; 
usually  containing  also  Tychsen's  Comment,  de  Locustis) ; 
Oedman,  Vermischte  Samndung,  vol.  ii,  e.  vii ;  Kirby  and 
Spence,  Introduction  to  Entomology,  i,  305,  etc. ;  Bochart, 
Hierozoicon,  iii,  251,  etc.,  ed.  Rosenmiiller ;  Kitto,  Plijjs. 
History  of  Palestine,  p.  419,420;  Harris,  Natural  Hist, 
of  the  Bible,  s.  v.  (1833);  Harmer,  Observations  (Lond. 
1797);  Fabricius,  Eiitomol.  System,  ii,  46  sq. ;  Credner, 
Joel,  p.  261  sq. ;  Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  ii,  102  sq. ; 
Tristram,  Nat.  Hist,  of  the  Bible,  p.  306  sq. ;  Wood,  Bible 
Animals,  p.  596  sq. ;  Hackett. ///i/.f^/Y/.  of  Script,  p.  97; 
ServUle,  Monograph  in  the  Suites  a.  Buffon ;  Fischer,  Or- 
thoptera  Europwa ;  Suicer,  Thesaurus,  i,  169,  179;  Gu- 
therr,  De  Victu  .Johannis  (Franc.  1785);  Rathleb,  ^ ^rj- 
dotheolor/ie  (Hanover,  1748);  Rawlinson,  Eire  Ancient 
Monarchies,  ii,  299,  493  ;  iii,  144. 

IiOd  (1  Chron.  viii,  12;  Ezra  ii,  32;  Neh.  vii,37;  xi, 
35).     See  Lyuda. 

Lo-de'bar  (Heb.  Lo-Dehar,'  "ISI  J<b.  no  pasture, 
2  Sam.  xvii,  27,  Sept.  Awcafiao ;  written  "i^n  i>  in  2 
Sam.  ix,  4,  5,  Septuag.  Aw^apap),  a  town  apparently  in 
Gilead,not  far  from  ]\Iahanaim.the  residence  of  Ammiel, 
whose  son  Machir  entertained  Mephibosheth,  and  after- 
wards sent  refreshments  to  David  (2  Sam.  ix,  4,  5 ;  xvii, 
27).  It  is  probably  the  same  with  the  place  (see  Re- 
land,  Palcest.  p.  875)   called  Deisik  (or  rather  Lidhir', 


'13'7^,  Josh,  xiii,  26 ;  Sept.  Af/3i'p,  Vulg.  Dabir ;  for  the 
P  is  not  a  prefix,  but  a  part  of  the  name  [see  Keil's  Com- 
ment, ad  loc],  which  should  probably  be  pointed  "iSI'b 
Lodebar'),  on  the  (north-easteni)  border  of  Gad,  but  in 
which  direction  from  IMahanaim  is  uncertain,  perhaps 
north-west  (in  which  general  direction  the  associated 
names  appear  to  proceed),  and  not  far  from  et-Tayiheli. 

Lodensteiii,  Jonocis  von,  a  noted  Dutch  theo- 
logian, was  born  at  Delft  in  1620.  He  studied  under 
Voetius  at  Utrecht,  and  under  Cocceius  and  Amesius  at 
Franeker,  and  became  preacher  atZoetemer  in  1644;  at 
Sluys,  in  Flanders,  in  1650,  and  at  Utrecht  in  1652— in 
all  of  which  places  he  used  every  exertion  to  revive  the 
spirit  of  practical  piety  among  his  countrymen,  whom 
great  prosperity  had  rendered  worldly-minded  and  in- 
difierent.  When,  in  1672,  the  country  was  threatened 
by  the  invasion  of  the  French  under  Louis  XIV,  he  pro- 
claimed it  a  judgment  of  the  Lord,  and  called  on  them 
to  repent.  He  found  many  followers.  In  1665  he  ceased 
to  administer  the  Lord's  Supper,  from  conscientious  scru- 
ples. Laying  great  stress  on  purity  of  life  and  of  heart, 
he  feared  lest  he  might  administer  it  to  some  unworthy 
to  receive  this  sacred  ordinance.  The  number  of  his 
adherents  gradually  increased,  and  they  spread  over  the 
whole  Netherlands,  but  they  never  separated  from  the 
Reformed  Church  like  the  Labadists.  The  effect  of  Lo- 
denstein's  doctrines  in  Holland  was  like  that  following 
Spener's  labors  afterwards  in  Germany,  He  died  pastor 
of  Utrecht  in  1677.  He  wrote  Verfullenes  Christenthum 
(published  after  his  death  by  J.  Hofmann),  Reforma- 
tionss])iegel  (to  be  found  also  in  Arnold's  Kirchen  u.  Ket- 
zerhistorie),  and  a  number  of  hymns,  etc. — Herzog,^e«^- 
Encyldop.  x,  450.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Lodge  (properly  some  form  of  the  verb  "lb,  lun,  or 
'{^h,  Un,  to  stay  over  night,  avXllopai,  etc.).  See  Inn. 
In  Isa.  i,  8,  the  "  lodge  in  a  garden"  (n5!lb73,  melunah',  a 
lodging-place,  rendered  "  cottage"  in  Isa.  xxiv,  20)  sig- 
nifies a  shed  or  lodge  for  the  watchman  in  a  garden ;  it 
also  refers  to  a  sort  of  hanging  bed  or  hammock,  which 
travellers  in  hot  climates,  or  the  watchmen  of  gardens 
or  vineyards,  hang  on  high  trees  to  sleep  in  at  night, 
probably  from  the  fear  of  wild  beasts  (Isa.  xxiv,  20). 
The  lodge  here  referred  to  was  a  little  temporary  hut 
consisting  of  a  low  framework  of  poles,  covered  with 
boughs,  straw,  turf,  or  similar  materials,  for  a  shelter 
from  the  heat  by  day  and  the  cold  and  dews  by  night, 
for  the  watchmen  that  kept  the  garden,  or  vineyard, 
during  the  short  season  while  the  fruit  was  ripenjng 
(Job  xxvii,  18),  and  speedily  removed  when  it  had 
served  that  purpose.  It  is  usually  erected  on  a  slight 
artificial  mound  of  earth,  with  just  space  sufficient  for 
one  person,  who,  in  this  confined  solitude,  remains  con- 
stantly watching  the  ripening  crop,  as  the  jackals  dur- 
ing the  vintage  often  destroy  whole  vineyards,  and 
likewise  commit  great  ravages  in  the  gardens  of  cucum- 
bers and  melons.  This  protection  is  also  necessary  to 
prevent  the  depredations  of  thieves.  To  see  one  of  these 
miserable  sheds  standing  alone  in  the  midst  of  a  field  or 
on  the  margin  of  it,  occupied  by  its  solitarj-  watcher, 
often  a  decrepit  or  aged  person,  presents  a  striking  im- 
age of  dreariness  and  loneliness  (Hackett's  Illustra.  of 
Scripture,  p.  162).     See  Cottage. 

Lodge,  Nathan,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  born  in  Loudon  County,  Va.,  August  20, 1788;  was 
converted  in  1804,  entered  the  Conference  at  Baltimore 
in  1810,  and  died  Nov.  27, 1815.  He  was  a  very  zeal- 
ous and  useful  minister,  and  many  souls  were  converted 
through  his  preaching.  He  was  greatly  lamented  by 
his  people,  among  whom  he  was  suddenly  cut  down. — 
Minutes  of  Conferences,  i,  278. 

Lodge,  Robert,  a  member  of  the  Societj'  of 
Friends,  was  b(jrn  at  jMasham,  Yorkshire,  about  1636. 
He  was  a  religious  youth,  and  became  a  Friend  about 
1660.  He  preached  and  suffered  for  the  Quaker  cause 
in  Ireland.     On  July  15,  1690,  he  died,  assuring  his 


LODUR 


488 


LOGIC 


friends,  "  Blessed  be  God,  I  have  heavenly  peace."  See 
Jauney,  Hist,  of  Friends,  ii,  43-i. 

Lodur,  one  of  the  three  Norse  divuiities  (Odin  and 
Haneri,  \\'ho,  walking  at  the  sea-shore,  created  the  first 
pair  of  men.     See  Loki. 

Loffler,  Friedrich  Simon,  a  German  Protestant 
theologian,  nephew  of  the  celebrated  philosopher  Leib- 
nitz, was  born  at  Leipzic  Aug.  9, 1GG9,  and  was  educated 
at  the  university  of  his  native  place.  In  1689  he  be- 
came magister  of  philosophy  and  bachelor  of  divinity. 
In  1G95  he  was  appointed  pastor  at  Probstheida,  and 
served  his  people  until  1745,  when,  on  account  of  age, 
he  was  made  emeritus  preacher.  He  died  in  1748.  He 
wrote  Specimen  exeges.  s.  de  operariis  in  vinea : — Diss, 
de  Utteris  Bellerophonteis ;  etc. 

Lofller,  Josias  Friedrich  Christian,  a  noted 
German  Protestant  theologian,  was  born  at  Saalfeld  Jan- 
uary 18, 1752.  Having  lost  his  father  in  17G3,  he  was 
educated  in  the  orphan  asylum  and  at  the  University 
of  Halle.  In  1774  he  went  to  Berlin,  where  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Teller,  and  in  1777  became  minis- 
ter of  one  of  the  churches  of  that  city.  He  now  made 
himself  known  as  a  writer  by  translating  Souverain's 
renowned  work  on  the  Platonism  of  the  fathers.  In 
1778  he  \vcnt  to  Silesia  as  chaplain  of  a  Prussian  regi- 
ment, but  returned  at  the  end  of  a  year  to  Berlin,  where 
he  resumetl  his  office,  devoting  also  part  of  his  time  to 
educational  pursuits.  In  1783  he  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  and  minister  of  the 
principal  church  of  that  city.  Here  his  rationalistic 
views  made  him  many  enemies.  In  1787  he  was  ap- 
pointed general  superintendent  at  Gotha,  but  entered 
on  this  office  only  in  the  following  year.  The  Uni- 
versitv  of  Copenhagen  conferred  on  him  the  degree  of 
D.D.  in  1792.  He  died  February  4, 181G.  Hiffler  pub- 
lished a  number  of  separate  sermons,  dissertations,  and 
tracts,  and  was  after  1803  the  editor  of  the  continuation 
of  Teller's  Magazin  J'iir  Predifjer.  See  Doring,  Die 
deutsch.  Kanzelredner  des  18  and  19  Jahrh.  p.  223  ;  Her- 
zog,  Real-Encyklopadie,  viii,  451. 

IiOft  (jTrO'J,  aliguh',  vTTipiiiov),  the  upper  chamber, 
e.  g.  of  a  private  house  (1  Kings  xvii,  19;  Acts  xx,  9). 
Such  rooms  were  either  over  the  gate  (2  Sam.  xix,  1) 
or  built  on  the  fiat  roof  (2  Kings  xxiii,  12),  and  were 
especially  used  for  prayer,  conference,  or  public  meet- 
ings.    See  CiiAMBEu;  House;  Roof. 

Loftus.  Dudley  Field,  an  Irish  lawyer,  noted  as 
a  learned  Orientalist,  was  bom  at  liathfarnham,  near 
Dublin,  in  1G18.  He  rose  to  the  position  of  master  in 
Chancery  and  a  judge  of  the  Prerogative  Court,  He 
translated  the  Ethiopic  New  Testament  into  Latin  for 
Walton's  Polyglot ;  also  published  translations  from  the 
Syriac  into  Latin  and  EngUsh.  He  died  in  1G95.  See 
AVood,  .1  then.  O.ron. ;  Harris's  edition  of  Ware's  Ireland; 
Lodge's  Peerage  of  Ireland. 

Loftus,  'William  Kennett,  an  English  archte- 
ologist.  was  born  at  Kye  in  1820.  He  was  a  zealous 
traveller  and  discoverer,  and  explored  the  sites  of  sev- 
eral ancient  cities  on  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  In 
1857  he  published  a  work  entitled  Travels  and  Re- 
searches in  Chaldea.  and  Susiana ;  also  an  account  of 
Some  Kxcavaiions  at  Warka,  the  Erech  of  Ximrod,  and 
Shushav.  the  Palace  of  Esther,  in  1849-52.  He  died  in 
185s.  To  the  Biblical  student  Loftus's  work  is  of  spe- 
cial importance.  See  Thomas's  Diet.  Biog.  and  Mgthol. 
s.  V. 

Log  (5'5,  log,  prob.  a  deep  cavitg,  basin ;  Sept.  kotu- 
X>/,Vulg.  sextarius),  the  smallest  liquid  measure  (e.  g. 
of  oil)  among  the  Hebrews  (Lev.  xiv,  10, 12.  15,  21,  24), 
containing,  according  to  the  ra'ubins  (see  Carpzov.  Aj)- 
parat.  p.  G85),  the  twelfth  part  of  a  "  hin,"  ,or  six  eggs, 
i.  e.  nearly  a  pint.     See  Measurk. 

Logan,  David  Swift,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  at  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  in  1834,     His  literarj'  ed- 


ucation was  commenced  in  the  academy  of  Beaver,  and 
was  continued  in  Jeiferson  College  (class  of  1854).  In 
1857  he  entered  the  Western  Theological  Seminar^',  and, 
after  completing  the  regular  theological  course,  was  li- 
censed by  the  Presbytery  of  Alleghany  City,  and  after- 
wards ordained  as  an  evangelist  by  the  Presbytery  of 
SteubenviUe,  and  for  two  years  preached  in  the  churches 
of  New  Philadelphia  and  Urichville,  Ohio.  He  next 
labored  in  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Tiffin,  Ohio,  until 
ill  health  obliged  his  return  to  his  home  in  Bridgewa- 
ter.  Pa.,  where  he  died.  Sept,  15, 18G4.  Mr.  Logan  was 
endowed  -with  a  well-balanced  nature ;  no  single  facidty 
was  cultivated  at  the  expense  of  the  rest.  He  had 
method,  promptness,  assiduity,  thoughtfulness ;  he  was 
an  earnest  preacher  and  a  faithful  pastor.  See  Wilson, 
Preshgterian  Historical  Almanac,  1865,  p.  97.     (J.  L.  S.) 

Logan,  John,  a  noted  Scottish  divine,  was  born  at 
Fala,  in  the  county  of  Edinburgh,  in  1748.  Though 
the  son  of  a  farmer,  he  was  eaily  d,estined  to  the  cleri- 
cal profession,  and  was  educated  in  the  University  of 
Edinburgh.  Upon  graduation  he  became  tutor  to  Sir 
John  Sinclair.  In  1773  he  was  licensed  as  a  preacher 
in  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland,  and  was  shortly 
after  appointed  minister  at  Leith,  where  he  remained 
until  1785,  when  he  removed  to  London,  retaining  by 
agreement  a  part  of  his  clerical  income,  for  the  purpose 
of  devoting  himself  altogether  to  literary  labors.  He 
had  established  quite  a  reputation  as  a  sacred  poet. 
Logan,  if  not  a  learned  divine  or  a  very  profound  think- 
er, was  a  man  of  much  eloquence,  and  a  highly  pop- 
ular preacher.  But  his  poetical  endowments,  strongly 
lyrical  in  their  tendenc}-,  were  the  highest  he  possessed ; 
and,  unfortunately,  he  was  tempted  to  apply  these  in 
a  path  where  he  was  ill  calculated  to  shine,  and  the 
adoption  of  which  proved  fatal  not  only  to  his  profes- 
sional usefulness,  but  to  his  happiness.  In  1783  he 
printed  and  caused  to  be  acted  in  Edinburgh  a  tragedy 
called  Riinnamede,  which  had  been  rehearsed  at  Covent 
Garden,  but  refused  a  license  by  the  lord  chamberlain. 
This  publication  brought  on  him  the  anger  of  his  Pres- 
byterian associates;  and  these  and  other  annoyances, 
aggravated  by  a  hereditary  tendency  to  hypochondria, 
drove  him  to  intoxication  for  relief.  He  died  in  Lon- 
don Dec.  28, 1788.  His  friends,  Drs.  Blair,  Robertson, 
and  Hardy,  published  a  volume  of  his  sermons  m  1790, 
and  a  second  in  1791.  These  sermons  long  enjoyed  very 
great  popularity,  and  have  been  several  times  reprinted. 
They  are  among  the  most  eloquent  that  the  Scottish 
Church  has  produced.  A  third  edition  of  his  poems, 
with  an  account  of  his  life,  appeared  in  1805; -and  the 
poems  are  included  in  Dr.  Anderson's  collection.  Some 
of  his  hymns  are  annexed  to  the  psalmody  of  the  Scot- 
tish Church.     See  English  Cyclojncdia,  s.  v. 

Logic.  This  term,  derived  from  the  Greek  XiJyof, 
\oyiKi],  has  been  the  subject  of  numerous  definitions. 
By  different  authors  and  schools  it  has  been  defined  as 
the  art  of  convincing,  the  art  of  thmking,  the  art  of  dis- 
covering truth,  the  right  use  of  reason,  the  science  and 
art  of  reasoning,  the  science  of  deductive  thinking,  the 
science  of  the  laws  of  thought  as  thought,  and  the  sci- 
ence of  the  laws  of  discursive  thought.  These  specimen 
definitions  indicate  in  some  degree  the  diverse  concep- 
tions of  the  subject  which  have  prevailed  at  dilfcrent 
perioils  and  in  different  circles.  Aristotle,  whom  Sir 
William  Hamilton  extravagantly  calls  the  author  and 
finisher  of  the  general  science  under  consideration,  had 
no  single  name  for  it.  He  treated  of  its  principal  parts 
as  analgtic,  apodeictic,  and  topic.  In  the  latter  he  in- 
cluded the  dialectic  of  Plato  and  the  sophistic  of  tlie 
Sophists.  Notwithstanding  the  honor  credited  to  Aris- 
totle, he  himself  says  that  Zeno  the  Eleatic  was  the  in- 
ventor of  dialectics. 

Thus  we  are  taken  back  to  the  early  Greek  philoso- 
phers for  the  first  formal  discussions  of  what  is  now  uni- 
versally denominated  Logic.  They,  in  successive  gen- 
erations, developed  with  more  or  less  clearness  its  prin- 


LOGIC 


489 


LOGIC 


cipal  elements.  Socrates  illustrated  induction ;  Euclid, 
deduction.  Plato  treated  of  mental  images  as  the  re- 
sults of  sensation,  of  notions  as  the  pro(hict  of  the  un- 
derstanding, and  of  ideas  as  the  product  of  reason.  Aris- 
totle formulated  syllogisms,  anil  defined  their  principal 
laws.  He  taught  analysis.  He  devised  a  system  of 
categories.  He  enumerated  the  five  predicables,  genus, 
species,  difference,  property,  and  accident.  In  short,  he 
reduced  to  a  system  tlie  fragmentary  discoveries  in  the 
philosophy  of  mind  of  those  who  had  gone  before  him, 
and  embodied  them  in  works  destined  to  exert  a  great 
influence  upon  after  ages.  Like  many  other  great  men, 
Aristotle  was  but  indifferently  appreciated  by  his  con- 
temporaries. Even  after  his  death,  his  logical  system 
produced  but  little  intjuence  upon  his  countrymen  the 
Greeks.  Several  of  the  Christian  fathers,  however,  give 
evidence  of  having  profited  by  its  study,  and  of  de- 
siring to  use  the  knowledge  they  had  thus  acquired  in 
propagating  the  truth  of  Christianity.  Justin  Martyr, 
Tatian,  Athenagoras,  Clement,  and  otlicrs,  both  used  and 
defended  such  dialectics  as  they  had  learned  in  the  Gre- 
cian schools.  On  the  other  hand,  as  the  same  style  of 
dialectics  had  been  closely  identified  with  the  pernicious 
vagaries  of  heathen  philosophy,  Tertullian,  Iremvus,  Ar- 
nobius,  and  Lactantius  considered  its  use  as  unfavorable 
to  the  interests  of  Christianity,  and  destructive  of  true 
science  and  wisdom.  Augustine  also  wrote  in  the  same 
spirit  against  the  academicians. 

Nevertheless,  speculative  studies  held  a  relative  prom- 
inence in  the  learning  of  Greece  and  Home  during  the 
early  Christian  centuries ;  and  when,  owing  to  the  bar- 
barian irruptions,  learning  and  civilization  declined,  di- 
alectical science  remained  in  more  general  cultivation 
than  almost  any  other  of  the  higher  species  of  knowl- 
edge. Having  its  subject  matter  in  the  human  mind, 
it  was  not  dependent  for  perpetuity  upon  those  external 
circumstances  which  influenced  the  conditions  of  gen- 
eral literature.  Boethius,  who  has  been  called  the  last 
of  the  ancient  philosophers,  and  the  connecting  link  be- 
tween the  classical  and  the  mediteval  age,  made  a  trans- 
lation of  Aristotle's  categories  into  Latin.  His  contem- 
poraries of  the  (jth  century,  Cassiodorus.Capella,  and  Isi- 
dore of  Seville,  together  with  several  Byzantine  ivriters, 
e.  g,  George  Pachymera,  Theodorus  Metachita,  and  Mi- 
chael Psellus,  formed  meagre  compendiums  of  logic  and 
rhetoric,  without  any  clear  distinction  between  the  two. 
These  manuals  superseded  or  rather  substituted  the  use 
of  the  ancient  authors  on  both  these  subjects,  and,  im- 
perfect as  they  were,  became  the  oracles  of  that  long 
and  dismal  period  in  which  the  trivium  (grammar,  log- 
ic, and  rhetoric)  and  quadrivium  (music,  arithmetic, 
geometry,  and  astronomy)  were  the  chief  topics  of  study 
and  instruction.  The  ignorance  consequent  upon  such 
a  condition  of  things  continued  for  the  long  period  of 
five  centuries  without  material  variation. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  11th  centun,^  commenced  a 
period  of  literary  awakening  known  to  history  as  the 
first  a.'ra  of  scholasticism.  See  Scholasticism.  This 
movement  was  characterized  by  attempts  to  construct 
systems  of  theology  on  the  traditional  basis  with  strict 
dialectical  form  and  method.  Paris  was  the  chief  seat 
of  the  movement.  Anselm,  aii  abbot  at  Bee  in  1078, 
and  late  in  life  an  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  made  the 
first  vigorous  attempt  in  harmony  with  logical  forms, 
on  the  basis  of  credo  ut  intelli/^am.  Abelard  opposed 
kim,  on  the  principle  that  understanding  should  precede 
faith.  This  was  the  period  of  Nominalism  and  Realism, 
and  also  of  the  foundation  of  universities.  Among  the 
most  prominent  of  the  great  names  of  this  period  is  that 
of  Eoscelinus  of  Compcigne,  who  is  celebrated  as  having 
been  tlie  first  to  revive  the  question  of  the  reality  of 
universal  ideas,  and  William  of  Cliampeaux,  who  open- 
ed a  school  of  logic  in  I'aris  in  1100.  The  fame  of  the 
latter  was  soon  eclipsed  by  that  of  Peter  Abelard,  who 
was  able  to  invest  logical  disputation  with  such  fascina- 
tions as  to  make  it  the  favorite  occupation  of  the  most 
intelligent  minds  for  generations  following. 


Tlie  1.3th  century  is  counted  as  the  second  period  of 
scholasticism,  during  which  the  leading  dialecticians 
^vere  Bonaventura,  Albertus  Magnus,  Thomas  Aquinas, 
and  Duns  Scotus.  During  this  period  scholasticism 
reached  its  climax.  The  14th  centur}-,  as  the  third  pe- 
riod of  scholasticism,  witnessed  its  sensible  decline  un- 
der the  protracted  but  bitter  wranglings  of  the  Thomists 
(Realists)  and  Scotists  (Nominalists). 

Notwithstanding  an  attempt  by  the  Medici  of  Flor- 
ence to  revive  the  Platonic  philosophy  in  opposition  to 
that  of  Aristotle,  the  latter  prevailed  in  the  chief  uni- 
versities of  Europe,  and  the  corruptions  of  it  which  had 
been  countenanced  by  scholasticism  began  to  pass  away 
under  the  influence  of  more  intelligent  discussion.  In 
the  16th  century,  after  the  invention  of  printing,  the 
logical  and  philosophical  works  of  the  Stagirite  were  is- 
sued in  a  purer  text  and  more  accurate  versions,  and 
largely  engaged  public  criticism. 

The  authority  of  Aristotle  had  been  so  long  supreme 
in  the  continental  universities,  and  the  union  between 
what  passed  for  his  philosophy  and  the  errors  of  the 
Church  of  Rome  had  been  so  long  established,  that  it 
was  only  natural  for  Luther  and  Melancthon,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Reformation,  to  inveigh  strongly  against 
the  Aristotelian  logic  and  metaphysics.  As  time  passed 
on,  however,  it  became  apparent  that  the  work  of  the 
Reformers  had  largely  to  be  done  through  the  agency 
of  that  same  Aristotelian  logic.  Melancthon  was  not 
slow  to  perceive  this,  and  subsequently  became  an  ac- 
knowledged follower  of  Aristotle  as  to  dialectics,  and 
even  influenced  Luther  to  retract  some  of  his  severer  ut- 
terances. He  introduced  into  the  University  of  Witten- 
berg, to  which  Protestant  Germany  looked  up,  a  scheme 
of  dialectics  and  physics  founded  upon  the  Aristotelian 
theory.  He  also  imitated  the  Stagirite  philosopher  by 
teaching  logic  with  constant  reference  to  rhetoric.  The 
advocacy  and  influence  of  Melancthon  secured  the  pre- 
ponderance of  the  Aristotelian  dialectics  in  the  Protes- 
tant schools  of  (iermany  for  more  than  a  centur}'. 

About  the  middle  of  the  16th  century  a  formidable 
opposition  to  the  authority  of  Aristotle  sprang  up  at  the 
University  of  Paris,  under  the  leadership  of  Peter  Ra- 
mus, a  scholar  of  great  natural  acutenoss,  and  of  an  in- 
trepid, though  somewhat  arrogant  spirit.  He  jmblished 
his  Ins/if titumes  Lialectica:  in  1543.  His  system,  found- 
ed with  much  ingenuity  on  the  writings  of  Plato,  not- 
withstanding violent  opposition,  prevailed  so  far  as  to 
greatly  weaken  the  influence  of  the  Aristotelian  philos- 
ophy. The  heads  of  the  university,  alarmed  at  this  in- 
novation, made  complaint  against  Ramus  to  Parliament. 
The  king  himself  interl'ered,  and  appointed  a  public  trial 
of  the  rival  systems  of  logic.  As  might  have  been  ex- 
pected, a  majority  of  the  judges  favored  the  established 
system.  Ramus  was  consequently  ordered  to  desist  from 
teaching,  and  an  order  passed  for  the  suppression  of  his 
book.  That  order  was  subsequently  removed,  and  Ra- 
mus again  became  popular  as  a  teacher.  He  treated 
logic  as  merely  the  art  of  arguing,  and  \vas  \cxy  severe 
on  the  dry  and  tedious  formalities  of  the  schoolmen. 
His  system  embraced  invention  and  proofs,  and  thus 
blended  with  rhetoric.  In  1551,  through  the  influence 
of  the  cardinal  of  Lorraine,  Ramus  became  royal  pro- 
fessor of  rhetoric  and  philosophy,  in  which  capacity  he 
made  many  proselytes.  Having  adhered  to  the  Hu- 
guenot party,  he  was  killed  in  the  massacre  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew. But  he  had  already  travelled  and  taught  in 
Germany,  where  his  system  found  no  little  favor.  In 
Italy  it  secured  a  few  disciples,  but  many  more  in  France, 
England,  and  Scotland.  Andrew  jMelville  int,rotUiccd 
the  logic  of  Ramus  at  Glasgow,  and  it  ultimately  be- 
came popular  in  all  the  Scottish  universities.  The  log- 
ical writings  of  the  remainder  of  the  IGth  century,  and 
somewhat  later,  were  filled  with  the  Ramist  and  anti- 
Ramist  controversy,  which,  though  of  little  permanent 
importance,  doubtless  prepared  the  way  for  a  better  com- 
prehension of  the  true  principles  and  processes  of  logic 
in  later  periods. 


LOGIC 


490 


LOGIC 


In  the  17th  centurj'  the  writings  of  lord  Bacon  formed 
another  e])och  in  the  history  of  logic.  See  Bacon. 
Logic,  according  to  lord  Bacon,  comprised  the  sciences 
of  invention,  judging,  retaining,  and  delivering  the  con- 
cept i<iiis  of  tlie  mind.  We  invent  or  discover  new  arts 
and  arguments.  "We  judge  hy  induction  or  syllogism, 
and  we  may  improve  memory  by  artificial  modes.  The 
first  book  of  the  Xovum  Orrjanum  developed  his  celebra- 
ted and  peculiar  division  of  fallacies,  viz.  idola  trihus, 
idola  specus,  ichlafuri,  and  idola  theatri.  The  second 
book  sought  to  apply  the  principles  of  induction  to  the 
interpretation  of  nature.  Although,  from  a  defective 
knowledge  of  natural  phenomena  incident  to  his  times, 
the  author's  illustrations  were  far  from  perfect,  and  al- 
though many  logicians  have  disputed  the  correctness  of 
his  principles,  it  cannot  be  questioned  that  the  Baconian 
logic  and  method  of  study  exerted  a  powerful  influence 
upon  his  own  and  after  times  in  stimulating  thought 
and  discovery.  The  remaining  authors  of  the  17th 
century  whose  writings  influenced  the  study  and  meth- 
ods of  logic  were  Des  Cartes,  Arnauk',  author  of  UA  rt 
de  Peiiser,  and  Locke,  of  England.  Probably  the  most 
influential  treatise  on  the  direct  subject  was  Arnaidd's 
^4  )■/  of  Thinking,  commonly  called  the  Port-Royal  Logic. 
It  attacked  the  Aristotelian  system,  and,  being  written 
in  a  modern  language,  had  the  advantage  over  the  heavy 
Latinity  of  previous  books.  In  this  respect  it  became 
ail  examjile  to  subsequent  writers,  who,  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  18th  century,  were  numerous  if  not  influen- 
tial. But,  with  all  that  was  written  respecting  it,  the 
study  of  logic  failed  to  command  general  attention.  It 
had  few  attractions  for  the  popular  mind,  and  its  special 
devotees  were  seldom  able  to  place  it  in  successful  com- 
petition with  philosophy,  natural  science,  and  general 
literature.  Although  prescribed  in  every  system  of  aca- 
demic study,  and  at  once  the  agency  and  topic  of  cease- 
less wrangling  among  professed  scholars,  yet  its  influ- 
ence upon  human  life  and  public  opinion  was  infinitesi- 
mally  small. 

The  limits  of  this  article  do  not  admit  of  a  detailed 
notice  of  all  the  logicians  and  logical  systems  of  modern 
times,  but  only  of  allusion  to  a  few  of  the  most  influen- 
tial. In  tJermany,  more  than  in  all  other  countries,  the 
study  of  logic  has  within  the  last  hundred  years  assumed 
new  phases  and  developed  new  doctrines,  more  especial- 
ly in  connection  with  the  various  s\'stems  of  idealistic 
philosophy.  Of  that  philosophy  Immanuel  Kant  [see 
Kant]  maj^  be  considered  the  inaugurator,  and  Ids  first 
philosophical  production  commenced  with  the  study  of 
logic.  As  early  as  17li2  he  published  a  treatise  on  the 
'•False  Subtlety  of  the  Four  Syllogistic  Figures,"  in 
which  he  maintained  that  only  the  first  is  pure,  and  the 
others  rutiucinia  htjbrida.  From  this  point  he  went  on 
developing  his  system,  till  in  1781  he  published  his  Krit- 
ik  of  Pure  Reason,  to  which  in  1790  he  added  his  Kritik 
of  ihf  Judijmtnf.  Kant  claimed  to  have  subjected  the 
hiunan  mind  to  a  new  analysis,  from  which  he  deter- 
minetl  the  three  comprehensive  functions  of  sense,  un- 
derstanding, and  reason.  His  general  scheme  is  sum- 
med uj)  as  follows  : 

I.  Dociiine  of  tlie  transcendental  elements  of  knowledge. 

A.  Transcendental  a'sthetics. 
Jj.  Transcendental  loLiic. 

a.  Transcenilenlal  analytics. 

b.  Transcendental  dialectics. 

II.  The  transcendental  method. 

Not  to  mention  the  numerous  defenders  and  modifiers 
of  the  Kantian  system,  we  ]iass  to  (1.  AV.  F.  Hegel  [see 
Hkcki.],  the  publication  of  whose  U'iifscn.^c/Kift  dcr  Lor/ik 
in  181 2_  marks  another  epoch  in  German  metajdiysics. 
Hegel  emplo\'cd  the  term  logic  in  a  very  extended 
sense.  Not  confining  it  to  abstract  forms  of  thought 
and  the  laws  of  ideas,  he  consiilered  it  the  science  of  the 
self-sidlicient  and  self-determining  idea — the  science  of 
truth  and  reality.  From  his  fundamental  principle  that 
thought  and  substance  are  identical,  it  followed  tiiat 
what  is  true  of  one  is  true  also  of  the  other,  and  that 
the  laws  of  logic  are  ontologicaL     His  svstem  claimed 


to  develop  the  idea  of  the  absolute  by  antagonisms 
through  all  its  successive  stadia.  With  him  the  pri- 
mary element  of  logic  consisted  in  the  oneness  of  the 
subjective  and  objective.  Instinctive  knowledge  oidy 
regards  the  object  without  considering  itself.  But  con- 
sciousness, besides  the  former,  contains  a  perception  of 
itself,  and  embraces,  as  three  stages  of  progress,  con- 
sciousness, self-consciousness,  and  reason.  Pure  logic, 
according  to  Hegel,  is  divided  into,  1.  The  logic  of  be- 
ing ;  2.  The  logic  of  qualified  nature ;  3.  The  logic  of 
the  idea. 

In  1825,  Richard  "Whately,  afterwards  archbishop  of 
Dublin,  published  an  article  in  the  Knajdopctdia  Mttro- 
polilana,  which,  having  been  expanded  and  printed  as 
his  Elements  of  Logic,  was  soon  after  extensively  adopt- 
ed as  a  text-book  both  in  England  and  America.  This 
publication  has  justly  been  considered  as  constituting 
an  a^ra  in  the  study  of  logic  in  English-speaking  coun- 
tries. The  principles  of  Kant's  Kritik  of  Pure  Reason 
were  not  extensively  introduced  into  Great  Britain  until 
after  1836,  when  Sir  WiUiam  Hamilton  began  his  lectures 
in  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  See  Hamilton.  Al- 
though Hamilton  took  opposite  ground  to  Whateh'  in 
reference  to  the  essential  character  of  logic,  yet  both 
were  admirers  and  exponents  of  the  A  nalytic  ef  Aristotle. 
Thus  the  reawakened  taste  tor  logical  studies  during 
the  current  century  arose  from  a  restoration,  by  different 
methods,  of  the  old  logic  which  had  come  down  from  the 
early  ages,  and  survived  all  the  opposition  and  ridicule 
of  the  modern  centuries.  It  is  worthy  of  especial  note 
that  none  of  the  systems  put  forth  by  Ramus,  Descar- 
tes, Locke,  or  Condillac,  and  their  several  modifiers,  has 
been  able  to  stand  the  test  of  time  like  that  of  the  old 
philosophers  and  schoolmen.  This  fact  may  be  accept- 
ed as  proving  that  the  syllogism  indicates  substantially 
the  process  which  takes  place  in  all  minds  in  tlie  act  of 
reasoning.  Notwithstanding  this  small  demonstration, 
and  a  few  other  points  of  general  concurrence,  the  sci- 
ence of  logic,  which  has  been  the  subject  of  human 
study  for  more  than  two  thousand  years,  remains  still 
incomplete.  Many  of  its  principles  and  processes  are 
yet  in  continued  and  active  dispute.  Since  Whately 
and  Hamilton,  Mr.  John  Stuart  Mill  has  written  an 
elaborate  work  in  which  he  depreciates  the  syllogism 
and  magnifies  induction.  But  his  theories  in  reference 
to  both  bear  the  stamp  of  Comte's  empirical  positivism. 

The  chief  logical  discussion  of  the  present  day  re- 
volves around  tlie  "  New  Analytic  of  Logical  Forms,"  or 
the  quantification  of  the  predicate  introduced  by  Sir 
William  Hamilton.  This  new  analytic,  which  is  chiefly 
valuable  for  its  enlargement  of  the  hitherto  narrow 
sphere  of  formal  logical  praxis,  is  an  emanation  from 
the  metaphysics  of  Kant,  being  grounded  upon  certain 
principles  of  the  Kritik  of  Pure  Reason.  Its  theor\-, 
although  illustrated  by  an  ingenious  system  of  notation, 
was  left  in  a  somewhat  crude  state  by  Hamilton,  hut  has 
been  ably  elaborated  by  jNIansel  and  Thomson,  of  Eng- 
land, and  Bowen  and  Mahan.  of  America.  While  these 
writers  seem  to  think  that  they  have  attained  the  end 
of  all  logical  perfection.  Dr.  M'Cosh,  of  Princeton,  charges 
their  whole  system  with  fundamental  error  in  presup- 
posing "that  there  areTorms  in  the  mind  which  it  im- 
poses on  objects  as  it  contemplates  them."  To  explode 
this  error  is  the  avowed  object  of  Jl'Cosh's  recent  trea- 
tise, in  which,  while  he  falls  back  for  confirmation  upon 
the  old  logic,  he  claims  to  unfold  laws  which  were  not 
noticed  by  the  old  logicians.  The  characteristic  of  his 
work  is  a  more  elaborate  treatment  of  the  notion  than 
has  taken  place  since  the  publication  of  the  Port-Royal 
Logic.  Thus  logic  seems  destined  to  pass  down  to  com- 
ing centuries  as  it  has  descended  from  the  past,  a  sub- 
ject of  endless  debate,  but  one  from  which  each  success- 
ive generation  derives  its  advantage  in  the  very  process 
of  debate. 

See  Hallam's  Lite  rut  U7-e  of  Europe ;  Blakey's  Tlisto?-- 
ical  Sketch  of  L.ogic ;  Kant's  Ki-itik;  Hegel's  U'isseri- 
scluift  der  Logik  ;   Whately 's  Elements  of  Logic ;   Sir 


LOGOS 


491 


LOGOS 


William  Hamilton's  Lectures  on  Logic;  Mansel's  Prole- 
(joim-na  Lotjica  ;  Thomson's  7>a2('s  of  Thought ;  Elements 
of  Logic,  by  H.  P.  Tappan,  by  W.  D.  AVilson,  by  C.  K. 
True,  by  H.  Coppeo,  by  J.  K.  Boyd,  by  H.  N.  Day,  by 
A.  Schuyler,  by  L.  H.  Atwater;  System  of  Logic,  by  John 
Stuart  Mill ;  Science  of  Logic,  by  Asa  Mahan  ;  Formal 
Logic,  by  James  M'Cosh,      (D.  P.  K.) 

Logos  (Adyoc,  a  tcord,  as  usually  rendered),  a  spe- 
cial term  in  Christology,  in  consequence  of  its  use  as 
such  by  the  apostle  John,  especially  in  the  opening  ver- 
ses of  his  Gospel.  We  base  the  former  part  of  our  arti- 
cle on  the  subject  upon  the  brief  but  lucid  exposition 
found  in  Bcngel's  Gnomon  (Amer.  edit,  by  Profs.  Lewis 
and  Vincent,  p.  53G  sq.). 

1.  Rendering. — The  general  meaning  of  Logos  in  ev- 
ery such  connection  is  the  Word,  said  s\'mbolically 
of  the  law-giving,  creative,  revealing  activity  of  God. 
This  is  naturally  suggested  here  by  the  obvious  refer- 
ence to  Gen.  i,  1,3. 

Many  have  seen  in  this  terra  but  a  bold  personifica- 
tion of  the  wisdom  or  reason  of  God,  as  in  Prov.  viii,  22. 
But  this  sense  oi  Logos  does  not  occur  in  the  New  Test., 
and  is  excluded  by  the  reference  to  the  history  of  crea- 
tion. Besides,  the  repeated  "with  God"  (verses  1,  2) 
compels  us  to  distinguish  the  Logos  from  God ;  the 
words  •'  became  flesh"  (ver.  14)  cannot  be  said  of  an  at- 
tribute of  God;  and  the  Baptist's  testimony,  verse  15,  in 
direct  connection  with  this  introduction  (compare  also 
such  sayings  of  Christ  as  in  ch.  viii,  58;  xvii,  5).  show 
clearly  that  John  attributes  personal  pre-existence  to  the 
Logos.  Similarly,  every  attempt  to  explain  away  this 
profound  sense  ofL^ogos  is  inadequate,  and  most  are  un- 
grammatical.     See  Wisdom. 

Thus  the  fundamental  thought  of  this  introduction  is, 
that  the  original,  all-creating,  all-quickening,  and  all-en- 
lighteiiiiig  Logos,  ox piersonal  dirine  icord,  became  man  in 
Jesus  Christ.     See  Incaunation. 

2.  Origin  and  History  of  the  Idea. — (1.)  John  uses 
the  terra  Logos  without  explanation,  assuming  that  his 
readers  know  it  to  bear  this  sense.  Accordingly,  we 
find  this  conception  of  it  not  new  with  him,  but  a  chief 
element  in  the  development  of  the  Old-Test.  the(.l:igy. 
In  the  iMosaic  account,  God's  revelation  of  himstlf  in 
the  creation  was,  in  its  nature,  spirit  (Gen.  i,  2),  in  con- 
trast with  matter,  and  in  its  form,  a  icoi-d  (Gen.  i,  4),  in 
contrast  with  everj'  involuntary  materialistic  or  panthe- 
istic conception  of  the  creative  act.  The  real  signifi- 
cance, under  this  representation,  of  the  invisible  God's 
revelation  of  hiraself  by  sj)eech  became  the  germ  of  the 
idea  of  the  Logos.  With  this  thought  all  Judaism  was 
pervaded ;  that  God  does  not  manifest  himself  immedi- 
ately, but  mediately;  not  in  his  hidden,  invisible  es- 
sence, but  through  an  appearance — an  attribute,  emana- 
tion, or  being  called  the  angel  of  the  Lord  (Exod.  xxiii, 
21,  etc.),  or  the  voi-d  of  the  Lord.  Indeed,  to  the  latter 
are  ascribed,  as  his  work,  all  divine  light  and  life  in  na- 
ture and  historj' ;  the  law,  the  promises,  the  prophecies, 
the  guidance  of  the  nation  (compare  Psa.  xxxiii,  6,  9 ; 
evii,  20;  cxlvii,  18;  cxlviii,  8;  Isa.  ii,  1,3;  Jer.  i,  4,  11, 
13,  etc.  Even  such  poetic  personifications  as  Psa.  cxlvii, 
15;  Isa.lv,  11,  contain  the  germ  of  the  doctrinal  person- 
ality of  the  Word).     See  Angel. 

(2.)  Another  important  element  of  Hebrew  thought 
was  the  visdom  of  God.  The  consideration  of  it  be- 
came prominent  only  after  the  natural  attributes  of  God 
— omnipotence,  etc. — had  long  been  acknowledged.  The 
chief  passages  are  Job  xxviii,  12  sq. ;  Prov.  viii  and  ix. 
Even  the  latter  is  a  poetic  personification :  but  this  is 
based  on  the  thought  that  SV'isdom  is  not  shut  up  at 
rest  in  (iod,  but  active  and  manifest  in  the  world.  It  is 
viewed  as  the  one  guide  to  salvation,  comprehending  all 
revelations  of  God,  and  as  an  attribute  embracing  and 
combining  all  his  other  attributes.  This  view  deeply 
influenced  the  development  of  the  Hebrew  idea  of  God. 
At  that  stage  of  religious  knowledge  and  life.  Wisdom, 
revealing  to  pious  faith  the  harmony  and  unity  of  pur- 
pose in  the  world,  appeared  to  be  his  most  attractive 


and  important  attribute — the  essence  of  his  being.  One 
higher  step  remained;  but  the  Jew  could  not  j'et  see 
that  God  is  love. 

(3.)  In  the  apocryphal  books  of  Sirach  (chap,  i  and 
xxiv)  and  Baruch  (iii,  and  iv,  1-4),  this  view  of  AVisdora 
is  developed  yet  more  clearly  and  fully.  The  book  of 
Wisdom  (written  at  least  B.C.  100)  praises  wisdom  as 
the  highest  good,  the  essence  of  right  knowledge  and 
virtue,  and  as  given  by  God  to  the  pious  who  pray  for  it 
(ch.  vii  and  viii)  ;  see  especially  vii,  22  sq.,  where  Wis- 
dom has  divine  dignity  and  honors,  as  a  holy  spirit  of 
light,  proceeding  from  God,  and  penetrating  all  things. 
But  this  book  seems  rather  to  have  viewed  it  as  anoth- 
er name  for  the  whole  divine  nature  than  as  a  person 
distinct  from  God.  And  nowhere  does  it  connect  this 
Wisdom  with  the  idea  of  Messiah.  It  shows,  however, 
the  influence  of  both  Greek  and  Oriental  philosophy  on 
Jewish  theology,  and  marks  a  transition  from  the  Old- 
Test,  view  to  that  of  Philo,  etc.    See  Wisdom,  book  of. 

(4.)  In  Egypt,  from  the  time  of  Ptolemy  I  (B.C.  300), 
there  were  Jews  in  great  numbers,  their  head-quarters 
being  at  Alexandria  (Philo  estimates  them  at  a  million 
in  his  time,  A.D.  50),  and  there  they  gradually  came  un- 
der the  influence  of  the  Egyptian  civilization  of  that 
age,  a  strange  mixture  of  Greek  and  Oriental  customs 
and  doctrines.  See  Alexandrian  Schools.  Aristob- 
ulus,  about  150  B.C.,  seems  to  have  endeavored  to  unite 
the  ancient  doctrines  of  Wisdom  and  the  Word  of  God 
with  a  form  of  Greek  philosophy.  This  effort,  the  lead- 
ing feature  of  the  Jewish-Alexandrian  school,  culmina- 
ted in  Philo,  a  contemporary  of  Christ,  who  strives  to 
make  Judaism,  combined  with  and  interpreted  by  the 
Platonic  philosophy,  do  the  work  of  the  idea  of  Messiah, 
affording  by  the  power  of  thought  a  complete  substitute 
for  it.  This  attempt  to  harmonize  heathen  and  Jewish 
elements,  while  it  led  in  him  to  a  sort  of  anticipation  of 
certain  parts  of  Christian  doctrine,  explains  how  he  him- 
self vacillates  between  opposite  and  irreconcilable  views. 
See  Platoxism. 

(5.)  Philo  represents  the  absolute  God  as  hidden  and 
unknown,  but  surrounded  by  his poice?-s  as  a  king  by  his 
servants,  and,  through  these,  as  present  and  ruling  in 
the  world.  (These  powers,  c^i'J'hjkhc,  are,  in  Platonic 
language,  ideas ;  in  Jewish,  angils.}  Tliese  are  different 
and  innumerable  ;  the  original  principles  of  things;  the 
immaterial  world,  the  type  of  which  the  material  is  an 
image.  The  two  chief  of  these  in  dignity  arc  the  Qeog, 
God,  the  creative  power,  and  the  Kvpioc,  Lord,  or  gov- 
erning power  of  the  Sciiptures.  But  all  these  powers 
are  essentially  one,  as  God  is  one  ;  and  their  unity,  both 
as  they  exist  in  God  and  as  they  emanate  from  him,  is 
called  the  Logos.  Hence  the  Logos  appears  under  two 
relations  :  as  the  reason  of  God,  lying  in  him — the  di- 
vine thought ;  and  as  the  outspoken  word,  proceeding 
from  him,  and  manifest  in  the  world.  The  former  is,  in 
reality,  one  with  God's  hidden  being;  the  latter  com- 
prehends all  the  workings  and  revelations  of  God  in  the 
world,  affords  from  itself  the  ideas  and  energies  by  which 
the  world  was  framed  and  is  upheld,  and,  filling  all 
things  with  divine  light  and  life,  rules  them  in  wisdom, 
love,  and  righteousness.  It  is  the  beginning  of  crea- 
tion ;  not  unoriginated,  like  God,  nor  made,  like  the 
world,  but  the  eldest  son  of  the  eternal  Father  (the 
world  being  the  younger) ;  God's  image ;  the  creator 
of  the  world;  the  mediator  between  God  and  it;  the 
highest  angel ;  the  second  God ;  the  high-priest  and 
reconciler. 

(6.)  Liicke  concludes  that,  such  being  the  develop- 
ment of  the  doctrine  of  the  Logos  when  John  wrote,  al- 
though there  is  no  evidence  that  he  borrowed  his  views 
from  Philo,  yet  it  is  impossible  to  doubt  the  direct  his- 
torical connection  of  his  doctrine  with  the  Alexandrian. 
jMeyer  thinks  that  if  we  suppose  John's  doctrine  entire- 
ly unconnected  with  the  Jewish  and  Alexandrian  phi- 
losophy, we  destroy  its  historic  meaning,  and  its  intelli- 
gibleness  for  its  readers.  It  must  be  admitted  that  the 
term  Logos  seems  to  be  chosen  as  already  associated  iu 


LOGOS 


492 


LOHE 


many  minds  with  a  class  of  ideas  in  some  degree  akin 
to  the  writer's,  and  as  furnishing  a  common  point  of 
tliouglit  and  interest  with  tliose  speculative  idealists 
ulm  constantly  used  it  while  presenting  them  with  new 
trutli. 

(7.)  But  any  connection  amounting  to  doctrinal  de- 
peiuknce  of  John  upon  Philo  is  utterly  contrary  to  the 
tenor  of  Philo's  own  teaching;  for  he  even  loses  the 
crowning  feature  of  Hebrew  religion,  the  moral  energy 
expressed  in  its  view  of  Jehovah's  holiness,  and  with  it 
the  moral  necessity  of  a  divine  teacher  and  Saviour. 
He  becomes  entangled  in  the  physical  notions  of  the 
heathen,  forgets  the  wide  distinction  between  God  and 
the  world,  and  even  denies  the  independent,  absolute 
being  of  God,  declaring  that,  were  the  universe  to  end, 
God  would  die  of  loneliness  and  inactivity.  The  very 
universality  of  the  conception,  its  immediate  working 
on  all  things,  would  have  excluded  to  Philo  the  belief 
that  the  whole  Lo(jos,  not  a  mere  part  or  effluence  of 
his  power,  became  incarnate  in  Christ.  "Heaven  and 
earth  cannot  contain  me,"  cries  his  Logos,  "  how  muck 
less  a  hum  in  btiuf/.''  On  the  whole,  it  is  extremely 
doubtful  whether  I'hilo  ever  meant  formally  to  repre- 
sent the  Logos  as  a  person  distinct  from  God.  All  the 
titles  he  gives  it  may  be  explained  by  supposing  it  to 
mean  the  ideal  world,  on  which  the  actual  is  modelled. 
At  most,  we  can  say  that  he  goes  beyond  a  mere  poetic 
personification,  and  prepares  the  way  for  a  distinction 
of  persons  in  the  Godhead.     See  Philo. 

(8.)  John's  connection  with  the  doctrines  of  the  later 
Jews,  though  less  noticed,  is  at  least  as  important  as  that 
with  Philo.  In  the  apocryphal  books,  as  we  have  seen, 
the  idea  of  the  Logos  was  overshadowed  by  that  of  the 
divine  Wisdom;  but  it  reappears,  jirominently  and  def- 
initely, in  the  Targums,  especially  that  of  Onkelos. 
Tliese  were  written,  indeed,  after  John's  Gospel  (Onke- 
los, the  earliest,  wrote  not  later  than  the  '2d  century 
A.D.),  yet  their  distinguishing  doctrines  certainly  rest 
upon  ancient  tradition.  They  represent  the  Word  of 
God,  the  Memrah,  iTiTS^^  or  Dihur,  TlHI,  as  the  per- 
sonal self-revealed  God,  and  one  with  the  Shekinah, 
HD'^D":?,  which  was  to  be  manifested  in  Messiah.  But 
it  would  be  absurd  to  claim  that  John  borrowed  his  idea 
of  Jlessiah  from  the  Jews,  who  in  him  looked  for,  not  a 
spiritual  revelation  of  God  in  clearer  light,  to  save  men 
from  sin  by  suffering  and  love,  but  a  national  deliverer, 
to  gratify  their  worldly  and  carnal  desires  of  power; 
not  even  for  the  divine  Word  become  Jksh,  and  dwell- 
ing among  men,  but  for  an  appearance,  a  vision,  a  mere 
display,  or,  at  most,  an  unreal,  docetic  humanity. 

(9.)  The  contrast  between  John's  Logos  and  Philo's 
appears  in  several  further  particulars.  The  Logos  here 
is  the  real  personal  God,  the  Word;  who  did  not  begin 
to  be  when  Christ  came,  but  was  originally,  before  the 
creation,  "  with  God,  and  was  God."  He  made  idl  things 
(ver.  3).  Philo  held  to  the  original  independent  exist- 
ence of  matter,  the  stujf,  v\i],  of  the  world,  before  it  was 
framed.  John's  Logos  is  holy  light,  which  shines  in 
moral  darkness,  though  rejected  by  it.  Philo  has  no 
such  height  of  mournful  insight  as  this.  This  Logos 
became  man  in  the  person  of  Christ,  the  Son  of  God. 
Philo  conceives  of  no  incarnation.  Thus  John's  lofty 
doctrine  of  the  Messiah  is  not  in  any  way  derived  from 
Jewish  or  (inostic  speculations,  but  rests  partly  on  pure 
(Jhl-Testament  doctrine,  and  chieliy  on  what  he  learned 
from  Christ  liimself.  His  testimony  to  this  forms  the 
historical  part  of  his  Gospel. 

3.  Theological  Bearing  of  the  Term The  word  '•  Lo- 
gos" is  therefore  evidently  '•  employe<l  bj^  the  evangelist 
John  to  designate  the  mediatorial  character  of  our  Re- 
deemer, with  special  reference  to  his  revelation  of  the 
character  and  will  of  tlie  Fathij.  It  appears  to  be  used 
as  an  abstract  for  the  concrete,  just  as  we  find  the  same 
writer  employing  light  for  enlightener,  life  for  life-giver, 
etc.;  so  that  it  ])roperh'  signities  the  speaker  or  inter- 
pretcr,  than  which  nothing  can  more  exactly  accord 


with  the  statement  made  (John  i,  18),  'No  man  hath 
seen  God  at  any  time;  the  only-begotten,  who  is  in  the 
bosom  of  the  Father,  hath  declared  him,'  i.  e.  communi- 
cated to  us  the  true  knowledge  of  his  mind  and  charac- 
ter. That  the  term  is  merely  expressive  of  a  divine  at- 
tribute, a  position  which  has  been  long  and  variously 
maintained  by  Socinians,  though  abandoned  as  untena- 
ble by  some  of  their  best  authorities,  is  in  total  repug- 
nance to  all  the  circumstances  of  the  context,  which 
distinctly  and  expressly  require  personal  subsistence  in 
the  subject  which  it  describes.  He  whom  John  styles 
the  Logos  has  the  creation  of  all  things  ascribed  to  him ; 
is  set  forth  as  possessing  the  country  and  people  of  the 
Jews ;  as  the  only-begotten  (Son)  of  the  Father ;  as  as- 
suming the  human  nature,  and  displaying  in  it  the  at- 
tributes of  grace  and  truth,  etc.  Such  things  could 
never,  with  the  least  degree  of  propriety,  be  said  of  any 
mere  attribute  or  quality.  Nor  is  the  hypothesis  of  a 
personification  to  be  reconciled  with  the  universally  ad- 
mitted fact  that  the  style  of  John  is  the  most  simply 
historical,  and  the  furthest  removed  from  that  species 
of  composition  to  which  such  a  figure  of  speech  proper- 
ly belongs.  To  the  Logos  the  apostle  attributes  eter- 
nal existence,  distinct  personality,  and  strict  and  proper 
Deity — characters  which  he  also  ascribes  to  him  in  his 
first  epistle — besides  the  possession  and  exercise  of  per- 
fections which  absolutely  exclude  the  idea  of  derived 
or  created  being"  (Buck,  s.  v.).     See  Chhistology. 

4.  Literature. — 'I'he  following  are  the  princijial  mono- 
graphs on  this  subject:  Sandius,  De  Aoyi^  (in  his  In- 
terp.  Paradox,  Amsterd.  1G70)  ;  Saubert,  De  voce  Aoyog 
(Altdorf,  1687) ;  Carpzov,  De  A6yi[>  Philonis  (Helmstadt, 
1749);  Bryant,  P/;i7o's  Adyoc  (1797);  Upham,  Letters 
on  the  L^ogos  (Boston,  1828) ;  Bucher,  JoA(m««.  Lehre  vom 
Logos  (Schaffh.  18oG).  For  others,  see  Danz,  Worte?-- 
buch,  s.  V. ;  Darling,  Cyclojxedia,  col.  1059 ;  Lange's  Com- 
mentarg  (Am.  ed.,  Introd.  to  John's  Gospel).  Comp.  also 
the  Meth.  Qua?:  Revieio,  July  and  Oct.  1851 ;  Jan.  1858 ; 
Christian  Examiner,  Jan.  1863  ;  A  m.  Presh.  Review,  Jan. 
1840 ;  July,  1864 ;  Stud.  u.  Krit.  1830,  iii,  672  ;  1833,  ii, 
355 ;  1868,  ii,  299.     See  John,  Gospel  of. 

Logotheta  (XoyoSrirrjg,  q.  d.  chancellor)  is  the  ti- 
tle given  in  the  (ireek  Church  to  the  member  of  the 
ecclesiastical  courts  holding  the  imperial  seal  to  be  ap- 
pended to  their  edicts.     See  Greek  Church. 

Loguo  is,  m  the  mythology  of  the  Caribbeans,  the 
name  of  the  first  man,  who  descended  from  his  celestial 
abode  to  the  soft,  shapeless  mass  of  which  the  earth  was 
formed  by  his  creative  power.  He  first  imparted  to  it 
shape  and  motion;  the  sun  rendered  it  dry  and  hard. 
Loguo,  after  his  death,  reascended  to  heaven.  See  Voll- 
mer,  Mythol.  Worterb.  s.  v. 

Xiohdius,  Carl  Friedrich,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  Grlinberg,  near  Waldheim,  Dec.  13,  1748, 
and  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Leipsic,  where, 
in  1774,  he  obtained  the  degree  of  A.M.  and  the  privi- 
lege of  lecturing  on  theology.  He  became  soon  after 
morning  preacher  at  the  university.  In  1780  he  ac- 
cepted a  call  to  Grimma  as  dean,  and  in  1782  to  Dres- 
den. He  died  there  August  4.  1809.  Of  his  scholarly 
productions  we  only  mcHtion  Delineatur  imago  doctriniB 
de  conditione  animipost  mortem  eo,  quo  Chri^tus  et  Apos- 
toli  rixerunt,  scecido,  diss,  i  et  ii  (Lipsife,  1790, 4to).  See 
Dijring,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutschlands,  s.  v. 

Lohe,  JoHANN  KoNRAi)  AViLHELM.  a  German  Lu- 
theran minister,  was  born  at  Fiirth,  in  Bavaria,  Feb.  17, 
1808,  and  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Erlangen, 
which  he  entered  in  1826.  After  serving  at  various 
places  as  minister  of  Lutheran  churches,  he  settled  in 
1837  at  Neuendettclsau  as  pastor  of  a  flourishuig  Church. 
Zealously  devoted  to  the  cause  of  his  Master,  he  studied 
the  ways  and  means  of  promoting  the  Christian  religion 
among  the  masses  of  the  (Jerman  people,  and  in  1849 
founded  to  this  end  a  society  for  Inner  Missions  (q.  v.), 
and  in  1854,  following  the  example  of  the  immortal 
Fliethier  ((j.  v.),  of  Kaiserswerth,  established  a  Deacon- 


LOHESH 


493 


LOLLARDS 


esses'  Institute  [see  Deaconess],  which  in  our  clay  is 
known  in  nearly  all  the  civilized  world.  Liihe  labored 
here  laithlully  and  successful!}'  until  his  death,  Jan.  28, 
187"2.  He  wrote  Der  evancjdische  GeistUche  (2d  edition, 
Stuttg.  18GG,  2  vols.  8vo)  : — Lehenslavf  cUt  heilig.  Magd 
Gottes  aus  dem  PJ'arrstande  (3d  ed.  Nurerab.  1809, 8vo) : 
— Gnsfliclwr  Tiujedaiif  (3d  ed.  Nuremb.  1870,  8vo)  : — 
A  vs  drr  Gesckichte  d.  Dial:onissenanstnlt  Neuendettelsau 
(Nuremb.  1870,  8vo) ;  etc.  See  Schena,  Z^eu^sc/f-zlme?-- 
ikun.  Conv.  Lexikon,  vi,  589. 

Lohesh.     See  Hal-lohesh. 

Loin  (usually  in  the  dual,  D'l'^srt,  chalatsa'yim,  as 
the  seat  of  strength,  spoken  of  as  the  place  of  the  girdle. 
Job  xxxviii,  3  ;  xl,  7  ;  Isa.  v,  27  ["  reins,"  xi,  5]  ;  xxxii, 
11 ;  or  as  a  part  of  the  body  generally,  Job  xxxi,  20; 
Jer.  XXX,  G  [so  the  Chald.  plur.  "p^J"!!!,  Dan.  v,  6] ;  by 
euphemism  for  the  generative  power.  Gen.  xxxv,  11 ;  1 
Kings  viii,  19;  2Chron.  vi,  9;  alao 'U'^'^T}^,  moihna'yim, 
as  the  seat  of  strength,  Gr.  oa^vQ,  which  are  the  other 
terras  properly  so  rendered,  and  refer  to  that  part  of  the 
body  simply;  but  D"'5D3,  kesalim',  Psa.  xxxviii,  7, 
means  the  flanks,  as  elsewhere  rendered,  prop,  the  in- 
ternal muscles  of  the  loins,  near  the  kidneys,  to  which 
the  fat  adheres;  while  C^'^'?)  put  in  Gen.  xlvi,  26; 
Exod.  i,  5 ;  comp.  Judg.  viii,  30,  by  euphemism  for  the 
seat  of  generation,  properly  signifies  the  thir/Ii,  as  else- 
where rendered,  being  plainly  distinguished  from  the 
true  loin  in  Exod.  xxviii,  42),  the  part  of  the  back  and 
side  between  the  hip  and  the  ribs,  which,  as  being,  as  it 
were,  the  pivot  of  the  body,  is  most  sensibly  affected  by 
pain  or  terror  (Dent,  xxxiii,  11 ;  Job  xl,  16 ;  Psa.  xxxviii, 
7 ;  Ixix,  23 ;  Isa.  xxi,  8 ;  Jer.  xxx,  (5 ;  Ezek.  xxi,  6 ; 
xxix,  7;  Dan.  V,  6;  Nah.  ii,  1,  10).  This  part  of  the 
body  was  especially  girt  with  sackcloth,  in  token  of 
mourning  (Gen.  xxxvii,  34;  1  Kings  xx,  31,  32;  Psa. 
Ixvi,  11;  Isa.  xx,  2;  xxxii,  11;  Jer.  xlviii,  37;  Amos 
viii,  10).  The  term  is  most  frequently  used  with  allu- 
sion to  the  girdle  which  encompassed  this  part  of  the 
body,  i.  q.  the  traisf ;  especially  in  the  phrase  to  •'  gird 
up  the  loins,"  i.  e.  prepare  for  vigorous  effort,  either  lit- 
erally (1  Kings  xviii,  46;  2  Kings  iv,  29;  ix,  1;  Prov. 
xxxi,  17),  or  oftener  as  a  metaphor  borrowed  from  the 
loose  and  flowing  dress  of  Orientals,  which  requires  to 
be  gathered  closely  at  the  waist,  or  even  to  have  the 
skirts  tucked  up  into  the  belt  before  engaging  in  any 
exertion  or  enterprise  (Job  xxxviii,  3 ;  xl,  7 ;  Jer.  i,  1 7 ; 
Luke  xii,  35 ;  1  Pet.  i,  13).     See  Girdle. 

Lo'is  (Awic,  perh.  agi-eeable),  the  grandmother  of 
Timothy,  not  by  the  side  of  his  father,  who  was  a  Greek, 
but  by  that  of  his  mother.  Hence  the  Syriac  has  ''thy 
mother's  mother."  She  is  commended  by  the  apostle 
I'aul  for  her  faith  (2  Tim.  i,  5  ) ;  for,  although  she  might 
not  have  known  that  the  Christ  had  come,  and  that  .Je- 
sus of  Nazareth  was  he,  she  yet  believed  in  the  jMessiah 
to  come,  and  died  in  that  faith.  Ante  A.D.  64.  See 
Timothy. 

Loki  or  Loke,  in  Scandinavian  mytlujlogy,  is  the 
princi|)le  of  evil,  an  impious,  mischievous  wretch,  au- 
thor of  all  intrigue,  vice,  and  crime;  father  of  the  most 
abominable  monsters,  of  the  wolf  Fenris.  the  midgard 
snake,  and  Hela  (blue  Hel ),  the  goddess  of  death  ;  the 
"spirit  of  evil,"  as  it  were,  mingling  freely  with,  yet 
essentially  opposed  to  the  other  inhabitants  of  the  Norse 
heaven,  very  much  like  the  Satan  of  the  book  of  Job. 
He  is  called  the  son  of  the  giant  Farbante,  and  is  mar- 
ried to  the  giantess  Angerbode.  Sometimes  he  is  called 
A  S(t-Loki,  to  distinguish  him  from  Utgarda-Loki,  a  king 
of  the  giants,  whose  kingdom  lies  on  the  uttermost 
bounds  of  the  eiirth  ;  but  these  two  are  occasionally  con- 
founded. It  is  quite  natural,  considering  the  character 
of  Loki,  that  at  a  later  period  he  should  have  become 
identified  with  the  devil  of  Christianity,  who  is  called 
in  Norway  to  the  present  day  Laakr.  See  Yollmer,  J/y- 
tkol.  Wurterb.  s.  v.;  Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v.;  Weiuhold, 


Die  Sagen  v.  Loki  in  Hanpt,  Zeiischrift  fur  deutsches 
Alterth.  vol.  vii;  Thorpe,  North.  Mythol.  vol.  i  (see  In- 
dex) ;  and  the  excellent  article  in  Thomas,  Biogr.  and 
Mythol.  Diet.  (Phila.  1872),  s.  v. 

IiOkman  is  represented  in  the  Koran  and  by  later 
Arabian  tradition  as  a  celebrated  jjhilosopher,  contem- 
porary with  David  and  Solomon,  with  whom  he  is  said 
to  have  frequentl}'  conversed.  He  was,  we  are  told,  an 
Arabian  of  the  ancient  tribe  of  Ad,  or,  according  to  an- 
other account,  the  king  or  chief  of  that  tribe;  and,  when 
his  tribe  perished  by  the  Seil  el-Arim,  he  was  preserved 
on  account  of  his  wisdom  and  piety.  Other  accounts, 
drawn  mostly  from  Persian  authorities,  state  that  Lok- 
man  was  an  Abyssinian  slave,  and  noted  for  his  personal 
deformity  and  ugliness,  as  for  his  wit  and  a  peculiar  tal- 
ent for  composing  moral  fictions  and  short  apologues. 
He  was  considered  to  be  the  author  of  the  well-known 
collection  of  fables,  in  Arabic,  which  still  exist  under 
his  name.  There  is  some  reason  to  suppose  that  Lok- 
man  and  /Esop  were  the  same  individual,  and  this  view 
is  of  late  gaining  ground.  See  the  excellent  articles  in 
the  English  Cyclop,  s.  v. ;  Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v. ;  and 
Hammcr-Purgstall,  Litcraturgesch.  der  Araher,  i,  31  sq. 

Lollards  or  Lol(l)hards,  originally  the  name  of 
a  monastic  society  which  arose  at  Antwerj)  about  1300, 
and  the  me'mbers  of  wh.ich  devoted  themselves  to  the 
care  of  the  sick  and  dying  with  pestilential  disorders 
(see  Cellites),  was  afterwards  applied  to  those  who, 
during  the  closing  part  of  the  14th  and  a  large  part  of 
the  succeeding  century,  were  credited  with  adhering  to 
the  religious  views  maintained  by  "\^'ickliffe  (q.  v.). 

Origin  of  the  Name, — Great  diversity  of  opinion  ex- 
ists among  scholars  on  the  origin  of  the  name  Lollard. 
Some  have  supposed  that  there  existed  a  person  of  such 
a  name  in  Germany,  who,  differing  in  many  points  from 
the  Church  of  Rome,  made  converts  to  his  peculiar  doc- 
trines, and  thus  originated  an  independent  sect  about 
1315  (see  Gen.  Biog.  Diet.  art.  Lollard,  Walter),  and  for 
this  heretical  step  was  burned  alive  at  Cologne  in  1322. 
It  is  more  than  probable,  however,  that  this  leader  re- 
ceived his  name  from  the  sect  than  gave  a  name  to  it, 
just  as  in  the  Prognosticatio  of  Johannes  Lychtenberger 
(a  work  very  popular  in  Germany  towards  the  close  of 
the  15th  century^  great  weight  is  attached  to  the  pre- 
dictions of  one  Reynard  Lollard  (Reynhardus  Lolhardus), 
who  was,  no  doubt,  so  called  from  the  sect  to  which  he 
belonged.  Others  believe  that  it  was  applied  to  the 
Cellites  because  of  their  practice  of  singing  dirges  at 
funerals — the  Low-German  word  lollcn  or  lullen  signi- 
fying to  sing  softly  or  slo\vly.  Another  derivation  of 
the  word  is  that  which  makes  it  an  epithet  of  reproach. 
In  papal  bulls  anil  other  documents  it  is  used  as  synon- 
j-mous  virtually  with  lollia,  the  tares  commingled  with 
the  wheat  of  the  Church.  In  this  sense  we  meet  with 
it  (A.D.  1382)  even  before  Wickliffes  death.  Still  an- 
other suggestion  comes  from  a  correspondent  of  '•  Notes 
and  Queries"  (March  27, 1852),  who,  quoting  from  a  pas- 
sage of  Heda's  history,  cites  a  statement  to  the  effect 
that  bishop  Florentius  de  Wevelichoven  "caused  the 
bones  of  a  certain  Matthew  LoUaert  to  be  burned,  and 
his  ashes  to  be  dispersed,"  etc.  The  correspondent  re- 
marks that  from  a  note  on  this  passage,  where  reference 
is  made  to  Prateolus  and  AValsingham,  it  is  evident  that 
Heda  is  speaking  of  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  the  Lol- 
lards. The  name  Lollaert  would,  of  course,  indicate  that 
the  name  of  the  English  sect  was  derived  from  a  Dutch 
heretic,  buried  at  Utrecht,  and  well  known  in  the  neigh- 
boring region.  With  much  more  reason  the  origin  of 
the  word  Lollard  has  been  traced  of  late  to  the  Latin 
lollardus,  by  a  comparison  of  the  Liter  English  iMllard 
with  the  old  English  loUer,  used  by  Chaucer  and  Lange- 
land.  Says  Wliitaker  (in  his  edition  of  Piers  Ploiv- 
man,  p.  154  sq.)  :  "Any  reader  of  early  English  knows 
that  Lollard  is  the  late  English  spelling  of  the  Latin 
lollardus.  But  what  is  lollardus?  It  is  a  Latin  spell- 
ing of  the  old  English  lolle?;  used  by  Chaucer  and 


LOLLARDS 


494 


LOLLARDS 


Langelaml.  The  real  meaning  of  loller  is  one  who  lolls 
about,  a  vagabond;  and  it  was  equally  applied,  at  fir^f, 
to  the  \\'ickliffites  and  to  the  lier/f/iiir/ //-{a rs  ....  [Beg- 
hiiins  ((|.  V. )].  But,  before  long,  lulkr  was  purposelj 
confused  with  the  Latin  lolium,  by  a  kind  of  pun.  The 
derivation  of  loller  from  to  loll  rests  on  no  slight  au- 
thority. It  is  most  distinctly  discussed  and  explained, 
and  its  etymology  declared  by  no  less  a  person  than 
Langcland  himself,  who  lived  at  the  time  it  came  into 
use." 

English  LoUarcls. — Whatever  be  the  derivation  of 
the  word  Lollard,  certain  it  is  that  bj'  this  name  alone 
the  followers  of  John  Wickliffe  (q.  v.)  were  always  desig- 
nated, who,  in  the  early  stage  of  the  reformatory  move- 
ments of  the  bold  English  churchman  (about  A.D.  13G0), 
consisted  of  the  "  Poor  Priests"  (q.  v.),  a  class  called  to- 
gether by  Wickliffe  to  carry  the  glad  tidings  of  the 
(Jospel  into  the  remotest  hamlets,  and  to  counteract  the 
influence  of  the  begging  friars  (see  Beghards),  who 
were  then  strolling  over  the  country,  preaching  instead 
of  the  Word  the  legends  of  the  saints  and  the  history  of 
the  Trojan  War  (compare  D'Aubigne,  Hist,  of  the  Ref- 
ormation, V,  91  sq.).  For  some  time  the  mendicant  or- 
ders, which  had  tirst  entered  England  in  the  early  part 
of  the  preceding  century,  had  been  the  object  of  attack, 
both  by  the  people  and  the  clergy,  for  their  rapacious 
and  shameless  conduct.  Indeed,  so  much  wa's  the  coun- 
try disturbed  by  the  violence  and  vices  of  swarms  of 
these  sanctimonious  vagabonds  that  the  ancient  records 
often  speak  of  their  arrest.  Wickliffe's  opposition  to 
such  a  class  of  persons  could  not  but  have  secured  him 
the  general  respect  and  commendation  of  the  people. 
Not  so,  however,  when,  to  counteract  the  influence  of 
the  mendicants,  he  instituted  the  "  Poor  Priests,"  who, 
not  content  with  mere  polemics,  preached  the  great  mys- 
tery' of  godliness,  and  became  so  greatly  the  favorites  of 
the  people  that  the  clergy  were  threatened  to  be  left 
without  any  attendants  at  their  churches,  preference  be- 
ing shown  to  the  poor  priests,  preaching  in  the  fields, 
in  some  church-yard,  or  in  the  market-places.  It  wr.s 
not,  however,  until  alter  Wickliffe's  appointment  to  the 
University  of  Oxford  that  any  of  the  doctrines  whi,  h 
the  Lollards  as  a  sect  afterwards  maintained,  and  which 
caused  his  prosecution  by  the  papists,  were  advocated 
and  propagated.  It  is  true,  even  as  early  as  1357,  Wick- 
lirte  had  published  a  work  against  the  covetousness  of 
Rome  (The  last  Age  of  the  Church),  and  in  13G5  had 
vindicated  Edward  Ill's  resistance  to  the  claim  of  LTr- 
ban  Y  of  the  arrears  of  the  tribute  granted  to  the  pa- 
(lacy  l)y  king  John  (see  Urban  V;  Esgi^and);  but  it 
was  not  until  (in  1372)  he  had  taken  the  degree  of  D.D., 
and  entered  upon  his  work  at  Oxford  University  by  able 
and  em])hatic  testimony  against  the  abuses  of  the  pa- 
pacy, that  he  drew  upon  himself  the  enmity  of  the  Eng- 
lish prelates,  and,  in  consequence,  came  to  stand  forth 
the  advocate  of  reform  and  the  leader  of  a  movement 
for  tliis  purpose.  Nor  did  the  success  of  his  course 
slacken  in  the  least  after  his  withdrawal  from  the  uni- 
versity and  his  retirement  to  the  small  parish  of  Lut- 
terworth. Ever3'where  those  persons  who  had  come 
under  his  intluence  or  been  converted  by  his  writings 
were  busily  engaged  in  disseminating  the  doctrines 
which  he  taught.  His  followers  were  to  be  found 
among  all  classes  of  the  ))iipulation.  Some,  like  the 
(hike  of  Lancaster,  lord  Percy,  and  Clifford,  may  have 
l)een  attached  to  Wickliffe's  views  mainly  by  their  po- 
litical sympathies,  but  the  great  mass  of  his  adherents 
were  such  upon  religious  grounds.  The  examinations 
of  those  wlio,  during  the  generation  that  followed  his 
death  (13H4),  were  arrested  or  punished  as  heretics,  indi- 
cate tlie  common  doctrinal  |)ositiou  which  they  almost 
uniformly  maintained.  It  was  sulistantially  identical 
witli  that  taken  by  Wickliffe  in  his  writings.  The  su- 
preme authority  of  the  Scripfures  in  religious  matters, 
the  rejection  of  transubstantiation,  the  futile  nature  of 
pilgrimages,  auricular  confession,  etc.,  the  impiety  of 
image-worship,  the  identilication  of  the  papal  hierarchy 


with  Antichrist,  the  entire  sufficiency  of  Christ  as  a 
Saviour,  without  the  need  of  priestly  offices  in  the  mass, 
or  any  elaborate  ceremonial — such  were  the  points  upon 
Avhich  they  were  pronoiuiced  heretical,  and,  aa  such,  per- 
secuted and  condemned. 

Up  to  1382,  through  the  events  of  the  time,  the  great 
schism  of  the  papacy,  the  indignation  excited  in  Eng- 
land by  papal  encroachments,  the  scandalous  conduct  of 
many  among  the  prelates  and  clergy,  Wickliffe,  as  well 
as  his  follo^vers,  had  been  left  comparatively  unmolest- 
ed, and  he  himself  even  escaped  altogether.  Not  so, 
however,  his  followers,  who  were,  near  the  time  of  his 
death,  rapidly  augmenting  all  over  England.  The  tes- 
timony of  Knighton  and  Walsingham  indicates  the  rapid 
spread  of  Wickliffe's  opinions,  though  there  may  be  some 
exaggeration  in  the  remark  of  the  former  to  the  effect 
that  "  nearly  every  other  man  in  England  was  a  Lol- 
lard." In  1382,  however,  more  decided  action  was  taken 
on  the  part  of  the  ecclesiastics,  and  resulted  in  the  con- 
vening of  a  council  by  archbishop  Courtney.  By  it  ten 
of  Wickliffe's  articles  were  condemned  as  heretical,  and 
twenty-four  as  erroneous.  The  archbishop  issued  his 
mandate,  forbidding  any  man,  "  of  what  estate  or  condi- 
tion soever,"  to  hold,  teach,  preach,  or  defend  the  aforesaid 
heresies  and  errors,  or  any  of  them,  or  even  allow  them 
to  be  preached  or  favored,  publicly  or  privately.  Each 
bishop  and  priest  was  exhorted  to  become  an  "  inquisi- 
tor of  heretical  pravity,"  and  the  neglect  of  the  man- 
date was  threatened  with  the  severest  censures  of  ex- 
communication. This  measure  took  effect  at  Oxford, 
where  the  chancellor,  Robert  Rygge,  was  inclined  to  fa- 
vor Wickliffe's  opinions,  and  the  proctors,  John  Hunt- 
man  and  Walter  Dish,  were  in  sympathy  with  him.  A 
sermon  by  Pliiliii  Reppyngdon,  which  they  had  allowed, 
and  in  which  ^\■icklif^e's  views  were  defended,  subjected 
them  to  suspicion.  They  were  summoned  before  the 
archbishop,  and  with  some  difficulty  escaped  on  sub- 
mission. The  chancellor  was  required  to  put  Wickliffe's 
adherents  to  a  purgation  or  cause  them  to  abjure,  pub- 
lishing before  the  university  the  condemnation  of  his 
conclusions.  His  reply  was  that  he  durst  not  do  it  for 
fear  of  death.  '•  What !"  exclaimed  the  archbishop,  "  is 
Oxford  such  a  nestlcr  and  favorer  of  heresies  that  the 
catholic  truth  cannot  be  published  ?"  At  the  same  time, 
by  the  archbishop's  authority,  Nicholas  Hereford.  Phil- 
ip Reppyngdon,  John  Ashton,  and  Lawrence  Betlemen, 
whose  names  were  associated  with  Wicklift'e's,  ^\■ere  de- 
nied the  privilege  of  preaching  before  the  university, 
and  suspended  from  every  scholastic  act.  The  chancel- 
lor himself  was  addressed  as  "  somewhat  inclined  and 
still  inclining  to  the  aforesaid  conclusions  so  condemn- 
ed," and,  under  pain  of  the  greater  excommunication,  he 
was  enjoined  to  permit  no  one  in  the  universitj-  to  teach 
or  defend  the  obnoxious  doctrines.  The  injunction  of 
the  archbishop  was  enforced  by  the  command  of  the 
royal  council. 

In  the  early  months  of  1382  the  king  had  favored 
the  persecution  of  heretics.  On  the  petition  of  the 
archbishop,  he  had  allowed  him  and  his  suffragans  "  to 
arrest  and  imprison,  either  in  their  own  prisons,  or  any 
other  if  they  please,  all  and  every  such  person  and  per- 
sons as  shall  either  privily  or  openly  preach  or  main- 
tain" the  condemned  conclusions.  The  persons  thus  ar- 
rested mii;ht,  moreover,  be  detained  "till  such  time  as 
they  shall  repent  them  and  amend  them  of  sucii  errone- 
ous and  heretical  pravities."  The  officers  and  subjects 
of  the  king  were  also  required  to  obey  and  humbly  at- 
tend the  archbishop  and  his  suffragans  in  the  execution 
of  their  process.  But  the  king  declined  to  interfere. 
Even  this,  however.did  not  satisfy  the  archbishop.  The 
excommunicated  Hereford  had  escaped  from  prison,  and 
the  prelate,  disappointetl  of  his  victim,  asked  the  king 
to  issue  letters  for  his  apprehension.  On  Ashton's  trial 
in  London,  the  citizens  Itroke  open  the  doors  of  the  con- 
clave, forcing  the  archbisliop  to  complete  his  process 
elsewhere.  But  popular  sympathy  was  weak  to  resist 
the  organized  efforts  of  a  powerful  hierarchy,  largely  oc- 


LOLLARDS 


495 


LOLLARDS 


cupying  the  most  responsible  posts  of  Gjovernraent,  and 
bold  enough  (Hannay's  Rep.  Gov.)  to  forge  or  interpo- 
late parliamentary  records,  of  which  they  had  the  con- 
trol. Some  of  the  accused,  like  Keppyngdon  and  Here- 
ford, recanted,  and  became  the  most  virulent  persecu- 
tors of  their  former  sympathizers.  Others,  according 
to  Walden,  who  mentions  William  Swinderby,  Walter 
Brute,  William  Thorpe,  and  others,  whose  names  figure 
in  Fox's  '•  Martyrs,"  tied  the  realm.  If  Swinderby  was 
one  of  the  refugees,  he  soon  returned.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  he  or  his  associates  went  farther  than  to  AVales 
or  Scotland.  In  1389  he  was  arraigned  before  the  bish- 
op of  Lincoln,  and  charged  with  heresy.  Forced  to  re- 
cant, he  withdrew  to  the  diocese  of  Hereford.  Here  he 
was  again  arrested  as  a  "  truly  execrable  oftender  of  the 
new  sect  vulgarly  called  Lollards."  The  issue,  so  far 
as  episcopal  authority  was  concerned,  could  not  remain 
doubtful.  Swinderby  was  found  guilty,  pronounced  a 
heretic,  and  to  be  shunned  by  all.  From  this  sentence 
he  appealed  to  the  king  and  council. 

W'e  have  no  subsequent  record  of  Swinderby.  Foxe 
supposes  him  to  have  been  burned  in  lo'J9.  In  1393, 
Walter  Brute,  another  Lollard,  a  layman,  was  arrested, 
and,  after  a  tedious  trial,  was  forced  to  recant.  In  1395 
the  alarm  of  heresy  was  again  sounded.  There  was  an 
apprehension  that  Parliament  would  take  some  action 
in  behalf  of  the  persecuted  Lollards.  A  bidl  of  Boni- 
face IX  was  issued,  inciting  the  bishop  of  Hereford 
against  the  obnoxious  sect,  and  urging  him  to  stimu- 
late the  orthodox  zeal  of  the  king.  The  king  was  at 
the  time  absent  in  Ireland,  but  Tindale  states  that  intel- 
ligence of  what  had  transpired  was  sent  him,  and  his 
immediate  return,  with  a  view  to  repress  the  boldness 
of  the  Lollards,  was  strenuously  urged.  Nor  was  the 
king  backward  in  responding  to  the  petitions  of  the 
archbishop  and  the  exhortations  of  the  pope.  Reciting 
his  former  commission  to  the  bishops  and  their  suffra- 
gans, giving  them  authority  to  arrest  and  imprison,  he 
extended  this  authority,  by  which  the  bishop  of  Hereford 
was  allowed  to  arrest  William  Swinderby  and  Stephen 
Bell,  who  had  tied  to  the  borders  of  Wales ;  while  sev- 
eral of  the  leading  members  of  Parliament  were  direct- 
ed to  have  it  proclaimed,  wherever  they  thought  meet, 
that  no  man  of  any  condition  within  the  said  diocese 
should,  imder  pain  of  forfeiture  of  all  he  had,  "  make 
or  levy  any  conventicles,  assemblies,  or  confederacies  by 
any  color,"  and  that,  if  any  one  shoiUd  transgress  this 
rule,  he  should  be  seized,  imprisoned,  and  safely  kept 
till  surrendered  to  the  order  of  the  king  and  council. 

During  this  time,  while  special  attention  was  drawn 
to  the  danger  apprehended  from  Parliament,  the  Lol- 
lards were  spreading  their  doctrines  in  other  parts  of 
the  kingdom.  At  Leicester  and  its  neighborhood  they 
had  made  such  progress  that  several  of  their  leaders, 
eight  of  whom  are  mentioned  by  Foxe  by  name,  were 
denounced  to  the  archbishop  on  his  visitation  as  here- 
tics. They  were  summoned  the  next  day  to  appear 
before  him  and  answer  to  the  charge.  But  they  ''  hid 
themselves  away  and  appeared  not."  They  were  there- 
fore publicly  denouiwed  as  excommunicate  in  several  of 
the  parish  churches.  Nor  was  this  all.  The  whole 
town  of  Leicester,  and  all  the  churches  in  the  same, 
were  interdicted  so  long  as  any  of  the  excommunicated 
shoidd  remain  within  the  same,  and  "till  all  the  Lol- 
lards of  the  town  should  return  and  amend  from  such 
heresies  and  errors,  obtaining  at  the  said  archbishop's 
hands  the  benefit  of  absolution." 

The  compact  between  the  leading  representatives  of 
the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  power  which  marked  the  ac- 
cession of  Henry  IV  to  the  throne  was  soon  sealed  by 
parliamentary  legislation.  To  prevent  the  spread  of 
the  L<illards,  and  to  suppress  their  meetings,  which  were 
described  as  confederacies  to  stir  up  sedition  and  insur- 
rection (Crabb's  History  of  Kmjlhh  Lau;  p.  33-1),  it  was 
ordained  that  if  persons,  sententially  convict,  refused  to 
abjure  their  opinions,  such  persons  were  to  be  left  to  the 
secular  arm.     In  such  cases  evidence  was  to  be  given 


to  the  diocesan  or  his  commissarj',  and  the  eher'ff,  may- 
or, and  bailiff"  were,  after  sentence  promulgated,  to  re- 
ceive them,  and  in  a  high  yilace,  before  the  people,  to 
cause  them  to  be  burnt.  The  law  did  not  remain  a 
dead  letter.  It  was  not  long  before  a  victim  was  found. 
The  ecclesiastics  were  only  too  zealous  for  an  example 
that  might  strike  terror  among  the  people,  and  espe- 
cially the  Londoners,  who  were  "  not  right  believers  in 
God,  nor  in  the  traditions  of  their  forefathers;  sustain- 
ers  of  the  Lollards,  depravers  of  religious  men,  with- 
holders  of  tythes,"  etc.  The  victim  selected  was  "  one 
William  Sautre,  a  good  man  and  a  faithful  priest,  in- 
flamed with  zeal  for  true  religion,"  who  in  the  Parlia- 
ment of  1401  required  that  he  might  be  heard  for  the 
commodity  of  the  whole  realm.  The  suspicions  of  the 
bishops  were  excited,  and  he  was  summoned  before  the 
ecclesiastical  court.  His  views  were  in  substance  those 
of  the  Lollards.  He  was  at  first  induced  to  recant,  but 
after  his  previous  trial  before  the  bishop  of  Norwich  was 
known,  as  well  as  his  submission  and  subsequent  re- 
lapse, there  was  no  disposition  to  show  him  mercy.  By 
the  king's  order,  "  in  some  public  and  open  place  within 
the  liberties  of  the  city"  of  London,  he  was  "  committed 
to  the  fire."  So  bold  a  measure,  not  frequent  in  Eng- 
lish history,  naturally  terrified  the  Lollards.  They  kept 
themselves  secret  from  the  eyes  of  the  bishops.  To  the 
king  they  could  no  longer  look  with  confidence  or  the 
hope  of  relief.  The  son  of  AYickliffe's  patron  had  be- 
come the  tool  of  the  bishops.  His  usurped  power  was 
sustained  by  their  alliance.  As  the  hopes  of  relief  from 
the  burdens  of  taxation  which  had  been  inspired  by  the 
promises  made  at  his  accession  began  to  die  out,  his  pop- 
ularity waned.  Complaints  were  heard  from  various 
quarters.  The  old  partisans  of  Eichard  II  began  to 
murmur,  and,  to  retain  his  throne  in  security,  Henry 
IV  was  compelled  to  throw  himself  more  and  more  into 
the  arms  of  the  Church,  and  concede  everything  which 
the  prelates  might  demand.  The  "  cruel  constitution" 
of  archbishop  Arundel  was  the  fitting  ecclesiastical  coun- 
terpart of  the  civil  statute  that  legalized  the  burning 
of  the  Lollards.  It  forbade  any  one  to  preach,  "  whether 
within  the  Church  or  without,  in  English,"  except  by 
episcopal  sanction.  Schoolmasters  and  teachers  were 
to  intermingle  with  their  instructions  nothing  contrary 
to  the  determination  of  the  Church.  No  book  or  trea- 
tise of  Wickliffe  was  to  be  read  in  schools,  halls,  hospi- 
tals, or  other  places  whatsoever.  No  man  hereafter,  by 
his  own  authority,  shoidd  translate  any  text  of  the 
Scripture  into  English  or  an}'  other  tongue,  by  way  of  a 
book,  tract,  or  treatise.  No  one  should  presume  to  dis- 
pute upon  articles  determined  bj'  the  Church  contained 
in  the  decrees,  decretals,  etc.  Every  warden,  provost, 
or  master  of  every  college,  or  principal  of  every  hall 
within  the  Universit}'  of  Oxford,  was,  at  least  once  ev- 
ery month,  to  inquire  diligently  in  the, college  with 
which  he  was  connected  whether  any  scholar  or  inhab- 
itant thereof  had  proposed  or  defended  anything  con- 
trarj'  to  the  determinations  of  the  Church,  and  the  fail- 
ure of  duty  in  this  respect  was  to  be  visited  by  depriva- 
tion, expulsion,  and  the  greater  excommunication. 

But  all  the  precautions  of  the  bishops  and  the  se- 
verity of  persecuting  laws  were  ineff'ectual  to  suppress 
the  hated  opinions.  Fox  narrates  the  examination  of 
William  Thorpe  (1407)  and  the  burning  of  John  Badby 
(1409).  The  latter  event  seems  to  have  created  sym- 
pathy for  the  Lollards  on  the  part  of  the  Commons.  In 
the  eleventh  year  of  Henry  IV  (1410)  they  prayed  that 
persons  arrested  under  the  obnoxious  statute  might  be 
bailed  and  make  their  purgation,  and  that  they  might 
be  arrested  by  none  but  sheriffs  and  lay  officers.  This 
petition,  however,  did  not  secure  the  ro_yal  approval. 
The  influence  and  support  of  the  Church  wouhl  doubt- 
less have  been  lost  to  the  king  if  he  had  j-ielded  to  the 
wishes  of  the  Commons.  Other  measures  which  they 
proposed,  designed  to  set  limits  to  ecclesiastical  usurpa- 
tion, while  they  gave  unequivocal  evidence  of  the  un- 
changed spirit  of  the  nation,  met  with  Uttle  more  succesa 


LOLLARDS 


496 


LOLLARDS 


In  1413  Henry  IV  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Henry 
Y.  The  change,  however,  did  not  open  any  brighter 
prospect  to  the  persecuted  Lollards.  The  beginning 
of  tliis  reign  was  signalized  by  a  new  triumph  of  the 
Church.  The  king  surrendered  his  friend,  Sir  John  Old- 
castle,  lord  Cobham,  to  the  machinations  of  his  perse- 
cutors. He  was  arrested,  imprisoned,  arraigned  before 
the  archbishop  and  his  assessors,  pronounced  a  heretic, 
and  excommunicated.  His  offence  was  regarded  as  of 
the  most  aggravated  character.  He  was  not  only  him- 
self hcretically  inclined,  but  he  had  employed  his  wealth 
and  influence  to  support  Lollard  preachers,  and  tran- 
scribe and  disperse  heretical  books.  So  powerful  and 
bold  was  the  organized  conspiracy  of  the  priesthood 
against  him  that  the  king  did  not  venture  to  interfere 
in  his  behalf.  He  was  abandoned  to  his  fate,  but  by 
some  means  escaped  from  prison,  and  only  some  years 
later  was  arrested,  and  subjected  to  the  tardy  but  sure 
vengeance  of  his  persecutors.  It  was  not  only  by  his 
surrender  of  lord  Cobham  that  the  new  monarch  signal- 
ized his  subservience  to  the  interests  of  the  hierarchy. 
In  his  first  Parliament  a  law  was  enacted  against  the 
Lollards,  who  were  considered  as  the  principal  disturb- 
ers of  the  peace  not  only  of  the  Church,  but  of  the  whole 
kingdom,  uniting,  as  the  preamble  of  the  act  states,  in 
confederacies  to  destroy  the  king  and  aU  other  estates 
of  the  realm.  Hence  aU  magistrates,  from  the  chancel- 
lor to  the  sheriffs  of  cities  and  towns,  were  required,  on 
entering  office,  to  take  an  oath  that  they  would  use 
their  whole  power  and  diligence  to  destroy  all  heresies 
and  errors,  commonly  called  loUardies,  and  assist  the 
ordinaries  and  their  commissaries  as  often  as  required 
by  them.  It  was  moreover  enacted  "  that  whatsoever 
they  were  that  should  read  the  Scriptures  in  the  mother 
tongue  (which  was  then  called  Wickliffe's  learning) 
should  forfeit  land,  cattle,  body,  life,  and  goods  from 
their  heirs  forever,  and  so  be  condemned  for  heretics  to 
God,  enemies  to  the  crown,  and  most  arrant  traitors  to 
the  land."  No  sanctuary  or  privileged  ground  within 
the  realm,  though  permitted  to  thieves  and  murderers, 
should  shelter  them.  In  case  of  relapse  after  pardon 
they  should  be  hanged  as  traitors  against  the  king,  and 
then  burned  as  heretics  against  God. 

The  terror  inspired  bj'  such  executions  and  enact- 
ments drove  man}''  into  exile.  They  fled,  says  Fox, 
'■  into  Germany,  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  into  the 
wilds  of  Scotland,  Wales,  and  Ireland,  working  there 
many  marvels  against  their  fiilse  kingdom  too  long  to 
write."  It  was,  of  course,  the  most  distinguished  mem- 
bers of  the  sect  who  had  most  to  apprehend,  and  who 
were  the  first  to  flee.  Those  who  remained  behind  be- 
longed very  largely  to  the  middle  or  the  lower  class. 
From  time  to  time  we  meet  with  the  name  of  some 
more  eminent  offender,  and,  from  the  precautions  taken 
by  their  persecutors,  we  may  form  some  idea  of  the  con- 
tinued energy  as  well  as  existence  of  the  Lollards.  Lech- 
ler,  in  the  Zeitschriftfur  Hist.  Thtol.  (1853,  vol,  iv),  has 
traced  the  evidences  of  their  presence  and  influence  in 
England  down  to  the  date  of  the  Lutheran  Keformation, 
The  precious  legac}^  of  the  Lollard  faith  was  transmit- 
ted, along  with  MS.  translations  of  the  Scriptures  and 
Lollard  books,  from  generation  to  generation ;  and  among 
the  English  martyrs,  just  before  as  well  as  after  the 
commencement  of  the  Iveformation,  there  were  several 
who  might  most  appropriately  be  denominated  Lollards. 
The  prevalence  of  their  views  as  late  as  the  middle  of 
the  15th  century  is  attested  by  the  elaborate  effort 
which  Ileginald  Peacock,  successively  bishop  of  St. 
Asaph  and  of  Chichester,  made  to  refute  them.  His 
earlier  years  had  been  spent  in  London,  in  the  work  of 
instruction,  and  here  he  had  become  familiar  with  the 
work  of  the  LoUards,  and  the  arguments  by  which  they 
were  maintained.  With  great  ingenuity,  and"  with  a 
commendable  patience,  he  umlertook  their  refutation, 
giving  to  this  method  the  decided  preference  over  chains, 
prison,  and  the  stake.  Convicted  at  length  himself  of 
holding  heretical  opinions,  and  removed  from  the  epis- 


copal office,  he  spent  the  last  three  years  of  his  life  in 
prison,  and  by  some,  although  unwarrantat)ly,  was  re- 
garded as  a  Lollard.  On  some  points  his  views,  indeed, 
approximated  to  those  of  the  hated  sect,  but  his  writ- 
ings derive  their  historical  value  from  the  exhibition 
which  they  make  of  the  doctrines  maintained  by  the 
Lollards,  or  "  I3ible-men,"  as  he  sometimes  calls  them, 
and  the  evidence  which  they  afford  of  their  extensive 
acceptance.  Here  we  see  that  for  nearly  two  full  gen- 
erations the  same  doctrinal  views  which  had  been  ac- 
cepted by  the  immediate  followers  of  Wickliffe  were  still 
retained  by  their  successors,  and  during  the  two  gener- 
ations which  followed  they  underwent  no  material 
change.  Thus,  when  the  English  Reformation  of  the 
IGth  century  commenced,  it  derived  a  new  impulse  from 
the  earlier  Lollard  movement  which  it  was  destined  to 
absorb  into  itself.  Nor  is  it  a  mere  fancy  which  has  led 
writers  like  Lechler  to  assert  an  important  and  vital 
connection  between  the  LoUardism  of  the  15th  and  the 
Puritanism  of  the  IGth  century.      (E.  H.  G.) 

Scottish  Lollards. — LoUardism  was  by  no  means  con- 
fined to  the  southern  portion  of  the  British  Islands.  It 
penetrated  also  into  Scotland,  and  in  the  real  home  of 
the  Culdees  (q.  v.) — the  land  where  a  simple  and  prim- 
itive form  of  Christianity  had  been  established,  while 
among  her  southern  neighbors  Eome  presented  a  vast 
accumulation  of  superstitions,  and  was  arrayed -in  her 
well-known  pomp — received  the  countenance  of  those 
whose  position  and  influence  were  well  calculated  to  aid 
in  its  dissemination  among  a  people  that  had  freely  im- 
bibed the  spirit  of  religious  reformation  so  prevalent 
among  the  English  in  the  1-lth  century-,  especially  in 
the  reign  of  Richard  II,  at  the  time  of  the  passage  of 
the  statute  of  prmmunire  (A.D.  1389).  More  particu- 
larly rapid  was  the  spread  of  the  reformatory  spirit  iu 
Scotland  in  the  western  districts,  those  of  Kyle,  Carrick, 
and  Cunningham,  and  hence  the  surname  for  the  Scotch 
LoUards,  Lollards  ofKijle,  as  they  were  oftentimes  call- 
ed. The  clergy,  aware  of  the  danger  that  threatened 
their  state  of  profligacy  and  ease,  at  last,  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  15th  century,  made  open  war  upon  these  si- 
lent antagonists.  The  first  to  suffer  from  the  persecu- 
tion which  they  inaugurated  was  a  certain  John  Resb}', 
an  English  priest  who  had  fled  northward  from  perse- 
cution, and  in  the  land  of  refuge  also  was  fast  making 
converts  to  his  cause.  The  leading  authority  and  influ- 
ence in  the  land  was  at  this  time  the  see  of  St.  Andrews 
(compare  Dean  Stanley's  Lectures  on  the  Eccles.  History 
of  Scotland,  p.  45),  over  which  bishop  Henry  AVardlaw 
was  now  presiding.  By  his  interference  Eesby  was  tried 
before  Dr.  Laurence  de  Lindoris,  afterwards  professor  of 
common  law  at  St.  Andrews,  and  on  his  refusal  to  re- 
tract his  views  about  the  supremacy  of  the  pope,  au- 
ricular confession,  transubstantiation,  etc.,  was  burnt  at 
Perth  in  1405  or  1407,  According  to  Pinkerton.  such  a 
scene  was  unknown  before  in  Scotland,  The  burning 
of  Resby  is  given  in  the  twentieth  chapter  of  the  fif- 
teenth book  of  the  Scotichronicon.  StiU  these  opinions 
continued  to  extend,  especially  in  the  south  and  west 
of  Scotland,  The  regent,  Robert,  duke  of  Albany,  was 
known  to  be  opposed  to  the  Lollards;  and  though  king 
James  I  was  by  no  means  blind  to  prevailing  abuses  in 
the  Church,  an  act  of  Parliament  was  passed  during  his 
reign,  in  14-25,  by  which  bishops  were  required  to  make 
inquisition  in  their  dioceses  for  heretics,  in  order  that 
they  might  undergo  condign  punishment.  This  act 
was  soon  to  be  put  in  force.  In  1433  another  victim 
for  the  stake  was  secured  in  the  person  of  Paul  Craw  or 
Crawar,  a  physician  of  Prague,  who  had  sought  refuge 
from  persecution  in  Scotland,  As  he  made  no  secret  of 
his  Lollard  or  Hussite  opinions,  he  v.  as  arraigned  before 
Lindoris  and  condemned  to  the  flames.  After  this  time 
we  hear  but  little  ni  LoUardism  for  (piite  a  long  period. 

With  the  closing  years  of  the  century,  however,  to 
judge  from  the  energy  of  the  papists,  it  must  have  been 
apparent  again  in  a  more  prominent  manner,  and  from 
this  period  dates  one  of  the  severest  of  religious  perse  ■ 


LOMBARD  (US) 


497 


LOMENIE 


cutions.  In  1494,  Robert  Blacater,  the  first  archbishop 
of  Glasgow,  sought  to  display  his  zeal  for  the  Church 
by  a  wholesale  attack  on  the  pious  followers  of  Lollard- 
ism.  Accordingly,  thirty  suspected  persons,  both  male 
and  female,  were  summoned  before  the  king  (James  IV) 
and  the  great  council.  Among  them  were  Reid  of  Bar- 
skimming,  Campbell  of  Cessnock,  Campbell  of  Newmills, 
Shaw  of  I'olkemmet,  Helen  Chalmers,  lady  Polkillie,  and 
Isabel  Chalmers,  lady  Stairs.  According  to  Knox  (Ilis- 
iory  oftlic  Reformation,  p.  2),  their  indictment  contained 
thirty-four  different  articles,  which  he  informs  us  are 
preserved  in  the  Register  of  Glasgow.  Among  the  chief 
of  these  were,  that  images,  relics,  and  the  Virgin  are 
not  proper  objects  of  worship ;  that  the  bread  and  wine 
in  the  sacrament  are  not  transubstantiated  into  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ;  that  no  priest  or  pope  can 
grant  absolutions  or  indulgences;  that  masses  cannot 
protit  the  dead;  that  miracles  have  ceased;  and  that 
jiriests  may  lawfidly  marry.  Providentially  for  the 
Lollards  of  Kyle,  king  James  IV, "  a  monarch  who,  with 
all  his  faidts,  had  yet  too  much  of  manliness  and  can- 
dor to  permit  his  judgment  to  be  greatly  swayed  by  the 
mahgnity  of  the  prelates,"  declined  to  be  a  persecutor 
of  any  of  his  people  for  such  moderate  reason,  and  dis- 
missed the  prisoners  with  an  admonition  to  beware  of 
new  doctrines,  and  to  content  themselves  with  the  faith 
of  the  Chiu-ch.  It  is  by  many  believed,  however,  that 
one  particular  reason  why  king  James  IV  abstained  from 
intlicting  any  punishment  on  these  Lollards  of  Kyle  was 
their  influence  and  the  wide  spread  of  the  doctrines  they 
adhered  to,  and  that  "  divers  of  them  were  his  great  fa- 
miliars'' (compare  Lea,  Hist.  Sacerdotal  Celibacy,  p.  508 ; 
lictberington,  Hist.  Ch.  of  Scotland,  i,  34  sq.). 

Literature. — IMuch  information  concerning  the  Lol- 
lards may  be  derived  from  tlie  lives  of  Wickliffe  by 
Lewis,  Le  Bas,  and  especially  Vaughan.  Fox,  in  his 
Martyrolo(jij,  often  presents  very  disconnected  docu- 
ments exceedingly  valuable.  Walsingham  {Chronica), 
Knighton,  and  Walden  have  contributed  important  evi- 
dence, although  by  no  means  favorable,  which  subse- 
quent \vriters  have  used.  The  fuller  histories  of  Eng- 
land, as  Rapin,  for  instance,  present  some  leading  facts 
concerning  the  LoUards  in  connection  with  contempo- 
rary political  movements.  The  most  satisfactory  ac- 
count of  the  later  Lollards  is  found  in  articles  by  Lech- 
ler  in  the  Histor.  Zeitschrift  for  1853  and  1854.  He  has 
given  citations  from  works  hitherto  unpublished,  which 
he  examined  in  the  libraries  of  the  English  universities. 
See  also  Wilkins,  Concilia  Magna  Britimnica  (London, 
1737,  iii) ;  Turner,  Hist07-y  of  England  during  the  Middle 
Ages;  Weber,  Gesch.d.  Kirchen  Ref  in  Grossbritannien 
(1856),  vol.  i;  Neander,  C/i. -ffw/o?-^,  v,  141  sq. ;  Milman, 
Hist,  of  Lai.  Christianity,  vii,404  sq. ;  Mosheim,  Eccles. 
Hist.  13th  cent.  p.  323 ;  14th  cent.  p.  381,  392,  etc. ;  15th 
cent.  p.  438  sq. ;  Shoberly,  Persecutions  of  Popery,  i,  135 
sq. ;  LTllmann,  Reform,  before  the  Reformation,  ii,  11, 14; 
Ebrard,  Kirchen  xind  Dogmengesch.  ii,  3G0,  450,  462  sq. ; 
Gillett,  Life  and  Times  of  John  Huss,  i,  370  sq.,  628,  In- 
dex for  'Wickliffe ;  Punchard,  IHst.  of  Congregationalism 
(N.  Y.  1865,  2  vols.  12mo),  i,  237  sq. ;  Butler  (C.  M.),  Ec- 
cles. Hist,  second  series  (Philadel.  1872,  8vo),  p.  365  sq., 
378, 381  sq.,  388 ;  Lea,  Hist,  of  Sacerdotal  Celibacy,  p.  379 
sq. ;  Reichel,  Hist,  of  the  Roman  See  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
p.  571  sq. ;  Studien  u.  Kritiken,  1845,  iii,  594  sq. ;  1848,  i, 
169  sq.;  Chr.  Rev.  vo\.\\n;  Christ.  Remem.  1853  {Oct.), 
p.  415 ;  Ladies'  Rejws.  1870  (Sept.),  p.  189  sq. 

Lombard(us),  Peter,  a  very  noted  scholastic  the- 
ologian, derived  his  name  from  the  province  in  which  he 
was  born,  near  Novara,  in  Lombardy,  about  the  opening 
of  the  12th  century.  He  studied  at  Bologna,  Rheims, 
and  afterwards  at  Paris.  Here  he  acquired  a  great  rep- 
utation, was  made  first  professor  of  theology  in  the  mii- 
versity,  and  subsequently  (in  1159)  appointed  bisliop. 
He  died  in  the  French  capital  in  1164.  Lombardus  was 
considered  one  of  the  best  scholars  of  his  day,  and  a  zeal- 
ous priest.  His  principal  work,  Sententiarum  libri  qua- 
'uor,  is  a  collection  of  passages  from  the  fathers,  of 
v.— Ii 


which  he  attempted  to  conciliate  the  apparent  contra- 
dictions, somewhat  in  the  manner  in  which  Gratian  at- 
tempted it  in  his  Decret.  He  may  be  considered  as  the 
first  author  who  collected  theological  doctrines  into  a 
complete  system,  and,  whatever  the  faults  of  his  work, 
it  is  the  foimdation  of  scholastic  theology,  and  shows 
much  care  and  system.  It  became  the  text-book  in  the 
schools  of  philosophy,  obtained  for  him  the  title  of 
"Master  of  Sentences"  {M agister  Sententiarum),  and 
placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  scholastic  divines.  The 
work  was  first  published  at  Venice  (1477,  fol.)  in  four 
parts,  each  divided  into  different  headings.  After  his 
death,  one  of  the  propositions  contained  in  it  ("  Christus, 
secimdum  quod  est  homo,  non  est  aliquid")  was  con- 
demned by  pope  Alexander  III.  Thomas  Aquinas  and 
others  have  written  commentaries  on  the  book.  He 
also  wrote  Commenfaire  sur  les  Psainnes  (Paris,  1541, 
fob): — Commentaire  sur  les  EjAti-es  de  St. Paul  (1537, 
fol.).  His  complete  works  were  published  at  Nurem- 
berg in  1478,  and  at  Basle  in  1486.  An  able  editor  was 
foimd  in  Aleaume,  who  published  Peter  the  Lombard's 
works  at  Louvain  in  1546.  The  best  edition  of  the  Sen- 
tences is  by  Antouie  Ghenart  (Louvain,  1567, 4to).  See 
Herzog,  Real-EncyMop.  s.  v.;  Neander,  Hist,  of  Chi'istian 
Dogmas  (Bohn's  edit.),  vol.  ii  (see  Index) ;  Hcfele,  Con- 
ciliengesch.  v,  545,  639,  785;  Renter,  Alexander  TIL,  vol. 
iii ;  Dupin,  Nouv.  Biblioth.  des  aniiq.  Ecclesiastiques,  xvi, 
45  sq. ;  'Wetzer  mid  'Welte,  Kirchen-Lexikon,  vi,  583  sq. 
(J.H.-W.) 

Lombards.     See  Loxgobardi. 

Lombardy  is  the  name  given  to  that  part  of  North- 
ern Italy  which  formed  the  "  nucleus"  of  the  kingdom 
of  the  I^ongobardi  (q.  v.).  Incorporated  in  774  into 
the  Carlovingian  possessions,  it  became  an  independent 
kingdom  again  in  843,  though  it  was  not  entirely  sev- 
ered from  the  Frankish  monarchy  until  888.  It  now 
consisted  of  the  whole  of  Italy  north  of  the  Peninsula, 
with  the  exception  of  Savoy  and  Venice.  In  961  it  was 
annexed  to  the  German  empire,  and  its  territory  there- 
after gradually  lessened  bj'  tlie  formation  of  several 
small  but  independent  duchies  and  republics.  Through- 
out the  Middle  Ages  the  Lombards  were  compelled  to 
league  together  with  their  neighbors  to  retain  their  in- 
dependence from  the  German  emperors.  The  assump- 
tions of  Frederick  Barbarossa  they  successfully  defeated 
in  1176,  and  so  also  those  of  Frederick  II.  But  by  in- 
ternal dissensions  they  were  gradually  weakened,  and 
in  1540  Spain  finall}^  took  possession  of  Lombardy,  and 
held  it  until  about  1706,  when  it  fell  to  Austria,  and 
was  designated  "Austrian  Lombard}-."  In  1796  it  be- 
came part  of  the  Cisalpine  republic,  but  in  1815  it  was  re- 
stored to  Austria,  and  annexed  politically  to  the  newly- 
acquired  Venetian  territory  under  the  name  of  the  Lom- 
bardo- Venetian  kingdom.  This  union  was  dissolved  in 
1859  by  the  Italian  "War,  Lombardy,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Venetian  territory  (finally  also  given  to  Italy  in 
1866),  falling  to  the  new  kingdom  of  Italy.  There  is 
now  no  political  division  called  Lombardy,  the  coimtry 
having  been  parcelled  out  into  the  provinces  of  Berga- 
mo, Brescia,  Como,  Cremona,  Milan,  Pavia,  and  Son- 
drio.  Its  total  area  was  8264  English  square  miles,  witli 
a  population,  at  the  time  of  its  overture  to  the  kingdom 
of  Italy,  of  nearly  three  and  a  quarter  millions,  mostly 
Roman  Catholics.     See  Italy. 

Lombroso,  Jacob,  a  noted  Jewish  writer  and  rab- 
bi of  Spanish  descent,  flourished  in  Venice,  Italj',  in  the 
first  half  of  the  17th  centun,-.  He  published  in  1639  a 
beautiful  edition  of  the  Old  Test,  in  Hebrew,  with  val- 
uable comments,  and  a  Spanisli  translation  of  the  most 
difficult  passages,  entitled  nn3  wl3  xb'^JD  («  Handful 
of  Quiet).  He  also  wrote  a  polemic  against  Christianity. 
See  Jost,  Gesch.  des  Judenth.  u.  s.  Sekten,  iii,  227;  Fiirst, 
Biblioth.  Judaica,  ii,  254. 

Lomenie  de  Brienne,  I^tiexxe  Charles  de,  a 
very  celebrated  French  prelate,  was  born  at  Paris  in 


LOMUS 


498 


LONGEVITY 


1727.  He  renounced  his  primogeniture  and  the  rig- 
ors of  military  glory  for  the  easy  honors  of  the  Church, 
and  became  a  great  and  powerful  opponent  of  the  Brot- 
cstants.  Promoted  in  17()3  to  the  archbishopric  of  Tou- 
louse, he  aspired,  it  would  seem,  to  the  part  of  a  Maza- 
rin  or  a  Richelieu  in  the  state,  without  possessing  either 
tlie  ability  or  tlie  unscrupulous  daring  necessary  to  it. 
Upon  the  coronation  of  Louis  XVI  in  1775,  he  took  par- 
ticular pains  to  strike  against  the  Protestants,  but  it  was 
not  until  1787  that  he  gained  prominence  in  state  af- 
fairs. In  this  year,  after  tiguring  in  a  commission  for 
tlie  reform  of  the  clergy,  and  coquetting  with  the  phi- 
losophy of  D'.Vlembert  and  the  encyclopaedists,  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Assembly  of  Notables,  and,  hav- 
ing headed  the  party  by  whom  the  administration  of 
Calonne  was  overthrown,  he  succeeded  that  unfortunate 
as  minister,  adopted  his  plans,  and  proved  himself  just 
as  incapable  of  executing  them.  An  excited  contest 
arose  between  the  king  and  Parliament,  and  resulted  in 
the  dismissal  of  the  latter  by  force  of  arms.  In  1788  he 
was  made  prime  minister,  and  was  also  promoted  to  the 
rich  archbishopric  of  Sens.  In  1791  he  was  offered  a 
cardinal's  hat,  but,  knowing  the  opposition  of  the  peo- 
ple against  the  clergy,  he  declined  this  distinction.  In 
July,  1788,  he  was  compelled  by  the  dissatisfaction  of 
the  people  to  proceed  to  the  Convocation  of  the  states- 
general  for  the  month  of  May  following,  and  on  the  '24th 
of  August  he  retired  to  private  life.  He  resided  for  a 
time  at  Nice,  but  the  cardinal's  hat  which  Pius  VI  be- 
stowed on  him  he  now  gratefully  accepted.  He  was 
one  of  those  who  took  the  oath  as  a  constitutional  bish- 
op, on  account  of  which  he  was  deprived  of  the  cardi- 
nal's hat.  He  was  nevertheless  arrested  February  15, 
1794,  and  died  of  apoplexy  the  same  night.  See  Heroes, 
'Philosophers,  and  Courtiers  of  the  Time  of  Louis  XVI 
(London,  18G3,  2  vols.  12mo) ;  Lacroix's  Pressense,  Ee- 
liyioii  and  the  Reign  of  Terror,  p.  43, 124 ;  Droz,  Hist,  du 
regne  de  Louis  XVI ;  Hoefer,  A'oiti'.  Biog.  Gener.  xxxi, 
632  sq.     (J.H.W.) 

Lonaus,  in  Hindil  mythology,  is  the  first  created  be- 
ing, formed  by  Brahma  when  he  commenced  to  exist. 
He  immediately  concluded  to  devote  himself  only  to  the 
contemplation  of  divine  things,  and,  in  order  to  be  un- 
disturbed, buried  himself  in  the  ground.  This  pleased 
the  gods  so  much  that  they  loaded  him  with  favors,  in- 
creased and  fixed  his  power  and  piety,  and  assured  him 
a  duration  of  life  surpassingeven  that  of  Brahma  (q.v.). 
Lomus,  said  to  be  twenty  miles  long,  and  covered  with 
liair  all  over,  draws  out  a  hair  after  the  lapse  of  each 
cycle  Brahma  has  gone  through,  and  dies  only  after  the 
last  hair  is  drawn.  See  VoUmer,  Mythol.  Worterh.  s.  v. 
(C.B.) 

Lon,  JoHANN  Michael,  a  Ciorman  Protestant  jurist 
and  theologian,  was  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-JIain  in 
1695.  He  studied  jurisprudence  at  Marburg,  became 
soon  known  as  an  essayist  on  questions  of  morals,  phi- 
losophy, and  theology,  which  he  treated  with  great  ease 
and  brilliancy,  although  occasionally  inaccurate  in  his 
statements,  and  was  finally  appointed  president  of  the 
Council  of  Lingen  and  Teeklenburg.  He  died  in  177G. 
He  is  especially  known  for  his  efforts  to  bring  about  a 
union  of  the  different  Christian  churches,  or,  at  least,  of 
the  evangelical  denominations.  He  sought  to  unite 
them  all  into  one,  to  carry  out  indifferentism  towards 
dogmatics  to  its  full  extent.  With  this  object  in  view, 
he  wrote,  under  the  name  of  (iottlob  von  Friodenheim, 
Evangelischer  Friedenstempel  nach  d.  A  rt  d.  ers/en  Kirche 
(1724)  : — Von  Vereinigung  d.  Protestanten  (1748)  -.—  Die 
einzig  wahre  Religion  (1750).  These  works  brought 
him  into  a  long  controversy  with  Hoffmann,  Weickh- 
mann,  Brenner,  etc.,  and  his  attempts  at  establishing  a 
union  proved  fruitless. — Herzog,  Real-EncyUhpddie,  viii, 
452 ;  Pierer,  Unirersal-Lexifcon,  x,  463.    .(J.  N.  P.) 

London  Missionary  Society.  See  Mission- 
ary SOCIETIKS. 

Long,  Jacques  Le.    See  Le  Long. 


Long,  Roger,  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  noted  as 
an  astronomer,  was  born  in  Norfolkshire  in  1680,  and 
was  educated  at  Pembroke  Had,  Cambridge  University, 
and  became  M.A.  in  1733.  He  was  honored  with  the 
chair  of  astronomy  by  his  alma  mater  in  1749,  and 
shortly  after  secured  the  rectory  of  BradwcU.  He  died 
Dec.  16, 1770.  Besides  his  Sermons  (1728  sq.),  he  pub- 
lished and  is  best  known  as  the  author  of  a  Treatise  on 
Asti-onomy  (2  vols.  4to ;  vol.  i,  1742 ;  vol.  ii,  1764).  See 
Allibone,  Did.  of  Brit,  and  American  Authors,  ii,  s.  v. ; 
Thomas,  Biog.  and  Mythol.  Did.  s.  v. 

Long,  Thomas,  an  English  Nonconformist,  was 
born  at  Exeter  in  1621.  He  was  educated  at  Exeter 
College,  and  about  1660  became  prebendarv-  of  Exeter 
cathedral,  from  which  he  was  ejected  in  1688  for  refus- 
ing to  take  the  oath  to  William  and  Mar\'.  He  died  in 
1700.  Mr.  Long  published  a  Vindication  of  the  Primitive 
Christians  in  Point  of  Obedience  to  their  Prince  (1683): — 
A  nswer  to  Locke's  first  Letter  on  Toleration  (1689) : — ■  Vox 
Cleri  on  A  Iteratioiis  in  the  Liturgy  (1690)  ;  and  a  Review 
of  Dr.  Walker's  Account  of  the  Author  ofEikon  Basilike. 
See  Wood,  A  then.  Oxon. ;  Thomas,  Dictionary  of  Biogra- 
phy and  Mythology,  s.  v. 

Long  Brothers,  The  Four.  Among  the  leading 
men  of  the  spiritualists,  the  four  "  Long  Brothers"  must 
not  be  overlooked :  Dioscorus,  Ammonius,  Eusebius,  and 
Euthymius,  who  were  as  distinguished  by  their  influ- 
ence as  they  were  eminent  in  stature.  The  secret  of 
their  power  was  in  their  inflexible  honesty,  combined 
with  hearty  and  miflinching  faith  in  the  system  of  their 
choice.     See  each  name. 

Longevity.  The  Biblical  narrative  plainly  as- 
cribes to  many  individuals  in  the  earUer  historj^  of  the 
race  lives  far  longer  than  what  is  held  to  be  the  present 
extreme  limit,  and  we  must  therefore  carefully  consider 
the  evidence  upon  which  the  general  correctness  of  the 
numbers  rests,  and  any  independent  evidence  as  to  the 
length  of  life  at  this  time.  The  statements  in  the  Bible 
regarding  longevity  may  be  separated  into  two  classes — 
those  given  in  genealogical  lists,  and  those  interspersed 
with  the  relation  of  events. 

1.  To  the  former  class  virtually  belong  all  the  state- 
ments relating  to  the  longevity  of  the  patriarchs  before 
Abraham.  These,  as  given  by  Moses  in  the  Hebrew 
text,  are  as  follows : 


Shem Gen.  si,  10, 11  600 

Arphaxad    "         1-2,13  438 

'  ■  "  14,15  433 

10, 17  464 

IS,  10  239 

20, 21  239 

22, 23  230 

24,  25  143 

32  205 

ssv,  7  175 


Adam Gen, 

Seth " 

Enos " 

Cninan " 

Mahalaleel...  " 

Jared " 

Enoch " 

Methuselah  ..  " 

Lamech " 

Noah " 


Years. 
V,  5    93(1 


8 
11 
14 
17 
20 
23 
27 
31 
ix,  2!) 


Salah. 

Eber 

Peleg 

Ren 

^ernt; 

Xahor. . .. 
Terah . . . . 
Abraham. 


Infidelity  has  not  failed,  in  various  ages,  to  attack 
revelation  on  the  score  of  the  supposed  absurdity  of  as- 
signing to  any  class  of  men  this  lengthened  term  of  ex- 
istence. In  reference  to  this,  Josephus  (.4^^^  i.  3,  3)  re- 
marks :  "  Let  no  one,  upon  comparing  the  lives  of  the 
ancients  with  our  lives,  and  with  the  few  years  which 
we  now  live,  think  that  what  we  say  of  them  is  false, 
or  make  the  shortness  of  our  lives  at  present  an  argu- 
ment that  neither  did  they  attain  to  so  long  a  duration 
of  life."  When  we  consider  the  comiicnsating  process 
which  is  going  on,  the  marvel  is  that  the  human  frame 
should  not  last  longer  than  it  does.  Some,  however, 
have  supposed  that  the  years  above  named  are  lunar, 
consisting  of  about  thirty  days;  but  this  supposition, 
with  a  view  to  reduce  the  lives  of  the  antediluvians  to 
our  standard,  is  replete  with  difiiculties.  At  this  rate, 
the  whole  time  from  the  creation  of  man  to  the  flood 
would  not  be  more  than  about  140  years;  and  Methuse- 
lah himself  would  not  have  attained  to  the  age  which 
many  even  now  do,  whilst  many  must  have  had  chil- 
dren when  mere  infants !  Moses  must  therefore  have 
meant  solar,  not  lunar  years  —  averaging  as  long  as 
ours,  although  the  ancients  generally  reckoned  twelve 


LONGEVITY 


499 


LONGEVITY 


months,  of  thirty  days  each,  to  the  year.  "Nor  is 
there,"  obsfirves  St.  Augustine  {T)e  Civ.  Dei,  xv,  12), 
"  any  care  to  be  giv'en  unto  those  who  think  that  one 
of  our  ordinary  years  would  make  ten  of  the  years  of 
these  times,  being  so  sliort ;  and  therefore,  say  they,  900 
years  of  theirs  are  90  of  oiu-s — their  10  is  our  1,  and  their 
100  our  10.  Thus  think  they  that  Adam  was  but  20 
years  old  when  he  begat  Seth,  and  he  but  20i  when  he 
begat  Enos,  whom  the  Scriptures  caU  (the  Sept.  ver.) 
205  years.  For,  as  these  men  hold,  the  Scripture  di- 
vided one  year  into  ten  parts,  calling  each  part  a  year ; 
and  each  part  had  a  sixfold  quailrate,  because  in  six 
days  God  made  the  world.  Now  6  times  6  is  3G, 
which,  midtiplied  by  10,  makes  360 — i.  e.  twelve  lunar 
months."  Abarbanel,  in  his  Comment,  on  Gen.  v,  states 
that  some,  professing  Christianity,  had  fallen  into  the 
same  mistake,  viz.  that  Moses  meant  lunar,  and  not  so- 
lar years.  Ecclesiastical  history  does  not  inform  us  of 
this  fact,  except  it  be  to  it  that  Lactantius  refers  (ii,  12) 
when  he  speaks  of  one  Varro :  "  The  life  of  man,  though 
temporary,  was  yet  extended  to  1000  years ;  of  this  Yar- 
ro  is  so  ignorant  that,  though  known  to  aU  from  the 
sacred  writings,  he  would  argue  that  the  1000  years  of 
Moses  were,  according  to  the  Egyptian  mode  of  calcu- 
lation, only  1000  months !" 

That  the  ancients  computed  time  differently  we  learn 
from  Pliny  {Hist.  Xut.  vii),  and  also  from  Scaliger  (Z>e 
Emend.  Temporum,  i) ;  stiU  this  does  not  alter  the  case 
as  above  stated  (see  Heidegger,  De  Anno  Pairiarcha- 
rum,  in  his  Hist.  Patr.  Amst.  1C88,  Zur.  1729). 

But  it  is  asked,  if  Closes  meant  solar  years,  how  came 
it  to  pass  that  the  patriarchs  did  not  begin  to  beget 
children  at  an  earlier  period  than  they  are  reported  to 
have  done?  Seth  was  105  years  old,  on  the  lowest  cal- 
culation, when  he  begat  Enos,  and  Methuselah  187  when 
Lamech  was  born !  St.  Augustine  (i,  15)  explains  this 
ditHculty  in  a  twofold  manner  by  supposing,  1.  Either 
that  the  age  of  puberty  was  later  in  proportion  as  the 
lives  of  the  antediluvians  were  longer  than  ours,  or,  2. 
That  Closes  does  not  record  the  first-born  sons  but  as  the 
order  of  the  genealogy  required,  his  object  being  to  trace 
the  succession  from  Adam,  through  Seth,  to  Abraham. 

While  the  Jews  have  never  questioned  the  longevitj^ 
assigned  by  Moses  to  the  patriarchs,  they  have  yet  dis- 
puted, in  man}'  instances,  as  to  whether  it  was  common 
to  all  men  who  lived  up  to  the  period  wlicn  human  life 
was  contracted.  Jlaimonides  {More  Nehochim,  ii,  47) 
takes  this  view.  With  this  opinion  Abarbanel,  on  Gen. 
V,  agrees;  Nachmanides,  however,  rejects  it,  and  shows 
that  the  life  of  the  desceiulants  of  Cain  must  have  been 
quite  as  long  as  that  of  the  Sethites,  though  not  noticed 
by  Moses ;  for  only  seven  individuals  of  the  former  filled 
tip  the  space  v/hich  intervened  between  the  death  of 
Abel  and  the  flood,  whereas  ten  of  the  latter  are  enu- 
merated. We  have  reason,  then,  to  conclude  that  lon- 
gevity was  not  confined  to  any  peculiar  tribe  of  the 
ante  or  post  diluvian  fathers,  but  was  vouchsafed,  in  gen- 
era], to  aU.  Irenaeus  (Adrersus  Iheret.  v)  informs  us 
that  some  supposed  that  the  fact  of  its  being  recorded 
that  no  one  of  the  antediluvians  named  attained  the 
age  of  1000  years,  was  the  fulfilment  of  the  declaration 
(Gen.  iii),  '•  In  the  day  thou  catest  thereof  thou  shalt 
surely  die ;"  grounding  the  opinion,  or  rather  conceit, 
upon  Psa.  xc,  4,  namely,  that  God's  day  is  1000  years. 

As  to  the  probable  reasons  why  God  so  prolonged  the 
life  of  man  in  the  earlier  ages  of  the  world,  and  as  to 
the  subordinate  means  by  which  tliis  might  have  been 
accomplished,  Josephus  says  {A  nt.  1.  c.)  :  "  For  those  an- 
cients were  beloved  of  God,  and  lately  made  by  God 
himself;  and  because  their  food  was  then  fitter  fbr  the 
proliingation  of  life,  they  might  well  live  so  great,  a 
number  of  years;  and  because  God  afforded  them  a  lon- 
ger time  of  life  on  account  of  their  virtue  and  the  good 
use  they  made  of  it  in  astronomical  and  geometrical  dis- 
coveries, which  would  not  have  afforded  the  time  for 
foretelling  the  periods  of  the  stars  unless  they  had  lived 
COO  years ;  for  the  great  year  is  completed  in  that  in- 


terval." To  this  he  adds  the  testimony  of  many  cele- 
brated profane  historians,  who  affirm  that  the  ancients 
lived  1000  years.  In  the  above  passage  Josephus  enu- 
merates/oMr  causes  of  the  longevity  of  the  earlier  patri- 
archs. 1.  As  to  the  first,  viz.,  their  being  dearer  to  God 
than  other  men,  it  is  plain  that  it  cannot  be  maintained ; 
for  the  profligate  descendants  of  Cain  were  equally  long- 
lived,  as  mentioned  above,  with  others.  2.  Neither  can 
we  agree  in  the  second  reason  he  assigns ;  because  we 
find  that  Noah  and  others,  though  born  so  long  subse- 
quently to  the  creation  of  Adam,  yet  lived  to  as  great 
an  age,  some  of  them  to  a  greater  age  than  he  did.  3. . 
If,  again,  it  were  right  to  attribute  longevity  to  the  su- 
perior quality  of  the  food  of  the  antediluvians,  then  the 
seasons,  on  which  this  depends,  must,  about  Moses's 
time — for  it  was  then  that  the  term  of  human  existence 
was  reduced  to  its  present  standard— have  assumed  a 
fixed  character.  But  no  change  at  that  time  took  place 
in  the  revolution  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  by  which  the 
seasons  of  heat,  cold,  etc.,  are  regulated :  heiice  we  must 
not  assume  that  it  was  the  nature  of  the  fruits  they  ate 
which  caused  longevity.  4,  How  far  the  antediluvians 
had  advanced  in  scientific  research  generally,  and  in  as- 
tronomical discovery  particularly,  we  are  not  informed ; 
nor  can  we.  place  any  dependence  upon  what  Josephus 
says  about  the  two  inscribed  pillars  which  remained 
from  the  old  world  (see  A  nt.  i,  2,  9).  We  are  not,  there- 
fore, able  to  determine,  with  any  confidence,  that  God 
permitted  the  earlier  generations  of  man  to  live  so  long 
in  order  that  they  might  arrive  at  a  high  degree  of 
mental  excellence.  From  the  brief  notices  which  the 
Scriptures  afford  of  the  character  and  habits  of  the  ante- 
diluvians, we  should  rather  infer  that  they  had  not  ad- 
vanced very  far  in  discoveries  in  natural  and  experi- 
mental philosophy.  See  Antediluvians.  We  must 
suppose  that  they  did  not  reduce  their  language  to  al- 
phabetical order;  nor  was  it  necessary  to  do  so  at  a 
time  when  human  life  was  so  prolonged  that  the  tra- 
dition of  the  creation  passed  through  only  two  hands  to 
Noah.  It  would  seem  that  the  book  ascribed  to  Enoch 
is  a  work  of  postdiluvian  origin  (see  Jurieu,  Crit.  Hist.' 
i,  41).  Possibly  a  want  of  mental  employment,  togeth- 
er with  the  labor  they  endured  ere  they  were  able  to 
extract  from  the  earth  the  necessaries  of  life,  might 
have  been  some  of  the  proximate  causes  of  that  degen- 
eracy which  led  God  in  judgment  to  destroy  the  old 
world.  If  the  antediluvians  began  to  bear  children  at 
the  age  on  an  average  of  100,  and  if  they  ceased  to  do 
so  at  000  years  (see  Shuckford's  Connect,  i,  36),  the  world 
might  then  have  been  far  more  densely  populated  than 
it  is  now.  Supposing,  moreover,  that  the  earth  was  no 
more  productive  antecedently  than  it  was  subsequently 
to  the  flood,  and  that  the  antediluvian  fathers  were  ig- 
norant of  those  mechanical  arts  which  so  much  abridge 
human  labor  now,  we  can  easily  understand  how  diffi- 
cult they  must  have  found  it  to  secure  for  themselves 
the  common  necessaries  of  life,  and  this  the  more  so  if 
animal  food  was  not  allowed  them.  The  prolonged  life, 
then,  of  the  generations  before  the  flood  would  seem  to 
have  been  rather  an  evil  than  a  blessing,  leading  as  it 
did  to  the  too  rapid  peopling  of  the  earth.  'We  can 
readily  conceive  how  this  might  conduce  to  that  a^vful 
state  of  things  expressed  in  the  words,  "  And  the  wliole 
earth  was  filled  with  violence."  In  the  absence  of  any 
well-regulated  system  of  government,  we  can  imagine 
what  evils  must  have  arisen :  the  unprincipled  would  • 
oppress  the  weak,  the  crafty  would  outwit  the  unsus- 
pecting, and,  not  having  the  fear  of  God  before  their 
eyes,  destruction  and  miserj'  would  be  in  their  ways. 
Still  we  must  admire  the  providence  of  God  in  the  lon- 
gevity of  man  immediately  after  the  creation  and  the 
flood.  After  the  creation,  when  the  world  was  to  be 
peopled  by  one  man  and  one  woman,  the  age  of  the 
greatest  part  of  those  on  record  was  900  and  upwards. 
But  after  the  flood,  when  there  were  three  couples  to  re- 
people  the  earth,  none  of  the  patriarchs  except  Shem 
reached  the  age  of  500,  and  only  the  first  three  of  hij 


LONGINUS 


500 


LONGLEY 


line,  viz.  Arphaxad,  Selah,  and  Eber,  came  near  that 
age,  which  was  in  the  first  centnn-  after  the  flood.  In 
the  second  century  we  do  not  find  tliat  any  attained  tlie 
age  of  2-10;  and  in  the  third  century  (about  the  latter 
end  of  which  Abraham  was  born),  none,  except  Terah, 
arrived  at  200,  by  which  time  the  world  was  so  well 
peopled  that  they  had  built  cities,  and  were  formed  into 
distinct  nations  under  their  respective  kings  (see  Gen. 
XV;  see  also  Usher  and  Petavius  on  the  increase  of 
mankind  in  the  first  three  centuries  after  the  flood). 

2.  The  statements  as  to  the  length  of  the  lives  of 
Abraham  and  his  nearer  descendants,  and  some  of  his 
later,  are  so  closely  interwoven  with  the  historical  nar- 
rative, nol  alone  in  form,  but  in  sense,  that  their  general 
truth  and  its  cannot  be  separated.  Abraham's  age  at 
the  birth  of  Isaac  is  a  great  fact  in  his  history,  equally 
attested  in  the  Old  Testament  and  in  the  New.  Again, 
the  longevity  ascribed  to  Jacob  is  confirmed  by  the 
question  of  Pharaoh  and  the  patriarch's  remarkable  an- 
swer, in  which  he  makes  his  then  age  of  130  years  less 
than  the  years  of  his  ancestors  (Gen.  xlvii,  9),  a  minute 
point  of  agreement  with  the  other  chronological  state- 
ments to  be  especially  noted.  At  a  later  time,  the  age 
of  Moses  is  attested  by  various  statements  in  the  Penta- 
teuch, and  in  the  New  Test,  on  St.  Stephen's  authority, 
though  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  mention  of  his  hav- 
ing retained  his  strength  to  the  end  of  his  120  years 
(Deut.  xxxiv,  7)  is,  perhaps,  indicative  of  an  unusual  lon- 
gevity. In  the  earlier  part  of  the  period  following  we 
notice  similar  instances  in  the  case  of  Joshua,  and,  in- 
ferentially,  in  that  of  Othniel.  Nothing  in  the  Bible 
could  be  cited  against  this  evidence,  except  it  be  the 
common  explanation  of  Psa.  xc  (esp.  ver.  10),  combined 
with  its  ascription  to  Moses  (see  title). 

That  the  common  age  of  man  has  been  the  same  in 
all  times  since  the  world  was  generally  repeopled  is 
manifest  from  profane  as  well  as  sacred  histor}'.  Plato 
lived  to  the  age  of  81,  and  was  accounted  an  old  man ; 
and  those  whom  Pliny  reckons  up  (vii,  48)  as  rare  ex- 
amples of  long  life  may  for  the  most  part  be  equalled  in 
modern  times.  It  must  be  observed,  however,  that  all 
the  supposed  famous  modern  instances  of  verj-  great 
longevity,  as  those  of  Parr,  Jackson,  and  the  old  count- 
ess of  Desmond,  have  utterly  broken  down  on  examina- 
tion, and  that  the  registers  of  coimtries  where  records  of 
such  statistics  have  been  kept  i^-ove  no  greater  extreme 
than  about  110  years.  We  may  fortunately  appeal  to 
at  least  one  contemporary  instance.  There  is  an  Egj-p- 
tian  hieratic  papyrus  in  the  Bibliotheque  at  Paris  bear- 
ing a  moral  discourse  by  one  Ptah-hotp,  apparently  eld- 
est son  of  Assa  (B.C.  cir.  1910-18G0),  the  fifth  king  of 
the  fifteenth  dynasty,  which  was  of  shepherds.  Sec 
Egypt.  At  the  conclusion,  Ptah-hotp  thus  speaks  of 
himself:  '-I  have  become  an  elder  on  the  earth  (or  in 
the  land) ;  I  have  traversed  a  hundred  and  ten  years  of 
life  by  the  gift  of  the  king  and  the  approval  of  the  el- 
ders, fullillhig  my  duty  towards  the  king  in  the  place  of 
favor  (or  blessing)"'  {Facsimile,  d'lui  Papyrus  Egyptian, 
par  E.  Prisse  d' Avenues,  pi.  xix,  lines  7,  8).  The  natu- 
ral inferences  from  this  passage  are,  that  Ptah-hotp 
wrote  in  the  full  possession  of  his  mental  faculties  at 
the  age  of  110  years,  and  that  his  father  was  still  reign- 
ing at  the  time,  and  therefore  had  attained  the  age  of 
about  130  years,  or  more.  The  reigns  assigned  by  Ma- 
netho  to  the  shepherd-kings  of  this  dynasty  seem  in- 
dicative of  a  greater  age  than  that  of  tlie  Egyptian  sov- 
ereigns (Cory,  Ancient  Fragments,  2d  ed.,  p^lU,  136),— 
Kitto:  Smith,     See  CnRONOLOGV. 

Longinus,  Dionysius  Cassius,  a  noted  Greek  phi- 
losopher and  rhetorician,  was  born  probably  in  Syria, 
and  tiourished  in  the  od  century  of  our  a^ra.  He" was 
educated  at  Alexandria  under  Ammonius  and  Origen, 
and  became  an  earnest  discijile  of  Platonism,  To  ex- 
pound this  system  and  to  teach  rhetoric,  he  opened  a 
school  at  Athens,  and  there  soon  acquired  a  great  repu- 
tation. His  knowledge  was  immense,  and  to  him  was 
first  applied  the  phrases,  often  repeated  since,  '•  a  living 


librar}'"  and  "  a  walking  museum."  His  taste  and  crit- 
ical acuteness  also  were  no  less  wonderful.  He  was 
probably  the  best  critic  of  all  antiquity.  Flourishing  in 
an  age  when  Platonism  was  giving  place  to  the  semi- 
Oriental  mysticism  and  dreams  of  Neo-Platonism,  Lon- 
ginus stands  out  conspicuously  as  a  genuine  disciple  of 
the  great  master.  Clear,  calm,  rational,  yet  lofty,  he 
despised  the  fantastic  speculations  of  Plotinus  (q,  v,).  In 
the  latter  years  of  his  life  he  accepted  the  invitation  of 
Zenobia  to  undertake  the  education  of  her  children  at 
Palmyra ;  but,  becoming  also  her  prime  jwlitical  adviser, 
he  was  beheaded  as  a  traitor,  by  command  of  the  em- 
peror Aurelian,  A,D.  273.  Longinus  was  a  heathen, 
but  generous  and  tolerant.  Of  his  works,  the  only  one 
extant  (in  parts  only)  is  a  treatise,  Tltpi  "Yi^oi'c  (On 
the  Sublime).  There  are  many  editions  of  it ;  those  by 
Moms  (Leips.  17G9),  Toupius  (Oxford,  1778 ;  2d  edition, 
1789;  3d  edit.,  1806J,\Veiske  (Leipsic,  1809),  and  Egger 
(Paris,  1837)  being  among  the  best.  Translations  have 
been  made  of  it  into  French  by  Boileau,  into  German  by 
Schlosser,  and  into  English  by  W.  Smith.  See  Kuhn- 
ken,  Dissertatio  de  Vita  et  Scrijitis  Longini  (1776); 
Smith,  Diet.  ofGr,  and  Rom,  Biog.  s.  v. ;  Chambers,  Cy- 
clop, s,  V, 

Longley,  Charles  Thomas,  D,D,,  the  last  pri- 
mate of  all  England,  was  born  in  Westmeathshire  in 
1794,  and  was  educated  at  "Westminster  and  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  where  he  distinguished  himself  as  a 
first-class  scholar  in  classics.  After  graduating,  he  re- 
mained for  some  time  connected  with  the  miiversity  as 
college  tutor,  censor,  and  public  examiner.  He  became 
perpetual  ciu-ate  of  Cowley  in  1823,  and  rector  of  West 
Tytherley  in  1827,  and  head  master  of  Harrow  School 
in  1829.  In  1836  he  was  appointed  bishop  of  Ripon, 
and  in  1856  was  translated  to  Durham,  in  1860  to  the 
archbishopric  of  York,  and  in  1862  to  that  of  Canter- 
bur}'.  Over  this  see,  by  virtue  of  which  he  was  primate 
of  the  Church  of  England,  and  first  of  all  the  Anglican 
bishops  of  the  world,  he  presided  untU  his  death,  October 
27,  1868.  "Archbishop  Longley  belonged  ecclesiasti- 
cally to  the  old  school  of 'moderate'  Establishment  di- 
vines, but  in  the  last  three  years  of  his  administration 
his  amiable  temper,  co-operating  with  his  instinctive 
hyper-conser%-atism,  led  him  to  temporize  with  the  reck- 
less and  audacious  policy  of  bishop  Wilberforce  and  the 
High-Anglicans,  and  he  became  a  most  inadequate  stand- 
ard-bearer for  the  English  Church  in  her  supreme  hour. 
Incapable  of  bold  and  persistent  action,  the  latter  por- 
tion of  his  primacy  ^vas  marked  by  a  series  of  disastrous 
vacillations  and  blunders.  He  first  gave  his  counte- 
nance to  the  bishop  of  Capetown  in  his  revolutionary 
action  in  South  Africa,  and  then  withdrew  that  counte- 
nance. In  an  interval  of  reason  he  encoiu-aged  lord 
Shaftesbury  to  introduce  his  anti-ritualistic  resolutions, 
and  then  he  shiveringly  v.-ithdrew  his  approval  when 
they  came  up  for  action."  The  most  important  event 
during  his  administration  was  the  so-called  "Pan-An- 
glican" Synod,  a  meeting  of  all  the  bishops  of  the 
Church  of  England  and  the  churches  in  communion 
with  her,  convened  in  1867,  a  measure  instigated,  it  is 
said,  by  bishop  Willierforce  (q.  v.),  to  stop  the  tide  of 
ritualism,  and  to  bring  about,  if  possible,  a  union  with 
the  Greek  Church  (see  Appleton's  A  nmial  Cyclo]}.  18C7, 
p.  42  sq.).  In  this  synod  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury 
proved  entirely  untrustworthy.  Himself  inclining  to- 
wards ritualism,  he  moderately  rebuked  the  l!itu;ilists 
in  pulilic,  while  iirivately  he  favored  their  promotion, 
and  was  instrumental  in  their  appointment  to  colonial 
bisho]irics.  He  was  decidedly  a  High-Churchman,  and, 
though  in  person  amiable,  devout,  dignified,  and  court- 
eous, he  showed,  in  his  disastrous  primacy,  how  mifitted 
are  mere  moderation,  and  a  desire  simply  for  compro- 
mise and  peace,  to  guide  the  Church  in  times  when  her 
foundations  arc  assailed.  We  will  onh-  add  that  arch- 
bishop Longley  died  as  he  had  lived,  a  man  of  profoundly 
pious  feeling  that  fell  a  little  too  much  into  formula. 
He  referred  to  words  of  Hooker's  some  three  or  four 


LOXGOBARDI 


501 


LOXGOBARDI 


davi?  before  his  death  as  containing  the  faith  in  which 
he  "  wished  to  die" — words  expressive  of  liis  sense  of 
guilt  and  his  faith  in  Christ's  blood  to  cleanse  him  from 
that  guilt.  See  London  Spectator,  1808,  Oct.  31,  p.  1272 ; 
N.  Y.  Tribune,  Oct.  29, 18G8.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Longobardi  (otherwise  called  Lombards),  a  Teu- 
tonic people  of  the  Suevic  race,  who  maintained  a  do- 
minion in  Italy  from  A.D.  568  to  774. 

The  name  Lombards  is  derived  from  the  Latin  LMvgo- 
bardi  or  Lungobardi,  a  form  in  use  since  the  r2th  centu- 
ry, and  generally  supposed  to  have  been  given  in  refer- 
ence to  the  long  beards  of  this  people;  although  some 
derive  it  rather  from  a  woxAparta  or  6a?te,  which  sig- 
nifies a  battle-axe. 

The  first  historical  notices  present  them  as  a  people 
small  in  number,  having  their  original  seat  on  the  west 
side  of  the  Lower  Elbe,  in  a  territory  extending  some 
sixty  miles  southward  from  Hamburg.  They  advanced 
into  Moravia  and  Hungary,  the  abode  of  the  Kugi,  be- 
fore 500,  and  contjuereil  the  Heruli,  and  were  invited 
by  Justinian  to  the  neighborhood  of  the  Danube  in 
the  year  52G.  They  afterwards  crossed  into  Panno- 
nia,  where,  though  at  first  in  alliance  with  the  Gepida?, 
they  subsequently  (A.D.  5(JG  or  5G7)  subdued  the  peo- 
ple, yielding  in  turn  to  the  Avars,  and  in  5G9  crossed 
the  Alps  into  Italy  under  Alboin,  having  been  invited 
thither  by  Narses,  as  it  is  said,  out  of  revenge  against 
the  province  and  the  emperor.  This  was  fourteen  years 
after  the  overthrow  of  the  Gothic  kingdom,  and  the  ex- 
hausted state  of  the  country  left  Northern  Italy  an  easy 
prey.  The  Goths  were  Arians,  and  religious  ilifferences 
with  both  the  Koman  and  Greek  churches  went  far  to 
prevent  the  acceptance  of  their  rule,  and  the  establish- 
ment at  that  time  of  a  united  government  in  Italy,  for 
the  want  of  which  the  country  has  so  many  centuries 
suffered.  The  Lombards  succeeded  no  better  in  secur- 
ing entire  dominion.  They,  however,  extended  their 
power,  estabhshing  the  duchies  of  Frioul,  Spoleto,  and 
Benevento,  until  only  the  districts  of  Rome  and  Naples, 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  peninsula,  Venice,  and 
the  east  coast  from  the  Po  to  Ancona,  with  Ravenna  as 
the  city  of  the  exarchs,  remained  under  the  power  of 
the  Greek  emperor.  The  conduct  of  the  Lombards  as 
conquerors  has  been  severely  characterized  on  the  au- 
thority of  early  writers  of  the  Romish  Church.  Gregorj"- 
the  Great,  in  his  epistles  and  dialogues,  draws  a  fright- 
ful picture  of  their  oppressions,  as  does  Paulus  Diaco- 
nus  of  the  unquestionably  lawless  sway  of  the  thirty- 
five  dukes,  who  were  the  only  rulers  in  the  interregnum 
after  the  death  of  Clcph,  till,  by  the  threatening  ap- 
proach of  the  Franks,  they  were  compelled  to  elect  a 
king  in  the  person  of  Autharis.  Now  for  the  first  time 
(584-590)  an  orderly  constitution  was  established.  Pau- 
lus Diaconus  speaks  with  great  praise  of  the  new  state 
of  things.  "  Wonderful  was  the  state  of  the  Lombard 
kingdom  :  violence  and  treachery  were  alike  unknown ; 
no  one  was  oppressed,  no  one  plundered  another ;  thefts 
and  robberies  ivere  unheard  of;  the  traveller  went  wher- 
ever he  would  in  perfect  security"  (Paul.  Diac.  iii,  16). 

A  general  idea  of  their  political  constitution  may  be 
found  in  the  edict  of  king  Rothari  (63G-652),  a  kind  of 
Bill  of  Rights,  which  was  promulgated  Nov.  22,  643, 
and  IS  memorable  as  having  become  the  foundation  of 
constitutional  law  in  the  (icrmanic  kingdoms  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  It  was  revised  and  extended  by  subse- 
quent Lombard  kings,  but  suljsisted  in  force  for  several 
centuries  after  the  Lombard  kingdom  had  passed  away. 
The  edict  recognises,  as  among  all  German  nations, 
three  classes— the  free,  the  semi-free,  and  slave  or  vas- 
sal. Among  the  free  were  the  nobiles.  The  army  se- 
cured the  national  unity,  civil  officers  being  regarded 
as  rendering  military  service.  The  king  was  elective, 
and  among  the  dukes  he  represented  the  nation.  He  was 
commander  of  the  army,  head  of  all  poHce  power,  chief 
judge,  and  general  ward.  There  were  courtiers  of  va- 
rious ranks.  The  dukes  were  also  called  judges,  or /;/- 
dices  civitatis.    Under  each  judex  were  many  local,  j  udi- 


cial,  police,  and  military'  authorities.  The  cities  chosen 
by  the  dukes  severally  as  their  residences  were  centres 
of  the  Lombard  government.  There  woidd  seem  to  be 
but  little  room  for  the  old  Roman  municipal  constitu- 
tions. Concerning  the  relation  of  the  Lombard  rule  to 
the  continuance  of  the  Roman  law  and  the  rights  of  the 
conquered  people  there  are  differences  of  opmion.  Len- 
der the  Goths  the  former  laws  and  customs  remained 
largely  unaffected;  but  it  has  been  maintained  (as  by 
Leo)  that  under  the  Lombards  the  personal  liberty, 
right  of  property,  and  municipal  constitutions  of  tlie 
conquered  people  were  abolished.  The  subject  was 
much  discussed  by  the  Italians  in  the  last  century;  and 
in  this  century  the  historians  Savigny,  Leo,  Bandi  di 
Vesme,  Fossati,  Troya,  Bethmann-HoUweg,  etc.,  present 
conflicting  or  somewhat  varied  views.  The  Lombard 
laws  themselves  give  but  little  precise  information  on  this 
point.  The  Romans  at  least  lost  all  united  nationality. 
Koman  law  seems  to  have  been  first  distinctively  brought 
into  use  under  Luitprand.  The  feeling  of  enmity  which, 
for  a  long  time  at  least,  existed  between  the  people  and 
their  conquerors,  was  increased  by  religious  differences, 
and  on  this  account  the  new  power  was  specially  obnox- 
ious to  the  authorities  of  the  Roman  Church.  A  state 
of  war  generally  prevailed  between  the  two  powers. 
The  Church  writers  are  constant  and  bitter  in  their 
complaints  of  Lombard  impiety  and  oppressions — at  least 
during  the  earlier  period  of  their  dominion — in  the  wast- 
ing of  churches  and  monasteries,  and  the  treatment  of 
ecclesiastics.  The  Lombard  clergy  themselves,  how- 
ever, do  not  seem  to  be  charged  as  active  participants 
in  these  deeds.  Gregory  the  Great  discerns  in  the 
times  signs  of  the  approaching  judgment.  "  What  is 
happening  in  other  parts  of  the  world,"  he  says, "  we 
know  not ;  but  in  this  the  end  of  all  things  not  merely 
announces  itself  as  approaching,  but  shows  itself  as  act- 
ually begun"  {Dial.  iii).  Such  representations  of  the 
spirit  and  course  of  the  conquerors  must  be  taken  with 
considerable  qualification.  Still  more  untrustworthy  are 
the  accounts  given,  especially  by  Gregory,  of  numerous 
miracidous  interferences  in  behalf  of  the  true  faith. 

The  Lombards  were  Arians.  Unlike  the  Franks, 
who  became  by  religious  sympathy  the  natural  defend- 
ers of  the  pope,  they,  with  the  Goths,  Vandals,  Bur- 
gundians,  and  Suevians,  had  been  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity, about  the  end  of  the  5th  century,  by  Arian  mis- 
sionaries. Such  was  the  case  with  the  German  tribes 
generally  on  the  lower  Danube.  But  there  ^vere  among 
them  many,  some  of  whom  entered  Italj^,  who  were  still 
heathens,  and  Avorshipped  their  gods  Odin  and  Freia 
south  of  the  Alps.  There  were  probably  also  some 
Catholic  Pannonians  and  Noricans  who,  with  their  bish- 
ops, had  joined  the  expedition.  The  first  influence  ex- 
erted by  Rome  for  the  conversion  of  the  Lombards  was 
through  the  wife  of  Alboin,  a  niece  of  Clovis,  who  was 
a  good  Roman  Catholic,  and  had  been  enjoined  by  the 
bishop  of  Treves  to  convert  her  husband  from  his  Arian 
heresy.  Theodolinda  of  Bavaria  also  exerted  a  like  in- 
fluence Hjion  her  husband  Autharis,  and  under  his  reign 
the  Catholic  faith  made  considerable  progress.  On  the 
death  of  Autharis  (590),  Theodolinda  married  Agilidf, 
and  imder  his  government  also  she  continued  to  labor 
for  the  advancement  of  the  Catholic  Church,  hoping 
thereby  to  refine  the  manners  of  her  own  people.  The- 
odolinda persuaded  Agilulf  to  restore  a  portion  of  their 
property  and  dignities  to  the  Catholic  clergy,  and  to  have 
his  own  son  baptized  according  to  the  Catholic  rites — 
an  example  which  was  followed  by  multitudes.  Her 
brother  Gundwald,  duke  of  Asti,  she  influenced  to  build 
the  magnificent  Basilica  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  at  ]Mon- 
za,  near  IMilan,  in  which  in  subsequent  times  was  kept 
the  Lombard  crown,  called  the  Iron  Crown;  indeed,  she 
improved  any  and  evcrv'  opportunity  to  advance  the  in- 
terests of  the  Catholics,  and  thus  hastened  the  success- 
ful establishment  of  their  religion  among  the  Lombards, 
Gregory  the  Great  (590-604),  founder  of  the  papacy, 
maintained  frequent  correspondence  with  the  queen  in 


LONGOBARDI 


502 


LONGUEVAL 


a  friendly  relation,  similar  to  that  existing  between 
Gregory  VII  and  the  coiuitess  Matilda.  On  the  occa- 
sion of  the  baptism  of  her  children  she  received  a  pres- 
ent from  Gregory.  Earlier  he  had  sent  her  foiur  Books 
of  Dialogues,  "  because  he  knew  that  she  was  true  to 
the  faith  in  Christ,  and  strong  m  good  works"  (Paul. 
Diac.  iv,  5). 

If  the  Koman  Church  had  met  with  material  losses 
by  the  Lombard  invasion,  it  now  gained  much  for  the 
power  of  the  papacy  in  the  more  complete  dependence 
with  which  all  parts  of  Itah'  began  to  look  to  Rome  for  a 
common  defence  of  their  faith.  Rome  became  a  certain 
centre  of  national  life  through  the  diffused  power  of  its 
bishops,  and  what  the  Roman  Empire  had  lost  by  arms 
the  Roman  Church  was  to  regain  by  peaceful  means. 
After  Gregory's  death  Agilulf  received  the  monk  Co- 
lumban  with  great  favor,  and  allowed  him  to  settle 
where  he  would.  At  IMilan  he  wrote  against  Arianism. 
He  founded  the  powerful  monastery  of  Bobbia,  which 
was  subsequently  very  influential  in  the  conversion  of 
the  Lombards.  Grundeberg,  daughter  of  Theodolinda, 
married  successively  the  kings  Ariowald  and  Rotharis. 
Under  the  latter  there  was  a  Catholic  and  Arian  bishop 
in  each  city.  Aribert  (653-661),  the  son  of  duke  Gun- 
dnald,  was  the  first  Catholic  king.  DiiUinger  says  of 
him,  '-Rex  Horibertus,  plus  et  catholicus,  Arrianorum 
abolevit  liKresem  et  Christianam  fidem  fecit  crescere." 
The  Lombards  became  now  enthusiastic  churchmen ; 
many  monasteries  and  churches  were  founded  and  rich- 
ly endowed.  There  was  always,  however,  a  certain  de- 
gree of  independence  manifest  among  them.  At  the 
Lateran  Council  of  649,  summoned  by  Martin  I,  Milan 
and  Aquileia  were  not  represented.  A  certain  patri- 
archal and  metropolitan  prerogative  was  allowed  the 
pope,  with  a  due  reservation  of  national  liberty.  In 
the  latter  half  of  the  7th  century  internal  contests  for 
the  Lombard  crown  secured  a  greater  degree  of  attach- 
ment to  the  Church,  while  tlie  disputes  of  Rome  with 
Constantinople  brought  the  Lombards  to  the  defence  of 
the  former.  In  the  8th  century  the  powerful  king  Luit- 
prand  (713-35),  who  raised  the  Lombard  kingdom  to  its 
highest  pirosperity,  sought  anxiously  to  complete  the 
conciuest  of  all  Italy,  and  before  800  it  may  be  said  that 
the  national  unity  of  Italy  was  complete.  Each  subject 
was  called  a  Lombard.  See  Luitpkaxd.  The  Church 
was  subject  to  the  state.  Though  its  clergy  and  bish- 
ops obtained  increasing  power,  it  was  not  of  a  political 
character  as  in  France.  The  bishops  wore  subject  to  the 
king,  and  the  inferior  clergy  to  the  subordinate  judges. 
The  bishops  were  chosen  by  the  people.  The  cloisters 
were  subject  to  magisterial  power.  But  the  prospect 
looming  up  before  the  popes  of  soon  becoming  themselves 
subject  to  the  rule  of  the  barbaric  Lombards,  they  now 
entered  upon  that  Machiavelian  policy  which  they  long 
incessantly  pursued,  of  laboring  to  prevent  a  union  of  all 
Italy  under  one  government,  in  order  to  secure  for  them- 
seh-es  the  greater  power  in  the  midst  of  contending  par- 
ties. This,  with  the  disputes  which  arose  concerning  the 
succession  to  the  Lombard  throne,  led  to  the  downfall 
of  the  Lombard  kingdom  within  no  long  time  after  it 
had  reached  its  utmost  greatness.  Gregory  III,  in  his 
distress,  fixed  his  gaze  on  the  youthful  greatness  of  a 
transalpine  nation,  the  Franks,  to  afford  him  the  nec- 
essary assistance  in  the  struggle  now  ensuing.  The 
movement  against  the  Lombards  was  initiated  at  the 
election  of  Zachary,  by  discanhng  the  customary  form 
of  olitaining  the  consent  of  the  exarchate's  authority, 
at  tills  time  vested  in  the  Lombard  king;  and  .Ste- 
phen II  made  way  for  Pepin,  after  having  anointed  him 
to  tlie  patriciate,  i.  c.  the  governorship  of  Rome,  to  make 
war  ui)on  Aistulf,  the  successor  of  Luitprand.  Natu- 
rally enough,  Pepin's  military  successes  were  all  turned 
to  the  advantage  of  the  pofie  in  securing  to  him  the  ex- 
archate and  Pentai)olis.  New  causes  of  hostility  be- 
tween the  Frank  and  Lombard  monarchs  arose  when 
Charlemagne  sent  back  to  her  father  his  wife,  the  daugh- 
ter of  the  Lombard  king  Desiderius  (754-774).     In  the 


autumn  of  773  Charlemagne  invaded  Italy,  and  in  l\Iay  of 
the  following  year  Pavia  was  conquered,  and  the  Lom- 
bard kingdom  was  overthrown.  In  803  a  treaty  between 
Charlemagne,  the  western,  and  Nicephorus,  the  eastern 
emperor,  confirmed  the  right  of  the  former  to  the  Lom- 
bard territorj-,  with  Rome,  the  Exarchate,  Ravenna,  Is- 
tria,  and  part  of  Dalmatia;  while  the  Eastern  empire 
retained  the  islands  of  Venice  and  the  maritime  towns 
of  Dalmatia,  with  Naples,  Sicily,  and  part  of  Calabria. 
See  T lirk,  Z'te  Longobardeyi  nnd  ihr  Volksrecht  (Rost. 
1835)  ;  Flegler,  Das  Konigreich  dei-  LoTUjoharden  in  Ital- 
ien  (Leipz.  1851) ;  Abel,  Der  Untergang  d.  Longobarden- 
reichs  in  Italien  (Gott.  1858) ;  Leo,  Gesch,  d,  ital.  Staaten 
(1829), vol.i ;  Hautleville, Ilist.des Communes Lomhai-des 
depuis  leur  origine  jusqu'u  la  Jin  du  xiii  Si'ecle  (Paris, 
1857),  vol.  i ;  Reichel,  liomun  See  in  the  Middle  Ages,  p, 
50  sq. ;  Milvaan,  Hist,  of  Latin  Christianity, i,A~2;  ii,  39 
sq.     See  Lombardy,     (E.  B.  O.) 

Longobardi,  Niccoi.b,  a  Jesuit  missionarj-,  was 
born  in  Switzerland  in  1565.  He  went  to  China  as  mis- 
sionary in  1596,  and  died  in  1655  at  Pekin.  He  wrote 
De  Confucio  ejusque  Docfrina  Tracfatus.  See  Leibo- 
ritz's  notes  to  a  recent  edition.  See  Hoefer,  Koui\  Biog. 
Generale,  s.  v. 

Longuerue,  Louis  nu  Four,  abhe  de,  an  eminent, 
learned  French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Charleville  Jan.  6, 
1652,  was  the  son  of  a  Norman  nobleman.  When  but 
four  years  old  he  was  generally  known  as  a  learned 
prodigy.  At  foiu-teen  he  understood  several  Oriental 
languages,  and  undertook  to  get  a  complete  Iviiowledge 
of  the  holy  Scriptures  by  making  diligent  study  of  the 
fathers  and  of  the  Jewish  and  Christian  commentators. 
The  Sorbonne,  which  he  sometimes  visited,  only  gave 
him  a  distaste  for  scholastic  theology ;  he  preferred  to 
reconstruct  positive  theology  from  the  original,  after  the 
manner  of  P.  Petau,  where  he  found  more  exactness  and 
stability.  In  1674  he  was  pro\aded  with  the  abbotship 
of  St.  Jean-du-jard,  near  Melun,  and  in  1684  with  that 
of  Sept-Fontaines,  in  the  diocese  of  Rheims.  After  re- 
ceiving orders  he  entered  the  Seminary  of  St.  iNIagloire, 
and  shut  himself  up  there  in  complete  solitude  for  fif- 
teen years.  When  he  re-entered  the  world  he  opened 
his  house  to  learned  men,  and  kept  up  with  them  a 
regular  correspondence,  and  manifested  a  great  eager- 
ness to  instruct  those  who  considted  him.  Longuerue 
consecrated  his  whole  life  to  labor ;  he  knew  no  other 
rest  except  that  of  change  of  occupation.  No  part 
of  the  domain  of  learning  was  strange  to  him,  but  he 
much  preferred  history.  His  constitution  and  memory 
were  good.  In  conversation  he  was  lively,  satirical, 
critical,  humorous,  and  cynical.  He  took  no  part  in 
religious  controversj-.  He  died  in  1732.  Among  his 
works  of  interest  to  us  are  Traite  dun  auteiir  de  la  com- 
munion Romaine  touchant  la  transubstantiation,  ou  ilfait 
voir  que  selon  les  principes  de  son  Eglise  ce  dogme  nepeut 
etre  un  article  defoi  (London,  1686)  : — Dissertations  tou- 
chant les  Antiquites  des  Chaldeeiis  et  des  Egyptiens  (in 
the  Lettres  choisies  of  Richard  Simon) : — Dissertation 
sur  le  passage  de  Flavins  Josephe  en  J'aveur  de  Jesus- 
Christ  (in  the  Bibl.  ancienne  et  moderne  of  Le  Clerc,  vii, 
237-288) : — Rertiarques  sur  la  vie  du  cardinal  Wolsey 
contraires  a  ceux  qui  ont  ecrit  contre  sa  reputation  (in 
the  Me  moire  de  Litterat.  of  P.  Desmolets).  See  Hoefer, 
Noui\  Biog.  Generale,  s.  v. ;  Thomas,  Diet,  of  Biogr.  and 
Mijthol.  s.  V. ;  General  Biogivphical  Dictionary,  s.  v. 

Longueval,  Jacques,  a  learned  French  Jesuit,  was 
born  in  the  suburbs  of  Peronne  iNIarch  18.  1680.  At  the 
age  of  nineteen  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  af- 
terwards taught  rhetoric  and  theology  in  different  col- 
leges of  his  order.  On  account  of  a  violent  work  pub- 
lished upon  the  religious  quarrels  of  the  period,  he  was 
first  exiled,  but  later  recei\'ed  permission  to  reside  at  the 
house  of  professed  Jesuits  in  Paris.  He  died  January 
11,  1735.  Among  his  published  works  are  Traite  du 
.Schisme  (Brussels,  1718)  [a  Refutation  of  this  work  was 
published  in  the  same  year  by  Mcganck] : — Dissertation 


LONSDALE 


503 


LORD 


sur  les  Miracles  (Paris,  1730, 4to) : — Eistoire  de  VEglise 
Gallicune  (Paris,  1730-1749,  18  vols.  8vo) ;  Longueval 
wrote  only  the  tirst  eight  volumes,  reaching  the  year 
1138;  the  others  have  been  written  by  Fontenay,  Bru- 
moy,  and  Berthier.  I'hc  work  has  been  reprinted  at 
Nlmes  (1782)  and  at  Paris  (1825).  Longueval  is  also 
the  author  of  the  greater  part  of  the  Reflexions  J\  I  or  ales, 
an  appendix  to  the  Nouveau  Testament  of  P.  Lallemant. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  s. v. ;  Thomas,  Diet,  of 
Bior/r.  and  Mythol.  s.  v.;  Fontenay, i'%e  de  Longueval, 
in  VUistoire  Gallicane,  vol.  ix. 

Lonsdale,  John,  D.D.,  a  distinguished  English 
prelate,  was  born  at  Newniillerdam,  near  Waketield,  Jan- 
uary 17, 1788,  and  was  the  son  of  the  Rev.  John  Lons- 
dale, vicar  of  Durtield  and  incumbent  of  Chapelthorpe. 
Young  Lonsdale  entered  Eton  College  at  the  age  of  11, 
and  completed  his  studies  finally  at  King's  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  got  nearly  all  the  prizes,  and  took 
the  B.A.  in  1811.  He  then  studied  law  for  a  time,  but 
changing  for  theology,  he  was  ordained  priest  in  1815. 
Shortly  after  he  was  made  examining  chaplain  to  arch- 
bishop Sutton  and  assistant  preacher  at  the  temple. 
In  1821  he  was  appointed  to  the  office  of  Christian  ad- 
vocate to  Cambridge  University,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  domestic  chaplain  to  the  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury. From  1831  to  1813  he  was  prebendary  of  St. 
Paul's ;  from  1839  to  1813,  principal  of  King's  College, 
London,  and  rector  of  Southtleet,  Kent.  He  was  also 
archdeacon  of  Midtllesex  during  1812  and  1813,  and 
was  for  some  time  chaplain  at  Lincoln's  Inn.  In  1814, 
finally,  he  was  appointed,  by  Sir  Robert  Peel,  bishop  of 
Lichfield.  He  died  at  Erdeshall  Castle,  Staffordshire, 
Oct.  19, 1867.  Bishop  Lonsdale  was  greatly  celebrated 
in  the  English  pulpit;  while  yet  in  the  infancy  of  his 
ministry,  two  courses  of  his  miiversity  sermons,  as  weU 
as  several  occasional  discourses,  were  asked  for  and  re- 
ceived by  the  public  (London,  1820, 1821).  In  1849  he 
published,  with  archbishop  Hale,  a  volume  oi  Annota- 
tions on  the  Gospels  (see  Hale).  He  is  spoken  of  as  "  a 
man  of  remarkable  humility,  averse  to  controversy,  and 
never  willing  to  enter  into  a  public  discussion  of  great 
questions  in  theology,  from  the  belief  that  others  were 
better  qualified  than  he  to  handle  them  ;  but,  withal,  he 
was  unrtinching  in  his  adherence  to  what  he  believed  to 
be  right."  He  was  greatly  beloved,  not  only  by  his  own 
Church,  but  by  the  Dissenters  also.  See  Appleton's 
Ann.  Cyclop.  1867,  p.  451 ;  Am.  Ch,  Rev.  1868,  p.  G75. 

Looking-glass.     See  Mirror. 

Loop  (only  in  the  plural  7^^V^h ,luladth' ,  windings ; 
Sept.  rtyicuAof,  Vulg.  anhda>),  an  attachment  or  knotted 
"f^e,"  probably  of  cord,  corresponding  to  the  knobs  or 
"  taches"  (D^plp)  in  the  edges  of  the  curtains  of  the 
tabernacle  for  joining  them  into  a  continuous  circuit, 
fifty  to  a  curtain,  and  formed  of  blue  material  (Exod. 
xxvi,  4,  5, 10, 11 ;  xxxvi,  11, 12, 17),     See  Tabernacle. 

Loos  (Callidius),  Cornelius,  a  German  Roman 
Catholic  theologian,  was  born  at  Gonda,  Holland,  in 
1546,  and  was  educated  at  Louvain.  He  entered  the 
priesthood,  and  was  made  doctor  of  theology  at  IMentz, 
where,  in  a  sojourn  of  several  years,  he  composed  most 
of  his  works.  He  afterwards  became  archbishop  of 
Treves;  but,  on  account  of  his  opinions  upon  magic,  pub- 
lished in  a  book  styled  Be  vera  etfcdsa  magia  (1592), 
he  was  forced  to  remove  from  his  diocese,  though  he 
retracted  his  heretical  views.  He  went  to  Brussels,  and 
there  exercised  the  humble  functions  of  vicar  of  the  par- 
ish. He  was  soon  accused  of  falling  back  into  his  old 
opinions,  and  was  arrested  and  imprisoned.  He  was 
about  to  be  accused  a  third  time,  when  he  died  at  Brus- 
sels, Feb.  3, 1595.  Loos  was  very  zealous  against  Prot- 
estants. Among  his  works  the  following  are  of  theo- 
logical and  general  interest:  Defensio  adversus,  Chr, 
Franckeniuin  caterosqiie  sectarios panis  adorationem  im- 
pie  asscrmtes  (Mayenee,  1581)  ■.—Thurihulum  aureum 
iaiKiarumprecationum  (ibidem,  1581)  :—Illustrium  Ger- 


nianice  Scriptorum  Catalogus  (ibidem,  1581)  : — Ecclesice 
Venatus  (Cologne,  1585) : — Annotationes  in  Ferum  su- 
per Joannem,  often  reprinted.  See  Sweert,  A  thence  Bel- 
gicce;  Foppens,  Bihlioth.  Belgica ;  Martin  Delrio,  Dis- 
quisit.  magicce,  liv.  v ;  Bayle,  Diet.  Hist,  et  Crit.  (Callid- 
ius) ;  Niceron,  Memoires;  Paquot,  Memoires;  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  s.  v. 

Lope  de  Vega.     See  Vega. 

Lope  de  Vera  y  Alarc.vn,  a  Christian  convert 
to  Judaism,  suffered  martyrdom  for  his  apostasy  bj'  the 
hands  of  the  inquisitors'  tribunal  of  Spain.  The  de- 
scendant of  a  noble  Spanish  family,  he  had,  while  a  stu- 
dent at  Salamanca,  interested  himself  in  the  study  of 
Jewish  literature  and  Judaism,  and  finally  made  a  pub- 
lic confession  of  his  belief  in  Judaism  as  the  only  re- 
vealed religion.  He  was  imprisoned  at  Valladolid,  and, 
persisting  in  his  decision,  was  condemned  to  death  at 
the  stake,  July  25, 1644.  He  was  at  the  time  of  his 
death  only  about  twenty-five  years  old,  and  had  suffered 
imprisonment  for  nearly  five  years.  See  Griitz,  Gesch, 
der  Juden,  x,  101. 

Loqui,  Martix.     See  Taborites. 

Lorance,  James  Houston,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  born  at  Mount  Pleasant,  Tenn.,  June  1,  1820. 
He  was  educated  in  Princeton  College,  N.  J.,  and  in  di- 
vinity in  the  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  (class  of 
1846),  and  was  licensed  by  New  Brunswick  Presbytery, 
commenced  active  work  at  Whitesville,  Ala.,  and  sub- 
sequently was  ordained  by  PalmjTa  Presbytery  as  pas- 
tor at  Hannibal,  Mo.  He  removed  to  Courtland,  Ala., 
in  1851,  and  there  continued  his  pastoral  labors  until  his 
death,  June  1, 1862.  Mr.  Lorance  was  an  able  and  em- 
inent preacher,  pleasing  and  affable  in  manners,  and  firm 
but  not  obstinate  in  his  conscientious  attachment  to  the 
doctrines  and  polity  of  the  Church  of  his  fathers.  See 
Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  A  Im.  1867,  p.  444,     (J.  L.  S.) 

Lord  is  the  rendering  in  the  A.  V.  of  sever."!  Heb. 
and  Greek  words,  which  have  a  very  different  import 
from  each  other,  "  Lord"  is  a  Saxon  word  signifying 
ruler  or  governor.  In  its  original  form  it  is  hlaford, 
which,  by  dropping  the  aspiration,  became  laford,  and 
afterwards,  by  contraction,  lord. 

1,  ilTiT^,  Yehovah',  Jehovah,  the  proper  name  of  the 
God  of  the  Hebrews,  M-hich  should  always  have  been 
retained  in  that  form,  but  has  almost  invariably  been 
translated  in  the  English  Bible  by  Lord  (and  printed 
thus  in  small  capitals),  after  the  example  of  the  Sept, 
(Kvpioc)  and  Vulg.  (Dominus).     See  Jehovah. 

2.  'jITX,  adun',  one  of  the  early  words  (hence  in  the 
early  Phcenico- Greek  Adonis')  denoting  the  most  abso- 
lute control,  and  therefore  most  fitly  represented  by  the 
English  word  lord,  as  in  the  A.  V.  (Sept,  Kvpiog,  Vulg. 
dominus).  It  is  not  properly  a  divine  title,  although 
occasionally  applied  to  God  (Psa.  cxiv,  7 ;  properly  with 
the  art.  in  this  sense,  Exod.  xxiii,  13),  as  the  supreme 
proprietor  (Josh,  iii,  13) ;  but  appropriately  denotes  a 
master,  as  of  slaves  (Gen.  xxiv,  4,  27 ;  xxxix,  2,  7),  or 
a  king,  as  ruler  of  subjects  (Gen.  xlv,  8  ;  Isa.  xxvi,  13), 
a  husband,  as  lord  of  the  wife  (Gen.  xviii,  12).  It  is 
frequently  a  term  of  respect,  like  our  Sir,  but  with  a 
pronoun  attached  ("my  lord"),  and  often  occurs  in  the 
plural.     See  Master. 

A  modified  form  of  this  word  is  A  donay'  C^nX ;  Sept. 
KvpioQ,  lord,  master),  "  the  old  plural  form  of  the  noun 
')ilN,  adon,  similar  to  that  with  the  suffix  of  the  first 
person,  used  as  the  pluralis  excelleniice,  by  way  of  dig- 
nity, for  the  name  of  Jehovah.  The  similar  form  with 
the  suffix,  is  also  used  of  men,  as  of  Joseph's  master  (Gen, 
xxxix,  2,  3  sq.),  of  Joseph  himself  (Gen.  xlii,  30,  33 ;  so 
also  Isa.  xix,  4).  The  Jews,  out  of  superstitious  rever- 
ence for  the  name  Jehovah,  alwaj-s,  in  reading,  pro- 
nounce .1  donai  where  Jehovah  is  written,  and  hence  the 
letters  (lltT^  are  usually  written  with  the  points  be- 
longing to  Adonai,  Jehovah.'  The  view  that  the  word 


LORDLY 


504 


LORD 


exhibits  a  pliiral  termination  without  the  affix  is  that 
of  Gesc'iiius  (Thesaur.  s.  v.  "|"n),  and  seems  just,  though 
rather  (iisapproved  by  professor  Lee  (^Lex.  in  "jI'lX).  The 
latter  adds  that  'oiu:  English  Bibles  generally  translate 
riTI"'  by  LORD,  in  capitals;  when  preceded  by  "I'l'lXn; 
they  translate  it  God;  when  mXSiJ,  tzahaoth,  follows, 
by  Loan,  as  in  Isa.  iii,  1, '  The  Lord,  the  Lord  of  Hosts.' 
Tlie  copies  now  in  use  are  not,  however,  consistent  in 
this  respect"  (Kitto).  "  In  some  instances  it  is  difficidt, 
on  account  of  the  pause  accent,  to  say  whether  Adonai 
is  the  title  of  the  Deity,  or  merely  one  of  respect  ad- 
dressed to  men.  These  have  been  noticed  by  theMaso- 
rites,  who  distinguish  the  former  in  their  notes  as  'holy,' 
and  the  latter  as  '  profane.'  (See  Gen.  xviii,  3 ;  xix,  2, 
18 ;  and  compare  the  Masoretic  notes  on  Gen.  xx,  13 ; 
Isa.  xix,  4)"  (Smith.)     See  Adonai. 

3.  Kvpiog,  the  general  Greek  term  for  supreme  mas- 
tery, Avhether  royal  or  private ;  and  thus,  in  classical 
Greek,  distinguished  from  Oeoc,  which  is  exclusively 
applied  to  God.  The  "Greek  Kvpwg,  indeed,  is  used 
iu  much  the  same  way  and  in  the  same  sense  as  Lord. 
It  is  from  Kvpog,  authority,  and  signifies  'master'  or 
'  possessor.'  In  the  Septuagint,  this,  like  Lord  m  our 
version,  is  invariably  used  for  '  Jehovah'  and  '  Adonai ;' 
while  Btdf,  like  God  iu  our  translation,  is  generally  re- 
served to  represent  the  Hebrew  '  Elohim.'  Kvpiog  in 
the  original  of  the  Greek  Testament,  and  Lord  in  our 
version  of  it,  are  used  in  much  the  same  manner  as  in 
the  Septuagint;  and  so,  also,  is  the  corresponding  title, 
Dominus,  in  the  Latin  versions.  As  the  Hebrew  name 
Jehovah  is  one  never  used  with  reference  to  any  but 
the  Almighty,  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  Septuagint, 
imitated  by  our  own  and  other  versions,  has  represented 
it  by  a  word  which  is  also  used  for  the  Hebrew  'Ado- 
nai,' which  is  applied  not  only  to  God,  but,  like  our 
'  Lord,'  to  creatures  also,  as  to  angels  (Gen.  xix,  2 ;  Dan. 
X,  16,  17),  to  men  in  authority  (Gen.  xlii,  30,  33),  and 
to  proprietors,  owners,  masters  (Gen.  xlv,  8).  In  the 
New  Testament,  Kvpiog,  representing '  Adonai,'  and  both 
represented  by  Lord,  the  last,  or  human  application  of 
the  term,  is  frequent.  In  fact,  the  leading  idea  of  the 
Hebrew,  the  Greek,  and  the  English  words  is  that  of  an 
owner  or  proprietor,  whether  God  or  man ;  and  it  occurs 
in  the  inferior  application  with  great  frequency  in  the 
New  Testament.  This  application  is  either  literal  or 
complimentary  :  literal  when  the  party  is  really  an 
owner  or  master,  as  in  Matt,  x,  2-1 ;  xx,  8 ;  xxi,  40 ;  Acts 
xvi,  IC,  10 ;  Gal.  iv,  1,  etc. ;  or  when  he  is  so  as  having 
absolute  authority  over  another  (Matt,  ix,  38 ;  Luke  x, 
2),  or  as  being  a  supreme  lord  or  sovereign  (Acts  xxv, 
26) ;  and  complimentary  when  used  as  a  title  of  address, 
especially  to  superiors,  like  the  English  Master,  Sir; 
the  French  Sieur,  Monsieur;  the  German  Herr,  etc.,  as 
in  Matt,  xiii,  27;  xxi,  20;  Mark  vii,  8;  Luke  ix,  54" 
(Kitto).     See  Winer,  Z)e  voce  Kiipiog  (Erlang.  1828). 

4.  5:^'3,  hii'ul,  master  in  the  sense  oi  domination,  ap- 
ydied  to  only  heathen  deities,  or  else  to  human  relations, 
as  husband,  etc.,  and  especially  to  a  person  skilled  or 
chief  in  a  trade  or  profession  (like  the  vulgar  boss). 
To  this  corresponds  the  Greek  devTroTijg,  whence  our 
"despot."     See  Baal. 

The  remaining  and  less  important  words  in  the  orig- 
inal, thus  rendered  in  the  common  Bible  (usually  with- 
out a  capital  initial),  arc:  ""^Hii,  gebii-',  prop,  denoting 
physical  strength  or  martial  prowess;  "lb,  sar,  a  title 
of  nobility ;  b^b'j,  shulish',  a  military  officer  (see  Cap- 
tain); and  '\^p,,  se'ren,  a  Philistine  term;  also  the 
Cliald.  N']'2,  mark',  an  official  title  (hence  the  Syriac 
mar, or  bishop) ;  and  y^,  rah,  a  general  n&mz—jir effect, 
with  its  reduplicate  '2"13'^,  rahrehati',  and  its  Greek 
equivalent  pa^^oi'i, "  Rabbonl.'' 

Lordly  occurs  in  the  A.  Y.  only  in  the  expression 
C^T''nX  ^ED,  se'phel  addirim',  howl  o/'[the]  nobles,  i. 


e.  a  large  vessel  fit  to  be  used  for  persons  of  quality 
(Judg.  V,  25).     See  Disii. 

Lord,  Benjamin,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  born  in  1693  at  Saybrook,  Conn.,  graduated  at  Yale 
College  in  1714,  was  chosen  tutor  in  1715,  was  ordained 
pastor  Nov.  20,  1717,  in  Norwich,  and  there  preaclied 
until  his  death,  March  31, 1784.  He  was  made  a  mem- 
ber of  Yale  College  coqioration  in  1740,  and  remained 
such  till  1772.  Dr.  Lord  published  True  Christianity  ex- 
plained and  exposed,  wherein  are  some  Observations  re- 
specting Conversion  (1727)  : — Two  Sermons  on  the  Ne- 
cessity of  Ref/eneration  (1737)  : — Believers  in  Christ  only 
the  true  Children  of  God,  and  hoi-n  of  him  alone,  a  ser- 
mon (1742)  : — God  glorified  in  the  Worhs  of  Providence 
and  Grace :  a  remarkable  Instance  of  it  in  the  various 
and  signal  Deliverances  that  evidently  appear  to  he 
wrought  for  Mercy  Wheeler,  lately  restored  from  extreme 
Impotence  and  Confinement  (1743) ;  and  several  occa- 
sional sermons. — Sprague,  A  nnals,  i,  297. 

Lord,  Daniel  Minor,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  April  0, 1800,  at  Lyme,  Conn.,  and  was  educa- 
ted at  Amherst  College  and  at  the  Theological  Seminar}' 
at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  and  in  April,  1834,  was  licensed  by 
the  Second  I'resbytery  of  Long  Island,  and  subsequently 
ordained  at  Southampton.  In  1835  the  Presbytery  dis- 
missed him  to  the  Suffolk  Soutli  Association.  Soon 
after  he  became  pastor  of  the  Boston  Jlariners'  Church. 
In  August,  1848,  he  became  the  tirst  pastor  of  the  Shelter 
Island  Church,  where  he  remained  until  his  death,  Aug. 
26, 1861.  Mr.  Lord  published  7'Ae  History  of  Pitcairn's 
Island;  also  various  articles  on  The  moral  Claims  of 
Seamen  stated  and  enforced,  and  for  several  years  was 
editor  and  almost  sole  writer  and  publisher  of  a  review, 
in  which  he  ably,  logically,  and  clearly  discussed  pro- 
found theological  questions.  See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist. 
A  Imanac,  1863,  p.  305.     (J.  L.  S.) 

Lord,  Eleazer,  an  American  theological  writer, 
was  born  in  1798.  With  an  excellent  preparatory  edu- 
cation, improved  by  close  study  to  such  a  degree  that 
in  1821  Dartmouth  College,  and  in  1827  Williams,  con- 
ferred on  him  the  honorary  degree  of  A.M.,  he  devoted 
a  portion  of  his  time  during  an  active  business  life  as  a 
merchant,  president  of  an  insurance  company,  and  for 
some  years  of  the  Erie  Railway  Company,  to  the  study 
of  theological  science.  In  1866  he  received  from  the 
University  of  New  York  the  degree  of  LL.D.  Blind- 
ness saddened  his  latter  years,  but  his  treasured  learn- 
ing comforted  him.  He  died  at  Piermont,  N.  Y.,  June 
3,1871. 

Lord,  Isaiah,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  was 
born  in  Pharsalia,  Chenango  Coimty,  N.  York,  July  16, 
1834,  was  converted  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  and,  join- 
ing the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  at  once  began  to 
preach.  In  1854,  while  employed  as  a  teacher,  his  gen- 
tle bearing  and  godly  admonitions  led  many  to  the 
cross  and  salvation.  In  1855  he  joined  the  Oneida  Con- 
ference, and  labored  in  the  following  places  with  accep- 
tability and  success:  Summer  Hill,  Harford,  Borodino, 
Smyrna,  Union  Valley,  Amber,  Freeville,  East  Homer, 
and  Georgetown,  where  he  died  Aug.  21, 1870.  "  He  was 
a  man  of  stern  integrity  and  sterling  worth,  fuUy  com- 
mitted to  all  the  great  moral  enterprises  of  the  day.  .  .  . 
His  mission  was  lovingly  and  fearlessly  executed.  His 
piety  was  deep  and  real,  and  his  death  was  but  the  be- 
ginning of  everlasting  life."— Con/;  Minutes,  1871. 

Lord,  James  Cooper,  a  philanthropic  New  York 
merchant  and  iron  manufacturer  of  our  day,  deserves  a 
place  here  for  his  great  efforts  to  advance  the  interests 
of  his  fellow-men.  He  founded  in  1860  "The  First 
Ward  Industrial  School;"  later,  a  free  reading-room,  a 
library-,  and  erected  two  churches  for  the  benefit  of  his 
workingmen  and  their  neighbors.    He  died  Feb.  9, 1869. 

Lord,  Jeremiah  S.,  D.D.,  a  Reformed  (Dutch) 
minister  of  note,  was  born  at  Brookhni,  N.  York,  about 
1817,  and  was  educated  at  Union  College,  class  of  1836. 


LORD 


505 


LORD'S  DAY 


He  entered  the  ministrj'  in  1843  at  IMontville,  N.  J., 
•where  he  labored  until  1847,  when  he  assumed  the 
charge  of  tlie  Keformed  Church  of  (jriggstown,  N.  Jer- 
sey. In  the  year  following,  however,  he  accepted  a 
call  from  the  Keformed  Church  in  Harlem,  and  there 
he  labored  until  his  death,  April  2, 1869.  '•  Few  minis- 
ters of  our  denomination,"  says  the  Intelligencer  (April  8, 
18G9),  "were  more  highly  esteemed  by  their  brethren, 
or  enjoyed  in  a  higher  measure  the  confidence  and  af- 
fection of  their  people,  than  did  tliis  most  excellent 
brother.  The  Lord  blessed  him  in  his  work,  and  gave 
him  many  soids  as  seals  to  his  ministry.  .  .  .  His 
preaching  was  characterized  by  great  earnestness  and 
solemnity.  The  love  of  Christ  in  the  gift  of  himself 
■was  the  central  theme  of  his  discourses.  His  style  was 
clear,  compact,  and  persuasive.  His  was  indeed  a  most 
usefid  life,  and  his  example  of  faithfidness,  earnest  zeal, 
and  self-sacrificing  devotion  to  the  duties  of  his  high 
and  holy  calling  is  a  rich  legacy  to  all  his  surviving 
brethren  in  the  ministry." 

Lord,  John  King,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
born  ^larch  'ii,  1819,  at  Amherst,  N.  H.  He  graduated 
at  Dartmouth  College  in  18(33,  entered  the  ministry  in 
1841,  and  was  ordained  pastor  in  Hartford.,  Yt.,  Novem- 
ber, 1841,  Avhere  he  remained  three  years.  October  21, 
1848,  he  was  installed  pastor  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  where 
he  died,  Jidy  13, 1849.  A  volume  of  his  sermons  was 
published  in  1850. — Sprague,  Annak,  ii,  7C1. 

Lord,  Nathan,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  eminent  American 
divine  and  educator,  was  born  at  South  Berwick,  Me., 
Nov.  28, 1793 ;  was  educated  at  Bowdoin  College  (class 
of  1809),  and  studied  theology  at  Andover  Theological 
Seminary,  where  he  graduated  in  1815.  After  quitting 
the  college  he  acted  as  assistant  in  PhiUips  Exeter  Acad- 
emy. Now  a  theologian,  he  at  once  entered  the  active 
work  of  the  ministry  as  pastor  of  the  Congregationalists 
at  Amherst,  N.  H.,  the  only  church  he  ever  served.  He 
remained  with  his  people  until  1828,  when  he  was  called 
to  the  responsible  position  of  president  of  Dartmouth 
College,  where  he  remained  until  his  death  in  1870. 
Possessed  of  the  highest  attainments  of  scholarship, 
great  executive  ability,  a  winning  address,  equanimity 
of  temper,  remarkable  "  firmness  of  character  and  devo- 
tion .to  principle,  and  unwearied  application  to  labor,  Dr. 
Lord  made  Dartmouth  College  one  of  the  most  popular 
of  our  higher  educational  institutions:  1824  students 
■were  graduated  from  its  halls  during  his  presidency. 
As  a  theologian  he  was,  like  Edwards,  Hopkins,  and  Bel- 
lamy, of  the  school  advocating  a  strictly  liberal  interpre- 
tation of  prophecy,  but  he  has  left  us  ievf  remains  in 
print.  He  occasionally  contributed  to  our  theological 
quarterlies,  and  published  several  sermons  and  essays. 
The  following  deserve  notice :  Letter  to  the  Rev.  David 
BaiKi,  D.D.,  on  Prof.  Park's  Theology  of  Neiv  England 
{New  Engl.  1852) ;  On  the  dlillenniiim  (1854) ;  and  Letters 
to  jMiniste7-s  of  the  Gospel  of  all  Denominations  on  Slavery 
(1854-5),  in  which  he  defended  the  institution  of  slavery 
as  sanctioned  by  the  Bible,  thereby  greatly  provoking 
opposition  and  criticism  from  Northern  divines.  See 
Drake,  Diet.  A  mer.  Biog.  s.  v. ;  Neio  Amer.  Cycloji.  s.  v. ; 
also  the  Annual  for  1870. 

Lord,  Nathan  L.,  a  Baptist  missionarj'  and  phy- 
sician, was  born  in  Norwich,  Conn.,  in  December,  1821, 
was  educated  at  the  Western  Eeserve  College  (class  of 
184(),  and,  after  completing  a  theological  course,  was 
employed  for  a  time  as  agent  and  financial  secretary  of 
the  college.  Having  decided  to  devote  himself  to  the 
missionary  work,  he  was  ordained  in  October,  1852,  and 
sailed  with  his  wife  for  Ceylon,  After  six  years  of  faith- 
ful labor,  the  failure  of  his  health  compelled  him  to  re- 
turn to  this  count  rA-,  where  he  remained  nearly  four  years, 
during  a  portion  of  which  time  he  performed  with'great 
acceptance  the  duties  of  a  district  secretary'  of  the  Board 
of  Missions  in  the  southern  districts  of  the  West.  He 
also  attended  several  courses  of  medical  lectures,  receiv- 
ing the  degree  of  JI.D.  at  Cleveland,  Ohio.    In  1863  he 


sailed  with  his  wife  and  children  for  the  Madura  Mis- 
sion of  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  of  Foreign 
Missions,  but  the  climate  of  India  proving  unfavorable 
to  his  health,  he  retm-ned  in  June,  1867.  He  died  Jan, 
24, 1868. 

Lord's  Day.  The  expression  so  rendered  in  the 
Authorized  English  Version  {tv  ry  KvpiaKij  t'lfiep^)  oc- 
curs only  once  m  the  New  Testament,  viz.,  in  Eev.  i,  10, 
and  is  there  unaccompanied  by  any  other  words  tending 
to  explain  its  meaning.  It  is,  liowever,  ■n-ell  known 
that  the  same  phrase  was,  in  after  ages  of  the  Christian 
Chiu-ch,  used  to  signify  the  first  day  of  the  week,  on 
which  the  resurrection  of  Christ  was  commemorated. 
Hence  it  has  been  inferred  that  the  same  name  was  giv- 
en to  that  day  during  the  time  of  the  apostles,  and  ■was 
in  the  present  instance  used  by  St.  John  in  this  sense, 
as  referring  to  an  institution  well  kno^nn,  and  therefore 
requiring  no  explanation.  This  interpretation,  howev- 
er, has  of  late  been  somewhat  questioned.  It  will  be 
proper  here,  therefore,  to  discuss  this  point,  as  well  as 
the  early  notices  of  this  Christian  observance,  leaving 
the  general  subject  to  be  treated  under  Sabbath.  In 
doing  this,  -we  avail  ourselves  of  the  articles  in  the  dic- 
tionaries of  Kitto  and  Smith. 

I.  Interpretation  of  the  Phrase  "LoirTs  Dag"  in  the 
Passage  in  question. — The  general  consent  both  of  Chris- 
tian antiquitj^  and  of  modern  divines  has  referred  it  to 
the  weekly  festival  of  our  Lord's  resurrection,  and  iden- 
tified it  with  "  the  first  day  of  the  week,"  on  which  he 
rose,  with  the  patristical  "eighth  day,"  or  "day  which 
is  both  the  first  and  the  eighth" — in  fact,  with  »/  roit 
'RXiov  'UiJ.(pa,  the  " Solis  dies,"  or  "Sunday"  of  every 
age  of  the  Church.  On  the  other  hand,  the  following 
different  explanations  have  been  proposed. 

1.  Some  have  supposed  St.  John  to  be  speaking,  in 
the  passage  above  referred  to,  of  the  Sabbath,  because 
that  institution  is  called  in  Isaiah  Iviii,  13,  by  the  Al- 
mighty himself,  "  My  holy  day."  To  this  it  is  replied : 
If  St.  John  had  intendecl  to  specify  the  Sabbath,  he 
would  surely  have  used  that  ■word,  which  was  by  no 
means  obsolete,  or  even  obsolescent,  at  the  time  of  his 
composing  the  book  of  the  Revelation.  It  is  added, 
that  if  an  apostle  had  set  the  example  of  confoimding 
the  seventh  and  the  first  days  of  the  week,  it  would 
have  been  strange  indeed  that  every  ecclesiastical  wri- 
ter for  the  first  five  centuries  shoidd  have  avoided  any 
approach  to  such  confusion.  They  do  avoid  it ;  for,  as 
Ildf5j3arov  is  never  used  by  them  for  the  first  daj',  so 
KvpiaKi'i  is  never  used  by  them  for  the  seventh  day. 
See  Sabbath. 

2.  A  second  opinion  is,  that  St.  John  intended  by  the 
"  Lord's  day"  that  on  which  the  Lord's  resurrection  was 
annually  celebrated,  or,  as  we  now  term  it,  Easter  day. 
On  this  it  need  only  be  observed,  that  though  it  was 
never  questioned  that  the  weekly  celebration  of  that 
event  should  take  place  on  the  first  daj'  of  the  hebdom- 
adal C3xle,  it  was  for  a  long  time  doubted  on  ■what  day 
in  the  annual  cycle  it  shoidd  be  celebrated.  T^vo 
schools,  at  least,  existed  on  this  point  until  considerably 
after  the  death  of  St.  John.  It  therefore  seems  unlikely 
that,  in  a  book  intended  for  the  whole  Church,  he  would 
have  employed  a  method  of  dating  which  was  far  from 
generally  agreed  upon.  It  is  to  be  added  that  no  pa- 
tristical authority  can  be  quoted,  either  for  the  interpre- 
tation contended  for  in  this  opinion,  or  for  the  employ- 
ment of  7/  KvpiaKT]  'HfXfpa  to  denote  Easter  day.  See 
Eastek. 

3.  Another  theory  is,  that  by  "  the  Lord's  day"  St= 
John  intended  '•  the  day  of  judgment,"  to  which  a  large 
portion  of  the  book  of  Kevelation  may  be  conceived  to 
refer.  Thus,  "  I  was  in  the  spirit  on  the  Lord's  day" 
(t-yf »-•('/( )jv  iv  -KVlvpaTi  tv  ti)  KvpiaKij  H/jipa)  wiiuld 
imply  that  he  was  rapt,  in  spiritual  vision,  to  the  date 
of  that  "great  and  terrible  day,"  just  as  St,  Paul  repre- 
sents himself  as  caught  up  locally  into  Paradise.  ISow, 
not  to  dispute  the  interpretation  of  the  passage  from 
which  the  illustration  is  drawn  (2  Cor.  xii,  4),  the  abet- 


LORD'S  DAY 


506 


LORD'S  DAY 


tors  of  this  view  seem  to  have  put  out  of  sight  the  fol- 
lowing considerations.  In  the  preceding  sentence  St. 
John  had  mentioned  the  place  in  which  he  was  writing 
— Patmos — and  tlie  causes  which  had  brought  liim  thith- 
er.  It  is  but  natural  that  he  should  further  particular- 
ize the  circumstances  under  which  his  mysterious  work 
was  composed,  by  stating  the  exact  daj^  on  which  the 
revelations  were  communicated  to  him,  and  the  employ- 
ment, spiritual  musing,  in  which  he  was  then  engaged. 
To  suppose  a  mixture  of  the  metaphorical  and  the  lit- 
eral would  be  strangely  out  of  keeping.  Though  it  be 
conceded  that  the  day  of  judgment  is  in  the  New  Test, 
spoken  of  as  'H  tov  Kvpiov  'Hjiipa,  the  employment  of 
the  adjectival  form  constitutes  a  remarkable  difference, 
■which  was  observed  and  maintained  ever  afterwards 
(comp.  1  Cor.  i,  8,  U ;  v,  5 :  1  Thess.  v,  2 ;  2  Thess.  ii,  2 ; 
Luke  xvii,  24;  2  Pet.  iii,  10).  There  is  also  a  critical 
objection  to  this  interpretation,  for  yh'ia^ai  tv  I'mipi}  is 
not— diem  agere  (comp.  Rev.  iv,  2).  This  third  theorj-, 
then,  which  is  sanctioned  by  the  name  of  Augusti,  must 
be  abandoned. 

4.  As  a  less  definite  modification  of  this  last  view  we 
may  mention,  finally,  that  others  have  regarded  the 
phrase  in  question  as  meaning  simply  "  the  day  of  the 
Lord,"  the  substantive  being  merely  exchanged  for  the 
adjective,  as  in  1  Cor.  xi,  20 :  icvptaKov  otinvov,  "the 
Lord's  Supper,"  which  woidd  make  it  merely  synony- 
mous with  the  generally  expected  temporal  appearance 
of  Christ  on  earth :  })  y'lfiepa  Kvpiov,  "  the  day  of  the 
Lord"  (1  Thess.  v,  2).  Such  a  use  of  the  adjective  be- 
came extremely  common  in  the  following  ages,  as  we 
have  repeatedly  in  the  fathers  the  corresponding  ex- 
pressions Dominicte  crucis, "  the  Lord's  cross ;"  Domin- 
ican nativitatis, "  the  Lord's  nativity"  (Tertullian,  De  Idol. 
p.  5) ;  \oyiu)v  KvpiaKMV  (Eusebius,  Histor.  Eccles.  iii,  9). 
According  to  their  view,  the  passage  would  mean, "  In 
the  spirit  I  was  present  at  the  day  of  the  Lord,"  the 
word  "day"  being  used  for  any  signal  manifestation 
(possibly  in  allusion  to  Joel  ii,  31\  as  in  John  viii,  56: 
"Abraham  rejoiced  to  see  my  day."  The  peculiar  use 
of  the  word  I'lfifpa,  as  referring  to  a  period  of  ascenden- 
cy, appears  remarkably  in  1  Cor.  iv,  3,  where  dvSrpu)- 
irivriQ  I'jp'fpaQ  is  rendered  "man's  judgment."  Never- 
theless, this  interpretation,  besides  the  objection  of  its 
vagueness  as  a  date,  is  clogged  with  all  the  dilHculties 
that  attach  to  the  preceding  one. 

All  other  conjectures  upon  this  point  maybe  permit- 
ted to  confute  themselves,  but  the  following  cavil  is  too 
curious  to  be  omitted.  In  Scripture  the  first  day  of  the 
week  is  called  ?)  fiia  aaliliaTwv,  in  post-scriptural  writ- 
ers it  is  called  j)  Kypia/cj)  'Ufikpa  as  well;  therefore 
the  Itook  of  Revelation  is  not  to  be  ascribed  to  an  apos- 
tle, or,  in  other  words,  is  not  part  of  Scripture.  The 
logic  of  this  argument  is  only  surpassed  by  its  boldness. 
It  says,  in  effect,  because  post-scriptural  writers  have 
these  two  designations  for  the  first  day  of  the  week, 
thervfore  scriptural  writers  must  be  confined  to  one  of 
them.  It  were  surely  more  reasonable  to  suppose  that 
the  adoption  by  post-scriptural  writers  of  a  phrase  so 
pre-eminently  Christian  as  >)  Y^vpiiiK))  'Hufpa  to  denote 
the  first  day  of  the  week,  and  a  day  so  especially  mark- 
ed, can  be  traceable  to  nothing  else  than  an  apostle's  use 
of  that  phrase  in  the  same  meaning. 

II.  Jun-l^  XoHces  of  this  Christian  Observance. — Sup- 
posing, then,  that  //  Ki'pmKi)  'Hpi-pn  of  St.  John  is  the 
Lord's  day,  as  now  applied  to  the  first  day  of  the  mod- 
ern week,  we  have  to  inquire  here,  What  do  we  gather 
from  holy  Scripture  concerning  that  institution  ?  How 
is  it  s]i()ken  of  by  early  writers  up  to  the  time  of  Con- 
stantine?  What  change,  if  any,  was  brought  upon  it 
by  the  celebrated  edict  of  that  emperor,  whom  some 
have  declared  to  have  been  its  originator  V 

1.  Scripture  says  very  little  concerning  it,  but  that 
little  seems  to  indicate  that  tlie  divinely-inspired  apos- 
tles, by  tiieir  practice  and  by  their  precepts,  marked  the 
first  day  of  the  week  as  a  day  for  meeting  together  to 
break  bread,  for  communicating  and  receiving  instruc- 


tion, for  laying  up  offerings  in  store  for  charitable  pur- 
poses, for  occupation  in  holy  thought  and  prayer.  The 
first  day  of  the  week  so  devoted  seems  also  to  have  been 
tlie  day  of  the  Lord's  resurrection,  and  therefore  to  have 
been  especially  likely  to  be  chosen  for  such  purposes  by 
those  who  "  preached  Jesus  and  the  resurrection." 

The  Lord  rose  on  the  first  day  of  the  week  (ry  fita 
aajijiuTiov),  and  appeared,  on  the  very  day  of  bis  rising, 
to  his  followers  on  five  distmct  occasions — to  Mary  Mag- 
dalene, to  the  other  women,  to  the  two  disciples  on  the 
road  to  Emmaus,  to  St.  Peter  separately,  to  ten  apostles 
collected  together.   After  eight  days  {jitd'  I'lfiipacj  oktw'), 
that  is,  according  to  the  ordinary  reckoning,  on  the  first 
day  of  the  next  week,  he  appeared  to  the  eleven  (John 
XX,  2G).    He  does  not  seem  to  have  appeared  in  the  in- 
terval— it  may  be  to  render  that  day  especially  notice- 
able by  the  apostles,  or  it  may  be  for  other  reasons. 
But,  however  this  question  be  settled,  on  the  day  of  Pen- 
tecost, which  in  that  year  feU  on  the  first  day  of  the 
week  (see  Bramhall,  Disc,  of  the  Sabbath  and  Lord's 
Day,  in  Works,  v,  51,  Oxford  edition),  "they  were  all 
with  one  accord  in  one  place,"  had  spiritual  gifts  con- 
ferred on  them,  and  in  their  turn  began  to  communicate 
those  gifts,  as  accompaniments  of  instruction,  to  others. 
At  Troas  (Acts  xx,  7),  many  years  after  the  occurrence 
at  Pentecost,  when  Christianity  had  begun  to  assume 
something  like  a  settled  form,  St.  Luke  records  the  fol- 
lowing circumstances :  St.  Paul  and  his  companions  ar- 
rived there,  and  "  abode  seven  days,  and  upon  the  first 
day  of  the  week,  when  the  disciples  came  together  to 
break  bread,  Paul  preached  unto  them."    From  the  state- 
ment that  "  Paul  continued  his  speech  till  midnight,"  it 
has  been  inferred  by  some  that  the  assembly  commenced 
after  sunset  on  the  Sabbath,  at  which  hour  the  first  day 
of  the  week  had  commenced,  according  to  the  Jewish 
reckoning  ( Jahn's  Bibl.  A  niiq.  §  398),  which  would  hard- 
ly agree  with  the  idea  of  a  commemoration  of  the  res- 
urrection.    But  further,  the  words  of  this  passage,  'Ev 
Si  Ty  fiiif  Tiov  aajijidTOiv,  awriy^iivwv  tuiv  fia^rjriov 
roi}  KXaaai  dprov  ....  have  been  by  some  considered 
to  imply  that  such  a  weekly  observance  was  then  the 
established  custom ;  yet  it  is  obvious  that  the  mode  of 
expression  would  be  just  as  applicable  if  they  had  been 
in  the  practice  of  assembling  daily.    Still  the  whole  aim 
of  the  narrative  favors  the  reference  to  what  is  now 
known  as  Sunday.     In  1  Cor.  xvi,  1,2,  St.  Paul  -smtes 
thus :  "  Now  concerning  the  collection  for  the  saints,  as 
I  have  given  order  to  the  churches  in  Galatia,  even  so 
do  ye  :  Upon  the  first  day  of  the  week,  let  every  one  of 
you  lay  by  him  in  store,  as  God  hath  prospered  him, 
that  there  be  no  gatherings  when  I  come."    This  direc- 
tion, it  is  true,  is  not  connected  with  any  mention  of  pub- 
lic worship  or  assemblies  on  that  day.     But  this  has 
naturally  been  inferred;  and  the  regulation  has  been 
supposed  to  have  a  reference  to  the  tenets  of  the  Jewish 
converts,  who  considered  it  unlawful  to  touch  money  oa 
the  Sabbath  (Vitringa,  De  Synagof/d,  translat.  by  Ber- 
nard, p.  75-167).     In  consideration  for  them,  therefore, 
the  apostle  directs  the  collection  to  be  made  on  the  fol- 
lowing day,  on  which  secular  business  was  lawful ;  or, 
as  Cocceius  observes,  they  regarded  the  day  "non  ut 
festum,  sed  ut  tpyacriyuoi'"  (not  as  a  feast, but  as  a  work- 
ing day ;  Yitringa,  p.  77).     Again,  the  phrase  pia  tCjv 
aajilSdriov  is  generally  understood  to  be,  according  to 
the  Jewish  mode  of  naming  the  days  of  the  \vcek,  the 
common  expression  for  the  first  day.     Yet  it  has  been 
differently  construed  by  some,  who  render  it  "  upon  oTie 
of  the  days  of  the  week"  (I'lacfsfor  the  Times,  ii,  1,  16). 
In  Ileb.  X,  25,  the  correspondents  of  the  writer  are  de- 
sired "not  to  forsake  the  assembling  of  themselves  to- 
gether, as  the  manner  of  some  is,  but  to  exhort  one  an- 
other," an  injunction  which  seems  to  imply  that  a  reg- 
ular day  for  such  assembling  existed,  and  was  well 
known;  for  otherwise  no  rebuke  would  lie.     Lastly,  in 
the  passage  given  above,  St.  John  describes  himself  as 
being  in  the  Spirit "  on  the  Lord's  day." 
Taken  separately,  perhaps,  and  even  all  together,  these 


LORD'S  DAY 


507 


LORD'S  DAY 


passages  seem  scarcely  adequate  to  prove  that  the  dedi- 
cation of  the  first  day  of  the  week  to  the  purposes  above 
mentioned  was  a  matter  of  apostolic  institution,  or  even 
of  apostolic  practice.  But,  it  may  be  observed,  that  it 
is,  at  any  rate,  an  extraordinary  coincidence,  that  almost 
as  soon  as  we  emerge  from  Scripture  we  find  the  same 
day  mentioned  in  a  similar  manner,  and  directly  asso- 
ciated with  the  Lord's  resurrection ;  and  it  is  an  ex- 
traordinar}'  fact  that  we  never  find  its  dedication  ques- 
tioned or  argued  about,  but  accepted  as  something  equal- 
ly apostolic  with  confirmation,  with  inj'unt  baptism,  with 
ordination,  or  at  least  spoken  of  in  the  same  way.  As 
to  direct  support  from  holy  Scripture,  it  is  noticeable 
that  those  other  ordinances  which  are  usually  consider- 
ed scriptural,  and  in  support  of  which  Scripture  is  usu- 
ally cited,  are  dependent,  so  far  as  mere  quotation  is 
concerned,  upon  fewer  texts  than  the  Lord's  day  is. 
Stating  the  case  at  the  very  lowest,  the  Lord's  day  has 
at  least  "  probable  insinuations  in  Scripture"  (Bp.  San- 
derson), and  so  is  superior  to  any  other  holy  day,  wheth- 
er of  hebdomadal  celebration,  as  Friday  in  memory  of 
the  crucifixion,  or  of  annual  celebration,  as  Easter  day 
in  memory  of  the  resurrection  itself.  These  other  days 
may  be,  and  are,  defensible  on  other  grounds,  but  they 
do  not  possess  anything  like  a  scriptural  authority  for 
their  observance.  If  we  are  inclined  still  to  press  for 
more  pertinent  scriptural  proof,  and  more  frequent  men- 
tion of  the  institution,  for  such  we  suppose  it  to  be,  in 
the  writings  of  the  apostles,  we  must  recollect  how  little 
is  said  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  how  vast 
a  difference  is  naturally  to  be  expected  to  exist  between 
a  sketch  of  the  manners  and  habits  of  their  age,  which 
the  authors  of  the  holy  Scriptures  did  not  write,  and 
hints  as  to  life  and  conduct,  and  regulation  of  known 
practices,  which  they  did  write. 

2.  On  quitting  the  canonical  writings  we  turn  natu- 
rally to  Clement  of  Rome.  He  does  not,  however,  di- 
rectly mention  "  the  Lord's  day,"  but  in  1  Cor.  i,  40,  he 
says,  TTavTa  rain  Tzoitiv  rxptiXojxtv,  and  he  speaks  of 
wpia/ievoi  Kciipol  Kai  iopai,  at  which  the  Christian  Tj-poa- 
^opal  Kal  XiiTovpyiai  should  be  made. 

Ignatius,  the  disciple  of  St.  John  (ad.  Magn.  c.  9), 
contrasts  Judaism  and  Christianit}',  and,  as  an  exempli- 
fication of  the  contrast,  opposes  aajijiaTii,iiv  to  living 
according  to  the  Lord's  life  (jcara  rijv  Ji.vptaK7)v  i^w)]v 

The  epistle  ascribed  to  St.  Barnabas,  which,  though 
certainly  not  written  by  that  apostle,  was  in  existence 
in  the  earlier  part  of  the  2d  century,  has  (c.  15)  the  fol- 
lowing words:  "We  celebrate  the  eighth  day  with  joy, 
on  which,  too,  Jesus  rose  from  the  dead." 

A  pagan  document  now  conies  into  view.  It  is  the 
well-known  letter  of  Pliny  to  Trajan,  written  (about  A. 
D.  100)  while  he  presided  over  Pontus  and  Bithynia. 
"The  Christians  (sa^-s  he)  affirm  the  whole  of  their 
guilt  or  error  to  be  that  they  were  accustomed  to  meet 
together  on  a  stated  day  {stctto  die),  before  it  was  light, 
and  to  sing  hymns  to  Christ  as  a  g(xl,  and  to  bind  them- 
selves by  a  sacrameniunu  not  for  any  wicked  purpose, 
but  never  to  commit  fraud,  thelt.  or  adultery;  never  to 
break  their  word,  or  to  refuse,  when  called  upon,  to  de- 
liver up  any  trust;  after  which  it  was  their  custom  to 
separate,  and  to  assemble  again  to  take  a  meal,  but  a 
general  one,  and  without  guiltj-  purpose"  (h'pisf.  x,  97). 

A  thoroughly  Christian  authority,  Justin  Martyr, 
who  flourished  A.D.  140,  stands  next  on  the  list.  He 
writes  thus:  "On  the  day  called  Sunday  (ri)  rov  j'/A/oi; 
Xtyo/ih'j/  I'ljispq)  is  an  assembly  of  all  who  live  either 
in  the  cities  or  in  the  rural  districts,  and  the  memoirs 
of  the  apostles  and  the  writings  of  the  prophets  are 
read."  Then  he  goes  on  to  describe  the  particulars  of 
the  religious  acts  which  are  entered  upon  at  this  assem- 
bly. They  consist  of  prayer,  of  the  celebration  of  the 
holy  Eucharist,  and  of  collection  of  alms.  He  after- 
wards assigns  the  reasons  which  Christians  had  for 
meeting  on  Sunday.  These  are,  "because  it  is  the 
First  Day,  on  which  God  dispelled  the  darkness  (jb 


gkotoq)  and  the  original  state  of  things  {ri]v  I'Xjji'),  and 
formed  the  world,  and  because  Jesus  Christ  our  Saviour 
rose  from  the  dead  upon  it"  {Apol.  i,  67),  In  another 
work  {Dial.  c.  Tryj)h.)  he  makes  circumcision  furnish  a 
type  of  Sunday.  "  The  command  to  circumcise  infants 
on  the  eighth  day  was  a  type  of  the  true  circumcision 
by  which  we  are  circumcised  from  error  and  wickedness 
through  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  who  rose  from  the  dead 
on  the  first  day  of  the  week  (jy  iii(i  caftjiaTitiv) ;  there- 
fore it  remains  the  chief  and  first  of  days."  As  for 
aajSlSaTiCeiv,  he  uses  that  with  exclusive  reference  to 
the  Jewish  law.  He  carefidly  distinguishes  Saturday 
(>)  Kpoi'iKt'i),  the  day  after  which  our  Lord  was  cruci- 
fied, from  Sunday  (//  furd  r})v  KpoviKi]v  i'jriQ  iariv  i) 
Toij  'UXiov  iin'ipa),  upon  which  he  rose  from  the  dead. 
If  any  surprise  is  felt  at  Justin's  employment  of  the 
heathen  designations  for  the  seventh  and  first  days  of 
the  week,  it  may  be  accounted  for  thus.  Before  the 
death  of  Hadrian,  A.D.  138,  the  hebdomadal  division 
(which  Dion  Cassius,  writing  in  the  3d  century,  derives, 
together  with  its  nomenclature,  from  Egypt)  had,  in 
matters  of  common  life,  almost  universally  superseded 
in  Greece,  and  even  in  Italy,  the  national  divisions  of 
the  lunar  month.  Justin  Martyr,  writing  to  and  for 
heathen,  as  well  as  to  and  for  Jews,  employs  it,  there- 
fore, with  a  certainty  of  being  understood. 

The  strange  heretic,  Bardesanes,  who,  however,  de- 
lighted to  consider  himself  a  sort  of  Christian,  has  the 
following  words  in  his  book  on  "  Fate,"  or  on  "  the  Laws 
of  the  Countries,"  which  ho  addressed  to  the  emperor 
M.  Aurelius  Antoninus:  "What,  then,  shall  we  say  re- 
specting the  new  race  of  ourselves  who  are  Christians, 
whom  in  every  country  and  in  everj'  region  the  Messiah 
established  at  his  coming ;  for,  lo !  wherever  we  be,  all 
of  us  are  called  by  the  one  name  of  the  Messiah,  Chris- 
tians; and  upon  one  day,  which  is  the  first  of  the  week, 
we  assemble  ourselves  together,  and  on  the  appointed 
days  we  abstain  from  food"  (Cureton's  Translation). 

Two  A'ery  short  notices  stand  next  on  our  list,  but 
they  are  important  from  their  casual  and  unstudied 
character.  Dionysius,  Liskop  of  Corinth,  A.D.  170,  in  a 
letter  to  the  Church  of  Kome,  a  fragment  of  which  is 
preserved  by  Eusebius  {Eccles.  Hist,  iv,  23),  says,  t>iV 
(Tijfiepov  ovv  KvpiaK)]v  ayiav  I'jfiipav  Su]yayofiiv,  iv 
7J  dviyviojuv  v^iwv  ti)i'  'fwiaroXiiv.  And  Melito,  bish- 
op of  Sardis,  his  contemporary,  is  stated  to  have  com- 
posed, among  other  works,  a  treatise  on  the  Lord's  day 
(o  TTipl  rijg  KvpiaKijc  XoyoQ), 

The  next  writer  who  may  be  quoted  is  Irenaeus,  bish- 
op of  Lyons,  A.D.  178.  He  asserts  that  the  Sabbath  is 
abolished ;  but  his  evidence  to  the  existence  of  the 
Lord's  day  is  clear  and  distinct  (De  Orat.  23 ;  De  Idol. 
14).  It  is  spoken  of  in  one  of  the  best-known  of  his 
Fragments  (see  Beaven's  Irenmus,  p.  202).  But  a  rec- 
ord in  Eusebius  (v,  23,  2)  of  the  part  which  he  t£)ok  in 
the  Quarta-Deciman  controversy'  shows  that  in  his  time 
it  was  an  institution  beyond  dispute.  The  point  in 
question  was  this :  Should  Easter  be  celebrated  in  con- 
nection with  the  .Jewish  Passover,  on  whatever  day  of 
the  week  that  might  happen  to  fall,  with  the  church- 
es of  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  Mesopotamia,  or  on  the 
Lord's  day,  with  the  rest  of  the  Christian  world?  The 
churches  of  Gaul,  then  under  the  superintendence  of 
Irenipus,  agreed  upon  a  synodical  epistle  to  Victor,  bish- 
op of  Rome,  in  which  occurred  words  somewhat  to  this 
effect :  "  The  mystery  of  the  Lord's  resurrection  may 
not  be  celebrated  on  any  other  day  than  the  Lord's  day, 
and  on  this  alone  should  we  observe  the  breaking  off  of 
the  paschal  fast,"  This  confirms  what  was  said  above, 
that  while,  even  towards  the  end  of  the  2d  century,  tra- 
dition varied  as  to  the  yearly  celebration  of  Christ's  res- 
urrection, the  veekly  celebration  of  it  was  one  upon 
which  no  diversity  existed,  or  was  even  hinted  at. 

Clement  of  Alexandria,  A.D.  194,  comes  next.  One 
does  not  expect  anything  very  definite  from  a  writer  of 
so  mystical  a  tendency,  but  he  has  some  things  quite  to 
our  purpose.     In  his  Utrom.  (iv,  3)  he  speaks  of  t-j/v  ap~ 


LORD'S  DAY 


508 


LORD'S  DAY 


Kctl  TrpwT>ii'  rip  ojTi  (ptiJTOQ  y'iviaiv,  K.  T.  \., words  which 
bishop  Kaye  interprets  as  contrasting  the  seventh  day 
of  the  Law  -with  the  eightli  day  of  the  (iospel.  As  the 
same  learned  prelate  observes, "  When  Clement  says  that 
the  (inostic,  or  transcendental  Christian,  does  not  pray 
in  any  fixed  place,  or  on  any  stated  days,  but  through- 
out his  whole  life,  he  gives  us  to  understand  that  Chris- 
tians in  general  did  meet  together  in  fixed  places  and 
at  appointed  times  for  prayer."  But  we  are  not  left  to 
mere  inference  on  this  important  point,  for  Clement 
speaks  of  the  Lord's  day  as  a  well-known  and  customary 
festival  {Strom,  vii),  and  in  one  place  gives  a  mystical 
interpretation  of  the  name  {Strom,  v). 

Tertullian,  whose  date  is  assignable  to  the  close  of 
the  'lA  century,  may,  in  spite  of  his  conversion  to  Mon- 
tanism,  be  quoted  as  a  witness  to  facts.  He  terms  the 
first  day  of  the  week  sometimes  Sunday  (Dies  Solis), 
sometimes  Dies  Dominicus.  He  speaks  of  it  as  a  day 
of  joy  ("Diem  Solis  loetitiae  indulgemus,"  Apol.  c.  16), 
and  asserts  that  it  is  wrong  to  fast  upon  it,  or  to  pray 
standing  during  its  continuance  ("Die  Dominico  jejuni- 
um  nefas  ducimus,  vel  de  geniculis  adorare,'" De  Cor. c. 3). 
Even  business  is  to  be  put  off,  lest  we  give  place  to  the 
devil  ("  Ditferentes  etiam  negotia,  ue  quem  Diabolo  lo- 
cum demus,"  De  Orat.  c.  13). 

Origen  contends  that  the  Lord's  day  had  its  superi- 
ority to  the  Sabbath  indicated  by  manna  having  been 
given  on  it  to  the  Israelites,  while  it  was  withheld  on 
the  Sabbath.  It  is  one  of  the  marks  of  the  perfect 
Christian  to  keep  the  Lord's  day. 

Minucius  Felix  (A.D.  210)  makes  the  heathen  inter- 
locutor, in  his  dialogue  called  Octavius,  assert  that  the 
Christians  come  together  to  a  repast  "  on  a  solemn  day" 
(solenni  die). 

Cyprian  and  his  colleagues,  in  a  sjmodical  letter  (A.D. 
253),  make  the  Jewish  circumcision  on  the  eighth  day 
prefigure  the  newness  of  life  of  the  Christian,  to  which 
Christ's  resurrection  introduces  him,  and  point  to  the 
Lord's  day,  which  is  at  once  the  eighth  and  the  first. 

Commodian  (circ.  A.D.  290)  mentions  the  Lord's  day. 

Yictorinus  (A.D.  290)  contrasts  it,  in  a  very  remark- 
able passage,  with  the  Parasceve  and  the  Sabbath. 

Lastly,  Peter,  bishop  of  Alexandria  (A.D.  300),  says 
of  it, "  \\'e  keep  the  Lord's  day  as  a  day  of  joy,  because 
of  him  who  rose  thereon.'' 

The  results  of  our  examination  of  the  principal  writ- 
ers of  the  two  centuries  after  the  death  of  St.  John  may 
be  thus  summed  up.  The  Lord's  day  (a  name  which 
has  now  come  out  more  prominently,  and  is  connected 
more  explicitly  with  our  Lord's  resurrection  than  be- 
fore) existed  during  these  two  centuries  as  a  part  and 
parcel  of  apostolical,  and  so  of  scriptural  Christianity. 
It  was  never  defended,  for  it  was  never  impugned,  or,  at 
least,  only  impugned  as  other  things  received  from  the 
apastles  were.  It  was  never  confounded  with  the  Sab- 
bath, but  carefully  distinguished  from  it  (though  we 
have  not  (juoted  nearly  all  the  passages  by  which  this 
point  might  be  proved).  It  was  not  an  institution  of 
severe  sabbatical  character,  but  a  day  of  joy  {xapfto- 
avvij)  and  cheerfulness  (£i''0po(T(')r>;), rather  encouraging 
than  forbidding  relaxation.  Rehgiously  regarded,  it 
was  a  day  of  solemn  meeting  for  the  holy  Eucharist, 
for  united  prayer,  for  instruction,  for  almsgiving;  and 
though,  being  an  institution  under  the  law  of  liberty, 
work  does  not  appear  to  have  been  formally  interdicted, 
or  rest  formally  enjoined,  Tertullian  seems  to  indicate 
that  the  character  of  the  day  was  oi)posed  to  worldly 
business.  I'inally,  whatever  analogy  may  be  supposed 
to  exist  between  the  Lord's  day  and  the  Sabbath,  in  no 
[lassage  that  has  come  down  to  us  is  the  fourth  com- 
mandment appealed  to  as  the  ground  of  the  obligation 
to  observe  the  Lord's  day.  Ecclesiastical  writers  reiter- 
ate again  and  again,  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  words, 
"  Let  no  man,  therefore,  judge  you  in  respect  of  an  holi- 
day, or  of  the  new  moon,  or  of  the  Sabbath  days"  (Col. 
ii,  16).    Nor,  again,  is  it  referred  to  any  sabbatical  foun- 


dation anterior  to  the  promulgation  of  the  IMosaic  econ- 
omy. On  the  contrary,  those  before  the  Jlosaic  sera  are 
constantly  assumed  to  have  had  neither  knowledge  nor 
observance  of  the  Sabbath.  As  little  is  it  anywhere  as- 
serted that  the  Lord's  day  is  merely  an  ecclesiastical  in- 
stitution, dependent  on  the  post-apostolic  Church  for  its 
origin,  and  by  consequence  capable  of  being  done  away, 
should  a  time  ever  arrive  when  it  appears  to  be  no  lon- 
ger needed. 

If  these  facts  be  allowed  to  speak  for  themselves,  they 
indicate  that  the  Lord's  day  is  a  purely  Christian  insti- 
tution, sanctioned  by  apostolic  practice,  mentioned  in 
apostolic  writings,  and  so  possessed  of  whatever  divine 
authority  all  apostolic  ordmances  and  doctrines  (which 
were  not  obviously  temporary,  or  were  not  abrogated  by 
the  apostles  themselves)  can  be  supposed  to  possess. 

3.  But,  on  whatever  grounds  "  the  Lord's  day"  may  be 
supposed  to  rest,  it  is  a  great  and  indisputable  fact  that 
four  years  before  the  CEcumenical  Council  of  Nictea,  it 
was  recognised  by  Constantine,  in  his  celebrated  edict, 
as  "  the  venerable  Day  of  the  Sun."  The  terms  of  the 
document  are  these : 

" Imperator  Constantimis  Avg.Eclpidio. 

"Omnesjndioes  urbanieque  plebes  et  cunctarnm  artinm 
offlcia  veuerabili  Die  Solis  quiescaut.  Ruri  tameu  positl 
agroruni  cuUnra;  liber6  licenlerque  inserviaut,  quoniatn 
frequenter  evenit  ut  non  aptius  alio  die  frumeuta  sulcis 
aut  vinefe  scrobibus  mandeutnr,  ne  occasione  momenti 
pereat  commoditas  coelesti  provisione  concessa." — Bat. 
A'on.  Mart.  Crispo  II  et  Constantino  II  Coss. 

Some  have  endeavored  to  explain  away  this  docu- 
ment by  alleging,  1st.  That "  Solis  Dies"  is  not  the  Chris- 
tian name  of  the  Lord's  day,  and  that  Constantine  did 
not  therefore  intend  to  acknowledge  it  as  a  Christian 
institution.  2d.  That,  before  his  conversion,  Constan- 
tine had  professed  himself  to  be  especially  under  the 
guardianship  of  the  sun,  and  tliat,  at  the  very  best,  he 
intended  to  make  a  religious  compromise  between  sun- 
worshippers,  properly  so  called,  and  the  worshippers  of 
the  "Sun  of  Righteousness,"  i.  e.  Christians.  ScUy.  That 
Constantine's  edict  was  purely  a  calendarial  one,  and 
intended  to  reduce  the  number  of  public  holidays,  "Dies 
Nefasti"  or  "Feriati,"  which  had,  so  long  ago  as  the 
date  of  the  "  Actiones  Verrinse,"  become  a  serious  im- 
pediment to  the  transaction  of  business;  and  that  this 
was  to  be  effected  by  choosing  a  day  which,  while  it 
would  be  accepted  by  the  paganism  then  in  fashion, 
would,  of  course,  be  agreeable  to  the  Christians.  4tlily. 
That  Constantine  then  instituted  Sunday  for  the  first 
time  as  a  religious  day  for  Christians.  The  fourth  of 
these  statements  is  absolutely  refuted,  both  by  the  quo- 
tations made  above  from  Avriters  of  the  2d  and  3d  cen- 
turies, and  by  the  terms  of  the  edict  itself.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  Constantine,  accepting  as  facts  the  existence 
of  the  "  Solis  Dies,"  and  the  reverence  paid  to  it  by  some 
one  or  other,  docs  nothing  more  than  make  that  rever- 
ence practically  universal.  It  is  "  venerabilis"  already. 
It  is  probable  that  this  most  natural  interpretation 
would  never  have  been  disturbed  had  not  Sozomen  as- 
serted, without  warrant  from  either  the  Justinian  or  the 
Theodosian  Code,  that  Constantine  did  for  the  sixth  day 
of  the  week  what  the  codes  assert  that  he  did  for  the 
first  {Eccles.  Hist.  i,8 ;  comp.  Eusebius,  17/.  Const,  iv,  18). 
The  three  other  statements  concern  themselves  rather 
with  -what  Constantine  meant  than  with  what  he  did. 
But  with  such  considerations  we  have  little  or  nothing 
to  do.  He  may  have  purposely  selected  an  ambiguous 
appellation.  He  may  have  been  only  half  a  Christian, 
wavering  between  allegiance  to  Christ  and  allegiance  to 
Mithras.  He  may  have  affected  a  religious  syncretism. 
He  ma)'  have  wished  his  people  to  adopt  such  syncre- 
tism. He  may  have  feared  to  offend  the  pagans.  He 
may  have  hesitated  to  avow  too  openly  his  inward  lean- 
ings to  Christianity.  He  may  have  considered  that 
community  of  religious  days  might  lead  by-and-by  to 
community  of  religious  thought  and  feeling.  He  may 
have  had  in  view  the  rectification  of  the  calendar.  But 
all  this  is  nothing  to  the  purpose.     It  is  a  fact,  that  in 


LORD'S  PRAYER 


509 


LORD'S  SUPPER 


the  year  A.D.  321,  in  a  public  edict,  which  was  to  apply 
to  Christians  as  well  as  to  pagans,  he  put  especial  honor 
upon  a  clay  already  honored  by  the  former — judiciously 
calling  it  by  a  name  which  Christians  had  long  employ- 
ed without  scruple,  and  to  which,  as  it  was  in  ordinary 
use,  the  pagans  could  scarcely  object.  What  he  did  for 
it  was  to  insist  that  worldly  business,  whether  by  the 
functionaries  of  the  law  or  by  private  citizens,  should 
be  intermitted  during  its  continuance.  An  exception, 
indeed,  was  made  in  favor  of  the  rural  districts,  avow- 
edly from  the  necessity  of  the  case,  covertly,  perhaps,  to 
prevent  those  districts  where  paganism  (as  the  word 
pagus  would  intimate)  stUl  prevailed  extensively  from 
feeling  aggrieved  by  a  sudden  and  stringent  change.  It 
need  only  be  added  here  that  tlie  readiness  with  which 
Christians  acquiesced  in  the  interdiction  of  business  on 
the  Lord's  day  affords  no  small  presumption  that  they 
had  long  considered  it  to  be  a  day  of  rest,  and  that,  so 
far  as  circumstances  admitted,  they  had  made  it  so  long 
before. 

AV'ere  any  other  testimony  wanting  to  the  existence 
of  Sunday  as  a  day  of  Christian  worship  at  this  period, 
it  might  be  supplied  by  the  Council  of  Nicxa,  A.D.  325. 
The  fathers  there  and  then  assembled  make  no  doubt 
of  the  obligation  of  that  day — do  not  ordain  it — do  not 
defend  it.  They  assume  it  as  an  existing  fact,  and  only 
notice  it  incidentally  in  order  to  regulate  an  indifferent 
matter — the  posture  of  Christian  -worshippers  upon  it 
{Cone.  Nic.  canon  20). 

Chrysostom  (A.D.  3G0)  concludes  one  of  his  Homilies 
by  dismissing  his  audience  to  their  respective  ordinary 
occupations.  The  Council  of  Laodicea  (A.D.  364),  how- 
ever, cnjdined  Christians  to  rest  (cr;y;o\«4fij')  on  the 
Lf)rd's  day.  To  the  same  effect  is  an  injunction  in  the 
forgery  called  the  Ajiosiolical  Constitutions  (vii,24:),  and 
varidus  other  enactments  from  A.D.  GOO  to  A.D.  1100, 
tliougli  by  no  means  extending  to  the  prohibition  of  aU 
secular  business. 

See  Pearson,  ()m  the  Creed,  ii,  341,  edit.  Oxf. ;  Jortin, 
Remarks  on  Eccles.  Hist,  iii,  230 ;  Baxter,  On  the  Divine 
Appoiiitment  of  the  Lord's  Day,  p.  41,  ed.  1071 ;  Hessey, 
Bumpton  Lecture  for  1860;  Giltillan,  YVie  Sabbath,  p.  8. 
See  Si'xnAY. 

Lord's  Prayer,  the  common  title  of  the  only  form 
given  by  Jesus  Christ  to  his  disciples.  Jlatthew  inserts 
it  as  part  of  the  Sermon  on  the  INIount  (JMatt.  vi,  9-13) ; 
nor  is  it  inappropriate  to  the  connection  there,  for  the 
general  topic  of  that  part  of  the  discourse  is  prayer. 
Luke,  however,  explicitly  assigns  the  occasion  for  its 
delivery  as  being  at  the  request  of  the  disciples  (Luke 
xi,  2-4) ;  and  we  cannot  reasonably  suppose  either  that 
they  liad  forgotten  it,  if  previously  given  them,  or  that 
our  Lonl  would  not  have  referred  to  it  as  already  pre- 
scribed. The  following  analysis  exhibits  its  compre- 
hensive structure : 


Grada- 

LOGUE. 

Body  of  the  Pkaver. 

[Epilogue. 

A  ddnss. 

Homaye. 

Petitimu. 

Doxohjgij. 

Illation,  \ 

Fa- 
ther 

of 

who  art 
in  heaven, 

Hallowed  be 
thy  name  ! 

Thy  kingdom 

Thy  will  be  done 

on  earth,  as  it  is 

in  heaven ! 

Give  ua  this 
day  our  needful 

bread ; 
and  forgive  ns 
our  debts,  as  we 
forgive  our  debt- 

nnd  lead  us  not 

into  temptation, 

but  deliver  us 

from  evil : 

for  thine  - 

is  the 
kingdom, 

and  the 
power, 

and  the 
Slofy, 

■iz. 

Attestation.— Amen.] 

The  closing  doxology  is  omitted  by  Luke,  and  is  proba- 
bly spurious  in  Matthew,  as  it  is  not  found  there  in  any 
of  the  early  MSS.  The  prayer  is  doubtless  based  upon 
expressions  and  sentiments  already  familiar  to  the  Jews ; 
indeed,  parallel  phrases  to  nearly  all  its  contents  have 
been  discovered  in  the  Talmud  (see  Schottgcn  and 
Lightfoot,  s.  v.).  This,  however,  does  not  detract  from 
its  beauty  or  originality  as  a  whole.  The  earliest  ref- 
erence found  to  it,  as  a  liturgical  formula  in  actual  use, 
is  in  the  so-called  Ajiostolical  Constitutions  (q.  v.),  which 


give  the  form  entire,  and  enjoin  its  stated  use  (vii,  44), 
but  solely  by  baptized  persons,  a  rule  which  was  after- 
wards strictly  observed.  The  Christian  fathers,  espe- 
cially Tertullian,  Cyprian,  and  Origen,  are  loud  in  its 
praise,  and  several  of  them  wrote  special  expositions  or 
treatises  upon  it.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  is  the  first  writer 
who  expressly  mentions  the  use  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  at 
the  administration  of  the  holy  Eucharist  (Catech.  Myst. 
v).  St.  Augustine  has  also  alluded  to  its  use  on  this 
solemn  occasion  {Horn.  Ixxxiii).  The  Ordo  liomanus 
prefixes  a  preface  to  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  date  of  which 
is  imcertain.  It  contains  a  brief  exposition  of  the  prayer. 
All  the  Roman  breviaries  insist  upon  beginning  divine 
service  with  the  Lord's  Prayer;  but  it  has  been  satisfac- 
torily proved  that  this  custom  Avas  introduced  as  late  as 
the  13th  century  by  the  Cistercian  monks,  and  that  it 
passed  from  the  monastery  to  the  Church.  The  ancient 
homiletical  writings  do  not  afford  any  trace  of  the  use 
of  the  Lord's  Prayer  before  sermons  (see  Kiddle,  Man- 
ual of  Christian  Antiquities).  Its  absurd  repetition  as 
a  Pater  Nosier  (q.  v.)  by  the  Eomanists  has  perhaps  led 
to  an  undue  avoidance  of  it  by  some  Protestants.  In  all 
liturgies  (q.  v.)  of  course  it  occupies  a  prominent  place, 
and  it  is  usual  in  many  denominations  to  recite  it  in 
public  services  and  elsewhere.  That  it  was  not  de- 
signed, however,  as  a  formula  of  Christian  prayer  in 
general  is  evident  from  two  facts :  1.  It  contains  no  al- 
lusion to  the  atonement  of  Christ,  nor  to  the  offices  of 
the  Holy  Spirit;  2.  It  was  never  so  used  or  cited  by  the 
apostles  themselves,  so  far  as  the  evidence  of  Holy  Writ 
goes,  although  Jerome  (.4  dr.  Pelag.  iii,  3)  and  Gregory 
(^Epji.  vii,  Ixiii)  affirm  that  it  was  used  by  apostolical 
example  in  the  consecration  of  the  Eucharist.  The  lit- 
erature of  the  subject  is  very  copious  (see  the  Christ.  Re- 
membrancer,  Jan.  1862).  Early  monographs  are  cited  by 
Volbeding,  Index  Progi-ammatum,  p.  33  sq.,  131.  Among 
special  recent  comments  on  it  we  may  mention  those  of 
Bocker  (Lond.  1835),  Anderson  (ibid.' 1840),  Manton  (ib. 
1841),  Rowsell  (ibid.  1841),  Duncan  (ibid.  1845),  Kenna- 
way  (ibid.  1845),  Prichard  (ibid.  1855),  Edwards  (ibid. 
1860),  and  Denton  (ib.  1864 ;  N.  Y,  1865).  See  Pkayer. 
Lord's  Supper,  the  common  English  name  of  an 
ordinance  instituted  by  our  Saviour  m  commemoration 
of  his  death  and  sufferings,  being  one  of  the  two  sacra- 
ments universally  observed  by  the  Christian  Church. 

I.  Name. — It  is  called  '•  the  Lord's  Supper"  (KvpiaKuv 
Sel-Tn'ov)  in  1  Cor.  xi,  20  because  it  was  instituted  at 
supper-time.  Synonymous  with  this  is  the  phrase  "  the 
Lord's  table"  (rpaini^a  Kvpiov,  1  Cor.  x,  21),  where  we 
also  find  the  name  "the  cup  of  the  Lord"  (TroTtjpiov  Kv- 
piov).  Many  new  terms  for  it  were  early  introduced  in 
the  Church,  among  which  the  principal  are  Communion 
{Koivojvia,  a  festival  in  common),  a  term  borrowed  from 
1  Cor.  X,  16,  and  Eucharist  {Evxaptcria  and  tvXoyia), 
"  a  giving  of  thanks,"  because  of  the  hymns  and  psalms 
which  accompanied  it.  Among  the  many  other  Greek 
and  Latin  names  applied  to  the  Lord's  Supper,  but  for 
which  we  have  no  exact  equivalent,  we  mention  SiVn^- 
(C,  "  a  collection"  (for  celebrating  the  Lord's  Supper), 
AftTovpyia  (Liturgy,  q.  v.),  Mvariipiov  (Sacrament,  q. 
v.),  3Iissa  (Mass,  q.  v.),  etc.     See  Eucharist. 

II.  Biblical  Notices. — 1.  Original  Accounts. — The  in- 
stitution of  this  sacrament  is  recorded  by  Matthew 
(xxvi,  26-29),  Mark  (xiv,  22-25),  Luke  (x'xii,  19  sq.), 
and  by  the  apostle  Paul  (1  Cor.  xi,  24-26),  whose  words 
differ  very  little  from  those  of  his  companion,  Luke ; 
and  the  only  difference  between  Matthew  and  JMark 
is,  that  the  latter  omits  the  words  "  for  the  remission 
of  sins."  There  is  so  general  an  agreement  among 
them  all  that  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  recite  the 
words  of  one  of  them  :  "  Now,  when  the  even  was  come, 
he  sat  down  with  the  twelve"  to  eat  the  Passover  which 
had  been  prepared  by  his  direction,  "  and  as  they  wer^ 
eating,  Jesus  took  bread,  and  blessed  it,  and  brake  it,  and 
gave  it  to  the  disciples,  and  said.  Take,  eat;  this  is  my 
body.  And  he  took  the  cup,  and  gave  thanks,  and  gave 
it  to  them,  saying,  Drink  ye  all  of  it,  for  this  is  my 


LORD'S  SUPPER 


510 


LORD'S  SLTPER 


blood  of  the  New  Testament,  which  is  shed  for  many 
for  the  remission  of  sins"  (Matt,  xxvi,  20,  26-28).  Its 
institution  "in  remembrance''  of  Christ  is  recorded  only  by 
Luke  and  Paul.  John  does  not  mention  the  institution 
at  all,  bat  the  discourse  of  Jesus  in  chap,  vi,  51-59  is  re- 
ferred by  many  interpreters  to  the  Lord's  Supper.  Paul 
warns  the  Corinthians  (1  Cor.  x,  16-21)  that  they  can- 
not partake  of  the  Lord's  table  and  at  the  same  time  eat 
of  the  pagan  sacrilices,  because  (verse  19)  "  the  things 
which  the  Gentiles  sacrifice  they  sacrifice  to  devils,  and 
not  to  God;"  and  in  another  part  of  his  first  epistle  (xi, 
27-29),  that  "  whosoever  shall  eat  this  bread  and  drink 
this  cup  of  the  Lord  unworthily,  shall  be  guilty  of  the 
budy  and  blood  of  the  Lord;  but  let  a  man  examine 
himself,  and  so  let  him  eat  of  that  bread  and  drink  of 
that  cup ;  for  he  that  eateth  and  drinketh  unworthily 
eateth  and  drinketh  damnation  to  himself,  ,not  discern- 
ing the  Lord's  body."  Other  passages  of  the  New  Test, 
are  referred  by  many  exegetical  writers  to  the  Lord's 
Supper,  but  they  establish  no  new  point  concerning  the 
Biblical  doctrine.  They  will  be  examined,  however,  in 
detail  in  this  connection  (using  for  this  purpose  chiefly 
the  summary  given  in  Smith's  Did.  of  the  Bible,  s.  v.). 

2.  Paschal  Analogies. — This  is  an  important  inquiry 
in  the  discussion  of  the  history  of  that  night  when  Je- 
sus and  his  disciples  met  together  to  eat  the  Passover 
(Matt,  xxvi,  19;  Mark  xiv,''l6;  Luke  xxii,  13).  The 
manner  in  which  the  paschal  feast  was  kept  by  the  Jews 
of  that  period  differed  in  many  details  from  that  origin- 
ally prescribed  by  the  rules  of  Exod.  xii.  The  multi- 
tudes that  came  up  to  Jerusalem  met,  as  they  could  find 
accommodation,  family  by  family,  or  in  groups  of  friends, 
with  one  of  their  number  as  the  celebrant,  or  "  proclaim- 
er"  of  the  feast.  The  ceremonies  of  the  feast  took  place 
in  the  following  order  (Lightfoot,  Temple  Service,  xiii ; 
jVIeyer,  Comm.  in  Matt,  xxvi,  26).  (1.)  The  members 
of  the  company  that  were  joined  for  this  purpose  met  in 
the  evening  and  reclined  on  couches,  this  position  being 
then  as  much  a  matter  of  rule  as  standing  had  been  orig- 
inally (comp.  Matt,  xxvi,  20,  avsKtiTo;  Luke  xxii,  14; 
and  John  xiii,  23,  25).  The  head  of  the  household,  or 
celebrant,  began  by  a  form  of  blessing  "  for  the  day  and 
for  the  wine,"  pronounced  over  a  cup,  of  which  he  and 
the  others  then  drank.  The  wine  was,  according  to 
rabbinic  traditions,  to  be  mixed  with  water;  not  for  any 
mvsterious  reason,  but  because  that  was  regarded  as  the 
best  way  of  using  the  best  wine  (comp.  2  Slacc.  xv,  39). 
(2.)  All  who  were  present  then  washed  their  hands;  this 
also  having  a  special  benediction.  (3.)  The  table  was 
then  set  out  with  the  paschal  lamb,  unleavened  bread, 
bitter  herbs,  and  the  dish  known  as  Charoseth  (rOnri), 
a  sauce  made  of  dates,  figs,  raisins,  and  vinegar,  and  de- 
signed to  commemorate  the  mortar  of  their  bondage  in 
Egypt  (Buxtorf,  Lex.  Chald.  col.  831).  (4.)  The  cele- 
brant first,  and  then  the  others,  dipped  a  portion  of  the 
bitter  herbs  into  the  Charoseth  and  ate  them.  (5.)  The 
dishes  were  then  removed,  and  a  cup  of  wine  again 
brought.  Then  followed  an  interval  which  was  allowed 
theoretically  for  the  questions  that  might  be  asked  by 
children  or  proselytes,  who  were  astonished  at  such  a 
strange  beginning  of  a  feast,  and  the  cup  was  passed 
round  and  drunk  at  the  close  of  it.  (6.)  The  dishes  be- 
ing brought  on  again,  the  celebrant  repeated  the  com- 
imunorative  words  which  opened  what  was  strictly  the 
paschal  supper,  and  pronounced  a  solemn  thanksgiving, 
followed  liy  Psa.  cxiii  and  cxiv.  (7.)  Then  came  a  sec- 
ond washing  of  the  hands,  with  a  short  form  of  Itlessing 
as  before,  and  the  celebrant  Ijroke  one  of  the  two  loaves 
or  cakes  of  unleavened  bread,  and  gave  thanks  over  it. 
All  then  took  portions  of  the  bread  and  dipped  them, 
together  with  the  bitter  herbs,  into  the  Charoseth,  and 
m>  ate  them.  (8.)  After  this  they  ate  the  flesh  of  the 
paschal  lamb,  with  bread,  etc.,  as  thej'  liked;  and,  after 
another  blessing,  a  third  cup,  known  especially  as  the 
"cup  of  blessing."  was  handed  round.  (9.)  This  was 
succeeded  by  a  fourth  cup,  and  the  recital  of  Psa.  cxv- 


cxviii,  followed  by  a  prayer,  and  this  was  accordingly 
known  as  the  cup  of  the  HaUel,  or  of  the  Song.  (10.) 
There  might  be,  in  conclusion,  a  fifth  cup,  provided  that 
the  "great  Hallel"  (possibly  Psa.  cxx-cxxxvii)  was 
sung  over  it.     See  Passover. 

Comparing  the  ritual  thus  gathered  from  rabbinic 
writers  with  the  N.  T.,  and  assuming  («)  that  it  repre- 
sents substantially  the  common  practice  of  our  Lord's 
time,  and  (b)  that  the  meal  of  which  he  and  his  disci- 
ples partook  was  really  the  Passover  itself,  conducted 
according  to  the  same  rules,  we  are  able  to  point,  though 
not  with  absolute  certainty,  to  the  points  of  departure 
which  the  old  practice  presented  for  the  institution  of 
the  new.  To  (1.)  or  (3.),  or  even  to  (8.),  we  may  refer 
the  first  words  and  the  first  distribution  of  the  cup  (Luke 
xxii,  17, 18) ;  to  (2.)  or  (7.),  the  dippuig  of  the  sop  (»//a>- 
fiiov)  of  John  xiii,  26;  to  (7.),  or  to  an  interval  during 
or  after  (8.),  the  distribution  of  the  bread  (Matt,  xxvi, 
26 ;  Mark  xiv,  22  ;  Luke  xxii,  19;  1  Cor.  xi,  23,  24)  ;  to 
(9.)  or  (10.)  ("  after  supper,"  Luke  xxii,  20),  the  thanks- 
giving, and  distribution  of  the  cup,  and  the  hymn  with 
which  the  whole  was  ended.  It  will  be  noticed  that, 
according  to  this  order  of  succession,  the  question 
whether  Jadas  partook  of  what,  in  the  language  of  a 
later  age,  would  be  called  the  consecrated  elements,  is 
most  probably  to  be  answered  in  the  negative. 

The  narratives  of  the  Gospels  show  how  strongly  the 
disciples  were  impressed  with  the  words  which  had  giv- 
en a  new  meaning  to  the  old  familiar  acts.  They  leave 
unnoticed  all  the  ceremonies  of  the  Passover,  except 
those  which  had  thus  been  transferred  to  the  Christian 
Church  and  perpetuated  in  it.  Old  things  were  passing 
away,  and  all  things  becoming  new.  They  had  looked 
on  the  bread  and  the  wine  as  memorials  of  the  deliver- 
ance from  Egypt.  They  were  now  told  to  partake  of 
them  "  in  remembrance"  of  their  Master  and  Lord.  The 
festival  had  been  annual.  No  rule  was  given  as  to  the 
time  and  frequency  of  the  new  feast  that  thus  super- 
vened on  the  old,  but  the  command, "  Do  this  as  oft  as 
ye  drink  it"  (1  Cor.  xi,  25),  suggested  the  more  contin- 
ual recurrence  of  that  which  was  to  be  their  memorial 
of  one  whom  they  would  wish  never  to  forget.  The 
words, "  This  is  my  body,"  gave  to  the  unleavened  bread 
a  new  character.  They  had  been  prepared  for  language 
that  woidd  otherwise  have  been  so  startling  by  the  teach- 
ing of  John  (vi,  32-58),  and  they  were  thus  taught  to 
see  in  the  bread  that  was  broken  the  witness  of  the 
closest  possible  imion  and  incorporation  with  their  Lord. 
The  cup,  which  was  "  the  new  testament"  (ciaOi'iioi)  "  in 
his  blood,"  would  remind  them,  in  like  manner,  of  the 
wonderful  prophecy  in  which  that  new  covenant  had 
'been  foretold  (Jcr.  xxxi,  31-34),  of  which  the  crowning 
glory  was  in  the  promise,  '•  I  will  forgive  their  ini(iuity, 
and  I  will  remember  their  sin  no  more."  His  blood 
shed,  as  he  told  them,  "  for  them  and  for  many,"  for 
that  remission  of  sins  which  he  had  been  proclaiming 
throughout  his  whole  ministry,  was  to  be  to  the  new 
covenant  what  the  blood  of  sprinkling  had  been  to  that 
of  Moses  (Exod.  xxiv,  8).  It  is  possible  that  there  may 
have  been  yet  another  thought  connected  with  these 
symbolic  acts.  The  funeral  customs  of  the  Jews  in- 
volved, at  or  after  the  burial,  the  administration  to  the 
mourners  of  bread  (comp.  Jer.  xvi,  7,  "  neither  shall  they 
break  bread  for  them  in  mourning,"  in  marginal  reading 
of  A.  v.;  Ewald  and  Hitzig,  ad  loc;  Ezek.  xxiv,  17; 
Hos.  ix,  4 ;  Tob.  iv,  17),  and  of  wine,  known,  when  thus 
given,  as  "  the  cup  of  consolation."  IMay  not  the  bread 
and  the  wine  of  the  Last  Supper  have  had  something 
of  that  character,  preparing  the  minds  of  Christ's  disci- 
ples for  his  departure  by  treating  it  as  already  accom- 
plished ?  They  were  to  think  of  his  body  as  already 
anointed  for  the  biiri.il  (^Matt.  xxvi,  12;  Mark  xiv,  8; 
John  xii,  7),  of  his  body  as  already  given  up  to  death, 
of  his  blood  as  already  shed.  The  passover  meal  was 
also,  little  as  they  might  dream  of  it,  a  funeral  feast. 
The  bread  and  the  wine  were  to  be  pledges  of  consola- 
tion for  their  sorrow,  analogous  to  the  verbal  promises 


LORD'S  SUPPER 


511 


LORD'S  SUPPER 


of  John  xiv,  1,  27;  xvi,  20.  The  word  SiaOt'iKT]  might 
even  have  the  twofold  meaning  which  is  connected  with 
it  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

May  we  not  conjecture,  without  leaving  the  region 
of  history  for  that  of  controversy,  that  the  thoughts, 
desires,  emotions  of  that  hour  of  divine  sorrow  and  com- 
munion would  be  such  as  to  lead  the  disciples  to  crave 
earnestly  to  renew  them  ?  Would  it  not  be  natural  that 
they  should  seek  tliat  renewal  in  the  way  which  their 
Master  had  pointed  out  to  them  ?  From  this  time,  ac- 
cordingly, the  words  "  to  break  bread"  appear  to  have 
had  for  the  disciples  a  new  significance.  It  may  not 
have  assumed,  indeed,  as  yet,  the  character  of  a  distinct 
liturgical  act ;  but  when  they  met  to  break  bread,  it  was 
with  new  thoughts  and  hopes,  and  with  the  memories 
of  that  evening  fresh  on  them.  It  would  be  natural 
that  the  Twelve  should  transmit  the  command  to  oth- 
ers who  had  not  been  present,  jyjtl  seek  to  lead  them  to 
the  same  obedience  and  the  'Same  blessings.  The  nar- 
rative of  the  two  disciples  to  whom  their  Lord  made 
himself  known  "  in  breaking  of  bread"  at  Emmaus  (Luke 
xxiv,  30-35)  would  strengthen  the  belief  that  this  was 
the  way  to  an  abiding  fellowship  with  him. 

3.  Later  N.-T. Indications. — In  the  account  given  by 
the  writer  of  the  Acts  of  the  life  of  the  first  disciples  at 
Jerusalem,  a  prominent  place  is  given  to  this  act,  and  to 
the  phrase  which  indicated  it.  Writmg,  we  must  re- 
member, with  the  definite  associations  that  had  gather- 
ed round  the  words  during  the  thirty  3'ears  that  follow- 
ed the  events  he  records,  he  describes  the  baptized  mem- 
bers of  the  Church  as  continuing  steadfast  in  or  to  the 
teaching  of  the  apostles,  in  fellowship  with  them  and 
with  each  other,  and  in  breaking  of  bread,  and  in  pray- 
ers (Acts  ii,  42).  A  few  verses  further  on,  their  daily 
life  is  described  as  ranging  itself  under  two  heads  :  (1.) 
that  of  public  devotion,  which  still  belonged  to  them  as 
Jews  ("  continuing  daily  with  one  accord  in  the  Tem- 
ple") ;  (2.)  that  of  their  distinctive  acts  of  fellowship : 
"breaking  bread  from  house  to  house  (or  'privately,' 
Meyer),  they  did  eat  their  meat  in  gladness  and  single- 
ness of  heart,  praising  God,  and  having  favor  with  all 
the  people."  Taken  in  connection  w-ith  the  account 
given  in  the  preceding  verses  of  the  love  which  made 
them  live  as  having  all  things  common,  we  can  scarcely 
doubt  that  this  implies  that  the  chief  actual  meal  of 
each  day  was  one  in  which  they  met  as  brothers,  and 
which  was  cither  preceded  or  followed  by  the  more  sol- 
emn commemorative  acts  of  the  breaking  of  the  bread 
and  the  drinking  of  the  cup.  It  will  be  convenient  to 
anticipate  the  language  and  the  thoughts  of  a  somewhat 
later  date,  and  to  say  that  apparently  they  thus  united 
every  day  the  Agape,  or  feast  of  love,  with  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  Eucharist.  So  far  as  the  former  was  con- 
cerned, they  v/cre  reproducing  in  the  streets  of  Jerusa- 
lem the  simple  and  brotherlj'  life  which  the  Essenes 
were  leading  in  their  seclusion  on  the  shores  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  It  would  be  natural  that,  in  a  society  consisting 
of  "many  thousand  members,  there  should  be  many  places 
of  meeting.  These  might  be  rooms  hired  for  the  pur- 
pose, or  freely  given  by  those  members  of  the  Church 
who  had  them  to  dispose  of.  The  congregation  assem- 
bling in  each  place  would  come  to  be  known  as  "  the 
Church"  in  this  or  that  man's  house  (Kom.  xvi,  5,  23 ;  1 
Cor.  xvi,  19  ;  Col.  iv,  lo ;  Philem.  ver.  2).  When  they 
met,  the  place  of  honor  would  naturally  be  taken  by  one 
of  the  apostles,  or  some  elder  representing  him.  It 
would  belong  to  him  to  pronounce  the  blessing  {iiiXoyia) 
and  thanksgiving  ((vxapuTTia),  with  which  the  meals 
of  devout  Jews  always  began  and  ended.  The  materi- 
als for  the  meal  would  be  provided  out  of  the  common 
funds  of  the  Church  or  the  liberality  of  individual  mem- 
bers. The  bread  (unless  the  converted  Jews  were  to 
think  of  themselves  as  keeping  a  perpetual  passover) 
would  be  such  as  they  habitually  used.  The  wine 
(probably  the  common  red  wine  of  Palestine,  Prov.  xxiii, 
31)  would,  according  to  their  usual  practice,  be  mixed 
with  water.     Special  stress  would  probably  be  laid  at 


first  on  the  office  of  breaking  and  distributing  the  bread, 
as  that  which  represented  the  fatherly  relation  of  the 
pastor  to  his  tlock,  and  his  work  as  ministering  to  men 
the  word  of  life.  But  if  this  was  to  be  more  than  a 
common  meal,  after  the  pattern  of  the  Essenes,  it  would 
be  necessary  to  introduce  words  that  would  show  that 
what  was  done  was  in  remembrance  of  their  Jlastcr. 
At  some  time  before  or  after  the  meal  of  which  they 
partook  as  such,  the  bread  and  the  wine  would  be  given 
with  some  special  form  of  words  or  acts,  to  indicate  its 
character.  New  converts  would  need  some  explanation 
of  the  meaning  and  origin  of  the  obser\-ance.  What 
would  be  so  fitting  and  so  much  in  harmony  with  the 
precedents  of  the  paschal  feast  as  the  narrative  of  what 
had  passed  on  the  night  of  its  institution  (1  Cor.  xi,  23- 
27)  ?  With  this  there  would  naturally  be  associated  (as 
in  Acts  ii,  42)  prayers  for  themselves  and  others.  Their 
gladness  would  show  itself  in  the  psalms  and  hymns 
with  which  they  praised  God  (Heb.  ii,  46,47;  James  v, 
13).  The  analogy  of  the  Passover,  the  general  feeling 
of  the  Jews,  and  the  practice  of  the  Essenes  may  pos- 
sibly have  suggested  ablutions,  partial  or  entire,  as  a 
preparation  for  the  feast  (Heb.  x,  22;  John  xiii,  1-15; 
comp.  Tertull.  cle  Orat.  c.  xi ;  and,  for  the  later  practice 
of  the  Church,  August.  Serm,  ccxliv).  At  some  ])oint 
in  the  feast,  those  who  were  present,  men  and  women 
sitting  apart,  would  rise  to  salute  each  other  with  the 
"  holy  kiss"  (1  Cor.  xvi,  20 ;  2  Cor.  xiii,  12 ;  Clem.  Alex. 
Ptedagog.  iii,  c.  11 ;  TertuU.  de  Orat.  c.  14 ;  Justin  ]Mart. 
A}}oL  ii).  Of  the  stages  in  the  growth  of  the  new  wor- 
ship we  have,  it  is  true,  no  direct  evidence,  but  these 
conjectures  from  antecedent  likelihood  are  confirmed  by 
the  fact  that  this  order  appears  as  the  common  element 
of  all  later  liturgies.    ,' 

The  next  traces  that  meet  us  are  in  1  Cor.,  and  the 
fact  that  we  find  them  is  in  itself  significant.  The  com- 
memorative ffvast  has  not  been  confined  to  the  personal 
disciples  of  Christ,  or  the  Jewish  converts  whom  they 
gathered  round  them  at  Jerusalem.  It  has  been  the 
law  of  the  Church's  expansion  that  this  should  form 
part  of  its  life  everywhere.  Wherever  the  apostles  or 
their  delegates  have  gone,  they  have  taken  this  with 
them.  The  language  of  St.  Paul,  we  must  remember,  is 
not  that  of  a  man  who  is  setting  forth  a  new  truth,  but 
of  one  who  appeals  to  thoughts,  words,  phrases  that  are 
familiar  to  his  readers,  and  we  find  accordingly  evidence 
of  a  received  liturgical  terminology.  The  title  of  the 
"cup  of  blessing"  (1  Cor.  x,  16),  Hebrew  in  its  origin 
and  form  (see  above),  has  been  imported  into  the  Greek 
Church.  The  sj'nonyme  of  "  the  cup  of  the  Lord"  (1 
Cor.  X,  21)  distinguishes  it  from  the  other  cups  that  be- 
longed to  the  Agape.  The  word  "  fellowship"  {koivu)- 
via)  is  passing  by  degrees  into  the  special  signification 
of  "communion."  The  apostle  refers  to  his  own  office 
as  breaking  the  bread  and  blessing  the  cup  (1  Cor.  x, 
16).  The  table  on  which  the  bread  was  placed  was  the 
Lord's  table,  and  that  title  was  to  the  Jew,  not,  as  later 
controversies  have  made  it,  the  antithesis  of  altar  (Bv- 
(TiacFTTjpiov),  but  as  nearly  as  possible  a  synonyme  (Mai. 
i,  7, 12 ;  Ezek.  xli,  22).  But  the  practice  of  the  Agapfe, 
as  well  as  the  observance  of  the  commemorative  feast, 
had  been  transferred  to  Corinth,  and  this  called  for  a 
special  notice.  Evils  liad  sprung  up  which  had  to  be 
checked  at  once.  The  meeting  of  friends  for  a  social 
meal,  to  which  all  contributed,  was  a  sufficiently  familiar 
practice  in  the  common  life  of  Greeks  of  this  period,  and 
these  club-feasts  were  associated  with  plans  of  mutual 
relief  or  charity  to  the  poor  (comp.  Smith's  Diet.  o/Gr. 
and  Rom.  A  ntiq.  s.  v.  Eranoi).  The  Agape  of  the  new 
society  would  seem  to  them  to  be  such  a  feast,  and 
hence  came  a  disorder  that  altogether  frustrated  the  ob- 
ject of  the  Church  in  instituting  it.  Richer  members 
came,  bringing  their  supper  with  them,  or  appropriating 
what  belonged  to  the  common  stock,  and  sat  down  to 
consume  it  without  waiting  till  others  were  assembled 
and  the  presiding  elder  had  taken  his  place.  The  poor 
were  put  to  shame,  and  defrauded  of  their  share  in  the 


LORD'S  SUPPER 


512 


LORD'S  SUPPER 


feast.  Each  was  tli  inking  of  his  own  supper,  not  of 
that  to  wliich  \'.e  now  tind  attached  the  distinguishing 
title  of  •■  the  Lords  Supper."  When  the  time  for  that 
came,  one  wa>i  hungry  enough  to  be  looking  to  it  with 
physioal,  not  spiritual  craving;  another  so  overpowered 
with  wine  as  to  be  incapable  of  receiving  it  with  any 
reverence.  It  is  quite  conceivable  that  a  life  of  excess 
and  excitement,  of  overwrought  emotion  and  unrestrain- 
ed indulgence,  such  as  this  epistle  brings  before  us,  may 
have  i)roved  destructive  to  the  physical  as  well  as  the 
moral  health  of  those  who  were  affected  by  it,  and  so 
the  sickness  and  the  deaths  of  which  Paul  speaks  (1 
Cor.  xi,  30),  as  the  consequences  of  this  disorder,  may 
have  been  so,  not  by  supernatural  intliction,  but  by  the 
working  of  those  general  laws  of  the  divine  government 
which  make  the  punishment  the  traceable  consequence 
of  the  sin.  In  any  case,  what  the  Corinthians  needed 
Avas  to  be  taught  to  come  to  the  Lord's  table  Avith  great- 
er reverence,  to  distinguish  (^StctKph'Hif)  the  Lord's  body 
from  their  common  food.  Unless  they  did  so,  they 
would  bring  upon  themselves  condemnation.  What  was 
to  be  the  remedy  for  this  terrible  and  growing  evil  he 
does  not  state  explicitly.  He  reserves  formal  regula- 
tions for  a  later  personal  visit.  In  the  mean  time,  he 
gives  a  rule  which  would  make  the  union  of  the  Agape 
and  the  Lord's  Supper  possible  witljout  the  risk  of  profa- 
nation. They  were  not  to  come  even  to  the  former 
with  the  keen  edge  of  appetite.  They  were  to  wait  tiU 
all  were  met,  instead  of  scrambling  tumultuously  to  help 
themselves  (1  Cor.  xi,  33,  34).  In  one  point,  however, 
the  custom  of  the  Church  of  Corinth  differed  apparently 
from  that  of  Jerusalem  :  the  meeting  for  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per was  no  longer  daily  (1  Cor.  xi,  20, 33).  The  direc- 
tions given  in  1  Cor.  xvi,  2  suggelt  the  constitution  of  a 
celebration  on  the  first  day  of  the  week  (compare  Just. 
IMart.  ApoL  i,  07 ;  Pliny,  JJp.  ad  T>-aj.).  The  meeting  at 
Troas  was  on  the  same  day  (Acts  xx,  7). 

The  tendency  of  this  language,  and  therefore,  proba- 
bly, of  the  order  subsequently  established,  was  to  sepa- 
rate what  had  hitherto  been  united.  We  stand,  as  it 
were,  at  the  dividing  point  of  the  history  of  the  two 
institutions,  and  henceforth  each  takes  its  own  course. 
The  Agape,  as  belonging  to  a  transient  phase  of  the 
Christian  life,  and  varying  in  its  effects  with  changes  in 
national  character  or  forms  of  civilization,  passes  through 
many  stages;  becomes  more  and  more  a  merely  local 
custom,  is  found  to  be  productive  of  evil  rather  than  of 
good,  is  discouraged  by  bishops  and  forbidden  by  coun- 
cils, and  finally  dies  out.  Traces  of  it  linger  in  some  of 
the  traditional  practices  of  the  Western  Church.  There 
have  been  attempts  to  revive  it  among  the  Moravians 
and  other  religious  communities,  but  in  no  considerable 
body  does  it  survive  in  its  original  form.  See  Loate- 
Feast.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Lord's  Supper  also  has 
its  changes.  The  morning  celebration  takes  the  place 
of  the  evening.  New  names — Eucharist,  Sacrifice,  Altar, 
Mass,  Holy  Mysteries — gather  round  it.  New  epithets 
and  new  ceremonies  express  the  growing  reverence  of 
the  people.  The  mode  of  celebration  at  the  high  altar 
of  a  basilica  in  the  4th  century  differs  so  widely  from 
the  circumstances  of  the  original  institution  that  a  care- 
less eye  would  have  found  it  hard  to  recognise  their 
identity.  Speculations,  controversies,  superstitions,  crys- 
tallize round  this  as  their  nucleus.  Great  disruptions 
and  changes  threaten  to  destroy  the  life  and  unity  of 
the  Church.  Still,  through  all  the  changes,  the  Sup- 
per of  the  Lord  vindicates  its  claim  to  universality,  and 
bears  a  [jermanent  tc'stimony  to  the  truths  with  which 
it  was  associateii. 

In  Acts  xx,  11  we  have  an  example  of  the  way  in 
which  the  transition  may  have  been  effected.  The  dis- 
ciples at  Troas  meet  together  to  break  bread.  The 
hour  is  not  dctinitcly  stated,  but  the  f:ict  that  Paul's 
discourse  was  protracted  till  past  midnight,  and  the 
mention  of  the  many  lamps,  indicate  a  later  time  than 
that  commonly  fixed  for  the  Greek  cnrn'ov.  If  we  are 
not  to  suppose  a  scene  at  variance  with  I'aul's  rule 


in  1  Cor.  xi,  34,  they  must  have  had  each  his  own  sup- 
per before  they  assembled.  Then  came  the  teaching 
and  the  prayers,  and  then,  towards  early  dawn,  the 
breaking  of  bread,  which  constituted  the  Lord's  Supper, 
and  for  M'hich  they  were  gathered  together.  If  this 
midnight  meeting  may  be  taken  as  indicating  a  common 
practice,  originating  in  reverence  for  an  ordinance  which 
Christ  had  enjoined,  we  can  easily  understand  ho^v  the 
next  step  would  be  (as  circumstances  rendered  the  mid- 
night gatherings  unnecessary'  or  inexpedient)  to  trans- 
fer the  celebration  of  the  Eucharist  permanently  to  the 
morning  hour,  to  which  it  had  graduallj'  been  approxi- 
mating. Here  also  in  later  times  there  were  traces  of 
the  original  custom.  Even  when  a  later  celebration 
was  looked  on  as  at  variance  with  the  general  custom 
of  the  Church  (Sozomen,  sitpra)  it  was  recognised  as 
legitimate  to  hold  an  evening  communion,  as  a  special 
commemoration  of  the  original  institution,  on  the  Thurs- 
day before  Easter  (Augustine,  Ep.  118;  ad  Jan.  c.  5-7); 
and  again  on  Easter  eve,  the  celebration  in  the  latter 
case  probably  taking  place  "  very  early  in  the  morning, 
while  it  was  yet  dark"  (Tertullian,  ad  Uxor,  ii,  c.  4). 

The  recurrence  of  the  same  liturgical  words  in  Acts 
xxvii,  35  makes  it  probable,  though  not  certabi,  that 
the  food  of  which  Paul  thus  partook  was  intended  to 
have,  for  himself  and  his  Christian  companions,  the 
character  at  once  of  the  Agape  and  the  Eucharist.  The 
heathen  soldiers  and  saUors,  it  may  be  noticed,  are  said 
to  have  followed  his  example,  not  to  have  partaken  of 
the  bread  which  he  had  broken.  If  we  adopt  this  ex- 
planation, we  have  in  this  narrative  another  example 
of  a  celebration  in  the  early  hours  between  michiight 
and  dawn  (comp.  v.  27,  39),  at  the  same  time,  i.  e.  as  we 
have  met  with  in  the  meeting  at  Troas. 

All  the  distinct  references  to  the  Lord's  Supper  which 
occur  within  the  limits  of  the  N.  T.  have,  it  is  believed, 
been  noticed.  To  find,  as  a  recent  writer  has  done 
(^Christian  Rememhrancci-,  April,  1860),  quotations  from 
the  Liturgy  of  the  Eastern  Church  in  the  PaiUine  Epis- 
tles involves  (ingeniously  as  the  hypothesis  is  support- 
ed) assumptions  too  many  and  bold  to  justify  our  ac- 
ceptance of  it.  Extending  the  inquiri-,  however,  to  the 
times  as  well  as  the  writings  of  the  N.  T.,  we  find  reason 
to  believe  that  we  can  trace  in  the  later  worship  of  the 
Clmrch  some  fragments  of  that  which  belonged  to  it 
from  the  beginning.  The  agTcement  of  the  four  great 
families  of  liturgies  implies  the  substratum  of  a  common 
order.  To  that  order  may  well  have  belonged  the  He- 
brew words  Hallelujah,  Amen,  Hosanna,  Lord  of  Saba- 
oth ;  the  salutations  "  Peace  to  all,"  "  Peace  to  thee ;" 
the  Siursum  Corda  (civio  axwi^uv  tciq  icapciac),  the  Tri- 
sagion,  the  Kyrie  Eleison.  'VVe  are  justified  in  looking 
at  these  as  having  been  portions  of  a  liturgy  that  was 
really  primitive ;  guarded  from  change  with  the  tenaci- 
ty with  which  the  Christians  of  the  2d  century  clung  to 
the  traditions  (the  TrapaSurrdc  of  2  Thess.  ii,  15 ;  iii,  6) 
of  the  first,  forming  part  of  the  great  deposit  (TrapaKo- 
ra^!]Kt])  of  faith  and  worship  which  they  had  received 
from  the  apostles  and  have  transmitted  to  later  ages 
(comp.  Bingham,  Eccles.  Antiq.  bk.  xv,  ch.  vii;  Augusti, 
Christ  I.  Archdol.  b.  viii;  Stanley  on  1  Cor.  x  and  xi). 

III.  Ecclesiastical  Representations.  —  The  Christian 
Church  attached  from  the  first  great  and  mysterious 
importance  to  the  Lord's  Supper.  In  accordance  with 
the  original  institution,  all  Christians  used  wine  and 
bread,  with  the  exception  of  the  Hydroparastates  (Aqua- 
rii),  who  used  water  instead  of  wine,  and  the  Artoty- 
rites,  who  are  said  to  have  used  cheese  along  with 
bread.  The  wine  was  generally  mixed  with  water 
(jcpapa'),  and  an  allegorical  signification  was  given  to 
the  mixture  of  these  two  elements.  In  the  writings  of 
the  fathers  of  the.  first  three  centuries  we  meet  with 
some  passages  which  speak  distinctly  of  symbols,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  with  others  which  indicate  belief  in 
a  real  particijiation  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ. 
Ignatius,  Justin,  and  Irentcus  laid  great  stress  on  the 
mysterious  connection  subsisting  between  the  Logos  and 


LORD'S  SUPPER 


513 


LORD'S  SUPPER 


the  elements.  Tertullian  and  Cyprian  are  representa- 
tives of  the  symbolical  aspect,  though  both  occasionally 
call  the  Lord's  Supper  simply  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ.  The  symbolical  interpretation  prevails  in  par- 
ticular among  the  Alexandrine  school.  Clement  called 
it  a  mystic  symbol  which  produces  an  effect  onlj'  upon 
the  mind,  and  Origen  decidedly  opposed  those  who  took 
the  external  sign  for  the  thing  itself.  The  idea  of  a 
sacrifice,  though  not  yet  of  a  daily  propitiatory  sacrifice, 
appears  in  the  writings  of  Justin  and  Irenaeus.  Cyprian 
says  that  the  sacrifice  is  made  by  the  priest,  who  acts 
instead  of  Christ,  and  imitates  v/hat  Christ  did.  It  is 
not  quite  certain,  but  probable,  that  the  Ebionites  cele- 
brated the  Lord's  Supi^er  as  a  commemorative  feast ;  the 
mystical  meals  of  some  Gnostics,  on  the  contrary,  bear 
but  little  resemblance  to  the  Lord's  Supper.  The  devel- 
opment of  liturgies  in  and  after  the  third  century,  and 
the  introduction  of  many  mystical  ceremonies,  showed 
that  the  fathers  generally  regarded  the  Lord's  Supper, 
with  Chrysostom,  as  a  "dreadful  sacrifice."  They  clear- 
ly speak  of  a  real  union  of  the  communicants  with 
Christ;  some,  also,  of  a  real  change  from  the  visible  el- 
ements into  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  though  most 
of  their  expressions  can  be  imderstood  both  of  consub- 
stantiality  or  of  transubstantiation.  Theodoret  drew  a 
clear  distinction  between  the  sign  and  the  thing  signi- 
fied, while  Augustine  sought  to  unite  its  more  profound 
mystical  significance  with  the  symbolical.  Gelasius, 
bisliop  of  liome,  very  decidedly  denied  "  the  ceasing  of 
the  substance  and  natiu'e  of  bread  and  wine."  The  no- 
tion of  a  daily  repeated  sacrifice  is  distinctly  set  forth 
in  the  writings  of  Gregory  the  Great.  A  violent  con- 
troversy concerning  the  Lord's  Supper  arose  in  the  9th 
century.  Paschasius  Radbertus,  a  monk  of  Corvey, 
clearly  propounded  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  in 
liis  Liher  de  corjjore  et  sanguine  Domini,  addressed  to 
the  emperor  Charles  the  Bald,  between  830  and  832. 
He  was  opposed  by  Ratramnus  in  his  treatise  I)e  cor- 
pore  et  sanguine  Domini,  which  was  written  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  emperor,  who  drew  a  distinction  between 
the  sign  and  the  thing  represented  by  it,  between  the 
internal  and  the  external.  The  most  eminent  theolo- 
gians of  the  age,  as  Rabanus  Maurus  and  Scotus  Erige- 
na,  took  an  active  part  in  the  controversy.  Gerbert  (af- 
terwards pope  Sylvester  II)  endeavored  to  illustrate  the 
doctrine  of  transubstantiation  by  the  aid  of  geometrical 
diagrams.  Toward  the  middle  of  the  11th  century  the 
doctrine  of  transubstantiation  was  rejected  by  Berengar, 
canon  of  Tours  (q.  v.),  who  principally  condemned  the 
doctrine  of  an  entire  change  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
make  the  bread  to  cease  to  be  bread.  Several  synods 
in  succession,  between  1050  and  1079,  condemned  his 
views.  At  one  of  these  synods  cardinal  Humbert  im- 
posed upon  Berengar  an  oath  that  he  believed  "  corpus 
et  sanguinem  Domini  non  solum  Sacramento  sed  in 
veritate  manibus  sacerdotum  tractari,  frangi  et  fidelium 
dentibus  atteri."  Among  the  scholastics,  Lanfranc  de- 
veloped the  distinction  between  the  subject  and  the  ac- 
cidents. The  term  Iransubstantiatio  was  first  used  by 
Hildebert  of  Tours,  though  similar  phrases,  as  transitio, 
had  previously  been  employed  (by  Hugo  of  St.  Victor 
and  others).  IMost  of  the  earlier  scholastics,  and,  in  par- 
ticular, the  followers  of  Lanfranc,  defended  both  the 
change  of  the  bread  into  the  b(xiy  of  Clirist  and  that  of 
the  "  accidentia  sine  subjecto,"  both  of  which  were  in- 
serted in  the  Decrefum  Gratiani  (about  1150),  and  de- 
clared an  article  of  faith  by  the  fourth  Council  of  Lateran. 
Later,  the  Scholastics  discussed  a  great  many  subtle 
questions,  such  as,  Do  animals  partake  of  the  body  of 
Christ  when  they  happen  to  swallow  a  consecrated  host  V 
By  the  institution  of  the  Corpus-Christi  day  by  pope 
Urban  IV  (1204),  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  re- 
ceived a  liturgical  expression.  However,  a  considerable 
time  before,  it  had  become  a  custom  in  the  Latin  Church 
that  the  laity  received  the  Lord's  Su]iper  only  in  the 
form  of  the  host.  Alexander  Hales,  Bonaventura,  and 
Thomas  Aquinas  expresslv  demanded  that  onlv  the 
v.— K  K 


priests  should  partake  of  the  cup.  The' Hussites  de- 
manded the  admission  of  the  laity  also  to  a  partaking 
of  the  cup,  and  the  refusal  of  this  demand  by  the  Coun- 
cil of  Constance  was  one  of  the  causes  of  the  Hussite 
War,  The  doctrine  that  Christ  existed  wholly  iii  either 
of  the  elements  (for  which  doctrine  the  theologians  used 
the  expression  concomitance)  was  expressly  confirmed  by 
the  Council  of  Basle.  The  number  of  those  who  during 
the  Middle  Ages  expressed  their  dissent  from  the  doc- 
trine of  transubstantiation  is  limited. 

The  doctrine  ofimpanation,  or  a  coexistence  of  Christ's 
body  with  the  bread,  was  first  advanced  by  John  of  Paris, 
who  was  followed  by  William  Ockham  and  Durandus  de 
Sancto  Porciano,  Both  transubstantiation  and  impana- 
tion  were  combated  by  Wickliffc,  who,  with  Berengar  of 
Tours,  believed  it  a  change  from  the  inferior  to  the  su- 
perior. His  views  were  probably  shared  by  Jerome  of 
Prague,  while  Huss  seems  to  have  believed  in  transub- 
stantiation. The  Reformers  of  the  16th  century  agreed 
in  rejecting  transubstantiation  as  unscriptural,  but  they 
differed  among  themselves  in  several  points.  Carlstadt 
believed  that  the  words  of  institution  were  to  be  under- 
stood csiKTiKoJg,  i.  e.  that  Christ,  while  speaking  to  them, 
had  pointed  at  his  own  body.  Zuingle  took  the  word 
"iV  (tcrri)  in  the  sense  of  signifies,  and  viewed  the 
Lord's  Supper  merely  as  an  act  of  commemoration,  and 
as  a  visible  sign  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ.  CEco- 
lampadius  differed  from  Ziungle  only  grammatically, 
retaining  the  literal  meaning  of  "is,"  but  taking  the 
predicate, "  my  body"  {to  aih^a  i-iov'),  in  a  figurative 
sense,  Luther  believed  it  impossible  to  put  any  of 
these  constructions  on  the  letter  of  the  Scripture,  and 
adhered  to  the  doctrine  of  the  7-eal  presence  of  Christ's 
body  and  blood  in,  rcilh,  and  xinder  the  bread  and  wine 
(consubstantiation).  Together  with  this  view  he  pro- 
fessed a  belief  in  the  ubiquity  of  the  body  of  Christ. 
Calvin  rejected  the  doctrine  of  the  real  presence ;  but,  af- 
ter the  precedence  of  Bucer,  Mj-ronius,  and  others,  spoke 
of  a  real,  though  spiritual  participation  of  the  body  of 
Christ  which  exists  in  heaven.  This  participation, 
however,  he  restricted  to  the  believer,  while  Luther 
agreed  with  the  Roman  Church  in  maintaining  that 
also  infidels  partook  of  Christ's  body,  though  to  their 
own  hurt.  Attempts  at  mediating  between  the  views 
of  Luther  and  Calvin  were  early  made,  and  there  were 
crypto-Calvinists  in  the  Lutheran,  and  crj-pto-Luther- 
ans  in  the  Calvinistic  churches.  But  the  Lutlteran  view 
received  a  dogmatic  fixation  in  the  Formula  Concordice, 
which  shut  out  any  further  influence  of  Calvinism. 
The  decline  of  Lutheran  orthodoxy  in  general  caused 
also  the  Lutheran  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper  to  grow 
into  disuse,  and  the  Protestant  theologians  generally 
adopted  the  views  either  of  Calvin  or  of  Zuingle,  The 
latter,  at  length,  prevailed,  (See  the  Brit,  and  For.  Ev. 
Rev.  Oct.  18G0;  Midler,  De  Ltitheri  et  Cahini  sententice 
de  Sacra  Ccena,  Hal.  1853.)  It  was,  in  particular,  adopt- 
ed by  the  Arminian  churches,  as  also  by  the  Socinians. 
In  the  Church  of  England  there  was  from  the  beginning 
a  real-presence  and  a  spiritual-presence  party,  and  the 
controversy  between  them  frequently  became  very  hot. 
The  real-presence  party  generally  agreed  with  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Lutheran  Church,  but  some  of  its  writers 
advanced  views  more  resembling  those  ot  the  Roman 
Church.  In  the  19th  century  the  High-Church  parties 
of  tlie  German  Lutheran  Church,  and  of  the  Episcopal 
Church  of  England,  Scotland,  and  America,  revived  and 
emphasized  again  the  doctrine  of  the  real  presence. 
Under  the  influence  of  rationalistic  theology  and  specu- 
lative theology  a  number  of  new  interpretations  sprang 
up  like  mushrooms,  and  disappeared  again  just  as  fast. 
The  leading  theologians  of  the  United  Evangelical 
Church  of  Germany  in  the  19th  century  fell  back  on  the 
doctrine  of  Calvin,  and  emphasized  the  real  and  objective 
communication  of  the  whole  God-man  Christ  to  the  be- 
liever, and  the  same  views  have  become  predominant  in 
the  German  Reformed  Church  of  America.  A'ery  differ- 
ent from  the  doctrine  of  all  the  larger  Christian  denom- 


LORD'S  SUPPER 


514 


LORD'S  SUPPER 


inations  were  the  views  which  some  mystic  writers  of 
the  ancient  and  mecliicval  Church  intimated,  and  whicli 
Tvere  fully  developed  in  the  lOth  century  by  Paracelsus, 
and  afterwards  adopted  by  the  Society  of  Friends.  They 
reo-ard  communion  as  something  essentially  internal  and 
mvstical.  and  deny  the  Lord's  Supper  to  be  an  ordinance 
winch  Christ  desired  to  have  perpetuated.  —  Lavater, 
Uistoria  controversice  Sacramentarice  (Tig.  1672) ;  Hos- 
pinianus,  Hist,  Sacramentaria  (Tig.  1602)  ;  Planck,  Ge- 
schichte  d.  Entstehung,  etc.,  des  protest.  Lehrhegrijfs,  ii,  204 
sq.,  471  sq. ;  iii,  (1.)  376  sq. ;  iv,  6  sq. ;  v,  (1)  89  sq.,  211 
sq.,  (2)  7  sq. ;  vi,  732  sq.     See  Transubstantiation. 

lY.Fonn  of  Celebration.— \.  The  Elements.— (ii)  At 
the  institution  of  the  Lord's  Supper  Christ  used  un- 
leavened bread.  The  primitive  Christians  carried  with 
them  the  bread  and  wine  for  the  Lord's  Supper,  and 
took  the  bread  which  was  used  at  common  meals,  which 
was  leavened  bread.  When  this  custom  ceased,  togeth- 
er with  the  Agape,  the  Greeks  retained  the  leavened 
bread,  while  in  the  Latin  Church  the  unleavened  bread 
became  commou  since  the  8th  centurj'.  Out  of  this 
difference  a  dogmatic  controversy  in  the  11th  century 
arose,  the  Greek  Church  reproaching  the  Latin  for  the 
use  of  unleavened  bread,  and  making  it  heresy.  At  the 
Council  of  Florence,  in  1439,  which  attempted  to  unite 
both  churches,  it  was  agreed  that  either  might  be  used ; 
but  the  Greeks  soon  rejected,  with  the  council  also,  the 
toleration  of  the  imleavened  bread,  and  still  maintain 
the  opposite  ground  at  the  present  day. 

We  sec,  from  1  Cor.  xi,  24,  that  in  the  apostolic 
Church  the  bread  was  broken.  This  custom  was  dis- 
continued in  the  Roman  Church  when,  in  the  12th  and 
13th  centuries,  the  host  or  holy  wafer  was  cut  in  a  pe- 
culiar way,  so  as  to  represent  upon  it  a  crucified  Saviour. 
Luther  retained  the  wafer,  but  the  lieformed  churches 
reintroduced  the  use  of  common  bread  and  the  breaking 
of  it.  The  same  was  the  case  with  the  Socinians  and 
the  United  Evangelical  Church  of  Germany.  In  the 
Episcopal  Church  of  England,  and  the  churches  derived 
from  it,  cut  pieces  of  common  wheaten  bread  are  given 
into  the  hands  of  the  communicants.  See  J.  G.  Her- 
mann, Hist,  conveiiationuni  de  pane  asymo  (Lips.  1737) . 
Marheineke,  Das  Brod  in  A  bendmahle  (Berlin,  1817), 

(6)  The  second  element  used  by  Christ  was  icine.  It 
is  not  certain  of  what  color  the  wine  was,  nor  whether 
it  was  pure  or  mixed  with  water,  and  both  points  were 
always  regarded  as  indifferent  by  the  Christian  Church. 
The  use  of  mixed  wine  is  said  to  have  been  introduced 
by  pope  Alexander  I ;  it  was  expressly  enacted  in  the 
12th  century  by  Clement  III,  and  divers  allegorical 
significations  were  given  to  the  mingling  of  these  two 
elements.  Also  the  Greek  Church  mingles  the  wine 
with  water,  while  the  Armenian  and  the  Protestant 
churches  use  pure  wine. 

The  question  as  to  whether  the  wine  originally  used 
in  the  Lord's  Supper  wa.?,  fermented  or  not,  would  seem 
to  be  a  futile  one  in  view  of  the  fact,  1.  that  the  unfer- 
mented  juice  ofthe  grape  can  hardly,  with  propriety,  be 
called  wine  at  all;  2.  that  fermented  wine  is  of  almost 
universal  use  in  the  East ;  and,  3.  that  it  has  invariably 
been  employed  for  this  purpose  in  the  Church  of  all 
ages  and  countries.  But  for  the  excessive  zeal  of  cer- 
tain modern  well-moaning  reformers,  the  idea  that  our 
Lord  used  any  other  would  hardly  have  gained  the  least 
currency.     See  Wink. 

In  accordance  with  the  original  institution,  both  ele- 
ments were  used  separately  during  the  first  centuries, 
but  it  became  early  a  custom  to  carry  to  sick  persons 
bread  merely  dipped  m  wine.  The  Manichasans,  who 
abstained  wholly  from  wine,  were  strongly  oiiposed  b}' 
teachers  of  all  other  parties,  and  pope  (iclasius  I,  ofthe 
5th,  called  their  practice  f/rande  sacrilegiitni.  In  the 
10th  century  it  became  freijuent  in  the  West  to  use 
only  consecrated  bread  dippeii  in  wine,  but  it  was  not 
before  the  end  of  the  13th  century  that,  in  accordance 
with  the  doctrine,  then  developed  by  the  Scholastics, 
that  Christ  was  wholly  present  in  both  bread  and  wine, 


and  that  the  partaking  of  the  bread  was  sufficient,  the 
Church  began  to  withhold  the  wine  from  the  laity  alto- 
gether. The  AValdenseSjWickliffe,  Huss,  and  Savonarola 
protested  against  this  withdrawal  of  the  cup,  and  aU 
the  Protestant  denominations  agreed  in  restoring  the 
use  of  both  elements.  The  Greek  Church  has  always 
used  the  wine  for  the  laity  also.  See  Spitler,  Geschichte 
des  Kelches  im  Abendmahl  (Lemgo,  1780) ;  Schmidt, De 
fatis  calicis  euckaristid  (Helmstadt,  1708). 

2.  Consecration  and  Distribution  ofthe  Elements. — To 
"  consecrate"  meant  in  the  ancient  Church  only  to  set 
apart  from  common  and  devote  to  a  sacred  use.  But, 
by  degrees,  a  magical  effect  was  attributed  to  conse- 
cration, as  was  aheady  done  by  Augustine,  and  when 
the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  became  prevalent  in 
the  Roman  Church,  it  was  supposed  that  the  pronuncia- 
tion of  the  words  "  This  is  my  body"  changed  the  ele- 
ments into  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ.  The  formulae 
which  were  used  at  the  consecration  were  at  first  free, 
but  afterwards  fixed  by  written  liturgies.  All  liturgies 
contain  the  words  of  institution  and  a  prayer;  the  lit- 
urgy of  the  Greek  Church,  moreover,  a  ])rayer  to  the 
Holy  Spirit  to  change  the  bread  and  wine  into  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ.  In  the  ancient  Church  both  ele- 
ments were  distributed  by  the  deacons,  afterwards  only 
the  wine;  at  a  later  period  of  the  Church,  again, both 
elements.  According  to  the  Protestant  theologians,  the 
administration  belongs  properl}'  to  the  ministers  of  the 
Church ;  but  Luther,  and  many  theologians  with  him, 
maintained  that  where  no  regular  teachers  can  be  ob- 
tained, this  sacrament  may  be  administered  by  other 
Christians  to  whom  this  duty  is  committed  by  the 
Church. 

3.  Time  and  Place. — In  the  apostolic  Church,  as  we 
have  seen,  the  Lord's  Supper  was  regularly  celebrated 
in  the  public  assemblies,  hence  in  private  dwellings,  at 
common  tables,  during  the  persecutions  in  hidden  places, 
at  the  sepulchres  ofthe  martvTS,  and,  later,  in  the  church- 
es at  special  tables  or  altars.  In  imitation  of  its  first 
celebration  by  Christ,  it  was  at  first  celebrated  at  night; 
later,  it  became  almost  universally  connected  with  the 
morning  service.  In  the  primitive  Church,  Christians 
partook  of  it  almost  daily:  and  when  this  was  made  im- 
possible by  the  persecutions,  at  least  several  times  a 
week, or  certainly  on  Sundays.  In  the  5th  century  many 
theological  writers  complain  of  the  laxity  of  Christiana 
in  the  participation  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  afterwards 
several  synods  had  to  prescribe  that  all  Christians  ought 
to  partake  of  it  at  least  a  certain  number  of  times.  The 
fourth  Synod  of  Lateran,  in  1415,  restricted  it  to  once 
a  j-ear.  The  Reformers  insisted  again  on  a  more  fre- 
quent participation,  without,  however,  making  any  defi- 
nite prescriptions  as  to  the  number  of  times.  Many 
of  the  Protestant  states  punished  those  who  withdrew 
altogether  from  it  with  exile,  excommunication,  and 
the  refusal  of  a  Christian  burial. 

4.  Persons  by  ichom,  and  the  Marnier  in  which  the 
Lord's  Supper  is  received. — In  the  primitive  Church  all 
baptized  persons  were  admitted  to  the  Lord's  Supper; 
afterwards  the  catechumens  and  the  lapsi  were  excluded 
from  it.  Communion  of  infants  is  found  in  an  early  pe- 
riod, and  is  still  used  in  the  (Jreek  Church.  See  Zorn, 
Hist,  eucharist.  infant.  (Berl.  1742).  To  those  who  were 
prevented  from  being  present  at  the  public  service  the 
consecrated  elements  were  carried  by  deacons.  Thus  it 
was  especially  carried  to  the  dying  as  a  Viaticwn,  and 
until  the  5th  or  6th  century  it  was  even  ))la(('d  in  the 
mouth  of  the  dead,  or  in  their  coffin  (see  Schmidt,  De 
eucharistia  mortuorum,  Jena,  1645). 

The  apostles  received  the  Lord's  Su(>pcr  reclining, 
according  to  Eastern  custom.  Since  the  4th  century 
the  communicants  used  to  stand,  afterwards  to  kneel, 
the  men  with  uncovered  head,  the  women  covered  with 
a  long  white  cloth. 

Since  the  4th  century  a  certain  order  was  introduced 
in  approaching  the  communion  table,  so  that  first  the 
higher  and  lower  clergy,  and  afterwards  the  laity  came. 


LORD'S  SUPPER 


515 


LORENZO 


Thfe  self-communion  of  the  laity  is  prohibited  by  all 
Christian  denominations.  The  self-communion  of  offi- 
ciating clergymen  is  the  general  usage  in  the  Koman 
Church,  but  also  permitted  and  customary  in  the  Epis- 
copal Church,  among  the  Moravians,  and  with  other 
denominations. 

5.  Ceremonies  in  Celebration. — In  the  Roman  Church 
the  communicants,  after  having  confessed  and  received 
absolution,  approach  the  communion  table,  which  stands 
at  some  distance  from  the  altar,  and  receive  kneeling  a 
host  from  the  priest,  who  passes  round,  taking  the  host 
out  of  a  chalice  which  he  holds  in  his  left  hand,  repeat- 
ing for  each  communicant  the  words  "  Corpus  Domini 
nostri  Jesu  Christi  custodial  animam  tuam  in  vitam 
ffiternam."  The  communion  service  of  the  Greek  Church 
is  nearly  the  same  as  tliat  of  the  ancient  Church. 

In  the  Lutheran  Church  the  communion  is  preceded 
by  a  preparatory  service,  confession  (q.  v.).  After  the 
sermon  the  clergyman  consecrates  the  host  and  the 
wine  at  the  altar.  Amid  the  singing  of  the  congrega- 
tion, the  communicants,  first  the  men,  then  the  women, 
step,  either  singly  or  two  at  a  time,  to  the  altar,  where 
the  clergyman  places  the  host  in  their  mouth,  and 
reaches  to  them  the  cup,  using  the  following  or  a  simi- 
lar formida :  "  Take,  eat,  this  is  the  body  of  our  Lord 
and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ ;  it  may  strengthen  and  pre- 
serve you  in  the  true  faith  unto  life  everlasting.  Amen. 
Take,  drink,  this  is  the  blood,"  etc.  The  service  is  con- 
cluded with  a  prayer  of  thanks,  and  with  the  blessing. 
During  the  service  frequently  candles  burn  on  the  altar. 

In  the  Keformed,  Presbyterian,  Congregational,  Ar- 
minian,  etc.,  churches,  the  service  begins  commonly 
with  a  formula  containing  the  passage  1  Cor.  xi.  The 
communicants  step,  in  most  places  singly,  to  the  com- 
nnuiion  table,  and  the  broken  bread  and  the  cup  are 
given  into  their  own  hands.  In  some  places  they  re- 
main sitting  in  the  pews,  where  the  elders  carry  to  them 
bread  and  wine ;  in  others,  twelve  at  a  time  sit  around 
a  table.    Private  communion  of  the  sick  is  an  exception. 

In  the  Episcopal  Church  of  England  the  service  of 
the  Lord's  Supper  is  immediateh'  preceded  by  a  general 
confession  of  sins,  which  is  followed  by  a  prayer  of  con- 
secration and  the  words  of  institution.  The  clergymen 
first  commune  themselves,  then  the  communicants,  who 
approach  without  observing  any  distinction,  and  kneel 
down  at  the  communion  table,  receiving  the  bread 
(which  is  cut)  and  the  cup  into  their  hands.  The  same 
service  takes  place  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church, 
and  substantially  in  the  Methodist  churches. 

The  Socinians  have,  on  the  day  before  they  celebrate 
the  Lord's  Supper,  a  preparation  (•'  discipline")  with 
closed  doors,  when  the  preacher  exhorts  the  Church 
members,  rebukes  their  faults,  reconciles  enemies,  and 
sometimes  excludes  those  guilty  of  grave  offences  from 
the  Church.  On  the  following  day,  at  public  service, 
the  altar  tables  are  spread  and  furnished  with  bread  and 
wine.  The  communicants  sit  down  round  the  table,  and 
take  with  their  hands  the  bread,  which  is  broken  by  the 
preacher,  and  the  cup. 

The  service  of  the  Moravians  approaches  that  of  the 
primitive  Church.  It  is  celebrated  every  fourth  Sun- 
day at  the  evening  service,  and  was  formerly  connected 
with  tlie  Agapoe  (love  feasts),  washing  of  feet,  and  the 
kiss  of  peace. 

On  the  ceremonies  in  the  Eastern  churches,  see  Ritns 
Orientalinm.  Coptorum,  Si/?-onim,  et  Armenorum,  in  ad- 
ministrandis  Sucrameniis.  Ex  Assemanis,  Kenandotio, 
Trombellio  aliisque  fontibus  authenticis  coUectos.  Edi- 
dit  Henricus  Denziger,  Ph.  et  S.  Th.  Doc.  et  in  Univ. 
Wirceburgensi  Theol.  Dogmat.  Prof,  (tom,  i,  London,  D. 
Xutt,  1863). 

V.  The  Literature  on  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per is  very  extensive.  A  history  of  the  doctrine  was 
given  by  Schulz  (Rationalistic),"/;/?  christliche  Lehre 
vom  heilir/en  Abendmuhle  (2d  ed.  Leipsic,  1831) ;  Ebrard 
(Evangelical),  Das  Dogma  vom  Ahendmahl  iind  seine 
Geschichte  (Frankfort,  l'«-15) ;  Kahnis  (High  Lutheran), 


Die  Lehre  vom  Ahendmahle  (Leipsic,  1851) ;  L.  J. Ruck- 
ert  (Rationalistic),  I)as  Ahendmahl,  sein  Wesen  und  seine 
Geschichte  in  der  alten  Kirche  (Leipsic,  1856,  2  vols.). 
For  many  other  foreign  monographs,  see  Danz,  Worter- 
buch,  s:  V.  Abcndmahl:  Yolbeding,  Index,  p.  50;  Hase, 
Leben  Jesu,  p.  194;  Malcom,  Theol.  Index,  p.  275.  The 
following  are  the  principal  luiglish  works  on  the  sub- 
ject: "Wilberforce  (Puseyite),  Doctrine  of  the  Eucharist 
(Lond.  1853),  and  Sermons  on  the  Ilohj  Communion  (ib. 
1854) ;  J.  Taylor  (in  opposition  to  \Vilberforce),  True 
Doctrine  of  the  Eucharist  (London,  1855) ;  Goode  (W.), 
Nature  of  Christ's  Person  in  the  Eucharist  (1856) ;  Pu- 
sey  (E.  Ii.),Eeal  Presence  (1853-7);  Freeman,  Princi- 
ples of  Divine  Service ;  Turton  (Pp.),  Eucharist,  and 
Wiseman's  Reply  (in  ten  Essays,  1854).  ]\Iore  general 
are  Dorner,  Doctrine  of  the  Person  of  Christ  (Edinburgh, 
1864,  5  vols.  8vo),  vol.  ii,  div.  ii,  p.  116  ;  and  his  Protest. 
Theol.  p.  298;  Hagenbach,  History  of  Doctrines,  vo].  i,  § 
73;  Heppe, /Vo.ymM^j/i-,  p.  455 ;  Cunningham, ///i.-^  Theol. 
i,  205;  ii,  142  sq. ;  Auberlen,  Dis.  Revel,  p.  210  sq. ; 
Browne,  Exposition  of  the  XXXIX  Articles,  p.  683  sq. ; 
Forbes,  Explan.  of  the  XXXIX  A  rticles,  ii,  496 ;  Mar- 
tensen,  Christian  Dogmatics,  p.  482  sq. ;  J.  Pye  Smith, 
Christian  Theology,  p.  686  sq. ;  Baur,  Dogmengesch.  iii, 
10,  247;  Liddon,  Our  Lord's  Divinity  (see  Index  under 
Eucharist);  Miinscher,  Dogmengesch.  ii,  673  sq.  See 
also  Ch.  of  Engl.  Quart.  1855,  Jan.  art.  i ;  Evangel.  Rev. 
1866,  p.  369  sq.;  Method.  Quart.  Rev.  1860  (Oct.).  p.  648 
sq. ;  1870  (April),  p.  301  ;  Jahrb.  deutsche  Theol.  1867, 
ii,  21  sq. ;  1868,  vol.  i  and  ii ;  1870,  vol.  iii  and  iv  ;  Stud. 
u.Krit.  1841,  iii,  715  sq.;  1839,  i,  69,  123;  1840,  ii,  389; 
1844,  ii,  409;  1860,  ii,  362;  WWgmMA,  Zeitschr.  Wis- 
sensch.  Theol.  1867, p. 84 ;  Christian  Monthly,l»M: (Blay), 
p.  542;  Christian  Rememh.  I8h3  (Oet.),  p.  93,  203 ;  18(37, 
p.  84;  Khto,Joi(rn.  Sac.  Lit.  1854  (Oct.),  p.  102:  Bibl. 
Sacra,  1862,  art.  vi ;  1803,  p.  3 ;  Mercersb.  Rev.  1858,  p. 
103  .;  Ch.  Reviciv,  1866.  p.  11  sq. ;  Christian  Rev.  xl,  191  ; 
Lit.  and  Theol.  Rev.  1836  (Sept.) ;  Bapt.  Quart.  Review, 
1870  (Oct.).  p.  497 ;  Contemp.  Rev.  1868  (July  and  Nov.) ; 
Edinb.  Rev.  1867  (April),  p.  232;  Brit.  Quart.  Rev.  1868, 
p.  1 13  ;  Princeton  Rer.  1848 ;  Brit,  and  Ear.  Ev.  Revietr, 
1808,  p.  431 ;  Westm.  Rev.  1871,  p.  96  sq.  An  accoimt 
of  the  mode  of  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  by 
the  various  denominations  is  given  by  Scheibel,  Feier 
des  heiligen  Abendmahls  bei  den  verschiedenen  Religions- 
parteien  (Breslau,  1824).     See  Supper. 

Lorenz,  Johanx  IMichael,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  Strasburg  June  16, 1692.  and  was  educated 
at  the  university  of  that  city.  In  1713  he  obtained  the 
degree  of  A.M. ;  in  1714  he  was  appointed  preacher  in 
his  native  place;  in  1722,  professor  ordinarj'  of  divinity 
at  his  alma  mater.  In  addition  to  this,  he  was  appoint- 
ed in  1724  visitor  of  Williams  College;  in  1728,  morn- 
ing preacher  and  prebendary  of  the  foundation  of  St. 
Thomas;  in  1734.  pastor  of  the  Thomas  Church;  in  1741, 
vice-president  of  the  ecclesiastical  conference.  The  doc- 
torate in  divinity  he  obtained  in  1722.  He  died  Aug. 
13, 1752.  By  more  than  fifty  Latin  dissertations  on  dog- 
matical and  excgctical  theology  Lorenz  gained  an  hon- 
orable name  in  theological  literature.  We  only  men- 
tion Dissertatio  de  unctione  Spiritual!,  ad  1  Joh.  ii,  27 
(Argentorati,  1723,  4to).  See  Doring,  Gekhie  Theol, 
Deutschlands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lorenzo  or  Lorenzetto,  Ambrogto  and  Pietro 
Di,  two  celebrated  Italian  painters  of  the  14th  century, 
were  born  at  Siena  about  1300.  They  were  brothers, 
as  we  learn  from  an  inscription  which  was  attached  to 
their  pictures  of  the  "  Presentation"  and  of  the  '•  Marriage 
of  the  Virgin,"  destroyed  in  1720.  The  principal  of  their 
works,  which  was  painted  in  the  ]\Iinorite  convent  at 
Siena,  and  represented  the  fatal  adventures  of  some  mis- 
sionary monks,  has  been  destroyed.  In  the  first  com- 
partment a  youth  was  represented  putting  on  tl)e  mo- 
nastic costume;  in  another,  the  same  youth  was  repre- 
sented with  several  of  his  brother  monks  about  to  set 
out  for  Asia,  to  convert  the  Mohammedans;  in  a  third, 
these  missionaries  are  already  at  their  place  of  destina- 


LORETTO 


516 


LORIA 


fion,  and  arc  being  cliastised  in  the  sultan's  presence, 
and  are  surrounded  and  mocked  by  a  crowd  of  scoffing 
infidels;  tlie  sultan  judges  them  to  be  hanged;  in  a 
fourth  the  young  monk  is  already  hanged  to  a  tree,  yet 
lie  notwitlistanding  continues  to  preach  the  Gospel  to 
tiie  astonished  multitude,  upon  which  the  sultan  orders 
their  heads  to  be  cut  ofT;  the  next  compartment  is 
ttieir  ceremonious  execution  by  the  sword,  and  the  scaf- 
fold is  surrounded  by  a  great  crowd  on  foot  and  on 
horseback;  after  the  execution  follows  a  great  storm, 
which  is  represented  in  all  the  detail  of  wind,  hail,  light- 
ning, and  earthquake,  from  all  of  which  the  crowd  are 
protecting  themselves  as  they  best  can,  and  this  mira- 
<le,  as  it  was  considered,  is  the  cause  of  many  conver- 
hiims  to  Christianity.  Of  the  several  pictures  by  Am- 
l>rogio  mentioned  b}''  Ghiberti  only  one  remains,  the 
Presentation  of  the  Virrjin  in  the  Temple,  in  the  Scuole 
Regie.  Of  works  by  Pietro  Lorenzo  there  is  only  one 
authenticated  work;  it  is  in  the  Stanza  del  Pilone,  a 
room  against  the  sacristy  of  the  cathedral  of  Siena,  and 
represents,  according  to  Pumohr,  some  passages  from 
the  life  of  John  the  Baptist,  liis  birth,  etc.  Vasari  men- 
t  ions  many  works  by  Pietro  in  various  cities  of  Tuscany, 
and  attributes  to  him  a  picture  of  the  early  fatliers  and 
hermits  in  the  Campo  Santo  at  Pisa.  In  1355  Pietro 
was  invited  to  Arezzo  to  paint  the  cathedral,  in  which 
he  painted  in  fresco  twelve  stories  from  the  life  of  the 
Virgin,  with  figures  as  large  as  life  and  larger,  but  they 
have  long  since  perished ;  they  were,  however,  in  good 
preservation  in  the  time  of  Vasari,  who  completely  re- 
stored them.  He  speaks  of  parts  of  them  as  superior  in 
style  and  vigor  to  anything  that  had  been  done  up  to 
that  time. — English  Ci/clop.  s.  v.  See  also  Vasari,  F«Ve 
de'  Pittori,  etc. ;  Delia  Valle,  Lettere  Sanesi ;  Lanzi,  Sto- 
ria  Pittorica,  etc. ;  and  especially  Ruraohr,  Italienische 
Forschunqen,  in  which  the  two  Lorenzetti  are  treated 
of  at  considerable  length. 

Loretto,  properly  Loreto  (Lauretuji),  an  Italian 
city  of  some  8OOIJ  inhabitants,  several  miles  south  of  An- 
cona,  is  renowned  simply  as  a  place  of  pilgrimage.  It 
is  the  site  of  the  celebrated  sanctuary  of  the  Virgin 
Blary  called  the  /Santa  Casa,  or  Holy  House.  The 
church  of  Santa  Casa  was  built  in  1461-1513.  The  first 
mention  of  this  santa  rasa  is  to  be  found  in  Flavins 
Blondus's  (f  14tJ3)  Italia  illii.^trata.  where  lie  says  of  it, 
'•  Celeberrimum  totius  Itali;e  sacellum  beatre  Virginis  in 
Laureto."  He  mentions  the  many  rich  presents  which 
were  made  to  the  shrine  as  a  proof  that  "  at  this  place 
the  prayers  for  the  intercession  of  the  mother  of  God 
are  granted,"  but  he  says  nothing  of  the  origin  of  the 
place.  Pope  Paul  II  (f  1471)  granted  indulgences  to 
those  who  visited  this  shrine,  and  this  example  was  fol- 
lowetl  by  his  successors.  liaptista  INIantuanus,  in  his 
Redemptoris  mundi  matris  ecckdce  Lauretance  historia 
(Antwerp,  1576),  relates,  quoting  a  history  found  at  the 
slirine  itself  (and  probably  written  about  1450-80),  that 
the  house  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  in  which  Christ  was 
brought  up.  and  which  was  said  to  have  been  discov- 
ered l)y  St.  Helena,  was,  after  the  total  downfall  of  the 
country,  and  the  destruction  of  its  Christian  churches 
by  the  Turks  in  IMay.  1291.  brought  by  the  angels  to 
Dalmatia,  and  four  and  a  half  years  later  to  Italy,  in 
ilie  neighborhood  of  liecanati,  and  was  thence  finally 
(ransferred  to  its  present  site.  This  story  is  contradict- 
ed by  the  Church  historians  of  the  14th  century  them- 
selves, who  say  that  in  tlieir  day  IMary's  house  at  Naz- 
areth was  still  visited  by  iiilgrinis.  The  houses  of  Re- 
canati  resembk'd  eacli  other  very  mncli,  and  the  selec- 
tion of  the  original  hal)itat  ion  of  the  Virgin  proved  verj- 
difficidt,  as  private  interests  became  mixed  up  with4t. 

But  now  as  to  the  church  of  the  Santa  Casa  itself.  It 
stands  near  the  centre  of  the  town,  in  a  piazza  which  pos- 
sesses other  architectural  attractions,  the  chief  pf  which 
are  the  governor's  palace,  built  from  the  designs  of  Bra- 
mante,  and  a  fine  bronze  statue  of  ]iope  Sixtus  V.  The 
grcfu  central  door  of  the  church  is  surmounted  by  a 
splendid  bronze  statue  of  the  Madonna;  and  in  the  in- 


terior are  three  magnificent  bronze  doors  filled  with  bas- 
reliefs,  representing  tlie  principal  events  of  scriptural 
and  ecclesiastical  history.  The  celebrated  Holy  House 
stands  within.  It  is  a  small  brick  house,  with  on.e  door 
and  one  window,  originally  of  rude  material  and  con- 
struction, but  now,  from  the  devotion  of  successive  gen- 
erations, a  marvel  of  art  and  of  costliness.  It  is  entirely 
cased  with  white  marble,  exquisitely  sciUptured,  after 
Bramante's  designs,  by  Sansovino,  Bandinelli,  Giovanni 
Bolognese,  and  other  eminent  artists.  The  subjects  of 
the  bas-reliefs  are  all  taken  from  the  history  of  the  Vir- 
gin Mary  in  relation  to  the  mj'Stery  of  the  incarnation, 
as  the  Annunciation,  the  Visitation,  the  Nativity,  with 
the  exception  of  three  on  the  eastern  side,  which  are 
mainly  devoted  to  the  legend  of  the  Holy  House  itself 
and  of  its  translation.  The  rest  of  the  interior  of  the 
church  is  rich  with  bas-reliefs,  mosaics,  frescoes,  paint- 
ings, and  carvings  in  bronze.  Of  this  material,  the 
finest  work  is  the  font,  which  is  a  master-piece  of  art. 
The  Holy  House  having  been  at  all  times  an  object  of 
devout  veneration,  its  treasury  of  votive  offerings  is  one 
of  the  richest  in  the  Western  world.  It  suffered  severely 
in  the  French  occupation  of  1796,  but  it  has  since  re- 
ceived numerous  and  most  costly  accessions.  Each  of 
the  innumerable  gold  and  silver  lamps  kept  burning  at 
the  shrine  is  endowed  to  the  amount  of  several  tliou- 
sand  dollars  to  seciu-e  their  being  always  kept  burning. 
The  remainder  of  the  wax  candles  and  oil  (of  which 
some  14,000  jiounds  are  burned  annually)  is  sold  as  pos- 
sessing sanative  virtues,  which  are  also  supposed  to  ac- 
company the  use  or  even  the  handling  of  household 
vessels  belonging  to  the  shrine.  As  many  as  40,000 
masses  have  been  said  there  in  one  year,  which  also 
adds  greatly  to  the  income.  Popes  Julius  II,  Sixtus  V, 
and  Innocent  XII  attached  indulgences  to  the  pilgrim- 
ages and  pra3-ers  offered  here,  but  nevertheless  the  num- 
ber of  pilgrims,  which  was  said  in  IGOO  to  have  reached 
200,000  per  annum,  fell  in  the  last  century  to  40,000, 
and  in  our  own  day  remains  at  this  number.  The  fres- 
coes of  the  church  are  among  the  finest  to  be  found  in 
the  world.  The  name  it  took  from  Laureta,  a  lady  on 
whose  estate  the  Santa  Casa  remained  for  a  while. 

The  historj'  of  this  shrine  has  been  critically  examined 
by  P.  P.  Bergerius,  and  in  1619  by  Prof.Vernegger,  of 
Strasburg.  Its  principal  champions  were  Jesuits ;  among 
them  we  would  mention  Turrianus,  Canisius,  and  Baro- 
nius.  Imitations  of  the  Santa  Casa  have  been  erected 
in  some  places,  as  at  Prague,  near  Augsburg,  etc.,  and,  in 
turn,  became  shrines. — Herzog,  Real-Enajklop.  viii,  489. 

Loria  (orLuria)  Isaac  (by  the  Jews  i"iX  [Lion'], 
the  initials  of  pn:Ji  "^-l  ■'T32"rX),  a  noted  rabbi  and 
great  expounder  of  tlie  Cabala  (q.  v.),  was  born  at  Jeru- 
salem in  1534,  of  a  German-Jewish  family.  His  father 
having  died  when  he  was  a  child,  he  was  cared  for  by  a 
rich  uncle,  and  was  dedicated  to  the  study  of  the  Tal- 
mud at  Cairo,  ^^'hen  twenty-four  years  of  age  he  was 
considered  one  of  the  greatest  Talmudists  of  that  place. 
Unfortunately,  however,  Loria  became  an  ardent  ad- 
mirer of  the  mystical  writings  of  the  Jews,  and  espe- 
cially enraptured  with  the  Sohar  (q.  v.),  one  of  the 
Cabalistic  works.  The  hermit  of  Cairo  was  the  first  to 
bring  the  intricate  and  confused  system  of  the  Sohar 
into  order,  unity,  and  congruity ;  he  also  made  many 
vduable  additions.  A  most  remarkable  feature  of  his 
views  are  the  numerous  divisions  of  his  psychology, 
with  its  two  sexes.  Still,  all  these  theories  were,  with 
him,  only  premises  to  lead  on  to  a  more  important  and 
practical  branch  in  tlie  Cabala,  which  he  called  the 
"world  of  perfection"  (01am  ha-Tikkun).  He  also  held 
peculiar  views  on  the  fall  of  man.  By  reason  of  Adam's 
original  sin,  he  hejd,  the  higher  and  the  infernal  souls, 
the  good  and  the  evil,  came  into  confusion,  and  became 
intermixed  with  each  other,  a  transmigration  and  sepa- 
ration of  souls  was  thus  a  necessity.  In  addition  to  this 
lie  teaches  the  Siiperfitatio.  He  pretended  to  have  a 
full  knowledge  concerning  the  origin,  relation,  and  rami- 


LCRIA 


517 


LORT 


fication  of  souls;  further,  to  possess  the  power  and  faculty 
to  compel  the  spirits  of  the  upper  world  to  take  their 
abode  in  the  bodies  of  living  men,  in  order  to  reveal  to 
them  what  is  going  on  in  the  upper  world;  further,  to 
be  able  to  read  on  every  man's  brow  in  which  relation 
his  soul  stands  to  the  higher  worlds.  In  Cairo  nobody 
interested  himself  in  his  mysticism,  and  he  therefore 
emigrated  in  1569  to  Safet,  the  cabalistic  Jerusalem, 
where  the  Cabala  was  esteemed  as  high  as  the  Bible. 
His  superior  knowledge,  facidties,  and  gifts  gradually 
secured  him  the  favor  of  the  Cabalists,  and  Loria  was 
soon  surrounded  by  troops  of  young  and  old  Cabalists, 
who  came  to  listen  to  his  new  revelations.  He  subse- 
(juently  formed  a  cabalistic  commmiity,  who  lived  to- 
gether apart  from  the  non-Cabalists,  and  according  to 
his  prescriptions.  After  Loria's  death  (August,  1572), 
Vital  Calabrese  became  his  successor  and  gathered  his 
productions,  while  another  of  his  disciples,  the  Italian 
Israel  Saruk,  propagated  his  teachings  in  Europe.  In- 
deed, it  may  be  said  that  the  influence  of  this  Cabalist 
extended  more  or  less  over  all  the  Jews  of  the  globe, 
and  many  of  them  to  this  very  day  follow  this  great 
Jewish  mystic  in  assigning  to  the  Sohar  equal  value  as 
to  the  Bible.  It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  by 
his  influence  he  also  called  forth  a  revival  in  the  Jewish 
communities  everywhere,  and  a  reaction  in  the  phari- 
saic,  lifeless  prayers,  while  even  upon  the  Christian  the- 
osophy,  mysticism,  and  exegetical  studies  his  influence 
was  considerable.  See  Griitz,  Gesch.  der  Juclen,  ix,  437 
sq. ;  X,  125;  Jost,  Gesch.  d.Judenth.  iii,  138,145;  Flirst, 
Biblioth.  Jud.  ii,  257  sq. 

Loria,  Salomo,  a  noted  rabbi,  was  born  at  Posen 
in  1510.  Gifted  with  great  talents,  he  devoted  himself 
to  a  thorough  research  of  Jewish  literature.  On  ac- 
count of  his  onslaughts  on  Jewish  tradition  he  became 
involved  in  manifold  controversies  with  his  colleagues, 
and  was  persecuted ;  but,  though  personally  disliked  on 
account  of  his  inclination  to  polemics,  and  not  sparing 
even  the  private  characteristics  of  living  authorities,  his 
just  merits  concerning  the  Talmud  were  recognised  af- 
ter all,  and  his  commentaries  on  six  volumes  of  the  Tal- 
mud are  held  in  high  reputation  among  the  Talmudic 
Jews  to  this  very  day.  He  died  in  1573.  See  Griitz, 
Gesch.  d.  Juden,  ix,  4G7  sq. ;  Ft'irst,  Bibl.  Jud.  ii,  2G0  sq. 

Lorin(us),  Jean,  a  Jewish  commentator  on  the 
Scriptures,  distinguished  in  his  day  as  an  exegetical 
scholar,  was  born  at  Avignon  in  1559;  taught  theology 
at  Paris,  Rome,  and  Milan,  and  died  March  2G,  1G34,  at 
Dole.  For  a  list  of  his  works,  see  Hoefer,  Kouv.  liiog. 
Generule,  xxxi,  662. 

Lorraine,  Chakles  de  Guise,  Cardinal  of.  See 
Guise,  Chakles. 

Lorsbach,  Georg  Wiliielji,  a  German  theologian, 
M-as  born  at  Dillenburg,  in  the  duchy  of  Nassau,  Feb.  29, 
1752.  In  1768  he  entered  the  University  of  Herborn ; 
in  1771  he  removed  to  that  of  Giittingen,  and  became 
there  an  enthusiastic  student  of  the  Oriental  languages 
under  Michaclis.  After  having  flnished  the  academical 
course,  he  spent  four  years  in  private  study  in  his  fa- 
ther's house,  preparing  himself  for  the  ministry.  In 
1778  he  became  rector  at  Sicgen;  in  1786,  at  the  gram- 
mar-school of  his  native  place,  and  obtained,  at  the 
same  time,  the  dignity  of  professor;  in  1791,  rector  at 
the  grammar-school  of  Herborn,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  the  academy  there, 
and  in  the  following  year  was  appointed  to  lecture  at 
the  university  of  that  place  on  history  and  exegesis. 
In  1793  he  became  the  third  professor  ordinary  of  di- 
vinity ;  in  1794,  the  second  professor  and  a  counsellor 
of  the  Consistorj'.  Having  become  famous,  by  reason 
of  his  literan,'  contributions,  as  an  eminent  Orientalist, 
he  was,  in  1812,  called  to  the  University  of  Jena  as  pro- 
fessor of  Oriental  literature.  The  theological  faculty 
of  Marburg  bestowed  on  him  the  degree  of  doctor  of  di- 
vinity. He  died  March  30, 1816.  "Hc  belongs  to  the 
few  and  rare  scholars  of  the  ancient  languages  who 


combined  acnteness  with  extensive  learning.  De  Sacy 
places  him  among  the  first  German  Orientalists.  He 
published  an  A  rchiv  d.movf/enlandischen  Literatur  (Mar- 
burg, 1791-94,  2  bde.  8vo).  See  Doring,  Gelehrte  Thiol. 
Deutschkmds,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lorsch,  Convent  of  (otherwise  Lauresham,  Lau- 
resheim,  nionasterium  Laureucense,  Laurissense,  Laiiris- 
su),  situated  four  miles  from  Heidelberg,  was  established 
about  A.D.  764  by  countess  Williswinda  (widow  of  count 
Bupert,  who,  by  order  of  Pepin,  conducted  pope  Ste- 
phen back  to  Komc)  and  her  son  Cancor.  Its  first  ab- 
bot is  said  to  have  been  a  near  relative  of  the  founders, 
Chrodegang  of  Metz.  The  first  establishment  was  on  an 
island  of  the  Weschnitz,  dedicated  to  St. Peter;  a  sec- 
ond was  soon  erected  on  a  hill  in  the  neighborhood. 
Charlemagne  greatly  interested  himself  in  this  monas- 
tery, and  added  to  it  as  endowment  Ileppenheim  (in 
January,  773)  and  Oppenheim  (in  September.  774\  and 
personall}'  attended  the  consecration.  Louis  the  Picus, 
Lothaire,  Louis  the  German,  and  Louis  III  all  confirmed 
successively  the  donations  of  Charlemagne.  But  one 
of  the  greatest  sources  of  prosperity  for  the  convent  was 
its  having  received  from  Pome  the  relics  of  St.Nazarius, 
which  brought  it  numberless  presents  and  donations, 
and  soon  made  it  one  of  the  most  prosperous  convents 
at  the  time.  Lorsch  also  enjoys  great  litcrarj-  fame. 
Its  monks  especially  distinguiyied  themselves  by  their 
literary  pursuits,  to  which  the  A  nnales  Laureshamenscs 
bear  witness.  The  early  part  of  these  annals  (706-768) 
is  evidently  derived  from  those  of  the  convent  of  Mur- 
bach,  which  were  verj^  popular ;  but  after  that  time  they 
are  clearly  original,  and  continue  down  to  803.  Aside 
from  the  less  important  Annules  Laurissenses  minores, 
we  must  mention  the  Amiales  Lau7-isse}ises,  formerly 
called  2)lebeji  or  Loiseliani,  which  are  the  most  important 
annals  of  the  time.  Eanke  has  lately  discovered  in 
them  the  official  work  of  a  Carlovingian  court  historian, 
which  was  afterwards  used  by  Einhard  as  the  basis  of 
the  annals  bearing  his  name.  Until  the  11th  century 
the  convent  enjoved  great  prosperity.  Then  its  reverses 
commenced,  and,  after  various  struggles,  it  fell  in  the 
12th  century,  till  "a  planta  pedis  usque  ad  verticem  non 
fuit  in  CO  sanitas."  The  moral  condition  of  the  Lorsch 
monastery  had  greatly  deteriorated  ever  since  the  11th 
centurj',  and  it  became  necessary  to  inaugurate  a  re- 
form. This  task  was  intrusted  to  archbishop  Sifried  II 
of  Mentz,  A.D.  1229.  His  successor,  Sifried  III, however, 
\vas  really  the  man  who  completed  this  task  by  subject- 
ing the  monks  to  the  Cistercian  rule,  "  ut  ordo,"  says 
Gregory  IX  in  his  brief,  "de  nigro  conversus  in  album 
purgetur  vitiis  et  virtutibus  augeatur."  By  him  also 
were  subsequently  installed  into  Lorsch  some  Prremon- 
strant  canons  of  the  convent  of  All  Saints  (diocese  of 
Strasburg),  and  the  pope  approved  it  as  a  new  organiza- 
tion Jan.  8, 1248.  In  the  second  half  of  the  IGth  century 
Lorsch  was  subjected  to  the  rule  of  the  electoral  admin- 
istration. Vainly  did  the  Prwmonstrants  appeal  to  pope 
Alexander  VII :  the  convent  retained  only  the  original 
foundation  at  Mentz  and  its  dependencies.  Not  until 
after  the  completion  of  the  treaty  of  Westphalia  (1650) 
was  a  part  of  its  other  possessions  restored  to  it.  In 
1651  the  Palatinate  renewed  its  claims  to  the  lands  of 
the  convent,  and  questioned  the  propriety  of  the  inde- 
pendence of  Lorsch  as  a  separate  duchy,  with  repre- 
sentation in  the  Diet.  The  quarrel  lasted  nearly  through 
the  whole  of  the  18th  century,  but  was  finally  settled  in 
1803,  when  the  convent  became  the  possession  of  the 
house  of  Hesse-Darmstadt.  See  Rettberg,  A'.  Geschkhte 
Deutschlands,  i,  584  sq. ;  K.  Dahl,  Beschreih.  d.  Fiiisten- 
thtans  Lorsch  (Darmstadt,  1812,  4to);  Codex  principis 
oliin  Laureshamensis,  etc.,  edit.  Acadera.  elector,  sclent. 
Thoodoro-Palatina,  vol.  iii  (Mannh.  1768, 4to) ;  Heraog, 
Rtal-Encyklop,  viii,  490. 

Lort,  JMiCHAEL,  D.D.,  an  English  theologian,  was 
born  in  1725 ;  entered  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  1745 ; 
became  professor  of  Greek  at  Cambridge  in  1759 ;  rec- 


LO-RUHAMAH 


518 


LOSS 


tor  of  St.  Matthew,  London,  in  1771 ;  prebendary  of  St. 
Paul's  in  1780.  He  died  in  1790.  His  works  were.  Pa- 
pers in  Archceolofjy,  1777,  '79,  '87  : — Short  Comment  on 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  1790 : — Inquiry  Relative  to  the  A  u- 
thorship  of^'-  The  whole  Duty  of  Man ;"  and  a  small  vol- 
ume of  Se}-mons.  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer. 
A  iithois,  yci\.  ii,  s.y. 

Lo-ruha'mah  (Heb.  Lo-Rucha'mah,  iT3tT1  N?, 
not  pitied,  as  it  is  explained  in  both  contexts,  Hos.  i,  6, 
Sept.  Oi'ic  )/X£»;jU£j'//,  Vulg.  Absque  misericordia,  and  as 
it  is  rendered  in  the  Auth.Yers.,  Hos.  ii,  23,  "  not  obtain- 
ed mercy"),  the  name  divinely  appointed  for  the  first 
daughter  of  the  prophet  Hosea  by  the  formerly  disso- 
lute Gomer,  a  type  of  Jehovah's  temporary  rejection  of 
his  people  by  the  Babylonian  captivity  in  consecjuence 
of  their  idolatry  (Hos.  i,  6 ;  ii,  23 ;  comp.  ii,  1).  B.C.  cir. 
725.     See  Hosea. 

Losada,  Chuistopher,  a  martyr  to  the  cause  of 
Protestantism  in  Spain  in  the  IGth  century,  was,  at  the 
time  of  his  conversion  under  the  preaching  of  Dr.  Egid- 
ius  [see  Gil,  Juan],  an  eminent  physician  and  learned 
philosopher.  He  was  chosen  pastor  of  a  Protestant 
Church  in  Seville,  which  met  ordinarily  in  the  house 
of  Isabella  de  Baena,  "  a  lady  not  less  distinguished  for 
her  piety  than  for  her  rank  and  opulence."  Among 
the  members  of  note  in  his  congregation  were  Don 
Juan  Ponce  de  Leon,  and  Domingo  de  Guzman,  and  oth- 
ers equally  well  celebrated.  Arrested  by  the  Inquisition 
in  consequence  of  his  zeal  in  diffusing  Protestant  princi- 
ples among  his  countrymen,  neither  the  prison  nor  the 
rack  availed  to  make  him  renounce  his  convictions,  and 
he  was  consequently  condemned  to  the  stake.  He  suf- 
fered death  at  an  "  auto-da-fe,"  solemnized  at  Seville 
Sept.  24, 1559,  in  the  square  of  St.  Francis,  and  attended 
by  four  bishops,  the  members  of  the  royal  court  of  jus- 
tice, the  chapter  of  the  cathedral,  and  a  great  assem- 
blage of  nobility  and  gentry,  the  occasion  of  the  death- 
penalty  on  twenty-one  apostates  from  the  Pomish  be- 
lief. The  most  distinguished  individual  aside  from  Dr. 
Losada  was  one  of  his  members,  Don  Juan  Ponce  de 
Leon,  whom  we  have  mentioned  above.  They  both  bore 
their  trial  with  admirable  Christian  patience,  commit- 
ting their  souls  to  a  faithful  Creator.  See  Fox,  Booh  of 
JIurtyrs,  p.  136 ;  jNl'Crie,  Reformation  in  Spain,  p.  217, 
300, 307.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Loscher,  Johann  Kaspar,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  ^^'erden  May  8,  ItJoO,  and  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Wittenberg.  He  flourished  succes- 
sively as  superintendent  of  the  churches  of  Sondershau- 
sen  (1668),  pastor  at  Erfurt  (1676),  superintendent  at 
Zwickau  (1679),  and  then  as  senior  jjreacher  in  the 
■west  Prussian  city  of  Dantzic.  In  1687  he  was  made 
doctor  and  professor  of  theology  at  his  alma  mater,  and 
he  remained  there  until  his  death,  July  11,1718.  He 
wrote  many  theological  dissertations,  of  but  little  value 
in  our  day. 

Loscher,  Valentin  Ernst,  a  distinguished  Ger- 
man theologian,  was  born  at  Sondershausen  in  1673.  He 
studied  at  the  universities  of  Wittenberg  (where  his 
father,  Caspar  Loscher,  was  a  professor)  and  Jena,  and 
then  went  on  a  perigrinatio  academica  through  the 
Netherlands  and  Denmark,  and  the  cities  Hamburg  and 
Kostock.  In  the  last-named  place  he  connected  himself 
with  tlie  anti-Pietist  party,  but  after  his  return  he  de- 
voted himself  to  historical  studies,  and  delivered  lec- 
tures on  genealogy  and  heraldry,  as  well  as  on  exegesis, 
morals,  etc.  In  1698  he  was  appointed  superintendent 
by  the  duke  of  Wcissenfels,  and,  some  time  after,  began, 
in- connection  with  some  friends,  the  publication  of  the 
first  theological  periodical  in  Germany,  the  Unschuldifje 
Nuchriehten  von  alien  v.  neuen  thiohij.  Sacheit  (20  vols, 
to  1720;  continued  by  Henry  Keinhard  until  1731). 
This  became  the  organ  of  the  orthodox  "jiarty  in  Sax- 
ony, as  opposed  to  the  pietism  and  indifterentism  pre- 
vailing at  the  time.  His  sphere  of  influence  was  after- 
wards enlarged,  lirstas  superintendent  of  Delitzsch,  and, 


later  (1702),  as  professor  in  the  University  of  Witten- 
berg. In  1704  he  was  appointed  superintendent  of 
Dresden  and  member  of  the  supreme  consistorial  court. 
In  this  position  his  activity  was  soon  manifested  in  the 
improved  facilities  for  reUgious  and  secular  instruction. 
Besides  establishing  several  parish  schools,  he  laid  the 
foundation  of  a  seminarium  ministerii;  at  the  same  time 
he  zealously  instructed  candidates  for  the  ministry, 
preached  both  on  Sundays  and  week-days,  besides  car- 
rying on  an  extensive  correspondence  with  the  princes, 
states,  and  pastors  who  held  fast  to  the  orthodox  faith, 
and  opposed,  with  him,  the  inroads  of  pietism  and  indif- 
ferentism.  He  died  Feb.  12, 1741.  Loscher  left  a  col- 
lection of  his  letters  forming  five  volumes  folio,  which 
are  preserved  in  the  Hamburg  Library.  His  principal 
works  are  Histoi-iu  mortuum  (part  i,  1707 ;  pt.  iii,  1722)  : 
— Die  Reformationsahta : — Timotheus  Verinus  (1718). 
See  Herzog,  Real-Encykl.  s.  v.  -,  Tholuck,  Der  Geist  d.  lu- 
therischen  Theologen  Wittenb.  (1852);  M.  v.  Engelhardt, 
Valentin  Ernst  Loscher  nach  s.  Leben  u.  Wirken  (Dorpat, 
1853 ;  2d  edit.,  Stuttg.  1856) ;  Hurst's  Hagenbach,  Ch. 
Hist.  ISth  and  I'Jth  Cent,  i,  109  sq.,  116  sq.,  130. 

XiOSliiel,  George  Henry,  a  bishop  of  the  Moravian 
Church,  celebrated  as  a  preacher,  hymnologist,  and  au- 
thor, was  born  Nov.  7,  1740,  at  Angermiinde,  in  Cour- 
land,  where  his  father  had  charge  of  a  Lutheran  parish. 
In  early  life  he  joined  the  Moravians,  and  studied  both 
theology  and  medicine  at  their  college  at  Barby,  in 
Germany.  After  practicing  medicine  for  a  time,  he  de- 
voted himself  wholly  to  the  ministry,  in  Holland,  Ger- 
many, and  Livonia.  In  1802  he  was  consecrated  a 
bishop,  and  came  to  the  United  States  in  order  to  fill 
the  office  of  president  of  the  provincial  board  which 
governs  the  Moravian  churches  in  this  country.  Fail- 
ing health  and  other  circumstances  constrained  him  to 
retire  from  this  position  in  1810.  Two  years  later  he 
was  elected  into  the  general  board  of  the  Church  at 
Berthelsdorf,  in  Saxony;  but  the  war  with  Great  Brit- 
ain and  the  state  of  his  health  prevented  him  from  leav- 
ing America.  He  died  Feb.  23,  1814,  at  Bethlehem, 
Pa.  His  two  principal  works  are  Geschichte  d.  Mission 
der  Eranq.  Briider  iinter  den  Indianern  in  N.  A.  (1789), 
translated  into  English  by  La  Trobe,  and  published  in 
London  (1794),  a  standard  on  the  Moravian  missions 
among  the  Indians,  with  a  fnll  account  of  their  manners 
and  customs,  based  upon  the  reports  of  the  missionaries, 
and  Etiras  firs  Ilerz  aif  dem.  Weye  zur  Ewiylxit  (Re- 
ligious Meditations  for  every  Day  in  the  Year),  a  book 
which  passed  through  eight  editions  (the  last  in  1848), 
and  is  still  read  with  great  profit  by  thousands  of  Chris- 
tians in  Germany.  See  De  Schweinitz,  Life  and  Times 
of  David  Zeisberyer  (Phila.  1871,  8vo),  p.  662  sq.  (E. 
deS.) 

Ldsner,  Christopher  Feiedricii,  a  German  the- 
ologian, noted  in  the  department  of  exegesis,  was  born 
at  Leipsic  in  1734,  and  was  educated  at  the  university 
of  that  place.  He  aftenvards  held  a  professorship  in 
his  alma  mater.  He  died  there  in  1803.  His  chief 
work  is  Observationes  ad  Xovnm  Testamentum,  e  Philone 
Alexandrino  (Leipsic,  1777,  8 vo\  In  this  work  '-the 
force  and  meaning  of  words  are  particularly  illustrated, 
together  with  points  of  antiquity,  and  the  readings  of 
Philo's  text.  The  light  thrown  upon  the  New  Test,  by 
the  writings  of  Philo  is  admirably  elucidated  by  LiJsner" 
(Home).  Another  valuable  production  of  his  is  Obser- 
vationes in  reliqiiias  versionis  Proverhiorum  Salomonis 
Grwan  A  quihe,  Symmachi  et  Theodotionis. 

Loss  (prop,  some  form  of  the  verb  T3X,  c'tTroWi'/ji, 
but  likewise  a  frctpient  rendering  of  several  other  Heb. 
and  Gr.  terms  wliicli  usually  imply  an  idea  of  damaye). 
According  to  the  Mosaic  law,  whoever  among  the  He- 
brews foimd  any  lost  article  (ri"3!S;)  was  required  to 
take  it  to  his  home,  and  then  endeavor  to  discover  the 
proper  owner  (Dcut.  xxii,  1-3).  This  woidd,  of  course, 
particularly  apply  to  stray  animals,  and  Josephus  gives 
some  special  details  \di\x  respect  to  money  so  foimd 


LOSS 


519 


LOT 


{Ant.  iv,.8,  29 ;  compare  the  IMishna,  Shel-al  vii,  2).  In 
case  of  the  abstraction  of  property  while  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  finder,  the  latter  had  not  only  to  make  it 
good,  but  also  to  add  one  fifth  of  its  value,  and  even  to 
make  a  sin-offering  lilvcwise  (Lev.  vi,  3  sq.).  The 
Mishna  makes  many  casuistical  distinctions  on  this  sub- 
ject {Baba  Mczia,  i,  2),  especially  with  regard  to  ad- 
vertising (T""^-!!,  i.  e.  KijpvTTitv)  the  discovered  prop- 
erty.— Winer,  ii,  651.     See  Damage. 

IiOSS,  Lewis  Homui,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  Augusta,  N.  Y.,  July  1, 1803,  and  was  educated 
at  Hamilton  College,  Clinton,  N.  Y.  (class  of  1828).  In 
1829  he  was  licensed  and  ordained  by  Oneida  Presby- 
terj',  and  installed  pastor  of  the  Church  in  Camden, 
Oneida  County,  N.  Y.  In  the  pastoral  office  he  after- 
wards served  in  Elyria,  Ohio ;  in  Kockford  and  Chicago, 
lU.;  and  in  Joliet  and  ]\Iarshalltown,  Iowa.  He  was 
synodical  missionary  three  years  to  the  synod  of  Peoria, 
III. ;  also  prominent  in  bringing  into  existence  institu- 
tions of  learning,  as  Beloit  College  and  Rockford  Female 
Seminar}',  111.  He  died  July  10,  1865.  Mr.  Loss  was 
an  eminently  successful  preacher,  erecting  many  church- 
es, and  especially  prominent  in  the  Sabbath  -school 
cause.  He  always  had  the  fullest  confidence  of  the  men 
of  the  world ;  they  recognised  his  worth  as  a  man  and 
a  citizen.  See  Wilson,  Presb,  Histor.  Aim,  1866,  p.  217. 
(J.  L.  S.) 

LossiilS,  Caspar  Friedrich,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  Erfurt  Jan.  31, 1753,  and  was  educated  at 
the  university  of  that  place,  which  he  entered  in  1770. 
Dissatisfied  with  the  innovations  which  Bahrdt  under- 
took in  theology,  he  removed  in  1773  to  the  University 
of  Jena ;  and  again,  not  quite  satisfied  with  the  ration- 
alistic innovations  of  the  day,  he  was  obliged  to  ac- 
quire the  greater  part  of  his  learning  by  private  study. 
In  1774  he  became  school-teacher  at  his  native  place ; 
in  1781  dean  of  Andreas  Church,  and  in  1785  dean  to  the 
Prediger  Church  of  the  same  place.  He  died  March  20, 
1817.  Lossius  was  a  man  of  great  learning;  the  liter- 
ature of  the  Reformation  ^vas  almost  his  daily  study. 
Having  seen  the  danger  which  threatened  his  country, 
both  religiously  and  morally,  from  the  rationalistic  inno- 
vations, and  from  the  consequences  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution, he  dedicated  most  of  his  time  and  talent  as  a  pop- 
ular author  to  the  cause  of  the  faith  and  principles  of 
the  fathers  of  the  Reformation.  Some  of  his  produc- 
tions passed  through  several  editions  in  a  short  time. 
Some  were  even  translated  into  French,  and  rescued 
thousands  from  moral  degradation  and  spiritual  destruc- 
tion. A  complete  list  of  his  works  is  given  by  Doring, 
Gekhrte.  TheoL  Deutschl.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lost  Tribes.     See  Captivity  ;  Israel. 

Lot  (properly  P^iS  or  P"lh,  goral',  KXrjpoc,  literally 
a  pebble,  used  ancientlj'  for  balloting;  other  terms  occa- 
sionally thus  rendered  are  53n  or  ?3Il,  che'bel,  a  po?-- 
Hon,  Dent,  xxxii,  9;  1  Chron.  xvi,  18;  Psa.  cv,  11,  re- 
ferring to  an  inheritance ;  and  \ayx(tt'(^j  to  obtain  by 
lot,  Luke  i,  9;  John  xix,  24),  strictly  a  small  stone,  as 
used  in  casting  lots  (Lev.  xvi,  8 ;  Numb,  xxxiii,  54 ; 
Josh,  xix,  1  •,  Ezek.  xxiv,  6 ;  Jonah  i,  7),  hence  also  a 
method  used  to  determine  chances  or  preferences,  or  to 
decide  a  debate.  The  decision  by  lot  was  often  resort- 
ed to  among  the  Hebrews,  but  always  with  the  strictest 
reference  to  the  interposition  of  (iod.  As  to  the  pre- 
cise manner  of  casting  lots,  we  have  no  certain  informa- 
tion ;  probably  several  modes  were  practiced.  In  Prov. 
xvi,  33  we  read  that  "  the  lot,"  i.  e.  pebble,  "  is  cast  into 
the  lap,"  properly  into  the  bosom  of  an  urn  or  vase.  It 
does  not  appear  that  the  lap  or  bosom  of  a  garment  worn 
by  a  person  was  ever  used  to  receive  lots. 

The  use  of  lots  among  the  ancients  was  very  general 
(see  Dale,  Orac.  etJin.  c.  14  ;  Potter,  Greek  Antiq.  i,  730 ; 
Adams,  Rom.  Ant.  i,  540  sq. ;  Smith,  Did.  of  Class.  Ant. 
6.  V.  Sors)  and  highly  esteemed  (Xenoph.  Cyrop.  i,  6, 40), 
as  is  natural  in  simple  stages  of  society  (Tacit.  Germ.  10), 


"  recommending  itself  as  a  sort  of  appeal  to  the  Almighty- 
secure  from  all  infiucnce  of  passion  or  bias,  and  a  sort 
of  divination  employed  even  by  the  gods  themselves 
(Homer,  Iliad,  xxii,  209 ;  Cicero,  De  Div.  i,  34 ;  ii,  41). 
The  w-ord  sors  is  thus  used  for  an  oracular  response  (Cic- 
ero, De  Divina,  ii,  50).  So  there  was  a  mode  of  divina- 
tion among  heathens  by  means  of  arrows,  two  inscribed 
and  one  without  mark,  l3tXofiavTiia  (Hos.  iv,  12 ;  Ezek. 
xxi,  21;  Mauritius,  De  Sortitione,  c.  14,  §  4;  see  also 
Esth.  iii,  7 ;  ix,  24-32 ;  Mishna,  Taaniih,  ii,  10).  See 
DiviNATiox.  Among  heathen  instances  the  following 
additional  may  be  cited :  1.  Choice  of  a  champion,  or  of 
priority  in  combat  (//.iii,  316;  vii,  171 ;  Ilerod. iii,  108) ; 
2.  Decision  of  fate  in  battle  (//.  xx,  209) ;  3.  Appoint- 
mentof  magistrates,  jurymen,  or  other  functionaries  (Ar- 
istot.  To/,  iv,  16;  SchoLOw  y1  m/o;;/;.  Plut.  277;  Herod, 
vi,  109 ;  Xenoph.  Q/ro/).  iv,  5,  55 ;  Demosth.  c.  A  ristog. 
i,  778, 1 ;  comp.  Smith,  Diet,  of  Class.  Antiq.  s.  v.  Dicas- 
tes)  ;  4.  Priests  (iEsch.  in  Tim.  p.  188,  Bekk.) ;  5.  A  Ger- 
man practice  of  deciding  by  marks  on  twigs,  mentioned 
by  Tacitus  {Germ.  10) ;  0.  Division  of  conquered  or  col- 
onized land  (Thucydidcs,  iii,  50  ;  Plutarch,  Pericles,  84 ; 
Bockh,  Public  Ecun.  of  Ath.  ii,  170)"  (Smith). 

The  Israelites  sometimes  had  recourse  to  lots  as  a 
method  of  ascertaining  the  divine  W'ill  (Prov.  xvi,  33), 
and  generally  in  cases  of  doubt  regarding  serious  enter- 
prises (Esth.  iii,  7  ;  compare  Rosenmiiller,  Morgenl.  iii, 
301),  especially  the  following:  (o.)  In  matters  of  par- 
tition or  distribution,  e.  g.  the  location  of  the  several 
tribes  in  Palestine  (Numb,  xxvi,  55  sq. ;  xxxiii,  54 ; 
xxxiv,  13  ;  xxxvi,  2 ;  Josh,  xiv,  2 ;  xviii,  6  sq.  •,  xix,  5), 
the  assignment  of  the  Levitical  cities  (Josh,  xxi,  4  sq.), 
and,  after  the  return  from  the  exile,  the  settlement  in 
the  homesteads  at  the  capital  (Neh.  xi,  1 ;  compare  1 
Mace,  iii,  36).  Prisoners  of  w-ar  were  also  disposed  of 
by  lot  (.Joel  iii,  3 ;  Nah.  iii,  10  ;  Obad.  11 ;  compare  Matt, 
xxvii,  35 ;  John  xix,  24 ;  compare  Xenoph.  Cyrop.  iv,  5, 
55).  (b.)  In  criminal  investigations  where  doubt  exist- 
ed as  to  the  real  culprit  (Josh,  vii,  14;  1  Sam.  xlv,  42). 
A  notion  prevailed  among  the  Jews  that  this  detection 
was  performed  by  observing  the  shining  of  the  stones  in 
the  high-priest's  breastiJate  (Mauritius,  c.  21,  §  4).  The 
instance  of  the  mariners  casting  lots  to  ascertain  by  the 
surrendering  of  what  offender  the  sea  could  be  appeased 
(Jonah  i,  7),  is  analogous;  but  it  is  not  clear,  from  Prov. 
xviii,  18,  that  lots  were  resorted  to  for  the  determination 
of  civil  disputes,  (e.)  In  the  election  to  an  important 
office  or  undertaking  for  which  several  persons  apjieared 
to  have  claims  (1  Sam.  x,  19;  Acts  i,  26;  comp.  Herod, 
iii,  128 ;  Justin,  xiii,  4 ;  Cicero,  Verr.  ii,  2,  51 ;  Aristot,  Po- 
lit.  iv,  16),  as  well  as  in  the  assignment  of  official  duties 
among  associates  having  a  common  right  (Neh.  x,  34), 
as  of  the  priestly  offices  in  the  Temple  service  among 
the  sixteen  of  the  family  of  Eleazar  and  the  eight  of 
that  of  Ithamar  (1  Chron.  xxiv,  3, 5, 19 ;  Luke  i,  9),  also 
of  the  Levites  for  similar  purposes  (1  Chron.  xxiii,  28; 
xxiv,  20-31 ;  xxv,  8 ;  xxvi,  13 ;  Mishna,  Tamid,  i,  2 ;  iii, 
1 ;  V,  2 ;  Jama,  ii,  2, 3, 4 ;  Shabb.  xxiii,  2 ;  Lightfoot,  IIoi; 
Hebr.  in  Luke  i,  8,  9,  vol.  ii,  p.  489).  (rf.)  In  military 
enterprises  (Judg.  xx,  10 ;  compare  Yal.  Max.  i,  5, 3). 

In  the  sacred  ritual  of  the  Hebrews  we  find  the  use  of 
lots  but  once  prescribed,  namely,  in  the  selection  of  the 
scape-goat  (Lev.  xvi,  8  sq.).  The  two  inscribed  tablets 
of  boxwood,  afterwards  of  gold,  were  put  into  an  urn, 
which  was  shaken,  and  the  lots  drawn  out  (Joma,  iii,  9; 
iv,  1).  See  Atonejiknt,  Day  of.  Eventually  lots  came 
into  frequent  usage  (comp.  the  IMishna,  Shaabb.  xxiii,  2). 
In  later  times  they  even  degenerated  into  a  game  of 
hazard,  of  which  human  life  was  the  stakes  (Josephus, 
War,  iii,  8,  7).  Dice  appear  to  have  been  usually  em- 
ployed for  the  lot  (b'nij  Ti'^biijri,  to  "tkroiv  the  die," 
Josh,  xviii,  8;  so  rt"iiri,  to  cast,  Josh,  xviii,  6 ;  Sidujfiij 
to  give.  Acts  i,  20 ;  753,  tti—tw,  to  fall,  .Jonah  i,  7 ;  E2ek. 
xxiv,  7 ;  Acts  i,  26),  and  were  sometimes  drawn  from  a 
vessel  (b"i15il  NU"',"  the  lot  came  forth,"  Numb,  xxxii. 


LOT 


520 


LOT 


5-1 ;  so  lis",  to  '•  come  ?//>,"  Lev.  vi,  9;  comp.  the  Mishna, 
Joma,  iv,  1).  A  different  kind  of  lot  is  elsewhere  indi- 
cated in  the  Mishna  {Joma,  ii,  1 ;  comp.  Lightfoot,  Hoi: 
Jlebr.  p.  714).  A  sacred  species  of  lot  was  by  means 
of  the  Ukiji  and  Thummim  (q.  v.)  of  the  high-priest 
(Numb,  xxvii,  21 ;  1  Sam.  xxviii,  G),  which  appears  to 
have  had  some  connection  with  the  divination  by  means 
of  the  sacerdotal  Epiiod  (1  Sam.  xxiii,  G,  9).  Stones 
were  occasionally  employed  in  prophetical  or  emblemat- 
ical lots  (Numb,  xvii,  G  sq. ;  Zech.  xi,  10, 14).  See  also 
PfRiM.  Election  by  lot  appears  to  have  prevailed  in 
the  Christian  Church  as  late  as  the  7th  century  (Bing- 
ham, Eccles.  A  ntiq.  iv,  1, 1,  vol.  i,  p.  42G ;  Bruns,  Cone,  ii, 
66).  Here  also  we  may  notice  the  use  of  words  heard, 
or  passages  chosen  at  random  from  Scripture.  Sortcs 
Bihlicce,  like  the  Soi-tes  Virgiliano',  prevailed  among 
Jews,  as  they  have  also  among  Christians,  though  de- 
nounced by  several  councils  (Johnson,  "Mfe  of  Cowley," 
Works,  ix,  8 ;  Bingham,  Eccl.  Antiq.  xvi,  5,  3  ;  id.,  vi,  53 
sq. ;  Bruns,  Cone,  ii,  145-154, 166 ;  Mauritius,  c.  15 ;  Hof- 
mann.  Lex.  s.  v.  Sortes). 

On  the  subject  generally,  see  Mauritius,  De  So7-titione 
ap.  vet.  Ilehrceos  (Basil,  1692) ;  Chrj'sander,  De  Sortibus 
(HaUe,  1740) ;  Benzel,  De  Sortibus  vet.  in  his  Syntagma 
dissertat.  i,  297-318 ;  Winckler,  Gedanken  iiber  d.  Spureii 
(/ottl,  Providenz  in  Loose  (Hildesheim,  1750) ;  Palaophili, 

Teeaji 

I 


Abhandl.  v.  Gehrauchs  d.  Looses  in  d.  heil.  Schr.  in  Sem- 
ler's  Ilall.  Samml.  i,  2,  79  sq. ;  Junius,  De  Sorte,  remedio 
ditbias  caussas  dirimendi  (Lips.  1746) ;  Eenberg,  De  Sor- 
tilegiis  (Upsal.  1705)  ;  Hanovius,  De  electione  j7er  sortem 
(Gedan.  1743;  m  German  by  Tramhold,  Hamb.  1751); 
Bauer,  Vormitze  Kunst,  etc.  (Hildesh.  1750). 

The  term  "fo<"  is  also  used  ibr  that  which  falls  to  one 
by  lot,  especially  a  portion  or  inheritance  (Josh,  xv,  1 ; 
J  udg.  i,  3 ;  Psa.  cxxv,  3  ;  Isa.  xvii,  14  ;  Ivii,  6 ;  Acts  viii, 
21).  Lot  is  also  used  metaphorically  for  jwiiion,  or  des- 
tiny,  as  assigned  to  men  from  God  (Psa.  xvi,  5)  :  "  And 
arise  to  thy  lot  in  the  end  of  days"  in  the  Messiah's 
kingdom  (Dan.  xii,  13 ;  comp.  Kev.  xx,  6).  See  Her- 
itage. 

Lot.     See  Myrrh. 

Lot  (Heb.  id.,  I31P,  a  covering,  as  in  Isa.  xxv,  7;  Sept. 
and  N.  T.  Aoir,  Josephus  Awtoq  ;  occurs  Gen.  xi,  27, 31 ; 
xii,  4,  5;  xiii,  1-14;  xiv.  12,  IG;  xix,  1-15,  18,  23,  29, 
30,  36;  Deut.  ii,  9,  19;  Psa.  Ixxxiii,  8;  Luke  xvii,  28, 
29,  32;  2  Pet.  ii,  7),  the  son  of  Haran  and  nephew  of 
Abraham  (Gen.  xi,  27).  His  sisters  w-ere  Milcah,  the 
wife  of  Nahor,  and  Iscah,  by  some  identified  with  Sarah. 
\\\\  our  treatment  of  the  history,  wc  freely  avail  our- 
selves of  the  articles  in  Kitto  and  Smith.]  The  follow- 
ing genealogy  exhibits  the  family  relations : 


Hagar  to  Abram  to  Sarai 


Ishmael.      Isaac 


I 
Nahor  to  Milcah 


Bethuel 


Hai-au 

I 


Lot  to  wife 


!Milcah  to  Nahor.       Iscah. 


Esau.       Jacob. 


Eebekah.       Laban. 


Daughter        Daughter 


Leah.        Eachel. 


Moab. 


Beu-Ammi. 


By  the  early  death  of  his  father  (Gen.  xi,  28),  he  was 
left  in  charge  of  his  grandfather  Terah,  with  ^vhom  he 
migrated  to  Haran,  B.C.  2089  (Gen.  xi,  31),  and  the  lat- 
ter dying  there,  he  had  already  come  into  possession  of 
his  property  when  he  accompanied  Abraham  into  the 
land  of  Canaan,  B.C.  2088  (Gen.  xii,  5),  and  thence  into 
Eg}'pt,  B.C.  2087  (Gen.  xii,  10),  and  back  again,  by  the 
way  of  the  Philistines,  B.C.  2086  (Gen.  xx,  1),  to  the 
southern  part  of  Canaan  again,  B.C.  2085  (Gen.  xiii,  1). 
Their  united  substance,  consisting  chiefly  in  cattle,  was 
not  then  too  large  to  prevent  them  from  living  together 
in  one  encampment.  Eventually,  however,  their  pos- 
sessions were  so  greatly  increased  that  they  were  obliged 
to  separate,  and  Abraham,  with  rare  generosity,  conceded 
the  choice  of  pasture-grounds  to  his  nephew.  Lot  avail- 
ed himself  of  this  liberality  of  his  uncle,  as  he  deemed 
most  for  his  own  advantage,  by  fixing  his  abode  at  Sod- 
om, that  his  flocks  might  pasture  in  and  around  that 
fertile  and  well-watered  neighborhood  ((ien.  xiii,  5-13). 
He  had  soon  very  great  reason  to  regret  this  choice ;  for, 
although  his  flocks  fed  well,  his  soul  was  starved  in  that 
vile  place,  the  inhabitants  of  which  were  sinners  before 
the  Lord  exceeding!}'.  There  "  he  vexed  his  righteous 
soul  from  day  to  day  with  the  filthy  conversation  of  the 
wicked"  (2  I'et.  ii,  7). 

Not  many  years  after  his  separation  from  Abraham 
(B.C.  2080),  Lot  was  carried  away  jirisoner  by  Chedor- 
laomer,  along  with  the  other  inhabitants  of  Sodom,  and 
was  rescued  and  brought  back  by  Abraham  (Gen.  xiv), 
as  related  under  other  heads.  See  Aisraham  ;  Ciiedor- 
T.AOJIER.  Tliis  exploit  procured  for  Abraham  much  ce- 
lebrity in  Canaan  ;  and  it  ought  to  have  procured  for 
Lot  respect  and  gratitude  from  the  people  of  .Sodom, 
who  had  lieen  delivered  from  hard  slavery  and  restored 
to  their  homes  on  his  accouutT  But  this  does  not  ap- 
pear to  have  been  the  result. 

At  length  (B.C.  2064)  the  guilt  of  "the  cities  of  the 
plain"  brought  down  the  signal  judgments  of  heaven 


(Gen.  xix,  1-29).  Lot  is  still  living  in  Sodom  (Gen. 
xix),  a  well-known  resident,  with  wife,  sons,  and  daugh- 
ters— married  and  marriageable.  The  rabbinical  tra- 
dition is  that  he  was  actually  "judge"  of  Sodom,  and 
sat  in  the  gate  in  that  capacity.  (See  quotations  in 
Otho,  I^ex.  Rabbin,  s.  v.  Lotli  and  Sodomah.)  But  in 
the  midst  of  the  licentious  corruption  of  Sodom  —  the 
eating  and  drinking,  the  buying  and  selling,  the  plant- 
ing and  building  (Luke  xvii,  28),  and  of  the  darker  evils 
exposed  in  the  ancient  narrative  —  he  still  preserves 
some  of  the  delightful  characteristics  of  his  wandering 
Ufe,  his  fervent  and  chivalrous  hospitality  (xix,  2, 8),  the 
unleavened  bread  of  the  tent  of  the  wilderness  (ver.  3), 
the  water  for  the  feet  of  the  wayfarers  (ver.  2),  afford- 
ing his  guests  a  reception  identical  with  that  which 
they  had  experienced  that  very  morning  in  Abraham's 
tent  on  the  heights  of  Hebron  (comp.  xviii,  3,  G).  It 
is  this  hospitality  which  receives  the  commendation  of 
the  author  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  in  words  that 
have  passed  into  a  familiar  proverb,  '•  Be  not  forgetful  to 
entertain  strangers,  for  thereby  some  have  entertained 
angels  unawares"  (Heb.  xiii,  2).  On  the  other  hand,  it 
is  his  deliverance  from  the  guilty  and  condemneil  city — 
the  one  just  man  in  that  mob  of  sensual,  lawless  wretch- 
es— which  points  the  allusion  of  St.  Peter,  to  "  the  godly 
delivered  out  of  tem])tations,  the  unjust  reserved  unto 
tlie  day  of  judgment  to  l)e  punished,  an  ensample  to 
those  that  after  should  live  ungodly"  (2  Pet.  ii,  G-9). 
The  avenging  angels,  after  having  been  entertained  by 
Abraliam,  repaired  to  Sodom,  where  they  were  received 
and  entertained  by  Lot,  who  was  sitting  in  the  gate  of 
the  town  when  they  arrived.  While  they  were  at  sup- 
per the  house  was  beset  by  a  number  of  men,  who  de- 
manded that  the  strangers  should  be  given  up  to  them, 
for  the  unnatural  jjurposes  which  have  given  a  name  of 
infamy  to  Sodom  in  all  generations.  Lot  resisted  this 
demand,  and  \vas  loaded  with  abuse  by  the  A-ile  fellows 
outside  on  that  account.     Thev  had  iiearlv  forced  the 


LOT 


521 


LOT 


door,  when  the  angels,  thus  awfully  by  their  own  expe- 
rience convinced  of  the  righteousness  of  the  doom  they 
came  to  execute,  smote  them  with  uistant  blindness,  by 
which  their  attempts  were  rendered  abortive,  and  they 
were  constrained  to  disperse.  Towards  morning  the  an- 
gels apprised  Lot  of  the  doom  -which  hung  over  the 
place,  and  urged  him  to  hasten  thence  with  his  famih'. 
He  was  allowed  to  extend  the  benefit  of  this  deliver- 
ance to  the  families  of  his  daughters  who  had  married 
in  Sodom ;  but  the  warning  was  received  by  those  fam- 
ilies with  incredulity  and  insult,  and  he  tlierefore  left 
Sodom  accompanied  only  by  his  wife  and  two  daugh- 
ters. As  they  went,  being  hastened  by  the  angels,  the 
wife,  anxious  for  those  who  had  been  left  behind,  or  re- 
luctant to  remove  from  the  place  which  had  long  been 
her  home,  and  where  much  valuable  property  Avas  iiec- 
cssarOy  left  behind,  lingered  behind  the  rest,  and  was 
suddenly  involved  in  the  destruction  by  which — smoth- 
ered and  stiffened  as  she  stood  by  saline  incrustations — 
she  became  "a  pillar  of  salt"  (Gen.  xix,  1-2G).  This 
narrative  has  often  been  regarded  as  one  of  the  "  difficul- 
ties" of  the  Bible.  But  it  surely  need  not  be  so.  Even 
under  tlie  above  extreme  view  of  the  suddenness  of  the 
event,  the  circumstances  appear  to  be  all  sufficient!}'  ac- 
counted for.  In  the  sacred  record  the  words  are  simply 
these  :  "  His  wife  looked  back  from  behind  him,  and  be- 
came a  pillar  of  salt;"  words  which  neither  in  them- 
selves nor  in  their  position  in  the  narrative  afford  any 
serious  difficulty,  even  without  the  supposition  of  a  mir- 
acle. It  is  true  that,  when  taken  with  what  has  gone 
before,  they  seem  to  imply  (vers.  22,  23)  that  the  work 
of  destruction  by  fire  did  not  commence  till  after  Lot  liad 
entered  Zoar.  The  storm,  however,  raaj'  have  overtaken 
her  in  consequence  of  her  delay.  Later  ages  have  not 
been  satisfied  to  leave  the  matter,  but  have  insisted  on 
identifying  the  "piUar"  with  some  one  of  the  fleeting 
forms  which  the  perishable  rock  of  the  south  end  of  the 
Dead  Sea  is  constantly  assuming  in  its  process  of  de- 
composition and  liquefaction  (Anderson's  Off.  Nai-r.  p. 
180).  The  first  allusion  of  this  kind  is  perhaps  that  in 
"Wisd.  X,  7,  where  "  a  standing  pillar  of  salt,  the  monu- 
ment (/(j7/^tio)')  of  an  unbelieving  soul,"  is  mentioned 
with  the  "waste  land  that  smoketh,"  and  the  "plants 
bearing  fruit  that  never  come  to  ripeness,"  as  remaining 
to  that  A&y,  a  testimony  to  the  wickedness  of  Sodom. 
This  notion  was  regarded  by  the  Koman  Catholics  as 
scriptur.'.l  authority  that  might  not  be  disputed.  See 
the  quotations  from  the  fathers  and  others  in  Hofmann's 
Lexikon  (s.  v.  Lot),  and  in  IMislin,  Lieux  Saints  (iii,224). 
Josephus  also  (.1?;^  i,  11,  4)  says  that  he  had  seen  it, 
and  that  it  was  then  remaining.  So,  too,  do  Clemens 
Romanus  (Epist.  i,  11)  and  IreuKus  (iv,  51, 64).  So  does 
Benjamin  of  Tudela,  whose  account  is  more  than  usu- 
ally circumstantial  (ed.  Asher,  i,  72).  Eabbi  Petachia, 
on  the  other  hand,  looked  for  it,  but  "did  not  see  it;  it 
no  longer  exists"  (ed.  Benisch,  p.  61),  The  same  state- 
ment is  to  be  found  in  travellers  of  every  age,  certainly 
of  our  own  times  (see  Maimdrell,  Slarch  30).  The  ori- 
gin of  these  traditions  relative  to  this  pillar  has  lately 
been  satisfactorily  explained  by  the  discovery  by  the 
American  party  under  Lieut.  Lynch  of  an  actual  column 
still  standing  on  the  south-western  shore  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  at  a  place  retaining  the  traces  of  the  name  of  Sod- 
om in  the  form  of  Usdum,  of  which  he  gives  a  pictorial 
sketch,  describing  it  as  a  round  pillar,  about  forty  feet 
high,  on  a  lofty  pedestal,  standing  detached  from  the 
general  mass  of  the  mountain,  of  solid  salt,  slightly  de- 
creasing in  size  upwards,  and  capped  with  carbonate  of 
lime;  but,  althougVi  himself  a  Catholic,  he  admits,  with 
scicntilic  candor,  that  it  is  merely  t^jie  result  of  the  ac- 
tion of  the  winter  rains  upon  the  rock-salt  hills,  which 
the  cap  of  limestone  has  here  protected,  leaving  the  sur- 
rounding parts  to  wash  away,  till  a  column  has  thus 
gradually  been  carved  out  (Xarraiice  of  Ea-pedition,  p. 
307,3(IS).  Prof. Palmer  also  visited  this  singular  object, 
called  by  the  Arabs  Bint  Shc-ik  Lot,  or  "  Lot's  [daughter] 
wife.''     He  describes  and  gives  a  view  of  it  as  "  a  tall 


'Lot's  Wife." 


isolated  needle  of  rock,  which  really  does  bear  a  curious 
resemblance  to  an  Arab  woman  with  a  child  upon  her 
shoulder.  The  Arab  legend  of  Lot's  wife  differs  from 
the  Bible  account  only  in  the  addition  of  a  few  frivolous 
details.  They  say  that  there  were  seven  cities  of  the 
plain,  and  that  they  were  all  miraculously  overwhelmed 
by  the  Dead  Sea  as  a  punishment  for  their  crimes.  The 
prophet  Lot  and  his  family  alone  escaped  the  general 
destruction.  He  was  divinely  warned  to  take  all  that 
he  had  and  flee  eastward,  a  strict  injunction  being  given 
that  they  should  not  look  behind  them.  Lot's  wife, 
who  had  on  previous  occasions  ridiculed  her  husband's 
prophetic  office,  disobeyed  the  command,  and,  turning 
to  gaze  upon  the  scene  of  the  disaster,  was  changed  into 
this  piillar  of  rock"  [Desert  of  the  Exodus  [Harper's],  p. 
396  sq.).  The  expression  of  our  Lord,  "Remember  Lot's 
wife"  (Luke  xvii,  32),  appears  from  the  context  to  be 
solely  intended  as  an  illustration  of  the  danger  of  going 
back  or  delaj'ing  in  the  day  of  God's  judgments.  From 
this  text,  indeed,  it  would  appear  as  if  Lot's  wife  had 
gone  back  or  had  tarried  so  long  behind  in  the  desire 
of  saving  some  of  their  property.  Then,  as  it  would 
seem,  she  was  struck  dead,  and  became  a  stiffened  corpse, 
fixed  for  the  time  to  the  soil  by  saline  or  bituminous  in- 
crustations. The  particle  of  similitude  must  here,  as  in 
many  other  passages  of  Scripture,  be  understood,  "  like 
a  pillar  of  salt."  See  Nagel,  De  cidjm  iixoiis  Loti  (Alt- 
dorf,  1755)  ;  Distel,  De  salute  uxoris  Loihi  (Altd.  1721) ; 
Waller,  Diss,  de  statua  sal.  uxoris  Loti  (Lipsire,  1764) ; 
j  Wolle,  De  facto  etfato  uxoris  Loti  (Lips.  1730) ;  Schwoll- 
mann,  Comm.  qua  de  uxore  Z,.  in  statuam  sal.  conversa 
dubitatur  (Hamburg,  1749);  MilomjSendschr.u.d.Salz- 
siiule  in  die  L.'s  Weib  vervandelt  vorden  (Hamb.  1767) ; 
Clerici  Diss,  de  statua  salina,  in  his  Comment,  in  Gen. ; 
Tieroff,Z>e  statua  salis  (Jen.  1657) ;  Midler,  idem  (Helm- 
stadt,  1764)  ;  Oedmann,  Samml.  iii,  145 ;  Bauer,  Ihhr. 
Geschichte,  i,  131 ;  Mali  Ohserrat.  sacr.  i,  168  sq. ;  H.  v.  d. 
Hardt,  Epkein.  philol.  p.  67  sq. ;  Jenisch,  Erorter.  ziceier 
wichtifi.Schriftstellen  (Hamb.  1761);  Michaelis  and  Ro- 
senmiiller  on  Gen.  xix,  26;  Gesenius,  Thesanr.  U eh.\^.12. 
Lot  and  his  daughters  meanwhile  had  hastened  on  to 
Zoar  (q.  v.),  the  smallest  of  the  five  cities  of  the  plain, 
which  had  been  spared  on  purpose  to  afford  him  a  ref- 
uge ;  but,  being  fearful,  after  what  had  passed,  to  re- 
main among  a  people  so  corrupted,  he  soon  retired  to  a 
cavern  in  the  neighboring  mountains,  and  there  abode 
(Gen.  xix,  30).  After  some  stay  in  this  place,  the 
daughters  of  Lot  became  apprehensive  lest  the  family 
of  their  father  should  be  lost  for  want  of  descendants, 
than  which  no  greater  calamity  was  kno^vn  or  appre- 


LOT 


522 


LOUIS 


heiided  iia  those  times;  and  in  the  beUef  that,  after 
•Nvhat  had  passed  in  Sodom,  there  was  no  hope  of  their 
obtaining  suitable  husbands,  they,  by  a  contrivance 
wliicli  lias  in  it  the  taint  of  Sodom,  in  which  they  were 
lirouglit  up,  made  their  father  drunk  with  wine,  and  in 
that  state  seduced  him  into  an  act  which,  as  they  well 
knew,  would  in  soberness  have  been  most  abhorrent  to 
liiin.  They  thus  became  the  mothers,  and  he  the  fa- 
ther, of  two  sons,  named  Moab  and  Ammon,  from  whom 
sprung  the  Moabites  and  Ammonites,  so  often  mention- 
ed in  the  Hebrew  history  (Gen.  xix,  31-38).  With  re- 
spect to  Lot's  daughters,  Whiston  and  others  are  unable 
to  see  any  wicked  intention  in  them.  He  admits  that 
the  incest  was  a  horrid  crime,  except  under  the  un- 
avoidable necessity  which  apparently  rendered  it  the 
only  means  of  preserving  the  human  race ;  and  this  jus- 
tifying necessity  he  holds  to  have  existed  in  their  minds, 
as  they  appear  to  have  believed  that  all  the  inhabitants 
of  the  land  had  been  destroyed  except  their  father  and 
themselves.  But  it  is  incredible  that  they  could  have 
entertained  any  such  belief.  The  city  of  Zoar  had  been 
spared,  and  thej'  had  been  there.  The  wine  also  with 
which  they  made  their  father  drunk  must  have  been 
procured  from  men,  as  we  cannot  suppose  they  had 
brought  it  with  them  from  Sodom.  The  fact  woidd 
therefore  seem  to  be  that,  after  the  fate  of  their  sisters, 
who  had  married  men  of  Sodom  and  perished  with  them, 
they  became  alive  to  the  danger  and  impropriety  of 
marrjdng  with  the  natives  of  the  land,  and  of  the  im- 
portance of  preserving  the  family  connection.  The  force 
of  this  consiileration  was  afterwards  seen  in  Abraham's 
sending  to  the  scat  of  his  familj-  in  Mesopotamia  for  a 
wife  to  Isaac.  But  Lot's  daughters  could  not  go  there 
to  seek  husbands;  and  the  only  branch  of  their  own 
family  within  many  hundred  miles  was  that  of  Abra- 
ham, whose  only  son,  Ishniael,  was  then  a  child.  This, 
therefore,  must  have  appeared  to  them  the  only  practi- 
cable mode  in  which  the  house  of  tlieir  father  could  be 
preserved.  Their  making  their  father  drunk,  and  their 
solicitous  concealment  of  what  they  did  from  him,  show 
that  they  despaired  of  persuading  him  to  an  act  which, 
under  any  circumstances,  and  with  every  possible  ex- 
tenuation, must  have  been  very  distressing  to  so  good  a 
man.  That  he  was  a  good  man  is  evinced  bj'  his  de- 
liverance from  among  the  guilty,  and  is  affirmed  by  an 
apostle  (2  Pet.  ii,  7);  his  preservation  is  alluded  to  hy 
our  Saviour  (Luke  xvii,  18,  etc.) ;  and  in  Dent,  ii,  9, 19, 
and  Psa.  Ixxxiii,  9,  his  name  is  honorablj'  used  to  des- 
ignate the  Moabites  and  Ammonites,  his  descendants. 
This  account  of  the  origin  of  the  nations  of  Moab  and 
Ammon  has  often  been  treated  as  if  it  were  a  Hebrew 
legend  which  owed  its  origin  to  the  bitter  hatred  exist- 
ing from  the  earliest  to  the  latest  times  between  the 
"  children  of  Lot"  and  the  children  of  Israel.  The  hor- 
rible nature  of  the  transaction  —  not  the  result  of  im- 
pulse or  passion,  but  a  plan  calculated  and  carried  out, 
and  that  not  once,  but  twice,  would  prompt  the  wish 
that  the  legendary  theory  were  true.  But  even  the 
most  destructive  critics  (as,  for  instance,  Tuch)  allow 
that  tlic  narrative  is  a  continuation  without  a  break  of 
tliat  which  precedes  it,  while  they  fail  to  point  out  any 
marks  of  later  date  in  the  language  of  this  portion  ;  and 
it  cannot  be  questioned  that  tlie  writer  records  it  as  a 
historical  fact.  Even  if  the  legendary  theory  were  ad- 
missible, there  is  no  doubt  of  the  fact  that  Ammon  and 
IMoab  sprang  from  Lot.  It  is  affirmed  in  the  statements 
of  Dent,  ii,  9  and  19,  as  well  as  in  the  later  document  of 
I'sa.  xxxiii,  S,  which  ICwald  ascribes  to  the  time  when 
Nehemiah  and  his  newly-returned  colony  were  suffering 
from  the  attacks  and  obstructions  of  Tobiah  the  Am- 
monite and  Sanballat  the  Iloronite  (Ewald,  Diclite?;  Vsa. 
Ixxxiii). 

This  circumstance  is  the  Last  which  the  Scripture  re- 
cords of  the  history  of  Lot,  and  the  time  and  place  of 
his  death  are  unknown.  A  traditional  respect  has  been 
shown  to  his  memory  (also  that  of  his  wife,  who  is  call- 
ed Edith,  Vi'^l'^S  [one  of  his  daughters  being  called 


Plutith,  ni::lb5],  in  the  tract  Pirke  Elieser,  ch.  xxv) 
by  the  Talnnidists  (see  Otho's  Lex.  Rahh.  p.  389)  and 
Arabs  (see  llerbelot,  BihUoth.  Orient,  ii,  495) ;  and  the 
]\Iohammedans  still  point  out  his  grave  in  the  village 
of  Beni-Nain,  east  of  Hebron  (Robinson,  Researches,  ii, 
187).  For  the  pretty  legend  of  the  repentance  of  Lot, 
and  of  the  tree  that  he  planted,  which,  being  cut  down  for 
use  in  the  building  of  the  Temple,  was  aiterwards  em- 
ployed for  the  cross,  see  Fabricius,  Cod.  Pseiukp.  V.  T.  p. 
428-431.  The  IMohammedan  traditions  of  Lot  are  con- 
tained in  the  Koran,  chiefly  in  chap,  vii  and  xi ;  others 
are  given  by  D'llerbelot  (s.  v.  Loth).  According  to 
these  statements,  he  was  sent  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
live  cities  as  a  preacher,  to  warn  them  against  the  un- 
natural and  horrible  sins  which  they  practiced— sins 
which  Mohammed  is  continually  denouncing,  but  with 
less  success  than  that  of  drunkenness,  since  the  former 
is  perhaps  the  most  common,  the  latter  the  rarest  vice 
of  Eastern  cities.  From  Lot's  connection  M'ith  the  in- 
habitants of  Sodom,  his  name  is  now  given  not  only  to 
the  vice  in  question  (Freytag,  Lexicon,  iv,  136  a),  but 
also  to  the  people  of  the  five  cities  themselves — the  La- 
thi, or  Kuum  Loth.  The  local  name  of  the  Dead  Sea  is 
Bahr  J  At — Sea  of  Lot.  See  Niemeyer,  Charakt.  ii,  185 
sq. ;  Blaufurs,  Le  Loti  hospitcditate  (Jena,  1751);  Kcir- 
ner,  De  indole  genei-oi-um  Lothi  (Weissenf.  1755)  ;  Seiden- 
striicker,  in  the  Schleswig  Journal,  1792,  vol.  vi,  and  in 
Hencke's  Magaz.  iii,  07  sq. ;  Bauer,  Mgthol.  d.  llebr.  i, 
238  sq. ;  Kitto's  Daily  Bible  Illust.  ad  loc. 

Lo'tan  (Heb.  Lotan',  "piP,  coverer;  Sept.  Awrav), 
the  first-named  of  the  sons  of  Seir,  the  Horite,  and  a 
petty  prince  of  Idumasa  prior  to  the  supremacy  of  the 
Esauites  (Gen.  xxxvi,  20, 29 ;  1  Chron.  i,  38).  His  sons 
are  mentioned  as  being  Hori  and  Hemam  or  Homam, 
and  his  sister  as  being  named  Timna  (Gen.  xxxvi,  22 ;  1 
Chron.  i,  39),  by  which  latter  he  was  allied  to  Esau's 
oldest  son  (Gen.  xxxvi,  12).     B.C.  cir.  1927. 

Lothaire  of  Lorraine.  See  Hincmar;  Nicho- 
las I  {pope). 

Lothaire  I.  See  Loris  le  Di^bonnaire;  Pas- 
chal I  (pope). 

Lothaire  II,  sometimes  called  Lothaire  of  Sax- 
ony, succeeded  Henry  V  as  emperor  of  Germany  in  1 125. 
Lothaire  was  born  in  1075,  and  was  the  son  of  (iebhard, 
count  of  Arnsberg.  He  is  noted  in  Church  history  for 
the  part  he  took  in  the  struggle  against  Innocent  II, 
whom  he  installed  in  Kome  in  1136,  a  service  for  which 
he  was  rewarded  by  the  papal  incumbent  Avith  cnrona- 
tion  at  Rome  (comp.  the  comments  on  this  act  by  Lea, 
Studies  in  Ch.  Hist.  p.  37,  note).  He  died  in  1 137. — Jaffe, 
Gesch.  des  deutschen  Reiches  iinter  Lothnr  von  Sachsen 
(1843).     See  Innocent  II. 

Lothasu'bus  (Aoj^aaoir/Soc,  Yulg.  .4  busthas  v.  r. 
Sabiis),  one  of  the  supporters  of  Esdras  as  he  read  the 
law  (1  Esd.  ix,44) ;  evidently  the  Hashuji  (q.  v.)  of  the 
Heb.  text  ( Neh.  vii.  22). 

Lots,  Feast  of.     See  Puriji. 

Lot's  Wife.     See  Lot. 

Lotto,  LoincNzo,  a  celebrated  Venetian  painter  of 
the  16th  century,  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  l)een  a 
native  of  Bergamo,  but  by  others  a  native  of  Venice. 
Lotto  lived,  besides,  at  Bergamo,  also  some  time  at  Tre- 
vigi,  at  Recanati,  and  at  Loretto,  where  he  died.  His 
works  range  from  1513  to  1554.  Lanzi  ventures  an 
opinion  that  Lotto's  best  works  could  scarcely  be  sur- 
passed by  Raffaelle  or  by  Correggio,  if  treating  the  same 
subject.  His  masterpieces  are  the  IMadonnas  of  St.  Bar- 
tolomeo  and  Santo  Spirito,  at  Bergamo. — English  Cydo- 
jxedia.  s.  V. 

Lotus.     See  Lily. 

Loudun,  Convent  of.     See  Grandier. 

Louis  (<ir  Luis)  de  Granada,  a  Spanish  ascetic, 
theologian,  and  writer,  was  born  at  Granada  in  1504. 
In  1524  he  joined  the  Dominicans,  in  the  convent  of 


LOUIS  I 


523 


LOUIS  I 


Santa  Cniz  of  Granada.  In  15"29  he  was,  on  account 
of  his  great  reputation,  transferred  to  tlie  convent  of  St. 
Gregory  at  Valladolid,  where  he  attracted  much  atten- 
tion by  his  preaching.  He  was  afterwards  recalled  to 
Granada,  to  reform  the  convent  of  Scala  Coeli,  in  the 
Sierra  de  Cordova.  In  the  solitude  of  this  convent  he 
composed  a  number  of  religious  works.  He  next  went 
to  Cordova  as  preacher,  and  became  acquainted  with 
John  of  Avila  (q.  v."),  wlio  acquired  great  intluence  over 
liim.  After  spending  eiglit  years  in  Cordova,  Louis 
went  to  Badajoz,  where  he  founded  a  convent,  of  which 
he  was  the  tirst  abbot.  Cardinal  Henrj-,  infant  of  Spain 
and  archbishop  of  Ebora,  desiring  to  avail  himself  of 
Louis's  talents,  attached  him  to  liis  diocese.  The  queen 
of  Portugal  vainly  oifered  to  make  him  bishop  of  Viseu, 
and  afterwards  metropolitan  of  Braga;  he  accepted  no 
office  whatever,  except  that  of  provincial  of  his  order  in 
Portugal,  wliich  lie  held  for  some  years.  He  tinally  re- 
tired into  the  convent  of  Santa  Domingo  of  Lisbon,  and 
devoted  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  pastoral  duties  and 
to  writing  religious  works.  He  died  Dec.  31, 1588.  His 
works,  a  large  number  of  which  were  translated  into 
French,  Italian,  and  German,  are  very  numerous ;  among 
them  the  most  important  are,  Memorial  de  la  vida  Chris- 
tiana (Salamanca,  15CG,  2  vols.  8vo;  Barcelona,  1614, 
fol.) : — Sinibolo  de  la  Fe  (Salamanca,  l58"2,fol. ;  often  re- 
printed and  translated)  : —  Gvida  de  Pecadores  (Sala- 
manca, 1570,8vo)  : — Compendia  de  la  dottrina  Christiana 
(Lisbon,  15G4;  Madrid,  1595,  4to) : — Insiitucion  y  regla 
de  Men  vivirpai-a  los  que  empiecan  a  sei-vir  a  Dios  (Bar- 
celona, 1566,  8vo;  Madrid,  1616): — Libro  de  la  Oracion 
y  Meditacion  (Salamanca,  1567, 8 vo)  : — Collectanea  mo- 
ralis  Philosopki(e  (Lisbon,  1571,  3  vols.  8vo ;  Paris,  1582 ; 
and  under  the  XitXuLoci  cominitnes  Philosophice  moralis, 
Ct>logne,  1604)  : — Rhelorica  ecdesiastica  (Lisbon,  1576, 
4to),  etc. ;  and  a  number  of  sermons.  See  Louis  Munos, 
La  Vida  y  Virtudes  de  Luiz  de  Grenada  (IMadrid,  1639, 
4to) ;  N.  Antonio,  Bibliotheca  IJispana,  iv  ;  Quetil  and 
Echard,  Scri2)fores  ordines  Prcvdica/onim,  ii ;  Tournon, 
Hommes  illustres  de  Vordi-e  de  Saint-Dominique. — Her- 
zog,  Real-EncyMop.  viii.  516 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biorj.  Gem- 
rale,  xxxi,  1034  sq.      ( J.  N.  P.) 

Louis  I  (German  Ludwiij,  Latin  Ludovictis),  called 
"  Le  Debonnaire,"  and  also  ''  t/ie  Pious,^'  youngest  son  of 
Charlemagne,  was  born  at  Casseneuil  A.D.  778.  The 
great  empire  of  the  West  had  just  been  recreated  by 
the  heroic  efforts  of  Charles,  therefore  honored  with 
the  title  of  "the  Great;"  but  it  was  not  absolutely  the 
love  of  war  and  conquest,  and  the  honor  of  his  name, 
that  had  actuated  Charles;  he  rather  sought  to  accom- 
plish what  the  great  Ostrogoth  Theodoric  (q.  v.)  had 
contemplated,  but  failed  to  eiTect,  viz.,  the  union  of  the 
Christian  Germanic  nations  into  one  empire.  Charle- 
magne, it  must  be  remembered,  was  eminently  "a  cham- 
pion of  the  Church,"  and,  believing  that  the  conversion 
of  the  Saxons  and  other  Germanic  tribes  could  be  ac- 
complished only  by  their  subjection,  he  came  to  dream 
of  a  union  of  them  all  under  one  imperial  head,  and 
gratefully  he  accepted  the  result  in  his  own  coronation 
as  "Charles  Augustus"  by  pope  Leo  HI,  A.D.  800.  See 
Charlk.magnk.  But  Charlemagne  still  believed  in  the 
independence  of  the  imperial  crown  from  the  papal 
chair,  and  manifestly  evinced  this  by  one  of  his  latest 
acts.  As  early  as  806  he  had  made  provision  for  his 
successors  by  apportioning  to  his  three  sons  different 
parts  of  his  possessions.  To  Pepin  he  gave  Italy,  to 
Louis,  Aquitaine,  and  to  Charles  tlic  remainder,  consist- 
ing chietly  of  German  countries ;  but  when,  by  the  de- 
cease of  two  of  these,  he  saw  that  upon  Louis  only  would 
centre  all  the  responsibility  of  an  imjjerial  crown,  he 
called  him  to  his  side  in  813,  when  feeling  his  own  end 
approaching,  and  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  on  a  Sunday,  when 
in  the  cathedral  together,  caused  Louis  to  place  the 
golden  crown  upon  his  head,  and.  thus  crowned,  present- 
ed his  son  as  the  future  king  of  all  the  Franks,  with- 
out tirst  awaiting  the  anointment  of  the  pope.  Not 
go  independent  was  our  Louis,  who,  in  the  year  follow- 


ing the  event  jnst  recorded,  by  the  death  of  Charle- 
magne, became  sole  emperor  of  the  West  and  king  of 
France.  Thus  far  the  race  of  the  Carlovingians  had 
produced  consecutively  four  great  men — a  rare  occur- 
rence in  histor)'.  With  Louis  I  opened  a  new  ara;  for, 
though  his  personal  appearance  was  by  no  means  insig- 
nificant, being  of  a  prepossessing  countenance  and  of  a 
strong  frame,  and  so  well  practiced  in  archerj^  and  the 
wielding  of  the  lance  that  none  about  liim  equalled  him, 
"  he  was  weak  in  mind  and  will,  and  his  surname  '  the 
Pious'  implies  not  only  that  he  was  religious,  but  prin- 
cipally that  he  was  so  easy  tempered  that  it  required 
much  to  displease  him."  Or,  as  Milman  puts  it:  "In 
his  gentler  and  less  resolute  character  religion  wrought 
with  an  abasing  and  enfeebling  rather  than  ennobling 
influence"  {Latin  Christianity,  ii,  514).  A  ruler  of  this 
description  was  not  likely  to  hold  in  union  the  vast  em- 
pire of  Charlemagne.  His  first  troubles  arose  with  Ber- 
nard, son  of  Pepin,  whom  Charlemagne,  on  the  decease 
of  his  eldest  son,  had  made  king  of  the  Italian  posses- 
sions. Bernard's  ambition  soared  higher.  He  was  not 
content  with  Italy;  lie  desired  the  mastery  over  the 
whole  of  the^mperial  lands,  and  ungratefully  conspired 
against  his  uncle.  He  was  unsuccessful,  liowever;  was 
seized  by  the  imperial  troops,  and  condemned  to  death. 
Louis  was  determined  to  mitigate  the  lot  of  Bernard, 
but  state  interests  compelled  him  to  inflict  the  severe 
punishment  of  depriving  his  nephew  of  eyesight,  which 
was  the  caus&shortly  after,  no  doubt,  of  his  death.  This 
conspiracy,  as  well  as  sundry  other  occurrences,  made 
Louis  feel  the  necessity  of  provisions  for  the  succession, 
and,  finally  deciding  in  favor  of  the  principle  of  primo- 
geniture, his  son  Lothaire  was  appointed  successor.  Be- 
sides Lothaire,  Louis  had  two  sons,  Pepin  and  Louis.  To 
the  former  of  these  two  he  gave  Aquitania;  to  the  lat- 
ter Bavaria,  Bohemia,  and  Carinthia.  L'nfortunately, 
however,  for  the  peace  of  the  family,  Louis  lost  his  faith- 
ful companion,  the  mother  of  these  children,  shortly 
after  this  partition  of  his  possessions,  and,  marrying  a 
second  wife,  became  the  father  of  a  fourth  son,  Charles, 
whose  mother,  Judith,  cor.spired  in  his  behalf  for  a  por- 
tion of  the  imperial  crown.  This  resulted  in  830  in 
a  revolt  of  Lothaire  against  his  father,  on  the  plea  of 
the  bad  conduct  of  the  step-mother.  At  a  diet,  how- 
ever, which  was  held  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  the  father  and 
son  were  reconciled.  Kot  so  happily  ended  a  second 
revolt  in  833,  when  Louis,  forsaken  by  liis  followers,  was 
obliged  to  give  himself  up  to  his  son  Lothaire,  who  took 
him  as  prisoner  to  Soissons,  sent  the  empress  Judith  to 
Tortona,  and  confined  her  infant  son  Charles,  afterwards 
Charles  the  Bald,  the  olyect  of  the  jealousy  of  his  half- 
brothers,  in  a  monastery.  A  meeting  of  bishops  was 
held  at  Compiegne,  at  which  the  archbishop  of  Bheims 
presided,  and  the  unfortunate  Louis,  being  arraigned  be- 
fore it,  was  found  guilty  of  the  murder  of  his  nephew 
Bernard,  and  of  sundry  other  offences.  He  was  deposed, 
condemned  to  do  public  ]ienance  in  sackcloth,  and  was 
kept  in  confinement.  This  misusage  of  the  emperor 
enraged  the  youngest  son,  Louis  of  Bavaria  (840-876), 
"  an  energetic  prince,  of  lofty  stature  and  noble  figure, 
with  a  fiery  eye  and  a  penetrating  mind,"  and.  after  se- 
curing the  assistance  of  his  other  brother,  Pepin,  in 
the  following  j'ear,  he  obliged  Lothaire  to  deliver  uji 
their  father,  who,  after  having  been  formally  absolved 
by  the  bishops,  was  reinstated  on  the  imperial  throne. 
Not  made  wiser  by  past  experience,  Louis,  listening  to 
the  selfish  coinisel  of  his  wife,  Judith,  now  assigned  to  his 
fourth  son,  Charles,  tlic  kingdom  of  Xeustria,  or  Eastern 
France,  including  Paris,  and,  after  Pepin's  death,  Aqui- 
tania also.  Lothaire  possessed  all  Italy,  with  Provence, . 
Lyons,  Suabia,  Austrasia,  and  Saxony.  But  Louis  of 
Bavaria,  who  had  done  most  for  his  father,  was  favored 
least,  and  therefore  set  up  his  claim  for  all  Germany  as 
far  as  the  lihine,  and,  being  refused,  determined  to 
make  war  agaiijst  liis  father,  and  invaded  Suabia.  The 
emperor  Louis  marched  against  him,  and  al«o  assembled 
a  diet  at  Worms  to  judge  his  rebellious  son.     Mean- 


LOUIS  I 


524 


LOUIS  I 


time,  however,  the  emperor  fell  ill,  and  died  on  an  island 
of  the  Khiiie  near  Mentz,  in  June,  840,  after  sending  to 
his  son  Lothaire  the  imperial  crown,  his  sword,  and  his 
sceptre.  Of  what  account  this  last  act  of  Louis  was  may 
be  inferred  from  the  partition  of  the  dominion.  Lo- 
thaire, as  emperor,  held  Italy,  Provence,  Burgundy,  and 
Lorraine.  Charles  the  Bald  succeeded  his  father  as  king 
of  France,  and  Lonis  of  Bavaria  retained  all  Germany. 
Thus  ends  the  history  of  this  man,  whose  life,  notwith- 
standing his  kind  disposition,  was  '•  one  continued  scene 
of  trouble  and  affliction,  because  he  knew  not  how  to 
govern  his  own  house,  much  less  his  empire." 

Of  a  prince  so  feeble  and  dependent  as  Louis  proved 
himself  in  the  affairs  of  state,  we  cannot,  of  course,  ex- 
pect the  same  vigor  and  determination  towards  the  pa- 
pacy that  characterized  the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  and 
it  may  be  safely  said  that  with  the  death  of  the  latter 
a  new  sera,  opens  in  the  history  of  the  Latin  Church. 
Charlemagne  had  proved  an  earnest  supporter  of  the 
Church  and  the  papacy,  but  he  had  known  how  to  op- 
pose their  pretensions.  Not  so  Louis.  His  feebleness 
and  incapacity  to  govern  gave  rise  to  many  abuses,  or 
gave  new  life  to  such  as  had  before  beeii  successfully 
repressed.  The  whole  reign  of  Louis,  indeed,  abounded 
in  political  disorders.  '■  Distraction  and  weakness,"  says 
Neander  {C/i.  Hist,  iii,  351), "gave  many  opportunities 
for  the  Church  to  interfere  in  the  political  strifes,"  and 
for  it  the  Church  had  been  anxiously  but  patiently  in 
waiting.  With  the  coronation  of  Charlemagne  the  pope 
of  Rome  had  transferred  his  allegiance  from  the  East  to 
the  West,  and  thus,  by  his  action,  had  not  only  confer- 
red a  most  doubtful  title  on  Charlemagne,  but  secured 
at  the  same  time  a  political  ascendency  of  the  papacy. 
Under  Charlemagne,  however,  the  thiuiders  of  the 
Church  were  controlled  by  the  emperor;  but  in  Louis 
"  the  Pious"  was  found  a  willing  slave,  and  with  rapid 
strides  the  Romish  Church  marched  onward  to  establish 
its  superiority  over  the  empire.  See  Papacy.  What 
Louis  would  do  for  the  Church  was  clearly  seen  in  his 
submissive  acts — the  master  of  Europe  in  822  a  penitent 
before  the  prelates  assembled  at  the  Council  of  Attigny. 
Here  the  triumphs  of  the  spiritual  power,  under  the  au- 
spices of  a  rapid  progress  towards  domination,  were 
jilainly  foreshadowed.  The  hierarchy  failed  not  to  dis- 
cover the  hour  of  Louis's  weakness,  and  day  by  day  new 
laws  were  proposed  and  enacted,  the  ecclesiastical  fabric 
enlarged  and  strengthened,  the  power  of  the  secular  au- 
tliority  enfeebled  and  abrogated.  Prominent  among  the 
ecclesiastics  who  influenced  the  king  to  favor  the  Church 
and  her  institutions  was  Wala,  abbot  of  Corbie.  What 
Wala  (q.  v.)  advised  was  worthy  of  adoption,  and  he  had 
no  sooner  made  his  proposals  than  they  became  law. 
Thus  the  granting  of  monasteries  to  laymen,  and  grants 
of  Church  property  at  pleasure  to  the  vassals  of  the  crown 
without  consent  of  the  bishops,  were  abrogated,  virtu- 
ally making  the  bishops  co-legislators ;  and  by  829  the 
ecclesiastic  royal  counsellor  hesitated  not  to  declare  that 
"  everything  depended  on  keeping  the  line  of  demarca- 
tion  clearly  drawn  between  the  ecclesiastical  and  the 
civil  province,  the  king  and  the  bishops  concerning 
themselves  only  about  the  affairs  which  belonged  to 
their  respective  callings."  Unfortunately,  however,  the 
concessions  which  the  king  was  daily  making  to  the 
clergy  gave  to  the  bishops  much  of  the  business  strictly 
belonging  to  the  secular  authority,  and  "  the  scope  and 
the  danger  of  the  authority  thus  successively  conferred 
upon  the  Church  were  most  impressively  manifested 
when  Louis  was  deposed  by  his  sons  (in  833),  .  .  ,  and 
Lothaire  determined  to  render  impossible  the  restoration 
of  his  father  to  the  throne.  . .  .  The  people  had  been  in- 
vited by  Louis  himself,  eleven  years  before,  at  Attignj-, 
to  see  the  bishops  sit  in  judgment  on  their  monarch; 
and  the  decretals  (q.  v.)  of  Siricius  and  Leo  I,  forbidding 
secular  employment  and  the  bearing  of  arms  by  any  one 
wlio  had  undergone  i)ublic  |)enanco.  werp  not  so  entirely 
forgotten  but  that  they  might  be  revived.  Accordingh-, 
when  Lothaire  returned  to  France,  dragging  his  captive 


father  in  his  train,  he  halted  at  Compiegne,  and  sum- 
moned a  council  of  his  prelates  to  accomplish  the  work 
from  which  his  savage  nobles  shrunk.  With  unfalter- 
ing willingness  they  undertook  the  odious  task,  declar- 
ing their  competency  through  the  power  to  bind  and  to 
loose  conferred  upon  their  order  as  the  vicars  of  Christ 
and  the  turnkeys  of  heaven.  They  held  the  wretched 
prisoner  accountable  for  all  the  evils  which  the  empire 
had  suffered  since  the  death  of  Charlemagne,  and  sum- 
moned him  at  least  to  save  his  soul  by  prompt  confes- 
sion and  penitence,  now  that  his  earthly  dignity  was 
lost  beyond  redemption. .  .  .  With  that  overflowing  hyp- 
ocritical unction  which  is  the  most  disgusting  exhibition 
of  clerical  craft,  the  bishops  labored  with  him  for  his 
own  salvation,  until,  overcome  by  their  eloquent  exhor- 
tations, he  threw  himself  at  their  feet,  begged  the  par- 
don of  his  sons,  and  implored  their  prayers  in  his  be- 
half, and  eagerly  demanded  the  imposition  of  such  pen- 
ance as  would  merit  absolution.  The  request  was  not 
denied.  In  the  church  of  St.  Mary,  before  the  tombs  of 
the  holy  St.  Medard  and  St.  Sebastian,  the  discrowned 
monarch  was  brought  into  the  presence  of  his  son.  and 
surrounded  by  a  gaping  crowd.  Tliere  he  threw  him- 
self upon  a  sackcloth,  and  four  times  confessed  his  sins 
with  abundant  tears,  accusing  himself  of  offending  God, 
scandalizing  the  Church,  and  bringing  destruction  upon 
his  people,  for  the  expiation  of  which  he  demanded 
penance  and  absolution  by  the  imposition  of  those  holy 
hands  to  which  had  been  confided  the  power  to  bind  and 
to  loose.  Then,  handing  his  written  confession  to  the 
bishops,  he  took  off  sword  and  belt,  and  laid  them  at 
the  foot  of  the  altar,  where  his  confession  had  already 
been  placed.  Throwing  off  his  secidar  garments,  he 
put  on  the  white  robe  of  the  penitent,  and  accepted 
from  his  ghostly  advisers  a  penance  which  shoifld  in- 
hibit him  during  life  from  again  bearing  arms.  The 
world,  however,  was  not  as  yet  quite  prepared  for  this 
spectacle  of  priestly  arrogance  and  royal  degradation. 
The  disgust  which  it  excited  hastened  a  counter-revo- 
lution ;  and  when  Louis  was  restored  to  the  throne,  Ebbo 
of  Rheims  and  St.  Agobard  of  Lyons,  the  leaders  in  the 
solemn  pantomime,  were  promptly  punished  and  de- 
graded. Yet  the  piety  of  Louis  held  that  the  very 
sentence  for  the  imposition  of  which  they  incurred  the 
penalty  was  valid  until  abrogated  by  equal  authority, 
and  accordingly  he  caused  himself  to  be  formally  rec- 
onciled to  the  Church  before  the  altar  of  St.  Denis,  and 
abstained  from  resuming  his  sword  until  it  was  again 
belted  on  him  by  the  hand  of  a  bishop"  (Lea,  Studies  in 
Ch.  Hist.  p.  319-321).  "  These  melancholy  scenes,"  says 
MUman  {FAit.  Christianity,  bk.  v,  ch.  ii),  '"concern  Chris- 
tian history  no  further  than  as  displaying  the  growing 
power  of  the  clergj',  the  religion  of  Louis  graduaUy 
quailing  into  abject  superstition,  the  strange  fusion  and 
incorporation  of  civil  and  ecclesiastical  affairs."  For 
six  years  more  Louis  the  Pious  swaj-ed  the  sceptre  of 
the  Carlovingian  empire,  but  he  did  it  without  power 
— a  tool  in  the  hands  of  contending  factions,  which  at 
his  death  took  up  arms  in  open  warfare,  and  continued 
their  contest  until  Lothaire  had  been  defeated  on  the 
field  of  Fontcnay,  and  peace  restored  by  the  division 
of  the  empire  at  Verdun.  But  what  is  most  eventful 
about  these  transactions  in  the  life  and  reign  of  Louis 
the  Pious,  and  leads  us  to  assign  them  such  prominence 
here,  is  the  part  which  the  clergy  played  in  arranging, 
conducting,  and  accomplishing  them,  and  thus  bring- 
ing them  under  the  sanction  of  religion.  This  cir- 
cumstance alone  is  enough  to  show  how  the  power  of 
the  Church  was  growing.  But  there  was  another  and 
more  important  circumstance  that  still  more  clearly  in- 
dicates it.  Stephen  IV  had  died,  and  a  successor  had 
been  chosen  who  assumed  the  responsibility  of  the  papal 
chair  as  I'aschal  I.  Instead  of  waiting  for  his  confirma- 
tion by  Louis,  he  took  immediate  ])OSsession  of  the  high 
dignity  conferred  upon  him  by  the  Church,  and  thus 
inaugurated  the  principle  of  independence  of  the  pope 
from  the  emperor.     It  is  true  a  deprecatory  epistle  was 


LOUIS  VI 


525 


LOUIS  XIV 


prndently  dispatched  from  Rome,  but  the  same  liberty 
was  taken  by  his  successor  Eugeuius  II,  who  contented 
himself  with  sending  a  legate  to  apjirise  the  emperor 
of  his  accession,  instead  of  awaiting  the  imperial  sanc- 
tion to  the  election;  and  though  the  Romans  were  af- 
terwards obhged  to  bind  themselves  by  oath  never  to 
consent  to  the  installation  of  a  pope  elect  until  the  sanc- 
tion of  the  emperor  had  reached  Rome,  the  eftbrt  was 
unavailing.  Events  were  hurrying  on  destined  to  ren- 
der all  such  measures  futile,  and  to  accomplish  the  revo- 
lution of  European  institutions,  resulting  in  the  power 
of  tlie  priesthood  and  the  irresponsible  autocracy  of  the 
pope  (comp.  Lea,  Studies  in  Ch.  Hist.  p.  38-42). 

In  the  ipiestion  of  image-worship  alone,  perhaps,  it 
can  be  sai(l  that  Louis  played  an  independent  part.  It 
was  under  his  commission  that  Claudius  of  Turin  la- 
bored in  the  interests  of  iconoclasm,  and  it  was  by  his 
influence,  also,  that  Eugenius  II  was  forced  to  amity  to- 
wards the  Eastern  advocates  of  iconoclasm.  Compare 
Milman,  Latin  Christianity,  bk.  v,  chap,  ii,  A.D.  839,  and 
the  articles  Claudius  ;  Clemens  ;  Iconoclasm. 

The  most  celebrated  acts  in  the  life  of  Louis  worthy 
of  special  record  in  our  work  are  his  efforts  to  advance 
the  Christian  religion  by  the  foundation  of  two  relig- 
ious institutions,  viz.,  the  monasterj^  of  Corvey  and  the 
archbishopric  of  Hamburg.  The  former  he  built  for  la- 
borers among  the  Saxon  colony  he  had  caused  to  settle 
on  the  A\'eser,  and  it  speedily  became  not  only  a  relig- 
ious centre,  but  the  best  school  for  education  in  that 
country.  The  latter  furthered  the  missionary  cause 
among  the  northern  nations,  especially  among  the  Juts 
[see  Jutland],  by  the  zealous  labors  of  Anschar  [see 
Ansciiar],  generally  known  as  the  "Apostle  of  the 
JSTortli"  (compare  Maclear,  Hist,  of  Christian  Missions  in 
the  Middle  Ar/es,  chap.  xi).  The  kind  treatment  which 
Louis  aiforded  to  the  Jews  deserves  particular  mention. 
He  took  them  under  his  especial  protection,  and  suffered 
neither  nobles  nor  clergy  to  do  them  harm.  In  this  re- 
spect he  simply  carried  out  the  policy  of  his  father,  but 
he  certainly  improved  their  condition  during  his  reign 
(comp.  Griitz,  Gesch.  d.  Juden,  v,  chap,  viii ;  and  our  arti- 
cle Jews,  vol.  iv,  p.  908,  col.  2).  See  Funck,  Ludwig  der 
Fromme  (Frkf.-a.-jM.  1832) ;  Himly,  Wala  et  Louis  le  De- 
honnaire  (Par.  1849)  ;  Milman,  Hist,  of  Lat.  Christianity 
(N.  Y.  18G4, 8  vols.  12mo),  ii,  bk.  iv,  chap,  xii;  Neander, 
C/(. //?*V.  iii,  351  sq. ;  Y\&iQh^\,  Roman  See  in  the  3 fiddle 
Ar/es. ch. iv ;  Lea, Studies  in  Ch. Hist. (see  Index) ;  Kohl- 
rausch,  Hist,  of  Germany,  ch.  v  and  vi ;  Baxmann,  Pulitih 
der  Pdpste,  i  (see  Index).    (J.  H.  W.) 

Loui.s  VI,  OF  THE  Palatinate,  was  born  July  4, 
1539,  and  succeeded  his  father,  Frederick  HI,  in  1576. 
The  late  elector  had  been  a  strong  Calvinist,  but  Louis 
YI  had  imbibed  Lutheran  principles  at  the  court  of 
Philibert  of  Bavaria,  and  gradually  introduced  them 
into  the  country. 

Louis  VII,  OF  France,  called  "  Le  Jeune,''  son  of 
Louis  le  Gros,  was  born  in  1119,  and  succeeded  his  fa- 
ther in  1137.  By  nature  of  a  cruel  disposition,  he  had 
been  especially  harsh  towards  disobedient  subjects,  and, 
luider  the  pretence  that  he  must  aid  the  Church  to 
atone  for  his  great  sins,  he  was  advised  by  St.  Bernard, 
abbot  of  Clairvaux,  to  go  on  a  crusade.  Accordingly, 
the  king  set  out,  at  the  head  of  a  large  army,  in  1147. 
Suger  and  Raoul,  count  of  Yermandois,  Louis's  brother- 
in-law,  were  left  regents  of  the  kingdom.  This  second 
crusade  proved  unsuccessful:  the  Christians  were  defeat- 
ed near  Damascus,  and  Louis,  after  several  narrow  es- 
capes, returned  to  France  in  1 149.  The  re]iudiation  of 
his  first  wife,  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine,  and  his  marriage 
with  Constance  of  Castile,  brought  on  a  war  ^yith  Hen- 
ry II  of  England,  who  had  taken  Eleanor  for  his  wife. 
The  war  was,  however,  unimportant  in  its  consequences. 
In  Henry's  controversy  with  Thomas  h  Becket,  Louis 
YII  greatly  furthered  the  cause  of  Becket  (comp.  Rob- 
ertson, Becket  [London,  1859,  sm.  8vo],  p.  211  sq.,  295). 
He  died  at  Paris  in  September,  1180.     See  Iieichel,  iio- 


mayi  See  in  the  Middle  Ages,  p.  327  sq. ;  Milman.  Historrj 
of  Latin  Christianity,  bk.  viii,  ch.  vi  and  ch.  viii.  (J. 
H.W.) 

Louis  IX  (or  St.  Louis)  of  France  (1226-1270), 
was  born  in  Poissy  April  25, 1215,  and  succeeded  his  fa- 
ther, Louis  YIII,  when  but  twelve  years  of  age.  his 
mother,  Blanche  de  Castile,  acting  "as  regent.  Dur- 
ing the  minority  of  the  king  tliere  was  a  constant 
struggle  between  the  crown  and  the  feudal  lords,  head- 
ed by  Thibaut,  count  of  Champagne,  and  the  count  of 
Brittany.  Amid  these  troubles  queen  Blanche  displayed 
great  firmness  and  ability,  and  Louis,  as  soon  as  he  was 
old  enough,  by  the  assistance  of  those  who  had  remained 
faithful  to  the  crown,  made  war  against  Henry  HI,  king 
of  England,  who  had  supported  the  French  refractory 
nobles,  and  beat  the  English  in  1242  at  Tailleburg,  at 
Saintes,  and  at  Blaye,  but  finally  made  a  truce  of  five 
years  with  the  English  sovereigns,  at  the  same  time  par- 
doning also  his  rebellious  nobles.  During  an  illness  Louis 
had  made  a  vow  to  visit  the  Holy  Land,  and  in  June, 
1248,  after  having  appointed  his  mother  regent,  he  set 
out  for  the  East  with  an  army  of  40,000  men,  to  conquer 
the  Holy  Sepulchre.  He  landed  first  in  Egypt  and  took 
Damietta,  but  was  made  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Man- 
soura,  and  compelled  to  pay  a  heavy  ransom.  He  then 
sailed,  with  the  remainder  of  his  army,  now  only  GOOO 
strong,  to  Acre,  and  carried  on  the  war  in  Palestine,  but 
without  success.  After  the  death  of  his  mother  (Nov., 
1252),  he  made  preparations  for  his  return  to  France. 
At  home  in  1254,  he  now  applied  himself  with  great 
diligence  to  the  interests  of  his  realm.  It  was  Louis 
IX  of  France  that  first  gave  life  to  Gallicanism  by  his 
"  Pragmatic  Sanction,"  which  he  enacted  in  1208.  See 
Gallican  Church.  He  also  published  several  useful 
statutes,  known  as  the  EtaUissements  de  St. Louis;  es- 
tablished a  police  in  Paris,  under  the  orders  otaj^revot; 
organized  the  various  trades  into  companies  called  con- 
frairies;  founded  the  theological  college  of  La  Sor- 
bonne,  so  called  after  his  confessor;  created  a  French 
navy,  and  made  an  advantageous  treaty  with  the  king 
of  Aragon,  by  which  the  respective  limits  and  jurisdic- 
tions of  the  two  states  were  defined.  The  chief  and  al- 
most the  only  fault  of  Louis,  which  was,  however,  that 
of  his  age,  was  his  religious  intolerance ;  he  issued  op- 
pressive ordinances  against  the  Jews,  had  a  horror  of 
heretics,  and  used  to  say  "that  a  layman  ought  not  to 
dispute  with  the  unbelievers,  but  strike  them  with  a 
good  sword  across  the  body."  By  an  ordinance  he  re- 
mitted to  his  Christian  subjects  the  third  of  the  debts 
they  owed  to  Jews,  and  this  "  for  the  good  of  his  soul." 
This  same  spirit  of  fanaticism  led  him  (in  July,  1270)  to 
undertake,  against  the  wishes  of  his  best  friends,  anoth- 
er crusade  —  a  crusade  the  most  ignoble,  and  not  the 
least  calamitous  of  all  the  crusadis  (q.  v.).  He  sailed 
for  Africa,  laid  siege  to  Tunis,  and,  while  there,  died  in 
his  camp  of  the  plague,  Aug.  25, 1270.  Pope  Boniface 
YIII  canonized  him  in  1297.  See  Histoire  de  St.  Louis 
(edited  by  Ducange,  with  notes,  Paris,  1668,  folio,  Eng- 
lish trans.) ;  Petitot,  Collection  com})!,  des  memoires  rela- 
tifs  a  Vhistoire  de  France  (Paris,  1824) ;  Disscrtatiui/s  et 
reflexions  sur  Vhistoire  de  St. Louis;  Le  Nain  de  Tille- 
mont.  Vie  de  St.  Louis  (ed.  J.  de  Gaulle,  Paris,  184G,  5 
vols.) ;  H.  L.  Scholten,  Geschichte  Ludwigs  IX  (Minister, 
1850-1853,  2  vols.) ;  E.  Alex.  Schmidt,  Gesch.  v.  FranJc- 
reich,  i,  486  sq. ;  K.  Rosen,  Die  pragm.  Sanktion,  welche 
imter  d.  Namen  Ludwigs  IX  v.  Frankreich  auf  uns  ge- 
kommen  ist  (Munich,  1853) ;  Neander,  Church  Hist,  iv, 
203  sq. ;  Reichel,  Roman  See  in  the  Middle  Ages,  p.  618 
sq. ;  and  the  works  already  cited  in  the  article  Galli- 
can Church.     See  also  Papacy. 

Louis  XIV  OP  France,  grandson  of  Henry  IV, 
and  third  of  the  Bourbons,  was  born  in  1638.  The  re- 
gency of  his  mother,  Anne  of  Austria,  controlled  by  car- 
dinal Mazarin  (q.  v.),  continued  during  the  minority  of 
the  sovereign.  So  far,  indeed,  as  the  policy  of  Mazarin 
was  concerned,  it  prevailed  until  his  death  in  1661, 


LOUIS  XIV 


526 


LOUIS  XIV 


when  Louis  first  really  assumed  for  himself  the  reins  of 
government,  and  indicated  tlie  principles  of  his  admin- 
istration. During  the  minority  of  its  youthful  sovereign 
the  country  had  been  distracted  by  civil  wars,  those  of 
the  Fronde,  partly  through  Spanish  influences,  partly 
through  an  unsatisfied  and  factious  element  of  the  French 
nobility.  Perplexing  difficulties,  moreover,  and  even  ac- 
tual conflicts  of  the  regent  and  her  minister  with  the 
I'arliament  and  States  General,  had  more  than  once 
arisen,  usually  terminating,  however,  in  the  triumph  of 
the  former,  Louis  himself,  in  his  eighteenth  year,  dis- 
missing one  of  these  bodies,  and  forbidding  anj'  future 
exercise  of  some  of  its  most  important  functions.  The 
internal  difficulties,  so  far  as  due  to  the  hostile  policy 
of  the  Spanish  court,  were  disposed  of  by  the  marriage 
of  Louis  with  the  infanta  Maria  Theresa  in  1660,  through 
the  skilful  management  of  Mazarin.  The  effect  of  these 
troubles,  however,  was  to  shape,  to  some  degree,  the  pol- 
icy of  Louis,  and  to  enable  him  to  carry  it  out  success- 
fully. That  policy  was  to  avoid  all  conflict  of  authori- 
ty by  centring  all  power  in  the  person  of  the  sovereign. 

The  administration  of  Louis,  extending  over  a  peri- 
od of  great  significance  in  the  secular  condition  and 
history  of  Europe,  concerns  us  here  in  view  of  its  prin- 
ciples and  results  religiously  and  ecclesiastically;  for, 
while  it  may  be  said  that  one  of  the  grand  objects  of 
this  administration  was  to  supersede  Austria  as  the  par- 
amount Catholic  sovereignty  of  Europe,  it  sought  this 
end  in  connection  with  the  destruction  and  diminution 
of  Protestantism,  not  onlj'  in  France,  but  elsewhere. 
To  enable  us  to  consider  his  policy  as  it  affected  the  re- 
ligious condition  of  France  and  Europe,  the  course  of 
his  civil  and  military  administration  must,  however,  be 
first  examined. 

Louis's  clcil  policy  —  the  consolidation  of  all  power 
in  the  hands  of  the  sovereign,  detaching  the  crown  from 
its  alliance  with  all  the  legislative,  jucficial,  and  muni- 
cipal institutions — he  himself  has  best  interpreted  for 
us.  "  Tlie  worst  calamity  which  can  befall  any  one  of 
our  rank,"  is  his  language  to  the  dauphin,  "  is  to  be  re- 
duced to  that  subjection  in  which  the  monarch  is  obliged 
to  receive  the  law  from  his  people.  ...  It  is  the  will  of 
God  that  every  Subject  should  yield  to  his  sovereign  im- 
plicit obedience.  ...  I  am  the  state !"  These  assertions 
of  supreme  prerogative  are  put  forth,  indeed,  in  connec- 
tion with  a  recognition  of  accountability  to  the  divine 
Source  from  which  such  powers  are  derived ;  but  below 
him  there  was  no  accountability,  no  limitation  to  the 
action  of  his  royal  vicegerent.  Consistently  with  this 
theory  was  the  operation  of  his  internal  administration. 
The  first  and  most  effective  instrument  for  the  carrying 
out  of  such  policy  was  a  thorough  military  organization. 
This  was  perfected  to  a  degree  hitherto  unknown,  among 
its  new  features  the  most  effective  to  the  end  proposed 
being  the  emanation  of  all  commissions,  promotions,  and 
distinctions  from  the  king;  doing  away  altogether  with 
the  possibility  of  the  existence  of  such  a  balance  of  pow- 
er as  had  previously  been  maintained,  and  rendering 
impossible  all  limitation  of  prerogative.  The  States 
General— the  great  central  legislative  representation  of 
the  clergy,  nobles,  and  commons— ceased  to  exist.  The 
provincial  states,  having  a  more  limited  function  of  the 
same  nature,  shared  the  same  fate.  The  Parliaments, 
from  registering,  protecting,  and  partly  legislative  bod- 
ies, became  simply  judicial  tribunals  to  execute,  under 
the  forms  of  law,  the  decrees  of  a  royal  master.  That 
in  the  thorough  working  out  of  thissystem  Louis  ex- 
hibited rare  administrative  ability  cannot  be  denied. 
Tliat  he  possessed  the  peculiar  capacity  of  selecting  ef- 
ficient subordinates  is  no  less  manifest.  That,  more- 
over, under  his  rule  there  was  a  great  evolution  of  ad- 
ministrative, military,  and  literary  capacity  \s  C(iually 
undoubted.  Not  so  salutary  or  favoral)le  were  the  re- 
sults, however.  Louis's  policy  eventually  broke  down 
the  resources  of  the  country ;  and  it  set  in  operation  cer- 
tain tendencies,  which  only  worked  themselves  out  in 
the  crash  of  the  French  Kevolution. 


But  this  concentration  of  all  power  in  the  person  of 
the  sovereign  had  in  view  the  carrying  out  of  an  ex- 
ternal as  well  as  an  internal  policy.  "  Self-aggrandize- 
ment," to  use  his  own  words,  "  is  at  once  the  noblest 
and  most  agreeable  occupation  of  kings,"  and  this  he 
did  not  always  pursue  under  the  real  requirements  of 
truth  and  right.  "  In  dispensing  with  the  strict  ob- 
servance of  treaties,  we  do  not,"  said  he,  "  violate  them  j 
for  the  language  of  such  instruments  is  not  understood 
literally;  it  is  conventional  phraseolog}',  just  as  we  use 
complimentary  expressions  in  society."  These  two  sen- 
tences are  the  text,  of  which  the  internal  policy  of  Lou- 
is may  be  regarded  as  constituting  the  commentary. 
His  reign,  counting  from  the  death  of  Mazarin,  was 
characterized  by  four  great  wars,  occupying  altogether 
forty-two  years,  or  seven  ninths  of  its  continuance.  The 
first  of  these  was  his  attack  upon  Spanish  Flanders,  and 
this  in  violation  of  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees,  made  at 
his  marriage,  by  which  all  claim  of  inheritance,  in  right 
of  his  wife,  to  Spanish  territory  was  solemnly  renounced. 
Out  of  this  contest,  at  first  opposed,  but  afterwards  (1670) 
assisted  by  England,  for  a  long  time  varj'ing  in  success- 
es, but,  on  the  whole,  to  the  advantage  qf  France,  Louis, 
by  the  treaty  of  Nimeguen,  1678,  came  forth  with  the 
possession  of  a  large  addition  of  territory,  a  part  of 
which  was  the  duchy  of  Lorraine,  and  to  which  he  af- 
terwards added  Strasburg,  then  a  free  German  city — 
possessions  which  remained  a  part  of  France  until  re- 
stored to  Germany  by  the  war  of  1870.  Next,  to  pro- 
voke a  war  of  nine  or  ten  years'  duration  was  his  claim 
for  his  sister,  the  duchess  of  Orleans,  to  a  portion  of  the 
Palatinate,  enforced  by  an  invasion  of  the  territory  in 
question.  To  repel  this  movement  the  League  of  Augs- 
burg was  formed,  consisting  of  the  emperor  of  Germany, 
the  kings  of  Spain,  Denmark,  and  Sweden,  the  duke  of 
Savoy,  and  eventually  of  the  king  of  England.  Tliis  war, 
characterized  by  the  devastation  of  the  Palatinate  and 
the  sack  of  Heidelberg,  terminated  with  the  Peace  of 
Ryswick,  1697,  leaving  Louis  without  a  navy,  his  finances 
embarrassed,  his  people  impoverished,  and  manj-  of  them 
suffering  from  actual  starvation.  But  by  far  the  great- 
est contest  was  provoked  by  Louis's  claim  for  his  family 
to  the  succession  of  the  crown  of  Spain,  for  which  there 
were  three  competitors — Louis,  the  emperor  Leopold,  and 
the  elector  of  Bavaria.  Through  the  influence  of  the 
pope  and  of  the  Spanish  nobility,  Louis  had  succeeded 
in  procuring  the  succession  for  his  grandson,  the  duke  of 
Anjou.  To  this  Holland,  under  threat  of  invasion,  had 
been  forced  to  accede ;  and  William  of  England,  unable 
to  secure  the  co-operation  of  Parliament  in  the  way  of 
resistance,  was  obliged  to  pursue  the  same  course.  Le- 
opold, however,  began  hostilities,  and  in  a  short  time 
England,  Holland,  and  Denmark  united  with  him  in  the 
Second  Alliance,  and  the  conflict  only  ended  in  1713 
with  the  Peace  of  Utrecht,  leaving  the  duke  of  Anjou 
upon  the  throne  of  Spain,  but  at  the  expense  to  France 
of  the  damage  and  humiliation  of  many  defeats,  and 
the  loss  of  many  colonies,  besides  a  distinct  provision 
against  the  union  of  France  and  Spain  imder  tlie  same 
monarch.  During  this  last  contest,  moreover,  with  ex- 
ternal enemies,  there  had  been  an  internal  war  destroy- 
ing the  national  resources,  that  of  the  Camisards  in  the 
Cevennes,  infuriated  and  maddened  by  religious  perse- 
cution into  rebellion.    See  Camisards. 

Louis's  relif/ions  and  ecclesiastical polic?/  is  exhibited 
in  connection  with  his  treatment  of  the  national  ('hurch, 
and  its  central  head,  the  papacy;  his  action  with  refer- 
ence to  a  division  of  sentiment  among  different  portions 
of  this  national  Church ;  and,  last  of  all,  in  his  treat- 
ment of  his  Protestant  subjects.  As  to  the  national 
Church,  it  may  be  said  that  he  found  the  machinery  of 
ecclesiastical  despotism  made  to  his  hands,  in  the  con- 
cordat of  Leo  X  and  Francis  I.  already  mentioned.  His 
peculiarity  consisted  in  the  skill  with  which  such  ma- 
chinery was  worked,  the  thoroughness  and  extent  of 
its  operation.  The  "  liberties  of  the  Gallican  Church," 
which  usually  meant  the  libertv'  of  the  monarch  to  con- 


LOUIS  XIV 


527 


LOUIS  XIV 


trol  all  temporalities,  and  to  fleece  all  classes  of  the  ben- 
eticed  clergy  without  dividing  the  wool  with  the  pope, 
was  energetically  asserted  during  the  reign  of  Louis. 
His  effort  was  to  free  the  national  Church  from  the  con- 
trol of  the  papacy ;  through  his  appointments,  to  make 
it  subservient  to  his  general  jiolicy.  His  treatment  of 
the  pope,  especially  in  connection  with  the  question  of 
the  privilege  of  the  French  ambassador  at  Rome,  was 
harsh  and  overbearing;  and  although  compelled, in  1691, 
to  yield  in  certain  assertions  of  prerogative,  it  but  slight- 
ly affected  the  exercise  of  his  ecclesiastical  supremacy. 
His  bishops  were,  many  of  them,  learned,  able,  and  elo- 
quent. There  was  a  higher  standard,  both  of  literary 
taste  and  of  ecclesiastical  propriety,  than  in  reigns  pre- 
ceding. Their  Avritings  constitute  this  period,  in  some 
respects,  one  of  the  most  brilliant  in  the  history  of  the 
Church  of  France.  But  these  writings  contain  no  vig- 
orous protest  against  the  vices  and  cruelties  of  their 
royal  master,  and  many  of  them  are  implicated  in  the 
support  of  his  most  flagrant  cruelties  and  acts  of  oppres- 
sion. It  was  perfectly  understood  that  no  other  course 
would  be  tolerated.  His  own  account  to  Massillon  of 
the  effect  produced  upon  him  by  his  court  preachers 
will  enable  us  to  mulerstand  the  character  of  their 
preaching.  "  I  have  heard  a  great  many  speakers  in 
my  chapel,  and  I  have  been  very  well  pleased  with 
tltem ;  when  I  hear  you,  I  am  displeased  with  mt/self." 
But  the  unfavorable  testimony  of  this  one  faithful  wit- 
ness, and  of  at  least  one  other  not  less  faithful,  Fene- 
lon,  could  not  counteract  the  flattery  of  so  many  others. 
The  ditficulty  with  the  Jansenists  constitutes,  perhaps, 
one  of  the  most  striking  illustrations  of  this  despotic 
polic}'  in  ecclesiastical  and  religious  matters.  In  this 
contest  between  Jesuitism  and  a  purer  form  of  Roman- 
ism, the  pope,  and,  through  the  pope  and  the  Jesuits, 
Louis,  became  a  party.     See  Jansenius. 

It  is,  however,  in  the  course  pursued  towards  his 
Protestant  subjects  that  the  policy  of  Louis  may  be  rec- 
ognised ;  that  the  ecclesiastical  and  religious  liistory  of 
his  reign  has  an  interest  altogether  unique  and  peculiar, 
namely,  the  position  of  the  Huguenots  and  Dissenters, 
holding,  under  the  law,  certain  legal  privileges — among 
others,  the  exercise  of  freedom,  not  only  of  religious 
opinion,  but  of  Avorship.  The  old-fashioned  orthodox 
practice  of  extermination  by  fire  and  sword  had  been 
already  tried,  more  than  once,  without  success.  At  the 
close  of  every  such  unsuccessful  effort,  terms  had  been 
made  insuring  them  conditions  of  existence.  Prior  to 
the  Edict  of  Nantes,  such  terms  constituted  rather,  a 
truce  than  a  peace;  and  when  the  contesting  parties 
had  rested  a  little,  the  truce  ended  and  the  conflict  was 
renewed.  This,  however,  was  not  the  case  with  the 
Edict  of  Nantes,  which  really  constituted  a  peace,  and 
was  more  favorable  to  the  Huguenots  than  any  preced- 
ing arrangement;  and,  although  containing  in  it  some 
objectionable  features,  became  to  the  Protestants  the 
charter  of  their  existence.  They  and  the  Catholics, 
under  different  ecclesiastical  laws,  were  alike  imder  the 
law  of  I  he  land — enjoyed  its  sanctions,  lived  under  its 
protection.  Louis,  whose  great  doctrine  was  uniform- 
ity and  submission  in  all  things,  therefore  proposed  for 
himself  the  task,  not  of  violating  this  great  compact 
with  his  Protestant  subjects,  but  of  doing  away  with  the 
necessity  of  its  existence  by  bringing  them  all  within 
the  national  Church.  Urged  forward  in  this  attempt 
by  his  mistress,  Madame  de  Maintenon,  wholly  under 
the  control  of  the  Jesuits,  and  by  the  latter  themselves, 
on  the  plea  that  by  such  a  course  he  -would  merit  the 
forgiveness  of  heaven  for  the  many  sins  of  his  youth, 
especially  his  illicit  connection  with  Madame  de  Mon- 
tespan,  two  great  agencies  were  immediately  set  in 
operation  to  the  attainment  of  this  result  —  those  of 
bribery  and  intimidation.  Conversions  were  sought  by 
purchase,  or  by  appeals  to  the  interests  or  ambition  of 
the  parties  concerned.  Special  provision  was  made  for 
the  purchase  of  such  conversions  by  a  fund  collected  of 
one  third  of  the  profits  of  all  ecclesiastical  benefices,  and 


placed  in  the  hands  of  a  Huguenot  renegade,  to  be  used 
for  this  purpose.  The  matter  went  so  far  that  there 
was  a  regular  scale  of  prices  for  converts  of  different 
grades,  and  large  successes  were  published  as  the  result 
of  this  mode  of  operation.  To  cut  off  the  temptation 
of  relapse,  so  as  to  insure  the  price  of  a  second  conver- 
sion, an  edict  was  issued  condemning  all  relapsed  per- 
sons to  banishment  for  life  and  confiscation  of  their 
property.  With  these  efforts,  moreover,  which  only 
reached  the  weak  and  worthless,  was  combined  the 
other  element  of  harassment  and  intimidation.  Com- 
missions of  Komish  clergy  were  instituted,  sometimes 
upon  their  own  motion,  sometimes  upon  popular  com- 
plaint, and  with  the  well-understood  approval  of  court 
oflicials,  to  investigate  the  legal  titles  of  churches  of 
the  Huguenots,  which  for  the  purpose  had  been  called 
in  question.  One  infelicity  in  the  position  of  the  Prot- 
estants, even  under  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  was  that  which 
was  connected  with  what  may  be  called  the  Church  ter- 
ritorial system.  They  were  territorially  in  the  dioceses 
of  Romish  bishops,  in  the  parish  limits  of  Romish  priests, 
in  some  indefinite  manner  regarded  as  in  their  pastoral 
charge,  and  these  annoying  questions  of  Church  jirop- 
erty  could  thus  be  easily  started.  The  result,  in  many 
cases  where  these  titles  were  called  in  question,  was  a 
long,  vexatious  litigation,  ending  in  the  decision  that  it 
was  imperfect,  and  that  the  church  building  should  be 
shut  up  and  demolished.  The  decisions  of  the  sover- 
eign were  well  known,  and  loyalty,  ambition,  and  inter- 
est alike  found  their  expression  and  exercise  through 
these  agencies  in  the  rank  of  proselytism. 

As,  however,  these  proved  insufficient  to  the  attain- 
ment of  the  desired  end,  and  the  law  still  guaranteed 
the  legal  existence  of  the  as  j-et  unconverted  Protes- 
tants, more  vigorous  steps  were  taken  prior  to  the  final 
one  in  the  direction  of  annoyance  and  severitj'.  With- 
out, therefore,  revoking  the  existing  law,  it  was  sub- 
verted by  new  edicts  of  the  most  vexatious  and  harass- 
ing character.  Many  of  these  may  be  found  detailed 
under  the  article  Hugufcxots. 

There  was,  however,  another  form  of  operation  in  this 
effort  of  exterminating  Protestantism  by  conversion. 
Human  wickedness,  in  this  effort,  found  out  the  way  to 
commit  a  new  crime.  This  new  crime,  unique  and  pre- 
eminent in  the  achievements  of  malicious  ingenuity, 
had  to  be  described  by  a  new  name,  and  the  world  thus 
heard  for  the  first  time  of  the  Dragonnade — the  dra- 
gooning of  people  out  of  one  religion  into  another.  The 
process  was  that  of  quartering  soldiers — Romanists,  of 
course,  the  bigotrj'  of  the  Romanist  being  combined 
with  the  brutality  of  the  soldier — in  the  families  and 
houses  of  Protestants.  The  commanders  were  instruct- 
ed to  quarter  them  on  Protestant  families,  and  to  keep 
them  there  until  the  families  were  brought  over  to  the 
Catholic  faith,  and  then  to  transfer  them  to  others  of 
the  same  character  and  for  the  same  object.  As  the 
army  employed  for  this  purpose  was  a  large  one,  so 
whole  districts  at  once  were  subjected  to  this  intolerable 
annoyance  and  oppression.  Multitudes,  of  course,  yield- 
ed ;  and  where  they  subsequently  recanted  their  act  of 
weakness,  they  became  subject  to  banishment  and  con- 
fiscation. The  suffering  involved  may  be  more  easily 
imagined  than  described.  "  The  dragoons,"  says  one 
who  passed  through  it,  "fixed  their  crosses  to  their 
musquetoons,  so  as  the  more  readily  to  compel  their 
hosts  to  kiss  them ;  and  if  the  kiss  was  not  given,  they 
drove  the  crosses  against  their  stomachs  and  faces. 
They  had  as  little  mercy  for  the  children  as  for  the 
adults,  beating  them  with  these  crosses  or  with  the  flats 
of  their  swords,  so  violently  as  not  seldom  to  maim 
them.  The  wretches  also  subjected  the  women  to  their 
barbarities:  they  whipped  them,  they  disfigured  them, 
they  dragged  them  by  the  hair  through  the  mud  or 
along  the  stones.  Sometimes  they  would  seize  the  la- 
borers on  the  highway,  or  when  following  their  carts, 
and  drive  them  to  the  Romish  churches,  pricking  them 
like  oxen  with  their  own  goads  to  quicken  their  pace." 


LOUIS  XIV 


628 


LOUVARD 


If,  ill  any  case,  these  outrages  were  resisted,  and  there 
was  anything  like  a  Protestant  gathering,  the  result  was 
a  massacre.  The  mere  collection  of  such  population,  to 
indicate  that  they  were  not  all  carried  over  to  the  na- 
tional Church,  was  thus  treated.  "L'pon  the  assumption, 
therefore,  that  these  agencies,  after  having  operated  for 
four  or  live  j'ears,  had  accomplished  their  intended  pur- 
pose ;  that  Protestantism,  to  any  calculable  degree,  had 
ceased  to  exist,  in  1G85  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  as  no  longer 
of  any  use  or  necessity,  was  abrogated.  To  proclaim 
the  falsehood  and  cruelty  of  this  pretence,  and  the  pro- 
ceedings based  upon  it,  they  were  followed  b}'  enact- 
ments against  the  non-existent  Protestantism  (see  vol. 
iv,  p.  396,  col.  1).  The  only  privilege  left  to  the  Prot- 
estants was  the  permission  of  enjoj'ing  their  religion  in 
private.  The  non-intent  of  this  concession  was  best 
exhibited  bj^  the  declaration  of  an  ordinance  of  Louis 
himself  thirty  years  later  (1715),  "  that  every  man  who 
had  continued  to  reside  in  France  after  the  revocation 
of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  in  1G85  had  given  conclusive 
proof  that  he  was  a  Catholic,  because  only  as  a  Catholic 
he  would  have  been  allowed  to  dwell  there,  and,  there- 
fore, if  any  man  persisted  in  Protestantism,  he  must  be 
treated  as  a  relajjsed  heretic.  In  other  words,  if  such 
a  one  emigrated  in  1685  as  a  Protestant,  he  was  con- 
demned to  the  galleys.  If  he  did  not,  he  was  regarded 
as  a  Catholic,  and  at  any  subsequent  period  could  be 
proceeded  against  for  his  Protestantism  as  a  relapsed 
Catholic." 

Within  five  months  after  his  ordinance  against  Prot- 
estants just  mentioned  the  career  of  Louis  terminated. 
To  use  the  language  of  another,  "  He  was  an  intirm  and 
aged  man.  He  had  survived  his  children  and  his 
grandchildren.  He  had  been  overwhelmed  by  the  vic- 
tories of  Eugene  and  Marlborough.  He  was  oppressed 
with  debt.  He  was  hated  I)}'  the  people  who  had  idol- 
ized him,  and  was  compelled  to  listen  to  the  indig- 
nant invectives  which  the  whole  civilized  world  poured 
forth  against  his  blind  and  inhuman  persecutions.  He 
died  declaring  to  his  spiritual  advisers  that,  being  him- 
self ignorant  of  ecclesiastical  questions,  he  had  acted  un- 
der their  guidance  and  as  their  agent  in  all  that  he  had 
done  against  either  the  Jansenists  or  the  Protestant 
heretics,  and  on  those  his  spiritual  advisers  he  devolved 
the  responsibility  to  the  Supreme  Judge."  There  can 
be  no  question  that  in  many  cases  the  persecuting  policy 
of  Louis  was  quickened  by  the  influence  of  Madame  de 
Maintenon  and  her  ecclesiastical  advisers;  that  in  many 
cases  his  subordinate  agents  pursued  courses  of  outrage 
and  cruelty  exceeding  his  intentions;  that  such  men  as 
Bossuet,  Arnauld,  Flechier,  and  the  whole  Galilean 
Church,  in  approving  this  policy,  identified  themselves 
with  it  in  its  guilt  and  in  its  consequences;  but,  after 
all,  it  was  essentially  his  policy.  It  was  the  carrying 
out  in  ecclesiastical  the  autocratic  principle  enunciated 
with  reference  to  civil  matters.  The  concentration  of 
all  power  in  the  hands  of  the  sovereign  required  that 
he  should  lie  not  only  the  State,  but  the  Church. 

Louis  dying  Sept.  1, 1715,  was  succeeded  by  his  great- 
grandson,  Louis  XV.  His  son  the  dauphin  and  his  eldest 
grandson  died  at  an  earlier  period.  Some  of  his  children, 
the  fruit  of  an  adulterous  connection  with  Madame  de 
Montespan,  were  legitimized  during  his  lifetime,  but  the 
act  was  aimulled  after  his  death.  In  regard  to  other 
children  from  similar  connections  no  such  action  was 
taken.  After  the  death  of  his  first  wife  he  privately 
married  :Madame  de  iNIaintenon.  The  works  of  Louis 
are  contained  in  six  volumes.  They  are  occupied  with 
instructions  for  his  sons,  and  with  correspondence  bear- 
ing upon  the. history  of  his  times.  His  reign  may  be 
regarded  as  one  of  the  most  brilliant  in  the  annals  of 
French  literature.  In  the  department  of  theological 
and  controversial  literature  this  was  peculiarly  the  case, 
while  in  that  of  pulpit  eloquence  there  wa^  an  array  of 
talent  and  genius  beyond  parallel. 

Litei-ature. — Voltaire,  Si'ecle  de  Louis XIV;  Pellisson, 
Histoiie  de  Louis  XIV;  Dangeau,  Jo«?-ffl.  de  la  cour  de 


Louis  XIV;  Lettres  da  Madame  de  Maintenon ;  Larrey, 
Hist,  de  France  sorts  le  li'e(jne  de  Louis  XIV ;  Capefigue, 
Louis  XIV  son  Gouvernement,  etc.  (1837,  6  vols.  8vo), 
James,  Life  and  Times  of  Louis  XIV  (Bohn's  ed.,  Lond. 
1851,  2  vols.  l"2mo);  Smedley,  Hist.  Ref.  liel.  in  France 
(N.  Y.  1834,  3  vols.  18mo)  ;  Barnes's  Feiice,  Hist.  Protest. 
France  (Lond.  1853,  Timo) ;  Ilagenbach,  Kirchenf/esch. 
V,  86  sq. ;  Stoughton,  Fccles.  Hist.  Fnr/l.  (Ch.  of  liestora- 
tion,  see  Index  in  vol.  ii) ;  Hase,  Ch.  Hist,  (see  Index) ; 
Kanke,  Hist.  Papacy,  ii,  272  sq.,  293 ;  Students  France 
(Harper's),  p.  410  sq.;  Vehse,  Mem.  of  the  Court  of  A  us- 
?;•*■«,  ii,  14  sq.;  Quart.  Rev.  (Lond.),  1818  (July);  Brit, 
and  For.  Rev.  1844,  p.  470  sq.  See  also  the  references 
in  the  articles  France  and  Huguenots.     (C.W.) 

Louse.     See  Lice. 

Louvard,  Francois,  a  French  Jansenistic  theolo- 
gian of  the  Benedictine  order,  was  born  in  Chamgene- 
teux  in  1061,  entered  the  convent  of  Saint  Melaine,  in 
Brittany,  in  1679,  and  studied  sacred  and  profane  lit- 
erature. In  1700  he  was  transferred  to  the  convent  of 
St.  Denis,  near  Paris,  to  devote  himself  to  the  study 
of  the  text  of  St.  Gregory  Nazianzen.  In  1713  pope 
Clement  XI  published  the  memorable  bull  '•  L'nigeni- 
tus."  The  ecclesiastics  of  St.  Maur  all  silently  opposed 
it  except  Louvard,  who  openly  denounced  it,  and  was 
therefore  greatly  censured  by  P.  le  Tellier  as  one  dis- 
obeying the  apostolic  decrees.  He  was  exiled  to  Cor- 
bie, in  the  diocese  of  Amiens,  but  here  also  he  frankly 
pronounced  his  opposition  to  the  bidl,  and  he  ^vas  sent 
into  confinement  in  the  monastery  of  Landevence,  in 
Brittany,  In  1715,  on  the  death  of  Louis  XIV,  Louvard 
was  restored  to  the  monastery  of  St.  Denis.  In  1717, 
several  bishops  and  two  monks,  one  of  them  Louvard, 
called  a  meeting  of  the  opponents  of  the  bull,  and  be- 
came so  troublesome  even  to  the  government  that  Louis 
XV  exDed  some  of  them,  and  pidjlished  an  edict  that 
whosoever  recommenced  the  controversy  should  be 
treated  as  a  rebel  to  the  public  peace.  Louvard  pro- 
tested. He  had  been  the  first  of  his  order  to  oppose  the 
bull;  now,  almost  all  the  Benedictines  were  on  his  side; 
and,  receiving  no  reply,  he  renewed  his  appeal  with  the 
four  bishops  in  1720.  On  complaint  to  the  general  of 
the  order  Louvard  was  specially  interrogated,  and,  be- 
ing found  thoroughly  bent  on  both  present  and  future 
opposition,  he  was  exiled  to  Tuffe.  Here  he  wrote  new 
polemics,  preached,  and  taught  the  simple  inhabitants 
that  there  was  a  difference  between  the  holy  religion  of 
P.  Quesnel  and  the  manufactured  heresies  of  the  disci- 
ples of  Loyola.  In  1723  he  was  transferred  to  Cormori, 
diocese  of  Tours.  Here  he  continued  proselyting.  The 
general  of  his  order  offered  to  forgive  him  all  the  past 
if  he  would  cease.  He  refused,  and  had  to  be  placed  in 
the  monastery  of  St.  Laumer,  at  Blois;  but,  still  continu- 
ing his  opposition,  he  was  removed  to  the  monastery  of 
St.Gildas  de  Bois,  in  Brittany,  Louvard  persisting  in 
his  attacks  on  the  Jesuits,  the  latter  brought  charges 
against  him  as  plotting  against  the  state,  and  he  was 
imprisoned  in  the  castle  of  Nantes  in  1728.  Here  he 
published  a  manifest  against  his  accusers,  and  was  there- 
fore transferred  to  the  Bastile  in  the  same  year.  In 
1734  a  kttre  de  cachet,  signed  by  the  king,  transferred 
him  to  the  monastery  of  Kabais,  diocese  of  Meaux.  But 
Louvard,  continuing  in  his  former  course,  was  to  be  re- 
arrested. Apprised  of  this,  he  made  his  escape  to  the 
Carthusian  monastery  of  Schonau,  in  Holland,  where  he 
diod  in  April,  1739.  Among  his  numerous  works  the 
following  are  of  special  importance:  Ltttre  contenant 
qiiflqnes  Remarques  sur  les  CEuvres  de  St.  Gregoire  de 
Xazianze,  in  the  Nouvelles  de  la  Repuhlique  des  Lettres, 
vol.  xxxiii  (1704)  : — Prospectus  novce  edilionis  operum  S. 
Gregorii  (1708)  -.—(Euvres  de  St.  Gregoire  (1778-1840) : 
— De  la  Necessite  de  I'Appel  des  eglises  de  France  aufu- 
tur  Concile  general  (1717) : — Lettre  cm  Cardinal  de  No- 
ailles,  jwur  j)rouver  a  celte  eminence  que  la  constitution 
Unigenitus  n'est  recerable  en  auciine  faqon  (1718)  : — Re- 
lation abregee  de  VImprisonnement  de  dom  Louvard 
(1728).     See  D.  Tassin,  Hist.  Litter,  de  la  Congregation 


LOVE 


529 


LOVE 


de  St.  3faur;  D.  Clemencet,  Preface  de  V Edition  des 
(Euv7-es  du  St.  GTegoire  de  Xazianze  ;  B.  Hareau,  Hist. 
Litter,  du  Maine,  ii,  175 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale, 
xxxii,  28  sq. 

Love  (prop.  n^rtS;,  ajuini)  is  an  attachment  of 
the  affections  to  any  oljjcct,  accompanied  with  an  ar- 
dent desire  to  promote  its  happiness:  1,  by  abstainuig 
from  all  tliat  could  prove  injurious  to  it;  2,  by  doing  all 
that  can  promote  its  welfare,  comfort,  or  interests, 
whether  it  is  indifferent  to  these  efforts,  or  whether  it 
appreciates  them.  This  is  what  Kant  calls  practical 
love,  in  contradistinction  from  2Kithological  love,  which 
is  a  sort  of  sensual  self-love,  anil  a  desire  for  community 
in  compliance  with  our  own  feelings.  In  reality,  love 
is  something  personal,  emanating  from  a  personal  being 
and  directed  towards  another,  and  thus  its  moral  or 
immoral  character  is  determined  by  the  fact  of  its  being 
called  I'orth  by  the  real  worth  of  the  personality  towards 
which  it  is  directed,  or  by  the  phj'sical  appearance  of 
the  latter,  or  by  the  advantages  it  may  offer. 

In  the  Christian  sense,  as  we  find  it  spoken  of  in  the 
Word  of  God,  love  is  not  merely  a  peculiar  disposition 
of  the  feelings,  or  a  direction  of  the  will  of  the  creature, 
though  this  also  must  have  its  root  in  the  creative  prin- 
ciple, in  God.  God  is  love,  the  original,  absolute  love 
(1  .John  iv,  9),  As  the  absolute  love,  lie  is  at  once  sub- 
ject and  object,  i.  e.  he  originally  loved  himself,  had  com- 
munion with  himself,  imparted  himself  to  himself,  as  also 
■\ve  see  mention  made  of  God's  love  before  the  creation  of 
the  world,  the  love  of  the  Father  towards  the  Son  (John 
xvii,  24).  Derived  from  this  love  is  the  love  which 
calls  into  being  and  preserves  his  creatures.  Creatures, 
that  IS,  existences  which  come  from  God,  are  through 
him  and  for  him ;  not  having  life  by  themselves,  but 
immediately  dependent  upon  God ;  existing  by  his  will, 
and  consequently  to  be  destroyed  at  his  will;  created 
in  time,  and  consequently  subject  to  time,  developing 
themselves  in  it  to  the  fidl  extent  of  their  nature  ac- 
cording to  God's  thoughts,  with  the  possibility  of  de- 
parting therefrom,  Avhich  it  were  impossible  to  suppose 
of  God,  the  eternally  real  and  active  idea  of  himself. 
In  regard  to  the  creature,  the  divine  love  is  the  wUI  of 
God  to  communicate  to  it  the  fulness  of  his  life,  and 
even  the  will  to  impart,  according  to  its  receptive  fac- 
ulty, this  fulness  into  something  which  is  not  himself, 
yet  which,  as  coming  from  God,  tends  also  towards  God, 
and  finds  its  rest  in  him,  and  its  happiness  in  doing  his 
will.  But,  as  emanating  from  an  active  God,  this  love, 
with  all  its  fulness,  can  only  be  directed  towards  a  sim- 
ilarly organized  and  consequently  personal  creature,  con- 
scious of  its  relation  to  God  and  of  himself  as  its  end, 
possessing  in  itself  the  fulness  of  created  life  (micro- 
cosm). 

It  must,  then,  be  man  towards  whom  this  divine  love 
is  directed  as  the  object  of  God's  delight,  created  after 
his  image.  This  love  is  manifested  in  the  earnestness 
of  the  discipline  (commands  and  threats.  Gen.  ii,  17) 
employed  to  strengthen  this  resemblance  to  God,  to 
educate  man  as  a  ruler  by  obedience,  as  also  by  the 
intercourse  of  God  with  man;  and,  after  the  fall,  by 
the  hope  and  confidence  awakening  promises,  as  well  as 
in  the  humiliating  condemnation  to  pain,  labor,  and 
death.  All  these  contain  evidences  of  love,  of  this  will 
of  (iod  to  hold  man  in  his  communion,  or  to  restore  him 
to  it.  At  tlie  bottom  of  it  lies  an  appreciation  of  his 
worth,  namely,  of  his  inalienable  resemblance  to  God, 
of  the  imparted  divine  breath.  This  appreciation  is  also 
the  foundation  of  compassionate  love,  for  it  is  only  on 
this  ground  that  man  is  worthy  of  the  divine  affection. 
But  it  is  also  the  ground  which  renders  him  deserving 
of  punishment.  For  punishment,  this  destiny  of  evil, 
which  is  felt  as  a  hinderance  of  life,  is  in  one  respect  an 
expiation,  i.  o.  a  retrieving  of  God's  honor,  being  incurred 
by  that  disregard  of  the  value  of  this  communion  with 
God,  and  consequently  of  the  real  life,  which  must  be 
considered  as  injurious  to  the  life  of  man,  and  leading 
him  to  ruin ;  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  inducement  to  cou- 
Y.~L  L 


version,  as  this  consequence  of  sin  leads  man  to  recog- 
nise the  restoration  of  this  disturbed  relation  to  God  as 
the  one  thing  needfid  and  desirable.  Punishment  con- 
sequently proceeds  in  both  cases  on  the  assumption  of 
the  worth  of  man  in  the  eye  of  God,  and  is  a  proof  of  it. 
Hence  the  anger  of  God,  as  manifested  by  these  punish- 
ments, is  but  another  form  of  his  love.  It  is  a  reaction 
of  rejected  love  which  manifests  itself  in  imparting  suf- 
fering and  pain  on  the  one  who  rejects  it,  proving  there- 
by that  its  rejection  is  not  a  matter  of  indifference  to  it. 
This  love  may  not  be  apparent  at  first  sight,  but  it  is 
clearly  revealed  in  God's  conduct  towards  all  mankind, 
as  well  towards  the  heathen  as  towards  the  chosen  peo- 
ple. God  allowed  the  heathen  to  walk  in  their  own 
ways  (Acts  xiv,  17) ;  he  allows  them  to  fall  into  all  man- 
ner of  evil  (Rom.  i,  21  sq.)  in  order  to  bring  them  to  a 
sense  of  their  misery  and  helplessness  as  well  as  of  their 
guilt.  But  at  the  bottom  of  this  anger  there  is  still 
love,  and  tliis  is  clearly  shown  in  the  fact  that  he  mani- 
fested himself  to  them  in  their  conscience,  and  also  took 
care  of  them  (Acts  xiv,  17;  xvii,  25  sq.).  But,  if  this 
love  is  thus  evinced  towards  the  heathen,  it  is  stUl  more 
clearly  manifested  towards  the  chosen  people,  the  fact 
of  their  choice  being  itself  a  manifestation  of  that  love 
(Deut.  vii,  G  sq.),  wiiich  is  further  shown  both  in  the 
blessings  and  punishments,  the  anger  and  the  mercy,  of 
which  they  were  the  objects.  Holiness  and  mercy  are 
the  chief  characteristics  of  the  divine  love  as  manifested 
towards  Israel;  the  one  raising  them  above  their  weak- 
nesses, their  evils,  and  their  sins ;  the  other  understand- 
ing these  failings,  and  seeking  to  deliver  and  restore 
them.  But  in  both  also  is  manifested  the  constancy  of 
that  love,  its  faithfulness ;  and  the  exactitude  with  which 
it  adheres  to  the  covenant  it  had  itself  made  evinces  its 
righteousness  by  saving  those  who  fear  God  and  obey 
his  commandments.  Both  holiness  and  mercy  are,  for 
the  moral,  religious  consciousness,  harmonized  in  the 
expiatory  sacrifice,  in  a  figurative,  typical  manner  in 
the  O.  T.,  and  in  a  real,  absolute  manner  in  the  N.  T. 
The  divine  right  in  regard  to  fallen  humanitj-  is  main- 
tained ,  the  death  penalty  is  paid,  but  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  chief  of  all,  the  divine  Son  of  man,  who  is  also 
Son  of  God,  suffers  it  for  all,  of  his  own  free  will,  and 
out  of  love  to  man,  ui  accordance  with  the  wishes  of  his 
Father.  Thus  the  curse  of  sin  and  death  is  removed 
from  humanity,  and  the  possibility  of  a  new  existence 
of  righteousness  and  felicity  restored. 

The  New  Covenant  is  therefore  the  full  revelation  of 
the  spirit  and  object  of  the  divine  love.  The  incarna- 
tion of  the  Son  of  God  is  the  revelation  of  God  himself, 
and  leads  to  his  self-impartation  by  the  Holy  Spirit. 
Hence  the  eternal  love  discloses  itself  as  being,  in  its 
inner  nature,  the  love  of  the  Father  for  the  Son,  and  of 
the  Son  for  the  Father  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  which  pro- 
ceeds from  both,  and  is  the  fulness  of  the  love  that 
unites  them,  whence  we  can  say  that  God  is  love ;  as 
also,  in  its  manifestation,  it  is  the  divine  love  towards 
fallen  creatures,  which  is  the  will  to  restore  their  perfect 
communion  with  God  by  means  of  the  all-sufficient  ex- 
piatory sacrifice  of  th.e  God-man,  and  the  commimica- 
tion  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  by  which  both  the  Father  and 
the  Son  come  to  dwell  in  the  hearts  of  men,  thus  form- 
ing a  people  of  God's  own,  as  was  postulated,  but  not  yet 
realized  in  the  O.  T.  The  love  of  God  in  man,  there- 
fore, is  the  consciousness  of  being  loved  by  God  (I!om. 
V,  5),  residting  in  a  powerful  impulse  of  love  towards 
the  (iod  who  has  loved  us  first  in  Christ  (1  John  iv,  19), 
and  an  inward  and  strong  affection  towards  all  who  are 
loved  by  God  in  Christ  (1  John  iv,  11);  for  the  divine 
love,  even  when  dwelling  in  man,  remains  aU-embra- 
cing.  This  love  takes  the  form  of  a  duty  (1  John  iv,  11), 
but  at  the  same  time  becomes  a  graduall}'  strengthening 
inclination.  And  this  is  the  completion  or  the  ripening 
of  the  divine  love  in  man  {}v  tovt())  TfTeXeiairai),  that 
it  manifests  itself  in  positive  results  for  the  advantage 
of  others. 

We  find  the  beginning  and  examples  of  this  love  un- 


LOVE 


530 


LOVE  FA^HLY 


der  the  old  dispensation  where  mention  is  made  of  desire 
after  God,  joy  in  him,  eagerness  to  serve  him,  zeal  in  do- 
ing everything  to  please  and  honor  him.  The  inclination 
towardsthose  who  belong  to  God,  the  holy  communion 
of  love  in  God,  that  characteristic  feature  of  the  N.  T., 
is  also  foreshadowed  in  tlie  O.  T.  by  the  people  of  God, 
who  are  regarded  as  one  in  respect  to  him,  and  whose 
close,  absolute  communion  with  God  is  represented  by 
the  image  of  marriage.  This  image  is  still  repeated  in 
the  N.  T.,  nevertheless  in  such  a  manner  that  the  union 
is  represented  as  not  j-et  accomplished;  for,  though 
Christ  is  designated  as  the  bridegroom  and  the  Church 
as  the  bride,  the  wedding  is  made  to  coincide  with  the 
establishment  of  his  kingdom.  Thus  considered,  the 
love  of  God  and  tho^furtherance  of  the  love  of  God  are 
still  a  figurative  expression.  God  wants  the  whole 
heart  of  his  people :  one  love,  one  sacrifice,  exclusively 
directed  towards  him,  so  that  none  other  should  exist 
beside  it ;  and  that  all  inclinations  of  love  towards  any 
creature  should  be  comprised  in  it,  derived  from  it,  and 
return  to  it.  On  this  account  his  love  is  called  jealous, 
and  he  is  said  to  be  a  jealous  God.  This  jealousy  of 
God,  however,  this  decided  requiring  of  an  exclusive 
submission  on  the  part  of  his  people,  is,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  tenderest  carefidness  for  their  welfare,  their 
honor,  and  their  restoration.  The  close  connection,  in- 
deed the  unity  of  both,  is  evident.  The  effect  of  this 
jealousy  of  God  is  to  kindle  zeal  in  those  who  serve 
him,  and  consequently  opposition  against  all  that  op- 
poses, or  even  does  not  conduce  to  his  service.  This  is 
a  manifestation  of  love  towards  God,  which  love  is  essen- 
tially a  return  of  his  own  love,  and  consequently  grati- 
tude, accompanied  by  the  highest  appreciation,  and  an 
earnest  desire  for  communion  with  him.  It  includes 
joy  in  all  that  serves  God,  absolute  submission  to  him, 
and  a  desire  to  do  everything  for  his  glory.  The  love 
in  God,  i.  e.  the  love  of  those  who  feel  themselves  bound 
together  by  that  common  bond,  is  essentially  of  the 
same  character ;  but,  from  the  lact  of  its  being  direct- 
ed towards  creatures  who  are  afflicted  with  many  fad- 
ings and  infirmities,  must  also  include — as  distinguish- 
ed from  the  love  towards  God — a  willingness  to  forgive, 
which  makes  away  with  all  hinderances  to  fuU  commu- 
nion, a  continual  friendliness  under  all  circumstances, 
consequently  patience  and  gentleness,  zeal  for  their  im- 
provement, and  sympathy  for  their  failings  and  misfor- 
tunes. But  as  the  love  of  the  creative,  redemptive,  and 
sanctifying  God,  extending  further  than  merely  those 
who  have  attained  to  that  communion  with  him,  em- 
braces all,  so  should  also  the  love  of  those  who  love 
God.  Yet  in  the  divine  love  itself  there  is  a  distinction 
made,  inasmuch  as  God's  love  towards  those  who  love 
him  and  keep  his  commandments  is  a  strengthening, 
sustaining  pleasure  in  them  (John  xiv,  21,  23),  while 
his  love  towards  the  others  is  benevolence  and  pity, 
which,  according  to  their  conduct,  the  liisposition  of 
their  hearts,  and  their  receptivity,  is  either  not  felt  at 
all  by  them,  or  only  produces  pain,  fear,  or,  again,  hope, 
desire,  etc.,  but  not  a  feeling  of  complete,  abiding  joy. 
So  in  the  love  of  the  chiklren  of  God  towards  the  human 
race  we  find  the  distinction  between  brotherly  and  uni- 
versal love  (Rom.  xii,  10;  Ileb.  xiii,  1 ;  1  Pet.  i,  22;  2 
Pet.  i,  7).  In  both  we  find  the  characteristics  of  kind- 
ness and  benevolence,  sympathy,  willingness  to  help, 
gentleness,  and  patience ;  but  in  the  universal  love  there 
is  wanting  the  feeling  of  delight,  of  an  equal  aim,  a  com- 
plete reciprocity,  of  conscious  unity  in  the  one  highest 
good. 

Love  also  derives  a  special  determination  from  the 
personality,  the  spiritual  and  essential  organization  of 
the  one  who  loves,  and  also  his  particular  position.  It 
manifests  itself  in  friendship  as  a  powerful  attraction,  a 
hearty  sympathy  of  feelings,  a  strong  desire  for  being 
together  and  enjoying  a  communion  of  thoughts  and 
feelings.  In  sexual  love  it  is  a  tender  reciprocal  attrac- 
tion, a  satisfaction  in  each  oihtr  as  the  mutual  com- 
plement of  life,  and  a  desii'c  for  absolute  and  lasting 


community  of  existence.  Parental,  filial,  and  brotherly 
love  can  be  considered  as  a  branch  of  this  aifection. 
Both  friendship  and  love  have  the  full  sanction  of  Chris- 
tian morals  when  based  on  the  love  of  God.  As  wed- 
ded love  is  an  image  of  the  relation  between  the  Lord 
and  his  people,  or  the  Cliurch  (Eph.  v,  23  sq.),  so  pater- 
nal, filial,  and  brotherly  love  are  respectively  images  of 
the  love  of  God  towards  his  children,  of  their  love  to- 
wards him,  and  of  their  love  towards  each  other.  AH 
these  relations  may  want  this  higher  consecration,  and 
yet  be  well  regulated ;  they  have  then  a  moral  charac- 
ter. But  they  may  also  be  disorderly :  friendship  can 
be  sensual,  selfish,  and  even  degenerate  into  unnatural 
sexual  connection ;  sexual  love  may  become  selfish,  hav- 
ing no  other  object  but  the  gratification  of  lust ;  paren- 
tal love  may  change  to  self-love,  producing  over-indul- 
gence, and  fostering  the  vices  of  the  children ;  brotherly 
love  can  degenerate  into  fiattery  and  spoiling.  Thus 
this  feeling,  which  in  its  principle  and  aim  should  be 
the  highest  and  noblest,  can  become  the  most  common, 
the  worst,  and  the  most  unworthy.  Both  kinds  of  love 
are  mentioned  in  Scripture.  The  highest  and  purest 
tendency  of  the  heart  is  in  the  Bible  designated  by  the 
same  name  as  the  more  natural,  immoral,  or  disorderly 
tendency.  The  same  was  the  case  among  the  Greeks 
and  Romans:  "Eptor,  Amor,  and  'A(ppocir>i,  Venus,  had 
both  significations,  the  noble  and  the  common;  but 
Christianity  has  in  Christ  and  in  his  Church  the  perfect 
illustration  and  example  of  true  love,  whose  absolute 
type  is  in  the  triune  life  of  God  himself.  This  divine 
love,  as  it  exists  in  God,  and  through  the  divine  Spirit 
m  the  heart  of  man,  together  with  the  connection  of 
both,  is  represented  to  us  in  Scripture  as  infinitely  deep 
and  pure.  We  find  it  thus  represented  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament (see  Deut,  xxxiii,  3 ;  Isa.  xlix,  13  sq. ;  Ivii,  17 
sq. ;  Iv,  7  sq. ;  Jer.  xxxi,  20 ;  xxxii,  37  sq. ;  Ezek.  xxxiv, 
11  sq. ;  Hos.  iii,  2  sq. ;  Mic.  vii,  18  sq.).  Then  in  the 
whole  mission  of  Christ,  and  in  what  he  stated  of  his 
own  love  and  of  the  Father's,  see  Matt,  xi,  28 ;  Luke  xv ; 
John  iv,  10, 14 ;  vi,  37  sq. ;  vii,  37  sq. ;  ix,  4 ;  x,  12  sq. ; 
xii,  35 ;  xiii,  1 ;  xv,  12, 13 ;  xvii ;  and,  for  the  testimony 
of  the  apostles,  Rom.  v,  5  sq. ;  viii,  28  sq. ;  xi,  29  sq. ;  1 
Cor.  xiii;  Eph.  i,  3, 17  sq. ;  v,  1  sq. ;  1  John  iii,  4,  etc. 
These  statements  are  corroborated  by  the  testimony  of 
Christians  in  all  ages,  who  have  all  been  witness  to  this 
love,  however  much  their  views  may  have  differed  on 
other  points.  In  later  times,  ethical  essays  on  the  sub- 
ject have  thrown  great  light  on  the  nature  and  modes 
of  manifestation  of  this  love ;  see  among  them,  Daub, 
Syst.  d.  christl.  Moral,  ii,  1,  p.  310;  Marheineke,  Syst.  d. 
theol.  Moral,  p.  470 ;  Rothe,  Theol.  Ethik,  ii,  350. — Her- 
zog,  Real-Enctjklop.  viii,  388  sq.     See  Wesleyana,  p.  54. 

Love,  Christopher,  a  Presbyterian  divine,  was 
born  at  Cardiff,  ^^^'lles.  in  1<>18  ;  entered  the  active  work 
of  the  ministry  in  1644,  in  London,  after  which  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Assembly  of  Divines.  After  the 
death  of  Charles  I,  to  whom  he  had  previous!}'  been  op- 
posed, he  entered  into  a  plot  against  Cromwell,  for  which 
cause  he  was  executed  in  August,  1651.  Mr.  Love  was 
the  author  of  a  number  of  sermons  and  theological  trea- 
tises published  in  1645-54.  As  a  writer,  he  was  plain, 
impressive,  evangelical.  See  "Wild,  Tragedy  of  Chrisr- 
topher  Love  ;  Neal,  Purita7is,  i,  528 ;  ii,  123  sq. ;  AVood, 
Allien.  Oxoii.;  jVllibone,  Bict.  of  Brit,  and  Am.  Aulhois, 
vol.  ii,  s.  V. 

Love,  John  M.,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Scotch  divine, 
was  born  at  I'aislcy,  Scotland,  in  1757.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  London  Missionary  Society.  He 
died  in  1825.  Dr.  Love  published  in  1796  Addresses  to 
the  People  of  Otaheite,  republished  after  his  death  ;  also 
2  vols,  of  Sermons  and  Lectures  in  1829;  a  voL  o(  Let- 
tei's  in  1838 ;  34  Sermons,  preached  1784-5,  in  1853.  See 
Chambers  and  Thomson,  jSj'o/;?-.  Diet,  of  Eminent  Scots- 
men, 1855,  vol.  v;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Am.  Au- 
thors, vol.  ii,  s.  V. 

Love  Family.     See  Familists. 


LOVE-FEAST 


531 


LOWE 


Love  -  feast.  In  the  article  Agape  (q.  v.)  the 
subject  has  been  treated  so  far  as  it  relates  to  an  in- 
stitution in  the  early  Church.  It  remains  for  us  here 
only  to  speak  of  the  love-feast  as  observed  in  some  Prot- 
estant churches,  especially  the  Methodist  connection. 
In  a  strictly  primitive  form,  the  love-feast  is  observed 
by  the  Moravian  Brethren.  Tliey  celebrate  it  on  va- 
rious occasions, "  generally  in  connection  with  a  solemn 
festival  or  preparatory  to  the  holy  communion.  Printed 
odes  are  often  used,  prepared  expressly  for  the  occasion. 
In  the  course  of  the  service  a  simple  meal  of  biscuit  and 
coffee  or  tea  is  served,  of  which  the  congregation  par- 
take together.  In  some  churches  the  love-feast  con- 
cludes with  an  address  by  the  minister"  (E.  de  Schwei- 
nitz,  Moravian  Manual  [Philad.  1859,  Timo],  p.  IGl). 
From  the  jNIoravians  Wesley  borrowed  the  practice  for 
his  own  followers,  assigning  for  its  introduction  into 
the  jMethodist  economy  the  following  reasons :  "  In  or- 
der to  increase  in  them  [persons  in  bands  (q.  v.)]  a 
grateful  sense  of  all  his  [God's]  mercies,  I  desired  that 
one  evening  in  a  quarter  all  the  men  in  band,  on  a  sec- 
ond all  the  women,  would  meet,  and  on  a  third  both 
men  and  women  together,  that  we  might  together  '  eat 
bread,'  as  the  ancient  Christians  did, '  with  gladness  and 
singleness  of  heart.'  At  these  love-feasts  (so  we  termed 
them,  retaining  the  name  as  well  as  the  thing,  which 
was  in  use  from  the  beginning)  our  food  is  only  a  little 
plain  cake  and  water ;  but  we  seldom  return  from  them 
without  being  fed  not  only  with  the  '  meat  which  per- 
isheth,'  but  with  '  that  which  endureth  to  everlasting 
life'  "  (Wesley,  W'oi-ks,  v,  183).  In  the  Wesleyan  Church 
only  members  are  attendants  at  love-feasts,  and  they  are 
appointed  by  or  ^vith  tlie  consent  of  the  superintendent 
{M billies,  1806).  Admission  itself  is  gained  only  bj'  a 
ticket ;  and  as  it  frequently  happened  that  members 
would  lend  their  tickets  to  strangers,  it  was  enacted  in 
18(J8  that  "no  person  who  is  unwilling  to  join  our  soci- 
ety is  allowed  to  attend  a  love-feast  more  than  once, 
nor  then  without  a  note  from  the  travelling  preacher;" 
....  and  "  that  any  person  who  is  proved  to  have  lent 
a  society  ticket  to  another  who  is  not  in  society,  for  the 
purpose  of  deceiving  the  door-keepers,  shall  be  suspend- 
ed for  three  months"  (comp.  Grindrod.  Lau-s  and  Regula- 
tions of  Wesl.  Methodism  [Lond.  1842],  p.  180).  In  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  the  rule  also  exists  that  ad- 
mission to  love-feasts  is  to  be  had  by  tickets  only  (comp. 
Discipline,  pt.  ii,  ch.  ii,  §  17  [2]),  but  the  rule  is  rarely, 
if  ever  observed,  and  they  are  frequently  attended  by 
members  of  the  congregation  as  well  as  by  the  members 
of  the  Church.  By  established  usage,  the  presiding  el- 
der (and  in  his  absence  only  the  minister  in  charge)  is 
entitled  to  preside  over  the  love-feasts,  and  they  are 
therefore  held  at  the  time  of  the  Quarterly  Conference. 
See  CoNFKKENCE,  JlKTHoniST.  The  manner  in  which 
they  are  now  generally  observed  among  Jlethodists  is 
as  follows :  They  are  opened  by  the  reading  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, followed  by  the  singing  of  a  hymn,  and  then  by 
prayer.  During  and  after  the  dealing  out  of  the  bread 
and  water,  the  different  members  of  the  congregation  so 
disposed  relate  their  Christian  experience  since  the  last 
meeting,  etc.  This  is  also  the  occasion  for  a  report  of 
the  prosperity  of  the  Church  on  the  part  of  the  pastor 
and  by  rule  of  Discipline  (pt.  ii,  ch.  ii,  §  17) ;  for  the 
report  of  the  names  of  those  Avho  have  been  received 
into  the  Church  or  excluded  therefrom  during  the  quar- 
ter ;  also  the  names  of  those  ^vho  have  been  received  or 
dismissed  by  certificate,  and  of  those  T,ho  have  died  or 
have  withdrawn  from  the  Church. 

Among  the  Baptists,  in  their  missionary  churches 
abroad,  they  seem  to  celebrate  the  real  Arjap'e.  At  Ber- 
lin, Prussia,  they  are  held  quarterly,  and  are  made  the 
occasion  of  a  general  social  gathering,  substituting  cof- 
fee and  cake  for  the  bread  and  water;  but  this  practice 
is  by  no  means  general  among  the  communicants  of  that 
Church.     (J.II.W.) 

Love.  Virgins  of,  a  female  order  in  the  Romish 
•Church,  called  also  Laughters  of  Charity  (q.v.),  whose 


office  it  is  to  administer  assistance  and  relief  to  indigent 
persons  confined  to  their  beds  by  sickness  and  infirmity. 
The  order  was  founded  by  Louisa  le  Gras,  and  received, 
in  the  year  1660,  the  approbation  of  the  pope. — Farrar, 
Eccles.  l)ict. 

Lovejoy,  Elijah  P.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
noted  for  his  anti-slaverj'  acti\'ity,  was  the  son  of  the 
Kev.  Daniel  Lovejoy,  and  was  born  at  Albion,  INIaine, 
Nov.  9,  1802 ;  graduated  at  Waterville  College,  Maine, 
September,  1826;  and  taught  for  a  time  in  St.  Louis, 
]Mo.  In  1832  he  was  converted,  and  united  with  the 
Presb3'terian  Church,  and  entered  the  Theological  Sem- 
inary at  Princeton,  N.  J.  The  following  spring  he  ob- 
tained license  to  preach  from  the  Second  Presbytery  of 
Philadelphia,  and  began  preaching  in  Newport,  E.  I., 
and  in  New  York  City.  In  1833  he  established  the  *SY. 
Louis  Observer,  a  weekly  religious  newspaper,  in  St, 
Louis,  Mo.  In  1836,  on  account  of  a  bitter  dislike  for 
the  Observer's  opposition  to  slaverj'  and  the  prevailing 
principles  on  divorce,  a  mob  destroyed  Mr.  Lovejoy's 
printing-office.  The  same  year  he  removed  to  Alton, 
111.,  where  he  established  and  maintained  by  solicited 
contributions  "  The  Alton  Observer."  Continuing  in  his 
anti-slavery  movements,  resolutions  were  passed  against 
him,  and  his  press  was  twice  destroyed  by  a  pro-slavery 
mob.  While  defending  a  third  press  near  his  premises 
at  Alton,  he  was  mortally  wounded  in  November,  1837. 

Lovejoy,  O'wen,  a  Congregational  minister,  broth- 
er of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Albion,  Maine,  in  1811. 
From  1836  to  185-1:  he  was  minister  in  charge  of  a  Con- 
gregational Church  at  Princeton,  111.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  Congress  by  the  Repubhcans  of  the  third 
district  of  lUinois  in  1856  ;  was  re-elected  in  1858,  1860, 
and  1862,  and  is  included  among  the  eminent  opponents 
of  the  slave  power.  He  died  at  Brooklyn,  New  York,  in 
March,  1864. 

Lovejoy,  Theodore  A.,  a  Methodist  preacher, 
was  born  at  Stratford,  Conn.,  Feb.  18, 1821 ;  was  convert- 
ed in  Brooklj'n,  N.  Y.,  in  1842,  and  soon  after  joined  the 
jNIethodlst  Episcopal  Church.  In  1847  he  joined  the 
New  York  East  Conference,  remaining  a  faithful  and 
valued  member  of  the  same  till  his  death,  at  Watertown, 
Conn.,  June  7,  1867.  See  W.  C.  Smith,  Sacred  Memo- 
ries (New  York,  1870),  p.  301. 

Loveys,  John,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  was 
born  in  Devon  County,  England,  May  7, 1804 ;  was  con- 
firmed in  the  Church  of  England  in  his  youth  ;  in  1825 
was  converted,  and  united  with  the  Wesleyan  IMetho- 
dists;  emigrated  to  America  in  1829;  spent  one  year  at 
Cazenovia  Seminary,  N.  Y.,  and  in  1830  entered  the 
Black  River  Conference.  In  1834  he  was  stationed  at 
Ogdensburg;  in  1836  was  made  presiding  elder  on  Pots- 
dam District ;  then  preached  at  Oswego  (1839),  and  va- 
rious other  appointments,  until  his  death,  Aug.  30, 1849. 
He  was  a  valuable  preacher,  clear,  original,  vigorous, 
and  devout ;  an  "  excellent  economist,"  a  "  diligent  stu- 
dent," and  a  man  of  large  spirit  and  liberal  influence. — 
3finutes  of  Conferences,  iv,  474;  Black  River  Conference 
Memorial,  p.  249. 

Lo^w  Churchmen,  a  name  for  persons  who,  though 
attached  to  the  system  of  government  maintained  in 
the  Church  of  England,  or  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  of  the  United  States,  as  "  the  Church,"  yet  con- 
sider that  the  ministrations  of  other  churches  are  not 
to  be  disregarded.  See  Latitudinarians.  The  term 
was  primarily  applied  to  those  who  disapproved  of  the 
schism  made  by  the  Non-jurors,  and  who  distinguished 
themselves  by  their  moderation  towards  Dissenters. — 
Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v.     See  Ritualisji. 

LoTve,  ben-Bezalel,  a  rabbi  and  Jewish  teacher 
of  note,  was  born  probably  in  Posen  about  1525.  Of  his 
early  history  but  httle  is  authenticated.  We  find  him 
first  occupying  a  position  of  influence  and  prominence 
at  Prague,  where  he  was  best  known  as  "  the  learned 
Rabbi  Lowe,"  towards  the  close  of  the  16th  centiury 
(1573),    Previous  to  his  coming  to  Prague  he  had  been 


LOWE 


532 


LOWISOHN 


rabbi  over  a  congregation  in  INIoravia  for  some  twenty 
years.  In  1583  he  was  elected  chief  rabbi  of  the  Jews 
in  the  Bohemian  capital.  In  1592  he  became  chief 
rabbi  of  Posen  and  Poland ;  he  returned,  however,  in 
15'.1o  to  Prague,  and  there  died  in  1G09.  He  left  nineteen 
different  works,  of  which  several  are  yet  in  manuscript  in 
the  library  of  the  University  of  Oxford,  England.  Be- 
sides his  great  Talmudical  knowledge,  which  made  him 
(ine  of  the  first  authorities  of  his  time,  he  also  enjoyed 
a  great  reputation  as  mathematician  and  philosopher. 
He  seems  to  have  also  possessed  great  knowledge  of  as- 
tronomy and  astrology,  the  favorite  studies  of  the  age. 
He  was  befriended  by  the  renowned  Tycho  Brahe,  as- 
tronomer at  the  court  of  tlie  emperor  Kiidolph  II;  and 
the  latter  also,  it  is  said,  honored  the  rabbi,  and  at  one 
time  admitted  him  to  a  prolonged  audience ;  indeed,  it 
is  a  well-established  fact  that  his  extended  knowledge 
and  unblemished  character  secured  for  himself  and  the 
Jews  of  his  time  happier  days,  and,  like  a  sunbeam  in 
tlie  midst  of  dark  clouds,  appears  the  short  period  in 
which  he  officiated  as  rabbi  in  the  sad  history  of  the 
Jewish  congregation  of  Prague.  He  was  opposed  to  the 
miscientific  manner  in  which  the  Talmud  was  studied, 
by  hunting  after  imaginary  contradictions  and  difficul- 
ties (Pilpul),  and  he  called  into  existence  new  societies 
lor  a  more  scientific  study  of  the  same.  In  connection 
with  his  son-in-law,  rabbi  Chayim  Wahle,  he  founded  a 
seminary  for  Talmudical  studies.  The  rabbi's  knowl- 
edge of  natural  philosophy  caused  him  frequently  to 
make  experiments,  which  gave  birth  to  many  legends, 
as  the  ignorant  saw  in  them  tlie  supernatural  power  of 
the  Cabahst.  A  Christian  Bohemian  historian  claims 
for  the  rabbi  the  honor  of  inventing  the  camera-obscu- 
ra.  ^ee.Gr».iz,Gesch.d.Juden,ix,A'iQ  s(\.\  Sekles, /Some 
Jewish  Rubhis  (v),  in  the  Jewish  Messenger  (N.  Y.  1871)  ; 
FUrst,  Biblioth.  Judaicu,  ii,  266  sq.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Lowe,  Joel,  bex-Jehi'daii  Loeb  (also  called  Bril, 
b"-n3,  from  the  initials  n^b  T\'-i^'^\•^  in"!  '11,  ben-Ji. 
Jehiidiih  Loeb),  a  Jewish  writer  of  note,  born  about 
17-10,  was  a  distinguished  disciple  of  Moses  Jlendels- 
sohn,  and  afterwards,  although  a  Jew,  held  a  profess- 
orship in  the  William's  school  at  Breslau.  He  died 
in  that  city,  February  11, 1802.  Besides  many  valua- 
ble contributions  to  Biblical  exegesis  and  literature  in 
the  Berlin  Magazine  for  the  Advancement  of  Jewish 
Scholarship,  entitled  Meassef  or  Summler  (Collector), 
of  which  he  was  at  one  time  also  editor,  he  published 
(1)  Conimentcwy  on  the  Song  of  Songs,  viiih.  an  elabo- 
rate Introduction,  written  conjointly  with  Wolfssohn,  to 
Mendelssohn's  German  translation  of  this  book  (Ber- 
lin, 1788;  republished  in  Prague,  1803 ;  Lemberg,  1817) : 
— (2)  Annotations  on  Ecclesiastes,  also  conjointly  with 
"Wolfssohn,  published  with  Mendelssohn's  commentary 
on  this  book,  and  Friedliinders'  German  translation  (Ber- 
lin, 1788): — (3)  Commentary  on  Jonah,  with,  a  (jerman 
translation  (Berl.  1788)  : — (4)  Commentary  on  the  Psalms, 
with  an  extensive  introduction  (bxT^'^  nili^T  11N2 
D"),  containing  an  elaborate  treatise  on  the  musical 
instruments  of  the  ancient  Hebrews,  as  weU  as  on  He- 
brew Poetry;  publislied  with  Mendelssohn's  German 
translation  of  this  book  (Berlin,  1785-91)  :— (5)  German 
Translation  and  Jfcb.  Commentary  on  the  Sabbatic  and 
Festival  Lessons  J'rom  the  Pentateuch  and  the  Prophets 
[see  IlAi-nTAKAii]  (Berl.  1790-91):— (6)  German  Truns- 
liliaa  of  the  Pentateuch  for  beginners,  preparatorj'  to 
jNIendelssohn's  version  (Breslau.  1818)  :— (7)  Elementary 
Ifebrew  Grammar,  entitled  ')Vwbn  ^II^S",  according  to 
logical  principles,  for  the  use  of  teachers  (Berlin,  1794; 
republished  in  Prague,  1803).  Of  his  articles  published 
in  ([uarterlies,  the  following  are  the  most  important:  1. 
Notes  on  Joshua  and  the  Song  of  Songs,  in  Eichhorn's 
Allgemeine  Bibliothek  (Leips.  1789), ii,  183  sq. : — 2.  Trea- 
tise (Oi  Personification  of  the  Jkity  and  the  Sephiroth.  ibid. 
(Leiiis.  1793),  v,  378  sq.  See  Fiirst,  Biblioth.  I/ibniica, 
ii,  268;  Hteinschne'idtiT,  Cat(d(igus  Libr.  Hebr.  in  Bihli- 
otheca  Bodleiana,  col.  1627  S(i. ;  Kitto,  Cyclopioedia  of 


Biblical  LiteratU)-e,  s.  v. ;   Griitz,  Gesch.  der  Jnden,  xi, 
131  sq. 

Lowell,  Charles,  D.D.,  a  Unitarian  Congregation- 
al minister  of  note,  son  of  judge  John  Lowell,  to  whom 
Massachusetts  is  indebted  for  the  clause  in  her  Consti- 
tution which  abolished  slavery,  was  born  in  Boston  Aug. 
15,  1782,  and  was  educated  first  at  Andover  Academy, 
and  later  at  Harvard  College,  class  of  1800.  After  grad- 
uation he  went  abroad,  and  travelled  extensively  in  the 
Old  World.  At  Edinburgh  he  entered  the  divinity 
school  of  the  university,  and  spent  there  three  semes- 
ters. On  his  return  home  he  studied  theology  with 
Rev.  Dr.  Zedekiah  Sanger,  of  South  Bridgewater,  and 
Rev.  David  Tappan,  professor  of  divinitj'  at  Cambridge, 
and  was  ordained  pastor  over  the  West  Church,  in  Bos- 
ton, Jan.  1, 1806.  In  1837  his  feeble  health  demanded 
relief,  and  the  Rev.  Cyrus  A.  Bartol  was  ordained  as 
his  colleague.  Dr.  Lowell  continued  his  pastoral  con- 
nection until  his  death  (at  Cambridge,  January  20, 
1861),  although  he  officiated  but  occasionally.  He  was 
remarkable  for  kindness,  integrity,  directness  and  sim- 
plicity of  character,  and  was  a  most  zealous  and  con- 
sistent opponent  of  slavery.  As  a  preacher  his  popu- 
larity was  eminent,  and  he  was  almost  adored  by  his 
parishioners.  Graceful  as  an  orator,  with  a  voice  of  un- 
common sweetness,  he  preached  with  such  an  ardor  and 
sincerity  that  he  seemed  to  his  hearers  to  be  almost  di- 
vinely inspired.  He  published  some  twenty  different 
discourses,  a  volume  of  Occasional  Sermons  (Bost.  1856, 
12mo),  and  a  volume  of  Practiced  Sermons  (1856) : — 
Meditations  for  the  Afflicted,  Side,  and  Dying;  and  De- 
votional Exercises  for  Communicants.  He  also  contrib- 
uted largely  to  the  periodical  literature  of  his  day. 
Among  his  surviving  children  are  Prof.  Lowell,  the  poet ; 
the  Rev.  Robert  Lowell,  author  of  "  The  New  Priest  in 
Conception  Bay,"  a  novel  of  Newfoundland  life ;  and 
Mrs.  Putnam,  the  well-known  writer  on  Hungarian  his- 
tory. See  Christian  Examiner,  1870,  p.  389 ;  Thomas, 
Diet,  of  Biog.  and  Mythol.  s.  v. ;  Drake,  Diet.  Am.  Biog. 
s.  V. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  m.  A  uthois,  s.  v. 

Lowell,  John,  an  American  philanthropist,  de- 
serves our  notice  as  the  founder  (in  1839)  of  "the  Low- 
ell Institute,"  at  an  expense  of  §250.000,  to  maintain 
forever  in  Boston,  his  native  place,  annual  courses  of 
free  lectures  on  natural  and  revealed  religion,  the  natu- 
ral sciences,  pliilology,  belles-lettres,  and  art.  INIr.  Low- 
ell was  born  iMay  11, 1799,  and  was  entered  student  at 
Harvard  in  1813;  but  was  compelled  already,  in  1815, 
by  poor  health,  to  seek  relief  by  residence  in  tlic  East. 
He  died  at  Bombay  March  4, 1836.  He  was  a  suiierior 
scholar,  and  possessed  one  of  the  best  private  liljraries 
in  America.     See  Kew  A  merican  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Lovrer  Parts  of  the  Earth  ("/"iX  nTinpi), 
properly  ralhys  (Isa.  xhv,  23);  hence,  by  extension, 
Sheol,  or  the  under-world,  as  the  place  of  departed  spir- 
its (Psa.  Ixiii,  9 ;  Eph.  iv,  9),  and  by  meton.  any  hidden 
place,  as  the  womb  (Psa.  cxxxix,  15).  In  the  original 
of  Ezek.  xxvi,  20;  xxxii,  18,  24,  the  words  are  trans- 
posed, and  used  in  the  second  sense. 

Low^isohii,  Sai-omox,  a  Jewish  writer  of  note,  and 
reall}'  the  first  Jew  who  chronicled  the  liistory  of  his 
people  in  the  German  tongue,  was  born  at  iSioor,  Hun- 
gary, in  1789,  and  was  truly  a  self-made  man.  Amid 
the  greatest  difficulties  he  acquired  an  education,  and 
particularly  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew. 
Possessed  of  great  poetical  talent,  he  wrote  rj:"^B:a 
"I'nVir'',  a  sort  of  .4  rs  Poeticn  (Vienna,  1816).  The  first 
work  in  which  a  Jew  applied  Clio's  pencil  to  the  historj' 
of  the  chosen  people  of  God,  in  a  German  version,  was 
Lowisohn's  Voiiesungen  iiber  die  neuere  Geschichte  der 
.Fuden  (Vienna,  1820.  8vo).  which  starts  with  their  dis- 
persion, and  dwells  at  length  on  the  Talmud  and  its  au- 
thors. Unt'ortunatoly,  however,  the  young  man  so  well 
endowed  to  do  this  work,  so  auspiciously  began,  was 
brought  to  an  early  grave  by  disappointment  in  love. 


LOWMAK 


533 


LOWTH 


He  died  of  broken  heart,  in  his  native  place,  in  1822. 
See  Griitz,  Gesck.  d.  Jiiden,  xi,  453  sq. ;  Oriental.  Lihi-a- 
tuM.  1840,  col.  10 ;  Bdh  El.  185G,  p.  72  sq.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Lowman,  Abraham,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  in  Indiana  County,  Pa.,  in  1835;  made  an 
early  profession  of  faith,  and  joined  the  Associate  Re- 
formed Congregation  at  Jacksonville,  Pa. ;  entered  the 
Theological  Seminary  of  the  First  Associate  Reformed 
Synod  (class  of  1857) ;  was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery 
of  Westmoreland,  and  in  1858  received  and  accepted  a 
call  from  the  Associate  Reformed  congregation  at  Brook- 
ville,  Pa.,  but  while  preparing  to  enter  upon  the  active 
duties  of  this  charge  he  suddenly  died,  Nov.  27,  1858. 
See  \\'ilson,  Pnsb.  Hist.  A  Im.  1800,  p.  159.     (J.  L.  S.) 

Lowman,  Moses,  a  learned  English  dissenting 
divine,  was  born  in  London  in  1G80,  and  was  educated 
at  INIiddle  Temple,  and  subsequently  at  Leyden  and 
Utrecht.  In  1710  he  became  minister  of  a  Presbyte- 
rian congregation  at  Claphara,  Surrey,  where  he  labored 
until  his  death  in  1752.  He  was  eminently  skilled  in 
Jewish  antiquities,  and  is  the  author  of  a  learned  work 
on  the  Civil  Government  of  the  Ilebretvs  (London,  1740, 
1745, 1816,  8vo) ;  of  a  Paraphrase  and  Notes  of  Revela- 
tion (1737,1745,  4to;  1791,  1807,  8vo),  of  which  work 
Doddridge  remarked  that  he  had  "received  more  satis- 
faction from  it,  in  regard  to  many  difficulties  in  that 
book,  than  he  ever  found  elsewhere,  or  expected  to 
have  found  at  all:" — Arcjument  from  Prophecy  in  proof 
that  Jesus  is  the  Messiah  (London,  1733,  8vo),  which  Dr. 
Leland  calls  "a  valuable  book;"  and  Rationale  of  the 
Ritual  of  Hebrew  Worship  (1748, 181G,  8vo).  See  Prof. 
Diss.  Mag.  vol.  i  and  ii ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  British  and 
American  Authors,  s.  v. 

Lowrie,  John  Marshall,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
divine,  was  born  in  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  July  16,  1817,  and  | 
was  educated  for  two  years  in  Jefferson  College,  Can- 
onsburg.  Pa.,  and  afterwards  at  Lafaj'ette  College,  Eas- 
ton,  Pa.  (class  of  1840);  and  then  at  the  Theological 
Seminary  at  Princeton,  N.  J.  (class  of  1842).  In  AprO, 
1842,  he  was  licensed  by  Newton  Presbyterj-,  and  soon 
after,  accepting  a  call  to  the  churches  of  Blairstown  and 
Knowlton,  in  Warren  County,  N.  J.,  he  was  ordained 
and  installed  by  Newton  Presbytery  Oct.  18, 1843.  In 
1846  he  accepted  a  call  to  WellsviUe,  Ohio;  subsequent- 
ly he  removed  to  Lancaster,  Ohio,  and  thence  to  Fort 
Wayne,  Ind.,  where  he  labored  faithfully  until  his  death, 
Sept.  26,  18G7.  Dr.  Lowrie  contributed  largely  to  the 
press,  and  wrote  many  precious  gems  in  poetry  and 
prose ;  he  was  a  man  of  more  than  ordinarj'  gifts,  a  clear, 
vigorous  intellect,  and  sound  judgment;  he  excelled  in 
systematic  arrangement,  clear  statement,  and  forcible 
argument.  See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  Aim.  1868,  p.  115 
sq.     (J.  L.  S.) 

Lo^wrie,  Reuben,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  Butler,  Pa.,  Nov.  24, 1827,  and  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  New  York  City,  where  for  one  year 
he  served  as  tutor;  studied  theology  at  Princeton, N.  J.; 
aftenvards  became  principal  of  a  presbyterial  academy 
in  Luzenie  County,  Pa. ;  was  licensed  by  the  Luzerne 
Presbytery  in  1851,  at  which  time  he  engaged  in  the 
work  of  foreign  missions  among  the  Choctaw  Indians; 
in  1853  he  was  ordained,  and  April  22  sailed  as  mission- 
ary to  Shanghai,  China.  Here  he  applied  himself  to 
the  study  of  the  Chinese  language,  translated  the  Short- 
er Catechism,  and  a  Catechism  on  the  Old-Testament  His- 
tory, into  this  dialect;  devoted  much  time  to  the  com- 
pletion of  a  Dictionary  of  the  Four  Books,  commenced 
b}'  his  deceased  brother;  he  had  also  nearly  finished  a 
Commentary  on  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  in  Chinese  when 
he  died,  April  26,  1860,  Sec  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  Aim. 
1861,  p.  96.     (J.L.  S.) 

Lowrie,  Walter  Macon,  a  Presbyterian  mis- 
sionary to  China,  was  born  in  Butler,  Pa.",  in  1819  (V), 
graduated  from  Jefferson  College  in  1837,  passed  a  the- 
ological course  at  Princeton,  was  ordained  by  tlie  Sec- 
ond Presbytery  of  New  York,  and  entered  on  "his  minis- 


terial labors.  While  passing  from  Shanghai  to  Ningpo, 
Aug.  19, 1847,  he  was  thrown  overboard  by  pirates,  and 
drowned  at  sea,  about  twelve  miles  from  Chapoo,  Cliina. 
The  date  of  his  embarkation  from  America  is  not  known, 
but  he  was  in  China  some  time  prior  to  1842.  He  was 
a  young  man  of  fine  powers  and  large  cidture,  and  prom- 
ised much  lor  the  Church  and  the  world.  His  piety  was 
of  a  lofty,  self-denying  stamp,  which  made  him  equal  to 
all  obstacles,  and  his  career  was  opening  grandly  when 
thus  suddenly  called  to  his  reward.  He  wrote  Letters 
to  Sabbath-school  Children: — Lcmd  of  Sinai,  or  Exposi- 
tion of  Isaiah  xlix  (Phila.  1846, 18mo),  A  volume  of  his 
Serinons  preached  in  China  was  also  published  (1851, 
8vo).  See  Fierson,  Missiona7-y  Memorial,  p.  396;  New 
York  Observer,  Jan.  8, 1848  ;  Memoirs  of  W.  M.  Lowrie 
(New  York,  Carter  and  Brothers,  1849) ;  Princeton  Re- 
view, xxii,  280. 

Low  Sunday,  the  first  Sunday  after  Easter,  so 
called  because  it  was  customary  to  repeat  on  this  c'.iy 
some  part  of  the  solemnity  which  was  used  on  Easter 
day,  whence  it  took  the  name  of  Low  Sunday,  being  cel- 
ebrated as  a  feast,  but  of  a  lower  degree  than  Easter  day 
itself. — Eden,  Theoloejical  Dictionary. 

Lowth,  Robert,  D.D.,  a  distinguished  English 
prelate,  ami  son  of  William  Lowtli  (q.  v.),  was  born  at 
Buriton  Nov.  27,  1710.  In  1737  he  graduated  master 
of  arts  at  Oxford  University,  and  in  1741  was  elected 
professor  of  poetry  in  his  alma  mater.  Entering  the 
ecclesiastical  order,  he  was  presented  with  the  rectory 
of  Ovington,  in  Hampshire,  in  1744.  After  a  four  year's 
residence  on  the  Continent,  he  was,  on  his  return  in  1750, 
appointed  by  bishop  Hoadley  archdeacon  of  Winchester, 
and  three  j'ears  after  to  the  rectorj'  of  East  Woodhay  in 
Hampshire.  It  was  in  this  very  year  that  Lowth  pub- 
lished his  valuable  work  De  Sacm  Poesi  HebrcEorinn, 
P ralectiones  Academicm  (Oxon.  1753,  4to  ;  2d  edit,  with 
annot.  by  Michaelis,  Gotting.  1758  ;  Oxf.  1763 ;  Getting. 
1768;  Oxford,  1775,  1810;  with  notes  by  Rosenmtiller, 
Leips.  1815;  and  last  and  best,  Oxford,  1821,  8vo).  An 
English  translation  of  the  first  18  lectures  was  prepared 
by  Dr.  Dodd  for  the  Christian  Magazine  (1766-67),  and 
of  all  by  Dr.  Gregory  (Lond.  1787, 1816, 1835, 1839, 1847) ; 
a  still  more  desirable  English  translation  was  prepared 
by  Prof.  Stowe  (Andover,  1829,  8vo).  "In  these  mas- 
terly and  classical  dissertations,"  says  Ginsburg  (in  Kitto, 
Cycl.  ofBibl.  Lit.  ii,  s.  v.), "  Lowth  not  only  evinces  a  deep 
knowledge  of  the  Hebrew  language,  but  philosophically 
exhibits  the  true  spirit  and  characteristics  of  that  poet- 
ry in  which  the  prophets  of  the  O.  T.  clothed  the  lively 
oracles  of  God.  It  does  not  at  all  detract  from  Lowth's 
merits  that  both  Abrabanel  and  Azariah,  de  Rossi  had 
pointed  out  two  centuries  before  him  the  same  features 
of  Hebrew  poetry  [see  Rossi]  upon  which  he  expatiates, 
inasmuch  as  the  enlarged  views  and  the  invuicible  ar- 
guments displayed  in  his  handling  of  the  subject  are 
peculiarly  his  own;  and  his  work  is  therefore  justly  re- 
garded as  marking  a  new  epoch  in  the  treatment  of  the 
Hebrew  poetry.  The  greatest  testimony  to  the  ex- 
traordinarj^  merits  of  these  lectures  is  the  thorough  an- 
alysis which  the  celebrated  [Jewish]  philosopher  IMen- 
delssohn,  to  whom  the  Hebrew  was  almost  vernacular, 
gives  of  them  in  the  Bibiiothek  der  schunen  Wissenschaf- 
ten  iind  der  freien  Kiinste,  vol.  i,  1756."  In  1751  Lowth 
received  the  degree  of  doctor  in  divinity  from  the  L^ni- 
versity  of  Oxford  by  diploma.  In  1755  he  went  to  Ire- 
land as  chaplain  to  the  marquis  of  Hartington,  then  ap- 
pointed lortl  lieutenant,  who  nominated  him  bishop  of 
Limerick,  a  preferment  which  he  exchanged  for  a  pre- 
bend of  Durham  and  the  rectory  of  Sedgefield.  In 
1766  Dr.  Lowth  was  appointed  bishop  of  St.  Da%'id's, 
whence  a  few  months  later  he  was  translated  to  the 
see  of  Oxford,  and  thence,  in  1777,  he  succeeded  Dr. 
Terrick  in  the  diocese  of  London.  In  1778,  only  one 
year  after  his  appointment  at  London,  he  gave  to  the 
public  his  last  and  greatest  work,  Isaiah  :  a  new  Trans- 
lation, with  a  preliminary  Dissertation,  and  Notes  (13th 


LOWTH 


534 


LOYOLA 


edit,  1842, 8vo).  This  elegant  and  beautifid  version  of 
the  evangelical  ])rophet,  of  which  learned  men  in  ever\' 
part  of  Europe  have  been  unanimous  in  their  eidogiums, 
and'  which  is  alone  sufficient  to  transmit  his  name  to 
posterity,  aimed  "  not  only  to  give  an  exact  and  faithful 
representation  of  the  words  and  sense  of  the  prophet  by 
adhering  closely  to  the  letter  of  the  text,  and  treading 
as  nearly  as  may  be  in  his  footsteps,  but,  moreover,  to 
imitate  the  air  and  manner  of  the  author,  to  express  the 
form  and  fashion  of  the  composition,  and  to  give  the 
English  reader  some  notion  of  the  peculiar  tiu-n  and  cast 
of  the  original."  In  the  elaborate  and  valuable  Prelim- 
inary Dissertation  where  bishop  Lowtli  states  this,  he 
enters  more  minutely  than  in  his  former  production  into 
the  form  and  construction  of  the  poetical  compositions 
of  the  O.  T.,  lavs  down  principles  of  criticism  for  the 
improvement  of  all  subsequent  translations,  and  frankly 
alludes  to  De  Rossi's  view  of  Hebrew  poetry,  which  is 
similar  to  his  own.  See  Rossi.  This  masterly  work 
soon  obtained  a  European  fame,  and  was  not  only  rap- 
idly reprinted  in  England,  but  was  translated  into  Ger- 
man by  professor  Koppe,  who  added  some  valuable  notes 
to  it  (Gtitting.  1779-81, 4  vols.  8vo).  It  must  not,  how- 
ever, be  presumed  that  the  work  did  not  meet  also  with 
opposition,  so  far  as  the  views  of  the  author  coidd  lead 
to  diflerence  in  opinion ;  and  we  incline  with  Dr.  G.  B. 
Cheever  to  the  belief  that  Lowth's  "  only  fault  as  a  sa- 
cred critic  was  a  degree  of  what  archbishop  Seeker  de- 
nominated the  •  rabies  emendandi,'  or  rage  for  textual 
and  conjectural  emendations.  The  prevalence  of  this 
spirit  in  his  -(vork  on  Isaiah  was  the  only  obstacle  that 
prevented  its  attaining  the  name  and  rank,  as  classic 
in  sacred  literature,  which  has  been  accorded  to  the 
Lectures  on  the  Sacred  Poetry  of  the  Hebrews"  (North 
A  mer.  Rev.  xxxi,  376 ;  comp.  here  Home,  Bibl.  Bib.  1839, 
287).  On  the  death  of  archbishop  Cornwallis,  the  pri- 
macy was  offered  to  Dr.  Lowth,  a  dignity  which  he  de- 
clined on  account  of  his  advanced  age  and  family  afflic- 
tions. In  1768  he  lost  his  eldest  daughter,  and  in  1783 
his  second  daughter  suddenly  expired  whOe  presiding 
at  the  tea-table;  his  eldest  son  was  also  suddenly  cut 
off  in  the  prime  of  life.  Bishop  Lowth  himself  died 
Nov.  3,  1787.  The  other  and  minor  writings  of  bishop 
Lowth,  consisting  of  (1)  Tracts,  belonging  to  his  contro- 
versy with  bishop  Warburton  (q.  v.),  to  which  a  trifling 
difference  of  opinion  on  the  book  of  Job  gave  rise: — (2) 
Life  of  William  of  Wi/ckluun  (1758)  : — (3)  Short  Litro- 
duction  to  English  Grammar  (1762).  The  Set-mons  and 
other  Remains  of  Bishop  Lowth  were  published  with  an 
Introducto7-y  Memoir  by  the  Rev.  Peter  HaH,  A.Til.  (Lon- 
don, 1834,  8vo).  See  Alemoirs  of  the  Life  and  Writings 
of  the  late  Bp.  Lowth  (Lond.  and  Getting.  1787,  8vo) ; 
Blachcood's  Magazine,  xxix,  765,  902 ;  Gentl.  Magazine, 
Ivii,  Iviii,  etc. ;  Kitto,  Journal  of  Sac.  Lit.  i,  94,  295 ;  v, 
373 ;  xvii,  138  ;  Engl.  Cyclop,  s.  v. ;  Darling,  Eccles.  Biog. 
ii,  1873;  Hook,  Eccles.  Biog.  s.  v.;  and  especially  Alli- 
bonc,  iJict.  of  Brit,  and  A  m.  A  uth.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lowth,  Simon,  D.D.,  an  English  non-juring  di- 
vine, was  born  in  Northamptonshire  about  1630.  In 
1679  we  find  him  vicar  of  St.  Cosmus,  a  position  of 
which  he  was  deprived  in  1688.  He  died  in  1720.  Dr. 
Simon  Lowth  published  HiMorical  Collections  concerning 
Ch.  Affairs  (Lond.  1(;96,  4to),  besides  several  theological 
treatises  (1072-1704).  See  AlYihonc,  Diet,  of  By-it.  and 
Amer.  A  uthojs,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lowth,  "William,  D.D.,  a  distinguished  English 
divine,  father  of  hishop  Robert  Lowth,  was  born  in  Lon- 
don Scjit.  11,  1661.  lie  was  educated  at  Merchant  Tay- 
lors' Scliool,  whence  he  was  elected  to  a  scholarship  at 
St.  John's  College,  Oxford,  in  1075,  when  not  j'et  14 
years  old;  became  M.A.  in  1683,  and  B.I).  ii\  1688.  His 
Vindication  of  the  J>ivine  Authority  of  the  Old  and  New 
Test.  (Lond.  1692 ;  3d  edit,  wuth  two  sermons,  1821 ,  12mo), 
in  answer  to  Lc  Clerc's  attacks  on  the  inspiration  of 
Scripture,  brought  him  jiromincntly  into  notice ;  and  the 
first  to  favor  him  was  bishop  Mew,  of  Winchester,  who 


had  been  president  of  St.  John's  College,  and  well  knew 
Lowth's  great  attainments.  He  made  him  his  chap- 
lain, and  presented  him  with  a  prebendal  stall  in  his 
cathedral  at  Winchester  in  1696,  and  with  the  living  of 
Buriton  and  Petersfield  in  1699.  Dr.  Lowth  died  May  17, 
1732.  Though  less  celebrated  as  a  writer  than  his  son 
Robert,  he  is  generally  acknowledged  to  have  been  the 
profounder  scholar,  and  might,  and  no  doubt  would,  have 
attained  to  as  great  distinction  in  the  Church  as  his  son 
had  he  lived  as  much  in  the  public  eye,  and,  instead  of 
serving  others  in  the  preparation  of  their  works,  gone 
directly  before  the  people  himself.  So  great,  indeed, 
was  his  modesty,  that,  in  an  estimate  of  his  scholar- 
ship, we  can  be  just  only  after  a  careful  inquiry  of  the 
amount  and  extent  of  the  assistance  he  furnished  to 
the  works  of  his  contemporaries,  upon  whom  Dr.  Lowth, 
having  carefully  read  and  annotated  almost  every  Greek 
and  Latin  author,  whether  profane  or  ecclesiastical,  es- 
pecially the  latter,  dispensed  his  stores  -with  a  most 
liberal  hand.  The  edition  of  Clemens  Alexandrinus,  by 
Dr.  (afterwards  archbishop)  Potter;  that  of  Josephus, 
by  Hudson;  the  Ecclesiastical  Historians,  by  Reading 
(Cambridge) ;  the  Bibliotheca  Biblica,  were  all  enriched 
with  ^-aluable  notes  from  his  pen.  Bishop  Chandler, 
of  Durham,  during  the  preparation  of  his  L)efence  of 
Christianity  from  the  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament, 
against  the  discourse  of  the  ''  Grounds  and  Reasons  of 
the  Christian  Religion,"  and  in  his  vindication  of  the 
"Defence"  in  answer  to  The  Scheme  of  literal  Prophecy 
considered,  held  a  constant  correspondence  with  him, 
and  consulted  him  upon  many  difficulties  that  occur- 
red in  the  course  of  that  work.  Many  other  English 
scholars  were  also  indebted  to  Dr.  William  Lowth's  la- 
bors for  important  aid.  But  the  most  valuable  part  of 
his  character  was  that  whicli  least  appeared  in  the 
eyes  of  the  world.  His  piety,  diligence,  hospitality, 
and  beneficence  rendered  his  life  highlj^  exemplary, 
and  greatly  enforced  his  public  exhortations.  Besides 
the  Vindication  already  mentioned  above.  Dr.  Lowth 
wrote  Directions  for  the  profitable  Reading  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  etc.  (1708, 12mo ;  7th  edit.  Lond.  1799,12mo), 
an  excellent  little  work,  -which  has  gone  through  many 
editions;  and  last,  but  chiefl3%^4  Cominentary  on  the  pro- 
phetical Books  of  the  Old  Testament,  originally  published 
in  separate  portions  (1714-1725),  and  afterwards  collect- 
ed in  a  folio  volume  as  a  continuation  of  bishop  Patrick's 
commentaPi-,  and  generally  accompanying  the  comment- 
ary collected  severally  from  Patrick,  Wliitljy.  Arnald, 
and  Lowman  (best  editions  of  the  whole  commentary, 
Lond.  1822,  6  vols,  royal  4to ;  Philad.  1860,  4  vols.  imp. 
8vo).  "  Lowth,"  says  Orme  (Bibl.  Bib.),  '■  is  one  of  the 
most  judicious  commentators  on  the  prophets.  He  nev- 
er prophesies  himself,  adheres  strictly  to  the  meaning 
of  the  inspired  writer,  and  is  yet  generally  evangelical 
in  his  inteqiretations.  Tliere  is  not  much  appearance 
of  criticism  ;  but  the  original  text  and  other  critical  aids 
were  doubtless  closely  studied  by  the  respectable  author. 
It  is  often  quoted  by  Scott,  and  ....  is  pronounced  by 
bishop  Coutson  the  best  commentary  in  the  English 
language."  See  Life  of  Dr. William  Lowth,  by  his  son, 
Biog.  Brit. ;  Churchman's  Magazine,  1809  (]\Iarch  and 
April),  781  sq. ;  Jones,  Ch7-istian  Biog.  s.  v.;  Darling, 
Cyclop.  Bibl.  ii,  1875 ;  Hook,  Eccles.  Biog.  vii,  75 ;  AUi- 
bone.  Diet.  nfBrit.  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  Kit- 
to,  Cyclop,  of  Bibl.  Lit.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Loyola,  Ignatius  of,  St.,  or,  with  his  full  Spanish 
name,  Don  Inigo  Lopez  de  Recalde,  the  founder  of  the 
Jesuits,  was  born  in  1491,  in  the  Castle  of  Loyola,  which 
was  situateil  not  far  from  Azpeytia,  in  the  Spanish  prov- 
ince of  (Juipuscoa.  lie  was  the  youngest  of  the  eleven 
children  of  Don  Bertand,  Sefior  d'Aguez  y  de  Loyola, 
and  Martina  Saez  de  Balde.  His  family  prided  itself 
on  belonging  to  the  ancient,  pure  nobility  of  the  coun- 
try, and  was  distinguished  for  chivalric  sentiment.  Af- 
ter receiving  his  first  instruction  in  religion  from  his 
aunt,  Dona  IMaria  de  Guevara,  a  fervid  Catholic,  he  be- 
came a  page  at  the  court  of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic. 


LOYOLA 


535 


LOYOLA 


But  Ignatius  had  too  great  a  desire  for  glory  to  be  sat- 
isfied with  court  hfe,  and,  foHowing  the  example  of  his 
brotliers,  who  served  in  the  army,  he  resolved  to  become 
a  soldier.  During  tlie  first  campaign  in  which  he  took 
part  he  distinguished  himself  at  the  siege  of  Najara,  a 
small  town  situated  on  the  frontier  of  Biscaya,  the  cap- 
ture of  which  was  partly  attributed  to  his  braverj\  The 
town  was  given  up  to  pillage,  in  which  he  took,  howev- 
er, no  part.  His  life  at  this  time,  as  one  of  his  biogra- 
phers says,  was  by  no  means  rcgidar ;  "  being  more  oc- 
cupied with  gallantry  and  vanity  than  anything  else,  he 
generally  followed  in  his  actions  the  false  principles  of 
tlie  world,  and  in  this  way  he  continued  to  live  until  his 
twenty-ninth  year,  when  God  opened  his  eyes."  During 
tlie  siege  of  Pampeluna,  the  capital  of  Novara,  by  the 
French,  he  was,  on  May  20, 1521,  severely  wounded  by  a 
cannon  ball  in  both  legs.  The  French,  after  taking  the 
place,  honored  his  courage,  and  had  liim  transported  on 
a  litter  to  his  native  castle  of  Loyola,  which  is  not  far 
from  Fampeluna.  As  the  first  operation  had  not  been 
successful,  the  leg  had  to  be  broken  again  and  to  be  re- 
set anew.  The  extreme  painfulness  of  this  operation 
brought  on  a  fever  on  the  eve  of  the  festival  of  the  apos- 
tles Feter  and  Faul,  which  it  was  thought  would  prove 
fatal ;  but  this  fever  suddenly  ceased,  and  Ignatius  as- 
cribed his  unexpected  recovery  to  the  miraculous  aid  of 
the  prince  of  the  apostles,  who,  as  he  states,  appeared  to 
him  in  a  dream,  touched  him  with  his  hand,  and  cured 
liim  from  his  fever.  But,  notwithstanding  this  belief  in 
his  miraculous  recovery,  Ignatius  remained  imbued  with 
a  worldly  spirit.  The  recovery  proved,  however,  not 
to  be  complete,  and  Ignatius,  in  order  to  get  fully  re- 
stored, had  to  submit  to  several  other  painful  opera- 
tions, in  spite  of  all  of  which  his  right  leg  remained  con- 
sideral)ly  shorter  than  the  other.  While  his  recovery 
was  slowly  proceeding,  he  demanded  novels  for  pastime ; 
but  as  no  books  of  this  class  were  to  be  found  in  the  cas- 
tle, he  received  in  their  stead  a  Life  of  Jesus  Christ  and 
of  the  Saints.  He  read  this  at  first  without  the  least 
interest  in  the  subject,  and  only  because  no  other  book 
could  be  found;  but  gradually  his  fiery  imagination 
learned  how  to  derive  food  from  this  reading,  and  a  de- 
termination sprang  up  to  imitate  the  spiritual  combats 
which  he  found  described  in  this  book,  and  to  excel  the 
saints  in  heroic  deeds.  For  a  time  the  reviving  thirst 
of  glory,  and  a  strong  attachment  to  a  lady  of  the  royal 
court,  continued  to  prove  formidable  obstacles, but  finally 
he  fidly  overcame  them,  and  began  the  new  career  upon 
which  he  had  resolved  to  enter  with  a  pilgrimage  to  the 
convent  of  Montserrat,  famous  for  the  immense  con- 
course of  pilgrims  from  all  parts  of  the  world  to  a  mirac- 
ulous picture  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  To  conceal  his  de- 
sign, he  pretended  to  make  a  visit  to  his  old  friend  the 
duke  of  Najara,  and  immediately  after  making  the  visit 
dismissed  his  two  servants,  and  took  alone  the  road  to 
Montserrat,  There,  during  three  successive  days,  he 
made  a  general  confession  of  all  the  sins  of  his  life,  and 
took  the  vow  of  chastity.  Bef(ire  the  picture  of  the 
Virgin  jNIary  he  held  a  vigil,  hung  up  his  sword  and 
dagger  ou  the  altar,  and  then  repaired  to  INIanresa,  a 
small  town  situated  about  three  leagues  from  Jlontserrat, 
and  containing  a  convent  of  the  Dominican  order  and  a 
hospital  chiefly  for  pilgrims.  Here  he  desired  to  live 
unknown  until  the  pestilence  should  cease  at  Barcelona, 
and  the  opening  of  the  port  should  allow  him  to  carry 
out  his  wish  of  visiting  the  Holy  Lan<l.  He  first  en- 
tered the  hospital,  and  there  practiced  the  austerest  as- 
ceticism, imtil  it  became  known  that  he  was  a  nobleman, 
when  the  number  of  persons  who  came  to  see  him  from 
curiosity  induced  him  to  hide  himself  in  a  neighboring 
cave  which  was  known  to  few,  and  which  no  one  had 
yet  dared  to  enter.  The  horrors  of  this  place,  and  the 
cruel,  unnatural  asceticism  to  wliich  he  gave  himself  up, 
produced  a  state  of  mind  in  which  he  believed  himself 
alternately  to  be  attended  by  temptations  of  the  devil 
and  to  be  gladdened  by  visions  of  the  Saviour  and  the 
holy  Virgin.     Gradually  he  began  to  be  settled  in  his 


mind,  and  resolved  to  labor  for  the  conversion  and 
sanctification  of  souls.  He  began  to  speak  in  public  on 
religion,  and  made  the  first  draft  of  his  famous  book  of 
the  Spiritual  Exercises  (Exerciiia  Sjnritualia) ,  in  the 
composition  of  which  he  claims  to  have  had  divine  aid. 
This  book  has  contributed  more  than  any  other  to  the 
erection  of  the  new  papal  theocracy  which  has  recently 
been  completed  by  the  promulgation  of  the  doctrine  of 
papal  infallibility.  It  consists  of  meditations,  which  are 
grouped  in  four  divisions  or  weeks.  The  first  week,  af- 
ter an  introductory  meditation  on  the  destiny  of  man 
and  of  all  created  things,  occupies  itself  with  sin,  its 
hideousness,  and  its  terrible  consequences.  The  second 
week  has  for  its  basis  the  meditation  on  the  kingdom  of 
Christ,  who  is  represented  as  being  in  the  highest  sense 
of  the  word  the  king  by  the  grace  of  God,  whose  call  to 
the  spiritual  campaign  all  men  have  to  obey,  and  in 
whose  service  every  noble  heart  will  feel  itself  inspired 
to  noble  deeds.  In  a  life-picture  of  Christ  it  is  shown 
how  man  must  prove  himself  in  the  war  for  and  with 
Christ.  The  meditation  then  turns  to  the  mysteries 
of  incarnation,  to  the  childhood  of  Jesus,  and  his  retired 
life  in  Nazareth.  Here  the  contemplation  of  the  life  of 
Christ  is  interrupted  by  the  meditation  on  the  two  ban- 
ners :  the  horrid  banner  of  the  prince  of  darkness  is  un- 
folded by  the  side  of  the  lovely  banner  of  Christ  before 
the  eyes  of  the  soul,  which  is  eagerly  courted  on  both 
sides.  Returning  to  the  public  life  of  Christ,  which  is 
now  followed  step  by  step,  the  Exercises  prepare  the 
mind  for  fuially  determining  the  future  course  of  life. 
During  the  third  week  the  sufferings  and  the  death  of 
the  Lord  are  meditated  upon,  in  order  to  strengthen  the 
soul  for  all  the  combats  which  a  resolution  to  lead  a  re- 
ligious life  must  entail.  The  subjects  of  the  fourth  week 
are  taken  from  the  mysteries  of  the  resurrection  and  as- 
cension of  Christ.  Tlie  whole  is  concluded  with  a  med- 
itation on  the  love  of  God.  The  book  was  for  the  first 
time  printed  in  Kome  in  1548,  and  on  July  31  of  the  same 
year  approved  by  pope  Paul  III,  and  urgently  recom- 
mended to  the  faithfid.  In  the  hands  of  the  Jesuits 
this  book  subsequently  became  one  of  the  chief  instru- 
ments which  secured  the  thoroughly  military  discipline 
of  their  order,  as  well  as  of  their  devoted  adherents. 

After  passing  ten  months  in  JManresa,  Ignatius,  in  Jan- 
uary, 1523,  embarked  at  Barcelona  for  the  Holy  Land. 
He  spent  a  few  days  in  Eome,  then  went  to  Venice, 
where  he  embarked  for  Jerusalem  on  July  14,  and 
arrived  there  on  September  4.  It  was  his  wish  to  re- 
main here,  in  order  to  labor  for  the  conversion  of  the 
people  of  the  East;  but  the  provincial  of  the  Fran- 
ciscan monks,  who  had  been  authorized  by  the  popes 
either  to  retain  the  pilgrims  or  to  send  them  home  again, 
did  not  allow  him  to  stay.  Accordingly,  he  had  to  re- 
turn to  Europe,  and  arrived  in  Venice  in  January,  1524. 
In  March  he  was  again  on  Spanish  soil,  and  having  be- 
come convinced  during  his  voyage  of  the  importance  of 
a  literary  education  for  the  accomplishment  of  his  plans, 
he  entered,  although  33  years  old,  a  grammar-school  at 
Barcelona,  where  he  studied,  in  particular,  the  elements 
of  Latin.  Two  years  later  he  went,  with  three  disciples 
whom  he  had  gained  at  Barcelona,  to  the  University  of 
Alcala,  which  a  short  time  before  had  been  founded  by 
cardinal  Ximcncs.  Here  he  was,  with  his  companions, 
imprisoned  for  six  weeks,  by  order  of  the  Inquisition,  for 
giving  religious  instruction  without  special  authoriza- 
tion. After  being  released,  he  went,  at  the  advice  of  the 
archbishop  of  Toledo,  to  the  University  of  Salamanca  to 
continue  his  studies.  But,  when  there,  he  had  new  diffi- 
culties with  the  Inquisition  ;  he  resolved  to  leave  Spain, 
and,  not  accomjianied  by  any  of  his  disciples,  went  to  the 
Universit}'  of  Paris,  where  he  studied  from  February, 
1528,  to  the  end  of  I\ Larch,  1535,  and  on  March  14, 1533, 
obtained  the  title  of  master  of  arts.  Here  his  plan  was 
fully  matured  to  establish  a  society  of  men  wlio  might 
aid  him  in  carrj-ing  out  his  religious  ideas.  The  first 
who  was  gained  for  the  plan  was  Pierre  Lefevre  (Petrus 
Faber),  who  for  some  time  had  been  his  tutor  in  his  phil- 


LOYOLA 


536 


LUBIENIETSKI 


osophical  stucUes.  The  second  was  Francis  Xavier,  a  1 
young  nobleman  of  Novara.  Soon  after  they  were  joined 
bv  tlie  Sijaniards  Jacob  Laincz.  Alphonse  Salmeron.  and 
Nicholas  Alphonse  Bobadilla,  and  the  Portuguese  Simon 
Itodriguez  d'Azcndo.  For  the  tirst  time  they  were  called 
together  by  Ignatius  in  July,  1534.  On  August  15,  on 
the  festival  of  the  assumption  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  he 
took  them  to  the  church  of  the  Abbey  of  Montmartre, 
near  Paris,  where,  having  received  the  communion  from 
the  hands  of  Lefcvre,  the  only  priest  in  their  midst,  they 
all,  with  a  loud  voice,  took  the  solemn  vow  to  make  a 
voyage  to  Jerusalem,  in  order  to  labor  for  the  conversion 
of  the  infidels  of  the  Holy  Land ;  to  quit  all  they  had  in 
the  world  besides  what  they  indispensably  needed,  for 
the  voyage ;  and  in  case  they  should  find  it  impossible 
either  to  reach  Palestine  or  remain  there,  to  throw  them- 
selves at  the  feet  of  the  pope,  offer  him  their  services, 
and  go  wherever  he  might  send  them.  As  several  mem- 
bers of  the  company  had  not  yet  finished  their  theolog- 
ical studies,  it  was  agreed  that  they  should  remain  at 
the  university  until  January  "25, 1537.  Ignatius  in  the 
meanwhile  undertook  to  labor  against  the  further  prog- 
ress of  the  Reformation  in  France ;  his  ascetic  practices 
soon  undermined  again  his  health,  and,  at  the  advice  of 
his  physician,  he  had  to  return  to  his  native  land,  where 
he  soon  recovered.  On  Jan.  6, 1537,  he  was  met  at  Ven- 
ice by  all  his  companions,  who,  after  his  departure  from 
Paris,  had  been  joined  by  Claude  le  Jay,  Jean  Codure, 
and  Pasquier  Brouet.  Two  months  later  aU  the  mem- 
bers of  the  society  were  sent  by  Ignatius  to  Rome,  he 
himself  remaining  at  Venice,  as  he  believed  the  influen- 
tial cardinal  Caraflfa  (subsequently  pope  Paul  IV)  to  be 
unfriendly  to  him.  The  pope,  Paid  III,  received  the 
companions  of  Ignatius  favorably,  and  gave  them  per- 
mission to  be  ordained  priests  by  any  bishop  of  the 
Catholic  Church.  As  the  war  between  Venice  and  the 
sultan  made  it  impossible  for  Ignatius  to  go  with  his 
companions  to  Palestine,  Ignatius,  who  had  again  united 
all  the  members  of  the  society  at  Vicenza,  resolved  to 
go  with  Lefevre  and  Lainez  to  Rome,  in  order  to  place 
the  services  of  his  society  at  the  disposal  of  the  pope. 
Before  separating,  Ignatius  instructed  all  his  compan- 
ions, in  case  they  were  asked  who  they  were,  and  to 
what  society  they  belonged,  to  reply  that  they  belonged 
to  the  Society  of  Jesus,  as  they  had  united  for  a  com- 
,  bat  against  heresy  and  vice  under  the  banner  of  Jesus 
Christ.  On  his  journey  to  Rome,  Ignatius  claimed  to 
have  had  another  vision  in  the  lonely,  decayed  sanctu- 
arj'  of  Storia,  about  six  miles  from  Rome,  and  to  have  re- 
ceived a  direct  promise  of  divine  aid  and  protection.  At 
Rome  Ignatius  succeeded  in  gaining  the  entire  confi- 
dence of  the  pope.  A  charge  of  heresy  and  sorcery-, 
which  a  personal  enemy  brought  against  him,  was  easilj' 
refuted,  but  it  was  found  more  dithcult  to  overcome  the 
opposition  to  his  projected  order  from  three  cardinals,  by 
whose  advice  the  pope  was  chiefiy  guided.  But,  un- 
daunted by  this  great  obstacle,  as  Helyot  {Higtoire  des 
Ordres  Monastique,  ed.  Migne,  ii,  G43)  says,  "  he  contin- 
ued his  urgent  representations  with  the  pope,  and  re- 
doubled his  prayers  to  God  with  all  the  greater  confi- 
dence, as,  not  doubting  the  success  of  his  enterprise,  he 
promised  to  God  three  thousand  masses  in  recognition, 
and  thaidisgiving  for  the  favor  which  he  hoped  to  ob- 
tain from  his  divine  Majesty."  The  steady  progress  of 
the  Reformation  overcame,  however,  at  last  the  reluc- 
tance of  the  cardinals,  and,  by  the  bull  of  Sept.  27,  1540, 
Regimiid  militantis  ecclesue,  the  pope  gave  to  the  new 
order  tlic  jiapal  sanction  and  the  name  Society  of  Jesus. 
At  the  election  of  a  general  of  the  new  order  Ignatius 
received  a  unanimous  vote.  He  at  first  declined  to  ac- 
cept; but  when,  at  a  second  election,  he  was  again  found 
to  be  the  luianimous  choice  of  his  brethren,  aud  when 
his  confessor,  the  Franciscan  monk  father  Theodore, 
urged  him  not  to  resist  the  callof  Ciod,  he  was  prevailed 
upon  to  accept.  He  soon  drew  up  the  constitution  of 
his  order,  which,  however,  did  not  receive  the  final  sanc- 
tion until  after  his  death.    In  Nov.  1554,  in  consequence 


of  his  failing  health,  he  appointed  father  Nadal  his  as- 
sistant. During  the  following  spring  he  believed  him- 
self to  have  sulticiently  recovered  to  do  without  this 
support,  but  during  the  summer  of  155G  his  health  broke 
entirely  down,  and  he  died  on  July  31, 1556.  The  only 
three  wishes  which  he  professed  to  have,  the  approba- 
tion of  his  order  by  the  Church,  the  sanction  of  his  book 
of  spiritual  exercises  by  the  pope,  and  the  promidgatiou 
of  the  constitution  of  his  order,  were  fultilled.  During 
the  sixteen  years  from  the  foundation  of  the  order  until 
the  death  of  Ignatius,  the  order  spread  with  a  rapidity 
rarely  equalled  in  the  history  of  monastic  orders.  See 
Jesuits.  In  1609  Ignatius  was  beatified  by  pope  Paul 
V;  in  1G22  he  was  canonized  by  Gregorj'  XV.  The 
Acta  Sanctorum  for  July  31  gives, besides  the  Comment 
tarius  j)rosvius,  two  biographies  of  Ignatius  —  one  by 
Gonzales,  based  on  communications  received  from  Igna- 
tius liimself.  and  another  by  Ribadcneira.  Larger  works 
on  the  life  of  Ignatius  have  been  written  by  Ribadcnei- 
ra, Maifei,  and  Orlandini.  There  is  hardly  a  language 
spoken  which  has  not  furnished  us  a  biography  of  Igna- 
tius; in  English  we  have  his  life  by  Isaac  Taylor  and 
by  Walpole.  See  also  Herzog,  Real- Enci/Jdop.xi,  524; 
Ranke,  Rom.-Pdpste,  iii,  383 ;  Reti'osjieclive  Rev.  (1824), 
vol.  ix ;  and  the  literature  in  the  art.  Jesuits.    (A.  J.  S.) 

Lo'zon  {XwL,Mv,\u\g.  Dedon),  one  of  the  sons  of 
"  Solomon's  servants"  who  returned  with  Zorobabel  (1 
Esd.  V,  33) ;  the  Dakkon  {^\.  v.)  of  the  Heb.  lists  (Ezra 
ii,  56;  Neh.vii,  58). 

Ijubbert(us),  LiBnAND(us),  a  Reformed  clergy- 
man and  professor  of  divinity  at  Franecker,  was  born  at 
Longoworde,  Friesland,  in  1556,  and  was  educated  at 
"Wittenberg  University,  where  he  gained  great  perfec- 
tion in  Hebrew.  Afterwards  he  diligently  attended  the 
lectures  at  Geneva,  and  still  later  Ment  to  Neustadt,  to 
hear  the  Calvinistical  professors.  Lubbert  then  entered 
the  ministry,  and  accepted  a  call  to  the  Reformed  Church 
of  Brussels;  later  he  removed  to  Embdcn.  In  1584  he 
went  to  Friesland  as  preacher  to  the  governor  and  depu- 
ties of  the  provincial  states,  and  also  read  lectures  on  di- 
vinity at  Franecker  LTniversity,  then  just  opened.  He 
received  the  title  of  D.D.  from  Heidelberg  L'niversity. 
In  the  controversies  concerning  the  Scriptures,  the  pope, 
the  Church,  and  councils,  he  A\Tote  against  the  cele- 
brated divines  BeUarmine,  Gretserus,  Socinus,  Arminius, 
Peter  Berlins,  Vorstius,  and  Grotius's  Pietas  Ordinum 
HoUandi(v.  He  preached  zealously,  pointedly,  and  elo- 
quently against  all  the  evils  of  his  times,  both  in  the 
Church  and  out  of  it.  He  observed  the  statutes  severe- 
ly, and  sometimes  refused  rectorships  because  of  the  de- 
bauchery of  unreformable  scholars.  He  died  at  Fran- 
ecker January  21, 1625. 

Lubec,  Reformation  in.  See  Hanse  Towns  (in 
Siipphmeni). 

Lubienietski  (Latinized  LuBIE^^ECIUs),  Stanis- 
las, of  a  family  greatly  distinguished  in  the  Polish  So- 
cinian  controversy,  being  the  most  promment  of  five 
who  have  become  particularly  identified  with  the  So- 
cinian  movement  in  Poland,  was  bom  at  Cracow  August 
23,  1623.  He  was  minister  of  a  Church  at  Lublin  xmtil 
driven  out  by  the  arm  of  power  for  his  opinions  in  1657, 
when  all  anti-Trinitarians  were  expelled  from  Poland. 
He  went  first  to  Sweden,  and  sought  the  influence  of 
the  Swedish  monarch  for  the  LTnitarians,  but  was  sig- 
nally disappointed  at  the  conclusion  of  peace  between 
Sweden  and  I'oland  at  Oliva.  Lubienietski  found  more 
favor  at  the  court  of  the  Danes;  he  was  obliged,  how- 
ever, to  quit  the  capital  because  of  his  able  advocacy 
of  heretical  o])inions.  and  the  danger  to  Lutheranism, 
and  he  finally  settled  at  Hamburg,  where  he  died  May 
18,  1675.  His  death  is  stated  to  have  been  caused  by 
poison — a  fact  borne  outbj-  the  death  of  his  two  daugh- 
ters, and  the  serious  illness  of  his  wife,  after  eating  of 
the  same  dish  ;  but  the  Hamburg  magistracy  neglected 
to  institute  the  investigation  usual  in  cases  of  sudden 
death.     His  theological  works  are  numerous,  and  may 


LUBIM 


537 


LUCA 


be  found  in  S&ndhis,  BiM.  A  niitriii.  (Freist.  1684),  with 
the  exception  of  the  Ilistoi-ia  Refoi-mationis  Polonicce. 
published  in  1685  at  Freistadt,  with  a  life  pretixed.  Of 
his  secular  works,  his  Theatrwn  Comeiictim  has  a  world- 
•vvide  celebrity.  See  Engl.  Cyclop,  s.  v. ;  Krasinski,  Hist.. 
Ref.  ill  Poland,  ii,  chap,  xiv ;  Fock,  Der  Socinianismus 
(Kiel,  1817). 

Lu'bim  (Yich.LuUm',  Ci^P,  from  the  Arab.,  sig- 
nifying inhabitants  of  a  tMrsty  land,  Nah.  iii,  9 ;  "  Lu- 
bims,"  2  Chron.  xii,  3;  xvi,  8;  also  LuhUm',  CSS, 
"Libyans,"  Dan.  xi, 43;  Sept.  everj-where  Ai'/Si'fc).  tlie 
Libyans,  always  joined  with  the  Egyptians  and  Ethio- 
pians ;  being  "  mentioned  as  contributing,  together  with 
Cushitcs  and  Sukkiira,  to  Shishak's  army  (2  Chron.  xii, 
3) ;  and  apparently  as  forming  with  Cushites  the  bidk 
of  Zerah's  army  (xvi,  8);  spoken  of  by  Nah  um  (iii,  9) 
with  Put  or  Phut,  as  helping  No-Amon  (Thebes),  of 
which  Cush  and  Egypt  were  the  strength  ;  and  by  Dan- 
iel (xi,  43)  as  paying  court  Avith  the  Cushites  to  a  con- 
queror of  Egypt  or  the  Egyptians.  These  particulars 
indicate  an  African  nation  under  tribute  to  Egypt,  if  not 
under  Egyptian  rule,  contributing,  in  the  10th  centurj' 
B.C.,  valuable  aid  in  mercenaries  or  auxiliaries  to  the 
Egyptian  armies,  and  down  to  Nahum's  time,  and  a  pe- 
riod prophesied  of  by  Daniel,  probably  the  reign  of  An- 
tiochus  Epiphanes  [see  Antiociius  IY  J,  assisting,  either 
politically  or  commercially,  to  sustain  the  Egyptian 
power,  or,  in  the  last  case,  dependent  on  it.  Tliese  in- 
dications do  not  fix  the  geograpliical  position  of  the  Lu- 
bim,  but  they  favor  the  supposition  that  their  territory 
was  near  Egypt,  either  to  the  ivest  or  south.  For  more 
precise  information  we  look  to  the  Egyptian  monuments, 
upon  Avhich  we  find  representations  of  a  people  called 
ReBU  or  Lcbu  (R  and  L  having  no  distinction  in  hicro- 
glypliics),  who  cannot  be  doubted  to  correspond  to  the 
Lubim.  These  Rebu  were  a  warlike  people,  with  whom 
Menptah  (the  son  and  successor  of  Rameses  II)  and 
Ramcscs  III,  who  both  ruled  in  the  13th  century  B.C., 
waged  successful  wars.  The  latter  king  routed  them 
with  much  slaughter.  The  sculptures  of  the  great  tem- 
ple he  raised  at  Thebes,  now  called  that  of  Jledinet 
Abii,  give  us  representations  of  the  Rebu,  showing  that 
they  were  fair,  and  of  what  is  called  a  Shemitic  type, 
like  the  Berbers  and  Kabyles.  They  are  distingiushed 
as  northern,  that  is,  as  parallel  to,  or  north  of,  Lower 
Egypt.  Of  their  being  African  there  can  be  no  reason- 
able doubt,  and  we  may  assign  them  to  the  coast  of  the 
INIediterranean,  commencing  not  far  to  the  westward  of 
Egypt.  We  do  not  find  them  to  have  been  mercenaries 
of  Egypt  from  the  monuments,  but  we  know  that  the 
kindred  Mashawasha-u  were  so  employed  by  the  Bu- 
bastite  family,  to  which  Shishak  and  probably  Zerah 
also  belonged ;  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  latter  are 
intended  by  the  Lubim,  used  in  a  more  generic  sense 
than  Rebu,  in  the  Biblical  mention  of  the  armies  of 
these  kings  (Brugsch,  Geofjr.  Inschr.  ii,  79  sq.).  We 
have  already  shown  that  the  Lubim  are  probably  the 
Mizralte  Leiiabim  :  if  so,  their  so-called  Shemitic  phys- 
ical cliaracteristics,  as  represented  on  the  Eg_A-ptian  mon- 
uments,-afford  evidence  of  great  importance  for  the  in- 
quirer into  primeval  history.  The  mention  in  Mane- 
tho's  DA-nastics  that,  under  Necherophes,  or  Nechero- 
chis,  the  first  Memphite  king,  and  head  of  the  third  dy- 
nasty (B.C.  cir.  2600),  the  Libyans  revolted  from  the 
Egyptians,  but  returned  to  their  allegiance  through 
fear,  on  a  wonderful  increase  of  the  moon,  may  refer  to 
the  Lubim,  but  may  as  probably  relate  to  some  other 
African  people,  perhaps  the  Naphtuhim,  or  Phut  (Put). 
The  historical  indications  of  the  Egyptian  monuments 
thus  lead  us  to  place  the  seat  of  the  Lubim,  or  primitive 
Libyans,  on  the  African  coast  to  the  westward  of  Egypt, 
perhaps  extending  far  beyond  Cyrenaica.  From  the 
earliest  ages  of  which  we  have  any  record,  a  stream  of 
colonization  has  fiowed  from  the  East  along  the  coast 
of  Africa,  north  of  the  Great  Desert,  as  far  as  the  Pillars 
of  Hercules.    The  oldest  of  these  colonists  of  this  region 


were  doubtless  the  Lubim  and  kindred  tribes,  particularly 
the  ]Mashawasha-u  and  Tahen-nu  of  the  Egj'ptian  mon- 
uments, all  of  whom  appear  to  have  ultimately  taken 
their  common  name  of  Libyans  from  the  Lubim.  They 
seem  to  have  been  first  reduced  by  the  Egyptians  about 
B.C.  1250,  and  to  have  afterwards  been  driven  inland 
by  the  Pha?nioian  and  Greek  colonists.  Now,  they  still 
remain  on  the  northern  confines  of  the  Great  Desert,  and 
even  within  it,  and  in  the  mountains,  while  their  later 
Shemitic  rivals  pasture  their  Hocks  in  the  rich  plains. 
Many  as  are  the  Arab  tribes  of  Africa,  one  great  tribe, 
that  of  the  Beni  'Ali,  extends  from  Egypt  to  Morocco, 
illustrating  tlie  probable  extent  of  the  territorj^  of  the 
Lubim  and  their  cognates.  It  is  possible  that  in  Ezek. 
XXX,  5,  Lub,  31^,  should  be  read  for  Chub,  2^2;  but 
there  is  no  other  instance  of  the  use  of  this  form  :  as, 
however,  'I'lP  and  D'^'I^P  are  used  for  one  people,  appar- 
ently the  Mizraite  Ludim,  most  probabh'  kindred  to  the 
Lubim,  this  objection  is  not  conclusive.  See  CuiB; 
Ludim.  In  Jer.  xlvi,  9,  the  A. V.  renders  Phut  'the 
Libyans;'  and  in  Ezek.  xxxviii,  5,  'Libya'"  (Smith). 
See  Libya. 

Lubin,  Angvistin,  a  French  monk,  was  born  in 
Paris  Jan.  29,  1624  ;  was  early  admitted  to  the  Order  of 
Reformed  Augustinian  monks,  became  their  provincial 
at  Bourges,  and  assistant  general  at  Rome.  He  died  at 
Paris  March  7,  1695.  Lubin  had  a  particular  knowl- 
edge of  all  the  benefices  of  France  and  the  abbeys  of 
Ital}-.  He  published  many  learned  works  on  ancient 
and  sacred  geography;  among  others,  Tabnhe  Sacrce 
Geographico}  (Paris,  1670)  : — Mariyroloyium  liomanum, 
cum  tahulis  geogrop)his  et  notis  historicis  (Paris,  16G0) : 
— Tables  gwgraphiques pour  les  Vies  des  hommes  illusires 
de  Plutarque,  dresses  sur  la  traduction  de  PAlbe  Talle- 
mant  (Paris,  1671): — Clef  du  (jrand  Pouille  des  Eenejices 
de  France,  containing  the  names  of  the  abbeys,  of  their 
founders,  their  situation,  etc.  (Paris,  1671) ;  etc.  See 
T)u\)m,  Autturs  ecclesiasf.  du  dixsep)tieme  siecle;  Journal 
des  Savants,  1695,  p.  220. 

Lubin,  Eilhard,  one  of  the  most  learned  Protes- 
tants of  his  time,  was  born  at  Wcstersted.  in  Oldenburg, 
March  24, 1556,  of  which  place  his  father  was  minister. 
He  was  educated  first  at  Leipsic,  where  he  prosecuted 
his  studies  with  great  success,  and  for  further  improve- 
ment went  thence  to  Cologne.  After  this  he  visited  the 
several  universities  of  Helmstadt,  Strasburg,  Jena.  IMar- 
purg,  and,  last  of  all,  Rostock,  where  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor of  poetry  in  1595,  and  ten  years  later  was  advanced 
to  the  divinity  chair  in  the  same  miiversity.  He  died  in 
June,  1621.  One  of  his  works  deserves  special  mention, 
Phosp)horus  de  pi-ima  causa  et  natura  mali,  t>-actatus 
hjipei'metaphysicus,  etc.  (Rostock,  1596,  and  8vo  and 
12mo  in  1600),  in  which  he  established  two  coeternal 
principles  (not  matter  and  a  vacuum,  or  void,  as  Epicu- 
rus did,  but),  God  and  the  nihilum,  or  nothing.  God,  he 
supposed,  is  the  good  principle,  and  nothing  the  evil 
principle.  He  added  that  sin  was  nothing  else  but  a 
tendency  towards  nothing,  and  that  sin  had  been  neces- 
sary in  order  to  make  known  the  nature  of  good ;  and 
he  applied  to  this  nothing  all  that  Aristotle  says  of  the 
first  matter.  He  Avas  answered  by  Grawer,  but  pub- 
lished a  reply  entitled  Apoloyeticus ^gito  Alb.  Grair.  ca- 
lumniis  j-esjwnd.,  etc.  (Kostock,  1605).  He  likewise  pub- 
lished the  next  year,  Tractatus  de  causa  p)eccati,  ad 
theoloyos  A  uyustina  confessionis  in  Germania.  See  Gen. 
Biofj.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Bayle,  Hist.  Dirt.  s.  v. 

IiUCa,  Giovanni  Battista,  an  Italian  prelate,  was 
born  at  Venosa,  Na])lcs,  in  1614.  He  raised  himself  by 
merit  from  poverty  to  the  highest  stations  in  the  Church. 
He  became  referendary  of  tlie  two  signatures,  and  au- 
ditor of  pope  Innocent  XI,  who  appointed  him  cardinal 
Sept.  1,  1681.  Before  entering  the  Chureli  Luca  had 
been  a  lawyer,  and  treatises  on  jurisprudence  form  the 
greater  part  of  his  works.  He  died  at  Rome  Feb.  5, 
1683.     His  Theatrum  Veritatis  et  Justi/ice  (1697,  7  vols.) 


LUCANUS 


538 


LUCIA 


treats  of  canon  and  civil  law,  and  was  very  highly  es- 
teemed. Among  his  remaining  works  are  the  follow- 
ing :  Concilium  Tridentium,  ex  recensione  J.  GaUimarti 
et  A  iJjj.  Barhoscc,  cum  notis  Cardinalis  de  Luca  (Cologne, 
10G4).  See  Tiraboschi,  Storia  dcJhi  I.it1rr<ifura  Itali- 
a/ia,  vol.  viii;  Migne,  Hist,  des  Canlinaii.i-,  hi  the  Ency- 
clop.  EccUsiast.;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Blmj.  Cnnnde,  s.  v. 

Lucanus  or  Lucianus,  a  disciple  of  Marcion  and 
the  Gnostics,  flourished  in  the  latter  part  of  the  second 
century.  He  denied  the  reality  of  the  body  of  Christ, 
as  well  as  the  immateriality  and  immortality  of  the  soul. 
He  regarded  the  souls  of  animals  as  of  the  same  kind 
with  those  of  men,  and  allowed  the  resurrection  of  the  for- 
mer. He  is  known  to  have  been  the  author  of  numerous 
forgeries:  among  others,  the  History  of  the  Nativity  of 
the  Virrjin  Mary,  the  Protevanfjdion,  or  History  of  James, 
tlie  Gospel  of  Nicodemus.  He  seems  to  have  been  the 
same  heretic  who  is  sometimes  called  Lucius,  Leicius, 
Leucius,  Lentitius,  Leontius,  Lentius,  Seleucus,  Charinus, 
Nexocharides,  and  Leonides.  —  Yaxrax,  Eccles.  Diet,  s.  v. 
See  Schaflf,  Ch.  Hist,  i,  245.     See  Lucian,  St. 

Lucarius,  Cvrillus.     See  Cyril,  Lucar. 

Lu'cas  {XovKciQjYulg.  Lucas),  a  friend  and  compan- 
ion of  Paid  during  his  imprisonment  at  Kome  (Philem. 
24).  A.D.  57.  He  is  doubtless  the  same  as  Luke,  the 
beloved  physician,  who  is  associated  with  Demas  in  Col. 
iv,  14,  and  who  remained  faithfid  to  the  apostle  when 
others  forsook  him  (2  Tim.  iv,  11),  on  his  first  examina- 
tion before  the  emperor.  For  the  grounds  of  his  iden- 
tification with  the  evangelist  Luke,  see  the  article  Luke. 
— Smith,  s.  V. 

Lucas  DE  TuY  (or  Tudensis),  a  Spanish  theologian 
and  writer,  was  born  at  Leon,  where  he  became  canon 
of  St.  Isidore,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  deacon  of 
Tuy,  in  GaUicia.  In  1227  he  made  a  journey  to  Jeru- 
salem, saw  pope  Gregory  IX  in  Italy,  and  also  the  gen- 
eral of  the  Order  of  Franciscans.  He  was  appointed 
bishop  of  Tuy  in  1239,  and  died  in  12.J0.  He  wrote  a 
Chronicle  of  Spain,  extending  from  670  to  1236  (pub- 
lished by  Schott  in  his  Hisp.  111.,  Francf.  1G63,  fol.,  vol. 
iv),  and  a  Vita  et  historia  translationis  S.Isidori,  which 
is  reproduced  in  the  article  on  that  saint  in  the  Acta 
Sanctorum,  April  4.  The  second  part  of  this  work, 
which  does  not  at  all  relate  to  St.  Isidore,  is  a  passionate 
and  superficial  attack  against  the  Cathari  (q.  v.) ;  valu- 
able, however,  for  its  information  concernhig  some  cus- 
toms of  that  sect  in  the  south  of  France  and  in  Spain. 
Tliis  part  of  Lucas's  work  was  published  separately  by 
Mariana,  under  the  inappropriate  title  of  Lihri  tree  de 
altera  vita  fideique  controversiis  contra  Albigensium  er- 
7-ures  (Ingolst.  1613,  4to;  reprinted  in  the  Biblioth.  Pa- 
trum  Maxima,  xxv,  188,  and  in  the  Bibliotheca  Pati-um 
of  Cologne,  xiii,  228).  Lucas  also  rejected  as  heretical 
tlie  view  which  afterwards  obtained  of  the  three  persons 
of  the  Trinity  being  of  different  ages,  and  asserted,  con- 
trarily  to  the  then  prevailing  notion,  that  Christ  ought 
n(jt  to  be  represented  as  crucified  with  the  feet  crossed, 
but  with  the  two  feet  side  by  side,  each  pierced  with  a 
separate  nail.— llerzog,  Real-Eiicykl.  viii,  558.    (J.  N.  P.) 

Lucas,  Franciscus  (Buugknsis),  one  of  the  ablest 
of  the  Koman  Catholic  theologians  of  the  16th  century, 
was  born  at  Bruges  in  1549.  lie  studied  theology  at 
Louvaiu,  and  became  at  once  celebrated  for  his  knowl- 
edge of  the  sacred  languages  and  tlieir  cognate  dialects. 
In  1562  he  was  appointed  archdeacon  and  dean  of  the 
cathedral  of  St.  Omer,  and  there  he  remained  until  his 
death,  Feb.  19, 1619.  As  the  fruits  of  his  great  scholar- 
ship he  has  left  us  mainly  works  of  value  in  Biblical 
theology.  The  following  deserve  special  mention:  (1) 
the  edition  of  the  BiUia  Jleyia  (brought  out  In-  Plantin, 
the  famous  printer  of  Antwerp,  under  the  auspices  of 
I'hilip  II  of  Spain),  which  Lucas  superintended.  But 
the  work  by  which  he  is  princi])ally  known  is  (2)  his 
Commentarius  in  Quatuor  Evanyelia  (Antw.  1606),  which 
was  completed  by  ISupplementum  Cummeutar.  in  Luc.  et 


Joann.  (Antw.  1612, 1616),  a  commentary  of  no  ordinary 
merit.  "  I^ntirely  passing  by,  or  alluding  in  the  brief- 
est manner  to  the  mystical  sense,  and  omitting  all  doc- 
trinal discussions,  he  explains  clearly  and  concisely  the 
literal  meaning,  illustrating  it  frequently  from  the  ( Jreek 
and  Latin  fathers,  as  well  as  from  later  writers  of  au- 
thority, though  never  burdening  his  pages  with  lists  of 
conflicting  authorities.  His  plan  is  a  simple  one,  and 
judiciously  carried  out.  He  chooses  one  sense,  and  that 
the  one  which  the  sacred  writer  appeared  to  have  had 
in  view,  and  briefly  expounds  and  illustrates  that,  never 
distracting  his  readers  with  varying  interpretations  only 
mentioned  to  be  rejected.  Lucas  had  no  mean  critical 
ability,  and  his  knowledge  of  Greek,  Hebrew,  and  Syriac 
was  exact  and  trustworthy.  A  truly  devotional  spirit 
breathes  through  the  whole."  (3)  Notationes  in  Sacr. 
Bibl.  (Antw.  1580-83),  with  a  carefid  summary  of  the 
various  readings,  which  were  also  appended  to  the  edi- 
tion of  the  Vulgate  that  appeared  from  the  press  of 
Plantin  with  Emman.  Sa's  notes  (Antw.  1624),  under  the 
title  Er.  Lucce,  Roman,  correct,  in  Bibl.  Latin,  loc.  insig- 
niora.  (4)  Sacrorum  Bibliontm  VulyatcB  editionis  Con- 
cordantue  (Antw.  1606,  5  vols.  fol. ;  best  ed.  Antw.  1G42). 
See  Fabricius,  Hist.  Biblioth.  p.  i  and  iii ;  Dupin,  A  uteurs 
Ecclesiast.  du  dix-septieme  Siecle,  coL  1572 ;  Simon,  Hist. 
Crit.  des  Versions  du  Nouv.  Test.  chap,  iii ;  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog.  Generale,  voL  xxxii,  s.  v. ;  Kitto,  Cyclop.  Bibl.  Lit. 
vol.  ii,  s.  V. 

Lucas,  Richard,  an  English  clergyman  and  mor- 
alist, was  born  in  1648  in  Radnorshire,  Wales,  entered 
Jesus  College,  Oxford,  in  1664,  and,  after  taking  his 
degree,  was  for  some  time  engaged  in  teaching.  He 
finally  entered  the  ministry,  and  became  vicar  of  St. 
Stephen's,  Coleman  Street,  London,  in  1G83.  In  1696 
he  became  prebend  of  ^yestminster.  Blindness  afilicted 
him  in  his  later  years.  He  died  in  June,  1715,  at  Lon- 
don. He  published  a  number  of  occasional  sermons 
(1683-1704;  3d  ecUt,  1710,  2  vols.;  1712-16-17,  3  vols.; 
and  2d  ed.  1722,  8  vols.).  Among  his  devotional  trea- 
tises the  following  are  highly  recommended  by  such 
critics  as  Knox,  dean  Stanhope,  bishop  Jebb,  Sir  Eich- 
ard  Steele,  and  Dr.  Doddridge  :  Inquiry  after  Happiness 
(1685,  2  vols.)': — Practical  Christianity,  or  cm  Account 
of  the  Holiness  ivhich  the  Gospel  enjoins,  with  the  Motives 
to  it,  etc.  (5th  edit.  1700;  last  edit.  1838).  See  Wood, 
Athen.  Oxon. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Authors,  s.  v. 

Luce,  Abraham,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  born 
at  Northville,  Long  Island,  N.  Y.,  March  13, 1791 ;  studied 
at  Clinton  Academy,  Easthampton,  and  afterwards  the- 
ology with  the  Key.  .Jonathan  Hunting,  of  Southold,  and 
Rev.  Dr.  Aaron  Woolworth.  of  Bridgehampton,  L.  I.,  and 
also  with  Prof.  Porter,  of  Andover.Mass.  In  1812  he  was 
licensed  by  the  Long  Island  Prcsbyten,-,  and  in  1813  was 
ordained  pastor  of  the  church  at  Westhampton.  He  was 
chosen  for  three  consecutive  years  to  represent  the  Pres- 
bytery in  the  General  Assembly,  and  was  a  great  many 
times  elected  moderator.  He  died  Oct.  23, 1865.  Mr. 
Luce  was  a  man  of  fine  abilities,  and  superior  as  an  ex- 
ecutive officer.  He  held  a  high  place  in  the  esteem  and 
confidence  of  his  ministerial  brethren,  and  was  always 
placed  first  on  responsible  commissions  and  committees. 
See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  A  Im.  1867,  p.  31 1.     (J.  L.  S.) 

Lucernariuni  (Xvxi'ni^i'a),  a  name  given  to  the 
evening  service  of  the  ancient  Church,  because  ere  it 
began  it  was  usually  dusk,  and  the  place  had  to  be 
lighted  up  with  lamps.  See  Bingham,  Antiqu.  Chris- 
tian Church,  bk.  xiii,  ch.  ix,  §  7.    See  Hours  ;  Vesi>ers. 

Lucia,  St.,  a  Roman  Catholic  saint  of  the  3d  or  the 
beginning  of  the  4th  centur\-,  is  said  to  have  been  of  a 
noble  Sicilian  family.  Her  legendary  history  is  as  fol- 
lows. Having  gone  on  a  pilgrimage  with  her  mother 
to  the  grave  of  St,  Agatha  for  the  restoration  of  the  lat- 
ter's  liealth,'she  resolved  to  become  a  nun.  Her  mother 
assented,  but  a  young  man  whom  she  was  engaged  to 
marr\-.  angry  at  her  resolution,  denounced  her  as  a 
Cliristian.     Slie  acknowledged  the  truth  of  the  charge 


LUCIAN 


539 


LUCIAN" 


when  brought  before  the  judges,  and  was  condemned  to 
enter  a  brothel ;  but  when  Paschasius  gave  the  order  to 
•take  her  thence  it  was  foimd  impossible  to  move  her 
from  the  spot,  even  though  yokes  of  oxen  were  employed 
to  draw  her.  Paschasius  now  attempted  to  burn  her, 
and  had  boiling  pitch  and  oil  poured  on  her,  but  in  vain ; 
he  then  ran  her  through  with  a  sword,  when  she  proph- 
esied the  downfall  of  Diocletian,  the  death  of  iMaximian, 
and  the  arrest  and  death  of  Paschasius,  She  died  after 
partaking  of  the  body  of  the  Lord,  and  on  the  spot  a 
church  was  afterwards  erected.  Her  life  is  contained 
in  Laurentius  Servius's  Dt irrohaiis  Sanctorum  historiis, 
Dec.  13,  and  in  a  number  of  martj'rologues,  but  it  has 
often  been  attacked  as  spurious  even  by  Eomanists,  and 
is  therefore  not  fomid  in  the  A  eta  Sanctorum.  She  is 
commemorated  on  Dec.  13.  —  Herzog,  Real-Encykloj). 
viii,  49(3 ;  Wetzer  imd  Welte,  Klrcken-Lexikon,  s.  v. 

Lucian  (Aoy/ctaj'of),  a  celebrated  Greek  rhetori- 
cian, the  Voltaire  of  Grecian  literature,  was  born  at  Sa- 
mosata,  a  city  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  in 
the  Syrian  province  of  Commagene.  We  possess  no 
particulars  respecting  his  life  on  which  any  reliance  can 
be  placed  except  a  few  scattered  notices  in  his  own 
writuigs.  From  these  it  appears  that  he  was  bom  about 
the  latter  end  of  Trajan"s  reign  (A.D.  53-117),  that  he 
lived  under  both  the  Antonines,  and  died  about  the  end 
of  the  2d  century.  His  parents,  who  Avere  in  humble 
circumstances,  placed  him  with  his  maternal  uncle,  a 
sculptor,  in  order  to  learn  statuary  ;  but  he  soon  quitted 
this  trade,  and  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  the  law. 
He  afterwards  practiced  at  the  bar  in  Syria  and  Greece ; 
but,  not  meeting  with  much  success  in  this  profession, 
he  resolved  to  settle  in  Gaul  as  a  teacher  of  rhetoric, 
where  he  soon  obtained  great  celebrity  and  numerous 
scholars.  He  appears  to  have  remained  in  Gaul  till  he 
was  about  fort}-,  when  he  gave  up  the  profession  of.rhet- 
oric,  after  having  acquired  considerable  wealth.  During 
the  remainder  of  his  life  we  tind  him  travelling  about 
from  place  to  place,  and  visiting  successively  Blacedonia, 
Cappadocia,  Paphlagonia,  and  Bithynia.  The  greater 
part  of  his  time,  however,  was  passed  in  Athens,  where 
he  lived  on  terms  of  the  greatest  intimacy  with  I'l  mo- 
nax,  a  philosopher  of  great  celebrity,  and  where  he  prob- 
ably wrote  most  of  his  works,  which  principally  consist 
of  attacks  upon  the  religion  and  philosojjhy  of  his  age. 
Towards  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  held  a  lucrative 
public  office  in  Egypt,  which  was  bestowed  upon  him 
by  the  emperor  Commodus.  The  account  of  his  being 
torn  to  death  by  dogs  for  his  attack  on  the  Christian  re- 
ligion rests  on  no  credible  authority,  and  ivas  probably 
invented  by  Suidas,  who  appears  to  have  been  the  ear- 
liest to  relate  it. 

The  writings  of  Lucian,  in  the  form  of  dialogue,  are 
in  a  remarkably  pure  and  elegant  Greek  style,  free  from 
the  false  ornaments  and  artificial  rhetoric  which  char- 
acterize most  of  the  writings  of  his  contemporaries. 
Modern  critics  have  usually  given  him  his  full  meed  of 
praise  for  these  excellences,  and  have  also  deservedly 
admired  the  keenness  of  his  wit,  his  great  talent  as  a 
writer,  and  the  inimitable  ease  and  flow  of  his  dialogue ; 
but  they  have  sehlom  done  him  the  justice  he  deserves. 
They  have  either  represented  him  as  merely  a  witty 
and  amusing  writer,  but  without  any  further  merit,  or 
else  they  have  attacked  him  as  an  immoral  and  infidel 
author,  whose  only  object  was  to  corrupt  the  minds  of 
his  readers,  and  to  throw  ridicule  upon  all  religion.  But 
these  opinions  appear  to  us  to  have  arisen  from  a  mis- 
taken and  one-sided  view  of  the  character  of  Lucian, 
and  an  intent  to  utterly  ignore  the  peculiarities  of  the 
period  in  which  he  flourished.  He  seems  to  us  to  have 
endeavored  to  expose  all  kinds  of  delusion,  fanaticism, 
and  imposture;  the  quackery  and  imposition  of  the 
priests,  the  folly  and  absurdity  of  the  superstitious,  and 
especially  the  solemn  nonsense,  the  prating  insolence, 
and  the  immoral  lives  of  the  pliilosoithical  charlatans  of 
his  day  (see  his  A/craiider).  Lucian  may,  in  fact,  be 
regarded  as  the  Aristophanes  of  his  age,  and,  Uke  the 


great  comic  poet,  he  had  recourse  to  raillery  and  satire 
to  accomplish  the  great  objects  he  had  in  view.  His 
study  was  human  character  in  all  its  varieties,  and  the 
times  in  which  he  lived  furnished  ample  materials  for 
his  observation.  INIany  of  his  picttures,  though  drawn 
from  the  circumstances  of  his  own  days,  arc  true  for  ev- 
ery age  and  country.  As  an  instance  of  this,  we  men^ 
tion  the  essay  entitled  On  those  icho  serve  the  Great  for 
Hire.  If  he  sometimes  discloses  the  follies  and  vices 
of  mankind  too  freely,  and  occasionally  uses  expressions 
which  are  revolting  to  our  ideas  of  morality,  it  should 
be  recollected  that  every  author  ought  to  be  judged  by 
his  standard  of  religion  and  morality.  The  charac- 
ter of  Lucian's  mind  was  decidedly  practical ;  he  was 
not  disposed  to  believe  anything  without  sufficient  evi- 
dence of  its  truth,  and  nothing  that  was  ridiculous  or 
absurd  escaped  his  raillery  and  sarcasm.  The  tales  of 
the  poets  respecting  the  attributes  and  exploits  of  the 
gods,  which  were  still  firmly  believed  by  the  common 
people  of  his  age,  were  especially  the  objects  of  his  sat- 
ire and  ridicule  in  his  dialogues  and  in  many  other  of 
his  works.  That  he  should  have  attacked  the  Chris- 
tians in  common  with  the  false  systems  of  the  pagan 
religion  will  not  appear  surprising  to  any  one  who  con- 
siders that  Lucian  probably  never  took  the  trouble  to 
inquire  into  the  doctrines  of  a  religion  which  was  almost 
universally  despised  in  his  time  by  the  higher  orders 
of  society,  who  did,  indeed,  A-isit  with  ridicule  all  re- 
ligious belief.  Says  Gibbon  (Harpers'  edit,  i,  30),  "  AVe 
may  be  well  assured  that  a  writer  conversant  with  the 
world  would  never  have  ventured  to  expose  the  gods 
of  his  country  to  public  ridicule  had  they  not  already 
been  the  objects  of  secret  contempt  among  the  pol- 
ished and  enlightened  orders  of  society."  Yolaterra- 
nus,  indeed,  affirmed,  but  without  stating  his  authority, 
that  Lucian  apostatized  from  Christianity,  and  was  ac- 
customed to  say  he  had  gained  nothing  by  it  but  the 
corruption  of  his  name  from  Lucius  to  Luciauus.  So 
also  the  scholiast  on  the  rereyrhms  calls  him  Trapaj3d- 
7-?;c,  while  the  scholiasts  on  the  T'e?-(B  Hisiorice  and  oth- 
er pieces  frequently  apostrophize  him  in  the  bitterest 
terms,  and  make  the  most  far-fetched  and  absurd  charges 
against  him  of  ridiculing  the  Scriptures.  These  accusa- 
tions of  blasphemy,  however,  coukl  be  made  only  against 
an  apostate,  and  such,  it  is  now  well  established,  Lucian 
was  not.  Born  of  pagan  parents,  he  led  the  life  of  a 
pagan  philosopher  of  the  '2d  centurj-,  when,  as  Gibbon 
tells  us,  "  the  ingenious  youth  who,  from  every  part, 
resorted  to  Athens,  and  the  other  seats  of  learning  in 
the  Roman  empire,  were  alike  instructed  in  everj^  school 
to  reject  and  to  despise  the  religion  of  the  multitude" 
(i,  3G).  Lucian  is  no  more  amenable  to  the  charge  of 
blasphemy  than  Tacitus  or  any  other  profane  author, 
who,  from  ignorance  of  the  Christian  religion,  has  been 
led  to  vilify  and  misrepresent  it.  The  charge  might  be 
urged  with  some  color  against  Lucian  if  it  could  be 
shown  that  he  was  the  author  of  the  dialogue  entitled 
Philopatris.  A  sneering  tone  pervades  the  whole  piece, 
which  betrays  so  intimate  a  knowledge  of  Christianity 
that  it  could  hardly  have  been  written  but  by  one  who 
had  been  at  some  time  within  the  pale  of  the  Church. 
Some  eminent  critics,  and  among  them  Fabricius  {Bib- 
lioth.  Grcpca,  v,  340  [ed.  Harles]),  have  held  Lucian  ac- 
countalile  for  this  production,  but  it  is  now  pretty  gener- 
ally admitted  not  to  be  from  his  pen.  (Compare  Gesner, 
De  ^-Etate  et  A  uctore  PhilopatruHs,  in  which  it  is  shown 
that  the  piece  could  not  have  been  Lucian's;  and  many 
considerations  are  brouglit  forward  which  render  it  very 
probable  that  the  work  was  composed  in  the  reign  of 
Julian  the  Apostate.  Compare  Keander,  Church  His- 
tory,  ii,  89,  note  5.) 

The  works  of  Lucian  may  be  divided  into,  I.  Ehe- 
TORICAL. — Xltpl  -ov  ii'VTTviuv,  Somnium  scu  ]'ita  Luci- 
ani:  'HpoCoTOQ,  Herodotus  sive  Aetion;  Ztvttc.  Zeuxis 
sive  Antiochus ;  'Api.wrici]C,  Ilarmonides ;  "Ekv^^q  rj 
Y[pfV£evo(;,  Srytha  ;  'l—iriac  i)  BaXapiiov,  Hipjiias  seu 
Balneum;  HpoaXa/Xirt  0  Awi'vaoc,  Bacchus ;  llpoaXa- 


LUCIAN 


540 


LUCIAN 


X.ia  J)  "Hprt/cXJ/e,  Hercules  Gallicus;  Tlioi  rov  ijX'iKTQov 
t)  TMV  KVKi'wi',  l)e  Electro  sen  Cy'jnv< ;  Yltpi  rod  o'Ikoi', 
JJe  Doviui ;  lln/i  Tuiv  SiipdSijJi',  JJe  DipsacUbus  ;  Tvpciv- 
voKTOVog,  Ti/rannicida  (perhaps  spurious) ;  'A7rofo;piir- 
ro/iivog,  Abdicatus  (attributed  sometimes  to  Libanius); 
^dXapii;  vrpoiTog  Kai  SiinipoQ,  Phaluris prior  et  alter; 
Myiflf  tyKuii.tiov,  Encomium  Musccr  ;  Ylarpiciog  tyKW- 
/.ttoi',  Putriw  Encomium.  II.  Critical  Works. — AiKt] 
<^(i)V)]iVTtiJV,  Judicium  Vocalium;  At^i<j)dvi](:,  Lexipha- 
nes  (considered  by  some  as  directed  against  the  Onomas- 
ticon  of  Polhix,  by  others  against  Athenjeus) ;  YIwq  Sil 
laTopiai'  avYypcKpeiv,  Quomodo  Historia  sit  conscriben- 
da,  the  best  of  Lucian's  critical  works  ;  'PijTopwv  SiSd- 
ffKaXog,  Rhetorum  Preceptor ;  '^ivSoXoyitjrljg,  Pseudo- 
logista ;  Aij/ioa^cvovq  tyKwfiiov,  Demosthenis  Encomi- 
zim  (rejected  by  some  as  spurious) ;  '^tvcoffO(picTTi](;, 
PseudosopihiMa  (also  attacked,  and  on  better  grounds 
than  the  preceding).  III.  Biographical  Works. — 
' Akk'^av^poQ  J)  '^tvdofiavTiQ,  Alexander  seu  Pseudo- 
mantis;  Arii-iutvaKTog  fiioQ,Vita  Bemonactis ;  and  ITfpi 
Tijg  Ileptypivov  TtXevriig,  De  Morte  Peregrini.  This 
last  work,  containing  an  account  of  the  life  and  voluntary- 
auto-da-fe  of  Peregrinus  Proteus,  a  fanatical  cynic  and 
apostate  Christian,  who  publicly  burnt  himself  from  an 
impulse  of  vainglory  about  A.D.  165,  is  really,  for  us,  the 
must  important  work  under  consideration;  for  Lucian 
here  discharges  his  satire  upon  Cynicism  and  Christi- 
anity. Peregrinus,  a  perfectly  contemptible  man,  after 
having  committed  the  commonest  and  grossest  crimes 
— adultery,  sodomy,  and  parricide — joins  the  credulous 
Christians  in  Palestine,  cunningly  imposes  on  them,  soon 
rises  to  the  highest  repute  among  them,  and,  becoming 
one  of  tlie  confessors  in  prison,  is  loaded  with  presents 
by  them,  in  fact,  almost  worshipped  as  a  god,  but  is  after- 
wards excommunicated  for  eating  some  forbidden  food 
(probably  meat  of  the  idolatrous  sacrifices),  then  casts 
himself  into  the  arms  of  the  Cynics,  travels  about  every- 
where in  the  tilthiest  style  of  that  sect,  and  at  last,  about 
the  year  165,  in  frantic  thirst  for  fame,  plunges  into  the 
flames  of  a  funeral  pile  before  the  assembled  populace 
of  the  town  of  Olympia  for  the  triumph  of  philosophy. 
'•  Perhaps  this  fiction  of  the  self-burning,"  says  Dr.  Schaff 
{Church  llistonj,  i,  189), "  was  meant  for  a  parody  on  the 
Christian  martyrdom,  possibly  of  I'olycarp,  who  about 
that  time  suffered  death  by  fire  at  Smyrna.  .  .  .  An  Epi- 
curean worldling  and  infidel,  as  Lucian  was,  could  see 
in  Christianity  only  one  of  the  many  vagaries  and  fol- 
lies of  mankind,  in  the  miracles  only  jugglerj-,  in  the 
belief  of  immortality  an  empty  dream,  and  in  the  con- 
tempt of  death  and  the  brotherlv  love  of  the  Christians, 
to  which  he  was  constrained  to  testify,  a  siUy  enthusi- 
asm." We  certainly  find  in  Lucian  a  singular  combina- 
tion of  impartiality  and  injustice.  Wrongly  interpre- 
ting rather  than  misrepresenting  the  Christian  belief,  he 
treats  its  advocates  oftener  with  a  compassionate  smile 
than  witli  hatred.  He  nowhere  urges  persecution.  He 
never  calls  Christ  an  impostor,  as  Celsus  does,  but  a 
"crucified  sophist,''  a  term  which  he  uses  as  often  in  a 
good  as  in  a  bad  sense.  But  then,  in  the  end,  both 
the  Christian  and  the  heathen  religions  amount,  in  his 
view,  to  imposture;  and  there  is  in  aU  his  writings, 
says  Pressense  {Early  Years  of  Christianity,  ii  [N.  Y. 
1871,  12mo],  454),  "scarcely  a  page  wliich  is  not  an  in- 
sult to  religion  in  itself.  That  l>y  which  he  is  mainly 
distinguished  is  what  may  be  called  his  universal  impi- 
ety, liis  contempt  of  all  greatness,  goodness,  or  glory. 
He  was  the  most  accomplished  disciple  of  the  nil  admi- 
rari  scliool,"  and  hence  he  has  most  aptly  been  termed 
the  Voltaire  of  liis  day  (compare  llagenliach,  Kirchen- 
gcsch.  d.  ersten  seeks  Jahrh.  |  Lcipsic,  l^!6i)]  p.  101).  It 
remains  a  (luestion  simply  whether  in  these  contemptu- 
ous exhibitions  of  all  religion  he  aimed  merely  to  satir- 
ize the  failings  of  the  advocates  of  religious  belief,  or 
whether  he  actually  himself  believed  riothing.  Tlie  lat- 
ter must  certainly  be  doubted  when  we  consider  Ids 
expose  of  Pyrrlionism  (q.  v.) ;  and  we  are  inclined  to 
accept  as  most  just  the  treatment  he  has  received  at  the 


hands  of  Thomas  Dyer,  in  Smith,  Diet,  of  Gr.  and  Rom. 
Biog.  and  Mythol.  ii,  814,  col.  ii,  based  on  Lucian's  own 
statement  in  his  ' Witvc,  (§  20),  and  in  his  Alexander  (§ 
54),  where  he  indignantly  spurns  the  charge  of  immoral- 
ity brought  against  him,  Mr.  Dyer  concedes  that  Luci- 
an was  "  a  hater  of  pride,  falsehood,  and  vainglory,  and  an 
ardent  admirer  of  truth,  simplicity,  and  all  that  is  natu- 
rally amiable."  (Comp.  however,  the  dissertations  by 
Krebs,  Dc  Malitioso  Luciani  Coiisilio  Religionem  Chris- 
tianam  scurrili  dicacitate  vanam  et  ridiculam  reddendi 
[Opusc.  Acad.  p.  308  sq.],  and  Eichstadt,  Lucianus  niun, 
scriptis  suis  adjucare  voluerit  Religionem  Christianam 
[Jena,  1822].)  IV.  Romances. — Under  this  head  may 
be  classed  the  tale  entitled  Aovkioq  »)  "Ovog,  Lucius  sive 
Asinus,  and  the  'AXyiSrovg  laropiac  Xuyog  a  Kai  j8', 
Ve7-ce  Historiic.  The  adventures  related  in  the  latter 
work  are  of  the  most  extravagant  kind,  but  show  great 
fertility  of  invention.  It  was  composed,  as  the  author 
tells  us  in  the  beginning,  to  ridicide  the  authors  of  ex- 
travagant tales,  including  Homer's  Odyssey,  the  Indica 
of  Ctesias,  and  the  wonderful  accounts  of  lambulus  of 
the  things  contained  in  the  great  sea.  The  adventure 
with  the  robbers  in  the  cave  is  thought  to  have  sug- 
gested the  well-known  scene  in  Gil  Bias.  That  the 
Verce  Hktorice  supplied  hints  to  Rabelais  and  Swift  is 
sufficiently  obvious,  not  only  from  the  nature  and  ex- 
travagance of  the  fiction,  but  from  the  lurking  satire. 
V.  Dialogues. — These  dialogues,  which  form  the  great 
bulk  of  his  works,  are  of  very  various  degrees  of  merit, 
and  are  treated  in  the  greatest  possible  variety  of  style, 
from  seriousness  down  to  the  broadest  humor  and  buf- 
foonery. Their  subjects  and  tendencies,  too,  vary  con- 
siderably. Still  we  vany  divide  them  into  three  classes : 
first,  those  which  are  more  exclusively  directed  against 
the  heathen  mythology ;  next,  those  which  attack  the 
anciest  philosophy ;  and,  lastly,  those  in  which  both  the 
preceding  objects  are  combined,  or  which,  having  no 
such  tendency,  are  mere  satires  on  the  manners  of  the 
day,  and  the  follies  and  vices  natural  to  mankind.  In  the 
first  class  may  be  placed  Ilpopi]5i(vg  i]  KavKacoQ,  Pro- 
metheus seu  Caucasus ;  'EvdXioi  AtdXoyoi,  Dei  Marini; 
TitvQ  'EXeyxdp^svog,  Jupiter  Confutatus ;  Ztvg  rpayi^tioe, 
Jupiter  Tr-agadus,  which  strikes  at  the  very  existence 
of  Jupiter  and  that  of  the  other  deities ;  Qiwv  iKKXtjaia, 
Deorum  Consilium ;  Tu  npijg  Kpovoi',  Saturncdia.  To 
the  second  class  belong  Biiov  irpaaic,  Vitarum  A  uctio  : 
in  this  humorous  piece  the  heads  of  the  diflferent  sects 
are  put  up  to  sale,  Kermes  being  the  auctioneer.  The 
'AXievg  »";  'AvajiiovvTfg,  Piscator  seu  Reviviscentes,  is  a 
sort  of  apology  for  the  preceding  piece,  and  may  be 
reckoned  among  Lucian's  best  dialogues;  EppuTipog  is 
chiefly  an  attack  upon  the  Stoics,  but  its  design  is  also 
to  show  the  impossibility  of  becoming  a  tnie  philoso- 
pher; Euvoi'xog,  Eunitchus ;  (i>iXo'ipivc))g,  on  the  love 
of  falsehood  natural  to  some  men  purely  for  its  own 
sake.  Some  commentators  have  thought  that  the  Chris- 
tian miracles  were  alluded  to  in  §  13  and  §  16,  but  this 
does  not  seem  probable;  the  Apmrsrai, Fugitivi,  is  di- 
rected against  the  Cynics,  by  whom  Lucian  seems  to 
have  been  attacked  for  his  life  of  Peregrinus;  Sc/^— o- 
rrtov  1}  AaTri^ai,  Convivium  seu  Lapitho',  is  one  of  Lu- 
cian's most  humorous  attacks  on  the  pliilosophers.  The 
tliird  and  more  miscellaneous  class,  containing  some  of 
his  best,  includes  Tifiwv  i]  piadv^pwirog,  Timon,  which. 
may  perhaps  be  regarded  as  Lucian's  masterpiece.  The 
NfKrpi/coi  AidXoyoi.  Diedogi  Mortuorum,  are  perhaps  the 
best  known  of  all  Lucian's  works.  The  subject  affords 
great  scope  for  moral  reflection,  and  for  satire  on  the 
vanity  of  human  juirsuits.  Among  modern  writers, 
these  dialogues  have  been  imitated  by  Fontenelle  and 
lord  Lyttelton.  The  MivnnTog  i]  'SiKnofiavnia,  AV- 
cyomanteia,  bears  some  analogy  to  the  Dialogues  of  the 
Dead:  it  wants,  however,  Lucian's  pungency,  and  Du 
Saul  thought  that  it  was  written  by  Menippus  himself 
The  'iKapo/ifviTnTog  y  'VwepvirtxXog,  Icaro-Menippvs, 
on  the  contrary,  is  in  Lucian's  best  vein,  and  a  master- 
piece of Aristophanic  humor.    Xdpwv  i]  iinaKOTrovvTig, 


LUCIAN 


541 


LUCIAN^ 


Contemplanteg,  is  a  very  elegant  dialogue,  but  of  a  graver 
turn  than  the  preceding ;  it  is  a  picture  of  the  smallness 
of  mankind  when  viewed  from  a  philosophic  as  well 
as  a  physical  height.  The  KaTcnzXovq  ))  TvpavvoQ, 
Kataplus  sice  Tyrannus,  is,  in  fact,  a  dialogue  of  the 
dead.  "OvtipoQ  i]  'AXtKrpvuiv,  Somnium  seu  Gallus,  just- 
ly reckoned  among  the  best  of  Lucian's.  Ai'c  KUTijyo- 
povi^ttroc,  Bis  Accusatus,  so  called  from  Lucian's  being 
arraigned  by  Rhetoric  and  Dialogue,  is  chiefly  valuable 
for  the  information  it  contains  of  the  author's  life  and 
literary  pursuits.  We  may  here  also  mention  the  Kpo- 
vocoXwv,  Crono-Solon,  and  the  'ETriaroXai  Kqovikui, 
Epistolce  Satiirnales,  which  turn  on  the  institution  and 
customs  of  the  Saturnalia.  Among  the  dialogues  which 
may  be  regarded  as  mere  pictures  of  manners,  without 
any  polemical  tendency,  may  be  reckoned  "Epioreg ; 
'ETaipiKul  AidXoyoi,  Dialogi  Meretricii;  H\dlov  j)  Ev- 
Xai,  Navir/ium  seu  vota.  Among  the  dialogues  which 
cannot  be  placed  in  any  of  the  above  three  classes  are 
the  EiKuvig,  Imar/ines,  which  some  suppose  to  have  been 
addressed  to  a  concubine  of  Verus,  and  which  Wieland 
conjectures  to  have  been  intended  for  the  wife  of  Mar- 
cus Antoninus ;  Yirip  twv  Eikoviov,  Pro  Imaginibus,  a 
defence  of  the  preceding,  with  the  flatter^'  of  which  the 
ladj'  Avho  was  the  subject  of  it  pretended  to  be  displeased. 
Tut.apiQ,  Toxaris,  on  friendship;  'Ava\apaig,  Anachar- 
sis,  an  attack  upon  the  Greek  gymnasia;  Ilipl  6pxi)(T£- 
wg.  Be  Saltatione:  this  piece  is  hardly  worthy  of  Lu- 
cian,  but  contains  some  curious  particulars  of  the  art  of 
dancing  among  the  ancients.  AuiKt^ig  tvqoq  'Hatocoi', 
Dissertaiio  cum  Ilesiodo,  the  genuineness  of  which  is 
doubted.  YI.  Miscellaneous  Pieces. — These  bear  in 
their  form  some  analogy  to  the  modern  essay:  Tlpbg 
Tvv  etTTovra  YIpofxiBtvg  d  tv  Xuyotg,  Ad  eum  qui  dixe- 
rat  Prometheus  es  in  Verbis ;  Tltpl  bvaibiv,  De  Sacriji- 
ciis,  against  the  absurdities  of  the  heathen  worship,  and 
especially  of  the  Egyptian.  Yltpl  twv  tTil  //icrSfp  avj'- 
6vTiov,De  ifercede  Conductis ;  'AKoXoyia  Tripl  twv  i-ivi 
ft.  avv.,  Aj}ologia  pro  de  Merc.  Cond.;  'YTvip  tov  tv  t?j 
vpocjayopiixTd  TT-raicri-iaToc,  Pro  Lapsu  in  Sulutando, 
a  playful  little  piece,  though  containing  some  curious 
learning.  Ylepi  -n-tvSrovg,  De  Luctu,  in  opposition  to 
the  received  opinion  concerning  the  infernal  regions. 
lipbg  (iTraidevTov,  Adve?-sus  Indoctum,  is  a  bitter  at- 
tack upon  a  rich  man  who  thought  to  acquire  a  charac- 
ter for  learning  by  collecting  a  large  libraiy.  Utpl  tov 
fii)  paSiug  wtaTiveiv  oiaftoXi),  Aon  iemei-e  credendum 
esse  Belationi.  YII.  Poejis.  —  These  consist  of  two 
mock  tragedies,  TpayoTtoSaypa  and  'QKinrovg,  and 
about  fifty  epigrams,  the  genuineness  of  some  of  which 
is  considered  doubtful.  The  following  works,  which 
have  sometimes  been  ascribed  to  Lucian,  are  considered 
by  the  most  eminent  critics  as  spurious :  'AXkvojv  t) 
TTtpi  M(Tai.iop(pwaHoc,  Ilalctjon  seu  de  Transformatio7ie, 
deemed  to  be  by  Leo  the  Academician ;  Ilcpi  Trjg  'Aa- 
TpoXoyiag,  Be  Asti-olor/ia ;  Ilipi  Tijg  'Slvpbjg  ^eoi',  De 
Bea  Syria ;  'K.vviKog,  Cynicus ;  XapiSi]iiog  t]  TTtpi  kciX- 
Xoiig,  Charidemus  sen  de  Pulchro ;  tikpwv  f)  iripi  rrjg 
opDX'lc  Toii  'laSffiov,  Nero,  seu  de  Fossione  Isthmi. 

It  is  probable  that  the  greater  part  of  Lucian's  rhe- 
torical pieces,  as  well  as  some  others,  are  lost.  "His 
writings  have  a  more  modern  air  than  those  of  any  other 
classic  author;  and  the  keenness  of  his  wit,  the  richness 
yet  extravagance  of  his  humor,  the  fertility  and  live- 
liness of  his  fancy,  his  proneness  to  scepticism,  and  the 
clearness  and  simplicity  of  his  style,  present  us  with  a 
kind  of  compound  between  Swift  and  Voltaire.  There 
was  abundance  to  justify  his  attacks  in  the  systems 
against  which  they  were  directed,  yet  he  established 
nothing  in  their  stead"  (Dyer,  in  Smith,  s.  v.). 

Ediiions. —  Lucian's  works- were  first  published  (in 
Greek)  at  Florence  in  1496,  folio,  from  rather  incorrect 
MSS. ;  a  corrected  edition  was  brought  out  at  Venice 
by  Antoni  Francini  in  1535  (2  vols.  8vo),  verj-  good  and 
scarce.  The  first  edition  of  the  Greek  text  with  a  Lat- 
in version  appeared  at  Basle  in  1563  (4  vols.  8vo),  the 
result  of  the  work  of  several  savans:  the  parts  of  Eras- 


mus, T.  !Morus,  J.  IMicyllus,  are  deserving  of  praise;  this 
is  not  the  case  with  that  of  Vincent  Obsopoeus.  The 
notes  by  Sambucus  are  considered  of  no  account,  but 
those  of  Gilbert  Cousin  are  highly  esteemed.  In  1730 
the  distinguished  philologist,  Tib.  Hemsterhuys,  began 
to  print  his  excellent  edition ;  but  dying  in  1736,  before 
a  quarter  of  it  had  been  finished,  the  editorship  was  as- 
signed to  J.  F.  Keitz,  a  much  less  capable  man  :  it  ap- 
peared at  Utrecht  in  1743  (4  vols.  4to ;  republished  by 
Schmidt,  at  Mittau,  1776-1780,  8  vols.  8vo).  This  edi- 
tion contains  a  large  number  of  valuable  notes;  the  last 
volume  is  a  lexicon.  A  mucli. esteemed  edition  is  that 
of  Deux-Ponts,  1789-93, 10  vols.  8vo,  which  is  a  careful 
reprint  of  Hemsterhuys's  edition,  the  lexicon  being  re- 
placed by  an  index,  and  the  10th  volume  containing  the 
various  readings  compiled  by  BeUn  de  Ballu  from  the 
SISS.  in  the  Koyal  Librarj'  of  Paris.  In  1800  Schmie- 
der  published  at  Halle  a  text  without  translation,  with 
various  readings  compiled  from  the  libraries  of  France 
and  Germany.  Tliere  were  to  appear  commentaries  in 
connection  with  it,  which,  however,  were  not  published. 
This  edition  is  much  esteemed,  although  some  of  the 
various  readings  are  thought  to  have  been  collected 
without  sufficient  care.  The  edition  of  Lehmann  (Lpz. 
1821-31,  9  vols.  8vo),  with  a  latge  number  of  notes,  is  of 
great  use  for  the  correct  understanding  of  the  text.  A 
much  esteemed  edition  is  that  of  C.  .Jacobitz  (Lpz.  1837- 
41,4  vols.  8vo) ;  the  text  was  estabUshed  with  the  aid 
of  the  most  valuable  INISS.  and  with  the  greatest  care. 
Dindorf  published  in  1840,  at  Paris,  a  Greek  text  of  Lu- 
cian, with  a  Latin  version,  but  no  notes,  which  forms 
part  of  the  Bibliotheca  Grceca,  and  stands  deservedly 
high.  Separate  pieces  of  Lucian's  have  been  often  pub- 
lished. 

Lucian  has  been  translated  into  most  of  the  European 
languages.  In  French  the  best  editions  are  by  Belin  de 
Ballu  in  1788  (6  vols.  8vo),  and  by  Eugene  Ta'lbot  (Par. 
1857, 2  vols.  18mo).  Among  the  English  versions  may 
be  named  one  by  several  parties,  including  W.  Moyle, 
Sir  H.  Shere,  and  Charles  Blount  (Lond.  1711).  It  was 
several  j-ears  preparing,  and  Drj'den  wrote  for  it  a  life  of 
Lucian,  which  is  very  incorrect.  Carr's  version  (1773- 
1798,  4  vols.  8vo)  is  a  pretty  correct  translation,  but  the 
notes  are  valueless.  The  best  English  ^'ersion  is  that 
of  Dr.  Frankhn  (Lond.  1780, 2  vols.'4to,  and  1781, 4  vols. 
8vo),  but  some  of  the  pieces  are  omitted.  Mr.  Tooke's 
version  (London,  1820,2  vols.  4to)  is  of  little  value.  In 
1675  Charles  Cotton  published  a  burlesque  imitation  of 
some  of  the  dialogues :  it  was  reprinted  in  1686  and 
1751.  The  best  German  translation  of  Lucian  has  been 
furnished  by  Wieland  (Leips.  1788,  6  vols.  8vo).  The 
notes  accompanying  it  are  also  valuable ;  but  the  trans- 
lator left  out  some  pieces  which  he  considered  of  minor 
interest.  Another  good  translation  is  by  Pauly  (Stutt- 
gardt,  1828-1831, 15  vols.  12mo).  See,  besides  the  au- 
thorities already  quoted,  Jacob,  Characterislik  Luciati's 
V.  Samosata  (1832) ;  Tiemann,  Veisuch  ii.  Lucian  und 
seine  Philosophie  (1804):  Struve,  Specimina  ii  de  yEiate 
et  vita  Luciani  (1829-30) ;  Passow,  Lucian  it.  d.  Gesch. 
(1854) ;  Tzschirner,  Fall  des  Heidenthiims,  i,  315  sq. ; 
Baur,  Die  di-ei  ersten  Jahrhunderte,  p.  395  sq. ;  Doivald- 
son,  Greek  Literature,  ch.  liv,  §  3  and  4 ;  Lardner,  Works, 
viii,  ch.  xix ;  Farrar,  Crit.  Hist.  Free  Thought,  p.  48  sq. ; 
Lond.  Qu.  Rev.  1828 ;  Eraser's  Magazine,  1839 ;  Journal 
Sac.  Lit.  vols,  x  and  xii ;  and  especially  Planck,  in  Sfu- 
dien  u.Kritiken,  1851,  and  in  an  English  version  in  the 
Biblioth.  Sacra,  1853  (April  and  July) ;  Smith,  Diet,  of 
Greek  and  Roman  Biogr.  and  Mythol.  iii,  812,  and  the 
excellent  article  by  Theodor  Keim,  in  Herzog,  Real-En- 
cyklopadie,  viii,  497-504. 

Lucian,  St.,  presbyter  of  Antioch,  and  a  martyr,  is 
said  by  some  to  have  been  born  at  Samosata,  in  the  Syr- 
ian province  of  Commagene,  about  the  middle  of  the  3d 
century.  His  parents  died  while  he  was  yet  a  boy,  and, 
left  to  depend  upon  liis  own  resources,  the  twelve-j'ear- 
old  lad  removed  to  iMlessa,  where  he  was  baptized,  and 
became  a  pupil  of  JIacarius,  an  eminent  Biblical  schol- 


LUCIAN" 


542 


LUCIFER 


ar.  He  entered  the  ministry  as  a  presbyter  at  Antioch, 
and  finally  assumed  tlie  lead  of  a  theological  school, 
which  lie  himself  founded.  He  became  greatly  cele- 
brateil  both  as  an  ecclesiastic  and  as  a  Biblical  scholar, 
and  was  an  ornament  of  the  Christian  Church  when  sud- 
denly cut  down  by  martyrdom,  which  he  suffered  A.D. 
3V2,  by  order  of  Maximin,  during  the  reign  of  Diocletian. 
He  was  drowned,  and  was  buried  at  HelcnopoUs,  in  Bi- 
thynia.  Lucian  is  frequently  mentioned  by  ecclesias- 
tical writers  not  only  as  a  man  of  great  learning,  but 
also  as  noted  for  his  piety.  Eusebius  calls  him  a  "  per- 
son of  unblemished  character  throughout  his  whole  life" 
(Hist.  Ecd.  viii,  13) ;  and  Chrysostom,  on  the  anniver- 
sary of  Luciau's  martyrdom,  pronounced  a  panegyric 
upon  him  which  is  still  extant.  Jerome  informs  us,  in 
his  Catalogue  of  Ecclesiastical  Writers  (c.  77),  that "  Lu- 
cian was  so  laborious  in  the  study  of  the  sacred  writings 
that  in  his  own  time  some  copies  of  the  Scriptures  were 
known  by  the  name  of  Lucian ;"  and  we  learn  from  an- 
other part  of  his  works  (Prcef.  in  Paralip.  i,  1023)  that 
Lncian's  revision  of  the  Septuagint  version  of  the  Old 
Test,  was  generally  used  in  tlie  churclies,  from  Constan- 
tinople to  Aiitioch.  Lucian  also  made  a  revision  of  the 
New  Testament,  which  Jerome  considered  inferior  to  his 
edition  of  the  Septuagint.  There  were  extant  in  Je- 
rome's time  some  treatises  of  Lucian  concerning  faith, 
and  also  some  short  epistles ;  but  none  of  these  have 
come  down  to  us,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  fragments. 
Tliere  has  been  considerable  dispute  among  critics  re- 
specting Lucian's  belief  in  the  Trinity.  From  the  man- 
ner in  which  he  is  spoken  of  by  most  of  the  Trinitarian 
fathers,  and  from  the  absence  of  any  censure  upon  his 
orthodoxy  by  Jerome  and  Athanasins,  it  has  been  main- 
tained that  he  must  have  been  a  bcHcver  in  the  Catho- 
lic doctrine  of  the  Trinity;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  Epi- 
phanius,  in  his  Aiwhoret  (xxxv,  vol.  ii,  p.  40,  D),  speaks 
of  the  Lucianists  and  Arians  as  one  sect ;  and  Philostor- 
gius  (who  lived  about  425,  and  -wTote  an  account  of  the 
Arian  controversy,  of  which  considerable  extracts  are 
preserved  by  Photius)  expressly  says  that  Eusebius  of 
Niconicdia,  and  many  of  the  principal  Arians  of  the  4th 
century,  were  disciples  of  Lucian;  yet  this  does  not 
prove  that  their  Arian  principles  were  derived  from  Lu- 
cian's teachuigs.  It  is  nevertheless  probable  that  Lu- 
cian's opmions  were  not  quite  orthodox,  since  he  is  said, 
by  his  contemporary  Alexander  (in  Theodoret,  Hkt.  Eccl. 
i,  c.  4,  p.  1 ;"),  B),  to  have  been  excluded  from  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  by  three  bishops  in  succession,  for  ad- 
vocating the  doctrines  of  Paul  of  Samosata.  Indeed, 
it  was  from  Lucian's  school  at  Antioch  tliat  the  great 
teacher  oi  Arianism  (q.  v.),  Arius  of  Alexandria,  came. 
According  to  Epiphanius,  Lucian  was  originally  a  follow- 
er of  JIarcion,  but  finally  formed  a  sect  of  his  own,  known 
as  Lucianists,  agreeing,  however,  in  the  main  with  the 
Marcionites  (q.  v.).  Like  the  latter,  the  Lucianists  con- 
ceived of  the  Demiurgos,  or  Creator,  as  distuict  from  the 
perfect  God,  6  uya^ug,  "  the  good  one ;"  and  described 
the  Creator,  who  was  also  represented  as  the  judge,  as  o 
ciKuioQ,  "  the  just  one."  Besides  these  two  beings,  be- 
tween whom  the  commonly  received  attributes  and  of- 
fices of  God  were  divided',  the  Lucianists  reckoned  a 
third,  o  TTovrinoc,  "the  evil  one."  Together  with  the 
Marcionites,  they  condemned  marriage,  and,  according 
to  some,  though  ratlicr  (piestionable  authorities,  thev 
even  denied  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  asserting  it  to 
be  material,  and  to  be  followed  by  an  entirely  new  sub- 
stance (tertium  quiddam).  Scc"GNosTicis:vr.  Lucian 
himself,  however,  repented  of  Ids  heresy,  and  returned 
to  the  Human  Catholic  communion  before  his  death. 
It  was  proliably  on  the  occasion  of  his  return  to  the  or- 
tliodox  fold  that  he  gave  to  the  Church  his  Confession 
of  Faith,  which  is  mentioned  by  Sozomen  (IlistxEccles. 
iii,  5),  and  given  at  length  by  Socrates  (Iliift.  Ercles.  ii, 
10),  and  which  was  prf)mulgated  by  the  semi-Arian  or 
Eusebian  Synod  of  Antioch,  A.D.  341  (compare  Smith, 
Diet,  of  ale.  and  Rom.  Bio(j.  i  i ,  8 1 1 ,  col.  1 ;  Bidl,  Dvf.  Fid. 
Mean,  ii,  13,  §  4-8).     See  Luc.\nus. 


There  have  been  three  other  persons  of  the  name  of 
Lucian  connected  witli  the  history  of  the  Churcli :  one 
suffered  martyrdom  in  250;  the  second  was  the  first 
bish(jp  of  Beauvais ;  and  the  third  wrote,  about  415.  a 
letter  on  the  whereabouts  of  the  body  of  St.  Stephen. 
See,  besides  the  authorities  already  quoted,  Tillemont, 
Memoires,  v,  474 ;  CeiUier,  Hist,  des  A  ut.  Sac.  1.  c. ;  Cave, 
I/ist.  litt.  ad  ann.  294 ;  Fabricius,  Bibl.  Grceoa,  iii,  715  S(i. ; 
Herzog,  Real-Encyklopddie,  viii,  504  sq. ;  English  Cgclu- 
pcedia,  s.  v. 

Lucianists  or  Lucanists,  a  sect  so  called  from 
their  founder.     See  Lucanus. 

Lucidus,  a  presbyter  in  the  Gallic  Church  in  the  5tli 
century,  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  members  of 
the  ecclesiastical  party  which  in  that  period  defended 
the  doctrines  of  St.  Augustine  against  Semi-Pelagiau- 
ism  then  greatly  preponderating  in  the  Church.  I'he 
views  of  Lucidus  are  to  be  ascertained  from  the  works 
residting  from  the  controversy  between  himself  and 
Faustus  of  Rieg,  who  obliged  him  to  recant.  The  latter 
wrote  against  Lucidus  his  Fausti  Rejensis  ejHsfola  ad 
Lucidum,  and  the  recantation  of  Lucidus — probably  pos- 
terior to  the  Synod  of  Aries,  475,  as  indicated  by  the 
expression,  "  Juxta  prajdicandi  recentia  statuta  concilii 
damno  vobiscum  sensum  ilium,"  etc. — is  entitled  Lucidi 
errorem  emendantis  libellus  ad  episcopos.  In  some  re- 
spects Lucidus,  indeed,  had  gone  further  than  St.  Au- 
gustine himself,  especially  in  regard  to  predestination, 
allowing  no  free  agency  to  man,  and  making  aU  the 
workings  of  human  conscience  to  be  but  the  effects  of 
the  immediate  and  gratuitous  influence  of  God.  Such, 
at  least,  is  the  accusation  which  was  brought  against 
him  at  the  Council  of  Aries.  The  text  of  his  recanta- 
tion is  to  be  found  in  all  the  Bibl.  Pair,  and  in  the  col- 
lections of  councils.  See  Hist.  Litt.  de  la  France,  ii,  454; 
Mansi,  vii,  1008  sq.;  Bibl.  PP.  edit,  ii,  vol.  iv,  p.  875; 
Wiggers,  August,  u.  Pelag.  ii,  225,  329,  34G;  Schrockh, 
Kirchengesch.  xviii,  148  sq. ;  Gfrorer,  Kirchengesch,  vol. 
ii,  pt.  ii.      (J.N. P.) 

Lu'cifer  (Heb. //ej/^e^',  bb^fl;  Sept.  6  'Ew(70O|Ooe), 
a  word  that  once  occurs  in  the  English  Version  in  the 
lines, 

"How  art  thou  fallen  from  heaven, 

O  Lucifer,  smi  of  tlie  morning  ! 

How  art  tlioii  cut  down  to  the  ground, 

Which  didst  weaken  the  nations  !" 

(Isa.  xiv,  12).  It  is  taken  from  the  Vulgate,  which  un- 
derstood the  HebrcAv  word  to  be  the  name  of  the  morn- 
ing star,  and  therefore  rendered  it  by  the  Latin  name 
of  that  star,  Lucifer,  i.  e.  "  light-bringing."  The  deri- 
vation has  been  supposed  to  be  from  pbtl,  halal',  to 
shine.  The  same  word  here  translated  "Lucifer,"  how- 
ever, occurs  also  in  Ezek.  xxi,  12  [17],  as  the  impera- 
tive of  PP"!,  yalul',  "  to  howl,"  "to  lament,"  and  is  there 
rendered  ^^  hou-l."  Some  take  it  in  the  same  accepta- 
tion in  the  above  passage,  and  would  translate,  "Howl, 
son  of  the  morning !"  But  to  this  the  structure  of  the 
verse  is  entirely  opposed,  for  the  parallelism  requires  the 
second  line  to  refer  entirely  to  the  condition  of  the  star 
before  it  had  fallen,  as  the  parallel  member,  the  fourth 
line,  does  to  the  state  of  the  tree  before  it  was  cut  down. 
Hence  the  former  derivation  is  to  be  preferred,  namely, 
"  brilliant,"  "  splendid,"  "  illustrious,"  or,  as  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint, Vulgate,  the  rabbinical  commentators,  Luther, 
and  others,  "brilliant  star;"  and  if  I/ci/h/,  in  tins  sense, 
was  the  proper  name  among  the  Hebrews  of  the  morn- 
ing star,  then  "  Lucifer"  is  not  only  a  correct  but  beau- 
tiful interpretation,  both  as  regards  the  sense  and  the 
application.  That  it  was  such  is  probable  from  the  fact 
that  the  proper  name  of  the  morning  star  is  formed  by 
a  word  or  words  expressive  of  brUliance,  in  tlie  Arabic 
and  Syriac,  as  well  as  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  (see  Ge- 
scnius,  Commentar,  ad  loc).  Tertulliau  and  Gregory 
the  (Jreat  understood  tliis  passage  of  Isaiah  in  reference 
to  the  fall  of  Satan;  in  consequence  of  wJiich  the  name 
Lucifer  has  since  been  applied  to  Satan,  and  this  is  now 


LUCIFER 


543 


LUCIUS 


the  usual  acceptation  of  the  word.  But  Dr.  Henderson, 
who  in  his  Isaiah  renders  the  line  "  Illustrious  son  of 
the  morning!"  justly  remarks  in  his  annotation:  "The 
application  of  this  passage  to  Satan,  and  to  the  fall  of 
the  apostate  angels,  is  one  of  those  gross  perversions  of 
Sacred  Writ  which  so  extensively  obtain,  and  which 
are  to  be  traced  to  a  proneness  to  seek  for  more  in  any 
given  passage  than  it  really  contains,  a  disposition  to 
be  influenced  by  soimd  rather  than  sense,  and  an  im- 
plicit faith  in  received  interpretations."  The  scope  and 
connection  show  that  none  but  the  king  of  Babylon  is 
meant.  In  the  figiu-ative  language  of  the  Hebrews,  a 
star  signifies  an  illustrious  king  or  prince  (Numb,  xxiv, 
17  ;  compare  Rev.  ii,  28 ;  xxii,  16).  The  monarch  here 
referred  to,  having  surpassed  all  other  kings  in  royal 
splendor,  is  compared  to  the  harbinger  of  day,  whose 
brilliancy  surpasses  that  of  the  surrounding  stars.  Fall- 
ing from  heaven  denotes  a  cudden  political  overthrow — 
a  removal  from  the  position  of  high  and  conspicuous 
dignity  formerly  occupied  (comp.  Kev.  vi,  13  ;  viii,  10). 
— Kitto.  Delitzsch  adopts  the  same  view  {Comment. 
ad  loc).  "  In  another  and  far  higher  sense,  however, 
the  designation  was  applicable  to  him  in  whom  promise 
and  fulfilment  entirely  corresponded,  and  it  is  so  applied 
by  Jesus  when  he  styles  himself  '  The  bright  and  morn- 
ing Star'  (Rev.  xxii,  IG).  In  a  certain  sense  it  is  the 
emblem  also  of  all  those  who  are  destined  to  live  and 
reign  with  him  (Rev.  ii,  28)"  (Fairbaim).    See  Star. 

Lucifer,  bishop  of  Cagliari,  in  Sardinia,  sumamed 
Calaritanus,  a  noted  character  in  ecclesiastical  history, 
the  founder  of  an  independent  sect  known  as  Lucife- 
rians,  flourished  about  the  midcUe  of  the  4th  centurj-. 
At  the  Council  of  M'dan,  held  in  354,  he  appeared  as 
,  joint  legate  with  Eusebius  of  Vercelli  from  pope  Liberi- 
us,  and  here  he  displayed  great  opposition  to  the  Arian 
believers.  He  refused  to  hold  any  communion  with  the 
clergy  who  had,  during  the  reign  of  Constantius,  con- 
formed to  the  Arian  doctrines,  although  it  had  been  de- 
termined in  a  synod  at  Alexandria,  in  352,  to  receive 
again  into  the  Church  all  the  Arian  clergy  who  openly 
acknowledged  their  errors,  and  was,  in  consequence,  im- 
prisoned for  a  time,  and  finally  banished.  He  took  up 
his  residence  in  Syria,  but  here  also  became  involved  in 
disputes,  and  greatly  increased  the  disorders  which  agi- 
tated the  Church  at  Antioch  by  his  ordination  of  Pauli- 
nus  as  bishop  in  opposition  to  Meletius.  Disapproved 
and  ignored  by  his  former  friends  and  associates,  he  re- 
tired in  disgust  to  his  native  island,  and  there  founded 
an  independent  sect,  whose  distinguishing  tenet  was  that 
no  Arian  bishop,  and  no  bishop  who  had  in  any  measure 
yielded  to  the  Arians,  even  although  he  repented  and 
confessed  his  errors,  could  enter  the  bosom  of  the  Church 
without  forfeiting  his  ecclesiastical  rank ;  and  that  all 
bishops  and  others  who  admitted  the  claims  of  such 
persons  to  a  full  restoration  of  their  privileges  became 
themselves  tainted  and  outcasts — a  doctrine  which,  had 
it  been  acknowledged  at  this  period  in  its  full  extent, 
would  have  had  the  effect  of  excommunicating  nearly 
the  whole  Christian  world.  Lucifer  died  during  the 
reign  of  Valentinian,  about  A.D.  370. 

The  number  of  Luciferians  is  believed  to  have  been 
always  small ;  Theodoret  says  that  the  sect  was  extinct 
in  his  day  {Hut.  Eccles.  iii,  c.  5,  p.  128,  D ).  Their  opin- 
ions, however,  excited  considerable  attention  at  the  time 
when  they  were  first  promulgated,  and  were  advocated 
by  several  eminent  men;  among  others,  by  Faustinus, 
MarccUinus,  and  Hilarius  Diaconus.  Jerome  wrote  a 
work  in  refutation  of  their  doctrines,  which  is  still  ex- 
tant. Augustine  remarks,  in  his  work  on  Heresies  (c. 
Ixxxi"),  that  the  Luciferians  held  erroneous  opinions  con- 
cerning the  human  soul,  which  they  considered  to  be  of 
a  carnal  nature,  and  to  be  transfused  from  parents  to 
children.     Compare  the  article  Novatians. 

Lucifer  himself  is  acknowledged  by  Jerome  and  Ath- 
anasius  to  have  been  well  acquainted  with  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  to  have  been  exemplary  in  private  life,  but 
he  appears  to  have  been  a  man  of  vicilent  temper  and 


great  bigotrj'.  His  writings  were  first  published  entire 
by  Johamies  Tillius,  bishop  of  Meaux  (Paris,  1568,  8 vo), 
and  were  dedicated  to  pope  Plus  V:  Two  Books  ad- 
dressed to  the  Kmjjeror  Constantius  in  Defence  of  Atha- 
nasius : — On  Apostate  Kings: — On  the  Duty  of  having 
no  Communion  with  Heretics : — On  the  Duty  of  dying  for 
the  Son  of  God: — On  the  Duty  of  showing  no  Mercy  to 
those  who  sin  against  God;  and  a  short  Epistle  to  Flo- 
rentius.  The  best  edition,  however,  is  by  the  brothers 
Coleti  (Venet.  1778,  fol.).  See  Schonemann,  i?iMo?/ieca 
Patr.  Lat.  i,  §  8 ;  Neander,  Ch.  History,  ii,  396  sq. ;  Mos- 
heim,  Eccles.  History,  bk.  ii,  cent,  iv,  pt.  ii,  chap,  iii,  §  20 ; 
'!sli\raan,  Hist,  of  Christianity, \i,i^29  sq., 438, 457;  Walch, 
Gesch.  d.  Ketzereien  (Lpz.  1766),  iii,  388  sq. ;  Smith,  Diet. 
ofGk.  and  Rom.  Biog.  and  Mythnl.yol.u,s,v.    (J.H.W.) 

Luciferians  (I.)  is  the  name  of  a  sect  foimded  by 
Lucifer  of  Cagliari  (q.  v.),  which  originated  as  follows: 
In  360  the  Arians  of  Antioch  had  chosen  Meletius  of 
Sebaste,  formerly  a  Eusebian,  but  afterwards  an  adhe- 
rent of  the  Nicene  Confession,  their  bishop.  But  his  in- 
augural discourse  convinced  them  of  their  mistake  about 
his  views,  and  they  deposed  him  after  the  lapse  of  only 
a  few  days.  Sleletius  was  next  chosen  bishop  of  the 
Homoousian  congregation  at  Antioch.  The  appoint- 
ment of  one  who  had  been  an  Arian  was,  however,  re- 
sisted by  a  part  of  the  people,  headed  by  Paulinus,  a 
presbyter.  Athanasius  and  the  Synod  of  Alexandria, 
A.D.  362,  used  every  influence  to  heal  this  schism.  But 
Lucifer  of  Cagliari,  whom  the  synod  for  this  purpose  de- 
puted to  Antioch,  took  the  part  of  the  opposition,  and 
ordained  Paulinus  counter-bishop.  What  next  followed 
has  been  narrated  under  Lucifer.  A  comparison  of  this 
sect  with  the  English  Puritans  is  made  by  Puuchard, 
Hist,  of  Congregationalism,  i,  ch.  iii. 

(II.)  The  same  name  was  afterwards  applied  to  some 
heretics  of  the  Middle  Ages,  who  were  accused  of  ad- 
dressing prayers  to  the  devil  (Lucifer).  It  was  particu- 
larly applied  to  fourteen  of  these  heretics  who  were 
burned  alive  at  Tangermtinde,  in  Prussian  Saxony 
(1336),  by  order  of  the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  infiu- 
enced  by  the  representations  of  the  superior  of  the  Fran- 
ciscans.   These  heretics  were  probably  Frairicelli  (q.  v.). 

Lucifugas,  or  Lucifugax  natio,  Light-haters ;  a 
term  of  reproach  given  to  the  early  Christians,  because 
in  times  of  persecution  they  frequently  held  their  as- 
semblies at  night,  or  before  the  break  of  day. — Farrar, 
Eccles.  Dictionary. 

Lucilla.     See  Donatists. 

Lu'cius  (AevKioQ  V.  r.  AovKiog),  a  Roman  consul 
(vTvaTOQ  'Pw/<aiaij'),  who  is  said  to  have  written  the 
letter  to  Ptolemy  (Euergetes)  which  assured  Simon  I 
of  the  protection  of  Rome  (B.C.  cir.  139-8;  1  Mace,  xv, 
10, 15-24).  The  whole  form  of  the  letter — the  mention 
of  one  consul  only,  the  description  of  the  consul  by  the 
prcenomen,  the  omission  of  the  senate  and  of  the  date 
(comp.  Wernsdorf,  Dejide  Mace.  §  cxix) — shows  that  it 
cannot  be  an  accurate  copy  of  the  original  document; 
but  there  is  nothing  in  the  substance  of  the  letter  which 
is  open  to  just  suspicion.  Josephus  omits  all  mention 
of  the  letter  of  "  Lucius"  in  his  account  of  Simon,  but 
gives  one  very  similar  in  contents  {Ant.  xiv,  8,  5),  as 
written  on  the  motion  of  Lucius  Valerius  in  the  ninth 
(nineteenth)  year  of  Hyrcanus  II;  and  unless  the  two 
letters  and  the  two  missions  which  led  to  tliem  were 
purposely  assimilated,  which  is  not  wholly  improbable, 
it  must  be  supposed  that  he  has  been  guiltj'  of  a  strange 
oversight  in  removing  the  incident  from  its  proper  place. 

The  imperfect  transcription  of  the  name  has  led  to 
the  identification  of  Lucius  with  three  distinct  persons : 
(1.)  [Lucius]  Furius  Philus  (the  lists,  Clinton,  Fasti  Hdl. 
iii,  114,  give  P.  Furius  Philus),  who  was  not  consul  till 
B.C.  136,  and  is  therefore  at  once  excluded.  (2.)  Lucius 
Caecilius  Metellus  Calvus,  who  was  consul  In  B.C.  142, 
immediately  after  Simon  assumed  the  government.  On 
this  supposition  it  might  seem  not  unlikely  that  the  an- 
swer which  Simon  received  to  an  application  for  protec 


LUCIUS 


544 


LUCIUS  I 


tion,  which  he  made  to  Rome  directly  on  his  assump- 
tion of  power  (comp.  1  Mace,  xiv,  17, 18)  in  the  consul- 
ship of  MeteUus,  has  been  combined  with  the  answer  to 
the  later  embassy  of  Numenius  (1  Mace,  xiv,  24;  xv, 
18).  (3.)  But  the  third  identification  with  Lucius  Cal- 
purnius  Piso,  who  was  consul  B.C.  139,  is  most  probably 
correct.  The  date  exactly  corresponds,  and,  though  the 
prrenomen  of  Calpurnius  is  not  established  beyond  all 
question,  the  balance  of  evidence  is  decidedly  against 
the  common  lists.  The  Fasti  Capitolini  are  defective 
for  this  year,  and  only  give  a  fragment  of  the  name  of 
Popillius,  the  fellow-consul  of  Calpurnius.  Cassiodorus 
(Ckron.),  as  edited,  gives  Cn.  Calpurnius,  but  the  eye  of 
the  scribe  (if  the  reading  is  correct)  was  probably  mis- 
led by  the  names  in  the  years  immediately  before.  On 
the  other  hand,  Valerius  Maximus  (i,  3)  is  wrongly 
quoted  from  the  printed  text  as  giving  the  same  prajno- 
men.  The  passage  in  which  the  name  occurs  is  in  re- 
ality no  part  of  Valerius  Maximus,  but  a  piece  of  the 
abstract  of  Jidius  Paris  inserted  in  the  text.  Of  elev- 
en MSS.  of  Valerius  which  have  been  examined,  it  oc- 
curs only  in  one  (Mus.  Brit.  Burn.  209),  and  there  the 
name  is  given  Lucius  Calpiu-nius,  as  it  is  given  by  Mai 
in  liis  edition  of  Julius  Paris  {Script.  Vet.  Nova  Coll.  iii, 
7).  Sigonius  says  rightly  {Fasti  Cuns.  p.  207) :  "  Cassi- 
odorus prodit  consules  Cu.  Pisonem  .  .  .  cpitoma  L.  Cal- 
purnium."  The  chance  of  an  error  of  transcription  in 
Jidius  Paris  is  obviously  less  than  in  the  Fasti  of  Cas- 
siodorus ;  and  even  if  the  evidence  were  equal,  the  au- 
thority of  1  Mace,  might  rightly  be  urged  as  decisive  in 
such  a  case. — Smith,  s.  v. 

Lucius  OF  Adriaxopi.e  (or  Hadrianopile),  an  East- 
ern prelate  of  note,  flourished  as  bishop  of  Adrianople 
in  the  4th  century.  Decidedly  orthodox  in  his  opin- 
ions, the  predominant  and  powerful  Arians  deposed  him 
from  his  see,  and  in  340  or  341  we  meet  him  at  Kome 
before  pope  Jidius  I  pleading  for  his  restoration.  Al- 
though he  went  back  with  a  demand  from  the  Roman 
pontiff  to  reinstate  the  deposed  orthodox  bishop,  the 
Oriental  prelates  refused  to  recognise  the  papal  author- 
ity, and  he  did  not  recover  his  see  until  the  emperor 
Constantius,  constrained  by  the  threats  of  his  brother 
Constans,  then  emperor  of  the  West,  restored  Lucius 
(about  347).  Upon  the  death  of  Constans  (350),  Lucius 
was  again  deposed  by  the  infuriated  Arians,  and  ban- 
ished. He  died  in  exile.  He  is  commemorated  in  the 
Romish  Church  February  11.  See  Athanasius,  Apolog. 
de  Fuffa  sua,  c.S;  A  rianor.  ad  Monach.  c.  19 ;  Socrates, 
IFist.  Eccl.  ii,  15, 23, 26 ;  Bolland,  A  eta  Sanct.  Februarii,  ii, 
519 ;  Smith,  Diet.  Grlc.  and  Rom.  Biog.  and  Myth,  ii,  825. 

Lucius  OF  Alexandria,  an  Arian  prelate,  flourish- 
ed about  the  middle  of  the  4tli  centurj'.  He  was  elected 
patriarch  by  the  Arians,  when,  upon  the  death  of  the 
emperor  Constantius  (3G1)  and  the  murder  of  the  Arian 
patriarch,  George  of  Cappadocia,  Athanasius  had  recov- 
ered the  patriarchate  of  Alexandria,  and  expelled  the 
Arians  from  the  churches.  Even  in  the  lifetime  of 
Athanasius  the  two  patriarchs  -wrangled  much  for  au- 
thority, but  the  contest  became  fierce  between  Arian  and 
Orthodox  after  the  decease  of  Athanasius  (373).  The 
latter  had  nominated  his  successor  without  any  regard 
to  Lucius,  and  it  was  only  after  the  deposition  and 
imprisonment  of  Peter,  the  nominee,  who  had  in  the 
mean  while  been  ordained,  that  Lucius  regained  the 
patriarchate,  to  hold  it  only  until  Peter,  who  had  made 
his  escape  to  Rome,  returned  with  letters  confirming  his 
ordination  (A.D.  377  or  378).  Lucius  was,  in  all  prob- 
ability, never  again  restored.  In  380  he  is  found  in 
company  with  Demoi)hilus,  Arian  patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople, just  as  he  was  withdrawing  from  the  city  bv 
order  of  expulsion.  Nothing  more  is  known. of  Lucius. 
According  to  Jerome,  he  wrote  Solemnes  de  Puschaie 
Epistolm  and  minor  treatisesT  See  Socrates,  Hist.Eccles. 
iii,  4;  iv,  21  sq.,  24,  37;  Cave,  Hist.  Lift,  ad  ann.  371  ; 
Fabricius,  Bibl.  Greecn,  ix,  247 ;  Labbe,  Conci/ii,  vol.  vi, 
col.  313 ;  Smith,  Bict.  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Biog.  ii,  825. 


Lu'cius  {KovKioc,  for  Latin  Lucius,  a  common  Eo- 
man  name\  surnamed  the  Cyresian  {o  Kvprjimlog, 
"of  Cyrene"),  thus  distinguished  by  the  name  of  his 
city— the  capital  of  a  Greek  colony  in  Northern  Africa, 
and  remarkable  for  the  number  of  its  Jewish  inhabit- 
ants— is  first  mentioned  in  the  N.  T.  in  company  with 
Barnabas,  Simeon  called  Niger,  Manaen,  and  Saul,  who 
are  described  as  prophets  and  teachers  of  the  Church  at 
Antioch  (Acts  xiii,  1).  A.D.  44.  These  honored  dis- 
ciples having,  while  engaged  in  the  ofBce  of  common 
worship,  received  commandment  from  the  Holy  Ghost 
to  set  apart  Barnabas  and  Saul  for  the  special  service  of 
God,  proceeded,  after  fasting  and  prayer,  to  lay  their 
hands  upon  them.  This  is  the  first  recorded  instance 
of  a  formal  ordination  to  the  office  of  evangelist,  but  it 
cannot  be  supposed  that  so  solemn  a  commission  would 
have  been  given  to  any  but  such  as  had  themselves 
been  ordained  to  the  ministry  of  the  Word,  and  we  may 
therefore  assume  that  Lucius  and  his  companions  were 
already  of  that  number.  Whether  Lucius  was  one  of 
the  seventy  disciples,  as  stated  by  Pseudo-Hippolytus, 
is  quite  a  matter  of  conjecture,  but  it  is  highly  probable 
that  he  formed  one  of  the  congregation  to  whom  Peter 
preached  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii,  10) ;  and 
there  can  hariUy  be  a  doubt  that  he  was  one  of  '•  the 
men  of  Cyrene"  who,  being  "  scattered  abroad  upon  the 
persecution  that  arose  about  Stephen,"  went  to  Antioch 
preaching  the  Lord  Jesus  (Acts  xi,  19,  20). 

In  the  Apostolical  Constitutions,  vii,  46,  it  is  stated 
that  Paul  consecrated  Lucius  bishop  of  Cenchrea?,  which 
is  probably  a  mere  inference  from  the  supposition  that 
the  epistle  to  the  Romans  was  written  from  that  Corin- 
thian port.  Different  traditions  make  Lucius  the  first 
bishop  of  Cyrene  and  of  Laodicea,  in  Syria. — Smith,  s.  v. 

It  is  commonly  supposed  that  Lucius  is  the  kinsman 
of  Paul  mentioned  by  that  apostle  as  joining  with  him 
in  his  salutation  to  the  Roman  brethren  (Rom.  xvi,  21). 
A.D.  55.  There  is,  however,  no  sufticient  reason  for  re- 
garding him  as  identical  with  Luke  the  Evangelist, 
though  this  opinion  was  apparently  held  by  Origen  (ad 
loc),  and  is  supported  by  Calmet,  as  well  as  by  AVet- 
stein,  who  adduces  in  confirmation  of  it  the  fact  reported 
by  Herodotus  (iii,  121),  that  the  Cyrenians  had  through- 
out Greece  a  high  reputation  as  physicians.  But  it 
must  be  observed  that  the  names  are  clearly  distinct. 
The  missionary  companion  of  Paul  was  not  Lucius,  but 
Lucas  or  Lucanus.  "  the  beloved  physician,"  who,  though 
named  in  three  different  epistles  (Col.  iv,  14 ;  2  Tim.  iv, 
11;  Philemon  24),  is  never  referred  to  as  a  relation. 
Again,  it  is  hardly  probable  that  Luke,  -(vho  suppresses 
his  own  name  as  the  companion  of  Paul,  would  have 
mentioned  himself  as  one  among  the  more  distinguished 
prophets  and  teachers  at  Antioch.  Olshausen,  indeed, 
asserts  confidently  that  the  notion  of  Luke  and  Lucius 
being  the  same  person  has  nothing  whatever  to  support 
it  (Clark's  T/ieol.  Lib.  iv,  513).     See  Luke. 

Lucius,  king  OF  England,  said  to  have  introduced 
Christianity  into  Britain  in  the  second  half  of  the  2d 
centurs".     See  England,  Chl'kch  of  (I). 

Lucius,  Samuel,  etc.     See  Lutz. 

Lucius  I,  pope,  succeeded  Cornelius  as  bishop  of 
Rome,  after  the  death  of  the  latter,  in  Sept.  252.  He 
was  soon  after  banished  from  Rome,  but  returned,  and  is 
spoken  of  as  a  martyr  as  early  as  March.  253.  There 
seems,  however,  to  be  no  precise  information  as  to  the 
length  of  his  pontificate.  Nicephorus  (//.  F.  vi,  7)  states 
that  he  held  the  office  six-  months ;  Eusebius  (//.  E.  vii, 
2)  says  eight;  and  the  Liber  I'ontijic.  three  years  and 
eight  months,  which  must  certainly  be  an  error.  The 
latter  work  ascribes  to  him  the  ordinances  forbidding 
any  but  persons  of  the  purest  morals  and  the  best  con- 
duct to  officiate  at  the  altars,  and  all  priests  from  enter- 
ing alone  the  residence  of  a  woman ;  also  those  direct- 
ing that  the  pope  and  the  bishops  were  always  to  be 
attended  by  two  priests  and  three  deacons,  who  should 
bear  witness  of  their  conduct.     A  pseudo-decretal  letter 


LUCIUS  II 


545 


LUCKEY 


is  also  ascribed  to  him.  According  to  Cyprian,  Lucius  I 
niust  liave  suffered  a  short  exile  from  liome  during  his 
pontificate,  for  Cyprian  wrote  Lucius  a  letter  of  congrat- 
ulation on  the  occasion  of  his  return  from  exile  iEp-  Gl 
ad  Luc).  According  to  this  author  (£p.  G5),  Lucius 
•wrote  several  letters  on  the  treatment  of  backsliders, 
but  they  are  not  known  at  present.  See  Bower,  IJist.  of 
the  Popts,  i,  Gl ;  Tillemont,  Memoires,  iv,  118  sq, 

Lucius  II,  pope,  of  Bologna,  properly  Gerhard 
Caccianamici,  was  a  regular  Augustinian  chorister  of 
St.  John  of  Lateran.  He  was  made  cardinal  priest  of 
Santa  Croce  of  Jerusalem  by  Honorius  II,  and  vice-chan- 
ceUor  and  librarian  of  the  Church  of  Kome  by  Innocent 
II.  He  was  finally  elected  pope  after  the  death  of  Ce- 
lestine  II,  March  12, 1144.  Soon  after  his  accession,  the 
Romans,  ujjder  the  guidance  of  Arnold  of  Brescia,  rose 
against  the  papal  authority,  determined,  by  an  Arnold- 
ian  spirit  [see  Arnold  of  Brescia],  to  re-establish  the 
old  republic,  and  to  this  end  appointed  a  patrician  in 
the  capitol  to  govern  them,  and  chose  Jordan,  son  of 
Peter  Leo,  as  such,  giving  him  all  the  revenues  of  the 
city,  and  restricting  the  pope  to  the  tithes  and  volun- 
tary offerings.  "  Ciesar  should  have  the  things  that  are 
Ca;sar's,  the  priest  the  things  that  are  the  priest's,  as 
Christ  ordained  when  Peter  paid  the  tribute-money" 
(compare  Neander,  Ch.  Ilistori/,  iv,  151).  The  pope  at- 
tempted to  oppose  this  revolution,  and,  at  the  head  of  a 
band  of  armed  followers,  went  forth  to  attack  the  capi- 
tol, but  was  wounded  by  a  stone,  and  died  of  this  wound, 
Feb.  20, 1145.  See  Gibbon,  JJedine  and  Fall  of  the  Rom. 
Empire,  vi,  42G  sq. ;  Eeichel,*S'ee  of  Rome  in  the  Middle 
Afic'f,  p.  22G  sq. ;  Bower,  History  of  the  Popies,  vi,  52  sq. 
See  also  Temporal  Power  of  the  Pope. 

Lucius  III,  properly  ITbaldo  Allvcixgoli,  be- 
longed to  a  distinguished  family  of  Lucca.  He  was 
made  cardinal  priest  of  St.  Praxedas  by  Innocent  II  in 
1 140,  and  cardinal  bishop  of  Ostia  and  Yelletri  by  Adrian 
IV  in  1158.  Having  distinguished  himself  in  some  ne- 
gotiations with  France,  Sicily,  and  the  emperor  Fred- 
erick, he  became  a  prominent  member  of  the  "  holy  col- 
lege," and  was  finally  elected  pope  Sept.  2, 1181.  Soon 
after  his  arrival  at  Kome,  however,  he  got  into  difficul- 
ties with  the  Romans,  and  was  finally  obliged  to  flee  the 
city.  Christian,  archbishop  of  Mentz  and  chancellor  of 
the  emperor,  started  to  assist  him  with  a  large  army,  but 
died  on  the  way.  In  1183  Lucius  returned  to  Pome,  but 
his  conduct  and  that  of  his  followers  having  created  fresh 
troubles,  he  soon  left  that  city  forever  and  retired  to  Ve- 
rona, where  he  was  nearer  his  imperial  protector.  The 
emperor  himself  arrived  at  Verona  soon  after,  and  the 
two  princes  held  a  consultation  on  the  state  of  the 
Church.  In  this  council  the  Romans  M'ere  denounced 
as  enemies  of  the  Church,  and  the  Waldenses  also  were 
put  under  the  ban,  and  a  crusade  was  advised  to  help 
the  persecuted  Christians  in  the  East.  "While  engaged 
in  demanding  assistance  for  the  crusaders  from  the  kings 
of  England  and  France,  Lucius  fell  sick  and  died,  Nov. 
24,  1185.  His  letters  are  in  Mansi,  C'oU.  Condlioi-um, 
xxii.  See  Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  iv,  G09 ;  Bower,  Hist,  of 
the  Popes,  vi,  159  sq. ;  Hist,  of  the  Papacy,  ii,  202  ;  Mil- 
man,  Hist,  of  Lat.  Christianity,  iv,  439  sq. ;  Buske,  Med. 
Popes  and  Crusaders,  ii,  155,  165, 168. 

Luck,  JoiiANN  Philipp,  a  German  theologian,  was 
born  at  Erbach  Aug.  28, 1728.  In  1745  he  entered  the 
University  of  Jena.  In  1750  he  became  preacher  at 
Giitterbach;  two  years  later,  town -pastor  at  Michel- 
stadt ;  in  1757,  assessor  of  the  Consistory  ;  two  years  af- 
terwards, counsellor  of  the  same;  and  in  1781  was  ap- 
pointed court-preacher.  He  died  Nov.  8, 1791.  Well 
posted  in  all  branches  of  theology,  especially  in  Church 
history,  familiar  with  the  French,  and  furnished  with 
the  gift  of  eloquence,  he  was  a  most  active  and  efficient 
worker  for  the  preservation  of  the  moral  and  religious 
principles  of  the  Reformation.  As  a  commentator,  he 
was  an  opponent  of  the  innovations  of  Bahrdt.  The 
best  of  his  works  in  this  line  are  his  Erlauterungen  des 
v.— M  M 


Briefes  Pauli  an  die  Gemeinen  zu  Galatien  (Jena,  1753, 
4to)  : — Erlauterungen  des  Briefes  Pauli  an  die  Romer 
(ibid.  1753,  4to).  See  Dciring,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutsch- 
lands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Liicke,  Gottfried  Christian  Frieurich,  an  em- 
inent German  theologian,  was  born  at  Egeln,  near  Mag- 
deburg, August  23, 1781.  He  studied  theology  at  the 
universities  of  Halle  and  Gottingen.  In  1813  he  be- 
came lecturer  in  the  latter  university,  and  in  1816  went 
to  Berlin  University,  and  there  lectured  on  the  exegesis 
of  the  N.  T.  Here  he  became  intimate  with  De  Wette 
and  Schleicrmacher,  whose  views  greatly  influenced  the 
remainder  of  his  career  as  a  theologian.  In  1818  he 
was,  at  the  same  time  as  Gieseler,  appointed  professor 
at  the  newly-established  University  of  Bonn,  and  in 
1827  became  professor  of  theology  at  Gottingen.  He 
died  in  that  city  Feb.  14, 1855.  He  wrote  Commentatio 
deEcclesia  Chrisiianorum  aposiolica  (Gotting.l813,4to) : 
—  Ueher  den  neiitestavi.  Kanon  des  Eusehius  von  Cdsarea 
(Berlin,  181G,  8vo) : — Grundriss  d.  neutcstam.  Hermeneih 
tik  u.  ihrer  Gesch.  (Gcitting.  1817,  8vo)  : — Commentar.ii, 
d.  Schriften  d.  Evavfjelisten  Johannes  (Bonn,  1820-32,  4 
vols.  8vo;  3d  edit.  1843-56;  transl.  into  English  under 
the  title  Commentary  on  the  Epistles  of  St.  John,  Edinb. 
1837, 12mo) : — Quasiiones  ac  vindicim  Didymiance  (Got- 
tingen, 1829, 4  parts,  4to).  He  also  took  part  with  De 
Wette  and  Schleiermacher  in  the  publication  of  the 
Theologische  Zeitschrift  (Berlin,  1819-22,  3  parts,  8vo), 
and  with  Gieseler  in  that  of  the  Zeitschrift  fur  gehildete 
Christen  (Elberfeld,  1823  and  1824,  4  parts  8vo).  He 
also  contributed  some  valuable  articles  to  the  Theolog. 
Studien  u.  Ki'itiken. — Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gener.  xxxii, 
1G5;  Pierer,  Universal-Lexikon,  x,  5G9;  Herzog,  i?eo/- 
Encyklop.  viii,  525  sq. ;  Darling,  Cyclop.  Bibliog.  ii,  1879 ; 
Kitto,  Cycluj}.  ofBihl.  Lit.  ii,  8^60. 

Luckenbach,  Abraham,  a  Moravian  missionary 
among  the  Delaware  tribe  of  the  North  American  In- 
dians, was  born  in  Lehigh  County,  Pa.,  May  5, 1777 ;  en- 
tered Nazareth  Hall,  a  boy's  boarding-school  at  Nazareth, 
Pa.;  taught  there  in  1797,  and  in  18C0  became  a  mis- 
sionary, "  and  labored  as  such  with  great  faithfulness  at 
various  stations  for  fortj'-three  years,  when  he  retired 
to  Bethlehem,  where  he  died,  March  8, 1854."  Lucken- 
bach edited  the  second  edition  of  Zeisberger's  Delaicare 
Hymn-book,  and  published  in  the  Delaware  language 
Select  O.-T.  Scripture  Narratives.  See  De  Schweinitz, 
Life  and  Times  of  David  Zeisherger,  p.  659. 

Luckey,  Sajiuel,  D.D.,  a  noted  minister  in  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  Rensselaer- 
ville,  Albany  County,  N.  Y.,  April  4, 1791 ;  entered  the 
ministry-  in  1811,  at  Ottawa,  Lower  Canada ;  from  1812- 
16,  inclusive,  labored  at  Dutchess,  Montgomery,  Sarato- 
ga, and  Pittstown,  and  in  1817-18  in  the  city  of  Troy, 
in  1819  he  was  at  Rhinebeck,  and  in  1820-21  at  Sche- 
nectady, where  he  received  from  LTnion  College  the  de- 
grees of  master  of  arts  and  of  doctor  of  divinity.  The 
next  ten  years  of  his  life  were  spent  at  New  Haven, 
Brooklyn,  Albany,  and  as  presiding  elder  on  the  New 
Haven  District.  In  1822  he  became  principal  of  the 
Genesee  Wesleyan  Seminary  at  Lima,  N.  Y.,  where  he 
remained  four  years.  At  the  General  Conference  of 
1836  he  was  a  delegate,  and  was  elected  editor  of  The 
Christian  A  dvocate  and  Journed  at  New  York.  At  that 
time  the  office  involved  the  senior  editorship  of  the  Book 
Room.  After  an  honorable  service  of  four  years  he  re- 
turned to  the  itinerancy,  first  for  a  time  at  Duane  Street, 
New  York,  and  in  1842  was  again  transferred  to  the 
Genesee  Conference.  From  this  time  to  the  daj^  of  his 
death  (Oct.  11,1869)  he  remained  in  Western  New  York, 
residing  mostly  in  Rochester  City,  but  filling  the  offices 
of  presiding  elder,  pastor,  and  chaplain  of  the  IMonroe 
County  Penitentiarj',  in  which  latter  position  he  served 
for  nine  years,  bestOAving  great  labor  on  the  reclamation 
of  the  fallen.  Dr.  Luckey  had  also  the  honor  to  be  ap- 
pointed in  1847  one  of  the  regents  of  the  State  LTniver- 
sitv.    He  wrote  an  excellent  treatise  on  the  Sacrament 


LTJCOPETRIANS 


546 


LUDEKE 


of  the  Lord's  Supper,  a  work  on  the  Trinity  (a  respecta- 
ble V2mo  volume,  which  gained  tor  liim  a  wide  repute 
for  theological  acumen  and  polemic  tact),  and  a  small 
volume  oi  Ethic  Hijmns  and  Scriptural  Lessons  for  Chil- 
dren. The  hymns,  which  are  original  and  not  without 
merit,  are  rhythmical  paraphrases  of  Scripture,  mostly 
of  the  Psalms.  "  Dr.  Luckey  was  a  man  of  no  ordinary 
power  of  intellect.  For  depth  of  penetration  and  soimd- 
ness  of  judgment  he  had  few  superiors.  His  knowledge 
of  the  forms  and  principles  of  law,  both  civil  and  eccle- 
siastical, was  quite  extensive.  He  was  a  thorough  Meth- 
odist, and  with  the  genius  and  historic  development  of 
his  Church  he  was  as  familiar  as  with  the  alphabet.  He 
long  stood  among  the  magnates  of  his  people,  and  his 
history  is  woven  in  the  history  of  his  Church."  See 
Conf.  'Minutes,  1870,  p.  280  sq. 

Lucopetrians  is  the  name  given  to  a  sect  of  fa- 
natics and  ascetics  who  believed  in  a  double  Trinity, 
rejected  marriage,  scorned  all  external  forms  of  worship, 
and  adopted  absurdly  allegorical  interpretations  of  Scrip- 
ture. They  were  believed  to  have  had  as  their  founder 
an  ecclesiastic  by  the  name  of  Lucopetrus,  but  the  prob- 
ability is  that  Lucopetrus  is  a  nickname,  and  it  is  said 
to  have  been  given  to  a  person  called  Peter,  who  prom- 
ised to  appear  on  the  third  day  after  his  death,  and  who 
was  called  Wolf- Peter  or  Lucopetrus  afterwards,  because 
the  devil  on  that  day  appeared  to  his  followers  in  the 
shape  of  a  wolf.     See  Bogomiles;  Messaliaxs. 

Lucretius,  Titus  Carus,  a  noted  Roman  poet,  de- 
serves a  place  here  as  the  exponent  of  Epicurianism, 
He  flourished  some  time  towards  the  opening  of  the  1st 
century,  but  of  his  life  we  know  almost  nothing  with 
certainty,  as  he  is  mentioned  merely  in  a  cursory  man- 
ner in  contemporary  literature.  St.  Jerome,  in  his  trans- 
lation of  the  Chronicle  of  Eusebius,  gives  the  date  of  his 
birth  as  B.C.  95  (according  to  others,  99),  but  he  does 
not  specify  the  source  from  which  his  statement  is  de- 
rived. It  is  alleged,  further,  that  he  died  by  his  own 
hand,  in  the  44th  year  of  his  age,  having  been  driven 
frantic  by  a  love-potion  which  had  been  administered 
to  him ;  that  he  composed  his  works  in  the  intervals  of 
his  madness,  and  that  these  works  were  revised  by  Cic- 
ero ;  but  all  these  statements  rest  on  very  insutficient 
authority,  and  must  be  received  with  extreme  caution. 
His  peculiar  opinions  rendered  him  specially  obnoxious 
to  the  early  Christians,  and  it  is  possible  that  the  latter 
may  have  been  too  easily  led  to  attribute  to  him  a  fate 
which,  in  its  mysterious  nature  and  melancholy  termi- 
nation, was  deemed  but  a  due  reward  for  the  bold  and 
impious  character  of  his  teachings.  The  great  work  on 
which  his  fame  rests  is  De  Rerum  Natura,  a  philosoph- 
ical didactic  poem  in  six  books  {editio  jtrinceps,  Brescia, 
about  1473;  best  editions  by  Wakefield  [London,  179G, 
3  vols.  4to,  and  Glasgow,  1813,  4  vols.  8vo],  by  Forbiger 
[Leips.  1828, 12mo],  and  by  Lachmann  [Berhn,  1850,  2 
vols.].  English  translations  in  verse  by  Creech  [Lond. 
1714,  2  vols.  8vo],  Good  [Lond.  1805-7,  2  vols.  4to]  ;  in 
prose  by  the  Rev.  J.  S.  Watson,  M.A.  [London,  Bohn's 
Classical  Librarj^  1851,  post  8vo]) — in  large  measure  an 
exposition  of  the  physical,  moral,  and  religious  tenets 
of  Epicurus.  See  Epicukean  Philosophy.  "Regard- 
ed merely  as  a  literary  composition,  the  work  of  Lucre- 
tius stands  unrivalled  among  didactic  poems.  The  clear- 
ness and  fulness  with  which  the  most  minute  facts  of 
physical  science,  and  tlie  most  subtle  philosophical  spec- 
ulations are  unfolded  and  explained  ;  the  life  and  inter- 
est which  are  thrown  into  discussions,  in  themselves  re- 
pulsive to  the  bulk  of  mankind;  the  beauty,  richness, 
and  variety  of  the  episodes  whicli  are  interwoven  with 
the  subject-matter  of  the  poem,  combined  with  the  ma- 
jestic verse  in  which  the  whole  is  clothed,  render  the  De 
Rerum  Natura,  as  a  work  of  art,  one  of  the  rtiost  perfect 
which  antiquity  has  be(HK>athed  to  us"  (Chambers,  Cy- 
clop.  s.  v.).    See  Smith,  Did.  Class.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Lud  (Heb. ic7. "TIP,  derivation  unknown;  Sept.Aoi;5, 
but  in  Ezek.  AvCoi ;  Auth.  Vers.  "  Lydia,"  in  Ezek.  xxx, 


5),  the  name  apparently  of  two  nations.     See  Eth« 

NOLOGY. 

1.  The  fourth  son  of  Shem  (B.C.  post  2513),  and  found- 
er of  a  tribe  near  the  Assyrians  and  Aramteans  (Gen.  x, 
22;  1  Chron.  i,  17).  According  to  Josephus  (.1?;^  i,  6, 
4),  they  were  the  Lydians ;  in  which  opinion  agree  Eu- 
stathius,  Eusebius,  Jerome,  and  Isidore,  and  among  mod- 
erns Bochart  {Fhaleg,  ii,  12)  and  Gesenius.  On  the  con- 
trary, Michaelis  {Spicileg.  ii,  114  sq.)  reads  Till,  and  un- 
derstands the  Indians  (see  also  his  Supj)hmeni,'^o.  1416; 
comp.  Vater,  Comment,  i,  130).  Lud  would  thus  be  rep- 
resented by  the  Lydus  of  the  mj'thical  period  (Herod,  i, 
7).  "The  Shemitic  character  of  the  manners  of  the  Lu- 
dim,  and  the  strong  Orientalism  of  the  art  of  the  Lj'dian 
kmgdom  during  its  latest  period  and  after  the  Persian 
conquest,  but  before  the  predominance  of  Greek  art  in 
Asia  Minor,  favor  this  idea ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
Egyptian  monuments  show  us  in  the  13th,  14th,  and 
15th  centuries  B.C.  a  powerful  people  called  Ruten  or 
LuDEN,  probably  seated  near  Mesopotamia,  and  appar- 
ently north  of  Palestine,  whom  some,  however,  make 
the  Assyrians.  We  may  perhaps  conjecture  that  the 
Lydians  first  established  themselves  near  Palestine,  and 
afterwards  spread  into  Asia  IMinor ;  the  occupiers  of  the 
old  seat  of  the  race  being  destroyed  or  removed  by  the 
Assyrians"  (Smith).  With  the  latter  supposition,  com- 
pare the  apocrj'phal  statement  in  Jutlith  ii,  23.  See 
Lydia. 

2.  One  of  the  Hamitic  tribes  descended  from  Mizraim 
(Ludim,  Gen.  X.  13),  apparently  a  people  of  Africa  (per- 
haps of  Ethiopia),  sprimg  from  the  Egyptians,  and  ac- 
customed to  fight  with  bows  and  arrows  (Ezek.  xxvii, 
10;  xxx,  5;  Isa.lxvi,  19,  where  they  are  associated  with 
Cush  and  Phut ;  comp.  the  Ludim,  Jer,  xlvi,  9,  and  the 
Phud  and  Lud  of  Judith  ii,  23).  Some  have  referred 
the  name  to  the  people  of  Luday,  on  the  western  coast 
of  Africa,  south  of  Morocco  (see  Michaelis,  Spicileg,  i, 
259  sq. ;  also  Supipl.  No.  1417) ;  and  combine  with  this 
the  mention  of  a  river  Laud  in  Tangitanla  (Pliny,  v,  2). 
Others,  as  Bochart  (Phaleg,  iv,  56)  and  Gesenius  (Com- 
ment, ad  loc.  Isa.),  regard  them  as  a  branch  of  the  Ethi- 
opians. Hitzig  (^Comment,  ad  loc.  Isa.  and  Jer.)  thinks 
that  the  Libyans  are  intended  (by  an  interchange  of 
letters),  but  Nubia  appears  to  be  rather  indicated  by  the 
scriptural  notices.  StiU  more  improbable  is  the  suppo- 
sition of  Forster  (Ep,  ad  Michael,  p.  13  sq.),  that  the  in- 
habitants of  the  oases  are  intended,  designated  in  Coptic 
by  a  term  having  some  resemblance  to  Lud.  The  Ara- 
bic interpreters  have  Tanites ;  the  Targum  of  Jonathan 
renders  inhabitants  of  the  nome  of  Neut,  The  opinion 
of  ]Michaelis  (Siippl.  No.  1418),  that  by  the  Ludim  the 
prophets  meant  the  Lydians,  has  lately  been  re-enforced 
by  Gesenius  {Thes.  Neb.  p.  746)  with  the  remark  that 
the  Egyptians  and  Tyrians  employed  soldiers  from  Asia 
Minor  in  their  armies  (Herod,  ii,  152, 154,  163;  iii,  1). 
But  the  Egyptians,  at  least,  had  also  mercenary  troops 
from  Africa,  and  the  Asiatics  referred  to  were  only  from 
Ionia  and  Caria.  Rosellini  (Monument,  stor.  Ill,  i,  321 
sq.)  speaks  of  a  province  of  Liidin,  but  the  locality  is 
uncertain. — Winer,  s.  v.     See  Ludiji. 

Ludamilia,  Elisabeth  von  Schwahzburg  Ru- 
dolkstadt,  a  noted  female  hymnist  of  German)-,  was 
born  April  7, 1640,  and  died  March  12, 1672.  She  wrote 
215  hymns,  many  of  which  are  the  pearls  of  (Jermaa 
sacred  song.  They  were  published  entire  in  1687,  un- 
der the  title  LJie  Stimme  der  Freundin  (new  edit.  1868). 
See  her  biography  by  Thilo  (1856). 

Ltideke,  Christoph  Wilhelm,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  Schiinberg,  Prussia,  Mar.  3, 1737.  In 
1758  he  went  to  the  Levant  as  a  preacher  of  the  Danish 
mission,  and  afterwards  became  pastor  of  the  Lutheran 
Church,  and  director  of  their  school  at  SmjTna.  In 
1768  he  accepted  a  call  to  Jlagdeburg  as  pastor ;  in  1773 
to  Stockholm,  as  German  preacher  and  inspector  of  the 
German  Lyceum.  He  died  June  18, 1805.  He  was  an 
excellent  scholar  in  many  branches  of  theolog}',  has  done 


LUDERWALD 


547 


LUDIM 


much  for  mission  and  education,  and  by  his  contribu- 
tions to  the  literature  on  the  Orient  contributed  large- 
ly to  Bible  geography.  His  Expositio  h-evis  locorum 
SacrcB  Scripturm  ad  Orientem  sese  referentium,  etc.,  de- 
serves special  mention  (Halas,  1777,  8vo). — Doring,  Ge- 
lehrte  Theol.  Deutschlands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

LiiderTvald,  Johann  Balthasar,  D.D.,  a  German 
theologian,  was  born  at  Fahrland,  Prussia,  Sept.  27, 1722. 
He  attended  the  University  of  Helmstiidt,  and,  having 
tinished  the  academical  course,  became  in  1742  tutor ; 
in  1747,  pastor  at  Glentorf,  near  Helmstiidt ;  afterwards 
superintendent  and  first  pastor  at  Forsfelde,  where  he 
died,  August  25, 1796.  He  is  noted  as  a  defender  of  the 
truth  against  Lessing  after  the  publication  of  the  Wol- 
fenblittel  Fragments  by  the  latter.  His  Comnientatio  de 
ri  argumenti,  quod  licitur  e  silenfio  Scriptoris  (Guelph- 
erbyti,  1745,  8vo),  deserves  special  mention.  He  also 
wrote  Spicile(/ium  ohservationum  in  prastautissimum  I)e- 
borce  epinicium,  Judic.  v,  4  (ibid.  1772, 4to). — Doring,  Ge- 
lekrte  Theol.  Deutschlands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Ludgardis  (LudgariS,  or  Lutgardis),  a  celebra- 
ted thaumaturgist  of  the  12th  century,  was  born  about 
1 182.  At  the  early  age  of  twelve  she  entered  the  Bene- 
dictine convent  of  St,  Trudo,  and  soon  gave  evidence 
of  mj'stic  tendencies.  She  claimed  to  have  visions  in 
which  she  held  familiar  converse  with  the  Virgin  IMary, 
the  angels,  John  the  Baptist  and  the  apostles,  St.  Cath- 
arine, and  a  number  of  other  saints.  Once  she  stated 
she  had  seen  St.  John  the  evangelist  in  the  form  of  a 
shining  eagle,  who,  opening  her  mouth  with  his  beak, 
tilled  her  with  divine  wisdom.  But  Christ  himself  was 
generally  the  object  of  her  ecstatic  visions.  After  tak- 
ing the  veil  in  1200,  she  was  in  1205  appointed  abbess 
of  the  convent.  In  1206,  by  advice  of  John  de  Lirot 
and  of  St.  Christine,  she  entered  the  convent  of  the  Cis- 
tercians of  Aquiric,  near  Brussels.  Here  her  visions  be- 
came still  more  striking  and  numerous :  in  her  medita- 
tions on  the  sufferings  of  Christ  her  body  became  cov- 
ered with  blood,  etc.  She  was  also  said  to  have  worked 
a  great  number  of  miracles.  She  died  June  16,  124G. 
Her  biography  was  written  by  the  Dominican  Thomas 
Cantipratanus.  See  Alban  Stolz,  Legenden  (Freib.  1856), 
vol.  ii,  1.  e. — Herzog,  Ileal-E)ici/klop.  viii,  511, 

LUdicke,  Johann  August,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  Cothen  Sept.  15, 1737,  and  was  educated  at 
the  Universities  of  Halle  and  IVankfort-on-the-Oder.  In 
1759  he  became  tutor;  in  1762,  subrector  of  the  German 
Reformed  town-school  of  his  native  place ;  in  1776,  pas- 
tor at  (inetsch,  where  he  remained  until  1813.  He  died 
at  Cothen  July  9, 1821.  For  a  list  of  his  works,  see  Du- 
ring, Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutschlands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lu'dim  (Heb.  Li/dim',  C^^^^j  ■'^'^Pt'  ^MSiiip;  in  1 
Chron.  d''i"I^b,  AojSuip  ;  in  Jer.  AovSoi,  A.V.  "Lydi- 
ans"),  a  Mizraitish  or  Egyptian  people  or  tribe  (Gen.  x, 
13 ;  1  Chron.  i,  11 ;  Jer.  xlvi,  9),  probably  the  same  with 
LuD,  No.  2.  From  their  position  at  the  head  of  the  list 
of  the  Mizraites,  it  is  probable  that  the  Ludim  were 
settled  to  the  west  of  ligypt,  perhaps  further  than  any 
other  race  of  the  same  stock.  Isaiah  mentions  '•  Tar- 
shish,  Pul,  and  Lud,  that  draw  the  bow  (ndj?  i^d^). 
Tubal,  and  Javan,  the  isles  afar  off'  (Ixvi,  19).  Here 
the  expression  in  the  plural.  "  that  draw  the  bow"  (Vulg. 
(tendentes  snfjittam),  may  refer  only  to  Lud,  and  there- 
fore not  connect  it  with  one  or  both  of  the  names  pre- 
ceding. A  comparison  with  the  other  three  passages, 
in  all  which  Phut  is  mentioned  immediately  before  or 
after  Lud  or  the  Ludim,  goes  to  conlinn  the  Sept.  read- 
ing. Phut,  <I>oi;o,  for  Pul,  a  word  not  occurring  in  any 
otlier  passage,  as  the  true  one ;  and  we  also  notice  as 
coincident  the  extraordinary  change  from  ""^Cn  to 
]Vlo(T(i-y;.  See  Pul;  Mesech.  Jeremiah,  in  speaking 
of  Pharaoh  Necho's  army,  makes  mention  of  "  Cush  and 
Phut  that  handle  the  buckler,  and  the  Ludim  that  han- 
dle [and]  bend  the  bow"  (xlvi,  9).  Here  the  Ludim 
are  associated  with  African  nations  as  mercenaries  or 


auxiliaries  of  the  king  of  Egypt,  and  therefore  it  would 
seem  -prdbahlQ,  prwm  facie,  that  the  Mizraitish  Ludim 
are  intended.  F^zekiel,  in  the  description  of  Tyre,  speaks 
thus  of  Lud :  "  Persia,  and  Lud,  and  Phut  were  in  thine 
army,  thy  men  of  war:  buckler  {'^'yo)  and  helmet  hung 
they  up  in  thee ;  they  set  thine  adorning"  (xxvii,  10). 
In  this  place  Lud  might  seem  to  mean  the  Shemitic 
Lud,  especially  if  the  latter  be  connected  with  Lydia ; 
but  the  association  with  Phut  renders  it  as  likely  that 
the  nation  or  country  is  that  of  the  African  Ludim.  In 
the  prophecy  against  Gog  a  similar  passage  occurs. 
"Persia,  Cush,  and  Phut  (A.  Vers.  "  Libya")  with  them 
[the  army  'of  Gog]  ;  all  of  them  [with]  buckler  {'j;t) 
and  helmet"  (xxxviii,  5).  It  seems  from  this  that  there 
were  Persian  mercenaries  at  this  time,  the  prophet  per- 
haps, if  speaking  of  a  remote  future  period,  using  their 
name  and  that  of  other  well-known  mercenaries  in  a 
general  sense.  The  association  of  Persia  and  Lud  in 
the  former  passage  therefore  loses  somewhat  of  its 
weight.  In  one  of  the  prophecies  against  Egj'pt  Lud  is 
thus  mentioned  among  the  supports  of  that  country : 
"And  the  sword  shall  come  upon  IMizraim,  and  great 
pain  shall  be  in  Cush,  at  the  falling  of  the  slain  in  Miz- 
raim,  and  they  shall  take  away  her  multitude  ((^31  w^), 
and  her  foundations  shall  be  broken  down.  Cush,  and 
Phut,  and  Lud,  and  all  the  mingled  people  (SiiSJ),  and 
Chub,  and  the  children  of  the  land  of  the  covenant, 
shall  fall  by  the  sword  with  them"  (xxx,  4,  5).  Here 
Lud  is  associated  with  Cush  and  Phut,  as  though  an 
African  nation.  The  Ereh,  whom  we  have  called  "  min- 
gled people"  rather  than  "strangers,"  appear  to  have 
been  an  Arab  population  of  the  Sinaitic  peninsula,  per- 
haps including  Arab  or  half- Arab  tribes  of  tlie  Egyptian 
desert  to  the  east  of  the  Nile.  Chub  is  a  name  nowhere 
else  occurring,  which  perhaps  should  be  read  Lub,  for 
the  country  or  nation  of  the  Lubim.  See  Chub;  Lu- 
Bi  Ji.  The  "  children  of  the  land  of  the  covenant"  may 
be  some  league  of  tribes,  as  probably  were  the  Nine 
Bows  of  the  I'^gyptian  inscriptions;  or  the  expression 
may  mean  nations  or  tribes  allied  with  lilgypt,  as  though 
a  general  designation  for  the  rest  of  its  supporters  be- 
sides those  specified.  It  is  noticeable  that  in  this  pas- 
sage, although  Lud  is  placed  among  the  close  allies  or 
supporters  of  Egypt,  yet  it  follows  African  nations,  and 
is  followed  by  a  nation  or  tribe  at  least  partly  inhabit- 
ing Asia,  although  possibly  also  partly  inhabiting  Alri- 
ca.     See  Egypt. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  but  one  nation  is  intended 
in  these  passages,  and  it  seems  that  thus  far  the  prepon- 
derance of  evidence  is  in  Aivor  of  the  Mizraitish  Ludim. 
There  are  no  indications  in  the  Bible  known  to  be  posi- 
tive of  mercenary  or  allied  troops  in  the  Egyptian  ar- 
mies, except  of  Africans,  and  perhaps  of  tribes  bordering 
Egypt  on  the  east.  We  have  still  to  inquire  how  the 
evidence  of  the  Egyptian  monuments  and  of  profane 
history  may  affect  our  supposition.  From  the  former 
we  learn  that  several  foreign  nations  contributed  allies 
or  mercenaries  to  the  Egyptian  armies.  Among  them 
we  identify  the  Kenu  with  the  Lubira,  and  the  Siiary- 
ATANA  with  the  Cherethim,  who  also  served  in  David's 
army.  The  latter  were  probably  from  the  coast  of  Pal- 
estine, although  they  may  have  been  drawn  in  the  case 
of  the  Egyptian  army  from  an  insular  portion  of  the 
same  people.  The  rest  of  these  foreign  troops  seem  to 
have  been  of  African  nations,  but  this  is  not  certain. 
The  evidence  of  the  monuments  reaches  no  lower  than 
the  time  of  the  Bubastite  line.  There  is  a  single  foreign 
contemporary'  inscribed  record  on  one  of  the  colossi  of 
the  temple  of  Abu-Simbcl  in  Nubia,  noting  the  pas- 
sage of  Greek  mercenaries  of  a  Psammetichus,  probably 
the  first  (Wilkinson,  Modern  Egypt  and  Thebes,  ii,  329). 
From  the  Greek  writers,  who  give  us  information  from 
the  time  of  Psammetichus  I  downwards,  we  leam  that 
Ionian,  Carian,  and  other  Greek  mercenaries  formed  an 
important  element  in  the  Egyptian  army  in  all  times 
when  the  country  was  independent,  from  the  reign  of 


LUDKE 


548 


LUFT 


that  king  until  the  final  conquest  by  Ochus.  These 
mercenaries  were  even  settled  in  Egypt  by  Psammeti- 
chns.  There  does  not  seem  to  be  any  mention  of  them 
in  the  Bible,  excepting  they  be  intended  by  Lud  and 
the  Ludim  in  the  passages  that  have  been  considered. 
It  must  be  recollected  that  it  is  reasonable  to  connect 
the  Shemitic  Lud  with  the  Lydians,  and  that  at  the 
time  of  the  prophets  by  whom  Lud  and  the  Ludim  are 
mentioned  the  Lydian  kingdom  generally  or  always  in- 
cluded the  more  western  part  of  Asia  Minor,  so  that  the 
Lud  and  Ludim  might  well  apply  to  the  Ionian  and  Ca- 
rian  mercenaries  drawn  from  this  territory.     See  Lur>. 

The  manner  in  which  these  foreign  troops  in  the 
Egyptian  army  are  characterized  is  perfectly  in  accord- 
ance with  the  evidence  of  the  monuments,  which,  al- 
though about  six  centuries  earlier  than  the  prophet's 
time,  no  doubt  represent  the  same  comUtion  of  military 
matters.  The  only  people  of  Africa  beyond  Egypt  por- 
trayed on  the  monuments  whom  we  can  consider  as 
most  probably  of  the  same  stock  as  the  Egyptians  are 
the  ReBU,  who  are  the  Lubim  of  the  Bible,  almost  cer- 
tainly the  same  as  the  Mizraitish  Lehabim  (q.  v.) ; 
therefore  we  may  take  the  ReBU  as  probably  illustra- 
ting the  Ludim,  supposing  the  latter  to  be  Mizraites,  in 
which  case  they  may  indeed  be  included  under  the  same 
name  as  the  Lubim,  if  the  appellation  ReBU  be  wider 
than  the  Lubim  of  the  Bible,  and  also  as  illustrating 
(!"ush  and  Phut.  The  last  two  are  spoken  of  as  handling 
the  buckler.  The  Egyptians  are  generally  represented 
with  small  shields,  frequently  round;  the  ReBU  with 
small  round  shields,  for  which  the  term  here  used,  "J'O, 
the  small  shield,  and  the  expression  ''  that  handle,"  are 
perfectly  appropriate.  That  the  Ludim  should  have 
been  archers,  and  apparently  armed  with  a  long  bow 
that  was  strung  with  the  aid  of  the  foot  by  treading 
(r.'^P  "'5"''^))  is  noteworthy,  since  the  Africans  were 
always  famous  for  their  archery.  The  ReBU,  and  one 
other  of  the  foreign  nations  that  served  in  the  Egyptian 
army — the  monuments  show  the  former  only  as  enemies 
— were  bowmen,  being  armed  with  a  bow  of  moderate 
length ;  the  other  mercenaries — of  whom  we  can  only 
identify  the  Philistine  Cherethim,  though  they  probably 
include  certain  of  the  mercenaries  or  auxiliaries  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible — carrying  swords  and  javelins,  but 
not  bows.  These  points  of  agreement,  founded  on  our 
examination  of  the  monuments,  are  of  no  little  vreight, 
as  showing  the  accuracy  of  the  Bible. — Smith,  s.  v.  See 
Shield. 

LUdke,  Fkiedricii  Germanus,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  Stendal,  Prussia,  April  10, 1730.  He 
began  his  academical  course  very  young,  and,  upon  its 
completion,  became  pastor  of  the  Nicolai  Church  at  Ber- 
lin, which  office  he  held  until  his  death,  March  8, 1792. 
He  was  looked  upon  by  his  contemporaries  as  a  man  of 
an  independent,  decided,  and  philosophical  mind,  and 
ably  defended  the  Christian  truths.  He  was  also  an 
earnest  advocate  of  tolerance,  and  ^v•rote  "  About  Toler- 
ance and  Freedom  of  Conscience."'  —  Dijting,  Gelehrfe 
Theol.  Deutschlunds,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Ltidlow,  John,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  (Dutch)  Reformed 
minister,  was  l)orn  at  Acijuackanonck,  now  Passaic,  N. 
J.,  Dec.  13, 1793;  graduated  at  Union  College,  1814,  and 
at  the  Theological  Seminary,  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  1817. 
His  first  settlement  was  in  the  First  Reformed  (Dutch) 
Church  of  New  Brunswick,  1817;  in  1819  he  was  elect- 
ed professor  in  the  theological  seminary  at  that  place ; 
in  1823  he  became  pastor  of  the  First  Reformed  (Dutch) 
Church  in  Albany,  where  he  sustained  himself  with 
great  power  as  a  preacher,  pastor,  and  public  man.  In 
1834  he  was  made  provost  of  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, and  retained  that  position  with  distinguished 
ability  until  1852,  when  he  j-eturned  to  New  Brunswick 
as  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  and  Church  govern- 
ment in  the  theological  seminary,  and  also  as  professor 
of  mental  philosophy  in  Rutgers  College.  He  died  in 
1857,  in  the  full  assurance  of  hope  and  of  faith.     In 


every  respect  Dr.  Ludlow  was  "  a  mighty  man,"  physi- 
cally, mentally,  spiritually ;  as  a  theologian,  a  preacher, 
and  a  leader  of  men.  He  was  fidl  of  power.  His 
intellect  was  like  his  bodily  frame,  massive,  compact, 
and  vigorous.  His  will  and  las  emotional  nature  were 
equally  strong.  His  spirit  and  labors  in  the  pulpit,  in 
the  professor's  chair,  at  the  head  of  the  university,  and 
in  public  bodies,  were  always  direct,  well  ordered,  and 
indomitable.  "  He  adorned  every  relation  that  he  sus- 
tained, and  was  one  of  the  very  finest  specimens  of  in- 
tellectual and  moral  nobility." — Sprague,  A  nnuls ;  Me- 
morial Sermons  by  Drs.  George  W.  Bethune,  Isaac  Ferris, 
and  W.  J.  R.  Taylor ;  Corwin,  Manual  of  the  Reformed 
Church  ;  N.  Y.  Observer  (18GG) ;  A  merican  College  Presi- 
dents, xliii.     (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

LudlO'W,  Peter,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  born  in 
Enfield,  Conn.,  Aug.  8, 1797,  of  Presbyterian  parentage. 
He  was  for  a  time  a  member  of  Princeton  College,  N.  J. ; 
then  began  the  study  of  law,  but  his  religious  convic- 
tions became  so  deep  that  he  decided  to  become  a  min- 
ister. The  distinguished  Summerfield  aided  him  in  his 
theological  studies.  He  joined  the  Baptist  Church,  re- 
ceived license,  and  was  ordained  Sept.  2, 1823  pastor  of 
the  Second  Baptist  Church  in  Providence,  R.  I.  His 
contuuicd  ill-health  necessitated  his  acceptance  of  a  call 
to  the  Baptist  Church  in  Georgetown,  S.  C.  He  died  in 
New  York,  May  6, 1837.  Rev.  Dr.  Jackson,  of  Newport, 
says  of  him  :  "  His  talents  were  of  a  high  order,  and  he 
was  not  less  distinguished  for  his  evangelical  views  than 
for  his  attractive  and  effective  eloquence."  Sec  Sprague, 
Annals  of  the  Amei'ican  Puljrit, vi,727  sq. 

Liidolf,  Job,  a  noted  Ethiopic  scholar,  also  a  law- 
yer and  statesman  of  distinguished  merit,  was  born  at 
Erfurt,  in  Thuringia,  in  1624.  After  finishing  his  edu- 
cation, he  spent  several  years  in  travelling,  and  subse- 
quently filled  important  stations  in  his  native  city,  and 
under  the  elector  palatine  at  Frankfort.  He  then  de- 
voted himself  to  the  completion  of  his  works,  of  which 
his  Etkioi7ic  History,  and  his  commentaries  on  it,  his 
Amharic  and  Ethiopic  Grammars,  and  Ethiopic  Lexi- 
con, are  the  most  valuable,  and  have  universally  met 
with  the  highest  esteem  from  the  learned. 

Liidolpli  i>E  Saxonia  was  distinguished  among  the 
Dominican  mystics  of  the  14th  century.  He  entered 
the  order  about  A.D.  1300,  and  in  further  pursuance  of 
his  pious  devotion  became  a  Carthusian  at  Strasburg. 
His  Vita  Jesu  Christi  has  often  been  edited  and  trans- 
lated into  various  languages.  He  floiu-ished  in  Saxony, 
but  the  date  both  of  his  birth  and  death  are  unknown. 

Liters,  John  IL,  an  American  Roman  Catholic  prel- 
ate of  great  ability  and  note,  was  born  at  Lutten,  in 
Oldenburg,  Germany,  Sept.  29, 1819,  came  to  this  coun- 
try' in  1833,  and,  after  a  short  service  as  clerk,  entered 
St.  Mary's  Theological  Seminary  at  Cincinnati,  Ohio, 
and  was  consecrated  priest  in  1846,  and  bishop  of  Fort 
Wayne  in  1858.  He  deserves  the  commendation  of  all 
Christian  people  for  his  great  zeal  in  behalf  of  educa- 
tional facilities  for  the  lower  classes  of  his  Church.  He 
was  especially  active  during  his  presidency  over  the 
diocese  of  Northern  Indiana,  where  he  built  many 
churches  and  established  schools.  He  died  in  Cleve- 
land, Ohio,  June  29, 1871. 

Luft,  Fjiiedrich  Matthacs,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  Kirch-Riisselhach,  Aug.  3,  1705.  In  1723 
he  entered  the  University  of  Altdorf,  where  his  uncle, 
G.  G.  Zelter,  was  then  professor  of  theologj'  and  of  the 
Oriental  languages.  In  1730,  when  Prof.  Zelter  resign- 
ed his  professorship  and  became  pastor  at  Poppenreut, 
Luft  accompanied  him,  and  was  made  vicar  in  1732. 
In  1733  he  became  the  first  chaplain  at  Furth,  where  he 
unexpectedly  died,  May  24,  1740.  His  death  caused 
great  grief,  since  his  knowledge  and  unwearied  diligence 
gave  promise  of  future  usefidness  and  eminence.  He 
rendered  great  service  in  issuing  the  Bible-work  of  Prof. 
Zelter.  He  himself  committed  only  a  few  minor  pro- 
ductions to  print,  but  among  his  papers  valuable  MSS. 


LUGO 


549 


LUITPRAND 


were  found,  intended  as  preparations  for  quite  extensive 
labors.    See  Doring,  Gelchrte  Theol.  Deutschl.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lugo,  Juan  de,  a  learned  Spanish  Jesuit  and  car- 
dinal, \vas  born  at  jNIadrid  in  1583,  and  for  twentj^  years 
■was  theological  professor  at  Rome ;  was  made  cardinal 
in  1643,  and  died  in  IGGO.  In  his  office  as  cardinal  he 
was  distinguished  for  his  plain  manner  of  life  and  his 
liberality  to  the  poor.  lie  wrote  De  Incarnutione  do- 
minica  (Lyons,  1G33,  fol.) : — De  Sacramentis  in  genere 
(1G35,  fol.) : — Responsorum MoraUum,Y]h.\'\  (1651,  fol.) ; 
etc.  All  his  works  were  collected  in  seven  large  folios 
(Venice,  1751).  Pallavicini  boasted  of  having  been  his 
pupil.  Liguori  names  him  as  a  theologian  next  to 
Thomas  Aquinas. 

Lugo's  brother  Francisco  was  also  a  Jesuit,  and  the 
author  of  several  theological  works.  They  are  of  minor 
value,  however.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Bior/.  Gene?:  xxxii, 
212. 

Lu'hith  (Heb.  LucJnlh',  Ti'^TlT?  [alwaj^s  with  the 
art.  prefixed],  prob.  tahleted  [see  below]  ;  Sept.  AoviiSi, 
but  in  Jer.  [ninpn]  'AX«w3'  v.  r.  'AXaiS-),  a  Moabitish 
place  (but  whether  a  town  or  not  is  uncertain,  as  it  is 
only  found  in  the  phrase  "  ascent  of  Luhith"),  appar- 
ently situated  on  an  eminence  between  Zoar  and  Horo- 
naim,  on  the  track  of  the  invading  Babylonians  (Isa. 
XV,  5;  Jer.  xlviii,  5).  According  to  Eusebius,  it  lay 
between  Areopolis  and  Zoar.  jM.  de  Saulcy  thinks  it 
may  be  identified  with  a  site  on  the  hOl  Kouehin,  about 
half  way  up  on  the  south  side  of  the  ravine  leading 
north-easterly  from  the  northern  opening  of  the  penin- 
sula of  the  Dead  Sea  (Narrative,  i,  386,  267,  and  map). 
The  position  is  probably  not  far  from  correct  (although 
not  between  Ar  and  Zoar),  but  no  such  name  appears  on 
Robinson's  or  Zimmermann's  map :  it  does,  however,  on 
Van  de  Velde's. 

Luhith,  "  as  a  Hebrew  word,  signifies '  made  of  boards 
or  posts'  (Gesenius,  Thesaurus,  p.  748)  ;  but  why  assume 
that  a  Moabitish  spot  should  have  a  Hebrew  name  ?  By 
the  Syriac  interpreters  it  is  rendered  '  paved  with  flag- 
stones' (Eichhorn,  All//.  Eihliothek,  i,  845,  872).  In  the 
Targums  {Pseudojon.  and  Jerus.  on  Numb,  xxi,  16,  and 
Jonathan  on  Isa.  xv,  1)  Lechaiath  is  given  as  the  equiv- 
alent of  Ar-Moab.  This  may  contain  an  allusion  to 
Luchith,  or  it  maj-  point  to  the  use  of  a  term  meaning 
'jaw'  for  certain  eminences,  not  only  in  the  case  of  the 
Lehi  of  Samson,  but  also  elsewhere.  See  Jlichaelis, 
Suppl.  No.  1307 ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  Buxtorf,  Lex. 
Tulm.  col.  1134"  (Smith). 

Iiuini  (or  Lovino),  Bernardino,  a  celebrated  paint- 
er of  the  Lombard  school,  born  about  1460  at  Luini,  near 
the  Lago  Maggiore,  was  the  ablest  pupil  of  Leonardo  da 
Vinci  and  of  Stefano  Scotto.  He  imitated  the  style  and 
execution  of  his  master  Leonardo  da  Vinci  so  closely  as 
to  deceive  experienced  judges,  and  j'et  his  general  man- 
ner has  a  delicacy  and  grace  Eufficicntly  original  and 
distinct  from  that  of  Leonardo.  Many  of  Luini's  best 
and  greatest  works,  in  oil  and  in  fresco,  are  still  in  a 
good  state  of  preservation,  namely,  the  Magdalen  and 
St.  John  with  the  Lamb,  in  the  Ambrosian  Library  at 
Milan ;  the  Enthroned  Madonna,  painted  in  1521,  the 
Drunkenness  ofXuah.  and  other  ^vorks  in  the  gallery  of 
the  Brera  at  Milan ;  the  frescoes  of  the  Monastero  Mag- 
giore, or  San  Blaurizio,  in  the  same  city,  from  which, 
however,  the  ultramarine  and  gold  have  been  scraped 
off;  several  at  Saronno,  among  them  his  chef-d'oeuvre, 
Christ  disputing  with,  the  Doctors ;  and  other  extensive 
and  equally  good  works  in  the  Franciscan  convent  Degli 
Angeli  at  Lugano,  on  the  lake  of  that  name.  The  date 
of  his  death  is  not  exactly  known,  but  he  was  alive  in 
1530. 

He  had  a  brother,  Ambrogio,  who  imitated  his  style, 
and  several  sons  who  also  were  painters.  See  English 
Cyclop,  s.  V. ;  Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Luitprand,  or  Liudpranp,  king  of  Lombardy 
(A.D.  712-744),  was  bom  towards  the  close  of  the  7th 


centurj'.  In  702  his  father,  Ansprand,  a  powerful  Lom- 
bard lord,  and  an  adherent  of  king  Luitbort,  having  been 
defeated  by  the  usurper  Aribert  II,  retired  to  the  Bava- 
rian court.  He  was  joined  there  by  Luitprand,  but  the 
other  members  of  his  family,  having  fallen  into  the  hands 
of  Aribert,  were  put  to  death.  In  712  Luitprand  and  his 
fatlier  succeeded  in  overthrowing  Aribert,  and  Ansprand 
dying  shortly  after,  Luitprand  succeeded  to  the  throne. 
His  first  care  was  to  restore  peace  to  his  kingdom,  suf- 
fering from  internal  dissensions.  He  enacted  a  series  of 
laws  in  the  years  712,717, 720, 721, 723, 724,  which,  with 
the  Edict  of  Kotharis,  form  the  principal  basis  of  the 
Lombard  law  as  it  remained  in  force  in  Northern  Italy 
until  the  14th,  and  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples  until  the 
16th  century.  I'cace  and  prosperity  once  restored  to 
his  people,  Luitprand  eagerly  sought  for  an  opportunity 
for  the  aggrandizement  of  his  dominions.  He  had  his 
eye  especially  on  Rome  and  the  exarchate,  and  when  the 
quarrel  broke  out  between  the  pope  and  the  emperor 
of  Constantinople  concerning  image  worship,  Luitpn.nd 
suddenly  announced  himself  and  his  Lombards  devout 
worshippers  of  images,  and,  under  pretence  of  taking  the 
pope's  part,  he  seized  the  exarcliate  of  Ravenna  and  sev- 
eral cities.  But  pope  Gregorj'  II,  alarmed  at  the  grow- 
ing power  of  Lombardy,  and  the  prospect  that  hereafter 
the  papacy  might  be  dependent  on  the  rule  of  a  people 
looked  upon  as  vile  barbarians  [see  Lombards],  pre- 
ferred to  seek  aid  in  other  quarters  not  only  for  him- 
self, but  also  for  the  exarcliate,  whose  daj'S  seemed 
about  to  be  numbered.  He  therefore  enjoined  upon  the 
duke  of  Venetia  to  aid  the  exarch  in  retaking  the  prov- 
inces seized  by  Luitprand.  Gregory  at  the  same  time 
persuaded  the  inhabitants  of  the  duchies  of  Spoleto  and 
Benevento  to  throw  off  the  Lombard  yoke.  Luitprand, 
however,  matched  the  pope  in  cunning,  for  he  no  sooner 
learned  the  position  of  the  pontiff  than  he  turned  to  the 
side  of  the  exarch,  and,  after  having  aided  him  in  sub- 
duing his  uisurgent  provinces,  marched  himself  against 
Rome,  with  the  intention  of  taking  his  revenge  on  the 
pope.  The  latter,  however,  succeeded  in  pacifying  Luit- 
prand, and  the  Lombard  returned  into  his  kingdom.  In 
73G,  being  dangerously  ill,  he  surrendered  for  a  while  his 
power  to  his  nephew  Hildebrand,  whom  the  Loniltards 
had  elected  his  successor,  but  when  he  recovered  his 
health  he  found  himself  obliged  to  divide  his  authority 
with  Hildebrand.  In  739  Luitprand  overcame  a  league 
formed  against  him  by  pope  Gregory  III,  and  the  dukes 
of  Spoleto  and  Benevento  and  the  exarch  of  Ravenna, 
and,  to  punish  the  incumbent  of  the  apostolic  see,  he  ap- 
peared before  the  gates  of  Rome.  The  pope,  in  his  dis- 
tress, called  upon  Charles  Martel  for  assistance.  Greg- 
on,-'s  appeal  is  truly  touching:  "His  tears  are  falling 
night  and  day  for  the  destitute  state  of  the  Church.  The 
Lombard  king  and  his  son  are  ravaging  the  last  remains 
of  the  property  of  the  Church,  which  no  longer  suffices 
for  the  daily  service;  they  have  invaded  the  territory 
of  Rome,  and  seized  all  his  farms.  His  only  hope  is  in 
the  timely  succor  of  the  Frankish  king."  Valuable  pres- 
ents accompanied  this  appeal — among  them  the  mystic 
keys  of  the  sepulchre  of  St.  Peter,  and  filings  of  his 
chains,  which  no  Christian  could  resist — also  a  proffer 
of  the  title  of  "Patrician  and  Consul  of  Rome" — yea,  the 
deliverer  of  the  Eternal  City  was  to  become  even  the 
patron  of  the  Romish  Church.  Of  course  Martel  an- 
swered favorably  to  such  an  invitation.  Unfortunately, 
however,  for  the  Romish  cause,  he  died  shortly  after. 
But,  even  before  Martel  could  have  taken  the  field 
against  Luitprand.  the  latter  had  been  induced  to  with- 
draw his  troops  from  Rome.  A  state  of  hostility,  how- 
ever, continued  between  the  Lombards  and  the  Romans 
until  the  death  of  Gregory  III.  The  next  pontiff  (Zach- 
arj')  finally  succeeded,  by  a  personal  visit  to  Luitprand, 
in  securing  a  treaty  with  the  Lombards  by  which  the 
latter  restored  to  the  Church  all  the  possessions  taken 
from  it  during  the  war.  Luitprand  thereafter  seems  to 
have  been  favorably  inclined  to^vards  Zachary  and  the 
Church.     He  died  in  Januai;}-,  744.     See  Paid  Diacre^ 


LUITPRAND 


550 


LUKE 


nistoria  Longohardorum ;  Anastasius,T'7te  Ponfif.;  Mu- 
ratori,  Annales  Script.  Itul. ;  lioefcr,  Xouv.  Hioff,  Gener. 
vol.  xxxii;  Keichel,  See  oj'  Rome  in  the  Middle  Ages,  p. 
bi.  sq. ;  Milman,  Hist.  Lat.  Christ,  ii,  374  sq.     (J.  H.W.) 

Luitprand,  or  Liutprand,  a  distinguished  Italian 
historian,  is  supposed  to  have  been  born  at  Pavia  about 
A.D.  920,  of  a  noble  family  very  high  in  favor  at  the 
court  of  king  Hughes.  Luitprand  received  a  very  good 
education,  and  was  at  an  early  age  appointed  deacon  of 
the  cathedral  of  Pavia.  He  soon  after  became  chancel- 
lor of  king  Berengar,  by  whom  he  was,  about  946,  sent 
on  a  mission  to  Byzantium.  After  his  return  in  950,  he 
fell  under  the  displeasure  of  the  king  and  of  queen  Willa, 
and  retired  to  the  court  of  Otho  I  of  Germany.  He  re- 
mained there  eleven  years,  learned  the  language  of  the 
country,  and  became  acquainted  with  all  the  most  dis- 
tinguished characters.  In  958  he  began,  at  the  request 
of  the  bishop  of  Elvira,  to  write  a  history  of  his  own 
age,  and  he  continued  this  task  until  962,  when  he  re- 
turned to  Otho  m  Italy.  He  was  now  at  once  appoint- 
ed bishop  of  Cremona,  and  was  in  963  sent  by  Otho  to 
pope  John  XII,  ostensibly  for  the  purpose  of  assuring 
the  latter  of  the  emperor's  good  will,  but  in  reality  to 
incite  the  Koman  aristocracy  against  the  pope.  Shortly 
after,  when  the  pope  was  accused  before  the  Synod  of 
Eome,  Luitprand  spoke  against  him  in  the  name  of  the 
emperor.  Two  years  afterwards  Otho  sent  him  again 
to  Rome,  together  with  the  bishop  of  Spiers,  to  direct 
the  pontifical  election,  a  duty  which  he  performed  to  the 
emperor's  entire  satisfaction.  In  968  Luitprand  went  to 
Constantinople  to  negotiate  a  marriage  between  princess 
Theophania  and  the  son  of  Otho,  but  herein  he  failed. 
In  971  he  was  sent,  with  some  others,  to  renew  negotia- 
tions for  the  same  object,  Nicephorus  being  dead ;  but  he 
died  himself  soon  after,  in  the  early  part  of  972.  His 
works,  which  are  of  great  value  for  the  history  of  those 
times,  are  .-1  nfapodosis,  begun  at  Frankfort-on-the-Mainc 
in  958,  concluded  in  Italy  in  962,  a  historical  work,  in 
which  he  seeks  to  revenge  himself  for  the  wrongs  he 
had  suffered,  especially  from  Berengar  and  Willa: — Liber 
de  rebus  gestis  Ottonis  Magni  imperatoris,  an  account  of 
events  from  960  to  964,  ^vhich  is  the  more  valuable  from 
the  fact  that  Luitprand  was  an  eyewitness  and  often  an 
actor  in  all  the  occurrences  he  relates : — Relutio  de  Ivga- 
tione  Constuntinopolituna  of  968,  very  important  for  the 
information  it  contains  on  events  and  customs,  and  the 
best  written  of  Luitprand's  works.  The  Antapodosis 
and  Historia  Ottonis,  of  which  the  original  jMS.,  partly 
in  Luitprand's  own  handwriting,  is  preserved  in  the  li- 
brary of  Munich,  were  published  at  Antwerp  (1640,  fol.), 
and  in  several  historical  works  of  the  Jliddle  Ages,  as  in 
those  of  Reul)er  and  Du  Chesne,  and  in  the  Scriptores  of 
Muratori,  vol.  ii.  The  best  edition  of  Luitprand's  works 
is  contained  in  Pertz,  Monumentii,  vol.  iii,  who  has  also 
published  them  separately.  A  German  translation  of 
the  A  ntapndosis  was  published  by  the  baron  of  Osten- 
Sacken  (Berlin,  1853),  with  an  Introduction  by  Watten- 
bach.  See  Kopke,  De  Vita  et  Scriptis  Liiitjjrandi  (Berl. 
1842,8vo);  Vertz, Mo7ium.  iii, 264;  Wattenbach,  Deufsch- 
lands  GeschichtsquMen  iiii  Mittehdter  (2d  ed.  Berl.  1866), 
p.  209 ;  Contzen,  Geschichtschreiber  d.  sdchsischen  Kaiser- 
zeit,  etc.  (Regensb.  1837) ;  Giesebrecht,  Kaiserzeit,  i,  740, 
742  sq. ;  Donniges,  Otto  I,  p.  199  s(i. ;  Niebnhr,  SS.  Byz. 
vol.  xi. ;  Martini,  Ue.  d.  Geschichtschreiber  Liudprand,  in 
Benkschrift.  d.  Kun.  A  lead.  d.  Wissemch.  of  ]\Iunich,  1809, 
1810 ;  I  locfcr,  Xoni:  Biog.  Gmeride,  xxxii,  219 ;  Herzog, 
Real-EacyUop.  viii,  442 ;  Baxmann,  Politik  der  Pdpste, 
vol.  ii  (see  Index). 

Luke,  the  evangelist,  and  author  of  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles.  In  the  fnUowitig  account  of  liimself  and  his 
Gospel  we  largely  follow  the  articles  in  Kitto's  and 
Smith's  Dictionaries. 

I.  His  Xdtne.—Thh,  in  the  Greek  fiirm,  Aovkuc.  is 
abbreviated  from  XovKavuc,  the  Grtecized  representative 
of  the  Latin  Lucanus,  or  AofwAtcic,  Lucilius  (comp.  Silas 
iox Silranus;  Annas  for  Annaiius ;  Zenas  ioi Zenodor us : 


Winer,  Gram.  p.  115).  The  contraction  of  avoq  into  aq 
is  said  to  be  characteristic  of  the  names  of  slaves  (see 
Lobeck,  De  Substantiv.  in  aq  exeuntibus,  in  Wolf,  .1  nalect. 
iii,  49),  and  it  has  been  inferred  from  this  that  Luke  was 
of  heathen  descent  (which  may  also  be  gathered  from 
the  implied  contrast  between  those  mentioned  Col.  iv, 
12-14,  and  the  oi  tK  -KtpiTOnriQ,  ver.  11),  and  a  libertus, 
or  freedman.  This  latter  idea  has  found  confirmation  in 
his  profession  of  a  physician  (Col.  iv,  14),  the  practice  of 
medicine  among  the  Romans  having  been  in  great  meas- 
lu-e  confined  to  persons  of  servile  rank  (Middleton,  De 
Medicorinn  npud  Roman,  degent.  Condiiione).  To  this, 
however,  there  were  many  exceptions  (see  Smith,  Diet. 
of  Class.  A  ntiq.  s.  v.  IMedicus),  and  it  is  altogether  an  in- 
sufficient basis  on  which  to  erect  a  theory  as  to  the  evan- 
gelist's social  rank.  So  much,  however,  we  may  proba- 
bly safely  infer  from  his  profession,  that  he  was  a  man 
of  superior  education  and  mental  culture  to  the  gener- 
ality of  the  apostles,  the  fishermen  and  tax-gatherers  of 
the  Sea  of  Galilee. 

II.  Scripture  History. — All  that  can  be  with  certainty 
known  of  Luke  must  be  gathered  from  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  and  the  Epistles  of  Paul.  The  result  is  but 
scanty.  He  was  not  born  a  Jew,  for  he  is  not  reckoned 
among  them  "  of  the  circumcision"  by  Paul  (comp.  Col. 
iv,  11  with  ver.  14).  If  this  be  not  thought  conclusive, 
nothing  can  be  argued  from  the  Greek  idioms  in  his 
style,  for  he  might  be  a  Hellenistic  Jew,  nor  from  the 
Gentile  tendency  of  his  Gospel,  for  this  it  would  share 
with  the  inspired  writings  of  Paul,  a  Pharisee  brought 
up  at  the  feet  of  Gamaliel.  The  date  of  his  conversion 
is  uncertain.  He  was  not,  indeed, "  an  eyewitness  and 
minister  of  the  Word  from  the  beginning"  (Luke  i,  2),  or 
he  would  have  rested  his  claim  as  an  evangelist  upon 
that  ground.  His  name  does  not  once  occur  in  the  Acts, 
and  we  can  only  infer  his  presence  or  absence  from  the 
sudden  changes  from  the  third  to  the  first  person,  and 
vice  versa,  of  which  phenomenon,  notwithstanding  all 
that  has  of  late  been  lU'ged  against  it,  this,  which  has 
been  accepted  since  the  time  of  Iren.ijus  (Contr.  Har.  iii, 
14),  is  the  only  satisfactory  explanation.  Rejecting  the 
reading  avvtaTpaupkviov  ot  i'iixCjv,  Acts  xi,  28  (which 
only  rests  on  1).  and  Augustine,  De  Serm.  Dom.  ii,  17), 
which  would  bring  Luke  into  connection  with  Paul  at  a 
much  earlier  period,  as  well  as  the  identification  of  the 
evangelist  with  Lucius  of  Cyrene  (Acts  xiii,  1 ;  Rom. 
xvi,  21),  which  was  current  in  Origen's  time  {ad  Rom. 
x\'i,  39 ;  see  Lardner,  Credibility,  vi,  124 ;  Marsh,  Micha- 
elis,  iv,  234),  and  would  make  him  a  kinsman  of  Paul, 
we  first  find  Luke  in  Paul's  company  at  Troas,  and  sail- 
ing with  him  to  IMacedonia  (Acts  xvi,  10, 11).  A.D.  48. 
Of  his  previous  history,  and  the  time  and  manner  of  his 
conversion,  we. know  nothing,  but  Ewald's  su])|)Osition 
(Gesch.  d.  V.  Isr.  vi,  35, 448)  is  not  at  all  improbable,  that 
he  was  a  physician  residing  in  Troas,  converted  by  Paul, 
and  attaching  himself  to  the  apostle  with  aU  the  ardor 
of  a  young  convert.  He  may  also,  as  Ewald  thinks, 
have  been  one  of  the  first  uncircumcised  Christians. 
His  conversion  had  taken  place  before,  since  he  silently 
assumes  his  jilace  among  the  great  apostle's  followers 
without  any  hint  that  this  was  his  first  admission  to  the 
knowledge  and  ministry  of  Christ.  He  may  have  found 
his  way  to  Troas  to  jireach  the  Gospel,  sent  possibly  by 
Paul  himself.  There  are  some  who  maintain  that  Luke 
had  already  joined  Paul  at  Antioch  (Acts  xi,  27-30 ;  see 
.Tournal  of  Sacred  Literatiire,  October,  1861,  p.  170,  and 
Conybeare  and  Howson's  Life  of  Paul,  chap,  v,  new  ed. 
Lond.  1861).  He  accompanied  Paul  as  far  as  Philippi, 
but  did  not  share  in  the  imprisonment  of  his  master  and 
his  companion  Silas,  nor,  as  the  third  jierson  is  resumed 
(Acts  xvii,  1),  did  he,  it  would  seem,  take  any  further 
part  in  the  acrostic's  missionary  journey.  The  first 
person  appears  again  on  Paul's  third  visit  to  Philippi, 
A.D.  54  (Acts  XX,  5, 6\  from  which  it  has  been  gathered 
that  Luke  had  s]icnt  the  whole  intervening  time — a  pe- 
riod of  seven  or  eight  years — in  Philippi  or  its  neighbor- 
hood.    If  any  credit  is  to  be  given  to  the  ancient  opin- 


LUKE 


551 


LUKE 


ion  that  Luke  is  referred  to  in  2  Cor.  viii,  18  as  "the 
brother  whose  praise  is  in  the  Gospel  throughout  all  the 
churches"  (a  view  adopted  by  the  Church  of  England  in 
the  collect  for  Luke's  day),  as  well  as  the  early  tradition 
embodied  in  the  subscription  to  that  epistle,  that  it  was 
sent  from  Philippi  "  by  Titus  and  Lucas"  we  shall  have 
evidence  of  the  evangelist's  missionary  zeal  during  this 
long  space  of  time.  If  this  be  so,  we  are  to  suppose  that 
during  the  "  three  months"  of  Paul's  sojourn  at  Philippi 
(Acts  XX,  3)  Luke  was  sent  from  that  place  to  Corinth 
on  this  errand,  the  word  "  gospel"  being,  of  course,  to  be 
understood,  not,  as  Jerome  and  others  erroneously  inter- 
pret it,  of  Luke's  written  gospel,  but  of  his  publication 
of  the  glad  tidings  of  Jesus  Christ.  The  mistaken  in- 
terpretation of  the  word  "gospel"  in  this  place  has  thus 
led  some  to  assign  the  composition  of  the  Gospel  of  Luke 
to  this  period,  a  view  which  derives  some  support  from 
the  Arabic  version  published  by  Erpenius,  in  whicla  its 
writing  is  placed  "  in  a  city  of  Macedonia  twenty-two 
years  after  the  Ascension,"  A.D.  51.  From  their  reunion 
at  Philippi,  Luke  remained  in  constant  attendance  on 
Paul  dimng  his  journey  to  Jerusalem  (Acts  xx,  6-xxi, 
18),  and,  disappearing  from  the  narrative  during  the 
apostle's  imprisonment  at  Jerusalem  and  Ciesarea,  reap- 
pears again  when  he  sets  out  for  Kome  (Acts  xxvii,  1). 
A.D.  56.  He  was  shipwrecked  with  Paul  (xxviii,  2), 
and  travelled  with  him  by  Syracuse  and  Puteoli  to  Rome 
(vers.  12-16),  where  he  appears  to  have  continued  as  his 
fellow-laborer  {(jvvipyoc,  Philem.  24 ;  Col.  iv,  4)  tiU  the 
close  of  his  first  imprisonment,  A.D.  58.  The  Second 
Epistle  to  Timothy  (iv,  11)  gives  us  the  latest  glimpse 
of  the  "  beloved  ph3'sician,"  and  our  authentic  informa- 
tion regarding  him  beautifully  closes  with  a  testimony 
from  the  apostle's  pen  to  his  faithfidness  amidst  general 
defection,  A.D.  64. 

III.  Tradiiionary  Notices. — The  above  sums  up  all  we 
really  know  about  Luke  ;  but,  as  is  often  the  case,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  scantiness  of  authentic  information  is  the 
copiousness  of  tradition,  increasing  in  definiteness,  be  it 
remarked,  as  it  advances.  His  Gentile  descent  being 
taken  for  granted,  his  birthplace  was  appropriately 
enough  fixed  at  Antioch,  "  the  centre  of  the  Gentile 
Church,  and  the  birthplace  of  the  Christian  name"  (Eu- 
sebius,  //.  E.  iii,  4  ;  comp.  Jerome,  De  Vir.  Illust.  7  ;  In 
Mutt.  Praif.),  though  it  is  to  be  observed  that  Chrysos- 
tom,  when  dwelling  on  the  historical  associations  of  the 
city,  appears  to  know  nothing  of  such  a  tradition.  He 
was  believed  to  have  been  a  Jewish  proselyte,  ignorant 
of  Hebrew  (.Jerome,  Qucest.  in  Gen.  c.  xlvi),  and  probabh' 
— because  he  alone  mentions  their  mission,  but  in  con- 
tradiction to  his  own  words  (Luke  i,  23) — one  of  the  sev- 
enty disciples  who,  having  left  our  Lord  in  offence  (John 
vi,  60-66),  was  brought  back  to  the  faith  by  the  ministry 
of  Paul  (Epiphan.  Jf(e?:  li,  11) ;  one  of  the  Greeks  who 
desired  to  "see  Jesus"  (John  xii,  20,  21),  and  the  com- 
panion of  Cleopas  on  the  journey  to  Emmaus  (Theophyl. 
Proem  in  Luc).  An  idle  legend  of  Greek  origin,  which 
first  appears  in  the  late  and  credulous  historian  Niceph- 
orus  CaUisus  (died  libO),  I/isf.  EccL  ii,  43,  and  was  uni- 
versally accepted  in  the  Middle  Ages,  represents  Luke  as 
well  acquainted  with  the  art  of  painting  (uKpwg  ti)v  401- 
ypcKpov  rkxt't]v  t^nriaTdiiivoc),  and  assigns  to  his  hand 
the  first  portraits  of  our  Lord,  his  mother,  and  his  chief 
apostles  (see  the  monographs  of  Jlanni  [Florent.  1764] 
and  Schlichter  [Hal.  1734]). 

Nothing  is  known  of  the  place  or  manner  of  his  death, 
and  the  traditions  are  inconsistent  with  one  another. 
Gregory  Naz.  reckons  him  among  the  martyrs,  and  the 
untrustworthy  Nicephorus  gives  us  fidl  details  of  the 
time,  place,  and  mode  of  his  martyrdom,  viz.,  that  he 
was  crucified  to  a  live  olive-tree  in  Greece,  in  his  eighti- 
eth j'car.  According  to  others,  he  died  a  natural  death 
after  preaching  (according  to  Epiphanius,  Contra  Bar. 
li,  11)  in  Dalmatia.  Gallia,  Italy,  and  ISIacedonia;  was 
buried  in  Bith3-nia,  whence  his  bones  were  translated  by 
Constantius  to  Constantinople  (Isid.  Hispal.  c.  82  ;  Phi- 
lostorgius,  vol.  iii,  chap.  xxix).     See  generally  Kohler, 


Dissert,  de  Luca  Ev.  (Lipsioe,  1695) ;  Credner,  Einleit.  ins 
N.  T.  i,  124. 

LUKE,  Gospel  according  to,  the  third  in  order  of 
the  canonical  books  of  the  New  Testament. 

I.  Author — Genuineness. — The  miiversal  tradition  of 
Christendom,  reaching  up  at  least  to  the  latter  part  of 
the  2d  century,  has  assigned  the  third  member  of  our 
Gospel  collection  to  Luke,  Paul's  trusted  companion  and 
fellow-laborer,  avvtpyvc,  who  alone  contmued  in  attend- 
ance on  his  beloved  master  in  his  last  imprisonment 
(Col.  iv,  14 ;  Philem.  24 ;  2  Tim.  iv.  11).  Its  authorship 
has  never  been  questioned  until  comparatively  recent 
times,  when  the  unsparing  criticism  of  Germany — the 
main  object  of  which  appears  to  be  the  demolishing  of 
every  ancient  belief  to  set  up  some  new  hypothesis  in 
its  stead — has  been  brought  to  bear  upon  it,  without, 
however,  effectually  disturbing  the  old  traditionary 
statement.  The  investigations  of  Semler,  Hilgenfeld, 
Ritschl,  Baur,  Schleiermacher,  Ewald,  and  others,  have 
failed  to  overthrow  the  harmonious  assertion  of  the 
early  Church  that  the  third  Gospel,  as  we  have  it,  is 
the  genuine  work  of  Luke.  It  is  well  known  that, 
though  the  "Gospels"  are  referred  to  by  Justin  INIartyr 
as  a  collection  already  used  and  accepted  by  the  Church 
{Apol.  i,  66 ;  iJial.  c.  Tryph.  c.  10),  and  his  works  supply 
a  very  considerable  number  of  quotations,  enabling  us  to 
identify',  beyond  all  reasonable  doubt,  these  ivayytXta 
with  the  first  three  Gospels,  we  do  not  find  them  men- 
tioned by  the  names  of  their  authors  till  the  end  of  the 
2d  century.  In  the  Muratorian  fragment,  which  can 
hardly  be  placed  later  than  A.D.  170,  we  read.  "Tertium 
Evangelii  librum  secmidum  Lucam  Lucas  iste  medicus 
post  ascensum  Christi  cum  eum  Paidus  quasi  ut  juris 
(rov  SiKaiov)  studiosum  ['  itineris  socium,'  Bunsen^  se- 
cum  adsumsisset  nomine  suo  ex  ordine  ['  opinione,'  Cred- 
we?-]  conscripsit  (Dominum  tamen  nee  ipse  vidit  in  car- 
ne),  et  idem  prout  assequi  potuit,  ita  et  a  nativitate  Jo- 
hannis  incepit  dicere"  (Westcott,  Hist.  0/  Can.  p.  559). 
The  testimony  of  Irenjeus,  A.D.  cir.  180,  is  equaLy  defi- 
nite, AovKcig  ce  o  c'ikoXovOoq  IJavXov  to  in'  tKiivov  k?;- 
pvaaoptvov  tiiayyeXtov  iv  iSijSXitf)  KartBtTO  (Contra 
Har.  iii,  1,1),  while  from  his  enumeration  of  the  many 
particulars, 7)fo?-zmo  tvanf/elii  (ib.  iii,  14, 3),  recorded  by 
Luke  alone,  it  is  evident  that  the  Gospel  he  had  was  the 
same  we  now  possess.  Tatian's  Diatessaron  is  an  im- 
impeachable  evidence  of  the  existence  of  four  Gospels, 
and  therefore  of  that  by  Luke,  at  a  somewhat  earlier 
period  in  the  same  century.  The  writings  of  TertuUian 
against  Marcion,  cir.  207,  abound  with  references  to  our 
Gospel,  which,  with  Irenseus,  he  asserts  to  have  been 
written  under  the  immediate  guidance  of  Paul  (Adv. 
Marc,  iv,  2 ;  iv,  5).  In  Eusebius  we  find  both  the  Gos- 
pel and  the  Acts  specified  as  GtoTn'tvara  /3i/iAia,  while 
Luke's  knowledge  of  the  sacred  narrative  is  ascribed  to 
information  received  from  Paul,  aided  by  his  intercourse 
with  the  other  apostles  (r»)c  twv  dXXwv  anoaruXeov 
6jt(iX(rtc  w<piX7]f^tivoc,  If.  E.  iii,  4  and  24).  Eusebius,  in- 
deed, tells  us  that  in  his  day  the  erroneous  view  which 
interpreted  ivayyfXwi'  (Pom.  ii,  16;  comp.  2  Cor.  viii, 
18)  of  a  written  document  was  generally  received,  and 
that,  in  the  words  "according  to  my  Gospel,"  Paul  was 
supposed  to  refer  to  the  work  of  the  evangelist.  This 
is  also  mentioned  by  Jerome  (Be  Vi?:  Illust.  7),  and  ac- 
cepted by  Origen  (Eusebius,  //.  E.  vi,  25) — one  among 
many  proofs  of  the  want  of  the  critical  faculty  among 
the  fathers  of  that  age. 

Additional  evidence  of  the  early  acceptance  of  Luke's 
Gospel  may  be  derived  from  the  qucestio  vexata  of  its 
relation  to  the  Gospel  of  iMarcion.  This  is  not  the  place 
to  discuss  this  subject,  which  has  led  critics  to  the  most 
opposite  conclusions,  for  a  full  account  of  which  the  read- 
er may  be  referred  to  De  '\^'ette,  Einleit.  in  N.  T.  y.  119- 
137,  as  well  as  to  the  treatises  of  Eitschl,  Baur,  Hilgen- 
feld, Hahn,  and  Volckmar.  It  will  be  enough  for  our 
purpose  to  mention  that  the  Gnostic  teacher  Marcion,  in 
pursuit  of  his  professed  ol)ject  of  restoring  the  i)urity  of 
the   Gospel,  which  had  been  corrupted  by  Judaizing 


LUKE 


652 


LUKE 


teachers,  rejected  all  the  books  of  the  canon  with  the 
exception  of  ten  epistles  of  Paul  and  a  gospel,  which  he 
called  simply  a  gospel  of  Christ.  We  have  the  express 
testimony  of  Irenasus  {Contr.  IIm\  i, 27, 2 ;  iii,  12, 12,  etc.), 
TertiiUian  {Cont.  Marc,  iv,  1,  2,  G),  Origcn  {Cont.  Cels. 
ii,  27),  and  Epiphanius  (Ilcer.  xlii,  11)  that  the  basis  of 
Marcion's  Gospel  was  that  of  Luke,  abridged  and  altered 
by  him  to  sidt  his  peculiar  tenets  (for  the  alterations  and 
omissions,  the  chief  being  its  curtaUment  by  the  first  two 
chapters,  see  De  Wette,  p.  123-132),  though  we  cannot 
assert,  as  was  done  by  his  enemies  among  the  orthodox, 
that  all  the  variations  are  due  to  Marcion  himself,  many 
of  them  having  no  connection  with  his  heretical  views, 
and  being,  rather,  various  readings  of  great  antiquity 
and  high  importance.  Of  late  years,  however,  the  op- 
posite view,  which  was  first  broached  by  Semler,  Gries- 
bach,  and  Eichhorn,  has  been  vigorously  maintained, 
among  others,  by  Kitschl  and  Baur,  who  have  endeav- 
ored to  prove  that  the  Gospel  of  Luke,  as  we  have  it,  is 
interpolated,  and  that  the  portions  Marcion  is  charged 
with  having  omitted  were  really  unauthorized  additions 
to  the  original  document.  See  Bleek,  Einl.  in  da^  \.  T. 
§  52.  Volckmar.  in  his  exhaustive  treatise  Das  Evang. 
Marcio/is  (Lips.  1852),  has  satisfactorily  disposed  of  this 
theory,  and  has  demonstrated  that  the  Gospel  of  Luke, 
as  we  now  have  it,  was  the  material  on  which  Marcion 
worked,  and,  therefore,  that  before  he  began  to  teach, 
the  date  of  which  may  be  fixed  about  A.U.  139,  it  was 
already  known  to  and  accepted  by  the  Church.  ZeUer 
and  Ptitschl  have  since  abandoned  their  position  (Theol. 
Jahrb.  1851,  p.  337,  528),  and  Baur  has  greatly  modified 
his  (^Marlcusevangel.  1851.  p.  191).  See  also  Hahn,  Das 
Ecangdhtm  Marcions  (Kijnigsb.  1823) ;  Olshausen,  Echt- 
heit  dtr  vur  Kanon.  Eranjelie/i  (Konigsb.  1823)  ;  Pdtschl, 
Das  Ecangelium  Marcions  (Tubing.  18-16) ;  I3aur,  Krit. 
Untersuchung  iiber  d.  Kan.  Evangdien  (Tubing.  184:7)  ; 
Hilgenfeld,  Krit.  Untersuchungen  (Halle,  1850) ;  bishop 
Thirlwall's  Introduction  to  Schleierinacher  on  St.  Luke ; 
De  Wette,  Lehrhuch  d.  N.  T.  (Berl.  18-48) ;  Norton,  Genu- 
ineness of  the  Gospels  (Bost.  1844),  iii,  add.  note  C,  p.  xlix. 
II.  Sources. — The  authorities  from  which  Luke  de- 
rived his  Gospel  are  clearly  indicated  by  liim  in  the  in- 
troduction (i,  1-4).  He  does  not  claim  to  have  been  an 
eye-witness  of  out  Lord's  ministry,  or  to  have  any  per- 
sonal knowledge  of  the  facts  he  records,  but,  as  an  honest 
compiler,  to  have  gone  to  the  best  sources  of  information 
then  accessible,  and,  having  accurately  traced  the  whole 
course  of  the  apostolic  tradition  from  the  verj'  first,  in  its 
every  detail  (TrapijKoXovBijKuTi  dvojOev  Traaiv  dKptjSuic), 
to  have  written  an  orderly  narrative  of  tlie  facts  (npay- 
fiuToJi')  already  fully  believed  {7rf!T\i]po<popi]i.dvLov)  in 
the  Christian  Church,  and  which  Theophilus  had  already 
learned,  not  from  books,  but  from  oral  teaching  (icar/;- 
X'/^'K" ;  comp.  Acts  xviii,  25 ;  Gal.  vi,  5).  These  sources 
were  partly  the  '•  oral  tradition"  (Traps coaav)  of  those 
"  who  from  the  beginning  were  eye-witnesses  and  min- 
isters of  the  Word,"  and  partly  the  written  records  (to 
which  Ewald,  vi,  40,  on  unexplained  grounds,  dogmat- 
ically assigns  a  non-Juda?an  origin)  which  even  then 
"  many"  {iroWo'i)  had  attempted  to  draw  up,  of  which, 
though  the  evangelist's  words  do  not  necessarily  bear 
that  meaning,  we  may  well  suppose  that  he  would  avail 
liimself.  Though  we  thankfully  believe  that,  as  well  in 
the  selection  of  his  materials  as  in  the  employment  of 
them,  Luke  was  acting  under  the  immediate  influence 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  it  will  be  remarked  that  he  lays  claim 
to  no  such  supernatural  guidance,  but  simply  to  the  care 
and  accuracy  of  an  honest,  painstaking,  and  well-in- 
formed editor,  not  so  consciously  under  the  inspiration 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  as  to  supersede  the  use  of  his  own 
mental  powers.  His  use  of  Ids  authorities  is  not  me- 
chanical ;  though  often  incorporating,  apparently  with 
little  alteration,  large  portions  of  the  oral  tradition,  es- 
pecially in  the  case  of  the  words  of  our  Lord,  or  those 
with  whom  he  conversed,  and  adopting  narratives  al- 
ready current  (of  which  the  first  two  chapters,  with  their 
harsh  Hebraistic  phraseology,  immediately  succeeding 


the  comparatively  pure  Greek  of  the  dedication,  are  an 
example),  the  free  handling  of  his  pen  is  everywhere  to 
be  recognised.  The  connecting  links  and  tlie  passages 
of  transition  evidence  the  hand  of  the  author,  which 
may  again  be  recognised  in  the  greater  variety  of  his 
style,  the  more  complex  cliaracter  of  his  sentences,  and 
the  care  he  bestows  in  smoothing  away  harshnesses,  and 
imparting  a  more  classical  air  to  the  synoptical  portions. 

Notwithstanding  tlie  almost  unanimous  consent  of 
the  fathers  as  to  the  Pauline  origin  of  Luke's  Gospel 
(TertuU.  adv.  Marc,  iv,  5,  "  Lucre  digestum  Paulo  ad- 
scribere  solent ;''  Irenajus,  Cont.  llcer.  iii,  1 ;  Origen  apud 
Euseb.  Hist.  Eccl.  vi,  25;  Euseb.  Hist.  Eccl.  iii,  4;  Je- 
rome, De  Vir.  Illust.  7),  there  is  Uttle  or  nothing  in  the 
gospel  itself  to  favor  such  a  hypothesis,  and  very  much 
to  contradict  it.  It  is  true  that  the  account  of  the  in- 
stitution of  the  Lord's  Supper,  1  Cor.  xi,  23-25,  displays 
an  almost  verbal  identity  with  Luke  xxii,  19,  20 ;  and, 
as  Paul  affirms  that  he  received  his  "  from  the  Lord,"  it 
is  highly  probable  that  the  evangelist  has  in  this  in- 
stance incorporated  a  fragment  of  the  direct  teaching 
of  his  master.  But  this  is  a  solitary  example  (Luke 
xxiv,  34,  comp.  with  1  Cor.  xv,  5,  is  too  trifling  to  de- 
serve mention),  and  it  is  impossible  that  the  evangelist 
should  have  expressed  himself  as  he  has  done  in  his 
preface  if  he  had  derived  the  facts  of  his  narrative  from 
one  who  was  neither  "  an  ej-e-witness"  nor  "  a  minister 
of  the  Word  from  the  beginning."  Nor  again  in  the 
general  tone  and  character  of  the  gospel,  when  impar- 
tially viewed,  is  there  much  that  can  fairly  be  consid- 
ered as  bearing  out  the  hypothesis  of  a  Pauline  origin. 
Those  who  have  sifted  the  gospel  with  tliis  object  have, 
it  is  true,  gathered  a  number  of  passages  which  are  sup- 
posed to  have  a  Pauline  tendency  (see  Hilgenfeld, 
Evang.,  and  the  ingenious  essay  prefixed  to  this  gospel 
in  Dr.  Wordsworth's  Greek  Testament),  e.  g.  Luke  iv,  25 
sq. ;  ix,  52  sq. ;  x,  30  sq. ;  xvii,  16-18  ;  and  the  parables 
of  the  prodigal  son,  the  unprofitable  servant,  and  the 
Pharisee  and  publican,  which  have  been  instanced  by 
De  W'ette  as  bringing  out  the  apostle's  teaching  on  jus- 
tification by  faith  alone;  but,  as  dean  Alford  has  ably 
shown  (Greek  Test,  i,  44,  note  b),  such  a  list  may  easily 
be  collected  from  the  other  gospels,  while  the  entire  ab- 
sence of  any  definite  statement  of  the  doctrinal  truths 
which  come  forward  with  the  greatest  prominence  in 
the  apostle's  writings,  and,  with  very  scanty  excei^tions, 
of  his  peculiar  theological  phraseologj',  is  of  itself  suffi- 
cient to  prove  how  undue  has  been  the  weight  assigned 
to  Pauline  influence  in  the  composition  of  the  gospel. 
It  is  certainly  true  that,  in  the  words  of  bishop  Thirl- 
waU  (Schleierraacher  On  St.  Luke,  Introd.  p.  cxxviii), 
"  Luke's  Gospel  contains  numerous  indications  of  that 
enlarged  view  of  Christianity  which  gave  to  the  gospel, 
as  preached  by  Paul,  a  form  and  an  extent  very  differ- 
ent from  the  original  tradition  of  the  Jews,"  but  no 
more  can  be  legitimately  inferred  than  that  Luke  was 
Paul's  disciple,  instructed  by  the  apostle  of  the  Gentiles, 
and  naturally  sharing  in  his  view  of  the  gospel  as  a 
message  of  salvation  for  all  nations;  not  that  his  gospel 
was  in  any  sense  derived  from  him,  or  rested  on  the 
apostolic  basis  of  Paul. 

The  question  naturally  arises  whether  the  gospels  of 
Matthew  and  JIark  were  among  the  Sit}y>]<Teig  to  wliich 
Luke  refers.  The  answers  to  this  have  been  various 
and  contradictory,  tlie  same  data  leading  critics  to  the 
most  opposite  conclusions.  Meyer  (Comment,  ii,  217)  is 
of  opinion  that  Luke  availed  himself  both  of  Matthew 
and  Mark,  though  chiefly  of  the  latter,  as  the  "  primi- 
tive gospel;"  while  De  Wette,  on  the  other  hand  (Ein- 
leil.  sec.  94,  p.  185),  considers  Mark's  Gospel  the  latest 
of  the  three,  and  based  upon  them  as  authorities.  In 
the  face  of  these  and  other  discordant  theories,  of  which 
a  list  may  be  seen  (De  Wette,  Einleit.  §  88.  p.  162-168), 
it  will  be  wise  not  to  attempt  a  categorical  decision.  A 
calm  review  of  the  evidence  will,  however,  lead  most 
unbiassed  readers  to  the  conclusion  that  all  three  wrote 
in  perfect  independence  of  one  another ;  each,  under  the 


LUKE 


553 


LUKE 


guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  giving  a  distinct  view  of 
the  great  complex  whole,  tlie  retlex  of  the  writer's  own 
individual  impressions,  and  that  least  of  all  is  Luke  to 
be  considered  as  a  mere  redacteur  of  the  prior  writings 
of  his  brother  synoptists — a  theory,  the  improbabilities 
and  absiurdities  of  which  have  been  well  pointed  out  \>y 
dean  Alford  in  the  Prolegomena  to  his  Greek  Testament, 
i,  2-6,  41. 

III.  Relation  to  Mattheio  and  Marl:. — Believing  that 
no  one  of  the  three  synoptical  gospels  is  dependent  on 
the  others,  and  that  the  true  explanation  of  this  strik- 
ing correspondence,  not  only  in  the  broad  outline  of  oiu: 
Lord's  life  and  work,  and  the  incidents  with  which  this 
outline  is  filled  up,  but  also,  to  a  considerable  extent,  in 
the  parables  and  addresses  recorded,  and  even  in  the 
language  and  forms  of  expression,  is  to  be  sought  in  the 
same  apostolical  oral  tradition  having  formed  the  orig- 
inal basis  of  each,  we  have  presented  a  very  interesting 
point  of  inquiry  in  tracing  the  correspondence  and  diver- 
gence of  the  several  narratives.  In  particular,  a  com- 
parison of  Luke  with  the  other  synoptists  furnishes 
many  striking  and  important  residts.  With  the  gen- 
eral identity  of  the  body  of  the  history,  we  at  once  no- 
tice that  there  are  two  large  portions  peculiar  to  this 
evangelist,  containing  events  or  discourses  recorded  by 
him  alone.  These  are  the  first  two  chapters,  narrating 
the  conception,  birth,  infancy,  and  early  development 
of  our  Lord  and  his  forerunner,  and  the  long  section  (ix, 
51-xviii,  14)  devoted  to  our  Lord's  final  journey  to  Je- 
rusalem, and  comprising  some  of  his  most  beautiful  par- 
ables. "We  have  also  other  smaller  sections  supplying 
incidents  passed  over  by  jNIattheiv  and  jNIark — the  ques- 
tions of  the  people  and  the  Baptist's  replies  (iii,  10-14) ; 
Simon  and  the  woman  that  was  a  sinner  (vii,  3G-50) ; 
the  raising  of  the  widow's  son  (viii,  11-17) ;  the  storj- 
ofZacchseus  (xix,  1-10) ;  our  Lord's  weeping  over  Jeru- 
salem (xix,  39-44) ;  the  journey  to  Emmaus  (xxiv,  13- 
35).  In  other  parts  he  follows  a  tradition  at  once  so 
much  fuller  and  so  widely  at  variance  with  that  of  the 
others  as  almost  to  suggest  the  idea  that  a  different 
event  is  recorded  (ch.  iv,  16-30 ;  comp.  Matt,  xiii,  54- 
58;  Mark  vi,  1-6;  ch.  v,  1-11;  comp.  Matt,  iv,  18-22; 
Mark  i,  16-20).  Even  where  the  language  employed 
so  closely  corresponds  as  to  remove  all  question  of  the 
identity  of  the  events,  fresh  details  are  given,  often  of 
the  greatest  interest,  e.  g.  TrQoaivxojx'tvov  (iii,  21) ;  aw- 
(lariKi^)  lieu  (iii,  22)  ;  7rX?;p.  iTVf.vjx.  ay.  (iv,  1) ;  on 
i/.ioi  TrapaStdorat,  k.  t.  \.  (iv,  6) ;  tipxt  Kaipoij  (iv,  13); 
CvvafiiQ  Kvpiov  J})',  k.  r.  X.  (v,  17);  KaraXnrdjv  inrav- 
ra  and  ?,ox>)  fay.  (v,  28,  29) ;  the  comparison  of  old  and 
new  wine  (v,  39);  tTrXrja^.  civoiag  (vi,  11);  cuvafxiQ 
Trap'  avTov  i^i'jpx-  (^'ij  19);  the  cures  in  the  presence 
of  John's  disciples  (vii,  21),  and  the  incidental  remarks 
(ver.  29, 30) ;  many  additional  touches  in  the  narratives 
of  the  Gadarcne  demoniac  (viii,  26-39),  and  the  trans- 
figuration, especially  the  fact  of  his  "praying"  (Luke 
records  at  least  six  instances  of  our  Lord  having  prayed 
omitted  by  the  other  evangelists),  and  the  subject  of 
the  conversation  with  Moses  and  Elijah  (ix,  28-36); 
notices  supplied  (xx,  19 ;  xxi,  37, 38),  all  tending  to  con- 
vince us  that  we  are  in  the  presence  not  of  a  mere  co]iy- 
ist,  but  of  a  trustworthy  and  independent  witness. 
Luke's  account  of  the  passion  and  resurrection  is  to  a 
great  extent  his  own,  adding  much  of  the  deepest  sig- 
nificance to  the  synoptical  narrative,  particularly  the 
warning  to  Simon  in  the  name  of  the  twelve  (xxii,  31, 
32) ;  the  bloody  sweat  (ver.  44) ;  the  sending  to  Herod 
(xxiii,  7-12) ;  the  words  to  the  women  (ver.  27-31) ;  the 
prayer  for  forgiveness  (ver.  34) ;  the  penitent  thief  (ver. 
39-43);  the  walk  to  Emmaus  (xxiv,  13-35);  and  the 
ascension  (ver.  50-53). 

It  has  been  remarked  that  there  is  nothing  in  which 
Luke  is  more  characteristically  distinguisheil  from  both 
the  evangelists  than  in  his  selection  of  our  Lord's  para- 
bles. There  are  no  less  than  eleven  quite  peculiar  to 
him:  (1.)  The  two  debtors;  (2.)  (iood  Samaritan;  (3.) 
Friend  at  miihiight;   (4.)  Kich  fool;  (5.)  Barren  tig- 


tree;  (6.)  Lost  silver;  (7.)  Prodigal  son;  (8.)  Unjust 
steward;  (9.)  Kich  man  and  Lazarus;  (10.)  Unjust 
judge;  (11.)  Pharisee  and  publican;  and  two  others, 
the  Great  Supper,  and  the  Pounds,  which,  with  many 
points  of  similarity,  differ  considerably  from  those  found 
in  IMatthew. 

Of  our  Lord's  miracles,  six  omitted  by  JIatthew  and 
Mark  are  recorded  by  Luke:  (1.)  Miracidous  draught; 
(2.)  The  son  of  the  widow  of  Nain ;  (3.)  The  woman 
with  a  spirit  of  infirmity ;  (4.)  The  man  with  a  dropsy ; 
(5.)  The  ten  lepers ;  (6.)  The  healing  of  Malchus's  ear. 
Of  the  seven  not  related  by  him,  the  most  remarkable 
omission  is  that  of  the  Syrophoenician  woman,  for  ^^•hich 
a  ])riori  reasoning  woidd  have  claimed  a  special  place 
in  the  so-called  Gospel  of  the  Gentiles.  We  miss  also 
the  walking  on  tlie  sea,  the  feeding  of  the  four  thou- 
sand, the  cure  of  the  blind  men,  and  of  the  deaf  and 
dumb,  the  stater  in  the  fish's  mouth,  and  the  cursing  of 
the  fig-tree. 

The  chief  omissions  in  narrative  are  the  whole  sec- 
tion. Matt,  xiv-xvi,  12;  Mark  vi,  45-viii,  26;  Blatt. 
xix,  2-12;  XX,  1-16,  20-28;  comp.  Mark  x,  35-45;  the 
anointing.  Matt,  xxvi,  6-13 ;  Mark  xiv,  3-9. 

With  regard  to  coincidence  of  language,  a  most  im- 
portant remark  was  long  since  made  by  bishop  Marsh 
(Michaelis,  V,  317),  that  when  Matthew  and  Luke  agree 
verbally  in  the  common  synoptical  sections,  Mark  al- 
ways agrees  with  them  also;  and  that  there  is  not  a 
single  instance  in  these  sections  of  verbal  agreement  be- 
t;\'een  Matthe-\v-  and  Luke  alone.  A  close  scrutiny  ^\  ill 
discover  tliat  the  verbal  agreement  between  Luke  and 
Mark  is  greater  than  that  between  Luke  and  Mat  thew, 
while  the  mutual  dependence  of  the  second  and  third 
evangelists  on  the  same  source  is  rendered  still  more 
probable  b)'  the  observation  of  Eeuss,  that  they  agree 
both  in  excess  and  defect  when  compared  with  Mat- 
thew: that  when  Mark  has  elements  wanting  in  Mat- 
thew, Luke  usually  has  them  also  ;  while,  when  j\Iatthew 
supplies  more  than  Mark,  Luke  follows  the  latter ;  and 
that  where  IMark  fails  altogether,  Luke's  narrative  often 
represents  a  different  Trapacoati;  from  that  of  Matthew. 

IV.  Character  and  general  Purpose. — We  must  admit, 
but  with  great  caution,  on  account  of  the  abuses  to 
which  the  notion  has  led,  that  there  are  traces  in  the 
gospel  of  a  leaning  towards  Gentile  rather  than  Jewish 
converts.  The  genealogy  of  Jesus  is  traced  to  Adam, 
not  from  Abraham,  so  as  to  connect  him  with  the  whole 
human  race,  and  not  merely  with  the  Jews.  Luke  de- 
scribes the  mission  of  the  Seventy',  which  number  has 
usually  been  supposed  to  be  typical  of  all  nations;  as 
twelve,  the  number  of  the  apostles,  represents  the  Jews 
and  their  twelve  tribes. 

On  the  supposed  "  doctrinal  tendency"  of  the  gospel, 
however,  much  has  been  written  which  it  is  painful  to 
dwell  on,  but  easy  to  refute.  Some  have  endeavored  to 
see  in  this  divine  book  an  attempt  to  ingraft  the  teach- 
ing of  Paul  on  the  Jewish  representations  of  the  Bles- 
siah,  and  to  elevate  the  doctrine  of  universal  salvation, 
of  which  Paul  was  the  most  prominent  preacher,  over 
the  Judaizing  tendencies,  and  to  put  Paul  higher  than 
the  twelve  apostles !  (See  ZeUer,  Apost. ;  Baur,  Kanon. 
Erang.;  and  Hilgenfeld.)  How  two  impartial  histori- 
cal narratives,  the  Gospel  and  the  Acts,  could  liave  been 
taken  for  two  tracts  written  for  polemical  and  personal 
ends,  is  to  an  English  mind  hardly  conceivable.  Even 
its  supporters  found  that  the  inspired  author  had  car- 
ried out  his  purjiose  so  badly  that  they  were  forced  to 
assume  that  a  second  author  or  editor  had  altered  the 
work  with  a  view  to  work  up  together  Jewish  and  Pau- 
line elements  into  harmony  (Baur,  Kanon.  Evang.  p. 
502).  Of  this  editing  aiul  re-editing  there  is  no  trace 
whatever;  and  the  invention  of  the  second  editor  is  a 
gross  device  to  cover  the  faihu-e  of  the  first  hypothesis. 
By  such  a  machinery  it  will  be  possible  to  prove  in 
after  ages  that  Gibbon's  History  was  originally  a  plea 
for  Christianity,  or  any  similar  paradox. 

The  passages  which  are  supposed  to  bear  out  this 


LUKE 


554 


LUKE 


"Pauline  tendency"  are  brought  together  bj' Hilgenfeld 
with  great  care  (^Evcnifjelien,  p.  220) ;  but  Keuss  has 
shown,  by  passages  from  Matthew  which  have  the  same 
"  tendency"  against  the  Jews,  how  brittle  such  an  argu- 
ment is,  and  lias  left  no  room  for  doubt  that  the  two 
evangelists  wrote  facts  and  not  theories,  and  dealt  with 
those  facts  with  pure  liistorical  candor  (Keuss,  llistoire 
de  la  Thioloffie,  vol.  ii,  b.  vi,  ch.  vi).  Writing  to  a  Gen- 
tile convert,  and  through  him  addressing  other  Gentiles, 
Luke  has  adapted  the  form  of  his  narrative  to  their 
needs,  but  not  a  trace  of  a  subjective  bias,  not  a  vestige 
of  a  personal  motive,  has  been  suffered  to  sully  the  in- 
spired page.  Had  the  influence  of  Paul  been  the  ex- 
clusive or  principal  source  of  this  gospel,  we  should 
have  found  in  it  more  resemblance  to  the  Epistle  to  the 
Ephesians,  which  contains  (so  to  speak)  the  Gospel  of 
Paul. 

The  chief  characteristic  of  Luke's  Gospel  which  dis- 
tinguishes it  from  those  of  the  other  synoptists,  espe- 
cially Matthew,  is  its  universality.  The  message  he 
delivers  is  not,  as  it  has  sometimes  been  mistakenly  de- 
scribed, for  the  Gentiles  as  such,  as  distinguished  from 
the  Jews,  but  for  mm.  As  we  read  his  record,  we  seem 
to  see  him  anticipating  the  time  when  all  nations  should 
hear  the  Gospel  message,  when  all  distinctions  of  race 
or  class  should  be  done  away,  and  all  claims  based  on  a 
fancied  self-righteousness  annulled,  and  the  glad  tidings 
should  be  heard  and  received  by  all  who  were  united  in 
the  bonds  of  a  common  humanity,  and  felt  their  need 
of  a  common  Saviour,  "  the  light  to  lighten  the  Gen- 
tiles, af  d  the  glory  of  his  people  Israel."  It  is  this 
character  which  has  given  it  a  right  to  the  title  of  the 
Pauline  Gospel,  and  enables  us  to  understand  why  Mar- 
ciou  selected  it  as  the  only  true  exponent  of  Christ's 
Gospel.  This  universalism,  however,  is  rather  inter- 
woven with  the  gospel  than  to  be  specified  in  definite 
instances;  and  yet  we  cannot  but  feel  how  completely 
it  is  in  accordance  with  it  that  Luke  records  the  enrol- 
ment of  the  Saviour  of  the  world  as  a  citizen  of  the 
world-embracing  Roman  empire  —  tliat  he  traces  his 
genealogy  back  to  the  head  of  the  human  race — that 
his  first  recorded  sermon  (iv,  16-27)  gives  proof  of  God's 
wide-reaching  mercy,  as  displayed  in  the  widow  of  Sa- 
repta  and  Naaman — that  in  the  mission  of  the  twelve, 
the  limitation  to  the  "  cities  of  Israel"  should  have  no 
place,  while  he  alone  records  the  mission  of  the  seventy 
(a  number  sj-mbolical  of  the  Gentile  world) — that  in  the 
sermon  on  the  -nount  all  references  to  the  law  should  be 
omitted,  while  all  claims  to  superior  holiness  or  national 
prerogative  ar  ;  cut  away  by  his  gracious  dealings  with, 
and  kindly  irention  of,  the  despised  Samaritans  (ix,  52 
sq. ;  X,  30  sr^. ;  xvii,  11  sq.). 

As  vi'ith  the  race  in  general,  so  with  its  individual 
members.  Luke  delights  to  bear  witness  that  none  are 
sliut  out  from  God's  mercy — nay,  that  the  outcast  and 
the  lost  are  the  special  objects  of  his  care  and  search. 
As  proofs  of  this,  we  may  refer  to  the  narratives  of  the 
woman  that  was  a  sinner,  the  Samaritan  leper,  Zacchie- 
us,  and  the  penitent  thief;  and  the  parables  of  the  lost 
sheep  and  lost  silver,  the  Pharisee  and  publican,  the 
rich  man  and  Lazarus,  and,  above  all,  to  that  "which 
has  probably  exercised  most  influence  on  the  mind  of 
Christendom  in  all  periods"  (Maurice,  Unity  of  the  Gos- 
pel, p.  274),  the  ])ro(ligal  son. 

Most  naturally  also  in  Luke  we  find  the  most  fre- 
quent alhisions  to  that  which  has  been  one  of  the  most 
striking  <listinctions  between  the  old  and  modern  world 
— tlie  position  of  woman  as  a  fellow-heir  of  the  king- 
dom of  heaven,  sharing  in  the  same  responsibilities  and 
hopes,  and  that  woman  comes  forward  most  ])rominent- 
ly  (the  Syroptia'uician,  as  already  noticed,  is  a  single 
marked  exception)  as  the  object  of  our  Lord's  Jsympathv 
and  love.  Conniiencing  wi<h  tlic  Virgin  IMary  as  a 
type  of  the  purity  and  lowly  obedience  wliich  is  the 
true  glory  of  womanhood,  we  meet  in  succession  with 
Anna  the  prophetess,  the  pattern  of  holy  widowhood 
(comp.  1  Tim.  v,  5) ;  the  woman  that  was  a  sinner;  the 


widow  of  Nain;  the  ministering  women  (viii,  2,  3); 
jNIary  and  jNIartha ;  the  "  daughter  of  Abraham"  (xiii, 
11) ;  and  close  the  list  with  the  words  of  exquisite  ten- 
derness and  sympathy  to  the  "  daughters  of  Jerusalem" 
(xxiii,  28). 

This  universal  character  is  one,  the  roots  of  which  lie 
deep  in  Luke's  conception  of  the  nature  and  work  of 
Christ.  With  him,  more  than  in  the  other  gospels,  Je- 
sus is  "  the  second  man,  the  Lord  from  heaven"  (Lange) ; 
and  if  in  his  pages  we  see  more  of  his  divine  nature, 
and  have  in  the  more  detailed  reports  of  his  conceptioa 
and  ascension  clearer  proofs  that  he  was  indeed  the  Son 
of  the  Highest,  it  is  here  too,  in  ''  the  life-giving  sympa- 
thy and  intercourse  with  the  inner  man,  in  the  human 
fellowship  grounded  on  not  denying  the  divine  conde- 
scension and  compassion"  (^Maurice,  u.  s.),  that  we  rec- 
ognise the  perfect  ideal  man. 

Luke,  it  has  been  truly  remarked,  is  the  gospel  of  con- 
trasts. Starting  with  the  contrast  between  the  doubt 
of  Zacharias  and  the  trustful  obedience  of  Mary,  we  find 
in  almost  every  page  proofs  of  the  twofold  power  of 
Christ's  word  and  work  foretold  by  Simeon  (ii,  34).  To 
select  a  few  of  the  more  striking  examples :  He  alone 
presents  to  our  view  Simon  and  the  sinful  woman,  Mar- 
tha and  Mary,  the  thankful  and  thankless  lepers,  the 
tears  and  hosannas  on  the  brow  of  Olivet;  he  alone  adds 
the  "  woes"  to  the  "  blessings"  in  the  sermon  on  the 
mount,  and  carries  on  in  the  parables  of  the  rich  man 
and  Lazarus,  the  Pharisee  and  publican,  and  the  good 
Samaritan,  that  series  of  strong  contrasts  which  finds  so 
appropriate  a  close  in  the  penitent  and  blasphemhig 
malefactors. 

Once  more,  Luke  is  the  hymn-writer  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament. "Taught  by  thee,  the  Church  prolongs  her 
hymns  of  high  thanksgiving  still"  (Keble,  Christian 
Yeai-).  But  for  his  record  the  Magnijicat,  Benedictus, 
and  Nunc  Dimittis  would  have  been  lost  to  us ;  and  it 
is  he  who  has  preserved  to  us  the  A  ve  j\Iaria,  identified 
with  the  religious  life  of  so  large  a  part  of  Christendom, 
and  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis,  which  forms  the  culminating 
point  of  its  most  solemn  ritual. 

To  turn  from  the  internal  to  the  external  character- 
istics of  Luke's  Gospel,  these  we  shaU  find  no  less  mark- 
ed and  distinct.  His  narrative  is,  as  he  promised  it 
should  be,  an  orderly  one  (/ca3-f5/)f,  i,3) ;  but  the  order 
is  one  rather  of  subject  than  of  time.  As  to  the  other 
synoptists,  though  maintaining  the  principle  of  chrono- 
logical succession  in  the  main  outline  of  his  narrative, 
"  he  is  ever  ready  to  sacrifice  mere  chronology  to  that 
order  of  events  which  was  the  fittest  to  develop  his  pur- 
pose according  to  the  object  proposed  by  the  inspiring 
Spirit,  grouping  his  incidents  according  to  another  and 
deeper  order  than  that  of  mere  time"  (3Iaurice,  u.  s.~). 
It  is  true  that  he  furnishes  us  with  the  three  most  pre- 
cise dates  in  the  whole  Gospel  narrative  (ii,  2;  iii,  1,23 
— each  one,  be  it  remarked,  the  subject  of  vehement  con- 
troversy), but,  in  spite  of  the  attempts  made  by  ^^'ieseler 
and  others  to  force  a  strict  chronological  character  upon 
his  gospel,  an  unprejudiced  perusal  will  convince  us  that 
his  narrative  is  loose  and  fragmentarj',  especially  in  the 
section  ix,  49-xviii,  14,  and  his  notes  of  time  vague  and 
destitute  of  precision,  even  where  the  other  synoptists 
are  more  definite  (ch.v,  12;  corap.  Matt,  viii,  1;  ch.viii,4; 
comp.  Matt,  xiii,  1 ;  ch.  viii,  22 ;  comp.  Mark  iv,  35,  etc.). 
"  Tlie  accuracy  with  which  Luke  has  drawn  up  his 
(iospel  apiiears  in  many  instances.  Tluis,  he  is  partic- 
ular in  telling  us  the  dates  of  his  more  important  events. 
The  birth  of  Christ  is  referred  to  the  reign  of  Augustus, 
and  the  government  of  Syria  by  Cyrenius  (ii,  1-3).  The 
preaching  of  John  the  Baptist  is  pointed  out  as  to  its 
time  with  extreme  circumstantiality  (iii,  1-2).  But  it 
is  in  lesser  matters  that  accuracy-  is  chiefly  shown.  Thus 
the  mountain  storm  on  tlic  Lake  of  Gennesaret  is  mark- 
ed by  him  with  a  minute  accuracy  which  is  not  seen  in 
Mark  or  IMatthew  (com]),  ch.  viii,  23  with  parallel  Gos- 
pels, and  with  Josephus,  War,  iii,  x;  Irby  and  JIangles, 
Travels,  ch.  vi).     In  ch.  xxi,  1,  we  read  of  a  gesture  on 


LUKE 


555 


LUKE 


Christ's  part  which  marks  a  wonderful  accuracj'  on  the 
part  of  Luke.  We  read  tliere  that  Christ  "  looked  uj],'" 
and  saw  the  rich  casting  their  gifts  into  the  treasury. 
From  Mark  xii,  41  we  learn  the  reason  of  Luke's  ex- 
pression, which  he  does  not  give  himself,  for  there  we 
read  that  Christ,  after  warning  his  disciples  against  the 
scribes, ''  sat  down"  and  would  therefore  have  to  look  up 
in  order  to  see  what  was  going  on.  This  minute  accu- 
racy marks  Luke's  description  of  our  Lord's  coming  to 
Jerusalem  across  the  Mount  of  Olives  (xix,  37-41). 
Travellers  who  are  very  accurate  in  topographical  de- 
scription speak  of  two  distinct  sights  of  Jerusalem  on 
this  route,  an  inequality  of  ground  liiding  it  for  a  time 
after  one  has  tirst  caught  sight  of  it  {Clerical  Journal, 
August  22, 1856,  p.  397).  Luke  distinctly  refers  to  this 
nice  topographical  point ;  in  ver.  37  he  marks  the  first 
sight  of  Jerusalem,  and  in  ver.  41  he  marks  the  second 
sight  of  the  city,  now  much  nearer  than  before.  The 
correctness  of  Luke's  date  in  the  matter  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Syria  by  Cyrenius  has  indeed  been  often  ques- 
tioned, but  on  insufficient  grounds.  The  just  way  of 
dealing  with  very  ancient  documents  wliich  have  given 
general  proofs  of  trustworthiness,  but  which,  in  particu- 
lar instances,  make  statements  that  do  not  appear  to  us 
to  be  correct,  is  to  attribute  this  apparent  want  of  cor- 
rectness to  our  ignorance  rather  than  to  that  of  the 
writer.  In  the  particular  case  before  us  recent  research 
has  shown  that  Cyrenius  was  in  all  probability  twice 
governor  of  Syria,  thus  establishing,  instead  of  over- 
throwing, the  correctness  of  Luke"  (Fairbairn).  Com- 
pare Huschke,  Ueher  den  zur  Zeit  der  Gehurt  Christi  ge- 
haltenen  Census  (Breslau,  1840);  Wieseler,  Chronologische 
Synopse  der  vier  Evangelien  (Hamburg,  1843)  ;  Tholuck, 
Glaubwiirdigkeii  der  evangelischen  Geschichte.  See  Cy- 
renius. 

In  his  narrative  we  miss  the  graphic  power  of  Mark, 
though  in  this  he  is  superior  to  Matthew,  e.  g.  ch.  vii, 
1-10;  comp.  Matt,  viii,  5-13:  ch.viii,  41-56;  comp.Matt. 
ix,  18-26.  His  object  is  ratlier  to  record  the  facts  of 
our  Lord's  life  than  his  discourses,  while,  as  Olshausen 
remarks  (i,  19,  Clark's  ed.),  "  He  has  the  peculiar  power 
of  exhibiting  with  great  clearness  and  truth  our  Lord's 
conversations,  with  all  tlie  inciilents  that  gave  rise  to 
them — the  remarks  of  the  by-standers,  and  their  re- 
sults." 

Wa  may  also  notice  here  the  passing  reflections,  or, 
as  bishop  Ellicott  terms  them  {Flist.  Ltd.  p.  28),  "psy- 
chological comments,"  called  up  by  the  events  or  actors 
which  appear  in  his  Gospel,  interpolated  by  him  as  obi- 
ter dicta  in  the  body  of  the  narrative.  We  may  in- 
stance ii,  50,  51 ;  iii,  15 ;  vi,  11 ;  vii,  29,  30,  39 ;  xvi,  14 ; 
XX,  20;  xxii,  3;  xxiii,  12. 

V.  Style  and  Language. — Luke's  style  is  more  finished 
than  that  of  Matthew  or  Mark.  There  is  more  of  com- 
position in  his  sentences.  His  writing  displays  greater 
variety,  and  the  structure  is  more  complex.  His  dic- 
tion is  substantially  the  same,  but  purer,  and,  except  in 
the  first  two  chapters,  less  Hebraized,  as  remarked  by 
Jerome  {Comment,  in  £.<!. ;  compare  ad  Damas.  Ep.  20). 
It  deserves  special  notice  how,  in  the  midst  of  close  ver- 
bal similarity,  especially  in  the  report  of  the  words  of 
our  Lf)rd  and  others,  slight  alterations  are  made  by  him 
either  by  the  substitution  of  another  word  or  phrase  (e. 
g.  Luke  XX,  6  ;  comp.  Matt,  xxi,  26  ;  Mark  xi,  32  :  Luke 
vii,  25;  ]Markxi,8:  Luke  ix,  14 ;  Mark  vi,39,40:  Luke 
XX,  28,  29;  Mark  xii,  20,  22:  Luke  viii.  25;  Mark  viii, 
27),  the  suyiply  (Luke  xx,45;  Mark  xii,  38  :  Luke  vii, 8; 
Matt,  viii,  9),  or  the  omission  of  a  word  (Luke  ix,  25; 
Matt,  xvi,  26;  Mark  viii,  36),  by  which  harsh  construc- 
tions are  removed,  and  a  more  classical  air  given  to  the 
whf)le  composition. 

The  Hebraistic  character  is  more  perceptible  in  the 
hymns  and  speeches  incorporated  by  him  than  in  the 
narrative  itself.  The  following  are  some  of  the  chief 
Hebraisms  that  have  been  noticed:  (1.)  the  very  fre- 
quent use  of  tyivtTo  in  a  new  subject,  especially  tyn'fro 
iv  T(^,  with  the  accusative  and  infinitive,  corresponding 


to  S  ■'<T|'1,  twenty-three  times,  not  once  in  Matt.,  only 
twice  in  Mark;  (2.)  the  same  idiom,  without  iykvtTo,  e, 
g.  ix,  34,  36 ;  x,  35 ;  xi,  37  ;  (3.)  iykviTO  wq,  or  wf  alone 
of  time,  the  Hebrew  3,  e.  g.  ii,  15;  v,  4,  only  once  each 
in  Matthew  and  Mark;  (4.)  'T;//i(T7-oe,  used  for  God— 
")T'P",  five  times,  once  in  Mark ;  (5.)  oIkoq,  for  family  = 
rr^a;  (6.)  dTro  Tov  fi;»'  =  ilFlS^,  four  times,  not  once 
in  the  other  gospels;  (7.)  ahda  in  the  genitive  as  an 
epithet,  e.  g.  oiKovofxov  tiiq  aCiKiag,  koitijq  ti]q  aCiKiag  ; 
(8.)  irpoaiBiTO  ni^\l/at,  xx,  11,12;  (9.)  KapSia  =  'zb. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  find  certain  classical  words 
and  phrases  peculiar  to  Luke  taking  the  place  of  others 
less  familiar  to  his  Gentile  readers,  e.  g.  t-Ki<7raT7]Q  for 
pa(5fti,  six  times;  vofiiKoi  for  ypai^^artlc,  six  times; 
vai,  dXijSrCJc,  or  itt'  uXjj^iiag  for  a/i»)v,  which  only  oc- 
curs seven  times  to  thirty  in  ]Matthew,  and  fourteen  in 
Mark;  utttiii'  \vxvov  for  Ka'uiv  X.jfoiu-  times;  XifxvT] 
of  the  Lake  of  (Jcnnesareth  for  BdXaaaa,  five  times; 
TTapaXtXvpevog  for  irapaXvriKog ;  icXiviCiov  for  Kpdfi- 
jiaroQ  ;  <p6poQ  for  k7]vc!oq. 

The  style  of  Luke  has  many  peculiarities  both  in  con- 
struction and  in  diction;  indeed,  it  has  been  calculated 
that  the  number  of  words  used  only  by  him  exceeds  the 
aggregate  of  the  other  three  gospels.  Full  particulars 
of  these  are  given  by  Credncr  {Einleit.)  (copied  by  Da- 
vidson, Introd.  to  the  N.  T.)  and  Reuss  {Geschichte  d.  H. 
Schrijh).  The  following  are  some  of  the  most  note- 
worthy. Of  peculiar  constructions  we  may  remark,  (1.) 
the  infinitive  with  the  genitive  of  the  article  (Winer, 
G?:  Gr.  i,  340),  to  indicate  design  or  result,  e.  g.  Luke  ii, 
27;  V,  7;  xxi,  22;  xxiv,  29  ;  i,9;  i,57;  ii,21.  (2.)  The 
substantive  verb  with  the  participle  instead  of  the  finite 
verb,  iv,  31;  v,  10;  vi,  12;  vii,  8;  xxiii,  12  (Winer,  §  65- 
67).  (3.)  The  neuter  participle  with  the  article  for  a 
substantive,  iv,  16;  viii,  34;  xxii,  22 ;  xxiv,  14.  (4.) 
TO,  to  substantivise  a  sentence  or  a  clause,  especially  in 
indirect  questions,  i,  63  ;  vii,  11 ;  ix,  46,  etc.  (5.)  tiTriXv 
TTpoQ,  sixty-seven  times;  Xiytiv  Trpoc,  ten  times;  Xa- 
XeTi'  Trpoc,  four  times,  the  first  being  used  once  by  Mat- 
thew, and  the  others  not  at  all  by  him  or  Mark.  (6.) 
Participles  are  copiously  used  to  give  vividness  to  the 
narrative,  dvaffrdg,  seventeen  times;  arpatpdQ,  seven 
times;  wiam^,  etc.  (7.)  dvljp  used  with  a  substantive, 
e.  g.  dixapTUjXog,  V,  8 ;  xix,  7 ;  and  7rpo^/'/r?;e,  xxiv,  19. 

Of  the  words  peculiar  to,  or  occurring  much  more  fre- 
quently in  Luke,  some  of  the  most  remarkable  arc,  the 
use  of  Kvpiog  in  the  narrative  as  a  synonym  for  'I j/fforc, 
which  occurs  fourteen  times  (e.  g.  vii,  13  ;  x,  1 ;  xiii,  15, 
etc.),  and  nowhere  else  in  the  synoptical  gospels  save 
in  the  addition  to  Mark,  xvi,  19,  20;  cwrijp,  atunipia, 
aojrJiptov,  not  found  m  the  other  gospels,  except  the 
first  two  once  each  in  John;  x"P'C>  eight  times  in  the 
Gospel,  sixteen  in  the  Acts,  and  only  thrice  in  John,  \a- 
piZofxai,  xapirouj  ;  f  ('ayytXi'so/fai,  very  frequent,  while 
tvayYfXtov  docs  not  occur  at  all;  vTroarpicpio,  twenty- 
one  times  in  the  Gospel,  ten  in  the  Acts,  and  only  once 
in  Mark;  i^iGrc'ivat,  not  used  in  the  other  three  gos- 
pels ;  citftxiaBai,  thirty-two  times  in  Luke's  Gospel  and 
the  Acts,  and  only  twice  each  in  Matthew,  Mark,  and 
John;  7rapo;\;pi)/(n,  frequent  in  Luke,  and  only  twice 
elsewhere,  in  Matthew;  inrapxtti,  seven  times  in  Gos- 
pel, twenty-six  in  Acts,  but  nowhere  in  the  other  gos- 
pels, and  -d  VTrdpxoi'Ta,  eight  times  in  Gospel  to  three 
in  Matthew  alone  ;  uTraQ,  twenty  times  in  Gospel,  six- 
teen in  Acts,  to  thrice  in  Matthew  and  four  times  in 
Mark;  'IfpojurnA/;/;,  instead  of  the 'ifpocroAiyia  of  the 
other  gospels;  iviinnov,  twenty-two  times  in  Gospel, 
fourteen  times  in  Acts,  once  besides  in  John ;  avr,  twen- 
ty-four times  in  Gospel,  fifty-one  in  Acts,  and  only  ten 
times  in  the  other  gospels ;  the  particle  -f,  which  hardly 
appears  in  the  other  gospels,  is  very  frequent  in  Luke's 
writings.  The  words  drtviZw,  (itottoc,  fSovXi),  l3pe(pog, 
(liofiai,  vttjfnc,  coxij,  Codx/^n],  ^n/z/Soc,  BifieXioi',  iacrtg, 
Ka^6ri,Ka^dXov,  /c«St5'/Ci  KaKovpyog,  Kopa^,  Xeiog,  Xv~ 
rpoto,  XvrpiucriQ,  o!K('t'Ofioc-ia-iio,  —aiCtviiJ,~cii''Oj,  TrXso), 
TrXri^oQj  TrA/'/S'a;,  itXiiv,  Trpdacui,  aiydixj,  aKiprdw,  rv^ 


LUKE 


556 


LUKE 


^ai^ofiai,  X'lP^'  uKTii,  Kaiwg,  are  almost  or  quite  pecul- 
iar to  him ;  he  is  very  partial  to  kcu  civtuc;  aud  Kai  av- 
Toi,  II,  Sk,  fxr],  ye,  and  abounds  iu  verbs  compounded 
^yith  prepositions,  where  the  other  evangelists  use  the 
simple  verb. 

Some  omissions  are  to  be  noted :  aAj;.j/jc  does  not  oc- 
cur once,  dXrj^ti'og  only  once,  tiiayykXiov,  cicikovoq,  cai- 
^lovi^ofiivog,  not  once;  Saijiovia^tig  only  once;  and 
wart,  which  is  foimd  fifteen  times  in  Matthew,  and  thir- 
teen in  jMark,  occurs  only  thrice  in  the  whole  gospel. 

A  few  Latin  words  are  used  by  Luke — aaad^iov,  xii, 
G;  (it)vd()ioc,\u,A\.;  Xtytwv,  viii,  30;  fxoSiov,  xi,  33; 
aovcdpiov,  xix,  20 ;  Acts  xix,  12,  but  no  Hebrew  or  Sjt- 
iac  forms,  except  aiKepa,  i,  15. 

On  comparing  the  Gospel  with  the  Acts,  it  is  found 
that  the  style  of  the  latter  is  more  pure  and  free  from 
Hebrew  idioms,  and  the  st3'le  of  the  later  portion  of  the 
Acts  is  more  pure  than  that  of  the  former.  Where  Luke 
used  the  materials  he  derived  from  others,  oral  or  writ- 
ten, or  both,  his  style  reflects  the  Hebrew  idioms  of 
them ;  but  when  he  comes  to  scenes  of  which  he  was  an 
eye-witness,  and  describes  entirely  in  his  own  words, 
these  disappear. 

VL  Quotations  /rom  the  0.  T.—lt  is  a  striking  con- 
firmation of  the  view  propounded  above  of  the  charac- 
ter of  Luke's  Gospel,  and  the  object  of  its  composition, 
that  the  references  to  the  O.  T.,  the  authority  of  which 
with  any  except  the  .Jews  would  be  but  small,  are  so  few 
— only  twenty-four  in  the  one  against  sixty-five  in  the 
other — when  compared  with  their  abundance  in  Mat- 
thew. Only  eight  out  of  the  whole  number  are  pecul- 
iar to  our  evangelist  (marked  with  an  asterisk  iu  the 
annexed  list),  which  occur  in  the  portions  where  he  ap- 
pears to  have  followed  more  or  less  completely  a  Trapa- 
OoaiQ  of  his  own ;  the  historj^  of  the  birth  and  childhood 
of  our  Lord,  the  visit  to  Nazareth  (ch.  iv),  and  that  of 
the  passion.  The  rest  are  found  iu  the  common  synop- 
tical sections.  We  may  also  remark  that,  with  the  most 
trifling  exceptions,  Luke  never  quotes  the  O.  T.  himself, 
nor  speaks  on  his  own  authority  of  events  occurring  in 
fulfilment  of  prophecy,  and  that  his  citations  are  only 
found  in  the  saj'ings  of  our  Lord  and  others.  The  fol- 
lowing list  is  tolerably  complete,  exclusive  of  the  hymns, 
which  are  little  more  than  a  cento  of  phrases  from  the 
O.T. 


*  i,  IT,  Mai.  iv,  6. 

*  25,  Gen.  xxx,  23. 

*  ii,  23,  Exod.  xiii,  2. 

*  24,  Lev.  V,  11. 
iii,  4-6,  Isa.  xl,  3-5. 

iv,  4,  Deut.  viii,3. 
8,  Deut.  vi,  13. 
10-11,  Psa.  xc,  11-12. 
12,  Deut.  vi,  16. 

*  18-19,  l8a.  Ixi,  1-2. 

Isa.  Iviil,  C. 
vii,  27,  Mai.  iii,  1. 
viii,10,  Isa.  vi,  9. 


X,  27,  Deut.  vi,  5. 
Lev.  xix,  18. 
xiii,  27,  Psa.  vi,  8. 

35,  Psa.  cxvii,  26. 
xviii,  20,  Exod.  xx,  13-15. 
xix,  46,  Isa.  Ivi,  7. 
XX,  17,  Psa.  cxvii. 
28,  Deut.  XXV,  5. 
37,  Exod.  iii,  6. 
42-43,  Psa.  cix,  1. 
'  xxii,  37,  Isa.  liii,  12. 
'xxiii,  30,  Hos.  x,  8. 
46,  Psa.  xxx,  5. 


VIL  Time  und  Place  of  Composition. — In  the  com- 
plete silence  of  Scripture,  our  only  means  for  deter- 
mining the  above  points  are  tradition  and  internal  evi- 
dence. The  statements  of  the  former,  though  sufficient- 
ly definite,  are  inconsistent  and  untrustworthy,  Jerome 
{Prcff.  ill  Matthew)  asserts  that  it  was  composed  "  in 
Achaia  and  the  regions  of  Boeotia,"  an  opinion  which 
appears  to  have  been  generally  received  in  the  4th  cen- 
tury (Gregory  Na/.ianzen,  '!•> 'Axain^i))  <i"tl  has  been 
accepted  by  Lardner  {Credibility),  who  fixes  its  date 
A.D.  63  or  64,  after  the  release  of  Paul.  An  Arabic  ver- 
sion, published  by  Erpenius,  places  its  composition  "  in 
a  city  of  Macedonia,  twenty-two  years  after  the  ascen- 
sion," A.D.  51 ;  a  view  to  which  Ililgenfeld  and  Words- 
worth {Cr.  Test,  i,  170)  give  in  their  adherence.  A  still 
earlier  date,  thirteen  years  after  the  ascension,  is  as- 
signed by  the  subscription  in  some  ancient  MSS.  Oth- 
er statements  as  to  the  place  are  Alexandria  Troas,  Al- 
exandria in  EgjT^t  (the  Peshiio  and  Persian  versions, 
Abulfeda,  accepted  by  Mill,(irabe,  and  Wetstein),  Rome 
(Ewald,  vi,  40 ;  Olshausen),  and  C;esarca  (Bertholdt, 
Schott.  Thiersch,  Alford,  Abp.  Thomson). 


Amid  this  uncertainty,  it  will  be  well  to  see  if  there 
is  any  internal  evidence  which  will  help  us  in  deter- 
mining these  points.  We  are  here  met  at  the  outset  by 
those  who  are  determined  to  see  in  everj'  clear  prophecy 
a  vaticinium  post  eventum,  and  who  find  in  the  predic- 
tions of  the  overthrow  of  Jerusalem  (xiii,  34,  35;  xix, 
43,  44;  xxi,  20-24),  and  the  persecutions  of  our  Lord's 
followers  (xii,  52,  53 ;  xxi,  12),  and  the  nearness  of  the 
irapovaia  (xxi,  25-33),  a  clear  proof  that  the  Gospel  was 
composed  after  A.D.  70.  This  has  come  to  be  regarded 
as  a  settled  point  by  a  certain  school  of  criticism  (Ew- 
ald, v,  134 ;  De  Wette,  Einleit.  p.  298 ;  Credner,  Einleit.  ; 
Keuss,  Gesch.  de  Ileil.  Schr.  p.  195;  Meyer;  Kenan,  Vie 
de  Jesus,  xvi ;  Nicolas,  Etudes,  N.  T.,  etc.),  though  there 
is  no  small  diversity  among  its  representatives  as  to  the 
time  and  place  of  its  publication  of  the  Gospel  and  the 
sources  from  which  it  was  derived.  Those,  on  the  other 
hand,  who,  brouglit  up  in  a  sounder  and  more  reverent 
school,  see  no  a  priori  impossibility  in  a  future  event 
being  foretold  by  the  Son  of  God,  wiU  be  led  by  the 
same  data  to  a  very  different  conclusion,  and  will  dis- 
cover sufficient  grounds  for  dating  the  Gospel  not  later 
than  A.U.  58.  It  is  certain  that  the  Gospel  was  written 
before  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (Acts  i,  1).  This  latter 
could  not  have  been  composed  before  A.D.  58,  when  the 
writer  leaves  Paul  '•  in  his  own  hired  house"  at  Kome ; 
nor  probably  long  after,  since  otherwise  the  issue  of 
the  apostle's  imprisonment  and  appeal  to  Cfesar  must 
naturally  have  been  recorded  by  him.  How  long  the 
composition  of  the  Gospel  preceded  that  of  the  Acts  it  is 
impossible  to  determine,  but  we  may  remark  that  the 
different  tradition  followed  in  the  reports  of  the  ascen- 
sion in  the  two  books  renders  it  probable  that  the  inter- 
val was  not  very  small,  or,  at  an}'  rate,  that  the  two 
were  not  contemporaneous.  If  we  follow  the  old  tradi- 
tion given  above,  we  may  find  reason  for  supposing  that 
the  interval  between  Luke's  being  left  at  Philippi  (Acts 
xvi,  12 ;  xvii,  1)  and  his  joining  the  apostle  there  again 
(xx,  5)  was  employed  in  writing  and  publishing  his 
gospel.  This  view  is  accepted  by  Alford,  Proleg.  p.  47, 
and  is  ably  maintained  by  Dr.  Wordsworth,  Or.  Test,  i, 
168-170,  though  he  weakens  his  argument  by  referring 
tvayy'iXiov  (2  Cor.  viii,  18)  to  a  icritten  gospel,  a  later 
sense  never  fomid  in  the  New  Test.  Ajiother  and  more 
plausible  view,  adopted  by  Thiersch,  which  has  found 
very  wide  acceptance,  is  that  the  Gospel  was  written 
under  the  guidance  and  superintendence  of  Paul  during 
his  imprisonment  at  Cresarea,  A.D.  55 ;  but,  as  this  im- 
prisonment did  not  last  for  two  years,  as  usually  held, 
there  is  here  no  room  for  the  composition.  Olshausen, 
among  others,  places  it  a  little  later,  during  Paul's  cap- 
tivity at  Rome,  where  he  may  have  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Theophilus,  if,  as  Ewald  (vi,  40)  maintains,  the 
latter  was  a  native  of  Kome.  This  view,  which  places 
the  writing  of  the  Gospel  in  the  early  part  of  Paul's  first 
imprisonment  at  Kome,  A.D.  56,  is  supported  by  Luke's 
leisure  at  the  time,  and  the  fact  that  the  Acts  followed 
not  very  long  after  as  a  sequel. 

VIII.  Eor  ichom  written. — On  this  point  we  have  cer- 
tain evidence.  Luke  himself  tells  us  that  the  object  he 
had  in  view  in  compiling  his  gospel  was  that  a  certain 
Theophilus  "  might  know  the  certainty  of  those  things 
wherein  he  had  been  (orally)  instructed."  Nothing 
more  is  known  of  this  Theophilus,  and  it  is  idle  to  re- 
peat the  vague  conjectures  iu  which  critics  have  in- 
dulged, some  even  denj-ing  his  personal  existence  alto- 
gether, and  arguing,  from  the  meaning  of  the  name, 
that  it  stands  merely  as  the  representative  of  a  class. 
See  Theophilus.  One  or  two  inferences  may,  how- 
ever, be  made  with  tolerable  certainty  from  Luke's 
words.  He  was  dtmbtlcss  a  Christian,  and,  from  his 
name  and  the  character  of  the  Gospel,  a  Gentile  convert ; 
whUe  the  epithet  Kod-taTog,  generally  employed  as  a 
title  of  honor  (Acts  xxiii,  26;  xxiv,  3;  xxvi,  25),  indi- 
cates that  he  was  a  person  of  official  dignity.  He  was 
not  an  inhal)itant  of  Palestine,  for  the  evangelist  mi- 
nutely describes  the  position  of  places  which  to  such  a 


LUKE 


557 


LUKE 


one  would  be  well  known.  It  is  so  with  Capernaum 
(iv,  31),  Nazareth  (i,  '2G),  Arimathaia  (xxiii,  51),  the 
country  of  the  Gadarencs  (viii,  20),  the  distance  of 
Mount  Olivet  and  Emmaus  from  Jerusalem  (Acts  i,  12; 
Luke  xxiv,  13).  By  the  same  test  he  probably  was  not 
a  Macedonian  (Acts  xvi,  12),  nor  an  Athenian  (Acts 
xvii,  21),  nor  a  Cretan  (Acts  xxvii,8, 12).  But  that  he 
was  a  native  of  Italy,  and  perhaps  an  inhabitant  of 
Eome,  IS  probable  from  similar  data.  In  tracing  Paul's 
journey  to  Rome,  places  which  an  ItaUan  might  be  sup- 
posed not  to  know  are  described  minutely  (Acts  xxvii, 
8, 12, 10) ;  but  when  he  comes  to  Sicily  and  Italy  this  is 
neglected.  Syracuse  and  lihegium,  even  the  more  ob- 
scure Puteoli,  and  Appii  Forum  and  the  Three  Taverns, 
are  mentioned  as  to  one  likely  to  know  them.  (For 
other  theories,  see  Marsh's  Michaelis,  vol.  iii,  part  i,  p. 
230;  and  Kuincil's  Prolegomena.)  All  that  emerges 
from  this  argument  is  that  the  person  for  whom  Luke 
wrote  in  the  first  instance  was  a  Gentile  reader.  But, 
though  the  Gospel  is  inscribed  to  him,  we  must  not  con- 
sider that  it  was  written  fur  him  alone,  but  that  The- 
ophilus  stands  rather  as  the  representative  of  the  whole 
Christian  world ;  not,  as  we  have  already  seen,  of  the 
Gentiles,  as  such,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  Jews,  but  the 
whole  race  of  man,  whom  Luke  had  in  his  eye ;  and  for 
whom,  under  the  guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  work 
was  adapted  "as  the  Gospel  of  the  nations  {toXq  (itto 
tCjv  iji'iZv  TTfTTOi/j/corrt,  Origcn,  apud  I^useh.  \i,  2b),  full 
of  mercy  and  hope  assiu-cd  to  the  whole  world  by  the 
love  of  a  suft'ering  Savioiu:"  (Westcott,  Siudf/  oj' Gospels, 
p.  218). 

IX.  Contents  of  the  Gospel. — After  the  brief  preface — 
the  value  of  which  it  is  difficult  to  overestimate  as 
throwing  light  on  the  history  of  the  composition  of  the 
gospels  in  general,  and  the  true  theory  of  scriptural 
inspiration  —  the  narrative  of  the  Gospel  may  be  di- 
vided into  four  portions :  1.  The  time  preceding  our 
Lord's  public  life,  including  the  conception  and  birth  of 
John  the  Baptist,  and  of  Christ,  his  circumcision,  pre- 
sentation iu  the  Temple,  and  the  single  incident  recorded 
of  his  childhood  (ii,  41-51),  comprised  in  the  first  two 
chapters.  The  whole  of  this  portion  is  in  form,  and  to 
a  considerable  extent  in  substance,  peculiar  to  our  evan- 
gelist. See  §  X.  2.  A  large  number  of  originally  de- 
tached and  independent  narratives,  comprising  our  Lord's 
baptism,  temptation,  and  Galitean  ministry,  almost  the 
whole  being  common  to  Luke  with  the  other  synoptists 
(iii,  1-ix,  49).  8.  A  large  section,  sometimes,  but  im- 
pro))erly,  termed  the  (jnomolorni,  containing  narratives 
of  events  and  reports  of  discourses  belonging  to  the  pe- 
riod from  the  close  of  our  Lord's  direct  Galilean  ministry 
to  liis  visit  to  Jericho  a  few  days  before  his  royal  en- 
trance into  Jerusalem,  and  mostly  occurring  during  the 
actual  journey  (ix,  50-xvili,  14).  The  whole  of  this,  in 
its  present  form,  is  peculiar  to  Luke.  4.  The  last  days 
of  Christ :  his  entry  into  Jerusalem,  discourses  in  the 
Temple,  his  sufferings  and  death,  his  resurrection  and 
ascension,  common  to  Luke  and  the  other  evangelists  in 
substance,  though  there  are  considerable  differences  in 
detail  in  the  narratives  of  the  passion  and  resurrection 
(especially  the  journey  to  Emmaus),  and  that  of  the  as- 
cension is  entirely  Luke's  own  (xviii,  l5-xxiv,  53). 

X.  Integrity  of  the  Gospel — the  frst  ttro  Chapters. — 
The  Gospel  of  Luke  is  quoted  by  Justin  IMartyr  and  by 
the  author  of  the  Clementine  Homilies.  The  silence  of 
the  apostolic  fathers  only  indicates  that  it  was  admitted 
into  the  canon  somewhat  late,  which  was  probably  the 
case.  The  evidence  of  the  jNIarcionite  controversy  is,  as 
we  have  seen,  that  our  gospel  was  in  use  before  A.D.  120. 
A  special  question,  however,  has  been  raised  about  the 
first  two  chapters.  The  critical  history  of  these  is  best 
drawn  out  perhaps  in  Meyer's  note.  The  chief  objec- 
tion against  them  is  founded  on  the  garliled  opening  of 
Marcion's  Gospel,  who  omits  the  first  two  chapters,  and 
connects  iii,  1  immediately  with  iv,  31.  (So  Tertullian, 
"Anno  quintodecimo  principatus  Tiberiani  proponit  De- 
um  descendisse   in   civitatem   GaUla^   Caphamaum," 


conf.  Marc,  iv,  7.)  But  any  objection  founded  on  this 
would  apply  to  the  third  chapter  as  well ;  and  the  his- 
tory of  our  Lord's  childhood  seems  to  have  been  known 
to  and  quoted  by  Justin  Martyr  (see  Apology,  i,  §  33, 
and  an  allusion.  Dial,  cum  Tryph.  100)  about  the  time 
of  Marcion.  There  is  therefore  no  real  gromid  for  dis- 
tinguishing between  the  first  two  chapters  and  the  rest ; 
and  the  arguments  for  the  genuineness  of  Luke's  Gospel 
apply  to  the  whole  inspired  narrative  as  we  now  possess 
it  (see  Meyer's  note ;  also  Volckmar,  p.  130). 

XI.  Commentaries. — The  following  are  the  special  ex- 
egetical  helps  on  Luke's  Gospel:  Oric^en, Fragmcnta  (in 
0pp.  iii,  979);  also  Scholia  (in  L'ibl.  Patr.  Gallandii, 
xiv)  ;  Athanasius,  Fragmentei  (in  Opp.  I,  ii) ;  also  Com- 
mentaria  {ih,  iii,  31) ;  Ambrose,  Exp)ositio  (in  Opp.  i, 
1257) ;  Augustine,  Qucestiones  (in  Opp.'\\,o\l) ;  Jerome, 
Homilia;  [from  Origen]  (in  Opp.\\i,  245) ;  also  Fxpositio 
(in  Opp.  [Siq)posifa^,Ki,7Q4:);  Cyiil  Alex.,  A dditamen- 
tum  (in  Mai,  Script.  Vet.  bi,  741)  ;  Commentariu  (ed. 
Smith,  Loud.  1858,  4to;  Commentary,  tr.  by  same,  ibid. 
1859,  2  vols.  8vo) ;  Eusebius,  Excerpta  {ibidem,  i,  107)  ; 
Titus  Bostrensis,  Conunentarius  (in  £ibl.  Max.  Patr.  iv, 
415) ;  Apollinarius Laodicensis, Fiagmenta  (in M.3.\,Class. 
A  uct.  X,  495)  ;  Bede,  In  Lucam  (in  Opp.  v,  217 ;  Works, 
ed.  Giles,  x  and  xi) ;  Photius,  Specimen  (in  Mai,  Sciipt. 
Vet.  I,  i,  189)  ;  Nicetas  Senon.  Catena  {ib.  ix,  626) ;  JEl- 
fridus  Rivellensis,  Iloniilice  (in  £ibl.  Max.  Pati:  xxiii,  1) ; 
Bonaventura,  Exjmsilio  (in  Opjy.  ii,  3);  Albertus  Slag- 
nus,  Connnentarii  (in  02jp.  10) ;  Decorosus,  Lumles  (in 
Mai,  Script.  Vet.  ix,  182);  Zwingle,  Annotationes  (in 
Opp.iv,\SV);  Jitentms,  Ilomiliw  (in  Opp.v);  Lambert, 
Commentarius  (Norib.  1524,  Argent.  1525,  8vo) ;  Agric- 
ola,  Commentarius  (Aug.  Vind.  1515,  Norib.  1525,  Hag. 
1526,  8vo);  Sarcer,  Scholia  (Basil.  1529,  Francft.  1541, 
8vo) ;  BuUinger,  Commeniaria  (Tigur.  1546,  fol.) ;  Hof- 
meister,  Commentarius  [includ. Matt. and  Mark]  (Lovan. 
1502,  fol.;  Paris,  1503,  Colon.  1572,  8vo);  Logenhagen, 
Comvientarius  [from  Augustine]  (Antwerp,  1574,  8vo) ; 
Soar,  Commentariu  (Conimb.  1574,  Par.  1578,  fol.) ;  Stel- 
la, Commentarius  [Kom.  Cath.]  (Salmart.  1675,  Complut. 
1578,  Lugdun.  1580,  1583,  1592,  Rom.  1582,  Antw.  1582, 
1684,  159^1,  1000,  1006,  1608,  1613,  1622,  1654,  Mogunt. 
1680,  fol. ;  Yen.  1583,  Mayence,  1681,  4to) ;  De  Horosco, 
Commentarius  (Complut.  1579,  4to) ;  Gualther,  Ilomilice 
(Tigur.  1586,  fol.);  ViscatOT,  Analysis  (Sigen.  1596, 1608, 
8vo) ;  De  Melo,  Commentaria  (Vallis.  1597,  fol.);  Tole- 
tus,  Commentariu  [on  ch.  i-xii]  (Rom.  1000,  Par.  1600, 
Colon.  1612,  fol.;  Yen.  1600,  4to) ;  Winckelmann,  Com- 
mentarius (Francf.  1601,  Giess.  1609,  Lub.  1610, 8vo) ;  Del 
Pas,  Commentaria  (Rom.  1625,  2  vols,  fol.);  Corderius, 
Catena  (Ant\\'.  1028,  fol.) ;  Novarinus,  Expensus  (Lugd. 
1042,  fol.) ;  Gomarus,  Illustratio  (in  Oj^p.  theolog.  i,  149) ; 
A  Lapide,  In  Lucam  (Antwerp,  1660,  fol.) ;  Spielenberg, 
Commentarius  (Jen.  1063,  4to);  TAaxi^iOckes:,  Aantekin- 
gen  [continued  by  Molinajus]  (Amst.  1687, 4to) ;  Tolaar, 
Verklaaring  (Hamb.  1741,  3  vols.  4to) ;  Pope,  Erlauter- 
ung  (Bremen,  1777,  1781,  2  vols.  8vo);  Anon.  Anmerk. 
(Lps.  1792,  8vo)  ;  Morus,  Pralectiones  (Lips.  1795,  8vo) ; 
Schleiermacher,  Versuch  (vol.  i,  1817,  8vo;  trans.  Essay, 
Lond.  1825,  8vo) ;  Major,  Notes  (Lond.  1826,  8vo) ;  Bo- 
mermann.  Scholia  (Lips.  1830,  8vo) ;  Stein,  Kommentar 
(Halle,  1830,  8vo) ;  Wilson,  Questions  (Cambridge,  1830, 
12mo)  ;  Sumner,  Exposition  (3d  ed.  1833, 8vo)  ;  Watson, 
Exposition  [ch.  i-xiii]  (in  Wo7-ks,  xiii ;  also  separately, 
N.  Y.  8vo) ;  Short,  Lectures  (London,  1837, 12mo) ;  Sirr, 
JVotes  (pt.  i,  London,  1843,  8vo) ;  Trollope,  Commentary 
(Lond.  1849, 12mo);  Thomson,  Lectures  (Lond.  1849-61, 
3vols.  8vo);  ¥oTc],  Illustration  (Lond.  1851,  8yo)  ;  Gum- 
ming, Readings  (London,  1854,  8vo) ;  Foote,  Lectures 
(Glasg.  1867, 2  vols.8vo) ;  Goodwin,  Commentary  (Lond. 
1866,  8vo) ;  Stark,  Commentary  (London,  1866,  2  vols. 
12mo) ;  Yan  Doren,  Commentary  (Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1868, 
2  vols.  12mo);  Godet,  Commentaire  (Neufchatel,  1870, 
8vo),     See  Gospels. 

Luke  OF  Pkacjue,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  bish- 
ops and  writers  of  the  Unitas  Fratrum,  or  the  Bohemian 
and  Moravian  Brethren,  was  born  about  1460,  in  Bohe- 


LUKE 


558 


LULLY 


mia,  and  studied  at  the  Universitj'  of  Prague,  where  he 
attained  to  the  degree  of  A.B.  A  member  of  the  Utra- 
quist,  or  National  Church,  he  quitted  Prague  in  conse- 
(luoncc  of  dilHcuhies  with  the  Koman  Catholics,  sought 
out  the  Brethren,  whose  simple  faith  and  stanch  con- 
fession of  it  attracted  him,  and  joined  their  communion 
about  1480.  At  that  time  they  were  on  the  eve  of  se- 
rious dissensions,  owing  to  the  gradual  separation  of  two 
parties  among  them,  the  one  extreme,  the  other  moder- 
ate in  its  views  of  the  discipline.  The  former  repre- 
sented the  illiterate,  and  the  latter  the  educated  portion 
of  the  membership.  Luke,  being  a  thoroughly  learned 
man,  gifted  with  great  executive  ability,  and  distin- 
guished for  his  unassuming  piety,  soon  won  a  prominent 
position.  He  held  to  the  moderate  party,  but  enjoyed 
the  confidence  of  many  on  the  other  side.  In  1491  he 
was  sent,  with  three  associates,  on  a  visit  to  the  East,  in 
order  to  find,  if  possible,  a  body  of  Christians  free  from 
the  corruptions  of  the  age,  with  whom  the  Unitas  Fra- 
trum  might  establish  a  fellowship.  Returning  from 
this  journey  without  having  accomplished  its  object,  he 
devoted  himself  to  literary  labors,  and  wrote  a  number 
of  works  treating  of  the  points  in  dispute  among  the 
Brethren.  These  publications  contributed  not  a  little 
to  the  ascendency  of  the  moderate  party,  and  to  the 
final  pacification  of  the  Church  in  1494,  after  the  most 
violent  of  the  extremists  had  seceded,  and  organized  a 
sect  of  their  own,  called  the  Amosites,  which  soon  de- 
generated into  fanaticism.  Three  years  later,  Luke  un- 
dertook a  mission  to  the  Waldenses  of  Italy  and  France, 
and  on  his  return  in  1500  was  elected  bishop.  His 
sound  judgment  and  unflinching  courage  sustained  the 
Brethren  in  times  of  persecution ;  his  sense  of  the  dig- 
nity and  proprieties  of  public  worship  served  to  develop 
their  ritual;  his  enthusiastic  conviction  of  the  scrip- 
tural character  of  their  faith  opened  the  way  for  their 
rapid  increase  among  the  higher  classes ;  and  his  won- 
derful diligence  gave  them  a  literature  far  superior  to 
that  of  the  Utraquists  and  of  the  Bohemian  Roman 
Catholics.  In  1505  he  published  a  Catechism  and  a 
Bipnn-book,  the  first  evangelical  works  of  this  kind  in 
the  Middle  Ages.  Having,  in  1518,  become  the  seni;ir 
bishop  of  the  Church  and  president  of  its  ecclesiastical 
council,  he  began  to  watch  the  progress  of  Luther's  Ref- 
ormation with  close  attention,  and  in  1522  sent  a  dep- 
utation to  Wittenberg  in  order  to  present  the  good 
wishes  of  the  Brethren.  The  result,  however,  was  not 
satisfactorv.  Luke  disagreed  with  Luther  in  regard  to 
the  doctrines  both  of  the  Lord's  Supper  and  of  justifica- 
tion by  faith.  On  the  one  hand,  he  upheld  the  spiritual 
presence,  and,  on  the  other,  he  gave  undue  prominence 
to  good  works.  Each  published  a  dei'ence  of  his  own 
views.  Luther  ^vrote  with  moderation,  and  in  a  friend- 
ly spirit ;  Luke  was  more  severe  in  his  strictures.  His 
stand-point  touching  justification,  however,  was  not,  as 
(Jindely  asserts,  a  Romish  one.  He  was  led  to  extremes 
by  his  desire  to  prevent  a  misuse  of  the  doctrine  of  free 
grace.  This  purpose  induced  him,  in  1524,  to  renew  his 
correspondence  with  Luther.  A  second  deputation  vis- 
ited Wittenberg,  and  gave  him  a  full  account  of  the  dis- 
cipline of  tlie  Brethren,  in  the  hope  that  he  would  in- 
troduce a  similar  system  among  his  followers,  and  thus 
bring  about  a  reform  not  merely  of  Christian  doctrine, 
but  also  of  Christian  life.  P,ut  again  the  negotiations 
failed.  Indeed,  they  produced  a  personal  estrangement 
between  Luke  and  Luther,  and  for  a  time  all  inter- 
course ^vith  ^Vittenberg  was  broken  off.  The  real  cause 
of  this  disagreement  is  not  clear.  In  part  it  was  owing 
to  the  grave  offence  which  the  deputies  took  at  the 
loose  morals  of  the  Wittenberg  students,  and  to  the  free- 
dom witli  whicli  they  denounced  tlieir  manner  of  life. 
Luther,  on  liis  side,  attacked  the  rigorism  of  tlw  Breth- 
ren in  his  Tischi-eden.  In  the  (pllowing  years  the  Breth- 
ren suffered  a  severe  persecution  in  Bohemia.  Luke 
himself  was  seized,  loaded  with  chains,  and  imprisoned, 
and  escaped  execution  only  through  the  intervention  of 
a  powerful  noble  belonging  to  the  Unitas  Fratrum.    Af- 


ter his  liberation  he  was  active  for  a  few  years  longer, 
although  suffering  from  a  most  painful  disease,  and  died 
at  Zungbunzlau  Dec.  11, 1528.  His  literarj'  labors  were 
astonishing.  He  was  the  author  of  more  than  eighty 
different  works,  written  partly  in  Latin  and  partly  in 
Bohemian,  and  consisting  of  doctrinal,  exegetical,  and 
polemical  treatises.  The  most  of  them  have  been  lost. 
For  a  further  accomit  of  his  life,  see  Gindely,  Gescliichte 
der  Buhm.  Briider,  vol.  i,  bk.  i,  ch.  iii,  and  bk.  ii ;  Crozer, 
Gescliichte  d.  alten  Briiderkirche,  i,  95-192 ;  Czerwegka, 
Geschichte  der  Evang.  Kirche  in  Bohmen,  vol.  ii,  chap,  iii- 
vii.     (E.  de  S.) 

Luke's,  St.,  Day,  a  festival  observed  in  the  Greek 
and  Romish  churches  on  the  IStli  of  October. 

Luke'warm  (xXiapoc,  tepid),  moderatelj'  warm; 
spoken  figuratively  of  Christians  in  a  half-backslidden 
state  (Rev.  iii,  IG),  who  are  threatened  with  the  divine 
excision,  as  we  instinctively  reject  from  the  mouth  wa- 
ter in  this  insipid  state. 

Lullus  OF  Mayence,  a  noted  German  prelate  of  the 
Romish  Church,  flourished  in  the  8th  century  as  suc- 
cessor of  Boniface,  in  the  archbishopric  of  Mayence. 
He  was  a  native  of  England,  and  was  educated  in  the 
cloister  of  ISIeldun,  but  went  to  Germany  on  invitation  of 
Boniface,  and  was  his  ambassador  to  pope  Zachary  about 
754.  He  attended  the  Council  of  Attigny  in  763,  and  of 
Rome  in  769.  In  785  he  baptized  Witikind,  leader  of 
the  Saxons.  He  founded  the  cloister  of  Hersfeld,  and  on 
his  death  in  786  was  buried  there.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biof).  Generale,  xxxii,  221. 

Lully  (Lull  or  Lulle),  Raymond,  surnamed  the 
Doctor  1  lluminatus,  an  eminent  Spanish  philosopher  and 
theologian,  was  born  at  Palma,  on  the  island  of  Bla- 
jorci,  about  1234.  In  early  life  he  followed  his  paternal 
profession  of  arms,  and  abandoned  himself  to  all  the 
license  of  a  soldier's  life.  Even  when  married  he  con- 
tinued to  pursue  pleasures  inconsistent  with  conjugal 
fidelity,  and  the  theme  of  his  poetical  compositions  was 
sensual  love.  About  the  year  1266,  sick  and  tired  of 
debauchery,  he  retired  to  a  desert  to  lead  a  life  of  soli- 
tude and  rigorous  asceticism.  Here  he  pretended  to 
have  visions,  and,  among  others,  a  manifestation  of 
Christ  on  the  cross,  who  called  him  to  his  service,  and 
to  the  conversion  of  the  jMohammcdans.  He  therefore 
at  once  engaged  in  diligent  study  to  prepare  for  the  la- 
bors and  duties  of  a  missionary.  Having  mastered  the 
Arabic,  and  thorouglily  entered  into  the  spirit  of  Ara- 
bian philosophical  writings,  he  took  to  the  use  of  his 
pen  for  the  conversion  of  the  Saracens,  seeking  to  dem- 
onstrate the  truth  of  Christianity  in  opposition  to  all 
the  errors  of  infidels.  His  first  work  was  his  ^4  rs  major 
or  [lenej-alis,  which  has  so  severely  tested  the  sagacity 
of  commentators.  This  work  is  the  development  of  the 
method  of  teaching  known  subsequently  as  the  "  Lul- 
lian  method,"  and  afforded  a  kind  of  mechanical  aid  to 
the  mind  in  the  acquisition  anil  retention  of  knowledge 
by  a  systematic  arrangement  of  subjects  and  iileas. 
Like  all  such  methods,  however,  it  gave  little  more  than 
a  superficial  knowledge  of  any  subject,  though  it  was  of 
use  in  leading  men  to  perceive  the  necessity  for  an  in- 
vestigation of  truth,  the  means  for  which  were  not  to  be 
found  in  the  scholastic  dialectics,  and  it  was  published 
l)y  Lully  Avith  the  special  aim  of  serving  as  the  prepara- 
tory work  to  a  strictly  scientific  demonstration  ni  all  the 
truths  of  Christianity. 

The  king  of  Majorca,  hearing  of  his  reputation,  called 
Liflly  to  Montpcllier,  where,  in  1275,  he  wrote  his  Ars 
demonstrativa,  and  founded  a  convent  for  the  ]irepara- 
tion  of  Minorites  as  missionaries  to  the  Saracens.  This 
was  the  first  linguistic  school  for  missionary  purposes. 
In  1287  he  went  t.o  Paris,  where  he  lectured  on  the  Ars 
f/eiiei-alis  to  a  large  number  of  students,  and  before  Ber- 
tauld  de  St.  Denis,  chancellor  of  the  university.  He 
next  went  to  Rome  to  seek  the  countenance  of  the  pope 
for  his  plan  of  establishing  missionary  schools,  which  he 
thought  would  prove  more  effective  than  the  Crusades, 


LULLY 


559 


LULLY 


of  which  he  said,  "  I  see  many  knights  going  to  the 
Holy  Land  in  the  expectation  of  conquering  it  by  force 
of  arms ;  but,  instead  of  accomplishing  their  object,  they 
are  in  the  end  all  swept  off  themselves.  Therefore  it  is 
my  belief  that  the  conquest  of  the  Holy  Land  should  be 
attempted  in  no  other  way  than  as  thou  (Christ)  and 
thy  apostles  undertook  to  accomplish  it — by  love,  by 
prayer,  by  tears,  and  the  offering  up  of  our  own  lives." 
Meeting,  however,  with  but  little  success,  he  returned 
to  Tunis  in  1291,  and  commenced  labors  as  a  missionary' 
by  holding  conferences  with  the  most  learned  Moham- 
medan scholars  and  theologians.  In  proclaiming  to 
them  the  truth  of  the  Christian  religion,  he  insisted  es- 
pecially on  the  necessary  adaptation  which  a  perfect 
Being  could  not  fail  to  establish  between  the  primary 
cause  and  its  effect,  and  attempted  to  explain  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Trinity  and  the  Incarnation  by  purely  met- 
aphysical arguments.  He  was,  however,  expelled  by 
the  king  of  Tunis,  and  owed  his  life  only  to  the  inter- 
cession of  a  learned  and  liberal  Mohammedan.  Lully 
now  went  back  to  Paris,  resumed  his  teaching  there, 
and  wrote  his  Tabula  r/eneralis  and  Ais  expositiva, 
which  are  a  continuation  of  his  former  works,  and  pre- 
sent the  same  ideas  under  a  different  form.  In  1298  he 
succeeded  in  establishing  at  Paris,  under  the  protection 
of  king  Louis  Philippe  le  Bel,  a  college  where  his  meth- 
od was  taught.  Prance  was  at  that  time  in  great  fer- 
ment :  Philippe  le  Bel  was  planning  the  destruction  of 
the  order  of  Knight  Templars,  and  Boniface  VIII,  in  re- 
vindicating the  right  previously  claimed  by  Gregory 
VII,  had  aroused  the  greatest  op]iosition  in  France. 
Lully  himself,  after  having  again  in  vain  applied  to 
Konie  for  help  in  carrying  out  his  plans,  withdrew 
to  labor  wherever  an  opportunity  offered  itself.  He 
sought  by  arguments  to  convince  the  Saracens  and 
Jews  on  the  island  of  Majorca.  In  1301  he  went  to 
Cyprus,  and  thence  to  Armenia,  exerting  himself  to 
bring  back  the  different  schismatic  parties  of  the  Ori- 
ental Church  to  orthodoxy.  He  then  visited  Hippone, 
Algiers,  and  other  cities  on  the  coasts  of  Africa,  and 
finally  Bugia,  then  the  seat  of  the  IMohammedan  em- 
pire. Here  he  publicly  lectured  in  Arabic,  proclaiming 
'•  that  Christianity  is  the  only  true  religion ;  the  doc- 
trine of  jNIohammed,  on  the  contrary,  false ;  and  this  he 
was  ready  to  prove  to  every  one."  He  was  again  im- 
prisoned, but  made  his  escape  by  the  aid  of  some  Geno- 
ese merchants,  enduring  manj^  hardships  on  his  journey 
to  Europe  by  shipwreck.  He  finally  reached  Paris,  and 
there  resinned  his  lectures  with  great  success.  In  1311 
the  Council  of  Yienne,  mainly  by  his  infiuence,  no 
doubt,  decided  that,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  conversion 
of  the  heathen,  professors  of  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  Chal- 
dee,  two  for  each  language,  shoidd  be  established  at 
Komc,  and  in  the  universities  of  Paris,  Oxford,  Bologna, 
and  Salamanca ;  those  at  Rome  to  be  maintained  and 
paid  by  the  pope ;  those  at  Paris  by  the  king  of  France, 
etc. ;  and  excluded  the  doctrines  of  Averroes  from  the 
schools.  But  LuUy  could  not  long  bear  the  easy  but 
monotonous  life  he  was  leading  as  a  teacher  and  philos- 
opher; so,  on  Aug.  14, 1314,  he  once  more  crossed  to  Af- 
rica, where,  after  laboring  at  first  secretly,  then  openly, 
he  was  at  last  stoned  to  death  by  order  of  the  king, 
June  30, 1315.  His  body  was  recovered  by  some  Geno- 
ese merchants  and  brought  back  to  Europe.  According 
to  another  accomit,  lie  was  still  alive  when  rescued,  but 
so  seriously  wounded  that  he  died  in  sight  of  his  native 
island. 

Lully  appears  to  have  been  in  many  points  in  ad- 
vance of  his  contemporaries.  Although  at  the  time  of 
his  conversion  he  incUned  to  a  life  of  asceticism,  he  af- 
terwards declared  himself  strongly  against  the  monastic 
spirit  of  his  age.  He  deplored  it  as  a  great  evil  that 
pious  monks  retired  into  solitudes,  instead  of  giving  up 
their  lives  for  their  brethren,  and  preaching  the  Gospel 
among  the  infidels.  Concerning  pilgrimages,  he  eon- 
trasteil  the  gorgeous  processions  of  the  pilgrims  with 
the  entry  of  Christ  into  Jerusalem ;  what  he  did  to  seek 


men,  and  what  they  do  to  seek  him,  and  exclaimed, 
"We  see  the  pilgrims  travelling  away  into  distant  lands 
to  seek  thee,  while  thou  art  so  near  that  every  man,  if 
he  would,  might  find  thee  in  his  own  house  and  cham- 
ber. .  .  .  The  pilgrims  are  so  deceived  by  false  men, 
whom  they  meet  in  tavenis  and  churches,  that  many  of 
them,  when  they  return  home,  show  themselves  to  be 
far  worse  than  they  were  when  they  set  out  on  their 
pilgrimage."  As  a  theologian,  LuUy,  as  we  have  seen 
from  his  history,  was  a  self-taught  man,  not  having  been 
trained  in  the  school  of  any  of  the  great  teachers  of  his 
time.  The  specidative  and  the  practical  were  intimate- 
ly blended  in  his  mind,  and  so  they  ar%  also  in  his  sys- 
tem. "His  speculative  turn  entered  even  into  his  en- 
thusiasm for  the  cause  of  missions,  and  his  zeal  as  an 
apologist.  His  contests,  growing  out  of  this  latter  in- 
terest, with  the  school  of  Averroes,  with  the  sect  pro- 
ceeding from  that  school  which  affirmed  the  irreconcila- 
ble opposition  between  faith  and  knowledge,  would  nat- 
urally lead  him  to  make  the  relation  subsisting  between 
these  two  a  matter  of  special  investigation.  It  is  true, 
the  enthusiasm  for  truth  which  filled  his  mind,  the  un- 
ion of  a  fervid  imagination  with  logical  formalism,  led 
him  to  form  extravagant  hopes  of  a  fancied  absolute 
method  adapted  to  all  science — applicable,  also,  to  the 
truths  of  Christianity,  and  by  which  these  truths  could 
be  demonstrated  in  a  convincing  manner  to  every  man. 
Yet  his  writings  generally  abound — far  more  than  that 
formal  system  of  science,  his  A  is  magna — in  deep  apol- 
ogetic ideas.  The  enthusiasm  of  a  most  fervent  love 
to  God,  a  zeal  equally  intense  for  the  cause  of  faith  and 
the  interests  of  reason  and  science,  expressed  themselves 
everywhere  in  his  works"  (Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  iv,  42G). 

One  of  his  biographers  states  that  the  works  of 
Lully  numbered  four  thousand.  INIost  of  them  are  con- 
tained in  an  edition  published  at  Mayence  (10  vols,  fol.), 
under  title  "  LuUi  Opera  omnia,  per  Baccholium  collecta, 
curante  electore  Palatino,  et  edita  per  Saltzingerum." 
The}'  may  be  divided  into  four  classes:  I.  Works  con- 
cerning the  "  Ars  magna:"  Ars  generalis  ;  Ars  demon- 
straliva ;  A  rs  inventiva  ;  A  is  esrposiiiva  ;  A  ?•«  hrevis  ; 
Tabula  generalis ;  A  rs  magna  generalis  ultima  (this  lat- 
ter was  published  separateh',  Majorca,  1647) ;  A  rhor  Sci- 
enticB  (Barcelon.  1582);  Liber  Quasiionum  super  qiiaiuor 
libris  senteniiannn  (Lyons,  1451) ;  Qucesiiones  magisiri 
Tkomce  Alubatensis  soluim  secundum  Artem  (Lyons, 
1451).  II.  Religious  works  :  I)e  articulis  Jidei  Chris- 
tiance  demonstrative  probeitis  (Majorca,  1578) ;  Contro- 
versia  cum  Homerio  Sarraceno  (Valencia,  1510) ;  Be 
Demonstratione  Trinitatis  per  aguiparantiam  (Valencia, 
1510);  Liber  7iatcdis  pueii  Jesu,  HI.  Against  the  Aver- 
roists :  Libi-i  duodecim  Principiorum  Philosop/iice,  con- 
tra Averrhoistas  (Strasb.  1517);  Philosopkice,  in  Aver- 
rkoistas,  Expositio  (Paris,  1516).  IV.  The  works  in 
which  he  speaks  of  himself,  as  the  Phantasticvs  (Paris, 
1499),  and  a  very  curious  biography  of  R.  Lidly  pre- 
served in  MS.  in  the  college  of  Sapientia,  at  Rome,  and 
which  appears  to  have  been  written  by  himself.  To 
these  must  be  added  his  numerous  unpubhshed  works, 
preserved  in  the  Imperial  Library-,  the  libraries  of  the 
Arsenal  and  Ste.  Genevieve,  at  Paris,  and  those  of  An- 
gers, Amiens,  the  Escurial,  etc.  We  might  also  men- 
tion a  number  of  works  on  alchemj'  generally  attributed 
to  him,  but  distinguished  critics  incline  to  the  opinion 
that  they  are  due  to  another  person  of  tlie  same  name. 
Indeed,  it  appears  certain  that  under  the  name  of  R. 
LuUe  several  distinct  persons  have  been  confounded  to- 
gether. 

See  Wadding,  Vie  de  R.  Lulle ;  BouveUes,  Epistol.  in 
Vit.P.Lull.eremita:  (Amiens,  1511) ;  Fax,Elogium  Lulli 
(Alcala,  1519);  Segni,  T7t  de  R.  Lulle  (Majorca,  1605); 
Collctct,  He  de  R.  Lulle  (Paris,  1C46)  ;  Perroquet,  T/e  et 
Martyre  da  docteur  illumine  R.  Lidle  (Vendome,  1667)  ; 
Vernon,  IIisf.de  la  saintete  et  de  la  doctrine  de  R.Lidle 
(Paris,  1668);  Bissertacion  historica  del  ridto  in  memo- 
ril  del  beato  R.  Lulli  (IMajorca,  1700)  ;  Loev,  De  Vita  R. 
Lidli  specimen  (Halle,  1830) ;  Delecluze,  Vie  de  R.  Lulle, 


LUMINUM  DIES 


560 


LUNT 


in  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  Nov.  15, 1840 ;  Haureau, 
Hist,  de  la  Scholastique,  ii ;  Eenan,  A  verrkoes  et  VA  ver- 
rhoiAme ;  liousselot,  Ilisi.  ])kilosvphiqiie  du  Moyen-Age, 
iii.  7(5-141 ;  Helffereich,  Raymond  Lidl  (Bcrl.  18*58, 8vo)  ; 
and  especially  Kitter,  Gesch.  d.  Christl.  Philos.  iv,486  sq.; 
Maclear,  Hist,  of  Christian  3Iissions  in  the  Middle  A  f/es, 
p.  354  sq. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biogi:  Generale,  xxxii,  222 ; 
Herzog,  Real-Encyklop.  viii,  558.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Luminum  Dies  {Day  of  Lights),  another  name  for 
the  Kpiphduy  (ij.  v.),  supposed  to  be  the  day  of  our  Sav- 
iour's haiitism,  and  so  named  because  baptism  was  fre- 
quently called  lux,  or  light. — Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet. 

Lump  (nban,  debeluh'),  a  round  mass  of  any  sub- 
stance pressed  together,  specially  of  dried  figs  (2  Kings 
XX,  7;  Isa.  xxxviii,  21;  "cake,"  1  Sam.  xxv,  18;  xxx, 
12 ;  1  Chron.  xii,  40).  The  Greeks  adopted  the  Heb. 
term  in  a  softened  form,  TraXa^t],  which  the  Sept.  uses. 
This  was  the  usual  shape  in  which  tigs  were  preserved 
for  sale  or  use  among  the  ancients,  and  is  stOl  found  in 
the  modern  package  called  a  "  drum  of  figs."  (See  Cel- 
sii  Ilierohot,  ii,  377-379 ;  J.  E.  Faber  on  Harmar's  Ohs.  i, 
389  sq.)     See  Fig. 

The  term  rendered  "  lump"  in  the  New  Test,  is  tpvpa- 
fia,  a  kneaded  7nass,  e.  g.  of  potter's  clay  prepared  for 
moulding  (Rom.  ix,  21),  or  of  dough  (proverbially,  1 
Cor.  V,  6 ;  Gal.  v,  9 ;  tropically,  Rom.  xi,  1(5 ;  1  Cor.  v,  7). 
See  Pottery. 

Iiumper,  Gottfried,  a  noted  Benedictine,  was 
boru  in  1747,  and  entered  in  his  youth  the  Benedictine 
cloister  of  St.  George  at  Villingen,  in  the  Black  Forest 
of  Baden.  He  remained  there  in  various  ofiices,  and  as 
theological  teacher,  till  his  death  in  1801,  and  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  works  on  Church  History,  the 
chief  of  which  is  Historia  theologico-critica  de  vita, 
scriptis  atque  doctriiia  SS.  Patrum,  aliorumque  scripio- 
rum  ecclesiasticorum  trium pirimorum  sceculorum  (Augs- 
burg, 1783-1799, 13  vols.  8vo).  See  Wetzer  und  Welte, 
Kirchen-Lexikon,  s.  v. 

Lumsdeil,  Willi^vji  O.,  a  minister  of  the  Method- 
ist Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  Alexandria,  Va.,  about 
1805.  He  was  converted  in  the  fifteenth  year  of  his 
age,  was  received  into  the  Baltimore  Annual  Confer- 
ence in  1824,  and  held  the  following  appointments  in  the 
states  of  Pennsylvania,  IMaryland,  antl  Virginia :  1824, 
Prince  George's;  1825,  Harford ;  1826,  Bedford  Circuit; 
1827,  Phillipsburg;  1828,  Gettysburg;  1829,  Fairfax; 
1830,  Stafford;  1831,  Prince  George  and  St.  Mary's; 
1832-3,  Montgomery;  1834,  Severn;  1835,  Springfield; 
1836-7,  CarUsle  Circuit;  1838-9,  Fairfax;  1840,  West- 
moreland ;  1841-2,  Winchester  Circuit ;  1843-4,  Calvert ; 
1845-6,  William  Street,  Baltimore ;  1847,  Whatcoat,  Bal- 
timore ;  1848,  Baltimore  Circuit ;  1849,  Summerfield.  In 
1850  failing  health  obliged  him  to  take  a  supernumera- 
ry relation.  He  died  May  15, 1868.  He  was  an  active 
and  efhcient  laborer  in  the  vineyard  of  the  Lord  to  the 
last.  Though  he  was  a  supernumerary  for  eighteen 
years,  he  ceased  not  to  preach  of"  the  things  pertaining 
to  the  kingdom  of  God."    See  Conf.  Minutes,  1869,  p.  13. 

Luna,  Pedro  de.     See  Benedict  XHI  (A). 

Lunatic  (at\r]viai,opai,  to  be  moon-struck,  as  the 
Latin  term  luiuiticus  also  siguifics,  a  term  the  origin  of 
which  is  to  be  found  in  the  belief  that  diseases  of  a  par- 
oxysmal character  were  affected  by  the  light,  or  by  the 
changes  of  the  moon),  in  Greek  usage  is  i.  q.  epileptic, 
the  symptoms  of  which  disease  were  supposed  to  become 
more  aggravated  with  the  increasing  moon  (comp.  Lu- 
can.  Tox.  24) ;  in  the  N.  Test,  (and  elsewhere)  the  same 
malady  is  ascrilied  to  the  influence  of  dasmons  or  malig- 
nant spirits  (Matt,  iv,  24;  xvii,  15;  comp.  Lucan.  Phi- 
lops.  16;  Isidor.  Ojtg.  iv,  7;  Manetho,  iv,  81,  216).  In 
the  enumeration  of  Matt,  iv,  24,  the  "  lunatics"  are  dis- 
tinguished from  the  da'moniacs;  in  Matt.,  xvii,  15,  tlie 
name  is  applied  to  a  boy  who  is  expressly  declared  to 
have  been  possessed.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  tlie 
word  itself  refers  to  some  disease  affecting  both  the  body 


and  the  mind,  which  might  or  might  not  be  a  sign  of 
possession.  Perhaps  the  distinction  in  the  one  case  was 
that  of  periodicity  or  lucid  intervals,  in  contrast  with 
the  continual  deraency  of  the  possessed.  See  D-emo- 
NiAC.  Persons  of  this  description  are  highly  venerated 
in  the  East  as  saints,  or  individuals  highly  favored  of 
heaven.  In  Egypt,  according  to  Lane  {Modern  Egyp- 
tians, i,  345  sq.),  "  Lunatics  who  are  dangerous  to  soci- 
ety arc  kept  iu  confinement,  but  those  who  are  harmless 
are  generally  regarded  as  saints.  JNIost  of  the  reputed 
saints  of  Egypt  are  either  lunatics,  or  idiots,  or  impos- 
tors. Some  of  them  go  about  perfectly  naked,  and  are 
so  highly  venerated  that  even  women  do  not  shun  them. 
j\Ien  of  this  class  are  supported  by  alms,  which  they 
often  receive  without  asking  for  them.  An  idiot  or  a 
fool  is  vulgarly  regarded  by  them  as  a  being  wliose 
mind  is  in  heaven,  while  his  grosser  part  mingles  among 
orduiary  mortals;  consequently  he  is  regarded  as  an  es- 
pecial fiivorite  of  heaven."  This  opinion  entertained  of 
lunatics  by  the  Orientals  serves  to  illustrate  what  is  said 
of  David  when  he  fled  to  Achish,  king  of  the  PhiUs- 
tines,  and  feigned  himself  mad,  and  thus  saved  his  life 
(1  Sam.  xxi,  10-15).  Also  the  words  of  the  apostle  are 
thought  to  be  illustrated  from  the  same  superstitious 
custom :  "  For  ye  suffer  fools  gladly,  seeing  ye  your- 
selves are  wise"  (2  Cor.  xi,  19).     See  Madness. 

Lundy,  Benjamin,  an  American  philanthropist,  of 
Quaker  parentage,  was  born  at  Handwich,  Sussex  Co., 
N.  J.,  Jan.  4, 1789.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  went  to 
learn  the  saddler's  trade  in  "\Mieeling,  Ya.,  and  there 
gained  an  insight  into,  and  a  lasting  hatred  of,  negro 
slaver\^  He  organized  in  1815  an  association  called 
the  "  Union  Humane  Society,"  and  soon  after  joined 
Charles  Osborne.  Esq.,  in  publishing  The  Emancipator, 
at  Mount  Pleasant,  O.  In  1821  he  successfully  started  a 
monthly  entitled  The  Genius  of  Universal  Emancipa- 
tion, into  which  he  afterwards  merged  The  Emancipator. 
In  1824  he  delivered  his  first  antislavery  address  at 
Deep  Creek,  North  Carolina,  and  lecturing  and  journey- 
ing about  on  foot  from  place  to  place,  organized  about 
fourteen  abolition  societies  in  that  state,  besides  some  in 
Virginia.  In  the  same  year  he  removed  The  Genius  to 
Baltimore,  and  issued  it  weekty.  In  1825  lie  visited 
Hay  ti,  and  made  provisions  there  for  emancipated  slaves. 
In  1828  he  visited  the  antislaverj'  advocates  of  the  East, 
and  lectured  in  their  principal  cities.  In  1828-9  he  was 
assaulted  for  alleged  libel,  censured  by  the  court,  and 
compelled  to  remove  his  paper  to  Washington,  and  final- 
ly to  Philadelphia,  where  he  gave  it  the  name  of  The 
National  Inquirer,  and  finally  it  merged  into  The  Penn- 
sylvania Freeman,  In  1838  his  property  was  burnt  up 
by  the  proslavery  mob  which  fired  Pennsylvania  Hall, 
Undaunted,  he  began  anew  by  issuing  The  Genius  at 
Lowell,  La  Salle  Co.,  111.,  and  there  continued  until  his 
death,  August  22, 1839.  See  Earle,  Life,  Travels,  etc.,  of 
Bevj.  Lundy ;  Greeley,  .4  ?«e?'ica«  Conflict,  \,\\.\;  Drake, 
Diet,  of  A  mer.  Biog,  s.  v. 

Lunsfoi'd,  Lewis,  a  Baptist  preacher,  bom  in  Strat- 
ford Co.,  Va.,  in  1753,  began  to  preach  when  seventeen 
at  the  Potomac  (now  Hartwood)  Church.  Later  he 
travelled  in  Westmoreland,  Northumberland,  Lancaster, 
and  all  the  counties  of  the  northern  Virginia  Neck,  and 
several  churches  sprang  up  as  the  fruit  of  his  toil ; 
among  others,  Nomini  and  Wicomico.  On  the  estab- 
lishment of  Moratico  Church  in  1778,  he  became  its  pas- 
tor for  life.  His  sect  was  much  persecuted  at  the  time 
he  was  preaching  in  Richmond  Co.,  and  Limsford  was 
arrested,  and  thereafter  tried  in  vain  to  get  license  to 
preach.  He  never  was  ordained,  because  he  thought  a 
Church's  call  was  sufficient.  Faithful  study  in  and  out 
of  his  profession  made  up  for  a  limited  schooling.  He 
died  in  Essex  Co.,  Va.,  Oct.  26, 1793.  See  Sprague,  A71- 
7ials  of  the  Amer.  Pulpit,  vi,  125  sq. 

Lunt,  William  Parsons,  D.D.,  an  eloquent  and 
popular  Unitarian  divine,  born  at  Newburj-port,  Mass., 
April  21, 1805,  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Second  Unita- 


LUPETINO 


561 


LUQUE 


r°an  Church  in  New  York,  June  19, 1828 ;  left  here  Nov. 
id,  1833,  and  became  pastor  of  the  Unitarian  Church  in 
Quincy,  Mass.,  June  3, 1835,  Avhere  he  remained  until  his 
death.  Mar.  20, 1857.     See  Drake,  Dict.Amer.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Lupetino,  Fra  Baldo,  one  of  the  first  martyrs  to 
the  Frotcstant  cause  in  Italy  in  the  IGth  centurj',  was 
born  of  ancient  and  noble  parents  in  Albano,  and  ac- 
tively propagated  the  reformed  opinions  in  Venice.  On 
becoming  provincial  within  the  Venetian  territories  of 
the  Franciscan  monks  (to  whose  order  he  had  been  pre- 
viously admitted)  he  urged  the  young  men  not  to  as- 
sume monastic  orders.  One  of  his  contemporaries  gives 
the  following  account  of  his  further  career.  "After 
having  long  preached  the  Word  of  God  in  both  the  vul- 
gar languages  (the  Italian  and  Sclavonian)  in  many  cit- 
ies, and  defended  it  by  public  disputation  in  several 
places  of  celebrity  with  great  applause,  he  was  at  last 
thrown  into  close  prison  at  Venice  by  the  inquisitor  and 
papal  legate.  In  this  condition  he  continued  during 
nearly  twenty  years  to  bear  an  undaunted  testimony  to 
the  Gospel  of  Christ,  so  that  his  bonds  and  doctrine 
were  made  known  not  only  to  that  cit}',  but  to  the  whole 
of  Italy,  and  even  to  Europe  at  large,  by  which  means 
evangelical  truth  was  more  widely  spread.  ...  At  last 
this  pious  man,  whom  neither  threatenings  nor  promises 
could  move,  sealed  his  doctrine  by  an  undaunted  mar- 
tyrdom, and  exchanged  the  filth  and  protracted  tortures 
of  a  prison  for  a  watery  grave."  See  IM'Crie's  History 
of  the  Reformation  in  Italy  (Phila.  1842),  p.  105,  221. 

Lupset,  TiiojiAS,  an  English  scholar  and  theolo- 
gian, was  born  in  London  in  1408;  was  educated  at 
English  schools,  but  took  the  degree  of  B.A.  in  Paris. 
In  1518  he  obtained  the  chair  of  rhetoric  at  Oxford  Uni- 
versity. Later  he  was  secretary  to  the  Italian  ambas- 
sador. On  his  return  he  took  charge  of  the  education 
of  the  natural  son  of  Wolsey  in  Paris.  In  1530  he  was 
appointed  prebend  of  Salisbury'.  He  died  Dec.  27, 1532. 
Among  his  works  we  notice  Epistolm  Wu-ice,  in  the  Epis- 
tolm  aliquot  emdit,  Vironim  (Bale,  1520)  :  —  Treatise 
teaching  how  to  die  ivdl  (1534):  —  An  Exhoi-tation  to 
young  Men  (1540,  8vo)  :  —  Treatise  of  Charity  (1546, 
8vo) : — Rules  for  a  godly  Life  (London,  ICGO).  See 
Thomas,  Diet,  of  Biog.  and  Mythol.  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Kouv, 
Biog.  Uenerale,  vol.  xxxii,  s.  v. 

Xiupus,  St.  The  Koman  Catholic  Church  commem- 
orates three  saints  by  this  name.  The  most  important 
of  them  was  bom  at  Toul  about  the  beginning  of  the 
5th  century.  He  ^vas  of  a  good  famih',  and  received  a 
good  education.  He  was  afterwards  married  to  Pime- 
niola,  sister  of  Hilarius,  bishop  of  Aries.  Seven  years 
after  he  abandoned  his  wife  and  children,  and  joined  the 
disciples  of  St.  Honoratus,  who  were  there  laying  the 
f(jundations  of  the  afterwards  renowned  convent  of  Le- 
rins.  In  426  he  returned  to  IMacon,  and  was  elected  to 
the  see  of  Troyes,  and  greatly  distinguished  himself  by 
his  learning,  both  classical  and  theological.  In  429  a 
council  of  the  bishops  of  Gaul  sent  him,  together  with 
Germain  of  Auxerre,  to  Brittany,  to  oppose  the  Pelagian 
heresy,  which  was  making  great  progress  in  that  coun- 
try. In  451,  when  Attila  conquered  Troyes,  we  find  the 
barbarian  king  in  intimate  association  with  the  bishop, 
and  in  his  retreat  Attila  was  accompanied  by  Lupus  as 
far  as  the  shores  of  the  Rhine.  Lupus  died,  according 
to  tradition,  July  29,  479.  His  most  distinguished  con- 
temporaries called  him  "  episcopus  ejiiscoporvim,"  the 
Jacob  of  his  age,  and  praised  him  yjarticularly  for  his 
experience  and  his  knowledge  in  all  ecclesiastical  mat- 
ters. We  possess  only  two  works  of  his.  One  of  them 
is  an  answer  to  some  canonical  questions  propounded 
by  Talassius,  bishop  of  Angers,  and  to  be  found  among 
the  Instrumentu  of  the  Gallia  Christiana  (vol.  iv,  col.  39). 
It  contains  some  interesting  information  concerning 
marriage  among  the  clergy.  There  is,  it  says,  no  gen- 
eral rule  on  this  point:  in  the  churches  of  Autun  and 
Troyes  married  deacons  are  ordained  without  difficulty ; 
but  those  who  were  single  when  ordained  are  not  per- 
V.— Nn 


mitted  to  marry,  and  a  married  priest,  on  losing  his  wife, 
cannot  marry  again.  (Comp.  Lea, //wtory  of  Sacerdo- 
tal Celibacy,  p.  84.)  His  other  work  is  a  letter  to  Apol- 
linariiis,  published  in  Achery,  Spicilegimn,  v,  579.  See 
Hist.  Lift,  de  la  France,  ii,  486 ;  Gallia  Christ,  xii,  col, 
485 ;  Herzog,  Real-Enctjklopadie,  viii,  564 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog.  Genirale,  xxxii,  16,      (J.  N.  P.) 

Lupus,  Christian.     See  Wolf.  «. 

Lupus,  Servatus,  or  Loup  de  Ferrikres,  a 
French  ecclesiastical  writer,  was  bom  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Sens  about  the  year  805;  studied  at  the  abbey 
of  Ferrieres,  and  afterwards  at  Fulda,  under  the  cele- 
brated Rabanus  Maurus.  Eginhard  instmcted  him  in 
the  classics.  In  836  he  returned  to  Sens,  where  he  soon 
acquired  a  great  reputation  for  learning.  He  was  called 
to  the  court  of  the  empress  Judith,  and  became  a  favor- 
ite both  with  Louis  le  Debonnaire  and  his  successor, 
Charles  the  Bald.  In  841,  the  latter  prince,  having  re- 
solved to  remove  Odon,  abbot  of  Ferrieres,  appointed 
Lupus  in  his  stead.  This  intervention  of  the  royal 
power  in  the  affairs  of  the  Church  displeased  the  eccle- 
siastical authorities,  and  Lupus  failed  to  secure  their 
sanction  until  he  had  obtained  from  king  Charles  a  char- 
ter granting  to  the  monks  of  Ferrieres  the  right  of  ap- 
pointing in  future  their  own  abbots.  This  charter  is  to 
be  found  in  the  Gallia  Christiana,  among  the  Instru- 
menfa  of  vol.  xii,  column  8.  Lupus  had  great  influence 
both  with  the  king  and  with  the  clerg}-,  and  was  pres- 
ent at  all  the  councils  held  in  France  from  844  to  859, 
taking  an  active  part  in  their  proceedings.  When  the 
Normans  landed  in  France  in  861  he  sought  refuge  in 
the  diocese  of  Troyes.  StOl  in  the  same  year  we  find 
him  present  at  the  Council  of  Pistes,  and  in  862  at  that 
of  Soissons.  There  is  no  mention  made  of  him  after- 
wards; whether  he  died  then,  or  whether,  as  would  ap- 
pear from  the  chronicle  of  Robert  of  Auxerre,  he  was 
exiled  from  Ferrieres,  and  his  rival  Guanelon  appointed 
in  his  stead,  does  not  appear.  His  works,  so  far  as  they 
were  then  extant,  were  collected  by  Etienne  Baluze,  and 
published  first  in  1644,  then,  with  notes  and  corrections, 
in  1710,  1  vol.  8vo.  His  treatise  He  tribus  Quastioni- 
bus  discusses  free-will,  the  twofold  predestination,  and 
the  question  whether  Christ  died  for  all  men,  or  only 
for  the  elect,  Gottschalk  had  mooted  these  three  ques- 
tions, strongly  maintaining  the  necessity  of  grace ; 
John  Scotus  Erigena,  Rabanus  Maurus,  and  Hincmar 
had  more  or  less  defended  the  doctrine  of  free-will.  Lu- 
pus here  attempts  to  conciliate  these  two  opposite  views, 
without,  however,  concealing  his  preference  for  that  of 
Gottschalk.  He  thinks  that,  in  the  fallen  human  na- 
ture, free-will  does  indeed,  to  some  extent,  participate  ia 
our  good  impulses,  yet  is  of  no  effect  compared  with 
grace.  These  impulses  themselves  originate  in  grace, 
and  can  only  avail  through  grace ;  but,  at  the  same 
time,  grace  enlightens  the  will,  which  becomes  then  a 
voluntary  agent  in  continuing  the  work  thus  begun  by 
grace  alone.  The  Jansenists  often  quoted  these  views 
of  Lupus.  See  Gallia  Christ,  vol.  xii,  col.  159 ;  Hist.  Litt. 
de  la  France,  v,  255;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gener.  xxxii, 
19 ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyklop.  viii,  562 ;  Neander,  Ch.  Hist. 
iii,  459, 482. 

Luque,  Hernando  de,  the  first  Spanish  bishop  of 
Peru,  was  born  in  Darien,  Isthmus  of  Panama,  towards 
the  close  of  the  15th  centur\\  After  teaching  a  short 
time,  he  became  priest  and  vicar  of  Panama.  In  1525, 
as  ap)iears  from  subsequent  events,  he  represented  the 
licentiate  Caspar  de  Espinosa,  principal  alcalde  in  Da- 
rien, in  that  famous  written  and  consecrated  contract  be- 
tween himself,  Pizarro,  and  Almagro,  by  which  he  was 
to  furnish  the  money  for  the  outfit  and  expenses  of  an 
expedition  for  tlie  conquest  of  Peru,  the  success  of  which 
depended  mainly  upon  his  exertions.  His  services  were 
rewarded  by  the  king  of  Spain  with  the  bishopric,  and 
he  was,  besides,  declared  Protector  of  the  Hulians  of 
Peru.  He  died  suddenly  in  1532.  See  Oviedo  y  Valdcs, 
Historia  general  y  natural  de  las  Lidias,  etc,  (edit,  de 


LUPJA 


562 


LUST 


M.  Amador  de  los  Rios)  ;  Ilerrera,  Historia  general  de 
los  Viajes  en  las  Iiidias  occide/iiales ;  Prescott,  Hist,  of 
Perm ;  Hoefer,  Xouv,  Biug.  Generale,  vol.  xxxii,  s.  v. 

Luria.     See  Loria. 

Liiscinius,  Othmar.     See  Nachtigall. 

Lush.     See  Laisii. 

Lusk,  H.  K.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  prosecuted  his 
college  studies  at  the  Western  University,  in  Mononga- 
liela  City,  and  graduated  with  high  honors.  In  1842  he 
entered  the  theological  seminary  at  Canonsburg,  Penn., 
and  in  1846  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Presbytery  of 
Chartiers.  For  a  time  he  labored  in  many  of  the  va- 
cant places  of  the  Church,  but  subsequently  received  a 
call  from  the  congregation  of  Cambridge,  N.  Y.  He  af- 
terwards accepted  a  call  from  the  congregation  of  H  ni- 
ton, where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  ministr^^  He  died 
Oct.  25, 1862.  Mr.  Lusk  was  gifted  with  a  simplicity  of 
manners  which  made  him  eminently  social.  Familiar 
with  the  government  and  discipline  of  the  Church,  he 
filled  an  important  place  in  its  courts.  His  convictions 
of  truth  and  duty  were  such  as  to  prompt  a  fearless  and 
unswerving  advocacy  of  what  he  deemed  to  be  right 
and  proper.  See  Wilson,  Presbijt.  Historical  Almanac, 
18C3,  p.  358.     (J.  L.  S.) 

Lust  (usually  il^Xtil,  tiri^vi-iia),  in  the  ethical  sense, 
is  used  to  express  sinfid  longings — sinful  either  in  be- 
ing directed  towards  absolutely  forbidden  objects,  or  in 
being  so  violent  as  to  overcome  self-control,  and  to  en- 
gross the  mind  with  earthly,  carnal,  and  perishable 
things.  Lust,  therefore,  is  itself  sinful,  since  it  is  an  es- 
trangement from  God,  destroys  the  true  spiritual  life, 
leads  to  take  pleasure  in  what  displeases  God  and  vio- 
lates his  laws,  brings  the  spirit  into  subjection  to  the 
flesh,  and  makes  man  a  slave  of  sin  and  ungodliness. 
Lust,  therefore,  is  the  inward  sin ;  it  leads  to  the  falling 
away  from  God;  but  the  real  ground  of  this  falling 
away  is  in  the  will.  It  took  place  in  the  earliest  days 
of  mankind  (Rom.  i,  21),  and  is  natural  to  all  in  the  un- 
regenerated  state;  it  can  only  be  abolished  by  Christ. 
The  nature  of  man  is  not  changed,  only  his  empirically 
moral  mode  and  place  of  existence.  Lust,  the  origin  of 
sin,  has  its  place  in  the  heart,  not  of  a  necessity,  but  be- 
cause it  is  the  centre  of  all  moral  forces  and  impulses, 
and  of  spiritual  activity.  The  law  does  not  therefore 
destroy  sin,  nay,  it  rather  increases  it,  yet  not  in  an  ac- 
tive manner,  but  by  the  sinner's  own  fault.  The  psycho- 
logical reason  of  this  is,  that  the  law  does  not  destroy 
the  lust,  even  while  accompanied  by  punishment;  con- 
sequently the  estrangement  from  God  can  only  be  can- 
celled by  regeneration.  This  takes  place  in  the  recon- 
ciliation with  God  through  Christ,  because,  in  giving  his 
Son  as  a  ransom  for  sinners,  God  has  manifested  his  love 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  awaken  man,  and  give  him  the 
strength  to  love  God  again.  This  love  of  God  forms 
the  substance  of  regeneration,  and  of  the  operations  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  and  destroys  sinful  lust  by  bringing 
man  into  union  with  God,  or  by  the  reception  of  the 
Spirit  of  Christ  through  faith.  According  to  Matt,  v, 
28, "  Whosoever  looketh  on  a  woman  to  lust  after  her, 
hath  committed  adultery  with  her  already  in  his  heart." 
This  forcible  expression  is  correct,  for  he  who  is  regen- 
erated, and  whose  heart  is  tilled  with  true  love  of  God, 
.  and  who  is  possessed  of  the  H\nrit  of  Christ,  cannot  have 
such  worldly  lusts.  He,  therefore,  who  looks  on  a  wom- 
an to  (Trpof)  lust  after  her,  or,  in  other  words,  he  in 
whom  her  sight  will  awaken  the  lust  of  carnal  pleasure, 
has  already  committed  adultery  in  his  heart.  In  Mark 
iv,  I'J  (Matt,  xiii,  22 ;  Luke  viii,  14)  :  "And  the  cares  of 
this  world,  and  the  decoitfidness  of  riches,  and  the  lusts 
of  other  things  entering  in,  choke  the  word;  and  it  be- 
cometh  unfruitful ;"  by  lusts  we  are  to  understand  the 
objects  of  desire,  for  lust  does  not  enter  the  heart,  but,  on 
the  contrarj^,  proceeds  from  it,  as  appears  from  ISlatt.  xv, 
19:  "For  out  of  the  heart  proceed  [through  lust]  evil 
thoughts  [sms],  murders,  adulteries,  fornications,  thefts, 


false  witness,  blasphemies."  In  Rom.  i,  24 :  "  Wherefore 
God  also  gave  them  up  to  uncleanness,  through  the 
lusts  of  their  own  hearts;"  and  ver.  26,  it  is  not  God 
who  awakened  the  lusts,  but  man,  who  had  withdrawn 
from  God,  and  made  gods  unto  himself  to  worsliiii.  In 
view  of  its  tinal  object,  this  estrangement  from  (Jod  is  a 
mystery,  as  it  is  an  act  of  free  volition.  So  in  Rom.  vi, 
12:  "Let  not  sin,  therefore,  reign  in  j'our  mortal  body, 
that  ye  shoiUd  obey  it  in  the  lusts  thereof;"  it  can  be 
understood  how  one  coidd  be  good  so  far  as  intentions 
are  concerned,  while  yet  sin  would  reign  in  the  lower 
ego — in  the  perishable  body  (compare  with  vii,  19,  Gal. 
V,  17).  But  the  apostle  considers  man,  spiritually  and 
bodily,  as  a  whole.  He  who  lives  in  God  through 
Christ,  and  is  dead  unto  sin  (Rom.  vi,  11),  must  not  let 
lust  govern  his  perishable  body,  or  listen  to  his  desire, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  these  ought  no  longer  to  exist  in 
him ;  the  body  is  to  be  made  as  subservient  to  right- 
eousness as  the  spirit,  for  it  is  the  temple  of  the  spirit, 
and  therefore  is  the  instrument  wherewith  the  human 
mind,  animated  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  is  to  act.  Accord- 
ingly it  is  stated  in  Rom.  vii,  5,  "  For  when  we  were  in 
the  flesh  [before  being  regenerated],  the  motions  [acts] 
of  sins,  which  were  by  the  law  [which  were  shown  by 
the  law  as  such],  did  work  in  our  members  to  bring 
forth  fruit  unto  death."  So  in  Rom.  vii,  7,  8  :  "  What 
shall  we  say,  then?  Is  the  law  sin  [the  original  source 
of  sin]  ?  God  forbid.  Nay,  I  had  not  known  sin  [the 
fact  of  its  existence  within  me]  but  by  the  law ;  for  I 
had  not  known  lust  [that  it  was  evU]  except  the  law 
had  said.  Thou  shalt  not  covet.  But  [my  natural]  sin 
[the  principle  of  sin,  or  lust],  taking  occasion  by  the 
commandment,  wrought  in  me  all  manner  of  concupis- 
cence [sinful  desires  resulting  from  the  general  lusts  of 
the  flesh].  For  without  the  law  sin  was  dead  [i.  e.  not 
absent,  but  partly  in  the  sense  of  not  being  recognised 
as  sin  or  lust,  and  partlj'  because  the  knowledge  of  the 
restrictions  imposed  by  the  law  served  but  to  increase 
the  desire  for  what  it  forbade]."  Xiopig  yap  voftov 
aj-iapria  viicpa  is  a  general  and  popularly  expressed 
aphorism,  which  is  not  received  in  theory.  In  Gal.  v, 
16, 17,  24,  we  are  directed, "  Walk  in  the  Spirit,  and  ye 
shall  not  fulfil  the  lust  of  the  flesh.  For  the  flesh  [sin] 
lusteth  against  [in  contradiction  Avith]  the  [Holy]  Spir- 
it, and  the  Spirit  against  the  flesh ;  and  these  are  con- 
trary the  one  to  the  other;  so  that  ye  cannot  do  the 
thing  that  ye  [simply]  would ;  but  they  that  are  Christ's 
have  crucified  the  flesh  (in  the  regeneration),  with  the 
affections  and  lusts."  The  effect  of  the  strife  between 
the  flesh  and  the  Spirit  is  to  prevent  the  evil  v.hich 
man  desires  after  the  flesh.  The  Holy  Spirit  helps  man 
to  triumph  over  lust.  The  image  of  God  is  never  en- 
tirely obliterated,  but  the  lusts  of  the  flesh  can  lead  into 
enormous  sins,  and  have  done  so.  In  like  manner,  in 
Rom.  i,  24,  etc.;  Eph.  iv,  22  (Col.  iii,  5  comp.  with  Eph. 
ii,  2 ;  Tit,  iii,  3) :  "  That  ye  put  off  concerning  the  former 
conversation  the  old  man,  which  is  corrujit  according  to 
the  deceitfid  lusts ;"  lust  (estrangement  from  Ciod),  as 
an  impulse  of  free  volition,  is  the  original  source  of  error 
which  obscures  both  the  mind  and  the  lieart.  Further, 
Rom.  i,  21, 22 ;  1  Tim.  vi,  9  ("  But  they  that  will  be  rich 
fall  into  temptation,  and  a  snare,  and  into  many  foolish 
and  hurtfid  lusts,  which  drown  men  in  destruction  and 
perdition");  2  Tim.  ii,  22  ("Flee  also  youthful  lusts"); 
Tit.  ii,  12  ("Teaching  us  that, denying  ungodhncss  [aat- 
/3anv]  and  worldly  lusts,  we  should  live  soberly,  right- 
eously, and  godly  in  this  present  world ).''  Christians 
can  and  must  be  in  the  world,  but  not  of  the  world,  and 
must  hold  themselves  aloof  from  its  contamination.  So, 
again,  James  i,  27  ;  1  Pet,  ii,  11  ("  Dearly  beloved,  I  be- 
seech you,  abstain  from  fleshly  lusts,  which  war  against 
the  soul") ;  1  Pet.  iv,  l-o  ("  He  that  has  suffered  in  the 
flesh  [ethically,  is  dead  unto  the  flesh]  hath  ceased  from 
sin ;  that  he  no  longer  shoifld  live  the  rest  of  his  time 
in  the  flesh  to  the  lusts  of  men,  but  to  the  Mill  of  God. 
For  the  time  past  of  our  life  may  sufHce  us  to  have 
wrought  the  will  of  the  Gentiles,  when  we  wallied  in 


LUSTRATION 


563 


LUTHER 


lasciviousness,  lusts,  excess  of  wine,  revellings,  banquet- 
ings,  and  abominable  idolatries") ;  compare  1  Pet.  i,  4 ; 
2  Pet.  ii,  10, 18 ;  iii,  3 ;  Jude  16.  Once  more,  1  John  ii, 
15-17 :  "Love  not  the  world,  neither  the  things  that  are 
in  the  world.  If  any  man  love  the  world,  the  love  of 
the  Father  is  not  in  him.  For  all  that  is  in  the  world, 
the  lust  of  the  Hesh,  and  the  lust  of  the  eyes,  and  the 
pride  of  life,  is  not  of  the  Father,  but  is  of  the  world. 
And  the  world  passeth  away,  and  the  lust  thereof."'  Fi- 
nally, James  i,  14,15:  "But  every  man  is  tempted,  when 
he  is  drawn  away  of  his  own  lust,  and  enticed.  Then, 
when  lust  hath  conceived,  it  bringeth  forth  sin  ;  and  sin, 
when  it  is  finished,  bringeth  forth  death  (or  misery)." 
The  N.  T.  teaches  us  that  man  should  eagerly  avail  him- 
self of  the  power  of  sanctification  proffered  througli 
grace  to  overcome  lust  and  the  consequent  sin. — Krelil, 
Neii-iest.  Worterbuch.     See  Tkmptation. 

Lustration,  a  formal  anil  public  application  of 
water  in  token  of  consecration  or  expiation.  Such  acts 
were  prevalent  not  only  among  heathen  nations,  more 
especially  those  of  the  southern  climates,  such  as  the 
Indians,  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Romans  (compare  Wet- 
stein,  Nov.  Test.  Evanrj.  Matth.  iii,  6),  but  also  among 
the  Jews  (see  Hiiner,  De  lu.ttratione  Hebrceoruin,  Wit- 
tenb.  1733).  With  these  latter  they  were  preparations 
for  divine  services  of  a  different  nature,  and  even  for 
private  prayer  (Judith  xii).  They  formed  a  part  of 
the  offering-service,  and  more  especially  of  the  sin-offer- 
ing (Lev.  xvi) ;  and  for  that  reason  the  prayer-houses 
(jTpoaevxai)  were  usually  established  in  the  vicinity  of 
running  waters  (compare  Kuinril,  ad  Act.  xvi,  13).  Jo- 
sephus(.4w^  xviii,  1, 5)  gives  an  account  of  the  manifold 
lustrations  of  the  Essenes.  In  the  language  of  the 
prophets,  cleansing  with  water  is  used  as  an  emblem  of 
the  purification  of  the  heart,  which  in  the  jMcssianic 
age  is  to  glorify  the  soul  in  her  innermost  recesses,  and 
embrace  the  whole  of  the  theocratic  nation  (Ezek. 
xxxvi,  25sq. ;  Zech.  xiii,  1).  Such  declarations  gave 
rise  to  or  nourished  the  expectation  that  the  advent  of 
the  Messiah  would  manifest  itself  by  a  preparatory  lus- 
tration, by  which  Elijah  or  some  other  great  prophet 
would  pave  the  way  for  him.  This  supposition  lies  ev- 
idently at  the  bottom  of  the  questions  which  the  Jews 
put  to  John  the  Baptist  (John  i,  25 ;  compare  Matt,  and 
Luke  iii,  7),  whether  he  was  the  Messiah,  or  Elijah,  or 
some  other  prophet?  and  if  not,  why  he  undertook  to 
baptize  V  (compare  Schneckenberger,  Ueber  das  A  Iter  der 
Jiidischen  Prosebjtentaiife,  §  41  sij.).  Thus  we  can  com- 
pletely clear  up  the  historical  derivation  of  the  rite,  as 
used  by  John  and  Christ,  from  the  general  and  natural 
symbol  of  baptism,  from  the  Jewish  custom  in  particu- 
lar, and  from  the  expectation  of  a  Messianic  consecra- 
tion.    See  Baptism. 

Among  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  more  particularly  the 
Romans,  lustrations  were  of  most  solemn  imjjort.  Those 
of  which  we  possess  direct  knowledge  are  always  con- 
nected with  sacrifices  and  other  religious  rites,  and  con- 
sisted in  the  sprinkling  of  water  by  means  of  a  branch 
of  laurel  or  olive,  and  at  Rome  sometimes  by  means  of 
the  aspergillum,  and  in  the  burning  of  certain  materials, 
the  smoke  of  which  was  thought  to  have  a  purifying 
effect.  Whenever  sacrifices  were  offered,  it  seems  to 
have  been  customary  to  carry  them  around  the  person 
or  thing  to  be  purified.  Lustrations  were  made  in  an- 
cient Greece,  and  i)robably  at  Rome  also,  by  private  in- 
dividuals when  they  had  polluted  themselves  by  any 
criminal  action.  Whole  cities  and  states  also  some- 
times underwent  purifications  to  expiate  the  crime  or 
crimes  committed  by  a  member  of  the  community.  The 
most  celebrated  purification  of  this  kind  was  that  of 
Athens,  performed  by  Epimenides  of  Crete,  after  the 
Cylonian  massacre.  Purification  also  took  place  when 
a  sacred  spot  had  been  unhallowed  by  profane  use,  as 
by  burj'ing  dead  bodies  in  it,  as  was  the  case  with  the 
island  of  Delos.     See  Ablution. 

The  Romans  performed  lustrations  on  many  occasions 
on  which  the  Greeks  did  not  think  of  them,  and  the 


object  of  most  Roman  lustrations  was  not  to  atone  fol 
the  commission  of  crime,  but  to  obtain  the  blessing  of 
the  gods  upon  the  persons  or  things  which  were  lustra' 
ted.  Thus  fields  were  purified  after  the  business  of  sow- 
ing was  over,  and  before  the  sickle  was  put  to  the  corn. 
Sheep  were  purified  every  year  at  the  festival  of  the 
Palilia.  All  Roman  armies  before  they  took  the  field 
were  lustrated,  and,  as  the  solemnity  was  probably  al- 
ways connected  with  a  review  of  the  troops,  tlie  word 
lustratio  is  always  used  in  the  sense  of  the  modern  re- 
view. The  establishment  of  a  new  colony  was  always 
preceded  by  a  lustratio  with  solemn  sacrifices.  The 
city  of  Rome  itself,  as  well  as  other  towns  within  its 
dominion,  always  underwent  a  lustratio  after  they  had 
been  visited  by  some  great  calamity,  such  as  civil  blood- 
shed, awful  prodigies,  and  the  like.  A  regular  and  gen- 
eral lustratio  of  the  whole  Roman  people  took  place  after 
the  completion  of  every  lustrum,  when  the  censor  had 
finished  his  census,  and  before  he  laid  down  his  office. 
This  lustratio  (also  called  lustrum)  was  conducted  by 
one  of  the  censors,  and  held  with  sacrifices  called  Suove- 
taurilia,  because  the  sacrifices  consisted  of  a  pig  (or 
ram),  a  sheep,  and  an  ox.  It  took  place  in  th-e  Campus 
IVIartius,  where  the  people  assembled  for  the  purpose. 
The  sacrifices  were  carried  three  times  around  the  as- 
sembled multitude.  See  Smith,  Diet,  oj' Class.  Antiqui- 
ties, s.  V.  Lustratio, 

Something  of  the  nature  of  lustration  prevails  in  the 
use  of  "  holi/  wate?-"  (q.  v.)  by  the  Roman  Catholics. 

Lutei,  earl/ii/,  one  of  the  terms  of  reproach  with 
which  the  first  Christians  were  assailed  by  their  perse- 
cutors, 

Luther,  Martix,  the  greatest  of  the  Reformers  of 
the  Christian  Church- whose  name  is  the  watchword  of 
Protestantism,  and  marks  a  new  aara  in  the  history  of 
Europe. 

I.  Youth. — He  sprang  from  an  old  and  widely-extend- 
ed German  family,  of  which  there  are  documentary 
traces  as  early  as  1137.  He  was  born  at  Eisleben,  a 
village  of  Lower  Saxony,  Nov.  10, 1483  (see,  however, 
an  argument  for  a  later  date,  1484,  Studien  u.  Kritiken, 
1872),  fifteen  years  before  the  martyrdom  of  Savonarola. 
As  one  of  the  heralding  stars  declined  to  its  setting  in 
blood,  the  Jlorning  Star  of  the  Reformation  drew  near 
the  horizon  of  the  new  day.  His  father,  Hans  Luther, 
was  a  miner  of  the  village  of  Moehra.  His  mother's 
name  was  INIargaretha  Lindemann.  His  parents  subse- 
quently removed  to  Mansfeld,  and  there  his  father  be- 
came a  man  of  propert}-  and  town  senator. 

Luther  grew  up  under  pious  but  rigorous  discipline. 
His  father  was  characterized  by  severity,  tempered  with 
great  honesty  and  clearness  of  judgment.  Luther's 
mother  was  a  woman  of  earnest  piety,  which,  however, 
had  also  a  tinge  of  harshness,  Luther  went  to  school 
at  Magdeburg  in  1497,  in  1498  to  Eisenach,  and  in  1501 
he  entered  the  University  of  Erfurt,  Here  he  took  the 
Bachelor's  degree  in  1503,  and  the  degree  of  JIaster  of 
Arts,  which  entitled  him  to  teach  in  the  university,  in 
1505.  He  was  designed  for  the  profession  of  tlie  law ;  but 
a  prevailing  discomfort  and  occasional  anguish  of  mind, 
under  a  sense  of  sin  and  the  dread  of  the  wrath  of  God, 
heightened  first  by  the  sudden,  violent  death  of  a  friend, 
and  later  by  a  stroke  of  lightning  which  fell  near  his 
feet,  determined  Luther  quite  otherwise.  He  vowed  to 
St.  Ann  that  he  would  become  a  monk.  The  evening 
before  his  entrance  to  the  cloister  of  the  Augustinians 
he  spent  in  lively  conversation  and  song  with  liis  uni- 
versity friends,  and  the  first  announcement  to  them  of 
his  purpose  was  made  at  the  close  of  the  festal  liours. 
"To-day  j'ou  see  me;  after  this  you  will  see  me  no 
more,"  said  Luther,  When  night  was  passing  into 
morning,  July  17, 1.505,  he  presented  himself  for  admis- 
sion at  the  convent — soon  to  become  the  birthplace  of 
Lutheran  Protestantism  and  of  the  evangelical  doctrine 
of  justification  bj'  faith  without  the  works  of  the  law. 

II.  Cloister  Life  (1505-1517).— He  passed  through  his 


LUTHER 


664 


LUTHER 


novitiate,  and  finally,  in  opposition  to  his  father's  wish- 
es, to  whom  it  seemed  that  his  son  had  chosen  "a  life 
little  differing  from  death,"  took  the  vows,  and  was  con- 
secrated to  the  priesthood  May  2,  1507.  Luther  had 
entered  the  priesthood  to  find  peace  for  his  soul.  He 
says,  •'  I  chose  for  mj'self  twentj'-one  saints,  read  mass 
every  day,  calling  on  three  of  them  each  day,  so  as  to 
complete  the  circuit  every  week;  especially  did  I  in- 
^'oke  the  holy  Virgin,  as  her  womanly  heart  was  more 
easily  touched,  that  she  might  appease  her  Son.  I  ver- 
ily thought  that  by  invoking  three  saints  daily,  and  by 
letting  my  body  waste  away  with  fastings  and  watch- 
ings,  I  should  satisfy  the  law,  and  shield  my  conscience 
against  the  goad;  but  it  all  availed  me  nothing:  the 
further  I  went  on  in  this  way  the  more  was  I  terrified, 
so  that  I  should  have  given  over  in  despair  had  not 
Christ  graciously  regarded  me,  and  enlightened  me  with 
the  light  of  the  Gospel."  From  his  deep  depression  of 
soul  he  was  lifted  by  a  brother  in  the  cloister,  who  fixed 
his  attention  on  the  article  in  the  Apostles'  Creed, "  I 
believe  in  the  remission  of  sins."  Staupitz,  one  of  the 
noblest  men  of  his  time,  dealt  with  Luther  very  faith- 
fully. "  Staupitz,"  says  Luther,  "  once  comforted  me  on 
this  wise  :  '  You  would  be  a  painted  sinner,  and  have  a 
painted  Christ  as  a  Saviour.  You  must  make  up  your 
mind  that  you  are  a  very  sinner,  and  that  Christ  is  a 
very  Saviour.'"  "I  sought  to  make  out  the  meaning 
of  Paul  in  the  terra  '  the  righteousness  of  God,'  and  at 
last  I  came  to  apprehend  it  thus :  Through  the  Gospel 
is  revealed  the  righteousness  which  availeth  with  God 
— a  righteousness  by  which  God  in  his  mercy  and  com- 
passion justifieth  us,  as  it  is  written, '  The  just  shall  live 
by  faith.'  The  expression, '  the  righteousness  of  God,' 
which  I  so  much  hated  before,  became  now  dear  and 
precious,  my  darling  and  most  comforting  word,  and 
that  passage  of  Paul  was  to  me  the  true  door  of  Para- 
dise." 

Luther  now  zealously  devoted  himself  to  the  earnest 
study  of  theology.  "  The  writings  of  Biel  and  D'Ailly 
lie  could  repeat  almost  word  for  word  ;  Occam  he  read 
long  and  carefully,  and  rated  his  acumen  higher  than 
that  of  Thomas  and  Scotus.  He  read  Gerson  with 
diligence,  but  the  entire  writings  of  Augustine  he  had 
read  more  frequently'  and  fixed  more  thoroughly  in 
.  his  memory  than  any  others"  (Melancthon,  Vif.  Lutli.'). 
"Next  after  the  holy  Scriptures,"  says  Luther,  "no 
teacher  in  the  Church  is  to  be  compared  with  Augus- 
tine; take  the  entire  body  of  the  fathers  together, 
there  is  not  to  be  found  in  them  half  that  we  find  in 
Augustine  alone"  (irer/c.  xiv,  209).  It  was  an  uncon- 
scious presage  when  Luther,  on  entering  the  cloister, 
took  the  name  of  Augustine.  Among  the  medieval 
writers,  Bernard  held  the  highest  place  in  Luther's  re- 
gard. "  If  ever  there  was  a  holy  monk,  Bernard  was 
that  monk.  He  is  golden  when  he  teaches  and  preach- 
es— then  he  surpasses  all  the  doctors  in  the  Church" 
(IFerAe,  xii,  1696 ;  xxii,  2050).  Augustine  and  Bernard 
became  increasingly  precious  to  him  as  his  continued 
studies  of  the  holy  Scriptures  brought  him  to  a  pro- 
founder  acquaintance  with  the  truth.  In  1508  his 
scholarship  received  acknowledgment  by  a  call  to  the 
chair  of  philosophy  in  the  newly-founded  University  of 
Wittenberg,  the  capital  of  t lie  old  electorate.  The  uni- 
versity was  under  the  protection  of  the  elector  (Freder- 
ick)— not  of  an  ecclesiastic — wliich  was  a  hajipy  circum- 
stance for  its  part  in  the  future.  Its  ]iatron  saints  were 
Paul  and  Augustine.  Luther  went  thither,  and  lectured 
on  dialectics  and  physics  according  to  Aristotle.  In 
1509  he  became  Baccalaureus  ad  Biblia;  151],Senten- 
tiarius  (Sentences  of  Lombcn-d,  tir^t  two  l)ooks),  Forma- 
tus  (<S'cn/CHC(',s',  last  two  books);  October  4, 1512,  Licen- 
tiatus  (to  teach  theology  in  general);  and  October  19. 
1512,  Doctor  of  Theology,  a  (jegrec  which  involved  not  a 
mere  honor,  but  an  office,  in  receiving  "whiih  Luther 
swore  "  to  teach  purely  and  sincerely  according  to  the 
Scriptures."  He  now  transferred  his  labors  from  ]ihilos- 
ophy  to  theology.     His  lavorite  books,  on  which  he  de- 


livered his  earliest  theological  lectures,  were  the  Psalms 
and  the  E)iistle  to  the  Bomans.  The  kctures  rested 
upon  a  study  of  the  Vulgate  and  of  the  fathers.  Philos- 
ophy he  still  jirized,  but  most  of  all  as  a  handmaid  to 
true  theology,  which,  he  says,  "  searches  for  the  kernel 
of  the  iiut,  the  marrow  of  the  fruit." 

A  journey  to  Rome  was  made  bj'  Luther  in  1510,  on 
foot.  He  went  partly  in  the  interests  of  his  order,  and 
yet  more  as  a  pilgrim.  As  the  Eternal  City  rose  before 
liis  eyes,  he  fell  on  his  knees,  and  fervently  exclaimed, 
"  Hail,  sacred  Rome  !  thrice  hallowed  with  the  blood  of 
martyrs !"  St.  Peter's  was  half  finished.  The  man  now 
looked  upon  it  who  was  to  make  its  completion  the  bank- 
ruptcy of  Kome,  though  Kome  held  the  world's  coffers 
in  her  hands.  New  Rome  stood  on  the  heaped  graves 
of  the  dead,  old  pagan  city.  Luther  was  not  insensible 
to  the  historical  and  antiquarian  interest  which  clus- 
tered around  everj'  site,  but  everj'  other  feeling  was  sub- 
ordinate to  the  religious  one.  He  was  full  of  honest 
fervor,  fuU  of  pious  credidity.  He  went  up  the  staircase 
of  Pilate  on  his  knees,  yet  with  his  heart  protesting  as 
he  crept :  Not  thus  do  "  the  just  live  by  faith."  He 
looked  upon  the  handkerchief  of  Veronica ;  he  gazed  on 
the  heads  of  Paul  and  Peter,  and  his  strong  sight  was 
too  much  for  his  strong  credence — he  pronounced  the 
heads  carvings  in  wood,  and  bad  carvings.  Luther  saw 
the  pomps  and  the  corruptions  of  Rome,  but  his  heart 
remained  fixed  still  in  its  strong  love  to  the  "  Roman 
Church,  honored  of  God  above  all  others"  (1519). 

The  visitation  of  the  cloisters  of  Misnia  and  Thurin- 
gia,  conducted  by  Luther  (1516),  in  the  absence  of  the 
provincial  Staupitz  (who  was  then  in  the  Netherlands), 
was  the  means  of  opening  Luther's  e3-es  to  the  corruptions 
among  the  people  and  the  clergy,  but  did  not  shake  his 
faith  in  the  Church.  "Llis  first  prejudices  were  enlist- 
ed in  the  service  of  the  worst  portion  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church ;  his  opening  reason  was  subjected  to 
the  most  dangerous  perversion ;  and  a  sure  and  earlj"- 
path  was  opened  to  his  professional  ambition.  Such 
was  not  the  discipline  which  could  prepare  the  mind  for 
any  indejiendent  exertion ;  such  were  not  the  circum- 
stances from  which  any  ordinary  mind  could  have 
emerged  into  the  clear  atmosphere  of  truth.  In  dignity 
a  professor,  in  theology  an  Augustinian,  in  philosophy 
a  Nominalist,  by  education  a  mendicant  monk,  Luther 
seemed  destined  to  he  a  pillar  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  and  a  patron  of  all  its  corruptions." 

The  first  light  of  the  Gospel  as  Luther  sheds  it,  beams 
forth  in  his  lectures  on  the  Psalms  and  Romans.  Among 
his  earliest  works  are  his  series  of  sermons  on  the  Ten 
Commandments,  his  exposition  of  the  penitential  psalms, 
printed  in  1517,  and  his  exposition  of  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
delivered  during  Lent  in  1517,  and  printed  in  1518.  He 
had  become  a  student  of  Taulcr  and  of  the  "  German 
theology."  The  infiuence  of  the  pure  and  profound  mys- 
ticism of  these  books  shows  itself  in  all  of  Luther's  later 
life,  for  true  mysticism  is  the  internal  mirror  of  the  truth 
of  (iod.  Luther's  advance  in  Biblical  study,  and  the  in- 
fluence of  tills  loftier  mysticism,  brought  him  more  and 
more  out  from  the  influence  of  Aristotle  and  of  scholasti- 
cism. He  was  unconsciously  preparing  for  the  opening 
of  tliat  grand  part  which  he  was  to  play  in  the  history 
of  the  Church  and  in  the  history  of  mankind. 

The  traflic  in  uirliiff/enres  (q.  v.)  had  been  brought 
into  the  vicinity  of  AVittenberg,  witli  the  approval  of 
the  archbishop  of  Mayence,  by  Tetzel,  a  Dominican 
monk.  The  expressions  with  which  Tetzel  recommend- 
ed his  treasure  appear  to  have  been  marked  with  pecul- 
iar impudence  and  indecency.  But  the  act  had  in  it- 
selfnothing  novel  or  uncommon  ;  the  sale  of  indulgences 
had  long  been  recognised  as  the  practice  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  and  was  sometimes  censured  by  its 
more  firm  or  more  prudent  members.  But  the  crisis 
had  at  length  arrived  in  which  the  iniquity-  could  no 
longer  be  repeated  with  impunity.  The  cup  was  at 
length  full,  and  the  hand  of  Luther  was  destined  to  dash 
it  to  the  ground.     In  the  attitude  which  Luther  took 


LUTilER 


565 


LUTHER 


toward  this  traffic,  his  design  was  not  to  array  himself 
against  the  Church,  but  to  vindicate  her  against  what 
he  believed  to  be  an  abuse  of  her  sacred  name.  At  the 
confessional  and  in  the  pulpit  he  began  to  warn  his  peo- 
ple. He  wrote  earnest  letters  of  remonstrance  to  the 
bishops  of  Brandenburg  and  Mayence,  liolding  in  re- 
gard to  repentance  that  a  distinction  is  to  be  made  be- 
tween the  internal  repentance,  which  is  of  the  heart, 
and  the  external  thing  of  confession  and  satisfaction. 
Receiving  unfavorable  comments  on  his  position  from  the 
prelates,  he  determined  to  make  his  opposition  pnblic. 

III.  First  Mofements  as  a  Reformer  (Oct.  31,  1517- 
May  4, 1521). — On  the  31st  of  October,  1517,  at  midday, 
Luther  affixed  to  the  castle  church  at  Wittenberg  nine- 
ty-live theses,  wliich  lie  proposed  to  defend  at  the  uni- 
versity, completely  denying  the  position  on  which  Tet- 
zel  rested  the  merits  of  indulgences.     lie  declared,  in 
substance,  that  the  command  of  Jesus  to  repent  implies 
that  the  whole  life  is  to  be  a  repentance,  not  to  be  con- 
founded with  the  confession  and  satisfaction  made  to  a 
priest.     Repentance,  indeed,  demands  with  that  which 
is  internal  an  external  mortification  of  the  flesh.     The 
power  of  the  papal  indulgence  can  go  no  furtlier  than 
the  penances  imposed  by  the  pope  himself.     The  papal 
indulgence,  consequently,  can  produce  no  reconciliation 
with  God,  nor,  in  fact,  take  away  the  guilt  of  the  small- 
est daily  sin.    The  pope  can  only  announce  and  confirm 
the  forgiveness  imparted  by  God.     This,  indeed,  is  not 
to  be  despised,  yet  it  can  be  found  without  the  pope's 
indulgence  where  there  is  true  compunction  and  faith. 
The  true  treasure  of  the  Church  is  not  a  treasure  of  in- 
dulgences intrusted  to  the  pope,  but  is  the  Gospel  of 
the  grace  of  God.     He  distinctly  held  the  obtaining  of 
grace  to  be  a  thing  of  immediate  relation  between  the 
so«l  and  God.     In  these  theses  Luther  believed  that  he 
expressed  throughout  the  mind  of  the  pope,  who  he 
supposed  was  ignorant  of  the  abuses  that  had  been  prac- 
ticed in  his  name.     It  seems  at  first  remarkable  that 
Luther  gives  so  little  prominence  to  faith  in  the  theses, 
and  in  tlie  sermons  on  indulgence  and  grace  which  ap- 
peared simultaneously  with  the  theses,  and  were  meant 
for  tlie  people,  Nov.  1517.    But  a  carefiU  study  will  show 
that  his  conception  of  repentance  is  that  larger  Biblical 
one  in  which  it  embraces  both  penitence  and  faith.    Re- 
pentance is  sometimes  used  as  synonymous  with  peni- 
tence, and  we  then  speak  of  repenting  and  believing,  re- 
pentance and  faith.    Sometimes  repentance  covers  both, 
and  then  God  is  said  to  command  men  everywhere  to 
repent.     Thus,  in  the  l"2th  art.  of  the  Augsburg  Confes- 
sion, it  is  said :  '•  Repentance  properly  consists  of  these 
two  parts :  The  first  is  contrition,  or  the  terrors  of  a  con- 
science smitten  with  acknowledged  sin.    The  other  part 
is  faith,  which  is  conceived  from  the  Gospel  or  absolu- 
tion, and  believes  that  for  Christ's  sake  sins  are  remit- 
ted."    "  This  first  act  of  Luther's  evangelical  life,"  says 
Gieseler, "  has  been  hastily  ascribed  by  at  least  three  em- 
inent writers  of  very  different  character — Bossuet,  Hume, 
and  Voltaire — to  the  narrow  monastic  motive,  the  jeal- 
ousy of  a  rival  order.    It  is  asserted  that  the  Augustinian 
friars  had  usually  been  invested  in  Saxony  with  this  prof- 
itable commission,  and  that  it  only  became  offensive  to 
Luther  when  transferred  to  t  he  Dominicans.    There  is  no 
ground  for  this  assertion.    The  Dominicans  had  been  for 
nearly  three  centuries  the  peculiar  favorites  of  the  holy 
see,  and  objects  of  all  its  partialities ;  and  it  is  particidar- 
ly  remarkable  that,  after  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, during  a  period  scandalously  fruitful  in  the  abuse 
in  question,  we  very  rarely  meet  with  the  name  of  any 
Augustinian  as  employed  in  that  service.     Moreover, 
it  is  almost  equally  important  to  add  that  none  of  the 
contemporary  adversaries  of  Luther  ever  advanced  this 
charge  against  him,  even  at  the  moment  in  which  the 
controversy  was  carried  on  with  the  most  unscrupulous 
wratli."     The  influence  of  the  theses  was  instantly  felt 
far  and  wide.    '•  The  theses,"  says  Luther  himself, "  ran 
clear  through  all  Germany  in  fourteen  days,  for  all  the 
world  was  complaining  about  the  indulgences ;  and  be- 


cause all  the  bishops  and  doctors  were  silent,  and  nobody 
was  willing  to  bell  the  cat,  Luther  became  a  renowned 
doctor,  because  at  last  somebody  had  come  who  took 
hold  of  the  thing."  Luther,  in  his  frank,  artless  confi- 
dence that  the  pope  would  be  his  most  enthusiastic  pa- 
tron, was  soon  undeceivetl,  but  his  higher  trust  was 
strengthened  by  the  course  of  events.  "If,"  said  he, 
"the  work  be  of  God,  who  can  overthrow  it?"  (Com- 
pare here  the  article  Leo  X  in  this  volume,  especially 
p.  3G3  sq.  A  careful  reprint  of  the  theses,  after  the  orig- 
inal, is  given  in  Ranke's  Reformation's  Gesc/iichte.) 

In  1518  the  Augustinian  Order  held  a  convention  at 
Heidelberg.  All  of  Luther's  friends  counselled  him 
against  going  thither,  as  his  life  was  threatened.  Lu- 
ther, faithful  to  the  vow  to  his  order,  went,  on  foot,  to 
the  convention.  In  Heidelberg  he  disputed  on  theses 
in  theology  and  philosophy ;  on  free-will  and  the  fall ; 
grace,  faith,  justification,  and  good  works.  He  took 
ground  against  Aristotle,  An  immense  audience,  not 
only  of  students,  but  of  citizens  and  courtiers,  attended 
the  disputation.  Among  the  auditors  were  Bucer,  Bren- 
tius,  and  others,  destined  to  play  a  memorable  part  in 
the  scenes  of  the  coming  Reformation.  Meanwhile  the 
principles  maintained  in  the  ninety-five  theses  had  pro- 
voked the  assaults  of  a  number  of  stanch  adherents  to 
the  practice  of  the  indulgence  traffic ;  but  Luther  stout- 
ly defended  himself  against  all  of  them  in  his  "  Reso- 
lutiones,"  that  is,  solution  of  pomts  in  dispute  concern- 
ing the  virtue  of  indulgences;  and,  stiU  hoping  for  re- 
dress from  Rome,  sent  these  to  Leo  X.  His  appeal  was 
first  of  all  to  hoh'  Scripture,  and,  next  to  this,  to  Au- 
gustine, as  the  profoundest  expositor  of  Scripture  among 
the  fathers. 

While  the  elector,  in  the  interest  of  the  university, 
protected  Luther,  Rome  avoided  coming  to  the  last  ex- 
tremity. As  early  as  Feb.,  1518,  the  pope  had  instructed 
the  general  of  the  Augustinian  Order,  Gabriel  Venetus, 
to  turn  Luther  from  the  path  he  \vas  following.  As  this 
measure  failed  of  success,  Luther  had  been  called  forward 
for  trial  to  Rome.  By  the  intercession  of  the  elector,  in 
place  of  appearing  at  Rome  to  answer  the  citation,  the  ap- 
pointment was  made  that  cardinal  Cajetan  should  give 
him  a  hearing  at  Augsburg.  Urban,  the  orator  of  the 
marquis  of  Montferrat,  tried  his  arts  of  persuasioia  pre- 
vious to  Luther's  meeting  Cajetan.  To  him  Luther  said, 
"  If  I  can  be  convinced  that  I  have  said  anything  in  con- 
flict with  the  understanding  of  the  holy  Roman  Church, 
I  will  at  once  condemn  it,  and  retract  it."  Urban  said, 
"  Do  you  think  the  elector  is  going  to  hazard  his  land 
for  you?"  Luther  replied,  "  I  would  in  no  wise  have  it 
so."  "  Where,  then,  will  you  abide?"  Luther  answer- 
ed, '•  Under  the  cope  of  heaven."  The  Italian  replied, 
"  Had  you  the  pope  and  the  cardinals  in  your  power, 
what  would  you  do  ?"  "  I  would,"  said  Luther,  "  give 
them  all  due  honor  and  reverence."  At  this  the  mes- 
senger, after  the  Italian  manner,  biting  his  thumbs,  went 
away  (Fuller,  Abel  Redivivus  [Nichols],  1867,  i,  44). 

The  cardinal  himself  attempted,  Oct.  1518,  to  bring 
"  little  brother  IMartin"  to  submission,  but  without  suc- 
cess. "I  don't  wish  to  talk  more  with  this  beast;  he 
has  a  deep  eye,  and  marvellous  speculations  in  his  head." 
The  good  offices  of  Staupitz,  the  head  of  the  Augustin- 
ians,  and  a  firm  friend  of  Luther,  were  also  called  in  to 
move  Luther,  but  the  service  was  not  one  after  his  heart. 
When  Luther  asked  Staupitz  for  some  other  interpreta- 
tion of  the  Scripture  than  that  on  which  his  faith  rest- 
ed, Staupitz  acknowledged  that  he  could  not  give  it, 
and  showed  where  his  heart  was  when  he  said  to  Luther, 
"Remember,  dear  brother,  that  thou  hast  begun  in  the 
name  of  Jesus."  In  order  that  Luther  might  not  be 
hampered,  Staujiitz  had  absolved  him  from  the  vow  of 
obedience  to  the  order.  Luther  finally  appealed  from 
"our  most  holy  master  Leo  X,  illy  informed,  to  Leo  X, 
to  be  better  informed."  Having  reason  to  fear  violence, 
he  made  his  escape  in  the  night  of  Oct.  20.  Staupitz 
furnished  him  with  a  horse  and  an  old  guide.  Luther, 
disguised  in  a  long  mantle,  barefooted,  and  unarmed, 


LUTHER 


566 


LUTHER 


rode  until  the  evening  of  the  day  following,  and  when 
dismounted,  could  not  stand,  but  lay  helpless  on  the 
straw.  At  Griifenthal  he  was  overtaken  by  count  Al- 
bert of  Mansfeld,  who  laughed  heartily  at  Luther's  style 
of  horsemanship,  and  insisted  on  having  him  as  his 
guest.  *Two  days  after  Luther's  departure  the  appeal 
was  fastened  to  the  door  of  the  cathedral  at  Augsburg. 

The  papal  bidl  of  the  month  following  condemned 
the  attacks  upon  indulgences,  and  claimed  for  the  pope 
the  power  of  delivering  sinners  from  all  punishments  due 
to  every  sort  of  transgression.  Luther,  now  despairing 
of  any  reasonable  accommodation  with  the  pontiff,  find- 
ing that  nothing  short  of  the  six  letters  '-r  e  v  o  c  o" 
would  answer,  appealed  on  Nov.  25, 1518,  from  the  pope 
to  a  general  council.  Leo,  however,  by  this  time  aware 
of  the  greatness  of  the  schism  likely  to  occur  in  the 
German  Chiurch,  seeing  around  Luther  fast  gathering 
the  great,  and  the  strong,  and  the  learned,  hastily  dis- 
patched Miltitz,  the  papal  chamberlain  and  legate,  whose 
moderation  and  skiU  adapted  him  for  the  mission  of  con- 
ciliation. Though  he  utterly  failed  to  procure  any  re- 
cantation, he  yet  succeeded  in  obtahiing  from  Luther 
(1519)  an  expression  of  submissiveness,  and  induced  him 
to  ^Tite  to  the  pops  a  letter  full  of  courtesy  and  humil- 
ity, promising  silence  if  it  were  also  imposed  on  his  ad- 
versaries.    See  Leo  X. 

IV.  Leipsic  Bisjmtation, — But  the  vanity  and  eager- 
ness of  his  opponents  were  too  great  to  allow  the  stipu- 
lation any  practical  force.  They  saw  spurs  to  be  won, 
and  would  not  lift  their  lances  Irom  rest.  Eck  in  the 
previous  year  (1518)  had  challenged  Carlstadt  to  a  dis- 
putation, but  his  whole  course  proved  that  Lvither  was 
to  be  the  main  object  of  his  attack,  and  Luther  hesita- 
ted not  to  appear  in  defence.  The  disputation  took 
place  at  Leipsic,  in  the  Pleissenberg  Castle,  from  June 
26  to  July  16, 1519.  Carlstadt  was  no  match  for  Eck, 
who  was  incomparably  the  best  debater  on  the  side  of 
Rome  in  the  century.  The  discussion  was  so  tedious  at 
times  that  the  hall  was  emptied.  The  debate  itself, 
and  the  part  Luther  himself  took  during  its  progress, 
have  already  been  spoken  of  in  the  article  Eck,  in  vol. 
iii,  especially  at  p.  47  sq. 

The  breach  with  Rome  was  decided  at  these  disputa- 
tions by  Luther's  declaration  that  among  the  articles  of 
Hnss  there  were  also  some  condemned  by  the  Council 
of  Constance  completely  Christian  and  evangelical,  thus 
clearly  denying,  de/ncto,  the  authority  of  the  Church  to 
decide  in  matters  of  faith.  In  August,  1520,  appeared 
the  reformatory  writing,  "  To  the  Christian  Nobles  of 
the  German  Nation,  of  the  bettering  of  the  Christian 
State."  In  this  work  Luther  unsparingly  exposed  what 
the  pope  had  done  to  convert  the  Germans,  a  noble, 
loj'al  race,  into  treacherous  perjurers,  and  showed  with 
what  forbearance  Germany  had  liorne  these  indignities. 
The  German  knighthood  had  oftered  to  draw  sword  in 
Luther's  defence,  but  he  declined  the  aid  of  all  earthly 
power,  as  out  of  keeping  with  the  holy  interests  of  the 
kingdom.  This  great  book  showed  to  the  knights  that 
Lutlier's  arms  were  mightier  than  theirs.  In  his  book, 
'•  Of  the  Babylonish  Captivity  of  the  Church,"  Oct.  6, 
1520,  Luther  presented  the  doctrinal  aspects  of  the  Ref- 
ormation, as  in  his  book  to  the  nobles  he  had  looked  at 
it  in  hs  jwlitical  relations.  He  demanded  the  total  ab- 
rogation of  indulgences  as  "devilish  institutions,"  the 
restoration  of  the  cup  to  the  laity,  the  limitation  of  the 
number  of  the  sacraments:  "  If  we  wish  to  speak  rigid- 
ly, there  are  in  the  Church  tiro  sacraments  only."  He 
declared  transubstantiation  to  be  no  article  of  faith,  and 
set  forth  the  view  that  "  true  bread  and  true  wine,"  not 
their  mere  accidents,  remain  in  the  Supper.  He  urges 
the  cessation  of  external  ecclesiastical  satisfactions.' 
Through  the  whole  he  argues  the  sufhcicncy  of  the 
faith  by  which  alone  man-is  justified.  ,  It  might  liave 
seemed  fixed  that  reconciliation  with  the  Church  of 
Rome  was  no  longer  possible;  yet,  as  the  result  of  a 
second  conference  with  INIiltitz  at  Liehtenberg,  Oct.  12, 
1520,  Luther  expressed  himself  willing  once  more  to 


test  the  question.  If  reconciliation  were  to  be  had  at 
all,  the  sermon  "Of  the  Freedom  of  a  Christian  Man" 
(Wittenb.  1520)  breathed  the  very  spirit  in  which  alone 
it  was  possible.  It  is  "  pleasant,  without  polemics,  fuU 
of  devoutness,  and  of  the  overwhelming  might  of  love 
to  God  and  love  to  man.  In  it  the  reformatory  princi- 
ple appears  in  its  depth,  its  rich  devotional  spirit,  its  re- 
ligious freshness.  Its  life-breath  is  the  spirit  of  the 
higher  peace ;  it  contains  a  treasure  of  new  impulses  for 
the  intellectual,  and,  indeed,  the  speculative  life  of  the 
Christian  soul.  The  evangelical  principle,  as  it  involves 
faith  and  love,  has  perhaps  never  been  luifoldcd  with 
such  clearness,  fullness,  and  depth.  It  is  noble  and  full  ■ 
of  significance  that  Luther  appended  this  golden  little 
book  to  his  last  letter  to  the  pope  (Sept.  6, 1520),  as  if 
with  a  petition  for  a  peaceful  separation  and  a  more 
kindly  construction.  But  it  is  a  happy  thing  besides  to 
note  the  quiet  self-possession,  the  profound  repose,  and 
clearness  of  soul  with  which  Luther  stood  as  llie  strife 
grew  more  threatening,  and  the  bull  of  excommunica- 
tion was  impending.  This  undoubted  mirror  of  a  child- 
like heart,  reflecting  the  peace  of  heaven,  is  in  amazing 
contrast  with  the  thunder-storm  which  gathered  about 
it,  and  is  a  demonstration  that  the  confessor  of  the  jus- 
tification which  is  by  faith  had  what  he  confessed,  and 
was  what  he  taught"  (Dorner,  Gesch.  der  Prof.  T/ieol.  p. 
101,  108).  Rome  had  meanwhile  been  getting  ready 
to  settle  the  whole  matter  by  a  coup  de  main.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1520,  Eck  appeared  in  Germany  with  the  papal 
bull,  dated  June  15.  It  condemned  as  heresies  forty- 
one  pi'opositions  extracted  from  Luther's  knifings,  or- 
dered his  works  to  be  burned  wherever  they  were  found, 
and  summoned  him,  on  pain  of  excommunication,  to 
confess  and  retract  his  errors  within  sixty  days,  and  to 
throw  himself  upon  the  mercy  of  the  pope.  This  bull 
brought  Lutlier  to  a  step  decisive  beyond  recall.  Sus- 
ceptible to  gentleness,  he  met  violence  and  threatening 
with  unshakable  courage.  Like  a  great  general,  prompt- 
ly accepting  the  warfare  forced  upon  him,  he  carried  the 
war  instantly  into  the  heart  of  the  enemy's  tcrriton,'. 
Before  the  gate  which  opens  towards  the  river  Elster, 
at  Wittenberg,  in  the  presence  of  a  vast  multitude  fif  all 
ranks  and  orders,  he  burned  the  papal  bull,  anil  with  it 
the  decree,  the  decretals,  the  Clementines,  the  Extrav- 
agants,  the  entire  code  of  Romish  canon  law,  as  the  root 
of  all  the  evil,  Dec.  10,  1520.  Archdeacon  Manning, 
whose  testimony  here  will  carry  peculiar  weight,  says : 
"  The  just  causes  of  complaint  which  made  Luther  first 
address  the  bishops,  his  steady  appeals  through  eveiy 
gradation  of  ecclesiastical  order  to  the  award  of  a  gen- 
eral council ;  and,  on  the  other,  the  violent  and  corrupt 
administration  of  Leo  X,  ending  in  an  excommunication 
against  a  man  whose  cause  was  stiU  unheard,  seem  ef- 
fectually to  clear  both  him  and  those  who,  for  his  sake, 
were  driven  from  the  unity  of  the  Church  from  the  guilt 
of  schism"  (^Unily  of  the  Church  [London,  1842],  p.  328, 
329).  Thus  Luther  broke  openly,  as  he  had  already 
broken  virtually,  with  Rome,  forever.  This  final  rupture 
gave  a  character  of  sharpest  decision  to  his  appeal  to  a 
general  council,  with  which  he  prefaced  the  burning  of 
the  bull,  and  to  his  writings  Against  the  Bull  of  Ant i- 
cki-ist,  against  Emser,  and  others.  He  still  continued  a 
faithful  member  of  the  Catholic  Church  of  the  West, 
holding  its  old  faith,  which  knew  nothing  of  a  pope 
with  unlimited  despotic  authority.  He  stood  then  iu 
many  respects  in  the  same  general  position  whicli  is  oc- 
cu|iicd  l)y  Diillinger  now.  The  bull  of  excommunica- 
tion promptly  followed,  Jan.  6, 1521.  In  consequence 
of  Luther's  daring  act,  the  papal  legate,  Alexander,  de- 
manded of  the  Diet  sitting  at  Worms  that  he  should  be 
put  under  the  ban  of  the  empire.  But  it  was  the  wish 
of  the  estates  of  the  empire  that,  in  advance  of  giving 
effect  to  the  pajial  bull,  Luther  should  be  summoned  to 
apjiear  and  have  a  hearing  before  the  Diet.  To  this 
Diet,  against  the  urgeiit  advice  of  his  friends,  under  a 
safeguard  from  Charles  Y,  who  had  succeeded  Jlaximil- 
ian  in  1519,  Lutlier  went,  saying,  "Though  there  were 


LUTHER 


567 


LUTHER 


as  manj'-  devils  in  Worms  as  there  are  tiles  on  its  roofs, 
still  would  I  enter."  In  the  memorable  transaction  at 
Worms,  "  the  most  splendid  scene  in  history,"  as  it  has 
been  styled,  Luther  stood  in  the  presence  of  the  emper- 
or, the  archduke  Ferdinand,  six  electors,  twenty-four 
dukes,  eight  margraves,  thirty  bishops,  and  other  prin- 
ces and  prelates  of  the  realm,  AprU.  17,  18,  1521.  It 
"  was  tlie  most  remarkable  assembly  ever  convened  on 
earth — an  empire  against  a  man !  Lucas  Cranach's  pic- 
ture represents  Luther  as  he  stood  there,  so  lone  and 
strong,  with  his  great  full  heart — a  second  Prometheus, 
confronting  the  Jove  of  the  IGth  century  and  the  Ger- 
man Olympus."  '•  His  friends  were  yet  few,  and  of  no 
great  intluence;  his  enemies  were  numerous  and  power- 
ful, and  eager  for  his  destruction :  the  cause  of  truth, 
the  hope  of  religious  regeneration,  appeared  to  be  placed 
at  that  moment  in  the  discretion  and  constancy  of  one 
man.  The  faithful  trembled."  But  Luther  was  victo- 
rious in  his  good  confession.  Having  examined  the 
books  laid  before  him,  April  17,  he  acknowledged  them 
as  his  own.  After  deep  reflection,  for  which  he  had  so- 
licited time,  he  defended  himself  on  the  following  day 
in  an  address  of  two  hours  in  length.  He  upheld  free- 
dom of  conscience,  and  denied  the  right  of  the  priest- 
hood to  control  by  force  the  religious  convictions  of  men. 
His  manner  was  free  from  all  vehemence,  his  expression 
was  modest,  gentle,  and  humble ;  "  but  in  the  matter  of 
his  public  apology  he  declined  in  no  one  particular  from 
the  fulness  of  his  convictions.  Of  the  numerous  opin- 
ions which  he  had  by  this  time  adopted  at  variance 
with  the  injunctions  of  Rome,  there  was  not  one  which 
in  the  hour  of  danger  he  consented  to  compromise."  At 
the  close  of  his  speech,  which  was  in  German,  he  com- 
plied with  the  request  to  repeat  it  in  Latin,  for  the  sake 
of  the  emperor  and  of  others.  When  urged  with  the 
direct  question  whether  he  would  recant,  he  replied  in 
Latin,  '•  Unless  I  shall  be  convinced  by  the  testimonies 
of  the  Scriptures  or  by  evident  reason  (for  I  believe  nei- 
ther pope  nor  councils  alone,  since  it  is  manifest  they 
have  often  erred  and  contradicted  themselves),  I  am 
bound  by  the  Scriptures  I  have  quoted,  and  my  con- 
science is  held  captive  by  the  word  of  God;  and  as  it 
is  neither  safe  nor  right  to  act  against  conscience,  I  can- 
not and  will  not  retract  anything."  He  added  in  Ger- 
man, '•  Here  I  stand ;  I  cannot  otherwise ;  God  help  me. 
Amen"  {Acta  lVo)-inati(B  habitw,  in  (9pe?"a  [Jena],  ii,  41-1. 
The  historical  character  of  these  last  [German]  words 
has  been  disputed  [see  Burckhardt,  Stud.  u.  Krit.  1869], 
but  without  good  grounds).  Luther's  enemies  now 
made  violent  efforts  to  effect  his  ruin.  They  counselled 
the  violation  of  the  imperial  safe-conduct.  They  ap- 
pealed to  the  crime  of  Constance  as  a  precedent.  Charles 
replied  that  if  honor  were  banished  from  every  other 
home,  it  ought  to  find  refuge  in  the  heart  of  kings. 
The  ban  of  the  empire  was  published  May  25, 1521.  It 
made  Luther  an  outlaw. 

V.  The  Wartbiirr/  Exile  and  the  Return  (May  5, 1521- 
1522). — On  Luther's  return  from  Worms  the  imperial 
herald  accompanied  him  to  the  border  of  Hesse.  At 
this  point  Luther,  with  no  companion  but  Amsdorf, 
turned  his  face  towards  jMiJhra,  to  visit  his  grandmother. 
At  Altenstein,  May  4,  in  the  Thuringian  Forest,  he  was 
seized  by  masked  horsemen,  and  was  taken  for  protec- 
tion by  his  friend  the  elector  to  the  Wartburg,  the  Pat- 
mos  of  the  opening  apocalypse  of  history  (see  ''  Leo  and 
Luther,"  by  Eugene  Lawrence,  in  Harper's  Monthl;/, 
xxxix,  91-106).  Here,  in  the  apparel  of  a  knight,  lie 
was  knoAvn  as  Jungker  George.  Ills  enemies  accounted 
for  his  sudden  disappearance  by  asserting  that  he  had 
been  carried  off  by  the  devil,  a  theory  which,  from  their 
ponit  of  view,  does  not  give  to  that  august  person  the 
due  generally  conceded  to  his  sagacity— if  Rome  was 
right,  there  was  no  one  whom  the  devil  had  so  much 
reason  to  wish  to  keep  on  earth  as  Luther.  The  leisure 
enjoyed  by  Luther  at  the  Wartburg  was  employed  by 
him  in  preparing  the  tirst  draught  of  the  translation  of 
the  New  Testament. 


After  an  exile  of  ten  months  he  was  called  back  ta 
Wittenberg,  March  6, 1522,  by  the  disorders  which  had 
broken  out.  The  Augustinian  monks  had  abrogated 
the  mass;  in  the  transactions  which  took  place  between 
them,  the  university,  and  the  elector,  Carlstadt  had  in- 
termeddled. Carlstadt  had  gone  on  at  once  to  introduce 
what,  in  his  judgment,  were  manifest  consequences  of 
Luther's  principles.  The  communion  was  administered 
in  both  kinds,  with  the  exclusion  of  the  sacrificial  ele- 
ments and  of  the  mass,  and  without  confession.  A  great 
number  of  the  usual  ceremonies  also  were  set  aside,  and 
the  marriage  of  the  priests,  and  of  others  under  eccle- 
siastical vows,  was  introduced.  The  radical  violence 
of  the  whole  tendency  and  of  its  modes  gave  evidence 
that  Carlstadt  was  availing  himself  of  Luther's  absence 
to  attempt  what  he  would  not  have  dared  to  do  when 
Luther  was  present.  The  passionate  violence  of  Carl- 
stadt was  fanned  by  the  Zwickau  Prophets,  who  at  this 
time  made  their  appearance  at  Wittenberg.  The  wild 
storm  of  iconoclasm  was  met  by  Luther  with  discussion 
for  the  scholar,  with  sermons  for  the  people.  The  per- 
sonal character  and  force  of  Luther,  the  solid  truth  of 
his  position,  and  his  irresistible  popular  eloquence 
gained  a  complete  victory  over  Carlstadt  (q.  v.).  The 
two  men  were  in  heart  sundered  from  this  hour,  though 
they  did  not  come  into  open  controversy  until  1525. 
Previous  to  the  struggle  with  Carlstadt  the  life  of  Lu- 
ther in  every  element  and  trait  had  made  an  ineffacea- 
ble impression  of  grandeur  on  the  hearts  of  the  whole 
German  nation.  Every  independent  heart,  and  all  the 
nobler  Roman  Catholics,  acknowledged  him  in  the  high- 
est sense  a  man  of  the  peo]ile,  and,  in  a  sense  not  less 
high,  a  man  of  God.  He  had  "opened  the  sanctuary 
of  a  pure  faith,  and  in  heroic  struggle  had  kept  it  open" 
(Dorner,  Hist,  of  Prot.  TheoL,  trans,  bv  Robson  and  So- 
phia Taylor  [Edinb.  1871],  i,  97, 98).  At  this  time  took 
place  his  change  from  nionasticism  and  asceticism  to 
evangelical  life:  the  former  in  1524,  when  he  dropped 
the  monastic  dress;  the  latter  in  1525,  when  he  n  :  rried. 
Here  also  belong  the  jtart  he  took  in  1529  at  the  colloquy 
in  Marburg  (q.  v.),  where  an  effort  was  made  to  harmo- 
nize the  peculiar  views  of  Luther  and  Zwingli  on  the 
Lord's  Supper ;  and  his  work  for  the  Augsburg  Confes- 
sion (q.  v.). 

VI.  Last  Efforts  at  Conciliation  with  Borne. — All  the 
later  efforts  to  bridge  over  the  gulf  between  himself  and 
the  papacy  Luther  regarded  as  too  weak,  in  their  verj-- 
conception,  to  justify  any  great  solicitude  either  of  hope 
or  of  despair  on  his  part.  At  Coburg,  in  1530,  he  warn- 
ed the  sanguine  among  his  own  adherents  of  the  hope- 
lessness of  the  effort  to  compromise  with  the  pope  with- 
out the  sacrifice  of  the  truth.  The  colloquy  in  Witten- 
berg, Nov.  1535,  with  Vergerius,  the  papal  nuncio  sent 
by  Paul  III,  Luther  considered  a  farce.  The  embassy 
filed  into  Wittenberg  "  with  twenty-one  horses  and  one 
ass.''  Luther  confided  to  his  barber  the  chief  prepara- 
tion he  felt  it  necessary  to  make  for  meeting  the  nuncio 
of  the  holy  father,  and,  with  a  full  sense  of  the  humor  of 
the  position,  put  on  the  best  clothes  and  the  largest  jew- 
els he  could  command,  and  in  the  splendor  of  an  open 
carriage,  which  would  now  be  considered  a  cart,  rode 
forth  '■  pope  of  Germany,  with  cardinal  Bugenliagen"  at 
his  side.  The  legate  was  treated  with  courtesy,  but  not 
with  reverence.  Luther  declared  himself  willing  to  ap- 
pear before  a  general  council  whenever  it  might  be 
summoned,  though  he  should  know  that  it  would  end 
in  his  being  burned.  Vergerius  :  "  The  pope  would  not 
be  unwilling  to  meet  you  here  in  Wittenberg."  Lu- 
ther: "Let  him  come;  we  shall  be  glad  to  see  him." 
Vergerius :  "  Would  you  prefer  his  coming  with  an 
arm}',  or  without  oneV"  Luther:  "Just  as  he  pleases; 
we  are  ready  for  him  cither  way."  When  the  legate 
had  mounted,  he  said  to  Luther, "  See  to  it  that  you  are 
ready  for  the  comicil."  Luther  repHed,  "  I  shall  come, 
sir,  if  it  costs  me  my  head."  His  opinion  of  the  pro- 
posed council  was  expressed  in  his  work  Of  Councils 
and  Churches  (1539),  and  by  his  advice  the  evangelica] 


LUTHER 


568 


LUTHER 


(Lutheran)  princes  declined  to  participate  in  the  coun- 
cil. 

Jlelancthon  in  1545  prepared  the  "Wittenberg  Reform, 
the  sketch  of  a  plan  of  iininn.  To  this  Luther  gave  his 
subscription,  but  shortly  afterivards  published  his  book 
Af/(ii>ist  the  Papacy  at  Rome,  founded  by  the  Devil,  one 
of  the  very  tiercest  of  his  controversial  works. 

YIL  Luther  and  the  Bohemians. — On  the  other  hand, 
Luther  sought  to  perjjetuate  the  fellowship  formed  with 
the  Bohemians,  who  in  1536  had  again  sent  their  rep- 
resentatives to  him.  He  wrote  prefaces  to  their  Apol- 
ogy of  the  Faith  in  1533  and  1538.  The  dissatisfaction 
he  had  felt  in  1541  with  some  things  in  their  doctrine 
of  the  Lord's  Supper,  which  appeared  to  him  suspicious, 
was  dispelled  in  1542. 

YIII.  Luther's  last  Days. — The  Protestant  princes  had 
drawn  the  sword  in  the  feud.  Luther  did  all  in  his 
power  to  preserve  the  peace  between  the  princes  and 
the  emperor;  but  the  future  looked  threatening,  and  his 
soul  was  as  full  of  solicitude  as  a  soul  coidd  be  whose 
trust  in  God  was  so  implicit.  The  council  and  the  con- 
gregation in  Wittenberg  gave  Luther  A-ery  serious 
trouble.  The  great  renown  and  prosperity  of  Witten- 
berg, given  to  it  by  Luther  and  his  coworkers,  had 
brought  the  evils  which  naturally  attend  the  inflowing 
of  wealth  and  the  attainment  of  position.  Frivolity 
and  fashion  corrupted  the  people.  Luther  fought  with 
all  his  energies  against  the  evil.  In  1530,  after  a  pow- 
erful sermon  of  rebuke,  he  withdrew,  disheartened,  for  a 
long  time  from  the  pulpit.  He  at  length  left  Witten- 
berg, and  advised  his  wife  to  sell  her  property  there. 
The  elector  himself  was  obliged  to  interpose,  to  restore 
the  old  relations.  From  the  time  of  his  return  Luther 
continued  to  preach,  but  discontinued  his  lectures. 

Luther's  last  work  was  one  of  love  and  conciliation. 
Under  the  pressure  of  many  cares,  he  started,  in  Febru- 
ary, 1546,  on  a  journey  to  Eisleben,  to  attempt  a  concil- 
iation between  the  counts  of  Mansfeldt,  a  work  in  which 
they  had  solicited  his  good  ofhces.  For  fourteen  years 
Luther  had  been  a  sufferer  from  severe  and  complicated 
diseases.  He  was  not  well  when  he  reached  the  inn  at 
Eisleben,  and  from  the  beginning  of  his  sickness  had  a 
presentiment  that  he  would  die  in  the  place  where  he 
was  born.  He  was  able,  however,  to  preach  once.  The 
(lay  before  his  death  he  expressed  a  strong  assurance 
that  we  shall  know  our  loved  ones  in  heaven.  Febru- 
ary 17  he  was  too  ill  to  leave  his  bed.  When  Aurifaber 
called,  he  found  him  so  much  worse  that  he  summoned 
medical  aid  at  once.  Rubbing  and  bathing  afforded 
him  temporary  relief,  and  about  nine  o'clock  Luther  lay 
down  upon  a  couch,  and  after  gathering  a  little  strength 
by  an  hour's  rest,  proposed  to  his  attendants  that  he 
should  be  helped  to  his  bed.  Jonas,  and  Jlartin,  and 
Paul,  Luther's  sons,  and  two  servants,  watched  by  his 
side.  His  pains,  however,  became  so  great  that  he  could 
not  remain  in  his  bed.  Count  Albert  and  the  countess 
SK-nt  in  haste  for  their  own  physicians.  Luther  used 
everj-thing  prescribed,  but  spoke  of  nothing  but  his 
death,  >vhich  he  felt  sure  was  at  hand.  He  poured  forth 
his  soul  in  fervent  prayer,  and,  after  commending  his 
soul  into  the  hands  of  God,  lay  silent  and  waiting. 
Among  the  stimulants  used  was  shavings  of  the  horn 
()f  the  narwhal,  oT  sea-unicorn,  a  remedy  then  greatlj- 
priz?d.  None  of  the  stimulants  had  any  effect.  A  lit- 
tle before  his  last  breath  Jonas  and  Ca-lius  asked  him 
whether  he  died  in  firm  assurance  of  the  truth  of  the 
doctrine  he  had  taught.  With  a  distinct  voice,  he  re- 
plied ••  Yes.''  He  expired  about  four  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  Feb.l8, 1546  (C.E.Stowe,  Last  Days  and  Death 
of  J.iithir.  in  the  Iribl,  Repository,  1845,  p.  1!)5,  '212). 

His  body  was  taken  to  Wittenberg,  followed  along 
the  whole  route  by  thousands  of  mourners,  the,  tolling 
of  the  bells,  and  the  dirges  which  gave  expression  to  a 
universal  sorrow.  It  was  interred  in  front  Of  the  pulpit 
in  the  Castle  Church.  The  funeral  discourses  were  pro- 
nounced by  Bugenhagen  and  Melancthon.  Six  weeks 
after  Luther's  death  his  wife  wrote:  "My  dear  husband 


was  not  the  minister  of  a  city,  or  of  a  land,  but  of  the 
■whole  world.  Tt)  have  lost  a  princedom,  to  have  lost 
an  empire,  would  not  be  such  a  loss  as  I  deplore"  {Bri(fe 
[De  Wette,  Leideraann],  vi,  G50). 

Luther's  situation  in  reference  to  earthly  possessions 
would  have  been  that  of  very  moderate  competence  (his 
greatest  income  was  about  three  hundred  gulden),  had 
not  his  mibounded  charity  kept  him  perpetually  poor. 
The  large  or  older  cloister  of  the  Austin  monks  in  Wit- 
tenberg was  given  to  him  by  John  the  Constant.  It 
was  purchased  from  Luther's  heirs  for  the  academy  at 
the  price  of  3700  gulden.  Luther  purchased  the  Lit- 
tle Cloister  for  430  gulden :  it  was  sold  by  his  heirs  for 
300  thalers.  He  also  owned  an  orchard  and  garden  val- 
ued at  500  guklen,  the  manor  of  Wachsdorf,  a  male- 
fief  valued  at  1500  gulden,  and  the  Zeilsdorf  property, 
which  sold  for  956  gulden.  For  his  books,  which  en- 
riched his  publishers,  he  would  take  nothing. 

IX.  Domestic  cmd  Social  Life. — In  the  midst  of  the 
warfare  which  conscience  compelled  him  to  carry  on 
with  Erasmus,  Carlstadt,  and  others,  who  professed  to 
take  in  whole  or  in  part  the  general  ground  against 
Rome,  Luther  entered  on  that  domestic  life,  the  charm 
of  which  still  wins  the  heart  of  men,  whose  sympathies 
have  been  lost  to  him  as  a  reformer,  or  as  a  conservator 
in  reformation.  June  13,  1525,  he  married  Catharine 
von  Bora,  who  had  fled  from  the  Cistercian  nunnery  of 
Kimptsch.  '•  This  was  the  event  of  his  life  which  gave 
most  triumph  to  his  enemies  and  perplexity  to  his 
friends.  It  was  in  perfect  conformity  with  his  mascu- 
line and  daring  mind,  that,  having  satisfied  himself  of 
the  nullity  of  his  monastic  vows,  he  should  take  the 
boldest  method  of  displaying  to  the  world  how  utterly 
he  rejected  them."  Luther's  intercourse  with  his  wife 
and  children,  his  letters  to  them,  the  touching  story  of 
the  death  of  Margaret  and  of  Madeleine,  present  him  as 
the  model  of  the  head  of  a  Christian  family  (Krauth, 
Conservative  Rform.  p.  33-43 ;  Stork,  Luther  at  Home 
[1872]). 

Luther  had  six  children  :  1.  John,  born  June  7, 1526, 
was  a  jurist  in  Konigsberg,  and  died  there  Octobf  r  28, 
1575.  Some  of  his  descendants  were  found  in  Bohemia 
m  1830  in  a  state  of  poverty.  2.  Elizabeth,  born  Dec. 
10,1527;  died  Aug.  3, 1528.  ^3.  Madeleine  (Magdalene), 
born  May  4,  1529 ;  died  Oct.  20, 1542.  4.  Martin,  bom 
Nov.  7,  1531,  studied  theology,  but  had  not  the  intel- 
lectual gifts  necessary  for  the  ministry;  laid  down  his 
office,  and  died  as  a  private  citizen,  March  3, 1565.  ,5. 
Paid,  born  Jan.  28. 1533.  was  physician  in  ordinarj'  at  va- 
rious courts,  and  died  March  8, 1 593.  G.  ]\Iargaret,  born 
in  1534,  was  married  to  George  von  Kunhcim,  Prussian 
counsellor,  and  died  in  1570.  See  Nobbe,  Stnmmhaum  der 
Familie  des  Dr.  Luther  (Grimma,  1846);  Wofman,  Cath- 
arine von  Bora,  oder  LAither  als  Gatte  n.  Valer  (Leipzig, 
1845) ;  C.  Becker, Luther's  Familienlehen  (Kiinigsb.  1858), 

The  direct  line  of  male  descent  from  Luther  termi- 
nated with  Martin  Gottlob  L.,  who  was  an  advocate  in 
Dresden,  and  died  in  1759.  The  family  of  Luther's 
brother,  and  of  Catharine  von  Bora,  have  living  repre- 
sentatives. 

The  great  coworkers  with  Luther  were  also  liis  dear- 
est personal  friends.  First  among  them  were  Melanc- 
thon, Amsdorf,  Justus  Jonas,  and  Bugenhagen.  The 
Tisch-reden  (Table-talk),  which  appeared  twenty  years 
after  Luther's  death,  professes  to  be  a  record  of  his  con- 
versations, made  immediately  after  them.  It  is  not 
strictly  authentic,  and  where  it  conflicts  with  well 
known  and  carefully  avowed  opinions  of  Luther,  is  of 
no  value  as  testimony.  It  often  presents  the  prosiest 
construction  of  the  poetry  of  Luther's  mind,  and  the 
dullest  matter-of-fiict  perversion  of  his  most  brilliant 
thoughts.  It  confounds  Luther  himself  with  the  char- 
acter he  dramatizes,  in  order  to  vivify  his  aversion  to  it, 
and  the  liveliest  sallies  of  his  wit  and  humor  are  given 
with  the  air  of  the  most  solid  and  painful  judgments. 
Luther's  annalist  had  the  idolatry  of  a  Boswell,  but  lit- 
tle of  his  skill.    Nevertheless,  the  Table-talk  is  a  record, 


LUTHER 


569 


LUTHER 


though  a  clumsy  one,  of  many  of  Luther's  best  say- 
ings. 

X.  Luther  and  Erasmus. — In  their  negations  Luther 
and  Erasmus  had  many  points  of  contact  and  sympathy. 
Luther  admired  the  polished  scholarship  of  Erasmus ; 
Erasmus  acknowledged  the  power  of  Luther,  the  purity 
of  his  motives,  and  the  necessity  for  his  earlier  work. 
He  wrote  to  Luther  and  of  him  as  a  friend  (1519). 
When  the  diversity  of  their  positions,  the  difl'erence  of 
their  characters,  and  tlie  pressure  of  circumstances  made 
a  conflict  between  them  growingly  probable,  eacli  dread- 
ed tlic  other  as  an  antagonist  as  he  dreaded  no  other 
man.  (Compare  here  Luther's  letter  to  Erasmus,  cited 
in  the  article  Erasmus.)  Erasmus  was  forced  into  the 
controversy.  Had  Erasmus  had  his  own  way,  he  woidd 
perhaps  have  never  entered  the  lists  against  Luther, 
and  he  would  never  have  written  his  Defence  of  free- 
will. The  will  of  Erasmus  was  under  bondage  to  the 
will  of  Henry  YIIL  Luther,  with  more  solicitude  than 
the  presence  of  princes  and  prelates  had  ever  given 
him,  was  obliged  to  take  up  the  gage  of  battle.  To 
the  years  1524, 1525  belongs  this  controversy.  It  be- 
gan with  an  attack  on  the  part  of  Erasmus  in  his  book 
De  libera  Arhitrio.  Luther  wrote  De  servo  Arhitrio. 
Erasmus  wrote  in  reply  his  I/i/j)eraspistes.  Luther  felt 
that  Erasmus  had  made  no  new  points,  and  that  his 
own  had  been  sufficiently  put,  and  the  controversy 
ceased.  As  regards  the  vital  point  in  this  discussion, 
the  mass  of  earnest  Christian  thinkers  from  Luther's 
time  to  this  have  been  a  unit  in  their  estimate.  Eras- 
mus simply  made  a  development  of  a  refined  pagan  nat- 
uralism (for  Pelagianism  is  no  more)  under  tlie  phrases 
of  Christianity.  Luther's  main  point  is  the  common 
ground  of  evangelical  Christianity,  though  many  of  his 
particular  phrases  might  not  meet  with  universal  ap- 
proval. "Erasmus  makes  man  at  first  richer  than  Lu- 
ther does,  but  j^et  how  far  is  Luther's  conception  of  free- 
dom ultimately  superior  to  that  of  Erasmus,  who  views 
the  highest  and  best  element  of  freedom  as  reached  in 
freedom  of  choice,  and  who  accordingly  must  logically 
teach  an  everlasting  possibility  of  falling,  and  make 
perfection  eternally  insecure !  Luther's  conception  of 
freedom  leads  to  godlike,  real  freedom  by  grace ;  for 
this  it  could  seem  to  be  no  advantage,  but  only  a  defect, 
to  be  involved  in  choice  and  hesitation"  (Dorner,  Hist, 
of  Prof.  Theol.  [transl.],i,217).  In  justifying  the  class- 
ing of  this  controversy  with  Luther's  war  against  Rome, 
Kostlin  saj's :  "  Not  only  did  Erasmus  write  under  the 
pressure  brought  to  bear  on  him  by  the  papal  opponents 
of  Luther,  but  Luther,  in  his  reply,  shows  tliat  he  rec- 
ognises the  same  interest  as  involved  here,  as  that  which 
had  so  far  conditioned  his  whole  struggle  with  Rome. 
He  writes  under  the  consciousness  that  in  Erasmus  he 
has  again  to  do  battle  with  the  old  principle  of  the  Pe- 
lagianism of  Rome"  (ii,  36).  (Comp.  here  a  review  of 
M.  Durand  du  Laur's  Erasine  in  The  Academy,  Septem- 
ber 15,1872.) 

XI.  The  character  of  Luther  lies  so  open  in  his  life 
that  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  trace  its  lines.  He  was 
so  ingenuous  that  if  all  the  world  had  conspired  to  cov- 
er up  his  faults,  his  own  hand  would  have  uncovered 
them.  His  violence  was  that  of  a  mighty  nature,  strong 
in  conviction,  waging  the  battle  of  truth  against  impla- 
cable foes.  The  expressions  which  jar  upon  the  refined 
ear  of  tlic  modern  world  were  natural  in  a  rough  xra, 
and  from  the  lips  of  one  who  was  too  jiure  to  Ije  pru- 
flish.  The  coarsenesses  of  the  mendicant  life  can  liard- 
ly  fail  to  leave  their  traces  on  any  man  who  has  been 
subjected  to  them— the  taint  of  a  system  in  which  filthi- 
ness  is  next  to  godliness,  or,  rather,  is  a  part  of  it.  The 
inconsistencies  charged  upon  Luther's  thinking  are  those 
of  a  man  of  great  intuitions,  wlio  grows  perpetually,  and 
wh(j  will  not  stop  for  the  hopeless  and  useless  task  of 
harmonizing  with  the  crudities  of  yesterday  the  ripe- 
ness of  to-day.  His  widest  diversities,  after  the  sap  of 
Reformation  began  to  swell  in  his  veins,  are  like  those 
of  the  tree  which  bends  with  the  mellow  fruit  of  au- 


tumn, careless  of  consistency  with  its  first  buddings  in 
the  cold  rains  of  Jlarch.  That  Luther  was  unselfish, 
earnest,  honest,  inflexibly  brave  in  danger,  full  of  ten- 
derness and  humanity,  the  ideal  of  Germanic  strength 
and  of  Germanic  goodness ;  that  he  was  one  of  the  great 
creative  spirits  of  the  race,  mighty  in  word  and  deed, 
matchless  as  a  popular  orator,  one  of  the  very  people, 
yet  a  prince  among  princes,  a  child  of  faith,  a  child  of 
God — this  is  admitted  by  all  (see  Krauth's  Conservative 
Reformat,  p.  45-87). 

There  is  scarcely  another  instance  in  history  in 
which  an  individual,  without  secular  authority  or  mili- 
tary achievement,  has  so  stamped  himself  upon  a  peo- 
ple, and  made  himself  to  so  great  an  extent  tlie  lead- 
er, the  representative,  the  voice  of  the  nation.  He  has 
been  to  Germany  what  Homer  was  to  Greece.  "  He 
was  the  only  Protestant  reformer,"  says  Bayard  Taylor, 
"  whose  heart  was  as  large  as  his  brain."  (See  "  An  In- 
terview with  Jlartin  Luther,"  in  Harper's  Monthli/,  xxii, 
231.)  Luther  was  well-set,  not  tall,  was  handsome,  with 
a  "clear,  brave  countenance,"  and  fresh  complexion. 
His  eyes  were  remarkable  for  their  keenness,  "dark  and 
deep-set,  shining  and  sparkling  like  a  star,  so  that  they 
could  not  well  be  looked  upon,"  as  old  Kessler  describes 
them.  The  fulness  of  face  given  him  in  his  later  pic- 
tures was  the  rcsidt,  not  of  robustness,  but  of  a  dropsical 
tendency,  resulting  from  his  early  austerities.  His  pliys- 
ical  life  was  largely  one  of  suffering.  His  habits  were 
abstemious,  and  his  enjoyments  at  the  table  were  social, 
not  Epicurean.  His  voice  was  not  loud  nor  strong. 
Melancthon's  happy  phrase  touching  Luther's  words  is, 
that  they  were  "  fulmina,"  not  "  tonitrua" — it  was  their 
lightning,  not  their  thunder,  by  which  their  mighty  ef- 
fects were  produced.  The  papal  system,  the  upas  of 
the  ages,  which  they  struck,  is  not  dead,  but  it  is  riven 
and  blasted  from  its  crown  to  its  root. 

XII.  Luther  as  a  Conservator. — The  culmination  of 
Luther's  epic  for  the  world  at  large  is  undoubtedly  the 
defence  at  Worms.  An  obvious  source  of  the  diminu- 
tion of  interest  in  the  later  years  of  Luther's  life  is  that 
the  carrying  through  of  what  had  been  so  grandly  be- 
gun presents,  in  the  nature  of  the  case,  less  that  brings 
before  the  mind,  in  all  the  magic  of  its  unparalleled 
power,  the  personal  character  of  Luther.  \Mien  the 
warfare  is  ended,  the  life  of  the  greatest  soldier  becomes 
as  tame  as  that  of  the  ordinary  man.  But,  beyond  this, 
a  diminished  interest  and  a  divided  sympathy  are  due 
to  the  fact  that  in  the  development  of  doctrine  and  of 
the  constitution  of  the  Church  Luther  took  a  position 
on  which  the  Protestant  world  has  divided.  Tlie  occa- 
sion for  the  exhibition  of  Luther's  conservatism  was 
given  by  his  conflict  with  the  Zwickau  Prophets  (1522) 
and  Carlstadt,  and  by  the  dreadful  excesses  of  the  peas- 
ant insurrections.  In  these  he  encountered  what  claim- 
ed to  be  results  of  the  German  mystical  thinking — a 
mysticism  which  he  himself  had  cherished;  he  found 
that  these  wild  fanatics  put  their  own  construction  upon 
his  views  of  Christian  liberty  and  the  rights  of  the  con- 
grpgation,  and  ajipealed  to  those  views  in  self-defence. 
Tliese  results  and  this  construction  Luther  looked  upon 
with  abhorrence.  Luther  brought  to  a  fuller  exhi- 
bition wliat  was  the  real  difference  in  principle  be- 
tween the  position  of  these  fanatics  and  his  own.  He 
saw  that  they  consciously  ignored  and  rejected  a  prin- 
ciple without  which  reformation  \voul(l  be  transformed 
into  a  radical  and  violent  revolution,  foreign  in  its  own 
nature  to  the  whole  genius  and  history  of  Christianity. 
This  principle  is  that  of  the  unbroken  historical  life  and 
development  of  the  Church.  Not  as  a  something  iso- 
lated from  the  Church,  but  as  a  divine  power  within  it, 
had  the  truth  of  God  reached  the  soul  of  Luther.  The 
power  which  ojiened  to  Luther  the  true  nature  of  re- 
pentance, justitication,  and  grace,  had  not  simply  lin- 
gered in  the  Church,  but  had  ripened  in  it,  and  the  Ref- 
ormation could  no  more  have  been,  nor  Luther  have 
been  Luther,  without  the  Church  in  history,  than  with- 
out the  Word.     Men  are  betjotten  of  God  through  the 


LUTHER 


570 


LUTHER 


Word,  but  the  Church  is  the  mother  who  bears  them. 
The  'Word  of  God  is  the  all-sufhcient  rule  of  faith,  but 
it  must  be  seeu  or  heard  in  order  to  be  applied ;  and  the 
rule  of  faith  does  not  write  itself,  print  itself,  circulate 
itself,  or  speak  itself,  and  all  the  ordinary  organs  of  its 
perpetuation,  circulation,  and  application  are  within  the 
(jhurch.  The  divinity  of  the  Word  and  the  divinity 
of  the  Church  are  doctrines  not  only  in  harmonj'  with 
each  other,  but  necessary  to  each  other's  existence.  The 
first  without  the  second  is  fanaticism,  sectarianism,  and 
hopeless  individualism ;  the  second  without  the  first  is 
popery.  The  movement  of  Luther,  from  the  hour  of  its 
riper  self-perception,  was  so  completely  churchly  and 
historical  that  the  fanatics  hated  Luther  more  than  they 
hated  the  pope.  Among  the  evidences  that  Luther  felt 
the  need  of  building  the  sound,  as  well  as  of  thinning 
down  and  removing  the  rotten,  may  be  mentioned  the 
Wittenberg  Order  of  the  Congregations,  1522 ;  the  Leis- 
nig  Order  of  the  General  Fund,  1523 ;  letter  to  the  land- 
grave of  Hesse  in  regard  to  the  Homberg  Church-Or- 
der. 1527;  the  Visitation,  1527-1529;  the  part  he  took 
in  the  arrangement  of  the  consistories  and  for  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Church. 

Those  who  do  not  sympathize  with  his  conservatism 
yet  admit  that  Luther's  personal  religious  character  was 
deep  and  consistent,  and  that  in  the  sphere  of  conscience, 
and  \vhere  he  stands  on  the  verities  of  his  own  internal 
experience,  he  is  the  unshakable  reformer.  But  it  is 
said  by  these  objectors  that  where  his  own  immediate 
religious  consciousness  ceases  he  shows  himself  under 
the  influence  of  his  earlier  views ;  that,  unknown  to 
himself,  he  stands  forth  with  the  "'ineffaceable  traces  of 
the  monk,  the  priest,  and  the  scholastic  theologian." 
By  this  supposition  is  solved  the  fact  that,  while  he  re- 
jected the  mass  as  it  embodied  the  idea  that  the  Lord's 
Supper  is  a  proper  sacrifice,  and  rejected  transubstantia- 
tion,  he  yet  found  it  impossible  to  abandon  the  thought 
that  the  Lord's  Supper  veils  the  mystery  of  redemption, 
and  is  "  more  than  an  act  in  which  a  congregation  imites 
in  a  pious  and  believing  memorial."  This  it  was,  they 
think,  which  led  him  "  to  a  conception  of  the  sacrament 
obscure  and  indeterminate,  and  to  a  doctrine  which 
maintains  on  a  scholastic  basis  the  presence  of  Christ, 
and  the  ubiquity,  the  omnipresence  of  his  body."  From 
the  same  direction  comes  the  charge  that,  "  blinded  by 
the  halo  which  to  the  eyes  of  the  people  invests  the 
head  of  the  imperial  majesty,  he  overlooked  the  fact 
that  it  IS  not  only  Christian  for  a  great  cause  to  go 
cheerfully  to  the  scaffold,  but  that  it  is  also  Christian 
and  manly  for  inalienable  rights  to  resist  imperial  op- 
pression with  the  sword."  Luther's  holding  back,  and 
Luther's  scruples,  are  charged  as  the  main  cause  that 
the  Evangelical  States  made  so  little  use  of  the  favora- 
ble opportunities  which  were  so  often  presented  in  the 
political  relations  of  the  times;  opportunities  which, 
rightly  used,  would  have  enabled  them  to  seize  and  to 
maintain  the  pre-eminence. 

To  these  objections  it  may  be  answered  that  all  that 
is  of  real  importance  in  the  judgment  of  Luther's  posi- 
tion as  to  the  Lord's  Snpi)er  hinges  upon  the  question. 
Is  his  doctrine  the  BiWical  one?  If  it  be  Biblical,  the 
main  objections  vanish.  They  could  at  the  worst  fix 
no  more  than  the  charge  of  doing  a  right  thing  in  a 
w^rong  way.  If  we  were  to  concede  for  Luther  in  these 
controversies  what  he  confessed  for  himself  at  Worms, 
that  he  had  fallen  into  personal  expressions  which  did 
not  become  his  character  as  a  Christian,  nor  as  a  minis- 
ter of  Christ,  yet  we  could  say  for  him,  as  he  said  for 
himself  at  the  same  great  sera,  the  question  is  not  con- 
cerning his  person,  but  his  doctrine.  If  the  doctrine  be 
unl)il(lical,  the  jiroof  of  that  fact  swallows  up  all  minor 
questions.  But  those  who  \)n7.c  the  thing  will  at  least 
forgive  the  mode.  Loving Jiim  for  the  '-re"  in  which 
he  was  "  fortiter,"  they  will  absolve  him  for  its  sake  for 
having  carried  the  "fortiter"  also  into  the  "modo." 
Hero,  as  elsewhere,  the  estimate  of  Luther's  character  is 
properly  made  from  the  position  of  those  who  harmonize 


with  his  views,  not  of  those  who  differ  from  him,  for  the 
practical  difference  between  the  construction  of  firmness 
and  obstinacy  usually  is,  that  firmness  stands  fast  to 
what  we  cherish,  and  obstinacy  holds  stiffly  to  what  we 
reject,  or  care  nothing  about.  To  the  Komanist  Luther 
was  obstinate  at  Worms,  firm  at  Marburg ;  to  the  Zwin- 
glian  portion  of  Protestants  he  was  obstinate  at  Mar- 
burg, firm  at  Worms. 

As  regards  Luther's  political  position,  it  may  be  said 
that  it  saved  the  Reformation  in  its  infancy ;  and  when 
evU  counsels  of  the  friends  of  Protestantism  harmonized 
with  the  cflbrts  of  the  Komanists  to  drag  the  question 
of  the  ara  into  the  arena  of  state-struggle,  the  Kcforma- 
tion  was  brought  to  the  verge  of  ruin.  Had  Luther 
shared  the  political  views  of  the  Zwinglian  side  of  the 
Keformation,  the  appeal  to  arms  made  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  War  might  have  come  a  century  earlier,  and 
might  have  ended  in  the  overthrow  of  the  Keformation. 
But  once  in  his  career  did  Luther  yield  to  the  pressure 
of  political  considerations  (the  bigamj'  of  the  landgrave 
of  Hesse),  and  in  that  yielding  the  Reformation  received 
its  severest  blow,  and  the  name  of  Luther  its  solitary 
blot.  His  simple  trust  in  God  was  the  highest  princi- 
ple. It  was,  though  Luther  did  not  think  of  it  as  such, 
the  highest  policy. 

A  complete,  comprehensive,  and  systematic  statement 
of  his  doctrines  was  never  given  by  Luther,  not  even  in 
his  confessional  writings.  Others  have  endeavored  to 
arrange  his  views  in  systematic  order:  Kirchncr,  The- 
saurus  (in  Latin,  15G6;  in  German,  15Gfi,  1570,  1578); 
Theodosius  Fabricius,  Loci  Communes  (Lond.  1593 ;  1G51, 
Latin ;  and  in  German,  1597) ;  Mains,  M.  L.  Thcnloijia 
Pura  (1709;  with  a  Supplement,  1710);  Beste,  J/.  Z.'s 
Glaithensk'hre  (HaUe,  1845).  In  this  general  class  may 
also  be  mentioned  And.  Musculus,  Schaiz  (1577),  and 
Salzmann,  Singularia  Lutheri  (1664,  fol.).  It  was  Lu- 
ther's work  to  restore  doctrine,  he  left  to  others  the  ar- 
rangement of  it.  He  made  histon,-,  others  might  write 
it.  Luther's  great  aim  constantly  was  to  give  promi- 
nence and  strength  to  those  doctrines  which  were  denied, 
ignored,  or  cdrrupted.  His  plan  of  warfare  was  that  of 
attack  rather  than  of  defence.  He  fought  many  battles, 
but  underwent  and  conducted  few  sieges.  "  The  ■wealth 
of  his  theological  knowledge  and  teaching  rests  essen- 
tially upon  his  direct  mig'nty  grasp,  intuition,  and  uni- 
fying view  of  truth.  As  the  result  of  this,  it  is  the 
peculiarity  of  his  mind  that  there  is  a  relative  throwing 
into  the  background  of  that  aspect  and  endowment  of 
inteUigence  wliich  are  directed  to  calm  reflection  upon 
the  diverse  individual  elements  and  parts  of  the  object, 
to  notional  formulating,  to  logical  or  dialectical  syste- 
matizing" (Kiistlin,  The  Theology  of  Luther  [1863]). 
The  grand  impulse  of  his  life  was  to  testify  to  the  truth ; 
so  to  impart  tlie  knowledge  in  which  his  own  soid  had 
found  healing  and  salvation  that  it  might  be  to  others 
health  and  life. 

XIII.  Polemics  and  Irenics. — Inflexilile  in  his  opposi- 
tion to  Rome,  he  yet  showed  himself  solicitous  to  pre- 
serve peace  while  peace  was  possible.  Very  gradually 
and  very  cautiously  he  declared  himself  for  the  right  of 
armed  resistance,  when,  in  the  conscientious  judgment 
of  men  learned  in  the  law,  the  nature  of  the  violation 
of  rights  is  such  as  to  demand  war  as  the  sole  possible 
mode  of  self-defence. 

1.  The  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper  grew  to  a  sub- 
ject of  extended  conflict,  and  of  far-reaching  doctrinal 
and  practical  power  in  Luther's  life  and  in  the  Reforma- 
tion. It  became,  indeed,  a  touchstone.  The  lav>-s  of 
interpretation  which  determined  the  doctrine  of  the 
Sup]ier  cither  way,  conditioned  more  or  less  the  entire 
distinctive  cliaracteristics  of  both  tendencies  in  the  Ref- 
ormation. While  he  ^vas  engaged  in  the  controversy 
with  Carlstadt,  he  heard.  Nov.  12,  1524,  that  Zwingle, 
and  Jan.  13,  1525,  that  (Ecolampadius  held  the  same 
views — "  the  poison  widely  creeping."  There  ^vere,  in- 
deed, three  mutually  contradictory  processes  of  interpre- 
tation ;  each  of  the  three  overthrew  the  other  two,  and 


LUTHER 


571 


LUTHER 


was  overthrown  by  them ;  but  as  they  concurred  in  the 
one  result,  the  denial  of  the  true  presence,  Luther  regard- 
ed them  from  the  beginning  as  essentially  one  view. 

2.  Luther^s  course  in  the  sacramental  controvei'sies  ex- 
ercised an  immense  influence  on  the  internal  and  exter- 
nal history  of  the  Keformation,  and  on  nothing  in  his 
history  has  Protestant  sentiment  been  so  completely  and 
so  passionately  divided.  In  his  sermon  on  the  venera- 
ble sacrament  (1519),  in  which  he  for  the  first  time  pre- 
sented with  comparative  fulness  the  evangelical  view 
of  the  Lord's  Supper,  he  still  retained  the  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation.  His  own  doctrine  of  the  true  pres- 
ence of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  without  a  change 
in  the  elements  ('"true  bread  and  wine  remains")  he 
first  brought  clearly  forth  in  his  work  on  the  adoration 
of  the  holy  sacrament  (1523),  addressed  to  the  Bohe- 
mian Brethren,  who  had  directed  their  inquiries  to  him. 
They  claimed  that  they  held  an  objective  gift  of  God 
in  the  sacrament ;  and,  although  their  doctrine  has  been 
asserted  by  some  to  be  that  of  a  purely  spiritual  pres- 
ence, they  gave  it  such  an  approximation  to  the  doc- 
trine maintained  by  Luther  that  he  was  entirely  satis- 
tied  with  their  statement.  He  discussed  the  question 
further  in  a  letter  to  the  preacher  at  Strasburg  (1525), 
and  in  a  preface  to  the  Suabian  Syngramma  (1526), 
with  which  he  declared  himself  in  harmony.  He  fought 
earnestly  againjt  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper  pro- 
posed by  Carlstadt  and  Zwingle,  which  had  the  common 
feature  that  it  regarded  the  Lord's  Supper  not  so  much 
a  divine  institution  as  a  movement  of  man  towards  God. 
Over  against  their  views  Luther  designates  the  forgive- 
ness of  sins  as  the  special,  distinctive  grace  of  this  sac- 
rament, as  in  that  forgiveness  Christ  has  laid  the  efficacy 
of  his  passion.  That  bread  remains  bread,  and  is  j-et, 
in  the  sacramental  complex,  the  body  of  Christ,  involves 
to  faith  no  contradiction.  He  defended  his  views  in  the 
Ser)non  of  the  Sacrament  of  the  Body  and  Blood  of 
Christ  (1526) ;  that  the  Words  "  This  is  m>j  Body''  still 
stand  fast  (1527) ;  and  in  Confession  touching  the  Supper 
(1529).  The  colloquy  at  Marburg  (1529)  only  in  part 
removed  his  suspicions  of  Zwingle :  "  You  have  another 
spirit  than  we."  The  Schwabach  Articles  gave  rtaew- 
ed  expression  to  the  doctrine  of  the  true  presence,  even 
stronger  than  that  in  the  articles  which  were  drawn  up 
at  Marburg  to  express  the  consent  and  dissent  of  the 
two  parties.  A  more  hopeful  turn  of  mind  was  called 
forth  by  the  visit  of  Bucer  to  Coburg  in  1530.  As  a  re- 
sult of  this  visit,  Luther,  in  letters  to  Albert  of  Prussia 
and  to  the  people  of  Frankfort,  expressed  himself  more 
gently  towards  Zwingle.  The  Wittenberg  Concord  of 
1536  resulted  from  this  new  movement.  This  Concord 
led  to  a  temporary  friendly  recognition  of  the  Swiss, 
and  a  correspondence  with  them ;  but  all  the  old  dis- 
trust showed  itself  again  in  the  Short  Confession  touch- 
ing the  Holy  Saciximent  (154-1).  Luther  had  set  himself 
with  unshakable  decision  against  every  league  of  the 
Evangelical  (Lutheran)  States  with  the  Swiss.  He  had 
not  been  able,  however,  to  deter  the  landgrave  Philip 
from  forming  a  league  with  them.  In  the  conflict  with 
Zwingle  there  had  been  a  special  development  of  Lu- 
ther's Christological  views,  and  an  expansion  and  dis- 
tinctiveness imparted  to  his  entire  theological  thinking. 

3.  The  controversies  which  most  deeply  distressed 
Luther  were  those  which  took  place  within  the  Evan- 
gelical Church  itself.  The  Osiandrian  controversy  in 
NiiremljLTg,  1533,  in  regard  to  the  general  form  of  public 
absolution,  to  which  Andrew  Osiandcr  (q.  v.),  who  was 
constitutionally  self-opinionated,  olijccted  on  the  ground 
that  many  were  unprepared  for  absolution,  was  decided 
by  LutluT  with  that  thorough  moderation  which  never 
fiiiled  him  when  he  believed  that  principle  was  not  com- 
promised. He  thought  the  form  unobjectionable,  but 
advised  that  if  Osiander  felt  scruples  he  should  be  al- 
lowed to  omit  it,  without  censuring  those  who  used  it, 
or  being  censured  by  them.  He  quenched  the  Antino- 
mistic  controversy  excited  in  Wittenberg  in  1537  by 
John  Agricola  (q.  v.),  who  had  been  one  of  his  dearest 


friends.  Agricola  completely  retracted  his  erroneous 
views,  but  the  tenderness  of  the  old  confidence  and  love 
was  never  restored. 

XIV.  Literary  Activity. — The  activity  of  Luther  in 
the  period  which  followed  his  return  to  Wittenberg  was 
largely  directed  to  the  internal  shaping  of  the  Evangel- 
ical (Lutheran)  Church.  Among  its  richest  results  may 
be  mentioned,  1.  his  German  hymns  in  the  first  Ger- 
man Hymn-book  (1524),  and  the  Wittenberg  Hymn- 
book  (1529).  He  stands  forth  in  these  as  the  father 
and  founder  of  (ierman  hymnology  and  Church  music. 
See  Hyjixology.  He  was  the  author  of  thirtj'-six 
hymns,  and  of  several  original  melodies  adapted  to  them. 
2.  His  Order  of  Dicine  Service  and  of  the  Congregation 
(Wittenberg,  1523);  his  Foi-mula  Messm  et  Communio- 
nis  (1524);  German  Mass  and  Order  of  Divine  Service 
(1526)  (all  of  these  are  given  in  Sunday  Services  of  the 
Churches  of  the  Reformation,  by  C.  P.  KLranth),  with 
which  he  connected  his  IJitual  of  Baptism  and  Marriage, 
and  a  form  of  Confession.  The  great  visitation  in  the 
states  of  the  elector  of  Saxony  (1527-1529)  led  to  Me- 
lancthon's  writing  the  Book  of  Visitation.  This  was 
revised  by  Luther,  and  issued  anew  in  1538. 

Among  Luther's  greatest  labors  are  to  be  mentioned 
the  two  Catechisms  (1529),  and  his  Translation  of  the 
Bible.  This  he  commenced  with  the  New  Testament 
in  1522;  the  Old  was  sent  out  in  parts,  commencing  in 
1525,  and  was  issued  complete  in  1534.  The  final  re- 
vision was  made  in  1541,  and  the  latest  edition  of  this 
final  revision,  which  Luther  himself  helped  to  correct, 
typographically,  a])peared  in  1545.  The  Bible  of  Lu- 
ther is  an  acknowledged  masterpiece — one  of  the  won- 
ders of  the  intellectual  world.-  "The  modern  German 
attained  its  full  development  and  perfect  finish  in  Lu- 
ther's version.  By  means  of  that  book  it  obtained  a 
currency  which  nothing  else  could  have  given  it.  It 
became  fixed ;  it  became  universal ;  it  became  the  or- 
gan of  a  literature  which,  more  than  any  other  since 
the  Greek,  has  been  a  literature  of  ideas.  It  became 
the  vehicle  of  modern  philosophy,  the  cradle  of  those 
thoughts  which  at  the  moment  act  most  intensely  on 
the  human  mind"  (Hedge).  "  He  created  the  German 
language,"  says  Heine. 

XV.  Activity  in  Church  Constitution. — He  took  an  ac- 
tive interest  in  the  constitution  of  the  Consistories :  Be- 
denhen  —  Considerations  of  the  Theologians  touching 
Consistories  (1538).  An  important  part  was  borne  by 
Luther  in  the  preparation  of  the  confessional  writings 
of  the  renewed  Church.  He  was,  in  conjunction  with 
other  divines,  the  author  of  the  Marburg  Articles  and 
Schwabach  Articles  (1529),  which  furnished  the  basis 
and,  to  a  large  extent,  the  material,  both  doctrinal  and 
verbal,  of  the  Augsburg  Confession  (1530),  during  the  di- 
rect preparation  and  presentation  of  which  Luther  was 
at  Coburg.  As  he  was  under  the  ban  of  the  empire,  to 
have  appeared  at  Augsburg  would  have  almost  certain- 
ly cost  him  his  life,  and  would  have  made  all  negotia- 
tion impossible,  as  it  would  have  been  regarded  as  an 
open  act  of  aggression  on  the  part  of  the  Protestant 
princes.  He  was  brought,  therefore,  to  the  nearest  i)oint 
at  which  he  could  lie  safe,  and  where  he  could  be  con- 
sulted. His  influence  at  Augsburg  was  no  less  real 
and  hardly  less  direct  than  if  he  had  been  there  in  per- 
son. The  great  hj-mn  "  Eine  feste  Burg"  is  generally 
supposed  to  have  been  written  at  this  time,  but  there 
are  strong  grounds  for  believing  that  it  appeared  in  1529. 
In  1537  he  prepared  the  Schmalcald  Articles,  to  be  laid 
before  the  council  which  had  been  summoned  to  con- 
vene at  Mantua.  In  aiding  in  giving  to  the  Church 
her  proper  external  relations,  Luther  exercised  his  influ- 
ence by  letters,  and  by  his  writings  in  connection  with 
the  Diet  of  Nuremberg  and  of  Piatisbon,  the  religious 
Peace  of  Nuremberg  (1532),  and  the  Interim  of  Katisbon 
(1536).  At  the  formation  of  the  Torgau  alliance  (1526) 
and  of  the  Schmalcald  League  (1530)  he  had  sent  his 
opinion  and  advice,  and.  with  his  counsel  to  his  elector, 
the  protestation  was  made  at  Spires  (1529). 


LUTHER 


572 


LUTHER 


XYl.  Memoriab 1.  A  monumental  bronze  statue 

was  erected  to  Luther's  memory  in  the  market-place  of 
AVittenberg,  1817.  Another  monument,  reared  by  the 
German  nation  at  Worms,  was  inaugurated  June  25, 18G8. 

2.  The  number  of  medals  struck  in  honor  of  Luther 
and  of  his  work  is  very  great  (Jiincker's  LiJ'e  of  Luther, 
illustrated  by  medals,  in  Latin,  1G99,  and  (ierman,  1707 ; 
Cyprian's  ll'daria  EcaM/elicai  [1719,  fol.]). 

o.  The  third  centennial  anniversary  of  the  death  of 
Luther  was  observed  Feb.  18, 1846,  throughout  all  Ger- 
many, with  Wittenberg  and  Eisleben  as  its  focal  points. 
Nor  was  the  celebration  limited  to  Germany.  Solemn 
memorial  services  were  held  in  France,  Holland,  Swe- 
den, Russia,  and  other  countries.  The  anniversary  was 
made  the  occasion  of  establishing  a  number  of  beneticent 
institutions.  Among  these  were  a  Luther-school  in  Wit- 
tenberg for  the  poor,  an  evangelical  Lutheran  Orphan- 
house  in  Warsawa,  and  the  Luther -establishment  in 
Leipzig,  Feb.  18, 184G,  the  object  of  which  was  to  make 
provision  for  descendants  of  Luther,  and  to  circulate  Lu- 
ther's writings,  especially  his  translation  of  the  Bible. 

4.  Poetry  and  A  i-t  have  devoted  many  of  their  noblest 
efforts  to  Luther  and  his  work.  But  neither  Bechstein's 
epic  ('•  Luther,"  Leipz.  1834),  nor  the  dramas  of  Werner 
("Martin  Luther,  or  the  Consecration  of  Power")  and 
Kiister,  nor  Trlimpelmann's  Luther  v.  Seine  Zeit  (Gotha, 
1869),  wliich  is  the  latest  attempt  to  dramatize  Luther's 
life,  have  taken  the  place  in  the  heart  of  the  people 
which  they  would  have  filled  had  they  been  wholly 
worthy  of  their  theme.  The  great  war  had  its  Achilles, 
but  it  waits  for  its  Homer.  The  most  ambitious  effort 
in  English  in  this  line  is  Robert  Montgomery's  Luther, 
or  the  Spirit  of  the  Refurmation  (3d  edit.  Lond.  1843). 

5.  Among  the  paintine/s  of  renown,  the  first  place  his- 
torically is  due  to  Luther's  portrait  by  Lucas  Cranach. 
It  is  now  in  the  possession  of  Winter,  in  Heidelberg. 
The  copies  and  engravings  of  it  have  been  multiplied 
by  millions.  Busts  or  portraits  of  Luther  are  found  in 
many  of  the  Protestant  (Lutheran)  churches  on  the  Con- 
tinent, and  in  some  in  America. 

XVn.  Literature. — Luther's  separate  nwi-ls  amount 
to  about  four  hundred.  Li  a  collected  shape  his  works 
have  appeared  in  the  following  editions:  1.  1539-1559, 
20  vols,  folio  (at  Wittenberg),  by  order  of  the  elector 
John  Frederick.  Seven  of  the  volumes  are  in  Latin 
(1545-1558),  and  one  (Breslau,  1563)  is  the  Index.  2. 
1555-1558, 12  vols,  folio  (Jena).  Four  are  Latin.  The 
Inilex  (1573  and  1592)  was  completed  by  Aurifaber  (Eis- 
leben, 1564-1565, 2  vols,  folio).  Text  more  trustworthy 
than  that  of  the  Wittenberg.  3. 1661-1664, 10  vols,  folio 
(Altenburg),  by  order  of  the  duke  Frederick  William ; 
edited  bj'  J.  Ch.  Sagitarus.  German  only.  A  supple- 
ment to  these  three  editions  was  published  in  1702,  by 
J.  G.  Seidler  (Halle,  1702).  4.  1729-1740,  23  vols,  folio, 
German  (Leipzig) ;  best  of  the  folio  editions.  5.  1740- 
1753,  24  vols.  4to,  German,  J.  G.  Walch  (Halle).  Pre- 
ferretl  to  the  others  because  of  its  fidness,  and  the  in- 
corporation of  important  documents;  objected  to  be- 
cause of  inaccuracies,  and  liberties  with  the  text.  6.  a. 
1826-1857,67  vols.  12mo,  German  (Erlangen) ;  edited  by 
John  G.  Plochmann  and  John  C.  Irmischer.  It  is  the 
most  critical  of  all  the  editions,  b.  The  Latin  series  of 
the  same  edition  is  not  yet  completed. 

Sc/rrfions  from  Luther's  works,  or  abridgments,  have 
been  edited  by  F.  W.  Lommler  (Gotha,  1816-17,  3  vols.), 
by  Vent  (Hamb.  1826-27, 10  vols.),  by  Plitzer  (Frankf. 
1837),  by  Otto  von  Gcrlach  (1840-1848,  24  vols.),  and  by 
Zimmermann  (1846-1850, 4  vols.  8vo).  For  the  German 
Christian  people,  by  Frobenius,  Schellbach,  and  others 
(1847-1855).  Political  writings,  by  Mundt  (Berl.  1844). 
Kirchen-PostiUe.  by  Francke  (Leipzig,  1844).  Manual 
Concordance  of  Luther's  writings,  edited  by  Lomler  and 
others  (Darmstadt,  1827-1831,  dvols.).  See  Bretschnei- 
der,  Luther  an  Uni<ere  Zeit  (Erfurt,  1817). 

Translations  Worn  Lutlier  into  English  arc  catalogued 
in  Lowndes's  Biblioe/rajiher's  Manual  (Bolin,  1860),  p. 
1415-1417. 


Luther's  Letters  have  been  edited,  1.  by  G.Th.  Strobel 
(1780-83)  and  by  De  Wette  (1825-28) ;  supplement  by 
Seidemaim  (1856).  2.  Correspondence  edited  by  Burck- 
hardt  (1866).  See  Yeesenmayer,  Literargeschichte  ("Lit- 
erary History  of  the  Collections  of  Luther's  Letters," 
Berlin,  1821). 

Tha'' Table-Talk'' (rwc/(re*«,  Aurifaber,1566;  Stang- 
wald,  1571, 1591)  has  been  critically  edited  by  Fcirste- 
mann  and  Bindseil  (1844-48).  The  most  complete  trans- 
lation into  English  is  by  Capt.  Henrj'  Bell  (Lond.  1652, 
folio;  2d  edit.  1791;  new  edit.  Burckhardt,  1840  [gar- 
bled] ;  transl.  by  Wm.  HazUtt,  London,  1848 ;  new  edit., 
with  additions,  London  [Bohn],  1857,-  Philad.  1868), 

The  writers  on  the  life  of  Luther  are  numerous  (Fa- 
bricii  CentifoUum  [Hamburg,  1728, 1730, 2  vols. ;  Ukert, 
1817];  'Ej.(i.\oge\,  Biblioth.  Biographica  Luth.  [Halle, 
1851],  give  the  literature),  namely,  Melancthon,  Uisto- 
ria  de  vita  et  Actis  Liitheri  (Wittenberg,  1546;  edited  by 
Augusti,  Breslau,  1817;  with  Preface  by  Neander,  Berl. 
1841;  transl.by  Zimmermann,  Gottingen,  1816;  in  Eng- 
lish, London,  1561,  1817);  Cruciger  (1553);  Mathesius, 
Geschichte  Luther'  s,m  Seventeen  Sermons  {^urn\icrg,\bGb, 
and  frequently  since  ;  edited,  with  observations  bv  Rust, 
Berl.  1841;  by  Schubert,  Stuttg.  1852);  Selnecker  (1675) ; 
Dresser  (1598);  Walch,  in  his  edition  oiLuthers  Werke, 
xxiv,  1-875;  Keil  (2d  ed.  Leipz.  1764,4  vols.);  SchriJckh 
(Leipzig,  1778) ;  Tischer  (Leipz.  1793  ;  ijew  edit.  1803) ; 
Ukert  (Gotha,  1817,  2  vols,  [rich  in  notices  of  litera- 
ture] ) ;  Spieker,  Geschichte  Luther's  und  der  liefiirmation 
(Berlin,  1818, 1  vol.) ;  Stang,  Leben  u.  Wirken\l83d-37  ; 
after  J.  Mathesius,  Niirnb.  1833) ;  G.  Pfizer  (Stuttg.  1836) ; 
Ledderhose  (1836) ;  Meurer,  Luthei-'s Leben,  ans  den  Qtiel- 
len,  erzahlt  (Dresden,  1843-1846  [transl. N.Y.  1848],  1852 ; 
3dedit.l870;  abridged,  1850, 1861, 1869);  F.W.Genthe, 
Leben  u.  We?-ke  (Eisleb.  1841-45) ;  Jlirgens,  First  Divis. 
3  vols. — reaches  only  to  1517  (Leipz.  1846-47);  Weyd- 
mann  (1850),  H.  Gelzer,  Historical  Sketches,  icith  picto- 
rial illustrations  by  G.  Kcinig  (Hamb.  1851 ;  transl.,  with 
an  Introduction  and  view  of  the  Reformation  in  Eng- 
land by  Croh',  1853, 1858 ;  3d  ed,  Bohn,  18G0 ;  reprinted, 
Philadelphia,  with  Introduction  by  T,  Stork,  1854);  J,  A. 
Jander,  Luther's  Leben  (Leipzig,  1853);  K,  Zimmermann 
(Darmstadt,  1855) ;  G,  A.  Hoff,  Fze  de  Luth.  (Paris,  1860)  ; 
H.W.J.  'Yh.i&TSc\\,Luther,Gustav  Adolph,  iind Maximil- 
ian I  (Nordl.  1869) ;  Jiikel,  Dr.  M.  L.  Gesch.  seines  Le- 
bens  und  seiner  Zeit  (1870);  Schultz  {'E.^.Y.').  Luther's 
Leben  u.  Wirken  (Berl.  1870) ;  Lang,  M.  L.  (1870).  The 
biographical  dictionaries  and  the  encyclopiedias  all  have 
articles  on  Luther.  Among  the  former  may  be  mentioned 
Baj'le,  among  the  latter  the  Britannica  (Bunsen)  and 
Herzog  (by  Kcistlin).  Many  of  the  most  important  works 
which  treat  of  Luther's  life,  as,  for  example,  Sleidan,  Scul- 
tetus,  SeckendorfjTenzel,  Spalatiue,  IMj-conins,  among  the 
older  writers,  and  Marheineke,  Ranke,  D'Aubignc,  Wad- 
dington,  among  recent  ones,  present  it  in  its  connections 
with  the  history  of  the  Rei'ormation  (q.  v,). 

The  most  noticeable  lives  of  Lutlier  from  Roman 
Catholic  hands  are  by  Cochheus  (1549 ;  tr.  into  German 
by  Hueber,  1582),  Ulenberg  (1622;  trans,  into  German, 
Mainz,  1836),  Michelet  (1833-35,  trans,  by  Lawson,  1836 ; 
by  G.  H.  Smith  and  by  Hazlitt,  1846),  a"nd  Audin  (Par. 
1838, 1850;  transl.  Philad.  1841;  by  Trumbull,  London, 
1854). 

The  best  known  by  English  hands  are  by  Bower 
(1813),  Riddle  (1837),  and  John  Scott  (London,  1832; 
New  York,  Harpers,  1833).  The  Schunbei-g-Cotta  Fam- 
ily (1864)  is  the  best  picture  of  Luther  from  an  English 
pen ;  little  more  than  the  frame  is  fiction. 

From  the  hands  of  American  authors  we  have  lives 
by  Sears  (1850),Weiser  (1848, 1866),  Loy  (tr.  of  Frick, 
2d  edit.  1869),  J.  G.  Morris  {Quaint  Sayings  and  Doings 
concei-ning  Luther,  1859),  and  A.  Carlos  Martyn  (1866). 

The  third  centennial  of  Luther's  death,  Feb.  18,  1846, 
called  forth  an  immense  number  of  writings:  Ortmann, 
Pasig,  Kothe,  Meurer,  Petermann,  Heyl,  John,  and 
Loschke.  Petermann  and  others  published  histories 
of  Luther's  last  days,  and  of  his  death  and  burial.    There 


LUTHERAN 


573 


LUTHERAN 


appeared  at  this  time  the  account  of  Luther's  last  hours 
by  two  eye-witnesses,  Justus  Jonas  and  Ccx-hus  of  Mans- 
feld;  Luther's  sermons,  hitherto  unprinted,  edited  by 
Hok  (from  the  MSS.  of  the  Wolfenblittel  Library) ;  se- 
lections from  Luther's  German  letters,  by  Dciring;  and 
Luther's  hymns,  by  Kurtz,  Wackernagel,  and  Crusius. 
Among  the  best  books  called  forth  is  tlie  prize  work  of 
Hopf — his  critique  ( Wiirdiguny)  of  Luther's  translation 
of  the  Bible,  with  reference  to  the  older  and  the  more 
recent  translations  (1847). 

On  Luther's  theology,  see  Julius  Kostlin,  Z-.'s  Theolo- 
r/ie.  '■  Luther's  Theology,  in  its  historical  unfolding  and 
in  its  internal  connection"  (Stuttgart,  1863) ;  Z.'s  T/ie- 
vloffie,  ••  Luther's  Theology,  with  special  reference  to  his 
doctrine  of  Atonement  and  Redemption"  (Harnack, 
18G2-7)  ;  Dorner,  Gesck.  der  Protest.  Theolog.  (MUnchen, 
1867;  trans,  by  Kobson  and  Sophia  Taylor,  Edinb.  1871, 
2  vols);  Plitt,  Einleitung  in  die  Aiigustana  (Erlangen, 
1868)  ;  Chr.  Weisse,  Luther's  Christolor/ie  (1855) ;  Lu- 
ther's Pliilosophie  von  Theophilos  (1  Theil,  die  Logik, 
Hanover,  1S70). 

On  Luther's  German  style,  see  Dietz,  Worterbuch  zu 
Dr.  M.  L.'s  Deutschen  Schriften  (Leipsic,  1868)  ;  Opitz, 
Die  Sprache  L.  (HaUe,  1869). 

On  the  character  and  merits  of  Luther,  Ackermann  L. 
Seinein  Vollen  Werth  und  Wesen  nach,  mts  seinen  Schrift- 
en dargesteUt  (1  Heft,  "  Luther  im  Kampf,"  Jena,  1871). 
For  other  literature,  see  Reformation.     (C.  P.  K.) 

Lutheran  Church,  Lutheranism,  Lutherans. 
I.  The  iKiine  '•  Lutherans,"  as  a  designation  of  all  those 
who  were  in  sympathy  with  Luther's  views,  was,  at  the 
opening  of  the  Reformation,  first  applied  to  them  bj' 
Eck  (q.  V.)  and  pope  Hadrian  VI,  and  was  meant  as  a 
term  of  depreciation,  and  at  first  and  for  a  considerable 
time  designated  the  entire  body  of  those  who  opposed 
the  corruptions  of  Rome.  The  official  and  proper  titles 
of  the  particular  churches  on  which  the  name  Lutheran 
has  finally  been  fixed  are  "  Protestant"  (q.  v.),  "  Evan- 
gelical" (q.  v.),  and  "Adherents  of  the  Augsburg  Con- 
fession." The  Protestant  Evangelical  Church  of  the 
Augsburg  Confession  has  not,  as  a  whole,  to  this  hour, 
by  any  official  act,  received  or  acknowledged  the  title 
'•  Lutheran,"  but  has  tolerated  it  because  of  the  histori- 
cal necessities  of  the  usage.  Like  the  name  "  Chris- 
tian" itself,  invented  by  enemies,  it  has  been  borne  un- 
til it  has  become  a  name  of  honor.  It  became  more 
and  more  the  received  term  for  the  Protestant  Evangel- 
ical Church  in  consequence  of  the  struggles  of  that 
Church  with  the  Zwinglian  and  Calvinistic-Reforraed 
without,  and  the  Philippists  within.  It  marked  Lu- 
theranism in  antithesis  to  Calvinism,  and  the  thorough- 
going adherence  to  the  faith  of  Luther,  over  against  the 
changes  furtively  introduced  and  extended  under  the 
jilea,  true  or  false,  of  the  authority  of  Melancthou  (q.  v. ; 
also  PiuLippiSTs). 

The  Lutheran  Church  is  the  ecclesiastical  communion 
which  adheres  to  the  rule  and  articles  of  faith  restored 
in  the  Reformation,  of  which  Luther  was  the  chief  in- 
strument. The  acceptance  of  this  rule  ((iod's  Word) 
and  the  confession  of  this  faith  are  set  forth  in  the 
Augsburg  Confession  of  1530,  which  is  the  common  con- 
ftjsion  of  the  entire  Lutheran  Church.  The  major  part 
of  the  Lutheran  Church  formally  and  in  terms  acknowl- 
edges, and  the  rest  of  it,  almost  without  exception,  vir- 
tually acknowledges  the  Apology  of  the  Augsburg  Con- 
fession of  1530,  the  Schmalcald  Articles  of  1537,  the  two 
Catechisms  of  Luther  of  1529,  and  the  Formula  of  Con- 
cord of  1579,  as  accordant  with  the  rule  of  faith  and 
with  the  Augsburg  Confession.  These  confessions,  to- 
gether with  the  oecumenical  creeds,  form  the  Book  of 
Concord  of  1580,  and  are  often  styled  the  Symbolical  Boohs 
of  the  Lutheran  Church.  The  system  of  faith  and  life 
involved  in  the  Church's  Confession  is  Lutheranism,  the 
Church  which  officially  receives  it  is  the  Lutheran 
Church,  and  the  members  of  that  Church  are  Lutherans. 
The  faith  of  the  Lutheran  Church  is  thus  summarily 
presented  by  Dr.  Chas.  P.  Krauth  {Conservative  Refor- 


mation, p.  127)  :  "We  are  justified  by  God,  not  through 
any  merits  of  our  own,  but  by  his  tender  mercy,  through 
faith  in  his  Son.  The  depravity  of  man  is  total  in  its 
extent,  and  his  will  has  no  positive  ability  in  the  work 
of  salvation,  but  has  the  negative  ability  (under  the  or- 
dinarj'  means  of  grace)  of  ceasing  its  resistance.  Jesus 
Christ  offered  a  proper,  vicarious,  propitiatory  sacrifice. 
Faith  in  Christ  presupposes  a  true  penitence.  The  re- 
newed man  co-works  with  the  Spirit  of  God.  Sanctifi- 
cation  is  progressive,  and  never  reaches  absolute  perfec- 
tion in  this  life.  The  Holy  Spirit  works  through  the 
word  and  sacraments,  which  only  in  the  propen  sense 
are  means  of  grace.  Both  the  Word  and  the  Sacraments 
bring  a  positive  grace,  which  is  offered  to  all  who  receive 
them  outwardly,  and  which  is  actually  imparted  to  all 
who  in  faith  embrace  it."  The  chief  peculiarities  of 
Lutheran  doctrine,  which  have  to  any  considerable  de- 
gree become  subjects  of  controversy  outside  of  the  body 
itself,  relate  to  (1.)  Original  Sin,  (2.)  the  Person  of  Christ, 
(3)  Baptism,  and  (4)  the  Lord's  Supper.  These  will  be 
found  specially  treated  imder  those  heads.  Luther's 
own  views  on  the  last  point  will  be  detailed  under  the 
art.  Transubstantiation.  For  a  more  complete  view 
of  the  doctrines  of  Lutheranism,  see  ICrauth,  Co7iw?7'o?n'e 
Reformation  (Phila.  1871),  and  Prof.  Jacobs  in  the  Mer- 
cersburg  /^ef<«<>,  Jan.  1872,  p.  77  sq. ;  ZocXi^QV,  Augsbur- 
gische  Confession  (1870). 

II.  Origin  and  Extent. — The  rupture  with  the  dominant 
part  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  the  formation  of  the  new 
communion,  was  made  inevitable  bv  the  Diet  at  Spires  in 
1529,  at  which  the  solemn  protestation  of  the  evangelical 
princes  was  presented,  in  opposition  to  the  imperial  recess 
(decree)  in  its  bearing  on  the  great  religious  interests 
of  the  time.  This  event  gave  to  the  Lutheran  Church 
the  title  Protestant  (q.  v.),  by  which  it  is  almost  ex- 
clusively known  in  parts  of  Europe.  The  rupture  was 
completed  by  the  events  connected  with  the  presenta- 
tion of  the  Augsburg  Confession  in  1530.  The  funda- 
mental principle  of  the  Lutheran  Church  prevented  its 
formation  into  a  new,  concentrated,  and  united  whole, 
like  that  ^vhich  had  grown  to  such  enormous  proportions 
and  baleful  power  in  the  Church  of  the  A\'est.  Nor 
was  it  Luther's  object  to  form  an  independent  Church. 
He  hesitated  as  much  in  the  establishment  of  an  inde- 
pendent organization  as  do  the  leaders  of  the  Old  Cath- 
olic movement  in  our  day  (1872).  Luther's  single  aim, 
like  Dollinger's  to-day,  was  the  reformation  and  revival 
of  Christianity,  and  the  restoration  of  the  whole  Church, 
in  its  universal  form,  to  primitive  and  scriptural  purity. 
Denominationalism  he  knew  not.  His  conception  of 
the  Church  comprehended  Catholic  Christianity.  In 
spite  of  himself,  however,  his  peculiar  views,  which  for 
convenience  sake  we  will  now  denominate  "  Lutheran- 
ism," spread  rapidly,  especially  after  the  Diet  of  Worms 
(1521),  and  though  as  late  as  1522  Luther  himself  wrote, 
"  I  beseech  you,  above  all  things,  not  to  use  my  name ; 
not  to  call  yourselves  Lutherans,  but  Christians"  (  Works, 
xviii,  293,  in  the  6th  Leips.  ed. ;  comp.  also  Gelzer,  Life 
of  Luther,  p.  288,  291),  national  churches  sprang  up  in 
every  country  where  his  followers  constituted  the  ma- 
jority. These  state  churches  were  all  independent  of 
each  other,  and  were  based  much  upon  the  same  funda- 
mental principles  of  polity,  allowing,  however,  of  great 
variety  in  the  forms  of  application.  Instead  of  the 
bishop  of  Rome,  the  princes  of  the  different  countries 
now  assumed  the  rights  of  bishops,  and  the  direct  rule 
of  the  Church  was  conducted  by  the  Consistoriis  (q.  v.). 
John  the  Constant,  elector  of  Saxony,  followed  in  the 
steps  of  his  brother  and  predecessor,  Frederick  the  Wise, 
in  devotion  to  the  work  of  Luther.  The  landgrave 
Philip  of  Hesse  also  became  an  adherent.  In  Prussia 
the  Lutheran  doctrine  was  introduced  in  1523  by  George 
of  Polentz,  bishop  of  Samland.  Thus,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  year  1525,  the  three  princes  of  Saxony,  Hesse, 
and  Prussia  were  its  defenders.  The  Reformed  doctrine 
found  an  especially  ready  entrance  in  the  free  impe- 
rial cities,  where  the  voice  of  the  pecqile  was  a  power. 


LUTHERAN 


574 


LUTHERAN 


In  Wiirteniberg  it  was  introduced  under  duke  Ulrich  in 
1534;  in  the'  bishopries  of  ;\Ia,<;dolnirg  and  Halberstadt 
in  1541;  in  Brunswick  about  1545.  The  views  which 
Luther  had  expressed  at  an  early  period  in  regard  to  a 
congregational  constitution  were  thrown  into  the  back- 
ground by  the  disturbances  of  the  Anabaptists  and  the 
insurrections  of  the  peasants.  The  leagues  of  the  evan- 
gelical princes  were  one  of  the  earliest  forms  in  which 
there  was  an  expression  of  the  unity  of  the  different 
parts  of  the  Lutheran  Church.  The  conventions  of  the 
theologians  for  the  adjustment  of  doctrinal  controver- 
sies tended  to  the  same  end.  In  the  political  relations 
of  the  Church  the  unity  found  expression  in  the  "  Cor- 
pus Evangelicorum"  (q.  v.)  at  the  Diets. 

The  rapid,  and,  for  a  time,  resistless  growth  of  the  Lu- 
theran Church  received  its  first  check  in  the  "ecclesiasti- 
cal reservations"  of  the  religious  peace  of  Augsburg.  By 
the  terms  of  this  peace  the  transition  of  an  ecclesiastical 
prince  was  attended  by  a  loss  of  his  secular  power.  The 
miscarriage  of  the  attempt  at  reformation  by  Gebhard 
Truchsess  in  the  archbishopric  of  Cologne  in  1583  was  a 
serious  disaster  to  the  Lutheran  Church.  The  larger 
part  of  Germany  was  inclined  to  the  Lutheran  faith. 
The  apostasy  of  several  of  the  princes,  as,  for  example, 
Pfalz-Neuburg,  on  political  grounds,  and  the  influence 
of  the  counter  reformation  conducted  by  the  Jesuits  in 
Bavaria  and  Austria,  preserved  a  part  of  Germany  for 
the  pope;  but  the  peace  of  Westphalia  finally  fixed  the 
bounds  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  Europe,  and  they  re- 
main, very  much  as  they  then  were,  to  the  present  day. 
The  transition  of  the  elector  of  Saxony,  of  the  duke  of 
Brunswick,  and  of  other  princes  to  the  Church  of  Rome, 
exercised  no  very  marked  influence  upon  their  people. 
A  large  part  of  the  higher  nobility,  whicli  in  the  earlier 
movements  of  the  Reformation  had  manifested,  almost 
without  excci)tion,  a  drawing  towards  it,  gradually  lapsed 
again  into  Romanism.  (On  these  perversions,  and  other 
losses  to  the  Lutheran  Church,  see  Lobell's  Hist.  Briefe ; 
Ranke,  Deutsche  Geschichte,  vol.  vii  [1868].)  At  an  ear- 
lier period  than  that  of  these  changes,  the  Philippistic 
and  Reformed  churches  of  the  Palatinate,  and  in  Hesse, 
in  Anhalt,  and  on  the  Lower  Rhine,  in  East  Friesland 
and  Bremen,  Lippe,  Nassau,  and  Tecklenburg,  had  sun- 
dered themselves  from  the  Lutheran  Church.  In  the 
present  century  these  churches  have  come  together  ua 
the  "  Union."  Beyond  the  bounds  of  Germany  the  Lu- 
theran Church  was  firmly  established  in  Sweden,  Nor- 
way, and  Denmark,  and  in  the  German  Baltic  provinces 
of  Russia.  In  Poland  it  was  suppressed  (comp.  Krasin- 
ski.  Hist,  of  the  Re/,  in  Poland).  In  the  United  States 
of  America  the  Lutheran  Church  has  won  a  new  terri- 
tory. (See  below,  Lutherans  in  America.)  In  Hun- 
gary and  Transylvania  the  German  (Saxon)  nationality 
accepted  the  Lutheran  confession.  The  Magyars  be- 
came Reformed.  In  Sweden,  Olaf  and  Lorenz  Peterson, 
pupils  of  Luther,  preached  the  purified  faith.  Gustavus 
Vasa.  king  of  Sweden,  greatly  promoted  the  interests  of 
the  Lutheran  Church;  and  at  the  Diet  of  Westeras,  in 
1544,  tlie  last  remnants  of  the  papal  system  were  re- 
moved. In  Denmark,  as  early  as  1527,  Christian  II  had 
favored  the  Reformation.  Frederick  I  was  also'  a  de- 
cided Lutheran.  Christian  HI  called  in  Bugenhagen 
to  prepare  and  introduce  a  Church  discipline  and  rit- 
ual. Riga  and  Courlaiid  entered  into  the  League  of 
Schmalcald  in  15.')8.  Apart  from  the  vast  Lutheran 
element  within  the  "Union"  in  Prussia,  the  Lutheran 
Church  is  the  predominant  Church  in  the  minor  Ger- 
man lands :  Baden.  Brunswick,  Mecklenburg,  Oldenburg, 
the  principality  of  Reuss  in  Hesse,  the  Saxon  lands, 
Schwarzburg,  and  Wiirtemburg;  also  in  Denmark,  Nor- 
way, and  Sweden  ;  in  Russia,  in  the  dejiartments  of  Li- 
vonia, Esthland,  St.  Petersburg,  Finland,  and  Courland. 
Lutherans  constitute  a  large  body  in  Hungary,  France, 
the  British  empire,  and  North  America.  They  are,  in 
fact,  found  the  world  over.  There  are  not  less,  probably, 
than  fort  v  millions  of  them  altogether.  (Comp.  Krauth, 
p.  124, 125.) 


HI.  Organization  and  Constitution. — The  first  fresh 
impulses  of  the  evangelical  life  of  faith  was  not  allowed 
to  shape  a  complete  congregational  life  in  entire  accord- 
ance with  the  pure  principles  which  had  been  restored. 
Although  the  early  Lutheran  princes  were,  as  a  bodv, 
men  of  devoted  piety,  yet  the  interests  of  the  Cluirch 
in  the  particular  state  territories  were  subjected  to  po- 
litical policy.  The  tendencies  of  the  Romish  ideas, 
which  in  every  department  had  struck  their  roots  too 
deeply  into  European  life  to  be  easily  eradicated,  put 
forth  new  vigor  in  the  reactionary  after-time.  The 
Lutheran  Church  -was  repressed  in  one  part  of  her  de- 
velopment, and  stimulated  to  the  highest  degree  by  her 
liberty  in  another,  and  by  the  doctrinal  necessities 
which  taxed  all  her  resources.  The  result  was  that  she 
matured  abnormally — the  strength  of  her  polity  bore  no 
proportion  to  the  perfection  of  her  doctrinal  system. 
In  the  organization  of  the  Church  an  important  part 
was  borne  by  the  Church  visitation  in  Saxony  in  1529, 
and  resulted  in  assigning  the  oversight  of  the  churches 
and  schools  to  superintendents  (q.  v.).  A  Saxon  Church 
Order  of  Discipline  and  Worship  was  prepared,  which 
became,  to  a  very  large  extent,  the  model  in  the  organ- 
ization of  the  state  churches  throughout  Germany.  The 
Lutheran  Church  held  herself  in  principle  remote  from 
the  two  extremes  of  hierarchy,  which  absorbed  the  State 
into  the  Church,  and  Ca?saropapacy,  which  absorbed  the 
Church  into  the  State.  The  princes  and  magistrates, 
in  the  time  of  the  Church's  need,  took  the  position  of 
provisional  bishops.  They  \vere  the  supreme  oliicers  in 
the  Church,  its  highest  representatives.  In  the  execu- 
tion of  the  duties  thus  assumed  they  called  to  their  aid 
Consistories  (q.v.),  an  official  board  composed  of  clergy- 
men and  laymen.  A  condition  of  things  which  had 
been  justified  by  the  immediate  necessity  of  the  Church 
gradually  became  normal  in  the  "Episcopal  system." 
The  provisional  became  legalized  into  the  fixed,  and  the 
head  of  the  State  was  in  effect  the  chief  bishop  of  the 
Church.  Such  a  distinction  as  Rome  had  made  be- 
tween clergy  and  laity,  and  which  ignored  the  great 
New-Testament  doctrine  of  the  universal  priesthood  of 
believers,  was  no  longer  recognised.  The  ministry 
ceased  to  be  a  self-perpetuating,  independent  order,  and 
was  regarded  as  a  divine  office,  with  a  divine  vocation, 
given  by  Christ's  command,  through  the  Church.  A 
hierarchical  division  of  the  clergy,  as  of  divine  right, 
was  rejected  as  at  war  with  the  Christianity  of  the  New 
Testament  and  of  the  early  Church ;  but  the  propriety 
and  usefulness  of  grades  in  the  ministry  (bishops,  su- 
perintendents, provosts),  as  of  human  right  only,  was 
acknowledged,  and  they  are  retained  in  some  coun- 
tries. Thus,  in  Denmark,  in  the  verj^  infancy  of  Lu- 
theranism,  evangelical  bishops  took  the  place  of  the 
deposed  Roman  Catholic  prelates;  while  in  Sweden  the 
prelates  embracing  the  Reformed  doctrine  were  contin- 
ued in  office,  and  thus  secured  to  that  country  "  apostol- 
ical succession"  in  the  High-Church  sense.  Very  gen- 
erally the  rule  of  the  Church  is  by  consistories,  but  as 
these  depend  upon  the  instructions  of  the  congregations, 
the  ultimate  power  lies  with  the  latter.  See  Consis- 
tory ;  Synod ;  Church. 

IV.  Progress, — The  internal  history  of  the  Church  be- 
came largely  a  process  of  the  development  of  doctrine  (see 
l\m\Aiis,\\a(:^n^, Beitr.  z. Kirch.-politik);  and  in  this  prog- 
ress, naturally  enough,  opposition  was  encountered,  and 
gave  rise  to  controversies  with  parties  both  from  witliin 
and  without.  In  the  earliest  period  of  the  history  of  the 
Lutheran  Church,  her  chief  struggles  were  with  Popery, 
the  Anabaptists,  and  the  Sacramentarians.  These  con- 
troversies drew  the  boimdary-lines  of  her  own  territory, 
as  biblical  over  against  Rome,  historical  and  conserva- 
tive over  against  Anabapt  ism  and  the  more  radical  type 
of  Protestantism.  To  the  fixing  of  the  bounds  of  her 
territory  succeeded  a  long  series  of  efforts  to  bring  that 
territory  under  complete  and  harmonious  cultivation. 
To  be  consistent  in  general  over  against  systems  which, 
as  systems,  were  indefensible,  was  not  enough.     The 


LUTHERAN 


57^ 


LUTHERAN 


Lutheran  system  was  to  bring  all  its  own  parts  into 
working  harmony,  and  hence  the  various  dissensions 
and  ditiiculties  when  it  was  yet  in  ita  infancy.  The  most 
important  of  the  internal  controversies  which  arose 
during  this  effort  are  :  1.  The  Antinomistic,  from  1537  to 
1540,  on  the  relation  between  the  Gospel  and  the  law, 
the  use  of  the  law,  and  its  necessity.  See  Agricola, 
John.  2.  The  Osiaiidrian,  from  1549  to  1567,  on  redemp- 
tion, justification,  and  sanctification.  See  Osiaxcer, 
AxDUEW.  3.  The  Majoristic,  from  1551  to  1562 :  Are 
good  works  necessary  to  salvation  ?  and  in  what  sense  ? 
See  Major,  Geokge.  4.  The  Stancarulic,\bb'2:  Ac- 
cording to  what  nature  was  Christ's  redemptory  work 
WTOught  out — the  divine,  the  human,  or  both?  5.  The 
Synergistic,  from  1555  to  1670,  on  the  question  whether 
there  is  an  active  co-operation  on  the  part  of  man  be- 
fore and  on  his  conversion.  6.  The  Flacian,  1561 :  Is 
original  sin  substantial  or  accidental  V  See  Flacius  II- 
i-YRicus.  All  these  controversies  had  a  common  aim 
— they  wished  to  define  more  perfectly  the  fundamental 
doctrine  of  justification  by  faith,  to  show  what  it  pre- 
supposed and  what  it  involved,  to  exhibit  its  objective 
and  subjective  aspects.  All  doctrines  were  viewed  in 
these  controversies  in  their  relations  to  the  central  doc- 
trine, and  the  great  aim  was  to  adjust  them  to  it  (see 
Dorner,  Geschichte  der  Prof.  Theologie  (1867  ;  in  English 
dress,  Edinb.  1872,  2  vols.  8vo).  A  deeper  impression 
was  made  upon  the  life  of  the  people  by  the  contro- 
versies which  grew  out  of  the  interim  in  1548,  involv- 
ing the  mode  of  worshipping  God.  It  touched  matters 
which  appealed  to  the  senses  as  well  as  to  the  convic- 
tions of  the  worshippers.  Out  of  it  arose  theAdiaphoris- 
tic  controversy  (q.v.)  (1550-1555) :  Whether  the  Church 
could  permit  certain  usages,  in  themselves  indifferent, 
to  be  imposed  upon  her  by  force  or  civil  policy.  The 
vehement  opposition  of  the  Flacians  to  the  Philippists 
also  had  a  great  intluence  upon  the  shaping  of  the  Lu- 
theran Church.  Unfortunately,  however,  these  divi- 
sions among  the  Protestants  gave  the  Romanists  many 
advantages ;  they  tended  at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  (1566) 
to  change  the  puUtical  situation  greatly  in  favor  of  the 
Koman  Catholics,  and  protracted  the  strife  for  years 
(Rauke,  Deutsche  Geschichte,  vii,  63).  See  Interim. 
Against  Calvinism,  the  controversy  turned  especially 
upon  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper  and  the  asso- 
ciated doctrine  of  the  Person  of  Christ,  and  the  doctrine 
of  predestination.  It  involved  the  whole  essential  di- 
versity between  Lutheranism  and  Calvinism;  also  the 
Philippistic  tendency,  so  far  as  it  approximated  to  Cal- 
vinism in  some  features  {C}-ypto-Culeinism).  To  com- 
pose these  differences  and  close  up  these  questions  with- 
in the  Church  was  the  aim  of  the  Foi-mula  of  Concord, 
which,  after  various  ineffectual  efforts  in  the  same  gen- 
eral direction  at  the  Assembly  of  the  Electors  in  Frank- 
fort (1558),  at  the  Assembly  of  the  Princes  in  Naumburg 
(1561),  and  at  the  Altenburg  Colloquy  (1568),  was  tinal- 
ly  carried  to  a  successful  completion  at  Cloister  Bergen, 
near  Magdeburg,  in  1577.  See  Concord,  Formula  of. 
The  preparation  of  the  FormiUa  of  Concord  is  the  last 
act  in  the  series  of  events  which  gave  full  confessional 
shape  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Lutheran  Church. 

During  Luther's  lifetime  the  Lutheran  Church  had 
taken  a  firm  and  final  position  over  against  the  Roman 
Catholic.  The  Augsburg  Confession  was  the  rallying 
point  of  the  friends  of  the  revised  faith.  The  Apology 
detended  the  Confession  in  Melancthon's  incomparable 
manner;  the  Schmalcald  Articles  gave  forth  Luther's 
trumpet  note  of  a  battle  in  which  no  quarter  could  now 
be  given— a  battle  for  victory  or  death.  The  people 
had  their  Manual  in  the  Shorter  Catechism,  and  the 
pastors,  in  using  it,  had  the  Larger  Catechism,  the  best 
commentary  on  the  lesser.  Yet  these  immortal  docu- 
ments did  not  exhaust  the  development  of  the  faith. 
Even  in  the  individual  peculiarities  of  Luther  and  Me- 
lancthon  there  were  impulses  to  conflicting  tendencies. 
After  Luther's  death  the  Lutheran  Church  was  threat- 
ened with  a  schism,  which  might  have  been  followed  by 


the  complete  triumph  of  Rome  over  the  whole  reforma- 
tory work.  On  the  one  side  was  the  gentler,  unioiiistic 
tendency  of  Jlclancthon  and  his  party  (the  Philippists), 
yearning  for  union,  and  temporizing  sometimes  with  Cal- 
vinism, and  yet  more  frequently  with  Romanism.  On 
the  other  side  stood  the  stricter  party,  headed  by  Ams- 
dorf,  Flacius,  and  Wigand.  Over  against  the  Church 
of  Rome  on  the  one  side,  and  the  Reformed  Church 
on  the  other,  the  Lutheran  Church  insisted  earnestly  on 
the  doctrines  which  distinguished  and  separated  her 
from  both.  She  was  unwiUing  that  open  questions 
should  be  perpetuated,  and  desired  that  the  points  of 
controversy  shoidd  be  adjusted  and  closed.  Shall  the- 
ology be  simply  a  mode  of  thinking,  or  shall  it  be  a 
system  of  faith  ?  was  the  question  involved.  Shall 
it  be  a  ball  for  the  play  of  theologians,  or  a  world  for 
the  firm  footing  of  believers?  The  controversies  which 
now  arose  took  their  root  in  questions  which  involved 
the  relations  of  the  two  parties,  on  the  one  side  to  Ro- 
manism, on  the  other  to  Calvinism.  Toward  the  Church 
of  Rome  the  question  in  controversy  had  reference  to  the 
doctrines  of  redemption  and  justification.  The  intellect- 
ual centres  of  these  struggles  were  the  universities  (q.v.). 
Wittenberg  at  this  period  was  the  home  of  the  Melanc- 
thonian  theology.  Its  great  antagonist  in  the  interests 
of  the  conservative  Lutheranism  was  Jena,  which  for  va- 
rious causes — some  of  the  subordinate  ones,  no  doubt,  be- 
ing of  a  political  character — had  been  founded  in  1558 
by  the  older  Saxon  line.  It  was  the  citadel  of  conserv- 
ative Lutheranism  until  its  exponents  were  driven  from 
it  for  conscience  sake.  Their  refuge  proved  to  be  IMagde- 
burg.  This  period  reaches  its  culmination  in  the  prep- 
aration of  the  Fonnula  Concoi-diw,  in  which  the  Swa- 
bian  tendency,  whose  great  representatives  were  Bren- 
tius  and  Andreii,  obtained  official  recognition  (compare 
^chrsnA,  Geschichte  der  Abendmahlslehre).  The  ortho- 
doxy thus  fixed  was  dominant  from  this  time  to  the 
beginning  of  the  18th  century.  Its  elaborate  polemics 
were  built  up  on  almost  imfircgnable  doctrinal  author- 
ity. The  scholastic  acuteness  and  drj-ness  more  and 
more  stipplanted  the  freer  and  more  vital  faith  of  the 
Reformation.  The  religion  of  the  heart  was  too  much 
absorbed  into  the  elaborate  system  of  theology.  The 
temple  was  solid  and  grand,  but  the  hearthstones  of  the 
people  were  too  often  co'.d.  George  Calixtus  (1586- 
1656)  revived  in  Helmstadt  the  humanism  of  Melanc- 
thon.  His  school  became  involved  with  orthodoxy  in 
the  Syncretistic  controversy  (q.  v.).  It  sought,  in  the 
interests  of  Church  peace,  to  soften  the  asperities  of 
dogmatic  disputes  and  the  exclusiveness  of  the  doctrinal 
systems.  The  plan  on  which  it  proposed  to  accomplish 
this  result  was  to  distinguish  between  fundamentals  and 
non-fundamentals,  and  to  return  to  the  yet  largely  vague 
and  general  expressions  of  the  first  five  centuries,  which, 
while  they  regarded  a  pure  faith  as  necessary  to  salva- 
tion, endured,  without  deciding  the  conflicting  opinions 
on  various  points.  The  most  unsparing  and  one  of  the 
ablest  opponents  of  this  tendency  was  Abraham  Calo- 
vius  (q.  v.).  Spener  jiroduccd  a  revival  of  religious  feel- 
ing by  pietism.  This  active  Christianity  was  needed 
in  opposition  to  the  one-sided  scholasticism  which  had 
grown  up  in  the  Church.  So  far  it  revived  the  truer 
Lutheranism  of  the  first  vera.  But  it  soon  deviated  into 
an  outward  form  of  religious  life.  The  Biblical  theology 
of  its  representatives  degenerated  into  arbitrary  inter- 
pretations and  applications  of  Scripture.  Pietism  (q. 
v.),  in  various  shades,  made  good  its  footing  in  the 
Church.  It  wrought  in  its  better  forms  a  more  earnest 
spirit  in  theology.  Next  to  Spener,  as  a  representative 
of  the  best  type  of  pietism,  was  Aug.  Hermann  Francke 
(q.v.).  Its  most  distinguished  opponents  were  Joliann, 
Benedict  Carpzov  (q.  v.)  and  Valentine  Ernest  Loscher 
(q.  v.).  The  inflexible  narrowness  of  the  Church  life 
was  alleged  as  a  ground  of  separation  from  the  Church 
by  the  mystical  fellowships  which  attached  themselves 
to  J.  Bohme,  Gichtel.  and  Pippel,  and  by  the  Church 
of  the  Brethren.    By  these  movements,  and  by  Beugel 


LUTHERAN 


576 


LUTHERAN 


and  the  theosophy  of  Oetinger,  the  dominion  of  the 
meiliicvalism  of  the  seventeentli  century  was  broken. 
Under  the  infiuence  of  rationalism,  at  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  tlie  points  of  distinction  between 
the  Lutheran  and  the  Reformed  churches,  both  in 
Church  life  and  in  theology,  lost  more  and  more  their 
significance.  Efforts  at  miion,  which  were  vigorous 
without  being  in  any  high  sense  earnest,  were  made, 
especially  in  Westphalia  and  on  the  Rhine.  These  ef- 
forts resulted  in  very  little  until  after  the  Wars  of  Lib- 
eration. From  that  great  series  of  struggles  went  forth 
an  intense  religious  feeling  through  aU  Germany.  It 
was  felt  alike  in  both  the  Protestant  churches.  It 
stood  in  strong  opposition  to  the  shallow  spirit  of  ra- 
tionalism, but  was,  in  the  nature  of  the  case,  more  in- 
terested at  the  beginning  in  the  great  common  princi- 
ples of  the  religious  life  of  the  whole  Protestant  move- 
ment than  with  particular,  and  stiU  more  than  with  spe- 
cific distinctive  doctrines.  Prussia  now  took  steps  for 
a  "  union"  of  all  the  Protestants.  By  tlie  Lutheran  con- 
servatives this  new  movement  was  looked  upon  with 
distrust.  The  union,  they  held,  depended  for  its  moral 
power  upon  a  depreciation  in  part  of  the  confession. 
It  had  been  made  possible  by  rationalism;  but  its  per- 
plexity was  that,  if  it  remained  true  to  what  was  in 
so  large  a  part  its  original  source,  it  lost  its  power  on 
men  in  proportion  as  their  convictions  were  heightened 
and  intensified ;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  it  abandoned  the 
mild  laxity  of  rationalism,  it  at  once  helped  to  restore 
the  way  to  a  strict  confessionalism.  It  is  impossible 
for  men  to  be  intelligently  earnest,  either  as  Reformed 
or  Lutheran,  and  regard  the  differences  of  the  two 
churches  as  of  little  importance.  Claus  Harms,  in  his 
theses,  treated  the  union  as  a  rationalistic  volatilization 
of  the  verj-  substance  of  the  faith.  Among  the  people 
of  conservative  stamp  also,  the  changes  in  the  liturgy, 
the  hymn-books,  and  in  the  Church  usages  of  various 
kinds,  were  regarded  with  suspicion  and  dislike  as  an 
assaidt  upon  the  religion  of  the  fathers.  Under  these 
circumstances,  the  "  Old  Lutheran"  movement,  under  the 
leadership  of  Scheibel,  in  Breslau,  Huschke,  the  distin- 
iTuished  jurist,  and  StefFens,  the  natural  philosopher, 
separated  itself  from  connection  with  the  State  Church 
and  formed  an  independent  communion.  See  Old  Lu- 
THERAXisjr.  The  religious  life  of  the  Church  continued 
to  suflTer  from  the  evils  which  in  the  coiu-se  of  her  his- 
tory had  been  fixed  upon  German  Lutheran  Protest- 
antism. Prominent  among  them  were  the  hampering 
of  tlie  congregational  life — a  life  which  was  demanded 
by  tlie  principles  of  Lutheranism — and  the  repression 
of  public  life  which  characterized  the  first  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  The  newly -awakened  religious 
life  withdrew  itself,  in  consequence,  very  largely  into 
the  smaller  religious  circles,  and  derived  from  them 
more  or  less  of  a  pietistic  hue.  See  Pietism.  These 
circles  themselves  drew  more  and  more  toward  the  an- 
cient orthodoxy.  To  this  they  were  impelled  by  the 
unionistic  efforts,  and  the  havoc  created  bv  infidelity  and 
rationalism.  The  new  theological  tendencies  were  met 
bj'  the  system  set  forth  in  the  Confessions.  The  feel- 
ing grew  that  without  a  restoration  of  the  old  relations 
of  fealty  on  the  part  of  ministers  to  the  great  Church 
.standards  there  would  be  no  internal  harmony  in  the 
Church.  This  opposition  to  union  first  embodied  itself 
in  the  Lutheran  Conferences  held  at  Leipzig  in  1843, 
and  subsequently.  Rudelbach  was  the  earliest  leader 
of  this  movement.  He  was  succeeded  by  Harless.  It 
gained  strength  by  the  civil  commotions  of  1848,  so  that 
at  that  time  it  demanded  of  the  members  of  the  confer- 
ences a  subscription  to  tlie  symbolical  books.  Under 
this  tendency  were  formed  the  provincial  associations, 
which  united  with  the  Lutheran  Conventions  at  AVit- 
tenberg  in  1849  and  1851.  Iji  these  conventions,  as  well 
as  in  a  great  variety  of  publications,  a  strong  opposition 
to  the  "  union"  was  developed.  It  was  evident  that  the 
conservatives  were  a  unit  on  the  two  points — the  dis- 
solution of  the  state  uniyu  and  the  complete  re-estab- 


lishment of  the  Lutheran  Church.  The  prevailing  po- 
litical current  in  Prussia  from  1852  favored  this  tenden- 
cy. (See  below,  under  Ritual  and  Worship.)  In  the 
different  lands  and  provinces  of  Germany,  the  efforts 
in  the  one  direction  of  emancipation  and  restoration 
bore  the  common  character  of  earnestness  and  vigor,  but 
in  forms  and  modes  shaped  by  circumstances.  In  Ba- 
varia the  leaders  were  Lcihe,  Thomasius,  and  Harless. 
In  ]\Iecklenburg  its  great  representatives  were  Kliefoth 
and  Krabbe.  In  Hanover  its  chief  organs  were  the 
Conference  at  Stade,  and  Petri,  Miinchmeier  {Dof/ma  of 
the  Invisible  and  Visible  Church,  1854),  and  Uhlhorn  ;  on 
the  Rhine  itself,  and  in  W^estphalia,  Ravensbcrg.  The 
"  New  Lutheranism"  was  not,  indeed,  an  internal  unit  in 
all  its  views.  Among  its  great  theologians,  Hoffmann 
and  Kahnis  completely  alienated  their  early  friends. 
In  Bavaria,  Lcihe  (died  1872),  in  carrying  through  his 
principles,  came  into  conflict  with  the  government  in 
the  Lutheran  Church. 

Efforts  were  made  to  annul  the  union  and  restore  gen- 
uine Lutheranism.  Dr.  Ferdinand  Christian  Baur,  who 
will  be  considered  above  any  suspicion  of  sj-mpathy 
with  the  distinctive  theology  of  Lutheranism,  gives  the 
history  and  characteristics  of  the  two  doctrinal  tenden- 
cies, the  unionistic  mediating  and  the  Lutheran,  which 
come  into  conflict  at  this  point :  '•  The  controversies 
arising  from  the  question  of  the  union  have  had  this 
result  in  dogmatics,  that  no  man  can  defend  the  Church 
doctrine  without  either  taking  position  with  the  doc- 
trines held  in  common — the  consensus-dogmatik  —  or 
taking  the  strictly  confessional  position.  As  the  chief 
opponents  of  the  union  are  the  Lutheran  theologians, 
who,  with  aU  their  strength,  give  force  to  their  confes- 
sional interest,  the  main  opposition  to  the  dogmatik  of 
the  consensus  is  offered  by  the  Lutheran  dogmatik.  On 
the  side  of  the  consensus  the  main  representatives  are 
theologians  of  the  school  of  Schleiermacher,  among 
whom  are  Nitzsch,  Llicke,  J.  Miiller,  Dorner,  and  others. 
To  relieve  the  union  from  the  charge  of  lacking  confes- 
sional character,  they  find  it  necessary  to  maintain  a  dis- 
tinct dogmatical  system.  But  as  it  is  essential  to  the 
idea  of  the  union  to  set  aside  the  particular  distinctive 
doctrines  which  sunder  the  confessions,  the  system  of 
the  theologians  of  the  union  can  only  accept  the  ground 
common  to  both.  In  this  spirit  Nitzsch,  in  the  Urkun- 
denbuch  d.  Evanf/elischen  Union  (1853),  and  J.  51  tiller.  The 
Evangelical  Union,  its  Nature  and  divine  Right  (1854), 
have  attempted  to  present,  in  the  different  articles,  a 
formula  exhibiting  the  agTcement  of  the  confessions. 
The  consensus,  however,  can  only  be  brought  about  by 
a  limiting  and  tempering  of  the  two  doctrines  to  a  me- 
dium in  which  the  sharpness  of  the  antithesis  is  lost. 
This  method  of  union  may  be  applicable  to  a  certain  set 
of  doctrines,  but  it  goes  to  pieces  of  necessity  on  the  dis- 
tinctive doctrines  which  can  allow  of  no  modification 
without  loss  of  their  essential  character.  The  principle 
on  which  the  theology  of  the  consensus  rests  is  that 
that  alone  is  essential  in  Protestantism  in  which  the 
two  confessions  agree.  Schleiermacher  was  the  first  to 
maintain  this,  but  his  object  was  by  it  to  neutralize  and 
render  indifferent  both  systems,  in  order  to  set  them 
aside  as  antiquated,  and  to  substitute  for  them  a  point 
of  view  in  consonance  with  modern  culture.  With  all 
the  care  which  Schleiermacher  takes  to  give  himself  the 
appearance  of  complete  harmony  with  the  ancient  sys- 
tem, it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  new  form  of  consciousness 
breaks  through  the  old,  and  that  the  old  is  retained  sim- 
ply to  introduce  the  new,  and  to  smooth  the  way  for  it. 
In  the  case  of  these  doctrinaries  of  the  union,  however, 
the  dogmatics  of  the  consensus  is  a  mere  illusion,  which 
has  no  ground  except  in  their  lack  of  mental  freedom. 
They  find  the  particidarism  of  the  confessional  systems 
too  narrow  for  them ;  they  are  urged  by  something 
within  them  to  sustain  a  freer  relation  to  those  systems; 
and  there  is  no  ignoring  the  fact  that  they  take  a  posi- 
tion which  has  gone  beyond  them.  But  they  are  not 
willing  to  confess  this  to  themselves;  instead  of  looking 


LUTHERAN^ 


577 


LUTHERAN 


forward  where  their  proper  goal  lies,  they  turn  back- 
wards. They  are  constantly  recurring  to  the  point  on 
which  the  confessional  differences  originally  rested. 
They  desire  to  establish  by  the  Church  confessions  what 
they  hold  to  be  the  real  substance  of  the  evangelical 
faith.  Yet  they  must  themselves  confess  that  they  can- 
not be  satisfied  that  they  are  throughout  in  harmony 
with  either  the  Lutheran  or  the  Reformed  doctrine,  and 
that  on  this  ground  they  are  wishing  for  what  can  be 
found  in  neither.  The  more  the  two  systems  are  com- 
pared, the  more  do  they  show  that  the  one  excludes  the 
other.  This  is  the  contradiction  out  of  which  there  is 
no  escape,  the  code  in  which  tliere  is  a  perpetual  revo- 
lution between  union  and  confession.  The  sympathy 
for  the  old  system  is  lost,  and  yet  there  is  lack  of  force 
and  courage  to  rise  to  a  new  one.  Men  know  in  their 
hearts  that  they  are  no  longer  at  one  with  the  Church, 
and  yet  they  are  afraid  to  break  with  it  outwardly. 
They  hold  fast  to  tlie  union,  and  yet  cannot  let  go  of 
the  confessional.  Is  it  a  matter  of  wonder  that  all  the 
dogmatic  products  of  this  school  of  theologians  have  an 
air  of  feebleness,  superficiality,  and  lifelessness  ?  From 
the  dogmatic  position  it  is  impossible  to  deny  that  the 
opponents  of  the  theology  of  the  union  are  right ;  from 
it  we  must  justify  the  Lutheran  theologians,  whose  sys- 
tem, with  all  the  offensiveness  of  its  particularism,  has 
at  least  the  advantages  of  character,  decision,  and  log- 
ical consistency"  {Kirchengeschichte  des  Neimz.  Jahrh. 
[Tubing.  1862  J,  p.  409-411). 

Mecklenburg  isolated  itself  by  its  exclusive  state- 
churchism.  Even  the  Hanoverian  Catechism,  with 
which  the  earliest  agitations  in  North  Germany  had 
been  connected,  did  not  secure  the  unmixed  approval 
of  the  portion  of  the  Church  with  whose  views  it  was 
in  sympathy.  New  Lutheranism  has  been  accused  of 
manifesting  a  tendency  towards  Romanizing,  especially 
in  the  doctrine  of  the  ministr\',  of  the  sacraments,  and 
of  the  Church.  To  the  ministerial  office  it  is  charged 
with  imputing  a  hierarchical  priestly  character.  It  is 
charged  with  holding  that  ordination  confers  a  divine 
authority  for  the  ministration  of  the  Word  and  sacra- 
ments, and  for  the  discipline  and  government  of  the 
Church.  "With  this  tendency  has  been  connected  a 
desire  to  restore  private  confession,  which  its  oppo- 
nents say  is  almost  equivalent  to  auricular  confession. 
With  it  has  arisen  a  strong  opposition  to  the  presbyte- 
rial  constitution.  It  is  said  to  maintain  that  the  sacra- 
ments derive  their  operativeness  from  the  "  office  of  the 
means  of  grace."  In  connection  with  this  view,  an  ex- 
alted importance  is  attached  to  the  sacraments.  The 
Lord's  Supper  is  made  the  proper  centre  of  the  public 
service.  The  whole  artistic  sense  has  been  developed 
in  this  movement ;  a  higher  interest  has  been  excited 
in  the  proper  performance  of  the  ritual,  and,  indeed,  of 
the  whole  liturgical  service  of  the  Church.  The  in- 
toning and  the  whole  musical  element  in  worship  has 
been  assigned  its  old  place  of  esteem.  This  school  has 
been  charged  with  maintaining  that,  in  order  to  pre- 
serve the  pure  doctrine,  a  view  of  tradition  in  affinity 
with  tliat  of  Rome  is  to  be  held.  Subjection  to  the  au- 
thority of  the  Church  is  to  be  substituted  for  individual 
faith.  The  most  important  literary  organ  of  this  ten- 
dency has  been  Hengstenberg's  Evangelische  Kirchen- 
zeituiiff,  established  in  1827,  which  maintains  within  the 
Prussian  union,  with  immense  force  and  success,  the  po- 
sition of  distinctive  Lutheranism.  This  tendency  sep- 
arated itself  from  the  orthodoxy  which  bore  the  tinge 
of  pietism,  and  from  the  mediating  theology,  especially 
in  the  work  of  inner  missions  (q.  v.),  with  which  it  re- 
fused to  co-operate,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  not 
churchly.  In  the  Prussian  Church  it  opposed  itself  to 
the  regulations  of  the  congregations,  and  to  the  consti- 
tution of  the  State  Church.  In  the  department  of  mis- 
sions to  tlie  heathen  (the  term  foreign  missions  has 
ceased  to  answer,  since  it  has  become  the  fashion  for 
one  set  of  Christians  to  establish  missions  for  the  con- 
version of  another  set),  the  revised  New  Lutheranism 
v.— Oo 


has  pursued  an  independent  course.  Against  this  Dor- 
ner  expressed  himself,  in  a  memorial  of  the  Prussian 
High  Consistory  in  186G,  which  did  not,  however,  pre- 
vent the  newly-acquired  state  churches  (such  as  Hano- 
ver, etc.)  from  being  placed  under  the  care  of  the  minis- 
ter of  cultus.  The  Lutherans  outside  of  Prussia,  the 
Mecklenburgers,  Bavarians,  and  others,  at  the  confer- 
ence at  Hanover  in  18G8,  with  the  Hanoverians,  and 
others  in  Church  fellowship  with  them,  made  use  of 
the  seventh  article  of  the  Augsburg  Confession  (of  the 
Church  and  its  true  unity)  to  keep  up  the  agitation 
against  all  union  with  the  rest  of  the  State  Church  of 
Prussia.  See  Neue  Evangel:  Kirchenztitung  (18G8)  ; 
Ritschl,  in  Dorner's  Zeitschrift  fur  dus  Kirchen-recht 
(1869) ;  Matthes,  A  llgemeine  Kirchliche  Ckronilc  (1871). 

V.  Ritual  and  Worship  (cultus)  of  the  Lutheran 
Church. — The  foundation  for  these  was  laid  by  Luther 
in  his  Formida  Missaj  (1523)  and  his  German  Mass 
(1 525).  In  these  he  proceeded  upon  the  principle,  which 
he  expressed  and  defended,  that  the  Church  service  was 
not  to  be  abrogated  as  a  whole;  that  the  vital  parts  of 
it  had  a  noble  origin ;  that  the  great  thing  was  to  purge 
off  its  excrescences  and  defilements,  and  to  restore  to  its 
true  place  in  it  the  Word  of  God,  which  had  been  more 
and  more  neglected.  In  conformity  with  Luther's  fun- 
damental principles,  the  ritual  was  purified,  the  neglect- 
ed elements  replaced,  and  the  more  necessary  parts  de- 
veloped still  further.  It  was  brought  back  to  the  stand- 
ard of  the  Bible,  and  of  early  pure  Catholic  antiquity. 
The  Lord's  Supper,  restored  to  its  true  position,  became 
the  grand  point  of  culmination  in  all  the  chief  services. 
The  office  of  the  Word  was  renewed.  Preaching  became 
a  great  indispensable  element  of  the  chief  public  ser- 
vices. The  congregation  took  a  direct  part  in  the  ser- 
vice in  response  and  singing.  The  services  were  held 
in  the  vernacidar  of  the  country,  though  a  certain  pro- 
portion of  the  familiar  old  Latin  part  of  the  services  was 
in  many  cases  continued,  mainly,  however,  in  order  to  re- 
tain the  noble  Church-music,  until  time  had  been  given 
to  fit  it  to  a  vemacular  service  complete  in  all  its  parts. 
Luther  insisted  simply  on  an  organization  of  worship 
which  shoidd  preserve  its  rich  treasures  and  resources. 
Services  ibr  the  morning  and  evening,  and  for  the  days 
of  the  week,  were  retained  or  arranged.  More  than  all, 
congregational  singing  was  developed.  In  conformity 
with  these  views,  there  arose  the  service  of  the  Luther- 
an type  which  we  find  in  the  agenda  (q.  v.)  of  the  16th 
and  17th  centuries.  In  northern,  eastern,  and  middle 
Germany  the  Wittenberg  order  was  followed,  and  is 
maintained  to  this  day.  The  service  is  of  moderate 
length,  and  is  rich  liturgically. 

The  forms  established  in  the  aera  of  the  Reformation 
w-ere  more  or  less  broken  through,  or  altered  in  a  very 
wretched  manner,  in  consequence  of  the  theological  rev- 
olution which  marked  the  18th  century.  With  the  re- 
ligious life,  whose  reviving  poAver  was  felt  towards  the 
close  of  the  first  quarter  of  the  19th  century,  came  a 
strong  desire  for  relief  from  these  mischievous  changes. 
To  this  desire,  at  least  as  one  of  its  greatest  motives, 
the  Prussian  agenda  owes  its  origin;  yet,  alike  in  the 
mode  of  its  introduction  and  in  elements  which  per- 
vaded it  throughout,  it  involved  a  breach  with  the  orig- 
inal Lutheran  type,  to  which  it  claimed  in  large  meas- 
ure to  conform.  As  this  fact  became  more  and  more 
manifest,  the  effort  was  made  to  bring  the  forms  of  the 
agenda  into  harmony  with  the  better  elements  which 
still  survived  in  the  congregations ;  yet,  after  aU  that 
could  be  done  in  this  way,  the  result  was  imperfect  and 
unsatisfactory.  In  consequence  of  this,  in  the  most  re- 
cent period,  a  still  closer  approximation  has  been  made 
in  Prussia  to  the  original  Lutheran  ritual.  One  set  of 
influential  thinkers,  as  Hotling  and  Ivliefoth,  contended 
for  an  unconditional  repristination  of  the  worship  of  the 
Reformation  time.  Others  held  that  various  changes 
were  necessary  to  adjust  what  was  furnished  by  the  his- 
tory in  Church  worsliip  with  the  well-grounded  views  of 
the"  present  and  the  actual  needs  of  the  congregations. 


luthera:n^ 


578 


LUTHERAN 


The  "agenda"  became  a  source  of  special  trouble  in 
the  controversy  between  the  Unionists  and  the  "  Old 
Lutherans."  The  contest  on  the  agenda  raged  particu- 
larly severe  in  Silesia.  Among  the  most  active  par- 
ticipants in  this  struggle  were  tlie  pastors  Scheibel,  Ber- 
ger,  Wehrhahn,  and  Kellner,  at  llonigern.  A  pacific 
roj'al  order  of  Feb.  28, 1834,  in  regard  to  the  continued 
force  of  the  confessions,  accomplished  little.  Nor  was 
the  conflict  allayed  by  the  rescript  of  the  Consistory  of 
Breslau,  May  15, 1834,  which  demanded  that  the  clergy 
who  had  not  acceded  to  the  Union  should  use  the  revised 
agenda  of  1829,  and  forbade  any  public  attacks  upon  the 
Union.  In  consequence  of  infraction  of  these  orders 
the  offending  clergymen  were  suspended  (1834).  In 
Honigern  the  military  were  called  in  to  force  open  the 
Church  for  the  introduction  of  the  State-Union  service 
(Dec.  24, 1834).  Similar  disturbances  arose  in  Halle  in 
connection  with  Guericke,  professor  in  the  miiversity, 
who  was  removed  by  the  government  in  1836.  But 
this  opposition  element  was  not  to  be  seduced  by  flat- 
tery nor  terrified  by  force.  In  a  synod  held  at  Breslau 
in  1835  they  had  resolved  to  exhaust  aU  legal  measures 
to  secure  for  themselves  purity,  independence,  and  in- 
tegrity m  doctrine,  worship,  and  constitution.  Mission- 
ary preachers  travelled  from  place  to  place,  administer- 
ing baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper.  In  Berlin  and 
Erfurt  new  congregations  were  formed.  In  the  Mark 
and  in  Silesia  a  special  apostolical  Church  constitution 
was  adopted.  Among  the  decided  Lutherans,  however, 
there  were  two  tendencies.  The  stricter  tendency  de- 
manded a  complete  separation  from  the  State  Church. 
The  relatively  more  moderate  part}',  with  which  Guer- 
icke stood,  desired  to  carry  out  their  Lutheran  convic- 
tions within  the  State  Church  as  far  as  the  legal  con- 
cessions allowed  them  to  do  so.  These  troubles  matured 
a  purpose  in  thousands  of  the  oppressed  confessors  of  the 
faith  to  leave  their  native  land  for  conscience  sake.  In 
spite  of  various  concessions  on  the  part  of  the  govern- 
ment, a  great  emigration  to  Australia  took  place  under 
the  leadership  of  Kavel.  To  these  "  pilgrim  fathers"  of 
our  day  were  added  manj'  from  Saxony,  led  by  Stephan, 
and  from  Wurlemberg  and  the  Wupperthal.  From 
1838,  and  especially  after  the  advent  of  Frederick  Wil- 
liam IV  to  the  throne  of  Prussia  (1840),  the  tone  of  the 
government  towards  the  Lutherans  became  milder. 

VI.  "  Separate Luthermis.''' — A  royal  general  concession 
was  issued  July  23,  1845,  for  the  relief  of  those  Luther- 
ans who  held  themselves  aloof  from  the  State  "  Evan- 
gelical" Church.  They  were  granted  the  right  to  form 
congregations  of  their  own,  and  to  have  them  united 
under  a  common  direction,  which  was  not  to  be  subject 
to  the  control  of  the  State  Church.  The  congregation, 
having  obtained  the  consent  of  the  state  to  its  forma- 
tion, could  call  pastors,  whose  vocation  was  to  be  con- 
firmed by  the  Direction,  and  who  were  to  be  ordained 
by  ordained  ministers.  The  baptisms,  confirmations, 
proclamation  of  the  bans,  and  marriages  of  these  clergy- 
men were  acknowledged  in  law,  and  their  Church  regis- 
ters were  to  be  received  in  evidence.  Their  obligation 
as  regarded  the  taxes  and  burdens  of  the  parochial  con- 
nection was  to  be  determined  by  the  common  law. 
Under  these  provisions  the  Lutherans  constituted  a 
High  Consistory  in  1841  under  the  presidency  of  pro- 
fessor Huschke.  This  otticial  board  is  the  supreme  ec- 
clesiastical authority  for  the  Lutherans  in  Prussia.  It 
consists  of  four  regular  members ;  it  is  controlled  by  the 
Sj'nod,  and  has  charge  of  the  purity  of  the  Church  in 
doctrine  and  life,  of  the  reception  of  new  congregations, 
the  regulation  of  the  parochial  relations,  and  the  ap- 
pointments of  clergymen;  to  it  is  committed  the  deci- 
sion in  complaints  made  by  the  officials  of  the  churches 
and  of  the  higher  schools.  It  has  oversight  of  the  rit- 
ual, of  the  decisions  in  ecclesiastical  cases,  and  of  cen- 
sures, the  caUing  of  synods,  and  similar  matters.  Tlie 
clergy  are  supported  by  a  fixed  salary,  and  by  perqui- 
sites. The  processes  of  Church  discipline  are  monition, 
temporary  exclusion  from  the  communion,  the  making 


of  apologies  in  various  degrees,  and  final  excommunicar 
tion.  The  Church  service  is  conducted  according  to  the 
agenda  which  have  been  in  use ;  the  preaching  on  free 
texts  requires  the  permission  of  the  Board  of  the  High 
Consistory ;  the  Lord's  Supper  is  an  essential  part  of  the 
chief  service.  The  Lutherans  are  not  obliged  to  send 
their  children  to  the  United  schools.  Thus  the  Luther- 
an Church  in  Prussia  obtained  a  definite  independent 
foundation.  In  1847  the  High  Consistory  had  in  its 
care  twenty-one  congregations  recognised  by  the  state, 
and  numbering  about  nineteen  thousand  souls.  Of 
these  the  largest  proportion  was  in  Silesia — ten  congre- 
gations, with  8400  members.  The  smallest  proportion 
was  in  Westphalia  and  in  the  Rhine  Provinces.  In 
addition  to  these  Separate  Lutherans  there  was  an  im- 
mense number  of  Lutherans  who,  in  consequence  of  con- 
cessions guaranteed  by  the  government,  remained  in  the 
State  Church.  Outside  of  Prussia,  a  Lutheran  move- 
ment was  felt  in  Nassau  in  1846,  in  which  Brunn  of 
Steeten,  near  Runkel,  was  leader.  The  government  and 
the  deputies  declined  to  authorize  the  formation  of  a 
separate  Lutheran  commission.  The  connection  be- 
tween the  Lutherans  was  strengthened  by  the  press  and 
by  conventions.  Their  literary  organs  were  the  Zeit- 
schrift  fur  Liitherische  Theohgie,  edited  by  Rudelbach 
and  Guericke;  the  Zeitschrift  fiir  Protestantismus  und 
Kirche,  edited  by  Harless  and  others;  and  various  pop- 
ular periodicals,  such  as  the  Pilfjer  arts  Sachsen,  the 
Sonniagshlatt,  and  others.  Conventions  were  held  at 
Berlin,  Triglaff,  and  Gnadau.  The  Lutheran  Confer- 
ence in  Leipsic  held  its  first  session  in  1843.  With  the 
great  political  movement  of  1848  the  interests  of  the 
Positive  Lutherans  entered  on  a  new  rera.  Of  the 
urgent  demands  made  at  that  time  for  the  separation 
of  Church  and  State,  they  took  advantage  especially 
in  their  struggle  against  the  LTnion  established  by  the 
State  Church.  Meanwhile  the  difference  of  conviction 
between  the  Lutherans  within  the  Union  and  those  sep- 
arated from  it  was  not  completely  removed.  The  Sep- 
arate Lutherans  urged  the  impossibility  of  a  Lutheran 
clergyman's  remaining  with  good  conscience  in  the 
Union.  The  Lutherans  Avho  did  not  withdraw  from 
the  government  Church  nevertheless  began  to  come 
into  closer  association  under  the  leadership  of  Giischel, 
Stahl,  Heubner,  and  Schmieden  Their  views  and  claims 
were  supported  by  Hengstenberg's  Kirchenzeiiung,  and 
by  provincial  associations  in  Saxonj',  Pomerania,  Sile- 
sia, and  Posen.  They  agreed,  at  a  meeting  in  AVitten- 
berg,  in  September,  1849,  on  the  following  principles: 
"  We  stand  upon  the  Confession  of  the  Evangelical  Lu- 
theran Church;  our  congregations  have  never  justly 
ceased  to  be  Lutheran  congregations;  we  demand  the 
recognition  and  adherence  to  the  Lutheran  Confession 
in  worship,  the  order  of  the  congregation,  and  Church 
government ;  first  of  all  is  to  be  insisted  on  the  freeing 
of  the  altar  service  from  everything  that  is  dubious,  and 
the  giving  of  the  stamp  of  the  Confession  to  the  entire 
service;  furthermore,  there  should  be  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Church  a  management  which  would  give 
security  to  confessional  independence  ;  finally,  there 
should  be  a  guarantee  of  Lutheran  principles  in  the  con- 
stitution of  the  congregations."  These  aims  they  did 
not,  however,  propose  to  secure  by  separation,  but  by 
contending  within  the  State  Church  for  the  rights  of 
the  Lutheran  Church  in  the  districts  belonging  to  it. 
This  decision  rendered  more  bitter  the  feeling  of  alien- 
ation between  the  Lutherans  who  remained  in  the 
State  Church  and  those  who  separated  from  it.  In  ad- 
dition to  these  internal  controversies,  there  arose  also 
differences  with  the  civil  government  of  the  Church, 
especially  on  the  part  of  Lutherans  within  the  State 
Church.  These  differences  were  caused  jiartly  by  the 
establishment  of  the  High  Consistorj-  in  1«50,  and  partly 
by  the  proposed  I'>vangelical  Order  of  Congregations, 
which  was  opposed  on  the  ground  that  the  Confession 
was  not  sufficiently  secured.  The  High  Consistory  at- 
tempted to  meet  the  opposition,  and  to  harmonize  feel- 


LUTHERANS  IN  AMERICA      579      LUTHERANS  IN  AMERICA 


ings  by  various  concessions ;  but,  with  a  growing  con- 
sciousness of  need  and  of  right,  the  Lutlierans  constant- 
ly rose  in  their  demands.  They  asked  for  the  abolition 
of  the  mixed  boards,  the  institution  of  exclusively  Lu- 
theran faculties,  the  return  of  the  Cliurch  property,  and 
for  other  changes  looking  in  the  same  general  direction. 
The  result  finally  was  the  issue  of  a  cabinet  order  of 
July  12,  1853,  which  showed  that  the  king,  Frederick 
William  IV,  was  determined  to  make  no  further  conces- 
sions. The  stricter  Lutherans  had  shown  themselves 
unwilling  to  co-operate  in  various  movements  o(  the 
time.  Thus  had  they  tleclined  to  co-operate  in  the  plan 
of  the  Inner  Missions  (1849).  and  opposed  the  confeder- 
ation of  churches  proposed  at  the  Church  Diet  at  Wit- 
tenberg in  1849.  In  other  lands  the  struggles  of  the 
Lutheran  Church  for  truth  and  right  continued.  The 
University  of  Erlangen  was  the  centre  of  the  struggle 
in  Bavaria,  and  Harless,  the  president  of  the  High  Con- 
sistory, one  of  its  great  supports.  But  at  the  General 
Synod  at  Anspach,  in  consequence  of  opposition  on  the 
part  of  the  congregations,  tlie  stricter  Lutheran  views 
could  not  be  carried  out  in  regard  to  creed.  Church  gov- 
ernment, changes  in  the  liturgy,  confession,  and  Church 
discipline.  Here  also  arose  the  stricter  party,  with 
the  pastors  Lcihe  and  Wacheren,  which  took  ground 
against  fellowship  at  the  Lord's  Supper  with  the  re- 
formed, and  favored  separation  from  the  State  Church. 
Tliis  party  was  resisted  by  the  High  Consistory.  In 
Nassau,  tlie  two  Hesses,  Hanover,  and  the  Saxon  duch- 
ies, the  stricter  Lutheranism  had  adherents.  As  a  rule, 
the  mission  festivals  were  their  centres  of  union.  In 
Baden,  under  pastor  Eichhorn  as  leader,  the  conflict  with 
the  government  resulted  in  a  legal  separation  from  the 
State  Church  in  I80G.  In  Saxony,  especially  about 
Schiinburg,  the  stricter  Lutheran  clergy  were  numerous. 
The  emigration  of  Stephan  injured  the  cause  very  much 
in  the  general  estimation.  During  these  public  move- 
ments various  questions  of  profound  interest  in  scientific 
theology  were  discussed  by  the  great  divines  in  the  Lu- 
theran Church.  Among  the  most  important  of  these 
discussions  was,  1,  that  between  Hoffmann  in  Erlangen 
and  Philippi  in  Rostock  on  the  doctrine  of  the  atone- 
ment ;  2,  the  controversy  in  ^Mecklenburg,  which  result- 
ed in  the  deposition  of  professor  Baumgarten  in  1858. 
A  convention  of  clergymen  and  laymen  at  Rothenmoor 
in  1858  represented  the  strictest  Lutheranism,  of  which 
Kliefoth  had  been  the  especial  promoter.  See  F.  J. 
Stahl,  JHe  Lutherische  Kirche  it.  die  Union  (Berl.  1859). 
(C.  P.  K.) 

LUTHERANS  IN  AMERICA.  L  Earh/  Ilistor//.— 
The  celebrated  German  divine,  Dr.  Henry  Melchior 
Miihlenberg  (q.  v.),  is  generally  and  justly  recognised 
as  the  founder  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  America.  He 
arrived  in  this  country  in  1742.  Long  previous  to  his 
coming,  however,  the  Lutherans  had  gained  a  footing 
here.  Adherents  of  the  Church  of  the  great  German 
reformer  first  came  to  these  shores  of  the  West  from 
Holland  in  1621.  In  consequence  of  the  severe  meas- 
ures adopted  by  the  Synod  of  Dort  (1018-19),  the  stay 
of  non-Calvinists  had  been  made  uncomfortable  in  the 
mother  country,  and  with  the  first  Dutch  settlers  in  the 
province  of  New  Amsterdam  (now  New  York)  came 
several  Lutheran  immigrants,  seeking  here  a  home,  and 
a  place  to  worship  God  agreeably  to  the  dictates  of  their 
conscience.  They  had  come,  however,  without  a  shep- 
herd, and  for  years  were  dependent  upon  lay  supervision 
and  instruction.  The  first  Lutheran  communicants  who 
brought  thither  one  to  minister  unto  them  came  from 
Sweden  in  1638,  and  settled  on  the  banks  of  Delaware 
Bay,  where  now  stands  the  thriving  city  of  Wilmington. 
For  many  years  the  Swedish  Lutherans  only  were  fa- 
vored with  miuisterial  care.  The  first  to  perform  this 
duty  was  Reorus  Torkillus  (died  in  1643),  whose  suc- 
cessor, John  Campanius,  "  a  man  of  enlightened  zeal, 
deeply  interested  in  his  work,  and  burning  with  a  strong 
desire  to  promote  the  spiritual  interests  of  the  aborigi- 
nes," was  the  first  to  publish  in  this  country  Luther's 


Smaller  Catechism,  and  first  to  furnish  it  to  the  Red  Man 
in  his  own  vernacular — "  perhaps  the  first  work  ever  ren- 
dered into  the  Indian  language,  and  the  Swedes  most 
probably  were  the  first  missionaries  among  the  Indians  in 
this  country."    Strangely  enough,  the  Swedes  were  also 
the  first  to  fall  a;v'ay  from  their  mother  Church  and  enter 
into  communion  with  those  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church — a  result  due,  no  doubt,  in  a  great  measure,  to 
the  want  of  complete  organization,  as  we  shall  see  below. 
Dr.  Miililenberg,  as  we  have  noted  above,  was  of  the 
German  Church,  and,  though  his  labors  were  mainly 
confined  to  those  of  his  own  nationality,  the  influence 
of  this  man  of  God  extended  over  all  Lutherans  in  the 
states,  and  caused  them  to  be  "  of  one  heart  and  one 
mind,"  and  to  keep  "the  unity  of  the  Spirit  in  the  bond 
of  peace."     The  first  German  Lutherans  preceded  the 
doctor  very  nearly  one  hundred  years.     He  himself,  as 
we  have   seen,  came  hither  in  1742;   the  first  of  his 
countrymen  in  the  faith  reached  these  shores  in  1644. 
They  came  in  company  with  the  Dutch,  and,  like  the 
latter,  for  a  long  time  depended  on  lay  instruction.    By 
1653  they  had  increased  in  strength  sufficiently  to  seek 
the  services  of  a  preacher,  but  in  vain  they  directed  a 
petition  to  the  Dutch  Directory  to  secure  permission  for 
such  a  step.     In  1664,  finally,  the  much-coveted  privi- 
lege came  to  them  from  the  English  authorities,  who, 
immediately  upon  their  acquisition  of  this  territory, 
granted  the  Lutherans  religious  liberty.     The  first  to 
preach  to  the  German  Lutherans  in  their  own  vernacu- 
lar was  Jacob  Fabricius,  who  reached  this  country  in 
1669.    The  first  house  of  worship,  however,  they  enjoyed 
two  years  later  (1671);  but  they  were  deprived  of  it  by 
the  butch  in  1673.     It  was  rebuilt  in  1703  (on  the 
south-west  corner  of  Broadway  and  Rector  Street).    The 
Lutherans  enjoyed  a  decided  accession  in  1710,  when 
four  thousand  Germans,  the  victims  of  civil  oppression 
and  religious  persecution,  who  had  fled  for  refuge  to 
England  under  the  patronage  of  queen  Anne,  came  to 
the  provinces  of  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  South 
Carohna.     Quicldy  others  followed,  until  in  1717  their 
large  numbers  began  to  excite  the  serious  appreliension 
of  the  civil  authorities.     In  Pennsylvania  the  govern- 
ment actually  felt  it  its  chtti/  to  direct  the  attention  of 
the  "  Provincial  Council"  to  the  fact  "  that  large  num- 
bers of  foreigners  from  Germany,  strangers  to  our  lan- 
guage and  constitution,  had  lately  been  imported  into 
the  province."    All  these  people  had  come  without  their 
ministers,  and  so  it  happened  that,  by  settling  in  Penn- 
sylvania and  South  Carolina,  they  were  deprived  of  the 
regular  ministrations  of  the  sanctuary,  and  dependent 
for  religious  instruction  upon  those  of  their  own  number 
best  informed  "  in  heavenly  things."     A  colony  of  Ger- 
man Lutherans,  refugees  from  civil  oppression  and  Rom- 
ish intolerance  at  Salsburg,  was  founded  under  better 
auspices  in  Georgia  in  1734.     Their  pastors  were  John 
Martin  Bolzius  and  Israel  Christian  Gronau.     In  the 
following  year  they  received  large  accessions  from  the 
mother  "country,  and  by  the  time  of  Dr.  Muhlenberg's 
arrival  the  Lutherans  of  Georgia  formed  quite  a  consid- 
i  erable  Christian  band  (over  1200  of  them).     Indeed,  it  is 
I  said  that  these  Lutherans  exerted  a  very  salutary  influ- 
I  ence  on  the  piety  of  John  and  Charles  Wesley. 
1      As  early  as  1733,  the  German  Lutherans  of  Philadel- 
I  phia   and   other  places  had  sent  urgent  petitions  for 
I  ministerial  help  and  pecuniary  aid  to  the  Lutherans  of 
'  England  and  of  the  mother  country.     At  Halle,  where 
now  flourished  the  pious  Aug.  Hermann  Francke,  their 
prayers  were  heard,  and  by  the  untiring  exertions  of 
the" founder  of  the  "Halle  Orphan  Asylum,"  the  future 
founder  and  leader  of  American  Lutheranism  was  in- 
duced to  leave  his  native  land,  and  "  to  relieve,"  among 
his  brethren  of  the  faith  and  fellow-countr\'men  who 
had  sought  a  home  in  the  wilds  of  America,  "  the  spir- 
itual destitution  that  prevailed,  to  gather  together  the 
lost  sheep,  and  to  preach  to  them  the  truths  of  the  Gos- 
pel."   With  the  year  1742,  therefore,  oi^ens  a  new  epoch 
in  the  historj'  of  the  Lutheran  Church  hi  America— the 


LUTHERANS  IN  AMERICA      580      LUTHERANS  IN  AMERICA 


epoch  in  which  it  assumed  organic  form.  No  man 
could  have  heen  more  eminently  fitted  than  was  H.  M. 
Muhlenberg  for  the  mission  to  be  accomplished.  ''He 
jwssessed  piety,  learning,  experience,  skill,  industry,  and 
perseverance.''  He  was,  moreover,  "  deeply  interested 
in  the  work  to  which  he  had  devoted  himself,  as  is  ap- 
parent from  the  manner  in  which  he  discharged  his  du- 
ties, and  the  condition  in  which  he  left  the  Church  at 
the  time  of  his  decease."'  When  he  came  there  was  an 
absence  of  all  organization.  It  is  true  the  Swedish 
brethren  gave  assistance  to  their  German  brethren  free- 
ly and  cheerfully,  but  this  was  by  no  means  sufficient  to 
ailvance  the  interests  of  Lutheranism.  Muhlenberg  saw 
this  clearly,  and  he  at  once  applied  himself  to  the  task 
of  eifecting  an  organic  union  of  German  Lutherans  at 
least.  The  greatest  obstacle  he  found  in  the  want  of 
jireachers  and  of  houses  of  worship;  but  he  was  not  in 
the  least  discomfited  by  this  jejuneness  of  his  beloved 
Church.  His  influence  at  home  was  that  of  a  pious  and 
devoted  servant  of  the  Lord,  and  he  soon  drew  a  number 
of  his  former  associates  and  friends  to  this  side  of  the 
Atlantic,  so  that  by  1748,  only  six  years  after  his  landing 
on  these  shores,  he  was  enabled  to  call  around  him  the 
strongest  and  ablest  representatives  of  the  Lutheran  min- 
istry in  America,  to  counsel  together  and  form  a  synod. 
The  Swedes  had  contented  themselves  with  the  election 
of  one  of  their  own  number  as  lirovost  (q.  v.),  to  preside 
over  them  and  act  as  their  representative  before  the  coun- 
try, IMlihlenberg,  however,  desired  stricter  conform- 
ity to  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  mother  Church, 
and,  as  the  fate  of  the  Swedish  Lutheran  Church  after- 
wards showed,  his  course  proved  to  be  the  onh'  safe  way 
towards  a  perpetuation  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  Amer- 
ica. The  men  who  joined  Mt'thlenberg  in  the  convention 
at  Philadelphia,  Aug.  14, 1748,  for  the  purpose  of  organ- 
izing the  first  Lutheran  synod  in  America,  were  Brunn- 
holtz,  Handschuh,  and  Hartwig,  of  the  German,  and 
Sandin  and  Naesman,  of  the  Swedish  Lutheran  Church. 
It  was  by  this  bod}'  that  the  first  German  Lutheran  was 
regularly  set  apart  in  this  country'  to  the  work  of  the 
ministry.  His  name  was  .John  Nicholas  Kurtz.  He  was 
not,  however,  the  first  Lutheran  minister  ordained  here. 
As  early  as  1701,  Falkner,  a  student  of  divinity,  was  or- 
dained by  the  Swedish  ministers  Rudman,  Bjtirk,  and 
Auren,  to  labor  in  the  .Swedish  Lutheran  Church;  quite 
an  eventfiU  act,  also,  because  it  set  aside  forever  the 
supposition  that  the  Swedish  Lutherans  received  the 
doctrine  of  the  episcopacy  in  the  sense  in  which  it  is 
tauglit  in  the  Anglican  Church.  After  1748  the  synod 
met  regularly  each  j'ear,  and  these  meetings  "  were  at- 
tended with  the  most  beneficial  results.  They  not  only 
advanced  the  prosperity  of  the  Church,  but  the  hands 
of  the  brethren  were  strengthened,  and  their  hearts  en- 
couraged. They  promoted  kind  feeling,  and  formed  a 
bond  of  union  among  the  churches."  In  1765  a  private 
theological  seminary  was  started,  under  the  care  of  Drs. 
Helmuth  and  Schmidt,  and  in  1787  the  Legislature  of 
Pennsylvania  established  Franklin  College,  "for  the  spe- 
cial benefit  of  the  (Germans  of  the  commonwealth,  as  an 
acknowledgment  of  services  by  them  rendered  to  the 
state,  and  in  consideration  of  their  industry,  economy, 
and  public  virtues."  There  were,  in  the  year  of  Muh- 
lenberg's arrival  in  this  country,  in  Pennsylvania  alone, 
110,000  Germans,  and  of  these  about  two  tiiirds  were  of 
the  Lutheran  Church.  One  of  the  sons  of  Dr.  H.  IVL 
Miihlenberg — Henry  Ernest^ — at  this  time  pastor  of  the 
Lutheran  Church  in  Lancaster,  Pa.,  was  honored  with 
the  distinction  of  first  president  of  this  now  widely  cel- 
ebrated institution  of  learning.  In  17!>I  the  Lutheran 
Church  received  further  recognition  for  its  services  to 
education  by  the  Pennsylvania  Legislature  in  the  gift 
of  .5000  acres  of  land  '■  to  the  free-schools  of  th.e  Luther- 
an Church  in  Philadelphia,"  the  centre  of  Dr.  Henry 
Melchior  Miihlcnbcrg's  labors. 

During  the  Pevolutionary  days  the  Lutherans  acted 
the  part  of  patriots  and  Christians  ;  many  of  their  num- 
ber came  forward  in  defence  of  the  country  of  their 


adoption.  Dr.  IMlihlenberg,  among  others,  had  two  sons 
in  the  army ;  one  of  them  exchanged  the  gown  for  the 
colonel's  uniform.  In  consequence  of  this  identification 
of  the  Lutherans  with  the  cause  of  American  liberty, 
the  English  came  to  dislike  them  greatly,  and  many 
were  the  sufferings  and  deprivations  to  which  they  were 
subjected  ;  several  of  their  churches  were  burned  or  des- 
ecrated, and  all  manner  of  oppression  was  visited  upon 
them.  The  close  of  the  War  of  Independence,  however, 
left  them,  if  anything,  gainers  in  the  struggle.  Aside 
from  the  liberal  donations  which  they  received  in  Penn- 
sylvania, as  we  have  seen  above,  they  received  large  ac- 
cessions from  the  very  ranks  of  their  enemies.  ISIany 
of  the  German  soldiers  who,  by  the  ignominious  treaty 
of  the  English  Mith  the  Hessians,  had  been  brought  to 
this  country  to  exterminate  the  love  of  freedom,  at  the 
close  of  hostilities  concluded  to  remain  this  side  the  At- 
lantic, and  became  valuable  members  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  in  America.  Out  of  57"23  soldiers  that  had  come 
here  from  Brunswick,  1200,  with  seven  officers  and  their 
chaplain,  at  one  time  entered  the  fold  of  American  Lu- 
theranism. Of  the  Hessians,  also,  some  7000  remained 
to  swell  the  number  of  adherents  to  the  Church  of  the 
great  German  reformer. 

Not  so  auspicious  was  the  outlook  at  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  On  October  7, 1787,  the  patriarch 
and  founder  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  America  de- 
parted this  life,  and  the  Church  was  bereft  of  its  great 
stronghold.  There  had  been  slowly  growing,  ever  since 
the  establishment  of  American  independence,  a  decided 
preference  for  the  introduction  of  the  English  language 
into  the  exercises  of  public  worship.  The  older  and 
more  conservative  portion  of  the  Church  contended  for 
the  use  of  the  language  which  the  great  reformer  had  so 
much  embellished  and  invigorated,  and  of  which  he  was 
really  the  second  father.  Some  of  the  Germans  even 
believed  that  their  language  might  actually  be  made 
the  language  of  the  country,  and  thus  the  proposition 
of  the  younger  and  Americanized  portion  for  the  use  of 
the  English  proved  an  occasion  of  discord  and  aliena- 
tion, "resulted  in  serious  injury  to  the  Chiu-ch,  and  al- 
most caused  its  total  ruin.  .  .  .  Thousands  abandoned 
their  parental  communion,  and  sought  a  home  among 
other  denominations,  because  their  children  did  not  un- 
derstand the  German,  while  many  who  remained,  be- 
cause of  their  limited  acquaintance  with  the  language, 
lost  all  interest  in  the  services,  and  became  careless  in 
their  attendance  on  the  ministrations  of  the  sanctuarj'." 
Dr.  jNIiihlenberg  had  counselled  due  consideration  of  the 
wants  of  this  yoimg  and  growing  element,  and  frequent- 
ly himself  preached  in  English ;  but,  his  tongue  once 
silent,  the  conservative  element  impolitically  gloried  in 
its  wisdom  (comp.  here  Dr.  S.  S.  Schmncker's^4r«.  Lvth. 
Ch.  [5th  edit.  Philad.  18.V2. 1'imo],  p.  27-29).  The  first 
Lutheran  Church  in  which  the  English  was  exclusively 
used  was  not  built  until  1809,  and  it  remained  for  many 
3'ears  the  only  one  to  represent  the  English-speaking 
element  in  the  Lutheran  Church.  Efforts  lor  more  com- 
plete and  effectual  organization  were  made  in  New  York 
State  in  1785  by  the  establishment  of  the  New  York 
Synod;  hitherto  the  Pennsylvania  Synod  was  the  only 
ministerhin}  (q.v.)  in  existence.  In  180.3  a  synod  was 
organized  in  North  Carolina;  in  1819,  in  Ohio;  in  1820, 
both  in  Maryland  and  Virginia.  In  1816  the  educa- 
tional advantages  of  the  Church  also  received  new 
strength  by  the  founding  of  a  theological  seminary  at 
Havtwick,  N,  Y. — tho  first  public  training-school  of  the 
American  Lutherans  for  young  men  prospecting  the  holy 
office  of  the  ministry.  An  asylum  for  oqdians  the  Lu- 
theran Church  had  founded  as  early  as  1749,  in  the 
midst  of  the  thriving  colonists  at  Ebenezer,  in  Georgia. 
It  was  widely  known  as  the  "  Salzburger  Waisenhaus," 
and  is  said  to  have  received  no  little  encouragement 
from  Whitefield. 

1 1.  Oi-ganha1ion  of  the  General  Si/nod  of  A  mei-ican 
Tjifherans. — The  need  of  a  central  bond  of  union  for  the 
different  synods  extending  over  a  territory  so  vast  as 


LUTHERANS  IN  AMERICA      581       LUTHERANS  IN  AMERICA 


that  of  the  United  States  gave  rise  in  1820  to  the  for- 
mation of  a  '•  general  synod" — "  a  starting-place  and  a 
central  radiating  point  of  improvement  in  the  Church." 
There  were  at  this  time  170  ministers  connected  with 
the  Lutherans,  and  35,000  communicants  in  the  Luther- 
an connection.  Of  these,  135  preachers  and  33,000  com- 
municants were  represented  at  the  meeting  which,  Oct. 
22, 1820,  formed  the  General  Synod.  The  constantly  in- 
creasing intlux  of  European  Lutherans  frequently  gave 
rise  to  the  manifestation  of  the  most  diverse  opinions  on 
ecclesiastical  matters,  and,  in  consequence,  to  many  con- 
troversies, first  of  a  milder,  and  gradually  of  a  more  de- 
cided character,  until  a  schism  became  inevitable.  Even 
previous  to  the  outbreak  of  our  civil  war  there  had  been 
frequent  secessions  of  several  of  the  synods  from  the 
general  body,  but  the  strife  of  1861-65  gave  a  more  de- 
cided influence  in  favor  of  the  establishment  of  rival 
bodies  by  the  side  of  the  "  General  Synod."  The  first  to 
establish  themselves  independently  were  the  Southern 
Lutherans,  who  instituted  a  "  Southern  General  Synod," 
later  known  as  the  "  General  Synod  of  North  America," 
and  now  (1872)  embracing  5  synods,  92  ministers,  175 
churches,  and  13,457  communicants. 

A  more  serious  division  was,  however,  preparing,  on 
doctrinal  grounds,  in  the  Northern  synods.  The  con- 
stitution of  the  General  Synod  did  not  make  member- 
ship dependent  upon  an  adhesion  to  the  letter  of  the 
'■Augsburg  Confession"  of  1530,  the  great  standard  of 
faith  of  the  early  Lutheran  Church.  While  heartily 
indorsing  the  Augsburg  Confession  as  the  most  impor- 
tant historical  document  as  regards  the  doctrines  of  the 
Church,  the  constitution  aimed  to  secure  to  a'l  Luther- 
ans the  liberty  of  rejecting  some  utterances  of  that  con- 
fession which  had  early  been  discarded  by  a  considera- 
ble number  of  the  followers  of  Luther  as  unevangeli- 
cal  and  semi-papal.  This  feature  was  obnoxious  to  the 
strict  Lutheran  party,  which  wished  Lutheranism  to  re- 
main for  all  time  to  come  as  defined  by  the  Augsburg 
Confession  of  1530.  and  which  desired  to  bring  back  the 
whole  Lutheran  Church  of  the  United  States  to  this 
point, 

III.  Organization  of  the  "General  Cotmcil."  —  The 
party  differences,  after  creating  frequent  disturbances  at 
the  meetings  of  the  General  Synod,  led  to  an  open  rup- 
ture in  18i)4,  when  the  Franckeau  Synod,  a  New  York 
State  body,  which  was  regarded  by  the  Confessional  Lu- 
therans as  positively  unchurchly  and  heretical,  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  General  Synod.  In  consequence  of  this 
act.  the  oldest  synod,  that  of  Pennsylvania,  withdrew 
from  the  Convention.  At  the  next  meeting  of  the  Gen- 
eral Synod,  in  1866,  the  Pennsylvania  Synod  was  con- 
sequently declared  by  the  president  and  a  majority  of 
the  delegates  out  of  practical  connection  with  the  Gen- 
eral Synod.  In  reply  to  this  decision,  the  Pennsylva- 
nians  called  on  all  Lutherans  adhering  to  the  letter  of 
the  Augsburg  Confession  of  1530  to  organize  upon  this 
basis  a  new  and  genuine  Lutheran  Church.  The  call 
ivas  responded  to  by  a  number  of  synods  hitherto  con- 
nected with  the  General  Synod,  and  also  by  some  inde- 
pendent synods,  and  a  preliminary  convention  was  held 
in  December,  18G6,  at  Keading,  Pa.  This  meeting  drew 
up  a  constitution,  and  provided  for  the  convention  of 
the  first  "  General  Council"  of  the  new  organization  as 
soon  as  the  constitution  should  be  adopted  by  ten  syn- 
ods. The  preliminaries  having  been  complied  with,  the 
"  General  Council"  met  at  Fort  Wayne  Nov.  20,  1867. 
Twelve  synods,  representing  140,000  communicants,  a 
larger  number  than  the  combined  membership  of  the 
two  other  organizations— the  "  General  Synod"  and  the 
Southern  "General  Synod  of  North  America"— togeth- 
er, were  in  attendance.  A  resolution  was  passed  invit- 
ing those  only  "who  are  in  the  unity  of  the  faith  with 
us,  as  set  forth  in  the  fundamental  articles  of  this  Gen- 
eral Council,"  as  "visiting  brethren,"  making  this  body 
distinctively  Confessional  in  the  character  of  its  Luther- 
anism. The  last  Convention  of  the  "  General  Council," 
held  at  Rochester,  New  York,  in  November,  1871,  was 


presided  over  by  Dr.  Chas.  P.  Krauth,  of  Philadelphia. 
At  this  meeting  there  were  only  nine  synods,  represent- 
ing 511  ministers,  971  congregations,  and  141,875  com- 
municants. Two  other  synods — the  Danish-Norwegian 
Augustana  Synod  and  the  Indiana  Synod  —  had,  how- 
ever, announced  their  intention  to  join  the  "  Council." 
A  meeting  is  no^v  (Nov.,  1872)  in  progress  at  Akron, 
Ohio.  Its  proceedings  will  have  to  be  given  in  the  Ap- 
pendix volume, 

IV.  Movement  io^vards  the  Formation  of  a  General 
Conference. — The  tendency  of  a  majority  of  the  Amer- 
ican churches  towards  ecclesiastical  union  has  of  late 
made  an  impression  also  on  the  Lutheran  communicants, 
and  there  is  now  in  progress  a  movement  for  the  organ- 
ization of  a  new  body,  to  be  called  the  "  General  Confer- 
ence," w^ith  the  avowed  object  of  making  it  "  the  organ- 
ization of  a  general  Lutheran  body,  on  the  basis  of  the 
unqualified  reception  of  all  the  symbolical  books  as  a 
bond  of  union  between  all  Lutheran  synods  in  America." 
This  movement  was  started  several  years  ago,  mainly 
by  the  independent  synods  (see  for  list,  V.  Statisiics). 
At  the  meeting  held  at  Fort  Wayne,  Indiana,  Nov.  14, 
1871,  about  60  members  were  present,  representing  most 
of  the  independent  synods.  The  reports  of  the  meeting 
for  final  organization,  which  was  to  be  held  in  Milwau- 
kee, Wis.,  on  the  second  Wednesday  of  July,  1872,  have 
not  yet  come  to  our  notice.  If  all  the  six  independent 
synods  have  adopted  the  Constitution  and  joined  the 
"  General  Conference,"  this  body  is  now  the  strongest 
in  the  Lutheran  connection,  its  membership  exceeding 
that  of  either  the  General  Synod  or  of  the  General 
Council.  (Comp.  Schiiffer,  Early  Hist,  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  in  America;  Schmucker,  Amer.  Luth.  Church 
[5th  edition,  Phila.  1852]  ;  and  the  excellent  article  in 
Schem,  Deutsch-Amerikan  Com:  Lexikon,  vi,  690-704; 
Annual  to  Neio  Amer.  Cyclop.  1871.) 

V.  Statistics. — With  the  assistance  of  Dr.  Charles  P. 
Krauth  we  are  enabled  to  present  our  readers  with  the 
latest  statistics  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  the  United 
States  of  America.  The  almanacs  for  1872  furnish  a  list 
of — theological  seminaries,  15;  colleges,  20;  female  sem- 
inaries, 12;  academies,  18;  charitable  institutions  (or- 
phan homes,  infirmaries,  hospitals,  etc.),  23 ;  Church 
boards  and  societies,  7.  The  General  Synod  embraces — 
sjniods,  22;  ministers,  657;  churches,  1134;  communi- 
cants, 101,241.  The  General  Council  embraces — synods, 
9;  ministers,  421;  churches,  789;  communicants,  125,267, 
The  Southern  General  Synod  embraces — synods,  5 ;  min- 
isters, 92 ;  churches,  175 ;  communicants,  13,457.  The 
grand  total  is — synods,  64;  ministers,  2157;  churches, 
3727;  communicants,  450,410.  The  periodicals  are — 
English,  9 ;  German,  19 ;  Norwegian,  6 ;  Swedish,  4. 

Tabular  View  of  the  Growth  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  the 
United  States  in  the  last  fortij-eiqht  Years  (1823-1871). 


Venr. 

Synods. 

Ministere. 

Con^irega- 
ti<ms. 

Comuiunicaiits. 

1S23 
1833 
1845 
1800 
1S61 
1SG2 
18T1 

22 
36 
38 
42 
54 

ITS 
33T 
538 
1193 
1322 
13CC 
215T 

900 
1017 
1307 
2279 
2300 
2575 
3727 

13.5.62;) 
232,780 
246,788 
270,780 
450,410 

For  special  local  and  national  statistics  of  the  Lutheran 
Church,  see  Ajierica;  Anhalt;  Austria;  Badkn; 
Bavauia;  Belgium;  Bohemia;  Brunswick;  Bre- 
men; Carinthia  and  Carniola;  Denmark;  Eng- 
land; France;  Hesse;  Holland;  Hungary;  Ice- 
land; Lippe;  Lubeck;  Mecklenburg;  Moravia; 
Norway;  Oldenburg;  Poland;  Prussia;  Russia; 
Saxony';  Silesia;  Steiermark;  Sweden;  Thurin- 
GiA;  Transylvania;  United  States;  Westphalia; 
Wurtemberg.  For  missions  of  the  Lutheran  churches, 
see  Missions. 

On  the  history  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  compare 
Krauth,  The  Conservative  Reformation  and  its  Theology 
(Phila.  1871,  8vo),  especially  ch.  iv  ;  Gobel,  Die  rdifw- 
sen  EigenihUmlichkeiten  d.  Luth.  u.  ref.  Kirchen  (183/); 


LUTKEMANN 


582 


LUZ 


Auffusti,  Beitrdge  z.  Geschichte  u.  Statistik  der  Evangel, 
Kirclie  (1838);  \ViggeTS,  StatisH/c  (1842,  2  vols.)  ;  Har- 
nack,  Die  Luth.  Kirche  im  Liclite  d.  Gesch.  (1855) ;  Kah- 
nis,  German  Protestantism  (1850) ;  Seiss,  Ecclesia  Ln- 
tlierana,  a  brief  Survey  of  the  Evang.  Luth.  Church  (1868) ; 
Donier,  Gesch.  der  Protest.  Theologie  (1867);  Miiller  (J. 
T.),  Die  symbolischen  Biicher  der  evangel.  Luth.  Kirche 
(Stuttg.  1800,  8vo) ;  Plitt,  Lutlieranische  Missionen  (Er- 
laiigcn,  1871,  8vo). 

Lutkemann,  Joachim,  a  German  theologian,  was 
bom  at  Denimin,  in  Pomerania,  Dec.  15, 1008 ;  studied 
at  Stettin,  and  afterwards  at  the  universities  of  Greifs- 
wald  and  Strasburg ;  then  travelled  through  France  and 
Itah- ;  and  was  magister  legente  of  the  philosophical  fac- 
ulty of  Rostock  in  1638,  and  appointed  professor  of  met- 
aphysics in  16-13.  lie  published  at  this  time  several 
philosophical  works,  such  as  his  lAneamenta  coriwris 
physici  (Rostock,  1647).  He  also  preached  at  the  same 
time,  and  soon  acquired  great  reputation  by  his  elo- 
quence and  Christian  earnestness.  He  became  involved, 
however,  in  a  quarrel  with  the  strict  orthodox  party  of 
Mecklenburg,  upheld  by  the  duke,  on  the  question  of 
the  humanity  of  Christ  in  his  death.  Lutkemann  de- 
fended his  views  in  his  Dissertatio  jihysico-theologica  de 
vein  homine,  maintaining  that  the  human  nature  of  Christ 
ended  in  his  deatli.  He  was  expelled  for  these  views, 
but  immediately  called  to  Brunswick  as  general  superin- 
tendent and  court  preacher.  Here  he  prepared  in  1651  a 
School  Discipline,  and  in  1652  a  Church  Discipline,  which 
were  adopted  in  Brunswick.  He  died  in  1655.  His  most 
important  works  were  devotional,  and  in  this  line  he 
may  be  ranked  next  to  Arndt  and  Miiller.  The  princi- 
pal are  :  Vorschinack  d.guttlichen  Giite  (Wolfenb.  1643)  : 
—  Vom  irdischen  Paradies : — Ilarfe  auf  zehn  saiten. 
See  P.  Rethmeyer,  Schicksalen,  Schriften  v.  Gaben  Liitke- 
mann's  (Brunswick)  ;  Tholuck,  A  kad.  Lehen,  part  ii,  p. 
109 ;  Herzog,  Real-Encykhrp.  viii,  536 ;  Hagenbach,  Hist, 
of  Doctrines,  vol.  ii,  §  217. 

Lutz,  Johaiin  Lud'wig  Samuel,  a  distin- 
guished Gemian  theologian,  historian,  and  biographer, 
was  bom  at  Bern  in  1785;  studied  tirst  in  his  native 
city,  then  at  the  universities  of  Tiibingen  and  Gottin- 
gen;  was  in  1812  appointed  professor  of  the  gymna- 
sium, and  rector  of  the  literary'  school  of  Bern  ;  in  1824 
became  pastor  of  Wynau,  and  afterwards  of  Bern;  and 
was  there  in  1833  appointed  professor  of  exegesis.  He 
died  Sept.  21, 1844.  Among  his  works  the  most  note- 
worthy is  Gesch.  der  Reformation  in  Basel  (Basle,  1814, 
8vo).  His  theological  lectures  were  published  bj"-  Riit- 
schi  and  Ad.  Lutz,  under  the  title  Biblische  Dogmatik 
und  Ilermeneutik  (1847  and  1849).  See  Hundeshagen, 
Lvtz,ein  theolog.CharakterhUd,  1844;  Neuer Nekrolog  d. 
Deutschen,  vol.  xxii;  Pierer,  Universal-Lexikon,  x,  631 ; 
Hoefer,  Now:  Biog.  Gin.  xxxii,  314.     (.J.  N.  P.) 

Lutz  (or  Lrnrs),  Samuel,  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant representatives  of  early  pietism  in  Switzerland,  was 
born  in  1074.  His  father,  the  pious  and  learned  pastor 
of  Biglen,  was  his  first  teacher.  Lutz  at  tirst  turned  his 
attention  especially  to  mathematics,  the  classics,  and 
Hebrew,  then  to  Church  discipline,  and  finally  left  all 
these  to  devote  himself  exclusively  to  the  study  of 
Scripture,  and  the  works  of  the  fathers  and  reformers, 
especially  Luther's.  (Jerman  pietism  Avas  then  begin- 
ning to  strike  root  in  Switzerland,  in  spite  of  all  the  ef- 
forts of  the  orthodox  party,  lieadod  by  the  theologians 
of  Berne.  To  oppose  it,  a  committee  was  appointed  to 
take  charge  of  all  tilings  pertaining  to  religion,  and  in 
1099,  by  its  inrtuence.  several  prominent  and  infiiicntial 
preachers,  tainted  with  (lietisni,  were  exiled  or  deprived 
of  their  office,  a  numl)er  of  adherents  of  the  pietist  party 
fined  or  otherwise  punislied.  and  several  stringent  laws 
passed  to  secure  the  '■  unif(>rmity  of  faith,  doctrine,  and 
worship."  Finally  both  the  citizens  and  clergy  were 
obliged  to  take  the  so-called  (Kith  ofiissociation — a  sort  of 
Test  Act.  Lutz's  first  and  rather  insignificant  appoint- 
ment as  pastor  was  at  Yverden  in  1 703.    Here  he  labored 


faithfully  for  twenty-three  years,  winning  the  respect 
and  affection  not  only  of  the  German,  among  whom  he 
labored,  but  also  of  the  French  inhabitants.  As  he  was 
accused  of  pietism,  all  attempts  to  secure  more  impor- 
tant appointments,  with  a  view  to  increasing  his  sphere 
of  usefulness,  were  defeated,  in  spite  of  his  reputation  for 
learning  and  eloquence,  until  about  1720,  wlien  he  was 
appointed  pastor  of  Amfoldingen.  In  1738  he  removed 
to  Diessbach,  where  he  died.  May  28,  1750.  His  col- 
lected works  were  published  under  the  title  Wohlriechen- 
der  Strauss  v.  schonen  u.gesunden  Llimmelshlumen  (Basle, 
1736  and  1756, 2  vols.).  See  Leu,  Schiceiz.  Lexikon,  xii ; 
Haller,  Bibl.  d.  Schweizei-gesch.  ii,  290 ;  Hurst's  Hagen- 
bach, Ch.  Hist,  of  the  18th  and  VJth  Cejiiuries,  i,  191  sq.; 
Herzog,  Peal-Encgkloj}.  viii,  621. 

Lux  Mentis  (the  light  of  the  mind),  another  name 
for  baptism,  so  called  on  account  of  the  instruction  in 
the  Christian  religion  which  was  given  to  the  candi- 
dates for  baptism  before  they  were  admitted  to  the  sa- 
cred ordinance. — Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Luxury,  a  disposition  of  mind  addicted  to  pleasure, 
riot,  and  sui)orHuities.  Luxurj'  implies  a  giving  one's 
self  up  to  pleasure ;  voluptuousness,  an  indulgence  in 
the  same  to  excess.  Luxur\-  may  be  further  considered 
as  consisting  in,  l.Yain  and  useless  expenses;  2.  In  a 
parade  beyond  what  people  can  afford ;  3.  In  affecting 
to  be  above  our  own  rank ;  4.  In  living  in  a  splendor 
that  does  not  agree  with  the  public  good.  In  order  to 
avoid  it,  we  should  consider  that  it  is  ridiculous,  trouble- 
some, sinful,  and  ruinous.  See  Robinson's  Claude,  i,  382 ; 
Ferguson,  On  Society,  part  vi,  sec.  2 ;  Buck,  Theological 
Dictionary,  s.  v. 

Luz  (lleb.  id.  "?,  a  nut-bearing  tree,  either  the  cd- 
mond  or  hazel,  as  in  Gen.  xxx,  37  [but  according  to 
Fiirst,  after  Hiller,  sinking,  as  of  a  vallej']  ;  Sept.  Aov- 
^a, but  in  Gen.  xxviii,  19  unites  with  the  preceding  word 
Oi'X«/(/\oi's),  the  name  of  two  plai;es. 

1.  The  ancient  name  of  the  Canaanitish  city  on  or 
near  the  site  of  Bethel  (Gen.  xxviii,  19;  xxxv,6;  xlviii, 
3),  on  the  border  of  Benjamin  (.Josh,  xviii,  13) ;  taken 
and  destroyed,  with  all  its  inhabitants  (except  one  fam- 
ily that  had  acted  as  spies),  by  the  descendants  of  Jo- 
seph (Judg.  i,  23).  The  spot  to  which  the  name  of 
Bethel  was  given  appears,  however,  to  have  been  at  a 
little  distance  in  the  environs  of  Luz,  and  they  are  ac- 
cordingly distinguished  in  Josh,  xvi,  2,  although  the 
Heb.  name  of  Bethel  eventually  superseded  the  Canaan- 
itish one  Luz ;  or  rather,  perhaps,  Luz  was  the  name  of 
a  locality  near  whicli  Bethel  was  afterwards  built.  The 
form  of  the  name  in  the  Sept.,  Eusebius,  and  tlie  Tulg. 
seems  to  have  been  derived  from  Josh,  xviii,  13,  where 
the  words  ill^t)  rrS'^X  should,  according  to  ordinary 
usage,  be  rendered  "  to  the  shoulder  of  Luzah ;"  the  ah, 
which  is  the  particle  of  motion  in  Hebrew,  not  being  re- 
quired here,  as  it  is  in  the  former  part  of  the  same  verse. 
Other  names  are  found  both  with  and  without  a  similar 
termination,  as  Jotbah,  Jotbathah  ;  Timnatli,  Timnath- 
ah;  Riblah,  Riblathah.  Laish  and  Laishah  are  proba- 
bly distinct  places.  Van  de  A'elde  is  confident  that  he 
has  recovered  the  site  of  Luz  in  the  modern  ruins  called 
Khurbct  el-Lozeh,  one  hour  and  a  half  west  of  Bcth-el 
{Notes  to  the  2d  ed.  of  his  Map,  p.  16).     Sec  I5etiiel. 

2.  A  small  place  in  the  district  of  the  Hittites,  found- 
ed by  an  inhabitant  of  the  former  Luz,  who  was  spared 
on  the  destruction  of  this  place  by  the  tribe  of  Benja- 
min (.ludg.  i.  2(!);  and  tliis  seems  to  dispose  of  the  iden- 
tifii'ation  with  the  ruins  still  found  on  ^It.Gcrizira  (Stan- 
ley, p.  231  s(i.\  bearing  the  name  of  L>i:a  (Sectzen,/?e- 
ise,  i,  174;  AVilson,  ii,  69),  about  ten  minutes  beyond  the 
trench  of  the  Samaritan  sacrifice  (Van  deXcldc.  Memoir, 
p.  331').  Sclnvarz  thinks  the  site  may  be  identified  with 
that  of  wady  Luzan.  in  the  interior  of  the  desert  of  et- 
Tih,  north-west  of  Jcbel  el-Araif,  on  the  strengtli  of  the 
Tahnudic  t-tatement  that  this  i)lace  lay  witliout  the 
bounds  of  Palestine  {Palest,  p.  213).  This  is  doubtless 
the  wady  Lussdn  described  by  Dr.  Robinson  as  a  broad 


LUZ 


583 


LYCAONIA 


plain  swept  over  by  torrents  from  the  mountains  on  the 
right,  destitute  of  any  fountain  or  water,  and  containing 
only  a  few  remains  of  rude  walls  and  foundations,  which 
he  regards  as  the  traces  of  the  Koman  station  Lysa  along 
this  route  {Researches,  i,  276,  277).  Kosenmuller  (.1 1- 
terth.  II,  ii,  129)  refers  the  name  to  Luza,  a  city,  accord- 
ing to  Eusebius  (Onomast.  s.  v.),  lying  three  mUes  from 
Shechem ;  but  this  could  not  have  been  Hittite  terri- 
tory. Studer  (Bitch  d.Richter,  p.  45)  adopts  a  sugges- 
tion of  D.  Kimchi,  that  a  city  of  the  Phoenicians  (Kit- 
tim,  so  Eusebius,  Kfrrfijit,  Onomast.  s.  v.  2)  is  meant. 
Probably  it  was  some  place  near  Hebron,  in  southern 
Palestine,  where  the  Hittites  were  settled.  See  Hit- 
tite. 

Luz.     See  Hazel. 

Luzzatto,  Mose  Chayim,  ben-Jacob,  the  great 
modern  Jewish  mystic  of  Italy,  was  born  at  Padua  in 
1707,  and  enjoyed" the  highest  educational  advantages 
the  country  of  his  birth  could  afford.  When  a  youth 
of  only  twentj',  his  extended  studies  in  Hebrew  litera- 
ture, especially  the  cabalistic  writings,  secured  for  him 
a  universal  reputation.  Had  he  known  how  to  avoid 
mysticism,  he  might  have  proved  one  of  the  greatest 
ornaments  of  Judaism,  but  the  Cabala  (q.  v.)  led  him 
astray,  and  he  not  only  compiled  a  second  Zohar  (q.  v.), 
but  actually  came  to  believe  himself  the  predicted  Mes- 
siah of  his  people.  He  was  excommunicated,  and  obliged 
to  quit  Italy.  For  a  time  he  flourished  in  Amsterdam, 
and  about  174-1  he  removed  to  the  Holy  Land.  He  died 
shortly  after,  at  Safet,  in  May,  1747,  and  was  buried  at 
Tiberias.  Of  his  multifarious  Avorks  twenty-fonr  are 
yet  unedited;  twenty-eight  have  been  published,  com- 
prising treatises  in  theologj^,  dogmatic  and  cabalistical, 
philosophy,  morals,  and  rhetoric,  and  a  body  of  poetry, 
devotional,  lyrical,  and  dramatic.  His  most  important 
writings  are  cited  in  Etheridge,  Introd.  to  Hebrew  Litera- 
ture, p.  393.  See  also  Griitz,  Geschichte  d.Juden,  x,  369- 
383 ;  and  his  biography  in  Kerem  Chemed  (1838),  iii,  113 
sq.     (J.H.W.) 

Luzzatto,  Samuel  David,  one  of  the  most  noted 
Jewish  writers  of  our  day,  the  Jehuduh  ha-Levi  (q.  v.)  of 
the  19th  century,  was  born  at  Trieste  (Italy)  in  1800,  the 
scion  of  one  of  the  most  eminent  Italian  families.  He 
received  a  thorough  academical  training,  and  early  dis- 
played great  abiUty  as  a  writer.  Greatly  interested  in 
the  study  of  the  history  and  literature  of  his  people,  he 
became  one  of  the  most  prominent  writers  in  this  field. 
Says  Gratz  {Gesch.  d.  Juden,  xi,  502), "  If  Krochmal  and 
Eapaport  were  the  fathers  of  Jewish  history,  Luzzatto 
must  be  acknowledged  as  her  mother."  He  brought  to 
light  the  most  beautiful  pages  of  Jewish  history  of  the 
Franco-Spanish  epoch — the  tragical  fate  of  the  Jews  in 
the  persecutions  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  the  reforma- 
tory period — which  had  been  given  up  as  lost;  and  there- 
by prepared  the  way  for  the  labors  of  Kayserling,  Sachs, 
Zunz,  and  others.  Luzzatto  also  labored  creditably  in 
the  department  of  O.-T.  exegesis,  and  when  the  collegia 
rahbinico  was  opened  at  I'adua  in  1829,  he  became  one 
of  its  professors,  continuing  in  this  service  untU  his 
death  in  1865.  He  wrote  Hebrew,  Italian,  French,  and 
German.  His  diction  is  graceful  and  exceedingly  pleas- 
ant. His  essays  and  treatises  in  this  field  appeared  first 
in  the  "  Biklvure  Ittim,"  and  afterwards  (1841,  etc.)  in 
the  "  Kerem  Chemed,"  published  in  Vienna  and  then  in 
Prague  liy  a  man  of  great  learning  in  Jewish  literature, 
Samuel  L.  Goldenberg,  of  Tarnapol.  One  of  his  best 
works  is  his  Ludor/ues,  etc.,  on  the  Cabala,  the  Zohar, 
the  iDitiqiiiti/  (if  the  roirel-poi»ts  and  accents  of  the  Bible 
(1H52),  which  shows  the  foUy  of  the  Cabala,  the  origin 
of  the  Zohar  in  the  13th  century,  and  the  vowel-points 
in  the  5th,  and  the  accents  probably  in  the  6th.  Luz- 
zatto also  published  on  Hebrew  grammar,  P;-o/e^ome«a 
ad  una  gram.  Hebr. ;  and  later  a  complete  Hebrew  gram- 
mar, Oheb  Guer  (15  SniN) ;  a  work  on  the  i^amaic  ver- 
sion of  Onkelos  (Vienna,  1830) ;  an  Italian  version  of  ./o6 
(Livorno,  1844) ;  French  Notes  on  Isaiah- (m  Kosenmiil- 


ler's  version,  Leips.  1834);  Heb.  Notes  en  the  Pentateuch 
(Vienna,  1850) ;  and  finally  Isaiah,  an  Italian  transla- 
tion with  an  extensive  Hebrew  commentary  (Vienna, 
1850).  See  Griitz,  Gesch.  d.  Juden,  xi,  499  sq. ;  Jost,  Ge- 
schichte d.  Judenthums,  iii,  345  sq.;  J/fl.9.9«/,  1864-1865; 
The  Israelite  (Cincinnati,  O.),  Jan.  19, 1872.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Luzzatto,  Simone  (Heb.  Simcha),  a  noted  rabbi, 
who  floiu-ished  at  Venice  about  1590,  exerted  no  small 
influence  on  the  Italian  Jews  of  the  16th  century.  He 
was  an  associate  of  Leo  da  Modena  (q.  v.),  and  aided 
the  latter  greatly  by  his  superior  abilities.  He  died  in 
1G63.  He  wrote  Via  della  Fede,  in  which  he  teaches 
that  the  prophecies  of  Daniel  refer  rather  to  a  by-gone 
age  than  to  a  future  INIessiah.  This  peculiar  view  has 
given  rise  to  the  belief  that  he  accepted  Jesus  as  the 
Jklessiah  (see  Wolf,  Bibl.  Jud.  iii,  1128).  His  most  val- 
uable work,  however,  is  his  Discorso  circa  il  state  degli 
Hebrei  (Venice,  1638),  in  which  he  ably  defends  Juda- 
ism and  the  Jews.  The  excesses  of  the  Cabalists  he  de- 
plored, and  stoutly  opposed  all  relation  with  them.  See 
Griitz,  Geschichte  der  Judeji,  x,  162  sq.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Lybon  or  Libo,  a  city  mentioned  in  the  Antonine 
Itinerary  as  being  situated  thirty-two  Eoman  miles 
from  HeUopolis  (Baalbek),  and  the  same  distance  from 
Laodicea.  Its  name  lias  elsewhere  been  displaced  in 
the  same  itinerary  by  that  of  Conna.  The  modern  vil- 
lage of  Lebweh  is  doubtless  the  same  {Bibl.  Sacr.  1848, 
p.  699),  although  the  distances  have  become  corrupted 
(Porter,  Damascus,  ii,  322  sq.).  It  is  a  poor  village,  in 
the  middle  of  a  basin,  on  a  low  tell  among  the  streams 
on  the  eastern  slope  of  Lebanon,  with  some  remains  of 
antiquity,  and  a  considerable  Arabian  history  (Robin- 
son, Later  Res.  p.  532  sq.). 

Lybrand,  Joseph,  an  eminent  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  born  of  Lutheran  parentage  in  Philadel- 
phia, Oct.  3, 1793 ;  was  converted  at  about  ten  ;  entered 
the  Philadelphia  Conference  in  April,  1811 ;  was  presid- 
ing elder  on  Philadelphia  District  in  1824-8;  1834-8 
was  on  stations  in  Philadelphia;  desisted  from  labor  in 
1843  at  Harrisburg,  and  died  April  24,  1845.  Mr.  Ly- 
brand was  a  man  of  deep  fidelity  to  God,  and  immova- 
ble fidelity  to  man.  As  an  eloquent  preacher  he  had 
few  equals  in  the  American  pulpit.  His  style  was  ele- 
gant and  weighty,  full  of  masterly  argument  and  pow- 
erfid  exhortation,  and  many  souls  were  added  to  the 
Church  by  his  long  and  blessed  ministry.  So  strong  was 
his  conviction  in  his  duty  to  preach  only  that  he  refused 
to  accept  some  of  the  most  important  offices  in  the  gift  of 
his  denomination.  Thus  he  declined  in  1832  to  assume 
the  responsibilities  of  the  publishing  house  taken  from 
Dr.  Emory,  who  had  been  elected  bishop.— il/w«(/es  of 
Conferences,  iii,  598. 

Lycao'nia  {NvKaovia,  either  from  the  mythologi- 
cal name  Lycabn,  or  from  Xvkoq,  a  u-olf),  a  province  of 
Asia  Minor,  having  Cappadocia  on  the  east,  Galatia  on 
the  north,  Phrygia  on  the  west,  and  Isauria  and  Cilicia 
on  the  south.  These  boundaries,  however,  are  differ- 
ently described  by  ancient  authors  (Ptolemy,  vi,  16;  v, 
6 ;  Pliny,  v,  25 ;  Strabo,  xiv,  663 ;  Livy,  xxxviii,  38). 
It  extends  in  length  about  twenty  geographical  miles 
from  east  to  west,  and  about  thirteen  in  breadth.  It 
was  an  undulating  plain,  involved  among  momitains, 
which  were  noted  for  the  concourse  of  wild  asses.  The 
soil  was  so  strongly  impregnated  with  salt  that  few  of 
the  brooks  supphed  drinkable  water,  so  that  good  water 
was  sold  for  money ;  but  sheep  throve  on  the  pastu- 
rage, and  were  reared  with  great  advantage  (Strabo,  xii, 
568 ;  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  viii,  69).  Lycaonia  first  appears 
in  history  in  connection  with  the  expedition  of  Cjtus 
the  younger  (Xenophon,  Anab.  i,  2, 19 ;  iii,  2,  23 ;  Cijrop. 
vi,  2, 20).  The  inhabitants  were  a  hardy  race,  not  sub- 
ject to  the  Persians,  and  lived  by  plunder  and  foray 
(Dionysius, /"(=?•.  857;  Prise.  806;  Avien.  1020).  With 
these  descriptions  modern  authors  agree  (Leake's  Jour- 
nal, p.  67  sq. ;  Kennel,  Geog.  of  West.  A  sia,  ii,  99 ;  Cra- 
mer, .4s.  Jlin.  ii,  63 ;  Mamiert,  Geog.  VI,  ii,  190  sq.).    It 


LYCIA 


584 


LYDDA 


was  a  Roman  province  when  visited  by  Pan.  (Acts  xiv, 
G),  and  its  cliief  towns  were  Iconium,  Lystra,  and  Derbe, 
of  wliich  the  tirst  was  the  capital  (see  Smitli's  Diet,  of 
Class.  <jeii(/.  s.  v.).  "The  speech  of  Lycaonia"  (Acts 
xiv,  11)  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  the  ancient 
Assyrian  language,  also  spoken  by  the  Cappadocians 
(Jablonsky,  Disquis.  de  Linr/ua  Lycaonica,  Berlin,  1714  ; 
also  in  his  Opusc.  iii,  3  sq.) ;  but  it  is  more  usually  con- 
ceived to  have  been  a  corrupt  Greek,  intermingled  with 
many  Syriac  words  (Guhling,  Dissert,  de  Lingua  Lijca- 
o««V«,  Viteb.  1726),  since  the  people  appear,  from  the  ac- 
count in  the  Acts,  to  have  adopted  the  Grecian  mythol- 
ogy as  the  basis  of  their  religion  (see  Sommel,  De  Lin- 
(jua  Lye.  Lond.  1787).  "  It  is  deeply  interesting  to  see 
these  rude  country  people,  when  Paul  and  Barnabas 
worked  miracles  among  them,  rushing  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  strangers  were  Mercury  and  Jupiter,  whose 
visit  to  this  very  neighborhood  forms  the  subject  of  one 
of  Ovid's  most  charming  stories  (Ovid,  J/etom.viii,  626). 
Nor  can  we  fail  to  notice  how  admirably  Paul's  address 
on  the  occasion  was  adapted  to  a  simple  and  imperfectly 
civilized  race  (Acts  xiv,  15-17)"  (Smith).  See  Bomer, 
De  Paulo  in  Lycaonia  (Lips.  1708).  See  Asia  Minor; 
Pali.. 

Lyc'ia  {AvKia,  prob.  from  \vkoq,  a  wolf;  according 
to  some,  from  its  earliest  king,  Lycus;  for  a  Shemitic 
origin  of  the  name,  see  Simonis,  Onomast.  N.  T.  p.  101 ; 
Sickler,  Handh.  p.  568),  a  province  in  the  south-west  of 
Asia  Minor,  opposite  the  island  of  Rhodes,  having  Pam- 
]jhylia  on  the  east,  Phrygia  on  the  north,  Caria  on  the 
west,  and  the  Mediterranean  on  the  south.  The  last 
eminences  of  the  range  of  Taurus  come  down  here  in 
majestic  masses  to  the  sea,  forming  the  heights  of  Cra- 
gus  and  Anticragus,  with  the  river  Xanthus  winding 
between  them,  and  ending  in  the  long  series  of  promon- 
tories called  by  modern  sailors  the  "  Seven  Capes," 
among  which  are  deep  inlets  favorable  to  seafaring  and 
piracy.  It  forms  part  of  the  region  now  called  Tekeh. 
It  was  fertile  in  corn  and  wine,  and  its  cedars,  firs,  and 
other  trees  were  celebrated  (Pliny,  HiM.  Nat.  xii,  5).  Its 
inhabitants  were  believed  to  be  descendants  of  Cretans, 
who  came  thither  under  Sarpedon,  brother  of  Minos. 
One  of  their  kings  was  Bellerophon,  celebrated  in  my- 
thology. Lycia  is  often  mentioned  by  Homer  {II.  vi, 
171;  X,  430;  xii,  312;  Odys.  v,  282,  etc.),  according  to 
whom  it  was  an  ally  of  Troy.  Herodotus  assigns  sev- 
eral ancient  names  to  the  country  (i,  173).  The  Lj'cians 
^vere  a  warlike  people,  powerful  on  the  sea,  and  attached 
to  their  independence,  which  they  successful!}'  main- 
tained against  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia,  and  were  after- 
wards allowed  by  the  Persians  to  retain  their  own  kings 
as  satraps,  and  their  ships  were  conspicuous  in  the  great 
war  against  the  Greeks  (Herod,  vii,  91,  92).  After  the 
death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  Lycia  was  included  in 
the  (ireok  Seleucid  kingdom,  and  was  a  part  of  the  ter- 
ritory which  the  Romans  forced  Antiochus  to  cede  (Livy, 
xxxvii,  55).  It  was  made,  in  the  first  place,  one  of  the 
continental  possessions  of  Rhodes  [see  Caria]  ;  but  be- 
fore long  it  was  politically  separated  from  that  island, 
and  allowed  to  be  an  independent  state.  This  has  been 
railed  the  golden  [leriod  of  the  history  of  Lycia  (see 
further  in  Smith's  Did.  of  Class.  Geog.  s.  v.).  It  is  at 
this  time  that  it  is  named  in  1  Mace,  xv,  23,  as  one  of 
the  countries  to  which  the  Roman  senate  sent  its  mis- 
sive in  favor  of  the  Jews.  The  victory  of  the  Romans 
over  Antiochus  (B.C.  189)  gave  Lycia  rank  as  a  free 
etate,  wliicii  it  retained  till  the  time  of  Claudius,  when 
it  was  made  a  province  of  the  Roman  empire  (Sueton. 
Claud,  i't;  Vc'spas.S).  At  first  it  was  comljined  with 
Pamphylia,  and  the  governor  bore  the  title  of  "  Procon- 
sul Lyci.T  et  Pamphyliie"  (Grutcr,  7'lies.  p.  458).  Such 
seems  to  have  been  the  condition  of  the  district  when 
Paul  visited  it  (Acts  xxi,  1 ;  xxvii,  5).  At  a  later  pe- 
riod of  the  lioman  empire  it'was  a  separate  province, 
with  ^lyra  for  its  capital.  Lycia  contained  many  towns, 
two  of  wliich  are  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament: 
Patara  (Acts  xxi,  1,  2)  and  Myra  (Acts  xxvii,  5) ;  and 


one,  Phase  lis,  in  the  Apocrypha  (1  Mace,  xv,  23).    This 


Coin  of  Lycia. 

region,  abounding  in  ancient  remains  and  inscriptions 
(the  last  copiously  illustrated  by  Schmidt,  Jena,  1868, 
foL),  was  first  visited  in  modern  times  by  Sir  Chas.  Fel- 
lows, See  his  Journal  (London,  1839,  1841) ;  Forbes, 
Travels  (London,  1847) ;  Texier,  L'Asie  Minture  (Paris, 
1838) ;  Eneyd.  of  Useful  Knoidedfje,  xiv,  210  sq. ;  Cra- 
mer's Asia  Minor,  ii,  282  sq. ;  Mannert,  Geoyr.  YI,  iii, 
150  sq. ;  Cellarius,  Notit.  ii,  93  sq. 

Lych-gate  or  Lich-gate  (Anglo-Sax.  He  or  liee,a 
body  or  corpse),  i.  e.  corpse-yale,  is  a  covered  gate  erect- 
ed, especially  in  England,  at  the  entrance  of  ?.  church- 
yard, beneath  Avhich  the  persons  bearing  a  corpse  for 
interment  were  wont  to  pause,  sometimes  to  read  the 
burial-service  nnder  tliis  sheltered  place.  It  is  also  ap- 
plied to  the  path  by  which  a  corpse  is  carried. 


Lych-  or  Corpse-gate  at  Blackford  Church,  Perthshire. 
LychllOSCope  (an  opening  for  ^catching  the  light), 
a  name  assigned  by  conjecture  to  an  unglazed  window 
or  opening,  which  is  frequently  foimd  near  the  west  end 
of  the  chancel,  and  usually  on  the  south  side,  below  the 
range  of  the  other  windows,  and  near  the  ground.  AMiat 
purpose  these  low  side  windows  served  in  churches  is 
not  now  known. — Eadie,  Eccles.  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Lycus  {Wolf),  a  river  of  Palestine,  mentioned  by 
ancient  geographers  as  situated  between  ancient  Bihlus 
and  Berytus  (Strabo,  xvi,  p.  755 ;  Pliny,  v,  20).  This 
is  evidently  the  modern  Nahr  el-Kelb  (Dog  River),  at 
the  mouth  of  which,  about  2i  hours  N.E.  of  Beirut,  are 
found  the  remarkable  rock-tablets  of  ancient  victorious 
kings  (Wilson,  ii,  405  ;  Robinson,  Later  Ees.  p.  619  sq.). 
Lyd'da  (Ai'^^a,  Acts  ix,  32,35,38;  from  the  Heb. 
"  Lod,'"'i'b,  strife ;  Sept.  AoS  v.  r.  Ati^,  1  Chron.  viii,  12 ; 
Avcciiiv  v.  r.  AoSaol  and  AoSadiS,  by  union  witJi  the 
following  name,  Ezra  ii,  33;  Neh.  vii,  37;  Ai<cca,Kch. 
xi,  35 ;  1  Mace,  xi,  34 ;  so  also  Josephus),  a  town  within 
the  limits  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim;  according  to  Eu- 
sebius  and  Jerome,  nine  miles  east  of  Joppa,  on  the  road 
between  that  port  and  Jerusalem  ;  according  to  the  An- 
tonine  liin.,  thirty-two  miles  from  Jerusalem  and  ten 
from  Antipatris.  It  bore  in  Hebrew  the  name  of  Lou, 
and  appears  to  have  been  first  built  by  the  Benjamites, 
although  it  lay  beyond  the  limits  of  their  temtory  (I 
Chron.  viii,  12) ;  and  we  find  it  again  inhabited  by  Ben- 
jamites after  the  exile  (Ezra  ii,  33;  Neh.  xi,  35).  In 
all  these  notices  it  is  mentioned  in  connection  with  Ono. 
It  likewise  occurs  in  the  Apocrypha  (1  Mace,  xi.34)  as 
having  been  taken  from  Samaria  and  annexed  to  Juda?a 
In' Demetrius  Nicator;  and  at  a  later  date  its  inhabi- 
tants are  named  among  those  who  were  sold  into  slaT- 


LYDDA 


585 


LYDIA 


cry  by  Cassius  when  he  inflicted  the  calamity  of  his 
presence  upon  Palestine  after  the  death  of  Julius  Caesar 
(Josephus, /Inf.  xiv,  11,2;  xii,  0).  In  the  New  Testa- 
ment the  place  is  only  noticed  under  the  name  of  Lyd- 
da,  as  the  scene  of  Peter's  miracle  in  healing  yEneas 
(Acts  ix,  32,  35).  Some  years  later  the  town  was  re- 
duced to  ashes  by  Cestius  Gallus,  in  his  march  against 
Jerusalem  (Josephus,  War,  ii,  19, 1) :  but  it  must  soon 
have  revived,  for  not  long  after  we  find  it  at  the  head 
of  one  of  the  toparchies  of  the  later  Judica,  and  as  such 
it  surrendered  to  Vespasian,  who  introduced  fresh  in- 
habitants from  Galilee  (Josephus,  War,  iii,  3,  5;  iv,  8). 
At  that  time  it  is  described  by  Josephus  {Ant.  xx,  6,  2) 
as  a  village  equal  to  a  city ;  and  the  Rabbins  have  much 
to  say  of  it  as  a  seat  of  Jewish  learning,  of  v.'hich  it  was 
the  most  eminent  in  Judasa  after  Jabneh  and  Bether 
(Lightfoot,  Parergon,  §  8  ;  Horce  Ihh.  p.  35  sq. ;  Otho, 
Lex.  Rabb.  p.  399  sq.).  About  the  time  of  the  siege  it 
was  presided  over  by  rabbi  GamaUel,  second  of  the  name 
(Lightfoot,  Chor.  Cent.  xvi).  Some  curious  anecdotes 
and  short  notices  from  the  Talmuds  concerning  it  are 
preserved  by  Lightfoot.  One  of  these  states  that "  queen 
Helena  celebrated  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  there !"  In 
the  general  change  of  names  which  took  place  under 
the  Koman  dominion,  Lydda  became  Diospolis  (Ptol- 
emy, V,  10,  6  ;  Pliny,  v,  15 ;  see  Reland,  Palcest.  p.  877), 
and  under  this  name  it  occurs  in  coins  of  Severus  and 
Caracalla,  and  is  olten  mentioned  by  Eusebius  and  Je- 
rome. It  was  early  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  and  at  the 
different  councils  the  bishops  are  found  to  have  sub- 
scribed their  names  variously,  as  of  Lydda  or  Diospolis ; 
but  in  the  later  ecclesiastical  records  the  name  of  Lydda 
predominates.  Tradition  reports  that  the  tirst  bishop 
was  "Zenas  the  lawyer"  (Tit.  iii,  13),  originally  one  of 
the  seventy  disciples  (Dorotheus,  in  Keland.p.  879) ;  but 
the  tirst  historical  mention  of  the  see  is  the  signature  of 
"^•Etius  Lyddensis"  to  the  acts  of  the  Council  of  Nicrea 
(A.D.  325 ;  Keland,  p.  878).  The  bishop  of  Lydda,  orig- 
inally subject  to  Ca-sarea,  became  at  a  later  date  suffra- 
gan to  Jerusalem  (see  the  two  lists  in  Von  Kaumer,  p. 
401)  ;  and  this  is  still  the  case.  In  the  latter  end  of  415 
a  council  of  fourteen  bishops  was  held  here,  before  which 
Pelagius  appeared,  and  by  whom,  after  much  tumultu- 
ous debate,  and  in  the  absence  of  his  two  accusers,  he 
was  acquitted  of  heresy,  and  received  as  a  Christian 
brother  (JMilner,  Hut.  of  Ck.  of  Christ,  cent,  v,  chap.  iii). 
The  latest  bishop  distinctly  mentioned  is  Apollonius,  in 
A.D.  518.  Lydda  early  became  connected  with  the  hom- 
age paid  to  the  celebrated  saint  and  martyr  St.  George, 
who  was  not  less  reno^vned  in  the  East  than  afterwards 
in  the  West.  He  is  said  to  have  been  born  at  Lydda, 
and  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  at  Nicomedia  in  the 
earliest  persecution  under  Diocletian  and  Maximian,  at 
the  end  of  the  od  century.  His  remains  were  transfer- 
red to  his  native  place,  and  a  church  erected  in  honor 
of  him  by  the  emperor  Justinian.  This  church,  which 
stood  outside  the  town,  had  just  been  levelled  to  the 
ground  by  the  Moslems  when  the  Crusaders  arrived  at 
Lj'dda;  but  it  was  soon  rebuilt  by  them,  and  tliey  es- 
tablished a  bishopric  of  Lydda  and  Kamleh.  Great  hon- 
ors were  paid  by  them  to  St.  George,  and  they  invested 
him  with  the  dignity  of  their  patron :  from  this  time 
his  renown  spread  more  widely  throughout  Europe,  and 
he  became  the  patron  saint  of  England  and  of  several 
other  states  and  kingdoms.  The  church  was  destroyed 
by  Saladin  in  1191,  and  there  is  no  evidence  that  it  was 
ever  rebuilt,  although  there  was  in  later  centuries  an 
unfounded  impression  that  the  church,  the  ruins  of 
which  were  then  seen,  and  which  still  exist,  had  been 
built  by  the  English  king  Richard.  From  that  time 
there  has  been  little  notice  of  Lydda  by  travellers.  It 
now  exists,  in  a  fruitful  plain,  one  mile  north  of  Rama, 
and  three  east  of  Jaffa,  under  its  ancient  name  of  Liid 
or  Ludda  {Lidd  in  Tobler,  Urilte  Wamlerung,  p.  69,  450). 
Within  a  circle  of  four  miles  still  stand  Ono  (Kefr  Anna), 
Hadid  (el-Haditheh),  and  NebaUat  (Beit-XebaUah), 
three  places  constantly  associated  with  Lod  in  the  an- 


cient records.  The  water-course  outside  the  town  is 
said  still  to  bear  the  name  of  Abi-P>utrus  (Peter),  in 
memory  of  the  apostle  (Tobler,  p.  471).  The  town  is, 
for  a  jMohammedan  place,  busy  and  prosperous  (see  Van 
de  Velde,  Syr.  and  Palest,  i,  244).  Buried  in  palms,  and 
with  a  large  well  close  to  the  entrance,  it  looks  from  a 
distance  inviting  enough,  but  its  interior  is  very  repul- 
sive on  account  of  the  extraordinary  number  of  persons, 
old  and  young,  whom  one  encounters  at  every  step,  either 
totally  blind,  or  afflicted  with  loathsome  diseases  of  the 
eyes.  It  is  a  considerable  villagfe  of  small  houses,  with 
nothing  to  distinguish  it  from  ordinary  Moslem  villages 
save  the  ruins  of  the  celebrated  church  of  St.  George, 
which  are  situated  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  town.  Tlie 
building  must  have  been  very  large.  The  walls  of  the 
eastern  end  are  standing  only  in  the  parts  near  the  al- 
tar, including  the  arch  over  the  latter ;  but  the  western 
end  remains  more  perfect,  and  has  been  built  into  a  large 
mosque,  the  lofty  minaret  of  which  forms  the  landmark 
of  Lud.  As  the  city  of  St.  George,  who  is  one  with  the 
famous  personage  El-Khudr,  Lydda  is  held  in  much 
honor  by  the  Moslems.  In  their  traditions  the  gate  of 
the  city  will  be  the  scene  of  the  hnal  combat  between 
Christ  and  Antichrist  (Sale's  Koran,  note  to  chap,  xliii ; 
and  Prel.  Disc,  iv,  §  4;  also  Jalal  ad-Din,  Temple  of  Je- 
rusalem, ^.^o-^).  See  Raumer,  PM^aVina,  p.  208 ;  Roh- 
mson, Bib. Researches,\ii,bb;  Sandys,  Travaiks;  Cotovi- 
cus,  Itiner.  p.  137, 138 ;  D'Arvieux,  Memoires,  ii,  28 ;  Po- 
cocke.  Description,  ii,  58 ;  Volney,  Voyage,  i,  278 ;  Thom- 
son, Land  and  Bool-,  ii,  291  sq. — Kitto ;  Smith. 

Lydgate,  John,  an  ancient  English  theologian, 
celebrated  particularly  as  a  poet,  one  of  the  successors 
of  Chaucer,  was  a  monk  of  the  Benedictine  abbey  of 
Bury  St.  Edmunds,  in  Suffolk.  The  dates  of  only  a  (aw 
of  the  events  of  his  life  have  been  ascertained.  He  was 
ordained  a  subdeacon  in  1389,  a  deacon  in  1393,  and  a 
priest  in  1397,  whence  it  has  been  conjectured  that  he 
was  born  about  1375.  He  seems  to  have  arrived  at  his 
greatest  eminence  about  1430.  After  a  short  education 
at  Oxford  he  travelled  in  France  and  Italy,  and  re- 
turned a  complete  master  of  the  language  and  literature 
of  both  countries.  He  chiefly  studied  Dante,  Boccac- 
cio, and  Alain  Chartier,  and  became  so  distinguished  a 
proficient  in  polite  learning  that  he  opened  a  school  in 
his  monastery  for  teaching  the  sons  of  the  nobilit}'  ver- 
sification and  composition.  Although  philology  was  his 
subject,  he  was  not  unacquainted  with  the  philosophy 
of  the  day :  he  was  not  only  a  poet  and  a  rhetorician, 
but  a  geometrician,  an  astronomer,  a  theologist,  and  a 
disputant.  He  died  about  1401. — English.  Cyclop,  s.  v.; 
Warton,  Hist.  Engl.  Poetry  ;  Chambers,  Cyclop.  Eng.  Lit. 
i,  40  sq. 

Lyd'ia  {\vcia),  the  name  of  a  country,  and  also  of 
a  woman  in  the  New  Testament. 

1.  The  Hebrew  Lro  (•'  Lydia"  in  Ezek.  xxx,  5 ;  see 
also  Ludim),  a  province  in  the  west  of  Asia  Minor,  sup- 
posed to  have  derived  its  name  from  Lud,  the  foiu-th  son 
of  Shem  (Gen.  x,  22).  Thus  Josephus  states  "  those 
who  are  now  called  Lydians  (AfCoi),  but  anciently  Lu- 
diin  (Aoicoi),  sprung  from  Lud"  (Aoiic^«,  ^»^  i,  6,  4; 
compare  Bochart,  Opera,  i,  83,  and  the  authorities  cited 
there).  See  Ethnology.  Lydia  was  bounded  on  the 
east  by  Greater  Phrv'gia,  on  the  north  by  yEolis  or  JMy- 
sia.  on  the  west  by  Ionia  and  the  ^giean  Sea,  and  on 
the  south  it  was  separated  from  Caria  by  the  IMa-ander 
(see  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Geogr.  s.  v.).  The  country 
is  (or  the  most  part  level  (Schubert,  Reisen,  i,  309  sq.). 
Among  the  mountains,  that  of  Tmolus  was  celebrated 
for  its  saffron  and  red  wine  (Xenoph.  Cyrop.  vi,  2,  21). 
Lydia,  however,  lay  on  the  west  coast  of  Asia  Minor, 
and  thus  was  far  removed  from  the  other  possessions  of 
the  Shemitic  nations,  (ireek  -WTiters  inform  us  that 
Lydia  was  originally  peopled  by  a  Pelasgic  race  called 
fhfonians  (Homer,  Iliad,  ii,  800;  x,  431),  who  received 
their  name  from  Ma;on,  an  ancient  king  (Bochart,  /.  c). 
They  also  state  that  the  name  Lydians  was  derived  from 
a  king  who  ruled  them  at  a  later  period  (Herod,  i,  7). 


LYDIA 


586 


LYDIUS 


About  eifrht  centuries  B.C.  a  tribe  of  another  race  mi- 
f^ralcil  IrDm  the  east,  anil  subdued  the  Ma^unians.    These 
were  the  Lydians.     For  some  time  after  this  conquest 
both  nations  are  mentioned  promiscuously,  but  the  Lyd- 
ians gradually  obtained  power,  and  gave  their  name  to 
the  country  (Kalisch,  Ore  Gen.  x;  Dionysius,i,oO;  Pliny, 
V,  oO ;  comp.  Strabo,  xii,  572 ;  xiv,  679).     The  best  and 
most  recent  critics  regard  these  Lydians  as  a  Shemitic 
tribe,  and  consequently  the  descendants  of  Lud  (Movers, 
Die  Phijnicier,  i,  475).     This  view  is  strengthened  by 
the  description  of  the  character  and  habits  of  the  Lyd- 
ians.   They  were  warlike  (Herod,  i,  79),  skilled  in  horse- 
manship (i6.),  and  accustomed  to  serve  as  mercenaries 
under  foreign  princes  (vii,  71).     Now,  in  Isa.  Ixvi,  19,  a 
warlilie  people  called  Lud  is  mentioned  in  connection 
with  Tarshish  and  Pul;  and  again  in  Ezek.  xx\'ii,  10, 
the  prophet  says  of  Tyre,  "  They  of  Persia,  and  of  Lud, 
and  of  Phut,  were  in  thine  arm}',  thy  men  of  war." 
There  can  scarcely  be  a  doubt  that  this  is  the  Shemitic 
nation  mentioned  in  Genesis,  and  which  migrated  to 
Western  Asia,  and  gave  the  province  of  Lydia  its  name. 
The  identity  has  recently  been  called  in  question  by 
professor  and  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson,  but  their  arguments 
do  not  seem  sufficient  to  set  aside  the  great  mass  of  cir- 
cumstantial evidence  in  its  favor  (Eawlinson's  Herodo- 
tus, i,  160,  059,  667 ;  comp.  KaUsch,  ad  loc.  Gen. ;  Prich- 
ard,  Phijsical  History  o/ iVanlind,  iv,  562  sq. ;  Niebuhr, 
Lectures  on  Ancient  History,  i,  87;  Gesenius,  Thesaunis, 
p.  745).     In  the  palmy  days  of  Lydia  its  kings  ruled 
from  the  shores  of  the  vEgtean  to  the  river  Halys;  and 
Croesus,  who  was  its  king  in  the  time  of  Solon  and  of 
Cyrus,  was  reputed  the  richest  monarch  in  the  world 
(Strabo,  xv,  735).     He  was  aTjle  to  bring  into  the  field 
an  army  of  420,000  foot  and  60,000  horse  against  Cyrus, 
by  whom,  however,  he  was  defeated,  and  his  kingdom 
annexed  to  the  Persian  empire  (Herod,  i,  6).    Lydia  af- 
terwards formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Seleucidse ; 
and  it  is  related  in  1  Mace,  viii,  8,  that  Antiochus  the 
Great  was  compelled  by  the  Roman.--  to  cede  Lydia  to 
king  Eumenes  (comp.  Apian.  Syr.  38).     Some  difficulty 
arises  in  the  passage  referred  to  from  the  names  "  India 
and  Media"  found  in  connection  with  it ;  but  if  we  re- 
gard these  as  incorrectly  given  by  the  writer  or  by  a 
copyist  for  ''  Ionia  and  Mysia,"  the  agreement  with 
Livy's  account  of  the  same  transaction  (xxxvii,  56)  will 
be  sufficiently  established,  the  notice  of  the  maritime 
provinces  alone  in  the  book  of  Maccabees  being  explica- 
ble on  the  ground  of  their  being  best  known  to  the  in- 
habitants of  Palestine.     In  the  time  of  the  travels  of 
the  apostles  it  was  a  province  of  the  Roman  empire 
(Ptolemy,  v,  2, 16 ;  Pliny,  v,  30).     Its  chief  towns  were 
Sardis  (the  capital),  Thyatira,  and  Philadelphia,  all  of 
which  are  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  although 
the  name  of  the  province  itself  does  not  occur.    Its  con- 
nection with  Jiidrea,  under  the  Seleucidse,  is  referred  to 
by  Josephus  (.-1  ut.  xii,  3,  4).    The  manners  of  the  Lyd- 
ians were  corrupt  even  to  a  proverb  (Herod,  i,  93). — 
Kitto ;  Smith.     See  Th.  Menke,  Lydicea  (Berlin,  1844)  ; 
CTamci,  Asia  Minor,  i,  413;  Forbiger,  Handb.der  Alien 
Geoyr.  ii,  167 ;  Clinton,  Fasti  Hellen.  Appendix,  p.  361 ; 
Niebuhr,  Lectures  on  A  nc.  Hist,  i,  82  ;  Cellarius,  Notiiiw, 
ii,  108  sq.;  Mannert, Gwr/r.A^I, iii,345 sq. ;  AUgem.Welt- 
histor.  iv,  623  sq. ;  Beck,  Weltg.  i,  308  sq. ;  Heeren,  Ideen, 
I,  i,  154  sq. 

2.  A  woman  of  Thyatira,  "a  seller  of  purple,"  who 
dwelt  in  the  city  of  Philippi,  in  IMacedonia  (Acts  xvi, 
14,  15).  A.D.  47.  The  commentators  are  not  agreed 
•whether  "  Lydia"  should  be  regarded  as  an  appellative, 
or  a  derivative  from  tlie  country  to  which  the  woman 
belonged,  Thyatira,  her  native  place,  being  in  Lydia. 
There  are  examples  of  this  latter  sense;  but  the  preced- 
ing word  ovofia-i  seems  here  to  support  the  former,  and 
the  name  was  a  common  one»  (See  Biel  and  I.  Hase  in 
the  Bill.  Brem.  ii,  411 ;  iii,  275  ;  v,  670 ;  vi",  1041 ;  Symb. 
Brein.  II,  ii,  124;  compare  Ugolini  Thesaur.  xiii,  xxix.) 
Lydia  was  not  by  birth  a  Jewess,  but  a  proselyte,  as  the 
phrase  "  who  worshipped  God"  imports.     It  was  at  the 


Jewish  Sal )bath- worship  by  the  side  of  a  stream  (Acts 
xvi,  13)  that  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel  by  Paul  reached 
her  heart.  She  was  converted,  being  the  first  person  in 
Europe  who  embraced  Christianity  there,  and  after  she 
and  her  household  had  been  baptized  she  pressed  the 
use  of  her  house  so  earnestly  upon  the  apostle  and  his 
associates  that  they  were  constrained  to  accept  the  in- 
vitation. As  her  native  place  was  in  the  province  of 
Asia  (Acts  xvi,  14;  Rev.  ii,  18),  it  is  interesting  to  no- 
tice that  through  her,  indirectly,  the  Gospel  may  have 
come  into  that  very  district  where  Paul  himself  had 
recently  been  forbidden  directly  to  preach  it  (Acts  xvi, 
6).  We  infer  that  she  was  a  person  of  considerable 
wealth  partly  from  the  fact  that  she  gave  a  home  to 
Paul  and  his  companions,  partly  from  the  mention  of 
the  conversion  other  "household,"  under  which  term, 
whether  children  are  included  or  not,  slaves  are  no  doubt 
comprehended.  Of  Lydia's  character  we  are  led  to  form 
a  high  estimate  from  her  candid  reception  of  the  Gos- 
pel, her  urgent  hospitality,  and  her  continued  friendship 
to  Paul  and  Silas  when  they  were  persecuted.  Whether 
she  was  one  of  "  those  women  who  labored  with  Paul  in 
the  Gospel"  at  Philippi,  as  mentioned  afterwards  in  the 
epistle  to  that  place  (Phil,  iv,  3),  it  is  impossible  to  say. 
The  Lydians  were  famous  for  the  art  of  dyeing  purple 
vests  (Pliny,  vii,  57 ;  ]Max.  Tyr.  xl,  2 ;  Yaler.  Flacc.  iv, 
368 ;  Claud.  Rajit.  Proserp.  i,  275 ;  ^lian,  Anim.  iv,  46), 
and  Lydia,  as  "  a  seller  of  purple,"  is  supposed  to  have 
been  a  dealer  in  vests  so  dyed  rather  than  in  the  dye 
itself  (see  Kuinol  on  Acts  xiv,  14). — Kitto;  Smith. 
Lyd'iau  (Jer.  xlvi,  9).  See  Lud;  Ludim  ;  Lydia. 
Lydius,  Balthasar,  a  Dutch  theologian  of  Ger- 
man origin,  was  born  at  Umstadt,  near  Darmstadt,  about 
1577;  studied  at  Leyden  ;  became  pastor  at  Streefkerk 
in  1602,  and  in  1008  at  Dordrecht.  He  was  present  at 
the  Synod  of  Dort.  He  died  in  1629,  Lydius  was  a 
violent  opponent  of  the  Remonstrants.  Of  his  literary 
labors,  one  deserves  special  mention,  Wakhnsiu  (now 
very  rare,  Rotterdam,  1010-17 ;  2d  ed.  Amsterdam,  1023, 
2  vols.  8vo),  in  which  he  seeks  to  show  an  intimate  con- 
nection between  the  Moravians  and  Waldensians.  See 
Herzog,  Real-Encyklop.  xx,  63,  64. 

Lydius,  Jacob,  a  Dutch  theologian,  son  of  the 
preceding,  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  17tli  cen- 
turj'  at  Dordrecht,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
synod  held  there.  He  died  in  1688.  Some  of  his  works 
deserve  special  mention:  Agonistica  Sacra,  sire  Syntag- 
ma vocum  et  jihrasium  agonisticarum  quce  in  Scriptia-a 
occurrunt  (Rott.  1657, 12mo) : — Florum  Sparsio  ad  his- 
torium  passionis  Jesu  Christi  (ibid,  1672,  8vo).  See 
JirawAi,  Hist.of  the  Eeformation  in  the  Loio  Countries; 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxii,  388. 

Lydius,  Johannes  (1),  a  German  theologian, 
brother  of  Balthasar,  was  born  at  Frankfort  about  1577, 
and  became  pastor  at  Oudewater  (the  birthplace  of  Ar- 
minius)  in  1002.  He  died  in  1643.  Like  his  brother 
Balthasar,  he  is  noted  for  his  opposition  to  Arminianism. 
He  was  the  editor  of  the  works  of  Clemanges,  Wessels, 
etc.     See  Herzog,  Real-Encyklop.  xx,  64, 

Lydius,  Johannes  (2\  one  of  the  early  Dutch 
ministers  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  America,  was  edu- 
cated in  Holland,  aud  settled  at  Schenectady  and  Al- 
bany, N.  Y.,  in  1702.  Like  his  predecessors  in  the  same 
Church,  he  labored  successfully  for  the  instruction  and 
salvation  of  the  Mohawk  Indians.  He  ministered  among 
the  tribes  of  the  "  Five  Nations,"  and  received  from  the 
governor  and  council  suitable  compensation  for  his  serv- 
ices. He  died  March  1,  1710.  About  thirtj-  Indian 
commimicants  were  in  connection  with  his  Chiu-ch  at 
his  decease.  He  is  represented  by  his  contemporary, 
Rev.  Thomas  Barclay,  of  the  Church  of  England,  in  a 
report  to  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 
in  Foreign  Parts,  as  '"a  good,  pious  man,"  who  '"lived 
in  entire  friendship"  with  him,  "  and  sent  his  own  chil- 
dren to  be  catechized," — Documentary  Hist,  of  Xew  York, 
iii,  897 ;  Dr,  Rogers's  Hist.  Discourse.     (W.  J,  B.  T.) 


LYDIUS 


587 


LYON 


Lydius,  Martin,  a  noted  Dutch  theologian,  father 
of  Balthasar  and  Jacob,  was  born  at  Lubeck,  Germany, 
ill  1539  or  1540,  of  Dutch  parentage,  and  was  educated 
at  the  universities  of  Tiibingen  and  Heidelberg,  where 
in  1566  he  was  employed  at  the  Coller/ium  Sapieniice  as 
teacher.  On  account  of  persecution  in  the  Palatinate, 
he  went  to  Holland,  and  became  in  1579  pastor  of  a 
Church  at  Amsterdam.  Upon  the  founding  of  the  uni- 
versity at  Franecker  in  1585,  he  was  called  thither  as 
professor.  He  died  in  1601.  He  is  noted  for  the  part 
he  took  in  the  Arrainian  controversy.  It  is  he  who 
forwarded  to  Arminius  the  works  of  Koornhert  and 
Arnold  Cornelius  for  refutation,  which  resulted  instead 
in  the  conversion  of  Arminius.  See  Herzog,  Real-En- 
cijkl.  XX,  61  sq. ;  Bayle,  Hist.  Did.  iii,  970,  971.    See  Ar- 

MINIANISM. 

Lye,  Edward,  an  English  philologist  and  clergy- 
man, was  born  at  Totnes,  Devonshire,  and  was  educated 
at  Hertford  College,  Oxford;  took  holy  orders  in  1719; 
was  presented  to  the  living  of  Haughton  Parya,  North- 
amptonshire; in  1750  became  vicar  of  Yardley  Hast- 
ings, and  died  in  1767.  He  acquired  distinction  by  his 
researches  in  the  Saxon  language  and  hterature.  See 
AUibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  m.  A  uthors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lye,  Thomas,  an  English  Nonconformist  clergy- 
man, flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century. 
While  minister  at  All-Hallows,  Lombard  Street,  London, 
he  was  called  upon  to  take  oath  against  the  king;  re- 
fusing, he  was  ejected  in  1651 ;  reinstated,  he  was  once 
more  expelled,  because  of  his  refusal  to  take  the  oath  of 
luiiformity,  in  1662.  He  was  very  pojiular  among  Puri- 
tan families.  His  Sermons  were  published  (Lond.  1660, 
4to;  1662;  1681).  f^QC  AWihoxie,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Am. 
Authors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v.;  Stoughton,  Eccks.  Hist,  of  Engl. 
(Church  Restoration),  i,  278. 

Lyell,  Thojlvs,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  liichmond  County,  Va., 
May  13, 1775.  Though  educated  in  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church,  he  became  in  early  life  a  IMethodist,  and 
officiated  on  the  Frederick  Circuit,  Va.,  also  in  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.,  and  was  chaplain  to  Congress.  In  1801, 
however,  he  became  rector  of  Christ's  Church,  N.  Y.,  and 
remained  ever  after  in  that  connection.  In  1803  he  was 
made  A.M.  by  Brown  University,  and  in  1822  D.D.  by 
Columbia  College.  Through  a  long  ministry  he  held 
on  the  even  tenor  of  his  way,  and  was  an  active  mem- 
ber of  almost  every  institution  connected  with  the  dio- 
cese of  New  York.  He  died  INIarch  4, 1848. — Sprague, 
Annals,  v,495. 

Lyford,  William,  an  English  theologian  and  zeal- 
ous Calvinist,  was  born  in  1598  at  Pcrpmere  (Berk- 
shire) ;  graduated  at  Oxford ;  became  a  fellow  of  Mag- 
dalen College ;  entered  the  Churcli ;  became  vicar  of 
Sherborne,  Dorsetshire,  and  spent  the  remainder  of  his 
life  there.  He  died  in  1653.  Among  other  sermons 
and  treatises  are  published.  Cases  of  Conscience  pro- 
pounded in  the  Time  of  Rebellion  (which  preaches  tol- 
erance to  all  parties)  : — Principles  of  Faith  and  of  a  good 
Conscience  (Lond.  1642;  Oxford,  1652,  8vo): — An  Apol- 
ogy for  our  public  Ministry  and  Infant  Baj)tism  (Lond. 
1652,  1653,  4to)  : — The  plain  Man's  Senses  exercised  to 
discern  both  good  and  evil  (ibid.  1655, 4to).  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  vol.  xxxii,  s.  v. ;  Thomas,  Diet,  of 
Biog.  and  Mythol.  s.  v. ;  AUibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer. 
Authors,  s.  V. 

Lyle,  John,  A.M.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom 
in  l;(nkl)ridge  Connt_v,Va.,  October  20, 1769,  and  gradua- 
ted at  Liberty  Hall  in  1794.  Soon  after  he  was  employed 
in  teaching,  piu-sued  his  theological  studies,  and  was  li- 
censed in  1797.  He  was  ordained  in  1799,  and  in  1800 
took  charge  of  the  churches  of  Salem  and  Sugar  Ridge, 
in  Clark  County.  In  1805  he  was  appointed  a  mission- 
ary within  the  bounds  of  the  Cumberland  Presbytery, 
and  suliseciuently  a  commissioner  of  the  General  Assem- 
bly. He  removed  to  Paris,  Bourbon  Co.,  Ky.,  in  1807, 
established  an  academy,  and  at  the  same  time  preached 


to  the  churcnes  of  Cave  Ridge  and  Concord.  He  next 
supplied  the  church  of  Mount  Pleasant,  in  Cynthiana, 
Harrison  County,  and  passed  the  summer  of  1814  in  the 
counties  of  Bourbon,  Harrison,  Nicholas,  and  Fayette, 
preaching  chiefly  to  the  colored  people.  Having  been 
instrumental,  between  1815  and  1818,  in  the  settlement 
of  ministers  on  the  field  of  his  own  labors,  he  devoted 
the  rest  of  his  life  to  missionary  service,  in  which  he 
was  successfully  engaged  till  his  death  in  Paris,  Ky., 
July  22, 1825.  He  published  Contributions  to  Periodi- 
ccds: — A  Neiv  American  English  Grammar  (1804): — ^1 
Sermon  on  the  Qualifications  and  Duties  of  Gospel  Min- 
isters (1821). — Sprague,  ^  ««a/s,  iv,  178. 

Lyman,  Henry,  an  American  missionary',  was  born 
at  Northampton,  ]\Iass.,  in  1810,  and  graduated  at  Am- 
herst College  in  1829.  He  went  as  a  missionary  to  Su- 
matra, and  was  killed  there  by  the  Battahs,  with  Mr. 
Munson,  January  28, 1834.  He  published  Condition  'of 
Females  in  Pagan  Countries. 

Lyman,  Joseph,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  born  April  14, 1749,  at  Lebanon,  Conn.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  College  in  1767,  was  chosen  tutor  in  1770,  in 
which  position  he  remained  two  years,  and  was  installed 
pastor  in  Hatfield,  IMass.,  INIarch  4, 1772,  where  he  died 
March  27, 1828.  He  was  elected  president  of  the  Hamp- 
shire Miss.  Society  in  1812,  vice-president  of  the  American 
Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions  in  1819, 
and  president  in  1823.  Dr.  Lyman  pnbhshed  several  oc- 
casional Sermons  (1787-1821). — ^^r&gne:,  Annals,  ii,  10. 

Lyman,  William,  D.D.,  a  Presbj'terian  minister, 
was  born  about  1763,  and  was  educated  at  Yale  College, 
where  he  graduated  in  1784.  He  was  pastor  at  Haddam, 
Conn.,  and  China,  N.  Y.,  and  died  in  1833.  The  College 
of  New  Jersey  honored  him  with  the  doctorate  in  divin- 
ity in  1808.  Dr.  Lyman  published  four  Occasional  Se?-- 
nwns  (1806, 1807, 1810).  See  Drake,  Diet.  Amer.  Biog. 
p.  570 ;  AUibone,  Diet.  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  ii,  s.  v. 

Lynch,  Thomas  M.,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  born  in  Wilkerson  Coun- 
ty, Miss.,  August  1, 1826,  was  converted  at  Oxford,  Ga., 
while  a  student  at  the  university,  at  once  joined  tlie 
Church,  and  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1847,  and  shortlj' 
after  was  admitted  to  the  Alabama  Conference.  His 
cultivated  mind,  his  rare  gifts  in  oratory,  and  his  deep 
piety  at  once  commended  him  to  the  love  and  confidence 
of  tiie  Conference.  I*;non  Circuit  was  his  first,  and  Ma- 
rianna  and  Appalachicola  his  second  appointment,  when, 
in  1849,  his  health  faUed,  and  it  became  necessary  for 
him  to  locate.  By  1858  he  had  sufficiently  recovered 
to  re-enter  upon  his  life-work,  and  he  now  consecutively 
served  his  church  at  Lowndesboro,  Pineville,  PrattviUe, 
and  the  Socapatoy  Circuit.  In  the  last-named  placa 
his  health  was  again  affected  by  the  extent  of  the  work 
and  arduousness  of  its  duties,  and  he  retired  from  active 
work.  He  died  in  Coosa  County,  Ala.,  April  18, 1867. 
"In  all  the  relations  of  life  he  sustained  the  character  of 
a  gentleman  of  the  highest  type.  Possessing  a  rich 
fund  of  knowledge,  and  gifted  with  conversational  pow- 
ers that  statesmen  and  courtiers  might  envy,  he  ever 
drew  around  him,  by  the  affability  of  his  manners  and 
sweetness  of  his  spirit,  a  large  circle  of  friends,  and  held 
them  by  an  indissoluble  cord."  As  a  preacher  his  ^^•ord 
had  power  and  unction.  See  Minutes  of  Conferences  of 
M.  E.  Church  South,  iii,  128. 

Lynde,  Sir  Humphrey,  an  English  writer  of  note, 
was  born  in  1579,  and  was  educated  first  at  Westminster 
School,  and  then  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford ;  was  made 
bachelor  of  arts  in  1600.  He  was  a  member  of  several 
Parliaments,  and  enjoyed  other  national  honors,  but  he 
deserves  a  place  here  only  on  accomit  of  his  works, 
among  which  are  Via  tuta' {hoxxA.  1628.  8vo,  and  often) 
and  Ancient  Characters  of  the  Visible  Church,  etc.  He 
died  June  14, 1636.     See  Gen.  Biog.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Lyon,  Asa,  a  Congregational  minister,  was  born 
at  Pomfret,  Conn.,  Dec.  31, 1763,  and  graduated  at  Dart- 


lyo:n^ 


588 


LYRA 


mouth  College  in  1790.  He  was  pastor  of  the  Congre- 
gational Church  at  Sunderland,  Mass.,  from  Oct.  4, 1792, 
to  .Soi)t.  23, 1793 ;  at  South  Hess,  Vt.,  from  Dec.  21, 1802, 
to  March  15, 1840;  and  was  a  member  of  Congress  from 
Yerniont  from  1815  to  1817.  He  was  appointed  chief 
judge  of  Grand  Isle  County  in  1805,  180G,  1808,  and 
1813;  and  was  during  nine  years  a  state  representative, 
lie  was  an  able  preacher.  His  published  sermons  and 
patriotic  addresses  show  a  high  order  of  talent  and 
scholarship.     See  Drake,  Did.  of  Amei:  Biorjr.  s.  v. 

Lyoii,  Hervey,  a  I'resbyterian  minister,  was  born 
in  Wahlen,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  18,  1800,  and  was  educated  at 
Unii)n  College,  pursued  a  course  of  theology  at  Prince- 
ton, N.  J.,  and  soon  after  removed  to  Ohio.     Here,  in 

1828,  he  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Tresbytery  of 
Huron,  and  ordained  pastor  of  the  Church  in  Vermil- 
ion. In  1830  he  removed  to  Brownhelm,  Ohio,  and 
engaged  in  the  occupation  of  teaching  at  the  academj' 
in  Kichlield,  Ohio.  He  died  JIarch  7, 18C3.  Mr.  Lyon 
was  a  superior  teacher,  and  much  beloved  by  his  pupils ; 
as  a  Christian,  he  enjoyed  a  spirit  remarkable  for  its 
depth  and  intensity.  See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  A  Imanac, 
1804,  p.  309.     (.J.  L.  S.) 

Lyon,  John  C,  a  noted  German  minister  in  the 
Jlethodist  Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  Leonsberg,  in 
the  kingdom  of  Wlirtemberg,  Germany,  Feb.  11,  1802. 
His  parents  were  of  the  Lutheran  faith,  and  Jolin  re- 
ceived a  Christian  training.  In  1817  he  emigrated  to 
this  country,  and  some  nine  years  later  was  brought 
nearer  the  cross,  at  once  joined  the  INIethodist  Episcopal 
Church,  and,  after  due  preparation,  entered  the  ministry, 
in  which  he  continued  for  thirty-four  years,  preaching 
both  to  English  and  German  congregations  with  great 
acceptance.  He  received  consecutively  the  following 
appointments :  1828,  Baltimore  Conference,  Huntington ; 

1829,  Gettysbiu-gh ;  1830,  Carlisle  Circuit;  1831,  Balti- 
more; 1832-33,  Baltimore,  Sharp  Street,  and  Asbury; 
1834,  superannuated ;  1835,  Lexington  ;  1836,  Lewis- 
burgh  Circuit ;  1837-38,  Rockingham ;  1839-40,  Augus- 
ta; 1841,  York;  1842-45,  New  York  Conference,  Second 
Street  German  Church;  1846-48,  Philadelphia;  1849- 
52,  presiding  elder  of  New  York  German  District;  1853- 
.54,  East  Baltimore ;  1855-50,  New  York,  Second  Street ; 
1857,  Fortieth  Street;  1858-59,  Philadelphia;  1860, 
Frederick  City;  1861,  East  Baltimore.  In  1862  he  was 
superannuated,  and  died  May  16, 1868.  "  Brother  Lyon 
was  an  earnest,  faithful  worker  in  the  Gospel,  never  tir- 
ing, esteeming  all  labor  light  which  served  to  advance 
his  Master's  glory.  .  .  .  He  ^vas  a  mighty  man  of  God 
in  the  pulpit,  a  devout  and  holy  man  in  life,  a  pleasant 
companion,  a  kind  husband,  a  good  father,  a  sweet  singer 
in  Zion,  a  useful  laborer,  turning  many  to  righteous- 
ness."—CV*»y:  Minutes,  1869,  p.  lOk 

Lyon,  Mary,  a  teacher  and  female  philanthropist, 
bom  in  F.uckland,  Jlass.,  Feb.  28, 1797,  is  noted  as  the 
founder  of  the  IMount  Hol^-oke  Female  Seminary  in 
South  Hadley,  over  which  she  presided  until  her  death, 
March  5,  1849.  A  feature  of  her  plan  (at  first  much 
opposed)  was  the  i)erformance  of  the  institution's  domes- 
tic labor  by  teachers  and  pupils,  intending  to  give  them 
independence  of  servants,  self-denial,  health,  and  inter- 
est in  domestic  duties.  She  set  forth  her  views  in  Ten- 
dencii-s  (if  the  Principles  cmhraced  and  the  System  adopted 
in  ilie  Monnt  Iloli/oke  Female  Seminary  (1840),  and  in 
the  Missionary  Offering  (1843).  Sec  Hitchcock,  Life 
and  Lahirs  of  Mary  Lyon  (1851) ;  Drake,  Diet.  ofAmer. 
Hioffraji/iy,  s.  v. 

Lyons,  a  citv  of  France,  situated  on  the  Khone,  316 
miles  by  railway  south-south-east  of  Paris,  is  noted  in 
ecclesiastical  history  for  two  ecumenical  coiuicils  which 
were  held  there : 

I.  In  1245,  consisting  of  140,bishops,  and  convened 
fi>r  tlie  ])urpose  of  promoting  the  Crusades,  restoring  ec- 
clesiastical discipline,  and  dethroning  Frederick  II,  em- 
peror of  (ilcrmany.  It  was  also  decreed  at  this  council 
that  cardinals  should  wear  red  hats. 


II.  In  1274.  There  were  500  bishops  and  about  1000 
inferior  clergy  present.  Its  principal  object  was  the  re- 
imion  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches. — Hook,  Diction- 
ary; Hmith, Tables  of  Church  History ;  Landon,  Manual 
of  Councils,  s.  v. 

Lyons,  Israel,  a  noted  English  scholar  of  Jewish 
parentage,  was  born  at  Cambridge  in  1709,  and  after  the 
completion  of  his  studies,  mainly  dependent  upon  his 
own  efforts,  he  became  instructor  of  Hebrew  at  the  Uni- 
versity in  Cambridge.  He  died  in  1770.  Besides  val- 
uable contributions  to  mathematical  science,  he  wrote 
The  Scholai-'s  Instructor,  or  Hebrew  Grammar  (1735, 
8vo ;  2d  ed.,  greatly  enlarged,  1757) : — Observations  and 
Inquiries  relating  to  various  Parts  of  Scripture  History 
(1701).  This  last-named  work  is  supposed  by  some  to 
have  been  written,  however,  by  his  father.  See  General 
Biographical  Dictionary,  s.  v. 

Lyons,  James  Gilbourne,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  epis- 
copal clergyman  and  educator,  a  native  of  England,  em- 
igrated to  America  in  1844,  and  began  his  clerical  labors 
at  St.  Mary's  Church,  Burlington,  N.  J.  In  1846  he  re- 
moved to  Philadelphia,  and  established  himself  as  a 
teacher  of  the  classics.  His  educational  success  secured 
him  the  position  of  principal  of  Haverford  Classical 
School,  which  he  held  until  his  death,  Feb.  3, 1868. 

Lyra  (also  Lyrcmus),  Nicholas  i>e,  so  called  from 
LjTe,  in  Normandy,  the  place  of  his  nativity,  was  bom 
about  1270.  He  entered  the  Order  of  the  Franciscans 
at  Verneuil  in  1291,  and  completed  his  studies  in  Paris. 
Here  he  studied  successfully,  was  admitted  to  the  de- 
gree of  doctor,  and  became  a  distinguished  lecturer  on 
the  Bible.  Besides  his  studies  at  the  university,  he  pri- 
vately devoted  himself  to  the  acquisition  of  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  Hebrew,  and  his  association  Avith  converts 
of  Jewish  faith  at  this  time  has  probably  given  rise  to 
the  opinion,  even  now  held  by  some,  that  Nicholas  de 
Lyra  was  born  of  Jewish  parents,  and  was  himself  a 
convert  to  Christianity.  His  own  writings,  however, 
flatlj^  contradict  tliis  report,  as  has  been  shown  by  "Wolf 
[Bibliothecu,  i  and  iii,  s.  v.)  ;  and  Nicholas  himself  tells 
us,  in  one  of  his  works  (the  polemical  treatise),  that  he 
had  but  little  association  with  Jews,  and  depended  main- 
ly upon  the  experience  of  other  Christians  for  his  delin- 
eation of  Jewish  character  and  customs  (compare  Gratz, 
Gesch.  d.  Juden,  vii,  513).  His  great  learning,  refined 
taste,  and.  eminent  worth,  raised  him  to  the  jmncipal 
offices  of  his  order,  and  secured  him  the  friendship  of 
the  most  illustrious  persons  of  his  age.  He  died  at 
Paris  October  23, 1340.  It  is  especially  as  a  writer  that 
Lyra  is  justly  celebrated,  and,  as  has  been  frequently  as- 
serted, he  became,  by  his  thorough  expositions  of  the 
Scriptures,  one  of  the  greatest  aids  of  the  reformers  of  the 
16th  centurj-.  whence  the  couplet  on  Luther's  exegetical 
labors  by  the  enemies  of  the  great  German  reformer : 
"  Si  Lyra  non  lyrasset 
Luthcrus  non  saltasset." 
Nicholas  de  Lyra's  chef  d'ccuvre  is  his  Postillce  perpetuce 
in  xtniversa  Biblia  (Rome,  1471-72,5  vols,  fol.;  best  edit. 
Antw.  1634,  6  vols,  fol.),  which  brought  him  the  title  of 
"  doctor  planus  et  utUis" — or,  better,  which  immortalized 
the  name  of  Lyra.  The  great  merit  of  this  commentary 
consists  in  the  embodiment  of  the  sober-spirited  and  in- 
genious explanations  of  Rashi,  whose  mode  of  interpre- 
tation Lyra  regarded  as  his  model,  as  he  frankly  states, 
"Similiter  intendo  non  solum  dicta  doctorum  Catholi- 
corum,  sed  ctiam  Hebneorum  maxirae  rabbi  Salomouis, 
qui  inter  doctores  Hebroeos  locutus  est  rationalibus,  ad 
declarationem  sensus  literalis  inducere."  De  Lyra  even 
adopts  the  well-known  Jewish  four  modes  of  inteqircta- 
tion  denominated  fiTIS^TlD,  mystical;  ClTI,  alle- 
gorical ;  1-1,  spiritual ;  li'il'S,  literal,  which  he  thus  ex- 
presses in  verses  in  the  same  prologue  (i.  e.  the  first), 
from  which  the  former  quotation  is  made. 

"  Litem  gesta  docet,  quid  credas  allegoria, 
Moralis  quid  agas,  quo  tendas  auagogia." 
He  gives,  however,  the  preference  to  the  literal  sense. 


LYRE 


589 


LYSANIAS 


"All  of  them,  says  he,  in  the  second  prologue,  "pre- 
suppose the  literal  sense  as  the  foundation.  As  a  build- 
ing declining  from  the  foundation  is  likely  to  fall,  so  the 
mystic  exposition  which  deviates  from  the  literal  sense 
must  be  reckoned  unbecoming  and  unsuitable."  Even 
in  the  interpretation  of  the  X.  T.,  where  Eashi  failed  him, 
acquaintance  with  the  Eabbinical  writings  and  Jewish 
antiquities  enabled  him  to  illustrate  largely  by  allusion 
to  the  maimers  and  customs  of  the  Hebrews.  He  also 
wrote  a  treatise  in  defence  of  Christianity,  and  against 
J  udaism,  entitled  Tractatus  fratris  Nicolai  de  Lyra  de 
Messia  cjiisque  advenfu,  taia  cum  responsione  ad  Judceo- 
rum  ar(jumenta  quatuordecim  contra  verttatem  Eeanr/e- 
liorum,  which  he  finished  in  1309.  It  is  generally  ap- 
pended to  his  commentary,  and  is  also  given  in  the  po- 
lemical work  entitled  the  JfebrceomasHx  of  Hieronymus 
de  Sancta-fide  (Frankf.  1G02,  p.  148  sq.).  For  the  differ- 
ent editions  of  De  Lyra's  works  and  translations  into 
French  and  German,  see  Griisse,  Tresor  des  Livres  i-ai-es 
et  precieux,  s.  v. ;  see  also  Davidson,  Sacred  Hermeneu- 
tics  (ed.  1843),  p.  175  sq. ;  Dr.  Adam  Clarke,  Sacred  Lit. 
s.  V. ;  Kitto,  Cyclop.  Bill.  Lit.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lyre.     See  Harp. 

Lysa'nias  {Xvaaviac,  a  common  Greek  name)  is 
mentioned  by  Luke,  in  chap,  iii,  1,  as  tetrarch  of  Abilene, 
on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  anti-Lebanon,  near  Damas- 
cus, at  the  time  when  .John  the  Baptist  began  his  min- 
istry, A.D.  25.  See  Abila.  It  happens,  however,  that 
Josephus  speaks  of  a  prince  named  Lysanias  who  ruled 
over  a  territory  in  the  neighborhood  of  Lebanon  in  the 
time  of  Antony  and  Cleopatra,  and  that  he  also  mentions 
Abilene  as  associated  with  the  name  of  a  tetrarch  Ly- 
sanias, while  recounting  events  of  the  reigns  of  Calig- 
ula and  Claudius.  These  circumstances  have  given  to 
Strauss  and  others  an  opportunity  for  accusing  the  evan- 
gelist of  confusion  and  error,  but  we  shall  see  that  this 
accusation  rests  on  a  groundless  assumption. 

(o.)  What  Josephus  says  of  the  L3-sanias  who  was 
contemporary  with  Antony  and  Cleopatra  (i.  e.  who  lived 
sixty  years  before  the  time  referred  to  by  Luke)  is,  that 
he  succeeded  his  father  Ptolemy,  the  son  of  Memiseus,  in 
the  government  of  Chalcis,  under  JMt,  Lebanon  (  War,  i, 
1.'},  1;  Ant.  xiv,  7,4),  and  that  he  was  put  to  death  at 
tlie  instance  of  Cleopatra  (^Ant.  xv,  4,1),  who  seems  to 
have  received  a  good  part  of  his  territory.  It  is  to  be 
observed  that  Abila  is  not  specified  here  at  all,  and  that 
Lysanias  is  not  called  tetrarch. 

(6.)  What  Josephus  says  of  Abila  and  the  tetrarchy 
in  the  reigns  of  Caligula  and  Claudius  (i.  e.  about  twen- 
ty years  after  the  time  mentioned  in  Luke's  Gospel)  is, 
that  the  former  emperor  promised  the  "  tetrarchj'  of  Lv- 
sanias"  to  Agrippa  {A  nt.  xviii,  6, 10),  and  that  the  latter 
actually  gave  to  him  "Abila  of  Lysanias"  and  the  terri- 
tory near  Lebanon  {Ant.  xix,  5,  1  ;  comp.ll'ar,  ii,  12,8). 

Amid  the  obscurity  which  surrounds  this  name,  sev- 
eral conjectures  have  been  indulged  in,  which  we  will 
here  notice. 

1.  According  to  Eusebius  (whom  others  have  follow- 
ed, such  as  Bode  and  Adrichomius;  see  Corn,  a  Lapid. 
in  Luc.  iii,  1),  Lysanias  was  a  son  of  Herod  the  Great. 
This  opinion  (the  untenableness  of  which  is  shown  by 
Valesius,  on  Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccles.  i,  9,  and  by  Scaliger, 
Animadcer.  on  Euseb.  Citron,  p.  178)  has  no  other  foun- 
dation than  the  fact  that  the  evangelist  mentions  Lysa- 
nias with  Herod  Antipas  and  Philip. 

2.  To  the  older  commentators,  such  as  Casaubon  (On 
Baroniu^,  Ann.  xxxi,  Num.  4),  Scaliger  {loc.  cit.),  and 
others  (see  Corn,  a  Lap.  and  Grotius,  ad  loc),  this  dif- 
ference of  dates  presented  no  difficulty.  Allowing  his- 
torical credit  to  Luke  (on  which  subject  see  Dr.  MiU, 
Pantheistic  Princip.  pt.  ii,  p.  16  sq.),  no  less  than  to  Jose- 
phus, they  at  once  concluded  that  two  different  princes 
of  the  same  name,  and  possibly  of  the  same  family,  were 
referred  to  by  the  two  writers.  (See  also  Kuinol,  On 
Lvke  in,  \;  Krebsius,  06«e?T.  p.  110-113  ;  and  Robinson. 
£ibliotfi.Sacr.\;Hl). 

3.  This  reasonable  solution,  however,  was  unsatisfac- 


tory to  the  restless  critics  of  Germany.  Strauss  and 
others  (whose  names  are  mentioned  by  Bleek,  Synopt. 
Erhl.  i,  156,  and  INIeyer,  Komment.  ii,  289)  charge  the 
evangelist  with  "a  gross  chronological  error;"  a  charge 
which  they  found  on  the  assumption  that  the  Lysanias 
of  Chalcis  mentioned  by  .Josephus  is  identical  with  the 
Lj-'sanias  of  Abilene,  whom  Luke  mentions.  This  as- 
sumption is  supported  by  a  hypothesis  which  is  incapa- 
ble of  proof,  namely,  that  Abilene,  being  contiguous  to 
Chalcis,  was  united  to  the  latter  under  the  rule  of  Lysa- 
nias, the  son  of  Ptolemy.  It  must,  however,  be  borne 
in  mind  that  .Josephus  nowhere  speaks  of  Abilene  in 
connection  with  this  Lysanias ;  nor,  indeed,  does  he  men- 
tion it  at  all  until  many  years  after  the  notice  by  Luke. 
He  calls  Antony's  victim  simply  ruler  of  Chalcis.  More- 
over, it  is  of  importance  to  observe  that  the  tetrarchical 
division  of  Palestine  and  neighboring  districts  was  not 
made  until  after  the  death  of  Herod  the  Great;  so  that, 
in  his  haste  to  inculpate  the  evangelist,  Strauss,  in  ef- 
fect, attributes  to  the  historian,  whom  he  invidiously 
opposes  to  Luke  as  a  better  authority,  an  amount  of  in- 
accurate statement  which,  if  true,  would  destroy  all  re- 
liance on  his  history ;  for  we  have  already  seen  that  Jo- 
sephus more  than  once  speaks  of  a  "  tetrarchy  of  Lysa- 
nias, "  whereas  there  were  no  "  tetrarchies"  until  some 
thirty  years  after  the  death  of  Ptolemy's  son  Lysanias. 
It  is,  therefore,  a  juster  criticism  to  conclude  (against 
Strauss,  and  with  the  earlier  commentators)  that  in  such 
passages  as  we  have  quoted  above,  wherein  the  histori- 
an speaks  of  "Abila  of  Lysanias"  and  "the  tetrarchy 
of  Lysanias,"  that  a  later  Lysanias  is  certainly  meant ; 
and  that  Josephus  is  not  only  accurate  himself,  but  a 
voucher  also  for  the  veracity  of  Luke.  But  there  is  yet 
stronger  evidence  to  be  found  in  Josephus  of  the  unten- 
ableness of  Strauss's  objection  and  theory.  In  his  Jetu- 
ish  War  (ii,  12,8)  the  historian  tells  us  that  the  empe- 
ror Claudius  "  removed  Agrippa  [the  second]  from  Chal- 
cis [the  kingdom,  be  it  remembered,  of  Strauss's  Lysa- 
nias] to  a  greater  kingdom,  giving  him  in  addition  the 
kingdom  of  Lysanias^'  (ik  St  rijg  XaXKiSog  'Aypimrav 
tig  /.iii^ova  f3acn\eiav  /xtrariSriim  .  .  .  TrpoffiS'iyics  Si 
Ti]v  Ti  Avaaviov  fiaaiktiav').  Ebrard  exposes  the  ab- 
surdity of  Strauss's  argument  by  drawing  from  these 
words  of  Josephus  the  following  conclusion — inevitable, 
indeed,  on  the  terms  of  Strauss — that  Agrippa  was  de- 
prived of  Chalcis,  receiving  in  exchange  a  larger  king- 
dom, and  also  Chalcis !  (See  Ebrard's  Gosjjel  Hist. 
[Clark],  p.  145, 146 )  The  effect  of  this  red'actio  ad  ab- 
surdum  is  well  put  by  Dr.  Lee  {Lispiration  [1st  ed.],  p. 
394,  note],  "  Hence,  therefore,  Josephus  does  make  men- 
tion of  a  later  Lysanias  [on  the  denial  of  which  Strauss 
has  founded  his  assault  on  Luke],  and,  by  doing  so,  fully 
corroborates  the  fact  of  the  evangelist's  intimate  ac- 
quaintance with  the  tangled  details  of  Jewish  history 
in  his  day."  Many  eminent  writers  have  expressly  ac- 
cepted Ebrard's  conclusion,  including  Meyer  (loc.  cit.} 
and  Bleek  (loc.  cit.).  Patritius  concludes  an  elaljorate 
examination  of  the  entire  case  with  the  discover}-  that 
"  the  later  Lysanias,  whom  Luke  mentions,  was  known 
to  Josephus  also,  and  that,  so  far  from  ain-  difficulty  ac- 
cruing out  of  Josephus  to  the  evangelist's  chronology, 
as  alleged  by  objectors  to  his  veracitj',  the  historian's 
statements  rather  confirm  and  strengthen  it"  (Be  Evan- 
geliis,  iii,  42, 25).  It  is  interesting,  also,  to  remark  that, 
if  the  sacred  writer  gains  illustration  from  the  Jewish 
historian  in  this  matter,  he  also  repays  him  the  favor, 
by  helping  to  clear  up  what  would  otherwise  be  unin- 
telligible in  his  statements ;  for  instance,  when  Jose- 
phus (Ant.  xvii,  17,  4)  mentions  "  Batansea,  with  Tra- 
chonitis  and  Auranitis,  and  a  certain  part  of  what  was 
called  '  the  house  of  Zenotlorus,'  as  paying  a  certain 
tribute  to  Philip"  (rrin'  tivi  ntpti  oIkov  tov  ZijroOMpov 
Xtyofi'cvov);  and  when  it  is  remembered  that "  the  house 
of^Zenodorus"  included  other  territory-  besides  Abilene 
(comp.  Ant.  xv,  10,  3,  with  War,  i,  20,  4),  we  cannot  but 
admit  the  force  of  the  opinion  advanced  by  Grotius  (as 
quoted  by  Dr.  Hudson,  On  the  Antiq.  xvii,  11,  4),  that 


LYSCZYNSKI 


590 


LYSIAS 


"when  Josephiis  says  some  part  of  the  house  or  posses- 
sion of  Zemdonis  was  allotted  to  Philip,  he  thereby  de- 
clares that  the  larger  part  of  it  belonged  to  another. 
Tliis  other  was  Lysanias,  whom  Luke  mentions"  (see 
also  Krebsius,  Observat.  p.  112). 

4.  It  is  not  irrelevant  to  state  that  other  writers  be- 
sides Strauss  and  his  party  have  held  the  identity  of 
Luke's  Lysanias  with  Josephus's  son  of  Ptolemy,  and 
have  also  believed  that  Josephus  mentioned  but  one  Ly- 
sanias. But  (unlike  Strauss)  they  resorted  to  a  great 
shift  rather  than  assail  the  veracity  of  the  evangelist. 
Yalcsius  (on  Eusebius,  I/ist.  Eccles.  i,  10),  and,  more  re- 
cently, Paulus  {Comment,  ad  loc),  suggested  an  altera- 
tion of  Luke's  text,  either  by  an  erasure  of  rfrpapx"^"^" 
TOQ  after  'A/SiXryv/jc,  or  retaining  the  participle  and 
making  it  agree  with  ^iXinirov  as  its  subject  (getting 
rill  of  Avaaviov  as  a  leading  word  by  reducing  it  to  a 
mere  genitive  of  designation  by  its  transposition  with 
Ti]c — q.  d.  r/}c  Avaaviov  'Al5iXt]viig  TerpapxovvTOc),  as 
if  PhUip  had  been  called  by  the  evangelist  "  tetrarch  of 
Itursa,  Trachonitis,  and  the  Abilene  of  Lysanias."  This 
expedient,  however,  of  saving  Luke's  veracity  by  the 
mutilation  of  his  words  is  untenable,  not  having  any 
support  from  MS.  authoritj-. 

5.  Still  others  think  it  probable  that  the  Lysanias  men- 
tioned b}^  Josephus  in  the  second  instance  is  actually 
the  prince  referred  to  by  Luke.  Thus,  instead  of  a  con- 
tradiction, we  obtain  from  the  Jewish  historian  a  con- 
firmation of  the  evangelist;  and  the  argument  becomes 
very  decisive  if,  as  some  think,  Abilene  is  to  be  excluded 
from  the  territory  mentioned  in  the  story  which  has 
reference  to  Cleopatra. 

Li  conclusion,  it  is  worth  adding,  that  in  modern  times 
a  coin  lias  been  discovered  bearing  the  inscription  Av- 
oaviov  Ttrpdpxov  Kal  apxupiMf;,  and  Pococke  also  found 
an  inscription  on  the  remains  of  a  Doric  temple,  called 
Nebi  Abel,  the  ancient  Abila,  fifteen  English  miles  from 
Damascus,  which  makes  mention  of  Lysanias,  tetrarch 
of  A  hilene.  Both  the  coin  and  the  inscription  refer  to  a 
period  subsequent  to  the  death  of  Herod  (Pococke's  De- 
scription of  the  East,  IT,  i,  115, 116;  and  Sestini,  Lettere 
et  Dissertationi  numismatiche,  vi,  101,  tab.  2,  as  quoted  by 
Wieseler,  Chronolog.  Synops.  p.  183).  Similarly,  the  ge- 
ographer Ptolemj'  mentions  an  "  Abila  which  bears  the 
surname  of  Lysanias,"  "  AfiiKa  tinKXri^tXaa  Aimaviov  (v, 
18).  See  Davidson's  Introduct.  to  N.  T.  p.  218.— Kitto ; 
Smith.     See  Abilene. 

Lysczynski,  Casimir,  a  martyr  of  philosophical 
atheism,  descended  from  a  noble  family  of  Lithuania, 
was  educated  in  the  Jesuit  college  of  Wilna,  where  he 
greatly  distinguished  himself  by  his  talents,  but  from 
whence  he  was  finally  expelled  on  account  of  his  singu- 
lar religious  views.  He  then  commenced  to  study  law, 
and  in  IGSO  was  appointed  one  of  the  judges  of  Brzeski, 
in  Lithuania.  He  now  turned  his  attention  again  to 
theology,  and  Avrote,  in  the  form  of  remarks  on  AJstedt's 
Natural  Theolofiy,  a  lengthy  refutation  of  the  proofs  of 
the  existence  of  God.  He  used  in  his  arguments  some 
incautious  expressions,  and  on  a  journey  to  Warsaw  he 
■was  arrested,  Oct.  .31, 1G88,  on  the  plea  that,  by  denying 
the  existence  of  (iod,  the  author  of  all  law,  Lysczynski 
had  become  an  outlaw.  An  ecclesiastical  tribunal,  pre- 
sided over  by  the  bishop  of  Livonia,  was  appointed  to 
try  his  case.  A  former  friend  of  Lysczynski  appeared 
as  his  accuser,  and,  after  the  incriminating  books  had 
been  examined,  he  was  sent  before  the  diet  to  be  pun- 
ished. The  states  went  again  over  the  whole  case. 
Brszeska  repeated  his  charges,  maintaining,  among  oth- 
er things,  that  in  using  in  his  works  the  expression  "  ita 
non  athei  credimus,"  Lysczynski  had  declared  himself 
an  atheist,  and  denied  the  existence  of  God  by  asserting 
tliat  (iod  did  not  create  man,  but  that  man  invented 
God.  Lysczynski  answereii  that  he  had  intended  his 
works  as  an  examination  of  the  prrwifs  of  the  existence 
of  (Jod,  mentioning  the  fun<iamental  objections  of  im- 
believers  only  as  a  preliminary  argument,  and  that  he 
meant  to  live  and  die  in  the  communion  of  the  Church 


in  which  he  was  brought  up.  His  defence,  however, 
was  not  deemed  satisfactorj',  and  the  senate  condemned 
him  to  suffer  death  at  tlie  stake.  The  royal  verdict  was 
that  Lysczynski's  MSS.  should  be  publicly  burned  by 
the  executioner  along  witli  himself,  and  that  the  house 
in  which  he  wrote  his  works  should  be  torn  do\^^l. 
The  sentence  was  afterwards  altered,  and  he  was  be- 
headed before  being  burned,  March  31, 1G89.  See  C.  F. 
Ammon,  C.  Lysczynski,  ein  Beitrag  z.  Gesch.  d.  ideulen 
A  theismus  (Getting.  1802) ;  Herzog,  Real-Encykloj).  viii, 
628.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Lyser  (also  Leiser  or  Leyser),  an  eminent  Luther- 
an theologian,  was  born  at  AVinnenden,  in  Wtirtemberg, 
March  18, 1552,  and  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Tubingen.  In  1573  he  became  pastor  at  Gellersdorf,  in 
Austria,  where  he  soon  distinguished  himself  as  a  preach- 
er. He  often  preached  also  in  Vienna,  and  thus  became 
acquainted  with  the  emperor  Maximilian  II.  He  was 
made  D.D.  by  the  Universitj'  of  Tubingen  July  16, 1576, 
being  then  under  25  years  old.  After  remaining  for  two 
years  at  the  court  of  the  elector  August  of  Saxony,  he 
became  pastor  and  professor  at  Wittenberg.  After  the 
adoption  of  the  •'  Formula  Concordia^,"  he  and  J.  Andrea 
devised  a  new  organization  for  the  university;  he  was 
also  commissioned  to  revise  the  text  of  the  Lutheran 
translation  of  the  Bible,  etc.  After  the  death  of  the 
elector  August  in  1586,  Calvinism  began  to  regain  the 
ascendency  in  Saxony,  and  Lyser  left  Wittenberg,  gen- 
erally regretted  by  the  universitj'  and  the  community, 
to  accept  a  call  to  Brunswick  as  coadjutor  or  vice-super- 
intendent. He,  however,  returned  to  Wittenberg  in 
1592,  and  shortly  after  became  preacher  at  the  court  of 
Dresden.  Here  he  continued  in  the  faithful  discharge 
of  his  arduous  duties,  honored  not  only  by  the  prince, 
but  also  by  the  emperor  Rudolph.  He  died  February  22, 
1610.  His  principal  works  are  a  continuation  of  Chem- 
nitz's Hai-monia  IV  Evangelistarum  (which  was  com- 
pleted by  John  Gerhard),  Erlduterunyen  it.  drei  Fragen 
(1598),  and  a  number  oi Predigten,  particularly  VierLund- 
tags-predigten  (1605).  See  Polyc.  Leyser  III,  Officium, 
jrietatis,  quod  C.  D.  Polyc.  Leysej-o  dthuit  et  peisolvit  pro- 
nepos  (Lpz.  1706) ;  Gleich,  Anncdes  ecclesiustici ;  Adami, 
Vit.  iheoL;  ii\>ize\,  Tempi,  hon.;  ETdma.ni\s,  Ltltnsheschr, 
d.  Wittenh.  Theol.  etc. ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyld.  viii,  628  sq. 
Lys'ias  {Avaiac,  a  common  Greek  name),  the  name 
of  two  men  mentioned,  one  in  the  Apocrypha,  and  the 
other  in  the  New  Testament. 

1.  A  Syrian  "nobleman  of  the  blood  royal"  whom 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  when  setting  out  for  Persia,  ap- 
pointed guardian  of  his  son,  and  regent  of  tliat  part  of 
his  kingdom  which  extended  from  the  Euphrates  to  the 
borders  of  Egypt  (1  Mace,  iii,  32;  2  Mace,  x,  11 ;  com- 
pare Josephus,  .4?!/.  xii,  7,  2 ;  Appian,  De  rebus  Syr.  46). 
Acting  under  the  special  orders  of  the  king,  Lysias  col- 
lected a  large  force  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  a  war 
of  extermination  against  the  Jews.  This  army,  under 
the  command  of  the  generals  Ptolemy,  Nicanor,  and  Gor- 
gias,  was  surprised  and  put  to  flight  by  Judas  Maccabae- 
us  near  Emmaus  (1  Mace,  iii,  38-iv,  18 ;  Josephus,  ^J^^ 
xii,  7, 3, 4).  In  the  following  year,  B.C.  165,  L.y8ias  him- 
self invaded  Judiea  with  a  still  larger  army,  and  joined 
battle  with  Judas  in  the  neighborhood  of  Bethsura.  The 
Syrians  were  again  defeated,  and  so  decisively  that  Judas 
was  able  to  accomplish  his  great  purpose,  the  ]nirifiea- 
tion  of  the  Temple,  and  the  re-establishment  of  divine 
worship  at  Jerusalem  (1  Mace,  iv,  28-61 ;  Josephus,  ^?!<. 
xii,  7,  5-7).  Lysias  retired  to  Antioch,  and,  while  pre- 
paring for  a  fresh  campaign,  the  death  of  Epiphanes  left 
him  in  virtual  possession  of  the  supreme  power.  Short- 
ly afterwards  (probably  B.C.  163),  with  an  army  equal  in 
munljer  to  the  former  two  combined,  with  three  hundred 
war-chariots  and  two-and-thirty  elephants,  and  accom- 
panied by  the  young  king  Antiochus  Eupator,  he  again 
entered  Judaea  from  the  side  of  Idumsea.  Having  taken 
the  fortified  city  of  Bethsura,  he  advanced  to  Jerusalem 
and  laid  siege  to  the  Temple.  Meeting  here  with  a 
stouter  resistance  than  he  had  anticipated,  and  hcarmg 


LYSIMACHFS 


591 


LYSTRA 


that  Philip,  a  rival  claimant  to  the  guardianship  of  the 
king,  was  returning  from  Persia,  he  hastily  concluded  a 
peace  with  the  Jews,  and  set  out  for  Antioch.  On  reach- 
ing this  city  he  found  it  in  the  possession  of  his  rival. 
In  the  engagement  which  followed  Philip  was  defeated 
and  slain.  Another  and  more  formidable  opponent, 
however,  soon  appeared  in  the  person  of  Demetrius  So- 
ter,  first  cousin  of  the  king,  who,  escaping  from  Eome, 
landed  at  Tripolis,  and  laitl  claim  to  the  throne.  The 
people  rose  in  his  favor,  and  Antiochus  and  Lysias  were 
seized  and  put  to  death  (1  Blacc.  vi-vii,  2 ;  2  Mace,  xiii- 
xiv,  2  ;  Joseph.  A  nt.  xii,  9, 10 ;  Appian,  De  rebus  Syr.  41) . 

In  the  second  book  of  Maccabees  an  account  is  given 
at  some  length  of  an  invasion  of  Juda;a  by  Lysias,  made 
be/ore  the  final  invasion,  but  after  the  death  of  Epipha- 
nes  (2  Mace.  xi).  It  is  scarcely  possible  to  reconcile 
this  with  the  more  trustworthy  narratives  of  the  first 
book,  and  it  is  clear  from  2  Mace,  ix,  28-x,  10,  that  the 
writer  is  not  following  a  strictly  chronological  order  in 
this  part  of  his  history.  Internal  evidence  seems  to  fa- 
vor the  opinion  that  this  narrative  has  been  compiled 
from  separate  and  partial  accounts  of  the  two  invasions 
referred  to  in  1  IMacc.  iv-vi,  the  writer  too  hastily  in- 
ferring that  they  described  the  same  event.  —  Kitto. 
"There  is  no  sufficient  ground  for  believing  that  the 
events  recorded  are  different  (Patritius,  Be  Co7isensu 
Mace.  §  xxvii,  xxxvii),  for  the  mistake  of  date  in  2 
Mace,  is  one  which  might  easily  arise  (compare  Werns- 
dorf.  Be  fide  Mace.  §  Ixvi ;  Grimm,  on  2  j\Iacc.  xi,  1). 
The  idea  of  Grotius  that  2  Mace,  xi  and  2  Mace,  xiii  are 
duplicate  records  of  the  same  event,  in  spite  of  Ewald's 
support  (Geschichte,  iv,  3G5,  note),  is  scarcely  tenable, 
and  leaves  half  the  difficulty  unexplained." — Smith. 

2.  Claudius  Lysias,  the  chiliarch(Y(\iapxoC)"  chief 
captain"J  who  commanded  the  Koman  troops  in  Jeru- 
salem during  the  latter  part  of  the  procuratorship  of 
Felix,  and  by  whom  Paul  was  secured  from  the  fury  of 
the  Jews,  and  sent  under  guard  to  the  procurator  Felix 
at  CiBsarea  (Acts  xxi,  31-38;  xxii,  2-4-30;  xxiii,  17-30; 
xxiv,  7,  22).  A.D.  55.  Nothing  more  is  known  of  him 
than  what  is  stated  in  these  passages.  From  his  name, 
and  from  Acts  xxii,  28,  it  may  be  inferred  that  he  was  a 
Greek  who  had  become  a  Roman  citizen.  His  proper 
rank  appears  to  have  been  that  of  militar;/  tribune,  and 
his  note  to  his  superior  officer  is  an  interesting  specimen 
of  Koman  military  correspondence  (comp.Wernsdorf,  CT. 
Li/sicu  Oratio.  Helmst.  1743).     See  Paul. 

Lysim'achtis  {Anaifiaxoc,  a  frequent  Greek  name), 
the  name  of  two  men  mentioned  in  the  Apocrypha. 

1.  "The  son  of  Ptolema3us  of  Jerusalem,"  commonly 
supposed  to  be  the  translator  into  Greek  of  the  Book  of 
Esther  (see  the  close  of  the  Sept.  version).  The  Apoc- 
ryphal "  rest  of  the  Book  of  Esther,"  A.V.,  says,  "  In  the 
fourth  year  of  the  reign  of  Ptolemaius  and  Cleopatra, 
Dositheus,  who  said  he  was  a  priest  and  Levite,  and 
Ptolemosus  his  son, brought  this  epistle  of  Phurim,  which 
they  said  was  the  same,  and  that  Lysimachus,  the  son 
of  Ptolemoeus,  that  was  at  Jerusalem,  had  interpreted  it" 
(xi,  1).  There  is,  however,  no  reason  to  suppose  that 
the  translator  was  also  the  author  of  the  additions  made 
to  the  Hebrew  text.  See  Esther,  Apocryphal  Ad- 
ditions TO. 

2.  A  brother  of  the  Menelaus  whom  Antiochus  ap- 
pointed high-priest  (B.C.  cir.  171).  Menelaus  left  him 
temporarily  "in  his  stead  in  the  priesthood,"  and  en- 
couraged him  to  commit  many  sacrileges.  Thus  he 
roused  the  indignation  of  tlie  common  people,  who  rose 
against  liim  and  killed  him  (2  JNiacc.  iv,  29,  39).  The 
Vidgate  erroneously  makes  him  the  successor  instead  of 
the  deputy  of  Menelaus. — Kitto. 

Lysons,  Daniel,  an  English  divine  and  writer, 
eldest  son  of  the  Rev.  Samuel  Lysons,  rector  of  Rod- 
marton,  in  Gloucestershire  (1804-33),  was  educated  at 
Gloucester  and  at  St.jNIary's  Hall,  Oxford,  at  which  uni- 
versity he  attained  the  degree  of  jM.A.  in  1785.  Later 
he  filled  the  curacy  of  Putney.  He  died  Jan.  3,  1834. 
He  published  a  sermon  or  two,  and  a  History  of  the  Or- 


igin and  Progress  of  the  Meeting  of  the  three  Choirs  of 
Gloucester,  Worcester,  and  Hereford;  but  his  fame  rests 
entirely  upon  his  topographical  works,  which  are  excel- 
lent for  their  laljorious  research,  accuracy  of  description, 
and  useful  record  of  matters  which  most  probably  would 
otherwise  have  been  irrecoverably  lost.  On  this  point 
considt  the  English  Cyclopadia,  s.  v.,  and  Allibone,  Bid. 
of  British  and  American  Authors,  s.  v. 

Lys'tra  (//  Ai'trrpa,  Acts  xiv,  6,  21 ;  xvi,  1 ;  rii 
Avarpa,  Acts  xiv,  8;  xvi,  2;  2  Tim.  iii,  11),  a  city  in 
Asia  Minor,  of  much  interest  in  the  history  of  Paul  and 
Timothy. 

We  are  told  in  the  14th  chapter  of  the  Acts  that  Paul 
and  Bamabas,  driven  by  persecution  from  Iconium  (ver. 
2),  proceeded  to  Lystra  and  its  neighborhood,  and  there 
preached  the  Gospel.  In  the  course  of  this  service  a 
remarkable  miracle  was  worked  in  the  healing  of  a  lame 
man  (ver.  8).  This  occurrence  produced  such  an  effect 
on  the  minds  of  the  ignorant  and  superstitious  people 
of  the  place  that  they  supposed  that  the  two  gods,  Mer- 
cury and  Jupiter,  who  were  said  by  the  poets  to  have 
formerly  visited  this  district  in  human  form  [see  Lyca- 
onia],  had  again  bestowed  on  it  the  same  favor,  and 
consequently  were  proceeding  to  offer  sacrifice  to  the 
strangers  (ver.  13).  The  apostles  rejected  this  worship 
with  horror  (ver.  14),  and  Paul  addressed  a  speech  to 
them,  turning  their  minds  to  the  true  Source  of  all  the 
blessings  of  nature.  The  distmet  proclamation  of  Chris- 
tian doctrine  is  not  mentioned,  but  it  is  implied,  inas- 
much as  a  Church  was  founded  at  Lystra,  wliich  in 
post-apostolic  times  was  so  important  as  to  send  its 
bishops  to  the  ecclesiastical  councils  (Hierocles,  Synecd. 
p.  675).  The  adoration  of  the  Lystrians  was  rapidly 
followed  by  a  change  of  feeling.  The  persecuting  Jews 
arrived  from  Antioch  in  Pisidia  and  Iconium,  and  had 
such  influence  that  Paul  was  stoned  and  left  for  dead 
(Acts  xiv,  19).  On  his  recovery,  he  withdrew,  with 
Barnabas,  to  Derbe  (ver.  20),  but  before  long  retraced 
his  steps  through  Lystra  (ver.  21),  encouraging  the  new 
disciples  to  be  steadfast.  It  is  not  absolutely  stated  that 
Paul  was  ever  in  Lystra  again,  but,  from  the  general 
description  of  the  route  of  the  third  missionary  journey 
(xviii,  23),  it  is  almost  certain  that  he  was.     See  Paul. 

It  is  evident  from  2  Tim.  iii,  10,  11,  that  Timothy 
was  one  of  those  who  witnessed  Paul's  sufferings  and 
courage  on  the  above  occasion;  and  it  can  hardly  be 
doubted  that  his  conversion  to  Christianity  resulted 
partly  from  these  circumstances,  combined  with  the 
teaching  of  his  Jewish  mother  and  grandmother,  Eu- 
nice and  Lois  (2  Tim.  i,  5).  Thus,  when  the  apostle, 
accompanied  by  Silas,  came,  on  his  second  missionary 
journey,  to  this  place  again  (and  here  we  should  notice 
iiow  accurately  Derbe  and  Lystra  are  here  mentioned 
in  the  inverse  order),  Timothy  was  already  a  Chris- 
tian (Acts  xvi,  1).  Here  he  received  circumcision, 
"  because  of  the  Jews  in  those  parts"  (ver.  3) ;  and  from 
this  point  began  his  connection  with  Paul's  travels.  We 
are  doubly  reminded  here  of  Jewish  residents  in  and 
near  Lystra.  Their  first  settlement,  and  the  ancestors 
of  Timothy  among  them,  may  very  probably  be  traced 
to  the  establishment  of  Babylonian  Jews  in  Phrj-gia 
by  Antiochus  three  centuries  before  (Josephus,  Ant.  xii, 
3,  4).  Still  it  is  evident  that  there  was  no  influential 
Jewish  population  at  Lystra:  no  mention  is  made  of 
any  synagogue,  and  the  whole  aspect  of  the  scene  de- 
scribed by  Luke  (Acts  xiv)  is  thoroughly  heathen.  As 
to  its  condition  in  heathen  times,  it  is  worth  while  to 
notice  that  the  words  in  Acts  xiv,  13  (jov  Atoc  rov 
ovTOQ  7rp6  Ti)Q  TToXiwe)  wouUl  lead  us  to  conclude  that 
it  was  under  the  tutelage  of  Jupiter.  Walch,  in  his 
Spidlegium  Anliqnitatum  Lystrensium  {Bissert.  in  Acta 
Apostolorum,  Jena,  170(5,  vol.  iii),  thinks  that  in  this 
passage  a  statue,  not  a  temple,  of  the  god  is  intended. 

Plinv  (v,  42)  places  Lystra  in  Galatia,  and  Ptolemy 
(v,  4,  12)  in  Isauria ;  but  these  statements  are  quite 
consistent  with  its  being  placed  in  Lycaonia  by  Luke, 
as  it  is  by  Hierocles  {Synecd.  p.  675).— Smith.     This 


LYSTRA 


592 


MAACAH 


city  vras  south  of  Iconium,  but  its  precise  site  is  uncer- 
tain, as  ^vell  as  that  of  Derbe,  which  is  mentioned  along 
■with  it.  Col.  Leake  remarks  that  the  sacred  text  ap- 
pears to  i>lace  it  nearer  to  Derbe  than  to  Iconium ;  for 
]'aul,  on  leaving  that  city,  proceeded  first  to  Lystra, 
and  thence  to  Derbe;  and  in  like  manner  returned  to 
Lystra,  to  Iconium,  and  to  Antioch  of  Pisidia  (see  Walch, 
Diss,  ill  Act.  A2Mst.  iii,  173  sq.).  lie  also  observes  that 
this  seems  to  agree  with  the  arrangement  of  Ptolemy 
(v,  4, 12),  who  places  Lystra  in  Isauria,  and  near  Isaura, 
which  seems  evidently  to  have  occupied  some  part  of 
the  valley  of  Sidy  Shehr,  or  Bey  Shehr.  Lender  the 
Greek  empire,  Homonada,  Isaura,  and  Lystra,  as  well  as 
Derbe  and  Laranda,  were  all  included  in  the  consular 
province  of  Lycaonia,  and  were  bishoprics  of  the  metro- 
politan see  of  Iconium.  Considering  all  the  circum- 
stances. Col.  Leake  inclines  to  think  that  the  vestiges 
of  Lystra  may  be  sought  with  the  greatest  probability 
of  success  at  or  near  Wiran  Khatiiii,  or  Khatun  Serai, 
about  thirty  miles  to  the  south  of  Iconium.  "  Nothing," 
says  this  able  geographer,  "can  more  strongly  show  the 
little  progress  that  has  hitherto  been  made  in  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  ancient  geography  of  Asia  jMinor  than  that 
of  the  cities  which  the  journey  of  St.  Paul  has  made  so 
interesting  to  us,  the  site  of  one  only  (Iconium)  is  yet 
certainly  kno^ni"  {Tour  and  Geo<jr.  of  Asia  3Iinor,-p. 
102).  Mr.  Arundell  supposes  that,  should  the  ruins  of 
Lystra  not  be  found  at  the  place  indicated  by  Col.  Leake, 
they  may  possibly  be  found  in  the  remains  at  Kara- 
hissar,  near  the  lake  Bey-shehr  (^Discoveries  in  Asia 
Minor). — Kitto.  Still  more  lately,  IMr.  Hamilton  {Re- 
searches in  Asia  Minor,  ii,  319)  identifies  its  site  with 
the  ruins  called  Bin-bir-Kilisseh  (the  "Thousand  and 
one  churches"),  at  the  base  of  a  conical  mountain  of  vol- 
canic structure  named  the  Karadagh  (generally  thought 
to  be  those  of  Derbe,  but  which,  according  to  his  argu- 
ments, inust  bs  sought  elsewhere,  perhaps  at  Divle),  as 
being  more  considerable  (a  bishop  of  Lystra  sat  in  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon,  according  to  Hierocles,  St/necd.  p. 
675),  and  on  the  direct  road  from  Iconium  to  Derbe. 
Another  traveller  ascended  the  mountain,  and  says,  "On 
lodking  down  I  perceived  churches  on  all  sides  of  the 
mountain,  scattered  about  in  various  positions.  .  .  .  In- 
cluding those  in  the  plain,  there  are  about  two  dozen  in 
tolerable  preservation,  and  the  remains  of  perhaps  forty 
may  be  traced  altogether"  (Falkn^r  in  Conybeare  and 
Howson,  St.  Paul,  i,  202).  Comp.  Mannert,  Geogr.  VI, 
ii,  189  sq. ;  Forbiger,  Ilandb.  ii,  322. 


Lytle,  David,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church,  was  born,  of  Presbyterian  parentage,  at  Sa- 
lem, N.  Y.,  Oct.  31, 1826,  was  converted  in  the  Metho- 
dist Episcopal  Church  in  1817,  joined  the  Church  in  1818, 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  1854,  and  joined  the  Troy 
Conference.  He  successively  preached  at  Granville, 
(1857)  Argyle  and  North  Greenwich,  (1859)  Whitehall, 
(1861)  IMechanicsville,  (1863)  Third  Street  Church, 
Troy,  (1865)  Westport,  (1867)  North  Chatham,  and  last- 
ly at  Kock  City  Falls,  N.Y.,  where  he  died  October  13, 
1869.  He  "  was  possessed  of  a  sound  understanding, 
good  judgment,  and  a  kind  and  sympathizing  nature. 
He  was  ardent  and  firm  in  his  friendships,  a  kind  hus- 
band and  father,  a  faithful  Christian,  a  good  preacher, 
excelling  as  a  pastor."  During  his  second  year  at  Ar- 
gyle an  epidemic  broke  out ;  but  he  continued  at  his  post 
of  duty,  nursing  the  sick,  and  gi^■ing  counsel  and  advice 
to  the  dying.     See  Couf.  Minutes,  1870,  p.  110. 

Lyttleton,  Charles,  LL.D.,  an  English  divine, 
born  at  Hagley,  Worcestershire,  in  1714,  was  educated 
at  Eton  and  at  University  College,  Oxford;  rector  of 
Alvechurch,  Worcester,  in  1742 ;  dean  of  Exeter  in  1748 ; 
bishop  of  Carlisle  in  1762,  and  president  of  the  Society 
of  Antiquaries  in  1765.  He  died  Dec.  22,  1768.  He 
published  one  sermon  (Lond.  1765, 4to),  and  left  various 
interesting  scientific  works.  See  AUibone,  Diet,  of  Brit, 
and  A  nier.  A  iitJiors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lyttleton,  George,  Sir,  an  English  peer  and 
celebrated  politician,  ^vho  was  born  in  Worcestershire  in 
1708-9,  and  educated  at  Eton  and  Christchurch,  Ox- 
ford ;  entered  Parliament  in  1730,  held  several  high  po- 
litical offices,  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  1759,  and  died 
in  1773,  is  noted  also  as  the  author  of  Observations  on 
the  Conversion  and  Ajwstleship  oj"  St.  Paul  (1747,  8 vo, 
and  often ;  last  edit.  1854, 12mo),  a  work  which  elicited 
much  praise  for  the  able  defence  it  furnishes  for  the 
truths  of  Christianity,  or,  as  Leland  (Deistical  Writers, 
p.  156  sq.)  says,  constitutes  of  itself  "  a  demonstration 
sufficient  to  prove  Christianity  to  be  a  divine  revela- 
tion." Another  work  of  lord  George  Lyttleton  of  inter- 
est to  us  is  his  Dialoffues  of  the  Dead  (1760).  He  had 
a  son,  Thomas,  who  died  young,  and  who  was  as  con- 
spicuous for  profligacy  as  his  father  for  virtue.  See 
Johnson,  Lives  of  the  Poets,  iii,  391-400;  Phillimore, 
Life  of  Lord  Lyttleton,  (1845);  Lond.  Quart.  Per.  1846 
(June);  Monthly  Revieio,  1772  (April  and  May);  1774 
(December) ;  Alliboue,  Diet,  of  British  and  A  mei'ican 
Authors,  ii,  1150, 


M. 


Ma'acah  (Heb.  Madlah',  i^2"^,  oppression,  Sept. 
Mart  V",  but  in  Gen.  xxii,  24,  Mox«  ;  in  1  Chron.  ii,  48  ; 
iii,  3.  Mojx"  ;  in  1  Chron.  vii,  15, 16,  Mooxa  ;  in  1  Chron. 
ix,  35,  MowxH  ;  in  1  Chron.  xi,  43,  Mox«  '-  ^"i^g-  ^Dta- 
cha  ;  Auth.  Vers.  "  Maacah"  only  2  Sam.  iii,  3  ;  x,  6,  8), 
the  name  of  a  place  and  also  of  nine  persons.  See  also 
Beth-maachaii. 

1.  A  city  and  region  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Hermon, 
not  far  from  Geshur,  a  district  of  Syria  (Josh,  xiii,  13; 
2  Sam.  X,  6,  8 ;  1  Chron.  xix.  7).  Hence  the  adjacent 
portion  of  Syria  is  called  Aram-Maacah,  or  Syria  of  jMa- 
achah  ("  Syria-iNIaachah,"  1  Chron.  xix,  0).  It  appears 
to  liave  been  situated  at  the  southerly  junction  of  Coele- 
Syria  and  Damascene-Syria,  being  bounded  by  the  king- 
dom of  liehob  on  the  north,  by  that  of  Geshur  on  the 
south,  and  by  the  mountains  on  either  side  of  the  Up- 
per Jordan,  on  the  east  and  west.  See  (Jksiii:i;.  Tlie 
little  kingdom  thus  embraced  tlie  soulhern  and  eastern 
declivities  of  Hermon,  and  a  portion  of  the  rocky  pla- 
teau of  Itur.Ta  (Porter's  Damascus,  i,  319;  com\t.  Joui-n. 
of  Sac.  Lit., ]u\y,  1854,  p.  310).  The  Israeirtes  seem  to 
have  considered  this  territory  as  included  in  their  grant, 
but  were  never  able  to  get  possession  of  it  (Josh,  xiii, 
13).     In  the  time  of  David  this  petty  principality  had 


a  king  of  its  own,  who  contributed  1000  men  to  the 
grand  alliance  of  the  Syrian  nations  against  the  Jewish 
monarch  (2  Sam.  x,  6,  8).  The  lot  of  the  half-tribe  of 
Manasseh  beyond  the  Jordan  extended  to  this  country, 
as  had  previously  the  dominion  of  Og,  king  of  Bashan 
(Deut.  iii,  14;  Josh,  xii,  5).  The  Gentile  name  is  Ma- 
acahthite  {''T\'2V^,  Sept.  Maxa^i,  but  Maaxa^i  in  2 
Sam.  xxiii,  24,  MaxaSn  in  1  Chron.  iv,  19,  Miox'oS'ft 
in  Jer.  xl,  8;  Auth.  Version  "  IMaachathite,"  but  "Maa- 
chathi"  in  Deut.  iii,  14),  which  is  also  put  for  the  people 
(Deut.  iii,  14;  Josh,  xii,  5;  xiii,  11,  13;  2  Kings  xxv, 
23).  Near  or  within  the  ancient  limits  of  the  small 
state  of  Maacah  was  the  town  called  for  that  reason 
Abel  beth-maacah,  perhaps  its  metropolis,  which  is  rep- 
resented by  the  modern  Ahil  el-Kamh,  situated  on  the 
west  side  of  the  valley  and  stream  that  descends  from 
Merj  Ayun  towards  the  Huleh,  and  on  a  summit,  with 
a  large  offset  on  the  south.  See  ABEL-BiiTii-I\lAA- 
ciiAH.  Rosenmiiller  ex]4ains  the  name  Maacah  to 
pr-ess,  to  jn-ess  together,  which  seems  to  denote  a  region 
inclosed  and  hemmed  in  In'  mountains,  a  land  of  val- 
levs.  The  name  of  this  region  is  Anglicized  everj'- 
where  "Maachah"  in  the  Auth.  Vers.,  except  in  2  Sam. 
iii,  3 ;  x,  6,  8.     Once  (Josh,  xiii,  13,  second  clause)  it  is 


MAACAH 


593 


MAARATH 


written  in  the  original  Maacath  (Hebrew  Madkafh', 
TTD'S'O,  Sept.  Maxa^i,Yn\g.  Machati,  Auth.Vers.  "jNIa- 
achathites").  The  identification  of  the  Chaldee  version 
with  the  district  of  Epicairus  ('ETriicaipoc),  mentioned 
by  Ptolemj'  (v,  16,  9)  as  Ij'ing  between  Callirrhoe  and 
Livias,  as  also  that  of  the  Syriac  (on  1  Chron.)  with 
Charan,  according  to  Rosenmiiller  (.1  Iterth.  I,  ii)  a  tract 
in  the  district  of  the  Ledja  (Burckhardt,  i,  350),  is  mere- 
ly traditionary  (Reland,  Palast.  p.  118). 

2.  The  last  named  of  the  four  children  of  Nahor  by 
his  concubine  Reumah,  probably  a  son,  although  the 
sex  is  uncertain  (Gen.  xxii,  '2-i).  B.C.  cir.  2040.  Ew- 
ald  arbitrarily  connects  the  name  with  the  district  of 
Maachah  in  the  Hermon  range  {Gesch.  i,  414,  note  1). 

3.  The  sister  of  Hupham  (Huppim)  and  Shupham 
(Shuppim),  and  consequently  gTanddaughter  of  Benja- 
min ;  she  married  Machir,  by  whom  she  had  two  sons 
(1  Chron.  vii,  15, 16).     B.C.  post.  1856.     See  Gileau. 

4.  The  second  named  of  the  concubines  of  Caleb  (son 
of  Ilezron),  by  whom  she  had  several  children  (1  Chron. 
ii,  48).     B.C."  ante  1658. 

5.  The  wife  of  Jehiel  and  mother  of  Gibeon  (1  Chron. 
viii,  29;  ix,  35).     B.C.  cir.  1G58. 

6.  Adaughterof  Talmai,  kingof  Geshur;  she  became 
the  wife  of  David,  and  mother  of  Absalom  (2  Sam.  iii, 
3).  B.C.  1053.  In  1  Sam.  xxvii,  8,  we  read  of  David's 
invading  the  land  of  the  Geshurites,  and  the  Jewish 
commentators  (in  Jerome,  ad  Reg.)  allege  that  he  then 
took  the  daughter  of  the  king  captive,  and,  in  conse- 
quence of  her  great  beauty,  married  her,  after  she  had 
been  made  a  proselyte  according  to  the  law  in  Deut.  xxi. 
But  this  is  a  gross  mistake,  for  the  Geshur  invaded  by 
David  was  to  the  south  of  Judah,  whereas  the  Geshur 
over  which  Talmai  ruled  was  to  the  north,  and  was  re- 
garded as  part  of  Syria  (2  Sam.  xv,  8).  See  Geshi'k. 
The  fact  appears  to  be  that  David,  having  married  the 
daughter  of  this  king,  contracted  an  alliance  with  him, 
in  order  to  strengthen  his  interest  against  Ishbosheth  in 
those  parts.  Josephus  gives  her  name  lAaxa^i]  {Ant. 
vii,  1,4).     See  David. 

7.  The  father  of  Hanan,  which  latter  was  one  of  Da- 
vid's famous  body-guard  (1  Chron.  xi,  43).  B.C.  ante 
1046.  ■ 

8.  The  father  of  Shephatiah,  which  latter  was  the 
military  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon  under  David  and 
Solomon  (1  Chron.  xxvii,  16).     B.C.  ante  1014. 

9.  The  father  of  Achish,  which  latter  was  the  king 
of  Gath,  to  whom  Shimei  went  in  search  of  his  runaway 
servants,  and  thus  forfeited  his  life  by  transcending  the 
bounds  prescribed  by  Solomon  (1  Kings  ii,  39).  B.C. 
ante  1010.  lie  appears  to  have  been  different  from  the 
Maoch  of  1  Sam.  xxvii,  2.     See  Acmsii. 

10.  A  daughter  of  Abishalom,  the  wife  of  Rehoboam, 
and  mother  of  Abijam  (1  Kings  xv,  2).  B.C.  973-953. 
In  verse  10  we  read  that  Asa's  "  mother's  name  was  Ma- 
achah, the  daughter  of  Abishalom."  It  is  evident  that 
here  "  mother"  is  used  in  a  loose  sense,  and  means 
"grandmother,"  which  the  Maachah  named  in  verse  2 
must  have  been  to  the  Asa  of  verso  10.  It  therelbre 
appears  to  be  a  great  error  to  make  two  persons  of  them, 
as  is  done  by  Calmet  and  others.  The  Abishalom  wlio 
was  the  father  of  this  Maachah  is  called  Absalom  in  2 
Chron.  xi,  20-22,  and  is  generally  supposed  by  the  Jews 
to  have  been  Absalom,  the  son  of  David ;  which  seems 
not  improbable,  seeing  that  Rehoboam's  two  other  wives 
were  of  his  father's  family  (2  Chron.  xi,  18).  In  2  Chron. 
xiii,2,  she  is  called  "Michaiah,  the  daughter  of  Uriel 
of  Gibeah."  But  Josephus  says  that  she  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  Tamar,  the  daughter  of  Absalom  {Ant.  viii,  10, 1), 
and  consequently  his  granddaughter.  This  seems  not 
unlikely,  and  in  that  case  this  Tamar  must  have  been 
the  wife  of  Uriel.  See  AnijAir.  It  would  appear  that 
Asa's  own  mother  was  dead  before  he  began  to  reign : 
for  Maachah  bore  the  rank  and  state  of  queen-mother 
(resembling  that  of  the  sultaness  Valide  among  the 
Turks'),  the  powers  of  which  she  so  much  abused  to  the 
encouragement  of  idolatry,  that  Asa  commenced  his  re- 

V.— P  p 


forms  by  "removing  her  from  being  queen,  because  she 
had  made  an  idol  (lit.  afriijht)  in  a  grove"  (1  Kings  xv, 
10-13;  2  Chron.  XV,  16). 

Maacath.     See  Maacaii,  1. 

Ma'achah  (Gen.  xxii,  24 ;  1  Kings  ii,  39 ;  xv,  2, 10, 
13;  1  Chron.  ii,  48;  iii,  2;  vii,  15,  16;  viii,  29;  ix,  35; 
xi,  43  ;  xix,  6,  7  ;  xxvii,  16 ;  2  Chron.  xi,  20, 21,  22 ;  xv, 
16).     See  Maacaii. 

Maach'athi  (Dent,  iii,  14),  Maach'athites 
(Josh,  xii,  5;  xiii,  11,  13  [in  the  second  occurrence  it 
should  be  Maacatli] ;  2  Sam.  xxiii,  34 ;  2  Kings  xxv, 
23;  1  Chron.  iv,  19;  Jer.  xl,8).     See  Maacaii,  1. 

Ma'adai  (Jlch.Maddcnj','''^V^,oniamental;  Sept. 
MooS'ia),  one  of  the  "sons"  of  Bani  who  divorced  his 
Gentile  wife  after  the  exile  (Ezra  x,  34).     B.C.  459. 

Maadi'ah  QAch.  Maddjah' ,  ri'^"Ii"a,  ornament  of 
Jehovah;  Septuag.  Maa^i'ac,  Vulg.  J/nrfM),  one  of  the 
priests  who  returned  to  Jerusalem  with  Zerubbabel 
(Neh,  xii,  5) ;  evidently  the  same  with  the  Moadi.vii 
(ll^h.  Moddyah' ,  iT^"!?'''^!  festical  of  Jthovah;  Sept. 
Mna^ni,  Vulg.  il/ort'ij(«),  whose  son  Piltai  is  mentioned 
in  verse  17  (where  some  connection  with  one  Miniamin 
is  obscurely  noted) ;  the  true  pointing  being  perhaps 
tTi"iya,  Moddijah',  which  will  make  both  forms  coin- 
cide.    B.C.  536. 

Ma'ai  (Heb.  Maay',  ^^"0,  perhaps  compassionate  ,- 
Sept.  has  two  names, 'lo^tw,  'Aia,  the  first  syllable  of  the 
former  being  apparently  taken  from  the  last  of  the  pre- 
ceding name  Gilalai ;  Vulg.  Maai),  one  of  the  priests 
appointed  to  perform  the  music  at  the  celebration  of  the 
completion  of  the  M'alls  of  Jerusalem  after  the  captivity 
(Neh.  xii,  36).     B.C.  446. 

Maa'leh-acrab'bim  (Heb.  Madleh'-AkrahUm' , 
D"'il"'py  n?""2,  the  ascent  o/'the  scorpions,  \.  (\.  scox- 
pion-hiU;  in  Numb,  xxxiv,  4,  Septuag.  dvalSatriQ  'A/cpn- 
l3np,  Auth.Vers. "  the  ascent  of  Akrabbim ;"  in  Josh.xv, 
3,  Trpoaava(3aGis  'A(cpa/3iV ;  in  Judg.  i,  36,  dvalSacrig 
'AK:pn/3(V,  "the  going  up  to  Akrabbim;"  Yulg.  every- 
where asceiisiis  scorpionis),  a  pass  on  the  south-eastern 
border  of  Palestine.     See  Akrabbiji. 

Maa'Ieh-adum'mim  (Heb.  Madleh'-A  dummim', 
D^B'IX  n5>"^,  ascent  of  A  dummim  ;  Sept.  ftva/Smcrit' 
[also  TTpoajiaaiQ  and  TrQoaavd^aaiq^  Ativfiixh',  Vulg. 
ascemio  Adommim,  Auth.Vers.  "  the  going  up  of  Adum- 
mim"),  a  dangerous  pass  near  Gil^al  (Josh,  xv,  7 ;  xviii, 
17).     See  ADUMjinr. 

Maan,  Johx,  a  French  historian  and  theologian,  was 
born  at  Mans  near  the  opening  of  the  17th  century; 
was  prebend  of  Tours  in  1648 ;  ofiicial  and  grand-vicar 
to  the  archbishop  of  Tours  in  1651,  and  died  about  1667. 
His  works  are  Antiqui  Casus  reservuti  in  diacesi  Tu- 
ronensi  (1648,  4to),  written  by  order  of  the  bishop  of 
Tours : — Sancta  et  Metropolitana  Ecclesia  Turonensis, 
sacrorumpontificum  suorum  oiiinta  virtutibus,  etc.  (1667). 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generule,  s.  v. 

Ma'ani  {Maavi  v.  r.  Baai'i),  the  ancestor  of  sev- 
eral who  had  married  Gentile  wives  after  the  captivity 
(1  p;sdr.  ix,  34) ;  evidently  the  Bani  (q.  v.)  of  the  Heb. 
list  (Ezra  x,  38). 

Ma'arath  (Heb.  Madrath',  fi'^^'O, desolation;  Sept. 
Mrt«piiJ3,  Vulg.  Maretk),  a  place  in  the  mountains  of 
Judah,  mentioned  between  Gedor  and  Beth-anoth  (Josh. 
XV,  59).  De  Saulcy  suggests  a  place  which  he  calls 
Kharbet  el-Merassas,  south-east  of  Jerusalem  {Narra- 
tive, ii,  17) ;  and  Schwarz  declares  it  is  a  village  called 
Magr,  west  of  Ekron  {Palest,  p.  107)  :  both  far  from  the 
indications  of  the  text,  which  require  a  locality  north  of 
Hebron  (Keil's  Comment,  ad  loc).  It  may  be  represent- 
ed by  the  ruins  marked  as  Afersia  on  Van  de  Velde's 
Map  (1858),  on  the  road  from  Hebron  to  Bethlehem, 
about  half  way  between  Bereikut  and  Solomon's  Pools, 
at  Urtas ;  but  on  the  second  edition  of  his  Map  (1865) 
this  place  disappears,  and  we  have  in  the  required  re- 


MAASEIAH 


594 


MABILLON 


gion  unappropriated  onlj'  the  ruins  Merino,  on  a  little 
stream  just  north  of  Kufin,  evidently  the  '■  ruined  tower 
called  Jlerrina,  seen  by  him  on  the  high  ground  south 
of  wady  ^\jub"  (^Memoir,  p.  247). 

Maasei'ah  (Heb.il/<(a>»/o/i',  tr^'u^"^,  or  [1  Chron. 
XV,  18, 20;  xxiii,  1;  2Chron.xxv,  11 ;  xxviii,7;  xxxiv, 
8;  Jer.  xxv,  4],  Maaseya'hu,  *liT^w^S'"2,  the  worh  of  Je- 
hovah ;  Sept.  Maocria,  -vvith  many  slight  various  read- 
ings), the  name  of  several  men. 

1.  One  of  the  Levites  of  the  second  class,  appointed 
porters  of  the  Temple  under  David  (1  Chron.  xv,  18), 
and  also  musicians  "  with  psalteries  upon  Alamoth"  (ver. 
20).     B.C.  1014. 

2.  The  son  of  Adaiah,  and  one  of  the  "captains  of 
hundreds"  whom  Jehoiada  associated  with  himself  in  re- 
storing the  young  king  Jehoash  to  the  throne  (2  Chron. 
xxiii,  1).     B.C.  877. 

3.  A  chieftain  in  the  time  of  Uzziah,  who  had  charge 
of  the  mUitarv  in  a  subordinate  rank  (2  Chron.  xxvi, 
11).     B.C.  808. 

4.  The  "king's  son,"  killed  by  Zichri,  the  Ephraim- 
itish  hero,  in  the  invasion  of  Judah  by  Pekah,  king  of 
Israel,  during  the  reign  of  Ahaz  (2  Chron.  xxviii,  7). 
The  personage  thus  designated  is  twice  mentioned  in 
connection  with  the  "governor  of  the  city"  (1  Kings 
xxii,  26;  2  Chron.  xviii,  23),  and  appears  to  have  held 
an  office  of  importance  at  the  Jewish  court  (perhaps 
acting  as  viceroy  during  the  absence  of  the  king),  just 
as  the  queen  dowager  was  honored  with  the  title  of 
"king's  mother"  (compare  2  Kings  xxiv,  12  with  Jer. 
xxix,  2),  or  gehirdh,  i.  e.  "  mistress,"  or  "  powerful  lad}'." 
See  MALCiiiAir.  For  the  conjecture  of  Geiger,  see  Jo- 
Asii,  4. — Smith.  Perhaps,  however,  the  individual  here 
referred  to  was  literally  one  of  the  sons  of  Ahaz.  B.C. 
cir.  738. 

5.  The  "  governor  of  the  city,"  one  of  those  sent  by 
king  Josiah  to  repair  the  Temple  (2  Chron.  xxxiv,  8). 
B.C.  623.  The  date  and  rank  render  it  not  improbable 
that  he  was  the  Maaseiah  (ii^h.  Machseyah' ,  n^onpj 
whose  refuge  is  Jehovah  ;  Sept.  Maaaaiac  v.  r.  Macr- 
(Taiac,  etc.),  the  father  of  Neriah,  and  grandfather  of 
Baruch  and  Seraiah,  which  latter  were  two  persons  of 
note  to  whom  Jeremiah  had  recourse  in  his  divine  com- 
munications (Jer.  xxxii,  12 ;  li,  59) :  and  in  that  case  he 
is  likewise  probably  identical  with  Melchi,  the  son  of 
Addi,  and  father  of  Neri,  in  Christ's  maternal  genealogy 
(Luke  iii,  28). 

6.  The  son  of  Shallum,  apparently  a  priest,  since  he 
had  p.  chamber  in  the  Temple,  and  was  one  of  its  custo- 
dians (Jer.  XXXV,  4).     B.C.  606. 

7.  The  father  of  the  priest  Zephaniah  or  Zedekiah, 
which  latter  was  twice  sent  by  the  king  with  a  message 
of  inquiry  to  Jeremiah,  and  was  denounced  b}'  the 
prophet  for  falsely  encouraging  the  people  (Jer.  xxi,  1 ; 
xxxvii,  3;  xxix,'21,  25).    'B.C.  ante  589. 

8.  Son  of  Ithiel  and  father  of  Kolaiah,  a  Benjamite, 
one  of  whose  descendants  resided  at  Jerusalem  after  the 
exile  (Neh.  xi,  7).     B.C.  long  ante  536. 

9.  One  of  the  descendants  of  Judah  who  resided  at 
Jerusalem  after  the  captivity;  he  was  the  son  of  Ba- 
ruch, and  his  genealogy  is  traced  back  to  one  Shiloni 
(Neh.  xi,  5).  B.C.  536.  In  the  corresponding  narra- 
tive of  1  Chron.  ix,  5,  apparently  the  same  person  is 
called  AsAiAii. 

10.  One  of  the  priests  of  the  kindred  of  Jeshua,  who 
agreed  to  divorce  their  (Jentile  wives  after  the  captiv- 
ity (Ezra  X,  18).     B.C.  459. 

11.  Another  priest,  one  of  the  "sons"  of  Harim,  who 
divorced  his  Gentile  wife  after  the  exile  (Ezra  x,  21). 
B.C.  459.  Perhaps  it  was  he  (apparently  a  priest)  who 
formed  one  of  the  chorus  that  celebrated  the  completion 
of  the  new  city  walls  (Neh.'xii,  42).     B.C.  446. 

12.  Still  another  priest,  of  the  "sons"  of  Pashur,  who 
divorced  his  Gentile  wife  after  the  return  from  Babylon 
(Ezra  X,  22).     B.C.  459.     I'erhaps  the  same  with  one 


of  the  priests  who  celebrated  with  trumpets  che  rebuild- 
ing of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  xii,  41).     B.C.  446. 

13.  An  Israelite,  of  the  "  sons"  of  Pahath-moab,  who 
divorced  his  Gentile  wife  after  the  Babylonian  captivity 
(Ezra  x,  30).     B.C.  459. 

14.  The  son  of  Ananiah,  and  father  of  Azariah,  which 
last  repaired  part  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  after  the  ex- 
Ue  (Neh.  iii,  23).     B.C.  ante  446. 

15.  One  of  the  principal  Israelites  who  stood  on  Ez- 
ra's right  hand  while  he  read  and  expounded  the  law 
to  the  people  (Neh.  viii,  4).  B.C.  cir.  410.  He  is  per- 
haps identical  with  one  of  the  popular  chiefs  who  joined 
in  the  sacred  covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x,  25). 
B.C.  cir.  410. 

16.  One  of  the  priests  who  assisted  the  Levites  in 
expounding  the  law  to  the  people  as  it  was  read  by  Ezra 
(Neh.  viii,  7).     B.C.  cir.  410. 

Maa'siai  (Heb.  Masai/',  "^b""?,  or,  as  it  probably 
should  be  pointed,  Maasay',  '''CjV'!2,  u-orher,  or  perhaps 
contracted  for  Maaseiah;  Sept.  i^laaai  v.  r.  Maaaaia  ; 
Vulg.  Maasai),  the  son  of  Adiel,  a  descendant  of  Immer, 
and  one  of  the  priests  resident  at  Jerusalem  at  or  after 
the  captivity  (1  Chron.  ix,  12).     B.C.  prob.  536. 

Maasi'as  (Maatra/ac),  the  son  of  Sedecias  and  fa- 
ther of  Baruch  (Bar.  i,  1) ;  evidently  the  same  as  Maa- 
seiah (Jer.  li,  59),  5  (q.  v.). 

Ma'ath  (MaaS',  of  unknown,  but  prob.  Heb.  origin), 
a  person  named  as  the  son  of  Mattathias  and  father  of 
Nagge  (Neariah),  in  Christ's  maternal  ancestrj*  (Luke 
iii,  26) ;  but,  as  no  such  name  occurs  in  the  pedigree  in 
the  O.  T.,  and  as  it  would  here  unduh'  extend  the  time 
of  the  lineage,  we  may  reasonably  conjecture  this  name 
has  been  accidentally  interpolated  from  the  Matthat  of 
ver.  24.    (See  Dr.  Barrett,  in  Clarke's  Comment,  ad  loc.) 

Ma'az  (Heb.  Ma'dts,  "Ti'^,  7f)-aih;  Sept.  Maar), 
the  first  r.amed  of  the  three  sons  of  Ram,  the  son  of  Je- 
rahmeel,  of  the  descendants  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  ii,  27). 
B.C.  post  1658. 

Maazi'ali  (Heb.  Maazyak',  il'^l^'C,  Neh.  x,  8,  or 
Maazya'hu,  !in"T^'^,  1  Chron.  xxiv,  18,  strevf/th  [or 
peril,  rather  consulafion,  from  the  Arabic]  of  Jehovah  ; 
Sept.  respectivel}'  Mna^t'a  and  Maa^ciX  [v.  r.  Maaaoi] ; 
ViUg.  respectively  Maazia  and  Maazian),  the  name  of 
two  priests. 

1.  The  head  of  the  last  of  the  twenty-four  sacerdotal 
"courses"  as  arranged  by  David  (1  Chron.  xxiv,  18). 
B.C.  1014. 

2.  One  of  the  priests  who  signed  the  sacred  covenant 
with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x,  8).  B.C.  cir.  410.  "  From 
the  coincidence  between  many  of  the  names  of  the  priests 
in  the  lists  of  the  twenty-foiu:  courses  established  by 
David,  of  those  who  signed  the  covenant  with  Nehe- 
miah (Neh.  xii),  it  would  seem  either  that  these  names 
were  hereditary  in  families,  or  that  they  were  applied 
to  the  families  themselves.  This  is  evidently  tlie  case 
with  the  names  of  the  'heads  of  the  people'  enumerated 
in  Neh.  x,  14-27"  (Smith). 

Mab'da'i  (Ma/3c«t),  one  of  "  the  sons  of  IMaani" 
who  divorced  their  Gentile  wives  after  the  captivity  (1 
Esdr.  ix,  34);  evidently  the  Benaiaii  (q.  v.)  of  the  lie- 
brew  list  (Ezra  x,  35). 

Mabillon,  Jean,  a  celebrated  Benedictine  jireach- 
er,  and  one  of  the  most  distinguished  men  of  the  17th 
centur}',  was  born  at  St.  Pierremont,  in  the  diocese  of 
Kheims,  Nov.  23, 1632,  studied  at  the  college  of  Kheims, 
and  joined  the  congregation  of  St.  Matir  in  1651.  He 
began  his  literary  career  by  assisting  D'Acherj-  in  his 
labors  upon  his  vast  historic  recueil  entitled  Spicikfjium, 
and  by  an  edition  of  tlie  works  of  St.  Bernard,  "which 
attracted  the  notice  of  ecclesiastical  scholars,  and  fur- 
nished a  sure  pledge  of  the  value  of  his  future  labors" 
(Dowling).  In  1668  he  came  forward  with  a  part  of  his 
original  ]troduction,  .IfVff  Sanctorum  Ordinis  S.Bcnedicti 
(completed  in  1702),  one  of  the  greatest  historical  works 


MABILLON" 


595 


MACARIUS 


extant.  He  now  became  the  general  favorite  of  eccle- 
siastical students,  and  soon  was  brought  to  the  notice  also 
of  his  sovereign,  Louis  XIV,  who  sent  him  on  literary 
missions,  as  the  result  of  which  we  have  from  him  Mu- 
seum Italicum  (1689),  a  kind  of  antiquarian  itinerary  of 
Italy.  Besides  descriptions  of  the  towns  and  their  at- 
tractions, it  contains  valuable  dissertations  on  ecclesias- 
tical history  and  paleography;  also  a  very  explicit  com- 
mentary on  the  ritual  of  tlie  various  services,  or  liturgy, 
anil  rites  of  the  Roman  Church.  (He  had  previously 
published  De  Litui-ffia  Gallicana  Uhri  tres  [1685],  in 
which  he  compares  the  (iallican  with  the  Mozarabic  lit- 
urgy). Another  work  of  great  importance  from  the  pen 
of  Mabillon  is  the Lettres  et  Edits  sur  les  Etudes  Monas- 
tiques,  containing  a  curious  controversy  between  the 
abbe  De  Kance,  the  founder  of  the  order  of  the  T/rqjjnsts 
(q.  V.)  and  the  Benedictines.  De  Kance,  in  his  ascetic 
enthusiasm,  had  forbidden  his  monks  all  scientific  stud- 
ies, and,  indeed,  all  reading  except  the  Breviary  and  a 
few  monastic  tracts.  The  rest  of  the  clergy,  both  secu- 
lar and  regular,  took  the  alarm,  and  Mabillon  was  re- 
quested to  defend  monastic  studies  and  learning  as  per- 
fectly compatible  with  piety  and  religious  discipline,  as 
the  Benedictine  order  had  fully  proved.  JMabillon 
promptly  complied  with  the  request,  and  published  his 
Traite  in  1691.  It  was  received  with  great  applause,  and 
was  at  once  translated  into  Latin  and  other  languages. 
See  Range  for  the  reply.  His  fame  spread  rapidly,  and 
he  was  recognised  as  one  of  the  leading  scholars  of  his 
day.  In  1701  he  was  chosen  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions.  In  1703  he  came  before  the  public  with 
the  first  volume  of  his  chef-d'anivre,  A  nnules  Ordinis  S. 
Benedkii.  Henceibrth,  until  the  day  of  his  death  (Dec. 
27,  1707),  Mabillon  faithfully  applied  himself  to  the 
completion  of  this  work,  which  all  critics  are  agreed  is 
"among  the  most  important  works  which  have  been 
WTitten  on  the  history  of  the  Church"  (Dowling).  It 
should  certainly  be  found  on  the  shelves  of  every  real 
student  of  Church  History.  It  commences  with  the 
}-ear  480 — that  of  the  birth  of  St.  Benedict, — and  goes 
down  to  1157  (covering  in  all  6  vols,  folio.  jMabillon 
himself  completed  vols,  i-iv,  extending  to  1066 ;  Mas- 
suet  completed  vol.  v  [published  in  17 lo],  and  Martene 
vol.  vi  [published  in  1739];  for  the  different  editions, 
see  Ceillier,  Hist,  des  A  uteurs  sacres,  xiv,  498).  It  con- 
tains an  account  of  St.  Benedict,  discusses  his  rules,  and 
everything  in  any  way  pertaining  to  the  order.  The 
work,  besides  including  a  somewhat  complete  history  of 
the  secular  affairs  of  the  times,  contains  a  minute  ac- 
count of  the  doctrines,  the  ceremonies,  the  controversies 
of  the  Church  age  by  age,  with  a  statement  of  the  vrrit- 
ings  of  each  individual  whose  life  is  depicted.  Of  the 
manner  in  which  the  work  is  done  we  will  let  Dowling 
{[ntrod.  to  the  Crit.  Study  of  Eccles.  History,  p.  144  sq.) 
speak.  "  His  (Mabillon's)  unbounded  learning,  and  his 
penetrating  and  comprehensive  mind,  enabled  him  to 
discover  new  truths,  and  detect  and  expose  inveterate 
errors.  His  amiable  moderation  and  unaffected  candor 
introduced  into  the  discussion  of  ecclesiastical  subjects  a 
better  tone  and  spirit.  But  tliis  was  not  the  full  extent 
of  the  services  which  he  rendered  to  Church  History. 
The  monastic  habit  could  not  restrain  his  mental  inde- 
pendence, nor  his  religious  peculiarities  make  him  feel 
as  a  vulgar  controversialist.  He  was  the  most  promi- 
nent of  a  new  race  of  scholars,  who  communicated  to  the 
whole  subject  a  different  character;  who  separated  it 
from  polemical  theology,  and  assumed  as  a  first  principle 
that  its  subject-matter  was  not  controversy,  but  facts. 
It  was  a  new  thing  to  see  a  congregation  of  monks  tak- 
ing a  lead  in  a  literary  movement;  but  such  was  the 
case.  The  genius  of  jMabillon  did  much  to  purif>'  and 
ennoble  Church  History.  Excited  by  his  example  and 
prece[)ts,  the  French  Benedictines  devoted  themselves 
in  an  admirable  spirit  to  the  cultivation  of  ecclesiastical 
learning,  and  distinguished  themselves  in  the  republic 
of  letters  by  the  publication  of  a  number  of  critical,  phil- 
ological, and  antiquarian  works  connected  with  such  I 


studies,  not  more  remarkable  for  their  enidition  than 
for  their  moderation  and  candor." 

Mabillon,  by  the  intended  publication  of  a  treatise,  Zic 
Cultu  Sanctorum  iynotorum,  came  near  being  involved 
in  a  hot  controversy  with  the  authorities  of  his  Church. 
The  book,  whicli  aimed  to  point  out  some  abuses  con- 
cerning the  worship  of  relics,  was  on  the  eve  of  anony- 
mous publication  when  it  was  secured  by  the  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Index,  and  placed  among  the  forljidden  ones. 
He  quietly  submitted  to  the  exceptions  of  the  authorities, 
and  prejiared  a  new  edition  purged  from  the  objection- 
able passages.  In  his  new  preface  he  sa3's :  "  Hrec  nova 
editio  non  temere  nee  proprio  arbitrio  a  me  facta  est,  sed 
ad  Ejus  nutum  et  imperium,  penes  quem  residet  summa 
prascipiendi  auctoritas!"  In  return  for  his  ready  sub- 
mission he  was  to  be  rewarded  by  the  cardinal's  liat,  but 
the  intended  honor  came  too  late  to  be  of  any  service  in 
Mabillon's  terrestrial  course.  Mabillon  wrote  also  De 
He  Diplomaticd  llbri  sex,  accedunt  Commentarius  de  cnti- 
quis  Reijum  Francorum  Palatiis :  Veteruni  Scriptura- 
rum  varia  Specimina,  etc.,  a  work  much  esteemed. 
These  and  other  later  works  were  collected  under  the 
title  Ouvrayes  Posthunies  de  J.  Mabillon  et  de  Thierry 
Ruinart,  Benedictines  de  la  Congregation  de  St.  Maur 
(Paris,  1724,  3  vols.  4to).  A  complete  list  of  all  his 
works  is  given  in  Herzog,  Real-Encyklop.\m,  635.  See, 
besides  the  authorities  already  mentioned,  Vieuville, 
Bihl.  historique  d.  A  uteurs  de  la  Congregation  de  S.  Maur ; 
D.  Tassin,  Hist.  Litter,  de  la  Cong,  de  S.  Maur ;  C.  de 
Malan,  Hist,  de  Mabillon ;  Valery,  Corresp.  de  Mabillon 
et  de  Monlfuucon ;  Hoefer,  Xouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxxii, 
437.     (J.H.AV.) 

Mabon,  John  Scott,  an  eminent  educator  of  the 
(Dutch)  Reformed  Church,  was  born  in  Scotland  in  1784 ; 
came  to  this  country  with  his  parents  in  1796 ;  gradu- 
ated with  Iiigh  honors  at  Union  College  (1806),  and  at 
the  theological  seminary  in  New  Brunswick  (1812); 
was  tutor  in  Union  College  1814-15 ;  rector  of  the  gram- 
mar school  of  Rutgers  College  1815-25  ;  temporary  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew  in  the  theological  seminary  at  New 
Brunswick  1818-19.  From  this  time  until  his  death 
he  taught  privately,  the  last  fourteen  years  at  Hacken- 
sack,  N.  J.  Mr.  Mabon  was  an  exact  scholar  and  a  pro- 
found thinker,  a  rigid  disciplinarian,  and  a  skilful  and 
enthusiastic  instructor.  His  life  was  a  battle  with  ill 
health  and  adversity.  There  was  something  tridy  he- 
roic in  his  indepenilent  spirit,  ever  struggling  for  the 
mastery  of  unusual  difficulties,  and  for  the  accomplish- 
ment of  his  life-work.  His  piety  was  chastened  by  al- 
most continual  trials.  His  religious  life  was  one  of  pro- 
found convictions  and  broad  and  deep  experience.  Small 
of  stature,  with  an  intellectual  head,  and  a  frail,  bent 
frame,  courtly  in  his  demeanor,  and  retiring  in  disposi- 
tion, he  was  an  old-fashioned  Christian  gentleman,  and 
a  teacher  to  ^vhom  many  a  minister  of  the  Gospel  and 
men  of  other  professions  still  look  up  with  veneration 
and  thankfulness  for  their  thorough  training  and  ability. 
He  died  April  27,  1849.  See  Sprague's  Annals,  vol.  ix ; 
Corwin's  Jfanual ;  Personal  Recollections  of  J.  S.  Mabon, 
(W.J.R.T.) 

Maboul,  Jacques,  a  French  pulpit  orator,  born  of 
a  distinguished  family  in  Paris  in  1650,  was  a  long  time 
grand  vicar  of  Poitiers,  and  from  1708  until  his  death 
in  May,  1722,  bishop  of  Alert.  His  works  are  Oraisons 
funebres  (1749, 12mo) — very  eloquent : — Memoires  (on 
constitution  Unigenitus}  (1749, 4to).  See  Hoefer,  A'ouy. 
Biog.  Generale,  s.  v. 

Mac-,  a  frequent  initial  of  Scotch  and  Irish  names, 
being  the  G.tHc  for  son.  Those  in  which  it  is  tluis 
written  in  full  are  given  below  in  order.  For  others,  see 
under  the  abbreviated  form  M'-  or  Mc-. 

Mac'alon  (MaieaXoi)'),  a  place  whose  natives  to 
the  number  of  122  returned  from  the  captivity  (1  Esdr. 
V,  21) ;  evidently  the  Michmasii  (q.  v.)  of  the  Hebrew 
lists  (Ezra  ii,  27 ;  Neh.  vii,  31). 

Macarius  is  the  name  of  several  distinguished 


MACARIUS 


596 


MACCABEE 


Christians  of  the  early  centuries.     Among  them  the 
most  imjiortant  arc, 

1.  Macarius  ^GYPTirs,  or,  as  he  is  sometimes  sur- 
namcd,  the  G?'eaf,  or  the  Elder,  was  bom,  according  to 
Eusobius,  in  Upper  Egypt,  about  the  year  300.  He  was 
a  disci  |)le  of  St.  Antonius  (some  sa}^  of  St.  Ephrem),  and 
while  yet  a  youth  was  distinguished  for  his  asceticism, 
which  won  for  him  the  surname  of  iraivapioyipwv.  At 
the  age  of  thirty  he  entered  upon  a  life  of  asceticism,  in 
the  wilderness  of  Scete  or  Scetis,  a  part  of  the  great 
Libyan  desert,  and  there  he  remained  until  about  340, 
when  he  was  ordained  priest.  He  died  about  390.  Pal- 
ladius  relates  several  extraordinary  miracles  said  to  have 
been  performed  by  this  saint ;  among  others,  a  resurrec- 
tion which  he  accomplished  for  the  pur|5ose  of  confound- 
ing a  heretic.  During  the  persecution  of  the  Egyptian 
monks  by  the  Arian  bishop  Lucius  of  Alexandria,  in  the 
reign  of  Valens,  INIacarius  was  banished  to  an  island  of 
the  Nile,  but  allowed  to  return  after\vards.  There  is 
yet  in  Libya,  according  to  Tischendorf  (Beise  in  d.  Ori- 
ent), a  convent  which  bears  his  name.  He  left  50  hom- 
ilies (Greek  edit.  Morel,  Paris,  1559 ;  J.  G.  Pritius,  Leipz. 
1G98),  seven  ascetic  treatises,  together  with  a  number 
of  apophthegmata  (J.  G.  Pritius,  Leipzig,  1G99).  Both 
these  works  have  been  translated  into  German  by  G. 
Arnold,  under  the  title  Ein  Denhnal  d.  alt.  Christentfmms 
(Gosl.  1702),  and  by  N.  Casseder  (Banb.  1819).  H.  J. 
Floss  has  published  a  very  able  criticism  on  them,  to- 
gether with  several  formerly  unknoAvn  letters  and  frag- 
ments (Col.  1850).  J.  Hamberger  gives  a  selection  from 
them  in  his  Stimmen  aus  d.Ileilif/tlmm  d.cliristl.Mystik 
u.  Theosophie. 

2.  Macauius  of  Alexandria,  also  called  ttoXitiicoc, 
the  tovmsman,  a  contemporary  of  the  preceding,  was  by 
trade  a  baker,  but  became  subsequently  a  disciple  of  St. 
Antonius,  having  been  baptized  when  about  forty  years 
of  age.  He  also  embraced  an  ascetic  life,  and  became 
the  spiritual  adviser  of  over  5000  monks.  Palladius  re- 
lates a  number  of  miracles  said  to  have  been  wrought 
by  him.  He  was  likewise  one  of  the  victims  of  the  per- 
secution instituted  by  Yalens,  and  died,  according  to  Til- 
lemont  {Memoires,  viii,  626),  in  894,  but  according  to  Fa- 
bricius  (Biblioth.  Grceca,  viii,  365),  in  404,  aged  nearly  a 
hundred  years.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  author  of 
some  regulations  for  monks  contained  in  the  Codex  reg- 
ularum,  coUectus  a  sancto  Benedicto  A  naniensi,  auctits  a 
Holstenio  (Rome,  1661,  2  vols.  4to)  ;  and  a  homily,  irtpi 
i^oSov  ipvx>ic  StKaiuJv  Kcti  ctf-iapraiXM'  (J.  Tollius, /^««- 
era7:  Itul.  Traj.  1696 ;  Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  i ;  Gallandi,  vii), 
which  latter,  however,  is  by  some  ascribed  to  a  monk 
called  Alexander.  INIoshcim  {Ecdes.  Hist,  book  ii,  cent. 
iv,  pt.  ii,  chap,  iii)  says  of  him  and  his  work  :  ''  Perhaps, 
before  all  others  who  wrote  on  practical  piety,  the  pref- 
erence IS  due  to  Macarius,  the  Egyptian  monk;  from 
whom,  after  deducting  some  superstitious  notions,  and 
what  savors  too  much  of  Origenism,  we  may  collect  a 
beautiful  i)icture  of  real  piety."  He  is  commemorated 
by  the  Poniish  Church  Jan.  12,  and  by  the  Greek  Jan. 
19.  See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Rom.  Biog.  and  Mij- 
thol.  vol.  ii,  s.  V. ;  Ceillier,  ^1  uteurs  sacrer,  vii,  709,  712. 

3.  JIacarius  of  Antioch,  a  patriarch  in  the  Church 
of  Antioch  in  the  7th  century,  is  noted  for  liis  avowal, 
at  the  third  Constantinopolitan  Council  (A.D.  680-81), 
of  his  belief  in  the  doctrine  •'  that  Christ's  will  was  that 
of  a  (iod-man  (Btcn'cpii;))i')."  See  IMonothelites.  He 
and  his  Ibllowers  (known  as  jfaatriinis)  were  banished 
on  this  account.  His  Trards  were  written  down  by  his 
attendant  archdeacon,  Paul  of  Aleppo,  in  Arabic,  and 
were  published  in  an  English  dress  in  1829-37,  in  2  vols. 
4to.  See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  lioman  Biog.  and 
Mythol.  ii,  875  (4) ;  Milmau'*  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Full 
of  the  Roman  Empire,  iv,  553. 

4.  Macauii's  oi-  IiiEi.ASD  flourished  ^bout  the  close 
of  the  9th  century.  He  is  said  to  have  propagated  in 
France  the  tenet,  afterwards  maintained  by  Averrhoes, 
that  one  individual  intelligence  or  soul  [lerformcd  the 
spiritual  and  rational  functions  m  all  the  human  race. 


5.  IMacarius  of  Jerusalem.  There  were  two  bish- 
ops by  this  name  ;  one  tlourislied  in  the  4th  century,  the 
other  in  the  6th.  The  former  became  bishop  A.D.  313 
or  314,  and  died  in  or  before  A.D.  333.  He  was  present 
at  the  Council  of  Nice,  and  is  said  to  have  taken  part 
in  the  disputations  against  the  Arians.  The  latter  was 
elected  bishop  A.D.  544,  but  the  choice  was  disapproved 
by  the  emperor  Justinian  I,  because  he  was  accused  of 
avowing  the  obnoxious  opinions  of  Origen,  and  Eutvch- 
ius  was  appointed  instead.  IMacarius  was,  however,  af- 
ter a  time,  reinstalled  (about  A.D.  564),  and  died  about 
574.  A  homily  of  his,  De  inrentione  Capitis  Pi-cecurso- 
ris,  is  extant  in  MS.  See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Ro- 
man Biog.  ii,  876. 

Macassar,  the  most  southern  portion  of  Celebes, 
situated  in  lat.  4°  35'— 5°  50'  S.,  and  long.  119°  25'— 
120°  30'  E.,  and  traversed  by  a  lofty  chain  of  mountains, 
formerly  the  greatest  naval  power  among  the  Jlalay 
states,  is  divided  into  the  Dutch  possessions  and  Malay 
Proper  ;  the  latter,  of  little  importance,  is  governed  by 
a  native  king,  -who  pays  tribute  to  the  Netherlanders. 
Tlie  I'ortuguese  were  the  tirst  Europeans  to  form  a  set- 
tlement in  Macassar,  but  they  were  supplanted  by  the 
Dutch,  who,  after  many  contests  with  the  natives,  grad- 
ually attained  to  supreme  power.  In  1811  it  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  British,  who  in  1814  defeated  the  king 
of  Boni,  and  compelled  him  to  give  up  the  regalia  of  Ma- 
cassar. In  1816  it  was  restored  to  the  Dutch,  and  contin- 
ues to  enjoy  a  fair  share  of  the  mercantile  prosperity  of 
the  Netherlands'  possessions  in  the  Eastern  Archipelago, 

The  natives  are  among  the  most  civilized  and  enter- 
prising, but  also  the  most  greedy  of  the  Malay  race. 
See  Malays.  They  carry  on  a  considerable  trade  in 
tortoise-shell  and  edible  nests,  grow  abundance  of  rice, 
and  raise  great  numbers  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and 
goats;  fishing  is  also  one  of  the  principal  employments. 
They  are  chiefly  adherents  to  Mohammedanism,  which 
secured  its  hold  in  the  IMalay  Archipelago  in  the  14th 
century,  and  to  this  day  continues  to  proselyte  the  Ma- 
cassars for  the  religion  of  the  Crescent.  For  the  diffi- 
culties in  the  way  towards  Christianizing  the  Malayan 
race,  see  Malay  Archipelago. 

Macaiilay,  Aulay,  an  English  divine,  was  born 
near  the  opening  of  the  18th  century,  and  was  educated 
at  the  University  of  Glasgow.  He  was  minister  of  the 
church  and  parish  of  Cardross,  Dumbartonshire,  and 
died  in  1797.  He  published  a  sermon  on  the  Peculiar 
Adrantages  of  Sunday  Schools  (1792,  8vo) ;  also  other 
sermons.     See  I.ond.  Gentl.  Mag.  1816  (June),  p.  535  sq. 

Macaulay,  Zachary,  F.L'.S.,  an  English  philan- 
thropist, of  Scottish  descent,  born  in  1759,  father  of  the 
historian,  a  merchant,  fought  forty  years  with  William 
Wilberforce  in  promotion  of  the  British  anti-slavery 
movement.  He  died  in  1838.  See  Lond.  Gentl.  Mag. 
(IMarch,  1838,  \x  323 ;  Dec.  1838,  p.  678) ;  Thomas,  Diet. 
of  Biog.  and  Mgthol.  s.  y. 

Macauley,  Tiiojias,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister  of  note,  was  born  in  1777,  and  was  educated  at 
L^nion  College,  where  he  ai'ter^^■ards  filled  a  professor's 
chair.  He  subsequently  entered  the  ministrs',  and  died 
May  11,  1862,  as  pastor  of  the  Murray  Street  Church  in 
New  York  City. 

Macbride,  John  David,  D.C.L.,  F.S.A.,  an  emi- 
nent iMiglish  Oriental  scholar  and  author,  was  born  in 
Norfolk,  England,  in  1788,  and  was  educated  at  Exeter 
College,  Oxibrd,  where  he  became  a  fellow.  He  was  in 
1813  appointed  principal  of  jNIagdalen  Hall,  and  nomi- 
nated to  the  readership  in  Arabic,  and  kept  these  posi- 
tions until  his  death  in  1S()8.  His  principal  works  are, 
Diatessaron,  or  Harmony  if  the  Gospels  (used  in  Oxford 
University)  : — Jfohanmiedanism : — Lecti/res  on  the  A  rti- 
cles  of  the  United  Church  of  England  and  Irelaml  (1853)  : 
— Lectuirs  on  the  Epistles  (1858),  See  Netc  A  m.  Cyclop. 
Annual  for  ISCS,  p.  445. 

Mac'cabee  (Maccab.-e'us),  a  title  (usually  in  the 
plural   oi  Mrt)c/cf(/3«To(, '■  the  Maccabees"),  which  was 


MACCABEE 


597 


MACCABEE 


originally  the  surname  of  Judas,  one  of  the  sons  of  IMat- 
tatliias  (see  below,  §  iii),  but  >vas  afterwards  extended 
to  the  heroic  family  of  which  he  was  one  of  the  noblest 
representatives,  and  in  a  still  wider  sense  to  the  Pales- 
tinian martyrs  in  the  persecution  of  Antiochus  Epiph- 
anes  [see  4  JIaccabees],  and  even  to  the  Alexandrine 
Jews  who  suffered  for  their  faith  at  an  earlier  time.  See 
3  Maccabees.  In  the  following  account  of  the  Mac- 
cabajan  family  and  revolution  we  shall  largely  borrow 
from  the  articles  in  Kitto's  and  Smith's  Dictionaries. 

I.  The  Xame. — The  original  term  Maccuhee  (Jt  Maic- 
Ka^alor)  has  been  varioush'  derived.  Some  have  main- 
tained that  it  was  derived  from  the  banner  of  the  tribe 
of  Dan,  which  contained  the  last  letters  of  the  names 
of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob.  Others  imagine  that 
it  was  formed  from  the  combination  of  the  initial  let- 
ters of  the  Hebrew  sentence,  "  Who  among  the  gods 
is  like  unto  thee,  Jehovah?"  (Exod.  xv,  11;  Hebrew 
*i,  a,  5,  52),  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  inscribed 
upon  the  banner  of  the  patriots;  or,  again,  of  the  ini- 
tials of  the  simply  descriptive  title, "  Jlattalhias,  a  priest, 
the  son  of  Johanan."  But,  even  if  the  custom  of  form- 
ing such  words  was  in  use  among  the  Jews  at  this  early 
time,  it  is  obvious  that  such  a  title  woidd  not  be  an  in- 
dividual title  in  the  first  instance,  as  !Maccabee  undoubt- 
edly was  (1  jMacc.  ii,  -1),  and  still  remains  among  the 
Jews  (Raphall,  Hist,  of  the  Jens,  i,  249).  Moreover,  the 
orthography  of  the  word  in  Greek  and  Syriac  (Ewald. 
Geschichte,  iv,  352,  note)  points  to  the  form  ''3p'Q,  and 
not  iS^'O.  Another  derivation  has  been  proposed, 
which,  although  direct  evidence  is  wanting,  seems  sat- 
isfactory.    According  to  this,  the  word  is  formed  from 


il2|i>'2, "  a  hammer"  (like  Malachi,  Ewald,  iv,  353,  n.) 

THE  ASMON^AN  FAMILY. 
Chasmon  ("of  the  sons  of  Joarib,"  comp.  1  Chrou.  xxiv,  7). 

Johauan  {'ludi/vfif). 

Simeon  {Zuixiwv,  Simon.    Comp.  2  Pet.  i,  1). 

Mattathias  (Matthias,  Joseph.  War,  i,  1,  3), 
tB.C.lG7. 


giving  a  sense  not  altogether  unlike  that  in  which 
Charles  Murtel  derived  a  surname  from  his  favorite 
weajxin,  and  still  more  like  the  Malleus  Scoiorum  and 
Malleus  IIa>reticoniHi  of  the  jVIiddle  Ages. 

Although  the  name  Maccabees  has  gained  the  widest 
currency,  that  of  Asmonwaris,  or  Hasmonceans,  is  the 
proper  name  of  the  family.  The  origin  of  this  name 
also  has  been  disputed ;  but  the  obvious  derivation  from 
Chashmon  ("'^dn, 'A(T«//(ojwoe  ;  comp.  Gesenius,  r/;e- 
sau?:  p.  534  b),  great-grandfather  of  Mattathias,  seems 
certainly  correct.  How  it  came  to  pass  that  a  man, 
otherwise  obscure,  gave  his  name  to  the  family,  cannot 
now  be  discovered ;  but  no  stress  can  be  laid  upon  this 
difficulty,  nor  upon  the  fact  that  in  Jewish  prayers 
(Herzfeid,  Geschichte  d.  Jud.  i,  264)  Blattathias  himself 
is  called  Ilashmonai.  In  Fsa.  Ixviii,  32  we  meet  with 
a  word  Ci"5'i^n,  to  the  supposed  singular  of  which, 
■tq  w'n,  the  name  in  question  is  commonly  referred.  In 
this  case  it  might  have  been  given  to  the  priest  of  the 
course  of  Joarib  to  signify  that  he  was  a  wealthy  or  a 
powerfid  person.  In  Josh,  xv,  27  we  find  a  town  in  the 
tribe  of  Judah  called  "ji^dn,  from  which  this  name 
might  equally  be  derived.  Herzfeld's  proposed  deriva- 
tion from  con, "  to  temper  steel,"  is  fanciful  and  ground- 
less. The  word  in  the  first  instance  appears  more  like 
a  family  than  a  personal  name.  The  later  Hebrew  form 
is  "iXJlT^'ilTI.  See  Zipser,  Benemmng  der  Makkahder  (in 
the  Ben-Chananjah,  1860).     See  Asmon^ax. 

II.  Pedif/ree. — The  connection  of  the  various  members 
of  the  IVIaccabiean  family  will  be  seen  from  the  table 
given  below. 

III.  History  of  the  War  of  Independence,involving  that 


Johanau  (.Johannes)  Simon                            Jndas  Eleazar 

(Gaddis)  (Thassi),  (Maccabieus),  (Avaran), 

("Joseph"  in  2  Mace,  viii,  22),  t  B.C.  135.                    t  B.C.  161.  t  B.C.  163. 

t  B.C.  161.  I 


Jonathan 
(Apphns), 
t  B.C.  143. 


Judas 
t  B.C.  135. 


Johannes  Hyrcanus  I, 
t  B.C.  106. 

I 


Mattathias, 
t  B.C.  135. 


Dauahter  to  Ptolemieus 
(1  Mace,  xvi,  11, 12). 


Salome  (Alexandra)  to  Aristobulas  I,  Antigonns, 

t  B.C.  103.  t  B.C.  105. 


Jann.'Eus  Alexander  to  Alexandra, 
tB.C.TS.  I 


Son. 


Son. 


Hyrcanus  II, 
t  B.C.  30. 


Alexandra  to  Alexander, 
t  B.C.  28.    I     t  B.C.  49. 


Aristobulus  II, 
t  B.C.  49. 

I 


Antigonus, 
t  B.C.  37. 


Mariamne  to  Hemd  the  Great, 
t  B.C.  29. 

of  the  Individucds  of  the  Family.  —  1.  The  first  of  this 
family  who  attained  distinction  was  the  aged  priest 
Mattathias,  who  dwelt  at  Modin,  a  city  west  of  Jeru- 
salem and  near  the  sea,  of  which  the  site  has  yet  been 
but  partly  identified  by  modern  research.  He  was  the 
son  of  John,  the  son  of  Simon,  the  son  of  Asamonie- 
us,  as  Josephus  tells  us,  and  was  himself  the  father  of 
five  sons — John,  otherwise  called  Gaddis;  Simon,  called 
Thassi ;  Judas,  called  Maccaba?us ;  Eleazar,  called  Ava- 
ran ;  and  Jonathan,  surnamcd  Ajiphus.  Ewald  remarks 
that  Simon  and  John  were  favorite  names  in  this  family. 
After  the  expulsion  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  from  Egyi)t 
by  the  Komans,  that  monarch  proceeded  to  vent  his  rage 


Aristobulus, 
t  B.C.  35. 

and  indignation  on  the  Jews.  B.C.  168.  See  Antio- 
chus. He  massacred  vast  numbers  of  them  in  Jerusa- 
lem on  the  Sabbath,  took  the  women  captives,  and  built 
a  fortress  on  Mount  Zion,  which  he  used  as  a  central  po- 
sition for  harassing  the  people  around.  He  ordered  one 
Athen.-eus  to  instruct  the  inhabitants  of  Judasa  and  Sa- 
maria in  the  rites  of  the  Grecian  religion,  with  a  view 
to  abolishing  all  vestiges  of  the  Jewish  worship.  Hav- 
ing succeeded  in  bringing  the  Samaritans  to  renounce 
their  religion,  he  further  went  to  Jerusalem,  whore  he 
prohibited  the  observance  of  all  Jewish  ceremonies, 
obliged  the  people  to  eat  swine's  flesh  and  profane  the 
Sabbath,  and  forbade  circumcision.     The  Temple  was 


MACCABEE 


698 


MACCABEE 


dedicated  to  Olympian  Jove,  and  his  altar  erected  upon 
the  altar  of  burnt-of!cTin,£C,  which  the  first  book  of  Mac- 
cabees, apparently  quoting  Daniel,  calls  the  setting  up 
of  the  abomination  of  desolation.  When,  therefore,  Apel- 
les.  the  king's  ofhcer  (Josephus,  Ant.  xii,  G,  2),  came  to 
Jlodin  to  put  in  force  the  royal  edict  against  the  nation- 
al religion,  he  made  splendid  offers  to  Mattathias  if  he 
would  comply.  The  old  man,  however,  not  only  refused, 
but  publicly  declared  his  determination  to  live  and  die 
in  the  religion  of  his  fathers ;  and  when  a  certain  Jew 
came  forward  openly  to  sacrifice  in  obedience  to  the 
edict,  he  slew  him  upon  the  altar.  He  slew,  moreover, 
the  king's  commissioner,  and  destroyed  the  altar.  Then, 
ottering  himself  as  a  rallying-point  for  all  who  were 
zealous  for  the  law,  he  fled  to  the  mountains.  Many 
others,  with  their  wives  and  children,  followed  his  ex- 
ample, and  fled.  The}'  were  pursued,  however,  by  the 
officers  of  Antiochus,  and,  refusing  even  to  defend  them- 
selves on  the  Sabbath  day,  were  slain  to  the  number  of 
1000.  On  this  occasion  the  greatness  of  Mattathias 
displayed  itself  in  the  wise  counsel  he  gave  his  compan- 
ions and  countrymen,  which  passed  subsequently  into 
the  ordinary  custom,  that  they  should  not  forbear  to 
light  upon  the  Sabbath  day  in  so  far  as  to  defend  them- 
selves. While  in  this  position,  he  was  joined  by  the 
more  austere  of  the  two  parties  which  had  sprung  up 
among  the  Jews  after  the  return  from  the  captivity, 
viz.  the  Assidreans,  i.  e.  the  Hasidim,  or  pious  [see  Cha- 
sidim]  ;  and  the  Puritans,  who  subsequently  became  the 
Pharisees.  They  not  only  observed  the  written  lav/, 
but  superadded  the  constitutions  and  traditions  of  the 
elders,  and  other  rigorous  observances.  The  other  party 
were  called  the  Tsaddikim,  or  righteous,  who  contented 
themselves  with  that  only  which  was  written  in  the 
Mosaic  law.  Thus  strengthened,  Mattathias  and  his 
comrades  carried  on  a  sort  of  guerrilla  warfare,  and  ex- 
erted themselves  as  far  as  possible  to  maintain  and  en- 
force the  observance  of  the  national  religion.  Feeling, 
however,  that  his  advancing  age  rendered  him  unfit  for 
a  life  so  arduous,  while  it  warned  him  of  his  approaching 
end,  he  gathered  his  sons  together  like  the  ])atriarchs  of 
old,  exhorted  them  to  valor  in  a  speech  of  great  piety 
and  faithfulness,  and  having  recommended  Simon  to  the 
office  of  counsellor  or  father,  and  Judas  to  that  of  captain 
and  leader,  died  in  the  year  1G6,  and  was  buried  in  the 
sepulchre  of  his  fathers  at  Modin.  The  speech  which 
he  is  said  to  have  addressed  to  his  sons  before  his  death 
is  remarkable  as  containing  the  first  distinct  allusion  to 
the  contents  of  Daniel,  a  book  which  seems  to  have  ex- 
ercised the  most  powerfid  influence  on  the  jMaccabaan 
conflict  (1  Mace,  ii,  GO ;  comp.  Josephus,  Ant.  xii,  G,  3). 

2.  Mattathias  himself  named  Judas,  apparent!}'  his 
third  son,  as  his  successor  in  directing  the  war  of  inde- 
pendence (1  ]Macc.  ii,  GG).  The  energy  and  skill  of"  the 
Maccabee"  (o  MaKKajicnog),  as  Judas  is  often  called  in 
2  Mace,  fully  justified  his  father's  preference.  It  ap- 
pears that  he  had  already  taken  a  prominent  part  in  the 
first  secession  to  the  mountains  (2  Mace,  v,  27,  where 
Mattathias  is  not  mentioned),  and  on  receiving  the  chief 
command  lie  devoted  himself  to  the  task  of  combining 
for  common  action  those  who  were  still  faithful  to  the 
religion  of  their  fathers  (2  Mace,  viii,  1).  His  first  en- 
terprises were  night-attacks  and  sudden  surprises,  which 
were  best  suited  to  the  troops  at  his  disposal  (2  Mace, 
viii,  G,  7),  and,  when  his  men  were  encouraged  by  these 
means,  he  ventiu'cd  on  more  important  oiierations,  and 
met  Apollonius  (1  Mace,  iii,  10-12),  the  king's  general, 
who  had  gathered  a  large  army  at  Samaria,  of  which 
place  he  was  governor,  in  the  open  field.  He  totally  de- 
feated his  army,  and  slew  him.  He  then  divided  the 
spoils,  and  took  the  sword  of  Apollonius  for  a  trophy, 
which  he  used  all  his  life  afterwards  in  batt-le.  Exas- 
perated at  the  defeat  of  Apjillonius,  Seron  (1  Mace,  iii, 
13-24),  who  was  general  of  the  army  of  t'cele-Syria,  got 
together  a  force,  partly  composed  of  Jews,  and  came 
against  Judas  as  far  as  Bethhoron,  where  he  pitched  his 
camp.     This  place,  which  had  been  rendered  memorable 


many  centuries  before  as  the  site  of  Joshua's  great  vic- 
tory over  the  allied  forces  of  the  Canaanites,  was  des- 
tined now  to  -ivitncss  a  victor}'  scarcely  less  glorious, 
wrought  Ijy  a  small  band  of  Jews,  spent  and  hungry, 
against  the  disciplined  troops  of  Syria.  Seron  was  com- 
pletely overthrown,  and  his  army  scattered.  Antiochus, 
though  greatly  enraged  at  this  dishonor  to  his  arms, 
was  nevertheless  compelled,  by  the  condition  of  his  treas- 
ury, to  undertake  an  expedition  to  Armenia  and  Persia, 
with  a  view  to  recruiting  his  exhausted  finances  (1  Mace, 
iii,  27-31).  He  therefore  left  Lysias,  one  of  his  highest 
lieutenants,  to  take  charge  of  his  kingdom,  from  the 
Kiver  Euphrates  to  the  confines  of  Egypt,  and  having 
intrusted  his  son  Antiochus  to  his  care,  and  enjoined 
Lysias  to  conquer  Juda;a  and  destroy  the  nation  of  the 
Jews,  he  went  into  Persia.  The  success  of  Judas  called 
for  immediate  attention.  The  governor  of  Jerusalem 
was  urgent  in  his  entreaties  for  assistance  ;  Lysias  there- 
fore sent  an  army  of  20,000  men,  under  the  command  of 
Nicanor  and  Gorgias,  into  Juda;a.  It  was  followed  by 
another  of  the  same  number,  with  an  addition  of  7000 
horse,  under  Ptolemy  Macron,  the  son  of  Dorymenes,  as 
commander-in-chief.  The  united  forces  encamped  in 
the  plains  of  Emmaus.  To  oppose  this  formidable  host 
Judas  could  only  muster  GOOO  men  at  Mizpeh.  Here, 
as  Samuel  had  done  a  thousand  years  before  at  a  like 
period  of  national  calamity,  he  fasted  and  prayed,  and, 
in  compliance  with  the  Mosaic  injunction,  advised  those 
who  were  newly  married,  or  had  built  houses,  and  the 
like,  to  return  to  their  homes.  This  reduced  his  num- 
ber to  one  half.  The  lioroic  spirit  of  Judas,  however, 
rose  against  ever}-  difficulty,  and  he  marched  towards 
Emmaus.  B.C.  IGG.  Having  heard  that  Gorgias  had 
been  dispatched  with  a  force  of  GOOO  men  to  surprise  him 
in  the  passes  by  night,  he  instantly  resolved  to  attack 
the  enemies'  camp.  He  rushed  upon  them  unexpect- 
edly, and  completely  routed  them ;  so  that  when  Gor- 
gias returned,  baffled  and  weary,  he  was  dismayed  at 
finding  his  camp  in  flames.  In  the  brief  struggle  which 
ensued  the  Jews  were  victorious,  and  took  much  spoil. 
The  year  following,  Lysias  gathered  together  an  army 
of  60,000  chosen  men,  with  5000  horse,  went  up  in  per- 
son to  the  hill-country  of  Judtea,  and  pitched  his  camp 
at  a  place  called  Bethsura,  the  Bethzur  of  the  Old  Test. 
Here  Judas  met  him  with  10,000  men,  attacked  his  van- 
guard, and  slew  5000  of  them,  whereupon  Lysias  retreat- 
ed with  the  remainder  of  his  army  to  Antioch.  After 
this  series  of  triumphs  Judas  proceeded  to  Jerusalem. 
There  he  found  the  sanctuary  desolate,  shrubs  growing 
in  the  courts  of  it,  and  the  chambers  of  the  priests  thrown 
down ;  so  he  set  to  work  at  once  to  purify  the  holy  places 
and  restore  the  worship  of  God  (1  Mace,  iv,  3G,  41-53) 
on  the  25th  of  Kislev,  exactly  three  years  after  its  profa- 
nation (1  Mace,  i,  59;  Grimm  on  1  Mace,  iv,  59).  In 
commemoration  of  this  cleansing  of  the  Temple,  the  Jews 
afterwards  kept  for  eight  days  annually  a  festival  which 
was  called  Lights,  and  was  known  as  the  Feast  of  Dedi- 
cation (John  X,  22).  See  Dedication,  Feast  of.  Ju- 
das, having  strongly  fortified  the  citadel  of  Mount  Zion, 
and  placed  a  garrison  at  Bethsura,  made  an  expedition 
into  Idumrea.  The  Syrians  meanwhile,  frustrated  in 
their  efforts  against  Judiea,  turned  their  attention  to 
Galilee  and  the  pro's-inces  beyond  Jordan.  A  large  army 
from  Tyre  and  Ptolemais  attacked  the  north,  and  Timo- 
thcus  laid  waste  Gilead,  whereupon  Judas  determined 
to  divide  his  army  into  three.  He  himself,  with  Jona- 
than, led  8000  men  across  the  Jordan  into  Gilead ;  his 
brother  Simon  he  sent  with  3000  into  Galilee;  and  tho 
rest  he  left  behind,  under  the  command  of  Joseph,  the 
son  of  Zacharias,  and  Azarias,  for  the  protection  of  Ju- 
d;va,with  strict  injunctions  to  act  only  on  the  defensive. 
These  orders,  however,  they  imprudently  violatca  by  an 
attack  upon  the  sca-i>ortJamnia,  where  they  met  with  a 
signal  repulse.  But  the  JIaccabeos  in  Gilead  and  Gali- 
lee were  triumphant  as  usual,  and  added  to  tlieir  renown. 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  meanwhile,  had  died  in  his  Per- 
sian expedition,  B.C.  1G4,  and  Lysias  immediately  pro- 


MACCABEE 


599 


MACCABEE 


claimed  his  son,  Antiochus  Eupator,  king,  the  true  heir, 
Demetrius,  the  son  of  Seleucus,  being  a  hostage  at  Kome. 
One  of  the  first  acts  of  Lysias  was  directed  against  the 
Jews.  He  assembled  an  enormous  army  of  100,000  men 
and  32  elephants,  and  proceeded  to  invest  Bethsura. 
The  city  defended  itself  gallantly.  Judas  marched  from 
Jerusalem  to  relieve  it,  and  slew  about  5000  of  the  Syr- 
ians. It  was  upon  this  occasion  that  his  brother  Elea- 
zar  sacrificed  himself  by  rushing  under  an  elephant 
which  he  supposed  carried  the  young  king,  and  stab- 
bing it  in  the  belly,  so  that  it  fell  upon  him.  The  Jews, 
however,  were  compelled  to  retreat  to  Jerusalem,  where- 
upon Bethsura  surrendered,  and  the  royal  army  ad- 
vanced to  besiege  the  capital.  Here, the  siege  was  re- 
sisted with  vigor,  but  the  defenders  of  the  city  suifered 
from  straitness  of  provisions,  because  of  its  being  the 
sabbatical  year.  They  would  therefore  have  had  to 
surrender;  but  Lysias  was  recalled  to  Antioch  bj-  reports 
of  an  insurrection  under  Philip,  who,  at  the  death  of 
Antiochus,  had  been  appointed  guardian  of  the  young 
king.  He  was  consequently  glad  to  make  proposals  of 
peace,  •which  were  as  readily  accepted  by  the  Jews.  He 
had  no  sooner,  however,  effected  an  entrance  into  the 
city  than  he  violated  his  engagements  by  destroying 
the  fortifications,  and  immediately  set  out  with  all  haste 
for  the  north.  There  Demetrius  Soter,  the  lawful  heir 
to  the  Syrian  throne,  encountered  him,  and,  after  a  strug- 
gle, Antiochus  and  Lysias  were  slain,  leaving  Demetrius 
in  undisputed  possession  of  the  kingdom. 

Menelaus,  the  high-priest  at  this  time,  had  purchased 
his  elevation  to  that  rank  by  selling  the  sacred  vessels 
of  the  Temple.  Hoping  to  serve  his  own  ends,  he  join- 
ed himself  to  the  army  of  Lysias,  but  was  slain  bj'  com- 
mand of  Antiochus.  Onias,  the  son  of  the  high-priest 
whom  Menelaus  had  supplanted,  fled  into  Egypt,  and 
Alcimus  or  Jacimus,  not  of  the  high-priestly  family, 
was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  high-priest.  By  taking 
this  man  under  his  protection,  Demetrius  hoped  to  weak- 
en the  power  of  the  Jews.  He  dispatched  Bacchides 
with  Alcimus  to  Jerusalem,  with  orders  to  slay  the  Mac- 
caljees  and  their  followers.  Jerusalem  yielded  to  one 
who  came  with  the  authority  of  the  high-priest,  but  Al- 
cimus murdered  sixty  of  the  elders  as  soon  as  he  got 
them  into  his  power.  Bacchides  also  committed  sundry 
atrocities  in  other  parts.  No  sooner, however,  had  he  left 
Judaja  than  Maccabreus  again  rose  against  Alcimus,  and 
drove  liim  to  Antioch,  where  he  endeavored  as  far  as 
possible  to  injure  Judas  with  the  king.  Upon  this  De- 
metrius sent  Nicanor  with  a  large  army  to  reinstate  Al- 
cimus, anil  when  he  came  to  Jerusalem,  which  was  still 
held  by  the  Syrians,  he  endeavored  to  get  Judas  into 
his  power  by  stratagem,  but  the  plot  being  discovered, 
he  was  compelled  to  meet  him  in  the  field.  They  join- 
ed battle  at  Capharsalama,  and  Nicanor  lost  about  5000 
men ;  the  rest  fled  to  the  stronghold  of  Zion.  Here  he 
revenged  himself  with  great  cruelty,  and  threatened  yet 
further  barbarities  unless  Judas  was  delivered  up.  As 
the  people  refused  to  betray  their  cliampion,  Nicanor 
was  again  compelled  to  fight.  He  pitched  his  camp 
ominously  enough  in  Bethhoron;  his  troops  were  com- 
pletely routed,  and  he  himself  slain.  The  next  act  of 
Judas  was  to  make  an  alliance  with  the  Romans,  who 
entered  into  it  eagerly ;  but  no  sooner  was  it  contracted 
than  the  king  made  one  more  determined  effort  for  the 
subjutfation  of  Palestine,  sending  Alcimus  and  Bacchi- 
des, with  all  the  flower  of  his  army,  to  a  place  called 
Beroa  or  Bethzetho,  apparently  near  Jerusalem.  The 
Koman  alliance  seems  to  have  alienated  many  of  the  ex- 
treme Jewish  party  from  Judas  (Midi:  Hhunuku,  quoted 
by  Kaphall,  Hist.  ofJetvs,  i,325).  Moreover,  the  terror 
inspired  Ijy  this  host  was  such  that  Judas  found  himself 
deserted  by  all  but  800  followers,  who  would  fain  have 
dissuaded  him  from  encountering  the  enemy.  His  reply 
M-as  worthy  of  him:  "  If  our  time  be  come,  let  us  die 
manfidly  for  our  brethren,  and  let  us  not  stain  our  hon- 
or." He  fought  with  such  valor  that  the  right  wing, 
commantled  by  Bacchides,  was  repulsed  and  driven  to  a 


hill  called  Azotus  or  Aza,  but  the  left  wing  doubled 
upon  the  pursuers  from  behind,  so  that  they  were  shut 
in,  as  it  were,  between  two  armies.  The  battle  lasted 
from  morning  till  night.  Judas  was  killed,  and  his  fol- 
lowers, overborne  by  numbers,  were  dispersed.  His 
brothers  Jonathan  and  Simon  received  his  body  by  a 
treaty  from  the  enemy,  and  buried  it  in  the  sepulchre 
of  his  fathers  at  Modin,  B.C.  161.  Thus  fell  the  great- 
est of  the  ]Maccabees,  a  hero  worthy  of  being  ranked 
with  the  noblest  of  his  country,  and  conspicuous  among 
all,  in  any  age  or  clime,  who  have  drawn  the  swcjrd  of 
liberty  in  defence  of  their  dearest  and  most  sacred  rights. 
3.  After  the  death  of  Judas  the  patriotic  party  seems 
to  have  been  for  a  short  time  whoUy  disorganized,  and 
it  was  only  by  the  pressure  of  unparalleled  sufferings 
that  they  were  driven  to  renew  the  conflict.  For  this 
purpose  they  offered  the  command  to  Josathax,  sur- 
named  Apphus  ('C31SH,  the  wari/),  the  yoiuigest  son  of 
Mattathias.  The  policy  of  Jonathan  shows  the  great- 
ness of  the  loss  involved  in  his  brother's  death.  He 
was  glad  to  seek  safet}'  from  Bacchides  among  the  pools 
and  marshes  of  the  Jordan  (1  Mace,  ix,  42),  whither  he 
was  pursued  by  him.  At  the  same  time,  also,  his  broth- 
er John  was  killed  by  a  neighboring  Arab  tribe.  Jon- 
athan took  occasion  to  revenge  his  brother's  death  upon 
a  marriage-party,  for  which  he  lay  in  wait,  and  then  re- 
pidsed  an  attack  of  Bacchides,  and  slew  a  thousand  of 
his  men.  At  this  point  Alcimus  died,  and  Bacchides, 
after  fortifying  the  strong  towns  of  Juda?a,  returned  to 
Antioch ;  but  upon  Jonathan  again  emerging  from  his 
hiding-place,  Bacchides  came  back  with  a  formidable 
army,  and  was  for  some  time  exposed  to  the  desultory 
attacks  of  Jonathan,  till  weary  of  this  mode  of  fighting, 
or  for  other  reasons,  he  thought  it  fit  to  conclude  a  peace 
with  him,  and  returned  to  his  master.  B.C.  158.  The 
Maccabee  was  thus  left  in  possession  of  Judaja  (1  Mace, 
ix,  73),  and  had  not  long  afterwards  an  opportunity  of- 
fered him  of  consolidating  his  position ;  for  there  sprung 
up  one  Alexander  Balas,  who  was  believed  to  be  a  son 
of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  and  laid  claim  to  the  throne 
of  Syria.  Demetrius  and  Alexander  mutually  competed 
for  the  alliance  of  Jonathan,  but  Alexander  was  success- 
ful, having  offered  him  the  high-priesthood,  and  sent 
him  a  purple  robe  and  a  golden  crown — the  insignia  of 
royalty — and  promised  him  exemption  from  tribute  as 
well  as  other  advantages.  Jonathan  thereupon  assumed 
the  high-priesthood,  and  became  the  friend  of  Alexan- 
der, who  forthwith  met  Demetrius  in  the  field,  slew  him, 
usurped  his  crown,  and  allied  himself  (B.C.  150)  in  mar- 
riage with  Cleopatra,  the  daughter  of  Ptolemy  Pliilome- 
tor,  king  of  Egypt.  Jonathan  was  invited  to  tlie  wed- 
ding, and  was  made  much  of  at  court.  In  return,  he  at- 
tacked and  defeated  Apollonius,  the  general  of  Deme- 
trius Nicator,  who  aspired  to  his  father's  throne,  be- 
sieged Joppa,  captured  Azotus,  and  destroyed  the  tem- 
ple of  Dagon.  The  prosperity,  however,  of  Alexander 
was  of  short  duration,  for  Ptolemy,  being  jealous  of  his 
power,  marched  with  a  large  army  against  him,  and  af- 
ter putting  him  to  flight,  seized  his  crown,  and  gave  his 
wife  to  Demetrius.  On  the  other  hand,  the  overthrow 
of  Alexander  was  speedily  followed  by  the  death  of  Ptol- 
emy, and  Demetrius  was  left  in  possession  of  the  throne 
of  Syria.  Jonathan,  meanwhile,  besieged  Jerusalem, 
and,  leaving  it  invested,  repaired  to  Antioch.  Demetrius 
not  only  welcomed,  but  entered  into  a  treaty  with  him, 
upon  terms  that  greatly  augmented  the  power  of  the 
JNIaccabee.  After  this  Demelrhis  disbanded  the  greater 
part  of  his  army  and  lessened  their  pay,  which  being  a 
course  contrary  to  that  pursued  by  former  kings  of  Syria, 
who  kept  up  large  standing  armies  in  time  of  peace, 
created  great  dissatisfaction,  so  that  upon  the  occasion 
of  Jonathan  writing  to  him  to  withdraw  his  soldiers 
from  the  strongholds  of  Jud:va,  he  not  only  complied, 
but  was  glad  to  ask  for  the  assistance  of  3000  men,  who 
were  forthwith  sent  to  Antioch.  Here  they  rendered 
him  signal  service  in  rescuing  him  from  an  insurrec- 
tion of  his  own  citizens  which  his  behavior  to  them  had 


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MACCABEE 


aroused.  His  friendship  for  Jonathan,  however,  was 
soon  at  an  end,  and,  contrary  to  his  promises,  he  threat- 
ened to  make  war  upon  liim  unless  lie  paid  the  tribute 
which  previous  kings  had  exacted.  This  menace  might 
have  been  carried  out  had  not  a  formidable  antagonist 
at  home  arisen  in  the  person  of  Trypho,  who  had  for- 
merly been  an  officer  of  Alexander  lialas,  and  had  es- 
poused the  cause  of  his  young  son  Antiochus  Thcos. 
This  man  attacked  Demetrius,  defeated  him  in  battle, 
captured  his  city,  drove  him  into  exile,  and  placed  his 
crown  on  the  head  of  Antiochus,  B.C.  144.  One  of  the 
lirst  acts  of  the  new  king  was  to  ingratiate  himself  with 
Jonathan;  he  therefore  confirmed  him  in  the  high- 
priesthood,  and  appointed  him  governor  over  Judaja  and 
its  provinces,  besides  showing  him  other  marks  of  favor,  i 
His  brother  Simon  he  appointed  to  be  general  over  the 
king's  forces  from  what  was  called  the  Ladder  of  Tyre, 
viz..  a  mountain  lying  on  the  sea-coast  between  Tyre 
and  Ptolemais,  even  to  the  borders  of  Egj'pt.  Jonathan, 
in  return,  rendered  good  service  to  Antiochus,  and  twice 
aefeated  the  armies  of  Demetrius.  He  then  proceeded 
to  establish  his  own  power  By  renewing  the  treaty 
■with  Eome,  entering  into  one  also  with  Lacediemon,  and 
strengthening  the  fortifications  in  Judica.  He  was  des- 
tined, however,  to  fall  by  treachery,  for  Trypho,  having 
))crsuaded  him  to  dismiss  a  large  army  he  had  assem- 
iikd  to  support  Antiochus,  decoyed  him  into  the  city  of 
I'tolemais,  and  then  took  him  prisoner.  The  Jews  im- 
mediately raised  Simon  to  the  command,  and  paid  a 
large  sum  to  ransom  Jonathan.  Trypho,  however,  took 
the  money,  but,  instead  of  releasing  Jonathan,  put  him 
to  death,  and  then,  thinking  that  the  main  hinderance 
to  his  own  ambitious  designs  was  removed,  caused  An- 
tiochus to  be  treated  in  the  same  manner.  Thus  fell 
the  third  of  the  illustrious  Maccab;ean  race,  who  distin- 
guished himself  nobly  in  the  defence  of  his  country, 
B.C.  14o.  When  Simon  heard  of  his  brother's  death  he 
fetched  his  bones  from  Bascama,  where  he  had  been 
buried,  and  had  them  interred  at  INIodin.  Here  he 
erected  to  his  memory  a  famous  monument  of  a  great 
height,  built  of  white  marble,  elaborately  wrought,  near 
which  he  placed  seven  pyramids,  for  his  father  and 
mother  and  their  five  sons,  the  whole  being  surrounded 
with  a  stately  portico.  For  many  years  aftenvards  this 
monument  served  the  purpose  of  a  beacon  for  sailors,  and 
it  was  standing  in  the  time  of  Eusebius.     See  Modix. 

4.  The  last  remaining  brother  of  the  Maccabee  ftimily 
was  thus  SiJiON,  surnamed  "Thassi"  (Bao-fri,  Qacraitj ; 
the  meaning  of  the  title  is  uncertain.  Blichaelis  [Grimm, 
on  1  IMacc.  ii]  thinks  that  it  represents  the  Chaldee 
■^win).  As  above  related,  when  he  heard  of  the  de- 
tention of  Jonathan  in  Ptolemais  bj'  Trypho,  he  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  patriot  party,  who  were  al- 
ready beginning  to  despond,  and  effectually  opposed  the 
progress  of  the  Syrians.  His  skill  in  M'ar  had  been 
proved  in  the  lifetime  of  Judas  (1  Mace,  v,  17-23),  and 
he  had  taken  an  active  share  in  the  campaigns  of  Jona- 
than, when  ho  was  intrusted  with  a  distinct  command 
(1  IMacc.  xi.  5;) ).  He  was  soon  enabled  to  consummate 
the  object  for  which  his  family  had  fought  gloriously, 
but  in  vain.  When  Trypho,  after  having  put  Jonathan 
to  death,  murdered  Antiochus,  and  seized  the  throne, 
Simon  made  overtures  to  Demetrius  H  (B.C.  143) 
against  Trypho.  He  was  consc(iuently  confirmed  in 
liis  )iosi(ion  of  sovereign  high-priest.  He  then  turned 
his  attention  to  establishing  the  internal  peace  and  se- 
curity of  his  kingdom.  He  fortified  Belhsura.  Jamnia, 
Joppa,  and  (Jaza,  and  garrisoned  them  with  Jewish  sol- 
diers. The  Lacedaemonians  sent  liim  a  llattering  em- 
bassy, desiring  to  renew  their  treaty;  to  Kome  also  he 
sent  a  shield  of  gold  of  immense  value,  and  ratified  his 
league  witli  that  nation.  See  SrAUTAN.  He  inoreovcr 
took  tlie  citadel  of  Jerusalem  4iy  siege,  which  up  to  tliis 
time  had  always  been  oceujiied  by  the  Syrian  faction; 
and,  besides  pulling  it  down,  even  levelled  the  hill  on 
which  it  was  built,  with  immense  )al)or,  that  so  the 
Temple  might  not  be  exposed  to  attacks  from  it.     Un- 


der the  wise  government  of  this  member  of  the  Asmo- 
naian  family  Judiea  seems  to  have  attained  the  greatest 
height  of  prosperity  and  freedom  she  had  known  for 
centuries,  or  even  knew  afterwards.  The  writer  of  the 
first  book  of  the  Maccabees  evidently  rejoices  to  remem- 
ber and  record  it.  '•  The  ancient  men,"  he  saj's,  "  sat 
all  in  the  streets  communing  together  of  good  things, 
and  the  young  men  put  on  glorious  and  warlike  apparel. 
He  made  peace  in  the  land,  and  Israel  rejoiced  with 
great  joy.  For  everj'  man  sat  under  his  vine  and  his 
fig-tree,  and  there  was  none  to  fray  them"  (xiv,  9, 11, 
12).  This  time  of  quiet  repose  Simon  employed  in  ad- 
ministering justice  and  restoring  the  operation  of  the 
law.  He  also  beaiitified  the  sanctuary,  and  refurnished 
it  with  sacred  vessels. 

In  the  mean  time  Demetrius  had  been  taken  prisoner 
in  an  expedition  against  the  Parthians,  whereupon  his 
brother  Antiochus  Sidetes  immediately  endeavored  to 
overthrow  the  usurper  Trypho.  Availing  himself  of  a 
defection  in  his  troops,  he  besieged  him  in  Dora,  a  town 
upon  the  sea-coast  a  little  south  of  Mount  Carmcl.  Si- 
mon sent  him  2000  chosen  men,  with  arms  and  money, 
but  Antiochus  was  not  satisfied  with  this  assistance 
while  he  remembered  the  independence  of  Palestine. 
He  therefore  refused  to  receive  them,  and,  moreover,  dis- 
patched Athenobius  to  demand  the  restoration  of  Joppa, 
Gaza,  and  the  fortress  of  Jerusalem,  or  else  the  payment 
of  a  thousand  talents  of  silver ;  but  when  the  legate  saw 
the  magnificence  of  the  high-priest's  palace  at  Jerusa- 
lem he  was  astonished,  and  as  Simon  deliberately  re- 
fused to  comply  with  the  terms  of  the  king's  message, 
and  offered  by  Avay  of  compensation  orly  a  hundred  tal- 
ents for  the  places  in  dispute,  Athenobius  was  obliged 
to  return  disappointed  and  enraged.  Trypho  meanwhile 
escaped  from  Dora  by  ship  to  Oithosia,  a  maritime  town 
in  Phcenicia,  and  Antiochus,  having  deputed  CcndebiBus 
to  invade  Judaea,  juirsued  him  in  person.  The  king's 
armies  proceeded  to  Jamnia,  and,  having  seized  Cedrou 
and  fortified  it,  Cendebfeus  made  use  of  that  place  as  a 
centre  from  which  to  annoy  the  surrounding  countrj*. 
Simon  at  this  time  was  too  old  to  engage  actively  in 
the  defence  of  his  native  land,  and  therefore  appointed 
his  two  eldest  sons,  Judas  and  Jolni  Hyrcanus,  to  suc- 
ceed him  in  the  command  of  the  forces.  They  forthwith 
set  themselves  at  the  head  of  20,000  men,  and  marched 
from  Modin  to  meet  the  king's  general:  they  utterly 
discomfited  and  scattered  his  host,  drove  him  to  Cedron, 
and  thence  to  Azotus,  which  they  set  on  fire,  and  after- 
A\ards  returned  in  triumph  to  Jerusalem.  But  destruc- 
tion threatened  their  house  from  nearer  home  ;  for  Ptol- 
emy, the  son  of  Abubus,  who  had  married  a  daughter  of 
Simon,  and  was  governor  in  the  district  of  Jericho,  with 
plenty  of  money  at  his  command,  aspired  to  reduce  the 
country  under  his  dominion,  and  took  occasion,  upon  a 
visit  that  Simon  paid  to  that  neighborhood,  to  invite 
him  and  two  of  his  sons,  with  their  followers,  to  a  ban- 
quet, and  then  slew  them  (1  Mace,  xvi,  11-10).  John 
alone,  whose  forces  were  at  Gaza,  now  survived  to  carry 
on  the  line  of  the  Maccabees,  and  sustain  their  glory, 
B.C.  135.  He  likewise  had  been  included  in  the  treach- 
erous designs  of  Ptolemy,  but  found  means  to  elude 
them.  With  the  death  of  Simon  the  narrative  of  the 
first  book  of  the  Maccabees  concludes. 

5.  We  trace  now  the  fortunes  of  the  next  member  of 
the  family,  John  Hyrcams.  Having  been  unani- 
mously proclaimed  high-priest  and  ruler  at  Jerusalem, 
his  first  step  was  to  march  against  Jericho,  and  avenge 
the  death  of  his  father  and  brothers.  Ptolemy  held 
there  in  his  power  the  mother  of  Hyrcanus  and  her  sur- 
viving sons,  and,  shutting  himself  up  in  a  fortress  near  to 
Jericho— which  Josephus  calls  Dagon,  and  Ewald  Dok 
— he  exposed  them  upon  the  wall,  scourged  and  tor- 
mented them,  and  threatened  to  throw  them  down  head- 
long unless  Hyrcanus  would  desist  from  the  siege.  This 
had  the  effect  of  jiaralyzing  the  efforts  of  Hyrcanus,  and, 
in  spite  of  his  heroic  mother's  entreaties  to  prosecute  it 
with  vigor,  and  disregard  her  suli'erings,  caused  him  to 


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protract  it  till  the  approach  of  the  sabbatical  year 
obliged  him  to  raise  the  siege.  Ptolemy,  after  kill- 
ing the  mother  and  brethren  of  Hyrcanus,  tied  to  Phil- 
adelphia ("Kabbath,  of  the  children  of  Ammon"), 
which  is  the  last  we  hear  of  him.  It  is  not  easy  to 
see  why  INIilman  calls  this  reason  of  the  sabbatical  j'ear, 
which  is  the  one  assigned  by  Josephus,  "  improba- 
ble." Ewald  assigns  the  approach  of  that  year  as  a 
reason  for  the  flight  of  Ptolemy  to  Zeno,  the  tyrant  of 
Pliiladelphia,  because  it  had  already  raised  the  price  of 
provisions,  so  that  it  became  impossible  for  him  to  re- 
main. Antiochus  meanwhile,  alarmed  at  the  energy 
displayed  by  .John,  invaded  Juda;a,  burning  up  and  des- 
olating the  country  on  his  march,  and  at  last  besieging 
him  in  Jerusalem.  He  compassed  the  city  with  seven 
encampments  and  a  double  ditch,  and  Hyrcanus  was 
reduced  to  the  last  extremities.  On  the  recurrence, 
however,  of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  Antiochus  granted 
a  truce  for  a  week,  and  supplied  the  besieged  with  sac- 
rifices for  the  occasion,  and  ended  with  conceding  a 
peace,  ou  condition  that  the  .Jews  surrendered  their 
arms,  paid  tribute  for  Joppa  and  other  towns,  and  gave 
him  500  talents  of  silver  and  hostages.  On  this  occa- 
sion Josephus  saj's  that  Hyrcanus  opened  the  sepulchre 
of  David,  and  took  out  of  it  3000  talents,  which  he  used 
for  his  present  needs  and  the  payment  of  foreign  merce- 
naries. This  story  is  utterly  discredited  by  Prideaux, 
passed  over  in  silence  by  Milman,  but  apparently  be- 
lieved by  Ewald.  Some  time  afterwards,  having  made 
a  league  with  Antiochus,  he  marched  with  him  on  an 
expedition  to  Parthia,  to  deliver  Demetrius  Nicator,  the 
king's  captive  brother.  This  expeilition  proved  fatal 
to  Antiochus,  who  was  killed  in  battle.  Demetrius, 
hov,'8ver,  made  his  escape,  and  succeeded  him  on  the 
throne  of  Syria,  whereupon  Hyrcanus  availed  liimself 
of  the  opportunity  to  shake  off  the  Syrian  yoke,  and  es- 
tablish the  independence  of  Judiea,  which  was  main- 
taineil  till  the  time  of  the  subjugation  by  the  Romans. 
He  t(jok  two  towns  beyond  the  Jordan,  Samega  and 
JMedaba,  as  well  as  the  city  of  Sichem,  and  destroj'ed 
the  hated  Samaritan  temple  on  Motmt  Gerizim,  which 
for  200  years  had  been  an  object  of  abhorrence  to  the 
Jews.  He  then  turned  his  arms  towards  Idumtea,  where 
he  captured  the  towns  of  Dora  (Ewald  spells  it  Adora) 
and  Marissa,  and  forced  tlie  rite  of  circumcision  on  the 
Idumieans,  who  ever  afterwards  retained  it.  He  pro- 
ceeded further  to  strengthen  himself  by  renewing  a 
treaty,  offensive  and  defensive,  with  the  Komans.  De- 
metrius, meanwhile,  had  little  enjoyment  of  his  king- 
dom. He  was  unacceptable  to  the  army,  who  besought 
Ptolemy  Physcon  to  send  them  a  sovereign  of  the  fam- 
ily of  Seleucus,  and  he  accordingly  chose  for  them  Al- 
exander Zebina,  a  pretended  son  of  Alexander  Balas. 
Demetrius  was  beaten  in  the  fight  which  ensued  be- 
tween them,  and  subsequently  slain ;  whereupon  Alex- 
ander took  the  kingdom  and  made  a  league  with  Hyr- 
canus. He  found  a  rival,  however,  in  the  person  of 
Antiochus  (irypus,  the  son  of  Demetrius,  who  defeated 
and  slew  him.  The  struggle  which  now  took  place  be- 
tween the  brothers  Grypus  and  Cyzicenus,  rivals  for  the 
throne,  only  tended  to  consolidate  the  power  of  Hyrca- 
nus, v;ho  quietly  enjoyed  his  independence  and  amassed 
great  wealth.  He  likewise  made  an  expedition  to  Sa- 
maria, and  reduced  the  place  to  great  distress  by  siege. 
His  sons  Antigonus  and  Aristobuhis  were  appointed  to 
conduct  it ;  and  when  Antiochus  Cyzicenus  came  to  the 
relief  of  the  Samaritans,  he  was  defeated  and  put<  to 
flight  by  Aristobidus.  Cyzicenus,  hovi'ever,  returned 
with  a  re-enforcement  of  6000  I<:gyptians,  and  ravaged 
the  country,  thinking  to  compel  Hyrcanus  to  raise  the 
siege.  The  attempt  was  unsuccessful,  and  he  retired, 
leaving  the  prosecution  of  the  Jewish  war  to  two  of  his 
officers.  They  likewise  failed,  and,  after  a  year,  Sama- 
ria fell  into  the  hands  of  Hyrcanus,  who  entirely  demol- 
ished it,  and,  having  dug  trenches  on  the  site,  flooded  it 
with  water.  After  this,  Hyrcanus,  who  himself  belonged 
to  the  sect  of  the  Pharisees,  -was  exposed  to  some  indig- 


nity from  one  of  their  paiiy  during  a  banquet,  which 
exasperated  him  so  far  that  he  openly  renounced  them, 
and  joined  himself  to  the  ojjposite  faction  of  the  Saddu- 
cees.  This  occurrence,  however,  does  not  seem  to  have 
prevented  him  from  passing  the  remainder  of  his  days 
happily.  He  built  the  palace  or  castle  of  Baris  on  a  rock 
within  the  fortitications  of  the  Temple.  Here  the  princes 
of  his  line  held  their  court.  It  was  identical  with  what 
Herod  afterwards  called  Antonia.  There  is  some  con- 
fusion as  to  the  length  of  his  reign.  It  probably  lasted 
about,  thirty  years.  He  left  five  sons.  With  liim  ter- 
minates the  upper  house  of  the  Asmonseans  or  Macca- 
bees, B.C.  107. 

G.  Aristobulus  succeeded  his  father  as  high-priest 
and  supreme  governor.  He  was  the  first,  also,  after  the 
captivity,  who  openly  assumed  the  title  of  king.  He 
threw  his  mother,  who  claimed  the  throne,  into  prison, 
and  starved  her  to  death.  Three  of  his  brothers,  also, 
he  held  in  bonds.  Antigonus,  the  other  one,  bj'  whose 
help  he  subdued  Itura;a  or  Auranitis,  a  district  at  the 
foot  of  the  Anti-Libanus,  was  killed  by  treachery ;  and, 
after  a  year  of  miserj-  and  crime,  Aristobulus  died.  His 
wife,  Salome  or  Alexandra,  immediately  released  his 
brethren,  and  Alexander  Jannajus  was  made  king.  One 
of  his  brothers,  who  showed  signs  of  ambition,  he  slew, 
the  other  one  he  left  alone.  His  first  military  act  was 
the  siege  of  Ptolemais,  which  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
Syrians.  The  inhabitants  sought  help  from  Ptolemy 
Lathyrns,  who  governed  Cyprus,  but  fearing  the  army 
of  80,000  men  he  brought  with  him,  declined  to  open 
their  gates  to  him,  whereupon  he  attacked  Gaza  and 
Dora.  Alexander  pretended  to  treat  with  him  for  the 
surrender  of  these  places,  and  at  the  same  time  sent  to 
Cleopatra,  the  widow  of  Physcon,  for  a  Ir.rge  army  to 
drive  him  from  Palestine.  He  detected  the  duplicity 
of  this  conduct,  and  took  ample  vengeance  on  Alexan- 
der by  ravaging  the  country.  He  also  defeated  him 
with  the  loss  of  30,000  men.  Judtea  ^vas  saved  by  a 
large  army  from  Cleopatra,  commanded  by  Chelcias  and 
Ananias,  two  Jews  of  Alexandria.  They  pursued  Ptol- 
emy into  Ccele- Syria,  and  besieged  Ptolemais,  which 
was  reduced.  Alexander  next  invaded  the  country  be- 
yond Jordan.  Here,  also,  he  was  defeated,  but  not  there- 
by discouraged  from  attacking  Gaza,  which,  after  some 
fruitless  attempts,  he  captured  and  totally  destroyed. 
His  worst  enemies,  however,~were  the  Pharisees,  who 
had  great  influence  with  the  people,  and  a  seditioii  arose 
during  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  in  which  the  troops 
slew  (JOOO  of  the  mob.  He  again  invaded  the  trans- 
Jordanic  country,  and  was  again  defeated.  The  Jews 
rose  in  rebellion,  and  for  some  years  the  land  suffered 
the  horrors  of  civil  war.  The  rebels  applied  for  aid  to 
Demetrius  Eucharus.  brother  of  Ptolemy  Lathyrus,  and 
king  of  Damascus,  who  completel)'  routed  Alexander. 
A  sudden  change  of  fortune,  however,  put  him  at  the 
head  of  60,000  men,  and  he  marched  in  triumph  to  Jeru- 
salem, where  he  took  signal  vengeance  on  his  subjects. 
The  rest  of  his  life  was  peaceful.  After  a  reign  oi'  twen- 
ty-seven years  he  died,  B.C.  79,  solemnly  charging  his 
wife  Alexandra  to  espouse  the  Pharisaic  party  if  she 
wished  to  retain  her  kingdom.  His  eldest  son,  Hyrca- 
nus H,  became  high-priest.  Aristobulus,  the  younger 
son,  espoused  the  opposite  party  to  his  mother.  In  or- 
der to  employ  his  active  mind,  the  queen  sent  him  north- 
wards to  check  the  operations  of  Ptolemy,  king  of  Chal- 
cis.  He  got  possession  of  Damascus,  and  won  the  affec- 
tions of  the  army.  After  a  reign  of  nine  years  his  moth- 
er died,  B.C.  70,  and  Aristobulus  forthwith  marched  to- 
wards Jerusalem.  Hyrcanus  and  the  Pharisees  seized 
his  wife  and  children  as  hostages,  and  met  his  army  at 
Jericho,  but  were  discomfited,  and  Aristobulus  entered 
Jerusalem  and  besieged  his  brother  in  tlie  tower  of  Ba- 
ris. At  lengtli  they  agreed  that  Hyrcanus  should  re- 
tire to  a  private  station,  and  that  Aristobulus  slioidd  be 
king.  This  was  a  fatal  blow  to  the  Pharisees.  But 
there  was  a  worse  enemy  waiting  for  the  conqueror. 
This  was  none  other  than  Antipater,  the  Idumiuau,  who 


I^IACCABEE 


602 


MACCABEE 


had  been  made  general  of  all  Idiima?a  by  Alexander  Jan- 
iiieiis.  lie  "was  wealtliy,  active,  and  seditious,  and  pos- 
sessed, moreover,  of  great  inliuence  with  the  deposed 
Hyrcanus.  Suspicious  of  the  power,  successes,  and  de- 
signs of  Aristobulus,  he  persuaded  his  brother  Hyrcanus 
to  Hy  to  Petra,  to  Aretas,  king  of  Arabia,  and  with  his 
heli>  an  array  of  50,000  men  was  marched  against  Aris- 
tobulus. The  Jews  were  defeated,  and  the  usurper  fled 
to  Jerusalem,  where  he  was  closely  besieged  by  Aretas, 
Antipater,  and  Hj-rcanus.  Here,  however,  deliverance 
was  at  length  brought  by  Scaurus,  the  general  of  Pom- 
pey,  who,  having  come  to  Damascus,  and  tinding  that 
the  citj-  had  been  taken  by  Metellus  and  Lollius,  him- 
self proceeded  hastily  into  Juda;a.  His  assistance  was 
eagerly  sought  by  both  parties.  Aristobulus  offered  him 
400  talents,  and  Hyrcanus  the  same;  but  as  the  former 
was  in  possession  of  the  treasure,  Scaurus  thought  that 
his  promises  were  the  most  likely  to  be  fulfilled,  and 
consequently  made  an  agreement  with  Aristobulus, 
raised  the  siege,  and  ordered  Aretas  to  depart.  He  then 
returned  to  Damascus ;  whereupon  Aristobulus  gathered 
an  army,  defeated  Aretas  and  Hyrcanus,  and  slew  6000 
of  tlie  enemy,  together  with  Phalion,  the  brother  of  An- 
tipater. Shorth'  after  Pompey  himself  came  to  Damas- 
cus, when  both  the  brothers  eagerly  solicited  his  protec- 
tion. Antipater  represented  the  cause  of  Hyrcanus. 
Pompey,  however,  who  was  intent  on  the  subjugation 
of  Petra,  dismissed  the  messengers  of  both,  and  on  his 
return  from  Arabia  marched  directly  into  Judaea.  Aris- 
tobidus  fled  to  Jerusalem,  but,  finding  the  city  too  dis- 
tracted to  make  good  its  defence,  otfered  to  surrender. 
Gabinius  was  sent  forward  to  take  possession;  mean- 
while the  soldiery  had  resolved  to  resist,  and  when  he 
came  he  was  surprised  to  find  that  the  gates  were  shut 
and  the  walls  manned.  I'ompey,  enraged  at  this  ap- 
parent treachery,  threw  Aristobulus  into  chains,  and  ad- 
vanced to  Jerusalem.  The  fortress  of  the  Temple  was 
impregnable  except  on  the  north,  and,  notwithstanding 
his  engines,  Pompey  was  unable  to  reduce  it  for  three 
months ;  neither  could  he  have  done  so  then  had  it  not 
been  for  the  Je^vish  scruples  about  observing  the  Sab- 
bath. The  Romans  soon  found  that  they  coidd  prose- 
cute their  operations  on  that  day  without  disturbance, 
and  after  a  time  the  battering-rams  knocked  down  one 
of  the  towers,  and  the  soldiers  etfected  an  entrance  (mid- 
summer, B.C.  63)  on  the  anniversary  of  the  capture  of 
the  city  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  Great  was  the  astonish- 
ment of  Pompey  at  finding  the  Holy  of  Holies  empty, 
without  an  image  or  a  statue.  Tlie  wealth  he  found  in 
the  building  he  magnanimously  left  untouched;  Hjt- 
canus  he  reinstated  in  the  high-priesthood;  the  coun- 
try he  laid  under  tribute ;  the  walls  he  demolished ; 
Aristobulus  and  his  family  he  carried  captives  to  Kome. 
Alexander,  the  son  of  Aristobulus,  on  the  journey  made 
his  escape,  and,  raising  a  considerable  force,  garrisoned 
Machwrus,  Hyrcauia,  and  the  stronghold  of  Alexandri- 
on.  Gabinius,  however,  subdued  him,  but  had  no  soon- 
er done  so  than  Aristobulus  likewise  escaped  from  Pome, 
and  intrenched  liimself  in  Alexandrion.  He  was  taken 
prisoner,  and  sent  in  chains  to  Pome.  At  the  entreaty 
of  his  wife,  who  liad  always  espoused  the  Roman  cause, 
Antigonus  his  son  was  released,  but  he  remained  a  pris- 
oner. Alexander,  with  80,000  men,  once  more  tried  his 
strength  with  the  Romans  on  the  field  of  battle,  but  was 
put  to  flight.  He  was  subseipiently  executed  by  Me- 
tellus Scipio  at  Antioch,  B.C.  49.  Thus  H}Tcanus  re- 
tained the  sovereignty,  but  Antipater  enjoyed  the  real 
power;  he  contrived  to  ingratiate  himself  with  Cffisar, 
who  made  him  a  Roman  citizen  and  procurator  of  all 
Ju(tea.  He  began  to  rebuild  the  walls  of  Jerusalem, 
and  made  his  eldest  son,  I'liasael.  governor  of  that  city ; 
and  his  younger  son,  Herod,  governor  of  Galilee.  The 
latter  soon  began  to  distingutsh  himself  against  the  ban- 
ditti that  invested  the  hills.  He  carefully  contrived 
also  to  make  friends  with  the  Roman  governor  of  SjTia, 
as  a  step  to  his  own  aggrandizement.  His  riches  ena- 
bled him  to  do  this  by  means  of  enormous  bribes.     He 


found,  however,  a  troublesome  enemy  in  Antigonus,  the 
son  of  Aristobulus,  who  allied  himself  with  the  Parthi- 
ans,  and  for  a  time  held  Jerusalem  and  kept  Herod  in 
check.  At  jNIasada,  also,  a  city  on  the  west  coast  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  Antigonus  was  nearly  successful,  until  Herod 
at  last  compelled  him  to  raise  the  siege.  He  aftenvards 
suffered  a  defeat  by  Herod,  and  was  tuially  vanquished 
by  the  Roman  general  Sosius,  who,  in  derision,  called 
him  by  the  female  name  Antigona,  and  sent  him  in 
chains  to  Antony,  by  Avhom,  at  the  request  of  Herod, 
he  was  put  to  death,  B.C.  37.  Thus  fell  the  last  of  the 
Maccabees,  who  seemed  to  inherit  something  of  their  an- 
cient spirit.  Hyrcanus,  who,  before  this,  had  been  inca- 
pacitated for  the  priesthood  by  having  his  cars  cut  ofl', 
was  subsequently,  B.C.  30,  in  his  eightieth  year,  put  to 
death  by  Herod.  The  latter,  meanwhile,  by  Augustus 
and  Antony,  was  made  king  of  Judrea,  and  consolidated 
his  throne  by  his  marriage  with  Mariamne,  a  woman  of 
incomparable  beauty,  the  daughter  of  Alexander,  son  of 
Aristobulus,  by  Alexandra,  the  daughter  of  Hyrcanus  H, 
and  therefore  granddaughter  to  both  brothers.  In  her 
the  race  of  the  Asmonwans  came  to  an  end,  and  by  her 
marriage  passed  into  the  Idumfean  line  of  the  Herodians. 

7.  Two  of  the  first  generation  of  the  Maccaba'an  fam- 
ily still  remain  to  be  mentioned.  These,  though  they 
did  not  attain  to  the  leadership  of  their  countrymen 
like  their  brothers,  shared  their  fate — Eleazar,  by  a  no- 
ble act  of  self-devotion;  John,  apparently  the  eldest 
brother,  by  treachery.  The  sacrifice  of  the  family  was 
complete,  and  probably  history  offers  no  parallel  to  the 
undaunted  courage  with  which  such  a  band  dared  to 
face  death,  one  by  one,  in  the  maintenance  of  a  holy 
cause.  The  residt  was  worthy  of  the  sacrifice.  The 
Maccabees  inspired  a  subject-people  with  independence; 
thej'  found  a  few  personal  followers,  and  they  left  a  na- 
tion. 

HI.  National  Effects  of  the  Maccahcean  Rerolulion. — 
1.  The  great  outlines  of  the  Maccabiean  contest,  which 
are  somewhat  hidden  in  the  annals  thus  briefly  epito- 
mized, admit  of  being  traced  with  fair  distinctness, 
though  many  points  must  always  remain  obscure  from 
our  ignorance  of  the  numbers  and  distribution  of  the 
Jewish  population,  and  of  the  general  condition  of  the 
people  at  the  time.  The  disputed  succession  to  the 
Syrian  throne  (B.C.  153 )  was  the  political  turning-point 
of  the  struggle,  which  may  thus  be  divided  into  two 
great  periods.  During  the  first  period  (B.C.  1G8-153) 
the  patriots  maintained  their  cause  with  varying  suc- 
cess against  the  whole  strength  of  Syria;  during  the 
second  (B.C.  153-139)  they  were  courted  by  rival  fac- 
tions, and  their  independence  was  acknowledged  from 
time  to  time,  thoug]i  jiledges  given  in  times  of  danger 
were  often  broken  Mhen  the  danger  was  over.  The 
paramount  importance  of  Jerusalem  is  conspicuous 
throughout  the  whole  war.  The  loss  of  the  Holy  City 
reduced  the  patriotic  party  at  once  to  the  condition  of 
mere  guerrilla  bands,  issuing  from  "  the  mountains"  or 
'•tlie  wilderness"  to  make  sudden  forays  on  the  neigh- 
boring towns.  This  was  the  first  aspect  of  the  war  (2 
Mace,  vii,  1-7 ;  comp.  1  jNIacc.  ii,  45) ;  and  the  scene  of 
the  early  exploits  of  Judas  was  the  hill-country  to  the 
north-east  of  Jerusalem,  from  which  he  drove  the  in- 
vading armies  at  the  famous  battle-fields  of  Bcth-horon 
and  Emmaus  (Nicopolis).  The  occupation  of  Jerusalem 
closed  the  first  act  of  the  war  (B.C.  1651 ;  and  after  this 
Judas  made  rapid  attacks  on  every  side— in  Idumaja, 
Ammon,  Gilead,  GaUlee — but  he  made  no  permanent 
settlement  in  the  count lies  which  he  ravaged.  Beth- 
sura  was  fortified  as  a  .lefence  of  Jerusalem  on  the  south ; 
but  the  authority  of  Judas  seems  to  have  been  limited 
to  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  Jerusalem,  though 
the  influence  of  his  name  extended  more  widely  (1 
Mace,  vii,  50,  >'/  yTj  '\ovCa).  On  the  death  of  Judas  the 
patriots  were  reduced  to  as  great  distress  as  at  their  first 
rising;  and,  as  Bacchides  held  the  keys  of  the  '-moun- 
tains of  Ephraim"  (ix,  50),  they  were  forced  to  find  a 
refuge  in  the  lo\vlands  of  Jericho,  and,  after  some  slight 


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603 


MACCABEE 


successes,  Jonathan  was  allowed  to  settle  at  ISIichmash 
undisturbed,  though  the  whole  country  remained  abso- 
lutely under  the  sovereignty  of  Syria.  So  far  it  seemed 
that  little  had  been  gained  when  the  contest  between 
Alexander  Balas  and  Demetrius  I  opened  a  new  period 
(B.C.  153).  Jonathan  was  empowered  to  raise  troops: 
the  Je^vish  hostages  were  restored,  many  of  the  for- 
tresses were  abandoned,  and  apparently  a  definite  dis- 
trict was  assigned  to  the  government  of  the  high-priest. 
The  former  unfruitful  conflicts  at  length  produced  their 
full  harvest.  The  defeat  at  Eleasa,  like  the  Swiss  St. 
Jacob,  had  shown  the  worth  of  men  who  could  face  all 
odds,  and  no  price  seemed  too  great  to  secure  their  aid. 
When  the  Jewish  leaders  had  once  obtained  legitimate 
power  they  proved  able  to  maintain  it,  though  their 
general  success  was  checkered  by  some  reverses.  The 
solid  power  of  the  national  party  was  seen  by  the  slight 
effect  which  was  produced  by  the  treacherous  murder 
of  Jonathan.  Simon  was  able  at  once  to  occupy  his 
place  and  carry  out  his  plans.  The  Sj'rian  garrison 
was  withdrawn  from  Jerusalem,  Joppa  was  occupied  as 
a  sea-port,  and  "four  governments"  {Ticrffcipec;  i'o/.toi,yii, 
57 ;  xiii,37) — probably  the  central  parts  of  the  old  king- 
dom of  Judah,  with  three  districts  taken  from  Samaria 
(x,  38,  39),  were  subjected  to  the  sovereign  authority  of 
the  high-priest. 

2.  The  war,  thus  brought  to  a  noble  issue,  if  less  fa- 
mous, is  not  less  glorious  than  any  of  those  in  which  a 
few  brave  men  have  successfully  maintained  the  cause 
of  freedom  or  religion  against  overpowering  might. 
The  answer  of  Judas  to  those  who  counselled  retreat  (1 
Mace,  ix,  10)  was  as  true-hearted  as  that  of  Leonidas ; 
and  the  exploits  of  his  followers  will  bear  favorable 
comparison  with  those  of  the  Swiss,  or  the  Dutch,  or 
the  Americans.  It  would  be  easy  to  point  out  parallels 
in  MaccabiBan  history  to  the  noblest  traits  of  patriots 
and  martyrs  in  other  countries;  but  it  may  be  enough 
here  to  claim  for  the  contest  the  attention  which  it 
rarely  receives.  It  seems,  indeed,  as  if  the  indifference 
of  classical  writers  were  perpetuated  in  our  own  days, 
though  there  is  no  struggle — not  even  the  wars  of  Joshua 
or  David — which  is  more  profoundly  interesting  to  the 
Christian  student ;  for  it  is  not  only  in  their  victory 
over  external  difficulties  that  the  heroism  of  the  Macca- 
bees is  conspicuous :  their  real  success  was  as  much  im- 
perilled by  internal  divisions  as  by  foreign  force.  They 
had  to  contend  on  the  one  hand  against  open  and  subtle 
attempts  to  introduce  Greek  customs,  and  on  the  other 
against  an  extreme  Pharisaic  party,  which  is  seen  from 
time  to  time  opposing  their  counsels  (1  Mace,  vii,  12- 
18).  It  was  from  Judas  and  those  whom  he  inspired 
that  the  old  faith  received  its  last  development  and 
final  impress  before  the  coming  of  our  Lord. 

3.  For  that  view  of  the  Maccabrean  war  which  re- 
gards it  only  as  a  civil  and  not  as  a  religious  conflict  is 
essentially  one-sided.  If  there  were  no  other  evidence 
than  the  book  of  Daniel — whatever  opinion  be  held  as 
to  the  tlate  of  it — that  alone  would  show  how  deeply  the 
noblest  hopes  of  the  theocracy  were  centred  in  the  suc- 
cess of  the  struggle.  When  the  feelings  of  the  nation 
were  thus  again  turned  with  fresh  power  to  their  an- 
cient faith,  we  might  expect  that  there  would  be  a  new 
creative  epoch  in  the  national  literature;  or,  if  the  form 
of  Hebrew  composition  was  already  fixed  b)'  sacred 
types,  a  prophet  or  psalmist  would  express  the  thoughts 
of  tlie  new  age  after  the  models  of  old  time.  Yet,  in 
l)art  at  least,  the  leaders  of  jMaccabrean  times  felt  that 
tlioy  were  separated  by  a  real  chasm  from  the  times  of 
the  kingdom  or  of  tlie  exile.  If  they  looked  for  a 
prophet  in  the  future,  they  acknowledged  that  the  spirit 
of  proi)hecy  was  not  among  them,  the  volume  of  the 
prophetic  writings  was  completed,  and,  as  far  as  ap- 
pears, no  one  ventured  to  imitate  its  contents.  But  the 
llagiographa,  though  they  were  already  long  fixed  as  a 
definite  collection  [see  Canon],  were'  equally  far  re- 
moved from  imitation.  The  apocalyptic  visions  of 
Daniel  [see  Daniel]  served  as  a  pattern  for  the  vi- 


sions incorporated  in  the  book  of  Enoch  [see  Enoch, 
Book  of]  ;  and  it  has  been  commonly  supposed  that 
the  Psalter  contains  compositions  of  the  Maccabrean 
date.  This  supposition,  which  is  at  variance  with  the 
best  evidence  that  can  be  obtained  on  the  history  of 
the  Canon,  can  onlj-  be  received  upon  the  clearest  inter- 
nal proof;  and  it  may  well  be  questioned  whether  the 
hypothesis  is  not  as  much  at  variance  with  sound  inter- 
pretation as  with  the  history  of  the  Canon.  The  ex- 
treme forms  of  the  hypothesis,  as  that  of  Hitzig,  who 
represents  Psa.  i,  ii,  xliv,  Ix,  and  all  the  last  three  books 
of  the  Psalms  (Psa.  Ixxiii-cl)  as  Maccabtean  (Grimm,  1 
Mace.  Einleit.  §  9,  3),  or  of  Just.  OlshauscSi  (quoted  by 
Ewald,  Jahrh.  1853,  p.  250  sq.),  who  is  inclined  to  bring 
the  whole  Psalter,  with  very  few  exceptions,  to  that 
date,  need  only  be  mentioned  as  indicating  the  kind  of 
conjecture  which  finds  currency  on  such  a  subject.  The 
real  controversy  is  confined  to  a  much  narrower  field ; 
and  the  psalms  which  have  been  referred  with  the 
greatest  sho-w  of  reason  to  the  ]\Iaccab»an  age  are  Psae 
xliv,  Ix,  Ixxiv,  Ixxix,  Ixxx,  Ixxxiii.  It  has  been  ar- 
gued that  all  these  speak  of  the  dangers  to  which  the 
house  and  peojile  of  God  were  exposed  from  heathen 
enemies,  at  a  period  later  than  the  captivity ;  and  the 
one  ground  for  referring  them  to  the  time  of  the  Mac- 
cabees is  the  general  ct)incidence  which  they  present 
with  some  features  of  the  Greek  oppression.  But,  if  it 
were  admitted  that  the  psalms  in  question  are  of  a  later 
date  than  the  cai;tivity,  it  by  no  means  follows  that 
they  are  Maccabwan.  On  the  contrary,  they  do  not 
contain  the  slightest  trace  of  those  internal  divisions  of 
the  peo]ile  which  were  the  most  marked  features  of  the 
jMaccabffian  struggle.  The  dangers  then  were  as  much 
from  within  as  from  without;  and  party  jealousies 
brought  the  divine  cause  to  the  greatest  peril  (Ewald, 
Psalmen,  p.  355).  It  is  incredible  that  a  series  of  Mac- 
cabffian  psalms  should  contain  no  allusion  to  a  system 
of  enforced  idolatry,  or  to  a  temporizing  priesthood,  or 
to  a  faithless  multitude.  While  the  obscurity  which 
hangs  over  the  history  of  the  Persian  supremacy  from 
the  time  of  Nehemiah  to  the  invasion  of  Alexander 
makes  it  impossible  to  fix  with  any  precision  a  date  to 
which  the  psalms  can  be  referred,  the  one  glimpse  which 
is  given  of  the  state  of  .Jerusalem  in  the  interval  (Jose- 
phus.  Ant.  xi,  7)  is  such  as  to  show  that  they  may  well 
have  found  some  suflicient  occasion  in  the  wars  and  dis- 
orders which  attended  the  decline  of  the  Persian  power 
(comp.  Ewald).  It  may,  however,  be  doubted  whether 
the  arguments  for  a  post-Babylonian  date  are  conclu- 
sive. There  is  nothing  in  the  psalms  themselves  which 
ma}'  not  apply  to  the  circumstances  which  attended  the 
overthrow  of  the  kingdom  ;  and  it  seems  incredible  that 
the  desolation  of  the  Temple  should  have  given  occasion 
to  no  hymns  of  pious  sorrow. 

4.  The  collection  of  the  so-called  Psalms  of  Sohvion 
furnishes  a  strong  confirmation  of  the  belief  that  all  the 
canonical  Psalms  are  earlier  than  the  Maccabivan  a?ra. 
This  collection,  which  bears  the  clearest  traces  of  unity 
of  authorship,  is,  almost  beyond  question,  a  true  Jlacca- 
bsean  work.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe  (Ewald, 
GescMchte,  iv,  343)  that  the  book  was  originally  com- 
posed in  Hebrew ;  and  it  presents  exactly  those  charac- 
teristics which  are  wanting  in  the  other  (conjectural) 
Maccabtean  Psalms.  '•  The  holy  ones"  (p'l  oaioi,  C^^DO 
[see  Assin.BANs] ;  o'l  (pojiovj.twoi  top  Ki'oioj')  appear 
throughout  as  a  distinct  class,  struggling  against  hypo- 
crites and  men-pleasers,  who  make  the  observance  of 
the  law  subservient  to  their  own  interests  (Psa.  Sol.  iv, 
xiii-xv).  The  sanctuary  is  polluted  by  the  abomina- 
tions of  professing  servants  of  God  before  it  is  polluted 
b}'  the  heathen  (Psa.  Sol.  i,  8 ;  ii,  1  sq. ;  viii,  8  sq. ;  xvii, 
15  sq.).  National  unfaithfulness  is  the  cause  of  national 
punishment;  and  the  end  of  trial  is  the  "justification" 
of  God  (Psa.  Sol.  ii,  1(5;  iii,  3;  iv,  9;  viii,  7  sq. ;  ix). 
On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  holiness  of  works  set  up  in 
some  passages  which  violates  the  divine  mean  of  Scrip- 
ture (Psa.  SoL  i,  2,  3 ;  iii,  9) ;  and,  while  the  language 


MACCABEE 


604 


MACCABEE 


is  full  of  echoes  of  the  Old  Testament,  it  is  impossible 
not  to  fed  that  it  wants  something  which  we  find  in  all 
t!ie  canonical  writings.  The  historical  allusions  in  the 
I'salms  of  Solomon  are  as  unequivocal  as  the  description 
which  they  give  of  the  state  of  the  Jewish  nation.  An 
ciieniv  "  threw  down  the  strong  walls  of  Jerusalem,"  and 
"  (ientiles  went  up  to  the  altar"  (Psa.  Sol.  ii,  1-3 ;  comp. 
1  Mace,  i,  31).  In  his  pride  "  he  wrought  all  things  in 
Jerusalem,  as  the  Gentiles  in  their  cities  do  for  their 
gods"  (Psa,  Sol.  xvii,  16).  "Those  who  loved  the  as- 
semblies of  the  saints  {avvayioyuQ  (xriaii'),  wandered 
(lege  tTrXafuiiTo)  in  deserts"  (Psa.  Sol.  xxvii,  19 ;  comp. 
1  JMacc.  i,  54 ;  ii,  28) ;  and  there  "  was  no  one  in  the  midst 
of  Jerusalem  who  did  mercy  and  truth"  (Psa.  Sol.  xvii, 
17 ;  comp.  1  Mace,  i,  38).  One  psalm  (viii)  appears  to 
refer  to  a  somewhat  later  period.  The  people  wrought 
wickedly,  and  God  sent  upon  them  a  spirit  of  error.  He 
brought  one  "  from  the  extremity  of  the  earth"  (viii, 
10;  compare  1  Mace,  vii,  1 — "Demetrius  from  Rome"). 
'•  The  princes  of  the  land  met  him  with  joy"  (1  Mace, 
vii,  5-8) ;  and  he  entered  the  land  in  safety  (1  Mace,  vii, 
(1-12 — Bacchides,  his  general),  "  as  a  father  in  peace"  (1 
Mace. vii,  15).  Then  "he  slew  the  princes  and  every 
one  wise  in  counsel"  (1  INIacc.  vii,  16),  and  "  poured  out 
the  blood  of  those  who  dwelt  in  Jerusalem"  (1  Mace,  vii, 
17).  The  purport  of  these  evils,  as  a  retributive  and 
purifying  judgment,  leads  to  the  most  remarkable  feat- 
ure of  tlie  Psalms,  the  distinct  expression  of  Messianic 
hopes.  In  this  respect  they  offer  a  direct  contrast  to 
the  books  of  Maccabees  (1  Mace,  xiv,  41).  The  sorrow 
and  the  triumph  are  seen  together  in  their  spiritual  as- 
jject,  and  the  expectation  of  "  an  anointed  Lord"  {xp'(T- 
TUQ  KvptoQ,  Psa.  Sol.  xvii,  36  [xviii,  8]  ;  comp.  Luke  ii, 
11)  follows  directly  after  the  description  of  the  impious 
assaults  of  Gentile  enemies  (Psa.  Sol.  xvii ;  comp.  Dan. 
xi,  45;  xii).  "Blessed,"  it  is  said,  "are  they  Avho  are 
born  in  those  days,  to  see  the  good  things  which  the 
Lt)rd  shall  do  for  the  generation  to  come.  [When  men 
are  brought]  beneath  the  rod  of  correction  of  an  anoint- 
ed Lord  (or  the  Lord's  anointed,  i'tto  pajilov  Traicdag 
Xpi(TTov  Kvpiov)  in  the  fear  of  his  God,  in  wisdom  of 
spirit,  and  of  righteousness,  and  of  might"  ....  then 
tiiere  shall  be  a  "good  generation  in  the  fear  of  God,  in 
the  days  of  mercy"  (Psa.  Sol.  xviii,  6-10). 

5.  Elsewhere  there  is  little  which  marks  the  distin- 
guishing religious  character  of  the  pera.  The  notice  of 
the  Maccabfean  heroes  in  the  book  of  Daniel  is  much 
more  general  and  brief  than  the  corresponding  notice  of 
their  great  adversary',  but  it  is  not,  on  that  account, 
less  important  as  illustrating  the  relation  of  the  famous 
chapter  to  the  simple  history  of  the  period  which  it  em- 
braces. Nowhere  is  it  more  evident  that  facts  are  shad- 
owed fortli  by  the  prophet  only  in  their  typical  bearing 
on  the  development  of  God's  kingdom.  In  this  aspect 
the  passage  itself  (Dan.  xi,  29-35)  will  supersede  in  a 
great  measure  the  necessity  of  a  detailed  comment :  ''At 
the  time  iippainted  [in  the  spring  of  B.C.  168]  he  [Anti- 
ochus  Epiph.]  shall  return  and  come  toicard  the  south 
[  Egypt]  ;  but  it  shall  not  be  as  the  first  time,  so  also  the 
last  time  [though  his  first  attempts  shaU  be  successful, 
in  the  end  he  shall  fail].  For  the  ships  ofChittim  [the 
Koinans]  shall  come  against  him,  and  he  shall  be  cast 
down,  and  return,  and  be  very  vroth  against  the  holy  cov- 
enant;  and  he  shall  do  [his  will];  yea,  he  shall  retuiii, 
and  hare  intelligence  iritk  them  that  forsake  the  holy  cov- 
enant (compare  Dan.  viii,  24, 25).  A  nd  forces  from  him 
[at  his  bidding]  shall  stand  [remain  in  Judaea  as  garri- 
sons ;  comp.  1  ]\Iacc.  i,  33, 34]  ;  and  they  shall  pollute  the 
sanctuary,  the  stronghold,  and  shall  take  aivay  the  daily 
[sacrifice];  and  they  shall  set  vp  the  abomination  that 
maketh  desolate  [1  Mace.  5,45-17].  And  such  as  do 
vickedly  against  (or  rather  such  as  condemn')-the  cove- 
nant sh(dlbe  corrupt  [to  apostasy]  by  smooth  words ;  but 
the  people  thatkno7V  their  Godsh(dlbe  strong  and  do  [ex- 
])loits].  And  they  that  understand  [know  God  and  his 
law]  anumg  the  people  shall  instruct  many :  yet  they  sh(dl 
fall  by  the  sword  and  by  Jlume,  by  cajitivity  and  by  spoil 


[some]  days  (1  Mace,  i,  60-64).  Noiv  when  they  shall 
fall,  they  shall  be  holpen  with  a  little  help  (1  Mace,  i,  28 ; 
2  Mace,  v,  27  ;  Judas  Mace,  with  nine  others  .  .  .)  ;  and 
many  shall  cleave  to  them  [the  faithful  followers  of  the 
law]  with  hypocrisy  [dreading  the  prowess  of  Judas:  1 
Mace,  ii,  46,  and  yet  ready  to  fall  away  at  the  first  op- 
portunity, 1  Mace,  vii, 6].  And  some  (f  them  rf  under- 
standing shall  fall,  to  make  trial  among  them,  and  to  purge 
and  to  make  them  ivhite,  unto  the  time  of  the  end ;  because 
[the  end  is]  yet  for  a  time  appointed."  From  this  point 
the  prophet  describes  in  detail  the  godlessness  of  the 
great  oppressor  (ver.  36-39),  and  then  his  last  fortunes 
and  death  (ver.  40-45),  but  says  nothing  of  the  triumph 
of  the  Maccabees  or  of  the  restoration  of  the  Temple, 
which  preceded  the  last  event  by  some  months.  This 
omission  is  scarcely  intelligible  unless  we  regard  the 
facts  as  symbolizing  a  higher  struggle — a  truth  wrongly 
held  by  those  who  from  early  times  referred  ver.  36-45 
only  to  Antichrist,  the  antitype  of  Antiochus — in  which 
that  recovery  of  the  earthly  temple  had  no  place.  At 
any  rate,  it  shows  the  imperfection  of  that  view  of  the 
whole  chapter  by  which  it  is  regarded  as  a  mere  tran- 
scription of  history. 

6.  The  history  of  the  Maccabees  does  not  contain 
much  which  illustrates  in  detail  the  religious  or  social 
progress  of  the  Jews.  It  is  obvious  that  the  period 
must  not  only  have  intensified  old  beliefs,  but  alto  have 
called  out  elements  which  were  latent  in  them.  One 
doctrine  at  least,  that  of  a  resurrection,  and  even  of  a 
material  resurrection  (2  Mace,  xiv,  46),  was  brought  out 
into  the  most  distinct  apprehension  by  suffering.  "  It 
is  good  to  look  for  the  hope  from  God,  to  be  raised  up 
again  by  him"  {ttuXiv  ava(JTr,<jia^cu  vir'  avTov),  was 
the  substance  of  the  martj-r's  answer  to  his  judge;  "as 
for  thee,  thou  shalt  have  no  resurrection  to  life"  (civac- 
TaaiQ  iiQ  c^ioljv,  2  JIacc.  vii,  14 ;  comp.  vi,  26 ;  xiv,  46). 
"  Our  brethren,"  says  another,  "  have  fallen,  having  en- 
dured a  short  pain  leading  to  everlasting  life,  being  im- 
der  the  covenant  of  God"  (2  Mace,  vii,  36,  ttovov,  aei'- 
vaov  4w)}c)-  As  it  was  believed  that  an  interval  elapsed 
between  death  and  judgment,  the  dead  were  supposed 
to  be  in  some  measure  still  capable  of  profiting  by  the 
intercession  of  the  living.  Thus  much  is  certainly  ex- 
pressed in  the  famous  passage,  2  Mace,  xii, 43-45,  though 
the  secondary  notion  of  a  purgatorial  state  is  in  no  way 
implied  in  it.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  very  clear 
how  far  the  future  judgment  was  supposed  to  extend. 
If  the  punishment  of  the  wicked  heathen  in  another  life 
had  formed  a  definite  article  of  belief,  it  might  have 
been  expected  to  be  put  forward  more  prominently  (2 
Mace,  vii,  17, 19,  35,  etc.),  though  the  passages  in  ques- 
tion may  be  understood  of  sufferings  after  death,  and 
not  only  of  earthly  sufferings;  but  for  the  apostate  Jews 
there  was  a  certain  judgment  in  reserve  (vi,  26).  The 
firm  faith  in  the  righteous  providence  of  God  shown  in 
the  chastening  of  his  people,  as  contrasted  with  his  neg- 
lect of  other  nations,  is  another  proof  of  the  widening 
view  of  the  spiritual  world  which  is  characteristic  of 
the  epoch  (2  Mace,  iv,  16, 17;  v,  17-20;  vi,  12-16,  etc.). 
The  lessons  of  the  captivity  were  reduced  to  moral 
teaching;  and  in  the  same  way  the  doctrine  of  the  min- 
istry of  angels  assumed  an  importance  which  is  without 
parallel  except  in  patriarchal  times.  See  2  Maccakees, 
It  was  perhaps  from  this  cause  also  that  the  ]Mcssianic 
hope  was  limited  in  its  range.  The  vivid  perception  of 
spiritual  truths  hindered  the  spread  of  a  hope  which 
had  been  cherished  in  a  material  form ;  and  a  pause,  as 
it  were,  was  made,  in  which  men  gained  new  points  of 
sight  from  which  to  contemplate  the  old  promises. 

7.  The  various  glimpses  of  national  life  which  can  be 
gained  during  the  period  show,  on  the  whole,  a  steady 
adherence  to  the  !JIosaic  luv.-.  Probably  the  law  was 
never  more  rigorously  fulfilled.  The  importance  of  the 
Antiochian  persecution  in  fixing  the  canon  of  the  Old 
Testament  has  already  been  noticed.  See  Canon.  The 
books  of  the  law  were  specially  sought  out  for  destruc- 
tion (1  Mace,  i,  56,  57;  iii,  48),  and  their  distinctive 


MACCABEE 


605 


MACCABEE 


value  was  in  consequence  proportionately  increased.  To 
use  the  words  of  1  jMacc,  "  the  holy  books"  (ju  fSifiXia 
rd  (iyia  Tii  tv  xtpcriv  //juoJi')  were  felt  to  make  all  other 
comfort  superfluous  (1  Mace,  xii,  9).  The  strict  observ- 
ance of  the  Sabbath  (1  Mace,  ii,  32  ;  2  Mace,  vi,  11 ;  viii, 
2G,  etc.)  and  of  the  sabbatical  year  (1  Mace,  vi,  53),  the 
law  of  the  Nazarites  (1  Mace,  iii,  49),  and  the  exemp- 
tions from  military  service  (1  Mace,  iii,  5(5),  the  solemn 
prayer  and  fasting  (1  Mace,  iii,  47 ;  2  Mace,  x,  25,  etc.), 
carry  us  back  to  early  times.  The  provision  for  the 
maimed,  the  aged,  and  the  bereaved  (2  Mace,  viii,  28, 30), 
was  in  the  spirit  of  the  law;  and  the  new  Feast  of  the 
Dedication  was  a  homage  to  the  old  rites  (2  Mace,  i,  9), 
while  it  was  a  proof  of  independent  life.  The  interrup- 
tion of  the  succession  to  the  high-priesthood  was  the 
most  important  innovation  which  was  made,  and  one 
which  prepared  the  way  for  the  dissolution  of  the  state. 
After  various  arbitrary  changes  the  office  was  left  va- 
cant for  seven  years  upon  the  death  of  Alcimus.  The 
last  descendant  of  Jozadak  (Onias),  in  whose  family  it 
had  been  for  nearly  four  centuries,  fled  to  Egypt,  and 
established  a  schismatic  worship ;  and  at  last,  when  the 
support  of  the  Jews  became  important,  the  Maccabajan 
leader,  .Jonathan,  of  the  family  of  Joarib,  was  elected  to 
the  dignity  by  the  nomination  of  the  Syrian  king  (1 
INIacc.  X,  20),  whose  will  was  confirmed,  as  it  appears,  by 
the  voice  of  the  people  (comp.  1  Mace,  xiv,  35). 

8.  Little  can  be  said  of  the  condition  of  literature  and 
the  arts  which  has  not  been  already  anticipated.  In 
common  intercourse  the  Jews  used  the  Aramaic  dialect 
which  was  established  after  the  return  :  this  was  "  their 
own  language'"  (2  Mace,  vii,  8, 21, 27  ;  xii,  37) ;  but  it  is 
evident  from  the  narrative  quoted  that  the}' understood 
Greek,  which  must  have  spread  widely  through  the  in- 
fluence of  Sj'rian  officers.  There  is  not,  however,  the 
slightest  evidence  that  Greek  was  employed  in  Pales- 
tinian literature  till  a  much  later  date.  The  descrip- 
tion of  the  monument  which  was  erected  by  Simon  at 
!Modin  in  memory  of  his  family  (1  Mace,  xiii,  27-30)  is 
the  only  record  of  the  architecture  of  the  time.  The 
description  is  obscure,  but  in  sorue  features  the  structure 
appears  to  have  presented  a  resemblance  to  the  tombs 
of  Porsena  and  the  Curiatii  (Pliiiv,  ff.  N,  xxxvi,  13), 
and  perhaps  to  one  still  found  in  Idumnea.  An  oblong 
basement,  of  which  the  two  chief  faces  were  built  of 
polished  white  marble  (Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  0,  5),  sup- 
ported "  seven  pyramids  in  a  line  ranged  one  against 
another,"  equal  in  number  to  the  members  of  the  Mac- 
cabiean  family,  including  Simon  himself.  To  these  he 
added  '■  other  works  of  art  {j.ii]xai'>ii.iaTa).  placing  round 
(on  the  two  chief  faces?)  great  columns  (Josephus  adds, 
each  of  a  single  block),  bearing  trophies  of  arms  and 
sculptured  shii)s,  which  might  be  visible  from  the  sea 
below."  The  language  of  1  IMacc.  and  .Josephus  im- 
plies that  these  columns  were  placed  upon  the  basement, 
otherwise  it  might  be  supposed  that  the  columns  rose 
only  to  the  height  of  the  basement  supporting  the  tro- 
phies on  the  same  level  as  the  pyramids.  So  much,  at 
least,  is  evident,.that  the  characteristics  of  this  work — 
and  probably  of  later  Jewish  architecture  generally — 
bore  closer  affinity  to  the  styles  of  Asia  Minor  and 
Greece  than  to  that  of  Egj'pt  or  the  East,  a  result  which 
would  follow  equally  from  the  Syrian  dominion  and  the 
commerce  which  Simon  opened  by  the  Mediterranean 
(I  iMacc.  xiv,  5).     See  Mooix. 

9.  The  only  recognised  relics  of  the  time  are  the  coins 
which  bear  the  name  of  "Simon,"  or  '" Simon,  prince 
(luisi)  of  Israel,"  in  Samaritan  letters.  The  privilege 
of  a  national  coinage  was  granted  to  Simon  by  Anti- 
ocluts  VII,  Sidetes  (1  Mace,  xv,  6,  icoju/ua  'iciov  i'6j.a<jjia 
Ty  X"^"!'?) ;  <ind  numerous  examples  occur  which  have 
the  dates  of  the  first,  second,  third,  and  fourth  years  of 
the  liberation  of  Jerusalem  (Israel,  Zion) ;  and  it  is  a  re- 
markable confirmation  of  their  genuineness,  that  in  the 
first  year  the  name  Zion  does  not  occur,  as  the  citadel 
was  not  recovered  till  the  second  year  of  Simon's  su- 
premacy, while  after  the  second  year  Zion  alone  is  found 


(Bayer,  De  Nummis,  p.  171).  The  privilege  was  first 
definitely  accorded  to  Simon  in  B.C.  140,  while  the  first 
year  of  Simon  was  B.C.  143  (1  Mace,  xiii,  42) ;  but  this 
discrepancy  causes  little  difficult}',  as  it  is  not  unlikely 
that  the  concession  of  Antiochus  was  made  in  favor  of  a 
practice  already  existing.  No  date  is  given  later  than 
the  fourth  year,  but  coins  of  Simon  occur  without  a 
date,  which  may  belong  to  the  last  four  years  of  his  life. 
The  emblems  which  the  coins  bear  have  generally  a 
connection  with  Jewish  history — a  vine-leaf,  a  cluster 
of  grapes,  a  vase  (of  manna?),  a  trifid  flowering  rod,  a 
palm  branch  surrounded  by  a  M'reafh  of  laurel,  a  lyre  (1 
Mace,  xiii,  51),  a  bundle  of  branches  symbolic  of  the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles.  The  coins  issued  in  the  last  war 
of  independence  by  Bar-cochba  repeat  many  of  these 
emblems,  and  there  is  considerable  difficulty  in  distin- 
guishing the  two  series.  The  authenticity  of  all  the 
Maccabiean  coins  was  impugned  by  Tychsen  {Die  Uti- 
iichiheit  d.  Jud.  Miinzen  .  .  .  beiviesen  .  .  .  O.  G.  Tych- 
sen, 1779),  but  on  insufficient  grounds.  He  was  answer- 
ed by  Bayer,  whose  admirable  essays  (De  Nummis  Ilehr. 
Sumaritanis,  Val.  Ed.  1781 ;  Vindicice  .  .  ,  1790)  give 
the  most  complete  account  of  the  coins,  though  he  reck- 
ons some  apparently  later  types  as  Maccabwan.  Eck- 
hel  {Doctr.  Numm.  iii,  455  sq.)  has  given  a  good  account 
of  the  controversy,  and  an  accurate  description  of  the 
chief  types  of  the  coins.  Compare  De  Saulcy,  Numism. 
Judaique ;  Ewald,  GescJi.  vii,  366, 476.     See  Moxey. 

IV.  Literature. — The  original  authorities  for  the  his- 
tory of  the  Maccabees  are  extremely  scanty ;  but  for 
the  course  of  the  war  itself  the  first  book  of  Maccabees 
is  a  most  trustworthy,  if  an  incomplete  witness.  See 
jMaccabees,  Books  of.  The  second  book  adds  some 
important  details  to  the  history  of  the  earlier  part  of 
the  struggle,  and  of  the  events  which  immediately  pre- 
ceded it ;  but  all  the  statements  which  it  contains  re- 
quire close  examination,  and  must  be  received  with 
caution.  .Josephus  follows  1  Mace,  for  the  period  which 
it  embraces,  very  closely,  but  slight  additions  of  names 
and  minute  particulars  indicate  that  he  was  in  posses- 
sion of  other  materials,  probably  oral  traditions,  M'hich 
have  not  been  elsewhere  preserved.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  are  cases  in  which,  from  haste  or  carelessness,  he 
has  misinterpreted  his  authority.  From  other  sources 
little  can  be  gleaned.  Hebrew  and  classical  literature 
furnishes  nothing  more  tlian  a  few  trifling  fragments 
which  illustrate  Maccabsean  history.  So  long  an  inter- 
val elapsed  before  the  Hebrew  traditions  were  commit- 
ted to  writing,  that  facts,  when  not  embodied  in  rites 
or  precepts,  became  wholly  distorted.  Classical  writers, 
again,  were  little  likely  to  chronicle  a  conflict  which 
probably  they  could  not  have  understood.  Of  the  great 
work  of  Polybius — who  alone  might  have  been  expect- 
ed to  appreciate  the  importance  of  the  Jewish  war — 
only  fragments  remain  which  refer  to  this  period ;  but 
the  omission  of  all  mention  of  the  Maccabtean  campaign 
in  the  corresponding  sections  of  Li\y,  who  follows  very 
closely  in  the  track  of  the  Greek  historian,.seems  to  prove 
that  Polybius  also  omitted  them.  The  account  of  the 
Syrian  kings  in  Appian  is  too  meagre  to  make  his  si- 
lence remarkable;  but  intlifference  or  contempt  must  be 
the  explanation  of  a  general  silence  which  is  too  wide- 
spread to  be  accidental.  Even  when  the  fall  of  Jerusa- 
lem had  directed  unusual  attention  to  the  past  fortunes 
of  Its  defenders,  Tacitus  was  able  to  dismiss  the  Macca- 
baaan  conflict  in  a  sentence  remarkable  for  scornful  care- 
lessness. "  During  the  dominion  of  the  Ass\Tians,  the 
Medes,  and  the  Persians,  the  .Jews,"  he  says,  "were  the 
most  abject  of  their  dependent  subjects.  After  the  Mac- 
edonians obtained  the  supremacy  of  the  East,  king  An- 
tiochus endeavored  to  do  away  with  their  superstition, 
and  introduce  Greek  habits,  but  was  hindered  by  a  Par- 
thian war  from  reforming  a  most  repulsive  people"  {te- 
ierrimain  (jcntem,  Tacitus,  Ilist.  v,  8). 

For  a  table  of  contemporary  Syrian  kings,  see  Axti- 
ocnus;  and  for  further  information,  see  Milman,  Hist, 
of  the  Jeics,  vol.  ii ;  Prideaux,  Connection,  vol.  ii  (Oxford, 


MACCABEES,  BOOKS  OF 


60G 


MACCABEES,  BOOKS  OF 


1838);  Ewald,  Geschichte  des  V.  Israel,  vol.  iii,  part  ii; 
HerzfeUl,  Geschichie  d.  Volkes  Isr.;  Kaphall,  IJist.  of  the 
Jews ;  Griitz,  Gesch.  d.  JiiJen,  vol.  iii ;  Jost,  Gescfi.  d.  Is- 
raeliten;  Weber  uiid  Holtzmann,  GescJi.  d,  Volkes  Israel 
(Lcipsic,  181)7,  2  vols.  8vo),  vol.  ii,  ch.  iii. 

Maccabees,  I5ooks  of  (Mrt/cKo/iai'tuv  a,  /3',  etc.). 
Four  books  which  bear  the  cominou  title  of  "Macca- 
bees" are  found  in  some  MSS.  of  the  Sept.;  a  fifth  is 
found  in  an  Arabic  version.  Two  of  these  were  included 
in  the  early  current  Latin  versions  of  the  Bible,  and 
thence  passed  into  the  Vulgate.  As  forming  part  of  the 
Vulgate,  they  were  received  as  canonical  by  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent,  and  retained  among  the  Apocnjpha  by  the 
Eeformed  churches.  The  two  other  books  obtained  no 
such  wide  circulation,  and  have  only  a  secondary  con- 
nection with  the  Maccabiean  history.  But  all  the  books, 
though  they  differ  most  widely  in  character,  and  date, 
and  worth,  possess  points  of  interest  which  make  them 
a  fruitful  field  for  study.  If  the  historic  order  were  ob- 
served, the  so-called  third  book  would  come  first,  the 
fourth  would  be  an  appendix  to  the  second,  which  would 
retain  its  place,  and  the.  Jirst  would  come  last;  but  it 
will  be  more  convenient  to  examine  the  books  in  the 
order  in  which  they  are  found  in  the  MSS.,  which  was 
probably  decided  by  some  vague  tradition  of  their  rela- 
tive antiquity.  In  the  following  account  of  these  books 
we  adopt  much  of  the  matter  I'ound  in  the  dictionaries 
of  Kitto  and  Smith. 

The  controversy  as  to  the  mutual  relations  and  his- 
toric worth  of  the  first  two  books  of  Maccabees  has  given 
rise  to  much  very  ingenious  and  partial  criticism.  The 
subject  was  very  neai'ly  exhausted  by  a  series  of  essa3's 
published  in  the  last  century,  which  contain,  in  the 
midst  of  much  unfair  reasoning,  the  substance  of  what 
has  been  written  since.  The  discussion  was  occasioned 
by  E.  Frolich's  Annals  of  Syria  (Amiales  ....  Syrue 
....  numis  veteribus  illustrati,\m(\oh.Yi'i'^').  In  this 
great  work  the  author — a  Jesuit  —  had  claimed  para- 
mount authority  for  the  books  of  Maccabees.  This 
claim  was  denied  by  E.  F.Wernsdorf  in  his  Prolusio  de 
foniibus  histories  Syrite  in  Libris  Mace.  (Lipsite,  1746). 
Frolich  replied  to  this  essay  in  another,  Defontibus  hint. 
SyricE  in  Libris  Mace,  prolusio  ....  in  exainen  vocata 
(^'indob.  174G),  and  then  the  argument  fell  into  other 
hands.  Wernsdorf's  brother  ((ili.Wernsdorf)  undertook 
to  support  his  cause,  which  he  did  in  a  Commentatio  his- 
torico-critica  defde  librorum  Maccab.  (Wratisl.  1747); 
and  nothing  has  been  written  on  the  same  side  which 
can  be  compared  with  his  work.  By  the  vigor  and  free- 
dom of  his  style,  hy  his  surprising  erudition  and  unwav- 
ering conlidence — almost  worthy  of  Bentley — he  carries 
his  readers  often  beyond  the  bounds  of  true  criticism, 
and  it  is  only  after  reflection  that  the  littleness  and 
sophistry  of  many  of  his  arguments  are  apparent.  But, 
in  spite  of  the  injustice  and  arrogance  of  the  book,  it 
contains  very  much  which  is  of  the  greatest  value,  and 
no  abstract  can  give  an  adequate  notion  of  its  power. 
The  reply  to  Wernsdorf  was  published  anonymously  b}' 
another  Jesuit :  A  uctoriias  utriusqiie  Libri  Mace,  ca- 
nonico-historica  adserta  .  .  ,  a  quodam  Soc.  Jesu  sacer- 
dote  (Vindob.  1749).  The  authorship  of  this  was  fixed 
upon  J.  Khell  (Welte,  Einleit.  p.  23,  note);  and  while  in 
many  points  Khell  is  unecpial  to  his  adversary,  his  book 
contains  some  very  useful  collections  for  the  history  of 
the  canon.  In  more  recent  times,  F.  X.  Patritius  (an- 
otlier  .Icsuil  )  has  made  a  fresh  attempt  to  establish  the 
complete  harmony  of  the  books,  and,  on  the  Mhole,  his 
essay  (De  Consensu  utriusqiie  Libri  Muec.  Komse,  1856), 
though  far  from  satisfactory,  is  the  most  able  defence  of 
the  books  which  has  been  published. 

For  a  copious  list  of  original  editions,  translations, 
and  commentaries  on  the  first  three  books  of  Maccabees, 
see  Fiirst.  Bibliatheca  Judnit^i.  ii.  ;516  sq. , 

IMACCABEES,  the  FIIJST  Book  of,  the  most  im- 
portant one  of  the  five  apocryphal  productions  which 
have  come  down  to  us  under  this  common  title. 

I.  Title  and  Position  of  the  Book. — In  the  editions  of 


the  Sept.  which  we  follow,  this  book  is  called  the  first 
of  Maccabees  (MuKKnfialujv  a'),  because  in  the  MSS.  it 
is  placed  at  the  head  of  those  apocryphal  books  which 
record  the  exploits  and  merits  of  the  Maccakeau  family 
in  their  struggles  for  the  restoration  of  their  ancestral 
religion  and  the  liberation  of  their  Jewish  compatriots 
from  the  Seleucidian  tyranny.  According  to  Origen, 
however  (comp.  Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccles.  vi,  25),  the  orig- 
inal Hebrew  title  of  this  book  was  ^apjiijQ 'S.apjiav'i  tX. 
Great  difficulty  has  been  experienced  in  the  endeavor 
to  obtain  the  exact  Hebrew  equivalent  to  these  words. 
They  have  been  resolved — 1.  Into  ^"la  r!!;"!!!?  (or  "IIT) 
bs  ^33,  History  of  the  Princes  of  the  Sons  of  God,  that 
is,  of  Israel  (iMichaelis,  Orient.  Biblioth.  xii,  115,  and 
most  modern  commentators).  2.  Into  "^33  ^113  i;"i3"H!3 
?N,  The  Sceptre  of  the  Prince  of  the  Sons  of  God,  i.  e. 
of  Simon,  who  is  called  prince  in  1  Mace,  xiii,  41 ;  xiv, 
47  (Bochart,  Buddeus,  and  Ewald,  Geschichte  d.  V.Isrctel 
iv,  528).  But  this  makes  chapters  xiii-xvi  the  princi- 
pal part  of  the  book,  and  the  rest  a  mere  introduction, 
3.  Into  PX  "iji  TO  n'^3  ^UJ,  Princeps  templi  (i.  e.  pon- 
tifex  maximus),  Princeps  filioi-uin  Dei  (i.  e.  dux  populi 
Judaici),  based  upon  the  words  'S.i/.aovog  apxtipiwi;  /ji- 
ydXov  Kai  (rTpaTi)yov  KCti  yyovph'ov  'lov^ctiwv,  1 
Mace,  xiii,  42 ;  andtn-i  'Sij.uovoQ  apxifOHog  tv  "Eapa^itX, 
ibid,  xiv,  27  (Wernsdorf,  Comment,  de  fide  libb.  Maccab. 
p.  173).  4.  Into  bx  ^rn^D  i:'i2TJ,  Sceptrum  rebel- 
Hum  Dei,  i.  e.  of  the  Syrian  kings,  who  were  regarded 
as  rebelling  against  God  because  they  persecuted  the 
Jews  (Junius,  Huetius,  etc.),  or  as  Herzfeld,  who  es- 
pouses this  solution  of  the  words,  explains  it,  the  chas- 
tisinfi  rod  of  the  ajwstates,  which  he  submits  is  an  appro- 
priate appellation  of  the  Jlaccabieans  (Geschichte  d.  V. 
Israel,  i,  265).  We  incline  to  the  first  explanation,  be- 
cause it  escapes  the  censure  which  the  second  incurs, 
and  is  less  artificial  than  the  third  and  fourth.  It  must, 
however,  be  remarked  that  this  title  does  not  occur  in 
the  Hebrew  literature,  and  that  both  the  ancient  and 
modem  Jews  call  the  book  C^N3"i^irnn  "SD,  The 
Bookofthellashmonceans;  iXJTCirnb  "(VrX"!, /. //a«A- 
monceans;  ''i<!1?2'i'n  TT'n  Th^O,  The  Scroll  of  the  Fam- 
ily of  the  Ilashmonceans,  or  simply  "^XJItCiTI  r?i'2.  The 
Scroll  of  the  Ilashmonceans,  after  the  title  Ilashmonetans, 
or  AshmontEans,  by  which  the  Maccabajan  family  are 
denominated.     See  Maccabee. 

Though  the  book  occupies  the  first  position,  it  ought, 
according  to  the  historic  order,  to  be  the  fourth  of  Mac- 
cabees, inasmuch  as  its  narrative  commences  at  a  later 
period  than  the  other  three  books.  Tradition,  however, 
in  determining  the  priority  of  position,  was  evidently 
guided  by  the  age  and  the  intrinsic  value  of  these  books, 
since  1  jMacc.  is  obviously  the  oldest,  and  surpasses  the 
other  three  books  in  importance.  Cotton,  in  his  trans- 
lation of  the  Maccabees,  has  departed  from  this  tradition- 
al and  commonly  accepted  arrangement,  and  placed  the 
first  book  as  second  in  order. 

II.  Contents  and  Dirision. — This  book  contains  a  lucid 
and  chronological  history  of  the  tyrannical  proceedings 
of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  commencing  with  the  year 
B.C.  175,  and  of  the  scries  of  patriotic  struggles  ai^ainst 
this  tyranny,  first  organized  by  Mattatliias,  H.C.  168, 
down  to  set  tleil  sovereignty  and  the  death  ol  Simon,  H.C. 
135,  thus  embracing  a  period  of  forty  years. 

1.  The  first  part,  of  which  Mattatliias  is  the  hero, 
comprises  chap,  i-ii,  70,  and  embraces  a  period  from  the 
commencement  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes's  reign  to  the 
death  of  Mattathias,  B.C,  175-167. 

2.  The  second  part,  of  which  Judas  Maccabanis  is  the 
hero,  comprises  .chap,  iii,  1-ix,  22,  and  describes  the  ex- 
ploits and  fame  of  this  defender  of  the  faith,  B.C.  167- 
160. 

3.  The  third  part,  of  which  Jonathan,  the  high-priest, 
surnamed  Apjihus  ( ATz^ovQ~-'ii^ti'n,  the  simulator,  the 
sly  one),  is  the  hero,  comprises  ch.  ix,  23-xii,  53,  and  re- 


MACCABEES,  BOOKS  OF    607    MACCABEES,  BOOKS  OF 


cords  the  events  which  transpired  during  the  period  of 
his  government,  B.C.  160-143. 

4.  The  Jourih  jjart,  of  which  Simon,  surnamed  Thassi 
(Oa(TfTi=^'''Ci^r\,  the  Jiourishinff)  is  the  hero,  comprises 
ch.  xiii,  1-xvi,  24,  and  records  the  events  which  occur- 
red during  his  period  of  government,  B.C.  143-135. 

III.  Historical  and  Religious  Character. — There  is  no 
book  among  all  the  Apocrypha  which  is  distinguished 
by  greater  marks  of  trustworthiness  than  1  Maccabees. 
Simplicity,  credibility,  and  candor  alike  characterize  its 
description  of  friends  and  foes,  victories  and  defeats, 
hopes  and  fears.  When  the  theme  so  animates  the 
writer  that  he  gives  expression  to  his  feelings  in  lyric 
eifusions  (e.  g.  i,  25-28,  37-40  ;  ii,  7-13.  49-6« ;  iii,  3-9, 
18-22;  iv,  8-11,  30-33,  38;  vi,  10-13;  vii,37,  38,  41,  42), 
no  poetic  exaggerations  and  hyperboles  deprive  the  de- 
scription of  its  substantially  historic  character.  When 
recording  the  victories  of  his  heroes,  struggling  for  their 
insert  ies  and  their  religion,  he  wrests  no  laws  of  nature 
from  their  regular  course  to  aid  the  handful  of  Jewish 
champions  against  the  fearful  odds  of  tlioir  heathen  op- 
pressors ;  and  when  speaking  of  the  arch-enemy,  Anti- 
ochus  Epiphanes  (i,  10,  etc.),  he  indulges  in  no  unjust 
and  passionate  vituperations  against  him.  Yet  he  marks 
in  one  expressive  phrase  (pi'^a  afiapTioKoq)  the  charac- 
ter of  the  Syrian  type  of  Antichrist  (comp.  Isa.  xi,  10 ; 
Dan.  xi,  36).  If  no  mention  is  made  of  the  reckless 
profligacy  of  Alexander  Balas,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  his  relations  to  the  Jews  were  honorable  and  lib- 
eral, and  these  alone  fall  within  the  scope  of  the  histori,'. 
So  far  as  the  circumstances  admit,  the  general  accuracy 
of  the  book  is  established  by  the  evidence  of  other  au- 
thorities ;  but  for  a  considerable  period  it  is  the  single 
source  of  our  information.  Even  the  few  historical  and 
geographical  inaccuracies  in  the  description  of  foreign 
nations  and  countries,  such  as  the  foundation  of  the 
Greek  empire  in  the  East  (1  Mace,  i,  5-9),  the  power 
and  constitution  of  Rome  (viii,  1-16),  "  the  great  city 
Elymaias,  in  the  country  of  Persia"  (vi,  1),  etc.,  so  far 
from  impairing  the  general  truthfulness  of  the  narrative 
when  it  confines  itself  to  home  and  the  immediate  past, 
only  show  how  faithfully  the  writer  has  depicted  the 
general  notions  of  the  time,  and  for  this  reason  are  of 
intrinsic  value  and  instructive.  The  subjugation  of  the 
Galatians,  who  were  the  terror  of  the  neighboring  peo- 
ple (comp.  Livy,  xxxviii,  37),  and  the  concjuest  of  Spain, 
the  Tarshish  (ch.  viii,  3)  of  Phoenician  merchants,  are 
noticed,  as  would  be  natural  from  tlie  immediate  inter- 
est of  the  events;  but  the  wars  with  Carthage  are 
wholly  omitted  (Josephus  adds  these  in  his  narrative, 
Ant.  xii,  10,  6).  The  errors  in  detail — as  the  capture  of 
Antiochus  the  Great  by  the  Romans  (ver.  7),  the  num- 
bers of  his  armament  (ver.  6),  the  constitution  of  the 
Roman  senate  (ver.  15),  the  one  supreme  j'early  officer 
at  Rome  (ver.  16;  compare  xv,  16) — are  onlj'  such  as 
might  be  expected  in  oral  accounts ;  and  the  endurance 
(ver.  4,  naKpo^vi.ua),  the  good  faith  (ver.  112),  and  the 
simplicity  of  the  republic  (ver.  14,  ovk  i-Kt^tTO  ovdtiQ 
avToJv  Ctdci]i^ia  Kal  oh  TTipufiaXoPTO  Trop(pvnav  uiare 
aSpvpSri'ii'ai  iv  avTt),  contrast  i,  9),  were  features  likely 
to  arrest  the  attention  of  Orientals. 

That  the  writer  used  written  sources  and  important 
official  documents  in  his  history  is  evident  from  viii,  2, 
etc.;  X,  18,  etc.,  25-45 ;  xi, 30-37;  xii, 5-23;  xiii, 36-40; 
xiv,  25,  etc. ;  xv,  2-9 ;  xvi,  23,  24 ;  some  of  these  pas- 
sages being  expressly  described  as  copies  (avriypacpa'). 
It  is  questionable  whether  the  writer  designed  to  give 
more  than  the  substance  of  the  originals.  Some  bear 
clear  marks  of  authenticity  (viii,  22-28 ;  xii,  6-18),  while 
others  are  open  to  grave  difficulties  and  suspicion ;  but 
it  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the  letters  of  the  Sj^rian  kings 
generally  appear  to  be  genuine  (x,  18-20,  25-45;  xi, 
30-37;  xiii,  36-40;  xv,  2-9). 

Though  the  strictly  historical  character  of  the  book 
precludes  any  description  of  the  religious  and  theological 
notions  of  the  day,  so  that  no  mention  is  made  in  it  of 
a  coming  Messiah  or  a  future  state,  even  in  the  dying 


speech  of  Mattathias,  wherein  he  exhorts  his  sons  to  sac- 
rifice their  lives  for  the  law  of  God  and  the  covenant  of 
their  fathers,  and  recounts  the  faith  and  rewards  of  Abra- 
ham, Joseph,  Phinehas,  Joshua,  Caleb,  David,  Elijah, 
Hananiah,  Azariah,  Mishael,  and  Daniel  (ii,  49-60),  yet 
the  whole  is  permeated  with  the  true  spirit  of  religion 
and  piety.  The  writer  mentions  the  time  from  which 
'•  a  prophet  was  not  seen  among  them"  (1  JIacc.  ix,  27) 
as  a  marked  epoch ;  and  twice  he  anticipates  the  future 
coming  of  a  prophet  as  of  one  who  should  make  a  direct 
revelation  of  the  will  of  God  to  his  people  (iv,  46),  and 
supersede  the  temporary  arrangements  of  a  merely  civil 
dynasty  (xiv,  41).  God  is  throughout  acknowledged  as 
overruling  all  the  machinations  of  the  enemy,  and  prayer 
is  offered  up  to  him  for  success  after  all  the  preparations 
are  made  for  battle,  and  before  the  faithful  host  en- 
counter their  deadly  enemies  (iii,  18,  19, 44, 48,  53,  60 ; 
iv,  10,  etc.,  24,  25, 30,  etc. ;  v,  34,  54 ;  vii,  36-38,  41,  42 ; 
ix,  45,  etc.) ;  and  even  the  tyrant  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
is  made  to  acknowledge  in  his  dying  hour  that  he  is 
punished  for  profaning  the  Temple  and  destroying  the 
inhabitants  of  Judaea  (vi,  8-13).  The  absence  of  even 
the  remotest  allusion  to  a  future  state  in  the  hour  of 
death,  or  to  a  resurrection  of  the  dead,  it  must  be  con- 
fessed, rather  favors  the  conclusion  of  the  ingenious  but 
daring  critic.  Dr.  Geiger,  rabbi  at  Breslau,  that  the  au- 
thor of  this  book  was  a  Sadducee  (comp.  Urschrift  und 
Uebersetzung  der  Bibel,  p.  216  sq.). 

IV.  Author,  Date,  and  Original  Language. — All  that 
can  be  said  with  certainty  about  the  author  of  this  book 
is  that  he  was  a  Palestinian  Jew.  This  is  mdicated  by 
the  whole  spirit  which  pervades  the  book,  by  the  lively 
sympathies  which  the  writer  manifests  for  the  heroes 
whom  he  describes,  and  by  his  intimate  acquaintance 
with  the  localities  of  Palestine. 

Not  so  certain,  however,  is  its  date.  Prideaux,  Mi- 
chaelis,  Hengstenberg,  Bertheau,  Welte,  Scholtz,  Keil, 
and  others,  though  discarding  the  notion  of  Lapide, 
Huet,  etc.,  that  John  Hyrcanus  was  the  author,  are  yet 
of  opinion  that  the  concluding  words,  ra  \onra  tojv  \6- 
yoju'lojavvov  Kal  tojv  TroXsf.iwv  avTov  .  .  .  l(}ov  ravra 
yiypairrai  itri  I3ij3\i<i)  in-iipiov  cipxtepo}(Tvvrig  avrov, 
af'  oil  tyevt]^)]  dpxKpii'Q  /JtTa  tuv  Trarepa  avrov  (xvi, 
24),  plainly  show  that  the  book  was  written  during  the 
government  of  this  high-priest,  perhaps  about  B.C.  120- 
106,  inasmuch  as  this  passage  only  gives  the  terminus 
a  quo  of  the  high-priesthood  of  John,  without  the  tei-- 
minus  ad  quern,  thiia  indicating  that  John  was  still  living, 
and  that  his  pontificate  was  not  as  yet  terminated.  Af- 
ter the  close  of  the  priesthood,  or  after  the  death  of 
John,  this  remark  would  be  superfluous,  because  no 
reader  could  take  the  words,  ^' diary  of  his  jmesthood," 
in  any  other  sense  than  that  they  denote  a  chronicle  of 
the  whole  duration  of  it  from  the  beginning  to  the  end. 
Nor  can  the  words  'iujg  t))c  »'/juf pac  ravrijg,  in  xiii.  30, 
be  adduced  as  implying  a  later  date ;  for  it  was  some- 
thing remarkable  that,  in  those  days  of  war  and  devas- 
tation, the  sepulchre  which  Simon  made  for  his  family 
in  Modin  remained  between  twenty  and  thirty  years 
unhurt.  Eichhorn,  Bertholdt,  De  Wette,  Ewald,  Grimm, 
and  others,  however,  maintain  that  the  book  was  writ- 
ten after  the  death  of  John  Hyrcanus,  oscillating  be- 
tween B.C.  105  and  64. 

The  language  of  the  book  does  not  present  any  strik- 
ing peculiarities.  Both  in  diction  and  structure  it  is 
generally  simple  and  unaffected,  with  a  marked  and  yet 
not  harsh  Hebraistic  character.  The  number  of  pecul- 
iar words  is  not  very  considerable,  especially  when  com- 
pared with  those  in  2  Maccabees.  Some  of  these  are 
late  forms,  as  \poytm  {\poyiZw},  xi,  5, 11;  i^ovceviuaig, 
i,39;  o:r\o^or£a>,  xiv, 32;  d(T7riCiaKi],iv,^7 ;  ditXooiitai, 
iv,  8, 21;  v,  4;  xvi,6;  bjuj;pa,  viii,  7  ;  ix,  63,  etc. ;  d(pai- 
pt/xa,  XV,  5 ;  rsXwviia^ai,  xiii,  39 ;  t^ovrridi^ia^ai,  x, 
70;  or  compounds,  such  as  a7ro(TKop7ri'^a<,xi, 55;  imavc- 
-pf0w,  xiv,  44;  c!6j\o;//?ixoc,  viii,  15;  xvi,  5;  (povoKTO- 
via,  i,  24.  Other  words  are  used  in  new  or  strange 
senses,  as  dcpvvit),  viii,  14;  Trapdffracric,  xv,  32;  Sia- 


MACCABEES,  BOOKS  OF    608    MACCABEES,  BOOKS  OF 


<TTo\i'],y'in,7.  Some  phrases  clearly  express  a  Shemitic 
idiom  (ii,  48,  Sovrai  icipai;  ti^  ii^ci^t.  vi,  23;  x,  62;  xii, 
23),  an<l  the  influence  of  the  Sept.  is  continually  per- 
ce[)til)le  (o.  g.  i,  54;  ii,  03  ;  vii,  17;  ix,  23  ;  xiv,  9).  Jo- 
sephus  undoubtedly  made  use  of  the  Greek  text  (.1  nt. 
xii,  5  sq.). 

That  this  book,  however,  was  originally  written  in 
Hebrew  is  not  only  attested  by  Origen,  who  gives  the 
Hebrew  title  of  it  (see  above,  §  i),  and  by  St.  Jerome, 
who  saw  it  ('"MaccabaBonim  primum  librum  Hebraicum 
reperi" — Prol.  Gal.  ad  Libr.  Reg.),  but  is  evident  from 
the  many  Hebraisms  which  are  literal  translations  of 
the  Hebrew  (comp.  Kai  j'/roijuaffS?;  i)  lia(J^Ktia  =  '{ZT\^ 
r.'zh'n,  i,  16,  with  Sept.  1  Sam.  xx,  31 ;  1  Kings  ii,  12 ; 
t'lQ  Su'ij^oXov  ■!roi'i]puv  —  2!~\  "IjII;?,  i,  36;  iv  r^p  iXiift 
avToii —'lI'D'n'Z,  ii,  57,  with  Jer.  ii,  2;  dnoWvixivovi; 
=D'''lSX,  iii,  9;  utto  yivovg  tiiq  /3a(Ti\6iae  =  SltlS 
n-lb'':il,  iii,  32,  with  Jer.  xii,  1),  as  well  as  from  the 
difficulties  in  the  Greek  text,  which  disappear  on  the 
supposition  of  mistakes  made  by  the  translator  (com- 
pare /c«(  tntia^tj  I'l  yij  tni  roi'C  KaroiKoiirag  avTi]v  = 
rr'n'iJIi  hv  "{'"iXn  Ujynni,  i,  28 ;  iyiviTo  uvaucav- 
7/}c  wf  avijp  atio5oc  =  i^t23  U3"^XD  nri"'2,  i.  e.  Hn'^D 
nT23  CX  n'^n3,ii,8;  see  also  ii,  34 ;  iii,  3;  iv,  19,24, 
etc.).  The  Hebrew  of  this  book,  however,  like  that  of 
the  later  canonical  writings  of  the  O.  T.,  had  a  consid- 
erable admixture  of  Aramaic  expressions  (compare  i,  5 ; 
iv,  19;  viii,  5;  xi,  28;  and  Grimm's  Comment,  on  these 
passages). 

As  to  the  Ueh. Mef/illath  Aniiochiis  (O^I^UiX  r35"2) 
still  existing,  which  was  first  published  in  the  editions 
of  the  Pentateuch  of  1491  and  1505  along  -with  the  oth- 
er MegiUoth  ;  is  given  in  the  Spanish  and  Italian  Kitual 
for  the  Festivals  (C"iTlTn^)  of  1555-50,  etc.;  is  insert- 
ed, with  a  Latin  translation,  in  Bartolocci's  Billiotkeca 
Magna  Rahbinica,  i,  383 ;  is  printed  separately,  without 
the  translation  (Berlin,  1700) ;  and  which  has  recently 
been  reiniblished  by  Jelliiiek  in  his  Bdh  Ila-Midrash, 
i,  142-140— this  simply  gives  a  few  of  the  incidents  of 
the  Maccabajan  wars,  and  makes  John,  the  high-priest 
who  it  says  slew  Nicanor  in  the  Temple,  play  the  most 
conspicuous  part.  It  tells  us  that  Antiochus  began  per- 
secuting the  Jews  in  the  23d  year  of  his  reign  and  213th 
after  the  building  of  the  second  Temple ;  and  that  the 
descendants  of  the  Maccabees,  who  crushed  the  armies 
of  this  tyrant,  ruled  over  Israel  200  years,  thus  folloAv- 
ing  the  chronology  of  the  Talmud  (comp.  ,4  Jorfa  Zara,  9 
a;  Seek?-  Olam  iSutfa  ;  De  Rossi,  J/eo/-  Enajim,  c.  xxvi; 
Zunz,  Gottesdienst.Vortrage,  p.  134).  That  the  Aramaic 
(Chaldee),  which  was  for  the  first  time  published  by 
Filipowski,  together  with  the  Hebrew  and  an  English 
version  (London,  1851),  is  the  original,  and  that  the  He- 
brew is  a  translation,  may  be  seen  from  a  most  cursory 
comparison  of  the  two  texts.  The  Hebrew  version 
slavishly  imitates  the  phrases  of  the  Aramaic  original 
instead  of  giving  the  Hebrew  idioms.  Thus,  for  in- 
stance, the  Chaldee  XTi'liJ  112  is  rendered  in  the  He- 
brew version  by  ri"ll'  nriXS,  instead  of  K'^ntl  r"3; 
',ibxb  -jibx  by  Tlbi<b  nbx,  instead  of  linx  ^X  IT-^X 
or  111""!  ?X  UJ'^X,  etc.  It  is  perfectly  astonishing  that 
this  document,  which  was  evidently  got  up  about  the 
7th  century  of  the  Christian  a'ra,  to  be  recited  on  the 
Feast  of  Dedication  in  commemoration  of  the  Macca- 
ba;an  victories  over  the  enemies  of  Israel,  should  be  re- 
garded by  Ilengstenberg  {Genuineness  of  Daniel,  English 
transl.,  p.  237)  as  the  identical "  Chaldee  copy  of  the  first 
book  of  Maccabees  to  which  Origen  and  Jerome  refer." 
Hengstenberg,  moreover,  most  blunderingly  calls  the 
Hehreio  version  published  \\^'  Bartolocci  the  Chaldee. 

The  date  and  person  of  the  Greek  translator  of  the 
first  book  of  Maccabees  are  wholly  undetermined,  but 
it  is  imlikely  that  such  a  book  woulil  remain  long  un- 
known or  untranslated  at  Alcx;andria. 


V.  Canonicity  and  Importance  of  the  Book. — This  book 
never  formed  a  jiart  of  the  Jewish  canon,  and  is  ex- 
cluded from  the  canon  of  sacred  books  in  tlie  catalogues 
of  Melito,  Origen,  the  Council  of  Laodicea,  St.  Cyril,  St. 
Hilary,  St.  Athanasius,  St.  Jerome,  etc.  In  the  Chron- 
icle of  Eusebius  it  is  put  in  the  same  category  as  the 
writings  of  Josephus  and  Africanus,  so  as  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  inspired  writings.  Still  the  book  is  cited 
with  high  respect,  and  as  conducive  to  the  edification 
of  the  Church,  at  a  very  early  period  (August.  De  Cicit, 
Dei,  lib.  xviii,  c.  30).  Tiie  councils  at  Hippo  and  Car- 
thage (A.D.  393  and  397)  first  formally  received  it  into 
the  canon,  and  in  modern  times  the  Council  of  Trent 
has  settled  for  the  Catholic  Church  all  disputes  about 
its  canonical  authority  by  putting  it  mto  the  catalogue 
of  inspired  Scripture. 

But,  though  the  Protestant  Church  rejects  the  decis- 
ions of  these  councils,  and  abides  by  the  ancient  Jewish 
canon,  yet  both  the  leaders  of  the  Keformation  and 
modern  expositors  rightly  attach  great  importance  to 
this  book.  The  great  value  of  it  will  be  duly  appreci- 
ated when  it  is  remembered  that  it  is  one  of  the  very 
few  suri'iving  records  of  the  most  important,  but  very 
obscure  period  of  Jewish  history  between  the  close  of 
the  O.  T.  and  the  beginning  of  the  N.  T.  It  is,  there- 
fore, not  to  be  wondered  at  that  the  far-seeing  Luther 
remarks,  in  his  introduction  to  the  translation  of  this 
book — '■  This  is  another  of  those  books  not  included  in 
the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  althougli  in  its  discourses  and 
description  it  almost  equals  the  other  sacred  books  of 
Scripture,  and  woidd  not  have  been  unworthy  to  be 
reckoned  among  them,  because  it  is  a  very  necessary 
and  useful  book  for  the  understanding  of  the  prophet 
Daniel  in  the  eleventh  chapter"  {Vorrede  aufdas  erste 
Buck Maccabceoium, German  Bible, ed.  1530).  It  is  rath- 
er surprising  that  the  Anglican  Church  has  not  pre- 
scribed anj^  lessons  to  be  read  from  this  book.  A  refer- 
ence to  1  Mace,  iv,  59,  however,  is  to  be  found  in  the 
margin  of  the  A.  V.,  John  x,  22. 

YI.  Vei-sio7is  and  Literature. — The  books  of  INIacca- 
bees  were  not  included  bj'  Jerome  in  his  translation  of 
the  Bible.  "  The  first  book,"  he  says,  "  I  found  in  He- 
brew" {Prol.  Gal,  in  Reg.'),  but  he  takes  no  notice  of  the 
Latin  version,  and  certainly  did  not  revise  it.  The  ver- 
sion of  the  two  books  which  has  been  incorporated  in 
the  Romish  A'ulgate  was  consequently  derived  from  the 
old  Latin  current  before  Jerome's  time.  This  version 
was  obviously  made  from  the  Greek,  and  in  the  main 
follows  it  closely.  Besides  the  common  text,  Sabatier 
has  published  a  version  of  a  considerable  part  of  the 
first  book  (cap.  i-xiv,  1)  from  a  very  ancient  Paris  MS. 
(»S'.  Germ.  15)  in  1751,  which  exhibits  an  earlier  form  of 
the  text.  Angclo  ]\Iai  has  also  published  a  fragment 
of  another  Latin  translation,  comprising  chap,  ii,  49-04, 
which  differs  very  materially  from  both  texts  {Spicile- 
gium  Romanorum,  ix,  00  S(i.).  The  old  Syriac  version 
given  in  the  Paris  and  London  Polyglots,  and  by  De 
Lagarde,  Libri  Veteris  Tesfamenti  Ajiocri/phi  Syriace 
(Loud.  1801),  is,  like  the  Latin,  made  literally  from  the 
Greek. 

Of  commentaries  and  exegetical  helps  we  specially 
mention  the  works  of  Drusius  and  Grotius,  reprinted  in 
the  Crilici  Saci-i ;  Calmet,  Commentaire  Literal,  etc., 
vol.  viii  (Paris,  1724);  Michaelis,  Deutsche  Uebersetzung 
des  1  Maccab.  B.'s  7nit  Ainer/d:  (Gottingen  luid  Leipsic, 
1778);  FAchhorn,  Binleit.  in  die  ajwh-yphischtn  Schrift. 
d.A.T.  (Leipsic,  1795),  p.  218-248;  Hengstenberg,  Gen- 
uineness  of  Daniel  (English  transl.,  Edinburgh,  1847),  p. 
235-239,  207-270 ;  Cotton,  The  five  Books  of  Maccabees 
(Oxford,  1832) ;  Ewald,  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  iv, 
526  sq. ;  the  masterly  work  of  Grimm,  Kurzgefasstes  ex- 
egetisches  llandbitch  zu  den  Apokryphen  (Leipsic,  1853)  ; 
(ieiger,  Urschrift  laid  Uebersetzung  der  Bibel  (Breslau, 
1857),  p.  206-219.     See  Apocuypha. 

MACCABEES,  the  SECOND  Book  of,  according  to 
the  order  of  the  Sept.,  which  is  followed  both  by  the  an- 
cient versions  and  modern  expositors  of  the  Apocrj'pha, 


MACCABEES,  BOOKS  OF    609    MACCABEES,  BOOKS  OF 


I.  Position. — This  book  ought,  according  to  the  his- 
toric order,  to  be  the  first  of  the  Maccabees,  because  its 
narrative  begins  with  an  event  which  occurred  in  tlie 
reign  of  Seleucus  Philopator,  about  B.C.  180,  i.  e.  four 
years  earlier  than  the  preceding  book.  Its  being  placed 
second  in  order  is  evidently  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  is 
both  of  a  later  date  and  of  less  intrinsic  worth  than  the 
one  denominated  the  first  of  the  Maccabees.  Cotton,  in 
his  translation  of  the  Maccabees,  has  put  this  book  as 
the  third  of  Maccabees. 

II.  Desirjn,  Contents,  and  Division. — The  design  of  this 
book  is  to  admonish  and  encourage  the  Jews  to  keep 
the  religion  of  their  fathers,  and  especially  to  inculcate 
in  the  Israelites  resident  in  Egypt  a  reverence  for  the 
Temple  in  Jerusalem,  urging  them  to  take  part  in  the 
celebration  of  the  festivals  instituted  to  commemorate 
the  dedication  of  the  Temple  as  the  sacred  and  legiti- 
mate place  for  divine  worship  (x,  G),  and  the  defeat  of 
Nicanor  (xv,  36).  To  effect  this  design,  the  writer  gives 
a  condensed  history  of  the  ^Maccabees'  struggles  for  their 
religion  and  sanctuarj^  beginning  with  the  attempts  of 
Heliodorus  to  plunder  the  Temple,  cir.  B.C.  180,  and  ter- 
minating with  the  victor}'  of  Judas  IMaccabaaus  over  Ni- 
canor, B.C.  IGl.  The  whole  narrative,  therefore,  which 
is  partly  (iii,  1-iv,  6)  anterior  to  1  !Macc.,  partly  (iv,  7- 
vii,  42)  supplementary  to  the  brief  summary  in  1  Mace, 
i,  10-64,  and  partly  (vii,  1-xv)  parallel  with  1  Mace,  iii, 
1-vii.  48,  embraces  a  period  of  about  nineteen  years,  and 
is  divided  into  three  sections,  each  of  which  is  made  to 
terminate  with  the  great  event  commemorated  by  the 
festival  which  the  -writer  is  so  anxious  that  his  Egyp- 
tian brethren  should  celebrate. 

1.  The  first  section  (i,  1-ii,  32)  comprises  two  epistles, 
the  relation  of  which  to  the  substance  of  the  book  is  ex- 
tremely obscure.  The  first  (i,  1-9)  is  a  solemn  invita- 
tion to  the  Egyptian  Jews  to  celebrate  "the  feast  of 
tabernacles  in  the  month  Casleu"  (i.  c.  the  feast  of  the 
dedication,  i,  9),  as  before  they  had  sympathized  with 
their  brethren  in  Judrea  in  "  the  extremity  of  their 
trouble"  (i,  7).  The  second  (i,  10-ii,  18,  according  to 
the  received  division),  which  bears  a  formal  salutation 
from  ''the  council  and  Judas"  to  "Aristobulus  .  .  .  and 
the  Jews  in  Egypt,"  is  a  strange,  rambling  collection  of 
legendary  stories  of  the  death  of  "Antiochus,"  of  the 
preservation  of  the  sacred  fire  and  its  recovery  by  Ne- 
hemiah,  of  the  hiding  of  the  vessels  of  the  sanctuary  by 
Jeremiah,  ending,  if,  indeed,  the  letter  can  be  said  to 
have  any  end — with  the  same  exhortation  to  observe 
the  feast  of  dedication- (ii,  10-18).  Then  follows  an  ac- 
comat  given  by  the  writer  of  this  book  of  the  sources 
from  which  he  derived  his  information,  and  of  the 
trouble  he  had  in  compiling  it  (ii,  19-32). 

2.  The  second  section  (iii,  1-x,  9)  gives  important  in- 
formation about  the  origin  of  the  persecutions  (iii,  1- 
vii,  42),  which  is  simply  hinted  at  in  1  Mace,  and  then 
describes  and  supplements  (in  viii,  1-ix,  29)  the  events 
recorded  in  1  Mace,  concluding  with  the  dedication  of 
the  Temple  (x,  1-9),  which  is  the  great  object  of  the 
book,  cir.  B.C.  180-165. 

3.  The  third  section  (x,  10-xv,  37)  records  the  vari- 
ous victories  of  the  Jews,  terminating  in  the  crowning- 
success  of  Judas  Maccabivus  and  the  death  of  Nicanor, 
which  led  to  the  institution  of  the  feast  commemorating 
the  victory  over  him,  B.C.  164-161. 

This  is  followed  b)'  an  epilogue  (xv,  38-40)  which  is 
wanting  in  C(n'erdale's  (after  the  Zurich)  Bible ;  in 
Matthew's,  1537 ;  in  Cranmer's,  1539 ;  and  in  the  vari- 
ous reprints  of  these  editions ;  and  which  the  Geneva 
Bible,  1560,  followed  by  the  Bishops',  1568,  was  the  first 
to  insert. 

The  latter  two  of  the  above  sections,  taken  together, 
present  several  natural  subdivisions,  which  appear  to 
coincide  with  the  "  five  books"  of  Jason  on  which  it  was 
based.  The  first  (ch.  iii)  contains  the  history  of  Heli- 
odorus, as  illustrating  the  fortunes  of  the  Temple  before 
the  schism  and  apostasy  of  part  of  the  nation  (cir.  B.C. 
180).  The  second  (ch.  iv-vii)  gives  varied  details  of 
V.-Q  Q 


the  beginning  and  course  of  the  great  persecution — the 
murder  of  Onias,  the  crimes  of  Menelaus,  the  martjTdom 
of  Eleazar,  and  of  the  mother  with  her  seven  sons  (B.C. 
175-167).  The  third  (ch.  viii-x,  9)  follows  the  fortunes 
of  ,Judas  to  the  triumphant  restoration  of  the  Temple 
service  (B.C.  166, 165).  The  fourth  (x,  10-xiii)  includes 
the  reign  of  Antiochus  Eupator  (B.C.  164-162).  The 
fifth  (ch.  xiv,  xv)  records  the  treachery  of  Alcimus,  the 
mission  of  Nicanor,  and  tne  crowning  success  of  Judas 
(B.C.  162, 161).  Each  of  these  divisions  is  closed  hy  a 
phrase  which  seems  to  mark  the  end  of  a  definite  sub- 
ject (iii,  40;  vii,  42;  x,  9;  xiii,  26;  xv,  37);  and  they 
correspond,  in  fact,  with  distmct  stages  in  the  national 
struggle, 

III.  A  iifhor,  Bate,  and  original  Language. — The  com- 
piler of  this  book  distinctly  declares  that  the  original 
author  of  it,  or  of  the  "  five  books"  from  which  he  con- 
densed the  narrative  before  us,  was  "  Jason  of  Cyreiie" 
(ii,  23).  Herzfeld  thinks  that  this  Jason  is  the  same  as 
Jason,  the  son  of  Eleazar,  whom  Judas  Maccabajus  sent 
with  Eupolemus  as  envoy  to  Rome  after  the  defeat  of 
Nicanor  to  conclude  a  treaty  with  the  Romans  (1  Mace, 
viii,  17 ;  Josephus,  Ant.  xii,  10,  6) ;  because  it  is  only  a 
Hellenistic  Jew  who,  being  master  of  the  Greek  lan- 
guage, would  be  qualified  for  such  a  mission  to  a  foreign 
coint.  This  hypothesis,  moreover,  explains  the  other- 
wise anomalous  circumstance  that  this  book,  which  re- 
cords the  MaccabiEan  struggles,  goes  no  further  in  its 
history  than  the  victory  over  Nicanor,  inasmuch  as  up 
to  this  point  Jason  was  an  eye-witness  to  the  exploits  of 
Judas,  and  was  sent  to  Rome  after  this  most  important 
event;  and  it  is  confirmed  by  the  accurate  knowledge 
which  the  writer  displays  of  the  events  (iv,  21  sq. ;  viii, 
1  sq. ;  ix,  29  sq. ;  x,  12, 13 ;  xiv,  1 ;  Herzfeld,  Geschichte 
d.  Volkes  Israel,  i,  445  sq.).  Accordingly,  the  original 
work  must  have  been  written  about  B.C.  160,  immedi- 
ately after  the  victory  over  Nicanor,  and  prior  to  the 
defeat  and  death  of  Judas  (1  Mace,  ix,  16-18),  which 
brought  new  calamities  upon  the  Holy  City,  and  again 
transferred  the  power  to  the  heathenishly-mclined  Jews 
under  the  pontificate  of  Alcimus  (1  Mace,  ix,  23-29). 
The  errors  in  the  order  of  the  events  and  of  history 
must  be  ascribed  to  the  epitomator,  whose  great  object 
was  not  to  narrate  history  faithfully,  but  to  make  the 
facts  harmonize  with  his  design. 

As  a  C3'renian  Jew,  Jason  most  naturally  composed 
his  -work  in  Greek ;  and  Jerome's  testimony,  "  Secundua 
[Machabaeorum  liber]  Grsecus  est,  quod  ex  ipsa  quoque 
phrasi  probari  potest"  {Prol.  Gal.),  is  fully  borne  out  by 
the  style  of  the  epitome.  (See  below.)  The  epitoma- 
tor or  compiler  of  the  present  book  was  a  Hellenistic 
Jew,  residing  in  Palestine,  and  must  have  lived  a  con- 
siderable period  after  the  events  transpired.  The  date 
of  the  compilation  is  put  within  the  limits  B.C.  150-124. 
The  two  epistles  with  which  the  book  begins  do  not 
proceed  from  Jason,  and  are  of  a  much  later  date,  though 
the  first  purports  to  have  been  written  B.C.  124,  or  188 
of  the  Seleucidaj;  and  the  second,  by  mentioning  a  re- 
cent deliverance  from  great  perils,  evidently  implies 
that  it  was  written  after  the  news  of  the  death  of  Anti- 
ochus Epiphanes,  i.  e.  148  of  the  Seleucida3.  The  orig- 
inal language  of  these  letters  seems  to  be  Hebrew.  In- 
deed, Geiger  shows  that  the  difficult  passage,  d^'  oO 
cnziarT]  'laaiov  Kai  ol  hit'  avTov  aTTo  r/;e  ayiaq  yrig 
Kcd  rJ/t,'  jSamXeiag  (i,  7),  which  is  ambiguous,  and,  as 
commonly  understood,  represents  Jason  and  his  com- 
panions as  apostatizing  from  the  land  and  the  kingdom, 
is,  when  retranslated  iiito  Hebrew,  '('IDX''    ^O    T\'ST2 

nDib^am  'ijipn  n?3'is-a  irx  T>rxi,  showi  to  mean, 

from  the  time  that  Jason  and  those  who  sided  tviih  him 
from  the  holy  land  ami  the  kingdom,  apostatised ;  n21P!3rt 
either  standing  for  ilZi'ib'Zil  "'IT,  ?-oi/al  descent  (comp.  2 
Kings  XXV,  25 ;  Jer,  xli,  1 ;  Ezek,  xvii,  13 ;  Dan,  i,  3), 
or  referring  back  to  H-TX  in  the  sense  of  !'i'Z''?'>Zi^  T^S 
(2  Sam.  xii,  26),  i,  e,  those  who  call  themselves  after  the 
sacred  ground  of  the  royal  residence.     The  same  is  the 


MACCABEES,  BOOKS  OF    610    MACCABEES,  BOOKS  OF 


case  with  i,  0, 18,  where  the  Feast  of  Dedication  is  most 
extraordinarily  called  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  which 
can  only  be  explained  when  the  passages  are  retranslated 
into  Hebrew.  Now  the  Hebrew  for  'iva  dyrjri  tuq 
I'lfiipuQ  Trie  (JKijVOTniyiaQ  tov  XaaiXtu  /.irjvo^  (i,  9)  is 
11^03  'Oin  5n  "w"^  Ijnn  "STCP  ;  and  for  (Va  Kai  avTol 
ayi]Tt    tIJc   aKijvoTnjyiag   (Kai)   tov    wpog   (i,  18)   is 

y;itn  jn  rx  nrx  ds  isnn  yob.    When  it  is  borne 

in  mind  that  the  expression  SPI,  which  is  the  general 
term  for  feast  in  earlier  Hebrew  (Exod.  x,  9 ;  xii,  14 ; 
Lev.  xxiii,  39),  was  afterwards  used  for  the  feast  of 
tabernacles  (1  Kings  viii,  2 ;  2  Chron.  v,  3 ;  Josephus, 
Ant.  viii,  4, 1),  it  will  at  once  be  seen  that  the  translator 
of  these  epistles,  instead  of  rendering  the  word  in  ques- 
tion simply  hy  feast,  attached  to  it  the  later  sense  of 
the  specific  festival,  which  he  was  evidently  led  to  do 
by  the  fact  that  both  these  festivals  are  of  eight  days' 
duration,  and  that  the  feast  of  tabernacles  is  mentioned 
in  X,  6.  So  also  Siavoi^ut  t))v  KagSiav  vfiwv  iv  t(ij 
v6fi(f>  avTou   (i,  4)   is  a  translation  of  DD3?  nrS"! 

The  style  of  the  book  is  extremely  uneven.  At 
times  it  is  elaborately  ornate  (iii,  15-39;  v,  20;  vi,  12- 
16, 23-28 ;  vii,  etc.),  and,  again,  it  is  so  rude  and  broken 
as  to  seem  more  like  notes  for  an  epitome  than  a  finished 
composition  (xiii,  19-26) ;  but  it  nowhere  attains  to  the 
simple  energy  and  pathos  of  the  first  book.  The  vocab- 
ulary corresponds  to  the  style.  It  abounds  in  new  or 
unusual  words.  INIany  of  these  are  forms  which  belong 
to  the  decay  of  a  language,  as  aWofvXtcTfioc,  iv,  13;  vi, 
24;  'E\X?;)'((Tjttoc,  vi,  13  {ti.ifavifffuig,  iii,  9);  traafioc, 
vii,  37;  S'tiipaK'KT/toc,  v,  3 ;  (TTrXayxi'iffjUOf,  vi,7,  21 ;  vii, 
42 ;  or  compounds  which  betray  a  false  pursuit  of  em- 
phasis or  precision :  ^(£jU7rijU7r\?/jKi,  iv,  40;  fTrevXafStia- 
^ai,  xiv,  18;  kotivBiktui',  :^iv, -iS;  TrpoffavaXsyidSrai , 
viii,  19;  7rpo(Ti»7ro^(/ti'//ff/c(t),  xv,  9;  (Tvi'tKKevTeh',y,'26. 
Other  words  are  employed  in  novel  senses,  as  cevTepo\o- 
ytTj^,  xiii,  22 ;  fiVicii/cXtTcrSoi,  ii,  24;  tvaTTc'tvTijroc,  :s.iy, 
9;  :rf 0p£i'wjU£voe,  xi,  4 ;  »pi;\((C(Sc,iv,  37;  xiv,  24.  Oth- 
ers bear  a  sense  which  is  common  in  late  Greek,  as 
aKXtpttv,  xiv,  8 ;  avaZvyt),  ix,  2 ;  xiii,  26 ;  hd\r]\pic, 
iii,  32;  ii'mrtpiiSd),  ix,  4;  ^poacrffo/tat,  vii,  34;  TTtpt- 
aKvBi^w,  vii,  4.  Others  appear  to  be  peculiar  to  this 
book,  as  cin(TTa\(nc,  xiii,  2o  ;  cv(nveT7]i.ia,  v,  20 ;  Trpoff- 
TTVpoiiv,  xiv,  11;  TruXtfioTOO^ilv,  x,  14,  15;  ottXoXo- 
ytlv,  viii,  27,  31 ;  o7rfi'^«i'nr(^£i)',  vi,  28;  So^tKog,  viii, 
35 ;  dvSpoXoyia,  xii,  43.  Hebraisms  are  verj"^  rare  (viii, 
15;  ix,  5;  xiv,  24).  Idiomatic  Greek  phrases  are  much 
more  common  (iv,  40 ;  xii,  22 ;  xv,  12,  etc.) ;  and  the 
writer  evidently  had  a  considerable  command  over  the 
Greek  language,  though  his  taste  was  deformed  by  a 
love  of  rhetorical  effect. 

IV.  Historical  and  Eelifjious  Character.  —  As  the 
avowed  design  of  the  book  is  religio-didactic  and  parre- 
netie,  the  aim  of  the  writer  was  not  to  recount  a  series 
of  dry  facts  in  chronological  order,  but  rather  to  select 
such  events  from  the  period  on  which  he  treats,  and  ar- 
range, embellish,  and  comment  upon  them  in  such  a 
manner  as  should  most  strikingly  set  forth  to  his  Egyp- 
tian brethren  the  marvellous  interposition  of  God  to 
preserve  the  only  legitimate  and  theocratic  sanctuary 
in  Jenisalem.  Hence  the  desire  to  point  out  the  signal 
punishment  of  the  wicked  according  to  the  principle  in 
eo  (jenere  qiiisque  punitur,  in  quo  peccavit  (v,  9,  10;  ix, 
5,  6;  xiii,  8;  xv,  32,  33);  the  moral  reflections  (v,  17- 
20;  vi,  12-lG;  ix,  8-10;  xii,  43-45);  the  colored  de- 
scriptions (iii,  14-23;  v,  11-20);  the  exaggerated  ac- 
count of  the  martyrdom  of  the  seven  brothers  and  their 
mother,  which  king  Antiochus,  for  the  sake  of  effect,  is 
made  to  witness  in  Jerusalem  (vi,  18-vii,  42) ;  the  enor- 
mous numbers  of  the  enemv  slain  by  a  handful  of  Jews 
(viii,  24,  30;  x,  23,  31;  xf,  11;  xii,  16,- 19,  23,  26,  28; 
XV,  27) ;  the  numerous  and  strange  miracles  (iii,  25-27 ; 
V,  2,  3  ;  X,  29-31 ;  xi,  «-10  ;  xv,  i2,  etc.)  ;  the  historical 
and  chronological  inaccuracies,  e.  g.  making  Antiochus 
witness  the  death  of  the  Jewish  martyrs  (vii,  3) ;  the 


death  of  Antiochus  (ch.  ix) ;  the  representing  of  the  sacri- 
fices as  having  been  renewed  after  two  years'  interruption 
(2  Mace.  X,  3,  comp.  with  1  Mace,  iv,  52,  54 ;  i,  54,  59) ; 
the  description  of  the  different  battles  which  the  Jews 
fought  between  the  purification  of  the  Temple  and  the 
death  of  Antiochus  (2  Mace,  viii,  30;  x,  15-38;  xii,  2- 
43,  comp.  with  1  Mace,  v) ;  the  campaign  of  Lysias  (2 
Maec.  xi,  12,  comp.  with  1  Mace,  iv,  26-32) ;  etc.  But 
apart  from  these  embellishments,  traditional  stories,  in- 
versions of  events,  etc.,  which,  in  accordance  with  an- 
cient usage,  the  author  adopted  in  order  to  carrj'  out  his 
design,  and  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  two  letters  with 
which  the  book  begins  are  now  generalh'  given  up  as 
spurious,  the  best  critics  accept  the  groundwork  of  the 
facts  as  true.  Grimm,  whose  elaborate,  thorough,  and 
impartial  comment  on  this  book  is  unparalleled,  has 
shown  that  there  is  no  ground  to  question  the  historical 
import  of  the  most  important  section  (chap,  iv-vi,  10), 
which  is  not  only  most  consistent  in  itself,  but  fits  most 
appropriately  the  space  of  1  Mace,  i,  10-64  ;  or  the  truth- 
fulness of  ch.  iii,  when  stripped  of  the  miracidous.  He 
says  that  its  truthfulness,  within  the  specified  limits,  is 
supported  by  the  fact  that,  1.  Notwithstanding  the  many 
differences,  it  agrees  in  not  a  few  portions  with  1  Mac- 
cabees, though  both  these  books  are  perfectly  indepen- 
dent of  each  other;  and,  2.  In  four  events  which  it  re- 
cords anterior  to  1  Maccabees,  it  agrees  with  Joseplius, 
who  is  entirely  independent  of  it,  viz.  the  account  of 
the  Temple  at  Gerizim  (vi,  2,  comp.  with  Josephus,  yln^ 
xii,  5,  5) ;  the  execution  of  Menelaus  at  Bercea  (xiii,  3- 
8,  comp.  with  Josephus,  A  nf.  xii,  9,  7) ;  the  landing  of 
Demetrius  at  Tripolis  (xiv,  1) ;  and  of  the  priestlj''  in- 
trigues (ch.  iv)  winch  were  the  cause  of  the  protracted 
series  of  struggles  between  the  Jews  and  the  Syrian 
monarchs. 

The  religious  character  of  the  book  is  one  of  its  most 
important  and  interesting  features.  God  is  throughout 
recognised  as  ordaining  even  the  most  minute  affairs  of 
his  people ;  the  calamities  which  befel  them  are  looked 
upon  by  the  Jews  as  a  temporary  visitation  for  their 
sins  (iv,  1 6, 17  ;  V,  17-20 ;  vi,  12-17';  vii,  32, 33 ;  xii,  40) ; 
and  the  sufferings  which  come  upon  the  righteous  in 
this  common  visitation  are  regarded  as  atoning  for  the 
sins  of  the  rest  of  the  people,  and  staying  the  anger  of 
God  (vii,  38).  The  book,  moreover,  shows  that  the  in- 
terposition of  angels  for  the  salvation  of  the  people  (x, 
29,  etc. ;  xiii,  2,  etc.),  and  supernatiu-al  manifestations 
(iii,  25;  v,  2,  etc.;  xiii,  2,  etc.),  which  play  a  very  im- 
portant part  in  the  N.  T.,  were  of  no  common  occurrence. 
What  is,  however,  most  striking,  is,  that  not  only  did 
the  Jews  then  believe  m  the  surviving  of  the  soul  after 
the  death  of  the  body,  in  the  resurrection  of  the  dead, 
and  in  their  reunion  with  those  near  and  dear  to  them 
(vii.  6,  9, 11, 14,  23,  29,  36),  but  that  God  does  not  irrev- 
ocably seal  the  eternal  doom  of  man  immediately  after 
his  departure,  and  that  the  decision  of  our  heavenly 
Father  may  be  influenced  by  the  prayers  and  sacrifices 
of  the  surviving  friends  of  the  departed  (xii,  43-45). 
This  passage  also  shows  that  the  offering  of  sacrifices 
for  the  dead  must  have  been  common  in  those  days,  in- 
asmuch as  it  is  spoken  of  in  very  commendable  terms. 
The  striking  distinction  between  the  religious  senti- 
ments of  this  book  and  those  of  the  former  goes  far  to 
justify  Geiger's  conclusion  that  "the  two  books  of 
Maccabees  are  party  productions ;  the  autlior  of  the  first 
was  a  Sadducec,  and  a  friend  of  the  Maccab;eaii  dynasty, 
while  the  author  or  epitomator  of  the  second  was  a 
Pharisee,  who  looked  upon  the  Maccabees  with  suspi- 
cion" {Urschrifl,  p.  200).  Still  the  second  book,  like 
the  first,  contains  no  hopes  about  the  coming  of  a  Mes- 
siah. 

V.  Canonicity. — Though  portions  of  this  book  are  in- 
corporated in  the  Jewish  writings,  and  foi'm  a  part  of 
the  ritual,  viz.,  the  martyrdom  of  the  seven  brothers 
and  their  mother  (ch.  vi,  1-42),  which  is  not  only  men- 
tioned in  the  Talmud  {Giltiii,  57,  b),  the  Midrash  of  the 
ten  commandments  (ed.  Jellinek,  JBeth  Ha-Midrash,  i, 


MACCABEES,  BOOKS  OF    611    MACCABEES,  BOOKS  OF 


70.  etc.),  Midrash  Jalkut  {On  Deut.  section  N^H,  301, b), 
etc.,  but  is  interwoven  in  the  service  for  the  Feast  of 
Dedication  (compare  The  Jozer,  TSSN  ''D  ~^^X);  the 
martyrdom  of  Eleazar  (ch.  vi,  18-31),  also  embodied  in 
the  same  service,  and  described  by  Josippon,  who  also 
speaks  of  the  wonderful  appearance  of  tlie  horsemen, 
and  other  circumstances  narrated  in  2  Mace,  (compare 
Josippon,  lib.  ii,  c.  ii-iv,  ed.  Breithaupt,  p.  172  sq.),  yet 
the  book  was  never  part  of  the  Jewish  canon.  Hence, 
even  if  it  could  be  shown  more  unquestionabh'  that  the 
apparent  parallels  between  2  Mace,  and  diverse  passages 
in  the  N.  T.  (compare  2  Mace,  i,  4,  with  Acts  xvi,  14 ;  2 
Mace,  v,  19,  with  Mark  ii,  27 ;  2  Mace,  vi,  19 ;  vii,  2,  etc., 
with  Heb.  xi,  35 ;  2  Mace,  vii,  14,  with  John  v,  29 ;  2 
Mace,  vii,  22,  etc. ;  xiv,  46,  with  Acts  xvii,  24-26  ;  2 
Mace,  vii,  36,  with  Eev.  vi,  9 ;  2  Mace,  viii,  2,  with  Luke 
xxi,  24 ;  Rev.  xi,  2 ;  2  Mace,  x,  7,  with  llev.  vii,  9  ;  2 
Mace.  XV,  8-5,  with  Eph.  vi,  9)  are  actual  quotations,  it 
would  only  prove  that  the  apostles,  like  the  rest  of  their 
Jewish  brethren,  alluded  to  the  incidents  recorded  in 
this  book  without  regarding  the  book  itself  as  canoni- 
cal. The  only  references,  however,  to  be  found  in  the 
A.  V.  are  from  Heb.  xi,  35, 36,  to  2  Mace,  vi,  18, 19 ;  vii, 
7,  etc. ;  and  vii,  1-7 ;  but  even  these  are  disputed,  and 
it  is  quite  possible  that  the  author  of  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews  refers  to  the  sufferings  of  the  Essenes 
(compare  Ginsburg,  The  Essenes,  etc.,  Longman,  1864,  p. 
36).  In  harmony  with  the  decisions  of  the  Jewish 
Church,  this  book  is  excluded  from  the  canon  of  sacred 
books  in  the  catalogues  of  Melito,  Origen,  the  Council 
of  Laodicea,  St.  Cyril,  St.  Hilary,  etc.  (compare  Du  Pin, 
History  of  the  Canon,  London,  1699,  i,  12).  Jerome  em- 
phatically declares :  "  Maccahceorum  libros  ler/it  quidem 
ecclesia,  sed  eos  inter  canonicas  scripturas  non  recipit" 
(PrcpJ'.  in  Prov.) ;  and  Augustine,  though  stating  that 
this  book,  like  1  ]\Iacc.,  was  regarded  by  the  Christians 
as  not  unuseful,  yet  expressly  states  that  the  Jews  did 
not  receive  it  into  the  canon  {Contra  ep.  Gaudent.  i,  31), 
and  draws  a  distinction  between  it  and  the  canonical 
Scriptures  {De  Civ.  Dei,  xviii,  36).  The  Council  of 
Trent,  however,  has  settled  (April  8,  1546)  the  canon- 
icity  of  it  for  the  Eoman  Church.  The  Protestant 
Church  generally  agrees  with  Luther,  who  remarks, 
'•We  tolerate  it  because  of  the  beautiful  historj'  of  the 
Maccabajan  seven  martyrs  and  their  mother,  and  oth- 
er pieces.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  the  writer  was 
no  great  master,  but  produced  a  patchwork  of  various 
books;  he  has  likewise  a  perplexing  knot  in  ch.  xiv,  in 
Kazis,  who  committed  suicide,  which  was  also  trouble- 
some to  Augustine  and  other  fathers.  For  such  exam- 
ple is  of  no  use,  and  is  not  to  be  commended,  thougli  it 
may  be  tolerated  and  charitably  explained.  It  also  de- 
scribes the  death  of  Antiochus,  in  ch.  i,  differently  from 
1  Mace.  To  sum  it  all  up :  Just  as  1  Mace,  deserves  to 
be  adopted  in  the  number  of  sacred  Scriptures,  so  2 
Mace,  deserves  to  be  thrown  out,  though  there  is  some- 
thing good  in  it"  {Vorrede  aiifdas  Zweife  Buck  Macca- 
bcE07-um,  in  the  German  Bible,  ed.  1536). 

VI.  Versions  and  Literature. — There  are  two  ancient 
versions  of  this  book,  a  Latin  and  a  Syriae.  The  Latin, 
^vhich  ivas  current  before  Jerome,  and  does  not  always 
follow  closely  the  Greek,  is  now  incorporated  in  the  Eo- 
man Vulgate,  while  the  Syriae,  which  is  still  less  literal, 
is  given  both  in  vol.  iv  of  the  London  Polyglot  and  by 
De  Lagarde,  Z.i&?-i  Veteris  Testamenti  Apocryphi  Si/riace 
(Lond.  1861).  The  Arabic  so-called  version  of  2  Mace, 
is  really  an  independent  work.  See  Maccabees,  Fifth 
Book  oi*. 

01  commentaries  and  exegetical  helps,  we  may  men- 
tion Whitaker,  A  Disputation  on  Iloh/  ,Scripture,'Fa.rkeT 
Society  (Cambridge,  1849),  p.  93-102;  Whiston,  .4  Col- 
lection of  A  uthentick  Records  (London,  1727),  i,  200-232 ; 
Hasse,  Das  and.  Buck  der  Makk.  nen  iibers.  m.  Anmerk. 
(Jena,  1786);  'E\ch\\OTn,Einleitung  in  die  apok.  Schriften 
d.Alten  Test.  (Leipzig,  1795),  p.  249-278;  Bertheau,  De 
Secundo  Maccabceor.  libro  (Gotting.  1829);  Cotton,  The 


Five  Books  of  Maccabees  (Oxford,  1832),  p.  148-217 ; 
Ewald,  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  iv,  530  sq. ;  Schliin- 
kes,  Ejnstolce  que  Secundo  Maccab.  libro,  cap.  i-ii,  9,  kyi- 
tur  exjjlicatio,  comnientat.  crit.  (Colon.  1854) ;  Herzfekl, 
Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel  (Nordhausen,  1854),  i,  443- 
456 ;  Patritius,  De  Consensu  utriusque  lihri  Maccabceor. 
(Rom.  1856);  G^iger,  Urschrift  laid  Uebersetzungen  der 
Bibel  (Breslau,  1857),  p.  219-230 ;  and,  above  all,  the  val- 
uable work  of  Grimm,  Kurzgefasstes  exegetisches  Iland- 
buch  zu  d.Apokryphen  d.Alten  Testaments,  pt.  iv  (Leipz. 
1857).     See  Apocrypha. 

MACCABEES,  The  THIRD  Book  of,  not  given  in 
the  Romish  Vulgate,  the  Apocrypha  of  the  A.  V.,  nor  in 
Protestant  versions  generally,  but  still  read  in  the  Greek 
Church. 

I.  Title  and  Position. — This  book  is  improperly  called 
the  '•  third  of  Maccabees,"  since  it  does  not  at  all  record 
the  exploits  of  the  Maccabajan  heroes,  but  narrates 
events  of  an  earlier  date.  It,  however,  derives  its  name 
from  the  fact  that  this  appellation,  which  originally  be- 
longed to  Judas,  was  afterwards  used  in  the  sense  of 
martyrs,  and  was  extended  to  the  Alexandrian  Jews 
who  suffered  for  their  faith's  sake  either  immediately 
before  or  after  the  Maecaba?an  period.  In  the  Synopsis 
of  the  Pseudo-Athanasius,  it  is  apparently  also  called 
Ptolema'ica,  from  the  name  of  the  royal  hero  (compare 
MaKKafiaiKii  [itjSXia  c  IlToXipaihd,  p.  432,  ed.  Migne, 
for  which  Credner,  Grimm,  etc.,  suggest  that  the  true 
reading  is  ^JaKKajiatKii  Ka'i  YlroXtpaiKd,  and  that  this 
book  is  to  be  understood  by  HroXtju. — Gnmm,  Comment. 
p.  220).  Properly  speaking,  this  book  ought  to  precede 
the  two  former  productions,  and  occupy  the  first  posi- 
tion, since  it  is  prior  in  time  to  both  the  first  and  second 
Maccabees.  But  tradition  has  assigned  to  it  a  third 
position,  because  it  came  into  circidation  later  than  the 
others,  and  was  regarded  as  being  of  third-rate  impor- 
tance. Cotton,  in  his  edition  of  the  Five  Books  of  Mac- 
cabees, has  placed  it  as  "  1  Maccabees." 

II.  Design  and  Contents. — The  design  of  this  book  is 
to  comfort  the  Alexandrian  Jews  in  their  sufferings  for 
their  faith  in  the  God  of  Abraham,  and  to  encourage 
them  to  steadfastness  and  perseverance  by  recounting 
to  them  the  experience  of  the  past,  which  most  unques- 
tionabU'  shows  that  the  theocracy  cannot  perish ;  that, 
though  tyrants  might  vent  their  rage  on  the  chosen  peo- 
ple, the  Lord  will  not  suffer  the  cnem^'  to  triumph  over 
them,  but  will  appear  for  their  deliverance,  and  avenge 
himself  on  their  persecutors,  as  well  as  put  to  confusion 
those  of  the  Israelites  who  have  apostatized  from  their 
ancestral  religion.  To  illustrate  this,  the  writer  nar- 
rates the  following  incident  from  the  dealings  of  Provi- 
dence with  his  covenant  people  :  Ptolemy  IV  (Philopa- 
tor),  on  returning  from  his  victory  over  Antiochus  the 
Great  (B.C.  217),  was  waited  upon  by  envoys  from  Jeru- 
salem to  congratulate  him  on  his  success,  which  made 
him  visit  the  Holy  City  and  offer  sacrifices  in  the  Tem- 
ple; but  he  was  seized  with  a  desire  to  penetrate  into 
the  Hoh-  of  Holies  (i,  1-11),  and  as  the  entreaties  of  the 
people  failed  to  make  the  king  relinquish  his  outrageous 
desire,  the  high-priest  Simon  prayed  to  the  King  of 
kings,  who  immediately  chastised  this  insolent  heathen 
by  throwing  him  down  paralyzed  on  the  ground  (ii,  1- 
23).  Enraged  at  this,  the  king  wreaked  his  vengeance,  on 
his  arrival  in  Egypt,  on  the  Alexandrian  Jews,  ordering 
that  they  should  be  deprived  of  their  citizenship  and  be 
branded  with  an  ivy  leaf  unless  they  agreed  to  be  in- 
itiated into  the  orgies  of  Bacchus  (ver.  24-30).  See 
Dionysus.  A  few  complied,  but  the  bulk  of  the  chosen 
people  refused  to  apostatize  from  their  ancestral  relig- 
ion (ver.  31,  32).  Not  content  with  this  order,  which 
was  thus  generally  evaded  or  despised,  he  commanded 
all  the  Jews  in  the  country  to  be  arrested  and  sent  to 
Alexandria  (ch.  ill).  This  was  done  as  well  as  might 
be,  though  the  greater  part  escaped  (iv,  18\  and  the 
gathered  multitudes  were  confined  in  the  Hippodrome 
outside  the  city  (comp.  Josephus,  ^n^  xvii,  0,  5).  The 
resident  Jews,  who  showed  sympathy  for  their  country- 


MACCABEES,  BOOKS  OF    612    MACCABEES,  BOOKS  OF 


men,  were  imprisoned  -with  them,  and  the  king  ordered 
the  names  of  all  to  be  taken  down  preparatory  to  their 
execution.  Here  the  first  marvel  happened  :  the  scribes 
to  whom  the  task  was  assigned  toiled  for  forty  daj's 
from  morning  till  evening,  till  at  last  reeds  and  paper 
failed  them,  and  the  king's  plan  was  defeated  (ch.  iv). 
However,  regardless  of  this,  the  king  ordered  the  keeper 
of  his  elephants  to  drug  the  animals,  five  hundred  in 
number,  with  wine  and  incense,  that  they  might  tram- 
jile  the  prisoners  to  death  on  the  morroAv.  The  Jews 
had  no  help  but  in  prayer,  and  here  a  second  marvel 
happened :  the  king  was  overpowered  by  a  deep  sleep, 
and  when  he  awoke  the  next  day  it  was  already  time 
for  the  banquet  which  he  had  ordered  to  be  prepared,  so 
that  the  execution  was  deferred.  The  Jews  still  prayed 
for  help;  but  when  the  dawn  came,  the  multitudes  were 
assembled  to  witness  their  destruction,  and  the  ele- 
phants stood  ready  for  their  bloody  work.  Then  was 
there  another  marvel:  the  king  was  visited  by  deep 
forgetfidness,  and  chided  the  keeper  of  the  elephants 
for  the  preparations  which  he  had  made,  and  the  Jews 
were  again  saved.  But  at  the  evening  banquet  the 
king  recalled  his  purpose,  and  with  terrible  threats  pre- 
pared for  its  immediate  accomplishment  at  daybreak 
(^ch.  v).  Then  Eleazar,  an  aged  priest,  earnestly  pray- 
ed for  his  people  (vi,  1-15),  and,  jnst  as  he  finished  pray- 
ing, the  royal  train  and  the  elephants  arrived  at  the 
Hippodrome,  when  suddenly  two  angels  appeared  in 
terrible  form,  visible  to  all  but  the  Jews,  making  the  af- 
frighted elephants  go  backwards  and  crush  the  soldiers 
(ver.  16-21).  This  changed  the  king's  anger  into  pity, 
and,  with  tears  in  his  eyes,  he  at  once  "set  free  the  sons 
of  the  Almighty,  heavenly,  living  God,"  and  made  a 
great  feast  for  them  (ver.  22-30).  To  commemorate 
this  marvellous  interposition  of  their  heavenly  Father, 
the  Jews  instituted  an  annual  festival,  to  be  celebrated 
'•  through  all  the  dwellings  of  their  pilgrimage  for  after 
generations"  (ver.  31-41).  The  faithful  Jews  had  not 
only  their  mourning  turned  into  joy,  and  the  royal  pro- 
tection for  the  future,  but  were  permitted  by  the  king 
to  inflict  condign  punishment  on  those  of  their  brethren 
who  had  forsaken  the  religion  of  their  fathers  in  order 
to  escape  the  temporary  sufferings ;  '•  thus  the  most  high 
(iod  worked  wonders  throughout  for  their  deliverance" 
(vii,  1-23). 

in.  Historical  Character. — Though  the  parrenetic  de- 
sign of  the  book  made  the  writer  so  modify  and  embel- 
lish the  facts  which  he  records  as  to  render  them  most 
subservient  to  his  object,  yet  the  assertion  of  Dr.  David- 
son, that  "  the  narrative  appears  to  be  nothing  but  an 
absurd  Jewish  fable"  (^Introduction  to  the  0.  T.  iii,  454), 
is  far  too  sweeping.  That  the  groundwork  of  it  is  true, 
as  PrideaiLx  rightly  remarks  (The  0.  and  N.  Test,  con- 
nected, part  ii,  book  ii,  anno  21G),  is  attested  by  collateral 
history.  1.  The  accoiuit  it  gives  of  Ptolemy's  expedi- 
tion to  Coele-Syria,  and  his  victory  over  Antiochus  at 
Kaphia  (i,  1-7),  is  corroborated  both  by  Polybius  (v,  40, 
58-71,  79-87)  and  Justin  (xxx,  1).  2.  The  character 
vifhich  it  ascribes  to  Ptolemj' — that  he  was  cruel,  vicious, 
and  given  to  the  orgies  and  mysteries  of  Bacchus — is 
literally  confirmed  both  by  Plutarch,  who,  in  his  essay 
IIoic  to  dislinf/uish  Flatterers  from  Friends,  says,  "  Such 
])raise  was  the  ruin  of  ICgypt,  because  it  called  the  ef- 
feminacy of  Ptolemy,  his  wild  extravagances,  loud  pray- 
ers, his  marking  with  an  ivy  leaf  (x-piroiv),  and  his 
drums,  piety"  (cap.  xii ;  compare  also  In  Cleomene,  cap. 
xxxiii  and  xxxvi),  and  by  the  author  of  the  Greek  Ety- 
niolofjicon,  who  tells  us  that  Pliilopator  was  called  (ud- 
I'lS  because  he  was  marked  witli  the  leaf  of  an  ivy,  like 
the  priests  called  Galli,  for  in  all  the  Bacchanalian  so- 
kaniilies  they  were  crowned  with  ivy  (rciXXof  6  (pt\o- 
Trdraip  HroXf/jaloe  cia  ro  i^vWa  Kirraov  KaTarrrix^ni 
U)Q  ot  PaXXoi,  etc.).  3.  Josephus's  deviating  account 
(Apion,  ii,  5)  of  the  events  liere  recorded',  which  shows 
tliat  he  has  derived  his  information  from  an  independent 
source,  proves  that  something  of  the  sort  did  actually 
take  place,  although  at  a  different  time,  namely,  in  the 


reign  of  Ptolemy  YH  (Physcon).  "  The  king,"  as  he 
says,  "exasperated  by  the  opposition  which  Onias,  the 
Jewish  general  of  the  royal  army,  made  to  his  usurpa- 
tion, seized  all  the  Jews  in  Alexantlria,  with  their  wives 
and  children,  and  exposed  them  to  intoxicated  ele- 
phants. But  the  animals  turned  upon  the  kuig's  friends, 
and  forthwith  the  king  saw  a  terrible  visage  which  for- 
bade him  to  injure  the  Jews.  On  this  he  yielded  to  the 
prayers  of  his  mistress,  and  repented  of  his  attempt; 
and  the  Alexandrine  Jews  observed  the  day  of  their  de- 
liverance as  a  festival."  The  essential  points  of  the 
story  are  the  same  as  those  in  the  second  part  of  3  Mac- 
cabees, and  there  can  be  but  little  doubt  that  Josephus 
has  preserved  the  events  which  the  writer  adapted  to 
his  narrative.  4.  The  statement  in  vi,  36,  that  they  in- 
stituted an  annual  festival  to  commemorate  the  day  of 
their  deliverance,  to  be  celebrated  in  all  future  time,  the 
fact  that  tills  festival  was  actually  kept  in  the  days  of 
Josephus  (comp.  ib.  ii,  5),  and  the  consecration  of  a  pil- 
lar and  synagogue  at  Ptolcmais  (vii,  20),  are  utterly  un- 
accountable on  the  supposition  that  this  deliverance  was 
never  wrought.  The  doubts  which  De  Wette  (Einlei- 
tung,  sec.  305),Ewald  (Gesch.d.V. I.  iv,  535  sq.), Grimm 
(Comment,  p.  217),  and  Davidson  (Introd.  iii,  455)  raise 
against  the  historic  groundwork  of  this  narrative,  are 
chiefly  based  upon  the  fact  that  Dan.  xi,  11,  etc.,  does 
not  aUude  to  it.  Those  critics,  therefore,  submit  that 
the  book  typically  portrays  Caligula,  who  commanded 
that  his  own  statue  should  be  placed  in  the  Temple,  mi- 
der  the  guise  of  a  current  tradition  respecting  the  mur- 
derous commands  of  Ptolemy  VII  (Physcon)  against  the 
Jews,  transferred  by  mistake  to  Ptolemy  Philopator.  If 
it  be  true  that  Ptolemy  Philopator  attempted  to  enter  the 
Temple  at  Jerusalem,  and  was  frustrated  in  his  design 
— a  supposition  which  is  open  to  no  reasonable  objec- 
tion— it  is  easily  conceivable  that  tradition  may  have 
assigned  to  him  the  impious  design  of  his  successor,  or 
the  author  of  3  Maccabees  may  have  combined  the  two 
events  for  the  sake  of  effect.  The  writer,  in  his  zeal  to 
bring  out  the  action  of  Providence,  has  colored  his  his- 
tory, so  that  it  has  lost  all  semblance  of  truth.  In  this 
respect  the  book  offers  an  instructive  contrast  to  the 
book  of  Esther,  with  which  it  is  closely  connected  both 
in  its  purpose  and  in  the  general  character  of  its  inci- 
dents. In  both  a  terrible  calamity  is  averted  by  faith- 
ful prayer ;  royal  anger  is  changed  to  royal  favor,  and 
the  punishment  designed  for  the  innocent  is  directed  to 
the  guilty.  But  here  the  likeness  ends.  The  divine  re- 
serve, which  is  the  peculiar  characteristic  of  Estlier,  is 
exchanged  in  3  Maccabees  for  rhetorical  exaggeration, 
and  once  again  the  words  of  inspiration  stand  ennobled 
by  the  presence  of  their  later  counterpart. 

IV.  Author,  Orifiinal  Language,  Integrity,  and  Date. — ■ 
It  is  generally  admitted  that  the  author  of  this  book 
was  an  Alexandrian  Jew,  and  that  he  wrote  in  Greek. 
This,  indeed,  is  evident  from  its  ornate,  pompous,  and 
fluent  stj-le,  as  well  as  from  the  copious  command  of  ex- 
pression which  the  writer  possessed.  Though  this  book 
resembles  2  Maccabees  in  the  use  of  certain  expressions 
(e.  g,  ayicnoxoq,  3  IMacc.  i,  25 ;  ii,  3,  comp.  with  2  Mace, 
ix,  7)  in  the  employment  of  purely  Greek  proper  names 
to  impart  a  Greek  garb  to  Jewish  things  and  ideas  (3 
IMacc.  V,  20,  42 ;  vii,  5,  comp.  with  2  ftlacc.  iv,  47),  etc., 
yet  the  style  of  the  two  books  is  so  diflcrcnt  that  it  is 
impossible  to  claim  for  them  the  same  author.  The  au- 
thor of  this  book  surpasses  2  Maccabees  iu  offensively 
seeking  after  artificial,  and  hence  very  frequently  ob- 
scure phrases  (e.  g.  i,  9, 14, 17, 1!) ;  ii,  31 ;  iii,  2 ;  iv,  5, 11 ; 
v,  17 ;  vii.  5),  in  jioetic  expression  and  ornamental  turns 
(i,8;  ii.  19,31;  iii,  15;  iv,8;  v,  20,31,47;  vi,4,8,20), 
in  bombastic  sentences  to  designate  very  simple  ideas 
(e.  g.  dpojiov  avv'ic-aa^ai^TQix^'-'^i  h  19 »  *''  irpinjiiiii) 
T)]v  iiXiKiav  XfXoyYciJc,  vi,  1),  in  using  rare  words  or 
such  as  occur  nowhere  else  (e.  g.  i,  20 ;  ii,  29 ;  iv,  20 ;  v, 
25 ;  vi,  4,  20),  or  using  ordinary  words  in  strange  senses 
(e.  g.  i,  3,  5;  iii,  14;  iv,  5;  vii,  8;  compare  Grimm,  (7oot- 
7/ie7it,  p.  214).     There  is  also  an  abruptness  about  the 


MACCABEES,  BOOKS  OF    613    MACCABEES,  BOOKS  OF 


book  (e.  g.  i':s  beginning  with  6  dt  ^iXoTrartop,  and  its 
reference,  in  tcov  TrpoaTroStSiiyfisvwv,  ii,25,to  some  pas- 
sage not  contained  in  the  present  narrative),  which  has 
led  to  the  supposition  that  it  is  either  a  mere  fragment 
of  a  larger  work  (Ewald,  Davidson,  etc.),  or  that  the  be- 
ginning only  has  been  lost  (Grimm,  Keil,  etc.).  Against 
this,  however,  Gratz  riglitly  urges  that  it  most  thor- 
oughly and  in  a  most  complete  manner  carries  through 
its  design. 

All  the  attempts  to  determine  the  age  of  the  book  are 
based  upon  pure  conjecture,  and  entirely  depend  upon 
the  view  entertained  about  its  contents,  as  may  be  seen 
from  the  two  extremes  between  which  its  date  has  been 
placed.  Tluis  Allin  {Judgment  of  the  Jewish  Church,  p. 
67)  will  have  it  that "  it  was  written  by  a  Jew  of  Egypt, 
under  Ptolemy  Philopator.  i.  e.  about  B.C.  200 ;"  while 
Grimm  places  it  about  A.D.  39  or  40. 

V.  Camnicity. — Like  the  other  Apocrypha,  this  book 
was  never  part  of  the  Jewish  canon.  In  the  Apostolic 
canons,  however,  which  are  assigned  to  the  3d  century, 
it  is  considered  as  sacred  writing  (Can.  85) ;  Theodoret, 
too  (died  cir.  A.D.  457),  quotes  it  as  such  {in  Dan.  xi, 
7).  Still  it  was  never  accepted  in  the  Western  churches, 
and  formed  no  part  of  the  Koman  Vulgate ;  it  was  there- 
fore not  received  into  the  canon  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
nor  inserted  as  a  rubric  in  the  Apocrypha  contained  in 
the  translation  of  the  Bible  made  by  the  Heformers. 

VI.  Versions  and  Literature. — The  Greek  is  contained 
in  the  Alexandrian  and  Vatican  MSS.,  and  is  given  in 
Valpy's  edition  of  the  Sept.  The  oldest  version  of  it  is 
the  Syriac,  which  is  very  free,  and  fuU  of  mistakes;  it 
is  given  in  the  London  Polyglot,  and  has  lately  been 
published  by  De  Lagarde,  Libi-i  Veteris  Testamenti  Apoc- 
rj/phi  (London,  18(51).  The  first  Latin  version  of  it  is 
given  in  the  Complutensian  Polyglot ;  another  Latin  ver- 
sion, by  F.  Nobilius,  is  given  in  the  London  Polyglot ; 
the  first  German  translation,  as  far  as  we  can  trace  it,  is 
given  in  the  Zurich  Bible  printed  by  Froschover  (1531) ; 
another,  by  Joacliim  Ciremberger,  appeared  in  Witten- 
berg (1554);  De  Wette,  in  the  first  edition  of  his  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible,  made  conjointly  with  August!  (1809- 
14),  also  gave  a  version  of  this  book,  which  is  now  ex- 
cluded from  his  Bible ;  and  another  German  version  is 
given  in  Gutmann's  translation  of  the  Apocrypha  (Alto- 
na,  1841).  The  first  English  version  was  put  forth  b}^ 
Walter  Lynne  in  1550,  which  was  appended,  with  some 
few  alterations,  to  the  Bible  printed  by  John  Daye 
(1551),  and  reprinted  separately  in  1563 ;  a  new  and 
better  version,  with  some  notes,  was  published  by  Whis- 
ton,  Authentick  Records  (Lond.  1727),  i,  162-208  ;  a  third 
version,  made  by  Crutwell,  is  the  Bible  with  Bp.  Wilson's 
Notes  (Bath,  1785) ;  and  a  fourth  version,  with  brief  but 
useful  notes,  was  made  by  Cotton,  The  Five  Books  of 
Maccabees  (Oxford,  1832). 

Of  exegetical  helps  we  mention  Eichhorn,  Einleitung 
in  d.  apoicr.  Schriften  d.A.T.  (Leips,  1795),  p,  278-289 ; 
Ewald,  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  iv,  535  sq. ;  Herz- 
feld,  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  i,  457,  etc. ;  Griitz,  Ge- 
schichte der  Juden  (2d  edition,  Leips.  1863),  iii,  444,  etc. ; 
Gaab,  Ilandhuch  zum  philologischen  Verstehen  der  apo- 
knjphischeii-Schriften  d.  A .  T." (Tubing.  1818),  ii,  614  sq.; 
and  especially  Grimm,  Kurzgefasstes  exegetisches  Hand- 
buch  zu  den  Apokrijphen  d.  A.T.  (Leips.  1857),  p.  213  sq. 

MACCABEES,  the  FOURTH  Book  of  {a),  though 
not  given  in  the  Roman  Vulgate,  and  therefore  not  in- 
serted in  the  Apocrypha  contained  in  tlie  Bibles  trans- 
lated by  the  Reformers,  yet  exists  in  (ireek  in  two  lead- 
ing texts.  One,  which,  on  account  of  its  more  extensive 
circulation,  may  be  called  the  received  or  common  text, 
is  contained  in  the  early  edition  of  the  Sept.  printed  at 
Strasburg,  1526,  Basel,  1545  and  1550,  Frankfurt,  1597, 
Basel,  1582,  and  in  the  editions  of  Josephus's  work,  and 
is  given  in  its  purest  form  in  Bekker's  edition  of  Jose- 
phus  (Leips.  1855-56,  6  vols.).  The  other  is  the  Alex- 
andrian, or  that  of  the  Codex  Alexandrinus,  and  is  tlie 
more  ancient  and  preferable  one ;  it  is  contained  in  the 
editions  of  the  Sept.  by  Grabe  and  Breitinger,  and  is 


adopted,  with  some  few  alterations  after  the  common 
text,  in  Apel's  edition  of  the  Apocrypha  (Leipsic,  1837), 
See  Schaack,  De  libro  fit,'  MuKKajiaiovQ  qui  Josepiho  tri- 
huitur  (Kopenhagen,  1814). 

I,  Title. — This  book  is  called  4  Maccab.  {MaKKaj3ai- 
tov  8'  if  T(TapT7]  tCjv  MaKKa(3aiKU)v  /Ji'/SXoc)  in  the  va- 
rious MSS.,  in  the  Codex  Alexandriinis,  by  Philostorgius 
and  Syncellus  (p,  629, 4,  and  530, 17,  ed.  Dind.) ;  in  Cod. 
Paris.  A,  it  is  denominated  4  Maccab.,  a  Treatise  on 
Reason  (Mo/c/ca/Saioji^  rirapToc  iripi  (jw(ppovog  Xoyu- 
pov),  by  Eusebius  {Hist.  Ecclesiast.  iii,  10,  b)  and  Jerome 
{Catal.  Script.  Ecclesiast.}  it  is  called  On  the  Supv-emacy 
of  Reason  {ttcoI  avTOKpc'iTopoQ  Xoyicrpov),  and  in  the 
editions  of  Josephus's  works,  Josejjhus's  Treatise  on  the 
Maccabees  (<i>Xa/3.  'luxylftrov  tig  MaKKafiaiovg  Xvyog). 

II,  Design,  Division,  and  Contents. — The  design  of  this 
book  is  to  encourage  the  Jews,  who — being  surrounded 
by  a  philosophical  heathenism,  and  taunted  by  its  moral 
and  devout  followers  with  the  trivial  nature  and  appar- 
ent absurdity  of  some  of  the  Jlosaic  precepts — were  in 
danger  of  being  led  astray  from  their  faith,  to  abide 
faitiifully  by  tlie  Mosaic  law,  and  to  stimulate  them  to 
observ^e  in  every  waj'^  their  ancestral  religion,  by  con- 
vincing them  of  the  reasonableness  of  their  divine  law, 
and  its  unparalleled  power  to  control  the  human  pas- 
sions (comp.  xviii,  1,  2).  To  carry  out  this  design  the 
book  is  divided  into  tivo  pai-ts,  opening  with  an  intro- 
duction, as  follows : 

1.  The  introduction,  comprising  ch.  i,  1-12,  contains 
the  resume  of  the  whole  book,  and  the  grand  problem  for 
discussion,  viz.  whether  the  rational  will,  permeated  and 
regulated  by  true  piety,  has  perfect  mastery  over  the 
passions  (on  avToSkcsTvoTOQ  \_avTOKpaTu)p]  tart  tCov  ttu- 
Srwv  fvffel3riQ  XoyiCiioq). 

2.  The  first  part,  comprising  ch,  i,  13-iii,  19,  contains 
a  philosophical  disquisition  on  this  problem,  giving  a 
definition  of  reason,  or  the  rational  wUl,  and  of  the  wis- 
dom which  is  to  be  gained  by  studying  the  Mosaic  law, 
and  which  shows  itself  in  the  four  cardinal  virtues — 
discernment,  justice,  prudence,  and  fortitude ;  describes 
the  different  passions,  and  shows  that  reason,  pervaded 
by  piety,  has  the  mastery  over  them  aU,  except  forget- 
fulness  and  ignorance, 

3.  The  second  jmrt,  comprising  chap,  iii,  20-xviii,  20, 
demonstrates  the  proposition  that  sanctified  reason  has 
the  mastery  over  the  passions  by  giving  a  summary  of 
the  jMaccabnsan  martyrdoms  (iii,  20-iv,  26)  narrated  in 
2  Mace,  iii;  iv,  7-17;  v,  1-vi,  11;  describes  the  mar- 
tj'rdom  of  Eleazar  (v,  1-vii,  19)  and  the  seven  brothers 
(viii,  1-xii,  16),  with  moral  reflections  on  it  (xiii,  1-xiv, 
10),  as  weU  as  the  noble  conduct  and  death  of  their 
mother  (xiv,  11-xvii,  6),  and  then  deduces  the  lessons 
to  be  learned  from  the  character  and  conduct  of  these 
martjTS  (xvii,  7-xviii,  2),  showing  that  the  Israelites 
alone  are  invincible  in  their  struggles  for  virtue  (Jin 
povoi  TTcuSeg  'Efipaiiop  virep  opfn}c  ffrtJ'  dviicjjToi). 
Ch.  xviii,  21-23,  is  evidently  a  later  addition, 

III,  Author,  Date,  and  Original  Language.  —  In  har- 
mony with  the  general  tradition,  Eusebius  {Hist.  Eccles. 
iii,  10),  Jerome  {Catalog.  Script.  Eccles.  s.  v.  Josephus), 
Photius  (ap.  Philostorgius,  Hist.  Eccles.  i),  Suidas  (s.  v. 
'liorr7]Trog,),  many  IMSS.,  and  the  early  editions  of  the 
Sept.  (Strasburg,"l526 ;  Basle,  1545;  Frankfurt,  1595),  as 
well  as  the  editions  of  Josephus's  works,  ascribe  the  au- 
thorship of  this  book  to  the  celebrated  Jewish  historian 
Flavins  Josephus.  But  this  is  utterly  at  variance  with 
the  style  and  structure  of  the  book  itself,  and  has  most 
probably  arisen  from  a  confusion  of  names,  as  the  work 
maj'  have  been  written  by  some  one  of  the  name  of  Jo- 
sephus, or  from  the  fact  that  it  was  regarded  as  supple- 
menting this  historian,  and  hence  was  appended  to  his 
writings.  Not  only  is  the  language  quite  different  from 
that  of  Joseplius's  writings,  but — 1.  In  4  Mace,  all  the 
proper  names  in  the  Bible,  except  'ItpoaoKvpa  and 
'EXtalapoc,  are  retained  in  their  Hebrew  form,  and 
treated  as  indeclinable  (c.  g,  'Aj3paap,  'Iffaaic,  Nois), 
whereas  Josephus  gives  them  a  Greek  termination.     2. 


MACCABEES,  BOOKS  OF    614    MACCABEES,  BOOKS  OF 


Fourth  Mace,  ilerives  its  historical  matter  from  2  Mace, 
i'.s  we  liave  seen  in  the  preceding  section,  or  perhaps 
from  the  original  work  of  Jason;  while  Josephus  mani- 
fests ulter  ignorance  about  the  existence  of  this  work, 
3.  The  historical  blunders  contained  in  tliis  book  (iv,  15, 
26 ;  V,  1 ;  xvii,  22,  23,  etc.)  are  such  as  Josephus  would 
never  have  committed.  4.  The  form  and  tone  of  the 
book  unquestionably  show  that  the  writer  was  an  Alex- 
andrian Jew,  who  resided  in  Egypt  or  somewhere  far 
away  irom  the  Holy  Land — conip.  iv,  5,  20,  etc.,  where 
the  writer  speaks  of  ''  our  Ja/herlancl,^'  i.  e.  the  Holy 
Land  far  away.  From  this  and  other  passages  in  which 
the  Temple  is  spoken  of  as  still  existing,  and  from  the 
fact  that  xiv,  9  speaks  of  the  Egyptian  Jews  as  having 
enjoj-ed  external  peace  and  security  at  the  time  when 
this  book  was  written,  Grimm  dates  it  before  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem  and  the  persecutions  of  the  Egyptian  Jews 
by  Caligula,  i.  e.  B.C.  39  or  40. 

That  the  Greek  is  the  original  language  of  the  book 
requires  no  proof.  The  style  is  very  pompous,  flowing, 
vigorous,  and  tridy  Greek.  The  author's  eloquence, 
ho^vever,  is  not  the  spontaneous  outburst  of  a  heart  in- 
spired with  the  grandeur  of  the  divine  theme  {tva'tjitta) 
upon  which  he  discourses,  but  is  produced  artificially  by 
resorting  to  exclamations  and  apostrophes  (v,  33,  etc. ; 
vii,  G,  9, 10, 15;  viii,  15, 16;  xi,  14,  etc.),  dialogues  and 
monologues  (viii,  16-19;  xvi,  5-10),  far-fetched  figures 
and  comparisons  (vii,  1,  etc.;  xiii,  6;  xvii,  3,  5,  7),  and 
he  abounds  in  uTraS  Xfyojusi^a  (i,  27,  29;  ii,  9;  iv,  18; 
vi,  6,  17;  vii,  11;  viii,  15;  xi,  4;  xiii,  24;  xiv,  15,  18; 
XV,  26 ;  xvii,  5). 

TV.  Canonicity  and  Importance.  —  Among  the  Jews 
this  book  is  hardly  known,  and  though  some  of  the  fa- 
thers were  acquainted  with  it,  and  Gregory  of  Nazian- 
zum,  Augustine,  Jerome,  etc.,  quoted  with  respect  its 
description  of  the  Maccabwan  martyrs,  yet  it  was  never 
regarded  as  canonical  or  sacred.  As  a  historical  docu- 
ment the  narrative  is  of  no  value.  Its  interest  centres 
in  the  fact  that  it  is  a  unique  example  of  the  didactic 
use  which  the  Jews  made  of  their  history.  Ewald  (Ge- 
schichte,  iv,  556)  rightly  compares  it  with  the  sermon 
of  later  times,  in  which  a  scriptural  theme  becomes  the 
subject  of  an  elaborate  and  practical  comment.  The 
philosophical  tone  of  the  book  is  essentially  stoical,  but 
the  stoicism  is  that  of  a  stern  legalist.  The  dictates  of 
reason  are  su]iported  by  the  remembrance  of  noble  tra- 
ditions, and  by  the  hope  of  a  glorious  future.  The  pros- 
pect of  the  life  to  come  is  clear  and  wide.  The  faithful 
are  seen  to  rise  to  endless  bliss ;  the  wicked  to  descend 
to  endless  torment,  varj-ing  in  intensity.  But  while 
the  writer  shows,  in  this  respect,  the  effects  of  the  fuU 
culture  of  the  Alexandrian  school,  and  in  part  advances 
beyond  his  predecessors,  he  offers  no  trace  of  that  deep 
spiritual  insight  which  was  quickened  by  Christianity. 
The  Jew  stands  alone,  isolated  by  character  and  bj' 
blessing  (comp.  Gfriirer,  Pliilo,  etc.,  ii,  173).  Still  the 
book  is  of  great  importance,  inasmuch  as  it  illustrates 
the  history,  doctrines,  and  moral  philosophy  of  the  Jew- 
ish peojjle  prior  to  the  advent  of  Christ.  It  shows  that 
the  Jews  believed  that  human  reason,  in  its  natural 
state,  has  no  power  to  subdue  the  passions  of  the  heart, 
and  that  it  is  onlj'  able  to  do  it  when  sanctified  by  the 
religion  of  the  Bible  (v.  21,  23;  vi,  17;  x,  18);  that  the 
souls  of  all  men  continue  to  live  after  the  death  of  the 
body;  tliat  all  will  rise,  botli  righteous  and  wicked,  to 
receive  their  judgment  for  the  deeds  done  in  the  body 
(v,  35;  ix,  8;  xii,  13,  14;  xvi,  22;  xvii,  17,  18);  that 
this  is  taught  in  the  Pentateuch  (comp.  xvii,  18,  with 
Deut.  xxxiii,3);  and  that  the  death  of  the  righteous  is 
a  vicarious  atonement  (vi,  29).  Allusion  seems  also  to 
be  made  in  tlie  N.  T.  to  some  jjassagcs  of  this  book 
(comp.  vii,  18,  with  Luke  xx,  37  ;  Matt,  xxii,  32  ;  ]\Iark 
xii,  26;  Kom.  vi,  10;  xiv,-6;  Gal.  xi,  IQ:  4  Mace,  xii,  11, 
with  Acts  xvii,  26  :  4  Mace,  xiii,  14,  with  Luke  xvi,  22, 
23 :  4  Mace,  xvi,  22,  with  Luke  xx,  37). 

V.  Versions  and  Exe;/itical  Helps.  —  The  book  was 
translated  into  SjTiac,  the  JIS.  of  which  is  in  tlie  Am- 


brosian  Library  of  MUan ;  into  Latin,  but  loosely,  by- 
Erasmus;  and  again,  greatly  improved,  by  Combetis, 
BibliotheccB  Grcecorum  patrum  auciorium  7iovissimum 
(pars  i,  Paris,  1672).  This  version  is  in  the  editions  of 
Josephus  by  Havercamp,  Oberthiir,  and  Dindorf.  Both 
a  Latin  and  French  version  are  given  by  Calmet,  Com- 
ment, literal,  in  Scripturam  V.  et  A".  Test,  iii,  702  sq. ;  a 
very  loose  English  version  was  first  published  by  L'Es- 
trange  in  his  Translation  of  Josephus  (Lond.  1702);  and 
an  improved  translation  is  given  by  Cotton,  The  Five 
Bool-s  of  Maccabees  (Oxford,  1832). 

Of  exegetical  helps  we  mention  Eeutlinger,  These 
d'exeffese  sur  le  iv  livre  des  Maccabees  (Strasburg,  1826) ; 
Gfrorer,  Philo  u.  d.  A  lex.-Theosophie,  ii,  175  sq. ;  Diihne, 
Jud.-A  lex.  Reliff.-Philos.  ii,  190  sq. ;  Ewald,  Geschichte 
des  Volkes  Israel,  iv,  554  sq. ;  the  elaborate  commentary 
of  Grimm,  KiLrzgefasstes  exeffetisches  Ilandb.  z.  d.  Apoh: 
d.  A .  T.  (pt.  iv,  Leips.  1857),  p.  285  sq. ;  Keil,  Einleitung 
ind.A.T.  (1859),  p.  69  b,  sq. 

MACCABEES,  the  FOURTH  Book  of  (h).— 
Though  it  is  certain  that  the  foregoing  book  is  that 
which  old  writers  described,  Sixtus  Senensis  {Bihlia 
Sancta,  p.  37,  ed.  1575)  gives  a  very  interesting  account 
of  another  fourth  book  of  Maccabees  which  he  saw  in  a 
library  at  Lyons,  which  was  afterwards  burnt.  It  was 
in  Greek,  and  contained  the  liistorj'  of  John  Hyrcanus, 
continuing  the  narrative  directly  after  the  close  of  the 
first  book.  Sixtus  quotes  the  first  words:  Kni  /itrd  to 
ctTTOKravBrivai  tIv  "S-imova  tyevijS')]  'Ituaj/Jjc  v'lig  av- 
ToiJ  c'tpxisptvc  avT  avToi',  but  this  is  the  only  fragment 
which  remains  of  it.  The  history,  he  says,  was  nearly 
the  same  as  that  in  Josephus,  A  nt.  xiii,  though  the  style 
was  very  different  from  his,  abounding  in  Hebrew  idioms. 
The  testimony  is  so  exact  and  explicit  that  we  can  see 
no  reason  for  questioning  its  accuracy,  and  still  less  for 
supposing  (with  Calmet)  that  Sixtus  saw  only  the  so- 
called  fifth  book,  which  is  at  present  preserved  in  Arabic. 
See  IVLvccAEEES,  Fifth  Book  of. 

MACCABEES,  the  FIFTH  Book  of,  an  important 
chronicle  of  Jewish  affairs,  which  was  for  the  first  time 
printed  in  Arabic  in  the  Paris  Polyglot  (1645),  and  was 
thence  copied  into  the  London  Polyglot  (1657). 

I.  Title. — The  name,  theffth  book  of  Maccabees,  has 
been  given  to  this  production  by  Cotton,  who  placed 
it  as  ff/h  in  his  order  of  the  books  of  Maccabees.  Ac- 
cording to  the  remark  at  the  end  of  chap,  xvi,  the  first 
part  of  this  book,  i.  e.  chap,  i,  1-xvi,  26,  is  entitled  The 
second  Book  of  Maccabees  according  to  the  Translation 
of  the  Ilebreics,  while  the  second  part,  i.  e.  chap,  xvii,  1- 
lix,  ^G,  is  simph'  called  The  second  Book  of  Maccabees. 
The  fact  that  this  second  part  gives  the  liistory  of  John 
Hyrcanus  (ch.  xx)  has  led  Calmet  {Diet,  of  the  Bible,  s. 
V.  Maccabees)  and  others  to  suppose  that  it  is  the  same 
as  the  so-caUedyo»r//;  book  of  Maccabees,  a  unique  MS. 
of  which,  written  in  Greek,  Sixtus  Senensis  saw  in  the 
library  of  Sanctes  Pagninus,  at  Lyons,  and  which  was 
afterwards  destroyed  by  fire,  so  that  tlie  fifth  of  Macca- 
bees is  sometimes  also  called  the  fourth.  The  descrip- 
tion of  the  MS.  given  by  Sixtus  Senensis  {Bibl.  Sancta, 
lib.  i,  sec.  3)  has  been  printed  in  English  by  Whiston 
{Authentic  Records,  i,  206,  etc.)  and  Cotton,  The  five, 
Books  of  Maccabees,  Introd.  p.  xxxviii,  etc.  See  IMac- 
CABEES,  Fourth  Book  of  (b). 

II.  Contents. — This  book  contains  the  history  of  the 
Jews  from  Heliodorus's  attempt  to  plunder  the  treasury 
at  Jerusalem  till  the  time  when  Herod  revelled  in  the 
noblest  blood  of  the  Jews,  and  completed  the  tragedy 
of  the  Maccabivan  princes  by  slaughtering  his  own  wife 
jMariamne,  her  mother  Alexandra,  and  his  own  two  sons 
Alexander  and  Aristobuliis,  i.  e.  B.C.  184  to  B.C.  6,  thus 
embracing  a  period  of  178  years.  The  subjoined  table 
shows  the  parallelism  between  tlie  narrative  recorded  in 
this  book  and  the  accounts  contained  in  1  and  2  Mace, 
and  the  works  of  Josephus. 

III.  Historical  and  Belifjious  Character.  —  It  will  lie 
seen  from  the  annexed  table  that  the  first  ]iart  of 
this  production  (i-xix).  which  embraces  the  Maccakvau 


MACCABEES 


i 

i 

1 

"§-2" 

« 

Josep 

1U9. 

S 

s 

S 

s 

AtUiij. 

War. 

T 

iii 

xxvii 

xiii,  19 

i,  3 

ii 

xii,  2 

xxviii 

xiii,  20,  21 

i,  3 

iii 

i 

V 

xii,  6,7 

xxix 

xiii,  21,  22 

i,  3 

iv 

vi,  18-31 

[4  Mace.  V,  vi] 

xxxi 

xiii,  23 
xiii,  24 

hi 

y 

vii 

[4  Mace,  viii-x. 

xxxii 

xiii,  24 

>>4 

12;  XV,  13-23] 

xxxiv 

xiii,  24 
xiv,  1 

i.  4 
5,5 

vi 

" 

xii,  8  [War, i,  2] 

XXXV 

xxxvi 

xiv,  2,  3 
xiv,  4-S 

1,5 
i,  5 

Tii 

ii,  49-iv 

viii 

xii,  8-11 

xxxvii 

xiv,  8 

i,  5 

viii 

vi 

ix 

xii,  13 

xxxviii 

xiv,  9,  10 

i,  6 

ii 

iv,  36,  etc. 

X 

xii,  11 

XXX  ix 

xiv,  10 

1,6 

X 

xii,  13 

xl 

xiv,  11 

1,6,7 

xi 

xi,  xii 

xii 

xiv,  12 

xiii 

xiv,  14,  15 

i,  ' 

viii,  24,  etc. 

xii,  17 

xliii 

xiv,  15 

i,  8 

xiv 

xii,  32-37 

xliv 

xiv,  16,  n 

XV 

vi 

xiii 

•xii,  U 

xiv 

xiv,  17,  18 

i,  9 

xvi 

vii,3 

xiv,  XV 

xii,  7 

xlvi 

xiv,  19 

1,9 

xvii 

ix,  1-22 

xii,  18,  19 

xlvii 

xiv,  19,  20 

i,  9 

xviii 

ix,  2S-72 

xiii,  1-10 

Xlviii 

xiv,  22,  23 

1,10 

xix 

xiii,  11-14 

xlix 

xiv,  24,  25 

i,  11 

XX 

xiii,  15 

1 

xiv,  26,  27 

i,  11,12 

^xli 

xiii,  16,  17 
xiii,  17 
xiii,  18 

Ii 

Iii 
liii 

xiv,  27 
xiv,  27 

XV,  r 

i,  12 
i,  13 
1,13 

xxiii 
xxiv 

xiii,  8,  20 
dii,  9;  xvii,  3; 

liv 
Iv 

XV,  1,2,9 
XV,  2,  3 

XXV 

xviii,  2 

Ivi 

XV,  6-8 

1,14 

[H-ar,ii,7] 

Ivii 

XV,  9,  10 

i,  15 

xxvi 

xiii,  18 
[»ar,i,  3] 

Iviii 
lix 

XV,  11 

xvi, 1,2,6, 
7,  8,  11, 
12,16,17 

i,  17 
i,  17 

period,  is  to  a  great  extent  parallel  with  1  and  2  Mace, 
whilst  the  second  part,  which  records  the  post-Macca- 
biean  history  down  to  the  birth  of  Christ  (xx-lix),  is 
parallel  with  Josephus,  .4?;/.  xiii,  15-xvi,  17 ;  War,  i,  3- 
17.  The  historical  worth  of  5  Mace,  is  therefore  easily 
ascertained  by  comparing  its  narrative  with  that  of  1  and 
2  Mace,  and  with  the  corresponding  portions  of  Jose- 
phus. By  this  means  it  will  be  seen  that,  notwith- 
standing its  several  historical  and  chronological  blun- 
ders (compare  5  j\Iacc.  x,  16,  17,  with  2  Mace,  x,  29  ;  5 
Mace,  ix,  with  1  Mace,  vii,  7 ;  5  Mace,  viii,  1-8,  with  1 
Slacc.  ix,  73 ;  xii,  -IS  ;  Joseph.  Ant.  xiii,  11 ;  5  Mace,  xx, 
17,  with  Ant.  xiii,  15;  5  Mace,  xxi,  17,  with  Ant.  vii, 
12),  especially  when  recording  foreign  history  (comp.  5 
Mace,  xii),  it  is  a  trustworthy  and  valuable  narrative. 
There  can  be  no  question  that  some  of  its  blunders  are 
owing  to  mistakes  committed  by  transcribers  (e.  g.  the 
name  Felix,  which  stands  fire  times  for  i/wee  different 
persons,  5  Mace,  iii,  14;  vii,  8,  34,  comp.  with  1  Mace, 
iii,  10 ;  2  Mace,  v,  22 ;  viii,  33 ;  the  name  Gorgias,  5 
]\Iacc.  X,  is  a  mistake  for  Timotheus,  as  is  evident  from 
2  Mace,  x;  Joseph.  Ant.  xii,  11;  so  also  two  for  nine,  5 
Mace,  xix,  8) ;  and  that,  as  a  whole,  it  is  far  more  sim- 
ple and  natural,  and  far  less  blundering  and  miraculous, 
and  therefore  more  credible  than  2  Mace.  As  to  its  re- 
ligious character,  the  book  .shows  most  distincth^  that 
the  Jews  of  those  days  firmly  believed  in  the  survival 
of  the  soul  after  the  death  of  the  body,  in  a  general  res- 
urrection of  the  dead,  and  in  a  future  judgment  (v.  12, 
13,17,  22,  43,  48-51 ;  lix,  14,  etc.). 

IV.  Author,  Date,  and  Original  Language — This  book 
is  a  compilation,  made  in  Hebrew,  by  a  Jew  who  lived 
after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  from  ancient  Hebrew 
memoirs  or  chronicles,  which  were  written  shortly  after 
the  events  transpired.  This  is  evident  from  the  whole 
complexion  of  the  document,  even  in  the  translation — 
for  the  original  has  not  as  yet  come  to  light — as  may  be 
seen  from  the  few  features  here  offered  for  considera- 
tion :  1.  When  speaking  of  the  dead  (xv,  11,  15 ;  xii,  1 ; 
xxi,  17)  the  compiler  uses  the  well-known  euphemisms, 
Godbe  me>Tiful  to /iim  —  '\'^T>^  tflT^  Q'^'nhH;  to  wliom 
6epf«ce  =  D1P"jn  I'^bS',  which  came  into  vogue  among 
the  Jews  in  the  Talmudic  period  (comp.  Tosiphta  Chul- 
lin,  100,  a;  Zimz, Zu?-  Geschidite,  p.  338),  and  are  used 
among  the  Jews  to  the  present  day,  thus  showing  that 
the  compiler  was  a  Jew,  and  lived  after  the  destruction 
of  the  Temple.  2.  He  calls  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  (iii, 
3,  9)  the  twenty-four  hooks  =  "nxi  Ci"i w",  a  name 
which  is  thoroughly  Jewish,  and  came  into  use  long  af- 
ter the  close  of  the  Hebrew  canon ;  leaves  Torah  (inmn), 
the  Hebrew  name  for  the  Pentateuch,  mitranslated  (xxi, 


615  MACCABEES,  FESTiyAL  OF  THE 

9),  in  accordance  with  the  Jewish  custom ;  speaks  of 
the  deity  as  the  great  and  good  God  =  SIUI  h'ili,  hn 
(i,  8, 13,  15 ;  V,  27 ;  vii,  21,  22 ;  viii,  5, 11 ;  ix,  4 ;  x,  15 ; 
xi,  8 ;  xii,  1 ;  xv,  4 ;  xvi,  24 ;  xxviii,  4 ;  xxxv,  9 ;  xlviii, 
14;  Ivii,  35;  lix,  58);  and  names  Jerusalem  the  city  of 
the  holy  house  (xx,  17 ;  xxi,  1 ;  xxiii,  5 ;  xxviii,  23,  34, 
37 ;  XXX,  8 ;  xxxv,  4,  33 ;  xxxvi,  6,  38,  39 ;  xxxvii,  3, 
5;  xxxviii,  5;  Iii,  7,  24;  lix,  68)  ;  city  of  the  holy  house 
of  God  (xxxi,  10) ;  or  simply  holy  city  (xvi,  11, 17 ;  xx, 
18;  xxi,  26;  xxxiv,  7;  xxxv,  32;  xxxvi,  9,  19,  25; 
xxxviii,  3  ;  xii,  15  ;  xliii,  12  ;  xlix,  5 ;  1, 16 ;  liv,  13,  26 ; 
Iv,  27 ;  Ivii,  22 ;  lix,  2)  ;  holy  home  (xx,  7, 17 ;  xxiii,  3 ; 
xxxvi,  35  ;  1,  8  ;  Iii,  19  ;  liii,  6 ;  Ivi,  17,  44  ;  lix,  35,  68) ; 
house  of  God  (vii,  21 ;  ix,  7;  xi,  7;  xv,  14;  xvi,  16, 17; 
xxi,  11;  xxvii,  4;  xxxiv,  10;  Ii,  5;  Iii,  81;  liv,  13;  Iv, 
20);  the  Temple  he  calls  the  house  of  the  sanctuary=^ 
lU'lp/ari  JT^S  (viii,  11),  in  accordance  with  the  later 
Hebrew  idiom.  3.  This  later  date  of  the  compilation 
of  the  book  is  corroborated  by  the  fact  that  the  compiler 
refers  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  (xxi,  30),  and  to 
the  period  of  the  second  Temple,  as  something  past 
(xxii,  9).  4.  He  speaks  of  the  original  author  of  the 
book  as  a  distinct  person  (xxv,  5;  Iv,  25),  and  explains 
the  original  writer's  allusions  (Ivi,  45).  5.  The  original 
writer  of  the  work  must  have  lived  before  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  for  he  terminates  his  narrative  six 
years  before  this  catastrophe,  and  does  not  know  of  any 
of  the  calamities  which  befel  his  brethren  after  the  con- 
quest of  Palestine  by  Titus.  His  name  is  unkno\vn ;  all 
that  we  can  gather  from  this  book  is  that  he  is  also  the 
author  of  other  historical  v/orks  which  are  now  lost,  as 
he  himself  refers  to  them  (lix,  96),  and,  judging  from  his 
terse  and  experienced  style,  it  is  not  at  all  improbable 
that  he  was  the  public  chronographer.  The  book  is  en- 
tirely devoid  oithe  Hagadic  legends  which  form  a  very 
striking  characteristic  of  the  Jewish  productions  of  a 
later  age.  Grittz  {Geschichte  der  Juden,  v,  281)  identi- 
fies it  with  an  Arabic  chronicle  written  about  A.D.  900, 
entitled  "Torich  al  Makkabain,  Jussuff  Ibn-G'org'on," 
History  of  the  Maccabees,  or  Joseph  b.-Gorion,  a  part  of 
which  he  says  is  printed  in  the  London  Polyglot  under 
the  title  of  Ai-abic  Booh  of  Maccabees,  and  the  whole  of 
which,  extendmg  to  the  time  of  Titus,  is  in  two  Bodleian 
MSS.  (Uri,  Xos.  782, 829).  He  moreover  tells  us  that  it 
is  this  work  which  the  weU-known  Hebrew  chronicler 
called  Josippon  [see  Josippon  ben-Gorion]  translated 
into  Hebrew,  and  .supplemented,  and  this  he  has  prom- 
ised to  prove  at  some  future  time.  We  must  confess  that 
we  are  miable  to  trace  the  identity ;  and  we  are  aston- 
ished at  Dr.  Davidson's  confident  assertion  that  "  it  is 
another  form  or  recension  of  our  book  [i.  e.  5  Mace] 
which  exists  in  the  work  of  Joseph  ben-Gorion  or  Josip- 
pon, a  legendary  .Jewish  historj'"  {Introduction  to  the  Old 
Testament,  iii,  466). 

V.  Versions  and  Literature.— Th.o\\g\\  this  book  is  in 
our  estimation  as  important  as  2  Mace,  yet  there  has 
hardly  anything  been  done  to  elucidate  its  narrative. 
In  the  absence  of  the  original  Hebrew,  the  Arabic  ver- 
sion of  it,  printed  in  the  Paris  and  London  Polyglots, 
is  the  text  upon  which  we  must  rely.  The  editors  of 
this  version  have  not  even  given  any  accomit  of  the 
MS.  from  which  it  has  been  taken.  A  Latin  translation 
of  it  by  Gabriel  Sionita  is  given  in  both  Polyglots;  a 
French  translation  is  given  in  the  appendix  to  De  Sacy's 
Bible ;  another  French  translation,  by  JI.  Baubrun,  is 
given  in  vol.  iii  of  Le  IMaitre's  Bible ;  and  Calmet  trans- 
lated chapters  xx-xxvi,  containing  the  history  of  John 
Hyrcanus,  which  he  thought  Sixtus  Senensis  had  taken 
for  the  legitimate  4  Mace  The  only  English  version 
of  it  is  that  by  Cotton,  The  Five  Books  of  Maccabees 
(Oxford,  1832). 

Maccabees,  Festival  of  the.  In  the  4th  cen- 
tury, when  fasts  and  festivals  had  greatly  multiplied, 
not  only  were  festivals  of  Christian  martyrs  celebrated, 
but  also  those  of  some  of  the  more  eminent  mart\TS  of 
the  Old  Testament.     The  conduct  of  the  Maccabees  (q. 


MACCARTHY 


G16 


MACE 


V.)  in  opposing  Antiocluis  Epiphanes  (q.  v.),  and  dying 
in  defence  of  the  Jewish  law,  seems  to  have  been  gen- 
erally celebrated  at  this  time.  The  authors  of  that  pe- 
riod are  extravagant  in  their  commendations  of  these 
patriots.  Chrysostom  has  three  homilies  on  the  sub- 
ject. At  Antioch  there  was  a  church  called  by  the 
name  of  the  ]\Iaccabees ;  and  Augustine,  who  wrote  two 
sermons  on  their  festival,  calls  them  Christian  martyrs. 
The  reason  assigned  for  the  adoption  of  this  festival 
was  that,  as  these  men  had  suffered  martyrdom  so 
bravely  before  Christ's  coming,  what,  woidd  they  not 
have  done  had  they  lived  after  him,  and  been  favored 
with  the  death  of  Christ  for  their  example  ?  The  Ro- 
man Martyrology  places  this  festival  on  August  1st. 
Augustine  and  Gregory  Nazianzen  allude  to  this  feast. 
— Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Eadie,  Eccles.  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Maccarthy,  Nicholas  Tuite  de,  a  noted  Roman 
Catholic  pulpit  orator,  was  born  of  a  noble  family  at 
Dublui,  Ireland,  May  19, 17G9.  His  parents  removed  to 
France  on  account  of  religious  persecution,  and  Nicholas 
was  educated  at  the  College  du  Plessis,  later  at  the  Col- 
lege de  France,  and  then  at  the  Sorbonne.  During  the 
Revolution  he  returned  to  his  parents  at  Toulouse,  and 
lived  there  in  great  retirement,  his  time  devoted  mainly 
to  study.  In  181-1  he  became  a  priest,  and  early  gained 
for  liimself  distinction  as  a  pulpit  orator.  In  1819  he 
entered  the  '•  Society  of  Jesus."  Thereafter  he  travelled 
from  place  to  place,  preaching  everj'where  with  great 
success.  His  name  had  already,  in  1819,  been  regarded 
at  court,  and  he  had  then  declined  a  bishopric,  prefer- 
ring his  association  with  the  Jesuits  to  an  official  posi- 
tion. In  1826  he  was  invited  to  preach  before  the  royal 
household,  and  created  quite  a  sensation.  Now  his 
name  was  placed  among  the  foremost  of  the  nation. 
After  the  fall  of  Charles  X,  Maccarthy  moved  to  Savoy, 
and  thence  to  Rome,  where  he  died.  May  3, 1833.  His 
sermons,  which  were  published  in  2  vols.  8vo  (Paris, 
1830),  were  translated  into  German  and  other  modern 
languages.  See  the  excellent  article  in  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
B'wf).  Generale,  xxxii,  482 ;  Regensburfj  Real-EnajMopd- 
die,  s.  V. 

Maccarty,  Thaddeus,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  born  in  Boston  in  1721 ;  graduated  from  Harvard 
University  in  1739;  studied  theology  three  years,  and 
was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Congregational  Church  at 
Kingston,  INIass.,  on  Nov.  3, 1742.  When  Whitetield  ap- 
peared in  that  region  in  1745,  he  appointed  a  committee 
"  to  prevent  the  intrusion  of  roving  exhorters."  A  false 
report  spread  that  Whitefield  was  to  open  communion 
for  him,  whereupon  his  parishioners  nailed  the  doors  and 
■windows,  and  IMaccarthy's  request  for  dismission  was 
granted.  He  then  preached  in  Worcester,  ]\Iass.,  from 
Nov.  27. 174G,  until  the  time  of  his  death,  July  20,  1784. 
'ilis])u.h\ica.tions  are,  Fuj-ewell  Sennonaf  Khiffsfon  {17'i5}: 
— Two  I)i,icou7-ses  on  the  Day  of  the  Annual  Fast  (before 
the  expedition  into  Canada,  1759) ;  and  other  sermons. 
See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Amer.  Pulpit,  i,  423. 

Macclintock,  Samuel,  D.D.,  a  Congregational 
minister,  was  born  Jlay  1, 1732,  at  Medford,  Mass. ;  grad- 
uated at  rrinccton  in  1751,  and  in  1756  was  ordained 
pastor  in  (ireenland,  N.  H..  where  he  labored  until  his 
death,  April  27, 1804,  excepting  only  the  Revolutionary' 
period,  when  he  acted  as  chaplain.  He  was  a  participant 
in  the  battle  of  Bunker  IliU,  and  figures  prominently  in 
Trumbull's  picture  of  that  great  event.  He  published 
A  Sermon  on  the  Justice  of  God  in  the  Mortality  of  Man 
(1759): — The  Artijices  of  Deceivers  detected,  and  Chris- 
tians wa7-ned  against  them,  a  sermon  (1770)  : — I/erodias, 
or  Cruelly  and  Revenge  the  Ejfects  of  unlairful  Pleasure, 
a  sermon  (1772) : — ^4  iSermon  at  the  Commencement  of  the 
new  Constitution  of  New  Hampshire  (1784): — A71  Epis- 
tolary Correspondence  with  Rev.  John  C.  Ogdeit  (1791)  : 
— The  Choice,  a  sermon  (1798}: — An  Oration  commem- 
orative of  Washington  (1800).  See  Sprague,  Annals,  1, 
525;  C/t'risliim  Exaniimr,  ISll,  ]>.  404. 

Maccovius  or  Mako^vsky,  John,  a  Polish  Re- 


formed theologian  and  writer,  was  born  at  Lobzenic  in 
1588;  studied  at  the  principal  German  universities;  was 
received  doctor  of  theology  at  Franecker  in  1614;  ap- 
pointed extraordinary  professor  of  theologj-  in  tliat  uni- 
versity in  1615;  ordinary  professor  in  1616 ;  and  died  in 
1644.  He  was  particularly  renowned  as  an  opponent  of 
the  Jesuits,  Socinians,  and  Arminians,  and  by  his  severi- 
ty against  the  latter  created  man}'  enemies.  In  his  own 
Chiurch  he  caused  much  disturbance  bj'  his  attempts  to 
restore  the  use  of  the  scholastic  method  in  the  treat- 
ment of  dogmatics.  He  used  it  first  in  his  lectures,  and 
afterwards  also  in  his  writings.  See  his  Collegia  theo- 
logica  (Amstelod.  1623, 1631)  : — Loci  commnnes  theologici 
(Fran.  1626) : — Distinct io?ies  et  regulce  theologicce  et phi- 
loso2)hic(e  (published  by  Nicholas  Arnold,  Amsterd.  1656 ; 
Geneva,  1661).  He  was  thereupon  accused  of  heresy 
before  the  States  of  Friesland,  at  the  instigation,  it  is 
said,  of  his  colleague  Sibrand  Lubbertus.  The  affair  was 
brought  by  IMaccovius  himself  before  the  Synod  of  Dort, 
and  a  commission,  having  been  appointed  to  investigate 
the  case,  reported  that "  Maccovium  nuUius  Gentilismi, 
Judaismi,  Pelagianismi,  Socinianismi,  aut  alterius  cujus- 
cimque  hasreseos  reum  teneri ;  immeritoque  ilium  fuisse 
accusatum.  Peccasse  eum,  quod  quibusdam  ambiguis 
et  obscuris  phrasibus  Scholasticis  usus  sit;  quod  Scho- 
lasticum  docendi  modum  conetur  in  Belgicis  Academiis 
introducere ;  quod  eas  selegerit  quajstiones  disceptandas, 
quibus  gravantiu:  EcclesioB  Belgicte.  Monendum  esse 
eum,  ut  cum  Spiritu  sancto  loquatur,  non  cum  Bellar- 
mino  aut  Suarezio.  Hoc  vitio  vertendum  ipsi,  quod  dis- 
tinctionem  sufficientiai  et  efficientiaj  mortis  Christi  as- 
seruerit  esse  futilem ;  quod  negaverit,  humanum  genus 
lapsum  esse  objectum  prwdestinationis ;  quod  dixerit, 
Deum  velle  et  decernere  peccata ;  quod  dixerit,  Deum 
nuUo  modo  velle  omnium  hominum  salutem ;  quod  dix- 
erit, duas  esse  electiones"  (see  Epji.  eccl.  et  thcol.prcest.  et 
ejiid.  vii'or.  [Amst.  1684], p.  572  sq.).  The  synod  adopt- 
ed the  report,  and  acted  accordinglj'.  Still  this  did  not 
purge  the  Reformed  Church  of  the  scholastic  method,  as 
neither  IMaccovius  himself  nor  his  disciples  abandoned 
it.  See  J.  Cocceji  Or.  hah.  infunere  J.  M.  (1644) ;  Bayle, 
Diet.  Hist.  et.  Crit.  iii,  290  sq. ;  Heinrichs,  Versjtch  einer 
Gesch.  d.  christi.  Glauhensivahrheiten,  p.  355 ;  Schrockh, 
Christi.  K.  G.  s.  d.  Ref  v,  148;  Herzog,  Real-Encyklop, 
viii,  745;  Hagenbach,  IJist.  ofDoctr.  ii,  170  sq. ;  Gass, 
Dogmengesch.  ii,  441  sq.     See  Scholasticis Ji. 

Macdill,  Daa'id,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  in  South  Carolina,  studied  under  the  celebrated 
American  Presbyterian  pulpit  orator  and  theologian  Dr. 
John  Mason,  of  New  York,  and  commenced  preaching 
in  Ohio.  Macdill  spent  the  latter  part  of  his  life  in  suc- 
cessfully performing  the  duties  of  an  editor  and  director 
in  collegiate  and  theological  institutions.  He  died  June 
15, 1870. 

Mace,  FR.vxq'Ois,  a  French  theologian  and  Biblical 
writer,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1640,  and  became  success- 
ivelj'  canon  and  curate  of  Sainte-Opportune.  He  was 
also  counsellor  and  almoner  to  the  king.  He  died  iu 
Paris  Feb.  5, 1721,  His  works  are,  Psauines  et  Cantiques 
de  VEglise  (Paris,  1677) :  —  Ahrege  historique,  chronolo- 
gique,  et  moral  de  VAncien  et  du  Noiiveait  Testament  (Par. 
1704,  2  vols,  12mo)  :  —  La  Science  de  I'Ecritin-e  Sainte, 
j-eduite  en  quati-e  tables  generales  (Paris,  1708,  8vo),  con- 
taining a  comparison  of  the  Old  with  the  New  Testa- 
ment : — Les  Testaments  des  dotize  Patriarchts  (Par.  1713, 
12mo)  : — Meditations  (of  Busee,  2  vols,  r2mo) : — L'lmi- 
tution  de  Jesus-Christ  (Par.  1698-9)  : — Epitns  et  Evan- 
gilcs  des  dimanches  et  fetes,  et  pour  le  Carenie  et  VAvent 
(2d  ed.  Par.  2  vols.  12mo) : — ifclanie,  ou  la  vetive  chari- 
table:—  L'Esjyrit  de  Saint  Avgustin,  ou  analyse  de  tout 
les  ouvrages  de  ce  pii-e  (5007  pages  8vo) :  —  Explication 
des  Propheties  de  VAncien  et  du  Nouveau  Testament  qui 
prourent  que  Jesus-Chiist  est  le  Ei/s  de  Diev,  le  verita- 
ble Messie  et  que  la  Religion  Chretienne  est  la  rraie  et 
seule  religion,  ouvi-age  en  deux  parties  et  destine  "a  con- 
fondre  les  athees,  les  impies,  les  libertins,  ks  Juifs,  les  hi' 


MACEDO 


617 


MACEDONIA 


—  nistoire  critique  des  papes  depuis  Saint 
Pierre  jusqu' a  A  lexandre  VII,  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog. 
Generale,  vol.  xxxii,  s.  v. 

Macedo,  Antonio,  .a  Portuguese  Jesuit  and 
writer,  was  born  at  Coimbra  in  1612.  He  was  regent 
and  instriTctor  among  the  Jesuits,  and  passed  two  years 
in  the  African  missions.  He  had  charge  of  the  confes- 
sional of  the  Vatican  church  until  1671,  from  which 
time  he  directed  the  CoUege  of  Evora,  and  afterwards 
that  of  Lisbon.  He  died  at  Lisbon  in  1693.  His  worlvs 
are,  among  others,  Elogia  nonnulla  et  descriptio  Corona- 
tivnis  Christince,  regince  Suecice  (Stockholm,  1650) : — 
Limtania  infulata  et  purpui-ata,  seu  pontijicibu^  et  car- 
dinalihus  illustrata  (Paris,  1663, 1673,  4to) : — E>e  Vita  et 
Moribus  Joannis  de  A  Imeida  (Padua,  1669 ;  Rome,  1671) : 
— Did  tutelares  orbis  Christiani  (Lisbon,  1687). 

Macedo,  Francisco  de,  a  Portuguese  Jesuit  and 
proline  writer,  was  born  at  Coimbra  in  1596,  entered  the 
Jesuit  order  at  foiu-teen,  and  became  successivel}'  teacher 
of  rhetoric,  philosophy,  and  chronology.  In  1630  he 
left  the  Jesuits  and  entered  the  order  of  Cordeliers,  with 
the  surname  Francois  de  Saint-A  ugustin,  under  which 
most  of  his  works  are  published.  He  was  called  to  the 
professorship  of  polemic  theology  in  the  College  of  the 
Propaganda  at  Rome,  and  afterwards  (1657)  visited 
Venice,  lecturing  de  omni  re  scibili.  He  occupied  the  chair 
of  moral  philosophy  at  the  Universitj'  of  Padua  from 
1667  until  the  time  of  his  death  in  Jlay,  1680.  In  1675 
he  had  composed  53  panegyrics,  60  Latin  discourses,  32 
funeral  orations,  123  elegies,  115  epitaphs,  212  dedica- 
tory epistles,  700  familiar  epistles,  2600  epic  poems,  110 
odes,  3000  epigrams,  4  Latin  comedies,  2  tragedies,  and 
1  Spanish  satire.  He  had  a  sharp  discussion  with  car- 
dinal Bona  on  the  subject  of  consubstantiation,  and  with 
cardinal  Noris  on  tlie  monachism  of  St.  Augustine. 
Among  his  writings  are  Apotheosis  S.  Francisci  Xaverii 
(Lisbon,  1620,  8vo),  an  epic  poem : — Thesaurits  Ei-udi- 
tionis  pro  sole,  Viridarium  ehquentia  (denoting  the  au- 
thor's vanity): — Scrinium  S.  Angustini  de  jircedestina- 
iione  gratice  et  libera  arbiti-io  (Paris,  1648,  4to ;  3d  edit. 
Lond.  1654) : — Controveisia  ecclesiastica  inter  F.  F.  Mi- 
nores  (1653,  8vo) : — Lituiis  Lusitanus,  contra  tubam  An- 
glicanam  (Lond.  1652,  4to)  : — Encyclopcedia  in  Agonem 
litteratorum producta  (Rome,  1657): — De  clavibus  Patri, 
iv  lib.  (Rome,  1660) : — Theatrum  Meteorologicum  (Rome, 
1661,  8vo): — Scholce  Theologue  jMsitirce  (Rome,  1664): 
— Medulla  historim  ecclesiasticie  emaculata : — Collationes 
doctrime  S.  Thomm  et  Scoti,  cum  differentiis  inter  utrum- 
que  (Padua,  1671,  2  vols.) : — Joannis  Bona  Doctrina  de 
usufernientati  in  sacrificio  missce  (Ingolstadt  [Venice], 
1673,  8vo;  reprint  Verona)  : — Disquisitio  de  ritu  azgmi 
etfermentali  (Verona,  1673,  4to) : — Myrothecuim  moixde 
documenforum  xiii  (Padua,  1675, 4to)  : — Schema  Congre- 
gationis  S.  Officii  Romani  cum  elogiis  cardinalium  et  co- 
rollarium  de  inf(dlihiU  auctoritate  summi  jwntijicis  in 
mysteriis  jirlci  proponendis  (Padua,  1676,  4to)  :  —  Elogia 
poetica  in  Hemp.  Venctam,  cum  iconibus  (Padua,  1680) ; 
— De  Incarnationis  Mystei-io  (Padua,  1681),  containing 
also  Itinerarium  sancti  A  ugustini.  See  Hoefer,  Ko'^v. 
Biog.  Generale,  s.  v. ;  Wetzer  and  Welte,  Kirchen-Lexi- 
hon,  xii,  748. 

Macedo'nia  (MaKt^ovia,  from  a  supposed  founder 
jMaceihiiig  (ir  Miicedon),  a  name  originally  confined  to 
the  district  lying  north  of  Thessaly,  east  of  the  Car- 
danian  mountains  (a  prolongation  of  jMount  I'indus), 
and  west  of  the  River  Axius ;  but  afterwards  extended 
to  the  country  lying  to  the  north  of  Greece  Proper,  hav- 
ing on  the  east  Thrace  and  the  .Ega3an  Sea,  on  the  west 
the  Adriatic  and  Illyria,  on  the  north  Dardania  and 
Moesia,  and  on  the  south  Thessaly  and  Epirus.  "In  a 
rough  and  jiopular  description  it  is  enough  to  say  that 
Macedonia  is  the  region  bounded  inland  bv  the  range 
of  Hasmus  or  the  Balkan  nortlnvards  and  the  chain  of 
Pindus  westwards,  beyond  which  the  streams  tlow  re- 
spectively to  the  Danube  and  Adriatic ;  that  it  is  sep- 
arated from  Thessaly  on  the  south  by  the  Cambuiiian 


hills,  running  easterly  from  Pindus  to  Olympus  and  the 
iEgaean ;  and  that  it  is  divided  on  the  east  from  Thrace 
by  a  less  definite  mountain  boundary  running  south- 
wards from  HiBmus.  Of  the  space  thus  inclosed,  t^vo 
of  the  most  remarkable  physical  features  are  two  great 
plains,  one  watered  by  the  Axius,  which  comes  to  the 
sea  at  the  Thermaic  Gulf,  not  far  from  Thessalonica ; 
the  other  by  the  Strymon,  which,  after  passing  near 
Philippi,  flows  out  below  Amphipolis.  Between  the 
mouths  of  these  two  rivers  a  remarkable  peninsula  pro- 
jects, dividing  itself  into  three  points,  on  the  farthest 
of  which  Mount  Athos  rises  nearly  into  the  region  of 
perpetual  snow."  The  whole  region  was  intersected  by 
mountains  (among  these  were  the  famous  Olympus  and 
Athos),  which  supplied  numerous  streams  (especially 
the  Strymon  and  Axius),  rendering  the  intervening 
vallej's  and  plains  highly  fruitful  (Pliny,  iv,  17 ;  Mela, 
ii,  3 ;  Ptol.  iii,  13).  The  natives  were  celebrated  from 
the  earliest  times  for  their  hardy  independence  and  mil- 
itary discipline.  The  country  is  supposed  to  have  been 
first  peopled  by  Chittim  or  Kittim,  a  son  of  Javan  (Gen. 
X,  4),  and  in  that  case  it  is  probable  that  the  jNIacedo- 
nians  are  sometimes  intended  when  the  word  Chittim 
occurs  in  the  Old  Testament.  jNIacedonia  was  the  orig- 
inal kingdom  of  Philip  and  Alexander,  by  means  of 
whose  victories  the  name  of  the  jMacedonians  became 
celebrated  throughout  the  East.  The  rise  of  the  great 
empire  formed  by  Alexander  is  described  by  the  prophet 
Daniel  imder  the  emblem  of  a  goat  with  one  horn  (Dan. 
viii,  3-8).  As  the  horn  was  a  general  symbol  of  power, 
the  oneness  of  the  horn  implies  merely  the  unity  of  that 
power.  It  is,  however,  curious  and  interesting  to  know 
that  Daniel  did  describe  Macedonia  mider  its  usual 
symbol,  as  gems  and  other  antique  objects  still  exist  in 
which  that  country  is  represented  under  the  figure  of  a 
one-horned  goat.  (See  Murray's  Truth  of  Reveluiion 
Illustrated,  and  the  art.  Macedonia,  in  Taylor's  Calmet.) 
See  Goat.  Monuments  are  still  extant  in  which  this 
symbol  occurs,  as  one  of  the  pilasters  of  Persepolis, 
where  a  goat  is  depicted  with  one  immense  horn  on  his 
forehead,  and  a  Persian  holding  the  horn,  by  which  is 


Persepolitau  emblem  of  Macedou. 


intended  the   sultjection   of  INIacedon  by  Persia.     In 
Esth.  xvi,  10,  Haman  is  described  as  a  Macedonian, 


IMACEDONIA 


618 


MACEDONIUS 


and  in  xvi,  14  he  is  said  to  have  contrived  his  plot  for 
tlie  purpose  of  transferring  the  kingdom  of  the  Persians 
to  tlie  Macedonians.  This  sufticiently  betrays  the  late 
date  and  spurious  character  of  these  apocryphal  chap- 
ters; but  it  is  curious  thus  to  have  our  attention  turned 
to  the  early  struggle  of  Persia  and  Greece.  Macedonia 
played  a  great  part  in  this  struggle,  and  there  is  little 
doubt  that  Ahasuerus  is  Xerxes.  The  history  of  the 
JNIaccabees  opens  with  vivid  allusions  to  Alexander,  the 
son  of  Philip,  the  Macedonian  king  (AXt^avSpog  6  rov 
4>i\i-!7irov  6  f3a<n\ei's  o  MaKtccji^'),  who  came  out  of 
the  land  of  Chettiim  and  smote  Darius,  king  of  the 
Persians  and  Medes  (1  Mace,  i,  1),  and  who  reigned  first 
among  the  Grecians  (ib.  vi,  2).  A  little  later  we  have 
the  Koman  conquest  of  Perseus,  "king  of  the  Citims," 
recorded  (ib.  viii,  5).  Subsequently  in  these  Jewish 
annals  we  find  the  term  "Macedonians"  used  for  the 
soldiers  of  the  Seleucid  successors  of  Alexander  (2  Mace, 
viii,  20).  In  what  is  called  the  Fifth  Book  of  Macca- 
bees this  usage  of  the  word  is  very  frequent,  and  is  ap- 
plied not  only  to  the  Seleucid  princes  at  Antioch,  but  to 
the  Ptolemies  at  Alexandria  (see  Cotton's  Five  Books 
of  Maccabees,  Oxf.  1832).  When  subdued  by  the  Ro- 
mans (Livy,  xliv)  inider  Paidus  yEmilius  (B.C.  168), 
Blacedonia  was  divided  into  four  provinces  (Livy,  xlv, 
29).  ^Macedonia  Prima  was  on  the  east  of  the  Strymon, 
and  had  Amphipolis  for  the  capital.  INIacedonia  Se- 
cunda  stretched  between  the  Strymon  and  the  Axius, 


Coins  of  Macedonia. 


with  Thessalonica  for  its  metropolis.  The  third  and 
fourth  districts  lay  to  the  south  and  the  west.  Of  two, 
if  not  tliree  of  these  districts,  coins  are  still  extant 
( Akerraan,  Numismatic  Jllust.  of  the  X.  T.  p.  43).  Af- 
terwards (B.C.  142)  the  whole  of  Greece  was  divided 
into  two  great  provinces,  Macedonia  and  Achaia.  See 
Aciiaia;  GiiEECE.  Macedonia  therefore  constituted  a 
Koman  province,  governed  by  a  jirojirA'tor.  with  the 
title  of  proconsul  (provincia  procousiildris;-  Tacit. -4  ?i- 
mil.  i,  76 ;  Sueton.  Claud.  26),  in  the  tinie  of  Christ  and 
his  apostles.  (See  fully  in  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Geoff. 
s.  v.)  The  apostle  Paul  being  summoned  in  a  vision, 
while  at  Troas,  to  preach  the  (iospel  in  Macedonia,  pro- 
ceeded thither,  and  founded  the  churches  of  Thessalo- 


nica and  Philippi  (Acts  xvn,  9),  A.D.  48.    This  occasions 
repeated  mention  of  the  name,  either  alone  (Acts  xviii, 
5 ;  xix,  21 ;  Kom.  xv,  26  ;  2  Cor.  i,  16 ;  xi,  9  ;  Phil,  iv, 
15),  or  along  with  Achaia  (2  Cor.  ix,  2;  1  Thess.  i,  8). 
The  principal  cities   of  Macedonia  were  Amphipolis, 
Thessalonica,  Pella,  and  Pelagonia  (Livy,  xlv,  29) ;  the 
towns  of  the  province  named  in  the  New  Testament 
are  Philippi,  Amphipolis,  Thessalonica,  Neapolis*  Apol- 
lonia,  and  Beroea.     When  the  Roman  empire  was  di- 
vided, Macedonia  fell  to  the  share  of  the  emperor  of  the 
East,  but  in  the  15th  century  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Turks.     It  now  forms  a  part  of  Turkey  in  Europe, 
and  is   called  Makdonia.     It  is   mhabited  by  Walla- 
chians,  Turks,  Greeks,  and  Albanians.    The  south-eastern 
part  is  under  the  pasha  of  Salonika;  the  northern  under 
beys  or  agas,  or  forms  free  communities.     The  capital, 
Salonika,  the  ancient  Thessalonica,  is  a  commercial  town, 
and  the  only  one  of  any  consequence,  containing  about 
70,000  inhabitants.    (See  Cellarii  Not  it.  ii,  828  sq.;  Man- 
nert,  vii,  420  sq. ;  Conybeare  and  Howson,  i.  315.)     On 
the  question  whether  Luke  includes  Thrace  in  Jlace- 
donia,  see  Thuace.     "  Nothing  can  exceed  the  interest 
and  impressiveness  of  the  occasion  (Acts  xvi,  9)  when  a 
new  and  religious  meaning  was  given  to  the  well-known 
dvrjp  MaKtCiov  of  Demosthenes  {Phil,  i,  p.  43),  and  when 
this  part  of  Europe  was  designated  as  the  first  to  be 
trodden  by  an  apostle.     The  account  of  St.  Paul's  first 
journey  through  Macedonia  (Acts  xvi,  10-xvii,  15)  is 
marked  by  copious  detail  and  well-defined  inci- 
dents.   At  the  close  of  this  journey  he  returned 
from  Corinth  to  SjTia  by  sea.    On  the  next  oc- 
casion of  visiting  Europe,  though  he  both  went 
and  returned  through  Macedonia  (Acts  xx,  1- 
6),  the  narrative  is  a  very  slight  sketch,  and 
the  route  is  left  uncertain  except  as  regards 
Philippi.     Many  j^ears  elapsed  before  St.  Paul 
visited  this  province  again ;  but  from  1  Tim.  i, 
3,  it  is  evident  that  he  did  accomplish  the  wish 
expressed  during  his  first  imprisonment  (PhU. 
ii,  24).    The  character  of  the  Macedonian  Chris- 
tians is  set  before  ns  in  Scripture  in  a  very  favor- 
able light.     The  candor  of  the  Bera?ans  is  highly  com- 
mended (Acts  xvii,  11);   the  Thessalonians  were  evi- 
dently objects  of  St.  Paul's  peculiar  affection  (1  Thess. 
ii,  8, 17-20 ;  iii,  10) ;  and  the  Philippians,  besides  their 
general  freedom  from  blame,  are  noted  as  remarkable 
for  their  liberality  and  self-denial  (Phil,  iv,  10,  14-19; 
see  2  Cor.  ix,  2;  xi,  9).     It  is  worth  notichig,  as  a 
fact  almost  typical  of  the  change  which  Christianity 
has  produced  in  the  social  life  of  Europe,  that  the  fe- 
male element  is  conspicuous  in  the  records  of  its  intro- 
duction into  jMacedonia.    The  Gospel  was  first  preached 
there  to  a  small  congregation  of  women  (Acts  xvi,  13) ; 
the  first  convert  was  a  woman  (ib.  ver.  14) ;  and,  at  least 
at  Philippi,  women  were  prominent  as  active  workers 
in  the  cause  of  religion  (Phil,  iv,  2,  3).     It  should  be 
observed  that,  in   St.  Paul's  time,  Macedonia  was  well 
intersected  by  Roman  roads,  especially  by  the  great  Via 
Egnatia,  which  connected  Phdippi  and  Thessalonica, 
and  also  led  towards  Illyricum  (Rom.  xv,  19)."    For  the 
antiquities  of  this  region,  see  Cousinery,  Voyaf/e  dam  le 
Macedoine  (Paris,  1831);  'Litake,  Travels  in  Northei-n 
Greece  (London,  1835) ;  compare  also  Holland,  Travels 
in  the  Ionian  Jsles,  etc.  (Lond.  1812-13). 

Macedo'nian  (M«Kf ^wi')  occurs  in  the  A.  V.  of 
the  N.  T.  only  in  Acts  xxvii,  2.  In  the  other  cases 
(Acts  xvi,  9;  xix,  29;  2  Cor.  ix,  2,  4)  our  translators 
render  it "  of  Macedonia."  The  "  Macedonians"  are  also 
mentioned  in  the  Apocrypha  ( Esth.  xvi,  10, 14;  1  Mace, 
i.  1 ;  2  ]Macu.  viii.  20).  See  Macedonia. 
Macedonians.  See  Macedoxius. 
Macedonius,  a  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  flour- 
ished in  the  4th  century.  After  the  death  of  bishop  Al- 
exander, of  Constantinople,  in  336,  jNIacedonius  and  Pau- 
lus  became  candidates  for  his  succession.  The  latter  was 
elected  by  the  Athanasian  party, but  was  soon  after  (338) 


MAC  GILL 


619 


MACHAULT 


deposed  by  the  emperor  Constance,  who  put  Eusebius 
of  Nicomedia  in  his  place.  Upon  the  death  of  Euse- 
bius, Pauhis  was  reinstated,  but  was  again  deposed  by 
the  Semi-Arian  emperor,  who  in  342  pronounced  Mace- 
donius  patriarcli,  notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  the 
people,  who  rose  in  insurrection,  resulting  in  great 
bloodshed  (comp.  Gibbon,  Z'ec/wie  unci  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Emjure  [Milman's  ed.],ii,357  sq.).  The  orthodox  rival, 
however,  succeeded,  after  a  time,  in  making  his  influence 
felt  tliroughout  the  country,  and  Macedonius  was  tinally 
obliged  to  yield  him  the  patriarchate.  In  350,  after 
having  thoroughly  reorganized  his  party,  Macedonius 
returned,  and  by  the  aid  of  the  civil  authorities  regain- 
ed the  superintendence  over  the  churches.  His  decided 
connection  with  the  Semi-Arians,  and  the  widening  of 
the  gulf  between  the  ^Vrians  and  Semi-Arians,  proved, 
however,  fatal  to  his  credit,  and  in  3G0  his  enemies  suc- 
ceeded in  securing  his  deposition  by  a  synod  at  Con- 
stantinople. He  is  supposed  to  have  died  soon  after. 
His  followers  at  once  adopted  his  name.  Tlie  Macedo- 
iiians  are  generally  regarded  as  Semi-Arians  of  that 
period,  especially  those  in  and  around  Constantinople, 
in  Thrace,  and  in  the  surrounding  provinces  of  Asia 
Minor  (Sozomen,  iv,  27).  Tliere  is,  however,  one  point 
in  which  the  Macedonians,  although  not  opposed  to,  are 
yet  distinguished  from  the  Semi-Arians ;  it  is  their  idea 
of  the  antagonism  of  the  divinity  and  the  homoousia  of 
the  Holy  Spirit.  On  this  point  the  jMacedonians  are 
identical  with  the  Pneumatomacliians,  and  therefore  the 
latter  finally  joined  the  former.  They  professed  that 
the  Holy  Spirit  is  a  di^'inc  energy  diffused  throughout 
the  universe,  but  denied  its  being  distinct,  as  a  ixrson, 
from  the  Father  and  the  Son  (Epiphanius,  Ilceres.  74; 
Augustine,  Be  Ha>res.  c.  52).  In  381  Theodosius  the  Great 
assembled  a  council  of  one  hundred  and  tilty  bishops  at 
Constantinople  (second  oecumenical),  which  condemned 
this  doctrine,  and  the  Macedonians  soon  after  disap]3ear- 
ed.  See  Mosheim,  Eccles.  Hist,  i,  305  sq.  (N.  Y.  1854,  3 
vols.  8vo);  Hase, //iV.  of  the  Christ.  Church,  p.  115  (N. 
York,  1855) ;  Basilius,  De  Spiritu  S.  opjj.  (ed.  Gam.),  iii, 
1  sq. ;  Thilo,  Bibl.  pp.  Gr.  dorjm.  i,  GfiG  s. ;  ii,  182  s. ;  A. 
Maji,  Nov. pair.  bibl.  t.  iv  (Rom.  1847) ;  Didymus,  D-  ipir. 
Scto.interpr.  llier.  (in  0pp.  Ilier.  ed.  Mart.  lY,  i,  494  sq.) ; 
Walch,  Ketzergeschichte,  vol.  iii;  Bauer,  Dreieinir/keits- 
lehre,  vol.  i ;  Neander,  Hist,  of  Christ.  Dogmas,  i,  350  sq. : 
Milman,  Lot.  Christianity,  i,  334,  338  sq.     (J.  H.W.) 

Mac  Gill,  Stevexsox,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  divine  of  con- 
siderable note,  was  born  at  Port  Glasgow  Jan.  19,  1765, 
of  pious  parents.  He  early  chose  the  service  of  his 
Master,  and  conducted  all  his  studies  with  a  view  to  the 
ministry.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Glas- 
gow, and  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1790;  was  appoint- 
ed minister  at  Eastwood  in  1791 ;  was  transferred  m  1797 
to  the  Tron  Church,  Glasgow,  and  later  (1814)  was  also 
made  a  professor  of  theology  in  his  alma  mater.  He 
died  Aug.  18, 1839.  Dr.  Mac  Gill "  commended  himself 
to  every  man's  conscience"  not  only  by  his  ability  in 
the  pidpit,  and  his  laborious  visitations  of  his  congrega- 
tion and  parish,  but  by  the  Christian  interest  he  took  in 
the  public  institutions  and  charities  of  the  city — in  the 
active  direction  he  assumed  of  the  Intirmarv,  the  Pris- 
ons, the  ilagdalene  and  Lunatic  Asylums.  His  services 
were  also  most  zealously  and  actively  rendered  to  "  the 
Society  for  benefiting  the  Highlands  and  Islands  of 
Scotland  by  means  of  Gaelic  Schools,"  "  the  Propaga- 
tion of  the  Gospel  in  India,"  and  '•  the  Missions  on  be- 
half of  the  Jews."  In  1800  Dr.  Mac  Gill  originated  a 
clerical  literary  society,  to  which  for  many  years  he  act- 
ed as  secretary.  It  was  after  receiving  the  full  appro- 
bation and  friendly  criticism  of  this  literary  society  that 
he  favored  the  world  with  Considerations  addressed  to  a 
Youwj  Clergyman  (1809, 12mo),  a  work  which,  on  its  first 
appearance,  obtained  an  extensive  circulation,  and  from 
the  perusal  of  which  no  young  minister  can  fail  to  de- 
rive great  and  permanent  advantage.  His  sermons  were 
published  in  1839.  See  Robt.  Burns,  Memoir  of  Dr.  Mac 
Gill  (Edinb.  1842, 12mo) ;  Jamiesou,  Dictionary  of  Relig- 


ious Biography,  s.  v.;  AUibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer. 
Authors,  s.  V. 

Machaerus  (Max«ipoi'c),  a  strong  fortress  of  Pe- 
rtea,  first  mentioned  by  Josephus  in  connection  with  Al- 
exander, the  son  of  Hyrcanus  I,  bj^  whom  it  was  built 
(.4  nt.  xii,  16, 3  ;  War,  vii,  6,  2).  It  was  delivered  by  his 
widow  to  her  son  Aristobulus,  who  first  fortified  it  against 
Gabinius  (/I  nt.  xiv,  5,  2),  to  whom  it  afterwards  surren- 
dered, and  by  whom  it  was  dismantled  {ib.  4 ;  compare 
Strabo,  x vi,  762).  Aristobulus,  on  his  escape  from  Rome, 
again  attempted  to  fortify  it,  but  it  was  taken  after  two 
days'  siege  {War,  vii,  6).  In  his  account  of  this  last 
captm'e  by  Bassus,  Josephus  gives  a  detailed  description 
of  the  place.  It  was  originally  a  tower  built  by  Alex- 
ander Janna;us  as  a  check  to  the  Arab  marauders.  It 
was  on  a  lofty  point,  surrounded  by  deep  valleys,  and 
of  immense  strength,  both  by  nature  and  art  (compare 
Pliny,  IJist.  Nat.  v,  15).  After  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  it 
was  occupied  by  the  Jewish  banditti.  The  Jews  say 
that  it  was  visible  from  Jerusalem  (Schwarz,  Palestine, 
p.  54).  Its  site  was  identified  in  1806  by  Seetzen  with 
the  extensive  ruins  now  called  Mkrauer,  on  a  rocky 
spur  jutting  out  from  Jebel  Attarus  towards  the  north, 
and  overhanging  the  vaUey  of  Zerka  Main  {Reise,  i, 
330-4).  Josephus  expressly  states  that  it  was  the  place 
of  John  the  Baptist's  beheadmg  {Ant.  xviii,  5,  2),  al- 
though he  had  said  immediately  before  {ib.  2)  that  it 
was  at  the  time  in  the  possession  of  Aretas.  See  John 
THE  Baptist. 

Machar,  Jonx,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  Brechin,  Scotland,  in  1798.  He  was  educated  at 
King's  College,  Aberdeen,  and  afterwards  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh.  On  receiving  license  to  preacli, 
he  became  assistant  to  the  parish  minister,  and  in  1828 
emigrated  to  Canada,  and  took  charge  of  the  Church 
in  Kingston,  C.  \V.  In  1833  he  was  moderator  of  the 
synod;  and  at  a  meeting  of  lay  delegates,  assembled 
from  all  parts  of  the  province,  he  was  nominated  com- 
missioner to  proceed  to  Britain,  and  attend  to  the  inter- 
ests of  the  Canadian  branch  of  the  Church  of  Scotland 
in  one  of  the  crises  of  her  history.  From  1846  to  1853 
he  Avas  acting  principal  of  Queen's  College,  Kingston,  iti 
which  institution,  during  several  sessions,  he  taught  th? 
Hebrew  classes,  and  examined  the  candidates  for  license 
in  the  Oriental  tongues.  He  died  Feb.  7,  1863.  Dr. 
Machar's  attainments  both  in  sacred  and  secular  learn- 
ing were  exact  and  varied;  he  was  familiar  with  English 
literature,  and  could  read  with  ease  Hebrew,  Greek,  and 
the  modern  languages.  He  was  always  a  close  student, 
an  earnest  preacher,  and  a  faithful  pastor.  See  Wilson, 
Presb.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1864,  p.  388.     (J.  L.  S.) 

Machault,  Jacques,  a  French  Jesuit,  was  bom 
at  Paris  in  1600 ;  entered  the  order  at  eighteen,  and  af- 
terwards taught  ethics  and  philosophj^,  and  was  rector 
at  AlenQon,  Orleans,  and  Caen.  He  died  in  1680  at 
Paris.  His  -works  are,  De  Missionibus  Paragiiarice  ei 
cdiis  in  America  meridionali  (Paris,  1636,  8vo) : — De  Re- 
bus Japonicis  (Paris,  1646,  8vo) : — De  Regno  Cochinchi- 
nensi  (Paris,  1652, 8vo) : — De  Missionibus  in  India  (Paris, 
1659,  8vo) : — De  Missionibus  religiosornm  Soc.  Jesu  in, 
Perside  (Paris,  1659,8vo)  -.—De  Regno  ]\Iadurensi  (Paris, 
1663,  8vo\     See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  s.  v. 

Machault,  Jean  de,  a  French  Jesuit,  was  born 
at  Paris  Oct.  25, 1561;  was  admitted  iiito  the  order  in 
1579 ;  became  professor  of  rhetoric  at  the  College  de 
Clermont,  Paris,  and  afterguards  rector  of  the  College  of 
Rouen.  He  died  as  provincial  of  Champagne  March 
25,  1619,  at  Paris.  He  publislied  In  Jacobi  Thuani 
hisioriarum  libros  notationes  lector ibus  utiles  et  necessaries 
(Ingolstadt,  4to),  which  was  condemned  to  be  burned. 
See  Hoefer,  Nuur.  Biog.  Generale,  s.  v. 

Machault,  Jean-Baptiste  de,  a  French  schol- 
ar and  Jesuit,  nephew  of  the  foregouig,  was  born  at  Paris 
in  1591.  He  taught  rhetoric  at  Paris,  and  directed  suc- 
cessively the  cf)lleges  of  Rouen  and  Xevers.  He  died  at 
Pontoise  May  22, 1640.     His  works  are,  among  others, 


MACHBANAI 


620 


MACHPELAH 


S.Ansehni  Caniuarie?isis  archiep.  de  Felicitate  Sancto- 
rum iJissertatio,  ex  scriptore  Eadimro  A  nglo,  canon.  re(j- 
ulari  (Paris,  1639, 8vo) : — Ilistoire  des  eveques  d^Evreux : 
— Gesta  a  Soc.  Jes.  in  Regno  Sinensi,  yEthiopico,  et  Ti- 
bet ino.     See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  s.  v. 

Mach'banai  (Heb.  Malchannay',  ''233^,  binding, 
or  perhaps  clad  with  a  mantle ;  Sept,  Maxal^avai  v.  r. 
Me\xal3apat ;  Vulg.  Machbanui),  the  eleventh  of  the 
Gadite  braves  who  joined  David's  troop  in  the  wilder- 
ness of  Adullam  (1  Chron.  xii,  13).     B.C.  cir.  1061. 

Mach'beiiah  {W^h.  Makbena' ,  i<3!32^,  something 
bound  on,  perh.  a  cloak;  Sept.  ^ln\a[3i]i'd  v.  r.  Ma^a- 
l^nji'd  ;  Viilg.  Machhena),  apparently  a  place  in  the  tribe 
of  Judah  founded  by  (a  person  of  that  name,  the  son  of) 
Sheva  (1  Chron.  ii,  49),  and  probably  situated  in  the 
vicinity  of  Gibeah,  in  connection  with  which  it  is  men- 
tioned. It  is  thought  to  have  been  the  same  with  Cab- 
BON  (Josh.  XV,  -40). 

Machet,  Gerard  or  Girard,  a  French  cardinal, 
confessor  of  Charles  VII,  was  born  at  Blois  in  1380 ;  en- 
tered the  College  de  Navarre,  Paris,  in  1391 ;  was  made 
doctor  of  divinity  in  1411;  attached  himself  to  the  Col- 
lege de  Navarre  as  professor,  was  made  vice-chancellor  of 
that  institution,  and  as  such  adtlressed  the  emperor  Sigis- 
mond  in  1416.  Driven  from  his  college  by  the  Burgun- 
dian  invasion  (May  30,  1418),  he  became  the  confessor 
of  his  pupil,  the  future  emperor,  Charles  VII.  He  lived 
a  while  at  Lyons.  Machet  was  one  of  the  clergy  who 
conducted  the  examination  of  the  Maid  of  Orleans.  His 
influence  in  Troves,  Cliampagne,  was  powerful  in  open- 
ing that  city  and  province  to  the  army  of  Charles  VII. 
Machet  was  successively  canon  of  Paris,  Chartres,  Tours, 
and  in  1432  bishop  of  Castres.  He  died  at  Tours  July 
17, 1448.     See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  s.  v. 

Ma'chi  (Heb.  MaW,  '''212,  smiting;  Sept.  Mokx/, 
Vulg.  Machi),  the  father  of  Geuel,  which  latter  was  the 
commissioner  ou  the  part  of  the  tribe  of  Gad  to  explore 
Canaan  (Numb,  xiii,  15).     B.C.  ante  1657. 

Ma'chir  (Heb.  MaUr',  T^S'^,  sold;  Sept.  Max«i'p 
and  Ma^ip),  the  name  of  two  men. 

1.  The  oldest  son  of  Manasseh  (Josh,  xvii,  1),  who 
even  had  children  born  to  liim  during  the  lifetime  of  Jo- 
seph (Gen.  xl,  23).  B.C.  1802.  His  descendants  were 
called  Machirites  (i^i^to,  Sept.  MnxfipijNumb.xxvi, 
29),  being  the  offspring  of  Gilead  (1  Chron.  vii,  17), 
whose  posterity  settled  in  the  land  taken  from  the 
Amorites  (Numb,  xxxii,  39, 40;  Deut.  iii,  15;  Josh,  xiii, 
31 ;  1  Chron.  ii,  23),  but  required  a  special  enactment  as 
to  their  inheritance,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  grandson 
Zelophehad  had  only  daughters  (Numb,  xxvii,  1 ;  xxxvi, 
1 ;  Josh,  xvii,  3).  Once  the  name  of  Machir  is  put  po- 
etically as  a  representative  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  east 
(Judg.  V,  14).  His  daughter  became  the  mother  of  Se- 
gub  by  Hezron  in  his  old  age  (1  Chron.  ii,  21).  The 
mother  of  Machir  was  an  Aramitess,  and  his  wife  was 
Maachah,  the  granddaughter  of  Benjamin,  by  whom  he 
had  several  sons  (1  Cliron.  vii,  14-16).  "  The  family  of 
Machir  come  forward  prominently  in  the  historj'  of  the 
conquest  of  the  trans-Jordanic  portion  of  the  Promised 
Land.  In  the  joint  expedition  of  Israel  and  Ammon, 
their  warlike  prowess  expelled  the  Amoritish  inhabit- 
ants from  the  rugged  and  difficult  range  of  Gilead,  and 
their  bravery  was  rewarded  by  INIoses  liy  the  assignment 
to  them  of  a  large  portion  of  the  district, '  half  Gilead' 
(Josli.  xiii,  31),  with  its  rich  mountain  pastures,  and  the 
towns  of  Ashtaroth  and  Edrei,  the  capitals  of  Og's  king- 
dom (Numb,  xxxii,  39,  40 ;  Deut.  iii,  15 ;  Josli.  xiii.  ,31 ; 
xvii,  1).  The  warlike  renown  of  the  family  of  ^lachir 
is  given  as  the  reason  for  this  grant  (Josh.  xvii.  1\  and 
we  can  see  the  sound  policy  oT  assigning  a-frontier  land 
of  so  much  importance  to  the  safety  of  the  whole  coun- 
try', exposed  at  the  same  time  to  the  first  bnnit  of  the 
Syrian  and  AssiiTian  invasions,  and  to  the  never-ceasing 
predatory  inroads  of  the  wild  desert  tribes,  to  a  clan 


whose  prowess  and  skill  in  battle  had  been  fully  proved 
in  the  subjugation  of  so  difficidt  a  tract  (Stanley,  S.  and 
Pal.  p.  327)"  (Kitto).  "  The  connection  with  Benjamin 
may  perhaps  have  led  to  the  selection  by  Abner  of  Ma- 
hanaim,  which  lay  on  the  boundary  between  (Jad  and 
Manasseh,  as  the  residence  of  Ishbosheth  (2  Sam.  ii,  8) ; 
and  that  with  Judah  may  have  also  influenced  David 
to  go  so  far  north  when  driven  out  of  his  kingdom" 
(Smith). 

2.  A  descendant  of  the  preceding,  son  of  Ammiel,  re- 
sidmg  at  Lo-debar,  who  maintained  the  lame  son  of 
Jonathan  until  provision  was  made  for  him  by  David's 
care  (2  Sam.  ix,  4,  5),  and  afterwards  extended  his  hos- 
pitality to  the  fugitive  monarch  himself  (2  Sam.  x^^i, 
27).  B.C.  1037-1023.  Josephus  calls  him  the  chief  of 
the  country  of  Gilead  {Ant.  vii,  9,  8).     See  David. 

Ma'chirite  (Numb,  xxvi,  29).    See  Machir,  1. 

Mach'mas  (WaxiJ-dg),  1  Mace,  ix,  73 ;  elsewhere 
MiciiJiAsii  (q.  v.). 

Machnad'ebai  (Heb.  Mahiadbay',  '^D'^Sa^,  perh. 
ichat  is  like  the  liberal-?  other  copies  read  '^57^r'"?, 
Mahnadlay' ;  Sept.  MaxvaSaajiov  v.  r.  Maxa^va^ov  ; 
Vulg.  Mechnedebai),  an  Israelite  of  the  sons  of  Bani  who 
divorced  his  Gentile  wife  after  the  exile  (Ezra  x,  40). 
B.C.  459. 

Machpe'lah  {W^h.Makpelcth',  ilberTO,  probably  a 
portion,  but,  according  to  others,  double,  and  so  the  Sept, 
(^(TrXowcVulg.  duplex),  the  name  of  the  plot  of  ground 
in  Hebron  containing  the  cave  Avhich  Abraham  bought 
of  Ephron  the  Hittite  for  a  family  sepulchre  (Gen.  xxiii, 
9),  where  it  is  described  as  being  located  in  one  extrem- 
ity of  the  field,  and  in  ver.  17  it  is  stated  to  have  been 
situated  "  before  Mamre,"  and  to  have  likewise  contain- 
ed trees.  See  IMamre.  The  only  persons  mentioned  in 
Scripture  as  buried  in  this  cemeterj'  are  Abraham,  Isaac, 
and  Jacob,  with  their  wives  Sarah,  Kebekah,  and  Leah 
(Gen.  xxiii,  19 ;  xxv,  9 ;  xlix,  30 ;  1, 13).  '•  Bej'ond  the 
passages  already  cited,  the  Bible  contains  no  mention 
either  of  the  name  Machpelah  or  of  the  sepulchre  of  the 
patriarchs.  Unless  this  was  the  sanctuary  of  Jehovah 
to  which  Absalom  had  vo^ved,  or  pretended  to  have  vow- 
ed, a  pilgrimage,  when  absent  in  the  remote  Geshur  (2 
Sam.  XV,  7),  no  allusion  to  it  has  been  discovered  in 
the  records  of  David's  residence  at  Hebron,  nor  yet  in 
the  struggles  of  the  Maccabees,  so  many  of  whose  bat- 
tles were  fought  in  and  around  it"  (Smith).  "  It  is  a  re- 
markable fact  that  none  of  the  sacred  writers  refer  to 
this  celebrated  tomb  after  the  burial  of  Jacob,  though  it 
was  unquestionably  held  in  reverence  by  the  Jews  in 
all  ages.  Josephus,  in  his  short  notice  of  the  burial  of 
Sarah,  says  that  'both  Abraham  and  his  descendants 
built  themselves  sepulchres  at'  Hebron  {Ant.  i,  14),  and  in 
another  passage  he  states  that  the  monuments  of  the 
patriarchs  'are  to  this  very  time  shown  in  Hebron,  the 
structure  of  which  is  of  beautiful  marble,  wrought  after 
the  most  elegant  manner'  (  War,  iv,  9, 7).  Jerome  men- 
tions the  mausoleum  of  Abraham  at  Hebron  as  standing 
in  his  day  {Onomast.  s.  v.  Arboch);  and  in  the  Jerusa- 
lem Itinerary,  a  work  of  the  4th  centurj-,  it  is  described 
as  a  quadrangular  structure  built  of  stones  of  Avonderful 
beauty  {Itin.  Ilieros.  ed.Wessel.  p.  599).  It  is  also  men- 
tioned by  Antoninus  IMartyr  in  the  beginning  of  the 
7th  centurj'  {/tin.  30) ;  by  Arculf  towards  its  close  {Ear- 
ly Travels  in  Pal,  Bohn,  p.  7)  ;  by  Willibald  in  the  8th 
{ih.  p.  20) ;  by  Saswulf  in  the  r2th  («6.  p.  45) ;  and  by 
numerous  others  (see  Eitter,  Pal.  und  Syr.  iii,  237  sq.). 
From  these  notices,  it  appears  to  be  certain  that  the 
venerable  building  which  stiU  stands  is  the  .same  which 
Josephus  describes.  Hebron  lies  in  a  narrow  vaUey 
which  runs  from  north  to  south  between  low  ridges  of 
rock}'  hdls.  The  modern  town  is  buUt  partly  in  the 
bottom  of  the  vale  and  partly  along  the  lower  slope  of 
the  eastern  ridge.  On  the  hill-side,  above  the  latter 
section  of  the  town,  rise  the  massive  walls  of  the  Haram, 
forming  the  one  distinguishing  feature  of  Hebron,  con- 


MACHPELAH 


621 


MACHPELAH 


TSvisi£')Mu''M''i' 


Motquc  at  Hebron. 


ppicuous  from  all  points.  The  building  is  rectangular, 
about  200  feet  long  by  115  wide,  and  50  high.  The  walls 
are  constructed  of  massive  stones  varying  from  12  to  20 
feet  in  length,  and  from  4  to  5  in  depth.  Dr.  Wilson 
mentions  one  stone  38  feet  long  and  3  feet  4  inches  in 
depth,  of  ancient  workmanship  {Lands  of  the  Bible, 
i,36G).  The  edges  of  the  stones  are  grooved  to  the 
depth  of  about  two  inches,  so  that  the  whole  wall  has 
the  appearance  of  being  formed  of  raised  panels,  like  the 
Temple-wall  at  Jerusalem.  See  Masonry.  The  exte- 
rior is  further  ornamented  with  pilasters,  supporting 
without  capitals  a  plain  moidded  cornice.  The  build- 
ing is  thus  unique;  there  is  nothing  like  it  in  Syria. 
The  style  of  its  architecture,  independent  even  of  the 
historical  notices  above  given,  proves  it  to  be  of  .Jewish 
origin ;  and  it  cannot  be  much,  if  at  all,  later  than  the 
days  of  Solomon.  The  interior  of  this  massive  and  most 
interesting  building  was  described  about  fifty  years  ago 
by  a  Spaniard,  who  conformed  to  Islamism  and  assumed 
the  name  of  Ali  Bey  (Travels,  i,  232).  The  Eev.  J.  L. 
Porter  was  assured  when  at  Hebron,  and  subsequently 
by  a  moUah  of  rank  who  had  visited  the  tombs  of  the 
patriarchs,  that  there  is  an  entrance  to  the  cave,  which 
consists  of  two  compartments,  and  that  the  guardian 
can  on  special  occasions  enter  the  outer  one  {HandbooJc, 
p.  GO).  With  this  agree  the  statements  of  M.  Pierotti, 
of  Benjamin  of  Tudela,  who  gives  a  description  of  the 
caves  {Itin.  by  Asher,  p.  76  sq.),  and  of  others  (Wil- 
son, Lands  of  the  Bible,  i,  3G4  sq.).  We  cannot  doubt 
that  the  cave  of  Machpelah,  in  which  the  patriarchs 
were  buried,  is  beneath  this  venerable  building,  and  that 
it  has  been  guarded  with  religious  jealousy  from  the 
earliest  ages ;  consequently,  it  is  quite  possible  that 
some  remains  of  the  patriarchs  may  still  lie  there.  Ja- 
cob was  embalmed  in  Egypt,  and  his  body  deposited  in 
this  place  (Gen.  1,2-13).  It  may  still  be  there  perfect 
as  an  Egyptian  mummy.  The  ^Moslem  traditions  and 
the  cenotaplis  within  the  Haram  agree  exactly  Avith  the 
liiblical  narrative,  and  form  an  interesting  commentary 
on  Jacob's  dying  command — 'And  he  charged  them  .  .  . 
bury  me  with  my  fathers  ...  in  the  cave  which  is  in 
the  field  of  Jlachpelah.  which  is  before  Mamre.  .  .  . 
There  theij  buried  Abraham,  and  Sarah  his  wife;  there 
they  buried  Isaac,  and  Eebekah  his  wife ;  and  there  I 
buried  Leah'  ((ien.  xlix,  29-31).  There  also  they  buried 
Jacob.  Now  within  the  inclosure  are  the  six  cenotaphs 
only,  while  the  belief  is  luiiversal  among  the  jNIoham- 
medans  that  the  real  tombs  are  in  the  cave  below.    Pro- 


jecting from  the  west  side  of  the  Haram  is  a  little  build- 
ing containing  the  tomb  of  Joseph — a  Moslem  tradition 
states  that  his  body  was  first  buried  at  Shechem,  but 
was  subsequently  transferred  to  this  place  (Stanley,  Jew- 
ish Church,  i,  498).  The  Jews  cling  around  this  build- 
ing still,  as  the}'  do  aromid  the  ruins  of  their  ancient 
Temple — taking  pleasure  in  its  stones,  and  loving  its 
very  dust.  Beside  the  principal  entrance  is  a  little  hole 
in  the  wall,  at  which  they  are  permitted  at  certain  times 
to  pray"  (Kitto).  "A  belief  seems  to  prevail  in  the  town 
that  the  cave  communicates  with  some  one  of  the  mod- 
ern sepulchres  at  a  considerable  distance  outside  of  He- 
bron (Lowe,  in  Zeitung  des  Jndcnth.,  June  1, 1839).  The 
ancient  Jewish  tradition  ascribes  the  erection  of  the 
mosque  to  David  (Jiehus  ha-Aboth  in  Hottinger,  Cippi 
Ilebr.  30),  thus  making  it  coeval  with  the  pool  in  the 
valley  below ;  but,  whatever  the  worth  of  this  tradition, 
it  may  well  be  of  the  age  of  Solomon,  for  the  masonry 
is  even  more  antique  in  its  character  than  that  of  the 
lower  portion  of  the  south  and  south-western  walls  of 
the  Haram  at  Jerusalem,  which  many  critics  ascribe 
to  Solomon,  while  even  the  severest  allows  it  to  be  of 
the  date  of  Herod.  The  date  must  always  remain  a 
mystery,  but  there  are  two  considerations  which  may 
weigh  in  favor  of  fixing  it  very  early.  1.  That,  often  as 
the  town  of  Hebron  may  have  been  destroyed,  this,  be- 
ing a  tomb,  would  always  be  spared.  2.  It  cannot,  on 
architectural  grounds,  be  later  than  Herod's  time,  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  it  is  omitted  from  the  catalogue 
given  by  Josephus  of  the  places  which  he  rebuilt  or 
adorned"  (Smith).  The  fullest  historical  notices  of 
Machpelah  wiU  be  found  in  Ritter,  Pal.  und  Si/r.  vol.  iii, 
and  Kobinson,  Bib.  lies.  vol.  ii.  The  chief  authorities  are 
Arculf  (A.D.  700)  ;  Benjamin  of  Tudela  (A.D.  cir.  1 170) ; 
the  Jewish  tract  Jichns  ha-Aboth  (in  Hottinger,  Cippi 
Ilebr  aid;  and  also  in  Wilson,  i,  365)  ;  Ali  Bey  (Travels, 
A.D.  1807,  ii,  232, 233) ;  Giovanni  Finati  (Life  by  Bankes, 
ii,  236)  ;  Monro  (Summer  Ramble  in  1833,  i,243) ;  Lowe, 
in  Zeitung  des  Judenth.,  1839,  p.  272,  288.  In  a  note  by 
Asher  to  his  edition  of  Benjamin  of  Tudela  (ii,  92),  men- 
tion is  made  of  an  Arabic  MS.  in  the  Bibliotheque  Koy- 
ale  at  Paris,  containing  an  account  of  the  condition  of 
the  mosque  under  Saladin.  This  MS.  has  not  yet  been 
published.  The  travels  of  Ibrahim  el-Khijari  in  16G9- 
70,  a  small  portion  of  which,  from  the  manuscript  in  the 
Ducal  Library  at  Gotha,  has  been  published  by  Tuch, 
with  translation,  etc.  (Leipzig,  1850),  are  said  to  con- 
tain a  minute  description  of  the  mosque  (Tuch,  p.  2). 


MACHZOR 


622 


MACKENZIE 


The  best  description  of  the  interior  is  that  of  Stanley, 
Jevish  Church  and  Sermons  in  the  East  (the  two  are 
identical),  in  which  he  gives  the  singular  narrative  of 
rabbi  Benjamin,  and  a  letter  of  M.  Pierotti,  which  ap- 
peared in  the  Times  immediately  after  the  prince  of 
Wales's  visit.  A  plan  of  the  mosque  is  attached  to 
Stanley's  narrative.  The  description  given  by  Ali  Bey 
(Travels,  vol.  ii)  is  substantially  the  same  as  that  of 
Dean  Stanley.  A  few  words  about  the  exterior,  a  sketch 
of  the  masonrj',  and  a  view  of  the  town,  showing  the 
inclosure  standing  prominently  in  the  foreground,  wiU 
be  found  in  Bartlett's  Walks,  etc.,  p.  216-219.  A  pho- 
tograph of  the  exterior,  from  the  East  (?),  is  given  as 
No.  Go  of  Palestine  as  it  is,  by  Rev.  G.  W.  Bridges.  A 
ground-plan  exhibiting  considerable  detail,  made  by  two 
Moslem  architects  who  lately  superintended  some  re- 
pairs in  the  Haram,  and  given  by  them  to  Dr.  Barclay 
of  Jerusalem,  is  engraved  in  Osborn's  Palestine,  Past  and 
Present,  p.  3G4.  Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  ii,  385  sq., 
gives  some  additional  particulars ;  also  Tristram,  Land 
of  Israel,  p.  393  sq.     See  Hebuox. 

Machzor  (litrip,  i.  e.  cycle)  is  the  title  of  that  part 
of  Jewish  liturgy  which  contains  generally  the  prayers 
used  in  the  synagogues  on  the  Sabbath  and  feast-daj-s,  but 
principally  those  of  the  three  most  important  festivals. 
They  are  usually  rythmical,  and  are  the  productions  of 
the  most  eminent  Jewish  writers.  Unfortunately,  many 
of  the  modern  Jews  cannot  understand  tliem  in  the 
original,  and  are  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  translations. 
The  first  author  of  such  a  cf>llection  of  Sabbath  and 
feast-day  prayers,  Piutim  (D"i::'Tia),  is  R.  Eleazar  ben- 
Jacob  Kalir,  usually  known  only  as  Kalir  (Tipp),  who 
lived  in  the  second  half  of  the  10th  century.  This  was 
followed  by  others  (Peitanim,  CJU'^'^S,  TToiTjrai).  The 
time  of  the  Peitanim  really  closes  with  the  12th  centu- 
ry, although  fragmentary  works  still  appeared  in  the 
13th  and  14th  centuries.  These  collections  vary  gen- 
erally according  to  the  nationality  of  the  author,  as  di- 
vers rites  and  liturgies  obtained  in  the  synagogues  of 
different  countries.  Thus  there  are  Machzors  according 
to  the  rites  of  the  German,  Polish,  Spanish,  and  Italian 
Jews,  and  also  translations  from  the  Hebrew  into  the 
different  languages,  the  use  of  which  translations  in  the 
synagogues  is,  however,  not  general.  The  first  scientific 
work  on  the  INIachzor  is  that  of  W.  Heidenheim,  pub- 
lished in  1800.  This  author  corrected  the  text  by  means 
of  ancient  IMSS.,  according  to  the  German  and  Polish 
rites,  and  added  to  it  a  commentary  and  a  historical  in- 
troduction. His  work  gave  rise  also  to  further  researches 
on  the  Peitanim  and  liturgies  by  other  modern  Jewish 
writers.  Among  them  may  be  mentioned  Eapoport 
(Bioijraphie  Kalirs,  etc.,  in  lUkkure  llaittim,  Vienna, 
1829-32),  Zunz  (Gottesdienstl.  Vortrage  d.  Jiiden,  p.  380- 

395),  s.  D.  Luzzatto  (TTrn-ib  sii::  X^l-l  ^33  5n:?22, 

Einleit.  z.  Machsor  nach  rom.  Bitus,  Livorno,  1856),  and 
L.  Landshuth  (tTT^a^n  ''1^^CV,0 noma st icon  auctorum 
hymnoriim  Ilehmorum  eorumque  carminum,  fasciculus  i, 
Berol.  1857).  There  is  a  beautiful  edition  of  the  Mach- 
zor, and  a  masterly  version  of  it  in  German  by  the  late 
Dr.  Sachs,  of  Berlin.  See  Bartolocci,  Biblioth,  Magna 
Rahhin.  i,  672 ;  iv,  307  sq.,  322  sq. ;  Wolf,  Biblioth.  Hehr. 
ii,  1334-49  ;  iii,  1200  sq. ;  iv,  1049  sq.     See  Liturgy. 

Mac  Ilvaine.     See  jMcIlvaine. 

Mackee,  C.  15.,  a  Presbyterian  minister  and  educa- 
tor, was  born  in  Indiana  County,  Pa.,  March  28,  1792; 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  stud- 
ied theology  in  the  Seminary  of  the  Reformed  Presby- 
terian Church,  Philadelphia,  and  was  licensed  by  Phila- 
delphia Prcsbyterj^  in  1819,  and  ordaiiUMl  in  1821.  By 
untiring  self-application  he  made  himself  a"  thorough 
and  critical  sch<ilar,  esjieci.Tlly  in  the  ancient  classics, 
ecclesiastical  history.  Biblical  literature,  and  theology. 
In  1824  he  was  chosen  professor  of  languages  in  Cincin- 
nati College,  Ohio,  which  position  he  held  until  1835, 
when  he  accepted  a  call  as  pastor  of  a  church  in  Roches- 


ter, N.  Y. ;  in  1861  he  removed  to  Washington,  D.  C,  to 
accept  an  appointment  in  the  government  service.  He 
died  June  5, 1866.  Mr.  Mackee  was  a  man  of  great  con- 
scientiousness, a  profound  scholar,  a  close  thinker,  and 
an  instructor  with  rare  capabilities  for  imparting  knov/1- 
edge.  He  published  a  small  volume  entitled  A  Critical 
Examination  of  the  Offices  of  Christ.  See  Wilson,  Presh, 
Hist.  Almanac,  1868,  p.  117.     (J.  L.  S.) 

Mackellar,  Angus,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  Scotland  near  the  close  of  the  18th  century,  was 
ordained  to  the  charge  of  Carmunnock,  in  the  west  of 
Scotland,  in  1812,  accepted  a  call  to  Pencaitland  in  1814, 
was  moderator  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  in  1840,  and 
when  the  disruption  came  was  one  of  the  acknowledged 
leaders  of  the  Free  Church.  On  leaving  his  country 
parish  he  removed  to  Edinburgh,  and  for  some  years 
exercised  a  sort  of  general  superintendence  over  the 
missionary  and  educational  interests  of  the  Church.  He 
was  moderator  of  the  Assemblj^  of  the  Free  Church  in 
Scotland  in  1852.  He  died  May  11, 1859.  See  Wilson, 
Presh.  Hist.  A  Imunac,  1860,  p.  263.      (J.  L.  S.) 

Mackenzie,  Charles  Frederick,  D,D.,  a  prel- 
ate of  the  Church  of  England,  and  one  of  the  noblest 
characters  of  our  day,  was  bom  at  Harcus  Cottage,  Pee- 
bleshire,  Scotland,  April  10,  1825,  and  was  educated  at 
Cambridge  University,  where  he  graduated  with  lionor 
in  1848.  After  lecturing  for  a  time  at  his  alma  mater, 
he  decided  upon  the  ministrj',  and  was  ordained  by  the 
bishop  of  Ely,  and  labored  for  some  time  in  England  as 
a  parish  minister.  In  1854,  bishop  Selwyn,  of  New  Zea- 
land, returned  to  England,  and  pleaded  earnestly  for 
more  laborers  in  the  missionary  field.  Mackenzie  felt 
l)ersuaded  that  his  duty  lay  in  this  direction,  and  in  1855 
he  accepted  the  position  of  archdeacon  of  Natal,  and 
went  out  with  the  noted  Colenso.  His  zeal  in  this  new 
field,  and  his  exemplary  piety,  are  attested  by  all  who 
knew  IMackenzie  at  this  time.  In  1859  he  returned  to 
England  to  propose  the  establishment  of  other  missions 
in  Africa.  Livingstone  had  just  pKeceded  him  on  a  visit 
to  England,  and  personally,  as  well  as  bj'  the  publica- 
tion of  his  book  on  Central  Africa,  had  awakened  an 
unprecedented  enthusiasm  for  that  country-.  The  estab- 
lishment of  a  mission  on  the  ground  lately  explored  by 
Livingstone  had  just  been  determined  upon,  and  Mac- 
kenzie's arrival  at  this  time  led  to  his  appointment  as 
the  head  of  it.  He  was  consequently  consecrated  bish- 
op at  Cape  Town  Jan.  1, 1861 ;  four  days  after  he  sailed 
for  the  Zambesi,  and,  after  some  necessarj-  cxiilorations, 
settled  for  his  work  at  a  village  named  Magomero.  The 
climate,  which  in  his  former  work  he  had  withstood  so 
weU,  here  soon  undermined  his  health,  and  he  died 
Jan.  31, 1862.  "In  any  calling  Mackenzie  would  have 
been  distinguished  for  his  fine  natural  qualities.  His 
cheerfulness,  gentleness,  and  simplicity,  supported  as 
they  were  by  manly  candor  and  enduring  firmness  of 
purpose,  and  guided  by  an  innate  purity  and  integrity 
that  shrank  from  the  faintest  touch  of  wrong,  could  not 
fail  to  excite  the  admiration  of  the  most  worldly-minded. 
Consecrated  as  these  qualities  were  to  the  .service  of  re- 
ligion, and  warmed  by  a  glowing  zeal  that  had  nothing 
in  common  with  fanaticism,  they  assume  something  like 
heroic  proportions.  Nor  are  the  battles  he  fouglit,  the 
victories  he  won,  the  sacrifices  he  made,  for  the  great 
objects  to  which  he  devoted  his  life,  and  the  sufferings 
he  endured,  unworthy  of  a  record  among  the  achieve- 
ments of  England's  illustrious  sons."  The  Christian 
spirit  which  the  bishop  manifested  towards  bis  Christian 
brethren  of  other  churches  is  worthy  of  special  mention. 
He  labored  in  concurrence  with  them  with  cordiality 
and  good  will.  His  opposition  to  the  slave-trade  was 
decided,  and  made  liini  many  enemies.  See  Goodwin, 
^fcmoir  of  Bishop  Mackenzie  (Cambr.  1864,  8vo)  ;  Spec- 
tator (Lond.),  March  5, 1864,  p.  269  ;  Mrs.  Yonge,  Pioneers 
andEoumkrs  (Lond.  1871,  12mo),  p.  285  sq.     (J.  H.AV.) 

Mackenzie,  Sir  George,  an  eminent  Scotch  law- 
yer and  politician,  was  born  at  Dundee  in  1636,  and  was 


MACKEY 


623 


MACKINTOSPI 


educated  at  St.  Leonard's  College.  He  deserves  our  no- 
tice, first,  for  his  Religio  Siuici,  or  a  short  Discourse 
upon  several  Divine  and  Moral  Subjects  (1663) ;  his 
Moral  Essay  ujjon  Solitude  (1G65) ;  and  his  Moral  Gal- 
lantry (1667) ;  and  also  on  account  of  his  unhappy  con- 
nection with  the  government  of  Charles  II  as  criminal 
prosecutor  in  the  memorable  days  of  the  Covenant.  By 
his  severity  in  this  position  he  earned  for  himself  the 
ugly  name  of  the  "  bluidy  Mackenzie ;"  nor,  we  fear,  can 
it  be  disproved — in  spite  of  his  liberal  antecedents — that 
he  became  a  willing  instrument  of  despotism.  He  has, 
however,  written  a  defence  of  himself,  entitled  A  Vindi- 
cation of  the  Government  of  Charles  11.  After  the  Rev- 
olution Sir  George  retired  to  Oxford.  He  died  in  Lon- 
don May  2, 1691.  See  AUibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Am. 
A  uth.  ii,  1175,  where  many  references  are  to  be  found. 

Mackey,  James  Love,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  in  Lancaster  County,  Pa.,  Jan.  26, 1820.  His 
early  educational  privileges  were  few,  but,  being  fond 
of  study,  he  struggled  hard  to  qualify  himself  for  teach- 
ing. When  fourteen  years  old  he  opened  a  school 
in  his  father's  house ;  subsequently  he  taught  public 
school  in  the  neighborhood,  attended  Hopewell  Acad- 
emy and  New  London  Academy,  Pa.,  and  taught  in  the 
latter.  He  entered  the  seminary  at  Princeton,  N.  J., 
resolved  to  do  work  in  foreign  missions.  In  18-49  he 
sailed  for  Corisco  Island.  In  April  of  1851  he  founded 
the  Evangasimba  Mission,  after  surmounting  many  ob- 
stacles. In  June  of  18G5  he  returned  to  reside  at  home, 
and  soon  after  became  principal  of  the  academy  at  New 
London,  Pa.  He  died  April  30, 1867.  Mr.  Mackey  was 
a  man  thoroughly  qualilied  for  missionary  labors;  his 
mental  training,  varied  and  accurate  information,  and 
scientilie  attainments,  prepared  him  for  the  great  work. 
See  Wilson,  Fresh.  Hist.  A  Im.,  1868,  p.  119.     (J.  L.  S.) 

Mackie,  Josias,  one  of  the  earliest  Presbyterian 
ministers  who  came  to  America,  was  born  in  Donegal 
County,  Ireland.  The  year  of  his  arrival  in  this  coun- 
try is  uncertain,  but  the  first  notice  hitherto  found  of 
him  bears  date  June  22,  1692.  His  first  settlement  ap- 
pears to  have  been  on  the  Elizabeth  River,  Va.,  where 
in  all  probability  he  became  the  successor  of  Francis 
Mackomie,  the  first  regular  Presbyterian  minister  in 
America.  After  a  formal  oath  in  1692,  made  publicly, 
and  in  confirmation  of  his  belief  in  the  Articles  of  Re- 
ligion, as  allowed  in  the  case  of  Dissenters,  he  was 
licensed.  He  selected  three  different  places  for  public 
worship,  many  miles  apart,  on  Elizabeth  River.  These 
were  in  the  Eastern  Branch,  in  Tanner's  Creek  precincts, 
and  in  the  Western  Branch,  to  which  was  added,  in 
1690,  the  Southern  Branch.  Here,  with  the  care  of  a 
farm  and  a  store,  he  found  time  to  preach,  but  the  rec- 
ord of  his  labors  has  not  as  yet  been  discovered. — 
Sprague,  ^4  nnals,  iii,  5. 

Mackintosh,  Sir  James,  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated literary  characters  of  the  19th  century,  distin- 
guished alike  as  a  philosopher,  jurist,  statesman,  and 
historian  was  born  at  Aldourie,  in  the  county  of  Inver- 
ness, Scotland,  October  24,  4765.  His  early  instruc- 
tion and  training  fell  into  the  hands  of  his  grandfather, 
a  man  of  great  excellence.  In  1783  he  entered  King's 
College,  Aberdeen,  where  he  formed  an  intimate  ac- 
quaintance with  the  celebrated  Robert  Hall — a  happy 
association  which  told  upon  the  whole  career  of  Mack- 
intosh. He  himself  records  the  great  influence  which 
Hall's  society  and  conversation  had  on  his  mind.  They 
lived  in  the  same  house,  were  constantly  together,  and 
led  each  other  into  controversies  on  the  most  abstruse 
points  of  theology  and  metaphysics.  By  their  fellow- 
students  they  were  regarded  as  the  intellectual  leaders 
of  the  university,  and  under  their  auspices  a  society  was 
formed  in  King's  College,  which  was  commonlv  desig- 
nated "  The  HaU  and  Mackintosh  Club."  In  1784  lie 
quitted  King's  College  as  iNLA.,  and  removed  to  Edin- 
burgh. His  own  inclinations  were  to  the  bar;  family 
circumstances,  however,  obliged  him  to  enter  upon  the 


study  of  medicine.  But  he  by  no  means  confined  himself 
to  his  professional  studios.  "lie  mingled  freely  with 
the  intellectual  society  of  the  place ;  divided  his  studious 
hours  between  medicine,  metaphysics,  and  politics,  in- 
termingling with  each  excursions  into  its  lighter  litera- 
ture and  passing  or  past  controversies,  and  he  became  a 
prominent  speaker  in  the  medical,  physical,  and  specu- 
lative societies."  Three  years  had  been  thus  pleasantly 
spent  when  the  time  for  his  examination  came,  and, 
with  diploma  in  hand,  he  turned  south\vards,  and  settled 
at  London.  It  was  a  season  of  great  political  excite- 
ment when  Mackintosh  arrived  in  the  great  English 
metropolis,  and,  as  the  political  arena  was  much  more  to 
his  taste  and  inclination  than  walking  the  wards  of  a 
hospital,  he  improved  the  opportunity,  and  determined 
upon  a  strictly  literary  life.  He  supported  himself  for 
a  while  by  writing  for  the  newspapers,  at  the  same 
time  engaged  in  philosophical  studies.  In  1791  he  finally 
published  his  Viiidiciai  Gallicce,  in  reply  to  Burke's 
Reflections  on  the  French  Revolution — a  work  which, 
though  containing  juvenile  errors,  at  once  gave  him 
great  renown ;  three  editions  were  sold  within  the  first 
year  of  its  appearance  before  the  public.  "In  sober 
philosophic  thought,  sound  feeling,  and  common  sense, 
it  greatlj'  surpassed  the  splendid  philippic  against  which 
it  was  directed,  and  was  enthusiastically  lauded."  The 
leading  statesmen  of  England,  among  them  Fox,  Sher- 
idan, and  others,  sought  the  author's  acquaintance ;  and 
when  the  "Association  of  the  Friends  of  the  People" 
was  formed,  he  was  appouited  secretary.  Encouraged 
by  this  success,  he  turned  to  the  legal  profession  in 
1789,  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1795,  and  attained  high 
eminence  as  a  forensic  lawyer.  In  1799  he  delivered  a 
course  of  lectures  on  the  Law  of  Nature  and  of  Nations 
before  the  benchers  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  which  were  at- 
tended by  audiences  of  the  most  brilliant  description. 
Later  he  was  made  recorder  of  Bombay,  and  in  1806 
was  appointed  judge  of  the  Admiralty  Court.  His  In- 
dian career  was  highly  creditable  to  his  capacity  and 
honorable  to  his  character.  After  his  return  to  England 
he  entered  Parliament  as  Whig  member  for  Nairn  (1813). 
In  1818  he  accepted  the  professorship  of  law  in  the 
college  of  Haileybur*',  continuing,  however,  to  take  an 
active  part  in  the  political  affairs  of  his  country,  as  the 
representative  of  Knaresborough  in  the  nation's  council. 
In  1822,  and  again  in  1823,  he  filled  the  honorable  posi- 
tion of  lord-rector  of  the  University  of  Glasgow.  In 
1828,  his  great  attainments  as  a  philosopher  were  ac- 
knowledged by  his  selection  to  complete  Dugald  Stew- 
art's unfinished  dissertation  on  the  "  Progress  of  Meta- 
physical, Etliical,  and  Political  Philosophy  since  the  Re- 
vival of  Letters  in  Europe"  for  the  Encyclopaedia  Britan- 
nica.  Sir  James  Mackintosh  (he  was  knighted  in  1803) 
at  once  set  to  work,  and  in  1830  completed  his  part  of  the 
task,  entitled  Dissei-f.  on  the  Progress  of  Ethical  Philos- 
ophy  chiefly  during  the  18th  and  19th  Centuries.  Un- 
fortunately, however,  his  professional  and  other  duties, 
as  well  as  sickness,  had  prevented  him  from  treating 
the  subject  as  carefully  and  completely  as  he  might 
have  desired,  and  so  far  curtailed  the  original  plan  that 
a  survey  of  political  philosophy  and  the  history  of  the 
ethical  philosophy  of  the  Continent  were  left  unnoticed. 
But, "  notwithstanding  these  deficiencies,"  says  our  dis- 
tinguished late  countryman,  Alexander  H.  Everett  {N. 
Am. Review,  xxxv,  451),  "it  will  be  read  with  deep  in- 
terest by  students  of  moral  science,  and  by  all  who  take 
an  interest  in  the  higher  departments  of  intellectual  re- 
search, or  enjoy  the  beauties  of  elegant  language  ap- 
plied to  the  illustration  of '  divine  philosophy.'  It  gives 
us,  on  an  important  branch  of  the  most  important  of 
the  sciences,  the  reflection  of  one  of  the  few  master- 
minds that  are  fitted  by  original  capacity  and  patient 
study  to  probe  it  to  the  bottom."  See  the  article  Eth- 
ics in  vol.  iii,  p.  322  sq.     He  died  May  22,  1832. 

We  have  thus  far  sketched  the  life  of  Sir  James  Mack- 
intosh somewhat  more  in  detail  than  the  limited  space 
of  our  Cyclopedia  really  warrants,  in  order  to  enable 


MACKLAURIN 


624 


MACLAINE 


our  readers  fully  to  appreciate  the  valualile  services 
of  this  master-mind  in  the  department  of  philosophy, 
not  only  so  far  as  they  were  exerted  directly,  but  also 
indirectly.     It  is  not  without  reason  that  his  distin- 
guished friend  Robert  Hall  said  '•  that  if  Sir  James 
Mackintosh  had  enjoyed  leisure,  and  had  exerted  him- 
self, he  would  have  completely  outdone  Jeffrey  and 
Stewart,  and  all  the  metaphysical  writers  of  our  time" 
QVorJcs  [Gregory's  edition,  New  York,  1833, 3  vols.Svo], 
iii.  80).     Neither  can  we  afford  to  pass  hastily  by  the 
man  whom  so  eminent  an  authority  as  JNIorell  {Bist. 
<ind  Crit.  View  of  the  Speculative  Philosophy  of  Europe 
in  the  19th  Century  [N.  Y.  1849, 8vo],  p.  405)  points  out 
as  one  of  the  most  eminent  moralists  of  our  day.    "  The 
ardor,  the  depth,  and  the  learning,"  says  Morell,  "  with 
which  he  combated  the  selfish  systems,  and  pleaded  for 
the  authority  and  sanctity  of  the  moral  faculty  in  man, 
contributed  perliaps  more  than  any  single  cause,  not  of 
a  relii^ious  nature,  to  oppose  the  bold  advances  of  utili- 
tarianism, and  infuse  a  healthier  tone  into  the  moral 
principles  of  the  country.     "Without  signifj-ing  our  ad- 
herence to  his  peculiar  theory  respecting  conscience 
[viz.  "  that  conscience,  or  the  moral  facultj-,  is  not  an 
original  part  of  our  constitution,  but  a  '  secondary  for- 
mation,' created  at  a  later  period  of  life  by  the  effect  of 
the  association  f)f  ideas  out  of  a  variety  of  elements  ex- 
isting in  the  mind"  (comp.  iV.  A .  Eer.  xxxv,  451 ;  also 
IM'Cosh,  Intuitions  of  the  Mind,  p.  253)],  we  still  regard 
his  thoughts  and  speculations  as  taking  eminently  the 
right  direction,  and  had  he  obtained  leisure  to  mature 
his  views,  and  give  them  to  the  world  in  his  own  forci- 
ble and  glowing  style,  it  is  the  opinion  of  some  best  able 
to  judge  upon  the  subject  (e.  g.  Robert  Hall  and  Dr. 
Chalmers)  that  he  would  have  placed  the  whole  theory 
of  morals  upon  a  higher  and  more  commanding  position 
than  it  had  ever  occupied  before  in  this  country  [Eng- 
land]."    Besides  this  work  on  Ethical  Philosophy  (re- 
published Philad.  1834,  8vo),  Mackintosh's  ctiief  met- 
aphysical writings  were  published  in  the  Edinhnrrjli  Re- 
rietr,  to  which  he  frequently  contributed  (for  a  list  of 
them,  see  xVlliljone).     His  Miscellaneous  Woils,  includ- 
ing the  contributions  to  the Edinhurffh Revieu\yveTe  pub- 
lished in  1846,  3  vols.  8vo,  and  also  in  a  single  volume 
sq.  crown  8vo.     See  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  the  Right 
Hon.  Sir  James  Mackintosh,  edited  by  his  son,  Robert 
James  Mackintosh,  Esq.  (1835,  2  vols.  8vo) ;  Edinh.  Rev. 
1835  (Oct.) ;  Brit.  Quart.  Rev.  184G  (Nov.) ;  North  Am. 
Rev.  1832  (Oct.) ;  and  especially  the  very  elaborate  and 
able  article  in  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Am.  Authoi's, 
ii.  1179-1188.     (.J.H.W.) 

Macklaurin,  John,  an  eminent  Scotch  divine, 
was  burn  in  October,  1693,  at  Glendaruel,  Argyleshire, 
where  his  father  was  then  pastor.  .John  was  unfortu- 
nately early  made  an  orphan,  and  he  was  taken  in  care 
by  his  uncle,  the  Rev.  David  JMagklaurin,  who  educated 
.lohn  for  the  ministry,  first  at  Glasgow,  and  later  at  Ley- 
den,  Holland.  In  1717  he  was  licensed  by  the  Presby- 
tery of  Dumbarton,  and  two  years  after  was  appointed 
minister  at  Luss.  on  the  west  bank  of  Loch  Lomond. 
In  1723  he  was  promoted  to  a  more  responsible  charge, 
the  north-west  parish  of  Glasgow.  Here  he  died,  Sept. 
8, 1754,  "deeply  regretted  by  a  numerous  and  attached 
congregation,  as  well  as  by  the  general  community  of 
Christians  in  Britain."  His  sermons  and  essays,  many 
of  which  have  been  pubUshed,  have  received  the  high- 
est commendations,  and  are  even  in  our  day  in  general 
favor  with  the  clergy  of  Great  Britain.  Tlic  most  val- 
uable are  An  Essay  on  the  Prophecies  relating  to  the 
Messiah,  and  three  Sermons  (Edinb.  1773,  8vo),  said  to 
have  been  the  germ  of  the  large  and  valuable  work  of 
bishop  Hurd  On  Prophecy ;  Prejudices  against  the  Gos- 
pel; and  his  sermons  On  the  Sins  of  Men  not  chargeable 
to  God,  and  Glorying  in  the  Ci-oss  of  Christ,  all  contained 
in  his  Sermons  and  Essays,  published  by  the  Rev.  John 
Gillies  (2d  ed.  London,  1772, 12mo),  where  may  also  be 
found  an  account  of  the  life  of  John  ^Macklaurin.  See 
Jamieson,  Cyclopadia   of  Religious  Biography,  s,  v.; 


Brown,  Introductory  Essay  in  Works  of  Macklaurin 

(1824). 

Macklin,  Alexander,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  divine, 
was  born  in  Lambeg  Parish,  Down  County,  Ireland. 
Jan.  15, 1808.  After  receiving  a  good  academical  train- 
ing, he  graduated  at  Belfast  College,  Ireland ;  studied 
theology  in  Hill  Hall  School,  Belfast,  under  Dr.  .John 
Edgar;  was  licensed  by  Belfast  Presbytery  in  1830,  and 
ordained  in  1831.  During  this  same  year  he  emigrated 
to  America,  and  in  1832  was  installed  pastor  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  in  Clinton,  N.  J. ;  in  1835  he  accepted 
a  call  to  the  Scotch  Presbyterian  Church,  Philadeliihia, 
where  he  laboired  with  great  success  until  near  his  death, 
July  6, 1859.  Dr.  Macklin  was  a  man  of  quick  appre- 
hension and  sound  judgment,  and  of  noble  and  generous 
impulses.  He  wrote  a  Tribute  to  the  Memory  of  Archi- 
bald Robertson,  Esq.,  a  ruling  elder,  which  was  publishetl 
in  a  pamphlet  in  1859.  See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  A  Inia- 
«ffc,  1861,p.  90.     (.LL.  S.) 

Macknight,  J^uies,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Scotch  di- 
vine, was  born  in  Ayrshire  in  1721.  He  studied  in  the 
University  of  Glasgow,  but,  like  many  of  the  I'resbyte- 
rian  divines  both  of  his  own  country  and  of  England, 
went  abroad,  and  finished  his  studies  at  Leyden.  On 
his  return  he  entered  the  ministiy  in  the  Scotch  Church 
(in  1753)  as  pastor  of  Maybole,  in  Ayrshire.  Here  he 
spent  sixteen  years,  during  which  time  he  prepared  three 
works:  A  Harmony  of  the  Gospels  (Lond.  1750,  2  vols. 
4to),  with  copious  illustrations,  being,  in  fact,  a  life  of 
Christ,  embracing  everything  which  the  evangelists 
have  related  concerning  him:  —  A  neiv  Translation  of 
the  Epistles  (published  in  1795  in  4  vols.  4to,  and  later 
in  6  vols.  8vo)  : — and  Truth  of  Gosj)el  History  (1763, 
4to).  These  works  were  favorably  received,  and  are  to 
this  day  highly  esteemed.  The  Ilarm.ony  has  been  re- 
peatedly printed,  and  to  the  later  editions  there  are 
added  several  dissertations  on  curious  points  in  the  his- 
tory or  antiquities  of  the  Jews.  The  theology  of  them 
is  what  is  called  moderately  orthodox.  For  these  his 
valuable  services  to  sacred  literature  Dr.  Macknight  re- 
ceived the  rewards  in  the  power  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  to  give.  The  degree  of  D.D.  was  conferred  upon 
him  by  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  In  17G9  he  was 
removed  from  Maybole  to  the  more  desirable  parish  of 
Jedburgh,  and  in  1772  he  became  one  of  the  ministers 
at  Edinburgh.  Here  he  continued  for  the  remainder  of 
his  life,  useful  in  the  ministrv'  and  an  ornament  of  the 
Church.  He  died  Jan.  13,  1800.  Of  Dr.  Mackniglit's 
translation  of  the  epistles,  universally  regarded  as  his 
best  production.  Home  says  that  it  is  "  a  work  of  theo- 
logical labor  not  often  jiaralleled.  If  we  cannot  always 
coincide  with  the  author  in  opinion,  we  can  always 
praise  his  diligence,  his  learning,  and  his  piety — quali- 
ties which  confer  no  trifling  rank  on  any  scriptural  in- 
terpreter or  commentator."  Dr.  AV.  L.  Alexander,  how- 
ever, is  not  quite  so  commendatory  of  Dr.  Macknight's 
scholarship :  "  This  work,  which  was  the  result  of  thirty 
years'  labor,  soon  obtained  and  long  kept  a  high  repu- 
tation. Of  late  years  it  has  jierhaps  sunk  into  unmerit- 
ed neglect,  for  there  is  much  in  it  well  deserving  the  at- 
tention of  the  Biblical  student.  Its  greatest  defects  are 
traceable  to  two  causes — the  author's  imperfect  knowl- 
edge of  the  original  languages  of  the  Bible,  and  the  want 
of  fixed  hermeneutical  principles.  In  tracing  out,  how- 
ever, the  connection  of  a  passage,  especially  of  an  argu- 
mentative kind,  he  often  shows  great  ability."  See 
Life,  by  his  son,  prefixed  to  the  Epistles  (in  the  editions 
since  1806) ;  Kitto,  Bibl.  Cyclop,  s.  v. ;  English  Cyclop. 
s.  V. 

Maclaiiie,  Archibald,  D.D.,  an  Irish  divine,  was 
born  at  IMonaghan,  Ireland,  in  1722.  He  was  educated 
at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  was  minister  of  the  I'^ng- 
lish  Church  at  the  Hague  from  1745-94,  and  afterwards 
settled  at  Bath,  in  England.  He  died  at  Bath,  Nov.  25, 
1804.  He  published  a  Sermon  (1752,  8vo),  Letters  to 
Soame  Jenyns  (1772,  12mo),  in  defence  of  Christianity, 


MACLAY 


625 


MACURDY 


and  a  very  imperfect  translation  of  Mosheim's  Ecclesias- 
tical History. 

Maclay,  Archibald,  D.D.,  or,  as  lie  was  familiarly 
known  by  Christians  of  aU  denominations,  "  Father  Ma- 
clay," a  noted  Baptist  minister,  was  born  in  KiUearn, 
Scotland,  May  14, 1778,  and  in  1802  entered  the  minis- 
try at  Kirkaldy,  in  Fifeshire.  In  1804  he  was  appoint- 
ed a  missionary  to  the  East  Indies,  but  the  government 
objected,  and  he  was  obliged  to  stay  at  home.  By  ad- 
vice of  his  friends  he  quitted  his  native  land,  and  in 
1805  emigrated  to  this  countrj^  Immediately  after  his 
arrival  he  commenced  to  preach,  and  built  up  a  Church 
in  Rose  Street,  New  York.  Hitherto  his  connection 
was  ^vith  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland,  but  in 
1808  he  miited  with  the  Baptists,  and,  most  of  his  con- 
gregation following  his  example,  a  new  Church  was  or- 
ganized, known  as  the  "  Mulberry  Street  Church"  (now 
the  Tabernacle,  Second  Avenue  Church),  where  he  re- 
mained until  1837.  He  then  resigned  to  become  agent 
of  the  "American  and  Foreign  Bible  Society"  just  or- 
ganized, and  served  this  body  to  great  advantage  until 
1850,  when  he  was  called  within  the  domain  of  his  own 
denomination  to  succeed  the  late  Dr.  Cone  as  the  second 
president  of  the  "American  Bible  Union."  In  this  ca- 
jjacit}'  he  made  an  official  tour  of  England,  presenting 
the  claims  of  the  Bible  Union  and  collecting  funds  for 
the  revision  of  the  Bible,  in  which  work  that  society  is 
now  engaged.  In  this  mission  he  was  very  successful, 
owing,  no  doubt,  to  his  fame  as  an  eminent  Baptist  di- 
vine. One  of  the  addresses  made  while  abroad  was  trans- 
lated into  several  languages,  and  circulated  in  more  than 
100,')ilO  copies.  On  his  return  to  this  country  he  made 
a  similar  tour  South,  and  with  his  usual  success.  In 
1856  he  resigned  his  presidency  of  the  Bible  Union  on 
account  of  dissatisfaction  with  the  manner  in  which  the 
internal  affairs  of  the  Bible  Union  were  conducted.  He 
continued  to  preach,  and  labored  for  his  Master  till 
within  a  few  months  of  his  death,  jNIay  2,  18G0.  Dr. 
Maclay  enjoyed  the  respect  of  his  brethren  in  the  min- 
istry, and  the  affection  of  all  Christian  people  who  knew 
liim.  "  He  was  surpassed  by  no  man  in  zeal,  friendli- 
ness, and  good  sense.  He  was  a  safe  counsellor,  a  cheery, 
hearty,  healthy  soul,  as  incapable  of  cant  as  of  frivolitj'. 
It  was  evident  to  all  who  approached  him  that  he  was 
a  man  as  well  as  a  clergyman.  He  retained  to  the  last 
that  strong,  homely,  Scottish  common-sense  which  ren- 
ders the  sons  of  old  Scotia  indomitable  and  victorious 
all  over  the  world.  A  man  of  more  absolute  and  im- 
movable honesty  never  breathed."    (J.  H.  W.) 

Maclean,  Archibald,  an  English  Baptist  minis- 
ter, was  born  JMay  1,  1733  (O.  S.),  at  East  KUbride,  in 
Lanarkshire.  He  was  for  many  years  pastor  of  the 
Baptist  Church  in  Edinburgh,  and  was  founder  of  the 
Baptist  congregations  in  Scotland.  He  died  in  Edin- 
burgh Dec.  12,  1812.  Mr.  Maclean  published  Para- 
phrase and  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
(Edinb.  1811-17,  2  vols.  12mo ;  Lond.  1819,  2  vols.  12mo ; 
Aberdeen,  1847,  2  vols.  12mo).  A  collective  edition  of 
Maclean's  works,  including  the  above  work,  sermons, 
etc.,  with  a  memoir  of  his  life  and  writings  by  Rev.  W. 
Jones,  was  published  (Lond.  1823,  6  vols.  8vo ;.  vol.  vii, 
1852,  18mo ;  Edinb.  6  vols.  12mo).  —  Kitto,  Cyclop,  of 
Bill.  Lit.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  m. 
Authors,  s.  V. 

Maclennan,  James,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  a  native  of  Scotland,  came  to 
the  United  States  m  early  manhood,  furnished  with  a 
good  classical  education.  He  had  been  brought  up  in 
the  bosom  of  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland,  and 
fidly  believed  all  its  doctrines,  but,  owing  to  his  Calvin- 
istic  views,  had  given  himself  no  personal  concern  about 
his  salvation.  He  was,  however,  awakened  and  con- 
verted during  a  revival  of  religion  in  Pontotoc,  jMiss., 
joined  tlie  iMethodists,  and,  feeling  it  to  be  his  duty  to 
preach  the  Gosjiel,  entered  the  Mississippi  Conference 
Dec.  3,  1840,  He  took  position  at  once  in  the  Confer- 
V.-Rr 


ence  on  account  of  his  educational  advantages.  His 
tirst  appointment  was  Jackson  Station,  then  he  preached 
in  Lake  Washington  country,  on  the  Mississippi  River, 
and  in  1849  was  elected  secretary  of  the  Conference. 
For  several  years  following  he  located;  from  18G3  to 
18G7  he  was  presiding  elder  of  the  Granville  District, 
and  in  1865  was  elected  a  delegate  to  the  General  Con- 
ference held  in  New  Orleans  in  1866.  At  the  time  of 
his  death,  in  1870,  he  was  supernumerary  on  the  Lake 
Lee  and  Leota  Circuit.  "  Brother  Maclennan  was  a 
man  of  strong  character,  ...  a  simple-hearted  Chris- 
tian, dearl}'  loved  the  Church  of  his  choice,  and  literally 
laid  his  life  a  '  living  sacrifice  upon  her  altars.' " — 3Iin- 
utes  of  ike  M.  E.  Church  South,  1870. 

Macmillanites.  See  Scotland,  Reforjied 
Presbyterian  Church  in. 

Macneile,  Hugh,  D.D.,  an  Irish  divine  of  note, 
was  born  in  1793,  at  Ballycastle,  in  the  county  of  An- 
trim, Ireland;  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
where  he  received  both  the  degree  of  A.M.  and  D.D. ; 
also  the  appointment  of  canon  of  Chester.  In  1822  he 
married  the  daughter  of  Dr.  jMagee,  late  archbishop  of 
Dublin,  in  whose  family  he  had  been  tutor.  After 
preaching  for  some  years  in  London,  where  he  attracted 
large  congregations,  chiefly  at  Charlotte-Street  Chapel, 
Fitzroy  Square,  he  became  successively  incumbent  of 
St.  Jude's,  Liverpool,  and  of  St.  Paul's,  Prince's  Park, 
near  Liverpool.  In  1868  he  was  made  dean  of  Ripon. 
He  died  in  1872.  He  published  The  Church  and  the 
Churches,  or  the  Chuixh  of  God  in  Christ  militant  here 
on  Earth  (1847,  8vo) : — Lectures  on  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land (12mo) : — Lectures  on  the  Prophecies  of  the  Jews 
(1842,  12mo) : — Lectures  on  the  Sympathies,  etc.,  of  our 
Saviour  (12mo) : — Inters  on  Seceding  from  the  Church 
(12mo)  : — Sermons  on  the  Second  Advent  (12mo)  : — Sev- 
enteen Sermons  (12mo).  He  also  published  several  sep- 
arate sermons,  addresses,  and  controversial  pamphlets. — 
English  Cyclopcedia,  s.  v. 

Macon,  Councils  of  (Concilium  Matisconense). 
Ecclesiastical  councils  were  held  in  this  city  of  Bur- 
gundy in  584  and  585.  At  the  former  there  were  enact- 
ments to  regulate  the  clerical  dress,  and  forbidding  Jews 
"  to  appear  in  the  streets  from  Maunday  Thursday  until 
Easter  Monday;"  at  the  latter,  over  which  Priscus,  arch- 
bishop of  Lyons,  presided,  enactments  were  passed — me- 
morial in  the  history  of  the  Church — on  the  conduct  of 
the  laity  towards  the  clergy.  Among  other  things,  it 
was  required  that  whenever  one  of  the  laity  met  one  of 
the  clergy  in  the  public  streets,  the  former  should  make 
a  lowly  and  reverent  bow ;  if  both  parties  are  on  horse- 
back, then  the  layman  should  take  off  his  hat ;  but  if  the 
layman  be  on  horseback  and  the  clergy  on  foot,  the  for- 
mer is  to  dismount  and  make  his  obeisance.  See  Riddle, 
Hist,  of  Papacy,  i,  240 ;  Landon,  Man.  of  Councils,  i,  386-9. 

Macrobius,  an  ecclesiastical  writer,  flourished  in 
the  lirst  half  of  the  4th  centurj-.  He  was  a  preacher  in 
the  Church  in  Africa  after  (iennadius  became  entangled 
in  the  Donatist  heresy,  and  as  a  Donatist  bishop  secretly 
labored  at  Rome  at  one  time.  Before  his  separation 
from  the  orthodox  he  composed  a  discourse.  Ad  confes- 
sores  et  viryines,  in  which  he  insisted  principally  upon 
the  beauty  and  the  sanctity  of  chastity.  After  his  union 
with  the  Donatists  he  addressed  a  letter  to  the  laity  of 
Carthage,  De  Passione  Maximiaid  et  Isaaci  Donatis- 
taruni  (published  by  Mabillon,  Analecta  [Paris,  1675], 
iv,  119,  and  Optatus  [Paris,  1700,  Amst.  1701,  Antwerp, 
1702]). — Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  sxxii,  607. 

Ma'cron  {MuKpojv,  i.  e.  long-head;  \\i\g.  Macer), 
the  surname  of  Ptolemreus  or  Ptolemee,  the  son  of  Dory- 
menes  (1  JNIacc.  iii,  38),  and  governor  of  Cyprus  under 
Ptolemy  Philometor  (2  IMacc.  x,  12). 

Macurdy,  Elisiia,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  Carlisle,  Pa.,  Oct.  15, 1763 ;  was  educated  at  the 
Academy  of  Cannonsburg,  and  was  licensed  by  the  Pres- 
bytery of  Ohio  about  1799.  His  first  labors  were  as  a 
missionary  in  the  regions  bordering  on  Lake  Erie.     In 


MACWHORTER 


626 


MADAGASCAR 


June.  1800,  he  was  ordained  and  installed  pastor  of  the 
united  congregations  of  Cross  Koads  and  Three  Springs. 
During  this  connection  he  had  an  important  agency 
in  the  revival  in  Western  Pennsylvania,  and  was  one 
(if  those  who  formed  the  '•  Western  Miss.  Society."  In 
1823  he  went  on  a  mission  to  Maumee,  and  on  his  return 
^vas  obliged,  from  ill  health,  to  resign  his  cliarge  of  the 
church  of  Three  Springs,  and  to  contine  himself  to  that 
of  Cross  Koads.  He  died  July  22, 1845.  See  Sprague, 
Annals,  iv,  2-41. 

Macwhorter,  Alex^vnder,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
divine,  born  in  Newcastle  County,  Delaware,  July  15, 
1734;  graduated  at  Princeton  College,  N.  J.,  in  1757; 
settled  near  Newark  in  1769;  was  employed  as  a  mis- 
sionarj'  to  North  Carolina  in  17G4-6;  was  chaplain  to 
Knox's  Brigade  in  1778;  settled  in  Charlotte,  N.'C.,  in 
1779,  but  removed  in  1780  to  Newark,  N.  J.,  where  he 
preached  until  his  death,  in  July,  1807.  In  1788  he  was 
prominent  in  settling  the  Confession  of  Faith  and  form- 
ing the  Constitution  of  the  Presbyterian  Church.  The 
degree  of  D.D.  was  conferred  on  him  by  Yale  College  in 
177(j.     See  Sprague,  Annals,  iii,  208  sq. 

Mad.     See  Madness. 

Madagascar,  an  island  situated  to  the  south-east 
of  the  African  continent,  in  lat.  11°  57'— 25°  38'  S.,  and 
longitude  about  43^ — 51°;  length,  1030  miles;  greatest 
breadth,  350  miles;  area  estimated  at  225,000  square 
miles,  therefore  covering  a  territory  larger  than  the  Brit- 
ish Isles,  contains  a  population  of  nearly  five  millions. 

Jlistonj  vp  to  Ihe  Introduction  of  Christianity. — The 
early  history  of  this  interesting  island  is  involved  in  the 
deepest  mystery.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  known  to 
the  ancients,  by  whom  it  was  generally  considered  as  an 
appendage  to  the  main  land,  and  was  probably  discovered 
by  the  Phoenicians.  As  an  island,  we  find  it  first  men- 
tioned by  Marco  Polo,  in  the  13th  century,  as  Magascar 
or  Madaigascar ;  but  its  discoverer  is  now  admitted  to 
have  been  the  Portuguese  Antao  Gonc^alves,  who  named 
it  Isla  de  San  Louren^o.  The  unhealthy  climate  made 
the  stay  of  Europeans  for  a  long  time  impossible.  In 
1774,  Europeans  attempted  to  establish  a  colony  at  An- 
tongil  Bay,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  island ;  it  was 
mainly  composed  of  Frenchmen ;  but,  failing  to  receive 
encouragement  and  assistance  from  the  French  govern- 
ment, the  settlement  proved  a  failure.  With  the  Chris- 
tian missionaries  (1818)  skilful  mechanics  and  tradesmen 
entered  Madagascar,  and  to-day  the  island  contains,  in 
spite  of  its  unhealthfulness  of  climate,  quite  a  number  of 
Europeans. 

The  natives  consist  of  many  tribes,  of  which  the  Hovas 
inhabit  the  centre  and  northern  portion  of  the  island, 
and  are  at  present  so  powerful  as  to  hold  in  subjection 
most  of  the  others.  The  features  of  the  inhabitants  of 
this  section  present  a  striking  resemblance  to  those  of 
the  South  Sea  Islanders ;  they  are  evidently  of  different 
extraction  from  the  other  and  darker  tribes,  whose  feat 
ures  are  wholly  African.  The  men  are  generally  well  made, 
having  finely-proportioned  limbs,  and  usually  present  a 
high  tj'pe  of  physiological  development.  The  women 
are  well  formed  and  active,  but  by  no  means  so  prepos- 
eessing  in  feature  as  the  other  sex.  The  complexion 
of  the  Ilovas  is  a  ruddy  brown  or  tawny  color,  while 
that  of  the  other  tribes  is  much  darker.  Another  and 
very  peculiar  distinction  is  the  long,  straight  hair  of  the 
former  as  compared  to  the  woolly  growth  of  their  neigh- 
bors. The  principal  article  of  dress  in  use  among  the 
Hovas  is  the  lamba,  a  garment  very  similar  to  the  Ro- 
man toga,  and  made  of  cotton  or  linen  materials. 

The  religion  of  these  natives,  not  converts  to  Christian- 
ity, is  strictly  heat  hen.  Mohammedanism  never  made  its 
way  to  them,  and  has  no  converts  among  them.  Aside 
from  Christianity,  they  ha-ve  no  accurjite  conception 
of  (iod.  The  Supreme  Being  they  style  Fnif/rant  Prince. 
"Their  ideas  of  a  future  state,  and, indeed,  their  whole 
religious  system,  is  indefinite,  discordant,  and  puerile;  it 
is  a  compound  of  heterogeneous  elements,  borrowed  in 


part  from  the  superstitious  fears  and  practices  of  Africa, 
the  opinions  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  the  prevalent 
idolatrous  systems  of  India, blended  with  the  usages  of 
the  Malayan  Archipelago.  There  are  no  public  u  mpUs 
in  honor  of  any  divinity,  nor  any  order  of  men  exclu- 
sively devoted  to  the  priesthood,  but  the  keeper  of  idols 
receives  the  offerings  of  the  people,  presents  their  re- 
quests, and  pretends  to  give  the  response  of  the  god. 
They  worship  also  at  the  grave  or  the  tomb  of  their  an- 
cestors" (Newcomb,  p.  521).  They  practice  circumcis- 
ion, have  the  division  of  weeks  into  seven  days,  abstain 
from  swine's  flesh,  and  follow  other  Jewish  practices. 
Marriage  is  general,  but  polygamy  prevails,  and  conju- 
gal fidelity  scarcely  exists  among  the  non-Christianized. 

Introduction  of  Christianity. — In  1810,  Kadama,  the 
king  of  the  Hovas,  virtually  even  then  the  prince  of  all 
^Madagascar,  entered  into  diplomatic  and  commercial  re- 
lations with  the  English.  Onlj^  two  years  later — in 
1818 — Protestant  missionaries  set  out  for  it,  and  ulti- 
mately this  African  isle  became  "  one  of  the  countries 
where  the  rapid  and  easy  triumph  of  Christianity  equals 
the  most  brilliant  episodes  in  the  history  of  Christian 
propagandisra,"  and  a  lasting  rebuke  to  those  Roman 
Catholics  who  have  dared  to  pronoiuice  Protestant  mis- 
sions &  failure.  The  first  Protestant  missionaries  were 
sent  out  by  the  London  Missionary  Society ;  and  their 
mission,  from  the  beginning,  was  very  successful.  The 
whole  Bible  was  circulated  in  the  native  language; 
about  one  hmidred  schools  were  established,  and  from 
ten  to  fifteen  thousand  persons  received  Christian  in- 
struction. Suddenly,  however,  Radama  died  (July  27, 
1828),  and  was  succeeded  by  Ranavala  Manjaka,  a  wom- 
an of  great  cruelty,  and  inimical  to  Europeans.  With 
her  accession  to  the  throne  of  Madagascar  opened  a  fiery 
ordeal  of  persecution,  lasting  for  nearly  thirty  years. 
Europeans  were  banished  from  the  isle ;  the  public  pro- 
fession of  Christianity  was  forbidden;  churches  and 
schools  were  closed,  and  many  of  the  members  of  the 
churches  were  persecuted  to  death.  The  conduct  of  the 
converts  was  most  exemplar}' ;  by  their  constancy,  and 
many  by  their  death,  they  refuted  the  slanders  of  Ro- 
manists that  the  converts  of  the  Protestant  mission 
churches  consist,  for  a  large  part,  of  men  who  seek  to 
obtain  a  lucrative  position.  In  1862  queen  Ranavala 
Manjaka  died,  and  her  son  was  proclaimed  king  under 
the  title  of  Radama  II.  With  his  accession  to  the  throne 
of  Madagascar  the  period  of  religious  toleration  recom- 
menced, and,  although  for  a  moment  the  assassination 
of  the  king  (in  1863;  he  was  strangled, and  his  own  wife 
selected  as  his  successor,  the  government  having  been 
modified  into  a  constitutional  form)  spread  alann  among 
the  Christians,  the  missionaries  of  the  London  Society 
resumed  their  labors,  and  they  were  agreeably  surprised 
in  seeing  that,  in  spite  of  all  persecution,  the  Christian 
congregations  had  maintained  themselves.  In  1867,  the 
erection  of  four  memorial  churches  on  places  where  the 
first  martyrs  of  Christianity  fell  a  prey  to  heathen  super- 
stitions of  Madagascar  was  projected;  three  of  these 
have  already  been  completed,  and  the  fourth  is  in  prog- 
ress. (See  Christian  A  drocate,  Nashville,  Tcnn.,  Dec.  2, 
1871.)  But  the  greatest  triumph  the  Gospel  achieved  in 
Madagjjscar  in  1869  was  when  the  now  reigning  queen, 
Ranavala  II  (she  succeeded  to  the  throne  April  1, 1868), 
and,  with  her.  a  majority  of  the  natives,  threw  away 
their  idols,  and  embraced  Christianity  much  in  the  same 
way  as  the  ancient  Britons  did  many  centuries  ago. 
See  the  Missionary  Advocate  (N.  Y.,  Feb.  15,  1870). 

Among  those  particularly  worthy  of  praise,  for  ser- 
vices rendered  in  the  missionary  efforts  in  Madagascar, 
is  the  Rev.  William  Ellis  (died  in  July.  1872).  By  years 
of  missionary  labors  performed  in  the  .South  Sea  Isl- 
ands he  had  become  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the 
missionary  work ;  and  when,  by  the  death  of  Ranavala 
Manjaka,  Madagascar  seemed  again  open  to  the  Europe- 
ans, he  was  selected  by  the  London  M issionary  Society  to 
visit  the  country,  in  company  with  Mr.  Cameron,  in  or- 
der to  ascertain  the  actual  condition  of  thincs,  with  a 


MADAI 


627 


MADHAVACHARYA 


view  to  resuming  missionary  labor.  The  manner  in 
which  JMr.  Ellis  conducted  the  most  delicate  negotia- 
tions with  the  government  of  Madagascar,  so  as  to  se- 
cure an  entrance  for  the  Christian  teachers  to  the  coun- 
try, and  the  influence  he  exerted  in  high  places,  are  well 
known  to  all  persons  acquainted  with  modern  mission- 
ary enterprise.  On  three  occasions  he  visited  Mada- 
gascar, alwaj-B  on  important  missions,  and  always  with 
signal  success.  He  went  before,  and  prepared  the  way 
for  those  who  have  gone  in  and  occupied  the  field.  On 
each  occasion  of  his  return  to  England  he  had  marvel- 
lous things  to  teU  of  Madagascar  and  the  prospects  that 
were  opening  for  the  Church  of  (iod  there.  His  Mur- 
tyr  Church  of  Madagascar,  Madagascar  Revisited  (Lon- 
don, 18G7,  8vo),  and  Three  Visits  to  Madagascar,  give  a 
history  of  that  mission-field  which  leaves  nothing  to  be 
desired  (compare,  however,  Westminster  Rev.  April,  1867, 
p.  249).  It  was  he,  too,  who  completed  and  revised  the 
translation  of  the  Scriptures  into  the  INIalagasy  lan- 
guage. 

The  number  of  Christians  in  Madagascar  is  now  es- 
timated at  more  than  300,000.  In  1870,  the  Enghsh 
missionaries  (Episcopalians,  Methodists,  and  Friends), 
who  have  their  head-quarters  at  the  adjoining  island 
of  jMauritius  (an  English  possession),  had  in  operation 
1-12  schools,  attended  by  5270  pupils.  The  Roman  Cath- 
olics have,  since  18G1,  missionaries  (Jesuits)  in  the  isl- 
and, but  they  are  mainly  at  the  capital,  Tamatave,  and 
vicinity,  and  in  the  French  possessions,  the  adjoining 
island  of  Reunion.  See,  besides  the  works  of  Ellis,  al- 
ready mentioned,  INI'Leod,  Madagascar  and  its  People 
(London,  18G5) ;  Oliver,  Madagascar  and  the  Malagasi 
(London,  186G) ;  J.  Sibree,  Madagascar  and  its  People 
(London,  1870) ;  Chambers's  Cyclop,  s.v. ;  Newcomb,  Cy- 
clop, of  Missions,  s.  V. ;  Edinb.  Rev.  1867,  p.  212 ;  Grunde- 
mann,  Missions-A  this.  No.  17  ;  K  Y.  Methodist,  1867 ;  N. 
Y.  Christian  Intelligencer,  July  11, 1872. 

Ma'dai  (Heb.  Maday',  "in^,  Sept.  Ma^ot',  Gen.  x,  2, 
a  Mede  [q.  v.],  as  elsewhere  rendered),  the  third  son  of 
Japhet  (Gen.  x,  2),  from  whom  the  Bledes,  etc.,  are  sup- 
posed to  have  descended.  B.C.  post  2514.  See  Eth- 
nology. 

Madan,  Martin,  an  Anglican  divine,  was  born  near 
Hertford,  England,  in  172G.  He  first  studied  law,  but 
finally  entered  the  ministry,  and  was  for  a  number  of 
years  chaplain  to  the  Lock  Hospital,  London.  He  died 
iu  17'.)().  i\Ir.  Madan  gained  great  notoriety  by  a  work 
which  he  published  in  1780,  entitled  Thelypthora,  a  trea- 
tise on  female  ruin,  in  which  he  stoutly  advocated  the 
practice  of  polygamy.  The  pamphlets  which  his  work 
elicited  he  replied  to  in  a  number  of  tracts.  Madan's 
object  in  advocating  polygamy  was  the  removal  of  se- 
duction. He  was  quite  a  pulpit  orator;  several  of  his 
sermons  have  been  published. — Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit, 
and  A  merican  A  uthors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  Darling,  Cyclojxedia 
Bibliog.  ii,  1920. 

Madan,  Spencer  (1),  D.D.,  an  Anglican  prelate, 
was  born  about  the  middle  of  the  18th  century;  became 
bishop  of  Bristol  in  1792,  and  of  Peterborough  in  1794. 
He  died  in  1813.  Bishop  Madan  published  several  oc- 
casional Sermons  (London,  1792,  8vo,  and  often),  and  a 
translation  of  Grotius's  De  Veritate  Christiance  Religionis 
(1781-83, 1813).    See  Gentleman's  Magazine,  1837,  i,  206. 

Madan,  Spencer  (2),  D.D.,  an  English  divine, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1759  ;  was  educated  at 
Westminster  School  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge ; 
was  rector  first  of  Ibstock,  Leicestershire,  and  later  of 
Thorp,  in  Staffordshire.  He  was  also  chaplain  for  the 
king  about  thirty  years,  and  prebend  of  Peterborough. 
He  died  in  183G."  He  published  several  sermons. 

Madeira  (a  Portuguese  word  signifying  wood,  and 
given  1  lecause  of  the  unusual  abundance  of  timber)  is  an 
island  in  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean,  off  the  N.W.  coast 
of  Africa,  in  lat.  32=  43'  N.,  long.  17°  W.,  with  an  area  of 
345  sc).  miles,  and  a  population  in  18G8  of  113.341,  and 
belongs  to  Portugal.     It  constitutes  a  part  of  a  group 


of  islands  sometimes  called  "the  Northern  Canaries," 
which  were  discovered  in  1419.  The  coasts  of  Madeira 
are  steep  and  precipitous,  rising  from  200  to  2000  feet 
above  sea-level,  comprising  few  bays  or  landing-places, 
and  deeply  cut  at  intervals  by  narrow  gorges,  which 
give  to  the  circumference  tlie  appearance  of  having  been 
crimped.  From  the  shore  the  land  rises  quickly  to  a 
height  of  5000  feet;  its  highest  point,  the  Pico  Ruivo, 
is  G050  feet  high.  It  is  of  volcanic  origin,  and  slight 
earthquakes  occasionally  occur.  The  lower  portions  of 
the  island  abound  in  tropical  plants,  as  the  date-palm, 
plantain,  sweet  potato,  Indian  corn,  coffee,  sugar-cane, 
pomegranate,  and  fig.  The  fruits  and  grains  of  Europe 
are  somewhat  cultivated,  but  the  country  has  until  late- 
ly been  mainly  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  the  vine 
and  sugar-cane.  Funchal,  with  a  population  of  25,000, 
is  both  the  capital  and  port  of  the  island.  The  climate 
is  remarkable  for  its  constancy.  There  is  only  10°  dif- 
ference between  the  temperatures  of  summer  and  winter, 
the  thermometer  in  Funchal  showing  an  average  of  74° 
in  summer  and  of  G4°  in  winter.  At  the  coldest  season 
the  temperature  is  rarely  less  than  60°,  while  in  summer 
it  seldom  rises  above  78° ;  but  sometimes  a  waft  of  the 
leste,  or  east  wind,  raises  it  to  90°.  The  natives  of  Ma- 
deira are  of  a  mixed  race,  principally  of  Portuguese, 
Moorish,  and  negro  blood.  "  They  are  meagre,  sallow, 
and  short-lived,  which  is  attributed  to  their  want  of 
wholesome  food  [the  poorer  classes  chiefly  subsist  on 
the  eddoc-root,  sweet  potatoes,  and  chestnuts],  a  life  of 
drudgerj',  and  a  total  disregard  of  cleanliness." 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  the  established  re- 
ligion of  Madeira,  and  until  recently  none  other  was 
tolerated.  In  1839,  Dr.  Kallc}',  a  physician,  began  to 
disseminate  Protestant  doctrines,  and  ultimately  the 
Scotch  Church  took  up  the  work  most  successfully  be- 
gan by  Dr.  Kalley.  The  spirit  of  persecution,  so  general 
in  Romish  countries,  was  not  wanting  here,  and  there  was 
great  opposition  to  Protestantism.  The  first  missionary 
to  the  island  was  the  Rev.  W.  Hewitson,  who  arrived 
there  in  1845,  but  for  a  long  time  the  opposition  of  the 
government  was  so  severe  that  he  was  obliged  to  con- 
fine his  labors  mainly  to  Dr.  Kalley's  converts.  So  un- 
comfortable were  natives  who  chose  the  Protestant  com- 
munion, that  in  1846  some  800  of  them  left  for  Trinidad 
and  for  the  U^nited  States.  At  present  the  Protestants 
have  quite  a  hold  on  the  country.  Besides  an  English 
Church,  there  arc  other  places  of  worship,  including  a 
Presbyterian  Church  in  connection  with  the  Free  Church 
of  Scotland.  The  educational  institutions  comprise  the 
Portuguese  College,  and  Lancasterian  and  government 
schools.  See  White,  ^fadeira,  its  Climate  and  Scen- 
ery;  Schultze,  i)/e/Hsc^  J/(7rfei/-rt  (Stuttg.  1864) ;  Cham- 
bers's Encyclop,  s.  v. ;  Ne>vcomb,  Cyclopeedia  of  Mis- 
sions, s.  V. 

Madhava  is  one  of  the  names  of  the  deity  Vishnu 
(q.  V.)  in  Hindu  mythology  and  in  Sanskrit  poetry. 

Madhavacharya  (i.  e.  Madhava,  the  Acharya  or 
spiritnal  teacher),  one  of  the  greatest  Hindu  scholars 
and  divines  of  the  mcdia>val  literature  of  India,  is  said 
to  have  been  born  at  Panqia.  a  village  situated  on  the 
bank  of  the  river  Tungabhadni,  probably  near  the  begin- 
ning of  the  14th  century.  He  was  firime  minister  of 
Sangama,  the  son  of  Kampa,  whose  reign  at  Yijayana- 
gara  commenced  about  133G,  and  also  under  king  Bukka 
I,  who  succeeded  Harihara  I  about  1361.  He  died  at 
the  age  of  ninety,  probably  towards  the  close  of  the  14th 
centurj'.  IMadhavachnrya  is  famed  for  his  numerous 
and  important  works  on  Yedic,  philosophical,  legal,  and 
grammatical  writings  of  the  ancient  Hindus.  The  most 
important  of  these  are  his  great  commentaries  on  the 
Rig-,  Yajur-,  and  Sama-veda  [see  Veda]  ;  an  exposition 
of  the  3Iimnnsa  philosophy;  a  summary  account  of  fif- 
teen religious  and  philosophical  systems  of  Indian  spec- 
ulation ;  some  treatises  on  the  Vedanta  philosophy :  an- 
other on  salvation  ;  a  historj-  of  Sankara's  (q.  v.)  jiolem- 
ics  acrainst  multifarious  misbelievers  and  heretics;  a 


MADIABUN 


628 


MADNESS 


commentary  on  Parasara's  code  of  law;  a  work  on  de- 
termining time,  especially  in  reference  to  the  observa- 
tion of  religious  acts;  and  a  grammatical  commentary 
on  Sanscrit  radicals  and  their  derivatives.  The  chief  j 
jierformance  of  Madhava  is  doubtless  the  series  of  his 
great  commentaries  on  the  Yedas,  for  without  them  no 
conscientious  scholar  could  attempt  to  penetrate  the 
sense  of  those  ancient  Hindu  works.  In  these  com- 
mentaries Madhava  labors  to  account  for  the  grammat- 
ical properties  of  Yedic  words  and  forms,  records  their 
traditional  sense,  and  explains  the  drift  of  the  Yedic 
hymns,  legends,  and  rites.  So  great  was  Madhavachar- 
ya's  learning  and  wisdom  that  popular  superstition  as- 
signed them  a  supernatural  origin.  He  was  supposed  to 
have  received  them  from  the  goddess  Bhuvaneswari,the 
consort  of  Siva,  who,  gratified  by  his  incessant  devotions, 
became  manifest  to  him  in  a  human  shape,  conferred  on 
him  the  gift  of  extraordinary  knowledge,  and  changed 
his  name  to  Vidydranya  (the  "Forest  of  Learning"),  a 
title  by  which  he  is  sometimes  designated  in  Hindu 
writings. — Chambers,  Cyclopcedia,  s.  v. 

Madi'abun  (['I»;(toi)]  'Hfiajiacovi'  v.  r.  Malia- 
(iovv;  Yulg.  omits),  a  name  interpolated  in  1  Esdr.  v, 
;38  as  that  of  a  Levite  whose  "  sons"  assisted  at  the  res- 
toration of  the  Temple  under  Zorobabel;  but  the  Heb. 
list  (Ezra  iii,  9)  has  nothing  resembling  or  correspond- 
ing to  it. 

Ma'diau  (Judith  ii,  20 ;  Acts  vii,  29).     See  Midian. 

Madison,  James,  D.D.,  an  early  Episcopal  prelate 
ill  America,  was  born  near  Port  Republic,  Rockingham 
County,  Ya.,  Aug.  27,  1749;  passed  A.B.  in  the  College 
of  William  and  Mary  in  1772 ;  was  soon  after  admitted 
to  the  bar,  which  he  abandoned  for  the  ministiy ;  in 
1773  became  professor  of  mathematics  in  his  alma  ma- 
ter; in  1775  proceeded  to  England  for  ordination,  was 
licensed  for  Yirginia,  but  on  his  return  resumed  his  du- 
ties as  professor  in  his  alma  mater,  of  which  he  became 
president  in  1777.  He  afterwards  revisited  England  to 
see  Cavallo  and  other  scientific  men.  In  1784  he  was 
changed  to  the  chair  of  natural  and  moral  philosophy. 
In  1788  he  was  chosen  bishop  of  the  Protestant  Episco- 
pal Church  in  Yirginia,  and  in  1790  was  consecrated  in 
England.  Under  his  care  the  College  of  William  and 
Mary  advanced  steadily  in  reputation.  He  discharged 
his  duties  with  zeal  and  fidelity  until  his  death, March  6, 
1812.  In  his  theology  bishop  Madison  was  much  of  a 
rationalist,  and  is  charged  by  bishop  Coxe  {A  m.  Ch.  Rev. 
Jan.  1872,  p.  35  and  46)  with  having  given  "  something 
worse  than  a  negative  siipiiort"  U<  this  dangerous  ele- 
ment in  the  Church.  He  juiblished  some  Sermom,  Ld- 
1  or  s,  and  Addresses ;  also  ^  Ktdnfiy  on  Washington  (1800). 
See  Sprague,  Annals,  v,  318 ;  Drake,  Dirt,  of  A  m.  Biog. 
s.  V. 

Madman.     See  Madnkss. 

Madmann'nah  (Hebrew  Mndmannah',  ni'2'1?, 
dumjhUI ;  Sept.  ;\Ia~£^(>)i'H  and  '^\ao|.n]vd  v.  r.  MH\;op(7( 
and  Bf  0  ;  Yulg.  McdenwiKi  and  Madmena),  a  town  in 
the  extreme  south  of  Judah  (.Tosh,  xv,  31,  where  it  is 
mentioned  between  Ziklag  and  Sansannah),  hence  in- 
cluded in  the  territory  afterwards  assigned  to  Simeon. 
From  1  Cliron.  li,  49,  it  appears  to  have  been  founded 
or,  rather,  occupied  by  Shaaph  (or  perhaps  by  a  son  of 
his  whose  name  it  bore),  the  son  of  Caleb's  concubine 
Maachah.  Eusebius  and  Jerome  identify  it  with  a 
town  of  their  time  called  Mf-no'ix  (INhp'uii'f))  near  the 
city  of  Gaza  (Onomast.  p.  89).  See  1\Iai:)MEXAII.  In- 
stead of  jNIadmannah  and  Sansannah  of  Josh,  xv,  31,  the 
parallel  passage  (Josh.  xix.  5;  com)i.  1  Chron.  iv,  31), 
enumerating  the  .Simeonitish  cities,  has  Beth-jiarca- 
KOTii  and  Hazar-susim,  probably  the  same  respectively 
(Keil's  Joshua,  ad  loc.\  Schwarz  thinks  {Paksiine,  p. 
101)  that  it  was  the  LeviiTcal  city  Mandah.  in  which, 
according  to  the  '"  I'ook  of  Jashcr."  Simeon  was  buried; 
but  this  locality  is  wholly  a|iocryiihal.  The  first  stage 
southward  from  (iaza  is  now  d-Miiiydy  (Robinson,  Re- 
seai-ches,  i,  5G3),  which,  in  default  of  a  better,  is  suggest- 


ed by  Kiepert  (in  his  iifap,  1856)  as  the  modern  repre- 
sentative of  Menois,  and  therefore  of  Madmannah.  A 
more  plausible  identification,  however,  is  that  of  Yan  de 
Yelde  {Trai'els,  ii,  130)  of  the  modern  ruined  viUagc 
Mirkih,  west  of  the  south  end  of  the  Dead  Sea,  as  a  rep- 
resentative of  the  ancient  Beth-marcaboth, 

Mad'men  (Heb.  Madmen',  "{O^'Q,  dunghill;  Sept. 
Tvavaic  V.  r.  Macai[3)]fid,  Macaixtj^id,  and  MaSn'r][3('i; 
Yulg.  silens),  a  IVIoabitish  town,  threatened  with  de- 
struction by  the  sword  from  the  Babj-lonian  invasion  in 
connection  with  the  neighboring  Heshbon  (Jer.  xlviii, 
2).  Some  (as  Hitzig,  after  the  Sept.,  Yulg.,  etc.)  regard 
it  as  an  appellative ;  and  in  some  editions  of  the  Auth. 
Yers.  it  is  actually  printed  "  O  madmen  /"  The  slight 
notice  only  affords  an  approximate  location  opposite  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea.     See  Madmenah. 

Madme'nah  (Heb.  Madmenah',  nS^S'ir,  dunghill; 
Sept.  Ma^ilii]vd,\\3\g.  Medemend),  a  town  named  in 
Isa.  X,  31,  where  it  is  placed  on  the  route  of  the  Assyr- 
ian invaders,  in  the  northern  vicinity  of  Jerusalem,  be- 
tween Nob  and  Gibeah.  It  has  been  confounded  by 
Eusebius  and  Jerome  with  Madjiann^vh,  which  is  much 
too  far  southward  to  suit  the  context.  "  Gescnius  {Je- 
saias,  p.  414)  points  out  that  the  verb  in  the  sentence  is 
active — 'Madmenah  flies,'  not,  as  in  the  A.  Yers.,  'is  re- 
moved' (so  ahoMichaelis,  Bibeljlir  Ungeleh7-fen^.  Mad- 
menah is  not  impossibly  alluded  to  by  Isaiah  ( xxv,  10) 
in  his  denunciation  of  Moab,  where  the  word  rendered 
in  the  Auth.  Yers. '  dunghill'  is  identical  with  that  name. 
The  original  text  (or  Ketkih),  by  a  variation  in  the  prep- 
osition (^^S  for  "1^"),  reads  the  '  waters  of  Madmenah.' 
If  this  is  so,  the  reference  may  be  either  to  the  Madme- 
nah of  Benjamin — one  of  the  towns  in  a  district  abound- 
ing with  corn  and  threshing-floors — or,  more  appropri- 
ately still,  to  Madmen,  the  Moabitish  town.  Gesenius 
(Jesaias,  p.  786)  appears  to  have  overlooked  this,  which 
might  have  induced  him  to  regard  with  more  favor  a 
suggestion  that  seems  to  have  been  first  made  by  Jo- 
seph Kimchi"  (Smith). 

Madness.  The  words  rendered  by  "  mad,"  "  mad- 
man," ■•  madness,"  etc.,  in  the  A.  Yers.,  vaiy  considerably 
in  the  Hebrew  of  the  O.  T.  In  Dent,  xxviii,  28,  34 ;  1 
Sam.  xxi,  13,  14,  15,  etc.  (f^iavia,  etc.,  in  the  Sept.),  they 
are  derivatives  of  the  root  "SlU,  shaga', "  to  be  stirred 
or  excited ;"  in  Jer.  xxv,  16 ;  1,  38 ;  li,  7 ;  Eceles.  i,  17,  ' 
etc.  (Sept.  Titpiipopa),  from  the  root  PStl,  halal',  "to 
flash  out,"  applied  (like  the  Greek  fXiyiiv')  cither  to 
light  or  sound;  in  Isa.  xliv,  25,  from  320,  saJd-cl',  "to 
make  void  or  foolish"  (Sept.  fiaipaiviir) ;  in  Zech.  xii, 
4,  from  i^'':P,  tamah',  "to  wander"  (Sept.  iKaramc). 
In  the  N.  T.  they  are  generally  used  to  render  /.laiviaSrai 
or  jxcivia  (as  in  John  x,  20;  Acts  xxvi,  24;  1  Cor.  xiv, 
23);  but  in  2  Pet.  ii,  16  the  word  is  7rapa(fiporia,  and  in 
Luke  vi,  11,  (ivoia.  The  term  is  used  in  Scripture  in  its 
proper  and  old  sense  of  a  raving  maniac  or  demented 
person  (Dent,  xxviii,  34;  1  Sam.  xxi,  13;  John  x,  20; 
1  Cor.  xiv,  23),  and  may  be  medically  defined  to  be  de- 
lirium without  fever.  Our  Lord  cured  by  his  word  sev- 
eral who  were  deprived  of  the  exercise  of  their  rational 
powers,  and  the  circumstances  of  their  histories  prove 
that  there  could  neither  be  mistake  nor  collusion  re- 
specting them.  See  LfXAXic.  How  far  madness  may 
be  allied  to,  or  connected  v.ith  demoniacal  jiosscssion 
(as  implied  in  one  passage,  John  x.  20),  is  a  very  intri- 
cate iniiuiry ;  and  whether  in  the  present  day  (as  per- 
haps anciently)  evil  spirits  may  not  take  advantage 
from  distcmperature  of  the  bodily  frame  to  augment 
evils  endured  by  the  patient  is  more  than  may  be  af- 
firmed, though' the  idea  seems  to  be  not  absolutely  re- 
pugnant to  reason  (see  Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  i,  213). 
See  D--EMON1AC.  The  term  '-mad"  is  likewise  applied 
in  Scripture,  as  in  common  life,  to  any  subordinate  but 
violent  disturbance  of  the  mental  faculties,  whether 
springing  from  a  disordered  intellect  (as  by  over-study, 


MADON" 


629 


jVIADRAS 


Acts  xxvi,  24,  25 ;  from  startling  intelligence,  Acts  xii, 
15 ;  from  preternatural  excitement,  Hos.  ix,  7 ;  Isa.  xliv, 
25;  from  resistance  of  oppression,  Eccles.  vii,  7;  from 
inebriety,  Jer.  xxv,  10 ;  li,  7  ;  or  simple  fatuity,  2  Kings 
ix,  11 ;  Jer.  xxix,  20),  or  from  irregular  and  furious  pas- 
sion (e.  g.  as  a  persecutor.  Acts  xxvi,  11;  Psa.  cii,  8; 
from  idolatrous  hallucination,  Jer.  1,  38 ;  or  wicked  and 
extravagant  jollity,  Eccles.  ii,  2).  In  like  manner, 
"madness"  expresses  not  only  proper  insanity  (Deut. 
xxviii,  28,  and  so  "madman,"  1  Sam.  xxi,  15;  Prov. 
xxvi,  18),  but  also  a  reckless  state  of  mind  (Eccles.  x, 
13),  boniering  on  delirium  (Zech.  xii,  4),  whether  in- 
duced by  overstrained  intellectual  efforts  (Eccles.  i,  17; 
ii,  12),  from  blind  rage  (Luke  vi,  12),  or  the  effect  of  de- 
praved tempers  (Eccles.  vii,  25 ;  ix,  8 ;  2  Pet.  ii,  0).  Da- 
vid's madness  (1  Sam.  xxi,  13)  is  by  many  supposed  not 
to  have  been  feigned,  but  a  real  epilepsy  or  falling  sick- 
ness ;  and  the  Sept.  uses  words  which  strongly  indicate 
this  sense  {tntirriv  ini  TUQBvpac).  It  is  urged  in  sup- 
port of  this  opinion  that  the  troubles  which  David  un- 
derwent might  very  naturally  weaken  his  constitutional 
strength,  and  that  the  force  he  suffered  in  being  obliged 
to  seek  shelter  in  a  foreign  court  would  disturb  his  im- 
agination in  the  highest  degree.  A  due  consideration, 
however,  of  the  context  and  all  the  circumstances  onh^ 
serves  to  strengthen  the  opinion  that  it  was  feigned  for 
obvious  reasons  (see  Kitto's  Daih/  Bible  Illustr.  ad  loc). 
'•  It  is  well  known  that  among  Oriental,  as  among  most 
semi-civilized  nations,  madmen  were  looked  upon  with 
a  kind  of  reverence,  as  possessed  of  a  quasi-sacred  char- 
acter (see  Lane,  Mod.  Eg.  i,  340).  This  arises  partly, 
no  doubt,  from  the  feeling  that  one  on  whom  God's  hand 
is  laid  heavily  should  be  safe  from  all  other  harm,  but 
partly  also  from  the  belief  that  the  loss  of  reason  and 
self-control  opened  the  mind  to  supernatural  influence, 
and  gave  it  therefore  a  supernatural  sacredness.  This 
belief  was  strengthened  by  the  enthusiastic  expression 
of  idolatrous  worship  (see  1  Kings  xviii,  20,  28),  and 
(occasionally)  of  real  inspiration  (see  1  Sam.  xix,  21-24 ; 
comp.  the  application  of 'mad  fellow'  in  2  Kings  ix,  11, 
and  see  Jer.  xxix,  20;  Acts  ii,  13)"  (Smith). 

Ma'don  (Heb.  Mmlon',  "ii'l^,  strife,  as  in  Prov.  xv, 
18,  etc. ;  Sept.  Maliov  v.  r.  Moqmv),  a  Canaanitish  city 
in  the  north  of  Palestine,  ruled  over  by  a  king  named 
Jobab  in  the  time  of  Joshua,  who  captured  it  (Josh,  xi, 
1;  xii, 19).  Calmet  (L'ic/.s. v.),  arbitrarily  conjecturing 
that  Mitron  is  tlie  true  reading,  refers  to  Maronia,  a 
small  village  of  Syria  thirty  miles  east  of  Antioch  (Je- 
rome, I'iV.  Mnl.  2),  probably  the  place  alluded  to  by  Ptol- 
emy (v,  15,  8,  MaowvuiQ)  as  lying  in  the  province  of 
Chalcidice,  Schwarz  infers  {Palest,  p.  SO,  173)  from 
Rabbinical  notices  (chiefly  a  statement  of  the  early  Jew- 
ish traveller  hap-Parchi  in  Asher's  Bevj.  of  Tu'dela,  p. 
430)  that  the  site  is  that  of  the  present.A'e/r  Menda,  a 
considerable  village  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  north  of  Dio- 
cajsarea,  containing  a  very  deep  ^vcll  and  some  traces  of 
antiquity,  which  Dr.  Kobinson  (new  edit,  of  Researches, 
iii,  103-111)  is  inclined  to  regard  as  marking  the  place 
of  the  Asochis  of  Josephus  (Life,  41, 45,  08  ;  War,  i,  4, 2 ; 
Ant.  xiii,  12, 4),  although  admitting  that  the  latter  may 
be  referred  to  Tell  ed-Bedawiyeh,  in  the  vicinity. 

"  In  the  Sept.  version  of  2  Sam.  xxi,  20,  the  Hebrew 
words  "jno  Tl^'^S. '  a  man  of  stature,'  are  rendered  ain)r) 
Ma^<oi>, '  a  man  of  Madon.'  This  may  refer  to  the  town 
Madon,  or  may  be  merely  an  instance  of  the  habit  which 
these  translators  had  of  rendering  literally  in  Greek  let- 
ters Hebrew  words  which  they  did  not  understand.  Oth- 
er instances  will  be  found  in  2  Kings  vi,8;  ix,  13;  xii, 
0  ;  XV,  10,  etc."  (Smith). 

Madonna  (Italian,  Mj/  Lad//),  a  term  applied  in 
the  language  of  art  to  representations  of  the  Virgin 
Mary.  Such  representations  first  made  their  appear- 
ance after  the  5th  centurv,  when  tlie  Virgin  ^vas  de- 
clared to  be  the  "Mother'of  God."  The  face  of  the 
mother  is  generafly  full,  oval,  and  of  a  mild  expression  ; 
a  veil  adorns  the  hair.     At  first  the  lineaments  of  the 


Virgin's  countenance  were  copied  from  the  older  pic- 
tures of  Christ,  according  to  the  tradition  which  de- 
clared that  the  Saviour  resembled  his  mother.  A  chro- 
nological arrangement  of  the  pictures  of  the  Virgin 
would  exhibit  in  a  remarkable  manner  the  development 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  doctrine  on  this  subject.  The 
Madonna  has  been  a  principal  subject  of  the  pencils  of 
the  great  masters.  The  grandest  success  has  been 
achieved  by  Raphael  (q.  v.),  in  whose  pictures  of  the 
jNIadonna  there  prevails  now  the  loving  mother,  now 
the  ideal  of  feminine  beauty,  until  in  that  of  St.  Six- 
tus  there  is  reached  the  most  glorious  representation  of 
the  "  Queen  of  Heaven."  Murillo's  "  Conceptions"  also 
should  be  noticed  here.  See  Murillo.  One  of  these 
has  lately  been  presented  to  the  American  pubUc  in 
chromo  by  the  American  art  publisher  Prang,  of  Boston. 
Among  symbolic  representations  may  be  mentioned 
Mary  with  the  white  mantle,  i.  e.  the  mantle  of  love 
under  which  she  receives  the  faithful ;  and  the  Virgin 
with  the  half-moon  or  with  the  globe  under  her  feet, 
according  to  the  meaning  put  upon  the  twelfth  chapter 
of  Revelation.  The  Virgin  was  never  represented  with- 
out the  Child  until  comparatively  recent  times.  See 
Mrs.  Jameson's  delightful  -work,  Legends  of  the  Madonna 
(3d  ed.  Lond.  1803,  8vo) ;  Christian  Remembrancer,  1808 
(July),  p.  130 ;  Old  and  New,  1872  (April). 

Madoz,  Isaac,  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  was  born 
in  London  in  1097;  was  educated  at  one  of  the  imiver- 
sities  of  Scotland,  and  at  Queen's  College,  Cambridge ; 
was  successively  curate  of  St.  Bride's,  domestic  chaplain 
to  Dr. \Vad<lington,  bishop  of  Chichester;  rector  of  St. 
Vedast,  in  Foster  Lane,  London.  In  1729  he  was  appoint- 
ed clerk  of  the  closet  to  queen  Caroline;  in  1733  be- 
came dean  of  Wells;  in  1730,  bishop  of  St.  Asaph;  was 
translated  to  the  see  of  Worcester  in  1743,  and  died  in 
1759.  Dr.  Madox  published  a  number  of  Sei-mons  (Lon- 
don, 1734-53),  and  a  review  of  the  first  volume  of  Neal's 
Hist,  of  the  Puritans,  entitled  A  Vindication  of  the  Gov- 
ernment, Doctrine,  and  Worship  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land established  in  the  Reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  (1733, 
8vo). — AUibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer.  Axithors,  s.  v. ; 
Hook,  Eccles.  Biog.  vii,  208. 

Madras,  one  of  the  three  presidencies  of  the  Indian 
Empire,  occupies  the  greater  part  of  the  south  of  the 
peninsula  of  Hindustan,  including  the  coast  lands,  ]\Ial- 
abar,  the  Laccadive  Islands,  and  the  Coromandel  coast, 
in  all  covering  an  area  of  257,871  square  mUes,  with 
38,909,280  inhabitants  (of  which,  according  to  Behm, 
Geogr..Tahrbuch,  1870,  eleven  twelfths  are  Hindus,  and 
some  80,000  adherents  of  Mohammedanism).  The  trib- 
utary states  Mysore,  Cochin,  Travancore,  Pudocotta,  and 
Djayapur  are  virtually  a  part  of  Madras,  and  are  there- 
fore included  in  our  statistics  of  Madras.  The  capital 
of  this  presidency, is  a  city  of  like  name,  and  is  situated 
on  the  Coromandel  coast,  the  western  shore  of  the  Bay 
of  Bengal,  in  lat.  13^  5'  N.  It  stretches  along  the  coast, 
with  its  nine  suburbs,  for  nine  miles,  with  an  average 
breadth  of  three  and  one  half  miles.  Its  inhabitants 
number  400,000  (1807),  among  them  about  21,000  na- 
tive Christians.  Madras  was  the  first  hold  of  the  Eng- 
lish secured  by  the  occupation  of  Fort  George  (situated 
on  the  coast  midwa}'  between  the  north  and  south  ex- 
tremities of  the  city)  in  1039.  It  is  no^v  truly  an  Indo- 
European  city.  Like  Calcutta  and  Bombay,  it  is  a 
gathering-place  for  the  missionaries  of  the  different  de- 
nominations and  associations,  and  the  basis  for  all  mis- 
sionary enterprise  in  southern  India.  IMadras  is  the 
seat  of  the  Anglican  see  of  Madras,  established  in  1835. 
The  missionarj'  societies  at  work  there  are  the  "  Society 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel,"  the  "  London  Mission- 
ary Society,"  the  "  Church  INIissionarj'  Society"  (which 
starte<l  in  1805),  the  "  Wesleyan  Missionary  Society," 
the  "  Church  of  Scotland,"  the  "American  Board"  (com- 
menced there  in  1830),  and  the  "Free  Church  of  Scot- 
land." Its  principal  buildings  and  institutions  are  the 
Government  House,  a  handsome  edifice,  though  much 


MADRUZZIUS 


630 


MAFFIT 


inferior  to  the  similar  establishments  in  Calcutta,  and 
even  in  Bombay;  one  of  the  finest  light-houses  in  the 
vorlcl ;  the  Scotch  Church  of  St.  Andrew,  founded  in 
1818,  a  stately  and  beautiful  edifice ;  a  university,  with 
three  European  professors,  and  numerous  teachers  both 
European  and  native,  and  containing  a  valuable  muse- 
um and  a  library ;  St.  George's  Cathedral,  from  which  a 
magnificent  view  of  the  city  and  its  vicinity  may  be 
obtained,  and  containing  several  monuments  by  Chan- 
trey  (including  one  of  bishop  Heber),  and  some  figures 
by  Flaxman.  There  are  also  male,  military,  and  female 
orphan  asylums,  a  medical  school,  a  branch  of  the  Koyal 
Asiatic  Society,  the  Madras  Polytechnic  Institution,  the 
Government  Observatorj-,  a  mint,  eight  established  Epis- 
copal churches,  among  them  a  cathedral,  besides  numer- 
ous places  of  worship  of  other  Christian  denominations, 
and  the  Madras  Club,  to  which  members  of  the  Bengal 
and  Bombay  clubs  are  admitted  as  honorary  members. 
See  Grundemann,  llissions-A  tlas,  No.  14  and  1 5 ;  New- 
comb,  Q/cfo/).  q/' i)/M«JO?w,  s.  v.,  also  under  Hindostan; 
Wheeler,  Madras  in  the  Olden  Times  (Madras,  1861-G2, 
8  vols.  8vo) ;  Aikman,  Cyclop,  of  Missions,  p.  148,  272. 
See  India. 

Madi'uzzius,  Christopher,  a  Roman  Catholic  ec- 
clesiastic of  note,  was  born  at  Bologna  in  1512,  and  was 
educated  at  the  high-schools  of  Bologna  and  Padua. 
He  was  ambassador  of  Ferdinand  at  Bologna,  and  in 
1539  became  prince-bishop  of  Trent.  In  1543  the  bish- 
opric of  Brixen  was  added  to  his  livings.  Later  he  be- 
came cardinal.  He  died  in  1578. —  Regensburg  Real- 
Encijklopadie,  vol.  ix,  s.  x. 

Madura  (1),  an  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  the  pos- 
session of  the  Netherlands,  separated  from  Java  on  the 
north-east  by  the  strait  of  Jladura,  contains  about  nine- 
ty-seven square  miles,  and  is  inhabited  by  394,600  peo- 
ple, who  adhere  either  to  the  religion  of  Brahma,  or  are 
of  the  Mohammedan  faith — about  evenly  divided.  The 
remains  of  Hindu  temples,  however,  would  lead  us  to 
the  belief  that  Hinduism  was  once  the  prevailing  relig- 
ion. As  in  Java,  probably  Brahraanism  was  crowded 
out  by  the  inroads  of  the  Slohammedans  in  the  14th 
century,  when  the  Arabs  invaded  the  countrv'.  INIa- 
dura  is  governed  by  natives,  tributary  to  the  Neth- 
erlands, and  is  divided  into  three  kingdoms.  The  prod- 
ucts of  the  islands,  which  are  included  in  the  trade-re- 
turns of  Java  (q.  v.),  are  sugar,  tobacco,  indigo,  cocoa- 
nut  oil,  edible  birds'  nests,  etc. ;  but,  owing  to  the  extor- 
tions of  the  princes,  agriculture  is  not  flourishing.  See 
Chambers,  Cydoprndia,  s.  v. 

Madura  (2),  a  maritime  district  in  the  south  of 
British  India,  in  the  presidency  of  Jladras  (q.  v.),  has 
an  area  of  about  10,700  square  miles,  and  a  population 
of  1,790,000.  Eastward  from  the  shore  runs  a  narrow 
ridge  of  sand  and  rocks,  mostly  dry,  and  which  almost 
connects  Ceylon  with  the  continent.  Cotton  is  the  chief 
commercial  crop;  and  sugar-cane,  betel-nut,  and  tobacco 
are  also  grown.  In  this  district  the  "American  Board" 
began  its  labors  in  1834,  and  now  sustains  a  very  suc- 
cessful mission  in  fourteen  stations.  The  Eoman  Cath- 
olics gained  a  strong  hold  here  by  the  accommodation 
theory  of  Koberto  dei  Nobili  in  the  opening  of  the  17th 
century.  A  vicariate,  formerly  a  part  of  Pondicherry, 
was  established  for  Madura  in  ]84(),  and  is  in  the  care 
of  the  Jesuits,  who  recommenced  labors  there  in  183(i. 
The  ])rincipal  town  is  jNIadura,  on  the  river  Vygat,  with 
several  noteworthy  public  buildings,  and  the  seat  of  a 
Roman  Catholic  and  a  Protestant  mission.  INIadura,  in 
fonner  days,  was  tlie  capital  of  a  kingdom,  the  centre 
of  .South  Indian  culture  and  learning.  See  (Jrundemann, 
Missions-Atlas,  No,  14  and  15.     See  also  India, 

Mae'lus  (^^m)\oQ  v,  r.  'SM\l)\oc,\\\\^.Micheltis), 
given  (1  Esdr.  ix.  2(i)  as  tbc  name  of  an  Israelite  whose 
posterity  returned  from  Babylon,  in  jdace  of  the  Mia- 
MiN  (q.  V.)  of  the  Hebrew  text  (  Ezra  x,  '2h). 

Maffei,  Bernard,  a  cardinal,  and  secretary  of  pope 
Paul  III,  was  born  at  Bergamo  in  1514,  »ud  died  in  1553. 


He  wrote  a  commentary  on  Cicero's  Letters,  and  some 
other  works,  which  were  highly  esteemed  in  liis  time. — 
Herzog,  Real- EncijMopddie,  viii,  GGO. 

Maffei,  Francesco  Scipione  de,  a  noted  Ital- 
ian scholar,  known  chiefly  as  a  dramatic  writer,  was  born 
at  Yerona  June  1, 1675;  studied  at  the  Jesuit  college  of 
Parma,  there  led  a  literary  life,  went  to  Rome  in  1098,  and 
afterwards  entered  the  army,  and  distinguished  himself 
in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession ;  resumed  his  liter- 
ary pursuits,  and  died  Feb.  11,  1755.  Aside  from  his 
merely  literaiy  productions,  he  wrote  some  theological 
works,  such  as  Istoria  teologica  delle  dottrine,  e  delle  opin- 
ione  corse  ne,  cinqiie  primi  secoli  dellu  chiesa  in  prop)osiio 
della  divina  grazia,  del  libera  arbitrio  e  della  predestina- 
zione  (Tridenti,  1712;  translated  into  Latin  by  the  Jes- 
uit Frederick  Eeissenberg  [Francf.  ad. M.  1736]) : — Gian- 
senismo  nuovo  dimonstrato  nelle  conscguenze  il  medesimo 
(Venet.  1732).  Among  his  works  on  morals,  the  most 
important  is  Della  scienza  chiamata  cavallaresca  (Rom. 
1720,  and  often),  in  which  he  condemns  duelling.  His 
De  teutri  antiche  e  moderni  (Verona,  1753)  is  a  defence 
of  the  theatre  as  a  moral  institution.  His  collected 
works  were  published  at  Venice  (1790, 18  vols.  8vo). — 
Herzog,  Reul-EncyMop.  viii,  661 ;  Life  and  Times  of 
Falleario  (Rome,  1860,  2  vols.  8vo),  vol.  i  and  ii. 

Maffei,  Giovanni  Pietro,  a  noted  Italian  Jes- 
uit, was  born  at  Bergamo  about  1536;  was  for  a  time 
professor  at  Genoa,  became  in  1564  secretarv-  of  the  gov- 
ernment at  that  place,  and  in  1565  joined  the  Jesuits, 
among  whom  he  gained  a  great  reputation.  Brought 
to  the  notice  of  cardinal  Henry,  of  Portugal,  he  Mas 
called  to  Lisbon.  He  died  in  Tivoli  in  1603.  Maifei 
wrote  De  vita  et  moribus  Sancti  Ignatii  Loyolm  (Venet. 
1685,  and  Berg.  1747) : — Historiarum  indicationum  libri 
xvi;  rerum  a  Societate  Jesu  in  Oriente  gestarum  volumen 
(Florentice,  1588;  often  reprinted) : — De  rebus  Jap onicis 
libri  v.  At  the  request  of  Gregory'  XIII  he  wrote  a  his- 
tory of  the  reign  of  that  pope,  which  remained  in  MS. 
until  1743,  when  it  was  published  at  Rome  by  Carlo 
Coquetines.  A  Historj'  of  India,  written  by  request  of 
cardinal  Henry,  was  published  without  JNIaffei's  name, 
though  he  was  its  author.  His  collected  works,  accom- 
panied by  a  biographical  sketch,  were  published  under 
the  style  J.  P.  Maffei  Opiera  omnia  Lafine  scripta  nunc 
■primum  in  vmim  corpus  collecta  (Verona,  1747,  2  vols. 
4to). — Herzog,  Reed-EncyMop.  viii,  660. 

Maffei,  Vegius,  an  Italian  priest,  canon  of  St. 
John  of  Laterau,  was  born  at  Lodi,  in  Lombardy,  in 
1407,  and  died  at  Rome  in  1458.  He  enjoyed  great 
reputation  as  a  theologian  and  writer.  His  most  im- 
portant work  is  Tractatus  de  educatione  liberoritm  et 
clai-is  eorum  studiis  ac  moribus  (Paris,  1511).  It  was 
often  reprinted,  and  was  considered  in  its  day  one  of  the 
best  on  the  subject  of  education.  He  also  wrote  Phila- 
lethes  seu  de  amore  reritatis  invisce  ft  corulantis  dialogus; 
de  perseverantia  i-eligionis;  de  quatuor  homines  7-ebus  no- 
vissimis ;  also  biographies  of  St.  Bernard  of  Sienna,  St. 
Peter  Celestin,  Augustine,  and  Monica,  and  a  continua- 
tion of  Virgil's  jEneid  in  13  vols.,  etc.  —  Herzog,  Real- 
Enryldopddie,  viii,  660. 

Maffit,  John  Newl,\nd,  a  minister  of  the  IMtthod- 
ist  Episcojial  Church  South,  was  born  of  Eiii^cojial  jia- 
rcntage  at  Dublin,  Ireland,  Dec.  28,  1794;  was  destined 
for  the  mercantile  profession  Ijy  his  parents,  but,  joining 
the  Wesleyans  in  1813,  he  determined  upon  the  minis- 
try. Opposed  by  his  friends  and  family  at  home,  he 
emigrated  to  this  country  in  1819,  and  not  long  after  his 
arrival  became  a  member  of  the  New  England  Confer- 
ence, For  twelve  succeeding  years  he  was  stationed  in 
tlie  different  cities  of  New  England,  then  removed  to 
New  York,  acting  thereafter  only  as  a  local  preacher, 
moving  at  his  own  discretion,  and  preaching  and  lectu- 
ring at  such  points  as  offered.  In  1835,  conjointly  with 
Rev.  Lewis  (Jarrett,  he  issued  in  Nashville,  'J'cim.,  the 
first  number  of  The  Western  Afethodist  (uoav  77/p  Chr-is- 
tian  Advocate,  the  central  organ  of  tie  Methodist  Epis- 


MAG 


631 


MAGDALA 


copal  Churcli  South).  In  1836-1837  he  was  agent  for 
La  Grange  College,  in  Alabama,  and  subsequently  was 
elected  to  the  chair  of  elocution  and  belles-lettres  in 
that  institution;  but  he  gave  little  attention  to  its  du- 
ties, and  the  chair  was  soon  discontinued.  In  1841  he 
was  chaplain  of  the  lower  house  of  Congress.  His  ad- 
vent West  and  South-west  was  marked  by  a  quickened 
religious  interest  in  the  popular  mind.  Vast  assemblies 
gathered  to  hear  him,  and  thousands,  directly  through 
his  instrumentality,  were  added  to  the  Church.  Ke- 
tuming  to  New  York,  he  became  somewhat  lax  in  his 
Church  relations,  and  consequeiUly  lost  his  membership. 
In  1847  he  removed  to  Arkansas,  and  there  joined  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  and  was  licensed  to 
preach  de  novo.  After  laboruig  for  a  year  or  two  with 
a  success  small  in  comparison  with  his  previous  history, 
he  left  Arkansas  for  the  Gulf  cities.  His  last  days  were 
spent  in  carrying  on  a  religious  meeting  in  a  small 
chapel  of  a  suburban  villa  of  Mobile,  Ala.  Tublic  in- 
terest could  no  more  be  evoked  by  him  who  had  been  its 
master  in  the  wilderness  and  in  the  city,  as  well  as  the 
street-preacher,  the  lecturer,  or  the  camp-meeting  lead- 
er. The  spell  was  broken,  or — the  spirit  of  the  man.  He 
died  suddenly,  of  heart  rupture,  near  Mobile,  May,  1850. 
"Though  amiable,  he  had  the  appearance  of  vanity, 
which  provoked  criticisms;  and,  though  forgiving  and 
gentle,  his  zeal  in  the  prosecution  of  his  Master's  cause 
and  his  boldness  in  the  rebuke  of  sin  often  waked  up 
enemies.  His  social  relaxations  were  thought  by  many 
to  run  into  indiscretions  and  follies  that  marred  his 
character  and  his  influence  in  private  life.  See  Sprague, 
A  nnals  of  the  A  merican  Pulpit,  vol.  vii.      (J.  H.  W.) 

Mag.     See  Rab-mag. 

Magalhaeus,  Gabriel  de,  a  Portuguese  mission- 
ary, was  born  at  Pedrogao,  near  Coimljre,  in  1G09 ;  was 
admitted  to  the  "  Society  of  Jesus"  when  only  sixteen, 
and,  desiring  to  enter  the  missionary  work,  departed  for 
Goa,  India,  in  1634.  On  his  way  he  stopped  at  Macao, 
and  ■was  led  to  make  an  extended  tour  through  China, 
and  so  great  became  his  interest  in  that  country  that 
he  abandoned  his  intention  of  proceeding  to  India,  and 
preached  Christianity  in  the  Chinese  empire  with  zeal 
and  apparent  success.  At  first  he  was  in  favor  at  court, 
but  he  fell  into  displeasure  during  the  Christian  persecu- 
tions, and  barely  saved  his  life.  He  died  a  peaceful 
death,  i\Iay  6, 1677.  He  wrote  several  works  on  China. 
See  Ibiefer,  Xouv.  Bioq.  Geiierale,  xxxii,  6G2. 

Magalhaeus,  Pedro  de,  a  Portuguese  theologian, 
was  born  at  Torres- Vedras  about  159"2;  was  for  some 
time  instructor  in  theology  at  the  convent  of  the  Do- 
minican order  to  which  he  himself  belonged ;  and  died 
in  1G77.  He  published  Be  Scientia  Dei  (Lisbon,  1866, 
4to) : — De  Prcedestinationis  Excequaiione  (ibid.  1667, 4to ; 
Lyons,  1674) : — De  Volant  ate  et  de  Trinitute  (ibid.  1669, 
4to).  He  also  left  several  valuable  works  in  MS. — Hoe- 
fer,  Xouv.  Biog.  Gi'nerale,  vol.  xxxii,  s.  v, 

Magarita,  Magarites,  names  given  by  some 
writers  of  the  ^Middle  Ages  to  the  apostates  from  Chris- 
tianity, especially  to  such  as  became  Mohammedans. 
The  origin  of  the  name  is  unknown.  See  Du  Cange,  s. 
v.;  Herzog,  Real-Enci/klopadie,  viii,  661. 

Mag'bish  (Hebrew  Maffbish',  '0'^^j>'2,  gathering ; 
Sept.  M«y£/3(C,  Vulg.  Megbis),  a  man  whose  descemlants 
(so  Clericus,  ad  loc,  who  compares  the  Persian  name 
Megabijzm.  Herod,  ii,  70, 160)  to  the  number  of  156  re- 
turned from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii,  30).  It 
is  omitted  in  the  parallel  list  (Neh.  vii,  33,  34).  Most 
interpreters  regard  it  as  the  name  of  a  place,  probably 
in  Palestine,  and  if  so,  doubtless  in  Benjamin,  as  the  as- 
sociated names  are  those  of  localities  in  that  tribe.  But 
it  was  perhaps  rather  another  fonn  for  that  of  the  Mag- 
piash  (q.  v.)  of  Neh.  x,  20,  where  some  of  the  same 
names  are  mentioned  in  a  similar  connection. 

Mag'dala  (MoycaXa  [v.  r.  Mrtyaccn/],  prob.  the 
Chald.  emphatic  form  of  the  Hebrew  bna"2,  Migdal,  a 
tower;  see  Paulus,  Comm.  ii,  437  sq.),  a  town  in  GalUee 


opposite  the  Sea  of  Tiberias  (Otho,  Lex.  Rabb.  p.  401). 
It  is  mentioned  only  in  Matt,  xv,  39,  as  a  place  to  which 
Jesus  repaired  after  having  crossed  the  lake,  "  though 
the  best  MSS.  (Sin.,  Vat.,  D.)  read  Magadan,  which, 
Alford  observes, '  appears  to  have  been  the  original  read- 
ing, but  the  better-known  name  Magdala  was  substituted 
for  it.'  It  is  not  unusual,  however,  for  Syrian  v-illages 
to  have  two  names,  aiul  for  the  same  name  to  have  dif- 
ferent forms.  The  parallel  passage  in  Mark  viii,  10  has 
Dalmanutha  (^AaT^fiavov^d),  though  here  also  some 
MSS.  read  Magdala  and  some  Magada  (Alford,  ad  loc). 
A  close  examination  of  the  Gospel  narrative,  and  a  com- 
parison of  the  parallel  passages  in  Matthev/  and  Marie 
(Matt,  xv,  39;  xvi,  1-13,  with  Mark  viii,  10-27),  prove 
that  Magdala  or  Magadan  must  have  been  situated  on 
the  western  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  Dalmanutha 
was  probably  a  village  near  it,  for  the  whole  shore  of 
the  lake  was  then  lined  with  towns  and  villages.  Eu- 
sebius  and  Jerome  locate  this  place,  which  they  call 
Magedan,  on  the  east  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  they  say 
there  was  in  their  day  a  district  of  3fagedena  around 
Gerasa  (icai  tan  vvv  »/  Mayaicavt]  Trtpi  Hiv  Tipusav ; 
Onomast.  s.  v.  ]Magedan).  They  also  state  that  Mark 
(viii,  10)  reads  Mayaicav,  though  Jerome's  version  has 
Dalmanutha.  The  old  Latin  version  has  Magada.  In 
some  editions  of  Josephus  a  Magdala  is  mentioned  on 
the  east  side  of  the  lake  {Life,  p.  24),  but  the  best  ]\ISS. 
read  Gamala  (Robinson,  B.  R.  ii,  397 ;  Josep>hus,  by  Hud- 
son, ad  loc).  Lightfoot  places  Magdala  bej-ond  Jordan, 
but  his  reasons  are  not  satisfactory  {Opera,  ii,  413)" 
(Kitto).  The  above  position  on  the  western  shore,  al- 
though it  has  usually  been  located  on  the  eastern  (see 
Robinson's  Researches,  iii,  278 ;  Strong's  Harmong  of  the 
Gospels,  §  70),  is  confirmed  by  the  Jerusalem  Talmud 
(compiled  at  Tiberias),  which  several  times  speaks  of 
Magdala  as  being  adjacent  to  Tiberias  and  Hamath,  or 
the  hot  springs  (Lightfoot,  Chorog.  Cent.  cap.  Ixxvi).  It 
was  a  seat  of  Jewish  learning  after  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  and  the  rabbins  of  Magdala  are  often  men- 
tioned in  the  Talmud  (Lightfoot,  /.  c).  M.  Do  Saulcy, 
however,  takes  an  opposite  view  on  all  these  points 
{Xari'ative,  ii,  355-357),  as  Pococke  had  done  before 
{Observations,  ii,  71).  In  the  Gospels  it  is  principally 
referred  to  as  probably  the  birthplace  of  Mary  Magda- 
len, i.  e.  the  Magdalene  (q.  v.),  or  of  Magdala.  A  small 
Moslem  village,  bearing  the  name  of  Mejdel,  is  now 
found  on  the  shore  of  the  lake  about  three  miles  north 
by  west  of  Tiberias,  and  the  name  and  situation  are 
very  strongly  in  favor  of  the  conclusion  that  it  rep- 
resents the  Magdala  of  Scripture.  It  evidently  (like 
the  ancient  town)  derived  its  name  from  a  tower  or  cas- 
tle, and  here  Buckingham  found  the  ruins  of  an  old 
structure  of  this  kind  {Trav.  i,  404).  He  speaks  of  it 
as  being  a  small  village  close  to  the  edge  of  the  lake, 
beneath  a  range  of  high  cliffs,  in  which  small  grottoes 
are  seen,  with  the  remains  of  an  old  square  tower,  and 
some  larger  buildings  of  rude  construction,  apparently 
of  great  antiquity.  "A  large  solitary  thorn-tree  stands 
beside  it.  The  situation,  otherwise  mimarked,  is  digni- 
fied by  the  high  limestone  rock  which  overhangs  it  on 
the  south-west,  perforated  with  caves,  recalling,  by  a 
curious  though  doubtless  unintentional  coincidence,  the 
scene  of  Correggio's  celebrated  picture.  These  caves 
are  said  by  Schwarz  (p.  189) — though  on  no  clear  au- 
thority— to  bear  the  name  of  Teliman,  i.  e.  Talmanutha. 
'A  clear  stream  rushes  past  the  rock  into  the  sea,  issu- 
ing in  a  tangled  thicket  of  thorn  and  willow  from  a  deep 
ravine  at  the  back  of  the  plain'  (Stanley,  S.  and  P.  p. 
382,  383).  Jerome,  although  he  plays  upon  the  name 
]Magdalene — '  recte  vocatam  Magdalenen,  id  ist  Turri- 
tam,  ob  ejus  singularem  tidei  ac  ardoris  constantiam' — 
does  not  appear  to  connect  it  with  the  place  in  question. 
By  the  Jews  the  word  Nbi;"a  is  used  to  denote  a  person 
who  platted  or  twisted  hair,  a  practice  then  much  in  use 
among  women  of  loose  character.  A  certain  ■  Miriam 
Magdala'  is  mentioned  b}'  the  Talmudists,  who  is  prob- 
ably intended  for  Mary  Magdalene.     (See  Otho,  Lex. 


MAGDALEN 


632 


MAGI 


Rahh.  s.  V.  ■Maria ;  ami  Buxtorf,  Lex.  Talm.  col.  389, 1459.) 
Maitilaliim  is  ineiitioncd  as  between  Tiberias  and  Ca- 
pernaum as  early  as  by  Willibald,  A.D.  722 ;  since  that 
time  it  is  occasionally  named  by  travellers,  among  oth- 
ers Quaresmius,  jBYwcif/a/io,  p.  8G6  b;  Sir  K.  Guyllbrde, 
Pijlgrijmage ;  Breydenbach,  p.  29 ;  Bonar,  Land  of  Prom- 
ise, p.  433,  434,  and  549.  Buchanan  {Clerical  Furlough, 
p.  375)  describes  well  the  striking  view  of  the  northern 
j)art  of  the  lake  which  is  obtained  from  el-Mejdel" 
(Smith).  This  was  probably  also  the  Migdal-el  (q. 
V.)  in  the  tribe  of  Naphtali,  mentioned  in  Josh,  xix,  3y. 
See  Burckhardt,  S;ijria,  p.  559 ;  Seetzen,  in  Monat.  Cor- 
1-esp.  xviii,  349  ;  Fisk,  Life,  p.  316 ;  Tobler,  Dritte  Wan- 
derutif/,  p.  46  ;  Schubert,  iii,  250. 

Mag'dalen  (or  Magdalene)  (May^a\i]vi),  fem. 
adj.  from  Mcif/dula),  a  surname  regularly  applied  to  one 
of  the  iMarys  in  the  Gospels,  derived  from  her  place  of 
nativity  or  former  residence,  in  order  to  distinguish  her 
from  the  other  Marys  (Matt,  xxvii,  56,  61 ;  xxviii,  1 ; 
Mark  xv,  40,  47;  xvi,  1,  9;  Luke  viii,  2;  xxiv,  10; 
John  xix,  25;  xx,  1, 18).     See  Magdala. 

Magdalen,  rkligious  Order  of,  a  denomination 
given  to  divers  communities  of  nuns,  consisting  gener- 
ally of  reformed  prostitutes ;  sometimes  also  called  Mu(j- 
d(denettes.  They  were  established  at  Naples  in  1324,  at 
Paris  in  1492,  at  Mentz  in  1542,'  and  at  Kouen  and  Bor- 
deaux in  1618.  In  each  of  these  monasteries  there  were 
three  kinds  of  persons  and  congregations:  (1)  nuns 
proper  and  under  vow,  bearing  the  name  of  S(.Mar/da- 
len ;  (2)  the  congregation  of  St.  Martha,  composed  of 
those  not  yet  fully  avowed;  (3)  the  congregation  of  St. 
Lazarus,  composed  of  such  as  were  detained  by  force. 
The  Order  of  St.  Magdalen  at  Rome  was  established 
by  pope  Leo  X.  Clement  YIII  settled  a  revenue  on 
them,  and  further  appointed  that  the  eifects  of  all  pub- 
lic prostitutes  dying  intestate  should  fall  to  them,  and 
tliat  the  testaments  of  the  rest  should  be  invalid  unless 
they  bequeathed  to  them  a  portion  of  their  effects,  at 
least  a  tifth  part.  The  term  originated  in  the  mis- 
taken notion  that  Mary  Magdalen,  of  whom  we  read  in 
the  Gospel,  was  a  woman  of  bad  character;  a  notion 
which  is  still  very  prevalent,  notwithstanding  the  in- 
creased attention  that  has  been  given  to  the  interpre- 
tation of  holy  Scripture. — Buck,  Theol.  Diet.  s.  v.  See 
Mary  JIagdalex. 

Magdalena  de  Pazzi,  a  saint  of  the  Romish 
Church,  was  born  at  Florence  April  2,  1566.  She  be- 
longed to  one  of  the  highest  families  in  Tuscany;  was 
educated  in  the  convent  of  the  Hospitable  Nuns  of  St. 
John  the  Little;  refused  to  marry,  and.  May, 27,  1584, 
took  the  veil  in  the  Carmelite  convent  of  St.  Mary  of 
the  Angels.  Her  name,  hitherto  Catharine  de  Gere  de' 
Pazzi,  was  now  changed  to  Maria  Magdalena.  She  be- 
came wild  in  her  religious  enthusiasm,  claimed  to  have 
visions,  and  to  hold  converse  with  the  angels,  with  the 
Virgin,  and  even  with  Clirist  himself.  She  filled  divers 
offices  in  her  convent,  and  died  May  25,  1607.  Pope 
Urban  VIII  in  the  same  year  beatified  her,  and  in  1669 
she  was  canonized  by  ^Uexander  VII.  Her  biography 
was  written  by  her  confessor  Puccini,  and  her  works 
were  collected  by  the  Carmelite  Salvi  of  Bologna  (Ven. 
1 739).  See  Bolland,  ad  25  Maii;  Baillet,  I 'ies  des  Saints ; 
Richard  et  Giraud,  BiUiotheque  Sacree;  Herzog,  Reul- 
Encykiop.  viii,  662 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.Biog.  Gen.,  xxxii,  615. 

Magdeburg  Centuries.     See  Centuuies   of 

MA(;i)i-,r.ri:(;. 

Mag'diel  (Hcb.  ^faridi,'l','b^^'^:,^,endnvedofGod; 
Sept.  Vti-;(uii\  and  Mecii'iX  v.  r,  Mf-oa»'j\),the  success- 
or of  .AIil>zar,  ami  predecessor  of  Iram  among  the  Kdo- 
mitish  chiefs  wlio  held  sway  along  with  tlie  native 
princes  in  Mount  Scir  (Gen.  xxxvi,  43 ;  1  Chfon.  i,  54). 
B.C,  ante  1619. 

Ma'ged  (MaK-fC,  Vnlg,  Afar/eth),  a  false  Anglicizing 
(1  iSIacc.  v,  36)  of  tlie  name  ^Maked  (1  I\Iacc,  v,  26). 

Magee,  Thomas,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 


ter, was  bom  in  Limerick,  Ireland,  March  11, 1822;  was 
brought  to  America  at  nine  years  of  age ;  was  converted 
near  Whitehall,  (ireen  Co.,  111.,  in  1841 ;  joined  the  Illi- 
nois Conference  in  1843 ;  was  verj-  successful  as  a  min- 
ister, and  in  1852  signally  so  as  agent  of  the  Illinois  "\Ves- 
leyan  University.  In  1852-3  he  was  stationed  at  Spring- 
field. He  diedatBloomington,Ill.,Mar.23,1854.  From 
orphanage  and  neglected  wickedness,  and  after  majority 
by  the  transforming  power  of  grace  and  strenuous  effort, 
Mr.  Magee  became  in  fourteen  years  one  of  the  foremost 
ministers  of  his  Conference.  His  powerful  frame,  de- 
cided talents,  and  indomitable  energy  enabled  him  to 
labor  mightily  for  God. — Minutes  of  Conferences,  v,  476. 
Magee,  "William,  D.D.,  a  noted  Anglican  prelate, 
was  born  March  18, 1766,  in  the  countj-  of  Fermanat,  Ire- 
land, and  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Dublin 
(Trinity  College).  He  obtained  all  the  college  honors, 
and  graduated  A.B.  in  1785,  and  in  1788  was  elected  a 
fellow.  His  friends  desired  him  to  enter  the  legal  pro- 
fession, but  he  himself  inclined  to  the  ministrj',  and  in 
1790  he  was  ordained,  acting  at  this  time  as  a  tutor  in 
his  alma  mater;  later  he  became  assistant  professor  of 
the  Oriental  languages,  and  in  1806  senior  fellow  and 
professor  of  mathematics.  In  1812  he  retired  from  the 
university,  and  accepted  the  livings  of  Kappagh,  in  Ty- 
rone, and  Killyleagh,  in  Down ;  in  1814  he  was  appoint- 
ed dean  of  Cork,  and  there  became  greatly  celebrated  as 
a  piUpit  orator.  Notwithstanding  the  length  of  his  dis- 
courses (he  never  preached  less  than  one  hour)  lie  was 
followed  by  crowds,  tliough  no  man  less  courted  popu- 
larity. His  sermons,  his  biographer  says,  "might  be 
characterized  as  solid  Gospel  truth,  strongly  and  plainly 
enforced  in  simplicity  and  sincerity."  Bishop  Barring- 
ton,  a  contemporary,  thus  comments  upon  Dr.  Magee's 
eloquence:  "I  have  often  heard  and  admired  JMr.  Pitt, 
but  while  I  am  listening  to  my  friend  dean  Magee  I 
feel  that  if  I  were  to  shut  my  eyes  I  could  fancy  that 
Mr.  Pitt  was  speaking."  In  1819  Dr.  Magee  was  pro- 
moted to  the  bishopric  of  Raphoe ;  in  1821,  when  George 
IV  visited  Dublin,  he  was  appointed  by  the  king  dean 
of  the  Viceregal  Cliapel  at  the  castle ;  and  in  1822,  .ifter 
declining  the  archbishopric  of  Cashel,  he  became  arch- 
bishop of  Dublin.  He  died  Aug.  18,  1831.  Archbishop 
Magee  is  noted  particularly  f(3r  his  opposition  to  Roman- 
ism and  Unitarianism.  Against  the  latter  he  sent  forth 
his  Discourses  on  the  Atonement  and  Sacrifce  (1811, 
8vo;  2d  edit.  1812, 2  vols.Svo;  3d  edit.  1816,3  vols.8vo; 
7th  edit.  1841,  1  vol.  royal  8vo),  universally  jironounced 
one  of  the  ablest  critical  and  controversial  works  of 
modem  times.  His  Works  were  published  in  1842,  in 
2  vols.  8vo,  with  a  memoir  of  his  life  by  Arthur  H.  Kin- 
ney, D.D.  See,  besides  this  Memoir  in  Worls,  the  Dub- 
lin Universily  Magazine,  xxvi,  480  sq. ;  xxvii,  750  sq. ; 
Christian  Obsei-ver,  1843  (jNIay  and  June)  ;  Christian  Ex- 
aminer, xxviii,  63  sq. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  British  and 
A  merican  A  utlwrs,  s.  v.      (J.  H.  W.) 

Maghrebi.     See  Aaron  ha-Rishon. 

Magi  is  the  Latin  form  of  the  Greek  term  fidyoi, 
magians,  rendered  '■  wise  men"  in  Matt,  ii,  1,  7, 16,  and 
occurring  likewise  in  the  singular  ^layoc,  "sorcerer," 
with  reference  to  Elyraas  (Acts  xii,  6, 8).  Compare  the 
epithet  Simon  Magus.  The  term  is  still  extant  on  the 
cuneiform  inscriptions  (see  Olshausen,  ad  loc.  Jlatt.).  It 
corresponds  to  the  Heb.  5'p,  ]\[ag.  The  term  magi  was 
used  as  the  name  for  priests  and  wise  men  among  the 
Medes,  Persians,  and  Babylonians.  So  the  word  Rul- 
mag,  in  our  version  of  Jer.  xxxix,  3,  used  as  a  proper 
name,  projierly  signifies  the  prince  magvs  or  cliirf  of  the 
magi.  Wliile  the  priests  and  literati  were  known  by 
the  general  name  of  magi,  they  were  also  known  by  the 
name  of  irise  men,  and  likewise  Chaldwans  (Isa.  xliv, 
52  ;  Jer.  1, 35 ;  Dan.  ii,  12-27  ;  iv,  6, 18 ;  v,  7,  8, 11, 12, 15). 
To  their  number  doul)tless  belonged  the  astrologers  and 
star-gazers  (Isa,  xlvii,  13).  So,  also,  the  Chaldee  sooth- 
sayers and  dream-interpreters  either  denote  various  or- 
ders of  magi,  or  they  are  merely  different  names  of  the 


MAGI 


633 


MAGI 


same  general  class  (Dan.  i,  20;  ii,  2;  x,  27;  iv,  7;  v,  7, 
11),  See  Magician.  In  the  following  account  of  this 
important  and  interesting  class,  we  largely  use  the  arti- 
cles in  Kitto's  and  Smith's  Dictionaries. 

I.  FJymalorjy  of  the  Name. — In  the  Pehlvi  dialect  of 
the  Zend,  niogh  means  jyriest  (Hyde,  Reliri.  Vet.  Pers.  c. 
31) ;  and  this  is  connected  by  phiiologists  with  the  San- 
scrit mukat  (great,  fiiyac,  and  marjnus ;  Anquetil  du 
Perron's  Zend- A  vesta,  ii,  5o5).  The  coincidence  of  a  San- 
scrit miiiia,  in  the  sense  of  "illusion,  magic,"  is  remark- 
able ;  but  it  is  probable  that  this,  as  well  as  the  analo- 
gous (ireek  wonl,  is  the  derived  rather  than  the  original 
meaning  (comp.  Eichhoff,  Vergkichung  der  Sprache,  ed. 
Kaltschmidt,  p.  231).  Hyde  {I.  c.)  notices  another  ety- 
mology given  by  Arabian  authors,  which  makes  the  word 
=  cropt-eared  (jmrcis  aurihus),  but  rejects  it.  Prideaux, 
on  the  other  hand  {Connection,  under  B.C.  522),  accepts 
it,  and  seriously  connects  it  with  the  story  of  the  pseu- 
do-Smerdis  Avho  had  lost  his  ears  in  Herod,  iii,  69. 
Spanheim  {Dub.  Evang.  xviii)  speaks  favorably,  though 
not  decisively,  of  a  Hebrew  etymology. 

II.  Their  Original  Seat. — This  name  has  come  to  us 
through  the  Greeks  as  the  proper  designation  of  the 
priestly  class  among  the  Persians  (Herod,  i,  132,  140 ; 
Xenopli.,  Cyrop.  viii,  1,  23;  Plato,  Alcib.  i,  122;  Diog. 
Laert.  Promm.  1,  2 ;  Cicero,  De  Divin.  i,  41 ;  Apul.  Apol. 
p.  32  ed.  Casaubon,  p.  290  ed.  Elmenhorst ;  Porphyr.  De 
Ahst.  1.  iv. ;  Hesych.  s.  v.  Mayoc).  It  does  not  appear, 
however,  that  JNIagism  was  originally  a  Persian  institu- 
tion, and  it  may  be  doubted  if  in  its  original  form  it  ever 
existed  among  the  Persians  at  all. 

The  earliest  notice  extant  of  the  magi  is  in  the 
prophecies  of  Jeremiah  (xxxix,  3, 13),  where  mention  is 
made  of  Kab-mag,  a  term  which,  though  regarded  in  the 
A.V.  as  a  proper  name,  is  a  compound  of  H'H  and  i'S, 
and  signifies  chief  magus,  after  the  analogy  of  such  terms 
as  D"1S-2'1  {chief  eunuch),  np/d-'l'^  {chief  butler),  etc. 
(.See  below,  §  iv.)  The  Rab-mag  of  Jeremiah  is  the 
same  as  the  Rab  Signin  ul  kolChakimin  (bs  "pDSD  3"l 
■p'Dpn  ?D)  of  Daniel  (ii,  48) ;  the  twv  UQiuiv  tTriinjpo- 
Taroc  oi'c  Bal3v\oji'ioi  KaXoiJat  XaXSaiovg  of  Diodorus 
Sic.  (ii,  24) ;  and  the  apxij-iaYOQ  of  the  later  Greek  wri- 
ters (Sozomen,  Hist.  Eccles.  i,  13).  This  indicates  the  ex- 
istence among  the  Chaldeans  of  the  magian  institute 
in  a  regular  form,  and  as  a  recognised  element  in  the 
state,  at  a  period  not  later  than  GOO  years  B.C.  In  Jer. 
1, 35,  it  is  evidently  the  same  class  that  is  referred  to  mi- 
der  the  designation  of  the  "  wise  men  of  Baljvlon."  In 
the  time  of  Daniel  we  find  the  institute  in  full  force  in 
Babylon  (Dan.  ii,  2, 12, 18,  24 ;  iv,  3, 15 ;  v,  7,  8).  From 
him  we  learn  that  it  comprised  five  classes — the  Char- 
tummim,  expounders  of  sacred  writings  and  interpreters 
of  signs  (i,  20 ;  ii,  2;  v,  4) ;  the  A  shaphini,  conjurors  {ii, 
10 ;  V,  7, 1 1 ;  comp.  xlvii,  9, 12) ;  the  Mekashephim,  exor- 
cists, soothsayers,  magicians,  diviners  (ii,  2 ;  comp.  Isa. 
xlvii,  9, 13 ;  Jer.  xxvii,  9) ;  the  Gozerim,  casters  of  nativ- 
ities, astrologists  (ii,27;  v,7, 11);  and  the  C/ia«(Zj»(,  Chal- 
doeans  in  the  narrower  sense  (ii,  5, 10 ;  iv,  4 ;  v,  7,  etc. ; 
compare  Ilengstenberg,  Beitrdge,  i,  343  sq. ;  Hiivernick, 
Comment  iib.  Daniel,  p.  52  ;  Gesenius,  Thes.  ad  voc).  So 
much  was  Magism  a  Chaldajan  institution  that  the  term 
Chaldcean  came  to  be  applied  as  a  synonym  for  the  class 
(Diod.  Sic.  ii,  29  sq. ;  Strabo,  xvi,  7G2  ;  Diog.  Laertius, 
Procem.  1 ;  Cicero,  de  Divinat.  i,  1 ;  Curtius,  Hist,  iii,  3,  6; 
Josephus,  War,  ii,  7,  3  ;  Aul.  Gellius,  xv,  20,  2  ;  Apulei- 
HS,  A  sin.  ii,  228,  etc.). 

Whether  Magism  was  indigenous  in  Chald;\?a,  and 
was  thence  carried  to  the  adjacent  countries,  or  was  de- 
rived by  the  Chaldreans  from  Assyria,  it  is  impossible 
now  to  determine  with  any  certainty.  In  favor  of  its 
Assyrian  origin  it  has  been  uri;cd  that  the  word  5'2  is 
found  as  the  name  of  the  Assyrian  fire-priest  (:Movers.  i. 
64,  240),  and  that  the  priests  of  the  Assyrian  Artemis 
at  Ephesus  were  called  Meg-Abyzi  (Strabo,  xiv,  <;41). 
But  on  this  nothing  can  be  built,  as  we  find  the  syllable 


Meg  or  IMag  occurring  in  names  and  titles  belonging  to 
other  peoples,  as  Mag-Elzer  (fire-priest),  the  father  of 
Artemis  among  the  Phoenicians;  Teker-Mag,TekeT  the 
]\Iagus  (on  a  Cilician  coin),  etc.  When  it  is  considered 
that  the  Chaldiean  was  the  older  nation,  and  that  the 
Assyrians  derived  many  of  their  religious  beliefs  and  in- 
stitutions from  the  Chaldasans  (Kawlinson,  Fire  Great 
Monarchies,  i,  308;  ii,  228),  the  probability  is  that  they 
derived  the  institution  of  the  magi  also.  That  the  in- 
stitution was  originally  Shemitic  is  further  confirmed 
by  the  Phoenician  tradition  preserved  by  Sanchoniathon 
(ap.  Eiiseh.  Pi'cep.  Evang.  i,  10),  that  Magos  was  a  de- 
scendant of  the  Titans,  and,  with  his  brother  Amynos, 
made  men  acquainted  with  villages  and  flocks.  It  must 
be  confessed,  however,  that  the  word  ^'O  has  more  ob- 
vious affinities  in  the  Indo-Germanic  than  in  the  She- 
mitic tongues  (see  above,  §  i) ;  but  this  can  hardly  be  al- 
lowed to  weigh  much  against  the  historical  evidence  of 
the  existence  of  the  magi  in  Shemitic  nations  anterior 
to  their  existence  among  those  of  the  Aryan  stock. 

That  IMagism  was  not,  as  commonly  stated,  a  Persian 
institution,  is  shown  from  several  considerations  :  1.  The 
word  does  not  appear  to  have  existed  in  the  Zend  lan- 
guage; at  any  rate,  it  does  not  occur  in  the  Zend-Avesta. 
2.  The  religious  system  of  the  ancient  Persians  was  a 
system  of  Dualism,  as  the  most  ancient  documents  con- 
cur with  the  monumental  evidence  to  prove  (see  Raw- 
linson's  Herodotus,  i,  42C),  but  with  this  Magism  had  no 
affinity.  3.  In  the  Zend-Avesta,  the  Yutus,  the  practicer 
of  magical  arts,  is  vehemently  denounced,  and  men  are 
enjoined  to  pray  and  present  offerings  against  his  arts, 
as  an  invention  of  the  Dews.  4.  Xenophon  informs  us 
{Cyrop.Yiii,  1, 23)  that  the  magi  were  first  established  in 
Persia  by  Cyrus  (comp.  also  Ammian.  Marc,  xxiii,  G ; 
Porphyr.  De  absiin.  iv,  16,  etc.),  a  statement  which  can 
be  understood  only,  as  Heeren  suggests  (I,  i,  451  sq.), 
as  intimating  that  the  magian  institute,  which  existed 
long  before  this  among  the  IMedes,  was  introduced  by  Cy- 
rus among  the  Persians  also.  5.  Herodotus  (i,  101)  states 
that  the  magi  formed  one  of  the  tribes  of  the  Medes; 
and  he  also  attributes  the  placing  of  the  pseudo-Smerdis 
on  the  Persian  throne  to  the  magi,  who  were  moved 
thereto  by  a  desire  to  substitute  the  Median  for  the  Per- 
sian ride  (iii,  61  sq. ;  compare  Ctesias,  Peraca,  c.  10-15; 
Justin,  Hist,  i,  9 ;  and  the  Behistun  inscription  as  trans- 
lated by  Sir  H.  Rawlinson  ;  see  Rawlinson's  Herodotus,  i, 
427).  6.  Herodotus  mentions  that,  after  this  attempt  of 
the  magi  had  been  frustrated,  it  became  a  usage  among 
the  Persians  to  observe  a  festival  in  celebration  of  the 
overthrow  of  the  magi,  to  which  they  gave  the  name  of 
Magophonia  {payo(poina),  and  during  which  it  was  not 
safe  for  any  magus  to  leave  the  house  (iii,  79;  Agathias, 
ii,  25),  a  usage  which  could  have  had  its  origin  only  at 
a  time  when  Magism  was  foreign  to  Persian  beliefs  and 
institutions.  7.  We  find  no  allusion  to  the  magi  in 
connection  ^vith  any  of  the  Medo-Persian  kings  men- 
tioned in  Scripture,  a  circumstance  which,  though  not  of 
itself  of  much  importance,  falls  in  with  the  supposition 
that  Magism  was  not  at  that  time  a  predominant  Per- 
sian institution.  The  probability  is,  that  this  system 
had  its  source  in  Chaldaja,  was  thence  propagated  to 
Assyria,  Media,  and  the  adjoining  countries,  and  was 
brought  from  Media  into  Persia,  where  it  came  at  first 
into  collision  both  with  the  national  prejudices  and  with 
the  ancient  religious  faith  of  the  people.  With  this  ac- 
cord the  traditions  which  impute  to  Zoroaster,  after  he 
came  to  l)e  regarded  as  the  apostle  of  Magism,  some- 
times a  Parthian  and  sometimes  a  Bactrian  origin.  See 
ZoKOASTEU.  Eventually,  however,  Magism  seems  to 
have  been  adopted  into  or  reconciled  with  Zoroasterism, 
perhaps  by  losing  its  original  theosophic  character,  and 
taking  on  a  more  practical  or  thaumaturgic  phase. 

III.  Profane  Accounts  of  the  Order.— The  magi  were 
originalh'  one  of  the  six  tribes  (Herod,  i,  101 ;  Pliny, 
Hist.  Nat.  V,  29)  into  which  the  nation  of  the  IMedes 
was  divided,  who,  like  the  Levites  under  the  Mosaic  in-, 
stitutious,  were  intrusted  with  the  care  of  reUgion,  an 


MAGI 


634 


MAGI 


office  v.-hich  naturally,  in  those  early  times,  made  this 
caste  likewise  the  chief  depositaries  of  science  and  cul- 
tivators of  art.  Little  in  detail  is  known  of  the  magi 
during  the  independent  existence  of  the  Jledian  gov- 
ernment; but  under  the  IMedo-Persian  sway  the  magi 
formed  a  sacred  caste  or  college,  which  was  very  famous 
in  the  ancient  world  (Xenoph.  Cyrop.  viii,  1,  23;  Am- 
mian.  Marcell.  xxiii,  6 ;  Heeren,  Idem,  i,  451 ;  Schlosscr, 
Vniversal  Uehers.  i,  278).  Porphyry  (Abst.  iv,  16)  says, 
"  The  learned  men  who  are  engaged  among  the  Persians 
in  the  service  of  the  Deity  are  called  magi ;"  and  Sui- 
das,  "Among  the  Persians  the  lovers  of  wisdom  (^iXo- 
ao(f>oi)  and  the  servants  of  God  are  called  magi."  Ac- 
cording to  Strabo  (ii,  108-1,  ed.  Falcon.),  the  magi  prac- 
ticed different  sorts  of  divination — 1,  by  evoking  the 
dead;  2,  by  cups  or  dishes  (Joseph's  divining-cup.  Gen. 
xliv,  5) ;  3,  by  means  of  water.  By  the  employment  of 
these  means  the  magi  affected  to  disclose  the  future,  to 
influence  the  present,  and  to  call  the  past  to  their  aid. 
Even  the  visions  of  the  night  they  were  accustomed  to 
interpret,  not  empirically,  but  according  to  such  estab- 
lished and  systematic  rules  as  a  learned  priesthood 
might  be  expected  to  employ  (Strabo,  xvi,  7G2 ;  Cic- 
ero, De  Diviii.  i,  41 ;  ^lian.  V.  II.  ii,  17).  The  success, 
however,  of  their  eiforts  over  the  invisible  world,  as 
well  as  the  holy  office  which  they  exercised,  demanded 
in  themselves  peculiar  cleanliness  of  body,  a  due  regard 
to  which  and  to  the  general  principles  of  their  caste 
would  naturally  be  followed  by  professional  prosperity, 
and  tliis,  in  its  turn,  conspired  with  prevailing  supersti- 
tion to  give  the  magi  great  social  consideration,  and 
make  them  of  high  importance  before  kings  and  princes 
(Diog.  Laert.  ix,  7,  2) — an  influence  which  they  appear 
to  have  sometimes  abused,  when,  descending  from  the 
peculiar  duties  of  their  high  office,  they  took  part  in  the 
strife  and  competitions  of  politics,  and  found  themselves 
sufficiently  powerful  even  to  overturn  thrones  (Herod. 
iii,  61  sq.).  These  abuses  were  reformed  by  Zoroaster, 
who  appeared,  according  to  many  authorities,  in  the 
second  half  of  the  7th  century  before  Christ.  He  was 
not  the  founder  of  a  new  system,  but  tlie  renovator  of 
an  old  and  corrupt  one,  being,  as  he  himself  intimates 
(Zend-Avesta,  i,  43),  the  restorer  of  the  word  which  Or- 
muzd  had  formerly  revealed,  but  which  the  influence  of 
Dews  had  degraded  into  a  false  and  deceptive  magic. 
After  much  and  long-continued  opposition  on  the  part 
of  the  adherents  and  defenders  of  existing  corruptions, 
he  succeeded  in  his  virtuous  purjioses,  and  caused  his 
system  eventually  to  prevail.  He  appears  to  have  re- 
modelled the  institute  of  the  magian  caste,  dividing 
it  into  three  great  classes:  1,  Herbeds,  or  learners;  2, 
Mobeds,  or  masters;  3,  Destnr  Mobeds,  or  perfect  schol- 
ars (Zend-Av.ii,  171,261).  The  magi  alone  he  allowed 
to  perform  the  religious  rites ;  they  possessed  the  forms 
of  praj'er  and  worship;  they  knew  the  ceremonies  which 
availed  to  conciliate  Ornnizd,  and  were  obligatory  in  the 
public  offerings  (Herod,  i,  132).  They  accordingly  be- 
came the  solo  medium  of  communication  between  the 
Deity  and  his  creatures,  and  through  them  alone  Or- 
muzd  made  his  will  known;  none  but  them  could  see 
into  the  future,  and  they  disclosed  their  knowledge  to 
those  only  who  were  so  fortunate  as  to  conciliate  their 
good  will.  Hence  the  jiower  which  the  magian  priest- 
hood possessed.  The  general  liclief  in  the  trustworthi- 
ness of  tlicir  ])redictions,  especially  when  founded  on 
astrological  calculations,  the  all  but  universal  custom  of 
considting  the  will  of  the  divinity  before  entering  on 
any  important  undertaking,  and  the  blind  faith  which 
was  reposed  in  all  that  the  magi  did,  reported,  or  com- 
manded, combined  to  create  for  that  sacerdotal  caste  a 
power,  both  in  iniblic  and  in  private  concerns,  which  has 
]irobably  never  lieen  exceeded.  Indeed  the'soothsayer 
was  a  |)ul)lic  olficer,  a  mem^jer,  if  not  tli,e  president,  of 
tlie  privy  council  in  the  jMedo-Persian  court,  demanded 
alike  for  show,  in  order  to  influence  the  people,  and  for 
use,  in  order  to  guide  the  state.  Hence  the  person  of 
the  monarch  was  surrounded  by  priests,  who,  in  differ- 


ent ranks  and  with  different  offices,  conspired  to  sustain 
the  throne,  uphold  the  established  religion,  and  concili- 
ate or  enforce  the  obedience  of  the  subject.  The  fitness 
of  the  magi  for,  and  their  nsefidness  to,  an  Oriental 
court  were  not  a  little  enhanced  by  the  pomp  of  their 
dress,  the  splendor  of  their  ceremonial,  and  the  number 
and  gradation  of  the  sacred  associates.  'Well  may  Cy- 
rus, in  uniting  the  Medes  to  his  Persian  sidyects,  have 
adopted,  in  all  its  magnificent  details,  a  priesthood  which 
would  go  far  to  transfer  to  him  the  affections  of  his  con- 
quered subjects,  and  promote,  more  than  any  other  thing, 
his  own  aggrandizement  and  that  of  his  empire.  Nei- 
ther the  functions  nor  the  influence  of  this  sacred  caste 
were  reserved  for  peculiar,  rare,  and  extraordinary  occa- 
sions, but  ran  through  the  web  of  human  life.  At  the 
break  of  day  they  had  to  chant  the  divine  hymns.  This 
office  being  performed,  then  came  the  daily  sacrifice  to 
be  offered,  not  indiscriminately,  but  to  the  divinities 
whose  day  in  each  case  it  was — an  office,  therefore,  which 
none  but  the  initiated  could  fulfil.  As  an  illustration 
of  the  high  estimation  in  which  the  magi  were  held,  it 
may  be  mentioned  that  it  was  considered  a  necessary 
part  of  a  princely  education  to  have  been  instructed  in 
the  peculiar  learning  of  their  sacred  order,  which  was 
an  honor  conceded  to  no  other  but  royal  personages,  ex- 
cept in  ver\'  rare  and  very  peculiar  instances  (Cicero, 
De  Bwin.  i,  23  ;  Plutarcli,  Themistocles).  This  magian 
learning  embraced  everything  which  regarded  the  high- 
er cidture  of  the  nation,  being  known  in  history  under 
the  designation  of  "  the  law  of  the  Medes  and  Persians." 
It  comprised  the  knowledge  of  all  the  sacred  rites,  cus- 
toms, usages,  and  observances,  which  related  not  merely 
to  the  worship  of  the  gods,  but  to  the  whole  private 
life  of  every  worshipper  of  Ormuzd — the  duties  which, 
as  such,  he  had  to  observe,  and  the  punishments  which 
followed  the  neglect  of  these  obligations,  whence  may 
be  learned  how  necessarj'  the  act  of  the  priest  on  all  oc- 
casions was.  Under  the  veil  of  religion  the  priest  had 
bound  himself  up  with  the  entire  public  and  domestic 
life.  The  judicial  office,  too,  appears  to  have  been,  in 
the  time  of  Cambyses,  in  the  hands  of  the  magi,  for 
from  them  was  chosen  the  college  or  bench  of  royal 
judges,  which  makes  its  appearance  in  the  history  of 
that  monarch  (Herod,  iv,  31 ;  vii,  194;  comp.  Esther  i, 
13).  Men  who  held  these  offices,  possessed  this  learn- 
ing, and  exerted  this  influence  with  the  people,  may 
have  proved  a  check  to  Oriental  despotism  no  less  pow- 
erful than  constitutional,  tliough  they  were  sometimes 
unable  to  guarantee  their  own  lives  against  the  wrath 
of  the  monarch  (Herod,  vii,  194;  compare  Dan.  ii,  12); 
and  they  appear  to  have  been  well  versed  in  those  court- 
ly arts  by  which  the  hand  that  bears  the  sword  is  won 
to  protect  instead  of  destroying.  Thus  Cambyses,  wish- 
ing to  marry  his  sister,  inquired  of  the  magi  (like  Henry 
YIII)  if  the  laws  permitted  such  a  union  :  "  We  have," 
they  adroitly  answered,  "  no  law  to  that  effect ;  but  a 
law  there  is  which  declares  that  the  king  of  the  Persians 
may  do  what  he  pleases"  (Heeren,  Ideen,  I,  i,  451  sq. ; 
Hyde,  Rel.  Vet.  Persai-um,  ch.  xxxi,  p.  372  sq. ;  Brisson, 
Princip.  Pers.  p.  179  sq.). 

Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  they  were  known 
under  the  name  of  ChahhTans  (Strabo,  xvi,  7C2 ;  Diog. 
Laert.  Procem.  1),  and  also  of  magi  (Diog.  Laert.  viii,  1, 
3).  They  lived  scattered  over  the  land  in  different 
places  (Stral)O,  xvi,  739;  compare  Dan.  ii.  14),  and  had 
possessions  of  their  own.  The  temple  of  Belus  was  em- 
ployed by  them  for  astronomical  observations,  but  their 
astronomy  was  connected  witli  the  worship  of  the  heav- 
enly bodies  practiced  by  the  Babylonians  (Diod.  Sic.  ii, 
31  ;  Ephracm  Synis,  Op.  ii,  488;  consult  Ideler,  in  the 
Transiicthms:  nf  Ike  hi 7-Iin  Academy  for  1824-25),  and 
was  specially  directed  to  vain  attempts  to  foretell  the 
future,  predict  the  fate  of  individuals  or  of  comnnniities, 
and  sway  tlie  present,  in  alliance  with  augury,  incanta- 
tion, and  magic  (Aid.  (Jell,  iii,  10,  9;  xiv,  1 ;  Am.  Mar- 
cell,  xxiii,  6 ;  p.  352,  ed.  Bipont ;  Diod.  Sic.  ii,  29 ;  corajj. 
Isa.  xlvii,  9, 13 ;  Dan.  ii). 


MAGI 


635 


MAGI 


IV.  Position  occupied  hy  the  Magi  in  the  period  covered 
hj  the  History  of  the  0.  T. — In  the  Hebrew  text  the  word 
occurs  but  twice,  and  then  only  incidentally.  In  Jer. 
xxxix,  3  and  13  we  meet,  among  the  ChaUhean  otHcers 
sent  by  Nebuchadnezzar  to  Jerusalem,  one  with  the  name 
or  title  of  Rab-Mag  (5'2~a'1).  This  word  is  interpret- 
ed, after  the  analogy  of  Rab-shakeh  and  Eab-saris,  as 
equivalent  to  chief  of  the  magi  (Ewald,  Propheten,  and 
Hitzig,  ad  loc,  taking  it  as  the  title  of  Nergal-Sharezer), 
and  we  thus  find  both  tiie  name  and  the  order  occupying 
a  conspicuous  place  under  the  government  of  the  Chal- 
da3ans.  It  is  clear  that  there  were  various  kinds  of  wise 
men,  and  it  is  probable  that  these  were  classes  belong- 
ing to  one  great  order,  which  comprised,  under  the  gen- 
eral name  of  magi,  all  who  were  engaged  in  the  service 
of  religion;  so  that  we  find  here  an  ample  priesthood,  a 
sacred  college,  graduated  in  rank  and  honor  (see  Ber- 
tholdt,  3  Exacrs.  zuin  Ban.;  Gesenius,  Comment,  on  Isa. 
ii,35i  sq.).  The  word  Kab-Mag  (if  the  received  etymol- 
ogy of  magi  be  correct)  presents  a  hybrid  formation. 
The  first  syllable  is  unquestionably  Shemitic,  the  last  is 
all  but  imquestionably  Aryan.  The  problem  thus  pre- 
sented admits  of  two  solutions :  (1.)  If  we  believe  the 
Chaldreans  to  have  been  a  Hamitic  people,  closely  con- 
nected with  the  Babylonians  [see  Chald.ean],  we 
must  then  suppose  that  the  colossal  schemes  of  great- 
ness which  showed  themselves  in  Nebuchadnezzar's  con- 
quests led  him  to  gather  round  him  the  wise  men  and 
religious  teachers  of  the  nations  which  he  subdued,  and 
that  thus  the  sacred  tribes  of  the  Modes  rose  under  his 
rule  to  favor  and  power.  His  treatment  of  those  who 
bore  a  like  character  among  the  Jews  (Dan.  i,  4)  makes 
this  hypothesis  a  natural  one ;  and  the  alliance  which 
existed  between  the  Jledes  and  the  Chaldreans  at  the 
time  of  the  overthrow  of  the  old  Assyrian  empire  woidd 
account  for  the  intermixture  of  religious  systems  be- 
longing to  two  different  races.  (2.)  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  with  Kenan  (^IJistoire  des  Langues  Shemiliqites,  p. 
66, 67),  foUowhig  Lassen  and  Ritter,  we  look  on  the  Chal- 
diBans  as  themselves  belonging  to  the  xVr^-an  family,  and 
possessing  strong  afiinities  with  the  Medes,  there  is  even 
less  difiiculty  in  explaining  the  presence  among  tlio  one 
people  of  the  religious  teachers  of  the  other.  It  is  like- 
ly enough,  in  either  case,  that  the  simpler  Median  relig- 
ion which  the  magi  brought  with  them,  correspcjnding 
more  or  less  closely  to  the  faith  of  the  Zend-Avesta,  lost 
some  measure  of  its  original  purity  through  this  contact 
with  the  darker  superstitions  of  the  old  Babylonian  pop- 
ulation. From  this  time  onward  it  is  noticeable  that 
the  names,  both  of  the  magi  and  Chaldreans  are  identi- 
fied with  the  astrology,  divination,  and  interpretation  of 
dreams,  which  had  impressed  themselves  on  the  proph- 
ets of  Israel  as  the  most  characteristic  features  of  the 
old  Babel  religion  (Isa.  xliv,  25;  xlvii,  13).  The  magi 
took  their  places  among  "the  astrologers,  and  star- 
gazers,  and  monthl}'  prognosticators." 

It  is  with  such  men  that  we  have  to  think  of  Daniel 
and  his  fellow-exiles  as  associated.  They  are  described 
as  "  ten  times  wiser  than  all  the  magicians  (Sept.  /(oyoi'f) 
and  astrologers"  (Dan.  i,  20).  Daniel  himself  so  far  sym- 
pathizes witli  the  order  into  which  he  is  tluis,  as  it  were, 
enrolled,  as  to  intercede  for  them  when  Neljuchadnezzar 
gives  the  order  for  their  death  (Dan.  ii,  24),  and  accepts 
an  office  which,  as  making  him  •'  master  of  the  magi- 
cians, astrologers,  Chaldteans,  soothsayers"  (Dan.  v,  11), 
was  probably  identical  with  that  of  the  Rab-:Mag  who 
first  came  before  us.  ]\Iay  we  conjecture  that  hefound 
in  the  belief  which  the  magi  had  brought  with  them 
some  elements  of  the  truth  that  had  been  revealed  to  his 
fathers,  and  that  the  way  was  thus  prepared  for  the 
strong  sympathy  which  showed  itself  in  a  hundred  ways 
when  the  purest  Aryan  and  the  purest  Shemitic  faitiis 
were  brought  face  to  face  with  each  other  (Dan.  vi,  3, 
16,  26;  Ezra  i,  1-4;  Isa.  xliv,  28).  agreeing  as  they  did 
in  their  hatred  of  idolatry  and  iii  their  acknowledg-ment 
of  the  "  God  of  Heaven  ?"  The  acts  which  accompanied 
his  appointment  serve  as  illustrations  of  the  high  rever- 


ence in  which  the  magi  were  held :  "  Then  the  king, 
Nebuchadnezzar,  fell  upon  his  face  and  worshipped  Dan- 
iel, and  commanded  that  they  should  offer  an  oblation 
and  sweet  odors  imto  him"  (verse  46 ;  see  also  verse  48). 
From  the  4yth  verse  it  would  seem  not  unlikely  that 
the  administration  of  justice  in  the  last  resort  belonged 
to  this  priesth"  order,  as  we  know  it  did  to  the  hierarchy 
of  northern  and  more  modern  courts.  (See  Munter,.4n- 
iiq.  Abhandlung.Y).l4A:;  Bleek,in  Schleiermacher's  Theol. 
Zeitschr.  iii,  277  ;  Hengstenberg's  Daniel,  p.  341.) 

The  name  of  the  magi  does  not  meet  us  in  the  Bibli- 
cal account  of  the  ]\Iedo-Persian  kings.  If,  however,  we 
identify  the  Artaxerxes  who  stopped  the  building  of  the 
Temple  (Ezra  iv,  17-22)  with  the  pseudo-Smerdis  of 
Herodotus  [see  Artaxerxes]  and  the  Gomates  of  the 
Behistun  inscription, we  maj'  see  here  also  another  point 
of  contact.  (Compare  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson's  translation 
of  the  Behistim  inscription :  '•  The  rites  wliich  Gomates 
the  magian  had  introduced  I  prohibited.  I  restored  to 
the  state  the  chants,  and  the  worship,  and  to  those  fam- 
ilies which  Gomates  the  magian  had  deprived  of  them" 
\Journ.  of  Asiatic  Soc.  vol.  x,  and  Blakesley's  Herodotus, 
Excurs.  on  iii,  74]).  The  magian  attempt  to  reassert 
Median  supremacy,  and  with  it  probably  a  corrupted 
Chaldaized  form  of  Blagianism,  in  place  of  the  purer 
faith  in  Ormuzd  of  which  Cyrus  had  been  the  propa- 
gator, would  naturally  be  accompanied  by  antagonism 
to  the  people  whom  the  Persians  had  protected  and  sup- 
ported. The  immediate  renewal  of  the  suspended  work 
on  the  triumph  of  Darius  (Ezra  iv,  24  ;  v,  1,  2 ;  vi,  7,  8) 
falls  in,  it  need  hardly  be  added,  with  this  hypothesis. 
The  story  of  the  actual  massacre  of  the  magi  throughout 
the  dominions  of  Darius,  and  of  the  commemorative 
magophonia  (Herod,  iii,  79),  with  whatever  exaggera- 
tions it  may  be  mixed  up,  indicates  in  like  manner  the 
triumph  of  the  Zoroastrian  system.  If  we  accept  the 
traditional  date  of  Zoroaster  as  a  contemporary  of  Dari- 
us, we  may  see  in  the  changes  which  he  effected  a  re- 
vival of  the  older  system.  It  is,  at  any  rate,  striking 
that  the  word  magi  does  not  appear  in  the  Zend-Avesta, 
the  priests  being  there  described  as  atharva  (guardians 
of  the  fire),  and  that  there  are  multiplied  prohibitions 
in  it  of  all  forms  of  the  magic  which,  in  the  West,  and 
possibly  in  the  East  also,  took  its  name  from  them,  and 
with  which,  it  would  appear,  they  had  already  become 
tainted.  All  such  arts,  auguries,  necromancy,  and  the 
like,  are  looked  on  as  evil,  and  emanating  from  Ahriman, 
and  are  pursued  by  the  hero-king  Feridoun  with  the 
most  persistent  hostility  (Du  Perron,  Zend-A  vesta,  vol.  i, 
part  ii,  p.  269,  424), 

The  name,  however,  kept  its  ground,  and  with  it  prob- 
ably the  order  to  Avhich  it  was  attached.  Under  Xerx- 
es the  magi  occupy  a  position  which  indicates  that 
they  had  recovered  from  their  temporary  depression. 
They  are  consulted  by  him  as  soothsayers  (Herod,  vii, 
19),  and  are  as  infiuential  as  they  had  been  m  the  court 
of  Astyages.  They  prescribe  the  strange  and  terrible 
sacrifices  at  the  Strj'mon  and  the  Nine  Ways  (Herod, 
vii,  114).  They  were  said  to  have  urged  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  temples  of  Greece  (Cicero,  De  Legg.  ii,  10). 
Traces  of  their  influence  may  perhaps  be  seen  in  the  re- 
gard paid  by  ^Jlardonius  to  the  oracles  of  the  Greek  god 
that  offered  the  nearest  analogue  to  their  own  Mithras 
(Herod,  viii,  134),  and  in  the  like  reverence  which  had 
previously  been  shown  by  the  Median  Datis  towards 
the  island  of  Delos  (Herod,  vi,  97).  They  come  before 
the  Greeks  as  the  representatives  of  the  religion  of  the 
Persians.  No  sacrifices  may  be  offered  unless  one  of 
their  order  is  present  chanting  the  (prescribed  prayers, 
as  in  the  ritual  of  the  Zend-Avesta  (Herod,  i,  132).  No 
(great  change  is  traceable  in  their  position  during  the 
decline  of  the  Persian  monarchy.  The  positi<jn  of  Ju- 
daea as  a  Persian  province  must  have  kc]5t  up  some 
measure  of  contact  between  the  two  religi(nis  systems. 
The  histories  of  Esther  and  Nehemiah  point  to  the  in- 
fluence which  might  be  exercised  by  members  of  the 
subject-race.    It  might  well  be  that  the  religious  miuds 


MAGI 


636 


MAGI 


of  the  two  nations  would  learn  to  respect  each  other, 
and  that  some  measure  uf  the  prophetic  liopcs  of  Israel 
might  mingle  with  the  helief  of  the  magi.  As  an  order 
they  perpetuated  themselves  under  the  Parthian  kings. 
The  name  rose  to  fresh  honor  under  the  Sassanidas.  The 
classification  which  was  ascribed  to  Zoroaster  was  rec- 
ognised as  the  basis  of  a  hierarchical  system,  after  other 
and  lower  elements  had  mingled  with  the  earlier  dual- 
ism, and  might  be  traced  even  in  the  rehgion  and  wor- 
ship of  the  Parsees. 

V.  Transition-stages  in  the  History  of  the  Word  and 
of  the  Order  between  the  close  of  the  0.  T,  and  the  time 
of  the  X.  T. — In  the  mean  while  the  title  magi  was  ac- 
quiring a  new  and  wider  signification.     It  presented  it- 
self to  the  Greeks  as  connected  with  a  foreign  system 
of  divination,  and  the  religion  of  a  foe  whom  they  had 
conquered,  and  it  soon  became  a  by-word  for  the  worst 
form  of  imposture.     The  rapid  growth  of  this  feeling  is 
traceable  perhaps  in  the  meanings  attached  to  the  word 
by  the  two  great  tragedians.      In  iEschylus  {Perste, 
2i)l)  it  retains  its  old  significance  as  denoting  simply  a 
tribe.     In  Sophocles  {(Ed.  Tyr.  387)  it  appears  among 
the  epithets  of  reproach  which  the  king  heaps  upon 
Tiresias.     The  fact,  however,  that  the  religion  with 
winch   the  word  was  associated  still  maintained  its 
ground  as  the  faith  of  a  great  nation,  kept  it  from  fall- 
ing into  utter  disrepute,  and  it  is  interesting  to  notice 
how  at  one  time  the  good  and  at  another  the  bad  side 
of  the  v.'ord  is  uppermost.     Thus  the  /.laytia  of  Zoroas- 
ter is  spoken  of  with  respect  by  Plato  as  a  ^tuiv  ^epa- 
TTf/rt,  forming  the  groundwork  of  an  education  which 
he  praises  as  far  better  than  that  of  the  Athenians  {AI- 
cih.  i,  122  a).     Xenophon,  in  like  manner,  idealizes  the 
character  and  functions  of  the  order  {Cyrop.  iv,  6,  16 ; 
(J,  C).     Both  meanings  appear  in  the  later  lexicogra- 
phers.    The  word  magos  is  equivalent  to  cnraTiiiyv  kuI 
(papnaKivry'ic,  but  it  is  also  used  for  the  Sreo<nl3>)g  Kai 
BEoXoyoQ  Kai  iepevg  (Hesych.).    The  magi,  as  an  order, 
are  oi  Trapd  UtpaalQ  (piXoaorpoi  Kai  (pi\<J^toi  (Siudas). 
The  word  thus  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Sept.,  and 
from  them  into  those  of  the  writers  of  the  N.  T.,  oscil- 
lating between  the  two  meanings,  capable  of  being  used 
in  either.    The  relations  which  had  existed  between  the 
.Jews  and  Persians  would  perhaps  tend  to  give  a  promi- 
nence to  the  more  favorable  associations  in  their  use  of 
it.     In  Daniel  (i,  20;  ii,  2, 10,  27;  v,  11)  it  is  used,  as 
lias  been  noticed,  for  the  priestly  diviners  with  whom 
tlie  prophet  was  associated.    Philo,  in  like  manner  {Quod 
oiiinis  probus  //ie?-,  p.  792),  mentions  the  magi  with  warm 
praise,  as  men  who  gave  themselves  to  the  study  of  na- 
ture and  the  contemplation  of  the  divine  perfections, 
worthy  of  being  the  counsellors  of  kings.     It  was  per- 
haps natural  that  this  aspect  of  the  word  should  com- 
mend itself  to  the  theosophic  Jew  of  Alexandria.    There 
were,  however,  other  influences  at  work  tending  to  drag 
it  down.     The  swarms  of  impostors  that  were  to  be  met 
■with  in  every  part  of  the  Koman  empire,  known  as 
"  Chaldivi,"  "  Mathematici,"  and  the  like,  bore  this  name 
also.    Tlieir  arts  were '"artos  magicaj."    Though  philoso- 
j)hers  and  men  of  letters  might  recognise  the  better  mean- 
ing of  wiiich  the  word  was  capable  (Cicero,  De  Divin.  i, 
23,  41),  yet  in  the  language  of  public  documents  and  of 
historians  they  were  treated  as  a  class  at  once  hateful 
and  contemptible  (Tacitus,  .1  mi.  i,  ,32 ;  ii,  27 ;  xii,  22, 59), 
and,  as  such,  were  the  victims  of  repeated  edicts  of  ban- 
ishment.  See  Lenormant,  Ckaldcean  Magic  (Lond.  1877). 
YI.  The  Magi  as  they  ajtpear  in  the  N.  T. — We  need 
not  ivouilcr,  accordingly,  to  find  that  tliis  is  the  predom- 
inant meaning  of  the  word  as  it  ajipears  in  the  N.  T. 
The  noun,  and  the  verb  derived  from  it  {ftayiia  and  //a- 
yit'tu),  are  used  by  Luke  in  describing  the  impostor,  who 
is  therefore  known  distinctively  as  Simon  IMagus  (Acts 
viii,  9).     Another  of  the  same  class  (Bar-jesus)  is  de- 
scribed (Acts  xiii,8)  as  having,  in  his  cognohien  Elymas, 
a  title  which  was  equivalent  to  ]Magus.     See  Eia'mas. 
In  (ino  memorable  instance,  however,  the  word  retains 
(probably,  at  least)  its  better  meaning.     In  the  Gospel 


of  Matthew,  written  (according  to  the  general  belief  of 
early  Christian  writers)  for  the  Hebrew  Christians  of 
Palestine,  we  find  it,  not  as  cmbod3'ing  the  contempt 
which  the  frauds  of  impostors  had  brought  upon  it 
through  the  whole  Roman  empire,  but  in  the  sense 
which  it  had  had  of  old,  as  associated  with  a  religion 
which  they  respected,  and  an  order  of  which  one  of 
their  own  prophets  had  been  the  head.  In  spite  of  pa- 
tristic authorities  on  the  other  side,  asserting  that  the 
Mdyoi  cnrb  dvaroXojv  of  Matt,  ii,  1  were  sorcerers 
whose  mysterious  knowledge  came  from  below,  not  from 
above,  and  who  were  thus  translated  out  of  darkness 
into  light  (Justin  Martyr,  Chrysostom.  Theophylact,  in 
Spanheim,  Bub.  Erang.  xix ;  Lightfoot,  Hor.  Ihb.  in 
Matt,  ii),  we  are  justified,  not  less  by  the  consensus  of 
later  interpreters  (including  even  Maldonatus)  than  by 
the  general  tenor  of  Jlatthew's  narrative,  in  seeing  in 
them  men  such  as  those  that  were  in  the  minds  of  the 
Sept.  translators  of  Daniel,  and  those  described  by  Philo 
— at  once  astronomers  and  astrologers,  but  not  mingling 
any  conscious  fraud  with  their  efforts  after  a  higher 
knowledge.  The  vagueness  of  the  description  leaves 
their  country  undefined,  and  implies  that  probably  the 
evangelist  himself  had  no  certain  information.  The 
same  phrase  is  used  as  in  passages  where  the  express 
object  is  to  include  a  wide  range  of  country  (compare 
OTTO  uva-oXGiv,  Matt,  viii,  11 ;  xxiv,  27 ;  Luke  xiii,  29). 
Probabh'  the  region  chiefly  present  to  the  mind  of  the 
Palestinian  Jew  woidd  be  the  tract  of  country  stretching 
eastward  from  the  Jordan  to  the  Euphrates,  the  land  of 
"the  children  of  the  East"  in  the  early  period  of  the 
history  of  the  O.  T.  (Gen.  xxix,  1 ;  Judg.  vi,  3  ;  vii,  12  ; 
viii.  10).  It  shoidd  be  remembered,  however,  that  the 
language  of  the  O.  T.,  and  therefore  probably  that  of 
Matthew,  included  under  this  name  countries  that  lay 
considerably  to  the  north  as  well  as  to  the  east  of  Pal- 
estine. Balaam  came  from  "the  moimtains  of  the  East," 
i.  e.  from  Pethor,  on  the  Euphrates  (Numb,  xxiii,  7 ; 
xxii,  5).  Abraham  (or  Cyrus '?)  is  the  righteous  man 
raised  up  "  from  the  East"  (Isa.  xli,  2).  The  Persian 
conqueror  is  called  "  from  the  East,  from  a  far  country" 
(Isa.  xlvi,  11). 

We  cannot  wonder  that  there  shoidd  have  licen  very 
varj'ing  interpretations  given  of  words  that  allowed  so 
wide  a  field  for  conjecture.  Some  of  these  are,  for  vari- 
ous reasons,  worth  noticing.  (1)  The  feeling  of  some 
early  Amters  that  the  coming  of  the  wise  men  was  the 
fulfilment  of  the  prophecy  which  spoke  of  the  gifts  of 
the  men  of  Shcba  and  Seba  (Psa.  Ixxii,  10, 15;  compare 
Isa.  Ix,  G)  led  them  to  fix  on  Arabia  as  the  country  of 
the  magi  (Justin  MartjT,  Tertullian,  Epiphanius,  Cypri- 
an, in  Spanheim,  Dub.  Erang.  1.  c),  and  they  have  been 
followed  by  Baronius,  Maldonatus,  Grotius,  and  Light- 
foot.  (2)  Others  have  conjectured  IMesopotamia  as  the 
great  seat  of  Chalda?an  astrology  (Origcn,  Horn,  in  Matt. 
vi  and  vii),  or  Egypt  as  the  countrj^  in  whicli  magic 
was  most  prevalent  (iMej-er,  ad  loc).  (3)  The  historical 
associations  of  the  word  led  others  again,  with  greater 
probabilitj',  to  fix  on  Persia,  and  to  see  in  these  magi 
members  of  the  priestly  order,  to  which  the  n.ime  of 
right  belonged  (Chrysostom,  Theophj-lact,  Calvin,  01s- 
hausen),  while  Hyde  {Rel.  Pers.  \.  c.)  suggests  Parthia, 
as  being  at  that  time  the  conspicuous  Eastern  monarchy 
in  which  the  magi  were  recognised  and  honored. 

It  is,  perhaps,  a  legitimate  inference  from  the  narra- 
tive of  Jlatt.  ii  that  in  these  magi  we  may  recognise,  as 
the  Church  has  done  from  a  vcrj-  early  period,  the  first 
Gentile  worshippers  of  the  Christ.  The  name,  by  itself, 
indeed,  applied  as  it  is  in  Acts  xiii,  8  to  a  Jewish  false 
prophet,  would  hardly  prove  this;  but  the  distinctive 
epithet  "from  the  East"  was  probably  intended  to  mark 
them  out  as  difTcrent  in  character  and  race  from  the 
Western  magi,  Jews,  and  others,  who  swarmed  over  the 
lioman  empire.  So,  when  they  come  to  Jerusalem,  it  is 
to  ask,  not  after  "  our  king"  or  "  the  king  of  Israel,"  but, 
as  the  men  of  another  race  might  do,  after  "  the  king  of 
the  Jews."     The  language  of  the  O.-T.  prophets  and 


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MAGI 


the  traditional  interpretation  of  it  are  apparently  new 
things  to  them.  The  narrative  of  Matt,  ii  supplies  us 
with  an  outline  which  we  may  legitimately  endeavor  to 
fill  lip,  as  far  as  our  knowledge  enables  us,  with  infer- 
ence and  illustration.  Some  time  after  the  birth  of  Je- 
sus there  appeared  among  the  strangers  who  visited  Je- 
rusalem these  men  from  the  far  East.  They  were  not 
idolaters.  Their  form  of  worship  was  looked  upon  by 
the  Jews  with  greater  tolerance  and  sympathj'  than  that 
of  any  other  Gentiles  (compare  Wisd.  xiii,  6, 7).  What- 
ever may  have  been  their  country,  their  statement  indi- 
cates that  they  were  watchers  of  the  stars,  seeking  to 
read  in  them  tlie  destinies  of  nations.  They  said  that 
they  had  seen  a  star  in  which  they  recognised  such  a 
prognostic.  Tliey  were  sure  that  one  was  born  king  of 
the  Jews,  and  they  came  to  pay  their  homage.  It  may 
have  been  simply  that  tlie  quarter  of  the  heavens  in 
which  the  star  appeared  indicated  the  direction  of  Ju- 
dfea.  It  may  have  been  that  some  form  of  the  proph- 
ecy of  Balaam,  that  a  "  star  should  rise  out  of  Jacob" 
(Numb,  xxiv,  17),  had  reached  them,  either  through  the 
Jews  of  the  Dispersion,  or  through  traditions  running 
parallel  with  the  O.  T.,  and  that  this  led  them  to  recog- 
nise its  fultilmcnt  (Origen,  c.  Cels.  i ;  Hom.  in  Num.  xiii ; 
but  the  hypothesis  is  neither  necessary  nor  satisfactory; 
comp.  Ellicott,  Hulsean  Lectures,  p.  77).  It  may  have 
been,  lastly,  that  the  traditional  predictions  ascribed  to 
their  own  prophet  Zoroaster,  leading  them  to  expect  a 
succession  of  three  deliverers,  two  working  as  prophets 
to  reform  the  world  and  raise  up  a  kingdom  (Tavernier, 
Travels,  iv,  8),  the  third  (Zosiosh),  the  greatest  of  the 
three,  coming  to  be  the  head  of  the  kingdom,  to  con- 
quer Ahriman  and  to  raise  the  dead  (Du  Perron,  Zend- 
A  V.  i,  2,  p.  46 ;  Hyde,  c.  31 ;  Ellicott,  Hulsean  Led.  1.  c), 
and  in  strange  fantastic  ways  connecting  these  redeem- 
ers with  the  seed  of  Abraham  (Tavernier,  /.  c. ;  and 
D'Herbelot,  Bibliolh.  Orient,  s.  v.  Zerdascht),  had  roused 
their  minds  to  an  attitude  of  expectancy,  and  that  their 
contact  with  a  people  cherishing  like  hopes  on  stronger 
grounds  may  have  prepared  them  to  see  in  a  king  of 
the  Jews  the  Oshanderbegha  (•'  Homo  Mundi,"  Hj-de,  /. 
c.)  or  the  Zosiosh  whom  they  expected.  In  any  case 
they  shared  the  "  vetus  et  constans  opinio"  which  had 
spread  itself  over  the  whole  East,  that  the  Jews,  as  a 
people,  crushed  and  broken  as  they  were,  were  yet  des- 
tined once  again  to  give  a  ruler  to  the  nations.  It  is 
not  unlikely  that  they  appeared,  occupying  the  position 
of  Destur-i\Iobeds  in  the  later  Zoroastrian  hierarchy,  as 
the  representatives  of  many  others  wlio  shared  the  same 
feeling.  They  came,  at  any  rate,  to  pay  their  homage 
to  the  king  whose  birth  was  thus  indicated,  and  with 
the  gold,  and  frankincense,  and  myrrh  which  \vere  the 
customary  gifts  of  subject  nations  (comp.  Gen.  xliii,  11 ; 
Psa.  Ixxii,  15 ;  1  Kings  x,  2, 10 ;  2  Chron.  ix,  24 ;  Cant, 
iii,  G ;  iv,  14).  The  arrival  of  such  a  company,  bound 
on  so  strange  an  errand,  in  the  last  years  of  the  tyran- 
nous and  distrustful  Herod,  could  hardly  fail  to  attract 
notice  and  excite  a  people  among  whom  Messianic  ex- 
pectations had  already  begun  to  show  themselves  (Luke 
ii, 25, 3§).  "  Herod  was  troubled,  and  all  Jerusalem  with 
him."  The  Sanhedrim  was  convened,  and  the  question 
where  the  Jlessiah  was  to  be  born  was  formally  placed 
before  them.  It  was  in  accordance  with  the  subtle,  fox- 
like character  of  the  king  that  he  should  pretend  to 
share  the  expectations  of  the  people  in  order  that  he 
might  find  in  what  direction  they  pointed,  and  then 
take  whatever  steps  were  necessarj^  to  crush  them.  See 
Hekod.  The  answer  given,  based  upon  the  traditional 
interpretation  of  Mic.  v,  2,  that  Bethlehem  was  to  be  the 
birthplace  of  the  Christ,  determined  the  king's  plans. 
He  had  found  out  the  locality.  It  remained  to  deter- 
mine the  time:  with  what  was  probably  a  real  belief  in 
astrology,  he  inquired  of  them  diligently  wlien  they  had 
first  seen  the  star.  If  he  assumed  tliat  that  was"  con- 
temporaneous with  the  birth,  he  could  not  he  far  wrong. 
The  magi  accordingly  were  sent  on  to  Bethlehem,  as  if 
they  were  but  the  forerunners  of  the  king's  own  hom- 


age. As  they  journeyed  they  again  saw  the  star,  which 
for  a  time,  it  would  seem,  they  had  lost  sigjit  of,  and  it 
guided  them  on  their  way.  (See  Star  in  the  East 
for  this  and  all  other  questions  connected  with  its  ap- 
pearance.) The  pressure  of  the  crowds,  which  a  fort- 
night, or  four  months,  or  well-nigh  two  years  before, 
had  driven  Blary  and  Joseph  to  the  rude  stable  of  the 
caravanserai  of  Bethlehem,  had  apparently  abated,  and 
the  magi,  entering  "  the  house"  (Matt,  ii,  11),  fell  down 
and  paid  their  homage  and  offered  their  gifts.  Once 
more  they  received  guidance  through  the  channel  which 
their  work  and  their  studies  had  made  familiar  to  them. 
From  first  to  last,  in  Media,  in  Babylon,  in  Persia,  the 
magi  had  been  famous  as  the  interpreters  of  dreams. 
That  which  they  received  now  need  not  have  involved 
a  disclosure  of  the  plans  of  Herod  to  tliem.  It  was 
enough  that  it  directed  them  to  "  return  to  their  own 
countr}'  another  way."  With  this  their  history,  so  far 
as  the  N.  T.  carries  us,  comes  to  an  end. 

It  need  hardly  be  said  that  this  part  of  the  Gospel 
narrative  has  had  to  bear  the  brunt  of  the  attacks  of  a 
hostile  criticism.  The  omission  of  all  mention  of  the 
magi  in  a  Gospel  which  enters  so  fully  into  all  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  infancy  of  Christ  as  that  of  Luke,  and 
the  difficulty  of  harmonizing  this  incident  with  those 
which  he  narrates,  have  been  urged  as  at  least  throwing 
suspicion  on  what  Matthew  alone  has  recorded.  The 
advocate  of  the  "mythical  theory"  sees  in  this  almost  the 
strongest  confirmation  of  it  (Strauss,  Lehen  Jesu,  i,  272). 
"There  must  be  prodigies  gathering  round  the  cradle 
of  the  infant  Christ.  Other  heroes  and  kings  had  had 
their  stars,  and  so  must  he.  He  must  receive  in  his 
childhood  the  homage  of  the  representatives  of  other 
races  and  creeds.  The  facts  recorded  lie  outside  the 
range  of  history,  and  are  not  mentioned  by  any  contem- 
porary historian."  The  answers  to  these  objections  may 
be  briefly  stated.  (1)  Assuming  the  central  fact  of  the 
early  chapters  of  Matthew,  no  objection  lies  against  any 
of  its  accessories  on  the  ground  of  their  being  wonderful 
and  improbable.  It  would  be  in  harmony  with  our  ex- 
pectations that  there  should  be  signs  and  wonders  indi- 
cating its  presence.  The  objection  therefore  postulates 
the  absolute  incredulity  of  that  fact,  and  begs  the  point 
at  issue  (compare  Trench,  Star  of  the  Wise  Men,  p.  124). 
(2)  The  question  whether  this,  or  any  other  given  nar- 
rative connected  with  the  nativity  of  Christ,  bears  upon 
it  the  stamp  of  a  myfhus,  is  therefore  one  to  be  deter- 
mined by  its  own  merits,  on  its  own  evidence ;  and  then 
the  case  stands  thus :  A  mythical  story  is  characterized 
for  the  most  part  by  a  large  admixture  of  what  is  wild, 
poetical,  fantastic.  A  comparison  of  Matt,  ii  with  the 
Jewish  or  INIohammedan  legends  of  a  later  time,  or  even 
with  the  Christian  mythology  which  afterwards  gath- 
ered round  this  very  chapter,  will  show  how  wide  is  the 
distance  that  separates  its  simple  narrative,  without  or- 
nament, without  exaggeration,  from  the  overflowing 
luxuriance  of  those  figments  (comp.  §  YII,  below).  (3) 
The  absence  of  any  direct  confirmatory  evidence  in  other 
writers  of  the  time  may  be  accounted  for,  partly  at  least, 
b}^  the  want  of  any  full  chronicle  of  the  events  of  the 
later  years  of  Herod.  Tlie  momentary  excitement  of 
the  arrival  of  such  travellers  as  the  magi,  or  of  the 
slaughter  of  some  score  of  children  in  a  smaU  Jewish 
town,  would  easily  be  effaced  by  the  more  agitating 
events  that  followed.  The  silence  of  Josephus  is  not 
more  conclusive  against  this  fact  than  it  is  (assuming 
the  spuriousness  of  Ant.  xviii,  4,  3)  against  the  fact  of 
the  crucifixion  and  the  growth  of  the  sect  of  the  Naza- 
renes  within  the  walls  of  Jerusalem.  (4)  The  more  per- 
plexing absence  of  all  mention  of  the  magi  in  Luke's 
Gospel  may  yet  receive  some  probable  explanation.  So 
far  as  we  cannot  explain  it,  our  ignorance  of  all,  or 
nearly  all,  the  circumstances  of  the  composition  of  the 
Gospels  is  a  sufiicient  answer.  It  is,  however,  at  least 
possible  that  Luke,  knowing  that  the  facts  related  by 
Matthew  were  already  current  among  the  churches, 
sought  rather  to  add  what  was  not  yet  recorded.    Some- 


MAGI 


638 


MAGI 


thing,  too,  may  have  been  due  to  the  leading  thoughts 
of  the  two  Gospels.  Matthew,  dwelling  chiefly  on  the 
kingly  office  of  Christ  as  the  Son  of  David,  seizes  natu- 
rally "on  tlie  first  recognition  of  that  character  by  the 
magi  of  the  East  (comp.  on  the  fitness  of  this,  Mill,  Pan- 
thiUtk  rriiiciides,  p.  375).  Luke,  portraying  the  Son 
of  ;Man  in  his  sympathy  with  common  men,  in  his  com- 
passion on  the  poor  and  humble,  dwells  as  naturally  on 
the  manifestation  to  the  shejiherds  on  the  hills  of  Beth- 
lehem. It  may  be  added  further  that  everything  tends 
to  show  that  the  latter  evangelist  derived  the  materials 
for  this  part  of  his  history  much  more  directly  from  the 
mother  of  the  Lord,  or  her  kindred,  than  did  the  former; 
and,  if  so,  it  is  not  difficult  to  understand  how  she  might 
come  to  dwell  on  that  which  connected  itself  at  once 
with  the  eternal  blessedness  of  peace,  good  will,  salva- 
tion, rather  than  on  the  homage  and  offerings  of  stran- 
gers, which  seemed  to  be  the  presage  of  an  earthly 
kingdom,  and  had  proved  to  be  the  prelude  to  a  life  of 
poverty,  and  to  the  death  upon  the  cross. 

YIL  Later  Traditions  ichich  have  gathered  round  the 
Magi  of  Matt.  ii. — In  this  instance,  as  in  others,  what  is 
told  by  the  Gospel  writers  in  plain,  simple  words  has 
become  the  nucleus  for  a  whole  cycle  of  legends.  A 
Christian  mythology  has  overshadowed  that  which  it- 
self had  nothing  in  common  with  it.  The  love  of  the 
strange  and  marvellous,  the  eager  desire  to  fill  up  in  de- 
tail a  narrative  which  had  been  left  in  outline,  and  to 
make  cverj^  detail  the  representative  of  an  idea — these, 
which  tend  everywhere  to  the  growth  of  the  mythical 
element  within  the  region  of  history,  fixed  themselves, 
naturally  enough,  precisely  on  those  portions  of  the  life 
of  Christ  where  the  written  records  were  the  least  com- 
plete. The  stages  of  this  development  present  them- 
selves m  regular  succession. 

(1)  The  magi  are  no  longer  thought  of  as  simply 
"  \vise  men,"  members  of  a  sacred  order.  The  prophe- 
cies of  Psa.  Ixxii;  Isa.  xlix,  7,  23;  Ix,  16,  must  be  fid- 
filled  in  them,  and  they  become  princes  ("regidi,"  Ter- 
tull.  c.  Jud.  9 ;  c.  Marc.  5).  This  tends  more  and  mure 
to  be  the  dominant  thought.  When  the  arrival  of  the 
magi,  rather  than  the  birth  or  the  baptism  of  Christ,  as 
the  first  of  his  mighty  works,  comes  to  be  looked  on  as 
the  great  epiphany  of  his  divine  power,  the  older  title 
of  the  feast  receives  as  a  synonym,  almost  as  a  substitute, 
that  of  the  Feast  of  the  Three  Kings.  (2)  The  number 
of  the  wise  men,  which  IMatthew  leaves  altogether  un- 
defined, was  arbitrarily  fixed.  They  were  three  (Leo 
Magn.  Se7-m.  ad  Epijjh.),  because  thus  they  became  a 
symbol  of  the  mysterious  trinity  (Hilary  of  Aries),  or 
because  then  the  number  corresponded  to  the  threefold 
gifts,  or  to  the  three  parts  of  the  earth,  or  the  three 
great  divisions  of  the  human  race  descended  from  the 
sons  of  Noah  (Bede,  De  Collect.).  (3)  Symbolic  mean- 
ings were  found  for  each  of  the  three  gifts.  The  gold 
they  offered  as  to  a  king.  With  the  myrrh  they  pre- 
figured the  bitterness  of  the  passion,  the  embalmment 
for  the  burial.  With  the  frankincense  they  adored  the 
divinity  of  the  Son  of  God  (Suicer,  Thes.  s.  v.  Mdyoi ; 
Jlrei:  Horn,  in  Kpiph.  passim).  (4)  Later  on,  in  a  tra- 
dition which,  though  appearing  in  a  Western  writer,  is 
traceable  probably  to  reports  brought  back  by  pilgrims 
from  Italy  or  the  East,  the  names  arc  added,  and  Gas- 
par,  Melchior,  and  Balthasar  take  their  place  among 
the  objects  of  Christian  reverence,  and  are  honored  as 
the  patron  saints  of  travellers.  The  passage  from  Bede 
{De  Collect.')  is  in  many  ways  interesting,  and  as  it  is 
not  commonly  quoted  by  commentators,  though  often 
referred  to,  it  may  be  worth  wliile  to  give  it:  "Primus 
dicitur  fuisse  Melchior,  qui  senex  et  eanus,  barba  pro- 
lixa  et  capillis,  aiirum  obtulit  regi  Domino.  Secundus, 
nomine  Caspar,  juvenis  imberbis,  rubicundus,  thure, 
quasi  Deo  oblatione  <ligna.-I)eum  honoravit.  Terlius 
fuscus,  integre  barbatus,  Baltassar  nomine,  per  niyr- 
rham  liliura  hominis  moriturum  professus."  The  trea- 
tise De  Collectantis  is,  in  fact,  a  miscellaneous  collection 
of  memoranda  in  the  form  of  (juestion  and  answer.    The 


desire  to  find  names  for  those  who  have  none  given 
them  is  very  noticeable  in  other  instances  as  well  as  in 
that  of  the  magi ;  e.  g.  it  gives  those  of  the  penitent 
and  impenitent  thief.  The  passage  quoted  aliove  is 
followed  by  a  description  of  their  dress,  taken  obviously 
either  from  some  early  painting,  or  from  the  decorations 
of  a  miracle-plaj'  (comp.  the  account  of  such  a  perform- 
ance in  Trench,  Star  of  the  Wise  Men,  p.  70).  The  ac- 
count of  the  offerings,  it  will  be  noticed,  does  not  agree 
with  the  traditional  hexameter  of  the  Latin  Church : 
"  Caspar  fert  myrrham,  thus  Melchior,  Baltliasar  au- 
rum."'  We  recognise  at  once  in  the  above  description 
the  received  types  of  the  early  pictorial  art  of  Western 
Europe.  It  is  open  to  believe  that  both  the  description 
and  the  art-types  may  be  traced  to  early  quasi-dramatic 
representations  of  the  facts  of  the  nativity.  In  any  such 
representations  names  of  some  kind  woidd  become  a 
matter  of  necessity,  and  were  probably  invented  at  ran- 
dom. Familiar  as  the  names  given  by  Bede  now  are  to 
us,  there  was  a  time  when  they  had  no  more  authority 
than  Bithisarca,  Melchior,  and  Gathaspar  (JMoroni,  IHz- 
ionar,  s.  v.  Magi) ;  Magalath,  Pangalath,  Saracen ;  Ap- 
peUius,  Amerius,  and  Damascus,  and  a  score  of  others 
(Spanheim,  Dub.  Evang.  ii,  288). 

In  the  Eastern  Church,  where,  it  would  seem,  there 
was  less  desire  to  find  symbolic  meanings  than  to  mag- 
nify the  circumstances  of  the  history,  the  traditions  as- 
sume a  different  character.  The  magi  arrive  at  Jeru- 
salem with  a  retinue  of  1000  men,  having  left  behind 
them,  on  the  further  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  an  army 
of  7000  (Jacob.  Edess.  and  Bar-hebrajus,  in  Hyde,  /.  c). 
They  have  been  led  to  undertake  the  journey,  not  by 
the  star  only,  or  by  expectations  which  they  shared 
with  the  Israelites,  but  by  a  prophecy  of  the  founder  of 
their  own  faith.  Zoroaster  had  predicted  that  in  the 
latter  days  there  should  be  a  mighty  One  and  a  Re- 
deemer, and  that  his  descendants  should  see  the  star 
which  should  be  the  herald  of  his  coming.  According 
to  another  legend  {Opus  imjjeif.  in  Matt,  ii  apud  Chry- 
sost.  t.  vi,  ed.  jMontfaucon)  they  came  from  the  remotest 
East,  near  the  borders  of  the  ocean.  They  had  been 
taught  to  expect  the  star  by  a  writing  that  bore  the 
name  of  Seth.  That  expectation  was  handed  down 
from  father  to  son.  Twelve  of  the  holiest  of  them  were 
appointed  to  be  ever  on  the  watch.  Their  post  of  ob- 
servation was  a  rock  known  as  the  Mount  of  Victory, 
Night  by  night  they  washed  in  pure  water,  and  prayed, 
and  looked  out  on  the  heavens.  At  last  the  star  ap- 
peared, and  in  it  the  form  of  a  yoimg  child  bearing  a 
cross.  A  voice  came  from  it  and  bade  them  iirocced  to 
Jiidffia.  They  started  on  their  two  years'  journey,  and 
during  all  that  time  tlie  meat  and  the  drink  with  which 
they  started  never  failed  them.  The  gifts  they  bring 
are  those  which  Abraham  gave  to  their  progenitors  the 
sons  of  Ketnrah  (this,  of  course,  on  the  hypothesis  that 
they  were  Arabians),  which  the  queen  of  Sheba  had  in 
her  turn  presented  to  Solomon,  and  which  had  found 
their  way  back  again  to  the  children  of  the  East 
(Ei)i[)han.e«  Comp.Doctr.  in  Moroni, Dizion. I. c).  They 
return  from  Bethlehem  to  their  own  country',  and  give 
themselves  up  to  a  life  of  contemplation  and  praj-er. 
When  the  twelve  apostles  leave  Jerusalem  to  carry  on 
their  work  as  preachers,  St.  Thomas  finds  them  in  Par- 
thia.  They  offer  themselves  for  baptism,  and  become 
evangelists  of  the  new  faith  (Opus  imperf.  in  Matt,  ii, 
1.  c).  The  pilgrim-feeling  of  the  1th  century  includes 
them  also  within  its  range.  Among  other  relics  supplied 
to  meet  the  demands  of  the  market  which  the  devotion 
of  Helena  had  created,  the  bodies  of  the  magi  are  discov- 
ered somewhere  in  the  East,  are  brought  to  Constanti- 
nople, and  placctl  in  the  great  church  which,  as  the 
Mosque  of  St.  Sophia,  still  bears  in  its  name  the  witness 
of  its  original  dedication  to  the  divine  Wisdom.  The 
favor  with  which  the  people  of  Milan  had  received  the 
emperor's  prefect  Eustorgius  called  for  some  special 
mark  of  favor,  and  on  his  consecration  as  bishop  of  that 
city  he  obtained  for  it  the  privilege  of  being  the  rest- 


MAGIC 


639 


MAGIC 


ing-place  of  the  precious  relics.  There  the  fame  of  the 
three  kings  increased.  The  prominence  given  to  all  the 
feasts  connected  with  the  season  of  the  Nativity — the 
transfer  to  that  season  of  the  mirth  and  joy  of  the  old 
Saturnalia — the  setting  apart  of  a  distinct  day  for  the 
commemoration  of  the  Epiphany  in  the  4th  century — 
all  this  added  to  the  veneration  with  which  they  were 
regarded.  When  Milan  fell  into  the  hands  of  Frederick 
Barbarossa  (A.D.  1162),  the  influenco  of  the  archbishop 
of  Cologne  prevailed  on  the  emperor  to  transfer  them  to 
that  city.  The  Milanese,  at  a  later  period,  consoled 
themselves  by  forming  a  special  confraternity  for  per- 
petuating their  veneration  for  the  magi  by  tlie  annual 
performance  of  a  "  Mystery"  (Moroni,  /.  c.) ;  but  the  glo- 
ry of  possessing  the  relics  of  the  first  Gentile  worship- 
pers of  Christ  remained  with  Cologne.  (For  the  later 
mediiBval  developments  of  tlie  traditions,  comp.  Joan, 
von  Hildesheim,  in  Quart.  Rev.  iKxvni,  433.)  In  that 
proud  cathedral  which  is  the  glory  of  Teutonic  art  the 
shrine  of  the  Three  Kings  has  for  six  centuries  been 
shown  as  the  greatest  of  its  many  treasures.  The  tab- 
ernacle in  which  the  bones  of  some  whose  real  name 
and  history  are  lost  forever  lie  enshrined  in  honor,  bears 
witness,  in  its  gold  and  gems,  to  the  faith  with  which 
the  story  of  the  wanderings  of  tlie  Three  Kings  has 
been  received.  The  reverence  has  sometimes  taken 
stranger  and  more  grotesque  forms.  As  the  patron 
saints  of  travellers  they  have  given  a  name  to  the  inns 
of  earlier  or  later  date.  The  names  of  Melchior,  Caspar, 
and  Balthasar  were  used  as  a  charm  against  attacks  of 
epilepsy  (Spanheim,  Dub.  Ecunrj.  xxi). 

Compare,  in  addition  to  authorities  already  cited. 
Trench,  Star  of  the  Wise  Men.  (Lond.  1850)  ;  Upham, 
Wise  Men  of  the  East  (N.Y.  1869) ;  J.  F.  JMliller,  in  Her- 
zog's  Real-Encyklop.  s.  v.  Magi ;  Triebel  and  IMiegius, 
in  Crit.  Sacri  (Thes.  Nov.  ii.  111,  118);  and  Ehoden,  in 
Crif.  Sacri  {Thes.  Theol.  Phil,  ii,  69),  For  the  Talmudic 
views  of  the  magi,  see  Lakemej^er,  Observ.  ii.  132  sq. 

Other  monographs  on  the  general  subject  have  been 
written  by  Nothna.ijel  (Viteb.  1652),  Miiller  (Tigur.  1660), 
Stolberg  (Viteb.  1663),  Olearius  (Lips.  1671),  and  Moller 
(Altd.  1688). 

Magic  (only  occurs  in  the  A.  V,  at  Wisd,  xvii,  7, 
finyiKi)  s.  V.  Ttxi'i'l,  "art  magic;"  but  the  term  "magi- 
cian" [q.  V.J  is  frequent),  a  word  used  to  designate  the 
power  iir  art  of  working  wonders  beyond  the  range  of 
science  or  natural  skill.  It  is  derived  from  the  Greek, 
and  refers  ultimately  to  the  moi/i  (q.  v.),  who  were  an- 
cienth'  regarded  as  its  depositaries  or  exjierts.  The 
magical  arts  spoken  of  in  the  Bible  are  those  practiced 
by  the  Egyptians,  the  Canaanites,  and  their  neighbors, 
the  Hebrews,  the  Chakteans,  and  probably  the  Greeks. 
In  our  treatment  of  this  subject  we  shall  substantially 
adopt  Mr.  Poole's  elaborate  article  in  Smith's  Diet,  of  Bible. 

I.  Position  of  Mar/ic  in  relation  to  Relif/ion  and  Phi- 
losophy in  Ancient  Times. — The  degree  of  the  civiliza- 
tion of  a  nation  is  not  the  measure  of  the  importance  of 
magic  in  its  convictions.  The  natural  features  of  a 
country  are  not  the  priniar}'  causes  of  what  is  termed 
superstition  in  its  inhabitants.  With  nations  as  with 
men— and  the  analogy  of  Plato  in  the  "  Republic"  is  not 
always  false — the  feelings  on  which  magic  fixes  its  hold 
are  essential  to  the  mental  constitution.  Contrary  as 
are  these  assertions  to  the  common  opinions  of  our  time, 
inductive  reasoning  forbids  our  doubting  them. 

1.  With  the  lowest  race  magic  is  the  chief  part  of  re- 
ligion. The  Nigritians,  or  blacks  of  this  race,  show  this 
in  tlieir  extreme  use  of  amulets  and  their  worship  of  ob- 
jects which  have  no  other  value  in  their  eyes  but  as 
having  a  supposed  magical  character  through  the  in- 
fluence of  supernatural  agents.  With  tlie  Turanians, 
or  corresponding  whites  of  the  same  great  family— we 
use  the  word  white  for  a  group  of  nations  mainly  yel- 
low, in  contradistinction  to  black  —  incantations  and 
witchcraft  occupy  the  same  place,  Shamanism  charac- 
terizing their  tribes  in  both  hemispheres.  In  the  days 
of  Herodotus  the  distinction  in  this  matter  between  the 


Nigritians  and  the  Caucasian  population  of  North  Africa 
was  what  it  now  is.  In  his  remarkable  account  of  the 
journey  of  the  Nasamonian  young  men — the  Nasamo- 
nes,  be  it  remembered,  ^vere  '•  a  Libyan  race,"  and  dwell- 
ers on  the  northern  coast,  as  the  historian  here  says — 
we  are  told  that  the  adventurers  passed  through  the  in- 
habited maritime  region,  and  the  tract  occupied  by  wild 
beasts,  and  the  desert,  and  at  last  came  upon  a  plain 
with  trees,  where  they  were  seized  by  men  of  small 
stature,  who  carried  them  across  marshes  to  a  town  of 
such  men  black  in  complexion.  A  great  river,  ruiming 
from  west  to  east,  and  containing  crocodiles,  flowed  by 
that  town,  and  all  that  nation  were  sorcerers  (tQ  tovq 
oii-oi  cnriKOVTO  dvbpunrovc,  yorjrag  ilvai  -Truvrac,  ii, 
32,  33).  It  little  matters  whether  the  conjecture  that 
the  great  river  was  the  Niger  be  true,  which  the  idea 
adopted  by  Herodotus  tliat  it  was  the  upper  Nile  seems 
to  favor :  it  is  quite  evident  that  the  Nasamones  came 
upon  a  nation  of  Nigritians  beyond  the  Great  Desert, 
and  were  struck  with  their  fetishism.  So,  in  our  own 
days,  the  traveller  is  astonished  at  the  height  to  which 
this  superstition  is  carried  among  the  Nigritians,  who 
have  no  religious  practices  that  are  not  of  the  nature  of 
sorcery,  nor  any  priests  who  are  not  magicians,  and  ma- 
gicians alone.  The  strength  of  this  belief  in  magic  in 
these  two  great  divisions  of  the  lowest  race  is  shown  in 
the  case  of  each  by  its  having  maintained  its  hold  in  an 
instance  in  which  its  tenacity  must  have  been  severely 
tried.  The  ancient  Egj'ptians  show  their  partly-Nigri- 
tiaii  origin  not  alone  in  their  ph3-sical  characteristics 
and  language,  but  in  their  religion.  They  retained  the 
strange,  low  nature-worship  of  the  Nigritians,  forcibly 
combining  it  Avith  more  intellectual  kinds  of  belief,  as 
they  represented  their  gods  with  the  heads  of  animals 
and  the  bodies  of  men,  and  even  connecting  it  ^vith 
truths  which  point  to  a  primeval  revelation.  The  Rit- 
ual, which  was  the  great  treasury  of  Egyptian  belief, 
and  explained  the  means  of  gaining  future  happiness,  is 
full  of  charms  to  be  said,  and  contains  directions  for 
making  and  for  using  amulets.  As  the  Nigritian  goes 
on  a  journey  hung  about  with  amulets,  so  amulets  were 
placed  on  the  Egyptian's  embalmed  body,  and  his  soul 
went  on  its  mysterious  way  fortified  with  incantations 
learned  while  on  earth.  In  China,  although  Buddhism 
has  established  itself,  and  the  system  of  Confucius  has 
gained  the  power  its  positivism  would  insure  it  with  a 
highly-educated  people  of  low  type,  another  belief  still 
maintains  itself  which  there  is  strong  reason  to  hold  to 
be  older  than  the  other  two,  although  it  is  usually  sup- 
posed to  have  been  of  the  same  age  as  Confucianism ; 
in  this  religion  magic  is  of  the  highest  importance,  the 
distinguishing  cliaracteristic  by  which  it  is  known, 

2.  With  the  Shemites  magic  takes  a  lower  place.  No- 
where is  it  even  part  of  religion,  yet  it  is  looked  upon 
as  a  powerful  engine,  and  generally  unlawful  or  lawful 
according  to  the  aid  invoked.  Among  many  of  the 
Shemitic  peoples  there  linger  the  remnants  of  a  primi- 
tive fetishism.  Sacred  trees  and  stones  are  reverenced 
from  an  old  superstition,  of  which  they  do  not  always 
know  the  meaning,  derived  from  the  nations  whose  place 
they  have  taken.  Thus  fetishism  remains,  although  in 
a  kind  of  fossil  state.  The  importance  of  astrology  with 
the  Shemites  has  tended  to  raise  the  character  of  their 
magic,  which  deals  rather  with  the  discovery  of  sup- 
posed existing  influences  than  with  the  production  of 
new  influences.  The  onlj'  direct  association  of  magic 
with  religion  is  where  the  priests,  as  the  educated  class, 
have  taken  the  functions  of  magicians ;  but  this  is  far 
different  from  the  case  of  the  Nigritians,  where  the  ma- 
gicians are  the  only  priests.  The  Shemites,  however, 
when  depending  on  human  reason  alone,  seem  never  to 
have  doubted  the  efficacy  of  magical  arts,  yet  recourse 
to  their  aid  was  not  usually  with  them  the  first  idea  of 
a  man  in  doubt.  Though  the  case  of  Saul  cannot  be 
taken  as  applying  to  the  whole  race,  yet,  even  with  the 
heathen  Shemites,  prayers  must  have  been  held  to  be 
of  more  value  than  incantations. 


MAGIC 


640 


MAGIC 


The  Iranians  assign  to  magic  a  still  less  important 
position.  It  can  scarcely  be  traced  in  the  relics  of  old 
nature-worship,  which  they  with  greater  skill  than  the 
Egyittians  interwove  with  their  more  intellectual  be- 
liefs, as  the  Greeks  gave  the  objects  of  reverence  in  Ar- 
cadia and  Crete  a  place  in  poetical  myths,  and  the  Scan- 
dinavians animated  the  hard  remains  of  primitive  su- 
perstition. The  character  of  the  ancient  belief  is  utter- 
ly gone  with  the  assigning  of  new  reasons  for  the  rev- 
erence of  its  sacred  objects.  Magic  always  maintained 
some  hold  on  men's  minds,  but  the  stronger  intellects 
despised  it,  like  the  Roman  commander  who  threw  the 
sacred  chickens  overboard,  and  the  Greek  who  defied 
an  adverse  omen  at  the  beginning  of  a  great  battle. 
When  any,  oppressed  by  the  sight  of  the  calamities  of 
mankind,  sought  to  resolve  the  mysterious  problem, 
they  fixed,  like  /Eschylus,  not  upon  the  childish  notion 
of  a  cliance-government  by  many  conflicting  agencies, 
but  upon  the  nobler  idea  of  a  dominating  fate.  Men  of 
highly  sensitive  temperaments  have  always  inclined  to 
a  belief  in  magic,  and  there  has  therefore  been  a  section 
of  Iranian  philosophers  in  all  ages  who  have  paid  atten- 
tion to  its  practice;  but,  expelled  from  religion,  it  has 
lield  but  a  low  and  precarious  place  in  philosophy. 

The  Hebrews  had  no  magic  of  their  own.  It  was  so 
strictly  forbidden  by  the  law  that  it  could  never  after- 
wards have  any  recognised  existence  save  in  times  of 
general  heresy  or  apostasy,  and  the  same  was  doubtless 
the  case  in  the  patriarchal  ages.  The  magical  prac- 
tices which  obtained  among  the  Hebrews  were  there- 
fore borrowed  from  the  nations  around.  The  hold  they 
gained  was  such  as  we  should  have  expected  with  a 
Shemitic  race,  making  allowance  for  the  discredit  thrown 
upon  them  by  the  prohibitions  of  the  law.  From  the 
first  entrance  into  the  Land  of  Promise  until  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem  we  have  constant  glimpses  of  magic 
practiced  in  secret,  or  resorted  to,  not  alone  by  the  com- 
mon, but  also  by  the  great.  The  Talmud  abounds  in 
notices  of  contemporary  magic  among  the  Jews,  show- 
ing that  it  survived  idolatry  notwithstanding  their  orig- 
inal connection,  and  was  supposed  to  produce  real  ef- 
fects. The  Koran  in  like  manner  treats  charms  and  in- 
cantations as  capable  of  producing  evil  consequences 
when  used  against  a  man.  It  is  a  distinctive  charac- 
teristic of  the  Bible  that  from  first  to  last  it  warrants  no 
such  trust  or  dread.  In  the  Psalms,  the  most  personal 
of  all  the  books  of  Scripture,  there  is  no  prayer  to  be 
protected  against  magical  influences.  The  believer 
prays  to  be  delivered  from  every  kind  of  evil  that  could 
hurt  the  body  or  the  soul,  but  he  says  nothing  of  the 
machinations  of  sorcerers.  Here  and  everywhere  mag- 
ic is  passed  by,  or,  if  mentioned,  mentioned  only  to  be 
condemned  (comp.  Psa.  cvi,  28).  Let  those  who  affirm 
that  they  see  'm  the  Psalms  merely  human  piety,  and 
in  Job  and  Ecclesiastes  merely  human  philosophy,  ex- 
plain the  absence  in  them,  and  throughout  the  Scrip- 
tures, of  the  expression  of  superstitious  feelings  that  are 
inherent  in  the  Shemitic  mind.  Let  them  explain  the 
luxuriant  growth,  in  the  after-literature  of  the  Hebrews 
and  Arabs,  and  notably  in  the  Talmud  and  the  Koran, 
of  these  feelings  with  no  root  in  those  older  writings 
from  which  that  after-literature  was  derived.  If  the 
Bible,  the  Talmud,  and  the  Koran  be  but  several  ex- 
pressions of  the  Shemitic  mnid,  dilfering  only  through 
the  effect  of  time,  how  can  this  contrast  be  accounted 
for? — the  very  opposite  of  what  obtains  elsewhere:  for 
superstitions  are  generally  strongest  in  the  earlier  liter- 
ature of  a  race,  and  gradually  fade,  unless  a  condition 
of  barbarism  restore  their  vigor.  Tiiose  who  see  in 
the  Bible  a  divine  work  can  understand  how  a  God- 
taught  ])reachcr  coidd  throw  aside  the  miserable  fears 
of  his  race,  and  boldly  tell  man  to  trust  iii  his  Maker 
aliine.  Here,  as  in  all  maMcrs,  the  histiir\-  of  the  Bible 
confirms  its  doctrine.  In  the  doctrinal  Scriptures  mag- 
ic is  passed  by  with  contempt,  in  the  historical  Scrip- 
tures the  reasonableness  of  this  contempt  is  shown. 
Whenever  the  practiscrs  of  magic  attempt  to  combat 


the  servants  of  God,  they  conspicuously  fail.  Pharaoh's 
magicians  bo\v  to  the  divine  power  shown  in  the  won- 
ders wrought  by  Moses  and  Aaron.  Balaam,  the  great 
enchanter,  comes  from  afar  to  curse  Israel,  and  is  forced 
to  bless  them. 

II.  Biblical  Notices. — In  examining  the  references  to 
magic  in  the  Bible,  we  must  keep  in  view  the  curious 
inquiry  whether  there  be  any  realitj'  in  the  art.  We 
would  at  the  outset  protest  against  the  idea,  once  very 
prevalent,  that  the  conviction  that  the  seen  and  unseen 
worlds  were  often  more  manifestly  in  contact  in  the 
Biblical  ages  than  now  necessitates  a  belief  in  the  real- 
ity of  the  magic  spoken  of  in  the  Scrijitiires.  We  do 
indeed  see  a  connection  of  a  supernatural  agency  with 
magic  in  such  a  case  as  that  of  the  damsel  possessed 
with  a  spirit  of  divination  mentioned  in  the  Acts ;  yet 
there  the  agency  appears  to  have  been  involuntary  in 
the  damsel,  and  shrewdly  made  profitable  In'  her  em- 
ployers. This  does  not  establish  the  possibility  of  man 
being  able  at  his  will  to  use  supernatural  powers  to  gain 
his  own  ends,  which  is  what  magic  has  always  pretend- 
ed to  accomplish.  Thus  much  we  premise,  lest  we 
should  be  thought  to  hold  latitudinarian  opinions  be- 
cause we  treat  the  reality  of  magic  as  an  open  question. 
Without  losing  sight  of  the  distinctions  we  have 
drawn  between  the  magic  of  different  races,  we  shall 
consider  the  notices  of  the  subject  in  the  Bible  in  the 
order  in  which  they  occur.  It  is  impossible  in  every 
case  to  assign  the  magical  practice  spoken  of  to  a  par- 
ticular nation,  or,  when  this  can  be  done,  to  determine 
whether  it  be  native  or  borrowed,  and  the  general  ab- 
sence of  details  renders  any  other  sj'stcm  of  classifica- 
tion liable  to  error. 

L  The  theft  and  carrj-ing  away  of  Laban's  teraphim 
(D'^S'^Pl)  by  Rachel  seems  to  indicate  the  practice  of 
magic  in  Padan-aram  at  this  early  time.  It  appears 
that  Laban  attached  great  value  to  these  objects  from 
what  he  said  as  to  the  theft  and  his  determined  search 
for  them  (Gen.  xxxi,  19,  30,  32-35).  It  may  be  sup- 
posed, from  the  manner  in  which  they  were  hidden,  that 
these  teraphim  were  not  very  small.  The  most  impor- 
tant point  is  that  Laban  calls  them  his  "gods"  (ver.  30, 
32),  although  he  was  not  without  belief  in  the  true  God 
(ver.  24,49-53);  for  this  makes  it  almost  certain  that 
we  have  here,  not  an  indication  of  the  \vorship  of  strange 
gods,  but  the  first  notice  of  a  superstition  that  after- 
wards obtained  among  those  Israelites  who  added  cor- 
rupt practices  to  the  true  religion.  The  derivation  of 
the  name  "teraphim"  is  extremely  obscure.  Gesenius 
takes  it  from  an  "  unused"  root,  t"^n,  which  he  supposes, 
from  the  Arabic,  probably  signified  ■'  to  live  pleasantly" 
(T/iesanr.  s.  v.).  It  may,  however,  be  reasonably  con- 
jectured that  such  a  root  would  have  had,  if  not  in  He- 
brew, in  the  language  whence  the  Hebrews  took  it  or 
its  derivative,  the  proper  meaning  "  to  dance"  corre- 
sponding to  this,  which  would  then  be  its  tropical  mean- 
ing. AVe  should  prefer,  if  no  other  derivation  be  found, 
to  suppose  that  the  name  teraphim  might  mean  "dan- 
cers" or  "causers  of  dancing,"  with  reference  either  to 
primitive  nature-worship  or  its  magical  rites  of  the 
character  of  Shamanism,  rather  than  that  it  signifies,  as 
Gesenius  suggests,  "givers  of  pleasant  life."  There 
seems,  however,  to  be  a  cognate  word,  unconnected  with 
the  "  unused"  root  just  mentioned,  in  ancient  I'.gyptian, 
whence  we  may  obtain  a  conjectural  derivation.  We 
do  not,  of  course,  trace  the  worship  of  teraphim  to  the 
sojourn  in  Egyjit.  They  were  probably  tliose  objects 
of  the  pre-Abrahamite  idolatry,  put  away  by  order  of 
Jacob  (Gen.  xxxv,  2^),  yet  retained  even  in  Joshua's 
time  (Josh,  xxiv,  14);  and,  if  so,  notwithstanding  his 
exhortation,  abandoned  onl\'  for  a  space  (Judg.  xvii, 
xviii) ;  and  they  were  also  known  to  the  Babylonians, 
being  used  by  them  for  divination  (Ezek.  xxi,  21).  But 
there  is  great  reason  for  supposing  a  close  connection 
between  the  oldest  language  and  religion  of  Chaldaja 
and  the  ancient  Egyptian  language  and  religion.     The 


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641 


MAGIC 


Egyptian  word  ter  signifies  "  a  shape,  type,  transfornia- 
tion,"  and  has  for  its  determinative  a  mummy :  it  is 
used  in  the  Kitual,  where  the  various  transformations 
of  the  deceased  in  Hades  are  described  (^Todtenbuch,  ed. 
Lepsius,  ch,  Ixxvi  sq.).  Tlie  small  mummy-shaped  fig- 
ure, shehti,  usually  made  of  baked  clay  covered  with  a 
blue  vitreous  varnish,  representing  the  Egyptian  as  de- 
ceased, is  of  a  nature  connecting  it  with  magic,  since  it 
was  made  with  the  idea  that  it  secured  benefits  in  Hades ; 
and  it  is  connected  with  the  word  iei-,  for  it  represents 
a  mummy,  the  determinative  of  that  word,  and  was 
considered  to  be  of  use  in  the  state  in  which  the  de- 
ceased passed  through  transformations,  teru.  The  dif- 
ficulty which  forbids  our  doing  more  than  conjecture  a 
relation  between  ter  and  teraphim  is  the  want  in  the 
former  of  the  third  radical  of  the  latter;  and  in  our 
present  state  of  ignorance  respecting  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tian and  the  primitive  language  of  Chaldrea  in  their 
verhal  relations  to  the  Shemitic  family,  it  is  impossible 
to  say  whether  it  is  likely  to  be  explained.  The  possi- 
ble connection  with  the  Egyptian  religious  magic  is, 
liowever,  not  to  be  slighted,  especially  as  it  is  not  im- 
probable that  the  household  itlolatry  of  the  Hebrews 
was  ancestral  worship,  and  the  shehti  was  the  image  of  a 
deceased  man  or  woman,  as  a  mummy,  and  therefore  as 
an  Osiris,  bearing  the  insignia  of  tlmt  divinity,  and  so 
ill  a  manner  as  a  deified  dead  person,  although  we  do 
not  know  that  it  was  used  in  the  ancestral  worship  of 
the  Egyptians.  It  is  important  to  notice  that  no  sin- 
gidar  is  found  of  the  word  teraphim,  and  that  the  plural 
furra  is  once  used  where  only  one  statue  seems  to  be 
meant  (1  Sam.  xix,  13,  IG) :  in  this  case  it  may  be  a 
"plural  of  excellence."  If  the  latter  inference  be  true, 
this  word  must  have  become  thoroughly  Shemiticized. 
There  is  no  description  of  these  images;  but,  from  the 
account  of  Michal's  stratagem  to  deceive  Saul's  messen- 
gers, it  is  evident,  if  only  one  image  be  there  meant,  as 
is  very  probable,  that  they  were  at  least  sometimes  of 
the  size  of  a  man,  and  perhaps  in  the  head  and  shoul- 
ders, if  not  lower,  of  human  shape,  or  of  a  similar  form 
(ver.  13-16). 

The  worship  or  use  of  teraphim  after  the  occupation 
of  the  Promised  Land  cannot  be  doubted  as  having  been 
one  of  the  corrupt  practices  of  those  Hebrews  who  leaned 
to  idolatry,  but  did  not  abandon  their  belief  in  the  God 
of  Israel.  Altliough  the  Scriptures  draw  no  marked 
distinction  between  those  who  forsook  their  religion  and 
those  who  added  to  it  such  corruptions,  it  is  evident 
that  the  latter  always  professed  to  be  orthodox.  Tera- 
phim, therefore,  cannot  be  regarded  as  among  the  He- 
brews necessarily  connected  with  strange  gods,  what- 
ever may  have  been  the  case  with  other  nations.  The 
account  of  Micah's  images  in  the  book  of  Judges,  com- 
pared with  a  passage  in  Hosea,  shows  our  conclusion  to 
be  correct.  In  the  earliest  days  of  the  occupation  of 
the  Promised  Land,  in  the  time  of  anarchy  that  followed 
Joshua's  rule,  Slicah,  "  a  man  of  Mount  Ephraim,"  made 
certain  images  and  other  objects  of  heretical  worship, 
which  were  stolen  from  him  by  those  Danites  who  took 
Laish  and  called  it  Dan,  there  setting  up  idolatry,  where 
it  continued  the  whole  time  that  the  ark  was  at  Shiloh, 
the  priests  retaining  their  post  "  until  the  day  of  the 
captivity  of  the  land"  (Judg.  xvii,  xviii,  esp.  30,  31). 
Probably  this  worship  was  somewhat  changed,  although 
not  in  its  essential  character,  when  Jeroboam  set  up  the 
golden  calf  at  Dan.  Micah's  idolatrous  objects  were  a 
graven  image,  a  molten  image,  an  ephod,  and  teraphim 
(xvii,  3,  4,  5;  xviii,  17,  IS,  '20).  In  Hosea  there  is  a 
retrospect  of  this  period  where  the  jirophet  takes  a  har- 
lot, and  commands  her  to  be  faithful  to  him  "many 
days."  It  is  added :  "  For  the  children  of  Israel  shall 
abide  many  days  without  a  king,  and  without  a  prince, 
and  without  a  sacrifice,  and  witliout  an  image  [or  "  pil- 
lar," nnS^],  and  without  an  ephod,  and  teraphim  :  af- 
terward sliall  the  children  of  Israel  return,  and  seek  Je- 
iiovah  their  God,  and  David  their  king;  and  shall  fear 
Jehovah  and  his  goodness  in  the  latter  days"  (iii,  esp. 
v.— Ss 


4,  5).  The  apostate  people  are  long  to  be  without  their 
spurious  king  and  false  worship,  and  in  the  end  are  to 
return  to  their  loyalty  to  the  house  of  David  and  their 
faith  in  the  true  God.  That  Dan  should  be  connected 
with  Jeroboam  "who  made  Israel  to  sin,"  and  with  the 
kingdom  which  he  founded,  is  most  natural ;  and  it  is 
therefore  worthy  of  note  that  the  images,  ephod,  and 
teraphim  made  by  Micah,  and  stolen  and  set  up  by  the 
Danites  at  Dan,  should  so  nearly  correspond  with  the 
objects  spoken  of  by  the  prophet.  It  has  been  imagined 
that  the  use  of  teraphim  and  the  similar  abominations 
of  the  heretical  Israelites  are  not  so  strongly  condemned 
in  the  Scriptures  as  the  worship  of  strange  gods.  This 
mistake  arises  from  the  mention  of  pious  kings  who  did 
not  suppress  the  high  places,  which  proves  only  their 
timidity,  and  not  any  lesser  sinfuhiess  in  the  spurious 
religion  than  in  false  systems  borrowed  from  the  peoples 
of  Canaan  and  neighboring  countries.  The  crael  rites 
of  the  heathen  are  indeed  especially  reprobated,  but  the 
heresy  of  the  Israelites  is  too  emphatically  denounced, 
by  Samuel  in  a  passage  soon  to  be  examined,  and  in  the 
repeated  condemnation  of  Jeroboam,  the  son  of  Nebat, 
"  who  made  Israel  to  sin,"  to  render  it  possible  that  we 
should  take  a  view  of  it  consistent  only  with  modern 
sophistrv. 

We  pass  to  the  magical  use  of  teraphim.  By  the 
Israelites  they  were  consulted  for  oracular  answers.  This 
was  apparently  done  by  the  Danites,  who  asked  IMicah's 
Levite  to  inquire  as  to  the  success  of  their  spying  ex- 
pedition (Judg.  xviii,  5,  G).  In  later  times  this  is  dis- 
tinctly stated  of  the  Israelites  where  Zechariah  says, 
"  For  the  teraphim  have  spoken  vanity,  and  the  diviners 
have  seen  a  lie,  and  have  told  false  dreams"  (x,  2).  It 
cannot  be  supposed  that,  as  this  first  positive  mention 
of  the  use  of  teraphim  for  divination  by  the  Israelites  is 
after  the  return  from  Babylon,  and  as  that  use  obtained 
with  the  Babylonians  in  the  time  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
therefore  the  Israelites  borrowed  it  from  their  conquer- 
ors; for  these  objects  are  mentioned  in  earlier  places  in 
such  a  manner  that  their  connection  with  divination 
must  be  intended,  if  we  bear  in  mind  that  this  connec- 
tion is  undoubted  in  a  subsequent  period.  Samuel's  re- 
proof of  Saul  for  his  disobedience  in  the  matter  of  Ama- 
lek  associates  "divination"  M-ith  "vanity,"  or  "idols" 
O'lX),  and  "  teraphim,"  however  we  render  the  difScult 
passage  where  these  words  occur  (1  Sam.  xv,  22,  23).. 
(The  word  rendered  "vanity,"  "I'lX,  is  especially  used 
with  reference  to  idols,  and  even  in  some  places  stands 
alone  for  an  idol  or  idols.)  When  Saul,  having  put  tO' 
death  the  workers  in  black  arts,  finding  himself  rejected 
of  God  in  his  extremity,  sought  the  witch  of  Endor,  and 
asked  to  see  Samuel,  the  prophet's  apparition  denounced 
his  doom  as  the  pimishment  of  this  very  disobedience 
as  to  Amalek.  The  reproof  would  seem,  therefore,  to 
have  been  a  prophecy  that  the  self-confident  king  would 
at  the  last  alienate  himself  from  God,  and  take  refuge 
in  the  very  abominations  he  despised.  This  apparent 
reference  tends  to  confirm  the  inference  we  have  indi- 
cated. As  to  a  later  time,  when  Josiah's  reform  is  re- 
lated, he  is  said  to  have  put  away  "  the  wizards,  and  the 
teraphim,  and  the  idols"  (2  Kings  xxiii,  24) ;  where  the 
mention  of  the  teraphim  immediately  after  the  wizards, 
and  as  distinct  from  the  idols,  seems  to  favor  the  infer- 
ence that  they  are  spoken  of  as  objects  used  in  divina- 
tion. 

The  only  account  of  the  act  of  divining  by  teraphim 
is  in  a  remarkable  passage  of  Ezekiel  relatmg  to  Nebu- 
chadnezzar's advance  against  Jerusalem.  "Also,  thou 
son  of  man,  appoint  thee  two  ways,  that  the  sword  of  the 
king  of  Babylon  may  come:  both  twain  [two  swords] 
shall  come  forth  out  of  one  land :  and  choose  thou  a 
place,  choose  [it]  at  the  head  of  the  way  to  the  city. 
A]ipoint  a  way,  that  the  sword  may  come  to  Ealibath 
of  the  Ammonites,  and  to  Judah  in  Jerusalem  the  de- 
fenced.  For  the  king  of  Babylon  stood  at  the  parting 
of  the  way,  at  the  head  of  the  two  ways,  to  use  divina- 


MAGIC 


642 


MAGIC 


tion :  he  shuffled  arrows,  he  consulted  with  teraphim, 
he  looked  in  the  liver.  At  his  right  hand  was  the  div- 
ination for  Jerusalem"  (xxi,  19-22).  The  mention  to- 
gether of  consulting  teraphim  and  looking  into  the  liv- 
er may  not  indicate  that  the  victim  was  offered  to  ter- 
aphim and  its  liver  then  looked  into,  but  may  mean  two 
separate  acts  of  divuiing.  The  former  explanation 
s*cms,  however,  to  have  been  adopted  by  the  Sept.  in  its 
rendering  of  the  account  of  Michal's  stratagem,  as  if 
Michal  had  been  divining,  and  on  the  coming  of  the 
messengers  seized  the  image  and  liver  and  hastilj'  put 
them  in  the  bed.  The  accounts  which  the  Rabbins  give 
of  divining  by  teraphim  are  worthless.  See  Terafhiji. 
2.  Joseph,  when  his  brethren  left  after  their  second 
visit  to  buy  corn,  ordered  his  steward  to  hide  his  silver 
cup  in  Benjamin's  sack,  and  afterwards  sent  him  after 
them,  ordering  him  to  claim  it,  thus :  "  [Is]  not  this  [it] 
in  which  my  lord  drinketh,  and  whereby  indeed  he  di- 
vinetli '?"  (Gen.  xliv,  5).  The  meaning  of  the  latter 
clause  has  been  contested,  Gesenius  translating  "he 
could  surely  foresee  it"  (ap.  BarTett,  Synojjsis,  ad  loc), 
but  the  other  rendering  seems  far  more  probable,  espe- 
cially as  we  read  that  Joseph  afterwards  said  to  his 
brethren, "  Wot  ye  not  that  such  a  man  as  I  can  cer- 
tauily  divine?"  (xliv,  15)— the  same  word  being  used. 
If  so,  the  reference  woidd  probably  be  to  the  use  of  the 
cup  in  divining,  and  we  slioidd  have  to  infer  that  here 
Joseph  was  acting  on  his  own  judgment  [see  Joseph], 
divination  being  not  alone  doubtless  a  forbidden  act,  but 
one  of  -(vhich  he,  when  called  before  Pharaoh,  had  dis- 
tinctly disclaimed  the  practice.  Two  uses  of  cups  or 
the  like  for  magical  purjwses  have  obtained  in  the  East 
from  ancient  times.  In  one  use  either  the  cup  itself 
bears  engraved  inscriptions,  supposed  to  have  a  magical 
influence  (see  D'Herbelot,  Bibilolheque  Orientak,  s.  v. 
Giam),  or  it  is  plain,  and  such  inscriptions  are  written 
on  its  inner  surface  in  ink.  In  both  cases  water  poured 
into  the  cup  is  drunk  by  those  wishing  to  derive  bene- 
fit, as,  for  instance,  the  cure  of  diseases,  from  the  inscrip- 
tions, which,  if  -ttTitten,  are  dissolved  (Lane,  Mod.  Eg. 
ch.  xi).  This  use,  in  both  its  forms,  obtains  among  the 
Arabs  in  the  present  day.  and  cups  bearing  Chaktean 
inscriptions  in  ink  have  been  discovered  by  Mr.  Lay- 
ard,  and  probablj^  show  that  this  practice  existed  among 
the  Jews  in  Babylonia  in  about  the  7th  centiu-y  of  the 
Christian  asra  {Nineveh  and  Babylon,  p.  509,  etc.  There 
is  an  excellent  paper  on  these  bowls  by  Dr.  Levy,  of 
Breslau,  in  the  Zeitschrift  der  Deiitsch.  Morgenldnd.  Ge- 
sellschaft,  ix,  465,  etc.).  In  the  other  use  the  cup  or 
bowl  was  of  very  secondary'  importance.  It  was  mere- 
ly the  receptacle  for  water,  in  which,  after  the  perform- 
ance of  magical  rites,  ai  boy  looked  to  see  what  the  ma- 
gician desired.  This  is  precisely  the  same  as  the  prac- 
tice of  the  modern  Egyptian  magicians,  where  the  dif- 
ference that  ink  is  employed  and  is  poured  into  the  palm 
of  the  boy's  hand  is  merely  accidental.  A  Gnostic  papy- 
rus in  Greek,  ^mtten  in  Egypt  in  the  earlier  centuries 
of  the  Christian  oera,  now  preserved  in  the  British  JIu- 
seum,  describes  the  practice  of  the  boy  with  a  bowl,  and 
alleges  residts  strikingly  similar  to  the  alleged  results 
of  the  well-known  modern  Egyptian  magician,  whose 
divination  would  seem,  therefore,  to  be  a  relic  of  the  fa- 
mous magic  of  ancient  Egypt.  (See  Lane,  Mod.  Egyp- 
tians, ch.  xii,  for  an  accoimt  of  the  performances  of  this 
magician,  and  Mr.  Lane's  o)iinion  as  to  the  causes  of 
their  occasional  apparent  success.)  As  this  latter  use 
only  is  of  the  nature  of  divination,  it  is  probable  that  to 
it  Joseph  referred.  The  practice  may  have  been  prev- 
alent in  his  time,  and  hieroglyphic  inscriptions  upon 
the  bowl  may  have  given  color  to  the  idea  that  it  had 
magical  properties,  and  perhaps  even  that  It  had  thus 
led  to  the  discovery  of  its  place  of  concealn^ent,  a  dis- 
covery which  must  have  st-ruck  Joseph'^  brethren  with 
the  utmost  astonishment.     See  Cri". 

3.  The  magicians  of  Egypt  arc  spoken  of  as  a  class  in 
the  histories  of  Joseph  and  Moses.  When  Pharaoh's 
officers  were  troubled  by  their  dreams,  being  in  prison 


they  were  at  a  loss  for  an  interpreter.  Before  Joseph 
explained  the  dreams  he  disclaimed  the  power  of  inter- 
])reting  save  by  the  divine  aid,  saying, "  [Do]  not  inter- 
pretations [belong]  to  God  ?  tell  me  [them],  I  j)ray  you" 
(Gen.  xl,  8).  In  like  manner,  when  Pharaoh  had  his 
two  dreams,  we  find  that  he  had  recourse  to  those  who 
professed  to  interjiret  dreams.  We  read :  "  He  sent  and 
called  for  all  the  scribes  of  Egypt,  and  all  the  wise  men 
thereof:  and  Pharaoh  told  them  his  dream;  but  [there 
was]  none  that  could  interpret  them  unto  Pharaoh"  (xli, 
8 ;  comp.  ver.  24).  Joseph,  being  sent  for  on  the  report 
of  the  chief  of  the  cup-bearers,  was  told  by  Pharaoh  that 
he  had  heard  that  he  could  interpret  a  dream.  Joseph 
said,  "  [It  is]  not  in  me :  God  shall  give  Pharaoh  an  an- 
swer of  peace"  (ver.  IG).  Thus,  from  the  expectations 
of  the  Egyptians  and  Joseph's  disavowals,  we  see  that 
the  interpretation  of  dreams  was  a  branch  of  the  knowl- 
edge to  which  the  ancient  Egyptian  magicians  pretend- 
ed. The  failure  of  the  Egyptians  in  the  case  of  Phara- 
oh's dreams  must  probably  be  regarded  as  the  result  of 
their  inability  to  give  a  satisfactory  explanation,  for  it 
is  unlikely  that  they  refused  to  attempt  to  interpret. 
The  two  words  used  to  designate  the  interpreters  sent 
for  by  Pharaoh  are  d"i^l3^!n,  "scribes"  (?)  and  D'^B^rij 
"  wise  men." 

We  again  hear  of  the  magicians  of  Egypt  in  the  nar- 
rative of  the  events  before  the  exodus.  They  were 
summoned  by  Pharaoh  to  oppose  jNIoses.  The  account 
of  what  they  effected  requires  to  be  carefully  examined, 
from  its  bearing  on  the  question  whether  magic  be  an 
imposture,  ^^^e  read :  "And  the  Lord  sjiake  unto  IMoses 
and  unto  Aaron,  saying.  When  Pharaoh  shall  speak  unto 
j'ou,  saying.  Show  a  miracle  for  you :  then  thou  shalt 
say  unto  Aaron,  Take  thy  rod,  and  cast  [it]  before  Pha- 
raoh, [and]  it  shall  become  a  serpent."  It  is  then  re- 
lated that  Aaron  did  thus,  and  afterwards :  "  Then  Pha- 
raoh also  called  the  wise  men  and  the  enchanters :  now 
they,  the  scribes  of  Egypt,  did  so  by  their  secret  arts : 
for  they  cast  down  every  man  his  rod,  and  they  became 
serpents,  but  Aaron's  rod  swallowed  up  their  rods"  (Exod. 
vii,  8-12).  The  rods  were  probably  long  staves  like 
those  represented  on  the  Egyptian  monuments,  not 
much  less  than  the  height  of  a  man.  If  the  word  used 
mean  here  a  sequent,  the  Egyptian  magicians  may  have 
feigned  a  change :  if  it  signify  a  crocodile,  they  could 
scarcely  have  done  so.  The  names  by  which  the  magi- 
cians are  designated  are  to  be  noted.  That  which  we 
render  "  scribes''  seems  here  to  have  a  general  significa- 
tion, including  wise  men  and  enchanters.  The  last  term 
is  more  definite  in  its  meaning,  denoting  users  of  incan- 
tations. On  the  occasion  of  the  first  plague,  the  turn- 
ing of  the  rivers  and  waters  of  Eg;3'pt  into  blood,  the 
opposition  of  the  magicians  agaui  occurs.  "And  the 
scribes  of  Egypt  did  so  bj^  their  secret  arts"  (vii,  22). 
When  the  second  plague,  that  of  frogs,  was  sent,  the 
magicians  again  made  the  same  opposition  (viii,  7). 
Once  more  they  appear  in  the  history.  The  plague  of 
lice  came,  and  we  read  that  when  Aaron  had  worked 
the  wonder  tlie  magicians  opposed  him:  "And  the 
scribes  did  so  by  their  secret  arts  to  bring  forth  the  lice, 
but  they  could  not :  so  there  were  lice  ujion  man  and 
upon  beast.  And  the  scribes  said  unto  Pharaoh,  This 
[is]  the  finger  of  God :  but  Pharaoh's  heart  was  hard- 
ened, and  he  hearkened  not  unto  them,  as  tlic  Lord  had 
said"  (viii,  18, 19  [Heb.  14, 15]).  After  this  we  hear  no 
more  of  tiie  magicians.  All  we  can  gather  from  the 
naiTative  is  that  the  appearances  produced  by  them 
were  sufficient  to  deceive  Pharaoh  on  three  occasions. 
It  is  nowhere  declared  that  they  actually  produced  won- 
ders, since  the  expression  "  the  scribes  did  so  by  their 
secret  arts"  is  used  on  the  occasion  of  their  complete 
failure.  Nor  is  their  statement  that  in  the  wonders 
wrought  by  Aaron  they  saw  the  finger  of  God  any  proof 
that  they  recognised  a  power  superior  to  the  native  ob- 
jects of  worship  they  invoked,  for  we  find  that  the 
Egyptians  frequently  spoke  of  a  supreme  being  as  God. 
It  seems  rather  as  if  they  had  said, "  Our  juggles  are  of 


MAGIC 


643 


MAGIC 


no  avail  against  the  worlc  of  a  divinity."  There  is  one 
later  mention  of  these  transactions,  which  adds  to  onr 
infurraation,  but  does  not  decide  the  main  question.  St. 
Paul  mentions  Jannes  and  Jambres  as  having  "with- 
stood Moses,"  and  says  that  their  folly  in  doing  so  be- 
came manifest  (2  Tim.  iii,  8,  9).  The  Egyptian  charac- 
ter of  these  names,  the  first  of  which  is,  in  our  opinion, 
found  in  hieroglyphics,  is  not  inconsistent  with  the  opin- 
ion that  the  apostle  cited  a  prevalent  tradition  of  the 
Jews.     See  Jannes  and  Jambres. 

We  turn  to  the  Egyptian  illustrations  of  this  part  of 
the  subject.  Magic,  as  we  have  before  remarked,  was 
inherent  in  the  ancient  Egyptian  religion.  '  The  Kitual 
is  a  system  of  incantations  and  directions  for  making 
annUets,  with  the  object  of  securing  the  future  happi- 
ness of  the  disembodied  soul.  However  obscure  the  be- 
lief of  the  Egyptians  as  to  the  actual  character  of  the 
state  of  the  soul  after  death  may  be  to  us,  it  cannot  be 
doubted  that  the  knowledge  and  nse  of  the  magical  am- 
ulets and  incantations  treated  of  in  the  Kitual  Avas  held 
to  be  necessary  for  future  happiness,  although  it  was 
not  believed  that  they  alone  could  insure  it,  since  to 
have  done  good  works,  or,  more  strictly,  not  to  have 
committed  certain  sins,  was  an  essential  condition  of  the 
acquittal  of  the  soul  in  the  great  trial  in  Hades.  The 
thoroughly  magical  character  of  the  IJitual  is  most 
strikingly  evident  in  the  minute  directions  given  for 
making  amidets  (Todtenbuch,  ch.  c,  c.xxix,  cxxxiv),  and 
the  secrecy  enjoined  in  one  case  on  those  thus  occupied 
(ch.  cxxxiii).  The  later  chapters  of  the  Ritual  (clxiii- 
clxv),  held  to  have  been  added  after  the  compilation  or 
composition  of  the  rest,  which  theory,  as  ~Sl.  Chabas  has 
well  remarked,  does  not  prove  their  much  more  modern 
date  {Le  Papyrus  Magique  Harris,  p.  162),  contain  mj^s- 
tical  names  not  bearing  an  Egyptian  etymology.  These 
names  have  been  thought  to  be  Ethiopian ;  they  either 
have  no  signification,  and  are  mere  magical  gibberish, 
or  else  they  are,  mamly  at  least,  of  foreign  origin.  Be- 
sides the  Kitual  the  ancient  Egyptians  had  books  of  a 
purely  magical  character,  such  as  that  which  I\I.  Chabas 
has  edited  in  his  work  referred  to  above.  The  main 
source  of  their  belief  in  the  efficacy  of  magic  appears  to 
have  been  the  idea  that  the  souls  of  the  dead,  whether 
justified  or  condemned,  had  the  power  of  revisiting  the 
earth  and  taking  various  forms.  This  belief  is  abun- 
dantly used  in  the  moral  tale  of  '•  The  Two  Brothers," 
(if  which  the  text  has  recently  been  published  by  the 
trustees  of  the  British  Museum  (Sdc-ct  Papyri,  part  ii), 
and  we  learn  from  this  ancient  papyrus  the  age  and 
source  of  much  of  the  machinery  of  mediaeval  fictions, 
both  Eastern  and  Western.  A  likeness  that  strikes  us 
at  once  in  the  case  of  a  fiction  is  not  less  true  of  the 
liitual ;  and  the  perils  encountered  by  the  soul  in  Hades 
are  the  first  rude  indications  of  the  adventures  of  the 
heroes  of  Arab  and  German  romance.  The  regions  of 
terror  traversed,  the  mystic  portals  that  open  alone  to 
magical  words,  and  the  monsters  whom  magic  alone 
can  deprive  of  their  power  to  injure,  are  here  already  in 
the  book  that  in  part  was  found  in  the  reign  of  king 
Mencheres,  four  thousand  years  ago.  Bearing  in  mind 
the  Nigritian  nature  of  Egyptian  magic,  we  may  look 
for  the  source  of  these  ideas  in  primitive  Africa.  Theie 
we  find  the  realities  of  which  the  ideal  form  is  not  great- 
ly distorted,  though  greatly  intensified.  The  forests  that 
clothe  the  southern  slopes  of  snowy  Atlas,  full  of  fierce 
beasts ;  the  vast  desert,  untenanted  save  by  harmful  rep- 
tiles, swept  by  sand-storms,  and  ever  Inirning  under  an 
Uiichanging  sim;  the  marshes  of  the  south,  teeming 
with  brutes  of  vast  size  and  strength,  are  the  several 
zones  of  the  Eg\-ptian  Hades.  The  creatures  of  the 
desert  and  the  plains  and  slopes,  the  crocodile,  tlie  pach- 
ydcrmata,  the  lion,  perchance  the  gorilla,  are  the  genii 
that  hold  this  land  of  fear.  In  what  dread  must  the 
first  scanty  population  have  held  dangers  and  enemies 
still  feared  by  their  swarming  posterity.  No  wonder, 
then,  that  the  imaginative  Nigritians  were  struck  with 
a  superstitious  fear  which  certain  conditions  of  external 


nature  always  produce  with  races  of  a  low  type,  where 
a  higher  feeling  would  only  be  touched  by  the  analogies 
of  life  and  death,  of  time  and  eternity.  No  wonder  that, 
so  struck,  the  primitive  race  imagined  the  evils  of  the 
unseen  world  to  be  the  recurrence  of  those  against  which 
they  struggled  while  on  earth.  That  there  is  some 
ground  for  our  theory,  besides  the  generalization  which 
led  us  to  it,  is  shown  by  a  usual  Egyptian  name  of 
Hades,  "  the  West ;"  and  that  the  wild  regions  west  of 
Egypt  might  directly  give  birth  to  such  fancies  as  form 
the  common  ground  of  the  machinery,  not  the  general 
belief,  of  the  Kitual,  as  well  as  of  the  machinery  of  me- 
diaeval fiction,  is  shown  by  the  fables  that  the  rude 
Arabs  of  our  own  day  teU  of  the  wonders  they  have  seen. 

Like  all  nations  who  have  practiced  magic  generally, 
the  Egj'ptians  separated  it  into  a  lawful  kind  and  an 
unlawfid.  M.  Chabas  has  proved  this  from  a  papyrus 
which  he  finds  to  contain  an  account  of  the  prosecution, 
in  the  reign  of  Kameses  IH  (B.C.  cir.  1220),  of  an  official 
for  unlawfully  acquiring  and  using  magical  books,  the 
king's  property.  The  culprit  was  convicted  and  pun- 
ished with  death  (p.  1G9  sq.). 

A  beUef  in  unlucky  and  lucky  daj's,  in  actions  to  be 
avoided  or  done  on  certain  days,  and  in  the  fortune  at- 
tending birth  on  certain  days,  was  extremely  strong,  as 
■we  learn  from  a  remarkable  ancient  calendar  (Select 
Papyri,  part  i)  and  the  evidence  of  writers  of  antiquity. 
A  religious  prejudice,  or  the  occurrence  of  some  great 
calamity,  probably  lay  at  the  root  of  this  observance  of 
days.  Of  the  former  the  birthday  of  Typhon,  the  fifth 
of  the  Eijagotnena?,  is  an  instance.  Astrology  was  also 
held  in  liigh  honor,  as  the  calendars  of  certain  of  the 
tombs  of  the  kings,  stating  the  positions  of  the  stars  and 
their  influence  on  different  parts  of  the  bodj',  show  us; 
but  it  seems  doubtfid  whether  this  branch  of  magical 
arts  is  older  than  the  xviiith  dynasty,  although  certain 
stars  were  held  in  reverence  in  the  time  of  the  ivth  dy- 
nasty. The  belief  in  omens  probably  did  not  hold  an 
important  place  in  Egyptian  magic,  if  we  may  judge 
from  the  absence  of  direct  mention  of  them.  The  su- 
perstition as  to  "  the  evil  eve"  appears  to  have  been 
known,  but  there  is  nothing  else  that  we  can  class  Mith 
phenomena  of  the  nature  of  animal  magnetism,  'two 
classes  of  learned  men  had  the  charge  of  the  magical 
books:  one  of  these,  the  name  of  which  has  not  been 
read  phoneticalh',  would  seem  to.  correspond  to  the 
'•  scribes,"  as  we  render  the  ^Yord,  spoken  of  in  the  his- 
tory of  Joseph ;  whereas  the  other  has  the  general  sense 
of  "  wise  men,"  like  the  other  class  tl'ere  mentioned. 

There  are  no  representations  on  the  monuments  that 
can  be  held  to  relate  directly  to  the  practice  of  this  art, 
but  the  secret  passages  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  lately 
opened  in  the  great  temple  of  Denderah,  seem  to  have 
been  intended  for  some  puq^ose  of  imposture. 

4.  The  Mosaic  law  contains  very  distinct  prohibitions 
of  all  magical  arts.  Besides  several  passages  condemn- 
ing them,  in  one  place  there  is  a  specification  which  is 
so  full  that  it  seems  evident  that  its  object  is  to  include 
every  kind  of  magical  art.  The  reference  is  to  the  prac- 
tic2s  of  Canaan,  not  to  those  of  Egypt,  which  indeed  do 
not  seem  to  have  been  brought  away  by  the  Israelites, 
who,  it  may  be  remarked,  apparently  did  not  adopt 
Egyptian  idolatry,  but  only  that  of  foreigners  settled  in 
Egypt.     Sec  Kempiian. 

The  Israelites  are  commanded  in  the  place  referred 
to  not  to  learn  the  abominations  of  the  peoples  of  the 
Promised  Land.  Then  follows  this  prohiljition :  '•  Tliere 
shall  not  be  found  with  thee  one  who  offereth  liis  son 
or  his  daughter  by  fire,  a  practicer  of  divinations  (-Cp 
CiTiDp),  a  worker  of  hidden  arts  ("31"^),  an  augurer 
('Ctt;^),  an  enchanter  (C^'i"D73),  or  a  fabricator  of 
charms  {'•'ZTl  "^^Ti),  or  an  inquirer  by  a  familiar  spirit 
(:::is  bxb),  or  a  wizard  (ijir'ni),  or  a  consnlter  of  the 
dead  (C^r^ri'bx  "C'ln)."  It  is  added  that^these  are 
abominations,  and  that  on  account  ol'  their  practice  the 


MAGIC 


644 


MAGIC 


nations  of  Canaan  were  to  be  driven  out  (Dcut.  xviii, 
;)-14,  esp.  10, 11).     It  is  remarkable  that  the  ottering  of 
cliildren  should  be  mentioned  in  connection  with  magi- 
cal arts.     The  passage  in  Micah,  which  has  been  sup- 
).o?ed  to  preserve  a  question  of  Balak  and  an  answer  of 
IJalaam,  when  the  soothsayer  was  sent  for  to  curse  Is- 
rael, should  be  here  noticed,  for  the  questioner  asks, 
after  speaking  of  sacrifices  of  usual  kinds,  "Shall  I  give 
my  first-born  [for]  my  transgression,  the  fruit  of  my 
b()dy  [for]  the  sin  of  my  soul?"  (vi,  5-8).     Perhaps, 
however,  child -sacrifice  is  specified  on  account  of  its 
atrocity,  ^yhich  would  connect  it  with  secret  arts,  such  as 
^^•o  know  were  frequently,  in  later  times,  the  causes  of 
cruelty.     The  terms  which  follow  appear  to  refer  prop- 
erly to  eight  different  kinds  of  magic,  but  some  of  them 
are  elsewhere  used  in  a  general  sense.     1.  f^^Dp  -5P 
is  literally  "  a  diviner  of  divinations."     The  verb  tD]^ 
is  used  of  false  prophets,  but  also  in  a  general  sense  for 
divining,  as  in  the  narrative  of  Saul's  consultation  of 
the  witch  of  Endor,  where  the  king  says  "divine  unto 
me  (nisa  "il?  X3— il2iDp),  I  pray  thee,  by  the  familiar 
spirit"  (1  Sam.  xxviii,  8).     2.  "Sl"^  conveys  the  idea 
of  "  one  who  acts  covertly,"  and  so  "  a  worker  of  hidden 
.arts."     The  meaning  of  the  root  )^^  is  covering,  and 
the  supposed  connection  with  fascination  by  the  eyes, 
like  the  notion  of  "  the  evil  eye,"  as  though  the  original 
root  were  "the  eye"  ("i'^^'),  seems  untenable.     The  an- 
cient EgjiDtians  seem  to  have  held  the  superstition  of 
the  evil  eye,  for  an  ej^e  is  the  determinative  of  a  word 
which  appears  to  signify  some  kind  of  magic  (Chabas, 
Paiyyrus  Magique  Harris,  p.  170  and  note  4).    3.  UJnip, 
which  we  render  "an  augurer,"  is  from  Un3,  which  is 
literally  "  he  or  it  hissed  or  whimpered,"  and  in  Piel  is 
applied  to  the  practice  of  enchantments,  but  also  to  di- 
vining generally,  as  in  the  case  of  Joseph's  cup,  and 
where,  evidently  referring  to  it,  he  tells  his  brethren 
that  he  could  divine,  although  in  both  places  it  has 
been  read  more  vaguely  with  the  sense  to  foresee  or 
make  trial  (Gen.  xliv,  5, 15).     We  therefore  render  it 
by  a  term  which  seems  appropriate,  but  not  too  definite. 
The  supposed  connection  of  iTTO  with  TTHJ,  "a  ser- 
pent," as  though  meaning  serpent-divination,  must  be 
rejected,  the  latter  word  rather  coming  from  the  former, 
with  the  signification  "a  hisser."     The  name  Nahshon 
("idn:),  of  a  prince  of  Judah  in  the  second  year  after 
the  exodus  (Numb.i,  7 ;  Exod.  vi,  23 ;  Ruth  iv,  20,  etc.), 
means  "  enchanter :"  it  was  probably  used  as  a  proper 
name  in  a  vague  sense.     4.  C'fi;?^  signifies  "  an  en- 
chanter :"  the  original  meaning  of  the  verb  was  probably 
"  he  prayed,"  and  the  strict  sense  of  this  word  "  one  who 
uses  incantations."     5.  '^IIH  13"  seems  to  mean  "  a 

fabricator  of  material  charms  or  amulets,"  if  ^311,  when  i  simplest  explanation  seems  to  be  tliat  Balaam  was  never 
used  of  practicing  sorcery,  means  to  bind  magical  knots, 
and  not  to  bind  a  person  by  spells.  G.  SIX  >X'J  is  "an 
inquirer  by  a  familiar  spirit."  The  second  term  signi- 
fies a  bottie,  a  familiar  sjiirit  consulted  by  a  soothsayer, 
and  a  soothsayer  having  a  familiar  spirit.  The  Sept. 
usually  render  the  plural  n^X  by  iyyafT7-p(ju(''3'oi,  which 
has  been  rashly  translated  ventrilocpiists,  for  it  may  not 
signify  what  we  understand  by  the  latter,  but  refer  to 
the  mode  in  which  soothsayers  of  this  kind  gave  out 
their  responses:  to  this  subject  we  shall  recur  later. 
The  consulting  of  familiar  siiirits  may  mean  no  more 
than  inviiking  them  ;  but  in  the  Acts  we  read  of  a  dam- 
sel possessed  with  a  spirit  of  divination  (xvi,  IG-l.S)  in 
A^ry  distinct  terms.  This  kind  of  sorcery— divination 
by  a  familiar  spirit— was  practiced  by  the  witch  of  En- 
dor.  7.  ■'2i."n'i,  which  we  rcjulcr  "  a  wizard,"  is  properly 
"a  wise  man,"  but  is  always  applied  to  wizards  and 
false  prophets.  Gesenius  (r^c^a^//-.  s.  v.)  supposes  that 
in  Lev.  xx,  27  it  is  used  of  a  familiar  spirit,  but  surely 
the  reading  "  a  wizard"  is  there  more  probable.     8.  The 


last  term,  d'ir'2Jl~PX  'C'y^,  is  verj-  explicit,  meaning 
"a  consulter  of  the  dead;"  necromancer  is  an  exact 
translation  if  the  original  signification  of  the  latter  is 
retained,  instead  of  the  more  general  one  it  now  usually 
bears.  In  the  law  it  was  commanded  that  a  man  or 
woman  who  had  a  familiar  spirit,  or  a  wizard,  should  be 
stoned  (Lev.  xx,  27).  An  "  enchantress"  (HS'li'^'?)  was 
not  to  live  (Exod.  xxii,  18  [Heb.  17]).  LTsing  augurj' 
and  hidden  arts  was  also  forbidden  (Lev.  xix,  2G).  See 
Divination. 

5.  The  history  of  Balaam  shows  the  belief  of  some 
ancient  nations  in  the  powers  of  soothsayers.     When 
the  Israelites  had  begun  to  conquer  the  Land  of  Prom- 
ise, Balak,  the  king  of  Jloab,  and  the  elders  of  Midian, 
resorting  to  Pharaoh's  expedient,  sent  by  messengers 
with  "the  rewards  of  divination  (?D'i^&p)  in  their 
hands"  (Numb,  xxii,  7)  for  Balaam  the  diviner  (CD".|?il, 
.Josh,  xiii,  22),  whose  fame  was  known  to  them,  though 
he  dwelt  in  Aram.     Balak's  message  shows  what  he 
believed  Balaam's  powers  to  be :  "  Behold,  there  is  a 
people  come  out  from  Egypt:  behold,  they  cover  the 
face  of  the  earth,  and  they  abide  over  against  me :  come 
now  therefore,  I  pray  thee,  curse  me  this  people;  for 
they  [are]  too  mighty  for  me :  peradventure  I  shall 
prevail,  [that]  we  may  smite  them,  and  [that]  I  may 
drive  them  out  of  the  land :  for  I  wot  that  he  whom 
thou  blessest  [is]  blessed;  and  he  whom  thou  cursest  is 
cursed"  (Numb,  xxii,  5,  G).    We  are  told,  however,  that 
Balaam,  wamed  of  God,  first  said  that  he  could  not 
speak  of  himself,  and  then  by  inspiration  blessed  those 
whom  he  had  been  sent  for  to  curse.     He  appears  to 
have  received  inspiration  in  a  vision  or  a  trance.     In 
one  place  it  is  said,  "And  Balaam  saw  that  it  was  good 
in  the  eyes  of  the  Lord  to  bless  Israel,  and  he  went  not, 
now  as  before,  to  the  meeting  of  enchantments  (B'^^'Hi), 
but  he  set  his  face  to  the  wilderness"  (xxiv,  1).     From 
this  it  would  seem  that  it  was  his  wont  to  use  enchant- 
ments, and  that  when  on  other  occasions  he  went  away 
after  the  sacrifices  had  been  offered,  he  hoped  that  he 
could  prevail  to  obtain  the  wish  of  those  who  had  sent 
for  him,  but  was  constantly  defeated.     The  building  of 
new  altars  of  the  mystic  number  of  seven,  and  the  offer- 
ing of  seven  oxen  and  seven  rams,  seem  to  show  that 
Balaam  had  some  such  idea ;  and  the  marked  man- 
ner in  which  he  declared  "  there  is  no  enchantment 
(Cn;)  against  Jacob,  and  no  divination  (CCp)  against 
Israel"  (xxiii,  23),  proves  that  he  had  come  in  the  hope 
that  they  -would  have  availed,  the  diviner  here  being 
made  to  declare  his  own  powerlessness  while  be  blessed 
those  whom  he  was  sent  for  to  curse.    The  case  is  a  very 
difficult  one,  since  it  shows  a  man  who  was  used  as  an 
instrinuent  for  declaring  (uid's  will  trusting  in  ])ractices 
that  coidd   only  have  incurred  his  displeasure.     The 


a  true  prophet  but  on  this  occasion,  when  the  enemies 
of  Israel  -were  to  be  signally  confour.ded.  This  history 
affords  a  notable  instance  of  the  failure  of  magicians  in 
attempting  to  resist  the  divine  will.     See  Balaam. 

G.  The  account  of  Saul's  consulting  the  witch  of  En- 
dor  is  the  foremost  place  in  Scripture  of  those  which  re- 
fer to  magic.  The  supernatural  terror  of  which  it  is 
full  cannot,  however,  be  proved  to  be  due  to  this  art,  for 
it  lias  always  been  held  by  sober  critics  that  the  appear- 
ing of  Samuel  was  permitted  for  the  purpose  of  declaring 
the  doom  of  Saul,  and  not  that  it  was  caused  by  the  in- 
cantations of  a  sorceress.  As,  however,  the  narrative  is 
allowed  to  be  very  difficult,  we  may  kiok  for  a  moment 
at  the  evidence  of  its  authenticity.  The  details  are 
strictly  in  accordance  with  the  age:  there  is  a  simplic- 
ity in  the  manners  described  that  is  foreign  to  a  later 
time.  The  circumstances  are  agreeable  with  the  rest 
of  the  history,  and  especially  with  all  we  know  of  Saul's 
character,  llcre,  as  ever,  he  is  seen  resolved  to  gain  his 
ends  without  caring  what  wrong  he  does :  he  wishes  to 
considt  a  prophet,  and  asks  a  witch  to  call  up  his  shade. 


MAGIC 


645 


MAGIC 


Most  of  all,  the  vigor  of  the  narrative,  showing  ns  the 
scene  in  a  iew  words,  proves  its  antiquity  and  genuine- 
ness. We  can  see  no  reason  whatever  for  supposing 
that  it  is  an  interpolation. 

"  Now  Samuel  was  dead,  and  all  Israel  had  lamented 
him,  and  buried  him  in  Kamali,  even  in  his  own  city. 
And  Saul  had  put  away  tliose  that  had  familiar  spirits, 
and  the  wizards,  out  of  the  land.  And  the  Philistines 
gathered  themselves  together,  and  came  and  pitched  in 
Shunem ;  and  Saul  gathered  all  Israel  together,  and  they 
pitched  in  Gilboa."  That  the  Philistines  should  liave 
advanced  so  far,  sjireading  in  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  the 
garden  of  the  Holy  Land,  shows  the  straits  to  which 
Saul  had  come.  Here,  in  times  of  faith,  Sisera  was  de- 
feated b}^  Barak,  and  the  Jlidianitcs  were  smitten  by 
Gideon,  some  of  the  army  of  the  former  perishing  at 
En-dor  itself  (Psa.  Ixxxiii,  9, 10).  "And  when  Saul  saw 
the  host  of  the  Philistines,  he  was  afraid,  and  his  heart 
greatly  trembled.  And  when  Saul  inquired  of  the  Lord, 
the  Lord  answered  him  not,  neither  by  dreams,  nor  by 
Urim,  nor  by  prophets.  Then  said  Saul  unto  his  ser- 
vants. Seek  me  a  woman  that  liath  a  familiar  spirit,  that 
I  may  go  to  her,  and  inquire  of  her.  And  his  servants 
said  to  him.  Behold,  [there  is]  a  woman  that  hath  a  fa- 
miliar spirit  at  En-dor.  And  Saul  disguised  himself,  and 
put  on  other  raiment,  and  he  went,  and  two  men  with 
him,  and  they  came  to  the  woman  by  night."  En-dor 
lay  in  the  territory  of  Issachar,  about  seven  or  eight 
miles  to  the  northward  of  Mount  Gilboa.  Its  name,  the 
"  fountain  of  Dor,"  may  connect  it  with  the  Phoenician 
city  Dor,  which  was  on  the  coast  to  the  westward.  If 
so,  it  may  have  retained  its  stranger-population,  and 
been  therefore  chosen  by  the  witch  as  a  place  where 
she  might  ^vith  less  danger  than  elsewhere  practice  her 
arts.  It  has  been  noticed  that  the  mountain  on  whose 
slope  the  modern  village  stands  is  hollowed  into  rock- 
hewn  caverns,  in  one  of  which  the  witch  may  probably 
have  dwelt.  See  Ex-doij.  Saul's  disguise,  and  his 
journeying  by  night,  seem  to  have  been  taken  that  he 
might  not  alarm  the  woman,  rather  than  because  he 
may  have  passed  through  a  part  of  the  Philistine  force. 
The  Philistines  held  the  plain,  having  their  camp  at 
Shunem,  wliither  they  had  pushed  on  from  Aphek :  the 
Israelites  were  at  first  encamped  by  a  fomitain  at  Jez- 
reel,  but  when  their  enemies  had  advanced  to  Jezreel 
they  appear  to  have  retired  to  the  slopes  of  Gilboa, 
whence  there  was  a  way  of  retreat  either  into  the  moun- 
tains to  the  south,  or  across  Jordan.  The  latter  seems 
to  have  been  the  line  of  flight,  as,  though  Saul  was  slain 
on  Mount  Gilboa,  his  body  was  fastened  to  the  ^vall  of 
Bcthshan.  Thus  Saul  could  scarcely  have  reached  En- 
dor  without  passing  at  least  very  near  the  army  of  the 
Philistines.  "And  he  said,  divine  unto  me,  I  pray  thee, 
by  the  familiar  spirit,  and  bring  me  [him]  up  whom  I 
shall  name  unto  thee."  It  is  noticeable  that  here  witch- 
craft, the  inquiring  by  a  familiar  spirit,  and  necromancy, 
are  all  connected  as  though  but  a  single  art,  which  fa- 
vors the  idea  that  the  prohibition  in  Deuteronomy  spe- 
cifies every  name  by  Avhich  magical  arts  were  known, 
rather  than  so  many  different  kinds  of  arts,  in  order  that 
no  one  should  attempt  to  evade  the  condemnation  of 
such  practices  by  any  subterfuge.  It  is  evident  that 
Saul  thought  he  might  be  able  to  call  up  Samuel  by  the 
aid  of  the  witch,  but  this  does  not  prove  what  was  his 
own  general  conviction,  or  the  prevalent  conviction  of 
the  Israelites  on  the  suiiject.  He  was  in  a  great  ex- 
tremity; his  kingdom  in  danger;  himself  forsaken  of 
God:  he  was  weary  with  a  nifcht-joumey,  perhaps  of 
risk,  perhaps  of  great  length  to  avoid  the  enemy,  and 
faint  with  a  day's  fasting :  he  was  conscious  of  wrong 
as,  probably  for  the  first  time,  he  commanded  unholy 
rites  and  lieard  in  the  gloom  unholy  incantations.  In 
sucli  a  strait  no  man's  judgment  is  steady,  and  Saul  may 
have  asked  to  see  Samuel  in  a  moment  of  sudden  des- 
peration, when  he  had  only  meant  to  demand  an  oracu- 
lar answer.  It  may  even  be  thoup;ht  tliat.  yearning  for 
the  counsel  of  Samuel,  and  longing  to  karn  if  the"  net 


that  he  felt  closing  about  him  were  one  from  which  he 
should  never  escape,  Saul  had  that  keener  sense  that 
some  say  comes  in  the  last  hours  of  life,  and  so,  con- 
scious that  the  prophet's  shade  was  near,  or  was  about 
to  come,  at  once  sought  to  see  and  speak  with  it,  though 
this  had  not  before  been  purposed.  Strange  things  we 
know  occur  at  the  moment  when  man  feels  he  is  about 
to  die,  and  if  there  be  any  time  when  the  unseen  world 
is  felt  while  yet  unentered,  it  is  when  the  soul  first  comes 
within  the  chill  of  its  long-projected  shadow.  "And 
the  woman  said  unto  him.  Behold,  thou  knowest  what 
Saul  hath  done,  how  he  hath  cut  off  those  that  have  fa- 
miliar spirits,  and  the  wizards,  out  of  the  land :  where- 
fore, then,  layest  thou  a  snare  for  my  life,  to  cause  me  to 
die  ?  And  Saul  sware  to  her  by  the  Lord,  saying,  [As] 
the  Lord  liveth,  there  shall  no  punishment  happen  to 
thee  for  this  thing,"  Nothing  shows  Saul's  desperate 
resolution  more  than  his  thus  swearing  when  engaged 
in  a  most  unholy  act,  a  terrible  profanity  that  makes 
the  horror  of  the  scene  complete.  Everything  being 
prepared,  the  final  act  takes  place.  "Then  said  the 
woman.  Whom  shall  I  bring  up  unto  thee '?  And  he 
said.  Bring  me  up  Samuel.  And  when  the  woman  saw 
Samuel,  she  cried  with  a  loud  voice :  and  the  woman 
spake  to  Saul,  saying.  Why  hast  thou  deceived  me '?  for 
thou  [art]  Saul.  And  the  king  said  unto  her.  Be  not 
afraid:  for  what  sawest  thou?  And  the  woman  said 
unto  Saul,  I  saw  gods  ascending  out  of  the  earth.  And 
he  said  unto  her.  What  [is]  his  form?  And  she  said, 
An  old  man  cometh  up;  and  he  [is]  covered  with  a 
mantle.  And  Saul  perceived  that  it  [was]  Samuel,  and 
he  stooped  with  his  face  to  the  ground,  and  bowed  him- 
self. And  Samuel  said  to  Saul,  Why  hast  thou  disqui- 
eted [or  "disturbed"]  me,  to  bring  me  up?  And  Saul 
answered,  I  am  sore  distressed ;  for  the  Philistines  make 
war  against  me,  and  God  is  departed  from  me,  and  an- 
swereth  me  no  more,  neither  by  prophets,  nor  by  dreams ; 
therefore  I  have  called  thee,  that  thou  mayest  make 
known  unto  me  what  I  shall  do.  Then  said  Samuel, 
Wherefore,  then,  dost  thou  ask  of  me,  seeing  the  Lord 
is  departed  from  thee,  and  is  become  thine  enem}-? 
And  the  Lord  hath  done  to  him  as  he  spake  by  me ;  for 
the  Lord  hath  rent  the  kingdom  out  of  thine  hand,  and 
given  it  to  thy  neighbor,  [even]  to  David  :  because  thou 
obeyedst  not  the  voice  of  the  Lord,  nor  executedst  his 
fierce  wrath  upon  Amalek,  therefore  hath  the  Lord  done 
this  thing  unto  thee  this  day.  Moreover,  the  Lord  will 
also  deliver  Israel  with  thee  into  the  hand  of  the  Phil- 
istines; and  to-morrow  [shalt]  thou  and  thy  sons  [be] 
with  me :  the  Lord  also  shall  deliver  the  host  of  Israel 
into  the  hand  of  the  Philistines.  Then  Saul  fell  straight- 
way all  along  on  the  earth,  and  was  sore  afraid,  because 
of  the  words  of  Samuel :  and  there  was  no  strength  in 
him ;  for  he  had  eaten  no  iiread  all  the  day,  nor  all  the 
night"  (1  Sam.  xxviii,  3-20).  The  woman  clearly  was 
terrified  by  an  unexpected  apparition  when  she  saw 
Samuel.  She  must,  therefore,  either  have  been  a  mere 
juggler,  or  one  who  had  no  power  of  working  magical 
wonders  at  will.  The  sight  of  Samuel  at  once  showed 
her  who  had  come  to  considt  her.  The  prophet's  shade 
seems  to  have  been  preceded  by  some  majestic  shapes 
which  the  witch  called  gods.  Said,  as  it  seems  inter- 
rupting her,  asked  his  form,  and  she  described  the 
prophet  as  he  was  in  his  last  days  on  earth,  an  old  man, 
covered  either  with  a  mantle,  such  as  the  prophets  used 
to  wear,  or  wrapped  in  his  winding-sheet.  Then  Saul 
knew  it  was  Samuel,  and  bo\ved  to  the  ground  from  re- 
spect or  fear.  It  seems  that  the  woman  saw  the  ap- 
pearances, and  that  Saul  only  knew  of  them  through 
her,  perhaps  not  daring  to  look,  else  why  should  he  have 
asked  what  form  Samuel  had?  The  prophet's  com- 
plaint we  cannot  understand,  in  our  ignorance  as  to  the 
separate  state  :  thus  much  we  know,  that  state  is  always 
described  as  one  of  perfect  rest  or  sleep.  That  the  wom- 
an should  have  been  aljle  to  call  him  u]i  cannot  be  hence 
inferred  ;  her  astonishment  sliows  the  contrary ;  and  it 
would  be  explanation  enough  to  suppose  that  he  was 


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sent  to  give  Saul  the  last  warning,  or  that  the  earnest- 
ness of  the  king's  wish  had  been  permitted  to  disquiet 
him  in  his  resting-place.  Although  the  word  "disqui- 
eted" need  not  be  pushed  to  an  extreme  sense,  and  seems 
to  mean  the  interruption  of  a  state  of  rest,  our  transla- 
tors wisely,  we  think,  preferring  this  rendering  to  "  dis- 
turbed," it  cannot  be  denied  that,  if  we  hold  that  Sam- 
uel appeared,  this  is  a  great  difficulty.  If,  however,  we 
suppose  that  the  prophet's  coming  was  ordered,  it  is  not 
uiisurmountable.  The  declaration  of  Saul's  doom  agrees 
v.-ith  what  Samuel  liad  said  before,  and  was  fulfilled  the 
next  day,  when  the  king  and  his  sons  fell  on  Mount  Gil- 
boa.  It  may,  however,  be  asked,  Was  the  apparition 
Samuel  himself,  or  a  supernatural  messenger  in  his 
stead?  Some  may  even  object  to  our  holding  it  to 
have  been  aught  but  a  phantom  of  a  sick  brain ;  but,  if 
so,  what  can  we  make  of  the  woman's  conviction  that 
it  was  Samuel,  and  the  king's  horror  at  the  words  he 
heard,  or,  as  these  would  sa}',  that  he  thought  he  heard  ? 
It  was  not  onty  the  hearing  his  doom,  but  the  hearing 
it  in  a  voice  from  the  other  world  that  stretched  the 
faithless  strong  man  on  the  ground.  He  must  have  felt 
the  presence  of  the  dead,  and  heard  the  sound  of  a  se- 
jiulchral  voice.  IIow  else  could  the  doom  have  come 
true,  and  not  the  king  alone,  but  his  sons,  have  gone  to 
the  place  of  disembodied  souls  on  the  morrow?  for  to 
be  with  the  dead  concerned  the  soul,  not  the  body :  it  is 
no  difficulty  that  the  king's  corpse  was  unburied  till  the 
generous  men  of  Jabesh-gilead,  mindful  of  his  old  kind- 
ness, rescued  it  from  the  wall  of  Bethshan.  If,  then, 
the  apparition  was  real,  should  we  suppose  it  Samuel's? 
A  reasonable  criticism  would  say  it  seems  to  have  been 
so;  for  the  supposition  that  a  messenger  came  in  his 
stead  must  be  rejected,  as  it  would  make  the  speech  a 
mixture  of  truth  and  untruth ;  and  if  asked  what  suffi- 
cient cause  there  was  for  such  a  sending  forth  of  the 
prophet  from  his  rest,  we  may  reply  that  we  know  not 
the  reason  for  such  warnings  as  abound  in  the  Bible, 
and  that,  perhaps,  even  at  the  eleventh  hour,  the  door 
of  repentance  was  not  closed  against  the  king,  and  his 
impiety  might  have  been  pardoned  had  he  repented. 
Instead,  he  went  forth  in  despair,  and,  when  his  sons 
had  fallen  and  his  army  was  put  to  the  rout,  sore  wound- 
ed, he  fell  on  his  own  sword. 

From  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  this  strange  history 
we  have  no  warrant  ibr  attributing  supernatural  power 
to  magicians.  Viewed  reasonably,  it  refers  to  the  ques- 
tion of  apparitions  of  the  dead  as  to  which  other  places 
in  the  Bible  leave  no  doubt.  The  connection  with  mag- 
ic seems  purely  accidental.  The  witch  is  no  more  than 
a  by-stander  after  the  first :  she  sees  Samnel,  and  that 
is  all.  The  apparition  may  have  been  a  terrible  fulfil- 
ment of  Saul's  desire,  but  this  does  not  prove  that  the 
measures  he  used  were  of  any  power.  'We  have  exam- 
ined the  narrative  very  careful!}-,  from  its  detail  and  its 
remarkable  character :  the  result  leaves  the  main  ques- 
tion unanswered.     See  Incantation'. 

7.  In  the  later  days  of  the  two  kingdoms  magical 
practices  of  many  kinds  prevailed  among  the  Hebrews, 
as  we  especially  learn  frfim  the  condemnation  of  them 
by  the  proj)liL'ts.  Every  form  of  idolatry  which  the 
fjcople  had  adojited  in  succession  doubtless  brought  with 
it  its  magic,  which  seems  always  to  have  remained  with 
a  strange  tenacity  that  probably  made  it  outlive  the 
false  worship  with  which  it  was  connected.  Thus  the 
use  of  teraphim,  dating  from  the  patriarchal  age,  was 
not  abandoned  when  the  worship  of  the  Canaanitish. 
Phivnician,  and  Syrian  idols  had  been  successively 
adofited.  In  the  historical  books  of  Si-ripture  there  is 
little  notice  of  magic,  except  that  wherever  the  false 
prophets  are  mentioned  we  have,  no  doubt,  an  indication 
of  the  prevalence  of  magical  practices.  We  are  espe- 
cially tokl  of  Josiah  that  he  put  away  the  workers  with 
familiar  spirits,  the  wizards,  and  the  terajihim,  as  well 
as  the  idols  and  the  <ither  abominations  of  Judah  and 
Jerusalem,  in  i>erforniance  of  the  commands  of  the  buok 
of  the  law  which  had  been  found  ('2  Kings  xxiii,  2^). 


But  in  the  prophets  we  find  several  notices  of  the  magic 
of  the  Hebrews  in  their  times,  and  some  of  the  magic 
of  foreign  nations.  Isaiah  says  that  the  people  had  be- 
come workers  of  hidden  arts  (C^iii")  like  the  Philis- 
tines, and  apparently  alludes  in  the  same  place  to  the 
practice  of  magic  by  the  Bene-Kedem  (ii,  6).  The  na- 
tion had  not  only  abandoned  true  religion,  but  had  be- 
I  come  generally  addicted  to  magic  in  the  manner  of  the 
Philistines,  whose  Egyptian  origin  [see  Caphtok]  is 
consistent  with  such  a  condition.  The  origin  of  the 
Bene-Kedem  is  doubtful,  but  it  seems  certain  that  as 
late  as  the  time  of  the  Egyptian  wars  in  Syria,  under 
the  xixth  dynasty,  B.C.  cir.  1300,  a  race,  partly  at  least 
Mongolian,  inhabited  the  valley  of  the  Orontes,  among 
whom,  therefore,  we  should  again  expect  a  national  prac- 
tice of  magic,  and  its  prevalence  with  their  neighbors. 
Balaam,  too,  dwelt  with  the  Bene-Kedem,  though  he 
may  not  have  been  of  their  race.  In  another  place  the 
prophet  reproves  the  people  for  seeking  "unto  them 
that  have  familiar  spirits,  and  unto  the  wizards  that 
chirp,  and  that  mutter"  (viii,  19).  The  practices  of  one 
class  of  magicians  are  stiU  more  distinctly  described 
where  it  thus  said  of  Jerusalem:  "And  I  will  camp 
against  thee  round  about,  and  will  lay  siege  against 
thee  with  a  mount,  and  I  will  raise  forts  against  thee. 
And  thou  shalt  be  brought  down,  [and]  shall  speak  out 
of  the  ground,  and  thy  speech  shall  be  low  out  of  the 
dust,  and  thy  voice  shall  be,  as  of  one  that  hath  a  fa- 
miliar spirit,  out  of  the  ground,  and  thy  speech  shall 
whisper  out  of  the  dust"  (xxix,  3,  4).  Isaiah  alludes  to 
the  magic  of  the  Egj-ptians  when  he  says  that  in  their 
calamity  "  they  shall  seek  to  the  idols,  and  to  the  charm- 
ers [S'^IpN?],  and  to  them  that  have  familiar  spirits, 
and  to  the  wizards"  (xix,  3).  And  in  the  same  manner 
he  thus  taunts  Babylon :  "  Stand  now  with  thy  charms, 
and  with  the  multitude  of  thine  enchantments,  wherein 
thou  hast  labored  from  thy  youth ;  if  so  be  thou  shalt 
be  able  to  profit,  if  so  be  thou  mayest  prevail.  Thou 
art  wearied  in  the  multitude  of  thy  counsels.  Let  now 
the  viewers  of  the  heavens  [or  astrologers],  the  star- 
gazers,  the  monthly  prognosticators,  stand  up  and  save 
thee  from  [these  things]  that  shall  come  upon  thee" 
(xlvii,  12,  lo).  The  magic  of  Babylon  is  here  charac- 
terized by  the  prominence  given  to  astrology,  no  magi- 
cians being  mentioned  exccjiting  practlcers  of  this  art; 
unlike  the  case  of  the  Egyptians,  with  whom  astrology 
seems  always  to  have  held  a  lower  place  than  with  the 
Chaktean  nation.  In  both  instances  the  folly  of  those 
who  seek  the  aid  of  magic  is  shown. 

Micah,  declaring  the  judgments  coming  for  the  crimes 
of  his  time,  speaks  of  the  prevalence  of  divination  among 
prophets  who  most  ]n-obably  were  such  pretended  proph- 
ets as  the  opponents  of  Jeremiah,  not  avowed  prophets 
of  idols,  as  Ahab's  seem  to  have  been.  Concerning  these 
prophets  it  is  said,  "  Night  [shall  be]  unto  you,  that  ye 
shall  not  have  a  vision ;  and  it  shall  be  dark  unto  you, 
that  ye  shall  not  divine;  and  the  sun  shall  go  down 
over  the  prophets,  and  the  day  shall  be  dark  over  them. 
Then  shall  the  seers  be  ashamed,  and  the  diviners  con- 
founded; yea,  they  shall  all  cover  their  lip;  for  [there 
is]  no  answer  of  Cod"  (iii,  G,  7).  Later  it  is  said  as  to 
Jerivsalem, "  The  heads  thereof  judge  for  reward,  and  the 
priests  thereof  teach  for  hire,  and  the  prophets  thereof 
divine  for  money;  yet  will  they  lean  upon  the  Lord, 
and  say,  [Is]  not  the  Lord  among  us?  none  evil  cau 
come  upon  us"  (vcr.  11).  These  prophets  seem  to  have 
practiced  unlawful  arts,  and  yet  to  have  expected  reve- 
lations. 

Jeremiah  was  constantly  ojijioscd  by  false  projihets, 
who  pretended  to  sjieak  in  the  name  of  the  Lord,  saying 
that  they  had  dreamed,  when  they  told  false  visions, 
and  who  practiced  various  magical  arts  (xiv,  14 ;  xxiii, 
2.5,  ad  fin. ;  xxvii,  0, 10 — where  the  several  designations 
a])plied  to  those  who  counselled  the  people  not  to  serve 
the  king  of  Babylon  may  be  used  in  contempt  of  the 
false  prophets — xxix,  8,  9). 


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Ezekicl,  as  we  should  have  expected,  affords  some 
remarkable  details  of  the  magic  of  his  time,  in  the  clear 
and  forcible  descriptions  of  his  visions.  From  liim  we 
learn  that  fetishism  was  among  tlie  idolatries  which  the 
Hebrews,  in  the  latest  days  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah, 
had  adopted  from  their  neighbors,  like  the  Eomans  in 
the  age  of  general  corruption  that  caused  the  decline 
of  their  empire.  In  a  vision,  in  wliich  the  prophet  saw 
the  abominations  of  Jerusalem,  he  entered  the  chambers 
of  imagery  in  the  Temple  itself:  "I  went  in  and  saw, 
and  behold,  every  form  of  creeping  things,  and  abomi- 
nable beasts,  and  all  the  idols  of  the  house  of  Israel, 
portrayed  upon  the  wall  round  about."  Here  seventy 
elders  were  offering  incense  in  the  dark  (viii,  7-12). 
This  idolatry  was  probably  borrowed  from  Egypt,  for 
the  description  perfectly  answers  to  that  of  the  dark 
sanctuaries  of  Egyptian  temples,  with  the  sacred  ani- 
mals portrayed  upon  their  walls,  and  does  not  accord 
v.ith  the  character  of  the  Assyrian  sculptures,  where 
creeping  thuigs  are  not  represented  as  objects  of  wor- 
ship. With  this  low  form  of  idolatry  an  equally  low 
kind  of  magic  obtained,  practiced  by  prophetesses  who 
for  small  rewards  made  amulets  by  Avhich  the  people 
were  deceived  (xiii,  17,  ad  fin.).  The  passage  must  be 
allowed  to  be  very  difficult,  but  it  can  scarcely  be  doubt- 
ed that  amulets  are  referred  to  which  were  made  and 
sold  by  these  -women,  and  perhaps  also  Avorn  by  them. 
We  may  probably  read:  "Woe  to  the  [women]  that 
sew  pillows  upon  all  joints  of  the  hands  [elbows  or  arm- 
holes?],  and  make  kerchicts  upon  the  head  of  ever}' 
stature  to  hunt  souls !"  (xiii,  18).  If  so,  we  have  a  prac- 
tice analogous  to  that  of  the  modern  Egyptians,  who 
hang  amulets  of  the  kind  called  hegab  upon  the  right 
side,  and  of  the  Nubians,  who  hang  them  on  the  upper 
part  of  the  arm.  We  cannot,  in  any  case,  see  ho\v  tlie 
passage  can  be  explained  as  simply  referring  to  the  lux- 
urious dress  of  the  women  of  that  time,  since  the  prophet 
distinctly  alludes  to  pretended  visions  and  to  divinations 
(ver.  23).  using  almost  the  same  expressions  that  he  ap- 
plies in  another  place  to  the  practices  of  the  false  proph- 
ets (xxii,  28).  The  notice  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  divina- 
tion by  arrows,  where  it  is  said  "  he  shutHed  arrows" 
(xxi,  21),  must  refer  to  a  practice  the  same  or  similar  to 
the  kind  of  divination  by  arrows  called  El-lNIeysar,  in 
use  among  the  pagan  Arabs,  and  forbidden  in  the  Koran. 
See  Ajmulet. 

8.  The  references  to  magic  in  the  book  of  Daniel  re- 
late wholly  to  that  of  Babylon,  and  not  so  much  to  the 
art  as  to  those  who  used  it.  Daniel,  when  taken  cap- 
tive, was  instructed  in  the  learning  of  the  Chaldreans, 
and  placed  among  the  wise  men  of  Babylon  (ii,  18),  by 
whom  we  are  to  understand  the  magi  (b'2'2  ■^p'^Stl),  for 
the  term  is  used  as  including  magicians  (QiBlJ'iri), 
sorcerers  (CiEli'X),  enchanters  (C^BIi-'w^),  astrologers 
C]"!"!]!?!),  and  Chakteans,  the  last  being  apparently  the 
most  ^important  class  (ii,  2,  4,  5,  10,  12,  U,  18,  24,  27; 
comp.  i,  20).  As  in  other  cases,  the  true  prophet  was 
put  to  the  test  with  the  magicians,  and  he  succeeded 
where  they  utterly  failed.  The  case  resembled  Pha- 
raoh's, excepting  that  Nebuchadnezzar  asked  a  harder 
thing  of  the  wise  men.  Having  forgotten  his  dream, 
he  not  only  required  of  them  an  interpretation,  but  that 
they  should  make  known  the  dream  itself.  They  were 
perfectly  ready  to  tell  the  interpretation  if  only  they 
heard  the  dream.  The  king  at  once  saw  that  they  were 
impostors,  and  that  if  they  truly  had  supernatural  pow- 
ers they  could  as  well  tell  him  his  dream  as  its  meaning. 
Therefore  he  decreed  the  death  of  all  the  wise  men  of 
Babylon;  but  Daniel,  praying  that  he  and  his  fellows 
might  escape  this  destruction,  had  a  vision  in  which  the 
matter  was  revealed  to  him.  He  was  accordingly 
brought  before  the  king.  Like  Joseph,  he  disavowed 
any  knowledge  of  his  own.  "The  secret  which  the 
king  hath  demanded,  the  wise  men,  the  sorcerers,  the 
magicians,  the  astrologers,  cannot  show  unto  the  king; 
but  there  is  a  God  in  heaven  that  revealeth  secrets" 


(vef.  27,  28).  "  But  as  for  me,  this  secret  is  not  reveal- 
ed to  me  for  [any]  wisdom  that  I  have  more  than  any 
living"  (ver.  30).  He  then  related  the  dream  and  its 
interpretation,  and  wa's  set  over  the  province  as  well  as 
over  all  the  wise  men  of  Babylon.  Again  the  kiiyj 
dreamed;  and,  though  he  told  them  the  dream,  the  wise 
men  coidd  not  interiiret  it,  and  Daniel  again  showed  the 
meaning  (iv,  4  sq.).  In  the  relation  of  this  event  we 
read  that  the  king  called  him  "  chief  of  the  scribes,"  the 
second  part  of  the  title  being  the  same  as  that  applied 
to  the  Egyptian  magicians  (iv,  9  [Chald.  6]).  A  third 
time,  when  Belshazzar  saw  the  writing  on  the  wall,  the 
wise  men  were  sent  for, and, on  their  failing, Daniel  A\as 
brought  before  the  king  and  the  interpretation  given 
(chap.  v).  These  events  are  perfectly  consistent  with 
what  always  occurred  in  all  other  cases  recorded  in 
Scripture  when  the  practicers  of  magic  were  placed  in 
opposition  to  true  prophets.  It  may  be  asked  by  some 
how  Daniel  could  take  the  post  of  chief  of  the  wise  men 
when  he  had  himself  proved  their  imposture.  If,  how- 
ever, as  we  cannot  doubt,  the  class  were  one  of  the 
learned  generally,  among  whom  some  practiced  magical 
arts,  the  case  is  very  different  from  what  it  would  have 
been  had  these  wise  men  been  magicians  only.  Besides, 
it  seems  almost  certain  that  Daniel  was  providentially 
thus  placed  that,  like  another  Joseph,  he  might  further 
the  welfare  and  ultimate  return  of  his  people.    See  Magi. 

9.  After  the  Captivity,  it  is  probable  that  the  Jews 
gradually  abandoned  the  practice  of  magic.  Zechariah 
speaks  indeed  of  the  deceit  of  teraphim  and  diviners  (x, 
2),  and  foretells  a  time  when  the  very  names  of  idols 
should  be  forgotten,  and  false  prophets  have  virtually 
ceased  (xiii,  1-4),  yet  in  neither  case  does  it  seem  cer- 
tain that  he  is  alluding  to  the  usages  of  his  own  day. 

10.  In  the  Apocr^^oha  we  find  indications  that  in  the 
later  centuries  preceding  the  Cln-istian  ssia  magic  was 
no  longer  practiced  by  the  educated  Jews.  In  the  Wis- 
dom of  Solomon,  the  writer,  speaking  of  the  Egyptian 
magicians,  treats  their  art  as  an  imposture  (xvii,  7), 
The  book  of  Tobit  is  an  exceptional  case.  If  we  hold 
that  it  was  written  in  Persia  or  a  neighboring  countrj', 
and,  with  Ewald,  date  its  composition  not  long  after  the 
fall  of  the  Persian  empire,  it  is  obvious  that  it  relates  to 
a  different  state  of  society  from  that  of  the  Jews  of  Egypt 
and  Palestine.  If,  however,  it  was  written  in  Palestine 
about  the  time  of  the  Maccabees,  as  others  suppose,  we 
must  stUl  recoUect  that  it  refers  rather  to  the  supersti- 
tions of  the  common  people  than  to  those  of  the  learned. 
In  either  case  its  pretensions  make  it  unsafe  to  follow  as 
indicating  the  opinions  of  the  time  at  which  it  was  writ- 
ten. It  professes  to  relate  to  a  period  of  which  its  writer 
could  have  known  little,  and  borrows  its  idea  of  super- 
natural agency  from  Scripture,  adding  as  much  as  was 
judged  safe  of  current  superstition. 

11.  In  the  N.  Test,  we  read  very  little  of  magic.  The 
coming  of  magi  to  worship  Christ  is  indeed  related 
(Matt,  ii,  1-12),  but  we  have  no  warrant  for  supposing 
that  they  were  magicians  from  their  name,  which  the 
A.  V.  not  unreasonabl}'  renders  "  wise  men."  See  Magi. 
Our  Lord  is  not  said  to  have  been  opposed  by  magicians, 
and  the  apostles  and  other  early  teachers  of  the  Gospel 
seem  to  have  rarely  encountered  them.  Philip  the  dea- 
con, when  he  preached  at  Samaria,  found  there  Simon, 
a  famous  magician,  commonly  known  as  Simon  Magus, 
who  had  had  great  power  over  the  people ;  but  he  is  not 
said  to  have  been  able  to  Avork  wonders,  nor,  had  it 
been  so,  is  it  likely  that  he  would  have  soon  been  ad- 
mitted into  the  Church  (Acts  viii,  9-24).  When  Bar- 
nabas and  Paul  were  at  Paphos,  as  they  preached  to  the 
proconsul  Sergius  Pauliis,  Elymas,  a  Jewish  sorcerer  and 
false  prophet  (rnni  (h'Ona  jiayov  xpiyei'SoTrpocpi'jTrjv) 
withstood  them,  and  was  struck  blind  for  a  time  at  the 
word  of  Paul  (xiii,  G-12).  At  Ephesus,  certain  Jewish 
exorcists  signally  failing,  both  Jews  and  Greeks  were 
afraid,  and  abandoned  their  practice  of  magical  arts. 
"And  many  that  believed  came,  and  confessed,  and 
showed  their  deeds.     Jlany  of  them  also  which  used 


MAGIC 


648 


MAGIE 


curious  arts  brought  their  books  together,  and  burned 
them  before  all:  and  they  counted  the  price  of  them, 
and  found  [it]  fifty  thousand  [pieces]  of  silver"  (xix, 
18,  1I>).  Here  both  Jews  and  Greeks  seem  to  have 
been  greatly  addicted  to  magic,  even  after  they  had 
nominally  joined  the  Church.  See  Ephesus.  In  all 
these  cases  it  appears  that  though  the  practicers  were 
generally  or  always  Jews,  the  field  of  their  success  was 
with  (icutiles,  showing  that  among  tlic  Jews  in  general, 
or  the  educated  class,  the  art  had  fallen  into  disrepute. 
Here,  as  before,  there  is  no  evidence  of  any  real  effect 
produced  b}'  the  magicians,  ^\'e  have  already  noticed 
the  remarkable  case  of  the  "  damsel  having  a  spirit  of 
divination"  {txovtrav  nvevfia  wv^uiva)  "which  brought 
her  masters  much  gain  by  foretelling"  (nuvTivoi.ikvi]), 
from  whom  Paul  cast  out  tlie  sjMrit  of  divination  (xvi, 
16-18).  This  is  a  matter  belonging  to  another  subject 
than  that  of  magic.     See  Prophecv. 

Our  examination  of  the  various  notices  of  magic  in 
the  Bible  gives  us  this  general  result :  They  do  not,  as 
far  as  we  can  understand,  once  state  positively  that  any 
but  illusive  results  were  produced  by  magical  rites. 
They  therefore  afford  no  evidence  that  man  can  gain 
supernatural  powers  to  use  at  his  will.  This  conse- 
quence goes  some  way  towards  showing  that  we  may 
conclude  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  real  magic ;  for, 
although  it  is  dangerous  to  reason  on  negative  evidence, 
yet  in  a  case  of  this  kind  it  is  especially  strong.  Had 
any  but  illusions  been  worked  by  magicians,  surely  the 
Scriptures  woidd  not  have  passed  over  a  fact  of  so  much 
importance,  and  one  which  would  have  rendered  the 
prohibition  of  these  arts  far  more  necessary.  The  gen- 
eral belief  of  mankind  in  magic,  or  things  akin  to  it,  is 
of  no  -worth,  since  the  holding  of  such  current  supersti- 
tion in  some  of  its  branches,  if  we  push  it  to  its  legiti- 
mate consequences,  would  lead  to  the  rejection  of  faith 
in  God's  goveniment  of  the  world,  and  the  adoption  of 
a  creed  far  below  that  of  Plato. 

From  the  conclusion  at  which  we  have  arrived,  that 
there  is  no  evidence  in  the  Bible  of  real  results  having 
been  >vorked  by  supernatural  agency  used  by  magicians, 
we  may  draw  this  important  inference  that  the  absence 
of  any  proof  of  the  same  in  profane  literature,  ancient 
or  modern,  in  no  way  militates  against  the  credibility 
of  the  miracles  recorded  in  Scripture. 

HI.  During  the  Middle  Ages,  and  down  almost  to  the 
18th  ccnturj',  magic  was  greatly  studied  in  Europe,  and 
could  boast  of  distinguished  names,  who  attempted  to 
treat  it  as  a  grand  and  mj-sterious  science,  by  means  of 
which  the  secrets  of  nature  could  be  discovered,  and  a 
certain  godlike  power  acquired  over  tlie  "  spirits"  (or, 
as  we  should  now  say,  the  '•  forces")  of  the  elements. 
The  principal  students  and  professors  of  magic  during 
the  period  referred  to  were  pope  Sylvester  H,  Albert  us 
Magnus,  Roger  Bacon,  Paymond  Lully,  Pico  della  Wi- 
randola.  Paracelsus,  Cornelius  Agrippa,  Tritliemius,Yan 
Helmont,  and  Jerome  Cardan.  See  Horst's  Von  dtr  A  l- 
len  itnd  Xeuen  3/af/ie,  Ursprmif),  Idee,  Umfang  und  Ge- 
sc/tic/i/c  (Mcntz,  18-20),  and  Ennemoscr's  Geschichie  der 
M(i/ji  CJd  edit.  Leips.  1844;  transl.  into  English  by  W. 
Howitt,  2  vols.  Loud.  18r)-l).  For  an  interesting  account 
of  the  discipKne  and  ceremonies  of  the  "art,"  consult 
the  J)o(/iiu'  et  Rititd  de  Ik  Haute  Miu/ie  (2  vols.  Paris, 
1S5G),  by  Eliphas  Levi,  one  of  its  latest,  adherents.  For 
monographs  on  the  general  subject,  see  Yolbeding,  In- 
dex rriiiirammatum,  ]>.  100.  jMany  curious  notices  have 
been  ccllccted  by  Thomson  in  his  rinlosophy  of  Mar/ic 
(tj-anslated  from  the  French  of  Salverte,  Lond*.  1846,  2 
vols.).  See  also  Jlaury,  /.(/  Magic,  et  l\i  strvloffie  (Par- 
is, 1860).  The  .1  rahiaii  Xi<jhts'  Entertaimnent.':  is  well 
known  as  a  classical  text-book  on  Oriental  views  of 
magic.  For  other  literature,  compare  Necuomancer  ; 
SoKCiOHEi:.  For  the  legendary  wonder-working. \\hicli 
seems  to  have  been  the  basis  of  the  traditionary  fame 
of  free-masonrv,  see  Soi.o.mon.  Alchemy  and  astrology 
(q.  V.)  have  Ukewise  furni>hed  their  quota  of  interest  to 
the  subject.     For  the    media-val  thaumaturgic  prac- 


tices, see  RosiCRVciANs ;  for  the  later  superstitions,  see 
Witchcraft  ;  for  the  modem,  see  Spiritualisji. 

Magician  (Chald.  tii:"in,  churtom' ;  Heb.  plural 
D'^HDiri,  chartummim' ,  thought  by  Gesenius,  Thesani: 
p.  520,  to  be  of  Heb.  origin,  signifjing  " sacred  scribe'^), 
a  title  "applied  to  the  'wise  men'  of  Egypt  (Gen.  xli, 
8,  22  ;  Exod.  vii,  11 ;  viii,  7,  18,  10  ;  ix,  11)  and  of  Bab- 
ylon (Dan.  i,  20 ;  ii,  2).  The  word  '  magicians'  is  not  in 
either  case  properly  applied,  as  the  rnagi  proper  are 
usually  assigned  to  Persia  rather  than  to  Baliylon  or 
Egypt,  and  should  be  altogether  avoided  in  such  ajipli- 
cation,  seeing  that  it  has  acquired  a  sense  different  from 
that  which  it  once  bore.  The  term  rather  denotes 
'  wise  men,'  as  they  called  themselves  and  were  called 
by  others ;  but,  as  we  should  call  them, '  men  eminent 
in  learning  and  science,'  their  exclusive  possession  of 
which  in  their  several  comitries  enabled  them  occasion- 
ally to  produce  effects  which  were  accounted  supernat- 
ural b}'  the  people.  Pythagoras,  who  was  acquainted 
with  Egypt  and  the  East,  and  who  was  not  unaware  of 
the  unfathomable  depths  of  ignorance  which  lie  under 
the  highest  attainable  conditions  of  human  knowledge, 
thought  the  modest  title  of  philosopher  {(bi\6ao<poQ), 
'  lover  of  wisdom,'  more  becoming,  and  accordingly  he 
brought  it  into  use ;  but  that  of '  wise  men'  still  retained 
its  hold  in  the  East.  It  is  thought  that  the  Egyptian 
chartummim  were  those  of  the  Egyptian  priests  who 
had  charge  of  the  sacred  records.  There  can  be  little 
doubt  that  they  belonged  to  some  branch  of  the  priest- 
hood, seeing  that  the  more  recondite  departments  of 
learning  and  science  were  cultivated  exclusively  in  that 
powerful  caste"  (Kitto).  See  Magi.  See  Jablonski, 
Proleg.  in  Panth.  ^flgypt.  p.  91  sq. ;  Creuzer,  Mythologie 
und  SymholiJc,  i,  245  ;  Wilkinson,  Anc.  Egyptians,  ii,  316 
sq. ;  Kenrick,  Egypt  under  the  Pharaohs,  i,  382.  See 
Magic. 

Magicians.  The  early  Christians  were  derided 
by  this  name.  Celsus  and  others  pretended  that  our 
Saviour,  because  he  wrought  miracles,  practiced  magic, 
which  he  had  learned  in  Eg^'pt.  Augustine  speaks  of 
a  popular  belief  among  the  enemies  of  the  Christian 
faith  that  our  Saviour  had  written  books  on  magic, 
which  he  delivered  to  Peter  and  Paul  for  the  use  of  his 
disciples.  One  of  the  Roman  historians  calls  the  Chris- 
tians genus  hominum  superstitionis  malijica!,  which  may 
be  understood  to  mean  "  men  of  the  magical  supersti- 
tions." In  the  martyrdom  of  Agnes,  tlie  people  cried 
out,  "Away  with  the  sorceress!  Away  with  the  en- 
chantress !" 

Magid'do    (Maytccw,  1   Esdr.  i,  29).     See  Me- 

GIDDO. 

Magie,  David,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister  of 
note,  was  born  in  Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  March  13,  1795;  be- 
came a  subject  of  renewing  grace  at  the  age  of  eighteen; 
two  years  after  united  with  the  Presbyterian  Church ; 
soon  after  entered  Princeton  College,  and,  subsequent  to 
his  graduation  from  the  theological  seminar^',  was  for 
two  j-ears  tutor  in  the  college.  In  1821  he  was  installed 
pastor  of  the  Second  Presbyterian  Church  of  Elizabeth, 
"  to  which  he  was  bound  as  by  a  golden  chain,  giving 
them  the  services  of  his  life,  till,  with  bleeding  and 
grateful  hearts,  they  yielded  him,  at  the  call  of  God.  to 
enter  his  eternal  joy,"  ISIay  10,  1865.  Dr.  Magic  de- 
clined many  calls  to  other  stations  of  responsibility  and 
eminence,  believing  the  pastoral  relation  too  sacred  to 
be  dissolved  but  at  the  unquestionable  bidding  of  the 
great  JVIaster.  "  He  was  indeed  'a  model  pastor.' .... 
Combining  temperance,  charity,  humility,  prudence, 
sound  judgment,  simplicity,  and  earnestness,  he  was  a 
faithful,  persevering,  successful  laborer  in  the  vineyard 
committed  to  his  charge.  He  preached  and  prayed 
with  a  power  and  unction  which  sank  deep  into  the 
hearts  of  his  hearers.  None  went  from  any  sermon 
without  having  had  the  way  of  salvation  by  Christ  af- 
fectionately and  clearly  presented  to  them."  He  was  a 
trustee  of  the  College  of  New  Jersey ;  a  pillar  in  the 


MAGILL 


649 


MAGISTRATE 


Theological  Seminary ;  a  member  of  the  American  Board 
of  Foreign  Missions,  also  of  the  Publishing  Committee 
of  the  American  Tract  Society,  etc.  Besides  several 
able  published  discourses,  Dr.  Magie  was  the  author  of 
The  Sprinci-time  of  Life  (an  excellent  volume  of  350 
pages,  published  by  the  American  Tract  Society,  N.  York, 
1852,  Itjmo;  1855,  IGmo),  "in  which  his  own  character, 
and  especially  his  care  and  counsels  for  the  young,  are 
happily  perpetuated."  See  Wilson,  Fresh.  Hist.  A  Ima- 
nac,  l.SGG,  p.  128, 

Magill,  Charles  Beatty,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  in  Wellsville,  Ohio,  Oct.  3, 18-10;  graduated  at 
]\Iiami  University,  Oxford,  Ohio,  in  1858 ;  studied  divin- 
ity at  the  Western  Theological  Seminary,  Allegheny  City, 
Pa.,  and  was  licensed  to  preach  in  April,  ISGl.  The  win- 
ter of  18G2-63  he  spent  at  Princeton,  N.  J. ;  subsequently 
he  preached  in  Virginia  and  Illinois ;  and  was  finally 
ordained  and  installed  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
of  Birmingham,  Iowa.  He  afterwards  spent  a  short  time 
in  the  service  of  the  Christian  Commission  in  Georgia, 
where  he  contracted  the  illness  of  which  he  died,  Aug. 
28, 18G4.  Mr.  jMagill  was  thoroughly  educated  and  de- 
voutlv  pious.  See  Wilson,  Presb.  I/isf.  Almanac,  18G5, 
p.  98."    (,T.L.S.) 

Maginnis,  John  Sharp,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister, 
was  born  in  Butler  Co..  Pa.,  June  13, 1805 ;  was  licensed 
to  preaeli  May  25,  1827 ;  studied  afterwards  at  Water- 
ville  College,  INIe.,  Brown  Universitj>  and  the  theolog- 
ical seminary  in  Newton,  Mass. ;  was  ordained  pastor  of 
the  First  Baptist  Church  of  Portland,  Mc,  m  Oct.  1832, 
and  there  remained  initil  ill  health  compelled  him  to 
remove.  In  the  winter  of  1837-38  he  was  pastor  of  the 
Pine  Street  Church  of  Providence,  E.  I. ;  later  he  be- 
came prfifessor  of  Biblical  theology  in  the  literary  and 
theological  institution  at  Hamilton,  N.  Y.  (now  IMadison 
University) ;  in  1850,  professor  of  Biblical  and  pastoral 
theology  in  the  new  theological  school  connected  with 
the  Kochester  University,  and  also  professor  of  intel- 
lectual and  moral  philosophy  in  the  university.  He 
was  made  ]M.A.  by  Waterville  College  while  at  Hamil- 
ton, and  D.D.  by  Brown  University  in  1844.  Failing 
liealth  finally  compelled  him  to  resign  his  professorship 
in  the  University,  but  he  continued  his  labors  in  the 
theological  school  until  his  death,  Oct.  15,  1852.  Dr. 
Maginnis  published  only  a  few  detached  articles,  among 
them  one  on  the  philosophy  of  Cousin  (published  in  the 
Christian  Revieio),  which  attracted  much  attention.  See 
Sprague,  .4  nnals,  vi, 766 ;  Christian  Rev.  vol.  xviii  (Jan.). 
Magister  DLscipliuEe  (master  of  discipline)  was 
the  title  of  a  certain  ecclesiastical  officer  in  the  ancient 
Church.  It  was  a  custom  in  Spain,  in  the  time  of  the 
Gothic  kings,  about  the  end  of  the  5th  century,  fiir  par- 
ents to  dedicate  their  young  children  to  the  service  of 
the  Church.  They  were  taken  for  this  purpose  into  a 
bishop's  family,  and  educated,  under  his  supervision,  by 
a  discreet  and  grave  person,  who  was  generally  a  pres- 
byter, and  was  called  mar/ister  clisciplinre.  The  second 
and  fourth  covmcils  of  Toledo  prescribed  the  duties  of 
this  master,  the  chief  of  which  were,  that  he  should  vig- 
ilantlv  watch  over  the  moral  character  and  behavior  of 
the  young,  and  instruct  them  in  the  rules  and  discipline 
of  the  Church. — Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Magister  Sacri  Palatii  (master  of  the  sacred 
palact^).  This  office  was  created  in  1218  by  pope  Hono- 
rius  III,  and  was  first  held  by  St.  Dominic.  The  latter, 
during  his  residence  at  Rome,  had  noticed  that  the  per- 
sons employed  by  the  cardinals  and  authorities  made  a 
bad  use  of  their  unemployed  time.  He  therefore  had 
commenced,  with  the  consent  of  the  pope,  to  give  them 
religious  instruction  during  their  leisure  time,  and  was 
rewarded  by  Honorius  with  the  above  office.  The  task 
assigned  was  like  that  \\\nc\\  Dominic  had  previously 
chosen  for  himself,  but  the  pope  increased  it  by  direct- 
ing that  the  employes  of  the  [i.-iiial  household  should 
also  attend  these  instructions.  The  office  was  made 
perpetual  to  the  Dominicans.     Many  privileges  were 


gradually  attached  to  it.     Thus  a  bull  of  pope  Eugenius 

IV,  of  143G,  ordered  that  in  the  papal  chapel  the  Magis- 
ter s.  palatii  should  be  placed  next  to  the  dean  of  the 
Auditore  della  Rota ;  no  one  Avas  to  preach  in  the  chapel 
without  his  permission;  and  on  his  being  temporarily 
absent  from  Rome,  he  was  to  invest  his  substitute  with 
the  same  privileges.  These  prerogatives  were  confirm- 
ed by  Calixtus  III  in  145G,  who  gave  also  the  right  to 
the  Magister  s.  palatii  of  reproving  the  preacher  in  the 
papal  chapel,  even  in  the  presence  of  tlie  pope.  Leo  X,  in 
1515,  decided  that  nothing  should  be  printed  in  the  dio- 
cese of  Rome  witliout  the  consent  of  that  official  and  of 
the  cardinal-vicar.  h\  1625  Urban  VIII  went  further, 
and  forbade  the  reprinting  of  works  published  in  the 
States  of  the  Church  without  tins  authorization.     Pius 

V,  in  1570,  connected  ^\^th  the  office  a  canonicate  of  St. 
Peter,  which  was,  however,  taken  from  it  in  1586  by 
Sixtus  V.  Finally,  Alexander  VII  gave  the  Magister 
s. palatii  the  precedence  before  all  the  other  clergy  com- 
posing the  Roman  cabinet.  These  privileges,  however, 
were  gradually  taken  back,  and  the  censorship  of  books 
now  alone  remains  to  tlie  Magister  s. palatii.  See  Mus- 
son,  Pragm.  Geschichte  d.  MOnchsorden,  viii,  33 ;  Helyot, 
Gesch.  d.  geisil.  Kluster-  u.  Ritterorden  (Leipzig,  1754),  iii, 
252 ;  Schrockh,  K.  G.  xxxiii,  95 ;  Herzog,  Real-Encgklop. 
viii,  685. 

Magistrate  (the  representative  in  the  Auth.Vers. 
of  several  Heb.  and  Gr.  words,  as  below),  a  public  civil 
officer  invested  with  authority.  Among  the  Hebrews, 
Greeks,  and  Romans,  the  corresponding  terms  had  a 
much  wider  signification  than  the  term  magistrate  has 
with  us.  The  Hebrew  CIJSU,  shophetim',  or  judges, 
were  a  kind  of  magistrates  (Deut.  i,  16, 17 ;  Ezra  vii,  25). 
See  JtTJGE.  The  phrase  in  Judges  xviii,  7,  "And  there 
was  no  magistrate  in  the  land,  that  might  put  tliem  lo 
shame  in  any  thing,"  ought  to  be  rendered,  "And  there 
were  none  to  harm  (Cbs)  at  all  in  the  land;  and  they 
were  jjossessed  {^'\*\^,  yoresh')  of  wealth."  So,  also,  the 
terms  "f'^?'"^!  'pUS'J,  shaphetin'  ve-dayanin',  rendered 
"  magistrates  and  judges"  (Ezra  vii,  25),  would  be  better 
rendered  "judges  and  rulers."  The  D^ISO,  seganim', 
rendered  "rulers,"  properly  nobles,  were  Babylonian  mag- 
istrates, prcefects  of  provinces  (Jer.  li,  23,  28,  57 ;  Ezek. 
xxiii,  6).  The  same  name  was  borne  by  the  Jewish 
magistrates  in  the  time  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  (Ezra 
ix,  2;  Neh.  ii,  16;  iv,  14;  xiii,  11).  The  word  apx<*"'> 
archon,  rendered  magistrate  (Luke  xi,  58;  Tit.  iii,  1), 
properly  signifies  one  first  in  poicer,  authority ;  hence  "a 
prince'  (Matt,  xx, 25 ;  1  Cor. ii, 6, 8) ;  "  a  ruler"  (Acts  iv, 
26 ;  Rom.  xiii,  3).  The  term  is  also  used  of  the  ^Messiah 
as  "  the  prince  of  the  kings  of  the  earth"  (Rev.  i,  5) ;  and 
of  Moses  as  the  judge  and  leader  of  the  Hebrews  (Acts 
vii,  27, 35).  It  is  spoken  of  magistratics  of  any  Icind,  e.  g. 
the  high-priest  (Acts  xxiii,  5) ;  of  civil  judges  (Luke  xii, 
58 ;  Acts  xvi,  19) ;  also  of  a  ruler  of  the  synagogue  (Luke 
viii,  4 1 ;  Matt,  ix,  18,  23 ;  Mark  v,  22) ;  and  of  persons  of 
weight  and  influence  among  the  Pharisees  and  other 
sects  at  Jerusalem,  who  also  were  members  of  the  San- 
hedrim (Luke  xiv,  1 ;  xviii,  18;  xxiii,  13,  35;  xxiv,  20; 
John  iii,  1  :  vii,  26, 48 ;  xii,  42 ;  Acts  iii,  17 ;  iv,  5,  8 ;  xiii, 
27 ;  xiv,  5).  The  term  is  also  used  of  Satan,  the  prince 
or  chief  of  the  fallen  angels  (Matt,  ix,  34 ;  xii,  24 ;  Mark 
iii,  22 ;  Luke  xi,  15  ;  John  xii,  31 ;  xiv,  30  ;  xvi,  11 ;  Eph. 
ii,  2).  So  likewise  the  kindred  dpxri  (Luke  xii,  11  ;  Tit. 
iii,  1).  The  word  (TTpaTi]y6c,  rendered  "magistrate," 
properly  signifies  leader  of  an  army,  commander,  general. 
So  of  the  ten  Athenian  commanders,  with  whom  the 
polemarcli  was  joined.  Afterwards  only  one  or  two  were 
sent  abroad  with  the  army,  as  circumstances  required, 
and  the  others  had  charge  of  military  affairs  at  home,  i. 
q.  icar-minister.  In  other  Greek  cities  the  rr-pci-TiyoQ 
was  the  chief  magistrate,  j^rcpfect.  The  term  is  also 
used  of  Roman  officers,  the  consul  and  the  prntor.  In 
Roman  colonies  and  municipal  towns,  the  chief  magis- 
trates were  usually  two  in  number,  called  duumviri:  oc- 


MAGISTRATE 


650 


MAGISTRATE 


casionally  four  or  six,  qiiatuorviri,  seviri,  who  also  were 
sometimes  styltA pnetors,  the  same  as  the  (ireek  a-part]- 
yoi.  Hence,  in  the  New  Testament,  this  term  is  used 
for  the  Roman  duumviri, prcetors,  magistrates  of  Philip- 
j)i,  which  was  a  Roman  colony  (Acts  xvi,  20,  22, 35,  36, 
3<s).  The  word  i^ovaiai  is  also  used  collectively  fur 
those  invested  with  power,  as  in  English  we  might  say 
"  the.  powers"  for  rulers,  magistrates  (Luke  xii,  11 ;  Rom. 
xiii,2,3;  Tit.iii,l).  The  "higher powers"  (Rom. xiii,l) 
are  "  the  ruling  authorities" — the  magistrates  in  office — 
all  invested  with  civil  power,  from  the  emperor  or  king, 
as  supreme,  to  the  lowest  civil  officer — all  who  are  em- 
ployed in  making  and  executing  the  la^rs.  The  Roman 
emperor  and  some  of  the  subordinate  magistrates  wore 
a  small  sword  or  dagger,  the  symbol  of  punishment,  as  a 
part  of  their  official  costume.     See  Governor. 

In  the  earliest  periods  of  Jewish  history  the  magis- 
trates were  the  hereditary  chieftains,  but  afterwards  the 
judicial  office  became  elective.     In  the  time  of  Moses, 
the  larger  collections  of  families  were  fifty-niue  in  num- 
ber, and  the  heads  of  these  families,  together  with  the 
t\velve  princes  of  the  tribes,  composed  a  comicil  of  sev- 
enty-one members;  but  the  subdivisions  afterwards  were 
more  numerous,  and  the  number  of  heads  of  families 
greater,  for  we  find  no  less  than  two  hundred  and  fifty 
chiefs  of  this  rank  included  in  the  rebellion  of  Korah, 
Dathan,  and  Abiram.     The  D"^"!:?'":;,  shoierim',  or  gen- 
ealogists, are  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  elders — 
that  is,  the  princes  of  tribes  and  heads  of  families.     See 
Officer.     They  kept  the  genealogical  tables.     Under 
Joshua,  they  communicated  the  orders  of  the  general  to 
the  soldiers;  and  in  the  time  of  the  Kings,  the  chief 
shoier  had  a  certain  control  over  the  army,  although  he 
was  not  a  military  commander.     The  skoterim,  who 
were  superintended  by  this  chief,  were  distributed  into 
every  city,  and  performed  the  duties  of  their  office  for 
it  and  the  surrounding  district.     As  they  kept  the  gen- 
ealogical tables,  they  had  an  accurate  list  of  the  people, 
and  were  acquainted  with  the  age.  ability,  and  domestic 
circumstances  of  each  individual;  but  they  are  not  to 
be  confounded  with  another  officer  who  kept  the  muster- 
rolls,  and  whose  name  had  a  similar  etymology.    Moses 
added  a  new  class  of  magistrates  for  the  administration 
of  justice,  which,  he  informs  us,  was  not  of  divine  ap- 
pointment, l)ut  was  suggested  by  his  father-in-law  Je- 
thro.    He  divided  the  people  into  tens,  fifties,  hundreds, 
and  thousands,  and  placed  wise  and  prudent  judges  over 
each  of  these  divisions.     They  were  selected,  for  the 
most  part,  from  the  heads  of  families,  genealogists,  or 
other  people  of  rank  (Exod.  xviii,  13,  26).     Difficult 
questions  were  brought  before  ]\Ioses  himself,  and,  after 
his  death,  before  the  chief  magistrate  of  the  nation. 
These  judges  Moses  included  among  the  rulers,  and 
Joshua  summoned  them  to  the  general  assemblies;  and 
they  are  mentioned,  in  one  instance,  before  the  genealo- 
gists (Deut.  xxxi,  28  ;  Josh,  viii,  33).    When  the  magis- 
trates of  all  the  cities  belonging  to  any  one  tribe  were 
collected,  they  formed  the  supreme  court,  or  legislative 
assembly  of  the  tribe ;  and  when  the  magistrates  of  all 
the  trilx's  wore  convened  together,  they  formed  the  gen- 
eral council  of  the  nation,  and  could  legislate  conjointly 
for  all  (he  tribes  tliey  represented.    After  the  settlement 
in  Canaan,  although  the  chief  magistrate  of  the  Jewish 
state  was,  in  reality,  Jehovah,  the  invisible  King,  a  su- 
preme ruler  for  the  whole  community  coidd  he  legally 
chosen  when  the  necessities  of  the  state  required  it,  who 
was  denominated  a  judge,  or  governor.     See  .Jidge. 
In  the  bddk  of  Deuteronomy  (xvii,  14,  15)  we  find  .Je- 
hovah telling  the  Hebrews  that  if.  when  they  arrived  in 
the  Promised  Land,  thev  wished  to  have  a  king  like  the 
other  nations  round  about  them,  they  were  to  receive 
one  whom  he  v.-ould  appoint,  and  not  a  stranger.    Josc- 
phus  and  others  have  correctly  understood  this  passage 
not  to  mean  that  (Jod  commanded  the  Israelites  to  de- 
sire a  king  when  tliey  were  settled  in  Canaan,  liut  that, 
if  they  would  have  a  king,  he  was  to  be  ap]>ointcd  liy 
God,  and  that  he  should  invariablv  be  a  Hebrew,  and 


not  a  Gentile.  See  King.  Judges,  genealogists,  the 
heads  of  families  or  clans,  and  those  who,  from  the  rela- 
tion they  sustained  to  the  common  class  of  people,  may 
be  called  the  princes  of  the  tribes,  retained  their  author- 
ity after  as  well  as  before  the  introduction  of  a  monarch- 
ical form  of  government,  and  acted  the  part  of  a  legis- 
lative assembly  to  the  respective  cities  in  or  near  which 
they  resided  (1  Kings  xii,  1-24 ;  1  Chron.  xxiii,  4 ;  xxvi, 
29).  The  headship  of  the  tribes  and  fam.ilics  was  hered- 
itary, though  probably  subject  to  the  royal  approbation; 
but  the  judges  and  genealogists  were  appointed  by  the 
king.  Besides  these,  we  read  of  certain  great  officers,  as 
'■  the  royal  counsellors"  (1  Kings  xii,  G-12 ;  1  Chron. 
xxvii,  32 ;  Isa.  iii,  3),  among  whom  the  prophets  were 
included  by  pious  kings  (2  Sam.  vii,  2 ;  1  Kings  xxii,  7, 
8 ;  2  Kings  xix,  2-20) ;  while  others  of  a  different  char- 
acter imitated  the  example  of  heathen  princes,  and 
called  in  to  their  aid  soothsa3'ers  and  false  prophets  (I 
Kings  xviii,  22 ;  xxii,  G ;  Dan.  i,  20).  The  secretary  or 
"scribe"  (2  Sam.  viii,  16;  xx,  24;  1  Kings  iv,  3)  com- 
mitted to  writing  not  only  the  edicts  and  sayings  of  the 
king,  but  everything  of  a  piiblic  nature  that  related  to 
the  kingdom ;  and  it  was  likewise  his  business  to  present 
to  the  king  in  i\Titing  an  account  of  the  state  of  affairs. 
The  high-priest  may  be  also  reckoned  among  those  who 
had  access  to  the  king  in  the  character  of  counsellors  (2 
Sam.  viii,  17;  1  Chron.  xviii,  16).  See  Counsellor. 
During  the  Captivity  and  after  that  period  the  Hebrews 
continued  among  them  that  class  of  officers  denominated 
heads  of  families,  and  perhaps  likewise  the  princes  of 
the  tribes,  who,  under  the  direction  of  the  royal  gov- 
ernors, ruled  their  respective  tribes  (Ezra  i,  5 ;  iv,  3, 
5;  Nch.  ii,  IG;  vi,  17, 18;  Ezek.  xiv,  1) ;  but  it  is  most 
probable  that  Jehoiachin,  and  afterwards  Shcalticl  and 
Zerubbabel,  held  the  first  rank  among  them,  or,  in  other 
words,  were  their  princes.  After  their  return  to  their 
native  country  the  Hebrews  obeyed  their  l^^l2,p«c//r//^', 
or  president.  Such  were  Zerubbabel,  Ezra,  and  Nehe- 
miah,  who  were  invested  with  ample  powers  for  the  pur- 
poses of  government  (Ezra  vii,  25).  When,  from  any 
cause,  there  was  no  person  authorized  by  the  civil  gov- 
ernment to  act  as  president,  the  high-priest  commonly 
undertook  the  government  of  the  state.  This  state  of 
things  continued  while  the  Jews  were  under  the  Per- 
sians and  Creeks,  until  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes, 
in  whose  reign  tlicy  appealed  to  arms,  shook  off  the 
yoke  of  foreign  subjugation,  and,  having  obtained  their 
freedom,  made  their  high-priests  princes,  and  at  length 
kings.  The  Jews,  likewise,  who  were  scattered  abroad, 
and  had  taken  up  their  residence  in  countries  at  a  dis- 
tance from  Palestine,  had  rulers  of  their  own.  The  per- 
son who  sustained  tlie  highest  office,  among  those  who 
dwelt  in  Egypt  was  denominated  aluharch  (q.  v.) ;  the 
magistrate  at  the  head  of  the  Syrian  Jews  was  denomi- 
nated arc/ion.  See  Ruler.  While  the  Jews  were  un- 
der the  Roman  government  they  enjoyed  the  privilege 
of  referring  litigated  questions  to  referees,  whose  deci- 
sions in  reference  to  them  the  Roman  prastor  Mas  bound 
to  see  put  in  execution. 

After  the  subjugation  of  the  Jews  by  the  Romans, 
certain  provinces  of  Judrea  were  governed  by  that  class 
of  magistrates  denominated  tetrarchs,  an  office  said  to 
have  originated  among  the  Gauls;  and  this  appellation, 
although  originally  applied  to  the  chief  magistrate  of 
the  fourth  jiart  of  a  tribe,  subject  to  the  authority  of  the 
king,  was  afterwards  extended  in  its  application,  and  ap- 
plied to  any  governors,  sidiject  to  some  king  or  emperor, 
without  reference  to  the  fact  whether  they  nded  or  not 
precisely  the  fourth  part  of  a  tribe  of  people.  See 
Tetkarch.  Herod  Antipas,  accordingly,  and  Philip,  al- 
though they  did  not  rule  so  much  as  a  fourth  part  of 
Judrea,  were  denominated  tetrarchs  (ilatt,  xiv,  1 ;  Lid^e 
ix,  7;  Acts  xiii,  1).  Although  this  class  of  rulers  were 
dependent  upon  Caesar,  that  is,  the  Roman  emperor,  they 
nevertheless  governed  the  people  who  were  committed 
to  their  immediate  jurisdiction  as  much  according  to 
I  their  own  choice  and  discretion  as  if  thev  had  not  been 


MAGISTRATES 


651 


MAGNANBIITY 


thus  dependent.  They  were  inferior,  however,  in  point 
of  rank,  to  the  ethnarchs,  who,  although  they  did  not 
publicly  assume  the  ;iarae  of  king,  were  addressed  with 
that  title  by  their  subjects,  as  was  the  case  with  respect 
to  Archelaus  (Matt,  ii,  22).  A  class  of  magistrates  well 
known  among  the  Komans,  termed  jirocurafors,  are  de- 
nominated in  the  New  Testament  yyei-wvec,  but  it  ap- 
pears that  they  are  called  by  Josephus  tTrirpoTrot.  Ju- 
d;Ba,  after 'the  termination  of  the  ethnarchate  of  Arche- 
laus, was  governed  by  riders  of  this  description,  and  like- 
wise during  the  period  which  immediately  succeeded  the 
reign  of  Herod  Agrippa.  Augustus  made  a  new  parti- 
tion of  the  provinces  of  the  Roman  empire  into p?-oi-iiici(e 
senafo?-ia',  which  were  loft  under  the  nominal  care  of  the 
senate,  and  pronnciai  impei-atorice  vel  Ccesarum,  which 
were  under  the  direct  control  of  the  emperor.  To  their 
provinces  the  senate  sent  officers  for  one  year,  called 
proconsuls,  with  only  a  civil  power,  and  neither  military 
command  nor  authority  over  the  taxes :  those  sent  to 
command  in  the  imperial  provinces  were  called  lec/ati 
Ccesaris  pro  consule,  etc.,  and  had  much  greater  powers. 
In  each  of  these  provinces,  of  both  kinds,  there  was,  be- 
sides the  president,  an  officer  called  jjrociirator  Cmsaris, 
who  had  the  charge  of  the  revenue,  and  who  sometimes 
discharged  the  office  of  a  governor  or  president,  especial- 
ly in  a  small  province,  or  in  a  portion  of  a  large  one 
where  the  president  could  not  reside ;  as  did  Pilate,  who 
was  procurator  of  Judiea,  which  was  annexed  to  the 
2)roi'iiicia  imperatoi-ia  of  Syria ;  hence  he  had  the  pow- 
er of  punishing  capitally,  which  the  procurators  did  not 
usually  possess ;  so  also  Felix,  Festus,  and  the  other  pro- 
curators of  Judaja.  Some  of  the  procurators  were  de- 
pendent on  the  nearest  proconsul  or  president ;  for  in- 
stance, those  of  Judiea  were  dependent  on  the  proconsul, 
governor,  or  president  of  Syria.  They  enjoyed,  how- 
ever, great  authority,  and  possessed  the  power  of  life  and 
death.  The  only  privilege,  in  respect  to  the  officers  of 
government,  that  was  granted  by  the  procurators  of  Ju- 
dffia  to  the  nation  was  the  appointment  from  among 
them  of  persons  to  manage  and  collect  the  taxes.  In 
all  other  things  they  administered  the  government  them- 
selves, except  that  they  frequently  had  recourse  to  the 
counsel  of  other  persons  (Acts  xxiii,  24-35 ;  xxv,  23). 
See  Province. 

The  military  force  that  was  granted  to  the  procura- 
tors of  .Judjea  consisted  of  six  cohorts,  of  which  five 
were  stationed  at  CajsarA,  where  the  procurator  usually 
resided,  and  one  at  Jerusalem,  in  the  tower  of  Antonia, 
which  was  so  situated  as  to  command  the  Temple  (Acts 
X,  1 ;  xxi,  32).  It  was  the  duty  of  the  military  cohorts 
to  execute  the  procurator's  commands  and  to  repress  se- 
ditions (Matt,  viii,  5 ;  xxvii,  27 ;  JIark  xv.  16 ;  .John  xix, 
23).  On  the  return  of  the  great  festivals,  when  there 
were  vast  crowds  of  people  at  Jerusalem,  the  procura- 
tors themselves  went  from  Cresarea  to  that  city  in  order 
to  be  at  hand  to  suppress  any  commotions  which  might 
arise(Matt.  xxvii,  2-G5;  John  xviii,  29;  xix,  38).  See 
Government. 

Magistrates.  In  the  early  Church,  magistrates, 
whatever  the  grade  of  their  office,  were  under  the  spirit- 
ual jurisdiction  of  the  clergy;  and  if  they  were  impious 
or  profane,  they  were  sidjject  to  censure  and  excommu- 
nication. The  Council  of  Aries,  called  by  Constantine, 
ratified  this  ecclesiastical  power.  Synesius,  bishop  of 
Ptolemais,  excommunicated  Andronious,  the  governor, 
for  his  blasphemies  and  cruelties,  and  with  him  all  his 
accomplices.  Athanasius  pronounced  a  similar  sentence 
on  the  governor  of  Libya.  Ambrose  denied  the  com- 
munion to  the  emperor  Theodosius.  But  such  a  spirit- 
ual^ sentence  did  not  deprive  the  magistrate  of  his  lawful 
civil  authority.  The  Church  rendered  allegiance  to  the 
rightful  governor,  whether  heathen  or  heretic ;  but  she 
had  a  perfect  right  to  exclude  from  her  fellowship  any 
magistrate  of  erroneous  creed  or  depraved  life.  She  did 
not  attempt  to  interfere  with  a  magistrate's  authority 
while  .she  refused  him  ecclesiastical  fellowship.  The 
Roman  Catholic  Church  has  sought,  in  this  practice  of 


the  early  Church,  an  authority  for  her  interference  in 
temporal  aftairs.  See  Keys,  Power  of  the;  Tem- 
poral Power  of  the  Pope.  In  Protestant  Churches 
that  are  united  with  the  state,  these  liomish  views  are 
manifest,  though  in  a  somewhat  different  form.  The 
state  controlling  the  Church,  the  magistrate  is  clothed 
with  authority  even  in  matters  really  pertaining  to 
the  domain  of  the  ecclesiastic.  Thus  in  Scotland  the 
Westniinsfer  Confession  gives  to  the  magistrate  extraor- 
dinary power  in  or  about  sacred  things.  The  earlier 
Scottish  Reformers  went  still  further,  as  in  the  first  Con- 
fession. The  Books  of  Discipline  are  no  less  explicit. 
The  First  Book  says, "  We  dare  not  prescribe  imto  you 
what  penalties  shall  be  required  of  such ;  but  this  we 
feare  not  to  affirme,  that  the  one  and  the  other  deserve 
death ;  for  if  he  wlio  doth  falsirie  the  scale,  subscription, 
or  coine  of  a  king,  is  judged  worthy  of  death,  what  shall 
we  think  of  him  who  plainly  doth  falsifie  the  scales  of 
Christ  Jesus,  Prince  of  the  kings  of  the  earth?  If  Darius 
pronounced  that  a  ballv  should  be  taken  from  the  house 
of  that  man,  and  he  himselfe  hanged  upon  it,  that  durst 
attempt  to  hinder  the  re-edifying  of  the  materiall  tem- 
ple, what  shall  we  say  of  those  that  contemptuously 
blaspheme  God,  and  manifestly  hinder  the  temple  of 
God,  which  is  the  soules  and  bodies  of  the  elect,  to  be 
purged  by  the  true  preaching  of  Christ  Jesus  from  the 
superstition  and  damnable  itlolatry  in  which  they  have 
bene  long  plunged  and  holden  captive  ?  If  ye,  as  God 
forbid,  declare  your  selves  carelesse  over  the  true  relig- 
ion, God  will  not  suffer  j'our  negligence  unpunished ;  and 
therefore  more  earnestly  we  require  that  strait  lawes 
may  be  made  against  the  stubborne  contemners  of  Christ 
Jesus,  and  against  such  as  dare  presume  to  minister  his 
sacraments  not  orderh'  called  to  that  office,  least  while 
that  there  be  none  found  to  gainstand  impiety,  the  wrath 
of  God  be  kindled  against  the  whole."  Nay,  blasphemy 
was  to  be  tried  by  the  civil  judge,  but  false  weights  and 
measures  by  the  kirk.  The  Scottish  Parliament,  in  loGO, 
enacted  not  only  that  the  power  and  jurisdiction  of  the 
pope  should  cease  in  Scotland,  but  that  all  who  either 
assisted  or  were  present  at  mass  should  be  punished,  for 
the  first  offence,  by  confiscation  of  goods ;  for  the  second, 
by  banishment;  for  the  third,  by  death.  It  was  be- 
lieved that  the  magistrate  had  the  same  power  in  regard 
to  the  first  table  as  to  the  second,  a  theory  which,  re- 
storing the  Jewish  theocracy,  would  justify  persecution, 
and  put  an  end  to  toleration.  For  example,  the  Scottish 
Parliament  in  1579  passed  an  act  ordaining  every  house- 
holder worth  three  hundred  merks  of  yearly  rent,  and 
every  burgess  or  yeoman  worth  £500  stock,  to  have  a 
Bible  and  psalm-book  in  their  houses,  under  a  penalty 
of  £10.— Eadie,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Magisti'is,  Sijione  de,  a  noted  Italian  Orientalist, 
was  born  at  Serra  di  Scopamene  (Corse),  Fel).  28, 1728 ; 
went  to  Rome  while  >et  a  youth,  entered  the  congrega- 
tion of  the  Oratory  of  St.  Philippe  of  Neri,  and  soon  made 
a  name  for  himself  by  his  unusual  proficiency  in  the 
ancient  languages.  Popes  Clement  XIV  and  Pius  VI 
employed  him  in  the  research  of  ecclesiastical  antiqui- 
ties; be  was  made  bishop  of  Cyrene,  in  partibus,  and 
secretary  of  the  congregation  for  the  correction  of  works 
by  the  Oriental  Church.  In  this  last  position  his  vast 
erudition  displayed  itself  to  the  advantage  of  the  Church 
of  Rome.  He  died  Oct.  6, 1802.  He  wrote  Daniel  se- 
cundum Septuarjinta  ex  ietruplis  Origenis,  nunc  primum 
cclitus  (Greek  and  Latin,  Rome,  1772,  fob).  This  text 
of  Daniel,  after  the  Sept.,  had  been  given  up  for  lost. 
IMagistris,  finding  it  in  the  library  of  the  prince  of  Chigi, 
added  to  it  the  (ireek  interpretation  of  Theodotius;  also 
a  part  of  the  book  of  Esther  in  Chaldee,  and  five  disser- 
tations : — A  ctti  Martijruni  ad  Osiia  Tiberina,  ex  codice 
re;/ice  bibliotheccB  Taurinensis  (Rome,  1795,  fol.) :  —  S. 
Dyonisii  Alexandrini  episcopi,  corpiomento  Maffni.  Opera 
quce  supersunt  (Rome,  177t;,  fol.) :  —  Gli  Alti  di  cinque 
Mnrtiri  nelle  Corea.  coll  orir/ine  del/a  fde  in  quel  ret/no 
(Rome,  1801, 8vo).— Hoefer,  Xoui:  Biog.  Gen.  xxxii,  706. 

"NLsL^nanixaity,  'jreatness  of  soul,  a  disposition  of 


MAGNENTIUS 


Goi 


MAGNUS 


mind  exerted  in  contemning  dangers  and  difficulties,  in 
scorning  temptations,  and  despising  eartlily  pomp  and 
splendor. — Cicero,  De  OJfic.  lect.  i,  eh.  xx  ;  Grove,  Moral 
FhUosophy,  ii,  268 ;  Steele,  Christian  Hero ;  Watts,  Self- 
murder;  l'Mck,Theological  Dictionary,  s.  v.  See  Couu- 
age;  Fortitude. 

Magnentius,  Flavius  Magnus,  a  Koman  general, 
for  a  short  period  emperor  of  the  West,  was  born  in  Gaul 
about  A.D.  300.  Partly  by  courage  and  partly  by  flat- 
tery, he  gained  the  confidence  of  the  emperor  Constans, 
and  was  intrusted  with  the  command  of  the  imperial 
guards,  the  famous  Jovian  and  Herculean  battalions. 
He  afterwards,  together  with  Marcellinus,  chancellor  of 
the  imperial  exchequer,  conspired  against  Constans  and 
caused  himself  to  be  elected  emperor  by  the  soldiers  in 
350.  He  was  recognised  as  such  by  Italy,  Spain,  Britta- 
ny, and  Africa,  but  the  Illyrian  legions  elected  Vetranio, 
who  v>'as  soon  joined  by  Constantius,  brother  of  the  late 
emperor.  The  war  between  Magnentius  and  Constan- 
tius ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  former  at  Mursa,  Sept. 
28,  352.  As  Magnentius  saw  that  his  soldiers  would  de- 
liver him  up  to  his  enemies,  he  committed  suicide  at 
Lyons  about  the  middle  of  August,  353.  Zosimus,  ii, 
5-i,  represents  him  as  overbearing  in  his  prosperity,  and 
weak  and  irresolute  in  adversity.  He  is  shown  to  have 
been  a  Christian  by  the  cross  being  stamped  on  his 
coins.  The  only  part  he  took  in  ecclesiastical  affairs 
was  to  prevent,  for  two  years,  Constantius  from  favoring 
Arianism.  As  for  himself,  he  looked  upon  religion  from 
a  political  stand-point;  in  order  to  conciliate  the  West, 
he  gave  more  freedom  to  the  heathen  worship.  He 
had  relied  on  Athanasius  to  win  over  Egypt  to  his  side, 
but  in  this  he  was  mistaken,  as  Athanasius  upheld  tlic 
rights  of  the  legitimate  successor  of  Constans. — Herzog, 
Eeal-Encykl.  viii,  680  ;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Bio(j.  and  Mythol.  ii,  900. 

Magni,  John,  a  Swedish  prelate,  was  born  at  Wex- 
ioe  in  1583;  travelled  extensively  on  the  Continent,  es- 
pecially in  Germany,  and  on  his  return  home  became 
professor  of  history  at  his  alma  mater,  the  University 
of  Upsala.  Queen  Christina,  who  succeeded  her  noble 
husband,  Gustavus  Adolphus,  the  great  defender  of  the 
Protestant  faith,  in  the  government  of  Sweden  (1632), 
frequently  availed  herself  of  the  counsels  of  John  Magni, 
and  created  him  bishop  of  Skara.  He  died  in  1651, 
three  years  previous  to  Christina's  abdication  of  the 
throne.  See  Sweden.  IVIagni  took  a  great  interest  in 
the  educational  affairs  of  Sweden,  and  did  much  to  af- 
ford his  countrymen  far  superior  advantages  than  they 
had  enjoyed  previous  to  his  day.  His  writings  are  of  a 
secular  nature.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bioff.  Generale,  xxxii, 
718;  Biof/ropkie  Universelle,  s.  v. 

Magni,  Valei'ian,  a  celebrated  Italian  ecclesiastic, 
was  born  in  IMilan,  Italy,  in  1586;  was  appointed  by 
pope  Urban  YIII  apostolical  missionary  to  the  Northern 
kingdoms;  influenced  the  pope  to  imprison  the  Jesuit- 
esses  in  1(>31 ;  was  himself  imprisoned  in  Vienna  some 
time  afterwards,  through  the  influence  of  the  Jesuits, 
for  having  said  that  the  pope's  primacy  and  infallibility 
were  founded  on  tradilion  and  not  on  Scripture,  but  re- 
gained his  liberty  through  the  favor  of  the  emperor 
Ferdinand  III,  after  having  written  warmly  against  the 
Jesuits.  He  died  at  Salt/.liurg  in  16()1.  INIagni  was 
celebrated  as  a  controversial  writer  against  the  Protes- 
tants ;  also  for  his  philosophical  works  in  favor  of  Des 
Cartes  and  against  Aristotle.  One  of  his  apologetical 
letters  may  be  found  in  the  collection  called  Tuhu  Mag- 
na, vol.  ii. — Hook,  Eccles.  Biog.  vii,  209. 

Magnificat,  a  song  m  praise  of  the  Virgin  used  in 
the  eveniuL;-  service  of  the  Koman  Catholic,  tlie  Luther- 
an, and  Anglican  churches.  Its  name  ^lagnitirat  it  ol)- 
taiued  fnim  its  tir.-t  words  iirthe  Vulgate,,"  My  soul  dnili 
rnaguifi)  the  Lord,"etc.  It  was  introduced  into  the  public 
worship  of  the  Church  almut  the  year  506.  In  the  6th 
century  it  was  chanted  in  the  French  cluirches.  In  the 
English  Church  it  is  to  be  said  or  sung  after  the  lirsr 


lesson,  at  every  prayer,  unless  the  9Sth  Psalm,  called 
"  Cantale  Domino,"  is  sung. — Farrar,  Eccles,  Diet.  s.  v. ; 
Ividie,  Eccles.  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Magnns.  The  Koman  Catholic  Church  commem- 
orates several  saints  of  this  name. 

1.  St.  Magnus,  Magnoald,  Maginald,  Mangold,  of 
whom  we  possess  two  biographical  notices,  one  by  Perth, 
ii,  according  to  which  he  M'as  an  AUeman  b.y  birth,  and 
became  the  pupil,  companion,  and  successor  of  St.  Gall  in 
the  convent  of  that  name.  The  other,  to  be  found  in 
the  Bollandists,  Sept.  iii,  700  sq.,  states  that  he  was  a 
native  of  Ireland,  built  the  convent  of  Fiissen  after  the 
destruction  of  St.  Gall,  converted  the  inhabitants  of 
Augsburg  and  surrounding  parts,  and  finalh^  died  about 
65.5.  He  is  commemorated  Sept.  6.  See  Koch-Stem- 
feld, Z>('r  h.  Mangold  in  Oherschwahen  (Passau,  1825) ;  F. 
B.  Tafrathshofer, Der  k. Magnus  (Kempten,  1842) ;  F.  W. 
Rettberg,  Kii-cliengcscli.  Deutsehlands,  ii,  148  sq.;  Fried- 
rich,  Kirchengesch.  Dentsehlands  (Bamb.  1868),  ii  (see 
Index) ;  J.  H.  Kurtz,  Handbueh  d.  allg.  K.  Gesch.  ii,  1,  p. 
115  sq. 

2.  St.  Magnus,  the  apostle  of  the  Orkneys.  The  in- 
habitants of  these  islands  possessed  a  large  goblet  which 
he  is  said  to  have  drained :  it  was  offered  at  once  to 
every  new  bishop  as  he  arrived,  and  it  was  considered  a 
happy  omen  if  he  emptied  it. 

3.  St.  MACiNus,  of  Altinum,  in  Venicia,  became  bish- 
op of  Odessa  about  638 ;  transmitted  his  episcopal  charge 
to  Heraclea,  and  died  about  660.  He  is  commemorated 
Oct.  6. 

4.  St.  Magnus  flourished  in  the  earlyhalf  of  the  6tli 
century,  as  bishop  of  Milan  (522-529).  He  is  commem- 
orated Nov.  5. — Herzog,  Eeed-Encyldoji.  viii,  687 ;  Pierer, 
Univ.Lex.yi,7lS.     (J.N.  P.) 

Magnus,  John  or  Jonas,  a  noted  Swedish  prel- 
ate, was  born  at  Linkciping  INIarch  19,  1488,  of  noble 
parentage.  When  only  eighteen  years  old  he  obtaine<l 
a  canonicate  at  his  native  place ;  later  he  continued  his 
theological  studies  at  Louvain,  afterwards  in  several  uni- 
versities of  Germany  and  Ital\',  and  resided  several 
years  at  Rome,  ivhere  he  gained  the  favor  of  the  papal 
court.  In  1520  Perusa  honored  him  with  the  doctorate 
of  theology.  A  short  time  after,  probablj'  in  1523  (the 
year  of  Va.sa's  ascension  to  the  throne),  he  was  dis- 
patched to  his  native  country  by  pope  Adrian  VI  to 
stem  the  inroads  of  the  reformed  doctrines  in  that  north- 
ern country.  Gustavus  Vasa  received  Magnus  kindly, 
and  elevated  him  to  the  archbishopric  of  Upsal;  but 
later,  when  Gustavus  Vasa  himself  inclined  tovrards 
Protestantism,  Magnus  made  liimself  unpopular,  and 
was  finally  obliged  to  quit  the  country,  after  Lutheran- 
ism  and  religious  liberty  had  been  established  in  Sweden 
(1527).  Several  later  attempts  to  stem  the  progress  of 
the  reformed  doctrines  proved  unsuccessful,  and  he  re- 
turned disheartened  to  Rome  in  1541.  He  died  at  Rome 
March  22, 1544.  One  of  his  works  deserves  our  notice, 
Ilvitoria  Metropolilana  sen  episcoporum  et  archieplscopo- 
1-iim  Upsaliensiitm  (Rome.  1557, 1560,  fol.).  See  Niceron, 
Memoires,  xxxv,  s.  v. ;  Chauffepie,  Diction.  Hist.  s.  v. ; 
Hoefer,  \uitr.  Biog.  Generale,  xxxii,  732. 

Magnus,  Olaus,  a  Swedish  prelate,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Linkoping,  near  the  close  of  the 
15th  century;  was  provost  of  the  (Juirch  at  Strcgnes 
when  Gustavus  I  sent  him  to  Rome  to  secure  the  papal 
confirmation  to  the  appointment  of  his  brother  John  to 
the  archiepiscopal  see  of  Upsal.  It  is  not  exactly  known 
when  Olaus  returned  to  Sweden,  but  it  is  certain  that 
after  1527  he  was  constantly  with  his  brother  as  his  sec- 
retarv.  After  John's  decease  Olaus  was  appointed  by 
the  pope  to  succeed  to  the  archbishopric  of  Ujisal,  but 
the  Reformation  had  in  the  meanwhile  changed  the  ec- 
clesiastical relations  in  Sweden,  and  he  never  filled  the 
archiepiscopal  chair.  He  attended  the  Council  of  Trent 
by  order  of  pojie  Paul  III.  Hence  the  mistake  on  the 
part  of  some  writers  of  making  John  IMagnus  a  member 
of  the  Tridentine  gathering,  which  took  place  two  years 


MAGOG 


653 


MAHA-BHARATA 


after  his  decease  (1544).  Olaus  returned  to  Rome  from 
Trent,  and  died  there  in  1568.  His  works,  which  are  of 
minor  interest,  are  given  in  Hoefer,  Xoui:  Biog,  Gene- 
rale,  xxxii,  734. 

Ma'gOg  (Heb.  il/«/7o^',  SiS'S,  rerjhn  of  Gog  [see  be- 
low]; Sept.  Mayaiy,  Vulg.  Magog),  the  second  son  of 
Japhet(Gen.x,  2;  lChron.i,5).  B.C.  post  2514.  "Va- 
rious etymologies  of  the  name  have  been  suggested. 
Knobel  {Vulkert.  p.  63)  proposes  the  Sanscrit  mah  or 
malia,  'great,'  and  a  Persian  word  signifj-ing '  mountain,' 
in  which  case  the  reference  would  be  to  the  Caucasian 
range.  The  terms  ghogh  and  moghefaxe.  still  applied  to 
some  of  tlie  heights  of  that  range.  This  etymologj'  is 
supported  by  Von  Bohlen  {Introd.  to  Gen.  ii,  211).  On 
the  other  hand,  Ilitzig  {Comm.  in  Ez.)  connects  the  first 
syllable  with  the  Coptic  ma, '  place,' or  ths  Sanscrit  maha, 
'  land,'  and  the  second  with  a  Persian  root,  kola, '  the 
moon,'  as  though  the  term  had  reference  to  moon-wor- 
shippers" (Smith).  In  Ezekiel  (xxxviii,  2 ;  xxxix,  6)  it 
occurs  as  the  name  of  a  nation,  and,  from  the  associated 
names  in  all  the  passages  where  it  occurs,  it  is  supposed 
to  represent  certain  Scythian  or  Tartar  tribes  descended 
from  the  son  of  Japhet.  See  Ethnology.  Thus,  in 
Genesis,  it  is  coupled  with  Gomer  (the  Cimmerians)  and 
Madai  (the  Medes),  among  the  Japhetites,  while  Ezekiel 
joins  it  with  INIeshech  and  Jnbal  ("CS"!  X^w3,  "chief 
prince,"  should  h%  prince  of  Eosh),  as  the  name  of  a 
great  and  powerfid  people,  dwelling  in  the  extreme  re- 
cesses of  the  north,  who  are  to  invade  the  Holy  Land  at 
a  future  time.  Their  king  is  there  called  Gog.  The 
people  of  JIagog  further  appear  as  having  a  force  of  cav- 
alry (xxxviii,  15),  and  as  armed  with  the  bow  (xxxix, 
3).  The  oldest  versions  give  the  word  unchanged ;  but 
Josephus  (.4  nt.  i,  6, 3)  interprets  it  by  Scythians  (^Kv^ai), 
and  so  Jerome ;  but  Suidas  renders  it  Persians.  "  Mi- 
chaelis  {Siippl.  ad  Lex.  Heh.  1471),  KosenmliUer  {Scho- 
lia in  Gen.  x,  2),  and  Gesenius  (Thesaunts,  s.  v.)  adopt  the 
view  that  the  Scythians  generally  are  intended.  Bochart 
(I'haleg,\\\,  19)  suggests  that  the  name  Gog  appears  in 
Y(i)yapi]vi.],  the  name  of  a  district  near  to  that  through 
which  the  Araxes  flows  (Strabo,  p.  528);  and  this  falls 
in  with  the  supposition  that  the  Magogites  were  Scyth- 
ians, for  the  traditions  of  the  latter  represent  their  na- 
tion as  coming  originally  from  the  vicinity  of  the  Arax- 
es (Diod.  Sic.  ii,  43).  Since  Bochart's  time  the  general 
consent  of  scholars  has  been  in  favor  of  regarding  the 
eastern  Scythians  as  the  Magog  of  Genesis;  but  Kiepert 
'  associates  the  name  with  Macija,  or  Jfaka,  and  applies 
it  to  Scythian  nomad  tribes  which  forced  themselves  in 
between  tlie  Arian  or  Arianized  Medes,  Kurds,  and  Ar- 
menians' (Keil  and  Delitzsch,  Bib!.  Comment,  on  the  0.  T. 
[Clark],  i,  163);  while  Bunsen  places  Magog  in  Arme- 
nia ;  though  in  the  map  accompanying  his  Eibelwerk  it 
is  placed  to  the  north  of  the  Euxine.  Knobel  also 
places  Magog  there,  and  connects  the  Scythian  tribes 
thus  named  with  those  which  spread  into  Europe,  and 
were  allied  to  the  Sarmatians,  who  gave  their  name  ul- 
timately to  the  whole  north-east  of  Europe,  and  are  the 
ancestors  of  the  Slavic  nations  now  existing"  (Kitto). 
It  is  certain  that  the  term  Scijthinn  was  a  collective  title 
of  the  remote  savage  tribes  of  the  north  in  a  similar 
manner  to  the  use  of  Magog  (Cellarii  Nolit.  ii,  753  sq.). 
Sec  Scythian.  There  appears  to  have  been  from  the 
earliest  times  a  legend  tliat  the  enemies  of  religion  and 
civilization  lived  in  that  quarter  (Naxt/iausen's  Tribes 
of  the  Caucasus,  p.  55).  From  the  accounts  found  among 
the  Arabians,  Persians,  and  Syrians,  some  of  wliich  are 
embellished  with  various  fables,  we  learn  that  they  com- 
prehended under  the  designation  Yajiij  and  Majnj  aU 
the  less  known  barbarous  people  of  the  north-east  and 
north-west  of  Asia.  (See  the  Koran,  xviii,  94-99 ;  xxi, 
96;  Assemani,  Bill.  Orient.  III.  ii,  16,  17.  20;  Hylander, 
Spec.  op.  cnsmog.  pt. 20-22  [ Loud.  1803] ;  Klaproth,  .1  siat. 
Magaz.  i,  138  sq. ;  Herbelot,  BiUiiUh.  Orient,  ii,  281  sq. ; 
Fliigel,  in  the  Halle  Encgcl.  II.  xiv,  78  sq.)  Yet,  though 
the  Gog  and  Magog  of  the  Hebrews  may  have  had  an 


equally  vague  acceptation,  it  nevertheless  seems  to  have 
pointed  more  precisely  to  the  northern  tribes  of  the  Cau- 
casus, between  the  Euxine  and  the  Caspian  Seas.  The 
people  of  that  region,  it  seems,  were  a  terror  to  middle 
Asia;  and  they  have  often  been  named  the  Scythians 
of  the  East.  Jerome  says  of  Magog  that  it  means 
"  Scythian  nations,  fierce  and  innumerable,  who  live  be- 
yond the  Caucasus  and  the  lake  Mteotis,  and  near  the 
Caspian  Sea,  and  spread  out  even  onward  to  India."  The 
people  dwelling  among  the  Caucasian  Mountains  have 
preserved  their  original  character  down  to  the  present 
hour,  as  is  evident  from  their  recent  long-continued  con- 
tests with  the  Kussians.  The  famous  Caucasian  wall, 
probably  erected  by  some  of  the  successors  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  as  a  defence  against  the  incursions  of  the 
northern  barbarians,  and  wliich  extended  from  Derbend, 
on  the  western  shore  of  the  Caspian,  to  near  the  Euxine 
or  Black  Sea,  is  still  called  "the  icall  of  Gog  and  Magog.'' 
(See  Reinegg,  Beschr.  d.  Caucasus,  ii,  79.)  The  traveller 
Gmelin  visited  this  wall  in  1770,  in  the  course  of  the 
scientific  mission  upon  which  he  was  sent  by  the  Rus- 
sian government.  From  Derbend,  on  the  Caspian  Sea, 
the  head-quarters  of  the  Russian  military  guard  in  that 
country,  Gmelin  directed  his  course  westward,  towards 
the  Euxine,  and  he  soon  met  with  some  ruins  of  the 
ancient  wall,  which  he  describes  as  in  some  places  thirty 
feet  liigh,  and  for  large  distances  nearly  entire,  and  in 
other  places  partially  or  wholly  fallen  down.  There  are 
watcli-towera  along  the  wall  at  signal  distances ;  two  of 
these  he  ascended,  and  from  their  tops  he  could  descry 
the  snowj'  ridges  of  Caucasus.  This  wall  seems  to  have 
been  built  in  almost  a  straight  line  from  the  Caspian  to 
the  Euxine,  and  the  watch-towers  and  fortresses  were 
probably  erected  as  a  means  of  keeping  up  communica- 
tion between  Derbend,  the  garrison  at  the  eastern  ex- 
tremity, and  the  fastnesses  in  the  mountains.  (See  Bayer, 
De  Muro  Caucasia,  in  Acta  A  cad.  Scientiar.  Petrojwl.  i, 
425 ;  Ker  Porter,  Travels,  ii,  520 ;  Kitter,  Erdk.  ii,  834  sq.) 
In  Rev.  XX,  7,  9,  the  terms  Gog  and  Magog  are  evidently 
used  tropically,  as  names  of  the  enemies  of  Christianity, 
who  will  endeavor  to  extirpate  it  from  the  earth,  but 
will  thereby  bring  upon  themselves  signal  destruction. 
But  that  Ezekiel,  in  his  prophecy,  meant  to  be  under- 
stood as  predicting  the  invasion  of  Palestine  by  Gog  and 
Magog  in  the  literal  sense,  is  hardly  credible.  He  uses 
these  names  to  designate  distant  and  savage  nations; 
and  in  the  same  way  John  employs  them.  Just  in  the 
same  manner  we  now  employ  the  word  barbarians.  That 
both  writers  should  employ  these  two  names  in  a  trop- 
ical way  is  no  more  strange  than  that  we  should  employ 
the  words  Scythian,  Tartar,  Indian,  etc.,  in  the  same 
manner.  Nothing  could  be  more  natural  than  for  Eze- 
kiel, who  lived  in  Jlesopotamia,  to  speak  of  Gog  and 
Magog,  since  they  were  the  formidable  enemies  of  all 
that  region ;  and  that  John,  writing  on  the  same  subject, 
should  retain  the  same  names,  was  equally  natural.  (See 
Stuart's  Comment,  on  the  Apoc.  ad  loc.)     See  Gog. 

Ma'gor-mis'sabib  (Hebrew,  Magor'  mis-sabib', 
3''3a"2  ^ij>^,  terror  from  round  about ;  Sept.  Ms  roi/coc 
(ci'/cXiiS-fv,  Vulg.  Pauor  undique),  an  epithet  applied  at 
the  divine  instance  by  Jeremiah  to  the  persecuting 
Pashur  (q.  v.),  emblematical  of  his  signal  fate,  ss  ex- 
plained in  the  context  (Jer.  xx,  3).  "It  is  remarkable 
that  the  same  phrase  occurs  in  several  other  passages  of 
Jeremiah  (vi,  25 ;  xx,  10 ;  xlvi,  5 ;  xlix,  29 ;  Lam.  ii,  22), 
and  is  only  found  besides  in  Psa.  xxxi,  13"  (Smith). 

Mag'piash  (Heb.  Magpiash',  dSi55^,  perhaps  for 
d"iSi'"?,  moth-killer;  Sept.  mayarpi]Q  v.  r.  Mfya^/}*,-, 
Viilg.  Megphias),  one  of  the  chief  Israelites  who  joined 
in  the  sacred  covenant  instituted  on  the  return  from 
Babylon  (Neh.  x,  20).  B.C.  cir.  410.  Some  suppose  the 
name,  however,  to  be  the  same  as  aiAGnisii  (^q.  v.)  of 
Ezra  ii,  30. 

Magyars.     See  Hungary. 

Maha-bharata  (from  the  Sans.  7?«a/ia^— changed 


MAHA-DEVA 


654 


MAHALATH 


to  7)iahd — great,  and  Bharala,  a  famous  Hindu  prmce) 
is  the  name  of  a  great  epic  poem  of  ancient  India.  As 
its  main  story  relates  to  tlie  contest  between  two  rival 
families,  both  descendants  of  a  king,  Bharata,  the  title 
pr(ihal)!y  implies  "  the  great  history  of  the  descendants 
of  Jiliarata."  In  its  present  shape  the  poem  consists  of 
npwards  of  100,000  verses,  eacli  containing  32  syllables, 
and  is  divided  into  18  parvans  or  books.  That  this  huge 
composition  was  not  the  work  of  one  single  individual, 
but  a  production  of  successive  ages,  clearly  appears  from 
the  multifariousness  of  its  contents,  from  the  difference 
of  style  which  characterizes  its  various  parts,  and  even 
from  the  contradictions  which  disturb  its  harmony. 
Hindu  tradition  ascribes  it  to  Vydsa;  but  as  Vyasa 
means  '•  the  distributer  or  arranger,"  and  as  the  same 
individual  is  also  the  reputed  compiler  of  the  Vedas, 
Puranas,  and  several  other  works,  it  is  obvious  that  no 
historical  value  can  be  assigned  to  this  generic  name. 

The  contents  of  the  poem  may  be  distinguished  into 
the  leading  storj'  and  the  episodical  matter  connected 
with  it.  The  former  is  probably  founded  on  real  events 
in  the  oldest  history  of  India,  though  in  the  epic  narra- 
tive it  will  be  dilficult  to  disentangle  the  reality  from 
the  fiction.  Tlie  story  (which  covers  about  one  fourth 
of  the  whole  poem)  comprises  the  contest  of  the  cele- 
brated families  called  the  Kauravas  and  Pandavas,  end- 
ing in  the  victory  of  the  latter,  and  in  the  establishment 
of  their  rule  over  the  northern  part  of  India.  Of  course 
no  unimportant  part  is  assigned  in  the  contest  to  the 
deities,  and,  consequently,  Hindu  mythology''  is  pretty 
extensively  interwoven  with  these  events  of  semi-his- 
torical Hindu  antiquity.  This  episodical  matter,  as  it 
were,  incidentalh'  linked  with  the  main  story,  may  be 
distributed  under  three  principal  heads.  One  category 
of  such  episodes  comprises  narratives  relating  to  the  an- 
cient or  mythical  history  of  India,  as,  for  instance,  the 
episodes  of  Nala  and  Sakuntala ;  a  second  is  more  strict- 
ly mythological,  comprising  cosmogony  and  theogony ; 
a  third  is  didactic  or  dogmatic — it  refers  to  law,  religion, 
morals,  and  philosophy,  as  in  the  case  of  the  celebrated 
Bhagavadgita,  and  the  principal  portions  of  the  r2th 
and  13th  books.  By  means  of  this  episodical  matter, 
which  at  various  periods,  and  often  without  regard  to 
consistency,  was  superadded  to  the  original  structure  of 
the  work,  the  Mahabharata  gradually  became  a  collec- 
tion of  all  that  was  needed  to  be  known  by  an  educated 
Hindu ;  in  fact,  it  became  the  encyclopaedia  of  India, 
notwithstanding  that  the  Brahmanic  authors  themselves 
intended  it  mainly  for  the  Kshattriya,  or  military  caste, 
whose  history,  interests,  religion,  and  deities  it  specially 
dwells  upon.  The  text  of  the  Mahabharata  has  been 
I)ublishcd  at  Calcutta  (5  vols.  4to,  1834-1839.  Vol.  v  is  a 
table  of  ciintents).  Two  other  editions  are  in  course 
of  publication  at  Bombay.  The  best  researches  on  it 
are  those  by  Lassen,  in  his  Ztitschrift  fiir  die  Kunde  des 
Morgenlundes  (1837  sq.),  and  in  his  Indisclie  AUtrthums- 
kiimle.  A  sort  of  analysis  of  the  leading  storj'  of  the 
Mahabharata  (not  of  the  episodes)  has  lately  been  given 
by  F.  G.  EichhofiF  (Poesie  Ilero'ique  des  Indiens,  Paris, 
18G0),  and  Iiy  Professor  Monicr  Williams  {Indian  E]nc 
Vcninj,  London,  1863).  See  also  Schack, aS^iotjhcw  vom 
GaiKjcs  (Berl.  185G) ;  Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Maha-deva  (i.  e.  "the  great  god")  is  one  of  the 
names  liy  which  the  Hindu  god  Siva  is  called.  In 
Piuddliistic  history,  Mahadeva,  who  lived  200  years  after 
the  death  of  the  Buddha  Sakyamuni,  or  343,  is  a  re- 
nowned teacher  who  caused  a  schism  in  the  Buddhistic 
Church.  His  adversaries  accuse  him  of  every  jiossible 
crime ;  but,  as  he  is  ranked  amongst  the  Arhats,  his  em- 
inence cannot  be  matter  of  doubt.  The  school  founded 
by  him  is  called  Purvas,  aila.  See  W.  Wassiljew,  Ikr 
Buddhismus,  etc.  (St.  Petersburg,  1860). — Chambers,  Cy- 
clop, s.  V. 

Mahadi  or  Mehdi  (Arab,  director,  sovereign,  or 
poiitijj')  is  the  surname,  by  way  of  excellence,  of  the 
twelfth  and  last  imam  (q.  v.)  of  the  race  of  Ali.     This 


Mahadi,  who  bore  the  same  name  with  the  false  prophet, 
being  called  Abulcassem  Mohammed,  was  bom  in  the 
year  of  the  Hegira  255,  and,  according  to  Persian  tradi- 
tion, when  nine  years  old,  was  shut  up  in  a  cave  or  cis- 
tern by  his  mother,  and  is  there  kept  till  he  shall  appear 
at  the  end  of  the  world,  and  .Jesus  Christ  shall  destroy 
Antichrist,  and  make  of  the  two  laws,  the  Mussulman 
and  Christian,  but  one.  Some  among  them  believe  that 
this  imam  was  twice  hidden;  the  first  time  from  his 
birth  to  the  age  of  74  years,  during  which  interval  he 
secretly  conversed  with  his  disciples  without  being  seen 
by  others,  because  most  of  the  imams  who  preceded  him 
had  been  poisoned  by  the  caliphs,  who  knew  their  pre- 
tensions, and  feared  a  revolt  in  their  favor.  The  second 
retreat  of  this  imam  is  from  the  time  his  death  was 
made  known  to  the  time  which  Providence  has  appoint- 
ed for  his  manifestation.  The  disciples  of  this  Mahadi 
give  him  the  title  of  Mofebattlien,  the  secret  or  conceided. 
There  is  in  Chaldaia,  in  a  little  province  called  by  the 
Axab\a.n&  Ahvae,  a  castle  n&vacA Hesn  Mahadi,  v;hex&  all 
the  waters  of  that  country  join  and  form  a  marsh,  w'hich 
runs  into  the  sea.  It  is  here,  according  to  the  Shiites, 
that  Mahadi  will  make  his  appearance.  See  DTIerbelot, 
Bihl.  Orient,  s.  v.;  '[ivouQ\iton,Bibl.Hist.  Sac.  vol.  ii,  s.  v.; 
Malcolm,  I/ist.  of  Persia,  ii,  345,  note. 

Maha-Kala  is  another  name  of  the  Hindu  divinity 
Siva  (q.  v.). 

Maha-Kali.     See  Kali. 

Maha-kasyapa  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  most 
renowned  disciples  of  the  Buddha  Sdl-yammd  (q.  v.). 
He  arranged  metaphysically  the  portion  of  the  sacred 
writings  of  the  Buddhists  called  Abhidharma ;  and  tra- 
dition ascribes  to  him  also  the  origin  of  the  Sthavira 
division  of  the  Vaibhdshika  school  of  Buddhistic  philos- 
ophy. INIany  legends  are  connected  with  his  life.  See 
E.  Burnouf,  Introduction  a  Vllistoire  du  Buddhisme  In- 
dien  (Paris,  1844),  and  his  posthumous  work,  Le  Lotus  de 
la  Bonne  Loi  (Paris,  1852). — Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Ma'halah  (1  Chron.  vii,  18).     See  Maiilah. 

Mahal'aleel  (Heb.  MahalakV,  hvhht^ri.jiraise  of 
God;  Sept.  and  N.  T.  MaXtXiifK),  the  name  of  two  men. 

1.  The  son  of  the  antediluvian  patriarch  Cainan,  of 
the  line  of  Seth,  born  when  his  father  was  seventy  years 
old ;  he  became  the  father  of  Jared  at  seventy-five  years 
of  age,  and  lived  to  the  age  of  eight  hundred  and  nine- 
ty-five years  (Gen.  v,  12-17 ;  1  Chron.  i,  2 ;  Luke  iii,  37, 
in  which  last  passage  the  name  is  Anglicized  "  Male- 
leel"').  B.C.  3777-2822.  "  Ewald  recognises  in  Mahal- 
aleel  the  sun-god,  or  Apollo  of  the  antediluvian  mythol- 
ogy, and  in  his  son  Jared  the  god  of  water,  the  Indian 
Varuna  (Gesch.  i,  357),  but  his  assertions  are  perfectly 
arbitrary"  (Smith). 

2.  A  Judaite  of  the  family  of  Phazez,  father  of  She- 
phatiah,  and  ancestor  of  one  Athaiah,  who  resided  at 
Jerusalem  after  the  exile  (Neh.  xi,  4).  B.C.  much  ante 
536. 

Ma'halath  (YLob.Machalath',  P^H^,  a  lute,  oth- 
erwise the  title  of  a  song),  the  name  of  two  women.  See 
below. 

1.  (Sept.  MatX'ib,  Vulg. Maheleth.')  The  daughter  of 
Ishmael,  and  third  wife  of  Esau  (Gen.  xxviii, !)) ;  else- 
where called  Bashemath  (Gen.  xxxvi,  3) ;  but  the  Sa- 
mar.  Pent,  has  Mahalath  in  both  passages.     See  Esau. 

2.  (Septuag.  MoXct^  v.  r.  MooX«3,yulg.  Mahidath.) 
The  daughter  of  Jerimoth,  granddaughter  of  Davitl.and 
wife  of  Kehoboam  (2  Chron.  xi,  18).  B.C.  ".'73.  '■  She 
was  thus  her  husband's  cousin,  being  the  daughter  of 
king  David's  son,  who  was  probably  the  child  of  a  con- 
cubine, and  not  one  of  his  regidar  family.  Josephus, 
without  naming  Mahalath,  speaks  of  her  as  'a  kinswom- 
an' (jjvyyfvi'i  Tiva,  Ant.  viii,  10, 1\  No  children  are  at- 
tributed to  the  marriage,  nor  is  she  again  named.  The 
ancient  Hebrew  text  {Ket/iib)  in  this  passage  has  'son' 
instead  of  "daughter.'  The  latter,  however,  is  the  cor- 
rection of  the  Kcri.  and  is  adopted  bj'  the  Sept.,  Vulg., 
and  Targum,  as  well  as  by  the  A.  V."  (Smith). 


MAHALATH  MASCHIL 


655 


MAHA-YANSA 


Ma'halath  Mas'chil  occurs  in  the  title  erf  Psa. 
liii,  and  MA'HALATH  LEAN'NOTH  ]\IAS'CHIL  in 
the  title  of  Psa.  Ixxxviii.  For  these  latter  names,  see 
each  in  its  alphabetical  order.  The  term  IMaiialath 
(Hcb.  Machalath',  nbnp,  Sept.  MosXtj, Vulg.  Maeleth, 
Maheleth)  is  thomght  by  Geseniiis  {Thesaur.  Ileb.  p.  47G) 
to  be  for  nbrro,  from  ri?ri,  to  he  sweet,  spoken  of  mu- 

T   -:  -'  T   t'  '      * 

sical  sounds ;  hence  signifying  a  stringed  instrument,  e. 
g.  a  lute  or  ijuitar,  accompanied  by  the  voice.  Fiirst, 
however,  denies  {lleb.  Lex.  s.  v.)  that  it  denotes  an  in- 
strument at  all,  and  maintains  that  it  was  the  title  of  an 
old  air  to  which  the  psalms  in  question  were  to  be  sung. 
Ludolph  (p.  272)  compares  the  equivalent  ^'Ethiopic,  sig- 
nifying a  song  or  hymn.  The  use  of  Leannoth  in  the 
same  connection  would  perhaps  favor  the  reference  to 
some  kind  of  instrument ;  but  the  versions  render  no  as- 
sistance as  to  the  meaning  of  either  word,  and  most  in- 
terpreters resort  either  to  vague  conjecture  or  mystical 
allusions.  The  uee  of  the  particle  by,  "  upon,"  before 
"  Mahalath,"  in  each  case,  seems  to  indicate  some  kind 
of  instrument.     See  Psalms. 

Ma'hali  (Exod.  vi,  19).    See  Mahlt. 

Maha-maya  is  the  name  of  the  mother  of  Buddha. 
See  Gautajia. 

Mahana'im  (Hebrew  Afachana'yim,  d^iriB,  tico 
camps,  as  often,  and  explained  in  Gen.  xxxii,  2  as  mean- 
ing the  heavenly  army  of  God ;  where  the  Sept.  has 
Jlaoipjio\al,\n\g.  Muhanaim,  iciest  Castra ;  elsewhere 
Maai'aip  or  Mnavaip,  once  Mavaifi,  sometimes  na- 
pspiioXai ;  Vulg.  Manaim,  but  usually  castra),  a  place 
beyond  the  Jordan,  north  of  the  river  Jabbok,  which  de- 
rived its  name  from  Jacob's  having  been  tliere  met  by 
the  angels  (Josephus,  Gfou  orpardTTf^o)',  .-l^^  i,  20, 1) 
on  his  return  from  Padan-aram  (Gen.  xxxii,  2).  See 
Jacob.  The  name  was  eventuall)'  extended  to  the  town 
which  then  existed,  or  which  afterwards  arose  in  the 
neighborhood.  This  town  was  on  the  confines  of  the 
tribes  of  Gad  and  Manasseh,  as  well  as  on  the  southern 
boundary  of  Bashan  (Josh,  xiii,  26,30),  and  was  a  city 
of  the  Levites  (Josh,  xxi,  38 ;  1  Cliron.  vi,  80).  It  was 
in  this  city  that  Ishbosheth,  the  son  of  Saul,  reigned  (2 
Sam.  ii,  8, 12)  during  David's  reign  at  Hebron,  and  here 
he  was  assassinated  (ch.  iv).  The  choice  of  this  place 
was  probably  because  he  found  the  influence  of  David's 
name  less  strong  on  the  east  than  on  the  west  of  the 
Jordan ;  at  least,  it  seems  to  show  that  Mahanaim  was 
then  an  important  and  strong  place  (comp.  2  Sam.  ii,  29 ; 
xix,  32).  Ilence,  raanj^  years  after,  David  himself  re- 
paired to  Mahanaim,  where  he  was  entertained  by  Bar- 
zillai,  the  aged  sheik  of  that  district,  when  he  sought 
refuge  beyond  the  Jordan  from  his  son  Absalom  (2  Sam. 
xvii,  2i,  27;  IKingsii,  8).  In  this  vicinity  also  appears 
to  have  been  fought  the  decisive  battle  in  the  wood  of 
Ephraim,  between  the  royal  troops  and  the  rebels  (2 
Sam.  xviii).  See  David.  We  only  read  of  Mahanaim 
again  as  the  station  of  one  of  the  twelve  officers  who 
had  charge,  in  monthly  rotation,  of  raising  the  provis- 
ions for  the  royal  establishment  under  Solomon  (1  Kings 
iv,  14).  Some  find  an  allusion  to  the  place  in  Cant. 
vi,  13  ("  companies  of  two  armies,"  lit.  dance  of  Ma- 
hanaim), but  this  is  doubtful.  "  On  the  monument  of 
Sheshonk  (Shishak)  at  Karnak,  in  the  22d  cartouch — 
one  of  those  which  are  believed  to  contain  the  names  of 
Israelitish  cities  conquered  by  that  king — a  name  ap- 
pears which  is  read  as  M'^-ha-n-m",  that  is,  Mahanaim. 
The  adjiiining  cartouches  contain  names  which  are  read 
as  Bi'thshean,  Shunem,  Megiddo,  Beth-horon,  Gibeon, 
and  other  Israelitish  names  (Brugsch,  Genrp:  der  nach- 
barliimlcr  yEr/yptens,  p.  Gl).  If  this  interpretation  may 
be  relied  on,  it  shows  that  the  invasion  of  Shishak  was 
more  extensive  than  we  should  gather  from  the  records 
of  th'j  Bible  (2  Chron.  xii),  which  are  occupied  mainly 
with  occurrences  at  the  metropolis.  Possibly  the  army 
entered  by  the  plains  of  Philistia  and  Sharon,  ravaged 
Esdraelon  and  some  towns  like  Mahanaim  just  beyond 


Jordan,  and  then  returned,  either  by  the  same  route  ot 
by  the  Jordan  valley,  to  Jerusalem,  attacking  it  last. 
This  would  account  for  Rehoboam's  non-resistance,  and 
also  for  the  fact,  of  which  special  mention  is  made,  that 
many  of  the  chief  men  of  the  country  had  taken  refuge 
in  the  city.  It  should,  however,  be  remarked  that  the 
names  occur  in  most  promiscuous  order,  and  that  none 
has  been  found  resembling  Jerusalem"  (Smith).  In  Dr. 
Eli  Smith's  Arabic  list  of  names  of  places  in  Jebel  Ajhm 
(Robinson's  Bib.  Eesearches,  iii.  Append,  p.  1G6),  we  find 
a  ruined  site  mider  the  name  of  Mahneh,  which  is  prob- 
ably that  of  ]\Iahanaim  (comp.  Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  231 ; 
Keil's  Comment,  on  Josh,  xiii,  2G).  The  same  identifi- 
cation was  pointed  out  b}'  the  Jewish  traveller  Hap- 
Parchi,  according  to  -whom  it  lies  about  half  a  day's 
journey  due  east  of  Bethshan  (Zunz,  in  Asher's  edit,  of 
Benj.  of  Tudela,  p.  40),  the  same  direction  as  in  Kie- 
pert's  Map,  but  only  half  as  far.  Its  distance  from  the 
Jabbok  is  a  considerable  but  not  fatal  objection.  Tris- 
tram visited  the  place  which  he  defends  at  length  as  the 
site  of  Mahanaim,  and  describes  it  as  well  situated  for  a 
large  town,  with  considerable  remains  and  a  fine  pond 
(Land  of  Israel,  p.  483). 

Ma'haneh-dan  (Heb.  MacMneh'-Dan,  "il'njn^, 
camp  of  Ban;  Septuag.  UapspfioX))  Aov,  Vulg.  Castra 
Dan),  a  name  given  to  a  spot  west  of  Kirjath-jearim,  in 
consequence  of  its  having  been  the  encampment  of  the 
party  of  Danites  on  their  way  to  capture  Laish  (Judg. 
xviii,  12).  Mr.  Williams  suggests  a  site  called  Beit  3Ia- 
hanem,  on  the  north  side  of  wady  Ismail,  and  N.N.E.  of 
Deir  el  Howa  {IIoli/  City,  i,  12,  note) ;  but  the  name  ap- 
pears on  no  map,  and  occurs  in  no  other  trav'eller. 

Maha-Pralya  (i.  e.  the  "  great  end"  or  "  great  de- 
struction"), a  term  applied  by  the  Hindus  to  the  final 
consummation  of  all  things,  which  they  suppose  will 
take  place  after  a  hundred  years  of  Brahma  have  elapsed 
(each  Brahmanic  day,  with  its  night,  is  reckoned  as  8G40 
millions  of  our  j^ears).  At  the  time  referred  to,  all  the 
gods,  including  Brahma,  as  weU  as  aU  creatures,  will  be 
annihilated;  Brahm,thc  eternal,  self-existent  Spirit,  will 
alone  remain.  See  ]\Ioor,  Hindoo  Pantheon ;  Thomas, 
iJict.  of  Bio(j.  and  My t hoi.  s.  v. 

Ma'harai  (Hebrew  J/a/iam^',  "^^Ji^,  hasty;  Sept. 
Maxapat  and  Moopni  v.  r.  Mapat  and  Mfj/pn),  a  Ne- 
tophathite,  and  one  of  David's  chief  -warriors  (2  Sam. 
xxUi,  28 ;  1  Chron.  xi,  30) ;  being  a  descendant  of  Ze- 
rah,  and  the  tenth  captain  of  a  contingent  of  24,000 
men  (1  Chron.  xxvii,  13).     B.C.  1014. 

Maha-Rudra  is  another  name  of  Siva  (q.  v.).  See 
Rudra. 

Maha-sanghika  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  two 
great  divisions  of  the  Buddhistic  Church  which  arose 
about  two  hundred  years  after  the  death  of  the  Buddha 
Sakyamuni,  or  about  343.  See  Sthavika.  Out  of 
this  school  arose,  in  the  course  of  the  next  centuries, 
numerous  sects.  For  the  tenets  common  to  all,  and  for 
those  peculiar  to  each  of  these  sects,  the  special  student 
of  the  Buddhist  religion  will  at  present  most  advan- 
tageously consult  the  work  of  Prof.  W.  Wassiljew,  i>(-r 
Bucklhis/niis,  seine  Doqmen,  Geschirhte  und  Literatur  (St. 
Petersburg,  18G0). — Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Ma'hath  (Heb.  Ma'chath,  nPI^,  prob.  for  HPHp, 
grasping ;  Sept.  MaaS),  the  name  of  two  Levites. 

1.  A  Kohathite,  son  of  Amasai  and  father  of  Elkanah 
(1  Chron.  vi,  35) ;  apparently  the  same  elsewhere  (1 
Chron.  vi,  25)  called  Aiiimoth  (q.  v.).  B.C.  cir.  1375. 
See  Samuel. 

2.  Another  Kohathite,  one  of  those  who  cleansed  the 
Temple  in  the  reformation  instituted  by  Hezekiah  (2 
Chron.  xxix,  12),  and  was  appointed  by  that  king  one 
of  the  subordinate  overseers  of  the  sacred  revenues  (2 
xxxi,  13).     B.C.  72G. 

Maha-vansa  is  the  title  of  two  celebrated  works 
written  in  Pali,  and  relating  to  the  early  history  of 
Ceylon  (q.  v.).    The  older  work  was  probably  composed 


MAHA-VIRA 


656 


MAHLON 


by  the  monks  of  tlie  convent  Uttaravihara  at  Anura- 
diulpura,  tlio  capital  of  Ceylon.  Its  date  is  uncertain, 
but  it  apparently  preceded  the  reign  of  Dhatusena  (459- 
477),  as  that  monarch  ordered  it  to  be  road  in  pub- 
lic, a  circumstance  which  seems  to  prove  the  celebrity 
it  already  enjoyed  in  his  time.  The  later  work  of  the 
same  name  is  an  improved  edition  and  continuation  of 
the  former.  Its  author,  Mahunuma,  was  the  son  of  an 
aunt  of  the  king  Dhatusena,  and  he  brings  down  the 
history  of  Ceylon,  like  his  predecessor,  to  the  death  of 
Mahasena.  A  first  volume  of  the  text  of  the  latter 
work,  "in  Roman  characters,  with  a  translation  sub- 
joined, and  an  introductory  essay  on  Pali  Buddhistic 
literature,"  was  published  by  the  Hon.  George  Tumour 
(Ceylon,  1837).  See  also  Lassen,  Indische  Alterthums- 
ivnde,  ii,  15  sq.  (Bonn,  1852). — Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Maha-vira  (literally  "  the  great  hero"),  also  called 
Vim  and  Vardhamuna,  is  the  twenty-fourth  or  last 
Jina,  or  deified  saint,  of  the  Jainas  (q.  v.),  described  as 
of  a  golden  complexion,  and  having  a  lion  for  his  sym- 
bol. His  legendary  history  is  given  in  the  Kalpa-Su- 
ira  (q.  v.)  and  the  Mahavira-Charitra.  According  to 
these,  JMahavira's  birth  occurred  at  a  period  infinitely 
remote ;  it  was  as  Nayasdra,  the  head  man  of  a  village, 
that  he  first  appeared  in  the  country  of  Yijaya,  subject 
to  Satrumardana.  He  was  next  born  as  Marichi,  the 
grandson  of  the  first  Jaina  saint  liishabha;  he  then 
came  to  the  world  of  Brahma,  was  reborn  as  a  worldly- 
minded  Brahmana,  and  after  several  other  births — each 
being  separated  from  the  other  by  an  interval  passed  in 
one  of  the  Jaina  heavens,  and  each  period  of  life  ex- 
tending to  many  hundreds  of  thousands  of  years^he 
quitted  the  state  of  a  deity  to  obtain  immortality  as  a 
saint,  and  was  incarnate  towards  the  close  of  the  fourth 
age  (iww  past),  when  seventy-five  years  and  eight  and 
a  half  months  of  it  remained.  After  he  was  thirty  years 
of  age  he  renounced  worldly  pursuits,  and  departed, 
amid  the  applause  of  gods  and  men,  to  practice  auster- 
ities. ,  Finally,  he  became  an  Arhat  or  Jina ;  and  at  the 
age  of  seventy-two  years,  the  period  of  his  liberation 
having  arrived,  "  he  resigned  his  breath,"  and  his  body 
was  burned  by  Indra  and  other  deities,  who  erected  a 
splendid  monument  on  the  spot,  and  then  returned  to 
their  respective  heavens.  At  what  period  these  events 
occurred  is  not  stated,  but,  judging  from  some  of  the 
circumstances  narrated,  the  last  Jina  expired  about  five 
hundred  years  before  the  Christian  a^ra.  Other  author- 
ities make  the  date  of  this  event  about  a  century  and  a 
half  earlier. 

The  works  above  referred  to  state,  with  considerable 
detail,  the  conversions  worked  by  Mahavlra.  Among 
the  pupils  were  Indrabhtiti  (also  called  Gautama,  and 
for  this  reason,  but  erroneously,  considered  as  the  same 
with  the  founder  of  the  Buddhist  religion),  Agnibhiiti, 
Vayubhiiti — all  three  sons  of  Vasubhuti,  a  Brahmana 
of  the  (Jotama  tribe,  and  others.  These  converts  to 
Jaina  principles  are  mostly  ma<le  in  the  same  manner: 
each  comes  to  the  saint  prepared  to  overwhelm  him  with 
shame,  when  he  salutes  them  mildly,  and,  as  the  Jainas 
hold,  solves  their  metaphysical  or  religious  doubts. 
Thus  Indrabhfiti  doubts  whether  there  be  a  living  prin- 
ciple or  not;  Vayubhiiti  doubts  if  life  be  not  body; 
Mandita  has  not  made  up  his  mind  on  the  subjects  of 
bondage  and  liberation ;  Achalabhratri  is  sceptical  as  to 
tke  distinction  between  vice  and  virtue,  and  so  on.  Ma- 
bavira  removes  all  their  difficidties,  and,  by  teaching 
them  the  Jaina  truth,  converts  them  to  the  doctrine  of 
his  sect.  For  a  summarj'  account  of  the  life  of  this 
saint,  see  H.  T.  Colebrooke's  MincdUineous  Essay.f,  ii, 
213  sq.;  H.H.Wilson's  Worlds,  i,  291  sq.  —  Chambers, 
Cyclop,  s.  V. 

Ma'havite  (Hebrew  only  in  the  plur.  Marhavtm', 
C^irfO,  reviriiir/;  Sept.  MfirociV  v.  r.  Mowi,  Vulg.  Ma- 
humitcs,  Auth.  Vers.  ''^Nlahavitc ;"  probably  by  erroneous 
transcription  for  the  sing.  "^W/C),  apparently  a  patrial 
attribute  of  Eliel,  one  of  David's  body-guard  (1  Chron. 


xi,  46) ;  but  no  place  or  person  Mahavah  or  Mahavai 
is  anywhere  else  alluded  to  from  which  the  title  could 
have  been  derived.  There  is  doubtless  some  corruption 
in  the  text,  "The  Targum  has  N1W;5  •^•Qr\,  'from 
Machavua.'  Kennicott  {Dissert. \).2o\.)  conjectures  that 
originally  the  Hebrew  may  have  stood  f^intl^S, '  from 
the  Hivites.'  Others  have  proposed  to  insert  an  N  and 
read  '  the  jSIahanaimite'  (Flirst,  Ilamlwh.  p.  721  a ;  Ber- 
theau,  Chronik.  p.  130)"  (Smith). 

Maha'ziOth  (Ueh.Machazioth',  TiiX'^'n^,  visions; 
Sept.  Maw^twS'  v.  r.  Mta^w^),  the  last  named  of  the 
fourteen  sons  of  Heman  the  Levite  (1  Chron.  xxv,  4), 
and  leader  under  him  of  the  twentj'-third  division  of 
the  Temple  musicians  as  arranged  bv  David  (1  Chron. 
xxv,  30).     B.C.  lOM. 

Ma'her-sha'Ial-hash-baz  (Heb.  Maher'-Sha- 
lul'-Chash-Baz,  tS  Tirri  ??'C3  THp,  speeding  for  booty  he 
hastes  to  the  spoil;  Sept,  6t,Hi)Q  Trpovofn)v  Tvoiiiaai  aicu- 
Xiov  and  Taxso)Q  CKvXivaov,  o^tujg  Trpov('>ptvaov,\u\g. 
Velociier  spolia  detrahe,  cilo  prccdare  and  A  ccelera  spo- 
lia  detrahere,  festina  prcudari ;  for  the  grammatical  con- 
struction, see  Gesenius,  Comment,  ad  loc),  words  which 
the  prophet  Isaiah  was  first  commanded  to  write  in  large 
characters  upon  a  tablet,  and  aftenvards  to  give  as  a 
symbolical  name  to  a  son  that  was  to  be  born  to  him 
(Isa.  viii,  1,  3),  as  prognostic  of  the  sudden  attack  of 
Damascus  and  Syria  by  the  Assyrian  army  (see  Hen- 
derson's Comment,  ad  loc).  The  child  in  question  was 
evidently  the  prophet's  son  bj'  "  the  prophetess"  whom 
he  espoused  in  pursuance  of  the  divine  mandate,  and 
appears  to  have  been  the  same  with  the  one  whose  birth 
under  the  more  Messianic  title  of  Immanuel  was  at 
once  a  token  to  Ahaz  of  the  coming  defeat  of  his  ene- 
mies (Isa.  vii,  14-16),  and  an  illustrious  type  of  Gospel 
deliverance,     B.C.  739. 

Mahes(h)a  and  MehesWara  are  names  by  which 
Siva  is  sometimes  called.     See  Siva. 

Mah'lali  (Heb.  Machlah',  Th'H'O,  another  form  for 
nbri^,  disease,  as  in  Exod.  xv,  26,  etc.),  the  name  of 
two  persons. 

1.  (Sept,  MooXa  v.  r.  MafXn,Vulg.  Mohola.  Auth. 
Vers.  "Mahalah.")  Apparently  a  son  (but  perhaps  a 
daughter)  of  Hamoleketh,  a  female  descendant  of  Ma- 
nasseh ;  the  father's  name  is  not  given,  but  two  brothers 
are  mentioned  (1  Chron.  vii,  18).     B.C.  prob.  cir,  1658. 

2.  (Sept,  Moa\a,Vulg.  Melcha.)  The  first  named 
of  the  five  daughters  and  heiresses  of  Zelophehad,  of  the 
tribe  of  Manasseh  west,  who  married  among  their  kin- 
dred (Numb,  xxvi,  33 ;  xxvii,  1 ;  xxxvi,  11 ;  Josh,  xvii, 
13).     B.C.  1618. 

Mah'li  (Heb.  MachW,  "^IpH^,  sick;  Sept.  MooXi, 
Vidg.  Moholi;  but  in  Exod.  vi,  19,  MooXfi,  Auth,X'ers, 
"  Mahali ;"  see  also  INIahi.ite),  the  name  of  two  Levites. 

1.  A  son  of  Xlerari,  and  grandson  of  Levi  (Exod,  vi, 
19;  Numb,  lii,  20;  1  Chron,  vi,  19;  xxiii,  21  ;  xxiv,  26, 
28;  Ezra  viii,  18),  He  had  a  son  named  Libni  (1  Chron. 
vi,  29).  His  descendants  were  named  after  him  (Numb, 
iii,  33;  xxvi,  58).     B.C.  post  1856. 

2.  A  son  of  Mushi,  and. nephew  of  the  preceding  (1 
Chron.  xxiii,  23 ;  xxiv,  30).  He  had  a  son  named  Sha- 
mer  (1  Chron.  vi,  47).     B.C.  ante  1658. 

Mah'lite  (Heb.  only  in  the  singular  collectively, 
3fachli',  ''^n^,  patronymic  of  the  same  form  from 
Mahli;  Sept,  MooXi, X'ldg.  Moholita; ;  but  in  Numb, 
xxvi,  58,  Sept,  omits,  Vulg,  J/o/ioZi;  A.  Vers,  constantly 
"  Mahlites"),  the  descendants  of  Mahli,  the  son  of  Merari 
(Numb,  iii,  33 ;  xxvi,  58). 

Mah'lon  (Hebrew  Machlon',  '^^^'PT\'2,  sickly  ;  Sept. 
Maa\iO]',yn]g.J/()hahm),  the  elder  of  the  two  sons  of 
Elimelech  the  Bethlehemite  by  Naomi ;  they  removed 
with  him  to  Moab,  where  this  one  married  Ituth,  and 
died  childless  (Ruth  i,  2,  5;  iv,  9, 10).  B,C,  cir,  1360. 
.See  Ri'TH,  "  It  is  uncertain  which  was  the  elder  of  the 
two.     In  the  narrative  (i,  2,  5)  Mahlon  is  mentioned 


MAHMUD 


657 


MAHRATTAS 


first,  but  in  his  formal  address  to  the  elders  in  the  gate 
(iv,  9),  Boaz  says  '  Chilion  and  Mahlon.'  Like  his 
brother,  Mahlon  died  in  the  land  of  ]\Ioab  without  off- 
spring, which  in  the  Targum  on  Kuth  (i,  5)  is  explained 
to  have  been  a  judgment  for  their  transgression  of  the 
law  in  marrying  a  Moabitess.  In  the  Targum  on  1 
Chron.  iv^,  '2i,  Mahlon  is  identified  with  Joash,  possibly 
on  account  of  the  double  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  word 
which  follows,  and  wliich  signifies  both  '  had  dominion' 
and  '  married'"  (Smith). 

Mahniud,  Abul-Kasim  Ye.min  Er>-DowLAir,  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Mohammedan  sovereigns, 
the  founder  of  the  Gaznevide  dynasty,  and  the  first 
who  established  a  permanent  Moslem  empire  in  India, 
was  born  at  Gazna  (or  Ghizni)  in  A.D.  9G7.  His  fa- 
ther was  originally  a  Turkish  slave,  but  having  become 
governor,  under  the  sovereign  of  Persia,  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Kandahar,  he  finally  secured  for  his  own  posses- 
sion the  whole  of  the  Punjab  (q.  v.),  besides  the  AflF- 
ghan  dominions.  Mahmud  came  to  the  throne  A.D. 
997.  Already,  during  the  reign  of  his  father,  Mahmud 
had  distinguished  himself  by  superior  warlike  qual- 
ities. Ill  treated  by  Mansiir,  the  Saraanide  sovereign 
of  Persia,  he  made  war  against  him,  resulting  in  the 
overthrow  of  the  Samanide  dynasty,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  Mahmud  himself  as  the  most  powerful  mon- 
arch in  Asia.  A  devout  Mussulman,  he  aspired  to  the 
character  of  an  apostle  of  his  religion.  "  His  chief  am- 
bition was  to  extend  his  religion  throughout  the  rich 
l)rovincos  of  India,  a  task  to  which  he  was  stimidated 
bj'  a  belief,  cherished  from  his  early  boyhood,  that  he  was 
intristed  with  a  divine  mission  to  extirpate  idolatry 
from  the  land  of  the  Hindus."  In  twelve  successive 
expeditions  into  India,  during  a  reign  of  thirty-five 
years,  he  carried  fire  and  sword  among  the  idolaters,  de- 
throned and  slew  several  princes,  plundered  and  burned 
theii  cities,  stormed  the  forts,  massacred  the  garrisons, 
ravaged  the  fields,  and  carried  away  so  many  natives 
into  captivity,  that  the  price  of  a  slave  was  reduced  at 
Gazna  to  a  couple  of  rupees ;  and  all  this  notwithstand- 
ing that  all  India  regarded  the  contest  with  Mahmud 
in  the  light  of  a  holy  war,  and  that  no  sacrifice  of  mon- 
ey or  men'  was  spared  to  defend  the  religion  of  their 
forefathers  (compare  Moore's  poem  PararUse  and  the 
Peri).  Mahmud  extended  his  conquests  not  only  over 
the  whole  of  the  Punjab,  but  penetrated  as  far  as  Bun- 
delcund  on  the  east,  and  Guzerat  on  the  south.  It  has 
frequently  been  charged  that  these  incursions  to  India 
were  made  by  INIahmud  rather  for  the  sake  of  spoil 
than  to  extend  the  Mussulman  faith  (comp.  Trevor,  In- 
clia,  p.  72),  but  there  is  every  evidence,  both  in  the  fact 
that  his  arms  were  constantly  directed  against  the  re- 
ligion rather  than  the  people,  and  in  his  lavish  expen- 
diture at  Gazna  of  the  treasures  brought  from  India, 
and  in  the  encouragement  he  gave  to  learning,  that 
Mahmud  believed  in  his  divine  mission.  He  founded 
a  university  in  Gazna,  with  a  vast  collection  of  curi- 
ous books,  in  various  languages,  and  a  museum  of  nat- 
ural curiosities.  He  appropriated  a  large  sum  for  the 
maintenance  of  this  establishment.  He  also  set  aside 
£10.000  a  year  for  pensions  to  learned  men.  Ho  died 
in  1030.  The  great  Mussulman  poet  Firdusi  flourish- 
ed at  this  time.  See  Ferishta,  History  of  the  Rise  of  the 
Mohiimniedan  Power  in  India  (translated  by  general 
Briggs) ;  Wilken,  Historia  Ghasnevidanim  ;  Historj)  of 
Ju-itish  India,  vol.  i  (Harper's  Farailj'  Library)  ;  Von 
Hammer,  Gemdhldesaal  grosser  Moslemischer  Herrscher ; 
'JVc'vor,  India,  p.  G9  sq. ;  India,  Pictorial,  Descript.  and 
Hist.  (London,  Bohn,  1854, 12mo),  p.  54  sq. ;  D'Hcrbelot, 
liiblioth.  Orientale,  p.  544  sq. ;  and  the  excellent  article 
in  Tliomas,  Diet,  of  Biorj.  and  Mijthol.  s.  v.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Mahnenschmidt,  John  Petkr,  a  pioneer  of  the 
German  Iteformcd  Church  in  Ohio,  was  born  probably 
in  Somerset  or  in  Westmoreland  Co.,  Pa.,  in  1783;  firs"t 
taught  school  for  a  number  of  years,  and  was  ihially,  in 
1812,  licenssd  to  preach,  and  soon  after  removed  to  (3hio, 
where  lie  performed  missionarv  labors  in  the  counties  of 
v.— t"t 


Columbiana  and  Trumbull.  He  laid  the  foundations  of 
numerous  congregations,  which  he  lived  to  see  grow 
and  prosper.  He  died  in  Canfield,  Mahoning  Co.,  Ohio, 
July  11, 1857.  Mahnenschmidt  was  a  modest,  childlike, 
and  earnest  man.  See  Harbaugh,  Fathers  of  the  Ger- 
man lief  Ch.  (Lancaster,  Pa.,  1872, 12mo),  iii,  207  sq. 

Ma'hol  (Heb.  Machol',  bllTO,  a  sacred  dance,  as  in 
Psa.  XX,  12,  etc. ;  Sept,  Ma;;^;wX  ;  Josephus'Hf*aa/v,^4w/. 
viii,  2,  5),  a  person  apparently  named  as  the  father  of 
the  famous  wise  men  Ethan,  Heman,  Chalcol,  and  Dar- 
da  (or  at  least  of  the  last  two),  prior  to  the  time  of  Sol- 
omon (1  Kings  iv,  31) ;  but  if  these  be  the  same  with 
those  enumerated  as  sons  of  Zerah  (1  Chron.  ii,  C),  the 
word  must  be  taken  as  elsewhere  to  denote  simply  their 
pursuit,  as  musical  composers  (see  Keil's  Comment,  ad 
loc.  Kings),  an  art  with  which  dancing  has  ever  been 
intimately  connected.     See  Ethan. 

Mahomet.     See  Mohammed. 

Mahrattas,  a  people  of  Central  India,  south  of  the 
Eiver  Ganges,  inhabiting  the  mountains  from  Gwalior 
to  Goa,  and  by  many  supposed  to  be  the  descendants  of 
a  Persian  or  North  Indian  people  who  had  been  driven 
southwards  by  the  Mongols.  They  are  a  vigorous  and 
active  race,  and  though,  like  many  Eastern  nations,  di- 
minutive and  ill  formed,  are  distinguished  for  their 
courage.  Most  of  the  Mahrattas  are  Hindus  in  relig- 
ious belief,  but,  unlike  the  devout  foUowers  of  Brahma, 
they  do  not  adhere  to  the  distinction  of  caste  very  close- 
ly. IMohammedanism  and  Parseeism  also  have  many 
followers  among  this  people,  and  Judaism  counts  a  few 
adherents,  though  so  distorted  hj  heathen  practices  that 
some  ethnologists  have  identified  the  Beni  Israel  of  the 
Mahratta  land  with  the  Patterns  (q.  v.). 

History. — The  INIahrattas  are  first  mentioned  in  his- 
tory about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century.  They  then 
inhabited  a  narrow  strip  of  territory  on  the  west  side 
of  the  peninsula,  extending  from  15°  to  21°  N.  lat.,  and 
are  spoken  of  as  for  three  centuries  the  subjects  of  IMo- 
hammedanism. The  founder  of  the  Mahratta  power 
was  Sevaji  (died  in  1680),  a  freebooter  or  adventurer, 
whose  father  was  an  officer  in  the  service  of  the  last  king 
of  Bejapiir.  By  policy  or  by  force,  he  eventually  suc- 
ceeded in  compelling  the  several  independent  chiefs  to 
acknowledge  him  as  their  leader,  and,  with  a  large 
army  at  his  command,  overran  and  subdued  a  vast 
portion  of  the  emperor  of  Delhi's  territory.  He  was 
crowned  as  king  in  1G74.  His  son  and  successor,  Sam- 
baji,  after  vigorously  following  out  his  father's  policy, 
was  taken  prisoner  by  Aurungzebe  in  1689,  and  put  to 
death.  The  incapacity  of  the  subsequent  rulers  who 
reigned  under  the  title  o^  Ramrajah  ("great  king"), 
tempted  the  two  chief  officers  of  state,  the  Peishira,  or 
prime  minister,  and  the  paymaster-general,  to  divide, 
about  1749,  the  empire  between  them,  the  former  fixing 
his  residence  at  Puna,  and  retaining  a  nominal  suprem- 
acy over  the  whole  nation,  while  the  latter  made  Nag- 
pur  his  capital,  and  founded  the  empire  of  the  Berar 
iNIahrattas.  Later,  however,  the  Mahratta  kingdom  was 
divided  into  a  great  number  of  states,  more  or  less  pow- 
erful and  independent,  chief  among  which  were,  be- 
sides the  two  above  mentioned,  Gwalior,  ruled  by  the 
Rao  Scindiah ;  Indore,  by  the  Rao  Holkar ;  and  Baroda, 
by  the  Guicowar.  Intestine  wars  followed  this  subdi- 
vision, and  ultimately  the  East  India  Company  was 
compelled  to  interfere.  After  many  long  and  bloody 
contests  with  the  British  and  their  allies,  the  Mahrattas 
were  reduced  to  a  state  of  dependence.  The  only  ex- 
ception was  Scindiah,  a  j)Owerful  chief,  who  had  raised 
a  powerful  army,  officered  by  Frenchmen,  and  disciplined 
after  the  European  method.  He  continued  the  contest 
until  1843.  The  dignitj-  of  peishwa  was  abolished  in 
1818,  and  his  territories  were  occupied  by  the  British. 
Nagpiir  and  Sattara  subsequently  also  came  to  the  Brit- 
ish, but  the  other  chiefs  still  possess  extensive  domin- 
ions under  British  protection. 

Missions.  —  The  earliest  missions  of  the  Christian 


MAI 


658 


MAI 


Church  ill  India  date  with  tlie  settlement  of  the  Portu- 
"•iicse  ill  Goa,  where  the  Koman  Catholics  established 
the  tirst  bishopric  in  1534.  The  second  important  hold 
the  Komish  Church  secured  at  the  two  Salsettes,the  pen- 
insula and  island  near  Bombay.  From  these  the  work 
was  graduall)^  pressed  through  the  jVIahratta-land.  At 
Goa  there  are  claimed  to  be  312,000,  and  at  Bombay 
20,300  Roman  Catholics.  See  India.  The  first  Prot- 
testant  mission  was  commenced  in  the  INIabratta-land  by 
the  American  Board  in  1811.  For  about  twenty  years 
it  was  confined  to  the  territory  this  side  of  the  Ghauts. 
Mahim,  Tannah,  and  Chowul  (Choule)  were  occupied 
for  a  time,  but  abandoned  in  1826.  In  1836,  however, 
the  work  began  to  show  signs  of  vigor  and  promise.  At 
this  time  a  mission  was  established  on  the  high  lands 
of  Ahmeduuggur,  a  city  of  30,000  inhabitants,  and  by 
1842  it  became  an  independent  mission  centre.  For  the 
success  of  this  work  and  its  present  status,  see  the  arti- 
cle India,  vol.  iv,  p.  555,  col.  2.  The  Anglican  Church 
first  began  missionary  labors  in  Bombay  in  1820,  and 
gradually  gained  a  hold  at  Tannah,  Bandora,  and  Bas- 
sein.  In  1832,  Nasik,  the  most  celebrated  centre  of  Brah- 
minism  in  all  Deccan,  was  secured ;  in  1846  the  work 
was  extended  to  the  station  Junir,  and  in  1848  to  Mal- 
ligaum.  The  attempt  made  a  few  years  ago,  at  Yeolat, 
to  Christianize  exclusively  by  the  aid  of  native  helpers 
failed  completely.  Neither  did  the  effort  among  the 
Illangs,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Aurangabad  (stations 
BiUdana,  etc.),  prove  successful.  In  Bombay  and  vi- 
cinity the  Church  Missionary  Society  sustains  many 
schools,  and  Christian  influences  are  moiUding  the  char- 
acter of  the  rising  generation.  A  special  missionary  for 
the  Mohammedans  is  sustained  here.  See  Bombay.  The 
Scotch  Mission  commenced  at  Konkan  in  1823;  the  first 
stations  were  Bankot  and  Suvarndrug,  but  these  were 
abandoned  when  the  laborers  were  needed  at  Bombay. 
Here  both  the  "  Established  Church"  and  the  "  Free 
Church"  sustain  schools.  The  Scotch  Mission  at  Poonah, 
which  originated  in  1839,  belongs  to  the  Free  Church. 
Of  late  years  the  Free  Church  has  established  missions 
among  the  Waralies  (aborigines)  near  Daman.  The  So- 
cietj'  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  has  labored  in  this 
field  since  1840,  but  confined  mainly  to  Bombay.  Very 
lately  the  Medical  Missionary  Society  has  established 
an  institute  which  will  prove  of  valuable  service  to  the 
mission  work.  See  Sprengel,  Geschkhte  der  Mahratten 
(Halle,  1786) ;  Duth,  History  of  the  Mahrattas  (London, 
1826,  3  vols.  8vo);  Grundemann,  J/mioMso^^os,  No.  12; 
Chambers,  Cyclojycedia,  s.  v. 

Mai,  Angelo,  a  noted  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  and 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  scholars  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury, was  born  at  Schilpario  (province  of  Bergamo),  It- 
ah',  March  7, 1782.  As  a  youth  he  arrested  the  atten- 
tion of  his  instructor,  the  ex-Jesuit  father  Lewis  Mozzi 
de'  Caspitani,  by  the  unusual  taste  and  capacity  which 
he  displayed  for  classical  learning.  The  father,  deter- 
mined to  lead  Angelo's  inclination  towards  the  service 
of  the  Church,  finally  induced  him  to  enter,  in  1799,  the 
novitiate  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  which,  although  else- 
where suppressed,  the  Duke  of  Parma,  with  the  sanction 
of  Pius  VI,  was  just  re-establishing  at  Colorno,  a  small 
city  of  his  duchy.  In  this  community  Mai  resided  till 
the  provisional  restoration  of  the  society  in  Naples 
(1804),  whither  he  was  sent  as  Professor  of  Greek  and 
Latin  literature.  About  the  end  of  1805  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  Rome  for  the  completion  of  his  theological 
studies,  and  soon  afterwards  to  Orvieto,  and  was  there 
admitted  to  priest's  orders.  It  was  at  this  place  that  he 
acquired  great  familiarity  with  the  Hebrew  language,  his 
accurate  knowledge  of  palieography,  and  his  skill  in  de- 
ciphering ancient  manuscrii)ts.  He  returned  to  Rome 
in  1808,  just  about  the  time  when  the  contest  of  Pius 
VII  with  Napoleon  was  teaching  the  crisis;  an  order 
issued  by  the  viceroy,  commanding  all  subjects  of  the 
kingdom  of  Italy  to  return  to  their  respective  provinces, 
had  compelled  him  to  change  his  residence  once  again. 
Happily  for  the  interests  of  literature,  he  settled  at  Mi- 


lan. The  Ambroslan  Library  of  that  city  had  long 
been  known  as  rich  in  manuscripts  of  the  highest  inter- 
est— the  remnant  of  the  treasures  of  the  old  monastic 
libraries,  especially  those  of  Bobbio  and  Lucca,  and  of 
some  of  the  suppressed  Benedictine  convents  of  the  Prot- 
estant cantons  of  Switzerland.  Many  of  its  best  treas- 
ures had  been  made  public  by  Muratori,Mabillon,  and 
the  Benedictine  editors;  but  there  yet  remained  a  de- 
partment entirely  unexplored,  which  Mai  soon  appropri- 
ated to  himself,  and  which  has  since  come  to  be  regarded 
as  exclusively  his  own — that  of  palimpsest  or  re-writ- 
ten manuscripts,  in  which  the  original  writing  has  been 
effaced  in  order  to  make  room  for  a  later  work  written 
over  it.  INIai  was  admitted  an  associate,  and  eventually 
a  doctor  of  this  celebrated  library,  and  labored  in  this 
novel  editorial  career  Avith  a  zeal  and  success  not  un- 
worthy of  the  traditional  glories  of  his  country.  From 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  to  which  he  had  not  yet  avowed 
himself,  he  now  withdrew,  with  the  consent  and  ap- 
proval of  the  authorities  at  Rome.  His  first  essay  as  an 
author  was  a  Latin  translation  (with  a  commentary)  of 
Isocrates,  Z)e  Perimitaiione  (1813),  the  original  of  which 
had  been  published  by  a  Greek  named  Andrew  Mustox- 
idi  in  the  previous  year;  but  this  was  only  the  prelude 
of  his  far  more  remarkable  successes  in  the  decipher- 
ment and  publication  of  palimpsest  manuscripts.  Up  to 
this  period,  with  the  exception  of  Klister  and  Wctstein's 
readings  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament  from  the  Codex 
Ephremi,  Knittcl's  portions  of  the  Gothic  Bible  of  Ul- 
pliilas,  Peter  Bruns's  fragment  of  the  ninety-first  book 
of  Livy,  and  Barrett's  palimpsest  of  the  Gospels,  palimp- 
sest literature  was  entirely  untried.  Within  a  few  years 
Mai  deciphered  and  published  from  palimpsest  sources 
writings  of  several  classical  authors,  besides  two  works 
then  supposed  to  be  by  Philo  Judaius,  but  afterwards 
recognised  as  the  productions  of  Georgius  Gemistus.    In 

1819  Mai  was  called  to  Rome  as  chief  keeper  of  the 
Vatican  Library,  canon  of  the  Church  of  St.  Peter's,  and 
domestic  prelate  of  the  pope,  Pius  VII.  Here  he  con- 
tinued the  publication  of  palimpsest  manuscripts,  and  in 

1820  brought  out  the  work  by  which  he  is  best  known 
out  of  Italy — a  large  and  interesting  portion  of  the  long- 
lost  De  RepuhUca  of  Cicero,  the  fragments  of  which  he 
arranged  with  consummate  skill  in  their  respective  or- 
der, and  intenvove  with  all  the  known  extracts  of  the 
work  which  had  been  preserved  in  the  collections  of  an- 
cient authors.  The  whole  text  he  illustrated  by  a  crit- 
ical commentary  of  exceeding  interest,  which  at  once 
established  his  reputation  -as  one  of  the  first  scholars  of 
the  age. 

From  these  comparatively  desultorj'  labors  he  turned 
to  a  project  not  unworthy  of  the  palmiest  days  of  Ital- 
ian editorship.  Selectuig  from  the  vast  and  till  then 
imperfectly  explored  manuscript  treasures  of  the  Vati- 
can, he  ]irei)arcd  his  Scriptorum  veteriim.  Xovd  Colkclio 
e  Vaticanis  Cod'uibus  edita  (Rome,  1825,  and  later,  10 
vols.  4to),  on  the  plan  of  the  various  A  iiecdoia,  published 
under  different  titles  by  Mabillon,  Pez,Montiau(,^on,Mu- 
ratori,  and  others.  It  is  a  work  of  immense  labor  and 
research,  and  of  a  most  miscellaneous  character — Greek 
and  Latin,  sacred  and  profane,  theological,  historical,  pa- 
tristical,  and  philosophical.  Next,  he  published  Clas- 
sici  Scriptores  ex  Codicibus  Vaticanis  edifi  (comjiloted  in 
1838,  in  10  vols.  8vo),  which  included  some  of  the  edi- 
tor's earlier  publications  (especially  the  De  Rejiuhlica^ ; 
although,  with  the  exception  of  aljout  two  volumes,  its 
contents  were  entirely  new  Scarceh*  was  this  collection 
finished  when  he  entered  upon  the  prejiaration  of  the 
Spinlcf/inm  Romannm  (1830-44, 10  vols.  8\-o"), equallj-  in- 
teresting and  various  in  its  contents,  and  a  fourth  col- 
lection entitled  Nora.  I'atrmn  Bihlioilteca  (1845-63,  6 
vols.  4to),  thus  completing  a  series  unparalleled  since 
the  days  of  INIuratori,  and,  indeed,  far  more  extraordinary 
than  the  older  collections,  from  the  circumstance  that 
it  was  compiled  from  the  mere  gleanings  which  had  es- 
caped the  research  of  the  earlier  generations  of  editors 
and  collectors.    In  addition  to  all  these  labors,  and  while 


MAIANEAS 


659 


MAIL 


they  were  still  on  his  hands,  he  commenced  an  edition 
of  the  well-known  Codex  Vaticanus  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testament,  with  various  readings  and  prolegomena, 
which,  however,  he  never  entirely  completed ;  or  if  he 
did,  as  some  suj^pose,  he  destroyed  a  greater  part  of  his 
manuscript  on  the  Old  Testament,  lest  it  should  ever  see 
the  light  of  day  in  an  incomplete  and  imperfect  state. 
The  text  of  the  Xew  Testament  was  published  in  185S, 
and  in  a  thoroughly  revised  form  in  1859,  under  the  ti- 
tle Nov.  Test,  ex  vetusiissimo  codice  Vat.,  secundis  curis 
edituni  studio  Angeli  Maii ;  but  even  in  a  revised  form 
the  work  does  not  deserve  the  name  of  Jlai  on  its  title- 
page.   Comp.  Kitto,  Journ.  Sac.  Lit.  1859  (Oct.),  p.  IGG  sq. 

While  engaged  in  these  vast  literary  enterprises  Mai 
held  the  laborious  and  responsible  post  of  secretary  of 
the  Propaganda,  to  which  he  had  been  appointed  in 
1833;  and  it  was  observed  with  wonder  that  his  other 
engagements  were  never  suffered  to  interfere  with  the 
duties  of  the  secretarj-ship.  In  1838  he  was  rewarded  for 
his  great  services  to  the  Church  with  the  cardinal's  hat, 
at  the  same  time  with  his  friend  and  successor  in  the 
Vatican  Library,  Jlezzofanti ;  and  soon  afterwards  was 
appointed  to  several  important  and  confidential  offices 
in  the  Koman  court,  chietly  of  a  literary  character.  He 
was  named  successively  prefect  of  the  Congregation  for 
the  Supervision  of  the  Oriental  Press ;  prefect  of  the 
Congregation  of  the  Index ;  and  prefect  of  the  Congre- 
gation of  the  Council  of  Trent.  In  1853  he  was  appoint- 
ed to  the  still  more  congenial  post  of  librarian  of  the 
Roman  Church.     He  died  September  9, 1854. 

"Cardinal  Mai's  abilities  as  an  editor,"  says  his  biog- 
rapher in  the  Unr/h'sk  Cyclopadia,  "  were  of  the  very 
highest  order.  While  his  collections  comprise  an  infi- 
nite variety  of  authors  of  every  age,  of  every  countrj-,  of 
every  variety  of  style,  and  in  every  department  of  liter- 
ature, he  appears  in  all  equally  the  master.  Whether 
the  subject  be  theology,  or  history,  or  law,  or  languages, 
or  general  literature,  bis  learning  is  never  at  fault,  and 
his  critical  sagacity  never  fails.  In  the  many  delicate 
and  difficult  questions  which  so  often  arise — in  assign- 
ing an  anonymous  manuscript  to  its  true  author,  in  col- 
lecting fragments  of  the  same  work  and  dovetailing  them 
together  into  intelligible  order,  in  selecting  from  a  heap 
of  unknown  materials  all  that  is  unpublished,  and  de- 
ciding upon  the  question  of  its  genuineness  or  its  intrin- 
sic value— in  a  word,  in  all  the  thousand  investigations 
which  fall  to  the  lot  of  a  critical  editor  treading  upon 
untried  ground,  he  possessed  a  skill  and  acuteness  which 
can  hardly  be  described  as  other  than  instinctive,  and 
which,  taking  into  account  the  vast  variety  of  subjects 
which  engaged  him,  must  be  regarded  as  little  short 
of  marvellous.  The  private  character  of  Cardinal  Mai 
has  been  well  described  as  the  very  ideal  of  a  Christian 
scholar.  Earnestly  devoted  to  the  duties  of  his  sacred 
calling,  he  yet  loved  literature  for  its  own  sake  also,  and 
he  was  ever  foremost  in  every  project  for  its  advance- 
ment. He  was  a  member  of  all  the  leading  literary  so- 
cieties of  Italy,  anil  not  unfrequently  read  papers  in  those 
of  Rome  and  Milan.  His  charities  were  at  all  times 
liberal,  and,  indeed,  munificent;  and  at  his  death  he  l)e- 
queathed  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  of  his  noble  library  to 
the  poor  of  his  native  village  of  Schilpario.  A  monu- 
ment has  been  erected  to  his  memory  in  the  church  of 
St.  Anastasia,  from  which  he  derived  his  title  as  cardi- 
nal." See  Mutti,  Elo;iio  di  Am/elo  Mai  (1828) ;  Rabbe, 
Jiioff,  Univ.  des  Contemporains ;  Hoefer,  Nonv.  Biog.  Gen- 
erale,  xxxii,  857  sq.;  Ein/lish  Cyclop,  s.  v.;  Wetzer  und 
Welte,  Kirchen-Lexikon,  vol.  xii,  s.  v. 

Maia'neas  {Maimn>aQ,\u\g.  omits),  given  (1  Esdr. 
ix,  48)  in  place  of  the  Maasias  (q.  v.)  of  the  Heb.  text 
(Neh.  viii,  7). 

Maid  or  Maiden  (prop.  ^"^"3,  -jTaiciaKt],  a  fiirl  as 
corresponding  to  "i:'3,  Trfuc,  a  young  man  ;  also  nbflra, 
Koparrinr,  a  rirfiin  ;  for  which  the  usual  term  is  ITibr  ; 
but  rr^X  and  HHS'ui,  like  covXi],  are  a  maidservant). 
See  Handmaid;  Vikgin. 


Maignan,  Emanuel,  a  Roman  Catholic  eccksjas^ 
tic,  noted  as  a  philosopher,  was  born  at  Toulouse,  in 
France,  in  1601 ;  was  educated  at  the  College  of  the 
Jesuits  in  that  place,  where  he  evinced  extraordinary 
ability  as  a  mathematician  and  philosopher.  A  strong 
inclination  to  a  religious  life  led  him  to  seek  the  monas- 
tery for  his  retreat.  In  1636,  however,  he  was  called  to 
fill  a  professor's  chair  of  mathematics  in  Rome ;  returned 
from  Rome  to  Toulouse  in  1650,  and  was  created  by  his 
countrymen  provincial  in  the  same  year.  He  died  in 
1676.  Maignan  published  De  Perspectiva  Horaria 
(Toulouse,  1648),  and  a  Course  of  Philosophy  (Toulouse, 
1652,  4  vols.  8vo ;  2d  edit.  1673,  folio),  enlarged  by  two 
Treatises  on  the  same  subject  in  1673.  He  opposed  Des 
Cartes  in  his  theory  of  the  Creation,  and  to  refute  it 
the  more  completely,  he  invented  a  machine  "  which 
showed  by  its  movements  that  Des  Cartes's  supposi- 
tion concerning  the  manner  in  which  the  universe  was 
formed,  or  might  have  been  formed,  and  concerning  the 
centrifugal  force,  was  entirely  without  foundation."  See 
Gen.  Biog.  Diet,  ix,  1,  s.  v. ;  Thomas,  Diet.  Bi'og.  and  My- 
thol.  s.  V. 

Maigrot,  Charles,  a  French  Jesuit  and  missioii- 
arjr,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1652;  entered  the  order  and 
prepared  for  missionary  labors  in  foreign  parts.  In 
1681  he  was  sent  to  Siam,  and  in  1683  he  was  placed 
in  charge  of  the  missions  of  China.  In  1698  pope  Inno- 
cent XII  created  him,  for  his  zeal  in  propagating  Chris- 
tianity among  the  inhabitants  of  the  "  Middle  King- 
dom," bishop  in  partibus  of  Conon.  In  1G99  he  was  vis- 
ited with  tlie  displeasure  of  his  order  for  his  opposition 
to  the  peculiar  manner  in  which  the  Jesuits  sought  to 
advance  the  interests  of  Christianity  among  the  Chi- 
nese. He  was  even  at  one  time  in  danger  of  his  life. 
Supported  by  the  Dominicans,  he  appealed  to  pope  Cle- 
ment XI,  who,  June  20,  1702,  gave  his  approval  to  the 
attitude  of  the  bishop  of  Conon ;  and,  to  make  known 
his  will,  dispatched  cardinal  De  Toumon  to  the  emperor 
of  China,  who.  as  we  have  seen  in  the  article  on  Cfiina, 
was  greatly  displeased  with  the  conduct  of  the  Chris- 
tian missionaries,  and  issued  an  edict  ordering  them  all 
from  his  domains.  Maigrot  at  first  refused  to  obey  the 
imperial  command,  and  only  quitted  the  country  when 
his  life  was  imperilled.  He  went  to  Rome  by  way  of 
Ireland,  and  died  in  the  Eternal  City  Feb.  18, 1730.  He 
only  wrote  one  work,  and  that  is  stiU  in  JIS.  form ;  it  is 
entitled  De  Sinica  Religione  (4  vols.  fol.).  See  Le  Got 
bien.  Hist,  de  VEdit  de  Vempereur  de  Chine  en  faveur  de 
la  religion  Chritienne  (Paris,  1698, 12mo);  Berault-Ber- 
castel,  Hist.de  VEglise  (Paris,  1698, 12mo) ;  Mailla,  Hist. 
Generale  de  la  Chine,  vol.  ix ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gene- 
rale,  xxxii,  8G7. 

Mail  (rbi^^bi?,  kaske'seth,  a  "  scale,''  as  of  fish.  Lev. 
xi,  9,  etc.),  spoken  of  as  a  cuirass  composed  of  plates  of 


Ancient  Egypiiau  Cuiiass. 


MAILDUFF 


660 


MAIMBOURG 


metal  attached  to  a  bodice  like  scales,  so  as  to  be  im- 
pervious to  the  sword  (1  Sam.  xvii,  o).  'Another  term, 
rendered  "coat  of  mail,"  is  "p^"!"^,  shlryon',  which  sig- 
nifies the  corselet  or  garment  thus  encased  (1  Sam.  xvii, 
'd'S).  At  Other  times  metallic  rings  were  employed  in- 
stead of  scales  (see  Kitto,  Pict.Dict.  note  at  1  Sam.  xvii). 
See  Armor. 

MaildufT,  an  Irish  monk,  who  flourished  about  the 
middle  of  the  7th  century,  established  a  monaster}^  in 
Wiltshire,  England,  A.D.  650,  long  called  Mailduff  burgh, 
now  known  as  jMalmesbury.  It  was  riclily  endowed  by 
Athelstau  and  other  kings  of  England,  and  became  the 
alma  mater  of  some  of  the  first  educated  Saxons  in 
England  in  either  Church  or  State.  Among  them  was 
Aldhelm, bishop  of  Sherbonie,  who  acknowledged  "that 
MaildufF  had  thoroughly  instructed  him  in  Latin  and 
Greek."  Camden  says  that  Aldhelm  was  the  first  Sax- 
on who  WTOte  in  Latin,  or  who  made  Latin  verses ;  his 
style,  however,  was  pedantic,  and  full  of  alliterations. 
"William  of  Malmesbury,  the  first  Saxon  historian,  re- 
ceived his  education  in  this  school,  the  first  one  among 
the  twelve  which  Montalembert  says  the  Irish  monks 
established  in  England  {MouJcs  of  the  West,  1864).  The 
period  from  the  7th  to  the  10th  centurj'  was  a  verj-  dark 
one  in  England.  Alfred  the  Great,  speakmg  of  his  own 
times  (A.D.  870),  said,  "  There  were  few  churchmen  on 
this  side  of  the  Humber  who  could  understand  their 
dayly  prayer  in  English,  or  who  could  translate  a  let- 
ter in  Latin"  (Turners  Ilistori/  of  the  Anplo-Saxmis, 
book  v).  And  William  of  Malmesbury  said  "  that,  a 
few  years  before  the  Norman  invasion,  a  clergyman  who 
understood  grammar  was  considered  a  prodigy"  (ibid.). 
During  this  dark  period,  a  large  number  of  Irish  schol- 
ars, impelled  by  a  devotion  to  literature,  or,  as  some  say, 
driven  out  by  the  Danes,  went  over  to  England  and  es- 
tablished a  great  many  schools,  and,  among  others,  that 
also  of  Glastonbury.  It  was  often  called  "  Glaston- 
bury of  St.  Patrick"  merely  liecause  the  disciples  of  that 
saint  had  founded  it  and  for  a  long  time  sustained  it. 
In  this  school  were  educated  many  of  the  most  distin- 
guished English  divines,  scholars,  and  statesmen  of  that 
period.  The  noted  and  eccentric  Dunstan  was  educated 
in  it.  WilUam  of  Malmesburv",  who  wrote  his  life,  says, 
"Under  the  discipline  of  these  Hibernians,  he  [Dun- 
stan] partook  of  the  very  marrow  of  scriptural  learning, 
as  well  as  the  knowledge  of  arithmetic,  geometry,  astron- 
omy, and  music."  JNIailduflf  wrote,  according  to  Bale,  Be 
Paschcc  Observationibns,  Rer/ulus  A  rtium  Diversanim,he- 
sides  hymns,  dialogues,  and  epistles.  He  died  A.D.  67.5, 
and  was  interred  in  his  own  ■  monaster}-.  See  Ilhisti-i- 
ous  Men  of  Ireland,  i,  137:  Moore! s  History  of  Inland  ; 
Pict.  Hist',  of  Enf/land,  i,  277  sq.      (D.  D.) 

Maillard,  Omvier,  a  celebrated  French  pulpit  ora- 
tor, was  born  in  Bretagne  in  the  1.5th  century.  His 
early  history  is  somewhat  obscure.  He  became  a  doc- 
tor of  the  Sorbonne.  professor  of  theology  in  the  order 
of  the  "  Minor  Brethren."  and  court  preacher  to  Louis 
XI  and  to  tiie  duke  of  Burgundy.  In  1501  he  was  in- 
trusted by  the  papal  legate  with  the  reform  of  the  Paris 
convents  of  the  order  of  "  Gray  Friars,"  and  he  dis- 
charged this  task  so  energetically  and  indeiiendently 
that  he  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  "  Gray  Friars." 
His  reputation,  however,  rests  mainly  on  the  wonderful 
power  of  oratorj^  and  independence  of  thought  he  dis- 
])layed  in  his  pulpit  utterances.  In  many  respects  he 
may  be  likened  to  Bossuet,  but  in  one  he  even  ex- 
celled him — in  dealing  out  truth,  in  criticising  the  faults 
and  failings  of  his  hearers.  It  is  related  of  liini  that 
his  royal  master,  Louis  XI,  having  one  day  been  sub- 
jected by  him  to  unusual  severity,  sent  word  that  if 
Olivier  3Iaillard  would  suffer  himself  to  speak  thus  se- 
verely a  second  time,  he  should  do  it  at  the  loss  of  his 
life.  But  Olivier  was  reaiTy  to  return  a  prompt  reply 
even  to  the  royal  messenger.  "  Tell  the  king  that  I  will 
thus  only  arrive  sooner  in  Paradise,  ami  make  I  he  way  for 
the  king  so  much  the  harder."     Louis  XI  never  again 


molested  Maillard.  though  he  continued  in  his  former 
course  unabated.  If  only  a  moderate  part  of  the  picture 
jMaillard  has  drawn  of  liis  contemporaries  be  true,  the 
French  of  the  15th  century  ha\'e  never  had  their  equals 
in  moral  corruption.  He  died  near  Toulouse,  according 
to  some,  June  13,  lJJO-2;  but  his  death  must  have  occur- 
red much  later,  if  it  be  true  that  he  preached  at  Paris  in 
1508,  as  is  reported.  His  principal  works  are  Sermones 
de  Adrentu  declamati  Parisiis  in  ecclesia  S.Johannis  in 
Gravia  anno  1493  (Paris,  1498, 4to;  1511, 8vo) : — Quad- 
ragesimale  Opus  (Paris,  14J)8,  4to ;  1512,  8vo)  :  —  Ser- 
mones dominicales  ct  alii  (1515,  8vo) :  —  Sermones  de 
Sanctis  (1513, 8vo) : — La  Recolation  de  la  tr'es-pieiise  Pas- 
sion des  Notre-Seigneur,  representee  par  les  Saints  et  sa- 
cres  myst'eres  de  la  Messe  (also  under  the  title  Le  Mys- 
t'ere  de  la  Messe,  etc.)  : — IJ Exemplaire  de  Confession  avec 
la  Confession  f/enerale  (Rouen  and  Caj'en,  4to ;  Lyons, 
1524,  8vo)  : — Traite  enroye  a  plusieurs  religieuses  pour 
les  instruire  et  exhorter  a  se  bien  gonverner  (8vo)  : — Con- 
templatio  ad  salutationem  angelicam  (1607).  See  Nice- 
ron,  Minioires,  vol.  xxiii,  s.  v. ;  Le  Bas,  Diet. -Ency clop. 
de  la  France,  s.  v. ;  Gerusey,  isssai  d'hist.  litter.;  Hoe- 
fer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxxii,  871  sq. 

Maillat,  Joseph  Anxe  IMarte  pe  IMovria  de,  a 
French  Jesuit  and  missionary,  was  born  in  1079,  at  the 
ancestral  castle  near  Nantua.  He  entered  the  order 
quite  young.  In  1701  he  was  appointed  to  take  a  part 
in  the  mission  to  China,  and  embarked  in  1703  for  IMa- 
(^KCi,  and  thence  for  China.  He  quickly  mastered  the 
Chinese  language,  and  as  readily  familiarized  himself 
with  the  institutions  of  China,  so  that  he  became  of 
great  service  to  the  Celestial  empire.  In  1708  a  map  of 
China  and  Tartary  was  prepared  for  the  Chinese  gov- 
ernment under  his  superintendence,  and  he  secured  not 
only  approval  for  his  services,  but  was  actually  invited 
to  take  office  at  court.  He  died  June  28, 1748,  at  Pe- 
kin.  His  studies  were  mainly  in  the  historv-  and  arch- 
seology  of  China,  and  his  works  are  of  the  same  depart- 
ment.    See  Hoefer,  Kouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxxii,  877. 

Maille  de  Breze,  Simon  de,  a  French  prelate,  was 
born  in  1515;  became  a  religious  of  the  order  of  Ci- 
teaux,  was  made  abbot  of  Loroux,  then  bishop  of  Yi- 
viers,  and  in  1554  archbishop  of  Tours.  He  Avas  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  took  decided  ground 
against  the  Reformers,  who  had  given  him  no  little 
trouble  in  his  archicpiscopal  dominions.  He  was  at  one 
time  obliged  to  quit  his  see,  in  all  probabilitj-  because 
the  Calvmists  had  made  a-  strong  case  of  immorality 
against  him.  He  died  Jan.  11,  1597.  He  published  a 
Latin  translation  of  several  homilies  of  St.  Basil  (Paris, 
1558,  4to),  and  Discours  au  peuple  de  Touraine  (ibid. 
1574,  IGmo). — Hoefer,  Xovv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxxii,  878. 

Maim.     See  Ahel-jiaim  ;  MiSREPnoTH-jtAiM. 

Maimbourg,  Louis,  a  celebrated  French  ecclesi- 
astic and  defender  ol'tiallican  liberty,  was  born  at  Nancy 
in  1620 ;  entered  the  "  Society  of  Jesus"  in  1636 ;  was  by 
them  .eent  to  Rome  to  study  theology;  was,  on  his  return 
to  France,  for  six  years  professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  Col- 
lege of  Rouen ;  then  began  preaching,  and  soon  attained 
great  eminence.  Having,  however,  in  his  Traite  Ilisto- 
rique  de  I'Eglise  de  Pome  (Paris,  1685;  new  ed.,  Nevers, 
1831)  come  out  boldly  in  favor  of  the  liberty  of  the  Gal- 
ilean Church,  he  was  expelled  from  the  Order  of  the  Jes- 
uits. The  king  took  sides  with  Maimbourg  and  indem- 
nified him  i)y  a  pension.  He  retired  to  the  Abbey  of  St. 
Victor,  in  Paris,  where  he  wrote  the  history'  of  schism  of 
England,  and  died  Aug.  13. 16Mfi.  He  had  entirely  discon- 
nected liimself  from  the  Jesuits,  and  did  not  spare  them 
much  in  his  valtings;  yet  in  his  Histoire  du  Culvinisme 
(Paris,  1682,  4to),  dedicated  to  the  king,  one  can  readily 
distinguish  the  influence  of  his  former  associations  when 
he  called  Calvinism  "  the  most  rabid  and  dangerous  of 
all  the  enemies  France  ever  had  to  contend  against." 
Bossuet's  interpretation  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  [see  Bossuet]  !Maimbourg pronounced 
against.     (Compare  Schrockh,  Kirchengesch.  s.  d.  Ref. 


MAEVIBOURG 


661 


MAIMONIDES 


vii,  280  sq. ;  Smitli's  Hagcnbach,  Hist,  of  Doctrines,  ii, 
200  [15].)  As  a  historian  Maimbourg  is  inaccurate  and 
untrustworthy,  receiving  all  the  calumnies  of  the  Jesuits 
against  Protestantism  as  facts,  and  giving  them  as  such. 
The  ephemeral  success  of  his  works  is  to  be  attributed 
only  to  a  pleasing  and  ornate  style  and  to  their  romantic 
garb.  His  tirst  collection  of  sermons  is  uninteresting 
and  insipid,  and  his  controversial  worlis  have  long  been 
forgotten.  His  historical  works,  consisting  of  llistoire 
de  VA  rianisme  (1G82, 2  vols.  4to) ;  Des  Iconodmtes  (1674- 
1G79, 4to) ;  Da  Schisms  des  Grecs  (1677, 4to) ;  Des  Croi- 
sudes  (1675,2  vols.  4 to) ;  De  la  Decadence  de  VEnpire, 
depuis  Chaiieinacjne  (1679,  4to);  Du  Grand  Schisme  de 
VOccident  (1677,  4to);  Du  Lutheranisme  (1680,  4to,  and  2 
vols.  8vo) ;  Du  Caliniiisme  (1682, 4to) ;  De  la  Lirjne  (1683, 
4to;  1684,  2  vols.  12mo);  Du  Pontijicat  de  St.  Gregoire 
le  Grand  (1686,  4to) ;  Du  Pontijicat  de  St.  Leon  (1687, 
4to) — the  two  latter  of  which  are  considered  the  best — 
have  been  collected  and  published  in  14  vols.  4to  (Paris, 
1686).  Hee  Herzog, Real- Enci/kl.s.  v.;  Dapin,  Biblioth. 
ICccles.  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  N'ouv.  Biog.  Geiierule,  xxxii,  80 1  sq. ; 
Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lexikon,  vi,  758  sq. ;  Bayle, 
Jlist.  Diet.  a.  V. 

Maimbourg,  Theodore,  a  relative  of  the  dis- 
tinguished Louis  Maimbourg  (q.  v.),  tlourished  about 
the  middle  of  the  17th  century.  He  embraced  the  Re- 
formed doctrine,  and  in  1659  published  a  letter  addressed 
to  Louis  justifying  his  course.  In  1664  ha  returned  to 
the  Romish  Church,  and  subsequently  left  it  again.  He 
then  retired  to  England,  and  died  at  London  in  1693. — 
Herzog,  Real-Encykl.  viii,  390. 

Mainion,  Solomon,  a  Jewish  rabbi  and  philosopher, 
one  of  the  ablest  expounders  of  the  Kantian  school,  was 
born  in  Lithuania  in  1753.  He  was  of  very  humble  par- 
entage, and  in  his  youth  was  confined  in  his  educational 
advantages  to  the  study  of  Hebrew.  Yet  his  talent  for 
speculation  manifested  itself  at  a  very  early  age,  wlieu 
still  contined  to  tlie  expounding  of  Talmudic  lore.  In  his 
very  youth,  Moses  Maimonides's  Moreh  Nehuchini  fell 
into  his  hands ;  but  while  to  Moses  Mendelssohn  it  be- 
came the  guide  to  truth,  it  became  to  Maimon  a  guide 
to  a  labyrinth  of  speculation  from  which  no  open-sesame 
gave  liim  an  outlet  until,  in  advanced  life,  he  fell  in  with 
the  writings  of  Kant,  to  become  one  of  his  most  ardent 
students  and  ablest  exi)ounders.  In  the  despair  which 
the  Moreh  Nebuchim  prepared  for  him,  he  turned  to  the 
Cabala  for  relief,  determined  to  become  a  Jewish  Faust. 
Plagued  by  the  disadvantages  of  Russo-Jewish  society, 
he  finally  quitted  his  native  land  and  went  to  Germany 
to  study  medicine  and  thus  gain  a  livelihood.  He  was 
25  years  old  when  he  arrived  at  Kiinigsberg,  in  West 
Prussia.  His  condition  in  this,  the  old  capital  of  Prus- 
sia, the  seat  of  a  university  at  that  time  in  the  very  ze- 
nith of  her  glory,  was  much  like  that  of  a  man  who,  after 
having  suftVTed  starvation  for  days,  is  suddenly  placed 
at  a  table  filled  with  the  daintiest  food.  Partaldng  too 
greedily  of  the  food  set  before  him,  he  became  a  great 
sufferer  mentally — i.  e.  he  was  lost  in  wild  speculation. 
In  1779  he  went  to  Berlin,  and  became  an  intimate  asso- 
ciate of  the  German  Jewish  savant,  Moses  Mendelssohn. 
It  was  not,  however,  until  years  had  been  passed  in  a 
roving  life  that  he  finally,  in  1788,  on  his  return  to  Ber- 
lin, gave  himself  to  the  study  of  Kantian  philosophy,  was 
recommended  to  Kant,  and  soon  made  a  great  name  for 
himself.  Both  Schiller  and  Goethe,  it  is  said,  sought  his 
society ;  the  latter,  we  are  told,  desired  :Maimon  to  take 
up  his  residence  near  his  side  {Muimoiiiantt,  p.  197; 
Varnhagen's  Nachlass,  Briefwechsel  zwischcn  Rahel  n. 
David  Veif,  i,  243  sq.,  247  et  al. ;  ii, 23).  In  his  last  years 
count  Kalkreuth  gave  Maimon  a  home  on  one  of  his  es- 
tates in  Silesia.  He  died  in  1800.  From  an  admirer 
of  Kant,;Maimon  finally  changed  to  a  decided  opponent, 
and,  to  make  good  his  claims,  presented  the  world  with 
a  new  system  of  philosophy,  which  was  written  in  the 
interests  of  scepticism.  According  to  :Maimoii,  there  is 
no  knowledge  strictly  objective  except  pure  mathemat- 


ics, and  all  empirical  knowledge  is  only  an  illusion.  He 
traces  all  the  forms  of  thought,  categories,  and  judg- 
ments to  a  general  and  unique  princijde,  that  of  deter- 
minability,  of  reality,  of  substance ;  but  he  contends 
that  we  have  no  right  to  suppose  that  our  thought  has 
for  its  object  a  thing  without  ourselves,  existing  inde- 
pendently of  the  thought,  which  determines  it.  "He 
admits,  with  Kant,"'  saj-s  Wilson  {/list,  of  German  Phi- 
losophy, ii,  186),  "that  there  are  conceptions  and  princi- 
ples a  priori,  a  pure  knowledge  which  applies  itself  to 
an  object  of  thought  in  general,  and  to  objects  of  knowl- 
eilge  a  priori ;  but  he  denies  that  this  very  pure  knowl- 
edge absolutely  applies  itself  to  experience.  The  phi- 
losophy of  the  Kritik  admits  this  application  as  a  fact 
of  conscience.  This  fact,  according  to  Maimon,  is  sim- 
ply an  illusion,  and  he  declares  that  the  categories  are 
destined  only  to  apply  to  objects  of  pure  mathemat- 
ics. Maimon's  objections  were  not  without  influence 
on  the  ulterior  development  of  general  philosophy,  and 
Fichte  paid  much  regard  to  them;  but  the  great  ob- 
jection, the  one  which  bears  upon  the  application  of 
category  to  reality,  Fichte  destroyed  in  one  word  when 
he  said  that  the  right  of  this  application  cannot  be  de- 
ducted until  it  is  absolute"  (compare  Ueberweg,  His- 
tory of  Philosophy,  vol.  ii).  Among  his  best  works  are, 
besides  his  numerous  essays  and  treatises  on  various 
philosophical  themes  in  the  "  Berliner  Monatsschrift" 
and  the  "  Magazin"  from  1789  to  1800,  in  themselves  a 
small  library,  and  besides  ten  books  on  all  departments 
of  philosophy,  published  between  1790  and  1797,  the 
Gilbath  ha-Moreh,  a  Hebrew  commentary  and  a  remark- 
able introduction  to  the  three  volumes  of  Maimonides's 
Moreh  Nebuchim  (Berlin,  1791),  in  which  he  proved  him- 
self master  of  the  philosophical  field ;  also  Versttch  iiber 
die  Transcendentalphilosophie  (Berlin,  1790,  8vo) ;  Ver- 
such  einer  neuen  Logik,  oder  Theorie  des  Denkens,  etc. 
(Berlin,  1794,  8vo) ;  and  Kritische  Untersuchmifjen  iiber 
den  menschlichen  Geist  (1797),  and  a  memoir  of  his  own 
life  entitled  "  Lebensf/eschichte"  (2  vols.  1792-93).  See 
Wolf,  '^Rhapsodien  zur  Charactei-istik  S.  Maimons" 
(1813) ;  Griitz,  Gesch.  d.  Juden,  xi,  142  sq.  (Leipzig,  1870, 
8vo);  Tenwextiaxm,  Manual  of  Philosophy  ,'p.Al\.  sq.;  Hoe- 
fer, Nouv.  Bioij.  Generale,  vol.  xxxii,  s.  v. ;  Dr.  Wise  in 
the  Israelite  (Cincinnati,  Ohio),  Jan.  1871.      (.L  H.  W.) 

Maimonides  (i.  e.  son  of  Maimon),  Moses,  also 
called  by  the  Jews  Rambam,  from  the  initial  letters 
C2"7an  =  ',n:aia  p  n'a'2  ''■\,  R.  Moses  b.-Maimun,  axvX 
by  the  Arabians  Abu  Amram  Musa  b.-Maimnn  Obeid 
A  Hah,  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  Jews  since  the  exile 
— the  great  luminarv,  the  glory  of  Israel,  the  second  Mo- 
ses, the  reformer  of  Judaism,  as  he  is  called,  was  born 
at  Cordova,  March  SO,  1135.  As  a  j'outh,  he  received 
his  instruction  in  the  Heb.  Scriptures,  the  Talmud,  and 
Jewish  literature  from  his  father,  R.  Maimon,  who  held 
the  dignity  of  judge  of  the  Jews,  as  also  his  forefathers 
had  held  it  for  some  centuries  previous,  and  was  himself 
renowned  as  a  scholar  and  author  of  a  commentary  on 
Esther,  a  work  on  the  laws  of  the  Jewish  prayers  and  fes- 
tivals, a  commentary  on  the  Talmud,  etc.,  etc.  But  for 
instruction  in  the  Arabic,  then  the  predominant  lan- 
guage of  Spain,  as  the  country  was  in  the  hantls  of  the 
IMohammedans,  and  mathematics,  and  astronomy,  IMoses 
was  handed  over  to  the  care  of  the  reno^med  Arabian 
philosophers  Averroes  and  Ibn-Thofeil  (compare  Jost, 
Gesch.  d.  Israelilen,  vi,  168).  Spain,  in  which  the  Jews 
had  found  an  earl)-  home  (some  say  as  early  as  the  days 
of  Solomon  ;  compare  Ride,  A'r( rrn'te,  p.  146  sq. ;  Lindo, 
Hist,  of  the  Jars  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  p.  1  sq.;  Da  Cos- 
ta, Israel  and  the  Gentiles,  p.  211),  is  by  Milman  (History 
of  the  Jews,  iii,  155)  spoken  of  as  the  country  in  which 
"  the  golden  age  of  the  Jews  shone  with  the  brightest 
and  most  enduring  splendor."  In  the  early  days  of 
Christianit)'  we  find  the  .Tew  alluded  to  by  Church  coun- 
cils [sec  Ei.viK.v],  and  legislation  enacted  in  his  lichalf; 
but,  to  the  shame  of  Christianity  be  it  said,  the  Jew  en- 
joyed his  greatest  privileges  in  the  Iberian  peninsula 


MAIMONIDES 


662 


MAIMONIDES 


under  Mussulman  rule,  and  '"from  the  conquest  by  the 
Moors  till  towards  the  end  of  the  10th  century,  when, 
while  Christian  Europe  lay  in  darkness,  Moliammedan 
Cordova  might  be  considered  the  centre  of  civilization, 
of  arts,  and  of  letters,  ....  the  Jews,  under  the  enjoy- 
ments of  equal  rights  and  privileges,  rivalled  their  mas- 
ters, or,  rather,  their  compatriots,  in  their  advancement 
to  wealth,  splendor,  and  cultivation"  (Milman).  In  Spain 
alone,  and  only  under  Mussulman  reign,  the  Jews  in  the 
JVIiddle  Ages  enjoyed  religious  liberty  and  the  privi- 
lege of  their  own  jurisdiction,  and  it  was  in  Spain  alone 
tliat  the  Jews,  since  their  Babylonian  exile,  developed  a 
nobility  which  to  this  day  is  considered  the  aristocracy 
of  the  dispersed  people  of  Israel  (compare  Da  Costa,  Is- 
rael  and  the  Gentiles,  p.  204).  Need  we  wonder  that  un- 
der such  very  favorable  conditions,  which  became  en- 
dangered only  now  and  then,  the  Spanish  Jews  developed 
a  very  active  spiritual  life,  and  a  desire  for  culture  and 
science  w'hich  produced  noteworthy  fruits  ?  "  The  Jews 
in  the  Arabic  provinces,"  says  Da  Costa  (p. 223),  in  speak- 
ing of  the  Saracen  rule  in  Spain,  "were  rarely  bankers, 
but  merchants,  trading  on  a  large  scale  to  different  parts 
of  the  East.  They  acted  as  treasurers  to  the  califs,  but 
more  frequently  as  physicians,  philosophers,  poets,  the- 
ologians— in  a  word,  as  savans  and  men  of  letters."  Es- 
pecially worthy  to  be  called  the  golden  age  of  Spanish 
Judaism  was  the  age  that  gave  birth  to  Moses  Maimon- 
ides.  While  the  Jews,  who  at  that  time  lived  under 
less  favorable  circumstances  in  France  and  Germany, 
were  disinclined  to  all  scientific  endeavors,  and  all  their 
spiritual  activity  became  absorbed  in  the  study  of  the 
Talmud,  the  Spanish  Jews  vied  in  all  sciences — in  phi- 
losophy, mathematics,  astronomy,  medicine,  and  in  po- 
etry, with  the  flower  of  the  Arabian  genius.  Formerly 
the  Jews  of  the  Iberian  peninsula  had  derived  their 
learning  of  the  Biblical  writings  and  their  commentators 
from  the  famous  schools  of  Babylon  and  Persia,  whither 
the  young  were  sent  for  theological  instruction ;  but 
when,  by  sheer  accident,  a  noted  Eastern  rabbi  of  the 
10th  century  found  a  home  in  these  Western  coasts  (see 
Eabbi  Moses,  "  clad  in  sackcloth  :"  comi)are  Milman,  iii, 
1.56,  and  other  histories  of  the  Jews),  and  "  the  light  of 
learning,  which,  by  the  rapid  progress  of  the  iron  age  of 
Judaism  in  Babylonia,  by  the  extinction  of  the  author- 
ity^ of  the  prince  of  the  captivity,  the  dispersion  of  the 
illustrious  teachers,  and  the  final  closing  of  the  great 
schools,  seemed  to  have  set  forever,  it  suddenh-  rose  again 
in  the  West  in  renewed  and  undismayed  splendor."  From 
this  time  (A.D.  990)  the  schools  of  the  Spanish  Eab- 
banim  (at  Cordova,  Toledo,  Barcelona,  and  Granada)  not 
only  became  the  centre  of  Jewish  civilization  and  learn- 
ing, but  the  auxiliaries  of  the  Arabian  philosophers  in 
their  endeavor  to  keep  alive  the  flame  of  learning  during 
the  deep  darkness  of  the  IMiddle  Ages,  and  the  Jews  be- 
came the  communicators  of  Arabian  philosophy  to  the 
Christian  world,  or,  as  Tennemann  (Manual  of  Philoso- 
pluj.  transl.  by  IMoreU,  p.  231)  has  it,  '■  the  interpreters  be- 
tween the  Saracens  and  the  Western  nations."  It  was  at 
such  a  time — when  the  heaven  of  Spanish  Judaism  was 
resplendent  with  stars  of  its  greatest  magnitude — Solo- 
mon Ibn-Gebirol  (1021-1070),  Jehudah  Halevi  (1086- 
1142),  Aben- Ezra  (1092-1167),  David  Kimchi  (1160- 
1240),  a  galaxy  of  great  and  learned  men  of  which  any 
nation  might  well  be  proud — that  ]\Ioses  Maimonides 
lived,  «Tote,  and  flourished  as  the  brightest  ornament  of 
them  all. 

As  we  noticed  above,  Moses  was  born  in  1135.  The 
Almoravides — i.e.  men  devoted  to  the  service  of  God — 
who  were  then  the  masters  of  IMohammedan  Spain  [see 
Mohammedans"],  like  the  Oniniiades,  were  tolerant  and 
kind  to  the  Jews.  But  just  at  this  time  the  power  of 
the  Almoravides  was  fast  declining,  and  by  the  middle 
of  the  12th  century  the  A4mohades,  a  ffinatical  IMoham- 
medan sect  [see  Ihn-Tlmakt],  landing  in  Southern 
Spain,  soon  gained  the  upper  hand,  and  superseded  the 
Almoravides  altogether.  With  the  accession  of  these 
Almohades  to  power  in  Southern  Spain  begins  a  new 


chapter  in  the  history  of  the  Jews.  On  the  Seine,  on 
the  Bhine,  on  the  Danube,  and  in  the  steppes  of  Africa 
and  Southern  Spain,  '•  as  if  by  previous  arrangement,  a 
bloody  chase  was  now  inaugurated,  in  the  name  of  re- 
ligion, against  the  Hebrew  tribe  both  by  Mohamme- 
dans and  Christians,  quite  unmindful  of  the  fact  that 
whatever  of  the  good  and  Godlike  had  found  a  place  in 
their  confession  had  been  derived  from  the  teachings  of 
this  very  tribe.  Hitherto  persecutions  of  the  Jew  had 
been  only  occasional;  with  the  year  1140  they  begin  to 
be  more  frequent,  usual,  consequent,  and  severe,  as  if  to 
make  the  period  in  which  the  light  of  intelhgencc  be- 
gan to  dawn  among  men  surpass  in  inhumanity  the 
days  of  dark  barbarism"  (Griitz,  vi,  175).  In  that  part 
of  Spain  controlled  by  the  Almohades  no  other  religion 
than  that  of  the  Crescent  Avas  to  be  tolerated,  and  Jew 
and  Christian  alike  were  obliged  either  to  alijure  the 
faith  of  their  fathers  or  to  quit  the  country  within  a 
month.  To  remain  and  yet  to  adhere  faithfully  to  the 
teachings  of  the  Old  or  New  Testament  was  to  incur  the 
penalty  of  death.  Maimonides's  family,  like  many  oth- 
ers to  whom  emigration  was  weU-nigh  impossible,  em- 
braced the  Mohammedan  faith,  or  rather,  for  the  time 
being,  renounced  the  public  profession  of  Judaism,  all  the 
while,  however,  remaining  faithful  to  it  in  secret,  and 
keeping  up  a  close  communication  with  their  co-relig- 
ionists abroad  (compare  Carmoly,  ^4  nnalen,  1839,  p.  395 
sq.;  Munk,  Archives  Israelites,  1851,  p.  319  sq.).  For 
more  than  sixteen  years  Maimonides  thus  lived,  to- 
gether with  his  family,  under  the  assumed  character  of 
Mohammedans;  but  when  the  death  of  the  reigning 
sovereign  brought  no  change  in  the  system  of  religious 
intolerance,  they,  with  the  greater  part  of  the  Jewish 
community,  resolved  to  emigrate  and  travel  about,  as  he 
himself  tells  us, "  by  land  and  by  sea,"  without  finding  a 
resting-place  for  the  sole  of  his  foot.  Their  first  land- 
ing-place was  Acco,  in  Palestine ;  from  thence  they  went 
via  Jerusalem  to  Cairo ;  then  to  Hebron,  and  next  into 
Egypt,  stopping  first  a  short  time  at  Alexandria,  but  final- 
ly settling  at  Fostat  (compare  Israelit.  A  nnalen,  1840,  p. 
45  sq.).  On  their  journey  Maimonides  had  lost  his  fa- 
ther (at  Cairo),  and,  to  earn  a  livelihood  for  his  father's 
household,  he  engaged  with  his  j-ounger  brother  in  the 
jewelrj^  trade;  the  care  of  the  business  mainly  falling 
to  David,  while  Moses  devoted  most  of  his  time  to  lit- 
erary pursuits  and  to  the  study  of  medicme,  which  he 
aftenvards  practiced,  and  in  wliich  profession  he  attained 
to  great  eminence. 

Life  and  Labors. — During  his  boyhood,  Moses  IMai- 
monides  is  said  to  have  manifested  anything  but  a  prom- 
ise of  those  great  abilities  which  were  unfolded  in  his 
manhood.  He  was  indolent,  and  so  disinclined  to  study 
that  his  father  sent  him,  at  a  very  early  age,  from  his 
paternal  roof.  During  his  absence  from  home,  however, 
an  earnest  desire  for  knowledge  was  manifested  by  him, 
and,  by  study  and  intercourse  with  learned  co-religionists 
and  Arabians,  he  acquired  a  great  treasure  of  knowledge 
in  the  different  provinces  of  science,  which  his  clear, 
penetrating,  and  methodical  mind  mastered  witli  a  mar- 
vellous power.  An  elegant  oration,  delivered  by  him  at 
I'ourteen,  reconciled  father  and  son.  Acquainted  with  all 
the  writings  of  ancient  philosophers,  he  became  the  most 
eminent  of  his  age.  He  was  an  able  mathematician 
and  metaphysician.  When  only  23  years  old  (1 158),  he 
proved  the  possession  of  extraordinary  po-\vers  of  compre- 
hension and  elucidation  in  a  treatise  on  the  Jewish  calen- 
dar, based  on  astronomical  principles  ("il^m  "pau;!!), 
which  he  composed  for  a  friend.  In  the  same  year  also, 
whilst  wandering  about  from  place  to  ]ilacc,  and  deprived 
of  the  aid  of  a  library,  he  yet  began  his  stupendous  Com- 
mentary  on  the  Mishna  (r"^:w"2n  t^1"|iS).  At  this 
time  also  (.ibout  1160)  he  composed  the  Letter  on  Relig- 
ious  rei-seciition  ("I"2il'ri  ri'l5X),or.4  Treatise  on  G loii- 
ft/inff  God  {CCit  UJIT^p  "I -Sf^)— i.e. by  suffering  mar- 
tyrdom— a  most  ingenious  plea  for  those  who  have  not 


MAIMONIDES 


663 


MAIMONIDES 


the  courage  to  lay  down  life  for  their  religion,  and  who, 
having  outwardly  renounced  their  faith,  continue  secret- 
ly to  practice  it — which  was  provoked  by  the  attack  of 
a  zealous  co-religionist  against  Moses's  public  profession 
of  Mohammedanism  and  private  devotion  to  Judaism. 
(It  was  published  by  Geiger,  3Iuses  beti-3fuimon,  part  i 
[Bresl.  1850].)  The  sudden  loss  of  his  brother  David 
and  of  their  possessions  threw  upon  Moses  the  responsi- 
bility of  providing  alone  for  his  own,  his  father's,  and  his 
brother's  family.  Without  means  to  continue  in  mer- 
cantile life,  he  now  entered  the  medical  profession ;  at 
the  same  time  he  also  delivered  lectures  on  philosophy. 
But  his  mind  was  mainly  upon  the  work  in  which  he 
had  engaged  years  ago.  Neither  misfortune,  nor  bod- 
ily inlirmities,  nor  even  misinterpretation,  could  turn 
Moses  Maimonides  from  the  goal  he  was  striving  to 
reach.  He  had  assigned  to  himself  the  task  of  harmo- 
nizing religion  with  science,  Judaism  with  philosophy; 
to  exhibit  Judaism  in  such  a  light  that  it  might  be- 
come not  only  endeared  to  its  thinking  adherents,  but 
that  it  might  claim  the  respect  also  of  other  religionists, 
and  even  of  philosophers;  and  though  the  wants  of  so 
many  dependent  upon  him  obliged  him  to  labor  assidu- 
ously as  a  physician,  he  yet  found  time  for  the  comple- 
tion of  his  commentary  on  the  Mishna,  and,  in  1108, 
tiually  brought  it  before  the  public  untler  the  title  The 
Book  of  Light  (Arabic  JSIobx  3XnD,  Hebrew  "ISO 
"lIXTin).  This  remarkable  production,  which  he  wrote 
in  Arabic  (for  editions,  see  below),  is  designed  to  simplify 
the  study  of  the  exposition  of  the  Law  or  Pentateuch, 
handed  down  by  tradition,  rendered  exceedingly  diffi- 
cult by  the  super-commentaries  and  discussions  which 
had  accumulated  thereon  since  the  close  of  the  Mishna 
to  the  days  of  IMaimonides.  It  is  preceded  by  a  general 
elaborate  introduction,  in  which  he  discourses  on  the 
true  nature  of  prophecy,  shows  its  relationship  to  the 
law  given  on  Sinai,  treats  of  the  figurative  language  oc- 
curring in  the  Pentateuch  and  the  Prophets,  etc.  In 
the  special  introduction  to  the  Tract  Sanhedrim  he,  for 
the  first  time,  defined  and  formally  laid  down  the  Jew- 
ish creed  (see  our  article  Judaism,  in  vol.  iv,  p.  1057). 
In  consequence  of  this  work — which  has  now  for  more 
than  500  years  been  deemed  so  essential  a  part  of  the 
Talmud  itself  that  no  edition  of  the  latter  is  considered 
complete  without  it — Maimonides  gradually  became  the 
great  oracle  in  aU  matters  of  religion.  He  was  appealed 
to  (in  1175)  by  the  Jews  from  different  parts  of  the  world 
for  his  opinion  on  difficulties  connected  with  the  law,  and 
in  1177  was  called  to  the  rabbiship  of  Raheia. 

Though  constantly  beset  by  crowds  who  came  to  con- 
sult him  on  all  questions,  philosophical,  medical,  and 
religious,  yet,  by  intruding  on  the  night  for  his  pro- 
founder  studies,  he  was  able,  after  ten  j'ears'  further  la- 
bor (1170-80),  to  complete  (Nov.  7, 1180)  another  work, 
of  even  greater  magnitude  than  the  foregoing,  which 
he  called  Deuteronomy,  Second  Law  (min  fIDlUia),  or 
Jad  nachezal-a  =  The  Mighty  Hand  (npTnn  11,  in  al- 
lusion to  Deut.  xxxiv,  12,  and  because  the  work  con- 
sists of  fourteen  books,  11=14),  which  created  a  new 
epoch  in  Judaism.  The  fourteen  books,  subdivided  into 
eighty-two  Tractates  (nlDbtl),  of  which  the  work  con- 
sists, form  a  cyclopedia  comprising  every  department 
of  Biblical  and  Judaistic  literature.  When  it  is  added 
that  Maimonides  has  given  in  every  article  a  lucid  ab- 
stract of  the  ancient  traditional  expositions  of  those 
who  were  regarded  as  the  oracles  in  their  respective 
departments,  the  immense  importance  of  this  remark- 
able production  to  the  Biblical  student  can  hardly  be 
overrated.  It  is  written  in  very  clear  and  easy  He- 
brew, as  :Maimonides  was  anxious  that  it  should  be  ac- 
cessible to  the  Jewish  peoijle  generally.  Within  a  few 
years  after  its  appearance  the  work  was  copied  and  cir- 
culated most  extensively  in  Arabia,  Palestine,  Africa, 
Southern  France,  and  Italy,  and  throughout  the  world 
wherever  Jews  resided.     It  soon  became  tne  text-book 


of  the  Jewish  religion,  and  was  regarded  as  a  new  Bible 
or  Talmud.  A  detailed  account  of  its  contents  is  given 
by  Wolf,  Bibliotheca  Heb.  i,  840  sq.  Most  of  the  j'oung 
Israelites  of  his  days  were  spending  their  best  time  in 
acquiring  a  mediocre  knowledge  of  the  sixty  books  of 
the  Talmud,  to  the  neglect  and  exclusion  of  all  secular 
science  and  philosophy.  To  obviate  this,  Maimonides 
wrote  these  systematical  works,  comprising  the  main 
contents  of  the  whole  Talmud.  "If  the  Talmud,"  says 
Griitz  (vi,  339),"  may  be  likened  to  a  Diedalic  structure, 
in  which  one  can  scarcely  find  his  way  even  with  the  aid 
of  an  Ariadne  thread,  ]\Iaimonides  has  transformed  it 
into  a  well-regulated  edifice,  with  side -wings,  halls, 
apartments,  chambers,  and  closets,  in  which  the  stranger, 
led  by  the  fitting  superscriptions  and  numbers,  may  make 
his  way  without  a  guide,  and  gain  a  view  of  all  the  con- 
tents of  the  Talmud.  .  .  .  One  might  almost  say  that 
Maimonides  created  a  new  Talmud.  It  is  true  these  are 
the  old  elements;  we  know  their  origin,  their  rise,  their 
original  connection ;  but  in  his  hands  it  looks  like  an- 
other work ;  the  mist  is  removed ;  the  disiiguring  ad- 
denda done  away  with ;  it  appears  remoulded,  smoother, 
fresher,  and  newer.  The  Mishna,  the  foundation-struct- 
ure of  the  Talmud,  opens  by  propounding  the  question 
on  the  law:  'At  what  time  of  the  night  is  the  chapter 
Shema  to  be  read?'  and  closes  with  the  discussion,  when 
this  or  that  thing  becomes  levitically  unclean.  Jlaimoni- 
des,  on  the  other  hand,  thus  opens  his  Talmudical  codex : 
'  The  foundation  of  foundations,  and  the  pillar  of  wisdom, 
is  to  know  that  there  exists  a  first  Being  which  called 
all  other  beuigs  into  existence,  and  that  all  things  ex- 
isting in  heaven  or  on  earth,  and  whatever  is  between 
them,  exist  only  through  the  medium  of  this  first  Being,' 
and  closes  with  the  words, '  The  earth  will  one  day  be 
covered  with  knowledge  as  the  ocean's  gromid  is  by  wa- 
ter.' The  whole  work  is  permeated  by  a  peculiar  savor ; 
it  breathes  the  spirit  of  complete  wisdom,  cool  refiection, 
and  deep  morality.  Maimonides,  so  to  speak,  has  Tal- 
mudized  philosophy  and  metaphysicized  the  T^.lmud. 
He  has  admitted  philosophy  within  the  precincts  of  the 
religious  codex,  and  there  conceded  her  a  citizenship  of 
equality  beside  the  Halacha.  Though  philosophy  had, 
previous  to  his  day,  been  ciUtivated  by  Jewish  thinkers 
(here  comp.  Sachs,  Reliijidse  Pocsie  der  Juden  in  Spanien, 
p.  185  sq.),  and  applied  to  Judaism  from  Philo  down  to 
Abraham  Ibn- David  [see  Chayl'g],  she  had  always 
been  regarded  as  sometliing  outside  of  the  Jewish  camp 
— as  a  something  which  had  nothing  in  common  with 
practical  Judaism  as  exercised  daily  and  hourlj'.  Mai- 
monides, however,  introduced  her  into  the  very  holiest  of 
Judaism,  and,  so  to  speak,  gave  Aristotle  a  place  by  the 
side  of  the  sages  of  the  Talmud."  "  The  master-muid 
of  INIaimonides  only,"  says  Dr.  Wise  (^Israelite,  Dec.  1, 
1871),  "could  accomplish  such  a  gigantic  task,  and 
codify  that  immense  mass  of  laws  and  customs  as  sys- 
tematically and  linguistically  exact  as  he  did.  Nobody 
before  or  even  after  him  has  been  able  to  do  it  so  well 
and  completely  as  he  has  done  it.  He  alone  has  brought 
the  rabbinical  law  within  a  compass,  to  be  mastered  in  a 
few  years,  and  under  a  system  to  find  particular  laws  or 
customs  without  roaming  over  a  mass  of  rabbinical 
sources,  thereby  affording  students  an  opportunity  to 
master  the  rabbinical  laws,  and  to  save  time  for  other 
studies."  His  fame  now  became  world-wide.  Not  only, 
however,  as  a  law-giver  in  Judah  did  he  advance  to  the 
first  place  among  the  great  and  learned ;  as  a  physician 
also  he  excelled  his  colleagues,  and  for  his  attainments 
in  this  field  of  labor  his  name  was  carried  to  manj^  foreign 
lands.  Kichard  Coeur  de  Lion,  learning  of  his  medical 
skill,  anxiously  sought  to  secure  the  services  of  this 
noted  Jew  as  his  court  physician.  Maimonides,  how- 
ever, preferred  to  remain  in  the  land  of  his  adoption,  and 
declined  the  proffered  Iionor  (compare  Weil.  Chalifen, 
iii,  423  sq.).  It  was  about  this  time  that  tlie  vizier  of 
Saladin,  the  Kadhi  al-Fadhel,  who  had  taken  ^Maimoni- 
des  under  his  protection,  appointed  Moses  chief  {Reis, 
1153)  of  all  the  congregations  in  Egypt  (about  1187). 


MAIMONIDES 


664 


MAIMONIDES 


The  numerous  and  onerous  clulics  now  ]iut  upon  him  as 
the  spiritual  head  of  Judaism,  and  the  constant  demand 
for  liis  great  medical  skill,  were,  however,  alike  unable 
to  overcome  the  powers  of  liis  intellect,  which  he  had 
consecrated  to  the  elucidation  of  the  Bible  and  the  tra- 
ditional law,  and  to  the  harmonizing  of  revelation  with 
philosophy,  and  in  the  midst  of  all  his  engagements 
Maimonides  entered  upon  the  preparation  of  a  third  re- 
ligio-philosophical  work,  which  became,  of  all  his  pro- 
ductions, the  most  valued  and  iinportant.  Its  object  was 
to  reclaim  one  of  his  disciples,  Ibn-Aknin  (q.  v.))  from  the 
prevailing  scepticism  about  a  future  world,  the  destiny 
of  man,  sin,  retribution,  revelation,  etc.  The  design  of 
the  work  is  explained  by  Maimonides  himself  in  the 
following  terms :  "  I  have  composed  this  work,  not  for 
the  common  people,  neither  for  beginners,  nor  for  those 
who  occupy  themselves  only  with  the  law  as  it  is  hand- 
ed down  without  contemplating  its  principle.  The  de- 
sign of  my  work  is  rather  to  promote  the  true  under- 
standing of  the  real  spirit  of  the  law,  to  guide  those  re- 
ligious persons  w'ho,  adhering  to  the  truth  of  the  Torah, 
have  studied  philosophy,  and  are  embarrassed  by  the 
contradictions  between  the  teachings  of  philosophy  and 
the  liberal  sense  of  the  Torah."  The  work,  consisting  of 
three  parts  in  204  sections,  and  entitled  in  Arabic  n?X?^ 
•(^T^Sn  5X,  inlleb.  Cl"'2i::n  ^n^^■0,  Moreh  Nehuchim 
{The  Guide  of  the  Perplexed),  in  allusion  to  Exod. 
xiv,  3,  and,  according  to  Griitz  (vi,  363), "constituting 
the  summit  of  the  Maimonical  mind  and  the  justifica- 
tion of  his  inmost  convictions,"  created  a  new  epoch  in 
the  philosophy  of  the  Middle  Ages.  "  Ce  livre,"  says 
Frank  {Etudes  Orientales,  p.  360),  "inspire  egalement  le 
respect  par  les  puissantes  facultes  de  I'auteur,  la  prodig- 
ieuse  souplesse  de  son  esprit,  la  variete  de  ses  connais- 
sanees,  I'ele'vation  de  son  spiritualisme  enfin  par  la  lu- 
miere  qu'il  repand  sur  quelques-uns  des  points  les  pins 
obscurs  dc  I'histoire  de  I'esprit  hiimain."  Not  only  did 
Mohammedans  write  commentaries  upon  it,  but  the 
Christian  schoolmen  learned  from  it  how  to  harmonize 
the  conflicts  between  religion  and  philosophy  (compare 
Joel,  h'in/iiiss  d.Jtid.Pkilos.  aiifdie  christl.  Scholastik,  in 
Frankel's  Monntsschrift  [Bresl.  1860,  p.  210  sq.];  Munk, 
Melanges,  p.  486).  The  contents  of  this  great  and  noble 
work,  which  has  become  for  Jewish  thinkers,  as  it  were, 
a  "touchstone  of  philosophy,"  are,  in  the  three  parts  into 
which  it  is  divided,  as  foUows :  The  first  part  is  especial- 
ly devoted  to  the  explanation  of  all  sensual  expressions 
which  are  made  use  of  in  the  Bible  in  regard  to  God ; 
this  is  really  but  a  mere  detailed  explication  of  what 
Maimonides  had  already  laid  down  in  the  first  book  of 
his  aforementioned  code,  namely,  that  such  expressions 
must  be  taken  only  in  a  spiritual  and  figurative  sense; 
this  part  contains  also  the  rational  arguments  by  which 
philosophy  proves  the  existence,  the  unity,  and  spirit- 
uality of  God.  The  second  part  treats,  first,  of  natural 
religion  and  its  deficiencies ;  secondly,  of  the  creation  of 
the  world  and  the  different  graduations  of  the  world's 
system  ;  and,  thirdly,  of  revelation,  prophecy,  and  of  the 
excellence  and  perfectness  of  the  divine  la^v.  The  third 
part,  after  giving  an  explanation  of  the  first  vision  of 
the  prophet  Ezekiel,  treats  of  the  opposition  of  good  and 
evil  in  the  world,  of  (iod's  providence  and  omniscience, 
and  their  relation  to  the  free  will  of  man ;  a  number  of 
eViapters  of  this  last  jiart  are  taken  up  in  explaining  the 
general  design  of  the  Mosaic  law,  and  the  reason  for  each 
separate  law. 

But  wliile,  on  the  one  hand,  the  ^^oreh  Xehirhim  con- 
tributed more  than  any  other  work  to  the  progress  of 
rational  development  in  .Judaism,  it,  on  the  other  hand, 
also  provoked  a  long  and  bitter  strife  lietween  orthodoxy 
and  science — carrying  out,  as  it  did,  to  its  last  conse- 
quences the  broad  principle  that  "the  Bibk  must  be 
explained  metaphorically  In'  established  fundamental 
truths  in  accordance  with  rational  conclusions."  So 
bitter,  indeed,  was  the  contest  which  broke  out  between 
the  subsequent  spiritualistic  ^laimoTiidian  and  the  "lit- 
eral Talmudistic"  schools,  that  the  fierce  invectives  were 


speedily  followed  by  anathemas  and  counter-anathemas 
issued  by  both  camps;  and,  finally,  about  the  middle  of 
the  loth  century,  the  decision  was  transferred  into  the 
hands  of  the- Christian  authorities,  who  commenced  by 
burning  Maimonides's  books,  continued  by  bringing  to 
the  stake  all  Hebrew  books  on  which  they  could  lav 
their  hands,  and  followed  this  decision  up  by  a  whole- 
sale slaughter  of  thousands  upon  thousands  of  Jews — 
men,  women,  and  children — irrespective  of  their  philo- 
sophical views.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  antago- 
nistic parties,  chiefly  through  the  influence  of  David  Kim- 
chi  and  others,  came  to  their  senses,  and  gladly  enough 
withdrew  their  mutual  anathemas;  they  even  went  so 
far  as  to  send  a  deputation  (in  1232)  to  Maimonides's 
grave  at  Saphet  "to  ask  pardon  of  his  ashes"  (Lindo,p. 
65) ;  and,  as  time  wore  on,  the  name  of  Moses  Maimon- 
ides became  the  pride  and  glory  of  the  nation.  Moses, 
himself,  however,  never  witnessed  the  end  of  the  con- 
flict into  which  he  had  the  mortification  to  see  his  na- 
tion plunged,  caused  by  his  own  labors,  which  had  been 
intended  solelj^  for  their  good.  In  the  midst  of  the  con- 
flict (the  opposition  begun  by  Samuel  ben-Ali,  the  gaon 
of  Bagdad,  was  particularly  strong  in  Southern  France 
and  Spain,  see  Gratz,  Gesch.  d.  Jiideii,  vol.  vii,  chap,  ii), 
"  the  Great  Luminary"  of  the  Jewish  nation  was  extin- 
guished Dec.  13, 1204.  Both  Jews  and  Mohammedans 
of  Fostat  had  public  mourning  for  three  days.  At  Je- 
rusalem the  Jews  jiroclaimed  a  day  of  extraordinary 
humiliation,  reading  publicly  the  threateiiings  of  the 
law  (Deut.  xxviii)  and  the  history  of  the  capture  of  the 
ark  by  the  Philistines  (1  Sam.  iv,  etc.),  for  they  regard- 
ed Maimonides  as  the  ark  containing  the  law.  His  re- 
mains, in  accordance  with  a  personal  request  before  his 
decease,  were  conveyed  to  Tiberias;  and  the  reverence 
which  the  Jewish  nation  still  cherish  for  his  memory  is 
expressed  b3'the  well-known  saying,  il^Xi  "T>"1  JTi^TS^ 
iT;r^3  fip  N?,  "From  Moses,  the  lawgiver,  to  Moses 
(Maimonides),  no  one  hath  arisen  like  Moses,''  in  allu- 
sion to  Deut.  xxxiv,  10.  "No  man  since  Ezra  had  ex- 
ercised so  deep,  universal,  and  lasting  an  influence  on 
Jews  and  Judaism  as  Moses  Maimonides.  His  llieo- 
logico-philosophical  works  gained  an  authority  among 
the  progressive  thinkers  equal  to  his  Mishna-Torah 
among  rabbinical  students.  AU  Jewish  thinkers  up  to 
date  —  Baruch  Spinoza.  JMoses  IMendelssohn,  and  the 
writers  of  the  19th  century  included — are  more  or  less 
the  disciples  of  Maimonides ;  so  that  no  Jewish  theo- 
logico-philosophical  book,  from  and  after  A.D.  1200,  can 
be  picked  up  in  which  the  ideas  of  Maimonides  form  not 
a  prominent  part"  (Dr.  "Wise). 

Maimonides  as  a  Jewish  Theologian  and  Philosopher, 
— His  importance  for  the  religion  and  science  of  Juda- 
ism, and  his  influence  upon  their  development,  is  so 
great  that  he  truly  deserves  to  be  placed  second  only 
to  Moses,  the  great  lawgiver,  himself.  Maimonides 
first  of  all  brouglit  order  into  those  almost  boundless  re- 
ceptacles of  tradition,  and  the  discussions  and  decisions 
to  which  they  had  given  rise,  which,  without  the  remot- 
est attempt  at  system  or  method,  lie  scattered  up  and 
down  the  works  of  Haggada  and  Halacha — Midrash, 
Mishna,  Talmuds.  Imbued  with  the  spirit  of  lucid 
Greek  speculation,  and  the  precision  of  logical  thought 
of  the  Arabic  Peripatetics,  aided  by  an  enormous  knowl- 
edge, he  became  the  founder  of  rational  scriptural  exe- 
gesis. The  Bible,  and  all  its  written  as  well  as  implied 
precepts,  he  endeavored  to  explain  by  the  light  of  rea- 
son, with  which,  as  the  highest  divine  gift  in  man, 
nothing  really  divine  could,  according  to  his  theory, 
stand  in  real  contradiction.  The  fundamental  idea  in 
his  works  is  that  the  law  was  given  to  the  Jews,  not 
merely  to  train  them  to  obedience,  but  also  as  a  revela- 
tion of  the  highest  truths,  and  that,  therefore,  fidelity 
to  the  law  in  action  is  by  no  means  sufficient,  but  that 
the  knowledge  of  the  truth  is  also  a  religious  duty.  By 
this  teaching  he  offered  a  powerful  incitement  to  specu- 
lation in  religious  philosophy,  yet  he  also  contributed 
by  his  enunciation  of  definite  articles  of  faith  to  a  naf 


MAIMONIDES 


665 


MAIMONIDES 


row  determiaation  of  Jewish  dogmas,  although  his  o^vn 
investigations  bear  throughout  a  rationaUzing  charac- 
ter.   Maimonides  is  no  friend  to  astrological  mysticisms. 
We  are  only  to  believe  that  which  is  either  attested  by 
the  senses,  or  strictly  demonstrated  by  the  understand- 
ing, or  transmitted  to  us  by  prophets  and  godly  men. 
In  the  province  of  Science  he  regards  Aristotle  as  the 
most   trustworthy  leader,  and   only  differs  from  him 
when  the  dogma  requires  it,  as,  especially,  in  the  doc- 
trine of  the  creation  and  providential  guidance  of  the 
world.     Maimonides  holds  firmly  to  the  belief  (without 
which,  in  his  opinion,  the  doctrines  of  inspiration  and 
of  miracles,  as  suspensions  of  natural  laws,  coidd  not  be 
maintained)  that  God  called  into  existence  out  of  noth- 
ing not  only  the  form  but  also  the  matter  of  the  world, 
the  philosophical  proofs  to  the  contrary  not  appearing 
to  him  conclusive.    If  these  proofs  possessed  mathemat- 
ical certainty,  it  would  be  necessary  to  interpret  those 
passages  in  the  Bible  which  appear  to  oppose  them  alle- 
gorically,  which  is  now  not  admissible.     Accordingly 
Maimonides  condemns  the  hypothesis  of  the  eternit}'  of 
the  world  in  the  Aristotelian  sense,  or  the  doctrine  that 
matter  is  eternal  ab  initio,  and  has  always  been  the  sub- 
stratum of  an  order  or  form  arising  from  the  tendency 
of  all  things  to  become  like  the  eternal  and  divine  Spir- 
it; "the  Bible,"  he  says,  "teaches  the  temporal  origin 
of  the  world."     Less  discordant  with  the  teachings  of 
the  Bible,  according  to  Maimonides,  is  the  Platonic  the- 
ory, which  he  interprets  with  the  exactest  strictness 
according  to  the  literal  sense  of  the  dialogue  Timceiis. 
He  understands  the  theory  as  assuming  that  matter  is 
eternal,  but  that  the  divinely-caused  order,  by  the  addi- 
tion of  which  to  matter  the  world  was  formed,  had  a 
beginning  in  time.     Yet  he  does  not  himself  accept  this 
theory,  but  adheres  to  the  belief  that  matter  was  created 
by  God.    In  Ethics,  Maimonides,  holding  reason  in  man 
— if  properly  developed  and  tutored  by  divine  revela- 
tion— to  be  the  great  touchstone  for  the  right  or  wrong 
of  individual  deeds,  fully  allows  the  freedom   of  will, 
and,  while  he  urges  the  necessity,  nay,  the  merit  of  lis- 
tening, to  a  certain  degree,  to  the  promptings  of  na- 
ture, rigorously  condemns  a  life  of  idle  asceticism,  and 
dreamy,  albeit  pious  contemplation.     No  less  is  it,  ac- 
cording to  him,  right  ami  praiseworthy  to  pay  the  ut- 
most attention  to  the  healthy  and  vigorous  development 
of  the  body,  and  the  care  of  its  preservation  by  the 
closest  application  to  hygienic  rules.    Providence,  he  ar- 
gues, reigns  in  a  certain — broad — manner  over  human- 
ity, and  holds  the  sway  over  the  destinies  of  nations; 
but  he  utterly  denies  its  working  in  the  single  event 
that  may  befall  the  individual,  who,  subject  above  all  to 
the  great  physical  laws,  must  learn  to  understand  and 
obey  them,  and  to  shape  his  mode  of  life  and  action  in 
accordance  v/ith  existing  conditions  and  circumstances 
— the  study  of  natural  science  and  medicine  being  there- 
fore a  thing  almost  of  necessity  to  everybody.    The  soul, 
and  the  soul  only,  is  immortal,  and  the  reward  of  virtue 
consists  in  its— strictly  unbodily  — bliss  in  a  world  to 
come;  while  the  punishment  of  vice  is  the  "loss  of  the 
soul."     "  Do  not,"  says  Maimonides,  "  allow  thyself  to 
be  persuaded  by  fools  that  God  predetermines  who  shall 
be  rigliteous  and  who  wicked.     He  who  sins  has  only 
himself  to  blame  for  it,  and  he  can  do  nothing  better 
than  speedily  to  change  his  course.    God's  omnipotence 
has  bestowed  freedom  on  man,  and  his  omniscience  fore- 
knows man's  choice  without  guiding  it.     We  should 
not  choose  the  good,  like  children  and  ignorant  people, 
from  motives  of  reward  or  piniishment,  but  we  should 
do  goo(l  for  its  own  sake,  and  from  love  to  God;  still 
retribution  does  await  the  immortal  soul  in  the  future 
world."     The  resurrection  of  the  hoili/  is  treated  by  Mai- 
monides as  being  simply  an"article  of  faith,  which  is  not 
to  be  opix)sed,but  which  cannot  be  explained. 

Exception  continues  to  be  taken  to  Jlaimonides's  the- 
ologico-philosophical  views  even  in  our  dav,  bv  manv 
who  recognise  his  ability  and  the  importance  of  his  la- 
bors.   The  great  Italian  Jewish  theologian,  the  late  Da- 


vid Luzatto  (q.  v.),  is  quite  decided  in  his  opposition, 
jSIaimonides,  he  holds,  brought  trouble  with  all  his  philos- 
ophy. What  the  Talmud  left  indefinite,  he  fastened  by 
irons.  His  creed  is  an  invention,  of  which  the  ancients 
had  no  idea.  With  more  of  a  iMohammedan  than  a 
Jewish  and  Talnuulic  despotism,  he  constructed  a  codex, 
in  order  that  all  articles  of  I'aith  and  practices  of  the 
least  consequence  should  be  regulated  and  decided  upon 
by  its  decisions  (see  Israelitische  Annulen,  1839,  p.  6, 
405).  No  less  decided  is  Isaac  Keggio  (q.  v.),  who  ap- 
proves of  Luzatto's  critique,  and  demands  the  removal 
of  the  yoke  which  jMaimonides  put  upon  the  Israelites, 
and  which  robs  of  all  freedom  in  thmking  (ibid,  p.  22). 
As  unjust  as  these  criticisms  must  appear  to  a  careful 
and  unprejudiced  student  of  Maimonides,  they  are  not 
the  most  weighty  charges  brought  against  him.  There 
are  some  who  even  charge  him  with  extreme  Rational- 
ism. Says  Da  Costa  (p.  273,  27-1), "  The  system  of  Mai- 
monides, by  its  arbitrary  explanations  and  inventions, 
attacked  the  authority,  not  of  tradition  only,  but  also 
of  Holy  Scripture.  .  .  .  Learned  Jews  have  not  hesi- 
tated to  suspect  Maimonides  of  a  design  to  weaken  the 
basis  of  the  two  fundamental  doctrines  of  the  Jewish  re- 
ligion— the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  and  the  expectation 
of  a  Messiah."  Not  only  is  this  statement  refuted  by 
the  fact  that  jMaimonides  inserted  these  dogmas  in  the 
thirteen  articles  of  his  Creed  [see  Judaism],  but  when, 
in  his  later  productions,  he  has  occasion  to  treat  of  them, 
he  does  so  with  great  consideration  of  his  relation  to 
the  synagogue,  as  we  have  seen  above. 

Editions  and  Translations  of  the  principcd  Woi-Jcs  of 
Maimonides.— (Vj  His  SX^obx  DNro  was  translated 
into  Hebrew  from  the  original  Arabic  by  a  number  of 
contemporarj'  literati,  and  is  now  printed  with  the  text 
of  the  Mishna  (ed.  Naples,  1-192;  Venice,  154G;  Sabio-. 
netta,  1559 ;  Mantua,  15G1-62,  etc.),  and  the  Talmud  (ed. 
Soncino,  1484;  Vienna,  1520-30, 1540-50;  Basle,  1678-80; 
Cracow,  1603-1 006  ;  LubHn,  1617-28  ;  Amsterdam,  1644 
-47,  etc.).     Milman  incorrectly  states  that  this  "great 
work  on  the  IMishna,  the  Porta  Mosis,  was  translated  by 
Pococke"  {History  of  the  Jews  f3d  edit.  Lond.  1863],  iii, 
150).     This  celebrated  Orientalist  only  translated  por- 
tions of  it,  chief!}'  consisting  of  the  introductions  to  the 
different  Tractates  {Theological  Works  [ed.T«'ells,  Lon- 
don, 1740],  vol.  i).     The  Arabic  original  of  these  por- 
tions is  given  for  the  first  time  with  this  translation. 
Surenhusius  has  given  an  abridged  version  of  the  whole 
commentary  in  his  edition  of  the  Mishna  (Amsterdam, 
1678).     There  are  also  extant  Spanish  versions  of  the 
whole,  and  German  translations  of  various  parts  of  this 
work.     (2)  The  Sefer  Hammizwoth,  or  Book  of  the  Pre- 
cepts, in  Arabic  (translated  into  Hebrew  by  Abr.  Ibn- 
Chasdai,  and,  from  the  author's  second  edition,  by  Moses 
Ibn-Tibbon),  which  contains  an  enumeration  of  the  613 
traditional  laws  of  the  Halacha,  together  with  fourteen 
canons  on  the  principle  of  numbering  them,  chiefly  di- 
rected against  the  authors  of  certain  liturgical  pieces 
called  Asharoth  (Warnings) ;  besides  thirteen  articles  of 
belief,  and  a  psychological  fragment.     This  book  is  to 
be  considered  chiefly  as  an  introduction  to  the  Mishna 
Torah.     (3)  The  Mishna  Torah  or  Jad  Hachazalca. — 
The  first  edition  of  the  text  appeared  in  Italy,  in  the 
printiixg-ofSce  of  Solomon  b.-Jehuda  and  Obadja  b.-^Io- 
ses,  about  1480.  two  vols,  folio;  then  in  Soncino,  1499; 
the  text,  with  different  commentaries,  Constantinople, 
1509;  Venice,  1524,  1550-51,  1574-75;  with  an  alpha- 
betical index  and  many  plates,  4  vols,  folio,  Amsterdam, 
1702.     It  is  to  this  edition  that  the  references  in  this 
Cyclop.Tdia  are  made.     Translations  of  portions  of  this 
work  in  Latin  have  been  published,  and  also  two  in 
English;  one  by  W.  W.'Rcrna.rA,  Main  Princijiles  of  the 
Creed  and  Ethics  of  the  Jews  exhibited  in  Selections  from 
the  Yad-Hachnzahah  ofjfaimo7ndes  (Cambr.  1832, 8vo). 
(4)  The  Mo)-eh  Xebuchint.  or  The  Guide  of  the  Perplexed, 
was,  till  lately,  read  in  the  Hebrew  translation  of  Ibn- 
Tibbon,  first  published  about  1480;  then  in  Venice,  1551; 
Sabionetta,  1553;  Berlin,  1791-96;  Sidzbach,  1828,  etc. 


MAIN-SAIL 


666 


MAINE  DE  BIRAN 


It  was  translated  into  Latin  by  Justinian,  bishop  of  Ne- 
bio,  R.  Mossei  yE<jiiptii  Dux  sire  Director  duhitantium 
(Paris,  1520);  then  again  by  Biixtorf  jun.,  Doctor  Fer- 
plexorum  (liasle,  1G2'J).  The  first  part  was  translated 
into  German  by  Fiirstenthal  (Krotoschin,  1839);  the 
second  by  M.  E.  Stein  (Vienna,  18C4) ;  and  the  third  by 
Scheyex  (Frankfort -on-the-Main,  1838).  Part  iii,  2G-49, 
lias  been  translated  into  English  by  Dr.  Townley,  The 
Beaso7is  of  the  Laws  of  Moses  (Lond.  1827).  The  orig- 
inal Arabic,  with  a  French  translation  and  elaborate 
notes,  was  published  by  Munk  (Paris.  1856-GC,  3  vols. 
8vo).  Commentaries  on  Moreh  Nehuchim,  or  parts  of  it, 
have  been  written,  in  particular, by  Ibn-Falaguera  (1280; 
Pressburg,  1837) ;  Ibn-Caspi  (about  1300;  Frankfort-on- 
the-Main,  184J^);  Moses  b.-Josua  of  Norbonne  (1355-62; 
edited  by  Goldenthal,  Vienna,  1852);  and  Is.  Abrabanel 
(15th  century;  edited  by  Landau,  Leips.  1863).  Of  his 
smaller  works,  we  may  enumerate,  in  conclusion,  a  trans- 
lation of  Avicenna's  Canon ;  an  extract  from  Galen ; 
several  medical,  mathematical,  logical,  and  other  trea- 
tises, spoken  of  with  the  highest  praise  by  Arabic  writ- 
ers; legal  decisions,  theological  disquisitions,  etc.,  for 
which  see  Furst,  Biblioth.  Judaica,  s.  v. 

Literature. — Besides  the  authorities  already  quoted, 
see  O.  Celsius,  De  Maimonide  (1727) ;  Revue  Orientale 
(Brux.  18il) ;  Beer,  Leben  und  Wi7-ken  des  Maimonides 
(Prag.  1844)  ;  Lebrecht,  in  Magazin  f.  d.  Lite?:  d.  A  us- 
landes,  1844,  No.  45,  p.  62  sq. ;  Scheyer,  Psychol.  Syst.  des 
Maimonides  (Frankfort,  1846) ;  Stein,  J/.  Maimonides 
(1846) ;  R.  ]\L  Maimonides,  Life,  etc.,  ofM.  Maimonides 
(Lond.  1837) ;  Edelmann,  Cheruda  Genusu  ;  Joel,  Reliy- 
ions-philosophie  d.  Maimonides,  m  the  Programme  of  the 
Jewish  theol.  sem.  at  Breslau  (1859) ;  Jarac-Zewsky,  in 
Zeitschr.f.  Philos.  u.philos.  Kritik,  new  ser.  xlvi  (Halle, 
1865),  p.  5  sq. ;  Franck,  Diet,  des  Sciences Philosoph.iy,3l 
sq. ;  Griitz,  Gesch.  d.  ,Jud.  vi,  ch.  x  and  xi ;  vii,  ch.  i  and  ii ; 
Jost,  Gesch.  d.  Judenth.  n.  s.  Sekten,  ii,  428  sq. ;  ibid,  in 
Herzog,  Real- Ency Mop.  s.  v. ;  Ueberwcg,  Hist.  Philos. 
(translated  by  Prof.  Morris),  i,  97 ;  Dr.  Milziener,  in  the 
Jewish  Times  (N.  Y.  1872),  p.  765  sq. ;  Kitto,  Bibl.  Cyclo- 
pmdia,  s.  v. ;  Chambers,  Cyclopadia,  s.  v. 

Main-sail  is  the  rendering  in  the  Auth.  Version  of 
the  nautical  term  aprkiuov  (from  oprfw,  to  suspend  or 
"  hoist"),  which  occurs  only  in  this  sense  in  Acts  xxvii, 
40.  It  is  explained  bj'  some  critics,  the  largest  sail  of 
the  poop,  answering  to  our  "  mizzen-sail,"  and  even  yet 
called  by  the  Venetians  artimone.  Some  regard  it  as 
the  "  top-sail,"  Lat.  supparum.  Others  understand  by 
it  a  small  sail  or  "jib"  near  the  prow,  called  bj-  the  Eo- 
mans  the.  dolon.  The  term  may  thus  be  understood  to 
signify  properly  the  fore-sail,  which,  in  the  opinion  of 
those  qualified  to  judge,  would  be  most  useful  in  bring- 
ing a  ship  to  head  to  the  wind  under  the  circumstances 
narrated  by  Luke  (see  llackett's  Comment,  ad  loc).  The 
vessels  of  that  time  had  one,  two,  or  throe  masts ;  the 
largest  was  in  the  stern  (Smith's  Diet,  of  Ant.  s.  v.  Ma- 
ins). Hence,  if  Paul's  ship  had  but  one,  the  sail  in  ques- 
tion would  have  been  that  now  called  the  jib,  being  fast- 
ened to  a  "  boom"  or  spar  projecting  from  the  bowsprit ; 
but  if,  as  is  more  probable  from  its  size,  it  had  at  least 
two  masts,  this  sail  would  be  the  one  attached  to  the 
front  mast,  that  is,  the  '"fore-sail."  '"A  sailor  will  at 
once  see  that  the  fore-sail  was  the  best  possible  sail  that 
could  be  set  under  the  circumstances"  (Smith,  iS^j/jitvec^ 
of  St.  Paul,  3d  edit.  p.  139,  note).     See  Ship. 

Maine  de  Biran,  Maimk  Fuan^ois  Pierrk  Gou- 
THiEU,  one  of  the  most  eminent  French  philosophers 
of  our  age,  "  the  modern  Malebranche,"  as  he  has  been 
aptly  termed,  was  born  near  Bergerac  Nov.  29,  1766. 
Upon  the  completion  of  his  collegiate  studies  he  entered 
the  army,  and  was  engaged  in  the  stormy  "days  of  the 
first  French  Itevolutioii.  Later  ho  dov.otod  himself  to 
politics,  and  in  1795  booamo  a  member  of  the  department 
of  Dordogne,  from  which,  in  1797, he  was  deputed  to  the 
Council  of  the  Five  Hundred.  From  1809  to  1814  he 
was  a  member  of  the  legislative  bodv ;  after  the  Resto- 


ration of  1816  he  became  a  moderate  royalist,  and  repre- 
sented the  people  as  such.  All  this  time  he  was  deeply 
engaged  also  in  philosophical  studies.  In  1800  the  Na- 
tional Institute  oifered  a  prize  for  the  best  essay  "On 
the  Infiuence  of  Habit  upon  the  Faculty  of  Thinking ;" 
he  wrote  for  it,  and  secured  the  prize.  In  1803  he  bore 
off  another  prize  for  an  essay  "  On  the  Decomposition 
of  the  Faculty  of  Thinking;"  and  in  1807  he  was  award- 
ed a  third  prize,  this  time  from  the  Berlin  Academy  of 
Science,  for  a  memoir  on  the  question  "  "Whether  there 
is  in  man  an  inordinate  internal  intuition,  and  in  what 
it  differs  from  the  perception  of  the  senses."  Further 
honors  he  gained  shortly  after  from  Copenhagen,  for  an 
exposition  of"  The  Mutual  Relation  of  Man's  Bloral  and 
Physical  Constitution."  In  these  different  contributions 
to  philosophical  literature,  Maine  de  Biran  had  gradu- 
ally brought  a  new  philosophy  to  maturitj-.  To  give 
his  system  to  the  public  in  a  more  completed  form,  he 
published  a  short  work  entitled  UExamen  de  la  Philos- 
ophie  de  Laromiguiere ;  and  finally  crowned  his  philo- 
sophical labors  by  his  magnificent  article  on  Leibnitz,  in 
the  BiograiMe  Universelle ;  and  died,  "too  soon  for  the 
interest  of  philosophy,"  in  1824,  leaving  behind,  howev- 
er, many  traces  of  extraordinary  philosophical  genius,  not 
only  in  France,  but  in  various  parts  of  Europe  besides. 

His  Philosophy The  principal  point  in  M.Maine  de 

Biran's  philosophy  was  the  distinguishing  of  the  icill,  as 
a  faculty,  frf)m  the  emotions.  He  argues  that  "the  soul  is 
a  cause,  a  force,  an  active  principle,"  and  that  "the  phe- 
nomena of  consciousness  can  never  be  explained  until  we 
clearly  apprehend  the  voluntary  nature  of  its  thoughts 
and  impulses."  "  In  order,"  says  Morell,  "  to  unfold  the 
fact  and  expound  the  nature  of  man's  natural  activity 
(the  hinge  upon  which  the  entire  system  turns),  M. 
Maine  de  Biran  analyzes  the  whole  of  what  is  contain- 
ed or  implied  in  a  given  action;  for  example,  a  move- 
ment of  the  arm.  When  I  move  my  arm  there  are 
three  things  to  be  observed :  1.  The  consciousness  of  a 
voluntary  effort ;  2.  The  consciousness  of  a  movement 
produced ;  and,  3.  A  fixed  relation  between  the  effort,  on 
the  one  hand,  and  the  movement,  on  the  other.  Now, 
the  source  or  cause  of  the  whole  movement  is  the  icill, 
and  this  term  will  we  now  use  as  virtually  synonymous 
with  self.  AVhether  we  say,  I  moved  my  arm,  or  my 
will  moved  it,  the  sentiment  is  exactly  identical.  Hence 
the  notions  oi  cause,  of  will,  of  self,  we  find  to  be  funda- 
mentally the  same ;  and  several  truths  are  by  this  means 
brought  to  light  of  great  importance  in  metaphysical 
science  (Preface  to  the  Nouvelles  Considerations  [a  post- 
humous work  of  Maine  de  Biran],  p.  10).  First,  it  be- 
comes evident  that  we  possess  a  natural  activity,  the 
seat  of  which  is  in  the  will,  so  that  whether  we  regard 
man  as  a  thinking  or  an  acting  being,  yet  it  is  the  will 
which  alike  presides  over  and  regulates  the  flow  of  our 
thoughts  or  the  course  of  our  actions.  Secondly,  we 
infer  that  the  will  is  the  foundation  of  personality ;  that 
my  will  is  virtually  myself.  And,  thirdly,  we  infer  that 
to  will  is  to  cause,  and  that  from  the  inward  conscious- 
ness of  volition,  viewed  in  connection  with  the  effect 
produced,  we  gain  our  first  notion  of  causality.  These 
three  jioints,  as  Cousin  has  shown  us,  embrace  in  a  small 
compass  the  whole  philosophy  of  Maine  de  Biran.  He 
first  seizes,  with  admirable  sagacity,  the  princijile  of  all 
human  activity  as  resident  in  the  power  of  the  will,  ex- 
emjilifying  it  even  in  the  case  of  those  muscular  move- 
ments \vhi<h  may  ajipear  to  the  unreflecting  to  be  sim- 
ply the  result  of  nervous  excitement.  Having  estab- 
lished the  principle  of  activity,  as  residing  in  the  will, 
he  proceeds  to  identify  the  will  with  our  very  personal- 
ity itself,  showing  that  the  soul  is  in  its  nature  a  force, 
the  verj'  essence  of  which  is  not  to  be  acted  upon,  but 
to  act.  Finally,  he  proves  that  we  gain  our  first  notion 
of  causality  from  tlie  consciousness  of  our  own  personal 
effort,  and  that  having  once  observed  the  conj\uiction 
of  power  exerted  and  effect  produced  in  this  particular 
case,  we  transfer  the  notion  of  cause  thus  originated  into 
the  objective  world,  and  conclude  by  analogy  the  ne- 


MAIN  TENON 


667 


MAISTRE 


cesslty  of  a  sufficient  power  existing  for  every  given  ef- 
fect" {Hist,  of  Mod.  Phil.  p.  G39,  640 ;  compare  the  me- 
moire  Be  la  Decompositioji  de  la  Pensee ;  preferable  even, 
Nouvelles  Consideralions,  part  i,  sec.  1,  and  part  ii,  sec.  1 
and  3 ;  also  the  Examen  des  Lemons  de  Philosophie,  sec. 
8  and  9).  "  In  the  whole  of  the  process  by  which  our 
author  had  gradually  advanced  from  the  ideology  of 
Cabanis  to  the  absolute  dynamical  s])iritualism  of  Leib- 
nitz, he  had  relied  simply  upon  his  own  power  of  reliec- 
tion.  Disciple  of  none,  he  had  philosophized  simply 
within  the  region  of  his  own  consciousness;  so  that 
whatever  merit  some  may  deny  him,  there  are  none,  as- 
suredly, who  can  reject  the  claim  to  that  of  complete 
originality"  (Morell,  p.  038-9).  "  Of  all  the  masters  of 
France,"  says  Cousin, "  JMaine  de  Biran,  if  not  the  great- 
est, is  unquestionably  the  most  original.  M.  Laromi- 
guiere  only  continued  the  philosophy  of  Condillac,  mod- 
ifying it  in  a  few  important  points.  M.  Koyer-Collard 
came  from  the  Scottish  philosophy,  which,  with  the  vig- 
or and  natural  power  of  his  reason,  he  would  have  infal- 
libly surpassed,  had  he  completely  followed  out  the  la- 
bors which  form  only  the  least  solid  part  of  his  glory. 
As  for  myself]  I  come  at  the  same  time  from  the  Scottish 
and  German  school.  ]M.  IMaine  de  Hiran  alone  comes 
from  himself,  and  from  his  own  meditations"  (Preface 
to  the  Frar/meris  Pkilosophiqiies).  See,  besides  the  au- 
thorities already  quoted,  Ernest  Naville,  Maine  de  Bi- 
ran, sa  vie  et  ses  Pensees  (1857)  ;  Damiron,  Essai  snr 
I'histoire  de  la  Philosophie  en  France  an  dix-neuvi'eme 
Siecle;  Brit.  Qn.Rev.  186G  (Oct.);  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog. 
Generale,  vol.  xxxii,  s.  v. ;  The  A  cademy  (Lond.),  Sept. 
15,1872.     (J.  H.W.) 

Maintenoil,  Madame  de,  a  very  noted  charac- 
ter in  the  history  of  France,  both  in  secular  and  ecclesi- 
astic affairs,  was  born  of  a  noble  Protestant  family  in 
the  prison  at  Niort,  France,  Nov.  27,  1635;  came  with 
her  parents  to  this  country,  but  returned  to  France  in 
1646;  married  the  poet  Scarron  in  1651,  and  after  his 
death  (1660)  was  about  to  remove  to  Portugal,  when 
she  was  secured  by  Jladame  !Montespan,  the  favorite  of 
Louis  XIV,  as  governess  of  the  duke  of  Maine,  the  ille- 
gitimate son  of  the  king.  The  large  estate  of  TJain- 
tenon  was  presented  to  her,  until  now  Frangoise  iJ'Au- 
biffne,  and  hereafter  she  assumed  the  name  of  the  es- 
tate. Later  she  became  a  formidable  rival  of  Madame 
Montespan.  It  was  by  the  influence  of  Madame  de 
IMaintenon  that  Louis  XIV  revoked  the  Edict  of  Nantes, 
and  that  he  established  the  educational  institution  in 
the  abbey  of  St.  Cyr.  In  the  last-named  place  she 
spent  her  days  after  the  death  of  the  king.  She  died 
April  15, 1719.  It  is  difficult  to  describe  Madame  de 
Maintenon's  relation  to  Louis  XIV.  She  ;vas  married 
to  him  some  eighteen  months  after  the  death  of  the 
queen.  She  is  never  believed  to  have  been  the  king's 
?nist)'ess,  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  term,  but  her  asso- 
ciation with  him  was  surely  of  a  very  intimate  charac- 
ter long  before  they  were  joined  in  wedlock.  She  cer- 
tainly exercised  an  uncommon  influence  over  him.  She 
had  a  passion  to  be  regarded  as  "  a  mother  of  the 
Church ;"  but  while  she  confessed  the  strength  of  her 
desire  to  Romanize  the  Huguenots,  she  earnestly  denied 
that  she  approved  of  the  detestable  drayonnades.  Her 
pretended  Memoirs  are  spurious,  but  her  Letters  (Amst. 
1759,  9  vols. ;  best  edit,  by  Lavallcc,  Paris,  18(35  sq.)  are 
genuine.  See  Noailles,  Ilistoire  de  Mad.  de  Maintcnon 
(1858-59, 4  vols.  8vo) ;  Sainte-Beuve,  Causeries  dii  Lun- 
di,  iv;  Blackwood's  Muyazine,  1850  (Feb.);  Eraser's 
Magazine,  1849  (March).     See  Louis  XIV. 

Mair,  Hugh,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  born 
at  New  Mylus,  Ayrshire,  Scotland,  July  16,  1797;  grad- 
uated at  the  college  in  Glasgow  m  IS  17;  studied  theol- 
ogy in  Edinburgh;  was  licensed  in  1822;  was  employed 
for  soma  time  as  a  missionary  in  tlie  Orkneys,  and  oth- 
er parts  of  Scotland;  came  to  America  in  1828,  and  was 
ordained  and  installed  pastor  i)f  the  churches  at  Fort 
Miller  and  Northumberland,  N.  Y.;  in  1830  became  pas- 


tor of  the  Church  at  Johnstown ;  resigned  in  1843,  and 
went  to  Brockport,  where  he  officiated,  as  a  stated  sup- 
ph',  for  several  months ;  subsequently  supplied  at  War- 
saw for  a  year,  and  in  1847  went  to  Upper  Canada,  and 
became  pastor  at  Fergus,  in  connection  with  the  Church 
of  Scotland,  and  there  continued  till  the  close  of  life, 
Nov.  1, 1854.  Mair  published  Four  Miscellaneous  Ser- 
mons. A  Memoir,  with  a  selection  from  his  MS.  ser- 
mons, was  published  in  1856  by  A.  Dingwall  Fordyce. — 
Sprague,  A  nnals,  iv,  744. 

IVIairs,  GEORGK,an  Irish  minister,  was  bom  at  Drum- 
beg,  Monaghan  County,  Ireland,  in  1761 ;  received  his 
classical  education  at  the  University  of  Glasgow ;  next 
studied  theology ;  was  licensed  to  preach  by  an  associ- 
ate presbytery  in  Ireland,  and,  after  laboring  as  a  proba- 
tioner for  eighteen  months,  was  ordained  and  installed 
pastor  of  the  congregation  of  Cootehill,  Cavan  Co.  In- 
terested in  the  work  of  evangelizing  in  America,  he  left 
Ireland  in  Maj',  1793,  and  arrived  in  New  York  in  Au- 
gust of  the  same  year.  Soon  after  his  arrival  he  was 
installed  pastor  of  the  churches  in  the  towns  of  Hebron 
and  Argyle ;  six  years  after  he  confined  his  labors  to 
the  Church  in  Argyle  alone,  and  held  this  position  until 
old  age  interrupted  his  active  labors.  He  died  in  1841. 
— Sprague,  Annals  of  the  American  Pulpit, \o\.  ix. 

Maistre  de  Sacy.     See  Sacv. 

Maistre,  Joseph  (count)  de,  an  eminent  French 
Roman  Catholic  writer,  the  greatest  advocate  of  LTltra- 
montanism  in  the  19th  century,  was  born  at  Chamber^' 
April  1,  1753.  His  father  was  president  of  the  senate 
of  Savoy,  and  he  became  himself  a  member  of  that  body 
in  1787.  When  the  French  armies  invaded  Savoy  in 
1792  he  retired  to  Piedmont,  Avhere  he  wrote  his  Consid- 
irations  sur  la  France  (1796,  8vo ;  three  editions  in  one 
year).  Charles  Emanuel  IV  called  De  Maistre  to  Tu- 
rin, where  he  remained  until  the  downfall  of  that  prince, 
Nov.  19, 1798;  he  then  retired  to  Venice,  and  lived  there 
one  year  in  great  poverty.  In  1799  he  was  created  grand 
chancellor  of  Sardinia,  and  in  September,  1802,  was  sent 
by  that  country  as  ambassador  to  Russia.  While  there 
he  published  (in  1810)  his  Essai  sur  le  principe  regener- 
ateur  des  constitutions  politiques,  a  full  exposition  of  his 
political  views,  advocating  the  principle  of  divine  right, 
and  declaring  the  rights  of  the  people  derived  from  the 
sovereign — withal  a  sort  of  theocratic  form  of  govern- 
ment more  ailapted  to  the  ]\liddle  Ages  than  to  the  19th 
century.  "M.  de  Maistre,"  in  this  work,  "represents 
men  as  connected  with  God  by  a  chain  which  binds 
them  to  his  throne,  and  holds  them  without  enslaving 
them.  To  the  I'ull  extent  of  this  chain  we  are  at  liberty 
to  move;  we  are  slaves  indeed,  but  we  are  freely  slaves 
[Ubrement  esclaves) ;  we  must  necessarily  work  out  the 
purposes  of  the  Supreme  Being,  and  yet  the  actions 
by  which  we  work  out  these  purposes  are  always  free. 
So  far  so  good ;  but  here  come  the  peculiarities  of  our 
author's  system.  He  does  not  consider  men  as  individ- 
ually responsible  before  God ;  he  takes  them  as  nations, 
and  the  nation,  for  JI.  de  Maistre,  is  made  up  of  the 
king  and  the  aristocracy.  Even  considering  each  order 
separately,  he  asserts  that  all  the  members  of  the  same 
order  are  indissolubly  bound  together,  each  bearing  a 
share  of  the  mutual  and  joint  responsibility  which 
weighs  on  the  whole  order.  Now  let  us  suppose  the 
case  of  a  revolution.  In  those  terrible  events  which 
follow  the  disregard  of  all  the  laws  of  right  and  wrong, 
although  the  persons  who  fall  \-ictims  to  the  fury  of  the 
multitude  may  sometimes  be  those  whose  very  crimes 
have  called  down  the  divine  vengeance,  yet  very  often, 
nay,  in  most  cases,  the  individually  innocent  suffer  most. 
But,  then,  although  individually  innocent,  they  must 
come  in  for  the  share  of  tlie  solidarity  which  belongs  to 
the  whole  order.  Tliis  results  from  the  fact  that  the 
doctrine  of  atonement  is  the  principle  on  which  rests 
the  constitution  of  society ;  the  sins  of  the  guilty  are 
visited  on  the  innocent,  and  the  blood  of  the  innocent, 
in  its  turn,  atones  for  the  guilt}'.     Here  is  to  be  found 


MAISTRE 


668 


MAISTRE 


the  key-stone  of  count  De  jNIaistre's  theon';  the  Savoy- 
ard publicist  develops  it  witli  all  the  resources  of  logic 
and  erudition."  It  has  been  well  remarked  that  a  sys- 
tem such  as  this  is  fatalism  of  the  very  worst  descrip- 
tion. Not  only  does  it  take  away  the  free  agency  of 
men  considered  as  individuals,  but  it  effectually  pro- 
claims the  validity  of  the  maxim  that  mvjht  is  right. 
'•  Wishing  to  transform  all  earthly  governments  into  one 
homogeneous  theocracy,  he  proposed,  as  a  control  over 
absolutism,  an  absolutism  of  a  much  more  dangerous 
character.  M.  de  Maistre's  leading  idea  is  a  good  one : 
he  wishes  to  appeal  from  the  passions  and  depraved  will 
of  man  to  the  Deity  itself  as  to  the  eternal  source  of 
right  and  good;  but  not  being,  of  course,  able  to  receive 
immediately  from  God  the  counsel  and  the  laws  he 
M'ishes  to  reduce  into  practice  for  the  good  of  society, 
he  traces  them  to  the  pope,  as  the  vicegerent  of  Heav- 
en ! — an  error  common  to  all  reactionary  movements — 
from  the  fear  of  allowing  anything  like  vagueness  to 
exist  in  the  minds  of  men  respecting  their  connection 
with  the  Almighty.  He  is  not  satisfied  with  anything 
short  of  what  is  really  tangible,  visible,  perceptible  to 
the  senses,  thus  forgetting  the  character  of  the  true  Me- 
diator. Failing  to  understand  that  both  divinity  and 
humanity  have  met  togetVier  only  in  the  man  Christ 
Jesus,  he  would  fain  make  us  believe  that  the  pope  is 
'  (Jod  made  manifest  in  the  tiesh.' "  With  such  views, 
he  could  not  but  condemn  severely  the  charter  of  1814, 
which  introduced  new  institutions  into  France,  and  he 
turned  his  face  towards  Russia  with  a  view  of  making 
it  his  home.  By  a  ukase  of  December,  1815,  Kussia 
expelled  the  Jesuits.  To  them  De  Maistre  and  his  fam- 
ily were  much  attached,  and  being  on  this  account  him- 
self suspected  of  proselytism,  he  quitted  the  country  and 
returned  to  Savov  in  1817,  and  became  minister  of  state. 
He  died  Feb.  26,' 1821. 

Among  the  principal  works  of  De  Maistre,  our  special 
consideration  is  claimed  also  by  his  Du  Pape  (Lyons, 
1819,  2  vols.  8vo;  second  and  improved  edition,  1821,  2 
vols.  8vo),  in  which  he  treats  of  the  papacy,  1,  in  its 
relation  to  the  Romish  Church  ;  2,  to  the  temporal 
powers ;  3,  to  civilization ;  and,  4,  to  the  dissenting 
churches.  It  is  a  daring  apology  of  the  spiritual  and 
temporal  power  of  the  pope.  He  starts  from  the  prin- 
ciple that  modern  nations  need  a  guarantee  against  the 
abuses  of  sovereign  power.  Such  guarantee,  he  claims, 
is  not  to  be  found  either  in  written  charters,  which  are 
always  useless,  nor  in  assemblies,  which  are  powerless 
when  they  are  not  anarchic.  He  can  find  it  only  in  a 
sovereignty  superior  to  all  others,  at  once  independent 
and  disinterested,  and  interfering  to  promote  the  cause 
of  justice,  which  has  been  intrusted  to  it  by  God  him- 
self. The  Savoyard  publicist's  beau  zV/co/ of  government 
is  the  constitution  of  the  Middle  Ages.  He  describes 
it  in  exulting  language,  and  crowds  his  margins  with 
quotations  from  Bellarmine,  Baronius,  and  the  Triden- 
tine  fathers,  never  suspecting  that,  after  all,  he  has  only 
been  painting  a  tableau  defantaisie,  a  piece  of  historical 
inaccuracy  which  will  match  the  dreamy  theories  of 
Boulainvilliers  and  Dubos.  We  are  invited,  seriously, 
to  return  to  those  happy  times  when  royalty,  while  it 
retained  its  full  volition,  and  was  endowed  with  an  in- 
dependent patrimony,  was  restrained  in  the  exercise  of 
legislative  power  by  the  clergy,  the  nobility,  and  the 
commons,  each  resting  on  its  own  foundation,  and  acting 
witiiin  its  allotted  sphere,  while  above  was  the  papacv, 
which,  by  its  sublime  umjnrage,  maintained,  in  cases  of 
collision,  the  harmonious  co-operation  of  the  members 
of  all  the  body  politic.  We  are  told  to  admire  the  no- 
ble, temperate  monarchy  which  had  grown  up  under 
the  shelter  of  the  Christian  Church,  and  which,  though 
never  brought  to  perfection  (this  is,  at  least,. a  candid 
acknowledgment),  had  yet  sex-ured  to  the  mediaeval  na- 
tions so  long  a  career  of  happiness  and  freedom,  pros- 
perity and  glory.  It  would  l)e  a  task  l)oth  useless  and 
uiqirotitable  to  point  out  all  the  misstatements  which 
occur  in  the  description  just  given.     The  futility  of  liis 


scheme  was  demonstrated  by  the  conduct  of  De  Maistre 
himself.  In  1804  pope  Pius  VII  crowned  Napoleon 
emperor.  This,  according  to  the  theorj'  of  the  work 
Du  Pape,  was  one  of  those  judgments  by  which  the  pa- 
pal infallibility  settled  poUtical  difficulties.  Yet  De 
Maistre  speaks  of  this  decision  in  the  following  disre- 
spectful terms :  "  The  pope's  journey  and  the  coronation 
are  for  the  present  the  great  subject  of  conversation.  .  . . 
All  in  the  French  Revolution  is  wonderfully  bad,  but 
this  is  the  ne  plus  ultra.  The  crimes  of  an  Alexander 
VI  are  less  frightful  than  this  hideous  apostasy  of  his 
weak-minded  successor.  ...  I  wish  with  all  my  heart 
that  the  unfortunate  pontiff  would  go  to  St.  Domingo  to 
crown  Dessalines.  When  once  a  man  of  his  rank  and 
character  so  far  forgets  both,  all  that  is  to  be  hoped  for 
is  that  he  may  completely  degrade  himself  until  he  be- 
comes but  an  insignificant  puppet"  (Corrtsp.  diplom.  p. 
138,  139).  It  was  thus  the  great  ultramontane  writer 
respected  papal  infaUibility  when  not  in  accordance  with 
his  own  views  or  his  passions.  De  VEglise  Gallicane 
dans  ses  7-apports  avec  le  souverain p)ontife  (Paris,  1821, 
8vo ;  Lyons,  1822)  is  a  sort  of  continuation  of  the  preced- 
ing work.  It  attacks  the  privileges  of  semi-indepen- 
dence claimed  by  the  Church  of  France.  This  book,  in 
which  Bossuet  and  Fleurj'  are  somewhat  roughly  han- 
dled, was  not  well  received  at  first  by  the  French  clergy. 
Abbe  Baston  published  an  answer  to  it  under  the  title 
Reclamations  pour  VEglise  de  France,  et  pour  la  rerite, 
contre  M.  de  Maistre  (1821,  1824,  2  vols.  8vo);  still,  in 
the  course  of  time,  it  was  greatly  instrumental  in  caus- 
ing the  triumph  of  the  ultramontane  doctrine.  Les  soi- 
i-lcs  de  St.Petersbourg,  ou  Entretiens,  etc.  (Paris,  1821,  2 
vols.  8vo),  "the  best  known  and  certainlv  the  most 
readable  work  of  the  author,"  treats  of  retribution,  both 
here  and  hereafter.  We  cannot  give  here  the  details 
of  De  Maistre's  theory,  but  its  most  important  features 
may  be  summed  up  thus :  the  thorough  badness  of  hu- 
man nature,  the  necessity  of  atonement,  the  reversion 
of  the  merits  of  the  innocent  paying  for  the  guilty,  and 
salvation  through  blood.  These  views,  in  which  excel- 
lent Christians  have  found  a  daring  perversion  of  the 
most  holy  Christian  principles,  led  De  Maistre  to  justify 
the  Inquisition.  His  apology,  entitled  Lettres  a  un  gen- 
tiUiomme  Pusse  sur  r Inquisition  Espagnole  (Paris,  1822, 
8vo),  is,  however,  but  a  verj'  lame  defence  of  that  atro- 
cious institution.  His  violent  attack  against  Bacon, 
Examen  de  la  Philosojihie  de  Bacon  (Paris,  183G,  2  vols. 
8vo)  is  not  much  better.  His  works  are  very  original, 
but  more  in  the  form  than  in  the  ideas.  Canying  often 
a  true  principle  to  its  fullest  extent,  he  arrives  at  a  par- 
adox which  he  then  proclaims  as  evident.  "As  a  pam- 
phlet writer,"  says  Dr.  M'Clintock  (in  the  Meth.  Quart. 
Rev.  1856,  p.  218), "  De  ]\Iaistre  may  be  comp.ared,  in  some 
respects,  to  Paul  Louis  Courier;  he  had  the  same  point, 
the  same  Jinesse,  the  same  elegance  of  style,  and  an  ap- 
parent simplicity,  which  only  set  off  with  greater  efiect 
the  home-truths  he  addressed  to  his  readers;  but  fin- 
ished as  these  minor  works  decidedly  were,  true  both  as 
to  sentiment  and  language,  they  were  merely  suggested 
by  the  events  of  the  times,  and,  as  such,  were  likely  to 
lose  most  of  their  point  as  the  course  of  things  moved 
in  a  new  direction.  The  Considerations,  on  the  contra- 
ry, will  ever  retain  their  interest,  for  thej^  discuss  prin- 
ciples ;  they  belong  to  the  philosophy  of  historj-.  Wliat- 
cver  view  we  may  take  of  the  conclusions  adopted  by 
De  Maistre,  we  cannot  but  admire  both  the  extent  of 
his  learning  and  the  depth  of  his  thoughts;  the  work 
fidly  deserves  to  be  placed  by  the  student  on  the  same 
shelf  as  Bossuet's  Discourse  on  Universal  History." 

Here  we  woidd  notice  also  one  or  two  peculiarities  in 
the  method  of  count  De  Maistre.  which  mark  out  his 
originality  amid  all  the  writers  of  his  age.  The  first  is 
that  continual  reference  to  God  and  to  the  providential 
superintendence  of  man's  life  here  below,  of  which  we 
have  iiefore  spoken.  From  this  point  of  view  he  is  ad- 
mirably placed  to  discuss  the  most  serious  questions, 
and  he  does  so  with  a  power  and  an  eloquence  to  which 


MAITLAND 


669 


MAJOR 


everything  must  yield  (compare  Ffoulkes,  Christeii- 
dom's  Bivisions,  i,  200).  Another  remarkable  point  is 
the  soundness  of  his  judgment  and  the  sagacity  with 
which  he  assigns,  both  to  events  and  to  men,  their 
proper  influence  over  the  whole  course  of  contemporary 
histor3^  ]\Iany  views,  manj^  principles  now  generally 
admitted,  may  be  traced  back  to  the  Considerations, 
and  have  been  borrowed  from  that  extraordinary  book, 
often  without  any  acknowledgment.  See  Raymond, 
Eloge  du  comte  Jos.  de  Maistre  (Cbambery,  1827,  8vo) ; 
Rodolphe  de  Maistre,  Notice  hiorj.  sur  le  comte  Joseph 
de  Maistre  (in  the  preface  to  J.  de  M.'s  Correspondance 
et  Opuscules  (Par.  1851,  2  vols.  8vo ;  1853,  2  vols.  12mo) ; 
Sainte-Beuve,  Cauteries  du,  Lundi,  vol.  iv,  and  his  Por- 
traits Contemporains,  vol.  ii ;  Villeneuvc-Arifat,  Eloije  du 
comte  Jos.  de  Maistre  (1853) ;  Damiron,  EssaisurVHis- 
toire  de  la  Philosophie  en  France  au  19'  siecle ;  Taine, 
Les  Philosophes  Fran^ais  du  xix"  siecle;  Edinburgh  Re- 
view, Oct.  1852 ;  Albert  Blanc,  Introduction  a  la  Corre- 
spondance  diplomatique  de  Joseph  de  Maistre;  Migne, 
Xour.  Enajclopedie  Theologicpie,  ii,  1320  ;  Ediiib.  Revieic, 
April,  1849 ;  Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  1857,  art.  vii ;  and  espe- 
cially the  article  by  Dr.  M'Clintock  in  the  Meth.  Quart. 
^er.' April,  1856,  art.  iii.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Maitlaiid,  Samuel  RoflFey,  D.D.,  an  English  di- 
vine of  some  note,  was  born  in  London  in  1792  ;  was  ed- 
ucated at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge ;  entered  the  law 
profession  in  1816,  but  shortly  after  turned  towards  the 
ministry;  was  ordained  deacon  and  priest  in  1821 ;  per- 
petual curate  of  Christ  Church,  Gloucester,  in  1823-29; 
keeper  of  the  Lambeth  MSS.,  and  librarian  to  the  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  in  1837.  He  died  at  Lambeth 
Palace,  Loudon,  Jan.  19, 1866.  His  principal  theological 
publications  are  as  follows:  An  Inquiri/  into  the  Grounds 
on  which  the  Prophetic  Period  oj" Daniel  and  St,  John  has 
been  supposed  to  consist  q/'1260  Yecas  (Lond.  1826,  8vo) : 
— A  Second  Inquiry,  etc.  (1829,  8 vo)  : — An  Attempt  to 
elucidate  the  Prophecies  concerning  A  ntichrist  (1830, 8vo) : 
— Tracts  and  Documents  illustrative  of  the  History,  Doc- 
trine, and  Rites  of  the  Ancient  Albigenses  and  Wuldenses 
(1832,  8vo): — The  Dark  Ages;  a  series  of  Essays  in- 
tended to  illustrate  the  state  of  Religion  and  Literature  in 
the  Ninth,  Tenth,  Eleventh,  and  Twelfth  Centuries  (re- 
printed from  the  British  Magazine,  with  corrections  and 
some  additions,  1811,  8vo ;  2d  edit,  1845,  8vo)  : — Essays 
on  the  Subjects  connected  with  the  Reformation  in  England 
(reprinted,  with  additions,  from  the  British  Magazine, 
1849,  8vo;  see  London  Athenmun,  1849,  p.  834,  835)  :— 
Illustrations  and  Inquiries  relating  to  Mesmerism,  parts 
i-vi  (1849,  8vo) : — Eruvin,  or  Miscellaneous  Essays  on 
Subjects  connected  with  the  Nature,  History,  and  Destiny 
of  Man  (2d  edit.  1850,  sm.  8vo)  : — An  Essay  on  the  Mys- 
tical Interpretation  of  Scripture  : — Strictui'es  on  din- 
ner's Church  History  (London,  1834,  8vo)  : — Reviev)  of 
Fox's  History  of  the  Waldenses. — Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit, 
and  A  nier,  A  uthors,  s.  v. ;  Thomas,  Diet,  of  Biography 
and  Mythology,  s.  v. ;  English  Cyclopcedia,  s.  v. 

Maitland,  "William,  a  noted  Scotch  politician  of 
the  Keforniatiou  period,  better  known  as  "  Secretary  Leth- 
ington,"  was  born  about  1525,  and  was  educated  both 
at  St.  Andrews  and  on  the  Continent,  He  had  great 
influence  as  a  political  leader,  and  though  he  became  a 
convert  to  the  Reformed  doctrines  about  1555,  he  was  in 
1558  appointed  secretary  of  state  by  jNIary  of  Guise.  In 
the  following. year,  however,  he  openly  joined  the  lords 
of  the  Congregation,  and  was  one  of  the  Scotch  commis- 
sioners who  met  the  duke  of  Norfolk  at  Berwick,  to  ar- 
range the  conditions  on  which  queen  Elizabeth  would 
give  them  assistance.  In  1561,  after  the  arrival  of 
queen  Mary  from  France,  he  was  made  an  extraordinary 
lord  of  Session.  He  strongly  objected  to  the  ratification 
of  Knox's  Book  of  Discipline,  and  in  1563  conducted  the 
prosecution  raised  against  Knox  for  treason.  Prom  this 
time  he  appears  to  have  lost  his  influence  with  tlie  re- 
formers. In  1564  he  held  a  long  debate  with  Knox  on 
the  claims  of  the  Reformed  Church  to  be  independent 


of  the  state.  In  1566  he  took  part  in  the  conspiracy 
against  Rizzio,  after  whose  assassination  he  was  pro- 
scribed, and  obliged  to  seek  shelter  for  some  months  in 
obscurity.  After  queen  Mary's  imprisonment  (1567)  in 
England  he  played  a  most  unenviable  part,  pretending 
to  Elizabeth  to  be  one  of  her  admirers,  but  really  seek- 
ing all  the  while  to  protect  the  cause  of  Mary,  and  it  is 
evident  that  he  really  never  deserted  her,  although  he 
was  present  at  the  coronation  of  king  James  VI,  and  al- 
though he  fought  on  the  side  of  her  opponents  on  the 
field  of  Langside.  He  took  part  in  1568  in  the  confer- 
ence held  at  York,  and  there  displayed  such  unmistaka- 
ble sj-mpathy  for  IMary  that  the  Scottish  lords  marked 
him  as  a  dangerous  enemy  to  the  commonwealth,  and 
in  1569  he  was  arrested  at  .Stirling,  but  was  liberated 
shortly  after  by  an  artifice  of  Kirkaldy  of  Grange.  In 
1570  he  openly  declared  for  Mary,  and  became  the  soul 
of  the  queen's  party,  in  consequence  of  ■which  he  was 
declared  a  rebel,  deprived  of  his  offices  and  lands  by  the 
regent  IMorton,  and  besieged,  along  with  Kirkaldj',  in 
Edinburgh  Castle.  After  a  long  resistance,  the  castle 
surrendered,  and  he  was  imprisoned  in  Leith,  where  he 
died  (in  1573),  "  some,"  says  Melville,  "  supposing  he 
took  a  drink  and  died,  as  the  auld  Romans  were  wont  to 
do."  Buchanan  has  drawn  his  character  with  a  severe 
pen  in  his  Scottish  tract  entitled  Tlie  Chameleon,  Froude 
(x,  474)  believes  that  Maitland  died  a  natural  death. 
Burton  (Hist,  of  Maitland,  iv,  55-57)  says  of  jMaitland 
that  "his  name  was  a  byword  for  subtlety  and  state- 
craft. Yet  ...  if  we  look  at  his  life  and  doings,  we  do 
not  find  he  was  one  of  those  who  have  left  the  mark  of 
their  influence  upon  their  age.  .  .  .  He  had  great  abili- 
ties, but  they  were  rather  those  of  the  wit  and  rhetori- 
cian than  of  the  practical  man."  In  the  estimation  of 
Knox,  Maitland  had  greatly  lowered  himself  by  his  un- 
kindness  and  vacillation,  and  the  great  reformer,  in  his 
dying  hours  even,  was  called  ujion  to  pronounce  against 
the  wary  Scotch  politician :  '■  I  have  na  warrant  that 
ever  he  shall  be  well,"  alluding  to  Maitland's  state  in 
the  hereafter.  See  Froude,  Hist,  of  England,  vol.  x,  ch. 
xix  and  xxiii ;  Robertson,  Hist,  of  Scotland  (see  Index). 

Maitreya,  a  Buddhistic  divinity,  according  to  the 
Buddhists  was  a  disciple  of  the  Buddha  Sakyamuni,  and 
a  Bodhisattwa,  or  a  man  of  pre-eminent  virtue  and  sane- 
tit}'.  He  is  classed  among  the  gods  called  Tushitas,  or 
"the  happy,"  and  has  generally  the  epithet  Ajita,  or 
U7iconquered.  The  Buddhists  believe  that  he  ivill  be- 
come incarnate,  and  succeed  Gotama  (q.  v.)  as  their  fu- 
ture Buddha.  In  Tibetan  he  is  called  Jamjia.  A  faith- 
ful representation  of  this  Buddha,  surrounded  by  the 
(Tibetan)  goddesses  Dolma,  the  Mantas  or  Buddhas  of 
medicine,  two  ancient  priests,  and  various  saints,  will  be 
found  in  the  atlas  of  Emil  Schlagintweit's  Buddhism  in 
Tibet  (London  and  Leipzig,  1863),  where  an  interesting 
sketch  is  given  (p.  207  sq.)  of  the  characteristic  tj-pes 
of  Buddha  images,  and  of  the  measurements  of  Buddha 
statues  made  by  his  brothers  in  India  and  Tibet.  See 
also  Hardy,  Manual  of  Buddhism  (Index,  s.  v.  Maitri). 

Majolists.     See  Somaskek. 

Majolus.     See  Ciagxy. 

Major,  Georg,  a  German  theologian,  was  born  at 
Nuremberg,  April  25, 1502.  He  studied  theology  under 
Luther  and  Jlelancthon,  and  was  successively  rector  at 
Magdeburg  (1529),  superintendent  at  Eisleben  (1536), 
and  professor  of  theology  and  court-preacher  at  Witten- 
berg (1539).  In  1544  he  was  made  doctor  of  divinitj', 
and  two  years  later  he  was  one  of  the  representatives 
(with  Bucer  and  Brenz)  of  the  Protestants  at  the  collo- 
quy at  Regenshurg.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  Smal- 
cald  war.  Major  left  Wittenberg,  and  received  (1547) 
the  appointment  of  superintendent  and  court-preacher 
at  Merseburg;  but  on  the  close  of  the  war,  next  year,  he 
returned  to  AVittenberg.  After  rejecting  the  offer  of 
prominent  positions,  made  by  the  king  of  Denmark  and 
the  duke  of  Holstein,  he  became,  in  1552,  superintend- 
ent of  the  Mausfeld  churches.     In  the  mean  time  he 


MAJOR 


6T0 


MAKARIJ 


had  been  active  m  supporting  the  Leipzic  Interim,  which 
assertcci  tliat  good  works  are  necessarj^  to  salvation,  and 
had  thus  excited  the  suspicion  of  the  strict  Lutherans, 
who  denied  that  proposition.  Towards  the  close  of 
1551  Amsdorf  assailed  Major  on  these  grounds,  and  the 
clergy  of  the  district  soon  joined  him  in  opposing  the 
new  superintendent,  as  having  corrupted  the  doctrine 
of  justification  by  faith.  Major  replied  to  the  charge 
of  Amsdorf  in  1552,  denying  its  truth,  and  asserting  his 
acceptance  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Church ;  but,  as  he  still 
insisted  on  the  necessity  of  good  works,  the  controversy 
continued  to  rage,  and,  as  the  count  of  Mansfeld  held 
with  the  orthodox  party,  Major  tinallj'  removed  to 
Wittenberg.  He  then  sought  to  give  an  unobjectiona- 
ble form  to  his  views  by  teaching  that  while  faith  alone 
is  essential  to  salvation,  good  works  are  necessary  as  a 
consequent  on  saving  faith.  But,  despite  every  effort 
at  reconciUation,  his  opponents  persisted,  and  even  went 
to  the  length  of  asserting  that  good  works  are  detrimen- 
tal to  salvation.  The  doctrines  advocated  by  Major 
were  finally  branded  as  heretical  in  the  Coiyus doctiinm 
Pruteniaim,  and  were  rejected  by  the  compilers  of  the 
Formula  Concordia,  Towards  the  close  of  his  life  he 
became  involved  in  the  Ci-ypto-calvinistic  conti-oversy 
(q.  v.),  and,  together  with  the  Wittenberg  and  Leipzic 
theologians,  was  compelled  to  subscribe  to  the  Torgau 
articles  (q.  v.).  He  died  at  Wittenberg,  Nov.  28, 1574, 
before  the  Majoristic  controversy  was  concluded.  A 
portion  of  his  works,  comprising  homilies  and  commen- 
taries on  the  Gospels  and  on  the  Pauline  epistles  was 
published  at  Wittenberg  in  1569,  in  three  folio  volumes. 
.See  Schrockh,  Kirchen(jeschichte  seit  der  Reformation,  iv, 
547  sq. ;  Planck,  Gesch.  des  Prot.  Lehrhegriffs,  iv,  4G8 
sq. ;  Aschbach,  Kirchen-Lexikon,  vol.  iv,  s.  v. ;  Wetzer 
u.  Welte,  Kirchen-Lexikon,  vol.  vi,  s.  v. ;  Krauth,  Conser- 
vatire  lief.  p.  147  et  passim ;  Kurtz,  Manual  Ch.  Hist. 
ii,  135 ;  Smith's  Gieseler,  Eccles.  History,  vol.  iv,  §  37 ; 
Thoniasius,  Confess,  der  Evang.  Luth,  Kirche  (Nuremb. 
1848),  p.  lUO  sq.     (G.M.) 

Major,  Johann,  a  humanistic  poet  at  Wittenberg 
during  the  latter  half  of  the  IGth  centurj^,  deserves  a 
place  here  as  the  greatest  satirist  among  the  PkUippists, 
as  tlie  followers  of  Melancthon  were  called.  He  was 
born  in  1533  at  Joachimsthal,  where  Johann  Mathesius 
(q.  V.)  became  his  tutor  and  friend.  At  the  age  of  six- 
teen he  went  to  Wittenberg,  and  formed  a  most  inti- 
mate connection  with  Melancthon.  To  the  influence 
of  this  association  may  doubtless  be  attributed  his  fu- 
ture course.  After  attaining  to  the  degree  of  M.A.  he 
removed  to  Wiirzburg,  with  a  view  to  succor  the  uni- 
versity at  that  place.  Towards  the  close  of  1557  the 
degree  of  D.D.  was  conferred  on  him,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  he  was  honored  with  the  title  of  crown  poet. 
Returning  to  Wittenberg,  he  was,  in  1560,  admitted  to 
the  philosophical  faculty  of  that  university,  and,  besides 
lecturing  on  poetry  and  the  interpretation  of  Latin  po- 
ets, he  wrote  occasional  poems.  In  1574  the  Phllippist 
party  was  overthrown  in  Electoral  Saxony,  and  its  heads 
imprisoned.  It  is  certain  that  Major  suffered  in  this 
reverse,  and  he  is  said  to  have  been  three  times  impris- 
oned— at  one  time  (from  1579  to  1581)  was  under  sentence 
of  death,  although  his  opponents  charge  this,  not  to  his 
connection  with  the  Philippists,  but  to  his  conviction  for 
criminal  offences. 

Tlic  ]irominence  with  which  Andrcii  at  this  time  ad- 
vocated the  Formula  Coiicordic  opened  a  new  and  wide 
field  to  the  vexation  and  sarcastic  power  of  Major.  He 
had  not  subscribed  to  the  Formula,  and  made  it  and  its 
originators  the  subject  of  his  spleen.  When  he  ven- 
tured to  do  tliis  in  an  official  address,  he  was,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  1587,  ex|)elled  from  the  university  ;  but 
when  the  elector  Christian  I  ascended  the  throne,  the 
Philippist  party  was  restopod  to  favor,  and  IMajor  was 
soon  recalled.  He  did  not  refrain  from  venting  his  sa- 
tirical humor  on  his  opponents,  but  when,  in  1591,  the 
elector  died,  and  a  new  policy  was  initiated,  our  poet, 
with  many  others,  was  again  imprisoned.    So  bitter  was 


the  feeling  against  him  that  a  Wittenberg  mob  pelted 
him  with  stones  and  dirt,  and  even  children  railed  at 
him  as  a  "  Calvinistic  rogue."  He  was  released  in  1593, 
and  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  a  private  station, 
writing  only  an  occasional  poem.  He  died  in  the  Cal- 
vinistic faith  at  Zerbst,  March  16,  1600.  Major's  con- 
temporaries were  united  in  their  estimate  of  his  poetic 
talent  and  of  the  worth  of  his  writings.  His  ideal  as  a 
poet  was  Virgil.  He  introduced  Christian  thought,  un- 
der Virgilian  forms,  into  his  non-controversial  poems, 
while  his  satire,  after  the  manner  of  the  Prwceptor  Ger- 
maniie,  often  degenerated  into  ridicule  of  the  anti-Phi- 
lippists  that  was  even  cruel.  See  Frank,  Johann  Major, 
der  Wittenherger  Poet  (Halle,  1863);  and  the  same  in 
Herzog,  lieal-Encyklojmdie,  xx,  75  sq.      (G.  M.) 

Major,  John,  a  Scottish  historian  and  theologian, 
was  born  at  Gleghorn,  East  Lothian,  Scotland,  in  1469 ; 
was  educated  at  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and  Paris.  After 
teaching  a  number  of  years  in  Paris,  as  professor  of 
scholastic  philosophy-,  he  became  professor  of  divinity, 
and  subsequentl}'  provost  at  St.  Andrews,  in  Scotland. 
He  died  in  1547.  He  published  Commentaries  on  the 
Scriptures,  besides  works  of  a  secular  character. — Alli- 
bone.  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer.  Authors,  s.  v. ;  Thomas, 
Diet,  of  Biog.  and  Mythol.  s.  v. 

Majores,  a  name  given  to  Jewish  ministers  in  the 
Theodosian  Code,  and  also  by  Augustine  and  others  to 
a  party  called  Coelicolce,  made  up  of  Jewish  apostates. 
The  laws  were  specially  severe  against  them,  three  stat- 
utes of  Honorius  being  aimed  at  them. 

Majorlnus.     See  Donatists. 

Majoristic  Controversy,  named  after  Georg 
Major — his  followers  hokUng  that  good  works  are  es- 
sential to  salvation ;  his  opponent,  Amsdorf,  reprobating 
them  as  prejudicial  to  it.     See  Major,  Geokg. 

Majorists.     See  Major,  Georg. 

Majoritas  (Precedence)  is  the  form  in  ecclesiastical 
law  to  denote  the  preference  of  the  clergy  over  the 
laity,  as  well  as  the  rank  of  the  Church  officers.  In  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  the  distinction  between  the 
clergy  and  the  laity  is  greater  than  in  the  Protestant 
churches.  In  the  former  there  is  also  greater  distinc- 
tion in  the  ranks  of  the  clergy  itself.  Thus  an  older 
ordination  has  precedence  over  a  more  recent  ordination, 
and  a  higher  over  a  lower  order  (c.  i,  15,  X,  De  maj.  et 
obed.  i,  33),  excepting  only  an  ordination  conferred  by 
the  pope  himself,  as  his  act  takes  precedence  in  any  case 
(c.  vii,  X,  eod).  In  ordinations  equal  in  rank  the  secu- 
lar clergy  precede  the  regulars;  and  again,  among  the 
secular  clergy,  the  canons  of  the  chapter-house  those  of 
the  collegiate ;  among  the  orders,  the  regular  canons  the 
monks,  and  all  other  orders  the  mendicants;  and  among 
the  latter  the  Dominicans  precede  all  others  (compare 
Benedict  XIV,  De  Syn.  diaec.  lib.  iii,  c.  x).  This  term 
expresses  also  the  official  authority,  the  legal  power  of 
the  Church  office.  Persons  who  are  invested  with  such 
offices  are  denominated  in  the  Protestant  churches  of- 
Jicials  (q.  v.).  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  they 
are  called  Church  superiors  (superio)-es  ecclesiastici),  and 
as  a  body  they  make  up  the  hierarchical  rank  (status 
hierarchicus).  The  Romish  Church  authority  requires 
obedience  not  only  of  its  subjects,  i.  e.  non-offici.nls.  but 
also  of  its  officials,  who,  on  entering  upon  tluir  clfice, 
vow  submission  and  obedience  to  their  superiors  by  a 
formal  oath.  Hence  arose  the  dispute  whether  the  pope 
should  be  accejjted  as  the  highest  authority,  or  whether 
even  he  was  subject  to  a  council.  See  Infai.lihility; 
Papacy. 

Makarij,  a  noted  Russian  prelate,  was  born  in  the 
JMoscovite  province  near  the  end  of  the  15th  century. 
He  early  entered  the  monastic  state  ;  became  archiman- 
drite (abbot)  of  the  Lus-hezkian  monastery  at  Mos-ha- 
isk;  in  1.526,  archbishop  of  Novgorod  Velikiz ;  and  in 
1542,  finally,  metropolitan  of  all  Russia.  He  died  at 
Moscow  Dec.  31, 1564,  By  reason  of  his  talents,  schol- 
arship, ecclesiastic  authorship,  eloquence,  zeal  for  Chris- 


MAKAZ 


671 


MALABAR 


tian  missions  among  the  heathen,  extensive  activity 
and  influence,  and  patriotism,  and  by  reason  of  the  sin- 
cerity of  his  character,  Makarij  figures  prominently  in 
Russian  historj'.  When  yet  archbishop,  he  converted 
the  Ishudian  tribes  in  the  north  of  the  empire,  and  is 
justly  styled  the  '"  apostle  of  the  Ishuds."  AVhen  a  met- 
ropolitan, he  gathered  around  himself  numerous  schol- 
ars from  Russia  as  well  as  from  abroad,  with  whose  aid 
he  compiled  many  books.  His  celebrated  "  Book  of  Le- 
gends" went  through  more  than  a  dozen  editions,  and 
was  translated  into  German. — Wagner,  Staats  ami  Ge- 
sellsch.  Lex.  vol.  xii,  s.  v. 

Ma'kaz  (Heb.  Ma'kafs,  Vp'S,  boundary ;  Septuag. 
MaKiQ  v.  r.  Max^tnc),  a  place  first  named  among  those 
designating  the  district  of  Ben-Dekar,  one  of  Solomon's 
purveyors  (1  Kings  iv,9).  The  associated  names,  Shaal- 
bim,  ISeth-shemesh,  and  Elon-beth-hanan,  would  seem 
to  indicate  a  locality  in  the  tribe  of  Dan,  perhaps  in  the 
plain  east  of  Ekron. 

Ma'ked  (Ma/cf^  v.  r.  M«/c£/3;  Syr.  Mokor ;  Vulg. 
Ma<jeth),  one  of  the  "strong  and  great  cities"  of  Gilead 
— Josephus  says  Galilee,  but  this  must  be  an  error — into 
which  the  Jews  were  driven  by  the  Ammonites  under 
Timotheus,  and  from  which  t'hey  were  delivered  by  Ju- 
das MaccabfEus  (1  Mace,  v,  26,  36 ;  in  the  latter  passage 
the  name  is  given  in  the  A.  V.  as  Maged).  Bj'  Jose- 
phus (J  nf.  xii,  8, 3)  it  is  not  mentioned.  Some  of  the 
other  cities  named  in  this  narrative  have  been  identi- 
fied, but  no  name  corresponding  to  Maked  has  yet  been 
discovered,  and  the  conjecture  of  Schwarz  (p.  230),  that 
it  is  a  corruption  of  Minnith  {Tyo  for  rSO),  though 
ingenious,  can  hardly  be  accepted  without  further  proof. 
— Smith. 

Makemie,  Francis,  a  distinguished  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  born  near  Rathmelton,  Donegal  Co.,  Ire- 
land, about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century.  After  com- 
pleting his  academical  and  theological  course,  he  was 
licensed  by  the  presbytery  of  Laggan  in  1681.  He  un- 
dertook a  mission  to  Barbadoes  soon  after,  and  was  or- 
dained sine  titulo,  with  a  view  to  coming  to  America. 
From  Barbadoes  he  went  to  Somerset  Co.,  Ind.,  where 
he  is  supposed  to  have  founded  the  Church  in  Snow 
Hill,  and  from  thence  he  removed  to  Virginia.  In  1699 
he  obtained  a  formal  license  to  preach  agreeably  to  the 
requisitions  of  the  Toleration  Act,  and  was  very  success- 
ful in  his  labors.  He  went  to  London  in  1704,  to  make 
arrangements  for  the  supply  of  his  Church,  and  return- 
ed wiih  two  ministers  from  Ireland.  In  1705  he  ob- 
tained with  difficulty  the  certificates  required  for  the 
exercise  of  his  ministry,  and  aided,  in  1706,  in  the  for- 
mation of  the  I'liiladelphia  presbytery,  of  which  he  was 
moderator.  He  died  in  1708.  Makemie  published  A 
Catechism  (1691): — An  Answer  to  Georr/e  Keith,  etc. 
(1692)  -.—Truths  in  a  New  Light,  etc.  (1699)  -.—A  plain 
and  loving  Persuasive  to  the  Inhabitants  of  Indiana  and 
Virr/inia,  etc.  (1704):— .4  Letter  to  Lord  Cortibury  (Bos- 
ton, 1707)  -.—An  Account  of  his  Imprisonment  and  Trial 
(N.  Y.  1755,  and  since).     See  Sprague,  A  nnals,  iii,  1. 

Makhe'loth  (Heb.  Makheloth',  n?np^,  assem- 
blies, as  in  Psa.  Ixviii,  27;  Sept.  Mcrjcr/Xw^),  the  twenty- 
sixth  station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  desert,  between 
Haradah  and  Tahath  (Numb,  xxxiii,  25,  26);  probably 
situated  on  the  summit  north-west  of  Jebel  el-jNIukrah. 
See  ExoDE. 

Mak'kedah  (Heb.  Makkedah',  Jl'lg'^,  herdsman's 
place ;  Sept.  MaKijSd,  Josephus  MaK^i^a,  Arit.  v,  1, 17), 
a  royal  city  of  the  ancient  Canaanites  (Josh,  xii,  16), 
in  the  neighborhood  of  which  was  the  cave  where  the 
five  kings  who  confederated  against  Israel  took  refuge 
after  their  defeat  (Josh,  x,  10-29).  It  afterwards  be- 
longed to  Judah  (Josh.  XV,  41).  Makkedah  is  placed 
by  Euscbius  and  Jerome  eight  Roman  miles  to  the  east 
of  Elcutheropolis  {Ommast.  s.  v.  IMaceda),  which  would 
bring  it  among  the  mountains,  as  Keil  observes,  who 
therefore  locates  it  to  the  west  (Comment,  on  Josh,  x,  10), 


since  it  was  situated  in  the  plain  of  Judah  (Josh,  xv, 
41),  north  of  Libnah  (Josh,  x,  29, 31)  and  west  of  Aze- 
kah  (Josh,  x,  10).  De  Saulcy  {Xan-at.  i,  438)  is  dis- 
posed to  fix  its  site  at  a  place  which  he  names  el-Mer- 
ked,  on  the  way  from  Hebron  to  the  Dead  Sea,  a  little 
cast  of  Jenbeh ;  but  this  is  at  least  twenty-five  miles 
from  Elcutheropolis,  and  the  spot  itself  was  not  heard 
of  by  Dr.  Robinson,  who  passed  along  the  same  route. 
Porter  suggests  a  ruin  bearing  the  slightly  similar  name 
el-Klediah,  on  the  northern  slope  of  wady  el-Surnib, 
about  eight  miles  north*- east  of  EleutheropoUs,  with 
large  caves  adjacent  {Handbook,  p.  224,  251) ;  but  Van 
de  Velde's  selection  {Memoir,  p.  332)  oi  Sumeil,  a  village 
on  a  hillock  in  the  plain,  about  two  and  a  half  hours 
north-west  of  Beit-Jibrin  (Robinson,  Researches,  ii,868), 
seems  more  probable,  as  it  has  ancient  remains,  espe- 
cially a  cavern  (Van  de  Velde, Narrat.  ii,  173),  although 
somewhat  remote  from  Beth-horon,  where  Joshua's  bat- 
tle was  fought.  See  Joshua.  The  suggestion  of  cap- 
tain Warren  {Quarterly  Statement  of  the  "  Palestine  Ex- 
ploration Fund,"  April,  1871,  p.  91),  that  Makkedah  is 
the  present  "  village  of  El-Mughar  (the  cave)"  (mean- 
ing, doubtless,  the  Mogharah  of  Van  de  Velde's  Map, 
though  Robinson  writes  it  Mughar,  in  Researches,  iii, 
22,  note),  is  quite  too  far  north  for  the  narrative  in 
Joshua,  as  well  as  for  the  associated  names,  his  proposed 
identification  of  which  would  place  some,  at  least,  of 
them  (e.  g.  Beth-dagon,  at  Beit-Dejan)  clearly  within 
the  tribe  of  Dan. 

Makkoth.     See  Talmitd. 

Makowski.     See  Maccovius. 

Makrina.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  recognises 
two  saints  by  this  name. 

1.  A  Cappadocian  lady,  grandmother  of  Gregory  of 
Nyssa,  who  suffered  persecution  under  the  reign  of  Max- 
imian,  and  wandered  for  a  long  time  through  the  woods, 
together  with  her  husband.  She  is  commemorated  on 
the  14th  of  Januar}'. 

2.  The  sister  of  St.  Basil  and  of  St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa ; 
after  the  death  of  her  father  she  withdrew  into  solitude, 
and  afterwards  induced  her  mother  to  establish  a  con- 
vent in  Pontus,  into  which  she  retired.  She  died  in 
379,  after  performing  a  great  number  of  miracles,  etc. 
Her  life  was  written  by  her  brother,  St.  Gregory.  She 
is  commemorated  on  the  19th  of  July. — Herzog,  Real- 
Encyklop.  viii,  746  ;  Pierer,  Universal- Lexikon,  x,  764 ; 
Migne,  Nouv.  Encyclopklie  Theologique,  ii,  1298. 

Mak'tesh  (Heb.  Maktesh',  ^Piari  [but  with  the 
art.],  a  mortar,  as  in  Prov.  xxvii,  12,  or  the  sockets  of  a 
tooth,  as  in  Judg.  xv,  19;  Sept.  renders  KciraKeKo/^nevri, 
Vulg.  Pila'),  a  place  in  or  near  Jerusalem,  mentioned  as 
inhabited,"  apparently  by  silver-merchants  (Zeph.  i,  11). 
Geseuius  regards  it  as  the  name  of  a  valley,  so  called 
from  its  mortar-like  shape  {Thesaurus,  p.  725).  The 
rabbins  understand  the  Kedron  and  other  less  likely 
places  to  be  meant.  Ewald  conjectures  {Propiheten,  p. 
364)  that  it  was  the  "  Phoenician  quarter"  of  the  city, 
in  which  the  traders  of  that  nation — the  Canaanites  (A. 
Vers.  "  merchants"),  who  in  this  passage  are  associated 
with  Maktesh  —  resided,  after  the  custom  in  Oriental 
towns.  Dr.  Barclay  {City  of  the  Great  King,  p.  100, 157, 
173)  ingeniously  suggests  that  it  may  have  been  a  quar- 
ter devoted  to  minting  operations,  and  therefore  situated 
near  the  goldsmith's  bazaar,  which  was  doubtless  loca- 
ted somewhere  in  Acra  or  the  lower  city,  but  whether 
in  the  Tyropoeon  adjoining  the  Temple,  where  he  places 
it,  is  uncertain. 

Malabar,  a  tract  of  country  extending  along  the 
western  coast  of  India,  from  Cape  Comorin  to  the  River 
Chandragri,  in  N.  lat.  12°  30'.  Frequently  the  name 
Malabar,  however,  is  erroneously  applied  to  the  whole 
country  from  Bombay  to  the  southern  extremity.  Brit- 
ish Malabar  is  situated  between  the  10th  and  13th  de- 
grees of  N.  lat.,  belongs  to  the  presidency  of  JNIadras,  and 
has  a  population  of  1,514,909.  By  far  the  most  exten- 
sive portion  of  Malabar  lies  iu  the  vicinity  of  the  Ghaut 


MALABAR 


672 


MALACCA 


Mountains,  and  consists  of  low  hills,  separated  by  narrow 
but  fertile  valleys.  The  upland  is  barren,  and  the  cul- 
tivation much  neglected;  and  it  is  in  the  valleys,  and 
extensive  ravines,  and  upon  the  banks  of  the  rivers  that 
the  inhabitants  chiefly  reside.  Until  a  recent  period 
slavery  existed  in  Malabar,  but  in  1843  a  legislative  en- 
actment was  passed  by  the  British  government,  by  the 
provisions  of  which  slavery  has  been  abolished  through- 
out the  whole  extent  of  the  British  possessions  in  the 
East.  The  country  is  distinguished  by  the  neatness  of 
its  villages,  which  are  superior  to  any  in  India,  being 
built  of  mud,  neatly  smoothed,  and  either  whitewashed 
or  painted  ;  their  picturesque  effect  is  heightened  by  the 
beauty  and  elegant  dresses  of  the  Brahmin  girls.  The 
villages,  as  well  as  the  bazaars,  are  the  work  of  foreign- 
ers, the  aboriginal  natives  of  Malabar  living  in  detached 
houses  surrounded  with  gardens.  The  higher  ranks  use 
little  clothing,  but  are  remarkably  clean  in  their  per- 
sons, and  all  ranks  are  free  from  cutaneous  distempers 
excepting  the  very  lowest  castes. 

History. — It  is  supposed  that  IMalabar  was,  at  a  very 
early  period,  conquered  by  a  king  from  above  the  Ghauts. 
The  Nairs  may  have  been  established  at  the  same  time 
by  the  conqueror,  or  called  in  by  the  Brahmins,  as  a  mil- 
itary body  to  support  the  government.  In  process  of 
time  they  obtained  settlements  in  the  land,  and  the 
chiefs,  taking  every  opportunity  to  aggrandize  them- 
selves, became  rajahs,  and  from  a  remote  period  contin- 
ued to  govern  Malabar  like  independent  princes.  In 
1760  the  Mohammedans  first  effected  an  entrj'  here  un- 
der Hyder  Ali,  who  subdued  the  country  in  1761,  and 
expelled  all  the  rajahs  except  such  as  conciliated  him 
by  immediate  submission.  Disturbances  were  occa- 
sioned by  these  proceedings,  but  he  succeeded  in  estab- 
lishing his  authority,  and  in  1782  appointed  a  deputy, 
who  made  still  further  progress  in  subduing  and  settling 
the  country.  In  1788  Tippoo  Sahib,  his  son,  attempt- 
ed forcibly  to  supersede  Hinduism  by  his  own  faith, 
Mohammedanism.  This  produced  a  serious  rebellion, 
which,  however,  was  soon  quelled  by  his  vigorous  ad- 
ministration, but  in  the  mean  time  the  country  was  laid 
^vaste  by  his  tyrannical  proceedings.  On  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  war  between  Tippoo  and  the  British  in 
1790,  the  refractory  rajahs  and  Nairs  joined  the  British, 
and  Tippoo  was  driven  from  the  country ;  Jlalabar  be- 
came a  portion  of  the  British  possessions  of  India,  and, 
with  slight  disturbances,  has  since  remained  in  the  hands 
of  the  English.  Under  the  management  of  the  British 
the  countrj'  is  said  to  be  advancing  in  prosperity. 

Ri:U[/ion. — The  original  manners  and  i^eculiar  customs 
of  the  Hindus  have  been  preserved  in  Malabar  in  much 
greater  purity  than  in  other  parts  of  India.  Besides  the 
Hindus,  who  form  the  greater  proportion  of  the  inhabi- 
tants, the  pojiulation  consists  of  Moplays  or  Mohamme- 
dans, Christians,  and  Jews.  The  Hindus  arc  divided 
into  the  following  castes,  namely,  Namburies,  or  Brah- 
mins: the  Nairs  of  various  denominations;  the  Leers, 
or  Liars,  who  are  cultivators  of  the  land,  and  freemen ; 
and,  lastly,  the  Patiars,  who  were  slaves  or  bondmen. 
Of  these  castes  the  most  remarkable  are  the  Nairs,  the 
pure  Sudras  of  Malabar,  who  all  lay  claim  to  be  born 
soldiers,  though  they  are  of  various  ranks  and  proles- 
sions.  There  are  altogether  eleven  ranks  of  Nairs,  who 
form  the  militia  of  Malabar,  under  the  Brahmins  and 
rajahs.  They  are  proud  and  arrogant  to  their  inferiors, 
and  in  former  times  a  Nair  was  expected  instantly  to 
cut  down  a  cultivator  or  fisherman  who  presumed  to  de- 
file him  by  touching  his  person,  or  a  Patiar  who  did  not 
turn  out  of  his  road  as  a  Nair  passed.  It  is  a  remarka- 
ble custom  among  this  class  that  a  Nair  never  cohabits 
with  the  person  whom  he  calls  his  wife;  he  gives  her 
all  proper  allowances  of  clothing  and  food,  hut  she  re- 
mains in  her  mother's  or  brother's  housQ,  and  cohabits 
with  any  person  or  persons  she  chooses  of  ccpial  rank; 
so  that  no  Nair  knows  his  own  father,  and  the  children 
all  belong  to  the  mother,  whose  claim  to  them  admits  of 
no  doubt.    This  state  of  manners  also  prevails  in  neigh- 


boring countries.  The  native  Mussulmans  (Moplays^) 
form  about  one  fourth  of  the  population ;  thev  are  "de- 
scended from  Hindu  mothers  by  Arab  fathers,"who  set- 
tled in  Malabar  about  the  7th  or  8th  centurv. 

Christianity  appears  at  a  very  early  period  to  have 
made  considerable  progress  on  the  INIalabar  coast  and 
there  is  a  greater  proportion  of  persons  professing  that 
religion  in  this  country  than  in  any  other  part  of  India. 
The  accommodation  theorj'  of  the  Jesuits  was  practiced 
here  in  the  17th  century  by  Pater  Nobili.  See  IxniA. 
Three  ecclesiastical  chiefs — two  appointed  by  the  Portu- 
guese Church  at  Goa,  and  one  by  the  see  of  Kome — rule 
over  this  establishment,  besides  the  Babylonish  bishops, 
who  preside  over  the  Nestorian  community.  The  last- 
named  Christians  consider  themselves  descendants  of 
converts  made  by  the  apostle  Thomas  in  the  1st  cen- 
tury. At  the  landing  of  Yasco  de  Gama,  the  native 
Christians  are  said  to  have  numbered  200,000  souls.  Dr. 
Buchanan,  in  his  Journey  from  Madras,  etc.,  however, 
computes  them  to  number  now  only  40,000,  with  44 
churches.  The  total  number  of  Christians  on  the  Mal- 
abar coast,  including  the  Syrians,  or  Nestorians,  is  esti- 
mated at  200.000 ;  90,000  of  them  are  settled  at  Travan- 
core.  There  are  also  some  30,000  Jews  in  Malabar. 
See  Cyclop.  £ritannica,  s.  v.     See  Madras. 

Malacca,  an  extensive  region,  situate  in  Southern 
India,  consisting  of  a  large  peninsula  connected  by  the 
isthmus  of  Kraw,  extends  from  the  1st  to  the  12th  de- 
grees of  N.  lat.,  and  from  the  98th  to  the  104th  degrees 
of  E.  long.,  and  is  775  miles  in  length  by  125  in  average 
breadth.  The  country  is  a  long,  narrow  strip  of  land, 
traversed  by  a  chain  of  lofty  mountains,  and  covered 
with  extensive  forests  and  marshes,  so  that  it  is  very 
difficult  to  penetrate  into  the  interior.  A  range  of  ex- 
tremely bleak  mountains,  running  through  it  from  one 
extremity  to  the  other,  gives  rise  to  innumerable  streams, 
the  courses  of  which,  from  the  proximity  of  the  moun- 
tains to  the  sea,  are  short,  and  are  so  obstructed  at  the 
mouths  by  bars  and  sand-banks  that  they  can  not  be 
ascended  bj'  vessels  of  any  size.  At  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  continent  are  the  islands  of  Bintang, 
Batang,  and  Singapore,  with  many  others,  so  thickly 
clustered  together  that  they  are  only  separated  from  the 
continent  by  narrow  straits,  and  seem  to  be  a  prolonga- 
tion of  the  land.  On  the  west  coast  also  there  are  nu- 
merous islands. 

History. — The  political  state  of  Malacca  has  been  sub- 
ject to  many  revolutions,  having  been  occasionally  de- 
pendent on  Siam  when  that  monarchy  was  in  the  height 
of  its  power,  and  when  its  supremacy  was  owned  by  the 
whole  peninsida.  But,  since  the  Siamese  have  j-ielded 
to  the  increasing  power  of  the  Burmans,  all  the  southern 
portion  of  the  peninsula  has  shaken  off  the  yoke,  and 
the  northern  states  pay  only  a  moderate  tribute.  The 
whole  of  the  sea-coast  from  that  latitude  to  Port  Roma- 
nia is  still  possessed  by  the  Malays,  who  are  mixed  in 
some  ])laces  with  the  burgesses  from  Celebes,  and  who 
have  a  small  settlement  at  Salengore.  The  northern 
and  inland  parts  of  the  peninsula  are  inliabitcd  by  the 
Patany  people,  who  appear  to  be  a  mixture  of  the  Siam- 
ese and  IMalays,  and  who  occupy  independent  villages. 
The  negro  race  is  found  in  the  interior  among  the  ab- 
original natives.  The  great  majority  of  the  inhabitants 
are,  however,  of  the  ]\Ialay  race,  who  are  wcW  kno^vn 
and  widely  diffused  among  all  the  eastern  islands.  The 
origin  of  this  remarkable  race  is  not  distinctly  known ; 
they  are  understood,  however,  not  to  be  natives  of  this 
country,  but  to  have  come  originally  from  the  district  of 
Palembang,  in  the  interior  of  Sumatra,  situate  on  the 
banks  of  the  River  Malaya.  Having  cmssed  over  about 
the  end  of  the  12th  century  to  the  opposite  continent, 
they,  in  1252,  founded  the  city  of  Malacca.  Sultan 
Mohammed  Shah,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  the 
13th  century,  was  the  first  Mussulman  prince  who  ex- 
tended his  rule  over  Malaccp,  During  part  of  the  15th 
centurj'  Malacca  was  under  Siamese  sovereigns.  In 
1509    sultan  Mahmud  repelled  the   aggression  of  the 


MALACHI 


673 


MALACHI 


king  of  Siam,  but  in  1511  he  was  conquered  by  the  Por- 
tuguese under  Albuquerque.  In  1642  it  became  the 
possession  of  the  Dutch,  and  in  1824:  it  was  finally  trans- 
ferred to  the  British  among  the  cessions  made  by  the 
king  of  Netherlands  in  exchange  for  the  British  posses- 
sions on  the  island  of  Sumatra,  E.  long.  100°,  N.  lat.  5^ 
(comp.  Cyclop.  Brit.  s.  v.). 

Rdlijhm. — Until  the  inroads  of  the  Mohammedans 
in  the  13th  century,  the  inhabitants  of  Malacca  were 
pagans  or  followed  some  corrupt  form  of  Hindu  idol- 
atry. With  the  Mussulman  reign  the  religion  of  the 
Crescent  became  the  predominating  belief.  Christian- 
it}'  was  introduced  in  the  l(5th  century  by  the  Portu- 
guese. One  of  the  earliest  laborers  here  was  the  re- 
nowned Spanish  Jesuit,  Francis  Xavier  (q.  v.).  Unfor- 
tunately, however,  for  the  success  of  the  Gospel  truth, 
the  conduct  of  the  Romish  priesthood  and  of  the  Portu- 
guese authorities  was  very  unkind  toward  the  natives. 
Not  much  better  was  the  influence  of  the  Dutch.  Though 
Protestantism,  with  their  entrance,  superseded  Roman- 
ism in  a  measure,  the  government  hesitated  to  encourage 
the  Christian  missions,  and  gave  great  liberty  to  Moham- 
medans, lest  the  latter  should  be  tempted  to  insurrection, 
and  Holland  Ije  deprived  of  these  valuable  possessions. 
To  this  day  the  Mussulmen  continue  to  make  converts  in 
Malacca.  The  Romanists  maintain  a  suffragan  bishop  at 
the  capital  (of  like  name  as  the  country).  For  further 
details  on  the  success  of  Christianity  in  Malacca  at  pres- 
ent, see  the  articles  India  ;  Malays.  See  also  Grunde- 
mann,  Missionsatlas,  No.  7,  21,  and  24 ;  Cameron,  Ou7- 
Trop.  Possess,  in  Malayan  India  (Lond.  1865). 

Llal'achi  (llch.  MalaW,  ''~}<'b'0, 7nesseiirjer ;  Sept. 
in  the  title  Mn\o;;^('nc:,  but  in  ch.  i,  1  it  renders  uyyt- 
Xog  avToi',  Vulg.  Mulachias),  the  last  of  the  minor 
prophets,  and  the  latest  writer  in  the  canon  of  the  O.  T. 
(comp.  ch.  iv,  4,  5,  G).  What  is  known  of  him  is  so  in- 
timately connected  with  his  prophecies  that  it  will  be 
most  convenient  to  consider  the  whole  subject  together. 
In  doing  so  we  freely  use  the  articles  in  Smith's  and 
Kitto's  JJictionaries. 

I.  Personal  Account, — The  name  IMalachi  is  rendered 
by  some  my  antjel,  but  it  is  usually  regarded  as  contracted 
from  Malachijah,  "  messenger  of  Jehovah,"  like  Abi  (2 
Kings  xviii,  2)  from  Abijah  (2  Chron.  xxix,  1).  .  The 
traditionists  regard  the  name  as  having  been  given  to 
the  prophet  on  account  of  the  beauty  of  his  person  and 
his  unblemished  life.  The  name  means  an  angel,  angels 
being,  in  fact,  the  messengers  of  God;  and,  as  the 
prophets  are  often  styled  angels  or  messengers  of  Jeho- 
vah, it  is  supposed  by  some  that  "  Malachi"  is  merely  a 
general  title  descriptive  of  this  character,  and  not  a 
proper  name.  So  Hengstenberg,  Christol.  iii,  372  scj. 
Of  his  personal  history  nothing  is  known  (see  Dr.  Da- 
vidson in  Home's  Introd.  new  ed.  ii,  894  sq.).  A  tradi- 
tion preserved  in  Pseudo-Epiphanius  {De  Vitis  Proph.) 
relates  that  jMalachi  was  of  the  tribe  of  Zebulun,  and 
born  after  the  captivity  at  Sopha  (2o(pa,  ?  Saphir)  in 
the  territory  of  that  tribe.  According  to  the  same 
apocryphal  story  he  died  young,  and  was  buried  with 
his  fathers  in  his  own  country.  Jerome,  in  the  preface 
to  his  Commentary  on  Malachi,  mentions  a  belief  which 
was  current  among  the  Jews,  that  Malachi  was  identical 
with  Ezra  the  priest,  because  the  circumstances  recorded 
in  the  narrative  of  the  latter  are  also  mentioned  by  the 
prophet.  The  Targum  of  Jonathan  ben-Uzziel,  on  the 
words  "by  the  hand  of  Malachi"  (i,  1),  gives  the  gloss 
"  whose  name  is  called  Ezra  the  scribe."  With  equal 
probability  Malachi  has  been  identified  with  Mordecai, 
Nehemiah,  and  Zerubbabel.  The  Sept.,  as  above  noted, 
renders  "by  Malachi"  (Jlal.  i,  1),  -'by  the  hand  of  his 
angel;"  and  this  translation  appears  to  have  given  rise 
to  the  idea  that  Malachi,  as  well  as  Haggai  and  John 
the  Baptist,  was  an  angel  in  human  shape  (comp.  JMal. 
iii,  1 ;  2  Esdr.  i,  40 ;  Jerome,  Comm.  in  Hag.  i,  13).  Cyril 
alludes  to  this  belief  only  to  express  his  disapprobation, 
and  characterizes  those  -who  hold  it  as  romancers  {61 
v.— U  u 


jiarrjv  ippaip<^^i]Kaaiv,  k.  t.  X.).  The  current  opinion 
of  the  Jews  is  that  of  the  Talmud,  in  which  this  ques- 
tion is  mooted,  and  which  decides,  it  seems  to  us  right- 
ly, that  this  prophet  is  not  the  same  with  Mordecai,  or 
Ezra,  or  Zerubbabel,  or  Nehemiah,  whose  claims  had  all 
been  advocated  by  diiferent  parties,  but  a  distinct  person 
named  Malachi  {Bub.  Megillah,  xv,  1).  Another  He- 
brew tradition  associates  Malachi  with  Haggai  and 
Zechariah  as  the  companions  of  Daniel  when  he  saw  the 
vision  recorded  in  Dan.  x,  7  (Smith's  Select  Discourses, 
p.  214;  A.D.  1660),  and  as  among  the  first  members  of 
the  Great  Synagogue,  which  consisted  of  120  elders  (Is- 
idore, De  Vita  et  Morte  Sanct.  ch.  li).  For  a  notice  of 
prophecy  of  the  succession  of  the  Roman  pontiffs  at- 
tribixted  to  him,  see  the  Studien  u.  Kritiken,  1857,  p.  555 
sq.).     See  Malachy,  St. 

II.  Date  of  his  Prophecies. — Although  there  has  been 
a  faint  disposition  to  regard  Zechariah  as  the  last  of  the 
prophets  (Lactant.  De  Vera  Sapent.  iv,  5),  the  received 
opinion  decides  for  Malachi.  Accordingly  Aben-Ezra 
calls  him  "  the  end  of  the  prophets ;"  Kimchi,  "  the  last 
of  them;"  and  not  seldom  he  is  distinguished  by  the 
rabbins  as  "  the  seal  of  the  prophets."  Cyril  makes  him 
contemporary  with  Haggai  and  Zechariah,  or  a  little 
later.  Syncellus  (p.  240  B)  places  these  three  prophets 
under  Joshua  the  son  of  Josedec.  That  INIalachi  was 
contemporary  with  Nehemiah  is  rendered  probable  by  a 
comparison  of  ii,  8  with  Neh.  xiii,  15;  ii,  10-16  with 
Neh.  xiii,  23,  etc. ;  and  iii,  7-12  with  Neh.  xiii,  10,  etc. 
That  he  prophesied  after  the  times  of  Haggai  and  Zech- 
ariah is  inferred  from  his  omitting  to  mention  the  res- 
toration of  the  Temple,  and  from  no  allusion  being  made 
to  him  by  Ezra.  The  captivitj'  was  already  a  thing  of 
the  long  ]5ast,  and  is  not  referred  to.  The  existence  of 
the  Temple-service  is  presupposed  in  i,  10;  iii,  1,  10. 
The  Jewish  nation  had  still  a  political  chief  (i,  8"),  dis- 
tinguished by  the  same  title  as  that  borne  by  Nehe- 
miah (Neh.  xii,  26),  to  which  Gesenius  assigns  a  Per- 
sian origin.  Hence  Vitruiga  concludes  that  Malachi 
delivered  his  prophecies  after  the  second  return  of  Ne- 
hemiah from  Persia  (Neh.  xiii,  6),  and  subsequently  to 
the  thirty-second  year  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus  (B.C. 
cir.  420),  which  is  the  date  adopted  by  Kennicott  and 
Hales,  and  approved  bj'  Davidson  {Introd.  p.  985).  The 
date  B.C.  410  cannot  be  far  from  correct.  It  may  be 
mentioned  that  in  the  Seder  01am  Rabba  (p.  55,  ed. 
JMeyer)  the  date  of  IVIalachi's  prophecy  is  assigned,  with 
that  of  Haggai  and  Zechariah,  to  the  second  year  of 
Darius ;  and  his  death  in  the  Seder  01am  Zuta  (p.  105)' 
is  placed,  with  that  of  the  same  two  prophets,  in  the 
fifty -second  year  of  the  Medes  and  Persians.  The  prin- 
cipal reasons  adduced  by  Yitringa,  and  which  appear 
conclusively  to  fix  the  time  of  Malachi's  prophecy  as 
contemporary  with  Nehemiah,  are  the  following :  The 
offences  denounced  by  Malachi  as  prevailing  among  the 
people,  and  especially  the  corruption  of  the  priests  by 
marrying  foreign  wives,  correspond  with  the  actual 
abuses  with  which  Nehemiah  had  to  contend  in  his  ef- 
forts to  bring  about  a  reformation  (comp.  Mai.  ii,  8  with 
Neh.  xiii,  29).  The  alliance  of  the  high-priest's  family 
with  Tobiah  the  Ammonite  (Neh.  xiii,  4,  28)  and  San- 
ballat  the  Horonite  had  introduced  neglect  of  the  cus- 
tomary Temple-service,  and  the  offerings  and  tithes  due 
to  the  Levites  and  priests,  ur  consequence  of  which  the 
Temple  was  forsaken  (Neh.  xiii,  4-13)  and  the  Sabbath 
openly  pirofaned  (ver.  15-21).  The  short  interval  of 
Nehemiah's  absence  from  Jerusalem  had  been  sufficient 
for  the  growth  of  these  corruptions,  and  on  his  return 
he  found  it  necessary  to  put  them  down  with  a  strong 
hand,  and  to  do  over  again  the  work  that  Ezra  had  done 
a  few  years  before.  From  the  striking  parallelism  be- 
tween the  state  of  things  indicated  in  Malachi's  proph- 
ecies and  that  actually  existing  on  Nehemiah's  return 
from  the  court  of  Artaxerxes,  it  is  on  all  accounts  highly 
probable  that  the  efforts  of  the  secular  governor  were  on 
this  occasion  seconded  by  the  preaching  of  "  Jehovah's 
messenger,"  and  that  31alachi  occupied  the  same  podt- 


MALACHI 


674 


MALACHI 


tion  with  regard  to  the  reformation  under  Xehemiah 
as  Isaiah  held  in  the  time  of  Hczekiah,  and  Jeremiah 
in  that  of  Josiah.  The  last  chapter  of  canonical  Jew- 
ish history  is  the  key  to  the  last  chapter  of  its  proph- 
ec}-.  See  Noel  Alexander,  De  Malachia  Prophcta,  in 
his  Hist.  Eccles.  iii,  G-12  sq. ;  Vitringa,  idem,  in  his  Oh- 
servationes  Sodw,  vol.  ii;  Hebenstreit,  Disp.  in  Mai. 
(Lips.  1731  sq.). 

III.  Contents  of  the  Booh. — The  prophecies  of  Malachi 
are  comprised  in  four  chapters  iii  our  version,  as  in  the 
Sept.,  Vulgate,  and  Peshito-Syriac.  In  the  Hebrew  the 
3d  and  4th  form  but  one  chapter.  The  whole  prophecy 
naturally  divides  itself  into  three  sections,  in  the  first 
of  which  Jehovah  is  represented  as  the  loving  father 
and  ruler  of  his  people  (i,  2-ii,  9) ;  in  the  second,  as  the 
supreme  God  and  father  of  all  (ii,  10-16);  and  in  the 
third,  as  their  righteous  and  tinal  judge  (ii,  17-end). 
These  mav  be  again  subdivided  into  smaller  sections, 
each  of  which  follows  a  certain  order :  first,  a  short  sen- 
tence; then  the  sceptical  questions  which  might  be 
raised  by  the  people ;  and,  finally,  their  full  and  trium- 
phant refutation.  The  formal  and  almost  scholastic 
manner  of  the  prophecy  seemed  to  Ewald  to  mdicate 
that  it  was  rather  delivered  in  writing  than  spoken  pub- 
licly. But  though  this  may  be  true  of  the  prophecy  in 
its  present  shape,  which  probably  presents  the  substance 
of  oral  discourses,  there  is  no  reason  for  supposing  that  it 
was  not  also  pronounced  orally  in  public,  like  the  warn- 
ings and  denunciations  of  the  older  prophets,  however  it 
may  diifer  from  them  in  vigor  of  conception  and  high 
poetic  diction. 

1.  The  first  section  of  the  prophet's  message  consists 
of  two  parts ;  the  first  (i,  1-8)  addressed  to  the  people 
generally,  in  which  .Jehovah,  by  his  messenger,  asserts 
his  love  for  them,  and  proves  it,  in  answer  to  their  re- 
ply, '-Wherein  hast  thou  loved  us?"  by  referring  to  the 
punishment  of  Edom  as  an  example.  The  second  part 
(i,  6-ii,  9)  is  addressed  especially  to  the  priests,  who  had 
despised  the  name  of  Jehovah,  and  had  been  the  chief 
movers  of  the  defection  from  his  worship  and  covenant. 
They  are  rebuked  for  the  worthlessness  of  their  sacri- 
fices and  offerings,  and  their  profanation  of  the  Temple 
thereby  (i,  7-14).  The  denunciation  of  their  offence  is 
followed  by  the  threat  of  punishment  for  future  neglect 
(ii,  1-3),  and  the  character  of  the  true  priest  is  drawn  as 
the  companion  picture  to  their  own  (ii,  5-9). 

2.  In  the  second  section  (ii,  10-16)  the  prophet  re- 
proves the  people  for  their  intermarriages  with  the  idol- 
atrous heathen,  and  the  divorces  by  which  they  sepa- 
rated themselves  from  their  legitimate  wives,  who  wept 
at  the  altar  of  Jehovah,  in  violation  of  the  great  law 
of  marriage  which  God,  the  father  of  all,  established  at 
the  beginning. 

3.  The  judgment,  which  the  people  lighth^  regard,  is 
announced  -svith  all  solemnity,  ushered  in  by  the  advent 
of  the  Messiah.  The  Lord,  preceded  by  his  messenger, 
shall  come  to  his  Temple  suddenly,  to  purify  the  land 
from  its  iniquity,  and  to  execute  swift  judgment  upon 
those  who  violate  their  duty  to  God  and  their  neighbor. 
The  first  part  (ii,  17-iii,  5)  of  the  section  terminates  with 
the  threatened  punishment ;  in  the  second  (iii,  6-12)  the 
faithfulness  of  God  to  his  promises  is  vindicated,  and 
the  people  are  exhorted  to  repentance,  with  its  attendant 
blessings;  in  the  third  (iii,  13-iv,  6)  they  are  reproved 
for  their  Avant  of  confidence  in  God,  and  for  confusing 
good  and  evil.  The  final  severance  between  the  right- 
eous and  the  wicked  is  then  set  forth,  and  the  great  day 
of  judgment  is  depicted,  to  be  announced  by  the  coming 
of  Elijah,  or  John  the  Baptist,  the  forerunner  of  Christ 
(Matt,  xi,  14;  xvii,  10-13). 

IV.  Style. — The  diction  of  IMalachi  offers  few.  if  any, 
distinguishing  characteristics.  His  language  is  suitable 
to  the  manner  of  his  propliccy.  Smooth  and  easy  to  a 
remarkable  degree,  it  is  the  style  of  the'reasouer  rather 
than  of  the  poet.  The  rhythm  and  imagery  of  his 
writings  are  substantially  those  of  the  okl  projihets,  but 
they  possess  no  remarkable  vigor  or  beauty.     We  miss 


the  fiery  prophetic  eloquence  of  Isaiah,  and  have  in  its 
stead  the  calm  and  almost  artificial  discourse  of  the 
practiced  orator,  carefully  modelled  upon  those  fif  the 
ancient  prophets.  His  phraseology  is  accounted  for  by 
his  living  during  that  decline  of  Hebrew  poetry  which 
we  trace  more  or  less  in  all  the  sacred  writings  posterior 
to  the  captivity.  In  general  the  language  is  concise, 
clear,  and  polished,  and  the  manner  of  introducing  a  new 
line  of  argument  or  a  new  range  of  thought  is  most 
striking.  Here  the  peculiarity  is  to  be  noticed,  that 
there  is  no  longer  the  ancient  dramatic  manner  display- 
ed, but  a  kind  of  dialogue  has  taken  its  place,  which  is 
carried  on  between  God  and  the  people  or  the  priests, 
whose  half-mocking  questions  are  enlarged  upon  and 
finally  answered  with  scorn  by  the  mouth  of  the  mes- 
senger. He  seems  fully  aware  of  being  the  last  of  the 
sacred  bards  (iii,  1  and  22),  and  the  epoch  of  transition 
from  the  glowing  energetic  fulness  of  the  inspired  seer, 
who  speaks  to  the  people  as  the  highest  poA\er  sud- 
denh'  and  forcibly  moves  him,  to  the  carefully  studied 
and  methodically  constructed  written  discoursa,  becomes 
strangely  apparent  in  him.  We  find  both  the  ancient 
prophetic  improvised  original  exhortation,  with  its  rep- 
etitions and  apparent  incongruities,  and  the  artificially 
composed  address,  with  its  borrowed  ideas  weU  arranged 
and  its  euphonious  words  well  selected.  This  circum- 
stance has  probably  also  given  rise  to  the  notion  that 
we  have  only  in  his  book  a  summary  of  his  orations :  a 
work  containing,  as  it  were,  the  substance  only  of  his 
addresses,  written  out  by  himself  from  his  recollections 
■ — an  opinion  ^vhich  we  do  not  share.  Of  peculiarities 
of  phraseology  we  may  notice  the  occurrence  of  passages 

like  Ti^x  crnK  XC51  (ii,  3),  "nrisb-b:?  D^n  noa 

(ii,  16),  etc. 

V.  Canonicity  and  Integrity. — The  claim  of  the  book 
of  Malachi  to  its  place  in  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment has  never  been  disputed,  and  its  authority  is  estab- 
lished bv  the  references  to  it  in  the  New  Testament 
(Matt,  xi,  10;  xvii.  12;  Mark  i,  2 ;  ix,  11,12;  Luke  i, 
17  ;  Eom.  ix,  13).  Philo,  Josephus,  Melito,  Jerome,  and 
other  ancient  authorities,  mention  it,  and  quote  from  it 
as  in  accordance  with  our  present  copies.  Nor  is  there 
anything,  either  in  its  language  or  the  circumstances  of 
its  time,  the  manners  and  customs  touched  upon,  or  its 
topographical  and  geographical  allusions,  that  could  give 
rise  to  the  slightest  critical  suspicion. 

Its  text  is  one  of  the  purest  and  best  preserved,  and 
no  glosses  to  it  are  to  be  found  in  the  Codd.,  such  as  had 
to  be  added  to  correct  the  corruptions  of  other  books. 
The  differences  in  the  various  ancient  versions  arise 
only  from  the  differences  of  the  vowels  assumed  or  found 
bv  the  translators  in  their  copies.  The  few  variants 
which  occur  in  the  different  texts  are  so  unimportant 
that  they  do  not  call  for  any  detailed  remark. 

VI.  CommaituTies. — Special  excgetical  heljis  on  the 
whole  book  are  as  follo^vs,  a  few  of  the  most  important 
of  which  we  designate  by  an  asterisk  prefixed :  Ephra- 
em  Syrus,  E:rplanaiion  (in  Syriac,  in  his  0pp.  v,  312) ; 
Kupertus  Tuitiensis,  In  Mai.  (in  his  Ojip.  i,  520);  D. 
Kimchi  and  S.  Jarchi's  commentaries,  tr.  hito  Latin  by 
Ue  Muis  (Paris,  1618, 4to);  Aben-Ezra's  and  other  Jew- 
ish commentaries,  tr.  into  Latin  by  Ilebenstrcet  (Lips. 
1746, 4to) ;  D.  Kimchi's  and  Aben-Ezra's  commentaries, 
in  Latin  by  Bohle  (Post.  1637,  4to) ;  Kimchi's  alone,  by 
Carpzov  (Lips.  1679,Svo),by  Munster  (Basil.  1530, 8vo); 
Aben-Ezra's  alone,  by  Munster  (ib.  1530,  8vo),  by  Borg- 
wall  (Upsal.  1707,  8vo^;  Abrabanel's,  by  Meyer  (Ham- 
mon.  1685,  4to) ;  Luther,  Commentarius  (in  Ojp.,  Wit- 
tenl).  edit.,  iv,  620 ;  in  German,  by  Agricola,  1655) ;  Me- 
lancthon,  Explicaliones  (Vitemb.  1553;  also  in  Ojp.  ii, 
541)  ;  Draconis,  Expkmationes  (Lips.  1564,  folio) ;  Chy- 
tneus,  Explicatio  (Post.  1568,  8vo;  also  in  0pp.  ii,  455); 
MoUcTjExposilio  (\"itemb.  1569,  8vo) ;  Brocardus,  Inter- 
pretatio  [including  Cant.,  Hag.,  and  Zech.]  (L.  B.  1580, 
8vo);  CryuAVfi,  I/i/]winnemata  (Gen.  1582,  8vo;  Basil. 
1583,  1612,  4to);  Polauus,  Analysis  (Basil.  1597,  1606, 


IVIALACHY 


675 


MALACHY 


8vo)  ;  Baldwin,  Commentarius  [includ.  Hag.  and  Zech.] 
(Yitemb.  1()10,  8vo);  De  Quiros,  Commentarii  [includ. 
Nah.]  (Hispal.  1G22;  Lugd.  1G23,  fol.)  ;  Tarnow,  Com- 
mentarius (Kost.  1024, 4to) ;  Stock  and  Torshell, Co wmew- 
turij  (Loud.  1(541, fill.);  Acosta,  Commentarius  [including 
Kutli,  etc.]  (Lugd.  lG-il,fol.) ;  Sclatcr,  Commentary  (Lon- 
don, IGoO,  Ito);  Ursinus,  Commentarius  (Francof.  1652, 
8vo);  Martinus,  Ofeert'«^to«*s  (Groning.  16-i7,4to;  1658, 
8vo);  Varenius,  Trifolium  [including  Hag.  and  Zech.] 
(Kost.  1662,  4to);  Pocock,  Commentary  (Oxf.  1677,  fol.; 
also  in  Works,  i,  19) ;  Van  Til,  Commentarius  (L.B.  1701, 
4to);  K6\i\)m,Observationes  (Gryph.  1708,4to) ;  Wessel, 
Enucleatio  (Lub.  1729,  4to) ;  *Venema,  Commentarius 
(Leon.  1759,  4to)  ;  Fischer,  Prolusio  (Lips.  1759,  etc.)  ; 
Bahrat,  Commentarius  (Lips.  1768,  8vo) ;  *Faber,  Com- 
mentatio  (Onold.  1779, 4to) ;  Kosenmiiller,  Scholia  (Lips. 
1828,  8vo);  *Reinke,  Commentar  (Giessen,  1856,  8vo) ; 
*3Ioore,  Commentary  [including  Hag.  and  Zech.]  (N.  Y. 
1856, 8vo);  Kohler,  AVWaVwH^  (Erlang.  1865,8vo).    See 

PfiOPHETS,  MiNOH. 

Marachy  (Vulg.  Malachias),  a  familiar  form  (2 
Esdr.  i,  40)  of  the  name  of  the  prophet  Malaciii. 

Malachy,  St.,  archbishop  of  Armagh,  one  of  the 
most  noted  characters  in  Irish  Church  History,  was  born 
of  a  noble  family  at  Armagh  about  1195.  While  yet  a 
youth  he  retired  from  the  world  to  subject  himself  to  a 
most  rigid  asceticism  under  the  abbot  Imar  of  Armagh. 
His  humility  and  fervor  soon  gained  him  a  great  repu- 
tation for  sanctity,  and,  quite  contrary  to  the  canonical 
rule,  he  was  ordained  priest  when  only  twenty-tive  j'ears 
old,  by  Celsus,  then  archbishop  of  Armagh,  who  took  a 
special  interest  in  Malachy,  and  favored  him  in  many 
ways.  He  also  employed  ^Malachy  as  assistant  in  the 
discharge  of  the  archiepiscopal  office,  Celsus  intending 
tlius  gradually  to  introduce  Malachy  to  the  archiepisco- 
pal duties,  with  a  view  of  securing  him  as  successor. 
Of  these  opportmiities  Malachy  availed  himself  for  the 
furtherance  of  a  plan  he  had  long  cherished,  tliat  of 
bringing  the  Irish  Church,  which  since  the  conquest 
of  the  south-western  provinces  by  the  Normans  had  re- 
mained independent  of  Rome,  into  subjectivity  to  the 
pajjal  chair.  Malachy  gradually  introduced  the  Roman 
metliod  of  reciting  the  hours,  and  also  established  the 
rites  of  confession,  contirmation,  ecclesiastical  marriage, 
etc.,  in  the  several  convents.  Then,  in  order  to  become 
better  acquainted  with  the  details  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic ritual,  lie  resided  for  some  years  with  bishop  Malchus 
of  Lismore,  also  a  native  of  Ireland,  but  who  had  been  a 
monk  of  \Yinchestor,  England,  and  had  there  become 
thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  practices  of  Rome. 
Upon  his  return  to  his  native  land,  Malachy  was  en- 
gaged by  his  friends  for  the  restoration  of  the  Bangor 
monastery,  ;vhich  had  remained  in  ruins  since  its  de- 
struction by  the  Danes,  antl  which  was  now  the  posses- 
sion of  Malachy's  uncle.  Assisted  by  ten  monastic  as- 
sociates, he  erected  an  oratory  and  a  small  house  for 
their  accommodation,  and,  as  their  superior,  remained 
there  until  about  1225,  when  he  was  called  away  to  pre- 
side over  tlie  see  of  Connereth  (Connor),  where,  bv  un- 
wearied exertions,  he  built  up  the  cause  of  Christianity. 
About  1129  he  was  further  promoted  by  a  call  to  the 
archbishopric  of  Armagh,  the  place  for  which  Celsus 
had  long  intended  liim.  IMalachy  accepted  the  posi- 
tion, however,  only  upon  condition  that  he  should  be 
permitted  to  resign  it  "as  soon  as  it  was  rescued  from 
its  present  unbecoming  situation."  Hitherto,  by  cus- 
tom, the  archiepiscopacy  had  been  hereditary,  and  in 
consequence,  though  Celsus  had  himself  nominated  IMal- 
achy, the  latter  had  not  undisputed  possession  of  the 
primatial  see  until  about  1135,  when  he  at  once  applied 
himself  most  earnestly  and  zealously  to  perfecting  the 
reforms  he  had  inaugurated  while  yet  with  Celsus.  Pre- 
vious to  Malachy's  accession  to  the  arch-see  there  never 
had  iTeen  a  hierarchy  or  a  legalized  sujiport  for  religion 
in  the  Irish  Church.  The  ministry  had  been  sustained 
by  ^•oluntary  offerings,  and  in  some  instances  by  the 


donation  of  Tremon,  or  free  lands,  the  rents  of  which 
were  to  be  appropriated  annually  to  the  bishop  and  the 
poor.  These  lands,  however,  were  neither  large  nor  nu- 
merous. During  the  commotions  of  the  10th  and  11th 
centuries  those  w'hich  had  been  given  to  Armagh  were 
again  claimed  by  the  lineal  descendants  of  the  original 
donors  as  their  rightful  inheritance.  At  this  time  they 
had  been  thus  held  for  eight  successive  generations. 
Malachy's  great  endeavor  was  to  do  away  with  this 
abuse.  See  Lmpkopkiation.  But  he  failed  to  accom- 
plish this  object,  and  in  consequence  resigned  the  pri- 
matial office  and  retired  to  the  bishopric  of  Down,  hith- 
erto a  part  of  his  former  see  of  Connor. 

Malachy  untiringly  devoted  himself  to  the  one  great 
object  likely  to  be  successfully  accomplished — the  Ro- 
manizing of  the  Irish  Church.  To  accomplish  this  ob- 
ject— the  greatest  task  which  could  have  been  under- 
taken by  any  person  in  his  day,  and  which  in  conse- 
quence  has  made  the  name  of  Jlalachy  one  of  the  most 
prominent  connected  with  the  ecclesiastical  annals  of  Ire- 
land— he  first  travelled  extensively  in  his  own  country, 
and  then  all  the  way  to  the  Imperial  City,  where  he  was 
affectionately  received  by  the  pope  (Innocent  II),  bishops, 
and  cardinals,  all  vying  with  each  other  iii  their  atten- 
tions to  him.  The  pallium,  or  pontifical  investure,  how- 
ever, for  which  he  had  come,  the  pope  refused  to  grant 
until  a  request  for  union  with  Rome  should  come  from 
one  of  the  Irish  spiods.  Malachy  received,  however,  a 
sure  proof  of  the  pleasure  of  his  holiness  with  the  proposed 
scheme  in  his  appointment  to  the  legateship  for  all  Ire- 
land, and  returned  to  his  native  land  expectant  of  the 
immediate  realization  of  his  life-long  dream.  On  Ins 
way  homeward  he  became  intimately  acquainted  with 
Bernard  of  St.  Clairvaux,  whom  he  had  already  vis- 
ited on  his  way  towards  the  Eternal  City,  and  so 
charmed  was  he  v.ith  the  order  and  rule  of  the  Cister- 
cian monastery  that  he  determined  to  establish  the  or- 
der also  in  his  country,  and  in  1}42  opened  the  first 
Cistercian  monastery  in  Ireland.  In  the  mean  time, 
however,  JMalach}^  busily  employed  himself,  his  legative 
power  also,  in  behalf  of  union,  and  in  1148  at  last  suc- 
ceeded in  moving  a  synod  to  make  the  request  which 
Rome  demanded  previous  to  the  bestowal  of  the  pallium 
on  the  Irish  clergy.  It  is,  however,  not  a  little  remark- 
able that  the  synod  from  which  this  very  important  re- 
quest emanated  was  not  one  convened  in  anj^  province 
or  principal  city.  It  was  held  in  Inis  Padrig  (Pat- 
rick's Island),  a  small,  inconsiderable  island  near  the 
Sherries,  in  the  northern  channel  of  Ireland  (Haverty's 
History  of  Ireland  [New  York,  1866],  p.  161).  Could  no 
more  conspicuous  place  be  found  ?  From  this  and  other 
internal  evidences  there  is  abundant  reason  to  infer  that 
the  Irish  clergy  were  not  then  in  favor  of  union  with 
Rome.  The  request,  however,  was  issued,  and  St.  IMal- 
achy set  off  immediately  with  it,  expecting  to  meet  the 
pope  (now  Eugene  III)  at  Clairvaux;  but,  having  been 
long  delayed  in  England  by  the  jealousy  of  king  Ste- 
phen, iMalachy,  to  his  sore  disappointment,  did  not  reach 
there  till  the  pope  had  left.  Shortly  afterwards  he  was 
taken  ill,  and  died  (1148)  in  the  arms  of  his  friend  and 
future  biographer,  St.  Bernard.  Although  Malachy  did 
not  personally  obtain  the  cherished  wish  of  his  heart, 
he  yet  inaugurated  and  put  in  train  the  measures  which 
brought  the  pallium  a  few  years  later. 

St.  JIalachy  was  by  far  the  most  prominent  and  pow- 
erful native  ecclesiastic  of  Ireland  in  her  early  days. 
"His  personal  influence,"  says  Todd  {Iriith  Ch.  p.  116), 
"  was  so  great  that  he  was  able  to  direct  the  minds  of 
his  countrymen  as  he  saw  fit;"  and  for  this  he  was  ad- 
mirably fitted  by  his  descent,  his  learning,  his  eloquence, 
and  his  fascinating  address.  In  A.D.  1152  St.  Bernard 
wrote  his  Life  in  elegant  mediajval  Latin.  Previous  to 
an  acquaintance  with  the  Irish  saint.  Bernard  had  writ- 
ten many  hard  things  against  the  Irish,  calling  them 
"a  stiff-necked,  intractable,  and  ungovernable  race;"  but, 
in  reference  tt)  IMalachy,  he  declared  that  he  could  not 
find  words  to  express  his  admiration  of  the  saint. 


MALAGRIDA 


676 


MALAN 


A  curious  ProiTihecy  concermmj  the  Future  Roman  Pon- 
iiffa  is  extant  under  the  name  of  MaJachy.  It  designates, 
by  a  few  brief  phrases,  the  leading  characteristics  of  eacli 
successive  reign,  and  in  some  instances  these  descriptive 
characteristics  have  proved  so  curiously  appropriate  as 
to  lead  to  some  discussion.  The  characteristic  of  Pio 
Nono,  Ci'ux  de  Cruce  (cross  after  cross),  was  the  subject 
of  much  speculation.  That  the  prophecy  really  dates 
from  the  time  of  St.  IMalachy  no  scholar  now  supposes ; 
it  was  unknown  not  only  to  his  biographer,  St.  Bernard 
{Liber  de  vita  S.Mai.),  but  neither  does  any  other  au- 
thor allude  to  this  work  until  the  beginning  of  the  17th 
century.  It  may  be  a  sufficient  indication  of  its  worth 
to  state  that  neither  Baronius  nor  any  of  his  continu- 
ators  deemed  it  deserving  of  attention.  It  is  now  sup- 
posed to  have  been  prepared  in  the  conclave  of  1590  by 
the  friends  of  cardinal  SimonccUi,  who  is  clearly  de- 
scribed in  the  work  (comp.  DoUinger,  Fables  respecting 
the  Popes  of  the  Middle  A  rjes,  edited  by  Prof.  H.  B. 
Smith  [Dodd  and  Mead,  N,  Y.,  1872, 12mo"],  p.  150  sq.). 
See  Menestrier,  Traite  sur  les  p)ropheties  attrihuees  u 
saint  3Ialachie ;  John  Germano,  Vita  gesti  e  predizioni 
deljiadre  san  Malachia  (Naples,  1670, 2  vols.  4to) ;  Bre- 
nan,  Eccles.  Hist,  of  Ireland,  p.  2C7  sq. ;  Todd,  Hist,  Anc. 
C/i.  in  Ireland,  p.  106-117 ;  Inett,  Origines  Anglicance  (see 
Index) ;  Jahrh.  dcutsch.  Theol.  1871,  p.  56-1.      (J.  H.  W.) 

Malagrida,  Gabriele,  an  Italian  theologian  and 
preacher,  who  flourished  in  Portugal  in  the  first  half  of 
the  18th  centurj-,  was  born  in  the  jMilanese  in  1689.  He 
entered  the  Order  of  the  Jesuits,  removed  to  Portugal, 
and  became  popular  as  a  pulpit  orator  and  a  theological 
writer.  In  1758,  when  an  attempt  at  assassination  was 
made  on  Joseph  I,  the  then  reigning  monarch  of  Portu- 
gal, the  Jesuits  were  charged  witli  the  crime  (they  were 
shorth^  after  expelled  from  the  kingdom) ;  Malagrida 
was  suspected  of  complicity,  and  arrested  forthwith. 
Freed  from  this  charge,  he  was  accused  of  spreading 
heretic  doctrines,  and  suffered  death  at  the  stake  in 
1761.  A  list  of  his  Avritings  is  given  in  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog.  Generale,  vol.  xxxii,  s.  v.  See  Platel,  Relazione 
delta  Condemna  ed  Esecuzione  del  Gesuifa  G.  Medagrida 
(1761). 

Malakans,  or  Milk-eaters  (Russian  Molocani,  i. 
c.  those  who,  contrary  to  the  rule  of  the  Eastern  Church, 
take  milk  on  fast-days),  is  the  name  of  a  religious  sect 
in  the  Russo-Greek  Church.  The  name  Malakans  is  a 
term  of  contempt  apj)lied  to  these  religionists,  and  orig- 
inated, as  the  word  Shaker,  ]\Iethodist,  etc.,  among  those 
who  did  not  approve  of  the  movement.  They  them- 
selves like  to  be  called  Gospel-Men.  They  were  first 
brought  into  notice  bj'  the  zeal  of  a  Prussian  prison- 
er of  war,  about  the  middle  of  last  century.  He  set- 
tled in  a  village  of  southern  Russia,  and  spent  his  life  in 
explaining  the  Scriptures  to  the  villagers,  and  in  visit- 
ing from  house  to  house.  After  his  death  they  ac- 
knowledged him  as  the  founder  of  their  new  religious 
belief.  The  Malakans  acknowledge  the  Bible  as  the 
Word  of  God,  and  the  Trinity  of  the  (^.odhead.  They 
admit  the  fall  of  Adam,  and  the  resurrection  of  Christ. 
They  teach  that  Adam"s  soul  only,  and  not  his  body, 
was  made  after  God's  image.  The  Ten  Commandments 
are  received  among  them.  Idolatry  and  the  worship  of 
images  are  forbidden.  It  is  considered  sinful  to  take  an 
oath,  and  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath  is  strictly  en- 
joined ;  so  much  so  that,  like  many  of  tlie  Oriental  sects, 
they  devote  Saturday  evening  to  iireparation  for  the 
Sabbath.  They  are  firm  believers  in  1  he  Millennium,  and 
are  improperly  described  as  followers  of  the  fanatic  Te- 
renti  BelorefT,  who  was,  in  fact,  a  member  of  their  body. 
He  announced  in  1R33  the  coming  of  the  Lord  within 
two  years  and  a  half.  INIany  IMalakans,  in  consequence, 
abandoned  their  callings,  and  wailed  the  event  in  pray- 
er and  fasting.  BelorctT  jirTsuaded  liimself  that,  like 
Elijah,  he  should  ascend  to  heaven  on  a  certain  day  in  a 
chariot  of  fire.  Thousands  of  the  I\Iilk-eaters  came  from 
aU  parts  of  Russia  to  witness  this  miracle.  BelorefF  ap- 
peared, majestically  seated  in  a  chariot,  ordered  the  mul- 


titude to  prostrate  themselves,  and  then,  opening  his 
arms  like  an  eagle  spreading  his  wings,  he  leajit  into 
the  air,  but,  dropping  down  on  the  heads  of  the  gaping 
multitude,  was  instantly  seized  and  dragged  oil'  to  pris- 
on as  an  imposter.  He  died  soon  after,  no  doubt  in  a 
state  of  insanity,  declaring  himself  to  be  the  prophet  of 
God.  But  many  of  the  Malakans  still  believe  in  his  di- 
vine mission.  A  considerable  number  of  his  followers 
aftenvards  emigrated  to  Georgia,  and  settled  in  sight  of 
Mount  Ararat,  expecting  the  Millennium.  They  spend 
whole  days  and  nights  in  prayer,  and  have  all  their 
goods  in  common.  See  Millenakians  in  Russia. 
These  milk-people  deny  the  sanctity  and  use  of  fasts, 
holding  that  men  who  have  to  work  require  good  food, 
to  be  eaten  in  moderation  all  the  year  round — no  day 
stinted,  no  day  in  excess.  Thej^  prefer  to  live  by  the 
laws  of  nature,  asking  and  giving  a  reason  for  even.'- 
thing  they  do.  They  set  their  faces  against  monks  and 
popes.  In  Russia  they  suflfered  sore  persecution  under 
the  late  emperor  Nicholas.  Sixteen  thousand  men  and 
women  -(vere  seized  by  the  police,  arranged  in  gangs, 
and  driven  with  rods  and  thongs  across  the  drearj' 
steppes  and  yet  more  dreary  mountain  crests  into  the 
Caucasus.  In  that  fearful  day  a  great  many  of  the  Milk- 
eaters  fled  across  the  I'ruth  into  Turkey,  where  the 
Sidtan  gave  them  a  village  called  Tulcha  for  their  resi- 
dence. The  Methodist  mission  at  that  place,  under  the 
leadership  of  Mr.  I'locken,  labored  among  them  for  some 
time  ;  at  present,  however  (1872),  the  mission  is  discon- 
tinued. See  Dixon,  Free  Russia,  p.  138  sq. ;  IMarsden, 
History  of  Christian  Chm-ches  and  Sects,  ii,  234: ;  Le  Ras- 
kol,  Fssai  historique  et  critique  sur  les  sectes  reliqievses 
de  la  Russe  (Paris,  1854, 8vo).  See  Russia.  (J.  H.  W.) 
Malan,  Abrahaji  Hemri  C^sar,  D.D.,  one  of  the 
most  noted  of  Swiss  I'rotestant  divines  of  our  day,  was 
born  at  Geneva  Jidy  7, 1787.  When  but  an  infant  of 
three  years  INIalan  exhibited  great  powers  of  intel- 
lectual superiority,  and  the  hopes  which  he  awakened 
while  yet  an  inmate  of  the  cradle  by  securing  a  prize 
for  reading  at  the  Geneva  Academy  were  more  than 
realized  in  his  manhood  and  hoary  age.  The  poverty 
of  liis  parents  induced  him  to  turn  aside  from  an  intel- 
lectual career  to  which  he  so  much  inclined,  and  to  en- 
ter the  mercantile  profession  at  eighteen,  but  he  soon 
returned  again  to  his  former  mode  of  life,  and  decided 
upon  the  ministrj'.  In  1810  he  was  consecrated  for  this 
sacred  work  by  the  Venerable  Compagiiie,  or  Presbytery 
of  Geneva,  and  he  at  once  made  a  name  for  himself  as  a 
pidpit  orator  of  unusual  eloquence.  He  was  appointed 
preacher  at  the  Geneva  cathedral,  and  from  the  puljiit 
whence  formerly  the  immortal  Calvin  had  thundered 
forth  the  unalterable  decrees  of  the  Holy  One.  Malan 
now  tauglit  the  Word  of  God  in  a  most  brilliant  orators-. 
Unfortunately,  however,  the  spiritual  life  built  up  liy 
Calvin  and  his  successors  in  the  hearts  of  their  forefa- 
thers had  been  sufTcred  to  die  out,  and  in  the  hearts  of 
the  hearers  of  Malan,  as  well  as  in  the  heart  of  the 
preacher  himself,  there  was  a  lukewarmness,  aye  a  cold- 
ness, to  all  religion — rationalism  sat  enthroned  in  the 
pulpit  and  the  pew  of  Geneva;  the  forms  of  the  Church 
founded  by  Calvin  remained,  but  the  spiritual  life  had 
dejiarted.  The  young  preacher  endeavored  to  infuse 
the  vitality  of  his  own  fervid  spirit  into  the  lifeless 
forms  and  the  latitudinarian  creed  of  the  '•Venerable 
Compagnie,"  but  in  vain ;  both  the  preacher  and  the 
auditor  lacked  that  most  essential  element  of  a  Chris- 
tian life,  the  iiossession  of  the  truly  orthodox  belief 
and  trust  in  a  divine  Saviour.  In  the  midst  of  his  de- 
spair JIalan  was  brought  under  the  influence  of  those 
noble-hearted  Scotchmen,  the  Haldane  brothers,  and  by 
them  and  our  late  Dr.  John  M.  IMason  (q.  v.),  and  jMat- 
thias  Bruen,  was  led  to  see  the  error  of  a  faith  built  on 
a  hiunan  Saviour,  and  brought  to  acknowledge  the  di- 
vinity of  Jesus  the  Christ.  From  this  time  forward 
Malan  became  a  champion  of  the  orthodox  faith.  The 
first  opportunity  to  display  his  ability  as  a  polemic  he 
found  against  the  Venerable  Compagnie  itself.     Tliis 


MALAN 


G77 


MALAYS 


body  had  issued  for  circulation  among  the  masses  an  edi- 
tion of  the  N.  T.  in  which  all  passages  bearing  on  the 
divinity  of  Christ  were  so  altered  as  to  ftivor  the  Socin- 
ian  belief;  this  translation  Malan  denounced  with  the 
most  vehement  eloquence,  and  from  his  pulpit  expounded 
these  self-same  passages  in  tlie  spirit  of  their  intended 
declaration  to  the  multitudes  who  crowded  around  him. 
(For  a  review  of  the  Church  at  (Jeneva,  see  Hurst,  Ra- 
lltmaUsm,  chap,  xviii.)  By  1818  the  rupture  between 
him  and  the  Church  authorities  of  Geneva  had  become 
SI)  great  that  reconciliation  was  an  impossibility,  and 
Jlalan  was  consequently  dismissed  irom  the  Established 
Church.  Besides  his  relation  to  the  cathedral,  Malan 
had  been  regent  of  the  academy ;  in  this  post  also  he 
was  now  superseded  by  a  divine  of  Socinian  tendency. 
Not  in  the  least  daunted,  he  now  followed  the  example 
of  the  Ilaldane  brothers,  and  preached  the  truth  wher- 
ever an  opportunity  would  offer  to  address  the  multi- 
tudes and  press  forward  the  interests  of  Christ  his  mas- 
ter. No  church  accessible  to  him,  he  preached  in  his 
own  house,  for  preach  he  would.  The  most  eminent  of 
(Jeneva's  inhabitants  gatliered  regularly,  and  by  1820 
he  ;vas  enabled  to  roar  a  church  upon  his  own  ground. 
He  named  it  "The  Testimonial  Chapel"  ("£«  Chapdle 
(III  Ti'inoignape").  But  not  only  was  his  tongue  active 
in  buililing  up  Christ's  kingdom  among  men,  to  his 
pen  also  he  gave  no  rest ;  now  busy  in  the  defence  of 
Christ's  divinity  or  the  sovereignty  of  divine  grace,  to- 
morrow exposing  and  attacking  Romish  error,  and  next 
rushing  forth  in  print  to  reach  the  masses  by  religious 
tracts,  clear,  simple,  and  practical.  With  these  mani- 
fold duties  upon  him,  he  was  }-et  far  from  content.  He 
organized  a  school  of  theology,  and  himself  became  one 
of  the  instructors ;  founded  a  tract  society,  and  a  Mag- 
dalen asylum  or  ])enitentiary.  He  has  also  the  honor 
to  have  been  the  lirst  to  introduce  the  Sabbath-school 
into  Switzerland.  Not  even  all  this  toil  could  prevent 
him  in  the  least  from  fostering  also  a  joy  in  the  devel- 
opment of  ajsthetical  talents  which  he  possessed.  As  a 
sacred  poet  he  will  live  as  long  as  the  language  in  which 
he  wrote  shall  be  known,  lie  has  been  pronoiniced  the 
French  Dr.  Watts.  As  a  composer  he  likewise  displayed 
unusual  endowments,  and  as  a  painter  and  sculptor  mas- 
ters of  art  delighted  to  enjoy  his  friendship  and  counsel. 
Thorwaldsen  was  his  intimate  friend,  and  more  than 
once  intrusted  him  with  the  completion  of  his  choicest 
groups.  Surely  a  master  mind  was  that  of  Malan's. 
With  untiring  industry  maintaining  his  position  in  the 
pulpit  almost  to  the  last,  he  died  at  his  native  place. 
May  8,  18oi.  No  better  comment  on  such  a  life  can  be 
given  than  that  by  E.  de  Pressense :  "Cesar  Malan  a 
ete  ua  homme  d'indomptable  conviction ;  il  a  toujours 
suivi  les  impulsions  de  sa  conscience  sans  hesitation" 
(Revue  Chretienne,  Aug.  5, 18(59,  p.  502).  His  appear- 
ance at  the  age  of  fifty  is  thus  described  by  an  Ameri- 
can divine  who  had  the  pleasure  of  being  his  guest: 
"  His  personnel  was  noble  and  imposing;  a  little  above 
the  medium  height,  stout  built,  and,  having  something 
of  a  militar)'  bearing,  he  was  still  natural  and  easy  in 
his  manners.  His  broad  shoulders  supported  a  superb 
head;  his  open  and  lofty  brow  gave  one  an  idea  of  his 
mental  power;  his  eyes  were  full  of  intellect  and  lire, 
and  at  the  same  time  his  loving  look  won  your  heart; 
his  fine  mouth  indicated  an  iron  will,  combined  with 
great  tenderness;  a  profusion  of  white  hair  fell  upon  his 
shoulders"  (The  Observer  [N.  Y.],  April  22,  18G9).  The 
degree  of  D.D.  was  conferred  on  Malan  by  the  Univer- 
sity of  Edinburgh.  Of  his  works,  many  of  which  have 
appeared  also  in  an  English  dress  both  in  England  and 
in  the  United  States,  the  following  deserve  special  men- 
tion, T/ie  Ch.  of  Rome  (N.  Y.  1844)  -.^Les  Mdmiers  sont- 
ils  inrisibles?  (1828)  ;  his  followers  were  called .l/o;«i>rs  .- 
—Les  Chants  de  Sio7i  (182G,  Tirao,  and  often),  a  collection 
of  his  hymns  -.—Le  Temoir/nw/e  de  iJieit  (1833, 8vo) .  See, 
besides  the  excellent  article  in  the  Xew  A  mer.  Cyclop. 
1864,  p.  495,  and  Bost,  Mimoires  dii  Reveil  rcL  des  er/lhes 
protest,  de  la  Suisse  et  de  la  France  (see  Index) ;  theZ-i/'c, 


Labors,  and  Writinr/s  ofCasar  Malan,  by  one  of  his  sons 
(1809,  jjost  8vo).     (J.  H.W.) 

Malay  Archipelago,  also  called  the  Indian  or 
IC.vsTKKN  Akchii'Klago  and  Malaisia,  by  far  the 
largest,  if  not  the  most  important  island  group,  or  rath- 
er system  of  island  groups  in  the  world,  of  which  the 
principal  are  the  Sunda  Islands  (embracmg  Sumatra, 
Java,  etc.),  the  Philippines,  and  the  Moluccas,  or  Spice 
Islands.  They  are  treated  severally  under  the  respec- 
tive names  of  the  different  islands.  See  Java;  Macas- 
sar; Malacca;  Moluccas;  Philippines;  Sumatra, 
etc.  "  The  whole  of  these  islands  together,  comprising 
an  area  of  170,000  square  miles,  contain  about  20,000,000 
of  human  beings  of  all  grades  of  color  and  stature.  The 
most  ancient  appear  to  be  the  Papoos,  who  are  the  only 
inhabitants  of  tlie  Andaman  Islands,  but  who  are  found 
farther  eastward  as  a  people  driven  into  the  forests, 
mountains,  and  defiles,  and  are  not  found  again  as  a 
leading  population  till  we  reach  New  Guinea.  Tiiey 
are  among  the  most  degenerate  of  the  human  race. 
They  were  supplanted  more  immediately  by  the  Malays, 
who,  having  many  centuries  ago  emigrated  from  India 
beyond  the  Ganges,  have  become  a  mysteriously  hetero- 
geneous people  by  mixture  with  Papoos,  Hindus,  Arabs, 
Chinese,  Siamese,  and  even  with  Europeans.  The  shores 
have  of  late  years  been  more  and  more  covered  with 
Chinese  emigrants,  who  threaten  the  same  fate  to  the 
Malays  which  they  have  inflicted  iiiwn  the  Papoos.  The 
religions  are  as  various  as  the  nations,  and  tribes,  and 
languages.  Here  we  may  still  meet  with  aboriginal 
sorcery,  together  with  the  divine  worship  paid  to  moun- 
tains, rocks,  woods,  storms,  volcanoes ;  then  with  Brah- 
minism  and  Buddhism,  the  Chinese  worship  of  ancestors 
exalted  into  demigods,  the  Mohammedan  delusions,  and 
the  saint  worship  of  the  Romish  communion.  The  wor- 
ship of  God  in  spirit  and  in  truth  has  hitherto  been  to 
those  wretched  natives  a  thing  unknown,  and  what  has 
been  attempted  for  these  forty  or  fifty  years  past  by 
about  seventy  or  eighty  missionaries  is  as  yet  but  little 
more  than  a  beginning  of  what  remains  to  be  done." 
See  Newcomb,  Cyclop,  of  Missions,  p.  479 ;  Grundemann, 
Missionsatlas,  No.  17.     See  Malays. 

Malays  (properly  Malayus,  a  Malay  word,  the  der- 
ivation of  which  has  not  yet  been  satisfactorily  ascer- 
tained) is  the  name  given  to  a  great  branch  of  the  hu- 
man family  dwelling  in  the  Malay  peninsula,  in  the 
islands,  large  and  small,  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  in 
Madagascar,  and  in  the  numerous  islands  of  the  Pacific. 
In  the  fivefold  division  of  mankind  laid  down  by  Bhi- 
menbach,  the  Malays  are  treated  as  a  distinct  race, 
while  in  the  threefold  division  of  Latham  they  are  re- 
garded as  a  branch  of  the  Mongolidse.  Prichard,  how- 
ever, subdivides  the  various  representatives  of  the  Malay 
family  into  three  branches,  viz. :  (1.)  the  Indo-Malayan, 
comprehending  the  Malays  proper  of  Malacca,  and  the 
inhabitants  of  Sumatra,  Java,  Celebes,  the  Moluccas,  and 
the  Philippines,  with  whom,  perhaps,  may  be  associated 
the  natives  of  the  Caroline  Islands  and  the  Ladrones; 
(2.)  the  Polynesians ;  and  (3.)  the  jNIadecasses,  or  people 
of  Madagascar.  Following  Latham,  we  shall  here  con- 
fine ourselves  to  the  Malays  proper,  the  natives  of  ]\Iad- 
agascar  having  been  already  noticed  under  that  head- 
ing, and  reserving  the  Polynesians  generally  and  the 
Maori  in  particular  for  distinct  articles.  In  physical 
appearance  tlie  Malays  are  a  brown-complexioned  race, 
rather  darker  than  the  Chinese,  but  not  so  swarthy  as 
the  Hindus;  they  have  long,  black,  shining,  but  coarse 
hair;  little  or  no  beard;  a  large  mouth;  eyes  large  and 
dark;  nose  generally  short  and  flat;  lips  rather  thicker 
tlian  those  of  Europeans;  and  cheek-bones  high.  lu 
stature,  the  Indo-^Ialays  are  for  the  most  jjart  below  the 
middle  height,  while  tlie  Polynesians  generally  exceed 
it;  the  Indo-Malays  have  also  slight,  well-formed  limbs, 
and  are  particular!}'  small  about  the  wrists  and  ankles. 
"The  profile,"  according  to  Dr.  Pickering, '•  is  usually 
more  vertical  than  in  the  white  race,  but  this  may  be 
owing  in  part  to  the  mode  of  carriage,  for  the  skull  does 


MALAYS 


678 


MALCHIAH 


not  show  a  superior  facial  angle."  This  people  must, 
however,  be  classified,  as  there  is  a  great  distinction 
among  them  from  a  civilized  stand-point.  There  is  a 
class  of  Malays  who  have  a  written  language  (the  spoken 
language  is  essentially  the  same  with  all  the  Malays), 
and  who  have  made  some  progress  in  the  arts  of  life ;  then 
there  are  the  sea-people,  orang-laut,  literally  "  men  of 
the  sea,"  a  kind  of  sea-gipsies  or  robbers ;  and  there  are 
also  the  orang  hcnma  or  oranrj  ut(tn, "  wild  men"  or  "  sav- 
ages," dwelling  in  the  woods  or  forests,  and  supposed  to 
be  the  aborigines  of  the  peninsula  and  islands. 

Oriffin  and  Language. — The  name  oi  Malaija  seems  to 
have  been  first  used  about  tlie  middle  of  the  12th  centu- 
ry. The  first  settlement  is  by  themselves  stated  to  have 
been  Menangkabo,  in  the  island  of  Sumatra,  rather  than 
the  peninsula  itself.  Even  the  Malays  of  Borneo  claim 
to  have  come  from  IMenangkabo.  Palembang,  howev- 
er, also  in  Sumatra,  has  been  mentioned  as  the  original 
seat  of  Malay  civilization  ;  while  others,  again,  point  to 
Java  as  the  source  from  which  both  Menangkabo  and 
Palembang  received  their  first  settlers.  "The  Java- 
nese," says  Crawfurd,"  would  seem  to  have  been  even 
the  foiuiders  of  Malacca.  Monuments  have  been  discov- 
ered which  prove'the  presence  of  this  people  in  the 
country  of  the  Malays.  Thus  Sir  Stamford  Raffles,  when 
he  visited  Menangkabo,  found  there  inscriptions  on  stone 
in  the  ancient  character  of  Java,  such  as  are  frequent 
in  that  island;  and  he  was  supported  in  his  conclusion 
l)v  tlie  learned  natives  of  Java  who  accompanied  him  in 
his  journey.  The  settlement  of  the  Javanese  in  several 
parts  of  Sumatra  is,  indeed,  sufficiently  attested.  In 
Palembang  they  have  been  immemoriaUy  the  ruling 
people ;  and,  although  the  Malay  language  is  the  pop- 
ular one,  the  Javanese,  in  its  peculiar  written  character, 
is  still  that  of  the  court."  According  to  Wallace  the 
Malays  are  found  in  Malacca,  Sumatra,  Borneo,  Tidore, 
Temata,  Macian,  and  Obi.  The  northern  peninsula  of 
Gilolo  and  the  island  Ceram  are  inhabited  by  Alfuri ; 
Timor  and  the  neighboring  isles  as  far  to  the  west  as 
Flores  and  Sandalwood,  and  as  far  to  tlie  east  as  Timor- 
lant,  are  inhal)ited  by  a  peoi)le  more  akin  to  the  Papoos 
than  to  the  Malays,  the  Timorese  being  strictly  distin- 
guished from  both  ;  tlie  inhabitants  of  the  island  Burn 
are  partly  Malays,  partly  Alfuri ;  while  the  Papoos  in- 
habit New  Guinea,  the  Kay  and  Am  isles,  Meisol,  Sal- 
watty,  and  Weigim,  and  all  the  country  eastward  as  far 
as  the  Fiji  Isles.  (Comp.  P.  INIiiller,  Liiignistische  Eth- 
nographie,  in  Jiehm,  Geograph.  Jahrbuch  [Gotha],  1868, 
vol.  ii.)  The  Malay  language  is  simple  and  easy  in  its 
construction, harmonious  in  its  proniuiciation,  and  easily 
acquired  by  Europeans.  It  is  the  lingua  Franca  of  the 
Eastern  Archipelago.  Of  its  numerous  dialects,  the  Ja- 
vanese is  the  most  refined,  a  superiority  which  it  owes 
to  the  infiuence  upon  it  of  Sanscrit  literature.  From 
the  Arabians  (who  gave  the  IMalays  iMohammcdanism) 
their  characters  are  borrowed,  and  many  Arabic  words 
have  also  been  incorporated  with  the  jNIalay  language, 
by  means  of  which  the  Javanese  are  able  to  supply  the 
deficiency  of  scientific  terms  in  their  own  tongue. 

Ikligion. — The  civilized  IMalays  are  generally  iVlo- 
hammedans  in  religious  belief;  they  embraced  tlie  faith 
of  the  Crescent  in  the  13th  or  14th  century.  The  tribes 
in  the  interior  and  the  '•  men  of  the  sea"  have  either 
no  religion  at  all,  or  only  the  most  debased  superstition. 
In  the  years  1805-38  a  sect  of  wild  fanatics,  the  Pailris- 
Priests,  also  called  Orang-Patih,  white  men  (after  their 
dress),  sought  to  re-establish  their  suiierstitious  creed 
by  fire  .and  swurd.  They  did  much  mischief  until  the 
Hollanders  found  that  their  own  safety  as  rulers  was 
threatene<l,  and,  after  a  short  war,  suiuhicd  tlic  Padris 
and  broke  their  power  most  substantially.  The  moral 
character  of  the  ludd-^Ial.avs  generally  in  not  high  ;  they 
are  passionate,  treacheniiis  and  revengeful.  But  it 
must  be  said  that  the  cruelty  and  persecution  which 
the  jMalays  suffered  at  the  liands  of  tlie  Pdrtuguose,  who 
became  their  ciincpierdrs  in  tlie  KJtli  century,  and  af- 
terwards  under   the   sway  of  the   Hollanders,  greatly 


moulded  the  present  character  of  this  people.  Little  Is 
done,  even  in  our  day,  to  ameliorate  the  forlorn  condition 
of  this  unfortunate  people.  Polygamy  is  practiced  only 
among  the  afrluent  and  in  the  large  towns.  Marriage 
can  be  effected  in  three  ways  :  either  by  purchase  of  the 
woman,  who,  upon  the  decease  of  her  husband,  becomes 
the  property  of  his  nearest  blood-relation ;  by  entering 
upon  a  life  of  servitude  with  the  proposed  father-in-law, 
a  custom  reminding  us  of  the  patriarchal  days  of  the 
Bible ;  by  an  equal  tax  borne  by  both  contracting  par- 
ties. They  practice  the  right  of  circumcision  upon  the 
male  child  between  the  ages  of  6  and  10.  The  N.  Testa- 
ment was  translated  into  the  IMalay  language  as  early  as 
the  middle  of  the  17th  century  (1CG8),  by  Brower;  the 
O.  T.  only  three  fourths  of  a  century  later  (1735)  ;  the 
whole  Bible  was  published  at  Batavia  in  1758  in  5  vols., 
and  often  since,  e.  g.  by  Willmet  (1824,  3  vols.  8vo). 
Comp.  Dulaurier,  Memoires,  lettres  et  7-apports  relatifs  du 
cows  de  langues  Malaye  et  Javanaise  (Par.  1843) ;  Grey 
and  Bleek, //HWfZioo^-  of  African,  Australian,  and  Poly- 
nesian Theology  (Cape  Cit}',  1858  sq.,  3  vols.  8vo).  See 
Waitz,  Anthropologie  der  NaturvOlker  (Leipsic,  1809,5 
vols.);  Wallace, /S'/wrfzcs  of  Man  and  NatU7-e  (London, 
1869,  2  vols.  8vo) ;  Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v.  See  Malay 
Archipelago. 

Mal'cham  (Heb.  Malkam',  £2^^,  their  king,  as  of- 
ten [and  as  it  should  be  rendered  in  Zeph.  i,  5,  instead 
of  the  Auth.Vers.  '•Malcham,"  i.  e.  Moloch]  ;  Scptuag. 
MfX^rt/'  ^'-  '"•  M{X;;^rtc,Yulg.  J/ofcAo7»),the  fourth-named 
of  the  seven  sons  of  Shaharaim  by  his  wife  Hodesh  (1 
Chron.  viii,  9).     B.C.  prob.  1612.     See  Milcoii. 

Malchi'ah  (Heb.  MaUdyuh',  ^^2^:2,  and  [in  Jer. 
xxxviii,6]  Malkiya'hu,  ^IT'^s'^,  king  of  Jehovah  ;  Sept. 
M£X;j;('a  or  MfXjcinCi  but  in  Neh.  v.  r.  MtX-^f  i«  or  MsX- 
Xfi'ot' ;  Auth.  Version  "  Malchijah,"  in  1  Chron.  ix,  12; 
xxiv,  9;  Neh.  iii,  11;  x,  3 ;  xii,  42;  Ezra  x,  25,  last 
occurrence ;  '■  Melchiah"  in  Jer.  xxi,  1),  the  name  of 
at  least  ten  persons  near  the  time  of  the  Babylonian 
exile. 

1.  The  son  of  Ethni,  and  father  of  Baaseiah,  Levites 
of  the  family  of  Gershom  (1  Chron.  vi,  40).  B.C.  much 
ante  1014. 

2.  The  head  of  the  fifth  division  of  the  sacerdotal  or- 
der in  tlie  distribution  appointed  bv  David  (1  Chron. 
xxiv,  9).     B.C.  1014. 

3.  A  priest,  the  father  of  Pashur  (1  Chron.  ix,  12; 
Neh.  xi,  12),  which  latter  was  one  of  those  who  proposed 
to  execute  the  prophet  Jeremiah  on  a  charge  of  treason 
(Jer.  xxxviii,  1),  although  he  had  but  unfavorably  an- 
swered his  infjuiry  respecting  the  fate  of  the  city  (.Jer. 
xxi,  1).  B.C.  ante  589.  He  is  verj-  possibly  the  same 
with  tlie  sou  of  llamraelech  (lit.  the  king's  son'),  and  own- 
er or  constructor  of  the  private  diuigeon  into  which  Jer- 
emiah was  cruelly  thrown  (Jer.  xxxviii,  G).  See  Jer- 
EMLVH.  "  The  title  hen-ham-Melek  is  applied  to  Jerah- 
meel  (.Ten  xxxvi,  26),  who  was  among  those  commis- 
sioned by  the  king  to  take  prisoners  Jeremiah  and  Ba- 
ruch  ;  to  Joash,  who  appears  to  have  held  an  ofiice  infe- 
rior to  that  of  the  governor  of  the  city,  and  to  whose 
custody  Micaiah  was  committed  by  Aliab  (1  Kings  xxii, 
26);  and  to  Maaseiah,  who  was  slain  by  Zichri,  the 
Ephraimite,  in  the  invasion  of  Judah  h\  Pekah,  in  the 
reign  of  Ahaz  (2  Chron.  xxviii,  7).  It  would  seem  from 
these  passages  that  the  title  'king's  son'  was  official, 
like  that  of -king's  mother,'  and  applied  to  one  of  the 
roval  family,  who  exercised  functions  somewhat  similar 
to  those  of  I'otiphar  in  the  court  of  Pharaoh"  (Smith). 

4.  One  of  the  Israelites,  former  residents  (or  descend- 
ants) of  Parosh,  who  divorced  his  Gentile  wife  after  the 
exile  (Ezra  X,  2.5).     B.C.  459. 

5.  Anotberlsraelite  of  the  same  place  (or  ])arcntage) 
who  dill  likewise  ( Ezra  x,  2.5).  B.C.  459.  In  the  Sept. 
(ad  loc.  and  1  Esd.  ix,  26)  his  name  appears  as  'Aeri'/iiac. 

6.  One  of  the  former  residents  (or  desceii<lants)  of 
Uarini,  who  assisted  in  reconstructing  the  wall  of  Jeru- 
salem after  the  return  from  Babylon  (Neh.  iii,  11).    B.C. 


MALCHIEL 


6*79 


MALDONATUS 


446.     He  was  one  of  the  Israelites  who  had  previously 
divorced  his  Gentile  wife  (Ezra  x,  31).    B.C.  450. 

7.  Son  of  Rechab,  and  ruler  of  part  of  Beth-haccerem, 
who  repaired  the  dung-gate  of  Jerusalem  after  the  cap- 
tivity (Neh.  iii,  14).     B.C.  446. 

8.  The  son  of  a  "  goldsmith,"  and  the  repairer  of  part 
of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  opposite  Ophel  (Neh.  iii,  31). 
B.C.  446. 

9.  One  of  the  priests  appointed  as  musicians,  appar- 
ently vocal,  to  celebrate  the  completion  of  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem  after  the  exile  (Neh.  xii,  42).     B.C.  446. 

10.  One  of  those  who  supported  Ezra  on  the  left 
hand  while  reading  the  law  to  the  people  assembled  at 
Jerusalem  (Neh.viil,4);  probably  the  same  with  one  of 
the  priests  who  subscribed  the  sacred  covenant  entered 
into  on  the  same  occasion  (Neh.  x,  3).     B.C.  cir.  410. 

Mal'chiel  (Heb.  MalkieV,  ix"'3^?,  iwy  of  God; 
Sept.  MfX^f'/X),  the  second  of  the  two  sons  of  Beriah, 
sou  of  Asher  (Gen.  xlvi,  17) ;  he  became  the  '■  father" 
(?  founder)  of  Birzavith  (1  Chron.  vii,  31),  and  his  de- 
scendants bore  his  name  (Numb,  xxvi,  45).  B.C.  1856. 
'•Josephus  {Ant.  ii.7, 4)  reckons  him  with  Heber  among 
the  six  sons  of  Asher,  thus  making  up  the  number  of 
Jacob's  children  and  grandchildren  to  seventy,  without 
reckoning  great-grandchildren"  (Smith). 

Mal'chielite  (Heb.  Malkidi',  "^bxiS^p,  patro- 
nymic from  Malchiel,  used  collectively;  Sept.  MnX;y;'" 
jjAi,  Auth.Vers.  "  Malchielites"),  a  descendant  of  Mal- 
chiel (Numb,  xxvi,  45). 

Malchi'jah  (in  several  passages,  for  different  men). 
See  M.VLCin.viL 

Marchiram  (Heb.  Malkiram',  Q'n"'5b'a,  ling  of 
lieiffht ;  Sept.  MiXxipa/jt),  the  second  son  of  king  Jehoi- 
acliin,  born  to  him  (according  to  Jewish  tradition,  by 
Susannah)  during  his  captivity  (1  Chron.  iii,  18),  and 
apparently  himself  without  issue  (see  Strong's  Harmony 
and  Expos,  of  the  Gosj}.  p.  17).     B.C.  post  598, 

Malchi-shu'a  (Heb.  Malki-Shu'a,  i'ViT'isbp, 
kinr;  ofhdp,  twice  as  one  word,  ^'Vlj^sb'^,  1  Sam.  xiv, 
49;  xxxi,  2;  where  the  Auth.Vers.  Anglicizes  "Mel- 
chi-shua;"  Septuag.  and  Vulg.  everywhere  MaXxicovk, 
Melchismi),  the  second  or  third  named  of  the  four  sons  of 
king  Saul  (1  Chron.  viii,  33 ;  ix,  39),  apparently  by  Ahi- 
noam  (1  Sam.  xiv,  49) ;  he  perished  in  the  battle  at  Gil- 
boa  with  his  father  (1  Sam.  xxxi,  2 ;  1  Chron.  x,  2).  B.C. 
1053.  "  In  the  fact  that  the  name  of  Saul's  eldest  son 
was  Jehovistic  in  form  (Jehovah  hath  t/iven),  whcmns  no 
such  peculiarity  is  found  in  the  names  of  the  other  sons, 
some  writers  (e.  g.  Mr.  F.  Newman)  have  seen  a  trace  of 
Saul's  gradual  apostasy.  Josephus  only  mentions  Mal- 
chishuah  once,  after  his  brothers  (MiX^iaoc,  Ant.  vi,  14, 
7)"  (Kitto). 

MaFchus  (MaAxoc,  from  the  Heb.  T\^^^,  king,  or 
T^!1?"0,  counsellor),  a  slave  of  the  high-priest  Caiaphas, 
and  the  individual  among  the  party  sent  to  arrest  Jesus 
whose  right  ear  was  cut  off  by  Peter  in  the  garden  of 
Gethsemane  (John  xviii,  10),  but  which  was  cured  by  a 
touch  from  Clirist  (LiUie  xxii,  51).  He  had  a  kinsman, 
another  slave  of  tlie  same  master  (.John  xviii,  26).  A.D. 
29.  The  name  of  Malchus  was  not  unfrequent  among  the 
Greeks  (see  Wetstein,  ad  loc. ;  Gesenius,  Montnn.  Phcen. 
p.  409 ),  but  it  was  usually  applied  to  persons  of  Oriental 
countries,  as  to  an  Arab  chieftain  (Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  5, 
1 ;  xiv,  1 4, 1 ;  XV,  6, 2) .  This  Malchus  "  was  the  personal 
servant  (SovXoq)  of  the  high-priest,  and  not  one  of  the 
bailiffs  or  apparitors  {u7rr]pkTr]c)  of  the  Sanhedrhn.  The 
high-priest  intended  is  Caiaphas,  no  doubt  (tli()iii;h  Annas 
is  called  dpxupeiii:  in  the  same  connection),  for  John,  who 
was  personally  known  to  the  former  (.John  xviii,  15),  is 
the  only  one  of  the  evangelists  who  gives  the  name  of 
JMalchus.  This  servant  was  probably  stepping  forward 
at  tlie  moment,  with  others,  to  handcuff  or  pinion  Jesus, 
when  the  zealous  Peter  struck  at  him  with  his  sword. 
The  blow  was  undoubtedly  meant  to  be  more  effective, 


but  reached  only  the  ear.  It  may  be,  as  Stier  remarks 
(Reden  Jesii,  vi,  268),  that  the  man,  seeing  the  danger, 
tlirew  his  liead  or  body  to  the  left,  so  as  to  expose  the 
right  ear  more  than  the  other.  The  allegation  that  the 
writers  are  inconsistent  with  each  other,  because  ]\Iat- 
thew,  Mark,  and  John  say  either  loriov  or  ojrapiov  (as 
if  that  meant  the  lappet  or  tip  of  the  ear),  while  Luke 
says  ovi;,  is  groundless.  The  Greek  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment age,  like  the  modern  Romaic,  often  made  no  dis- 
tinction between  the  primitive  and  diminutive.  In  fact, 
Luke  himself  exchanges  the  one  term  for  the  other  in 
this  very  narrative.  The  Saviour,  as  his  pursuers  were 
about  to  seize  him,  asked  to  be  left  free  for  a  moment 
longer  (tnrt  saic,"  tovtov),  and  that  moment  he  used  in 
restoring  the  wounded  man  to  soundness.  The  aipdps- 
vof,'  Toil  wtIov  may  indicate  (which  is  not  forbidden  by 
affTXtv,  UTTiKoxpiv)  that  the  ear  still  adhered  slightlj' 
to  its  place.  It  is  noticeable  that  Luke,  the  physician, 
is  the  only  one  of  the  writers  who  mentions  the  act  of 
healing" (.Smith),  " Some  think  Peter's  name  was  omit- 
ted by  the  synoptists,  lest  the  publication  of  it  in  his 
lifetime  shovild  expose  him  to  the  revenge  of  the  unbe- 
lieving .Jews,  but,  as  the  gospels  were  wot  published,  this 
seems  improbable"  (Kitto). 

Maldive  Islands,  a  chain  of  low  coral  islands  in 
the  Indian  Ocean,  about  400  miles  west-south-west  of 
Ceylon,  some  500  miles  in  length  by  45  in  average 
breadth,  consist  of  17  groups  or  atolls,  each  atoll  sur- 
rounded by  a  coral  reef.  The  entire  number,  including 
the  islets,  is  estimated  at  about  50,000.  Mali,  the  largest 
of  the  chain,  seven  miles  in  circumference,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  2000,  is  the  residence  of  the  native  prince, 
'•  the  sultan  of  the  Twelve  Thousand  Islands,'"  who  is  a 
tributary  prince  to  the  governor  of  Ceylon.  The  popu- 
lation of  all  the  islands  is  estimated  at  200,000.  The 
larger  and  inhabited  islands  are  clad  with  palm,  fig,  cit- 
ron, and  bread-fruit  trees.  Grain  is  also  abundantly  pro- 
duced. Wild-fowl  breed  in  prodigious  numbers;  fish, 
rice  (imported  from  Hindustan),  and  cocoa-nuts,  consti- 
tute the  food  of  the  inhabitants.  These  people  are 
strict  Mohammedans  in  their  religion. 

Maldonatus,  Joannes  (1),  a  celebrated  Spanish 
Jesuit,  was  born  at  Las  Casas-de-la-Reina,  in  Estremadu- 
ra,  in  1534 ;  studied  at  the  University  of  Salamanca,  and 
afterwards  taught  Greek,  philosophy,  and  theologj^  with 
great  success ;  the  lecture-rooms  of  the  college  were  of- 
ten too  small  to  accommodate  his  numerous  pupils.  He 
subsequently  removed  to  Poitiers,  France,  from  whence 
the  cardinal  of  Lorraine  brought  him  to  the  University 
of  Pont-ii-]Mousson,  Later  he  came  to  Paris,  and  there 
created  an  unprecedented  enthusiasm.  His  exegetical 
lectures  were  attended  not  only  by  Romanists,  but  even 
by  Protestants,  and  the  renown  of  his  teaching  reminds 
one  of  the  historj^  of  Abelard,  His  brilliant  course  was 
checkered  by  accusations  against  him  of  having  induced 
the  president,  Montbrun,  to  will  away  all  his  fortune  to 
the  Order  of  the  Jesuits,  and  of  teaching  false  doctrines 
touching  the  dogma  of  the  Immaculate  Conception.  He 
was  acquitted,  however,  on  both  charges,  but  left  Paris, 
and  retired  to  Bourges,  Avhere  he  devoted  himself  to  ex- 
egetical studies,  and  prepared  several  of  the  \vorks  (see 
list  below)  which  have  made  his  name  celebrated.  He 
was  called  to  Rome  by  pope  Gregory  XIII,  to  take  a 
part  in  the  publication  of  the  Greek  Septuagint.  He 
died  in  that  city  in  1583.  His  principal  works  are  Com- 
mentarii  in  prcecijmos  Sacra:  Scripturm  libros  Veteris 
Testamenti  (Paris,  1643,  fol.) : — Comnmitarii  in  quatuor 
Evangelist  as,  etc.(Lugd.  1615 ;  Mayence,  1841-45,  5  vols. 
8vo).  "  Though  condemned  by  some,  and  procuring  for 
its  author  tlie  title  of '  virulentissimus  et  maledicentissi- 
mus,'  this  work  has  received  from  Catholic  and  Protes- 
tant writers  a  just  meed  of  praise  (see  Bayle,  Richard 
Simon,  Schlichtingius,  INI.  Poole,  and  Jackson).  In  this 
work  Maldonatus  collates  the  opinions  of  the  lathers 
with  great  abilitj',  and  does  not  hesitate  to  differ  even 
from  Augustine,  when  sound  exegesis  demands  it.  He 
shows  acquaintance  with  the  Vatican  MS.  of  the  N.  T., 


MALDONATUS 


680 


MALEBRANCHE 


and  with  the  Sept.  version  of  the  O.  T.,  and  with  the 
original  Hebrew."  The  critical  Simon  (/iist.  crit,  des 
priitciji.  nniimenfafetirs  du  N.  T.  p.  CIS  sci.)  says  he  suc- 
ceeded better  than  any  one  else  in  explaining  the  literal 
sense  of  the  sacred  writers.  He  also  wrote  Truite  des 
Sacremeuts  (Lyon.  1614,  4to) ; — Truite  de  la  grace,  etc. 
(Paris,  1(577,  fol.) : — Traite  des  amjes  et  des  demons  (Paris, 
1017): — Tractatus  de  ccBremoniis  {Bibliotheca  ritualis, 
Kome,  17<S1,  4to).  Summula  casiann  conscientice  has 
been,  we  believe,  unjnstly  accredited  to  Maldonatus.  It 
is  a  work  of  doubtful  morality,  and  very  unlike  the 
productions  of  Maldonatus.  See  Ilerzog,  Real-Eiicij- 
klop.  viii,  s.  V. ;  Wetzer  u.  Welte,  Kirchen-Lex.  vi,  s.  v. ; 
Kitto,  Cyclop.  Bibl.  Lit,  s.  v. ;  Prat,  3faldonat  et  I'  Uni- 
versite  de  Paris  (1857) ;  Theol.  Quarterly,  18G0  (iv),  p. 
082. 

Maldonatus,  Joannes  (2),  a  Spanish  Jesuit,  who, 
according  to  Aubertns  JNlineus,  was  a  priest  of  Burgos, 
and  is  stated  by  Zeller  to  have  ordered  the  lessons  of 
the  Koman  Breviary,  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the 
16th  century.  In  1549  he  published  a  treatise,  De  Se- 
nectute  Christiana,  and  an  elegant  abridgment  of  the 
lives  of  the  saints. — Kitto,  Cyclop.  Bibl.  Lit.  vol.  iii,  s.  v. 

Male  (Heb.  12T,  zakar',  Gen.  i,  27;  vi,  19;  xxxiv, 
25),  applied  to  the  male  of  either  man  or  beasts.  The 
superior  estimation  in  which  male  children  were  held 
among  the  Hebrews  is  testified  by  numerous  passages 
of  Scripture,  and  we  find  the  same  feeling,  expressed  al- 
most in  the  same  words,  still  existing  in  Eastern  coun- 
tries (see  Job  iii,  3  ;  and  comp.  Roberts,  Observ.  ad  loc). 
See  Chili ). 

Malebianche,  Nicholas,  a  French  Jesuit,  dis- 
tinguislictl  for  his  peculiar  philosophical  views,  and  for 
the  brilliancy  and  fascination  of  the  style  in  which  they 
were  expounded.  He  was  one  of  the  most  illustrious 
of  the  Cartesians,  aiming  by  his  speculations  to  correct 
the  dangerous  tendencies  of  Des  Cartes's  philosophy 
[see  Spinoza],  and  occupies  an  eminent,  though  not  a 
controlling,  position  in  the  history  of  the  higher  philos- 
ophy. Some  knowledge  of  his  system  is  required  for 
the  just  estimation  of  the  doctrines  both  of  Locke  and 
of  Leibnitz,  and  for  the  illustration  of  the  views  of 
Berkeley. 

Life. — ^Malebranche  was  born  of  respectable  parents 
in  Paris,  Aug.  6, 1638.  Feeble  and  sickly  from  his  birth, 
and  deformed  bj'a  curvature  of  the  spine,  he  was  reared 
with  the  tenderest  care,  and  was  educated  mainly  at 
home.  His  ill  health  and  his  deformity  confirmed  the 
natural  shyness  of  his  disposition.  He  avoided  the  com- 
panionship of  robust,  sanguine,  and  active  playmates, 
and  spent  most  of  his  time  in  solitary  meditation.  He 
found  his  world  within  himself.  P>ager  for  seclusion 
from  the  turmoil  of  life,  he  sought  a  refuge  in  the  Soci- 
ety of  Jesuits,  and  joined  the  Congregation  of  the  Ora- 
tory in  the  twenty-second  year  of  his  age.  His  studies 
were  at  first  ecclesiastical  history  and  antiquities,  but 
these  he  soon  abandoned  in  consequence  of  the  weakness 
of  his  inemor\\  He  was  next  induced  by  the  learned 
Richard  Simon  to  prosecute  sacred  criticism  and  the 
Oriental  languages.  They  had  few  attractions  for  him. 
In  this  wavering  mood  he  picked  up  the  then  recently 
published  treatise  of  Des  Cartes  On  Man.  To  this  new- 
ly-ac(|uired  treasure  he  devoted  himself  assiduously,  and 
sought  the  mastery  of  the  Cartesian  doctrines  and  of 
philosopliical  problems.  Thus  he  busied  himself  for  the 
next  ten  j-ears  of  his  life,  and  became  one  of  the  most 
earnest  and  eminent  of  the  Cartesians.  His  persi)icacity 
discerned  the  weak  point  of  the  Cartesian  system;  and 
he  was  too  honest  and  too  independent  to  be  ''addictus 
jurarc  in  verl)a  magistri."  He  niedilaled  inlcntly — 
closing  the  windows  of  his  room  that  be  might  not  be 
distracted  by  the  light  and  iU)ise  of  the  outer  world; 
and  he  revolved  in  silence  and  solitude  the  arduous 
questions  which  presented  themselves  for  solution.  He 
read  litlle,  thinking  the  knowledge  of  man,  of  mind,  and 
of  God  the  all-sufficient  realm  of  speculation;  and  con- 


sidering that  such  knowledge  was  to  be  attained  onlj' 
by  diligence,  introspection,  and  abstract  reasoning.  For- 
tified and  enriched  by  such  silent  and  solitarv  labors, 
Malebranche  proposed  his  modifications  of  CartesianLsm 
in  a  work  entitled  Hi'cherche  de  la  Verite,  the  first  vol- 
ume of  which  appeared  at  Paris  in  1673 ;  the  second 
and  third  were  published  in  the  course  of  the  ensuing 
year.  An  improved  and  enlarged  edition  was  brought 
out,  towards  the  close  of  his  life,  in  1712.  This  is  his 
principal  work ;  it  is  that  which  determines  his  position 
in  the  history  of  philosophic  opinion.  Besides  other  in- 
teresting topics  discussed,  it,  in  a  manner  less  open  to 
objection,  propounded  his  celebrated  doctrine  of  Seeing 
all  things  in  God.  The  treatise  itself  was  an  examina- 
tion of  the  nature  and  characteristics  of  knowledge,  of 
the  origin  of  ideas,  of  the  mode  of  avoiding  errcr  and 
arriving  at  truth,  of  the  precautions  required  to  guard 
against  delusions  of  various  kinds,  and  especially  the 
fallacies  which  arise  from  the  senses  and  from  prejudice. 
Malebranche  has  been  accused  of  miacknowledged  obli- 
gations to  Bacon.  In  this  he  only  imitated  the  exam- 
ple of  his  illustrious  master  Des  Cartes.  Nor  did  he 
deviate  from  his  exemjilar  in  the  attention  bestowed 
upon  the  literary  execution  of  the  book.  The  style  was 
so  exquisite  that  it  exercised  an  irresistible  fascination 
over  all  its  readers.  Many  who  rejected  his  principles 
and  deductions  were  charmed  by  their  exposition  ;  and 
many  were  beguiled  into  the  acceptance  of  his  reveries 
b}'  the  plausiblity  of  their  presentation,  and  by  the 
beauty  of  their  expression.  His  ornate  style  disguised 
his  dogmas  even  to  himself.  His  language  wanted  phil- 
osophical precision,  and  offered  many  salient  points  for 
attack.  His  system  was  assailed  by  Foucher,  by  An- 
toine  Arnauld,  and  by  Locke.  The  Jesuit  Du  Tertre,  at 
the  instigation  of  his  order,  reluctantly  impugned  it. 
Hardouin,  in  his  A  theists  Unmasked,  accused  it  of  athe- 
istic characteristics.  Leibnitz,  in  defending  it  against 
such  charges,  admitted  that  the  looseness  of  the  bril- 
liant presentation  rendered  it  liable  to  misapprehension 
and  misrepresentation,  but  maintained  that  the  real 
opinions  of  the  author  were  verj-  different  from  those 
attributed  to  him  by  his  opponents  {Letti-e  a  M.  Re?nond, 
Nov.  4,  1715).  The  whole  system  of  Malebranche,  so 
far  as  it  is  a  departure  from  Cartesianism,  is  centred  in 
the  doctrine  of  his  "Vision  in  God,"  and  this  doctrine 
led  by  a  logical  development  to  those  views  of  free  will 
and  grace  which  resulted  in  the  controversy  with  Ar- 
nauld (1680).  His  inquiries  were,  however,  actuated 
throughout  by  an  earnest  religious  desire  for  the  puri- 
fication and  elevation  of  his  fellow-men,  and  were  not 
confined  to  metaphysical  speciUation,  but  were  extended 
to  practical  topics.  With  this  design  he  composed  his 
Consolations  Chretienncs  (1676),  and  liis  Traite  de  la 
Morale  (1684).  The  latter  is  one  of  the  landmarks  in 
ethical  philosophy,  and  has  merited  the  high  commen- 
dation of  Sir  James  Mackintosh.  Besides  these  noted 
treatises,  Malebranche  was  the  author  of  several  essays, 
on  various  scientific  topics,  published  in  the  Journal  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences.  Whatever  opposition  was  ex- 
cited by  the  peculiaritj',  or  the  extravagance,  or  the  ap- 
parent peril  of  his  metaphysical  speculations,  he  was  al- 
ways held  in  the  highest  esteem  for  his  amiability,  his  in- 
telligence, his  simple  goodness,  and  his  unaffected  pietv. 

The  life  of  a  valetudinarian  so  retired,  and  bound  by 
the  restraints  of  a  rigid  religious  order,  offers  few  in- 
cidents for  curious  investigation.  The  calm  and  equa- 
ble tenor  of  Malebranche's  frail  existence  was  pro- 
longed till  he  had  entered  his  seventy-eighth  year,Mlien, 
in  another  form  of  existence,  he  may  be  believed  to 
have  entered  upon  that  "vision  of  all  things  in  God" 
which,  with  piniis  enthusiasm,  lie  had  endeavored  to  an- 
ticipate on  earth.  .  He  died  in  Paris  Oct.  13, 1715,  a  year 
and  a  month  before  his  great  contemporar}-  Leibnitz. 

Philosophy. — The  cardinal  tenet  of  the  philosophy  t.f 
Malebranche,  which  contradistinguishes  it  from  that  of 
Des  Cartes,  of  Spinoza,  of  Leibnitz,  etc.,  of  the  reform- 
ing and  of  the  ac(iuicscing  acolytes  of  the  Cartesian 


MALEBRANCHE 


681 


MALEBRANCHE 


school, is  the  doctrine  of  seeirt/7  all t!iiiir/s  in  God,to  which 
such  frequent  reference  has  aheady  been  made.  The 
motive,  the  meaning,  the  genesis  of  this  doctrine,  and  its 
r^'lation  to  antecedent,  contemporary,  and  subsequent 
specidation,  are  unintelhgible,  unless  it  is  contemplated 
in  connection  with  the  dogmas  of  Des  Cartes  and  their 
development.  Dos  Cartes  (q.  v.)  recognised  only  two 
essences  in  the  universe,  thought  and  extension,  which 
witli  him  were  the  equivalents  of  mind  and  matter. 

The  mystery,  the  enigma,  which  presents  itself  in 
such  eniUess  forms,  and  which  inevitably  returns  with 
all  the  Protean  changes  of  metaphysical  speculation— 
wliich  cannot  be  evaded  in  the  study  of  that  strange 
microcosm,  Man,  in  which  body  and  soul  are  so  inti- 
mately, ami,  apparently,  so  everlastingly  united — which 
cannot  be  overlooked  in  ascertaining  the  interaction  of 
the  mens  sana  or  iiisana,  and  the  corpus  saimm  or  insa- 
num,  or  in  determining  the  grounds  of  moral  obligation 
— the  wondrous  riddle  is,  how  can  mind  act  upon  mat- 
ter, or  matter  act  upon  mind,  and  the  one  regulate  or  af- 
fect the  other.  The  diversity  of  the  unsatisfactory  so- 
lutions will  ba  seen  by  comparing  the  explanations  pro- 
pounded by  Des  Cartes,  Leibnitz,  Spinoza,  and  Herbert 
Spencer.  Des  Cartes,  recognising  the  impossibility  of 
any  solution  in  the  relations  of  the  transitory  creation, 
as  he  had  arbitrarily  conceived  it,  and  with  the  absolute 
divorce  of  the  two  existences  postulated  by  him,  intro- 
duced a  Deus  ex  muchiaa,  and  imagined  a  divine  inter- 
position to  effect  concurrent  action  on  every  occasion 
where  the  joint  operation  of  intellectual  and  physical 
nature  was  manifested.  To  this  hypothesis  has  been 
given  the  name  of  the  doctrine  of  Assistunc//.  This 
scheme  is  assuredly  obnoxious  to  the  sharp  censure  of 
Aristotle  on  some  of  his  precursers,  and  renders  the  ac- 
tive intelligence  of  the  human  race  a  mere  collection  of 
intrusive  episodes,  like  a  miserable  tragedy  (Metaph.  xi, 
x-xiii,  iii).  The  explanation  was  soon  discovered  to  be 
not  merely  a  presumption,  but  utterly  inefficacious,  and 
of  most  pernicious  tendency.  Obvioush^,  it  made  the 
creating  and  sustaining  God  the  direct  agent  in  man's 
actions  in  all  cases  where  inward  contemplation  pro- 
ceeded to  outward  act,  and  it  made  the  universe  a  com- 
plicated piece  of  puppetry,  whose  motions  were  commu- 
nicated by  a  hidden  personage  constantly  jerking  at 
the  strings.  The  logical  inconsistency  of  maintaining 
an  entire  separation  between  the  grand  constituents  of 
human  nature,  and  of  requiring  divine  intervention  for 
all  effective  manifestation  of  human  thought,  offended 
the  acute  perspicacity  of  Spinoza.  He  sought  to  re- 
store harmony  and  congruity  to  the  philosophical  in- 
terpretation of  the  intelligible  world,  by  considering 
thought  and  action,  mind  and  matter,  as  only  ciiluences, 
phenomenal  coruscations,  from  the  one,  sole,  independ- 
ent, self-sustaining,  eternal,  all-embracing  Existence, 
which  did  not  so  much  support  and  regulate,  as  con- 
stitute and  contain  alike  the  whole  creation  and  the 
Creator.  This,  of  course,  pushed  Cartesianism  to  the 
absurdity  of  its  logical  extreme,  but  annihilated  all 
moral  responsibility,  all  distinctions  of  nature,  annulled 
all  individual  existence,  establishing,  in  short,  a  ]iure 
Pantheism.  But  Pantheism,  whether  Stoic,  Platonic. 
Spinozistic,  or  ScheUingistic,  is  the  negation  of  a  per- 
sonal God,  of  all  separable  existence,  and  of  all  the  du- 
ties, the  hopes,  and  the  fears  that  spring  from  human 
obligations  to  a  heavenly  Father,  and  to  a  divine  Cre- 
ator and  beneficent  Governor  of  the  universe. 

About  the  same  time  that  Spinoza  was  secretly  en- 
gaged in  transmuting  Cartesianism  into  Pantheism,  and 
probably  independently  of  any  impulse  from  his  inves- 
tigations, Malebranche  endeavored  to  uphold  and  en- 
force the  obligations  which  \vere  nullified  b}'  the  Spino- 
zistic system,  to  preserve  all  the  dogmas  of  revealed  re- 
ligion, to  fortify  the  sense  of  religious  duty,  to  escape 
the  hazards  and  aberrations  of  the  Cartesian  theory, 
are  yet  to  uphold  the  Cartesian  doctrine  in  its  essential 
characteristics,  by  correcting  its  excesses,  and  by  indi- 
cating the  means  of  conciliation  between  the  two  widely 


separated  constituents  of  his  creation.  The  Cartesian 
fantasy  of  assistancy  he  supplanted  by  his  o\vn  cele- 
brated hypothesis  of  Occasional  Causes.  Instead  of  sup- 
posing all  material  motion,  in  accordance  with  the  move- 
ments of  the  apparently  moving  mmd,  to  be  due  to  a 
mechanical  impulse  of  the  Divinity,  disconnected  from 
human  intelligence,  he  imagined  that  aU  such  phenom- 
ena were  pro\-oked  by  images  of  change  refiected  from 
the  divine  mind,  and  that  human  knowledge  and  action 
proceeded  exclusively  from  seeing  all  things  in  God. 

A  half-truth  is  the  most  dangerous,  because  it  is  the 
most  seductive  form  of  delusion.  The  moiety  of  truth 
which  is  present  usually  precludes  the  suspicion  of  de- 
ception. Such  a  half-truth  was  Malebranche's  devout 
imagination  of  the  vision  of  the  universe  in  the  divine 
mind.  It  was,  however  unwittingly  to  himself,  the  Pan- 
theism of  Spinoza,  contemplated  from  a  different  point 
of  view,  and  disguised  by  a  brilliant  but  very  translu- 
cent veil.  It  is  an  indubitable,  because  it  is  a  revealed 
truth,  that  "  in  God  we  live,  and  move,  and  have  our 
being ;"  that  "  there  is  a  spirit  in  man,  and  the  inspira- 
tion of  the  Almighty  giveth  them  understanding;"  that 
'•the  Lord  giveth  wisdom,  out  of  his  mouth  cometli 
knowledge  and  understanding ;"  but  how  this  quicken- 
ing and  illuminating  power  of  the  Almighty  is  so  exer- 
cised as  not  to  infringe  upon  the  independent  action  of 
the  human  mind,  and  the  free  agency  of  the  human 
Avill,  is  one  of  the  most  bewildering  problems  of  tran- 
scendental  speculation.  Our  finite  capacities  can  attain 
a  definite  solution  only  by  a  violent  severance  of  the 
tiordian  knot,  and  mutilation  of  the  truth.  We  may 
throw  aside  one  half,  and  accept  the  other  half  as  com- 
plete and  exclusive,  thus  welcoming  Fatalism  on  the  one 
side,  and  Pantheism,  in  all  the  various  shades  of  idealis- 
tic subtlety,  on  the  other.  That  every  moment  of  our 
continuous  existence  must  be  ascril)ed  to  the  uninter- 
mittent  support  of  the  original  creating  power;  that  all 
our  thoughts  and  actions,  and  our  capacity  for  thought 
and  action,  recjuire  the  same  upholding  agency ;  that 
this  is  the  divine  action  of  grace  on  our  will  and  con- 
science ;  the  divine  guidance  and  providence  in  shaping 
our  ends  and  the  issues  of  our  conduct ;  the  divine 
impulse  and  irradiation  in  our  best  decisions,  and  in  our 
intuitive  apprehensions  of  recondite  truths — these  are 
positions  earnesth^  entertained  and  asserted  by  the  clear- 
est and  strongest  thinkers,  of  all  schools  and  vocations, 
in  every  age.  A  cloud  of  witnesses  to  these  conclusions 
might  be  summoned,  more  numerous  than  those  con- 
voked by  Sir  William  Hamilton  in  support  of  the  doc- 
trine of  common-sense,  and  rendering  much  less  ques- 
tionable testimony.  "  Omnis  sapientia  a  Domino  Deo 
est ;"  "  a  Deo  projecta  et  sapientia"  (Ecclus.  i,  1 ;  xv,  10). 
"Mihi  autem  Deus  dedit  dicere  ex  sententia.  et  prKsu- 
mere  digna  horum  qu;B  mihi  dantur:  quoniam  ipse  sa- 
pientise  dux  est  et  sapientiam  emendatur.  In  manu 
enira  illius  et  nos  et  sermones  nostri,  et  omnis  sapientia, 
et  operum  scientia,  et  disciplina.  Ipse  enim  dedit  mihi 
horum  qu.-B  sunt  scientiam  veram"  (Wisd.  vii,  15-17). 
"  Every  good  gift  and  every  perfect  gift  is  from  above, 
and  cometh  down  from  the  Father  of  lights."  "  Nemo 
vir  magniis  sine  aliquo  afflatu  divino  umquam  fuit" 
(Cicero,  De  Xat.  Deor.  ii,lxvi,  §  167).  This  tenet  may 
have  been  borrowed  by  Cicero  from  Plato,  or  even  from 
Homer,  but  it  has  been  recently  approved  liy  Whewell, 
Pilackie,  and  Dallas.  "  Sacer  intra  nos  spiritus  sedet; 
malorum  bonorumque  nostrorum  observator  et  custos. 
I  lie,  jirout  a  nobis  tractatus  est,  ita  nos  ipse  tractat. 
15onns  vero  vir  sine  deo  nemo  est;  an  potuit  aliquis  su- 
pra fortunam  nisi  ab  illo  adjustus  exsurgere?  Ille  dat 
consilia  magnifica  et  erecta.  In  unoquoqiie  virorum  bo- 
norum,  quis  deus  incertum  est,  habitat  deus"  (Seneca, 
Episf.  Mor.  iv,  xii  [xlii],  §  2).  Similar  declarations  are 
to  be  found  in  Thales.  Democritus.  Plato,  Proclus,  Plo- 
tinus,  and  a  very  remarkaljle  one  in  Clemens  Alexan- 
drinus  (iStromat.  v,  14).  S.  Augustin  says, ••  Initium  ergo 
ejus  figmentum  est  Dei :  non  enim  est  uUa  natura  etiam 
iu  extremis  iufimisque  vestiolis,  quam  non  ille  constituit, 


MALEBRANCHE 


682 


MALEBRANCHE 


a  quo  c?t  omnis  modus,  omnis  species,  omnis  ordo ;  sine 
quibiis  nihil  rerum  inveniri  vcl  cogitari  potest"  {De  Civ. 
Jhi,  xi,  xv).  The  thesis  has  been  amply  commented 
upon,  elucidated  and  expanded,  by  S.  Thomas  Aquinas, 
Ilenrv  of  Ghent,  Roger  Bacon,  Duns  Scotus,  and  the  bet- 
ter liidt'of  the  schoolmen.  It  is  eontirmed  by  lord  Ba- 
con, John  INIillin,  bishop  Berkeley,  and  many  of  the  most 
distinguished  modems,  out  of  Germany  as  well  as  in 
that  land  of  golden  mists.  "  In  this,  at  once  most  com- 
prehensive and  most  appropriate  acceptation  of  the -word, 
reason  is  pre-eminently  spiritual,  and  a  spirit,  even  our 
spirit,  through  an  effluence  of  the  same  grace  by  which 
we  are  privileged  to  sa.y,  Our  Father"  (Coleridge,  .4  k/s 
io  Rejiectiort) ;  and  the  same  author  cites  with  approval 
3  still  stronger  utterance  to  the  like  effect  from  that 
easih'  distinguishable  personage,  John  Smith,  1G60. 

Leibnitz  might  well  say  that  Malebranche's  doctrine 
was  no  novelty.  It  was,  indeed,  both  viry  old  and  very 
generally  accredited,  but  in  a  form  and  with  an  applica- 
tion widely  diiferent  from  what  was  contemplated  by 
him  in  its  new  presentation.  The  long  citation  of  the 
evidences  of  its  general  acceptance — and  not  the  tenth 
part  accessible  has  been  given — may  be  pardoned  as  be- 
ing necessary  to  exhibit  its  familiarity  to  the  greatest 
intellects,  and  its  inclusion  of  actual  and  important  truth. 
The  doctrine  is  true,  but  it  is  most  perilous.  It  must  be 
received  with  habitual  caution,  and  with  most  circum- 
spect limitations.  It  rims  along  a  sharp  crest,  with 
precipices  on  either  hand  stretching  sheer  down  into 
unfathomable  abysses.  On  this  narrow  path,  at  this 
giddy  elevation,  INIalebranche  was  unable  to  preser\-e 
his  balance,  however  pure  and  lofty  was  his  design.  His 
speculation  topples  over  into  the  yawning  gulf  of  Pan- 
theism, and  is  distinguished  from  Spinozism  rather  by 
its  motive  and  spirit  than  by  its  tendency  or  result. 
"The  vision  of  all  things  in  Gdd"  becomes  a  new  be- 
cause a  changed  doctrine  in  the  hands  of  the  philosoph- 
ical Jesuit.  He  is  carried  away  from  all  safe  landmarks 
by  his  own  noble  but  misguiding  enthusiasm,  and  justi- 
fies the  censure  of  Brucker,  "non  multum  ab  enthusias- 
mo,  vel  etiam  a  Quackerorum  illuminatione  immediata 
abesse  videtur." 

In  the  theory  of  IMalebranche,  body  and  spirit,  being 
totally  disjoined  from  each  other,  and  incapable  of  in- 
tercommunication, can  be  brought  into  harmonious — 
and,  indeed,  into  possible — co-operation  only  by  the  in- 
tervention of  a  higher  nature.  As  knowledge,  accord- 
ing to  the  postulate  of  Des  Cartes,  is  the  substance  and 
the  evidence  of  intelligible  existence,  supreme  knowl- 
edge or  omniscience  must  be  the  attribute  and  exclusive 
property  of  the  only  Absolute  Existence.  All  things, 
therefore,  primarily  exist  in  the  Divine  jMind  and  in  the 
Divine  Contemplation ;  and  their  genuine,  as  well  as 
their  original,  reality  is  as  the  archetypal  idea  of  the 
Divine  Intelligence.  Temporal  existences,  with  their 
alterations  and  combinations,  proceed  from  the  divine 
aspiration.  All  their  forms,  modes,  habits,  changes — 
separately,  and  in  the  intricate  dance  of  spiritual  and 
material  nnUations  and  complications  —  are  presented 
and  revealed  to  the  gaze  of  other  intelligences  only  in 
the  mirror  of  (Jod's  mind.  This  is  not  very  remote  from 
the  Pre-established  Harmony  of  Leibnitz,  but  it  is  much 
nearer  to  the  infinite  effluxes  of  the  (iodhead  in  Spinoza. 
It  is  only  in  their  divine  types  that  we  contemplate  the 
marvels  of  sublunarj'  change,  receive  impressions  from 
without,  and  regulate  our  actions  accordingly.  We  see 
all  things  in  God — and  all  material  motions  concurrent 
with  our  will  arc  produced,  as  on  the  Cartesian  system, 
l)y  divine  inten-ention.  All  our  percej)tions  and  sensa- 
tions, apparently  excited  by  extrinsic  stimulations,  are 
due  to  divine  action.  The  extrinsic  object  is  perceived, 
not  in  itself, nor  even  in  its  sensililc  image;  Imt  the  sen- 
sible image  is  only  the  reticTtion  of  the  idea  abiding  in 
the  mind  of  God.  Thus  man,  and  man's  sensibilities, 
are  not  the  cause,  the  immediate  cause  at  least,  of  his 
perceptions  or  of  his  actions;  but  they  are  only  the  oc- 
casion of  God's  revealing  that  perception  through  the 


idea  subsisting  in  himself,  or  of  his  impelling  to  the  ac- 
tion which  may  ensue  frtm  the  conception,  but  without 
actual  dependence  upon  it.  ''  Non  sentement  les  hommes 
ne  sont  point  les  veritables  causes  des  mouvcments  qu'ils 
produisent  dans  leurs  corps;  il  semble  meme  qu'il  v  ait 
contradiction  qu'ils  puissent  I'etre.  ...  II  n'y  a  que 
Dieu  qui  soit  veritable  cause,  et  qui  est  veritablement 
la  puissance  de  mouvoir  les  corjjs"  {Trait e  de  Morale, 
liv.  vi,  p"'  ii,  ch.  iii). 

The  cardinal  doctrine  of  Malebranche  is  all  that  pre- 
ser\'es  enduring  interest,  and  that  needs  concern  us  here. 
It  gained  only  a  verj'  limited  and  temporary  acceptance. 
Its  invalidity  was  almost  immediately  and  intuitively 
recognised,  and  it  was  soon  supplanted  by  other  schemes 
of  like  character  and  of  like  frailty,  or  was  hustled  out 
of  consideration  by  wholly  contradictor}'  doctrines.  It 
may  again  return  unexpectedly  in  other  forms,  but  in 
its  own  Cartesian  garb  it  has  passed  away  forever.  Its 
applications  and  developments,  ingenious  as  they  are, 
and  animated  as  they  are  with  a  spirit  of  pure  and  deep 
devotion,  have  few  special  claims  to  attention.  JIany 
valuable  counsels,  many  stimulating  and  comforting  ex- 
hortations, many  precious  exhortations  for  the  guidance 
of  our  investigations,  our  feelings,  and  our  conduct,  are 
presented  in  the  graceful  and  perspicuous  expositions  of 
the  serene-tempered  and  heavenly-minded  philosopher, 
whose  heart  saw  all  things  in  God,  if  his  metajdiysics 
failed  to  prove  that  vision  of  the  divinity  to  be  the  sole 
possible  mode  of  linite  thought  and  action.  His  moral 
system  was  directly  founded  on  his  cardinal  tenet,  and 
feO  with  it.  He  referred  all  virtue  to  the  recognition 
and  love  of  the  universal  order  as  it  exists  eternally  in 
the  Divine  Reason,  where  everj'  created  reason  contem- 
plates it.  There  is  some  analogy  between  this  view-  and 
the  ennobling  reflections  of  Donoso  Cortes;  but  it  is 
open  to  the  objections  made  by  Sir  James  i\Iackintosh, 
and  to  others  which  he  has  not  made.  IMakbrancbe, 
however,  merits  the  praise  of  the  same  just  and  discrim- 
inating critic,  that  "he  is  perhaps  the  first  philosojilKr 
who  has  precisely  laid  down  and  rigidly  adhered  to  the 
principle  that  virtue  'consists  in  pure  intentions  and 
dispositions  of  mind,  without  which  actions,  however 
conformable  to  rules,  are  not  truly  moral' " — a  thesis  de- 
veloped, and  perhaps  degraded,  by  Paley. 

The  further  criticism  of  Blalebranche's  M-ritings  is 
unnecessary',  though  they  merited  a  formal  refutation 
by  Locke,  a  rectification  and  a  partial  acceptance  by 
Leibnitz.  " Quod  ad  controversiam  attinct, utrimi  omnia 
videamus  in  Deo  (ipia;  utique  vetus  est  sententia,  et,  si 
sano  sensu  intelligatur,  non  onmino  sperncnda),  an  vero 
proprias  ideas  habeamus,  sciendum  est,  et  si  omnia  in 
Deo  videamus,  necesse  tamen  est  ut  habeamus  et  ideas 
proprias"  ....  {Meditatioms,  1G84 ;  Opera  Ed.  Ihttens. 
tom.  ii,  p'  i,  p.  12  ;  comp.  Lettre  a  M.  Montmort,  Nov.  4, 
1715;  ibid.  p.  217). 

Thus  Malebranche  is  admitted  into  honorable  and 
lasting  conjunction  with  the  illustrious  names  of  Spino- 
za, Locke,  and  Leibnitz;  and,  sharing  in  the  light  in 
which  they  lived,  he  participated  in  moulding  the  in- 
fluences which  formed  the  succeeding  generation  of  bold 
and  curious  metaphysical  inquirers,  and  left  behind  the 
memorj'  and  the  example  of  an  earnest,  sincere,  and  ir- 
reproachable existence.  The  other  productions  of  Mal- 
eliranche  were  partly  controversial  and  partly  religious. 
Of  the  latter  we  may  mention  the  Entretitm  d'lin  I'hi- 
hisvphe  Chretien  et  d'lin  Philosophe  Chinois  sur  la  Nature 
de  Dieu  (Paris,  1708)  -.-De  la  Nature  et  de  la  Grace 
(Amsterdam,  IGSO) : — Eiilretiens  sur  la  Metaphiifique  et 
sur  la  Reliijion  (Kotterd.  1688;  of  a  mystical  character, 
blending  religion  with  metaphysics).  A  comi'lete  edi- 
tion of  his  works  was  published  at  Paris,  1712,  in  11 
vols,  12mo;  new  edition  by  Genoude  and  Lourdoueix, 
1837,  2  vols,  8vo, 

Literature. — The  works  of  JMalebranche  are  probably 
sufficient  of  themselves  to  supply  all  that  is  necessary 
to  be  known  of  the  peculiarities  of  his  system,  and  to  be 
indicated  in  regard  to  its  tendencies.     Besides  Brucker 


MALEC 


683 


MALLOWS 


and  the  other  historians  of  philosophy,  the  following  may 
be  consulted  with  advantage  :  Arnauld,  Des  Idees  Vraies 
et  Fausses ;  Bayle,  Diet.  Hist,  et  Critique ;  Norris,  Essay 
towaixls  the  Theory  of  the  Ideal  or  Intellectual  World 
(Lond.  1701,2  vols.  8  vo) ;  heihmtz,  Examen  des  Sentiments 
de  Malebrunche,  in  Raspe,  (Euvres  Philosophiques  de  M. 
Leibnitz  (Amst.  1705)  ;  Leibnitz,  Theodicee  and  Epistolu 
ad Remondum ;  Locke,  Examination  ofM. Mahbranche's 
Opinion;  Fontenelle,  Hist,  da  Renouvellement  de  V Acad- 
emic Royale  dts  Sciences ;  Dug.  Stewart,  Philosophy  of 
the  Human  Mind,  and  Dissei'tation  I,  Supplement  to  the 
Encyclopcedia  Britannica  ;  INIackintosh,  Dissertation, 
Supplem.  Encycl.  Britann. ;  Sir  William  Hamilton,  Lec- 
tures on  Metaphysics  (Boston,  1859)  ;  Blakey,  History  of 
the  Philosophy  of  Mind  (London,  1850),  vol.  ii;  Saisset, 
PantMisme,  i,  66  sq. ;  and  the  same  in  Rerue  des  Detix 
Mondes,  April  1,  1862  ;  Herzog,  Real-EnryUopddie,  vol. 
XX,  s.  V. ;  Erdmann,  Malebranche;  Spinoza,  die  Skeptiker 
und  Mystiker  des  Siebzehnten  Jahrhunderfs  (1836) ;  Rel- 
stab,  Dissertatio  de  Mcdebranchio  Philosopho  (18-16)  ; 
Hallam,  Introd.  to  the  Lit.  of  Europe  (Harpers'  edition), 
ii,  91  sq. ;  Blampignon,  Elude  sur  Malebranche  (Paris, 
1862,  8vo).     (G.  F.  H.) 

IMalec  iking).  So  the  Mohammedans  call  the 
principal  angel  in  care  of  hell.  In  the  Koran  it  is  said 
(speaking  of  the  infidels),  "And  they  shall  call  aloud, 
saying,  O  Malec,  intercede  for  us,  that  tlie  Lord  would 
end  us  by  annihilation.  And  he  shall  answer,  Verilj', 
ye  shall  remain  here  forever.  We  brought  you  the  truth 
heretofore,  and  ye  abhorred  the  truth."  Some  of  the 
Mohammedan  doctors  say  this  answer  will  be  given  a 
thousand  years  after  the  tinal  dissolution  of  this  world. 
— Broughton,  Biblioth.  Hist.  Sac.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  Hale,  Ko- 
ran,  p.  401. 

Malekites,  the  second  of  the  four  orthodox  Mo- 
hammedan sects.  The  founder  of  the  Malekites  was 
Malek  Ibn- Ansa,  born  at  Medina  about  the  year  of  the 
Hegira  95.  He  was  remarkable  for  strenuouslj^  insist- 
ing on  the  literal  acceptation  of  the  prohibitory  pre- 
cepts. Tradition  will  have  it  that  when  visited  in 
his  last  illness  by  a  friend,  who  found  him  in  tears, 
and  asked  him  the  cause  of  his  aliliction,  he  rc,iUed, 
"Who  has  more  reason  to  weep  than  IV  Would  God 
that  for  everjr  question  decided  by  me  according  to 
my  own  opinion  I  had  received  so  many  stripes,  then 
would  m}'  account  be  easier.  Would  to  God  I  had  never 
given  any  decision  of  my  own."  Tlie  INLalekites  are 
chiefly  found  in  Barbary  and  other  parts  of  Africa. — 
Sale's  Koran,  Prel.  Disc.  §  8;  Taylur,  Hist,  of  Moham- 
medanism, p.  288  ;  Broughton,  Biblioth.  Hist.  Sac.  vol.  ii. 
s.  V.     See  Mohammedanism. 

Mal'eleel  (Luke  iii,  37).     See  Maiialeleel. 

Malevolence  is  that  disposition  of  mind  which 
inclines  us  to  wish  ill  to  any  person.  It  discovers  itself 
in  frowns  and  a  lowering  countenance,  in  uncharitable- 
ness,  in  evil  sentiments,  hard  speeches  to  or  of  its  object, 
in  cursing  and  reviling,  and  doing  mischief  either  with 
open  violence  or  secret  spite,  as  far  as  there  is  power. — 
Buck,  Theol.  Diet.  s.  v.     See  Malice. 

Maley,  George  W.,  an  American  jNIothodist  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  Avestern  Pennsyh-ania  in  1799 ;  was  ed- 
ucated at  an  academy  in  Butler,  Pennsylvania ;  was 
converted  in  1819;  was  licensed  to  preach  and  recom- 
mended to  the  Ohio  Conference  in  1821,  and  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  Mad  River  Circuit;  in  1822,  to  London; 
in  1823,  to  Piqua;  in  1824,  to  White  Oak;  in  1825,  to 
Piqua;  in  1826-7,  to  Union;  in  1S28-9,  to  AVilmington  ; 
in  1830-1,  to  Hillslxjro;  in  1832-3,  to  White  Oak;  in 
1834,  to  'Madison;  in  1835,  to  New  Richmond;  in  1836- 
7,  to  Milford;  in  1838,  to  Franldin;  in  l«39-40,  to  Ger- 
mantown;  iu  1841,  agent  for  Springfield  and  German- 
town  Academy;  iu  1842,  to  Franklin;  in  1843,  to  Eaton  ; 
in  1844-5,  to  Cincinnati  City  Mission.  In  1846  he  join- 
ed the  Kentucivy  Conference,  M.  E.  Chur^li  South;  in 
1846-7,  was  presiding  elder  of  Covington  District ;  in 
1848  was  appointed  to  Soule  Chapel,  Cincinnati,  Ohio ; 


the  next  ten  years  was  supernumerary,  and  the  remain- 
der of  his  life  superannuated.  He  died  in  Urbana, 
Champaign  Co.,  Ohio,  Doc.  14, 1866.  In  his  last  ilhiess, 
though  suffering,  he  was  uncomplaining  and  happy,  and 
sent  his  love  and  greetings  to  his  ministerial  associates: 
"  Tell  my  brethren  of  the  Kentucky  Conference  that  I 
die  in  the  faith,  and  in  full  fellowship  with  the  whole 
Church,  East,  West,  North,  and  South."  —  Minutes  of 
Conferences,  1867. 

Malice  is  a  settled  or  deliberate  determination  to 
revenge  or  do  hurt  to  anotlier.  It  more  frequently  de- 
notes the  disposition  of  inferior  minds  to  execute  every 
purpose  of  mischief  within  the  more  limited  circle  of 
their  abilities.  It  is  a  most  hateful  temper  in  the  sight 
of  God,  strictly  forbidden  in  his  holy  Word  (Col.  iii,  8- 
12),  disgraceful  to  rational  creatures,  and  every  way  in- 
imical to  the  sjnrit  of  Cliristianity  (Matt,  v,  44). — Buck, 
Theol.  Diet.  s.  v.     See  Malevolence. 

Malignity,  a  disposition  obstinately  bad  or  mali- 
cious. Malignancy  and  malignity  are  words  nearly  sy- 
nonymous. In  some  connections,  malignity  seems  rath- 
er more  pertinently  applied  to  a  radical  depravity  of  na- 
ture, and  malignancy  to  indications  of  this  depravity  in 
temper  and  conduct  in  particular  instances. — Buck,  Thif 
olor/ical  Diet.  s.  v.     See  Malevolence. 

Mallary,  Ciiaules  Daniel,  D.D.,  an  American  Bap- 
tist minister,  was  bom  at  Poultney,  Vermont,  in  Janu- 
ary, 1801.  He  graduated  at  Middlebury  College  in  1821, 
and  in  1822  removed  to  Columbia,  South  Carolina ;  was 
ordained,  and  preached  six  years.  He  afterwards  re- 
sided in  Georgia,  and  was  a  principal  founder  of  fiercer 
University.  In  the  division  of  the  denomination  in 
1835,  on  the  missionary  question,  he  advocated  that  sys- 
tem. He  died  in  1864.  Dr.  Mallary  published  a  Life 
of  Mercer,  and  'Soul  Prosperity. — Drake,  Diet,  of  Amer. 
Binff.  p.  593. 

Malleolus.     See  Hejimerlin. 

Lial'los,  a  town  of  Asia  Minor,  whose  inhabitants 
(Ma\\ujTai,yiilg. Mallotw,  A.Y.  "thej-  of  ^lallos"),  with 
the  people  of  Tarsus,  revolted  from  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
because  he  had  bestowed  them  on  one  of  his  concubines 
(2  Mace,  iv,  30).  The  absence  of  the  king  from  Antioch 
to  put  down  the  insurrection  gave  the  infamous  Mene- 
laus,  the  high-priest,  an  opportunity  of  purloining  some 
of  the  sacred  vessels  from  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem  (ver. 
32,  39),  an  act  which  finally  led  to  the  murder  of  the 
good  Onias  (ver.  34,  35).  Slallos  was  an  important  city 
of  CUicia,  lying  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pvramus  (Seihun), 
on  tlie  shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  north-east  of  Cyprus, 
and  about  twenty  miles  from  Tarsus  (Tersus).  (See 
Smith,  Diet,  of  Class.  Geography. ~) — Smith. 

Mal'lothi  (Hebrew  Mullo'tlii,  '^IT.'l'i'?,  perhaps  for 
"^rXi";,  my  fulness;  Septuag.  MaXXiSt  v.  r.  MtaXoj^i, 
MtWri^i,  MfXXwSi;  Yii\g.3Iellothi),one  of  the  fourteen 
sons  of  Heman  the  Levite  (1  Chron.  xxv,  4),  and  head 
of  the  nineteenth  division  of  Temple  musicians  as  ar- 
ranged by  David  (I  Chron.  xxv,  26).     B.C.  1014. 

MallO'WS  (ni2"2.  mallu'ach,  salted;  Sept.  dXtfiov, 
Yulg.  herb(i')  occurs  ouly  in  the  passage  where  Job  com- 
plains that  he  is  subjected  to  the  contumely  of  the  mean- 
est people,  those  "  who  cut  up  mallows  by  the  bushes 
for  their  meat"  (Job  xxx,  4).  The  proper  meaning  of 
the  word  malluaeh  has  been  a  subject  of  considerable 
discussion  among  authors,  in  consequence,  apparently, 
of  its  resemblance  to  the  (Jreek  /iiaXaxi,  signifying 
"  mallow,"  and  also  to  maluch,  which  is  said  to  be  the 
Syriac  name  of  a  species  of  Oraehe,  or  A  triplex.  It  is 
difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  say  which  is  the  more  cor- 
rect interpretation,  as  both  appear  to  have  some  founda- 
tion in  truth,  and  seem  equally  adapted  to  the  sense  of 
the  above -quoted  passage.  (See  Gescnius,  Thesaur. 
Heb.  p.  791 ).  The  malaehe  of  the  Greeks  is  distinguish- 
ed by  Dioscorides  into  two  kinds,  of  which  he  states 
that  "the  cultivated  is  more  fit  for  food  than  the  wild 
kind.    Arabic  authors  apply  the  description  of  Dioscor- 


MALLOWS 


684 


MALLOWS 


ides  to  l-hub-bazi,  a  name  which  in  India  is  applied  both 
to  species  of  Malva  roiiuuUfoUu  and  of  M.  sylvesiris, 
which  extend  from  Europe  to  the  north  of  India,  and 
wliich  are  still  used  as  food  in  the  latter  country,  as  tliey 
formerly  were  in  Europe,  and  probably  in  Syria.  Tliat 
some  kind  of  mallow  has  been  so  used  in  Syria  we  have 
evidence  in  the  quotation  made  by  Mr.  llarmer  from 
Bidilulph,  who  says,  "  We  saw  many  poor  people  col- 
lecting mallows  and  three-leaved  grass,  and  asked  them 
what  they  did  with  it;  and  they  answered,  that  it  was 
all  their  food,  and  that  they  boiled  it,  and  did  eat  it." 
Dr.  Shaw,  in  liis  Travels,  on  the  contrary,  observes  that 
''  Mellou-keah,  or  mulookiah,  N'^TT'.bT;,  as  in  the  Arabic, 
is  the  same  with  the  mdochia  or  corchorus,  being  a  pod- 
ded species  of  mallows,  whose  pods  are  rough,  of  a  glu- 
tinous substance,  and  used  in  most  of  their  dishes.  Mtl- 
lou-keah  appears  to  be  little  diflFerent  in  name  from  niPT3 
(Job  XXX,  -1),  which  we  render  '  mallows,'  though  some 
other  ])lant,  of  a  more  saltish  taste,  and  less  nourishing 
<]uality,  may  be  rather  intended."  The  plant  alluded 
to  is  Corchorus  olitorius,  which  has  been  adopted  and 
tigured  in  her  Scripture  Herbal  (p.  255)  by  lady  Calcott, 
wlio  observes  that  this  plant,  called  Jews'  Mallow,  ap- 


Jcws'  Mallow  {Currlwrus  Olitorius). 

pears  to  be  certainly  that  mentioned  by  the  patriarch. 
Avicenna  calls  it  olus  Juduicum ;  and  Kauwolf  saw  the 
Jews  about  Aleppo  use  the  leaves  as  potherbs;  "and 
tliis  same  mallow  continues  to  l)e  eaten  in  Egypt  and 
Arabia,  as  well  as  Palestine."  But  there  are  so  many 
plants  of  a  mild  mucilaginous  nature  which  are  used  as 
articles  of  diet  in  the  East,  that  it  is  hardlj'  possible  to 
select  one  in  preference  to  another,  unless  we  find  a  sim- 
ilarity in  the  name.  Thus  species  oi  Amai-anthus,  oi 
C/ienopodium,  of  Portulacca,  as  well  as  the  above  Coi-- 
chorus,  and  the  mallow,  are  all  used  as  food,  and  might 
be  adduced  as  suitable  to  the  above  passages,  since  most 
of  them  arc  found  growing  wild  in  many  parts  of  the 
countries  of  the  East. 

The  learned  Bochart,  however,  contends  [Tlieroz.  part 
i,  t.  iii,  c.  1(!)  that  the  word  malluach  denotes  a  saltish 
jdant  called  (VXi/jot;  by  tlie  (ireeks,  and  wliich  with  good 
reason  is  sujiposed  to  be  the  Atrijilvx  halimus  of  bota- 
nists, or  tall  shrubby  Orache.  Tlie  Sept.,  indeed,  first 
gave  dXtfia  as  the  intcr[)retation  of  nudlnach.  Celsius 
adopts  it  l^/Jierobot.  ii,  96  sq.),  and  many  others  consider 
it  as  the  most  correct.  A  good  abstract  of  Hochart's  ar- 
guments is  given  by  Dr.  Harris.  In  the  first  place  the 
most  ancient  (ireek  translator  interprets  mallhach  by 
halimos.  That  the  Jews  were- in  the  habit  of  eating  a 
plant  called  by  the  former  name  is  evident  from  the 
((notation  given  by  Bochart  from  the  Talmudical  tract 
Kiddnsin  (c.  iii,  65).  By  Ibn-I5uetar,  malukh  is  given 
as  the  synonym  of  al-kutiif  al-buliuri,  i,  c.  the  sea-side 


Kutuf  or  Orache,  which  is  usually  considered  to  be  the 
A  triplex  marinum,  now  A.  halimus,  Bochart,  indeed, 
remarks  that  Dioscorides  describes  the  halimus  as  a 
shrub  with  branches,  destitute  of  thorns,  with  a  leaf  like 
the  olive,  but  broader,  and  growing  on  the  sea-shore. 
This  notice  evidently  refers  to  the  liXif^iotj  (Dioscor.  i, 
121),  which,  as  above  stated,  is  supposed  to  be  the  A  tri- 
plex hcdimus  of  botanists,  and  the  Kvtvf  buhuri  of  the 
Arabs,  while  the  arpcKpa^ii;  of  the  same  author  (ii,  145) 
is  their  kutuf  axvl  A  triplex  hortensis,  Linnreus.  Bochart 
quotes  Galen  as  describing  the  tops  of  the  former  as  be- 
ing used  for  food  when  j-oung.  Dioscorides  also  says 
that  its  leaves  are  emploj-ed  for  the  same  purpose. 
(Comp.  Theophrast.  Plant,  iv,  17 ;  Athen.  Deipn.  iv,  161 ; 
Horace,  Ep.  i,  12,  7;  Pliny,  xxi,  55;  Tournefort,  Trav. 
I,  41.)  What  the  Arab  writers  state  as  to  the  tops  of 
the  plants  being  eaten  corresponds  to  the  description  of 
Job,  who  states  that  those  to  whom  he  refers  cropped 
upon  the  shrub — which  by  some  is  supposed  to  indicate 
that  the  malluach  grew  near  hedges.  These,  however, 
do  not  exist  in  the  desert.  There  is  no  doubt  that  spe- 
cies of  Orache  were  used  as  articles  of  diet  in  ancient 
times,  and  probably  stiU  are  so  in  the  countries  where 
they  are  indigenous;  but  there  are  many  other  plants, 
similar  in  nature,  that  is,  soft  and  succident,  and  usually 
very  saline,  such  as  the  tScdsolas,  Salicortnas,  etc.,  which, 
like  the  species  of  A  triplex,  belong  to  the  same  natural 
family  of  Chenopodew,  and  which,  from  their  saline  na- 
ture, have  received  their  respective  names.  Many  of 
these  are  well  known  for  yielding  soda  by  incineration. 
In  conformity  with  this,  Mr.  Good  thinks  that  '•  the  real 
plant  is  a  species  of  Salsola,  or  '  salt-wort ;'  and  that  the 
term  c'iXipa,  employed  in  the  Greek  versions,  gives  ad- 
ditional countenance  to  this  conjecture."  Some  of  these 
are  shrubby,  but  most  of  them  are  herbaceous,  and  ex- 
tremely common  in  all  the  dry,  desert,  and  saline  soils 
which  extend  from  the  south  of  Europe  to  the  north  of 
India.  Most  of  them  are  saline  and  bitter,  but  some  are 
milder  in  taste  and  mucilaginous,  and  are  therefore  em- 
ployed as  articles  of  diet,  as  spinach  is  in  Europe.  <S'((/- 
sola  Indica,  for  instance,  which  is  common  on  the  coasts 
of  the  Peninsida  of  India,  Dr.  Roxburgh  states,  saved 
the  lives  of  many  thousands  of  thio  poor  natives  of  India 
during  the  famine  of  1791-2-3;  for,  while  the  plant 
lasted,  most  of  the  poorer  classes  who  lived  near  the  sea 
had  little  else  to  eat;  and,  indeed,  its  green  leaves  ordi- 
narily form  an  essential  article  of  the  food  of  those  na- 
tives who  inhabit  the  maritime  districts.     For  other 


Sea-purslane  {Atn'plex  Halimris). 


MALLUACH 


685 


MALVENDA 


interpretations,  see  Rosenmliller  (ad  loc.  Job.)- — Kitto. 
Mr.  Tristram  {Xat.  Uiaf.  of  the  Bible,  p.  466)  decides  in 
favor  of  the  above  species  of  sea-purslane  {A  irijilex  hu- 
limus),  wliich  he  says  "grows  abundantly  on  the  sliores 
of  the  Mediterranean,  in  salt  marshes,  and  also  on  the 
shores  of  the  Dead  Sea  still  more  luxuriantly.  We 
found  thickets  of  it  of  considerable  extent  on  the  west 
side  of  the  sea,  and  it  exclusively  supplied  us  with  fuel 
for  many  days.  It  grows  there  to  the  height  of  ten 
feet— more  than  double  its  size  on  the  jMediterranean. 
It  forms  a  dense  mass  of  thin  twigs  without  thorns,  has 
a  very  minute  purple  flower  close  to  the  stem,  and  small, 
thick,  sour-tasting  leaves,  which  could  be  eaten,  as  is  the 
Atriplex  hortensis,  or  Garden  Orache,  but  it  would  be 
very  miserable  food." 

Malluach.     See  Mallows. 

Mal'luch  (Heb.  Malluh',  Tykr:,  reigned  over,  or 
from  the  Syr.  a  counsellor),  the  name  of  several  men. 

1.  (Sopt".  MoXwx?  ^'"Ig-  Muloch.')  A  Levite  of  the 
familv  of  Merari,  son  of  Hashabiah  and  father  of  Abdi 
(1  Cliron.  vi,  44).    B.C.  much  ante  1014. 

2.  (Sept.  Ma/\oyx,Vulg.  Melluch.)  An  Israelite  of 
the  descendants  (or  residents)  of  Bani  who  renounced 
his  Gentile  wife  after  the  exile  (Ezra  x,  29).    B.C.  459. 

3.  (Sept.  MaXot'X  V.  r.  Bn\o(7x,Vulg.  .1/afoc/i.)  An- 
other Israelite  of  the  descendants  (or  residents)  of  Ha- 
rim,  who  did  the  same  (Ezra  x,  32).     B.C.  459. 

4.  (Sept.  MaXoi'x,  Vulg.  Melluch.)  One  of  the  priests 
who  returned  from  13abylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii, 
4).  B.C.  530.  The  associated  names  would  appear  to 
indicate  that  he  was  the  same  with  one  of  those  who 
signeil  the  sacred  covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x,  4) ; 
although  that  would  imply  a  very  advanced  age.  B.C. 
cir.  410.  He  is  probably  the  same  with  the  son  of  Jon- 
athan, elsewhere  called  Melicu  (Neh.  xii,  14,  ^Dlpp, 
Sept.  MaXot'X,Vulg.  Milicho). 

5.  (Sept.  MaXoi'/x,  Vulg.  Melluch.)  One  of  the  chief 
Israelites  who  subscribed  the  same  covenant  (Neh.  x, 
27).     B.C.  cir.  410. 

Malmesbury,  William  of,  an  English  monastic 
and  historian  of  the  early  period  of  his  country's  histo- 
ry, was  born  near  the  close  of  the  lltli  century,  probably 
in  Somersetshire,  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  afterwards 
entered  the  Benedictine  monastery  whence  he  derived 
his  name,  and  of  which  he  became  librarian.  He  died 
some  time  after  1142,  but  the  exact  date  is  not  known. 
He  wrote  (in  Latin)  De  Gestis  Recjum,  a  history  of  the 
kings  of  England  from  the  Saxon  invasion  to  the  twen- 
ty-sixth year  of  Henry  I  (translated  into  English  by 
the  Kev.  ,Iohn  Sharpe  [Loud.  1815]  ;  also  in  Bohn's  Li- 
brary, edited  by  Dr.  Giles  [1847]):  —  Ilistorim  Novellce, 
extending  from  the  twenty-sixth  year  of  Henry  I  to  the 
escape  of  the  empress  Maud  from  Oxford ;  and  De  Gestis 
Puntificum,  containing  an  account  of  the  bishops  and 
principal  monasteries  of  England  from  the  conversion 
of  Ethelbert  of  Kent  by  St.  Augustine  to  1 123  : — .4  ntiq- 
vities  of  Glastonhun/,  and  Life  of  St.  Wnlstan  (printed 
in  Wiiarton"s  Anf/lia  Sacra).  ]\Ialmesbury  gives  proof 
in  his  writings  of  great  diligence,  good  sense,  modesty, 
and  a  genuine  love  of  truth.  His  style  is  much  above 
that  of  his  contemporaries.  See  AUibone,  Diet,  of  Brit, 
and  Amer.  Aitth.  (s.  v.  William  of  Malmesbury)  ;  Lond. 
Qunrt.  Rev.  185G  (.Jan.),  p.  295  sq. ;  Hoefer,  Nour.  Biog. 
Gmerale,  s.  v. ;  Chambers,  Cyclopmdid,  s.  v. 

Malou,  Jean  Baptiste,  a  Roman  Catholic  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  Ypern ;  studied  theology  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Louvain,  where  in  1835  he  became  a  profes- 
sor ;  in  1848  was  made  bishop  of  Bruges,  and  died  March 
23, 18(;4.  He  wrote  La  lecture  de  la  Ste.  Bible  en  langue 
vulrjaire  (Louv.  184G,  2  vols.  8vo).  His  brother  Jule  is 
the  author  o{  Recherches  siir  le  veritable  auteiir  du  Here 
de  V Imitation  de  .Jesus-Christ  (Louv.  1848). 

Malta.     See  Melita. 

Malta,  Knights  of.  See  Knighthood;  Tem- 
plars. 


Maltbie,  Ebenezek  Davenport,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  born  in  Stamford,  Conn.,  Jan.  20,  1799; 
graduated  at  Hamilton  College,  New  York,  in  1824,  and 
studied  theology  in  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Ando- 
ver,  Mass.,  which  he  left  in  1826  to  become  tutor  in 
Hamilton  College.  He  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1832, 
and  ordained  pastor  of  the  Congregational  Church  in 
Hamilton,  N.  Y.  In  1841  he  took  charge  of  the  Hudson 
Kiver  Academy,  and  in  1843  became  prmcipal  of  a  lit- 
erary institution  in  Lansingburg,  N.  Y.,  which  position 
he  resigned  eight  years  after  on  account  of  failing  health. 
He  died  at  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  in  1859.  Mr.  iVIaltbie  was 
an  excellent  teacher,  beloved  ami  honored  as  a  pastor, 
and  energetic  and  unwearied  in  his  labors  of  charity  and 
piety.  See  Wilson,  Presb,  Hist.  Almanac,  1860.  p.  74, 
(J.  L.  S.) 

Maltby,  Edward,  D.D.,  an  English  prolate,  was 
born  at  Norwich,  England,  in  1770;  was  educated  at 
Pembroke  College,  Oxford;  in  1831  was  made  bishop  of 
Chichester,  and  in  1836  was  transferred  to  Durham.  He 
died  in  1859.  Dr.  Maltby  published  several  volumes  of 
Sermom  (1819, 1822, 1831)  -.—Occasional  Sermons:— Il- 
lustration of  the  Truth  of  the  Chi-istian  Religion  (Loud. 
1802, 8vo ;  2d  ed.  1803, 8vo)  -.—Psalms  and  Hymns  (32mo). 
— Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer,  Authors,  vol.  ii; 
Thomas,  Dictionanj  of  Biographj,  s.  v. 

Maltby,  Henry,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  born 
in  Paris,  N.  Y.,  October  5,  1806,  and  graduated  at  Ham- 
ilton College,  N.  Y.,  in  1836.  For  some  years  he  dexoteil 
himself  to  teaching  in  his  native  state,  and  subsequently 
built  up  a  flourishing  school  in  Flemingsburg,  Ky.  He 
studied  theology  privately,  was  licensed  in  1847,  and 
ordained  pastorof  the  Third  Presbyterian  Church,  Ox- 
ford, Ohio,  in  1848.  He  was  also  a  professor  in  Oxford 
Female  College.  He  died  May  22,  1860.  Mr.  Maltby 
was  very  successfid  as  a  teacher,  and  greatly  beloved  as 
a  pastor ;  his  sermons  were  characterized  by  systematic 
arrangement  and  fulness  of  thought,  and  his  intercourse 
with  the  people  was  courteous  and  refined.  See  Wilson, 
Presb.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1861,  p.  97.     (J.  L.  S.) 

Malthus,  TiioJiAS  Robert,  an  English  clergyman, 
was  born  at  Kooker\%  Surrey  County,  England,  in  1766; 
was  educated  at  Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  ob- 
tained a  fellowship,  graduating  B.A.  in  1788  and  M.A. 
in  1791 ;  soon  after  took  holy  orders,  and  obtained  a  cu- 
racy in  Surrey,  and  identified  himself  with  the  "  High- 
Church"  party.  In  1805  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
modern  history  and  political  economy  at  the  East  India 
College  at  Haileybiuy,  in  Hertfordshire,  which  position 
he  held  until  his  death,  Dec.  29,  1834.  Mr.  Malthus 
devoted  himself  more  particularly  to  the  study  of  polit- 
ical economy  and  secular  history,  and  received  his  pro- 
fessorship on  this  account.  (For  a  resume  of  the  "Mal- 
thusian  theon,',"  concerning  the  relation  of  population 
to  the  means  of  sustenance,  see  Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v.) 
He  preached  frequently,  however,  while  in  this  position, 
and  was  an  earnest  laborer  for  the  upbuilding  of  Christ's 
kingdom  among  men.  His  works  are  exclusively  of  a 
secular  character;  a  complete  list  of  them  may  be  found 
in  Allibone,  Diet,  of  A  nth.,  and  English  Cyclopaedia,  s.  v. 

Malvenda,  Tno:MAs,  a  learned  Spanish  exegete, 
was  born  at  Xativa  in  1566,  and  entered  the  Dominican 
convent  of  Lombay  in  1582.  A  good  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Hebrew  scholar,  he  now  applied  his  philological  talents 
to  the  study  of  the  divers  texts  of  the  Bible,  at  the  same 
time  devoting  much  attention  also  to  dogmatics  and  to 
ecclesiastical  history.  In  1585  he  wrote  a  treatise  to 
prove  that  St.  Amia  was  only  once  married,  and  that  St. 
Joseph  ahvays  held  fast  to  the  rule  of  abstinence.  From 
1585  to  1600^  he  taught  first  philosophy,  and  afterwards 
theology.  In  1600  he  addressed  to  cardinal  Baronius  a 
memoir  on  some  parts  of  the  Amioles  ecclesiastici,  and 
of  the  Martyrologium  Romanum,  which  he  ileemed  in- 
correct. Baronius,  struck  by  the  knowledge  exhibited 
in  this  memoir,  called  INIalvenda  to  Rome,  where  the 
general  of  his  order  intrusted  him  with  the  correcting 


MAMACHI 


686 


MAMMON 


of  the  breviary,  the  missal,  and  the  martyrology  of  the 
Dominicans.  This  work  was  completed  in  IGOo.  The 
conj;regatiun  of  the  Index  then  submitted  to  him  for 
revision  the  Bibliufheca  Puirum  of  La  Vigne  (Par.  1575, 
15.S9, 9  vols.  fol.).  His  critical  annotations  on  this  work 
appeared  at  Itome  in  1C07,  and  were  afterwards  publish- 
ed together  with  the  Biblioth.  Pair.  (Paris,  1609,  IG'24). 
About  the  same  time  he  commenced  Annules  ordinis 
J'ratrum  jiraedkatorum,  which  he  never  completed ;  the 
existing  fragment,  extending  over  a  period  of  thirty 
years,  was  subsequently  published  by  Gravina  (Naples, 
l(i27,  2  vols.  fol.).  In  1610  Malvenda  was  recalled  to 
Spain,  where  the  grand  inquisitor  appointed  him  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Spanish  congregation  of  the  Index  Uhrorum 
j}ro/nbitorum.  He  died  at  Valencia  in  1628.  His  princi- 
pal work,  to  which  the  later  years  of  his  life  were  devo- 
ted, was  a  literal  translation  of  the  Bible,  with  commen- 
taries; he  was  unable  to  finish  it,  and  left  it  at  the  16th 
chapter  of  Ezekiel  (published  in  this  incomplete  state  by 
the  general  of  the  Dominicans,  under  title  Commentaria 
in  sucram  Scripturam  una  cum  nova  de  verba  adverbum 
ex  Ifebrceo  transkttione,  variisque  lectionibus  [Lyon,  1650, 
5  vols.  fol.]).  The  translation  is  so  literal  as  to  be  very 
inelegant  and  sometimes  unintelligible.  The  notes  are 
mostly  grammatical,  and  though  perhaps  valuable  at 
the  time,  are  now  considered  unimportant.  Among  his 
other  works,  which  are  very  numerous,  we  notice  Libri 
nocem  de  Antichristo  (Rome,  1604,  often  reprinted): — 
Commentarius  de  Puradiso  voluptatis  (Rome,  1605, 4to): 
—  Vida  de  san  Pedro  Martir  (Saragossa,  1613,  8vo).  A 
complete  list  of  his  works  is  given  in  Quetif  and  Echard, 
Scriptores  ordinis  prcedicat07-um,  ii,  454  sq.  See  Anto- 
nio, Bibl.  IJispana  nova,  vol.  ii. — Herzog,  Real- EncyUop. 
viii,  771;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Genernle,  xxxiii,  122; 
I'icrer,  Unirersal-Lexikon,  x,  806.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Mamaclli,  Tiio:mas  aMARiA,a  distinguished  Domin- 
ican, was  born  on  the  island  of  Chio  Dec.  3, 1713 ;  was 
brought  to  Italy  when  yet  a  youth,  and  joined  the  Do- 
minicans. He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Florence, 
and  in  1740  was  called  to  Rome  as  a  member  of  the  college 
of  the  Propaganda.  Benedict  XIY  made  him  a  doctor 
of  divinity,  and  appointed  him  member  of  the  congrega- 
tion of  the  Index,  of  which  he  became  secretary  in  1770. 
Under  Pius  YI  he  was  appointed  Magister p)ala1ii.  He 
died  in  1792,  at  Cometo,  near  jMontefiascone.  His  prin- 
cijial  works  are  A  d  Jolu  D.  Munsium  de  ratione  tempo- 
rnm  Athanasiorum  deque  aliquot  St/nodis  iv  sacido  cel- 
ebraiis  Epistolae  iv  (Flor.  1748),  against  IMansi,  who,  in 
his  De  epocliis  concilioruni  Sardicensis  et  Sirmiensium, 
cteterumque  in  causa  Arianorum,  hac  occasione  sinml  re- 
rnm  potiisimurum  S.  Athanasii  Clironoloqiam  resiituit 
(Luciv,  1746),  asserted,  contrary  to  general  opinion,  that 
the  Council  of  Sardica  was  held  in  344,  and  that  the  re- 
turn of  Athanasius  to  Alexandria  took  place  in  346.  His 
Orif/imun  el  antiquitatum  Chrisfiananan  Libb.  xx  (Rom. 
1749-55),  of  which  only  five  books,  however,  were  com- 
pleted, is  a  ver\'  important  work,  holding  the  same  po- 
sition among  the  Roman  Catholics  as  Bingham's  Orir/- 
ines  ecclesiasficd'  among  the  Protestants;  it  is  written  in 
view  of  the  later  work,  which  it  often  attempts  to  refute. 
Jh'  Costumi  de primitivi  Christiani  libri  tres  (Rome,  1753; 
Venice,  1757)  is  an  interesting  work  on  the  early  ages 
of  Christianity,  and  contains  some  valuable  and  curi- 
ous information.  Epistolarum  ad  Juslivum  Eebroni- 
VDi,  de  ratione  regendo'  Christianm  reipubliccp,  deque  le- 
(jitima  Romani  Pontijicis  potentate,  Liber  primus  (Rom. 
1776),  in  answer  to  Justinus  Febronius's  (J.  N.  von  Hon- 
t  heim.  (\.  v.)  l)e  statu  Ecclesi<e  et  legitima  potestate  Ro- 
mani 1  'ontificis  liber  singuUu-is,  etc.  (Bullioni,  1 763),  is  but 
a  weak  production  compared  to  that  which  it  attacked. 
See  Neue  theol.  Bibliothek,  Iv,  392  scj. ;  A  eta  historico-ec- 
clesiastica  nostii  temporis,  xxxix,  888  ;  Goftinger  gel. 
Anzeigen,  1757,  p.  1189  sq. ;  l-7o9,  p.  595;  Richard  et  Gi- 
rawA.  Biblioth.  sacree.  —  Hoefer,  ]\'our.  Biog.  Generate, 
xxxiii,  1 23 ;  Herzog, Real-Encyklopudie,  viii,  772 ;  Pierer, 
Uhirersul-Lexikon,  x,  806. 

Mamai'as  {^apaia,\\x\Q.  Samea).  given  (1  Esdr, 


viii,  14)  in  place  of  the  Shejiaiaii  (q.  v.)  of  the  Heb, 
text  (Ezra  viii,  16). 

Mamas,  a  saint  of  the  Romish  Church,  a  native  of 
Paphlagonia,  flourished  in  the  3d  centurj%  He  was 
born  in  prison,  his  mother,  Russina,  having  been  arrest- 
ed on  account  of  her  adherence  to  Christianity.  He 
was  brought  up  by  a  Christian  widow  named  Ammia, 
and  while  a  boy  was  already  persecuted  for  his  faith,  but 
wonderfully  escaped  dcfth.  He  subsequently  preached 
the  Gospel  in  Cfesarea,  and  died  a  martyr  in  274.  He 
is  commemorated  on  the  17th  of  August.  IManias  was 
highly  honored  in  the  ancient  Church.  Basil,  Gregory 
of  Nazianzen,  and  "Walafrid  Strabo  make  mention  of 
him.  See  C.  Baronii  M artyrologium  Romanvm  (]\Iogun- 
tiae,  1631),  p.  507;  Th.  Ruinart,  ^Ic^rt  pirimoittm  Marty- 
rum  (Amst.  1713),  p.  264  sq. — Herzog,  Real-Enajklopd- 
die,  viii,  774.      (J.  N.  P.) 

Mamertus,  St.,  archbishop  of  Vienna,  was  a  brother 
of  Claudianus  Ecdicius  Mamertus  [see  Claudiaxus], 
author  of  the  celebrated  work  Be  statu  anima.  St.  ]\Ia- 
mertus  is  especially  known  for  having,  on  the  occasion 
of  a  great  fire,  and  other  accidents  which  befell  the  city 
of  Vienna,  instituted  tlie  Rogations,  i.  e.  penitential 
prayers  for  the  three  days  preceding  the  ascension. 
Baronius,  in  his  3Iartyi-ologium  Romanum  (Moguntia?, 
1631),  p.  255  sq.  and  296,  denies  that  IMamertus  was 
the  first  to  organize  these  rogations,  claiming  that  they 
were  an  old  institution  which  had  fallen  into  disuse, 
and  which  he  merely  revived.  Bingham  in  his  Origin, 
eccles.  (iii,  80  sq. ;  v,  29),  subsequently  took  the  same 
view.  However,  it  is  certain  that  the  example  of  IMa- 
mertus induced  the  Council  of  Orleans,  in  511,  to  intro- 
duce the  rogations  throughout  France.  They  were  sub- 
sequently adopted  by  the  whole  Western  Church,  by 
order  of  (iregory  the  Great,  in  591.  Mamertus  is  gen- 
erally believed  to  have  died  in  475.  He  is  commemo- 
rated on  the  11th  of  ]May. — Herzog,  Real-Ei2cyklop.  yiii, 
774;  Hoefer,  Kour.  Biog.  Gen.  xxxiii,  129. 

Mamertus,  Claudianus.     See  Claudianus. 

Mammaea,  Julia.    See  Seatirus,  Alexander. 

Mammillarians,  the  name  of  a  branch  of  the  An- 
abaptists which  arose  in  Haarlem,  Holland.  Its  origin 
is  as  follows.  A  young  man  having  taken  undue  liber- 
ties with  a  young  M'oman  whom  he  intended  to  marri-, 
was  accused  of  it  before  the  Church ;  the  Church  au- 
thorities, however,  did  not  agree  on  the  subject,  some 
desiring  to  expel  the  offender  from  their  society,  and 
others  opposing  so  severe  a  measure.  This  caused  a 
separation,  and  those  who  were  on  the  yomig  man's  side 
were  visited  by  their  opponents  with  the  reproachful 
name  of  Mammillarians  (from  the  French  word  3/am- 
melle,  a  woman's  breast).  See  liaylc,  Bict.JIistoriqtie, 
s.  V. ;  Micridius.  Syntag.  Hist.  Eccl.  (ed.  1679)  p.  1012.— 
Herzog,  Reul-Iuicyklopddie,  viii,  774. 

Mam'm.on  (paftpwrUg  or  papiovaq,  from  the 
Chald.  "j1"C"a  or  X3'!';"2,  that  in  which  one  ti-usts ;  see 
Buxtorf,  Lex.  Chald.  col.  1217  sq.),  a  term  pre-eminently, 
by  a  technical  and  invidious  usage  (see  Suidas  in  his  Lex. 
s.  v.),  " signifying  trealth  or  iiches,  and  bearing  that 
sense  in  Luke  xvi,  9, 11 ;  but  also  used  by  our  Saviour 
(Matt,  vi,  24 ;  Luke  xvi,  13)  as  a  personification  of  the 
god  of  riches :  '  Ye  cannot  serve  God  and  Mammon.' 
Gill,  on  Matt,  vi,  24,  brings  a  very  apt  (piotation  from 
the  Talmud  Hieros.  (Yoma,  fol.  38),  in  confirmation  of 
the  character  which  Christ  in  these  passages  gives  of 
the  Jews  in  his  day:  'We  know  that  they  believed  in 
the  law,  and  took  care  of  the  commandments,  and  of  the 
tithes,  and  that  their  whole  conversation  was  good — 
only  that  they  loved  the  3[ammon,  and  hatetl  one 
another  without  cause'"  (Kitto).  "Tlie  word  often 
occurs  in  the  Chaldee  Targums  of  Onkelos,  and  later 
writers,  and  in  tlie  Syriac  Version,  in  the  sense  of 
'  riches.'  This  meaning  of  the  word  is  given  by  'J'er- 
tullian,  A  dr.  Marc,  iv,  33,  and  by  Augustine  and  Jerome 
commenting' on  ^Matthew.  Augustine  adds  that  it  was 
in  use  as  a  Punic,  and  Jerome  adds  that  it  was  a  Syriac 


MAMNITANAIMUS 


687 


MAN 


word.  There  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  any  idol  re- 
ceived divine  honors  in  the  East  under  this  name.  It 
is  used  in  Matthew  as  a  personification  of  riches.  The 
derivation  of  the  word  is  discussed  by  A.  Pfeiffer,  Opera, 
p.  474"  (Smith).  The  phrase  "mammon  of  unright- 
eousness" as  used  in  Luke  xvi,  0,  probably  refers  to  gain 
which  is  too  often  unjustly  acquired  (as  by  the  publi- 
cans), but  which  may  be  sanctified  by  charity  and  piety 
so  as  to  become  a  passport,  in  some  sense,  to  final  bless- 
edness. See  Grlinenberg,  De  mummona  iniquitatis  (Jen. 
1700) ;  Wakins,  De  na/x.  dSiKiag  (Jen.  1701).  In  Rab- 
binical language  the  word  is  used  to  denote  confidence. 

Mamnitanai'mus  (Ma/ii'trafaijuof  v.  r.  Manra- 
vaaijUOf.Vulg.  Mathaneiis),  given  (1  Esdr.  ix,  34)  by 
corruption  for  the  two  names  "Mattaniah,  Mattenai," 
of  the  Heb.  list  (Ezra  x,  37). 

Mam(o)un,  Al,  Abbas -Abdallah,  a  celebrated 
Mussulman  ruler,  was  born  at  Bagdad  in  A.D.  78G ;  was 
the  son  of  Haroun-al-Raschid ;  and  ascended  the  throne 
as  the  seventh  Abasside  caliph  in  813.  By  his  deter- 
mination to  enforce  the  heretical  doctrine  that  the  Ko- 
ran was  created  and  not  eternal,  he  became  very  unpop- 
ular among  the  Moslem  doctors  and  gave  strength  to 
the  house  of  Ali.  See  Mohammedanism;  Mohamme- 
dan Sects.  Mamoun  was  a  patron  of  science  and  liter- 
ature, and  is  praised  by  Eastern  writers  for  his  talents 
and  liberality.  His  capital,  Bagdad,  was  in  his  day  the 
great  centre  of  the  world  of  learning  and  science.  He 
died  in  833.  See  Weil,  Gesch.  d.  Chalifen,  II,  chap,  vii ; 
Hammer-Purgstall,  Literaturgescli.  d.  Araher. 

Mam're  (Heb.  Mamre',  N'np'2,  fat ;  Sept.  Ma/i- 
/3pt/ ;  Josephus  Mrt/t/SpT/c,  A  nt.  i,  10,  2 ;  Vulg.  Mambre^, 
the  name  of  an  Amoritish  chief  who,  with  his  brothers 
Aner  and  Eschol,  was  in  alliance  with  Abraham  (Gen. 
xiv,  13,  24).  B.C.  cir.  2080.  In  the  Jewish  traditions 
he  appears  as  encouraging  Abraham  to  undergo  the  pain 
of  circumcision,  from  which  his  brothers  would  have 
dissuaded  him,  by  a  reference  to  the  deliverance  he  had 
already  experienced  from  far  greater  trials — the  furnace 
of  Nimrod  and  the  sword  of  Chedorlaomer  (Beer,  Leben 
Abrahams,  p.  36).  Hence  (X'l'pp  "^Si^X,  Sept.  j)  ^pvg 
i)  lMn/t/3n»;),  in  the  Auth.Vers.,  "the  oaks  of  Mamre," 
"plain  of  Mamre"  (Gen.  xiii,  18;  xviii,  1),  or  simply 
"  IMamre"  (xxiii,  17, 19 ;  xxxv, 27),  a  grove  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Hebron.  It  was  here  that  Abraham  first  dwelt 
after  separating  from  Lot  (Gen.  xiii,  18);  here  the  di- 
vine angel  visited  him  with  the  warning  of  Sodom's  fate 
((Jen.  xviii,  1) ;  it  was  in  the  cave  in  the  corner  of  the 
field  o|)posite  this  place  that  he  deposited  the  remains  of 
Sarah  (Gen.  xxiii,  17, 19)  ;  where  he  was  himself  buried 
(Gen.  XXV,  9),  as  was  likewise  .Jacob  (Gen.  xlix,  30;  1, 
13).  In  later  times  the  spot  is  said  to  have  lain  six 
stadia  from  Hebron,  still  marked  by  a  reputedly  sacred 
terebinth  (Joseph.  War,  iv,  9, 7  ;  p^usebius,  Prcep.  Eranrj. 
v,  9;  Sozomen,  Ilist.Ei:  i,  18;  Eusebius,  Onomast.  s.  v. 
'Apyw,  Arboch)  ;  and  later  travellers  likewise  (Sanutus, 
Secret,  fidel.  iii,  14,  3,  in  the  Gesta  Dei  per.  Franc,  ii, 
248 ;  Troilo,  Trar.  p.  418)  speak  of  a  very  venerable  tree 
of  this  kind  near  the  ruins  of  a  church  at  Hebron  (see 
Keland,  Paltvst.  p.  712  sq.).  Dr.  Robinson  found  here, 
at  a  place  called  Rcimet  el-Khulil,  one  hour  distant  from 
Hebron,  some  ancient  remains,  which  he  regards  (in  ac- 
cordance with  the  local  tradition)  as  probably  marking 
the  site  of  Abraham's  sepulchre  {Researches,  i.318).  He 
saw  the  veneral)le  oak  near  Hebron  which  still  passes 
with  the  Mohammedans  for  the  tree  under  which  Abra- 
ham pitched  his  tent  (Researches,  ii,  429),  but  which  he 
states  is  not  a  terebinth  (ib.  443).  See  Oak.  Accord- 
ing to  Sehwarz,  "  North  of  Hebron,  and  sideward  from 
Halhul,is  a  plain  about  two  and  one  half  miles  in  length, 
whicli  tlie  Arabs  call  Elon.  no  doubt  the  ancient  dwell- 
ing-place of  Abraham"  (Palestine,  p.  109).  See  Hk- 
Buox.  "  :\Iamre  is  stated  to  have  been  at  Hebron,  for 
we  read  that '  Jacob  came  unto  Isaac  his  father,  to  Mam- 
re, to  Kirjath-Arbah,  which  is  Hebron,  where  Abraham 
and  Isaac  sojourned'  (xxxv,  27).    The  relative  positions 


of  Machpelah  and  INIamre  are  also  described  with  great 
exactness.  Five  times  Moses  states  that  INIachpelah  lay 
^before  Mamre'  ('^;3~b"  ;  Sept.  air'tvavTi ;  Vulg.  quoi 
respiciebat)  ;  which  may  mean  either  that  it  was  to  the 
east  of  Mamre,  or  that  it  lay  facing  it.  The  latter  seems 
to  be  the  true  meaning.  Machpelah  is  situated  on  the 
shelving  bank  of  a  little  valley,  and  probably  the  oak- 
grove  of  Mamre  stood  on  the  other  side  of  the  valley, 
facing  the  cave,  while  the  town  of  Hebron  lay  a  little 
farther  up  to  the  north-west  (comp.  xxiii,  17, 19 ;  xxv, 
9;  xUx,  30;  1,  13).  The  identity  of  Machpelah  with 
the  modern  Ilaram  being  established  [see  Machpe- 
lah], there  can  be  little  difficulty  in  fixing  the  posi- 
tion of  Mamre;  it  must  have  been  within  sight  of  or 
'  facing'  Machpelah,  and  so  near  the  town  of  Hebron 
that  it  could  be  described  as  at  it.  The  Jerusalem  Itin- 
era rf/  places  it  two  miles  from  Hebron  (p.  599),  and  Soz- 
omen (//.  E.  ii,  4)  says  it  lay  on  the  north  towards  Je- 
rusalem. It  is  evident  that  all  these  notices  refer  to 
the  above  ruin,  Ramet  el-Khulil.  The  Jews  of  Hebron 
call  it  '  the  house  of  Abraham,'  and  regard  it  as  the  site 
of  Mamre  (Porter,  Handbool;  i,  72 ;  Stanley,  ^S".  and  P.  p. 
141).  The  position,  however,  does  not  accord  with  the 
notices  in  Genesis,  and  cannot,  therefore,  be  the  true  site 
of  Mamre.  The  sacred  grove  and  the  place  of  the  pa- 
triarch's tent  were  doubtless  on  the  face  of  the  hill  facing 


JEamet  tlZhcHU. 


Vicinity  of  Abraham's  Cemetery.    (The  sites  are  marked 
according  to  tradition.) 

the  great  Haram,  which  covers  the  cave  of  Machpelah 
(Stanley,  Sermons  in  the  East,  p.  166  sq. ;  Ritter,  Pal. 
laid  Si/r,  iii,  222  sq.).  The  tradition  which  identified 
Mamre  with  Ramet  el-Khulil  may  have  originated  in 
the  existence  of  a  grove  of  venerable  oaks  on  that  spot, 
just  as  now  the  great  oak  a  mile  or  more  west  of  the 
town  is  called  'Abraham's  Oak'  (Porter,  Handbk.  i,  70)" 
(Kitto).     See  Abi;ahaji. 

Mamu'chus  (IMa/<or'xof,  Vulg.  Mcduchus),  given 
(1  Esdr.  ix,  20)  by  corruption  for  Malluch  (q.  v.)  of 
the  Heb.  list  (Ezra  x,  29). 

Man  is  the  rendering  mostly  of  four  Hebrew  and 
two  Greek  words  in  the  English  Version.  They  are 
used  with  as  much  precision  as  the  terms  of  like  import 
in  other  languages.  Nor  is  the  subject  merely  critical ; 
it  will  be  found  connected  with  accurate  interpretation. 
In  our  treatment  of  the  subject  -we  partly  adopt  the 
statements  given  in  Kitto's  and  Smith's  Dictionaries. 

1.  C1X,  adam',  is  used  in  several  senses,  (a.)  It  is 
the  proper  name  of  the  first  man,  though  Gesenius  thinks 
that  when  so  applied  it  has  tlie  force  rather  of  an  ajipel- 
lative,  and  that,  accordingly,  in  a  translation,  it  would 
be  better  to  render  it  the  man.  It  seems,  however,  to 
be  used  bv  Luke  as  a  proper  name  in  the  genealogy  (iii, 
38),  by  Paul  (Rom.  v.  14 ;  1  Tim.  ii,  13, 14),  and  by  Jude 
(ver.  i4).     I'aul's  use  of  it  in  1  Cor.  xv,  45  is  remarka- 


MAN 


688 


MAN 


l)lv  clear:  "the  first  man  Adam."  It  is  so  employed 
throii<;liout  the  Apocrypha  without  exception  (2  Esdr. 
iii,  6,  10,  21,  2G;  iv,  30;  vi,  54;  vii,  11,  46,  48;  Tohit 
viii,  C;  Ecdus.  xxxiii,  10;  xl,  1;  xlix,  16),  and  by  Jo- 
sephiis  {lit  infra).  Gesenius  argues  that,  as  applied  to 
the  first  man,  it  has  the  article  almost  without  excep- 
tion. It  is  doubtless  often  thus  used  as  an  appellative, 
but  the  exceptions  are  decisive :  Gen.  iii,  17,  "  to  Adam 
he  said,'"  aud  see  Sept.,  Dent,  xxxii,  8, "  the  descendants 
of  Adam ;"  •'  if  I  covered  my  transgressions  as  Adam" 
(Job  xxxi,  33);  "and  unto  Adam  he  said,"  etc.  (Job 
xxviii,  28),  which,  when  examined  by  the  context, 
seems  to  refer  to  a  primeval  revelation  not  recorded  in 
Genesis  (see  also  Hos.  vi,  7,  Hcb.  or  margin).  Gesenius 
further  argues  that  the  ^voman  has  an  apfiropriate  name, 
but  that  the  man  has  none.  But  the  name  Eve  was 
given  to  her  by  Adam,  aud,  as  it  would  seem,  under  a 
change  of  circumstances;  and  though  the  divine  origin 
of  the  word  Adam,  as  a  proper  name  of  the  first  man,  is 
not  recorded  in  the  history  of  the  creation,  as  is  that  of 
the  day,  night,  heaven,  earth,  seas,  etc.  (Gen.  i,  5,8, 10), 
yet  its  divine  origin  as  an  appellative  is  recorded  (comp. 
Heb.,  Gen.  i,  26  ;  v,  1) ;  from  which  state  it  soon  became 
a  proper  name.  Dr.  Lee  thinks  from  its  frequent  occur- 
rence, but  we  would  suggest,  from  its  jjeculiar  appropri- 
ateness to  '•  the  man,"  who  is  the  more  immediate  image 
aud  glory  of  God  (1  Cor.  xi,  7).  Other  derivations  of 
the  word  have  been  offered,  as  D'lX,  "  to  be  red"  or  "  red- 
haired  ;"  and  hence  some  of  the  rabbins  have  inferred 
that  the  first  man  was  so.  The  derivation  is  as  old  as 
Josephus,  who  saj'S  that  "  the  first  man  was  called  Adam 
because  he  was  formed  from  the  red  earth,"  and  adds, 
"for  the  true  virgin  earth  is  of  this  color"  (^Ant.  i,  1,  2). 
The  following  is  a  simple  translation  of  the  more  de- 
tailed (Jehovistic)  account  given  by  Moses  (Gen.  ii,  4- 
7, 18-25)  of  the  creation  of  the  first  human  pair,  omit- 
ting the  paragraph  concerning  the  garden  of  Eden.  See 
Cosmogony. 

This  [is  the]  genealogy  of  the  heavens  and  the  earth, 
when  they  were  created,  in  the  dny  [that]  Jehovah  God 
made  earth  and  heavens.  Now  no  shrub  ot'tho  lield  had  yet 
l)eeu  [grown]  ou  the  earth,  aud  no  plant  of  the  field  had  yet 
si;ruug  up — for  Jehovah  God  had  not  [as  yet]  caused  [it] 
to  rain  upon  the  earth,  nor  [was  there  any]  man  to  till  the 
ground;  but  mist  ascended  from  the  earth,  aud  watered 
all  the  face  of  the  ground.  Then  Jehovah  God  formed  the 
man,  dust  from  the  ground,  and  blew  into  his  nostrils  the 
breath  of  life  ;  so  the  man  became  a  living  creature. 

But  Jehovah  God  said,  "  [It  is]  not  good  [that]  the  man 
be  alone  ;  I  will  make  for  him  a  help  as  his  couuterpart," 
Kow  Jehovah  God  had  formed  from  the  ground  every  liv- 
ing [thing]  of  the  tiekl,  and  every  bird  of  the  heavens; 
and  he  brought  [each]  towards  the  man  to  see  what  he 
would  call  it:  so  whatever  the  man  called  it  [as]  a  liv- 
ing creature,  that  [was]  its  name ;  thus  the  man  called 
names  to  every  beast,  and  to  the  bird  of  the  heavens,  and 
to  every  living  [thing]  of  the  field:  yet  for  man  [there] 
was  not  found  a  help  as  his  couuterpart.  Then  Jehovah 
God  caused  a  lethargy  to  fall  upon  the  man,  so  he  slept ; 
and  he  took  one  of  his  ribs,  but  closed  flesh  instead  of  it: 
aud  Jehovah  God  built  the  rib  which  he  took  from  the 
man  for  a  woman,  and  brought  her  towards  the  man. 
Thereupon  the  man  said,  "This  now  [is]  bone  from  my 
bones,  and  flesh  from  my  flesh  ;  this  [being]  shall  be  called 
Woman  [ixhah,  vira],  because  from  man  [_ish,  vir]  this 
[person]  was  taken  :  therefore  will  a  man  leave  his  father 
aud  his  mother,  aud  cling  to  his  wife:  and  they  shall  be- 
come one  flesh."  Now  they  were  both  of  them  naked, 
the  man  and  his  wife  :  yet  they  were  not  mutually 
ashamed  [of  their  condition]. 

(ft.)  it  is  the  generic  name  of  the  human  race  as  origin- 
ally created,  and  afterwards,  like  the  English  word  man, 
person,  whether  man  or  woman,  equivalent  to  the  Latin 
homo  and  Greek  ay^piairoQ  ((Jen.  i,  20,  27;  v,  2;  viii, 
21;  Deut.  viii,  3;  Matt,  v,  13,  16;  1  Cor.  vii,  26),  and 
even  without  regard  to  age  (John  xvi,  21),  It  is  ap- 
plie<l  to  women  only,  "the  human  persons  or  women" 
(Numb,  xxxi,  35\  Se]it.  ipvxai  ai'SrpwTnof  c'nrii  tm' 
yvratKioi'.  Thus  >'/  ('(i'3'^)(ii7roc'  means  a  woman  (Herod. 
i,  60),  and  especially  among  the  orators  (comp.  1  INIacc. 
ii,  28).  (c.)  It  denotes  man  in  ojiposition  to  woman 
(Gen.  iii,  12;  Matt,  xix,  10),  though  more  properly,  the 
husband  in  opposition  to  the  wife  (compare  1  Cor.  vii,  1). 


(f/.)  It  is  used,  though  very  rarely,  for  those  who  main- 
tain the  dignity  of  human  nature,  a  man,  as  we  sav, 
meaning  one  that  deserves  the  name,  like  the  Latin  vir 
and  Greek  c'lvlfp :  "  One  man  in  a  thousand  have  I  found, 
but  a  woman,"  etc.  (Eccles.  vii,  28).  Perhaps  the  word 
here  glances  at  the  original  ujirightness  of  man.  (e.) 
It  is  frequently  used  to  denote  the  more  degenerate  and 
wicked  portion  of  mankind:  an  instance  of  which  oc- 
curs very  early,  "  The  sons  (or  worshippers)  of  God  mar- 
ried the  daughters  of  men  (or  the  irreligious)"  (Gen.  vi, 
2).  We  request  a  careful  examination  of  the  following 
passages  with  their  respective  contexts :  Psa.  xi,  4;  xii, 
1,  2, 8 ;  xiv,  2,  etc.  The  latter  passage  is  often  adduced 
to  prove  the  total  depravity  of  the  whole  human  race, 
whereas  it  applies  only  to  the  more  abandoned  Jews,  or 
]50ssibly  to  the  more  wicked  Gentile  adversaries  of  Is- 
rael. It  is  a  description  of  "  the  fool,"  or  wicked  man 
(ver.  1),  and  of  persons  of  the  same  class  (ver.  1, 2),  "the 
workers  of  iniquity,  who  eat  up  God's  people  like  bread, 
and  called  not  upon  the  name  of  the  Lord"  (ver.  4). 
For  the  true  view  of  Paul's  quotations  from  this  psalm 
(Rom.  iii,  10),  see  M'Knight,  ad  loc. ;  and  observe  the 
use  of  the  word  "  man"  in  Luke  v,  20 ;  Matt,  x,  17.  It 
is  applied  to  the  Gentiles  (Matt,  xxvii,  22 ;  comp.  Mark 
X,  33,  and  Mark  ix,  31 ;  Luke  xviii,  32 ;  see  Mounteney, 
ad  iJemosth.  Phil,  i,  221).  (/".)  The  word  is  used  to  de- 
note other  men,  in  opposition  to  those  already  named, 
as  "  both  upon  Israel  and  other  men"  (Jer.  xxxii,  20), 
i.  e.  the  Egyptians.  "  Like  other  men"  (Psa.  Ixxiii,  5), 
i.  e.  common  men,  in  opposition  to  better  men  (Psa. 
Ixxxii,  7) ;  men  of  inferior  rank,  as  opposed  to  Ui'^N, 
men  of  higher  rank  (see  Hebrew,  Isa.  ii,  9;  v,  15:  Psa. 
xlix,  3;  Ixii,  10;  Prov.  viii,  4).  The  phrase  "son  of 
man,"  in  the  Old  Testament,  denotes  man  as  frail  and 
unworthy  (Numb,  xxiii,  19 ;  Job  xxv,  6  ;  Ezek.  ii,  1,3); 
as  applied  to  the  prophet,  so  often,  it  has  the  force  of 
"  O  mortal !" 

2.  "i;3"X,  ish,  is  a  man  in  the  distinguished  sense,  like 
the  Latin  vir  and  Greek  uv))p.  It  is  used  in  all  the 
several  senses  of  the  Latin  ri?;  and  denotes  a  man  as 
distinguished  from  a  woman  (1  Sam.  xvii,  33 ;  Matt. 
xiv,  21);  as  a  husband  (Gen.  iii,  16;  Hos.  ii,  16);  and 
in  reference  to  excellent  mental  qualities.  A  beautiful 
instance  of  the  latter  class  occurs  in  Jer.  v,  1 :  "  Run  ye 
to  and  fro  through  the  streets  of  Jerusalem,  and  see  now, 
and  know,  and  seek  in  the  broad  places  thereof,  if  ye 
can  find  a  man,  if  there  be  any  that  executeth  judg- 
ment, that  seeketh  the  truth ;  and  I  will  pardon  it." 
This  reminds  the  reader  of  the  ])hilosopher  who  went 
through  the  streets  of  Athens  with  a  lighted  lamp  in 
his  hand,  and  being  asked  what  he  sought,  said,  "  I  am 
seeking  to  find  a  man"  (see  Herodot.  ii,  120;  Homer,//. 
V,  529).  It  is  also  used  to  designate  the  superior  classes 
(Prov.  viii,  4 ;  Psa.  cxli,  4,  etc.),  a  courtier  (Jer.  xxxviii, 
7),  the  male  of  animals  (Gen.  vii,  2).  Sometimes  it 
means  men  in  general  (Exod.  xvi,  29 ;  Mark  vi,  44). 

3.  lIJilN,  enosh',  mortals, /3poroi,  as  transient,  perish- 
able, liable  to  sickness,  etc.:  "Let  not  man  [margin, 
'mortal  man']  jirevail  against  thee"  (2  Chron.  xiv,  11). 
"Write  with  the  pen  of  the  common  man"  (Isa.  viii.  1), 
i.  e.  in  a  common,  legible  character  (Job  xv,  14;  Psa. 
viii,  5;  ix,  19,  20;  Isa.  li,7;  Psa.  ciii,  15).  It  is  applied 
to  women  (Josh,  viii,  25). 

4. 155,  f/e'bcr,  vir,  man,  in  regard  to  strength,  etc.  All 
etymologists  concur  in  deriving  the  English  word  "man" 
from  the  superior  poivers  and  faculties  with  which  man 
is  endowed  above  all  earthly  creatures;  so  the  Latin  vir, 
from  vis,  i-ires;  and  such  is  the  idea  conveyed  by  the 
present  Hebrew  word.  It  is  apjilicd  to  men  as  distin- 
guished from  woman  :  "  A  man  shall  not  put  on  a  wom- 
an's garment"  (Deut.  xxii,  5),  like  ch'BpoJTroQ  in  Jlatt. 
viii,  9 ;  John  i,  6  ;  to  men  as  distinguished  from  children 
(Exod.  xii,  37) ;  to  a  male  child,  in  opposition  to  a  fe- 
male (.Job  iii, 3;  Sept.  dpntv).  It  is  much  used  in  po- 
etry: "Happy  is  the  man"  (Psa.  xxxiv,  9;  xl,  5;  Iii, 9; 
xciv,  12).     Sometimes  it  denotes  the  species  at  large 


MAN 


689 


MANASSEH 


(Job  iv,  17;  xiv,  10, 14).  For  a  complete  exemplifica- 
tion of  these  words,  see  the  lexicons  of  Geseniiis  and 
Schleusner,  etc. 

0.  D'^ri'O,  methim',  "  men,"  always  masculine.  The 
singular  is  to  be  traced  in  the  antediluvian  proper  names 
Methusael  and  Methuselah.  Perhaps  it  may  be  derived 
from  the  root  muth,  "  he  died,"  in  which  case  its  use 
would  be  very  appropriate  in  Isa.  xli,  14, "Fear  not,  thou 
worm  Jacob,  ye  men  of  Israel."  If  this  conjecture  be 
admitted,  this  word  would  correspond  to  (iporvg,  and 
might  be  rendered  "mortal." 

Other  Ileb.  words  occasionally  rendered  man  in  the 
A.  V.  are  h^^,bdal,  a  master  (husband),  ^5.3,  nq^hesh, 
an  animate  being,  etc.  The  Greek  words  properly  thus 
rendered  are  dv^pojivoQ,  homo,  a  human  being,  and  dvijp, 
vir,  a  man  as  distinguished  from  a  woman. 

Some  peculiar  uses  of  the  word  in  the  New  Testament 
remain  to  be  noticed.  "  The  Son  of  Man,"  applied  to 
our  Lord  only  by  himself  and  St.  Stephen  (Acts  vii,5G), 
is  the  Messiah  in  human  form.  Schleusner  thinks  that 
the  word  in  this  expression  always  means  woman,  and 
denotes  that  he  was  the  promised  Messiah,  born  of  a 
virgin,  who  had  taken  upon  him  our  nature  to  fulfil  the 
great  decree  of  Goa,  that  mankind  should  be  saved  by 
one  in  their  own  form.  'O  naXaio^,'' the  old  man,"  and 
6  Kaivog,  "  the  new  man" — the  former  denoting  unsanc- 
tified  disposition  of  heart,  the  latter  the  new  disposition 
created  and  cherished  by  the  Gospel;  u  tcroi  dp^pu)Tro<;, 
"  the  inner  man ;"  6  KpvTrrui;  r/)c  KapSiaQ  dv^puj-jroQ, 
"  the  hidden  man  of  the  heart,"  as  opposed  to  the  o  i^oj 
dv^pioTTOQ, '■•tha  external,  visible  man."  "A  man  of 
God,"  first  applied  to  Moses  (Deut.  xxxiii,  1),  and  always 
afterwards  to  a  person  acting  under  a  divine  commis- 
sion (1  Kings  xiii,  1 ;  1  Tim.  vi,  11,  etc.).  Finally,  an- 
gels are  styled  men  (Acts  i,  10).  "  To  speak  after 
the  manner  of  men,"  i.  e.  in  accordance  with  human 
views,  to  illustrate  by  human  examples  or  institutions, 
to  use  a  popular  mode  of  speaking  (Rom.  iii,  5 ;  1  Cor. 
ix,  8 ;  Gal.  iii,  15).  "  The  number  of  a  man,"  i.  e.  an  or- 
dinarv  number,  such  as  is  in  general  use  among  men 
(Rev.  xiii,  18) ;  so  also  '•  the  measure  of  a  man,"  an  ordi- 
nary measure,  in  common  use  (Rev.  xxi,  17). 

Man  of  Sin  (o  civSfpujTroQ  tTjq  ctfiapriai;),  an  imper- 
sonation of  the  sinfid  principle  spoken  of  by  the  apostle 
Paul  in  an  emphatic  manner  (2  Thess.  ii,  3).  The  con- 
text (ver.  3,  4)  gives  the  following  attributes  or  synon- 
ymous titles:  (1.)  apostasy  (//  cnroaraaia,  "a  [rather 
the]  falling  away"),  which  precedes  (Trpuirov)  the  ap- 
pearance {dTraKa\v(p!^rj) ;  (2.)  son  of  perdition  (6  v'lug 
r»)c  oTrujXftac,  i.  e.  one  sprung  from  the  fall  (compare 
"  that  wicked"),  and  doomed  to  its  penalty  (comp.  ver. 
8) ;  (3.)  a  persecutor  (u  uvTiKtiixivo(^),  especially  of 
God's  cause  and  government;  (4.)  a  blasphemer  {hirtp- 
aipo/.ui'oi;,  etc.),  i.  e.  one  arrogating  divine  honors,  and 
claiming  to  work  miracles  (verse  9,  10).  This  is  evi- 
dently an  assemblage  of  the  most  striking  characteris- 
tics of  former  Antichrists  in  Scripture,  especially  the 
"little  horn"  of  Daniel.  As  that  prophecy  referred  par- 
ticularly to  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  this  passage  must  be 
understood  as  employing  the  conventional  Scriptural 
language  symbolically  to  indicate  a  then  (and  perhaps 
still)  future  effort  on  the  jiart  of  some  hostile  power  to 
overtlirow  Christianity,  and  induce  its  professors  to  re- 
nounce it.  Such  a  peril  is  clearly  intimated  in  several 
other  passages  of  the  N.  T.  (e.  g.  Mark  xiii,  22 ;  2  Tim. 
iii,  1,  13;  Rev.  xx,  8).  But  we  are  not  to  confine  the 
prophecy  to  any  one  type  of  Antichrist ;  "iu  whomso- 
ever these  distinctive  features  are  found — whoever  wields 
temporal  or  spiritual  power  in  any  degree  similar  to  that 
in  which  the  Man  of  Sin  is  here  described  as  wielding 
it— ho,  be  he  pope  or  potentate,  is  bej-ond  all  doubt  a 
distinct  type  of  Antichrist"  (Ellicott,  note,  ad  loc).  For 
a  history  of  opinion  on  this  passage,  see  Alford,  Gr.  Test. 
iii,  prolog,  p.  55  sq.     See  Antichkist. 

MAN,  Preadamite.     See  Preadamites. 

Man.     See  Mann.v. 

v.— X  X 


Man'aen  (Mavaijv,  prob.  i.  q.  Menahem;  comp, 
Mavdiifiog,  Josephus,  ^ ?j^  ix,  11, 1),  a  Christian  teacher 
at  Antioch,  who  had  been  educated  with  Herod  Antipas 
(Acts  xiii,  1;  see  Kuinol,  ad  loc).  A.D.  44.  He  was 
evidently  a  Jew,  but  nothing  else  is  known  of  him  be- 
yond this  passage,  in  which  the  epithet  ffvvrpoipoi;  may 
mean  eithei  plai/mate  (Herod  was  brought  up,  however, 
at  Rome,  Josephus,  Ant.  xvii,  1,  3)  or  foster-brother,  as 
having  the  same  nurse  (see  Walch,  Dissert,  ad  A  ct.  p. 
234).  Some  identify  him  with  the  person  above  named 
by  Josephus,  others  with  a  Menahem  mentioned  in  the 
Talmud  (see  Lightfoot,  Harm.  o/N.  Test,  ad  loc),  but  in 
either  case  on  very  slender  grounds. 

Managers,  a  committee  of  members  appointed  an- 
nually in  many  Presbyterian  churches,  intrusted  with 
all  merely  secidar  affairs  as  to  property  and  finance. 

Man'ahath  (Heb.  Mana'chath,  rilS^,  rest),  the 
name  of  a  man  and  of  a  place. 

1.  (Sept.  "Mavaxd^-)  The  second  named  of  the  five 
sons  of  Shobal,  the  son  of  Seir  the  Horite  (Gen.  xxxvi, 
23  ;  1  Chron.  i,  40).     B.C.  cir.  1927. 

2.  (Sept.  Mavaxa^i  v.  r.  Maxava^i.)  A  town  or 
region  to  which  certain  descendants  of  Ehud,  of  the 
tribe  of  Benjamin,  appear  to  have  been  exiled  from 
Geba  by  an  act  of  his  father  Bela  (1  Chron.  viii,  6).  The 
context  woidd  seem  to  indicate  some  locality  in  the  land 
of  Moab.  See  Shaharaim.  Some  refer  it  to  the  Me- 
NUCHAH  of  Judah  (Judg.  ix,  43,  A. Vers,  "with  ease;" 
comp.  1  Chron.  ii,  52,  54),  but  with  little  probability. 
See  Menichite. 

Man'ahethite  (1  Chron.  ii,  52).  See  Hatsi-ham- 
Menuchoth. 

Manasse'as  (Mava(jar)aQ  v.  r.  Mavflcrcri'ncVulg. 
Manasses),  given  (1  Esdr.  ix,  31)  in  place  of  the  Ma- 
NASSEii  (q.  v.),  4,  of  the  Hebrew  list  (Ezra  x,  30). 

Manas'seh  (Heb.  Menasseh',  niZJ3^,  who  makes  to 
forget ;  see  Gen.  xli,  51 ;  Sept.,  Josephus,  and  N.  T.  Mo- 
va<jai](;  ;  "Manasses"  in  Matt,  i,  10;  Rev.  vii,  6),  the 
name  of  four  men  and  of  a  tribe  descended  from  one  of 
them ;  also  of  another  man  mentioned  by  Josephus. 

1.  The  elder  of  the  two  sons  of  Joseph,  born  in  Eg3'pt 
(Gen.  xli,  51 ;  xlvi,  20)  of  Asenath,  the  priest's  daugh- 
ter of  Heliopolis.  B.C.  1882.  He  was  afterwards,  to- 
gether with  his  brother,  adopted  by  Jacob  as  his  own 
(xlviii,  1),  by  which  act  each  became  the  head  of  a 
tribe  in  Israel.  B.C.  185G.  See  Jacob.  The  act  of 
adoption  was,  however,  accompanied  by  a  clear  intima- 
tion from  Jacob  that  the  descendants  of  Manasseh,  al- 
though the  elder,  would  be  far  less  inmierous  and  pow- 
erful than  those  of  the  younger  Ephraim.  The  result 
corresponded  remarkably  with  this  intimation.  See 
Ephraim.  He  married  a  Syrian  concubine,  by  whom 
he  had  several  children  (1  Chron.  vii,  14).  See  Machir. 
The  only  thing  subsequently  recorded  of  him  personally 
is  that  his  grandchildren  were  "  brought  up  on  Joseph's 
knees"  (Gen.  1,  23).  "The  ancient  Jewish  traditions 
are,  however,  less  reticent.  According  to  them  Jlanas- 
seh  was  the  steward  of  Joseph's  house,  and  the  intcr- 
]>reter  who  intervened  between  Joseph  and  his  brethren 
at  their  interview ;  and  the  extraordinary  strength 
which  he  displayed  in  the  struggle  with  and  binding  of 
Simeon  first  caused  Judah  to  suspect  that  the  apparent 
Egyptians  were  really  his  own  flesh  and  blood  (see  Tar- 
gums  Jerusalem  and  Pseudojon.  on  Gen.  xiii,  23 ;  xliii, 
15;  also  the  quotations  in  Weil's  Bibl.  Legeiuls,  p.  88, 
note)"  (Smith). 

MANASSEH,  Tribe  of. — On  the  prophetic  benedic- 
tion of  Jacob,  above  referred  to,  although  Manasseh,  as 
the  representative  of  his  future  lineage,  had,  like  his 
grand-uncle  Esau,  lost  his  birthright  in  favor  of  his 
younger  brother,  he  received,  as  Esau  had,  a  blessing 
only  inferior  to  the  birthright  itself.  Like  his  brother, 
he  was  to  increase  with  the  fertility  of  the  fish  which 
swarmed  in  the  great  Egv'ptian  stream,  to  "  become  a 
people,  and  also  to  be  great" — the  "  thousands  of  Manas- 


MANASSEH 


690 


IMANASSEH 


seh,"  no  less  than  those  of  Ephraim,  indeed  raor°,  were 
to  become  a  proverb  in  the  nation ;  his  name,  no  less 
than  that  of  Ephraim,  was  to  be  the  s3'mbol  and  the  ex- 
pression of  the  richest  blessings  for  liis  kindred. 

The  position  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  durinj^  the 
marcli  to  Canaan  was  with  Ephraim  and  Benjamin  on 
the  west  side  of  the  sacred  tent.  The  standard  of  the 
three  sons  of  Rachel  was  the  figure  of  a  boy,  with  the 
inscription  "  The  cloud  of  Jehovah  rested  on  them  un- 
til they  went  forth  out  of  the  camp"  (Targ.  Pseudojon. 
on  Numb,  ii,  18).  Tlie  chief  of  the  tribe  at  the  time  of 
the  census  at  Sinai  was  Gamaliel  ben-Pedahzur,  and  its 
numbers  were  then  32,200  (Numb,  i,  10,35;  ii,  20,  21; 
vii,  5i-59).  The  numbers  of  Ephraim  were  at  the  same 
date  •iO,.500.  Forty  years  later,  on  the  banks  of  the  Jor- 
dan, these  proportions  were  reversed.  Manasseh  had 
then  increased  to  52,700,  while  Ephraim  had  diminished 
to  32,500  (Numb,  xxvi,  34,  37).  On  this  occasion  it  is 
remarkable  that  Manasseh  resumes  his  position  in  the 
catalogue  as  the  eldest  son  of  Joseph.  Possibly  this  is 
due  to  the  prowess  which  the  tribe  had  shown  in  the 
conquest  of  Gilead,  for  Manasseh  was  certainly  at  this 
time  the  most  distinguished  of  all  the  tribes.  Of  the 
three  who  had  elected  to  remain  on  that  side  of  the  Jor- 
dan, Reuben  and  Gad  had  chosen  their  lot  because  the 
country  was  suitable  to  their  pastoral  possessions  and 
tendencies.  But  Machir,  Jair,  and  Nobah,  the  sons  of 
Manasseh,  were  no  shepherds.  They  were  pure  war- 
riors, who  had  taken  the  most  prominent  part  in  the 
conquest  of  those  provinces  which  up  to  that  time  had 
been  conquered,  and  whose  deeds  are  constantly  referred 
to  (Numb,  xxxii,  39 ;  Deut.  iii,  13,  14,  15)  with  credit 
and  renown.  "  Jair,  the  son  of  Manasseh,  took  all  the 
tract  of  Argob  .  .  .  sixty  great  cities"  (Deut.  iii,  14,  4). 
"  Nobah  took  Kenath  and  the  daughter-towns  thereof, 
and  called  it  after  his  own  name"  (Numb,  xxxii,  42). 
"  Bacause  Machir  was  a  man  of  war,  therefore  he  had 
Gilead  and  Bashan"  (Josh,  xvii,  1).  The  district  which 
these  ancient  warriors  conquered  was  among  the  most 
difficult,  if  not  the  most  difficult,  in  the  whole  country'. 
It  embraced  the  hills  of  Gilead,  with  their  inaccessible 
heights  and  impassable  ravines,  and  the  almost  impreg- 


AjpHazarrJii  an  ?-^  T-' ' '  ~  " 

Cj/         y.-HERMaN_-  / 

^  .->      */Rlh"oE''vBeth-  O^ 

Abel-beth-  ,"  •'    ^*^®'^®^^ 
Maachah-Z/^sesareaPhilippi   ••> 

W      Latum'/  < 
Chorazinf -^'"UTn' 


Uiuth  Camaim'?.-,?".^,,^^^ 
^0  T  lit  J  A  fB  ...,,,^, 

Lo"ciebar        ^     ^  ^/  y'' 

°Matianaim     /'      y'  ^^^ 

Gerasa^      /scaliofmius-gotoamoei 


Alap  of  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh — East. 


nable  tract  of  Argob,  which  derives  its  modem  name  of 
Lejah  from  the  secure  "  asylum"  it  affords  to  those  who 
take  refuge  within  its  natural  fortilications.  Had  they 
not  remained  in  these  wild  and  inaccessible  districts,  but 
gone  forward  and  taken  their  lot  with  the  rest,  who. 
shall  say  what  changes  might  not  have  occurre^l  in  the 
history  of  the  nation,  through  the  presence  of  such  en- 
ergetic and  warlike  spirits  V  The  few  personages  of 
eminence  whom  we  can  with  certainty  identify  as  Ma- 
nassites,  such  as  Gideon  and  .Jephthah — for  Elijah  and 
others  may  with  equal  probability  have  belonged  to  the 
neighboring  tribe  of  Gad  —  were  among  the  most  re- 
markable characters  that  Israel  produced.  Gideon  was, 
in  fact,  "  the  greatest  of  the  judges,  and  liis  children  all 
but  established  hereditary  monarchy  in  their  own  line" 
(Stanley,  S.  and  P.  p.  230).  But,  with  the  one  excep- 
tion of  Gideon,  the  warlike  tendencies  of  Manasseh  seem 
to  have  been  confined  to  the  east  of  the  .Jordan.  There 
they  throve  exceedingly,  pushing  their  way  northward 
over  the  rich  plains  of  Jaulan  and  Jedur — the  Gaula- 
nitis  and  Iturtea  of  the  Roman  period — to  the  foot  of 
Mount  Hermon  (1  Chron.  v,  23).  At  the  time  of  the 
coronation  of  David  at  Hebron,  while  the  western  IMa- 
nasseh  sent  18,000,  and  Ephraim  itself  20,800,  the  east- 
ern Manasseh,  with  Gad  and  Reuben,  mustered  to  the 
number  of  120,000,  thoroughly  armed  —  a  remarkable 
demonstration  of  strength,  still  more  remarkable  when 
we  remember  the  fact  that  Saul's  house,  with  tlie  great 
Abner  at  its  head,  was  then  residuig  at  Mahanaim,  on 
the  border  of  jNIanasseh  and  Gad.  But,  though  thus 
outwardly  prosperous,  a  similar  fate  awaited  them  in 
the  end  to  that  which  befel  Gad  and  Reuben;  they 
gradually  assimilated  themselves  to  the  old  inhabitants 
of  the  country — they  "  transgressed  against  the  God  of 
their  fathers,  and  went  a-whoring  after  the  gods  of  the 
people  of  the  land  whom  God  destroyed  before  them"' 
(ver.  25).  They  relinquished,  too,  the  settled  mode  of 
life  and  the  definite  limits  which  befitted  the  members 
of  a  federal  nation,  and  gradually  became  Bedouins  of 
the  wilderness,  spreading  themselves  over  the  vast  des- 
erts which  lay  between  the  allotted  possessions  of  their 
tribe  and  the  Euphrates,  and  which  had  from  time  im- 
memorial been  the  hunting-grounds  and  pastures  of  the 
wild  Hagarites,  of  Jetur,  Nephish,  and  Nodab  (1  Chron. 
v,  19,  22).  On  them  first  descended  the  punishment 
which  was  ordamed  to  be  the  inevitable  consequence  of 
such  misdoing.  They,  first  of  all  Israel,  were  carried 
away  by  Pul  and  Tiglath-Pileser,  and  settled  in  the  As- 
syrian territories  (ver.  26).  The  connection,  however, 
between  east  and  west  had  been  kept  up  to  a  certain  de- 
gree. In  Bethshean,  the  most  easterly  city  of  the  cis- 
Jordanic  Manasseh,  the  two  portions  all  but  joined.  Da- 
vid had  judges  or  officers  there  for  all  matters  sacred 
and  secular  (1  Chron.  xxvi,  32) ;  and  Solomon's  commis- 
sariat officer,  Ben-Geber,  ruled  over  the  towns  of  Jair 
and  the  whole  district  of  Argob  (1  Kings  iv,  13),  and 
transmitted  their  productions,  doubtless  not  without 
their  people,  to  the  court  of  Jerusalem. 

The  genealogies  of  the  tribe  are  preser\'ed  in  Numb. 
xxvi,  28-34;  Josh,  xvii,  1,  etc.;  and  1  Chron  vii,  14-19. 
But  it  seems  impossible  to  unravel  these  so  as  to  ascer- 
tain, for  instance,  which  of  the  families  remained  east  of 
Jordan,  and  which  advanced  to  the  west.  From  the 
fact  that  Alii-czer  (the  family  of  Gideon '^.  Hepher  (pos- 
sibly Ophrah,  the  native  place  of  the  same  hero),  and 
Shechem  (the  well-known  city  of  the  Bene-Joseph)  all 
occur  among  the  names  of  the  sons  of  Gilead,  the  son 
of  Machir,  it  seems  probable  that  Gilead,  whose  name  is 
so  intimately  connected  with  the  eastern,  was  also  the 
immediate  progenitor  of  the  western  half  of  the  tribe. 

Nor  is  it  less  difficult  to  fix  the  exact  position  of  the 
territory  allotted  to  the  western  half.  In  Josh,  xvii, 
14-18.  a  passage  usually  regarded  by  critics  as  an  ex- 
ceedingly ancient  document,  we  find  the  two  tribes  of 
Joseph  complaining  that  only  one  portion  had  been  al- 
lotted to  them,  viz.  Mount  Ephraim  (ver.  15),  and  that 
they  could  not  extend  into  the  plains  of  Jordan  or  Es- 


MANASSEH 


691 


MANASSEH 


draelon,  because  those  districts  were  still  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Canaanites,  and  scoured  by  their  chariots. 
In  reply  Joshua  advises  them  to  go  up  into  the  forest 
(ver.  If),  A.V.  "wood") — into  the  mountain  which  is  a 
forest  (ver.  18).  This  mountain  clothed  with  forest  can 
surely  be  nothing  but  the  various  spurs  and  oifshoots  of 
Carmel,  the  "  mountain'"  closel)^  adjoining  the  portion 
of  Kphraim  whose  richness  of  wood  was  t^o  proverbial. 
It  is  in  accordance  with  this  view  that  the  majority  of 
the  towns  of  Manasseh — which,  as  the  weaker  portion 
of  the  tribe,  would  naturally  be  pushed  to  seek  its  for- 
tunes outside  the  limits  originally  bestowed — were  actu- 
allv  on  the  slopes  either  of  Carmel  itself  or  of  the  con- 
tiguous ranges.  Thus  Taanach  and  Megiddo  were  on 
tlie  northern  spurs  of  Carmel;  Ibleam  appears  to  have 
been  on  the  eastern  continuation  of  the  range,  some- 
where near  the  present  Jenin.  En-Dor  was  on  the 
slopes  of  the  so-called  "  Little  Hermon."  The  two  re- 
maining towns  mentioned  as  belonging  to  Manasseh 
formed  the  extreme  eastern  and  western  limits  of  the 
tribe:  the  one,  Bethshean  (Josh,  xvii,  11),  was  in  the 
hollow  of  the  Ghor,  or  Jordan  Valley;  the  other.  Dor 
(ibid.),  was  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  sheltered 
beliind  the  range  of  Carmel,  and  immediately  opposite 
the  bluff  or  shoulder  which  forms  its  highest  point.  The 
whole  of  these  cities  are  specially  mentioned  as  stand- 
ing in  the  allotments  of  other  tribes,  though  inhabited 
liy  Manasseh  ;  and  this,  with  the  absence  of  any  attempt 
to  detine  a  limit  to  the  possessions  of  the  tribe  on  the 
north,  looks  as  if  no  boundary-line  had  existed  on  that 
side,  but  as  if  the  territory  faded  off  gradually  into  those 
of  the  two  contiguous  tribes  from  whom  it  had  borrowed 
its  fairest  cities.  On  the  south  side  the  boundary  be- 
tween Manasseh  and  Ephraim  is  more  definitely  de- 
scribed, and  may  generally  be  traced  with  tolerable  cer- 
tainty. Their  joint  possessions  were  bounded  by  the 
territory  of  Asher  on  the  north  and  Issachar  on  the 
north-east  (xvii,  10),  but  the  division  line  between  the 


two  kindred  tribes  is  defined  by  a  place  called  Asher 
(ver.  7),  now  Yasir,  twelve  miles  north-east  of  Nablus. 
Thence  it  ran  to  Michmethah,  described  as  facing  She- 
chem  (Nablus) ;  then  went  to  the  right,  i.  e.  southward, 
to  the  spring  of  Tappuah,  and  so  doubtless  to  the  Jor- 
dan. In  the  opposite  direction  it  fell  in  with  the  water- 
courses of  the  torrent  Kanah — probably  the  NahrFalaik 
— along  which  it  ran  to  the  Mediterranean.    See  TitiBE. 

From  the  indications  of  the  history,  it  would  appear 
that  Manasseh  took  very  little  part  in  public  affairs. 
They  either  left  all  that  to  Ephraim,  or  were  so  far  re- 
moved from  the  centre  of  the  nation  as  to  have  little 
interest  in  what  was  taking  place.  That  they  attended 
David's  coronation  at  Hebron  has  already  been  men- 
tioned. When  his  rule  was  established  over  all  Israel, 
each  half  had  its  distinct  ruler — the  western,  Joel  ben- 
Pedaiah;  the  eastern,  Iddo  ben-Zechariah  (1  Chron. 
xxvii,  20,  21).  From  this  time  the  eastern  Manasseh 
fades  entirely  from  our  view,  and  the  western  is  hardly 
kept  before  us  by  an  occasional  mention.  Such  scat- 
tered notices  as  we  do  find  have  almost  all  reference  to 
the  part  taken  by  members  of  the  tribe  in  the  reforms 
of  the  good  kings  of  Judah — the  Jehovah-revival  under 
Asa  (2  Chron.  xv,  9) — the  Passover  of  Hezekiah  (xxx, 
1,  10,  11,  18),  and  the  subsequent  enthusiasm  against 
idolatry  (xxxi,  1) — the  iconoclasm  of  Josiah  (xxxiv,  6), 
and  his  restoration  of  the  buildings  of  the  Temple  (ver. 
9).  It  is  gratifying  to  reflect  that  these  notices,  faint 
and  scattered  as  they  are,  are  all  colored  with  good,  and 
exhibit  none  of  the  repulsive  traits  of  that  most  repul- 
sive heathenism  into  which  other  tribes  of  Israel  fell. 

A  positive  connection  between  Manasseh  and  Benja- 
min is  implied  in  the  genealogies  of  1  Chron.  vii,  where 
Macliir  is  said  to  have  married  into  the  family  of  Hupr 
pim  and  Shuppim,  chief  houses  in  the  latter  tribe  (ver. 
15).  No  record  of  any  such  relation  appears  aiiywhere 
else. — Smith,  s.  v. 

The  following  are  all  the  Biblical  localities  in  both 


Map  of  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh — West. 


MANASSEH 


692 


MANASSEH 


sections  of  the  tribe,  with  their  preserved  modern  rep- 
resentatives : 

Manasseu  East. 


Apbok.  Town. 

Ai-litaroth.  do. 

Asbteroth-kavnaim)  ■, 

or  Beeshteroth.  ) 

Belhsaida.  do. 

Edrei.  do. 

Gadara  [or  Gergesa].  do. 

Geshur.  District. 

Golan.  City. 

Ilavoth-Jair.  District. 

Judah-ou-Jordan.  do. 

Karnaim.  Town. 

Keuath  or  Nobah.  do. 

Tob.  da. 


Fik. 

Tell  Ashteralif 

Mezareib  ? 

[El-Araj]? 
Dera  ? 
Um-Keis. 
Jedur. 

ITellel-Feras]? 
N.  part  of  Gilead? 
S.  of  Banias  ? 
See  AsuTABOTn. 
Kunewat  ? 
Bs-Sumrah  ? 


Abel-raeholah. 

Adam. 

.^uon. 

Aner. 

Armageddon. 

Asher. 

Beth-barah. 

Beth-shean. 

Betb-shittah. 

Bezek. 

Bileam. 

Ciesarea.       ' 

Dor. 

Dothau. 

Eudor. 

Eti-tappuah. 

Gilboa. 

Gilead. 

Hadad-rinimou. 

Ha  rod. 

Hermon  (Little). 

Jehovah-slialom. 

Megiddo. 

]\li)rcb. 

Ophrab. 

Shamir. 

Taaiiach. 

Taanath-shiloh. 

Tabbatb. 

Tabor. 

Tappiiah. 


Manasseo  West. 

Town.  [Khurbet-esh-SMik]  ? 

do.  [N.  of  Bethshean")  ? 

Springs.  Bir  of  Sheik  Salim  ? 

Town.  See  Taanacu. 

Valley.  See  Megiddo. 

Town.  Vasir. 

Ford.  [Near  Jisr-Damieh]  ? 

Town.  Beisan. 

do.  Shuttah  T 

do.  [Khurbet-SIalelq  ? 

do.  See  lui.EAM. 

do.  Kaisariijeh. 

do.  Tantura. 

do.  Tell  Dothan. 

do.  Emlur. 

do.  See  Tappuaii. 

Mount.  Jebel  Fukim. 

do.  See  Giluoa. 

Town.  Rummaneh. 

Fount.  Ahi-Jalml. 

]V[ount.  [Jebel  ed-Duhy]? 

Altar.  See  Ophbau. 

Town.  El-Lcjjun. 

11)11.  See  IIkk.mon. 

Town.  Erfai? 

do.  tSamniirt 

do.  Taiiuk. 

do.  Ahi  Tana? 

do.  ITcll-Hnmah-i  ? 

JNIonnt.  Jebel  Tin: 

District.  Around  Alaft 


Town. 


[S.  of  wady  Osheb]  ? 


Zarethan  or  Zarta-' 
nab ;  also  Zereda 
or  Zeredatha,  Ze-  ■ 
rerath.  J 

2.  According  to  the  usual  reading  of  the  text  in  Judg. 
xviii,  30,  Manasseh  was  tlie  fatlier  of  Gershom,  who  Is 
named  as  the  father  of  Jonathan  that  acted  as  priest  to 
the  Danites  at  Laish;  but  besides  that  this  would  not 
make  him  a  Levite,  and,  in  addition  to  the  fact  that 
Gershom  is  a  Levitical  name,  the  reading  is  marked  as 
suspicious  (iTv^ip,  Sept.  ^lavaaai'i),  and  should  doubt- 
less be  corrected  to  "  Jloses,"  as  in  the  Vidg.  and  many 
copies  of  the  Sept.     See  Jon,\tiiax. 

3.  Tlie  fourteentli  separate  king  of  Judah,  son  and 
successor  of  Hezekiah,  who  began  to  reign  at  the  early 
age  (if  twelve  years,  and  reigned  fifty-five  years.  B.C. 
(;'.)7-(i  12.  (In  the  following  account  we  chiefly  follow 
that  in  Smith's  Dictionarii  of  the  Bible,  s.  v.)  The  reio-n 
of  this  monarch  is  thus  longer  than  that  of  any  other 
of  tlie  house  of  David.  There  is  none  of  which  we  know 
less.  In  part,  it  may  be,  this  was  the  direct  result  of 
the  character  and  jjolicy  of  the  man.  In  part,  doubt- 
less, it  is  to  be  traced  to  the  abhoiTence  with  which  the 
following  generation  looked  back  upon  it  as  the  period 
of  lowest  degradation  to  which  their  country  had  ever 
fallen.  Chroniclers  and  prophets  pass  it  over,  gather- 
ing from  its  horrors  and  disasters  the  great,  broad  les- 
sons in  which  they  saw  the  foot-prints  of  a  righteous 
retribution,  the  tokens  of  a  divine  compassion,  and  then 
they  avert  their  eyes  and  will  see  and  say  no  more. 
This  is  in  itself  significant.  It  gives  a  meaning  and  a 
value  to  event'  fact  which  has  escaped  the  sentence  of 
oblivion.  The  very  reticence  of  tlie  historians  of  the 
<).  T.  shows  how  free  they  \i:ere  from  the  rhetorical  ex- 
aggerations and  inaccuracies  of  a  later  age.  The  strug- 
gle of  o]iposing  worshi]>s  must  have  been  as  fierce  under 
Manasseh  as  it  was  under  Antiochus,  or  Decius,  or  Dio- 
cletian, or  Mary.     Men  must  have  suffered  and  died  in 


that  struggle  of  whom  the  world  was  not  worthy,  and 
yet  no  contrast  can  be  greater  than  that  between  the 
sliort  notices  in  Kings  and  Chronicles,  and  the  martyr- 
ologies  which  belong  to  those  other  periods  of  persecu- 
tion. 

1.  The  birth  of  Manasseh  is  fixed  (B.C.  709)  twelve 
years  before  the  death  of  Hezekiah  (2  Kings  xxi,  1). 
We  must,  therefore,  infer  either  that  there  had  been  no 
heir  to  the  throne  up  to  that  comparatively  late  period 
in  his  reign,  or  that  any  that  had  been  born  had  died,  or 
tliat,  as  sometimes  happened  in  the  succession  of  Jewish 
and  otlier  Eastern  kings,  the  elder  son  was  passed  over 
for  the  younger.  There  are  reasons  which  make  the 
former  the  more  probable  alternative.  The  exceeding 
bitterness  of  Hezekiah's  sorrow  at  the  threatened  ap- 
proach of  death  (2  Kings  xx,  2,  3 ;  2  Chron.  xxxii,  24 ; 
Isa.  xxxviii,  1-3),  is  more  natural  if  we  think  of  him  as 
sinking  under  the  thought  that  he  was  dying  childless, 
leaving  no  heir  to  his  work  and  to  his  kingdom.  Wlien, 
a  little  later,  Isaiah  warns  him  of  the  captivity  and 
shame  which  will  ftill  on  his  children,  he  speaks  of  those 
children  as  yet  future  (2  Kings  xx,  18).  This  circum- 
stance will  explain  one  or  two  facts  in  the  contemporary 
history.  Hezekiah,  it  Avould  seem,  recovering  from  his 
sickness,  anxious  to  avoid  the  danger  that  had  threat- 
ened him,  of  leaving  his  kingdom  without  an  heir,  mar- 
ried, at  or  about  this  time,  Hephzibah  (2  Kings  xxi,  1), 
the  daughter  of  one  of  the  citizens  or  princes  of  Jerusa- 
lem (Joseph.  Ant.  x,  3, 1).  The  prophets,  we  may  well 
imagine,  would  welcome  the  prospect  of  a  successor 
named  by  a  king  who  had  been  so  true  and  faithfid. 
Isaiah  (in  a  passage  clearly  belonging  to  a  later  date 
than  the  early  portions  of  the  book,  and  apparently  sug- 
gested by  some  conspicuous  marriage),  with  his  charac- 
teristic fondness  for  tracing  auguries  in  names,  finds  in 
that  of  the  new  queen  a  prophecy  of  the  idtimate  resto- 
ration of  Israel  and  the  glories  of  Jerusalem  (Isa.  Ixii,  4, 
5 ;  compare  Blunt,  Scriptural  Coiiicid.  part  iii,  5).  The 
city,  also,  should  be  a  Hephzibah,  a  delightsome  one. 
As  the  bridegroom  rejoiceth  over  the  bride,  so  would 
Jehovah  rejoice  over  his  people.  See  HEnizinAii.  The 
child  that  is  born  from  this  union  is  called  Manasseh. 
This  name,  too,  is  strangely  significant.  It  appears  no- 
where else  in  the  historj'  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  The 
only  associations  connected  with  it  were  that  it  belonged 
to  the  tribe  which  was  all  but  the  most  powerful  of  the 
hostile  kingdom  of  Israel.  How  are  we  to  accoimt  for 
so  singular  and  unlikely  a  choice?  The  answer  is,  that 
the  name  embodied  what  had  been  for  j-ears  the  cher- 
ished object  of  Hezekiah's  policy  and  hope.  To  take 
advantage  of  the  overthrow  of  the  rival  kingdom  by 
Shalmaneser,  and  the  anarchy  in  which  its  provinces 
had  been  left,  to  gather  round  him  the  remnant  of  the 
population,  to  bring  them  back  to  the  worship  and  faith 
of  their  fathers,  this  had  been  the  second  step  in  his 
great  national  rcformatioit  (2  Chron.  xxx,  6).  It  was 
at  least  partially  successful.  "  Divers  of  Asher,  ]\fanas- 
sch,  and  Zebulun  humbled  themselves  and  came  to  Jeru- 
salem." They  were  there  at  the  great  passover.  The 
work  of  destroying  idols  went  on  in  Ephraim  and  Ma- 
nasseh as  well  as  in  Judah  (2  Chron.  .xxxi,  1).  What 
could  be  a  more  acceptable  pledge  of  his  desire  to  re- 
ceive the  fugitives  as  on  the  same  footing  with  his  own 
subjects  than  that  he  should  give  to  the  heir  to  his 
throne  the  name  in  which  one  of  their  tribes  exulted? 
What  could  better  show  the  desire  to  let  all  past  dis- 
cords and  offences  be  forgotten  than  the  name  which 
was  itself  an  amnesty?     (Gescnius). 

The  last  twelve  }-ears  of  Hezekiah's  reign  were  not, 
however,  it  will  be  remembered,  thfise  which  were  like- 
ly to  influence  for  good  the  character  of  his  successor. 
Mis  policy  had  succeeded.  He  had  thrown  off  the  yoke 
of  the  king  of  Assyria,  which  Ahaz  had  accepted,  liad 
defied  his  armies,  had  been  delivered  from  extremest 
danger,  and  had  made  himself  the  head  of  an  independ- 
ent kingdom,  receiving  tribute  from  neighboring  princes 
instead  of  paying  it  to  the  great  king,  the  king  of  As- 


MANASSEH 


693 


MANASSEH 


Syria.  But  he  goes  a  step  further.  Not  content  with 
iiulependence,  he  enters  on  a  policy  of  aggression.  He 
contracts  an  alliance  with  the  rebellious  viceroy  of  Bab- 
j'lon  against  their  common  enemy  ("2  Kings  xx,  12  ;  Isa. 
xxxix).  He  displays  the  treasures  of  his  kingdom  to 
the  ambassadors,  iu  the  belief  tliat  this  will  show  them 
liow  powerful  an  ally  he  can  prove  himself.  Isaiah  pro- 
tested against  this  step,  but  the  ambition  of  being  a 
great  potentate  continued,  and  it  was  to  the  results  of 
this  ambition  that  the  boy  jManasseh  succeeded  at  the 
age  of  twelve. 

2.  The  accession  of  the  youthful  king  appears  to  have 
been  the  signal  for  an  entire  change,  if  not  in  the  for- 
eign policj^,  at  any  rate  in  the  religious  administration 
of  the  kingdom.  At  so  early  an  age  he  can  scarcely 
have  been  the  spontaneous  author  of  so  great  an  altera- 
tion, and  we  may  infer  accordingly  that  it  was  the  work 
of  the  idolatrous,  or  Ahaz  pariy,  which  had  been  re- 
pressed during  the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  but  had  all  along, 
like  the  Komish  clergy  under  Edward  VI  in  England, 
looked  on  the  reform  with  a  sullen  acquiescence,  and 
thwarted  it  when  they  dared.  The  change  which  the 
king's  measures  brought  about  was,  after  all,  superficial. 
The  idolatry  which  was  publicly  discountenanced  was 
practiced  privately  (Isa.  i,  29;  ii,  20;  Ixv,  3).  The 
priests  and  the  prophets,  in  spite  of  their  outward  or- 
thodoxy, were  too  often  little  better  than  licentious 
drunkards  (Isa.  xxviii,  7).  The  nobles  of  Judah  kept 
the  new  moons  and  sabbaths  much  in  the  same  way  as 
tliose  of  France  kept  their  Lents  when  Louis  XIV  had 
made  devotion  a  court  ceremonial  (Isa.  i,  13, 14).  There 
are  signs  that  even  among  the  king's  highest  officers  of 
state  there  was  one,  Shebna  the  scribe  (Isa.  xxxvii,  2), 
the  treasurer  (Isa.  xxii,  15)  "over  the  house,"  whose 
policy  was  simply  that  of  a  selfish  ambition,  himself 
possibly  a  foreigner  (comp.  Blunt's  Script.  Coinc.  iii,  4), 
and  whom  Isaiah  sa\v  through  and  distrusted.  It  was, 
moreover,  the  traditional  policy  of  "  the  princes  of  Ju- 
dah" (compare  one  remarkable  instance  in  the  reign  of 
Joash,  2  Chron.  xxiv,  17)  to  favor  foreign  alliances  and 
the  toleration  of  foreign  worship,  as  it  was  that  of  the 
true  priests  and  prophets  to  protest  against  it.  It  would 
seem,  accordingly,  as  if  they  urged  upon  the  young  king 
that  scheme  of  a  close  alliance  with  Babylon  which  Isa- 
iah had  condemned,  and,  as  the  natural  consequence  of 
this,  the  adoption,  as  far  as  possible,  of  its  worship,  and 
that  of  other  nations  whom  it  was  desirable  to  concili- 
ate. The  morbid  desire  for  widening  the  range  of  their 
knowledge  and  penetrating  into  the  mysteries  of  other 
systems  of  belief  may  possibly  have  contributed  now, 
as  it  had  done  in  the  days  of  Solomon,  to  increase  the 
evil  (.Jer.  ii,  10-25;  Ewald,  Cesc/;.  Isr.  iii,  6G6).  The 
result  was  a  debasement  which  had  not  been  equalled 
even  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  uniting  in  one  centre  the 
abominations  which  elsewhere  existed  separately.  Not 
content  with  sanctioning  their  presence  in  the  Holy  City, 
as  Solomon  and  Kehoboam  had  done,  Manasseh  defiled 
with  it  the  sanctuary  itself  (2  Chron.  xxxiii,  4).  The 
worship  thus  introduced  was,  as  has  been  said,  predom- 
inantly Babylonian  in  its  character.  "  He  observed 
times,  and  used  enchantments,  and  used  witchcraft,  and 
dealt  with  a  familiar  spirit,  and  with  wizards"  (ver.  (5). 
The  worship  of  "  tlie  host  of  heaven,"  which  each  man 
celebrated  for  himself  on  the  roof  of  his  own  house, 
took  the  place  of  that  of  the  Lord  God  of  Sabaoth  (2 
Kings  xxiii,  12 ;  Isa.  Ixv,  3,  11 ;  Zeph.  i,  5 ;  .Ter.  viii,  2  ; 
xix,  13  ;  xxii,  29).  With  this,  however,  there  was  as- 
sociated the  old  Molech  worsliip  of  the  Ammonites. 
The  fires  were  rekindled  in  the  valley  of  Ben-Hinnom. 
Tophet  was  (for  the  first  time,  apparently)  built  into  a 
statel}'  fabric  (2  Kings  xvi,  3  ;  Isa.  xxx,  33,  as  compared 
with  Jer.  vii,  81  ;  xix,  5 ;  Ewald,  Gesch.  Isr.  iii,  C(J7). 
Even  the  king's  sons,  instea<l  of  being  presented  to  Je- 
hovah, received  a  horrible  fire-baptism  dedicating  them 
to  ]Molech  (2  Chron.  xxxiii,  6),  while  others  were  actu- 
ally slaughtered  (Ezek.  xxiii,  37,  39).  The  Baal  and 
Ashtaroth  ritual,  which  had  been  imported  under  Solo- 


mon from  the  Phoenicians,  was  revived  with  fresh  splen- 
dor, and,  in  the  worship  of  the  "queen  of  heaven,"  fixed 
its  roots  deep  into  the  habits  of  tlie  people  (Jer.  vii,  18). 
Worse  and  more  horrible  than  till,  the  Asherah,  the  im- 
age of  Astarte,  or  the  obscene  symbol  of  a  phallic  wor- 
ship (comp.  AsiiERAH,  and,  in  addition  to  the  authori- 
ties there  cited,  Mayer,  De  Reform.  Jusiw,  etc.,  in  the 
T/ies.  Theo.  philol.  Amstel.  1701)  was  seen  in  the  house 
of  which  Jehovah  had  said  tliat  he  would  there  put  his 
name  forever  (2  Kings  xxi,  7).  All  this  was  accom- 
panied by  the  extremest  moral  degradation.  The  wor- 
ship of  those  old  Eastern  religions  has  been  well  de- 
scribed as  a  kind  of  "  sensuous  intoxication,"  simply 
sensuous,  and  therefore  associated  inevitably  with  a 
fiendish  cruelty,  leading  to  the  utter  annihilation  of  the 
spiritual  life  of  men  (Hegel,  Philos.  of  History,  i,  3).  So 
it  was  iu  Jerusalem  in  the  days  of  Manasseh.  Eival 
priests  (the  Chemarim  of  Zeph.  i,  4)  were  consecrated 
for  this  hideous  worship.  Women  dedicating  them- 
selves to  a  cultus  like  that  of  the  Babylonian  Mylitta 
wove  hangings  for  the  Asherah  as  they  sat  there  (May- 
er, cap.  ii,  §  4).  The  Kadeshim,  in  closest  neighborhood 
with  them,  gave  themselves  up  to  yet  darker  abomina- 
tions (2  Kings  xxiii,  7).  The  awfid  words  of  Isaiah  (i, 
10)  had  a  terrible  truth  in  them.  Those  to  whom  he 
spoke  were  literally  "rulers  of  Sodom  and  princes  of  Go- 
morrah." Every  faith  was  tolerated  but  the  old  faith 
of  Israel.  This  was  abandoned  and  proscribed.  The 
altar  of  Jehovah  was  displaced  (2  Chron.  xxxiii,  16). 
The  very  ark  of  the  covenant  was  removed  from  the 
sanctuary  (2  Chron.  xxxv,  3).  The  sacred. books  of  the 
people  were  so  systematically  destroyed  that  fifty  years 
later  men  listened  to  the  Book  of  the  Law  of  Jeliovah 
as  a  newly-discovered  treasure  (2  Kings  xxii,  8).  It 
may  well  be,  according  to  a  Jewish  tradition,  that  this 
fanaticism  of  idolatry  led  Manasseh  to  order  the  name 
Jehovah  to  be  erased  from  all  documents  and  inscrip- 
tions (Patrick,  ad  loc).  All  this  involved  also  a  system- 
atic violation  of  the  weekly  sabbatic  rest  and  the  con- 
sequent loss  of  one  witness  against  a  merely  animal  life 
(Isa.  Ivi,  2 ;  Ivili,  13).  The  tide  of  corruption  carried 
away  some  even  of  those  who,  as  ]iriests  and  prophets, 
should  have  been  steadfast  in  resisting  it  (Zeph.  iii,  4  ; 
Jer.  ii,  26 ;  x,  13 ;  vi.  13). 

It  is  easy  to  imagine  the  bitter  grief  and  burning  in- 
dignation of  those  who  continued  faithful.  The  fiercest 
zeal  of  Huguenots  in  France,  of  Covenanters  in  Scot- 
land, against  the  badges  and  symbols  of  the  Latin 
Church,  is  perhaps  but  a  faint  shadow  of  that  which 
grew  to  a  white  heat  in  the  hearts  of  the  worshippers 
of  Jehovah.  They  spoke  out  in  words  of  corresponding 
strength.  Evil  was  coming  on  Jerusalem  which  should 
make  the  ears  of  men  to  tingle  (2  Kings  xxi,  12).  The 
line  of  Samaria  and  the  plummet  of  the  house  of  Ahab 
should  be  the  doom  of  the  Hoh^  City.  Like  a  vessel 
that  had  once  been  full  of  precious  ointment  (comp.  the 
Sept.  rt\rt/3a(Trpoj');but  had  afterwards  become  foul,  Je- 
rusalem should  be  emptied  and  wiped  out,  and  exposed 
to  the  winds  of  Heaven  till  it  was  cleansed.  Foremost, 
we  may  well  believe,  among  those  who  thus  bore  their 
witness  was  the  old  prophet,  now  bent  with  the  weight 
of  fourscore  years,  who  had  in  his  earlier  days  protested 
with  equal  courage  against  the  crimes  of  the  king's 
grandfather.  On  him,  too,  according  to  the  old  Jewish 
tradition,  came  the  first  shock  of  the  persecution.  En- 
raged at  the  rebukes  which  the  aged  prophet  doubtless 
administered,  the  king  is  said  to  have  caused  him  to  be 
sawn  asunder  with  a  wooden  saw ;  this  fate  seems  to  be 
alluded  to  in  Ileb.  xi,  37.  See  Isaiah.  Habakkuk  may 
have  shared  his  martyrdom  (Keil  on  2  Kings  xxi ;  but 
comp.  Habakk(ik).  But  the  persecution  did  not  stop 
there.  It  attacked  the  whole  order  of  the  true  proph- 
ets, and  those  who  followed  them.  Every  day  witness- 
ed an  execution  (Josephus,  Ant.  x,  3, 1).  The  slaughter 
was  like  that  under  Alva  or  Charles  IX  (2  Kings  xxi, 
16).  The  martyrs  who  were  faithful  unto  death  had  to 
endure  not  torture  only,  but  the  mocks  and  taunts  of  a 


MANASSEH 


694 


MANASSEH 


godless  generation  (Isa.  Ivii,  1-4).  Long  afterwards  the 
remembrance  of  that  reign  of  terror  lingered  in  the 
minds  of  men  as  a  guilt  lor  which  nothing  could  atone 
(2  Kings  xxiv,  4).  The  persecution,  like  most  other 
persecutions  carried  on  with  entire  singleness  of  pur- 
pose, was  for  a  time  successful  (Jer.  ii,  30).  The  proph- 
ets appear  no  more  in  the  long  history  of  IManasseh's 
reign.  The  heart  and  the  intellect  of  the  nation  were 
crushed  out,  and  there  would  seem  to  have  been  no 
chroniclers  left  to  record  this  portion  of  its  history, 

3.  Retribution  came  soon  in  the  natiu-al  sequence  of 
events.  There  are  indications  that  the  neighboring  na- 
tions— Philistines,  Moabites,  Ammonites — who  had  been 
tributary  under  Hezekiah,  revolted  at  some  period  in 
the  reign  of  Manasseh,  and  asserted  their  independence 
(Zeph.  ii,  4-19;  Jer.  xlvii,  xlviii,  xlix).  The  Babylo- 
nian alliance  bore  the  fruits  which  had  been  predicted. 
Hezekiah  had  been  too  hasty  in  attaching  himself  to 
the  cause  of  the  rebel  prince  against  AssjTia.  The  re- 
bellion of  Merodach-Baladan  was  crushed,  and  then  the 
wrath  of  the  Assyrian  king  fell  on  those  who  had  sup- 
ported him.  See  Esak-haddon.  According  to  others, 
during  the  constant  war  between  Assyria  and  Egypt, 
Manasseh  adhered  to  the  policy  of  his  father  in  making 
common  cause  with  the  latter  power.  One  or  the  other 
of  these  causes,  although  not  stated  by  the  sacred  his- 
torian, brought  into  Judrea  an  Assyrian  army,  under  the 
general  of  Esar-haddon,  and  this  time  the  invasion  was 
more  successful  than  that  of  Sennacherib.  The  city 
apparently  was  taken.  The  miserable  king  attempted 
flight,  but  was  discovered  in  a  thorn-brake  in  which  he 
had  hidden  himself,  was  laden  with  chains,  and  sent 
away  as  a  captive  to  Babylon,  which  was  then  subject 
to  the  Assyrians,  where  he  was  cast  into  prison.  His 
name  has  been  discovered  on  the  Assyrian  monuments 
(Journ.  of  Sac.  Lit.  April,  1859,  p.  75).  See  Niseveh. 
Here,  at  last,  jManasseh  had  ample  opportunity  and  lei- 
sure for  cool  reflection ;  and  the  hard  lessons  of  adversit}' 
were  not  lost  upon  him.  He  saw  and  deplored  the  evils 
of  his  reign — he  became  as  a  new  man — he  humbly  be- 
sought pardon  from  God,  and  implored  that  he  might 
be  enabled  to  evince  the  sincerity  of  his  contrition  by 
being  restored  to  a  position  for  undoing  all  that  it  had 
been  the  business  of  his  life  to  effect.  His  prayer  was 
heard.  His  captivity  is  supposed  to  have  lasted  a  year, 
and  he  was  then  restored  to  his  kingdom  under  certain 
obligations  of  tribute  and  allegiance  to  the  king  of  As- 
syria, which,  although  not  expressed  in  the  account  of 
this  transaction,  are  alluded  to  in  the  historj'  of  his  suc- 
cessors (2  Chron.  xxxiii,  11-13  ;  comp.  Maurice,  Proph- 
ets and  Kiiif/s,  p.  362).     See  Manasses,  Pijayer  of. 

Two  questions  meet  us  at  this  point,  (a)  Have  we 
satisfactory  grounds  for  believing  that  this  statement  is 
historically  true?  (6)  If  we  accept  it,  to  what  period 
in  the  reign  of  Manasseh  is  it  to  be  assigned?  It  has 
been  urged  in  regard  to  («)  that  the  silence  of  the  writer 
of  the  books  of  Kings  is  conclusive  against  the  trust- 
worthiness of  the  narrative  of  2  Chronicles.  In  the  for- 
mer there  is  no  mention  made  of  captivity  or  repent- 
ance or  return.  The  latter,  it  has  been  said,  yields  to 
the  temptation  of  pointing  a  moral,  of  making  history 
apjiear  more  in  harmony  with  his  own  notions  of  the 
divine  government  than  it  actually  is.  His  anxiety  to 
deal  leniently  with  the  s\iccess()rs  of  David  leads  him  to 
invent  at  once  a  reformation  and  the  captivity  which  is 
represented  as  its  cause  (IJoseninidlcr,  JrihI.  Al.'rrt/i.  i,  2, 
p.  131 ;  Hitzig,  Befff.  d.  Krililc,  p.  130).  It  will  be  nec- 
essary in  dealing  with  this  objection  to  meet  the  scep- 
tical critic  on  his  own  ground.  To  say  that  his  rea- 
soning contradicts  our  belief  in  the  inspiration  of  the 
historic.ll  books  of  Scripture,  and  is  destructive  of  all 
reverence  for  them,  would  involve  a  pititio  frincipii, 
and,  however  strongly  it  may  inlluence.our  feelings,  we 
are  bound  to  find  another  answer.  It  is  believed  that 
the  answer  is  not  far  to  seek.  (1)  The  silence  of  a 
writer  who  sums  up  the  history  of  a  reign  of  fifty-five 
years  in  nineteen  verses  as  to  one  alleged  event  in  it  is 


surely  a  weak  ground  for  refusing  to  accept  that  event 
on  the  authority  of  another  historian.  (2)  The  omis- 
sion is  in  part  explained  bj'  the  character  of  the  narra- 
tive of  2  Kings  xxi.  The  writer  deliberately  turns  away 
froin  the  history  of  the  days  of  shame,  and  not  less  from 
the  personal  biograph}'  of  the  king.  He  looks  on  the 
reign  only  as  it  contributed  to  the  corruption  and  final 
overthrow  of  the  kingdom,  and  no  after  repentance  was 
able  to  undo  the  mischief  that  had  been  done  at  first. 
(3)  Still  keeping  on  the  level  of  human  probabilities,  the 
character  of  the  writer  of  2  Chronicles,  obviously  a  Le- 
vite,  and  looking  at  the  facts  of  the  history  from  the 
Levitical  point  of  view,  would  lead  him  to  attach  greater 
importance  to  a  partial  reinstatement  of  the  old  ritual 
and  to  the  cessation  of  persecution,  and  so  to  give  them 
in  proportion  a  greater  prominence.  (4)  There  is  one 
peculiarity  in  the  history  which  is,  in  some  measure,  of 
the  nature  of  an  undesigned  coincidence,  and  so  confirms 
it.  The  captains  of  the  host  of  Assj-ria  take  Manasseh 
to  Babylon.  Would  not  a  later  writer,  inventing  the 
story,  have  made  the  Assyrian,  and  not  the  Babylonian, 
capital  the  scene  of  the  captivitj- ;  or,  if  the  latter  were 
chosen  for  the  sake  of  harmony  with  the  prophecy  of 
Isa.  xxxix,  have  made  the  king  of  Babylon  rather  than 
of  Assyria  the  captor?  As  it  is,  the  narrative  fits  in, 
with  the  utmost  accuracy,  to  the  facts  of  Oriental  histo- 
rj'.  The  first  attempt  of  Babylon  to  assert  its  indepen- 
dence of  Nineveh  failed.  It  was  crushed  by  Esar-had- 
don (the  first  or  second  of  that  name ;  compare  Esar- 
haddon,  and  Ewald,  Gcsch.  Isr.  iii,  G75),  and  for  a  time 
the  Assyrian  king  held  his  court  at  Babylon,  so  as  to 
effect  more  completely  the  reduction  of  the  rebellious 
province.  There  is  (5)  the  fact  of  agreement  with  the 
intervention  of  the  Assyrian  king  in  2  Kings  xvii,  24, 
just  at  the  same  time.  The  king  is  not  named  there, 
but  Ezra  iv,  2, 10,  gives  Asnapper,  and  this  is  probably 
only  another  form  of  Asardanapar,  and  this  =  Esar-had- 
don (compare  Ewald,  Gesch.  iii,  C76;  Tob.  i,  21  gives 
Sarchedonus).  The  importation  of  tribes  from  Eastern 
Asia  thus  becomes  part  of  the  same  policy  as  the  attack 
on  Judah.  On  the  whole,  then,  the  objection  may  well 
be  dismissed  as  frivolous  and  vexatious.  Like  many 
other  difficulties  urged  by  the  same  school,  it  has  in  it 
something  at  once  captious  and  puerile.  Those  who  lay 
undue  stress  on  them  act  in  the  spirit  of  a  clever  boy 
asking  puzzling  questions,  or  a  sharp  advocate  getting  up 
a  case  against  the  evidence  on  the  other  side,  rather  than 
in  that  of  critics  who  have  learned  how  to  construct 
a  history  and  to  value  its  materials  rightly  (comp.  Kcil, 
Comment,  on  2  Kings  xxi).  Ewald.  a  critic  of  a  nobler 
stamp,  whose  fault  is  rather  that  of  fantastic  reconstruc- 
tion than  needless  scepticism  [Gesch.  Isr.  iii,  G78 ),  ad- 
mits the  groundwork  of  truth.  Would  the  prophecy  of 
Isaiah,  it  may  be  asked,  have  been  recorded  and  pre- 
served if  it  had  not  been  fulfilled  ?  Might  not  Manas- 
seh's  release  have  been,  as  Ewald  suggests,  the  direct 
consequence  of  the  death  of  Esar-haddon?  Indeed,  all 
the  soberer  German  critics  accept  it  as  truth,  and  jdace 
IManasseh's  captivity  under  Esar-haddon  (Bcrthcau,  ad 
loc).  Bertheau  suggests  that  some  support  to  the  ac- 
count may  perhaps  be  found  in  2  Kings  xx,  17  ?q.  For 
other  discussions  of  the  alleged  improbabilities  of  the 
Biblical  narrative,  see  Dahlers,  De  Jide  Chronic,  hist.  p. 
139;  Gramberg,  Chron.  p.  199,  210;  ReUrjionsid.  ii,  234; 
Rosenmiiller,  Alterth.  I,  ii,  131 ;  KeU,  Apoloff.  der  Chro- 
niL  p.  425 ;  Havernick,  Einleit.  II,  i,  221 ;  Stud,  u  Krit. 
18(!0.  vol.  iii. 

(b.)  The  circumstance  just  noticed  enables  us  to  return 
an  approximate  answer  to  the  other  question.  The  du- 
ration of  F^sar-h addon's  Babylonian  reign  is  calculated 
as  being  in  B.C.  C80-C67  ;  and  Manasseh's  captivity 
must  therefore  have  Allien  within  those  limits.  A  .Jew- 
ish tradition  (Seder  Olam  Rahhct,  c.  24 )  fixes  the  twen- 
tj'-second  year  of  his  reign  as  the  exact  date. 

4.  The  jieriod  that  folloived  is  dwelt  upon  by  the 
writer  of  2  Chronicles  as  one  of  a  great  change  for  the 
better.     The  discipluie  of  exile  made  the  king  feel  that 


MANASSEH 


695 


MANASSEH 


the  gods  TV'liom  he  had  chosen  were  powerless  to  deliver, 
and  he  turned  in  his  heart  to  Jehovah,  the  God  of  his 
fathers.  The  compassion  or  death  of  Esar-haddon  led 
to  his  release,  and  he  returned  after  some  uncertain  in- 
terval of  time  to  Jerusalem.  It  is  not  improbable  that 
his  absence  from  that  city  had  given  a  breathing  time 
to  the  oppressed  adherents  of  the  ancient  creed,  and 
possibly  had  brought  into  prominence,  as  the  provisional 
ruler  and  defender  of  the  city,  one  of  the  chief  members 
of  the  party.  If  the  prophecy  of  Isa.  xxii,  15  received, 
as  it  probably  did,  its  I'ultilment  in  Shebna's  sharing  the 
captivity  of  his  master,  there  is  nothing  extravagant  in 
the  belief  that  we  may  refer  to  the  same  period  the  no- 
ble words  which  speak  of  Eliakim,  the  son  of  Hilkiah, 
as  taking  the  place  which  Shebna  shoidd  leave  vacant, 
and  rising  up  to  be  "a  father  unto  the  inhabitants  of 
Jerusalem  and  to  the  house  of  Judah,"  having  "  the  key 
of  the  house  of  David  on  his  shoulder." 

The  return  of  Manasseh  was  at  any  rate  followed  by 
a  new  policy.  The  old  faith  of  Israel  was  no  longer 
persecuted.  Foreign  idolatries  were  no  longer  thrust, 
in  all  their  foulness,  into  the  sanctuarj'  itself.  The  altar 
of  the  Lord  was  again  restored,  and  peace-offerings  and 
thank-offerings  sacrificed  to  Jehovah  (2  Chron.  xxxiii, 
15,  IG).  But  beyond  this  the  reformation  did  not  go. 
The  ark  was  not  restored  to  its  place.  The  book  of  the 
law  of  Jehovah  remained  in  its  concealment.  Satisfied 
with  the  feeling  that  they  were  no  longer  worshipping 
the  gods  of  other  nations  by  name,  they  went  on  with  a 
mode  of  worship  essentially  idolatrous.  "The  people 
did  sacrifice  still  in  the  high  places,  but  to  Jehovah  their 
God  only"  (ibid.  ver.  17). 

5.  The  other  facts  known  of  Manasseh's  reign  connect 
themselves  with  the  state  of  the  world  round  him.  The 
Assyrian  monarchy  was  tottering  to  its  fall,  and  the 
king  of  Judah  seems  to  have  thought  that  it  was  still 
possible  for  him  to  rule  as  the  head  of  a  strong  and  in- 
dependent kingdom.  If  he  had  to  content  himself  with 
a  smaller  territory,  he  might  yet  guard  its  capital  against 
attack  by  a  new  waU  defending  what  had  been  before 
its  weak  side  (comp.  Zeph.  i,  10),  "  to  the  entering  in  of 
the  fish-gate,"  and  completing  the  tower  of  Ophel,  which 
had  been  begun  with  a  like  purpose  by  Jotham  (2 
Chron.  xxvii,  3).  Nor  were  the  preparations  for  de- 
fence limited  to  Jerusalem.  "  He  put  captains  of  war 
into  all  the  fenced  cities  of  Judah."  There  was,  it  must 
be  remembered,  a  special  reason  for  this  attitude,  over 
and  above  that  afforded  by  the  condition  of  Assyria. 
Egypt  had  emerged  from  the  chaos  of  the  Dodecarchy 
and  the  Ethiopian  intruders,  and  again  become  strong 
and  aggressive  under  Psammitichus.  Pushing  his  arms 
northwards,  he  attacked  the  Philistines  j  and  the  twen- 
ty-nine years'  siege  of  Azotiis  must  have  fallen  wholly 
or  in  part  within  the  reign  of  Manasseh.  So  far  his 
progress  woidd  not  be  unacceptable.  It  would  be  pleas- 
ant to  see  the  old  hereditary  enemies  of  Israel,  who  had 
latel}'  grown  insolent  and  defiant,  meet  with  their  mas- 
ters. About  this  time,  accordingly,  we  find  the  thought 
of  an  Egyptian  alliance  again  beginning  to  gain  favor. 
The  prophets,  and  those  who  were  guided  by  them, 
dreaded  this  more  than  anything,  and  entered  their  pro- 
,test  against  it.  Not  the  less,  however,  from  this  time 
forth,  did  it  continue  to  be  the  favorite  idea  which  took 
possession  of  the  minds  of  the  lay-party  of  the  princes 
of  Judah.  The  very  name  of  j\Ianasseh"s  son,  Amon, 
barely  admitting  a  possible  Hebrew  explanation,  but 
identical  in  form  and  sound  with  that  of  the  great  sun- 
god  of  Egypt  (so  E\vald,  Gesch.  iii,  665),  is  probably  an 
indication  of  the  gladness  with  which  the  alliance  of 
Psammitichus  was  welcomed.  As  one  of  its  conse- 
quences, it  probably  involved  the  supply  of  troops  from 
Judah  to  serve  in  the  armies  of  the  Egyptian  king. 
Without  adopting  Ewald's  hypothesis  that  tliis  is  re- 
ferred to  in  Dent,  xxviii,  68,  it  is  yet  likely  enough  in 
itself,  and  Jer.  ii,  14-16  seems  to  allude  to  some  such 
state  of  things.  In  return  for  this,  ]\Ianasseh,  we  may 
believe,  received  the  help  of  the  chariots  aiid  horses  fo"r 


which  Egj'pt  was  always  famous  (Isa.  xxxi,  1).  (Comp. 
Aristeas,  Epigt.  ad  Philocr.  in  Havercamp's  Jusephuf:,  ii, 
104).  If  this  was  the  close  of  Manasseh's  reign,  we  can 
well  understand  how  to  the  writer  of  the  books  of  Kings 
it  would  seem  hardly  better  than  the  begimiing,  leaving 
the  root-evil  uncured,  preparing  the  way  for  worse  evils 
than  itself.  We  can  understand  how  it  was  that  on  his 
death  he  was  buried  as  Ahaz  had  been,  not  with  the 
burial  of  a  king,  in  the  sepulchres  of  the  house  of  David, 
but  in  the  garden  of  Uzza  (2  Kings  xxi,  26),  and  that, 
long  afterwards,  in  spite  of  his  repentance,  the  Jews 
held  his  name  in  abhorrence,  as  one  of  the  three  kings 
(the  other  two  are  Jeroboam  and  Ahab)  who  had  no 
part  in  eternal  life  {San/iedr.  xi,  1,  quoted  by  Patrick  on 
2  Chron.  xxxiii,  13). 

Indeed,  the  evil  was  irreparable.  The  habits  of  a 
sensuous  and  debased  worship  had  eaten  into  the  life  of 
the  people;  and  though  they  might  be  repressed  for  a 
time  by  force,  as  in  the  reformation  of  Josiah,  they  burst 
out  again,  when  the  pressure  was  removed,  with  fresh 
violence,  and  rendered  even  the  zeal  of  the  best  of  the 
Jewish  kings  fruitfid  chiefly  in  hypocrisy  and  unreality. 
The  intellectual  life  of  the  people  suffered  in  the  same 
degree.  The  persecution  cut  off  all  who,  trained  in  the 
schools  of  the  prophets,  were  the  thinkers  and  teachers 
of  the  people.  The  reign  of  Manasseh  witnessed  the 
close  of  the  work  of  Isaiah  and  Habakkidv  at  its  begin- 
ning, and  the  youth  of  Jeremiah  and  Zephaniah  at  its 
conclusion,  but  no  prophetic  writings  illumine  that  dreary 
half-century  of  debasement.  The  most  fearful  symptom 
of  all,  when  a  prophet's  voice  was  again  heard  during 
the  minority  of  Josiah,  was  the  atheism  which,  then  as 
in  other  ages,  followed  on  the  confused  adoption  of  a 
confluent  polytheism  (Zeph.  i,  12).  It  is  surely  a  strained, 
almost  a  fantastic  hypothesis,  to  assign  (as  Ewald  does) 
to  such  a  period  two  such  noble  works  as  Deuteronomy 
and  the  book  of  Job.  Nor  was  this  dying  out  of  a  true 
faith  the  only  eviL  The  systematic  persecution  of  the 
worshippers  of  Jehovah  accustomed  the  peopk  to  the 
horrors  of  a  religious  war ;  and  when  they  in  their  turn 
gained  the  ascendancy,  the)-  used  the  opportunity  with 
a  fiercer  sternness  than  had  been  known  before.  Je- 
hoshaphat  and  Hezekiah  in  their  reforms  had  been  con- 
tent with  restoring  the  true  worship  and  destroying  the 
instruments  of  the  false.  In  that  of  Josiah,  the  destruc- 
tion extends  to  the  priests  of  the  high  places,  whom  he 
sacrifices  on  their  own  altars  (2  Kings  xxiii,  20). 

6.  But  little  is  added  by  later  tradition  to  the  O.-T. 
narrative  of  Manasseh's  reign.  The  prayer  that  bears 
his  name  among  the  apocryphal  books  can  hardly,  in 
the  absence  of  any  Hebrew  original,  be  considered  as 
identical  with  that  referred  to  in  2  Chron.  xxxiii,  and  is 
probably  rather  the  result  of  an  attempt  to  work  out  the 
hint  there  supplied  than  the  reproduction  of  an  older 
document.  There  are  reasons,  howe\'er,  for  believing 
that  there  existed  at  some  time  or  other  a  fuller  history, 
more  or  less  legendary,  of  Manasseh  and  his  conversion, 
from  which  the  prayer  may  possibly  have  been  an  ex- 
cerpt, preserved  for  devotional  iiurposes  (it  appears  for 
the  first  time  in  the  Apostolical  Constitutions)  when  the 
rest  was  rejected  as  worthless.  Scattered  here  and  there, 
we  find  the  disjecta  membra  of  such  a  work.  Among  the 
offences  of  Manasseh,  the  most  prominent  is  that  he 
places  in  the  sanctuary  an  uya\f^ia  rtrpaTrporrMTrov  of 
Zeus  (Suidas,  s.  v.  Mavairtrijt; ;  Georg.  Syncellus,  C//?-o- 
no(jraph.  i,  404).  The  charge  on  which  he  condemns 
Isaiah  to  death  is  that  of  blasphemy,  the  words  "  I  saw 
the  I/ord"  (Isa.  vi,  1)  being  treated  as  a  presumptuoufl 
boast  at  variance  with  Exod.  xxxiii,  20  (Nic.  de  Lyra, 
from  a  Jewish  treatise:  Jehamoth,  quoted  by  Amama, 
in  Crit.  Sacri  on  2  Kings  xxi).  Isaiah  is  miraculously 
rescued.  A  cedar  opens  to  receive  him.  Then  comes 
the  order  that  the  cedar  should  be  sawn  througli  (ibid.). 
That  which  made  this  sin  the  greater  was  that  the 
king's  mother,  Hcphzibah,  was  the  daughter  of  Isaiah. 
When  Manasseh  was  taken  captive  by  IMerodach  and 
taken  to  Babylon  (Suidas),  he  was  thrown  into  prison 


MANASSEH  B.-JOS.  B. -ISRAEL     696 


MANASSES 


and  fell  daily  with  a  scanty  allowance  of  bran-bread  and 
water  mixed  with  vinot;ar.  Then  came  his  condemna- 
tion, lie  was  encased  in  a  brazen  image  (the  descrip- 
tion suggests  a  punishment  like  that  of  the  bidl  of  Pe- 
rillus),  but  he  repented  and  prayed,  and  the  image  clave 
asunder,  and  he  escaped  (Suidas  and  Georg.  SynceUus). 
"And  the  Lord  heard  the  voice  of  Manasses  and  pitied 
him,"  tlie  legend  continues,  "  and  there  catne  around 
him  a  tinme  of  tire,  and  all  the  irons  about  him  (r«  ■iripi 
avTui'  aici}pa)  were  melted,  and  the  Lord  delivered  him 
out  of  his  affliction"  (Const.  A  post,  ii,  22;  compare  Jul. 
Afric.  aj).  Routh,  Eel.  fSnc.  ii,  288).  Then  he  returned 
to  Jerusalem  and  lived  righteously  and  justly. 

4.  An  Israelite  of  the  descendants  (or  residents)  of 
rahath-moab,  who  repudiated  his  foreign  wife  after  the 
exile  ( Ezra  x,  30).     B.C.  459. 

5.  Another  Israelite  of  Hashun  who  did  the  same 
(Ezra  X,  33).     B.C.  459. 

Manasseh  ben-Joseph  ben-Israel,  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  Jewish  theologians  of  the  17th  ceii- 
turj',  was  born  at  Lisbon,  Portugal,  in  1604,  at  a  time 
when  the  Iberian  peninsula  was  a  place  of  torture  for 
all  non-Koman-Catholic  believers,  but  more  particularly 
the  Jews.  Joseph,  his  father,  a  rich  merchant,  feared 
the  power  of  the  inquisitors,  and,  like  many  religiously 
liersecutetl,  turned  towards  hospitable  Holland  for  an 
asylum  for  himself  and  his  family.  The  household 
found  a  safe  home  in  Amsterdam,  and  when  yet  a  youth 
ben-Joseph  was  placed  under  the  instruction  of  the  cel- 
ebrated Isaac  Uzziel,  then  rabbi  at  the  Dutch  capital. 
So  rapid  was  his  progress  and  so  luibounded  the  confi- 
dence of  the  Jews  of  Amsterdam  in  jNLniasseh  ben-Is- 
rael, as  he  is  commonly  called,  that  on  the  death  of  Uz- 
ziel, when  only  eighteen  years  old  (lt)22),  he  was  deem- 
ed a  worthy  successor  of  the  departed  rabbi.  In  1020, 
in  need  of  means  to  meet  the  expenses  of  his  father's 
family,  largely  dependent  upon  him  for  support,  he  es- 
tablislied  the  celebrated  "  Amsterdam  Hebrew  printing- 
office."  Two  years  later  he  printed  his  own  maiden 
production,  and  in  1032  finally  came  before  the  public 
with  the  tirst  volume  of  his  great  and  justly  celebrated 
Conciliator,  or  Ilarmontj  of  the  Pentateuch  (see  below), 
in  which  upwards  of  two  hundred  and  ten  Hebrew  works, 
and  tifty-four  (ireek,  Latin,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese  au- 
thors, both  sacred  and  profane,  are  quoted.  His  fame 
^vas  now  established  in  all  Europe,  and  his  authority  ac- 
cepted not  only  by  the  Jews,  but  even  Christian  scholars 
acknowledged  his  scholarship,  and  wrote  to  him  from  far 
and  wide,  requesting  explanations  of  difficulties  which 
they  encountered  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  and  Jewish 
history.  The  celebrated  Vossius,  Dionysins,  lingo  Gro- 
tius,  Iluet,  Episcopus,  Sobierre,  Frankenberg,  Thomas 
Fuller,  Nathaniel  Homesius,  etc.,  were  among  his  corre- 
spondents. He  solicited  their  influence  in  behalf  of  his 
suffering  brethren,  and  was  thereby  enabled  to  petition 
the  Long  Parliament  (1050)  to  readmit  the  Jews  into 
EnglantI,  whence  they  had  been  expelled  ever  since 
1290.  Shortly  after,  he  dedicated  The  Hope  of  Israel  to 
the  English  Parliament,  which  was  gratefully  acknowl- 
edged in  a  letter  written  by  lord  Middlesex,  addressed 
To  mij  dear  brother  M.  B.  I.,  the  Ilehrein  philosopher. 
Encouraged  thereby,  -Manasseh  came  over  to  England  in 
1055;  presented  ''A  Humble  Address"  in  behalf  of  his 
coreligionists  to  Cromwell;  published  in  London,  1656, 
his  Viiiilicatian  of  Jews,  in  answer  to  those  Christians 
■\iho  r>])piisod  the  readmission  of  Jews  into  that  country; 
autl  though  Cromwell,  with  all  his  power,  could  not  car- 
ry thniugli  the  measure  permitting  Jews  to  settle  m 
England  (see  .li;ws\  he  granted  to  M.anasseh  ben-Is- 
rael a  pension  of  £100  per  annum,  iiayable  quarterly,  and 
commencing  Feb.  20, 1650  (comp.  Carlyle,  ii,  103).  Ma- 
nasseh, however,  did  not  long  enjoy  this  generQus  gift, for 
he  died  in  Middleburg  in  1657,  on  his  way  back  to  Am- 
sterdam. Griitz  (Cesch.  (I.  Jiitlen,  K,  13,  m^HO)  rather 
belittles  Manasseh's  literary  ability.  lie  regards  him  as 
"a  man  of  much  inforuialimi.  but  of  little  lliounbt."  and 
yet  his  accjuaintance  with  Manasseh  is  founded  mainly  on 


Kayserling's  biography.  An  encyclopa?dical  knowledge 
was  displayed  by  Manasseh  in  his  writings;  this  should 
certainly  not  stand  against  him.  His  most  important 
works  are  (1.)  nsi  ^DS,  in  Hebrew,  being  an  index  to 
all  the  passages  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  in  the  Jllid- 
rash  Rahhoth  on  the  Pentateuch  and  the  Five  Megil- 
loth  (Amsterdam,  1628)  ;  (2.)  Conciliator,  sive  de  con- 
venientia  locorum  S.  ScripturcE,  qum  pugnure  inter  se  vi- 
dentur,  etc.  (in  Spanish,  Amst.  1632-1651,  4  vols.;  vol.  i 
was  translated  into  Latin  by  Vossius,  Arast.  1633,  and 
the  whole  into  English  by  Lindo,  London,  1842)  ;  (3.) 
De  Creatione  Prohlemata  (in  Spanish,  Amsterd.  1635) ; 
(4.)  De  Resurrcctione  Mortuomm,  Libri  tres  (in  Span- 
ish, Amsterd.  1636) ;  (5.)  Qiinn  "111::,  De  Termiiio 
Vitce  (in  Latin,  Amsterd.  1639 ;  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  Thomas  Pococke,  Lond.  1699) ;  (6.)  Ci'^n  rTSTJ, 
four  books  on  the  immortality  of  the  soul  (written  in 
Hebrew,  Amst,  1651 ;  new  ed.  Leips.  1862.  These  are 
valuable  contributions  to  Biblical  literature,  inasmuch 
as  IManasseh  gives  in  them  all  the  passages  from  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures  which,  according  to  the  explanations 
of  the  ancient  rabbins,  teach  the  immortality  of  the  soul 
and  the  resurrection) ;  (7.)  mp"^  'f^ii,Piedra  Gloriosa 
0  de  la  Estatua  de  Nehuchadnesar  (Amst.  1655),  an  ex- 
position of  Daniel's  dream,  written  in  Spanish,  which 
the  immortal  Kembrandt  did  not  think  it  below  his  dig- 
nity to  adorn  with  four  engravings.  He  also  carried 
through  his  own  press  several  beautiful  and  correctly- 
printed  editions  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures;  wrote  a  He- 
brew grammar,  entitled  il"l1"i3  tlS'iU,  Grammatica  Ile- 
brea,  diridida  en  quatuor  libros,  which  has  not  as  yet 
been  published ;  and  left  us  over  four  hundred  well-writ- 
ten sermons  in  Portuguese.  See  Flirst,  Biblioth.  Jiid.  ii, 
354-358 ;  Steinschneider,  Cataloejus  Libr.  Ilebr.  in  Bibli- 
otheca  Bodleiana,  col.  1645-1652 ;  and  especiallj'  the  val- 
uable biographies  by  Kayserling,  Jahi-buch  fiir  die  Ge- 
schichte  der  Jiiden  (Leipz.  1861),  ii,  85  sq. ;  and  by  Car- 
moly,  in  the  Revue  Orientale  (Bruxelles,  1842),  p.  299- 
348 ;  C.  D.  Ginsburg,  in  Kitto,  iii,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog.  Generale,  xxxiii,  145  sq. 

Manas'ses  {Mavaaar)c),  the  Greek  form  of  the 
name  Manasseh,  and,  as  such,  a]ii)lied  not  only  to  those 
mentioned  in  the  O.  T.,  but  to  another  in  the  Apocrypha. 

1.  The  son  of  Joseph  by  that  name  (Rev.  vii,  0). 

2.  The  king  of  Judah"(Matt.  i,  10;  and  so  in  "the 
Prayer"  thus  entitled). 

3.  One  of  the  sons  of  Hashum  (1  Esdr.  ix,  33;  comp. 
Ezra  X,  33). 

4.  A  wealthy  inhabitant  of  Bethulia,  and  husband  of 
Judith,  according  to  the  legend.  He  was  smitten  with 
a  sunstroke  while  superintending  the  laborers  in  his 
fields,  leaving  Judith  a  widow  with  great  possessions 
(Jud.  viii,  2, 7 ;  x,  3 ;  xvi,  22-24),  and  was  buried  between 
Dothan  and  Baal-hamon Smith.     See  Ji;dith. 

MANASSES,  The  PRAYER  of,  one  of  the  shorter 
apocrj'phal  pieces  appended  to  the  O.  T.  (In  the  fol- 
lowing account  we  mainly  follow  the  articles  on  the 
subject  in  Kitto  and  Smith's  Dictionaries.)  Though 
wanting  in  the  early  printed  editions  of  the  Sept.,  it 
must  have  been  included  in  the  ancient  i\ISS.  of  the 
Sept.,  as  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  there  exists  an 
Ante-Hieronymian  Latin  version  of  it.  It  is  found  in 
the  Codex  Alexandrinus,  and  the  Greek  text  was  first 
published  in  Robert  Stephens'  edition  of  the  Biblia  La- 
tina  (Paris.  1540),  and  in  the  edition  of  the  same  printed 
in  1546.  It  was  also  printed  in  the  Apostolical  Consti- 
tutions in  1563;  it  v.as  then  publisheii  by  Dauderstadt 
in  1628:  inserted  in  the  fourtl)  volume  of  the  London 
Polyglot,  with  the  various  readings  of  the  Codex  Alex- 
andrinus, in  the  Apostolical  Fathers  of  Cotelerius  in 
1672;  in  the  Lihri  apocr.  V.  T.  (Francof.  ad  j\L  1694, 
Halle,  1749) ;  in  the  editions  of  the  Apocrypha  by  Rei- 
neccius  (1730),  ^Michaelis  (1741);  and  after  the  text  of 
the  Cod.  Alexandrinus  in  the  editions  of  the  Sept.  by 
Grabe  and  Breitinger. 


MANASSES 


697 


MAND^ANS 


I.  THh  and  Position. — This  apocryphal  production  is 
called  the  prayer  oj'  j)fanasses  (irpoafvxi)  Maiaacri)), 
or  hi/mn  of  prayer  ( Trpo(Ttv\i]  rye  tiioijc),  because  it  pur- 
ports to  be  the  supplications  which  this  monarch  oft'ered 
to  God  when  captive  in  Babylon,  mentioned  in  2  Chron. 
xxxiii,  12, 13.  Its  position  varies  in  the  MSS.,  printed 
editions  of  the  text,  and  in  tlie  versions.  It  is  more 
generally  api)ended  to  the  Psalter  with  the  collection  of 
hymns  and  prayers,  as  in  the  Codex  Alexandrinus,  the 
Zurich  MS.  of  the  Psalms  mentioned  by  Fritzsche,  and 
in  the  Ethiopia  Psalter,  published  by  Ludolf  (Frankfort- 
on-the-Main,  1701);  in  the  three  Latin  MSS.  used  by 
Sabatier  it  is  placed  at  the  end  of  2  Chron.  (Sabat.  Bibl. 
Lat.  iii,  1038) ;  in  the  editions  of  the  Vuli;;ate  formed 
after  the  Trident.  Canon  of  the  Bible  it  is  usually  put  at 
the  end  of  the  N.  T.,  succeeded  by  the  third  and  fourth 
books  of  Esdras.  Luther  placed  it  as  the  last  of  the 
Apocr\'pha,  at  the  end  of  the  O.  T.,  while  IMatthew's  Bi- 
ble, wliich  first  inserted  it  among  the  Apocrypha,  and 
wliich  is  followed  bj'  the  Bishop's  Bible  and  the  A.  V., 
puts  it  before  the  Maccabees. 

II.  Contents,  Author,  Bate,  Original  Lanr/uaf/e,  etc. — It 
opens  witli  an  appeal  to  the  God  of  the  faithful  patri- 
archs and  their  righteous  seed,  describes  his  greatness  as 
Creator  of  all  things,  before  whose  power  every  one 
trembles,  and  whose  wrath  no  sinner  can  endure,  and 
speaks  of  his  proffered  pardon  to  the  penitent  (ver. 
1-8).  Thereupon  the  repentant  king  confesses  his  sins, 
humbles  himself  on  account  of  them,  praj-s  for  pardon, 
and  promises  to  lead  a  life  of  gratitude  and  praise  (ver. 
9-15). 

Many  writers  have  seen  nothing  in  this  prayer  to 
militate  against  its  being  the  penitential  dirge  of  the 
penitent  Manasseh ;  on  the  contrary,  they  think  that 
the  simplicity  and  appropriateness  of  its  style,  the  ear- 
nest and  touching  manner  in  which  it  is  expressed,  go 
far  to  show  that  if  it  is  not  literally  "  his  prayer  unto  his 
God"  rendered  into  Greek,  that  prayer  formed  the  basis  of 
the  Greek.  It  is,  indeed,  certain  that  the  prayer  was  stiU 
extant  when  the  Chronicles  were  compiled,  that  the 
chronicler  saw  it  "  in  the  book  of  the  Kings  of  Israel"  (2 
Chron.  xxxiii,  18),  and  that  later  writers,  as  well  as  tra- 
dition, constantly  refer  to  it  (compure  Sanheclrin, 101, h; 
lOo,  a;  Jerusalem  Satihedrin  xvii;  Midi-ash  Rabboth  on 
Lev.,  Parsha  xxx,  p.  150 ;  on  Deut.,  Parsha  ii,  or  ch.  iv, 
25,  p.  216,  ed.Sulzbach ;  Chaldee  Paraphi-ase  of  2  Chron. 
xxxiii,  11,  etc. ;  Const.  Apost.\i,2i).  We  may  more  rea- 
sonably conclude,  however,  that  it  is  hut  the  embodi- 
ment of  these  traditions.     See  Manasseh,  3. 

The  Greek  text  is  undoubtedly  original,  and  not  a 
mere  translation  from  the  Hebrew,  for  even  within  the 
small  space  of  fifteen  verses  some  pccidiarities  are  found 
{drjTiKTOc.  KXivtiv  -yoi'v  Kapciac,  ~npof)yiZfiv  -ov  Bv- 
pov,  ri^eaBai  ptruvoiav  Tin).  The  writer  was'well 
acfiuaiutcd  with  the  Sept.  (rci  Karwrara  tiiq  yijc,  70 
Tr\))io(;  rj/r  Yp?j(Tror7;-()f  croc,  Troca  //  ccrojuic  ruir  ov- 
pai'tui'),hut  beyond  this  there  is  nothing  to  determine 
the  date  at  which  he  lived.  The  allusion  to  the  patri- 
archs (ver.  8,  oimioi ;  ver.  1,  70  a-rrtpf^a  aii-wji  to  ItKa- 
lav)  appears  to  fix  the  authorship  on  a  Jew,  but  the 
clear  teaching  on  repentance  points  to  a  time  certainly 
not  long  before  the  Christian  era.  There  is  no  indica- 
tion of  the  place  at  which  the  prayer  was  written.  All 
that  we  know  is  that  reference  is  made  to  it  in  a  frag- 
ment of  .Julius  Africanus  (circa  A.D.  221),  that  it  is  given 
at  length  in  the  Apostolical  Constitutions  (ii, 22),  a  work 
attributed  to  Clemens  Itomanus,  but  generality  believed 
to  be  of  the  3d  or  4th  century,  and  that  the  whole  com- 
plexion of  it  shoAvs  it  to  be  an  ante-Christian  produc- 
tion, coinpiled  most  probably  in  the  first  century  B.C. 
Tlie  Latin  translation  which  occurs  in  Vulgate  MSS.  is 
not  by  the  hand  of  Jerome,  and  has  some  remarkable 
phrases  {insustentabilis,  importabilis  [ o}/!i7r<')(T7a70c  J ,  om- 
nis  virtus  ccelorum),  but  there  is  no  sufficient  internal 
evidence  to  show  whether  it  is  later  or  earlier  than  his 
time.  It  does  not,  however,  seem  to  have  been  used  by 
any  Latin  writer  of  the  first  four  centuries,  and  was  not 


known  to  Victor  Tunonensis  in  the  sixth  (Ambrosius,  iv, 
989,  ed.Migne). 

III.  Cunouicity. — This  prayer  was  considered  by  many 
of  the  ancients  as  genuine,  and  used  as  such  for  ecclesias- 
tical purposes.  It  is  quoted  as  such  by  the  author  of  the 
Sermons  on  the  Pharisee  and  Publican ;  in  the  sixth  vol- 
ume of  Chrysostom's  works ;  by  Anthony  the  monk  (ii, 
94) ;  Theodore  Studita  {Serm.  Catachet.  93)  ;  Theopha- 
nes  Ceramajus  (Homil.  ii  and  hi) ;  by  Freculfus,  George 
Syncellus,  and  George  the  siinier,  in  their  Chronicles ;  by 
Suidas  (Lex.  s.  v.  Maraa<j)~ic) ;  and  by  Anastasius  Sina- 
ita  (in  Psalm  vi) ;  and  is  still  placed  by  the  modern 
Greeks  in  their  Psalter  along  with  the  other  hymns 
(Leo  Allatilis,  JJe  lib.  Ecclesiust.  Grcecorum,  p.  62).  But 
the  fact  of  its  non-occurrence  in  the  Ileb.  text,  and  its 
uniform  rejection  by  the  Jewish  Church,  clearly  stamp 
it  as  apocrj^phal.  It  was  never  recognised  in  the  Ro- 
man Church  as  canonical,  and  has,  therefore,  been  omit- 
ted in  the  ancient  editions  of  the  Sept.  For  this  reason 
it  is  also  omitted  from  the  Zurich  Version,  and  Cover- 
dale's  Bible,  which  follows  it,  as  well  as  from  the  Geneva 
Version ;  but  is  retained  among  the  Apocrypha  in  Lu- 
ther's translation,  Matthew's  Bible,  and  in  the  Bishop's 
Bible,  and  thence  passed  over  into  the  A.V. 

IV.  Versions  and  Exegetical  Helps. — Greek  and  Latin 
metrical  versions  of  this  prayer  have  been  reprinted  by 
Fahricius,  in  liis  edition  of //;c  boolx:s  of  Sirach,  Wisdom, 
Judith,  and  Tobit  ( Leipz.  1691).  A  Hebrew  version  of 
it  is  mentioned  by  Wolf,  Bibliotheca  I/ebreea,  i,  778  ;  a 
very  beautiful  Hebrew  version,  with  valuable  notes,  is 
firinted  in  the  Hebrew  Annual,  entitled  Bihire  ]la-Itim 
(Vienna,  1824),  v,  12  sq. ;  important  litorarj-  notices  are 
given  by  Fahricius,  Coc/ea:;  Pseudepigraphiis  V.  T.  i,  1100 
sq. ;  Bibliotheca  Grceca  (ed.  Harles),  iii,732  sq. ;  Miiller, 
Erkldrung  des  Gebet  Manasse  (Salzwedel,  1733) ;  and  es- 
pecially Fritzsche,  Kurz(,efasstcs  exegetisches  Bandbuch 
z.  d.  Apoh-yphen  d.  A.  T.  i,  157  sq.  (Leips.  1851),  See 
Apockypha. 

Manas'site  ("'vU3^,  Menassi',  patronymic  from 
IManasseh,  used  collectively;  Sept.  Mai'aum),  Auth. 
Vers.  "Manassites,"  "of  Manasseh"),  a  descendant  of 
Manasseh,  or  a  member  of  that  tribe  (Deut.  iv,  43; 
xxix,  8  ;  2  Kings  x,  33 ;  1  Chron.  xxvi,  32). 

Manby,  Peter,  an  Irish  theologian,  was  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  became  chaplain  to  Dr.  !Mi- 
chael  Boyle,  afterwards  archbishop  of  Dublin,  and  at 
length  dean  of  Per^A^  In  the  reign  of  James  II  he  em- 
braced the  popish  religion,  in  vindication  of  which  he 
wrote  several  books ;  then  removed  to  France,  thence  to 
England,  and  died  at  London  in  1697.  IManb}-  pidjlished 
several  controversial  tracts  in  favor  of  the  Itonian  Cath- 
olic religion. — Hook,  Eccles.  Biog.  vii,  214,  s.  v. 

Manchet  is  a  name  given  in  the  16th  century  to 
the  wafer  used  in  the  mass. — Walcott, /S(/c.j4  rchceol.s.v. 

Manchuria.     See  Mantchuria. 

Mancius,  George  AVioielmus,  one  of  the  promi- 
nent ministers  of  the  Eeformed  Church  in  America,  and 
a  sturdy  opposer  of  the  movements  for  securing  its  in- 
dependence of  the  Church  in  Holland.  He  was  settled 
in  Bergen  County,  N.  J.,  at  Schraalcnbergh  and  Para- 
mus  (1730-32),  and  at  Kingston,  N.  Y.  (1732-56  or  '59). 
He  possessed  much  ability  and  learning,  but  it  was  al- 
leged that  "consciences  slumbered"  under  his  orthodox 
preaching.  His  friends,  however,  claim  that  his  manu- 
script sermons  show  him  to  have  been  "a  faithful, 
learned,  industrious,  and  zealous  preacher  of  the  Gospel, 
one  who  did  not  fear  to  declare  the  whole  counsel  of 
God ;  and  that  it  was,  on  the  other  hand,  his  opposition 
to  an  illiterate  ministry  and  to  heresy,  his  independence 
in  reproving  vice,  and  his  general  zeal  and  fidelity 
wliich  induced  certain  of  his  enemies  to  misrepresent 
him."  He  left  420  members  in  full  communion  of  his 
Church.  He  died  Sept.  6, 1762.  See  Corwin's  Maiiual 
of  the  Reformed  Church,  p.  150.     (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

Maiidaeans.     See  Mendjeans. 


MANDATA  DE  PROVIDENDO     098 


MANDINGO 


Mandata  de  Providendo.     See  Expectantia. 

Mandeville,  Bernard  de,  a  sceptical  writer  in 
the  Eiiglisli  tongue,  was  born  of  French  extraction  about 
1G70  at  Dort,  Holland,  and  went  to  England  near  the 
opening  of  the  18tli  centiir}%  He  practiced  medicine 
in  London,  but  does  not  appear  to  have  had  much  suc- 
cess as  a  physician,  and  depended  mainly  on  his  literary 
activity  for  the  means  of  support.  He  died  in  1733.  In 
the  article  Deism  (q.  v.)  the  name  of  Mandeville  has 
not  been  inserted  "because  his  speculations"  (see  works 
below),  as  Farrar  says  (Ci-it.  IJisf.  of  Free  Thought,  p. 
135,  note  Go ),  "  did  not  bear  directly  on  religion."  Upon 
morality,  however,  jNIandeville  exerted  so  great  an  in- 
tiuence  that  we  cannot  pass  him  unnoticed.  His  attacks 
on  Christian  morals  already  reveal  him  to  have  been  a 
champion  of  Deism.  The  doctrines  laid  down  in  several 
of  his  works  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  a  further  elu- 
cidation of  the  assertion  of  Bayle  (in  Pensees  diverses), 
that  Atheism  does  not  necessarily  make  man  vicious, 
nor  a  state  unhappy, -because  dogmas  have  no  influence 
on  the  acts  of  men.  Superficial  observation  of  society 
led  Mandeville  to  the  belief  that  many  institutions  of 
public  weal  derive  their  strength  and  support  from  pre- 
vailing immorality.  This  view  he  developed  in  a  poem 
entitled  The  GrumhUng  Hive,  or  Knaves  turned  Honest 
(1714),  to  which  he  afterwards  added  long  explanatory 
notes,  and  then  published  the  whole  under  the  new  title 
of  The  Fable  of  the  Bees.  However  erroneous  may  be 
its  views  of  morals  and  of  socifltj^,  it  bears  all  the  marks 
of  an  honest  and  sincere  inquiry  on  an  important  sub- 
ject. It  exposed  Mandeville,  however,  to  much  oblo- 
quy, and,  besides  meeting  with  many  answers  and  at- 
tacks, was  denounced  as  injurious  to  morality.  It  would 
appear  that  some  of  the  hostility  against  this  work,  and 
against  Mandeville  generally,  is  to  be  traced  to  another 
publication,  recommending  the  public  licensing  of  stews, 
the  matter  and  manner  of  which  are  certainly  excep- 
tionable, though  it  must  at  the  same  time  be  stated  that 
Mandeville  earnestly  and  with  seeming  sincerity  recom- 
mends his  plan  as  a  means  of  diminisliing  immorality, 
and  that  he  endeavored,  so  far  as  lay  in  his  power,  by 
atHxing  a  high  price  and  in  other  ways,  to  prevent  the 
work  from  having  a  general  circulation.  Mandeville 
subsequently  published  a  second  part  of  The  Fable  of  the 
Bees,  and  several  other  works,  among  which  are  t^vo 
entitled  Free  Thoughts  on  Religion,  the  Church,  and  Na- 
tional Happiness,  and  An  Inquiry  into  the  Origin  of 
Honor  and  the  Usefulness  of  Christianity  in  War.  "  The 
Fable  of  the  Bees,  or  Pi-ivate  Vices  Public  Benefits,  may 
be  viewed  in  two  ways,  as  a  satire  on  men  and  as  a  the- 
ory of  society  and  national  prosperity.  So  far  as  it  is  a 
satire,  it  is  sufficiently  just  and  pleasant;  but  viewed  in 
its  more  ambitious  character  of  a  theory  of  society,  it  is 
altogether  worthless.  It  is  Mandeville's  object  to  show 
that  national  greatness  depends  on  the  prevalence  of 
fraud  and  luxury;  and  for  this  purpose  he  supposes  a 
'vast  hive  of  bees,'  possessing  in  all  respects  institutions 
similar  to  those  of  men;  he  details  the  various  frauds, 
similar  to  those  among  men,  practiced  by  bees  one  upon 
another  in  various  professions ;  he  shows  how  the  wealth 
accumulated  by  means  of  these  frauds  is  turned,  through 
luxurious  habits,  to  the  good  of  others,  who  again  prac- 
tice their  frauds  upon  the  wealthy;  and,  having  already 
assumed  that  wealth  cannot  be  gotten  without  fraud 
and  cannot  exist  without  luxury,  he  assumes  further 
that  wealth  is  the  only  cause  and  criterion  of  national 
greatness.  His  hive  of  bees  having  tluis  become  wealthy 
and  great,  he  afterwards  sui)p<>ses  a  mutual  jealousy  of 
frauds  to  arise,  and  fraud  to  be  by  common  consentdis- 
missed;  and  he  again  assumes  that  wealth  and  luxury 
immediately  disappear,  and  that  the  greatness  of  the 
society  is  gone.  It  is  needless  to  point  out  inconsisten- 
cies and  errors,  such,  for  nistance,  as  the  absence  of  all 
distinction  between  luxury  and  vice,  when  the  whole 
theory  rests  ujion  obviously  false  assumptions;  and  the 
long  dissertations  ap|)cudeil  to  the  fable,  however  amus- 
ing and  full  of  valuable  remarks,  contain  no  attempts  to 


establish  by  proof  the  fundamental  points  of  the  theon,'. 
In  an  'In(iuiry  into  the  (Jrigin  of  Moral  Distinctions,' 
contained  in  The  Fable  q/7/(f  yiee*-,  Mandeville  contends 
that  virtue  and  vice,  and  the  feelings  of  moral  approba- 
tion and  disapprobation,  have  been  created  in  men  by 
their  several  governments,  for  the  purpose  of  maintain- 
ing society  and  preserving  their  own  power.  Incredi- 
ble as  it  seems  that  such  a  proposition  as  this  should  be 
seriously  put  forth,  it  is  yet  more  so  that  it  should  come 
from  one  whose  professed  object  was,  however  strange 
the  way  in  which  he  set  about  it,  to  promote  good  mor- 
als ;  for  there  is  nothing  in  Mandeville's  writings  to 
warrant  the  belief  that  he  sought  to  encourage  vice" 
{Fnglish  Cyclop,  s.  v.).  This  book  was  translated  into 
French,  as  well  as  the  other  writings  of  Mandeville,  and 
contributed  in  no  small  degree  to  the  corruption  of 
French  society,  and  helped  forward  the  sad  days  of  the 
Revolution.  Schlosser  (Hist,  of  the  I8th  and  I9th  Cent.) 
is  quite  severe  on  Mandeville.  He  says  that  "Mandeville 
was  a  man  wholly  destitute  of  morality,  and  without 
any  insight  into  the  nature  of  man  or  the  coimcction 
between  bodily  and  mental  soundness  and  well-being." 
See  Life  by  Dr.  Birch ;  Blackwood's  Magazine,  ii,  '208, 
442;  xxvii,  712;  Ailibone,  Bid.  of  B?it.a?id  A  me?:  A  u- 
thors,  s.  v. ;  Schrockh,  Kirchengeschichte  s.  d.  Ref  vi,  204 
sq. ;  Heiike,  Gesch. d.  christl.  Kirche,  vi,  85  sq.    (J.  H.  W.) 

Mandeville,  Henry,  D.D.,  a  (Dutch)  Reformed 
minister,  was  born  at  Kinderhook,  N.  Y.,  March  (!,  1804 ; 
graduated  at  Union  College  in  1826,  and  at  New  Bruns- 
wick Theological  Seminary  in  1829,  and  was  licensed  by 
the  Classis  of  Albany  in  1829.  His  ministry  was  chiefly 
spent  in  the  Reformed  Church  in  the  State  of  New  Yorl;, 
viz.,  at  Shawangunk,  1829-31;  Geneva,  1831-34 ;  Utica, 
1834-41.  From  1841  to  1849  he  was  professor  of  moral 
philosophy  and  belles-lettres  in  Hamilton  College,  N.  Y. 
While  in  this  position  he  published  several  valuable 
text-books  on  elocution  and  English  literature,  which 
evince  his  thorough  scholarship  and  "  aptness  to  teach." 
From  Hamilton  College  he  was  called  to  the  Govern- 
ment Street  Presbyterian  Church,  Mobile,  Ala.,  whore 
he  died  of  yellow  fever  in  1858.  Dr.  Mandeville  was  a 
man  of  large  frame,  imposing  presence,  and  cultivated 
manners.  He  was  a  brilliant  pulpit  orator,  a  powerful 
reasoner,  a  successful  preacher  and  professor,  and  a 
faithful  pastor.  He  gloried  in  the  cross  of  Christ,  and 
devoted  all  of  his  fine  powers  to  his  work.  His  i)ub- 
lished  address  on  the  Reflex  Influence  of  Fo7-eign  Mis- 
sions, which  was  deliverctl  before  the  Society  of  Inquiry 
of  tlie  Theological  Seminary  at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J., 
in  1847,  is  a  masterpiece  of  reasoning  and  eloquence, 
and  a  worthy  memorial  of  the  author's  genius,  piety, 
and  zeal.  —  Personal  Recollections ;  Corwin's  Manual,  s. 
V.     ( \V.  .1.  R.  T.) 

Mandingo  is  the  name  of  an  African  people,  the 
nation  of  the  Wangarawa — according  to  Barth,  com- 
prising some  6,000,000  or  more.  Strictly  speaking,  how- 
ever, Mandingoes  should  be  termed  onl_y  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  most  south-westerly  territories  belonging 
to  the  great  West  African  race  of  the  Wangarawa  (sing. 
Wangara),  and  inhabiting  a  district  extending  in  lat. 
from  8  to  12°  N.,  and  between  the  west  coasts  and  the 
head  waters  of  the  Senegal  and  Niger.  Their  original 
seat  is  said  to  be  Manding,  a  small  mountain  country 
on  the  eastern  sources  of  the  Senegal,  whence,  partly 
by  conquest  and  partly  by  emigration,  they  have  spread 
themselves  over  a  most  extensive  tract  of  country,  and 
now  consist  of  a  variety  of  tribes.  They  are  black  in 
color,  tall  and  well  shaiicd,  with  regular  features,  and 
are,  generally  speaking,  a  fine  race,  capable  of  a  high 
degree  of  civilization  and  organization,  great  travellers, 
fond  of  trading,  and  remarkable  for  their  industry  and 
energy.  The  language  of  the  Mandingo  prevails  from 
the  Senegal  coast  up  to  Sago  on  the  Niger.  A  gram- 
mar of  the  language  was  compiled  by  R.  Maxwell  Mac- 
brair  (Loud.  1837). 

Religious  Belief  etc.  —  Of  the  neighboring  nations, 
the  Mandingoes  were  the  first  who  embraced  Islamism. 


MANDRA 


699 


MANDRAKE 


The  greater  portion  of  them  are  now  ]\roslems,  and  are 
zealous  propagators  of  their  religion.  Those  of  the 
Mandingoes  adhering  to  their  primitive  religion  have 
a  very  peculiar  idea  of  marriage.  With  them  it  is 
merely  a  form  of  regulated  slavery,  and  there  is  no 
marriage  ceremony  observed  to  evince  union  (Caille, 
7'nici^/f,  i,  350).  Most  generally  the  female  partner  is 
carried  from  her  home  by  force  (Gray,  Travels  in  W. 
Africa,  p.  56).  They  have  also,  according  to  Park 
(7V«i'(-/i<,  i,267),avery  peculiar  idea  of  the  Deity,  whom 
they  regard  as  "so  remote,  and  of  so  exalted  a  nature, 
that  it  is  idle  to  imagine  the  feeble  supplications  of 
wretched  mortals  can  reverse  the  decrees  and  change 
the  purposes  of  unerring  wisdom."  Neither  do  they 
have  any  contidence  in  any  belief  in  the  hereafter,  of 
which  they  assert  that ''  no  man  knows  anything  about 
it." 

Mandra  (sheep/old),  a  name  given  to  a  monastery 
in  the  Greek  Church.     See  Akchimanduite. 

Mandrake  (only  in  the  plur.  D^^tl^'^,  dudaini', 
from  1^^,  to  be  hot,  from  their  amatory  properties; 
whence  the  sing.  ''^I^,  a  j)ot  or  boiling  vessel,  hence  a 
basket,  Jer.  xxiv,  1)  occurs  in  Gen.  xxx,  14-1(5 :  "  Reu- 
ben went  out  in  the  days  of  wheat  harvest,  and  found 
mandrakes  in  the  field,  and  brought  them  home  to  his 
mother  Leah.  Then  Kachel  said  to  Leah,  Ciive  me  of 
thy  son's  mandrakes  f'  "And  Jacob  came  out  of  the  held 
in  tlie  evening,  and  Leah  went  out  to  meet  him,  and 
said.  Thou  must  come  in  unto  me,  for  surely  I  have 
liired  thee  with  my  son's  mandrakes;  and  he  lay  with 
her  that  night."  The  only  other  passage  is  Cant,  vii, 
13  :  "  The  mandrakes  give  a  smell,  and  at  our  gates  are 
all  manner  of  pleasant  plants."  From  the  above  pas- 
sages it  is  evident  that  the  dudaim  were  collected  in  the 
fields,  that  they  were  tit  for  gathering  in  the  -wheat  har- 
vest in  Mesopotamia,  where  the  first  occurrence  took 
place ;  that  they  were  found  in  Palestine ;  that  they  or 
the  plants  which  yielded  them  diffused  a  peculiar  and 
agreeable  odor ;  and  that  they  were  supposed  to  be  pos- 
sessed of  aphrodisiac  powers,  or  of  assisting  in  producing 
conception.  It  is  possible  that  there  is  a  connection 
between  this  plant  and  the  love-charms  (C^'ITH)  which 
seem  to  have  been  worn  by  Oriental  brides  (Cant,  i,  2, 
4 ;  iv,  10 ;  vii,  12 ;  comp.  i,  12 ),  like  smelling-bottles  (Isa. 
iii,  20,  "  tablets") ;  perhaps  these  contained  an  odorifer- 
ous mandrake  philter.  From  this  it  is  manifest  that 
there  is  little  to  guide  us  in  determining  what  plant  is 
alluded  to  at  such  early  periods,  especially  as  no  similar 
name  has  been  recognised  in  any  of  the  cognate  lan- 
guages. Hence  interpreters  have  wasted  much  time 
and  pains  in  endeavoring  to  ascertain  what  is  intended 
bj^  the  Hebrew  word  dudaim.  Some  translate  it  by 
"violet,"  others  "lilies,"  "jasmins,"  "truffles  or  mush- 
rooms ;"  and  some  think  that  the  word  means  "  flowers," 
or  "  tine  Howers."  Bochart,  Calmet,  and  Sir  Thomas 
Browne  suppose  the  citron  intended;  Celsius  (  Uierobot. 
i,  20 ;  but  see,  on  the  contrary,  Oedmann,  p.  99 )  is  per- 
suaded that  it  is  the  fruit  of  the  lote-tree;  Hillcr  that 
cherries  are  spoken  of;  and  Ludolf  (Hist.  ^Eth.  i,  9,  etc.) 
maintains  that  it  is  the  fruit  which  the  Syrians  call 
mniiz  (tliat  is,  the  plantain),  resembling  in  figure  and 
taste  the  Indian  fig;  but  the  generality  of  interpreters 
and  commentators  understand  mandrakes  (  not  the  mel- 
on so  called,  "melo  dudaim,"  but  the  mandragora)  by 
dudaim.  The  ground  upon  which  the  mandragora  has 
been  preferred  is  that  the  most  ancient  Greek  trans- 
lator interprets  the  Hebrew  name  in  (ien,  xxx,  14  by 
mandrake  apples  (/(T/Art  pm'vpayopiot') ;  and  in  the 
Song  of  Solomon  by  mandrakes,  oi  /lavcpaynpai.  Sa- 
adias,  Gnkelos,  and  the  Syriac  Version  agree  with  the 
Greek  translators.  The  first  of  these  puts  hiffach ;  the 
two  latter  yabruchin,  which  names  denote  the  same 
plant  (Kosenmiiller,  Bib.  Bot.  p.  130,  and  note  ;  Castelli, 
Lexicon,  p.  1591).  The  earliest  notice  of  /mvcpayopac  is 
by  Hippocrates,  and  the  next  by  Theophrasfus  (Hist. 
Plant,  vi,  2).     Both  of  these,  C.  Sprengel  {Hist.  Rei. 


Herb,  i,  38,  82)  supposes,  intend  Atropa  mandragora. 
Dioscorides  (iv,  7G)  notices  three  kinds :  (1.)  the  female, 
which  is  supposed  to  be  the  Mandragoi-a  autumnalis  of 
Berloton ;  (2.)  the  male,  Mandragora  vernalis  of  the 
same  botanist  (these  two  are,  however,  usually  account- 
ed varieties  of  A  tropa  mandragora')  ;  (3.)  a  kind  called 
morion.  It  has  been  inferred  that  this  may  be  the  same 
as  the  mandragora  of  Theophrastus,  which,  by  some 
authors,  has  been  supposed  to  be  Atropa  belladonna. 
To  all  of  these  Dioscorides  ascribes  narcotic  properties, 
and  says  of  the  first  that  it  is  also  called  Circcea,  because 
it  appears  to  be  a  root  which  promotes  venery.  Pj'- 
thagoras  named  the  mandragora  anthropomorphon,  and 
Theophrastus,  among  other  qualities,  mentions  its  sopo- 
rific powers,  and  also  its  tendency  to  excite  to  love.  Its 
fruit  was  called  love-apple,  and  Venus  herself  Man- 
dragorites.  But  it  is  not  easy  to  decide  whether  the 
above  all  refer  to  the  same  plant  or  plants.  (See  Lu- 
cian,  Tim.  p.  2;  Pliny,  xxv,  94;  Apulaji,  Asin.  x,  233, 
Bip. ;  Schol.  at  Plat.  Rep.  vi,  411,  tom.  v.  Lips.;  Philo, 
Opp>.  ii,  478.)  Persian  authors  on  materia  medica  give 
7nadragoras  as  a  synonyme  for  yebruk,  or  yubruz,  which 
is  said  to  be  the  root  of  a  plant  of  which  the  fruit  is 
called  lufach.  This,  there  is  little  doubt,  must  be  the 
above  A  t>-opa  mandragora,  as  the  Arabs  usually  refer 
only  to  the  plants  of  Dioscorides,  and  on  this  occasion 
they  quote  him  as  well  as  Galen,  and  ascribe  narcotic 
properties  to  both  the  root  and  tlie  fruit.  D'Herbelot 
(Bibl.  Orient,  i,  72)  details  some  of  the  superstitious 
opinions  respecting  this  plant,  which  originated  in  the 
East,  but  which  continued  for  a  long  time  to  be  retailed 
by  authors  in  Europe.  (See  Schubert,  iii,  116;  Schulz. 
Leit.x,  197  ;  Burckhardt,  i,  441.)  By  the  Arabs  it  is  said 
to  be  called  tufuh  al-sheit an,  or  dexiVs  apple,  on  account 
of  its  power  to  excite  voluptuousness.  If  we  look  to  the 
works  of  more  modern  authors,  we  find  a  continuance  of 
the  same  statements.  Thus  Mariti,  in  his  Travels  (ii, 
195 ),  says  that  the  Arabs  called  the  mandrake  plant  ya- 
brochak,  which  is,  no  doubt,  the  same  name  as  given 
above.  "At  the  village  of  St,  John,  in  the  mountains, 
about  six  miles  south-v.  est  from  Jerusalem,  this  plant  is 
found  at  present,  as  well  as  in  Tuscany.  It  grows  low, 
like  lettuce,  to  which  its  leaves  have  a  strong  resem- 
blance, except  that  they  have  a  dark-green  color.  The 
flowers  are  purple,  and  the  root  is  for  the  most  part 
forked.  The  fruit,  when  ripe,  in  the  beginning  of  May, 
is  of  the  size  and  color  of  a  small  apple,  exceedingly 
ruddj',  and  of  a  most  agreeable  odor;  our  guide  thought 
us  fools  for  suspecting  it  to  be  unwholesome.  He  ate  it 
freely  himself,  and  it  is  generally  valued  by  the  inhab- 
itants as  exhilarating  to  their  spirits  and  a  provocative 
to  venerj-."  Maundrell  {Trav.  p.  83)  was  informed  by 
the  chief  priest  of  the  Samaritans  that  it  was  still  noted 
for  its  genial  virtues.  Hasselquist  also  seems  inclined  to 
consider  it  the  dudaim,  for,  when  at  Nazareth,  he  says 
{Trai'.i\.\8'd),  "What  I  found  most  remarkable  in  their 
villages  was  the  great  quantity  of  mandrakes  that  grew 
in  a  vale  below  it.  The  fruit  was  now  (May  16)  ripe. 
From  the  season  in  which  this  mandrake  blossoms  and 
ripens  its  fruit,  one  might  form  a  conjecture  that  it  is 
Rachel's  dudaim.  These  were  brought  her  in  the  wheat 
harvest,  Avhich  in  Galilee  is  in  the  month  of  May,  about 
this  time,  and  the  mandrake  was  now  in  fruit." — Kitfo. 
Dr.  Thomson  (Land  and  Book,  ii,  380)  found  mandrakes 
ripe  on  the  lower  ranges  of  Lebanon  and  Hermon  to- 
wards the  end  of  April.  On  the  15th  of  May,  Schulz 
also  found  mandrakes  on  Mount  Tabor,  which,  as  he 
says,  "  have  a  delightful  scent,  and  whose  taste  is  equal- 
ly agreeable,  although  not  to  every  body.  They  are 
almost  globular,  and  yellow  like  oranges,  and  about  two 
and  a  quarter  inches  in  diameter.  This  fruit  grows  on 
a  shrub  resembling  the  mallow  ;  and  the  fruit  lies  about 
the  stem,  as  it  were  about  the  root,  after  such  a  manner 
that  a  single  shrul)  may  have  six  to  ten  fruits,  of  which 
the  color  is  so  beautiful  tliat  no  orange  equals  its  brill- 
iancy." This  fruit,  which  a  recent  traveller  describes 
as  of  an  "  insipid,  sickish  taste,"  is  by  the  Arabs  of  other 


MANDRAKE 


TOO 


MANETHO 


regions  aUoi:jed  to  possess  strengthening  virtues,  when 
used  in  small  quantities,  hut  they  call  it  tujfuh  el-nwja- 
ni.m,  or  "  apjiles  of  the  possessed,"  owing  to  the  tempo- 
rary insanity  which  an  over-dose  produces.  "At  first," 
says  a  traveller,  "  I  felt  inclined  to  doubt  the  assertion, 
but  during  my  residence  in  the  country  I  had  the  op- 
portunity of  witnessing  its  etfect  on  an  English  travel- 
ler, a  Mr.  L.,  who  had  the  temerity  to  test  the  property 
of  the  mandrake.  A  few  hours  after  partaking  of  tlie 
root  he  began  to  show  unequivocal  symptoms  of  insan- 
ity ;  and  such  was  its  effect  on  the  nervous  system  that 
he  had  to  be  relieved  by  cupping  and  other  remedies 
before  he  could  be  restored  to  consciousness"  (Dupuis, 
IIoli/  Fuices  [18J6],  i,  272).  The  name  'Move-apple" — 
Gesenius's  translation  of  dudaim — was  formerly  in  this 
country  given  to  a  kindred  plant,  the  tomato  {Lycope?-- 
siciiin  esculentiun),  a  native  of  South  America,  but  now 
largely  cultivated  everywhere  for  its  agreeable  acidulous 
fruit.  "  From  a  certain  rude  resemblance  of  old  roots 
of  the  mandrake  to  the  human  form,  whence  Pythago- 
ras is  said  to  have  called  the  mandrake  aj'3pai7ro/[(op- 
(^ov,  and  Columella  (10,  19)  semikomo,  some  strange  su- 
perstitious notions  have  arisen  concerning  it.  Josephus 
(War,  vii,  6,  3)  evidently  alludes  to  one  of  these  super- 
stitions, though  he  calls  the  plant  haaras.  In  a  Vienna 
MS.  of  Dioscorides  is  a  curious  drawing  which  repre- 
sents Euresis,  the  goddess  of  discovery,  handing  to  Di- 
oscorides a  root  of  the  mandrake ;  the  dog  employed  f(ir 
the  purpose  is  depicted  in  the  agonies  of  death  (Daube- 
ny's  Rmnan  Ihishandry,  p.  275).  The  mandrake  is  foiind 
abundantly  in  the  Grecian  islands,  and  in  some  parts  of 
the  south  of  Europe.     The  root  is  spindle-shaped,  and 


Atropa  Mamlraiiora  OJficinarvm. 

often  divided  into  two  or  three  forks.  The  leaves, 
which  are  long,  sharp-pointed,  and  hairy,  rise  immedi- 
ately from  the  ground.  The  flowers  arc  dingv  white, 
stained  with  veins  of  purple.  The  fruit  is  of  apale  or- 
ange color,  and  about  the  size  of  a  nutmeg ;  but  it  would 
appear  that  the  ])lant  varies  considerably  in  appearance 
according  to  the  localities  where  it  grows.  The  man- 
ilrake  (A/rojxi  iniiiidrarjora)  is  closely  allied  to  the  well- 
known  deadly  nightshade  (.1.  bdkidomtd),  and  belongs 
to  the  order  SohimicvxK''  (Sipith).  See  Liebctantz,  Ik 
Rachdis  Dudaim  (Vitemb.  1702);  Simon,  De  D^XI^n 
etc.  (Halle,  17.35) ;  Ant.  l?ertolini,  Comment,  de  Mandra- 
f/oris  (Bol.  18.3G)  ;  Dougta-i  .l7^«fcf^  i,  35;  Velthuysen, 
Comment,  iib.  d.  Jlohelied,  p.  502 ;  Eichhorn,  Rej^ert.  xi. 


158;  Michaelis,  Siippl.  p.  410;  Oken,  LeJirb,  d.  Nnftirs- 
f/esc/i.  II,  ii,  333 ;  W.  Bickerton,  Dissertation  on  the  Man- 
drake of  the  Ancients  (Lond.  1737) ;  Tristram,  Nat.  Hist, 
of  Bible,  p.  466  sq. 

Mandyas  (fiavSuac),  a  vestment  of  the  Greek 
priests,  not  unlike  the  cope  of  the  Komanists,  but  with 
bells  at  the  lower  edges,  in  supposed  imitation  of  the 
Jewish  high-priest. 

Ma'neh  (nDTS,  manek',  Ezek.  xlv,  12,  a  piortion  as 
divided  by  weight ;  hence  the  Greek  p^va,  a  mina  ;  ren- 
dered "  pound"  in  1  Kings  x,  17  ;  Ezra  ii,  69 ;  Neh.  vii, 
21, 22),  a  weight  of  a  hundred  shekels,  as  we  gather  from 
1  Kings  X,  17  (compare  2  Chron.  ix,  16).  Another  and 
somewhat  obscure  specification  is  given  in  Ezek.  xlv, 
12,  "  twenty  shekels,  five  and  twenty  shekels,  fifteen 
shekels,  shall  be  your  maneh ;"  spoken  either  of  a  triple 
maneh  of  twenty,  twenty-jive,  and  fifty  shekels ;  or  of  a 
single  maneh  of  sixty  shekels,  distributed  into  three  parts 
of  fifteen,  twenty,  and  twenty-five.  There  are  other  ex- 
planations offered  (as  by  the  Chaldee  paraphrast,  by 
Jarchi,  J.  D. Michaelis,  and  others),  but  the  latter  is  gen- 
erally supposed  to  be  the  best.     See  Weights. 

Manetho  (Mai^e^iov  or  MaveBioc),  of  Sebenny- 
Tus,  a  distinguished  Egyptian  historian,  a  native  of 
Diospolis,  according  to  some,  or  of  Mende  or  Heliopolis, 
according  to  others,  is  said  to  have  lived  in  the  time  of 
Ptolemy  PhLladelphus,  and  to  have  been  a  man  of  great 
learning  and  wisdom  (/Elian,  Be  Animal,  x,  16).  He 
belonged  to  the  priestly  caste,  and  was  himself  a  priest, 
and  interpreter  or  recorder  of  religious  usages,  and  of 
the  religious  and  probably  also  historical  writings.  His 
name  has  been  interpreted  "  beloved  of  Thoth ;"  in  the 
son(j  of  Lagos  and  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  Mai  en  tef, 
or  3fa  Net,  "  beloved  of  Neith ;"  but  both  interpretations 
are  doubtful.  Scarcelj^  anything  is  known  of  the  history 
of  Jlanetho  himself,  and  he  is  more  renowned  for  his 
Egyptian  history  than  on  any  other  account.  On  the 
occasion  of  Ptolemy  I  dreaming  of  the  god  Serapis  at  Si- 
nope,  Manetho  was  considted  by  the  monarch,  and,  in 
conjiuiction  with  Timotheus  of  Athens,  the  interpreter 
of  the  Eleusinian  mysteries,  declared  the  statue  of  Sera- 
pis,  brought  by  orders  of  the  king  from  Sinope,  to  be 
that  of  the  god  Serapis  or  Pluto,  and  the  god  had  a  tem- 
ple and  his  worship  inaugurated  at  Alexandria.  It  ap- 
pears probable,  however,  that  there  were  more  than  one 
individual  of  this  name,  and  it  is  therefore  doubtful 
whether  all  the  works  which  were  attributed  by  ancient 
writers  to  iManetho  were  in  reality  MTitten  by  the  iMa- 
netho  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus. 
(See  below.) 

Writings. — The  only  work  of  Manetho  which  has 
come  down  to  us  complete  is  a  poem  of  six  books,  in 
hexameter  verse,  on  the  influence  of  the  stars  {aTzoriXi- 
a  par  IK  a),  which  was  first  published  by  Gronovius  (Ley- 
den,  1698),  and  has  also  been  edited  by  Axtius  and  Rig- 
ler  (Cologne,  1832).  It  is  probable,  however,  for  many 
reasons,  as  Hej'ne  has  shown  in  his  Opinscula  A  cademica 
(i,  95),  that  parts,  at  least,  of  this  poem  could  not  have 
been  written  till  a  much  later  date.  We  also  possess 
considerable  fragments  of  a  work  of  Manetho  on  the  his- 
tory of  the  ancient  kings  of  Egypt.  (See  below.)  It  was 
in  tliree  books  or  parts,  and  comprised  the  ]ieriod  from 
the  earliest  times  to  the  death  of  the  last  Persian  Darius. 
Some  of  these  fragments  are  preserved  in  the  treatise  of 
Josephus  against  Apion;  and  still  greater  portions  in  the 
"Chronicles"  of  George  Syncellus,  a  monk  of  the  9th 
century.  The  "  Chronicles"  of  Syncellus  were  jirinci- 
pally  compiled  from  the  "Chronicles"  of  Julius  Africanus 
and  Eusebius,  bishop  of  Cicsarea,  both  of  whom  made 
great  use  of  Manetho's  "History."  The  work  of  Afri- 
canus is  lost,  and  we  only  possess  a  Latin  version  of  that 
of  Eusebius,  which  was  translated  out  of  the  Armenian 
version  of  the  Greek  text  preserved  at  Constantinople. 
Manetho  is  said  to  have  derived  his  history  of  the  kings 
of  Egypt,  whom  he  divides  into  thirty  classes,  called  dy- 
nasties, from  the  sacred  records  in  the  temple  at  Heli- 


MANETHO 


vol 


MANETHO 


opolis.  In  addition  to  these  works,  Manetho  is  also  said 
to  have  written,  l,'l(pa  Bi'/iAor,  on  the  Egyptian  re- 
ligion; 2,  liepl  upxdiafiov  kch  tvatjinac,  on  the  an- 
cient rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  Egyptians;  3,  ^vaiKujv 
iiriTOfii]  (Laertius,  Proam.  s.  10),  probably  the  same 
work  as  that  called  by  Suidas  (pvmoXoytKu  ;  4,  Bi'/SAoc 
rjjc  Soi^Eoic,  both  the  subject  and  genuineness  of  which 
are  very  doubtful.  See  Smith,  JJict.  of  Or.  and  Rom. 
Biog.  s.  V. ;  English  Cychrpccdia,  s.  v.  His  name  is  in- 
troduced here  on  account  of  the  importance  of  his  work 
on  Egyi)tian  history  in  determining  the  list  of  ancient 
Egyptian  kings.  See  Egypt.  In  the  following  dis- 
cussion of  this  point  we  chietly  make  use  of  the  elabo- 
rate and  searching  article  on  the  subject  in  Kitto's  Cij- 
clopcdia,  s.  v. 

Authenticity  of  Manetho'' s  History. — Manetho  was  a 
learned  priest  at  the  court  of  the  first  Ptolemy,  accord- 
ing to  Plutarch  (de  Is.  et  Os.  c.  28),  who  cites  a  religious 
work  of  his  in  Greek,  which  is  quoted  also  under  vari- 
ous names  by  ^lian,  Diogenes  Liiertius,  Porphyry,  and 
other  late  writers  (Fruin,  Manethonis  Sehennytoe  lieli- 
quice,  p.  133  sq. ;  Parthey,  Plutarch  iiber  Isis  u.  Osiris,  p. 
180  sq.).  Josephus  (.-l^/jo/;,  i,  14-16,  26,  27)  gives  two 
long  extracts,  with  a  list  of  seventeen  reigns,  from  the 
Ai'yi^TrrioKw,  "a  work  composed  in  Greek  by  Manetho 
the  Sebennyte,from  materials  which  he  professes  to  have 
rendered  from  the  sacred  records  :"  of  which  history  all 
else  that  is  extant  is  a  catalogue  of  Egyptian  dynasties, 
preserved  in  two  widely  different  recensions  by  Geor- 
gius  SyncelluS,  A.D.  800 ;  the  one  from  the  lost  Chrono- 
grapkia  of  Julius  Africanus,  A.D.  220 ;  the  other  from 
the  Chronicon  of  Eusebius,  A.D.  325  (of  which  we  have 
now  the  Armenian  version) ;  both  texts  are  given  by 
Fruin,  and  by  Bunsen  in  the  appendix  to  Egypfs  Place, 
vol.  i.  The  statement  that  "Manetho  the  Sebennyte, 
of  Heliopolis,  high-priest  and  scribe  of  the  sacred  adyta, 
composed  this  work  from  the  sacred  records  by  com- 
mand of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,"  rests  only  on  the  dedi- 
cation (ap.  Syncell.)  prefixed  to  the  Sothis,  an  undoubt- 
ed forgery  of  Christian  times.  All  that  can  be  inferred 
from  it  is  that  the  forger  had  grounds,  good  or  bad,  for 
placing  Manetho  in  tlie  time  of  the  second  Ptolem3%  In 
fact,  the  incident  with  which  Plutarch  {ut  sup.')  con- 
nects his  name  (the  bringing  in  of  Serapis)  is  related 
by  other  writers  (icithout  mention  of  Manetho),  and  is 
assigned  by  Tacitus  also  {Hist,  iv,  183  sq.)  to  the  time 
of  the  first  Ptolemy ;  but  by  Clem.  Alex.  (Protrept.  iv, 
48)  and  Cyrill.  Al.  (c.  .Tulian.  p.  13)  to  Ptolemy  Phila- 
delphus, w"ith  the  date  01. 124  =  B.C.  284-1.  If  he  did 
live,  and  was  a  man  of  note,  under  the  early  Ptolemies, 
certain  it  is  that  "  this  most  distinguished  writer,  the 
sage  and  scholar  of  Egypt"'  (as  Bunsen  calls  him,  A  eg. 
St.  i,  88),  was  speedily  and  long  forgotten ;  for  more  than 
three  centuries  after  the  time  at  which  he  is  said  to 
have  flourished  not  a  trace  of  him  or  his  writings  is 
anywhere  discoverable.  Nothing  of  the  kind  occurs  in 
the  remains  of  the  Alexandrine  scholars,  the  early  Greek 
Jews,  Polyhistor's  collections,  or  the  chronological  writ- 
ings of  Castor.  That  the  Catalogue  of  Thirty-eight  The- 
han  Kings  (ap.  Syncell.)  is  the  work  of  Eratosthenes 
there  is  nothing  to  show ;  at  any  rate,  it  contains  no 
reference  to  jNIanetho.  If  it  was  from  Manetho  that 
Dicasarchas,  cir.  A.D.  290  (ap.  Schol.  in  Apollon.  Rhod.), 
got  his  two  Egyptian  names  and  dates,  it  was  m  quite 
another  form  of  the  work ;  to  the  scholiast,  Manetho  is 
an  unknown  name.  The  Egyptian  list  in  the  Excerpta 
Latiiio-harbara  of  Scaliger,  bearing  the  name  of  Castor, 
is  a  mere  abstract  from  Africanus.  Diodorus  Sic.  and 
Strabo  visited  and  wrote  about  Egypt,  yet  neither  of 
them  names  or  alludes  to  Manetho;  and  the  former 
gives  (i,44  sq.,  from  the  priests,  he  says)  an  account  of 
the  kingly  succession  altogether  diflferent  from  his.  If, 
as  Fruin  suggests  (p.  Ixiii) ,  it  was  through  measures 
taken  by  Domitian  to  repair  the  losses  sustained  by  the 
public  libraries  (Sueton.  Bom.  29)  that  Manetho's  works 
were  brought  to  Kome  from  the  Alexandrine  library, 
where  they  had  long  slumbered  unregarded,  still  it  is 


strange  that  the  uEgypiiaca  .should  have  caught  the  at- 
tention of  Josephus  alone  (among  extant  writers),  and 
that  neither  those  who,  as  Plutarch,  do  mention  the  oth- 
er work,  nor  others  who  have  occasion  to  speak  of  the 
ancient  times  of  Egypt,  as  Tacitus  and  the  elder  Pliny 
(esp.  //.  A',  xxxvi,  8-13),  ever  name  this  history,  or  show 
any  acquaintance  with  its  list  of  kings.  Lepsius  (Chron. 
der  Aeg.  i,  583  sq.)  better  meets  the  difficulty  by  sup- 
posing that  the  original  work,  never  widely  known,  was 
so  early  lost  that  even  in  the  1st  century  all  that  sur- 
vived of  it  was  a  bare  abstract  of  its  names  and  num- 
bers, and  (distinct  from  thi,s)  the  two  passages  relating 
to  the  "  Hyksos"  and  the  "  lepeis,''  with  the  accompany- 
ing list  of  seventeen  reigns,  which  some  Jewish  reader 
had  extracted  on  account  of  their  Biblical  interest,  and 
beyond  which  Josephus  knew  nothing  of  Blanetho. 
Whatever  be  the  explanation,  the  fact  is  that  it  is  only 
through  Jewish  and  Christian  writers  that  we  ever  hear 
of  Manetho  as  a  historian.  Of  these,  Theophilus  Ant. 
(ad  A  utolyc.  iii,  20,  cir.  A.D.  181)  does  but  copy  Josephus, 
Clemens  Alex,  nowhere  names  Manetho.  A  history  of 
"the  Acts  of  the  Kings  of  Egypt,  in  three  books" — not, 
however,  by  Manetho,  but  by  "  Ptolemy  the  Mendesian" 
— is,  indeed,  quoted  by  him  (Str-om.  i,  26,  101),  but  at 
second-hand  from  Tatian ;  who  again  (ad  Gerties,  p.  129), 
as  perhaps  Justin  Martyr  before  him  (ad  Gr.S),  quotes 
Ptolemj',  not  directly,  but  from  Apion.  In  short,  it  is 
plain,  on  comparing  these  passages  and  Euseb.  (I'r.  Er. 
X,  11,  12),  that  Apion  is  the  sole  source  of  all  that  is 
known  of  this  Ptolemj'  of  Jlendes;  and  Apion,  as  far  as 
we  know,  makes  no  mention  of  Manetho.  In  what  re- 
lation the  work  of  Ptolemy  may  have  stood  to  Mane- 
tho's, as  there  is  no  evidence  to  show,  it  is  idle  to  spec- 
ulate ;  and,  indeed,  the  question  with  which  we  are  con- 
cerned would  remain  very  much  where  it  is,  even  were 
it  proved  that  "  Manetho"  is  a  borrowed  name,  and  the 
yEgyptiaca  a  product  of  Roman  times.  For  the  impor- 
tant point  is,  not  who  wrote  the  book,  and  when,  but 
what  is  its  value?  It  maj'  not  be  genuine,  nor  so  old 
as  it  pretends  to  be,  and  yet  may  contain  good  materi- 
als, honestly  rendered  from  earlier  writings  or  original 
records,  probably  as  available  in  the  time  of  Domitian 
as  they  were  under  the  Ptolemies;  and,  in  fact,  exist- 
ing monuments  do  furnish  so  considerable  a' number  of 
names  unquestionably  identical  with  those  in  the  list, 
that  to  reject  this  altogether,  and  deny  it  all  historical 
value,  would  betoken  either  egregious  ignorance  or  a 
reckless  scepticism  that  can  shut  its  ej'es  to  manifest 
facts. 

Chronologiccd  Value  of  Manetho^s  History. — The  at- 
testation which  the  list  obtains  from  contemporary  mon- 
uments cannot  be  held  to  warrant  the  assumption  that 
it  is  to  be  depended  upon  where  these  fail.  For  the 
monuments  which  attest,  also  correct  its  statements. 
Monuments  prove  some  reigns,  and  even  dynasties,  con- 
temporaneous, which  in  the  list  are  successive;  but  we 
have  no  means  of  ascertaining  what  was  truly  consecu- 
tive and  what  parallel,  where  monuments  are  wanting. 
Their  dates  are  always  in  years  of  the  current  reign,  not 
of  an  xra.  From  Cambyses  upward  to  I'sammefichus, 
and  his  immediate  predecessor,  Taracus  =  Tirhaka,  the 
chronologj-  is  now  settled  [see  Chronology,  sec.  iii]. 
Thence  up  to  Petubastes  (dyn.  xxiii)  the  materials  are 
too  scanty  to  yield  any  determination.  For  dyn.  xxii, 
headed  by  Sesonchis  =  Sliishak,  the  records  are  copious: 
dates  on  apis-stelse,  of  which  Mariettc  reports  seven  in 
this  dynasty,  prove  that  it  lasted  much  more  than  the 
120  years  of  Africanus.  But  even  these  reigns  cannot 
be  formed  into  a  canon,  and  the  epoch  of  Sesonchis  can 
only  be  approximatelj'  given  from  the  Biblical  synchro- 
nism, "In  5  Eehoboam  Shishak  invaded  Juda;a" — in 
what  3-ear  of  his  reign  the  monument  which  records  the 
conquest  does  not  say;  although  the  epoch  of  Eehoboam 
is,  as  to  B.C..  a  fixed  point,  or  nearly  so,  for  all  chronolo- 
gists.  The  inscription  is  dated  21  Shishak,  but  docs  not 
indicate  the  order  or  time  of  the  several  conquests  re- 
corded.   The  attempt  has  been  made  to  prove  from  Bib- 


MANETHO 


Y02 


MANETHO 


lical  tlata  that  the  invasion  was  in  the  20th  year.  Thus : 
It  was  wliile  Solomon  was  building  Millo  (2  Kings  xi, 
27)  that  ■leroboam  fled  to  "  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt"  (ver. 
40).  Tills  work  began  not  enrliei-  than  24  Solomon  (vi, 
37-vii,  1).  If  it  began  in  that  or  the  next  year;  if  Jer- 
oboam was  immediately  appointed  overseer  of  the  forced 
labor  of  his  tribesmen ;  if  he  presently  conceived  the 
purpose  of  insurrection,  encouraged  by  Ahijah ;  if  his 
purpose  became  known  to  Solomon  almost  as  soon  as 
formed  ;  if,  in  short,  his  flight  into  Egypt  was  not  later 
tlian  26  Solomon;  lastly,  if  Shishak  became  king  in  that 
year,  then  5  Rehoboam  (=45  Solomon)  will  be  20  Shi- 
shak. This  is  a  specimen  of  much  that  passes  for  chro- 
nology, where  the  Bible  is  concerned.  Some  light  is 
thrown  on  the  dynastic  connection  of  dyn.  xxii  and 
xxiii  by  a  stele  recently  discovered  by  JMariette  in  Ethi- 
opia, which  proves  the  fact  of  numerous  contemporary 
reigns  throughout  Egypt  at  that  time  (Brugsch's  Zeit- 
schrift,  July,  1863 ;  De  Kouge,  Lisa:  du  roi  I'ianchi  Meri 
Amun,  1864).  But  it  helps  the  chronology  little  or  noth- 
ing. In  dyns.  xx,  xxi,  is  another  gap,  at  present  not  to 
be  bridged  over.  The  seven-named  Tanites  of  xxi  (Afr. 
130,  Eus.  121  years)  seem  to  have  been  military  priest- 
kings  ;  and  that  they  were  partly  contemporaneous  with 
XX  and  xxi  may  appear  from  the  absence  of  apis-stelse, 
of  which  XX  has  nine,  xxii  seven.  Dyn.  xx,  for  which 
the  list  gives  no  names,  consisted  of  some  ten  or  more 
kings,  all  bearing  the  name  Rameses,  beginning  with  R. 
Ill,  and  Ave  of  them  his  sons,  probably  joint-kings.  The 
apis-inscriptions  furnish  no  connected  dates,  nor  can  any 
inference  be  drawn  from  their  number,  since  IMariette 
reports  no  less  than  five  in  the  first  reign.  For  dyn. 
xix  (Sethos),  xviii  (Amosis),  the  materials,  ^-ritten  and 
monumental,  are  most  copious ;  yet  even  here  the  means 
of  an  exact  determination  are  wanting  :  indeed,  if  fur- 
ther proof  were  needed  that  the  Minethonic  lists  are 
not  to  be  implicitly  trusted,  it  is  furnished  by  the  mon- 
umental evidence  here  of  contemporary  reigns  which  in 
the  lists  are  successive.  It  is  certain,  and  will  at  last 
be  owned  by  all  competent  inquirers,  that  in  the  part 
of  the  succession  for  which  the  evidence  is  clearest  and 
most  ample,  it  is  impossible  to  assign  the  year  at  whi -li 
any  king,  from  Amosis  to  Tirhaka,  began  to  reign.  No 
ingenuity  of  calculation  and  conjecture  can  make  amends 
for  the  capital  defects — the  want  of  an  tera,  the  inade- 
quacy of  the  materials.  The  brilliant  light  shed  on  this 
point  or  that,  does  but  make  the  surrounding  darkness 
more  palpable.  Analysis  of  the  lists  may  enable  the 
inquirer,  at  most,  to  divine  the  intentions  of  their  au- 
thors, which  is  but  a  small  step  gained  towards  the  truth 
of  facts. 

But  it  has  been  supposed  that  certain  fixed  points 
may.  be  got  by  means  of  astronomical  conjunctures  as- 
signed to  certain  dates  of  the  vague  year  on  the  monu- 
ments :  Thus,  (i)  A  fragmentary  inscription  of  Takelut 
II,  6th  king  of  dyn.  xxii,  purports  that  "  on  the  25th 
Mesori  of  the  loth  year  of  his  father"  (Sesonk  II,  accord- 
ing to  Lepsius,  Ar/e  of  XXII  I)jn.,  but  Osorkon  II,  ac- 
cording to  Brugsch,  Dr.  Hincks,  and  v.  Gumpach),  "  the 
lieavens  were  invisible,  the  moon  struggling  .  .  .  ." 
Hence  Mr.  Cooper  {Athenmum,  11  May,  1861)  gathers, 
that  on  the  day  named,  in  the  given  year  of  Sesonk  II, 
there  was  a  lunar  eclipse,  which  he  considers  must  be 
that  of  I6th  March,  B.C.  «51.  Dr.  Hincks,  who  at  first 
also  made  the  eclipse  lunar,  and  its  date  4th  April,  B.C. 
945,  now  contends  that  it  was  solar,  and  the  only  possi- 
ble date  1st  April,  B.C.  927  {.Ima-md  of  Sac.  Lit.  Jan. 
1863,  p.  .333-376 ;  compare  Ih.  ,Ian.  1.S6  l,"p.  459  sq.).  In 
making  it  solar,  he  follows  M.  v.  Gumpach  {Hist.  Antiq. 
of  the  People  of  Ei/ypt,  1863.  p.  29),  who  finds  its  date 
Uth  March,  B.C.  «il.  Unfortunately  the  25th  Mesori 
of  that  year  was  lOtli  March.  This  is  the  "only  monu- 
mental notice  supposeil  to  refer  to  an  eclipse :  not  worth 
much  at  the  best;  the  record,  even  if  its  meaning  were 
certain,  is  not  contemporary. 

(ii)  In  several  inscriptions  certain  dates  are  given  to 
the  "  manifestation  of  Sothis,"  assumed  to  mean  the  he- 


liacal rising  of  Sirius,  which,  for  2000  years  before  our 
a;ra,  for  the  latitude  of  Heliopolis,  fell  on  the  "idth  of 
July.  (Biot,  indeed,  Recherches  des  quelques  dates  abso- 
lues,  etc.,  1853,  contends  that  the  calculation  must  be 
made  for  the  place  at  which  the  inscription  is  dated — 
each  day  of  difference,  of  course,  making  a  difference  of 
four  j'ears  in  the  date  B.C.)  The  dates  of  these  "  man- 
ifestations" are — (1)  '•  1  Tybi  of  1 1  Takelut  H"  (Brugsch) : 
the  quaternion  of  years  in  which  1  Tybi  would  coincide 
with  20th  Jidy  is  B.C.  845-42.  (2)  "  15  Thoth  in  a  year, 
not  named,  of  Rameses  VI,  at  Thebes"  (Biot,  ut  sup.; 
De  Rouge,  Memoire  siir  quelques  phenomenes  celestes^ 
etc.,  in  lievue  A  rcheol.  ix,  686).  The  date  implied  is 
20th  July,  B.C.  1265-62  (Biot,  Uth  July,  B.C.  1241-38). 
(3)  "  1  Thoth  in  some  year  of  Rameses  HI  at  Thebes" 
(Biot  and  De  Rouge,  ut  sup.,  from  a  festival-calendar). 
The  date  implied  is,  of  course,  B.C.  1325-22  (Biot,  14th 
July,  B.C.  1301-1298).  (4)  "28  Epiphi  in  some  year 
of  Thothmes  HI"  (Biot,  etc.,  from  a  festival-calendar  at 
Elephantine).  This  implies  B.C.  1477-74  (Biot,  12th 
July,  B.C.  1445-42).  The  antiquity  of  this  calendar  is 
called  in  question  by  De  Rouge  {A  then.  Franguis,  1865), 
and  by  Dr.  Brugsch,  who  says  the  style  indicates  the 
19th  dynasty.  Mariette  assigns  it  to  Thothmes  HI 
{Journal  Asiatique,  tom.  xii,  Aug.,  Sept.,  1858).  Lepsius, 
who  in  1854  doubted  {MonatshericJit  of  Berlin  R.  Acad.), 
now  contends  for  its  antiquity  {KOnigshuch  der  Aeff.  p. 
164),  having  contrived  to  make  it  fit  his  chronology  by 
assuming  an  error  in  the  numeral  of  the  month.  (5) 
"  12  jMesori  in  33  Thothmes  IH"  (:\Ir.  S.  Poole  in  Trans. 
R.  S.  Lit.  V,  340).  This  implies  B.C.  1421-18.  These 
dates  would  make  the  interval  from  Rameses  III  to 
Takelut  II  480  years,  greatly  in  excess  even  of  Ma- 
netho's  numbers,  and  more  so  of  Lepsius's  arrangement, 
in  which,  from  the  1st  of  Rameses  HI  to  the  11th  of 
Takelut  II  are  little  more  than  400  years.  Again,  the 
interval  of  only  152  years,  imphed  in  (3)  and  (4),  is  im- 
questionably  too  little :  from  the  last  year  of  Thothmes 
III  to  the  first  of  Rameses  HI,  Lepsius  reckons  296,  Bun- 
son  225  years.  Lastly,  in  (4)  and  (5)  the  dates  imply  an 
interval  of  56  years,  which  is  plainly  absurd.  The  fact 
must  be  that  these  inscriptions  are  not  rightly  under- 
stood. M^e  need  to  be  informed  what  the  Egyptians 
meant  by  the  "  manifestation  of  Sothis ;"  what  method 
they  followed  in  assigning  it  to  a  particular  day ;  espe- 
cially when,  as  in  Biot's  three  instances,  the  date  occurs 
in  a  calendar,  and  is  marked  as  a  "festival,"  we  ask, 
were  these  calendars  calculated  only  for  four  years? 
when  a  new  one  was  set  up,  were  the  astronomical  no- 
tices duly  corrected,  or  were  they  merely  copied  from 
the  preceding  calendar  ? 

(iii)  "At  Semneh  in  2  Thothmes  HI,  one  of  the  three 
feasts  of  the  Commencement  of  the  Seasons  is  noted  on 
21  Pharmuthi."  Biot  [ut  sup.)  supposes  the  vernal  equi- 
nox to  be  meant,  and  assigns  this  to  6th  April  in  the 
quaternion  B.C.  1445-42  (as  above),  in  which  6th  April 
7cas  21  Pharmuthi.  But  the  vernal  equinox  is  7wt  the 
commencement  of  one  of  the  three  seasons  of  the  Egyp- 
tian year;  these  start  either  from  the  rising  of  Sirius, 
20th  July,  or,  more  jirobably,  from  the  summer  solstice : 
as  this,  in  the  14th  century,  usually  fell  on  6th  July,  the 
two  other  tetramenies  or  seasons  would  commence  cir. 
5th  Nov.  and  6th  jNIarch.  Now  6th  March  did  coincide 
with  21  Pharmuthi  in  B.C.  1321-18,  at  which  time  it 
also  occupied  precisely  the  place  which  Mr.  Stuart  Poole 
assigns  to  "  the  great  IJukh"  ( Lcps.,  "the  greater  Heat"), 
just  one  zodiacal  month  before  the  little  Rukh,  or  ver- 
nal equinox  {Hoi-(e  ^Eijypt.  p.  15  sq.). 

(iv).  "On  1  Athyr  of  11  Amenophis  III  the  king 
ordered  an  immense  basin  to  be  dug,  and  on  the  16th 
s.  m.  celebrated  a  great  panegyr^'  of -the  waters"  (Dr. 
Hincks,  On  the  Ai/e  of  Ih/nasti/  XVIII,  Trans.  R.  Irish 
A  cad.  vol.  xxi,  pt.  i ;  comp.  j\Ir.  S.  Poole,  Ti'ans.  R.  S. 
Lit.  V.  340).  If  the  waters  were  let  in  when  the  Nile 
had  reached  its  highest  point — which,  as  it  is  from  90 
to  100  days  after  the  summer  solstice,  in  the  14th  cen- 
tury would  be  at  4-14  Oct. — the  month-date  indicates 


MANETHO 


V03 


MANETHO 


one  of  the  years  B.C.  1369-2G.  But  if  (which  is  certain- 
h'  more  likely )  the  time  chosen  was  some  weeks  earlier, 
the  year  indicated  would  be  after  B.C.  1300.  So  this 
and  the  preceding  indication  may  agree,  and  so  far  there 
is  some  evidence  for  the  supposition  that  the  sothiac 
epochal  year  B.C.  1322  Ues  in  the  reign  of  Thothmes 
III.  (See  Dr.  Hincks,  ut  suj}.,  and  in  the  Dublin  Univ. 
Magazine,  1846,  p.  187.) 

(v)  An  astronomical  representation  on  the  ceiling  of 
the  Kameseum  (the  work  of  Rameses  II)  has  been  sup- 
posed to  yield  the  year  B.C.  1322  as  its  date  (bishop 
Tomlinson,  Trans.  R.  S.  Lit.  1839 ;  Sir  G.  Wilkinson, 
Manners  and  Customs,  etc.,  2d  ser.  p.  377);  while  Mr. 
Cullimore,  from  the  same,  gets  B.C.  1138.  The  truth  is, 
these  astronomical  configurations,  in  the  present  state 
of  our  knowledge,  are  an  unsolved  riddle.  Lepsius's  in- 
ferences {Chron.  der  Aefj.)  from  the  same  representa- 
tions in  the  reigns  of  Rameses  IV  and  VI  are  little  more 
than  guesses,  too  vague  and  precarious  to  satisfy  any 
man  wlio  knows  what  evidence  means. 

It  ajipears,  then,  that  the  supposed  astronomical  notes 
of  time  hitherto  discovered  lend  but  little  aid,  and  bring 
nothing  like  certainty  into  the  inquiry.  We  cannot  ac- 
cept the  lists  as  they  stand.  How  are  they  to  be  recti- 
fied? Until  we  have  the  means  of  rectifying  them, 
every  attempt  to  put  forth  a  definite  scheme  of  Egyp- 
tian chronology  is  simply  futile.  The  appeal  to  author- 
ity avails  nothing  here.  Lepsins,  Bunsen,  Brugsch,  and 
many  more,  all  claim  to  have  settled  the  matter.  Their 
very  discrepancies — on  the  scale  of  wliich  half  a  century 
is  a  mere  trifle — sufficiently  prove  that  to  thera,  as  to 
us,  the  evidence  is  defective.  The  profoundest  scholar- 
ship, the  keenest  insight,  cannot  get  more  out  of  it  than 
is  in  it ;  "  that  which  is  crooked  cannot  be  made  straight, 
and  that  which  is  wanting  cannot  be  numbered."  Yet, 
from  the  easy  confidence  with  which  people  assign  dates 
— their  own,  or  taken  on  trust — to  the  Pharaohs  after 
Amosis,  and  even  of  much  earlier  times,  it  might  be 
thought  that  from  Manetho  and  the  monuments  together 
a  connected  chronology  has  been  elicited  as  certain  as 
that  of  the  Roman  emperors.  In  particular,  there  ap- 
pears to  be  a  growing  belief— even  finding  its  way  into 
popular  Bible  histories  and  commentaries — that  the  Pha- 
raoh of  the  Exodus  can  be  identified  in  Manetho,  and  so 
tlie  time  of  that  event  determined. 

Early  Christian  writers  usually  assumed,  with  Jose- 
phus,  that  the  Hyksos  or  "  shepherd-kings,"  whose  story 
he  gives  from  Manetho  (Apion,  i,  14-16),  were  the  Isra- 
elites, and  their  expulsion  by  Amosis  or  Tethmosis — 
one  or  both,  for  the  accounts  are  confused — the  Egyp- 
tian version  of  the  story  of  the  exode.  This  view  has 
still  its  advocates  (quite  recently  Mr.  Nash,  The  Pharaoh 
of  the  Exodus,  1863),  but  not  among  those  who  have 
been  long  conversant  with  the  subject.  Indeed,  there 
is  a  monument  of  Thothmes  III  which,  if  it  has  been 
truly  interpreted,  is  conclusive  for  a  much  earlier  date 
of  tlie  exode  than  this  reign,  or  perhaps  any  of  the  dy- 
nastj-.  A  long  inscription  of  his  twenty-third  year  gives 
a  list  of  tlie  confederates  defeated  by  him  at  Megiddo, 
in  which  De  Rouge  reads  the  names  .Jacob  and  Joseph, 
and  Mr.  Stuart  Poole  thinks  he  finds  the  names  of  some 
of  tlie  tribes,  Reuben,  Simeon,  Issachar,  Gad  (Report  of 
R.  S.  Lit.  in  Athenceum,  March  21,  1863). 

But  the  story  of  the  Jews  put  forth  by  "  Manetho" 
himself  (Josephus,  Apion,  i,  26,  27),  v.-ith  the  confession, 
however,  that  he  obtained  it  not  from  ancient  records, 
but  from  popular  tradition  (dffff— orojc  iw^u'Koyovf.uva), 
reiirescnts  them  as  a  race  of  lepers,  who,  oppressed  by 
the  reigning  king,  called  to  their  aid  the  Hyksos  from 
Palestine  (where  these,  on  their  expulsion  some  centu- 
ries earlier  by  Tethmosis,  had  settled  and  built  .Terusa- 
lem  ).  and  with  these  allies  overran  all  Egypt  for  thirteen 
years,  at  tlie  end  of  which  Amenophis,  v.lio  had  taken 
refuge  in  Ethiopia,  returning  thence  with  his  son  Se- 
thos,  drove  out  the  invaders.  These,  headed  by  Osar- 
siph  (  =  Moses),  a  priest  of  Heliopolis,  retired  into  Pales- 
tine, and  there  became  the  nation  of  the  Jews.    Josephus 


protests  against  this  story  as  a  mere  figment,  prompted 
by  Egyptian  malignity,  and  labors  to  prove  it  inconsist- 
ent with  Manetho's  own  list :  unsuccessfully  enough, 
for,  in  fact,  Amenophis  (Ammenephthes,  Afr.)  does  ap- 
pear there  just  where  the  story  places  him,  i.  e.  next  to 
Sethos  and  Rameses  II,  with  a  reign  of  nineteen  years 
and  six  months.  The  monuments  give  the  name  Me- 
nephtha,  and  his  son  and  successor  Seti  =  Sethos  II,  just 
as  in  the  story.  The  names  are  not  fictitious,  whatever 
may  be  the  value  of  the  story  as  regards  the  Israelites. 
This  Meuephtha,  then,  son  and  successor  of  Rameses  the 
Great,  is  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Exode,  according  to  Lep- 
sius  and  Bunsen,  and  of  late  accepted  as  such  by  many 
writers,  learned  and  unlearned.  Those  to  whom  the 
name  of  Manetho  is  not  voucher  enough,  will  demand 
independent  evidence.  In  fact,  it  is  alleged  that  the 
monuments  of  the  time  of  Menephtha  attest  a  period  of 
depression :  no  great  -works  of  that  king  are  known  to 
exist;  of  his  reign  of  twenty  years  the  highest  date 
hitherto  found  is  the  fourth ;  and  two  rival  kings,  Amcn- 
messu  (the  Ammenemses  of  the  lists)  and  Si-phtha,  are 
reigning  at  the  same  time  with  him,  i.  e.  holding  preca- 
rious sovereignty  in  Thebes  during  the  time  of  alien 
occupation  and  the  flight  of  Menephtha  (Bunsen,  Aeg. 
Stelle,  iv,  208  sq.).  That  these  two  kings  reigned  in 
the  time  of  IMenephtha,  and  not  with  or  after  Sethos  II, 
is  assumed  without  proof;  that  the  reign  of  Rameses  II 
was  followed  by  a  period  of  decadence  proves  notliing 
as  to  its  cause;  and  the  entire  silence  of  the  monuments 
as  to  an  event  so  memorable  as  the  final  expulsion  of 
the  hated  "  Shepherds"  (Shas-v),  who  so  often  figure  in 
the  monumental  recitals  of  earlier  kings  (e.  g.  of  Sethos 
I,  who  calls  them  shas-u  pi'kana7ia-lar,  "shepherds  of 
the  land  of  Canaan"),  tells  as  strongly  against  the  story 
as  any  merely  negative  evidence  can  do  it.  More  impor- 
tant is  the  argument  derived  from  the  mention  (Exod. 
i,  11)  of  the  "  treasure -cities  Pithom  and  Raamses," 
built  for  the  persecuting  Pharaoh  by  the  forced  labor  of 
the  Hebrews ;  the  Pharaoh  (says  Eosellini,  Mon.  Storici, 
I,  294  sq.)  was  Rameses  [II,  son  of  Sethos  I],  who  gave 
one  of  the  cities  his  own  name.  (Comp.  Ewald,  Gesch. 
ii,  66,  note.)  Lepsius,  art.  Aegjqiten,  in  Herzog's  En- 
ajldop.,  calls  this  "the  weightiest  confirmation,"  and  in 
Chronol.  der  A  eg.  i,  337-357,  enlarges  upon  this  argu- 
ment. Raamses,  he  says,  was  at  the  eastern,  as  Pithom 
(Harofjuot,')  was  certainly  at  the  western  end  of  the 
great  canal  known  to  lie  the  work  of  Rameses  II,  and 
the  site  of  the  city  bearing  his  name  is  further  identified 
with  him  by  the  granite  group  disinterred  at  Abu  Kei- 
sheib,  in  which  the  deified  king  sits  enthroned  between 
the  gods  Ra  and  Tum.  Certainly  a  king  Rameses  ap- 
pears first  in  the  19th  dynasty,  but  the  place  may  have 
taken  its  name,  if  from  a  man  at  all,  from  some  earlier 
person. 

That  the  exode  cannot  be  placed  before  the  19th  dy- 
nasty, Bunsen  {ut  sup.  p.  234)  holds  to  be  conclusively 
shown  by  the  fact  that  on  the  monuments  which  record 
the  conquests  of  Rameses  the  Great  in  Palestine,  no  men- 
tion occurs  of  the  Israelites  among  the  Kheti  (Hittites) 
and  other  conquered  nations;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
there  is  no  hint  in  the  book  of  Judges  of  an  Egyptian 
invasion  and  servitude.  On  similar  negative  grounds 
he  urges  that  the  settlement  in  Palestine  must  have 
been  subsequent  to  the  conquests  made  in  that  country 
by  Rameses  III,  first  king  of  the  20th  dynasty.  To  this 
it  may  be  replied,  (1.)  that  we  have  no  clear  informa- 
tion as  to  the  route  of  the  invaders;  if  it  was  either 
along  the  coast  or  to  the  east  of  Jordan,  the  tribes,  per- 
haps, were  not  directly  affected  by  it.  (2.)  The  expe- 
ditions so  pompously  described  on  the  monuments  (as 
in  the  Statistical  Table  of  Karnak,  Thothmes  III,  and 
similar  recitals  of  the  conquests  of  Rameses  II  and  III ; 
see  Mr.  Birch,  in  Trans.  ofR.  S.  Lit.  ii,  317  sq. ;  and  vii, 
50  sq.)  certainly  did  not  result  in  the  permanent  subju- 
gation of  the  countries  invaded.  This  is  sufficiently 
shown  by  the  fact  that  the  contiucsts  repeat  themselves 
under  different  kings,  and  even  in  the  same  reign.    Year 


MANETHO 


V04 


MANETHO 


by  year  the  king  with  liis  army  sets  out  on  a  gigantic 
razzia,  to  return  with  spoil  of  cattle,  slaves,  and  prod- 
uce of  the  countries  overrun.  (3.)  If  the  lands  of  the 
tribes  were  thus  overrun,  it  may  have  been  during  one 
of  the  periods  of  servitude,  in  which  case  they  suffered 
only  as  the  vassals  of  their  Canaanitish,  Moabitish,  or 
other  oppressors.  That  this  may  possibly  have  been 
the  case  is  sufficient  to  deprive  of  all  its  force  the  argu- 
ment derived  from  the  silence  of  the  monuments,  and 
of  the  book  of  Judges. 

Tliere  remains  to  be  noticed  one  piece  of  documentary 
evidence  which  has  quite  recently  been  brought  to  light. 
Dr.  Brugsch  {Zeitschrift,  Sept.  18G3)  reports  that  "  one 
set  of  the  Leyden  hieratic  papyri,  now  publishing  b}' 
Dr.  Leemans,  consists  of  letters  and  official  reports.  In 
several  of  these,  examined  by  M.  Chabas,  repeated  men- 
tion is  made  of  certain  foreigners,  called  Apuniju,  i.  e. 
Hebrews,  compelled  by  Rameses  II  to  drag  stones  for  the 
building  of  the  city  Raamses."  In  his  Melanges  Eyyi^tol. 
18G2, 4th  dissertation,  M.  Chabas  calls  them  AikHu.  It 
is  certainly  striking,  as  Mr.  Birch  remarks  (in  Revue 
Archeol.  April,  1862,  p.  291),  that  "  in  the  three  docu- 
ments which  speak  of  these  foreigners,  they  appear  en- 
gaged on  works  of  the  same  kind  as  those  to  which  the 
Hebrews  were  subjected  by  the  Egyptians;  it  is  also 
important  that  the  papyri  were  found  at  JMemphis.  But 
the  more  inviting  the  proposed  identilication,  the  more 
cautious  one  needs  to  be."  As  the  sounds  R  and  L  are 
not  discriminated  in  Egyptian  writing,  it  may  be  that 
the  name  is  Apeliu;  and  as  B  and  P  have  distinct  char- 
acters, one  does  not  see  why  the  b  of  D'i"i2"  should  be 
rendered  hy p.  (The  case  of  .£);?/>  =  !3"^ 2 N  is  different; 
see  below.)  It  seems,  also,  that  the  same  name  occin's 
as  late  as  the  time  of  Rameses  IV,  where  it  can  hardly 
mean  the  Hebrews.  Besides,  the  monument  of  Thoth- 
mes  III  above  mentioned  leads  to  quite  a  different  con- 
clusion. Where  the  evidence  is  so  conflicting,  the  in- 
quirer who  seeks  only  truth,  not  the  confirmation  of  a 
foregone  conclusion,  has  no  choice  but  to  reserve  his 
judgment. 

The  time  of  this  Menephtha,  so  unhesitatingh'  pro- 
claimed to  be  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Exode,  is  placed  be- 
yond all  controversy — so  Bunsen  and  Lepsius  maintain 
— by  an  in\-aluable  piece  of  evidence  furnished  by  The- 
on,  the  Alexandrine  mathematician  of  the  4th  century. 
In  a  passage  of  his  unpublished  commentary  on  the  Al- 
magest, first  given  to  the  world  by  Larcher  (Ilcrodot.  ii, 
553),  and  since  by  Biot  {Snr  la  periode  Solhiaque,  p.  18, 
129  sq.),  it  is  stated  that  the  Sothiac  Cycle  of  Astrono- 
my which,  as  it  ended  in  A.D.  139,  commenced  in  B.C. 
1322  (20th  July),  was  known  in  his  time  as  "  the  sera  of 
Jlenophres"  {irr]  cnro  Mtvo^pfwt,).  There  is  no  king 
of  this  name  :  read  Mti/od^fwC — so  we  have  Menephtha 
of  the  19th  dynasty,  the  king  of  the  leper-story,  the 
Exodus  Pharaoh.  Lepsius,  making  the  reign  begin  in 
B.C.  1328,  places  the  exode  at  B.C.  1314  =  15  jMeneph- 
tha,  in  accordance  with  the  alleged  thirteen  years'  re- 
tirement into  Ethiopia  and  the  return  in  the  fourteenth 
or  fifteenth  year.  Certainly  the  precise  name  Meno- 
phres  does  not  appear  in  the  lists ;  but  in  later  times 
that  name  may  have  been  used  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
tinguishing some  particular  king  from  others  of  the 
same  name;  and  there  is  reason  to  lliink  this  was  act- 
ually the  case.  (1.)  The  king  Tetlimosis  or  Thothmes 
III  repeatedly  appears  on  monuments  with  the  addition 
to  his  royal  legend  Mai-Re,  "  Beloved  of  Ri^,"  with  the 
article  ^^ai-ph-Re,  and  with  the  prejiosition  Mai-n'-ph- 
Re,  which  last  is  precisely  Theon's  Mtvofpi]!;.  (2.)  The 
acknowledged  confusion  of  names  in  that  part  of  the 
bsth  dynasty  where  this  king  occurs — Misa/ihris,  Mi.t- 
phrf.t,  Mnnphres  (Arraen.),then  J/ts/j/;?-agmuthosis  (the 
AAIi;il>P.  of  Joscphus  is  evijlently  an  error  of  copying 
for  MI2<M».  :  in  the  list  ibiil  the  5th  and  6th  names 
arc  M)](ppi](;,  Mffppa^iov^ojrrti:) — is  perhaps  best  explain- 
ed by  supposing  that  the  king  was  entered  in  the  lists 
by  his  distinctive  as  well  as  his  family  name.     (3.)  In 


Pliny's  notice  of  the  obelisks  (//.  jY.  xxxvi,  64),  that 
known  to  be  of  Thothmes  III  is  said  to  belong  to  Mt-s- 
phres,  which,  says  Bunsen  (iv,  130),  "  would  be  tlie  pop- 
ular distinctive  name  given  to  this  Thothmes."  Just 
so !  And  in  the  statement  of  Theon  the  king  is  pre- 
sented by  "  his  popular  distinctive  name,"  Menophres. 
(4.)  "There  was  (sa3's  Dr.  Hincks,  Trans. R, Irish.  Acad. 
vol.  xxi,  pt.  1)  a  tradition,  if  it  does  not  deserve  another 
name,  current  among  the  Egyptians  in  the  time  of  An- 
toninus, to  the  effect  that  the  Sothiac  Cycle,  then  end- 
ing (A.D.  139),  commenced  in  the  reign  of  Thothmes 
III.  The  existence  of  such  a  tradition  is  evidenced  by 
a  number  of  scarabwi,  evidently  of  Roman  workmanship, 
referring  to  the  Sothiac  Cycle,  and  in  which  the  royal 
legend  of  this  monarch  appears."  These  are  sufficient 
grounds  for  believing  that  the  Menophres  of  Theon  is 
no  other  than  Thothmes  III,  and  that  his  reign  was 
supposed  (rightly  or  wrongly)  to  include  tlie  year  B.C. 
1322.  It  may  be,  also,  that  when  Herodotus  was  told 
that  Moeris  lived  about  900  years  before  the  time  of  his 
visit  to  Egypt — a  date  not  very  wide  of  B.C.  1322 — 
Thothmes  was  named  to  him  by  his  popular  distinctive 
appellation,  Mai-Re,  only  confused  with  J/a?Ts  =  Ame- 
nemha  III,  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Lab\'rinth  and  its  Lake. 
(Other  explanations  of  the  name  Menophres  may  be 
seen  in  Bijckh,  Manetho,  p.  691  sq. ;  Biot,  Recherches,  in- 
terprets it  as  the  name  of  Memphis,  Men-nnfru,  im])ort- 
ing  that  the  normal  date,  20th  July,  for  the  heliacal 
rising  of  Sirius  and  epoch  of  the  cycle,  is  true  only  for 
the  latitude  of  Memphis.)  "What  has  been  said  is  suffi- 
cient to  show  that  there  is  no  necessity  for  altering  a 
letter  of  the  name;  consequently  that  the  time  of  Jle- 
nephtha  is  not  defined  by  the  authority  of  Theon.  De 
Rouge  emphatically  rejects  Lepsius's  notion  of  IMeno- 
phres  (Recue  Archeol.  ix,  664;  Journal  Asiatique,  Aug. 
1858,  p.  268).  He  thinks  the  year  1322  lies  in  the  reign 
of  Rameses  HI. 

In  support  of  his  date,  B.C.  1314,  for  the  exode,  Lep- 
sius {Chronol.  p.  859  sq.)  has  an  argument  deduced  from 
the  modern  Jewish  chronology  (Hillel's  Mundane  Era^, 
in  which  he  says  that  it  is  the  precise  year  assigned  to 
that  event.  Hillel,  he  is  confident,  was  led  to  it  by  Ma- 
netho's  Egyptian  tradition,  which  gave  him  the  name 
of  the  Pharaoh,  and  this  being  obtained  would  easily  give 
lum  the  time.  Bunsen,  though  finally  settling  on  the 
year  B.C.  1320,  had  previously  declared  with  Lepsius  for 
B.C.  1314,  "decided  by  the  circumstance  that  a  tradition 
not  compatible  irith  the  usual  chronoliH/ieal  systems  of  the 
Jews,  but  which  cannot  be  accidental,  jilaces  the  exode 
at  that  year.  This  fact  seems,  from  Lepsius's  account 
of  the  Seder  Olam  Rabija,  to  admit  of  no  doubt"  (iv, 
336).  It  admits  of  more  than  doubt — of  absolute  refu- 
tation. Hillel's  whole  procedure,  from  first  to  last,  was 
simply  Biblical.  Daniel's  prophecy  of  the  seventy  weeks 
gave  hitn  B.C.  422  for  11  Zedekiah  ;  thence  up  to  6  Hez- 
ekiali  he  found  the  sum— 133  years;  for  the  kings  of 
Israel  the  actual  numbers  were  243,  of  which  he  made 
240  years ;  then  37  years  of  Solomon ;  480  years  of  1 
Kings  vi,  1,  atlded  to  these,  made  the  total  890  years, 
whence  the  date  for  the  exode  was  B.C.  422 -|- 890  = 
1312;  for  that  this,  not  1314,  was  Hillel's  year  of  the 
exode  is  demonstrable  (Review  of  Lepsius  on  Bible  Chro- 
nolofpj,hy  II.  Browne,  in  Arnold's  Theolog.  Critic,  i, 52-59, 
1851).  Yet,  though  the  process  by  which  Hillel  got  his 
date  is  so  trans])arent,  it  is  spoken  of  as  "  an  important 
tradition"  by  those  who  take  ready-made  conclusions  at 
second-hand,  without  inquiry  into  their  grounds.  So 
Duncker,  Gesch.  des  Alterthums,  i,  196,  note;  Dr. Wil- 
liams, in  Essays  and  Reviews,  p.  58. 

It  is  alleged  that  an  indication  confirmatory  of  the 
low  date  assigned  by  these  writers  is  furnished  by  the 
month-date  of  the  Exodus  passover,  14  Abib,  a  name 
which  occurs  only  in  connection  with  that  history  (Exod. 
xii,2;  xiii,4;  xxiii,15;  xxxiv,  18;  Deut.xvi.l).  This 
argument  proceeds  on  the  presumption  that  Abib  is  the 
Hebraized  form  of  the  Egyptian  Epep,  Coptic  Epiphi, 
of  which  the  Arabic  rendering  is  also  A  bib.    The  Egyp- 


MANETHO 


705 


MANGER 


tian  month  takes  its  name  from  the  goddess  Apap :  the 
change  of  7)  to  b  is  intended  to  make  the  word  pure  He- 
brew, denoting  the  time  of  year,  n^nNn  Cinn  =  the 
month  when  the  barley  is  in  the  ear  {abib)  (Exod.  ix, 
31).  "At  the  time  assigned,  the  vague  montli  Epep 
would  pretty  nearly  coincide  with  the  Hebrew  Abib" 
(Lepsius,  Chron.  p.  141).  Hardly  so,  for  in  the  year 
named  1  Epiphi  would  fall  on  14tli  May,  and  it  is  scarce- 
ly conceivable  that  the  passover  month  (whose  full  moon 
is  that  next  to  the  vernal  equinox,  which  in  that  cen- 
tury fell  cir.  5th  April)  should  begin  so  late  as  the  mid- 
dle of  May.  Not  till  a  hundred  years  later  would  the 
vague  month  Epiphi  and  the  Hebrew  passover  month 
coincide.  The  argument  proves  too  much,  unless  we 
are  prepared  to  lower  the  exode  to  cir.  B.C.  1200.  (To 
some  it  may  imply  that  the  narrative  of  the  exode  was 
written  about  that  time — Mr.  SiiaTpe,  Ilision/  of  Egypt, 
i.  Go — but  one  can  hardly  suppose  that  the  Hebrews  re- 
tained the  vague  Egyptian  months  as  well  as  their 
names  so  long  after  their  settlement  in  Palestine.)  If 
in  any  year  from  B.C.  1300  upwards,  the  full  moon  next 
the  vernal  equinox  fell  in  the  month  Epiphi,  it  would 
follow  that  the  Coptic  month-names  (which,  it  is  well 
imdcrstood,  never  occur  on  the  monuments)  belonged 
then  to  a  different  form  of  the  year. 

For  the  lirst  seventeen  dynasties,  numbering  in  Afr. 
more  than  4000  years,  a  bare  statement  of  their  con- 
tents and  of  the  monumental  evidence  would  greatly 
exceed  the  limits  of  this  article.  Perhaps  the  time  is 
not  far  distant  when  the  attempt  to  educe  a  connected 
chronology  from  Manetho  (whether  for  or  against  the 
Mosaic  numbers)  will  be  abandoned  by  all  sensible  men. 
Full  and  unprejudiced  inquiry  can  have  but  one  result: 
for  times  anterior  to  B.C.  700  Egypt  has  no  fixed  chro- 
nolofiy.  De  Kouge  has  in  two  words  set  the  whole  mat- 
ter in  its  true  light :  ■'  Les  texlies  de  IManethon  sont  pro- 
fondement  alteres,  et  la  serie  des  dates  monumentales 
est  tres  incomplete.^''  The  incompleteness  of  the  record 
is  palpable :  the  alteration  of  the  texts  is  the  result  of 
their  having  passed  through  numerous  hands,  and  been 
refashioned  according  to  various  intentions,  by  which 
tlie  whole  inquiry  has  been  complicated  to  a  degree 
that  baMles  all  attempts  to  determine  what  was  their 
original  form.  These  intentions  were  mainly  cyclical. 
A  very  brief  statement  of  facts,  not  resting  on  critical 
conjecture  and  questionable  combinations,  as  in  the 
elaborate  treatise  of  Bcickh,  but  lying  on  the  surface, 
will  place  the  character  and  relations  of  the  several 
texts  in  a  clear  light.  Menes  stands,  1.  In  Africanus 
(according  to  Syncellus's  running  summation  of  the 
numbers  in  book  i)  just  three  complete  sothiac  cycles,  3  X 
1460  Julian  years,  before  B.C.  1322;  2.  In  luisebius,  ac- 
cording to  the  epigraphal  sum  of  book  i,  f/n-ee  cycles  be- 
fore the  epoch  of  Sethosis,  dyn.  xix  ;  3.  In  Eusebius,  ac- 
cording to  the  actual  sum  of  book  i,  three  cycles  before 
the  year  B.C.  978-77,  meant  as  the  goal  of  the  Diospol- 
itan  monarchy  or  epoch  of  Shishak ;  4.  In  Syncellus's 
period  of  oobb  years  (accepted  by  Lepsius  and  Bunsen 
as  the  true  Manelhonic  measure  from  Menes  to  Nectane- 
biis),  tvo  cycles  before  the  same  goal;  5.  In  the  Old 
Chronicle,  according  to  its  sothiac  form,  07ie  cycle  before 
the  same  goal ;  6.  In  the  Sothis,  one  cycle  before  B.C. 
1322;  but  here  it  is  contrived  that  Osiropis,  or  the  com- 
mencement of  Diospolitan  monarchy,  stands  one  cycle 
before  Susakeim  =  Shishak.  The  inquirer  may  easily 
verify  these  facts  for  himself.  In  the  series  of  papers, 
"  Cycles  of  Egyptian  Chronology-,"  published  in  Arnold's 
Theol.  Critic,  1851-.'32,he  will  find  them  fully  stated,  with 
many  other  like  facts,  which  prove  that  these  chronog- 
rajiliics,  one  and  all,  are  intensely  cyclical.  But  if  Ma- 
netho, as  we  have  him,  is  cyclical,  then,  Lepsius  himself 
confesses  (A'.  B.  p.  6,  7),  "  the  historiccd  character  of  his 
vnrk  falls  to  the  groitnd ;  for  the  very  fact  of  Menes 
heading  a  sothiac  circle  could  only  be  the  result  of  af- 
ter-contrivance ;"  and  Bunsen  {Aey.  St.  iv,  13")  sees  that 
in  place  of  "the  genuine  historical  work  of  Jlanetho, 
the  venerable  priest  and  conscientious  inquirer,"  we  get 
v.— Y  Y 


"a  made-vp  thing,  systematically  carved  to  shape,  and 
therefore  really  fabulous.^''  Whether  or  not  the  original 
"  Manetho,"  whatever  its  authorship  and  date,  was  con- 
trived upon  a  cyclical  plan,  we  have  but  the  lists  as  they 
come  to  us  finally  from  the  hands  of  Annianus  and  Pan- 
doras through  Syncellus.  It  may  be  observed,  however, 
that  the  cardinal  dates  given  by  JJiciearchus,  which  we 
have  from  an  independent  source,  imply  that  the  cycli- 
cal treatment  of  Egyptian  chronology  is  at  least  as  old 
as  the  alleged  time  of  Manetho  {''Cycles,"  etc.,  u.  s.,  sec. 
4,16,34,30). 

For  literature  additional  to  the  above,  see  under 
Egypt  ;  also  Fruin,  Dissertatio  Ilistorica  de  Manethove 
(Leyd.  1847,  8vo)  ;  BiJckh,  Manetho  (Berlin,  1845,  8vo)  ; 
A.  H.  von  Sagaus,  Mctnethos,  die  Origines  unserer  Gesch. 
(Gotha,  1865, 8vo) ;  A  m.  Presb.  Rev.  Jan.  1866,  p.  180. 

Manger  is  the  rendering  found  in  Luke  ii,  7, 12, 16, 
of  the  term  tftciTvi],  used  to  designate  the  place  in  which 
the  infant  Eedeemer  was  cratUed ;  which  seems  to  de- 
note a  crib  or  "  stall"  for  feeding  cattle,  as  it  is  rendered 
in  Luke  xiii,  15  (see  Horrei  Miscell.  Crit.  Leon.  1738,  bk. 
ii,  ch.  xvi).  It  is  emplo}-ed  in  the  Sept.  in  a  similar 
sense  for  the  Heb.  O^^N,  Job  xxxix,  9;  Isa.  i,  3;  also 
by  Josephus,  Ant.  viii,  2,  4;  comp.  Lucan,  Tim.  p.  14; 
Xenophon,  Eg.  iv,  1.  Gersdorff  {Eeitrdge  zur  Sprach- 
charalcterestik  des  N.  T.  p.  220)  is  in  favor  of  translating 
the  word  crib  everywhere,  and  quotes  /Elian  (apud  Suid. 
s.  v.),  Philo  {De  somniis,  p.  872,  b.  ed.  Colon.  1613),  and 
SybUe.  Eryth.  (ap.  Lactantius,  vii,  24, 12)  to  that  effect. 
Schleusner  {Lex.  s.  v.)  says  it  is  any  enclosure,  but  es- 
pecially the  vestibule  to  the  house,  where  the  cattle 
■were  enclosed,  not  with  walls,  but  wooden  hurdles;  but 
in  common  Greek  the  word  undoubtedly  often  refers  to 
a  trough  hollowed  out  to  receive  the  food  for  horses, 
etc.  (see  Homer,  II.  y,  271;  x,  568;  xxiv,  280).  The 
Peshito  Version  evidently  so  understands  it.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  doubtful  if  such  a  contrivance  as  a 
proper  manger  was  known  in  the  East,  especially  in  the 
khans  or  "inns"  of  the  description  alluded  to  in  the 
text.  See  Caravansehai.  "  Stables  and  mangers,  in 
the  sense  in  which  we  understand  them,  are  of  compar- 
atively late  introduction  into  the  East  (see  the  quota- 
tions from  Chardin  and  others  in  Harmer's  OhservationSy 
ii,  205),  and,  although  they  have  furnished  material  tO' 
modern  painters  and  poets,  did  not  enter  into  the  cir- 
cumstances attending  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  are  hard- 
ly less  inaccurate  than  the  'cradle'  and  the  'stable' 
which  are  named  in  some  descriptions  of  that  event" 
(Smith).  'Wq,  are  therefore  doubtless  here  to  regard 
the  term  as  designating  the  ledge  or  projection  in  the 
end  of  the  room  used  as  a  stable,  on  which  the  hay  or 
other  food  of  the  animals  of  travellers  was  placed.  (See 
Strong's  Harmony  and  Expos,  of  the  Gospels,  p.  14.) 
Several  of  the  Christian  fathers  maintain  that  the  stable 
itself  was  in  a  cave,  and  the  identical  manger  in  which 
the  infant  Jesus  is  traditionally  stated  to  have  lain  is 
still  shown  by  the  superstitious  monks,  being  no  other 
than  a  marble  sarcophagus;  but  the  whole  storj'  is  at 
variance  with  the  narrative  in  the  Gospels.  (See  Mel- 
don,  De  p7-cesepi  Christi,  .Jen.  1662.)  See  Bethlehem. 
Tavernier,  speaking  of  Aleppo,  states  that  "  in  the  cara- 
vanserais, on  each  side  of  the  hall,  for  persons  of  the 
best  quality,  there  are  lodgings  for  every  man  by  him- 
self. These  lodgings  are  raised  all  along  the  court,  two 
or  three  steps  high,  just  behind  which  are  the  stables, 
where  many  times  it  is  as  good  lying  as  in  the  cham- 
bers. Bight  against  the  head  of  every  horse  there  is  a 
niche  witli  a  window  into  the  lodging-chamber,  out  of 
which  every  man  may  see  that  his  horse  is  looked  after. 
These  niches  are  usualh'  so  large  that  three  men  may 
lie  in  them,  and  here  the  servants  dress  their  victuals." 
In  modern  Oriental  farm-houses,  however,  something 
corresponding  to  a  Western  "  manger"  may  be  found. 
"It  is  common  to  find  two  sides  of  the  one  room  where 
the  native  farmer  resides  with  his  cattle  fitted  up  with 
these  mangers,  and  the  remainder  elevated  about  two 
feet  higher  for  the  accommodation  of  the  family.     The 


MANGEY 


(06 


MANI 


mangers  are  built  of  small  stones  and  mortar,  in  the 
shape  of  a  box,  or,  rather,  of  a  kneading-trough,  and 
when. cleaned  up  and  whitewashed,  as  they  often  are  in 
summer,  they  do  very  well  to  lay  little  babes  in"  (Thom- 
son, Land  and  Book,  ii,  98).     See  Stable. 

Mangey,  Thomas,  D.D.,  an  English  theologian, 
was  born  at  Leeds  in  1G84 ;  was  educated  at  St.  John's 
College,  Cambridge;  held  successively  the  livings  of 
St.  Mildred,  Bread  Street,  London ;  St.  Nicholas,  (iuil- 
ford,  and  Ealing,  in  INIiddlesex;  was  chaplain  to  Dr. 
Robinson,  bishop  of  London;  in  1721  was  presented  to 
the  fifth  stall  in  the  cathedral  of  Durham,  and  was  ad- 
vanced to  the  first  stall  in  1722;  became  D.D.  in  1725, 
and  died  in  1755.  Dr.  Mangey  published  a  number  of 
Sermons  and  controversial  tracts,  and  a  most  valuable 
edition  of  the  works  of  Philo  Judajus :  Philonis  Judcei 
Opera  omnia  quae,  reperiri potuerunt  (Lond.  1742,  2  vols, 
fol.). — Allibone,  Diet.  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  nth.  s.  v. ;  Hook, 
Eceles.  Biog.  vii,  222. 

Manhartists  orHaagleitnerians  the  name  of 
a  party  in  the  Romish  Church,  especially  in  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Salzburg,  from  1814  to  1826,  whose  founder 
and  chief  was  a  young  priest  named  Caspar  Haagleitner, 
of  Hopfgarten ;  and  its  most  distinguished  and  active 
member  was  Sebastian  Manzl,  of  Westendorf  (known  also 
by  the  name  of  Manhart,  from  one  of  his  estates).  In 
1809  Napoleon  I  had  appointed  the  prince-bishop  of  Chi- 
em-see  and  the  coadjutor  of  Salzburg  as  ecclesiastical 
authorities  in  the  diocese.  The  clergy  submitted  with 
the  exception  of  Haagleitner,  who  refused  to  recognise 
them,  and  showed  symptoms  of  heresy.  He  left  Hopf- 
garten and  went  to  Tyrol,  where  he  created  some  relig- 
ious and  political  troubles,  and  gained  a  number  of  fol- 
lowers. At  the  peace  of  Schiinbrunn  the  Tyrol  fell 
again  into  the  hands  of  the  French,  and  Haagleitner 
was  taken  a  prisoner  to  Kusstein  anil  Salzburg.  He 
finally  succeeded  in  making  good  his  escape;  and  when, 
in  1814,  Austria  recovered  the  Bavarian  Tyrol,  he  was 
appointed  vicar  at  Wijrgel.  Here  he  continued  his  in- 
trigue, and  succeeded  so  well  that  the  people  came  to 
consider  him  as  the  only  true  priest  in  the  country,  the 
others  having  failed  to  do  their  duty  by  submitting  to 
the  dictates  of  Napoleon.  Manhart  assisted  Haag- 
leitner greatly  in  propagating  his  doctrines  in  Westen- 
dorf,  Hopfgarten,  and  Kirchbichel,  and  their  effect  was 
felt  even  long  after  Haagleitner  had  been  removed  from 
Wiirgol.  Manhart  held  meetings  in  his  own  house, 
preaching  himself,  or  allowing  his  wife  to  preach,  as 
well  as  another  woman  from  Hopfgarten.  The  admin- 
istrator of  the  diocese  of  Salzburg,  and  afterwards  the 
archbishop  Augustin  Gruber,  sought  in  vain  to  recon- 
cile them  with  the  Church ;  they  asked  to  be  instructed 
by  the  pope  himself  in  case  they  were  in  the  wrong,  and 
for  this  purpose  went  to  Rome  in  1825.  The  difHculty 
ended  soon  after.— Herzog,  Real-EncijUopddip,  viii,  781. 

Ma'ni  (\Iaj'(',Vulg.  Banni),  given  (1  Esdr.  ix,  30) 
by  crnir  for  Baxi  (q.  v.)  of  the  Heb.  list  (Ezra  x,  29). 

Maui,  Manes,  or  Manichaeus  (entitled  Zendik, 
Sa  Idui'ee),  the  founder  of  the  heretical  sect  of  the  jMa- 
iiich;eans,  is  said  to  have  flourished  in  the  second  half 
of  the  3d  century.  Little  is  known  Avith  regard  to  his 
early  history,  and  the  accounts  transmitted  through  two 
distinct  sources — the  Western  or  Greek,  and  the"  East- 
ern—are legendary  and  contradictory-  on  almost  every 
important  point.  According  to  the  most  probable  sup- 
position, he  was  a  native  of  Persia,  and  was  born  about 
214.  His  real  name  appears  to  have  been  Curbicus, 
and  he  was  the  slave  of  a  rich  woman  of  Ctesiphon, 
wlio  bought  him  when  he  was  but  seven  years  of  age, 
had  him  carefidly  educated,  and  at  her  decease  left  h?m 
all  her  wealth.  Among  the  books  she  left  him  he  is 
said  to  have  found  tlie  \\Titiiigs  of  Scythianus,  which 
h.ad  l)een  given  to  her  by  one  of  the  iatter's  disciples 
named  Terebinthus,  or  Budda.  The  East  was  at  this 
time  in  great  ferment.  The  progress  of  Christianity 
had  awakened  the  opposition  of  all  the  heathen  reliijious  i 


from  the  Indus  to  the  Euphrates.  Parsism  was  the 
most  powerful  among  them.  Mani,  with  the  aid  of  the 
treasure  left  him  in  the  writings  of  Scythianus,  believed 
it  possible  to  accomplish  the  amalgamation  of  Parsism 
and  Christianity,  and  for  this  purpose  he  emigrated  to 
Persia,  changed  his  name  so  as  to  obliterate  all  traces 
of  his  origin  and  former  state,  and,  to  carry  out  his  plans 
more  successfully,  he  proclaimed  himself  the  Paraclete 
promised  by  Christ.  It  is  said  that  the  attempt  was 
looked  upon  with  favor  by  king  Sapor  and  by  Hormisdas, 
but  this  appears  doubtful.  Followers  soon  gathered,  and 
three  of  the  new  sect — Thomas,  Buddas  or  Addas,  and 
Hermas — propagated  the  doctrines,  the  first  in  Egypt 
and  the  second-in  India.  Hermas  only  remained  with 
Mani  to  assist  him.  While  they  were  away  the  son 
of  Sapor  fell  ill,  and  Mani,  who  had  been  highly  spoken 
of  as  aph3^sician,was  called  to  attend  him;  but,  not  suc- 
ceeding, he  was  thrown  mto  prison.  Mani  bribed  his 
keepers,  and  succeeded  in  escaping,  but  was  pursued  and 
captured,  and  publicly  executed. 

There  are  other  accounts,  however,  which  make  Mani 
the  scion  of  a  noble  magian  family,  and  a  man  of  ex- 
traordinary mental  powers  and  artistic  and  scientific 
abilities — an  eminent  painter,  mathematician,  etc.  Ac- 
cording to  them  ]\Iani  embraced  Christianity  in  early 
manhood,  and  became  presbyter  at  a  church  in  Ehvaz 
or  Ahvaj,  in  the  Persian  province  of  Hazitis.  He  pur- 
posed to  piu-ge  Christianity  of  its  alleged  Jewish  cor- 
ruptions, to  demonstrate  its  unity  with  Parsism,  and 
thereby  to  present  the  perfect  universal  religion.  He 
gave  himself  out  to  be  the  Paraclete,  and  styled  him- 
self in  ecclesiastical  documents  "  Mani,  called  to  be  an 
apostle  of  Jesus  Christ  through  the  election  of  God  the 
leather.  These  are  the  words  of  salvation  from  the 
eternal  and  living  Source."  Persecuted  by  king  Sapor 
I,  he  sought  refuge  in  foreign  countries,  went  to  India, 
China,  and  Turkistan,  and  there  lived  in  a  cave  for 
twelve  months,  during  which  he  claimed  to  have  been  in 
heaven.  He  reappeared  with  a  wonderful  book  of  draw- 
ings and  pictures,  called  Erdshenk  or  Ertenki-lNIani. 
No  doubt  during  his  residence  in  these  countries  he  had 
become  acquainted  with  Buddhism,  and  had  decided  to 
incorporate  some  of  its  best  points  in  his  syncretistic  re- 
ligion (comp.  Hardwick,  Christ  and  other  Masters,  i,  288 
sq.).  After  the  death  of  Sapor  (A.D.  272)  he  returned 
to  Persia,  where  Hormas,  the  new  king,  who  was  well 
inclined  towards  him,  received  him  with  great  honors, 
and,  in  order  to  protect  him  more  effectually  against  the 
persecutions  of  the  magi,  gave  him  the  stronghold  of 
Deshereh,  in  Susiana,  as  a  residence.  After  the  death 
of  this  king,  however,  Bahram,  his  successor,  entrapped 
]\Iani  into  a  public  disputation  with  the  magi,  for  which 
pur])ose  he  had  to  leave  his  castle ;  and  he  was  seized 
and  flayed  alive,  A.D.  277.  His  skin  was  stuffed  and 
hinig  up  for  a  terror  at  the  gates  of  the  city  Jondishapur. 

Among  the  works  of  Mani  may  be  reckoned  four 
books,  sometimes  ascribed  to  Terebinthus  and  some- 
times to  Scythianus,  entitled  the  Mi/steries,  the  Chap- 
ters or  Heads,  the  Gospel,  and  the  Treasure.  In  the 
-Mjjsteries  Mani  endeavored  to  demonstrate  the  doctrine 
of  two  principles  from  the  mixture  of  good  and  evil 
which  is  found  in  the  world.  He  grounded  his  reasons 
on  the  argument  that  if  there  were  one  sole  cause,  sim- 
ple, perfect,  and  good  in  the  highest  degree,  the  whole, 
corresponding  with  the  nature  and  will  of  that  cause, 
would  show  simplicity,  perfection,  and  goodness,  and 
everything  ^vould  be  immortal,  holy,  and  happy  like 
himself.  The  Chapters  contained  a  summary  of  the 
chief  articles  of  the  Manichwan  scheme.  Of  the  Gos- 
pels nothing  certain  can  be  asserted.  Beausobre,  ap- 
parently without  sufficient  grounds,  considers  it  as  a 
collection  of  the  meditations  and  pretended  revelations 
of  Mani.  The  Treasure,  or  Treasure  of  Life,  may,  per- 
haps, have  derived  its  name  from  the  words  of  Christ, 
wherein  he  compares  his  doctrine  to  a  treasure  hid  in  a 
field.  jNIani  also  wrote  other  works  and  letters,  and 
among  them  the  Epistle  of  the  Foundation,  of  which  we 


MANICH^ISM 


(07 


MANICHiEISM 


have  fragments  still  extant  in  St.  Augustine,  who  under- 
toolv  to  refute  it.  His  works  appear  to  have  been  orig- 
inally written,  some  in  Syriac,  some  in  Persic.  For  his 
doctrine,  etc.,  see  MANiCH-^iiSM.     (J.  II.  W.) 

Manichaeism.  As  we  liave  seen  in  the  life  of 
Mani  (ij.  v.),  the  origin  of  Manichirism,  as  well  as  the 
history  of  its  founder  and  propagator,  is  matter  of  ob- 
scure and  confused  tradition.  Although  it  utterly  dis- 
claimed being  denominated  Christian,  it  was  reckoned 
among  the  heretical  doctrines  of  the  Church.  It  was 
intended,  as  we  have  alreadj'  indicated  in  the  sketch  of 
Mani,  to  blend  the  chief  doctrines  of  Parsism,  or  rather 
Magism,  as  reformed  by  Zoroaster,  with  a  certain  num- 
ber of  Buddhistic  views,  under  the  outward  garb  of  Bib- 
lical, more  especially  New-Testament  history,  which,  ex- 
plained allegorically  and  symbolically,  was  made  to  rep- 
resent an  entirely  new  religious  system,  and  one  wholly 
at  variance  with  Christianity  and  its  fundamental  teach- 
ings (comp.  Hardwick,  Christ  and  other  Masters,  ii,  389 
sq. ;  and  see  the  references  there  for  Lassen  and  others). 

JJoctrines,  —  Like  Magism,  Manichwism  holds  that 
there  are  two  eternal  principles  from  which  all  things 
jiroceed,  the  two  everlasting  kingdoms,  bordering  on  each 
other — the  kingdom  of  light  under  the  dominion  of  God, 
and  the  kingdom  of  darkness  under  the  daemon  or  hyle 
(v\i}).  The  Light,  the  Good,  or  God,  and  the  Dark- 
ness, the  Bad,  JNIatter,  or  Archon,  each  inhabited  a  re- 
gion akin  to  their  natures,  and  excluding  each  other  to 
such  a  degree  that  the  region  of  Darkness  and  its  leader 
never  knew  of  the  existence  of  that  of  the  Light. 
Twelve  a;ons — corresponding  to  the  twelve  signs  of  the 
zodiac  and  the  twelve  stages  of  the  world — had  sprung 
(emanated)  from  the  Primeval  Light;  while  "Dark- 
ness," tilled  with  the  eternal  fire,  which  burned  but 
shone  not,  was  peopled  by  "  daemons,''  who  were  con- 
stantly fighting  among  themselves.  In  one  of  these 
contests,  pressing  towards  the  outer  edge,  as  it  were,  of 
their  region,  they  Ijecame  aware  of  the  neighboring  re- 
gion, and  forthwith  united,  attacked  it,  and  succeeded 
in  taking  captive  the  Kay  of  Light  that  was  sent  against 
them  at  the  head  of  the  hosts  of  Light,  and  which  was 
the  embodiment  of  the  Ideal  or  Primeval  ~Slan  (Christ"). 
A  stronger  a?on  (the  Holy  Ghost)  then  hastened  to  the 
rescue,  and  redeemed  the  greater  and  better  part  of 
the  captive  Light  (Jesus  Impatibilis).  The  smaller 
and  fainter  portion,  however  (Jesus  Passibilis),  remain- 
ed in  tlie  hands  of  the  powers  of  Darkness,  and  out  of 
this  they  formed,  after  the  ideal  of  The  Man  of  Light, 
mortal  man.  But  even  the  small  fraction  of  light  left 
in  him  (broken  in  two  souls)  would  have  prevailed 
against  them  had  they  not  found  means  to  further  di- 
vide and  subdivide  it  by  the  propagation  of  this  man 
(Eve — Sin).  Not  yet  satisfied,  they  still  more  dimmed 
it  In-  burying  it  under  dark  "  forms  of  belief  and  faith, 
such  as  Paganism  and  Judaism."  Once  more,  how- 
ever, the  Original  Light  came  to  save  the  light  buried 
in  man — to  deliver  the  captive  souls  of  men  from  their 
corporeal  prison.  On  this  account  there  were  created 
two  sublime  beings,  Christ  and  the  Holy  Ghost.  Christ 
was  sent  into  the  world  clothed  with  the  shadowy  form 
of  a  human  body,  and  not  with  the  real  substance,  to 
teach  mortals  how  to  deliver  the  rational  soul  from  the 
corrupt  body,  and  to  overcome  the  power  of  malignant 
matter.  But  again  the  daemons  succeeded  in  defeating 
the  schemes  of  the  power  of  light.  Obscuring  men's 
minds,  even  those  of  the  apostles,  so  that  they  could  not 
fully  understand  Christ's  object,  his  career  of  salvation 
was  cut  short  by  the  dremons  seducing  man  to  crucify 
hirji.  His  sufferings  and  death  were,  naturally,  only 
fictitious,  since  he  could  not  in  reality  die;  he  only  al- 
lowed liimself  to  become  an  example  of  endurance  and 
passive  pain  for  his  own,  the  souls  of  liglit.  But  to 
carry  out  the  intended  salvation  of  men  Christ,  shf)rtly 
before  his  crucifixion,  gave  the  promise  recorded  by 
John  (xvi,  7-15),  that  he  would  send  to  his  disciples  the 
Comforter,  "  who  would  lead  them  into  all  truth."  This 
promise,  the  Manichreans  maintain,  was  fidtilled  in  the 


person  of  Mani,  who  was  sent  by  the  God  of  light  to  de- 
clare to  all  men  the  doctrine  of  salvation,  without  con- 
cealing any  of  its  truths  under  the  veil  of  metaphor,  or 
under  any  other  covering. 

Mani,  like  Christ,  surrounded  himself  with  twelve 
apostles,  and  sent  them  into  the  world  to  teach  and  to 
preach  his  doctrine  of  salvation.  To  carry  out  his  work 
more  successfully,  and  to  make  converts  also  of  the 
Christians,  he  rejected  the  authority  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, which,  he  said,  was  the  work  of  the  God  of  dark- 
ness, whom  the  Jews  had  worshipped  in  the  place  of 
light,  and  also  a  good  part  of  the  New  Testament,  upon 
the  ground  that  many  of  the  books  had  been  grossly 
interpolated,  and  were  not  the  productions  of  the  per- 
sons whose  names  they  bear.  As  strictly  canonical,  he 
admitted  only  his  own  writings,  and  such  parts  of  the 
New  Testament  as  answered  his  piu-pose.  "  Whatever," 
saysBaur  {Afanich. Religionssi/stem, Tp.Slb), "in  the  writ- 
ings of  the  New  Testament  seemed  to  concur  with  the 
dualism  set  forth  by  Mani  was  accounted  among  the 
most  genuine  ingredients  in  the  doctrines  of  Christian- 
ity, and  Mani  and  his  adherents  were  very  glad  to  cite 
for  the  confirmation  of  their  own  doctrines  and  princi- 
ples passages  like  Matt,  vii,  18;  xiii,  24;  John  i,  5;  viii, 
44;  xiv,30;  2  Cor.iv,4  (comp.Epiph. ^fpr.lxvi.67-G0); 
and  especially  those  in  which  the  apostle  Paul  speaks  of 
the  opposition  between  flesh  and  spirit.  As  they  found, 
however,  so  much  in  the  New  Testament  which  not 
only  did  not  confirm  the  Manicha?an  doctrines,  but  stood 
in  open  opposition  to  them,  they  were  obliged,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  hj'pothesis  that  the  original  doctrines 
of  Christianity  did  not  differ  from  those  of  IManichaiism, 
to  regard  all  passages  of  this  kind  as  a  distortion  and 
falsification  of  Christianity.  Accordingly,  they  laid 
down  the  rule  that  the  written  records  of  Christianity 
ought  not  to  be  received  unconditionally,  but  must  be 
subjected  to  a  previous  scrutinj-,  with  a  view  to  ascer- 
tain how  far  they  exhibited  the  genuine  substance  of 
Christianity;  and  this  was  limited  to  those  portions 
which  bore  the  character  of  Manichieism,  so  that,  fol- 
lowing this  criterion,  whatever  did  not  harmonize  with 
their  own  doctrines  was  rejected  without  hesitation,  be- 
cause original  Christianity  could  not  contradict  itself." 

Mani  also  taught  that  those  souls  which  obeyed  the 
laws  delivered  by  Christ,  as  explained  by  himself,  the 
Comforter,  and  struggled  against  the  lusts  and  appetites 
of  a  corrupt  nature,  would,  on  their  death,  be  delivered 
from  their  sinful  bodies,  and,  after  being  purified  by  the 
sun  and  moon — "  the  two  light-ships  for  conducting  the 
imprisoned  light  into  the  eternal  kingdom  of  light" — 
would  ascend  to  the  regions  of  light ;  but  that  those 
souls  which  neglected  to  struggle  against  their  corrupt 
natures  would  pass  after  death  into  the  bodies  of  ani- 
mals or  other  beings,  until  they  had  expiated  their  guilt. 
Belief  in  the  evil  of  matter  led  to  a  denial  of  the  doc- 
trine of  the  resurrection.  "  These  ideas,"  says  Donaldson 
{Christian  Orthodoxy,  p.  143),  "  they  [the  Manichaeans] 
worked  out  in  a  manner  peculiar  to  themselves,  and 
with  results  decidedly  unfavorable  to  the  integrity  and 
authenticity  of  the  New  Testament.  They  could  accept 
neither  the  doctrine  nor  the  facts  of  revelation,  unless 
they  could  regard  them  as  a  reflex  of  their  own  dual- 
ism. Without  wishing  to  reject  Christianity,  they  made 
their  own  system  the  standard  of  measurement,  and  lop- 
]ied  off  or  stretched  the  religion  of  the  Cross,  wherever 
it  did  not  fit  the  religion  of  light  and  darkness.  The 
identification  of  Christ  with  Mithras  led,  of  course,  to  a 
profession  of  Docetism,  namely,  to  the  assertion  that  our 
Lord's  sufferings  on  the  cross  wore  not  real,  but  appar- 
ent only.  Christ  had  no  real  human  body,  no  double 
nature,  but  only  a  fantastic  semblance  of  coqioreity,  in 
which  his  essence,  as  the  Son  of  Everlasting  Light,  was 
presented  to  the  eyes  of  men,  .  .  .  Accordingly,  Christ 
had  no  human  birth,  and  his  apparent  sufferings  were 
really  inflicted  on  him  by  his  enemy,  the  Prince  of  Dark- 
ness; and  in  thus  resolving  tlie  life  of  Jesus  into  a  series 
of  illusory  appearances,  the  Manichtcans  take  from  Chris- 


MANICH^ISM 


708 


MANICH^ISM 


tianity  all  its  historical  foundation,  and  leave  us  nothing 
but  the  realistic  apijlications  of  a  few  Christian  meta- 
phors." "  Christianity,"  says  Dr.  Schaif  {Ch.  History,  i, 
249)  "  is  here  resolved  into  a  fantastic,  diialistico-pan- 
theistic  philosophy  of  nature;  moral  regeneration  is 
identitied  with  a  process  of  physical  reliuement ;  and 
the  whole  mystery  of  redemption  is  found  in  light, 
which  was  always  worshipped  in  the  East  as  the  sym- 
bol of  deity.  Unquestionably  there  pervades  the  Jlan- 
ichaean  system  a  kind  of  groaning  of  the  creature  for 
redemption,  and  a  deep  sympathy  with  nature,  that  hi- 
eroglyphic of  spirit ;  but  all  is  distorted  and  confused. 
The  suffering  Jesus  on  the  cross,  Jesus  patibilis,  is  here 
a  mere  illusion,  a  symbol  of  the  world-soid  still  enchain- 
ed in  matter,  and  is  seen  in  every  plant  which  works 
upwards  from  the  dark  bosom  of  the  earth  towards  the 
light;  towards  bloom  and  fruit,  yearning  after  freedom. 
Hence  the  class  of  the '  perfect'  would  not  kill  nor  wound 
a  beast,  plucli  a  flower,  nor  break  a  blade  of  grass.  The 
system,  instead  of  being,  as  it' pretends,  a  liberation  of 
light  from  darkness,  is  really  a  turning  of  light  uito 
darkness." 

Organization.  —  "  Manichreism,"  says  Dr.  Schaff  (i, 
250), '"differed  from  the  Gnostic  schools  in  having  a  fix- 
ed, and  that  a  strictly  hierarchal  organization.  At  the 
head  of  the  sect  stood  twelve  apostles  or  magistri,  among 
whom  Mani  and  his  successors,  like  Peter  and  the  pope, 
held  the  chief  place.  Under  them  were  seventy-two 
bishops,  answering  to  the  seventy-two  (strictly,  seven- 
ty) of  the  disciples  of  Jesus;  and  under  these  came  pres- 
bj-ters,  deacons,  and  itinerant  evangelists.  In  the  con- 
gregations there  were  two  distinct  classes,  designed  to 
correspond  to  the  catechumens  and  the  faithful  in  the 
Catholic  Church — the '  hearers'  (Auditores)  and  the '  per- 
fect' (Electi),  tVie  esoteric,  the  priestly  caste,  which  rep- 
resents the  last  stage  in  the  process  of  the  liberation  of 
the  spirit  and  its  separation  from  the  world,  the  transi- 
tion from  the  kingdom  of  matter  into  the  kingdom  of 
light,  or,  in  the  Buddhistic  terms,  from  the  world  of 
Sansara  into  Nirvana."  The  Elect  are  required  to  ad- 
here to  the  Signaculum  Oris,  Mamis,  and  Sinus,  that  is, 
they  have  to  take  the  oath  of  abstinence  from  evil  and 
profane  speech  (including  "  religious  terms  such  as  Chris- 
tians use  respecting  the  Godhead  and  religion"),  fur- 
ther, from  flesh,  eggs,  milk,  fish,  wine,  and  all  intoxicat- 
ing drinks  (comp.  Manu,  Iiisfit.  vs.  51,  52,  53 :  "  He  who 
makes  the  flesh  of  an  animal  his  food  .  .  .  not  a  mortal 
exists  more  sinful  ...  he  who  .  .  .  desires  to  enlarge 
his  own  flesh  with  the  flesh  of  another  creature,"  etc.) ; 
further,  from  the  possession  of  riches,  or,  indeed,  any 
property  whatsoever;  from  hurting  any  being,  animal 
or  vegetable ;  from  heeding  their  own  family,  or  show- 
ing any  pity  to  him  who  is  not  of  the  Manichnean  creed ; 
and  finally,  from  breaking  their  chastity  by  marriage  or 
otherwise.  The  Auditors  were  comparatively  free  to 
partake  of  the  good  things  of  this  world,  but  they  had 
to  provide  for  the  subsistence  of  the  Elect,  and  their 
highest  aim,  also,  was  the  attainment  of  the  state  of 
their  superior  brctlircn. 

Cultus. — In  ^lanicluean  worship,  the  visible  repre- 
sentatives of  the  light  (sun  and  moon)  were  revered, 
but  only  as  representatives  of  the  Ideal,  of  the  good  or 
supreme  God.  Neither  altar  nor  sacrifice  was  to  be 
found  in  their  places  of  religious  assemblies,  nor  did 
they  erect  sumptuous  temples.  Fasts,  prayers,  occa- 
sional readings  in  the  suppuscd  writings  of  JVfani,  chief- 
ly a  certain  Fundamental  Kpistle,  were  all  their  outer 
worship.  Sunday,  as  the  day  on  which  the  visible  uni- 
verse was  to  be  consumed,  the  day  consecrated  to  the 
sun,  was  kept  as  a  great  festival ;  Church  festivals  they 
rejected,  and,  instead,  made  the  most  solemn  day  in  their 
year  the  anniversary  of  tlie  death  of  Mani".  Baptism 
they  repudiated,  cnnsidcriiig  it  useless;  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per was  celebrated,  but  only  l).v  the  Elect.  Of  the  mode 
of  celebration,  however,  we  know  next  to  nothing;  even 
Augustine,  who,  for  about  nine  years,  belonged  to  the 
sect,  and  who  is  our  chief  authority  on  this  subject,  con- 


fesses his  ignorance  of  it.  Dr.  Schaff  (Ch.  Hist,  i,  250)^ 
says  that  they  partook  of  it  without  wine  (because 
Christ  had  no  blood),  "  and  regarded  it  perhaps  accord- 
ing to  their  pantheistic  symbolism,  as  the  commemora- 
tion of  the  light-soul  crucified  in  all  nature." 

Character. — As  to  the  general  morality  of  the  Mani- 
cha;ans,  we  are  eipially  left  to  conjecture ;  but  their  doc- 
trine certainly  appears  to  have  had  a  tendency,  chiefly 
in  the  case  of  the  uneducated,  to  lead  to  a  sensual  fa- 
naticism hurtful  to  a  pure  mode  of  life.  Bower,  in  the 
second  volume  of  his  Ilistori/  of  the  Popes,  has  attempted 
to  prove  that  the  Manichteans  were  addicted  to  immoral 
practices,  but  this  opinion  has  been  ably  controverted 
by  Beausobre  and  Lardner.  "  The  morality  of  the  Ma- 
nichieans,"  says  Dr.  Schaff,  "  was  severely  ascetic,  based 
on  the  fundamental  error  of  the  intrinsic  evil  of  matter 
and  the  body;  the  extreme  opposite  of  the  Pelagian 
view  of  the  essential  moral  purity  of  human  nature. 
The  great  moral  aim  is  to  become  entirely  unworldly, 
in  the  Buddhistic  sense ;  to  renounce  and  destroy  cor- 
poreity ;  to  set  the  good  soul  free  from  the  fetters  of 
matter.  This  is  accomplished  by  the  most  rigid  and 
gloomy  abstinence,  which,  however,  is  required  only  of 
the  elect,  not  of  the  catechumens." 

Extent.  —  Mani,  as  we  have  noted  already  in  cur 
sketch  of  his  life,  was  put  to  death  about  275 ;  but  the 
sect  soon  spread  into  proconsidar  Asia,  and  even  into 
Africa,  Sicily,  and  Italy,  although  they  were  vehement- 
ly opposed  by  the  Catholic  Church,  and  persecuted  by 
the  heathen  emperors,  who  enacted  bloody  laws  against 
them,  as  a  sect  derived  from  hostile  Persia.  The  pre- 
cise time  when  the  doctrines  of  Mani  made  their  way 
into  the  Roman  empire  it  is  impossible  definitely  to  de- 
termine. The  principal  document  on  the  subject,  enti- 
tled Acta  disputatiunis  Archelai,  ejnscopi  Mesopotamice, 
et  Manetis  haresiarcha,  is  deemed  apocrjijhal.  Dio- 
cletian, as  early  as  A.D.  296,  issued  rigorous  laws  against 
the  Manichiieans,  which  were  reiterated  by  Valentinian, 
Theodosius  I,  and  successive  monarchs.  Notwithstand- 
ing this,  they  gained  numerous  adherents;  and  very 
many  mediaeval  sects,  as  the  PrisciUians,  Paulicians,  Bog- 
omiles,  Catharists,  JosephLnians,  etc.,  were  suspected  to 
be  secretly  Manichajans,  and  were  therefore  called  "  New 
Manichwans."  "  Indeed,  the  leading  features  of  Mani- 
chaeism,  the  dualist  ic  separation  of  soul  and  bod)-,  the 
ascription  of  nature  to  the  devil,  the  pantheistic  confu- 
sion of  the  moral  and  the  ph^-sical,  the  hypocritical 
symbolism,  concealing  heathen  vieAvs  under  Christian 
phrases,  the  haughty  air  of  mystery,  and  the  aristocratic 
distinction  of  esoteric  and  exoteric,  still  live  in  various 
forms  even  in  modern  systems  of  philosophj'  and  sects 
of  religion.  The  ISIormons  of  our  day  strongly  bring 
to  mind,  in  many  respects,  even  in  their  organization, 
the  ancient  Manichsrans"  (Dr.  Schaff).  It  is  a  remark- 
able circumstance  in  their  history,  that  though  they 
could  not  stand  openly  against  the  power  and  severity 
of  their  persecutors,  they  continued  for  ages,  up  to  the 
very  time  of  the  Kcformation,  to  make  proselytes  in 
secret.  Their  doctrines  lurked  even  among  tlie  clergy 
and  the  monks.  The  profound  and  noble  Augustine 
fell  under  their  influence,  and  was  a  member  of  the  sect 
from  his  twentieth  to  his  twenty-ninth  year  (.'574-383). 
They  were  still  to  be  found  in  Leo's  time,  440.  The 
Arian  Hunneric,  in  477,  began  his  reign  with  attempts 
to  persecute  them,  and  was  mortified  to  find  most  of 
those  whom  he  detected  had  professed  to  be  lay  or 
clerical  members  of  his  own  sect.  Gregory  the  (ireat. 
about  GOO,  had. to  take  means  for  extirpating  them  from 
Africa;  and  even  after  his  pontificate  traces  of  them 
appeared  now  and  then  in  Italy,  as  well  as  other  coun- 
tries, threatening  danger  to  the  Church.  About  the 
year  1000  they  spread  from  Italy  into  other  countries, 
especially  into  southern  France,  Spain,  and  even  Ger- 
many. 

Literature. — Archelaus  (bishop  of  Cascar  about  278), 
A  eta  disputationis  cum  Manete  (first  composed  in  Syriac, 
but  extant  only  in  a  Latin  translation,  and  in  many  re- 


MANIPA 


709 


MANLY 


spects  untrustworthy),  in  Eolith's  Reliquim  sacrce,  v,  3- 
206.  The  Oriental  accounts,  of  later  date,  indeed  (the  9th 
and  10th  centuries),  but  drawn  from  ancient  sources,  are 
c.ollected  in  Herbelot,  BihL  Orient.  (Par.  1679),  s.  v.  Mani. 
See  Titus  Bostrensis  (about  360),  Karci  Mctvixaiojv; 
Epiphanius,  Ilnr.  p.  06  (drawn  from  Archelaus);  Za- 
chagni,  Mouiimenta  Ecclesice  Gracw  tt  Latince  (Home, 
1698) ;  St.  Augustine,  Be  Moribiis  Ilatiichceorum ;  Be 
Genesi  contra  Manichaos;  Be  duabus  animabus  contra 
jUtmichoeos;  Be  Vera  religione  Ejiistolafundamentis  con- 
tra Fuitstum;  ¥ahnc'ms,  Bibliofk.  G7-a;ca,  v,  284;  Beau- 
sohre,  I listoii-e  ait.cle Manichie  et du  Maniclu'lgine  {Xmiit. 
1734  and  1739,  2  vols.) ;  F.  Chr.  Baur,Z'(^s■  Mamrhiihche 
Reliyionssystem  nach  den  Quellen  vntermcht  (Tlib.  1831); 
FlUgel,  Mani,  seine  Lebre  v.  seine  Schriften  (Lpz.  1862) ; 
Trechsel,  Ueber  den  Kanon,  die  Ki-itik,  u.  die  Exegese  der 
Manichder  (Berne,  1832) ;  Golditz,  Entstehung  d.  nianich. 
Religionssystenis  (Lpz.  1837) ;  Reichlin-Meldegg,  Tlieolo- 
gie  d.  Mogiers  Ma7ii  u.  ihr  Urxprung  (Frankf.  1825) ;  V. 
de  Wagnern,  Manich.  induhjcntias  cum  brevi  totius  Ma- 
nich.  adumbratione,  e  fordibus  descripsit  (Lpz.  1827);  P. 
de  Lagarde,  Titi  Bostreni  contra  Manich.  libri  quatuor 
Syriuce  (Berl.  1 859) ;  Stud,  imd  Krit.  vi, 3, 875  sq.  (review 
of  Baiir) :  Schrcickh, Kirchengesch. iv, 400  sq. ;  xi, 245  sq. ; 
Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  ii,  707  sq. ;  Schaff,  Ch.  IJist.  i,  §  73 ; 
Donaldson,  Christian  Orthodoxy,  p.  127  sq. ;  Haag,  Hist, 
des  Bogmes  Chretiens  (see  Index) ;  Hagenbach,  Jlist.  of 
Boctrines,  i,  240  sq.,  337,  352,  353  ;  Pressense,  Uhistoii-e 
du  Bogme  (Par.  1869),  chap.  ii.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Maiiipa,  the  name  of  a  monstrous  idol  worshipped 
in  the  kingdoms  of  Tangut  and  Barantola,  in  Tartary. 
It  has  nine  heads,  which  rise  pyramidally,  there  being 
three  in  the  tirst  and  second  row,  then  two,  and  one  at 
the  top  of  all.  A  bold,  resolute  young  fellow,  dressed 
in  armor,  and  prompted  by  enthusiastic  courage,  on  cer- 
tain days  of  the  year,  runs  about  the  city  Tanchuth,  and 
kills  every  one  lie  meets  in  honor  of  the  goddess,  liy 
such  outrageous  sacrifices  as  these  the  devotees  imagine 
they  extremely  oblige  Manipa. — Kircher,  China  illustr.; 
Brougliton,  Bihliotheca  Hist.  Sac.  s.  v. 

Maniple,  an  article  of  dress  introduced  when  the 
use  of  the  stole  as  a  handkerchief  fell  into  disuse.  It 
now  represents  the  cord  with  which  our  Lord  was  bound 
to  the  pillar  at  his  scourging. — Walcott,  Sac.  Aixhceol. 
s.  V. ;  Siegel,  A  rchceol.  s.  v.  Manipulus. 

Manitou  is  the  name  of  any  object  used  as  a  fetish 
or  amulet  among  some  tribes  of  the  American  Indians — 
those  of  the  North  and  North-west.  "  The  Illinois," 
wrote  the  Jesuit  Marest,  "  adore  a  sort  of  genius  which 
they  call  Manitou ;  to  them  it  is  the  master  of  life,  the 
spirit  that  rides  all  things.  A  bird,  a  buffalo,  a  bear,  a 
feather,  a  skin — that  is  their  manitou."  "  If  the  Indian 
word  manitou,"  says  Palfre}',  "  appeared  to  denote  some- 
thing above  or  beside  the  common  aspects  and  agencies 
of  nature,  it  might  be  natural,  but  it  would  be  rash  and 
misleading  to  confound  its  import  with  the  Christian, 
Mohammedan,  Jewish,  Egyptian,  or  Greek  conception 
of  the  Deity,  or  with  any  compound  or  selection  from 
some  or  all  of  those  ideas."'     See  Indians. 

Manley,  Iua,  a  Congregational  minister  and  home 
missionary,  was  born  about  the  year  1780 ;  was  a  grad- 
uate of  Jliddlebury  College,  studied  law,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar,  and  left  a  tine  practice  to  enter  the  ministry. 
He  was  a  home  missionarj^  for  sixty  years,  and  a  pio- 
neer in  all  good  enterprises.  Tiie  last  twenty-two  years 
of  his  life  were  mostly  spent  in  Wisconsin.  He  died  at 
Keene,  Essex  County,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  5, 1871.  —  New  A  mer. 
Cyclop.  1871,  p.  569. 

Man'lius,  the  name  of  one  of  the  ambassadors  who 
is  said  to  have  written  a  letter  to  the  Jews  confirming 
whatever  concession  Lysias  had  granted  them.  Four 
letters  were  written  to  the  Jews,  of  which  the  last  is 
from  "Quintus  Memmius  and  Titus  Manlius  ((ir.  TiVoc 
MrtvXtoc,  V.  r.  Moi'ioc ;  Vulg.  Titus  ManUius),  ambas- 
sadors (Trptaf3v-cit)  of  the  liomans"  (2  IMacc.  xi,  34). 
There  is  not  much  doubt  that  the  letter  is  a  fabrication. 


as  history  is  entirely  ignorant  of  these  names.  Polybius 
{Keliq.  xxxi,  9,  6),  indeed,  mentions  C.  Sulpitius  and 
Manius  Sergius,  who  were  sent  to  Antiochus  IV  Epiph- 
anes  about  B.C.  163,  and  also  {Reliq.  xxxi,  12,  9)  Cn. 
Octavius,  Spurius  Lucretius,  and  L.  Aurelius,  who  were 
sent  into  Syria  in  B.C.  162  in  consequence  of  the  con- 
tention for  the  guardianship  of  the  young  king  Antio- 
chus V  Eupator,  but  entirely  ignores  Q.  Memmius  or  T. 
Manlius.  We  may  therefore  conclude  that  legates  of 
these  names  were  never  in  Syria.  The  true  name  of  T. 
Manlius  may  be  T.  Manius,  and  as  there  is  not  sufficient 
time  for  an  embassy  to  have  been  sent  to  Syria  between 
the  two  recorded  by  Polybius,  the  writer  may  have 
been  thinking  of  the  former.  The  letter  is  dated  in  the 
148th  year  of  the  Seleucidan  a?ra  (  =  B.C.  165),  and  in 
this  year  there  Avas  a  consul  of  the  name  of  T.  Manlius 
Torquatus,  who  appears  to  have  been  sent  on  an  embassy 
to  Egypt  about  B.C.  164,  to  mediate  between  the  two 
Ptolemies,  Philometor  and  Euergetes  (Livy,  xliii,  11; 
Polybius,  Reliq.  xxxii,  1,  2).  The  employment  of  this 
Seleucidan  a;ra  as  a  date,  the  absence  of  the  name  of  the 
city,  and  especially  the  fact  that  the  first  intercourse  of 
the  Jews  and  Romans  did  not  take  place  till  two  years 
later,  when  Judas  heard  of  the  fame  of  the  Romans  (1 
Mace,  viii,  1  sq.),  all  prove  that  the  document  is  far 
from  authentic. 

The  three  other  letters  do  not  merit  serious  attention 
(2  Mace,  xi,  16-33).  See  AVernsdorflF,  Be  fid.  Libr.  Mac- 
cab,  sec.  Ixvi ;  (irimm,  Exeg.  Handbuch,  ad  loc. ;  and  on 
the  other  side,  Patritius,  Be  Cons.  Mace.  p.  142,  280. — 
Kitto,  s.  v. 

Manly,  Basil,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  divine  and  educator 
of  note,  was  born  in  Chatham  County,  N.  C,  Jan.  28, 
1798.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  became  a  member  of  a 
Baptist  Church,  and  not  long  after  began  speaking  in 
public,  though  he  was  not  regularly  licensed  till  1818. 
He  preached  his  first  sermon  in  I3eaufort,  S.  C,  and 
must  have  made  a  favorable  impression,  for  he  at  once 
received  an  offer  of  aid  from  a  society  for  the  education 
of  ministers,  and  commenced  his  studies.  In  December, 
1819,  he  entered  the  junior  class  in  South  Carolina  Col- 
lege, and  graduated  with  the  highest  honor  in  1821. 
He  immediately  entered  into  an  engagement  to  preach 
in  the  Edgefield  District,  and  was  ordained  in  March, 
1822.  A  Church  M-as  formed  at  Edgefield  Court-house 
about  a  year  later,  of  which  he  was  pastor  for  three 
A-ears,  gaining  a  wide  reputation  as  a  preacher  in  upper 
South  Carolina.  He  was  called  in  1826  to  the  pastorate 
of  the  Baptist  Church  in  Charleston,  and  continued  there 
eleven  years,  during  which  time  he  not  only  sustained 
and  extended  his  reputation  as  a  preacher,  but  was  active 
in  the  cause  of  liberal  and  theological  education,  effect- 
ing the  establishment  of  what  is  now  known  as  Furman 
University,  at  Greenville,  S.  C.  At  that  period  theo- 
logical instruction  was  included  in  the  plans  of  this  and 
similar  institutions.  Dr.  Jlanly  lived  to  see  the  Bap- 
tists of  the  South  concentrate  their  energies  upon  the 
establishment  and  support  of  a  single  theological  semi- 
nary. He  took  a  lively  interest  in  this  matter,  partly, 
no  doubt,  from  a  sense  of  the  disadvantages  under  which 
he  had  himself  labored ;  for,  though  a  good  scholar,  he 
was  a  self-educated  theologian.  He  was  chosen  in  1837 
to  the  presidency  of  the  University  of  Alabama,  and  ad- 
ministered the  office  for  about  eighteen  years  with  emi- 
nent ability  and  success.  In  1 855  he  returned  to  Charles- 
ton, and  to  the  pastoral  ofhce  over  one  of  the  four 
churches  that  now  existed  in  place  of  the  one  to  which 
he  had  formerly  ministered.  He  was  subsequently  en- 
gaged as  a  missionary  and  evangelist  in  Alabama,  and 
as  a  pastor  at  Montgomery.  He  died  at  Greenville,  S. 
C,  Dec.  21, 1868.  As  a  preacher,  Dr.  Manly  was  emi- 
nently popular.  His  discourses,  though  instructive  and 
convincing,  were  also  charged  with  the  elements  of 
emotional  power,  and,  with  all  his  success  as  an  educa- 
tor, this  was  the  work  in  which  he  most  delighted.  Dr. 
Manly  wrote  a  "treatise  on  jNIoral  Science,"  which  was 
for  vears  a  text-book  in  Southern  colleges.    It  indicated 


MANN 


710 


MANN 


a  high  order  of  talent.  See  Xew  Ame?\  Ci/chp.  1868,  p. 
450  ;  Drake,  iJict.  A  mer.  Biog.  s.  v.     (L.  E.  S.) 

Mann,  Cyrus,  an  American  Congregational  min- 
ister and  author,  was  born  at  Oxford,  N.  H.,  April  3, 
1785;  was  educated  at  Dartmouth  College  (class  of 
1806) ;  was  principal  of  Gilmanton  Academy  two  years ; 
teacher  of  the  Troy  high-school  one  year ;  tutor  at  Dart- 
mouth College  from  1809  to  1814 ;  pastor  of  the  Church 
at  Westminster,  Mass.,  from  1815  to  1841 ;  then  of  Rob- 
inson Church,  Plymouth,  three  years;  next  a  teacher 
at  Lowell  several  years;  finally,  from  1852  to  1856  act- 
ing pastor  of  the  North  Falmouth  Church.  He  died  at 
Stoughton,  Mass.,  Feb.  9,  1859.  Mr,  Mann  published 
An  Ejntome  of  the  Evidences  of  Christianity : — History 
of  the  Temperance  Reformation: — Memoir  of  Mrs.  Myru 
W.  A  lien ;  and  some  Sermons. — Drake,  Did.  of  A  mer. 
Biog.  p.  595. 

Mann,  Horace,  LL.D.,  one  of  the  most  prominent 
educators  in  our  country,  a  philanthropist  whose  name 
deserves  to  be  honored  by  every  American  — "  a  soul 
whose  life  was  a  galvanic  thrill  along  the  muscles  of 
our  age" — was  born,  of  very  humble  parentage,  at  Frank- 
lin, Mass.,  May  4, 1796.  Though  not  privileged  with 
the  advantages  of  a  careful  training  in  his  early  boy- 
hood, he  yet  managed  to  acquire  a  pretty  good  knowl- 
edge of  the  so-called  "  common  branches."  At  the  age 
of  twenty  he  resolved  to  secure  for  himself  the  advan- 
tages of  a  collegiate  training.  His  instructors  hitherto, 
he  tells  us  himself,  he  had  found  to  be  "  verj'  good  peo- 
ple, but  very  poor  teachers."  He  had  lost  his  father 
when  only  thirteen  years  old,  and  since  that  time  "  aU 
the  family,"  he  tells  us,  "  labored  together  for  the  com- 
mon support,  and  toil  was  considered  honorable,  al- 
though it  was  sometimes  of  necessity  excessive."  Not- 
withstanding all  these  disadvantages,  Horace  was  bent 
upon  a  course  of  study  in  college.  Within  the  short 
space  of  six  months  he  had  acquired  a  sufficient  prepa- 
ration to  enter  the  sophomore  year  at  Brown  Universi- 
ty, and  at  this  institution  he  graduated,  with  the  high- 
est honors,  in  1819.  The  subject  of  his  graduating 
speech  was  "The  Progressive  Character  of  the  Human 
Kace."  This  was  always  a  favorite  theme  with  him, 
and  his  first  oration  may  be  said  to  have  foreshadowed 
his  subsequent  career  as  a  philanthropist  and  states- 
man. After  serving  his  alma  mater  for  two  years  as 
instructor,  he  entered  upon  the  study  of  jurisprudence 
at  the  law-school  in  Lichfield,  and  in  1823  was  admitted 
to  practice  at  Dedham.  In  1827  he  was  elected  to  the 
legislature  of  Massachusetts,  and  during  his  connection 
with  that  body  was  distinguished  for  the  zeal  with 
which  he  devoted  himself  to  the  interests  of  education 
and  temperance.  His  first  speech  was  in  favor  of  relig- 
ious liberty.  He  was  active  in  founding  the  State  Lu- 
natic Asylum.  In  1831  he  removed  to  Boston,  and  was 
elected  in  1836  to  the  state  senate,  of  which  he  became 
president. 

At  the  organization  of  the  ^Massachusetts  Board  of  Ed- 
ucation, June  29,  1837,  Horace  Mann  was  elected  its  sec- 
retary, and,  as  such,  he  served  for  eleven  years.  He  now 
gave  up  all  other  business,  withdrew  from  politics,  and 
devoted  his  whole  time  to  the  cause  of  education,  intro- 
ducing normal  schools  and  paid  committees.  During 
these  eleven  years  he  worked  (iftcen  liours  a  day,  helil 
teachers'  conventions,  gave  Icclures,  and  conducted  a 
large  correspondence.  In  184:!  lie  made  a  visit  to  edu- 
cational establishments  in  Europe.  His  Keport  was  re- 
printed both  in  England  and  America.  In  1848  he  was 
elected  to  Congress,  as  the  successor  of  ex-president 
John  Quincy  Adams,  whose  example  he  followed  in  en- 
ergetic opposition  to  the  extension  of  slaverv.  Mr. 
Mann's  years  in  Congress  were  tliose  stormy  cloud- 
gathering  years  whose  records  are  labelled  ''Fillmore." 
'•Fugitive-Slave  Law,"  "New  Jlexico  and  California." 
Staunch  and  steady  he  stood,  a  man  of  iron,  in  those 
days  of  compromise  and  ])olitical  corru])tiou.  Hating 
slavery  through  everv  lil)rc  of  his  soul,  he  liad  his  weaji- 
on  drawn  whenever  and  wherever  its  crest  arose.     His 


great  abilities  as  a  statesman  are  evinced  in  his  letters 
written  at  this  time,  foreshadowing  the  troubles  of  1861- 
65.  His  first  speech  in  Congress  was  in  advocacy  of 
the  right  and  duty  of  the  national  government  to  ex- 
clude slavery  from  the  territories.  In  a  letter  dated 
Dec,  1848,  he  says  on  this'subject, "  I  think  the  country 
is  to  experience  serious  times.  Interference  with  slav- 
ery will  excite  civil  commotion  at  the  South.  Still,  it 
is  best  to  interfere.  Now  is  the  time  to  see  whether 
the  United  States  is  a  rope  of  sand  or  a  band  of  steel." 
In  another  letter,  dated  January,  1850,  he  says,  "Dark 
clouds  overhang  the  future,  anil  that  is  not  all;  they 
are  fuU  of  lightning."  Again,  "  I  really  think  that  if 
we  insist  upon  passing  the  Wilmot  Proviso  for  the  ter- 
ritories, that  the  South — a  part  of  them — will  rebel.  But 
/  would  pass  it,  rebellion  or  no  rebellion.  /  consider  no 
evil  so  great  as  the  extension  of  slavery.^''  After  having 
spent  two  terms  in  Congress,  we  find  ]Mr.  Mann  in  1853 
embarking  into  a  new  and  somewhat  formidable  enter- 
prise— the  establishment  of  a  college  at  the  West  to  be 
open  to  both  sexes,  and  to  be  founded  and  conducted  on 
the  educational  principles  which  he  had  espoused  in 
Massachusetts,  and  which  we  shall  presently  pass  in  re- 
view. The  experiment  made  here  for  the  co-education 
of  the  sexes  proved  a  success,  and  in  our  own  day  the 
admission  of  j'oung  ladies  to  our  best  and  highest  schools 
is  likely  to  be  commendatory  of  Mr.  Mann's  enterprise 
in  1853.  The  labors  and  anxieties  of  this  position  at 
Antioch  College,  however,  proved  at  length  too  much 
for  his  health,  never  strong,  and  now  undermined  by  a 
life  of  the  most  intense  and  unremitting  activity.  The 
fiery  soul  consumed  the  bodj'  at  last,  Aug.  2, 1859. 

Mami  on  the  Relation  of  Religion  to  Education. — IMr. 
Mann  had  been  reared  under  the  infiuence  of  the  Cal- 
vinistlc  faith.  While  yet  a  youth  he  had  cherished  an 
aversion  to  this  orthodox  belief,  because,  as  he  tells  us, 
it  had  taught  him  to  look  upon  God  as  "  Infinite  Ma- 
lignity personified."  When,  at  the  mature  age  of  forty, 
just  as  he  entered  on  his  work  as  an  educator,  he  fell  in 
with  Combe's  Constitution  of  Man,  he  at  once  became  a 
warm  admirer  of  the  theological,  psj-chological,  or  an- 
thropological school  of  which  Mr.  George  Combe  was 
the  distinguished  teacher.  Education  has  certainly  no 
less  to  do  with  the  conscience  and  heart  than  with  the 
understanding,  as  "most  of  our  relations  to  our  fellow- 
men,  for  which  education  is  to  prepare  us,  grow  out  of 
our  relations  to  God ;"  it  therefore  should  derive  its 
knowledge  from  the  holy  Scriptures,  and  make  these, 
indeed,  the  corner-stone.  Mann,  however,  held  that  it 
should  depend  for  its  guidance  on  the  lights  of  natural 
religion.  He  came  forward  now  to  assert  t\vxi''''natural 
religion  stands  as  pre-eminent  over  revealed  religion  as 
the  deepest  experience  over  the  lightest  hearsay,"  and 
proposed  to  substitute,  for  the  Christian  infiuence  which  I 
pervaded  our  whole  educational  institution,  a  system  of  I 
"philosophical  and  moral  doctrines,"  the  prevalence  of  ' 
which  would,  in  his  view,  "produce  a  new  earth  at  least, 
if  not  a  new  lieavcn."  Believing  what  is  called  the 
"evangelical  faith,"  at  that  time  ruling  New  England, 
to  be  in  its  influence  derogatory  to  the  character  of  God, 
and  dwarfing  and  enslaving  to  the  mind  of  man,  he  con- 
ceived it  to  be  his  task  to  vindicate  the  former  and  to 
emancipate  the  latter.  Especially  he  conceived  it  his 
mission  to  overcome  the  "foul  spirit  of  orthodoxy,"  so  far 
as  it  entered  the  domain  of  the  public  schools,  and  this 
he  believed  to  be  "  the  greatest  discovery  ever  made  by 
man."  "Other  social  organizations,"  he  says, "  are  cura- 
tive and  remedial;  this  is  a  preventive  and  antidote. 
They  come  to  heal  diseases  and  wounds;  this  is  to  make 
the  physical  and  moral  frame  invulnerable  to  them. 
Let  the  conniion  scliool  be  exjianded  to  its  capabilities, 
let  it  be  worked  with  the  efficiency  of  which  it  is  sus- 
ceptible, and  nine  tenths  of  the  crimes  in  the  penal  code 
would  Itecomc  obsolete — the  long  catalogue  of  human 
ills  would  be  abridged — men  would  walk  more  safely  by 
day — every  pillow  would  be  more  inviting  by  night — 
property,  life,  autl  character  held  by  a  stronger  tenure ; 


MANN 


Vll 


MANNA 


all  rational  hopes  respecting  the  future  brightened.  It 
is  obvious  that  these  glowing  anticipations  were  born 
of  something  more,  if  not  better,  than  reading,  writing, 
and  aritlimetic."  Juliication  was,  in  Mann's  view,  a  word 
of  mucli  higher  import  than  that  popularly  given  to  it. 
"  Its  function  is  to  call  out  from  within  all  that  was  di- 
vinely placed  there,  in  the  proportion  requisite  to  make 
a  noble  being."  It  was  one  of  his  maxims,  however, 
that  "  every  human  being  should  determine  his  relig- 
ious belief  for  liimself."  "  It  seems  to  me,"  he  saj's, 
"  that  a  generation  so  trained  would  have  an  infinitely 
better  chance  of  getting  at  the  truth  than  the  present 
generation  has  liad."  Herein  lay  the  greatest  defect 
of  the  system  he  sought  to  establish  in  our  schools. 
Stamping  with  the  name  of  bigotry  all  religious  views 
that  did  not  coincide  with  his  own,  regarding  ortho- 
doxy as  the  great  thraldom  by  which  man  was  enslaved, 
he  would  introduce  a  system  of  Christian  ethics  and 
doctrine  respecting  virtue  and  vice,  rewards  and  penal- 
ties, time  and  eternity,  constituting  the  basis  of  his 
theories  and  schemes  of  popular  education,  which  meant 
nothing  else  than  the  substitution  of  natural  religion  for 
revealed.  How  far  Mr.  Mann  succeeded  in  this  attempt 
we  may  judge  by  the  prevalence  of  the  doctrines  of  the 
so-called  "liberal  theology"  in  the  Eastern  States,  par- 
ticularly in  Massachusetts.  In  the  West  he  must  cer- 
tainly have  been  disappointed.  Though  more  than  a 
thousand  students  sat  at  his  feet  in  Antioch,  he  was 
only  in  a  very  moderate  degree  successful  in  spreading 
"  a  religionism  from  whose  features  the  young  would  not 
turn  away."  But  if  Mr.  Mann  failed  in  meeting  that 
success  which  a  person  of  his  indomitable  will,  imcom- 
mon  energy,  and  rare  acquirements  must  have  looked 
for  and  desired,  we  would  not  in  the  least  detract  from 
the  value  of  his  labors  in  behalf  of  education  among  the 
masses,  and  the  greatness  of  his  services  to  common- 
school  education  in  America. 

Besides  his  annual  reports,  a  volume  of  lectures  on 
education,  and  voluminous  controversial  writings,  his 
principal  work  is  Slavei-y :  Letters  and  Sjjeeches  (Boston, 
1851).  Since  his  decease  all  his  writings  have  been 
collected  and  published  by  his  wife,  under  the  title  The 
Works  of  Horace  JSIann  (Cambridge,  1867  sq.,  2  vols. 
8vo).  See  Life  of  Horace  3fann,  by  his  wife  (Boston, 
1805, 12mo)  ;  Thomas,  Diet.  Biog.  and  Mythol. ;  Prince- 
ton Review,  1866  (January)  ;  reprinted  in  the  Brit,  and 
For.  Evan.  Eevietv,  1866  (August).     (J.  H,  W.) 

Mann,  WilliaTn,  D.D.,  an  American  educator  of 
note,  was  born  in  Burlington  County,  N.  Y.,  about  the 
j'ear  178-t.  When  quite  young  he  was  placed  in  a  print- 
ing-office, where  he  remained  until  his  fourteenth  3-ear. 
Though  unable  to  attend  school  a  single  daj-,  he  ac- 
quired a  thorough  education  by  private  study.  He  was 
converted  in  liis  iod  year,  joined  the  Methodist  E()isco- 
pal  Church,  and  shortly  after  became  a  local  preacher. 
The  principal  part  of  his  life  after  this  time  was  devoted 
to  teaching.  He  was  for  some  years  principal  of  Mt. 
Holly  Academy,  in  his  native  state.  Subsequently  he 
removed  to  I'hiladeljihia,  where  he  maintained  a  high 
reputation  for  his  success  in  teaching  the  classics.  The 
degree  of  D.D.  was  conferred  upon  him  by  Dickinson 
College.  He  died  in  Philadelphia  July  4, 1867. — New 
Am.  Cyclop.  1867,  p.  567. 

Man'na  ("'O,  man,  according  to  Gesenius,  a  portion, 
from  the  Arabic ;  but  a  different  derivation  is  alluded  to 
in  the  passage  where  it  first  occurs  [see  Thym,  I)e  ori- 
ffine  I'ocis  Manna,  etc.,Vitemb.  1641]),  the  name  given 
to  the  miraculous  food  upon  which  the  Israelites  were 
fed  for  forty  years  during  their  wanderings  in  the  des- 
ert. The  same  name  has  in  later  ages  been  applied  to 
some  natural  productions,  chiefly  found  in  warm,  dry 
countries,  but  which  have  little  or  no  resemblance  to  the 
original  manna.  This  is  first  mentioned  in  Exod.  xvi. 
It  is  there  described  as  being  first  produced  after  the 
eighth  encampment  in  the  desert  of  Sin,  as  white  like 
hoar  frost  (or  of  the  color  of  hdellium,  Numb,  xi,  7), 


round,  and  of  the  bigness  of  coriander  seed  (ffad).  It 
fell  with  the  dew  every  morning,  and  when  the  dew 
was  exhaled  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  the  manna  appeared 
alone,  lying  upon  the  ground  or  the  rocks  round  the 
encampment  of  the  Israelites.  "When  the  children  of 
Israel  saw  it,  they  said  one  to  another,  What  is  it  ?  for 
they  knew  not  what  it  was"  (Exod.  xvi,  15).  In  the 
authorized  and  some  other  versions  this  passage  is  in- 
accurately translated— which,  indeed,  is  apparent  from 
the  two  parts  of  the  sentence  contradicting  each  other 
("  It  is  manna ;  for  they  wist  not  what  it  was").  The 
word  occurs  only  in  Exod.  xvi,  15,  31,  33,  35 ;  Numb,  xi, 
6,  7,  9;  Deut.  viii,  3,  16;  Josh,  v,  12;  Neh.  ix,  2(1;  Fsa. 
Ixxviii,  24.  In  the  Sept.  the  substance  is  almost  al- 
ways called  manna  (jxavva,  and  so  the  N.Test.  always: 
John  vi,  31,  49,  58;  Heb.  ix,  4;  Kev.  ii,  17;  also  the 
Apocrypha,  Wisd.  xvi,  20,  21)  instead  of  man  {fiav, 
Exod.  xvi,  31,  33,  35).  Josephus  {Ant.  iii,  1,  6),  in 
giving  an  account  of  this  substance,  thus  accords  with 
the  textual  etymology :  "  The  Hebrews  call  this  food 
manna  {(idvva),  for  the  particle  man  {nav)  in  our  lan- 
guage is  the  asking  of  a  question, '  What  is  this  V  (Heb. 
N^ln""|^,  man-hu)."  Moses  answered  this  question  by 
telling  them,  "  This  is  the  bread  which  the  Lord  hath 
given  you  to  eat."  We  are  further  informed  that  the 
manna  fell  every  daj-,  except  on  the  Sabbath.  Every 
sixth  day,  that  is  on  Friday,  there  fell  a  double  quantity 
of  it.  Every  man  was  directed  to  gather  an  omer  (about 
three  English  quarts)  for  each  member  of  his  fomily ; 
and  the  whole  seems  afterwards  to  have  been  measured 
out  at  the  rate  of  an  omer  to  each  person :  "  He  who 
gathered  much  had  nothing  over,  and  he  who  gathered 
httle  had  no  lack."  That  which  remained  ungathered 
dissolved  in  the  bent  of  the  sun,  and  was  lost.  The 
quantity  collected  was  intended  for  the  food  of  the  cur- 
rent day  only,  for  if  any  were  kept  till  next  morning  it 
corrupted  and  bred  worms.  Yet  it  was  directed  that  a 
double  quantity  should  be  gathered  on  the  sixth  day 
for  consumption  on  the  Sabbath.  It  was  found  that 
the  manna  kept  for  the  Sabbath  remained  sweet  and 
wholesome,  notwithstanding  that  it  corrupted  at  other 
times  if  kept  for  more  than  one  day.  In  the  same  man- 
ner as  they  would  have  treated  grain,  they  reduced  it  to 
meal,  kneaded  it  into  dough,  and  baked  it  into  cakes, 
and  the  taste  of  it  was  like  tliat  of  wafers  made  with 
honey  or  of  fresh  oil.  In  Numb,  xi,  6-9,  where  the  de- 
scription of  the  manna  is  repeated,  an  omer  of  it  is  di- 
rected to  be  preserved  as  a  memorial  to  future  genera- 
tions, "  that  they  may  see  the  bread  wherewith  I  have 
fed  j'ou  in  the  wilderness;"  and  in  Josh,  v,  12  we  learn 
that  after  the  Israelites  had  encamped  at  (iilgal,  and 
"did  eat  of  the  old  corn  of  the  land,  the  manna  ceased 
on  the  morrow  after,  neither  had  the  children  of  Israel 
manna  any  more." 

This  miracle  is  referred  to  in  Deut.  viii,  3 ;  Neh.  ix, 
20;  Psa.  Ixxviii,  24;  -John  vi,  31,  49,  58;  Heb.  ix,  4. 
Though  the  manna  of  Scripture  was  so  evidently  mirac- 
ulous, both  in  the  mode  and  in  the  quantities  in  which 
it  was  produced,  and  though  its  properties  were  so  dif- 
ferent from  anything  with  which  we  are  acquainted, 
yet.  because  its  taste  is  in  Exodus  said  to  be  like  that 
of  wafers  made  with  honey,  many  writers  have  thought 
that  they  recognised  the  manna  of  Scripture  in  a  sweet- 
ish exudation  which  is  found  on  several  plants  in  Arabia 
and  Persia.  The  name  man,  or  manna,  is  applied  to 
this  substance  by  the  Arab  writers,  and  was  probably  so 
applied  even  before  their  time.  But  the  term  is  now 
almost  entirely  appropriated  to  the  sweetish  exudation 
of  the  ash-trees  of  Sicily  and  Italy  {Orniis  Europau  and 
Fraxinus  rotimdifolia').  These,  however,  have  no  rela- 
tion to  the  supposed  manna  of  Scripture.  Of  this  one 
kind  is  known  to  the  Arabs  by  the  name  of  f/iizunjbin, 
being  the  produce  of  a  plant  called  ffiiz,  which  is  as- 
certained to  be  a  species  of  tamarisk.  Tlie  same  spe- 
cies seems  also  to  be  called  tiirfa,  and  is  conmion  along 
different  parts  of  the  coast  of  Arabia.  It  is  also  found 
in  the   neighborhood   of  Mount   Sinai.      Burckhardt, 


MANNA 


712 


MANNA 


while  in  the  valley  wady  el-Sheik,  to  the  north  of 
Jlount  Serbal,  says  :  "  In  many  parts  it  was  thickly 
overgrown  with  the  tamarisk  or  turfa ;  it  is  the  only 
valley  in  the  Peninsula  where  this  tree  grows  at  present 
in  an_v  (luantit}',  though  some  small  bushes  are  here  and 
there  met  with  in  other  parts.  It  is  from  the  iurfa 
that  the  manna  is  obtained;  and  it  is  very  strange  that 
tiie  fact  should  have  remained  unknown  in  Europe  till 
;M.  Seetzen  mentioned  it  in  a  brief  notice  of  his  '  Tour 
to  Sinai,'  published  in  the  Mines  de  VOrient.  The  sub- 
stance is  called  by  the  Arabs  mann.  In  the  month  of 
June  it  drops  from  the  thorns  of  the  tamarisk  upon  the 
fallen  twigs,  leaves,  and  thorns  which  always  cover  the 
ground  beneath  the  tree  in  the  natural  state.  The 
Arabs  use  it  as  they  do  honey,  to  pour  over  their  un- 
leavened bread,  or  to  dip  their  bread  into;  its  taste  is 
agreeable,  somewhat  aromatic,  and  as  sweet  as  honey. 
If  eaten  in  any  quantity  it  is  said  to  be  highly  purga- 
tive." lie  further  adds  that  the  tamarisk  is  one  of  the 
most  common  trees  in  Nubia  and  throughout  the  whole 
of  Arabia;  on  the  Euphrates,  on  the  Astaboras,  in  all 
the  valleys  of  the  Hejaz  and  Beja  it  grows  in  great 
quantities,  yet  nowhere  but  in  the  region  of  Mount 
Sinai  did  he  hear  of  its  producing  manna.  Ehrenberg 
has  examined  and  described  this  species  of  tamarisk, 
which  he  calls  T.  mannijWa,  but  which  is  considered 
to  be  only  a  variety  of  T.  (/alllca.     The  manna  he  con- 


Tamarix  Oallica. 


sidcrs  to  be  produced  by  the  puncture  of  an  insect  which 
he  calls  Coccus  manniparus.  Others  have  Ijccn  of  the 
same  opinion.  When  Lieut.  Wellsted  visited  this  place 
in  the  month  of  September,  he  found  the  extremities  of 
the  twigs  and  branches  retaining  the  peculiar  gweetness 
and  flavor  which  characterize  the  manna.  The  Be- 
douins collect  it  early  in  the  morning,  and',  after  strain- 
ing it  through  a  cloth,  place  it  either  in  skins  or  gourds  ; 
a  considerable  quantity  is  consumed  by  themselves;  a 
portion  is  sent  to  Cairo,  and  some  is  also  disposed  of  to 


the  monks  at  Mount  Sinai.  The  latter  retail  it  to  the 
Ivussian  pilgrims.  '■  The  Bedouins  assured  me  that  the 
whole  quantity  collected  throughout  the  Peninsula,  in 
the  most  fruitful  season,  did  not  exceed  150  wogas 
(about  700  poiuids);  and  that  it  was  usually  disposed 
of  at  the  rate  of  (50  dollars  the  woga"  {Travels  in  Ai-a- 
Itia,  i,  511). 

Another  kind  of  manna,  which  has  been  supposed  to 
be  that  of  Scripture,  is  yielded  by  a  thorny  plant  very 
common  from  the  north  of  India  to  Syria,  which  by 
the  Arabs  is  called  A  l-haj,  whence  botanists  have  con- 
structed the  name  Alhagi.  The  two  species  have  been 
called  .4  Iha^i  Muurorum  and  A .  desertorum.    Both  spe- 


Alhaiji  Maurorum. 

cies  are  also  by  the  Arabs  called  ushter-hhar,  or  "  cam- 
el's-thorn;"  and  in  Mesopotamia  ogul,  according  to  some 
authorities,  while  by  others  this  is  thought  to  be  the 
name  of  another  plant.  The  A  Ihagi  itfauroruin  is  re- 
markable for  the  exudation  of  a  sweetish  juice,  which 
concretes  into  small  granular  masses,  and  which  is  usu- 
ally distinguished  by  the  name  of  Persian  manna.  The 
late  professor  Don  was  so  confident  that  this  was  the 
same  substance  as  the  manna  of  Scripture  that  he  pro- 
posed calling  the  plant  itself  Manna  Ilebraka.  The 
climate  of  Persia  and  Bokhara  seems  also  well  suited  to 
the  secretion  of  this  manna,  which  in  the  latter  country 
is  employed  as  a  substitute  for  sugar,  and  is  imported 
into  India  for  medicinal  use  through  Caubul  and  Kho- 
rassan.  In  Arabian  and  Persian  works  on  IMateria  ]\fed- 
ica  it  is  called  Turunghin.  These  two,  from  the  locali- 
ties in  which  they  are  produced,  have  alone  been  thought 
to  be  the  manna  of  Scripture.  But,  besides  these,  there 
are  several  other  kinds  of  manna.  Burckhardt,  during 
his  journey  through  El-Ghor,  in  the  valley  of  the  Jor- 
dan, heard  of  the  Beiruk  honey.  This  is  described  as  a 
substance  obtained  from  the  leaves  and  branches  of  a 
tree  called  Gliurb  or  Garrab,  of  the  size  of  an  oli\-e-tree, 
and  with  leaves  like  those  of  the  poplar.  When  fresh 
this  grayish-colored  exudation  is  sweet  in  taste,  but  in  a 
few  days  it  becomes  sour.  The  Arabs  eat  it  like  honey. 
One  kind,  called  S/iir-l-f/is/i/,  is  said  to  be  produced  in 
the  country  of  the  Uzbccs.     A  Caubul  merchant  in- 


MANNA 


713 


MANNHEIMER 


formed  Dr.  Royle  that  it  was  produced  by  a  tree  called 
GumMch,  which  grows  in  Candahar,  and  is  about  twelve 
feet  high,  with  jointed  stems.  A  fifth  kind  is  produced 
on  Culotrojns procera,  or  the  plant  called  Asliiir.  The 
sweet  exudation  is  by  Arab  authors  ranked  with  sugars, 
and  called  Shukur-al-ashur.  It  is  described  under  this 
name  by  Avicemia,  and  in  the  Latin  translation  it  is 
called  Zuccarum-al-husai:  A  sixth  kind,  called  Bed- 
khUlit,  is  described  in  Persian  works  on  ^Materia  Medica 
as  being  produced  on  a  species  of  willow  in  Persian  Kho- 
rassan.  Another  kind  would  appear  to  be  produced  on 
a  species  of  oak,  for  Niebuhr  says,  "At  Merdin,  in  Meso- 
potamia, it  appears  like  a  kind  of  pollen  on  the  leaves 
of  tlic  tree  called  Ballot  and  Afs  (or,  according  to  the 
Aleppo  pronunciation.  As),  Avhich  I  take  to  be  of  the 
oak  family.  All  are  agreed  that  between  ]\Ierdin  and 
Diarbekir  manna  is  obtained,  and  principally  from  those 
trees  which  yield  gall-nuts."  Besides  these  there  is  a 
sweetish  exudation  found  on  the  larch,  which  is  called 
JManna  brifjaiitiacii,  as  there  is  also  one  kind  found  on 
the  cedar  of  Lebanon.  Indeed  a  sweetish  secretion  is 
found  on  the  leaves  of  many  other  plants,  produced 
sometimes  by  the  plant  itself,  at  others  by  the  punctures 
of  insects.  It  has  been  supposed  also  that  these  sweet- 
ish exudations,  being  evaporated  during  the  heat  of  the 
day  in  still  weather,  may  afterwards  become  deposited, 
with  the  dew,  on  the  ground  and  on  the  leaves  of  plants, 
and  thus  explain  some  of  the  phenomena  which  have 
been  observed  by  travellers  and  others. — Kitto.  Ac- 
cording to  Col.  Chesney,  "  The  most  remarkable  produc- 
tion in  ancient  Ass^'ria  is  the  celebrated  vegetable  known 
here  by  the  name  of  manna,  which  in  Turkish  is  most 
expressively  called  Kudret-hal-rassiz,  or  '  the  divine 
sweetmeat.'  It  is  found  on  the  leaves  of  the  dwarf  oak, 
and  also,  though  less  plentifully  and  scarcely  so  good, 
on  those  of  the  tamarisk  and  several  other  plants.  It  is 
occasionally  deposited  on  the  sand,  and  also  on  rocks 
and  stones.  The  latter  is  of  a  pure  white  color,  and  ap- 
pears to  be  more  esteemed  than  the  tree  manna.  It  is 
collected  chiefly  at  two  periods  of  the  year,  first  in  the 
early  part  of  spring,  and  again  towards  the  end  of  au- 
tumn; in  either  case  the  quality  depends  upon  the  rain 
that  may  have  fallen,  or  at  least  on  the  abundance  of 
the  dews,  for  in  the  seasons  which  happen  to  be  quite 
dry  it  is  understood  that  little  or  none  is  obtained.  In 
order  to  collect  the  manna  the  people  go  out  before  sun- 
rise, and  having  placed  cloths  under  the  oak,  larch, 
tamarisk,  and  several  other  kinds  of  shrubs,  the  manna 
is  shaken  down  in  such  quantities  from  the  branches  as 
to  give  a  supply  for  the  market  after  providing  for  the 
wants  of  the  different  members  of  the  family.  The 
Kurds  not  only  eat  manna  in  its  natural  state,  as  they 
do  bread  or  dates,  but  their  women  make  it  into  a  kind 
of  paste ;  being  in  this  state  like  honey,  it  is  added  to 
other  ingredients  used  in  preparing  sweetmeats,  which, 
in  some  shape  or  other,  are  found  in  every  house  through- 
out the  East.  The  manna,  when  partially  cleaned,  is 
carried  to  the  market  at  Mosul  in  goat-skins,  and  there 
sold  in  lumps  at  the  rate  of  4j  pounds  for  about  '2id. 
But  for  family  consumption,  or  to  send  to  a  distance  out 
of  the  country,  it  is  first  thoroughly  cleansed  from  the 
fragments  of  leaves  and  other  foreign  matter  by  boiling. 
In  the  natural  state  it  is  described  as  being  of  a  delicate 
white  color.  It  is  also  still,  as  in  the  time  of  the  Israel- 
ites, like  coriander  seed,  and  of  a  moderate  but  agreeable 
sweetness"  {Euphrates  Expedition,  i,  123). 

"The  manna  of  European  commerce  comes  mostly 
from  Calabria  and  Sicily.  It  is  gathered  during  the 
months  of  June  and  July  from  some  species  of  ash  (Oi'- 
nus  Knropwa  and  Ornus  rotiiiidijblia),  from  which  it 
drops  in  consequence  of  a  puncture  by  an  insect  resem- 
bling the  locust,  but  distinguished  from  it  by  having  a 
sting  under  its  body.  The  substance  is  fluid  at  night, 
and  resembles  the  dew,  but  in  the  morning  it  begins  to 
harden." 

"  The  natural  products  of  the  Arabian  deserts  and 
other  Oriental  regions,  which  bear  the  name  of  manna, 


have  not  the  qualities  or  uses  ascribed  to  the  manna  of 
Scripture.  They  are  all  condiments  or  medicines  rather 
than  food,  stimulating  or  purgative  rather  than  nutri- 
tious; they  are  produced  only  three  or  four  months  in 
the  year,  from  Mny  to  August,  and  not  all  the  year 
round ;  they  come  only  in  small  quantities,  never  aflbrd- 
ing  anything  Uke  15,000,000  pounds  a  week,  which  must 
have  been  requisite  for  the  subsistence  of  the  whole  Is- 
raelitish  camp,  since  each  man  had  an  omer  (or  three 
English  quarts)  a  day,  and  that  for  forty  years ;  they 
can  be  kept  for  a  long  time,  and  do  not  become  useless 
in  a  day  or  two;  they  are  just  as  liable  to  deteriorate 
on  the  Sabbath  as  on  any  other  day;  nor  does  a  double 
quantity  fall  on  the  day  preceding  the  Sabbath ;  nor 
would  natural  products  cease  at  once  and  forever,  as  the 
manna  is  represented  as  ceasing  in  the  book  of  Joshua. 
The  manna  of  Scripture  we  therefore  regard  as  wholly 
miraculous,  and  not  in  anv  respect  a  product  of  nature" 
(Smith). 

jManna  is  the  emblem  or  sj'mbol  of  immortality  (Rev. 
ii,  17):  "I  will  give  him  to  eat  of  the  hidden  manna;" 
i.  e.  the  true  bread  of  God,  which  came  down  from  heav- 
en, referring  to  the  words  of  Christ  in  John  vi,  51,  a 
much  greater  instance  of  God's  favor  than  feeding  the 
Israelites  with  manna  in  the  wilderness.  It  is  called 
hidden,  or  laid  up,  in  allusion  to  that  which  was  laid  up 
in  a  golden  vessel  in  the  holy  of  holies  of  the  tabernacle 
(comp.  Exod.  xvi,  33,  34,  and  Heb.  ix,  4). 

See  Liebentanz,  De  Manna  (Yitemb.  1667) ;  Zeibich, 
De  miraculo  Mannve  Israeliticce  (Gerw,  1770) ;  Hoheisel, 
De  vasculo  Mannce  (Jen.  1715)  ;  Schramm,  De  vrna 
JMannce  (Herb.  1723) ;  Fabri  Ilistoria  Manncf,  in  Fabri 
et  Reiskii  Opusc.  med.  Arab.  (Hal.  1770),  p.  121 ;  Hard- 
wick,  in  A  sialic  Researches,  xiv,  182 ;  Frederic,  in  Tran- 
sact, of  the  Lit.  Society  of  Bombay  (Lond.  1810),  i,  251 ; 
Ehrenberg,  Symbol.  I'hys.  (Berl.  1829) ;  Martins,  Phar- 
maJcor/n.  p.  327 ;  Oedmann,  Samml.  vi,  1 ;  Buxtorf,  Exer- 
cit.  (Basil.  1659),  p.  335  (and  in  Ugolini,  Thesaur.  vol. 
viii) ;  ^osenvaWWex,  A  It erthumsl\iy,d\Giiq.;  Khto, Daily 
Bible  Illiist.  ad  loc. ;  Tristram,  iVo^  Bist.  of  Bible,  p.  302; 
comp.  Robinson's  Researches,  i,  470,  550 ;  and  other  Ori- 
ental travellers. 

Mannheim  er,  Is.vak  Noa,  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated of  modern  Jewish  pulpit  orators  and  theologians, 
was  born  at  Copenhagen,  Denmark,  Oct.  17, 1793.  His 
father  was  the  reader  of  the  synagogue  of  the  Danish 
capital,  and,  anxious  to  afford  his  Isaak  all  the  advan- 
tages of  modern  cidturc,  placed  the  child  in  a  school  at 
the  tender  age  of  three  years  and  a  half.  When  only 
nine  years  old,  Isaak  was  introduced  to  the  study  of  the 
Talmud,  and  at  the  age  of  responsibility  (thirteen)  was 
noted  for  his  great  erudition  in  Jewish  tradition.  In 
his  secular  studies,  also,  he  made  rapid  progress,  and 
promised  much  for  the  future.  In  1808  he  entered  the 
gymnasium,  and  by  1814  he  was  ready  to  pass  his  ex- 
amination for  admission  to  the  university.  Here  he  de- 
voted himself  to  the  study  of  philosophy,  philology,  and 
the  Oriental  languages.  Scarcely  had  his  course  been 
completed  when  the  government  offered  him  employ- 
ment as  catechist  of  the  Jewish  society  of  his  native 
place ;  he  accepted  the  proffered  position,  and  served 
his  people  to  their  great  satisfaction.  About  this  time 
the  reformaton,'  movements  among  the  Jews  of  North- 
ern Europe  were  taking  place,  and  Mannheimer  became 
one  of  the  leaders  in  the  progressive  step.  He  was  es- 
pecially encouraged  by  a  personal  aciiuaintance  with 
the  German-Jewish  reformer  Jacobson,  whom  he  met 
in  Berlin,  whither  he  was  called  in  1821,  as  pastor  of 
the  Temple.  But,  by  the  interference  of  the  govern- 
ment, the  reform  movement  was  greatly  barred  there, 
and,  after  a  vain  struggle  with  the  orthodox,  he  accepted 
a  call  from  Vienna  in  1824,  and  removed  to  the  Austrian 
capital  in  June,  1825.  Austria,  which  was  always  slow 
to  grant  religious  liberty  to  non-Roman-Catholics,  had 
not  up  to  this  time  recognised  the  Jews  as  a  religious 
sect,  and,  without  authority  to  act  as  pastor,  Mannhei- 
mer was  called  to  perform  substantially  similar  duties 


MANNING 


714 


MANSE 


ill  the  official  capacity  of  "  principal  of  the  Religious 
School"  ("  Direktor  der  Wiener  Kaiserlich  Kiinigl.  6f- 
fentlichcn  israelitischen  Keligionsschule").  Though  per- 
sonally decidedly  in  favor  of  the  reform  movement  in- 
augurated by  Jacobson  and  others,  he  felt  it  his  duty,  in 
this  new  relation,  to  assume  a  conservative  position,  and 
by  liis  moderation  and  wisdom  succeeded  in  building  up 
one  of  the  best  Jewish  congregations  in  (iermany.  His 
great  oratorical  talent  did  much  to  swell  the  number  of 
his  auditors,  but  his  success  as  a  leader  of  the  Jews  of 
the  Austrian  capital  is  due  solely  to  his  determination 
'■to  produce  no  rupture  in  the  Jewish  camp."  He  served 
his  people  faithfully  to  the  end  of  his  terrestrial  course, 
March  17,  I8G0.  His  influence  on  the  Jews  of  Germany, 
liowever,  still  remains,  and  will  be  felt  for  years  to  come. 
During  the  stormy  days  of  1848  he  represented  his  peo- 
ple in  the  nation's  councils,  as  a  deputy  from  Lemberg 
((iallicia).  His  humane  principles  are  manifest  in  his 
exertions  for  the  abolishment  of  capital  punishment. 
"Isaak  Noa  Mannheimer,"  says  Griitz  (^Gesch.d.Juden, 
xi.  433),  "  might  be  called  the  embodied  nobility  of  the 
Jews.  He  was  a  perfect  man.  .  .  .  The  inner  and  outer 
man,  disposition  and  wit,  inspiration  and  wisdom,  ideal 
life  and  practical  safety,  poetical  talent  and  sober  sense, 
childlike  goodness  and  hitting  sarcasm,  gushing  oratory 
and  earnest  activity,  love  for  Judaism  and  a  special  liking 
for  reform,  were  in  his  being  most  harmoniously  blend- 
ed." As  a  pulpit  orator  he  had  no  peer  among  his  He- 
brew brethren.  Unfortunately,  however,  but  few  of  his 
sermons  were  ever  printed.  For  a  list  of  them  see  Kay- 
serling.  Bibliothek  jiid.  Kanzelredner,  Jahrgang  i  (Berl. 
1870),  p.  291.  His  other  works  consist  of  a  translation 
of  the  Jewish  Prayer-book  for  Sabbath  and  holy-days 
(Sidur  and  Machzor),  a  few  polemical  tracts,  and  a 
translation  of  part  of  the  Bible  for  Salomon's  German 
version.  For  the  study  of  homiletics  his  sermons  are 
valued  by  both  Christian  and  Jewish  divines.  See,  be- 
sides Grittz  and  Kaj'serling,  Ehrentheil,  Jiid  Charakter- 
Ulder  (Rest.  1867),  i,  57-66  ;  Wolf,  IsakNoa  Manheimer 
(Vienna,  1863) ;  the  same,  Gesch.  d.  israelit.  Cultusge- 
meinde  in  Wien  (1861) ;  Geiger,  Zeitschrift,  iii,  167  sq. 
(J.  H.  W.) 

Manning,  James,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
born  at  Elizabethtown,  N.,J.,  Oct.  22, 1738,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Princeton  College  (class  of  1762).  Soon  after 
the  completion  of  his  collegiate  course  he  was  ordained 
jvastor  of  a  Baptist  Church  in  Morristown,  N.  J.,  but 
he  remained  only  a  year,  and  then  became  pastor  of 
tlie  Baptist  Church  in  Warren,  R.  I.  During  his  minis- 
try there  he  instituted  a  Latin  school,  which  seems  to 
have  been  the  germ  of  the  great  Baptist  College,  now 
tlie  Brown  University,  he  having  been  chiefly  instru- 
mental in  the  procuring  of  the  charter  in  1764.  He 
was  appointed  its  first  president  and  professor  of  lan- 
guages in  1765,  when  the  college  went  into  operation  at 
Warren,  whence  it  was  removed  to  Providence  in  1770, 
and  was  given  the  name  it  now  bears.  President  Man- 
ning remaineil  connected  with  the  college  until  his 
death,  July  29,  1791.  During  his  residence  at  Provi- 
dence, however,  he  was  also  pastor  of  a  church  for  twen- 
ty years,  absenting  himself  only  for  some  six  months  in 
1786,  when  he  was  chosen  member  of  Congress  for  Rhode 
Island.  "Dr.  i\Ianning  was  ecpially  known  in  the  re- 
ligious, political,  and  literary  world.  Nature  had  given 
him  distinguished  abilities.  The  resources  of  his  genius 
seemed  adequate  to  all  ehities  and  occasions.  He  was 
of  a  kind  and  benevolent  disposition,  social  and  commu- 
nicative in  habit,  and  enchanting  in  manners.  His  life 
was  a  scene  of  labor  for  the  benefit  of  others.  His  piety, 
and  his  fervent  ze.al  in  preaching  the  (iospel,  evinced 
his  love  to  (Jod  and  man.  With  a  most  graceful  form, 
a  dignified  and  majestic  appearance,  his  atldrcss  Avas 
manly,  familiar,  and  engaging,  his  voige  harmonious, 
and  his  eloquence  irresistible.  In  the  government  of 
the  college  he  was  mild,  yet  energetic.  He  lived  be- 
loved and  died  lamented,  beyond  the  lot  of  ordinary 
men.     The  good  order,  learning,  and  respectability  of 


the  Baptist  churches  in  the  Eastern  States,  imder  God, 
are  much  owing  to  his  personal  influence,  and  assiduous 
attention  to  their  welfare"  (Benedict,  ii,  346).  See  (juild 
(R.  H.),  Life,  Times,  and  Correspondence  of  I)r.  James 
Manning  (1864,  8vo);  Sprague,  ^4?ina^s,  vi,  89. 

Manning,  OTwen,  an  English  clergyman,  was  born 
at  Orlingburg,  Northamptonshire,  in  1721 ;  was  educated 
at  Queen's  College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  became  fel- 
low in  1741;  became  prebend  of  Lincoln  in  1760;  in 
1763,  vicar  of  Godalming,  Surrey ;  in  1 769,  rector  of  Pep- 
perharrow,  and  died  in  1807.  Mr.  INIanning  published 
Two  Occasional  Sei-mons : — Sermons  on  Impoi-tant  Sub- 
jects (1812,  2  vols.  12mo)  : — Discourse  on  Justification, 
Rom.  Hi.  28;  published  by  Rev.  J.  H.  Todd,  with  a  dis- 
course of  Abp.  Sharp's  (1829,  8vo) ;  and  several  works 
of  a  secular  character. — Allibone,  Diet.  Brit,  and  Amer. 
A  uth.  s.  V. ;  Thomas,  Diet,  of  Biog.  s.  v. 

Mannus,  according  to  Tacitus,  the  name  given  by 
the  Germans  to  the  son  of  the  earth-born  god  Tuisco. 
From  his  three  sons  they  derived  their  three  great  tribes, 
the  Ingavones,  the  Iskavones,  and  the  Herminones, 
Mannus  belongs,  not  to  the  Teutonic  people  alone,  but 
to  the  great  mythus  of  the  origin  of  the  human  race, 
common  to  the  whole  Aryan  famih',  and,Uke  the  Hindu 
Munu  or  Manus,  stands  forth  as  the  progenitor  of  the 
inhabitants  of  earth  endowed  with  reason.  The  name 
is  derived  from  the  Aryan  root  num,  to  think.  Com- 
pare Wackernagel,  in  Haupt's  Zeitschrift  fur  Deutsches 
Alterthum,  vol.  vi. — Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Mano'ah  (Heb.  Jlfano'dch,  '112'^,  rest,  as  in  Gen. 
viii,  9,  and  often;  Sept.  Mavws  ;  Josephus  Mavioxn^i 
A  nt.  v,  8, 2  [where  the  Biblical  narrative  is  greatly  em- 
bellished] ;  Vulg.  Manue},  the  father  of  Samson,  of  the 
tribe  of  Dan,  and  a  native  of  Zorah  (Judg.  xiii,  2-22; 
xvi,31).  B.C.  1185.  "  The  narrative  of  the  Bible  (xiii, 
1-23),  of  the  circumstances  which  preceded  the  birth  of 
Samson,  supplies  us  with  very  few  and  faint  traits  of 
Manoah's  character  or  habits.  He  seems  to  have  had 
some  occupation  which  separated  him  during  part  of 
the  day  from  his  wife,  though  that  was  not  field-work, 
because  it  was  in  the  field  that'his  wife  was  found  by 
the  angel  during  his  absence.  He  was  hospitable,  as 
his  forefather  Abraham  had  been  before  him ;  he  was  a 
worshipper  of  Jehovah,  and  reverent  even  to  a  degree 
of  fear.  We  hear  of  Manoah  once  again  in  connection 
with  the  marriage  of  Samson  and  the  Philistine  of  Tim- 
nath.  His  father  and  his  mother  remonstrated  with 
him  thereon,  but  to  no  purpose  (xiv,  2.  3).  They  then 
accompanied  him  to  Timnath,  both  on  the  preliminary 
visit  (ver.  5,  6)  and  to  the  marriage  itself  (ver.  9, 10). 
Manoah  appears  not  to  have  survived  his  son  :  not  he, 
but  Samson's  brothers,  went  down  to  Gaza  for  the  body 
of  the  hero,  and  bringing  it  up  to  the  family  tomb  be- 
tween Zorah  and  Eshtaol,  reunited  the  father  to  the  son 
(xvi,  31)  whose  birth  had  been  the  subject  of  so  many 
prayers  and  so  much  anxiety.  Milton,  however,  does 
not  take  this  view.  In  Samson  Af/oni^tes  ]Manoah  bears 
a  prominent  part  throughout,  and  lives  to  bury  his  son" 
(Smith).     See  S.vjisox. 

Manse,  the  Scottish  name  synonymous  with  our 
word  jnirsonage.  In  Scotland  the  manse,  with  unen- 
dowed churches,  is  the  property  of  the  Church,  erected 
and  maintained  by  it.  In  the  Established  Church  it  is 
built  and  maintained  by  law,  and  belongs  to  the  heritors. 
Dunlop  says,  '•  While  manses  and  houses  which  had  be- 
longed to  the  pojiish  clergy  were  still  standing,  these, 
of  course,  fell  to  be  first  designed  for  a  manse,  and  an 
order  of  designation,  similar  to  that  prescribed  by  the 
act  of  1593  as  to  glebes,  seems  to  have  been  followed. 
See  Gleue.  A  minister  accordingly  was  not  allowed 
to  have  a  man«e  designed  to  him  within  the  precincts 
of  an  abbey  or  bishoji's  palace  if  there  was  a  parson's  or 
vicar's  manse  in  the  parish ;  nor  was  he  entitled  to  any 
house  which,  though  erected  on  Church  lands,  had  not 
of  old  belonged  to  any  kirkman,  or  incumbent  serving 
at  the  chiu-ch.    Where  there  is  no  manse  in  a  parish 


MANSEL 


715 


MANSIONARII 


the  minister  is  entitled  to  have  designed  to  him  by  the 
presbj'tcry  of  the  bounds  half  an  acre  of  land  for  tlie 
manse,  offices,  and  garden,  and  to  liave  the  heritors  or- 
dained to  erect  a  manse  and  offices  thereon.  The  stat- 
utes regarding  manses  require  that  they  shall  be  situated 
near  tlie  parish  church ;  and  in  general  the  manse  and 
glebe  are  contiguous.  The  presbytery  are,  of  course,  in 
the  designation  of  a  new  manse,  entitled,  in  the  first  in- 
stance, to  fix  its  situation ;  and  even  in  the  case  of  an 
old  manse  to  be  rebuilt  they  may  fix  on  a  new  situation, 
always,  of  course,  within  the  ground  or  glebe  allotted  to 
the  minister.  The  act  of  1GG3  provides  '  that  where  com- 
petent manses  are  not  already  built,'  the  heritors  shall 
'  build  competent  manses  to  their  ministers,  the  expenses 
thereof  not  exceeding  one  thousand  pounds,  and  not  be- 
ing beneath  five  hundred  merks;'  and  it  has  been  ques- 
tioned whether,  in  respect  of  the  phrase  'competent 
manses,'  heritors  can  be  compelled  to  expend  a  greater 
sum  than  one  tliousand  pounds  Scots  on  the  erection  of 
a  manse."  Hill  says,  "The  law  of  Scotland  provides 
the  minister  of  every  country  parish  with  a  dwelling- 
house,  called  a  manse,  a  garden,  a  glebe  of  not  less  than 
four  acres  of  arable  land,  designed  out  of  lands  in  the 
parish  near  the  manse,  and  with  grass,  over  and  above 
the  glebe,  for  one  horse  and  two  cows;  and  with  the 
out-houses  necessary  for  the  management  of  his  small 
farm.  As  the  act  of  James  VI,  pari.  .3,  c.  48,  declares 
that  the  manse  and  glebe  shall  be  marked  and  designed 
by  the  archbishop,  bishop,  superintendent,  or  commis- 
sioner of  each  diocese  or  province,  upon  whose  testimo- 
nial being  presented  by  the  minister,  the  lords  of  Coun- 
cil and  Session  are  instructed  to  direct  letters,  charging 
the  former  occupiers  to  remove,  and  entering  the  minis- 
ter to  possession;  as  the  act  of  Charles  11,  pari.  1,  sess. 
3,  c.  21,  ordains  that  the  heritors  of  the  parish,  at  the 
sight  of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  or  such  ministers  as 
he  shall  appoint,  with  two  or  three  of  the  most  knowing 
and  discreet  men  of  the  parish,  build  competent  manses 
to  the  ministers;  and  as,  by  the  settlement  of  presby- 
terian  government  in  Scotland,  the  presb3-tery  has  come 
in  place  of  the  bishop,  all  applications  concerning  manses 
and  glebes  are  made,  in  tlie  first  instance,  to  the  pres- 
bytery of  the  bounds.  After  taking  the  regular  steps 
suitable  to  the  nature  of  the  business,  which,  as  a  civil 
court  specially  constituted  for  that  purpose,  they  are 
called  to  discuss,  the  presbytery  pronounce  a  decreet ; 
and  their  sentence,  unless  brought  by  a  bill  of  suspen- 
sion before  the  Court  of  Session,  is  binding  upon  all  con- 
cerned." Prior  to  the  lieformafion,  canon  xiii  ordained 
that  ever}'  parish  should  have  a  dwelling  for  the  minis- 
ter, built  at  the  expense  of  the  parsons  and  their  vicars, 
the  support  of  it  afterwards  falling  as  a  burden  on  the 
vicars.  By  the  General  Assembly  of  1.0(53  ministers 
having  manses  were  required  to  live  in  them. — Eadie, 
IJccles.  Dirt.  s.  V. 

Mansel,  Henry  Longukvili.e,  one  of  the  leading 
Englisli  divines  of  our  day,  noted  particularly  for  his 
ability  as  a  philosopher  of  the  Hamiltonian  school,  was 
born  in  1820  in  the  parish  of  Cosgrove,  Northampton- 
shire, of  which  his  ftither  was  then  rector.  He  was  ed- 
ucated at  IMerchant  Taylors'  School,  and  later  at  St. 
John's  College,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  in  1843. 
He  was  shortly  after  ordained,  and  served  the  Church 
in  various  positions  until  1855,  when  he  was  appointed 
reader  in  moral  and  metaphysical  jihilosophy  at  Magda- 
len College,  Oxford,  and  in  1859  became  the  Waynflete 
professor.  In  11^(17  he  was  made  regius  professor  of  ec- 
clesiastical history,  and  at  the  same  time  also  canon  of 
Christ  Church,  Oxford.  In  October,  1X()8,  he  was  ap- 
pointed dean  of  St.  Paul's,  London,  and  died  in  the  Eng- 
lish metropolis  in  1871.  His  works  are  :  Aldrich's  Loyic, 
Avith  Notes  (1849): — Prnletjmnena  Loffka  (1851):— ar- 
ticle "  JMetaphysics,"  in  the  8th  ed.  of  the  Enajdopfptlia 
Britdnnica  (1857),  afterwards  published  separately : — 
Bampton  Lectures — The  l.imils  of  N'/i</ioi/.i  ThniK/lit 
(18.58) :  _  The  Philosophy  of  the  CoHditioiied  ( 186G),  in 
reply  to  Mill's  Review  of  Hamilton's  Philosophy.     He 


was  also  one  of  the  editors  of  Sir  William  Hamilton's 
Lectures,  Mansel  wrote  in  a  clear  and  elegant  style. 
His  Bampton  Lectures  occasioned  much  controversy, 
both  theological  and  philosophicaL  In  the  first  one 
mentioned,  on  The  Limits  of  Relir/ious  Thought,  which 
passed  through  a  number  of  editions,  both  in  England 
and  in  this  country,  he  takes  as  the  basis  of  his  argu- 
ments Sir  W.  Hamilton's  position  that  "  the  uncondi- 
tioned is  incognizable  and  inconceivable."  This  treatise 
of  Mansel  is  regarded  as  "  one  of  the  most  important 
applications  of  tlie  Hamiltonian  philosophy  to  questions 
of  religion."  Farrar  (in  his  Crit.  Ilist.  of  Free  Thought, 
p.  470)  thus  speaks  of  The  Limits  of  Relirjious  ThovyM : 
"  It  is  a  work  which  is  valuable  for  its  method,  even  if 
the  reader  differs  (as  the  author  of  these  lectures  does 
in  some  respects)  from  the  philosophical  principles  main- 
tained, or  occasionally  even  from  the  results  attained. 
It  is  an  attempt  to  reconstruct  the  argument  of  Butler 
from  the  subjective  side.  As  Butler  showed  that  the 
difficulties  which  are  in  revealed  religion  are  equally 
applicable  to  natural,  so  ISIr.  Mansel  wishes  to  show  that 
the  difficulties  which  the  mind  feels  in  reference  to  re- 
ligion are  parallel  with  those  which  are  felt  by  it  in  ref- 
erence to  philosophy.  Since  the  time  of  Kant  a  subjec- 
tive tone  has  passed  over  philosophy.  The  phenomena 
are  now  studied  in  the  mind,  not  in  nature ;  in  our  mode 
of  viewing,  not  in  the  object  viewed.  Hence  Butler's 
argument  needed  reconstructing  on  its  psychological 
side.  ]\Ir.  Mansel  has  attempted  to  effect  this ;  and  the 
book  must  always  in  this  respect  have  a  value,  even 
to  the  minds  of  those  who  are  diametrically  o])posed  to 
its  principles  and  results.  Even  if  the  details  were 
wrong,  the  method  would  be  correct,  of  studying  psy- 
chology before  ontology;  of  finding  the  philosophy  of 
religion,  not,  as  Leibnitz  attempted,  objectively  in  a 
theodicee,  but  subjectively,  by  the  analysis  of  the  relig- 
ious faculties;  learning  the  length  of  the  sounding-line 
before  attempting  to  fathom  the  ocean."  See  The  Nci- 
iion  (N.  Y.),  Jan.  10,  1867,  p.  27  sq. ;  Grote,  Review  of 
NieVs  Examination  of  Hamilton's  Philosophy  (Lond. 
1868,  18mo),  p.  43  sq. ;  I>IcCosh,  Lntuitions  of  the  Mind 
(see  Index)  ;  Porter,  Human  Lntellect  (Index).  See 
Hajiilton,  Sir  W.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Mansi,  .J.  Dominicus,  a  noted  Italian  prelate,  was 
born  ill  Lucca  Feb.  16, 1692;  entered  the  Church  at  an 
early  age,  and  Avas  for  a  long  time  professor  of  theology 
at  Naples.  He  was  created  archbishop  in  1765,  and 
died  Sept.  27, 1769.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  his- 
torical and  philological  acquirements,  as  also  for  his  zeal 
as  a  compiler.  Among  his  principal  works  are  Supple- 
mentum  collectionis  c.oncilior.  et  decretorum  Nicol.  Coleti 
(Lucas,  1748-52,  6  vols.) : — his  own  very  comjilete  col- 
lection, Sacrorum  concilionnn  nova  et  amjilissima  col- 
lectio,  etc.  (Florcnt.  et  Tenet.  1759-88,  31  vols.),  which 
was  continued  after  his  death.  He  published  also  a 
valuable  edition  of  St.  Baluzii  Miscellanea  (Lucca,  1761, 
2  vols.),  and  the  splendid  Lucca  edition  of  Baronius's 
Annal.  Eccles.,  with  the  continuation  by  Baynaldus 
(1738-56);  a  new  edition  of  Natalis  Alexandri  Histo- 
ria  eccles.  Vet.  Novique  Test.  (Luc»,  1748-52),  and  of 
J.  A.  Fabricii  Bill.  Lat.  med.  et  iif.  at.  (Patavii,  1754). 
He  also  published  the  2d  edition  of  the  important  Me- 
morie  della  Gran  Contessa  Matilda  da  Fr.  3f.  Fiorentini 
(Lucca,  1756),  to  which  he  made  many  important  addi- 
tions. He  wrote  also  Be  ej)ochis  conciliorum  Sardicen- 
sis  et  Simnensium.  See  Ant.  Zatti,  Commentar.  de  vita 
et  scriptis  J.  D.  Mansi  (Yen.  1772) ;  Anton.  Lombardi, 
Htoria  della  letteratura  Italiana  nel  secolo  xviii  (Modena, 
1827);  Sarteschi,  X'e  fScriptoribus  Congirg.  Matris  Bet, 
p.  352;  Saxii  Onom.  lit.  vii,  4  sq. ;  Baur,  Keties  hist.- 
biog.-lit.  Handb.  iii,  488 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Genercde, 
xxxiii,259 ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyliopddie,  ix,  1.    See  Ma- 

MACHI. 

Mansionai'ii  (-apaiiopc'ipioi),  a  class  of  function- 
aries who  were  not  only  keepers  of  churches,  but  espe- 
cially bailiffs  or  stewards  of  the  glebes  or  lands  belong- 
ing to  the  Church  or  the  bishop.     See  Doorkeepers. 


MANSIONATICUM 


716 


MANT 


Mansiouaticum.     See  T^vxes. 

Manslayer  (RS'np,  mei-aistse'dch,  a  mxirderer,  uv- 
?po(t)i'n'oc,  1  Tim.  i,  9,  as  sometimes  rendered),  one  who 
by  an  accidental  homicide  was  entitled  to  the  benefit  of 
asylum  (Numb. xxxv, 0,12;  elsewhere  nsually  "slayer"). 
See  Blood-revenge.  "  One  of  the  most  peculiar  pro- 
visions in  the  statute  respecting  the  manslayer  was  the 
limitation  of  the  period  of  his  compulsory  residence  in 
one  of  the  cities  of  refuge :  '  He  shall  abide  in  it  until 
the  death  of  tlie  high-priest,  which  was  anointed  with 
ilie  holy  oil.'  After  that  he  was  allowed  to  '  return  into 
the  land  of  his  possession'  (ver.  28).  Different  reasons 
have  been  assigned  by  commentators  for  making  the 
one  event  dependent  on  the  other,  which  it  is  unneces- 
sary to  particularize.  As  the  enactment  was  intended 
for  the  whole  body  of  the  people,  and  is  recorded  in 
.Scripture  without  any  explanation,  the  most  simple 
view  that  can  be  taken  of  it  is  likely  to  be  the  nearest 
to  the  truth.  One  thing,  however,  all  knew  respecting 
the  anointed  high -priest,  viz.  that  he  was  the  head 
and  representative  of  the  whole  community  in  matters 
pertaining  to  life  and  death ;  and  as  some  limitation 
would  evidently  require  to  be  set  to  the  restraint  laid 
on  the  manslayer,  the  thought  would  naturally  com- 
mend itself  to  the  people  to  make  responsibility  for  an 
accidental  death  cease  and  determine  with  the  death  of 
him  who  stood  nearest  to  God  in  matters  of  that  descrip- 
tion. In  the  general  relations  of  the  community  a 
change  had  entered  in  that  respect,  which  touched  all 
interests,  and  it  was  fit  that  it  should  specially  toucii 
those  who  had  been  casually  bereft  of  the  freedom  of 
life"'  (Fairbairn).  "The  principle  on  which  the  'man- 
slayer' was  to  be  allowed  to  escape,  viz.  tliat  the  person 
slain  was  regarded  as  '  delivered  into  his  hand'  by  the 
Almighty,  was  obviously  open  to  much  wilful  perver- 
sion (1  Sam.  xxiv,  4,  18;  xxvi,  8;  compare  Philo,  De 
Sjjec.  Leg.  iii,  21 ;  ii,  320),  though  the  cases  mentioned 
appear  to  be  a  sufficient  sample  of  the  intention  of  the 
lawgiver,  a.  Death  by  a  blow  in  a  sudden  quarrel 
(Numb,  xxxv,  22).  b.  Death  by  a  stone  or  missile 
thrown  at  random  (ib.  22,  23).  c.  By  the  blade  of  an 
axe  flying  from  its  handle  (Dent,  xix,  5).  d.  Whether 
tlie  case  of  a  person  killed  by  falling  from  a  roof  unpro- 
vided with  a  parapet  involved  the  guilt  of  manslaugh- 
ter on  the  owner  is  not  clear;  but  the  law  seems  in- 
tended to  prevent  the  imputation  of  malice  in  anj'  such 
case,  by  preventing,  as  far  as  possible,  the  occurrence  of 
the  fact  itself  (Deut.  xxii,  8)  (Michaelis,  On  the  Laics 
of  Moses,  arts.  223,  280,  ed.  Smith).  In  all  these  and 
the  like  cases  the  manslayer  was  allowed  to  retire  to  a 
city  of  refuge.  See  City  of  Kekuge.  Besides  these, 
the  following  may  be  mentioned  as  cases  of  homicide : 
a.  An  animal,  not  known  to  be  vicious,  causing  death  to 
a  human  being,  was  to  be  put  to  death,  and  regarded  as 
unclean.  But  if  it  was  known  to  be  vicions,  the  owner 
also  was  liable  to  fine,  and  even  death  (Exod.  xxi,  28, 
31).  h.  A  thief  overtaken  at  night  in  the  act  might 
lawfully  be  put  to  death,  but  if  the  sun  had  risen  the 
act  of  killing  him  was  to  be  regarded  as  murder  (Exod. 
xxii,  2,  3).  Other  cases  are  added  by  the  Mishna, 
which,  however,  are  included  in  the  definitions  given 
above  (Saiih.  ix,  1,  2,  3  :  Maccof/i,  ii,  2 ;  compare  Otho, 
/.ex.  Riibh.  s.  v.  Ilomicida)"  (Smith).     See  Murder. 

Mansus  Ecclesiae.  Mansns  is  in  reality  equiv- 
alent to  hints,  iibi  qiiis  jianet,  the  residence  including 
(lie  portion  of  land  belonging  to  it  (Jnioho),  and  both 
expressions  are  sometimes  used  the  one  for  the  other 
(see  Du  Fresne,  s.  v.;  Gnmm,  Deutsche  Rcchtsalterlhii- 
vier,  p.  53t);  ICichhorn,  Deutsche  Rechtsr/eschichte,  vol.  i, 
§  84 ;  Guerard,  /'o/i/pliqiie  de  Vahbe  Irminon  [Paris,  1844, 
4to]).  Birnbaum.  in  J  He  rechtliche  Xafur  der  Zchnten 
(Bonn,  1831  ),p.  174,  is  of  opinion  that  the  word  nuinsus  is 
derived  from  maniiinissio  or  mancipium,  from  the  slaves 
in  early  times  becoming  free  in  obtaining  an  estate,  a 
vKinsus  hei-editdrius.  But,  putting  aside  the  philolog- 
ical difficulties,  we  find  that  the  mansi  were  properties 


with  which  serfs  (^glehoi  adscripti)  or  even  freemen  ^^'ere 
invested  on  some  conditions,  hence  the  distinction  be- 
tween rnansi  serriks  and  ingcniiiles  (Grimm,  p.  537 ; 
iMchhorn,  vol.  i,  §  83).  In  the  9th  century  the  whole  of 
F" ranee  was  divided  into  mansi,  as  the  taxes  Avere  based 
on  this  division,  as  well  as  the  obligation  to  military 
service  (see  Capitulare,  i,  a.  803,  c.  1,  a.  807,  811 ;  Pertz, 
]\[onumenta  Germanice,  iii,  119, 172;  Walter,  Corpus  ju- 
ris Germanici,  ii,  228  ;  Hincmari  Eemensis  A  nnules,  ad 
a.  8G6,  877).  The  Church  itself  was  not  free  from  these 
taxes,  but  paid  according  to  the  number  of  mansi  it  held 
(see  Capitul.Aquisgran.  a.  812,  cap.  11;  Pertz,  iii,  175: 
"  Ut  de  rebus  unde  censum  ad  partem  regis  exire  sole- 
bat,  si  ad  aliquam  ecclesiam  traditie  sunt,  aut  tradantur 
propriis  heredibus,  aut  qui  eas  retinuerit,  vel  ilium  cen- 
sum persolvat"),  with  the  exception  of  those  which  they 
held  from  the  liberality  of  the  king,  and  which  were 
given  with  such  immunities ;  as  also  the  mansi  forming 
the  dos  of  a  church,  and  given  to  it  at  its  foundation. 
See  lAtMUNiTY.  In  this  case  the  immunity  covered  the 
whole  mansus  (inansus  inieger'),  and  it  became  the  duty 
of  the  incumbents  to  see  to  it  that  their  privilege  was 
not  infringed  (see  Ciqntulare  Wormatiense,  a.  829,  cap. 
generalia.  no.  4 ;  Pertz,  iii, 350).  This  principle  was  also 
adhered  to  afterwards,  so  that  both  Gratian  (see  c.  24, 
25,  can.  xxiii,  qu.  viii)  and  Kaymondr.s  a  I'ennaforte  (c. 
i,  X,  de  censibus,  iii,  39)  considered  it  well  to  recall  these 
enactments.  The  size  of  the  mansus  did  not  always  re- 
main the  same  ;  yet  it  was  at  all  times  calculated  so  as 
to  afford  a  dos  competens  to  the  church,  the  income  from 
which  would  be  sufficient  to  defray  the  expenses  of  wor- 
ship and  to  supply  the  greater  part  of  the  requisites  of 
the  clergy  (see  Ziegler,  De  dote  ecclesiastica  ejusqueju- 
ribus  et  pririlegiis  [Wittemb.  1686,  4to],  chap,  vii,  §  34 
sq.).  If  we  study  the  history  of  the  establishment  of 
Christianity  in  the  different  countries,  we  find  that  many 
adopted  these  principles  of  the  French  law.  Thus  in 
Prussia,  at  the  foundation  of  churches,  they  were  each 
endowed  with  eight  hides  of  land.  In  1232  we  see  the 
parishes  of  Kulm  and  Thorn  receiving  besides  forty 
hides.  When  in  1249  peace  was  made  with  the  hea- 
then Prussians,  a  stipidation  required  that  each  new 
church  should  receive  a  dos  of  eight  hides  (see  Voigt, 
Gesch.  Preussens,  ii,  239,  630).  The  later  documents  on 
the  subject  (see  Voigt,  Codex  diplomaticus  Prussicus') 
show  that  this  custom  was  observed  in  after  times. 
This  practice  of  church  endowments  was  continued  not- 
withstanding the  changes  introduced  by  the  Keforma- 
tion.  See  Jacobson,  Gesch.  der  Quellen  d.  evangelischen 
Kirchenrechts  von  Preussen,  i,  2,  Urkunden,  p.  8,  25,  etc. ; 
MosQT,  Allgem. Kirchenhl.  1856, p.  141  sq..;  Berlin  i'l-ffwy. 
Kirchenzeit.  1857,  No.  9  ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyklopiddie,  ix, 
1.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Mant,  Richard  (1),  D.D.,  an  English  prelate  and 
commentator,  was  born  at  Southampton  in  1776;  was 
educated  at  Winchester  College,  and  Trinity  College, 
Oxford;  became  feUow  of  Oriel  College  in  1798;  vicar 
of  Great  Coggeshall,  Essex,  in  1810;  of  St.  Botolph's, 
Bishopsgate,  London,  in  1815;  and  of  East  Horsley, 
Surrey,  in  1818;  bishop  of  Killaloe  and  Kilfenora,  in 
1820 ;  was  translated  to  Down  and  Connor  in  1823  ;  and 
in  1842  succeeded  bishop  Saurin  in  the  diocese  of  Dro- 
more.  He  died  in  1848.  He  published,  in  conjunction 
with  D'Oyly,  An  Edition  of  the  Bible,  with  Notes  (1817)  : 
— Eight  ^ei-7nons : — An  Appeal  to  the  Gospel,  or  an  In- 
quiry into  the  Justice  of  the  Charge  that  the  Gospel  is  not 
preached  by  the  National  Clergy  (1812,  8vo;  6th  et^ 
1816,  8vo;  reviewed  in  the  Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  \i\\,  356- 
374,  and  xv,  475) : — The  Book  of  Common  Pi-ayer,  se- 
lected, with  Notes  (1829,  4to;  abridged,  2  vols.  Svo;  5th 
ed.  1840,  4to)  :—The  Book  of  Psalms  in  an  English  Met- 
rical Version,  with  Notes,  critical  and  Uluslratice  (1824, 
8vo): — Biographical  Notices  of  the  Apostles,  Evangel- 
ists, and  other  Saints  (1828, Svo): — Piimitire  Christian- 
ity (Lond.  1843,  8vo)  :—l]ist.  Ch.  of  Ireland  {\»AQ,  2  vols. 
8vo): — Horm  liturgicce  (1845,  sm.  8vo) : — Sermons,  and 
other  productions  on  various  subjects.     See  Allibone, 


MANT 


-r 


MANTLE 


Diet.  Brit,  and  A  mer.  Biog.  s.  v. ;  Darling,  Cijclop.  Bib- 
Vwfjr.  s.  V. 

Mant,  Richard  (2),  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  who 
flourished  in  tlie  latter  part  of  the  18th  and  beginning 
of  the  19th  century;  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Oxford,  and  became  rector  of  All  Saints,  Southampton. 
He  died  in  1817.  He  published  a  sermon  entitled  Puh- 
lic  Worship  (1796,  8vo)  : — Order  for  the  Visitation  of  the 
Sick,  from  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  (1805,  12mo)  : — 
Ei'jht  Sermons  on  the  Occurrences  of  the  Passion  Weeh 
(1807,r2mo)  : — Guide  to  the  Understanding  of  the  Church 
Catechism  (1807). — Allibone,  Diet.  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uth. 
s.  V. 

Mantchuria,  a  Chinese  territory  in  Eastern  Asia, 
extending  between  lat.  42°  and  53°  N.,  is  now  the  pos- 
session partly  of  the  Chinese  and  partly  of  the  Russians. 
It  is  bounded,  according  to  its  present  liinits,  by  the 
Amur  on  the  north ;  by  the  Usuri  and  the  Sungacha  on 
the  east,  separating  it  from  the  Russian  maritime  terri- 
tory of  Orochi;  b}' the  Shan-Alin  range  on  the  south, 
separating  it  from  Korea ;  and  by  a  portion  of  the  Khin- 
gan  Mountains,  the  river  Sira-Muren,  and  the  district  of 
the  upper  Sungari,  which  separate  it  on  the  west  from 
the  desert  of  Gobi.  Previously  to  the  recent  incursions 
of  the  Russians  on  the  north,  the  area  of  this  territory 
was  about  682,000  square  miles.  Since  the  treaty  of 
Nov.  11, 1860,  the  Russians  possess  all  the  territory  east 
of  the  Usuri  and  north  and  east  of  the  Amur,  and  the 
Chinese  possession  is  reduced  to  about  378,000  square 
miles.  The  population  is  variously  estimated  at  from 
3.000,000  to  4,000,000.  Mantchuria  "is  divided  into  three 
provinces;  Shing-King  (formerly  Leaotong),  which 
alone  contains  upwards  of  2,100,000  inhabitants,  and  tlie 
chief  town  of  which,  Mukden,  is  the  seat  of  government 
for  the  three  provinces ;  Girin,  or  Kirin ;  and  Tsi-tsi-har. 
The  country  is  mountainous,  densel}''  wooded  in  the 
south,  but  consisting  chiefly  of  prairies  and  grass-land 
in  the  north.  It  is  well  watered  and  fruitful  in  the  val- 
leys. Chinese  form  the  great  bulk  of  the  population. 
The  JIantchus  themselves  are  for  the  most  part  soldiers ; 
they  are  the  present  rulers  of  China,  who  gradually  sub- 
jugated the  country.  They  are  not  a  nomadic  race  like 
the  jNIongols,  but  are  given  to  agriculture  or  hunting, 
according  to  the  part  of  their  country  they  inhabit. 
They  are  of  a  lighter  complexion  and  slightly  heavier 
build  than  the  Chinese,  have  the  same  conformation  of 
the  eye-lids,  but  rather  more  beard,  and  their  counte- 
nances present  greater  intellectual  capacity.  Literary 
pursuits  are  more  esteemed  by  them  than  by  Mongo- 
lians. They  are  of  the  same  religious  faith  as  the 
Chinese,  but  they  are  less  under  the  priesthood.  The 
Mantchus,  in  short,  may  be  regarded  as  the  most  im- 
provable race  in  Central  Asia,  if  not  on  the  continent. 
See  Williams,  Middle  Kingdom,  i,  153  sq.;  Chambers, 
Cyclop,  ii.x.     See  also  China ;  Tartauv. 

Mantelet,  a  long  cape,  with  slits  for  the  arms,  worn 
by  prelates.  Regular  bishops  wore  it  v/ithout  the  ro- 
chet ;  and  cardinals,  vested  in  rochet  and  mozzetta,  lay 
it  aside  when  visiting  another  of  their  order.  The  man- 
tdlnne  is  a  purple  cloak,  with  long,  hanging  sleeves. — 
M'alcott,  Sac.  A  rchceol.  s.  v. 

Mantle,  in  the  A.  Y.,  is  the  term  used  to  render 
four  Hebrew  words,  viz., 

1.  »"}'i]X,  adde'reth,  from  '^'''^X,  "ample,"'  and  there- 
fore probably  meaning  a  large  over-garment  like  the 
Roman  pallium.  The  Sept.  renders  it  by  pyjXtori)  (a 
sheep's  skin),  1  Kings  xix,  13,  etc. ;  oeppit;,  Zoch.  xiii, 
4 :  and  oopci,  Gen.  xxv,  25.  From  the  passages  in  which 
it  is  mentioned  we  can  conjecture  its  nature.  It  is  used 
most  fretpiently  (1  Kings  xix;  2  Kings  ii,8,  13,  etc.)  of 
Elijali's  "mantle,"  which  was  in  all  probability  a  mere 
sheepskin,  such  as  is  frequently  worn  by  dervishes  and 
poor  people  in  the  East,  and  which  seems,  after  Elijah's 
time,  to  liave  been  in  vogue  among  the  prophets  (Zech. 
xiii,  4).  Accordingly,  by  it  only  is  denoted  the  cape  or 
wrapper  which,  with  the  exception  of  a  strip  of  skin  or 


leather  round  his  loins,  formed,  as  we  have  every  reason 
to  believe,  the  sole  garment  of  the  prophet.  The  Bap- 
tist's dress  was  of  a  similar  rough  description,  and  we  see 
from  Heb.  xi,  37  (^tv  pijXdjraTc,  iv  aljiiott;  c'tpfiaaw) 
that  such  garments  were  regarded  as  a  mark  of  poverty 
and  persecution.  The  word  addereth  twice  occurs  with 
the  epithet  "i"b, "hairy"  (Gen.  xxv,  25;  Zech.  xiii, 4). 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  sometimes  undoubtedly  applied 
to  royal  and  splendid  robes,  and  is  even  used  to  mean 
"  magnificence"  in  Ezek.  xvii,  8  ("  vine  of  magnificence") 
and  Zech.  xi,  3.  It  is  the  expression  for  the  "  goodly 
Babylonish  garment"  stolen  by  Achan,  and  the  "  robe" 
worn  by  the  king  of  Nineveh  (Josh.  vii,21 ;  Jonah  iii, 
6).  The  connection  between  two  meanings  apparently 
so  opposite  is  doubtless  to  be  found  in  the  etymology  of 
the  word  (from  "I'^'^X,  ample),  or  in  the  notion  of  a  dress 
richly  lined  or  trimmed  with  costly,/)/?-^.     See  Robe. 

2.  5"^"^,  meil',  which  in  the  A.V.  is  variously  ren- 
dered "  mantle,"  "  robe,"  "  cloke ;"  and  in  the  Sept.  tinv- 
SvrrjQ,  CnrKuig,  VTToSvryjC,  Trodl}p7]c,  xinLv.  Josephus 
caUs  it  jxtiip.  It  is  a  general  term  derived  from  b"'2, 
to  cover,  and  is  most  frequentlj'  applied  to  "  the  rohe  of 
the  ephod"  (Exod.  xxviii,  4,  etc. ;  Lev.  viii,  7),  which  is 
described  as  a  splendid  under-tunic  of  blue,  wrought  on 
the  hem  with  pomegranates  of  blue,  purple,  and  scarlet, 
with  golden  bells  between  them.  It  came  below  the 
knees,  being  longer  than  the  ephod,  and  shorter  than 
the  kittoneth.  It  was  a  garment  of  unseamed  cotton, 
open  at  the  top  so  as  to  be  drawn  over  the  head,  and 
having  holes  for  the  insertion  of  the  arms  (Joseph.  Ant, 
iii,  7,  4;  Jahn,  Bihl.  Arch.  sec.  122;  Braunius,  De  Vest. 
Sac.  p.  436;  Schroder,  De  Vest.  3ful.  p.  237,  etc.).  It 
was  worn,  however,  not  only  by  priests,  like  Samuel  (1 
Sam.  ii,  19:  xv,  27;  xxviii,  14),  but  by  kings  and  princes 
(Saul,  1  Sam.  xxiv,  4 ;  Darid,  1  Chron.  xv,  27),  and  rich 
men  {Ezra,  ix,  3-5;  Job  and  his  friends,  i,  20;  ii,  12), 
and  even  by  king's  daughters  (2  Sam.  xiii,  18),  although 
in  the  latter  case  it  seems  to  have  had  sleeves  (see  Ge- 
senius,  Thesaur.  p.  811).  Properly  speaking,  the  meil 
was  worn  under  the  siinlah,  or  outer  garment,  but  that 
it  was  often  itself  used  as  an  outer  garment  seems  prob- 
able from  some  of  the  passages  above  quoted.  It  is  in- 
teresting to  know  that  the  garment  which  Samuel's 
mother  made  and  brought  to  the  infant  prophet  at  her 
annual  visit  to  the  holy  tent  at  Shiloh  was  a  miniature 
of  the  oflicial  priestly  tunic  or  robe;  the  same  that  the 
great  prophet  wore  in  mature  years  (1  Sam.  xv,  27),  and 
by  which  he  was  on  one  occasion  actually  identified. 
When  the  witch  of  Endor,  in  answer  to  Saul's  inquiry, 
told  him  that  "an  old  man  was  come  up,  covered  with  a 
meil,"  this  of  itself  was  enough  to  inform  the  king  in 
whose  presence  he  stood — "  Saul  perceived  that  it  was 
Samuel"  (xxviii,  14). 

3.  tl  j'l^b,  semikah'  (Judg.  iv,  14),  the  garment  (roars;, 
"  rug,"  or  "  blanket")  used  by  Jael  to  fling  over  the  weary 
Sisera  as  a  coverlid  (Sept.  twifioXaioi',  but  Cfppi'f  ap- 
pears to  have  been  the  reading  of  Origen  and  Augus- 
tine). The  word  is  derived  from  Ti'?&,  imponere,  and  is 
evidently  a  general  term.  Hesychius  defines  t7ri/3o- 
Xaioj^  by  nwpa  i]  paicoQ,  and  Suidas  by  to  to)  7rpoTip<fi 
iTrifSaXXoptrov.  Tlie  word  used  in  the  Targum  is 
rt^p^il,  which  is  only  the  Greek  KavvoKT],  and  the  Latin 
gaunacum;  and  this  word  is  explained  by  Tarro  to  be 
"raajus  sagum  et  amphimallon"  {De  Ling.  Lat.  iv,  35), 
i.  e.  a  larger  cloak  woolly  on  both  sides.  Hesychius  dif- 
fers from  Yarro  in  this,  for  he  says  Kavvc'iKai  o-rpioparn 
1)  tTTil36Xain  t-fpoiiaXXi),  i.  e.  woolly  on  orie  side;  the 
Scholiast,  on  Aristophanes,  adds  that  it  was  a  Persian, 
and  Pollux  that  it  was  a  Babylonian  robe  (Rosenmiiller, 
Schol.  ad  loc).  There  is,  therefore,  no  reason  to  under- 
stand it  of  a  curtain  of  the  tent,  as  Faber  does.  Since 
the  Orientals  constantly  used  upper  garments  for  bed- 
ding, the  rendering  "  mantle."  though  inaccurate,  is  not 
misleading  (compare  Ruth  iii,  9 ;  Ezek.  xvi,  8,  etc.).  In 
the  above  passage  the  Hebrew  word  has  the  definite  ar- 


MANTLE 


718 


MANTON 


tide  prefixed,  and  it  may  therefore  be  inferred  tliat  it 
■was  some  part  of  the  regular  furniture  of  the  tent.  The 
due  to  a  more  exact  signification  is  given  by  the  Arabic 
version  of  the  Polyglot,  which  renders  it  by  al-kati/a/i,  a 
word  which  is  explained  by  Dozy  {Dictionnaire  des  Vi'te- 
meiits  Arabes,  p.  232),  on  the  authority  of  Ibn  Batuta 
and  other  Oriental  autliors,  to  mean  certain  articles  of  a 
thiolv  fabric,  in  shape  like  a  plaid  or  shawl,  which  are 
commonly  used  for  beds  bj'  the  Arabs:  "When  they 
sleep  they  spread  them  on  the  ground.  For  the  under 
part  of  the  bed  they  are  doubled  several  times,  and  one 
longer  than  the  rest  is  used  for  a  coverlid."  On  such  a 
bed,  on  the  floor  of  Ileber's  tent,  no  doubt  the  weary 
Sisera  threw  himself,  and  such  a  coverlid  must  the  semi- 
kah  have  been  which  Jael  laid  over  him. 

4.  mSI^j^p,  maataphoth',  occurs  only  in  Isa.  iii,  22. 
It  was  some  article  of  female  dress,  and  is  derived  from 
Cj^",  to  tceave.  Schroder,  the  chief  authority  on  this 
subject,  says  it  means  a  large  exterior  tunic  with  sleeves. 


In-door  Dress  of  a  modern  Egyptian  Lady,  showing  the 
back  Veil  and  the  Mantle. 

worn  next  to  the  pallium  (De  Vest.  Mid.  xv,  247-277). 
In  this  same  verse,  and  in  Ruth  iii,  15,  occurs  the  word 
nnSIi'S,  mitpachoth',  A.Y.  "wimples,"  which  appears 
to  have  been  a  sort  of  square  covering  like  a  plaid  (Mi- 
chAitYM,  Supplem.  p.  1021;  Kosenmiiller,  .Sc/w/.  ,•  Isa.  iii, 
22).  We  cannot  find  tiie  shadow  of  an  authority  for 
Jahn's  very  explicit  statement,  that  both  these  words 
mean  the  same  article,  ns;:""?  being  the  fashion  fur 
the  winter,  and  nn5::'2  for  the  summer;  though  his 
assertion  that  "it  covered  the  whole  body  from  head  to 
foot"  may  be  very  true  (Jahn.  Jilbl.  A  rvh.  sec.  127). 

For  other  terms,  such  as  nb-^b,  ximlnh'  (Gen.  ix,23, 
etc.),  X'"^"/'i'C  (Matt,  xxvii,  2«)',  irroX//  (Mark  xii,  38), 
etc.,  see  Duiiss.  The  (peXfwijc  (A.V.  cloke)  to  which 
St,  Paul  makes  such  an  interesting  allusion  in  2  Tim.  iv, 
13,  seems  to  have  been  the  Latin  jxri/ii la  (comp.  "I^bs), 
a  sort  of  travelling-cloak  for  wet  weather.  A  great  deal 
has  been  written  about  it,  and  at  least  one  monograph 
(Stosch,  Dissert,  dc  J'dllio  Paii/l,  Lugd.  1700)."  Even  in 
Chrj-sostom's  time  some  took  it  to  be  -o  yXiurrrroKicn^iot' 
Irin  -a  fti(i\ia  tKuro  (a  sort  of  fravdling-bag),  and 
Jerome,  Theophylact,Grotius,  etc., shared  in  this  opinion 
(Schleusner,  Lex.  X.  T.  s.  v.  ^ai\uv>)g),—Kitto ;  Smith. 
See  Cloak. 


Manton,  Thomas,  D.D.,  one  of  the  most  eminent 
of  the  Puritan  divines  of  the  17th  century,  was  born  in 
1G20  at  Lawrence-Lydiard,  Somerset,  England.  His  fa- 
ther and  both  his  grandfathers  were  ministers.  He  was 
educated  at  Wadham  College,  Oxford,  and  received  or- 
ders from  bishop  Hall  before  he  had  attained  the  age 
of  twenty,  being  regarded  by  the  good  prelate  as  an  ex- 
traordinary young  man.  The  greatness  of  his  charac- 
ter displayed  itself  even  at  this  early  age.  Believing 
that  admission  to  deacon's  orders  constituted  authority 
to  preach,  he  steadfastly  refused  priest's  orders  after  hav- 
ing received  deacon's.  After  staying  a  short  time  at 
Colyton,  in  Devonshire,  he  removed  to  London,  and  was 
presented  in  1G43  with  the  living  of  Stoke-Newington, 
near  London.  Here  he  prepared  and  afterwards  pub- 
lished his  Expositions  oj' James  and  Jade.  (The  former 
was  published  in  1651;  edited  by  Sherman,  1840,  royal 
8vo;  edited  by  ]\l'Donough,  1842,  8vo;  the  latter  was 
published  in  1058,  4to;  new  ed.  1838, 8vo.)  During  the 
Revolution  he  was  frequently  called  to  preach  before 
Parliament,  where  he  had  the  courage  to  speak  against 
the  death  of  the  king,  though  he  gave  great  offence.  In 
1053  he  was  chosen  preacher  of  St.  Paul's,  Covent  Gar- 
den, where  he  had  a  numerous  congregation  of  persons 
of  great  note  and  rank,  and  was  eminently  successful  in 
his  ministry.  Joining  in  the  Rebellion,  he  became  one 
of  the  chaplains  to  the  protector,  and  one  of  the  com- 
mittee for  examining  ministers  under  the  common- 
wealth. He  was  forward,  however,  to  promote  the  Res- 
toration in  IGGO,  was  chosen  one  of  the  king's  chaplains, 
and  was  also  honored  b\'  Oxford  at  this  time  with  the 
degree  of  D.D.  by  special  request  of  king  Charles  II. 
In  16G1  he  was  offered  the  deanery  of  Rochester,  but 
this  position  he  refused.  Like  Baxter,  he  clung  to  the 
last  to  the  hope  that  a  scheme  of  comprehension  might 
be  carried  for  the  Presbyterians ;  and  he  had  yielded  so 
far  as  to  receive  episcopal  institution  from  Sheldon  to 
permit  the  reading  of  the  Common  Prayer  in  his  church, 
but  when  he  clearly  saw  that  there  was  peace  only 
viithin  the  Establishment,  and  by  an  utter  abandon- 
ment of  all  Puritan  principles,  he  let  the  deanery  go, 
content  to  remain  in  the  position  he  was  then  filling. 
The  passing  of  the  Act  of  Uniformity  forced  him  into 
the  ranks  of  the  Nonconformists.  Efforts  were  made  by 
Calamy,  ]\Ianton,  and  Bates,  the  leaders  of  those  Pres- 
byterians who  still  hoped  for  redress,  to  secure  their 
rights  from  the  king  by  personal  interview,  and  they 
even  received  encouragement  from  Charles  II  of  a  favor- 
able change,  who  "  promised  to  restore  them  to  their  em- 
ployments and  jilaces  again,  as  pitying  that  such  men 
should  lie  vacant"  (Stoughton,  i,  302).  But  the  king 
proved  false,  anil  the  Puritans  lost  their  places.  Among 
the  Nonconformist  ministers  who  would  not  quit  the 
pulpit  until  forced  was  Thomas  Manton.  Deprived  of 
a  church,  he  opened  his  rooms  in  Covent  Garden,  and 
there  gathered  a  congregation.  Here  the  Oxford  oath 
was  tendered  to  him,  and  on  refusal  he  was  committed 
a  prisoner  to  the  (Jate-house,  and  was  kept  confined  for 
six  months.  He  died  Oct.  18,  1077.  Perhaps  few  men 
of  that  age  had  more  virtue  and  fewer  failings;  but  his 
only  trust  was  in  the  Lamb  of  God.  As  a  preacher  he 
was  most  highly  esteemed  by  his  contemporaries.  Usher 
calls  him  "  one  of  the  best  preachers  in  England."  As 
a  practical  expositor  of  Scripture  he  was  perhaps  never 
surpassed.  He  left  numerous  writings,  chiefly  sermons 
and  expositions.  A  collective  edition  of  his  works  was 
published  in  5  vols.  8vo,  in  1081-84-89-93-1701,  with 
Life  by  Dr.  William  Harris ;  but  this  collection  is  in- 
complete. A  list  of  all  his  productions  is  given  by  Dar- 
ling, Cijiiop.  Biblioij.  i,  1953-56.  The  publication  of  a 
complete  collection  of  his  works,  prepared  under  the  su- 
pervision of  the"  Rev.  Thomas  Smith,  D.D.,  and  others, 
with  fidl  indexes  and  an  original  memoir  by  the  Rev. 
.1.  C.  Ryle.  was  begun  in  1869,  and  is  to  be  completed,  in 
20  vols,  demy  8vo,  in  1874.  See  the  excellent  article 
in  Allibone's  JJictionmy  of  British  and  American  Ati- 
thcrs,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;   Hook,  Ecclesiastical  Biofjr.  vol.  vii, 


MANTUA 


■19 


MANUEL 


s.  V. ;  Middleton,  Evangelical  Biogi-aphy,  iii,  429.      (J. 
H.W.) 

Mantua,  an  Italian  province,  formerly  an  indepen- 
dent duchy,  had  a  high  reputation  in  the  time  of  the 
Komans.  After  sharing  the  fate  of  the  rest  of  Northern 
Italy,  it  was  seized  by  the  Gonzagas  about  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Wth  century.  The  last  didve  of  the 
house  of  Gonzaga  died  childless  at  I'adua  in  1708,  when 
Mantua  fell  into  the  hands  of  Austria.  In  18o9  the 
province  was  given  up  to  Italy,  but  the  town  of  Mantua 
was  not  restored  to  Italy  until  186(j,  since  which  time 
Mantua  has  formed  a  province  of  the  new  kingdom  of 
Ital}\  See  Italy.  The  city  of  Mantua  is  noted  in  ec- 
clesiastical history  for  a  council  that  was  held  there  in 
10(57  to  judge  pope  Alexander  II  for  a  charge  of  simony 
brought  against  him.  Alexander  II  took  an  oath  to 
deny  the  accusation,  and,  proving  the  validity  of  his 
election,  was  recognised  as  the  proper  incumbent  of  the 
pa]):il  chair;  while  Honorius  II  (q.  v.),  the  anti-pope, 
was  unanimously  condemned  as  simoniacal.  See  Lan- 
don,  Mdiinul  of  Councils,  p.  390. 

Maiituan,  Baptist,  a  famous  Italian  monastic  and 
poet,  was  born  at  Mantua  in  1-148 ;  joined  the  Carmel- 
ites, became  general  of  the  order,  quitted  it  in  1515,  and 
devoted  himself  for  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  belles- 
lettres.  He  died  in  151G.  His  works  were  published 
at  Paris  in  1513  (3  vols. foL),  with  the  Commentaries  of 
S.  Murrhon,  S.  Brant,  and  J.  Badius;  and  at  Antwerp 
in  157G  (4  vols.  8vo).  under  the  title,  J.  Baptistm  Man- 
tuani,  Carmelitm,  theologi,  philosophi,  pioetce,  et  oratoris 
cldrissiini,  opera  omnia,  plaribus  lihris  aucta  et  restituta. 
— (leu.  liing.  Diet,  ix,  51,  s.  v. 

Mantz,  Fklix,  a  Baptist  martyr  of  the  early  part 
of  the  IGth  century,  and  a  leader  of  the  Reformation  in 
Germany,  was  a  native  of  Zurich.  In  1519  he  studied 
Hebrew  with  Zwingle,  under  Carlstadt,  and  was  inti- 
mate with  that  reformer,  and  also  with  Myconius,  Cap- 
ito,  and  other  leaders  of  the  Swiss  Reformation.  About 
15"22  he  objected  openly  to  the  doctrine  of  infant  bap- 
tism, to  the  tithes,  usurj',  and  other  peculiarities  of  the 
Romish  Church,  and  thus  failing  to  harmonize  with  the 
opinions  of  Zwingle,  he  was  led  to  a  separation  from  the 
party  of  that  reformer,  and  became  connected  with  the 
Baptists.  In  1523  he  preached  publicly  on  the  subject 
of  baptism.  In  the  three  disputes  held  at  Zurich  in 
1525,  iNIantz  appears  to  have  taken  part,  and  after  that 
of  March  was  thrown  into  prison,  from  which,  however, 
he  escaped.  He  afterwards  preached  in  different  parts 
of  Switzerland  ;  in  152G  was  imprisoned  in  the  tower  of 
Wellenberg,  on  the  charge  of  baptizing  contrary  to  the 
prohibitory  edict  of  the  magistrates  of  Ziirich,  and,  re- 
fusing to  recant,  was  condemned,  and  drowned  in  Janu- 
ary, 1527.  See  Brown,  Baptist  Martyrs,  p.  49  (Amer. 
Bap.  Pub.  Soc.  Phila.). 

Manu  (from  the  Sanscrit  ?»«?;,  to  ?/«■«/>,•,•  literally, //ie 
ihinkiii'i  being)  is  the  name  of  the  reputed  author  of  the 
most  renowned  law-book  of  the  ancient  Hindus,  and 
likewise  of  an  ancient  Kalpa  sttti-n  (q.  v.).  It  is  mat- 
ter, however,  of  considerable  doubt  whether  both  works 
belong  to  the  same  individual,  and  whether  the  name 
Manu,  especially  in  the  case  of  the  author  of  the  law- 
book, was  intended  to  designate  a  historical  personage. 
In  several  passages  of  the  Vedas  (q.  v.),  as  well  as  of  the 
Mahiibhfirata  (q.  v."),  IManu  is  spoken  of  as  the  progeni- 
tor of  the  human  race,  and  in  the  first  chapter  of  the 
law-book  ascribed  to  1dm  he  declares  himself  to  have 
been  produced  by  A'irnj,  an  offspring  of  the  Supreme 
Bsing,  and  to  have  created  all  the  imiverse.  Hindu 
mytliidogy,  moreover,  recognises  a  succession  of  ]\Ianus, 
each  of  whom  created,  in  his  own  period,  the  world  anew 
after  it  had  perished  at  the  end  of  a  mundane  age.  The 
word  Manu — kindred  with  our  "  ma)i' — belongs  there- 
fore, properly  speaking,  to  ancient  Hindu  mythology, 
and  it  A\-as  connected  with  the  renowned  law-book  in 
order  to  impart  to  the  latter  the  sanctity  on  which  its 
authority  rests.    This  work  is  not  merely  a  law-book  in 


the  European  sense  of  the  word ;  it  is  likewise  a  system 
of  cosmogony,  or,  as  Sir  William  Jones  has  it,  "com- 
prises the  Indian  system  of  duties,  religious  and  civil." 
It  propounds  metaphysical  doctrines,  teaches  the  art  of 
government,  and,  among  other  things,  treats  of  the  state 
of  the  soul  after  death.  The  chief  topics  of  its  twelve 
books  are  the  following;  1.  Creation;  2.  Education  and 
the  duties  of  a  pupil,  or  the  first  order;  3.  Marriage  and 
the  duties  of  a  householder,  or  the  second  order;  4. 
Means  of  subsistence,  and  private  morals;  5.  Diet,  puri-. 
fication,  and  the  duties  of  women ;  G.  Tlie  duties  of  an 
anchorite  and  an  ascetic,  or  the  duties  of  the  third  and 
fourth  orders ;  7.  Government,  and  the  duties  of  a  king 
and  the  military  caste ;  8.  Judicature  and  law,  private 
and  criminal;  9.  Continuation  of  the  former,  and  the 
duties  of  the  commercial  and  servile  castes;  10.  Mixed 
castes,  and  the  duties  of  the  castes  in  time  of  distress; 
11.  Penance  and  expiation ;  12.  Transmigration  and  final 
beatitude.  It  is  the  opinion  of  Maine  (Ancient  Laio~) 
and  other  eminent  scholars  that  the  code  of  Manu  was 
never  full}'  accepted  or  enforced  in  India,  and  remained 
always  an  ideal  of  the  perfect  Brahmanic  state.  It  is 
supposed,  by  Wilson,  Lassen,  Max  Midler,  and  Saint  IMar- 
tin,  to  have  been  written  about  B.C.  900  or  1000.  The 
text  of  this  work  has  been  published  in  several  editions 
both  in  India  and  Europe.  An  excellent  English  trans- 
lation of  it  we  owe  to  Sir  W.Jones  (Calcutta,  1796;  2d 
ed.,  by  Haughton,  Lond.  1825),  and  a  very  good  French 
translation  to  A.  Loiseleur  Deslongchamps  (Paris,  1833). 
See  Johiintzen,  Ueber  das  Gesetzbuch  des  Manu  (Berl. 
18G3) ;  Jlax  Miiller,  Chips  from  a  German  Worhsliop 
(Index  to  vol.  ii)  ;  Elphinstone,  Hist,  of  India  (3d  ed.), 
p.  22G  sq. ;  Hardwick,  Christ  and  other  Masters,  i,  194 
sq. ;  James  Freeman  Clarke,  Ten  Great  Religions,  p.  100 
sq.     See  Hini>iiism. 

Manudiictor  is  the  name  of  an  ecclesiastical  officer 
whose  duty  it  was  to  give  the  signal  to  the  choristers 
to  sing,  to  mark  the  measure,  beat  the  time,  and  regu- 
late the  music.  The  word  means  to  lead  by  means  of 
the  hand;  and  the  officer  was  so  called  because  he  was 
required  to  stand  in  the  middle  of  the  aisle,  and  to  guide 
the  choir  by  the  motions  of  his  hand.  The  Greek 
Church  has  an  officer  who  performs  similar  services, 
who  is  called  3fesocho>-os,  because  he  is  seated  in  the 
midst  of  the  choir. — Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Manuel  Ciiauitopulus  (o  XapiroTroiAoc),  or  Sa- 
RANTENUS  (o  'S.apavTi]voQ),  or  the  Philosopher,  a  (ireek 
ecclesiastic  who  flourished  in  the  r2th  and  13th  centu- 
ries, acquired  a  high  reputation  by  his  philosophical 
attainments.  He  was  appointed  patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople on  the  death  of  Maximus  II,  A.D.  1215,  and  held 
the  patriarchate  for  five  years  and  seven  months.  He 
died  about  A.D.  1221.  Three  synodal  decrees  of  a  Man- 
uel, patriarch  of  Constantino])le,  are  given  in  the  Jus 
Graco-Bomanum  of  Leunclavius  (lib. iii, p. 238, etc.). who 
assigns  them  to  Charitopulus,  and  is  followed  by  Cave 
and  Oudin,  who  have  confounded  Charitopulus  with  an- 
other Manuel  (of  Constantinople).  Le  Quien  objects  to 
this  judgment  of  Leunclavius,  as  not  founded  on  evi- 
dence, and,  with  better  reason,  adjudges  them  to  IMan- 
uel  Bryennius.  Ephraem  of  Constantinople  celebrates 
Charitopulus  as  "  an  exact  observer  of  the  laws  and  can- 
ons" (Georg.Acropolit.  ^-1  ?;??«/.  [c.  19,  p.  17,  ed.  Paris;  p. 
35,  ed.  Bonn]  ;  Ephraem.  De  I'ut7-iarcliis  [Charitop.  vs. 
10,  251,  ed.  Bonn];  Anonymous  [supposed  by  some  to 
be  Niceph.  Callist.],  De  Pairiarckis  Cha?iiopolitams 
Cai-men  lambicum,  and  Patriarchce  Chen-itopoleos,  apud 
Labbe,  De  Ilistor.  Byzant.  Srriptorib.  JIpoTpiTTTiKov ; 
Le  Quien,  Oriens  Christianits,  i,  col.  278 ;  Cave,  Hist.  Litt. 
ad  ann.  1240,  ii,  297  [ed.  Oxford,  1740-42)  ;  Oudin.  Com- 
ment de  Scriptorib. et  Scriptls  Eccles.  iii, col.  177). — Smith, 
Diet,  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Biog.  and  Mythol.  s.  v. 

Manuel  (I)  Co:«sknus  (MnvouiiX  6  Kopi'tjvoc'), 
emperor  of  Constantinople  from  1143  to  1180,  was  the 
fourth  son  of  John  II,  and  was  born  about  A.D.  1120. 
Two  of  his  elder  brothers,  Alexis  and  Andronicus,  both 
died  before  their  father,  and  a  special  declaration  of  the 


MANUEL 


720 


MANUEL 


emperor  appointed  Manuel  as  his  successor,  to  the  prej- 
udice i)f  his  third  son,  Isaac  8ehastocrator.  As  soon  as 
Manuel  ascended  the  throne,  he  surrounded  himself  with 
the  bravest  warriors  of  the  West,  and  soon  became  fore- 
most even  among  them  for  Ids  courage.  His  reign  was 
a  succession  of  wars,  sometimes  in  Asia,  sometimes  in 
Europe.  Conrad  III  and  Louis  VII  having  informed 
him  that  they  were  preparing  a  new  crusade,  Manuel, 
although  apparently  disposed  to  help  them,  gave  secret 
information  to  the  Turks  of  the  approaching  danger. 

The  relation  which  Manuel  Comnenus  sustained  to 
the  Church  of  Rome  is  of  special  interest  to  us.  His 
Latin  subjects  he  treated  with  kindness,  embellished 
their  churches,  and  readily  did  all  they  asked  of  him. 
This  generous  disposition  on  the  part  of  Manuel  Com- 
nenus towards  the  Latins  encouraged  pope  Hadrian  IV 
(1154-1159)  to  make  proposals  for  a  union  of  the  East- 
ern with  the  Western  Church,  but  the  plan  failed  of 
success  because  of  the  objections  of  tlie  Greek  patriarch 
to  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  the  pope  of  Rome. 
See  Greek  Ciiukcii.  After  Hadrian's  death  Manuel 
entered  into  correspondence  with  Alexander  HI,  de- 
clared himself  in  favor  of  the  Crusades,  and  offered  as- 
sistance. The  German  emperor,  Frederick  I,  had  taken 
sides  with  the  rival  pope  Victor,  and  Manuel  embraced 
this  opportunity  to  urge  upon  Alexander  the  claims  of 
the  Greek  emperor  to  the  Roman  crown,  promising  in 
return  to  aid  the  pope  in  establishing  the  papal  po^ver 
in  all  Italy,  and  in  the  union  of  the  Eastern  and  West- 
ern Church.  So  long  as  the  pope  was  in  danger  from 
the  invading  AUemanni,  he  acted  as  if  he  felt  inclined 
to  acknowledge  the  true  representative  of  Constantine 
and  Augustus.  Rut  after  the  establishment  of  peace 
and  friendship  with  Frederick,  Alexander  "spoke  a  more 
peremptory  language,  confirmed  the  acts  of  his  prede- 
cessors, excommunicated  the  adherents  of  Manuel,  and 
pronounced  the  final  separation  of  the  churches,  or  at 
least  the  empires  of  Constantinople  and  Rome"  (Gibbon, 
v,491).  Manuel  died  Sept. 24, 1180.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  deeply  versed  in  theology,  but "  was  certainly  rath- 
c  r  a  great  talker  than  a  great  thinker  on  religion."  See 
Smith,  Diet,  of  Gr,  and  Rom.  Biorj.  s.  v.;  Lebeau,  Hist, 
(hi  Bas-Empire  (Paris,  1834),  xvi,  63  sq. ;  Wetzer  u. 
Welte,  Kirchen-Lexikon,  s.  v. 

Manuel  of  Constantinople,  There  were  two 
Manuels  patriarchs  of  Constantinople,  Manuel  I  (Chari- 
topulus),  and  Manuel  II,  the  subject  of  the  present  arti- 
cle. Cave,  Oudin,  and  others  seem  to  have  confounded 
the  two,  for  they  state  that  Manuel  Charitopulus  suc- 
ceeded Germanus  II  in  A.D.  1240.  Charitopulus  was 
the  predecessor  of  Germanus,  not  his  successor;  Manuel 
II  was  his  successor,  though  not  immediately,  for  the 
brief  patriarchate  of  Methodius  II  and  a  vacancy  in  the 
see,  of  considerable  but  uncertain  length,  intervened. 
IManuel's  death  is  distinctly  fixed  as  having  occurred 
two  months  before  that  of  the  emperor  Joannes  Ducas 
Vatatzcs,  A.D.  1255,  Oct.  30.  The  duration  of  his  pa- 
triarchate is  fixed  by  Nicephorus  Callisti,  according  to 
Le  Quien,  at  eleven  years;  but  the  table  in  the  Protrep- 
ticon  of  Labbc  assigns  to  him  fourteen  years,  so  that  A.D. 
1240  or  1214  may  be  assumed  as  the  year  of  his  acces- 
sion, according  as  one  or  the  other  of  these  authorities 
is  preferred.  Manuel  field,  Ijeforc  his  patriarchate,  a 
high  place  among  the  ecclesiastics  of  the  Byzantine 
court,  then  fixed  at  Nice,  and  was  reputed  a  man  of 
l)iety  and  holiness,  "thougli  married,"  and  of  a  mild  and 
gentle  disposition,  but  by  no  means  learned.  The  three 
iSententice  Synodales  of  the  patriarcli  ]\Ianuel  given  in 
the  Jus  Grmco-Romamim  undoubtedly  belong  to  this 
patriarch,  not  to  Charitopulus,  for  the  second  of  them. 
De  Translatione  Episcoponim,  is  cxpresslj'  dated  July, 
Indict.  8,  A.M.  6578,  iera  of  Constant.  =  A.D.  \TM.  Some 
Morks  in  MS.,  especially  a  ktter  to  pope  Innocent  by 
'•  Manuel  Patriarcha  CPol.,"  probably  belong  to  Manuel 
of  Constantinople  (Le  (^uien,  Orievs  Christianus,  i,  col. 
279;  Cave,  Hist.  Litt.  ad  aiin.  1240,  ii,  297  [ed.  Oxford, 
1740-42] ;  Oudin,  Comment  de  iScrijttotib.  et  Saijiiis  Ec- 


des.  iii,  col.  177 ;  Fabricius,  Bihl.  Grcec.  xi,  668). — Smith, 
Dict^  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Biog.  and  Mythol.  s.  v. 

Manuel  IIolouolus,  a  Byzantine  ecclesiastic  of  the 
13th  century,  about  1261  or  1262  was  cruelly  mutilated 
Ijy  the  cutting  off  of  his  nose  and  lips,  by  order  of  the 
ambitious  Michael  Pala;ologus,  because  he  had  express- 
ed grief  at  the  deposition,  persecution,  and  banishment 
of  Joannes  Lascaris,  emperor  of  Nica>a,  by  PaUeologus, 
his  successor  in  the  empire.  Holobolus  was  then  con- 
fined to  the  monastery  of  the  Precursor,  where,  having 
excellent  abilities  and  opportunities,  he  pursued  his  stud- 
ies with  success.  About  A.D.  1267  Germanus  III,  bish- 
op of  Constantinople,  procured  for  him  the  appointment 
of  teaclier  of  a  school  of  young  ecclesiastics,  and  pre- 
vailed upon  the  emperor  to  remit  his  punisliment  and 
allow  him  to  quit  the  monastery.  Germanus  also  con- 
ferred on  him  the  ecclesiastical  office  of  rhetor,  reader 
and  expounder  of  the  Scriptures.  When  the  emperor 
PaUeologus  attempted  a  reconciliation  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  churches,  he  sought  the  counsel  of  Holobolus,  but 
he  declared  against  tlie  plan  of  reconciliation.  This 
brought  upon  him  the  emperor's  indignation,  and  he 
was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  the  church  sanctuary  to 
escape  violence  from  the  emperor's  courtiers;  was  ban- 
ished thence  to  the  monastery  of  Hj^acinthus,  at  Nice, 
A.D.  1273 ;  was  afterwards  taken  back  to  Constantino- 
ple, and  beaten  and  paraded  ignominiouslj'  through  the 
streets.  In  A.D.  1283,  after  the  accession  of  Androiiicus 
II,  Palaiologus,  son  of  IMichael,  who  pursued  with  re- 
spect to  tlie  union  of  the  churches  an  opposite  policy 
to  that  of  his  father,  Holobolus  appeared  in  the  Synod 
of  Constantinople,  in  which  Joannes  Veccus  was  deposed 
from  the  patriarchate  of  Constantinople,  and  he  took 
part  in  the  subsequent  disputations  with  that  chief  of 
the  Latinizing  party.  Little  else  is  known  of  Holobo- 
lus. See  Smith,  Diet.  ofGr.  and  Rom.  Biog.  and  Mgthol. 
s.  v. 

Manuel  Pal-eologus.    SeepERRARA;  Florence, 

SVNOD  OF. 

Manuel,  Niclaus,  or  Nicolas,  sometimes  called 
Deutscit,  one  of  the  most  prominent  characters  in  the 
ecclesiastical  history  of  Switzerland,  in  the  age  just  iire- 
ceding  the  Reformation,  was  born  at  Bern  in  1484.  His 
real  name  is  conjectured  by  his  biographer.  Dr.  Griin- 
eisen,  to  have  been  A  lleman,  but,  as  he  was  illegitimate,  it 
was,  for  family  reasons,  changed  anagrammatically  into  ' 
that  of  INIanuel.  It  is  further  conjectured  that  he  was 
brought  up  by  his  maternal  grandfather,  Thiiring  Frick- 
art.  He  was  an  artist  by  profession,  but  he  excelled 
also  as  a  poet  and  author.  He  studied  the  art  of  paint- 
ing at  Colmar,  under  the  successors  of  the  celebrated 
Martin  Schtin,  until  the  fame  of  Titian  attracted  him  to 
Venice,  where,  about  1511,  he  became  one  of  his  pupils : 
he  is  the  Emanudlo  Tedesco  of  Ridolfi  and  other  Italian 
writers.  He  is  said  to  have  assisted  Holbein,  in  1515, 
in  his  "  Dance  of  Death ;"  but  this  is  very  improbable, 
as  he  was  himself  employed  at  that  time  in  painting  the 
same  subject  in  the  cloister  of  the  Dominican  convent 
at  Bern.  It  was  executed  in  fresco  or  distemper.  The 
picture  consisted  of  forty-six  subjects,  forty-one  of  which 
were  the  actual  Todtentanz ;  it  has  long  since  been  de- 
stroyed, but  the  compositions  are  preserved  in  prints 
and  copies :  the  wall  on  which  it  was  painted  was  jMilled 
down  in  1660.  ]\Ianuel  was  an  active  reformer,  and 
many  of  tliese  designs  are  reflections  upon  the  abuses 
of  the  Roman  Church.  He  also  ornamented  his  own 
house  with  a  large  fresco,  representing  Solomon  wor- 
shipping idols.  But  of  these  and  several  other  of  his 
works  nothing  now  remains,  except  some  small  water- 
color  copies  preserved  in  the  library  at  Basle.  How- 
ever, either  because  his  pencil  did  not  bring  liim  suffi- 
cient for  the  maintenance  of  his  family,  or  from  his  po- 
litical ardor,  he  was  induced  to  engage  in  military  and 
public  affairs.  He  .served,  as  quartermaster  or  commis- 
sary, among  the  Swiss  allies  who  assisted  Francis  I  in  his 
expedition  against  Milan,  1522,  and  was  present  both  at 


MANURE 


V21 


MANUSCRIPTS 


the  storming  of  Novara  and  the  battle  of  Bicocca.  In 
the  following  year  he  was  chosen  landvogt  of  Erlach, 
and  from  the  year  1526  distinguished  himself  by  his 
zeal  in  the  cause  of  the  Reformation.  From  this  period 
he  was  entirely  devoted  to  that  cause,  and  to  his  various 
public  employments.  He  died  in  1530,  when  only  forty- 
six  years  of  age.  As  a  writer  he  began  to  distinguish 
himself  in  1509,  by  various  popular  poems  and  songs  in 
the  Swiss  dialect,  full  of  humor  and  sharp  satire.  He  is 
said  In'  some  to  be  the  author  of  a  song,  which  origi- 
nated in  the  early  part  of  the  IGth  century,  deriding  the 
belief  in  the  immacidate  conception  of  the  Virgin  Marj'. 
But  though  this  be  doubtful,  it  is  certain  that  Manuel 
wielded  his  pen  in  support  of  the  Reformation  by  at- 
tacking the  gross  abuses  of  the  clergj'  and  the  licen- 
tiousness of  monastics.  His  Fasinachtssjnele,  or  "  Dra- 
matic Moralities  and  Mysteries,"  which  he  began  to 
compose  about  1522,  are  marked  by  the  same  qualities 
as  his  polemical  pieces.  See  Dr.  Grlineisen,  Nicclas 
Manud,  Lehen  imd  Werke  eines  Malers,  Dichters,  Krie- 
gers,  Staatsmanneg,  mid  Reformators  (Stuttgart  and  Tu- 
bingen, 1837)  ;  Nagler,  Neues  A  l/f/emei'nes  Kiinstler-Lex- 
ikov,  s.  v. ;  Herzog,  Eeal-Enctjklop.  ix,  4  sq. ;  English 
Cgcloji.  s.  V. 

Manure.  Although  the  Scriptures  do  not  furnish 
us  witli  many  details  respecting  the  state  of  agriculture 
in  Juda?a,  yet  we  may  collect  from  various  passages 
many  interesting  hints  that  will  enable  us  to  form  some 
itlca  of  the  high  state  of  its  cultivation.  See  Agricul- 
TUKK.  It  is  not  probable  that  the  Hebrews  derived 
their  knowledge  of  manures  from  Eg\'pt,but  they  doubt- 
less adopted  and  preserved  the  customs  which  existed 
among  the  previous  inhabitants  of  the  country.  In  the 
parable  of  the  tig-tree  which  had  for  three  years  been 
barren,  and  which  the  proprietor  therefore  doomed  to  be 
cut  down,  the  gardener  is  represented  as  praying  for  de- 
lay, until  he  should  "  dig  about  it  and  dung  it"  (Luke 
xiii,  7).  To  explain  this,  Lightfoot  quotes  the  follow- 
ing from  the  Talmud  :  "  They  lay  dung  to  moisten  and 
enrich  the  soil;  dig  about  the  roots  of  trees;  pluck  up 
the  suckers ;  take  off  the  leaves ;  sprinkle  ashes ;  and 
smoke  under  the  trees  to  kill  vermin."  In  addition  to 
the  various  modes  of  irrigation,  the  soil  was  likewise 
enriched  by  moans  of  ashes;  to  which  were  added  the 
straw  ("2Pi,  teben),  stubble  (d]?,  kash),  husks,  or  chaff 
(VT^,  mots),  together  with  the  brambles  and  grass  that 
overspread  the  land  during  the  sabbatical  year;  all  be- 
ing reduced  by  fire  and  used  as  manure  (Prov.  xxiv,  31 ; 
Isa.  vii,  23;  xxxii,  13).  The  burning  over  the  surface 
of  the  land  had  also  another  good  effect,  that  of  destroy- 
ing the  seeds  of  noxious  herbs  (Jahn,  Bibl.  Arch.  §  57). 
Dunghills  are  mentioned  in  1  Sam.  ii,  8;  Ezra  vi,  11; 
Dan.  ii,  5 ;  iii,  29,  and  one  of  the  gates  at  Jerusalem  was 
called  the  Dung-gate,  from  dung  being  carried  out  there 
(Neh.  ii,  13).  That  the  soil  was  manured  with  dung,  we 
learn  from  2  Kings  ix,  37  ;  Psa.  Ixxxiii,  10 ;  Jer.  viii,  2  ; 
ix,  22;  xvi,4;  xxv,  33;  Luke  xiv,  35.  The  Israelites 
had  comparatively  few  horses  and  few  swine,  two  sources 
of  excellent  strong  maniu^e.  Their  animals  consisted 
chiefly  of  oxen,  camels,  asses,  sheep,  and  goats.  The 
dung  of  the  cow  and  camel  was  used  to  a  considerable 
extent  for  fuel,  and  the  dung  of  the  sacrifices  was  direct- 
ed to  be  burned — circumstances  calculated  to  diminish 
the  supply.  That  salt  was  used  for  manure  we  learn 
from  Matt,  v,  13  and  Luke  xiv,  34, 35,  and  it  would  ap- 
pear that  salt  was  sometimes  sown  by  itself  on  the  land, 
at  others  mixed  in  the  dunghill.  From  the  Talmud  we 
learn  that  a  dunghill  in  a  public  place  exposed  the  own- 
er to. the  payment  of  whatever  damage  it  might  occa- 
sion, and  any  person  might  remove  it  as  a  nuisance. 
Dung  might  not,  during  the  seventh  year,  be  transport- 
ed to  tiie  neighborhood  of  the  fields  intended  to  be  ma- 
nured. Under  certain  restrictions  it  was,  however,  per- 
mitted to  fold  cattle,  for  the  sake  of  their  manure,  upon 
the  lauds  that  required  it  in  the  sabbatic  year,  and  it  is 
from  this  only  we  learn  that  the  practice  existed  among 
v.— Zz 


the  Jews,  who  would  seem  more  generally  to  have  fold- 
ed their  sheep  within  walled  enclosures  (John  x,  1-6), 
the  occasional  clearance  of  which  must  have  afforded  a 
principal  supply  of  manure.  It  would  seem  that  gar- 
dens, except  a  few  old  rose-gardens,  were  not  allowed 
within  the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  on  account  of  the  maimre 
they  would  have  required,  and  "  because  of  the  stench," 
as  the  Mishnah  states,  this  produced,  as  well  as  because 
of  that  arising  from  the  weeds  thrown  out  from  gardens. 
From  another  passage  of  the  Talmud  we  are  informed 
that  the  surplus  blood  of  tlie  sacrifices  offered  in  the 
Temple,  that  is  to  say,  the  blood  which  was  poured  out 
at  the  foot  of  the  altar,  after  the  altar  had  been  duly 
sprinkled,  was  conducted  by  a  subterraneous  channel  to 
the  outside  of  the  city,  and  was  sold  to  the  gardeners  as 
manure  for  their  gardens;  by  which  we  are  to  under- 
stand that  the  gardeners  were  allowed  to  use  it  on  pay- 
ing the  price  of  a  trespass-offering,  without  which  it 
could  not  be  appropriated  to  any  common  use  after  hav- 
ing been  dedicated  at  the  altar.     See  Duxg. 

Manus  Mortua.     See  Amortisation. 

Manuscripts,  Biblical.  These  are  either  He- 
brew or  Greek ;  we  shall  treat  of  them  separately,  using 
largely  the  matter  found  in  the  Dictionaries  of  Kitto 
and  Smith. 

I.  Jewish  Manusa-ipts. — 1.  These  are  divided  into  (a.) 
Synagogue  7-olls  or  sacred  copies,  and  (6.)  Private  or 
common  copies. 

(o.)  The  synagogue  rolls  contain  the  Pentateuch,  the 
appointed  sections  of  the  prophets,  or  the  book  of  Es- 
ther, which  last  is  used  only  at  the  Feast  of  Purim.  The 
three  are  never  put  together,  but  are  written  on  separate 
rolls.  They  are  in  the  Chaldee  or  square  Hebrew  char- 
acter, Avithout  vowels  and  accents,  accompanied  with 
ihepuncta  exiraordinaria,  and  having  the  unusual  forms 
of  certain  consonants.  The  parchment  is  prepared  in 
a  particular  manner  by  the  hands  of  Jews  only,  and 
made  from  the  hides  oi clean  animals,  which,  when  duly 
wrought,  are  joined  together  by  thongs  made  out  of  the 
same  material.  They  are  then  divided  into  columns, 
the  breadth  of  which  must  not  exceed  half  their  length. 
These  columns,  whose  number  is  prescribed,  must  be  of 
equal  length  and  breadth  among  themselves,  and  con- 
tain a  certain  number  of  lines,  each  line  having  no  more- 
than  three  words.  The  Talmud  contains  strict  rules 
concerning  the  material,  the  color,  the  ink,  letters,  divi- 
sions, writing  instrument,  etc.,  which  are  closely  fol- 
lowed, especially  in  the  Pentateuch.  These  rules  are 
extracted  from  the  Talmud,  and  translated  in  Adler's 
Judceontm  Codicis  Sacri  rite  scribendi  leges,  etc.  (Ham- 
burg, 1779,  8vo).  The  minuteness  of  such  regulationg 
renders  it  a  most  irksome  task  for  the  sopher  or  scribe 
to  write  out  a  synagogue  roU.  The  revision  of  th& 
Torah,  as  the  synagogue  roll  is  often  called,  must  be 
undertaken  within  thirty  days  after  its  transcription,. 
else  it  is  unfit  for  use.  Three  mistakes  on  one  side  or 
skin  are  allowable ;  but  shoidd  there  he  four,  or  shoiUd 
there  happen  to  be  an  error  in  the  open  and  close  sec- 
tions of  the  law,  in  the  position  of  the  songs  in  Exod.  v 
and  Dcut.  xxii,  which  are  the  only  portions  of  the  Pen- 
tateuch written  in  poetical  lines,  then  the  whole  copy 
is  worthless.  The  great  beauty  of  penmanship  exhib- 
ited in  these  synagogue  copies  has  always  been  admired. 
They  are  taken  from  authentic  exemplars,  without  the 
slightest  deviation  or  correction.  Seldom  do  they  fall 
into  the  hands  of  Christians ;  since,  as  soon  as  they  cease 
to  be  emploj'ed  in  the  synagogue,  they  are  either  buried 
or  carefully  laid  aside,  lest  they  should  be  profaned  by 
coming  into  the  possession  of  (ientiles. 

(6.)  Private  MSS.  are  written  partly  in  the  square  or 
Chaldee  character,  partly  in  the  Rabbinical.  The}-  are 
held  in  far  less  esteem  than  the  synagogue  rolls,  and  are 
wont  to  be  denominated  profane  (pesulini).  Their  form 
is  entirely  arbitrary.  They  are  in  folio,  quarto,  octavo,, 
and  duodecimo.  Of  those  written  in  the  square  char- 
ade?; the  greater  number  are  on  parchment,  some  on 


MANUSCRIPTS 


722 


MANUSCRIPTS 


I 


public  librarj"-  at  St.  Petersburg  there  is  a  collection  of  He- 
brew IVISS.  made  by  IMr.  Firkowicz,  containing  several 
very  ancient  ones.  The  oldest  date  is  in  a  roll  found 
in  a  Karaite  synagogue  in  the  Crimea,  viz.  A.U.  489 ; 
but  that  date  is  very  suspicious.  Several  fragments  of 
rolls  give,  as  the  dates  of  purchase  or  dedication,  A.D. 
639,  704,  781,  789,  798,  805,  815,  843,  848. 

3.  A  few  of  the  oldest  Hebrew  ]MSS.  may  be  briefly 
described  here.     We  begin  with  the 

Ilelali  or  Jlillel  Codex  ("^^N^il  "ISO),  one  of  the  most 
ancient  and  most  celebrated  codices  of  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures, which  derived  its  name  from  the  fact  that  it  was 
written  at  Hilla  (nbxbri),  a  town  built  near  the  ruins 
of  ancient  Babel.  Others,  however,  maintain  that  it 
was  called  Ililali  because  the  name  of  the  man  who 
wrote  it  was  Hillel.  But  whatever  uncertainty  there 
may  be  about  the  derivation  of  its  name,  there  can 
hardly  be  any  doubt  tliat  it  was  written  A.D.  GOO,  for 
Sakkuto  teUs  us  most  distinctly  that  when  he  saw  the  re- 
mainder of  it  (cir.  A.D.  1500)  the  Codex  was  900  years 
old.  His  words  are,  "  In  the  year  4956,  on  the  28th  of 
Ab  (1196,  better  1197),  there  was  a  great  persecution  of 
the  Jews  in  the  kingdom  of  Leon  from  the  two  king- 
doms that  came  to  besiege  it.  It  was  then  that  the 
twenty-foiu-  sacred  books  which  were  MTitten  long  ago, 
about  the  year  600,  by  R.  Moses  ben-Hillel  (on  which 
account  the  Codex  was  called  Hilali),  in  an  exceedingly 
correct  manner,  and  after  which  all  the  copies  were  cor- 
rected, were  taken  away.  I  saw  the  remaining  two 
portions  of  it — viz.  the  earlier  and  later  prophets — writ- 
ten in  large  and  beautiful  characters,  which  were  brought 
to  Portugal  and  sold  in  Africa,  where  they  still  are,  hav- 
ing been  written  900  years  ago.  Kimchi,  in  his  Gram- 
mar on  Numb,  xv,  4,  says  that  the  Pentateuch  of  this 
Codex  was  extant  in  Toleti"  (Juchassin,  ed.  Filipowski, 
Lond,  1857,  p.  220).  The  Codex  had  the  Tiberian  vow- 
els and  accents,  INIasorah  and  Nikud  glosses,  and  it 
served  up  to  A.D.  1500  as  a  model  from  which  copies 
were  made.  The  Codex  which  Haja  had  in  Babylon 
about  A.D.  1000  was  convej'ed  to  Leon,  in  Spain,  where 
the  greater  part  of  it  became  a  prey  to  the  fury  of  the 
martial  hosts  who  sacked  the  Jewish  dwellings  in  1197. 
The  celebrated  grammarian,  Jacob  ben-Eleazar,  fixed  the 
renderings  of  the  Biblical  text  according  to  this  Codex, 
and  the  older  philologians  frequently  quote  it.  Comp. 
Griitz,  Geschichte  der  Juden  (Lpz.  1859),  vi,  132,  229; 
Filrst,  Geschichte  des  Karaerthunis  (Leipzic,  1869),  i,  22, 
138 ;  Kimchi,  Radicum  Liber  'ed.  Biesenthal  et  Lebrecht 
(BeroHni,  1847),  p.  26.     See  Jacob  ben-Eleazah. 

No.  1,  Pinner.  This  is  a  Pentateuch  roll  on  leather, 
containing  the  five  Mosaic  books  complete.     It  has  no 


•^>'31QK^^^tti 


paper.  The  ink  of  the  letters  is  always  black,  but  the 
vowel  points  are  usually  written  with  ink  of  a  different 
color  from  that  of  the  consonants.  Initial  words  and 
letters  are  frequently  decorated  with  gold  and  silver  col- 
ors. The  prose  parts  are  arranged  in  columns ;  the  po- 
etic in  parallel  numbers.  Some  copies  are  without  col- 
umns. The  columns  are  not  always  occupied  with  the 
Hebrew  text  alone ;  for  a  version  is  frequently  added, 
which  is  either  written  in  the  text  after  the  manner  of 
verses,  or  in  a  column  by  itself,  or  in  the  margin  in  a 
smaller  character,  Tlie  number  of  lines  is  not  prescribed 
by  the  Talmud.  The  upper  and  lower  margin  are  filled 
^vith  the  Great  Masorah,  and  sometimes  with  a  rabbin- 
ical commentary ;  as  also  with  prayers,  psalms,  and  the 
like.  The  external  margin  is  for  corrections,  scholia, 
variations,  notices  of  the  haphtaroth  (sections  from  the 
]irophets),  parshioth  (sections  from  the  law),  the  com- 
mentaries of  the  rabbins,  etc.  The  inner  margin,  or 
that  between  the  columns,  is  occupied  with  the  Little 
jNIasorah.  The  single  books  of  the  O.  T.  are  separated 
from  one  another  by  spaces,  except  the  books  of  Samuel, 
Kings,  Chronicles,  Ezra,  and  Nehemiah,  which  are  writ- 
ten continuously.  The  sections  of  the  law  and  prophets 
are  generally  marked.  In  the  MSS.  of  different  coun- 
tries the  books  are  differently  arranged.  These  copies 
generally  pass  through  various  hands  before  they  are 
finished.  The  consonants  proceed  from  the  sopher  or 
scribe.  When  the  same  person  writes  both  consonants 
and  vowels,  as  is  frequently  the  case — he  never  makes 
them  at  the  same  time — the  former  are  finished  before 
he  begins  to  append  the  latter.  The  Kei-is  in  the  mar- 
gin uniformly  proceed  from  the  vowel-writer.  It  is 
probable  that  these  copies  were  in  no  instance  made  by 
Christians. 

The  square  character  employed  in  the  MSS.  of  which 
we  have  spoken  has  varieties.  The  Jews  themselves 
distinguish  in  the  synagogue  rolls — 1.  the  Tarn  letter, 
witli  sharp  corners  and  ])erpendicular  coronulae,  used 
among  the  German  and  Polish  Jews ;  2.  the  Vehhe  let- 
ter, more  modern  than  the  Ttan,  and  rounder,  with  co- 
ronula;,  particularly  found  in  the  sacred  copies  of  the 
Spanish  and  Oriental  Jews.     See  Old  Testa>ient. 

2.  The  age  of  Hebrew  MSS.  is  not  easily  determined. 
It  is  true  that  they  often  contain  subscriptions  giving 
an  account  of  the  time  when  they  were  written,  and  the 
name  of  the  scribe,  or  also  of  the  possessor.     But  these 
accounts  are  often  ambiguous,  occasionally  incorrect. 
Where  they  are  altogether  wanting  it  is  still  more  diffi- 
cult to  discover  the  age.     In  the  latter  case  the  charac- 
ter of  tlie  writing,  the  color  of  the  ink,  the  quality  and 
complexion  of  the  parchment,  the  absence  of  the  Maso- 
rah, of  the  vowel-points, 
of  the    unusual  letters, 
etc.,  have  been  chiefly 
rested  upon.    Still,  how- 
ever, such  particulars  are 
uncertain  marks  of  age. 
The    oldest    Hebrew 
BIS.  known  to  Kennicott 
or  De  Rossi  was  634  of 
De  Rossi,  a  mere  frag- 
ment,  containing   small 
portions  of  Leviticus  and 
Numbers.    According  to 
its  former   possessor,   it 
belongs  to  the  8th  cen- 
tury.    So  much  uncer- 
tainty attaches  to  the  in- 
ternal marks  adopted  by 
these  two  Hebraists  that 
the  ages  to  which  they 
assign    several    Hebrew    - 
?>ISS.    are    gratuitous. 

Since  Pinner  examine<l  a  number  of  JISS.  belonging  to  I  vowels,  accents,  or  ISIasorah.  The  roll  consists  of  forty- 
the  Bible  Society  of  Odessa,  older  ones  are  now  known,  five  pieces.  As  to  the  form  of  the  letters,  it  diflfers  con- 
(For  the  dates  of  his  MSS.,  see  below.)     In  the  imperial  I  siderably  from  the  present  style.     This  is  particularly 


Odessa  MS.,  No.  1  of  Pinner  (Mai.  iv,  6). 


MANUSCRIPTS 


V23 


MANUSCRIPTS 


observable  in  the  case  of  X  3  il  T  b  72.  The  variations 
in  the  text  from  the  Masoretic  recension  are  few  and  in- 
considerable. The  IMS.,  according  to  the  subscription, 
was  corrected  in  the  year  580,  consequently  the  roll 
must  have  been  written  upwards  of  1280  years.  It  was 
brought  from  Derbend,  in  Daghestan,  and  is  now  at  St. 
Petersburg.  If  the  subscription  be  genuine,  it  is  the 
oldest  MS.  known,  except  that  one  in  the  Firkowicz  col- 
lection dated  489.     (See  Rule,  Karaites,  p.  100  sq.) 

No.  Go4,  De  Kossi,  quarto.  This  is  but  the  fragment 
of  a  MS.,  containing  Lev.  xxi,  19-Numb.  i,  50.  It  is  on 
parchment,  without  the  vowel-points,  Masorah,  or  Ke- 
ris.  It  lias  also  no  interval  between  the  parshioth  or 
sections.  But  there  are  sometimes  points  between  the 
words.  It  belongs,  in  De  Rossi's  opinion,  to  the  8th 
century,  and  is  corroded  by  age.  The  character  of  tlie 
letters  is  intermediate,  approaching  the  German.  It  is 
now  at  Parma. 

No.  5,  Pinner.  This  is  a  roll  of  the  Pentateuch,  but 
incomplete.  The  writing  begins  with  Numb,  xiii,  19. 
The  form  of  the  letters  is  very  different  from  the  pres- 
ent style.  It  is  carelessly  written,  words  and  letters  be- 
ing frecjuently  omitted.  The  subscription  states  that  it 
was  written  A.D.  843. 

No.  11,  Pinner.  This  is  a  fragment  of  a  synagogue 
roll,  beginning  with  Deut.  xxxi,  1.     The  date  is  881. 

No.  503,  De  Rossi,  in  quarto.  This  is  a  JIS.  of  the 
Pentateuch,  made  up  of  different  pieces.  It  begins  with 
Gen.  xlii,  15,  and  ends  with  Deut.  xv,  12.  There  is  a 
chasm  in  it  from  Lev.  xxi,  19  to  Numb,  i,  50,  because 
De  Rossi  separated  this  portion,  thinking  it  to  be  older 
than  the  rest,  and  characterized  it  as  an  independent 
fragment  by  the  No.  634.  The  vowel-points  are  at- 
tached, but  not  throughout,  evidently  bj'  the  same  hand 
as  that  ^vhich  ^\Tote  the  consonants.  There  are  no  traces 
of  tlie  Masorah  or  Keris.  Sometimes  its  readings  have 
a  remarkable  agreement  with  those  of  the  Samaritan 
text  and  ancient  versions.  De  Rossi  places  the  various 
]iieccs  of  which  it  is  made  up  in  the  9th  and  10th  cen- 
turies. 

No.  3,  Pinner,  small  folio.  This  MS.  contains  the 
greater  and  lesser  prophets,  on  225  leaves.  Everj'  page 
is  written  in  two  columns,  between  which,  as  well  as 
below,  and  in  the  outer  margin,  stands  the  Masorah. 
Every  column  contains  twenty-one  lines.  After  each 
verse  are  two  points,  to  which,  without  any  interval,  a 
new  verse  succeeds.  The  vowels  and  accents,  as  well 
as  the  greater  and  lesser  INIasorah,  are  wholly  different 
from  the  Masoretic.  The  former  are  placed  above  the 
consonants.  The  first  page  has  a  twofold  pointing,  viz. 
above  and  below,  but  this  does  not  occur  again  except 
occasionally  in  verses  or  words.  From  Zech.  xiv,  6  to 
iMal.  i,  13  there  is  no  punctuation,  and  the  first  three 
verses  of  ]\lalachi  alone  have  been  pointed  much  later  in 
tlie  manner  now  usual.  The  whole  Codex  is  very  cor- 
rectly written.  The  form  of  the  consonants  differs  con- 
siderably from  the  present  text.  The  various  readings 
of  this  jMS.,  according  to  Pinner's  collation,  are  numer- 
ous and  important.  The  date  is  916.  Two  others  in 
the  same  collection,  Nos.  15  and  17,  have  the  same  vowel 
and  accent  system,  i.  e.  the  Babylonian  or  Eastern,  which 
originated  in  the  6th  century,  and  from  which,  in  the 
7th,  that  of  the  Western,  or  the  school  of  Tiberias,  was 
developed.  Pinsker  has  written  alily  on  the  subject 
{Kinleiiung  hi  das  Bah/lonisch-Heh-dische  Pun/ctations- 
system,  etc.,\Vien,  1683),  reviewed  by  Flirst  in  the  Zeit- 
svhrift  der  detitschen  morgenlandischcn  Gesellschoft,  xviii, 
314  sq. 

No.  13,  Pinner,  folio.  This  is  an  incomplete  ]\IS., 
consisting  of  115  leaves,  on  good  parchment,  containing 
2  Samuel  from  vi,  10  to  the  end,  and  the  books  of  Kings. 
Each  page  has  three  columns,  between  which,  as  also  at 
tlie  sides  of  the  text,  stands  the  Masorah.  The  vowels 
and  accents  are  different  from  those  now  in  use.  The 
text  has  many  and  important  readings;  and  the  Maso- 
rali  deserves  to  be  examined.  Two  points  stand  after 
each  verse ;  and  2d  succeeds  1st  Kings  without  a  vacant 


space  between.  An  inscription  states  that  the  MS.  was 
purchased  in  938.     It  is  obviously  an  important  codex. 

Codex  590,  Kennicott,  folio.  This  MS.  contains  the 
Prophets  and  Hagiographa  on  parchment.  The  text 
has  the  vowel-points,  but  apparently  from  a  later  hand. 
The  margin  does  not  exhibit  the  Masorah,  but  variations 
are  noted  here  and  there.  Some  books  have  the  final 
Masorah.  The  separate  books  have  no  titles,  and  they 
are  arranged  in  the  oldest  order,  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel 
coming  before  Isaiah,  and  Ruth  before  the  Psalms.  Ac- 
cording to  the  subscription,  it  was  written  A.D.  1019,  or 
1018  by  another  reckoning.  The  MS.  is  in  the  impe- 
rial library  of  Vienna. 

— ,  Pinner,  small  folio.  A  MS.  containing  the  Pen- 
tateuch, Prophets,  and  Hagiographa,  on  good  parch- 
ment. Every  page  has  three  columns,  except  in  Psalms, 
Job,  and  Proverbs,  where  there  are  but  two.  The  text 
is  furnished  with  vowels  and  accents,  two  points  stand- 
ing after  each  verse.  The  letters  and  accents  are  like 
those  in  No.  3  of  Pinner.  The  Great  and  Little  Maso- 
rah are  in  the  margins.  Being  a  Karaite  MS.,  it  has 
not  been  written  with  great  accuracy.  Words  and 
verses  are  sometimes  repeated.  It  is  highly  ornamented 
with  gold  and  silver  colors.  The  Codex  states  that  it 
was  written  in  Egypt  in  the  year  1010. 

The  most  important  and  oldest  Hebrew  MSS.  collated 
by  Kennicott.  Bruns,  De  Rossi,  Pinner,  and  others,  are 
described  in  Davidson's  Biblical  Ci%ticism,  i,  346  sq. ; 
and  his  Text  of  the  Old  Testament  considered,  etc.,  p.  98 
sq.  See  also  tlie  thiid  section  of  Tychsen's  Tentamen  de 
rariis  Codicun  Ilehraicorum  Vet.  Test.  MSS.  generibus, 
etc.  (Rostock,  1772, 8vo),  in  which  the  learned  writer  ex- 
amines the  marks  of  antiquity  assumed  by  Simon,  Jab- 
lonski,Wolf,  Houbigant,  Kennicott,  and  Lilienthal,  and 
shows  that  the  Masorah  alone  is  a  certain  index  for  de- 
termining the  age  and  goodness  of  Hebrew  MSS.  See 
also  the  same  writer's  Beurtheilung  der  Jahrzahlen  in 
den  Hehrdisch-Biblischen  Handschriften  (Rostock,  1786, 
8vo),  in  which  the  mode  of  determiniuf  the  age  of  MSS. 
adopted  by  Kennicott,  Bruns,  and  De  r.ossi  is  rejected ; 
and  Schnurrer's  Dissertatio  Jnavc/vralis  de  Codimm  He- 
hrceonim  Vet.  Test,  (etate  difpctdter  determinanda  (Tu- 
bingen, 1772,  4to),  reprinted  in  his  Dissertationes  Philo- 
logico-Cnticce  (Gotha  and  Amsterdam,  1790, 8vo). 

Private  MSS.  written  in  the  Rabbinical  character  are 
much  more  recent  than  the  preceding,  none  of  them  be- 
ing older  than  500  years.  They  are  on  cotton  or  linen 
paper,  in  a  cursive  character,  without  vowel-points  or 
the  Masorah,  and  with  many  abbreviations. 

The  MSS.  found  among  the  Chinese  Jews  are  partly 
synagogue  rolls,  partly  private  copies,  whose  text  does 
not  differ  from  tlic  Masoretic.  The  Pentateuch  of  the 
^Malabar  Jews,  brought  from  India  to  England  by  the 
late  Dr.  Buchanan,  and  described  by  Mr.  Yeates,  resem- 
bles, on  the  whole,  the  usual  synagogue  rolls  of  the  .Jews, 
except  that  it  is  written  on  red  skins.  Its  text  is  the 
Masoretic,  with  a  few  unimportant  deviations. 

Eight  exemplars  are  celebrated  among  the  Jews  for 
their  correctness  and  value.  They  are  now  lost,  but  ex- 
tracts from  them  are  still  preserved.  From  Jewisli  writ- 
ings, and  from  the  margin  of  some  MSS.,  where  a  refer- 
ence is  made  to  them,  we  learn  that  they  were  liighly 
prized  for  their  singular  accuracy.  They  formed  the 
basis  of  subsequent  co])ics.  They  are,  1.  The  Codex  of 
Hillel  (see  above)  \  2.  The  Babylonian  Codex ;  3.  The 
Codex  of  Israel;  4.  An  Egyptian  Codex ;  5.  Codex  Sinai ; 
6.  The  Pentateuch  of  Jericho;  7.  Codex  Sanbuki;  8. 
The  book  Taggin. 

For  a  more  copious  account  of  Hebrew  MSS.  we  refer 
to  Eichhorn's  Einleitunfi  (Introduction),  vol.  ii;  Kenni- 
cott's  Dissertatio  r/eneralis ;  Walton's  Prolegomena  to  the 
Polyglott,  separately  edited  by  Dathe  and  Wrangham; 
Tychsen's  Tentamen;  De  Rossi's  Varies  Lectiones  Vet. 
Test.  etc. ;  and  his  Scholia  critica  in  V.  T.  libros,  etc. ; 
De  Wette,  Leh?'bvch  der  Historisch-Kriiischen  J-Sinlei- 
tung;  Davidson's  Treatise  on  Biblical  Criticism;  and  his 
Introd.  to  the  Old  Test.,  in  Home.    See  Old  TESXiUiExx. 


MANUSCRIPTS 


724 


MANUSCRIPTS 


II.  Manuscripts  of  the  Greek  Testament. — 1.  Those  that 
have  descended  to  our  time  are  either  on  vellum  or  pa- 
per. The  oldest  material  was  the  Egyptian  papyrus, 
but  even  so  early  as  the  4tli  century  the  N.  T.  was  writ- 
ten on  the  skins  of  animals.  This  writing  material  con- 
tinued in  use  till  the  11th  centurj',  when  paper  began 
to  be  employed.  Till  the  10th  centtiry,  MSS.  were  usu- 
ally written  in  capital  or  uncial  letters;  then  the  cur- 
sive character  came  into  use.  The  most  ancient  copies 
liave  no  division  of  words,  being  written  in  a  continued 
series  of  lines.  Accents,  spirits,  and  iota,  postscribed  or 
subscribed,  are  also  wanting. 

2.  Tlie  whole  of  the  N.  T.  is  contained  in  very  few 
MSS.  Transcribers  generally  divided  it  into  three  parts; 
the  first,  containing  the  four  Gospels;  the  second,  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  the  Epistles ;  the  third,  the 
Apocalypse  of  St.  John.  The  greatest  number  of  INISS. 
are  those  which  have  the  four  Gospels,  because  they 
were  most  frequently  read  in  the  churches.  Those  con- 
taining the  Acts  and  Epistles  are  also  numerous.  Such 
as  liave  the  book  of  Revelation  alone  are  extremely  few, 
because  it  was  seldom  read  in  public. 

Greek  codices  are  not  often  complete  in  all  their  parts. 
They  have  many  chasms.  Again,  some  contain  merely 
detached  portions  of  the  N.  T.,  or  sections  appointed  to 
be  read  on  certain  days  in  the  churches.  Such  codices 
are  called  avayvuinnq  or  avayvuxjpaTa  in  Greek;  in 
Latin,  lectionaria.  Those  containing  lessons  from  the 
Gospels  are  called  evam/elistaria ;  such  as  were  taken 
from  the  Acts,  npa^aTzixjroXoi  ;  those  from  the  epistles, 
epistokvia  or  aTrdoroAoi. 

Several  MSS.  are  accompanied  with  a  Latin  transla- 
tion interlined,  or  in  a  parallel  column.  Such  have  been 
called  bili/iffues  or  Grmco-Laiini. 

3.  We  shall  now  advert  to  the  uncial  MS.  of  the  Greek 
Testament,  and  to  those  usually  quoted  in  the  examina- 
tion of  the  controverted  passage  1  John  v,  7.     The  for- 

•mer  are  marked  with  the  letters  ot  the  alphabet.  A,  B, 
C,  etc.;  the  latter  by  the  Arabic  numerals,  1,2,3,  etc. 
(in  some  late  critics  by  small  letters,  a,  fa,  c,  etc.). 

The  number  of  uncial  MSS.  remaining,  though  great 
when  compared  with  the  ancient  MSS.  extant  ol  other 
writings,  is  inconsiderable.  (See  the  table  in  4,  below.) 
Tischendorf  (.V.  J.  Prief.  cxxx)  reckons  40  in  the  Gos- 
pels, of  which  o  are  entire,  B  K  M  S  U  ;  3  nearly  en- 
tire, E  L  A  ;  10  contain  very  considerable  portions,  A 
CDFGHVXrA;  of  "the  remainder,  14  contain 
very  small  fragments,  8  fragments  more  (I  P  Q  R  Z) 
or  less  considerable  (N  T  Y).  To  these  must  be  added 
K  (^Cod.  Sinait.),  which  is  entire;  2  (IT),  a  new  MS.  of 
Tischendorf  (Xot.  Cod.  Sin.  p.  51-52),  which  is  nearly 
entire;  and  S  (Cod. Zaci/ntli.), vfh\c\i contains  consider- 
able fragments  of  Luke.  Tischendorf  has  likewise  ob- 
tained y  additional  fragments  {I.e.').  In  the  Acts  there 
arc  12,  of  which  4  contain  the  text  entire  (N  A  B),  or 
nearly  so  (E^);  5  have  large  fragments  (0  D  H^  G2  = 
L^  and  P^),  3  small  fragments.  In  the  Catholic  Epis- 
tles 7,  of  which  5,  X  A  B  Kj  G2  =  L„  are  entire;  2  (C 
1*2)  nearly  entire.  In  the  Pauline  Epistles  there  are  18 : 
1  (X)  entire;  3  nearly  entire,  Dj  L^  P,;  7  have  very 
considerable  portions,  ABC  E3  Fj  G3  K„  (but  E3 
is  of  little  account) ;  the  remaining  7  some  fragments. 
In  the  Apocalypse  5 :  3  entire  (X  A  B„),  2  nearly  en- 
tire (C  Po). 

According  to  date  these  MSS.  are  classed  as  follows: 

Fourth  century  :  X  B. 

Fifth  century :  A  C,  and  some  fragments. 

Sixth  century:  D  P  R  Z  E^  Do  II3,  and  9  smaller 
fragments. 

Seventh  century :  Some  fragments. 

Eighth  century:  E  h  (A)  S  Bj,.and  some  frag- 
ments. 

Ninth  century :  F  K  :\I  V  X  T  A  n  H^  Gj  =  Lj  l\ 
Gj  Kj  Mj  Pj,  and  fragments. 

Tenth  century :  G  H  S  U  (EJ. 


A  complete  description  of  these  MSS.  is  given  in  the 
great  critical  editions  of  tlie  N.  T. :  here  those  only  can 
be  briefly  noticed  which  are  of  primary  importance. 

(((.)  Uncials. 

X,  Codex  Sinaiticus  {Cod.  Frid.  Aug.  of  the  Sept.)  at 
St.  Petersburg,  obtained  hy  Tischendorf  from  the  con- 
vent of  St.  Catherine,  Mount  Sinai,  in  1859.  The  frag- 
ments of  the  Sept.  published  as  Cod.  Frid.  A  ug.  (184(j) 
were  obtained  at  the  same  place  by  Tischendorf  in  1844. 
The  N.  T.  is  entire,  and  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas  and 
parts  of  the  Shepherd  of  Hermas  are  added.  The  whole 
MS.  was  published  in  18(j2  by  Tischendorf,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  emperor  of  Russia.  It  is  probably  the  old- 
est of  the  MSS.  of  the  N.  T.,  and  of  the  4th  century 
(Tischendorf,  Not.  Cod.  Sin.  18(i0),  See  Sinaitic  Man- 
uscript. 

A,  Codex  Alexandrinus  (British  INIuseum),  a  MS.  of 
the  entire  Greek  Bible,  with  the  Epistles  of  Clement 
added.  It  was  given  by  Cyril  Lucar,  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople, to  Charles  I  in  1628,  and  is  now  in  the  Brit- 
ish Museum.  It  contains  the  whole  of  the  N.  T.  with 
some  chasms  :  Matt,  i.-xxv,  G,  t^tpxiaOe ;  John  vi,  50, 
Vra-viii,  52,  \iyii ;  2  Cor.  iv,  13,  tTriarsvaa-xu,  6,  t^ 
fyUoD.  It  was  probably  written  in  the  first  half  of  the 
5th  century.  The  N.  T.  has  been  published  by  Woide 
(1786,  fol.),  and  with  some  corrections  by  Cowper  (1860, 
8vo).  Compare  Wetstein,  Proleg.  p.  13-30  (ed.  Lotze). 
See  Alexandrian  Manuscript. 

B,  Codex  Vaticanus  (No.  1209),  a  MS.  of  the  Greek 
Bible,  which  seems  to  have  been  in  the  Vatican  Library 
almost  from  its  commencement  (cir.  A.D.  1450).  It  con- 
tains the  N.  T.  entire  to  Heb.  ix,  14,  KaQa  ;  the  rest  of 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  the  Pastoral  Epistles,  and 
the  Apocalypse  were  added  in  the  15th  centur}%  Vari- 
ous collations  of  the  New  Test,  were  made  by  Bartolocci 
(1669),  by  Mico  for  Bentley  (cir.  1720),  whose  collation 
was  in  part  revised  by  Rulotta  (1726),  and  by  Birch 
(1788).  An  edition  of  the  whole  MS.,  on  which  Mai 
had  been  engaged  for  many  years,  was  published  three 
years  after  his  death  in  1858  (5  vols.  4to,  ed.  Vercellone ; 
N.  T.  reprinted,  London  and  Leipsic).  Mai  had  himself 
kept  back  the  edition  (printed  1828-1838),  being  fully 
conscious  of  its  imperfections,  and  had  prepared  another 
edition  of  the  N.  T.,  which  was  published  also  by  Ver- 
cellone and  others  in  1859  (8vo).  This  was  revised  by 
Tischendorf  (Lpz.  1867).  The  whole  of  Codex  B  is  to 
be  published  by  authority  of  the  pope,  and  the  N.-T. 
part  has  already  appeared  (Rome,  1868),  nearly  com- 
plete. The  MS.  is  assigned  to  the  4th  century  (Tisch- 
endorf, N.  T.  p.  cxxxvi-cxlix).  See  Vatican  Manu- 
script. 

The  Apocalypse  in  these  last  editions  is  taken  from 
Codex  Vaticanus,  2066  (formerly  Codex  Basilianus,  105), 
in  the  Vatican  Library.  It  belongs  to  the  8th  century 
(see  Tischendorf's  A'.  T.  p.  cxlii  sq.  [7th  ed.]). 

C,  Codex  Ephraemi  rescriptus  (Paris,  Bihl.  Imp.  9),  a 
palimpsest  MS.  which  contains  fragments  of  the  Sept. 
and  of  every  part  of  the  N.  T.  In  the  r2th  century  the 
original  writing  was  effaced,  and  some  Greek  writings 
of  Ephraem  Syrus  were  written  over  it.  The  MS.  was 
brought  to  Florence  from  the  East  at  the  beginning  of 
the  16th  century,  and  came  thence  to  Paris  with  Cath- 
erine de  Medici.  Wetstein  was  engaged  to  collate  it 
for  Bentley  (1716),  but  it  was  first  fully  examined  by 
Tischendorf,  who  published  the  N.T.  in  1843  ;  the  O.-T. 
fragments  in  1845.  The  only  entire  books  wliich  have 
perished  are  2  Thess.  and  2  John,  but  lacunre  of  greater 
or  less  extent  occur  constantly.  It  is  of  about  the  same 
date  as  the  Codex  Alex.     See  Ephraem  Manuscrip'J'. 

I)  (of  the  Gospels),  Codex  Bezee  (University  Librarj', 
Cambridge),  a  Graeco-Latin  !MS.  of  the  Gospels  and  Acts, 
with  a  small  fragment  of  3  John,  presented  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cambridge  by  Bcza  in  1581.  Some  readings 
from  it  were  obtained  in  Italy  for  Stephens's  edition, 
but  afterwards  Beza  ft)und  it  at  the  sack  of  Lyons  in 
1562,  in  the  Alonastery  of  St.lrenasus.  The  text  is  very 
remarkable,  and,  especially  in  the  Acts,  abounds  in  sin- 


MANUSCRIPTS 


(25 


MANUSCRIPTS 


gular  interpolations.  The  IMS.  has  many  lacunse.  It 
was  edited  in  a  splendid  form  hy  Kipling  (1793,  2  vols. 
foL),  but  so  imperfectly  that  it  has  been  published  anew 
under  the  care  of  the  Kev.F.  H.  Scrivener  (Cambr.  186-i, 
4to).  The  MS.  is  referred  to  the  Gth  century.  Comp. 
Credner,  Beitriige,  i,  452-518;  Bornemann,  Acta  Apos- 
iolorum,  1848  ;  Schulz,  De  Codice  D,  Cantab.  1827.  See 
CAMBKincE  Manuscript. 

D^  (of  the  Epistles),  Codex  Claromontanvs,  or  Regius 
(in  the  Imperial  Library  at  Paris,  107),  marked  by  the 
same  letter  of  the  alphabet  as  the  preceding,  but  con- 
taining a  different  part  of  the  N.  T.,  viz.,  all  Paul's  Epis- 
tles with  the  exception  of  a  few  verses.  It  is  a  Greek- 
Latin  MS.,  written  stichometrlcally,  with  accents  and 
breathings,  but  without  division  into  words.  Accord- 
ing to  Muntfau^on,  it  belongs  to  the  7th  century,  but 
Tischendorf  assigns  it  to  the  Gth.  The  text  was  edited 
by  the  latter  scholar  in  1852,  and  is  very  valuable.  Va- 
rious correctors  may  be  traced,  but  it  is  not  alwaj'S  easy 
to  distinguish  them.  The  first  readings  are  of  course 
the  principal  ones  (see  the  prolegomena  to  Tischendorf 's 
edition).     See  Clermont  Masusckipt. 

E  (of  the  Gospels),  Codex  Basilieiisis  (K,  iv,  35  in  the 
public  library  at  Basle).  It  contains  the  Gospels,  with 
a  very  few  chasms  in  Luke's.  In  some  parts  smaller 
writing  has  taken  the  place  of  the  older.  It  belongs  to 
the  middle  of  the  8th  century,  and  was  collated  by 
Tischendorf  in  1843.  See  his  description  in  the  Studien 
und  Kritiken  for  1844.     See  Basii.ean  Manuscript. 

E2  (of  the  Acts),  Codex  Laudiamts,  a  Greek-Latin  MS. 
in  the  Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford.  The  text  is  writ- 
ten stichometricall}'.  It  contains  the  Acts,  and  has  a 
hiatus  from  xxvi,  29  to  xxviii,  26.  Its  age  is  the  end 
of  the  6th  century,  as  Tischendorf  supposes ;  or  the  7th, 
as  Wetstein  prefers.  The  readings  are  very  valuable. 
Hearne  published  an  edition  at  Oxford  (1715,  8vo),  and 
Tischendorf  proposes  to  publish  it  more  correctly  in  a 
future  volume  of  his  Momimenia  /Sacra. ;  but  Scrivener 
has  undertaken  a  new  edition.  See  Laudian  Manu- 
script. 

E3  (of  the  Epistles),  Codex  Sangermaneiisis  (in  the  Im- 
perial Library  of  St.  Petersburg),  a  very  incorrect  tran- 
script of  the  Codex  Claromontanus,  and  therefore  pos- 
sessing no  authority  or  importance.  It  appears  to  be- 
long to  the  10th  century. 

F  (of  the  Gospels),  Codex  Boi-eeli,  now  in  the  libra- 
ry of  Utrecht,  containing  the  Gospels,  but  with  many 
chasms.  It  was  collated  and  described  by  Heringa, 
whose  work  was  published  by  Vinke  (1843).  The  MS. 
belongs  to  the  end  of  the  9th  century.  See  Boreel's 
Manuscript. 

F^,  Codex  Coislinianus,  containing  a  few  fragments  of 
the  Gospels,  Acts,  and  Epistles,  found  among  the  scholia 
of  Codex  Coislin.  1 ,  which  has  the  Octateuch,  with  the 
book  of  Kings.  They  were  edited  by  Tischendorf  in 
his  Monnmenta  Sacra  inedita  (184G),  p.  400  sq.  The 
fragments  belong  to  the  7th  centurj%  See  Coislin 
Manuscript,  1. 

F'',  in  the  British  Museum,  17,136,  a  rescript  fragment 
from  the  Nitrian  desert,  containing  a  few  places  of 
John's  Gospel,  which  were  deciphered  and  published  by 
Tischendorf  in  his  Jfomim.  iiied.  vol.  ii.  The  text  agrees 
with  the  most  ancient  and  best  authorities.  Tischendorf 
assigns  the  fragment  to  the  4th  century ;  it  rather  be- 
longs to  the  5th. 

F„  (of  the  Epistles),  Codex  A  ugiensis,  a  Greek-Latin 
MS.  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles,  in  the  library  of  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge.  It  wants  tlie  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
in  Greek,  and  Romans  i,  1-iii,  18.  Dots  are  inserted  be- 
tween many  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  words.  The  text 
is  ancient  and  valuable.  It  belongs  to  the  9th  century. 
In  1842  and  1849  it  was  collated  by  Tischendorf,  and  ed- 
ited by  Scrivener  (1859).     See  Augian  Manuscript. 

G  (of  the  Gospels),  Codex  Harldnnits  (5G84  in  the 
British  Museum),  a  MS.  of  the  four  (iospols,  but  i'njjer- 
fect  in  many  places.  It  belongs  to  the  9tli  or  lOtli  cen- 
tury, and  was  collated  by  Tregelles  and  Tischendorf. 


Go  (of  the  Epistles),  Cod. Boernerianus,  a  Greek-Latin 
MS.  of  Paul's  Epistles,  now  in  the  Koyal  Library  of  Dres- 
den. It  has  the  same  chasms  as  F,  Augiensis,  with 
which  it  agrees  remarkably,  so  that  both  texts  seem  to 
have  proceeded  from  the  same  copy.  They  belong  to 
one  country  and  age — probably  to  Switzerland  and  the 
9th  century.     Matthrei  published  it  in  1791, 8vo.     See 

BoERNER  MANUSCI!IPT. 

H  (of  the  Gospels),  Codex  Seidelii,  II,  a  MS.  of  the 
four  Gospels  in  the  public  library  of  Hamburg.  It  is 
imperfect  in  many  places,  belongs  to  the  9th  or  10th 
century,  and  was  collated  by  Tregelles  in  1850. 

Hj  (of  the  Acts),  Codex  Mutinensis  (196  in  the  Ducal 
Library  of  Modena),  a  MS.  of  the  Acts,  with  considera- 
ble gaps.  Its  age  is  the  9th  century.  From  Acts  xxvii, 
4  till  the  end  was  supplied  in  uncial  letters  in  the  11th 
century.  The  Pauline  and  Catholic  Epistles  were  added 
in  cursive  letters  in  the  15th  or  IGth  century,  Tischen- 
dorf collated  it  in  1843. 

H3  (of  the  Epistles),  Codex  Coislinianus  (202  in  tlie 
Imperial  Library  at  Paris).  This  MS.  contains  frag- 
ments of  Paul's  Epistles.  It  consists  onh^  of  twelve 
leaves,  two  which  it  formerly  had  being  now  at  Peters- 
burg. Another  leaf  was  recently  brought  by  Tischen- 
dorf from  Moimt  Athos,  containing  Col.  iii,  4-11.  The 
fifteen  leaves  should  be  put  together.  It  has  been  col- 
lated by  Tischendorf,  who  intends  to  publish  it  all.  It 
belongs  to  the  Gth  century.  See  Coislin  Manuscript,  2. 

I,  a  MS.  in  the  library  of  St.  Petersburg,  found  by 
Tischendorf  on  his  travels  in  the  East.  It  is  a  rescript, 
containing  the  remains  of  seven  very  ancient  MSS.  ex- 
hibiting parts  of  the  Gospels,  Acts,  and  two  Pauline 
Epistles.  Tischendorf  thinks  that  the  first,  second,  and 
third  belong  to  the  5th  century.  All  are  edited  by  him 
in  the  first  volume  oi  Alonumenta  Sacra,  p.  1,  etc. 

I".     See  Nb, 

K  (of  the  Gospels),  Codex  Regius,  or  Cyprius  (now 
63  in  the  Imperial  Library  of  Paris).  It  contains  the 
four  Gospels  complete,  belongs  to  the  middle  of  the  9th 
century,  and  was  accurately  collated  by  Tischendorf  in 
1842.     See  Paris  Manuscripts. 

Kj  (of  the  Epistles),  Codex  Mosquensis  (xcviii  in  the 
Library  of  the  Holy  Synod  at  Moscow),  containing  the 
Catholic  and  Pauline  Epistles.  It  belongs  to  the  9th 
century,  and  was  collated  by  ]\Iattha;i. 

L  (of  the  Gospels),  Codex  Regius  (62  in  the  Imperial 
Library  at  Paris),  containing  the  Gospels  entire  with 
the  exception  of  five  places.  The  text  of  this  codex 
contains  very  old  and  good  readings,  agreeing  remark- 
ably with  B.  It  belongs  to  the  8th  century,  and  was 
published  by  Tischendorf  in  his  Monum.  Sacra,  1846, 
p.  57.     See  Paris  Manuscripts. 

L2  (of  the  Acts  and  Epistles),  Codex  Bibliothecce  A  n- 
gelicce  (A  2-,  15  in  the  library  of  the  Augustine  monks 
at  Pome),  a  MS.  containing  the  Acts,  Catholic  Epistles, 
and  those  of  Paul.  It  begins  with  Acts  viii,  10,  and 
ends  with  Hebrews  xiii,  10.  Its  age  is  the  9th  century. 
It  was  first  collated  with  care  by  Fleck ;  afterwards  by 
Tischendorf  and  Tregelles. 

M  (of  the  Gospels),  Codex  Regius  (48  in  the  Imperial 
Library  of  Paris),  containing  the  Gospels  entire.  This 
MS.  has  been  transcribed  by  Tischendorf,  but  is  not  yet 
published.  He  assigns  it  to  the  latter  part  of  the  9th 
century.     See  Paris  Manuscripts. 

M„  (of  the  Epistles),  two  fragments ;  one  at  Hamburg, 
the  other  at  London.  The  former  contains  some  parts 
of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews;  the  latter,  portions  of 
the  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians.  Both  were  published  bj^ 
Tischendorf  in  his  Anecdota  Sacra,  p.  174  sq.  The  text 
is  both  ancient  and  valuable. 

N  (of  the  Gospels),  Codex purpureus,  the  fragment  of 
a  MS.,  of  which  four  leaves  are  in  the  British  Museum, 
six  in  the  Vatican,  and  two  at  Vienna.  Tischendorf 
has  recently  found  33  leaves  more,  containing  about  a 
third  of  the  entire  Gospel  of  Mark,  between  vi,  53  and 
XV,  3.  The  letters  were  silver  on  purple  vellum.  They 
are  larger  and  roiuider  than  in  A  B  C.     The  text  is  in 


MANUSCRIPTS 


726 


MANUSCRIPTS 


two  columns.  The  Ammonian  sections  and  Eusebian 
canons  are  placed  in  tlie  margin.  All  contain  portions 
of  the  Gospels.  The  contents  of  the  twelve  leaves  were 
published  by  Tischendorf  in  his  Monumenta  inedita,  who 
assigns  the  fragment  to  the  end  of  the,  Gth  century. 
See  Purple  Manuscript. 

N„  (of  the  Epistles),  a  fragment  consisting  of  two 
leaves,  with  Gal.  v  and  vi,  and  Heb.  v  and  vi.  Assign- 
ed by  Tischendorf  to  the  Dth  century. 

N''  [Tisch.  P]  (Brit.  Mus.  Add.  17, 136),  a  palimpsest 
of  the  -Ith  or  oth  century,  deciphered  by  Tregelles,  and 
puljlished  by  Tischendorf  (Mon.  fiied.  vol.  ii). 

N'^,  a  few  fragments,  now  at  Moscow,  of  the  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews.  Tischendorf  thinks  they  may  be  of 
the  Gth  century,  but  INIatthaii  did  not  state  enough  to 
determine  their  age. 

O,  a  small  fragment,  consisting  of  two  leaves,  con- 
taining 2  Cor.  i,  20- ii,  12,  belonging  to  the  9th  century. 

O',  Codex  Mosquemis  (cxx,  at  Moscow),  a  fragment 
consisting  of  eight  leaves,  containing  a  few  parts  of 
John's  Gospel;  probably  of  the  9th  century.  Matthcei 
published  the  text. 

O^,  the  two  hymns,  Luke  i,  4G-55  and  i,  68-79,  in  a 
Latin  ]\LS.  containing  the  grammar  of  Pompeius.  They 
are  written  in  uncial  Greek  letters,  and  belong  to  the 
Oth  century.  Tischendorf  published  them  in  his  Anec- 
dotn  sacra  et  prof  ana,  p.  20G  sq. 

0^  the  same  two  hymns,  together  with  a  third,  Luke 
ii,  29-32,  in  a  Psalter  in  the  Bodleian  Library,  No.  120, 
belonging  to  the  9th  century.  See  Tischendorf,  .1  h€c- 
dota,  p.  20G. 

0-,  the  hymn  of  JMary,  Lul^e  i,  46-55,  contained  in 
the  Verona  Psalter,  and  belonging  to  the  Gth  century. 
The  Greek  is  in  Latin  letters.  It  was  published  by 
Blanchini  in  the  Psalteriuin  duplex  appended  to  his 
Vindicice  canonicarum  Scripturarum  (Romse,  1740), 

()',  the  three  hymns  of  Luke  i  and  ii,  as  contained  in 
the  Psalter  of  Turin,  written  in  gold  and  silver  letters, 
belonging  to  the  7th  century.  Tischendorf  is  about  to 
publish  the  entire  Psalter. 

O",  the  same  three  hymns  in  a  St.-Gall  Codex,  17, 
written  partly  in  Greek  and  partly  in  Latin.  Tischen- 
dorf assigns  the  MS.  to  the  9th  century. 

P  (of  the  Gospels),  Codex  Guelpherbytanus,  A  (in  the 
library  of  Wolfenbiittel),  a  palimpsest  MS.  containing 
fragments  of  the  Gospels.  In  1762  Knittel  pubhshed  all 
he  could  read.  In  1854  Tischendorf  succeeded  in  de- 
ciphering almost  all  the  portions  of  the  Gospels  that  ex- 
ist, which  he  has  published  in  his  Monumenta  Sacra 
inedita  (1860).     See  below,  Q. 

P„  (of  the  Acts  andEpistles),aMS.ofthe  Acts,  Cath- 
olic and  Pauline  Epistles,  and  Apocalypse,  belonging  to 
the  library  of  bishop  Uspcnski  in  St.  Petersburg.  This 
is  a  valuable  palimpsest,  consisting  of  upwards  of  300 
leaves.  Though  belonging  to  the  9th  century,  the  text, 
except  in  1  Peter  and  Acts,  agrees  with  that* of  the  old- 
est codices.  The  Epistles  were  ])ublished  in  1865,  and 
the  Acts  and  liev.  in  18G9,  by  Tischendorf,  in  his  Monum. 
Sacra. 

Q,  Codex  Guelpherbytanus,  B,  another  palimpsest,  con- 
taining fragments  of  Luke  and  John's  Gospels,  discov- 
ered by  Knittel,  and  published  with  the  last  fragments. 
Tischendorf  is  about  to  re-edit  it  in  a  more  complete 
and  accurate  state.  According  to  him,  P  belongs  to  the 
Gth,  and  Q  to  the  5th  century.  Sec  Wolfenbuttel 
Manuscripts. 

Q',  a  papyrus  fragment,  containing  parts  of  1  Cor.  i, 
vi,  vii,  belonging  to  the  5tii  or  (>th  century. 

I{,  a  rescript  IMS.  belonging  to  the  British  iMusenm, 
brouglit  from  the  Nitrian  desert,  with  many  other  cod- 
ices, chietiy  Syriac  ones.  Tlie  Syriac  text  of  Severus 
of  Antioch  was  written  over  it.  The  forty-eight  leaves 
contain  parts  of  Luke's  Gospel.  TIk', writing  is  in  two 
columns ;  and  the  Ammonian  sections  have  not  the  can- 
ons of  Eusebius.  Tischendorf  published  almost  the 
whole  text  (for  some  of  it  is  illegible  )  in  his  ^fonumenfa^ 
Sacra  inedita,  xol.'u.     Dr.  Wright  found  three  leaves 


overlooked  by  Tischendorf,  of  which  he  gave  an  ac- 
count in  the  Journal  of  Sacred  Literature  for  January, 
18G4.  It  is  assigned  to  the  Gth  century,  but  maj'  belong 
to  the  7th. 

S,  Codex  Vaticanus,  354.  This  MS.  contains  the  four 
Gospels  entire.  It  is  in  the  Vatican  Library,  where 
Birch  carefully  collated  it  twice  for  his  Greek  Testa- 
ment. A  subscription  to  it  states  that  it  was  written 
A.D.  949.  See  Tischendorf,  in  the  Annales  Vvidoboii. 
(1847),  where  a  fac-simile  better  than  those  of  Blanchini 
and  Birch  is  given. 

T,  Codex  Boj-gianus  (1  in  the  library  of  the  Propa- 
ganda at  Rome),  a  MS.  of  thirteen  leaves,  containing 
fragments  of  John's  Gospel.  The  Greek  text  has  a 
Thebaic  translation  by  its  side.  Giorgi  ]Hiblislied  the 
text  in  1789  at  Eome.  Tischendorf,  who  inspected  the 
MS.  and  made  a  fac-simile  of  it,  assigns  it  to  the  5th 
century.     See  Borgian  Manuscript. 

T'',  six  leaves,  contaming  John  i,  ii,  iii,  iv,  belonging 
to  the  Gth  century. 

T'=,  two  leaves,  containing  Matt,  xiv,  xv,  belonging 
to  the  Gth  century.  The  writing  and  text  resemble 
those  of  the  Borgian  fragments. 

T'',  fragments  of  Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke,  from  Bor- 
gian MSS.  of  the  7th  century. 

T^  Frarjmentum  Woideanum,  a  few  leaves,  Greek  and 
Sahidic,  whose  text  was  edited  by  Woide  (contained  in 
the  Appendix  to  the  Codex  Alexandrinus,  1799).  The 
one  contains  Luke  xii,  15-xiii,  32 ;  the  other,  John  viii. 
33-42.  Tischendorf  has  discovered  that  these  frag- 
ments are  parts  of  T.  published  by  Giorgi.  Hence  they 
belong  to  the  same  time. 

U,  Codex  Venetus  Marciarms,  iorm^rly  Nania mis  (in 
St,  Mark's  Library  at  Venice),  a  MS.  of  tlie  Gospels  com- 
plete, with  a  text  elegantly  written.  It  was  first  colla- 
ted accurately  by  Tischendorf  in  1843,  and  again  bj' 
Tregelles  in  1846.  According  to  Tischendorf  it  belongs 
to  the  end  of  the  9th  or  to  the  10th  century. 

V,  Codex  Mosquensis  (in  the  library  of  the  Holy 
Synod  at  Moscow),  a  MS.  of  the  four  Gospels,  with  sev- 
eral chasms.  From  John  vii,  39  has  been  sujiplied  by 
a  more  recent  hand  of  the  13th  century,  in  cursive  let- 
ters. It  belongs  to  the  9th  centurj',  and  was  twice  col- 
lated by  IMatthffii.  , 

W^,  two  leaves  at  the  end  of  Codex  Rer/ius.  now  in 
the  Imperial  Library  of  Paris.  They  contain  Luke  ix, 
34-47;  X,  12-22,  and  are  the  fragment  of  a  continu- 
ous MS.  of  the  Gospels  belonging  to  the  8th  century. 
Tischendorf  has  edited  the  whole  in  his  Monumenta 
Sacra  inedita.    . 

W'',  Codex  Neapolitanus  7-escriptus,  consisting  of  four- 
teen leaves  which  contain  fragments  of  the  first  three 
Gospels  as  old  as  the  8th  century.  Tischendorf  edited 
some  verses  of  it  in  the  Annales  Vindobonenses  (1847); 
and  it  is  described  by  Scotti.  Tischendorf  supposes  that 
the  leaves  belong  to  the  same  MS.  as  W\ 

W^,  three  leaves  at  St.  Gall,  containing  fragments  of 
Mark  and  Luke.  They  are  a  sort  of  ))alimpsest,_the 
writing  having  been  effaced,  though  nothing  new  was 
written  over.  Tischendorf,  who  copied,  and  intends  to 
edit  these  fragments,  assigns  them  to  the  9th  century. 

W'',  fragments  of  JMark's  Gospel,  vii,  viii,  ix,  found  in 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  belonging  to  the  9th  cen- 
tury. 

X,  Codex  Monacensis,  in  the  librarj^  of  the  Uni\-ersity 
of  Munich,  containing  fragments  of  the  four  (Jospels. 
Commentaries  of  several  fathers,  especially  Chrysostom, 
accompany  the  text,  except  Mark's.  It  belongs  to  the 
9th  or  10th  century.  Between  John  ii,  22  and  vii,  1.  is 
supplied  by  a  later  hand  of  the  12th  century.  The  IMS. 
was  collated  by  Tischendorf  and  Tregelles.     See  Mc- 

XICII  IMANUStUIl-T. 

Y,  (I'odex  Barbcrlnus,  No.  225,  six  leaves  containing 
fragments  of  John's  (iospel,  belonging  to  the  8th  cen- 
tury, copied  by  Tischendorf  in  1843,  and  published  in 
his  Monumenta  Sacra  inedita,  1846.  They  are  now  in 
the  Barberinian  Librarj'  at  Eome. 


MANUSCRIPTS 


Y2V 


MANUSCRIPTS 


Z,  CoiJex  DiihUnensis,  in  the  library  of  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin,  a  palimpsest,  containing  fragments  of  jMat- 
thew's  Gospel,  and  belonging  to  tlie  Gth  century.  The 
text  of  this  MS.  presents  ancient  and  valuable  readings. 
It  was  published  in  fac-simile  by  Barrett,  ISOl,  4to,  and 
Tregelles  has  since  (1853)  deciphered  the  remainder 
(Printed  Text,  p.  166  sq.).     See  Dublin  Manuscript. 

r,  a  MS.,  now  in  the  Bodleian  Library,  consisting  of 
157  leaves  large  4to.  It  contains  Luke's  Gospel  entire, 
and  jiarts  of  the  other  three.  The  form  of  the  letters 
resembles  the  Codex  O/prius  or  K.  Tischendorf,  who 
got  it  in  the  East,  assigns  it  to  the  9th  century.  He 
collated  and  described  it  in  Anecdota  sacra  et  lirofana. 

The  second  half  of  this  MS.  has  recently  been  found, 
containing  the  greatest  part  of  Matthew  and  John.  The 
date  is  844. 

A.  Codex  Sangallensis,  a  Greek -Latin  MS.  in  the 
library  of  St.  Gall,  containing  the  four  Gospels  entire, 
with  the  exception  of  John  xix,  17-35.  It  is  very  sim- 
ilar in  character  to  G  {Cod. Boernerianus),  both  belong- 
ing to  the  same  age  and  country,  i.  e.  they  were  written 
in  the  monastery  of  St.  GaU,  in  Switzerland,  in  the  9th 
century.  Kettig  published  it  at  Ziirich,  in  fac-simile, 
in  1836.  This  MS.,  with  the  codices  Augiensis  and  Bo- 
ernerianus, are  portions  of  one  and  the  same  document. 
See  Gall,  St.,  Manuscript. 

0.  Codex  Tischendorfianus  I,  in  the  library  of  Leip- 
zic  University,  consisting  of  four  leaves,  of  which  the 
third  is  almost  decayed,  containing  a  few  fragments  of 
Matthew's  Gospel.  Tischendorf  assigns  them  to  the 
end  of  the  7th  century.  He  published  the  contents  in 
his  Monmnenta  Sacra  inedita,  p.  1,  etc. 

G*",  a  fragment,  containing  six  leaves,  with.Matt.  xxii 
and  xxiii,  and  !Mark  iv,  belonging  to  the  7th  century. 

G'=,  two  leaves,  containing  Matt,  xxi,  19-24,  and  John 
xviii,  29-35,  belonging  to  the  Gth  century. 

9'^,  a  small  fragment  of  the  8th  century,  containing 
Luke  xi. 

9'',  a  fragment  of  Matt,  xxvi,  of  the  Gth  century. 

9'',  four  lea\'es,  containing  Matt,  xxvi,  xxvii,  Mark  i 
and  ii.     Of  the  Gth  century. 

95,  a  fragment  of  John  vi,  belonging  to  the  Gth  cen- 
tury. 

9'',  a  Greek- Arabic  MS.,  containing  three  leaves,  with 
Matt,  xiv  and  xxv,  belonging  to  the  9th  centurj-. 

A,  a  MS.  in  the  Bodleian  Library,  containing  the  Gos- 
pels of  Luke  and  John  entire.  It  consists  of  157  leaves, 
and  belongs  to  the  9th  centurj'.  Tischendorf  and  Tre- 
gelles have  collated  it. 

n,  a  valuable  MS.  of  the  Gospels,  almost  complete, 
brought  by  Tischendorf  from  Smyrna  to'  St.  Peters- 
burg. It  belongs  to  the  9th  century.  (See  Tischen- 
dorf s  Noiitia  editio7iis  codicis  Bibliorum  Sinaitici,  etc., 
p.  51.) 

A,  Codex  Zaci/nf kills,  a  palimpsest  containing  frag- 
ments of  Luke's  (iospel,  belonging  to  the  committee  of 
the  Britisli  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  It  is  of  the  8th 
century,  and  is  accompanied  by  a  catena  of  the  loth. 
Tregelles  transcribed  and  published  the  fragments 
(18G1).     See  Zacynthian  JIanuscript. 

Such  are  the  uncial  MSS.  hitherto  collated.  Their 
number  is  not  great,  but  every  year  is  adding  to  it. 
There  are  known  upwards  of  a  hundred  uncials,  includ- 
ing evangelistaria  and  apostoli.     (See  the  table  below.) 

4.  The  number  of  the  cursii-e  MSS.  (miiiiiscuks}  in 
existence  cannot  be  accurately  calculated.  Tischendorf 
catalogues  aliout  5(K)  of  the  Gospels,  200  of  the  Acts  and 
Catliolic  Epistles,  250  of  the  Pauline  Epistles,  and  a  lit- 
tle less  than  100  of  the  Apocalypse  (exclusive  of  lection- 
aries) ;  but  this  enumeration  can  only  be  accepted  as  a 
rough  approximation.  Many  of  the  JMSS.  quoted  are 
only  known  by  old  references ;  still  more  have  been 
"inspected"  most  cursorily ;  few  only  have  been  thor- 
oughly collated.  In  this  last  work  the  Kev.  F.  H.  Scriv- 
ener {ColUtliun  of  about  20  MSS.  of  the  Holy  Gospels, 
Camb.  1853;  Cod.  Aug.  etc.,  Camb.  1869)  has  labored 
with  the  greatest  success,  and  removed  many  common 


errors  as  to  the  character  of  the  later  text.     His  sum- 
mary is  as  follows : 


Gospels 

Act.  Cath.  Epp. 

Paul 

Apoc 

Evangelistaria . 

Apostoli 

Total... 


L'uplicHles 

Uncial. 

Cursive. 

al  re.id  y 
dedu.'ted. 

34 

6(11 

32 

10 

229 

Vi 

14 

2S3 

14 

4 

102 

58 

1S3 

0 

7 

05 

127 


1403 


Among  the  MSS.  which  are  well  known  and  of  great 
value  the  following  are  the  most  important : 

A.  Primary  Cursives  of  the  Gospels: 

1  (Act.  1 ;  Paul.  1 ;  Basileensis,  K.  iii,  3).  101  h  cent.  Very 
valuable  in  the  Gospels.    Collated  by  Koth  and  Tregelles. 

33  (Act.  13;  Paul.  17;  Paris,  Bibl.  Imp.  14).  llth  cent. 
Coll.  by  Tregelles. 

59  (Coll.  Gonv.  et  Cai.  Cambr.).  12th  cent.  Coll.  by 
Scrivener,  1800.  but  as  yet  unpublished. 

69  (Act.  31 ;  Paul.  37  ;  Apoc.  14 ;  Cod.  Leicestrensis).  14th 
cent.  The  text  of  the  Gospels  is  especially  valuable.  Coll. 
by  Tregelles,  18.52,  and  by  Scrivener,  1855,  who  published 
his  collation  in  Cod.  Aug.  etc.,  1859. 

118(Bodleiau.  Miscell.l3;  Marsh24).  13th  cent.  Coll. 
by  Griesbach,  Si/mb.  Crit.  i,  ccii  sq. 

124  (Cffisar.  Viudob.  Vessel.  188).  12th  cent.  Coll.  by 
Treschow,  Alter,  Birch. 

127  (Cod.Vaticanus,  349).    llth  cent.    Coll.  by  Birch. 

131  (Act.  70;  Paul.  77;  Apoc.  66;  Cod.Vaticanus,  360). 
llth  cent.  Formerly  belonged  to  Aldus  Manutius,  and 
was  probably  used  by  him  in  his  edition.    Coll.  by  Birch. 

157  (Cod.  Urbino-Vat.  2).     12th  cent.     Coll.  bv  Birch. 

218  (Act.  65;  Paul.  57;  Apoc.  33;  CiEsar-Vindob.  23). 
13th  cent.    Coll.  by  Alter. 

238,  259  (Moscow,  S.  Synod.  42,  45).  llth  cent.  Coll.  by 
Mattbsei. 

262,  300  (Paris,  Bihl.  Imp.  53,  ISO).  10th  and  llth  cent. 
Coll.  (?)  by  Scholz. 

346  (Milan,  Ambros.  23).    12th  cent.    Coll.  (?)  by  Scholz. 

2pe  (St.  Petersburg.  Pctropol.  vi,  470).  9th  cent.  Coll. 
by  Muralt.     (Transition  cursive.) 

cscr,  gscr  (Lambeth,  1177,  528,  Wetstein,  71).  12th  cent. 
Coll.  by  Scrivener. 

pscr  (Brit.  Mus.  Burney,  20).  13th  cent.  Coll.  by  Scriv- 
ener. 

wscr  (Cambr.  Coll.  SS.  Trin.  B.  s,lC).  14th  cent.  Coll. 
by  Scrivener. 

To  these  must  be  added  the  Evangelistarium  (B.  M. 
Burney,  22),  marked  y»",  coll.  by  Scriveuer.    (Cut,  fig.  4.) 

Thefollowing  are  valuable,  but  need  careful  collation  : 

13  (Paris,  Bihl.  Imp.  50).  Coll.  1797.  12th  cent.  (Comp. 
Griesbach,  Svmb.  Crit.  i,  cliv-clxvi.) 

22  (Paris,  Dill.  Imp.  72).     llth  cent. 

28  (Paris,  Bibl.  Imp.  379).    Coll.  by  Scholz. 

72  (Brit.  Mus.  Horl.  5047).     llth  cent. 

106  (Cod.  Wincbelsea).  10th  cent.  Coll.  by  Jackson 
(used  by  Wetstein),  174S. 

113, 114  (Brit.  Mus.  liarl.  1810,  5540). 

120  (Cod.  Guelpherbytanus,  xvi,  16).    llth  cent. 

130  (Cod.  Vuticanus,  3.59).     13th  cent. 

209  (Act.  95 :  Paul.  138  ;  Apoc.  46 ;  Venice,  Bibl.  S.  Marci, 
10).  15th  cent.  The  text  of  the  Gospels  is  especially  val- 
uable. 

225  (Vienna,  Bibl  Ivip.    Kollar.  9,  Forlos.  31).  12th  cent. 

372,  382  (Rome,  Vatican.  1101.  20TO).    15th  and  13th  cent. 

405, 408, 409  (Venice,  S.  Marci,  i,  10, 14, 15).  llth  and  12th 
cent. 

B.  Primary  Cursives  of  the  Acts  and  Catholic  Ejnstlcs: 
13:=Gosp.  33,  Paul.l7. 

31=Gosp.  09  {Codex  Leicestrensis). 
65=Gosp.  218. 

73  (Paul.  SO.    Vatican.  367).    llth  cent.    Coll.  by  Birch. 
95.96(Venet.  10, 11).  14th  and  llth  cent.  Coll.  by  Rinck. 
ISO  (Arsrentor.  Bibl.  Scm.  M.).     Coll.  bv  Aiendt. 
loti=p9cr61  (Tregelles,  Brit.  Mus.  ^rid.  20,003).    llth  cent. 

Coll.  by  Scrivener.    See  cut,  fls;.  2. 

ascr  (Lambeth,  1182).    12tb  cent.    Coll.  by  Scrivener. 

cscr  (Lambeth,  1184).     Coll.  by  Sanderson  ap.  Scrivener. 

The  following  are  valuable,  but  requiie  more  careful 
collation  : 

5  (Paris,  Bibl.  Imp.  106). 

2.5,  27  (Paul.  31 ;  Apoc.  7  ;  Paul.  33.  Brit.  Mus.  Harl.  5537, 
5620).     Comp.  Griesbach,  Si/ml'-  Crit.  ii,  184, 185. 

29  (Paul.  .^5 ;  Genev.  20).    llth  and  12th  cent. 
36  (Coll.  Xov.  Oxon.). 

40  (Paul.  46;  Apoc.  12.    Ales.  Vatican.  179).    llth  cent. 
Coll.  by  Zacagni. 
66  (Paul.  07). 

68  (Paul.  73,  Upsal).    12th  aiyl  llth  cent. 

69  (Paul.  74;  Apoc.  30;  Guelph.  xvi,  7).  14th  and  13th 
cent. 

81  (Berberini,  377).    llth  cent. 

137  (Milan.  .Inibro.'!.  97).    llth  cent.    ColL  by  Scholz. 

142  (Mutiueusis,  243).    12th  cent. 


MANUSCRIPTS 


728 


MANUSCRIPTS 


(1-) 


TAmK/MK/TnA&v'i 

-^      -r  /    -        /  ii5;i 


K  AH  po  ^  o  M^vX^T^^r^^/Ci^V^ 

Lu «?-  fcc43^nrbqpo4Cooaoi<r5'rririH'c{KoN 


(3.) 


(4.) 


ON    . 


I-Axu o *X o 'sX) (JHij  -nap 


^nfyov  oxrroa nut 

Specimens  of  (ircekMSS.  from  tl.e  intl.  fo  the  14th  centnrv,  nowin  the 

niui.su  Aiuseiun:  1<1<:.  1  is  fi-oin  the  Iliirleian  Evanirelistarv,  No.5598     '■— ""^^  "'  <»iiivc  ai,  mc  tiue  onuiiiai  juriii 
"'^orAd;i:^:o;^'''ny!:l^;:=^::!'\^;!'•:';,^E^^^^2:"=■^'!^^     F■i^i   ^'f  «  P--^-      Ma„y  circun,sta,.ces  are  to 


C.  Primary  Cursives 
iu  the  Pauline  Epistles  : 

lT=Gosp.  33. 
=Gosp.  69  {Codex 

leicestrensis). 

--=Gosp.  218. 
".,  109= Act.  95,  90. 

-_  ',116  (Act.  100, 101, 
Mosqii.  Matt.  d.  f.). 

137  (Gosp.  203 ;  Act. 
117,  Paris,  Bibl.  Imp. 
01). 

The  following  are 
valuable,  but  require 
more  careful  collation : 

5=Act.  5. 

23  (Paris,  Coisliiu2S). 
11th  ceut.  Descr.  by 
Montfaufou. 

31  (Brit.  Mus.  Harl. 
5537)=lscr,  Apoc.  13th 
cent. 

39  (Act.  33.  Oxford, 
Coll.  Lincoln.  2). 

46=Act.  40. 

47  (Oxford,  Bodleian. 
Koe,  16).    11th  cent. 

55  (Act.  46.  Moua- 
censis). 

67  (Act.  66.  Vindob. 
Lambec.  34).  The  cor- 
rections are  especially 
valuable. 

70  (Act.  67.  Vindob. 
Lambec.  37). 

71  (Vindob.  Forlos. 
19).    12th  ceut. 

73  (.\ct.  OS). 
80  (Act.  73.    Vatican. 
307). 
177-S-9  (Mutiu.). 

D.  Primary  Cursives 
of  the  Apocahipfte: 
Iscr  (Act.  25.     Brit.  Mus.  Harl. 
5537).    11th  ceut.    Coll.  by  Scriven- 
er. 
14=Gosp.  69  (Cod.  LeiceMrensis). 
31=:C8cr   (Brit.  Mus.  Harl.  5678). 
15th  cent.     Coll.  by  Scrivener. 

38  (Vatican.  579).  13th  ceut.  Coll. 
by  B.  IL  Alford. 

47  (Cod.  Dresdensis).    lllh  cent 
Coll.  bv  Matthwi. 

51  (Paris,  Bibl.  Imp.).     Coll.  by 
Reiche. 

gs"  (Parham,  17).    11th  and  12th 
ceut.     Coll.  bv  Scrivener. 

msrr  (:\liddl"ehlll)^-S7.    lllh  and 
12th  cent.     Coll.  by  Scrivener. 

The  following  are  valuable,  but 
require  more  careful  collation: 

2  (Act.  10;  Paul.  12;  Paris,  Bibl. 
Imp.  237). 
6  (Act.  23  ;  Paul.  28.   Bodleian.   Barocc  3). 
12th  and  13th  cent. 
11  (Act.  39;  Paul.  45). 
12^- Act.  40. 

17, 19  (Ev.  35;  Act.  14;  Paul.  IS;  Act.  17; 
Paul.  21.    Paris.    Coislin.  199,  205). 
28  (Bodleian.     Barocc.  48). 
?,C,  (Viudob.    Forlos.  29).    14th  cent. 
41  (Alex.  Vatican.  68).    14th  ceut. 
40=Gosp.  209. 
82  (Act.  179;  Paul.  128;  Monac.  211). 

5.  ;M-SS.  are  sometimes  divided  by  the  crit- 
ics ot'CJormanyinto,  1.  Such  as  were  written 
btfore  the  practice  of  slichomvtn/,  a  mode  of 
dividing  the  text  in  lines  or  clau.ses.  See 
SncHO.METRY.  2.Thc  stichometrical  S.Those 
written  after  stic/iometnj  had  ceased.  So  Hug 
and  De  Wctte,  in  their  Introductions  to  the 
N.T.  According  to  this  classification,  N,  A, 
B,  and  C  belong  to  the  first  class ;  D,  D„,  etc., 
to  the  second ;  and  by  far  the  greatest  nnmber 
to  the  third.  AVe  have  alluded  to  them  un- 
der the  two  great  heads  ot'micuil  and  cinsire. 

In  examining  jMSS.  and  comparing  their 
characteristic  readings,  it  is  not  ca.sy  in  every 
instance  to  arrive  at  the  true  original  form 


l^  ^'^u*}  ^^^-  ^"-*'"-'^'  ""'^  (•"utain.'!  Acts  xiii",  18-20  (Scrivener  p  Tgs' 
Tal;,.  i  i"  a*>Q^'^-  ^'  <■'■'""  "•''•l«'a"  Evnugelistary,  No.  S.-^O,  contains 
John  1, 1-^3  (Scrivener,  p.  157,  No."  115").  Pig.  4,  from  Burnev  Lec- 
tiouary,  22,  contains  John  i,  1-3  (Scrivener,  p.  220,  No  "'yiorvj 


be  taken  into  accoimt,  and  many  cautions  to 
be  observed.  They  arc  more  useful  in  de- 
tecting interpolated  passages  than  in  restor- 


MAOCH 


(29 


MAPLETOFT 


ing  the  correct  reading.  The  reading  of  an  older  MS.  is 
preferable  cceteris  paribus.  In  determining  the  age  of  a 
MS.  internal  marks  are  chiefly  followed,  such  as  the  form 
of  the  letters,  the  divisions,  abbreviations,  the  nature  of 
the  lines,  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  accents,  etc. 
These  particulars,  however,  are  not  safe  criteria.  Age 
alone  is  not  sufficient  to  insure  the  value  of  the  text  of  a 
MS.  The  copyist  may  have  been  guilty  of  negligence  or 
inattention.  In  proportion  to  his  accuracy  or  carelessness 
the  authority  of  the  codex  will  be  greater  or  less.  Again, 
a  document  certainly  copied  from  one  which  is  very  an- 
cient will  have  greater  authority  than  an  earlier  taken 
from  another  of  no  great  antiquity.  Thus  a  MS.  of 
the  eii/hth  century  may  have  been  directly  copied  from 
one  of  the  ,fift/i,  and  consequently  the  former  will  be 
entitled  to  greater  estimation  than  one  belonging  to  the 
7th  century  transcribed  from  one  of  the  Gth.  In  deter- 
mining the  value  of  a  codex,  it  is  usual  to  refer  to  the 
country  where  it  was  written.  Griesbach  and  others  pre- 
fer the  African ;  Scholz,  the  Constantinopolitan.  Those 
written  in  Egypt  are  the  best.  With  respect  to  He- 
brew MSS..  it  is  admitted  by  all  that  the  Spanish  are 
the  best.  The  Italian,  again,  arc  superior  to  tlie  Ger- 
man. The  reading  contained  in  the  greater  number  of 
MSS.  is  preferable  to  that  of  a  less  number.  ]\[ere  ma- 
joritij.  however,  is  not  a  safe  criterion.  A  majority 
arising  from  independeut  sources,  or,  in  other  words,  of 
those  belonging  to  different  recensions,  can  alone  be  re- 
lied on  as  decisive.  But  here  critics  are  not  agreed  as 
to  the  number  of  recensions  belonging  to  Greek  MSS. 
Some  have  proposed  four,  some  three,  others  two.  Be- 
sides, the  same  MS.  may  belong  to  a  different  recension 
m  different  parts  of  itself.  In  others,  the  characteristic 
readings  of  two  or  three  recensions  are  mingled  togeth- 
er, rendering  it  difficult  to  determine  which  recension  or 
family  prejionderates.  Hebrew  i\ISS.  belong  to  one  and 
the  same  recension.  It  is  true  that  some  have  distin- 
guished them  into  ]\[asoretic  and  Ante-masoretic,  but 
the  existence  of  the  lattey  is  a  mere  fiction.  One  great 
family  alone,  viz.  the  Miisorefic,  can  be  distinctly'  traced. 
Since  the  time  of  Lachmann's  first  edition,  greater  im- 
portance has  been  attached  by  N.-T.  critics  to  the  age 
of  MSS.  It  has  been  the  object  of  his  followers  in  the 
same  department  to  adhere  for  the  most  part  to  the  old- 
est copies.  This  is  right  within  certain  limits.  The 
true  text  of  the  N.  T.,  as  far  as  ;ve  can  now  obtain  it, 
lies  in  the  MSS.  of  the  4th  till  the  8th  centuries,  accom- 
panied and  modified  by  the  testimony  of  ancient  ver- 
sions and  fathers  during  that  period.  But  within  this 
period  we  can  easily  distinguish  MSS.  of  a  second  order 
in  goodness,  viz.  E,  F,  G,  H,  K,  M,  S,  U,  V,  from  those 
of  the  first  class,  X,  A,  B,  C,  Z  (see  Davidson's  Biblical 
Criticism,  vol.  ii).     See  Ckiticism,  Biblical. 

Ma'och  (Heb.  Maoh',  ~i"'9,  comjwessed;  Sept. 
Afij.u'i\,\v\Q.  Mnocli),  the  father  of  the  Achish  king  of 
Gath  to  whom  David  repaired  for  safety  (1  Sam.  xxvii, 
2).  B.C.  ante  1054.  By  many  he  has  been  confounded 
with  the  Maacaii  of  1  Kings  ii,  39.     See  Achish. 

Ma'on  (Heb.  Mnijn',  '|1"'0,  habitation,  as  often; 
Sept.  M«(.ji'),  the  name  of  a  man  and  of  a  place.  See 
also  Maoxite. 

1.  The  son  of  Shammai,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  and 
famil}'  of  Caleb,  and  the  "  father"  (i.  e.  founder)  of  Beth- 
zur  (1  Chron,  ii,  45).     B.C.  prob.  post  1(518. 

2.  A  to\TO  in  the  tribe  of  .Tudah  (Josh,  xv,  55).  which 
gave  name  to  a  wilderness  (i)art  of  the  desert  of  .Judiea), 
where  David  hid  himself  from  Saul,  and  around  which 
the  churlish  Nabal  had  great  possessions  (1  Sam.  xxiii, 
24,  25;  XXV,  2).  Josephus  calls  it  Emma  ('E/(jU«,  Ant. 
vi,  13,  6).  Eusebius  and  Jerome  place  it  to  the  east  of 
Daroma  {Onomast.  s.  v.  Marwr,  ]\Iaon).  Irby  and  Man- 
gles were  in  the  neighborhood  in  1818.  but  did  not  de- 
tect this  and  other  ancient  names.  Kobinson  finds  it  in 
the  present  Main,  which  is  about  seven  miles  south  by 
east  from  Hebron.     Here  there  is  a  conical  hill  about 


200  feet  high,  on  the  top  of  which  are  some  ruins  of  no 
great  extent,  consisting  of  foundations  of  hewn  stone,  a 
scpiare  enclosure,  the  remains  probably  of  a  tower  or 
castle,  and  several  cisterns.  The  view  from  the  sum- 
mit is  extensive.  The  traveller  found  here  a  band  of 
peasants  keeping  their  flocks,  and  dwelling  in  caves 
amid  the  ruins  {Bibl.  Researches,  ii,  190-190).  With 
this  identification  De  Saulcy  {Narrative,  i,  441)  and 
Schwarz  {Palestine,  p.  100)  agree.     See  Meiiuni.^i. 

Ma'onite  (Heb.  same  word  as  Maon,  used  collec- 
tively; Sept.  and  Vulg.  interpret  Xavaav  [v.  r.  MnCi- 
«/i],  Chanuan,  Auth.  Vers.  "Maonites"),  an  Arabian 
tribe  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  Amalekites,  Si- 
donians,  Philistines,  and  others  as  having  oppressed  the 
Hebrews  (Judg.  x,  12).  They  are  the  same  as  the  Me- 
UNiTES  (Ci^l^ri,  Meiinim',  the  plural  of  Maon;  Sept. 
MtrnTo/,  confounding  them  with  the  Ammonites;  Vulg. 
Ammonitce,  and  tabernacula ;  Auth.  Vers.  "jNIehunims," 
and  "the  habitations"),  elsewhere  mentioned  in  a  simi- 
lar connection  (2  Chron.  xxvi,  27  ;  1  Chron.  iv,  41).  See 
also  Mehunim.  At  the  present  day  there  exists  a  town 
called  Ma\in,  with  a  castle,  in  Arabia  Petrrea,  to  the 
south  of  the  Dead  Sea  (see  Seetzen,  in  Zach's  Monatl. 
Corresp.  xviii,  382;  Burckhardt,  Travels  in  Syria,  p. 
437).  Prof.  Kobinson  says,  "  jNIa'an,  the  well-known 
town  on  the  route  of  the  Syrian  Haj,  nearly  east  of 
wady  Musa,  is  with  good  reason  assumed  as  the  proba- 
ble seat  of  the  Maonites  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures. 
Abulfeda  {Syr.  p.  14)  describes  Ma'an  as  inhabited  by 
Ommiades  and  their  vassals"  {Researches,  ii,  572).  That 
the  Mincei  of  Arabia  (Diod.  Sic.  iii,  42  ;  Ptol.  vi,  7,  23  ; 
Strabo,  xvi,  7(58)  are  a  different  people  has  long  since 
been  shown  by  Bochart  {Phaleg,  ii,  23).  Traces  of  the 
name  Maon  are  found  in  several  localities  besides  that 
of  the  above  passages.  It  is  given  to  a  town  in  the 
south  of  Judah,  now  identified  with  the  ruins  of  Tell 
Mahi  (Porter,  Handbook  for  S.  and  P.  p.  61).  In  pro- 
nouncing a  prophetic  curse  upon  Moab,  Jeremiah  men- 
tions Beth-meon  (xlviii,  23),  which  may  perhaps  be  the 
same  as  the  Beth-baal-meon  of  Josh,  xiii,  17,  and  the 
Baal-meon  of  Numb,  xxxii,  38,  and  would  thus  be  iden- 
tical with  the  ruin  Mahi,  three  miles  soutli  of  Ileshbon. 
See  Beth-baal-meon.  Hence  "  it  is  probable  that  all 
these  names  indicate  the  presence  of  an  ancient  and 
powerful  nomad  tribe,  which  was  allied  to  the  Phoeni- 
cians (or  Sidonians),  whose  earliest  settlements  were  in 
the  vale  of  Sodom,  and  with  the  Amalekites  who  dwelt 
in  the  wilderness  south  of  Palestine.  These  Maonites 
migrated  eastward,  leaving  their  name  at  ]Maon  in  the 
south  of  Judah,  where  they  may  have  had  their  head- 
quarters for  a  time,  and  again  at  Betli-meon,  on  the 
plateau  of  IMoab ;  and  also  at  the  large  modern  village 
above  described"  (Kitto). 

Maphrian  is  in  the  Syrian  Church  the  highest 
episcopal  dignitarj'  after  the  patriarch  of  Antioch.  The 
jurisdiction  of  the  maphrian  extends  over  Chaktea,  As- 
syria, and  Mesopotamia.  His  residence  was  formerly 
at  Tafrits,  on  the  Tiger,  but  since  this  see  has  coalesced 
with  that  of  IMosul  it  is  at  the  latter  place.  Neale  {In- 
trod.  Hist,  of  the  Eastei-n  Church,  p.  152)  sa3'S  that  '"the 
maphrians  are  now  only  nominally  distinguished  from 
the  other  metropolitans." 

Maoris.     See  New  Zealand. 

Mapletoft,  John,  D.D.,  an  English  minister,  was 
born  at  ^largaret-Inge,  Huntingdonshire,  in  1C3I  ;  re- 
ceived his  education  at  Westminster  School  and  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge ;  in  1(553  became  fellow  of  Trinity; 
in  1(558  became  tutor  to  Joscelin,  carl  of  Nortlumibcr- 
land;  in  1660  entered  upon  the  study  of  medicine,  and 
finally  practiced  it  with  great  success,  filling  at  one  time 
the  chair  of  physic  in  Gresham  College,  London.  Hav- 
ing turned  his  attention  to  the  study  of  divinity,  he  took, 
in  1(582,  both  deacon's  and  priest's  orders ;  was  soon  af- 
ter presented  to  the  rectory  of  Braybrooke,  in  North- 
amptonshire, by  lord  Griffin;  in  1(584  was  chosen  lec- 
turer of  Ipswich;  in  1685  vicar  of  St.  Lawrence,  Jewry, 


MAPPA 


130 


MARANATHA 


and  lecturer  of  St.  Christopher's,  in  London ;  received 
liis  D.I),  in  16>S9,  and  in  1707  was  chosen  president  of 
8ioii  College.  He  died  at  Westminster  in  1721.  Dr. 
Mapletoft  published  Principles  and  Duties  of  the  C/irii- 
tiaii  Religion  ('id  ed.,  corrected  and  enlarged,  Lond.  1713, 
8vo),  and  other  minor  pieces  upon  moral  and  theological 
subjects. — Gen.  Biog.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Alappa,  the  name  of  the  linen  cloth  with  which  the 
communion  table,  and  subsequently  the  altar,  was  cov- 
ered. It  came  to  be  considered  essential  that  this  cloth 
should  be  of  linen,  according  to  some,  in  commemora- 
tion of  the  linen  cloth  in  which  the  body  of  the  Lord 
was  wrapped.  This,  however,  it  seems  would  apply 
better  to  the  corporale  (q.  v.).  Optatus  of  Milene,  in 
De  schismute  Donatistarum,  speaks  of  this  custom  as 
general.  In  the  Koman  Catholic  Church  there  are  a 
number  of  regulations  concerning  the  muppa,  which  is 
always  to  be  blessed  by  the  bishop,  or  by  some  one  com- 
missioned by  him  for  the  purpose. — Pierer,  Universal- 
Lexikon,  x,  848 ;  Herzog,  lieal-EncyUupddie,  ix,  7. 

Ma'ra  (Heb.  Mara',  X'n^,  for  n'i'a,  hitter,  as  ex- 
plained in  the  context;  Sept.  Tri/cpia,  Vulg.  Mara,  id  est 
umara),  a  symbolical  name  proposed  for  herself  by  Na- 
omi on  account  of  her  misfortunes  (Ruth  i,  20).     See 

EUTH. 

Mara,  a  famous  diva  of  Hindu  mythology  men- 
tioned in  the  history  of  Gautama  (q.  v.). 

Marabuts,  a  name  given  to  the  descendants  of  the 
Morurides  (q.  v. ;  see  also  JIohajimedans),  or  A  Imora- 
^•ides,  a  certain  Arabic  tribe  which,  in  1075,  founded  a 
dynasty  in  the  north-western  parts  of  Africa,  and  held 
]\Iorocco  and  Spain  for  a  considerable  jieriod.  The  Al- 
raohades  having  put  an  end  to  their  temporal  dominion, 
their  descendants  exercise  to  this  day  a  kind  of  spiritual 
superiority  over  the  Moslem  negroes  in  Barbary,  the 
coast  of  Guinea,  etc.  At  present  the  Marabuts  form  a 
kind  of  priestly  order,  officiating  at  mosques  and  chap- 
els, explaining  the  Koran,  providing  the  faithful  with 
amulets,  prophesying,  and  working  miracles.  They  are 
looked  up  to  with  great  awe  and  reverence  by  the  com- 
mon people,  who  also  allow  them  a  certain  vague  li- 
cense over  their  goods  and  chattels,  their  wives  not  ex- 
cluded. The  Great  Marabut  ranks  next  to  the  king, 
and  the  dignity  of  a  IMarabut  is  generallv  hereditary. 
One  of  the  most  eminent  Marabuts  of  our  day  is  the 
celebrated  Mohammedan  warrior  Abd-el-Kader,  who 
was  born  in  1807,  and  in  1832  opened  the  contest  against 
the  French  to  expel  the  latter  from  African  territory, 
which  resulted  so  unsuccessfully  to  the  Mohammedan 
cause. 

Maiafoschi,  Prospero,  an  Italian  prelate,  was 
born  Sept.  2'J,  ItioS,  at  Macerata;  entered  the  priesthood 
while  yet  a  youth  ;  became  canon  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome, 
and  later  bishop  in  partibus  of  Cyrene.  He  enjoyed  the 
favor  and  ('ontidence  of  several  of  the  incumbents  of  the 
jiapal  iliair.  Clement  XI, in  1721,  gave  him  the  archie- 
piscopal  sec  of  Ciesarea  and  Cappadocia;  Benedict  XIII 
created  him  cardinal  in  1724,  and  in  1726  made  him 
vicar-general  of  Rome.  He  died  Feb.  24, 1732. — Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Uiixj.  Gcni'rale,  xxiii,  347. 

Ma'rah  (Hebrew  Marak',  rTl^,  hitterness,  from  the 
taste  of  the  water;  Sept,  Mippa,  UtKf>la,y\\\g.  Mara), 
a  brackish  fountain,  forming  the  sixth  station  of  the 
Israelites,  three  days  distant  from  their  passage  across 
the  Red  Sea  (Exod.  xv,  33;  Numb,  xxiii,  8).  Finding 
here  a  well  so  l)itter  that,  thirsty  as  they  were,  they 
could  not  drink  its  water,  they  murmured  against  Mo- 
ses, who  at  the  divine  direction  cast  in  "a  certain  tree," 
by  which  means  it  was  made  palatable.  "  It  has  been 
suggested  (Burckhardt,  iSip-ia,  p.  474)  that  Moses  made 
use  of  the  berries  of  the  plant  Ghurkud  (Robinson  .says 
[i, 2GJ  the  Pef/amim  7-etusuiH  of  ForskalJ  Flora  ^K<j.  A  rab. 
p.  Ixvi;  more  correctly,  the  A'tV/y/w/  tridentata  of  Des- 
fontaincs, /■Yon;  .l/Af«^  i,  372),  and  which  stiE.it  is  im- 
plied, would  be  found  to  operate  similarly.     Robinson, 


however  (i,  67),  could  not  find  that  this  or  any  tree  was 
now  known  by  the  Arabs  to  possess  such  properties ;  nor 
would  those  berries,  he  says,  have  been  found  so  early  in 
the  season  as  the  time  when  the  Israelites  reached  the 
region.  It  may  be  added  that,  had  any  such  resource 
ever  existed,  its  eminent  usefulness  to  the  supply  of  hu- 
man wants  would  hardly  have  let  it  perish  from  the  tra- 
ditions of  the  desert.  Further,  the  expression  '  the  Lord 
showed'  seems  surely  to  imply  the  miraculous  character 
of  tlie  transaction"  (Smith).  With  regard  to  the  cure 
of  the  water,  it  has  been  well  argued  (Kitto,  Pictorial 
History  of  Palestine,  p.  209)  that  no  explanation  of  the 
phenomena  on  natural  grounds  has  proved  consistent  or 
satisfactory ;  neither  is  there  &\\y  tree  in  that  region  or 
elsewhere  now  known  which  possesses  such  virtue  in 
itself,  or  which  is  used  for  a  similar  purpose  by  the 
Arabs.  We  are  therefore  compelled  to  conclude,  as,  in- 
deed, the  narrative  spontaneously  suggests,  that  the 
shrub  selected  was  indifferent,  being  one  nearest  at 
hand,  and  that  the  restorative  property  ceased  with  the 
special  occasion  which  had  called  for  its  exercise,  leav- 
ing the  well  to  resume  its  acrid  taste  as  at  present  found. 

The  name  Marah,  in  the  form  of  Amarah,  is  now 
borne  by  the  barren  bed  of  a  winter  torrent,  a  little  be- 
yond which  is  still  found  a  well  called  Hoicarah,  the  bit- 
ter waters  of  which  answer  to  this  description.  Camels 
wiU  drink  it,  but  the  thirsty  Arabs  never  partake  of  it 
themselves — and  it  is  said  to  be  the  only  water  on  the 
shore  of  the  Red  Sea  which  they  cannot  drink.  The 
water  of  this  well,  when  first  taken  into  the  mouth, 
seems  insipid  rather  than  bitter,  but  when  held  in  the 
mouth  a  few  seconds  it  becomes  exceedingly  nauseous. 
The  well  rises  within  an  elevated  mound  surrounded  by 
sand-hills,  and  two  small  date-trees  grow  near  it.  The 
basin  is  six  or  eight  feet  in  diameter,  and  the  water 
about  two  feet  deep.  (See  Burckhardt,  Trav.  in  Syria, 
p.  472;  Robinson,  Researches,  i,  96  sq. ;  Bartlett, /■o?Vy 
Days  in  the  Desert,  p.  30  ;  and  other  travellers.)  "Wi- 
ner says  {Ilandwb.  s.  v.)  that  a  still  bitterer  well  lies 
east  of  Marah,  the  claims  of  which  Tischendorf,  it  ap- 
pears, has  supported.  Lepsius  prefers  wady  Ghurundel. 
Prof.  Stanley  thinks  that  the  claim  may  be  left  between 
this  and  Ilowarah,  but  adds  in  a  note  a  mention  of  a 
spring  south  of  Howarah  '  so  bitter  that  neither  men 
nor  camels  could  drink  it,'  of  which  '  Dr.  Graul  (ii,  2u4) 
was  told.'  The  Ayoun  J/o!«(/, 'wells  of  Moses,'  which 
local  tradition  assigns  to  INIarah,  are  manifestly  too  close 
to  the  head  of  the  gulf,  and  probable  spot  of  crossing  it, 
to  suit  the  distance  of  '  three  days'  journey.'  The  soil 
of  this  region  is  described  as  being  alternately  gravelly, 
stony,  and  sandj';  under  the  range  of  the  Gebel  Wardan 
chalk  and  flints  are  plentiful,  and  on  the  direct  line  of 
route  bet^veen  Ayoun  jMousa  and  Howarah  no  water  is 
found  (Robinson,  i,  67)"  (Smith).     See  Exode. 

Mar'alah  (Heb.  ^faralah',  flb""!^,  a  tremUing ; 
Sept,  MrtpnXo),  a  place  on  the  southern  boundary  of 
Zebnlon,  but  api)arently  within  the  bounds  of  Issachar, 
west  of  Sarid  and  east  of  Dabbasheth  (Josh,  xix,  11). 
These  indications  point  to  some  locality  not  far  from 
the  present  Miijeidil,  although  the  name  would  seem  to 
agree  better  with  that  of  the  neighboring  site,  jStelul. 
The  latter  place  agrees  with  the  identification  ofl'orter, 
who  remarks  that  IMalul  is  a  little  village  about  four 
mUes  south-west  of  Nazareth,  on  the  top  of  a  hill,  con- 
taining the  ruins  of  a  tcmiilc,  and  other  vestiges  of  an- 
tiquity. In  the  surrounding  rocks  and  cliffs  are  some 
excavated  tombs  (^I/inidbook,  ]\  385). 

Maran-a'tha  (Mapav  dBci,  from  the  Aramsean 
nrx  "TC,  maran'  athah',  our  Lord  comes,  i.  e.  to  judg- 
ment, Buxtorf,  Lex.  Chald.  col.  1248,  and  so  found  in  the 
Peshito  version),  a  phrase  added  to  the  sentence  of  ex- 
communication byway  of  appeal  to  the  divine  Head  of 
the  Church  for  ratification  (1  Cor.  xvi,  22).  See  Anath- 
EJiA.  "  In  the  A.  Y.  it  is  combined  with  the  preceding 
'  anathema,'  but  this  is  unnecessary  ;  at  all  events  it  can 
only  be  regarded  as  adding  emphasis  to  the  pre^•iou3 


MARANOS 


'731 


MARBLE 


adjuration.  It  rather  appears  to  be  added  '  as  a  weighty 
watchword'  to  impress  upon  the  disciples  the  important 
truth  tliat  the  Lord  was  at  hand,  and  that  they  should 
be  ready  to  meet  him  (Alford,  Gr.  Test,  ad  loc).  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  phrase  be  taken  to  mean,  as  it  may, 
'our  Lord  has  come,'  then  the  connection  is,  'the  curse 
will  remain,  for  the  Lord  has  come  who  will  take  ven- 
geance on  those  who  reject  him,'  Thus  the  name  'Ma- 
ronite'  is  explained  by  a  tradition  that  the  Jews,  in  ex- 
pectation of  a  JNIessiah,  were  constantly  saying  Maran, 
i.  e.  Lord ;  to  which  the  Christians  answered  Maran 
atha,  the  Lord  is  come,  why  do  you  still  expect  him  ? 
(Stanley,  Corinthians,  ad  loc.)"  (Smith). 

Maraiios  is  one  of  the  names  used  to  designate 
the  new  Christians  of  Spain,  i.  e.  those  Jews  (q.  v.) 
who,  during  the  religious  persecutions  under  Romish 
rule,  publicly  avowed  conversion  to  Christianity  and 
j'et  privately  confessed  the  religion  of  their  fathers,  as 
e.  g.  the  family  of  iNIaimonides  (q.  v.).  The  name  owes 
its  origin  to  the  fact  that  not  only  Jews,  but  also  Moors 
(i\.  V.)  made  a  feigned  profession  of  conversion  to  the 
Christian  faith.     See  Inquisition  ;  Spain. 

Maran(us),  Pkudentius,  a  noted  French  theolo- 
gian, was  born,  according  to  Winer  (T/ieol.  Literaitir,  p. 
Goi),  at  Sezanne,  whilst  Le  Cerf  {Biblioth.  historique  de 
la  Cong,  de  St.  Maur,  p.  '293)  and  Zedler  {Universullex- 
ikvn)  consider  him  to  have  been  born  at  Troyes,  in 
Champagne,  October  14, 1(583.  In  1703  he  entered  the 
Congregation  of  St.  Maur,  taking  the  vows  at  the  Abbey 
of  St.  Faron,  at  JMeaux.  He  subsequently  resided  at 
the  Convent  of  St.  Germain  des  Pres,  Paris.  He  died 
April  2, 1762.  He  published  the  works  of  Cyril  of  Jeru- 
salem in  Greek  and  Latin  (Paris,  1720;  Venice,  1763). 
Though  the  best  edition  of  Cyril's  works,  it  was  attack- 
ed by  the  author  of  the  Memoires  de  Trevoux.  INIara- 
nus  defended  himself  in  his  Dissertation  sur  les  senii- 
Ariens  (Paris,  1722).  He  also  completed  the  edition  of 
the  works  of  Cyprian  commenced  by  St.  Baluze  (Paris, 
1726;  Venice,  1728),  and  published  the  works  of  Justin 
ISIartyr  in  Greek  and  Latin,  with  a  valuable  introduc- 
tion (Paris,  1742 ;  Venice,  1747).  He  published  also  a 
work  of  his  own  on  the  divinity  of  Christ,  under  the  title 
JJivinitas  Domini  nostri  Jesu  Christi  rnanifesta  in  scrip- 
iaris  et  traditione.  (Paris,  1746).  This  work  is  divided 
into  four  parts.  The  first  treats  of  the  proofs  contained 
in  the  Old  and  the  New  Testaments ;  the  second,  of  the 
unanimity,  on  this  point,  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
and  of  the  different  sects;  the  third,  of  the  continuous 
controversies  with  the  Jews,  heathen,  and  heretics;  and 
the  fourth,  of  the  unanimous  testimony  of  the  fathers. 
It  contains,  besides,  arguments  to  prove  the  divinity  of 
the  Holy  Ghost.  Maranus  took  also  an  active  part  in 
the  controversies  arising  from  the  bull  '•  Unigenitus 
Dei  lilius,"  siding  with  the  party  called  appellants;  and, 
although  he  had  written  nothing  on  the  subject,  he  had 
in  consequence  to  endure  great  annoyances  from  the 
acceptants,  who  were  the  strongest. — Herzog,  Real-En- 
cyklopd.die,  ix,  9.     See  Jansenists.      (J.  N.  P.) 

Maratta  or  Maratti,  Carlo,  a  celebrated  Italian 
painter,  was  born  at  Camurano,  near  Ancona,  INIa}',  162.5 ; 
became  a  pupil  of  Andrea  Saccbi  and  a  devout  student 
of  Raphael's  works,  and  chose  Rome  as  his  permanent 
residence.  He  was  employed  by  Clement  IX  and  by 
four  oth'T  successive  popes,  and  received  the  title  of 
painter  ordinary  to  Louis  XIV,  for  whom  he  jiainted  a 
picture  of  Daphne.  His  Madonnas  are  admired  for 
modest  dignity  and  amiable  expression.  iMaratta  also 
excelled  in  the  art  of  etching.  He  was  the  last  great 
painter  of  the  Roman  school.  He  died  in  1713.— 
Thomas,  Diet.  Biorj.  and  Mythol.  s.  v. 

Maraviglia  (Latin  MirahiUa).  Gu-seppe  iSIaria, 
an  Italian  philosopher,  a  native  of  Milan,  flourished  near 
the  middle  of  the  17th  century.  He  at  first  belonged 
to  the  body  of  regular  clergy,  was  commissioned  in  1651 
to  teach  ethics  in  Padua,  and  exchanged  the  duties  of 
provincial  prior  for  those  of  bishop  at  Novara  in  1667, 


He  died  there  in  1G84,  Among  his  works  we  find  Leges 
honestm  Vita;  (Ven,  1657, 12mo),  a  moral  treatise  dedica- 
ted to  Christine,  queen  of  Sweden : — Leges  Doctrince  a 
Sanctis  Patribus  (Venice,  1660,  24mo)  : — Proteits  ethico- 
politicus  seu  de  midtifurmi  hominis  statu  (Venice,  1660, 
folio)  : — Pseudomantia  vetenim  et  recentioriun  explosa, 
seu  de  fide  dicinationibus  adhihcnda  (Ven,  1662,  fol,)  : — 
De  erro7-ibus  virorum  doctorum  (Ven.  1662, 12mo;  Rome, 
16G7, 4to)  : — Legatus  adprineipes  Christianos  (Ven.  1665, 
12rao)  : — Ammfcstramenti  deW  anima  Christiana  (Xo- 
vara,  1675,  8vo). — Hoefer,  Kouv.  Biog.  Gen.  xxxiii,  362. 

Marbach,  Johann,  an  eminent  German  Protestant 
theologian,  was  born  at  Lindau  Aug.  24, 1521,  and  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Wittenberg,  where  he 
commenced  in  1539  the  study  of  theology.  He  became 
successively  deacon  at  Jena  in  1540,  preacher  at  Ivry  in 
1544,  and  at  Strasburg  in  1545.  He  was  afterwards 
sent  by  the  latter  city  to  the  Council  of  Trent,  together 
with  Sleidan.  In  1552  he  was  appointed  chief  pastor 
and  professor  of  theology.  Here  he  labored  to  intro- 
duce the  Lutheran  doctrines  in  the  place  of  the  Re- 
formed, whereby  he  became  involved  in  numberless 
controversies.  In  1556  he  was  employed  by  the  elector 
Otto  Henry  to  organize  the  Reformation  in  the  Palati- 
nate, and  in  1557  was  (jresent  at  the  Diet  of  Worms.  He 
ceased  preaching  in  1558,  and  died  deacon  of  Thomas 
College,  jVIarch  17,  1581.  He  wrote  Christlicher  iind 
wuhrhafter  Unterricht  von  d.  Worten  d.  Einsetzung  d.  heil. 
Abendmals,  etc.  (Strasb.  1565,  8vo),  and  other  similar 
works,  all  upholding  the  ultra-Lutheran  views.  See 
Treuss,  Situation  interieure  de  VEglise  Lntherienne  de 
Strasbourg  sous  la  direction  de  Marbach  (Strasb,  1857) ; 
Pierer,  Universal-Lexikon,  x,  852 ;  Herzog,  Real-Encykl. 
ix,  10. 

Marban,  Pedro  de,  a  Spanish  Jesuit  and  mission- 
ary, flourished  near  the  close  of  the  17th  century.  In 
1675  he  went  to  Bolivia,  and  later  to  Mexico,  and  la- 
bored industriously  to  spread  the  Gospel  of  Christ  among 
the  savages  of  America,  and  Anally  became  superior  of 
all  the  missions  of  the  Jesuits  in  this  quarter.  He 
wrote  Arte  de  la  Leugua  Moxa,  con  su  vocabidario  y 
catechismo  (Lima,  1701,  8vo). — WoQieijNouv.Biog.  Gen. 
xxxiii,  361. 

Marbeck  or  Merbecke,  John,  the  composer  of 
the  solemn  and  now  venerable  notes  set  to  the  "  Preces'' 
and  Responses  in  use  in  the  catliedrals  of  England,  to 
our  day  with  only  slight  modifications,  was  organist  of 
Windsor  during  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII  and  his  suc- 
cessor. A  zeal  for  religious  reformation  led  him  to  join 
a  society  in  furtherance  of  that  object,  among  the  mem- 
bers of  which  were  a  priest,  a  singing-man  of  St.  George's 
Chapel,  and  a  tradesman  of  the  town.  Their  papers 
were  seized,  and  in  tlie  handwriting  of  Marbeck  were 
found  notes  on  the  Bible,  together  with  a  concordance, 
in  E^nglish,  He  and  his  three  colleagues  were  found 
guilty  of  heres}-,  aiul  condemned  to  the  stake.  The 
others  were  executed  according  to  their  sentence ;  but 
Marbeck,  on  account  of  his  great  musical  talents,  and 
being  rather  favored  by  Gardiner,  bishop  of  Winchester, 
was  pardoned,  and  lived  to  witness  the  triumph  of  his 
principles,  and  to  publish  his  work,  wliich  apjicared  un- 
der the  title  of  The  Boke  of  Common  Praier,  noted.  The 
colophon  is  '•  Imprinted  by  Richard  Grafton,  printer  to 
the  kinges  majestic,  1550,  cum  privilegio  ad  imprimen- 
dum  solum"  (a  verbatim  reprint  was  given  by  John  Pick- 
ering, London,  1848,  sm,  4to),  In  the  same  year  appear- 
ed also  his  Concordance  of  the  Whole  Bible  (1550,  folio), 
the  first  complete  work  of  the  kind  in  English  ;  and,  in 
1574,  The  Lives  of  Holy  Saints,  Prophets,  Patriarchs, 
and  others  ;  and,  subsequenth',  his  other  books  connect- 
ed with  religious  history  and  controversy.  See  Allibone, 
Diet,  of  British  and  A  mer,  A  uthors,  vol,  ii,  s,  v, ;  English 
Cyclop,  s,  v. 

Marble  is  the  rendering  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  of  two 
forms  of  the  same  Heb.  word,  and  is  thought  by  some  to 
be  signified  by  others  differently  rendered,    dd  {shesh, 


MARBLE 


732       MARBURG  CONFERENCE 


Esth.  i,G,  Sept.  Trapivog;  Cant,  v,  15,  Sept.  fiapjiapivog), 
or  V'''^  (sha'yisk,  1  Chron.  xxix,  2,  Sept.  Trcipiog),  so 
calletl  from  its  whiteness,  undoubtedl}'  refer  to  a  pure 
kiiui  of  marble,  fiap/iapoQ  (l!ev.  xviii,  12).  Primary 
limestone,  or  marble,  is  a  simple  rock,  consisting  of  car- 
bonate of  lime.  In  its  pure  state,  it  is  granular,  crystal- 
line, and  of  a  color  varying  from  pure  white  to  gray  and 
yellowish.  It  is  sometimes  found  in  irregular  masses, 
or  beds,  or  large  nodules,  with  little  or  no  appearance  of 
stratification;  more  generally,  however,  it  is  regularly 
stratified,  and  these  strata  alternate  with  other  rocks, 
and  are  of  all  varieties  of  thickness.  The  texture  va- 
ries from  a  highly  crystalline,  of  a  larger  or  finer  grain, 
to  a  compact  and  even  earthy.  Other  substances  are 
sometimes  combined  with  the  simple  rock,  which  mod- 
ify its  appearance  and  texture,  such  as  mica,  quartz, 
liornblende.  It  is  never  found  in  veins,  except  in  the 
form  of  regular  crystals,  and,  in  this  respect,  it  exactly 
resembles  quartz.  There  is  considerable  difficulty  in 
drawing  the  line  of  distinction  between  the  primary  and 
secondary  limestones,  where  the  latter  do  not  happen  to 
contain  organic  remains.  In  the  primary  limestone, 
strictly  speaking,  no  organic  remains  have  yet  been  dis- 
covered. With  one  or  two  exceptions,  and  as  a  general 
ride,  it  may  be  said,  they,  like  the  primary  schists,  are 
almost  destitute  of  organic  bodies.  Like  the  strata 
which  it  accompanies,  beds  of  limestone  are  often  bent 
and  contorted,  evidently  from  disturbance  below.  The 
colors  vary  from  a  pure  white,  which  constitutes  the 
statuarj'  marble,  to  various  shades  of  gray,  brown,  black, 
and  green.  These  tints  are  derived  from  a  carbona- 
ceous matter  or  oxide  of  iron,  or  an  admixture  of  other 
minerals. 

Several  other  terms  occur  in  Esth.  i,  6,  as  the  names 
of  stones  in  the  pavement  of  the  magnificent  hall  in 
which  Ahasuerus  feasted  the  princes  of  his  empire.  That 
rendered  "white"  marble,  is  "■i'l,<:/(rr,  which  some  take  to 
signify  Parian  marble,  others  white  marljle;  but  nothing 
certain  is  known  about  it.  In  Arabic,  the  word  dar 
signifies  a  large  pearl.  Now  ))earls  were  certainly  em- 
ployed by  the  ancients  in  decorating  the  walls  of  apart- 
ments in  roj-al  palaces,  but  that  pearls  were  also  used  in 
the  pavements  of  even  regal  dining-rooms  is  improbable 
in  itself,  and  unsupported  by  any  known  example.  The 
Seiituagint  refers  the  Hebrew  word  to  a  stone  resem- 
ijling  pearls  (ttiVwi/oc  XiSof),  by  which,  as  J.  D.  Mi- 
chaelis  conjectures,  it  intends  to  denote  the  Alahastriies 
of  Pliny  (Hist.  Nat.  xxxvi,  7,  8),  which  is  a  kind  of  ala- 
baster with  the  gloss  of  mother-of-pearl.  See  Alabas- 
TKR.  The  i:in3  {hahaf;  Sept.  (T/fapayc^iVf/c, "red"  mar- 
ble) of  the  same  passage  was,  Gesenius  thinks,  the  verde- 
antiqiic,  or  half-porphyry  of  Egypt.  The  P"inO  (soche'- 
rcth ;  Sept.  Ilr/p/i'oc  Xi^oc,  "  black"  marble)  is  likewise 
there  mentioned  with  the  other  kinds  of  marble  for 
forming  a  pavement.  Gesenius  says,  perhaps  tortoise- 
shell.  C)thers,  from  the  rendering  of  the  Syriac,  think 
it  refers  to  black  marble.  It  was  probably  some  spotted 
variety  of  marble.  See  jMixeralogy.  The  pavement 
in  the  palace  of  Ahasuerus  was  no  doubt  of  mosaic  work, 
the  floors  of  the  apartments  being  laid  with  painted 
tiles  or  slabs  of  marble,  in  the  same  way  as  Dr.  Russell 
describes  the  houses  of  the  wealthy  in  modern  times. 
In  these  a  portion  of  the  pavement  of  the  courts  is  of 
mosaic,  an(l  it  is  usually  that  jiart  which  lies  between 
the  fountain  and  the  arched  alcove  on  the  south  side 
that  is  thus  beautified.     See  IIotsK. 

"  The  marble  pillars  and  tesscnc  f)f  various  colors  of 
the  palace  at  Susa  came  doubtless  from  Persia  itself, 
where  marble  of  various  colors  is  found,  especially  in  the 
province  of  Harna<lan,  Susiana  (Marco  Polo,  Ti-avels,  p. 
78.  ed.  Bohn;  Chardin,  !'<»/.  iii,  280,  308,  358;  and  viii, 
2.")3  ;  P.  della  Valle,  T'w////,  W-.  250).  The  ,so-called  mar- 
ble of  Solomon's  architectural  works,  which  Josephus 
calls  Xi^oQ  XiVKvg,  may  thus  have  been  limestone — ((() 
from  near  .Jerusalem ;  (hi)  from  Lebanon  (Jura  lime- 
stone), identical  with  the  material  of  the  Sun  Temple  at 


Baalbek ;  or  (c)  white  marble  from  Arabia  or  elsewhere 
(Josephus,  A  nt.  viii,  3,  2 ;  Diod.  Sic.  ii,  52 ;  Pliny,  //.  K, 
xxxvi,  12;  Jamieson,  Mineralorjy,  p.  41;  Kiiumer,  Pal. 
p.  28  ;  Volney,  Trav.  ii,  241 ;  Kitto,  Phys.  Geoyr.  of  Pal 
p.  73,  88 ;  Kobinson,  ii,  493 ;  iii,  508  ;  Stanley,  .S'.  and  P. 
p.  307,424;  Wellsted,  Trai'.  i,  42(5 ;  ii,  143)."  That  this 
stone  was  not  marble  seems  probable  from  the  remark 
of  Josephus,  that  whereas  Solomon  constructed  his  build- 
ings of  '  white  stone,'  he  caused  the  roads  M'hich  led  to 
Jerusalem  to  be  made  of  '  black  stone,'  probably  the 
black  basalt  of  the  Hauran;  and  also  from  his  account 
of  the  porticoes  of  Herod's  temple,  which  he  says  were 
povokiioi  Xei'KOTtjTijg  fiapftapov  (Josephus,  Ant.  1.  c., 
and  War,  v,  5, 1,  6 ;  Kitto,  ut  sup.  p.  74,  75,  80, 89).  But 
whether  the  '  costly  stone'  employed  in  Solomon's  build- 
ings was  marble  or  not,  it  seems  clear,  from  the  expres- 
sions both  of  Scripture  and  Josephus,  that  some,  at  least, 
of  the  '  great  stones,'  whose  weight  can  scarcely  have 
been  less  than  forty  tons,  must  have  come  from  Lebanoia 
(1  Kings  V,  14-18;  vii,  10;  Josephus,  Ant.  viii,  2,9). 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Herod,  both  in  the  Temple 
and  elsewhere,  employed  Parian  or  other  marble.  Ke- 
niains  of  marble  columns  still  exist  in  abundance  at  Je- 
rusalem (Josephus,  .4 nt.  xv,  9, 4, 6,  and  1 1 , 3, 5 ;  Williams, 
Hofy  City,  ii,  330 ;  Sandys,  p.  1 90 ;  Eobinson,  i,  SOI ,  305)" 
(Smith).     See  Stoxe. 

Marburg  Bible  is  the  name  given  to  an  edition 
of  the  holy  Scriptures,  published  at  Marburg  (1712, 4to), 
under  the  care  of  Prof.  Dr.  Horch  (with  the  aid  of  oth- 
ers, particularly  of  inspector  Scheffer,  in  Berleburg). 
It  contains  the  text  of  Luther's,  corrected  by  compari- 
son with  the  original  texts,  and  gives,  iia  the  introduc- 
tions and  in  the  headings,  commentaries  on  the  most 
important  allegories  and  prophecies  (by  Cocceius).  The 
most  complete  of  these  are  the  notes  on  Solomon's  Song 
and  the  Apocalypse.  It  was  highly  prized  by  the  the- 
ologians and  INIystics  of  that  time,  and  was  the  prede- 
cessor of  the  Mystic  Berleburg  Bible  (1726-74,  8  vols. 
foL),  hence  it  is  sometimes  called  the  little  Mystic  Bible. 
— Herzog,  Real-Encyklopddie,  ix,  13.  See  Berlebukg 
Bible. 

Marburg  Conference,  a  gathering  of  all  the  re- 
formed theological  leaders,  held  at  the  city  of  Marburg, 
Oct.  3,  1529,  and  designed  to  bring  about,  if  possible,  an 
agreement  between  Luther  and  Zwingle  and  their  ad- 
herents. The  landgrave  Philip  of  Hesse,  one  of  the 
noblest  princes  of  the  Reformation  days,  believing  that 
the  dissensions  in  the  Protestant  camp  should  be  allayed, 
directed  all  his  energies  towards  the  conciliation  of  the 
two  reformed  factions,  caused  bv  a  difference  of  opinion 
as  to  the  proper  observance  of  the  eucharistic  ceremony. 
With  such  a  purpose  in  view,  he  invited  the  principal 
theologians  of  both  parties  to  meet  for  the  purpose  of 
comparing  their  opinions  in  a  friendly  manner.  INielanc- 
thon  had  already,  iu  1529,  at  the  Diet  of  Spires,  de- 
clared his  readiness  to  attend  such  a  conference  (Coi-p, 
Ref.  i,  1050  and  1078),  and  even  had  gone  so  far  as  to 
declare  that  he  attached  no  special  importance  to  the 
differences  concerning  the  Eucharist  {Corp.  PtfA,  1040). 
Philip  of  Hesse  now  applied  to  Zwingle  (Zwingli  0pp. 
viii,  287),  who  also  expressed  his  willingness  to  conic 
(Zwingli  0pp.  viii,  6G2).  Luther,  however,  at  first 
strongly  opposed  the  plan,  fearing  that  it  might  result 
in  more  harm  than  good;  but  the  landgrave  persisting, 
Luther  finally  consented,  and  on  Sept.  30,  1529,  Luther, 
jNIelancthon,  Cruciger,  Jonas,  IMykonius,  and  Mrnius, 
accompanied  by  the  Saxon  counsellor  Eberhard,  went 
to  Marburg,  where  Philip  had  called  the  conference. 
The  Swiss  theologians  had  arrived  the  day  before; 
among  them,  Zwingle,  professor  Rudolph  Collin,  G^co- 
lampadius,  Sturm,  Bucer,  and  Hedio.  Osiander,  Brenz, 
and  Agricola  arrived  only  on  October  2.  A  number  of 
other  theologians  and  eminent  persons  from  all  parts  of 
Germany  were  also  present.  After  a  private  conference 
between  Luther  and  G£colampadius,  and  Zwingle  and 
]Melancthon,  the  public  debates  commenced.  "  In  the 
first  place,  several  points  were  discussed  touching  the 


MARBURY 


•33 


MARCELLINUS 


divinity  of  Christ,  original  sin,  baptism,  the  Word  of 
God,  etc.,  regarding;  which  tlie  Wittenbergers  suspected 
the  orthodoxy  of  Zwingle.  These  were  all  secondary 
matters  with  Zwingle,  in  reference  to  which  he  dropped 
his  unchurchly  views,  and  declared  his  agreement  with 
the  views  of  the  oecumenical  councils.  But  in  regard 
to  the  article  of  the  Lord's  Supper  he  was  the  more 
persistent.  Appealing  to  John  vi,  33, '  The  flesh  prof- 
iteth  nothing,'  he  argued  the  absurdity  of  Luther's 
view"  (Kurtz).  Luther  had  insisted  upon  the  literal 
interpretation  of  the  expression.  Hoc  est  corpus  meum. 
Both  parties  disputed  without  arriving  at  any  better 
appreciation  of  each  other's  views.  "Agreement  was 
out  of  the  question.  Zwingle,  nevertheless,  declared 
himself  ready  to  maintain  fraternal  fellowship,  but  Lu- 
ther and  his  party  rejected  the  offer.  Luther  said,  'Ihr 
habt  einon  andern  geist  denn  wir.'  "  Still  the  conference, 
while  failing  in  its  main  object,  was  not  entirely  fruit- 
less. "  Luther  found  that  his  opponents  did  not  hold 
as  offensive  views  as  he  supposed,  and  the  Swiss  also 
that  Luther's  doctrine  was  not  so  gross  and  Capernaitic 
as  they  thought."  Both  parties  engaged  to  refrain  in 
future  from  publishing  injurious  pamphlets  against  each 
other  as  they  had  formerly  done,  and  agreed  "  to  ear- 
nestly pray  God  to  lead  them  all  to  a  right  understand- 
ing of  the  truth."  At  the  request  of  the  landgrave, 
Luther  drew  up  a  series  of  fifteen  articles  (Articles  of 
Marburg),  containing  the  common  fundamental  prin- 
ciples of  the  Reformation,  wliich  were  subscribed  to  by 
the  Zwinglians.  "  In  the  first  fourteen  they  declared 
unanimous  consent  to  the  cecumencical  faith  of  the 
Church  against  the  errors  of  papists  and  Anabaptists. 
In  the  fifteenth  the  Swiss  conceded  that  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ  were  present  in  the  sacrament,  but  they 
could  not  agree  to  his  corporeal  pr-esence  in  the  bread 
and  tome"  (Kurtz).  The  Articles  of  Marburg  were  sub- 
sequently used  as  a  basis  for  the  Confession  of  Augsburg 
(q.  v.).  See  L.  J.  K.  Schmitt,  Das  Relifjkmsgespirdch  z. 
Marhuv(j  (Marb.  1840)  ;  A.  Ebrard,  D.  Gesch.  d.  Dogma's 
V.  h.  A  bendmahle,  ii,  2G8 ;  Hassenkamp,  Uessiche  Kirchen- 
ffcsch.  ii,  1,  p.  35  sq. ;  H.  Heppe,  D.fiinfzehn  Marburger 
A  rtikel  (Cassel,  1847  and  1854) ;  Krauth,  The  Conserva- 
tive Reformation  (Philadel.  1871,  8vo),  p.  355  sq.,  427; 
Hagenbach,  Hist,  of  Doctrines,  ii,  309,  314;  Gieseler, 
Eccles.  Hist.  (Harper's  edit.),  iv,  133;  Kurtz,  Ch.  Hist, 
since  the  Reformation,  p.  72  sq. ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyklo- 
jmdie,  ix,  13  sq.      (J.  H.  W.) 

Marbury,  Euward,  an  English  minister  of  the 
17th  century,  became  rector  of  St.  James's,  Garlickhithe, 
London,  in  1613;  subsequently  rector  of  St.  Peter's, 
Paul's  Wharf,  and  retired  from  public  labors  during  the 
liebellion.  He  died  about  1C55.  JMarbury  published 
A  Commentary  on  Obadiah  (Loud.  1G40,  4to)  : — .1  Com- 
mentary on  Habahkuk  (1G50,  4to).  —  Allibone,  Diet,  of 
Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Marca,  Pikrke  de,  a  French  Roman  Catholic  the- 
ologian and  historian,  was  born  at  Pan,  in  Beam,  Jan. 
24,  1591.  He  was  of  good  family,  was  brought  up  by 
the  Jesuits  of  Auch,  and  afterwards  studied  law  at  Tou- 
louse. In  1G13  he  became  member  of  the  Council  of 
P.iu,  and  when,  in  1G21,  this  body  was  erected  into  a 
l);irliament  by  Louis  XIII,  he  was  appointed  its  presi- 
ilent,  as  a  reward  for  his  services  to  Romanism.  After 
the  death  of  his  wife,  which  occurred  in  1G32,  he  entered 
the  Cluirch.  In  1G39  he  was  made  counsellor  of  state. 
Cardinal  de  Richelieu  having  commissioned  him  to  re- 
ply to  Hersent's  Optatus  Gallns,  Marca  composed  De 
Concordia  Sacerdotii  et  Imperii  (Paris,  1G41  sq.),  which 
is  liis  ablest  work,  and  was  rewarded  by  the  bishopric  of 
Conserans,  to  which  he  was  appointed  in  lG4o.  The  pope, 
however,  would  not  approve  the  (iallican  writer  as  in- 
cumbent of  the  episcopal  office,  and  the  appointment  was 
not  sanctioned  at  Rome  until  Marca  had  recalled  the 
work  in  1G47.  In  1652  he  was  promoted  to  tlie  arch- 
bishopric of  Toulouse ;  later  was  transferred  to  the  archi- 
cpiscopal  see  of  Paris,  and  there  died  in  the  year  of  his 
transfer,  1GG2.     He  wrote  also  Dissertatio  de  Primatu 


Lvgdimensi  et  coeteris  primatihus  (1644,  8vo) : — Relation 
de  ce  qui  s' est  fait  depuis  1653  dans  les  assemblies  des 
eveques  au  snjet  des  cinq  propositions  (Paris,  1657,  4to). 
This  was  unfavorable  to  the  Jansenists,  and  was  refuted 
by  Nicole  in  his  Belga  j)ercontator,  and  some  othef 
writers.  Collections  of  some  other  writings  of  IMarca 
on  divers  subjects  were  published  by  Baluze  (1GG9  and 
1G81,  2  vols.  8vo)  and  abbe  Paget  (1G68, 4to),  who,  how- 
ever, brought  out  the  best  edition  of  iMarca's  De  Concor- 
dia (Paris,  1663,  and  often).  See  Gallia  Christiana,  vols. 
i  and  vii ;  De  Paget,  Vie  de  Pien-e  de  Marca ;  Bompart, 
Eloge  de  Marca  (Paris,  1672,  8vo) ;  De  Longuerue,  Dis- 
sertations diverses ;  Mercure  de  Prance,  1644  to  1662 ; 
Fisquet,  France  Pontijicale.  See  Hoefer,  A'ouv.  Biog. 
Generale,  xxxiii,  374  ;  Herzog,  Real-Encykl<ip.  ix,  17  sq. 

Marcella,  St.,  is  the  name  of  two  saints  in  the 
Romish  Cliurch.  (1)  One  of  these  was  a  Roman  wid- 
ow, the  intimate  friend  of  Paula  and  of  Eustochius, 
and  a  pupil  of  the  noted  Church  father  Jerome,  who 
said  of  her  that  we  could  judge  of  her  merits  by  her  no- 
ble disciples.  IMarcella  was  a  Christian,  and  deeply 
learned  in  the  Scriptures.  She  was  greatly  opposed  to 
the  errors  of  Origen,  who  mingled  the  dogmas  of  Ori- 
ental philosophy  with  the  truths  of  Christianity.  On 
difficult  passages  of  Scripture  she  consulted  Jerome;  but 
she  herself  was  considted  from  all  parts  as  a  great  the- 
ologian, and  her  answers  were  always  dictated  by  pru- 
dence and  humility.  She  died  A.D.  409,  soon  after  Rome 
was  taken  by  the  Goths,  from  the  effects  of  the  assault 
and  abuse  of  the  troops  of  Alaric.  She  is  commemo- 
rated January  31.  (2)  The  second,  a  martyr  of  the 
Church  in  Alexandria,  flourished  in  the  days  of  the  em- 
peror Severus.     She  is  commemorated  Jmie  28. 

Marcellians,  a  sect  of  heretics  who  flourished  to- 
wards the  close  of  the  4th  century;  so  called  from  Mar- 
cellus  of  Ancyra,  whom  the  Arians  unjustly  accused  of 
reviving  the  errors  of  Sabellius.  Epiphanius  informs 
us  that  great  diversity  of  opinion  prevailed  in  his  day 
on  the  justness  of  charging  INIarcellus  of  Ancj^ra  with 
the  heretical  tendencies  of  the  so-called  Marcellians. 
The  latter  denied  the  three  hypostases,  holding  the  Son 
and  the  Holy  Ghost  as  two  emanations  from  the  divine 
nature,  to  exist  independently  only  until  the  perform- 
ance of  their  respective  offices,  and  then  to  return  again 
into  the  substance  of  the  Father.     See  Marcellus  of 

AXCYRA. 

Marcellina,  a  noted  female  pupil  of  Carpocrates 
(q.  v.),  commenced  teaching  at  Rome  the  Gnostic  system 
of  her  instructor,  in  160,  under  Anicetus,  and  met  with 
so  great  success  (see  Irenceus,  .Ic/f. //op/-,  i,  25,  G;  Epi- 
phanius, Hcer.  27,  6)  that  her  followers  and  pupils  were 
denominated  Marcellinists.  This  is  the  sect  mentioned 
by  Celsus  (Orig.  c.  Celsitm,  vol.  v),  and  are  not  to  be  mis- 
taken for  tlie  followers  of  Marcellus  of  Ancyra,  the  Mar- 
cellians. Origen  asserts  that  he  could  find  no  trace  of 
the  Marcellinists.  Another  Marcellina  was  the  sister 
of  Ambrosius,  and  a  strict  ascetic. — Herzog,  Real-Ency- 
klopddie,  ix,  20 ;  Pierer,  Unirersul-Lexikon,  x,  855. 

Marcellinus,  a  native  of  Rome,  son  of  Projectus, 
is  said  to  have  been  made  bishop  of  Rome  May  3,  296. 
As  he  lived  in  a  period  of  violent  persecution,  we  have 
but  little  certain  information  concerning  him ;  the  acts 
of  a  synod  said  to  have  been  held  at  Sinuessa  in  303 
(published  by  jMansi,  Coll.  i,  1250  sq. ;  and  Hardouin,  Coll. 
Cone,  i,  217  sq.)  relate  as  follows:  Diocletian  had  suc- 
ceeded in  compelling  the  hitherto  steadfast  bishop  to 
come  with  him  into  the  temple  of  Yesta  and  Isis,  and  to 
offer  up  incense  to  them;  this  was  afterwards  proclaim- 
ed by  three  priests  and  two  deacons  who  had  witnessed 
the  deed,  and  a  synod  was  assembled  to.  investigate  the 
affair  at  Sinuessa,  at  which  no  less  than  three  hundred 
bishops  were  present — "  a  number  quite  impossible  for 
that  country,  especially  in  a  time  of  persecution"  (Dr, 
H.  B.  Smithi in  Diillinger's  Fables,  p. 82, foot  note).  Mar- 
cellinus denied  everything  for  the  first  two  days,  but  on 
the  third  came  in,  his  head  covered  with  ashes,  and  made 


MARCELLUS 


V34 


MARCELLUS 


a  full  confession,  adding  that  lie  had  been  tempted  with 
gold.  The  synod  declared  that  Marccllinus  had  con- 
demned liimself,  for  the  prima  sales  non  jialicutur  a  quo- 
qntiiu.  This  resulted,  however,  in  Diocletian  causing  a 
large  number  of  the  bishops  who  had  taken  part  in  the 
synod,  and  even  Marcellinus  himself,  to  be  put  to  death, 
August  23,  303.  Although  the  Koman  Breviary  itself 
credits  this  account  of  the  weakness  and  punishment  of 
Marcellinus  (in  Nocturn.  ii,  April  20),  this  account  of  the 
synod  is  now  considered  spurious  both  by  Komanists  and 
by  Protestants.  Indeed,  Augustine  {De  unico  baptismo 
contra  I'ttUianum,  c.  10)  and  Theodoret  {Hist.  Ecclvs.  i, 
2)  declared  the  statement  of  Marcellinus  having  be- 
traj'ed  Christianity  and  offered  sacritices  to  idols  false. 
Dr.  Dollinger,  in  his  Fables  respecting  Popes  in  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  (edit,  by  Dr.  H.  B.  Smith,  N.  Y.  1872, 12mo),  p. 
84,  says  "  the  acts  of  the  pretended  synod  are  evidently 
fabricated  in  order  to  manufacture  a  historical  support 
for  the  principle  that  a  pope  can  be  judrjed  by  no  man. 
This  incessantly -repeated  sentence  is  the  red  thread 
which  runs  through  the  whole  ;  the  rest  is  mere  appen- 
dage. By  this  means  it  is  to  be  uiculcated  on  the  laity 
that  they  must  not  venture  to  come  forward  as  accusers 
of  the  clergy,  and  on  the  inferior  clergy  that  they  must 
not  do  the  like  agauist  their  superiors."  As  the  date 
and  occasion  of  the  fabrication.  Dr.  Dollinger  assigns 
"those  troubled  sixteen  years  (498-514)  in  which  the 
pontificate  of  Symmachus  ran  its  course.  At  that  time 
the  two  parties  of  Laurentius  and  Symmachus  stood  op- 
posed to  one  another  in  Kome  as  foes.  People,  senate, 
and  clergy  were  divided ;  they  fought  and  murdered  in 
the  streets,  and  Laurentius  maintained  himself  for  sev- 
eral years  in  possession  of  part  of  the  churches.  Sym- 
machus was  accused  by  his  oppoiicuts  of  grave  offences. 
.  .  .  The  hostile  party  were  numerous  and  influential 
.  .  .  and  tlicrcfore  the  adherents  of  Symmachus  caught 
at  this  means  of  showing  that  the  inviolability  of  the 
pope  had  been  long  since  recognised  as  a  fact  and  an- 
nounced as  a  rule.  .  .  .  This  was  the  time  at  which  Eu- 
nodius  wrote  his  apology  for  Symmachus,  and  this,  ac- 
cordingly, was  also  the  time  at  which  the  Synod  of  Sin- 
uessa,  as  ■well  as  the  Constitution  of  Sylvester,  was  fabri- 
cated." JNIarcellinus  is  commemorated  in  the  Eomish 
Church  April  24.  See  Pagi,  C)-it.  in  annales  Baronii  ad 
ami.  302,  n.  18 ;  Papebroch,  A  da  Sancta  in  Propi/l.  Maji, 
t.  viii ;  Xaver  de  Marco,  Difesa  di  alcimi  pontejici  di  er- 
rore,  c.  12;  Bower,  i/w^  of  the  Popes,  i,  80  sq. ;  Hefele, 
Concilienf/esch.  i,  118;  iii,  §  10,  note  2,  Avhere  the  main 
authorities  against  the  fable  are  cited.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Marcellus,  St.  (murti/r).  Aside  from  JIarcellus  I, 
pfipc  of  Kome  (q.  v.),  and  Marcellus  of  Apamca  (q.  y.\ 
the  martyrologues  mention  a  number  of  other  raartj'rs 
of  that  name,  the  more  important  of  which  are  : 

I.  ]\lAi;cELi,rs  who  perished  during  the  persecution 
of  Antoninus  Philosophus.  Having  refused  to  partici- 
pate in  a  repast  with  the  prefect  Priscus,  and  remon- 
strated with  the  latter  and  his  guests  on  accouut  of  their 
idolatry,  he  was  half  buried  in  the  ground,  in  the  open 
air,  and  died  thus  after  three  days.  The  year  140  is 
given  as  the  date  of  his  death  ;  he  is  commemorated  on 
September  4.  See  Snrius,  T.  V.  (iregorii  Turon.  Lib. 
de  f/loriamart.  c.  53;  Euinart, -4 c^a  jnimorum  mar- 
tyritm,  p.  73. 

II.  Maucellus,  the  chief  of  the  Trajan  Legion,  who, 
for  refusing  to  participate  in  heathen  sacritices  at  Tin- 
gis,  in  Mauritania,  was  beheaded  by  order  of  the  gov- 
ernor, Aureliarnis  Agricola,  in  270.  See  Snrius,  vol.  v; 
liuinart,  p.  302  sq.     He  is  commemorated  on  Oct.  20. 

HL  Marcklia"s  who  suffered  at  Argenton,  in  France, 
under  Aurelian.  He  was  a  native  of  Pome,  son  of  a 
heathen  father  and  a  Christian  mother,  who  Ijrought 
him  up  a  Christian.  When  of  age,  he  tied  to  Argenton 
on  account  of  the  persecution  of  Aurejian.  Here  he 
wrought  some  wonderful  cures,  which  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  the  prefect  Heraclius.  Arrested,  he  fearlessly 
confessed  his  faith,  and,  after  scourging,  was  roasted  on 
a  spit ;  but  as  this  neither  converted  nor  killed  him,  he 


was  beheaded.  He  is  commemorated  on  June  29.  See 
Gregorii  Turon.  Lib.  de  r/loria  mart.  c.  52. 

IV.  Makckllus,  bishop  of  Die,  in  France,  was  bom 
at  Avignon  of  Christian  parents,  and  religiously  brought 
up.  He  was  ordained  by  his  brother,  who  was  bishop 
of  Die  before  him.  At  the  time  of  his  election  another 
was  also  appointed,  but  he  was  taken  to  the  church  by 
his  adherents  and  there  reconciled  with  his  adversaries. 
On  this  occasion,  it  is  said,  a  dove  was  seen  to  descend 
upon  his  head.  He  was  thrown  into  prison  by  the 
Arians  for  opposing  their  views,  and  died  there  in  the 
beginning  of  the  Gth  century.  He  is  commemorated  on 
April  9.  See  Gregorii  Turon.  Lib.  de  gloria  confess,  c. 
70.  —  Herzog,  Real-Encyhlopddie,  ix,  22  ;  Pierer,  Univ.- 
Lexilcon,  x,  855.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Marcellus,  bishop  of  Axcyra,  in  Galatia,  noted 
for  the  part  he  took  in  the  Synod  of  Ancyra  (314  or  315), 
held  at  the  end  of  the  persecution  of  Maximin  (see  An- 
cyka),  made  himself  conspicuous  at  the  Council  of  Ni- 
cffia  (325)  by  his  homoousian  views,  and  was  upheld  by 
Athanasius  and  the  whole  Western  Church.  We  next 
find  him  at  the  Council  of  Tyre  (335),  where  he  opposed 
the  condemnation  of  Athanasius,  and  of  Maximus  IH, 
patriarch  of  Jerusalem.  In  the  Council  of  Jerusalem,  of 
the  same  year,  he  declared  against  the  admission  of 
Arius  to  communion.  At  the  Council  of  Constantino- 
ple, in  330,  the  Arians  having  the  majority,  Marcellus 
wa^  deposed  with  the  assent  of  the  emperor,  who  had 
been  prejudiced  against  him.  After  the  death  of  Con- 
stantine.  May  22, 337,  he  was  restored  to  his  bishopric; 
but  once  more  expelled,  he  sought  refuge  in  the  West, 
where  he  was  absolved  by  the  councils  of  Kome  and  of 
Sardica  (347).  He  returned  to  Ancyra,  but  Basil,  who 
had  l)een  appointed  bishop  in  his  place,  refused  to  sur- 
render his  seat.  IMarcellus,  who  was  alreadj-  well  ad- 
vanced in  years,  retired  to  a  monaster^-,  where  he  sub- 
sequently died.  St.  Jerome  states  that  he  wrote  several 
works,  principally  against  the  Arians  ;  but  we  now  pos- 
sess under  his  name  only  a  letter  addressed  to  Julius  I, 
containing  an  exposition  of  his  doctrine,  given  by  St. 
Epiphanius  ;  two  confessions  of  faith,  given  by  his  dis- 
ciples ;  and  some  passages,  quoted  by  Eusebius,  of  his 
work  against  Asterius.  There  has  been  great  diversity 
of  opinion  concerning  his  orthodoxy.  His  confessions 
are  perfectly  correct;  but  in  the  passages  of  the  work 
against  Asterius,  his  doctrine,  otherwise  very  difticult  to 
make  out,  seems  to  border  on  Sabellianism.  Photinus 
of  Sirmium,  who  was  condemned  as  a  heretic,  was  his 
disciple,  and  had  been  his  deacon,  and  a  sect  who  re- 
fused to  admit  the  three  hypostases  took  tlie  name  of 
Marcellians  (q.  v.).  Yet  all  ecclesiastical  writers  agree 
in  calling  him  a  saint;  and  it  is  possible  that  his  enemies, 
the  Arians  and  others,  unjustly  made  Marcellus  the  fa- 
ther of  heretic  views.  See  Athanasius,  A  poll.  2;  Basil- 
ius,  Lpist.  Iii ;  Theodoret,  Hist.  Eccl.  vol.  ii ;  Socrates, 
Hist.  Eccles.  vol.  i ;  Sozomen,  Hist.  Eccl.  vol,  ii  and  iii ; 
Hermani,  Vie  de  St.Athanase  ;  Du  Pin,  Hihl.  Ecclesias- 
tique,  ii,  79 ;  Rettberg,  Marcelliana  (Giitting.  1794) ; 
Klose,  Gesch.  u.  Lehre  des  Marcellus  und  Photin  (Hamb. 
1837)  ;  Zahn,  Marcellus  von  A  nciji-a  (Gotha,  1867,  8vo) ; 
\\'illenborg,  Ueber  die  Orthodoxie  des  Marcellus  ( Jliinich, 
18.59) ;  Schaft",  Ch.  Hht.  iii,  651  sq, ;  Hagenbach,  History 
of  Doctrines,  i,  255,  263,  368;  Lardner,  Woiks  (see  In- 
dex) ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyklopadie,  ix,  22  sq, 

Marcellus,  bishop  of  Apamka  (1),  in  Syria,  near 
the  close  of  the  4th  century,  distinguished  hiiii-sclf  par- 
ticidarly  by  his  zeal  for  the  destruction  of  tlie  heathen 
temples.  He  considered  them  as  maintaining  heathen 
tendencies  among  the  people.  Having  attempted  to  de- 
stroy the  main  temple  of  the  city  with  the  help  of  sol- 
diers and  gladiators,  he  was  taken  by  the  people  and 
put  to  death.  ■  His  sons  sought  to  avenge  his  death, 
but  were  restrained  by  the  provincial  s^niod.held  in  391. 

(2.)  Another  IMarcellus  of  Apamea  is  mentioned,  who 
is  said  to  have  lived  in  the  5th  century.  He  was  a  na- 
tive of  Syria,  of  a  wealthy  family,  and  after  the  death 
of  his  parents  went  to  Antioch,  where  he  devoted  him- 


MARCELLUS  I 


^35 


MARCHETTI 


self  to  study.  Dividing  his  fortune  among  the  poor,  he 
went  to  Ephesus,  and  there  attempted  to  support  him- 
self by  copying  books.  He  subsequently'  joined  abbot 
Alexander  at  Constantinople,  and  was  afterwards  chosen 
as  his  successor.  To  avoid  this  honor,  MarceUus  fled  to 
a  neighboring  convent  until  another  abbot  had  been  se- 
lecte<i,  and  then  returned  and  was  made  deacon.  The 
new  abbot,  named  John,  however,  became  jealous  of  his 
deacon,  and  obliged  him  to  perform  menial  service. 
MarceUus  cheerfully  submitted ;  but  after  the  death  of 
John  lie  was  again  appointed  abbot.  Under  his  direc- 
tion the  convent  acquired  such  reputation  that  it  had 
to  be  greatly  enlarged,  and  other  convents  applied  to 
be  governed  by  pupils  of  I\Iarcellus.  He  died  in  485. 
See  Fleury,  Flist.  ml  a.  -448 ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyklopadie, 
ix,  25  ;  Lardner,  Works  (see  Index). 

MarceUus  I,  Pope,  son  of  Benedict,  a  Roman 
priest,  succeeded  Marcellinus  (q.  v.)  as  bishop  of  Rome 
(according  to  Pagi,  June  30,  308),  but  held  that  position 
onh'  during  eighteen  months.  He  endeavored  to  re- 
store ecclesiastical  discipline,  which  had  become  much 
relaxed  during  the  persecutions.  For  this  purpose  he 
organized  in  Rome  twenty  dioceses,  the  incumbents  of 
which  ^vere  to  administer  to  converts  from  heathenism 
the  sacraments  of  baptism  and  penance.  They  were 
also  bounil  to  attend  to  the  burial  of  the  martjTS.  By 
command  of  Maxentius,  who  had  ordered  him  to  resign 
his  office  of  bishop  and  to  sacrifice  to  idols,  he  was  im- 
prisoned, and  condemned  to  serve  as  a  slave  in  the  im- 
perial stables.  After  nine  months  he  was  freed  by  his 
clergy,  and  concealed  in  the  house  of  a  Roman  matron 
named  Lucinia,  who,  it  is  said,  converted  that  house  af- 
terwards into  a  church.  Maxentius  was  so  angry  when 
he  heard  of  it  that  he  commanded  the  church  to  be 
turned  into  a  stable,  and  condemned  MarceUus  to  the 
lowest  employment  about  the  stables.  MarceUus  is  said 
to  have  died  a  martyr.  He  is  commemorated  on  the 
IGth  of  January. — Herzog,  Real-Encyklop.  ix,  21 ;  Pierer, 
Uiiirersul-Lexikon,  x,  855.      (J.  N.  P.) 

MarceUus  II,  Pope,  succeeded  Julius  IH,  April  9, 
1555,  but  died  twenty-two  daj-s  afterwards.  He  was  a 
native  of  the  Papal  States,  and  was  originally  named 
Marcello  Cervini.  He  was  first  secretary  of  Paul  HI, 
and  afterwards  cardinal  of  Santa  Croce.  By  appoint- 
ment from  pope  Julius  HI,  he  took  part  in  the  Council 
of  Trent  as  cardinal  legate,  and  evinced  in  that  capacity 
great  talents,  as  well  as  moderation.  His  election  gave 
rise  to  many  hopes,  which  were  speedily  crushed  by  his 
death,  the  result,  no  doubt,  of  poison.  He  is  also  noted 
for  the  minor  but  curious  circumstance  of  his  refusing 
to  comply  with  the  ancient  custom  by  which  the  pope, 
on  his  election,  lays  aside  his  baptismal  name  and  as- 
sumes a  new  one.  Marcello  Cervini  retained  on  his 
elevation  the  name  Avhich  he  had  previously  borne. 
See  Herzog,  Real-Enci/klopddie,  ix,  21;  Pierer,  UniveT- 
sal-Lexikon,  x,  855 ;  Chambers,  ('ijdop. ;  Bower,  Hist,  of 
the  Popes, vVu'^b'd,,  Riddle, /'(/;««■//  (see  Index);  Artaux 
de  ]\Iont<]r,  Hist,  ties  Souverains  Pontifes  Romaiiis,  s.  v. 

MarceUus,  Aaron  A.,  a  (Dutch)  Reformed  min- 
ister, was  born  in  Amsterdam,  N.  Y.,  May  11, 1799;  was 
prepared  for  college  by  the  Rev.  Drs.Yan  Zandt  and 
Speucer,  of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ;  graduated  at  Union  Col- 
lege, N.  Y.,  in  1826,  afterwards  followed  teaching,  and 
for  some  years  had  charge  of  the  Female  Seminary  in 
Syracuse,  and  subsequently  of  Schenectady,  N.  Y.  He 
removed  to  New  York,  and  was  for  a  short  time  superin- 
tendent of  the  Orphan  Asylum ;  but,  feeling  that  his  duty 
pointed  in  the  direction  of  the  ministry,  he  entered  the 
Theological  Seminary  of  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church 
at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  and  graduated  in  1830.  He 
was  licensed  by  the  New  York  Classis,  and  in  July, 
1830,  became  pastor  of  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church 
at  Lysandcr,  N.  Y. ;  subsequently  of  the  Church  of 
Schaghticoke;  missionary  near  the  Dry  Dock,  New 
York ;  principal  of  the  Lancaster  County  Academy,  Pa.; 
pastor  at  Freehold,  N.  J.,  in  1839 ;  of  the  Church  in 


Greenville,  N.  Y.,  in  1856;  and  in  1859  removed  to  Ber- 
gen, N.  J.,  where  he  labored  as  a  teacher  until  he  died. 
May  24, 1860.  Mr.  MarceUus  was  courteous  £fnd  refined 
in  manners,  an  earnest  preacher,  and  an  excellent  in- 
structor of  vouth.  See  WUson,  Presh.  Hist.  Almanac, 
1861,  p.  252."    (,J.  L.  S.) 

Marcheshvan  CV^Jn"!^,  Marcheshvaii',  of  the 
later  Hebrew;  Josephus,  Ant.  MapiToi'a)';;c,  i,  3,  3  ;  the 
Macedonian  AToc)  is  the  name  of  that  month  which 
was  the  eighth  of  the  sacred  and  the  second  of  the  civil 
year  of  the  Jews,  and  began  with  the  new  moon  of 
our  November.  There  was  a  fast  on  the  6th  in  memory 
of  Zedekiah's  being  blinded,  after  he  had  witnessed  the 
slaughter  of  his  sons  (2  Kings  xxv,  7).  This  month  is 
always  spoken  of  in  the  Old  Testament  by  its  numerical 
designation ;  except  once,  when  it  is  called  Bui  (?*13, 1 
Kings  vi,38;  Sept.  BaaA).  According  to  Kimchi, Bui  is 
a  shortened  form  of  the  Hebrew  Pin"^,  "  rain,"  from  ?2''. 
The  signification  of  rain-month  is  exactly  suitable  to 
November  in  the  climate  of  Palestine.  Others  derive 
it  from  ??D.  Benfej',  availing  himself  of  the  fact  that 
the  Palmyrene  inscriptions  express  the  name  of  the  god 
Baal,  according  to  their  dialect,  by  PT3  (as  ?12?:i", 
'AyX(/36Xoc),  has  ventured  to  suggest  that,  as  the 
months  are  often  called  after  the  deities,  Bui  may  have 
received  its  name  from  that  form  of  Baal  {Monutsnamen, 
p.  182).  The  rendering  of  the  Sept.  might  have  been 
appealed  to  as  some  sanction  of  this  view.  He  supposes 
that  Marcheshvan  is  a  compound  name,  of  which  the 
syllable  mar  is  taken  from  the  Zend  Ameretdt,  or  its 
later  Persian  form  Mordad,  and  that  cheshvdn  is  the 
Persian  ckezdn,  "  autumn,"  both  of  which  are  names  be- 
longing to  the  same  mouth  {l.  c.  p.  13G  sq.). — Kitto. 
See  BuL. 

Marchetti,  Francois,  an  eminent  French  writer 
and  archreoiogist,  was  born  at  Marseilles  about  the  open- 
ing of  the  17th  century;  was  educated  at  a  coUege  of 
the  "Fathers  of  the  Oratory,"  entered  their  order  in 
1630,  and  became  one  of  the  ablest  members.  He  died 
at  his  native  place  in  1688.  Of  his  works  the  follow- 
ing are  of  particular  interest  to  us:  Parajyhrase  siir  les 
Epitres  de  Saint  Pierre  (1639),  and  Truite  sur  la  Jfesse 
avec  rexpiication  de  ses  ceremonies. 

Marchetti,  Giovanni,  an  Italian  ecclesiastic  of 
note,  was  born  at  Empoli,  in  Tuscany,  in  1753,  of  hum- 
ble parentage.  After  struggling  for  years  to  secure  the 
advantages  of  a  thorough  education,  he  entered  the 
priesthood  in  1777.  Later  he  took  up  the  pen  in  de- 
fence of  the  rights  of  the  Roman  see.  His  works,  which 
made  him  known  as  a  brilliant  writer  and  a  learned  stu- 
dent, attracted  the  attention  of  pope  Pius  VI,  who  ac- 
corded him  a  pension  and  invested  him  with  different 
offices.  In  1798,  after  Rome  had  been  proclaimed  a 
republic,  he  was  banished.  In  1799  he  was  conducted 
to  F'lorence,  where  lie  endured  imprisonment  for  one 
month.  On  his  return  to  Rome  (1800)  he  opened  an 
academy  of  theology.  ^Vhen  tlie  excommunication  of 
the  emperor  Napoleon  by  Pius  VII  became  known  (1809), 
Marchetti  and  cardinal  Mattel,  accused  of  aiding  the 
pope  in  this  violent  part,  were  imprisoned  in  the  castle 
of  St.  Angelo.  Some  time  after  Marchetti  obtained  per- 
mission to  go  to  his  native  town.  He  returned  to  Rome 
in  1814 ;  in  1822  was  appointed  vicar  of  Rimini ;  in  1826 
became  secretary  of  the  Assembly  of  Bishops,  and  died 
Nov.  15,  1829.  Among  his  works,  which  have  been 
translated  into  many  languages,  we  find  Sar/r/io  critico 
sopra  la  Storia  Ecclesiastica  di  Fleury  (Rome,  1780, 
12mo) : — Critica  della  Storia  Ecclesiastica  e  de'  discorsi 
di  Fleury  (Bologne,  1782,  2  vols.  r2mo) : — Esceritazioni 
Ciprianiche  circa  il  battesimo  deyli  eretici  (Rome,  1787, 
8vo)  : — Del  concilio  di  Sardica  (Rome,  1785.  8vo) : — II 
Christianesimo  dimonstrahile  sopra  i  suoi  libri  (Rome, 
1795,  8vo) : — Strattenimenti  difamiylia  sulla  storia  della 
7-eliyione  con  le  sue  pi-ove  (Rome,  1800,  2  vols.  8vo) : — 
La  Providenza  (Rome,  1797, 12mo)  -.^Metamorfosi  ver- 


MARCION 


733 


MARCION 


dufe  da  Basilide  Teremita  sul  terminare  del  secolo  xviil 
(Florence,  1799,  8vo)  : — II  si  ed  il  no,  parallelo  delle  dot- 
trine  e  regole  ecclesiastiche  (Rome,  180],  8vo) : — Lezioni 
sacre  daW  ingresso  del  popolo  di  Dio  in  Cananea  fino 
alia  sckiavitu  di  Babikmia  (Home,  1803-8, 12  vols.  8vo)  : 
— Delia  Chiesa  quanta  alto  stato  politico  della  cifta 
(Rome,  1817-18,  3  vols.  8vo) : — La  vita  razionale  deW 
uomo  (Rome,  1828,8vo),  He  also  contributed  many  ar- 
ticles to  the  Giornale  Ecclesiastico  (Rome)  from  1788  to 
1798.     See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxxiii,  491. 

Marcion  (Mnp/ci'wj'),  founder  of  the  sect  of  Mar- 
cionites,  flourished  near  the  middle  of  the  2d  century. 
He  was  a  native  of  Sinope.  According  to  TertuUian, 
he  was  a  pilot.  Some  critics  have  expressed  their 
doubts  that  so  learned  a  man  should  have  followed  such 
a  trade,  but  nothing  proves  Marcion  having  been  a  very 
learned  man.  He  seems  to  have  at  first  connected  him- 
self with  the  Stoics,  and,  although  his  father  was  a 
bishop  (probably  of  Sinope),  he  long  inquired  into  the 
merits  of  Christianity  before  becoming  a  convert  to  it. 
He  either  retained  some  of  his  former  views,  or  else  in- 
dulged in  new  speculative  views  which  caused  him  to 
be  excommunicated  by  his  own  father.  Epiphanius, 
who  states  that  Marcion  was  driven  out  of  the  Church 
for  having  seduced  a  young  girl  (not  credited  anj'  lon- 
ger by  modern  scholars,  as  Beausobre  and  Neander),  af- 
firms that  he  afterwards  endeavored  to  regain  admission 
into  it  by  affecting  to  be  deeply  penitent,  but  his  father 
refused  to  admit  him  again.  Marcion  now  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  arrived,  according  to  Tillemont,  in  142, 
or,  according  to  Lipsius  {Zeitschrift  JVir  inssenschaftl. 
Theologie,  1847,  p.  77),  in  143  or  144,  but,  more  probably, 
in  138,  as  St.  Justin  mentions  his  residence  in  Rome  in 
his  Apology,  written  in  139.  According  to  St.  Epipha- 
nius, !Marcion's  first  step  upon  reaching  Rome  was  to  ask 
readmission  into  the  Church,  but  he  was  refused.  The 
same  writer  further  states  that  Marcion  aimed  to  succeed 
pope  Hyginus,  who  had  just  died,  and  that  his  regret  at 
having  failed  was  the  cause  of  his  accepting  Gnosticism. 
These  Oriental  doctrines  were  then  preached  at  Rome 
by  a  Syrian  named  Cerdon.  Marcion  joined  him,  and 
]iroclaimed  his  intention  of  creating  an  abiding  schism  in 
the  Christian  Church.  Quite  different  is  the  statement 
of  Epiphanius.  Marcion,  says  he,  was  at  first  received 
into  the  Church  at  Rome,  and  professed  at  first  orthodox 
views,  but  being  of  a  specidative  turn  of  mind,  his  pry- 
ing, theorising  intellect  constantly  led  him  into  opinions 
and  practices  too  hostile  to  the  opinions  and  practices 
of  the  Church  to  escape  opposition,  and  he  was  there- 
fore constantly  involved  in  controversies,  in  which  he 
often  espoused  heretical  views.  After  repeated  warn- 
ings, he  was  finally  cut  off  from  communion  with  the 
Church,  "  in  perpetuum  discidium  relegatus."  He  con- 
tinued to  teach,  still  hoping  to  become  reconciled  with 
the  Church.  Finally  he  was  offered  reconciliation  on 
the  condition  of  returning  with  all  his  followers,  but 
died  "A-hile  endeavoring  to  do  so.  His  disciples  were 
then  but  iaw,  and  did  not  hold  all  the  doctrines  after- 
wards maintained  by  the  Marcionites,  who  flourished 
as  a  sect,  in  spite  of  untold  persecution,  until  the  Gth  cen- 
tury, particidarly  in  Egypt,  ralestine,  and  Syria.  The 
most  distinguished  among  his  disciples  and  followers 
were  Apelles,  Lucanus,  Hasilus,  151astus,  and  Potitus. 

The  fundamental  point  of  Marcion's  heresy  was  a 
supposed  irreconciliable  opi)ositi<)n  between  the  Creator 
and  the  God  of  the  Christians,  or,  in  other  words,  be- 
tween the  two  religious  systems,  the  Law  and  the  Gos- 
pel. His  theological  system  is  but  imperfectly  known. 
St.  Epiphanius  accuses  him  of  recognising  three  first 
princijiles,  one  supreme,  ineffalile,  and  invisible,  whom 
he  calls  good;  secondly,  the  Creator,  thirdly,  the  devil, 
or  perhaps  matter,  source  of  evil.  According  to  The- 
odoret,  he  admitted  three,  the  good  (iod,  the  Creator, 
matter,  and  evil  which  governs  matter,  i.  e.  the  devil. 
It  is  proved  that  INIarcion  believed  in  the  eternity  of 
matter,  but  it  is  uncertain  whether  he  considered  the 
Creator  as  a  first  principle,  or  as,  in  some  degree,  an  ema- 


nation of  the  good  God.  At  any  rate,  he  considered  them 
as  essentially  antagonistic.  This  conclusion  he  arri\  ed 
at  because  he  could  not  find  in  the  O.  T.  the  love  and 
charity  manifested  in  the  Gospel  of  Christ.  He  there- 
fore made  the  Creator,  the  God  of  the  O.  T.,  the  author 
of  evil,  '•  malorum  factorem,"  by  which  he  meant  suffer- 
ing, not  moral  evil.  The  old  dispensation  was,  accord- 
ing to  his  views,  the  reign  of  the  Creator,  who  chose  the 
Jews  for  his  own  special  people,  and  promised  them  a 
Messiah.  Christ  is  not  this  Messiah,  but  is  the  Son  of 
the  invisible,  good  God,  and  appeared  upon  earth  in  hu- 
man form  (being,  perhaps,  but  a  phantom),  to  free  the 
soul  and  overthrow  the  dominion  of  the  Creator.  Mar- 
cion also  supposed  that  when  Christ  descended  into  hell, 
he  did  not  deliver  those  who  in  the  O.  T.  are  desig- 
nated as  saints,  such  as  Abel,  Enoch,  Noah,  Abraham, 
Moses,  David,  etc.,  but  rather  those  who  had  disobeyed 
and  rejected  the  Creator,  like  Cain,  Esau,  Korah,  Da- 
than,  and  Abiram.  The  other  doctrines  of  Marcion  were 
the  natural  consequences  of  these  prmciplcs.  He  disap- 
proved of  marriage,  and  did  not  admit  married  persons 
to  baptism,  considering  it  wrong  to  propagate  a  race 
subject  to  the  cruel  dominion  of  the  Creator.  His  dis- 
ciples, convinced  that  this  world  is  a  prey  to  evil,  hailed 
death,  even  a  martyr's,  as  freeing  them  from  it.  They 
denied  the  resurrection  of  the  bod}',  and,  notwithstand- 
ing Epiphanius's  assertion,  it  appears  doubtful  whether 
they  believed  in  the  transmigration  of  the  soul.  They 
were  in  the  habit  of  being  baptized  several  times,  as 
if  the  sins  of  every  day  diminished  the  effect  of  that 
sacrament;  but  this  custom,  which  is  not  mentioned 
by  TertuUian,  was  probably  introduced  after  the  death 
of  Marcion.  Women  were  allowed  to  baptize  persons 
of  their  sex,  and  the  new  converts  were  admitted  to 
witness  the  mysteries.  To  make  the  Scripture  agree 
with  his  views,  Marcion  rejected  a  large  portion  of  the 
N.  T.  He  looked  upon  the  O.  T.  as  a  revelation  of  the 
Creator  to  the  Jews,  his  chosen  people,  which  not  only 
differed  from,  but  was  entirely  opposed  to  Christianity. 
He  admitted  but  one  Gospel,  and  that  a  truncated  ver- 
sion of  Luke's,  the  first  four  chapters  of  which  he  re- 
jected, making  it  to  commence  by  the  words :  In  the  fif- 
teenth year  of  the  reign  of  Tiberius  Ca?sar,  God  came  to 
Capernaum,  a  town  in  Galilee,  and  spoke  on  the  Sab- 
bath. He  carefully  omitted  all  the  passages  in  which 
Christ  acknowledged  the  Creator  as  his  Father.  Among 
the  Epistles,  he  admitted  those  to  the  Romans,  1st  and 
2d  to  the  Corinthians,  Galatians,  Ephesians,  Pliilippians, 
Colossians,  1st  and  2d  to  the  Thessalonians,  I'hilemon, 
and  some  part  of  a  supposed  Epistle  of  St.  Paul  to  the 
Laodiceans;  but  all  these  Epistles  were  expurgated  and 
interpolated  to  suit  his  views.  Marcion  also  composed 
a  work  entitled  Antithesis ;  it  is  a  collection  of  passages 
from  the  O.  and  the  N.  T.  which  he  looked  tijion  as  con- 
tradictory. In  reality,  the  system  of  Marcion  bore  a 
close  resemblance  to  that  of  Mani  (q.  v.) ;  it  was  an  at- 
tempt to  explain  the  origin  of  evil.  IMarcion,  as  after- 
wards Mani,  thought  to  solve  the  problem  by  supposing 
two  first  principles  ;  but  there  is  this  essential  difference 
between  them,  that  while  Marcion  based  his  system  on 
the  Scriptures,  interpreted  with  daring  subtility,  Mani 
derived  his  from  Parseeism,  without  direct  reference  to 
Christian  dogmas  or  traditions.  See  TertuUian,  Con- 
tra Miircioi>(i}t,\i\)n  v;  De  Prwsciiptione  Ilareticorvm  ; 
J  ustin,  Apologia ;  Irenasus,  A  dversus  Hares.  ,•  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  Stromata,  iii,  3  ;  St.  Epiphanius,  Panarinm ; 
Ittigiiis,  De  Ila-i-esiarcliis,  sect,  ii,  c.  7 ;  Cave,  JJistoria 
Litteraria,  i,  64 ;  Tillemont,  ]\Iemoires  Eccles.  ii,  266 ; 
Beausobre,  Hist,  du  Manicheisme,  lib.  iv,  c.  v,  viii ;  Lard- 
ner.  Hist,  of  Heretics,  vol.  ii,  c.  x ;  Esnig,  Darstellung  des 
marcionitischen  iSystenus,  from  the  Armenian  bv  Neu- 
mann, in  the  Zeitschrift  fur  hist,  theol.  1834  ;  Hahn,  A  n- 
tithesis  Marcionis  (1823);  id.  De  canone  Mai-cionis  an- 
tinomi  (1824) ;  Becker,  Kxamen  critique  de  I'erangile  de 
Marcion  (1837);  \\\tsch\,  Das  Evangelium  Marcuni's  u. 
d.  Evangel,  des  Lukas  (184G)  ;  Hilgenfeld,  Kiit.  Unter- 
suchungen  ii,  d.  Evangel,  Justin's  d.  clement. Horn.  u.  Mar- 


MARCIONITES 


737 


MARCUS 


Clones  (1852) ;  Heim,  J/amon,  sa  doctrine  et  son  evangile 
(1862) ;  Schaff,  Ch.  Hist,  i,  245 ;  Milman,  Hist,  of  Latin 
Christianity  ;  Donaldson,  Literature;  Werner,  Gesch.  d. 
apohget.  u.jwlem.  Literatur  ;  Hagenbach,  Hist,  of  Doc- 
trines, i,  58  sq.,  85, 190, 198 ;  Zdtschrf.f  Wissensch.  tlieol. 
18G0,  ii,  285;  Stud.  u.Krit.  ISbo/ii/hG;  Am.Presb.Rev. 
18G0  (May),  p.  360 ;  Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  ii,  458  sq. ;  id. 
Christian  Dogmas  (see  Index) ;  Baur,  Dogmengesch.  vol. 
ii  (see  Index) ;  Bayle,  Diet.  Hist,  and  Crit. ;  Diet,  des 
Sciences  jMlosophiques ;  Iloefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gmerale, 
xxxiii,  505 ;  Smith,  Diet.  Or,  and  Rom.  Biog.  s.  v.     See 

TUINITV. 

Marcionites.     See  Marcion. 

Marcites  or  Marcitae,  a  sect  of  heretics  in  the 
2d  century,  who  also  called  themselves  the  Perfecti,  and 
made  profession  of  doing  everything  with  a  great  deal 
of  liberty,  and  without  fear.  This  doctrine  they  bor- 
rowed from  Simon  INIagus,  who,  however,  was  not  their 
chief;  for  they  were  called  Marcites,  from  one  IMarcus, 
who  conferred  the  priesthood  and  the  administration  of 
the  sacraments  on  women. 

Marck,  Joiiann  van,  a  distinguished  Dutch  theo- 
logian, was  born  Dec.  31,  1655,  at  Sneek,  in  Friesland, 
and  educated  at  the  University  of  Leyden.  His  early 
reputation  was  such  that  before  the  completion  of  his 
twenty-first  year  he  was  appointed  to  the  professorship 
of  theology  at  Franeker.  In  1C82  he  removed  to  Gron- 
ingen  as  professor  primarius  of  theology  and  university 
preacher.  In  1690  he  accepted  a  theological  chair  at 
Leyden,  and  in  1720  succeeded  the  younger  Spanheim 
as  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history.  He  died  Jan.  80, 
1731.  He  wrote  several  works  on  dogmatic  theology, 
which  are  highly  esteemed  in  the  Keformed  Church, 
and  made  various  valuable  contributions  to  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  Scriptures.  His  principal  works  are, 
De  Syhyllinis  carminibus  (Frankf.  1682, 8vo)  : — Di  Apoc- 
alypsin  Commenturia  seu  analysis  exegetica  (Lugd.  Bat. 
1G89,  ed.  auct.  1099, 4to) : — In  Canticum  Salomonis  Com- 
inenturius  seu  analysis  exegetica  cum  analysi  Psa.  xlv 
(Lugd.  1703,  4to)  : — In  prcecipiuas  quasdam  partes  Pen- 
tateuchi  Commentarius,  seu  uUimorum  Jacobi,  reliquo- 
rum  Bilhami  et  novissimoi'um  Mosis  analysis  exegetica 
(Lugd.  1713,  4to) : — Cominentaiii  seu  ancdysis  exegetica 
in  Prophetas  ininores  (Amsterd.  1696-1701,  5  vols.  4to). 
This  is  a  very  complete  and  carefuUy-executed  work. 
Walch  characterizes  it  as  one  of  the  best  of  the  com- 
mentaries on  the  minor  prophets : — Sylloge  disseiiatio- 
num  philologico-exegcticarum  ad  selectos  quosdam  textus 
A'.  7'.  (Rottcrd.  1721, 4to)  : — Compendium  theologia  Chris- 
tiana didactico-elencticum  (Amsterd.  1722,  4to) : — Fasci- 
culus dissertationum  philologico-exegeticarum  ad  selectos 
textus  V.  et  N.  Testamenti  (Lugd.  1724-27,  2  vols.),  etc. 
A  selection  from  his  works  was  published  at  Groningen 
in  1748,  in  2  vols.  4to.  See  Kitto,  Cyclop,  of  Bibl.  Lit. 
vol.  iii,  s.  V. ;  Darling,  Cyclop.  Bibliog.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Marckius.     See  Marck. 

Marconville  or  Marcoviville,  Jeax  de,  a 
French  writer  of  note,  who  tiourislied  in  the  second  half 
of  the  16th  century  at  Paris,  is  the  author  of  several 
works  of  interest  to  the  theological  student.  Among 
them  the  following  deserve  special  mention :  L'origine 
des  temples  des  Juifs,  Chretiem,  et  Gentiles  (Paris,  1563, 
Svo) : — La  dicersites  des  opinions  de  I'homme  (1563,8vo)  : 
— Chretien  avertissement  aux  refroidis  et  ecartes  de  la 
vraie  et  ancienne  Eglise  Catholique  (1571,  8vo),  a  W'ork 
in  which  Marconville,  though  displaying  great  attach- 
ment to  the  Koman  Catholic  Church,  condemns  her  con- 
duct towards  the  Protestants,  See  Hoefer,  Nouv. Biog. 
Generule,  xxxii,  509. 

Marcomanni,  a  Germanic  tribe  of  the  Suevic 
branch,  dwelt  from  the  Helvetian  border  to  the  Main, 
and  from  the  Rhine  to  the  Danube.  They  are  iirst 
mentioned  by  Julius  C;Esar  in  his  Gallic  wars  (i,  51),  who 
reckons  them  among  the  forces  of  Ariovistus,  king  of 
the  Suevi.    The  conquests  of  the  Romans  brought  them 

v.— A  A  A 


into  dangerous  proximity  to  the  Marcomanni,  and  in= 
duced  the  latter  to  seek  a  new  home  in  modern  Bohemia. 
They  were  led  by  Marobodhus,  a  man  of  noble  rank  among 
them,  trained  in  the  Roman  armies,  and  he  became  their 
king  after  the  conquest  of  Bohemia.  The  Marcomanni 
quickly  acquired  iiitiuence,  and  were  greatly  strength- 
ened by  alliances  with  aU  the  neighboring  tribes,  so 
that  their  power  became  threatening  to  the  empire. 
Tiberius  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  with  them,  wliich 
secured  the  empire  against  an  attack,  but  turned  against 
them  the  hatred  of  the  remaining  Germanic  tribes. 
Led  by  Arminius,  these  enemies  defeated  the  Marco- 
manni in  A.D.  17,  after  which  date  their  history  pre- 
sents an  almost  uninterrupted  succession  of  conflicts. 
They  defeated  the  emperor  Domitian  (Dio  Cassias, 
Ixvii,  7),  and  in  A.D.  164  advanced  to  Aquileia,  in  Italy. 
The  fruits  of  a  decisive  victory  over  them,  won  by  the 
generals  of  INI.  Aurelius,  were  lost  bj^  a  treaty  which  the 
emperor  Commodus  concluded  with  them  (A.D.  180), 
and  they  continued  to  make  frequent  irruptions  into  the 
neighboring  provinces  of  the  empire,  penetrating  in 
A.D.  270  even  to  Milan,  besieging  Ancona,  and  threat- 
ening Rome  itself.  Their  name  gradually  disappears 
from  history  during  the  5th  century-,  wlien  the  migra- 
tion of  more  distant  barbarians  brought  a  succession  of 
new  peoples  into  their  land. 

It  is  not  definitely  known  how  or  when  the}'  became 
acquainted  with  Christianity.  Their  frequent  incur- 
sions into  the  empire  doubtless  brought  them  into  con- 
tact with  its  disciples,  some  of  whom  must  have  been 
among  their  prisoners  of  war.  A  statement  in  the  life 
of  St.  Ambrose,  by  Paulinus — which,  however,  is  not  con- 
firmed by  any  contemporaneous  author — relates  that  in 
the  time  of  that  bishop  an  Italian  Christian  had  visited 
the  Marcomanni,  and  had  awakened  the  interest  of  their 
queen  in  Christianity  to  an  extent  that  led  her  to  ap- 
ply to  Ambrose  for  instruction.  He  sent,  in  compli- 
ance with  her  request,  a  w^ork  in  the  form  of  a  cate- 
chism, by  which  both  she  and  the  king  were  led  to  em- 
brace Christianity  towards  the  close  of  the  4th  century. 
See  Schrockh,  Kirchengesch.  vii,  347 ;  Hefele,  Gesch.  d. 
Einfiihrung  des  Christenthums  im  sud-westl.  Deutschland, 
vol.  vii ;  Tacitus,  Annals ;  Dio  Cassius,  Hist.  Rom.  1,  54, 
and  Greek  and  Roman  historians  of  this  period.  See 
also  Herzog,  Real-Encyklopddie,  ix,  1 1 2 ;  Wetzer  u.  Welte,. 
Kii-chen-Lex.  s.  v,     (G,  M.) 

Marcosians  or  Colobarsians,  an  ancient  sect 
in  the  Church,  making  a  branch  of  the  Valentinians. 
IrentEus  speaks  at  large  of  the  leader  of  this  sect,  Mar- 
cus, who,  it  seems,  was  reputed  a  great  magician.  The 
Marcosians  had  a  great  number  of  apocryphal  books^ 
which  they  held  as  canonical,  and  of  the  same  author- 
ity with  ours.  Out  of  these  they  picked  several  idle  fa- 
bles touching  the  infancy  of  Jesus  Christ,  which  they 
circulated  as  authentic  histories.  Many  of  these  fables 
are  still  in  use  and  credit  among  the  Greek  monks. — 
Henderson,  Buck,  Theol.  Diet.  s.  v.    .See  Valentinians, 

Mar'cus  (Col.  iv,  10 ;  Philem.  24 ;  1  Pet,  v,  13),  See 
Mark, 

Marcus,  Pope,  one  of  the  early  bishops  of  Rome, 
succeeded  Sylvester  Jan.  18,  336 ;  but  little  is  known 
cither  of  his  life  or  administration.  Anastasius  states 
that  by  him  the  bishop  of  Ostia  was  first  appointed  to 
ordain  the  bishop  of  Rome.  He  died  October  7  of  the 
same  year  in  which  he  had  been  chosen,  and  was  buried 
in  the  cemetery  of  Balbina,  which  was  thenceforth  call- 
ed after  liis  name.  "  His  body,"  says  Bower,  "  has  since 
been  worshipped  in  the  church  of  St,  Lawrence  at  Flor- 
ence, though  no  mention  has  been  made  by  any  writer 
of  its  having  been  translated  thither,"  Novaes  relates 
that  Marcus  bore  the  title  of  cardinal  before  his  elec- 
tion, and  that  with  him  originated  this  dignitary  of  the 
Church  of  Rome.  He  is  also  by  some  writers  believed 
to  have  been  the  first  pontiff  to  order  the  reading  of  the 
Nicene  confession  of  faith,  after  the  Gospels,  in  the  cele- 
bration of  mass.    See  Bower,  History  of  the  Popes,  i,  114 ; 


MARCUS 


738 


MARCUS 


Shepherd,  Hist,  of  the  Church  of  Rome  to  Damasiis  (A.D. 
384),  p.  77. 

Marcus  of  Alexandiua,  a  patriarch  of  Alexan- 
dria, Hourislied  early  in  the  13th  century,  and  was  par- 
ticularly well  versed  in  ecclesiastical  law.  He  proposed 
certain  questions  for  solution  on  various  points  of  eccle- 
sir.stical  law  or  practice.  Sixty-four  of  these  questions, 
with  the  answers  of  Theodorus  Balsamon,  are  given  in 
the  Jus  Orieniale  of  Bonetidius,  p.  237,  etc.  (Paris,  1573, 
8vo),  and  in  the  Jus  Graco-Romamim  of  Leunclavius,  i, 
302-394  (Frankfort,  1596,  fol.).  Some  MSS.  contain  two 
questions  and  solutions  more  than  the  printed  copies. 
Fabricius  suggests  that  Mark  of  Alexandria  is  the  INIar- 
cus  cited  in  a  MS.,  Catena  in  Matthai  Evancielium,  of 
Macarius  Chrysocephahis,  extant  in  the  Bodleian  Libra- 
ry at  Oxford.— Cave,  Hist.  Litt.  ad  ann.  1203,  ii,  279  (ed. 
Oxford,  1740-42) ;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Biog. 
and  Mythol.  s.  v. 

Marcus  or  Arethusa,  a  bishop  in  the  Eastern 
Church,  was  one  of  three  prelates  sent  to  Eome,  A.D. 
342,  by  the  emperor  Constantius  II,  to  satisfy  the  West- 
ern emperor  Constans  of  the  justice  and  propriety  of  the 
deposition  of  Athanasius  of  Alexandria  and  Paulus  of 
Constantinople.  Marcus  and  his  fellow -prelates  are 
charged  with  having  deceived  Constans  by  presenting 
to  him  as  their  confession  of  faith,  not  the  Arian  or  Eu- 
sebian  confession,  lately  agreed  on  at  the  Synod  of  An- 
tioch,  but  another  confession  of  orthodox  complexion, 
yet  not  fully  orthodox,  which  is  given  by  Socrates. 
Marcus  appears  to  have  acted  with  the  Eusebian  or  Semi- 
Arian  party,  and  took  part  on  their  side,  probably  in  the 
Comicil  of  Fhilippopolis,  held  by  the  prelates  of  the 
East  after  their  secession  from  Sardica  (A.D.  347),  and 
certainly  in  that  of  Sirmium  (A.D.  359),  where  a  heter- 
odox confession  of  faith  was  drawn  up  by  him.  The 
confession  which  is  given  as  Jlarcus's  by  Socrates  is  be- 
lieved by  modern  critics  not  to  be  his.  They  ascribe  to 
him  the  confession  agreed  upon  by  the  Council  of  Arimi- 
num,  A.D.  359,  and  also  given  by  Socrates.  Duruig  the 
short  reign  of  Julian,  Marcus,  then  on  old  man,  was 
cruelly  tortured  in  various  ways  b}'  the  heathen  popu- 
lace of  Arethusa,  who  were  irritated  by  the  success  of 
his  efforts  to  convert  their  fellow-townsmen  to  Christi- 
anity. He  appears  to  have  bareh'  survived  their  cru- 
elty. His  sufferings  for  the  Christian  religion  seem  to 
have  obliterated  the  discredit  of  his  Arianism,  for  Greg- 
ory Nazianzen  has  eulogized  him  in  the  highest  terms, 
and  the  Greek  Church  honors  him  as  a  martyr.  See 
Athanasius,  De  Synodis,  c.  24,  s.  v. ;  Socrates,  Hist.  Ec- 
cles.  ii,  18,  30,  37,  with  the  notes  of  Yalesius ;  Sozomen, 
Hist.  Eccles.  iii,  10;  iv,  17  ;  v,  10;  Theodoret,  Hist.  Ec- 
cles.  iii,  7 ;  Gregorius  Naz.  Oratio  ir ;  Bolland,  A  eta 
Sa72cto7:  ^fart.  iii,  774,  etc. ;  Tilleraont,  Memoires,  vol. 
vi  and  vii ;  Smith,  Diet,  (f  Gr.  and  Rom.  Biog.  and  My- 
thol. s.  V. ;  Neander,  Hist,  of  Chr.  Ch.  ii,  51,  61. 

Marcus  Avrelius.     See  Aurelius. 

Marcus  DiAT>6cnus,  who  flourished  probably  in 
the  4th  century,  was  the  author  of  a  short  treatise  enti- 
tled Ti'v  f.iaKapiov  XiapKov  tov  Aiavoxov  Kura  Apti- 
civiLv  Xuyoc,  Beali  Marei  I)iadochi  Sermo  contra  A  ri- 
anos,  published  with  a  Latin  version  by  Jos.  Rudolph. 
Wetstenius,  subjoined  to  his  edition  of  Origcn,  De  Ora- 
tione  (Basle,  1694, 4to;  reprinted  with  a  new  Latin  ver- 
sion in  the  Bihliotheca  Patriim  of  (ialland,  v,  242).  See 
Fabricius,  Bihl.  Grceca,  ix,  2W>  sq. ;  Cave,  Hist.  Litt.  ad 
ann.  356,  i,  217  ;  Galland,  Bihlioth.  I'utrum,  Frolcg.  ad 
vol.  V,  c.  14;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Rom.  Bioy.  and 
Mythol.  s.  V. 

Marcus  Ei{emTta  (o 'Epj;/i/r;/Ci  ''"^  Ascetic,  called 
also  I\1fira\'or,  'A/3/3dc>  'iurt  AffKtjrijc;  or  Excercitator^, 
a  disciple  of  Chrysostom,,and  contemjiorary  of  Nilus  and 
Isidore  of  I'elusium,  was  a  celebrated  Egyjitian  hermit  of 
the  Scythian  deserts,  who  lived  at  the  close  of  the  4th  and 
the  beginning  of  the  5th  century.  From  early  manhood 
he  was  noted  for  liis  piety,  meekness,  and  ascetic  vir- 


tues, and  for  his  exact  acquaintance  with  the  holy  Scrip- 
tures, the  whole  of  which  he  had  committed  to  memory ; 
and  in  his  old  age  he  enjo}-ed  the  repute  of  an  cs]jecial 
sanctity  and  wonder-working  power.  Palladius,  who 
visited  him  in  person  about  A.D.  395,  Sozomen,  and  the 
Greek  menologies  relate  many  of  his  miracles;  but  some 
of  them  are  elsewhere  attributed  to  Macarius  (q.  v.).  In- 
deed, the  writings  of  Palladius  and  the  monkish  tradi- 
tions seem  frequently  to  confound  the  names  of  Marcus 
and  Macarius ;  and,  as  both  names  were  common  among 
monks,  it  is  difficult  to  decide  whether  the  scattered  no- 
tices of  a  prominent  saint  of  this  name  that  have  reach- 
ed us  refer  to  one  person  or  to  several.  There  are  traces 
of  a  younger  Marcus,  living  early  in  the  5th  century, 
and  of  others  living  in  the  9tli  and  10th  centuries.  Bel- 
larmine  attributes  the  nine  or  ten  tracts  of  Marcus  Ere- 
mita  which  still  exist,  and  are  classed  among  the  most 
interesting  relics  of  the  mystico-ascetic  literature  of  the 
Greek  Church,  to  a  monk  of  the  9th  century  ;  but  trust- 
worthy authorities  assign  to  them  a  much  earlier  date. 
Phot i us  (f  891)  mentions  nine  tracts  of  Marcus  {Bibl. 
cod.  200,  p.  519,  edit.  Bekker),  which  are  identical  with 
ours.  Maximus  Confessor,  in  the  7th  century,  furnishes 
a  work  by  Marcus  (ed.  of  Combefis,  i,  702  sq.)  ;  and  Do- 
rotheus  cites  expressions  from  him  in  the  Gth  century 
(comp.  Tillemont,  x,  801 ;  Ceillier,  xvii,  504).  Besides, 
the  contents  of  these  tracts  are  so  related  to  what  is 
found  in  Chrj-sostom,  Macarius,  and  to  some  extent  in 
Jovinian  (comp.  Neander,  Ch. Hist.\\,?>'di)),  that  we  are 
compelled  to  recognise  in  their  author  a  contemporary 
of  Chrysostom.  The  only  remaining  question  is,  wheth- 
er the  author  of  the  tracts  be  identical  with  the  Marcus 
of  Palladius  and  Sozomen,  or  a  younger  contemporary. 
The  preponderance  of  authority  points  decidedly  to  the 
former  (see  Pi-olegomena  in  Galland's  Bihl.  Pair,  viii, 
3  sq. ;  and  works  on  Church  history  and  history  of  lit- 
erature, especially  Du  Pin,  Nouv.  Bihl.  iii,  8,  2  sq. ;  Ou- 
din,  Comm.  de  scr.  eccl.  i,  902  sq. ;  Ceillier,  A  uteurs  Eccl. 
xvii,  300  sq.;  Cuve,  Scr  ipt. eccl.  hist. bibl.  i,o72  sq.;  Tille- 
mont, Memoires,  vols,  viii  and  x).  The  Eoman  Cath- 
olic Church  historians  generally  ignore  him.  Marcus 
Eremita  is  said  to  have  died  about  A.D.  410,  aged  more 
than  a  hundred  years.  The  Greek  Church  surnamed 
him  the  wonder-worker,  and  commemorated  him  on  the 
25th  of  jNIarch ;  a  day  in  October  was  formerly  observed 
in  his  honor  by  a  portion  of  the  Latin  Church. 

The  nine  tracts  of  Marcus  are,  in  brief,  as  follows  :  1. 
Yltpl  t'ofiov  Trrti'i-iariKov,  De  lege spiiitualis.de paradiso, 
"  Profitable  for  those  who  have  chosen  an  ascetic  life." 
It  comprises  an  introduction,  which  is  followed  by  two 
hundred  separate  propositions  designed  to  comment  on 
the  scriptural  expression  vouoq  irvtvuaTiKoc.  The  lead- 
ing thoughts  are  :  All  good  centres  in  God  ;  without  his 
aid  men  can  neither  believe  nor  do  good.  Hence  hu- 
mility is  necessary  to  obedience,  and  its  expression  is  to 
be  found  in  restraining  our  passions  rather  than  in  an 
ascetic  hatred  of  (jod's  creatures.  2.  Wtpi  twv  oio^'ivwv 
I'i  tpywv  ciicniova^ai,  De  his  qui  jnitant  se  ex  opeiibus 
justifcari,  seems  originally  to  have  formed  part  of  the 
first,  and  comprises  two  hundred  and  eleven  cajiita  or 
propositions,  treating  mainly  of  justification  by  faith. 
Saving  faith  must  be  accompanied  by  works  of  right- 
eousness, but  heaven  cannot  be  earned.  The  kingdom 
of  God  is  of  grace,  which  God  has  provided  for  his  faith- 
ful servants.  Such  as  do  good  for  a  reward,  serve  not 
God,  but  their  own  will.  3.  Utpi  fifravoiag  rfiQ  itdv- 
TOTE  iriKJi  7rpotn]KovcTiic,  De  panitentia  cunctis  necessa- 
ria.  liepentance  consists  of  three  parts  :  purification  of 
our  thoughts,  persistent  prayer,  and  patient  endurance 
of  tribulation.  None  can  be  saved  except  they  contin- 
ually repent,  and  none  are  damned  except  they  despise 
repentance.  4.  Of  baptism;  a  series  of  questions  and 
answers  relating  to  the  worth  and  effects  of  bajitism. 
It  is  represented  as  the  channel  through  which  Christ 
imparts  gracious  aid,  rather  than  as  an  agency  that 
works  perfection  in  its  subject.  5.  Salutan/  jmccpts, 
addressed  to  the  monk  Nicholas,  and  shewing  how  to  lead 


MARCUS 


739 


MARCUS 


a  Chrisiian  life,  and  especially  Jioic  to  reslrain  anger  and 
fleshly  lusts.  Ascetic  exercises  are  rejected  as  a  means, 
and  looking  to  Jesus  is  recommended  as  pre-eminently 
the  way  to  virtue  and  true  Christianity.  Annexed 
is  a  reply  from  Nicholas,  returning  thanks  for  this  coun- 
sel. C.  Brief  reflections  of  a  pious  and  mystical  charac- 
ter, generally  bearing  on  some  passage  or  expression  of 
the  Scriptures,  treated  in  the  freest  style  of  allegorical 
interpretation.  A  state  of  mystical  ecstasy,  in  which 
the  soul  is  lost  to  aU  created  things,  and  in  an  ecstasy 
of  love  is  wholly  absorbed  in  God,  is  characterized  as 
the  most  exalted  spiritual  condition,  and  ascetic  duties 
are  accorded  only  a  secondarj'  value.  Another  tract, 
upon  the  subject  of  fasting,  is  wanting  in  the  older  edi- 
tions, and  was  first  published  in  1748  by  Remondini. 
It  possibly  formed  a  part  of  6,  which  closes  abruptly. 
7.  General  questions  of  Christian  morality;  a  disputation 
with  a  jurist  as  to  the  possibility  of  reconciling  capital 
punishment  with  Christian  principles,  and  a  discussion 
of  the  nature  and  use  of  prayer,  of  the  various  ways  to 
honor  God,  of  the  desire  to  please  men,  etc.  8.  A  mys- 
tical dialogue  between  the  soul  and  spirit  concerning  sin 
and  grace,  chiefly  remarkable  because  of  its  decided  re- 
jection of  the  doctrine  of  original  sin,  and  of  its  clear 
and  pointed  statement  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Greek  fa- 
thers respecting  sin  and  human  freedom.  We  are  to 
seek  the  source  of  our  sinfulness  neither  in  Satan,  Adam, 
nor  other  men.  No  power  can  compel  us  to  good  or 
evil,  but  rather  the  condition  of  every  person  is  that 
which  he  has  chosen  from  the  time  of  his  baptism.  The 
same  passions  which  seduced  Adam  and  Eve  still  exist 
in  human  nature,  and  produce  a  like  result  in  every 
soul  tliat,  in  the  exercise  of  its  freedom,  submits  to  their 
control.  The  conflict  with  sin  is  therefore  a  struggle 
against  our  own  will,  in  which  Christ  aids  us  when  we 
keep  his  commandments  to  the  extent  of  our  power. 
9.  ChrisCs  relation  to  Jfelchisedek.  This  tract  is  direct- 
ed against  a  class  who  regarded  Melchisedek  as  a  divine 
being ;  probably  the  Origenistic  sect  founded  in  Egypt 
by  Hieracas,  who  were  said  to  regard  JMelchisedek  as 
the  holy  Spirit  or  an  incarnation  of  the  Spirit.  While 
combating  such  views,  the  tract  reveals  a  tendency  to 
]\Ionophysitism,  in  ascribing  to  the  human  nature  of  Je- 
sus all  the  attributes  of  the  Godhead.  These  tracts  of 
Marcus  Eremita  reveal  to  us  the  memorials  of  a  parth' 
ascetic,  partly  ecstatic  mysticism,  which  was  especially 
cultivated  among  the  Egyptian  monks,  and  which  aim- 
ed to  spiritualize  the  practices  of  Monacliism.  In  its 
excess  of  pious  feeling  over  dogmatic  conceptions,  it 
contained  the  seeds  of  many  diverse  systems  of  dogmat- 
ics and  ethics.  Monophysitism  had  essentially  its  root 
in  the  mysticism  of  the  Egyptian  monks ;  and  in  these 
Avritings  are  found,  in  curious  juxtaposition,  Felagian- 
ism  and  Augustinism,  the  strongest  assertion  of  human 
freedom  and  of  the  sole  efficiency  of  grace  in  the  work 
of  salvation,  the  evangelical  view  of  justification  by 
faith  and  the  Roman  Catholic  doctrine  of  works.  Hence 
Bellarmine  and  other  Roman  Catholics  supposed  that 
modern  heretics  bad  forged  these  writings,  while  Prot- 
estant writers  have  remarked  their  Pelagian  cast.  The 
tracts  of  Marcus  were  in  the  17th  century  placed  in  the 
Index,  as  "  caute  Icgenda."  They  are  chiefly  important 
as  a  connecting  link  between  the  mysticism  of  Macarius 
and  that  of  the  Areopagite  and  Maximus  Confessor. 

Eight  of  the  above  mystical  treatises  are  Xoyoi  oKra, 
"equal  to  the  number  of  the  universal  passions."  A  Latin 
version  of  all  together  was  prepared  by  Joannes  Picus 
(Paris,  15C3,  8vo  ;  later  editions  in  Bibl.  Pair.)  ;  a  Greek 
version  by  Guillaume  Morel,  with  the  Antirrhetica  of 
Hcsychius  of  Jerusalem  (Par.  1563, 8vo).  Both  versions 
were  reprinted  in  the  first  volume  of  the  Aiictarium  of 
Ducreus  (Paris,  16-24,  folio\  in  the  eleventh  volume  fif 
Biljl.  Patrum  (Paris,  1654,  folio),  and  in  the  eighth  vol- 
ume of  the  Bibl.  Patrum  of  Galland.  jNIarcus  Eremita 
was  probably  the  author  also  of  the  tract  Utpi  vr]rTrii- 
CQ,  De  Jejunio  ;  Latin  version  by  Zinus  (Venice,  1574. 
8vo).     Two  of  Marcus's  tracts — tlie  first  and  second. 


viz.  rXf/Di  vojjov  TTVivj.iaTiKoii,  De  Lege  Spirituali,  and 
Ylepl  Twv  olonivujv  t^  tpyu)i'  CtKaioi'cOai,  Pejus  quipv- 
tant  se  Opei'ibus  justificari,  were  published  together  by 
Vincentius  Opsopceus,  with  a  Latin  version  (Haguenau, 
1531,  8vo).  The  first  was  reprinted  in  the  Micropres- 
byticon  (Basle,  1550),  and  in  the  Orthodoxograplia  (Basle, 
1555).  The  tract  De  Jejunio,  and  another,  De  Jlelchi- 
zedek,  were  first  published  bj'  B.  INI.  Remondinus  (Rome, 
1748).  See  Fabricius,  Biblioth.  Groeca,  ix,  267 ;  Cave, 
Ilistor.  Litt.  ad  ann.  401,  i,  372 ;  Oudin,  De  Scriptor.  Ec- 
cles.  i,  col.  902  sq. ;  Tilleraont,  Memoires,  x,  801 ;  Gal- 
land, Biblioth.  Patrum,  Proleg.  ad  viii,  c.  1 ;  Smith,  Diet, 
of  (Jr.  and  Pom.  Biog.  ami  ifythol.  s.  v.;  and  especially 
Wagenmann,  in  Herzog,  Real-Encyk.  xx,  85-91.    (G.  M.) 

Marcus  Eugenicus,     See  Eugenicus. 

Marcus  of  Gaza,  the  biographer  of  St.  Porphyry 
of  Gaza,  lived  in  the  4th  and  5th  centuries ;  was  prob- 
ably a  native  of  Proconsular  Asia,  whence  he  travelled 
to  Palestine,  there  became  acquainted  with  Porphyry, 
and  then  lived  at  Jerusalem  some  time  before  A.D.  393. 
Porphyry  sent  him  to  Thessalonica  to  dispose  of  his 
property  in  those  parts,  and  after  his  return  INIarcus  ap- 
pears to  have  been  the  almost  inseparable  companion  of 
Porphyrv',  by  whom  he  was  ordained  deacon,  and  sent 
(A.D.  398)  to  Constantinople  to  obtain  of  the  emperor 
Arcadius  an  edict  for  destroying  the  heathen  temples  at 
Gaza.  He  obtained  an  edict  to  close,  but  not  to  destroy 
them.  This,  however,  was  not  effectual  for  putting 
down  heathenism ;  and  Porphyry  went  in  person  to  Con- 
stantinople, taking  Marcus  with  him,  and  they  obtained 
an  imperial  edict  for  the  destruction  both  of  the  idols 
and  the  temples  of  the  heatlien.  Marcus  afterwards  re- 
turned with  Porphyry  to  Gaza,  where  he  probably  re- 
mained till  his  death,  of  which  we  have  no  account. 
He  wrote  the  life  of  Porphyry,  the  original  Greek  text 
of  which  is  said  to  be  extant  in  MS.  at  Vienna ;  it  has 
never  been  published.  A  Latin  version.  Vita  St.  Por- 
phyrii  Episcopi  Gazensis,  was  published  by  Lipomanus 
in  his  VitcB  Sanctonun  ;  by  Surius,  in  his  De  Probatis 
Sanctorum  Vitis ;  and  by  the  BoUandists,  in  the  A  eta 
Sanctorum  Februar.  iii,  643  sq.,  with  a  Commentarius 
Prtevius  and  notes  by  Henschenius.  It  is  given  also  in 
the  Bibliotheca  Patrum  of  GaUand,  ix,  259  sq.  See  Fa- 
bricius, Biblioth.  Grceca,  x,  316 ;  Cave,  Hist.  IJtt.  ad  ann. 
421,  i,  403  ;  Oudin,  De  Scriptor.  Eccles.  i,  col.  999 ;  Gal- 
land, PJibl.  Patrum,  Proleg.  ad  ix,  c.  7  ;  Smith,  Diet,  of 
Gr.  and  Rom.  Biog.  ami  Mythol.  s.  v. 

Marcus  the  HERESiARCir,  sometimes  called  the 
Gnostic,  a  teacher  of  Gnosticism  in  the  2d  century, 
thouglit  by  Jerome  to  be  a  native  of  Egypt;  by  Lard- 
ner,  of  Proconsular  Asia  ;  and  by  Ncander,  of  Palestine. 
That  Jerome's  conjecture  is  correct,  seems  probable  from 
the  statement  of  Irenteus  that  IMarcus  was  a  disciple  of 
Valentinus.  The  followers  of  JMarcus  were  called  ISIar- 
cosians.  His  peculiar  tenets  were  founded  on  the  Gnos- 
tic doctrine  of  neons;  professing  to  derive  his  knowledge 
of  these  seons,  and  of  the  production  of  the  universe,  by 
a  revelation  from  the  fourjmmal  emanations  in  the  sys- 
tem of  feons,  who  descended  to  him  from  the  region  of 
the  ineffable  and  invisible  in  the  form  of  a  female.  He 
set  forth  his  system  in  a.  poem,  in  which  he  introduced 
the  divine  ffion  discoursing  in  liturgical  forms,  and  with 
gorgeous  symbols  of  worship.  He  prominently  devel- 
oped in  his  system  the  idea  of  a  Adyot;  rov  ovroc,  of  a 
word  manifesting  the  hidden  divine  essence  in  the  crea- 
tion— creation  being  a  continuous  utterance  or  becorning 
expressed  of  the  ineffable.  See  IrenKus.  A  dr.  Hccres.  i, 
8-18  ;  Epiphanius,  Ihrres.  xxxiv,  s.  ut  alii,  xiv  ;  Tertul- 
lian,  De  Pr(escript,  Hceret.  c.  50  sq. ;  id.  Adr.Valent, 
c.  4 ;  id.  De  Resurrect.  Camis,  c.  5 ;  Theodoret,  Hcere- 
ticarum  Fabularum  Compend.  c.  9 ;  Eusebius,  //.  E.  iv, 
11;  V\\WsiS,lnns,De  II cpj-esib.  post  Christum,  c.\\\  Prte- 
destinatus,  De  Hceresib.  i,  14  ;  Augustin.  De  Hares,  c. 
15  ;  Jerome,  Comm.  ad  Isa.  Ixiv,  4,  5 ;  Ep.  ad  Theod.  29 ; 
Ittigius,  De  Haresiarchis,  lect.  ii,  c.  6,  §  4 ;  Tillemont, 
Memoirs,  ii,  29 1 ;  Lardner,  Hist,  of  Heretics,  book  ii,  c.  7 ; 


IMARCUS 


740 


MARECHAL 


Neander,  Ilixt.  of  the  Christ.  Ch.  i,  440  ;  Mosheim,  Ec- 
cles.  Hist,  i,  147  ;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biog. 
and  J/i/thol.  s.  v.     See  Makcosians  ;  Valentinians. 

Marcus  Tim  Heretic  (sometimes  confounded  with 
Makcis  the  Heresiarcti),  a  native  of  Memphis,  in 
Egypt,  flourished  in  the  4th  century.  He  is  said  by 
Isidore  of  Seville,  and  Sulpicius  Severus  in  Hist.  Sacra, 
to  have  been  a  skilful  magician — a  Manichiean,  perhaps 
personally  a  disciple  of  Manes,  and  the  originator  of  the 
doctrine  of  the  Priscillianists.  See  Priscillianists. 
He  travelled  to  Spain,  and  is  said  to  have  disclosed  his 
doctrines  to  Elpidius,  a  rhetorician,  and  to  his  wife 
Agape  ;  from  them  the  doctrines  were  communicated  to 
Priscillian  (see  Priscillian),  who,  by  embodying  them 
in  systematic  form  and  giving  them  spread,  became  the 
founder  of  the  sect. — Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Biog.  and  Mythol.  s.  v. ;  Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  ii,  710. 

Marcus  Hleromonachus,  said  by  Oudin  to  have 
been  a  monk  of  the  convent  of  St.  Saba,  near  Jerusalem, 
flourished  in  the  opening  of  the  11th  centurj'.  He 
wrote  ^i'vrayija  fit,-  tu  diropovfiti'a  rov  tvttikov,  De 
Dubiis  quK  ex  Typico  oriuntur,  contained  in  the  Typi- 
cum,  or  ritual  directory  of  the  Greek  Church  (Ti^ttikov 
ai'v  ^(({i  uyioj  irapnxov  ■Kaaav  ri'iv  Siara^tp  rt/c  tK- 
KXtauKTTiKtjg  aKoXov^iaQ  tov  xpuvon  liXoi',  Typiciim, 
favente  Deo,  continens  integrum  Officii  Ecclesiastid  Ordi- 
nem per  totum  Annuni).  See  a  description  of  the  work 
in  Cave,  Hist.  Lift.  vol.  ii ;  Dissert,  ii,  38.  This  commen- 
tary is  adapted  to  the  arrangement  of  the  Tyjncum,  as- 
cribed to  St.  Saba,  but  which  Oudin  supposes  to  have 
been  drawn  by  jNIarcus  himself,  and  produced  by  him  as 
the  work  of  St.  Saba,  in  order  to  obtain  for  it  an  au- 
thority which,  had  it  appeared  in  his  own  name,  it  would 
not  have  secured.  A  Life  of  Gregory  of  Agrigentum 
is  supposed  to  be  by  the  same  author  as  the  Typicum. 
See  Cave,  Jlist.  Litt.  vol.  ii;  Dissert,  i,  13;  Oudin,  De 
Scriptorib.  Eccles.  ii,  col.  584,  etc. ;  Fabricius,  Bibl.  Grcec. 
X,  232,  G78 ;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Biog.  and  Mythol.  s.  v. 

Marcus,  bishop  of  Otranto,  probably  of  the  8th 
centuPi\  Allatius  says  he  was  ceconomus  or  steward 
of  the  great  Church  of  Constantinople  before  he  be- 
came bishop,  which  seems  to  be  all  that  is  known  of  him. 
He  wrote  Tip  fnydXtfi  aafijiaTti)  y  aKpodTixic,  Hymnus 
Acrostichus  in  Magnum  Sabbatiun,  s.  In  Magno  Sab- 
bato  Capita  T'e/'SMiw?,  published  by  Aldus  Manut ins,  with 
a  Latin  version,  in  his  editions  of  Prudentius  and  other 
early  Christian  poets  (Venice,  1501,  4to).  A  Latin  ver- 
sion of  the  hymn  is  given  in  several  editions  of  Bibli- 
otheca  Patrum.  —  Fabricius,  Bibl.  Grac.  xi,  177,  G77; 
Cave,  Hist.  Litt.  ad  ann.  750,  i,  630;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Gr. 
and  Rom.  Biog.  and  Mythol.  s.  v. 

MardochcB'us  (Mnp^oxaTor),  the  Sept.  or  Greek 
equivalent  of  Mordecai  (q.  v.),  in  the  Apocrypha; 
namely,  {a.')  the  uncle  of  Esther,  in  the  apocryphal  ad- 
ditions (Esth.  X,  1 ;  xi,  2,  12 ;  xii,  1-6  ;  xvi,  13  ;  2  Mace. 
XV,  3C).  The  14th  of  the  month  Adar.  on  which  the 
feast  of  Purim  was  celebrated,  is  called  in  the  last  pas- 
sage '•  jNfardochffius's  day"  (//  Mapcoxa'K))  ypfpa).  (b.) 
A  .Je\v  who  returned  with  Zerubbabel  and  Joshua  (1 
Esdr.  V,  8  ;  conip.  Ezra  ii,  2). 

Mardochai,  a  name  borne  by  many  rabbins  and 
Jewish  savans.  The  most  renowned  of  them  are  the 
following : 

1.  3lAi;i)OcirA"i  Asiikenast,  a  fanatical  adherent  of 
Saljbathai  Zewi,  tlourished  very  near  the  middle  of  the 
17th  century.  A  man  of  prepossessing  appearance,  and 
remarkably  talented  as  a  pulpit  orator,  he  travelled 
through  Ihnigary,  IVIoravia,  and  Bohemia,  everj-where 
preaching  the  Saljbathical  doctrines,  and  declaring  him- 
self a  ])ro))het.  insisted  u]ion  the  duty  of  his  people  to 
welcome  Sabbathai  Zewi  as  the  veritable  Jlcssiah.  The 
persecutions  which  were  so-frequent  at  that  time  in  Ger- 
many, France,  and  Spain  had  softened  the  hearts  of  the 
poor  Jews,  and  they  were  anxiously  looking  for  relief 
from  some  quarter.  Finding  that  liis  declarations  were 
favorably  received,  Mardochai  finally  announced  that  he 


himself  was  the  risen  Zewi,  who  had  been  dead  three 
years,  and  actually  found  many  adherents,  especially  in 
Italy  and  in  Polanil.  He  is  said  to  have  lost  liis  reason, 
and  to  have  died,  a  ijoor  and  forsaken  \vretch,  somewhere 
in  Poland,  about  1682.  See  Griitz,  Gesch.  d.  Juden,  x, 
334  sq. ;  and  Ixii,  in  Appendix. 

2.  MARDOCHAif  bex-Eleasar  Coming  (or  Coniiano) 
flourished  in  the  second  half  of  the  15th  century  (1460 
-1490),  first  at  Constantinople,  later  at  Adrianople.  A 
thorough  master  of  mathematics  and  astronomy,  he 
fell  in  with  the  writings  of  Aben-Ezra  (q.  v.),  and  be- 
came one  of  his  most  ardent  admirers  and  devoted  fol- 
lowers. He  commented  on  the  sacred  writings,  and  by 
his  generous  ways  secured  the  love  and  admiration  of 
both  Karaites  and  Rabbinites.  He  also  studied  the  Aris- 
totelian philosophy,  introduced  by  the  works  of  ]Moses 
Maimonides,  and  thus  as  a  philosopher  secured  no  mean 
reputation.  He  wrote  iTmn  ^TD,  a  Commentary  on 
the  Pentateuch  (1460) ;  a  Commentary  on  Aben-Ezra's 
Xt1?2  ^101 ;  a  Commentary  on  Ezra's  ClTtl  ""iSD ;  a 
Commentary  on  Ezra's  "inxn  1ED  ;  a  Commentary  on 
Maimonides's  Logik,  and  other  logical  writings,  etc. 

3.  Mardochai  bex-Hillel,  a  German  rabbi,  who, 
while  a  resident  of  Nuremberg,  was  accused  of  insulting 
the  Christian  faith  and  defending  the  cabalistic  writ- 
ers, and  was  visited  with  the  death  penalty  for  his  hasty 
conduct  in  1310.  He  wrote  Mardochai  Magnus,  a  com- 
mentary on  Alphesius's  Compendium  Talmudicum  (Kiva, 
1559,  4to;  Cracow,  1598,  folio,  and  often): — De  Ritibus 
mactaiionis  (Venice,  8 vo).  See  Auerbach,  i?e>t7  yl 6?-a- 
ham,  p.  15;  Wiirfel, //fs^  Nachricht  von  der  Judenge- 
meinde  in  IViirtiberg. 

4.  Mardochai  ben-Nissan,  a  Polish  rabbi,  flourished 
at  Crosni-osthro,  in  Galicia,  in  the  second  half  of  the 
17th  century.  He  wrote  121173  111,  or  "  the  friend 
of  Mardochai"  (Hamb.  1714  and  1721,  4to,  with  a  Latin 
transl.  by  Wolf,  in  JVotitia  Karaiorum),  a  work  which 
contains  a  complete  expose  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Ka- 
raites. IMardochai  was  himself  a  Karaite,  and  wrote 
this  work  by  special  request  of  the  learned  Trigland, 
who  afterwards  translated  this  valuable  contribution  to 
the  history  of  the  Karaite  Jews.  Mardochai  ben-Nis- 
san wrote  also  T^zb'Ci  11)133  (published  by  Neubauer), 
another  work  on  Karaism.  See  Wolf,  Bibl.  Hebr. ;  Fiirst, 
Jiibl.  Juduica  ;  Griitz,  Gesch.  d.  Juden,  x,  301,  and  note  5 
in  the  Appendix. 

6.  Mardochai,  Isaac  Nathan,  an  Italian  rabbi,  flour- 
ished at  Home  near  the  middle  of  the  11th  century.  He 
was  the  author  of  Concoi-dantiee  Hebraicce  (Basle,  1581, 
fol. ;  Cracow,  1584,  4to,  with  a  German  transl.;  Kome, 
1622,  fob,  with  additions  by  IVIario  de  Calasio;  Lunilon, 
1747-49, 4  vols,  fol.) ;  a  Latin  translation  was  iniblished 
at  Basle  in  1556. 

6.  Mardochai,  Japiie  Schi-esinger,  a  noted  rabbi 
and  learned  cabalist,  flourished  at  Prague,  in  Bohemia, 
near  the  opening  of  tlie  17th  century.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  the  celebrated  Isserles  (q.  v.),  when  the  latter  lived  at 
Cracov.'.  He  was  a  native  of  I'rague,  and  was  born,  ac- 
cording to  Gratz  (Gesch.  d../uden,  ix,  485~),  about  1530, 
and  lived  in  the  capital  of  Bohemia  until  the  persecu- 
tions against  the  Jews  made  his  stay  impossible;  he 
went  first  to  Venice,  and  later  returned  to  Poland,  where 
he  was  successively  rabbi  at  Grodno,  Lukin,  Krzemnitz 
(1575-1592),  and,  in  a  good  old  age,  found  a  refuge  in 
his  native  place.  He  died  at  Prague  about  1612,  as 
rabbi  of  his  people.  He  wrote  mp''  U,"125,  a  caba- 
listic treatise,  divided  into  six  books,  which  is  believed 
to  have  been  comjileted  about  1560.  It  has  been  fre- 
qiientlv  published  at  Cracow  (1594-1599,  4  vols,  fol.), 
Prague  (1609, 1623, 1688, 1701),  and  Venice  (1622,  fol.). 

7.  Mardochai  ibn-Alcharbija.  See  Saad  Ad- 
danla.     (J.H.W.) 

Marechal,  Anibroise,  D.D.,  a  Poman  Catholic 
prelate,  was  bom  at  Ingre,  near  Orleans,  France,  in  1769, 
and  was  educated  at  the  seminary  of  St.  Sulpice.     He 


MARECIIAL 


(41 


MARESIUS 


came  to  Baltimore  in  1792  ;  returning  to  France,  he  was 
from  1803  to  1811  professor  in  the  seminaries  of  St.Fleur, 
Aix,  and  Lyons;  afterwards  became  coadjutor  to  the 
archbishop  of  Baltimore,  whom  he  succeeded  on  his  de- 
cease, Dec.  14, 1817.  He  visited  Kome  in  1821-2,  to  pro- 
cure aid  for  his  Church  in  Baltimore.  He  died  Jan.  29, 
1828. — Drake,  Diet,  of  A  mer.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Marechal,  Bernard,  a  noted  French  writer,  w-as 
born  at  IJethel  in  1705,  and,  after  completing  his  studies 
under  the  guidance  of  the  congregation  of  the  Benedic- 
tines of  St.  Maur,  took  the  vows  in  1721 ;  in  1755  he  be- 
came prior  of  Beaulieu,  in  Aragon.  After  this  we  know 
of  him  only  as  a  writer.  He  died  at  Metz  July  19, 1770. 
He  wrote  CoiKordance  ties  Saints  Peres  de  VEfjlise,  Grecs, 
et  Latins,  oil  Von  se  jwopose  de  montrer  leias  sentiments 
sur  le  dogme,  la  morale,  et  la  discipline,  etc.  (Paris,  1739, 
2  vols.  fol. ;  in  Latin,  Strasb.  1769,2  vols,  fol.)  ;  the  work 
comprehends  the  fathers  of  the  Church  of  the  first  three 
centuries. —  Iloefer,  Noiiv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxxiii,  522; 
Francois,  Biblioth.  de  Vordre  de  Saint-Benoit,  ir,  367. 

Marechal,  Pierre  Sylvain,  a  noted  French 
atlioist,  was  born  at  Paris,  /lug.  15, 1750,  and  was  destined 
liy  liis  father  to  the  mercantile  profession.  Preferring 
a  literary  life,  his  father  educated  him  for  the  profession 
of  law.  Pierre,  however,  was  determined  to  get  a  live- 
lihood from  his  friends,  and  eschewed  all  personal  care. 
When  inclined  to  work,  he  would  write  something  for 
the  daily  press,  and,  endowed  with  great  facility  of  the 
]ien  and  a  vivid  imagination,  he  soon  gained  great  no- 
toriety for  his  excellences  as  a  writer.  Had  he  re- 
mained within  his  legitimate  channels,  his  name  would 
have  had  no  interest  for  us ;  but  Pierre,  believing  that 
popularity  must  be  gained  at  the  expense  even  of  man- 
hood anil  morality,  courted  the  tendency  of  his  age,  and 
became  a  scoffer  of  religion  and  decency.  In  imitation 
of  Lucretius,  he  published  the  fragments  of  a  moral  (!) 
poem,  which  denies  tlie  existence  of  a  God.  Not  suf- 
ficing to  provoke  public  attention  to  him,  he  next  at- 
tacked the  Bible,  parodied  the  prophetical  writers,  and 
applied  liimself  to  all  manner  of  work  to  further  the  in- 
terests of  atheism.  Sad,  indeed,  was  the  life  of  such  a 
being  as  Pierre  Sylvain  I\Iarechal,  and  as  his  Ufe  so  was 
his  death.  When  the  hour  of  his  departure  had  arrived, 
Jan.  18,  1803  (at  Montrouge,  near  Paris),  he  was  heard 
to  exclaim,  "  Mes  amis,  la  nuit  est  venue  pour  moi." 
His  works  are  noticed  in  detail  in  Hoefer's  Noiiv.Biog. 
Generale,  xxxii,  522  sq.  See  also  Lalande,  Notice  sur 
S.  Marechal  (1803).     (J.  H.  W.) 

Mar'eshah  (Hebrew  Mareshah',  ild"!^,  fully 
rrJX^^,  Josh.  XV,  44;  1  Chron.  ii,  42;  iv^  21;  Sept. 
Mapirta  and  Map/jaa,  but  in  1  Chron.  ii,  42,  MapiacaS), 
the  name  of  one  or  two  men,  and  also  of  a  place,  possi- 
bly settled  by  one  of  them. 

1.  A  person  named  as  the  "  father"  of  Hebron  among 
the  descendants  of  Judah,  but  it  is  only  left  to  be  in- 
ferred that  he  was  the  brother  of  Caleb's  son  ISIesha, 
with  whom  the  Sept.  confounds  him  (1  Chron.  ii,  42). 
B.C.  prob.  ante  1612. 

2.  In  1  Chron.  iv,  21,  a  person  of  the  name  of  Mare- 
shah is  apparently  mentioned  as  the  son  of  Laadah,  of 
the  family  of  Shelah,  perhaps  as  being  the  founder  of 
the  city  of  the  same  name  (B.C.  cir.  1612);  possibly 
identical  with  the  foregoing. 

3.  A  town  in  the  tribe  of  Judah,  "in  the  valley," 
enumerated  with  Keilah  and  Achzib  (Josh,  xv,  44),  re- 
built (comp.  2  Chron.  iv,  21)  and  fortified  by  Kehoboam 
(2  Chron,  xi,  8).  The  Ethiopians  under  Zerah  were 
defeated  by  Asa  in  the  valley  of  Zephathah,  near  jMare- 
shah  (2  Chron.  xiv,  9-13).  It  was  the  native  place  of 
Eliezer  bcn-Dodavah,  a  prophet  who  predicted  the  de- 
struction of  the  ships  which  king  Jehoshaphat  had  built 
in  conjunction  with  Ahaziah  of  Israel  (2  Chron.  xx,  37). 
It  is  included  by  the  prophet  Micah  among  the  towns 
of  the  low  country  which  he  attempts  to  rouse  to  a  sense 
of  the  dangers  their  misconduct  is  bringing  upon  them 
(Mic.  i,  15).    Like  the  rest,  the  apostrophe  to  Mareshah 


is  a  play  on  the  name :  "  I  will  bring  your  heir  (yoresh) 
to  you,  O  city  of  inheritance"  (Mareshah).  The  fol- 
lowing verse  (16)  shows  that  the  inhabitants  had  adopt- 
ed the  heathen  and  forbidden  custom  of  cutting  off  the 
back  hair  as  a  sign  of  mourning.  In  the  time  of  the 
Maccabieans  it  was  occupied  by  the  Iduma;ans  (2  Mace, 
xii,  35),  but  it  was  laid  desolate  by  Judas  on  his  march 
from  Hebron  to  Ashdod  (1  Mace,  v,  65-68 ;  Josephus, 
Ant.  xii,  8,  6).  Only  a  few  years  later  it  is  again  reck- 
oned to  Iilumwa ;  and  Hyrcanus  I  took  it  and  compelled 
its  inhabitants  to  practice  circumcision  (Josephus,  .1  nt. 
xiii,  9, 1).  Josephus  mentions  it  among  the  towns  pos- 
sessed by  Alexander  Jannaus,  which  had  been  in  the 
hands  of  the  Syrians  {Ant.  xiii.  15,  4);  but  bj'  Pompey 
it  was  restored  to  the  former  inhabitants,  and  attached 
to  the  province  of  Syria  (ib.  xiv,  1,  4).  Maresa  was 
among  the  towns  rebuilt  by  Gabinius  (ib.  xiv,  5,  3), 
but  was  again  destroyed  by  the  Parthians  in  their  ir- 
ruption against  Herod  {ib.  xiv,  13,  9).  A  place  so  often 
mentioned  in  history  must  have  been  of  considerable 
importance;  but  it  does  not  appear  that  it  was  ever 
again  rebuilt  (see  lleland,  Pakest.  p.  888).  The  site, 
liowever,  is  set  down  by  liusebius  and  Jerome  (Onomast. 
s.  V.  Morasthi)  as  within  two  miles  of  Eleutheropolis, 
but  the  direction  is  not  stated.  Dr.  Robinson  {Bibl.  Re- 
searches, ii,  422)  found,  at  a  mile  and  a  half  so«?/i  of  the 
site  of  J^leutheropolis,  a  remarkable  tel,  or  artificial  hill, 
with  foundations  of  some  buildings.  As  there  are  no 
other  ruins  in  the  vicinitj^,  and  as  the  site  is  admirably 
suited  for  a  fortress,  this,  he  supposes,  may  have  been 
Mareshah.  According  to  Schwarz  (Palest,  p.  104)  these 
ruins  are  still  known  by  the  Arabs  by  the  name  Mara- 
sa,  probably  the  Mai'ash  described  by  Tobler  (Dritte 
Wand.  p.  129,  142)  as  lying  on  a  gently  swelling  hill 
leading  down  from  the  mountains  to  the  great  western 
plain,  from  which  it  is  but  half  an  hour  distant  (Van  de 
Velde,  Memoir,  p.  333). 

Maresius  or  Marets,  Jean  de,  a  most  remark- 
able character  in  French  history,  fiourished  in  the  17th 
century.  In  his  youth  he  was  an  infidel.  He  has  him- 
self left  us  a  picture  of  his  morals  in  early  life,  wliich  is 
by  no  means  an  advantageous  one ;  for  he  owns  that,  in 
order  to  triumph  over  the  virtue  of  such  women  as  ob- 
jected to  him  the  interest  of  their  salvation,  he  made 
no  scruple  to  lead  them  into  atheistical  principles.  '•  I 
ought,"  says  he,  "  to  weep  tears  of  blood,  considering 
the  bad  use  I  have  made  of  my  address  among  the  la- 
dies; for  I  have  used  nothing  but  specious  falsehoods, 
malicious  subtleties,  and  infamous  treacheries,  endeav- 
oring to  ruin  the  souls  of  those  I  pretended  to  love.  I 
studied  artful  speeches  to  shake,  blind,  and  seduce  them ; 
and  strove  to  persuade  them  that  vice  was  virtue,  or,  at 
least,  a  thing  natural  and  indifferent."  But  after  his 
conversion  Marets  ran  into  as  great  extremes  in  the 
opposite  direction.  In  short,  he  became  at  last  a  vision- 
ary and  a  religious  fanatic,  dealing  in  nothing  but  in- 
ward lights  and  revelations.  Among  other  things,  he 
promised  the  king  of  France,  upon  the  strength  of  some 
prophecies,  whose  meaning,  he  tells  us,  was  imparted  to 
him  from  above,  that  he  should  overthrow  Moham- 
medanism and  become  the  promoter  of  Christian  unity, 
under  the  leadership  of  the  pope  of  Home.  But  Ma- 
resius deserves  our  attention  especially  for  the  relation 
he  sustained  to  the  .Jansenists.  Appointed  inquisitor, 
he  became  one  of  the  severest  persecutors  of  Jansenism, 
and  was  bent  upon  the  extirpation  of  this  heresy  from 
French  ground.  In  Delices  de  I'esprit,  one  of  his  pro- 
ductions, he  seriously  boasts  that  "  God,  in  his  infinite 
goodness,  had  sent  him  the  key  of  the  treasures  con- 
tained in  the  Apocalypse,  Avhich  was  known  but  to  few 
before  him ;"  and  that,  "  by  the  command  of  (iod.  he 
was  to  levy  an  army  of  144,000  men,  part  of  which  he 
had  already  enlisted,  to  make  war  upon  the  impious  and 
the  Jansenists"  (p.  76).  He  died  in  1676.  See  Gen. 
Biog.  Diet.  vol.  ix,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale, 
vol.  xxxiii,  s.  V. 

Maresius  (Des  Marets),  Samuel,  a  noted  French 


MARETS 


742 


MARGARET 


Eeformed  theologian,  was  born  at  Oisemond,  Picanly,  in 
159i);  was  educated  at  Geneva  and  at  Paris;  studied 
theology  at  Saumur  and  Geneva,  entered  the  ministry 
in  1G20,  and  was  settled  at  Laon  by  the  Synod  of  Cha- 
renton.  His  experience  in  this  place  was  rather  of  a 
peculiar  nature.  He  was  stabbed  one  night,  and  this 
attack  on  his  life  is  charged  to  the  Jesuits,  because  he 
had  violently  opposed  them,  and  had,  in  a  pamphlet  de- 
fending the  Protestant  faith,  severely  criticised  their 
conduct.  In  1624  he  accepted  a  call  to  Sedan,  both  as 
pastor  and  theological  instructor  in  the  school  of  theol- 
ogy situated  in  this  place,  lately  so  celebrated  in  history. 
Before  he  entered  upon  this  new  position  he  went  to 
Leyden,  and  there  secured  the  degree  of  D.D.  in  July, 
16'2&.  Having  made  a  small  tour  into  England,  he  re- 
turned to  Sedan.  In  1632  he  was  called  as  pastor  to 
Maestricht;  in  1636  he  removed  to  Herzogenbusch  as 
minister  and  professor  at  the  Schola  illuslris;  in  1640 
he  had  an  invitation  to  a  professorship  at  Franeker,  and 
to  another  at  Groningen  in  1642.  This  last  he  accept- 
ed, and  from  that  time  to  his  death  did  such  great  ser- 
vices to  that  university  that  it  was  reckoned  one  of  the 
most  flourishing  in  the  Netherlands.  The  magistrates 
of  Beam,  well  informed  of  his  abilities  and  learning,  of- 
fered him,  in  1671,  the  professor  of  divinity's  chair  at 
Lausanne;  and  in  1673  the  University  of  Leyden  in- 
vited him  to  a  like  professorship  there.  He  accepted 
this  last,  but  died  before  he  had  taken  possession  of  it 
(May  18, 1673).  ]\laresius's  literary  activity  was  very 
great,  and  his  ability  as  a  writer  equal  to  that  of  any 
man  of  his  day.  He  was  an  able  polemic,  and  wrote 
much  against  the  Roman  Catholics,  the  Socinians,  the 
IMillenarians,  and  the  Arrainians,  and  even  against  many 
of  his  own  confession.  Indeed,  JMaresius  was  quite  a  lit- 
erarj'  pugilist.  His  contest  with  Voetius,  the  Utrecht 
professor,  is  famous.  See  Voetius.  His  ablest  work  is 
his  Systema  theoloyim  (Gron.  1673),  in  the  appendix  of 
which  is  found  a  list  of  all  the  productions  from  his  pen. 
Their  number  is  prodigious,  and  the  variety  of  their 
subjects  shows  an  unbounded  genius.  He  designed  to 
collect  all  his  works  into  a  body,  as  well  those  which 
had  been  already  published  as  tliose  which  were  in  ISIS. 
He  revised  and  augmented  them  for  that  purpose,  and 
had  materials  for  four  volumes  in  folio,  but  his  death 
prevented  the  execution  of  that  project.  The  first  vol- 
ume was  to  have  contained  all  those  works  which  he 
had  published  before  settling  at  (ironingen.  The  second 
his  Opera  theolorjica  (lidadira.  The  third  his  Opera  tke- 
olof/ica  pulemica.  The  title  of  the  fourth  was  to  have 
been  Impietas  triumphala.  Its  contents  were  to  have 
been  the  "Hydra  Socinianismi  expugnata."  one  of  the 
ablest  works  against  the  Socinians,  the  "  Biga  fanatico- 
rum  eversa,"  and  the  "•Fabula  prroadamitarum  refutata," 
three  works  which  had  been  jtrinted  at  different  times. 
Marets's  system  of  divinity  was  found  to  be  so  method- 
ical that  it  was  made  use  of  at  other  academies ;  indeed, 
his  reputation  procured  him  so  much  authority  in  for- 
eign countries  as  well  as  his  own  that  a  jjcrson  in  Ger- 
many who  had  published  some  severe  censures  against 
Slarets  received  orders  to  suppress  his  book.  See  Gen. 
Biori.  Diet.  vol.  ix,  s.  v. ;  Bayle,  Diet.  Hist.  s.  v.  Marets; 
Kfjinies  et  Vitce  professorum  Oroninr/. ;  Herzog,  Real-En- 
c)jkhipddie.  vol.  ix,  s.  v.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Maiets.     See  Maresius. 

Marezoll,  JoiiAXX  (ioTTi.on,  a  German  theologian, 
was  b(ini  at  I'lauen,  grand-duchy  of  Saxe-Weim.-Eis., 
Dec.  2.%  1761;  studied  theology  at  the  University  of 
Leipsic  from  1779  to  1783;  became  then  tutor  for  three 
years  in  a  private  family;  in  17Ki(  Ix'came  preacher  of 
the  University  of  (liittingen,  with  the  dignity  of  profess- 
or extraordinary  of  divinity,  and  lectured  with  success 
on  moral  philosophy  and^liomiletics ;  in  1794  was  hon- 
ored by  the  University  of  llelmstadt  with  the  doctorate 
of  divinity,  and  in  the  same  year  also  acce]ited  a  call  to 
Copenhagen  as  pastor  primarius  of  the  (ierman  St.  Pe- 
ter's Church,  where  he  was  allowed  much  time  for  study ; 


but  the  northern  climate  injuring  his  health,  he  ob- 
tained in  1802,  by  Herder's  influence,  a  position  at  Jena 
as  superintendent  and  pastor  of  the  town  church,  and 
at  the  same  time  commenced  lectures  on  homiletics  at 
the  university  of  that  place.  He  died  Jan.  15,  1828, 
Marezoll  was  a  child  of  the  rationalistic  times  in  which 
he  flourished ;  but  still,  with  a  strong  desire  to  preach 
and  spread  abroad  the  teachings  of  the  Gospel,  and  gift- 
ed with  a  spirited  language  and  animating  mode  of  de- 
liver)', he  became  a  blessing  to  many  thousands  of  hear- 
ers, and  an  example  and  a  subject  of  imitation  to  thou- 
sands of  students.  His  productions  were  repeatedly  re- 
printed, and  translated  into  several  languages,  and  ef- 
fected much  good.  He  is  justly  styled  one  of  Germany's 
greatest  preachers  of  the  19th  centurj-.  He  wrote  Das 
Christenthum  okne  Gesch.  it.  Kinkltidung  (1787)  : — Be- 
stimnnmfj  des  Kanzelredners  (1793),  besides  his  sermons, 
published  in  1790-1,  1806,  1811,  1829,  etc. -.—Predif/tcn 
zur  Erinnervng  an  die  J'ortdauernde  WirLsamkeit  der  lie- 
formation  (Jena,  1822): — Ilomilien  (1828) : — Kachejelas- 
sene  Preditjten  (1852,  and  since).  See  Herzog, 7?«/Z-Aw- 
qjklopddie,  vol.  xx,  s.  v. ;  Dtiring,  Kanzelredner  d.  18'™ 
u.  19'*"  Juhrh.  s.  v. 

Margaret,  St.,  the  name  of  several  Roman  Catho- 
lic saints.  I.  The  latest  of  these  was  canonized  through 
the  influence  of  the  Dominicans,  who  manifested  a  spe- 
cial interest  in  her,  both  before  and  after  her  death ;  she 
is  patronized,  however,  simply  in  the  neighborhood  of 
her  native  village,  San  Severin,  in  the  duchy  of  Ancona. 
From  the  former  name  of  that  place,  she  was  called 
Septempeda ;  the  practice  of  such  virtues  as  are  com- 
mon among  saints,  and  which  she  cultivated  during  her 
widowhood,  gave  her  the  surname  Vidua ;  and  since,  in 
her  humility,  she  would  never  wear  shoes,  she  received 
the  appellation  Discalceata.  Tlie  only  inheritance  left 
to  her  daughter  comprised  a  pair  of  shoes  and  the  soles 
of  her  feet,  which  became  loosened  in  death  and  as- 
sumed the  form  of  shoes,  and  which  were  the  principal 
relics  exhibited  in  her  memory  by  the  Dominicans.  She 
died  in  1395. 

II.  The  merely  beatified  saints  [see  Beatification] 
of  this  name  belong,  without  exce])tion,  to  the  monastic 
orders  ;  and  in  their  legends  the  fancy  and  the  jealousy 
of  the  monks  are  equally  apparent.  The  more  cele- 
brated are : 

1.  A  beautiful  Italian  from  the  neighborhood  of  Peru- 
gia, who  had  up  to  her  twenty-fifth  year  led  a  grossly 
licentious  life,  but  afterwards,  having  been  awakened  by 
a  startling  incident,  distinguished  herself  by  turning  to 
a  life  of  the  severest  penance  in  the  convent  of  the 
Franciscans  at  Cortona  (hence  called  Margaret  de  Cor- 
ton(t).  Her  confessor,  however,  resisted  her  desire  to  re- 
visit the  scenes  of  her  former  shame,  accompanied  only 
by  an  old  woman.  She  is  usually  represented  with  the 
instruments  of  torture,  because  in  spirit  she  experienced 
the  entire  passion  of  the  Saviour,  who  refused  to  desig- 
nate her  his  handmaiden,  but  honored  her  as  his  friend. 
Her  conversations  with  Christ  and  the  Virgin  iMary 
served  to  endorse  the  more  lenient  treatment  of  the 
Spiritualists  (.1  ct.  SS.,  1.  c,  p.  648).  ^Vhen  she  died,  in 
1297,  the  Franciscans  claimed  that  they  saw  her  soul 
ascend  from  purgatory  to  heaven.  In  1623  Urban  VlII 
permitted  them  to  pay  her  religious  honors. 

2.  As  an  offset  to  Margaret  de  Cortona,  the  Domini- 
cans raised  up  one  of  their  tcrtiaries,  a  lilind  girl  of  L^r- 
bino,  in  whose  heart  were  found,  after  death,  three  won- 
drous stones,  bearing  the  image  of  the  Virgin  Mary 
with  the  child  in  the  manger  {Act.  A'i5'.,  April  13;  beat- 
ified Oct.  19, 1609). 

Other  Margarets,  including  a  royal  princess  of  Hun- 
gary, who  died  a  Dominican,  Jan.  28,  1271,  are  obscure. 
Tluy  are  found  in  the  A  ct.  SS.  under  Jan.  23  ;  Feb.  11 ; 
Marlh  5,7,  13,  and  22;  April  12  and  30;  :May  1.5, 18,  and 
2;5 ;  and  June  4,  10,  and  13. — Herzog,  Real-Enci/khip.  ix, 
54 ;  Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lex.  vi,  835.     (,G.  M.) 

Margaret  of  France,  duchess  of  Bern,-  and  Savoy, 


MARGARET 


743 


MARHEINEKE 


daughter  of  Francis  I,  was  bom  ia  1523,  and  received  a 
superior  education.  She  was  a  patroness  of  the  sciences 
and  learned  men  ;  and  after  the  death  of  her  father 
gained  a  high  reputation  by  her  beauty,  piety,  learning, 
and  amiable  qualities.  She  married  Phillbert,  duke  of 
Savoy,  in  1559,  and  dietl  in  1574,  aged  fifty-one.  Tlie 
most  illustrious  of  the  literati  contended  who  should 
praise  her  best,  and  her  subjects  called  her  the  Mother 
of  her  People. 

Margaret  (or  Marjrjuerite)  of  Orleans,  duchess 
of  Alen(;c)n  and  afterwards  queen  of  Navarre,  occupies 
an  important  place  in  the  history  of  French  Protestant- 
ism. She  was  born  at  Angouleme  April  11, 1492,  and 
was  brought  up  at  the  court  of  Louis  XII.  Her  brother, 
afterwards  Francis  I,  after  he  had  ascended  the  throne, 
employed  her  in  numerous  important  affairs,  and  she 
went  to  Madrid  to  attend  to  him  when  he  was  a  prison- 
er there.  In  1509  she  was  married  to  duke  Charles  of 
Alencon,  but  he  dying  in  1525,  she  in  1527  again  mar- 
ried, tills  time  Henry  d'Albret,  king  of  Navarre,  and 
from  this  marriage  was  born  Jeanne  d'Albret,  mother  of 
Henry  IV.  Henry  d'Albret  died  in  151-t,  and  Margaret 
continued  to  govern  the  kingdom  with  great  wisdom. 
She  died  Dec.  21, 1519.  She  was  very  handsome  and 
liighly  talented,  and  her  court  was  the  refuge  of  all  per- 
secuted for  the  sake  of  their  religious  belief;  yet  verj^ 
different  opinions  liave  been  advanced  concerning  her 
personal  views.  Some  consider  her  a  fervent  Protes- 
tant, whilst  others  look  upon  her  as  a  very  orthodox 
Koman  Catholic,  and  stiU  others  as  a  free-thinker.  The 
fact  seems  to  be  that  she  observed  Roman  Catholic 
practices,  although  firmly  believing  in  the  doctrine  of 
justification  by  faith  in  Christ  only;  she  protected  the 
Protestants,  without  herself  leaving  the  Roman  Church; 
she  loved  poetry  and  even  pleasure,  although  strictly 
moral  and  truly  pious.  All  these  apparent  contradic- 
tious find  a  natural  explanation  in  her  inclination  to- 
M-ards  mysticism,  verging  even  on  quietism,  and  result- 
ing in  indifference  towards  the  mere  externals  of  relig- 
ion— a  tendency  common  also  to  a  number  of  the  most 
distinguished  theologians  of  that  time,  and  one  that 
helps  us  to  understand  many  otherwise  obscure  points 
in  the  early  history  of  the  Reformation  in  France.  Her 
private  character  was  the  object  of  many  attacks,  yet 
none  of  these  accusations  have  been  substantiated  ;  they 
were  all  made  by  her  enemies.  jMargaret  of  Orleans 
wrote  Miroir  de  Vdine pecheresse  (1533),  which  was  con- 
demned by  the  Sorbonne,  as  it  made  no  mention  either 
of  the  saints  or  of  purgatory  : — U Heptameron  des  nou- 
vdles,  a  collection  of  tales  after  the  manner  of  Boccaccio, 
but  intended  as  moral  lessons;  they  have  since  been 
used  as  illustrating  the  supposed  immorality  of  her  life. 
The  work  was  first  published  under  the  title  Ilistoires 
des  amants  fortunes  (Paris,  1558  ;  afterwards  by  Gruget, 
Paris,  1559,'  2  vols. ;  Amsterd.  1G98  ;  Berne,  1780,  3  vols. ; 
Leroux  de  Lericy,  Paris,  1853,  3  vols.;  Lacroix,  Paris, 
1857  ;  in  English  dress  it  is  published  in  Bohn's  collec- 
tion, extra  volumes)  : — fragments  published  after  her 
death  by  Jean  de  la  Ilaye,  under  the  title  Marguerites 
de  la  marguerite  des  Princesses  (Lyon,  1547  ;  Par.  1554). 
ile.r  Correspondance  was  published  by  Genin  (Par,  1842) ; 
also  Nouvelles  lettres  de  la  Reine  de  Navarre  (Par.  1842). 
The  Hist,  de  M.  de  Valois,  etc.,  published  at  Amsterdam 
(1G9G,  2  vols.),  is  a  mere  novel.  In  the  library  of  Rouen 
there  is  to  be  found  a  MS.  of  the  17th  centurv,  entitled 
Intrigues  secretes  de  la  reyne  Marguerite  pour  etablir 
les  erreurs  et  les  nouveautes  de  Call-in  et  de  Luther  dans 
son  rotjaume  de  Beam  et  de  Navarre,  See  Bayle,  Diet. 
Jlht.  s.  V. ;  Polenz,  Gesch.  des  franzosischen  Calvinismus, 
i,  199  sq. ;  Haag,  La  France  Protestante,  vii,  228  sq. ; 
Victor  Durand,  Marguerite  de  Valois  et  la  Cour  de  Fran- 
cis I  (1848,  2  vols,  8vo) ;  Miss  Freer,  Life  of  Margue- 
rite, Queen  of  Navarre  (1855);  ]ieTzoa:,'Pea'l-Encgklop. 
ix,  55  sq. ;  Pierer,  Utiiversal-Lexikon,  x,  867 ;  Foreign 
Qaur.  Rtr.  (October,  1842). 

Margaret  of  Scotland,  daughter  of  king  Edward 


III,  fled  to  Scotland  with  her  brother,  Edgar  Edelings, 
when  William  the  Conqueror  invaded  England,  and  in 
1070  there  married  king  Malcolm,  who  afterwards  died 
fighting  against  William  II  of  England,  she  following 
him  only  four  days  later  to  the  grave  (Nov.  IG,  1093). 
She  was  canonized  by  Innocent  IV  in  1251,  and  in  1G73 
Clement  X  made  her  the  patron  saint  of  Scotland.  Ac- 
cording to  the  statement  of  her  confessor  Theodoric, 
Margaret  of  Scotland  was  very  active,  generous,  and 
even  lavish  in  helping  the  poor.  She  had  regularly  300 
persons  dependent  on  her  charity,  and  did  much  towards 
softening  the  native  rudeness  of  the  Scottish  nobility. 
She  founded  a  number  of  churches,  working  herself  in 
adorning  them,  and  gained  her  place  in  the  iNIartyrolo- 
gium  Romanum  by  her  efforts  to  unite  the  Church  of 
Scotland  with  that  of  Rome,  and  to  civilize  the  country. 
She  had  worked  no  miracles,  but  her  children  were  ac- 
counted such ;  among  them  was  David  I,  '•  sjilendor 
generis,"  who  Romanized  Scotland.  In  after  times  her 
cathedral  was  destroyed  by  the  Puritans,  and  her  relics 
were  scattered  ;  such  portions  as  were  subsequently  col- 
lected were  transferred  by  Philip  II  to  the  Escurial. 
The  "  toast  of  INIargaret"  is  named  after  her ;  pope  Eu- 
genius  IV  in  1430  attached  to  it  an  indulgence  of  forty 
daj'S,  but  with  the  express  condition  that  this  toast 
should  be  the  last.  IMargaret  is  commemorated  Jime 
16'  by  the  Church  of  Rome. — Herzog,  Keal-Encyldop. 
ix,  54.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Margarit  (or  ]\[arguerit),  Juan  de,  a  Spanish  car- 
dinal, ^vas  born  at  Girona  about  1415.  He  belonged  to 
an  ancient  and  illustrious  house  of  Catalonia ;  one  of 
his  ancestors,  Beranger,  distinguished  himself  at  the 
siege  of  Tyre.  Margarit  Ijecame  doctor  of  theology  at 
Girona ;  in  1453  he  was  elevated  to  the  episcopal  see  of 
Elna.  The  king  of  Aragon,  Alfred  V,  employed  him  in 
several  important  diplomatic  missions  to  Naples,  and  he 
was  so  successful  that  he  was  made  ambassador  to  pope 
Pius  II.  In  1461  Margarit  became  chancellor  at  Giro- 
na, and  in  this  office  mediated  peace  between  Sixtus  IV 
and  the  king  of  Naples,  Ferdinand  I.  For  his  services 
to  the  holy  see  he  was  honored  with  the  cardinal's  hat 
towards  the  close  of  1443.  He  died  at  Rome  in  1444, 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxxiii,  543. 

Margarita  (ftapyapTnc,  margaritum),  the  pearl, 
was  the  name  given  in  the  Greek  Church  to  the  vessel 
in  which  the  consecrated  host  was  kept.  IMargaritae,  on 
the  other  hand,  designated  the  pieces  of  the  host  which 
the  priests  preserved  in  a  special  vessel  for  the  use  of 
the  sick.  These  pieces  were  dipped  in  consecrated  wine, 
and  given  to  the  sick  with  a  spoon.  See  Du  Fresne, 
Gloss.  Latin,  ii,  510. 

Magarites.     See  Pearl. 

Margil,  Jesus  de  (^Father  Antonio),  an  early  Fran- 
ciscan missionary  to  Texas,  was  born  at  Valencia  Aug. 
18, 1G57,  and  died  in  Mexico  Aug.  6, 1726.  He  was  the 
author  of  Kl  Peregrino  Septentrional  Atlante  (Valencia, 
1742).  He  is  styled  "Notario  Apostolico,"  "C<}nimis- 
sario  del  Santo  Oficio,"  "Fundador  y  ex  Guardian  de 
tres  Coligios,"  and  "Prefecto  de  las  Missiones  de  Propa- 
gande  Fide  en  todas  las  Indias  Occidentales."  See  Hist. 
Mag.  June,  1864,  s.  v. ;  Drake,  Diet.  A  mer.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Marguerite  of  Valois.  See  BIargaret  of  Or- 
leans. 

Margunius,  Maxijius,  an  Eastern  theologian,  was 
born  in  Crete  in  1522;  studied  divinity  at  Padua  and 
Venice;  became  a  monastic;  in  1589  bishop  of  Cythera 
(Cerigo) ;  and  died  at  Crete  in  1602.  He  published 
Mi]vo\i)yiov  and  Bi'ot  a-yitoi',  as  well  as  a  collection  of 
sacred  poems  in  Old  Greek  (Leyden,  1592).  and"l'/(voi 
'Aj'«)C(0£(Ji'r(oi.  —  Regenshurger  Real- Encgklopadie,  vol. 
ix,  s.  V. 

Marheineke,  Philip  Konrad,  an  eminent  Ger- 
man theologian  and  writer,  was  born  at  Ilildcslieim  May 
1, 1780.  He  studied  theology  at  Gottingcn,  where  he 
was  made  a  professor  in  1805.     He  afterwards  became 


MARIA  ANGELICA 


lU 


MARIANA 


successively  professor  in  the  University  of  Heidelberg  j 
in  1807,  and  professor  in  the  university,  and,  in  1810, 
minister  of  the  Trinity  Church  of  Berlin,  as  colleague 
of  the  renowned  Schleiermaeher.  He  died  in  the  capi- 
tal of  Prussia,  May  31,  184C.  IMarheineke's  studies 
were  especially  directed  towards  Christian  symbolics 
and  dogmatics,  which  he  treated  from  the  speculative 
stand-point  of  Daub  and  Hegel.  He  was,  indeed,  the 
head  of  that  fraction  of  the  Hegelian  school  which  as- 
serted the  coincidence  of  the  Hegelian  philosophy  with 
Christianity,  He  was  equally  distant  from  the  strict 
orthodox  views  held  by  the  Lutheran,  as  from  Rational- 
ism, or  from  the  old  supernaturalism.  He  wrote  Gesch. 
d.  christlichen  Moral  seit  d.  A n/unge  d.  Reformation  (Nu- 
remb.  1805)  :  —  Unirersalhistorie  d.  Christenthums  (Er- 
langen,  1806)  ■.—Christlkhc  .Si/mho/ik  (Heidelb.  1810-13, 
3  vols.):— Grundrisg  d.  Ilomi'ktik  (Ilamb.  1811 ;  2d  edit. 
1827)  ■.—Institutiones  symbolical  (1812 ;  3d  edit.  1830)  :— 
Aphorismen  z.  Erneuerung  d.  Kirchlichen  Lehens  (1814): 
— Fredigten  (1814-18)  : — Geschichte  d.  deutschen  Refor- 
mation (Berl.  1816,2  vols.;  2d  edit.  1831-34,4  vols.):— 
Grundlthren  d.  christlichen  Dogmatik  (Berl.  1819;  other 
edit.  1827) : — Ottomar.  Gesprdche  ii.  Freiheit  d.  Willens  u. 
gottliche  Gnade  (Berl.  1821)  : — Lehrhuch  d.  christl.  Glau- 
hens  u.  Lehens  (Berl.  1823;  2d  edit.  1836) :— ^e^rac^^uw- 
gen  ii.  d.  Lehen  u.  d.  Lehre  d.  WelterlOsers  (Berl.  1823)  : — 
Ueber  d.  wahre  Stelle  d.  lititrgischen  Rechtes  (1825) : — 
Katechismus  d.  christlichen  Lehre  (1825 ;  2d  edit.  1840)  : 
— Entwurf  d. praktischen  Theologie  (Berl.  1837)  : — Fie- 
digten  z.  Vertheidigung  d.  evungelischen  Kirche  gegen  d. 
pdpstliche  (1839) : — Einleitiing  in  d.  offentl.  Vorlesungen 
ii.  d.  Bedeufung  d.  Ilegelschen  Philosophic  in  d.  christl. 
Theologie  (Berl.  1842) :  —  Das  gottesdienstliche  L^eben  d. 
Christen  (iNIagdeb.  1842) : — Ziir  Kritik  der  Schellingschen 
Offenba7-U7igsphilosophie  (Berl.  1843): — F)er  Erzhishop 
Clemens  A  ugust  als  Friedenstifter  zv:ischen  Staat  u. 
Kirche  (Berl.  1843)  : — Die  Reform  der  Kirche  dwch  den 
Staat  (1844): — Kiirze  Erzdhlung  d. Reformation  (1846). 
After  his  death  his  lectures  were  published  under  title 
Vorlesungen  iiher  die  christliche  Dogmatik  (1847) ;  iiber 
die  theologische  Moral  (1847)  ;  ilber  die  christliche  Sym- 
holik  (1848) ;  and  iiber  die  Dogmengeschichte  (1849).  See 
Saintes,  Hist,  of  German  Rationalism,  p.  284;  Kahnis, 
Mod.  German  Protestantism,  p.  244  sq. ;  Morell,  Hist,  of 
Mod.Philos.  ii,  199, 203 ;  Bretschneider,  Dogmatik,  i,  115 
sq. ;  Yurrar,  Crit.  Hist,  of  Free  Thought,  p.  2Gb;  and  the 
excellent  articles  in  Wagner,  Staais-Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Pie- 
rer,  Univeisal-Lexikon,  x,  871 ;  Herzog,  R€al-E7icyklopd- 
die,  ix,  62. 

Maria  Angelica  de  S.  Magdai.ena  is  the  name 
by  which  Jaqueline,  one  of  the  daughters  of  Anthony 
Arnauld  (q.v.),  was  known  after  she  became  tlie  prioress 
of  the  noted  convent  of  Port  Royal.  "  She  at  first  led 
a  very  dissolute  life,  such  as  was  common  at  that  time 
in  the  French  nunneries;  but  in  1609  the  fear  of  God 
came  upon  her,  and  she  entered  upon  a  very  different 
course  of  life ;  and  afterwards  becoming  intimate  first 
with  Francis  de  Sales,  and  then,  in  1623,  with  the  abbot 
of  St.  Cyran,  she  conformed  both  herself  and  her  con- 
vent to  their  views  and  prescriptions The  con- 
secrated virgins  inhabiting  it  followed  with  the  utmost 
strictness  the  ancient,  severe,  and  almost  everywhere 
abrogated  rule  of  the  Cistercians ;  nay,  they  imposed  on 
themsi  Ives  more  rigors  and  burdens  than  even  that  rule 
prescribed."  Dr.  Murdoch's  jNIosheim,  Ecchs.  Hist.  bk. 
iv,  cent,  xvii,  sec.  ii,  pt.  i,  ch.  i,  §  46.  See  Pout  Royal. 
The  relation  which  this  retreat  sustained  to  the  Jan- 
senists  has  been  detailed  in  the  article  Janskxits, 
Cornelius  (2). 

Maria  Theresa,  empress  of  Austria  and  (Germany, 
the  daughter  of  Charles  A'l,  was  born  at  Vienna  jNlay  13, 
1717,  and  succeeded  to  the  throne,  by  the  "  Pragmatic 
Sanction,"  Oct.  21,  1740.  Witli  her  se«dar  history  we 
liave  nothing  to  do  here,  but  as  to  her  influence  on  the 
interests  of  Romanism  and  Protestantism,  we  must  add 
here  a  few  particulars  to  the  article  on  Austria.     Al- 


though herself  a  zealous  Roman  Catholic,  she  maintain- 
ed the  rights  of  her  crown  against  the  court  of  Rome, 
and  endeavored  to  correct  some  of  the  worst  abuses  in 
the  Chiu-ch.  She  prohibited  the  presence  of  priests  at 
the  making  of  wills,  abolished  the  right  of  asylum  in 
chiu-ches  and  convents,  suppressed  the  Inquisition  in 
Milan,  and  in  1773  the  Order  of  Jesuits.  She  also  for- 
bade that  any  person,  male  or  female,  should  take  mo- 
nastic vows  before  the  age  of  twenty-five  years.  She 
did  nothing,  however,  to  ameliorate  the  treatment  of  the 
Protestants  in  her  dominions.  She  professed  personal 
sympathy  with  their  oppressed  condition,  but  pretended 
to  be  unable  to  do  anything  for  them  on  account  of  her 
coronation  oaths  and  the  laws  of  the  countrj-.  This 
was  especially  the  case  m  Hungary.  Maria  Theresa 
died  Nov.  29, 1780,  leaving  as  her  successor  to  the  throne 
Joseph  II,  who  is  noted  for  his  generous  efforts  in  be- 
half of  his  Protestant  subjects.  See  Duller,  M.  Theresia 
u.  Joseph  JL  (Wiesbaden,  1844) ;  Ramshom,  J/.  Theresia 
M.  ihre  Zeit  (Lpz.  1859  sq.);  \s^o\i,Oestereich  unter  Ma- 
ria Theresa  (1855)  ;  Coxe,  House  of  A  ustria,  iii,  189  sq., 
241  sq. ;  Vehse,  ^-l/emoiVs  of  the  Court  of  Austria,  u,lG4: 
sq.   Comp. Austria ;  Bohemia;  Hungary. 

Mariales,  Xantis,  an  Italian  theologian,  was  born 
at  Venice  at  the  close  of  the  16th  centurj-.  He  belonged 
to  a  patrician  family  of  the  Pinards.  He  was  appoint- 
ed lecturer  at  Padua,  and  afterwards  inspector  of  the 
schools.  These  offices  he  filled  till  1624,  when  he  re- 
tired in  order  to  give  his  whole  time  to  politics.  His 
zeal  for  Rome  and  his  hatred  towards  France  caused  his 
expulsion  from  his  native  country  twice.  He  retired 
to  Boulogne,  afterwards  obtained  his  recall  from  ban- 
ishment, and  died  in  April,  1660.  We  give  liim  place 
here  mainly  on  account  of  his  many  theological  produc- 
tions. The  most  important  are  Controversice  ad  univer- 
sam  summam  Theologies  St.  Thomce  A  quinatis  (Venice, 
1624,  fol.) : — Biblioth.  Lnterjn-etum  ad  unit.  summ.  theol. 
St.  ThomoB  (Ven.  1660,  4to) : — Stravaganze  nuovamente 
segnite  nel  Christianissimo  regno  di  Fru7icia  (Col.  1646 
4to)  : — Enormita  inaudita  nuovamente  iiscite  in  luce  nel 
Christianismo  regno  di  Francia,  contra  il  decora  della 
sede  apostolica  Romana  in  due  libri  intitolati;  Vuno:  Dell' 
arrogante  potesta  de  Papi  in  difesa  della  chiesa  Galli- 
cana;  Vcdtro  Del  Divitto  della  Reg cdia  (Frkf.  1649, 4to). 
— Hocfer,  Noia\  Jiiog.  Generale,  xxxiii,  615. 

Marianine  {^lapia^vi],  a  Greek  form  of  the  Heb. 
Miriam),  the  name  of  several  females  of  the  Herodian 
family,  whose  historj'  is  detailed  by  Josephus,  especially 
the  two  following  (see  Smith,  Z'lW.  of  Class.  Biog.  s.  v.): 

1.  The  daughter  of  Alexander,  son  of  Aristobulus,  and 
of  Alexandra,  daughter  of  Hyrcanus,  high-priest  of  the 
Jews,  was  the  most  beautifiU  princess  of  her  age.  She 
married  Herod  the  Great,  by  whom  she  had  two  sons, 
Alexander  and  Aristobulus,  and  two  daughters,  Salam- 
pso  and  Cypros:  also  a  son  called  Herod,  who  died  young, 
during  his  studies  at  Rome.  Herod  was  excessively 
fond  of  ^Marianine,  who  but  sliglitly  returned  bis  pas- 
sion, and  at  length  cherished  a  deadly  hatred  towards 
him.  Herod  had  her  put  to  death,  but  afterwards  his 
affection  for  her  became  stronger  than  ever.  Josephus 
mentions  a  tower  that  Herod  built  in  Jerusalem,  which 
he  named  Marianine.     See  Herod. 

2.  A  daughter  of  the  high-priest  Simon,  and  likewise 
wife  of  Herod  the  Great;  by  him  she  had  a  son  called 
Philip,  who  married  first  the  infamous  Herodias,  after- 
wards paramour  of  Herod  Antipas,  and  the  instigator  of 
the  death  t)f  -lolni  the  Baptist.    See  Herodian  Family. 

Mariana,  Ji;an,  a  distinguished  Spanish  Jesuit,  was 
bom  at  Talavera,  in  the  diocese  of  Toledo,  in  1537.  In 
1554  he  joined  the  Jesuits,  and  soon  acq\iired  great  rep- 
utation for  his  historical,  theological,  and  philological 
learning.  In  1561  he  taught  theology  at  Rome  (where 
the  celebrated  Bellarmine  was  one  of  his  pupils),  and  in 
1565  in  Sicily;  in  1509  he  went  to  Paris,  where  lie  re- 
mained five  years,  and  lectured  on  Thomas  Arpiinas. 
In  1574  he  returned  to  Spain  on  account  of  his  health. 


MARIANA 


lit 


MARIANA 


and  died  there  in  1C24.  Among  Jlariana's  works  we 
notice  J)e  rerje  et  reyis  {nstitutio)ie  (Toledo,  1598),  writ- 
ten at  tlie  request  of  Garcia  de  Loayso,  and  deilicated 
to  Pliilip  III.  In  this  work  he  expresses  his  views  on 
royaltv  with  the  greatest  freedom,  even  going  so  far  as 
to  maintain  that,  under  certain  circumstances,  it  may 
be  legitimate  to  put  a  king  to  death.  The  sixth  chap- 
ter of  the  tirst  book  is  entirely  taken  up  with  the  ques- 
tion whether  it  is  allowable  to  assassinate  a  tyrant,  and 
he  concludes  affirmatively.  Mariana  begins  by  an  ac- 
count of  the  murder  of  Henry  III,  and  quotes  the  divers 
opinions  expressed  by  others  on  this  event,  but  it  is  easy 
to  perceive  that  he  approves  of  the  deed.  From  this 
individual  fact  he  passes  to  the  general  theory,  which 
he  bases  on  the  principle  that  regal  power  is  intrusted 
to  a  king  by  his  peoi)le  under  certain  conditions,  and 
that  the  nation  therefore  retains  the  supreme  right  of 
making  kings  accountable  for  their  conduct,  and  revok- 
ing tliem  if  need  be.  From  this  principle,  that  sover- 
eignty resides  essentially  in  the  nation,  he  deduces  the 
following  consequences  :  1,  according  to  theologians  and 
philosophers,  every  citizen  has  a  right  to  kill  a' prince 
who  has  usurped  sovereign  authority  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  nation  ("  perimi  a  quoconque,  vita  et  princi- 
patu  spoliari  posse") ;  2,  if  a  prince  regularly  elected,  or 
who  has  regularly  come  on  the  throne  by  succession, 
seeks  to  overthrow  religion  or  the  laws,  and  refuses  to 
listen  to  the  remonstrances  of  the  nation,  he  is  to  be  got 
rid  of  by  the  surest  possible  means ;  3,  the  surest  waj' 
is  to  assemble  the  states-general,  who  will  depose  him, 
and,  should  he  resist,  proclaim  him  an  enemy  of  the 
country,  and  treat  him  accordingly ;  4,  the  states-gen- 
eral have  the  right  to  condemn  to  death  a  prince  de- 
clared the  enemy  of  the  country,  and  every  citizen  has 
then  a  right  to  kill  him ;  5,  if  it  is  impossible  to  assem- 
ble the  states-general,  and  yet  it  is  the  wish  of  the  na- 
tion that  the  tyrant  perish,  then  a  citizen  is  not  guilty 
who  accomplishes  this  general  wish  ("  (jui  votis  publicis 
favens  eum  perimere  tentavit  haudquaquam  inique  eum 
fecisse  existimabo").  jNIariana,  however,  puts  one  re- 
striction to  the  exercise  of  this  terrible  right :  he  de- 
clares that  the  judgment  of  one  or  several  citizens  is  not 
sufficient;  that  the  general  wish  of  the  nation  must 
have  been  clearly  expressed,  and  that  the  advice  of  se- 
rious and  well-informed  men  should  also  be  taken. 
After  thus  justifying  the  assassination  of  kings  under 
certain  circumstances,  Mariana  examines  the  means  by 
which  it  may  be  accomplished.  All  means,  he  thinks, 
are  allowable,  but  such  as  will  be  least  likely  to  commit 
the  nation  or  the  individual  are  to  be  preferred.  He 
shows  some  partiality  for  poison,  yet  maintains  that  it 
should  not  be  administered  in  the  food,  but  rather  placed 
in  tilings  of  daily  use,  such  as  the  clothes,  etc.  The  ap- 
pearance of  this  work  created  quite  a  sensation  in  France. 
The  Sorbonne  and  Parliament  informed  against  his  book; 
the  Jesuits'  congregation  of  the  province  of  France  con- 
demned Mariana,  and  the  condemnation  was  approved 
by  general  Aquaviva  (Mariana  had  formerly  opposed 
him  in  Spain)  until  the  book  should  be  revised.  See 
Jesuits.  After  the  nmrder  of  Henry  IV  the  Parlia- 
ment condemned  the  book  to  be  publicly  burned,  July 
8,  10 10,  and  his  treasonable  doctrines,  as  they  were 
called,  continued  during  the  whole  of  that  age  of  loyalty 
and  part  of  the  following  to  furnish  a  common  subject 
of  animadversion,  and  a  chief  ground  of  accusation 
against  the  Jesuits.  It  is,  however,  but  just  to  add  here 
that  like  doctrines  were  taught  also  by  Protestant  con- 
temporaries of  Mariana,  and  that  by  no  means  should 
the  Society  of  Jesus  be  held  accountable  for  the  propa- 
gation of  such  views  (Compare  Hallam,  Literary  His- 
torji,  iii,  130-140).  The  Jesuits  have,  indeed,  occasion- 
ally supported  the  claims  of  the  people  against  their 
riders,  but  always  with  a  view  to  the  interests  of  their 
own  body  only.  Mariana,  on  the  contrary,  discussed 
this  subject  on  better  and  higher  grounds!  Mankind 
occupied  his  thoughts,  and  liad  a  much  stronger  hold 
on  his  affections  than  the  interests  and  plans  of  his  order. 


When  Leon  de  Castro  questioned  the  orthodoxy  of 
Arias  JMontanus  for  introducuig  rabbinical  readings  and 
commentaries  into  the  Plantina  liet/ia  or  Ph'dippina 
Polyglot,  a  new  edition  of  the  Complutensis  which  JMon- 
tanus had  undertaken  at  the  command  of  Philip  II, 
Mariana  silenced  the  noisy  polemic  by  his  historical, 
ecclesiastical,  and  Biblical  lore,  as  well  as  by  the  fair 
and  candid  tone  of  his  discussion ;  but  by  this  step  he 
lost  all  chance  of  preferment,  which,  however,  he  was 
glad  to  exchange  for  learned  leisure  and  the  gratification 
of  his  love  of  historical  research.  IMariana  published 
next,  in  1599,  his  imperfect  work,  De  Ponderibus  et  Men- 
suris,  a  subject  which  his  countrymen  Lebrija,  or  Ne- 
brija,  Diego  Cov-arrubias,  Pedro  Ambrosio  IMorales,  and 
Arias  Montanus  had  treated  before,  and  which  iMsen- 
schmidt,  Freret,  Paucton,  etc.,  have  pursued  much  fur- 
ther since.  Observing  that  the  sudden  rise  and  ascend- 
ancy of  Spain  excited  a  general  interest  and  curiosity 
abroad,  while  its  origin  and  causes  were  either  unknown 
or  misunderstood,  antl  that  the  Spanish  historians,  though 
numerous,  were  at  that  time  little  read,  and  some  of 
them  hardly  known,  he  came  forward  with  a  History  of 
Spain  (in  twenty  books,  under  the  title  Uistorice  de  rebus 
IIispunia;,Toleti,  1598,  lib.  xx,  fob,  but  subsequently  ex- 
tended to  thirty  books,  in  the  complete  edition  of  1(305, 
publ.  at  Mayence).  This  is  a  compact  and  lucid  exhibi- 
tion of  an  unbroken  chronological  narrative,  from  the  ori- 
gin of  the  Spanish  nation  to  the  death  of  Ferdinand  the 
Catholic  (a  period  of  twenty-five  centuries  at  least),  and 
embraces  the  history  of  all  the  Spanish  kingdoms,  which 
had  hitherto  been  treated  separately.  A  subject  so  ex- 
tensive, expressed  in  classical  Latin,  met  with  universal 
favor  and  acceptance.  A  Spanish  translation  soon  be- 
came necessary,  and  fortunately  Mariana  accomplished 
the  task  himself,  and  carried  the  work  through  four  suc- 
cessive Spanish  editions  in  his  lifetime.  Mariana  has 
been  charged  with  credulity ;  but  traditions  held  sacred 
in  times  past,  although  rejected  in  the  jiresent  age — 
prodigies  which  formed  part  of  history,  and  which  Ma- 
riana  could  not  dismiss  with  the  disdainful  smile  of 
modern  criticism,  are  spots  which  will  never  obscure 
the  brilliancy  of  his  digressions  on  some  of  the  most  im- 
portant events  of  the  world — events  which  appear  as 
great  causes  when  so  admirably  interwoven  with  those 
peculiarly  belonging  to  the  history  of  Spain.  The  manly 
feelings  of  the  historian,  his  noble  indignation  against 
crimes,  his  bold  exposure  of  the  misdeeds  of  princes  and 
their  abettors,  deserve  still  higher  commendation.  Yet 
he,  as  well  as  Ferreras  and  Masden  more  recently,  has 
spared  a  gross  instance  of  queen  Urraca's  licentious  con- 
duct; but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  defence  of  queen 
Blanca's  honor  is  highly  creditable  to  Jlariana.  It  is 
true  also  that  Mariana  did  not  always  examine  all  the 
original  authorities,  as  Kanke  observes  in  the  Kritik 
neuerer  GescMchtsschreiber ;  but  to  institute  an  inipiiry 
into  every  minor  detail,  to  comprehend  a  wide  field  of 
inquiry,  and  yet  to  open  new  and  to  disdain  all  troiiden 
paths,  would  have  required  the  perusal  of  whole  libra- 
ries, and  a  single  life  would  not  have  been  suiticient  to 
complete  the  undertaking.  And  if  others  bail  been  in- 
vited to  join  in  the  labor  of  the  investigation,  a  motley 
compilation  might  have  been  the  only  result  of  so  much 
research,  which  it  is  almost  impossible  ever  to  combine 
into  one  harmonious  whole.  Mariana's  portraits  of  lords 
and  favorites  were  found  too  original  and  faithful  by  the 
living,  as  in  the  case  of  the  detestable  Fernandez  Ye- 
lasco,  of  Castile,  and  his  worthy  secretary  Pedro  Man- 
taono.  The  secretary,  after  having  been  a  panegyrist  of 
the  new  historian,  tried  to  serve  his  master  by  his  attack 
on  iMariana,  entitled  .1  dcertencias  a  la  Historia  de  Mari- 
ana. He  was  discovered,  however,  and  roughly  treated 
by  Tamayo  Vargas  in  La  Defensa  de  Mariana.  Prob- 
ably to  this  criticism  may  be  traced  many  improve- 
ments in  Mariana's  second  Spanish  edition  of  his  history, 
which  appeared  at  ^ladrid  in  1G08.  It  is  on  this  edition, 
and  the  various  readings  selected  from  the  editions  of 
1617  and  1G23,  that  the  edition  of  Valencia  is  based, 


IMARIANA 


746 


MARIE 


which  contains  ample  notes  and  iUustrations  (1783-9G, 
y  vols.  8vu).  This  edition  also  closes,  like  the  original, 
with  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  (1515-lG). 
Tliere  have  subsequently  been  published  at  Madrid — 1. 
The  continuation  of  Mariana  by  Minana,  translated 
from  the  Latin  by  Komero  (1804,  fol.) ;  2.  A  complete 
Jlariana,  continued  down  to  the  death  of  Charles  III, 
17.S.S,by  Sabau  y  Blanco  (1817-22,  20  vols.  4to);  3.  An- 
other by  the  same,  brought  down  to  the  year  1808  (9 
vols.  8vo,  with  portraits). 

The  profound  erudition  of  Mariana  is  also  displayed 
in  another  publication,  his  Tractatus  Septem  (Cologne, 
1609).  The  second  of  these  treatises,  De  Editione  Vul- 
ffuta,  is  an  epitome  of  his  report  on  the  fierce  controver- 
sy between  Arias  Montanus  and  Leon  de  Castro.  The 
fourth,  JJe  Mutatione  Munefa',  provoked  the  indigna- 
tion of  the  duke  of  Lerma  and  his  partners  in  the  sys- 
tem of  general  pecidation  and  frauds  which  Mariana  ex- 
posed. He  foretold  the  calamities  which  threatened  the 
■Spanish  nation;  and  his  words,  which  had  been  disre- 
garded, were  remembered  when  the  opportunity  was 
gone.  As  a  reward  for  proclaiming  such  unwelcome 
truths,  at  the  age  of  seventy-three  he  suffered  a  whole 
year  of  judicial  trickery,  humiliartons,  and  confinement 
in  the  convent  of  St.  Francis  at  Madrid.  In  searching 
his  papers  another  exposure  was  found,  entitled  Del  Go- 
biei~rw  de  la  Comparda,  or  on  the  defects  of  his  order,  in 
•which  he  also  pointed  out  the  means  of  correcting  them. 
Copies  of  this  MS.  had  multiplied  so  alarmingly  that, 
the  year  after  the  author's  death,  the  general  of  the 
Jesuits,  Vitaleschi,  issued  a  circular,  dated  Kome,  July 
29,  1G2-1,  enjoining  the  collection  of  such  papers  in  order 
to  be  burned.  Still  that  measure  did  not  prevent  its 
being  printed  at  Bordeaux  in  1G25,  and  reprinted  else- 
where in  several  languages.  This  curious  circular  was 
found  in  the  archives  of  the  Jesuits  of  Valencia  at  the 
time  of  their  sudden  expulsion  from  the  Spanish  domin- 
ions in  1767.  After  his  persecution  he  made  an  epitome 
of  the  Bibliotheca  of  Photius,  translated  some  homilies, 
revised  his  History  of  Spain,  and  published  a  supple- 
ment, or,  rather,  a  summary,  of  concise  annals  of  Spain 
from  1515  to  1612.  At  the  age  of  eighty-three  he  pub- 
lished his  Scholia  on  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  avail- 
ing himself  of  the  best  Hebrew  commentaries,  and  some 
valuable  and  very  early  MSS.,  ^vhich  dated  from  the  age 
of  the  ancient  Gothic  dominion  in  Spain.  This  work, 
though  written  at  this  advanced  stage  of  life,  "displays 
a  degree  of  vigor  and  of  learning  which  might  well  pro- 
voke the  admiration  of  modern  Biblical  students."  It 
secured  for  him  a  place  among  the  best  commentators 
in  the  Ilistoire  Critique  du  Vieux  Testament  of  the  hy- 
percritical father  Simon,  who  is  usually  vnifavorable  to 
Spaniards.  Bayle,  in  his  Dictionary,  supposes  Mariana 
to  be  also  author  of  a  Avorlv  RespitUica  Christiana,  but 
neither  Alcgambe  nor  Nicolas  Antonio,  both  of  them 
Spaniards,  mentions  it.  Stevens,  the  English  translator 
of  Mariana's  history,  misstates  some  particulars  of  the 
author'.s  life,  and  very  unaptly  compares  him  with  Kal- 
eigh.  Mariana  left  MSS.  of  at  least  twice  the  extent  of 
all  his  publications.  He  died  Feb.  G,  1623,  in  the  eighty- 
seventli  year  of  his  age  and  the  forty-ninth  of  his  re- 
tirement to  Toledo.  See  Mondejar.  A  drertcncias  a  Ma- 
riana ;  Juicio  y  Noticia  de  los  Historiadores  de  Espuna  ; 
Andrade,  ]'ida  de  Mariana;  Acosta,  Vida  de  Mariana; 
Andr.  Schot.,  ]lispan.  Illustrat.;  Baronius,  Annal.  Eccle- 
siast. ;  Bernard.  tJerald.,  Pro  Senatn  Veneto,  quoted  in 
Colomesius,  llispania  Orientalis;  Rene  Kapin,  Reflex- 
ions sur  Vllistiiire ;  Nicolas  Antonio,  Bihliothera  JJispa- 
nonova ;  Saavedra,  Respith/ica  l.ittraria ;  Tamayo  de 
Vargas,  Vida  del  P.. Juan  Mariana  ;  Alcgambe,  7jiW/o//;. 
script,  societafis  Jesii ;  Bayle,  ///.</.  IJict.  s.  v. ;  Prosper 
Marchand, Dictionnaire :  Frelier,  Theatnim  V.irorwn  cla- 
orum,  i,  347;  WoUmann,  Gcsch.  u.  Politik,  1801,  i,  2G5; 
Sismondi,  lAlteratitre  du  Midi  de  V Europe,  iv,  100 ;  Bou- 
terweck,  flixt.  de  la  I.itteniture  Esparpiole,  1812,  vol.  ii ; 
Ticknor,  History  oj' Spanish  Literature,  iii,  143;  Hanke, 
Zur  Kritik  neuerer  Geschichtsschreiber  (1824);  Ilcrzog, 


Real-EncyUopddie,  ix,  105  sq. ;  Pierer,  Univeisal-Lexi- 
kon,  x,  884 ;  Enyl.  Cyclojnedia,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog, 
Generale,  xxxiii,  618  sq.      (J.  N.  P.) 

Marianists,  an  order  of  knighthood.  See  Ksigiit- 
iiooi),  p.  132  (iv) ;  Teutonic  Knights. 

Marianus  Scotus,  a  noted  ecclesiastic,  was  born 
in  Ireland  or  Scotland  A.I).  1028  ;  became  a  monk ;  trav- 
elled on  the  Continent  in  1058,  especially  in  Germany, 
and  frequented  the  German  monasteries  of  Cologne,  Ful- 
da,  and  Mentz,  and  died  A.D.  1086.  Marianus  Scotus 
was  the  first  to  correct  the  inaccurate  chronologies  of 
the  chronicles  in  his  Chronicon  (3  vols,  to  1084 ;  contin- 
ued by  Dodechin  up  to  1200).  It  is  published  among 
the  Sci-iptoi-es  reruni  Germanicarum  by  Struve  and  oth- 
ers. The  most  valuable  is  the  3d  volume,  treating  of 
the  Carlovingian  and  following  emperors.  See  Hansen, 
De  antirjuiss.  codice  chronici  Mariani  Scoti  (Frankfort- 
on-the-Oder,  1782). 

Mariastein,  a  noted  place  of  pilgrimage  in  the 
Swiss  canton  of  Solothurn,  is  annually  visited  by  some 
60,000  persons.  The  pilgrimages  to  this  place  began  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  and  continue  unabated  to  our  day. 
During  the  first  and  second  French  Kevolutions  the 
place  was  ransacked  by  the  French  soldiers,  but  the  mo- 
nastics of  the  adjoining  convent  repaired  and  rebuilt  it 
each  time.     See  Wetzer  u.A\'elte,  Kirchen-Lex.  xii,  767. 

Mariazell,  a  famous  place  of  pilgrimage  in  Aus- 
tria, situated  on  the  north  border  of  the  crown-land  of 
Styria,  twenty-four  miles  north  of  Bruck.  It  consists 
of  a  number  of  inns  or  lodging-houses,  and  contains  1200 
inhabitants.  It  is  visited  by  300,000  pilgrims  annually, 
who  come  hither  to  paj'  homage  to  an  image  of  the  Vir- 
gin believed  to  possess  the  power  of  working  miracles, 
which  was  brought  to  Mariazell  about  1157  by  the 
Benedictine  St.Lambrecht.  A  pilgrim  chapel  was  first 
erected  there  about  1200  by  margrave  Henry  I  of  jNIora- 
via.  King  Louis  I  of  Hungary  built  a  pilgrim  church 
in  1343.  The  large  pilgrim  church  now  standing  was 
built  near  the  end  of  the  17th  centurj' ;  the  miracle- 
working  image  is  within  a  chapel,  closed  by  a  lieavy 
gate  of  solid  silver.  During  the  great  annual  proces- 
sion from  Vienna,  the  greater  part  of  the  pilgrims  of 
both  sexes  spend  the  night  in  the  woods  in  drinking, 
singing,  and  general  riot  and  debauchery.  See  Hillbach, 
Der  Pilger  u.  Tourist  nach  Maria-Zell  (Vienna,  1857, 
8vo). 

Marie  a  la  Coque,  a  visionary,  whose  real  name 
was  Margaret,  was  born  Jidy  22, 1647,  at  Lauthecour,  in 
the  tliocese  of  Autun,  France.  She  boasted  of  religious 
transports,  and  heavenly  visions  and  revelations,  besides 
which  she  is  reputed  to  have  worked  manifold  wonders. 
She  evinced  a  deep  aversion  to  all  evil  in  her  infancy,  and 
from  her  fourth  year  maintained  an  intimate  communion 
with  God.  On  the  death  of  her  father,  which  took  place 
in  the  eighth  year  of  her  age,  she  entered  a  convent. 
Attributing  the  cure  of  a  disease  that  had  afllicted  her 
during  four  years  to  the  A'irgin  Mary,  she  gratefully 
adojited  tlie  name  "  Marie,"  and  always  used  it  by  pref- 
erence. She  entered  the  Order  of  Salesians  on  the  27th 
of  August,  1671.  as  a  novice,  and  on  the  6th  of  Novem- 
ber, 1672,  took  the  veil.  From  this  time  she  claimed  to 
be  constantly  favored  witli  visions  and  revelations,  and 
is  sajd  to  have  performed  many  miracles;  such  were  her 
transports  that  she  carved  in  large  letters  the  name  of 
Jesus  on  her  breast.  She  had  knowledge  of  the  time 
when  she  should  die,  and  prepared  for  that  event  in 
deep  retirement,  closing  her  life  Oct.  17,  1690.  Slic  left 
a  small  work  of  a  mystical  character,  entitled  Pa  dera- 
tion an  cuur  de  Ji-sus,  and  otliers  of  a  similar  nature. 
Her  life  was  published  by  Jean  Joseph  Languet  under 
the  title  La  rie  de  la  venerable  mere  Marguerite  Marie ; 
but  her  memory  has  been  kept  alive  chiefly  through 
the  four  songs,  IV/'-TVjV,  in  OCums  de  M.  Cresset  (Am- 
stcrd.  174^!),  i,  9-45.  On  the  4th  of  February,  1836,  the 
advocate  of  tiio  pontifical  consistory  addressed  the  pope, 
for  the  first  time,  on  the  process  of  her  beatification; 


MARIE 


V47 


MARIOLATRY 


but  Talleyrand,  as  bishop  of  her  native  diocese,  had  al- 
ready sought  to  effect  her  canonization  during  the  last 
decennials  of  the  18th  century. — HeizoQ,  Real- Encyklop. 
XX,  92  sq.     (G.  M.) 

Marie  de  l'Ixcarnation,  a  French  female  mission- 
ary, wliose  original  name  was  Gwjard,  was  born  at  Tours 
in  lo'Ji).  She  early  joined  the  Ursuline  nuns;  visited 
Canada  in  1639,  where  she  made  many  converts  among 
the  Indians;  and  founded  a  convent  of  her  order.  She 
died  in  1672.  See  Charlevoix,  Vie  de  la  Mere  Marie  de 
V Incarnation;  Biographie  Universelle,  s.v. 

Marietu,  a  celebrated  Hindu  sage  or  dcmi-god,  was, 
according  to  one  account,  the  son  of  Brahma — accord- 
ing to  another,  tlie  son  of  Bhrigu.  He  was  the  father 
of  Kasyapa.'  By  some  he  is  considered  as  the  god  of 
'•  light,"  which  appears  to  be  the  etymological  significa- 
tion of  his  name.  See  Moor,  Hindu  Pantheon;  Insti- 
tutes of  Manu,  chap,  i ;  Thomas,  Diet,  of  Biofj.  and  My- 
thdlnf/ij,  s.  v. 

Marillac,  Ciiaki.es  de,  a  noted  prelate  of  the 
Church  of  Kome,  was  born  at  Auvergne,  in  France,  about 
1510.  He  was  advocate  in  the  Parliament  of  Paris  when, 
perceiving  himself  suspected  of  Lutheranism,  he  follow- 
ed John  de  la  Forest,  ambassador  of  France  to  Constan- 
tinople, and  thus  avoided  persecution  from  the  inquisi- 
tors. He  afterwards  became  abbot  of  St.  Pere  and  arcli- 
bishop  of  Yienne;  also  counsellor  in  the  privy  council 
when  tlie  assembly  of  notables  convened  at  Fontaine- 
bleau  in  1560,  and  in  it  advocated  the  calling  of  a  na- 
tional council  and  a  meeting  of  the  states-general,  but 
without  much  effect.  He  endeavored  to  talvc  measures 
to  prevent  the  mischiefs  threatening  the  country  at  that 
time,  but,  despairing  of  success,  he  became  melancholic, 
was  preyed  upon  by  disease,  and  died  at  his  abbey  of 
St.  Pere,  in  December,  1560.    See  Bayle,  Ilist.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Mar'inioth  (2  Esdr.  i,2),the  Latin  form  of  Mkre- 
Morii  ((1.  v.). 

Marin,  Michel  Ange,  a  French  ecclesiastical  writ- 
er, was  born  of  a  noble  family  at  Marseilles  in  1697.  In 
1714  he  was  admitted  to  tlie  order  of  the  Minimes;  was 
employed  in  their  schools,  and  four  times  filled  a  pro- 
vincial office.  He  possessed  not  only  a  liking  fm-  the- 
ology and  natural  history,  but  also  a  natural  taste  for 
belles-lettres.  His  style  is  a  little  diffuse,  and  some- 
times weak  and  incorrect,  without  being  entirely  void 
of  elegance.  He  died  April  3, 1767,  at  Avignon.  His 
works  are  mainly  in  the  department  of  practical  relig- 
ion. We  note  Lei  desastres  de  Barbacun  chin  errant 
dins  Avif/noun  (Avignon,  1722,  1759,  16mo;  Aix,  1744)  : 
■ — Conduite  Spirituelle  de  la  sceur  Violet  (Avignon,  1740, 
12mo) : — .1  delaide  de  Witshuri/  ou  la  Pieuse  pensiunnaire 
(Avignon,  1744, 12mo) : — La  Parfuite  Relirjieuse  (Avign. 
1752,  i2mo)  : — Virghde,  ou  la  viirje  Chretienne,  histoire 
Sicilienne  (Avignon,  1752,  2  vols.  12mo)  : —  Vies  dcs  Peres 
des  deserts  d'Orient,  avec  leur  doctrine  spirituelle  et  leur 
discipline  monastique  (Avignon,  1761-64,  3  vo!s.4to,  or  9 
12mo ;  Lyons,  1824, 9  vols.  8vo) : — Le  Baron  de  Van  Hes- 
den,  ou  la  republique  des  incr-edules  (Toulouse,  1762,  5 
vols.  12mo)  •.—Af/nes  de  Saint-Amour,  ou  la  fervente  no- 
vice (Avignon,  1762,  2  vols.  12mo  ;  Marseilles,  1829)  : — 
Theodule  ou  I'enfant  de  la  benediction  (Avignon,  1762, 
12mo): — Farfalla,  ou  la  commedienne  conrertie  (Avig- 
non, 1762,  12mo)  :  —  Agelique  (Avignon,  1766,  2  vols. 
12mo;  Marseilles,  1830) : — La  Marquise  de  los  Valienies, 
ou  la  Dame  Chretienne  (Avignon,  1765,  2  vols.  12mo) : — 
Lettres  uscetiques  et  morales  (Avignon,  1769,  2  vols. 
12mo). — Hoefer,  Xouv.  Biog.  Generale,  s.  v. 

Marina  i>e  Escobar.     See  Escobar. 

Mariner  (n|"Q,  mallach',  a  seaman,  comp.  Gr.  a\i- 
fi'c,  Eiig.  "  an  old  salt ;"  Ezek.  xxvii,  9,  27,  29 ;  Jonah  i, 
5;  ^'''^':^,  shatim',  Ezek.  xxvii,  8,  "  ?-02re/-s,"  as  in  ver. 
26),  a  sailor.     See  Ship. 

Marini,  Giovanni  Filippo,  an  Italian  .Jesuit  and 
missionary,  was  born  near  (Jenoa  in  16(18  ;  resided  four- 
teen years  at  Tonking,  Japan,  and  died  in  that  country 


in  1677,  He  published  Delia  Missions  de  padri  deUa 
comp.di  Giesu  nella  prorincia  di  Giappone  e  particolar- 
mente  di  quella  di  Tunchino  (Kome,  1663,  4to) ;  and  ^4 
Xeio  and  Curious  A  ccount  of  the  Kingdoms  of  Tonquin 
and  Laos  (1666),  considered  quite  valuable.  —  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  s.  v. 

Marino,  or  San  Marino,  one  of  the  most  ancient 
and  most  limited  republican  states  of  Europe,  consists 
of  a  craggy  mountain  2200  feet  in  height,  situated  amid 
the  lesser  ranges  of  the  Apennines,  and  encircled  by 
provinces  formerly  belonging  to  the  pontifical  states. 
It  possesses  a  total  area  of  twenty-one  miles,  and  com- 
prises a  town  of  the  same  name,  and  several  villages  in 
the  adjacent  territory.  The  climate  is  liealthy,  but, 
owing  to  its  exposure,  high  winds  and  frequent  rains 
prevail.  The  inhabitants,  who  are  reckoned  at  8000, 
are  noted  for  their  hospitality,  sobriety,  industry,  and 
general  morality.  They  are  sensitively  jealous  of  their 
rights,  and  cling  with  tenacity  to  their  territorial  and 
legislative  independence.  The  religion  of  the  country 
is  Koman  Catholic.  The  early  history  of  the  republic  is 
very  obscure.  During  the  medireval  wars  of  Italy,  Jla- 
rino  had  its  pigmy  feuds  and  factions,  which  seem  to 
have  been  none  the  less  envenomed  from  the  pettiness 
of  the  arena  in  which  they  were  enacted.  In  1740  the 
democratical  form  of  government  was  securely  guaran- 
teed against  further  assault.  The  rights  of  this  min- 
iature state  were  scrupulously  respected  by  Napoleon 
during  his  Italian  campaign.  The  government,  desig- 
nated the  Sovereign  Grand  Council  {Generale  Consiglio 
Principe),  is  composed  of  sixty  members,  of  whom  one 
third  are  nobles.  From  this  number  are  selected  the 
smaller  "  Council  of  Twelve"  (tv.-o  thirds  from  the  town 
and  the  rest  from  the  country),  who,  with  the  assistance 
of  a  jurisconsult,  decide  in  questions  of  the  second  and 
third  instance.  The  representatives  of  the  state  are 
termed  captains-regent  {cajntani  reggenti).  They  are 
chos"n,  the  one  from  the  party  of  the  nobles,  the  other 
from  the  bourgeoisie.  They  each  hold  office  only  for 
six  months.  The  army,  or  rather  the  militia  of  the  re- 
public, numbers  1189  men. — Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Marinus,  a  martyr  of  the  second  half  of  the  3d  cen- 
tury, is  mentioned  by  Eusebius  in  his  Hist.  Feci,  vii,  15. 
According  to  this  authority,  Marinus  ^vas  of  a  liigh  fam- 
ily, served  in  the  army,  and  was  about  to  be  appointed 
centurion  by  Gallienus  (266-268)  when  he  was  de- 
nounced as  a  Christian  by  one  of  his  fellow-soldiers. 
Brought  before  judge  Achanis,  he  acknowledged  his 
Christian  faith,  and  was  given  three  hours  to  recant. 
During  this  respite  he  was  taken  to  church  by  bishop 
Theoteknos,  who,  presenting  him  a  sword  with  one  hand 
and  the  Gospel  with  the  other,  bade  him  choose  be- 
tween them.  Marinas  joyfully  chose  the  latter,  return- 
ed to  the  judge,  to  wliom  he  declared  his  choice,  and 
was  at  once  executed.  A  Eoman  senator,  Asterius,  who 
was  a  Avitness  of  the  execution,  carried  away  the  body 
upon  his  own  shoulders,  laid  him  out  in  fine  clothes,  and 
buried  him  (see  ^Ic^a  Sanct.  ap.  BoUand,  t.  1,  3d  of 
March).     See  also  Martin  II  and  III. 

Another  St.  jMarinus  is  commemorated  on  the  4th  of 
September.  He  was  a  native  of  Dalmatia,  and  worked 
on  the  bridge  of  Rimini,  when  his  piety  attracted  the 
notice  of  bishop  Gaudentius  of  Brescia,  who  persuaded 
him  to  enter  the  Church,  and  made  him  deacon.  Ma- 
rinus retired  on  the  mountain  of  Titano,  where  he  erect- 
ed a  hermitage,  and  died  towards  the  close  of  the  4th 
century.  According  to  the  legend,  the  miracles  wrought 
at  his  tomb  attracted  a  number  of  pilgrims  to  the  place, 
who  settled  there,  and  this  gave  rise  to  his  saintship. — 
Herzog,  Real-EncyUop.  ix,  108  ;  Pierer,  Universal-Lexi- 
hon,  X,  893  ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxxiii,769. 

Mariolatry  (Gr.  Mapia,  Mai-]/,  and  Xn-piia,  ado- 
ration) is  tlie  technical  term  given  by  the  Protestant 
world  to  the  worship  which  Romanists  render  to  the 
Virgin  Mary.  Romanists  themselves  term  this  worship 
Ilyijerdulia  (q.  v.),  to  ilistingulsh  it  from  the  worship 


MARIOLATRY 


748 


MARIOLATRY 


paid  to  God,  which  they  term  Latria  (q.  v.),  and  adora- 
tion paid  to  saints,  Dulia  (q.  v.).  In  our  articles  Hy- 
I'KKDi'i.iA,  Ijimaci'late  CONCEPTION,  and  Invocation 
OF  Saints,  we  have  already  pointed  out  the  great  ditfi- 
cultj'  of  bringing  distinctions  so  refined  within  the  com- 
prehension of  the  common  mind,  so  as  to  prevent  the 
multitude  from  worshipping  the  creature  instead  of  the 
Creator.  "As  mother  of  the  Saviour  of  the  world," 
says  Dr.  Schaft'  ((7;.  Hist,  ii,  410),  '•  the  Virgin  Mary  un- 
questionably holds  forever  a  peculiar  jjositioii  among 
all  women  and  in  the  history  of  redemption ;''  and,  from 
this  point  of  view,  he  remarks  that  it  is  "perfectly  nat- 
ural, nay,  essential  to  sound  religious  feeling,  to  associate 
with  Mary  the  fairest  traits  of  maidenly  and  maternal 
character,  and  to  revere  her  as  the  highest  model  of 
female  purity,  love,  and  piety.  .  .  .  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  is  equally  unquestionable  that  she  is  nowhere  in 
the  N.  T.  excepted  from  the  universal  sinfuhiess  and  the 
universal  need  of  redemption,  lior  represented  as  immac- 
ulately holy,  or  as  in  any  way  an  object  of  divine  venera- 
tion." Koman  Catholics,  however,  have  insisted  upon 
the  adoration,  as  they  term  worship  in  this  instance,  of 
the  mother  of  Jesus,  holding  that  Mary  has  been  as- 
sumed in  the  Trinity,  so  as  to  make  it  a  Quaternity ; 
that  "Marj'  is  the  complement  of  the  Trinity"  (Pusey, 
Eirenicon,  ii,  107),  and  that  the  intercession  of  Mary 
is  needed  for  the  salvation  of  the  followers  of  Jesus 
Christ.  We  quote  the  words  of  Liguori  himself:  "We 
most  readily  admit  that  Jesus  Christ  is  the  only  Media- 
tor of  Justice,  and  that  by  his  merits  he  obtains  us  all 
grace  and  salvation ;  but  we  say  that  ]\Iary  is  the  ]Me- 
iliatrix  of  Grace ;  and  that  receiving  all  she  obtains 
through  Jesus  Christ,  and  because  she  prays  and  asks 
for  it  in  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ,  yet  all  the  same, 
■whatever  graces  we  receive,  they  come  to  us  through 
her  intercession"  {Glories  of  Mary,  p.  12-4).  There  is 
certainly  not  a  word  in  the  Bible,  nor  in  the  creeds  of 
the  Apostolic  Church,  nor  even  in  the  writings  of  the 
Church  fathers  of  the  first  five  centuries,  to  warrant  any 
Christian  in  assigning  such  a  position  to  Mary,  the 
mother  of  Jesus,  as  the  Catholic  Church,  both  Latin 
and  (ireek,  has  dared  to  bestow  upon  her.  One  of  the 
accepted  interpreters  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  Liguori, 
in  commenting  on  the  exalted  position  which  the  Virgin 
Mary  should  hold  in  the  estimation  of  Latin  communi- 
cants, says  that  slie  is  (iueen  of  Mercy  (p.  13) ;  that  she 
is  the  Mother  of  all  mankind  (p.  23) ;  that  she  offered 
her  Son  to  the  Father  on  Mount  Calvary  (p.  23) ;  that 
she  is  especially  the  Mother  of  repentant  sinners  (p.  42)  ; 
I  hat  she  is  our  Life  (p.  52) ;  that  God  was  reconciled 
with  sinners  by  the  humility  and  purity  of  Mary  (p.  5G) ; 
that  she  obtains  us  perseverance  (p.  59) ;  that  she  ren- 
ders death  sweet  to  her  clients  (p.  (58) ;  that  she  is  our 
Protectress  at  the  hour  of  death  (p.  71V,  that  she  is  the 
Hope  of  all  (p.  79) ;  that  she  is  our  (inly  Itefuge,  Help, 
and  Asylum  (^p.  81) ;  that  she  is  the  I'ropitiatory  of  the 
whole  world  (p.  81)  ;  that  she  is  the  one  City  of  Refuge 
(p.  89) ;  that  it  is  her  office  to  withhold  God's  arm  from 
chastising  sinners  until  he  is  pacified  (p.  93) ;  that  she 
is  the  Comfortress  of  the  world,  the  Refuge  of  the  un- 
fortunate (p.  100) ;  that  we  shall  be  heard  more  quickh' 
if  Ave  call  on  the  name  of  j\Iary  than  if  we  call  on  the 
name  of  Jesus  (p.  100) ;  that  she  is  our  Patroness  (p. 
100) ;  that  she  is  Queen  of  heaven  and  hell,  of  all 
saints,  and  all  evil  spirits,  because  she  conciuered  the 
latter  by  her  virtues,  and  the  devil  by  her  fair  humility 
and  holy  life  (p.  110) ;  that  she  protects  us  from  the  di- 
vine justice  and  from  the  devil  (p.  115);  that  at  the 
name  of  Mary  every  knee  bows  and  hell  trembles  (p. 
110);  that  she  is  the  Ladder  of  ])aradise,  the  Gate  of 
heaven,  the  most  true  Mediatrix  between  God  and  man 
(p.  121),-  that  her  intercession  is  necessary  for  salvation 
(p.  122);  that  she  is  the  iMediatrix  of  grace  (p.  124); 
that  in  her  is  all  hope  of  life' and  virtue,  JlU  grace  of  the 
Way  and  Truth  (p.  125);  tliat  in  her  we  find  eternal 
salvation  (p.  125) ;  that  no  one  can  enter  heaven  exccj)! 
by  her  (p.  127) ;  that  all  graces  of  the  spiritual  life  are 


transmitted  by  Mary  (p.  127);  that  all  gifts,  virtues, 
graces  are  dispensed  by  her,  to  whomsoever,  when,  and 
as  she  pleases  (p.  128) ;  tliat  from  her  the  world  receives 
ever}'  good  (p.  128) ;  that  she  is  the  Helper  of  the  Re- 
demption (p.  133) ;  that  she  and  her  Son  redeemed  the 
world  (p.  133) ;  that  she  is  the  Co-operator  in  our  jus- 
tification (p.  133) ;  that  the  way  of  salvation  is  open  to 
none  otherwise  than  through  Mary  (p.  135) ;  that  God 
says,  "  Go  to  Mary,"  when  we  seek  for  grace  from  him 
(p.  136) ;  that  the  salvation  of  all  depends  on  the  favor 
and  protection  of  Mary  (p.  136) ;  that  the  other  saints 
intercede  with  her  (p.  138) ;  that  she  is  a  tender  Advo- 
cate ;  that  all  power  is  given  unto  her  in  heaven  and 
earth  (p.  145) ;  that  God  obeys  the  command  of  Jlary 
(p.  146);  that  Mary  is  omnipotent  (p.  146);  that  the 
whole  Church  is  under  the  dominion  of  Mary  (p.  140); 
that  what  she  wills  is  necessarily  done  (p.  147) ;  that 
her  praj'ers  have  something  of  a  command  in  them  (p. 
151) ;  that  Jesus  Christ  is  under  an  obligation  to  her  to 
grant  all  she  asks  (p.  152) ;  that  she  is  the  singular  Ref- 
uge of  the  lost  (p.  156) ;  that  she  is  the  Advocate  of  the 
whole  human  race  (p.  161) ;  that  her  chief  office  in  the 
world  is  to  reconcile  fallen  souls  with  God  (p.  107) ;  that 
she  is  the  great  Peace-maker  who  obtains  reconcilia- 
tion, salvation,  pardon,  and  mercy  (p.  105);  that  in  her 
is  established  the  seat  of  God's  government  (p.  179); 
that  she  delivers  her  clients  from  hell  (p.  183) ;  that  her 
clients  will  necessarily  be  saved  (p.  184) ;  that  she  has 
sent  back  many  from  hell  to  earth  who  have  died  of 
mortal  sins  (p.  188) ;  that  she  consoles,  relieves,  and  suc- 
cors her  clients  in  purgatory  (p.  195);  that  she  delivers 
her  clients  from  purgatory  hy  applying  her  merits  (p. 
195)  ;  that  she  carries  away  from  purgatory  all  who 
wear  the  Carmelite  scapulary  on  the  Saturday  after  they 
die,  provided  they  have  been  chaste  and  have  said  her 
office  (p.  190);  that  she  does  not  suffer  those  who  die 
clothed  in  the  scapular}'  to  go  to  hell  (p.  185) ;  that  Mary 
leads  her  servants  to  heaven  (p.  198);  that  she  has  the 
key  of  the  gate  of  paradise  (p.  199) ;  that  she  is  the 
Way  of  our  salvation  (p.  200) ;  that  it  is  for  the  love  of 
Mary  and  on  account  of  her  merits  that  God  is  more 
merciful  under  the  New  than  under  the  Old  Dispensa- 
tion (p.  214) ;  that  her  powerful  intercession  sustains  the 
world  (p.  214) ;  that  she  is  the  Throne  of  grace  to  which 
St.  Paul  bids  us  tly  (p.  215) ;  that  Christ  has  promised 
that  all  who  invoke  the  holy  name  of  3Iary  with  confi- 
dence shall  have  perfect  sorrow  for  their  sins,  atonement 
for  their  crimes,  strength  to  attain  perfection,  and  shall 
reach  the  glory  of  paradise  (p.  226),  etc. 

We  will  also  cite  for  the  benefit  of  our  readers  some 
passages  from  the  writings  of  Liguori  bearing  more  di- 
rectly on  the  field  of  doctrinal  tlieology.  Mary  is  not 
only  titled  by  him  "  Queen,  Mother,  and  Spouse  of  the 
King  :  to  her  belongs  dominion  and  power  over  all  creat- 
ures" (p.  12) ;  "  She  is  Queen  of  Mercy,  as  Jesus  Christ 
is  King  of  Justice"  (p.  13).  "If  Jesus  is  the  Father  of 
souls,  !Mar}'  is  also  their  ]\Iother.  On  two  occasions,  ac- 
cording to  the  holy  fathers,  IMary  became  our  spiritual 
Mother.  The  first,  according  to  blessed  Albert  the 
Great,  was  when  she  merited  to  conceive  in  her  virginal 
womb  the  Son  of  God.  This  was  revealed  by  our  Lord 
to  S.  Gertrude,  who  was  one  day  reading  the  above  text, 
and  was  perplexed,  and  could  not  understand  how  Jlar}-, 
being  only  the  Mother  of  Jesus,  could  be  said  to  have 
brought  forth  her  first-born,  (iod  explained  it  to  her, 
saying  that  Jesus  was  Mary's  first-born  according  to  the 
flesh,  but  that  all  mankind  were  her  second-born  accord- 
ing to  the  Spirit The  second  occasion  on  which 

]\Iary  became  our  spiritual  jMother,  and  brought  us  forth 
to  the  life  of  grace,  was  when  she  offered  to  the  eternal 
Father  the  life  of  her  beloved  Son  on  Mount  Calvary 
with  such  bitter  sorrow  and  suffering"  (p.  23).  "Thus 
it  is  that  in  every  engagement  with  the  infernal  powers 
we  shall  always  certainly  conquer  by  having  recourse  to 
the  jMother  of  God,  who  is  also  our  Jlother,  saying  and 
repeating  again  and  again,' AVe  fiy  to  thy  patronage,  O 
holy  Mother  of  God ;  we  fiy  to  thy  patronage,  O  holy 


MARIOLATRY 


749 


MARIOLATRY 


Mother  of  God !'  Oh,  how  many  victories  have  not  the 
faithful  gained  over  hell  by  having  recourse  to  Mary 
with  this  short  but  most  po\verful  prayer !  Thus  it  was 
that  that  great  servant  of  God,  sister  Mary,  the  cruci- 
fied, of  tlie  Order  of  S.  Benedict,  always  overcame  the 
devils"  (p.  2(J).  "  '  Since  the  very  tigers,'  says  our  most 
loving  Mother  Mary,  'cannot  forget  their  young,  how 
can  I  forget  to  love  you,  my  children  ?' "  (p.  30).  "  Our 
Blessed  Lady  herself  revealed  to  sister  Mary,  the  cruci- 
fied, that  the  fire  of  love  with  wliich  she  was  inflamed 
towards  God  was  such  that,  if  the  heavens  and  earth 
■were  placed  in  it,  they  would  be  instantly  consumed ;  so 
that  the  ardors  of  the  Seraphim,  in  comparison  with  it, 
were  but  as  fresh  breezes"  (p.  31).  "Let  us  love  her 
like  a  S.  Francis  Solano,  who,  maddened  as  it  were  (but 
■with  holy  madness)  with  love  for  Mary,  would  sing  be- 
fore her  picture,  and  accompany  himself  on  a  musical  in- 
strument, saying  that,  like  worldly  lovers,  he  serenaded 
his  most  sweet  Queen"  (p.  38).  "  Let  us  love  her  as  so 
many  of  her  servants  have  loved  her,  and  who  never 
could  do  enough  to  show  their  love.  Father  Jerome  of 
Texo,  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  rejoiced  in  the  name  of 
slave  of  Mary ;  and,  as  a  mark  of  servitude,  went  often 
to  visit  her  in  some  church  dedicated  in  her  honor.  On 
reaching  the  church,  he  ])oured  out  abundant  tears  of 
tenderness  and  love  for  Mary ;  then  prostrating,  he  lick- 
ed and  rubbed  the  pavement  with  his  tongue  and  face, 
kissing  it  a  thousand  times,  because  it  was  the  house  of 
his  beloved  Lady"  (p.  38).  "  Mary  is  the  Mother  of  re- 
pentant sinners"  (p.  42).  "  When  Mary  sees  a  sinner  at 
her  feet  im])loring  her  mercy,  she  does  not  consider  the 
crimes  with  which  he  is  loaded,  but  the  intention  with 
which  he  comes ;  and  if  this  is  good,  even  should  he 
have  committed  all  possible  sins,  the  most  loving  Moth- 
er embraces  him,  and  does  not  disdain  to  heal  the 
wounds  of  his  soul"  (p.  45).  '"Mj"  God,'  she  says,  'I 
had  two  sons — Jesus  and  man  ;  man  took  the  life  of  my 
Jesus  on  the  cross,  and  now  thy  justice  would  condemn 
the  guilty  one.  O  Lord !  my  Jesus  is  already  dead ; 
have  pity  on  me ;  and  if  I  have  lost  the  one,  do  not 
make  me  lose  the  other  also  !'  And  most  certainly  God 
will  not  condemn  those  sinners  who  have  recourse  to 
Mary,  and  for  whom  she  prays,  since  he  himself  com- 
mended them  to  her  as  her  children"  (p.  47).  These 
passages  are  taken  almost  at  rantlom  from  Liguori's 
Glories  of  ifarij,  chapter  i,  which  is  a  paraphrase  of  the 
words  Hail,  holy  Queen,  Mother  of  Mercy  !  Yet  these 
claims  are  moderate  compared  with  those  set  up  in  the 
fifth  chapter,  entitled,  Of  the  Necessity  of  the  Interces- 
sion of  Mary  for  our  Salvation.  "  S.  Lawrence  Jus- 
tinian asks,  '  How  can  she  be  otherwise  than  full  of 
grace  ivho  has  been  made  the  Ladder  to  paradise,  the 
Gate  of  heaven,  the  most  true  Jfediatrix  between  God 
and  man  T  "  (p.  121).  "  That  which  we  intend  to  prove 
here  is  that  the  intercession  of  Mary  is  now  necessary  to 
salvation  ;  we  saj'  necessary — not  absolutely,  but  moral- 
ly. Tliis  necessity  proceeds  from  the  will  itself  of  God 
that  all  graces  that  he  dispenses  should  pass  by  the 
hands  of  Jlary,  according  to  the  opinion  of  S.Bernard, 
and  which  we  may  now  with  safety  call  the  general 
oi)ini()n  of  theologians  and  learned  men.  The  author  of 
The  Reiyn  of  Mary  positively  asserts  that  such  is  the 
case.  It  is  maintained  by  Vega,  jVIcndoza,  Pacciuchelli, 
Segnori,  Poire,  Crasset,  and  by  innumerable  other  learn- 
ed authors"  (p.  122). 

Now  what  have  we  in  hoh'  Scriptiu-e  to  warrant  such 
a  position  as  is  here  taken  by  Liguori?  Comparison, 
as  distinct  from  contrast,  requires  the  existence  of  some 
similitude,  but  take  any  passage  in  which  Mary  is  men- 
tioned, from  the  salutation  down  to  the  period  after  the 
ascension,  and  there  is  nothing  in  any  way  similar.  It 
only  remains,  therefore,  to  contrast  instead  of  comparing. 
But  our  readers  are  so  well  acquainted  with  holy  Writ 
that  we  remit  the  task  to  them,  only  begging  them 
to  remember  four  things :  1.  That  Mary  is  represented 
as  she  is,  and  not  otherwise  in  the  Gospels ;  2.  That  she 
is  not  mentioned  at  all  in  the  Acts  after  the  first  chap- 


ter, or  in  the  Epistles,  although  St.  Paul  has  entered  so 
minutely  into  the  economy  of  the  Christian  scheme  of 
salvation ;  3.  That  all  that  prophet  and  apostle  has  said 
of  our  Lord  is  by  Romanists  transferred  to  ^lary ;  4.  That 
all  those  passages  which  speak  of  one  Mediator  between 
God  and  man  not  only  ignore,  but  exclude  the  modern 
doctrine,  pronounced  by  Dr.  SchafF  •'  one  of  the  principal 
points  of  separation  between  Grasco-Roman  Catholicism 
and  evangelical  Protestantism"  {Ch.  Hist,  ii,  411). 

Lest  the  charge  should  be  brought  to  our  door  that 
we  have  attributed  to  the  Church  of  Rome  the  doctrines 
held  by  only  a  part  of  her  communicants,  or  even  only 
one  of  her  priests,  we  continue  our  quotations  from  some 
of  her  most  eminent  writers,  aflbrding  amjile  proof  of 
the  manner  in  which  the  Roman  Catholic  is  taught  to 
look  upon  the  Virgin  :  "  O  thou,  our  Governor  and  most 
benignant  Lady,  in  right  of  being  his  Mother,  command 
your  most  beloved  Son,  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  that  he 
deign  to  raise  our  minds  from  longing  after  earthly 
things  to  the  contemplation  of  heavenly  things"  (from 
the  Croivn  of  the  Blessed  Virrjin,  Psalter  of  Bonaven- 
tura).  "  We  praise  thee,  Mother  of  God;  we  acknowl- 
edge thee  to  be  a  virgin.  All  the  earth  doth  worship 
thee,  the  Spouse  of  the  eternal  Father.  All  the  angels 
and  archangels,  all  thrones  and  powers,  do  faithfidly 
serve  thee.  To  thee  all  angels  cry  aloud,  with  a  never- 
ceasing  voice.  Holy,  holy,  holy,  Mary,  ]\Iother  of  God. 
.  .  .  The  whole  court  of  heaven  doth  honor  thee  as 
queen.  The  holy  Church  throughout  all  the  world  doth 
invoke  and  praise  thee,  the  Mother  of  divine  Majesty. 
.  .  .  Thou  sittest  with  thy  Son  on  the  right  hand  of  the 
Father.  ...  In  thee,  sweet  Mary,  is  our  hope ;  defend 
us  forever  more.  Praise  becometh  thee ;  empire  becom- 
eth  thee;  virtue  and  glory  be  unto  thee  forever  and 
ever"  (from  a  Parody  on  the  Te  Ileum,  by  the  same 
writer).  "Whosoever  will  be  saved,  before  all  things 
it  is  necessary  that  he  hold  the  right  faith  concerning 
Marj' ;  which  faith,  except  one  do  keep  whole  and  un- 
defiled,  without  doubt  he  shall  perish  everlastingly.  .  .  . 
He  (Jesus  Christ)  sent  the  Holy  Spirit  upon  his  disci- 
ples, and  upon  his  Mother,  and  at  last  took  her  up  into 
heaven,  where  she  sitteth  on  the  right  hand  of  her  Son, 
and  never  ceaseth  to  make  intercession  with  him  for  us, 
This  is  the  faith  concerning  the  Virgin  Mary,  which, 
except  every  one  do  believe  faithfully  and  firmly,  he 
cannot  be  saved"  (from  a  Parody  on  the  Athanasian 
Creed,\)y  the  same  writer).  "During  the  pontificate 
of  Gregory  the  Great,  the  people  of  Rome  experienced 
in  a  most  striking  manner  the  protection  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin.  A  frightfid  pestilence  raged  in  the  city  to  such 
an  extent  that  thousands  were  carried  off,  and  so  sud- 
denly that  they  had  no  time  to  make  the  least  prepara- 
tion. It  could  not  be  arrested  by  the  vows  and  prayers 
which  the  holy  pope  caused  to  be  offered  in  all  quar- 
ters, until  he  resolved  on  having  recourse  to  the  INIother 
of  God.  Having  commanded  the  clergy  and  people  to 
go  in  procession  to  the  church  of  our  Lady,  called  St. 
Mary  Major,  carrying  the  picture  of  the  Holy  Virgin, 
painted  by  St.  Luke,  the  miraculous  effects  of  her  inter- 
cession were  soon  experienced :  in  every  street  as  they 
passed  the  plague  ceased,  and  before  the  end  of  the  pro- 
cession an  angel  in  human  form  was  seen  on  the  Tower 
of  Adrian,  named  ever  since  the  Castle  of  St.  Aiilgelo, 
sheathing  a  bloody  sabre.  At  the  same  moment  the 
angels  were  heard  singing  the  anthem, '  Regina  Coeli,' 
'  Triumph,  O  Queen,'  Hallelujah.  The  holy  pope  add- 
ed, '  Ora  pro  nobis  Deum,' '  Pray  for  us,'  etc.  The  Church 
has  since  used  this  anthem  to  salute  the  Blessed  Virgin 
in  Easter  time"  (from  Alphonsus  Liguori's  The  Glories 
of  Mary).  Gabriel  Biel,  Sujier  Canonem  Missa,  says 
"  that  our  heavenly  Father  gave  the  half  of  his  king- 
dom to  the  most  Blessed  Virgin,  Queen  of  heaven ; 
which  is  signified  in  the  case  of  Esther,  to  whom  Ahas- 
uerus  promised  the  half  of  his  kingdom.  So  that  our 
heavenly  Father,  who  jiossessed  justice  and  mercy,  re- 
tained the  former,  and  conceded  to  the  Virgin  ]Mary  the 
exercise  of  the  latter."     Antoniiuis,  archbishop  of  Flor- 


MARIOLATRY 


750 


MAKIOLATRY 


ence,  goes  further  yet  than  Gabriel  Bid.  We  hesitate 
to  record  the  profane  blasphemies  -which  are  found  in 
the  writings  of  various  popes,  prelates,  and  divines  on 
tliis  subject.  Stories  of  the  Jliddle  Ages,  many  ludi- 
crous, many  trivial,  one  or  two  sublime,  are  all  penetrated 
with  this  single  thought,  that  from  Mary,  and  Mary 
alone,  could  heart  worship,  and  repentance,  and  prayer, 
in  the  very  second  of  death,  in  the  very  act  of  sin,  with- 
out the  Eucharist,  without  the  priest,  at  sea,  in  the  des- 
ert, in  the  very  home  of  vice,  obtain  instant  and  full  re- 
mission; but,  with  Elliott  {Delineation  of  Rumnnism,  p. 
7o4),  '•  we  refuse  even  to  name  the  vulgar  preaching  and 
rude  discourses  of  friars  and  priests  who  induct  the 
multitude  into  this  worship,  as  being  too  indelicate  for 
the  ears  of  even  an  intelligent  Komanist."  The  foDow- 
ing  we  take  from  a  Prayer  of  St.  Bernard:  "  Remember, 
O  most  Holy  Virgin  Mary,  that  no  one  ever  had  recourse 
to  your  protection,  implored  your  help,  or  sought  your 
mediation  without  obtaining  relief.  Confiding,  there- 
fore, in  your  goodness,  behold  me,  a  penitent  sinner,  sigh- 
ing out  my  sins  before  you,  beseeching  you  to  adopt  me 
for  your  son,  and  to  take  upon  you  the  care  of  my  eter- 
nal salvation.  Despise  not,  O  Mother  of  Jesus,  the  pe- 
tition of  j'our  humble  client,  but  hear  and  grant  my 
prayer."  ■'  Prayer. — O  God  of  goodness,  who  hast  tilled 
the  holy  and  immaculate  heart  of  ]\Iary  with  the  same 
sentiments  of  mercy  and  tenderness  for  us  with  which 
the  heart  of  Jesus  Christ,  thy  Son  and  her  Son,  was  al- 
ways overflowing;  grant  that  all  who  honor  this  vir- 
ginal heart  may  preserve  until  death  a  perfect  conform- 
ity of  sentiments  and  inclinations  with  the  sacred  heart 
of  Jesus  Christ,  who,  with  thee  and  the  Holy  Ghost, 
lives  and  reigns  one  God,  forever  and  ever.  Amen.'' 
"Aspiration. — O  Mary!  Thou  art  light  in  our  doubts, 
consolation  in  our  sorrows,  and  protection  in  our  dan- 
gers! After  thy  Son,  thou  art  the  certain  hope  of  faith- 
ful souls!  Hail,  hope  of  the  desponding  and  refuge  of 
the  destitute,  to  whom  thj'  Son  has  given  such  power 
that  whatever  thou  wiliest  is  immediately  done !"  From 
the  Breviary:  "O  Holy  Mary,  succor  the  miserable,  help 
the  faint-hearted,  comfort  the  afHicted,  prav  for  the  peo- 
ple, intercede  for  the  clergy,  make  supplication  for  the 
devout  female  sex ;  let  all  be  sensible  of  thy  help  who 
celebrate  thy  holy  commemoration."  ..."  Grant,  we 
beseech  thee,  O  Lord  God,  that  we,  thy  servants,  may 
enjoy  perpetual  health  of  mind  and  body,  and,  by  the 
glorious  intercession  of  Blessed  Mary,  ever  virgin,  may 
be  delivered  from  present  sorrows,  and  come  to  eternal 
joy,  through  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ."  The  Litany  of 
the  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary  deserves  to  be  added: 
"Lord  have  mercy  on  us  ! 

Son  of  God,  have  mercy  on  ns  ! 

Holy  Ghost,  ha%'e  mercy  on  us  ! 

Jesus  C'hrist,  hear  us  ! 

Jesus  Christ,  graciously  hear  us  ! 

God,  the  Father  of  heaven,  have  mercy  on  us  ! 

Gofljthe  Son,  Redeemer  of  the  world,  have  mercy  on  us  ! 

God,  the  Holy  Ghost,  have  mercy  on  us  ! 

Holy  Trinitj',  one  God, have  mercy  on  us! 

Heart  of  Mary,  conceived  without  the  stain  of  sin  !  " 

Heart  of  Mary,  full  of  grace  I 

Heart  of  Mary,  sMUctnary  of  the  Trinity  ! 

Heart  of  Mary,  tahfrMacie  of  the  iucariiate  Word  ! 

Heart  of  Mary,  after  (Jod's  own  heart  I 

Heart  of  ]\Iary,  illiistiious  throne  of  glory  ! 

Heart  of  !Mary,  luTfect  holocanst  of  divine  love! 

Heart  of  Mary,  abyss  of  humility  1 

H(^art  of  Mary,  attached  to  the  cross  I 

Heart  of  Mary,  seat  of  mercy  ! 

Heart  of  Mary,  consolati(ni  of  the  afflicted  I 

Heart  of  Mary,  refuge  of  sinners  ! 

Heart  of  Marv,  advocate  of  the  Church,  and  mother 
of  all  faithful! 

Heart  of  Mary,  after  Jesus,  the  most  assured  hope 
of  the  agonizing ! 

Heart  of  Mary,  queen  of  angels  and  of  the  saints  !    J 

Lamb  of  God,  who  takest  away  the  sins  of  the  world, 
spare  us ! 

Lamb  of  God,  who  takest  away  the  sins  of  the  world, 
hear  us,  O  Lord  ! 

Lamb  of  God,  who  takest  away  the  sins  of  the  world, 
have  mercy  on  us,  O  Lord  ! 

O  most  sacred  and  amiable  heart  of  Mary,  Mother  of 
God,  ))ray  for  us  !  That  our  hearts  may  be  inflamed 
with  divine  love."  •• 


The  following  is  an  extract  from  the  encyclical  letter 
addressed  by  (iregory  XVI  to  all  patriarchs,  primates, 
archbishops,  and  bishops,  bearing  date  Aug.  15,  1832, 
affording  ample  evidence  that  the  same  doctrine  was 
approved  by  tlie  highest  authorities  of  the  Komish 
Church  even  prior  to  the  promulgation  of  the  dogma  of 
immaculate  conception  (q.  v.) :  "  Having  at  length  taken 
possession  of  our  see  in  the  Lateran  Basilica,  according 
to  the  custom  and  institution  of  our  predecessors,  we  turn 
to  you  without  delay,  venerable  brethren ;  and,  in  testi- 
mony of  our  feelings  towards  you,  we  select  for  the  date 
of  our  letter  this  most  joyful  day,  on  which  we  celebrate 
the  solemn  festival  of  the  most  Blessed  Virgin's  trium- 
phant assumption  into  heaven ;  that  she,  who  has  been 
through  every  great  calamity  our  patroness  and  pro- 
tectress, may  watch  over  us  writing  to  j'ou,  and  lead 
our  mind  by  her  heavenly  influence  to  those  counsels 
which  may  prove  most  salutarj'  to  Christ's  flock.  .  .  . 
But,  that  all  may  have  a  successful  and  happy  issue,  let 
us  raise  our  ej'es  to  the  most  Blessed  Virgin  Slary,  who 
alone  destroys  heresies,  who  is  our  greatest  hope,  yea, 
the  entire  ground  of  our  hope."  (Comp.  here  Kitto, 
Journal  Sacred  Lit.  ix,  25;  xv,  211;  English  Revierc, 
X,  350  sq. ;  Christ.  Remembrancer,  1855  [Oct.],  p.  417  sq. ; 
especially  p.  443  and  449.)  In  view  of  such  a  document 
emanating  from  the  head  of  the  Church,  what  account 
can  we  make  of  the  declaration  of  the  Romish  vicars 
apostolic  in  Great  Britain  that  "  Catholics  do  solicit  the 
intercession  of  the  angels  and  saints  reigning  wuth 
Christ  in  heaven ;  but  in  this,  when  done  according  to 
the  principles  and  spirit  of  the  Catholic  Church,  there 
is  nothing  of  superstition,  nothing  which  is  not  consist- 
ent with  true  pietj'.  For  the  Catholic  Church  teaches 
her  children  not  to  pray  to  the  saints  as  to  the  authors 
or  givers  of  divine  grace,  but  only  to  solicit  the  saints 
in  heaven  to  pray  for  them  in  the  same  sense  as  St. 
Paul  desired  the  faithful  on  earth  to  pray  for  him;" 
except  to  consider  it  as  a  document  well  calculated  for 
a  Protestant  latitude,  but  liable  to  be  looked  upon  in 
Rome  as  semi-heretical?  "What  ideas  also  are  we  to 
entertain  of  the  candor  or  veracity  of  those  liomanists 
who  cease  not,  after  Bossuet  and  others,  to  aflirm  that 
'  they  only  pray  to  saints  to  intercede  for  them  ?'  Here 
is  the  head  of  their  Church  performing  a  solemn  act  of 
worship  to  the  deitied  jMary,  on  a  day  dedicated  to  her 
presumed  assumption,  invoking  her,  as  his  patroness 
and  protectress,  in  a  time  of  great  calamity',  entreating 
her  to  aid  him  by  her  heavenly  influence  to  that  -(vhicli 
would  be  salutary  for  the  Church.  Is  this  only  to  pray 
to  her  to  undertake  for  us?  The  leader  in  this  act  of 
devotion  is  the  supreme  earthly  oracle  ;  the  visible,  liv- 
ing, speaking  guide  of  the  Church.  If  this  be  not  idol- 
atrj',  then  idolatry  exists  only  in  name"  (Elliott,  p.  754). 
Nor  do  we  find  in  the  present  pontiif  less  devotion  to  the 
Virgin,  if  we  may  base  our  knowledge  on  the  oflicial 
documents  issued  in  his  name.  In  the  decree  of  Dec.  8, 
1854,  Pius  IX  urges  all  Catholics,  colei'e,  invocare,  exo- 
rare  beatissimam  Dei  (jenitricem,  translated  as  follows  by 
the  Tablet  (Jan.  27) :  "  Let  all  the  children  of  the  Cath- 
olic Church  most  dear  to  us  hear  these  words;  and, 
with  a  most  ardent  zeal  of  piety  and  love,  pi-oceed  to 
iroiship,  incohe,  and  pray,  to  the  most  Blessed  Virgin 
Mary,  Mother  of  God,  conceived  without  original  sin" 
—the  head  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  urging  on 
his  subjects  a  greater  zeal  and  ardor  in  the  worship  of 
Mary  than  that  which  St.  Alfonso  had  displayed.  In 
the  same  decree  he  states  that  "  the  true  object  of  this 
devotion"  is  Mary's  "conception."  How  that  act  can 
be  an  object  of  devotion,  it  is  difficult  intelligentlj' 
to  imagine.  But  such  is  Mariolatry.  Not  oidy  do 
we  now  lind  the  adoration  of  the  IMother  of  God  i)ermit- 
ted,  but  actually  commanded.  "  The  devout  Roman 
Catholic,"  says  Cramp  (p.  400)  justly,  "pays  Marv^  the 
most  extravagant  honor  and  veneration.  The  language 
adopted  in  addressing  the  '(.Jueen  of  heaven'  cannot  be 
acquitted  of  the  charge  of  blasphemy,  since  prayers  are 
offered  directly  to  her  as  if  to  a  divine  being,  and  bless- 


MARIOLATRY 


751 


MARIOLATRY 


ings  are  supplicated  as  from  one  who  is  able  to  bestow 
them.  Ill  all  devotions  she  has  a  share.  The  Ave  Ala- 
lia accompanies  the  Pater  iVoster.  '  Evening,  morning, 
and  at  noon,'  said  the  Psalmist,  '  will  I  pray  unto  thee, 
and  cry  aloud ;'  the  pious  Koman  Catholic  transfers 
these  services  to  the  Virgin.  In  tender  chiklhood  he  is 
taught  to  cherish  for  her  the  profoundest  reverence  and 
the  liighest  affection ;  throughout  life  she  is  the  object 
of  his  daily  regard,  and  five  solemn  festivals,  annually 
observed  to  her  honor,  call  forth  his  ardent  love  and 
zeal,  and  in  the  hour  of  death  he  is  taught  to  place  reli- 
ance on  her  mercy.  To  the  ignorant  devotee  she  is 
more  than  Christ,  than  God ;  he  believes  that  she  can 
command  her  Son,  that  to  her  intercession  nothing  can 
be  denied,  and  that  to  her  power  all  things  are  possible." 
But  if  the  Latin  Church  be  adjudged  guilty  of  Mariola- 
try,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  same  sentence  of 
condemnation  should  fall  still  more  heavily  on  the 
Greek  Church ;  for  "  it  cannot  be  denied,"  says  Pusey 
{Eirenicon,  ii,  425),  "  that  the  orthodox  Greek  Church 
does  even  surpass  the  Church  of  Rome  in  exaltation  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin  in  their  devotions." 

Mariolatry  likewise  appears  in  the  favorite  prayer  to 
Mary,  the  angelic  greeting,  or  the  Ave  Maria,  which 
in  the  Catholic  devotions  runs  parallel  with  the  Pater 
Noster,  and  of  wliich  we  had  occasion  to  speak  above. 
It  takes  its  name  from  the  initial  words  of  the  saluta- 
tion of  (iabriel  to  the  Holy  Virgin  at  the  annunciation 
of  the  birth  of  Christ.  It  consists  of  three  parts :  (1) 
The  salutation  of  the  angel  (Luke  i,  28):  Ave  Maria, 
gratia  plena,  Domhius  tecum!  (2)  The  words  of  Eliza- 
beth (Luke  i,  42)  :  Benedicta  tu  in  mulieribus,  et  beneJic- 
tusfructus  rentris  tui,  Jesus.  (3)  The  later  unscriptural 
addition,  which  contains  the  prayer  proper,  and  is  offen- 
sive to  the  Protestant  and  aU  sound  Christian  feeling: 
Sancta  Maria,  mater  Dei,  ora  pro  nobis  peccatoribus, 
nunc  et  in  hora  mortis.  Amen.  (For  the  English,  etc., 
see  Ave  JNIaria.)  "  Formerly  this  third  part,  which 
gave  the  formula  the  character  of  a  prayer,  was  traced 
back  to  the  anti-Nestorian  Council  of  Ephesus  in  431, 
which  sanctioned  the  expression  mater  Dei,  or  Dei  fjen- 
itri.r  (.^toj-oKOf) :  but  Koman  archaeologists  (e.  g.  Mast, 
in  Wetzer  und  Welte  [Rom.  CathoL],  Kirchen-Lexikon, 
i,  5(j3)  now  concede  that  it  is  a  much  later  addition, 
made  in  the  beginning  of  the  IGth  century  (1508),  and 
that  the  closing  Avords,  nunc  et  in  hora  mortis,  were  add- 
ed even  after  that  time  by  the  Franciscans.  But  even 
tlie  first  two  parts  did  not  come  into  general  use  as  a 
standing  formula  of  prayer  until  the  loth  century.  From 
that  date  the  Ave  Maria  stands  in  the  Roman  Church 
upon  a  level  with  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the  Apostles' 
Creed,  and  with  them  forms  the  basis  of  the  rosary" 
(Sctiafl^,  Ck.  Hist,  ii,  424,  425). 

The  chief  festivals  of  the  Virgin,  common  to  the 
Western  and  Eastern  churches,  celebrating  the  most  im- 
portant facts  and  fictions  of  her  life,  and  in  some  degree 
running  parallel  with  the  festivals  of  the  birth,  resur- 
rection, and  ascension  of  Christ,  arc  the  Conception  (q. 
v.),  the  Nativity  (q.  v.),  the  Purification  (q.  v.),  the 
Annunciation  (q.  v.),  the  Visitation  (q.  v.),  and  the  As- 
sumption ((}.  v.).  All  these  festivals  are  observed  also  in 
the  English  Church,  but  from  a  quite  diff'erent  stand- 
point, of  course.  The  Koman  Church  has,  besides  these, 
several  special  festivals,  with  appropriate  offices — all, 
however,  of  minor  solemnity.     See  Makv,  the  Vikcjin. 

Orifjin  of  Mariolatry. — We  have  detailed  somewhat 
at  length  the  views  held  by  the  Gra!co-Roman  theolo- 
gians on  the  adoration  they  consider  due  to  tlie  Virgin 
Mary  to  afford  a  fair  insight  into  jNIariolatry  as  now 
practiced.  It  remains,  however,  to  examine  how  the 
veneration  of  JNIary  degenerated  into  the  morsfiip  of 
Mary,  a  worship  which  itself  "was  originally  only  a  re- 
flection of  the  worship  of  Christ  .  .  .  designed  to  con- 
tribute to  the  glorifying  of  Christ"  (Schaff,  ii,  410).  All 
unbiassed  historians  agree  in  regarding  the  worsliip  of 
Mary  as  an  echo  of  ancient  heathenism.  Polytheism 
was  so  deeply  rooted  among  the  non-Israelites  of  the 


days  of  Christ  that  it  reproduced  itself  even  among  the 
followers  of  Jesus,  though  it  is  true  it  appeared  clothed 
in  a  Christian  dress.  '•  The  popular  religious  want," 
says  Dr.  Schalf,  "  had  accustomed  itself  even  to  female 
deities,  and  very  naturally  betook  itself  first  of  all  to 
Mary,  the  highly  favored  and  blessed  mother  of  the  di- 
vine-human Redeemer,  as  the  worthiest  object  of  adora- 
tion." But,  though  it  is  apparent  that  remnants  of  an- 
cient heathenism  thus  laid  hold  even  on  the  newly-found 
doctrines,  it  is  quite  certain  also  that  during  the  first 
ages  the  invocation  of  the  Virgin  and  of  saints  must 
have  held  a  subordinate  place  in  Christian  worship,  for 
there  is  not  a  word  about  it  in  the  writings  of  the  fathers 
of  the  first  five  centuries.  *'  We  may  scan  each  page 
that  they  have  left  us,  and  we  shall  find  nothing  of  the 
kind.  There  is  nothing  of  the  sort  in  the  supposed 
works  of  Hermas  and  Barnabas,  nor  in  the  real  works 
of  Clement,  Ignatius,  and  Polycarp ;  that  is,  the  doctrine 
is  not  to  be  found  in  tlie  1st  century.  There  is  nothing 
of  the  sort  in  Justin  ]\Iartyr,  Tatian,  Athenagoras,  The- 
ophilus,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  TertuUian ;  that  is,  in 
the  2d  century.  There  is  nothing  of  the  sort  in  Origen, 
Gregory  Thaumaturgus,  Cj'prian,  jMethodius,  Lactan- 
tius;  that  is,  in  the  3d  century.  There  is  nothing  of  the 
sort  in  Eusebius,  Athanasius,  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  Hilary, 
Macarius,  Epiplianius,  Basil,  Gregory  Nazianzen,  Ephrem 
Syrns,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  Ambrose ;  that  is,  in  the  4th 
century.  There  is  nothing  of  the  sort  in  Chrysostom, 
Augustine,  .Jerome,  Basil  of  Seleucia,  Orosius,  Sedulius, 
Isidore,  Theodoret,  Prosper,  Vincentius  Lirinensis,  Cyril 
of  Alexandria,  popes  Leo,  Hilarus,  Simplicius,  Felix, 
Gelasius,  Anastasius,  Symmachus;  that  is,  in  the  5th 
century."  Nor  is  there  the  least  trace  of  IMariolatry 
among  the  remains  of  the  Catacombs.  Says  a  writer  in 
the  Loml.  Qu.  Per.  July,  1864,  p.  85:  "As  regards  the 
sacred  person  of  the  Virgin,  she  takes  that  place  only  in 
the  art  of  the  Catacombs  v/hich  the  purity  of  earlier 
Christianity  would  lead  us  to  predicate.  She  is  seen 
there  solely  in  a  scriptural  and  historical  sense — in  the 
subject  of  the  Adoration  of  the  Wise  Men  who  found 
'  the  young  child  and  his  mother.'  And  this  even  takes 
its  place  among  the  later  productions  of  classic-Christian 
art ;  while  the  subject  of  the  Nativity,  which  occurs  on 
two  sarcophagi,  evidently  belongs  to  the  last  decline  of 
that  period.  With  these  two  exceptions,  no  trace  of  a 
representation  of  the  Virgin  can  be  found  in  the  mural 
or  sculptural  art  of  the  Catacombs."  We  cannot  do  bet- 
ter than  sum  up  this  portion  of  our  subject  in  the  words 
of  the  Kev.  E.  Tyler,  to  whose  conscientious  labors  every 
student  of  Christian  antiquities  is  so  much  indebted : 
"We  have  examined  to  the  utmost  of  our  ability  and 
means  the  remains  of  Christian  antiquity.  Especially 
have  we  searched  into  the  writings  of  those  whose  works 
(A.D.  492)  received  the  approbation  of  the  pope  and  his 
council  at  Rome ;  ^ve  have  also  diligently  sought  for  ev- 
idence in  the  records  of  the  early  councils;  and  we  find 
all  the  geniune  and  inisuspected  works  of  Christian 
writers — not  for  a  few  years,  or  in  a  portion  of  Christen- 
dom, but  to  the  end  of  the  first  five  hundred  years  and 
more,  and  in  every  country  in  the  F^astern  and  the  West- 
ern empire,  in  Europe,  in  Africa,  and  in  Asia — testifying 
as  w-ith  one  voice  that  the  writers  and  t'neir  contem- 
poraries knew  of  no  belief  in  the  present  power  of  the 
Virgin,  and  her  infiuence  with  God ;  no  practice,  in  pub- 
lic or  private,  of  prayer  to  God  through  her  mediation, 
or  of  invoking  her  for  her  good  offices  of  intercession, 
and  advocacy,  and  patronage  ;  no  offering  of  thanks  and 
praise  made  to  her;  no  ascription  of  divine  honor  and 
glory  to  her  name.  On  the  contrary,  all  the  writers 
through  those  ages  testify  that  to  the  early  Christians 
(iod  was  the  only  object  of  prayer,  and  Christ  the  only 
heavenly  Mediator  and  Intercessor  in  whom  they  put 
their  trust"  (p.  290).  There  is  not  a  shadow  of  doubt 
that  the  origin  of  the  worship  of  Mary  is  to  be  traced  to 
the  apocrvphal  legends  of  her  birth  and  of  her  death, 
which,  in  the  course  of  time,  decorated  the  life  of  Mary 
with  fantastic  fables  and  wonders  of  every  kind,  and 


MARIOLATRY 


752 


MARIOLATRY 


thus  fumislied  a  pseudo-liistorical  foundation  for  an  iin- 
scriptural  INIariology  and  jNlariolatrj'  (compare  Janus, 
Popf  and  Council,  p.  34  sq.).  It  is  in  these  productions 
of  the  Gnostics  (q.  v.)  that  we  find  the  germ  of  what 
afterwards  expanded  into  its  present  portentous  propor- 
tions. Some  of  the  legends  of  her  birth  arc  as  early  as 
the  2d  or  3d  century.  But  to  the  honor  of  the  Chris- 
tians of  that  day  be  it  remembered  that  they  unani- 
moush'  and  firmly  rejected  these  legends  as  fabulous  and 
heretical.  Witness  the  conduct  of  the  Church  towards 
the  Collyridians  (q.  v.),  and  the  excesses  in  the  opposite 
direction  it  gave  rise  to  by  the  formation  of  a  sect 
known  as  the  Antidicomai-ianites  (q.  v.).  "The  whole 
thing,"  says  Epiphanius,  when  commenting  upon  the  un- 
warranted practices  of  the  Collyridians,  "  is  foolish  and 
strange,  and  is  a  device  and  deceit  of  the  devil.  Let 
jNIary  be  in  honor.  Let  the  Lord  be  worshipped.  Let 
jio  one  worship  Marv"  (Uieret.  Ixxxix,  in  0pp.  p.  lOCG, 
Paris,  1662). 

Indeed,  down  to  the  time  of  the  Nestorian  controver- 
sy of  A.U.  430,  the  cultus  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  it  would 
appear,  was  wholly  external  to  the  Church,  and  was  re- 
garded as  heretical.  It  was  this  controversy  that  first 
produced  a  great  change  of  sentiment  in  men's  minds. 
Nestorius  had  maintained,  or  at  least  it  was  the  ten- 
dency of  Nestorianism  to  maintain,  not  only  that  our 
Lord  had  two  natures,  the  divine  and  the  human  (which 
was  right),  but  also  that  he  was  two  persons,  in  such 
sort  that  the  child  born  of  Mary  was  not  divine,  but 
merely  an  ordinarv  human  being,  until  the  divinity 
subsequently  united  itself  to  him.  This  was  condemned 
by  the  Council  of  Ephesus  in  the  year  431 ;  and  the  title 
idioTi)K.oc,  loosely  translated  "  Mother  of  God,"  was 
sanctioned.  The  object  of  the  council  and  of  the  Anti- 
Nestorians  was  in  no  sense  to  add  honor  to  the  Mother, 
but  to  maintain  the  true  doctrine  with  respect  to  the 
Son.  Nevertheless  the  result  was  to  magnify  the  Moth- 
er, and,  after  a  time,  at  the  expense  of  the  Son.  For 
now  the  title  Geot-o/coc  became  a  shibljoleth,  and  in  art 
the  representation  of  the  Madonna  and  Child  became  the 
expression  of  orthodox  belief.  Very  soon  the  purpose 
for  which  the  title  and  the  picture  were  first  sanctioned 
became  forgotten,  and  the  veneration  of  Mary  began  to 
spread  within  the  Church,  as  it  had  previously  existed 
external  to  it.  The  legends,  too,  were  no  longer  treated 
as  apocrj'phal.  Neither  were  the  Gnostics  any  longer 
the  objects  of  dread.  Nestorians,  and  afterwards  Icon- 
oclasts, in  turn  became  the  objects  of  hatred.  The  old 
fables  were  winked  at,  and  thus  they  universally  be- 
came the  mythology  of  Christianity  among  the  south- 
ern nations  of  Europe,  while  manj^  of  the  dogmas  which 
they  arc  grounded  upon  have,  as  a  natural  consequence, 
crept  into  the  faith.  "  Thenceforth  the  Sf oro/coc  was  a 
test  of  orthodox  Christology,  and  the  rejection  of  it 
amounted  to  the  beginning  or  the  end  of  all  heresy. 
The  overthrow  of  Nestorianism  was  at  the  same  time 
the  victory  of  INIarj^-worship.  With  the  honor  of  the 
Son,  the  honor  also  of  the  Mother  was  secured.  The 
opponents  of  Nestorius,  especially  Proclus,  his  succes- 
sor in  Constantinople  (f  447),  and  Cyril  of  Alexandria 
(f  444),  could  scarcely  find  predicates  enough  to  express 
the  transcendent  glory  of  the  jNIothcr  ()f  God.  She  was 
the  crown  of  virginity,  the  indestructible  temple  of  God, 
the  dwelling-place  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  the  paradise  of 
the  second  Adam,  the  bridge  from  God  to  man,  the  loom 
of  the  incarnation,  the  sceptre  of  orthodoxy ;  through 
her  the  Trinity  is  glorified  and  adored,  the  devil  and 
daemons  put  to  llight,  the  nations  converted,  and  the 
fallen  creature  raised  to  heaven.  The  people  were  all 
on  the  side  of  the  Kphesian  decision,  and  gave  vent  to 
their  joy  in  boundless  enthusiasm,  amid  bonfires,  pro- 
cessions, and  illuminations"  (Schaif,  ii,  426).  "  Yet  it 
is  not  exactly  the  fact  that  the  giving  of  this  title 
(Theotokos)  was  the  cause  of  the  cultus,  for  some  of 
the  fathers  before  that  time  had  employed  the  word  to 
express  the  doctrine  of  the  incarnation,  as  the  two 
Gregorys  did ;  it  was  the  Nestorian  heretics  who  really 


drove  the  Catholic  mind  to  paying  her  the  tribute  of 
devotion ;  and  even  then  it  seems  as  if  the  culliis  of 
that  time  was  far  more  in  honor  of  the  Son  than  of  the 
Mother,  more  a  mode  of  testifj'ing  the  belief  in  the  ver- 
ity of  the  true  doctrine  of  the  incarnation,  denied  by 
the  heretics,  than  of  giving  her  an  undue  worship. 
When  she  was  addressed  as  the  '  Slother  of  God,'  when 
she  was  represented  as  the  Mother  -with  her  infant  Son, 
she  appeared,  it  is  true,  as  the  prominent  figure;  but  it 
was  to  express  clearly  the  Catholic  doctrine  of  the  in- 
carnation— the  two  natures  in  the  one  person  of  Christ, 
We  can  see  how  easily  the  mind  of  the  worshipper 
would  penetrate  further,  and,  from  looking  at  her  mere- 
ly as  the  Theotokos,  would  see  in  the  IMother  of  God 
one  possessed  of  a  mother's  influence  and  power"  {Chris- 
Han  Remembrancer,  1868,  July,  p.  136, 137). 

From  this  time  the  worship  of  Mary  grew  apace;  it 
agreed  well  with  many  natural  aspirations  of  the  heart. 
To  paint  the  mother  of  the  Saviour  an  ideal  woman, 
with  all  the  grace  and  tenderness  of  womanhood,  and 
yet  with  none  of  its  weaknesses,  and  then  to  fall  down 
and  >vorship  that  which  the  imagination  had  set  up,  was 
what  might  easily  happen,  and  did  happen.  Evidence 
was  not  asked  for.  Perfection  was  becoming  the  mother 
of  the  Lord,  therefore  she  was  perfect.  Atloration  "was 
befitting"  on  the  part  of  Christians,  therefore  the}'  gave 
it.  Any  tales  attributed  to  antiquity  were  received  as 
genuine,  any  revelations  supposed  to  be  made  to  favored 
saints  were  accepted  as  true ;  and  the  Madonna  reigned 
as  queen  in  heaven,  in  earth,  in  purgatory,  and  over 
hell.  The  mother  of  the  Saviour  soon  became  the 
Mother  of  Salvation,  as  John  of  Damascus  calls  her  (//o- 
mil.  in  A  nnim.),  "  the  common  salvation  of  all  in  ex- 
tremity" (»)  TravTwv  6/^1011  rCov  TcipuTioi'  rijg  yTig  koivi) 
<TojTi]pia).  "  The  alone  Mother  of  God,  who  art  to  be 
worshipped  (»/  TrpoaKm'ijTtj')  forever."'  Nestorianism 
Uved  on,  and  lives  still,  when  other  earlier  heresies  on 
the  nature  of  Christ — like  Arianism — have  died;  nay, 
it  was  once  a  great  ecclesiastical  power.  Catholics 
showed  their  orthodoxy  by  honoring  the  Mother  of 
God,  their  abhorrence  of  heresy  by  rendering  her  wor- 
ship. Thus  arose  the  story  of  her  assumption,  and  the 
festival  (Aug.  15)  in  honor  of  that  supposed  event.  She 
then  became  the  Mater  Coronata,  endued  with  power 
both  in  heaven  and  earth.  Language  was  addressed  to 
her  such  as  belonged  only  to  (iod ;  e.  g.  Peter  Damian, 
in  a  sermon  (/^^A7^^u•.i>.  I'.  ^1/.),  speaks  thus;  "Et  data 
est  tibi  omnis  potestas  in  coclo  et  in  terra :  nil  tibi  im- 
possibile,  cui  possibile  est  desperates  in  spem  beatitudi- 
nis  relevare.  Quomodo  enim  ilia  potestas  tua;  potentiie 
poterit  obviare,  quaj  de  carne  tua  carnis  suscepit  origi- 
nem  ?  Accedis  enim  ante  illnd  aureum  humanai  recon- 
ciliationis  altare,  non  solum  regnans  sed  imperans,  dom- 
ina  non  ancilla."  Under  such  teaching  as  this  we  need 
not  wonder  at  the  extent  to  which  her  cultus  went. 
'•  From  that  time,"  says  Dr.  Schaff, ''  numerous  churches 
and  altars  were  dedicated  to  the  holy  Mother  of  God. 
the  perpetual  Virgin;  among  them  also  the  church  at 
Ephesus  in  which  the  anti-Nestorian  Council  of  431 
had  sat.  Justinian  I,  in  a  law,  implored  her  interces- 
sion with  God  for  the  restoration  of  the  lioman  empire, 
and  on  the  dedication  of  the  costly  altar  of  the  church 
of  St.  S(>]>hia  he  expected  all  blessings  for  church  and 
empire  from  her  powerful  praj-ers.  His  general,  Narses, 
like  the  knights  in  tlie  Middle  Age,  was  unwilling  to  go 
into  battle  till  he  had  secured  her  protection.  Pope 
Boniface  IV,  in  608,  turned  the  Pantheon  in  Rome  into 
a  temple  of  Mary  ad  martyres ;  the  pagan  Olympus  into 
a  Christian  heaven  of  gods.  Subsequently  even  her 
images  (made  after  an  original  pretending  to  have  come 
from  Luke)  were  divinely  worshipped,  and,  in  the  pro- 
lific legends  of  the  superstitious  Middle  Age.  performed 
countless  miracles,  before  some  of  which  the  miracles  of 
the  Gospel  history  grow  dim.  She  became  almost  co- 
ordinate with  Christ,  a  joint  redeemer,  invested  witb 
most  of  his  own  attributes  and  acts  of  grace.  The  pop= 
ular  belief  ascribed  to  her,  as  to  Christ,  a  sinless  concep- 


MARIOLATRY 


753 


MARIOLATRY 


tion,  a  sinless  birth,  resurrection  and  ascension  to  heav- 
en, and  a  participation  of  all  power  in  heaven  and  earth. 
She  became  the  centre  of  devotion,  cultus,  and  art,  and 
the  popular  symbol  of  power,  of  glor}',  and  of  the  final 
victory  of  Catholicism  over  all  heresies"  (ii,  424,  4'25). 
In  the  6th  century  the  practice  became  general  witliin 
the  Church,  both  in  the  East  and  in  the  ^\'est,  and  the 
writers,  commencing  with  the  post-Nicene  period,  which 
had  brought  in  this  innovation  with  many  others,  down 
to  the  16th  century,  are  now  found  to  relate  the  untold 
privileges  of  the  Virgin,  and  with  an  enthusiasm  con- 
stantly growing  until  checked  by  the  opposition  of  the 
Reformers,  we  are  told  of  the  efKcacy  of  Mary  as  a  me- 
diator with  her  Son.  This  devotional  enthusiasm  was 
carried  to  its  greatest  height  by  St.  Bernard  (q.  v.), 
and  still  more  so  by  Bonaventura  (cited  above),  who. 
Dr.  Wiseman  says,  was  one  of  the  saints  and  luminaries 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  every  Roman  Cath- 
olic prays  that  he  may  be  enlightened  by  his  teaching 
and  benefited  by  his  prayers.  It  is  Bonaventura  who 
gave  the  following  version  of  the  51st  Psalm:  "Have 
pity  upon  me,  O  great  Queen,  who  art  called  the  Mother 
of  Mercy;  and,  according  to  the  tenderness  of  that 
mercy,  purify  me  from  my  iniquities."  And  so  it  runs 
throughout.  The  149th  Psalm  is — "Sing  a  new  song 
in  honor  of  our  Queen.  Let  the  just  publish  her  praises 
in  their  assemblies.  Let  the  heavens  rejoice  in  her 
glory ;  let  the  isles  of  the  sea  and  all  the  earth  rejoice 
therein.  Let  water  and  fire,  cold  and  heat,  brightness 
and  light,  praise  her.  Let  the  mouth  of  the  just  glorify 
her;  let  her  praises  resound  in  the  triumphant  company 
of  tlie  saints.  City  of  God,  place  thy  joy  in  blessing 
her,  and  let  songs  of  praise  continually  be  sung  to  her 
by  thy  illustrious  and  glorious  inhabitants." 

Promotion  of  Mariolatrij  by  rdiijious  Art.  —  Ever 
since  the  condemnation  of  Nestorius  the  popular  doc- 
trine had  found  its  ablest  support  in  art.  The  repre- 
sentation of  that  beautifid  group,  since  popularly  known 
as  the  Madonna  and  Child,  became  the  expression  of  the 
orthodox  faith.  "  Every  one  who  wished  to  prove  his 
hatred  of  the  arch-heretic  exhibited  the  image  of  the 
maternal  Virgin  holding  in  her  arms  the  infant  God- 
head, either  in  his  house  as  a  picture,  or  embroidered  on 
his  garments,  or  on  his  furniture,  or  his  personal  orna- 
ments— in  short,  wherever  it  could  be  introduced"  (Mrs. 
Jameson,  Legends  of  the  Madonna,  p.  xxi).  With  the 
extension  and  popularity  of  the  worship  of  the  Virgin, 
the  multiplication  of  her  image,  in  every  form  and  ma- 
terial, naturally  enough  spread  throughout  Christendom, 
until  sutldenly  checked  by  the  iconoclastic  movements 
of  the  8th  century  [sec  Iconoclas.m],  and,  descending 
the  Middle  Ages,  we  find  Christian  art  generally  at  its 
lowest  ebb  in  the  10th  and  11th  centuries.  The  pil- 
grimages to  the  Holy  Land  and  the  Crusades  mark  the 
renaissance,  but  it  was  not  until  the  13th  century  that 
Mariolatry  received  more  aiol  from  religious  art.  Then 
the  popular  enthusiasm  was  kindled  anew  by  the  exer- 
tions of  Bonaventura,  and  by  the  formation  of  many 
chivalric  brotherhoods  that  vowed  her  especial  ser\-ice 
(as  the  Serrtii,  who  were  called  in  France  les  esclavcs  de 
3Iarie),  and  by  the  action  of  the  great  religious  com- 
munities, at  this  time  comprehending  all  the  enthusi- 
asm, learning,  and  influence  of  the  Church.  These  had 
placed  themselves  solemnly  and  especiallj'  under  the 
protection  of  the  Virgin.  "  The  Cistercians  wore  white 
in  honor  of  her  purity;  the  Servi  wore  black  in  respect 
to  her  sorrows;  the  Franciscans  had  enrolled  themselves 
as  champions  of  the  immaculate  conception;  and  the 
Dominicans  introduced  the  Rosary.  All  these  richly- 
endowed  communities  vied  with  each  other  in  multiply- 
ing churches,  chapels,  and  pictures  in  honor  of  their 
patroness,  and  expressive  of  her  several  attributes.  The 
devout  painter,  kneeling  before  his  easel,  addressed  him- 
self to  tlic  task  of  portraying  these  heavenly  lineaments, 
which  had  visited  him  perhaps  in  dreams.  IVIany  of 
the  professed  monks  and  friars  became  themselves  ac- 
complished artists"  (Mrs.  Jameson).  Poetry  also  came 
v.— B  Ii  B 


to  the  altar  of  sacrilege^  and  made  her  offering  in  the 
person  of  the  immortal  Dante,  who,  "  through  the  com- 
munion of  mind,  not  less  than  through  his  writings,  in- 
fused into  religious  art  tliat  mingled  theology,  poetry, 
and  mysticism  which  ruled  in  the  Giottesque  school 
during  the  following  century,  and  went  hand  in  hand 
with  the  development  of  the  power  and  practice  of  imi- 
tation. .  .  .  His  ideas  respecting  the  Virgin  IMary  were 
precisely  those  to  which  the  writings  of  St.  Bernard,  St. 
Bonaventura,  and  St.  Thomas  Aciuinas  had  already  lent 
all  the  persuasive  power  of  eloquence,  and  the  Church 
all  the  weight  of  her  authority"  (Mrs.  Jameson),  lie 
hastened  to  render  these  doctrines  into  poetry,  and  in 
the  Paradiso  Mary  figures  as  the  Mystic  Rose  (Rosa 
mystica)  and  Queen  of  heaven,  with  the  attendant  an- 
gels, circle  within  circle,  floating  round  her  in  adoration, 
and  singing  the  Regina  Coeli,  and  saints  and  patriarchs 
stretching  Ibrth  their  hands  towards  her.  "  Thus,"  says 
Mrs.  Jameson  (p.  xxx),  "the  impulses  given  .  .  .  con- 
tinued in  progressive  development  .  .  .  the  spiritual 
sometimes  in  advance  of  the  material  influences;  the 
moral  idea  emanating,  as  it  were,y/-o?/i  the  soul,  and  the 
influences  of  external  nature  flowing  into  it ;  the  com- 
prehensive power  of  fancy  using  more  and  more  the  ap- 
prehensive power  of  imitation,  and  both  working  to- 
gether tiU  their  '  blended  might'  achieved  its  fuU  frui- 
tion in  the  works  of  Raphael"  (q.  v.).  The  Hussite  war, 
and  the  iconoclastic  s]>irit  of  the  Bohemians,  rather 
strengthened  the  Churchmen  than  otherwise,  and  con- 
tributed to  the  growth  of  the  impulse  to  worship  IMary. 
But  strange  fancies  were  now  as  freely  interpolated  in 
the  productions  of  the  artist,  which,  though  themselves 
but  "  the  reflex  influence  of  that  interpolation  of  new 
doctrines  which  had  been  going  on  in  the  Church  for  so 
many  centuries"  (HiU,  Engl.  Monasticism,  p.  320),  never- 
theless received  the  disapproval  of  pious  Catholics  of 
that  age,  who  "  cried  out  '  temerarium,  scandalosimi,  et 
periculosum,'  when  tliey  saw  the  most  solemn  spectacle 
in  the  world's  history  made  the  sport  of  wanton  imag- 
inations .  .  .  the  sorrow  of  the  cross  made  to  rest  more 
heavily  upon  the  mother  of  Christ  than  upon  him" 
(HiU).  The  Council  of  Trent  felt  itself  forced  to  de- 
nounce the  impropriety  of  certain  pictures,  and  it  was 
generally  acknowledged  that  paganized  and  degenerate 
influences  had  overruled  spiritual  art,  that  the  latter 
was  indeed  no  more,  that  "  it  was  dead ;  it  could  never 
be  revived  without  a  return  to  those  modes  of  thought 
and  belief  which  had  at  first  inspired  it"  (Jlrs.  Jameson). 
Just  at  this  time  "theological  art,"  as  Mrs.  Jameson 
calls  it,  came  to  the  rescue  of  Mariolatr^^  It  is  true  the 
Reformation  at  the  opening  of  the  16th  century  had 
dealt  a  severe  blow  at  all  the  various  institutions  of  Ro- 
manism savoring  of  idolatry  and  superstition,  but  this 
was  only  an  additional  reason  why  the  Church  of  St.  Pe- 
ter should  seek  to  fortify  herself  the  more  strongly  in  the 
fortress  so  severely  assailed  by  the  enemy.  Mariolatry 
had  served  her  purpose  ably,  and  just  now,  if  ever,  need- 
ed re-enforcing.  Deprived  of  the  aid  of"  religious  art," 
the  poets  and  artists  no  longer  wTought  up  to  a  wild 
pitch  of  enthusiasm  to  inspire  the  spirit  of  worship  of 
the  Virgin,  the  mfalUble  guide  of  the  Church  himself 
came  to  the  rescue,  and  supplied  by  "  theological  art" 
what  was  needed.  In  1571  the  battle  of  Lepanto  was 
fought.  In  it  the  combined  fleets  of  Christendom,  led 
by  Don  Juan  of  Austria,  were  arrayed  against  the  Turks, 
and  achieved  a  memorable  victory  over  the  devout  ad- 
herents of  the  prophet  of  Mecca.  Pope  Pius  V  quickly 
availed  himself  of  this  opportunity  to  attribute  the  vic- 
tory "  to  the  special  interposition  of  the  Blessed  Virgin." 
From  a  very  early  period  in  Jlariolatry  we  find  festivals 
instituted  in  honor  of  the  "  Blessed  Virgin,"  but  now  a 
new  festival,  that  of  the  Rosary,  was  added  to  those  al- 
ready observed,  a  new  invocation  added  to  her  litany,  un- 
der the  title  of  Atixtliain  Chiistianoriivi,  and,  more  than 
all,  many  sanctuaries  were  declared  to  be  especially  sa- 
cred to  her  worship,  and  thus  a  prominence  was  given  to 
her  devotion  whicli  found  its  full  expression  only  in  our 


MARIOLATRY 


V54 


MARIS 


own  day.  on  Dec.  8, 1854,  when  this  dogma,  conceived  in 
the  silence  of  the  cell  by  the  brain  of  infatuated  monks, 
was  canonized  by  a  helpless  pontiff',  and  the  doctrine  es- 
tablished "  that  not  only  did  the  Virgin  Mary  imm.acu- 
lately  conceive  her  son  Jesus  Christ  (as  Protestants 
hold),  but  was  as  immaculately  conceived  herself"  (Hill, 
p.  314;  comp.  Krauth,  Coiiservative  Reformation,  p.  381 
sq.).  Well,  indeed,  may  it  be  said  that  "  the  contro- 
versy with  Kome  threatens  more  and  more  to  resolve  it- 
self into  the  question  whether  the  creed  of  Christendom 
is  to  be  based  upon  the  life  of  Jesus  or  the  life  of  Marj', 
upon  the  canonical  or  the  apocryphal  Gospels"  (Plump- 
tre,  Christ  and  Christendom  [Boyle  Lect.  1866],  p.  342). 
Need  we  wonder,  then,  that  Bishop  Bull  waxes  warm 
when  this  abomination  presents  itself  for  his  comments, 
and  is  made  to  speak  in  the  following  severe  strain : 
"  We  abominate  the  impious  imposture  of  those  who 
have  translated  the  most  humble  and  holy  Virgin  into 
an  idol  of  pride  and  vanity,  and  represented  her  as  a 
vainglorious  and  aspiring  creature ;  like  Lucifer  (I  trem- 
ble at  the  comparison),  thirsting  after  divine  worship 
and  honor,  and  seeking  out  superstitious  men  and  wom- 
en, whom  she  may  oblige  to  her  more  special  service, 
and  make  them  her  perpetual  votaries.  For  what  great- 
er affront  than  this  could  they  have  offered  to  her  hu- 
mility and  sanctity?  How  fulsome,  yea,  how  perfectly 
loathsome  to  us  are  the  tales  of  those  that  have  had 
the  assurance  to  tell  us  of  the  amorous  addresses  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  to  certain  persons,  her  devout  worship- 
pers, choosing  them  for  her  husbands,  bestowing  her 
kisses  liberally  on  them,  giving  them  her  breasts  to 
suck,  and  presenting  them  with  bracelets  and  rings  of 
her  hair  as  love-tokens !  The  fables  of  the  Jewish  Tal- 
mudists,  yea,  of  Mohammed,  may  seem  grave,  serious, 
and  sober  histories,  compared  to  these  and  other  such 
impudent  fictions.  Insomuch  that  wise  men  have 
thought  that  the  authors  of  these  romances  in  religion 
were  no  better  than  the  tools  and  instruments  of  Satan, 
used  by  him  to  expose  the  Christian  religion,  and  ren- 
der it  ridiculous,  and  thus  introduce  atheism.  And,  in- 
deed, we  are  sure  that  the  wits  of  Italy,  where  these 
abominable  deceits  have  been  and  are  chiefly  counte- 
nanced, were  the  first  broachers  and  patrons  of  infidelity 
and  atheism  in  Europe,  since  the  time  that  Christianity 
obtained  in  it."  "  We  honor  the  Virgin  Mary,"  says 
Mr.  Endell  Tyler  (  Worship),  p.  391),  one  of  the  latest  and 
most  critical  students  of  early  Church  historj-  and  Chris- 
tian antiquities,  "  we  love  her  memory,  we  AvoiUd,  by 
God's  grace,  follow  her  example  in  faith  and  humility, 
meekness  and  obedience ;  we  bless  God  for  the  wonderful 
work  of  salvation,  in  effecting  which  she  was  a  chosen 
vessel ;  we  call  her  a  blessed  saint  and  a  holy  Virgin ; 
we  cannot  doubt  of  her  eternal  happiness  through  the 
merits  of  him  who  was 'God  of  the  substance  of  his  Fa- 
tlier  before  the  world,  and  man  of  the  substance  of  his 
mother  born  in  the  world.'  But  we  cannot  address  re- 
ligious phrases  to  her ;  we  cannot  trust  in  her  merits,  or 
intercession,  or  advocacy,  for  oiur  acceptance  with  God ; 
we  cannot  invoke  her  for  any  blessing,  temporal  or  spir- 
itual ;  we  cannot  praj-  to  God  through  her  intercession, 
or  for  it.  This  in  us  would  be  sin.  We  pray  to  God 
alone;  we  offer  religious  praise,  our  spiritual  sacrifices, 
to  God  alone ;  we  trust  in  tiod  alone ;  we  need  no  other 
mediator,  we  apply  to  no  other  mediator,  intercessor,  or 
advocate,  in  the  unseen  world,  but  Jesus  Christ  alone, 
the  Son  of  God  and  the  Son  of  man.  In  this  faith  we 
implore  God  alone,  for  the  sake  only  of  his  Son,  to  keep 
us  steadfast  unto  death ;  and,  in  the  full  assurance  of  the 
belief  that  this  faith  is  founded  on  the  apostles  and 
prophets,  Jesus  Christ  himself  being  the  chief  corner- 
stone, we  will  endeavor,  by  the  blessing  of  the  Eternal 
Sheiiherd  and  Bishop  of  souls,  to  preserve  the  same 
faith,  as  our  Church  now  professes  it,  whole  and  unde- 
tiled,  and  to  deliver  it  down,  ^vithout  spot  or  stain  of  su- 
perstition, to  our  children's  children,  as  their  best  inher- 
itance forever." 

Literature, — Bonaventura,  Op€ra,vol,  i,  part  ii,p.4G6- 


473  (ISIogunt.  1609,  folio) ;  Canisius  (E.  C),  De  Maria 
Viri/iiie  libri  qninque  (Ingolst.  1577);  Lambertini  (K.C), 
Comment,  dmc  de  J.Christi,matrisque  ejusfestis  (I'ctav. 
1751) ;  Perrone  (R.  C),De  Immaadata  B.  V.  Jifuj-im  con- 
cejitu  (Kom.  1848)  (in  defence  of  the  new  papal  dogma 
of  the  sinless  conception  of  Mary)  ;  The  Glories  of  Mary, 
Mother  of  God;  transl.  from  the  Italian  of  blessed  Alphon- 
sus  Liguori,  and  carefully  revised  by  a  Catholic  priest 
(John  Coyne,  Dublin,  1833) ;  Home,  Mariolatng,  or  Facts 
and  Evidences,  etc.  (Loud.  1841) ;  Townsend,  Travels  in 
Spain ;  A  bsfract  of  the  Douay  Catechism,  p.  76 ;  The 
Garden  of  the  Soul;  Jowett,  Christian  Researches  in  the 
Mediterranean;  Roman  Catholic  Missal  for  the  Use  of 
the  Laity;  Gilly,  Tour  in  Piedmont;  Graham,  Three 
Months'  Residence  in  the  Mountains  East  of  Rome ;  Lai- 
ty's Directory,  1833;  Greg.  P.  XVI  Epist.  Ency.  18  Ka- 
lend.  Sept.  1832 ;  S.  Antonini  Summce  Theol.  pars  iv,  tit. 
XV,  p.  911-1270;  Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet.;  'EWioiX,  Delinea- 
tion of  Romanism,h\<i.  iv,  p.754  sq.;  Hook,  Church  Diet.; 
Cramp,  Text-Booh  of  Popery,  p.  400  sq. ;  SchafiF,  Ch.  Hist. 
ii,409  sq. ;  ]\Irs.  Jameson,  Legends  of  the  Madonna,  espe- 
cially the  Introduction ;  Tyler,  Worship  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  Mary  (Loud.  1844) ;  Mozley,  Moral  and  Dero- 
tional  Theol.  Ch.  of  Rome  (Lond.  1857);  Lord  Lindsay, 
Christian  Art  (London,  1847),  vol.  i;  Miss  Twining, 
Symbols  of  Early  Christian  Art;  F.  W.  Genthe,  Die 
Jungfrau  Maria,  ihre  Evangelien  u.ihre  Wunder  (Halle, 
1852) ;  Bible  and  Missal,  p.  1,  35 ;  Christian  Remem- 
6?Y(nc«-,July,1852,p.200;  1854;  Oct.  1855,  art.  vi;  July, 
1868,  art.  vii;  Co«fewp.i?e!'.  Nov.l868,p.454;  Brit,  and 
Fo7:  Ev.  Rev.  Oct.  1866,  p.  729.  Comp.  also  the  elabo- 
rate article  Mui-ia,  Mutter  des  Ileii-n,  by  Steitz,  in  Her- 
zog's  Real-Encykloj).  ix,  74  sq. ;  and  the  article  Maria, 
die  heil.  Jungfrau,  by  Reithmayr  (R.  C),  in  Wetzer  vmd 
Welte,  Kirch.-Lex.  vi,  835  sq. ;  also  the  Eirenicon  contro- 
versy between  Pusey  and  Newman  (1866).     (J.  II.  W.) 

Marion,  Elie,  a  prophet  of  the  Cevennes,  was  boni 
in  1678  at  Barre.  Being  destined  for  the  bar  by  his 
family,  he  studied  for  that  profession  till  October,  1701, 
when  he  became  possessed  with  the  religious  fanaticism 
of  the  Camisards,  and  returned  to  his  native  country  in 
order  to  take  part  in  the  movement  already  began 
there.  He  shortly  after  announced  himself  a  prophet. 
He  joined  a  troop  of  Camisards  and  became  their  leader, 
but  soon  capitulated  to  marshal  Villars  (Nov.  1704),  and 
was  expelled  from  the  kingdom.  After  a  brief  stay  in 
Geneva  and  Lausanne,  he  yielded  to  the  solicitations  of 
Flottard,  and  returned  to  France  with  more  Camisards. 
Not  succeeding  in  the  enterprise  which  he  meditated, 
he  obtained  a  new  capitulation,  and  returned  to  (icneva 
in  August,  1705.  The  following  year  he  went  to  Eng- 
land. A  great  number  of  refugees  hastened  part  way  to 
meet  him.  The  sensation  which  they  produced  was 
profound,  and  their  feigned  inspiration  was  the  cause  of 
a  lively  controversy.  See  Frp:nch  Prophets.  Marion 
having  publicly  denounced  both  eiiiscnpacy  and  royal- 
ty, the  government  obliged  him  to  leave  luigland.  He 
then  went  to  Germany,  where  he  found  a  few  atihcrents. 
His  works  are  Avertissements  jJrophetiques  d'Elie  Mari- 
on, on  discours  pi-ononces  par  sa  bouche,  sous  V inspira- 
tion du  Saint-Esprit  et  fidelement  regvs  dans  le  temps 
qu'ilparlait  (Lond.  1707,  8vo)  -.—Cri  d'A  laime,  ou  aver- 
tissement  aux  nations  qui  sortent  de  Babylone  (London, 
1712,  8vo)  : — Quand  rous  aurez  saccage,  vous  serez  sac- 
cages  (Lond.  1714,  8vo)  -.—Plan  de  la  justice  de  Dieu  sur 
la  terre  dans  ces  demiers  jours  (Lond.  1714,  8vo).  Let- 
ters signed  by  Allut,  Marion,  Fatio  and  Ponrtales,  trans- 
lated into  Lfitin,  were  published  by  Fatio  (1714,  8vo). 
See  Iloefer,  Xour.  Biog.  Gener.  vol.  xxxiii,  791. 

Maris,  a  name  of  frequent  occurrence  among  the 
Orientals,  and  especially  in  Syria  and  Persia.  1.  The 
later  Nestorians  circulated  a  legend  concerning  a  person 
of  this  name,  whom  they  claimed  to  have  been  one  of 
the  seventy-two  discii)les  of  Christ,  a  disciple  of  Thad- 
dajus,  colaborer  with  Thomas,  and  founder  and  first  bish- 
op of  the  Church  at  Scleucia-Ctesiphon.    This  legend  is 


MARISA 


V55 


MARK 


connected  with  that  of  Abgarus  (q.  v.),  and  deserves  no 
credit.  The  Clialdsean  Christians  class  him  with  their 
principal  saints  as  the  Apostle  of  Mesopotamia,  and  as- 
cribe to  him  the  composition  of  their  liturgy  in  part.  2. 
A  second  Maris,  better  known  in  the  AV'est,  is  noted  sole- 
ly because  to  him  is  addressed  the  letter  of  Ibas,  presi- 
dent of  the  theological  school  at  Edessa,  which  is  pre- 
served in  Mansi  (t.  ix,  col.  2118-300),  among  the  acts  of 
the  fifth  oecumenical  council  held  at  Constantinople  in 
553,  and  which  tlie  Nestorians  afterwards  regarded  as  a 
kind  of  confession  of  faith.  3.  Another  Maris  was  sur- 
named  Bar-Tobi.  He  became  patriarch  of  the  Persian 
Nestorians  in  987,  and  is  remarkable  as  the  first  patri- 
arch who  derived  his  authority  from  the  caliphs.  4.  A 
fourth  of  this  name,  distinguished  by  the  name  of  Salo- 
mon's son,  lived  in  the  r2th  century,  and  wrote  a  history 
in  Arabic  of  the  Nestorian  patriarchs,  of  which  Asse- 
mani  {JSibliotheca  Orient,  iii,  55-1  sq.,  581  sq.)  furnishes 
an  epitome.  5.  Finally,  Theodoret  (q.  v.)  narrates  an 
anecdote  of  still  another  Maris,  which  is  noteworthy 
chiefly  because  of  the  light  which  it  throws  on  the  views 
of  that-  bishop,  and  of  the  use  which  Romanists  have 
made  of  it.  Maris  was  a  hermit,  who  had  long  desired 
to  see  "  the  most  sacred,  mysterious  sacrifice"  offered, 
and  Theodoret  joyfully  complied  with  his  wish.  The 
sacred  vessels  were  taken  to  his  retreat,  the  hands  of 
the  deacons  served  as  an  altar,  "and  thus,"  says  the 
bishop,  "  I  offered  the  mysterious,  divine,  and  saving 
sacrifice"  in  his  presence.  Romish  writers  find  in  these 
words  of  the  distinguished  father  and  historian  of  the 
5th  century  an  argument  in  favor  of  the  Mass.  See 
Theodoret,  Relif/iosa  historia,  c.  2 ;  Wetzer  und  Welte, 
Kirchen-Lex.  xii,  7G9.     See  also  Nestouius.     (G.  M.) 

Mar'isa  (Mnpto-n),  the  Grascized  form  (2  Mace,  xii, 
35)  of  Makesiiah  (q.  v.). 

Marius  Aventicus,  a  Swiss  prelate,  was  born  of 
a  noble  French  family  of  Autun,  near  the  middle  of  the 
Gth  century.  From  childhood  he  was  destined  for  the 
Church,  and  his  literary  remains  furnish  evidence  that 
he  received  a  careful  training.  He  was  made  bishop  of 
Aventicum,  now  Avenches,  in  the  canton  Waadt,  in  573, 
or,  as  some  state,  in  580.  The  times  were  tumultuous, 
the  population  depleted,  the  country  impoverished.  In 
these  circumstances  he  distinguished  himself  by  a  praise- 
worthy frugality,  and  a  devotion  to  agricidtural  pur- 
suits that  furnished  the  means  for  a  lavish  liberality. 
He  was  bounteous  to  the  poor,  and  generous  to  the 
Church.  In  honor  of  Mary  ^foruK-of,  he  rebuilt  the 
town  of  Payerne  (Paterniacum)  on  his  own  lands,  and 
dedicated  its  church  to  her;  he  also  donated  to  this 
church  many  of  his  adjoining  lands,  on  condition,  how- 
ever, that  the  chapter  of  Lausanne  should  derive  its 
tithes  from  Payerne  and  two  neighboring  towns.  In 
the  specific  work  of  the  episcopal  office  he  was  tireless — 
a  model  ecclesiastic  for  the  times.  Serving  his  God 
with  reverence  and  in  humility,  he  was  an  impartial 
judge,  a  protector  of  the  oppressed,  and  a  devoted  shep- 
herd to  his  flock.  Towards  the  close  of  his  life  he 
translated  his  see  to  Lausanne,  which  from  that  time 
gave  its  name  to  the  diocese.  The  only  additional  fact 
connected  with  his  life  that  has  come  to  our  knowledge 
is  that  he  was  present  at  the  Synod  of  Macon  in  585, 
which  was  convened  by  Guntram,  a  son  of  Chlotar,  to 
attempt  the  purification  of  the  Church  in  his  dominions 
by  executing  justice  on  unworthy  members  of  the  cler- 
gy. jMarius  is  supposed  to  have  died  in  503,  and  was 
commemorated  at  first  on  the  31st  of  December,  but 
now  on  the  4th  of  February.  His  Annals,  a  continua- 
tion of  the  work  of  Prosper  Aquit.,  are  the  only  writings 
of  his  that  have  reached  our  time  which  may  justly  be 
ascribed  to  him.  They  were  published  at  Paris,  in  the 
collections  of  Du  Chcsne  and  Dom  Bouquet;  at  Venice, 
in  the  Bihliotkeca  refer,  patrum ;  and,  the  best  manual, 
by  Rickly,  in  the  Memoires  et  documens  publies  par  la 
societi  dliistoire  de  la  Suisse  Romande,  torn.  xiii.  See 
Zurlauben,  Memoire  sur  Marius,  in  the  Mem.  de  VA  cad. 


roy.  des  iiiscript.  (Paris,  1770) ;  Herzog,  Real- Ency Hop. 
ix,  108  sq. ;  Wetzer  undWelte,  Kirc/ien-Lexikon,  yi,8'J].. 
(G.M.) 

Marius  Mercator,  a  layman  in  the  Church  of 
the  4th  century,  flourished  at  Constantinople  after  421. 
Dr.  Murdock,  the  editor  ofMosheim,  says  that  Marius 
Mercator  "  was  undoubtedly  a  layman,  a  friend  and  ad- 
mirer of  Augustine,  and  an  active  defender  of  his  doc- 
trines from  A.D.  418  to  the  year  451."  Dr.  Schaff  (C7z. 
Hist.  vol.  iii),  however,  speaks  of  Marius  Mercator  first 
as  a  layman  (p.  71G),  and  later  (p.  784)  mentions  him  ae 
a  learned  Latin  monk  in  Constantinople  (A.D.  428-451). 
Marius  Mercator  was,  so  supposes  his  biographer  Baluze 
(Priefat.  in  Mercat.  p.  7),  an  African  by  birth,  who  went 
to  Rome  about  417,  when  Julius  and  the  other  Pelagian 
chiefs  were  disputing  in  the  Eternal  City,  and  then  and 
there  produced  a  work  against  the  Pelagian  heresy, 
which  is  probably  the  Ilypogiwsticon,  printed  in  the 
Appendix  of  vol.  x  of  the  works  of  St.  Augustine  (comp. 
CeiUier,  Hist,  des  A  ut.  Sac.  viii,  498  sq.).  Ceillier  gives 
us  421  (p.  501)  as  the  date  of  Marius  Mercator's  arrival 
at  Constantinople,  and  as  the  date  of  his  decease  449 
(p.  507) ;  and  says, "  On  ne  voit  pas  qu'il  ait  ete  em- 
ploye dans  le  ministere  ecclesiastique,  et  il  ne  prend 
d'autre  qualite  dans  ses  ecrits  que  celle  de  serviteur  de 
Jesus-Christ."  Marius  Mercator's  works  as  collected 
are  almost  whoUy  translations  from  the  Greek  fathers, 
particidarly  Nestorius,  Theodosius  of  Mopsuestia,  Cyril 
of  Alexandria,  Proclus,  Theodoret,  etc.,  accompanied  with 
prefaces  and  notes  or  strictures  by  the  translator.  Him- 
self one  of  the  most  bitter  opponents  of  Pelagianism  ( q. 
v.),  his  writings  are  aU  designed  to  confute  either  the 
Pelagian  or  Nestorian  errors.  They  were  edited,  with 
notes,  by  Job.  Gamier  (Paris,  1673,  foUo),  and  still  bet- 
ter by  Stephen  Baluze  (Opera,  Stephanus  Baluzius  ad 
fidem  veterum  codicum  MSS.  emendavit,  et  notis  illus- 
travit,  Paris,  1G84,  8vo).     (J.  H,  W.) 

Mark  (Mapicoc,  from  the  frequent  Latin  surname 
Marcus,  as  the  word  is  Anglicized  only  in  Col.  iv,  10 ; 
PhUem.  24;  1  Pet.  v.  13),  the  evangelist,  is  probably 
the  same  as  "  John  whose  surname  was  Mark"  (Acts  xii. 
12,  25).  Grotius  indeed  maintains  the  contrary,  on  the 
ground  that  the  earliest  historical  writers  nowhere  call 
the  evangelist  by  the  name  of  John,  and  that  they  al- 
ways describe  him  as  the  companion  of  Peter  and  not 
of  Paul.  But  John  was  the  Jewish  name,  and  Mark,  a 
name  of  frequent  use  among  the  Romans,  was,  adopted 
afterwards,  and  gradually  superseded  the  other.  The 
places  in  the  N.  T.  enable  us  to  trace  the  process.  The 
John  Mark  of  Acts  xii,  12,  25,  and  the  John  of  Acts  xiii, 
5, 13,  becomes  Mark  only  in  Acts  xv,  39  ;  Col.  iv,  10;  2 
Tim.  iv,  11 ;  Philem.  24.  The  change  of  John  to  Mark 
is  analogous  to  that  of  Saul  to  Paul ;  and  we  cannot 
doubt  that  the  disuse  of  the  Jewish  name  in  favor  of 
the  other  is  intentional,  and  has  reference  to  the  putting 
away  of  his  former  life,  and  entrance  upon  a  new  minis- 
try. No  inconsistency  arises  from  the  accounts  of  his 
ministering  to  two  apostles.  The  desertion  of  Paul 
(Acts  xiii,  13)  may  have  been  prompted  jiartly  by  a 
wish  to  rejoin  Peter  and  the  apostles  engaged  in  preach- 
ing in  Palestine  (Benson ;  see  Kuinol's  note),  and  partly 
from  a  disinclination  to  a  perilous  and  doubtfid  journey. 
There  is  nothing  strange  in  the  character  of  a  warm 
impulsive  young  man,  drawn  almost  equally  towards 
the  two  great  teachers  of  the  faith,  Paul  and  Peter. 
Had  mere  cowardice  been  the  cause  of  his  withdrawal, 
Barnabas  would  not  so  soon  after  have  chosen  him  for 
another  journey,  nor  would  he  have  accepted  the  choice. 

John  ]\Iark  was  the  son  of  a  certain  IMary,  who  dwelt 
at  Jerusalem,  and  was  therefore  probably  born  in  that 
city  (Acts  xii,  12).  He  was  of  Jewish  parentage  (Col. 
iv,  10).  He  was  the  cousin  {avt\l/i6<^)  of  Barnabas  (Col. 
iv,  10).  It  was  to  iMarj-'s  house,  as  to  a  familiar  haunt, 
that  Peter  came  after  his  deliverance  from  prison  (Acts 
xii.  12),  and  there  found  '•  many  gathered  together  pray- 
ing ;"  and  probably  John  INIark  was  converted  by  Peter 


MARK 


756 


MARK,  GOSPEL  OF 


from  meeting  him  in  his  mother's  house,  for  he  speaks 
of  "Marcus  my  son"  (1  I'et.  v,  13).  This  term  has  been 
taken  as  implying  the  natural  relation  b}'  Bengel,  Nean- 
iler,  Credner,  Hottinger,  Tholuck,  Stanley  (Setin.  on  the 
Apost.  Age,  p.  95),  but  this  is  contrary  to  the  view  of  the 
earlier  writers  (Origen,  ap.  Eusebius,  //.  E.,  vi,  25 ;  Eu- 
sebius,  H.  E.  ii,  15 ;  Jerome,  De  Vi?:  III.  c.  8).  The  the- 
ory that  he  was  one  of  the  seventy  disciples  is  without 
any  warrant.  Another  theory,  that  an  event  of  the 
night  of  our  Lord's  betrayal  (A.D.  29),  related  by  Mark 
al<ine,  isone  that  befell  himself  (01shausen,Lange),  must 
not  be  so  promptly  dismissed.  "  There  followed  him  a 
certain  young  man,  having  a  linen  cloth  cast  about  his 
naked  body;  and  the  young  men  laid  hold  on  him:  and 
he  left  the  linen  cloth,  and  tied  from  them  naked"  (Mark 
xiv,  51,  52).  The  detail  of  facts  is  remarkably  minute  ; 
the  name  only  is  Avanting.  The  most  probable  view  is 
that  Mark  suppressed  his  own  name,  while  teUing  a 
story  which  he  had  the  best  means  of  knowing.  Awa- 
kened out  of  sleep,  or  just  preparing  for  it,  in  some 
house  in  the  valley  of  Kedron,  he  comes  out  to  see  the 
seizure  of  the  betrayed  Teacher,  known  to  him  and  in 
some  degree  beloved  alread}%  He  is  so  deeply  interest- 
ed in  his  fate  that  he  follows  him  even  in  his  thin  linen 
robe.  His  demeanor  is  such  that  some  of  the  crowd  are 
about  to  arrest  him ;  then,  "  fear  overcoming  shame" 
(Bengel),  he  leaves  his  garment  in  their  hands  and  flees. 
We  can  only  say  that  if  the  name  of  ]Mark  is  supplied, 
the  narrative  receives  its  most  probable  explanation. 
John  (i,  40 ;  xix,  26)  introduces  himself  in  this  unob- 
trusive way,  and  perhaps  Luke  the  same  (xxiv,  18). 
Mary  the  mother  of  Mark  seems  to  have  been  a  person 
of  some  means  and  influence,  and  her  house  a  rallying- 
point  for  Christians  in  those  dangerous  days  (Acts  xii, 
12).  A.D.  44.  Her  son,  already  an  inquirer,  would  soon 
become  more.  Anxious  to  work  for  Christ,  he  went 
with  Paul  and  Barnabas  as  their  "minister"  {inrijperTjg) 
on  their  first  journey ;  but  at  Perga,  as  we  have  seen 
above,  tiu-ned  back  (Acts  xii,  25 ;  xiii,  13).  On  the  sec- 
ond journey  Paul  would  not  accept  him  again  as  a  com- 
jiauion,  but  Barnabas  his  kinsman  was  more  indulgent; 
and  thus  he  became  the  cause  of  the  memorable  "  sharp 
contention"  between  them  (Acts  xv,  36-40).  Whatever 
was  the  cause  of  Mark's  vacillation,  it  did  not  separate 
him  forever  from  Paul,  for  we  find  him  by  the  side  of 
that  apostle  in  his  first  imprisonment  at  Kome  (Col.  iv, 
10  ;  Philem.  24).  A.D.  56.  In  the  former  place  a  pos- 
sible j(iurney  of  Mark  to  Asia  is  spoken  of.  Somewhat 
later  he  is  with  Peter  at  Babylon  (1  Pet.  v.  13).  Some 
consider  Babylon  to  be  a  name  here  given  to  Home  in  a 
mystical  sense — surely  without  reason,  since  the  date  of 
a  letter  is  not  the  place  to  look  for  a  figure  of  speech. 
Of  the  causes  of  this  visit  to  Babylon  there  is  no  evi- 
dence. It  may  be  conjectured  that  he  made  the  jour- 
ney to  Asia  Minor  (Col.  iv,  10),  and  thence  went  on  to 
join  Peter  at  Babylon.  On  his  return  to  Asia  he  seems 
to  have  been  with  Timothy  at  Ephesus  when  Paul 
wrote  to  him  during  his  second  imprisonment,  and  Paul 
was  anxious  for  his  return  to  Rome  (2  Tim.  iv,  11). 
A.D.  04. 

When  we  desert  Scripture  we  find  the  facts  doubtful, 
and  even  inconsistent.  If  Papias  be  trusted  (quoted  in 
Eusebius,  //.  E.  iii,  39),  Marie  never  was  a  disciple  of 
our  Lord,  which  he  probaiily  infers  from  1  Pet.  v,  13. 
Epiphanius,  on  the  other  liand,  willing  to  do  honor  to 
the  evangelist,  adopts  tlie  tradition  that  he  was  one  of 
the  seventj'-two  disciples  who  turned  back  from  our 
Lord  at  the  hard  saying  in  John  vi  {Cont.  liar,  li,  6,  p. 
457,  Dindorfs  recent  edition).  The  same  had  been 
said  of  Luke.  Nothing  can  be  decided  on  this  point. 
The  relation  of  j\Iark  to  Peter  is  of  great  importance  for 
our  view  of  his  Gospel.  Ancient  writers  with  one  con- 
sent make  the  evangelist,  the  interpreter  (fp/a)i'fi)r/;c) 
of  the  apostle  Peter  (Papias  in  Eusel)ius,  //.  E.  iii,  39 ; 
Irenanis,  llcer.  iii,  1;  iii,  10,  6;  Tertullian,  c.  Marc,  iv, 
5;  Jerome,  ad  Uedih.  vol.  ix,  etc.\  Some  explain  this 
word  to  mean  that  the  oflicc  of  Mark  was  to  translate 


into  the  Greek  tongue  the  Aramaic  discourses  of  the 
apostle  (Eichhorn,  Bertholdt,  etc.) ;  while  others  adopt 
the  more  probable  vie^v  that  Mark  wrote  a  Gospel  which 
conformed  more  exactly  than  the  others  to  Peter's 
preaching,  and  thus  "  interpreted"  it  to  the  Church  at 
large  (Valesius,  Alford,  Lange,  Fritzsche,  Meyer,  etc.). 
The  passage  from  Eusebius  favors  the  latter  view ;  it  is 
a  quotation  from  Papias.  "This  also  [John]  the  elder 
said :  Mark,  being  the  interpreter  of  Peter,  wrote  down 
exactly  whatever  things  he  remembered,  but  yet  not  in 
the  order  in  which  Christ  either  spoke  or  did  them ;  for 
he  was  neither  a  hearer  nor  a  follower  of  the  Lord's,  but 
he  was  afterwards,  as  I  [Papias]  said,  a  follower  of  Pe- 
ie?:"  The  words  in  italics  refer  to  the  word  inteq)reter 
above,  and  the  passage  describes  a  disciple  writing  down 
what  his  master  preached,  and  not  an  interpreter  oraUy 
translating  his  words.  See  Mark,  Gospel  oi<\  The 
report  that  Jlark  was  the  companion  of  I'eter  at  Rome 
is  no  doubt  of  great  antiquity.  Clement  of  Alexandria 
is  quoted  by  Eusebius  as  giving  it  for  "  a  tradition  which 
he  had  received  of  the  elders  from  the  first"  (Trapdooffiv 
riov  aviKuBti'  TrpLa(ivriptx)v,  Eusebius,  //.  E.  vi,  14; 
Clem.  Alex.  Hyp.  p.  6).  But  the  force  of  this  is  invali- 
dated by  the  suspicion  that  it  rests  on  a  misunderstand- 
ing of  1  I'et.  V,  13,  Babylon  being  wrongly  taken  for  a 
tj'pical  name  of  Kome  (Eusebius,  //.  E.  ii,  15 ;  Jerome, 
De  Vir.  ill.  c.  8).  Sent  on  a  mission  to  Egypt  by  Peter 
(Epiphanius,  Iher.  li,  6,  p.  457,  Dindorf ;  Eusebius,  //.  E. 
ii,  16),  Mark  there  founded  the  Church  of  Alexandria 
(Jerome,  De  Vir.  ill.  c.  8),  and  preached  in  various  places 
(Nicephorus,  //.  E.  ii,  43),  then  returned  to  Alexandria, 
of  which  Church  he  was  bishop,  and  suffered  a  martj-r's 
death  (Nicephorus,  ibid,  and  Jerome,  De  Vi?:  ill.  c.  8)  in 
the  eighth  year  of  Nero.  According  to  the  legend,  his 
remains  were  obtained  from  Alexandria  by  the  Vene- 
tians through  a  pious  stratagem,  and  conveyed  to  their 
city,  A.D.  827.  Venice  was  thenceforward  solemnly 
placed  under  his  protection,  and  the  lion,  which  medi- 
aeval theology  had  selected  from  the  apocalyptic  beasts 
as  his  emblem,  became  the  standard  of  the  republic. 
The  place  of  the  deposition  of  his  body  having  been 
lost,  a  miracle  was  subsequently  wrought  for  its  discov- 
ery, A.D.  1094,  which  figures  iii  many  famous  Morks  of 
art.  Where  his  remains  now  lie  is,  according  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  Eustacius,  "  acknowledged  to  be  an  un- 
divulged  secret ;  or,  perhaps,  in  less  cautious  language, 
to  be  utterly  unknown." — Smith  ;  Kitto. 

MARK,  Gospel  of,  the  second  of  the  evangelical 
narratives  in  the  N.  T.  In  treating  it  we  shall  largely 
avail  ourselves  of  the  articles  in  the  Dictionaries  of 
Kitto  and  Smith. 

I.  A  utliorsliip. — The  voice  of  the  Church  with  one 
consent  assigns  onr  second  Gospel  to  Mark,  the  "son" 
(1  Pet.  V,  17)  and  "interpreter"  (Papias,  ap.  Eusebius, 
//.  E.  iii,  39)  of  Peter.  The  existence  of  tliis  ascrip- 
tion is  tlie  best  evidence  of  its  truth.  Had  not  Mark 
been  its  author,  no  sulhcient  reason  can  be  given  for  its 
having  borne  the  name  of  one  so  undistinguished  in  the 
history  of  the  Church.  His  identity  with  the  "  John 
Mark"  of  the  Acts  and  Epistles  has  usually  been  taken 
for  granted,  nor  (see  last  article)  is  there  any  sufficient 
groinid  for  calling  it  in  question.  It  must,  however,  be 
acknowledged  that  there  is  no  early  testimony  for  the 
fact — as  there  is  none  against  it — which  appears  first  in 
the  preface  to  the  Co?nme?itct?-y  on  the  evangelist  usually 
attributed  to  Victor  of  Antioch,  cir.  A.D.  407  (Cramer, 
Cate?ta,  i,  263),  and  in  a  note  of  Ammonius  {ibid,  ii,  iv), 
where  it  is  mentioned  with  some  expression  of  doubt 
7-«x«  oliTug  trr-ii'  Mi'ipKOQ  u  tvayye\t(T-iii;  .  .  .  TtiiavoQ 
c't  6  \6yoQ  (Westcott,  hiti-od.  p.  212).  An  argument  in 
favor  ol  their  identity  has  been  drawn  with  much  acute- 
ness  by  Tregelles  (.Jo?i?-?i.  ofPhilol.  1855,  p.  224 ;  Home's 
liit?-od.  to  iV.  T.  p.  433)  from  the  singular  epithet  "stump- 
fingered,"  KoXoliodc'iKTiiXoc ,  applied  to  the  evangelist  in 
the  J'/rilosoj)/iiime?ia,  vii,  30,  as  illustrated  by  the  words 
of  the  Latin  preface  found  in  some  MSS.  "  at  least  nearly 
coeval  with  Jerome,"  "  amputasse  sibi  post  fidcm  poUi- 


MARK,  GOSPEL  OF 


757 


MARK,  GOSPEL  OF 


cem  (licitur  ut  sacerdotio  reprobus  haboretiir;"  as  if,  by 
his  desertion  of  the  apostles  (Acts  xiii,  13),  he  had  be- 
come tiguratively  a  "  poUice  trunciis" — a  poltroon. 

II.  /Source  of  this  Gospel. — Tlie  tradition  of  the  early 
Church  asserts  that  Mark  wrote  his  Gospel  under  the' 
special  iuHuence  and  direction  of  the  apostle  Peter.  The 
words  of  John  the  presbyter,  as  quoted  by  Papias  (Eu- 
sebius,  //.  A',  iii,  39),  are  explicit  on  this  point:  "  This, 
then,  was  the  statement  of  the  elder  :  Mark,  having  be- 
come Peter's  interpreter  (ipfiiji'evrfic),  wrote  accurately 
all  that  he  remembered  {ifivrifxovevfft);  but  he  did  not 
record  the  words  and  deeds  of  Christ  in  order  (oy  fjiiv 
rot  rd^fi  Tu  inro  rou  Xpiarov  )j  Xtx^ivra  J)  Trpa^^iv- 
Tci),  for  he  was  neither  a  hearer  nor  a  follower  of  our 
Lord,  but  afterwards,  as  I  said,  became  a  follower  of  Pe- 
ter, who  used  to  adapt  his  instruction  to  meet  the  re- 
quirements of  his  hearers,  but  not  as  making  a  connected 
arrangement  of  our  Lord's  discourses  {aW  ovx  wffTrsp 
(Tvi'ra^iv  T(jjv  KvpiaKMV  Troiovfievog  Xuyojv);  so  Mark 
committed  no  error  in  writing  down  particulars  as  he 
remembered  them  {tvia  ypa\l/ag  wg  cnrefwijuovevatv), 
for  he  made  one  thing  his  object — to  omit  nothing  of 
what  he  heard,  and  to  make  no  erroneous  statement  in 
them."  The  value  of  this  statement,  from  its  almost 
apostolic  date,  is  great,  though  too  much  stress  has  been 
laid  upon  some  of  its  expressions  by  Schleiermacher 
and  others,  to  discredit  the  genuineness  of  the  existing 
Gospel  of  Jlark.  In  addition  to  I'eter's  teaching  hav- 
ing been  the  basis  of  the  Gospel,  we  learn  from  it  three 
facts  of  the  greatest  importance  for  the  right  compre- 
hension of  the  origin  of  the  Gospels :  "  The  historic  char- 
acter of  the  oral  Gospel,  the  special  purpose  with  which 
it  was  framed,  and  the  fragmentariness  of  its  contents" 
(Westcott,  Introd.  p.  18G).  The  testimony  of  later  writ- 
ers is  equally  definite,  though  probably  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent derived  from  that  of  Papias.  Justin  quotes  from 
the  present  Gospel  under  the  title  ra  c'nrof^ivmtovtvj.iaTa 
Utrpov.  Irenreus  (//.  E.  iii,  1)  asserts  that  Mark  "de- 
livered in  writing  the  things  preached  by  Peter;"  and 
Origen  {ibid,  vi,  25)  that  he  "  composed  it  as  Peter  di- 
rected him"  (wf  nirpog  v(pi)yr\aaro  avriii  Troiqaavra). 
Clement  of  Alexandria  enters  more  into  detail,  and,  ac- 
cording to  Eusebius's  report  of  his  words  (//.  E.  vi,  14 ; 
ii,  15),  contradicts  himself.  He  ascribes  the  origin  of 
the  Gospel  to  the  importunity  of  Peter's  hearers  in  Rome, 
who  were  anxious  to  retain  a  lasting  record  of  his  preach- 
ing from  the  pen  of  his  ipfxr]vEVTrjg,  which,  when  com- 
pleted, the  apostle  viewed  with  approbation,  sanctioning 
it  with  his  authority,  and  commanding  that  it  should 
be  read  in  the  churches;  while  elsewhere  we  have  the 
inconsistent  statement  that  when  Peter  kne^v  what  had 
been  done  '•  he  neither  forbade  nor  encoiu-aged  it."  Ter- 
tullian's  testimony  is  to  the  same  effect:  "Marcus  quod 
edidit  evangelium  Petri  affirmatur"  {A  dv.  Marc,  vi,  5) ; 
as  is  that  of  Eusebius  (//.  E.  iii,  5)  and  Jerome  {De  Vir. 
ill.  c.  8;  ad  Iledib.  c.  2),  who  in  the  last  passage  writes, 
"Cujus  (Marci)  evangelium  Petro  narrante  et  illo  scri- 
bente  compositum  est."  Epiphanius  says  that,  imme- 
diately after  jNIatthew,  the  task  of  writing  a  Gospel 
was  laid  on  Mark,  "  the  follower  of  Peter  at  Rome" 
{Hcer.  li). 

Such,  so  early  and  so  uniform,  is  the  tradition  which 
connects,  in  the  closest  manner,  jMark's  Gospel  with  the 
apostle  Peter.  To  estimate  its  value  we  must  inquire 
how  far  it  is  consistent  with  facts ;  and  here  it  must  be 
candidly  acknowledged  that  the  Gospel  itself  supplies 
very  little  to  an  unbiassed  reader  to  confirm  the  tradi- 
tion. The  narrative  keeps  more  completely  to  the  com- 
mon cycle  of  the  Synoptic  record,  and  even  to  its  lan- 
guage, than  is  consistent  with  the  individual  recollec- 
tions of  one  of  the  chief  actors  in  the  history ;  while  the 
differences  of  detail,  though  most  real  and  important, 
are  of  too  minute  and  refined  a  character  to  allow  us  to 
entertain  the  belief  that  Peter  was  in  any  way  directly 
engaged  in  its  composition.  Any  record  derived  im- 
mediately from  Peter  could  hardly  fail  to  have  given  us 
far  more  original  matter  than  the  slender  additions  made 


by  !Mark  to  the  common  stock  of  the  Synoptical  Gospels. 
It  is  certainly  true  that  there  are  a  few  unimportant 
passages  where  Peter  is  specially  mentioned  by  Mark, 
and  is  omitted  by  one  or  both  of  the  others  (i,  36 ;  v,  37; 
xi,  20 ;  xiii,  3 ;  xvi,  7) ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  there 
are  still  more  numerous  and  more  prominent  instances 
which  would  almost  show  that  Mark  was  less  intimately 
acquainted  with  Peter's  life  than  they.  He  omits  his 
name  when  given  by  Matthew  (xv,  15 ;  comp.  Mark  vii, 
17) ;  passes  over  his  walking  on  the  sea  (Matt,  xiv,  28- 
31 ;  comp.  Mark  vi,  50-51),  and  the  miracle  of  the  trib- 
ute-money (Matt,  xvii,  24-27;  comp.  Mark  ix.  33),  as 
well  as  the  blessing  pronounced  on  him  by  our  Lord, 
and  his  designation  as  the  rock  on  which  the  Church 
should  be  built  (Matt,  xvi,  17-19 ;  comp.  Mark  viii,  29, 
30).  Although  Peter  was  one  of  the  two  disciples  sent 
to  make  ready  the  Passover  (Luke  xxii,  8),  his  name  is 
not  given  by  Mark  (xiv,  13).  We  do  not  find  in  jNIark 
the  remarkable  words,  "  I  have  prayed  for  thee,"  etc. 
(Luke  xxii,  31,  32).  The  notice  of  his  repentance  also, 
tTrifiaXiov  (KXaie  (xiv,  72),  is  tame  when  contrasted 
with  the  tS,tX^wp  t^w  tKXavcriv  niKpHig  of  Matthew  and 
Luke.  Advocates  are  never  at  a  loss  for  plausible  rea- 
sons to  support  their  preconceived  views,  and  it  has 
been  the  habit  from  very  early  times  (Eusebius,  Chry- 
sostom)  to  attribute  these  omissions  to  the  modesty  of 
Peter,  who  was  unwilling  to  record  that  which  might 
specially  tend  to  his  own  honor — an  explanation  unsat- 
isfactory in  itself,  and  which  cannot  be  applied  with  any 
consistency.  Indeed,  we  can  hardly  have  a  more  strik- 
ing proof  of  the  readiness  with  which  men  see  what 
they  wish  to  see,  and  make  the  most  stubborn  facts 
bend  to  their  own  foregone  conclusions,  than  that  a 
Gospel,  in  which  no  unbiassed  reader  would  have  dis- 
covered any  special  connection  with  Peter,  should  have 
yielded  so  many  fancied  proofs  of  Petrine  origin. 

But  whUe  we  are  unable  to  admit  any  considerable 
direct  influence  of  Peter  in  the  composition  of  the  Gos- 
pel, it  is  by  no  means  improbable  that  his  oral  commu- 
nications may  have  indirecllj/  influenced  it,  and  that  it 
is  to  him  the  minuteness  of  its  details  and  the  graphic 
coloring  which  specially  distinguish  it  arc  due.  While 
there  is  hardly  any  part  of  its  narrative  that  is  not  com- 
mon to  it  and  some  other  Gospel,  in  the  manner  of  the 
narrative  there  is  often  a  marked  character,  which  puts 
aside  at  once  the  supposition  that  we  have  here  a  mere 
epitome  of  Matthew  and  Luke.  The  picture  of  the 
same  events  is  far  more  vivid ;  touches  are  introduced 
such  as  could  only  be  noted  by  a  vigilant  e\'e-witness, 
and  such  as  make  us  almost  eye-witnesses  of  the  Re- 
deemer's doings.  The  most  remarkable  case  of  this  is 
the  account  of  the  daemoniac  in  the  country  of  the  Gad- 
arenes,  where  the  following  words  are  peculiar  to  Mark  : 
"  And  no  man  could  bind  him,  no,  not  with  chains :  be- 
cause that  he  had  often  been  bound  with  fetters  and 
chains,  and  the  chains  had  been  plucked  asunder  by 
him,  and  the  fetters  broken  in  pieces :  neither  could  any 
man  tame  him.  And  always  night  and  day  he  was  in 
the  mountains  crying  and  cutting  himself  with  stones. 
But  when  he  saw  Jesus  afar  off,  he  ran,"  etc.  Here  we 
are  indebted  for  the  picture  of  the  fierce  and  hopeless 
wanderer  to  the  evangelist  whose  work  is  the  briefest, 
and  whose  style  is  the  least  perfect.  He  sometimes 
adds  to  the  account  of  the  others  a  notice  of  our  Lord's 
look(iii,34;  viii,33;  x,21;  x,23);  he  dwells  on  human 
feelings  and  the  tokens  of  them  ;  on  our  Lord's  pity  for 
the  leper,  and  his  strict  charge  not  to  publish  the  mira- 
cle (i,41,44);  he  "loved"  the  rich  young  man  for  his 
answers  (x,  21);  he  "looked  round"  with  anger  when 
another  occasion  called  it  out  (iii,  5);  he  groaned  in 
spirit  (vii, 34;  viii,  12).  All  these  are  peculiar  to  Mark, 
and  they  woidd  be  explained  most  readily  by  the  the- 
ory that  one  of  the  disciples  most  near  to  Jesus  liad  sup- 
plied them.  To  this  must  be  added  that  while  JNIark 
goes  over  the  same  groimd  for  the  most  part  as  the  oth- 
er evangelists,  and  especially  Matthew,  there  are  many 
facts  thrown  in  which  prove  that  we  are  listening  to  an 


MARK,  GOSPEL  OF 


758 


MARK,  GOSPEL  OF 


independent  witness.  Thus  the  luimble  origin  of  Peter 
is  made  known  through  him  (i,  10-20),  and  his  connec- 
tion with  Capernaum  (i,  '2'J) ;  he  tells  us  that  Levi  was 
'•  the  son  of  Alphajus"  (ii,  14),  that  I'eter  was  the  name 
given  by  our  Lord  to  Simon  (iii,  IC),  and  Boanerges  a 
surname  added  by  him  to  the  names  of  two  others  (iii, 
17);  he  assumes  the  existence  of  another  body  of  disci- 
ples wider  than  the  twelve  (iii,  32 ;  iv,  10,  36 ;  viii,  34 ; 
xiv,  51,  62) ;  we  owe  to  him  the  name  of  Jairus  (v,  22), 
the  word  "  carpenter"  applied  to  our  Lord  (vi,  3),  the 
nation  of  the  "  Syro-Phocnician"  woman  (vii,  2G) ;  he  sub- 
stitutes Dalmanutha  for  the  "  Magdala"  of  Matthew  (viii, 
10) ;  he  names  Bartimreus  (x,  40) ;  he  alone  mentions 
that  our  Lord  would  not  suffer  any  man  to  carry  any 
vessel  through  the  Temple  (xi,  10) ;  and  that  Simon  of 
Cyrene  was  the  father  of  Alexander  and  Rufus  (xv,  21). 
Thus  in  this  Gospel  the  richness  in  subtle  and  pictu- 
restjue  touches,  by  which  the  ^vriter  sets,  as  it  were,  the 
scene  he  is  describing  before  us  in  all  its  outward  feat- 
ures, with  the  very  look  and  demeanor  of  the  actors,  be- 
token the  report  of  an  eye-witness ;  and  with  the  testi- 
mony of  the  early  Church  before  us,  which  can  hardly 
be  set  aside,  we  are  warranted  in  the  conclusion  that 
this  eye-witness  was  Peter.  Not  that  the  narrative,  as 
we  have  it,  was  his;  but  that  when  Mark,  under  the 
Holy  Spirit's  guidance,  after  separation  from  his  master, 
undertook  the  task  of  setting  forth  that  cycle  of  Gospel 
teaching  to  which — from  grounds  never  yet,  nor  perhaps 
ever  to  be  satisfactorily  explained — the  Synoptists  chief- 
ly confine  themselves,  he  was  enabled  to  introduce  into 
it  many  pictorial  details  which  he  had  derived  from  his 
master,  and  w'hich  had  been  impressed  on  his  memory 
by  frequent  repetition. 

in.  Relation  to  Matthew  and  Luke. — The  question  of 
priority  of  composition  among  the  Synoptic  Gospels  has 
long  been  the  subject  of  vehement  controversy,  and  to 
judge  by  the  diversity  of  the  views  entertained,  and  the 
confidence  each  appears  to  feel  of  the  correctness  of  his 
own,  it  would  seem  to  be  as  far  as  ever  from  being  set- 
tled. (For  monographs  under  this  head,  see  Volbeding, 
Index,  p.  3;  Danz,  WurterbiicJi,  s.  v.  Marcus.) 

Tlie  position  of  Mark  in  relation  to  the  other  two  has, 
in  particular,  given  rise  to  the  widest  differences  of 
opinion.  The  independence  of  his  record  was  main- 
tained up  to  the  time  of  Augustine,  but  since  his  day 
three  theories  have  been  entertained.  («.)  That  father 
conceived  the  view,  which,  however,  he  does  not  em- 
ploy with  much  consistency,  that  IMark  was  merely  "  tan- 
qnam  pedissequus  et  breviator"  of  Matthew  (De  Consens. 
Ei\  i,  4);  and  from  his  day  it  has  been  held  by  many 
that  Mark  deliberately  set  himself  to  make  an  abridg- 
ment of  one  or  both  the  other  Synoptists.  Griesbach 
expressed  this  opinion  most  decidedly  in  his  Commen- 
tatio  quo  Marci  Evangelium  totvm  a  Matthcei  et  Lucce 
commentariis  dece^-ptum  esse  monstratiir  (Jena,  1789-90 ; 
also  in  Velthuj'sen,  Comment,  i,  360  sq.) ;  and  it  has  been 
stated  in  a  more  or  less  modified  form  by  Paulus, 
Schleiermacher,  Thiele,  De  Wette,  Delitzsch,  Fritzsche, 
and  Bleek,  the  last  two  named  adding  John's  Gospel  to 
the  materials  before  him.  Nor  can  it  be  denied  that  at 
first  sight  this  view  is  not  devoid  of  plausibility,  espe- 
cially as  regards  Matthew.  "We  find  the  same  events 
recorded,  and  apparently  in  the  same  way,  and  ver^'  of- 
ten in  the  same  words.  Mark's  is  the  shorter  work,  and 
that  principally,  as  it  would  seem,  by  the  omission  of 
the  discourses  and  parables,  which  are  a  leading  feature 
in  the  others.  There  are  in  IMark  only  about  three 
events  which  Matthew  does  not  narrate  (Mark  i,  23 ; 
viii,  22 ;  xii,  41),  and  thus  the  matter  of  the  two  may  be 
regarded  as  almost  the  same.  But  tlie  form  in  IMark  is, 
as  we  have  seen,  much  briefer,  ;uid  tlie  omissions  are 
many  and  important.  Tlie  explanation  is  that  Mark 
had  the  work  of  Mattliew  before  him.  and  only  con- 
densed it.  But  many  would  make'  Mark  a  comjiiler 
from  both  the  others  (Griesbach,  De  Wette.  etc. ),  argu- 
ing from  passages  where  there  is  a  curious  resend)lauce 
to  both  (see  De  Wette,  Ilandbuch,  §  94  a).    Yet,  though 


this  opinion  of  the  dependence,  more  or  less  complete, 
of  IMark  upon  the  other  Gospels,  was  for  a  long  time  re- 
garded almost  as  an  established  fact,  no  very  searching 
investigation  is  needed  to  show  its  baselessness.  In- 
stead of  Mark's  narrative  being  an  abridgment  of  that 
of  Matthew  or  of  Luke,  it  is  often  much  fidler.  Partic- 
ulars are  introduced  which  an  abridger  aiming  at  con- 
densation would  have  been  certain  to  prune  away  if  he 
had  found  them  in  his  authoritj';  while  the  freshness 
and  graphic  power  of  the  histor}%  the  life-like  touches 
which  almost  put  us  on  the  stage  with  the  actors,  and 
his  superior  accuracy  as  regards  persons,  words,  times, 
and  places,  prove  the  originality  and  independence  of 
his  work.  (6.)  Of  late,  therefore,  opinion  has  been  tend- 
ing as  violently  in  the  opposite  direction,  and  the  pre- 
vailing view  among  modern  critics  is  that  in  Mark  we 
have  the  primitive  Gospel,  "i^Vcrfn^/ye/aMw,"  from  which 
both  tliose  of  Matthew  and  Luke  were  derived.  This  is 
held  by  Weisse,  Wilke,  Ewald,  Lachmann.Hitzig,  Eeuss, 
Kitschel, Thiersch,  Meyer,  etc.,  and  has  lately  been  main- 
tained with  considerable  ingenuity  in  Mr.  Kenrick's /)i&- 
licul  Essays,  (c.)  Hilgenfeld  again  adopts  an  interme- 
diate view,  and  considers  IMark  to  have  held  a  middle 
position  both  as  regards  form  and  uiternal  character; 
himself  deriving  his  Gospel  from  Matthew,  and  in  his 
turn  supplying  materials  for  that  of  Luke ;  while  doc- 
trinally  he  is  considered  to  hold  the  mean  between  the 
Judaic  Gospel  of  the  first,  and  the  universal  Gospel  of 
the  third  evangelist. 

Many  formidable  difficidties  beset  each  of  these  theo- 
ries, and  their  credit  severally  is  impaired  by  the  fact 
that  the  very  same  data  which  are  urged  by  one  writer 
as  proofs  of  the  priority  of  IMark,  are  used  by  another  as 
irrefragable  evidence  of  its  later  date.  We  even  find 
critics,  like  Baur,  bold  enough  to  attribute  the  vivid  de- 
tails, which  are  justly  viewed  as  evidences  of  the  inde- 
pendence and  originality  of  his  record,  to  the  fancy  of 
the  evangelist ;  thus  importing  the  art  of  the  modern 
novelist  into  times  and  works  to  the  spirit  of  which  it  is 
entirely  alien. 

So  much,  however,  we  may  safely  grant,  while  main- 
taining the  substantial  independence  of  each  of  the  Sy- 
noptical Gospels — that  Mark  exhibits  the  oral  tradition 
of  the  official  life  of  our  Lord  in  its  earliest  extant  from, 
and  furnishes  the  most  direct  representation  of  the  com- 
mon basis  on  which  they  all  rest.  "  In  essence,  if  not  in 
composition,"  says  IMr.  Wcscott, /n?ro(7.  p.  190  (the  two 
not  being  necessarily  identical,  the  earlier  tradition  be- 
ing perhaps  possibly  the  latest  committed  to  writing), 
"it  is  tlie  oldest."  The  intermediate  theory  has  also  so 
much  of  truth  in  it,  that  IMark  does  actually  occupy  the 
central  position  in  regard  to  diction ;  frequently,  as  it 
were,  combining  the  langiuige  of  the  other  two  (i,  32; 
comp. IMatt. viii,  16;  Luke  iv, 40:  i,42;  comp.IMatt.viii, 
3;  Luke  V,  13:  ii,  13-18;  comp.  Matt,  ix,  9-14;  Luke  v, 
27-33:  iv.30-32;  comp.Matt.  xiii, 31-33;  Lukexiii,18- 
21),  as  indeed  would  naturally  be  the  case  if  we  consid- 
er that  his  Gospel  most  closely  represents  the  original 
from  which  all  were  developed.  In  conclusion  we  may 
say.  that  a  careful  comparison  of  the  three  Gospels  can 
hardly  fail  to  convince  the  unprejudiced  reader  that, 
while  Mark  adds  hardly  anything  to  the  general  narra- 
tive, we  have  in  his  Gospel,  in  the  words  of  IMcycr  (Com- 
ment.)," a.  fresher  stream  from  the  apostolic  fmnitain," 
without  which  we  should  have  wanted  many  important 
elements  for  a  true  conception  of  our  blessed  Lord's  na- 
ture and  work. 

If  now  we  proceed  to  a  detailed  comparison  of  the 
matter  contained  in  the  (iospels.  we  shall  find  that,  while 
the  history  of  the  conception,  and  birth,  and  cliildhood 
of  our  Lord  and  his  forerunner  have  no  parallel  in  Mark, 
afterwards  the  main  course  of  the  narrative  (Luke  ix, 
51-xviii,  14,  being  of  course  excepted)  is  on  the  whole 
coincident ;  and  that  the  difference  is  mainly  due  to  the 
absence  of  the  parables  and  discourses,  which  were  for- 
eign to  his  purpose  of  setting  forth  the  active  ministry 
of  Christ.    Of  our  Lord's  parables  he  onlj^  gives  us  four: 


MARK,  GOSPEL  OF 


V59 


MARK,  GOSPEL  OF 


"  the  sower,"  "  the  mustard  seed,"  and  "  the  wicked  hus- 
bandmen"— common  also  to  Matthew  and  Luke :  and 
one,  '•  the  seed  growing  secretly,"  iv,  26-29  (unless,  in- 
deed, it  be  an  abbreviated  and  independent  form  of  the 
"  tares"),  peculiar  to  himself.  Of  the  discourses,  he  en- 
tirely omits  the  sermon  on  the  mount,  the  denunciations 
against  the  Scribes  aud  Pharisees,  and  almost  entirely 
the  instructions  to  the  twelve ;  while  of  the  other  short- 
er discourses  he  only  gives  that  on  fasting  (ii,  19-22), 
the  Sabbath  (ii,  25-28),  the  casting  out  devils  by  Beel- 
zebub (iii,  23-29),  on  eating  with  unwashen  hands,  and 
corban  (vii,  6-23),  and  divorce  (x,  5-9).  That  on  "  the 
last  things"  (chap,  xiii)  is  the  only  one  reported  at  any 
length.  On  the  other  hand,  his  object  being  to  develop 
oiiT  Lord's  Messianic  character  in  deeds  rather  than 
words,  he  records  the  greater  part  of  the  miracles  given 
by  the  Synoptists.  Of  the  twenty-seven  narrated  by 
them,  eighteen  are  found  in  Mark,  twelve  being  common 
to  all  three;  three — the  Syro-Phoenician's  daughter,  the 
feeding  of  the  four  thousand,  and  the  cursing  of  the  fig- 
tree — common  to  him  and  Matthew ;  one — the  dsemo- 
niac  in  the  synagogue — to  him  and  Luke ;  and  two — the 
deaf  stammerer  (vii,  31-37),  and  the  ijlind  man  at  Beth- 
saida  (viii,  22-26)  (supplying  remarkable  points  of  cor- 
respondence, in  the  withdrawal  of  the  object  of  the  cure 
from  the  crowd,  the  use  of  external  signs,  and  the  grad- 
ual process  of  restoration) — peculiar  to  himself.  Of  the 
nine  omitted  by  him,  only  three  are  found  in  Matthew, 
of  which  the  centurion's  servant  is  given  also  bj'  Luke. 
The  others  are  found  in  Luke  alone.  If  we  suppose 
that  jMark  had  the  Gospels  of  Matthew  and  Luke  before 
him,  it  is  difficult  to  assign  any  tolerably  satisfactory 
reason  for  his  omission  of  these  miracles,  especially  that 
of  the  centurion's  servant,  so  kindred  to  the  object  of  his 
work.  On  the  contrary  hypothesis,  that  they  copied 
from  him,  how  can  we  account  for  their  omitting  the 
two  remarkable  miracles  mentioned  above  ? 

The  arrangement  of  the  narrative,  especially  of  our 
Lord's  earlier  GaliliBan  ministry,  agrees- with  Luke  in 
opposition  to  that  of  Matthew,  which  appears  rather  to 
have  been  according  to  similarity  of  subject  than  order 
of  time. 

According  to  Norton  (Genuineness  of  Gospels),  there 
are  not  more  than  twenty-four  verses  in  Mark  to  which 
parallels,  more  or  less  exact,  do  not  exist  in  the  other 
Synoptists.  The  same  painstaking  investigator  informs 
us  that,  while  the  general  coincidences  between  Mark 
and  one  of  the  other  two  amount  to  thirteen  fourteenths 
of  the  whole  Gospel,  the  verbal  coincidences  are  one 
sixth,  and  of  these  four  fifths  in  ]Mark  occur  in  the  re- 
cital of  the  words  of  our  Lord  and  others;  and  only  one 
fifth  in  the  narrative  portion,  which,  roughly  speakuig, 
forms  one  half  of  his  Gospel. 

Additions  peculiar  to  Mark  are,  "  the  Sabbath  made 
for  man"  (ii,  27) ;  our  Lord's  friends  seeking  to  lay  hold 
on  him  (iii,  21) ;  many  particulars  in  the  miracles  of  the 
Gadarene  diemoniac  (v,  1-20) ;  Jairus's  daughter,  and 
the  woman  with  issue  of  blood  (v,  22-43) ;  the  stilling 
of  the  tempest  (iv,  35-41),  and  the  lunatic  child  (ix, 
14-29);  the  salting  with  fire  (ix,  49) ;  that  "the  com- 
mon people  heard  him  gladly"  (xii,  37) ;  the  command 
to  watch  (xiii,  33-37) ;  the  young  man  with  the  linen 
cloth  about  his  body  (xiv,  51) ;  the  want  of  agreement 
between  the  testimony  of  the  false  witnesses  (xiv,  59) ; 
Pilate's  investigation  of  the  reality  of  Christ's  death 
(xv,  44),  and  the  difficult}'  felt  by  the  women  as  to  the 
rolling  away  the  stone  (xvi,  3,  4).  Mark  has  also  pre- 
served several  words  and  phrases,  and  entire  sayings  of 
our  Lord,  M'hich  merit  close  attention  (i,  15;  iv,  13;  vi, 
31,34;  vii,  8;  viii,  38;  ix,  12,  39;  x,  21,  24,  30;  xi,  17 ; 
xiii,  32;  xiv,  18-37;  xvi,  7  [15-18]). 

The  hypothesis  which  best  meets  all  these  facts  is, 
that  while  the  matter  common  to  all  three  evangelists, 
or  to  two  of  them,  is  derived  from  the  oral  teaching  of 
the  apostles,  which  tliey  had  puqiosely  reduced  to  a 
common  form,  our  evangelist  writes  as  an  independent 
witness  to  the  truth,  and  not  as  a  compiler ;  and  the 


tradition  that  the  Gospel  was  written  under  the  sanc- 
tion of  Peter,  and  its  matter  in  some  degree  derived 
from  him,  is  made  probable  by  the  evident  traces  of  an 
eye-witness  in  many  of  the  narratives.  The  omission 
and  abridgment  of  our  Lord's  discourses,  and  the  sparing 
use  of  O.-T.  quotations,  might  be  accounted  for  by  the 
special  destination  of  the  Gospel,  if  we  had  siu-er  data 
for  ascertaining  it ;  since  it  was  for  Gentiles,  with  whom 
illustrations  from  the  O.  T.  would  have  less  weight,  and 
the  purpose  of  the  writer  was  to  present  a  clear  and 
vivid  picture  of  the  acts  of  our  Lord's  human  life,  rather 
than  a  full  record  of  his  divine  doctrine.  We  may 
thankfully  own  that,  with  little  that  is  in  substance  pe- 
culiar to  himself,  the  evangelist  does  occupy  for  us  a 
distinct  position,  and  supply  a  definite  want,  in  virtue 
of  these  traits. 

IV.  Cltaraderistics. — Though  this  Gospel  has  little 
historical  matter  which  is  not  shared  with  some  other, 
it  would  be  a  great  error  to  suppose  that  the  voice  of 
Mark  could  have  been  silenced  without  injury  to  the 
divine  harmony.  The  minute  painting  of  the  scenes  in 
which  the  Lord  took  part,  the  fresh  and  lively  mode  of 
the  narration,  the  very  absence  of  the  precious  discourses 
of  Jesus,  which,  inter[)osed  between  his  deeds,  would 
have  delayed  the  action,  all  give  to  this  Gospel  a  char- 
acter of  its  own.  It  is  the  history  of  the  war  of  Jesus 
against  sin  and  evil  in  the  world  during  the  time  that 
he  dwelt  as  a  Man  among  men.  Our  Lord  is  presented 
to  us,  not  as  in  Matthew,  as  the  Messiah,  the  Son  of 
David  and  Abraham,  the  theocratic  King  of  the  chosen 
people ;  nor,  as  in  Luke,  as  the  universal  Saviour  of 
our  fallen  humanity ;  but  as  the  incarnate  and  wonder- 
working Son  of  God,  for  whose  emblem  the  early  Church 
justly  selected  "the  lion  of  the  tribe  of  Judah."  His 
record  is  emphatically  "  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ,  the 
Son  of  God"  (Mark  i,  1),  living  and  working  among 
men,  and  developing  his  mission  more  in  acts  than  by 
words.  The  limits  of  his  narrative  and  its  general  char- 
acter can  hardly  be  better  stated  than  in  the  A/ords  of 
his  apostolic  teacher.  Acts  x,  36-42.  Commencing  with 
the  Baptist  preaching  in  the  wilderness,  and  announcing 
the  "  Mightier  One"  who  was  at  hand,  he  tells  us  how, 
at  his  baptism,  "  God  anointed  Jesus  of  Nazareth  with 
the  Holy  Ghost  and  with  power,"  and  declared  him  to 
be  his  "  beloved  Son :"  gathering  up  the  temptation  into 
the  pregnant  fact,  "  He  was  with  the  wild  beasts ;"  thus 
setting  the  Son  of  God  before  us  as  the  Lord  of  nature, 
in  whom  the  original  grant  to  man  of  dominion  over  the 
lower  creation  was  fulfilled  (Maurice,  Unity  of  the  N.  T. 
p.  226 ;  Bengel,  ad  loc. ;  Wilberforce,  Doctrine  of  Incar- 
nation, p.  89,  90).  As  we  advance,  we  find  him  detail- 
ing every  exercise  of  our  Lord's  power  over  man  and 
nature  distinctly  and  minutely — not  merely  chronicling 
the  incidents,  as  is  ISIatthew's  way,  but  surrounding 
them  with  all  the  circumstances  that  made  them  im- 
pressive to  the  bystanders,  and  making  us  feel  how  deep 
that  impression  was;  how  great  the  awe  and  wonder 
with  which  his  might}'  works  and  preaching  were  re- 
garded, not  only  by  the  crowd  (i,  22,  27;  ii,  12;  vi,  2), 
but  by  the  disciples  themselves  (iv,  41 ;  vi,  51 ;  x,  24, 
26,  32) ;  how  the  crowds  thronged  and  pressed  upon 
him  (iii,  10 ;  v,  21,  31 ;  vi,  33 ;  viii,  1),  so  that  there  was 
scarce  room  to  stand  or  sit  (ii,  2 ;  iii,  32 ;  iv,  V),  or  leis- 
ure even  to  eat  (iii,  20;  vi,  31) ;  how  his  fame  spread 
the  more  he  sought  to  conceal  it  (i,  45 ;  iii,  7 ;  v,  20 ;  vii, 
36,  37) ;  and  how,  in  consequence,  the  people  crowded 
about  him,  bringing  their  sick  (i,  32-34;  iii,  10);  and 
"whithersoever  he  entered  into  villages,  or  cities,  or 
countr}',  they  laid  the  sick  in  the  streets,  and  besought 
that  they  might  touch  if  it  were  but  the  border  of  his 
garment :  and  as  many  as  touched  were  made  perfectly 
whole"  (vi,  56) ;  how  the  unclean  spirits,  seeing  him,  at 
once  fell  down  before  him  and  acknowledged  liis  jiower, 
crying,  "Thou  art  the  Son  of  God"  (i,  23-26;  iii,  11); 
how,  again,  in  Peter's  words,  "  He  went  about  doing 
good,  and  healing  all  that  were  oppressed  of  the  devO, 
for  God  was  with  him." 


MARK,  GOSPEL  OF 


760 


MARK,  GOSPEL  OF 


But  while  the  element  of  divine  power  is  that  which 
specially  arrests  our  attention  in  reading  his  Gospel, 
there  is  none  in  which  the  human  personality  is  more 
conspicuous.  The  single  word  o  TtKriov  (vi,  3)  throws 
a  tlood  of  light  on  our  Lord's  early  life  as  man  in  his 
native  village.  The  limitation  of  his  knowledge  is  ex- 
pressly stated  (xiii,  32,  ovSe  o  Tide);  ^"'^l  we  continu- 
ally meet  with  mention  of  human  emotions — anger  (iii, 
5;  viii,  12,  33;  x,  14),  wonder  (vi,  6),  pity  (vi,  34),  love 
(x,  21),  grief  (vii,  34 ;  viii,  12) ;  and  human  infirmities 
— sleep  (iv,  38),  desire  for  repose  (vi,  31),  himger  (xi, 
12). 

Ill  ]\Iark  we  have  no  attempt  to  draw  up  a  continuous 
narrative.  His  Gospel  is  a  rapid  succession  of  A'ivid 
pictures  loosely  strung  together  (usually  by  Kai,  Kctl 
TraXiv,  or  tvBiwQ'),  without  much  attempt  to  bind  them 
into  a  whole,  or  give  the  events  in  their  natural  se- 
ijuence.  This  pictorial  power  is  that  which  specially 
characterizes  this  evangelist ;  so  that,  as  has  been  well 
said,  "  if  any  one  desires  to  know  an  evangelical  fact, 
not  only  in  its  main  features  and  grand  results,  but  also 
in  its  most  minute  and,  so  to  speak,  more  graphic  delin- 
eation, he  must  betake  himself  to  Mark"'  (Da  Costa,  Four 
Witnesses,  p.  88).  This  power  is  especially  apparent  in 
all  that  concerns  our  Lord  himself.  Nowhere  else  are 
we  permitted  so  clearly  to  behold  his  verj'  gesture  and 
look ;  see  his  very  position ;  to  read  his  feelings  and  to 
hear  his  very  words.  Ix  is  Mark  who  reveals  to  us  the 
comprehensive  gaze  of  Christ  (jrtpi(i\ti\jajiivoc,  iii,  5, 
34;  V,  32;  x,  23;  xi,  11);  his  loving  embrace  of  the 
children  brought  to  him  {tvayKaKiaafiivoc,  Ix,  36;  x, 
IG) ;  his  preceding  his  disciples,  while  they  follow  in 
awe  and  amazement  (x,  32).  We  see  him  taking  his 
seat  to  address  his  disciples  (/caSicrac,  ix,  34),  and  turn- 
ing round  in  holy  anger  to  rebuke  Peter  (l:7narpa(psiQ, 
viii,  33) ;  we  hear  the  sighs  which  burst  from  his  bosom 
vii,  34 ;  viii,  12),  and  listen  to  his  very  accents  ("  Tali- 
tha  cumi,"  v,  41;  "Ephphatha,"  vii,  34;  "Abba,"  xiv, 
36).  At  one  time  we  have  an  event  portrayed  with  a 
freshness  and  pictorial  power  which  places  the  whole 
scene  before  us  with  its  minute  accessories — the  para- 
lytic (ii,  1-12),  the  storm  (iv,  36^1),  the  dajmoniac  (v, 
1-20),  Herod's  feast  (vi,  21-29),  the  feeding  of  the  6000 
(vi,  30-45),  the  lunatic  child  (ix,  14-29),  the  young 
ruler  (x,  17,  22),  Bartimjeus  (x,  46-52),  etc.  At  another, 
details  are  brought  out  by  the  addition  of  a  single  word 
(Kin//rtc,  i,  7  ;  (Tx<?o/j£j/oiJc,  i,  10  ;  (T7T\ayxvi<TBeiQ,i,'il; 
Tolg  1^(0,  iv,  11;  7rpo(Twpi.ii(T^r](yav,  vi,  53;  lauBiv, 
i'£,uiBtv,  vii,  21,  23;  Kpd'^at;,  anapd^ag,  ix,  26;  arv- 
yvdcac;,  x,  22;  avi'Tpiil/aaa,  xiv,  3;  i^ifSXtipaaa,  xiv, 
67),  or  by  the  substitution  of  a  more  precise  and  graphic 
word  for  one  less  distinctive  (ticfidWti,  i,  12;  t^iaraa^ai, 
ii,  12;  yif^iZerrSrat,  iv,  37;  t^ijpdv^t],  v,  29;  cnrora^d- 
l^iivog,\],  46;  d^ertire,  vii,  9;  tK^aiilSncrBai,  xiv,  33). 
It  is  to  Mark  also  that  we  are  indebted  for  the  record  of 
miimte  particulars  of  persons,  places,  times,  and  num- 
ber, which  stamp  on  his  narrative  an  impress  of  authen- 
ticity. 

(L)  Perso7w.—i,  20;  ii,  14;  iii,  5,  17,  32,  34;  iv,  11; 
V,  32,  37,  40;  vi,  40,  48;  vii,  1,  25,  26;  viii,  10,  27;  ix, 
15,  36;  X,  16,  23,  35,  46;  xi,  21,  27;  xiii,  1,  3;  xiv,  20, 
37,  65;  XV,  7,  21,  40,  47;  xvi,  7. 

(2.)  Places.— i,  28 ;  iv,  1, 38 ;  v,  11,  20,  21 ;  vi,  65 ;  vii, 
17,  31 ;  viii,  10,  27;  ix,  30;  xi,  4;  xii,  41;  xiv,  66;  xv, 
16,39;  xvi,  5. 

(3.)  Time.— \,  32, 3b;  ii,  1,26;  iv,.35;  v,  2, 18,  21 ;  vi, 
2;  xi,  11, 19,  20;  xiv,  1, 12, 17,  30,  68,  72;  xv,  1,  25,  33, 
34,42;  xvi,  1,2. 

(4.)  Xumber.—v,  13,  42;  vi,  7;  viii,  24;  xiv,  30,  72. 

Other  smaller  variations  are  continually  occurring. 
Here  a  single  word,  there  a  short  parenthesis,  some- 
times an  apparently  trivial  accession — which  impart  a 
striking  air  of  life  to  the  record  ;  e.  g.  Zebcdee  left  with 
the  hired  servants  (i,  20)  ;  our  I»rd  praying  (i,  35)  ;  the 
paralytic  Iwrne  of  four  (ii.  3) ;  the  command  that  a  ship 
should  wait  on  him  (iii,  9) ;  "thy  sisters"  (iii,  32) ;  our 
Lord  taken  "  even  as  he   was  m  the  ship"   (iv,  36) ; 


"  other  little  ships  with  them''  (ibid.) ;  Jairus's  daugh- 
ter ''walked"  (v,  42);  "divers  came  from  far"  (viii,  3); 
only  "  one  loaf"  in  the  ship  (viii,  14) ;  "  so  as  no  fuller 
on  earth  can  white"  (ix,  2) ;  the  danger  of  trusting  in 
riches  (x,  24) ;  "  with  persecutions"  (x,  30) ;  "  no  vessel 
suffered  to  be  carried  through  the  Temple"  (xi,  16) ; 
"  a  house  of  prayer  for  all  nations"  (xi,  17) ;  "  she  hath 
done  what  she  could"  (xiv,  8) ;  Barabbas,  one  of  a  party 
of  insurrectionists  all  guilty  of  bloodshed  (xv,  7). 

We  cannot  conclude  our  remarks  on  this  head  better 
than  in  the  words  of  Mr.Westcott  (/?i??-of/.  p.  348) — that 
"  if  all  other  arguments  against  the  mythic  origin  of  the 
evangelic  narratives  were  wanting,  this  vivid  and  sim- 
ple record,  stamped  with  the  most  distinct  impress  of 
independence  and  originality,  would  be  sufficient  to  re- 
fute a  theory  subversive  of  aU  faith  in  histon,-." 

V.  Style  and  Diction. — The  style  of  Jlark  may  be 
characterized  as  vigorous  and  abrupt.  His  tenns  of 
connection  and  transition  are  terse  and  lively ;  he  is 
fond  of  employing  the  direct  for  the  indirect  (iv,  39 ;  v, 
8,  9,  12;  vi,  23,  31,  37;  ix,  25,  33;  xii,  6),  the  present 
for  the  past  (i,  25,  40,  44 ;  ii,  3,  4,  5 ;  iii,  4,  5, 13,  20,  31, 
34;  iv,  37,  etc.),  and  the  substantive  instead  of  the  pro- 
noun ;  he  employs  the  cognate  accusative  (iii,  28 ;  vii, 
13;  xiii,  19;  iv,  41;  v,  42),  accumulates  negatives  {ov- 
Ktri  oi'Seig,  vii,  12 ;  ix,  8 ;  xii,  34  ;  xv,  5  ;  oi'iciri  oxi  fxtj, 
xiv,  25 ;  /AijKiri  ^tti£iic,  xi,  14),  and  for  sake  of  emphasis 
repeats  what  he  has  said  in  other  words,  or  appends  the 
opposite  (i,  22,  45;  ii,  27;  iii,  26,  27,  29;  iv.  17,  33,  34), 
and  piles  up  synonymes  (iv,  6,  8,  39 ;  v,  12,  23  ;  viii,  15 ; 
xiii,  33;  xiv,  68),  combining  this  forcible  style  with  a 
conciseness  and  economy  of  expression  consistent  with 
the  elaboration  of  every  detail. 

Mark's  diction  is  nearer  to  that  of  Matthew  than  to 
that  of  Luke.  It  is  more  Hebraistic  than  the  latter, 
though  rather  in  general  coloring  than  in  special  phrases. 
According  to  Davidson  {Introcl.  i,  154),  there  are  forty- 
five  words  peculiar  to  him  and  Matthew,  and  only  eigh- 
teen common  to  him  and  Luke.  Aramaic  words,  espe- 
cially those  used  by  our  Lord,  are  introduced,  but  ex- 
plained for  Gentile  readers  (iii,  17,  22 ;  v,  41 ;  vii,  1 1 ,  34 ; 
ix,  43;  x,46;  xiv,  36;  xv,  22,  34).  Latinisms  are  more 
frequent  than  in  the  other  Gospels :  KivTvpiwv,  xv,  39, 
44,  45;  (TTrfKovXdTwp,  vi,  27;  to  iKarov  -Tr-oifjtTai,  xv, 
15;  ^iaTJjg,  vii,  4,  8,  are  peculiar  to  him.  Others — 
£t]i'dpioi',  K»/j'(TOf,  \tyiiov,  TTpaiTwpiov,  (ppaytWvu), 
KoCpdvTi]g — he  has  in  common  with  the  rest  of  the 
evangelists.  He  is  fond  of  diminutives — S:vydTpiov, 
Kopdaiov,  Kvvdpia,  u)Tdpiov — but  they  are  not  peculiar 
to  him.  He  employs  unusual  words  and  phrases  (c.  g. 
dXaXdZtiv,  iiri(Tvi'rptx(tv,  Kio/ioTToXig,  ^tyi(jTuv(c,  vdp- 
Sog  TriaTiKij,  i'oinnx^i'g,  natctoStv,  TrXoidptov,  Trpopi- 
pij.ivm',  Tpi'i^iaXia,  vTroXi]riov,  CToifidg,  nixvpinZvpit'oq 
o'ivog ;  avv^Xifitiv,  tveiXtlv).  Of  other  noticeable 
words  and  expressions  we  may  remark,  dKd2:aprov 
■Kvivjjia,  eleven  times,  Matthew  six,  Luke  three;  i'jp- 
KaTO  Xeyitv,  Kpdt^tiv,  twenty-five  times;  ^iiartlXaro, 
and  -(T-fXAfro,  five  times,  Matthew  once;  compounds 
oi  TTOpiviaBai:  e.g.fio-Trop.,  eight  times,  Matthew  once, 
Luke  four;  tKTrop.,  eleven  times,  Matthew  six,  Luke 
three;  Trapanop.,  four  times,  Matthew  once;  TrpooTrop. 
The  verb  intpwrdw  occurs  twenty-five  times,  to  eight 
times  in  Matthew  and  eighteen  in  Luke;  tvayyiXwv, 
eight  times,  Matthew  four,  but  the  verb  not  once ;  ev- 
Bkujg,  forty  times,  Matthew  fifteen,  Luke  eight.  Other 
favorite  words  are,  Ki]pv<yaiiv,  fourteen,  Matthew  nine, 
Luke  nine;  fuiKpoBti',  five,  iMatthew  two,  Luke  four; 
oi'KfTi  and  ni]KfTi,  ten,  Matthew  three,  Luke  four;  rripi- 
liXtTTu),  six  times,  Luke  once;  Triarii'tii,  fourteen,  IMat- 
thew eleven,  Luke  nine;  Trpwt,  six  times,  Matthew 
twice,  John  once;  (ptpio,  thirteen,  jNIatthew  four,  Luke 
four  times.  Of  words  only  found  in  Mark,  as  compared 
with  Matthew  and  Luke,  we  may  mention — d^dpT?ifta, 
ura^iftaTi'^^w,  t^dTriva,  ivKaipog  and  -pioc,  tvaxij^uov, 
tlcetjog,3aftl3Ha3ai,Bvpwp6g,  KTicng,  Ki<Xiupoi,  poyiXd- 
Xoc,  fiopcpi/,  irapofidXXtii',  TrapaciyKj^ai,  Trapvf.wioc, 
rrpoarpix'^,  fi'/'Trdcria,  avtyTctataarijc,  ariXjSitv,  okui- 


MARK,  GOSPEL  OF 


(61 


MARK,  GOSPEL  OF 


A»;?.  Words  not  found  at  all,  or  found  less  frequently 
in  Mark,  are — ayaBoc,  only  twice,  in  the  same  context 
(x,  17, 18),  Matthew  sixteen,  Luke  fifteen  times ;  vufioij, 
TTcni,  arufia,  iumrip,  avoiyu),  d'^iog,  KtXevio,  ntpifivcux), 
IxaKc'ipioc,  oftiXiti,  KaXiw,  only  three  times,  to  Matthew 
twenty-six,  Luke  forty-two ;  TrijUTTw,  only  once ;  Xpi- 
aruQ,  seven,  iMatthew  sixteen,  Luke  thirteen,  rublicans 
are  only  mentioned  twice,  Samaria  and  its  inhabitants 
not  once. 

VI.  Persons/or  whom  the  Gospel  teas  wi-itien. — A  dis- 
passionate review  of  the  Gospel  confirms  the  traditional 
statement  that  it  was  intended  primarily  for  Gentiles, 
and  among  these  the  use  of  Latinisms,  and  the  concise 
abrupt  character  '•  suitable  for  the  vigorous  intelligence 
of  a  Roman  audience"  (Westcott,  Introd.  p.  348),  seem 
to  point  out  those  for  whom  it  was  specially  meant.  In 
consistency  with  this  view,  words  which  would  not  be 
imderstood  by  Gentile  readers  are  interpreted :  Boan- 
erges (iii,  17) ;  Talitha  cumi  (v,  40)  ;  Corban  (vii,  11)  ; 
Bartimoius  (x,  46)  ;  Abba  (^xlv,  otj)  ;  Eloi  lama  sabach- 
thani  (xv,  34) ;  two  mites  ''  make  a  farthing"  (xii,  42)  ; 
Gehenna  is  "  unquenchable  fire"  (ix,  43).  Jewish  usages, 
and  other  matters  with  which  none  but  Jews  could  be 
expected  to  be  familiar,  are  explained,  e.  g.  the  washing 
before  meals  (vii,  3,  4) ;  in  the  days  of  unleavened  bread 
the  Passover  was  killed  (xiv,  12) ;  at  the  Passover  the 
season  of  tigs  had  not  come  (xi,  13) ;  the  preparation  is 
"  the  day  before  the  Sabbath"  (xv,  42) ;  the  Mount  of 
Olives  is  "  over  against  the  Temple"  (xiii,  8) ;  Jordan  is 
a  "river"  (Mark  i,  5;  Matt,  iii,  C) ;  the  Pharisees,  etc., 
"  used  to  fast"  (Mark  ii,  18  ;  Matt,  ix,  14)  ;  the  Saddu- 
cees'  worst  tenet  is  mentioned  (Mark  xii,  18) ;  and  ex- 
planations are  given  which  Jews  would  not  need  (Mark 
XV,  0, 16).  All  reference  to  the  law  of  Moses  is  omitted, 
and  even  the  word  vo/xoq  does  not  occur ;  the  Sabbath 
was  appointed  for  the  good  of  man  (ii,  27) ;  and  in  the 
quotation  from  Isaiah  (Ivi,  7)  he  adds  "  of  all  nations." 
The  genealogy  of  our  Lord  is  likewise  omitted.  Other 
matters  interesting  chietiy  to  the  Jews  are  similarly 
passed  over,  such  as  the  reflections  on  the  request  of  the 
Scribes  and  Pharisees  for  a  sign  (Matt,  xii,  38-45)  ;  the 
parable  of  the  king's  son  (Matt,  xxii,  1-14)  ;  and  the 
awful  denunciation  of  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees  (Matt, 
xxiii).  Matter  that  might  offend  is  omitted,  as  Matt. 
X,  5,  G ;  vi,  7,  8.  Passages,  not  always  pecidiar  to  jMark, 
abound  in  his  Gospel,  in  which  the  antagonism  between 
the  Pharisaic  legal  s|3irit  and  the  Gospel  come  out 
strongly  (i,  22  ;  ii,  19,  22  ;  x,  5;  viii,  15),  which  hold  out 
hopes  to  the  heathen  of  admission  to  the  kingdom  of 
heaven  even  without  the  Jews  (xii,  9),  and  which  put 
ritual  forms  below  the  worship  of  the  heart  (ii,  18 ;  iii, 
1-5  ;  vii,  5-23).  Whilst  he  omits  the  invective  against 
the  Pharisees,  he  indicates  by  a  touch  of  his  own  how 
Jesus  condemned  them  "with  anger"  (iii,  5).  Mark 
alone  makes  the  Scribe  admit  that  love  is  better  than 
sacrifices  (xii,  38).  In  conclusion,  the  absence  of  all 
quotations  from  the  O.  T.  made  on  his  own  authority, 
with  the  exception  of  those  in  the  opening  verses  from 
Mai.  iii,  1 ;  Isa.  xl,  3  (xv,  28  being  rejected  as  interpo- 
lated), points  the  same  way.  The  only  citations  he  in- 
troduces are  those  made  by  our  Lord,  or  by  those  ad- 
dressing him. 

VII.  Citations  from  Scripture. — The  following  are  the 
only  direct  citations : 


Mai.  iii,  1 i,  2. 

Isa.  xl,  3 i,  3. 

Isa.  vi,  9, 11 iv,  12. 

Isa.  xxix,  13 vii,  6. 

Exod.  XX,  12  ;  xxi, 

IT vii,  10. 

(a)  Isa.  Ixvi,  24 ix,  44,  4G, 

48. 

Gen.  i,  27 x,  0. 

Geu.  ii,  24 x,  T,  8. 

Exod.  XX,  12-1.5... x,l!). 
Psa.  cxviii,  25,  26 . .  xi,  9. 


(6)  Isa.  Ivi,  T  ;  Jer. 

vii,  11 xi,  IT. 

Psa.  cxviii,  22,  23.  .xii,  10, 11. 

Dent.  XXV,  5 xii,  19. 

Exod.  iii,  6 xii,  20. 

Deut.  vi,  4 xii,  29,  30. 

Lev.  xix,  IS xii,  31. 

Psa.  ex,  1 xii,  36. 

Dan.ix,2T;  xii,  11. .xiii,  14. 

Zech.  xiii,  7 xiv,  2T. 

Isa.  liii,  12  (?) xv,2S. 

Psa.  xxii,  1 XV,  34. 


Of  these,  (a)  is  the  only  one  peculiar  to  Mark.     In  (h) 
we  have  the  addition  of  a  few  words  to  the  Synoptical 


quotation.     We  have  also  references  to  the  O.  T.  in  the 
following  passages : 

Lev.  xiv,  2 i,  44.  Ilsa.  xiii,  10 xiii,  24. 

1  Sam.  xxi,G ii,  25.         pan.  vii,  13 xiv,  02. 

Deut.  xxiv,  1 X,  4.  I 

VIII.  Time  and  Place  of  Composition.  —  On  these 
points  the  Gospel  itself  affords  no  information,  except 
that  we  may  certainly  affirm,  against  Baur,  Hilgenfeld, 
Weisse,  etc.,  that  it  was  composed  before  the  fall  of  Je- 
rusalem, since  otherwise  so  remarkable  a  fidtilment  of 
our  Lord's  predictions  could  not  but  have  been  noticed. 
Ecclesiastical  tradition  is,  as  usual,  vacLllatory  and  un- 
trustworthy. Clement,  as  quoted  by  Eusebius  (iit  sup.'), 
places  the  composition  of  the  Gospel  in  the  lifetime  of 
Peter ;  while  Irenaius,  with  much  greater  probability, 
asserts  that  it  was  not  written  till  after  the  decease  (t$- 
oSov,  not  "  departure  from  Rome,"  Jlill,  Grabe,  Ebrard) 
of  Peter  and  Paul.  Later  authorities  are,  as  ever,  much 
more  definite.  Theophj-lact  and  Euthym.  Zigab.,  with 
the  Chron.  Pasch.,  Georg.  Syncell.,  and  Hesychius,  place 
it  ten  years  after  the  Ascension,  i.  e.  A.D.  40  ;  Eusebius, 
in  his  Chronicon,  A.D.  43,  when  Peter,  Paul,  and  Philo 
were  together  in  Rome.  It  is  not  likely  that  it  dates 
before  the  reference  to  Mark  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Colos- 
sians  (iv,  10),  where  he  is  only  introduced  as  a  relative 
of  Barnabas,  as  if  this  were  his  greatest  distinction ; 
and  this  Epistle  was  written  about  A.D.  57.  If,  after 
coming  to  Asia  Minor  on  I'aid's  sending,  he  ^vent  on 
and  joined  Peter  at  Babylon,  he  may  have  then  ac- 
quired, or  rather  completed  that  knowledge  of  Peter's 
preaching,  which  tradition  teaches  us  to  look  for  in  the 
Gospel,  and  of  which  there  is  so  much  internal  evidence; 
and  soon  after  this  the  Gospel  may  have  been  composed. 
We  may  probably  date  it  between  Peter's  martyrdom, 
cir.  A.D.  G3,  and  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  A.D.  70. 

As  to  the  place,  the  uniform  testimony  of  early  writ- 
ers (Clement,  Eusebius,  Jerome,  Epiphanius,  etc.)  is 
that  the  Gospel  was  written  and  published  in  Rome.  In 
this  view  most  modern  writers  of  weight  agree.  Chry- 
sostom  asserts  that  it  was  published  in  Alexandria,  but 
his  statement  is  not  confirmed — as,  if  true,  it  must  cer- 
tainly have  been— by  any  Alexandrine  writer.  Some 
(Eichhorn,  R.  Simon)  maintain  a  combination  of  the 
Roman  and  Alexandrine  view  under  the  theory  of  a 
double  pul^lication,  first  in  one  city  and  then  in  the  oth- 
er. Storr  is  alone  in  his  view  that  it  was  first  made 
public  at  Antioch. 

IX.  Language. — There  can  be  no  reason  for  question- 
ing that  the  Gospel  was  composed  in  Greek.  To  sup- 
pose that  it  was  written  in  Latin — as  is  stated  in  the 
subscription  to  the  Peshito,  and  some  early  Greek  INISS., 
iypd(pr]  Pojfimari  tv  Viii^iy — because  it  was  intended 
for  the  use  of  Roman  Christians,  implies  complete  igno- 
rance of  the  Roman  Church  of  that  age,  which  in  lan- 
guage, organization,  and  ritual  was  entirely  Greek,  main- 
taining its  character  in  common  with  most  of  the 
churches  of  the  West  as  "  a  (ireek  religious  colony" 
(Milman,  Lat.  Christ,  i,  27).  The  attempt  made  by  Ba- 
ronius,  Bellarmine,  etc.,  to  strengthen  the  authority  of 
the  Vulgate  by  this  means  was  therefore,  as  one  of  their 
own  Church,  R.  Simon,  has  shown,  entirely  futile  ;  and 
the  pretended  Latin  autograph,  said  to  be  preserved  in 
thp  library  of  St,  Mark's  at  Venice,  turned  out  to  be 
part  of  an  ancient  Latin  codex  of  the  four  Gospels,  now 
known  as  Codex  Forojuliensis. 

X.  Contents.— i:\iQ  Gospel  of  Mark  may  be  divided 
into  three  parts : 

(1.)  The  occurrences  previous  to  the  commencement 
of  the  public  ministry  of  our  Lord,  including  the  preach- 
ing and  baptism  of  John,  our  Lord's  baptism  and  temp- 
tation (i,  1-18). 

(2.)  Our  Lord's  ministry  in  Galilee,  including  that  in 
Eastern  Galilee  (i,  14-vii,  23) ;  that  in  Northern  Galilee 
(vii,  24-ix,  37)  ;  that  in  Peraia,  and  the  joumeyings  to- 
wards Jerusalem  (ix,  38-x,  52). 

(3.)  His  triumphant  entrj-,  passion,  death,  resurrec- 
tion, and  ascension  (xi,  1-xvi,  8  [20]). 


MARK,  GOSPEL  OF 


JQ2 


MARK 


XI.  Ceniiineness  and  Integrity. — The  genuineness  of 
Mark's  (iospel  was  never  doubted  before  Schleiermacher, 
wli",  struck  by  an  apparent  discrepancy  between  the 
orderly  narrative  we  now  possess  and  the  description  of 
Papias  [lit  sup.),  broached  the  view  follov/ed  by  Cred- 
iier,  Ewald,  and  others,  tliat  the  Gospel  in  its  present 
form  is  not  the  work  of  IMark  the  companion  of  Peter. 
Tliis  led  to  the  notion,  which  has  met  with  much  ac- 
ceptance among  German  critics  (Baur,  Hilgenfeld,  Kcist- 
lin,  etc.),  of  an  original,  prajcanonical  Mark,"  the  Gospel 
of  Peter,"  probably  written  in  Aramaic,  which,  with 
otlier  oral  and  documentarj'  sources,  form.ed  the  basis  on 
which  some  unknown  later  writers  formed  the  existing 
Gospel.  But  even  if,  on  other  grounds,  this  view  were 
probable,  all  historical  testimony  is  against  it ;  and  we 
should  have  to  account  for  the  entire  disappearance  of 
an  original  document  of  so  much  importance  without 
leaving  a  trace  of  its  existence,  and  the  silent  substitu- 
tion of  a  later  work  for  it,  and  its  acceptance  by  the 
whole  Church.  If  ordinary  historical  testimony  is  to 
have  any  weight,  we  can  have  no  doubt  that  the  Gospel 
we  now  have,  and  which  has  always  borne  his  name, 
was  that  originally  composed  by  Mark.  We  can  have 
no  reason  to  think  that  either  John  the  presbyter  or  Pa- 
pias were  infallible ;  and  if  the  ordinary  interpretation 
of  01/  Tcit,ii  was  correct,  and  the  description  of  the  Gos- 
pel given  by  Papias  was  really  at  variance  with  its  pres- 
ent form,  it  would  be  at  least  equally  probable  that 
tlieir  judgment  was  erroneous  and  their  vie^v  mistaken. 
There  can,  however,  be  little  doubt  that  the  meaning 
of  oh  Tc'i^a  has  been  strained  and  distorted,  and  that 
the  words  do  really  describe  not  Mark's  alone,  but  all 
three  Synoptic  Gospels  as  we  have  them  ;  not,  that  is, 
*•  Lives  of  Christ"  chronologically  arranged,  but  "  a  sum- 
mary of  representative  facts"  given  according  to  a  moral 
and  not  a  historic  sequence,  following  a  higher  order 
than  that  of  mere  time. 

As  regards  the  intefjrHy  of  the  Gospel,  Ewald,  Reuss, 
and  others  have  called  in  question  the  genuineness  of 
the  opening  verses  (i,  1-13).  But  the  external  evidence 
for  them  is  as  great  as  that  for  the  authenticity  of  any 
part  of  the  Gospels.  Internal  evidence  is  too  subtle  a 
thing,  and  varies  too  much  with  the  subjectivity  of  the 
writer,  for  us  to  rely  on  it  exclusively. 

The  case  is  different  with  the  closing  portion  (xvi, 
9-20),  where  the  evidence,  both  external  and  internal,  is 
somewhat  strong  against  its  having  formed  a  part  of 
Mark's  original  Gospel,  which  is  thought  to  have  broken 
off  abruptly  with  the  words  t^o/Soiirro  yap  (for  various 
theories  to  account  for  this,  the  death  of  Peter,  that  of 
Mark,  sudden  persecution,  flight,  the  loss  of  the  last  leaf, 
etc.,  see  Hug,  Meyer,  Schott).  No  less  than  twenty-one 
words  and  expressions  occur  in  it,  some  of  them  repeat- 
edly, which  are  never  elsewhere  used  by  IMark.  This 
alone,  when  we  remember  the  peculiarities  of  diction  in 
the  pastoral  epistles,  as  compared  with  Paul's  other  writ- 
ings, would  not  be  sufHcient  to  prove  that  it  was  not 
written  by  the  same  author;  though  when  taken  in  con- 
nection with  the  external  evidence,  it  would  seem  to 
show  that  it  was  not  composed  at  the  same  time.  On 
this  ground,  therefore,  we  must  conclude  that  if  not  the 
work  of  another  hand,  it  was  written  at  a  later  period 
than  the  rest  of  the  Gospel.  The  external  evidence, 
though  somewhat  inconsistent,  points,  though  less  de- 
cidedly, the  same  way.  While  it  is  found  in  all  codices 
of  weight,  including  A,  C,  D,  and  all  versions,  and  is  re- 
peatedly (pioted,  without  question,  by  early  writers  from 
the  time  of  Iren.xus  {Ilnr.  iii,  10,  ti).  and  appears  in  the 
very  ancient  Syriac  recension  published  by  Cureton,  it 
is  absent  from  the  Vatican  and  Sinaitic  MSS,  (in  the 
former  of  which,  after  the  subscription,  the  greater  part 
of  the  column  and  the  wliole  of  the  next  are  left  vacant, 
a  ])henomenon  nowhere  elie  found  in  the  N,-T.  portion  of 
that  codex),  while  in  several  MSS.  that  contain  it,  it  is 
noted  that  it  is  wanting  in  others,  and  those  the  most 
accurate  copies.  Jerome  {ad  Ihdib.  iv,  172)  speaks  of  it 
as  being  found  in  but  few  copies  of  the  Gospels,  and  de- 


ficient in  almost  all  the  Greek  MSS.  Eusebius  {ad  ^fa- 
rin.  quasst.  I)  states  that  it  is  wanting  "in  nearly  all  the 
more  accurate  copies,"  while  the  canons  that  bear  his 
name  and  the  Ammonian  sections  do  not  go  beyond  v, 
8.  Of  later  critics,  Olshausen  and  De  Wette  pronounce 
for  its  genuineness.  The  note  of  the  latter  may  be  con- 
sulted, as  well  as  those  of  Alford  and  Mej'er,  who  take 
the  other  side,  for  a  fuU  statement  of  the  evidence  for 
and  against.  See  also  Burgon,  The  last  twelve  Verses  of 
Mark  vindicated  (Lond.  1871). 

XII.  Canonicity. — The  citation  of  v,  19  as  Scripture  by 
Irenicus  appears  sufficient  to  establish  this  point.  With 
regard  to  other  passages  of  Mark's  Gospel,  as  it  presents 
so  few  facts  peculiar  to  himself,  we  cannot  be  surprised 
that  there  are  but  few  references  to  it  in  the  early  fa- 
thers. The  Muratorian  canon,  however  (cir.  A.D.  170), 
commences  with  words  which  evidently  refer  to  it.  It 
is  mentioned  by  Papias.  Justin  Martyr  refers  to  it  for 
the  name  Boanerges  {Tryph.  lOG),  as  the  "Memoirs  of 
Peter."  Irenreus,  as  we  have  seen  above,  quotes  from 
it,  and  in  the  19th  Clementine  Homily  (ed.  Dusseldorf, 
1853)  a  peculiar  phrase  of  Mark  (iv,  34)  is  repeated  ver- 
bally. The  fact  also  recorded  bj-  Irenieus  {Ilcer.  iii,  11, 
7),  that  the  Docetic  heretics  preferred  the  Gospel  of 
Mark  to  the  others,  affords  an  early  proof  of  its  accept- 
ance in  the  Church. 

XIII.  Commentaries. — The  following  are  the  special 
exegetical  helps  on  the  entire  Gospel  of  IMark ;  to  a  few 
of  the  most  important  we  prefix  an  asterisk :  Victor  of 
Antioch,  In  Marciim  (Gr.  ed.  Matthiii ;  also  in  the  Bill. 
Max.  Patr.  iv,  370) ;  Jerome,  Expositio  (in  0pp.  \Siip- 
]ws.\  xi,  758) ;  also  Commentarius  (ibid,  xi,  783);  Pos- 
simis.Catena  Gr.Patntm  (Rom.  1G73, fob);  Bede, £07)0- 
sitio  (in  C/)/;.  v,  92 ;  Woi-lcs,  x,  1)  ;  Aquinas,  Catena  (in 
0pp.  iv ;  also  in  vol.  ii  of  Engl,  transl.) ;  Albertus  Mag- 
nus, Commentarius  (in  Opji.  ix) ;  Gerson,  Lectiones  (in 
0pp.  iv,  203) ;  Zwingle,  Annotaliones  (in  Ojjpi.  iv,  141) ; 
Brentius, //omiVitE  (in  0pp.  x);  Myconius,  Commentarius 
(Basil.  1538, 8vo)  ;  Hegendorphinus,  Adnotationes  (Hag. 
1526, 153G,  8vo) ;  Sarcer,  Scholia  (Basil.  1539, 1540, 8vo) ; 
BuUinger,  Commentaiia.  (Tigur.  1545,  fob);  Ilofmeister, 
Commentarius  [includ.  IMatt.  and  Luke]  (Lovan.  1562, 
fob;  Par.  1563;  Colon.  1572,  8vo);  Dansus,  Qutestiones 
(Genev.  1594,  8vo)  ;  Gualther,  Ilomilia-  (Heidelb.  1608, 
fol.) ;  Winckelmann,  Commentarius  (Francof.  1612, 8vo) ; 
Del  Pas,  Commentaria  (Rom.  1623,  fol.) ;  Novarinus,  Ax- 
jiensio  (Lugd.  1642,  fob)  ;  Petter,  Coiniiientary  (London, 
1662,2  vols,  fob);  Waxt^ocVer,  A antekiniiu/i it  (Amsterd. 
1671,  4to);  \)<i\eie\,Ex2dicatio  [includ.  Matt.]  (Lend. 
1688,  8vo);  Ttorchc,  Commentarius  (Kilon.  1690,  4to) ; 
Heupel,  A  o^fp  (Argent.  1716,  8vo);  Klemm,  A'a-^-aV/a 
(Tubing.  1728,  4to)  ;  *Elsner,  Commentarius  (Traj.  1773, 
4to);  Cunningham,  TAoi/^/^s  (Lond.  1825, 12mo) ;  Hinds, 
Manual  (Lond.  1829,  8vo) ;  ^IawA,  Annotations  (Lond. 
1830,  8vo)  ;  *Fritzsche,  Conwieniarii  (Lips.  1830,  8vo) ; 
Ford,  JUustrations  (Lond.  1849,  1864,  8vo)  ;  Hilgenfeld, 
D.  Marcus -evanyclium  (Halle,  1850,  8vo) ;  Gumming, 
Readim/s  (Lond.  1853,  8vo)  ;  *Alexander,  Explanation 
(N.  Y.  1858, 1 2mo) ;  Klostemnann,  D.  Marhis-eranf/elium 
(Getting.  1867, 8vo) ;  Goodwin,  Notes  (Loud.  1869, 8vo). 
See  Gospels. 

Mark  on  the  Person  (in  this  sense  1S^,  ^«r,  Ezck. 
ix,  4,  6 ;  x^pwyi""!  Kev.  xiii  sq.),  a  brand  or  other  char- 
acter fixed  upon  the  forehead  (q.  v.),  hand,  etc.,  usually 
of  slaves,  for  the  purpose  of  identifying  them.  See 
Slave. 

In  the  case  of  Cain  (Gen.  iv,  15),  a  special  token 
(n'lK,  sign,  as  elsewhere  rendered)  was  assigned  him  in 
assurance  of  safety.     See  Cain. 

Mark  (Mai-k'),  Geohg  Joactiiji,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  Schwerin  March  1, 1726;  was  educated 
at  the  University  of  Kiel;  in  1745  entered  the  minis- 
trv;  and  in  1747  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  philo- 
sophical faculty  of  his  alma  mater.  In  1752  he  accepted 
a  call  as  librarian  to  the  prince  Louis  of  Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin ;  in  1758,  as  professor  ordinary  of  divinity  to 


MARKET 


163 


MARLATT 


the  University  of  Kiel;  in  1766  he  was  honored  with 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity,  lie  died  March  5, 1774. 
Gifted  with  a  quick  perception  and  a  good  memory, 
Miirk  acquired  great  learning,  particularly  in  theology 
and  philosophy.  By  his  indefatigable  diligence  as  an  au- 
thor lie  kept  the  press  almost  constantly  bus}\  Of  his 
works  the  following  have  special  interest  fur  us:  Medi- 
taiiones  de  tiapientia  sanctissima  rite  cokiida  (Kiel,  1762, 
4to)  : — Priimelince  juris  dicini  evungelici  (ibid.  1763, 
4to): — Diss,  de  divina  vocatione  hominum  miserorum  ud 
Jidem  et  sulutem  (ibid.  1767,  4to)  :  —  Causa  Dei  et  sub 
ipso  imperantium  contra  theolugiam  Jesuitarum  (ibid, 
1767, 4to). — During,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutschlatuls,  s.  v. 

Market  (3"i> ^,  maarah'),  a  mercantile  term,  found 
only  in  Ezek.  xxvii  (rendered  "  merchandise,"  except  in 
ver.  13, 17, 19,  25),  in  several  senses :  («)  properly  bar- 
ter,  and  so  trade,  traffic  (ver.  9,  27)  ;  (b)  place  of  barter, 
mart  (ver.  12,  13, 17, 19)  ;  (c)  gain,  wealth,  acquired  by 
traffic  (ver.  27,  34;  plur.  ver.  33,  -pexh.  pirecious  icares), 
like  "iHD,  "  merchandise,"  and  "fT^fy,  "  fair,"'  "  ware." 
In  the  N.  Test,  the  word  agora  {dyopa),  thus  rendered 
("  market-place"  in  Matt,  xx,  3 ;  Mark  xii,  38 ;  Luke  vii, 
32 ;  Acts  xvi,  19),  denotes  generally  any  place  of  public 
resort  in  towns  and  cities  where  the  people  came  to- 
gether ;  and  hence  more  specially  it  signifies  (a)  a  pub- 
lic p)lace,  a  broad  street,  etc.  (Matt,  xi,  16  ;  xx,  3  ;  xxiii, 
7 ;  Mark  vi,  56 ;  xii,  38  ;  Luke  vii,  32  ;  xi,  43 ;  xx,  46) ; 
(6)  a.  forum  or  market-place,  where  goods  were  exposed 
for  sale,  and  assemblies  or  public  trials  held  (Acts  xvi, 
19 ;  xvii,  17).  In  Mark  vii,  4  it  is  doubtful  whether 
ayopa  denotes  the  market  itself,  or  is  put  for  that  which 
is  brought  from  the  market ;  but  the  known  customs  of 
the  Jews  suggest  a  preference  of  the  former  significa- 
tion. From  this  is  derived  the  term  agorceus  (ciyopaX- 
o£),  properly  signifying  the  things  belonging  to,  or  per- 
sons frequenting  the  agora  ;  improperly  rendered  "  in 
law"  in  Acts  xix,  38,  where  it  is  applied  to  the  days  on 
which  public  trials  wore  held  in  the  forum  ;  and  in  ch. 
xvii,  5  (where  it  is  rendered  "baser  sort")  it  denotes 
idlers,  or  persons  lounging  about  in  the  markets  and 
other  places  of  public  resort.  There  is  a  peculiar  force 
in  this  application  of  the  word,  when  we  recoUect  that 
the  market-places  or  bazaars  of  the  East  ^vere,  and  are 
at  this  day,  the  constant  resort  of  unoccupied  people,  the 
idle,  and  the  newsmongers. 

In  very  early  periods  markets  were  held  at  or  near 
the  gates  of  cities,  sometimes  within  and  sometimes 
without  the  walls.  Here  commodities  were  exposed  for 
sale,  either  in  the  open  air  or  in  tents  (2  Kings  vii,  18). 
It  is  still  not  unusual  in  the  East  for  the  wholesale  mar- 
ket for  country  produce  and  cattle  to  be  held  (for  a  short 
time  in  the  early  part  of  the  morning)  at  tlie  gates  of 
towns ;  but  manufactured  goods  and  various  sorts  of 
fruits  are  retailed  in  the  bazaars  within  the  towns.  In 
the  time  of  our  Saviour,  as  we  learn  from  Josephus,  the 
markets  were  inclosed  in  the  same  manner  as  the  mod- 
ern Eastern  bazaars,  which  are  shut  at  night,  and  con- 
tain traders'  shops  disposed  in  rows  or  streets ;  and  in 
large  towns  the  dealers  in  particular  commodities  are 
confined  to  certain  streets.  That  this  was  also  the  case 
in  the  time  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  we  may  infer  from 
his  expression,  "  the  bakers'  street"  (xxxvii,  21).  That 
a  close  connection  existed  between  those  of  the  same 
craft,  we  learn  incidentally  from  Neh.  iii,  32.  In  re- 
building Jerusalem  after  the  exile, "  the  goldsmiths  and 
the  merchants"  acted  together  in  repairing  the  walls. 
Josephus  calls  the  valley  between  ^Mounts  Zion  and  ]\Io- 
riah  the  Tyropoeon  (ropoTroaSi'),  i.  e.  tlie  valley  "of  the 
cheesemakers."  In  like  manner  there  is  mentioned  the 
valley  of  Charashim,  or  "  the  craftsmen"  (1  Chron.  iv, 
14 ;  Neh,  xi,  35).  Josephus  also  mentions  a  street  of 
the  meat-dealers.  The  streets  of  Eastern  cities  are  gen- 
erally distinguished  from  eacli  other,  not  by  the  sepa- 
rate names  which  they  bear,  but  liy  the  sort  of  traffic  or 
business  carried  on  in  them.  Thus  at  Cairo  and  other 
large  Oriental  cities  we  hear  of  the  market  of  the  butch- 


ers, of  the  fruit-dealers,  the  copper-ware  sellers,  the  jew- 
ellers, and  so  on  ;  each  consisting  of  a  row  of  shops  on 
each  side  of  the  street  devoted  to  that  particular  kind 
of  trade  (Hackett,  Illustra.  oj' /Script,  p,  61).    See  B^vr- 

GAIN  ;    BaZ.VAU  ;    COMJIERCK  ;    MeKCIIANT. 

Marklin,  Joiiann  Friedricii,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  Keichenbach,  in  Wlirtemberg,  Feb.  6, 
1732  ;  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Tubingen  ;  in 
1755  became  archdeacon  at  Waiblingen;  in  1760  lec- 
tured at  his  alma  mater ;  in  1767,  archdeacon  ;  in  1786 
was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  professor  of  divinity,  the  de- 
partment of  exegesis  of  the  Old  Test,  and  Oriental  lit- 
erature falUng  to  him.  In  1797  he  was  made  general 
superintendent  of  the  churches  of  Wlirtemberg,  and  died 
May  13, 1804.  He  was  a  distinguished  interpreter  of 
the  O.-T.  Scriptures.  Of  his  productions  we  only  men- 
tion Diss,  inaug.  de  Sermone  Dei  ad  Joh.  28,  29  ejusque 
Scopo  (Tubingffi,  1754, 4to) : — Diss,  de  religione,  imprimis 
Christiana,  magno  in  officiis,  etc,  (ibid,  1786, 4to), — Do- 
ring,  Gelehi-te  T/teol.  Deutsckktnds,  s,  v, 

Marks,  Richard  T,,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  LouisvUle,  Ga,,  Sept,  24, 1809,  He  was  educa- 
ted a  printer.  In  1827  he  removed  to  Columbus,  Ga., 
and  united  with  Mr.  Larmar  in  establishing  the  Colum- 
bus Inquirer,  the  first  paper  started  in  the  western  part 
of  Georgia.  Soon  after,  feeling  called  to  the  ministry, 
he  commenced  the  study  of  theology  under  Thomas 
Goulding,  D.D. ;  was  licensed  in  1837,  and  ordained  in 
1839.  He  labored  as  a  minister  mostly  in  missionary 
fields,  or  where  the  destitution  was  so  great  that  unre- 
quited labor  had  to  be  given.  He  preached  in  the  fol- 
lowing places,  all  in  Georgia :  Muscogee,  Greenville, 
West  Point,  Hamilton,  Columbus,  Emmaus,  Americus, 
]Mount  Tabor,  Ephesus,  and  White  Sulphur  Springs.  He 
died  Dec.  6,  1867,  I\Ir,  Marks  was  a  ready  writer,  an 
excellent  preacher,  and  an  editor  of  great  power  and  in- 
lluence.     See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  A  luianac,  1868,  p.  342. 

Mark's,  St.,  Day,  the  25th  of  April,  observed  at 
least  since  the  6th  centurj',  in  commemoration  of  St, 
Mark,  the  evangelist.  It  is  celebrated  in  mf)St  ]iarishes 
of  the  Romish  Church  by  a  solemn,  supplicatory  pro- 
cession, mentioned  as  early  as  pope  Gregory  the  Great. 
Walafrid  Strabo  states  (De  reb.  eccl.  c,  8)  that  it  was 
instituted  by  that  pope  at  the  commencement  of  his 
pontificate,  with  a  view  to  supplicate  God  for  deliver- 
ance from  a  pestilence  which  was  devastating  Rome; 
and  it  is  certain  that  Gregory  held  a  procession  in  A,D. 
590,  in  order  to  avert  the  pestilence.  But  the  two  cere- 
monies are  clearly  not  identical.  The  latter  was  held 
in  August,  and  continued  during  three  days;  and  while, 
in  the  procession  of  St.  Mark,  the  faithful  issued  from 
seven  separate  churches,  in  this  they  aU  proceeded  from 
a  single  sanctuary.  In  churches  of  which  St.  IMark  is 
the  i)atron.  a  mass  is  celebrated  in  connection  with  the 
procession,  in  which  the  color  used  is  blue,  indicative  of 
the  penitential  feeling  which  predominates  in  the  cere- 
mony. An  occasional  removal  of  the  festival  to  anoth- 
er Any  does  not  set  aside  the  procession,  which  is  always 
held  on  the  25th  of  April,  unless  Easter  Sunday  falls 
on  that  date. — Wetzcr  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lex.  vi,  832. 

Mark's,  St.,  Liturgy.     See  Liturgy. 

Marlatt,  AitcnmALD  (i.,  a  noted  educator  and  min- 
ister of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in 
Warren  County,  N.  J.,  in  1829,  and  educated  at  Dickin- 
son College  (class  of  1850)  ;  was  junior  preaclier  on 
Carlisle  Circuit  in  1851  ;  was  the  following  year  ap- 
pointed to  Lock  Haven  Circuit,  where  a  bronchial  affec- 
tion developed  itself,  which  compelled  him  to  locate  in 
1854.  In  this  same  year  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
a  high  literary  institution  in  Washington  City,  where 
he  remained  until  1856,  when  he  accepted  the  presi- 
dency of  the  newly-founded  Irving  Female  College,  and 
to  this  institution  he  devoted  his  energy  and  talents 
until  Jan.  2, 1865,  when  he  "  fell  asleep  in  Jesus."  "  The 
personal  character  of  our  brother  may  be  included  in 
the  comprehensive  title  'a  Christian   gentleman,'  the 


MARLAY 


r64 


MARLORATUS 


hipjhcst  style  and  type  of  manhood.  As  a  gentleman, 
a  scholar,  and  a  minister  of  trutli,  his  was  a  noble  can- 
dor. ...  In  everything  that  bore  upon  truth  or  pu- 
rity he  was  a  decided  man.  Of  liis  mental  power  and 
literary  culture  it  may  be  safely  said  that  he  possessed 
a  clear  intellectual  perception ;  rapid  insight,  coupled 
with  careful  analysis  and  broad  power  of  generalizing ; 
a  vivid  sensibility  of  nature,  a  keen  discrimination  of 
character,  a  large  acquaintance  with  ancient  and  mod- 
ern belles-lettres ;  and  from  the  college  under  his  presi- 
dency have  been  sent  forth  those  that  shall  shine 
brightlv  in  the  literary  world." — Conf,  Minutes,  1865,  p. 
12. 

Marlay,  Michael,  D.D.,  a  noted  Methodist  minis- 
ter, was  born,  of  Eoman  Catholic  parentage,  in  Berkeley 
County,  Va.,  June  21,  1797.  In  the  year  1818  he  mi- 
grated to  the  State  of  Ohio,  and  settled  near  Dayton. 
In  1821  he  united  with  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
and  was  soon  after  appointed  a  class-leader.  The 
Church,  recognising  his  gifts  and  graces,  speedily  li- 
censed him  as  an  exhorter,  and  afterwards  as  a  local 
preacher.  In  the  fall  of  1831  he  was  received  on  trial 
as  a  travelling  preacher  by  the  Ohio  Conference.  He 
(juickly  rose  to  a  commanding  position  in  the  ministry, 
and  was  widelj'  known  as  a  sound  theologian,  an  able 
preacher,  and  a  skilful  administrator  of  discipline.  So 
great  was  his  reputation  as  an  executive  officer,  that 
more  than  half  of  his  ministry  of  thirty-five  years  was 
spent  in  the  office  of  presiding  elder.  He  was  twice  an 
active  and  influential  member  of  the  General  Confer- 
ence, b}'  which  body  he  was  appointed,  in  1852,  one  of 
the  commissioners  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
to  manage  the  suit  in  the  then  pending  trial  for  the 
property  of  the  Western  Book  Concern.  In  18G0  he  re- 
ceived the  degree  of  D.D.  from  the  Indiana  State  Uni- 
versit}-.  He  died  of  cholera,  while  in  attendance  upon 
the  session  of  the  Cincinnati  Conference,  at  Ripley, 
Ohio,  Sept.  2,  1866.  The  late  bishop  Thomson  thus 
spoke  of  Dr.  Marlay  shortly  after  his  decease  {Christian 
A  di-ocate,  N.  Y.,  vol.  xli.  No.  43)  :  "  His  strong  frame  of 
medium  size,  fine  proportion,  and  high  health,  admira- 
bly fitted  him  for  itinerant  labors;  his  benignant  coun- 
tenance, amiable  spirit,  and  gentle  manners  rendered 
him  a  Avelcome  guest  wherever  he  went.  His  fine  head 
indicated  great  intellectual  power;  his  habits  of  study 
seemed  to  render  certain  his  constant  improvement, 
while  his  clear  call  to  the  ministry  insured  his  unwa- 
vering devotion  to  its  duties.  ...  In  Biblical  science,  as 
well  as  in  theoretical,  practical,  and  experimental  divin- 
ity, he  was  a  master.  .  .  .  He  was  a  great  man  in  pri- 
xate  as  well  as  in  public  life ;  and  one  of  the  strongest 
proofs  of  his  high  moral  worth  is  the  fact  that,  of  a  large 
family  which  he  leaves  behind  him,  every  one  is  an  or- 
nament to  society.  .  .  .  He  expired  in  the  arms  of  his 
brethren,  and  they  buried  him,  feeling  that  they  could 
lay  in  the  tomb  no  man  to  whom  the  Methodist  Church 
in  Ohio  has  been  more  indebted."  See  also  Ladies'  Re- 
pository, 1866,  Jan. ;  Conf.  Minutes,  1866,  p.  262.  (J. 
F.  M.) 

Marlorat(us),  Augustine,  a  French  Protestant 
theologian,  was  born  at  Bar-le-Duc  in  1506.  At  an  early 
age  he  was  put  in  an  Augustine  convent,  and  took  the 
vows  in  1524.  He  soon  accpiired  great  reputation  as  a 
preacher.  Having  been  ap])ointed  prior  of  a  convent 
of  his  order  at  Bourges,  he  commenced  to  entertain  Prot- 
estant views,  as  is  evinced  in  the  sermons  he  deliv- 
ered after  1533  at  Bourges,  Poitiers,  and  Angers.  He 
was  designated  to  preach  during  the  Lenten  season  at 
Kouen,  when  he  openly  separated  from  the  Church. 
Pursued  as  a  heretic,  he  sought  refuge  at  Geneva,  where 
he  lived  for  a  time  by  correcting  proofs  for  the  printers. 
lie  then  went  to  Lausanne,  to  perfect  his  knowledge  of 
theology.  In  1549  he  was  appointed  pastor  at  Crissier, 
and  afterwards  at  Yevay.  Tlie  consistory  of  Geneva 
sent  him  in  1559  to  Paris,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the 
year  fullciwing  he  was  called  to  take  charge  of  the  Pe- 
fornied  Church  at  Kouen.     His  talents  and  his  personal 


qualities  now  had  a  fair  opportunity  for  display,  and 
soon  gained  him  great  infiuence  in  that  city,  and  brought 
many  converts  to  the  Church.  In  1561  he  went  to  the 
Colloquy  of  Poissy,  where,  next  to  Theodore  de  Beza,  he 
stood  at  the  head  of  the  Protestants,  and  on  the  15th 
of  May  he  presided  over  the  provincial  synod  assembled 
at  Dieppe.  The  opposition  of  the  government  towards 
all  expression  of  religious  opinion  adverse  to  lioman 
Catholicism,  and  more  particularly  the  bloody  deeds  of 
Vassy  on  March  1,  1562,  had  greatly  exasperated  the 
Protestants  [see  Huguenots]  ;  and  the  latter,  feeling 
that  there  was  only  one  alternative  for  them,  either  to 
fight  for  their  conscience  sake  or  abjure  their  honest 
convictions,  took  to  arms  all  over  France.  The  opening 
scene  had  been  made  at  Paris.  At  Eouen  the  Protes- 
tants were  in  the  majority  (if  we  may  follow  Beza ;  ac- 
cording to  Floquet  [Rom.  Cath.],  however,  they  only 
constituted  one  fifth  of  the  popidation),  and,  anxious  to 
secure  the  city  for  the  armies  of  Conde,  made  them- 
selves masters  of  the  place  by  stealth  in  the  night  of 
April  15  to  16.  An  independent  government  was  es- 
tablished, and  unbounded  religious  toleration  exercised 
towards  non-Protestants.  The  masses,  however,  in  the 
hour  of  excitement  behaved  madh*.  A  spirit  of  icono- 
clasm  took  hold  upon  them,  and  within  twenty-four 
hours  they  destroyed  some  of  the  most  valuable  works 
of  art  in  fifty  churches.  For  this  and  other  outrages  the 
Protestant  leaders,  of  whom  Marloratus  was  one,  were 
not  responsible  either  directly  or  indirectly.  Yet,  when 
the  Roman  Catholics  succeeded  in  retaking  the  city,  he 
was  one  of  the  first  accused,  and,  though  he  had  done  no 
more  than  simply  battle  for  the  grant  of  religious  free- 
dom, he  was  arrested  Oct.  26,  1562,  brought  before  the 
bar  of  the  Parliament,  which  had  re-entered  Rouen  with 
the  Roman  Catholic  forces,  and  condemned,  as  a  traitor 
and  heretic,  to  be  drawn  on  a  hurdle  through  the  streets 
of  the  town,  and  then  hung  in  front  of  his  o^vn  church. 
After  the  execution,  which  took  place  Nov.  1,1563,  his 
head  was  severed  from  the  trunk,  and  exposed  on  the 
bridge  of  the  town.  The  Huguenots  revenged  this  out- 
rage by  the  execution  of  two  leading  Romanists  in  their 
hands.  The  widow  and  five  children  of  Marloratus  fied 
to  England,  where  they  were  for  a  long  time  maintained 
by  the  French  Protestants. 

As  a  writer  Marloratus  figures  very  prominently  also. 
His  exegetical  works  are  numerous  and  valued,  because 
of  the  accuracy  and  scholarship  which  they  evince  in 
the  author.  "  They  may  be  best  described  as  painstak- 
ing and  not  injudicious  selections  of  the  interpretations 
of  other  writings"  (Kitto).  His  earliest  production  is 
Remonstrances  h  la  reyne  mere  j^ar  ceux  qui  sont  perse- 
cutes pour  la  jnirole  de  Dieu  (1561,  12mo;  2d  ed.  1561, 
8vo) ;  but  one  of  his  most  important  productions  is  his 
Kori  Testamcnti  catholica  exjMsitio,  etc.  (Geneva,  1561, 
fol. ;  2d  ed.  1605,  fol.).  This  is  a  valuable  work,  contain- 
ing Erasmus's  Latin  version  of  the  N.  T.,  with  the  expo- 
sitions of  the  fathers  of  the  Church, and  of  Buccr,  Calvin, 
Erasmus,  INIusculus,  Melancthon,  Sarcerius,  Brcntius, 
BuUinger,  Zwinglius,  Vitus  Theodorus,  etc.  His  object 
seems  to  have  been  to  prove  to  Romanists  the  identity 
of  the  Protestant  and  the  Apostolic  Church,  and  the  es- 
sential oneness  of  the  two  Protestant  parties.  He  him- 
self leaned  towards  Calvinism.  Parts  of  it  were  trans- 
lated into  English,  and  published  under  the  following 
titles:  A  Catholike  and  Ecclesiastical  Expiosition  of  the 
holy  Gospell  after  S.  Matheice.  Translated  out  ofLatine 
into  Emjlishe  by  Thomas  Tymme,  Mynister  (Lond.  1570, 
fol.)  ;  ,1  Catholike  and  Ecclesiastical  Exposition  upon  the 
Apocah/jis  of  <S'.  John  the  Apostle.  Translated  (black 
letter.  Loud.  1574,  4to).  Translations  have  also  been 
published  of  his  Exposition  of  St.  Mai-k  (1583,  4to)  ;  .57. 
John  (1574,  4to);  St.  Jude  (1584,  4to),  etc.  He  also 
wrote  Genesi.1,  cum  catholica  Expositione,  etc.  (Geneva, 
1562,  fol.,  often  reprinted) ;  In  CL  Psalmos  et  aliorum  S, 
S.  Prophetarum  Expositio  ecclesiastica,  etc.,  Item  Cantica 
sacra  ex  dirinis  Jiibliorum  locis  cum  simili  expositione 
(Geneva,  1562,  fol.,  often  reprinted ;  and  iu  English  un- 


MARMONTEL 


165 


MARXIX 


der  the  title  Prayers  in  the  Psalms,  Land.  1571, 16mo); 
etc.  See  Haag,  La  France  Protestante ;  Chevrier,  Mem. 
pour  servir  a  I'histoire  des  hommes  illusires  de  la  Lor- 
7-aine  ;  Notice  sur  A  ug.  Marlorat,  in  the  Bulletin  de  la 
Societe  de  VlJist.  du  Protestantisme  Frangais,  6"'«  annee, 
p.  109 ;  A  wjustin  Maiiorat,  sa  vie  et  sa  mort  (Caen,  18G2, 
8vo) ;  Floqiiet's  Beza,  Ilistoire  Fcclesiastique,  i  passim, 
and  especially  ii,  610  sq.;  Schott,  in  Herzog,  Real-Ency- 
Uop.  XX,  92-96;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxxiii, 
858;  DaTling,  Cyclopadiu  Bibliogy-ajMca,  ii,  1965;  Mid- 
dleton,  AV.  Biog.  ii,  82,     (J.  H.W.) 

Marmontel,  Jean  Fkan^ois,  a  celebrated  French 
critic,  and  a  leader  in  the  French  school  of  infidelity 
which  flourished  under  the  guidance  of  Diderot,  Holbach, 
and  Voltaire,  was  born  at  Bort,  in  Limousin,  in  1723,  of 
humble  parentage.  He  was  educated  at  the  Jcsidts' 
college  at  Mauriac,  but,  not  inclining  towards  asceti- 
cism, weiit  to  Paris  finally  (1746),  and  there  became  in- 
timate with  the  great  freethinkers  of  the  18th  century. 
Marmontel  wielded  an  able  pen,  and  largely  devoted 
himself  to  authorship,  producing  both  original  works 
and  translations  of  valuable  English  writers.  By  inter- 
cession of  Jladame  Pompadour,  he  secured  a  secretarj^- 
ship  at  Versailles  in  1753.  Later  he  became  editor  of 
the  Mercure,  for  which  he  wrote,  in  part,  his  celebrated 
Confes  Moraitx,  afterwards  published  in  book  form 
(Paris,  1761,2  vols.).  These  Moral  Tales  were  received 
with  extraordinarj-  favor,  and  were  translated  into  most 
of  the  languages  of  Europe.  Though  written  with  great 
elegance  and  animation,  their  morality  is  rather  ques- 
tionable, and,  appearing  at  a  time  when  literature  was 
unusually  weiglied  down  by  freethinkers  and  atheists, 
the  French  clergy  declaimed  against  the  Contes  Maraux. 
The  opposition  of  the  clergy  became  more  decided  against 
Marmontel  in  1767,  when  he  published  his  Belisaire,  a 
political  romance.  A  chapter  of  it  treats  on  toleration. 
This  part  of  the  work  was  specially  objected  to  by  the 
doctors  of  the  Sorbonne  "  as  heretical  and  blasphemous," 
and  quickly  the  cry  resounded  through  the  pulpits  of 
the  capital,  and  thence  into  those  of  the  inland  towns, 
until  the  excitement  became  general.  Belisaire  was 
condemned  by  the  archbishop  of  Paris.  Voltaire  could 
hardly  say  enough  in  its  praise,  and  the  empress  Cath- 
arine II  honored  it  by  a  special  order  for  its  immediate 
translation  into  Russian.  Marmontel  himself  came  off 
victor  in  this  contest  with  the  Sorbonne  and  the  clergy, 
and  gained  the  honorable  appointment  of  historiogra- 
pher of  France.  To  the  Enryclojyedie  (s.  v.)  he  contrib- 
uted ''  Elements  de  Litterature"  (1787,  6  vols.  8vo) ;  he 
had  charge,  moreover,  of  its  departments  of  poetry  and 
general  literature.  During  the  Revolution  he  retired 
to  the  countrj-,  and  died  at  the  village  of  AbloviUe, 
near  iM-reux,  December  31,  1799.  An  edition  of 
liis  (Fuvres  Completes  was  published  by  himself  in  17 
vols. ;  another  in  18  vols.  (Paris,  1818) ;  a  third  in  7  vols. 
(Paris,  1819-20).  See  Saint-Surin,  Notice  sur  Marmon- 
tel (1824);  Sainte-Beuve,  Canseries  du  Lundi,  vol.  iv; 
Morellet,  Eloge  de  Marmontel  (1805);  Villenave,  Notice 
sur  les  Ourrages  de  Marmontel  (1820) ;  Edinb.  Rev.  1806 
(Jan.)  ;  Schlosser,  Gesch.  d.  18'™  u.  19'^"  Jakrhunderts,  ii, 
2.  §  1 ;  Thomas,  Diet,  of  Biog.  and  Mythol.  s.  v. ;  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  s.  v,     (J.  H.W.) 

Mar'moth  (Mapfj.oi^i'),  a  less  correct  form  (1  Esdr, 
viii,  62  )  of  the  Heb,  name  Meuemoth  (1  Ezra  viii,  33), 

Marne,  Jeax-Baptiste  de,  a  Flemish  ecclesiastic 
and  historian,  was  born  at  Douai  in  1699.  He  entered 
the  Society  of -Jesus  in  1619;  was  appointed  minister  to 
Naniur,  after  having  taught  belles-lettres  and  theology 
in  many  cities,  and  tilling  different  missions.  After- 
wards he  was  called  to  Liege,  and  became  confessor  to 
John-Theodore  of  Bavaria,  and  synodal  examiner  of  the 
diocese.  Ten  years  later  he  retired  to  Liege.  He  died 
Oct.  9,  1756,  Marne  wrote  Martyr  du  secret  de  la  con- 
fession, ou  la  Vie  de  Saint  Jean  Nepoumeine  (Paris, 
1741, 12mo;  Avignon,  1820, 18mo),  See  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog.  Generale,  xxxiii,  907, 


Marnix,  Philippe  van,  de  Ste.  Aldegoxde,  oc- 
cupies a  distinguished  place  in  the  history  of  the  Neth- 
erlands during  the  Keformation  period.  He  was  born 
at  Brussels  in  1538,  of  parents  thoroughly  identified  with 
the  interests  of  their  country,  and  was  carefuUy  edu- 
cated at  home,  and  later  at  Geneva  under  Calvin  and 
Beza.  After  returning  to  his  home  in  1560,  he  spent 
six  years  in  retirement,  but  became  known,  notwith- 
standing his  seclusion,  as  a  careful  observer  of  events, 
and  respected  as  a  patriot  and  a  man  of  honor.  His  de- 
votion to  the  cause  of  the  Reformation,  whose  influence 
he  steadily  endeavored  to  extend,  could  not  remain  con- 
cealed ;  nor  could  his  learning,  his  keen  understanding, 
and  his  power  as  a  writer  escape  recognition.  He  was 
soon  in  intimate  relations  with  the  leaders  of  the  na- 
tion, and  the  rapid  progress  of  events  forced  him  into 
prominence.  He  is  universally  held  to  be  the  author 
of  the  so-called  compromise  (about  1565-66)  by  which 
the  nobles  and  others  pledged  themselves  to  resist,  by 
all  lawful  means,  the  introduction  of  the  Inquisition, 
The  league  soon  attained  such  proportions  that  it  dared 
to  present  (April  5, 1566)  a  petition  to  the  regent  for 
the  suppression  of  the  institution.  Soon  after,  when 
Protestant  field -preaching  was  introduced,  he  jjlaced 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  movement,  and  insisted  that 
the  Protestants  should  be  jjermitted  to  worship  in  Ant- 
werp itself.  On  the  19th  of  August  an  iconoclastic  mob 
destroyed  the  many  works  of  art  that  adorned  the 
churches,  etc.,  of  Antwerp,  and  the  regent,  in  alarm,  per- 
mitted Protestant  worship  in  specified  places ;  and  un- 
der this  sanction  the  first  synod  of  the  Walloon  church- 
es assembled  in  Antwerp  Oct.  26,  1566.  ]\Iamix  pre- 
sided, and  by  his  influence  contributed  to  the  adoption 
of  the  reformed  confession,  by  which  event  the  Calvin- 
ists  acquired  a  pre-eminence  that  still  continues.  The 
government  now  adopted  more  energetic  measures  to  re- 
strain the  Protestants,  by  placing  garrisons  in  im[)ortant 
towns,  and  even  besieging  such  as  refused  to  admit 
them.  This  was  the  case  at  Valenciennes ;  and  Jlarnix, 
while  seeking  to  aid  the  beleaguered  city,  was  defeated, 
his  brother  killed,  himself  banished,  and  his  property 
confiscated.  During  his  exile  he  was  influential  in  con- 
verting William  of  Orange  and  Nassau  to  the  Protes- 
tant faith,  and  formed  a  connection  with  him  that  was 
only  dissolved  by  death.  In  the  mean  time,  however, 
Marnix  had  entered  the  sen'ice  of  the  Palatine  Freder- 
ick HI,  and  fixed  his  residence  at  Heidelberg,  wliere  he 
was  largely  engaged  in  theological  investigations ;  but, 
with  the  consent  of  the  elector,  he  was  often  employed 
in  the  affairs  of  his  own  country,  under  the  direction  of 
the  prince  of  Orange,  being  present  at  the  defeat  of 
Louis  of  Nassau  at  Jemmingen  in  July,  1568,  etc.  He 
attended  the  synod  of  the  exiled  clergy  at  Wesel  in 
November,  1568,  and  his  influence  is  seen  in  the  consti- 
tution of  the  Church  then  adopted.  A  second  impor- 
tant synod  was  held  at  Emden,  Oct.  4  to  14,  1571,  at 
which  Marnix  was  also  present,  and  which  selected  him 
to  write  a  history  of  recent  events  in  the  Netherlands ; 
but  the  needs  of  his  country  prevented  the  execution 
of  this  task.  In  July,  1572,  he  was  sent  by  the  prince 
of  Orange  to  confer  with  the  delegates  of  Holland,  who 
were  assembled  at  Dort,  and  succeeded  in  inducing  them 
to  pledge  their  readmess  to  make  every  sacrifice  to  throw 
off  the  Spanish  j^oke.  Thenceforward  his  activity  was 
incessant.  He  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Spaniards  in 
November,  1573,  but  his  life  was  spared,  as  the  prince  of 
Orange  had  threatened  to  retaliate,  and  Requesens,  suc- 
cessor to  the  duke  of  Alba,  employed  him  in  an  attempt 
to  negotiate  a  peace,  which  was  defeated  by  the  sagac- 
ity of  Orange.  A  similar  office,  undertaken  after  his  ex- 
change on  the  order  of  the  prince  of  Orange,  likewise 
failed,  as  did  his  mission  to  induce  queen  Elizabeth  of 
England  to  accept  the  sovereignty  of  the  Netherlands. 
He  assisted  in  the  negotiations  that  resulted  in  the 
"Pacification  of  Ohent"  in  November,  1576,  and  in  the 
formation  of  the  second  union  between  the  ])rovinces  at 
Brussels  in  December,  1577.     In  May,  1578,  he  repre- 


MARON 


TGG 


MARONITES 


sented  the  Netherlands  at  the  Diet  of  Worms,  and  pre- 
vailed on  the  German  states  to  remain  neutral  in  the 
contest  with  Spain.  In  the  mean  time  religious  intol- 
erance had  led  to  gross  outrages  among  his  countrymen, 
and  the  bitter  feeling  bctAvccn  the  jiartics  threatened 
ruin  to  the  union  that  had  been  secured  with  so  much 
effort.  An  attempt  to  reconcile  these  differences,  in 
which  he  Vv'as  engaged  on  his  return,  failed,  and  several 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  provinces  withdrew,  and  placed 
themselves  and  their  religion  under  Spanish  protection. 
An  alliance  with  France  was  now  thought  of,  and  Mar- 
nix  exerted  his  influence  successfully  to  induce  the 
states-general  to  offer  the  crown  to  Francis,  duke  of  An- 
jou-Alen(;on.  This  prince  reached  Antwerp  on  Feb.  19, 
1572;  but  an  attempt  to  seize  Antwerp  and  other  im- 
portant towns  led  to  his  expulsion  from  the  land  before 
he  had  reigned  a  year,  and  botli  Orange  and  Marnix 
were  suspected  of  connivance  with  the  French.  In  con- 
sequence, Marnix  retired  from  public  life ;  but  the  prog- 
ress of  the  Spaniards,  under  the  duke  of  Parma,  uiduced 
William  of  Orange  to  recall  him,  and  he  was  appointed 
to  the  office  of  first  biu-gomaster  of  Antwerp,  in  order 
that  he  might  direct  its  defence.  He  entered  on  its  du- 
ties Nov.  15, 1583,  and  a  few  days  later  the  siege  began. 
It  was  continued  until  Aug.  17, 1685,  when  the  city  hon- 
orably capitulated.  With  this  event  his  political  career 
was  ended,  and  he  retired  to  his  estates,  devoting  him- 
self mainly  to  theological  studies.  In  1596,  having  been 
appointed  by  the  states-general  to  translate  the  Bible 
into  Dutch,  he  removed  to  Leyden,  in  order  to  avail 
himself  of  its  librarj^,  and  of  the  assistance  of  his  friends 
Scaliger,  Lipsius,  Junius,  and  others.  He  only  lived, 
however,  to  complete  the  boolc  of  Genesis.  He  died 
Dec.  15, 1598.  "  He  was."  says  Motley,  "  a  man  of  most 
rare  and  versatile  genius — scholar,  theologian,  diploma- 
tist, swordsman,  orator,  pamphleteer;  he  had  genius  for 
all  things,  and  was  eminent  in  all."  The  theological 
works  of  Van  Marnix  were  chiefly  of  a  polemical  char- 
acter. The  principal  one.  The  Bee-hive,  is  a  satire  after 
the  manner  of  Von  Hutten,  and  written  in  the  style  of 
Eabelais.  It  was  probably  intended  to  promote  a  rec- 
onciliation between  the  liomish  and  the  Protestant  pr(,v- 
inces  of  his  country.  Another  able  contribution  is  his 
Tableau  cles  differences  de  la  religion  (16G9,  and  often). 
A  complete  edition  of  his  works,  in  8  vols.,  was  publish- 
ed at  Brussels,  1857-GO,  under  the  title  CEurres  de  Phil, 
de  Marnix  de  Ste.  A  Idef/onde ;  vol.  iv  contains  a  brief 
memoir,  and  a  notice  bibliographique.  His  life  has 
been  frequently  written*;  among  others,  Th.  Juste  has 
treated  it  in  connection  with  his  studies  of  the  Nether- 
lands (1858).  JMotley's  Bise  of  the  Dutch  Repuhlic,  and 
Hist,  of  the  United  Netherlaiuls,  vol.  i,  chap,  iii,  are  valua- 
ble aids  to  the  study  of  this  career.  See  also  Prins,  Leren 
van  P.  V.  Marnix  (1782);  Dresselhu'is,  F.  v.  Marnix 
(1832);  Broes,F.v.J/rtrHia- (1838-40, 2  vols. 8vo);  Her- 
zog,  Peal-Pnci/klop.  xx,  96  sq. ;  Edgar  Quinet,  in  the  Ee- 
vue  de.i  deux  Mondes,  1854.      (G.  51.) 

Maroii,  Joannes,  a  noted  Eastern  patriarch,  sup- 
posed to  be  the  founder  of  the  Maronites,  -was  bom  at 
Sirum,near  Antioch.in  Syria,  about  the  middle  of  the  7th 
century ;  studied  at  Constantinople,  and  became  monk 
and  priest  in  the  convent  of  St.  jMaron.  Elevated  to  the 
bishopric  of  Botoys  in  676,  according  to  some,  by  the 
papal  legate,  he  brought,  if  we  may  follow  Komish  au- 
thority, all  the  Christians  of  Lebanon  within  the  com- 
munion of  the  Church  of  Kome;  was  then  made  patri- 
arch of  Antioch,  and  confirmed  by  pope  Honorius ;  and 
dieil  in  707.     See,  however,  Makonites. 

Maronites,  a  community  or  sect  of  Christians, 
numbering  some  150,000,  in  Syria,  particularly  in  the 
northern  part  of  Mount  Lebanon,  and  said  to  be  of  very 
ancient  origin. 

I.  History. — Considerable  controversy  has  arisen  as  to 
the  real  origin  of  this  most  peculiar  Christian  people; 
the  most  probable  account  represents  them  as  descend- 
ants of  a  remnant  of  the  Monothelites  (q.  v.),  who,  flee- 
ing from  the  repressive  measures  of  the  emperor  Anas- 


tasius  II,  in  the  early  part  of  the  8th  centurj',  settled  on 
the  slo])es  of  the  Lebanon,  and  gradually  yielded  their 
distinctive  Monothelite  views.  According  to  Moshcim 
(Eccles.  Hist,  i,  457 ;  iii,  127),  many  Monothelites,  after 
the  Council  of  Constantinople,  found  a  refuge  among  the 
Mardaites,  signifying  in  Syriac  rebels,  a  people  who  took  ■ 
possession  of  Lebanon  A.D.  676,  and  made  it  the  asy-  * 
lum  of  vagabonds,  slaves,  and  aU  sorts  of  rabble ;  and 
about  the  conclusion  of  the  7th  century  these  Monoth- 
elites of  Lebanon  were  called  Maronites,  after  Maro, 
their  first  bishop.  None,  he  says,  of  the  ancient  writ- 
ers give  an}'  certain  account  of  the  first  person  who 
converted  these  mountaineers  to  Monothelitism ;  it  is 
probable,  however,  from  several  circumstances,  that  it 
was  John  Maro,  whose  name  they  have  adopted ;  and 
that  tliis  ecclesiastic  received  the  name  of  Maro  from 
his  having  lived,  in  the  character  of  a  monk,  in  the  fa- 
mous convent  of  St.  Maro,  upon  the  borders  of  the  Oron- 
tcs,  before  his  settlement  among  the  Mardaites  of  Mount 
Libanus.  Gieseler  (Eccles.  Hist,  ii,  419),  however,  takes 
exception  to  this  identification  of  the  Maronites  with 
the  Mardaites,  and,  by  authority  derived  from  the  writ- 
ings of  Anquetil  Duperron  {Recherches  sur  les  migi-ations 
des  Mardes,  in  the  Mem.  de  I'Acad.  des  Inscript.  i,  1), 
holds  that  "the  ^Mardaites  orMards,  a  warlike  nation  of 
Armenia,  were  placed  as  a  garrison  on  Mount  Libanus 
by  Constantine  Pogonatus,  A.D.  676  (Theophanes.  p. 
295),  and  were  withdrawn  as  early  as  685  by  Justinian 
II  (Theophanes,  p.  302).  Madden  (Turkish  Empire, 
ii,  154),  upon  the  authority  of  the  learned  Benedictine 
St.  Maur  (Histoire  Monastique  de  TOrient,  p.  348),  holds 
that  the  Maronites  were  founded  by  St.  Maro,  a  patriarch 
of  Syrian  Christians  in  the  5th  century,  and  that  they 
existed  imder  that  name  in  the  7th  century,  when  the 
Saracens  ravaged  the  country-,  and  were  afterwards  per- 
secuted as  Mardaites  (comp.  here  Churchill,  Mount  Leb- 
anon, iii,  58).  There  is  certainly  much  in  favor  of  this 
argument,  not  the  least  of  which  is  the  fact  that, "  at  the 
commencement  of  the  7th  centur\',  the  entire  range  of 
mountains  from  Antioch  to  Jerusalem  was  in  the  hands 
of  the  Syrian  Christians,  who  formed  a  political  power 
under  chiefs  or  emirs,  exercising  a  hereditary  gov- 
ernment" (Churchill).  But,  however  great  may  be  the 
darkness  surrounding  their  earliest  history,  one  thing  is 
certain,  from  the  testimony  of  William  of  Tyre  and  oth- 
er unexceptionable  witnesses,  as  also  from  the  most  au- 
thentic records,  namely,  that  the  Maronites  retained  the 
opinions  of  the  Monothelites  until  the  12th  century, 
when,  abandoning  and  renouncing  the  doctrine  of  one 
win  in  Christ,  they  were  readmitted  into  the  commun- 
ion of  the  Koman  Church.  Jacques  dc  Vitry,  bishop 
of  Acre  in  the  12th  century,  thus  speaks  of  the  Maro- 
nites in  his  Histoi-ia  Hierosohjmitana,  drawn  up  at  the  re- 
quest of  pope  Honorius  III :  ''  jMen  armed  with  bows  and 
arrows,  and  skilful  in  battle,  inhabit  the  mountains  in 
considerable  numbers,  in  the  province  of  Phoenicia,  not 
far  from  the  town  of  Biblos.  They  are  called  Maro- 
nites, from  the  name  of  a  certain  man,  their  master,  Mar- 
on,  a  heretic,  who  affirmed  that  there  was  in  Jesus  but 
one  will  or  operation.  The  Christians  of  the  Lebanon, 
dupes  of  this  diabolical  error  of  jVIaron,  remained  sepa- 
rate from  the  Church  nearly  five  hundred  years.  At 
last,  their  hearts  being  turned,  they  made  profession  of 
the  Catholic  faith  in  presence  of  the  venerable  father 
Amaury,  patriarch  of  Antioch,  and  adopted  the  tradi- 
tions oi'  the  IJoman  Church."  The  most  learned  of  the 
modern  Maronites  have  left  no  method  unemployed  to 
defend  their  Church  against  this  accusation ;  they  have 
labored  to  prove,  by  a  variety  of  testimonies,  that  their 
ancestors  always  persevered  in  the  Catholic  faith,  and 
in  their  attachment  to  the  Koman  jiontiff.  witliout  ever 
adopting  the-doctrine  of  the  !Monophysites  or  Monothe- 
lites (compare  Churchill,  Mount  Lebanon,  iii,  51).  But 
all  their  efforts  are  insufficient  to  prove  the  truth  of 
these  assertions,  and  the  testimonies  they  allege  appear 
absolutely  fictitious  and  destitute  of  authority. 

There   can  be  no   doubt  that  the  INIaronites  were 


MARONITES 


V67 


MARONITES 


brought  back  to  the  communion  of  Rome  by  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Crusaders.  Even  in  our  day  the  Maronites, 
"  warranted,  indeed,  both  by  historical  and  traditional 
records,  allude  in  terms  of  pride  and  satisfaction  to  the 
service  done  by  their  ancestors  to  the  armies  of  tlie  Cru- 
saders, and  estimate  in  round  numbers  50,000  of  their 
population  as  having  fallen  under  the  standards  of  the 
Cross"  (Churchill).  During  the  early  part  of  the  r2th 
century  the  communications  between  the  Maronitc  pa- 
triarch antl  the  papal  see  were  of  frequent  recurrence, 
and  thus  the  way  was  easily  paved  for  reunion.  But 
though  the  Maronites  joined  the  communion  of  Rome 
in  this  very  age,  it  required  three  cOTituries  more  be- 
fore the  sturdy  mountaineers  could  be  brought  to  ac- 
knowledge Rome's  supremacy  in  matters  of  ecclesias- 
tical discipline,  and  we  are  afforded  a  picture  of  a  Chris- 
tian Church  existing  for  three  centuries,  "  popish  in  all 
its  forms  and  doctrines,  saving  the  cartlinal  point  of  sub- 
mission to  the  pope."  They  had  entered  the  Romish 
communion  on  the  establishment  of  the  Latin  kingdom 
of  .Jerusalem  in  the  r2th  century,  but  they  did  not  en- 
ter into  a  formal  act  of  union  with  Rome  until  the  Coun- 
cil of  Florence  in  1445,  and  only  formally  subscribed  to 
the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent  in  1736.  Mosheim 
observes  that  the  subjection  of  the  Maronites  to  the 
spiritual  jurisdiction  of  the  Roman  pontitf  was  agreed 
to  with  this  express  condition,  that  neither  the  popes 
nor  their  emissaries  should  pretend  to  change  or  abolish 
anything  that  related  to  the  ancient  rites,  moral  pre- 
cepts, or  religious  opinions  of  this  people;  so  that,  in 
reality,  there  is  nothing  to  be  found  among  the  Maro- 
nites that  savors  of  popery,  if  we  except  their  attachment 
to  the  Roman  pontiff.  It  is  also  certain  that  there  are 
Maronites  in  Syria  who  still  hold  the  Church  of  Rome 
in  the  greatest  aversion  and  abhorrence  (Schaff,  Church 
J/isf.  iii,  783)  ;  nay,  what  is  still  more  remarkable,  great 
numbers  of  that  nation  residing  in  Italy,  even  under 
the  eye  of  the  pontiff,  opposed  his  authority  during  the 
17th  century,  and  threw  tlie  court  of  Rome  into  great 
perplexit}'.  One  body  of  these  non-conforming  Maro- 
nites retired  into  the  valleys  of  Piedmont,  where  they 
joined  the  Waldenses;  another,  above  six  hundred  in 
number,  with  a  bishop  and  several  ecclesiastics  at  their 
head,  flew  into  Corsica,  and  implored  the  protection  of 
the  republic  of  Genoa  against  the  violence  of  the  in- 
quisitors. Their  union  with  Rome  gave  the  Maronites 
the  protection  of  European  powers,  especially  that  of 
the  devoted  Frank ;  but  Avhen  the  Franks  were  expelled 
from  Syria,  in  1300,  by  Malek  Ashraf,  the  IMaronites 
were  compelled  to  defend  their  independence  against 
the  Mamehike  sovereigns,  and  the  greater  part  of  them 
became  mixed  up  with  the  Druses,  still  keeping  up, 
however,  their  connection  with  Rome.  In  the  17th  cen- 
tury they  placed  themselves  inider  the  direct  protec- 
tion of  France,  Louis  XIV  and  Louis  XV  granting  them 
"Letters  of  Protection  ;"  and  for  some  time  the  French 
consul  at  Beirut  exercised  almost  regal  sway  over  them, 
the  Maronites  regarding  themselves  as  "  the  French 
of  the  East."  In  the  early  part  of  the  18th  centurj- 
the  Druses  called  the  Mohammedan  family  of  the  She- 
habs  to  govern  Lebanon,  and  in  1713  the  Turks  made  the 
first  attempt  to  bring  the  inhabitants  under  the  direct 
rule  of  a  pacha.  Tliey  resisted  successfully,  defeating 
the  Turks  in  the  battle  of  Aindara;  but  in  175G  several 
emirs  became  Maronites,  and,  incited  by  the  Maronite 
clergj-,  showed  great  favor  to  their  new  Ijrethren,  there- 
by displeasing  the  Druses,  and  provoking  a  feeling  of 
ill-will  between  the  Druses  and  the  ^Maronites,  which 
has  not  yet  subsided.  The  pachas  of  Acre,  since  Jez- 
zar,  carefully  promoted  this  misunderstanding,  for  they 
felt  that  the  tribes  of  Lebanon,  fully  united  under  an  en- 
terprising chief,  would  become  dangerous  to  the  Porte. 
Yet  there  was  no  feeling  of  religious  animosity  between 
the  two  nations  at  this  early  date,  and,  whenever  polit- 
ical troubles  broke  out,  Druse  and  JIaronite  sided  in- 
discriminately with  both  parties.  Emir  Beshir  Shehab 
(1789-1840),  although  in  secret  a  Maronite,  was  always 


surrounded  by  the  most  important  among  the  Druses, 
and,  whenever  he  needed  help,  asked  it  of  them  rather 
than  of  the  Maronites.  Thus  the  Druses  and  the  Chris- 
tians were  living  peaceably  side  by  side  until  1831,  when 
Sj'ria  passed  under  the  rule  of  Mohammed  Ali,  and  he 
commissioned  his  son,  Ibrahim  Pacha,  to  govern  the 
province.  Carrying  out  his  father's  enlightened  views, 
Ibrahim  Pacha  applied  himself  to  the  improvement  of 
the  condition  of  his  Christian  subjects,  and,  in  spite  of 
the  opposition  of  the  Jlohamraedans,  they  were  raised 
to  civil  and  military  offices.  The  Syrians,  however,  ac- 
customed to  the  indolent  Turkish  rule,  revolted  against 
this  energetic  and  active  Egyptian  management,  and  it 
was  some  time  before  the  insurrection  was  quelled,  the 
Druses  being  the  last  to  submit.  They  had  asked  the 
Maronites  to  join  them,  and  the  latter,  who  had  held 
back  when  there  was  some  chance  of  success,  now  rose 
under  the  most  frivolous  pretences.  In  the  mean  time, 
in  1840,  the  allied  fleet  of  England,  Austria,  and  Tur- 
key were  employed  to  secure  the  restoration  of  Syria 
to  Turkey.  Turkish  agents  were  busy  among  the  Jlar- 
onites,  fanning  the  flame  of  rebellion;  most  of  these 
wretches  were  Englishmen.  Finally,  France  not  uphold- 
ing Egypt,  Syria  was  returned  to  Turkish  rule.  The 
position  of  the  Christians  now  became  worse  than  ever, 
and  their  merchants  were  obliged  to  invoke  the  protec- 
tion of  the  European  consuls  against  the  spoliation  of 
the  Turks.  Lord  Stratford  of  Redcliffe  interfered  in 
their  behalf  at  Constantinople,  and  quiet  was  for  a  while 
restored.  The  Turkish  government  wished  to  appoint 
a  Turkish  governor  over  Lebanon,  but  the  English  flnal- 
1}'  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  appointment  of  emir  Be- 
shir Kassim  Shehab,  a  Christian.  The  Druses,  how- 
ever, took  exception  to  this  arrangement,  and  when  sub- 
sequently the  Maronite  patriarch  attempted  to  confis- 
cate all  civil  authority  for  the  benefit  of  the  Maronites, 
they  became  exasperated.  Colonel  Rose,  the  English 
consul-general,  wrote  on  that  occasion,  "  The  Maronite 
clergy  show  a  determination  to  uphold  their  supremacy 
in  the  mountains  at  the  risk  of  a  civil  war."  And  a 
civil  war  was  the  result  of  this  obstinac)'.  The  patri- 
arch (for  his  functions  among  the  Slaronites,  see  below, 
under  III.  Religious  Status.  —  1.  Clerg;/)  at  the  same 
time,  by  his  mismanagement,  excited  the  jealousies  of 
the  Turks,  and  displeased  the  English,  whom  the  Druses 
hailed  as  their  friends. 

On  Sept.  14, 1841,  a  first  affray  took  place  between  the 
Druses  and  tlie  Christians  at  I)eir  cl-Kamar ;  it  was  re- 
pressed by  the  efforts  of  colonel  Rose.  The  Druses  rose 
again,  however,  on  Oct.  13,  14,  and  15,  and  the  entire 
destruction  of  the  town  was  only  prevented  by  the  arri- 
val from  Beirut  of  colonel  Rose  and  Ayiib  Pacha  on 
the  10th.  But  the  war  had  commenced,  and  the  Druses, 
assisted  by  the  Turks,  who  wilfully  and  purposely  pro- 
moted tlie  hateful  strife,  soon  got  the  better  of  the 
Christians,  and,  had  it  not  been  for  the  interference  of 
the  English  consul,  Turkish  fanaticism  would  have  ex- 
tinguished every  Christian  life  on  and  near  Mount  Leb- 
anon. Quiet  was  restored,  however,  only  for  a  sea- 
son. See  Druses.  On  Aug.  30,  1859,  an  aft'ray  took 
place  at  Bate-mirri,  three  hours  from  Beirut,  origina- 
ting in  a  quarrel  between  a  Druse  and  a  Christian  boy, 
in  which  the  Druses  were  defeated ;  but  the  next  day, 
Sunday,  they  renewed  ihe  fight  in  greater  numbers,  and 
were  victorious.  The  Druses  now  commenced  burn- 
ing the  Maronite  villages;  the  Turks  fearing  the  power 
of  European  governments,  Kurchid  Pacha  put  an  end 
to  the  disturbance,  yet  without  punishing  the  offenders. 
The  Maronites,  perceiving  or  believing  that  a  secret  un- 
derstanding existed  between  the  Druses  and  the  Turks, 
promptly  commenced  arming.  In  April,  1860,  Kurchid 
Pacha  received  despatches  from  Constantinople;  soon 
afterwards  Scid  Bey  Jumblatt  assembled  a  Druse  divan 
at  Muchtara,  and  great  agitation  commenced  to  pervade 
the  Druse  districts;  Christians  were  murdered  either 
singly  or  in  small  |>arties,  and  a  great  number  of  them, 
leaving  their  villages,  fled  to  the  stronger  places  of 


MARONITES 


768 


MARONITES 


Zachle  and  Deir  el-Kamar.  On  May  4  some  Druses 
broke  iii*o  the  convent  of  Amik,  near  Deir  el-Kamar, 
and  mtinlered  the  superior  in  his  bed.  The  Maronites 
still  sought  to  obtain  peace,  but  found  that  they  would 
be  compelled  to  meet  force  with  force.  Three  thousand 
men  from  Zachle  attacked  the  Druse  village  of  Aindara, 
but  were  beaten  by  a  much  smaller  force,  their  arrange- 
ments, and  especially  their  discipline,  being  much  infe- 
rior to  that  of  the  Druses.  Kurchid  Pacha  had  a  Turk- 
ish camp  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Beirut,  and 
commanding  the  plain,  but  he  did  not  interfere  now  as 
he  had  done  on  the  former  occasion.  On  the  contrary, 
after  encouraging  the  Maronites  by  promising  them  his 
protection  against  the  Druses,  he  gave  the  signal  of 
their  massacre  on  May  30.  One  hundred  Turkish  sol- 
diers and  the  irregular  Turkish  cavalry  joined  the  Druses 
in  cutting  down  the  Maronites.  The  Druses  would 
have  pushed  on  to  Beirut  had  they  not  been  prevent- 
ed bj'  the  Turks.  The  European  consuls  now  attempted 
to  interfere;  they  were  met  with  fine  protestations  by 
the  Turkish  authorities,  and  nothing  was  done  to  re- 
press the  outrages.  At  the  end  of  May  the  Druses 
blockaded  Deir  el-Kamar,  and  on  June  1  it  was  attacked 
by  4000  of  them.  The  city  surrendered  the  next  day. 
The  pacha,  after  entering  the  city,  upbraided  the  Maro- 
nites as  traitors,  rebels,  etc.,  because  they  had  thought 
it  wise  to  defend  themselves  against  the  Druses.  At 
the  same  time  2000  Druses,  commanded  by  Seleb  Bey 
Jumblatt,  took  Jezin,  and  murdered  the  inhabitants. 
Koman  Catholic  convents  shared  the  same  fate  as  those 
of  the  jMaronites,  being  sacked,  plundered,  and  burned  : 
in  that  of  Meshmusy  alone  thirty  monks  had  their 
throats  cut;  the  plunder  was  enormous.  Ali  Said  Bey's 
district  was  given  up  to  fire  and  the  sword.  Sidon  was 
only  saved  by  the  timely  arrival  of  captain  Maunsell, 
with  his  English  ship  the  Firetiy,  on  June  3.  In  the 
Anti-Lebanon,  Said  Bev's  sister  followed  her  brother's 
example  and  instructions,  causing  the  Christians  of 
Hasbeya  and  Kaslieya  to  be  inveigled  into  the  serail 
of  the  former  place,  under  promise  of  their  being  taken 
safely  to  Damascus ;  they  were  there  murdered  in  cold 
Hood  by  the  Druses,  without  distinction  of  age  or  sex, 
oil  Jmie  10.  The  Tiu-kish  soldiers  crowded  into  the 
serail  to  enjoy  the  sight,  and  some  of  them  even  took 
part  in  the  butchery.  On  June  14  Zachle  was  invested 
and  taken  and  on  the  19th  Deir  el-Kamar  met  with  the 
same  fate.  The  entire  male  population  was  ruthlessly 
massacred,  and  the  city  given  a  prej'  to  the  tlames. 
The  surviving  widows  and  children  Hed  to  the  coasts. 
On  June  22  a  disturbance  broke  out  at  Beirut,  in  which 
even  the  Europeans  were  assailed,  but  it  was  repressed 
with  the  aid  of  general  Kmety  (Ismail  Pacha).  The 
purely  Maronite  districts  of  Lebanon  now  became  great- 
ly alarmed,  the  more  as  Turkish  soldiers  were  quartered 
there  under  the  pretence  of  protecting  tliera.  The  Eu- 
ropean consuls  advised  together,  and  drew  up  a  remon- 
strance to  the  Druse  chiefs,  which  a  jMr.  Graham  was 
sent  to  deliver  to  them.  Said  Bey  Jumblatt,  however, 
when  appealed  to,  declared  only  his  respect  for  Eng- 
land and  his  willingness  to  see  this  struggle  end,  but 
added  that  he  had  no  power  over  it,  and  that  the  Druses 
would  not  obey  him.  Most  of  the  Druse  sheiks  con- 
trived to  avoid  Mr.  Graham,  and  those  he  did  meet  gave 
him  but  evasive  answers.  Finally,  on  July  10,  the 
ISIohammedans  of  Damascus  rose  against  the  Christians, 
of  whom  there  were  some  25,000  in  the  city.  The 
Ciiristian  quarter  was  soon  a  heap  of  smouldering  ruins, 
beneath  which  numberless  corpses  were  buried.  AVom- 
en,  married  and  unmarried,  were  wandering  through 
the  streets,  and  were  seen  to  cry  for  assistance,  with 
heads  uncovered  and  feet  naked,  appealing  to  the  mur- 
derers for  mercy.  !Many  were  sold  as  slaves  for  a  few 
piastres,  or  taken  away  to  the  desert.  Tlie  streets  were 
crowded  with  fanatics,  who  shouted  continually,  "Death 
to  the  Christians!  Let  us  slaughter  the  Christians! 
Let  not  one  remain !"  Everj'  church  and  convent  was 
plundered  and  afterwards  burned.     The  silver  plate. 


jewelry,  and  gold  coin  taken  from  these  sanctuaries 
"  were  not  allowed  to  be  yilundered  by  the  rabble,  but 
were  removed  by  soldiersv"  These  are  the  words  of  the 
British  consul,  Mr.  Brant.  The  consulates  of  France, 
Russia,  Austria,  Belgium,  Holland,  and  the  United 
States  were  all  burned.  Those  of  luigland  and  Prussia 
escaped,  as  they  were  not  situated  in  the  Christian 
quarter,  and  they  became  an  asylum  for  as  many  as 
were  able  to  reach  them.  Others  were  saved  in  great 
numbers  in  the  house  of  Abd-el-Kader,  and  in  the  cita- 
del ;  but  the  governor,  Ahmed  Pacha,  was  an  unmoved 
witness  of  the  devastation,  or  an  accomplice  in  the  law- 
less deeds  of  tlfe  plundering  rabble  {Lond.  liev.  1860, 
Oct.,  p.  160).  As  has  already  been  stated  in  the  article 
Druses  (q.  v.),  the  French  and  English  governments 
were  obliged  to  come  to  the  rescue  of  the  Syrian  Chris- 
tians, and  the  Porte  was  forced  to  inflict  punishment 
upon  those  Avhom  the  Turkish  officers  had  made  pliant 
tools  for  the  destruction  of  the  Maronites.  On  Aug.  3  a 
conference  of  the  great  powers — Britain,  Austria,  France, 
Prussia,  Russia,  and  Turkey  as  well — met,  but  the  meet- 
ing was  closed  without  accomplishing  any  real  good. 
AU  that  was  secured  was  the  promise  that  the  Sublime 
Porte  had  endeavored  and  would  continue  to  do  its  duty ; 
but  what  this  dutj'  consisted  in,  it  has  been  hard  to  de- 
termine to  this  Aa.\.  Only  a  few  weeks  previously  the 
Christian  emirs  had  been  compelled  by  the  Turkish  pa- 
cha to  testify  that  the  conduct  of  the  Turks  was  irre- 
proachable, when  the  emirs  felt  constrauied  afterwards 
to  acknowledge  their  extorted  perjurj-.  In  October, 
finally,  the  international  conference  of  the  plenipoten- 
tiaries of  European  powers  convened  at  Beirut,  and 
crowned  their  labors  successfully,  June  9, 1861,  by  a  spe- 
cial treaty  concerning  the  administration  of  the  Leba- 
non.    See  Druses,  vol.  ii,  p.  900,  col.  2. 

II.  Social  Position. — The  nation  may  be  considered 
as  divided  into  two  classes,  the  common  people  and  the 
sheiks,  by  whom  must  be  understood  the  most  eminent 
of  the  inhabitants,  who,  from  the  antiquity  of  their  fam- 
ilies and  the  opulence  of  their  fortunes,  are  superior  to 
the  ordinary  class.  Thej'  all  live  dispersed  in  the 
mountains,  in  villages,  hamlets,  and  even  detached 
houses,  which  is  never  the  case  in  the  plains.  The 
whole  nation  consists  of  cultivators.  Every  man  im- 
proves the  little  domain  he  possesses,  or  farms,  with  his 
own  hands.  Even  the  sheiks  live  in  the  same  manner, 
and  are  only  distinguished  from  the  rest  by  a  bad  pe- 
lisse, a  horse,  and  a  few  slight  advantages  in  food  and 
lodging;  they  all  live  frugally,  without  many  enjoy- 
ments, but  also  with  few  wants,  as  they  are  little  ac- 
quainted with  the  inventions  of  luxury.  In  general, 
the  nation  is  poor,  but  no  one  wants  necessaries;  and  if 
beggars  are  sometimes  seen,  they  come  rather  from  the 
sea-coast  than  the  country  itself.  Property  is  as  sacred 
among  them  as  in  I^urope;  nor  do  we  hear  of  robberies 
and  extortions  so  frequently  committed  by  the  Turks. 
Travellers  may  journey  there,  either  by  night  or  by 
day,  with  a  security  unknown  in  any  otlier  part  of  the 
empire,  and  the  stranger  is  received  with  hospitality,  as 
among  the  Arabs:  it  must  be  owned,  however,  that  the 
Maronites  are  less  generous,  and  rather  inclined  to  the 
vice  of  parsimony.  Conformably  to  the  doctrines  of 
Christianity,  they  have  only  one  wife,  whom  they  fre- 
quently espouse  without  having  seen,  and  always  with- 
out having  been  much  in  her  companj'.  Contrary  to 
the  precepts  of  that  same  religion,  however,  they  have 
admitted,  or  retained,  the  Arab  custom  of  retaliation, 
and  the  nearest  relation  of  a  murdered  person  is  bound 
to  avenge  him.  From  a  habit  founded  on  distrust,  and 
the  political  state  of  the  country,  cvcr^-  one,  whether 
sheik  or  peasant,  walks  continually  armed  with  a  mus- 
ket and  poniards.  This  is,  perhaps,  an  inconvenience; 
but  this  advantage  results  from  it,  that  they  have  no 
novices  in  the  use  of  arms  among  them  when  it  is  nec- 
essary to  employ  them  against  the  Turks.  As  the  coun- 
try maintains  no  regular  troops,  every  man  is  obliged  to 
join  the  army  iii  time  of  war;  and  if  this  militia  were 


MARONITES 


769 


MARONITES 


well  conducted,  it  would  be  superior  to  many  European 
armies.  From  accounts  taken  in  late  years,  the  number 
of  men  fit  to  bear  arms  amounts  to  35,000, 


Maionite  bheik  and  hib  W  ife 


III.  Relirjious  Status.  —  Although  the  Maronites  are 
united  with  Rome,  and  though  they  are  perhaps  the 
most  ultramontane  people  in  the  world,  they  neverthe- 
less retain  their  distinctive  national  rites  and  usages. 

1.  Clergy. — The  most  peculiar  of  all  their  institutions 
is  undoubtedly  the  clerical.  As  we  have  seen  above, 
it  is  supposed  that  the  founder  of  the  Maronites  con- 
stituted himself  a  patriarch,  and  this  position  remains 
the  highest  dignity  among  them.  It  is  true  they  admit 
the  supremacy  of  Rome,  but  for  the  home  government 
of  the  Church  the  patriarch  is  the  highest  authority, 
and  in  his  election,  as  well  as  in  the  selection  of  all  the 
clergy,  the  Maronite  exercises  his  own  private  judg- 
ment, independent  of  the  papal  power  at  Kome.  Here 
it  may  not  be  improper  to  state  that  the  patriarch  is  at 
present  expected  to  furnish  every  tenth  year  a  report  of 
the  state  of  his  patriarchate.  Associated  with  the  pa- 
triarch in  the  ecclesiastical  government  of  the  Maro- 
nites are  twelve  bishops,  but  of  the  latter  four  are  titu- 
lar, or  in  partibus.  The  patriarch  himself  is  chosen  by 
the  bishops  in  secret  conclave,  and  by  ballot.  "The 
debates  usually  last  for  many  days,  and  even  weeks ;  at 
last,  when  the  choice  is  made,  the  bishops  present 
kneel  down  and  kiss  the  new  patriarch's  hands;  the 
patriarch  immediately  writes  letters  to  all  the  chief  no- 
bles of  the  mountain  informing  them  of  his  nomination. 
The  latter  lose  no  time  in  assembling  to  pay  him  their 
respects  and  make  their  obeisance.  A  pelisse  of  honor 
shortly  afterwards  arrives  for  the  patriarch  from  the 
governor  of  Lebanon.  Fires,  and  rejoicuig,  and  illu- 
mination extend  throughout  the  whole  range  of  the 
Maronito  districts ;  a  petition  is  now  drawn  up  to  be 
sent  to  the  pope,  praying  him  to  confirm  the  choice 
which  has  just  been  made,  and  signed  by  the  principal 
chiefs.  It  is  open,  however,  to  the  clergj',  or  any  party, 
to  protest  against  the  nomination.  .  .  .  The  pope, 
however,  never  fails  at  once  to  confirm  a  selection 
which  has  the  support  of  the  feudal  aristocracy  and 
principal  clergy  of  Lebanon"  (Churchill,  iii,78).  In  true 
puerile  affectation  and  presumptuous  inference,  the  pa- 
triarch of  the  Maronites,  who  is  styled  the  Patriarch  of 
Antioch,  usually  takes  the  name  of  Peter,  intended  to 
denote  an  ofticial  descent  from  the  apostle  I'eter.  "  His 
power,"  says  Churchill, "  is  despotic,  and  from  his  deci- 
sion there  is  no  appeal,  either  in  temporal  or  spiritual 
affairs;  even  the  pope's  legate,  who  resides  constant- 
ly in  Lebanon,  and  is  supposed  to  superintend  all  the 
ecclesiastical  proceedings  of  the  Maronite  Church,  has 
no  influence  over  the  patriarch  beyond  what  may  be 
v.— C  c  c 


obtained  by  personal  superiority  of  character.  .  .  .  The 
income  of  the  patriarch  may  amount  to  about  £5000  a 
year,  derived  principally  from  lands  set  apart  exclusive- 
ly for  the  ofiSce.  He  obtains  likewise  a  sixth  of  the 
revenue  of  the  bishops."  "  The  patriarch  of  the  Maro- 
nites," says  Madden  {Turkish  Empire,  ii,  160),  "formerly 
exercised  very  extensive  power  not  only  of  a  religious, 
but  of  a  civil  kind,  for  the  protection  of  his  people,  who 
in  those  times  possessed  many  important  immunities 
and  franchises,  which,  since  1842,  have  been  either  ab- 
rogated or  assimilated  to  the  privileges  enjoyed  by  the 
Roman  Catholic  subjects  of  the  Porte.  But  the  Maro- 
nites still,  in  all  great  emergencies  and  dangers  at  the 
hands  of  their  old  and  constant  enemies  the  Druses,  are 
wont  to  look  for  counsel  and  guidance  to  their  patriarch 
rather  than  to  the  emir,  their  nominal  civil  protector. 
The  patriarch,  in  the  winter,  resides  ordinarily  at  Kes- 
ruan,  and  in  the  summer  at  the  monastery  of  Canobin, 
in  the  valley  of  Tripoli,  supposed  to  be,  on  very  insuffi- 
cient grounds,  where  the  venerated  ]\Iaron  had  fixed  his 
abode."  The  eight  regular  bishoprics  of  the  Maronite 
Church  are  Aleppo,  Tripoli,  Jebail,  Baalbek,  Damascus, 
Cyprus,  Beirut,  Tyre,  and  Sidon.  The  incumbents  of 
this,  the  second  office,  are,  like  the  patriarch,  possessed 
of  stated  revenues,  that  enable  them  to  live  in  com- 
parative affluence.  Their  election  takes  place  as  fol- 
lows :  "  When  a  bishop  dies,  the  patriarch  writes  to  the 
principal  people  of  the  village  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  deceased  prelate,  requesting  them  to  assemble  to- 
gether and  nominate  a  priest  to  the  vacant  see ;  should 
there  be  a  unanimity  of  voices,  the  patriarch  confirms 
their  selection ;  if,  on  the  contrary,  they  cannot  agree, 
he  desires  them  to  send  him  the  names  of  three  priests, 
and  from  this  list  he  selects  one  for  the  bishopric."  The 
inferior  clergy  of  the  Maronites,  who  have  no  fixed 
sources  of  income,  subsist  on  the  produce  of  their  mass- 
es, the  bounty  of  their  congregations,  and,  above  all,  on 
the  labor  of  their  hands,  i.  e.  they  exercise  trades,  or  cul- 
tivate small  plots  of  ground,  and  are  thus  industriously 
employed /oz-  the  maintenance  of  their  families :  it  is 
one  of  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  the  Eastern  clergy 
that  they  are  not  strangers  to  the  married  state.  The 
Maronite  priests  marry  as  in  the  first  ages  of  the  Chunch, 
but  their  wives  must  be  maidens,  and  not  widows;  nor 
can  they  marry  a  second  time. 

The  poverty  to  which  the  jNIaronite  clergy  is  doomed 
is,  however,  recompensed  to  them  by  the  great  respect 
the  people  award  them.  "  Their  vanity  is  incessantly 
flattered;  whoever  approaches  them,  whether  rich  or 
poor,  great  or  small,  is  anxious  to  kiss  their  hands,  which 
they  fail  not  to  present.  ...  It  is  perhaps  to  the  potent 
influence  of  the  clergy  that  we  must  attribute  the  mild 
and  simple  manners  generally  prevailing  among  the 
INIaronites,  for  violent  crimes  are  extremely  rare  among 
them.  Retribution  immediately  follows  every  offence, 
however  slight,  and  the  clergy  are  rigorous  in  prevent- 
ing every  appearance  of  disorder  or  scandal  among  the 
members  of  their  flocks.  Before  a  young  man  can  mar- 
ry he  must  obtain  the  consent  of  his  pastor  and  of  his 
bishop.  If  they  disapprove  of  the  marriage  they  pro- 
hibit it,  and  the  Jlaronite  has  no  remedy.  If  an  un- 
married girl  become  a  mother,  her  seducer  is  compelled 
to  marry  her,  whatever  be  the  inequality  of  their  con- 
ditions; if  he  refuses  he  is  reduced  to  obedience  by 
measures  of  severitj',  fasting,  imprisonment,  and  even 
bastinadoing.  This  influence  of  the  clergy  extends  to 
every  detail  of  civil  and  domestic  life.  The  Maronite 
who  should  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  clergy  to 
the  civil  authority  of  the  emirs  would  not  be  listened  to 
by  them,  and  the  act  would  be  regarded  by  the  appel- 
lant's bishop  as  a  transgression  to  be  visited  with  con- 
dign punishment"  (Kelly).  The  number  of  Maronite 
priests  is  said  to  be  1200,  and  the  number  of  their 
chiu-ches  400. 

2.  MonaMics.—Oi  the  more  than  200  convents  scat- 
tered through  Lebanon,  nearly  one  half  belong  to  the 
Maronites,  and  contain  from  20,000  to  25,000  inmates, 


MARONITES 


^70 


IVIAROT 


who  all  wear  a  distinctive  costume,  and  follow  the  rale 
of  St.  Anthony.  They  are  divided  into  three  difFerent 
congregations :  those  of  St.  Isaiah,  those  of  the  Alipines, 
and  those  of  the  Libanese  or  Baladites;  besides  which 
there  are  also  a  number  of  nunneries.  Their  dress,  like 
that  of  all  Greek  monastics,  consists  of  a  black  frock- 
coat,  reaching  to  the  knees,  confined  round  the  waist 
by  a  leathern  girdle,  and  surmounted  by  a  hood,  which 
can  be  drawn  over  the  head.  This  attire  is  called  a 
"  cacoolj'."  Tlie  temporal  affairs  of  the  convents  are 
directed  by  a  superior  monk,  called  Reis  el-Aam,  a  sort 
of  accountant-general,  who  regulates  all  the  disburse- 
ments of  his  fraternity.  "  Lest  the  monks  shoidd  form 
any  particular  local  attachments,  thej^  are  removed  from 
convent  to  convent  every  six  months,  in  a  kind  of  rota- 
tion. They  are,  in  general,  exceedingly  ignorant,  but 
skilful  in  such  trades  as  are  necessary  for  their  own 
wants  and  necessities."  "  The  monks,  by  the  rules  of 
their  order,  are  not  allowed  to  smoke  or  eat  meat.  The 
latter,  however,  is  permitted  in  case  of  sickness,  by  the 
order  of  the  physician  and  the  consent  of  the  superior. 
In  making  long  journej's  the  bishop  may  give  the  same 
permission,  provided  they  shall  not  indulge  in  it  on  the 
days  in  which  its  use  is  forbidden  by  the  canons  of  the 
Church,  Much  stress  is  laid  on  the  nunneries  being 
built  at  a  distance  from  the  convents ;  and  no  nun  or 
woman  is  allowed  to  enter  a  convent,  nor  a  monk  to 
enter  a  nunnen,-,  except  on  occasions  of  great  necessity, 
and  with  strict  limitation.  The  monks  are  employed 
in  their  prayers,  and  in  various  occupations  of  industry ; 
the  lay-brothers  tilling  the  land^  of  the  convents,  mak- 
ing shoes,  weaving,  begging,  etc. ;  and  the  priests  ap- 
plying themselves  to  study,  copying  books,  and  other 
matters  befitting  the  dignity  of  their  office.  The  nuns 
are  taught  to  read  and  sew.  Both  the  monks  and  nuns 
vow  the  three  conditions  of  a  monastic  life — namely, 
chastity,  poverty,  and  obedience ;  and,  taken  as  a  whole, 
both  are  extremely  ignorant  and  bigoted." 

IV.  Peculiar  Religious  Usages. — Like  the  Bohemians 
and  the  Greek  Christians,  the  Maronites  administer  the 
sacraments  in  both  kinds,  dipping  the  bread  in  wine  be- 
fore its  distribution.  "  The  host  is  a  small  round  loaf, 
unleavened,  of  the  thickness  of  a  finger,  and  about  the 
size  of  a  crown-piece.  On  the  top  is  the  impression 
of  a  seal,  which  is  eaten  by  the  priest,  who  cuts  the  re- 
mainder into  small  pieces,  and  putting  it  into  the  wine 
in  the  cup,  administers  to  each  person  with  a  spoon, 
which  serves  the  whole  congregation"  (Kelly,  Syria 
and  the  Holy  Land,  as  compiled  from  Burckhardt,  etc., 
p.  92).  They  also  keep  up  public  nightly  prayers, 
which  are  attended  by  women  as  well  as  by  men ;  have 
a  peculiar  commemoration  of  the  dead  in  the  three 
weeks  preceding  Lent,  and  their  whole  office  during 
Lent  is  of  immense  length  and  peculiar  to  themselves. 
Indeed  their  ritual  and  liturgy  differ  in  many  respects 
from  those  of  the  Latin  Church.  The  mass  is  recited 
in  the  Syriac  language,  with  the  exception  of  the  Epis- 
tle and  Gospel,  and  some  prayers,  which  are  recited  in 
Arabic,  the  only  language  understood  by  the  people,  the 
Syriac  being  simply  used  in  the  services  of  the  Church 
and  the  offices  of  the  priests. 

V.  Educational  Status. — The  IMaronite  clergy  had  for- 
merly lands  at  Kome,  the  revenues  of  which  were  ap- 
propriated to  keeping  up  a  seminary  for  the  education 
of  young  Christians  from  the  Lebanon ;  and  from  this 
high  school  came  forth  some  illustrious  Romanists,  e.  g. 
Gabriel  Sionita,  Abr.  Echellensis,  the  Assemani,  etc.  The 
resources  of  this  appropriation  were  confiscated  by  the 
French  during  the  first  revolutionary'  war.  Since  then 
the  court  of  Rome  has  granted  them  a  hospitium  at  Rome, 
to  which  they  may  send  several  of  their  youth  to  receive 
a  gratuitous  education.  It  would  seem  that  this  insti- 
tution might  introduce  among  them  jthe  ideas  and  arts 
of  Europe;  but  the  pujiils  of  this  school,  limited  to  an 
education  purely  monastic,  bring  home  nothing  but  the 
Italian  language,  which  is  of  no  use,  and  a  stock  of  the- 
ological learning  from  which  as  little  advantage  can  be 


derived ;  they  accordingly  soon  assimilate  with  the  rest. 
Nor  has  a  greater  change  been  operated  by  the  three  or 
four  missionaries  maintained  bj^  the  French  Capuchins 
at  Gazir,  Tripoli,  and  Beirut.  Their  labors  consist  in 
preaching  in  their  church,  in  instructing  children  in  the 
Catechism,  Thomas  a  Kempis,  and  the  Psalms,  and  in 
teaching  them  to  read  and  write.  Formerly  the  Jesu- 
its had  two  missionaries  at  their  house  at  Antura,  but 
the  Lazarites  have  now  succeeded  them  in  their  mis- 
sion. The  most  valuable  advantage  that  has  resulted 
from  these  labors  is  that  the  art  of  writing  has  become 
more  common  among  the  Maronites,  and  rendered  them, 
in  that  country,  what  the  Copts  are  in  Egypt,  that  is, 
they  are  in  possession  of  all  the  posts  of  writers,  intend- 
ants,  and  Jcaiyas  among  the  Turks,  and  especially  of 
those  among  their  neighbors,  the  Druses.  "  But,  though 
the  ability  to  read  and  write  be  thus  general  among  the 
Maronites,  it  must  not  be  inferred  that  they  are  a  liter- 
arj'  people.  Far  from  it ;  the  book-learning  of  all  class- 
es, both  clergy  and  laitj',  can  hardly  be  rated  too  low. 
There  are  native  printing-presses  at  work  in  some  of 
the  monasteries,  but  the  sheets  they  issue  are  all  of  an 
ecclesiastical  kind — chiefly  portions  of  the  Scripture  or 
mass-books  in  Syriac,  which  fe^v  even  of  the  clergy  un- 
derstand, though  they  repeat  them  by  rote"  (Kellv,  p. 
97). 

The  American  Protestant  churches,  so  ably  repre- 
sented by  the  Rev.  W.  M.  Thomson  and  others,  have 
done  already  a  noble  work  for  Syria.  The  INIaronite,  of 
course,  has  not  been  forgotten,  and  his  educational  dis- 
advantages it  has  been  sought  to  ameliorate  by  bring- 
ing the  influence  of  American  schools  to  his  very  door. 
Tristram  (^Land  of  Israel  [Lond.  1865],  p.  22),  who  cites 
the  opinion  of  the  noted  pacha  Daud  Oghli,  writes  the 
following  as  from  the  mouth  of  the  illustrious  I\Ius- 
sulman  ruler  of  Mount  Lebanon:  "He  spoke  with  much 
warmth  and  interest  of  the  American  mission-schools; 
and  it  was  gratifying  to  hear  his  independent  testimony 
to  the  importance  and  solid  nature  of  the  work  they  are 
carrj'ing  on,  especialh'  among  the  Maronites,  with  whom 
he  considered  they  have  met  with  greater  success  than 
with  any  any  other  sect." 

See  Churchill,  Mount  Lebanon  (Lond.  1853, 3  vols. 8vo), 
iii,  chap,  v-viii ;  id.  Druse  and  Maronite  (Lond.  18G4, 
8vo) ;  Kelly,  Syria  and  the  Holy  Land,  (compiled  from 
Burckhardt  and  others),  chap,  viii;  Guys,  Beyrut  et  le 
Liban  (Par.  1860);  Madden,  Turkish  Empire,  ii,  ch.  -vi; 
Ritter,  Erdkunde,  xvii,  744 ;  Robinson,  Palestine,  ii,  572 ; 
Comte  de  Paris,  Dumas  et  le  Lihan,  p.  75-78 ;  Neale,  Ilist, 
Holy  East.  Ch.  (Introd.),  i,  153  sq. ;  Qo\\\)cr,  Sects  in 
Syria  (Lond.  1860)  ;  Schnurrer,  De  eccl.  Sjiurniif.  (Tiib. 
1810  and  1811);  Silbernagl,  Verfassung  u.  gegemcdr- 
tiger  Bestand  sammtlicher  Kirchen  des  Orients  (Lands- 
hut,  1805);  Ffoulkes,  Christendom's  Divisions,  ii,  ch.  ix; 
New-Englander,  1861,  p.  32;  Westminster  Revieiv,  1862 
(July). 

Marot,  Clement,  a  French  poet,  known  in  the  the- 
ological world  for  his  translation  of  the  Psalms  into 
French  verse,  was  born  at  Chalons  m  1495.  At  an  early 
age  he  commenced  writing  poetry,  and  at  the  recom- 
mendation of  Francis  I  became  a  member  of  the  house- 
hold of  Margaret,  duchess  of  Alen^on.  He  afterwards 
accompanied  Francis  I  to  Italy,  and  was  wounded  and 
taken  prisoner  at  the  Ijattle  of  Pavia.  On  his  return  to 
France  he  wrote  poetry  for  Diana  of  Poitiers,  tho  king's 
mistress,  who  showed  him  favor;  but,  having  presumed 
too  much  upon  his  familiarity  with  her,  she  discarded 
him,  and  he  was  soon  after  put  in  prison,  through  her 
agency  as  some  have  believed,  in  1525.  ISIargaret  pro- 
cured his  release ;  and  it  appears  likely  that  Marot's 
intercourse  with  that  princess  caused  him  to  incline 
towards  the-  Reformation,  although  lie  is  not  known 
to  have  openly  embraced  it.  When,  in  1533,  Gerard 
Roussel  preached  in  Paris,  after  the  dismissal  of  the  fa- 
natic Sorbomiist  Beda,  satirical  verses  against  the  Prot- 
estants were  posted  on  the  walls;  INIarot  answered  in 
the  same  tone ;  and  when  the  persecution  broke  out,  in 


MAROTH 

the  spring  of  1534,  prohibited  books  being  found  in  his 
dwelling,  Marot  was  compelled  to  flee  to  Beam,  whence 
he  afterwards  jiroceeded  to  Fcrrara,  the  residence  of  the 
duchess  Kenata  of  Este.  In  1536  Francis  I  recalled  him 
to  his  court.  It  is  said  that  he  had  recanted,  but  this 
is  not  proved.  In  1538  he  commenced,  with  the  aid  of 
the  learned  Vatablus,  the  translation  of  the  Psalms, 
which  was  very  warmly  received  ;  it  became  the  fashion 
at  court  to  sing  them,  and  Charles  V  himself  gave  Ma- 
rot a  reward  of  two  hundred  doubloons.  The  Sorbonne, 
however,  condemned  the  book,  while  the  pope  caused  it 
to  be  reprinted  at  Rome  in  1542.  Marot,  in  the  mean 
time,  was,  on  account  of  the  condemnation  of  the  Sor- 
bonne, obliged,  in  1543,  to  flee  to  Geneva,  where  he  was 
well  received  by  Calvin,  and  invited  to  continue  his 
translation  of  the  Psalms,  which  was  first  used  in  public 
worship  at  Granson,  Switzerland,  Dec.  1, 1540.  Gene- 
va, however,  did  not  long  please  Marot,  accustomed  to 
the  gayety  of  the  French  court ;  and,  after  remaining  a 
while  at  Chambery,  he  went  to  Turin,  where  he  died  in 
154-1.  The  first  known  edition  of  Marot's  translation 
appeared  towards  the  end  of  the  year  1541 ;  it  contained 
thirty  psalms,  a  poetical  translation  of  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
etc.  A  second  edition,  containing  thirty  psalms,  with  the 
music,  and  the  liturgy  of  Geneva,  Avas  published  by  Cal- 
vin in  1542.  The  next  year  another  edition  appeared, 
containing  twenty  more  psalms,  dedicated  "to  the  ladies 
of  France,"  and  accompanied  by  the  well-known  preface 
of  Calvin ;  this,  as  well  as  the  subsequent  editions,  con- 
tains the  liturgy;  the  catechism,  the  reformed  confession 
of  faith,  and  prayers  were  at  sundry  times  added  to  others. 
The  remainder  of  the  Psalms  was  translated  by  Beza 
(1550-52),  and  in  1552  appeared  the  first  complete 
Psalter,  with  Beza's  eloquent  appeal  "  to  the  Church  of 
our  Lord."  The  popularity  of  these  Psalms  was  so  great 
that,  after  the  Colloquy  of  Poissy,  on  Oct.  19,  1561, 
Charles  IX  gave  the  Lyons  printer,  Anton  Vincent,  the 
privilege  of  printing  them.  In  the  17th  century  the 
translation  was  revised  by  Conrart,  first  secretary  of  the 
French  Academy,  and  the  learned  Anton  Labastide. 
This  revision,  approved  by  the  Synod  of  Charenton  in 
1679,  was  admitted  in  the  churches  of  Geneva,  Xeufcha- 
tel,  and  Hesse,  while  the  ancient  text  remained  in  use 
in  the  French  villages.  In  1701  Beausobre  and  Lenfant, 
at  Berlin,  undertook  a  revision,  which  was  much  op- 
posed, especially  by  country  congregations.  See  Lex- 
i-'ANT.  The  modern  revision  was  accepted  without  dif- 
ficulty. Originally,  the  Psalms  of  Marot  were  sung  to 
popular  tunes;  but  when  they  came  to  be  used  in  the 
Church  it  was  found  necessary  to  adapt  a  more  solemn 
music  to  them.  William  Frank,  however,  who  is  consid- 
ered the  original  composer  of  the  tunes,  wrote  only  a 
few.  The  Lyons  edition  of  1561  contains  some  by  Louis 
Bourgeois;  those  of  1562  and  1565  have  some  by  Claude 
Goudimel,  the  teacher  of  Palestrina,  in  four  voices.  See 
Anguis,  Vie  de  Marot,  prefixed  to  his  (Euvres  (1823,  5 
vols.  8vo) ;  Jan  Suet,  I^evm  en  Bedriff  von  C.  Marot 
(1655) ;  Saiate-Beuve,  Tahleau  de  la  Poesie  Frangaise 
all  sixieme  si'ech ;  Christian  Revieic,  vol.  ix;  Paleario, 
Life  and  Times,  ii,  92  sq. ;  Herzog,  Real-EncyUopadie,  ix, 
115 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gemr,  xxxiii,  924.    (J.  N.  P.) 

Ma'roth  (Heb.  Maroth',  ninr:,  hitter  fountains; 
Sept.  douj'ai,  Vulg.  amaritudines),  a  place  apparently 
not  far  from  Jerusalem,  on  the  route  of  the  invading 
Assyrian  army  from  Lachish  (Mic.  i,  12 ;  see  Henderson, 
Comment,  ad  loc).  Schwarz  (Palest,  p.  107)  conjectures 
it  was  identical  with  Maaraih  (Josh,  xv,  69) ;  but  this 
name  is  very  different  in  the  Hebrew. 

Marouf.     See  Maruf. 

Marozia,  a  Roman  lady  of  noble  birth,  but  of  infa- 
mous reputation  in  the  scandalous  chronicles  of  her  age, 
daughter  of  the  equally  notorious  Theodora  (q.  v.\  was 
born  near  the  close  of  the  9th  century.  On  the  dissolu- 
tion of  all  the  moral  ties  of  public  and  private  life  which 
the  war  of  factions  occasioned  in  Rome  in  the  10th  cen- 
tury, Marozia,  by  her  beauty  and  her  intrigues,  con- 


71 


MARQUESAS  ISLES 


trived  to  exercise  great  influence.  She  was  married 
three  times,  and,  according  to  Luitprand,  had  skill  and 
address  enough  to  procure  the  deposition  and  death  of 
the  pope,  John  X,  and  the  elevation  of  her  son,  the  fruit, 
it  is  alleged,  of  adulterous  intercourse  with  pope  Sergius 
HI,  to  the  pontificate,  under  the  name  of  John  XI. 
This  testimony  of  Luitprand,  who  wrote  some  time  after 
the  period,  is  considered  doubtful  by  Muratori  and  by 
Dr.  Pertz.  See,  however,  our  articles  .John  X  and  John 
XI.  In  her  latter  years  Marozia  suffered  the  punish- 
ment of  her  early  crimes.  She  was  imprisoned  by  her 
own  son  Alberic,  and  died  in  prison  at  Rome  in  938. 

Marquesas  Isles,  frequently  apphed  to  the  whole 
Mendana  Archipelago,  refers  strictly  only  to  the  south- 
ern group  of  the  Mendana  Archipelago,  in  Poljaiesia, 
the  northern  group  bearing  the  name  of  the  Washing- 
ton Islands.  They  are  situated  in  lat.  7°  30'- 10^  30' 
S.,  long.  138=-140°  20'  W.,  have  an  area  of  500  English 
square  miles,  and  a  population  of  12,000,  and  were  dis- 
covered by  jVIendana  de  Neyra,  a  Spanish  na\agator,  in 
1596  (the  Washington  Isles  were  discovered  in  1791  by 
Ingraham,  an  American).  The  isles  were  named  after 
the  viceroy  of  Peru,  IMarquesas  de  Mendoza.  They  are 
of  volcanic  origin,  and  are  in  general  covered  with  moun- 
tains, rising  in  some  cases  to  about  3500  feet  above  the 
sea-level ;  the  soil  is  rich  and  fertile,  and  the  climate  hot, 
but  healthy.  The  coasts  are  dithcult  of  access,  on  ac- 
count of  the  surrounding  reefs  and  the  sudden  changes 
of  the  wind.  Cocoa-nut,  bread-fruit,  and  papaw  trees 
are  grown,  and  bananas,  plantains,  and  sugar-cane  are 
cultivated. 

The  inhabitants  are  of  the  same  race  as  those  of  the 
Society  and  Sandwich  islands.  They  are  well  propor- 
tioned and  handsome,  but  degraded  in  their  reUgion  and 
in  many  of  their  customs.  They  exhibit  some  confused 
notion  of  a  divine  being,  whom  they  call  Etooa;  but 
they  give  the  same  name  to  the  spirit  of  a  priest,  of  a 
king,  or  any  of  his  relations,  and  generally  to  all  Euro- 
peans, as  superior  beings.  The  principal  appearance  of 
a  religious  feeling  is  found  in  their  reverence  for  any- 
thing pronounced  to  be  "  taboo"'  or  sacred,  which  a  priest 
only  can  extend  to  any  general  object,  but  which  every 
person  may  effect  upon  his  own  property  by  merely  de- 
claring that  the  spirit  of  his  father,  or  of  some  king,  or 
of  any  other  person,  reposes  in  the  spot  or  article  which 
he  wishes  to  preserve.  They  have  a  universal  belief  in 
charms  (which  they  name  "  kaha")  which  kill,  by  im- 
perceptible means  and  slow  degrees,  those  against  whom 
they  are  directed,  and  which  the  priests  chiefly  are  un- 
derstood to  be  able  to  render  effectual.  Some  reference 
to  a  future  life  appears  in  their  funeral  rites.  The 
corpse  is  washed,  and  laid  upon  a  platform  under  a  piece 
of  new  cloth ;  and,  to  obtain  a  safe  passage  for  the  de- 
ceased through  the  lower  regions,  a  great  feast  is  given 
by  the  family  to  the  priests  and  the  relations.  The 
body  continues  to  be  rubbed  for  several  months  with 
cocoa-nut  oil,  till  it  becomes  quite  liard  and  incorrupti- 
ble ;  and  a  second  feast,  exactly  twelve  months  after  the 
first,  is  then  given  to  thank  the  gods  for  having  granted 
to  the  deceased  a  safe  arrival  to  the  other  world.  The 
corpse  is  then  broken  in  pieces,  packed  in  a  box,  and 
deposited  in  the  moral  or  burj'ing-place,  which  no  wom- 
an is  permitted  to  approach  upon  the  pain  of  death. 

On  some  of  the  islands  there  are  missionary  stations; 
but,  although  cannibalism  has  been  abolished,  the  efforts 
of  the  missionaries  have  not  otherwise  met  with  much 
success.  The  Gospel  was  introduced  in  the  Marquesas 
Isles  by  the  "London  Missionarj'  Society"  in  1797.  The 
first  missionary  was  William  Crook,  a  man  of  great  zeal 
and  untiring  energy.  Though  greatly  discouraged  by 
the  ignorance  and  rudeness  of  the  natives,  he  pushed  the 
good  work,  and  accomplished  much,  notwithstanding  his 
failure  to  secure  converts.  In  1825,  when  three  teach- 
ers came  to  his  aid,  it  was  found  that  the  natives  had 
destroyed  many  of  their  idols,  and  were  improving  in 
morals.  In  1828  the  mission  was  abandoned :  but  in  1831 
jMr.  Darling,  then  a  missionary  to  Tahiti,  visited  the  isles^ 


MARQUETTE 


VV2 


MARRIAGE 


and  gave  the  home  society  such  glowuig  accounts  of 
the  improvements  that  had  been  wrought  by  their  ear- 
Uer  efforts,  that  the  mission  was  re-estabUshed  in  1833 
by  Mr.  Darhng,  assisted  by  Messrs.  Rodgerson  and  Stall- 
worthy,  and  four  natives  from  Tahiti ;  but  in  1841  the 
work  was  again  abandoned.  The  Komanists  gained  a 
footing  in  1838;  and  when  in  18-42  the  isles  were  placed 
under  French  protection,  the  Roman  Catholics  secured 
most  favorable  terms  for  their  missionaries.  Their  work, 
however,  remains  thus  far  without  fruit.  See  Aikman, 
Cyclop,  of  Christian  Missions,  p.  G8. 

Marquette,  Jacques,  a  celebrated  French  mission- 
ary and  discoverer  of  the  17th  century,  was  born  at 
Laon,  in  Picardy ;  entered  the  Order  of  the  Jesuits :  be- 
came a  missionary,  and  travelled  and  labored  several 
years  in  Canada  and  other  regions.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  first  exploring  party  to  the  Mississippi  River,  and 
wrote  a  narrative  of  the  expedition  (Paris,  1G81),  "He 
writes,"  says  professor  Sparks,  '■  as  a  scholar,  and  as  a 
man  of  careful  observation  and  practical  sense.  In  ev- 
ery point  of  view,  this  tract  is  one  of  the  most  interest- 
ing among  those  that  illustrate  the  early  history  of 
America."  On  his  return  from  the  Mississippi  he  re- 
sumed his  missionary  labors  among  thcMiamis  on  Lake 
Michigan,  and  died  there  in  1675. — Charlevoix,  Histoire 
de  la  Nouvelle  France,  s.  v. ;  Moreri,  Dictionnaire  Ilis- 
torique,  s.v.;  Bacqueville  de  la  Potheric,  Hist,  de  VAmer- 
ique  Septenfrionale  (Paris,  1872,  4  vols.  r2mo);  Sparks, 
Amer.  Biog.  vol.  x,  1st  series,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biofj. 
Generale,  xxxiii,  942. 

Marquez,  Ji?ax,  a  Spanish  theologian,  was  bom  at 
Madrid  in  1564 ;  studied  at  the  University  of  Salaman- 
ca ;  joined  the  Augustines  of  Madrid,  and  attained  to  the 
first  dignities  of  his  order.  He  died  at  Salamanca  Feb. 
17, 1621.  He  has  written  El  gohernador  Christiana,  de 
ducido  de  las  vidos  de  Moysen  y  Josue,  principes  del  pue- 
blo a  Bios  (Salamanca,  1612, 1619, 1634,  M.y.—Los  dos 
Estados  de  la  espiritual  Gerusalem  sohre  los  Psalmos 
cxxv  y  cxxxvi  (Medina,  1603,  and  Salamanca,  1610, 4to) : 
— Origin  de  los  Padros  Ermitaiios  de  son  A  gust  in,  y  su 
verdadera  institucion  antes  del  gran  concilio  Lateranense 
(Salamanca,  1618,  fol.)  : — Yida  del  V.  P.  F.  Alonso  de 
Horozco  (Madrid,  1648,  8vo).  He  left  m  manuscript 
some  comedies  and  several  theological  treatises.  —Nich- 
olas Antonio,  Bihliotheca  Scriptorum  Hispanice,  iii,  734 ; 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  vol.  xxxiii,  s.  v. 

Marquis,  James  E.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  near  Cross  Creek,  Pa.,  Nov.  20, 1815 ;  was  educated 
in  Jefferson  College.  Canonsburg,  Pa. ;  studied  divinity 
in  the  Western  Theological  Seminary,  Alleghany,  Pa. ; 
was  licensed  by  Washington  Presbytery  in  1844,  and 
ordamed  by  Sidney  Presbyterj-  in  1848.  During  the 
first  ten  years  of  his  mmistry  he  labored  successively  in 
the  churches  of  Kenton,  Mansfield,  Shelby,  and  Ontario, 
Ohio.  In  1858 -he  removed  to  Bloomington,  lU.,  and 
commenced  to  labor  as  presbyterial  missionarj'  for  the 
presbyteries  of  Peoria  and  Bloomington.  In  1859  he 
accepted  the  united  charge  of  the  churches  of  Salem, 
Brunswick,  and  Elm  wood,  which  he  retained  until  his 
death,  Feb.  22,  1863.  Mr.  Marquis  was  noted  for  his 
faithfulness,  devotion,  and  purity  of  life.  He  was  emi- 
nently successful  as  a  pastor ;  earnest  and  instructive  as 
a  preacher.  Sec  Wilson,  Presh,  Hist.  Almanac,  1864,  p. 
171.     (J.L.S.) 

Marquis,  Thomas,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  near  Winchester,  Va.,  in  1753.  His  early  life  was 
subjected  to  many  deprivations.  He  received  an  ordi- 
nary common-school  education,  prosecuted  his  classical 
studies,  amid  painful  vicissitudes,  at  Buffalo  and  Can- 
onsburg, and  in  April,  1793,  was  licensed  to  preach ; 
labored  one  year  as  a  licentiate,  and  in  1794  was  ordain- 
ed and  installed  pastor  ofthe  clmrch  at  Cross  Creek,  Pa. 
la  1790  he  became  an  active  missionary  to  the  Indians, 
travelling  down  the  Alleghany,  and  the  lower  waters  of 
the  Muskingum  and  Scioto  rivers.  In  1802  he  became 
a  member  of  the  executive  committee  of  the  Missionarv 


Board  west  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  The  remain- 
ing twenty  years  of  his  ministry  were  filled  up  with 
multiplied  labors  and  varied  but  unusual  success.  He  J 
died  Sept,  27,  1829.  Mr,  IVIarquis  was  a  laborious  and  * 
faithfid  pastor,  eminently  wise  in  counsel,  and  apt  in 
introducing  and  enforcing  religious  duty.  As  a  preach- 
er he  was  composed  and  earnest,  extremely  logical  in 
style,  and  entirely  perspicuous  in  the  expression  of 
thought.  See  Wilson,  Presh.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1864,  p.  171 ; 
Sprague, -4  Hwa^s  o/7/«e^47ne/-.P«//«V,iv,  83-89.    (J.  L.  S.) 

Marracci,  an  Italian  priest,  eminent  as  an  Oriental 
scholar,  was  born  at  Lucca  in  1612,  and  for  j'ears  held 
the  professorship  of  Arabic  in  the  College  della  Sapien- 
za  in  Rome.  He  died  in  1700.  His  principal  work  is 
an  excellent  edition  of  the  Koran  in  Arabic,  vitli  a 
Latin  version  (1698).  "This,"  says  HaUam,  in  his  In- 
troduction to  the  Literature  of  Europe,  "  is  still  esteem- 
ed the  best,"— Thomas,  Diet,  of  Biog,  and  Mythol,  s,  v. 

Marriage,  This  relation  is  in  a  general  way  rep- 
resented by  several  Hebrew  words,  the  most  distinctive 
of  which  are  several  forms  of  'fTH,  chathan',  to  give  in 
marriage;  Gr,  yafjioc,  a  icedding.  It  is  very  remarka- 
ble, liowever,  as  well  as  significant,  that  there  is  no  sin- 
gle word  in  the  whole  Hebrew  Scriptures  for  the  estate 
of  marriage,  or  to  express  the  abstract  idea  of  vedlocl; 
matrimony,  as  the  German  Eke  does.  It  is  only  in  the 
post-exilian  period,  when  the  laws  of  marriage  had  grad- 
ually developed  themselves,  that  we  meet  with  the  ab- 
stract ri'S'^X  and  Silt  ^^fSyof  {Jehamoth,\i,b\  Kid- 
dushin,  i,  2)  ;  the  former  denoting  the  legal,  and  the  lat- 
ter the  natural  side  of  matrimony.  But  even  then  no 
such  definition  of  marriage  is  to  be  found  in  the  Hebrew 
writings  as  we  find  in  the  Roman  law,  "  Nuptite  sunt 
conjunctio  maris  et  feminas  et  consortium  omnis  ^•ita^, 
divini  et  humani  juris  communicatio"  {Big.  lib.  xxiii, 
tit.  2,  "  De  ritu  nupt.").  In  the  present  article,  which 
treats  of  marriage  as  fomid  among  the  Hebrew  race,  we 
shall  freely  avail  ourselves  of  those  found  in  the  Diction- 
aries of  Kitto  and  Smith.     See  Wedlock. 

I.  Origin,  Primitive  Relations,  and  General  Vieio  of 
the  3Iarried  State. — 1.  The  institution  of  marriage  is 
foimded  on  the  requirements  of  man's  nature,  and  dates 
from  the  time  of  his  original  creation.  It  may  be  said 
to  have  been  ordained  by  God,  in  as  far  as  man's  nature 
was  ordained  by  him ;  but  its  formal  appointment  was 
the  work  of  man,  and  it  has  ever  been  in  its  essence  a 
natural  and  civil  institution,  though  admitting  of  the 
infusion  of  a  religious  element  into  it.  This  view  of 
marriage  is  exhibited  in  the  historical  account  of  its 
origin  in  the  book  of  Genesis ;  the  peculiar  formation  of 
man's  nature  is  assigned  to  the  Creator,  who,  seeing  it 
"  not  good  for  man  to  be  alone,"  determined  to  form  an 
"  help  meet  for  him"  (ii,  18),  and  accordingly  completed 
the  work  by  the  addition  of  the  female  to  the  male  (i, 
27).  The  necessity  for  this  step  appears  from  the  words 
used  in  the  declaration  of  the  divme  counsel.  jNIan,  as 
an  intellectual  and  spiritual  being,  would  not  have  been 
a  worthy  representative  of  the  Deity  on  earth,  so  long 
as  he  lived  in  sohtude,  or  in  communion  only  with  be- 
ings either  high  above  him  in  the  scale  of  creation,  as 
angels,  or  far  beneath  him,  as  the  beasts  of  the  field.  It 
was  absolutely  necessary,  not  only  for  his  comfort  and 
happiness,  but  still  more  for  the  perfection  of  the  divine 
work,  that  he  shoidd  have  a  "  help  meet  for  him,"  or,  as 
the  words  more  properly  mean,  "  the  exact  counterpart 
of  himself"  (i'^5!] 3  "iTi",  Septuag. /3o;y5oc  kut  aiiTuv; 
Vulg.  adjutoriuin  simile  sibi,  "  a  help  meet  for  him") — a 
being  capable  of  receiving  and  refiecting  his  thoughts 
and  affections.  No  sooner  was  the  formation  of  woman 
effected,  than  Adam  recognised  in  that  act  the  will  of 
the  Creator  as  to  man's  social  condition,  and  immediate- 
ly enunciated  tlic  important  statement,  to  which  his 
posterity  miglit  refer  as  the  charter  of  marriage  in  aU 
succeeding  ages,  "  Therefore  shall  a  man  leave  his  fa- 
ther and  his  motlier,  and  shall  cleave  imto  his  wife ;  and 


MARRIAGE 


MARRIAGE 


they  shall  be  one  flesh"  (ii,  2-i).  From  these  words, 
coupled  with  the  circumstances  attendant  on  the  forma- 
tion of  the  first  woman,  we  may  evolve  the  following 
principles:  (1)  The  imity  of  man  and  wife,  as  implied 
in  her  being  formed  out  of  man,  and  as  expressed  in  the 
words  "  one  flesh ;"  (2)  the  indissolubleness  of  the  mar- 
riage bond,  except  on  the  strongest  grounds  (compare 
Matt,  xix,  9) ;  (3)  monogamy,  as  the  original  law  of 
marriage,  resulting  from  there  having  been  but  one 
original  couple,  as  is  forcibly  expressed  in  the  subse- 
quent reference  to  this  passage  by  our  Lord  ("they 
twain,"  Matt,  xix,  5)  and  St.  Paul  ("  itvo  shall  be  one 
flesh,"  1  Cor.  vi,  16)  ;  (4)  the  social  equality  of  man  and 
wife,  as  implied  in  the  terms  ish  and  ishshah,  the  one 
being  the  exact  correlative  of  the  otlier,  as  well  as  in 
the  words  "  help  meet  for  him ;"  (5)  the  subordination 
of  the  wife  to  the  husband,  consequent  upon  her  subse- 
quent formation  (I  Cor.  xi,  8,  9;  1  Tim.  ii,  13) ;  and  ((5) 
the  respective  duties  of  man  and  wife,  as  implied  in  the 
words  "  help  meet  for  him." 

2.  The  introduction  of  sin  into  the  world  modified  to 
a  certain  extent  the  mutual  relations  of  man  and  wife. 
As  the  blame  of  seduction  to  sin  lay  on  the  latter,  the 
condition  of  subordination  was  turned  into  subjection, 
and  it  was  said  to  her  of  her  husband,  "  he  shall  rule 
over  thee"  (Gen.  iii,  16) — a  sentence  which,  regarded  as 
a  prediction,  has  been  strikingly  fulfilled  in  tlie  position 
assigned  to  women  in  Oriental  countries ;  but  which,  re- 
garded as  a  rule  of  life,  is  fully  sustained  by  the  voice 
of  nature  and  bv  the  teaching  of  Christianity  (1  Cor. 
xiv,  34 ;  Eph.  v,"22,  23  ;  1  Tim.  ii,  12).  The  evil  effects 
of  the  fall  were  soon  apparent  in  the  corrupt  usages  of 
marriage :  the  unity  of  the  bond  was  impaired  by  po- 
lygamy, which  ap]3ears  to  have  originated  among  the 
Cainites  (Gen.  iv,  19) ;  and  its  purity  was  deteriorated 
by  the  promiscuous  intermarriage  of  the  "  sons  of  God" 
with  the  "  daughters  of  men,"  i.  e.  of  the  Sethites  with 
the  Cainites,  in  the  days  preceding  the  flood  (Gen.  vi,  2). 

8.  For  the  history  of  marriage  in  the  later  ages,  see 
below.  One  question  may  properly  be  considered  here, 
i.  e.  celibacy.  Shortly  before  the  Christian  »ra  an  im- 
portant change  took  place  in  the  views  entertained  on 
the  question  of  marriage  as  affecting  the  spiritual  and 
intellectual  parts  of  man's  nature.  Throughout  the  Old- 
Testament  period  marriage  was  regarded  as  the  indis- 
pensable duty  of  every  man,  nor  was  it  surmised  that 
there  existed  in  it  any  drawback  to  the  attainment  of 
the  highest  degree  of  holiness.  In  the  interval  that 
elapsed  between  the  Old  and  New  Testament  periods,  a 
spirit  of  asceticism  had  been  evolved,  probably  in  an- 
tagonism to  the  foreign  notions  with  which  the  Jews 
were  brought  into  close  and  painful  contact.  'The  Es- 
senes  were  the  first  to  propound  any  doubts  as  to  the 
propriety  of  marriage ;  some  of  them  avoided  it  alto- 
gether, others  availed  themselves  of  it  under  restric- 
tions (Josephus,  War,  ii,  8,  §  2, 13).  Similar  views  were 
adopted  by  the  Therapeutae,  and  at  a  later  period  by  the 
Gnostics  (Burton's  Lectures,  i,  214)  ;  thence  they  passed 
into  the  Christian  Church,  forming  one  of  the  distinc- 
tive tenets  of  the  Encratites  (Burton,  ii,  101),  and  finally 
developing  into  the  system  of  IMonachism.  Tlie  philo- 
sophical tenets  on  which  the  prohibition  of  marriage 
was  based  are  generally  condemned  in  Col.  ii,  16-23,  and 
specifically  in  1  Tim.  iv,  3.  The  general  propriety  of 
marriage  is  enforced  on  numerous  occasions,  and  absti- 
nence from  it  is  commended  only  in  cases  where  it  was 
rendered  expedient  by  the  calls  of  duty  (Matt,  xix,  12  ; 
1  Cor.  vii,  8,  26).  With  regard  to  remarriage  after  the 
death  of  one  of  the  parties,  the  Jews,  in  common  with 
other  nations,  regarded  abstinence  from  it,  particularly 
in  the  case  of  a  widow,  laudable,  and  a  sign  of  holiness 
(Luke  ii,  36,  7 ;  Josephus,  Ant.  xvii,  13,  4 ;  xviii,  6,  6) ; 
but  it  is  clear,  from  the  example  of  Josephus  {Vit.  76), 
that  there  was  no  prohibition  even  in  the  case  of  a 
priest.  In  the  Apostolic  Church  remarriage  was  re- 
garded as  occasionally  undesu-able  (1  Cor.  vri,  40),  and 
as  an  absolute  disqualififcation  for  holy  functions,  wheth- 


er in  a  man  or  woman  (1  Tim.  iii,  2, 12 ;  v,  9) ;  at  the 
same  time  it  is  recommended  in  the  case  of  young  wid- 
ows (1  Tim.  V,  14). 

II.  Mode  of  selecting  a  Bride,  Betrothed,  and  Marriage- 
price. — 1.  Imitating  the  example  of  the  Father  of  the 
Universe,  who  provided  the  man  he  made  with  a  wife, 
fathers  from  the  beginning  considered  it  both  their  duty 
and  prerogative  to  find  or  select  wives  for  their  sous 
(Gen.  xxiv,  3;  xxxviii,  6).  In  the  absence  of  the  fa- 
ther, the  selection  devolved  upon  the  mother  (Gen.  xxi, 
21).  Even  in  cases  where  the  wishes  of  the  son  were 
consulted,  the  proposals  were  made  by  the  father  (Gen. 
xxxiv,  4, 8) ;  and  the  violation  of  this  parental  prerog- 
ative on  the  part  of  the  son  was  "  a  grief  of  mind"  to  the 
father  (Gen.  xxvi,  35).  The  proposals  were  generally 
made  by  the  parents  of  the  young  man,  except  when 
there  was  a  difference  of  rank ;  in  such  a  case  the  nego- 
tiations proceeded  from  the  father  of  the  maiden  (Exod. 
ii,  21),  and  when  accepted  by  the  parents  on  both  sides, 
sometimes  also  consulting  the  opinion  of  the  adidt  broth- 
ers of  the  maiden  (Gen.  xxiv,  51 ;  xxxiv,  11),  the  mat- 
ter was  considered  as  settled  without  requiring  the  con- 
sent of  the  bride.  The  case  of  Rebekah  (Gen.  xxiv,  58) 
forms  no  exception  to  this  general  practice,  inasmuch  as 
the  alliance  had  already  been  concluded  between  Elea- 
zar  and  Laban,  and  the  question  put  to  her  aftenvards 
was  to  consiUt  her  opinion,  not  about  it,  but  about  the 
time  of  her  departure.  Before,  however,  the  marriage- 
contract  was  finally  concluded,  a  price  (inJO)  was  stip- 
ulated for,  which  the  young  man  had  to  pay  to  the  fa- 
ther of  the  maiden  (Gen.  xxxi,  15  ;  xxxiv,  12),  besides 
giving  presents  ("jria)  to  her  relations  (Gen.  xxiv,  53; 
xxxiv,  12).  This  marriage -price  was  regarded  as  a 
compensation  due  to  the  parents  for  the  loss  of  service 
which  they  sustained  by  the  departure  of  their  daugh- 
ter, as  well  as  for  the  trouble  and  expense  which  they 
incurred  in  her  education.  Hence,  if  the  proffered  young 
man  had  not  the  requisite  compensation,  he  was  obliged 
to  make  it  up  in  ser\-ice  (Gen.  xxix,  20;  Exod.  ii,  21 ; 
iii,  1).  Some,  indeed,  deny  that  a  price  had  to  be  paid 
down  to  the  father  for  parting  with  his  daughter,  and 
appeal  for  support  to  Gen.  xxxi,  15,  where,  according  to 
them,  "  the  daughters  of  Laban  make  it  a  matter  of 
complaint,  that  their  father  bargained  for  the  services 
of  Jacob  in  exchange  for  their  hands,  just  as  if  they 
were  sti-aiigers ;"  thus  showing  that  the  sale  of  daugh- 
ters was  regarded  as  an  unjust  act  and  a  matter  of  Com- 
plaint (Saalschiltz,  Das  Masaische  Recht.  p.  733).  But, 
on  a  closer  inspection  of  the  passage  in  question,  it  will 
be  seen  that  Rachel  and  Leah  do  not  at  all  complain  of 
any  indignity  heaped  on  them  by  being  sold  just  as  if 
they  wore  strangers,  but,  on  the  contrarj-,  mention  the 
sale  to  corroborate  their  statement  that  they  are  no 
longer  their  father's  property,  have  no  more  any  portion 
in  his  possession,  and  are  note  regarded  by  him  as  stran- 
gers, since,  according  to  the  usual  custom,  they  have 
been  duly  sold  to  their  husband,  and  hence  agree  with 
the  latter  that  it  is  time  for  them  to  depart.  Besides, 
the  marriage-price  is  distinctly  mentioned  in  other  pas- 
sages of  Scripture  (Exod.  xxii,  15, 16 ;  1  Sam.  xviii,  23, 
25;  Ruth  iv,  10;  Hos.  iii,  2),  and  was  commonly  de- 
manded by  the  nations  of  antiquity ;  as  the  Babylonians 
(Herod,  i,  196)  ;  Assyrians  (/Elian,  T'.  //.  iv,  1 ;  Strabo, 
xvi,745);  the  ancient  Greeks  (Cf/^5«.viii,  318  sq.:  Arist. 
Polit.  ii,  8 ;  Pausan.  iii,  12,  2) ;  the  Germans  (Tacitus, 
Germ,  xviii),  and  still  obtams  in  the  East  to  the  present 
day.  In  fact,  it  could  not  be  otherwise  where  polygamy 
was  practiced.  As  the  number  of  maidens  Avas  under 
such  circumstances  less  than  that  of  wooers,  it  called 
forth  competition,  and  it  was  but  natural  that  he  who 
ofi'ered  the  highest  marriage-price  obtained  the  damsel. 
There  was  therefore  no  fixed  marriage-price ;  it  varied 
according  to  circumstances.  We  meet  with  no  dowry 
given  with  the  bride  by  her  father  during  the  patri- 
archal age,  except  a  maid-servant  (Gen.  xxiv,  61 ;  xxix, 
24, 29). 


MARRIAGE 


MARRIAGE 


2.  The  Iilosaic  enactments  introchiced  no  changes  into 
these  usages.  The  father's  power  over  the  child  in 
matters  of  marriage  continued  paramount,  and  he  could 
iiive  his  children  to  any  one  he  pleased  without  asking 
their  consent.  Thus  Caleb  offers  his  daughter  Achsah 
(Josh.  XV,  Iti,  17)  as  wife  to  any  one  who  will  conquer 
Kirjath-sepher  (Judg.  i,  12).  Saul  promises  his  daugh- 
ter to  him  who  shall  kill  the  Philistine,  and  barters  his 
daughter  jNIichal  for  the  prepuces  of  a  hundred  slain 
Philistines  (1  Sam.  xvii,  20,  27 ;  xviii,  25-27) ;  and  Ib- 
zan  takes  thirty  wives  for  his  thirty  sons  (Judg.  xii,  9). 
The  imaginary  case  of  women  soliciting  husbands  (Isa. 
iv,  1)  was  designed  to  convey  to  the  mind  a  picture  of 
the  ravages  of  war,  by  which  the  greater  part  of  the 
males  had  fallen.  A  judicial  marriage-price  (1(T2 
n'pinan)  was  now  introduced,  which  was  fixed  at  fifty 
silver  shekels  (Exod.  xii,  16,  with  Deut,  xxii,  29),  being 
the  highest  rate  "of  a  servant  (Lev.  xxvii,  3),  so  that 
one  had  to  pay  as  much  for  a  wife  as  for  a  bondwoman. 
When  the  father  of  the  maiden  was  rich  and  did  not 
irant  the  marriar/e-]n-ice  (^n^3  "j^'Sn  ")^X),  he  expected 
some  service  by  way  of  compensation  for  giving  away 
his  daughter  (1  Sam.  xviii,  25).  As  soon  as  the  bar- 
gain was  concluded,  and  the  marriage-price  paid,  or  the 
required  service  rendered,  the  maiden  was  regarded  as 
betrothed  to  her  wooer,  and  as  sacredly  belonging  to 
liim.  In  fact,  she  was  legally  treated  as  a  married 
woman  ("tj'^X  r/i'X) ;  she  could  not  be  separated  from 
her  intended  husband  without  a  bill  of  divorce,  and  the 
same  law  was  applicable  to  her  as  to  married  people. 
If  she  was  persuaded  to  criminal  conduct  between  the 
espousals  and  the  bringing  her  home  to  her  husband's 
house,  both  she  and  her  seducer  were  publicly  stoned  to 
death ;  and  if  she  was  violated,  the  culprit  suffered  cap- 
ital punishment  (Deut.  xxii,  23-27,  with  ver.  22 ;  and 
Lev.  XX,  10).  With  such  sacredness  was  betrothal  re- 
garded, that  even  if  a  bondmaid  who  was  bought  with 
the  intention  of  ultimately  becoming  a  secondary  wife 
(Exod.  xxi,  7-11),  was  guilty  of  unchastity  prior  to  her 
entering  into  that  state,  both  she  and  her  seducer  were 
scourged,  while  the  latter  was  also  obhged  to  bring  a 
sin-offering,  and  the  priest  had  to  pray  for  the  forgive- 
ness of  hi"s  sin  (Lev.  xix,  20-22).  Every  betrothed 
man  was  by  the  Mosaic  law  exempt  from  military  ser- 
vice (Deut.  XX,  7). 

3.  In  the  post-exilian  period,  as  long  as  the  children 
were  minors — which  in  the  case  of  a  son  was  up  to  thir- 
teen, and  a  daughter  to  twelve  years  of  age — the  pa- 
rents could  betroth  them  to  any  one  they  chose ;  but 
when  they  became  of  age  their  consent  was  required 
(Maimonides.  Ililchoth  Ishuth,  iii,  11, 12).  Occasionally 
the  whole  business  of  selecting  the  wife  was  left  in  the 
hands  of  a  friend,  ami  hence  the  case  might  arise  which 
is  supposed  by  the  Talmudists  {Yfbam.  2,  §  6, 7),  that  a 
man  might  not  be  aware  to  which  of  two  sisters  he  was 
betrothed.  So  in  Egypt  at  the  present  day  the  choice 
of  a  wife  is  sometimes  intrusted  to  a  professional  woman 
styled  a  khdfheh;  and  it  is  seldom  that  the  bridegroom 
sees  the  features  of  his  bride  before  the  marriage  has 
taken  i>lace  (Lane,  i,  209-211).  It  not  unfrcquently 
happened,  however,  that  the  selection  of  partners  for 
life  was  made  by  the  young  people  themselves.  For 
this,  the  ceremonies  connected  with  the  celebration  of 
the  festivals  in  the  Temple  alforded  an  excellent  oppor- 
tunity, as  may  be  gathered  from  the  following  remark 
in  the  jMishna :  "  K.  Simeon  Ijcn-Ciamaliel  says.  There 
were  never  more  joyous  festivals  in  Israel  than  the  15th 
of  Ab  and  the  Day  of  Atonement.  On  these  the  maid- 
ens of  Jerusalem  used  to  come  out  dressed  in  white  gar- 
ments, which  they  borrowed,  in  order  not  to  shame 
those 'who  had  none  of  their  own,  and  w-hieh  they  had 
immersed  [for  fear  of  being  pollutedj.  Thus  arrayed, 
these  maidens  of  Jerusalem  went  out  and  danced  in 
the  vineyards,  singing.  Young  man,  lift  up  thine  eyes, 
and  see  whom  thou  art  ab(nit  to  choose ;  fix  not  thine 
eye  upon  beauty,  but  look  rather  to  a  pious  family ;  for 


gracefuhiess  is  deceit,  and  beauty  is  vanity,  but  the 
woman  that  fears  the  Lord,  she  is  worthy  of  praise" 
{Mc'ffilla,  iv,  8).    Having  made  his  choice,  the  young 
man  or  his  father  informed  the  maiden's  father  of  it, 
whereupon  the  young  people  were  legally  betrothed. 
The  betrothal  was  celebrated  by  a  feast  made  in  the 
house  of  the  bride  (Jebamotk,  43  a ;  Taanith,  26  b ;  Pes- 
sachim,  49  a;  Kiddushin, ^b  b),  and  is  called  'pCIT'p, 
made  sacred,  for  by  it  the  bride  was  made  sacred  to  her 
bridegroom,  and  was  not  to  be  touched  by  any  one  else. 
It  is  also  called  'pD~i^X,  which  may  be  from  0"i5i=: 
W"lX,  to  betroth.     For  a  betrothal  to  be  legal,  it  has  to 
be  effected  in  one  of  the  following  three  modes :  1.  By 
money,  or  money''s  worth,  which,  according  to  the  school 
of  Shammai,  must  be  a  denar  ("iS'^'l)  =90  grains  of  pure 
gold,  or,  accordmg  to  the  school  of  HiUel,  a  perutah 
(nZ3l"iS)=half  a  grain  of  pure  silver,  and  which  is  to 
be  given  to  the  maiden,  or,  if  she  is  a  minor,  to  her  fa- 
ther, as  betrothal  price  ("^ITI^^p  CjOS) ;  2.  By  letter  or 
contract  (""^OIT^N  "i::'^),  which  the  young  man,  either 
in  person  or  through  a  proxy,  has  to  give  to  the  maiden, 
or  to  her  father  when  she  is  a  minor;  or,  3.  By  cohabita- 
tion (nX^D,  -usiis),  when  the  young  man  and  maiden, 
having  pronounced  the  betrothal  formula  in  the  presence 
of  two  witnesses,  retire  into  a  separate  room.    This,  how- 
ever, is  considered  immodest,  and  the  man  is  scourged 
{Kiddushin,  12  b).     The  legal  formula  to  be  pronounced 
is,  "  Behold,  thou  art  betrothed  or  sanctified  to  me  (Hiri 
^XnUi'^l  nir^  niD  "^b  n'a^lp'a  rx),  according  to 
the  law  of  Moses  and  Israel"  {Kiddushin,  i,  1 ;  iv,  9 ; 
Tosiftka  Kethuboth,  iv;  Kethuboth,  iv,  8;  Maimonides, 
Hilchoth  Ishuth,  iii;  Ehen  Ila-Ezer,  xxxii).     Though 
betrothment,  as  we  have  seen  before,  Avas  the  beginning 
of  marriage  itself,  and,  like  it,  could  onlj-  be  broken  off 
by  a  regular  bill  of  divorcement  (w5),  yet  twelve  months 
were  generally  allowed  to  intervene  between  it  and  act- 
ual marriage  (tlSin)  in  the  case  of  a  maiden,  to  prepare 
her  outfit,  and  thirty  days  in  the  case  of  a  widow  (Kethu- 
both, 57  a).     The  intercourse  of  the  betrothed  during 
this  period  was  regulated  by  the  customs  of  the  differ- 
ent towns  Qilishim,  Kethuboth,  y,  2).     When  this  more 
solemn  betrothment  ('pttJI^'^p)  was  afterwards  united 
w'ith    the    marriage    ceremony    (iHS'in),   engagements 
("p^lTw^)  more  in  our  sense  of  the  word  took  its  place. 
Its  nature  and  obligation  will  best  be  understood  by  pe- 
rusing the  contents  of  the  contract  (D'^SJr)  which  is 
made  and  signed  by  the  parties,  and  which  is  as  follows : 
"iSIay  he  Avho  declares  the  end  from  the  beginning  give 
stability  to  the  words  of  this  contract,  and  to  the  cov- 
enant made  between  these  two  parties !  namely,  between 
A,  bachelor,  with  the  consent  of  his  father  B,  and  C,  who 
is  proxy  for  his  daughter  D,  spinster.     The  said  A, 
bachelor,  engages,  under  happy  auspices,  to  take  the 
afore-mentioned  D,  spinster,  by  marriage  and  betrothal 
("pUJITipl  ilSin),  according  to  the  law  of  Moses  and 
Israel.     These  henceforth  are  not  to  conceal  anything 
from  each  other  appertaining  to  money  or  goods,  but  to 
have  equal  power  over  their  property.     Moreover,  B, 
the  said  father  of  the  bridegroom,  is  to  dress  his  son  in 
goodly  apparel  before  the  marriage,  and  to  give  the  sum 
of  .  .  .  in  cash ;  whilst  C,  father  of  the  said  bride,  is  to 
give  his  daughter  before  the  marriage  a  do\m-  in  cash 
to  the  amount  of  ...  as  well  as  jewellery  to  the  amount 
of ...  to  dress  her  in  goodly  apparel  correspondmg  to 
the  dowry,  to  give  her  an  outfit,  and  the  bridegroom  the 
Talith  {T^'OZi),  i.  o.  the  fringed  wrapper  used  at  prayer 
[see  Fringe],  and  Kittel  (b  w^p),  i.  e.  the  white  burial 
garment,  in  harmony  with  his  position  and  in  propor- 
tion to  the  dowry.     The  marriage  is  to  be  (D.Y.)  on 
the  ...  in  the  place  ...  at  the  expense  of  the  said  C, 
the  bride's  father,  and,  if  agreed  to  by  both  parties,  may 
take  place  within  the  specified  period.     Now  the  two 


MARRIAGE 


115 


MARRIAGE 


parties  have  pledged  themselves  to  all  this,  and  have 
taken  upon  themselves  by  an  oath  to  abide  by  it,  on  the 
penalty  of  the  great  anathema,  and  at  the  peril  of  for- 
feiting half  the  dowry  ;  but  the  forfeit  is  not  to  absolve 
from  the  anathema,  nor  is  the  anathema  to  absolve  from 
the  forfeit.  The  said  father  of  the  bride  also  under- 
takes to  board  at  his  table  the  newly-married  couple  for 
the  space  of  .  .  .  and  furnish  them  with  lodgings  for  the 
space  of  .  .  .  The  surety  on  the  part  of  the  bridegroom 
is  E,  son  of  F ;  and  on  the  part  of  the  bride,  G,  son  of  H. 
The  t^vo  bridal  parties,  however,  guarantee  that  these 
sureties  shall  not  sutfer  therebj'.  Further,  C,  the  said 
father  of  the  bride,  is  to  give  his  daughter  an  assurance 
letter,  that,  in  the  event  of  his  death,  she  is  to  get  half 
the  inheritance  of  a  son  (~i-T  "^lin  "lliD);  whilst  the 
bridegroom  pledges  himself  to  get  his  brothers,  in  the 
event  of  his  dying  without  issue,  to  give  her  a  Chalizah 
document  [for  which  see  below],  without  any  compensa- 
tion. But  if  there  should  be  dispute  or  delay  on  the 
subject,  which  God  forbid,  the  decision  is  to  be  left  to 
the  Jewish  congregation.  We  have  taken  all  this  in 
jiossession  from  the  party  and  sureties,  for  the  behetit  of 
the  other  parties,  so  that  everything  aforementioned 
may  be  observed,  with  the  usual  witness  which  quali- 
fied us  to  take  care  of  it.  Done  this  day  .  .  .  Every- 
thing must  be  observed  and  kept.  (Signed)  . .  .''  (Comp. 
Nachlas  Sku:a,  9  b).  This  contract,  which  is  written 
in  Rabbinic  Hebrew,  is  used  by  all  orthodox  Jews  to  the 
present  day. 

III.  Marriage  Ceremonies. — 1.  In  the  pre-Mosaic  pe- 
riod, when  the  proposals  were  accepted,  and  the  mar- 
riage-price ("lira),  as  well  as  the  sundry  other  gifts 
("n'S),  were  duly  distributed,  the  bridegroom  driri) 
could  at  once  remove  the  bride  (n^iS)  from  her  father's 
house  to  his  own  liouse,  and  this  removal  of  the  maiden, 
under  the  benedictions  of  her  family,  but  without  any 
definite  religious  ceremony  whatever,  and  cohabitation, 
consummated  and  expressed  mai-riage  (ri'i'X  Hp?). 
Thus  we  are  told  that  Isaac,  when  meeting  Eleazar  and 
Ecbckah  in  the  field,  as  soon  as  he  was  informed  by  the 
former  of  what  had  transpired,  took  Kebekah  to  the  tent 
of  his  departed  mother,  and  this  without  further  cere- 
mony constituted  the  marriage,  and  she  thereby  became 
his  wife  (!T>;Nb  1^  inni,  Gen.  xxiv,  63-G7).  Under 
more  ordinary  circumstances,  however,  when  the  bride 
had  not  at  once  to  quit  her  parental  roof  under  the  pro- 
tection of  a  friend,  as  in  the  case  just  mentioned,  but 
where  the  marriage  took  place  in  the  house  of  the  bride's 
parents,  i,t  was  celebrated  by  a  feast,  to  which  all  the 
friends  and  neighbors  were  invited,  and  which  lasted 
seven  days  (Gen.  xxix,  22, i?).  On  the  day  of  the  mar- 
riage, the  bride  was  conducted  to  her  future  husband 
veiled,  or,  more  properly,  in  an  outdoor  wrapper  or  shawl 
(r)"^":^),  which  nearly  enveloped  her  whole  form,  so  that 
it  was  impossible  to  recognise  the  person,  thus  account- 
ing for  tlie  deception  practiced  on  Jacob  (Gen,  xxiv,  65 ; 
xxix,  23)  and  on  Judah  (Gen,  xxxviii,  14). 

2,  With  regard  to  age,  no  restriction  is  pronounced  in 
the  Bible.  Earl}'  marriage  is  spoken  of  with  approval 
in  several  passages  (Prov.  ii,  17  ;  v,  18 ;  Isa.  Ixii,  5),  and 
in  reducing  this  general  statement  to  the  more  definite 
one  of  years,  we  must  take  into  accomit  the  very  early 
age  at  which  persons  arrive  at  puberty  in  Oriental  coun- 
tries. In  modern  Egypt  marriage  takes  place  in  gen- 
eral before  the  bride  has  attained  the  age  of  sixteen, 
frequently  when  she  is  twelve  or  thirteen,  and  occasion- 
ally when  she  is  only  ten  (Lane,  i,  208).  The  Mosaic 
law  prescribes  no  civil  or  religious  forms  for  the  cele- 
bration of  marriage.  The  contract  or  promise  made  at 
the  payment  of  the  marriage-price,  or  when  the  service 
which  was  required  in  its  stead  was  rendered,  constitu- 
ted the  solemn  bond  which  henceforth  united  the  es- 
poused parties,  as  is  evident  from  the  fact  pointed  out 
in  the  preceding  sections,  that  a  betrothed  maiden  was 
both  called  a  viarried  woman,  and  was  legally  treated 


as  such.  There  can,  however,  be  no  doubt  that  the  an- 
cient custom  of  celebrating  the  consummation  of  the 
marriage  by  a  feast,  which  lasted  seven  days  (Gen,  xxix. 
22,  27),  must  have  become  pretty  general  by  this  time. 
Thus  we  are  told  that  when  Samson  went  to  Timnath 
to  take  his  wife,  he  made  there  a  feast,  which  continued 
for  seven  days,  according  to  the  usage  of  young  men  on 
such  occasions  (D'^lin  jil  Ti;"i  'p  "'Z),  that  the  parents 
of  the  bride  invited  thirty  j'oung  men  {vioi  rob  vv^i<pa,- 
voQ,  Matt,  ix,  15)  to  honor  his  nuptials,  and  that  to  re- 
lieve their  entertainment,  Samson,  in  harmony  with  the 
prevailing  custom  among  the  nations  of  antiquity,  pro- 
posed enigmas  (Judg.  xiv,  10-18).  We  afterwards  find 
that  the  bridal  pair  were  adorned  with  nuptial  crowns 
(Cant,  iii,  11;  Isa.  Ixi,  10)  made  of  various  materials 
— gold,  silver,  myrtle,  or  olive — varying  in  costliness 
according  to  the  circumstances  of  the  parties  (Mish- 
na,  Sota,  ix,  1-i;  Gemnra,  49  a  and  b;  Selden,  Ux.  Ebr. 
ii,  15),  and  that  the  bride  especially  wore  gorgeous  ap- 
parel, and  a  pecidiar  girdle  (Psa.  xlv,  13, 14 ;  Isa.  xlix, 
18;  Jer.  ii,  12),  whence  in  fact  she  derived  her  name 
Kallah  (HPD),  which  signifies  the  ornamented,  the 
adorned.  Thus  attired,  the  bridegroom  and  bride  were 
led  in  joyous  procession  through  the  streets,  accompa- 
nied by  bands  of  singers  and  musicians  (Jer.  vii,  34; 
XXV,  10;  xxxiii,  11),  and  saluted  by  the  greetings  of 
the  maidens  of  the  place,  who  manifested  the  liveliest 
interest  in  the  nuptial  train  (Cant,  iii,  11),  to  the  house 
of  the  bridegroom  or  that  of  his  father.  Here  ths 
feast  was  prepared,  to  which  all  the  friends  and  the 
neighbors  were  invited,  and  at  which  most  probably 
that  sacred  covenant  was  concluded  which  came  into 
vogue  during  the  post-Mosaic  period  (Prov.  ii,  17;  Ezek. 
xvi,  8;  Mai.  ii,  14),  The  bride,  thickly  veiled,  was  then 
conducted  to  the  ("I'lH)  bridal  chamber  (Gen.  xxix,  23 ; 
Judg.  XV,  11 ;  Joel  ii,  6),  where  a  nuptial  coucli  (nsn) 
was  prepared  (Psa.  xix,  5 ;  Joel  ii,  IG)  in  such  a  nanner 
as  to  afford  facility  for  ascertaining  the  following  morn- 
ing whether  she  had  preserved  her  maiden  purity ;  for 
in  the  absence  of  the  signa  rirginitatis  she  was  stoned 
to  death  before  her  father's  house  (Deut.  xxii,  13-21). 

3.  In  the  period  after  the  exile  the  proper  age  for 
marriage  is  fixed  in  the  Mishna  at  eighteen  {Ahoth,  v, 
31),  and  though,  for  the  sake  of  preserving  morality, 
puberty  was  regarded  as  the  desirable  age,  yet  men  gen- 
erally married  when  they  were  seventeen  {Jehamoth,  62; 
Kiddushin,  29).  The  Talmudists  forbade  marriage  in 
the  case  of  a  man  under  thirteen  years  and  a  day,  and 
in  the  case  of  a  woman  under  twelve  years  and  a  day 
(Buxtorf,  Synagog.  cap.  7,  p.  143).  The  day  originally 
fixed  for  marriage  was  Wechiesday  for  maidens  and  Fri- 
daj'  for  widows  (jVIishna,  Kethuboth,  i,  1),  But  the  Tal- 
mud already  partially  discarded  this  arrangement  (Ge- 
mara,  ibid.o  a),  and  in  the  Middle  Ages  it  became  quite 
obsolete  (^Eben  Ha-Ezar,  Ixv).  The  primitive  practice 
of  the  sages,  however,  has  been  resumed  among  the  or- 
thodox Jews  in  Russia,  Poland,  etc.  The  wedding-feast 
was  celebrated  in  the  house  of  the  bridegroom  (Kethu- 
both, 8  a,  10  a),  and  in  the  evening,  for  the  bridal  pair 
fasted  all  day,  since  on  it,  as  on  the  day  of  atonement, 
they  confessed  their  sins,  and  their  transgressions  were 
forgiven.  On  the  day  of  the  wedding,  the  bride,  with 
her  hair  flowing,  and  a  myrtle  wreath  on  her  head  (if 
she  was  a  maiden,  Mishna,  Kethuboth,  ii,  1),  was  con- 
ducted, with  music,  singing,  and  dancing,  to  the  house 
of  the  bridegroom  by  her  relations  and  friends,  who 
were  adorned  with  chaplets  of  myrtle,  and  carried  palm 
branches  in  their  hands  {Kethuboth,  16, 17  ;  Sabbath,  110 
a ;  Sota,  49  b).  The  streets  through  which  the  nuptial 
procession  passed  were  lined  with  the  daughters  of  Is- 
rael, who  greeted  the  joyous  train,  and  scattered  before 
them  cakes  and  roasted  ears  of  wheat,  while  fountains 
freely  poured  forth  wine  {Kethuboth,  \b  b;  Berachoth, 
50  b).  Having  reached  the  house,  the  bridegroom,  ac- 
companied by  the  groomsmen,  met  the  bride,  took  her 
by  the  hand,  and  led  her  to  the  threshold.    The  Kethu- 


MARRIAGE 


776 


MARRIAGE 


bah  {t^'Z'^,T'2)=  donatio  propter  or  ante  nuptlas,  or  the 
marriauf-sottlement,  alluded  to  in  the  book  of  Tobit 
(vii,  \h ),  ;vas  then  written,  which  in  the  case  of  a  maid- 
en always  promises  200,  and  in  the  case  of  a  widow  100 
denar  (each  denar  being  equal  to  90  grains  of  pure  gold), 
whether  the  parties  are  rich  or  poor  (Mishna,  Kethu- 
bot/'i,  i,  2),  though  it  may  be  enlarged  by  a  special  cove- 
nant (rtjinD  niSDir).  The  dowry  could  not  be 
claimed  until  the  termination  of  the  marriage  by  the 
death  of  tlie  husband  or  by  divorce  (ibid,  y,  1),  though 
advances  might  be  made  to  the  wife  previously  (ix,  !S). 
Subsequently  to  betrothal  a  woman  lost  all  power  over 
her  property,  and  it  became  vested  in  the  husband,  un- 
less he  had  previously  to  marriage  renounced  his  right 
to  it  (viii,  1 ;  ix,  1).  The  marriage  must  not  be  cele- 
brated before  this  settlement  is  written  {Buba  Kama, 
89).  The  wording  of  tliis  instrument  has  undergone 
various  changes  in  the  course  of  time  (Kethiiboth,  82  b). 
The  form  in  which  it  is  given  in  the  Talmud,  by  Mai- 
monides,  etc.,  is  as  follows :  "  Upon  the  fourth  day  of 
the  week,  on  the  ...  of  the  month,  in  the  year  ...  of 
the  creation  of  the  world,  according  to  the  computation 
adopted  in  this  place.  A,  son  of  B,  said  to  C,  spinster, 
daughter  of  E,  '  Be  thou  my  wife  according  to  the  law 
of  Moses  and  Israel,  and  I  will  work  for  thee,  honor  thee, 
maintain  thee,  and  provide  for  thee  according  to  the 
custom  of  Jewish  husbands,  who  work  for  their  wives, 
honor  them,  maintain  them,  and  provide  for  them  hon- 
estly ;  I  also  give  thee  the  dowry  of  thy  virginity,  200 
silver  *S';/.s',  which  belong  to  thee  by  the  law,  as  well  as 
thy  food,  thy  apparel,  and  whatsoever  is  required  for 
thy  maintenance,  and  I  will  go  in  to  thee  according  to 
the  custom  of  the  whole  earth.'  And  C,  the  spinster, 
consented,  and  became  his  wife.  The  dowry  which  she 
brought  him  from  the  house  of  her  father,  in  silver, 
gold,  and  ornaments,  as  well  as  in  apparel,  domestic 
utensils,  and  bedding,  amounts  to  .  .  .  piu-e  silver,  and 
A,  the  bridegroom,  has  consented  to  add  to  it  from  his 
own  property  the  same  sum ;  and  the  bridegroom  said 
thus :  '  I  undertake  for  myself  and  my  heirs  after  me  the 
security  for  this  Kethubah,  this  dowry  and  this  addi- 
tion, so  that  the  same  shall  be  paid  from  the  best  and 
most  choice  of  my  possessions  which  I  have  under  the 
whole  heaven,  which  I  have  acquired  or  shall  acquire 
in  real  or  personal  property.  All  this  property  is  to  be 
mortgaged  and  pledged,  yea,  even  the  coat  which  I  have 
on  is  to, go  in  order  to  pay  this  Kethubah,  this  down,' 
and  this  addition,  from  tliis  day  to  all  eternity.'  And 
the  surety  of  this  Kethubah,  this  dowry  and  this  addi- 
tion, A,  the  bridegroom,  has  undertaken  in  the  strict- 
ness of  all  the  Kethubahs  and  supplement  instruments 
usual  among  the  daughters  of  Israel,  and  which  are 
written  according  to  the  order  of  our  sages  of  blessed 
memory,  not  after  the  manner  of  a  mere  visionary  prom- 
ise or  empty  formula.  We  have  taken  possession  of  it 
from  A,  the  bridegroom,  and  given  it  to  C,  spinster, 
daughter  of  E,  according  to  idl  that  is  written  and  ex- 
plaincil  above,  by  means  of  such  a  garment  as  is  legal 
in  the  talcing  of  possession.  AU  this  yea  and  amen. 
(Signed)  .  .  ."  Comp.  Maimonides,  Jad  Jla-ChazaJca 
Ililchoth  Jebum  Ve-Cheliza,  iv,  33.  Among  the  more 
modem  Jews  it  is  the  custom  in  some  parts  for  the 
bridegroom  to  place  a  ring  on  the  bride's  finger  (Picart, 
i,  239) — a  custom  which  also  prevailed  among  the  Ro- 
mans (Smith,  7/(C/.  of  Ant.  p.  OOJ:).  .  Some  writers  have 
endeavored  to  jjrove  that  the  rings  noticed  in  the  O.  T. 
(Exod.  XXXV,  22;  Isa.  iii,  21)  were  nuptial  rings,  but 
there  is  not  the  slightest  evidence  of  this.  The  ring 
was  nevertheless  regarded  among  the  Hebrews  as  a  to- 
ken of  fidelity  (Gen.  xli,  42),  and  of  adoption  into  a 
family  (l.ukc  xv,  22).  According  to  Selden  it  was  orig- 
inally gi\en  as  an  equivalent  for  dowry-money  {U-ror 
Ebrair.  ii.  14).  After  the  daeument  was  handed  over  to 
the  bride,  crowns,  varj-ing  in  expense  according  to  the 
circumstances  of  the  parties,  were  placed  upon  the  heads 
of  the  bridal  pair  (Sota,  49  a.  b),  and  they,  with  their 
relations  and  friends,  sat  down  to  a  sumptuous  repast ; 


the  marriage-feast  was  enlivened  by  the  guests,  who 
sang  various  songs  and  asked  each  other  amusing  rid- 
dles (Berachoth,  31  a;  Nedarim,  51  a),  parched  corn  was 
distributed  among  the  guests  if  the  bride  was  a  virgin 
(Keth.  ii),  and  when  the  meal  was  concluded  with  cus- 
tomary prayer  of  thanksgiving,  the  bridegroom  supple- 
mented it  with  pronoimcing  over  a  cup  of  wine  the  seven 
nuptial  benedictions  (ni3"i3  S'HC)  in  the  presence  of 
at  least  ten  persons  (Kefhuboth,  7  b),  which  gave  the 
last  religious  consecration  to  the  marriage-covenant,  and 
which  are  as  follows :  i.  "  Blessed  art  thou,  0  Lord  our 
God,  king  of  the  universe,  who  hast  created  everything 
for  thy  glory."  ii.  "  Blessed  art  thou,  O  Lord  our  God, 
king  of  the  universe,  who  hast  created  man."  iii. 
"Blessed  art  thou,  O  Lord  our  God,  king  of  the  uni- 
verse, who  hast  created  man  in  thine  image,  in  the  im- 
age of  the  likeness  of  thy  own  form,  and  hast  prepared 
for  him,  in  himself,  a  building  for  the  perpetuity  of  the 
species.  Blessed  art  thou,  O  Lord,  the  creator  of  man." 
iv.  "  The  barren  woman  shall  rejoice  exceedingly,  and 
shout  for  joy  when  her  children  are  gathered  around  her 
in  delight.  Blessed  art  thou,  O  Lord,  who  rejoicest 
Zion  in  her  children."  v.  ''Make  this  loving  pair  to 
rejoice  exceedingh',  as  thou  hast  made  thy  creature  re- 
joice in  the  Garden  of  Eden  m  the  beginning.  Blessed 
art  thou,  O  Lord,  who  rejoicest  the  bridegroom  and  the 
bride."  vi.  "  Blessed  art  thou,  O  Lord  our  God,  king 
of  the  universe,  who  hast  ordained  joy  and  gladness, 
bride  and  bridegroom,  delight  and  song,  pleasure  and 
intimacy,  love  and  friendship,  peace  and  concord ;  speed- 
ily, O  Lord  our  God,  let  there  be  heard  in  the  cities  of 
Judah  and  in  the  streets  of  Jerusalem  the  voice  of  joy 
and  the  voice  of  gladness,  the  voice  of  the  bridegroom 
and  the  voice  of  the  bride,  the  voice  of  jubilant  britle- 
grooms  under  their  canopies,  and  of  the  young  men  at 
the  nuptial  feast  playing  music.  Blessed  art  thou,  O 
Lord  oiu-  God,  who  makest  the  bridegroom  rejoice  with 
his  bride."  vii.  "IJemove  all  suffering  and  anger;  then 
will  the  dumb  be  heard  in  song ;  lead  us  in  the  paths  of 
righteousness,  listen  to  the  benedictions  of  the  children 
of  Jeshurun !  With  the  permission  of  our  seniors  and 
rabbins,  and  my  masters,  let  us  bless  our  God  in  whose 
dwelling  is  joy,  and  of  whose  bounties  we  have  par- 
taken !"  to  which  the  guests  respond,  "  Blessed  be  our 
God,  in  whose  dwelling  is  joy,  of  whose  bounties  we 
have  partaken,  and  by  whose  goodness  we  live ;"  and 
he  then  answers,  "  Then  let  us  bless  our  God,  in  whose 
dwelling  is  joy,  of  -whose  bounties  we  have  partaken, 
and  by  whose  goodness  we  live"  (Kethiiboth,  7  b.  8). 
The  married  couple  were  then  conducted  to  an  elabo- 
rately-ornamented nuptial  chamber  (llSin,  where  the 
bridal  couch  (thalainus)  was  carefully  prepared  ;  and  at 
the  production  of  the  linteum  virginitatis  the  following 
morning  (Deut.  xxii,  13-21),  which  was  anxiously 
awaited,  the  following  benediction  was  pronounced  by 
the  bridegroom :  "  Blessed  art  thou,  O  Lord  our  God, 
king  of  the  universe,  who  hast  placetl  a  nut  in  ])aradise, 
the  rose  of  the  valleys — a  stranger  must  not  rule  over 
this  sealed  fountain;  this  is  why  the  hind  of  love  has 
preserved  the  holy  seed  in  purity,  and  has  not  broken 
the  compact.  Blessed  art  thou.  O  Lord,  who  hast  cho- 
sen Abraham  and  his  seed  after  him !"  (see  Ilalachoth 
Gedoloth,  ed.  Vienna,  51  [comp.  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  xv,  24], 
where  an  explanation  will  be  found  of  the  use  of  fl^X^ 
nut,  in  this  connection).  Festivities  continued  for  sev- 
en days  (Kethuboth,  7  a). 

As  important  religious  questions  had  to  be  put  to  the 
bridal  pair  wliich  required  a  learned  man  to  do  (Gittin, 
6 ;  Kiddushi)!,  0,  13),  it  was  afterwards  resolved  that 
the  marriage-ceremony  should  be  performed  by  a  rabbi, 
and  it  is  celebrated  in  the  following  manner :  A  beauti- 
fully-embroidered silk  or  velvet  canopy,  about  three  or 
four  yards  square,  supported  Ijy  foiu-  long  poles,  is  held 
by  four  men  out  of  doors  on  tlic  day  of  the  wedding. 
Under  this  chupah  (11310),  which  represents  the  an- 
cient bridal  chamber,  the  bridegroom  is  led  by  his  male 


MARRIAGE 


777 


MARRIAGE 


friends,  preceded  by  a  band  of  music,  and  welcomed  by 
the  joyous  spectators  with  the  exclamation.  Blessed  is  he 
who  is  now  come!  (i<2il  "l^a) ;  the  bride,  with  her  face 
veiled  Qniptix?),  is  then  brought  to  him  by  her  female 
friends  and  led  three  times  round  the  bridegroom,  in 
accordance,  as  they  say,  with  the  remark  of  Jeremiah, 
"  The  woman  shall  compass  the  man"  (xxxi,  22),  when 
he  takes  her  round  once  amid  the  congratulations  of  the 
bystanders,  and  then  places  her  at  his  right  hand  (Psa. 
xlv,  10),  both  standing  with  their  faces  to  the  south  and 
their  backs  to  the  north.  The  rabbi  then  covers  the 
bridal  pair  with  the  Talith,  or  fringed  wrapper,  which 
the  bridegroom  has  on  (comp.  Ruth  iii,  I'J;  Ezek.  xvi, 
8),  joins  their  hands  together,  and  pronounces  over  a 
cup  of  wine  the  benediction  of  affiance  ("pOTIX  n312), 
which  is  as  follows :  "  Blessed  art  thou,  O  Lord  our  God, 
king  of  the  universe,  who  hast  created  the  fruit  of  the 
vine.  Blessed  art  thou,  O  Lord  our  God,  king  of  the 
universe,  who  hast  sanctified  us  with  thy  command- 
ments, and  hast  forbidden  to  us  consanguinity,  and  hast 
prohibited  us  the  betrothed,  but  hast  permitted  us  those 
whom  we  take  by  marriage  and  betrothal.  Blessed  art 
thou,  O  Lord,  who  hast  sanctified  thy  people  Israel  by 
betrothal  and  marriage"  (^Kethuhoth,  7  a).  Whereupon 
the  bridegroom  and  bride  taste  of  the  cup  of  blessing, 
and  the  former  produces  a  plain  gold  ring,  and,  in  the 
presence  of  all  the  party,  puts  it  on  the  bride's  finger, 
saying,  "  Behold,  thou  art  consecrated  unto  me  with  this 
ring  according  to  the  rites  of  Moses  and  Israel !''  The 
rabbi  then  reads  aloud,  in  the  presence  of  appointed  wit- 
nesses, the  Kethubah,  or  the  marriage-settlement,  which 
is  Avritten  in  Syro-Chaldaic,  and  concludes  bj'  pronounc- 
ing over  another  cup  of  wine  the  seven  benedictions 
(m3"in  >'3'U),  which  the  bridegroom  in  ancient  times, 
before  the  ceremony  of  marriage  became  a  public  act 
and  was  delegated  to  the  spiritual  head,  used  to  pro- 
nounce himself  at  the  end  of  the  meal.  The  bridegroom 
and  bride  taste  again  of  this  cup  of  blessing,  and  when 
the  glass  is  emptied  it  is  put  on  the  ground,  and  the 
bridegroom  breaks  it  with  his  foot,  as  a  symbol  to  re- 
mind them  in  the  midst  of  their  joys  that  just  as  this 
glass  is  destroyed,  so  Jerusalem  is  destroyed  and  trod- 
den down  under  the  foot  of  the  Gentiles.  With  this  the 
ceremony  is  concluded,  amid  the  shouts.  May  you  he 
happy!  (ilZJ  h^^Q).     See  Wedding. 

IV.  Polygamy  ami  Concubinage. — 1.  Though  the  his- 
tory of  the  protoplasts — in  which  we  are  told  that  God 
in  the  beginning  created  a  single  pair,  one  of  each  sex 
— seems  to  exhibit  a  standard  for  monogamy,  j-et  the 
Scriptures  record  that  from  the  remotest  periods  men 
had  simultaneously  several  wives,  occujiying  either  co- 
ordinate or  subordinate  positions.  Against  the  opinion 
that  Lamech,  sixth  in  descent  from  Adam  through  Cain, 
introduced  polygamy — based  on  the  circumstance  that 
he  is  the  first  who  is  recorded  as  having  married  two 
wives  (Gen.  iv^,  19) — is  to  be  urged  that  (1.)  Lamech  is 
the  first  whose  marriage  or  taking  of  a  wife  is  recorded, 
and  consequently  it  is  impossible  to  say  how  many  wives 
his  five  progenitors  had ;  (2.)  The  mention  of  Lamech's 
two  wives  is  incidental,  and  is  entirely  owing  to  the  fact 
that  tlio  sacred  historian  had  to  notice  the  useful  inven- 
tions made  by  their  respective  sons  Jabal,  Jubal,  and 
Tubal-Cain,  as  well  as  to  give  the  oldest  piece  of  rhyth- 
mical composition  which  was  addressed  to  the  wives,  cel- 
ebrating one  of  these  inventions ;  and  (3.)  If  polj-gamy 
had  t)een  for  the  first  time  introduced  by  Lamech,  the 
sacred  writer  would  have  as  distinctly  mentioned  it  as 
he  mentions  the  things  which  were  first  introduced  by 
Lamech's  sons.  The  manner  in  which  Sarah  urges 
Abraliam  to  take  her  servant  Hagar,  and  the  fact  that 
Sarah  herself  gives  the  maiden  to  her  own  husband 
(n'i'i<b)  to  be  his  wife,  the  readiness  with  which  the 
patriarch  accepts  the  proposal  (Gen.  xvi,  1-4),  unques- 
tionably show  that  it  was  a  common  custom  to  have 
one  or  more  secondary  wives.     In  fact,  it  is  distinctly 


mentioned  that  Nahor,  Abraham's  own  brother,  who  had 
eight  sons  Ijy  Milcah,  his  principal  wife,  and  conse- 
quently did  not  require  another  wife  for  the  purpose  of 
securing  progeny,  had  nevertheless  a  secondary  wife 
(12J3^S),  by  whom  he  had  four  sons  (Gen.  xxii,  21-24). 
Besides,  it  is  now  pretty  generally  admitted  that  Gen. 
XXV,  1  describes  Abraliam  himself  to  have  taken  anoth- 
er or  secondary  wife  in  the  lifetime  of  Sarah,  in  addition 
to  Hagar,  who  was  given  to  him  by  his  principal  wife, 
as  is  evident  from  Gen.  xxv,  6 ;  1  Chron.  i,  32,  and  that 
he  could  not  have  taken  her  for  the  sake  of  obtaining 
an  heir.  If  any  more  proof  be  wanted  for  the  preva- 
lence of  polj'gamy  in  the  patriarchal  age,  we  refer  to 
Esau,  who,  to  please  his  father,  married  his  cousin  Ma- 
halath  in  addition  to  the  several  wives  whom  he  had 
(Gen.  xxviii,  8, 9) ;  and  to  Jacob,  who  had  not  the  slight- 
est scruple  to  marry  two  sisters,  and  take  two  half-wives 
at  the  same  time  (Gen.  xxix,  23-30;  xxx,  4,  9),  which 
would  be  unaccountable  on  the  supposition  that  polyga- 
my was  something  strange.  Though  sacred  history  is 
silent  about  the  number  of  wives  of  the  twelve  patri- 
archs, yet  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  large  num- 
ber of  children  and  grandchildren  which  Benjamin  had 
at  so  early  an  age  (Gen.  xlvi,  21 ;  Numb,  xxvi,  38-41; 
1  Chron.  vii,  6-12 ;  viii,  1),  must  have  been  the  result  of 
poh'gamy ;  and  that  Simeon,  at  all  events,  had  more 
than  one  wife  (Exod.  vi,  15).  The  extraordinarj'  rate 
at  which  the  Jews  increased  in  Egypt  implies  that  they 
practiced  polygamy  during  their  bondage.  This  is, 
moreover,  corroborated  by  the  incidental  notice  that 
Asher,  Judah's  grandson,  had  two  wives  (1  Chron.  iv,  5 
with  ii,  24);  that  Caleb,  Judah's  great-grandson,  had 
three  principal  and  two  subordinate  wives  (1  Chron.  ii, 
9,  18,  42,  46,  48) ;  that  Aharaim,  probably  Benjamin's 
great-grandson,  had  three  wives  (1  Chron.  viii,  8-11); 
and  that  Moses  had  two  wives  (Exod.  ii,  21 ;  Numb,  xii, 
1) ;  as  well  as  by  the  fact  that  the  Mosaic  legislation  as- 
sumes the  existence  of  polygamy  (Lev.  xiii,  14 ;  Deut. 
xxv,  47).  StUl,  the  theory  of  monogamy  seems  to  be 
exhibited  in  the  case  of  Noah  and  his  three  sons  (Gen. 
vi,  18 ;  vii,  7, 13 ;  viii,  16),  of  Aaron,  and  of  Eleazar. 

In  judging  of  this  period  we  must  take  into  regard 
the  following  considerations :  (1.)  The  principle  of  mo- 
nogamy was  retained,  even  in  the  practice  of  polygamy, 
by  the  distinction  made  between  the  chief  or  original 
wife  and  the  secondary  wives,  or,  as  the  A.V.  terms 
them,  "  concubines" — a  term  which  is  objectionable,  in- 
asmuch as  it  conveys  to  us  the  notion  of  an  illicit  and 
unrecognised  position,  whereas  the  secondary  wife  was 
regarded  by  the  Hebrews  as  a  wife,  and  her  rights  were 
secured  by  law.  The  position  of  the  Hebrew  concubine 
may  be  compared  with  that  of  the  concubine  of  the 
early  Christian  Church,  the  sole  distinction  liet^veen  her 
and  the  wife  consisting  in  this,  that  the  marriage  was 
not  in  accordance  with  the  civil  lavf.  in  the  eye  of  the 
Church  the  marriage  was  perfectly  valid  (Bingham,  A  nt. 
xi,  5,  §  11).  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the  term  pillegesh 
(^5^3  ;  A.V.  "concubine")  nowhere  occurs  in  the  Mo- 
saic law.  The  terms  used  are  either  "  wife"  (Deut.  xxi, 
15)  or  "  maid-servant"  (Exod.  xxi,  7) ;  the  latter  apply- 
ing to  a  purchased  wife.  (2.)  The  motive  which  led  to 
polygamy  was  that  absorbing  desire  of  progeny  which 
is  prevalent  throughout  Eastern  countries,  and  was  es- 
pecially powerful  among  the  Hebrews.  (3.)  The  power 
of  a  parent  over  his  child,  and  of  a  master  over  his  slave 
(the  posfestas patria  and  dominicu  of  the  Romans),  was 
paramount  even  in  matters  of  marriage,  and  led  in  many 
cases  to  phases  of  poh'gamy  that  are  otherwise  quite 
unintelligible,  as,  for  instance,  to  the  cases  where  it  was 
adopted  bj'  the  husband  at  the  request  of  his  wife,  under 
the  idea  that  children  born  to  a  slave  were  in  the  eye 
of  the  law  the  children  of  the  mistress  (Gen.  xvi,  3; 
xxx,  4,  9) ;  or,  again,  to  cases  where  it  was  adopted  at 
the  instance  of  the  father  (Gen.  xxix,  23,  28  ;  Exod.  xxi, 
9, 10).  It  must  be  allowed  that  polygamy,  thus  legal- 
ized and  systematized,  justified  to  a  certain  extent  by 


MARRIAGE 


IIS 


MARRIAGE 


the  motive,  and  entered  into,  not  only  without  offence 
to,  l)Ut  actually  at  the  suggestion  of  those  who,  accord- 
ing to  our  notions,  woidd  feci  most  deeply  injured  by  it, 
is  a  very  different  thing  from  what  polygamy  would  be 
in  our  own  state  of  society. 

2.  In  the  case  of  polj-gamy,  as  in  that  of  other  na- 
tional customs,  the  Mosaic  law  adheres  to  the  estab- 
lished usage.  Hence  there  is  not  only  no  express  stat- 
ute to  jirohibit  jwlygamy,  which  was  previously  held 
lawful,  but  the  Mosaic  law  presupposes  its  existence  and 
practice,  bases  its  legislation  thereupon,  and  thus  au- 
thorizes it,  as  is  evident  from  the  following  enactments : 
1.  It  is  ordained  that  a  king  "  shall  not  multiply  wives 
imto  himself  (Deut.  xvii,  17),  which,  as  bishop  Patrick 
rightly  remarks,  "is  not  a  prohibition  to  take  more 
wives  than  one,  but  not  to  have  an  excessive  number, 
after  the  manner  of  Eastern  kings,  whom  Solomon  seems 
to  have  imitated;"  thus,  in  fact,  legalizing  a  moderate 
number.  The  INIishna  {SimJiedrin,  ii,  4),  the  Talmud 
(Babi/Ion  Sanhedrbi,  21  a),  Rashi  (on  Deut.  xvii,  17), 
etc.,  in  harmony  with  ancient  tradition,  regard  eighteen 
wives,  including  half  wives,  as  a  moderate  number,  and 
as  not  violating  the  injunction  contained  in  the  expres- 
sion "  multiply^  2.  The  law  enacts  that  a  man  is  not 
to  marry  his  wife's  sister  to  vex  her  while  she  lives 
(Lev.  xviii,  18),  which,  as  the  same  prelate  j  ustly  urges, 
manifestly  means  "  that  though  two  wives  at  a  time,  or 
more,  were  permitted  in  those  days,  no  man  should  take 
two  sisters  (as  Jacob  had  formerly  done)  begotten  of  the 
same  father  or  born  of  tlie  same  mother ;"  or,  in  other 
words,  a  man  is  at  liberty  to  take  another  wife  besides 
the  first,  and  during  her  lifetime,  provided  only  they  are 
not  sisters.  3.  The  law  of  primogeniture  (Deut.  xxi, 
15-17)  actually  presupposes  the  case  of  a  man  having 
ttco  wives,  one  beloved  and  the  other  not,  as  it  was  with 
Jacob  and  his  two  wives,  and  ordains  that  if  the  one 
less  beloved  is  the  mother  of  his  first-born,  the  husband 
is  not  to  transfer  the  right  of  primogeniture  to  the  son 
of  his  favorite  wife,  but  is  to  acknowL'dge  him  as  first- 
born who  is  actually  so.  4.  Exod.  xxi,  9, 10,  permits  a 
father  who  had  given  his  son  a  bond^voman  for  a  wife, 
to  give  him  a  second  wife  oi freer  hirth,  and  prescribes 
how  the  first  is  then  to  be  treated — that  she  is  to  have 
alimony,  clothes,  and  the  conjugal  duty;  and  5.  Deut. 
XXV,  47  expressly  enjoins  that  a  man,  though  having  a 
wife  already,  is  to  marry  his  deceased  brother's  widow. 

Having  existed  before  the  Jlosaic  law,  and  being  ac- 
knowledged and  made  the  basis  of  legislation  by  it,  po- 
lygamy continued  in  full  force  during  the  whole  of  this 
period.  Thus,  during  the  government  of  the  judges, 
we  find  Gideon,  the  celebrated  judge  of  Israel,  "had 
many  wives,  and  three  score  and  ten  sons"  (Judg.  viii, 
30)  ;  Jair  the  Gileadite,  also  a  judge  of  Israel,  had  thirty 
grown-up  sons  (Judg.  x,  4)  and  a  proportionate  number 
of  daughters.  Ibzan,  another  judge  of  Israel,  had  thirtj' 
full-growir  sons  and  thirty  fllll-gro^\•n  daughters  (Judg. 
xii,  9) ;  and  Abdon,  also  a  judge  of  Israel,  had  forty 
adult  sons  and  thirty  adult  daughters — which  was  ut- 
terly impossible  without  polygamy ;  the  pious  Elkanah, 
father  of  Samuel  the  illustrious  judge  and  prophet,  had 
two  wives  (1  Sam.  i,  2).  During  the  monarchy,  we 
find  Saul,  the  first  king  of  Israel,  had  many  wives  and 
half  wives  (2  Sam.  iii,  7;  xii,  8);  David,  the  roj-al 
singer  of  Israel,  "  their  best  king,"  as  bishop  Patrick  re- 
marks in  his  comment  on  Lev.  xviii,  18,  "  who  read 
God's  law  day  and  night,  and  could  not  but  understand 
it,  took  many  wives  without  any  reproof;  nay,  God 
gave  him  more  than  he  had  before,  by  delivering  his 
master's  wives  to  him''  (2  Sam.  xii,  8) ;  Solomon,  the 
wise  monarch,  had  no  less  than  a  thousand  v.ives  and 
half  wives  (1  Kings  xi,  3)  ;  Kehoboam,  his  son  and  suc- 
cessor, had  eighteen  wives  and  three  score  half  wives 
(2  Chron.  xi,  21);  Abijah,  his  son  and  successor  to  the 
throne  of  Judah,  married  fourteen  wives  (2  Chron.  xiv, 
21) :  and  Joash,  the  tenth  king,  including  David,  who 
reigned  from  B.C.  378  to  338,  had  two  wives  given  to 
tim  by  the  gotUy  high-priest  Jchoiada,  who  restored 


both  the  throne  of  David  and  the  worship  of  the  true 
God  according  to  the  law  of  Moses  (2  Chron.  xxiv,  3). 
A  very  remarkable  illustration  of  the  prevalence  of  po- 
lygamy in  private  life  is  given  in  1  Chron.  vii,  4,  where 
we  are  told  that  not  only  did  the  five  fathers,  all  of  them 
chief  men  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar,  live  in  polygamy,  but 
that  their  descendants,  numbering  36,000  men,  "had 
many  wives."  De  Wette,  indeed,  afhrms  that  "the 
Hebrew  moral  teachers  speak  decidedly  for  monogamy, 
as  is  evident  from  their  always  speaking  of  one  wife, 
and  from  the  high  notion  which  they  have  of  a  good 
wedded  wife — 'A  virtuous  woman  is  the  diadem  of  her 
husband,  but  a  bad  wife  is  like  rottenness  in  the  bones' 
(Prov.  xii,  4);  '"Whoso  findeth  a  wife  findeth  happi- 
ness' (xviii,  22);  'A  house  and  wealth  are  an  inherit- 
ance from  parents,  but  a  discreet  wife  is  from  the  Lord' 
(xix,  14).  Prov.  xxxi,  10-31  describes  an  industrious 
and  managing  wife  in  such  a  manner  as  one  only  could 
be  it"  {Christl.  Sittenlehre,\o\.  iii,  sec.  472).  Similarly 
Ewald :  "  Wherever  a  prophet  alludes  to  matrimonial 
matters,  he  always  assumes  faitliful  and  sacred  monoga- 
my contracted  for  the  w^hole  life  as  the  legal  one"  {Die 
Alterthiimer  Israels,  p.  177  sq.).  But  we  have  exactly 
analogous  passages  where  parental  felicity  is  described : 
"  A  wise  son  is  happiness  to  the  father,  but  a  foolish  son 
is  the  grief  of  his  mother"  (Prov.  x,  1;  xv,  20);  "A 
wise  son  heareth  his  father's  instruction"  (xiii,  1) ;  and 
upon  the  same  paritj^  of  reasoning  it  might  be  said  that 
the  theory  of  having  only  one  son  is  assumed  by  the 
sacred  moralist,  because,  when  speaking  of  happiness  or 
misery,  which  parents  derive  from  their  offsjiring,  only 
one  son  is  alluded  to.  Besides,  the  facts  which  we  have 
enumerated  cannot  be  set  aside  by  arguments. 

3.  As  nothing  is  said  in  the  post-exilian  portions  of 
the  Bible  to  discourage  polj'gamj^,  this  ancient  practice 
also  continued  among  the  Jews  during  this  period. 
During  the  second  Temple,  we  find  that  Herod  the 
Great  had  nine  wives  (Josephus,  Ant.  xvii,  1,  3);  his 
two  sons,  Archelaus  the  Ethnarch,  and  Antipas  the  Te- 
trarch  of  Galilee,  had  each  two  wives  (Josephus,  A  nt. 
xvii,  13,  2;  xviii,  5, 1) ;  and  John  the  Baptist  and  other 
Jews,  who  censured  the  one  for  violating  the  Mosaic 
law  by  the  marriage  of  his  deceased  brother's  wife  who 
had  children  (Josephus,  Ant.  xviii,  13,  2),  and  the  other 
for  marrying  Herodias,  the  wife  of  his  half-brother 
Herod-PhUip  (Matt,  xiv,  3,  4;  Mark  vi,  17,  18;  Luke 
iii,  19),  raised  no  cry  against  their  practicing  polygamy ;  j 
because,  as  Josephus  tells  us,  "  the  Jews  of  those  days  I 
adhered  to  their  ancient  practice  to  have  many  wives  " 
at  the  same  time"  (Josephus,  A7it.  xvii,  1,  2).  In  har- 
mony with  this  ancestral  custom,  the  post-exilian  legis- 
lation enacted  various  statutes  to  regulate  polygamy 
and  protect  the  rights  and  settlement  of  each  wife 
(Mishna,  Jehamoth,  iv,  11;  Kethuhoth,  x,  1-6:  Kiddu- 
shin,  ii,  7).  As  a  striking  illustration  of  the  prevalence 
and  legality  of  polygamy  during  this  period  may  be 
mentioned  the  following  circumstance  which  is  recorded 
in  the  Talmud :  Twelve  widows  appealed  to  their  broth- 
er-in-law to  perform  the  duty  of  Levir,  which  he  refused 
to  do,  iDccause  he  saw  no  prospect  how  to  maintain  such 
an  additional  number  of  wives  and  possibly  a  large  in- 
crease of  children.  The  case  was  then  brought  before 
Jehiulah  the  Holy,  who  promised  that  if  the  man  would 
do  the  duty  enjoined  on  him  by  the  INIosaic  law,  he 
himself  woiild  maintain  the  family  and  their  children, 
in  case  there  should  be  any,  every  sabbatical  year,  when 
no  produce  was  to  be  got  from  the  land  which  was  at 
rest.  The  offer  was  accepted  l)y  the  Ltrir,  and  he  ac- 
cordingly married  his  t^velve  sisters-in-law ;  and  after 
three  years  these  twelve  wives  appeared  with  thirty-six 
children  before  Jehudah  the  Holy  to  claim  the  promised 
alimony,  as  it  was  then  the  sabbatical  year,  and  they 
actually  obtained  it  (Jerusalem  Jehamoth,  iv,  12).  Kab- 
ba  ben-Joseph,  founder  and  president  of  the  college  at 
Machuza  (A.D.  338-352),  taught  that  a  man  may  take 
as  many  wives  as  he  pleases,  provided  only  that  he 
can  mamtaiii  them  all  (Jebamot/i,  65  a).     From  the 


MARRIAGE 


i9 


MARRIAGE 


remark  in  the  Mishna,  that  a  Levir  may  marry  his 
deceased  brother's  yb;«/'  widows  (Jehamoth,  iv,  11),  the 
Babylonian  Gemara  concluded  that  it  recommends  a 
man  to  liave  no  more  than  tliis  number  {Buhyl.  Jeha- 
muth,  44  a) ;  and  from  this  most  probably  Mohammed's 
injunction  is  derived  (Koran,  iv,  3).  It  was  Rabanu 
Gershom  bcn-Jehudah  of  France  (born  cir.  9G0,  died 
1028),  who,  in  the  11th  century,  prohibited  polj'gamy 
imder  pains  of  excommunication,  saving  in  exceptional 
cases  (Griitz,  Geschichte  der  Jiiden,  v,  405-507).  His 
motive  for  doing  so  is  a  matter  of  dispute ;  the  older 
Occidental  rabbins  say  that  the  prohibition  originated 
in  a  desire  to  preserve  tlie  peace  of  the  family,  while  the 
Oriental  rabbins  will  have  it  that  it  was  dictated  by  the 
governments  of  Christian  countries.  His  interdict, 
however,  made  but  slow  progress,  even  in  Germany  and 
France,  for  which  it  was  chiefly  designed.  Thus  JSimon 
ben-Abraham  of  Sens,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  French 
Tossaphists,  tells  us  (cir.  1200) :  "  The  institution  of  K. 
Gershom  has  made  no  progress  either  in  our  neighbor- 
hood or  in  the  provinces  of  France.  On  the  contrary, 
it  happens  that  pious  and  learned  men  and  many  other 
people  marry  a  second  wife  in  the  lifetime  of  the  first" 
(^B.-Joseph,  Eben  JIa-Ezar,  1).  The  practice  of  marry- 
ing a  second  wife  in  the  event  of  the  first  having  no  is- 
sue within  ten  years  also  obtained  in  Italy  till  about  the 
15th  century — the  pope  giving  a  special  dispensation  for 
it.  The  Spanish  Jews  never  recognised  K.  Gershom's 
interdict ;  bigamy  was  practiced  in  Castile  till  the  14th 
century,  while  the  Christian  government  of  Navarre  de- 
clared polygamy  among  the  Jews  legal,  and  the  law 
of  king  Theobald  allowed  them  to  marry  as  many  wives 
as  they  could  maintain  and  govern,  but  they  were  not 
permitted  to  divorce  any  one  of  them  without  sending 
all  away  (Kayserling,  Gescldchte  der  Juden  in  Spanien, 
i,  71).    Nor  was  the  said  interdict  acknowledged  by  the 


Jews  in  the  East;  and  monogamy  is  there  practiced 
simply  because  the  bride  makes  a  special  agreement, 
and  has  a  clause  inserted  in  the  Kethuhah  {t^'2^^\Z),  or 
vuirriage-settlement,  that  her  husband  is  not  to  marry 
another  as  long  as  she  lives.  An  exception,  however,  is 
made  in  case  there  is  no  issue.  As  to  the  opinion  of 
the  Karaites  on  monogamy  and  polygamy,  the  celebra- 
ted Jehudah  ben-Elia  Hadassi  (tlourished  1149)  re- 
marks, in  his  famous  work  against  rabbinic  Judaism, 
"The  Pentateuch  prohibits  one  to  marry  two  wives 
with  a  view  to  vex  one  of  them  dtl^D  mx  "llljjbj 
Lev.  xviii,  18) ;  but  he  may  take  them  provided  he  loves 
them  and  does  not  grieve  eitlier  of  them,  and  treats 
them  both  aftectionateh'.  If  he  does  not  diminish  their 
food,  raiment,  and  conjugal  rights  (Exod.  xxi,  11),  he 
is  allowed  to  take  two  wives  or  more,  just  as  Elkanah 
married  Hannah  and  Peninnah,  and  as  David,  peace  be 
upon  him,  and  other  kings  and  judges  did"  {Eshkul  Ha- 
Cojiher,  ed.  Eupatoria,  1836,  p.  129).  From  this  it  is 
evident  that  polygamy  was  not  prohibited  by  the  Jew- 
ish law,  nor  was  it  regarded  as  a  sin,  and  that  the  mo- 
nogamy of  the  Jews  in  the  present  day  is  simply  in 
obedience  to  the  laws  of  the  countries  in  which  they 
live.  There  were,  however,  always  some  rabbins  who 
discouraged  polygamy  {Aboth,  ii,  7  ;  Jehamoth,  65  a,  al.)  ; 
and  the  elevated  notion  which  they  had  of  monogamy 
is  seen  in  the  statutes  which  they  enacted  that  the  high- 
priest  is  to  be  the  husband  of  one  wife  and  to  keep  to 
her  {Jehamoth,  58  a ;  Maimonidcs,  Hilclioth  Issure  Bia, 
xviii,  13  ;  Josephus,  Ant.  iii,  12,  2) ;  and  which  the 
apostle  Paul  also  urges  on  Christian  bishops  (1  Tim.  iii, 
2 ;  Titus  i,  16). 

Y.  Proscribed  DegTces  and  Lmcs  of  Intermarriage. — 
1.  There  were  no  prescribed  degrees  within  which  a  man 
was  forbidden  to  marry  in  the  pre-Mosaic  period.     Oq 


Table  of  Degrees  of  Marriage  prohibited  by  the  Mosaic  Law,  in  the  asccudiug  and  descending  scales. 


MARRIAGE 


ISO 


MARRIAGE 


the  contrary,  the  fact  that  Adam  married  "  bone  of  his 
bone  and  tlesh  of  his  flesh/'  and  that  his  sons  married 
their  own  sisters,  ratlicr  engendered  an  aversion  to  mar- 
ry out  of  one's  own  kindred.  Hence  we  find  that  Abra- 
liam  married  his  half-sister  (Gen.  xx,  VI) ;  Nahor,  Abra- 
ham's brother,  married  the  daughter  of  his  brother  Ha- 
ran,  or  his  niece  (Gen.  xi,  29) ;  Jacob  married  two  sis- 
ters at  the  same  time,  who  were  the  daughters  of  his 
mother's  brother  (Gen.  xxviii,  2 ;  xxix,  26) ;  Esau  mar- 
ried his  cousin  Mahalath,  the  daughter  of  Ishmael  (Gen. 
xxviii,  8, 9) ;  Araram  married  his  aunt  Jochebed,  his  fa- 
ther's sister  (Exod.  vi,  20) ;  and  Judah  married  his 
daughter-in-law,  Tamar,  the  widow  of  his  own  son 
((ien.  xxxviii,  2G-30).  This  aversion  to  intermarriage 
with  strangers  and  other  tribes,  which  made  Abraham 
pledge  his  faithful  steward  by  the  most  sacred  oath  not 
to  take  for  his  son  a  wife  from  the  daughters  of  the  Ca- 
uaanites  (Gen.  xxiv,  2-4) ;  which  occasioned  such  "  a 
grief  of  mind"  to  Isaac,  because  his  son  Esau  married 
Hittite  women  (Gen.  xxvi,  34,  35) ;  and  which  was  the 
cause  of  great  dissatisfaction  in  the  family  of  Moses 
when  he  married  a  Midianitish  woman  (Exod.  ii,  21); 
was  afterwards  greatly  increased  on  the  ground  of  dif- 
ference of  creed.  The  same  feeling  of  aversion  against 
intermarriage  (tTriyajui'a)  with  foreigners  prevailed 
among  other  nations  of  antiquity,  and  may  also  have 
been  the  cause  why  marriages  with  the  nearest  of  kin 
were  practiced  among  them.  Thus  the  Athenians  were 
allowed  to  marry  half-sisters  by  the  father's  side  (Corn. 
Nepos,  Prcef.;  Cimon,  i;  VlutaxcYi,  Cimon,  iv;  Themis- 
tocl.  xxxii) ;  the  Spartans  married  half-sisters  by  the 
same  mother  (Philo,  De  spec.  leg.  p.  779) ;  and  the  As- 
sj-rians  and  Egyptians  full  sisters  (Lucian,  Saci'iff.  5 ; 
Diod.  i,  27 ;  Philo,  J)e  spec.  leg.  p.  779 ;  Selden,  De  jure 
naturcdi  et  gentium,  v,  11).  In  later  times,  when  the  de- 
sire to  preserve  purity  of  blood,  which  was  the  primary 
cause  for  not  intermarrj'ing  with  alien  tribes,  was  su- 
perseded by  reUgious  motives,  the  patriarchal  instances 
of  epigamy  recorded  without  censure  during  this  period 
became  very  inconvenient.  Hence  means  were  adopted 
to  explain  them  away.  Thus  the  marriage  of  Judah 
with  a  heathen  woman,  the  daughter  of  Shuah,  a  Ca- 
naanite  (Gen.  xxxviii, 2),  is  made  orthodox  by  the  Chal- 
dee  Paraphrase,  the  Midrash  (Bereskith  Rabba.c.\xx:s.v), 
the  Talmud  {Pesackim,  50  a),  Rashi  (ad  loc),  etc.,  by 
explaining  i3"D3  to  mean  X"i:in,  merchant,  as  in  Job  xl, 
30 ;  Prov.  xxxi,  24 ;  and  the  Jerusalem  Targum  finds  it 
necessary  to  add  that  Judah  converted  her  to  Judaism 
(tniiJI).  The  marriage  of  Simeon  with  a  Canaanitess 
(Gen.  xlvi,  10)  is  explained  away  in  a  similar  manner 
(comp.  Bereskith  Rahba,  c.  Ixxx ;  Kashi  on  Gen.  xlvi,  10). 

2.  The  regulations  next  introduced  in  this  respect  are 
of  a  twofold  nature  : 

a.  The  most  important  change  in  the  Biblical  gamol- 
ogy  is  the  INIosaic  law  about  the  prohibited  degrees 
among  the  Israelites  themselves.  While  in  the  pre- 
Mosaic  period  no  prohibition  whatever  existed  against 
marrying  one's  nearest  and  dearest  relatives,  the  Mosaic 
law  (Lev.  xviii,  7-17;  xx,  11,  etc.)  proscribes  no  less 
than  fifteen  marriages  within  specified  degrees  of  both 
consanguinity  and  affinity.  In  neither  consanguinity 
WOT  affinity,  however,  does  the  law  extend  beyond  two 
degrees,  viz.  the  mother,  her  daughter,  aunt,  father's 
wife,  father's  sister,  sister  on  the  father's  side,  wife  of  the 
father's  brother,  brother's  wife  (excepting  in  the  case  of 
a  Levirate  marriage),  daughter-in-law,  granddaughter, 
either  from  a  son  or  daughter,  a  woman  and  her  daugh- 
ter, or  her  granddaughter  either  from  a  son  or  daugh- 
ter, and  two  sisters  together.  The  preceding  table  ex- 
hibits these  degrees.  We  must  only  remark  that  the 
sciuarcs  stand  for  males,  the  circles  hr  female.%  the  trian- 
gles within  the  squares  for  ilece a sed,  the  numbers  refer 
to  the  order  in  which  they  are  enumerated  in  Lev.  xviii, 
17,  and  that  the  husband  and  wife,  who  form  the  start- 
ing-point, are  represented  by  a  double  scjuare  and  double 
circle. 


It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  table  that,  while 
some  kindred  are  j^roscribed,  others  are  allowed,  e.  g.  a 
father's  sister  is  forbidden  while  a  brother's  daughter  is 
not.  This  has  occasioned  great  difficulty  in  tracing  the 
principle  which  underlies  these  prohibitions.  Philipp- 
son  is  of  opinion  that  it  may  be  deduced  from  the  re- 
marks which  accompany  the  respective  vetoes.  The 
stepmother  is  proscribed  because  "  it  is  thy  father's  na- 
kedness" (Lev.  xviii,  8) ;  the  son's  or  daughter's  daugh- 
ter because  it  "  is  thine  own  nakedness"  (ver.  10) ;  the 
father's  or  mother's  sister  because  she  is  the  "  father's  or 
mother's  flesh"  (vers.  12, 13) ;  and  the  brother's  wife  be- 
cause "  it  is  the  nakedness  of  thy  brother"  (ver.  16). 
"  From  this  it  is  evident,"  this  erudite  rabbi  submits, 
"  that,  on  the  one  side,  son,  daughter,  and  grandchild  are 
identified  with  the  father,  while,  on  the  other  side,  broth- 
ers and  sisters  are  identified  with  each  other,  because 
they  have  one  and  the  same  source  of  life.  Accordingly, 
we  obtain  the  following  data.  All  members  proceeding 
from  a  common  father  or  mother  constitute  one  issue, 
because  they  possess  together  the  same  source  of  life ; 
while  the  ascendants  and  the  descendants  in  a  straight 
line  form  one  line,  because  they  have  one  after  the  other 
and  from  ectch  other  the  same  soiu'ce  of  life ;  and  hence 
the  law — 1.  Two  members  of  the  same  issue,  or  two 
members  of  the  same  line,  are  not  to  intermarry,  be- 
cause the}'  have  the  same  source  of  life.  But  inasmuch 
as  the  ascending  is  the  primary  to  each  descending  is- 
sue, and  the  descending  the  derived  to  every  ascending, 
an  ascending  issue  may  press  forward  out  of  the  straight 
line,  or  step  down  into  the  following,  i.  e.  the  primary 
into  the  one  derived  from  it ;  while  the  succeeding  can- 
not go  backwards  into  the  foregoing,  i.  e.  the  derived 
into  the  primary.  Now,  as  the  m^an  is  the  moving  cause 
in  carnal  intercourse,  hence  the  law — 2.  A  male  member 
of  the  succeeding  issue  must  not  marry  a  female  mem- 
ber of  the  preceding  issue,  while,  on  the  contrary,  a  male 
member  of  the  preceding  may  marry  a  female  of  the 
succeeding  issue,  provided  they  are  not  both  of  a  direct 
line.  Half-blood  and  step-relations  make  no  difference 
in  this  respect,  since  they  are  identified,  both  in  the  issue 
and  in  the  line,  because  husband  and  wife  become  iden- 
tified. It  is  for  this  reason,  also,  that  the  relationship, 
which  the  wife  always  assumes  in  marriage  with  regard 
to  her  husband,  is  such  as  a  blood  relation  bears  to  her; 
hence  it  is,  for  instance,  that  a  brother's  wife  is  pro- 
scribed, while  the  wife's  sister  is  allowed.  Thus  the 
principle  of  the  Mosaic  proscriptions  is  a  profound  one, 
and  is  fully  borne  out  by  nature.  Connubial  intercourse 
has  for  its  object  to  produce  a  third  by  the  connection 
of  two  opposites ;  but  that  which  proceeds  from  the  same 
source  of  life  is  merely  of  the  same  kind.  Hence,  when 
two,  origmally  of  the  same  kind,  unite,  it  is  contrary  to 
the  true  design  of  copulation,  and  can  only  proceed  from 
an  overpowering  and  excess  of  rude  and  animal  passions. 
It  is  a  desecration  of  the  nature  and  morality  of  man, 
and  the  highest  defilement"  (Israelitische  Bibel,  i,  588  sq. ; 
Sd.ed.Leipz.  1863). 

Different  penalties  are  attached  to  the  infringement 
of  these  prohibitions.  The  punishment  of  death  is  to 
be  inflicted  for  marrying  a  father's  wife  (Lev.  xviii,  8 ; 
XX,  11),  or  a  daughter-in-law  (Lev.  xviii,  15;  xx,  12); 
of  death  by  fire  for  marrying  a  woman  and  her  daugh- 
ter at  the  same  time  (xviii,  17 ;  xx,  14) ;  of  being  cut 
off  or  excommunicated  for  marrj-ing  a  sister  on  the  fa- 
ther's side  or  on  the  mother's  side  (xviii,  9 ;  xx,  17) ; 
of  not  being  pardoned  for  marrying  a  father's  or  moth- 
er's sister  (xviii,  12, 13 ;  xx,  19) ;  of  not  being  pardoned 
and  childlessness  for  marrj-ing  a  father's  brother's  wife 
(xviii,  14;  XX,  20);  and  of  childlessness  alone  for  mar- 
rying a  brother's  wife  (xviii,  16 ;  xx,  21),  excepting  the 
case  of  a  Levirate  marriage  (Deut.  xxv,  5-10),  No  pen- 
alty is  mentioned  for  marrying  one's  mother  (xviii,  7), 
granddaughter  (xviii,  10),  or  two  sisters  together  (xviii, 
18).  From  this  enumeration  it  will  be  seen  that  it  only 
specifies  thi-ee  instances  in  which  capital  punishment  is 
to  be  inflicted. 


I 


MARRIAGE 


V81 


MARRIAGE 


The  grounds  on  which  these  prohibitions  were  enact- 
ed are  reducible  to  the  following  three  heads :  (1)  moral 
propriety;  (2)  the  practices  of  heathen  nations;  and  (3) 
social  conv^enience.  The  first  of  these  grounds  comes 
prominently  forward  in  the  expressions  by  which  the 
various  offences  are  characterized,  as  well  as  in  the  gen- 
eral prohibition  against  approaching  •'  the  flesh  of  his 
flesh."  The  use  of  such  expressions  undoubtedly  con- 
tains an  appeal  to  the  horror  naturalis,  or  that  repug- 
nance with  which  man  instinctively  shrinks  from  mat- 
rimonial union  with  one  wth  whom  he  is  connected  by 
the  closest  ties  both  of  blood  and  of  family  affection. 
On  this  subject  we  need  say  no  more  than  that  there  is 
a  difference  in  kind  between  the  affection  that  binds  the 
members  of  a  family  together,  and  that  which  lies  at 
the  bottom  of  the  matrimonial  bond,  and  that  the  amal- 
gamation of  these  affections  cannot  take  place  without 
a  serious  shock  to  one  or  the  other  of  the  two ;  hence 
the  desirableness  of  drawing  a  distinct  line  between  the 
provinces  of  each,  by  stating  definitely  where  the  mat- 
rimonial affection  may  legitimately  take  root.  The  sec- 
ond motive  to  laying  down  these  prohibitions  was  that 
the  Hebrews  might  be  preserved  as  a  peculiar  people, 
with  institutions  distinct  from  those  of  the  Egyptians 
and  Canaanites  (Lev.  xviii,  3),  as  weU  as  of  other  hea- 
then nations  with  whom  they  might  come  in  contact. 
Marriages  within  the  proscribed  degrees  prevailed  in 
many  civilized  countries  in  historical  times,  and  were 
not  unusual  among  the  Hebrews  themselves  in  the  pre- 
Blosaic  age.  For  instance,  marriages  with  half-sisters 
by  the  same  father  were  allowed  at  Athens  (Plutarch, 
Cim.  4;  Themistocl.  32),  with  half-sisters  by  the  same 
mother  at  Sparta  (Pliilo,  De  spec,  leg.  p.  779),  and  with 
fidl  sisters  in  Egypt  (Diod.  i,  27)  and  Persia,  as  illus- 
trated in  the  well-known  instances  of  Ptolemy  Phila- 
delphus  in  the  former  (Pans,  i,  7,  1),  and  Cambyses  in 
the  latter  country  (Herod,  iii,  31).  It  was  even  believed 
that  in  some  nations  marriages  between  a  son  and  his 
mother  were  not  unusual  (Ovid,  J/rf.x,  331;  Eurip.  .4?«- 
drom.  174).  Among  the  Hebrews  we  have  instances  of 
marriage  with  a  half-sister  in  the  case  of  Abraham  (Gen. 
XX,  12),  with  an  amit  in  the  case  of  Amram  (Exod.  vi, 
20),  and  with  two  sisters  at  the  same  time  in  the  case 
of  Jacob  (Gen.  xxix,  26).  Such  cases  were  justifiable 
previous  to  the  enactments  of  Moses :  subsequenth^  to 
them  we  have  no  case  in  the  O.  T.  of  actual  marriage 
within  the  degrees,  though  the  language  of  Tamar  to- 
wards her  half-brother  Amnon  (2  Sara,  xiii,  13)  implies 
the  possibility  of  their  luiion  with  the  consent  of  their 
father.  The  Herods  committed  some  violent  breaches 
of  the  marriage  law.  Herod  the  Great  married  his  half- 
sister  (.4«f.  xvii,  1,  3);  Archelaus  his  brother's  widow, 
who  had  children  (xvii,  13, 1) ;  Herod  Antipas  his  broth- 
er's wife  (xviii,  5,  1;  Matt,  xiv,  3).  In  the  Christian 
Church  we  have  an  instance  of  marriage  with  a  father's 
wife  (1  Cor.  V,  1),  which  St.  Paul  characterizes  as  "forni- 
cation" (jropvtia),  and  visits  with  the  severest  condem- 
nation. The  third  ground  of  the  prohibitions,  social 
convenience,  comes  forward  solely  in  the  case  of  mar- 
riage with  two  sisters  simultaneously,  the  effect  of  which 
would  be  to  "  vex"  or  irritate  the  first  wife,  and  produce 
domestic  jars. 

Besides  the  proscribed  degrees,  the  Mosaic  law  also 
forbids  the  following  intermarriages :  i.  No  Israelite  is 
to  marry  the  progeny  of  incestuous  and  unlawful  copu- 
lations, or  a  mamzer  ("iTTS^O,  Deut.  xxiii,  2).  In  the  ab- 
sence of  any  Biblical  definition  of  this  much-disputed 
expression,  we  must  accept  the  ancient  traditional  ex- 
planation contained  in  the  Mishna,  which  is  as  foUows: 
'•  When  tliere  is  betrotlial  without  transgression  of  the 
law  about  forbidden  marriages — e.  g.  if  the  daughters  of 
priests,  Levites,  or  Israelites  are  marrietl  to  priests,  Le- 
vites,  or  Israelites  —  the  child  goes  after  the  father; 
where  there  is  betrothal,  and  this  la\v  has  been  trans- 
gressed— e.g.  if  a  widow  is  married  to  a  high-priest,  a 
divorced  woman  or  one  who  performed  the  ceremony  of 
chalitsah  to  an  ordinary  priest,  or  a  bastardess  or  a  fe- 


male iKiltin  to  an  Israelite;  or,  vice  versa,  if  a  Jewess  is 
married  to  a  bastard  or  nethiii — the  child  goes  after  the 
inferior  party;  where  the  woman  cannot  be  betrothed 
to  the  man,  but  might  legally  be  betrothed  to  another 
person — e.  g.,  i.  if  a  man  married  within  any  one  of  the 
degrees  proscribed  by  the  law — the  child  is  a  bastard 
or  mamzer''''  (Kiddushin,  iii,  12).  ii.  Any  person  who  is 
nST  SI^S,  cujus  testiculi  vulnerati  sunt,  vel  ceiie  unus 
eoi-um,  or  tiaSlT  m^S,  a/jus  memhrum  virile prcedssum 
est,  as  the  Mishna  (Jebamoth,  viii,  2)  explains  it,  is  not 
allowed  to  marry  (Deut.  xxiii,  1).  iii,  A  man  is  not  to 
remarry  a  woman  whom  he  had  divorced,  and  who,  af- 
ter marrj'ing  another  husband,  had  become  a  widow,  or 
been  divorced  again  (Deut.  xxiv,  2-4),  iv.  Heiresses 
are  not  allowed  to  intermarry  with  persons  of  anotlier 
tribe  (Numb,  xxxvi,  5-9).  v.  A  high-priest  is  forbid- 
den to  marry  a  widow,  a  divorced  woman,  a  profane 
woman,  or  a  harlot,  and  restricted  to  a  pure  Jewish 
maiden  (Lev,  xxi,  13, 14).  vi.  Ordinary  priests  are  pro- 
hibited from  marrying  prostitutes  and  divorced  women 
(Lev.  xxi,  7). 

h.  The  proscription  of  epigamy  with  non-Israelites  is 
absolute  with  regard  to  some  nations,  and  conditional 
with  regard  to  others.  The  Mosaic  law  absolutely  for- 
bids intermarriage  with  the  seven  Canaanitish  nations, 
on  the  ground  that  it  woifld  lead  the  Israelites  into  idol- 
atry (Exod.  xxxiv,  15, 16 ;  Deut,vii,3, 4)  ;  and  with  the 
Ammonites  and  Moabites,  on  account  of  national  antip- 
athy (Deut,  xxiii,  4-8) ;  whUe  the  prohibition  against 
marriage  with  the  Egj^ptians  and  Edomites  only  ex- 
tends to  the  third  generation  (Deut.  xxiii,  7,  8).  The 
Talmud,  which  rightly  expounds  the  prohibition  to  "  en- 
ter into  the  congregation  of  the  Lord"  as  necessarily  ex- 
tending to  epigamy  (comp.  1  Kings  xi,  2 ;  Kiddushin,  iv, 
3),  takes  the  third  generation  to  mean  of  those  who  be- 
came proselytes,  i.  e.  the  grandchildren  of  an  Ammonite 
or  Moabite  who  professes  Judaism  (Mishna,  Jebamoth, 
viii,  3 ;  Maimonides,  lad  Ila-Chazaka,  Jssure  Biah,  xii, 
19,  20).  This  view  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  the 
Bible  only  mentions  three  intermarriages  with  Egyp- 
tians, and  records  at  least  two  out  of  the  three  to  show 
the  evil  effects  of  it.  One  occurred  after  the  Exodus 
and  in  the  wilderness,  and  we  are  told  that  the  son  of 
this  intermarriage,  while  quarrelling  ■vWth  a  brother  Jew, 
blasphemed  the  name  of  God,  and  suffered  capital  pun- 
ishment (Lev.  xxiv,  10-14);  the  second  occurred  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  rulership  of  the  judges,  and  tradi- 
tion endeavors  to  show  that  Ishmael,  the  nuirderer  of 
Gedaliah  (Jer.  xli,  1,  2),  was  a  descendant  of  Jarha,  the 
Egyptian  son-in-law  of  Sheshan  (1  Chron.  ii,  34, 35 ;  and 
Rashi,  ad  loc.) ;  and  the  third  is  the  intermarriage  of 
Solomon,  which,  however,  is  excepted  from  the  censure 
in  the  book  of  Kings  (1  Kings  iii,  1  sq. ;  xi,  1,  2).  Of 
intermarriages  with  Edomites  not  a  single  instance  is 
recorded  in  the  O.  T. ;  the  Jewish  antipathy  against 
them  was  transmitted  down  to  a  very  late  period,  as  we 
find  in  the  declaration  of  Jesus,  son  of  Sirach,  that  his 
soul  hates  the  inhabitants  of  Seir  (Ecclus.  iv,  25,  26), 
and  in  the  fact  that  Judas  jMaccabaaus  carried  on  a  dead- 
ly war  with  them  (1  Mace,  v,  3 ;  2  Mace,  xx,  15-23). 

An  exception  is  made  in  the  case  of  female  captives 
of  war  (Deut.  xxi,  10-14),  which  is  evidently  designed 
to  obviate  as  far  as  possible  the  outrages  committed  af- 
ter the  evU  passions  have  been  stirred  up  in  the  con- 
flict. The  law,  however,  most  humanely  ordains  that 
the  captor,  before  making  her  his  wife,  should  first  al- 
low her  to  indulge  herseli"  for  a  full  month  in  mourn- 
ing for  her  parents,  from  whom  she  is  snatched  away, 
and  to  practice  the  following  customary  rites  expressive 
of  grief:  1.  Cut  off  the  hair  of  her  head,  which  was  the 
usual  sign  of  mourning  both  among  the  Jews  and  other 
nations  of  antiquity  (Ezra  ix,  3 ;  Job  i,  20 ;  Isa.  xv,  2 ; 
Jer.  vii,  29 ;  xvi,  6 ;  Ezek.  vii,  18 ;  xxvii,  31 ;  Amos  viii, 
10 ;  Micah  i,  KJ) ;  2.  Cut  off  her  nails,  which  were  stain- 
ed to  form  a  part  of  personal  adonimcnt ;  and,  3.  Put  off 
the  raiment  iu  which  she  was  taken  captive,  since  the 


MARRIAGE 


•82 


MARRIAGE 


women  who  followed  their  fathers  and  husbands  to  the 
war  put  on  their  finest  dresses  and  ornaments  pre\-ious 
to  an  engagement,  in  the  hope  of  finding  favor  in  the 
eyes  of  their  captors  in  case  of  a  defeat  (Ovid,  Reined. 
/I  OTor.  343;  Eosenm tiller,  Z>as  alte  u.  neue  Morffenland, 
ii,  308). 

The  first  complaint  of  epigamy  with  aliens  is,  strange 
to  say,  made  against  Moses,  the  lawgiver  himself  (Numb, 
xii,  1).  In  the  days  of  the  Judges  the  law  against  in- 
termarriage was  commonly  transgressed  (Judges  iii,  G), 
and  from  the  earlier  portions  of  the  book  of  Proverbs, 
which  ring  with  repeated  denunciations  of  foreign  wom- 
en (Prov.  ii,  16, 17 ;  v.  8-11 ;  xv,  17),  as  well  as  from  the  ! 
warnings  of  Isaiah  (ii,  6),  it  is  evident  that  intermar- 
riages with  foreign  women  were  generally  practiced  in 
private  life  in  after  times.  Of  the  twenty  kings  of  Israel 
who  reigned  from  the  division  of  the  kingdom  to  the 
Babylonian  captivity,  Ahab  is  the  only  one  mentioned 
who  married  a  foreign  wife  (1  Kings  xvi,  31) ;  while  of 
the  nineteen  kings  of  Judah  after  the  division  none  in- 
termarried with  aliens.  Jlarriages  between  Israelitish 
women  and  proselyted  foreigners  were  at  all  times  of 
rare  occurrence,  and  arc  noticed  in  the  Bible  as  if  they 
were  of  an  exceptional  nature,  such  as  that  of  an  Egyp- 
tian and  an  Israelitish  woman  (Lev.  xxiv,  10);  of  Abi- 
gail and  Jether,  the  Ishmaelite,  contracted  probably 
^v■hen  Jesse's  family  was  sojourning  in  Moab  (1  Chron. 
ii,  17) ;  of  Sheshan'e  daughter  and  an  Egyptian,  who  was 
staying  in  his  house  (1  Chron.  ii,  35);  and  of  a  Naph- 
thalite  woman  and  a  T\Tian,  living  in  adjacent  districts 
(1  Kings  vii,  14:).  In  the  reverse  case,  viz.  the  mar- 
riage of  Israelites  with  foreign  women,  it  is,  of  course, 
highly  probable  that  the  wives  became  proselytes  after 
their  marriage,  as  instanced  in  the  case  of  Ruth  (i,  16),  and 
probably  in  that  of  Solomon's  Egyptian  wife  (Psa.  xl,  10) ; 
but  this  was  by  no  means  invariably  the  case.  On  the 
contrarj^,  we  find  that  the  Canaanitish  wives  of  Solomon 
(1  Kings  xi,  4),  and  the  Phoenician  wife  of  Ahab  (1  Kings 
xvi,  31),  retained  their  idolatrous  practices,  and  intro- 
duced them  into  their  adopted  countries.  Proselytism 
does  not,  therefore,  appear  to  have  been  a  si7ie  qua  non 
in  the  case  of  a  wife,  though  it  was  so  in  the  case  of  a 
husband :  the  total  silence  of  the  law  as  to  any  such 
conclition  in  regard  to  a  captive,  whom  an  Israelite 
might  ^vish  to  marry,  must  be  regarded  as  evidence  of 
tlie  reverse  (Deut.'xxi,  10-14),  nor  have  the  refinements 
of  rabbinical  writers  on  that  passage  succeeded  in  es- 
talilishing  the  necessity  of  proselytism.  The  opposition 
ol  Samson's  parents  to  his  marriage  with  a  PhUistiue 
woman  (Judg.  xiv,  3)  leads  to  the  same  conclusion. 

3.  In  the  post-exilian  period,  besides  the  fifteen  pro- 
scribed degrees  enumerated  in  Lev.  xviii,  7-17;  xx,  11, 
etc.,  the  Sopliei-ini,  or  scribes  (B.C.  322-221),  prohibited 
marriage  with  other  relations  (IMishna,  Jehamoth,  ii,  4), 
and  those  prohibitions  were  afterwards  extended  still  fur- 
ther by  I!.  Chija  ben- Abba  the  Babylonian  (A.D.  1G3- 
l'.»3),  and  friend  of  Jehudah  I  the  Holy  (Jebamotfi,  22  a). 
The  prohibited  degrees  of  the  scribes  are  denominated 
n"";"—,  i.  e.  riT^"!"?,  the  second  or  subordinate  in  i-ank 
with  respect  to  those  forbidden  in  the  Bible,  and  may 
lie  seen  in  the  following  list  given  liy  ]\Iaimonides:  "i. 
The  mother's  mother,  and  this  is  infinite,  for  the  moth- 
er's mother's  mother's  mother,  and  so  upwards,  are  pro- 
scribed, ii.  The  mother  of  his  father's  mother,  and  no 
further,  iii.  His  father's  mother,  and  tliis  is  infinite, 
for  even  the  father's  mother's  mother's  mother,  and  so 
upwards,  are  proscribed,  iv.  The  niotlier  of  his  father's 
father  only.  v.  The  wife  of  his  father's  father,  and  this 
is  infinite,  for  even  if  she  were  the  wife  of  our  father 
Jacob,  she  is  forbidden  to  every  one  of  us.  vi.  The 
wife  of  his  mother's  father  only.  vii.  The  wife  of  his 
father's  brother  by  the  mother,  viii.  The  wife  of  his 
motlier's  lirother,  whether  by  the  mother  or  by  the  fa- 
ther, ix.  His  son's  daughter-in-law,  i.  e.  his  son's  son's 
wife,  and  this  is  infinite,  for  even  if  she  were  the  son's 
son's  son's  son's  wife,  descending  to  the  end  of  the  world, 
she  is  forbidden,  so  that,  as  long  as  the  wife  of  one  of  us 


lives,  she  is  secondary  or  forbidden  to  our  father  Jacoh 
X.  His  daughter's  daughter-in-law,  i.  e.  her  son's  wif* 
only.  xi.  The  daughter  of  his  son's  daughter  only.  xii. 
The  daughter  of  his  son's  son  only.  xiii.  The  daughter 
of  his  daughter's  daughter  only.  xiv.  The  daughter  of 
his  daughter's  son  only.  xv.  The  daughter  of  his  wife's 
son  only.  xvi.  The  daughter  of  his  wife's  daughter's 
daughter  onh'.  xvii.  The  mother  of  his  wife's  father's 
mother  only,  xviii.  The  mother  of  his  wife's  mother's 
father  only.  xix.  The  mother  of  his  wife's  mother's 
mother  only.  xx.  The  mother  of  his  wife's  father's  fa- 
ther only.  Thus,  of  these  secondary  prohibitions,  there 
are  four  which  are  infinite :  a,  the  mother's  mother  and 
aU  upwards ;  h,  the  father's  mother  and  all  upwards ;  c, 
the  grandfather's  Avife  and  all  upwards ;  and,  d,  the  son's 
son's  wife  and  all  downwards"  {Hilchoth  Ishulh,  i,  6). 
The  principle  by  which  the  scribes  were  guided  was  to 
extend  the  prohibition  to  the  whole  line  wherever  the 
Mosaic  law  refers  to  lineal  ascendants  or  descendants,  as 
well  as  to  those  who  might  easily  be  mistaken  bj'  hav- 
ing a  common  appellation.  Thus  mother's  mother's 
mother's  mother,  ad  infinitum,  is  forbidden,  because  the 
Mosaic  law  proscribes  the  mother,  so  also  the  wife  of 
the  grandfather,  because  the  wife's  father  is  forbidden 
in  the  IMosaic  law ;  while  the  mother  of  the  father  is 
proscribed,  because  the  appellation  grandmother  is  used 
without  distinction  for  both  the  mother's  and  father's 
mother.  From  Maimonides's  list,  however,  it  will  be 
seen  that  he,  like  Alfasi,  restricts  prohibition  ii  to  the 
mother  of  the  grandfather,  and  prohibitions  xii-xvi, 
XX,  to  the  son's  grandchildren,  great-grandmother,  and 
great-grandchildren,  but  does  not  extend  it  to  any  fur- 
ther ascendants  or  descendants.  The  whole  subject  is 
extensively  discussed  in  the  Talmud  {Jehamoth,  21,  22; 
Jeriti^nlem  Jehamoth,  ii,  4),  and  by  Maimonides  {lad 
Ha-Chuzaka,  Hilchoth  Jshiitk,  i,  G,  etc.),  to  which  we 
must  refer.  It  must,  however,  be  remarked  that  Philo's 
list  of  proscribed  degrees  is  much  shorter.  After  ex- 
plaining why  Moses  prohibited  marriage  with  one's  own 
mother  or  sister,  he  says,  "  For  this  reason  he  has  also 
forbidden  other  matrimonial  connections,  inasmuch  as 
he  ordained  that  a  man  shall  not  marrj'  liis  grand- 
daughter (jij>)  Srvyarpih~iv,  ju/)  vi£)~)v),  nor  his  aunt  on 
the  father's  or  mother's  side,  nor  the  wife  of  an  uncle, 
son,  or  brother;  nor  a  step-daughter  while  in  the  hfe- 
time  of  her  mother  or  after  her  death,  because  a  step- 
father takes  the  place  of  a  father,  and  a  step-daughter 
is  to  be  looked  upon  as  his  own  daughter.  Neither  does 
he  allow  the  same  man  to  marry  two  sisters,  either  at 
the  same  time  or  at  different  times,  even  in  case  one  of 
them  had  been  married  to  another  and  is  divorced ;  for 
he  did  not  consider  it  pious  that  one  sister  should  suc- 
ceed to  the  place  of  her  unfortunate  sister,  whether  the 
latter  is  still  cohabiting  with  him,  or  is  divorced  and 
has  no  husband,  or  is  married  to  another  husband"  (Z>e 
special,  legibus,  780).  Still  shorter  is  the  list  of  Jose- 
phus,  who  says,  "  The  law  prohibits  it  as  a  heavy  sin 
and  an  abomination  to  have  carnal  intercourse  with 
one's  mother,  step-mother,  father's  or  mother's  sister, 
one's  own  sister,  or  a  son's  wife''  (.4?;^  iii,  12, 1).  jMar- 
riage  with  a  wife's  step-mother  is  allowed  by  the  Bab- 
ylonian and  forbidden  by  the  Jerusalem  Talmud;  the 
Spanish  Jews  follow  the  former,  while  the  Gcrmano- 
French  communities  adopt  the  latter.  Intermarriages 
between  cousins,  uncle  and  niece,  entire  steiJ-brotlier 
and  step-sister,  are  quite  legitimate.  Indeed,  lor  an  un- 
cle to  marry  a  niece,  which  the  English  law  forbids,  has 
been  considered  by  the  Jews  from  time  innnemorial  as 
something  specially  meritorious.  The  Talmud  says  that 
the  promise  given  in  Isaiah,  "  Then  shalt  thou  call  and 
the  Lord  shall  answer"  (}\-in,  9),  refers  to  that  man  es- 
pecially "  who  loves  his  neighbors,  befriends  his  rela- 
tions, marries  his  h-other's  daughter,  and  lends  -monej' 
to  the  poor  in  the  hour  of  need"  {Jehamoth,  62  b,  G3  a). 
As  to  the  ethical  cause  of  the  proscribed  marriages, 
or  the  cases  specified,  including  parallels  by  affinity,  the 
ancient  Jews,  to  whom  the  oracles  of  God  were  commit- 


MARRIAGE 


(83 


MARRIAGE 


ted,  and  who  had  to  explain  and  administer  the  law  in 
practical  life,  knew  nothing  about  it.  The  Palestinian 
doctors  regarded  the  proscribed  degrees  as  a  positire 
law,  the  cause  of  which  cannot  be  divined  by  human 
reason  (^Sifra  Kedoshim,  i.x,  12 ;  Talmud,  Sahhath,  130 
a;  Joma,  75  a).  The  only  attempt  to  rationalize  on  the 
subject  is  on  the  apparent  inconsistency  of  the  Mosaic 
law  in  prohibiting  marriage  with  the  wife  of  the  father's 
brother,  in  case  she  is  divorced  or  left  a  widow,  and  not 
forbidding  the  wife  of  the  mother's  brother.  Upon  this 
the  Talmud  remarks  that  a  man  visits  his  father's  rela- 
tions more  than  his  mother's  {Jehamoth,  21  a;  and  Ra- 
shi  on  this  passage);  and  it  is  submitted,  and  we  be- 
lieve with  perfect  reason,  and  based  on  Numb,  i,  2,  that 
it  is  the  father's  relations  who  constitute  the  famih^, 
and  not  the  mother's.  We  thus  see  that  up  to  the  time 
of  the  Ptolemies,  when  the  Greek  loose  barriers  of  con- 
sanguinity threatened  to  fall  among  the  Jewish  fami- 
lies, the  ancient  Hebrews  were  bound  only  by  the  spe- 
cific proscriptions  in  the  Mosaic  law,  and  that  even  after 
the  prohibitions  were  extended  by  the  scribes,  the  pro- 
scription of  a  male  relative  by  blood  did  not  imply  the 
wife's  relatives  of  the  like  degree,  because  of  the  strong 
distinction  made  by  them  between  consanguinity  and 
alhnity  by  marriage ;  the  former  being  permanent  and 
sacred,  and  the  latter  luicertain  and  vague,  as  a  man 
might  any  moment  divorce  his  wife,  or  take  as  many 
as  he  pleased,  and  because  the  husband's  family  were 
regarded  as  the  relations,  while  the  wife's  were  not  es- 
teemed beyond  those  who  are  especially  mentioned. 

The  proscribed  degrees  were  sacredly  avoided  hy  the 
Jews  during  this  period,  and  no  dispensation  could  be 
obtained  by  anj^  one,  no  matter  how  high  his  position, 
as  Judaism  never  invested  any  spiritual  functionary 
with  power  to  absolve,  even  in  extraordinary  cases,  from 
the  obligations  of  the  law.  Hence  the  outcry  against 
Herod  the  Great,  who  married  his  half-sister  (Josephus, 
Ant.  xvii,  1,  3);  against  Archelaus,  who  took  his  de- 
ceased brother's  widow  when  she  was  the  mother  of 
children  (ibid,  xvii,  18, 1);  and  against  Herod  Antipas, 
for  which  John  the  Baptist  had  to  atone  with  his  life 
(Josephus,  Ant.  xviii,  5,  1 ;  Matt,  xiv,  3).  So  long  as 
foreign  epigamy  was  of  merely  occasional  occurrence 
no  veto  was  placed  upon  it  by  public  authority ;  but 
when,  after  the  return  from  the  Babylonian  captivity, 
the  Jews  contracted  marriages  with  the  heathen  inhab- 
itants of  Palestine  in  so  wholesale  a  manner  as  to  en- 
danger their  national  existence,  t!ie  practice  was  severe- 
ly condemned  (Ezra  ix,  2 ;  x,  2),  and  the  law  of  positive 
prohibition,  originally  pronounced  only  against  the  Ca- 
naanites,  was  extended  to  the  IMoabites,  Ammonites,  and 
Philistines  (Neh.  xiii,  23-25).  Public  feehng  was 
thenceforth  strongly  opposed  to  foreign  marriages,  and 
the  union  of  jManasseh  with  a  Cuth;ean  led  to  such  an- 
imosity as  to  produce  the  great  national  schism,  which 
had  its  focus  in  the  temple  on  Mount  Gerizim  (Josephus, 
Ant.  xi,  8,  2)  A  no  less  signal  instance  of  the  same 
feeling  is  exhibited  in  the  cases  of  Joseph  {Ant.  xii,  4, 
6)  and  Anilteus  {Ant.  xviii.  9,  5),  and  is  noticed  by  Taci- 
tus {If int.  V,  5)  as  one  of  the  characteristics  of  the  Jew- 
ish nation  in  his  day.  In  the  N.  T.  no  special  direc- 
tions are  given  on  this  head,  but  the  general  precepts 
of  separation  between  believers  and  unbelievers  (2  Cor. 
vi,  14, 17)  would  apply  with  special  force  to  the  case  of 
marriage;  and  the  permission  to  dissolve  mixed  mar- 
riages, contracted  previously  to  the  conversion  of  one 
party,  at  the  instance  of  the  unconverted  one,  cannot 
but  be  regarded  as  implying  the  impropriety  of  such 
unions  subsequently  to  conversion  (1  Cor.  vii,'l2). 

I'x'sides  the  proscribed  degrees,  the  rabbinic  law  also 
enacted — i.  A  man  must  not  marry  a  divorced  woman 
with  whom  he  has  committed  adultery  prior  to  her  di- 
vorcement {Sota,  27),  or  even  if  he  is  only  suspected  of 
it  (Jcbamof/i,  24;  Maimonides,  Sota,  ii,  12).  ii.  A  man 
who  attested  the  death  of  the  husband  is  not  allowed  to 
marry  the  widow,  nor  is  the  bearer  of  a  divorce  permit- 
ted to  marry  the  divorced  woman,  to  avoid  suspicion 


(Jebamnth,  ii,  9, 10).  iii.  If  a  man's  wife  dies,  he  must 
not  marrj'  again  till  three  festivals  after  his  wife's  death 
{Moed  Katon,  23).  iv.  A  man  is  not  to  marry  a  woman 
who  has  lost  two  husbands  (Jebamoth,  64).  v.  A  father 
is  not  to  give  a  yomig  daughter  in  marriage  to  an  old 
man,  nor  is  a  young  man  to  marry  an  old  woman  {Jeba- 
moth, 101 ;  Maimonides,  Isure  Bia,  xxi,  26).  vi.  A  man 
is  not  to  marry  within  thirty  days  of  the  death  of  a  near 
relation  {Moed  Katon,  23).  vii.  Wdows  are  not  to 
marry  within  ninety  days  of  the  loss  of  their  husbands, 
nor  are  divorced  women  to  marry  within  ninety  days 
of  their  being  divorced,  in  order  that  the  paternity  of 
the  newly-born  child  might  be  distinguished  {Jebamoth, 
41  a),  viii.  If  a  widow  or  a  divorced  woman  is  nursing 
an  infant,  she  must  not  marry  withm  twenty -four 
months  of  the  birth  of  the  baby  {Jebamoth,  41 ;  Kethu- 
both,  60;  and  Tossafoth,  on  these  passages). 

VI.  Sanctity  of  Marriage,  anel  Mutual  Rights  of  Hus- 
band and  Wife. — 1.  Though  at  the  creation  the  wife  oc- 
cupied an  equal  position  with  the  husband,  being  a  part 
of  him,  yet,  as  she  became  the  cause  of  his  sin,  God  or- 
dained it  as  part  of  her  punishment  that  the  wife  should 
be  in  subjection  to  the  will  of  her  husband,  and  that  he 
should  be  her  master,  and  "rule  over  her"  (Gen. iii,  16), 
This  dependence  of  the  wife  on  her  husband  is  hence- 
forth declared  by  the  very  Hebrew  appellation  (^N3) 
for  husband  (Exod.  xxi,  3,  22),  which  literally  denotes 
lord,  master,  owner,  and  is  seen  in  the  conduct  of  Sarah, 
who  speaks  of  her  husband  Abraham  as  (^2'^N)  my  lord 
(Gen.  xviii,  12),  which  is  commended  by  Peter  as  illus- 
trating the  proper  position  of  a  wife  (1  Pet.  iii,  6). 
From  this  mastery  of  the  husband  over  the  wife  arose 
the  different  standard  of  virtue  which  obtained  in  mar- 
ried life.  The  wife,  as  subject  to  her  husband,  her  lord 
and  master,  was  not  allowed  to  practice  polyandry ;  she 
was  obliged  to  regard  the  sanctity  of  marriage  as  abso- 
lute, and  any  uuchastity  on  her  part  was  visited  with 
capital  punishment ;  while  the  husband  could  take  any 
unmarried  ^\•oman  he  liked  and  violate  the  laws  of 
chastity,  as  we  should  view  it,  with  impunity  (Gen. 
xxxviii,  24).  This  absolute  sanctity  of  marriage  on 
the  part  of  the  wife  was  also  acknowledged  by  other  na- 
tions of  antiquity,  as  is  gathered  from  the  narratives  of 
the  patriarchs.  Thus  Abraham  knew  that  Pharaoh 
would  not  take  Sarah  from  her  husband,  and  we  are 
told  that  as  soon  as  the  Egyptian  monarch  discovered 
that  she  was  a  married  woman,  he  immediately  restored 
her  to  her  husband  (Gen.  xii,  15-19) ;  and  this  is  con- 
firmed by  Egyptology,  which,  based  on  ancient  writers 
and  monuments,  shows  that  he  who  seduced  a  married 
woman  received  a  thousand  rods,  and  that  the  woman 
had  her  nose  cut  off  (Uhlemami,  Egypt.  Alterthumsk.  11, 
sec.  25,  65).  The  same  sanctity  was  attached  to  a  mar- 
ried woman  in  Philistia  (Gen.  xx,  1-18;  xxvi,  9-11). 

2.  Recognising  the  previously-existing  inequality  of 
husband  and  wife,  and  basing  its  laws  upon  the  then 
prevailing  notion  that  the  husband  is  lord  over  his  mfe, 
that  he  can  take  as  many  wives  as  he  likes,  and  send  them 
away  whenever  he  dislikes  them,  the  Mosaic  gamology, 
as  a  matter  of  course,  could  neither  impose  the  same  ob- 
ligation of  nuptial  fidelity  nor  confer  the  same  rights  on 
both.  This  is  evident  from  the  following  facts :  1.  The 
husband  had  a  right  to  .expect  from  his  wife  connubial 
chastity,  and  in  case  of  infidelity  could  demand  her 
death  as  well  as  that  of  her  seducer  (Lev.  xx,  10;  Deut. 
xxii,  20-22 ;  Ezek.  xvi,  40 ;  John  viii,  5).  2.  If  he  be- 
came jealous  and  suspicious  other,  even  when  she  had  not 
been  unfaithful,  he  could  bring  her  before  the  priest  and 
have  administered  to  her  the  water  of  jealousy  (Numb, 
v,  12-31).  But  if  the  husband  was  suspected,  or  was 
actually  guilty  of  carnal  intercourse  with  an  unmarried 
woman,  no  statute  was  enacted  to  enable  the  wife  or 
wives  to  arraign  him  for  a  breach  of  marriage  or  in- 
fringement of  her  or  their  rights.  Even  when  he  was 
discovered  with  another  man's  wife,  it  ;vas  the  injured 
husband  that  had  the  power  to  demand  the  death  of  the 


MARRIAGE 


784 


MARRIAGE 


seducer,  hut  not  the  wife  of  the  criminal.  3.  If  the  wife 
vowed  anything  to  the  Lord,  or  imposed  uijon  lierself 
vohmtary  obhgations  to  the  Deity,  her  husband  coidd 
nulHCy  it  (Numb,  xxx,  G-8).  4.  He  could  send  her  away 
or  divorce  her  when  she  displeased  him  (Deut.  xxiv,  1- 
4).  The  woman,  again,  is  protected  by  the  following 
laws:  l.When  a  Hebrew  maiden  is  sold  by  her  father 
to  a  man,  with  the  understanding  that  she  is  to  be  his 
half-wife  (n:a5<  =  i:35l:"'B,  Exod.  xxi,  7;  Judg.  ix,  18 
vrith  Judg.  viii,  31),  the  law  enacts  that,  in  case  her 
master  and  intended  husband  is  displeased  with  her,  and 
lie  refuses  to  redeem  his  promise — i,  he  is  not  to  keep 
licr  till  the  sabbatic  year,  and  then  give  her  her  liberty 
lilce  ordinary  servants;  ii,  he  is  not  to  sell  her  to  any 
one  else  as  a  wife;  iii,  he  may  give  her  to  his  son  as  a 
STiie,  and  in  that  case  must  treat  her  as  a  daughter-in- 
law  ;  iv,  if  he  gives  his  son  an  additional  wife,  she  is  to 
obtain — a,  her  food,  h,  raiment,  and,  c,  conjugal  right  as 
heretofore ;  and,  v,  if  these  three  last-mentioned  points 
are  refused  to  her,  she  is  forthwith  to  be  set  at  liberty 
(Exod.  xxi,  7-11).  2.  If  he  maliciously  impugns  her 
chastity,  he  is  to  be  scourged,  and  loses  his  right  over 
her  to  divorce  her  (Deut.  xxii,  13-19)-  3.  If  she  has 
children,  thev  must  render  equal  obedience  to  her  as  to 
the  father  (Exod.  xx,  12;  Deut.  xxvii,  16).  4.  The 
luisband  must  not  vex  her  by  marrying  two  sisters  si- 
multaneously (Lev.  xviii,  18).  5.  He  is  not  allowed  to 
annoy  his  less-beloved  wife  by  transferring  the  primo- 
geniture from  her  son  to  the  child  of  his  favorite  wife 
(Deut.  xxi,  15-17).  6.  If  her  husband  dislikes  her,  he 
is  not  arbitrarily  to  dismiss  her,  but  give  her  a  "  bill 
of  divorcement"'  (Dent,  xxiv,  1),  which  requires  the  in- 
terposition of  legal  advisers.  7.  When  a  woman  is  di- 
vorced, or  her  husband  dies,  she  is  free,  and  at  liberty 
to  marry  any  one  she  likes,  as  is  evident  from  the  en- 
actments in  Lev.  xxi,  7,  8,  13;  Deut.  xxiv,  2-4;  xxv, 
6,  which  are  based  upon  this  fact. 

3.  The  notions  about  sanctity  of  marriage  were  loftier 
diu-ing  the  post-exilian  period  than  in  the  preceding 
epochs,  as  maybe  judged  from  the  fact  that  unfaithful- 
ness to  a  wife  is  denounced  by  the  prophet  INIalachi  as 
\iolatmg  a  sacred  covenant,  to  the  transaction  of  which 
God  himself  was  a  witness  (ii,  14).  And  though  it  may 
be  questioned  whether  the  prophet's  appeal  to  God  as 
having  been  witness  to  the  marriage-contract  refers  to 
the  above-named  seven  benedictions  (ri3"13  ymu) 
which  the  bridegroom  had  to  pronounce  at  the  mar- 
riage-feast, and  in  which  he  invoked  God's  presence 
and  blessing  to  the  compact,  as  Abrabanel  will  have  it, 
yet  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  marriage  is  here  for  the 
first  time  expressly  described  as  a  covenant  (ni"l!3) 
made  in  the  presence  of  God.  With  such  a  view  of  the 
sanctity  of  marriage,  the  notion  that  a  wife  is  a  play- 
thing for  a  leisure  hour  rapidly  disappeared,  and  the 
sages  who  had  to  expound  the  law  to  the  people  in  the 
time  of  Christ  taught  that  the  declaration  '•  Peace  shall 
be  in  thy  house"  (Job  v,  24)  will  be  realized  by  him 
"who  loves  his  wife  as  himself,  and  honors  her  more 
than  himself,  and  trains  his  sons  and  daughters  up  in 
the  way  of  righteousness"  (Jebamoth,  62  b).  Moreover, 
marriage  was  regarded  as  illegal  if  the  man  had  not 
given  to  his  wife  the  instrument  (nsina),  in  which  he 
promises  his  wife,  "I  will  work  for  thee,  honor  thee, 
maintain  thee,  and  provide  for  thee,  according  to  the 
custom  of  Jewish  husbands."  The  rabbinic  laws  both 
define  this  promise  and  insist  upon  its  being  fulfilled,  as 
may  be  seen  from  the  following  enactments  :  i.  A  wife  is 
to  be  kept  in  proportion  to  the  circumstances  of  her  hus- 
band, and  have  her  meals  with  him  at  the  table ;  if  he 
ill-treats  her  and  she  removes  from  him,  he  is  obliged 
to  send  her  maintenance  (Jebamotfi,  64  b)!  ii.  If  the 
husband  goes  on  a  three  months'  journay  witliout  mak- 
ing provision  for  his  wife,  the  legal  authorities  of  the 
place  are  to  maintain  her  from  his  property  {Kcthuhoth, 
48  a,  107).  iii.  He  is  obliged  to  perform  the  duties  of  a 
husband  within  a  stated  period  (Mishna,  Kethuboth,  v. 


6).  iv.  If  her  husband  dies,  she  is  to  be  maintained  from 
his  property,  or  by  the  children,  in  the  same  manner  as 
she  was  in  his  lifetime,  till  she  is  betrothed  to  another 
man,  and  her  rights  must  be  attended  to  before  the 
claims  of  any  one  else  {Kethuboth,  43,  51,  52,  68, 103 ;  Je- 
rusalem Kethuboth,  iv,  14).  v.  If  a  woman  marries  a 
man  of  higher  rank  tlian  herself,  she  rises  with  him ; 
but  if  he  is  inferior  to  her,  she  does  not  descend  to  him 
(nl-lli  ^-Q'J  ilhvj  nrxi  [Kethuboth,  48  a,  61  a]). 
For  other  rights  which  the  wife  possesses  we  must  refer 
to  the  Kethubah,  or  the  marriage-instrument  given  in  sec- 
tion 2  of  this  period.  The  husband,  on  the  other  hand, 
has  a  right  to  expect  from  his  wife  chastity  which  is  be- 
yond the  reach  of  suspicion,  unreserved  obedience,  and 
to  do  the  work  of  a  housewife.  Other  rights  are  given 
in  the  following  section  on  divorce. 

VII.  Divorce. — 1.  The  arbitrary  power  of  the  husband 
over  his  wife  in  the  patriarchal  age  is  also  seen  in  the 
fact  that  he  could  divorce  her  at  his  pleasure.  There 
is  but  one  instance  of  it  recorded,  but  it  is  a  very  signifi- 
cant one.  Abraham,  though  he  has  a  child  by  Hagar, 
sends  away  his  half-wife,  not  requiring  any  legal  or  re- 
ligious mtervention  (Gen.  xxi,  14),  but,  as  in  the  case 
of  marriage,  effecting  it  by  a  mere  verbal  declaration. 
Wherever  marriages  are  effected  by  the  violent  exercise 
of  the  patria  piotestas,  or  without  any  bond  of  affection 
between  the  parties  concerned,  ill-assorted  matclies  must 
be  of  frequent  occurrence ;  and  without  the  remedy  of 
divorce,  in  such  a  state  of  society,  we  can  understand 
the  truth  of  the  apostles'  remark  that  "  it  is  not  good  to 
marry"  (Matt,  xix,  10).  Hence  divorce  prevails  to  a 
great  extent  in  all  countries  where  marriage  is  the  re- 
sult of  arbitrary  appointment  or  of  purchase  :  we  may 
instance  the  Arabians  (Burckhardt's  Notes,  i.  111 ;  Lay- 
ard,  Nineveh,  i,  357)  and  the  Egyptians  (Lane,  i,  235  sq.). 

2.  It  must  be  remarked  that  the  Mosaic  law  does  not 
institute  divorce,  but,  as  in  other  matters,  recognises  and 
most  humanely  regulates  the  prevailing  patriarchal 
practice  (Deut.  xxiv,  1-4).  The  ground  on  which  the 
law  allows  a  divorce  is  termed  "13T  nil",  any  shameful 
thinrj.  What  the  precise  meaning  of  this  ambiguous  phrase 
is,  and  what,  according  to  the  IMosaic  gamology,  gives 
a  husband  the  right  to  divorce  his  wife,  has  been  greatly 
disputed  in  the  schools  of  Shammai  and  Hillel,  which  were 
founded  before  the  advent  of  Christ,  and  these  discussions 
are  given  below.  It  is,  however,  certain  that  the  phrase 
does  not  denote  fornication  or  adultery,  for  in  that  case 
the  woman  was  not  divorced,  but  stoned  (Lev.  xx,  10; 
Deut.  xxii,  20-22 ;  Ezek.  xvi,  40 ;  John  viii,  5).  More- 
over, the  phrase  ^Dbs  iJ^i'D  ',n  X^J^,  with  which  this 
statute  begins,  when  used  of  opposite  sexes,  as  in  the 
case  before  us,  generally  denotes  favorable  impression 
which  one  piroduces  on  the  other,  by  (/raceful  manners,  or 
beautiful  appearance  (Gen.  xxxix,  4;  Kuth  ii,  2, 10, 13; 
Ezek.  V,  2  with  8).  That  it  has  this  sense  here  seems 
to  be  warranted  b}'  ver.  3,  where  it  is  supposed  that  the 
divorced  woman  marries  again,  and  her  second  husband 
also  divorces  her,  and  that  not  on  account  of  immoral- 
ity, but  because  he  does  not  like  her.  The  humane 
regulations  which  the  Mosaic  gamology  introduced  in 
order  to  render  a  divorce  legal  were  as  follows:  1.  If 
a  man  dislikes  his  wife,  or  finds  that  he  cannot  live 
happih'  with  her,  he  is  not  summarily  to  send  her 
away  by  word  of  mouth  as  heretofore,  but  is  to  give  her 
a  formal  and  judicial  bill  of  divorcement  (rn'^"3  ^EO)i 
which  required  the  intervention  of  a  legal  adviser,  and 
caused  delay,  thus  affording  time  for  reflection,  and  pre- 
venting many  a  divorce  resolved  on  under  the  influence 
of  passion.  2.  Allowing  the  parties,  e\-cn  after  the  dis- 
solution of  the  marriage,  to  renew  the  connection  if  they 
wished  it,  provided  the  divorced  wife  had  not  in  the 
meantime  married  another  husband,  and  become  a  wid- 
ow, or  been  again  divorced.  Not  only  are  bishop  Pat- 
rick (on  Deut.  xxiv,  4),  Michaelis  (Lcnvs  of  Moses,  ii, 
137,  English  translation),  and  many  other  Christian  ex- 
positors, of  this  opinion,  but  it  has  been  so  understood 


MARRIAGE 


785 


MARRIAGE 


and  acted  upon  by  those  who  were  cliarged  with  the 
administration  of  the  law  from  time  immemorial.  The 
only  exception  which  the  sages  made  was  when  a  man 
divorced  his  wife  because  of  an  evil  report  which  he 
maliciously  circulated  about  her;  then  he  was  not  al- 
lowed to  remarry  her  (Mishna,  Gittin,  iv,  7).  3.  If  the 
divorced  woman  marries  again,  and  the  second  husband 
either  dies  or  divorces  her,  slie  is  not  allowed  to  remarry 
her  first  husband :  this  was  to  preclude  the  possibility  of 
procuring  the  death  of,  or  a  divorce  from,  the  second 
husband,  in  case  the  parties  wished  to  be  reunited.  4. 
If  a  man  seduces  a  maiden,  and  on  this  account  is  legal- 
ly obUged  to  marry  her,  "  he  may  not  put  her  away  all 
his  life"  (Dent,  xxii,  28,  29).  Or,  5.  If  he  groundlessly 
impugns  her  chastity,  he  also  loses  the  power  of  ever 
divorcing  her  (Deut.  xxii,  13-19).  This,  as  well  as  the 
preceding  benign  la\v,  was  evidently  designed  to  make 
men  care  for  those  women  whom  they  had  either  virtu- 
ally or  actually  deprived  of  their  moral  character,  and 
who,  if  these  men  were  allowed  to  desert  them,  might 
never  be  able  to  get  husbands.  Thus  these  laws,  while 
checking  seduction,  inasmuch  as  the  man  knew  that  he 
would  have  all  his  lifetime  to  be  wedded  to  and  care  for 
the  injured  woman,  also  prevented  those  females  who 
had  momentarily  fallen  from  being  branded  for  life,  and 
compelled  to  give  themselves  up  to  prostitution.  6. 
Though  the  Mosaic  law  has  no  express  statute  that  the 
wife,  under  certain  circumstances,  may  demand  a  di- 
vorce from  her  husband,  yet  it  is  undoubtedl}'  implied 
in  the  enactment  contained  in  Exod.  xxi,  10.  For  if  a 
bondwoman  who  became  the  wife  of  her  master  could 
quit  him  if  he  did  not  fulfil  the  conditions  of  a  husliand, 
it  is  but  natural  to  conclude  that  a.  free  wife  would,  un- 
der similar  circumstances,  be  able  to  claim  the  protec- 
tion of  the  same  law.  A  few  instances  of  the  violation 
of  the  divorce  law,  between  the  period  of  its  enactment 
and  the  Babylonian  captivity,  are  incidentally  recorded 
without  any  censure  whatever.  Thus  we  are  told  that 
Saul  took  away  Michal,  his  daughter,  David's  wife, 
without  David's  formally  divorcing  her,  and  gave  her  to 
Phalti  (1  Sam.  xxv,  4-1),  and  that  David  took  back  again 
Michal,  who  had  been  united  to  another  husband  (2 
Sam.  iii,  14-16).  Still  the  laws  of  divorce  and  of  pro- 
hibiting reunion  after  the  divorced  woman  had  been 
married  to  another  husband  are  alluded  to  by  Jeremiah 
as  well  known  and  commonly  observed  (iii,  i,  8). 

3,  The  rather  uncertain  grounds  on  which  the  Mosaic 
law  permits  divorce  (Deut.  xxiv,  1-4)  were  minutely 
defined  during  the  period  after  the  exile.  Though  the 
school  of  Shammai  restricts  the  phrase  "1!;1  mi"  to 
rinchastify,  and  the  Sadducees  too  insisted  that  divorce 
is  not  to  be  tolerated  except  when  the  woman  is  guilty 
of  adultery  (Eschol  Hu-Copher,  Alphuh.  xcix  ;  Ben-Cho- 
nanja,  iv,  276),  yet  the  Jews  as  a  nation,  as  well  as  most 
Christian  expositors,  agree  with  the  school  of  Hillel, 
(Mishna,  Gittin,  ix,  10)  that  it  (lenotes/«Mfc  or  defurmi- 
ties,  as  the  context  plainly  shows.  Now,  in  stating  the 
grounds  on  which  the  Jewish  expositors  of  the  law, 
in  the  time  of  Christ  and  after,  regarded  dissolution  of 
marriage  as  justifiable,  we  must  distinguish  the  cases  in 
which  the  legal  authorities  themselves  took  up  the  mat- 
ter, from  those  in  which  the  married  parties  asked  for 
divorce. 

a.  Dissolution  of  marriar/e  occasioned  by  the  lawful 
authorities  took  place — i.  When  the  woman  is  guilty  of 
adultery,  ii.  When  the  woman  carries  on  secret  inter- 
course with  a  man  after  her  husband  has  warned  her 
against  it  {Sota,  27  ;  Jebumoth,  24).  iii.  Where,  though 
betrothal  had  taken  place,  j-et  a  matrimonial  law  {ma- 
trimonium  injustum)  is  violated,  either  referring  to  the 
proscribed  degrees  or  to  other  matters  enacted  by  the 
rabbins,  iv.  When  the  husband  is  infected  with  lep- 
rosy (Kethuboth,  77). 

b.  It  v-as  granted  on  the  demand  of  the  married  par- 
ties. Thus  the  husband  could  effect  a  dissolution  of 
marriage— i.  When  his  wife,  by  violating  the  Mosaic 
law,  caused  him,  without  knowing  it,  to  be  guilty  of 

v.— Ddd 


transgression  (Mishna,  Kethuhoth,  vii,  6).  ii.  If  the  wife 
violates  the  bounds  oi'  modesty — e.  g.  bj^  going  into  the 
street  with  uncovered  hair,  flirting  with  young  men, 
etc.  (ibid.),  iii.  If  the  wife  is  suspected  of  adultery,  iv. 
If  the  ^voman  curses  her  father-in-law  in  the  presence 
of  her  husband  (Kethuboth,  72).  v.  If  the  wife  will  n^.t 
follow  her  husband  to  another  place  (Kethuboth,  110). 
vi.  If  the  wife  refuses  her  husband  the  conjugal  rights 
for  twelve  months. 

The  wife  can  demand  a  divorce — i.  If  after  marriage 
the  husband  contracts  a  loathsome  disease  (!llishna,  Ke- 
thuboth, vii,  9, 10).  ii.  If  after  marriage  he  betakes  him- 
self to  a  disgusting  business  (ibiil.  the  Gemara  thereon, 
75).  iii.  If  he  treats  her  cruelly  (Eben  Ha-Ezar,  154). 
iv.  If  her  husband  changes  his  religion  (ibid.),  v.  If  the 
husband  commits  an  offence  which  makes  him  flee  from 
his  country  (Eben  fla-Ezar,  9).  vi.  If  he  leads  a  dis- 
solute and  immoral  life  (Eben  Ha-Ezar,  Gloss  on  Sects, 
11).  vii.  If  he  wastes  his  property  and  neglects  to 
maintain  her  (Mishna,  Kethuboth,  vii,  1).  viii.  If  he  re- 
fuses her  connubial  rights  (Mishna,  Kethuboth,  v,  6). 
There  are  other  grounds  on  which  divorce  can  be  ob- 
tained, but  for  these  we  must  refer  to  the  Mishna,  Git- 
tin, as  they  are  too  numerous  to  be  detailed.  The  bill 
of  divorcement  must  be  handed  over,  either  by  the  hus- 
band or  a  messenger,  to  the  wife  or  one  deputed  by  her, 
with  the  words,  "  This  is  thy  divorce  ;  thou  art  hence- 
forth divorced  from  me,  and  canst  marry  whomsoever 
thou  likest"  (Mishna,  Gittin,  ix).  It  must,  however,  be 
remarked  that  divorce  was  greatly  discouraged  by  the 
Talmudists,  and  it  is  declared  that  '■  he  who  divorces 
his  wife  is  hated  of  God.  The  altar  sheds  tears  over 
him  who  divorces  the  wil'e  and  companion  of  his  youth'' 
(Gittin,  90  a). 

During  the  post-exilian  period  the  abuse  of  divorce 
continued  unabated  (Josephus,  Life,  76) ;  and  under  the 
Asmonaian  dynasty  the  right  was  assumed  by  the  wife 
as  agamst  her  husband,  an  innovation  which  is  attribu- 
ted to  Salome  by  Josephus  (Ant.  xv,  7, 10),  but  which 
appears  to  have  been  prevalent  in  the  apostolic  age,  if 
we  may  judge  from  passages  where  the  language  im- 
plies that  the  act  emanated  from  the  wife  (Mark  x,  12 : 
1  Cor.  vii,  11),  as  well  as  from  some  of  the  comments  of 
the  early  writers  on  1  Tim.  v,  9.  Our  Lord  and  his 
apostles  re-established  the  integrity  and  sanctity  of  the 
marriage-bond  by  the  following  measures :  (1)  by  the 
confirmation  of  the  original  charter  of  marriage  as  the 
basis  on  which  all  regulations  are  to  be  framed  (Matt. 
xix,  4,  5)  ;  (2)  by  the  restriction  of  divorce  to  the  case 
of  fornication,  and  the  prohibition  of  remarriage  in  all 
persons  divorced  on  improper  grounds  (Matt,  v,  32 ;  xix, 
9;  Eom.  vii,  3;  1  Cor.  vii,  10, 11);  and  (3)  by  the  en- 
forcement of  moral  purity  generally  (Heb.  xiii,  4,  etc.), 
and  especially  by  the  formal  condemnation  of  fornica- 
tion, which  appears  to  have  been  classed  among  acts 
morally  indifferent  (nC'ta^opo)  by  a  certain  party  in  the 
Church  (Acts  xv,  20). 

yill.  Levirate  Law.  — 1.  The  only  power  which  a 
woman  had  over  the  man  during  the  pre-]\Iosaic  period, 
in  matrimonial  matters,  was  when  her  husband  died 
without  issue.  The  widow  could  then  claim  his  next 
brother  to  marry  her;  if  the  second  also  died  without 
progeny,  she  could  ask  the  third,  and  so  on.  The  ob- 
ject of  this  Levirate  marriage,  as  it  is  called,  from  the 
Latin, /eciV,  brother-iu-law  (Hebrew,  CS'';  Greek,  tTri- 
■y«/</3p£ai),  is  "  to  raise  up  seed  to  the  dejiarted  brother," 
which  should  preserve  his  name  upon  his  inheritance, 
and  prevent  it  from  being  erased  from  among  his  breth- 
ren, and  from  the  gate  of  his  town  (Gen.  xxxviii,  8 ; 
Deut.  xxv,  C ;  Ruth  iv,  10) ;  since  the  Hebrews  regard- 
ed childlessness  as  a  great  evil  (Gen.  xvi,  4;  xix,  31), 
and  entire  excision  as  a  most  dire  calamity  and  awful 
punishment  from  God  (Deut.  ix,  14;  Psa.  ix,  7;  cix,  15). 
To  remove  this  reproach  from  the  departed,  it  was  re- 
garded as  the  sacred  duty  of  the  eldest  surviving  broth- 
er to  marry  the  widow,  and  the  first-born  son  resulting 
from  such  an  alliance  was  to  all  intents  and  purposes 


MARRIAGE 


186 


MARRIAGE 


considered  as  the  representative  and  heir  of  the  deceased. 
Thus  we  are  told  that  when  Er,  Judah's  eldest  son,  who 
was  married  to  Tamar,  died  without  issue,  the  second 
son  was  called  upon  to  marry  his  deceased  brother's 
widow,  and  that  when  he  again  died,  leaving  no  chil- 
dren, Tamar,  the  widow,  had  still  a  claim  upon  the  only 
surviving  son,  for  whom  she  had  to  wait,  as  he  was  not 
as  yet  marriageable  (Gen.  xxxviii,  G-12, 14,  26).  Ulti- 
mately Judah  himself  had  to  marry  his  daughter-ia- 
law,  for  she  inveigled  him  into  it  as  a  punishment  for 
neglecting  to  give  her  his  third  son  (Gen.  xxxviii,  26- 
30) ;  and  Pharez,  the  issue  of  this  Levirate  marriage, 
not  only  became  the  founder  of  a  numerous  and  illus- 
trious family,  but  was  the  direct  line  from  which  the 
royal  family  of  David  descended,  and  the  channel 
through  which  the  Messiah  was  born  (Gen.  xxxviii, 
29,  with  Matt,  i,  3).  This  Levirate  marriage  was  not 
peculiar  to  the  Hebrews.  It  also  obtained  among  the 
Moabites  (Ruth  i,  11-13),  Persians  (Kleuker,  Zendaves- 
ia,  iii,  226),  Indians  (A  siatic  Researches,  iii,  35),  and  still 
exists  in  Arabia  (Burckhardt,  Azotes,  i,  112;  Niebuhr, 
Fo^«(/e,  p.  61),  among  the  tribes  of  the  Caucasus  (Hant- 
hausen,  T/'anscaucasiajX).  403),  and  other  nations  (comp. 
Le3-ser,  in  Herzog,  Real-Encyklop.  viii,  358,  s.  v.  Levi- 
ratsehe). 

2.  This  law,  which,  as  wc  have  seen,  existed  from 
time  immemorial  both  among  the  patriarchs  and  other 
nations  of  antiquity,  was  at  length  formally  enacted  as 
part  of  the  Biblical  gamology.  In  adopting  this  law, 
however,  as  in  the  case  of  other  primitive  practices  in- 
corporated in  the  Mosaic  code,  the  sacred  legislator  both 
prescribes  for  it  definite  limits,  and  most  humanely  de- 
prives it  of  tlie  irksome  and  odious  features  which  it 
possessed  in  ancient  times.  This  is  evident  from  the 
enactment  itself,  which  is  as  follows :  "  If  brothers  dwell 
together,  and  one  of  them  die  and  have  no  child,  the 
wife  of  the  deceased  shall  not  marry  out  of  the  family  a 
stranger;  her  husband's  brother  shall  go  iu  unto  her, 
and  take  her  as  his  wife,  and  perform  the  duty  of  a 
brother-in-law.  Her  first-born  shall  then  succeed  in 
the  name  of  the  deceased  brother,  so  that  his  name  be 
not  blotted  out  of  Israel"  (Deut.  xxv,  5,  6).  Accord- 
ingly— i.  This  law  is  restricted  to  brothers  who  dwell  to- 
gether, i.  e.  in  contiguous  properties,  as  the  rabbinical 
law  explains  it  according  to  the  meaning  of  the  plirase 
T^in^  T-IL^  in  Gen.  xiii,  6;  xxxvi,  7,  and  elsewhere. 
If  the  brothers  lived  far  away,  or  if  the  deceased  had 
no  brothers  at  all,  it  was  an  understood  thing  that  it 
devolved  upon  the  nearest  of  kin  to  marry  the  widow, 
or  care  for  her  if  she  was  too  old,  when,  of  course,  it 
passed  over  from  the  domain  of  Leviration  into  that  of 
Goel  or  redeemer  (Ruth  ii,  20;  iii,  9;  iv,  15, 16).  ii.  To 
cases  where  no  issue  whatever  is  left,  as  'fl  is  here  used 
in  its  general  sense  of  offsjn-ing  and  not  specifically  for 
son.  This  is  not  only  confirmed  by  the  Sept.  {(nrip/^a), 
Matthew  (fxr)  ix^JV  (nripfia,  xxii,  5),  Mark  (xii,  19), 
Luke  (aTSKi'oc,  xx,  28),  Josephus  (Ant.  iv,  8,  23),  and 
the  Talmud  {Jehamoth,  22  b),  but  is  evident  from  the 
law  of  inheritance  (Numb,  xxvii,  8-11),  in  which  it  is 
declared  that  if  a  man  dies  without  leaving  a  son,  his 
daughter  is  to  inherit  the  property.  For  if  his  widow 
could  claim  the  surviving  brother  to  marry  her  in  order 
to  raise  up  a  son  to  the  deceased,  the  daughter  who  le- 
gally came  to  the  inheritance  would  either  have  to  lose 
her  possessions,  or  the  son  born  of  the  Levirate  mar- 
riage would  have  to  be  without  patrimony. 

In  fulfilling  the  duty  of  the  lAvir  in  the  patriarchal 
age  the  surviving  brother  had  to  make  great  sacrifices. 
He  had  not  only  to  renounce  the  perpetuating  of  his 
own  name  through  the  first-born  son  ((Jen.  xxxviii,  9), 
and  mar  his  own  inheritance  (Ruth  iv,  6)^but,  what  was 
most  galling,  he  was  obliged  to  take  the  widow  whether 
he  had  an  inclination  for  any  such  marriage  or  not,  as 
the  Levir  in  the  patriarchal  age  had  no  alternative. 
Now  the  Mosaic  law  removed  this  hardship  by  opening 
to  the  man  a  door  of  escape :  '•  But  if  the  man  like  not 


to  take  his  brother's  wife,  then  let  his  brother's  wife  go 
up  to  the  gate  of  the  elders  and  say.  My  husbanci's 
brother  refuseth  to  raise  up  unto  his  brother  a  name  in 
Israel;  he  will  not  perform  the  Levirate  duty.  And 
the  elders  of  the  city  shall  call  him,  and  speak  unto  him. 
But  if  he  still  persist  and  say,  I  like  not  to  take  her, 
then  shall  his  brother's  wife  come  in  to  him  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  elders,  and  loose  his  shoe  from  off  his  foot, 
and  spit  in  his  face  and  say.  So  shall  it  be  done  unto 
that  man  that  will  not  build  up  his  brother's  house ;  and 
his  house  shall  be  called  in  Israel  the  house  of  the  bare- 
foot" (Deut.  xxv,  7-10).  Thus  the  Mosaic  gamology 
docs  not  impose  it  as  an  inexorable  law,  but  simply  en- 
joins it  as  a  duty  of  love,  which  the  Levir  might  escape 
by  submitting  to  censure  and  reproach.  Of  this  he  could 
not  complain,  for  he  not  only  neglected  to  perform  to- 
wards his  deceased  brother  the  most  sacred  offices  of 
love,  but,  by  refusing  to  do  so,  he  openly  declared  his 
dislike  to  the  widow,  and  thus  publicly  insulted  her. 
The  sj-mbolic  manner  in  which  she  took  away  in  the 
public  court  his  right  to  her  and  his  deceased  brother's 
possession,  has  its  origin  in  the  fact  that  the  possession 
of  property  was  claimed  by  planting  the  foot  on  it. 
Hence,  when  the  transfer  of  property  was  effected  by  an 
amicable  transaction,  the  origmal  owner  signified  the 
renunciation  of  his  rights  by  taking  off  his  shoe  and 
giving  it  to  the  new  possessor  (Ruth  iv,  7,  8).  A  simi- 
lar custom  obtained  among  the  Indians  (Benarj-,  De 
Ilehrceorum  Leviratu,  Berol.  1835,  p.  14)  and  the  ancient 
Germans  (Grimm,  Deutsche  Rechtsalterthumer,  p.  156). 
In  the  case  before  us,  however,  where  the  privilege  of 
possession  was  not  renounced  by  a  mutual  understand- 
ing, but  involved  insult  both  to  the  deceased  brother 
and  the  surviving  widow,  the  outraged  sister-in-law 
snatched  the  right  from  him  by  pulling  off  his  shoe. 

3.  That  this  patriarchal  law — which,  as  wc  have  seen, 
was  incorporated  in  the  jNIosaic  gamology — continued  in 
its  full  force  after  the  Captivity,  is  evident  from  Mat- 
thew (xxii,  25-27),  Mark  (xii,  19-23),  and  Luke  (xx,28- 
33).  From  the  question  put  to  our  Saviour  in  these 
passages,  it  will  be  seen  that  it  was  incumbent  upon 
each  surviving  brother  in  succession  to  perform  the  duty 
of  the  Levir.  There  were,  however,  cases  where  this 
duty  could  not  be  performed,  about  which  the  Mosaic 
law  gives  no  directions  whatever — e.  g.  when  the  de- 
ceased brother's  widow  w^as  a  near  relation  of  the  Levir 
and  came  within  the  proscribed  degrees,  of  which  the 
Mishna  {Jehumoth,  i,  1)  gives  fifteen  cases  ;  or  when  the 
latter  was  a  child  when  his  brother  died  and  left  a 
widow  without  issue  (ii,  3) ;  and  if  he  were  on  this  or 
any  other  account  exempt  from  the  obligation  to  marry 
one  of  the  wido^vs,  he  was  also  from  the  obligation  to 
marPi-  any  of  them  (i,  1);  it  is  also  implied  that  it  was 
only  necessary  for  one  brother  to  marry  one  of  the  wid- 
ows in  cases  where  there  were  several  widows  left.  Tlie 
marriage  was  not  to  take  place  within  three  months  of 
the  husband's  death  (iv,  10).  The  eldest  brother  ought 
to  perform  the  duty  of  marriage  ;  but,  on  his  declining 
it,  a  younger  brother  might  do  it  (ii,  8 ;  iv,  5).  The 
chulltsah  was  regarded  as  involving  future  relationship, 
so  that  a  man  who  had  received  it  coiUd  not  marry  the 
widow's  relations  within  the  jirohibited  degrees  (iv,  7). 
Special  rules  are  laid  do\\n  for  cases  -where  a  woman 
married  under  a  false  impression  as  to  her  husband's 
death  (x,  1),  or  where  a  mistake  took  place  as  to  wheth- 
er her  son  or  her  husband  died  first  (x,3),  for  in  the  lat- 
ter case  the  Levirate  law  would  not  apjjly  ;  and,  again, 
as  to  the  evidence  of  the  husband's  death  to  be  pro- 
duced in  certain  cases  (cap.  15,  16).  There  can.  there- 
fore, be  no  question  that  the  administrators  of  the  law 
in  the  time  of  the  prophets  and  at  the  advent  of  our  Sav- 
iour had  to  define  and  supplement  the  Levirate  law.  As 
the  space  of  this  article  does  not  ]iermit  us  to  enumerate 
these  important  definitions  and  enactments,  we  mjist 
refer  to  the  Mishna,  Tract  Jehumoth,  which  derives  its 
name  (n'T^-'^)  from  the  fact  that  it  embodies  these 
laws.    These  descend  into  trivial  distinctions — e.  g.  that 


MARRIAGE 


V87 


MARRIAGE 


the  shoe  Ti-as  to  be  of  leather,  or  a  sandal  furnished  with 
a  heel-strap;  a  felt  shoe,  or  a  sandal  without  a  strap, 
would  not  do  {Ytbcan.  xii,  1,  2).  The  challtsah  was  not 
valid  when  the  person  performing  it  was  deaf  and  dumb 
(xii,  4),  as  he  could  not  learn  the  precise  formula  which 
accompanied  the  act.  The  custom  is  retained  by  the 
modern  Jews,  and  is  minutely  described  by  Picart  (Ce- 
7-hnonies  Rdigieuses,  i,  243).  It  receives  illustration  from 
the  expression  used  by  the  modern  Arabs  in  speaking  of 
a  repudiated  wife :  "  She  was  my  slipper.  I  have  cast 
her  off"  (Burckhardt,  Notes,  i,  llo).  It  only  remains  to 
be  remarked  that  the  fear  lest  the  performance  of  the 
duty  ofLevir  should  come  into  collision  with  the  law  of 
consanguinity,  made  the  ancient  rabbins  declare  that 
(ainib  Cnip  nri^bn)  the  ceremony  of  taking  off  the 
shoe  is  preferable  to  marrying  the  widow,  and  thus  vir- 
tually set  aside  Levirate  marriages.  As  this  ceremony, 
which  is  called  Chalitsah  (n^Ji^n  from  V^PI,  to  draw 
out,  to  pull  off),  supersedes  the  ancient  law,  the  rabbins 
gave  very  minute  orders  about  the  manner  in  which  it 
is  to  be  performed.  The  ceremony  is  performed  in  tlie 
synagogue  after  morning  prayer,  in  the  presence  of  three 
rabbis  and  two  witnesses,  attended  by  others  of  the 
congregation  as  auditors  and  spectators.  The  Levir  and 
wi  low  are  called  forward,  and  after  being  questioned  by 
the  principal  rabbi,  and  avowing  his  determination  not 
to  marry  her,  the  man  puts  on  a  shoe  of  a  peculiar  form 
and  made  for  this  purpose,  and  the  woman  repeats,  "  My 
husband's  brother  refuseth  to  raise  up  unto  his  brother 
a  name  in  Israel ;  he  will  not  perform  the  duty  of  my 
husband's  brother."  To  which  the  Levir  replies, "  I  like 
not  to  take  her."  Upon  this  declaration  the  widow  un- 
ties the  shoe  with  her  right  hand,  takes  it  off,  throws  it 
on  the  ground,  and  spits  before  him,  saj-ing  in  Hebrew, 
'•  So  shall  it  be  done  unto  that  man  that  will  not  build 
up  his  brother's  house  ;  and  his  name  shall  be  called  in 
Israel,  The  house  of  him  that  hath  his  shoe  loosed  ;" 
when  the  persons  present  exclaim  three  times,  "  His 
shoe  is  loosed !"  This  concludes  the  ceremonv,  and  the 
rabbi  teUs  the  widow  that  she  is  now  at  liberty  to  marry 
whom  she  pleases. 

IX.  In  considering  the  social  and  domestic  conditions 
of  married  life  among  the  Hebrews,  we  must,  in  the  tirst 
place,  take  into  account  the  position  assigned  to  Avomen 
generally  in  their  social  scale.  The  seclusion  of  the  ha- 
7-em,  and  the  habits  consequent  upon  it,  were  utterly  un- 
known in  early  times,  and  the  condition  of  the  Oriental 
woman,  as  pictured  to  us  in  the  Bible,  contrasts  most 
favorably  with  that  of  her  modern  representative.  There 
is  abundant  evidence  that  women,  whether  married  or 
unmarried,  went  about  with  their  faces  unveiled  (Gen. 
xii,  14;  xxiv,  16,  (35;  xxix,  11 ;  1  Sam.  i,  13).  An  un- 
married woman  might  meet  and  converse  with  men, 
even  strangers,  in  a  public  place  (Gen.  xxiv,  24,  45-7 ; 
xxix,  9-12;  1  Sam.  ix,  11) ;  she  might  be  found  alone 
in  the  country  without  any  reflection  on  her  character 
(Deut.  xxii,  25-27; ;  or  she  might  appear  in  a  court  of 
justice  (Numb,  xxvii,  2).  Women  not  unfrequently 
held  important  offices :  some  were  prophetesses,  as  Mir- 
iam, Deborah,  Iluldah,  Noadiah,  and  Anna ;  of  others  ad- 
vice was  sought  in  emergencies  (2  Sam.  xiv,  2 ;  xx,  16- 
22).  They  took  their  part  in  matters  of  public  interest 
(Exod.  XV,  20 ;  1  Sam.  xviii,  6,  7) ;  in  short,  they  enjoy- 
ed as  much  freedom  in  ordinary  life  as  the  women  of 
our  own  country. 

If  such  was  her  general  position,  it  is  certain  that  the 
wife  must  have  exercised  an  important  influence  in  her 
own  home.  She  appears  to  have  taken  her  part  in 
family  affairs,  and  even  to  have  enjoyed  a  considerable 
amount  of  independence.  For  instance,  she  entertains 
guests  at  her  own  desire  (2  Kings  iv,  8)  in  the  absence 
of  her  husband  (Judg.  iv,  18),  and  sometimes  even  in 
defiance  of  his  wishes  (1  Sam.  xxv,  14,  etc.) ;  she  dis- 
poses of  her  child  by  a  vow  without  any  reference  to 
her  husband  (1  Sam.  i,  24) ;  she  consults  with  him  as  to 
the  marriage  of  her  children  (Gen.  xxvii,  46) ;  her  sug- 


gestions as  to  any  domestic  arrangements  meet  with  due 
attention  (2  Kings  iv,  9) ;  and  occasionally  she  criticises 
the  conduct  of  her  husband  in  terms  of  great  severity 
(1  Sam.  xxv,  25 ;  2  Sam.  vi,  20). 

The  relations  of  husband  and  wife  appear  to  have 
been  characterized  by  affection  and  tenderness.  He  is 
occasionallj'  described  as  the  "  friend"  of  his  wife  (Jer. 
iii,  20 ;  Hos.  iii,  1),  and  his  love  for  her  is  frequently  no- 
ticed (Gen.  xxiv,  67;  xxix,  18).  On  the  other  hand, 
the  wife  was  the  consolation  of  the  husband  in  time  of 
trouble  (Gen.  xxiv,  67),  and  her  grief  at  his  loss  pre- 
sented a  picture  of  the  most  abject  woe  (Joel  i,  S),  No 
stronger  testimony,  however,  can  be  afforded  as  to  the 
ardent  affection  of  husband  and  wife  than  tliat  which 
we  derive  from  the  general  tenor  of  the  book  of  Canti- 
cles. At  the  same  time  we  cannot  but  think  that  the 
exceptions  to  this  state  of  affairs  were  more  numerous 
than  is  consistent  with  our  ideas  of  matrimonial  happi- 
ness. One  of  the  evils  inseparable  from  polygamy  is 
the  discomfort  arising  from  the  jealousies  and  quarrels 
of  the  several  wives,  as  instanced  in  the  households  of 
Abraham  and  Elkanah  (Gen.  xxi,  11 ;  lSam.),6).  The 
purchase  of  wives,  and  the  small  amount  of  liberty  al- 
lowed to  daughters  in  the  choice  of  husbands,  must  in- 
evitably have  led  to  unhappy  unions.  The  allusions  to 
the  miserj'  of  a  contentious  and  brawling  wife  in  the 
Proverbs  (xix,  13  ;  xxi,  9, 19  ;  xxvii,  15)  convej-  the  im- 
pression that  the  infliction  was  of  frequent  occurrence 
in  Hebrew  households,  and  in  the  Mishna  (Ketuh.  vii,  6) 
the  fact  of  a  woman  being  noisy  is  laid  down  as  an  ade- 
quate grqtmd  for  divorce.  In  the  N.  T.  the  mutual  re- 
lations of  husband  and  wife  are  a  subject  of  frequent 
exhortation  (Eph.  v,  22-33  ;  Col.  iii,  18, 19 ;  Tit.  ii,  4,  5 ; 
1  Pet.  iii,  1-7)  :  it  is  certainly  a  noticeable  coincidence 
that  these  exhortations  should  be  found  exclusively  in 
the  epistles  addressed  to  Asiatics,  nor  is  it  improbable 
that  the}'  were  more  particularly  needed  for  them  than 
for  Europeans. 

The  duties  of  the  wife  in  the  Hebrew  honschi  h\  were 
mixltifarious.  In  addition  to  the  general  superintendence 
of  the  domestic  arrangements,  such  as  cooking,  from 
which  even  women  of  rank  were  not  exempted  (Gen. 
xviii,  6;  2  Sam.  xiii,  8),  and  the  distribution  of  food  at 
meal-times  (Prov.  xxxi,  15),  the  manufacture  of  the 
clothing  and  the  various  textures  required  in  an  East- 
ern establishment  devolved  upon  her  (Prov.  xxxi,  13, 
21,22);  and  if  she  were  a  modelof  activity  and  skill,  she 
produced  a  surplus  of  fine  linen  shirts  and  girdles,  which 
she  sold,  and  so,  like  a  well-freighted  merchant-ship, 
brought  in  wealth  to  her  husband  from  afar  (Prov,  xxxi, 
14,  24).  The  poetical  description  of  a  good  housewife 
drawn  in  the  last  chapter  of  the  Proverbs  is  both  filled 
up  and  in  some  measure  illustrated  by  the  following  mi- 
nute description  of  a  wife's  duties  towards  her  husband, 
as  laid  down  in  the  Jlishna:  "She  must  grind  corn, and 
bake,  and  wash,  and  cook,  and  suckle  his  child,  make 
his  bed,  and  work  in  wool.  If  she  brought  her  husband 
one  bondwoman,  she  need  not  grind,  bake,  or  wash  ;  if 
two,  she  need  not  cook  nor  suckle  his  chOd ;  if  three, 
she  need  not  make  his  bed  nor  work  in  wool ;  if  four, 
she  may  sit  in  her  chair  of  state"  {Ketuh.  v,  5).  What- 
ever money  she  earned  by  her  labor  belonged  to  her 
husband  (vi,  1).  The  qualification  not  only  of  working, 
but  of  working  at  home  (Tit.  ii,  5,  where  oiKovpyov^  is 
preferable  to  oiKovpoig),  was  insisted  on  in  the  wife,  and 
to  spin  in  the  street  was  regarded  as  a  violation  of  Jew- 
ish customs  {Ketub.  xii,  G). 

The  legal  rights  of  the  wife  are  noticed  in  Exod.  xxi, 
10,  imdcr  the  three  heads  of  food,  raiment,  and  duty  of 
marriage  or  conjugal  right.  These  were  defined  with 
great  precision  by  the  Jewish  doctors,  for  thus  only 
could  one  of  the  most  cruel  effects  of  polygamy  be  avert- 
ed, viz.  the  sacrifice  of  the  rights  of  the  many  in  favor 
of  the  one  whom  the  lord  of  the  modern  /lanm  selects 
for  his  special  attention.  The  regiUations  of  the  Tal- 
mudists,  founded  on  Exod.  xxi,  10,  may  be  found  in  the 
Mishna  {Ketub,  v,  6-9). 


MARRIAGE 


V88 


MARRIAGE 


X.  The  allegorical  and  typical  allusions  to  marriage 
ha%-e  exclusive  reference  to  one  subject,  viz.  to  exhibit 
the  spiritual  relationship  between  God  and  his  people. 
The  earliest  form,  in  which  the  image  is  implied,  is  in 
the  expressions  "  to  go  a  wlioring,"  and  '•  whoredom,"  as 
descriptive  of  the  rupture  of  that  relationship  by  acts  of 
idolatry.  These  expressions  have  by  some  writers  been 
taken  in  their  primary  and  literal  sense,  as  pointing  to 
the  licentious  practices  of  idolaters.  But  this  destroys 
the  whole  point  of  the  comparison,  and  is  opposed  to 
the  plaiu  language  of  Scripture :  for  (1)  Israel  is  de- 
scribed as  the  false  wife  "playing  the  harlot"  (Isa.  i,  21 ; 
Jer.  iii,  1, 6, 8) ;  (2)  Jehovah  is  the  injured  husband,  who 
therefore  divorces  her  (Psa.  Ixxiii,  27;  Jer.  ii,  20;  Hos. 
iv,  12 ;  ix,  1) ;  and  (3)  the  other  party  in  the  adultery 
is  specitied,  sometimes  generally,  as  idols  or  false  gods 
(Deut.  xxxi,  16 ;  Judg.  ii,  17 ;  1  Chron.  v,  25 ;  Ezek.  xx, 
30;  xxiii,  30),  and  sometimes  particularly,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  worship  of  goats  (A.V."  devils,"  Lev.  xvii,  7),  Mo- 
lech  (Lev.  XX,  5),  wizards  (Lev.  xx,  6),  an  ephod  (Judg. 
viii,  27),  Baalim  (Judg.  viii,  33),  and  even  the  heart  and 
eyes  (Xumb.xv,39) — the  last  of  these  objects  being  such 
as  wholly  to  exclude  the  idea  of  actual  adulter^^  The 
image  is  drawn  out  more  at  length  by  Ezekiel  (chap, 
xxiii),  who  compares  the  kingdoms  of  Samaria  and  Ju- 
dah  to  the  harlots  Aholah  and  Aholibah ;  and  again  by 
Hosea  (chap,  i,  iii),  whose  marriage  with  an  adulterous 
wife,  his  separation  from  her,  and  subsequent  reunion 
with  her,  were  designed  to  be  a  visible  lesson  to  the  Is- 
raelites of  their  dealings  with  Jehovah. 

The  direct  comparison  with  marriage  is  confined  in 
the  O.  T.  to  the  prophetic  writings,  including  the  Can- 
ticles as  an  allegorical  work.  See  Canticles.  The 
actual  relation  between  Jehovah  and  his  people  is  gen- 
erally the  point  of  comparison  (Isa.  liv,  5 ;  Ixii,  4 ;  Jer. 
iii,14;  Hos.ii,19;  Mal.ii,ll) ;  but  sometimes  the  graces 
consequent  thereon  are  described  under  the  image  of 
bridal  attire  (Isa.  xlix,  18 ;  Ixi,  10),  and  the  joy  of  Jeho- 
vah in  his  Church  under  that  of  the  joy  of  a  bridegroom 
(Isa.  Ixii,  5). 

In  the  N.  T.  the  image  of  the  bridegroom  is  trans- 
ferred from  Jehovah  to  Christ  (Matt,  ix,  15 ;  John  iii, 
29),  and  that  of  the  bride  to  the  Church  (2  Cor.  xi,  2 ; 
Rev.  xlx,  7 ;  xxi,  2,  9 ;  xxii,  17),  and  the  comparison 
thus  established  is  converted  by  St.  Paul  into  an  illus- 
tration of  the  position  and  mutual  duties  of  man  and 
wife  (Eph.  V,  23-32).  The  suddenness  of  the  Messiah's 
•appearing,  particidarly  at  the  last  day,  and  the  necessity 
of  watchfidness,  are  inculcated  in  the  parable  of  the  Ten 
Virgins,  the  imagery  of  which  is  borrowed  from  the  cus- 
toms of  the  marriage-ceremony  (Matt,  xxv,  1-13).  The 
Father  prepares  the  marriage-feast  for  his  Son,  the  joys 
that  result  from  the  union  being  thus  represented  (Matt. 
xxii,  1-14;  xxv,  10;  Rev.  xix,  9;  comp.  Matt,  viii,  11), 
while  the  quaUtications  requisite  for  admission  into  that 
union  are  prefigured  by  the  marriage-garment  (Matt, 
xxii,  11).  The  breach  of  the  union  is,  as  before,  de- 
scribed as  fornication  or  whoredom  in  reference  to  the 
mystical  Babylon  (Rev.  xvii,  1,2, 5). 

XI.  Lilerature. — The  most  important  ancient  litera- 
ture on  all  the  marriage  questions  is  contained  in  the 
third  order  (110)  of  the  Mishna,  five  tractates  of  which 
treat  respectively — 1.  On  tlie  Levirate  law ;  2.  On  the 
marriage-instrument;  3.  On  suspicion  of  having  violated 
the  marriage-bond;  4.  On  divorce;  and,  5.  On  betroth- 
al. To  these  must  be  added  the  (iemaras  or  Talmuds 
on  these  tractates.  Mainnmides  devotes  six  tractates 
of  the  second  volume  of  his  Jad  lla-Chazuha  to  Biblical 
and  Talmudic  gamology,  giving  an  abridgment  of  the 
traditional  enactments.  Jacob  ben-Asher  occupies  the 
entire  third  volume  of  his  Tur,  called  Kben  lla-Ezar, 
with  marriage  in  its  various  ramifications,  and  gives  a 
lucid  epitome  of  the  aficiont  code.  •  Of  modern  writers 
are  to  be  mentioned  Michaelis,  Commentaries  on  the  Laws 
of  Moses,  i,  450  sq. ;  ii,  1  sq.;  Saalschtitz,  Das  Mosaische 
Recht,  ii,  735  sq. ;  by  the  same  author,  A  rchaohfjie  der 
IIfbra.tr,  ii,  173  sq. ;  Ewald,  Die  Alterthumer  der  Volkes 


Israel,  p.  218  sq.;  Geiger,  Wissenschaftliche  Zeitschrift 
(Frankfort-on-the-Main),  iv,  36  sq.,  345  sq.;  Judische 
Zeitschrift  (Breslau,  18G2),  i,  19  sq.,  253  sq. ;  Stein  and 
Siissldud's  Israelitischer  Volkslehrer,  i,  192 ;  iv,  282,  301, 
315;  v,323;  vi,74;  vii,264;  viii,73;  ix,171;  Frankel, 
Grundlinien  des  Mosaisch-tahnudischen  Eherechts  (Bres- 
lau, 1860);  Leopold  Low,  Ben  Chananja,  vol.  iii- vi. 
Among  the  writers  on  special  points  we  may  notice  Be- 
nar}',  De  Ilehr.  Leviratu  (Berlin,  1835) ;  Redslob's  Levi- 
ratsehe  (Leipz.  1836) ;  and  Kurtz's  Ehe  des  Hosea  (Dor- 
pat,  1859).     See  Woman. 

MARRIAGE,  Christian.  The  word  is  derived 
through  the  French  mari,  from  the  Latin  maritiis,  "  a 
husband."  Malrimomj,  a  synonyme,  comes  from  the 
Latin  mater,  "  a  mother,"  as  testimonium  from  testis,  "  a 
witness."  Wedlock,  a  beautiful  word,  is  of  Anglo-Saxon 
origin,  from  weddian,  "to  pledge,"  "to  covenant;"  or 
wedd,  "  a  pledge,"  and  lac,  "  a  gift."  The  definition  of 
marriage  given  by  Modestinus,  the  Roman  la^vyer  and 
scholar  of  Ulpian,  is  as  follows:  "Nuptiai  sunt  conjunc- 
tio  maris  et  femmaj  et  consortium  omnis  %-ita3,  divini  et 
humani  juris  communicatio"  {Digest,  x\iii,  2,  1).  In 
the  Institutes  of  Justinian  we  have  "  nuptiis  sive  matri- 
monium  est  viri  et  mulicris  conjunctio  individuam  vitae 
consuetudinem  continens,"  that  is,  aimion  of  a  man  and 
a  woman  which  contains  in  itself  an  inseparable  life- 
intercourse.  These  definitions  are  not  entirely  definite, 
nor  free  from  objection ;  nor  is  it  easy  for  the  law  to 
give  a  definition  of  that  which  transcends  the  sphere  of 
human  rights,  and  has  most  important  relations  to  mo- 
rality and  religion. 

According  to  Paley,  the  public  use  of  the  marriage 
institution  consists  in  its  promoting  the  ftjUowing  bene- 
ficial effects :  1.  The  private  comfort  of  individuals.  2. 
The  production  of  the  greatest  number  of  healthy  chil- 
dren, their  better  education,  and  the  making  of  due 
provision  for  their  settlement  in  life.  3.  The  peace  of 
human  societ}',  in  cutting  off  a  principal  source  of  con- 
tention, by  assigning  one  or  more  women  to  one  man, 
and  protecting  his  exclusive  right  by  sanctions  of  mo- 
rality and  law.  4.  The  better  government  of  society, 
by  distributing  the  community  into  separate  families, 
and  appointing  over  each  the  authority  of  a  master  of  a 
family,  which  has  more  actual  influence  than  all  civil 
authority  put  together.  5.  The  additional  security 
wliich  the  state  receives  for  the  good  behavior  of  its 
citizens,  from  the  solicitude  tliey  feel  for  the  welfare  of 
their  children,  and  from  their  being  confined  to  perma- 
nent habitations.  6.  Tlie  encouragement  of  industry. 
(See  also  Dwight's  Theology  on  this  topic,  and  Anderson, 
On  the  Domestic  Constitution.) 

I.  The  idea  of  man-iage  is  beautifully  expressed  in 
those  words  of  the  earliest  book  of  the  Bible :  "  There- 
fore shall  a  man  leave  his  father  and  his  mother,  and 
shall  cleave  unto  liis  wife ;  and  they  twain  shall  be  one 
flesh."  Here  we  have  (1)  marriage  conceived  of  as  a 
union  so  close  that  it  separates  a  man  from  the  union  of 
the  family — the  closest  but  this  one  that  can  exist ;  (2) 
two  persons  cleave  to  one  another,  the  word  cleare  in 
the  original  denoting  to  be  glued  to,  to  stick  to ;  (3)  the 
result  is  that  they  become  one  flesh,  ihex  unite  their 
personalities  together.  A  text  like  this  points  to 
monogamy  as  alone  answering  to  the  true  conception 
of  marriage;  for  how  can  two  be  one  flesh,  and  one  of 
them  be  also  united  to  a  third  person,  so  as  to  be  one 
flesh  with  that  one  also.  Accordingly  the  union  of  one 
man  and  one  woman  in  the  married  state,  as  opposed  to 
polygamy,  must  be  regardeil  as  the  state  pointed  out  by 
our  nature  for  us.  This  alone  preserves  the  miity,  the 
undivided  hjve  and  peace  of  the  household.  Polygamy 
is  an  institution  growing  out  of  the  servile  subjection  of 
the  woman  to  the  man,  and  out  of  the  indulgence  of 
lewd  desire.  It  is  also  apparently  contrary"  to  the  order 
of  things  in  this,  that  the  sexes,  so  obviously  made  for 
one  another,  divide  between  them  about  equally  the 
numbers  of  those  who  are  born  into  the  world,  there 
being  a  slight  excess  in  the  number  of  male  chUdren, 


MARRIAGE 


•89 


MARRIAGE 


which  is  counterbalanced  before  manhood  is  reached  by 
the  greater  risks  incurred  bj'  that  sex.  The  conditions 
which  secure  the  interests  of  morality  are  thus  pointed 
out  by  the  laws  of  our  physical  nature. 

The  conception  of  marriage  which  appears  in  the 
writings  of  Paul  has  sometimes  been  said  to  be  a  low 
one,  as  having  respect  to  the  gratification  of  bodily  de- 
sires rather  than  to  the  true,  spiritual,  and  heart  com- 
munion of  the  wedded  pair.  This  charge  is  founded  on 
such  passages  as  1  Cor.  vii,  9 :  "It  is  better  to  marry 
than  to  burn ;"  and  on  those  verses  in  the  same  chapter 
where  there  appears  to  be  a  certain  preference  in  the 
apostle's  mind  of  the  single  to  the  married  life  (ver.  33, 
38,  etc.).  It  must  be  confessed  that  if  such  a  passage 
as  ver.  9  ^^■cre  the  apostle's  onlij  expression  of  opinion,  it 
would  seem  as  if  he  saw  nothing  in  marriage  but  the 
prevention  of  sexual  excesses  and  the  satisfaction  of 
sexual  longings.  It  ought,  however,  to  be  considered, 
first,  that  in  such  words  he  gives  us  but  one  side  of  a 
manifold  subject.  Christian,  like  all  true  moralists, 
must  take  into  account  the  desires  which  are  implanted 
in  our  nature  for  the  purpose  of  securing  certain  gi'eat 
ends,  among  which  the  introduction  of  new  beings  into 
the  world  is  most  prominent.  If,  as  men  showed  them- 
selves to  the  apostle,  the  sexual  desires  needed  a  cer- 
tain control,  and  a  certain  satisfaction  also,  it  was  good 
sense  to  say  that  a  reason  for  marrying  lay  in  the  tem- 
perament of  the  particidar  person,  and  that  he  was 
bound  to  consider  his  power  of  continence  when  he  in- 
quired what  his  duty  was  in  this  respect.  But,  second- 
Ijl,  the  apostle  gives  us  another  picture  of  marriage, 
from  another  point  of  view.  The  relation  (Ephes.  v, 
22-33)  is  like  that  of  Christ  to  his  Church.  The  hus- 
band is  to  love  the  wife  as  if  she  actually  formed  one 
body  with  him,  and  with  that  piu'e,  self-sacrificing  af- 
fection which  Christ  had  when  he  "loved  his  Church, 
and  gave  himself  for  it."  Here  marriage  is  ennobled 
and  glorified  by  a  comparison  with  the  most  spiritual 
of  all  relations.  But,  thirdlij,  neither  in  the  writings 
of  the  apostle  nor  in  any  other  part  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment is  there  any  peculiar  sanctity  attached  to  the  mar- 
ried life  placing  it  above  the  single,  nor  to  the  single 
life  making  it  more  excellent  than  the  married.  The 
apostle  condemns  the  false  teachings  of  those  who  forbid 
men  to  marry,  and  command  to  abstain  from  meats, 
"which  God  has  created  to  be  received  with  thanks- 
giving" (1  Tim.  iv,  3).  His  principle  would  include 
marriage  —  for  which  multitudes  give  thanks  —  under 
this  last  remark.  At  the  same  time  the  New  Testament 
regards  celibacy  as  equally  honorable  with  marriage 
(Matt,  xiv,  13).  Nay  more,  if  a  person,  for  the  king- 
dom of  heaven's  sake,  can  lead  a  life  of  pure  thoughts, 
undisturbed  by  any  sensual  longings,  absorbed  in  spirit- 
ual employments  and  pursuits,  he  may  be  said  to  have 
a  rare  nature,  or  a  rare  gift  to  rise  above  nature ;  and  so 
he  will  stand  higlier  in  the  kingdom  of  heaven  than  an- 
other, in  proportion  to  the  greatness  of  his  self-sacrifice 
and  his  conse(?ration.  All  men  are  not  boimd  to  "  for- 
sake houses,  or  brethren,  or  sisters,"  etc.,  for  Christ's 
name's  sake,  but  those  who  have  the  call  to  do  so  and 
obey  "shall  receive  a  hundred-fold."  So  those  who 
lead  a  single  life  under  the  same  high  motive  shall  have 
the  greater  praise  from  the  Master ;  and,  as  they  show 
by  their  self-denial  the  strength  of  Christian  virtue, 
they  stand  higher  in  the  Christian  scale  than  others. 
But  so  do  they  also  who  show  a  readiness  to  undergo, 
or  actually  undergo,  any  great  sacrifice  with  the  same 
spirit.  (Comp.  Harless,  Chrisll.  Ethik,  §  44,  and  espe- 
cially §  52.) 

If  the  Christian  Church  had  stopped  at  admiring  the 
continence  and  rare  self-restraint  of  men  who  for  Christ's 
sake  led  unmarried  lives,  much  evil  woidd  have  been 
avoided.  As  it  was,  the  Christian  mind  passed  on  from 
such  admiration  to  an  undervaluation  of  the  married 
life;  celibacy  was  a  sign  of  greater  virtue;  second  mar- 
riages were  looked  on  with  disfavor ;  and  marriages  of 
clergymen  became  unlawful.    The  heretics  Marcion  and 


Tatian  went  even  so  far  as  to  rail  against  marriage ;  as 
Simon  Magus  is  said,  on  the  other  hand,  to  have  taught 
in  his  day  a  plurality  of  wives,  and  the  Gnostics  and 
Manichajans  rejected  marriage  altogether.  But  what 
was  really  the  view  of  the  early  Church  is  best  seen  in 
the  canons  of  the  Gangran  Synod,  held  about  A.D.  370, 
where  it  is  decreed:  "1.  If  any  one  reproach  marriage, 
or  have  in  abomination  the  religious  -woman  that  is  a 
communicant  and  sleeps  with  her  husband,  as  one  that 
cannot  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  let  him  be 
anathema.  4.  If  any  one  condemn  a  married  presbyter, 
as  if  he  ought  not  to  partake  of  the  oblation  when  he 
performs  the  liturgy,  let  him  be  anathema.  9.  If  any 
one  live  a  virgin,  or  in  chastity,  as  abominating  marriage 
(while  he  lives  in  a  retired  state),  and  not  for  the  beau- 
ty and  sanctity  of  a  virgin  life,  let  him  be  anathema. 
10.  If  one  of  those  who  live  a  virgin  life  for  the  Lord's 
sake  insult  those  who  are  married,  let  him  be  anathema. 
14.  If  any  woman,  abominating  marriage,  desert  her 
husband,  and  will  become  a  recluse,  let  her  be  anathe- 
ma." (See  ixXso  la&ac  Taylor's  Ancient  Christicmitij.')  At 
this  very  same  time,  however,  marriage  became  a  sacra- 
ment. One  may  ask  how  it  came  to  pass  that  a  kind 
of  life  which  was  looked  on  as  being  not  the  best  one, 
and  which  had  to  be  renounced  in  the  Western  Church 
if  a  married  man  would  receive  ordination,  could  come 
into  the  category  of  baptism,  the  eucharist,  and  the 
other  acts  which,  in  process  of  time,  took  the  name  of 
sacraments.  Without  going  into  an  extended  answer 
to  this  question,  it  may  be  said  that  the  passage  of  Paul 
already  cited  (Ephes.  v,  32)  calls  it  a  mystery,  which 
Jerome's  Vulgate  renders  by  sacramentum.  It  was,  in 
fact,  peculiarly  holy,  as  symbolizing  Christ's  union  with 
the  Church.  But  the  word  sacramentum  had  for  a  long 
time  no  definite  sense,  and  marriage  was  not  so  called 
until  the  time  of  Augustine.  Nay,  that  great  writer 
had  so  vague  an  idea  of  its  religious  meaning  that  he 
does  not  hesitate  to  call  the  polygamous  marriage  of  the 
patriarchs  in  the  Old  Testament  a  "sacramentum  plu- 
ralium  nuptiarum"  {De  bono  coiyiiffii,  cap.  18),  which,  he 
says,  "  signified  a  future  multitude  subject  to  God  in  all 
the  nations  of  the  earth,  and  so  the  sacrament  of  a  sin- 
gle marriage  [i.  e.  between  one  pair]  in  our  time  signi- 
fies the  unity  of  aU  ours  [our  Christian  Church],  which 
is  to  be  subject  to  God  in  the  one  celestial  city."  The 
passage  itself,  howeven,  in  the  E])hesians,  which  we  have 
referred  to,  does  not,  in  a  fsiir  interpretation  of  it,  call 
marriage  a  mystery,  but  gives  that  name  only  to  Christ's 
leaving  the  Father  and  becoming  one  with  his  Cliurch. 
As  for  the  rest,  the  Catholic  theologians  have  held 
widely  diverse  opinions  about  the  matter  and  foiin  of 
marriage.  One  opinion  has  been  that  the  consent  of  the 
parties  expressed  in  words  constitute  both  the  matter 
and  the.  form;  another  that  the  bodies  or  persons  of  the 
contracting  parties  are  the  matter,  and  the  words  ex- 
pressing consent  the/orm.     See  Matrimony. 

Marriage  being  a  peculiarly  sacred  transaction,  and 
having  the  religious  impress  put  on  it,  questions  rela- 
ting to  its  celebration,  the  persons  capable  of  contract- 
ing it,  its  dissolution,  its  renewal  after  the  death  of  one 
of  the  parties,  and  tlie  like,  came  under  the  control  of 
the  clergy.  Accordingly  we  find  in  use  in  the  early 
Church  a  special  ecclesiastical  form  for  the  celebration 
of  matrimony.  The  fathers,  TertuUian,  e.  g.,  considered 
marriage,  contracted  without  the  participation  of  the 
Church,  as  tolerated  by  the  law  of  Eome,  as  almost  r. 
sin.  Later  it  was  sought  to  make  marriage  an  exclu- 
sively religious  institution,  and  this  it  finally  became, 
and  so  continued  until  the  days  of  the  Reformation. 
The  civil  law  gradually  restricted  itself  to  the  regula- 
tion of  the  material  interests  connected  with  marriage, 
leaving  the  Church  to  regulate  the  conditions  imder 
which  it  could  be  contracted.  As  gradually  the  re- 
ligious impress  put  on  it  brought  to  the  door  of  the 
clergy  the  settlement  of  questions  relating  not  only  to 
its  celebration,  but  also  to  the  propriety  of  its  dissolu- 
tion, its  renewal  after  the  death  of  one  of  the  parties, 


MARRIAGE 


V90 


MARRIAGE 


and  the  like,  the  State  was  content  to  lend  the  Church 
the  secular  arm  for  the  enforcement  of  the  decisions  of 
the  ecclesiastical  courts.  The  principles  of  the  law  con- 
cerning marriage  thus  became  a  part  of  canon  law  in 
the  Romish  Church,  and  received  final  settlement  by  the 
Council  of  Trent,  which  not  only  established  marriage 
as  a  sacrament  in  the  most  solemn  manner  (Cone.  Trid. 
sess. 24, Mat.  can.  1 :  "Si quis  dixerit,  matrimonium  non 
esse  vere  et  proprie  unum  ex  septem  legis  evangelicre 
sacramentis  a  Christo  instltutum,  sed  ab  hominibus  in 
ecclesia  invcntum  neque  gratiam  conferrc  :  anath.  sit ;" 
see  also  I,  can.  7,  Cat.  Rom.  2, 8, 3, 23, 20  sq. ;  Conf.  oi-thod. 
p.  183),  but  referred  the  question  of  its  validity  exclu- 
sively to  the  Church.  The  remains  of  these  and  simi- 
lar laws  have  almost  disappeared  in  Protestant  England 
in  our  own  times ;  the  act  of  1857  (cited  as  20  and  21 
Vict.  cap.  85),  with  its  amendments,  destroys  all  juris- 
diction of  courts  ecclesiastical  in  matters  pertaining  to 
marriage,  except  so  far  as  marriage  licenses  are  con- 
cerned, and  constitutes  a  new  court,  which  is  called  the 
court  for  divorce  and  matrimonial  causes.  See  Wool- 
sev.  Divorce  and  Divorce  Legislation  (New  York,  18G9), 
p. "174-178. . 

The  Continental  Eeformcrs  from  the  first  denied  the 
sacramental  character  of  marriage.  They  acknowledged, 
indeed,  matrimony  as  holy  and  instituted  of  God,  yet 
considered  it  as  partaking  more  of  a  civil  than  of  an  ec- 
clesiastical character — as  an  institution  which  received 
only  a  higher  consecration  by  the  blessing  of  the  Church. 
They  even  required  the  Protestant  civil  authorities  to 
legislate  on  the  subject,  and  thus  it  passed  entirely 
into  the  hands  of  the  latter.  The  new  laws  were  pro- 
mulgated in  the  16th  and  17th  centuries,  yet  all  stiU  re- 
ferred to  Scripture,  tlie  symbolic  books,  and  canon  law 
as  their  basis ;  and,  being  general!}'  tlrawn  up  with  the 
assistance  of  the  clergy,  the  Church  still  retained  the 
higher  authority  over  all  questions  pertaining  to  matri- 
mony. In  all  Protestant  countries  at  present,  as  far  as 
we  are  informed,  marriage  is  essentially  controlled  by 
the  law  of  the  state,  although  the  solemnization  of  it 
may  be  put  into  the  hands  of  clerical  persons.  In  Cath- 
olic countries  there  is  a  tendency  to  establish  two  kinds 
of  marriage  celebrations — one  a  civil,  the  other  an  eccle- 
siastical one ;  but  aU  the  civil  consequences  of  marriage, 
in  relation  to  property,  legitimation  of  children,  bigamy, 
etc.,  grow  out  of  the  civil  marriage,  and  the  other  (or 
ecclesiastical)  is  left  to  the  option  of  the  parties.  The 
Catholic  Church  endures  this  with  great  unwillingness ; 
and  in  this  feeling  the  Concordat  between  Austria  and 
the  pope  did  away  with  the  civil  contract,  which  was 
restored  to  its  former  place  in  the  laws  in  1869  (comp. 
Richter,  Kirchenr.  §  263, 6th  ed.).  We  thus  are  brought 
to  the  question  of  the  relations  of  the  state  in  right 
reason  to  the  marriage-contracts  of  its  citizens.  Here, 
before  touching  the  particidars  that  are  within  the  prov- 
ince of  state-law,  we  wish  to  make  two  points  in  regard 
to  the  office  of  the  state  :  1.  Marriage  is  a  contract,  be- 
cause it  is  an  agreement  between  two  persons  to  live  to- 
gether in  the  condition  of  life  called  matrimony.  Bur, 
while  in  most  other  cases  the  contract  creates  or  speci- 
fies the  transaction,  in  the  contract  of  marriage  the 
matter  of  the  contract  is  presupposed,  and  the  contract 
has  nothing  to  do  except  to  introduce  two  persons  into 
a  definite  specific  state.  Out  of  this  grows  the  peculiar 
state  of  parentage.  This,  it  seems  to  us,  is  one  of  the 
greatest  points  in  hand  against  the  institution  of  "  Free- 
love."  Tiie  resultant  of  the  marital  relation  is  of  a  char- 
acter that  does  not  admit  of  the  dissolution  of  the  con- 
tract when  once  it  has  been  entered  into.  The  offsiiring 
requires  the  care  of  both  the  contractors,  as  is  clcarlv 
seen  in  the  case  of  second  marriages  with  children  from 
the  first  contract.  Thus  there  can  be  no  contract  to 
enter  into  a  marriage  state  which  is  terminable  by  the 
consent  of  the  parties,  or  dependent  on  the  pleasure  of 
either.  There  may  be  partnerships  of  this  kind,  as  con- 
tracts of  service  or  of  agency,  for  the  performance  of 
specific  acts  for  a  specific  time,  but  there  are  no  such 


contracts  of  marriage.  This  institution  is  unlike  the 
passing  business  relations  of  life,  and  resembles  the 
Church  and  State  unions  more  closely,  although  not 
entirely.  The  reason  for  all  this  is  tlie  moral  nature 
of  the  institution,  and  its  immense  importance  as  the 
foundation  of  the  family  as  well  as  the  origin  of  the 
state.  In  this  sense  the  lioman  law  correctly  pro- 
claimed marriage  a  ■' viri  et  mulieris  conjunctio  individ- 
uam  vitte  consuetudiuem  continens"  (to  wliich  canon 
law  adds,  "  i.  e.  talem  se  in  omnibus  exhibere  viro,  qualis 
ipsa  sibi  est,  et  e  converso"),  or  a  " consortium  omnis  vitre, 
divini  et  humani  juris  communicatio."'  Quite  a  differ- 
ent tendency,  however,  is  tbund  in  the  attempts  of  some 
modem  philosophers  to  &s,ts\A\ih  free-marriage,  as  e.g. 
the  St.  Simonites  (q.  v.),  who  would  overthrow^  all  these 
laws,  and  make  marriage  a  mere  human  convention  sub- 
ject to  all  the  whims  of  the  contracting  parties,  and 
who  have  failed  hitherto  from  this  very  cause,  as  has 
also  the  pretended  emancipation  of  woman  which  has 
gone  hand  in  hand  with  it.  The  higher  nature  of  mar- 
riage over  any  other  human  mstitution  at  once  mani- 
fests itself  not  only  in  the  fact  that  it  has  at  all  times 
been  connected  with  religion,  both  as  to  its  contracting 
and  dissolving,  but  that  this  view  has  been  in  no  wise 
confined  to  Christendom,  but  in  a  great  degree  has  taken 
a  like  hold  upon  heathen  communities  also. 

2.  Our  other  point  is  that  on  account  of  the  moral  and 
religious  bearings  of  marriage.  State  and  Church  have 
concurrent  power  over  it;  that  is,  they  both  may  act 
and  lay  down  principles  in  regard  to  matrimonial  ques- 
tions. How  are  their  provinces  to  be  distinguished? 
In  this  way,  as  it  seems  to  us :  The  State  can  require 
nothing  which  the  Word  of  God  forbids  in  a  Christian 
countr}',  although  it  may  forbid  what  the  Word  of  God 
does  not  forbid.  The  Church  can  allow  nothing,  per- 
mitted by  the  law,  which  the  Word  of  God  forbids.  For 
illustration,  we  may  suppose  the  State  to  have  very 
loose  divorce  laws,  or  to  have  no  penalty  for  concubin- 
age during  regular  marriage ;  it  is  evident  that  the 
Church  must  keep  its  members  pure  in  such  respects, 
until  its  protest,  loud  or  silent,  shall  change  the  current 
of  legislation, 

II.  These  things  being  premised,  we  proceed  to  a  brief 
discussion  of  some  of  those  points  relating  to  marriage 
which  may  be  reasonably  made  the  subjects  of  legisla- 
tion without  violating  the  feelings  of  Christians  or  op- 
posing the  authority  of  the  Scriptures. 

1.  The  State  may  decide  who  shall  be  capable  of  con- 
tracting marriage.  Thus  («)  the  age  at  which,  or  the 
state  of  the  wiU  or  reason  with  which  a  matrimonial  en- 
gagement may  be  legally  made,  is  as  much  within  the 
control  of  the  law  as  the  similar  conditions  necessary 
for  making  business  contracts  or  for  exercising  political 
rights.  If  minors  are  allov.'ed  to  enter  into  this  condi- 
tion, the  law  ought  to  provide  that  their  free  consent  is 
ascertained  beforehand.  Thus,  too,  incapacity  to  give 
consent,  by  reason  of  immaturity,  force  on  the  will,  in- 
sanity, idiocy,  and  the  like,  may  be  obstacles.  But  (J)  far 
more  important  is  the  control  of  state-law  over  the  de- 
grees of  relationship  and  affinity  which  shall  incapaci- 
tate parties  from  entering  into  this  close  connection. 
Here  we  find  that,  although  the  chililrcn  of  the  first  pair 
must  have  united  in  wedlock,  it  became  the  vcrj-  de- 
cided feeling  of  a  large  part  of  the  human  race  that 
such  a  union  is  unlawful  for  brothers  with  sisters,  or  for 
a  jiarcnt  with  a  child.  H.  W.  J.  Thiersch  {Das  Vei-hot 
der  Khe  [Ntirdlingen,  1869],  p.  4)  remarks  that  wild 
heathen  tribes  in  Asia  and  Africa  consider  incest  a  crime. 
Exceptions  to  this  occurred  in  Persia  and  Egypt,  where 
incest  was  practiced  within  the  reigning  families — in 
the  latter  country  after  the  example  of  Isis  and  Osiris. 
At  Athens  a  brother  might  marry  a  sister  who  had  not 
the  same  mother,  and  adoption  was  no  obstacle  to  the 
union  of  an  adopted  brother  and  sister.  The  Romans 
were  more  strict,  but  allowed  this  relation  to  commence 
between  an  adopted  brother  and  his  adopted  sister,  after 
the  adoption  was  dissolved  by  emancipation.     By  Ko- 


MARRIAGE 


TQl 


MARRIAGE 


man  law  a  man  could  not  marry  his  sisfn''s  daughter,  1 
but  when  the  emperor  Claudius  took  Agrippina,  his 
brother's  daughter,  to  wife,  that  relation  became  permis- 
sible (see  Gaii  Instil,  i,  §  Gl,  G2).  By  Levitical  law  the 
prohibited  degrees  embraced  tlie  direct  relatives  in  the 
ascending  and  descending  line,  whether  of  full  or  of  half 
blood,  the  children  who  had  tlie  same  parents  or  parent, 
the  brothers  or  sisters  of  fathers  or  mothers,  brothers' 
wives,  daughters-in-law,  a  woman  and  her  daughter,  or 
other  descendant  in  the  third  generation,  and  the  sister 
of  a  wife  during  her  lifetime.  It  would  seem  that  in 
Lev.  xviii,  where  these  rules  are  given,  the  analogy  de- 
rived from  relations  there  mentioned  may  be  applied  to 
others  equally  close,  of  which  nothing  is  said  (comp. 
SaalschUtz,  Mos.Recht,  cap.  105,  §  5).  In  the  Christian 
Church  a  stricter  system  of  prohibited  degrees  v^as  a 
)5art  of  canonical  law,  and  a  sign  of  the  new  feeling  was 
that  the  emperor  Theodosius  I  forbade  by  law  the  mar- 
riage of  first  cousins,  which  was  formerly  by  Roman  law 
permitted.  The  Roman  Catholic  and  the  Greek  church- 
es went  far  beyond  this.  The  Latin  Church  carried  the 
prohibition  of  marriage  to  the  seventh  degree,  that  is,  to 
the  sixth  cousins — counting  brothers  and  sisters  as  of 
the  first  degree,  and  first  cousins  as  of  the  second — until 
Innocent  III,  in  1216,  gave  a  new  rule,  that  the"prohi- 
bitio  copula3  conjugalis  quartum  consanguinitatis  et  af- 
finitatis  gradum  non  excedat" —  that  is,  third  cousins 
might  marry;  but  a  little  while  after  Gregory  IX  so 
modified  Innocent's  rule  that  a  marriage  between  a  third 
and  a  fourth  cousin  was  allowable.  Where  pressing  rea- 
sons demanded,  these  rules  might  be  suspended.  More 
severe  and  worthless  were  the  rules  prohibiting  mar- 
riage, on  the  ground  of  affinity,  which  reached  to  the 
same  degrees  with  the  rules  affecting  blood-relatives, 
and  were  altered  together  with  them.  Other  restric- 
tions touching  spiritual  affinities,  betrothal,  etc.,  were 
mitigated  by  the  Council  of  Trent.  According  to  the 
canons  of  the  Greek  Church,  a  man  may  not  marry — 

His  second  coushi's  daughter. 

His  deceased  wife's  first  cousin. 

His  deceased  wife's  flrst  cousin's  daughter. 

His  deceased  wife's  second  cousin. 

Two  brothers  may  not  marry — 

Two  sisters. 

An  aunt  and  a  niece. 

Two  first  cousins. 

A  man  may  not  marry — 

His  wife's  brother's  wife's  sister,  i.  e.  his  brother-in- 
law's  sister-in-law. 

His  brother-in-law's  wife:  nor  can  his  own  brother 
marry  her. 

Godparentafje  and  Adoption  constitute  impediments  to 
marriage  up  to  the  seventh  degree.  See  Affinity. 
What  was  the  feeling  lying  at  the  bottom  of  all  these 
prohibitions?  It  must  have  been  that  which  led  the  Ro- 
man lawyer  Gains  {!.  c.  §  59)  to  say  that  if  such  persons 
as  parents  and  children  marry  one  another  nef arias  atque 
incestas  mqitias  contraxisse  dicuntur.  Incest  is  the  great- 
est unchastity,  from  which  its  Latin  name  comes,  and 
men  early  felt  this.  If  the  children  of  the  first  parent 
did  not  partake  of  this  sentiment,  there  is  a  parallel  in 
the  feelings  of  little  children,  whose  modesty  is  devel- 
oped just  at  the  time  of  life  when  it  is  needed  for  a 
moral  protection.  Besides  this  moral  principle,  it  might 
be  urged  that  to  marry  out  of  one's  near  relationship 
binds  families  together,  and  diffuses  the  feeling  of  broth- 
erhood through  neighborhoods  and  tribes.  This  is  urg- 
ed by  Augustine  {Civit.  Dei,  xv,  cap.  10).  Another  con- 
sideration is,  that  the  marriage  of  near  relations  pro- 
motes neither  the  health  nor  the  multitude  of  offspring. 
In  a  letter  imputed  to  Gregorj'  the  Great  (A.D.  601), 
written  to  his  missionary  in  England,  Augustine,  he  is 
made  to  say,  while  speaking  of  the  marriages  of  own 
cousins,  "  We  have  learned  from  experience  that  from 
such  a  marriage  offspring  cannot  grow"  (Gratian's  Dec?: 
cans.  XXXV,  quffist.  5,  c.  2).  This  is  in  conformity  with 
a  physical  law.which  governs  the  issue  of  animals.    Nay, 


plants  themselves,  it  is  now  known,  are  benefited  by 
the  pollen  of  one  fiower  being  conveyed  to  another,  and 
it  is  the  office  of  insects,  such  as  bees  and  files,  to  medi- 
ate in  this  keeping  up  the  "breeds"  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom,  (c)  Besides  enacting  laws  against  the  mar- 
riage of  blood-relations,  states  have  sometimes  prohib- 
ited men  from  connecting  themselves  with  women  who 
sustain  towards  them  the  closest  degrees  of  affinity. 
Some  Protestant  countries  make  it  unlawfid  to  marry  a 
wife's  sister.  There  are  no  valid  arguments  against 
such  unions  from  Scripture,  but  rather,  when  it  is  saifl 
(Lev.  xviii,  18)  that  a  man  shall  not  have  two  sisters 
together  as  his  wives,  the  fair  inference  is  that  Je^vish 
law  allowed  marriage  to  one  of  them  after  the  death  of 
the  other  and  preceding  wife.  IMarriage  to  a  brother's 
widow  or  deceased  husband's  brother  is  more  doubtful. 
Yet  in  the  canonical  law,  where  such  unions  are  forbid- 
den, the  pope  can  probably  give  a  dispensation  from  the 
rule.  Such  was  the  case  of  Henry  VIII  of  England,  and 
a  canon  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (sess.  xxiv,Z>e  sacr.ma- 
trim.  can.  iii)  ordains  that  if  any  one  shall  say  that  the 
Church  cannot  give  a  dispensation  in  the  case  of  some 
of  the  prohibitions  in  Leviticus,  ch.  xviii,  "  anathema 
sit" — evidently  referring  to  that  very  case  which  blew 
up  such  a  flame  in  England. 

On  the  whole,  there  are  no  certi  fines  within  which 
the  moral  feeling  and  the  law — which  in  this  case  is 
more  or  less  controlled  by  such  feeling — can  be  confined. 
We  have  a  parallel  to  this  in  the  definitions  of  certain 
rights,  where  the  law  has  to  make  the  positive  and  ex- 
act metes  and  bounds.  Thus  there  is  a  time  in  the  life 
of  a  child  when  he  ought  to  acipiire  a  jural  capacity, 
and  so  become  legally  independent  of  his  father;  but 
whether  this  shall  be  reached  at  the  age  of  eighteen  or 
twenty-one,  or  shall  be  reached  by  degrees  or  all  at 
once,  the  reason  of  a  state  must  determine.  So  the 
moral  feeling  of  a  state  must  determine  within  what 
limits  of  consanguinity  or  of  affinity  parties  may  con- 
tract marriage ;  and  if  tha  Church  has  another  prevail- 
ing sentiment,  it  must  have  its  own  rules  prohibiting  for 
its  members  what  the  state  does  not  prohibit. 

We  will  just  mention,  with  little  or  no  remark,  sev- 
eral other  hinderances  which  either  State  or  Church  law 
have  put  in  the  waj"-  of  v/edlock.  Such  are  fraudu- 
lent representations  of  either  party,  which  were  leading 
causes  of  the  contract  of  marriage ;  mistakes  affecting 
the  identity  of  the  person ;  and  previous  crime  of  one 
party  unknown  to  the  other,  especially  previous  adul- 
tery ;  to  which  is  to  be  added  difference  of  religious 
confessions,  especially  when  so  great  as  that  between 
a  Jew  and  a  Christian,  or  a  Protestant  and  a  Roman 
Catholic.  Indeed,  in  the  case  of  mixed  marriages  (see 
below),  there  is  still  much  conflict  between  the  leg- 
islation of  Church  and  State.  Civil  law  in  countries 
where  slavery  was  allowed  made  all  marriage  unions 
between  freemen  and  slaves  unlawful.  \\\  some  coun- 
tries marriage  between  a  noble  and  an  ordinaiy  citizen  or 
peasant  has  been  either  forbidden  or  attended  with  civil 
disabilities,  such  as  degradation  of  rank  to  the  offspring. 
Here  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  allude  also  to  the 
regulations  of  the  Romish  Church  in  the  case  of  persons 
who  may  have  taken  the  vow  of  celibacy.  If  any  such 
]inrty  have  not  yet  entered  the  convent,  pope  Boniface 
Vni  decided  that  marriage  may  be  contracted;  after 
having  once  entered  the  convent,  tlie  contract  becomes 
illegal.  Among  Protestants,  however,  the  taking  of  the 
vow  of  celibacj'  remains  a  question  of  conscience  only. 
Another  objection  to  marriage  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  is  spiritual  relationship,  cognatio  sjiiritualis, 
which  prevents  marriage  between  persons  whi>  have 
held  one  another  at  the  baptismal  font.  In  the  13tli 
century  this  was  made  to  include  both  the  infant  bap- 
tized and  the  children  of  the  sponsors,  as  well  as  the 
sponsors  themselves ;  but  it  has  since  been  restricted. 
The  Continental  Reformers  as  early  as  the  Smalcald  ar- 
ticles declared  against  this  impediment  of  the  sponsors. 
In  the  Greek  Church,  as  we  have  seen  above,  Godparent- 


M.\RRIAGE 


rP2 


MARRIAGE 


arjr:  and  adoption  constitute  impediments  up  to  the  se^'- 
cnth  degree. 

■1.  In  order  to  preserve  the  purity  and  peace  of  mar- 
ried hfc,  the  State  has  often  passed  rides  making  all 
sexual  union  of  either  the  husband  or  the  %\-ife  with  a 
tldrd  party  penal,  and  the  Church  will  of  course  visit 
such  offences  of  its  members  with  severe  discipline. 
Some  'States  in  their  laws  have  punished  the  concubiu- 
a;::e  or  illicit  intercourse  of  a  husband  with  an  immar- 
ried  woman  less  severely  than  similar  offences  of  a  wife, 
or.  it  may  be,  has  let  them  go  unpunished.  According 
to  Roman  law,  adultery  was  a  crime  committed  only 
with  a  married  woman  :  but  a  wife,  displeased  with  her 
husband's  morals,  could  without  difficulty  obtain  a  di- 
vorce. Under  English  law  adultery  has  not  been  treat- 
ed as  a  public  crime,  the  dealing  with  it  being  left  to 
the  ecclesiastical  law,  and  '•  the  temporal  courts  take  no 
cognizance  of  it  otherwise  than  as  a  private  injury" 
(Blackst one's  Commeiit.  bk.  iv,  chap.  4).  In  our  country 
it  is  visited  with  punishment  according  to  law  in  almost 
all  the  states — Xew  York,  which  has  followed  EngUsh 
law,  and  one  or  two  other  states,  being  exceptions ;  but 
it  is  safe  to  say  that  prosecutions  for  the  crime  of  adul- 
tery are  very  rare  indeed.  The  protection  afforded  by 
such  laws  is  ven.-  small,  except  so  far  as  they  testify 
that  society  regards  crimes  against  marriage  as  deserv- 
ing of  civil  penalties. 

3.  The .  State,  as  the  guardian  of  the  family,  as  the 
protector  of  the  wife's  and  the  children's  rights  even 
against  the  husband  and  father,  is  bound,  and  has  in  no 
civilized  country  refused,  to  make  laws  touching  the 
pat7-ia  postestas — the  husband's  rights  over  and  obliga- 
tions towards  the  wife  :  his  obUgations  especially  to  sup- 
port his  wife  and  children,  and  the  amount  of  freedom 
he  ought  to  have  in  transmitting  his  property.  We 
do  not  intend  to  enter  into  this  large  subject,  except  so 
far  as  to  say  that  there  lies  a  feeling  of  the  unity  of 
family  life  at  the  foundation  of  aU  righteous  law  on 
these  subjects,  whatever  may  be  the  specific  rules  of 
this  or  that  code.  The  family  being  one,  the  wife 
ought  to  be  deprived  no  more  than  the  children  of  a 
portion  of  a  deceased  husband's  effects ;  so  that  the  right 
oftestameid  in  his  case,  even  if  he  acquired  all  his  prop- 
erty himself,  ought  not  to  be  absolutely  free. 

4.  The  moral  feeling  of  the  importance  and  sanctity 
of  marriage  lies  also,  in  a  measure,  at  the  foundation  of 
laws  and  usages  regulating  its  commencement.  Such 
are  betrothal,  the  formal  declaration  before  a  registrar  or 
other  otlicer  of  an  intention  of  marriage,  the  publication 
of  the  banns,  the  celebration  or  solemnization  before 
witnesses  and  with  appropriate  formalities.  Marriage 
having  a  religious  side,  it  has  been  natural  that  the 
ministers  of  religion  should  have  a  part  in  its  initial 
solemnities.  But  it  is  a  great  grievance  that  they  are 
obliged — as  the  law  of  Prussia,  we  believe,  requires  of 
them — to  imite  in  wedlock  any  persons  who  may  by 
law  be  lawfully  united,  whether  the  minister's  o\\^l  views 
touching  the  la\vfulness  of  marriage  after  divorce  agree 
with  those  of  the  government  or  not :  and  it  is  another 
grievance  when  only  the  ministers  of  an  establishment 
can  solemnize  nuptials.  Civil  marriage,  on  the  other 
hand,  as  it  exists  in  some  Catholic  countries,  and  mar- 
riage before  a  magistrate  or  justice  of  the  peace,  which 
is  lawful  to  a  great  extent  through  the  United  States, 
have  this  great  evil  attending  on  them  :  that  they  look 
on  the  civil  side  of  marriage  exclusively.  Surely  that 
institution  which  is  the  foundation  of  the  state,  the 
guardian  of  children  against  evil  influences  until  they 
can  act  their  part  in  the  state ;  in  which,  and  in  which 
alone  love  presides  over  the  formation  of  character; 
from  which,  through  the  sj-mpathies  of  kindred,  chords 
run  in  all  directions,  binding  and  weaving  society  to- 
gether, and  where  the  seeds  of  J"eligion  are  sov.ti  in  the 
impressible  heart — such  an  institution  surely,  -wliich  pa- 
gans feel  to  have  a  sacred  quality,  and  place  luulcr  tlie 
protection  of  their  gods,  ought  to  have  a  solemn  begin- 
ning, so  that  the  parties  to  be  united  in  "  holy  matri- 


mony," and  the  witnesses,  may  feel  that  it  is  a  deeply- 
serious  transaction — a  relation  not  to  be  lightly  assumed 
without  forethought  and  preparation,  and  solemn  con- 
secration to  one  another,  and  earnest  prayer  to  that  God 
who  has  said  that  "  they  twaui  shall  be  one  flesh." 

III.  When  the  Church  takes  a  view  of  divorce  differ- 
ent from  that  taken  by  the  State,  it  cannot  sanction  the 
remarriage  of  a  person  whom  it  regards  as  boimd  by 
Christ's  law  to  a  former  wife  or  husband.    See  Divorce. 

1.  Some  of  these  obstacles  to  marriage  are  of  such  a 
nature  that  a  marriage  actuaUy  commenced  in  disregard 
of  or  in  ignorance  of  the  law  ruling  in  such  cases  is  a 
nullity.  There  is,  however,  a  need  of  some  formal  pro- 
ceeding by  which  the  nulhty  is  made  manifest.  There 
are  others  in  Avhich  the  innocent  party  may  continue 
the  marriage,  and  condone  or  consent  to  live  with  the 
offender ;  nor  can  such  consent  be  afterwards  withdrawn 
in  order  to  make  good  a  claim  which  has  been  once 
waived.  Near  relationship  or  affinity,  the  existence  of 
a  previous  wife  or  husband,  are  instances  of  the  first 
kind ;  impotence,  mistake,  previous  misconduct,  even 
fraudulent  statements  procuring  marriage,  are  instances 
of  the  second.  In  the  first  case  the  marriage  is  void, 
in  the  second  it  is  voidable.  We  are  apt  to  call  separa- 
tions for  either  reason  divorces,  and  our  statutes  in  many 
state-codes  group  them  with  divorces  properly  so  called ; 
but  there  is  a  wide  difference  between  separations  on 
the  ground  that  there  had  been  no  lawful  marriage,  and 
divorce  proper  on  the  ground  of  some  event  occurring 
after  actual  marriage.  In  the  first  case  there  was  a 
form  without  the  reality  of  marriage,  and  the  court — 
ci\Tl  or  ecclesiastical — pronounced  a  decree  of  nullity, 
which  did  not  affect  the  children  nor  the  parties  up  to 
the  time  of  the  sentence.  Being  decided  to  have  never 
been  imited  in  wedlock,  ihey  were  free  to  enter  into  this 
union  with  third  parties.  See  Woolsey,  On  Divorce, 
etc.,  p.  123, 124,  and  especially  Eichtefs  Kirchenr.  §  266 
-284,  6th  ed. ;  Goschen,  in  Herzog's  Real-Encyklopiidie, 
voL  iii,  s.  V.  Ehe. 

2.  In  regard  to  the  lawfulness  of  remarriage  in  gen- 
eral, we  must  refer  to  the  article  on  Divorce  (Christian 
Law  of)  in  this  Cychpcedia.  On  the  particular  point 
of  marr_\-ing  again  after  a  first  wife's  or  husband's  de- 
cease, we  have  room  for  a  few  remarks.  That  this  is 
lawful  in  itself,  and  must  be  left  to  the  conscience  and 
the  circumstances  of  individuals,  there  can  be  no  ques- 
tion, after  what  the  apostle  Paul  has  said  in  Rom.  vii, 
1-3,  and  in  1  Tim.  v,  14,  in  which  latter  passage  "  the 
younger  women"  e\-idently  refers  to  the  young  widows 
just  before  spoken  of.  The  apologist  Athenagoras  (§  33, 
p.  172,  edit.  Otto)  is  both  unscriptural  and  weak  where 
he  says  that  a  second  marriage  is  •■  decorous  adulterj'," 
and  apphes  the  words  of  Christ  (Matt,  xix,  9)  to  such 
remarriages,  adding  that  he  who  deprives  himself  of 
[or  separates  himself  from]  a  former  wife,  even  if  she 
be  dead,  is  a  covert  adulterer  who  transgresses  the  di- 
rection of  God,  since  in  the  beginning  God  made  one 
man  and  one  woman.  Similar  views  are  entertained 
by  Tertullian  in  his  treatise  De  monogamia,  which  was 

j  written  after  he  became  a  Montanist  (comp.  esp.  cap.  x) ; 
while  in  the  treatise  A  d  uxorem,  -mitten  before  he  left 
the-  CathoUc  Church,  he  does  not  condemn  remarriage, 
although  he  praises  widowhood.  Most  of  the  fathers, 
while,  from  the  times  of  Hennas  and  of  Clement  of  Al- 
exandria, they  regard  remarriage  as  no  sin,  look  on 
widowhood  and  the  state  of  a  widower  as  capalile  of 
higher  virtue.  Augustine  thus  expresses  both  opinions 
in  his  little  work  De  bono  viduitatis,  written  at  the  re- 
quest of  a  widow  named  Juliana,  whose  daughter  had 
chosen  a  virgin's  life.  "As  the  good  thing  of  virginity 
which  your  daughter  has  chosen  does  not  condemn 
your  one  marriage,  so  your  widowhood  does  not  con- 
demn the  second  marriage  of  some  one  else.  .  .  .  Do 
not  so  extol  your  good  thing  as  to  accuse  that  which  is 
not  evil  belonging  to  another,  as  if  it  were  evil,  but  so 
much  the  more  rejoice  in  your  good,  the  more  you  per- 
ceive that  not  only  evUs  are  prevented  by  it,  but  that 


]\IARRIAGE 


T9.3 


MARRIAGE 


it  surpasses  some  good  things  in  excellence.  The  evil 
things  are  adultery  and  fornication.  Now  from  these 
illicit  things  she  is  far  removed  who  by  a  free  vow  has 
bound  herself,  and  thus  has  brought  to  pass  not  by  the 
power  of  law,  but  bj-  the  purpose  of  love,  that  for  her 
not  even  la^vfid  things  should  be  lawful."  See  Diga- 
mists; Celibacy. 

3.  But  if  the  apostle  Paul  could  even  advise  young 
widows  to  marry  again,  must  not  this  be  understood  as 
if  he  thought  this  the  less  of  two  evils,  and  only  nec- 
essary to  save  the  persons  in  question  from  crime? 
Hcrw  otherwise  can  we  explain  his  directions  that  a 
bishop,  and  so  also  a  deacon,  must  be  the  husband  of 
one  wife?  (1  Tim.  iii,  2,  12;  Titus  i,  6).  '  Some  have 
explained  these  directions  as  forbidding  polygamy— 
— that  is,  simultaneous  polygamy,  to  speak  technically 
— which  would  seem  to  imply  that  among  the  private 
members  of  the  Church  at  Ephesus  and  in  Crete  such 
plurality  of  wives  was  allowed.  But  the  words  in  1 
Tim.  V,  9,  where  the  qualification  occurs  that  the  aged 
vkhic  in  question  must  have  been  the  wife  of  one  ma?), 
forbid  such  an  interpretation,  for  othenvise  we  should 
have  to  suppose  that  polyandry  was  practiced.  The 
phrases  are  exactly  of  the  same  form  in  all  the  four 
cases,  siuce  in  the  last-mentioned  verse  the  participle 
ytyovvia  is  to  be  joined  to  "sixty  years"  (comp.  Luke 
ii,  42).  The  sense,  then,  must  be  that  the  bishop,  or 
deacon,  or  widow  had  not  been  married  but  once.  Now 
this  was  a  special  precept  suited  to  the  state  of  life  of 
the  times,  for  in  marrying  more  than  once  they  might 
have  obtained  divorce — in  their  heathenish  condition — 
or  have  married  divorced  persons  contrary  to  the  law 
of  Christ.  Of  these  irregularities,  if  they  had  married 
but  once,  there  would  be  less  probability. 

IV.  Many  one-sided  and  erroneous  opinions  must 
arise  when  marriage  is  looked  at  only  in  one  of  its  as- 
pects or  relations.  Thus  it  may  be  said  to  exist  Kbe- 
rorum  qxcerendoriun  causa  ;  but  if  that  is  the  only  side 
on  which  we  view  it,  we  shall  have  to  say  that  no  mar- 
riages ought  to  be  contracted  when  the  woman  is  past 
the  age  of  chUd-bearing.  It  may  be  put  on  the  foun- 
dation of  restraming  and  moderating  those  sexual  de- 
sires which  might  otherwise  imbrute  men.  But  if  this 
were  the  only  reason  for  marriage,  it  would  be  at  the 
best  but  a  necessan,-  evU.  It  may  be  said  to  be  insti- 
tuted for  the  happiness  of  the  partners  in  the  union ;  but 
if  this  were  all,  every  disappointed  man  or  woman 
ought  to  have  an  opportunity  to  place  his  or  her  affec- 
tions on  a  new  object.  It  may  be  said  to  be  in  idea  the 
highest  religious  luiion,  but  a  Christian  wife  has  never 
felt  it  to  be  right  for  this  reason  to  leave  a  luisband 
merely  because  he  is  unconverted.  We  must,  then,  look 
at  marriage  on  every  side :  on  its  jural,  moral,  and  re- 
ligious aspects ;  on  its  relations  to  sexual  differences ;  to 
the  birth  and  education  of  children ;  to  its  use  in  ce- 
menting the  State  together  through  the  ties  of  kindred ; 
to  the  love  that  will  almost  of  course  subsist  between 
the  married  couple ;  to  the  field  which  it  affords  for  the 
highest  social  and  spiritual  well-being  of  husband,  wife, 
and  famUy.  It  ought  to  be  added  also,  as  a  point  of  no 
small  importance,  that  the  jural  relations  of  marriage 
are  determined  bj'  the  moral  convictions  of  men,  and 
that  thus  Christianity,  by  purifying  the  moral  sense, 
and  by  giving  forth  a  nobler  idea  of  marriage,  has 
ennobled  and  strengthened  civil  law.  Those  nations 
have  had  the  best  moral  habits  where  the  sentiments 
regarding  matrimony  and  the  family  were  the  most 
pure.  'Witness  the  IJomans  of  the  earlier  ages,  to  whom 
divorce  was  unknown,  and  among  whom  the  matron 
was  chaste  and  frugal.  The  corruption  of  Koman  mor- 
als first  appeared,  according  to  Horace,  in  the  defilement 
of  married  life  and  the  family : 

"  Fecunda  cnlpoe  srecnla  nuptias 
Primum  iuqniuavere  et  genus  et  domos." 

And  so,  if  oiu-  Christianity  is  destined  to  decay,  the  loss 
will  be  soon  shown  in  the  family  relations.  Even  now 
a  race  of  women  is  springing  up  who  seem  to  have 


caught  their  inspiration  from  some  of  the  high  dames — 
the  Fulvias  and  Julias — of  the  expiring  IJoman  republic. 

The  neglect  to  look  at  the  religious  and  moral  side  of 
marriage  is  also  doing  great  e\-il  in  this  countr*-.  In 
fact,  a  state  of  things  now  exists  which  our  fathers 
hardly  dreamed  of,  and  which  makes  reflecting  men 
tremble  for  the  future.  Eash  and  ill-sorted  marriages 
have  always  existed ;  but  where  divorce  laws,  so  loose 
as  to  be  opposed  to  the  very  idea  of  marriage,  open  an 
easy  door  to  get  out  of  an  uncomfortable  relation,  the 
tendency  is  that  parties  will  marrj-  with  divorce  before 
their  eyes,  and  that,  instead  of  forbearance  and  patience, 
they  will  magnify  their  present  evils,  and  give  to  one 
another  only  half  a  heart.  In  the  old  times  there  were 
few  who  did  not  look  upon  large  families  as  a  blessing ; 
at  present  it  is  established  beyond  doubt  that  a  midti- 
tude  of  women,  in  one  part  of  the  countrj-,  regard  chil- 
dren as  an  evil  to  be  prevented  or  avoided,  and  do  actu- 
ally use  the  means  for  such  flagitious  ends.  See  Infan- 
ticide. Some  of  these  Avomen  are  communicants  in 
Christian  churches,  as  physicians  assert  who  profess  to 
know.  This  shows  that  the  verj^  notion  of  marriage  in 
many  minds  is  a  degraded  and  a  corrupting  one — that 
this  union  is  entered  into  as  an  honest  way  of  gratify- 
ing the  lowest  desires  of  human  beings,  and  for  no  higher 
purpose.  Nor  are  there  wanting  representatives  of  these 
base  views,  who  practice  upon  them  in  their  commimi- 
ties  and  defend  them  before  the  world.  Who  will  ques- 
tion that  the  extreme  of  ancient  asceticism,  which  gave 
to  the  word  chastity  tlie  sense  of  rigid  abstinence,  as  we 
give  to  the  word  temperance  the  same  perverted  mean- 
ing, was  infinitely  nearer  to  the  Christian  standard,  in 
fact  to  any  respectable  pagan  standard  of  morals,  than 
feelings  which  can  tolerate  such  practices?  That  they 
can  exist  and  even  be  common  is  an  alarming  sign  for 
the  future  of  our  country-.  The  conscience  of  men  and 
women  needs  to  be  enlightened  on  a  point  of  morals 
which  can  hardly  be  referred  to  from  the  pulpit.  We 
ought  not  to  hear  Catholics  twit  the  Protestantism  of 
the  country  with  winking  at  methods  of  preventing  the 
increase  of  families.  We  ought  to  strike  at  that  ex- 
travagance of  living  and  showmess  of  dress  which  tempt 
the  less  wealthy  to  such  thuigs.  We  ought  to  hear 
from  every  quarter  where  the  subject  can  be  mentioned 
that  "  thev  who  do  such  things  cannot  inherit  the  kmg- 
domofGod."     (T.  D.W.) 

See  Grove,  Moi:  Phil,  ii,  470;  Paley,  Mar.  Phil.  voL 
i,  chap,  viii,  p.  339 ;  Leslie,  Sermons  on  Marriage  (1702, 
8vo);  Fordyce,  J/om/ P^//os.  (1769,  8vo) ;  Delany,^e?- 
atice  Ditties  (1750,  8vo) ;  Beattie,  Elem.  Moral  Science, 
vol.  ii;  'Q^a.n,  Christian  Minister's  Advice  to  a  New- 
married  Couple  (Lond.  1793) ;  Guide  to  Domestic  Hap- 
piness; Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of  the  Married 
State ;  Stennett,  On  Domestic  Duties ;  Jay,  Essay  on 
Marriage ;  Dodcbidge,  Lect.  (8vo  edit.)  i,  225,  234,  265 ; 
Evan,  Philosophy  of  Marriage,  in  its  Social,  Moral,  and 
Physical  Relations  (Lond.  1839,  12mo)  ;  Evans,  Chris- 
tian Doctrine  of  Mania ge  (Bait.,  Md.,  1860, 8vo) ;  Klee, 
Die  Ehe :  eine  dogma f.-archceol.  A  hhandl. ;  Tradition,  ou 
hisioire  de  I'eglise  sur  le  sacrement  de  mariage ;  tii-ee 
des  monumens  les  j)lus  autkentiques  de  chaque  siecle  tant 
I'orient  que  de  I'occident  (Paris,  1725, 3  vols.  4to) ;  SchaflF, 
Ch.  Hist,  i,  325  sq. ;  ii,  111  sq.,  242  sq. ;  Lea,  Sacerdotal 
Celibacy  (see  Index) ;  Frj-  (John),  Marriage  between  Kin- 
dred  (1773, 8vo) ;  Ma7-riage  Rites,  Customs,  and  Ceremo- 
nies of  the  Nations  of  the  Universe  (Lond.  1824,  8vo)  ; 
Wuttke,  Ethics  (transl.  by  Prof.  Lacroix,  N.  Y.  1873,  2 
vols.  12mo),  ii,  310  sq. ;  Brit,  and  For.  Rev.  1844,  p.  95 
sq. ;  Engl.  Rev.  iii,  129;  Biblical  Repository,  ii,  70  sq. ; 
Biblioth.  Sacra,  i,  283  sq. ;  Eraser's  Magazine,  xli,  112 
sq. ;  (Z,o/if/.)  Q««r^  i?ef.  IxxxV;  84  sq. ;  Lond.  Qu.  Rev.  s., 
545;  Princet.Rev.  xv,  182,  420';  Meth.  Qu.  Rev.  1866,  p. 
137 ;  Christian  Remembr.  1, 130 ;  Evangel.  Qu.  Rev.  1870, 
p.  482  sq. ;  North  Brit.  Reviev;,  xii,  286,  532 ;  1870,  p. 
267  sq.;  New  Engl.  1870  (July),  p.  540;  Am.  Qu.  Con- 
greg.  Rev.  1871,  p.  627;  South.  Rev.  1871  (Jan.),  art.  v. 
See  also  Herzog,  Real-Encyklop.  xix,  458 ;  iii,  666,  tat. 


MARRIAGE 


794 


MARRIAGE 


Ehe ;  and  for  early  literature,  Walch,  Bihl. ;  and  for 
En<?lisli  writers,  especially  sermons  on  this  snbject,  Mal- 
colm, Theol.  Index,  s.  v.  For  modern  half  or  left-hand 
matrimony  in  Cliristendom,  see  JIokgaxatic  Mar- 
lUAtiE.     For  marriage  as  a  sacrament,  see  Matrimony. 

\.  Maj-ria(/e  with  Believers. — The  importance  of  reg- 
ulating the  conjugal  alliance  on  religious  principles  was, 
according  to  the  record  of  the  Old  Testament,  practically 
recognised  at  a  very  early  period.  Indeed,  the  corrup- 
tion of  manners  which  rendered  the  Flood  necessary  is 
directly  traced  to  such  mixed  marriages  (Gen.  vi,  1-4). 
The  intermixture,  by  marriage,  of  the  professed  serv- 
ants and  worshippers  of  God,  with  those  by  whom  his 
authority  was  disowned,  was  first  branded,  and  after- 
wards positively  forbidden  by  divine  authority ;  being 
denounced  as  an  evil,  the  results  of  which  were  most 
injurious  to  the  interests  of  religion,  and  which  exposed 
those  who  fell  into  it  to  the  condign  and  awful  dis- 
pleasure of  the  Most  High  (Exod.  xxxiv,  IG).  Now, 
although  there  were  sojne  circumstances  attending  the 
marriages  in  this  manner  denounced  which  do  not  di- 
rectly apply  to  the  state  of  society  in  our  own  conntrj' 
(especially  the  circumstance  that  the  people  with  whom 
such  intercourse  was  forbidden  were  idolaters),  yet  there 
is  much,  as  must  be  evident  to  every  pious  observer, 
that  illustrates  the  sin  and  danger  of  forming  so  inti- 
mate and  permanent  a  union  in  life  with  the  ungodlj'. 
The  general  fact  is  hence  clearly  deducible  that  there 
is  an  influence  in  marriage  strongly  affecting  the  char- 
acter, which  demands  from  those  who  are  anxious  for 
moral  rectitude  and  improvement  much  of  caution  as  to 
the  manner  in  which  their  affections  are  fixed ;  and  that 
unequal  alliances — alliances  where  the  parties  are  actu- 
ated by  different  spiritual  habits  and  desires,  and  where 
good  is  made  to  meet  and  combine  with  liad,  encounter- 
ing most  imminently  the  danger  of  seduction  and  pollu- 
tion— are  guilty,  unnatural,  and  monstrous.  The  ex- 
j)ression  of  the  divine  authority,  in  application  to  the 
Jews,  is  to  be  regarded  as  comprehending  the  principle 
of  his  people  in  all  ages,  that  here  they  ought  not  to 
walk  in  the  counsel  of  the  ungodly,  nor  to  stand  in  the 
way  of  sinners. 

What  we  thus  are  enabled  to  conclude  from  the  Old 
Testament,  ^vill  be  still  more  distinctly  exemplified  from 
the  Xew.  Tlie  evangelical  writings  do  not,  indeed,  fre- 
quently offer  directions  expressly  on  the  subject  of  mar- 
riage, the  point  appearing  rather  to  be  assumed  than  ar- 
gued, that  in  Christian  marriage  the  husband  and  wife 
ought  both,  in  the  emphatic  terms  of  the  apostle  Peter, 
to  he  and  walk  as  being  "  heirs  together  of  the  grace  of 
life."  In  the  first  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  the  apos- 
tle Paul  applies  himself  to  a  question  which  seems  at 
that  time  to  have  been  agitated — whether  Christians 
who,  yjrevious  to  their  conversion,  had  contracted  mar- 
riages with  unbelievers,  ought  not  to  be  actually  di- 
vorced from  the  wives  or  husbands  remaining  in  unbe- 
lief, because  of  the  evil  and  peril  attending  tlie  continu- 
ance of  the  alliance.  Such  an  extreme,  advocated  by 
some,  he  considers  as  uncalled  for  (1  Cor.  vii,  10-17). 
But,  respecting  the  formation  of  a  new  matrimonial  con- 
nection by  a  believer  (the  case  taken  being  that  of  a 
believing  widow,  though  the  rule,  of  course,  extends  to 
all),  tills  is  the  direction :  "  She  is  at  liberty  to  be  mar- 
ried to  wliom  slic  will,  only  in  the  Lord"  (1  Cor.  vii,  30). 
Here  is  a  simple  proclamation,  the  force  of  whicli  is  per- 
manent, and  in  submission  to  whicli  Christians  in  everv 
period  shuiild  act.  They  are  to  marry  "only  in  the 
Lord."  They,  being  themselves  '•  in  the  Lord" — united 
to  the  Lord  Jesus  Ijy  the  divine  Spirit,  and  possessing  an 
interest  in  the  redeeming  blessings  lie  has  purchased — 
are  to  marry  only  on  Christian  principles,  and,  of  course, 
only  such  as  are  thus  also  "in  the  Lord" — believer  with 
believer,  and  with  none  else.  -This  is  the  obvious  mean- 
ing of  ib.e  passage,  which  no  sophism  can  evade  or  frit- 
ter away. 

It  would  be  eas3'  to  employ  the  attention  further,  on 
the  general  statements  contained  in  the  A\'ord  of  Ciod, 


respecting  the  character  of  separation  from  the  world 
which  ought  to  be  sustained  by  his  Church,  the  ends  for 
which  it  is  called,  and  the  objects  it  is  bound  to  perform  •, 
statements  which  all  bear  on  the  principle  as  to  marriage, 
operating  to  enforce  and  to  confirm  it  (see  especially  2 
Cor.  vi,  l-i-18 ;  vii,  1).  But,  without  amplifying  here, 
and  satisfied  that  this  principle  receives,  from  tlie  testi- 
mony already  quoted,  a  convincing  and  solemn  estab- 
lishment, the  reader  is  requested  to  ponder  a  truth,  which 
is  as  indubitable  as  it  ought  to  be  impressive,  namely, 
that  marriages  formed  by  Christians  in  violation  of  the 
religious  design  of  the  institute,  and  of  the  express  prin- 
ciples of  their  religion,  are  connected  with  evils  many 
and  calamitous,  most  earnestly  to  be  deprecated,  and 
most  cautiously  to  be  avoided.  Is  it,  indeed,  to  be  ex- 
pected, on  the  ground  of  religion,  that  an  act  can  be 
committed  against  the  expressed  will  of  the  Most  High 
God  without  exposing  the  transgressor  to  the  scourge 
of  his  chastisement?  Is  it  to  be  expected,  on  the  ground 
of  reason,  that  an  alliance  can  be  formed  between  indi- 
viduals whose  moral  attributes  and  desires  are  essen- 
tially incompatible  without  creating  the  elements  of 
uneasiness,  discord,  and  disappointment?  Excited  im- 
agination and  passion  may  delude  with  the  belief  of  in- 
nocence and  hope  of  escape,  but  religion  and  reason 
speak  the  language  of  unchangeable  veracity,  and  are 
ever  justified  in  the  fulfilments  of  experience  and  of  fact. 
The  operation  of  the  evil  results  whose  origin  is  thus 
deduced,  is  of  course  susceptible  of  modifications  from 
several  circumstances  in  domestic  and  social  life ;  and, 
for  many  reasons,  the  degrees  of  public  exhibition  and  of 
personal  pressure  may  vary.  1.  Yet  it  may  be  remark- 
ed uniformly,  respecting  these  results — they  are  such  as 
deeplj  affect  the  character.  A  reference  has  already  been 
mad3  to  the  moral  influence  of  marriage,  and  as  the 
marriages  stigmatized  under  the  patriarchal,  and  forbid- 
den and  punished  under  the  Jewish  dispensation,  were 
obnoxious  on  account  of  the  contamination  into  which 
the}^  led  the  professed  people  of  God,  so  are  the  mar- 
riages of  Christians  with  worldlings  in  this  age,  a  icorld'- 
ly  spirit  being  still  the  essence  of  idolatry  (James  iv,  4 ; 
Col.  iii,  5 ;  1  John  ii,  15-17 ;  Matt,  vi,  24),  the  objects  of 
censure  and  deprecation,  because  of  the  baneful  effect 
they  exert  on  those  who  are  numbered  among  the  re- 
deemed of  the  Lord.  Such  marriages  as  these  present 
constant  and  insinuating  temptations  to  seduce  Chris- 
tians to  worldly  dispositions  and  pursuits;  they  enfee- 
ble their  spiritual  energies;  interfere  with  their  com- 
munion with  God ;  hinder  their  growth  in  the  attain- 
ments of  divine  life ;  check  and  oppose  their  perform- 
ance of  duty  and  their  pursuit  of  usefulness,  in  the  fam- 
ily, the  Church,  and  the  world.  There  has  probably  nev- 
er been  known  a  forbidden  marriage  -which,  if  its  original 
character  were  continued,  did  not  pollute  and  injure. 
Some  instances  have  been  most  palpable  and  painful; 
nor  can  it  be  considered  other  than  a  truth,  unquestiona- 
ble and  notorious,  that  whoever  will  so  transgress  invokes 
a  very  bligliting  of  the  soul.  2.  It  may  be  remarked  re- 
specting these  results,  again,  they  are  such  as  deeply  af- 
fect happiness.  Christian  character  and  Christian  hap- 
piness are  closely  connected:  if  the  one  be  hurt,  the 
other  will  not  remain  untouched.  And  who  sees  not  in 
the  unhallowed  alliance  a  gathering  of  the  elements  of 
sorrow  ?  Are  there  not  ample  materials  for  secret  and 
pungent  accusations  of  conscience,  that  agitate  the  heart 
with  the  untold  pangs  of  self-condemnation  ami  re- 
morse? Is  there  not  reason  for  the  bitterness  of  disap- 
pointment, and  the  sadness  of  foreboding  fear,  because 
the  best  intercourse  is  unknown — the  jmrest  affection  is 
impossible — tlie  noblest  union  is  wanting — and  the  being 
on  whom  the  spirit  would  repose  is,  to  all  that  is  the 
sweetest  and  most  sublime  in  human  sympathies,  hu- 
man joys,  and  human  prospects,  an  alien  and  a  stran- 
ger? And  what  must  be  the  liorror  of  that  anticipa- 
tion which  sets  forth  the  event  of  a  final  separation  at 
the  bar  of  God,  when,  while  the  hope  of  personal  salva- 
tion may  be  preserved,  tlie  partner  of  the  bosom  is  seen 


MARRIAGE 


795 


MARRIAGE 


33  one  to  be  condemned  by  the  Judge,  and  banished 
with  everlasting  destruction  from  liis  presence  and  the 
glory  of  his  power!  Oh  the  infatuation  of  the  folly 
which  leads  to  unite,  where  evils  like  these  are  created, 
rather  than  where  God  will  sanction,  and  where  time 
and  eternity  will  both  combine  to  bless !  3.  Its  effects 
upon  what  may  be  regarded  as  the  supreme  end  of  the 
marriage  relation,  the  I'eligious  education  of  children,  is 
another  most  distressing  consideration.  What  must  it 
be !  Wliat  Ilus  it  ever  been !  That  much  injury,  there- 
fore, has  arisen  to  the  public  interests  of  the  Church  of 
Christ  from  this  transgression  cannot  be  doubted.  In- 
jury done  to  individual  character  is  injury  done  to  the 
community  to  which  the  individual  is  attached.  It  has 
always  been  a  fact,  that  whoever  sins  in  the  household 
of  faith,  sins  not  only  against  himself,  but  against  oth- 
ers; and  that  this  transgression  is  one  peculiarly  ex- 
tended in  its  influence,  operating  more  than,  perhaps, 
any  one  else  which  can  be  named  to  bring  religion  from 
its  vantage  ground,  to  clog  its  progress,  and  to  retard  its 
triumph.  See  Coh.^.  jt/«y.  May,  1831 ;  JMalcolni  on  the 
Christian  Rule  ofMarriar/e;  H.More's  CaleVs  in  Search 
of  a  Wife. — Henderson's  Buck,  s.  v. 

Yl.  MiiJ-riage  Ceremonies.  —  In  the  early  Christian 
Church  marriages  were  to  be  notified  to  the  bishop  or 
society,  and  in  the  first  centuries  were  solemnizecl  by 
the  clergy,  but  with  very  many  exceptions.  JMuch  was 
borrowed  from  the  customs  of  the  Roman  law.  Banns 
were  required  about  the  12th  century.  See  Banns. 
No  prescribed  form  for  the  solemnization  of  marriage 
seems  to  have  existed  in  early  times.  Witnesses  were 
retiuircd,  and  the  dowry  was  settled  in  writing.  The 
sponsalia  or  betrothal  preceded,  and  tokens  or  pledges 
were  given  or  exchanged.  The  ceremonies  were  to  all 
appearances  not  regarded  as  essential  by  the  earl}'  Chris- 
tians, but  were  merely  considered  appropriate  and  be- 
coming, and  when  celebrated  were  observed  as  follows : 
"  The  use  of  the  ring,  in  the  rites  both  of  espousal  and 
of  marriage,  is  very  ancient.  It  is  mentioned  both  by 
TertuUiau  and  Clement  of  Alexandria,  the  latter  of 
whom  says,  'It  was  given  her,  not  as  an  ornament;  but 
as  a  seal,  to  signify  the  woman's  duty  in  preserving  the 
goods  of  her  husband,  because  the  care  of  the  house  be- 
longs to  her.'  "  The  crowning  of  the  married  pair  with 
garlands  was  a  marriage-rite  peculiar  to  many  nations 
professing  different  forms  of  religion.  Tertullian  in- 
veighs against  it  with  all  the  zeal  of  a  Montanist,  but  it 
is  spoken  of  with  approbation  by  the  fathers  of  the  4th 
and  5th  centuries,  from  whom  it  appears  that  the  friends 
and  attendants  of  the  bridal  pair  were  adorned  in  the 
same  manner.  These  chaplets  were  usually  made  of 
myrtle,  olive,  amaranth,  rosemary,  and  evergreens,  in- 
termingled with  cypress  and  vervain.  The  croivn,  ap- 
propriately so  called,  was  made  of  olive,  myrtle,  and 
rosemary,  variegated  with  flowers,  and  sometimes  with 
gold  an<l  silver,  pearls,  precious  stones,  etc.  These 
crowns  were  constructed  in  the  form  of  a  pyramid  or 
tower.  Both  the  bride  and  the  bridegroom  were  crown- 
ed in  this  manner,  together  -with  the  groomsman  and 
the  bridesmaid.  The  bride  frequently  appeared  in 
church  thus  attired  on  the  day  when  proclamation  of 
the  banns  was  made.  Chaplets  were  not  worn  by  the 
parties  in  case  of  second  marriage,  nor  by  those  who 
had  been  guilty  of  impropriety  before  marriage.  In 
the  tireek  Church  the  chaplets  were  imposed  by  the 
officiating  minister  at  the  altar.  In  the  Western  Church 
it  was  customary  for  the  parties  to  ])resent  themselves 
thus  attired.  The  wearing  of  a  veil  by  the  bride  was 
borrowed  from  the  Romans.  It  was  also  conformable  to 
the  example  of  Rebecca  (Gen.  xxiv).  From  this  mar- 
riage-rite arose  the  custom  of  taking  the  veil  in  the 
Church  of  Rome.  By  this  act  the  nun  devotes  herself 
to  perpetual  virginity  as  the  spouse  of  Christ,  the  bride- 
groom of  the  Church.  It  appears  to  have  been  custom- 
ary also  to  spread  a  robe  over  the  bridegroom  and  bride, 
called  ritta  nuptiulis, pallium  jiiyale,  etc.,  and  made  of  a 
mixture  of  white  and  red  colors.     Torches  and  lamps 


were  in  use  on  such  occasions,  as  among  the  Jews  and 
pagan  nations.  The  festivities  were  celebrated  by  nup- 
tial processions  going  out  to  meet  the  bridegroom  and 
conductmg  him  home,  by  nuptial  songs  and  music,  and 
marriage  feasts.  These  festivals  were  frequently  the 
subject  of  bitter  animadversion  by  the  fathers,  especial- 
1}'  by  Chrysostom,  and  often  called  for  the  interposition 
of  the  authority  of  the  Church.  At  marriage  festivals 
it  was  customary  to  distribute  alms  to  the  poor.  The 
groomsman  had  various  duties  to  perform — to  accom- 
pany the  parties  to  the  church  at  their  marriage;  to  act 
as  sponsor  for  them  in  their  vows ;  to  assist  in  the  mar- 
riage ceremonies;  to  accompany  them  to  the  house  of 
the  bridegroom ;  to  preside  over  and  direct  the  festivi- 
ties of  the  occasion. 

For  a  considerable  time  the  observance  of  a  marriage- 
ceremony  fell  into  desuetude  among  the  Christians,  to 
remedy  which  certain  laws  enforcing  it  were  enacted  in 
the  8th  century.  The  ceremony  now  differs  in  different 
places.  In  Scotland,  like  all  other  religious  services  of 
that  country,  it  is  extremely  simple,  and  is  performed  in 
the  session-house,  the  residence  of  the  minister,  or  the 
private  house  of  some  friend  of  one  of  the  parties.  In 
Lutheran  countries  it  is  generally  celebrated  in  private 
houses.  In  England, by  the  ancient  common  law,  a  like 
custom  prevailed  as  in  Scotland  until  1757,  when,  by 
lord  Hardwicke's  Act,  a  ceremony  in  a  church  of  the 
state  establishment  was  made  necessary,  and  this  con- 
tinued tin  1830,  when  the  Dissenters  succeeded  in  re- 
moving this  exclusiveness.  Persons  have  now  the  op- 
tion of  two  forms  of  contracting  marriage :  it  may  be 
with  or  without  a  religious  ceremony ;  and,  if  with  a  re- 
ligious ceremony,  it  may  be  either  in  the  established 
church  or  in  a  dissenting  chapel.  If  the  marriage  is  to 
take  place  in  an  established  church,  then  there  must  be 
either  publication  of  banns  of  marriage  for  three  pre- 
ceding successive  Simdays,  or  a  license  or  certificate  ob- 
tained, which  dispenses  with  such  publication ;  and,  in 
either  case,  seven  or  fifteen  days'  previous  residence  in 
the  parish  by  one  of  the  parties  is  necessary',  according 
as  it  is  a  certificate  or  license  respectively  which  is  ap- 
plied for.  The  marriage  must  take  place  in  the  church, 
the  marriage-service  of  the  Church  of  England  being 
read  over,  and  this  must  be  done  in  canonical  hours,  i.  e. 
between  8  and  12  A.M.,  in  presence  of  two  witnesses  at 
the  altar,  before  which,  in  the  body  of  the  church,  the 
parties  are  placed,  after  having  mutually  joined  hands, 
and  pledged  their  mutual  troth,  according  to  a  set  form 
of  words,  Avhicli  they  say  after  the  minister;  the  man 
gives  a  ring  to  the  woman,  then  laj's  it  on  the  book, 
with  the  accustomed  duty  to  the  priest  and  clerk.  The 
priest  then  takes  the  ring  and  delivers  it  to  the  man, 
whom  he  instructs  to  put  it  on  the  fourth  finger  of  the 
woman's  left  hand,  and,  holding  it  there,  to  repeat  the 
words, "  With  this  ring  I  thee  wed,  with  my  body  I  thee 
worship,  and  with  all  my  worldly  goods  I  thee  endo-w. 
In  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.  Amen."  The  minister  next  joins  their 
right  hands  together,  and,  after  prayers  and  blessings, 
during  certain  parts  of  which  the  man  and  woman  kneel 
before  the  altar,  they  are  dismissed  with  the  reading  of 
a  part  of  the  Prayer-book,  which  points  out  the  duties 
of  the  marriage  state.  If  the  marriage  is  celebrated  in 
a  dissenting  chapel  (and  for  that  purpose  such  chapel 
must  be  duly  licensed  and  registered!,  there  must  be 
present  the  superintendent-registrar  of  the  district  as 
one  of  the  witnesses,  but  the  dissenting  clergyman  may 
use  his  own  or  any  kind  of  form  of  service.  If  the  mar- 
riage is  not  to  be  with  any  religious  ceremony,  then  it 
must  take  place  in  the  office  of  the  superintendent-reg- 
istrar, and  in  presence  of  witnesses,  the  essential  thing 
being  that  both  parties  should  in  the  presence  of  wit- 
nesses there  exchange  a  declaration  that  they  take  each 
other  for  man  and  wife.  The  canonical  hours  must  be 
attended  to  in  all  cases,  and  the  condition  of  previous 
residence  bj'  one  of  the  parties  in  the  district ;  but  the 
condition  of  residence  is  often  evaded.     In  all  cases  the 


MARRIAGE 


V96 


MARRIAGE 


fact  of  the  marriage  must  be  entered  in  a  register,  which 
register  is  kept  by  a  public  ofticer,  and  ultimately  filed 
and  kept  in  Somerset  House,  Loudon,  where  a  copy  of 
the  certificate  of  registration  of  every  marriage  in  Eng- 
land can  at  all  times  be  had  for  a  small  sum. 

In  the  United  States  of  xYmerica  the  customs  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland  are  followed  by  the  Presbyterian 
and  Congregational  churches,  and  measurably  also  by 
tlie  Baptists.  The  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  ad- 
heres closely  to  the  practices  of  the  Church  of  England, 
and  from  the  latter  the  IMethodists  also,  in  a  somewhat 
modified  form,  have  copied  in  this  particular.  Minor 
ecclesiastical  bodies  of  the  Christian  Church  follow  the 
practices  of  one  or  the  other  of  the  churches  mentioned. 
The  laws  of  the  several  states  differ  someAvhat  as  to  the 
matter  of  marriage  ceremonies,  but  they  are  adapted  to 
the  usages  of  all  acknowledged  Christian  denominations, 
and  recognise  the  validity  of  the  act  whether  performed 
by  a  clergyman  or  magistrate,  or  by  a  simple  contract 
before  witnesses. 

Peculiar  usages  are  found  in  some  of  the  Eastern 
churches  of  to-daj^  In  Kussia  the  bride  and  bride- 
groom hold  a  lighted  taper  in  their  hands  in  front  of  a 
small  altar  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  church.  Kings 
are  placed  on  their  fingers,  and,  their  hands  being  join- 
ed, they  are  led  by  the  priest  three  times  round  the  altar. 
Two  highly-ornamented  gilt  crowns  are  placed  on  their 
heads,  and  held  over  them  by  the  groomsman  during  a 
part  of  the  service.  They  drink  wine  out  of  a  cup  three 
times,  and,  kissing  one  another,  the  ceremony  is  finished. 
The  married  couple  then  make  the  tour  of  the  church, 
crossing  themselves  at  and  saluting  each  saintly  image 
on  their  way.  Weddings  generally  take  place  towards 
evening,  so  that  immediately  after  the  ceremony  dinner 
commences  at  the  house  of  the  bride's  father.  At  a 
marriage-ft^ast  lighted  candles  are  placed  in  every  posi- 
tion and  corner  possible.  No  other  wine  but  cham- 
pagne is  drunk,  and  the  quantity  of  this  beverage  con- 
sumed is  remarkable.  The  dinner  is  followed  by  a  ball, 
and  the  feasting  is  usually  kept  up  for  twenty-four  hours. 
The  custom  of  honeymoon  does  not  exist  in  Kussia. 
The  married  couple  spend  the  first  few  days  of  their 
■Nvedded  life  witli  the  bride's  father.  Shortlj'  after  the 
marriage  the  bride  and  bridegroom  must  call  upon  every 
one  of  their  relations,  friends,  and  acquaintances,  and 
after  this  ceremony  is  finished  they  sinlv  back  into  their 
ordinary  life  (^Ivan  at  Home).  For  the  Roman  Catholic 
view  of  marriage,  see  Matrimony. 

IMARKIAGE,  Heathen,  Under  this  head,  as  being 
most  akin  to  the  ancient  Hebrew,  and  perhaps  best  rep- 
resenting the  general  type  of  Oriental  matrimony,  we 
begin  with — 

I.  Mohammedan, — The  following  description  of  this 
(condensed  from  Lane's  Modern  Egyptians)  applies  es- 
pecially to  Cairo,  but  wiU  serve  for  a  general  illustration 
in  most  Moslem  countries.  To  abstain  from  marrying 
when  a  man  has  attained  a  sufHcient  age,  and  when 
there  is  no  just  impediment,  is  esteemed  by  the  Egyp- 
tians improper,  and  even  disreputable.  Oriental  females 
arrive  at  puberty  much  earlier  than  the  natives  of  colder 
climates.  Many  marry  at  the  age  of  twelve  or  thirteen 
years;  few  remain  unmarried  after  sixteen  years  of  age. 
An  Egyptian  girl  at  the  age  of  thirteen,  or  even  earlier, 
may  be  a  mother.  It  is  very  common  among  the  Arabs 
of  Egypt  and  of  other  countries,  but  less  so  in  Cairo 
than  in  other  parts  of  Egypt,  for  a  man  to  marry  his 
first  cousin.  In  this  case  the  husband  and  wife  con- 
tinue to  call  each  other  "  cousin ;"  because  the  tie  of 
blood  is  indissoluble,  but  that  of  matrimony  very  preca- 
rious. Most  commonly  the  mother,  or  some  other  near 
female  relation  of  the  youth  or  man  who  is  desirous  of 
obtaining  a  wife,  describes  to  him  the  personal  and 
other  qualifications  of  the  young  women  with  whom  she 
is  acquainted,  and  directs  his  choice ;  or  he  emploj-s  a 
woman  whose  regular  business  it  is  to  assist  men  in  suc<Ji 
cases.  The  parents  may  betroth  their  daughter  to  whom 
they  please,  and  raarrj^  her  to  him  witliout  her  consent 


if  she  be  not  arrived  at  the  age  of  puberty,  but  after  she 
has  attained  that  age  she  may  choose  a  husband  for 
herself,  and  appoint  any  man  to  arrange  and  effect  her 
marriage.  In  the  former  case,  however,  the  relations 
of  a  girl  sought  in  marriage  usually  endeavor  to  obtain 
her  consent  to  the  proposed  union.  The  bridegroom 
can  scarcely  ever  obtain  even  a  surreptitious  glance  at 
the  features  of  his  bride  until  he  finds  her  m  his  abso- 
lute possession,  unless  she  belong  to  the  loAver  classes  of 
society ;  in  which  case  it  is  easy  enough  for  him  to  see 
her  face.  When  a  female  is  about  to  marry,  she  should 
have  a  deputy  to  settle  the  compact  and  conclude  the 
contract  for  her  with  her  proposed  husband.  If  she  be 
under  the  age  of  puberty  this  is  absolutely  necessary ; 
and  in  this  case  her  father,  if  living,  or  (if  he  be  dead) 
her  nearest  ad\dt  male  relation,  or  a  guardian  appointed 
by  will  or  by  the  magistrate,  performs  the  office  of  dep- 
uty ;  but  if  she  be  of  age  she  appoints  her  own  deputy, 
or  may  even  make  the  contract  herself,  though  this  is 
seldom  done.  After  a  youth  or  man  has  made  choice 
of  a  female  to  demand  in  marriage,  on  the  report  of  his 
female  relations,  and,  by  proxy,  made  the  preliminary 
arrangements  before  described  with  her  and  her  rela- 
tions, he  repairs,  with  two  or  three  of  his  friends,  to  her 
deputy.  Having  obtained  consent  to  the  imion,  if  the 
intended  bride  be  under  age,  he  asks  what  is  the  amount 
of  tlie  required  dowry.  The  giving  of  a  dowry  is  indis- 
pensable. It  is  generally  stipidated  that  two  thirds  of 
tlie  dowrj'  shall  be  paid  immediately  before  the  mar- 
riage-contract is  made,  and  the  remaining  third  held  in 
reserve,  to  be  paid  to  the  wife  in  case  of  divorcing  her 
against  her  own  consent,  or  in  case  of  the  husband's 
death.  This  affair  being  settled,  and  confirmed  by  all 
persons  present  reciting  the  opening  chapter  of  the  Ko- 
ran, an  early  day  (perhaps  the  day  next  following)  is 
appointed  for  paying  the  money,  and  performing  the 
ceremony  of  the  marriage-contract ;  but  it  is  very  sel- 
dom the  case  that  any  document  is  written  to  confirm 
the  marriage,  unless  the  bridegroom  is  about  to  travel 
to  another  place,  and  fears  that  he  may  have  occasion 
to  prove  his  marriage  where  witnesses  of  the  contract 
cannot  be  procured.  Sometimes  the  marri,age-contract 
is  concluded  immediately  after  the  arrangement  respect- 
ing the  dowry,  but  more  generally  a  day  or  two  after. 
On  the  day  appointed  for  this  ceremony  the  bridegroom, 
again  accompanied  by  tAvo  or  three  of  his  friends,  goes 
to  the  house  of  the  bride,  usually  about  noon,  taking 
with  him  that  portion  of  the  do^vry  which  he  has  prom- 
ised to  pay  on  this  occasion.  It  is  necessary  that  there 
be  two  witnesses  (and  those  must  be  Moslems)  to  the 
marriage-contract,  unless  in  a  situation  where  witnesses 
cannot  be  procured.  All  persons  present  recite  the  same 
chapter  of  the  Koran,  and  the  bridegroom  then  pays  the 
money.  After  this  the  marriage-contract  is  performed. 
It  is  very  simple.  The  bridegroom  and  the  bride's  dep- 
uty sit  upon  the  ground  face  to  face,  with  one  knee  upon 
the  ground,  and  grasp  each  other's  right  hand,  raising 
the  thumbs,  and  pressing  them  against  each  other. 
A  schoolmaster  is  generally  employed  to  instruct  them 
what  they  are  to  say.  Having  jilaced  a  handkerchief 
over  their  closed  hands,  he  usually  prefaces  the  words 
of  the  contract  with  a  few  words  of  exhortation  and 
praj'er,  with  quotations  from  the  Koran  and  Traditions, 
on  the  excellency  and  advantages  of  marriage.  He  then 
desires  the  bride's  deputy  to  say,  "  I  betroth  [or  marry] 
to  thee  my  daughter  [or  the  female  who  has  ajipointed 
me  her  deputy],  such  a  one  [naming  the  bride],  the 
virgin  [or  the  adult  virgin],  for  a  doivry  of  such  an 
amount."  (The  words  "  for  a  dowTy,"  etc.,  are  sometimes 
omitted.)  The  bridegroom  says,  '"I  accept  from  thee 
her  betrothal  [or  marriage]  to  myself  and  take  Jier  un- 
der my  care,  and  bind  myself  to  afford  her  my  protec- 
tion ;  and  ye  who  are  present  bear  witness  of  this."  The 
deputy  addresses  the  bridegroom  in  the  same  manner  a 
second  and  a  third  time,  and  e,ach  time  the  latter  replies 
as  before.  They  then  generally  add,  "  And  blessing  be  on 
the  apostles,  and  praise  be  to  God,  the  Lord  of  all  creat- 


MAKRIAGE 


f97 


MARRIAGE 


-^Wimr^^Zi^mm 


V~M 


Mohammedan  Bridal  Proccssiou. 


ures ;  amen :"  after  which  all  present  repeat  the  same 
chapter.  It  is  not  always  the  same  form  that  is  recited 
on  these  occasions :  any  form  may  be  used,  and  it  may 
be  repeated  by  any  person ;  it  is  not  even  necessarj',  and 
is  often  altogether  omitted.  The  contract  concluded, 
the  bridegroon)  sometimes  (but  seldom  unless  he  be  a 
person  of  the  lower  orders)  kisses  the  hands  of  his  friends 
and  others  there  present ;  and  they  are  presented  with 
sherbet,  and  generally  remain  to  dinner.  Each  of  them 
receives  an  embroidered  handkerchief,  provided  by  the 
family  of  the  bride.  Before  the  persons  assembled  on 
this  occasion  disperse,  tliey  settle  upon  the  night  wlien 
the  bride  is  to  be  brought  to  the  liouse  of  the  bridegroom, 
and  the  latter,  for  the  tirst  time,  is  to  visit  her. 

In  general,  the  bridegroom  waits  for  his  bride  about 
eight  or  ten  days  after  the  conclusion  of  the  contract. 
Meanwhile  he  sends  to  her,  two  or  three  or  more  times, 
some  fruit,  sweetmeats,  etc. ;  and  perhaps  makes  her  a 
present  of  a  shawl,  or  some  other  article  of  value.  The 
bride's  family  arc  at  the  same  time  occupied  in  prepar- 
ing for  her  a  stock  of  houseliold  furnitiu-e  and  dress. 
The  portion  of  the  dowry  which  lias  been  paid  by  the 
bridegroom,  and  generally  a  much  larger  sum  (the  addi- 
tional money,  which  is  often  more  than  the  do\rr3'  itself, 
being  supplied  by  the  bride's  family),  is  expended  in 
purchasing  the  articles  of  furniture,  dress,  and  ornaments 
for  the  bride.  These  articles  are  the  property  of  the 
bride,  and,  if  she  be  divorced,  she  takes  them  away  with 
her.  She  cannot,  therefore,  with  truth  be  said  to  be 
purchased.  The  furniture  is  sent,  commonly  borne  by 
a  train  of  camels,  to  the  bridegroom's  house.  Often 
among  the  articles  is  a  chair  for  the  turban  or  head- 
dress. There  are  sometimes  sent  two  of  these  chairs, 
one  for  the  husband  and  the  other  for  the  wife.  The 
bridegroom  should  receive  his  bride  on  tlie  eve  of  Fri- 
day, or  that  of  Monday;  but  the  former  is  generally  es- 
teemed the  more  fortunate  period.  During  two  or  three 
or  more  preceding  nights  the  street  or  quarter  in  which 
the  bridegroom  lives  is  illuminated  with  chandeliers  and 
lanterns  (q.  v.).  An  entertainment  is  also  given  on  each 
of  these  nights,  particularly  on  the  last  night  before  that 
on  which  the  wedding  is  concluded,  at  the  bridegroom's 
house.  On  these  occasions  it  is  customary  for  the  per- 
sons invited,  and  for  all  intimate  friends,  to  send  pres- 
ents to  his  house  a  day  or  two  before  the  feast  which 
they  purpose  or  expect  to  attend :  tliey  generally  send 
sugar,  coffee,  rice,  wax  candles,  or  a  lamb;  the  former 
articles  are  usually  placed  upon  a  tray  of  copper  or  wood, 


and  covered  with  a  silk  or  embroidered  kerchief.  The 
guests  are  entertained  on  these  occasions  bj^  musicians 
and  male  or  female  singers,  b)'  dancing  girls,  or  by  some 
other  performance. 

On  the  preceding  Wednesday  (or  on  the  Saturday  if 
the  wedding  is  to  conclude  on  the  eve  of  Monday),  at 
about  the  hour  of  noon,  or  a  little  later,  the  bride  goes 
in  state  to  the  bath.  In  general  the  tirst  persons  among 
the  bride's  party  arc  several  of  her  married  female  rela- 
tions and  friends,  walking  in  pairs,  and  next  a  number 
of  young  virgins.  The  former  are  dressed  in  the  usual 
manner,  covered  with  the  black  silk  shawl ;  the  latter 
have  white  silk  shawls.  Then  follows  the  bride,  walk- 
ing under  a  canopy  of  silk,  of  some  gay  color,  as  pink, 
rose-color,  or  yellow,  or  of  two  colors  composing  wide 
stripes,  often  rose-color  and  yellow.  It  is  carried  by 
four  men,  by  means  of  a  pole  at  each  corner,  and  is  open 
only  in  front ;  and  at  the  top  of  each  of  the  four  poles 
is  attached  an  embroidered  handkerchief.  The  dress 
of  the  bride  during  this  procession  entirely  conceals  her 
person.  She  is  generally  covered  from  head  to  foot 
with  a  red  shawl,  or  with  a  white  or  yellow  shawl, 
though  rarely.  Upon  her  head  is  placed  a  small  paste- 
board cap  or  crown.  The  shawl  is  placed  over  this,  and 
conceals  from  the  view  of  the  public  the  richer  articles 
of  her  dress,  her  face,  and  her  jewels,  etc.,  excepting 
one  or  two  ornaments,  generally  of  diamonds  and  emer- 
alds, attached  to  that  part  of  the  shawl  which  covers 
her  forehead.  She  is  accompanied  by  two  or  three  of 
her  female  relations  within  the  canopy  ;  and  often, 
when  in  hot  weather,  a  woman,  walkmg  back^vards  be- 
fore her,  is  constantly  employed  in  fanning  her  with  a 
large  fan  of  black  ostrich  feathers,  the  lower  part  of  the 
front  of  which  is  usually  ornamented  with  a  piece  of 
looking-glass.  Sometimes  one  procession,  with  a  single 
canopy,  serve§  for  two  brides,  who  walk  side  b}'  side. 
The  procession  moves  very  slowly,  and  generally  pur- 
sues a  circuitous  route,  for  the  sake  of  greater  displa}-. 
On  leaving  the  house  it  turns  to  the  right.  It  is  closed 
by  a  second  part}'  of  musicians,  similar  to  the  first,  or  by 
two  or  three  drummers.  The  whole  bath  is  sometimes 
hired  for  the  bride  and  her  part}-  exclusively.  They 
pass  several  hours,  seldom  less  than  two,  occupied  in 
washuig,  sporting,  and  feasting ;  and  frequently  female 
singers  are  hired  to  amuse  them  in  the  bath  :  they  then 
return  in  the  same  order  in  which  they  came.  Having 
returned  from  the  Ijath  to  the  house  of  her  family,  the 
bride  and  her  companions  sup  together.    If  singers  have 


MARRIAGE 


798 


MARRIAGE 


contributed  to  the  festivity  in  the  bath,  they  also  return 
with  the  bride  to  renew  their  concert.  Their  songs  are 
always  on  tlie  subject  of  love,  and  of  the  joyous  event 
which  occasions  their  presence.  It  is  on  this  night,  and 
sometimes  also  during  the  latter  half  of  the  preceding 
day,  that  the  bridegroom  gives  his  chief  entertainment. 
Low  farce-players  often  perform  on  this  occasion  before 
the  house,  or,  if  it  be  large  enough,  in  the  court.  The 
other  and  more  common  performances  by  wliich  the 
guests  are  amused  have  been  before  mentioned. 

On  the  following  day  the  bride  goes  in  procession  to 
the  house  of  the  bridegroom.  Tlie  ceremony  usually 
occupies  three  or  more  hours.  Sometimes,  before  bridal 
processions  of  this  kind,  two  swordsmen,  clad  in  nothing 
but  their  drawers,  engage  each  other  in  a  mock  combat ; 
or  two  peasants  cudgel  each  other  with  long  staves. 
The  bride  and  her  party,  having  arrived  at  the  bride- 
groom's house,  sit  down  to  a  repast.  Her  friends  short- 
h'  after  take  their  departure,  leaving  with  her  only  her 
mother  and  sister,  or  other  near  female  relations,  and 
one  or  two  other  women.  The  bridegroom  sits  below. 
Before  sunset  he  goes  to  the  bath,  and  there  changes  his 
clothes ;  or  he  merely  does  the  latter  at  home,  and,  after 
having  supped  with  a  party  of  his  friends,  -waits  till  a 
little  before  the  time  of  the  night-prayer,  or  until  the 
third  or  fourth  hour  of  the  night,  when,  according  to 
general  custom,  he  should  repair  to  some  celebrated 
mosque,  such  as  that  of  the  Hasaneyn,  and  there  say 
his  prayers.  The  party  usually  proceeds  to  the  mosque 
with  a  quick  pace,  and  without  much  order.  A  second 
group  of  musicians,  with  the  same  instruments,  or  with 
drums  onh',  closes  the  procession.  The  prayers  are 
commonly  performed  merely  as  a  matter  of  ceremony; 
and  it  is  frequently  the  case  that  the  bridegroom  does 
not  pray  at  all.  The  procession  returns  from  the  mosque 
with  more  order  and  display,  and  very  slowly ;  perhaps 
because  it  would  be  considered  unbecoming  in  the  bride- 
groom to  hasten  home  to  take  possession  of  his  bride. 
Soon  after  his  return  from  the  mosque,  the  bridegroom 
leaves  his  friends  in  a  lower  apartment,  enjoying  their 
pipes,  and  coffee,  and  sherbet.  The  bride's  mother  and 
sister,  or  whatever  other  female  relations  were  left  with 
her,  are  above,  and  the  bride  herself  and  her  companion 
in  a  separate  apartment.  If  the  bridegroom  be  a  youth 
or  young  man,  it  is  considered  proper  that  he,  as  AveU 
as  the  bride,  should  exhibit  some  degree  -of  bashfulness: 
one  of  his  friends  therefore  carries  him  a  part  of  the  way 
up  to  the  room.  On  entering  the  bride's  apartment  he 
gives  a  present  to  her  companion,  who  then  retires.  The 
bride  has  a  shawl  thrown  over  her  head,  and  the  bride- 
groom must  give  her  a  present  of  money,  which  is  called 
"  the  price  of  the  uncovering  of  the  face,"  before  he  at- 
tempts to  remove  this,  which  she  does  not  allow  him  to 
do  without  some  apparent  reluctance,  if  not  violent  re- 
sistance, in  order  to  show  her  maiden  modesty.  The 
bridegroom  now  sees  the  face  of  his  bride  for  the  first 
time,  and  generally  finds  her  nearly  what  he  has  been 
led  to  expect.  He  remains  with  her  but  a  few  minutes: 
having  satisfied  his  curiosity  respecting  her  personal 
charms,  he  calls  to  the  women  (who  generally  collect  at 
the  door,  where  they  wait  in  anxious  suspense)  to  raise 
their  cries  of  joy,  and  tlie  shrill  sounds  acquaint  the  per- 
sons below  and  in  the  iieighlxirhood,  and  often,  respond- 
ed by  other  women,  spread  still  further  the  news  that 
he  has  acknowledged  himself  satisfied  with  his  bride: 
he  soon  after  descends  to  rejoin  his  friends,  and  remains 
with  them  an  hour  or  more  before  he  returns  to  his 
wife.  It  very  seldom  happens  that  the  husband,  if  dis- 
appointed in  his  bride,  immediately  disgraces  and  tli- 
vorces  her ;  in  general  he  retains  her  a  week  or  more, 
even  if  dissatistied  with  her. 

IMarriagcs  are  sometimes  conducted  without  any  pomp 
or  ceremony,  even  in  the  case  of  virgins,  by  mutual  con- 
sent of  the  bridegroom  and  the  bride's  family,  or  the 
bride  herself;  and  widows  or  divorced  women  are  never 
honored  with  a  procession  on  marrying  again.  The 
mere  sentence,  "  I  give  myself  up  to  thee,"  uttered  by  a 


female  to  a  man  who  proposes  to  become  her  husband 
(even  without  the  presence  of  witnesses,  if  none  can 
easily  be  procured),  renders  her  his  legal  wife,  if  arrived 
at  puberty ;  and  marriages  with  widows  and  divorced 
women,  among  the  Moslems  of  Egypt,  and  other  Arabs, 
are  sometimes  concluded  in  this  simple  manner.  The 
dowry  of  such  women  is  generally  one  quarter,  or  third, 
or  half  the  amount  of  that  of  a  virgin.  Among  persons 
not  of  the  lowest  order,  though  in  very  humble  life,  the 
marriage  ceremonies  are  conducted  in  the  same  manner 
as  among  the  midtUe  orders.  But  when  the  expenses 
cannot  by  any  means  be  paid,  the  bride  is  paraded  in  a 
very  simple  manner,  covered  with  a  shawl  (generally 
red),  and  surrounded  by  a  group  of  her  female  relations 
and  friends,  dressed  in  their  best,  or  in  borrowed  clothes, 
and  enlivened  bj'  no  other  sounds  of  joy  than  their 
shrill  cry,  which  they  repeat  at  frequent  intervals.  The 
general  mode  of  processions  among  the  inhabitants  of 
the  villages  is  different  from  those  above  described.  The 
bride,  usually  covered  with  a  sha^vl,  is  seated  on  a  cam- 
el, and  so  conveyed  to  the  bridegroom's  dwelling.  Some- 
times four  or  five  women  or  girls  sit  with  her  on  the 
same  camel,  one  on  either  side  of  her,  and  two  or  three 
others  behind,  the  seat  being  made  very  wide,  and  usu- 
ally covered  -with  carpets  or  other  drapery.  She  is  fol- 
l(jwed  by  a  group  of  women  singing.  In  the  evening  of 
the  wedding,  and  often  during  several  previous  even- 
ings, in  a  village,  the  male  and  female  friends  of  the 
two  parties  meet  at  the  bridegroom's  house,  and  pass 
several  hours  of  the  night  in  the  open  air,  amusing 
themselves  with  songs  and  a  rude  kind  of  dance,  accom- 
panied by  the  sounds  of  a  tambourine,  or  some  kind  of 
drum :  both  sexes  sing,  but  only  the  women  dance. 

II.  Ancient  Parjan,  i.e.  1.  Greek. — The  ancient  Greek 
legislators  considered  the  relation  of  marriage  as  a  mat- 
ter not  merely  of  private,  but  also  of  public  or  general 
interest.  This  was  particularly  the  case  at  Sparta, 
where  proceedmgs  might  be  taken  against  those  who 
married  too  late  or  imsuitably,  as  well  as  against  those 
who  did  not  marry  at  all.  But,  independent  of  public 
considerations,  there  were  also  private  or  personal  rea- 
sons, peculiar  to  the  ancients,  which  made  marriage  an 
obligation.  One  of  these  was  the  duty  incumbent  upon 
every  individual  to  provide  for  a  continuance  of  repre- 
sentatives to  succeed  himself  as  ministers  of  the  divini- 
ty ;  and  another  was  the  desire  felt  by  almost  every  one, 
not  merely  to  perpetuate  his  own  name,  but  to  leave 
some  one  who  might  make  the  customary  oifcrings  at 
his  grave.  We  are  told  that  with  this  view  childless 
persons  sometimes  adopted  children.  The  choice  of  a 
wife  among  the  ancients  was  but  rarely  grounded  upon 
affection,  and  scarcely  ever  eoidd  have  been  the  result 
of  previous  acquaintance  or  familiarity.  In  many  cases 
a  father  chose  for  his  son  a  bride  whom  the  latter  had 
never  seen,  or  compelled  him  to  marry  for  the  sake  of 
checking  his  extravagances. 

By  the  Athenian  laws  a  citizen  was  not  allowed  to 
marry  a  foreign  woman,  nor  conversely,  under  very  se- 
vere penalties;  but  proximity  by  blood  (ciyxia-tui)  or 
consanguinity  (avyyivtia)  was  not,  with  some  few  ex- 
ceptions, a  bar  to  marriage  in  anj^  part  of  Greece :  di- 
rect lineal  descent  was.  At  Athens  the  most  important 
preliminary  to  marriage  was  the  betrothal  (tyyv'inic), 
^vhich  was  in  fact  indispensable  to  the  complete  validity 
of  a  marriage-contract.  It  was  made  by  tlie  natural  or 
legal  guardian  (u  Kupiog)  of  the  bride  elect,  and  attend- 
ed by  the  relatives  of  both  parties  as  witnesses.  The 
wife's  dowry  was  settled  at  the  betrothal.  On  the  day 
before  the  r/amos,  or  marriage,  or  sometimes  on  the  day 
itself,  certain  sacrifices  or  oflerings  {-n-po-fXeia  ya\U3iv 
or  TTpoya^nta)  were  made  to  the  gods  who  presided 
over  marriage.  Another  ceremony  of  almost  general 
observance  on  the  wedding-day  was  the  bathing  of  both 
the  bride  and  bridegroom  in  water  fetched  from  some 
particular  fountain,  whence,  as  some  think,  the  custom 
of  placing  the  figure  of  a  Xoi'rpo^opoc,  or  "  water  car- 
rier," over  the  tombs  of  those  who  died  unmarried.    Af- 


MARRIAGE 


V99 


MARRIAGE 


tcr  these  preliminaries,  the  bride  ■was  generally  conduct- 
ed from  her  lather's  to  the  house  of  the  bridegroom  at 
nightfall,  in  a  chariot  (t^'  ujia'£,i](;')  drawn  by  a  pair  of 
mules  or  oxen,  and  furnished  with  a  kind  of  couch 
(kXiv'ic)  as  a  seat.  On  either  side  of  her  sat  the  bride- 
groom and  one  of  his  most  intimate  friends  or  relations, 
who  from  his  office  was  called  the  paranymph  {napci- 
vvficpoi;  or  vvfKpevTi'ig) ;  but,  as  he  rode  in  the  carriage 
(oX^jfici)  with  the  bride  and  bridegroom,  he  was  some- 
times called  the  Trapoxof-  The  nuptial  procession  was 
probably  accompanied,  according  to  circumstances,  by  a 
number  of  persons,  some  of  whom  carried  the  nuptial 
torches.  Both  bride  and  bridegroom  (the  former  veiled) 
were  decked  out  in  their  best  attire,  with  chaplets  on 
their  heads,  and  the  doors  of  their  houses  were  hung 
with  festoons  of  ivy  and  bay.  As  the  bridal  procession 
moved  along,  the  hymenajan  song  was  sung  to  the  ac- 
companiment of  Lydian  tiutes,  even  in  olden  times,  as 
beautifully  described  by  Homer,  and  the  married  pair 
received  the  greetings  and  congratidations  of  those  who 
met  them.  After  entering  the  bridegroom's  house,  into 
which  the  bride  was  probably  conducted  by  his  mother, 
bearing  a  lighted  torch,  it  was  customary  to  shower 
sweetmeats  upon  them  (jcaTaxi'dHaTa),  as  emblems  of 
plentj'  and  prosperity.  After  this  came  the  nuptial 
feast,  to  which  the  name  gumos  was  particularly  ap- 
plied ;  it  was  generally  given  in  the  house  of  the  bride- 
groom or  his  parents,  and,  besides  being  a  festive  meet- 
ing, served  other  and  more  important  purposes.  There 
Avas  no  public  rite,  whether  civil  or  religious,  connected 
with  the  celebration  of  marriage  among  the  ancient 
Greeks,  and  therefore  no  public  record  of  its  solemniza- 
tion. This  deficiency  then  was  supplied  by  the  mar- 
riage-feast, for  the  guests  were  of  course  competent  to 
prove  the  fact  of  a  marriage  having  taken  place.  To 
this  feast,  contrary  to  the  usual  practice  among  the 
Greeks,  women  were  invited  as  well  as  men ;  but  they 
seem  to  have  sat  at  a  separate  table,  with  the  bride, 
still  veiled,  among  them.  At  the  conclusion  of  this 
feast  she  was  conducted  by  her  husband  into  the  bridal 
chamber ;  and  a  law  of  Solon  required  that,  on  entering 
it,  they  should  eat  a  quince  together,  as  if  to  inc'.icate 
that  their  conversation  ought  to  be  sweet  and  agveea- 
ble.  The  song  called  the  Epithdlamium  -ivas  then  sung 
before  the  doors  of  the  bridal  chamber.  The  day  after 
the  marriage,  the  first  of  the  bride's  residence  in  her 
new  abode,  was  called  the  epxiulia  {InavXia),  on  which 
their  friends  sent  the  customary  presents  to  the  newly- 
married  couple.  On  another  day,  the  ajunilia  {cnrcw- 
\ia),  perhaps  the  second  after  marriage,  the  bridegroom 
left  his  house  to  lodge  apart  from  his  wife  at  his  father's- 
in-law.  Some  of  the  presents  made  to  the  bride  by  her 
husband  and  friends  were  called  muicali/pteria  (avaica- 
Xv-iTTi'ipia),  as  being  given  on  the  occasion  of  the  bride 
lirst  appearing  unveiled ;  they  were  probably  given  on 
the  ejMidia,  or  daj'  after  the  marriage.  Another  cere- 
mony observed  after  marriage  was  the  sacrifice  which 
the  husband  offered  up  on  the  occasion  of  his  bride  be- 
ing registered  among  his  own  phra  tores. 

The  above  account  refers  to  Athenian  customs.  At 
Sparta  the  betrothal  of  the  bride  by  her  father  or  guar- 
dian (Ki'iptoc)  was  requisite  as  a  preliminary  of  marriage, 
as  well  as  at  Athens.  Another  custoin  peculiar  to  the 
Spartans,  and  a  relic  of  ancient  times,  was  the  seizure 
of  the  bride  by  her  intended  husband,  but  of  course  with 
the  sanction  of  her  parents  or  guardians.  She  was  not, 
however,  immediately  domiciled  in  her  husband's  house, 
but  cohabited  with  him  for  some  time  clandestinely,  till 
he  brought  her,  and  frequently  her  mother  also,  to  his 
home. 

The  (ireeks,  generally  speaking,  entertained  little  re- 
gard for  the  female  character.  They  considered  women, 
in  fact,  as  decidedly  inferior  to  men,  qualified  to  dis- 
charge only  the  subordinate  functions  in  life,  and  rather 
necessary  as  helpmates  than  agreeable  as  companions. 
To  these  notions  female  education  for  the  most  part  cor- 
responded, and,  in  fact,  it  confirmed  them ;  it  did  not  sup- 


ply the  elegant  accomplishment  and  refinement  of  man- 
ners whicli  permanently  engage  the  affections  when 
other  attractions  have  passed  away.  Aristotle  states 
that  the  relation  of  man  to  woman  is  that  of  the  gov- 
ernor to  the  subject;  and  Plato,  that  a  woman's  virtue 
may  be  summed  up  in  a  few  words,  for  she  has  only  to 
manage  the  house  well,  keeping  what  there  is  in  it,  and 
obeying  her  husband.  Among  the  Dorians,  however, 
and  especially  at  Sparta,  women  enjoyed  much  more  es- 
timation than  in  the  rest  of  Greece. 

2.  Roman — A  legal  Eoman  marriage  was  called  juste 
niqitiw,  justum  matrimonium,  as  being  conformable  to 
jus  (civile)  or  to  law.  A  legal  marriage  was  either  cu7n 
conventione  uxoris  in  mitnmn  riri,  or  it  was  without  this 
conventio.  But  both  forms  of  marriage  agreed  in  this  : 
there  must  be  connubium  between  the  parties,  and  con- 
sent. The  legal  consequences  as  to  the  power  of  the 
father  over  his  children  were  the  same  in  both. 

Connubium  is  merely  a  term  which  comprehends  all 
the  conditions  of  a  legal  marriage.  Generally  it  may 
be  stated  that  there  was  only  connubium  between  Eo~ 
man  citizens ;  the  cases  in  which  it  at  any  time  existed 
between  parties  not  both  Eoman  citizens,  were  excep- 
tions to  the  general  rule.  Originally,  or  at  least  at  one 
period  of  the  republic,  there  was  no  connubium  between 
the  patricians  and  the  plebeians ;  but  this  was  altered 
by  the  Lex  Cannleia  (B.C.  445),  which  allowed  connu- 
bium between  persons  of  those  two  classes.  There  were 
various  degrees  of  consanguinity  and  affinity  within 
which  there  was  no  connubium.  An  illegal  union  of  a 
male  and  female,  though  affecting  to  be,  was  not  a  mar- 
riage :  the  man  had  no  legal  wife,  and  the  children  had 
no  legal  father ;  consequently  they  were  not  in  the  pow- 
er of  their  reputed  father.  The  marriage  cum  conven- 
tione differed  from  that  sine  conventione  in  the  relation- 
ship which  it  effected  between  the  husband  and  the 
viife ;  the  marriage  cum  conventione  was  a  necessary 
condition  to  make  a  woman  a  materfamilias.  'By  the 
marriage  -cum  conventione  the  wife  passed  into  the  fa- 
milia  of  her  husband,  and  was  to  him  in  the  relation  of 
a  daughter,  or,  as  it  -was  expressed,  in  manum  convenit. 
In  the  marriage  sine  conventione  the  wife's  relation  to 
her  own  familia  remained  as  before,  and  she  was  merely 
uxor.  "  Uxor,''  says  Cicero,  "  is  a  genus  of  which  there 
are  two  species :  one  is  malcrfamiiias,  qua  in  manum 
convenit ;  the  other  is  uxor  only."  Accordingly  a  ma- 
terfamilias is  a  wife  who  is  in  manu,  and  in  the  familia 
of  her  husband.  A  wife  not  in  manu  was  not  a  member 
of  her  husband's  familia,  and  therefore  the  term  could 
not  apply  to  her.  Matrona  was  properly  a  wife  not  in 
manu,  and  equivalent  to  uxor ;  and  she  was  called  ma- 
trona  before  she  had  any  children.  But  these  words 
are  not  always  used  in  these  their  original  and  proper 
meanings. 

It  does  not  appear  that  any  forms  were  requisite  in 
the  marriage  sine  conventione ;  and  apparently  the  evi- 
dence of  such  marriage  was  cohabitation  matrimonii 
causa.  The  matrimonii  causa  might  be  proved  by  va- 
rious kinds  of  evidence.  In  the  case  of  a  marriage  cum 
conventione,  there  were  three  forms :  (1)  Usus,  (2)  Far- 
reum,  and  (3)  Coemptio. 

(1.)  Marriage  was  effected  by  vsus  if  a  woman  lived 
with  a  man  for  a  whole  year  as  his  wife ;  and  this  was 
by  analogy  to  usucaption  of  movables  generally,  in 
which  usus  for  one  year  gave  ownership.  The  law  of 
the  Twelve  Tables  provided  that  if  a  woman  did  not 
wish  to  come  into  the  manus  of  her  husband  in  this 
manner,  she  should  absent  licrself  from  him  annually 
for  three  nights  {trinoctium'),  and  so  break  the  usus  of 
the  year. 

(2.)  Farreum  was  a  form  of  marriage  in  which  cer- 
tain words  were  used  in  the  presence  of  ten  witnesses, 
and  were  accompanied  by  a  certain  religious  ceremony, 
in  which  panis  farreus  was  employed ;  and  hence  this 
form  of  marriage  was  also  called  confarreaiio.  It  ap- 
pears that  certain  priestly  offices,  such  as  that  of  Flamen 
Dialis,  could  only  be  held  by  those  who  were  born  of 


MARRIAGE 


800 


MARRIAGE 


parents  who  had  been  married  by  tliis  ceremony  (con- 
farrt'dti  parenies). 

(3.)  Coemptio  was  effected  by  mancipatio,  and  conse- 
qiieiitly  the  wife  was  in  mancipio.  A  woman  who  was 
cohabiting  with  a  man  as  uxor,  might  come  into  liis 
maniis  by  this  ceremonj^,  in  which  case  the  coemptio 
was  said  to  be  matrimonii  causa,  and  she  who  was  for- 
merly uxor  became  apud  maritain-Jilini  loco. 

Sponsalia  were  not  an  unusual  preliminary  of  mar- 
riage, but  they  were  not  necessary.  The  sponsalia  were 
an  agreement  to  marry,  made  in  such  form  as  to  give 
each  party  a  right  of  action  in  case  of  non-performance, 
and  the  offending  party  was  condemned  in  such  dam- 
ages as  to  the  judex  seemed  just.  The  woman  wlio 
■was  promised  in  marriage  was  accordingly  called  sponsa, 
^^•hich  is  equivalent  to  promissa;  the  man  who  was  en- 
gaged to  marry  was  called  sponsus.  The  sponsalia  were 
of  course  not  binding  if  the  parties  consented  to  waive 
the  contract.  Sometimes  a  present  was  made  by  the 
future  husband  to  the  future  wife  by  ^vay  of  earnest 
(firrha,  arrha  spomalitia),  or,  as  it  was  called,  pirojiter 
nuptias  donatio. 

The  consequences  of  marriage  were  :  1.  The  power  of 
the  father  over  the  children  of  the  marriage,  ■which  was 
a  completely  new  relation — an  effect  indeed  of  marriage, 
but  one  which  had  no  influence  over  the  relation  of  the 
husband  and  wife.  2.  The  liabilities  of  either  of  the 
parties  to  the  punishments  affixed  to  the  violation  of 
the  marriage  union.  3.  The  relation  of  husband  and 
wife  with  respect  to  property. 

When  marriage  was  dissolved,  the  parties  to  it  might 
marry  again  ;  but  opinion  considered  it  more  decent  for 
a  woman  not  to  marry  again.  A  woman  was  required 
by  usage  {mos)  to  wait  a  year  before  she  contracted  a 
second  marriage,  on  the  pain  of  infamia. 

It  remains  to  describe  the  customs  and  rites  which 
were  observed  by  the  Romans  at  marriages.  After  the 
parties  had  agreed  to  marry,  and  the  persons  in  whose 
potestas  they  were  had  consented,  a  meeting  of  friends 
%vas  sometimes  held  at  the  house  of  the  maiden  for  the 
purpose  of  settUng  the  marriage-contract,  which  was 
written  on  tablets,  and  signed  by  both  parties.  The 
woman,  after  she  had  promised  to  become  the  wife  of  a 
man,  was  called  sponsa,  pacta,  dicta,  or  sperata.  It  ap- 
pears that — at  least  durmg  the  imperial  period— the  man 
put  a  ring  on  the  finger  of  his  betrothed  as  a  pledge  of 
his  fidelity.  This  ring  was  probably,  like  all  rings  at 
this  time,  worn  on  the  left  hand,  and  on  the  finger  near- 
est to  the  smallest.  The  last  point  to  be  fixed  was  the 
day  on  which  the  marriage  was  to  take  place.  The 
Iloraans  believed  that  certain  days  were  unfortunate  for 
the  performance  of  the  marriage  rites,  either  on  account 
of  the  religious  character  of  those  days  themselves,  or 
on  account  of  the  days  by  which  they  were  followed,  as 
the  woman  had  to  perform  certain  religious  rites  on  tlie 
day  after  her  wedding,  which  could  not  take  place  on  a 
dies  atcr.  Days  not  suitable  fcjr  entering  upon  matri- 
mony were  the  calends,  nones,  and  ides  of  every  month, 
all  dies  atri,  the  whole  months  of  May  and  February, 
and  a  great  number  of  festivals.  On  the  wedding-day, 
which  in  the  early  times  was  never  fixed  upon  without 
considting  the  auspices,  the  bride  was  dressed  in  a  long 
white  robe  with  a  purple  fringe,  or  adorned  with  rib- 
bons. This  dress  was  called  tunica  recta,  and  was  bound 
round  tlio  waist  with  a  girdle  {corona,  cinrjulum,  or  zona), 
which  the  husband  had  to  untie  in  the  evening.  The 
bride's  veil,  caWeCi.  Jianwieum,  was  of  a  bright  yellow  col- 
or, and  lier  shoes  likewise.  Her  hair  was  divided  on 
this  occasion  with  the  point  of  a  spear.  The  bride  was 
conducted  to  the  house  of  her  husband  in  the  evening. 
She  was  taken  with  apparent  violence  from  the  arms  of 
her  mother,  or  of  the  person  who  had  to  give  her  away. 
On  her  way  she  was  accompanied  Ijy  three^boys  dressed 
in  the  praitexta,  and  whose  fathers  and  mothers  were 
still  alive  (patrimi  et  matrimi).  One  of  them  carried 
before  lier  a  torch  of  white  thorn  {spina),  or,  according 
to  others,  of  pine  wood ;  the  two  others  wallicd  by  her 


side,  supporting  her  by  the  arm.  The  bride  herself  car- 
ried a  distaff  and  a  spinille,  with  wool.  A  boy  caUetl 
cauiillus  carried  in  a  covered  vase  {cuniera,  cumerum,  or 
camilliun)  the  so-called  utensils  of  the  bride  and  plav- 
things  for  children  (crepuiuliu).  Besides  these  persons 
who  officiated  on  the  occasion,  the  procession  was  at- 
tended by  a  numerous  train  of  friends,  both  of  the  bride 
and  the  bridegroom.  When  the  procession  arrived  at 
the  house  of  the  bridegroom,  the  door  of  which  was 
adorned  with  garlands  and  flowers,  the  bride  was  car- 
ried across  the  threshold  by  pronubi,  i.  e.  men  who  had 
been  married  to  only  one  woman,  that  she  might  not 
knock  against  it  with  her  foot,  which  would  have  been 
an  evil  omen.  Before  she  entered  the  house,  she  wound 
wool  around  the  door-posts  of  her  new  residence,  and 
anointed  them  with  lard  {adeps  suillus)  or  wolf's  fat 
{adeps  liqnnus).  The  husband  received  her  with  fire 
and  water,  which  the  woman  had  to  touch.  This  was 
either  a  symbolic  purification,  or  a  symbolic  expression 
of  ^velcome,  as  the  interdicere  aqua  et  igni  ■was  the  for- 
mula for  banishment.  The  bride  saluted  her  husband 
with  the  words,  Ubi  tu  Cains,  ego  Caia.  After  she  had 
entered  the  house  with  distaff  and  spindle,  she  was 
placed  upon  a  sheep-skin,  and  here  the  keys  of  the 
house  were  delivered  into  her  hands.  A  repast  {ccena 
nuptialk),  given  by  the  husband  to  the  whole  train  of 
relatives  and  frien.ds  who  accompanied  the  bride,  gen- 
erally concluded  the  solemnity  of  the  day.  IVIany  an- 
cient writers  mention  a  very  popular  song,  Tulasius  or 
Tulassio,  which  was  sung  at  weddings ;  but  whether  it 
was  sung  during  the  repast  or  during  the  procession  is 
not  quite  clear,  though  we  may  infer  from  the  story  re- 
specting the  origin  of  the  song  that  it  was  sung  while 
the  procession  was  advancing  towards  the  house  of  the 
husband.  It  may  be  easily  imagined  that  a  solemnity 
Uke  that  of  marriage  did  not  take  place  among  the  mer- 
ry and  humorous  Italians  without  a  variety  of  jests  and 
railleries ;  and  Ovid  mentions  obscene  songs  which  Avere 
sung  before  the  door  of  the  bridal  apartment  by  girls, 
after  the  company  had  left.  These  songs  were  probably 
the  old  Fescennina,  and  are  frequently  caW^A'Epithala- 
mia.  At  the  end  of  the  repast,  the  bride  was  conducted 
by  matrons  who  had  not  had  more  than  one  husband 
(j}}-onubce)  to  the  lectus  genialis  in  the  atrium,  Avhich 
was  on  this  occasion  magnificently  adorned  and  strewed 
with  flowers.  On  the  following  day  the  husband  some- 
times gave  another  entertainment  to  his  friends,  which 
was  called  repotia,  and  the  woman,  who  on  this  day  un- 
dertook the  management  of  the  house  of  her  husband, 
had  to  perform  certain  religious  rites;  on  which  ac- 
count, as  was  observed  above,  it  was  necessary  to  select 
a  day  for  the  marriage  which  was  not  followed  by  a  dies 
ater.  These  rites  probably  consisted  of  sacrifices  to  the 
Dii  Penates. 

The  position  of  a  Roman  woman  after  marriage  was 
ver^'  different  from  that  of  a  Greek  woman.  The  Ro- 
man presided  over  the  whole  household ;  she  educated 
her  children,  watched  over  and  preserved  the  honor  of 
tlie  house,  and,  as  the  materfamilias,  she  shared  the 
honors  and  respect  shown  to  her  husband.  Far  from 
being  confined,  like  the  Greek  women,  to  a  distinct 
apartment,  the  Roman  matron  (at  least  during  the  bet- 
ter centuries  of  the  republic)  occupied  the  most  impor- 
tant part  of  the  house,  the  atrium. — Smith,  Diet,  of  Class. 
A  nt.  s.  V. 

III.  Among  the  Hindus. — There  are  writers,  perhaps 
we  had  better  call  them  "  fact  gatherers"  (comp.  Miiller, 
Chips,  ii,  2G2),  who,  not  contenting  themselves  with  the 
accomplishment  of  the  task  for  which  they  are  fitted, 
frequently  go  out  of  their  way  to  cast  a  slur  upon  the 
Christian's  belief,  and  to  ridicule  him  for  entertaining 
the  thought  that  the  Bible  is  the  educator  of  the  human 
race.  Yet  the  deeper  the  researches  into  the  "  primitive" 
condition  of  man,  and  the  more  intimate  our  relation 
with  those  nations  ^vho  can  claim  a  civilization  outside 
of  the  pale  of  Christian  teachings,  the  more  stubborn  ap- 
pears the  fact  that  Christianity  alone  assigns  to  woman 


MARRIAGE 


801 


MARRIAGE 


a  position  of  equality  with  man.     The  N.  T.  teaches 
"  there  is  neither  Jew  nor  Greek ;  there  is  neither  bond 
nor  free;  there  is  neither  male  nor  female:  for  ye  are 
all  one  in  Christ  Jesus."     The  Hindu's  sacred  writings, 
however,  not  only  fail  to  make  woman  the  equal  of  man, 
but  they  even  put  a  stigma  upon  her  from  her  very 
birth.     A  ^voman,  it  is  affirmed  by  the  Institutes  of 
Manu  (q.  v.),  whose  inspiration  is  as  unquestioned  as 
his  legislative  supremacy  is  universal  among  the  Hin- 
dus, "  is  never  fit  for  independence,  or  to  be  trusted  with 
liberty;  for  she  may  be  compared  to  a  heifer  on  the 
plain,  which  still  longeth  for  grass."     "  They  exhaust," 
says  Massie  {Continental  India,  ii,  153),  "  the  catalogue 
of  vice  to  affix  its  epithets  to  woman's  nature — infidel- 
ity, violence,  deceit,  envy,  extreme   avariciousness,  an 
entire  want  of  good  qualities,  with  impurity,  they  af- 
firm, are  the  innate  faults  of  womankind."     "Why," 
says  Butler  {Land  of  the  Veda,  p.  470),  "if  my  native 
friend  had  six  children,  three  boys  and  as  many  girls, 
and  I  happened  to  inquire,  '  Lalla,  how  many  children 
have  youV  the  probability  is  he  woidd  reply,  'Sir,  I 
have  three  children ;'  for  he  would  not  think  it  worth 
while  to  count  in  the  daughters."    Indeed,  the  Brahmin 
is  taught  that  perfection  is  to  be  attained  only,  freed 
from  the  contamination  of  woman,  in  a  purely  ascetic 
state  (Wuttke,  Christian  Ethics,  i,  51).     But  let  us  not 
be  misunderstood  as  conveying  the  impression  that  the 
lay  Hindu  favors  asceticism.     Far  from  it.    Among  the 
laity  celibacy  is  a  reproach  in  either  sex.     As  among 
the  Chinese  (see  below),  "girls  are  not  desired, not  wel- 
come;" and,  when  they  come,  they  are  either  quickly 
done  away  with,  where  the  English  law  does  not  inter- 
fere [see  Infanticide],  or,  if  they  must  live,  are  ig- 
nored, if  not  despised.    Arrived  at  the  age  of  onlj'  seven, 
the  age  at  which  the  Shasters  pronounce  the  girl  mar- 
riageable, the  unhappy  parents  begin  to  look  about  for 
an  early  opportunity  to  free  themselves  from  the  burden 
that  is  upon  them  by  betrothal  of  the  child.     As  all 
through  the  East,  so  also  here  the  whole  matter  is  held 
by  the  parents  in  their  own  hands.     The  poor  girl  has 
no  choice  or  voice  in  her  own  destiny— all  is  arranged 
without  consulting  her  views  or  affections  in  any  way 
whatever.     "  Courtship,  in   our  Christian   sense,"  says 
Butler,  "  the  maiden  in  India  can  never  know.     She  is 
not  allowed  to  see  or  converse  with  him  to  whose  con- 
trol she  win  ere  long  be  handed  over.    She  cannot  write 
to  him,  for  she  can  neither  read  nor  write ;  all  she  is 
able  to  do  is  to  follow  the  instructions  to  '  worship  the 
gods  for  a  good  husband.'     She  is  taught  to  commence 
as  soon  as  she  is  four  years  old.     Her  prayers  are  ad- 
dressed chiefly  to  Kama-deva  (q.  v.),  the  Hindii  Cu- 
pid.   .    .    .    The  maiden  prays,  and  father  and  mother 
manage  the  business  of  selection.     Each  caste  [see  In- 
dian Caste]  has  its  professional  match-makers,  whose 
aid  is  indispensable.    When  the  negotiations  have  reach- 
ed a  certain  definiteness,  the  Pundits  are  consulted  to 
avoid  mistakes  of  consanguinity,  and  then  the  astrolo- 
gers, who  pronounce  upon  the  carefully-preserved  horo- 
scopes of  the  boy  and  girl,  whether  they  can  be  united 
with  safety.    These  preliminaries  all  found  satisfactory, 
the  aid  of  the  Brahmin  is  sought  to  ascertain  if  the 
family  god  favors  the  union.     The  stars,  the  gods,  and 
men  being  a  unit,  negotiations  are  opened  between  the 
parents  and  relations  as  to  the  amount  of  gift  and  dow- 
ry, and,  when  conclusions  are  reached  here  to  their  mu- 
tual satisfaction,  the  astrologer  is  again  called  in  to  as- 
certain and  name  a  lucky  day  when  the  agreement  may 
be  registered,  and  a  bond  for  the  dowrv'  executed.    This 
is  done  with  due  solemnity,  and  then  the  astrologer  has 
again  to  ascertain  and  name  a  lucky  day  for  the  cere- 
mony, which  is  accepted  by  the  parents  under  their  bond 
to  see  to  the  consummation  of  the  engagement.     This 
is  the  usual  method,  slightly  varied  in  different  locali- 
ties" (p.  470,  480).     No  female  child  is  expected  to  have 
gone  beyond  the  age  of  twelve  without  the  consumma- 
tion of  an   engagement.     Woe  be  unto  that  family 
wherein  a  girl  is  past  the  age  of  twelve  and  vet  unbe- 
V.— E  E  E 


trothed  (Butler,  p.  497).  And  yet  what  is  the  fate  of 
the  poor  girl  after  she  has  actually  found  her  mate? 
Marriage  to  the  Hindu  female  means  slaverj'  in  its  most 
abject  form.  "  The  Hindu,"  says  Massie  (ii,  154), "  does 
not  marry  to  secure  a  companion  who  will  aid  him  in 
enduring  the  ills  of  life,  or  in  obtaining  the  means  of  ra- 
tional employment,  he  seeks  only  a  slave  who  shall 
nourish  (he  thinks  not  of  training)  children,  and  abide 
in  abject  subjection  to  his  rule." 

Betrothal  with  the  Hindus  being  as  binding  as  mar- 
riage (indeed,  the  word  "  marriage"  is  used  to  include  both 
betrothal  and  our  conception  of  the  matrimonial  alliance), 
the  female  child  enters  into  a  new  state  of  existence  im- 
mediately after  the  ceremony  of  betrothal.  "Henceforth 
she  is  no  more  free  to  roam  the  fields  and  enjoy  the  lovely 
face  of  nature.  Eeserved  f(i)r  her  husband,  she  can  no 
longer  be  seen  with  propriety  by  any  man  save  her  father 
and  brothers.  She  is  from  that  day  ^  &  purdah-nashiu^ 
— one  who  sits  behind  the  curtains  within  the  inclosure 
which  surrounds  her  mother's  home ;"  and  now  com- 
mences her  education,  which,  lasting  for  five  or  six  years, 
may  be  epitomized  in  its  entire  curriculum  under  these 
four  heads :  cooking,  domestic  service,  religion,  and  their 
peculiar  female  literature,  to  enter  at  last  a  state  of 
dependence  more  strict,  contemptuous,  and  humiliating, 
ordained  for  the  weaker  sex  among  the  Hindils,  than 
which  there  cannot  easily  be  conceived  another.  Look 
into  the  house  which  the  bride  has  entered,  and  see  her 
as  she  begins  the  duties  for  which  she  has  been  trained. 
She  rises  to  prepare  her  husband's  food,  and,  when  all 
is  ready  and  laid  out  upon  the  mat — for  the^'  ignore 
such  aids  as  chairs  and  tables,  knives  or  forks,  and  take 
their  meals  with  the  hand,  sitting  on  the  floor — she  now 
announces  to  her  lord  that  his  meal  is  ready.  He  en- 
ters and  sits  down,  and  finds  all  dulv  prepared  by  her 
care.  Why  does  she  still  stand?  Why  not  sit  down 
too,  and  share  with  her  husband  the  good  things  which 
she  has  made  ready.  She  dares  not.  He  would  not  al- 
low it — the  law  of  her  religion  forbids  it.  She  must 
stand  and  wait  upon  him,  for  do  not  the  Shasters  render 
it  her  duty  ?  "  Wlien  in  the  presence  of  her  husband," 
they  teach  her,  "  a  woman  must  keep  her  eyes  upon  her 
master,  and  be  ready  to  receive  his  commands.  When 
he  speaks  she  must  be  quiet,  and  listen  to  nothing  else, 
and  attend  upon  him  alone.  A  woman  has  no  other 
god  on  earth  but  her  husband."  Therefore  she  waits 
upon  her  husband  so  patiently.  But  not  only  is  she 
prohibited  from  enjoying  the  blessings  of  the  family  ta- 
ble, even  when  her  lord  has  fuUy  satisfied  himself,  but 
she  is  obliged  to  remove  what  remains  to  another  apart- 
ment— "for  her  religion  not  only  forbids  her  eating  with 
him,  but  also  prohibits  her  from  eating  even  what  he 
leaves  '  in  the  same  room  where  he  dines' — and  not  till 
then  can  she  and  her  children  eat  their  food"  (Butler,  p. 
492).  If  the  state  we  have  portrayed  be  sad  and  low 
enough,  what  shall  be  said  of  the  helpless  condition  in 
which  the  poor  woman  of  India  is  placed  if  her  husband 
be  cruel,  aye,  brutal  ?  "  Woman,"  says  Butler  (p.  492), 
"  is  absolutely  without  redress,  in  the  power  of  her  hus- 
band, and  no  one  can  interfere  when  it  stops  short  of  act- 
ual murder."  Such  is  woman's  history  in  a  married  life, 
as  guided  and  controlled  by  the  sacred  writings  of  a 
people  who  enjoy  a  non-Biblical  civilization.  "  If  ever 
woman  had  an  opportunity  of  showing  what  she  might 
become  under  the  teachings  and  influence  of  a  civiliza- 
tion where  Christianity  or  the  Bible  did  not  interfere 
with  her  state,  the  women  of  India  have  had  that  op- 
portunity, and  now,  after  forty  centuries  of  such  exper- 
iment, what  is  woman  there  to-day?"  (Butler,  p.  4G9). 
Surely  here  is  a  question  worthy  the  attention  of  those 
"fact  gatherers"  who  so  eagerly  thrust  aside  the  be- 
nighted influences  of  a  Christian  civilization. 

Polyfjamy  exists  among  the  Hindus,  as  it  is  allow- 
able. It  is  a  luxurj',  however,  that  few  poor  men  can 
afford,  and  hence  the  practice  of  "  successional  polyga- 
my:" HindCls  often  forsake  their  wives,  and  then  take 
others.     Where  polygamy  has  invaded  the  household, 


MARRIiVGE 


802 


MARRIAGE 


the  woman  who  has  had  the  good  fortune  to  be  the  first 
wife  takes  precedence  in  rank ;  she  remaining  the  mis- 
tress of  the  zenana — the  Hindu  harem. 

Polyandry,  strangely  enough,  has  also  established  it- 
self here.  "  This  singular  and  amazing  relation  existed 
in  India  twenty-five  centuries  ago,  and  lingers  to-day 
in  some  localities  to  such  an  extent  as  to  call  for  the 
legislative  action  of  the  English  government."  See 
Polyandry. 

The  marriage-rites  are  numerous,  tedious,  and  in  many 
parts  far  from  deUcate.  All,  however,  being  expressed 
in  Sanscrit,  and  recited  by  the  officiating  Brahmin  with 
the  utmost  rapidity,  no  one  understands  what  is  said. 
The  principal  rites  among  the  Brahmins  are  walking 
three  times  round  a  fire,  and  tj'ing  the  garments  of  the 
parties  together.  The  bride  has  also  to  make  seven 
steps,  at  the  last  of  which  the  marriage  is  complete. 

The  marriage  is  usually  solemnized  in  the  house  of 
the  bride's  father.  Thither  the  bridegroom  proceeds, 
attended  by  his  friends,  and  from  thence  conducts  the 
bride  to  his  home  in  a  grand  procession,  usually  by 
night,  with  torches  and  great  rejoicings.  On  both  occa- 
sions considerable  expenditure  is  incurred  in  feasting 
the  friends  and  relatives,  and  in  providing  ornaments, 
music,  processions,  and  illuminations.  The  wealthy 
spend  freely  on  these  objects,  and  the  poorer  classes  of- 
ten incur  debts  which  burden  them  for  many  years. 
The  costs  incurred  by  the  fathers,  on  both  sides,  in  cel- 
ebrating a  marriage,  form  a  heavy  item  of  Hindu  ex- 
penditure, and  one  of  the  motives  to  female  infanticide 
is  doubtless  laid  in  the  desire  to  avoid  this  charge  (Tre- 
vor, Its  Katices  and  Missions,  p.  214). 

The  marrinr/e  procession  is  thus  described  by  Butler 
(p.  485).  "Often  when  travelling  at  night  in  my  pa- 
lanquin, I  have  been  roused  from  my  sleep  by  my  bear- 
ers catching  sight  of  an  approaching  marriage  proces- 
sion, with  its  torches,  music,  and  shouting;  falling  in 
with  the  enthusiasm  of  each  event,  they  woidd  cry  out 
that  '  the  bridegroom  cometh.'  First  the  bridegroom 
would  make  his  appearance,  mounted  on  a  fine  horse 
splendidly  caparisoned — his  own  or  borrowed  for  the  oc- 
casion— and  wearing  a  grand  coat,  decked  out  in  tinsel 
and  gold  thread,  with  the  matrimonial  crown  on  his 
head,  and  his  richly-embroidered  slippers,  all  very  fine, 
his  friends  shouting  and  dancing  alongside  of  him,  and, 
of  course,  as  he  passes,  we  make  our  salaam  and  wish 
him  joy.  Right  behind  the  bridegroom's  horse  comes 
the  palanquin  of  the  bride,  but  she  is  veiled,  and  the  Ve- 
netians are  closely  shut,  and  on  the  little  lady  is  borne 
to  a  home  which  she  never  saw  before,  to  surrender  her- 
self into  the  hands  of  one  who  has  neither  wooed  nor 
won  her ;  a  bride  without  a  choice,  with  no  voice  in  her 
own  destiny;  married  without  preference ;  handed  over, 
by  those  assumed  to  do  all  the  thinking  for  her,  to  a  fate 
where  the  feelings  of  her  heart  were  never  consulted  in 
the  most  important  transaction  of  her  existence;  begin- 
ning her  married  life  imder  circumstances  which  pre- 
clude the  possibility  of  her  being  sustained  by  the  affec- 
tion which  is  founded  upon  esteem.  When  the  proces- 
sion has  come  within  hailing  distance  of  his  home,  the 
watching  friends  go  forth  to  meet  the  bridegroom,  the 
bride  enters  her  apartments,  the  door  is  shut,  and  the 
guests  are  entertained  in  other  parts  of  the  establish- 
ment." 

IV.  A  mowj  the  Chinese  and  Japanese. — The  Chinese 
are  divided  into  a  number  of  clans,  each  distinguished 
by  a  clan  name.  Of  these  clans  there  are  from  a  hundred 
to  a  thousand,  according  to  different  authors.  The  law 
is  that  no  man  shall  marry  a  woman  of  his  own  clan 
name.  Thus  relationship  by  the  male  line,  however 
distant,  prevents  marriage.  This  rule  is  very  ancient, 
its  origin  being  referred  by  the  Chinese  to  the  mythic 
times  of  their  empire.  Th*  legendary-  emperor  Fu-Hi, 
who  reigned  before  the  Ilea  dynasty,  which,  according 
to  the  Chinese  annals,  began  in  B.C.  2207,  is  said  to 
have  divided  the  people  into  clans,  and  established 
this  rule  regarding  marriage  (Tyler,  Researches,  p.  278). 


We  give  the  Chinese  marriage  customs  at  considerable 
length,  as  they  are  highly  illustrative  of  Oriental  usages 
in  general. 

As  in  all  Eastern  countries,  the  girl  to  be  given  in 
wedlock  is  not  consulted  in  the  choice  of  her  future 
husband,  the  parents  deciding  in  her  stead.  The  Chi- 
nese are  firm  believers  in  the  sentiment  to  which  the 
Western  mind  has  given  expression  in  the  proverlj  that 
"  jVIatches  are  made  in  heaven."  To  secure  an  alliance, 
a  person  is  employed  as  a  go-between  or  match-maker. 
The  negotiation  is  generally  opened  by  the  familj-  of  the 
male  person.  Not  unfroquently  the  girl  has  to  be  paid 
for — a  relic  of  the  patriarchal  custom.  Occasionally, 
when  a  female  child  is  born  to  persons  in  humble  cir- 
cumstances, it  is  given  avray  to  a  family  having  a  male 
child  only ;  is  reared  by  the  latter,  and,  when  the  girl  and 
boy  have  reached  a  marriageable  age,  they  are  joined  in 
matrimony.  Not  unfrequently  it  occurs  among  wealthy 
families  having  a  daughter  that  the  custom  of  purchase 
is  reversed,  and  a  husband  secured  for  a  pecuniary  con- 
sideration. The  wealthy  look  with  special  favor  upon 
the  literary  class,  and  not  unfrequently  great  sacrifices 
are  made  to  secure  a  scholarly  husband.  "  It  not  un- 
frequently occiu's,"  says  Doolittle  {China,  i,  99), "  that  a 
rich  family,  havmg  only  one  daughter  and  no  boys,  de- 
sires to  obtain  a  son-in-law  who  shall  be  willing  to 
marry  the  girl  and  live  in  the  family  as  a  son.  Some- 
times a  notice  is  seen  posted  np,  stating  the  desire  of  a 
certain  man  to  find  a  son-in-law  and  heir  who  will  come 
and  live  with  him,  perhaps  stating  the  age  and  qualifi- 
cations of  an  acceptable  person.  In  such  a  case,  the 
parents  of  those  who  have  a  son  whose  qualifications 
might  warrant  such  an  appUcation,  and  whom  they 
would  be  willing  to  allow  to  marry  on  such  terms,  are 
expected  to  make  application  by  a  go-between,  when 
the  matter  would  be  considered  by  the  rich  man.  Some- 
times the  rich  man  makes  application  by  a  go-between 
to  the  parents  of  a  young  man  whose  reputation  he  is 
pleased  with,  and  who  perhaps  may  be  a  recent  gradu- 
ate, his  name  standing  near  the  head  of  the  list  of  suc- 
cessful competitors  of  the  first  or  second  literary  de- 
gree." 

Bet7-othal. — This  among  the  Chinese  is  considered  as 
binding  as  marriage,  if  the  rites  and  observances  have 
been  carefiUly  looked  after.  The  final  act  in  betroth- 
ment  is  the  exchange  of  cards  (for  description,  see  Doo- 
little, i,  67).  The  time  intervening  between  betrothal 
and  marriage  varies  from  a  month  or  two  to  eighteen  or 
twenty  years,  depentling  much  on  the  age  of  the  parties. 
"  From  one  to  three  months  before  the  marriage  a  fortu- 
nate day  is  selected  for  its  celebration,  (ienerally  a 
member  of  the  family  of  the  bridegroom,  or  a  trusty 
friend,  takes  the  eight  horary  characters  which  denote 
the  birth-time  for  each  of  the  affianced  parties,  and  for 
each  of  their  parents,  if  living,  to  a  fortune-teller,  who 
selects  lucky  days  and  times  for  the  marriage,  for  the 
cutting  of  the  wedding  garments,  for  the  placing  of  the 
bridal  bed  in  position,  for  the  finishing  of  the  curtains 
of  the  bridal  bed,  for  the  embroidering  of  the  bridal  pil- 
lows, and  for  the  entering  of  the  sedan,  on  the  part  of 
the  bride,  on  the  day  of  her  marriage.  These  items  are 
written  out  on  a  sheet  of  red  paper,  which  is  sent  to  the 
family  of  the  girl  by  the  hands  of  the  go-between.  If 
accepted,  the  periods  specified  become  the  fixed  times 
for  the  performance  of  the  particulars  indicated,  and 
both  parties  proceed  to  make  the  necessary  arrange- 
ments for  the  approaching  wedding.  Presenting  the 
wedding-cakes  and  material  for  the  bridal  dress  to  the 
family  of  the  bride  by  the  other  party  is  next  in  order. 
The  relative  time  usually  adopted  for  the  performance 
of  this  custom  is  about  one  month  before  the  day  fixed 
for  the  marriage.  The  number  of  these  'cakes  of  cere- 
mony,^ or  wedding-cakes,  varies  from  several  score  to 
several  hundreds.  They  are  round,  and  about  an  inch 
thick,  weighing  generally  about  one  pound  and  ten  or 
twelve  ounces  each,  and  measure  nearly  a  foot  in  diam- 
eter.   They  are  made  out  of  wheat  floiu-,  and  contain  in 


MARRIAGE 


803 


MARRIAGE 


the  middle  some  sugar,  lard,  and  small  pieces  of  fat  pork, 
mixed  together  in  a  kind  of  batter,  and  then  cooked : 
they  are,  in  fact,  a  sort  of  mince-pies.  Tliere  is  also 
sent  a  sum  of  money,  of  greater  or  less  amount,  accord- 
ing to  previous  agreement ;  a  quantity  of  red  cloth  or 
silk,  usually  not  less  than  five  kinds,  for  the  use  of  the 
bride ;  live  kinds  of  dried  fruits,  several  kinds  of  small 
cakes,  a  cock  and  a  hen,  and  a  gander  and  a  goose.  The 
famUy  of  the  girl,  on  receiving  these  ■\vedding-cakes, 
proceeds  to  distribute  them  among  their  relatives  and 
intimate  friends.  The  small  cakes  are  also  distributed 
in  a  similar  manner.  The  money  sent  is  generally  spent 
in  outfitting  the  bride. 

"A  few  days  before  the  day  fixed  for  the  wedding, 
the  family  (jf  the  bridegroom  again  makes  a  present  of 
various  articles  of  food  and  other  things  to  the  family 
of  the  bride,  as  a  cock  and  a  hen,  a  leg  and  foot  of  a  pig 
and  of  a  goat,  eight  small  cakes  of  bread,  eight  torches, 
tliree  pairs  of  large  red  candles,  a  quantitj'  of  vermicelli, 
and  several  bunches  of  fire-crackers.  There  are  also  sent 
a  girdle,  a  head-dress,  a  silken  covering  for  the  head 
antl  face,  and  several  articles  of  ready-made  clothing, 
which  are  usually  borrowed  or  rented  for  the  occasion. 
These  are  to  be  worn  by  the  bride  on  her  entering  the 
bridal  sedan  to  be  carried  to  the  home  of  her  husband 
on  the  morning  of  her  marriage.  The  food,  or  a  part 
of  it,  including  the  cock,  is  to  be  eaten  by  her  on  that 
morning.  The  tire-crackers  are  for  explosion  on  the 
road,  and  the  torches  are  for  burning  during  the  time 
occupied  en  i-oute  to  her  new  home.  On  each  of  the 
eight  bread-cakes  is  made  a  large  red  character  in  an 
ancient  form  of  writing,  of  an  auspicious  meaning,  as 
'longevity,'  '  happiness,'  'official  emolument,'  and  'joy;' 
or  certain  four  of  them  have  four  characters,  meaning 
'  the  phcenlxes  are  singing  in  concert,'  or  '  the  ducks  are 
seeking  their  mates.'  Four  of  these  bread-loaves  are 
accepted  ;  the  remaining  four  and  the  hen,  according  to 
strict  custom,  are  returned  to  the  party  which  proffers 
them.  The  bread-cakes  and  the  vermicelli  are  omens 
significant  of  good,  owing  to  a  play  on  the  local  sound 
of  the  characters  which  denote  them,  or  in  consequence 
of  the  shape  of  the  article.  The  vermicelli  is  signifi- 
cant of  '  longevity,'  because  of  its  length ;  and  the  four 
bread-cakes  reserved  by  the  family  of  the  bride  are  kept 
for  a  singular  use  on  the  morning  of  the  girl's  entering 
her  bridal  chair.  Plaeinrj  the  bridal  bedstead  in  the  jjo- 
sition  where  it  is  to  stand  is  an  important  ceremony. 
When  the  day  selected  arrives,  which  is  generally  only 
a  few  days  before  the  ^vedding,  the  bedstead  is  arranged 
in  some  convenient  place  in  the  bride's  chamber,  and 
then  for  a  considerable  time  it  must  not  be  moved,  for 
fear  of  ill  luck.  This  placing  of  the  bedstead  in  posi- 
tion is  attended  with  various  superstitious  acts." 

Wors/iip  of  Ancestors  by  the  Bridal  Partij. — "Usual- 
ly the  day  before  the  wedding,  the  bride  has  her  hair 
done  up  in  the  style  of  married  women  of  her  class  in 
society,  and  tries  on  the  clothes  she  is  to  wear  in  the 
sedan,  and  for  a  time  after  she  arrives  at  her  future  home 
on  the  morrow.  This  is  an  occasion  of  great  interest  to 
her  family.  Her  parents  invite  their  I'emale  relatives 
and  friends  to  a  feast  at  their  house.  The  professed  ob- 
ject of  trying  on  the  clothing  is  to  see  how  the  articles 
provided  will  fit,  and  to  ascertain  that  everything  is 
ready,  so  that  there  may  be  no  delay  or  confusion  on  the 
arrival  of  the  hour  when  she  is  to  take  her  seat  in  her 
sedan.  While  thus  dressed  (the  thick  veil  designed  to 
conceal  her  features  on  arrival  at  her  husband's  resi- 
dence not  now  being  worn),  she  proceeds  to  light  in- 
cense before  the  ancestral  tablets  belonging  to  her  fa- 
ther's famUy,  and  to  worship  them  for  the  last  time  be- 
fore her  marriage.  She  also  kneels  down  before  her 
parents,  her  grandparents  (if  living),  her  uncles  and 
aunts  (if  present),  and  worships  them  in  much  the  same 
manner  as  she  and  her  husband  will  on  the  morrow 
worship  his  parents  and  grandparents,  and  the  ancestral 
tablets  belonging  to  his  family.  On  the  occasion  of  the 
girl's  trying  on  these  clothes  and  worshipping  the  tablet 


and  her  parents,  it  is  considered  unpropitious  that  those 
of  her  female  relatives  and  friends  who  are  in  mourning 
should  be  present. 

"  The  bridal  chair  is  selected  by  the  family  of  the 
bridegroom,  and  sent  to  the  residence  of  the  bride  gen- 
erally on  the  afternoon  preceding  the  wedding-day,  at- 
tended by  a  band  of  music,  some  men  carrying  lighted 
torches,  two  carrying  a  pair  of  large  red  lanterns,  con- 
taining candles  also  lighted,  and  one  having  a  large  red 
umbrella,  and  one  or  two  friends  or  other  attendants. 
The  bridal  chair  is  always  red,  and  is  generally  cov- 
ered with  broadcloth,  or  some  rich,  expensive  material. 
It  is  borne  by  four  men,  who  wear  caps  having  red  tas- 
sels. The  musicians  and  all  the  persons  emplo\-ed  in 
the  procession  have  similar  caps.  A'ery  early  on  the 
morning  of  her  marriage  the  bride  or  the  '  new  wom- 
an' arises,  bathes,  and  dresses.  While  she  is  bathing 
the  musicians  are  required  to  pilay.  Her  breakfast  con- 
sists theoretically  of  the  fowl,  the  vermicelli,  etc.,  sent 
by  the  family  of  her  affianced  husband.  In  fact,  how- 
ever, she  eats  and  drinks  vary  little  of  anything  on 
the  morning  or  during  the  day  of  her  wedding.  AA^hen 
the  precise  time  approaches  for  taking  her  seat  in  her 
sedan,  usually  between  five  and  eight  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  previously  fixed  by  the  fortune-teller,  her  toilet 
is  completed  by  one  of  her  parents  taking  a  thick  veil 
and  placing  it  over  her  head,  completely  covermg  her 
features  from  view.  She  is  now  led  out  of  her  room  by 
one  of  her  female  assistants,  and  takes  her  seat  in  the 
sedan,  which  has  been  brought  into  the  reception-room 
of  the  house.  The  floor  from  her  room  to  the  sedan  is 
covered  for  the  occasion  with  a  kind  of  red  carpeting,  so 
that  her  feet  may  not  touch  the  ground.  She  takes  her 
place  in  the  sedan  amid  the  sound  of  fire-crackers  and 
music  by  the  band.  The  bride,  her  mother,  and  the  va- 
rious members  of  the  family,  are  required  by  custom  to 
indulge  during  this  morning  in  heart}^  and  protracted 
crying  —  oftentimes,  no  doubt,  sincere  and  unaffected. 
While  seated  in  the  sedan,  but  before  she  starts  for  her 
future  home,  her  parents,  or  some  members  of  her  family, 
take  a  bed-quilt  by  its  four  corners,  and,  while  holding 
it  thus  before  the  bridal  chair,  one  of  the  bride's  assist- 
ants tosses  into  the  air,  one  by  one,  four  bread-cakes,  in 
such  a  manner  that  they  will  fall  into  the  bed-quilt. 
These  bread-cakes  were  received  from  the  famih'  of  her 
husband  at  the  same  time  as  the  cock  and  vermicelli 
were  received.  The  woman  during  this  ceremony  is 
constantly  repeating  felicitous  sentences,  which  are  as- 
sented to  by  some  others  of  the  company.  The  quilt 
containing  these  cakes  is  gathered  up  and  carried  imme- 
diately to  an  adjoining  room.  The  object  of  this  cere- 
mony is  explained  to  be  to  profit  the  family  of  the 
bride's  parents,  being  an  omen  of  good,  which  is  in  some 
manner  indicated  to  the  Chinese  apprehension  bj-  the 
quilt  and  the  cakes  being  retained  in  the  house  —  the 
local  sound  of  the  common  word  for  '  bread,'  and  a  cer- 
tain word  meaning  '  to  warrant,'  '  to  secure,'  being  idei>- 
tical." 

Bridal  Procession.  —  After  these  performances  "the 
bridal  procession  starts  en  route  for  the  residence  of  the 
other  party,  amid  explosions  of  fire-crackers  and  the 
music  of  the  band.  In  the  front  of  the  procession  go 
two  men  carrying  two  large  lighted  lanterns,  having 
the  ancestral  or  family  name  of  the  groom  cut  in  a 
large  form  out  of  red  paper  pasted  u]ion  them.  Then 
come  two  men  carrying  similar  lanterns,  having  the 
family  name  of  the  bride  in  a  similar  manner  pasted 
on  them.  These  belong  to  her  family,  and  accompany 
her  onl}^  a  part  of  the  way.  Then  comes  a  large  red 
umbrella,  followed  by  men  carrying  lighted  torches,  and 
by  the  band  of  music.  Near  the  bridal  chair  are  sev- 
eral brothers  of  the  bride  or  friends  of  her  family,  and 
several  friends  or  brothers  of  the  groom.  These  lat- . 
ter  are  dispatched  from  the  house  of  the  groom  early 
in  the  morning,  for  the  purpose  of  meeting  the  bridal 
procession  and  escorting  the  bride  to  her  home.  This 
deputation  sometimes  arrives  at  the  house  of  the  bride 


MARRIAGE 


804 


MARRIAGE 


before  she  sets  out  on  her  journey,  and,  if  so,  it  ac- 
companies tlie  procession  all  the  way.  About  midway 
between  the  homes  of  the  bride  and  the  groom  the  pro- 
cession stops  in  the  street,  while  the  important  cere- 
mony of  7-eceicin(j  the  bride  is  formally  transacted.  The 
friends  of  the  bride  stand  near  each  other,  and  at  a  lit- 
tle  distance  stand  the  friends  of  the  groom.  The  for- 
mer produce  a  large  red  card,  having  the  ancestral  name 
of  tlie  bride's  family  written  on  it ;  the  latter  produce  a 
similar  card  bearing  the  ancestral  name  of  the  groom. 
Tliese  they  exchange,  and  each,  seizing  his  own  hands 
a  la  Chinow,  bows  towards  the  members  of  the  other 
party.  The  two  men  in  the  front  of  the  procession  who 
carry  the  lanterns  having  the  ancestral  name  of  the 
groom  now  turn  about,  and,  going  between  the  sedan 
chair  and  the  two  men  who  carry  the  lanterns  having 
the  ancestral  name  of  the  bride,  come  back  to  their  for- 
mer position  in  the  procession,  having  gone  around  the 
party  ^vhich  has  the  lanterns  with  the  bride's  ancestral 
name  attached.  This  latter  party,  while  the  other  is 
thus  encircling  it,  turns  round  in  an  opposite  direction, 
and  starts  for  the  residence  of  the  family  of  the  bride, 
accompanied  by  that  part  of  the  escort  which  consisted 
of  her  brothers  or  the  friends  of  her  family.  The  rest 
of  the  procession  now  proceeds  on  its  way  to  the  resi- 
dence of  the  bridegroom,  the  band  playing  a  lively  air. 
At  intervals  along  the  street  fire-crackers  are  exploded. 
It  is  said  that,  from  the  precise  time  when  the  two  par- 
ties carrying  lanterns  having  the  ancestral  names  of  the 
two  families  attached  separate  from  each  other  in  the 
street,  the  name  of  the  bride  is  changed  into  the  name 
of  her  betrothed ;  the  lanterns  having  his  name  attached 
remaining  in  the  procession,  while  those  which  have 
her  (former)  name  are  taken  back  to  the  residence  of 
her  father's  familj'.  From  this  time  during  the  day  she 
generally  is  in  the  midst  of  entire  personal  strangers, 
excepting  her  female  assistants,  who  accompany  the  pro- 
cession and  keep  with  her  wherever  she  goes.  On  ar- 
riving at  the  door  of  the  bridegroom's  house  tire-crack- 
ers are  let  oif  in  large  quantities,  and  the  band  plays 
ver\'  vigorously.  The  torch-bearers,  lantern-bearers,  and 
the  musicians  stop  near  the  door.  The  sedan  is  carried 
into  the  reception-room.  The  floor, from  the  place  where 
the  sedan  stops  to  the  door  of  the  bride's  room,  is  cov- 
ered with  red  carpeting,  lest  her  feet  should  touch  the 
Hoor.  A  woman  who  has  borne  both  male  and  female 
children,  or  at  least  male  children,  and  who  li\-es  in  har- 
monious subjection  to  her  husband,  approaches  the  door 
of  the  sedan  and  utters  various  felicitous  sentences.  If 
she  is  in  good  pecuniary  circumstances,  and  if  her  par- 
ents are  living  and  of  a  learned  family,  so  much  the 
more  fortunate.  A  boy  six  or  eight  years  old,  holding 
in  his  hands  a  brass  mirror,  with  the  reflecting  surface 
turned  from  him  and  towards  the  chair,  also  comes  near, 
and  invites  the  bride  to  alight.  At  the  same  time  the 
married  woman  who  has  uttered  propitious  words  ad- 
vances as  if  to  open  the  door  of  the  sedan,  when  one  of 
the  female  assistants  of  the  bride,  who  accompanied  the 
procession,  steps  forward  and  opens  it.  The  married 
woman  referred  to  and  the  boy  are  employed  by  the 
family  of  the  groom,  and  receive  a  small  present  for 
tlieir  services,  wliich  are  considered  quite  important  and 
ominous  of  good.  The  mirror  held  by  the  lad  is  ex- 
pected to  ward  off  all  deadly  or  pernicious  influences 
which  may  emanate  from  the  sedan.  The  bride  is  notv 
allied  by  her  female  assistants  to  alight.  While  being 
leil  towards  the  door  of  her  room,  the  sieve  which  had 
Iteen  placed  over  the  door  of  the  bridal  chair  on  its  ar- 
rival is  sometimes  held  over  her  head,  and  sometimes  it 
is  placed  directly  in  front  of  the  door  of  the  sedan,  so 
that,  on  stepping  out,  she  will  step  into  it. 

"  The  groom,  on  the  approach  of  the  bridal  proces- 
sion, disappears  from  the  crowd  of  friends'  and  relatives 
v.'ho  have  assembled  at  his  residence  on  the  happy  oc- 
casion, and  takes  his  position  standing  bj'  the  side  of 
the  bedstead,  having  his  face  turned  towards  the  bed. 
When  tlie  bride  enters  the  room,  guided  by  her  assist- 


ants, he  tums  aroimd,  and  remains  standing  with  his 
face  turned  from  the  bed.  As  soon  as  she  has  reached 
his  side,  both  bridegroom  and  bride  simultaneously  seat 
themselves  side  by  side  on  the  edge  of  the  bedstead. 
Oftentimes  the  groom  manages  to  have  a  portion  of  the 
skirt  of  her  dress  come  under  him  as  he  sits  down  by 
her,  such  a  thing  being  considered  as  a  kind  of  omen 
that  she  will  be  submissive.  Sometimes  the  bride  is 
very  careful,  by  a  proper  adjustment  of  her  clothing  at 
the  moment  of  sitting  down,  not  only  to  prevent  the  ac- 
complishment of  such  an  intention  on  his  part,  but  also 
to  sit  down,  if  possible,  in  such  a  manner  that  some  of 
his  dress  will  come  under  her,  thus  manifesting  her  de- 
termination to  preserve  a  proper  independence,  if  not  to 
bring  him  actually  to  yield  obedience  to  her  will.  Af- 
ter sitting  thus  in  profound  silence  together  for  a  few 
moments,  the  groom  arises  and  leaves  the  room.  He 
waits  in  the  reception-room  for  the  reappearance  of  his 
bride,  to  perform  the  ceremony  called  'worshipping  the 
temple'  (q.  v.).  Until  this  time  the  bride  has  worn  the 
heavy  embroidered  outside  garment,  head-clress,  etc., 
which  she  had  on  when  she  entered  her  sedan.  These 
are  now  removed.  She  has  her  hair  carefully  combed 
in  the  style  of  her  class  in  society,  and  she  is  arrayed  in 
her  own  wedding  garments.  Sometimes  her  hair  is 
gorgeously  decked  out  with  pearls  and  gems,  true  or 
false,  according  to  the  ability  of  the  family  to  purchase, 
rent,  or  borrow.  When  her  toilet  has  been  completed, 
and  everything  has  been  made  ready,  the  bride  and 
bridegroom  sit  down  in  her  room  to  their  wedding  din- 
ner. He  now,  oftentimes  for  the  first  time  in  his  life, 
and  always  for  the  first  time  on  his  marriage  day,  be- 
holds the  features  of  his  wife.  He  may  eat  to  his  fill  of 
the  good  things  provided  on  the  occasion,  but  she,  ac- 
cording to  established  custom,  may  not  take  a  particle. 
She  must  sit  in  silence,  dignified  and  composed. 

"  The  wedding  festivities  generally  last  at  least  two 
days.  The  first  day  the  male  friends  and  relatives  of  the 
groom  are  invited  to  'shed  their  light''  on  the  occasion. 
On  the  second  day  the  female  friends  and  relatives  of  the 
family  of  the  groom  are  invited  to  the  wedding  feast ; 
this  is  often  called  the  '  women's  day.'  Not  long  after 
the  family  and  guests  have  breakfasted  on  the  morning 
of  the  second  day,  the  newly-married  couple,  ainid  the 
noise  of  fire-crackers,  come  out  of  their  room  together 
for  the  purpose  of  worshipping  the  ancestral  tablets  be- 
longing to  the  household,  the  grandparents,  and  parents 
of  the  groom.  This  custom  is  known  by  the  name  of 
'  coming  out  of  the  roomj  In  the  case  of  those  families 
who  devote  only  one  day  to  the  marriage  festivities  and 
ceremonies,  this  custom  is  observed  on  the  afternoon  of 
the  first  day.  Not  long  subsequent  to  the  ceremony  of 
'  coming  out  of  the  room,'  the  couple  proceed  to  the 
kitchen  for  the  purpose  of  worshi]5ping  the  god  and  god- 
dess of  the  kitchen.  This  is  performed  with  great  de- 
corum, and  is  regarded  as  an  important  and  essential 
part  of  marriage  solemnities.  Incense  and  candles  are 
lighted,  and  arranged  on  a  table  placed  before  the  pict- 
ure or  the  writing  which  represents  these  divinities, 
plastered  upon  the  wall  of  the  kitchen.  Before  this  ta- 
ble the  bridegroom  and  his  bride  kneel  down  side  by 
side,  and  bow  in  worship  of  the  god  and  goddess  of  the 
kitchen.  It  is  believed  that  they  will  thus  propitiate 
their  good-will,  and  especially  that  the  bride,  in  at- 
tempting culinary  operations,  will  succeed  better  in  con- 
sequence of  paying  early  and  respectful  attentions  to 
these  divinities.  On  the  third  day  the  parents  of  the 
bride  send  an  invitation  to  their  son-in-law  and  his 
wife  to  visit  them.  With  tliis  invitation  they  send  se- 
dans for  them.  The  card  is  usually  brought  by  her 
brothers,  if  she  has  any  of  the  proper  age,  or  by  rela- 
tives having  her  own  ancestral  name.  Until  this  morn- 
ing, since  she  left  her  former  home  two  days  previous, 
the  bride  has  seen  none  of  her  own  family,  and  generally 
none  of  her  own  relatives  or  acquaintances.  She  and 
her  husband  now  receive  the  congratulations  and  com- 
pliments of  her  brothers  or  other  relatives,  and  prepare 


MARRIAGE 


805 


marriage; 


to  visit  her  parents.  The  bride  enters  her  sedan  first, 
and  proceeds  a  short  distance  in  front  of  her  husband. 
They  do  nut  start  together,  nor  is  it  proper  that  they 
should  arrive  at  the  house  of  lier  parents  at  the  same 
time.  The  cliair  provided  for  the  bride  on  this  occa- 
sion is  a  common  black  sedan  in  all  respects,  except  that 
its  screen  in  front  has  a  certain  charm  painted  upon  the 
outside.  This  charm  is  the  picture  of  a  grim-looking 
man,  sitting  on  a  tiger,  with  one  of  his  hands  raised  up, 
holding  a  sword,  as  if  in  the  act  of  striking,  represent- 
ing a  certain  ruler  of  elves,  hobgoblins,  etc.  The  object 
of  its  use  on  the  occasion  of  a  bride's  returning  to  her 
parents'  house,  on  the  third  day  after  her  marriage,  is 
to  keep  oft'  evil  and  unpropitious  influences  from  her. 
On  arrival  at  her  paternal  home  the  bride's  sedan  is  car- 
ried into  the  reception-room,  and  she  alights  amid  the 
noise  of  fire-crackers.  The  sedan  which  contains  the 
son-in-law  stops  a  few  rods  from  his  father-in-law's  resi- 
dence, where  he  is  met  by  one  of  his  brothers-in-law,  or 
some  relative  or  friend  deputed  to  meet  and  conduct  him 
into  the  house.  The  two  parties,  standing  in  the  street, 
respccti'iilly  shake  their  own  hands  towards  each  other 
on  meeting,  according  to  the  approved  fashion.  The 
newly-arrived  is  now  invited  to  enter  the  house.  He  is 
seated  in  the  reception-room,  where  he  is  treated  suc- 
cessively to  three  cups  of  tea  and  three  pipes  of  tobacco. 
x\fterwards  he  is  invited  to  go  and  see  his  mother-in- 
law  in  her  room,  where  he  finds  his  wife.  There  he 
sits  awhile,  and  visits  after  a  stereotyped  manner,  be- 
ing careful  to  use  only  good  or  propitious  words,  avoid- 
ing every  subject  and  phrase  which,  according  to  the 
notions  of  this  people,  are  unlucky.  He  is  soon  invited 
into  the  reception-room,  where  he  is  joined  b}^  his  wife. 
Everj-thing  being  arranged,  the  husband  and  wife  pro- 
ceed to  worship  the  ancestral  tablets  of  her  family.  At 
the  conclusion  of  this  ceremony  the  bride  retires  to  her 
mother's  apartments,  or  to  some  back  room,  where  she 
and  the  female  relatives  present  are  feasted.  Her  hus- 
band is  invited  to  partake  of  some  refreshments  in  the 
reception-room,  in  doing  which  he  is  joined  by  his 
bride's  brothers,  or  some  others  of  her  family  relatives. 
According  to  the  rules  of  etiquette,  he  must  eat  but  very 
little,  however  hungry  he  may  be.  The  usual  phrase 
employed  in  speaking  of  it  is  that  he  eats  part  of  '  three 
bowls  of  vegetables,'  after  which  he  declines  to  receive 
anj-thing  more,  under  the  plea  that  he  has  eaten  enough. 
He  soon  takes  his  departure  in  his  sedan,  leaving  his 
bride  to  fcjllow  by  herself  by-and-bj',  accompanied  usu- 
ally only  by  a  servant  or  female  friend.  Husbands  are 
never  seen  with  their  wives  in  public." 

The  marriage  customs  of  the  Japanese  are  so  very 
like  those  of  the  Chinese  that  we  have  grouped  them  to- 
gether. The  custom  of  purchasing  the  wife  is  still 
more  general  among  the  Japanese  than  other  Asiatic 
nations.  Polygamy  is  strictly  forbidden.  Though  the 
harem  is  tolerated,  only  one  lawful  wife  is  recognised. 
"  It  appears,  however,"  says  MacFarlane  {Japan,  jj.  2(3a), 
"  to  be  verj'  easy  for  a  man  to  put  away  his  wife  and 
take  another — at  least  so  far  as  any  law  exists  to  the 
contrary."  The  condition  of  woman  is  far  better  than 
in  any  other  Asiatic  countrj'. 

V.  Among  Savages.  —  Perhaps  in  no  other  way  can 
the  great  advantages  of  Christian  civilization  be  more 
conclusively  shown  than  by  the  improvement  which  it 
has  effected  in  the  relations  between  the  two  sexes. 
The  best  students  of  the  primitive  condition  of  man 
have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  where  divine  revela- 
tion does  not  extend  the  institution  of  marriage,  if  it 
exists  at  all,  it  is  by  no  means  the  outgrowth  of  affection 
and  a  desire  for  companionship,  but  is  entered  into  by 
the  male  savages  "as  a  mere  animal  and  convenient 
connection"  as  the  "  means  of  getting  their  dinner 
cooked."  There  is  "no  idea  of  tenderness  nor  of  chiv- 
alrous devotion"'  (Hill,  Tracts  of  Chittagong,  p.  IIG; 
comp.  Pallas,  Voyages,  iv,  94).  Indeed,  according  to 
Lubbock  {Origin  of  Cirilization,  and  Primitive  Condi- 
tion ofJIan),  the  lowest  races  have  uo  such  institution 


as  the  marriage  rite,  because  "  true  love  is  almost  im- 
known  among  them"  (p.  50).  Kolben  {Hist.  CujJe  of 
Good  Hope,  i,  KVi)  tells  us  that  "the  Hottentots  are  so 
cold  and  indifferent  to  one  another  that  you  would 
think  there  was  no  such  thing  as  love  between  them.'' 
There  are  even  some  savages,  as  the  North  American 
Indian  tribe,  the  Tinnes,  who  have  no  word  for  "  dear" 
or  "beloved;"  and  it  is  said  of  the  Algonquins  that 
when  the  Bible  was  translated  into  their  language  a 
word  had  to  be  coined  to  give  expression  to  our  verb 
"  to  love."  There  are  other  uncivilized  races  of  men 
that  lack  greatly  in  words  to  express  social  relations, 
as,  e.  g.,  the  Sandwich  ftlanders,  who,  according  to 
Lubbock  (p.  61-63),  possess  no  words  answering  to 
"  son,"  "  daughter,"  "  wife,"  or  "  husband,"  due  not  to 
poverty  of  language,  but  to  the  fact  that  "  the  idea  of 
marriage  does  not  enter  into  the  Hawaian  system  of 
relationship." 

Among  savages,  the  peculiar  ideas  attached  to  the 
bond  of  matrimony  make  the  marriage-ceremony  rather 
an  institution  peculiar  to  them.  As  we  have  seen  above, 
there  are  many  rude  people  who  do  not  recognise  the 
symbol  of  marriage,  and,  naturally  enough,  no  ceremony 
is  known  to  them;  and  then  there  are  many  cases  Ln 
which  the  marriage  bond  is  recognised,  but  no  ceremony 
of  marriage  is  observed.  "  Yet,"  says  Lubbock  ( p.  58 ), 
"  we  must  not  assume  that  marriage  is  necessarily  and 
always  lightly  regarded  where  it  is  unaccompanied  by 
ceremonial.''  In  Tahiti,  says  Cook  {Voyage  urovnd  the 
World),  "  marriage,  as  appeared  to  us,  is  nothing  more 
than  an  agreement  between  the  man  and  the  woman, 
with  which  the  priest  has  no  concern.  Where  it  is 
contracted  it  appears  to  be  pretty  well  kept,  though 
sometimes  the  parties  separate  by  mutual  consent" 
(comp.  Klemm,  Cidtur  der  Menschen,  iv,  299). 

1.  Cereinonies. — There  cannot  be  said  to  exist  any 
marriage  ceremonies  among  the  Badagas  (Hindostan) ; 
the  Kurumbas,  a  tribe  of  the  Neilgherry  Hills  {Trans- 
act. Ethnol.  Soc.  vii,  276) ;  the  Indians  of  California 
{Smithsonian  Rep.  1863,  p.  368) ;  the  Kutchin  Indians, 
further  north  {Smith.  Rep.  1866,  p.  326) ;  the  Arawaks 
of  South  America  (Brett,  Guiana,  p.  101),  and  the  Bra- 
zilian tribes  generally  (Martins,  Rechtszn stand  iinter  den 
Ureinwohnern  Brasiliens,  p.  51) ;  and  the  same  is  the 
case  with  the  Australian  tribes  (Eyre's  Discoveries,  ii, 
319).  Speke  (Jo^/rw.  p.  361)  says  "there  are  no  such 
things  as  marriages  in  Uganda;"  and  of  the  Mandin- 
goes  (West  Africa),  Caille  {Trav.  to  Timhuctoo,  i,  350) 
says  that  husband  and  wife  are  not  united  by  any  cere- 
mony; and  Huttun  (in  Klemm,  Cidiur,  iii,  280)  makes 
the  same  statement  as  regards  the  Ashantees.  In  Con- 
go and  Angola  (Astley,  Coll.  of  Voyages,  iii,  221,  227) 
"  they  use  no  peculiar  ceremonies  in  marriage,  nor 
scarce  trouble  themselves  for  consent  of  friends."  Nei- 
ther do  we  find  that  the  Hottentots  know  anything  about 
marriage  ceremonies,  if  we  may  follow  La  Yaillant 
{Voy.  ii,  58);  nor  do  the  Bushmen,  acconling  to  Mr. 
Wood  {Nat.  Hist.  Man,  i,  269),  have  in  their  language 
any  means  of  distinguishing  an  unmarried  from  a  mar- 
ried girl.  According  to  Dalton  {Trans.  Ethn.  Soc.  vi, 
25),  the  Keriahs  of  Central  India  have  no  word  for  mar- 
riage in  their  own  language,  and  the  only  ceremony  used 
appears  to  be  little  more  than  a  stirt  of  public  recogni- 
tion of  the  fact.  "  The  marital  rite  among  our  tribes" 
(i.  e.  the  Redskins  of  the  United  States),  says  School- 
craft {Ind.  Tribes,  p.  132,  248),  "  is  nothing  more  than 
the  personal  consent  of  the  ]iarties,  without  requiring 
any  concurrent  act  of  a  priesthood,  magistracy,  or  wit- 
nesses; the  act  is  assumed  by  the  jiarties  without  the 
necessity  of  any  extraneous  sanction."  "There  is," 
says  Bruce  {Travels,  iv,  487),  "no  such  thing  as  mar- 
riage in  Abyssinia,  unless  that  which  is  contracted  by 
mutual  consent,  without  other  form,  subsisting  only  till 
dissolved  by  dissent  of  one  or  the  other,  and  to  be  re- 
newed or  repeated  as  often  as  it  is  agreeable  to  both 
parties,  who,  when  they  please,  live  together  again  as 
man  and  wife,  after  having  been  divorced,  had  children 


MARRIAGE 


806 


MARRIAGE 


by  others,  or  whether  they  have  been  married  or  had 
cliililreu  with  others  or  not."  Among  the  Bedouin  Ar- 
at>s  there  is  a  marriage  ceremony  in  the  case  of  a  girl, 
liut  the  remarriage  of  a  widow  is  not  thought  sufficient- 
ly important  to  deserve  one. 

"2.  Communal  Marriage. —  Bachofen  and  M'Lennan, 
two  of  the  most  devoted  students  of  marriage  among 
the  savages,  will  have  it  that  the  primitive  condition 
of  man  was  one  of  jiure  Iletuirism,  or,  as  it  might  \>qy- 
haps  be  conveniently  Englished,  "communal  marriage," 
where  every  man  and  Avoman  in  a  small  community 
were  regarded  as  equally  married  to  one  another.     Of 
course  none  of  our  readers  will  be  misled  by  the  use  of 
the  word  "  primitive."     It  is  not  our  province  here  to 
enter  into  a  discussion  on  primeval  man   [see  Pre- 
Ada.mites]  ;  we  use  the  word  with  reference  to  the 
lowest  condition  of  imchristiunized  man,  satisfied,  as  we 
stated  at  the  beginning  of  our  subject,  that  the  mar- 
riage relation,  as  it  exists  among  civilized  men,  is  due 
solely  to  the  influence  of  divine  revelation — man's  no- 
blest educator.     The  most  extravagant  form  of  commu- 
nism we  find  related  of  the  Techurs  of  Oude.     "They 
live  together  almost  indiscriminately  in  large  commu- 
nities, and  even  when  the  people  are  regarded  as  mar- 
ried the  tie  is  but  nominal"  (\\'atson  and  Kaye,  People 
of  India,  ii,  85).     In  the  Andaman  Islands,  we  are  told 
by  Sir  Edward  Belcher  (Trans.  Ethn.  Soc.  v,  45),  it  is 
the  custom  for  man  and  woman  to  remain  together  un- 
til the  child  is  weaned,  when  they  separate  as  a  matter 
of  course,  and  each  seeks  a  new  partner.     Among  the 
Southals,  one  of  the  aboriginal  tribes  of  India,  marriages 
take  place  once  a  j'ear,  mostly  in  January.     "For  six 
days  all  the  candidates  for  matrimony  live  together  in 
promiscuous  concid)inage,  the  introductory  rite  to  the 
marital  relation;  for  only  after  this  are  the  separate 
couples  regarded  as  ha'ving  established  their  right  to 
marry"  (\\  atson  and  Kaye,  i,  2),     Among  the  Todas, 
of  the  Hawaian  race,  when  a  man  marries  a  girl,  she 
becomes  the  wife  of  all  his  brothers  as  they  successively 
reach  manhood ;  and  they  also  become  the  husbands  of 
all  her  sisters,  as  they  become  old  enough  to  marry. 
(Comp.  here  Ethn,  Journ.  1867,  p.  286,  on  a  practice 
among  the  Sioux  and  other  North  American  Indians.) 
Among  the  Greenland  Esquimaux  it  is  related  that 
•■those  are  reputed  the  best  and  noblest  tempered  who, 
without  any  pain  or  reluctancy,  will  lend  their  friends 
their  wives"   (^Egede,  Hist.  Greenland,  p.  142),     This 
custom  of  wife-lending  is,  however,  by  no  means  con- 
lined  to  the  inhabitants  of  Greenland,  but  prevails  among 
North  and  South  American  Indians,  Polynesians,  East- 
ern and  Western  negroes,  Arabs,  Abyssinians,  Kaffirs, 
Mongols,  Tutski,  etc.  (see  Lubbock,  p.  89),  and  is  prac- 
ticed especially  as  an  act  of  hospitality.     Plutarch  will 
have  it  that  the  custom  of  lending  wives  existed  also 
among  the  Ivomans.     Nor  must  it  be  forgotten  that  it 
was  held  one  of  the  essentials  of  the  model  Platonic  re- 
public that  "  among  the  guardians,  at  least,  the  sexual 
arrangements  shoidd  be  under  public  regulation,  and  the 
monopoly  of  one  woman  by  one  man  forbidden"  (Bain, 
Mental  and  Moral  ^Science ;  comp.  Karnes,  Hist,  of  Man, 
ii,  .")0).     See  also  Pkostitute.    A  very  peculiar  "custom 
is  found  among  tlie  Xassaniyeh  Arabs.     They  practice 
what  migiit  be  appropriately  termed  three-quarter  mar- 
riage ;  i.  e.  the  woinan  is  legally  married  for  three  davs 
out  of  four,  remaining  perfectly  free  for  the  fourth  (Lub- 
bock, ]).  54).     In  Ceylon,  according  to  Davy  {Ceylon,  p, 
286),  marriages  are  provisional  for  the  first  "fortnight,  at 
the  expiration  of  which  they  are  either  amudled  or  con- 
firmed.    Among  the  Keddies  of  Soutliern  India  a  still 
more  singular  custom  prevails.    "  A  young  woman  of  six- 
teen or  twenty  years  of  age  may  be  married  to  a  boy  of 
five  or  six  years.     She,  however,  lives  with  some  other 
adult  male — perhaps  a  maternal  uncle  or  cousin — but  is 
not  allowed  to  form  a  connecTion  with  the' father's  rela- 
tives; occasionally  it  may  be  the  boy-husband's  father 
himself— that  is,  the  woman's  father-in-law.     Should 
there  be  children  from  these  liaisons,  they  are  fathered 


on  the  boy-husband.  When  the  boy  grows  up  the  wife 
is  cither  old  or  past  child-bearing,  when  he,  in  his  turn, 
takes  up  with  some  other  boy's  wife  in  a  manner  precisely 
similar  to  his  own,  and  procreates  children  for  the  bov- 
hnsband"  (Shortt,  Trans.  Ethnol.  Soc,  New  Series,  v'ii, 
194), 

o.  3far7-iage  hj  Purchase.  —  Those  who  believe,  like 
Tyler,  M'Lennan,  Bachofen,  and  Lubbock,  that  the  com- 
munal system  of  the  marital  relation  existed  in  the  pri- 
meval state,  hold  that  out  of  it  arose  the  system  of  indi- 
vidual marriage.  We  who  depend  upon  the  guidance 
of  a  written  revelation  are  rather  of  the  opinion  that  it 
is  the  influence  of  Christian  civilization  upon  savage 
life  that  has  led  some  of  them  to  prefer  individual  to 
communal  marriage.  It  is  true  that  the  marriage  by 
capture  has  done  much  to  bring  about  individual  mar- 
riage, but  it  is  by  no  means  clear  to  us  that  even  then 
the  practice  was  not  borrowed  from  Christianized  peo- 
ple directl}'  or  indirectly.  We  certainly  do  not  believe, 
with  Lessmg,  that  nations  develop  without  external  in- 
fluences, that  civilization  is  the  possession  of  every  peo- 
ple, and  that  it  is  constantly  progressive.  The  condi- 
tion of  the  American  savage,  and  the  remnants  of  an 
early  and  high  civilization,  bear  witness  to  the  contrarj\ 
Yet  we  believe,  with  Brinton  (Jfijfhs  of  the  Kexc  World, 
p.  5),  that  "religious  rites  are  living  commentaries  on 
religious  beliefs;"  and  that,  while  the  idea  of  God  does 
not  and  cannot  proceed  from  the  external  world,  it  nev- 
ertheless finds  its  historical  origin,  also,  in  the  desper- 
ate struggle  for  life,  in  the  satisfaction  of  the  animal 
wants  and  passions,  in  those  vulgar  aims  and  motives 
which  possessed  the  mind  of  the  primitive  man  to  the 
exclusion  of  everything  else.  It  is  pretty  clear  that 
with  all  pre-Christian  nations  the  modes  of  getting  a 
wife  were  the  same  with  those  of  acquiring  any  other 
species  of  propertj^ — capture,  gift,  sale.  The  contract  of 
sale  may  be  said  to  be  at  the  foundation  of  the  mar- 
I'iage  relation  in  every  system  of  ancient  law.  When 
daughters  belonged  to  parents  as  goods,  they  were  part- 
ed with  only  on  the  principles  of  fair  exchange.  Usually 
the  contract  was  between  the  heads  of  families,  the  in- 
tending bride  and  bridegroom  not  being  consulted.  As 
to  the  marriage  ceremonies,  they  then  were  those  and 
no  other  which  were  necessary  to  complete  and  evidence 
a  sale — delivery,  on  the  price  being  paid,  and  "  the  tak- 
ing home."  It  was  never  thought  of  that  the  children 
should  be  consulted,  and  allowed  to  act  on  their  likings. 
Just  so  the  savage  has  been  in  a  measure  addicted  to 
the  purchase  of  his  wife,  with  only  this  difference,  how- 
ever, that  the  property  is  secured  by  the  buyer  for  him- 
self. In  Sumatra,  e.  g.,  there  were  formerly  three  per- 
fectly distinct  kinds  of  marriage  :  the  "  Jugur,"  in  which 
the  man  purchased  the  woman;  the  "Ambel-anak,"  in 
which  the  ^^•oman  purchased  the  man  (see  below,  Poli/- 
andry') ;  and  the  "  Semando."  in  which  they  joined  on 
terms  of  equality  (comp.  jMarsden, ///jt^  of  Sumatra,  p. 
262  sq.).  "Among  low  races,"  says  Lubbock  (p.  08),  "the 
wife  is  indeed  literally  the  property  of  the  husband,  as 
Petruchio  says  of  Catharine : 

'I  will  be  master  of  what  is  mine  own. 
8he  is  my  goods,  my  chattels ;  she  is  my  house, 
My  household  stuff,  my  tield,  my  barn, 
My  horse,  my  ox,  my  ass,  my  aiiythiug.' '' 

Still  more  peculiar  and  odd  are  tbo  ceremonies  of 
courtship  and  marriage  in  the  mountainous  districts  of 
Eastern  Hungary,  In  the  fall  of  the  year  a  fair  is  held 
there  of  marriageable  young  men  and  women.  From 
all  quarters  long  trains  of  chariots  wind  their  way  to 
the  ])lain  of  Kalinosa.  They  are  laden  with  household 
furniture,  and  followed  by  tlie  cattle  of  the  family.  In 
the  midst  of  these  goods  may  be  seen  the  young  lady 
whom  her  family  has  brought  to  seek  a  husband  at  the 
fair.  She  is  dressed  in  her  best,  with  brilliant  silk  scarf 
and  scarlet  petticoat.  These  caravans  fake  up  their  po- 
sition one  after  the  other  on  one  side  of  the  plain,  while 
on  the  other  side  a  cavalcade  of  young  men  apprtiaches 
and  deploys  along  the  whole  luie.     The  men— young 


MARRIAGE 


807 


MARRIAGE 


Wallacliiar.s,  for  the  most  part — are  dressed  in  their  best 
goat-skins,  and  make  what  show  of  horsemanship  they 
can.  After  both  parties  have  taken  up  their  respective 
quarters  opposite  each  other,  the  fathers  step  forward 
and  begin  to  negotiate  marriages  for  their  children. 
The  questions  asked  on  these  occasions  are,  we  fear,  of  a 
somewliat  sordid  character.  "  How  many  bullocl<s '?" 
"How  much  money?"  "Your  daughter's  furniture  looks 
rather  old ;  that  chest  of  drawers  does  not  shut  properlj'. 
I  must  find  something  better  than  that  for  my  son." 
Such  would  doubtless  be  a  correct  report  of  the  conver- 
sations held  in  this  primitive,  if  not  poetical  Arcadia, 
previous  to  clinching  the  matrimonial  bargain.  The 
business  is,  however,  carried  out  with  a  promptitude 
equal  to  its  frankness.  As  soon  as  the  parents  are 
agreed,  a  priest,  who  is  always  ready  at  hand,  is  sum- 
moned. He  chants  a  hymn  and  gives  his  benediction, 
the  bride  then  kisses  her  parents,  mounts  the  chariot, 
and  starts  for  some  imknown  village  with  a  husband 
whiim  she  has  never  seen  before,  the  furniture  and  cat- 
tle which  her  parents  have  allowed  her  as  a  marriage- 
portion  following  in  the  rear. 

5.  Mari-iage  by  Capture. — IMarriage  by  purchase,  how- 
ever, is  by  no  means  the  most  usual  -way  of  the  savage 
to  secure  a  help-meet  for  himself.  Perhaps  the  general 
mode  by  which  rude  nations  enter  into  the  marital  rela- 
tion is  that  of  capture.  In  the  opinion  of  Lubbock,  the 
first  state  of  individual  marriage  was  brought  about  by 
capture,  and,  if  he  chose  to  treat  of  this  practice  as  con- 
fined to  rude  nations,  we  can  see  no  reason  to  disagree 
with  him  that  man  came  to  claim  for  his  sole  personal 
benefit  the  female  he  secured  from  the  conquered.  In- 
deed, such  a  practice  finds  a  counterpart  not  only  among 
the  pagan  nations,  but  is  related  of  even  in  the  O.-T. 
Scriptures  (Deut.  xx,  10-1-1).  Our  readers  must  not, 
however,  be  led  to  believe  that  among  savage  races 
marriage  by  capture  means  the  procuring  of  a  wife  l)y 
hostility.  Many  savages,  indeed,  never  secure  their  fe- 
male companions  except  by  capture,  though  they  be  of 
the  same  tribe  to  which  they  themselves  belong.  In- 
deed, while  there  are  many  rude  nations  that  do  not 
tolerate  anything  else  but  eiuhr/ami/,  i.  e.  intertribal 
marriage,  many  others,  perhaps  the  majority,  permit 
only  exogamy.,  i.  e.  marriage  without  the  tribe.  (See 
this  head  below.)  Nor  does  it  at  aU  follow  that  all  ex- 
ogamous  marriages  do  away  with  communism.  It  is 
simply  a  step  in  the  right  direction,  and  in  many  in- 
stances has  perhaps  been  instrumental  in  bringing  about 
individual  marriage  relations.  There  is  certainly  no 
symbol  more  widespread,  nor  more  varied  in  its  forms, 
tlian  that  of  capture  in  marriage  ceremonies.  In  many 
cases  feigned  theft  is  necessary  to  the  validity  of  the 
marriage.  For  the  Hindu  such  a  marriage  form  is 
prescribed  in  the  Sudras  (Lassen,  Indische  Studien,  p. 
3'25),  and  in  the  Institutes  of  Manu  marriage  by  capture 
is  enumerated  among  "  the  eight  forms  of  the  nuptial 
ceremony  used  by  the  four  classes"  (chap,  iii,  33,  Jones  r. 
Ilougliton).  "  In  the  description  of  this  marriage,  call- 
ed Kacshasa,  we  have  the  exact  prototype  of  the  Koman 
and  Si)artan  forms,  in  a  code  of  laws  a  thousand  years 
older  than  our  asra"  {Nat.  Qu.  Bet:  June,  1872,  p.  89). 

The  practice  of  capture  is  found  in  great  perfection 
among  the  American  Indians,  existing  everywhere 
throughout  the  savage  races  of  South  America,  but  more 
particularly  in  the  regions  of  the  Oruioco  and  the  Ama- 
zon. The  Fucgians  have  the  practice  as  well  as  the  fic- 
tion of  capture.  The  Horse  Indians  of  Patagonia  are 
commonly  at  war  with  each  other,  or  with  the  Canoe 
Indians,  victory  on  either  side  resulting  in  the  capture 
of  \vomen  and  slaughter  of  men.  The  Oens,  or  Coin 
men,  are  more  systematic,  for  every  year,  at  the  time 
of  ?-ed,  leaf,  they  are  said  to  make  excursions  from  the 
mountains  in  the  north  to  ydunder  from  the  Fiiegians 
their  women,  dogs,  and  arms  (^I'Lennan,  Prim.  Mar- 
riage, p.  Gl).  The  tribes  of  the  Amazon  and  the  Orinoco 
are  in  a  state  of  constant  warfare,  and  alternately  rich 
and  poor  in  women.     Mr.  Bates  found  the  Jlanaos  on 


the  Rio  Negro  to  resemble  the  Oens  in  habits.  The 
Caribbees  were  found  by  Humboldt  to  form  family 
groups,  often  numbering  only  forty  or  fifty,  which  were 
at  constant  enmity  with  each  other.  Capture  prevailed 
among  thetn  to  such  an  extent  that  the  women  of  any 
tribe  belonged  so  much  to  distinct  tribes  that  in  no 
group  were  the  men  and  women  found  to  speak  the 
same  language  (Personal  Narrative  of  Travels,  v,  210). 
Among  the  wild  Indians  of  the  North  the  same  account 
is  applicable  in  varying  degrees.  Hearne  tells  us  that 
among  the  Hudson's  Bay  Indians  "  it  has  ever  been  the 
custom  for  the  men  to  wrestle  for  any  woman  to  whom 
they  are  attached,  and,  of  course,  the  strongest  party  al- 
ways carries  off  the  prize ;  a  weak  man,  unless  he  be  a 
good  hunter  and  well-beloved,  is  seldom  permitted  to 
keep  a  wife  that  a  stronger  man  thinks  worth  his  no- 
tice. .  .  .  This  custom  prevails  throughout  all  their 
tribes,  and  causes  a  great  spirit  of  emulation  among 
their  youth,  who  are,  upon  all  occasions,  from  their  child- 
hood, trying  their  strength  and  skill  in  wrestling"  (Voy- 
age to  the  Northern  Ocean,  p.  104).  Franklin  also  says 
that  the  Copper  Indians  hold  women  in  the  same  low 
estimation  as  the  Chippewayans  do,  "looking  upon  them 
as  a  kind  of  property,  which  the  stronger  may  take  from 
the  weaker"  {.Journey  to  the  Shores  of  the  Polar  tSca,  viii, 
43),  and  Richardson  {Boat  Journey,  ii,  24)  "more  than 
once  saw  a  stronger  man  assert  his  right  to  take  the 
wife  of  a  weaker  countryman.  Any  one  may  challenge 
another  to  wrestle,  and,  if  he  overcomes,  may  carry  off 
the  wife  as  the  prize."  Yet  the  women  never  dream  of 
protesting  against  this,  which,  indeed,  seems  to  them 
perfectly  natural. 

The  capture  of  women  for  wives  prevails  also  among 
the  aborigines  of  the  Deccan,  and  in  Afghanistan  (La- 
tham, Descript.  Ethnol.  ii,  215).  It  formerly  prevailed, 
according  to  Olaus  Magnus,  in  Muscovy,  Lithuania,  and 
Livonia  {Ilistoria  de  gentihus  Septentrio7ialibus,  bk.  xiv, 
ch.  ix,  p.  48).  There  is  ample  reason  to  believe  that  the 
practice  was  general  among  the  nations  in  the  north  of 
Europe  and  Asia.  Olaus  Magnus,  indeed,  rejiresents  the 
tribes  of  the  north  as  having  been  continualh'  at  war  with 
one 'another,  either  on  account  of  stolen  women,  or  with 
the  object  of  stealing  women,  "propter  raptas  virgines 
aut  arripiendas"  {ut  sup.  p.  328).  In  numerous  cases  the 
plunderers  were  of  the  royal  houses  of  Denmark  and  Swe- 
den. Among  the  Scandinavians,  before  they  became 
Christians,  wives  were  almost  invariably  fought  for  and 
wedded  at  the  sword-point.  Among  the  KalinucliS,  Kir- 
ghis,  Nogais,  and  Circassians,  where  the  price  cannot  be 
agreed  upon,  nothing  is  more  common  than  to  carry  off 
the  lady  by  force.  This  capture  constitutes  a  marriage, 
even  before  the  parties  come  to  terms  (M'Lennan,  p. 73), 
The  Australians,  while  having  a  general  system  of  be- 
trothals, yet  employ  the  practice  of  capturing  wives  to 
a  great  extent.  According  to  Turnbull,  when  a  man 
sees  a  woman  whom  he  likes,  he  tcUs  her  to  follow  him. 
If  she  refuses,  he  forces  her  to  accompany  him  by  blows, 
ending  by  knocking  her  do\vn  and  carrying  her  off 
{Voyage  round  the  World,  i,  81  sq.).  Sir  George  Grey 
says  that  many  plots  are  laid  to  carrj'  off  the  ^voraen, 
and  in  the  encounters  which  result  they  receive  usually 
very  harsh  treatment. 

Many  other  less  barbarous  nations  keep  up  the  show 
of  force  only.  The  following  are  among  the  rriost 
marked  examples.  Among  the  Khonils  the  marriage- 
ceremony  begins  with  a  feast  at  the  dwelling  of  the 
bride.  This  is  followed  by  dancing  and  song.  When 
the  night  is  far  spent  in  these  amusements,  the  princi- 
pals are  lifted  by  an  uncle  of  each  on  his  shoulders  and 
carried  through  the  dance.  Suddenly  they  exchange 
burdens,  and  the  uncle  of  the  youth  disappears  with  the 
bride.  The  friends  of  the  bride  now  seek  to  arrest  his 
tlight,  those  of  the  groom  to  cover  it,  the  mock  contest 
that  ensues  being  often  carried  to  great  lengths  (jM'Pher- 
son,  Report  upon  Khonds,  p.  65).  Among  the  noble 
class  of  the  Kalmucks  a  similar  form  appears.  The 
price  to  be  paid  being  fixed,  the  bridegroom  and  his  no- 


MARRIAGE 


808 


MARRIAGE 


ble  friends  go  on  horseback  to  her  house  to  carry  her 
I. if.  Her  friends  mal^e  a  sham  resistance,  but  she  is  al- 
ways carried  off,  on  a  richly-caparisoned  horse,  with 
loud  shouts  and/eux  dejoie  (Xavier  de  Hell,  Travels  in 
S/eppes  of  Caspian  Sea,  p.  25!)).  Dr.  Clarke  {Travels, 
etc.,  i,  433)  describes  a  different  ceremony,  probably  ap- 
pertaining to  a  different  clan  of  the  Kalmucks.  In 
this  tl»o  girl  is  first  mounted  on  horseback,  and  rides  off 
at  full  speed  pursued  by  her  lover.  If  he  overtakes  her, 
she  becomes  his  wife ;  but  it  sometimes  happens  that 
the  fugitive  does  not  favorably  incline  towards  her  pur- 
suer, in  which  case  she  will  not  suffer  him  to  overtake 
her.  The  author  was  assured  that  no  instance  was 
known  of  a  Kalmuck  girl  being  thus  caught  unless  she 
had  a  partiality  for  her  pursuer.  In  many  cases  this 
form  of  capture  has  become  a  mere  pretence,  as  in  lifting 
the  bride  by  force  on  horseback ;  or,  as  in  North  Fries- 
land,  wliere  a  young  fellow,  called  the  bride-lifter,  lifts 
the  bride  and  the  two  bridesmaids  on  a  wagon  in  which 
the  married  couple  are  to  travel  home  (JVeinhold,  p.  60). 
Among  the  Bedouins  the  groom  must  force  the  bride  to 
enter  his  tent.  A  similar  custom  existed  in  some  prov- 
inces in  France  in  the  17th  century  {Marriage  Ceremo- 
nies, etc.  [Gaya,  Lond.  1698],  p.  30).  Among  the  Cir- 
cassians the  form  is  like  that  in  ancient  Rome.  In 
the  midst  of  noisy  feasting  and  revelry,  the  groom  must 
rush  in,  and,  with  the  help  of  a  few  daring  young  men, 
carry  off  the  lady  by  force.  By  this  proceeding  she  be- 
comes his  lawful  wife  (Louis  IMoser,  The  Caucasus  and 
its  People,  p.  31).  Lord  Kames  gives  a  vivid  picture  of 
the  custom  existing  in  his  day,  or  shortly  previous, 
among  the  Welsh.  On  the  morning  of  the  wedding- 
day  the  groom  appeared,  with  his  friends,  on  horseback, 
and  demanded  the  bride.  Her  friends,  also  mounted, 
refused.  There  ensued  a  mock  contest,  the  bride  being 
carried  off  mounted  behind  her  nearest  kinsman,  and 
pursued  with  loud  shouts.  "  It  is  not  uncommon  to  see 
two  or  three  hundred  sturdy  Cambro-Britons  riding  at 
full  speed,  crossing  and  jostling,  to  the  no  small  amuse- 
ment of  the  spectators."  When  they  all  were  tired,  the 
groom  was  allowed  to  overtake  the  bride  and  lead  her 
off  in  triumph  {Sketches  of  the  History  of  Man  [1807], 
bk.  i,  sec.  (5,  p.  449).  In  Africa  the  same  custom  exists, 
as  observed  by  Speke  and  others.  Also  throughout 
America.  It  is  observed  in  its  perfection  among  the 
people  of  Terra  del  Fuego.  As  soon  as  a  youthful  Fue- 
gian  has  shown  his  ability  to  support  a  wife  hy  exploits 
in  fishing  and  bird-catching,  he  ohtaiiis  her  parents''  con- 
sent, builds  or  steals  a  canoe,  and  Avatches  his  chance 
to  carry  her  off.  If  she  is  opposed,  she  hides  in  the 
woods  till  he  is  tired  of  looking  for  her;  but  this  sel- 
dom hajipens  (Fitzroy  and  King,  Voyage  of  the  Beagle, 
ii,  182).  Sir  Henry  Piers,  in  1682,  describes  a  custom 
of  like  nature  among  the  ancient  Irish.  The  cere- 
mony commenced  with  the  drinking  of  a  bottle  of  good 
usquebaugh,  called  the  agreement  bottle.  Next  the 
payment  ()f  the  portion  was  agreed  upon,  generally  a 
fixed  number  of  cows.  On  the  day  of  bringing  home, 
the  two  parties  rode  out  to  meet  each  other.  "  Being 
come  near  to  each  other,  the  custom  was  of  old  to  cast 
short  darts  at  the  company  that  attended  the  bride,  but 
at  such  distance  that  seldom  any  hurt  ensued"  {Col- 
lectanea de  Rebus  Uibernicis,  i,  122).  The  Turcoman 
jouth  elopes  with  his  lady-love  to  some  neighboring 
village,  where  they  live  five  or  six  weeks.  In  the  mean 
time  his  fric^ids  obtain  the  consent  of  the  parents.  Af- 
terwards the  bride  returns  to  her  own  home,  where  she 
is  retained  for  six  months  or  a  year,  sometimes  two 
years,  and  is  not  allowed  to  see  her  husband  except  by 
stealth  (VvAf^Qx,  Journey, u,H'i).  This  custom  of  spend- 
ing the  honey-moon  awaj"^  from  home  is  oliserved  by 
various  nther  tril)es,  and  has  its  counterpart  in  the  civ- 
ilized custom  of  a  wedding  journey. 

Among  the  Bedouins  of  Sinai,  the  rnaiden,  when 
coming  home  in  the  evening  with  the  cattle,  is  attacked 
by  the  groom  and  two  of  his  friends.  She  often  defends 
herself  fiercely  with  stones.     The  more  she  struggles, 


bites,  and  cries,  the  more  her  own  companions  applaud 
her.  She  is  taken  to  her  father's  tenr,  where  follows 
the  ceremony  of  throwing  over  her  the  abba,  or  man's 
cloak,  and  the  name  of  the  groom  is  formally  announced. 
In  the  Mezeyne  tribe,  the  girl,  after  being  captured  as 
above,  is  permitted  to  escape  from  her  tent  and  fly  to 
the  neigliboring  mountains.  The  groom  goes  in  search 
of  her,  and  is  often  many  days  in  finding  her.  Her  fe- 
male companions  know  her  hiding-place,  and  keep  her 
supplied  with  provisions.  The  length  of  time  she  re- 
mains hidden  from  the  groom  depen.ds  greatly  upon  the 
impression  he  has  made  upon  her  heart.  After  being 
found  she  returns  home,  but  runs  away  again  in  the 
evening.  These  flights  are  several  times  repeated  be- 
fore she  finally  returns  to  her  tent.  It  is  sometimes  a 
year  before  she  goes  to  live  in  her  husband's  tent  (Burck- 
hardt.  Notes,  \,  269). 

6.  Exogamy  and  Endogamy. — Marriage  by  capture,  it 
is  held  b\^  Lubbock  and  others  of  his  class,  led  to  the 
practice  of  exogamous  marriages.  We  are,  however,  of 
the  opinion  that  the  great  prevalence  of  infanticide  (q. 
V.)  among  savages,  especially  the  destruction  of  female 
infants,  caused  a  paucity  of  women,  and  made  it  neces- 
sary to  secure  wives  from  hostile  tribes.  On  this  ground 
we  can  easily  explain  the  predominance  of  exogamy 
over  endogamy.  Among  the  Khonds,  intermarriage 
between  members  of  the  same  tribe,  we  are  told  by 
jNI'Pherson  {Account  of  the  Religion  of  the  Khonds,  p.  57), 
is  considered  incestuous,  and  punishable  with  death. 
Many  savage  races  have  even  established  something  of 
a  caste  distinction  for  this  piu-pose.  Thus,  e.  g.,  the 
Kalmucks  are  divided  into  four  great  nations  or  tribes, 
subdivided  again  into  many  smaller  clans.  The  com- 
mon people  do  not  marrj'  within  three  or  four  degrees 
of  relationship.  But  no  member  of  the  noble  class  can 
marry  within  his  own  tribe ;  his  wife  must  be  a  noble, 
and  of  a  different  stock  (Bergmann,  Streifereien,  iii,  155). 
The  Circassians  are  forbidden  to  marry  within  their 
own  fraternities,  though  these  sometimes  comprise  sev- 
eral thousand  members.  Formerly  such  a  marriage  was 
considered  as  incest,  and  punished  by  drowning :  now 
a  fine  of  two  hundred  oxen,  and  the  restitution  of  the 
wife  to  her  parents,  are  exacted  (Bell,  Journal  of  a.  Res- 
idence in  Circassia,  i,  347).  The  Yurak  Samoyedes  of 
Siberia  consider  all  the  members  of  the  tribe  as  rela- 
tions, however  large  the  tribe,  and  forbid  marriage 
within  the  tribe  limits  (Latham,  Descriptive  Ethnol- 
ogy, ii,  455).  The  system  among  the  North  Amer- 
ican Indians  is  very  similar.  The  tribal  afliliation  of 
each  person  is  distinguished  bj'  his  tolem,  generally 
some  animal  sacred  to  the  tribe.  Marriage  is  forbidden 
between  persons  of  the  same  tolem.  Lafitau  considers 
each  nation  as  divided  into  clans,  whose  members  are 
spread  indiscriminately  through  the  nation,  and  says 
that  no  clansman  could  marry  a  member  of  his  own 
clan.  Every  child  was  considered  as  belonging  to  the 
clan  of  its  mother  (i,  558).  The  Indians  of  Guiana  have 
similar  customs.  The  Brazilian  Indians  vary,  some  be- 
ing exogamous,  others  endogamous  in  their  customs. 
Among  the  Tinne  Indians  of  the  North  the  same  rule 
holds.  A  man  who  marries  a  woman  of  his  own  tribe 
is  laughed  to  scorn,  and  considered  as  marrj-ing  his  own 
sister,  even  if  she  belong  to  a  separate  division  of  the 
tribe  {Xotes  on  Tinneh,  Smithsonian  Report,  1866).  In 
India  the  custom  prevails  to  a  considerable  extent,  and 
is  of  very  ancient  origin,  the  Institutes  of  ]\Ianu  pre- 
scribing that  a  ''twice-born"  man  shall  not  marry  s. 
woman  related  to  him  within  the  sixth  degree,  or  one 
bearing  his  family  name  (ch.  iii,  §  5).  The  Battas  of 
Sumatra  enforce  this  custom  of  exogamy  by  a  mode  of 
punishment  which  we  should  imagine  would  effectually 
secure  its  observance.  They  punish  those  who  impi- 
ously marry  within  the  tribe  by  cutting  them  up  alive, 
and  eating  them,  grilled  or  raw,  with  salt  and  red  pep- 
per. They  claim  that  marriage  between  a  man  and 
woman  who  had  common  ancestors  is  higlily  criminal 
(Taylor,  Nat.  JJist.  of  Society,  i,  122).    The  principle  of 


MARRIAGE 


809 


MARRIAGE 


exogamy  is  strictly  enforced  among  the  Australian 
tribes.  These  savages  are  divided  into  small  tribes, 
named  after  the  districts  which  they  inhabit.  The 
tribe  inhabiting  a  particular  district  considers  itself  the 
owner  thereof,  and  vigorously  resents  any  intrusion. 
Yet  there  are  many  tribes  often  found  inhabiting  the 
same  area  quite  differently  disposed.  Thus  on  the  sub- 
Himalayan  ranges  are  certain  tribes  which  forbid  inter- 
marriage of  clansmen,  and  others  which  forbid  marriage 
outside  of  the  tribe  limits.  In  some  districts,  as  in  the 
hills  on  the  north-eastern  frontier  of  India,  in  the  Cau- 
casus, and  the  hill-ranges  of  Syria,  are  found  a  variety 
of  tribes  undoubtedly  of  the  same  original  stock,  yet  in 
this  particidar  utterly  differing — some  forbidding  mar- 
riage within  the  tribe,  and  some  proscribing  marriage 
without  it  (M'Lennan,  p.  147). 

7.  Polyundry  and  rolygnia. — The  paucity  of  ;vomen 
not  only  reveals  to  us  the  reason  why  exogamy  became 
so  generally  established  among  rude  nations,  but  also 
easily  explains  the  practice  o{ 2)olyu?Klri/,  which  we  are 
told  by  best  authorities  exists  to  a  moderate  extent 
among  savage  races.  Lubbock,  however,  will  have  it 
that  '•  polyandry,  or  the  marriage  of  one  woman  to 
several  men  at  once,  is  more  common  than  is  gener- 
ally supposed,  though  much  less  so  than  polygamy" 
(p.  55;  compare  p.  100).  It  prevaDs  in  its  most  strik- 
ing form  throughout  Thibet  and  in  the  Himalayan  re- 
gions. It  is  also  met  with  in  Ceylon,  among  tribes 
of  the  north  of  Asia,  and  in  parts  of  Africa  and  Amer- 
ica. In  former  times  it  seems  to  have  ytrevailed  still 
more  widely.  Tacitus  found  traces  of  it  among  the 
Germans ;  and  Strabo  tells  us  that  in  certain  cantons  of 
Media  a  woman  was  looked  upon  with  contempt  who 
had  less  than  five  husbands  (lib.  ii,  p.  794).  Ctsar  tells 
us  that  in  his  time  polyandry  prevailed  among  the  Brit- 
ons (Be  Bello  Gallico,  lib.  v,  ch.  xiv) ;  and  other  traces 
of  its  former  existence  remain.  It  occurs  in  two  dis- 
tinct forms :  the  ruder,  that  in  which  the  husbands  are 
not  brothers ;  the  less  rude,  that  in  which  they  are  broth- 
ers. The  latter  form  only  prevails  in  Thibet.  In  sev- 
eral other  places,  as  in  Ceylon,  the  two  forms  coexist. 
In  Thiljct  the  choice  of  the  wife  is  the  privilege  of  the 
elder  brother.  The  number  of  husbands  does  not  ap- 
pear to  be  defined  or  restricted  within  fixed  limits.  The 
same  system  prevails  throughout  the  Himalayan  re- 
gions, and  generally  in  Ceylon.  Humboldt  found  this 
form  among  the  South  American  savages,  and  C-Tssar 
among  the  ancient  Britons.  In  connection  with  the 
polyandry  of  Ceylon  are  two  distinct  forms  of  marriage 
— the  Djga  and  the  Bina.  The  first  occurs  when  the 
wife  goes  to  live  in  the  house  or  village  of  her  husband ; 
the  second,  when  the  husband  or  husbands  come  to  live 
with  her.  Among  the  Kandyans,  the  right  of  inheri- 
tance of  a  woman  and  her  children  depends  on  whether 
she  is  a  d5ga  or  a  bina  wife  (Forbes,  Ceyloi),  i,  333). 
Among  the  Kochs,  though  their  marriage  is  now  mo- 
nogamous, a  like  system  prevails,  seeming  to  point  to 
former  polyandry  (compare,  on  the  prevalence  of  poly- 
andry, M'Lennan,  p.  180  sq. ;  Lubbock,  p.  100  sq.). 

8.  Famihj  Relations  amonr/  Savages. — That  the  mar- 
riage system  in  such  imperfect  stages  of  development 
as  we  find  it  to  be  among  savage  races  cannot  furnish 
any  of  the  advantages  guaranteed  by  the  Biblical  mar- 
riage system,  will  appear  to  all  a  matter  hardly  neces- 
sary to  be  dwelt  upon.  Yet  there  are  some  faint  ideas 
of  the  family  relation,  as  we  conceive  it,  prevailing 
among  ruile  nations  also.  That  polyandry,  polygamy, 
and  communism  cannot  establish  the  relationship  of 
father  and  mother,  is  clearly  apparent.  Exogamj',  how- 
ever, will  do  this  measurably,  especially  where  it  ap- 
proaches the  monogamous  sj-stcm.  In  communal  mar- 
riage no  man  can  identify  his  father;  the  child  is 
raised  by  the  mother  as  a  sort  of  tribal  property,  and 
naturally  enough  assumes  her  name,  and  only  considers 
parentage  as  existing  in  the  female  line.  This  gave  rise 
to  the  wide-spread  sj-stem  of  kinship  throiirjh  the  mother 
only,  continuing  to  exist  in  many  cases,  though  the 


cause  which  provoked  it  has  disappeared.  There  is 
good  reason  to  believe  that  this  system  formerly  existed 
among  the  Celts,  and  Max  Midler  {Chips  from  a  Ger- 
man Wo7-kshop)  has  traced  it  to  the  ancient  Brahmins. 
It  also  appears  to  have  been  in  existence  in  the  Shemi- 
tic  races,  and  is  traceable  in  the  Grecian  systems.  Its 
effect  is  visible  in  the  habits  of  many  modern  tribes, 
and  shows  itself  evidently  in  the  wide-spread  habit,  of 
which  we  liave  already  given  several  instances,  of  nam- 
ing the  child  after  the  clan  of  its  mother,  and  consider- 
ing it  as  belonging  especially  to  her  family.  Another 
cause  of  this  lack  of  knowledge  of  tlie  paternal  relation 
might  be  habits  similar  to  those  attributed  by  Lafitau  to 
the  North  American  Indians,  who,  he  says,  visited  their 
wives,  as  it  were,  by  stealth  :  "  lis  n'osent  aller  dans  les 
cabanes  particuliers  ou  habitent  leurs  epouses,  que  du- 
rent  I'obscurite  de  la  nuit.  .  .  .  ce  serait  un  action  ex- 
traordinaire de  s'y  presenter  le  jour"  (i,  57G).  Herodo- 
tus says  that  the  Lycians  named  the  children  from  the 
mother.  On  the  Etruscan  tombs  descent  is  traced  in 
the  female  line.  IMany  modern  instances  exist  besides 
those  we  have  already  mentioned.  We  may  instance 
the  Nairs,  and  other  peoples  of  India ;  the  Saporogian 
Cossacks,  certain  Chinese  communities,  the  Berberts  of 
Sahara,  and  various  other  African  tribes.  Among  the 
Buntar — the  highest  rank  of  Sudras  in  Tulava — a  man's 
children  arc  not  his  heirs.  During  his  lifetime  he  may 
give  them  money,  but  all  of  which  he  dies  possessed 
goes  to  his  sisters  and  to  their  children.  AVhen  a  rich 
man  died  in  Guinea,  his  property  descended  to  his  sis- 
ter's son.  Battel  says  tlie  town  of  Loango  was  gov- 
erned by  four  chiefs,  the  sons  of  the  king's  sister ;  for 
king's  sons  never  became  kings.  Quatremere  relates 
that,  "  Chez  les  Nuljiens,  dit  Abon  Selah,  lorsqu'un  roi 
vient  a  mourir  et  qu'il  laisse  un  tils  et  un  neveu  du  cote 
de  sa  soBur,  celui-ci  monte  sur  le  trone  de  preference  a 
I'heritier  naturel"  (Geoffr-aph.  sur  rEe/i/pte,  etc.).  M'Len- 
nan (Primif.  Marriage,  p.  '247)  thus  traces  the  develop- 
ment of  the  family  relation  to  our  present  status ;  and, 
though  we  have  said  from  the  outset  that  we  cannot 
sanction  the  position  taken  by  liim  and  others  of  his 
class,  we  will  not  refuse  them  an  introduction  to  our 
readers:  "The  polyandry,  in  which  all  the  husbands 
were  brothers,  would  establish  the  certainty  of  the  chil- 
dren being  of  their  own  blood.  In  time  the  eldest  broth- 
er became  considered,  by  a  species  of  fiction,  the  father 
of  all  the  children ;  the  mother  was  deposed  from  the 
headship  of  the  family,  and  kinship  became  established 
in  the  paternal  line.  The  elder  brother  became  a  sort 
of  paterfamilias;  the  right  of  succession  being  in  the 
j'ounger  brothers  in  their  order,  and,  after  them,  in  the 
eldest  son.  Thus  the  idea  of  fatherhood  grew  up 
through  the  Thibetan  system  of  polj-andrj-.  In  most 
races,  though,  as  the  sexes  became  more  evenly  bal- 
anced, through  progress  toicards  civilization,  the  system 
of  monogamj^  or  of  polygamy  would  arise.  Paternity 
thus  becoming  certain,  the  practice  of  sons  succeeding 
as  heirs  direct  to  their  father's  estates  woidd  ensue,  and, 
as  this  idea  of  paternal  kinship  arose,  that  of  maternal 
relationship  would  die  away."  "Our  family  system, in 
which  the  child  is  equally  related  to  both  its  parents," 
says  Lubbock  (p.  110),  "appears  at  first  sight  the  only 
natural  one,  but  it  is  merely  so  in  connection  with  our 
marriage  system,  there  being  sufficient  reason  to  con- 
clude, as  we  have  seen,  that  the  child  is  first  related  to 
the  family  group  only;  then  to  the  mother,  and  not  to 
the  father;  afterwards  to  the  father,  and  not  to  the 
mother;  and,  only  as  a  final  result  of  civilization,  be- 
comes related  to  both."  Maine  {Ancient  Law)  and  oth- 
er writers  of  his  class,  however,  hold  to  a  theorj^  that 
considers  man's  history,  in  the  light  of  divine  revela- 
tion, to  open  with  perfect  recognition  of  such  kinship. 
In  their  view  the  family,  under  the  father's  government, 
was  considered  the  primary  unit,  containing  the  germs 
of  the  state  and  of  royalty.  The  family  gathers  other 
families  about  it,  becoming  the  centre  of  a  group ;  and 
these  groups,  tracing  back  their  descent  to  a  common 


MARRIAGE 


810 


MARROW 


origin,  aggregate  into  tribes  and  nations.  Tribes  are 
numerous  vvhicri  make  this  claim  to  common  descent. 
Eut,  upon  inquiry,  the  ancestor  of  the  race  is  always  a 
legendary  hero  or  god — a  being  invented  to  explain  the 
origin  of  the  tribe.  In  some  cases  the  time  of  the  in- 
vention is  known,  as  with  the  Greek  tribes  which  traced 
their  descent  to  the  sons  of  Helen. 

There  are  several  other  peculiar  customs  widely  in 
vogue  relating  to  marriage,  some  of  which  are  so  curi- 
ous that  it  will  be  well  to  give  a  brief  description  of 
them  also.  The  strangest  of  these  is  the  general  avoid- 
ance of  intercourse  between  children  and  parents-in-law, 
in  which  the  one  is  often  forbidden  to  look  at  or  men- 
tion the  name  of  the  other.  The  reason  or  the  origin 
of  these  customs,  or  of  the  many  strange  forms  which 
tliese  assume,  is  not  clear  to  us,  and  we  can  only  give 
some  instances  of  their  general  character.  Under  the 
peculiar  Fijian  system  known  as  the  tahu,  the  husband 
and  wife  are  forbidden  to  eat  from  tlie  same  dish.  (Com- 
pare the  above  custom  among  the  Hindus.)  In  other 
places  the  father  is  not  permitted  to  speak  to  the  son 
after  the  latter  is  fifteen  years  old  (Williams,  Fiji,  i, 
13G).  Among  many  races  the  woman  is  absolutely  for- 
bidden to  speak  to  her  son-in-law.  This  system  pre- 
vails generally  among  the  American  Indians  {Origin  of 
Civilization,  p.  7).  Among  the  Omahaws  neither  the 
father  nor  mother  in-law  will  hold  direct  communication 
with  their  son-in-law  (James,  E.rp.  to  Each/  Mountains, 
i,  232).  Under  the  social  system  of  the  Jlongols  and 
Kalmucks  a  similar  restriction  appears,  the  wife  being 
forbidden  to  speak  to  her  father-in-law,  or  to  sit  in  his 
presence.  With  the  Ostiaks  of  Siberia  a  similar  rule 
holds  ("  Un  fille  mariee  evite  autant  qu'il  lui  est  possi- 
ble la  presence  du  pere  de  son  mari,  tant  qu'elle  n'a  pas 
d'enfant ;  et  le  mari,  pendant  ce  temps,  n'ose  pas  parai- 
tre  devant  la  mere  de  sa  femme.  S'ils  se  rencontrent 
par  hasard,  le  mari  lui  tourne  le  dos,  et  la  femme  se  cou- 
vre  le  visage"  [PaUas,  iv,  71]).  In  China  customs  of  a 
like  nature  exist,  and  also  in  some  of  tlie  Pacific  islands. 
In  some  cases  this  peculiar  system  assumes  the  strangest 
and  most  decided  form.  In  Central  Afiica  the  lover 
carefully  avoids  seeing  either  the  father  or  mother  of 
his  future  bride,  taking  great  precautions  to  avoid  an 
encounter.  If  he  is  of  a  different  camp,  this  prohibition 
extends  to  all  the  members  of  the  lady's  camp,  except 
a  few  special  friends  with  whom  he  is  permitted  to  have 
intercourse.  He  avoids  passing  through  the  camp,  and, 
if  obliged  to  do  so,  carefully  covers  his  face  (Caille, 
Tracels  to  Timhuctoo,  i,  94).  This  appears  to  be  a  relic 
of  the  old  system  of  capture,  in  which  the  captor  would 
approach  with  the  greatest  stealth,  and  carefully  avoid 
being  observed  by  the  inmates  of  the  opposite  camp,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  Australians  above  described. 

Another  custom  widely  prevalent,  and  of  a  yet 
stranger  character,  is  that  known  in  Beam  as  La  Cou- 
i-iidc.  It  consists  in  putting  the  husband  to  bed  on  the 
l)irth  of  a  child,  and  nursing  him  with  the  greatest 
care,  while  the  mother  goes  to  her  usual  duties.  In 
some  cases  the  poor  fellow  is  put  on  such  a  strict  regi- 
men that  he  really  becomes  sick.  There  are,  in  fact, 
cases  in  which  his  peculiar  sufferings  arc  continued  for 
several  months,  and  he  is  so  hardly  dealt  with  that  a 
real  sickness  would  be  far  more  endurable.  Cases  of 
this  description  occur  in  various  parts  of  America,  and 
in  many  regions  of  Europe  and  Asia,  taking  often  the 
strangest  forms.  The  idea  thus  symbolized  is  that  the 
cliild  is  affected  by  anything  happening  to  its  nearest 
parent,  and  that  any  intemperance  in  eating,  drinking, 
or  otherwise,  seriously  affects  the  health  of  the  child. 
Under  the  idea  of  male  kinship,  the  father  was  consid- 
ered the  nearest  parent ;  hence,  was  obliged  to  perform 
this  peculiar  penance.  Max  MiiUer  says  t]iat"tlie  poor 
husband  was  first  tyrannized- over  by  his, female  reLi- 
tives,  and  afterwards  frightened  into  supers! it iouslj' 
making  a  martyr  of  himself,  until  he  became  really  ill, 
or  took  to  Ids  bed  in  self-defence  (Chips  from  a  Ger- 
man Wurkshoj),  ii,  281).     Lafitau  regards  it  as  arising 


from  a  dim  recollection  of  original  sin,  rejecting  the 
Carib  explanation  that  if  the  father  engaged  in  rough 
labor,  or  was  careless  in  his  diet,  "cela  feroit  mal  k  Ten- 
fant,  et  que  cet  enfant  participeroit  ;i  tous  les  defauts 
naturels  dos  animaux  dont  le  pere  auroit  mange"  (i,2.i9). 
For  additional  illustrations,  see  Wedlock.     (.J.  H.  W.) 

Marron,  Paul  Henri,  a  Calvinistic  divine,  was  born 
at  Leyden  April  12, 1754.  After  studjdng  at  the  Acad- 
emy of  Leyden,  Marron  entered  the  ecclesiastical  office, 
and  in  177G  became  pastor  of  the  Walloon  Church  of 
Dort.  In  1782  he  was  appointed  chaplain  of  the  Dutch 
embassy  at  Paris.  Six  years  later,  Rabaut-Saint-Etiennc 
secured  his  election  as  pastor  by  the  Protestants  of  Par- 
is, on  whom  Louis  XVI  had  just  conferred  civil  rights, 
and  who  flattered  themselves  that  they  would  obtain 
more  complete  justice.  Being  disappointed  in  this  hope, 
they  decided,  in  order  to  retain  their  pastor,  who  had 
just  been  called  to  Sedan,  to  celebrate  public  worship 
in  a  place  rented  for  that  purpose.  In  June,  1790, 
Bailly,  mayor  of  Paris,  and  general  La  Fayette,  obtain- 
ed permission  for  the  Protestants  to  rent  the  Church  of 
Saint-Louis-du-Louvre,  which  had  been  suppressed. 
Marron  consecrated  it  on  the  22d  of  the  same  mouth. 
In  November,  1793,  he  had  to  present  to  the  parish,  as  a 
patriotic  gift,  the  four  silver  cups  used  in  the  celebration 
of  the  Lord's  Supper.  This  proceeding  did  not  save 
him  from  persecution.  He  had  been  twice  arrested  on 
suspicion,  when,  on  the  7th  of  June,  1794,  he  was  again 
imprisoned,  and  did  not  recover  his  liberty  luitil  after 
the  fall  of  Robespierre.  At  this  period,  not  being  able 
to  exercise  his  ministry  publicly,  he  privately  f'ldfilled 
its  duties,  and  lived  on  the  remuneration  received  as 
translator.  In  March,  1795,  he  obtained  permission  to 
resume  his  pastoral  functions.  At  the  time  of  the  reor- 
ganization of  divine  -worship,  he  shared  largely  in  the 
benefits  of  the  law  of  April  7, 1801,  and  was  confirmed 
in  his  position  of  pastor.  Jlarron  was  a  member  of  the 
Institute  of  the  Low  Countries,  and  of  the  Society  of 
Sciences  at  Harlem ;  he  had  some  talent  for  preaching, 
and  possessed,  above  all,  the  showy  gift  of  oratory.  He 
died  at  Paris,  July  30, 1882.  He  composed  some  Latin 
verses  on  the  events  of  his  time,  which  are  not  without 
merit,  and  left  some  small  works,  of  which  the  jirincipal 
are,  Lettre  dun  Protestant  a  Vahbe  Cerutti  (Paris,  1789, 
8vo)  (anonymous)  : — Paul-IIcnri  Marron  a  la  citoyenne 
Ilel'ene-Mai-ie  Williams  (Paris,  an.  iii,  8\-o) ;  this  letter 
has  been  inserted  in  the  second  volume  of  his  Letters 
containing  a  sketch  of  the  politics  of  France  from  the 
31st  of  May,  1793,  to  the  28th  of  July,  1794  (Lond.  1795, 
3  vols.  12mo): — Constitution  du  peuple  Batave,  traduiie 
du  IJollandais  (Paris,  1789, 8vo) :— P.  //.  3Iurron,  minis- 
tre  du  saint- Evam/ile  a  Monsieur  Lecoz,  archervque  de 
Besan^on;  this  letter,  dated  Nov.  11, 1804,  is  printed  at 
the  end  of  a  Letter  to  M.  Lecoz,  archbishop  of  Besaiifon, 
on  his  project  of  unithu/  all  the  Protestants  and  Roman 
Catholics  'in  the  French  empire,  etc.  (Paris,  1807,  8vo). 
Marron  also  wrote  for  the  Journal  de  Paris,  the  Jour- 
nal, and  the  ]\faffasin  Encijclopedique ;  and  contributed 
numerous  articles  to  the  ninth  edition  of  the  Noureau 
nictionnaire  Historique,  to  the  Biorjraphie  Unicerselleoi 
Midland,  and  to  the  Rerue  Fnci/clopedique.  He  is  cred- 
ited with  the  notes  added  to  Mirabeau's  work,  entitled 
A  u  Bataves,  sur  le  stathouderat  (1788, 8vo).  See  Necro- 
loge  de  1832  (Par.  1833, 8vo) ;  Barbier,  Diet,  des  ouvi-ages 
anonymes  et  2>seudonymes ;  Ilaag,  La  France  Protes- 
iante;  Hoefer,  Xouvelle  Biographic  Generale,  vol.  xxxiii, 
s.  V. 

Marrow  (H^,  mo' ach,  fatness,  Job  xxi,  24;  kin- 
dred is  the  verb  i^n^,  machah',  Isa.  xxv,  C,  '-fatness 
unmarrowed,"  i.  e.  drawn  out  from  the  marrow-bones, 
and  therefore  the  most  delicate;  /(VfXoc,  Hel).  iv.  12), 
the  soft,  oleaginous  substance  contained  in  the  hollow 
of  the  bones  of  animals  (Job  xxi,  23);  used  figuratively 
for  the  delicate  and  most  satisfying  provisions  of  the 
Gospel  (Isa.  xxv,  G),  and  likewise  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment for  the  most  secret  thoughts  of  the  heart  (Heb,  iv, 


MARROW  CONTROVERSY       811 


MARS 


12).  Other  terms  so  rendered  are  'zbti  (che'leb,  Psa. 
Ixiii,  5,  fat  or  fatness,  as  elsewhere  rendered)  and  "^ilpU^ 
(shi/cku')/,  Prov.  iii,  8,  a  moisteninr/,  i.  e.  refreshing  of  the 
bones ;  <jr  "  drink,"  as  in  Mos.  ii,  5). 

Marrow  Controversy.  The  Marrow  of  Modern 
Difinity  was  a  work  published  in  1G46  by  Edward  Fish- 
er (q.  v.),  of  the  University  of  Oxford.  It  was  in  the 
form  of  a  dialogue,  to  explain  the  freeness  of  the  law — to 
expose,  on  tlie  one  hand,  Antinomian  error,  and  also,  on 
the  other,  to  refute  Neonomian  heresy,  or  the  idea  that 
Christ  has,  by  his  atonement,  so  lowered  the  require- 
ments of  the  law  that  mere  endeavor  is  accepted  in  room 
of  perfect  obedience.  A  copy  of  the  book,  which  had 
been  brought  into  Scotland  by  an  English  Puritan  sol- 
dier, was  accidentally  found  by  Boston,  then  minister 
of  Simprin,  and  was  republished  in  1718,  under  the  edi- 
torial care  of  Mr.  Hogg,  minister  of  Carnock.  It  had 
been  recommended  long  before  by  several  divines  of  the 
Westminster  Assembly.  The  treatise,  consisting  of 
quaint  and  stirring  dialogues,  throws  into  bold  relief 
the  peculiar  doctrines  of  grace,  occasionally  puts  them 
into  the  form  of  a  startling  proposition,  and  is  gemmed 
with  quotations  from  eminent  I'rotestant  divines.  The 
publication  of  tlie  Marrow  threw  the  clergy  into  com- 
motion, and  by  many  of  them  it  was  violently  censured. 
But  not  a  few  of  the  evangelical  pastors  gave  it  a  cor- 
dial welcome,  and  among  multitudes  of  the  people  it  be- 
came a  favorite  book,  next  in  veneration  to  the  Bible 
and  the  Shorter  Catechism.  In  1719  its  editor,  Mr. 
Hogg,  wrote  an  explanation  of  some  of  its  passages,  but 
in  the  same  year  principal  Haddow,  of  St.  Andrew's, 
opened  the  Synod  of  Fife  \vith  a  sermon  directed  against 
it.  The  synod  requested  the  publication  of  the  dis- 
course, and  this  step  was  the  signal  for  a  warfare  of  four 
years'  duration.  The  Assembly  of  that  year,  acting  in 
the  same  spirit  with  the  Synod  of  Fife,  instructed  its 
commission  to  look  after  books  and  pamphlets  promoting 
such  opinions  as  are  found  in  the  Marroir,  though  they 
do  not  name  the  book,  and  to  summon  before  them  the 
authors  and  recomraenders  of  such  publications.  The 
commission,  so  instructed  and  armed,  appointed  a  com- 
mittee, of  which  principal  Haddow  was  the  soul ;  and 
before  this  committee,  named  the  '•  Committee  for  Pu- 
rity of  Doctrine,"  four  ministers  were  immediately  sum- 
moned. The  same  committee  gave  in  a  report  at  the 
next  Assembly  of  1720,  in  the  shape  of  an  overture,  class- 
ifying the  doctrines  of  the  Marroic,  and  solemnly  con- 
demning them.  It  selected  several  passages  which  were 
paradoxically  expressed,  ^vhile  it  severed  others  from 
the  context,  and  held  them  up  as  contrary  to  Scripture 
and  to  the  Confession  of  Faith.  The  passages  marked 
for  reprobation  were  arranged  under  distinct  heads — 
such  as  the  nature  of  faith,  the  atonement,  holiness,  obe- 
dience and  its  motive,  and  the  position  of  a  believer  in 
reference  to  the  law.  The  committee  named  tlicm  as 
errors,  thus — universal  atonement  and  pardon,  assurance 
of  the  verj'  essence  of  faitli,  holiness  not  necessary  to 
salvation,  and  the  believer  not  under  the  law  as  a  rule 
of  life.  Had  the  Marroiu  inculcated  such  tenets  it 
woidd  have  been  objectionable  indeed.  The  report  was 
discussed,  and  the  result  was  a  stern  condemnation  of 
the  Marrow ;  and  "  the  General  Assembly  do  hereby 
strictly  prohibit  and  discharge  all  the  ministers  of  this 
Cliurch,  either  by  preaching,  writing,  or  printing,  to 
recommend  the  said  book,  or  in  discourse  to  say  any- 
thing in  favor  of  it;  but,  on  the  contrary,  they  are  here- 
by enjoined  and  required  to  warn  and  exhort  those  peo- 
ple in  whose  hands  the  said  book  is  or  may  come  not  to 
read  or  use  the  same."  That  book,  which  had  been  so 
highly  lauded  by  many  of  the  southern  divines — such 
as  Caryl  and  Burroughcs — by  the  men  who  had  framed 
the  very  creed  of  the  Scottish  Church,  and  who  were 
universally  acknowledged  to  ha  as  able  as  most  men  to 
know  truth  and  detect  error,  was  thus  put  into  a. Pres- 
byterian Index  expurgatorius.  Xobodj'  can  justify  the 
extreme  statements  of  the  Marrow,  but  their  bearing 


and  connection  plainly  free  them  from  an  Antinomian 
tendency.  In  fact,  some  of  the  so-called  Antinomian 
statements  condemned  by  the  Assembly  are  in  the  very 
words  of  inspiration.  But  the  rigid  decision  of  the  As- 
semblj'  only  added  fuel  to  the  controversy  which  it  was 
intended  to  allay,  and  the  forbidden  book  became  more 
and  more  an  object  of  intense  anxiety  and  prevalent 
study.  The  popular  party  in  the  Church  at  once  con- 
certed measures  to  have  that  act  repealed.  Consulta- 
tions were  repeatedly  held  by  a  section  of  the  evangeli- 
cal clergy,  and  at  length  it  was  agreed  to  hand  in  a 
representation  to  the  court,  complaining  of  the  obnox- 
ious decision,  and  of  the  injury  whicli  had  been  done  by 
it  to  precious  truth.  This  representation  was  signed  b}'' 
twelve  mmisters,  and  it  briefly  called  the  Assembly's 
attention  to  the  fact  that  it  had  condemned  propositions 
which  are  in  accordance  at  once  with  the  Bible  and  the 
symbolical  books.  The  names  of  the  twelve  were — 
Messrs.  James  Hogg,  Carnock;  Thomas  Boston,  Etter- 
ick;  John  Bonar,  Torphichen ;  John  "Williamson,  Inver- 
esk ;  James  Kidd,  Queensferry ;  Gabriel  Wilson,  Max- 
ton  ;  Ebenezer  Erskine,  Portmoak ;  Ealph  Erskine  and 
James  Wardlaw,  Dunfermline;  Henry  Davidson,  Gala- 
shiels; James  Bathgate,  Orwell ;  and  William  Hunter, 
Lilliesleaf.  These  are  the  famous  "  Marrow  Men" — 
also  known  as  the  "Twelve  Brctiiren"  and  the  '■  Kcpre- 
senters."  They  were  long  held  in  great  veneration  by 
the  lovers  of  evangelical  religion.  Says  Buck  (Theol. 
Diet.  s.  v.),  "  The  '  Kepresenters'  were  not  only  accurate 
and  able  divines,  and  several  of  them  learned  men,  but 
ministers  of  the  most  enlightened  and  tender  con- 
sciences, enemies  in  doctrine  and  practice  to  all  licen- 
tiousness, and  shining  examples  of  true  holiness  in  all 
manner  of  conversation.  They  were  at  the  same  time 
zealous  adherents  to  the  Confession  of  Faith  and  the 
Catechisms."  Other  discussions  followed ;  the  Ecpre- 
scnters  were  summoned,  in  1722,  to  the  bar  of  the  As- 
scmlil^'  and  admonished,  against  which  they  solemnly 
protested.  As  the  Assembly  was  not  supported  in  the 
position  it  had  assumed  by  the.  religious  sentiment  of 
the  nation,  no  further  steps  were  taken  in  the  matter, 
and  thus  the  victory  virtuallj'  lay  with  the  evangelical 
recusants.  It  was,  however,  substantially  this  same 
I  doctrinal  controversy — though  it  did  not  go  by  the  same 
name — which,  eleven  years  later,  resulted  in  the  depo- 
sition of  Ebenezer  Erskine  and  the  origination  of  the 
secession  of  1734.  See  Eadie,  Eccles.  Cyclopwdia,  s.  v. ; 
Brit,  and  For.  Ev.  Rev.  18G8  (April),  p.  261 ;  Hethering- 
ton,  Eccles.  Hist.  Ch.  of  Scotland  (see  Index  in  vol.  ii). 
See  also  Erskine,  Ebesezek. 

Mars,  a  contraction  of  Afavers  or  Marors,  in  the 
Oscan  or  Sabine  language  Mamers,  Greek  A  z'ers,  is  the 
name  of  the  Boman  and  Greek  god  of  war,  or,  better,  of 
battles. 

(1)  With  the  Eomans  this  divinity  is  surnamed  Gra- 
divus  {=ffrandis  dims,  the  great  god),  also  Silramts, 
and  appears  to  have  been  originally  an  agricultural  de- 
ity— propitiator}^  offerings  were  presented  to  him  as  the 
guardian  of  fields  and  flocks ;  but  as  the  fierce  shepherds 
who  founded  the  city  of  Rome  were  even  more  addicted 
to  martial  tlian  to  pastoral  pursuits,  one  can  easily  mi- 
derstand  ho\v  Mars  Silvarais  should  have,  in  the  course 
of  time,  become  the  "  God  of  War."  Mars,  who  was  a 
perfect  representation  of  the  stern,  relentless,  and  even 
cruel  valor  of  the  old  Romans,  was  held  in  the  highest 
honor.  He  ranked  next  to  Jupiter;  like  liim  he  bore 
the  venerable  epithet  of  Father  i^lnrs-jiiter')  •  he  was 
one  of  the  three  tutelary  divinities  of  the  city,  to  each 
of  whom  Numa  appointed  a  flamen ;  nay,  he  was  said 
to  be  the  father  of  Romulus  himself  (by  Rhea  Silvia, 
the  priestess  of  Vesta),  and  was  thus  believed  to  be  the 
real  progenitor  of  the  Roman  peojile.  He  liad  a  sanc- 
tuary on  the  Quirinal;  and  the  hill  received  its  name 
from  his  surname,  Quirinus,  the  most  probable  meaning 
of  which  is  the  spear-armed.  It  was  under  this  desig- 
nation that  he  was  invoked  as  the  protector  of  the  Qui- 
rites  (citizens)  —  in  other  words,  of  the  state.      The 


MARS 


812 


MARSDEN 


Mars 


principal  animals  sacred  to  him  were  the  wolf  and  the 
horse.  He  liad  many  temples  at  Home,  the  most  cele- 
brated of  which  was  that  outside  the  Poiia  Capena, 
on  the  Appian  Koad.  The  Campus  Maiiiiis,  where  the 
Komans  practiced  athletic  and  military  exercises,  was 
named  after  him  ;  so  was  the  month  of  March  {Mm-tius), 
the  first  month  of  the  Komau  year.  The  Ludi  Martia- 
les  (games  lield  in  his  honor)  were  celebrated  every 
year  in  the  circus  on  the  1st  of  August. 

(2)  Akes,  the  Greek  god  of  war,  was  the  son  of  Zeus 
and  Hera,  and  the  favorite  of  Aphrodite,  who  bore  liira 
several  children.  He  is  represented  in  Greek  poetry  as 
a  most  sanguinary  divinity,  delighting  in  war  for  its 
own  sake,  and  in  the  destruction  of  men.  Before  him 
into  battle  goes  his  sister  Eris  (Strife) ;  along  with  him 
are  his  sons  and  companions,  Dnmos  (Horror),  and  Plto- 
bos  (Fear).  He  does  not  always  adhere  to  the  same 
side,  like  the  great  ^-1  thena,  but  inspires  now  the  one, 
now  the  other.  He  is  not  always  victorious.  Diomede 
wounded  him,  and  in  his  fall,  says  Homer,  "he  roared 
like  nine  or  ten  thousand  warriors  together."  Such  a 
representation  would  have  been  deemed  blasphemous  by 
the  ancient  Koman  mind,  imbued  as  it  was  with  a  sol- 
emn, Hebrew-like  reverence  for  its  gods.    The  worship  of 

Ares  was  never  very 
prevalent  in  Greece ; 
it  is  believed  to  have 
been  imported  from 
Tlirace.  There  and 
in  Scythia  were  its 
great  seats,  and  there 
Ares  was  believed  to 
have  his  chief  home. 
He  had,  however, 
temples  or  shrines  at 
A  t  h  c  n  s,  S  p  a  r  t  a, 
Olympia,  and  other 
places.  On  statues 
and  reliefs  he  is  represented  as  a  person  of  great  mus- 
cular pov,-er,  and  either  naked  or  clothed  with  the  chla- 
mys.  —  Chambers,  Ci/clop.  s.  v.;  Smith.  Diet.  Gr.  and 
Rom.  Bior/.  and  Mythol.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  Vollmcr,  Mythol. 
Worterhuch,  s.  v. 

Mars,  St.,  a  French  hermit,  was  born  at  Bais,  near 
La  Guerche,  about  510.  He  was  priest  at  Vitre,  and 
acquired  a  great  reputation  for  piety.  When  old,  he 
constructed  a  hermitage  for  himself  in  some  waste  land 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  vUlage  of  Mars,  and  there 
ended  his  days.  His  tomb  became  celebrated  for  the 
numerous  miracles  which  it  was  claimed  were  performed 
there.  The  faithful  came  thither  on  pilgrimages  from 
all  parts  of  Brittany.  In  1427  the  inhabitants  of  Bais, 
fearing  an  incursion  of  the  English,  carried  the  body 
of  their  saint  to  Saint-Madelaine  de  Vitre.  The  dan- 
ger passed,  the  Baisiens  demanded  the  body  of  their 
saint,  but  the  canons  of  Vitre  refused  to  restore  it.  F'rom 
law-suits  they  proceeded  to  blows,  and  many  times  dur- 
ing the  processions  the  Baisiens  attempted  to  recover 
their  precious  relic ;  but  the  inhabitants  of  Vitre  always 
proved  the  stronger,  and  retained  the  body  of  Saint  iSIaVs 
until  1750,  when  a  decree  of  the  Parliament  of  Rennes 
reconciled  the  parties  by  dividing  the  body  of  the  saint. 
Vitre  kept  the  head,  the  right^high,  aiid  two  sides; 
Bais  had  the  remainder.  The  festival  of  Saint  Mars  oc- 
curs on  the  14th  of  January  and  21st  of  June.  At  these 
periotls  the  shrine  is  carried  solemnly  through  the  sur- 
rounding countrj'.  —  Dom  Lobineau,  JHstoire  de  Bre- 
tagne;  Godescard,  T'le  des  plus  ceiebres  Sai/iis,yo\.i;  A. 
Hugo,  La  France  jnttoresque ;  Hoefer,  Noiiv.  Biog.  Gme- 
rale,  vol.  xxxiii,  s.  v. 

Marsay,  Charles  Hkctor  de  St.  Georges,  iAnr- 
qnis  de,  a  French  mystic,  was  born  in  1688  at  Paris, 
whither  his  parents,  pious  members  of  the  Reformed 
Church,  had  fled  to  avoid  the  persecution  raging  against 
the  Protestants  in  the  jirovinces.  While  yet  a  youth 
the  whole  family  removed  to  Germanv,  and  there  Charles 


took  part  in  the  Spanish  War  of  Succession  in  the  Neth- 
erlands. He  now  became  a  convert  to  the  views  of 
Bourignon  (q.  v.),  and  with  his  friend  Cordier  retired, 
in  1711,  to  Schwarzenau,in  the  provuice  of  Wittgenstein. 
Cordier,  however,  leaving  him,  he  married,  in  1712,  Clara 
Ehzabeth  of  Callerberg,  whose  views  were  similar  to  his 
own.  During  the  years  1713-16  he  made  several  jour- 
neys to  Switzerland,  where  he  became  acquainted  with 
the  works  of  Madame  Guyon  (q.  v.).  He  then  returned 
to  Schwarzenau,  learned  the  watch-making  trade,  be- 
came president  of  the  Philadelphian  Society,  and  re- 
sided there  until  1724.  In  1746  he  became  a  Pietist, 
and  died  in  the  neighborhood  of  Auibleben  in  1753,  a 
truly  evangelical  Christian,  a  disciple  of  Christ,  cling- 
ing faithfidly  to  the  truth  as  it  is  in  Jesus.  Jlarsay  had 
great  influence  in  propagating  throughout  Germany  the 
mystic  views  of  Bourignon  and  Guyon.  He  wrote  F7-ei- 
miithige  it.  christUche  Discurse  (1734) : — Zeugniss  eines 
Kimles  V.  d.  Richtiglceit  d.  Wege  d.  Geistes  (1735,  2  parts)  : 
— Selbstbiographie,  in  the  2d  vol.  of  Valenti,  System  d, 
hoheren  Jhilkunde  (Elberf.  1826).  —  Gobel,  Gesch,  der 
tcahren  Inspirations-gemeinden  (in  Niedner's  Zeitschr.J. 
hist,  Theol.  1855,  iii,  §  21,  4) ;  the  same,  Gesch.  d.  christl. 
Lebens,  etc.  (Cobl.  1852),  ii,  bk.  ix;  also  the  excellent  ar- 
ticle in  Herzog,  Real-Encyklop.  ix,  116  sq. 

Marsden,  Samuel,  one  of  the  noblest  missionary 
workers  the  Church  of  England  ever  sent  out  to  bat- 
tle for  Christ,  the  noted  Australian  chaplain  and  friend 
of  the  Jlaori,  was  born  of  humble  parentage  in  1764, 
and  was  educated  at  the  free  grammar-school  at  Hull, 
by  the  celebrated  English  divine  Dr.  Joseph  Milner. 
Samuel  began  life  as  a  tradesman  at  Leeds.  He  had 
been  converted  under  Wesleyan  preaching,  had  joined 
the  Methodists,  and  belonged  to  their  society  for  some 
time,  but,  having  higher  aspirations  than  the  mercan- 
tile profession,  he  entered  the  English  Church  to  secure 
a  collegiate  training.  He  was  placed  at  St.  Joseph's  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  and  there  educated  by  the  EUaiid  So- 
ciety, whose  object  it  was  to  aid  poor  young  men  hav- 
ing the  ministry  in  view.  Before  Marsden  had  even 
taken  his  degree,  he  was  offered  the  chaplaincy  to  New 
South  Wales.  At  first  he  was  very  adverse  to  accept- 
ing it,  but,  finding  that  there  was  no  one  who  could  so 
well  till  this  difficult  post,  he  consented,  and  in  the  spruig 
of  1793  was  ordained.  Soon  after  he  married  Elizabeth 
Triston,  a  very  Avorthy  lady,  who  did  much  to  aid  him 
in  his  missionary  labors.  In  1794  he  arrived  at  Para- 
matta, his  new  home.  Early  in  the  17th  century  Eng- 
land had  adopted  penal  transportation.  The  newly-ac- 
quired territories  in  America  were  then  used  for  this 
purpose,  and,  as  we  know,  oftentimes  aided  in  the  prop- 
agation of  \vhite  slavery.  The  Revolution,  and  the  sub- 
sequent establishment  of  independence  in  the  colonies, 
obliged  England  to  discontinue  this  practice  of  disposing 
of  criminals.  But  the  great  fear  entertained  in  England 
that  the  country  would  be  overrun  with  crime,  led  the 
government  of  George  III  to  establish  a  penal  colony  in 
Australia.  About  seven  years  previous  to  Marsden's  ar- 
rival there  the  first  convict  ship  had  been  sent  out  with 
its  living  freight,  and  yet  up  to  this  time  religious  train- 
ing was  unknown.  It  little  mattered  to  England  what 
became  of  the  convict,  so  long  as  he  was  well  out  of  her 
way.  A  powerful  military'  force  was  required  to  keep 
this  mass  of  corrupt  humanity  in  subjection,  and,  in- 
stead of  being  benefited,  the}'  v.-ere  rather  hardened  in 
their  sins.  For  teaching  the  Gospel  the  Church  fur- 
nished only  two  ministers — for  soldiers,  convicts,  settlers, 
and  all.  Marsden  was  one  of  these,  and,  the  senior 
preacher  failing  in  health,  he  was  soon  left  to  struggle 
on  alone.  Although  severely  tried  by  domestic  afflic- 
tion, he  was  not  found  wanting.  At  that  time  the  cus- 
tom prevailed  there  and  in  England  for  the  parish  priest 
to  administer  justice  as  well  as  give  spiritual  advice. 
The  son  of  a  Yorkshire  farmer  could  not  be  expected  to 
be  very  conversant  with  law,  but  good  sense  and  a  clear 
perception  of  justice  came  to  the  rescue.  His  farming 
education,  however,  served  him  well,  for,  receiving  a 


MARSENA 


813 


MARSH 


grant  of  land,  and  thirteen  convicts  to  till  it,  as  part  pay- 
ment for  his  services,  he  made  it  the  model  farm  in  New 
South  Wales,  and  from  the  prolits  was  enabled  to  estab- 
lish schools  and  missions.  A  rebellious  spirit  manifest- 
ing itself  among  the  convicts,  Marsden  sailed  for  Eng- 
land, after  an  absence  of  fourteen  years,  to  appeal  to  the 
home  government.  His  main  object  was  to  secure  a 
grant  [lerraitting  the  convicts'  friends  to  go  out  with 
them  to  the  penal  colony.  This  was  denied  him,  but 
his  representation  that  the  convicts  ought  to  be  in- 
structed in  trades  was  well  received. 

During  his  visit  to  England  Mr.  Marsden  also  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  missions  to  New  Zealand,  and  prepared 
to  become  the  apostle  of  the  Maori  race.  Before  leav- 
ing Australia  he  had  had  some  intercourse  with  these 
tribes,  which  he  found  to  be  of  a  much  higher  type  of 
humanity  than  the  Australian  native.  Indeed,  they 
possessed  such  a  spirit  of  enterprise  and  curiosity  that 
tliey  would  often  visit  the  island  of  Australia,  and  iNIars- 
den  is  said  to  have  entertained  thirty  at  one  time.  He 
vainly  endeavored  to  obtain  help  from  the  Church  Mis- 
sionar}'  Society.  No  clergyman  could  be  foimd  to  un- 
dertake tlie  mission  to  New  Zealand,  but  two  laymen, 
William  Hall  and  John  King,  consented  to  act  as  pio- 
jieers.  These  two  good  men  accompanied  Marsden  to 
Australia  in  August,  1809.  They  were  soon  followed  by 
Thomas  Kendall.  To  transfer  these  lay  missionaries  to 
their  intended  field  of  labor,  Marsden  conceived  the  plan 
of  fitting  out  a  missionary  ship,  but,  failing  to  interest 
outside  parties,  he  finally  purchased  a  small  one  at  his 
own  expense.  This  was  the  Acfire,  the  first  of  the  mis- 
sion ships  that  now  carry  the  Gospel  to  every  part  of 
the  globe.  Marsden  accompanied  this  expedition,  and 
was  kindly  welcomed  by  the  natives.  His  method  in 
founding  missions  to  propagate  Christianity  was  unlike 
that  of  Eliot,  to  begin  with  faith,  and  then  to  look  for 
civilization.  He  rather  thought  that  civilization  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  acceptance  of  faith,  and,  as  his 
teachers  were  laymen,  he  employed  them  only  in  laying 
the  foundations  of  a  Christian  civilization.  Jlarsden 
frequentlj^  repeated  his  visits,  and  in  many  ways  aided 
the  enterprise.  On  his  fourth  visit  he  took  out  with 
liim  the  Kev.  Henry  Williams,  who  afterwards  became 
liishop  of  a  Maori  district.  It  was  now  nine  years  since 
he  had  first  landed  here,  and,  in  spite  of  so  many  disap- 
pointments and  so  much  opposition,  he  found  the  con- 
dition of  the  natives  greatly  improved.  A  Wesleyan 
mission  had  been  established  at  Wingaroa,  under  Mr. 
Leigh.  During  his  two  months'  stay  he  endeavored  to 
persuade  the  natives  to  adopt  a  fixed  form  of  govern- 
ment, and  advised  the  missionaries  to  collect  a  vocabu- 
lary, and  arrange  a  grammar  that  might  aid  in  future 
translations.  In  1838  he  made  his  seventh  and  last 
visit.  He  was  now  seventy-two  years  of  age.  Wher- 
ever he  went  he  was  greeted  as  the  friend  of  the  Maori. 
He  had  always  hoped  that  this  intelligent  people  might 
be  Christianized,  and  it  gladdened  his  heart  to  see  the 
improvements  they  had  made.  Sunday  was  generally 
observed  among  tlie  natives,  and  polygamy  and  canni- 
balism were  fast  diminishing,  and  there  was  every  token 
that  the  apostle  of  New  Zealand  had  conquered  a  coun- 
try and  people  for  the  Church  of  God.  Marsden  was 
possessed  of  a  will  and  force  of  character  that  enabled 
him  to  accomplish  whatever  he  undertook.  He  died 
May  12, 1838.  See  Jliss  Charlotte  M.  Yonge,  Pioneers 
and  Founders,  p.  216-240.     See  New  Zeala>-d;  Sel- 

WYN. 

Mar'sena  (Heb.  Marsena',  XJp'^'p,  according  to 
Benfey,  the  Sanscrit  viarsluu  noble,  with  the  Zend  ending 
n<t,>nan;  Sept.  Mapo-fva,  but  most  copies  omit;  Vulg. 
Marsana),  one  of  the  seven  Medo-Persian  satraps  or 
viziers  of  Xerxes  (Esth.i,  14).  B.C.  483.  Joscphus  un- 
derstands that  they  had  the  office  of  interpreters  of  the 
laws(.lH^xi,  6,  ij. 

Mars'  Hill  CApiiog  Troyoc,  coUis  Martins,  Acts 
xvii,  22,  the  Areojxigus,  as  in  ver.  19 ;  so  called,  accord- 


ing to  Pausan.  i,  28,  5,  from  the  fact  that  Mars  was  first 
judged  there),  a  limestone  hill  in  Athens,  north-west  of 
the  Acropolis  (Herod,  viii,  52),  and  considerably  lower 
(Pococke,  Fust,  iii,  tab.  G5),  where  (even  down  to  the 
time  of  the  Koman  emperors,  GeU.  xii,  7)  the  most  an- 
cient and  boasted  Atheni.an  supreme  tribunal  (Tacitus, 
Anncil.  ii,  55)  and  court  of  morals  (^schyl.  Eumen.  701 ; 
Senec.  Trunq.  3  ;  Val.Max.  ii,G,4),  composed  of  the  most 
honorable  and  upright  citizens  (Athen.  vi,  p.  251),  and 
held  in  the  highest  regard  not  only  throughout  Greece, 
but  even  among  foreigners  (comp.  Wetstein,  ii,  565),  had 
its  sessions,  to  discuss  cases  of  civil  and  criminal  offences, 
originally  according  to  the  sole  law  of  its  own  discre- 
tion (comp.  Aristot. /"o/iV.  ii,  10 ;  v,  12;  Macrob.  ASfl^urn. 
vii,  1,  p.  204;  Quintil.  Institut.  v,  9  ;  ^lian,  T'.  //.  v,  15). 
After  having  continued  for  many  centuries  in  full  au- 
thority, it  fell  under  some  restrictions  in  the  times  of 
the  New  Test.;  but  the  date  of  its  extinction  is  un- 
known. (See  Pauly,  Feeil-EncyHo]}.  i,  700  sq. ;  Doder- 
lein,  in  the  Hall.  Eneyliop.  v,  193  sq. ;  also  Meursii  A^-e- 
opariits,  Ludg.  Bat.  1624;  Biickh,  De  Areojxtgo,  Berol. 
1826.)  From  some  part  of  that  hill,  but  not  before  the 
judges  (for  there  is  no  trace  of  a  regular  judicial  pro- 
cedure in  the  entire  narrative),  Paul  delivered  his  fa- 
mous address  (Acts  xvii,  19  sq.)  to  his  hearers  upon  the 
steps  and  in  the  valley  (comp.  Kobinson,  Reseai-ches,  i, 
10  sq.).     See  Areopagus. 

Marsh  ()f-'Zv,ge'he,  a  collection  of  waters,  Ezek.  xlvii, 
11 ;  elsewhere  a  cistern  or  reservoir,  rendered  "  pit,"  Isa. 
XXX,  14;  Jer.  xiv,  3),  a  swamp  or  wet  piece  of  land. 
The  passage  in  Ezekiel  speaks  of  the  future  blessings 
of  the  Jews  after  their  restoration  under  the  figure  of 
drainage  of  land  useless  by  its  dampness :  "  But  the  miry 
places  thereof,  and  the  marisfies  thereof,  shall  not  be 
healed :  they  shall  be  given  to  salt"  (xlvii,  11) ;  that  is, 
the  part  in  question  shall  be  reserved  for  the  ])roduction 
of  salt  by  the  evaporation  of  the  waters  (see  Henderson, 
Comment,  ad  loc).  It  is  supposed  that  the  '"valley  of 
salt"  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Dead  Sea  is  here  refer- 
red to,  for  there  the  Kedron,  the  course  of  which  the 
prophet  describes  the  holy  waters  as  following,  empties. 
This  plain  or  valley  has  been  traversed  and  described  by 
captains  Irby  and  Mangles  in  terms  appropriate  to  the 
prophecy.  Lieut.  Lj-nch,  in  coasting  around  the  south- 
ern extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea,  fomid  not  only  the  Ghoi 
to  be  an  immense  marshy  flat,  but  the  bottom  of  the 
lake  itself  a  nuiddy  shoal,  scarcely  allowing  the  boat  to 
be  rowed  through  it.  The  salt  hills  around  presented  a 
scene  of  unmitigated  desolation  (^Expedition,]).  310). 

Marsh,  Francis,  a  noted  Irish  prelate,  flourished 
in  the  second  half  of  the  17th  centurj-.  He  was  made 
bishop  of  Limerick  in  1667 ;  was  transferred  to  Kilmore 
and  Ardagh  in  1673 ;  in  1682  became  archbishop  of  Dub- 
lin, and  died  in  1693.  But  little  is  accessible  to  gather 
a  detailed  accoimt  of  his  life  and  work.  Lawrence  B.- 
Phillips (Diet.  Bioff.  Bef.)  refers  to  Cotton,  Fasti  Eccle- 
siw  Bibernicce  (Dubl.  1849,  5  vols.  8vo),  and  to  D'Alton, 
Lives  of  the  A  rchbishops  of  Dublin  (Dublin,  1838,  8vo). 

Marsh,  Herbert,  an  Enghsh  theologian  and  prel- 
ate, '•  one  of  the  acutest  and  most  truh'  learned  divines 
of  his  day,"  was  born  in  London  in  1757,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge;  graduated  with 
great  distinction ;  was  made  fellow,  and  became  M.A. 
in  1782.  He  then  went  to  the  Continent,  and  stud- 
ied at  the  University  of  Gottingen,  and  later  at  Leip- 
sic.  He  returned  to  England  in  1800,  and  in  1807  be- 
came professor  of  divinity  at  Cambridge.  In  1816  he 
was  appointed  bishop  of  Llandaff,  and  bishop  of  Peter- 
borough in  1819.  He  died  May  1, 1839.  He  published 
several  religious  and  controversial  treatises,  and  fur- 
nished an  excellent  English  translation  of  Michaelis's 
Introduction  to  the  Xew  Testament,  with  notes.  "A  dis- 
sertation on  the  genuineness  of  1  John  v,  7,  included  in 
Michaelis's  Avork,  drew  from  Mr.  Travis,  archdeacon  of 
Chester,  '  Letters  to  Edward  Gibbon,  Esq.,'  in  defence 
of  the  genuineness  of  the  passage,  which  bishop  Marsh 


MARSH 


81' 


MARSH 


answered,  in  vindication  of  Michaelis  and  himself,  in  his 
celebrated  'Letters  to  Archdeacon  Travis' — an  able  and 
critical  production,  but  which  did  not,  as  seme  eminent 
scholars  have  supposed,  settle  the  question.  He  has 
also  published  several  parts  of  a  Course  of  Divinity  Lect- 
ures, witli  a  historical  view  of  the  progress  of  theo- 
logical learning,  and  notices  of  authors.  This  work,  en- 
titled Lectures  on  Divinity,  with  an  Account  of  the  jmn- 
cipal  Authors  who  have  excelled  in  Theological  Learning 
(7  parts,  Cambr.  1809-23;  Lond.  1838),  includes  'Lect- 
nres  on  Sacred  Criticism  and  Interpretation,'  which  have 
been  published  separately,  and  are,  as  is  well  kno^vn 
to  Biblical  scholars,  of  the  highest  value"  (Home,  in 
Bihl.  Bib.  1839,  p.  160  sq.).  His  other  works  are  Essay 
on  the  Usefulness  and  Necessity  of  Theological  Learning 
to  those  designed  for  Holy  Orders  (1792) : — Comparative 
Vieio  of  the  Churches  of  England  and  Home  (Lond.  1841, 
8vo).  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer.  Auth.  ii, 
1225 ;  Blackwood's  Magazine,  xxix,  69  sq. 

Marsh,  James,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  born  July  19, 1794,  at  Hartford,  Vt.  He  graduated 
at  Dartmouth  College  in  1817;  spent  some  years  in  An- 
dover  Theological  Seminary;  was  ordained  Oct.  12, 1824, 
and  during  the  same  month  entered  upon  the  duties  of 
a  professorship  in  Hampden  Sydney  College,  Va.  In 
1826  he  was  elected  president  of  the  University  of  Ver- 
mont, which  position  he  resigned  in  1833,  but  continued 
as  professor  of  moral  and  intellectual  philosophj'  until 
1840.  He  died  at  Colchester,  Vt.,  July  3,  1842.  Dr. 
Marsh  assisted  in  translating  the  work  of  Bellermann  on 
the  Geography  of  the  Scriptures  (1822).  He  published 
a  Preliminary  Essay  to  Coleridge's  "Aids  to  Reflection" 
(1828): — /Selections  from  the  Old  English  Wrifeis  on 
Practical  Theology: — his  Inaugural  Address  at  Bur- 
lington (1826): — a  Treatise  on  Eloquence: — Translation 
of  Herder's  Work  on  Hebreiv  Poetry: — and  Translation 
of  Hegeivisch's  Chronology.  A  memoir  of  his  life,  with 
selections  from  his  writings,  was  published  by  professor 
Torrey  (1843,  8vo;  2d  ed.  1845).  See  North  Am.  Per. 
xxiv,  470 ;  Duyckinck,  Cyclop.  Am.  Lit.  ii,  130;  Sprague, 
Annals,  ii,  692  ;  Drake,  Diet.  Am.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Marsh,  John  (1),  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  born  Nov.  2,  1742  (O.  S.),  at  Haverhill,  Mass.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1761 ;  entered  the  min- 
istry in  1765;  was  appointed  tutor  at  Harvard  in  1771 ; 
remained  there  two  years,  and  was  ordained  January, 
1774,  pastor  of  the  First  Church,  Wethersfield,  Conn., 
where  he  died,  Sept.  13, 1821.  He  published  a  few  oc- 
casional Sermons. — Sprague,  Annals,  i,  619. 

Marsh,  John  (2),  D.D.,  son  of  the  preceding,  an 
eminent  American  divine,  who  enjoyed  a  national  repu- 
tation from  his  connection,  almost  from  its  origin,  with 
the  great  temperance  reform  of  the  last  half  century, 
was  born  in  Wethersfield,  Conn.,  April  2,  1788  ;  grad- 
uated at  Yale  College,  and  in  1818  was  settled  as  a  Con- 
gregational pastor  in  Haddam,  Conn.  He  at  once  iden- 
tilieil  himself  -with  the  cause  he  so  abh'  served  for  half 
a  generation,  and  attracted  public  attention  by  the  ad- 
dress wliich  he  delivered  before  the  AVindham  County 
Temperance  Society  in  Pomfret,  Conn.,  in  1829.  That 
year  a  state  society  had  been  formed,  of  which  Jere- 
miah Day,  of  Yale  College,  was  the  president,  and  Mr. 
Marsh  the  secretary  and  general  agent,  and,  to  do  effi- 
cient service  for  the  society,  the  latter  ottered  his  services 
to  the  county  associations  as  far  as  he  could  in  connection 
with  his  pastoral  labor.  His  address  in  Pomfret,  styled 
'•  Putnam  and  his  Wolf,"  ran  a  parallel  between  general 
I 'ut nam's  well-known  pursuit  of  the  wolf  in  his  den  in 
that  town  and  the  temperance  crusade  against  a  more 
terrible  monster.  The  address  was  afterwards  printed, 
and  in  a  short  period  150,000  copies  were  disposed 
of.  The  American  Tract  Soci(Tty  finally  placed  it  upon 
its  list.  See  Tejiperanxe  Reform.  In  1833  Dr. 
Marsh  was  invited  to  leave  his  charge  and  become  an 
agent  of  the  society  in  Philadelphia;  and  by  the  advice 
of  his  friends  he  vielded  himself  to  what  was  at  that 


time  a  most  laborious  and  self-denying  mission.  Three 
years  later  he  removed  to  New  York  as  secretary  of  the 
American  Temperance  Union,  and  editor  of  its  organ 
and  of  its  publications,  and  remained  until  1865,  when 
the  society  was  reorganized,  and  a  change  was  made  in 
its  ofhcers.  Although  full  of  years,  he  allowed  himself 
no  rest  from  his  labors,  preaching  coijstantly,  lecturing 
upon  his  life  theme,  and  offering  himself  to  every  good 
word  and  work.  His  last  efforts  were  put  forth  in  be- 
half of  an  endowment  of  the  Yale  Theological  Seminary. 
He  had  already  raised  $10,000,  and  was  fuU  of  encour- 
agement in  reference  to  the  results  of  his  endeavors. 
His  labors  ended  only  with  his  life.  He  died  Aug.  4, 
1868.  "Few  men  have  been  more  respected  or  more 
widelj'  known  throughout  the  comitry  than  Dr,  Marsh. 
Enthusiastic  in  his  mission,  catholic  in  spirit,  welcoming 
every  new  laborer  in  the  great  field,  and  readily  seizing 
upon  each  new  phase  of  the  temperance  reformation,  his 
name  will  remain  inseparably  connected  with  the  his- 
tory of  the  cause  in  all  future  time.  He  was  a  good 
man,  shedding  a  benign  influence  by  his  devoted  life 
wherever  he  moved"  (A^.  Y.  Christian  A  dvocnte,  August, 
1868).  Besides  editing  The  Temperance  Journal,  Dr. 
Marsh  was  the  author  of  several  popular  works;  among 
others,  of  a  well-known  Epitome  of  Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory (N.  Y.,  A.  S.  Barnes  and  Co.) ;  of  a  valuable  hand- 
book entitled  Temperance  Recollections  —  Ichors,  De- 
feats, Triumphs,  an  autobiography  (N.  Y.  1866, 12mo), 
"  a  rich  text-book  for  every  man  who  would  plead  the 
cause  of  temperance ;"  etc.  See  the  (A'.  Y.)  Christian 
Advocate,  August,  1868;  the  Eclectic  Magazine,  1866 
(June),  p.  773.     (J.H.W.) 

Marsh,  Narcissus,  D.D.,  a  learned  Irish  prelate, 
was  born  at  Hannington,  near  llighworth,  in  Wiltshire, 
in  1638;  was  educated  at  Magdalen  CoUege,  Oxford, 
and  in  1668  became  fellow  of  Exeter  College.  The  de- 
gree of  D.D.  he  received  in  1671 ;  some  time  previous  he 
was  made  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Exeter,  and  later  to 
chancellor  Hyde,  earl  of  Clarendon.  In  1673  he  -was 
appointed  principal  of  St.  Alban's  Hall,  Oxford,  and  in 
1678  provost  of  Dublin  College.  In  1683  he  became 
bishop  of  Leighlin  and  Ferns;  archbishop  of  Cashel  in 
1090,  of  Dublin  in  1694,  and  of  Armagh  in  1703.  He 
died  Nov.  2,  1713.  Dr.  ]\Iarsh  was  a  pious  and  noble 
soul.  He  fountled  an  almshouse  at  Drogheda  for  poor 
widows  of  clergymen,  and  provided  for  their  support. 
He  likewise  repaired,  at  his  own  expense,  many  de- 
cayed churches  within  his  diocese,  and  bought  in  sev- 
eral impropriations,  which  he  restored  to  the  Church. 
He  also  gave  to  the  Bodleian  Library  a  great  number 
of  MSS.  ill  the  Oriental  languages,  chietly  purchased 
out  of  (iolius's  collection.  He  was  a  very  learned  and 
accomi)lislied  man.  Besides  sacreil  and  profane  litera- 
ture, he  had  applied  himself  to  mathematics  and  natural 
philosophy;  he  was  deep  in  the  knowledge  of  languages, 
especially  the  Oriental ;  he  was  also  skilled  in  music, 
the  practice  as  well  as  the  theorj*.  He  published  Man- 
uductio  ad  logicam,  written  by  Philip  de  Trieu;  to 
which  he  added  the  Greek  text  of  Aristotle,  and  some 
tables  and  schemes,  and  Gassendus's  small  tract  De 
demonstratione,  which  he  illustrated  with  notes  (Oxon. 
1678): — Institutiones  logicw,  in  usum  juventutis  academi- 
cm  (Dublin,  1681): — An  Introductory  Essay  to  the  Doc- 
trine of  Sounds  (published  in  the  "  I'hilosophical  Trans- 
actions" of  the  lioyal  Society  of  London)  : — .1  Charge 
to  his  Clergy  of  the  Diocese  of  Dublin  (1694,  4to).  See 
Hook,  Eccles.  Biog.  vol.  vii,  s.  v. ;  Biog.  Brit.  s.  v. ;  Wood, 
A  then.  Oxon.  vol.  ii  (see  Index) ;  Ware's  Ireland,  s.  v.; 
^YUibone,  Diet.  Brit,  and  A mer.  A  uth.  s.  v.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Marsh, 'Williani  (1),D.D.,  an  English  divine,  was 
incumbent  of  St.  Mary's,  Leamington :  later  rector  of 
Bedduigton,  and  died  in  1866.  He  published  Catechism 
on  the  Collects  (3d  ed.  1824,  2\mo):— Plain  Thoughts  on 
P?-opkecy  (3d  ed.  1843,  8vo)  : — Occasional  Sermons,  etc. 
(1821,  etc.).  See  Memoirs  of  the  late  Rev.  Wm.  Marsh, 
D.D.,  by  his  daughter  (post  8vo). 


MARSH 


815 


MARSHALL 


Marsh,  "William  (2),  a  minister  of  the  Jlethodist 
Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  Orono,  Me.,  May  4, 1789 ; 
was  converted  when  about  tit'teen  years  old ;  began 
preaching  before  he  was  twenty-one  years  of  age,  at 
one  time  assisting  the  preacher  in  charge  of  a  circuit 
which  included  the  present  Dresden  charge.  In  1811 
INIarsh  joined  the  New  England  Conference ;  was  ordained 
deacon  in  1813,  and  elder  in  1815.  His  appointments 
were  as  follows :  1811,  Durham,  iMe.;  1812,  East  Green- 
wich, K.  I. ;  1813,  Now  London  ;  1814,  Bristol;  1815,  Tol- 
land, Conn.;  1810, Nantucket, Mass.;  1817,  Lynn;  in  1818 
he  appears  to  have  been  sent  to  Bath,  but  for  some  rea- 
son now  unknown  he  spent  most  of  that  year  in  Orring- 
ton.  In  1820  he  was  superannuated,  and  from  1821  to 
1828  he  was  located  and  resided  in  Orrington,  where  he 
labored  as  he  was  able.  In  1829,  at  the  earnest  request 
of  the  Church  at  Hampden,  he  again  entered  the  itin- 
erancy, and  was  stationed  with  them.  A  powerful  re- 
vival was  the  result,  the  people  coming  miles  to  the 
meeting,  and,  being  converted,  returning  to  their  homes 
to  scatter  the  hallowed  influence  in  regions  beyond.  In 
1830-31  he  presided  on  Penobscot  District;  in  1832  was 
stationed  at  Houlton.  From  4833-37  he  was  forced  by 
continued  ill  health  to  take  a  superannuated  relation, 
and  retire  from  active  duty.  In  1838  he  was  made  ef- 
fective, and  stationed  at  Lincoln ;  1839,  at  Monroe ; 
1840,  at  Frankfort;  1841,  superannuated;  1842,  was  ef- 
fective, and  stationed  at  Cherryfield;  1843,  at  Edding- 
Ivin ;  1844,  again  superannuated.  In  1845  we  find  him 
again  effective,  and  presiding  elder  of  Bangor  District; 
184G-47,  on  Portland  District;  1848,  Bangor  District; 
1849,  superannuated;  1850,  effective,  and  stationed  at 
Oldtown;  1851-53,  superannuated;  1854-55,  effective, 
and  stationed  at  Orrington  Centre ;  185G-57,  at  South 
Orrington,  after  which  he  never  sustained  an  effective 
relation.  He  died  Aug.  2f),  1865.  "  Father  Marsh  pos- 
sessed great  natural  abilities.  As  he  had  clear  percep- 
tion, good  judgment,  was  apt  in  illustration,  graphic  in 
description,  and  ready  with  appropriate  language,  he 
could  not  fail  to  be  an  able  and  effective  speaker.  It  is 
true  that  his  early  educational  advantages  were  not 
great,  nor  could  we  speak  of  him  as  a  critical  scholar; 
yet,  in  the  best  sense  of  the  term,  he  was  learned.  .  .  . 
He  has  been  justly  styled  a  model  in  the  social  relations. 
His  religious  experience  was  deep,  his  affections  centred 
on  God.  As  a  preacher,  in  his  ]irime,  he  had  few  equals. 
He  seemed  at  times  to  entirely  command  the  thought 
and  feelings  of  his  hearers,  yet  was  this  almost  unbounded 
influence  entirely  consecrated  to  Christ,  and  used  to  pro- 
mote his  glory  and  the  salvation  of  men.  It  is  needless 
to  add  that  imder  such  a  ministrA'  many  were  converted." 
See  Conference  Minutes,  18Gt),  p.  110. 

Marshall,  AiidreTW,  a  colored  Baptist  minister, 
was,  according  to  his  own  account,  l)orn  a  slave  in  175.5, 
but  b}^  his  diligence  and  economy  succeeded  in  purchas- 
ing his  own  freedom  and  that  of  his  whole  family.  He 
joined  the  Baptist  Church  when  nearly  fifty  j'cars  old ; 
was  in  1806  ordained  pastor  of  the  Second  (colored) 
Baptist  Church  in  Savannah;  and  after  this  had,  under 
his  ministrations,  become  large  enough  to  be  divided, 
he  became  pastor  of  the  part  which  took  the  name  of 
"  First  African  Baptist  Church."  This  position  he  filled 
until  his  death,  Dec.  8, 1856,  occasionally  preaching  also 
in  Augusta,  Macon,  Milledgeville,  Charleston,  and  New 
Orleans.  He  was  also  in  business  on  a  large  scale.  He 
possessed  elements  in  his  nature  which  would  have  made 
him  a  leading  character  anywhere.  The  high  mental 
efforts  which  he  at  times  displayed  proved  him  to  be 
equal  to  any  subject  which  he  wf)uld  find  occasion  to 
meet,  if  allowed  opportunitj'  for  jjreparation.  His  sight 
and  hearing  remained  to  the  last  as  good  as  in  middle 
life,  and  his  lower  limbs  only  began  seriously  to  fail 
him  in  his  one  hundredth  j'ear.  During  the  long  pe- 
riod of  his  ministry  he  baptized  about  thirty-eight  hun- 
dred persons,  and  he  supposed  that  about  four  thousand 
had  professed  conversion  under  his  preaching.— Sprague, 
Annals,  y\,  251. 


Marshall,  George,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  Beltegh  Parish,  Derry  County,  Ireland,  in  1830. 
He  attended  the  schools  of  his  native  land,  and,  after 
his  arrival  in  America,  continued  his  studies,  and  grad- 
uated at  LTnion  College,  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  in  1852,  and 
at  the  theological  seminary  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  in  1855. 
He  was  immediately  licensed,  and  in  1856  ordained  and 
installed  pastor  of  Rock  Church,  Cecil  Co.,  Md.,  where 
he  continued  to  labor  until  his  death,  Feb.  27, 1861.  Mr. 
Marshall  was  a  man  of  devoted  piety,  excellent  natural 
talents,  and  solid  attainments ;  his  sermons  were  sound 
and  instructive,  his  delivery  earnest  and  impressive. 
See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1862,  p.  101.     (.J.  L.  S.) 

Marshall,  John,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom 
in  Washington  Co.,  Pa.,  Jan.  13, 1813.  He  received  his 
early  education  in  St.  Clairsville,  Ohio;  graduated  at 
Franklin  College,  Ohio,  in  1839;  studied  theology  in  the 
seminary  of  the  Associate  Presbyterian  Church  in  Ca- 
nonsburg.  Pa. ;  was  licensed  in  1843,  and  installed  pas- 
tor of  the  Associate  Presbyterian  churches  of  London- 
derry and  West  Chester,  Ohio.  Owing  to  the  discussion 
going  on  in  anticipation  of  the  union  bet^vecn  the  Asso- 
ciate and  Associate  Eeformed  Presbyterian  churches,  his 
mind  was  directed  to  the  investigation  of  their  views 
concerning  psalmody  and  intercommunion,  and  this  led, 
in  1854,  to  his  joining  the  presbytery  of  St.  Clairsville.  In 
1855  he  became  the  stated  supply  for  Woodsfield  Church, 
Ohio,  and  in  1857  he  accepted  a  call  to  the  churches  of 
Doddsville  and  Huntsville,  111.  He  died  Aug.  24, 1858. 
]Mr.  IMarshall  was  practical  and  zealous  as  a  preacher, 
social  and  affable  as  a  Christian  gentleman.  See  Wil- 
son, Presb.  IHst.  A  Imanac,  1860,  p.  75.      (J.  L.  S.) 

Marshall,  Joseph  D.,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  was  born  at  Stamford,  Conn.,  in  Nov., 
1804,  of  Congregational  parentage.  His  early  years  were 
spent  in  mercantile  life ;  he  was  converted  Avhen  about 
twenty  years  old ;  felt  a  call  for  the  ministry,  and  in 
1827  entered  the  New  York  Conference,  and  was  for  two 
years  stationed  at  Kingston  Circuit.  In  1829  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  New  Pfalz  Circuit;  in  1830  to  Flushing;  in 
1832  was  transferred  to  Troy  Conference,  and  appointed 
to  St.  Albans  Circuit ;  next  and  successively  to  Peru, 
Charlotte,  Shelbimie,  and  Wesley  Chapel,  ^Vlbany ;  in 
1837  was  retransferred  to  the  New  York  Conference,  and 
appointed  to  Windham  Circuit;  in  1838  to  Sag  Harbor; 
in  1839  was  superannuated,  because  pf  failing  health; 
and,  though  he  returned  to  effective  work  for  a  time,  he 
only  recovered  his  health  in  1843,  when  he  re-entered 
active  work,  and  successively  preached  at  Goshen,  Conn., 
Birmingham,  Keading,  and  New  Canaan.  Thereafter 
he  was  a  superannuate.  He  died  at  Brooklyn,  Jan.  9, 
1860.  "  He  magnified  his  office  as  a  pastor  in  all  the 
churches  committed  to  his  care.  ...  He  was  character- 
ized for  his  equanimity  of  disposition,  and  the  pure  tone 
of  his  devotional  and  experimental  piety."  See  Smith, 
Sacred  Memories,  p.  232  sq. 

Marshall,  Nathaniel,  D.D.,  an  English  divine, 
flourished  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century.  But 
little  is  known  of  his  personal  historj*.  In  1712  he 
preached  before  the  sons  of  the  clerg}';  in  .January,  1715, 
he  was  lecturer  at  Aldcrmanbury  and  curate  at  Kentish 
Town  ;  later  he  became  canon  of  Windsor.  He  appears 
also  to  have  had  the  lectureship  of  St.  Martin's,  Iron- 
monger-lane, and  died  Feb.  6,  1730-31.  He  published 
A  Translation  of  the  Genuine  Works  of  St.  Cyprian 
(1717,  fol.)  :— Sermons   (1717,  1731-1750,  4  vols.  8vo) ; 

besides  a  number  of  occasional  Sermons,  etc Darling, 

Cyclop.  Bill.  1, 1796;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer, 
A  uth.  s.  V. ;  Hook,  Eccles.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Marshall,  Samuel  Vance,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  born  in  Fayette  Co.,  Ky.,  Feb.  G,  1798.  He 
was  educated  at  Transylvania  University,  Lexuigton, 
Ky.  (class  of  1821) :  studied  theology  in  the  seminarj'  at 
Princeton,  N.  J. ;  was  licensed  in  1825,  and  ordained  by 
West  Lexington  Presbytery  in  182(J.  During  1827  he 
labored  as  a  missionary  in  South  Carolina ;  then  went 


MARSHALL 


816 


MARSHMAN 


to  North  IMiddleton  and  IMt.  Sterling  churches,  in  Ken- 
tucky ;  and  subsequently  to  Woodford,  Ky.  In  1735  he 
Avas  elected  professor  of  languages  in  Transylvania  Uni- 
versity, iind  in  1837  to  the  same  chair  in  Oakland  Col- 
lege, Miss.  Here  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in 
teaching,  and  in  voluntary  service  as  an  evangelist,  es- 
pecially among  colored  people.  lie  died  Nov.  30, 1860. 
Mr.  Marshall  was  a  man  of  strong  character,  and  of 
large  attainments,  adapted  to  academic  and  popular  pur- 
suits; a  good  preacher,  kind  and  social  in  his  disposi- 
tion. See  Wilson,  Presh.  Hist,  Almanac,  1862,  p.  102. 
(J.  L.  S.) 

Marshall,  Stephen,  a  noted  commonwealth  Pres- 
byterian divine,  lecturer  at  St.  Margaret's  Church,West- 
minster,  who  flourished  in  the  first  half  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury, and  died  in  1655,  was  the  author  of  some  contro- 
versial theological  treatises,  etc.  (1640-81).  He  also 
published  a  number  of  occasional  Sermons.  "  The  most 
memorable  of  jNIarshall's  works  is  his  sermon  preached 
at  the  funeral  of  Pym"  (1644, 4to).  See  Life  of  Stejihen 
Marshall  (1680, 4to) ;  Darling,  Cyclop.  Bihl.  i,  175!) ;  Al- 
libone.  Did.  (f  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  nth.  s.  v. 

Marshall  or  Mareschal,  Thomas,  an  English 
divine  of  note,  was  born  at  Barkby,  in  Leicestershire, 
about  1621 ;  was  entered  at  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  in 
1640,  and  while  there  became  a  constant  hearer  of  arch- 
bishop Usher's  sermons  in  All-hallows  Church.  The 
influence  of  that  prelate's  style  is  a})parent  in  all  the 
writings  of  Mr.  Marshall.  Upon  the  breaking  out  of  the 
civil  war  he  took  up  arms  for  the  king  at  his  own  charge, 
and  therefore,  in  1645,  Avhen  he  was  a  candidate  for  the 
degree  of  bachelor  of  arts,  was  admitted  without  paying 
fees.  LTpon  the  approach  of  the  Parliamentary  visita- 
tion, he  left  the  university,  went  beyond  sea,  and  be- 
came preacher  to  the  company  of  English  merchants  at 
Kotterdam  and  Dort.  In  1661  he  was  made  bachelor 
of  divinity;  and,  in  1668,  became  fellow  of  his  college; 
and,  in  1669,  doctor  of  divinity.  In  1672  he  was  ap- 
pointed rector  of  Lincoln  College,  Oxford ;  later  he  be- 
came chaplain-in-ordinary  to  the  king,and,  in  1681, final- 
ly dean  of  Gloucestershire.  He  died  in  1685.  He  was 
distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of  the  Oriental  tongues 
and  of  the  Anglo-Saxon.  He  published  Observationes 
in  Evangelioriun  versiones  per  antiquas  diias,  Guthicas 
scilicet,  etc.,  Anfflo-Saxonicas,  etc.  (Dort,  1665);  also  a 
Life  of  Archbishop  Usher  (Lond.  1686) ;  The  Catechism 
set  forth  in  the  Booh  of  Common  Prayer  brief y  explained 
by  short  Notes  (Oxf.  1679).  See  Wood,  A  then(B  Oxoni- 
enses,  vol.  ii  (see  Index) ;  Gen.  Biog,  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Wood, 
JEccles.  Bior/.  vol.  vii,  s.  v. 

Marshall,  "Walter,  an  English  divine  of  the  sec- 
ond half  of  the  17th  centurj',  was  educated  at,  and  later 
became  fellow  of  New  College,  Oxford,  and  Winchester 
College;  vicar  of  Hursley,  Hampshire;  was  ejected  at 
the  Restoration;  subsequently  became  pastor  of  a  dis- 
senting congregation  at  Gosport,  and  died  in  1690.  He 
published  The  Gospel  Mystery  of  Sanctifcatioii  Opened 
in  sundry  Practical  Directions,  together  with  a  Sermon 
on  Just  if  cation  (Lond.  1692,  8vo;  often  reprinted;  last 
cd.  1838,  32mo).  — Allibone,  Diet.  Brit,  and  Amer.  Auth. 
s.  V. ;  Bogue  and  Bennett,  Jlisf.  Dissentey-s,  i.  454. 

Marshall,  'William,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  Perthshire,  Scotland,  in  1789 ;  was  educated  and 
studied  divinity  at  Glasgow ;  was  licensed  by  the  Pres- 
bytery of  Dysart,  Scotland ;  preached  a  number  of  years 
at  Calinshow,  Fifeshire,  and  in  1832  came  to  America, 
and  was  installed  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Peekskill, 
N.  Y.  In  1843,  when  the  marriaye  question  engaged  the 
attention  and  called  forth  not  a  Utile  of  the  talent  and 
Biblical  lore  of  the  Church,  he  made  the  argument  in 
that  relation  befure  the  Synod  of  New  York,  which  was 
afterwards  published  under  the  title,  .4;*  Inquiry  cun- 
cerniny  the  Lau fulness  <f  Marriage  between  Parties  pre- 
viously related  by  Affini/y ;  also  a  short  History  of  Opin- 
ions in  diferent  Ayes  aiul  Countries,  and  of  the  A  ction  of 
the  Ecclesiastical  Bodies  on  that  Subject.     He  died  in 


1864.  ]\Ir.  Marshall  possessed  tine  analytical  powers, 
comprehensive  and  penetrating;  his  sermons  were  re- 
markably exact,  his  manner  rather  studied.  See  Wilson, 
Presh.  llist.  Almanac,  1865,  p.  99 ;  Sprague,  Ann.  Amer. 
Pulpit,  ix,  7.     (J.  L.  S.) 

Marsham,  Sir  John,  an  English  scholar,  celebra- 
ted for  his  acquirements  in  history,  languages,  and  chro- 
nology, was  born  in  London  in  1602,  and  was  educated 
at  St.  John's  College,  Oxford.  He  embraced  the  cause 
of  the  Royalists  in  the  civil  war.  He  died  in  1685.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  Chronoloyicus  Canon 
■'Egyptiacus,  Ebraicus,  etc.  (Lond.  1672,  fol.),  in  which 
he  attempts  to  reconcile  Egyptian  chronology  with  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures,  by  supposing  four  collateral  dynas- 
ties of  Egyptian  kings  reigning  at  the  same  time.  This 
theory  has  been  adopted  by  several  eminent  scholars. 
He  also  wrote  the  preface  to  the  first  volume  of  Di.g- 
dale's  Monasticon  Anglicanum,  and  left  behind  him  at 
his  death,  unfiiiished,  Canonis  chi'onici  liber  quintus  : 
sive,  Imperium  Peisicum: — De  j7rovi?iciis  et  leyionibus 
Romanis : — De  re  numeraria;  etc.  We  are  likewise 
in  some  measure  obliged  to  him  for  the  History  of  Phi- 
losophy by  his  very  learned  nephew,  Thomas  Stanley, 
Esq.,  since  it  was  chiefly  at  his  instigation  that  that 
excellent  work  was  undertaken.  See  Wood,  Athence 
Oxonienses ;  Shuckford,  Sacred  and  Profane  History; 
Gen.  Biog.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Marshman,  Joshua,  D.D.,  a  noted  English  Bap- 
tist missionary  to  India,  one  of  the  "  Serampore  Breth- 
ren," as  the  band  of  missionaries  among  whom  he  and 
Dr.  Carey  were  the  most  prominent  often  styled  them- 
selves, the  person  who,  above  all  others,  ga\"e  to  the 
English  Protestant  mission  in  India  the  strength,  con- 
sistency, and  prudence  which  it  wanted,  was  born  in 
1767,  at  Westbury  Leigh,  in  Wiltshire.  While  yet  a 
lad,  Joshua  Marshman  attracted  attention  by  his  pas- 
sion for  reading,  and  his  quiet,  heartfelt  religion.  His 
parents  were  poor,  and  he  had  to  struggle  hard  to  securei 
an  education.  In  1794  he  became  master  of  a  school  at 
Bristol,  at  the  same  time  entering  himself  a  student  at 
"  Bristol  Academy,"  where  he  studied  thoroughly  Latin, 
Greek,  Hebrew,  and  Syriac.  His  mind  became  imbued 
at  this  time  with  the  missionary  spirit  which  the  noted 
English  cobbler,  Carey,  was  spreading  in  England, 
and  in  1799  Marshman  offered  to  become  one  of  the 
party  sent  out  to  India  by  the  "  Baptist  Missionary 
Society,"  to  further  the  cause  wliich  Carey  was  advo- 
cating. Oct.  13,  1799,  the  company  found  themselves 
sixteen  miles  above  Calcutta,  at  Serampore,  on  the 
Hooghly,  "a  town  pleasantly  situated,  beautiful  to  look 
at,  and  full  of  a  mixed  population  of  Danes,  Dutch,  Eng- 
lish, and  natives  of  all  hues."  The  intention  was  to 
proceed  to  British  ground,  Serampore  being  at  that  lime 
Danish  territory';  but  the  Anglo-Indians  objected  to 
Christian  missionarj-  enterprises  in  their  midst,  and  the 
mission  was  finally  established  at  Serampore,  to  spread 
thence,  in  God's  own  appointed  time,  the  truths  of  his 
Gospel  among  the  benighted  of  all  India.  The  fate  of 
the  missionary  enterprise  has  been  spoken  of  in  the  ar- 
ticle India  (q.  v.) ;  the  activity  of  each  member  in  the 
biographical  sketches  of  these  faithful  servants  of  Clirist 
[see  Cakky;  Ward,  Thomas]  ;  we  can  here  deal  only 
with  the  part  Joshua  Marshman  himself  played  in  this, 
one  of  the  most  important  of  missionary  enterprises. 

Marshman  had  married  the  daughter  of  a  Baptist 
minister  before  he  became  teacher  at  Bristol;  his  wife 
now  accompanied  him  to  India,  and  proved  a  helpmeet 
indeed  from  the  very  outset.  Shortly  after  landing  at 
Serampore,  finding  the  support  granted  by  the  home 
society  inadequate  to  the  wants  of  the  colony,  Jlarsh- 
man,  with  the  assistance  of  his  wife,  opened  two  board- 
ing-schools for  European  children,  and,  succeeding  even 
beyond  their  most  sanguine  expectations  in  securing 
not  only  a  support  for  themselves,  but  a  maintenance  of 
the  mission,  shortly  after  opened  a  school  for  the  na- 
tives also,  which  was  quickly  tilled ;  and  the  pecuniary 


MARSHMAN 


817 


MARSILITJS 


return  of  this  enterprise,  together  with  the  additional 
income  which  Carey  received  for  his  services  as  an  in- 
structor in  tlie  government  college  at  Fort  William,  en- 
abled these  good  people  in  a  short  time  to  render  their 
mission  nearly  independent  of  home  support.  The  Bap- 
tists of  England,  however,  failed  to  appreciate  these 
heroic  and  self-sacrificing  labors  of  Carey,  and  Marsh- 
man,  and  Ward,  and  much  fault  was  Ibund  by  the  com- 
mittee of  the  general  society.  "  There  were  among 
them  many  men  of  good  intentions,  but  without  breadth 
of  views,  and  used  to  small  economies.  They  listened 
to  false  reports,  censured  without  sufficient  information, 
pinched  their  missions,  and  dictated  the  management, 
so  that  to  deal  with  them  was  but  a  vexation  of  spirit. 
.  .  .  Moreover,  the  American  subscribers  [American 
Baptists  joined  their  English  brethren  until  Judson 
went  out  from  the  American  society]  sent  a  most  vex- 
atious and  absurd  remonstrance  against  any  part  of  their 
contributions  for  training  young  men  to  the  ministry 
being  employed  in  teachuig  science.  'As  if,'  said  Dr. 
Marshman,  'youths  in  America  could  be  educated  for 
ministers  witliout  learning  science.' " 

Had  the  government  of  the  mission  been  in  the  hands 
of  a  body  acquainted,  by  personal  experience,  with  the 
needs  of  the  Serampore  Brethren,  any  misimderstanding 
s]jringing  up  could  easily  have  been  allayed  ;  but,  man- 
aged by  the  class  of  men  we  have  just  spoken  of,  the 
disagreement  between  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society 
and  the  Serampore  missionaries  (originatmg  in  1817) 
lasted  for  some  time,  and  even  seriously  threatened  the 
success  of  the  enterprise.  In  1822  Dr.  Marshman  had 
dispatched  his  son  John  to  England  to  restore  pleasant 
rekuions.  The  disagreement  continuing.  Dr.  Marshman 
decided  to  go  before  the  society  in  person,  and  in  1826 
returned  home.  But  even  he  failed  in  his  mission  ;  and 
in  1827,  after  much  argument,  the  matter  ended  in  the 
separation  of  the  Serampore  mission  from  the  general 
society.  To  a  man  like  Dr.  Marshman,  now  hoary  with 
age,  tliis  matter  became  a  serious  annoyance,  and  his 
strength  of  body  and  of  mind  were  greatly  impaired. 
Additional  trouble  came  when  the  ownership  of  the 
buildings  at  the  Serampore  mission  was  to  be  disposed 
of,  tlie  home  society  naturally  enough  claiming  the 
property,  although  it  had  been  secured  mainly  by  the 
hard  labors  of  Carey  and  Marshman.  In  1823,  Dr. 
Marshman's  trials  had  become  very  heavy.  At  that 
time  Mr.  Ward  was  taken  away  by  cholera.  "  For  twen- 
ty-three years  had  the  threefold  cord  between  Carey, 
Marshman,  and  Ward  been  unbroken.  They  had  lived 
together  like  brothers,  alike  in  aim  and  purposes,  each 
supplying  what  the  other  lacked ;  and  the  distress  of 
the  parting  Avas  terrible,  especially  to  Dr.  Marshman, 
who,  at  the  time  of  his  friend's  illness,  was  suffering  from 
an  attack  of  deafness,  temporary  indeed,  but  for  some 
days  total,  so  that  he  coukl  only  watch  the  final  strug- 
gle without  hearing  a  single  word."  His  mental  strength 
was  even  then  sorely  tried,  for  "  he  wrote  as  if  he  longed 
to  be  Avith  those  whose  toils  and  sorrows  were  at  an 
end."  Greater  was  the  shock  that  the  treatment  of  the 
home  society  brought  upon  him.  "  Morbid  attacks  of 
depression  came  on,  during  which  he  wandered  about 
unable  to  apply  liimself  so  much  as  even  to  write  a  let- 
ter." June  9,  1834,  Dr.  Carey  died,  and  he  was  left 
alone  to  defend  his  cause.  In  183G  a  daughter  of  his, 
who  had  married  the  afterwards  so  celebrated  Christian 
soldier  of  the  British  army,  Henry  Havclock,  barely 
escaped  with  her  life  from  her  bungalow,  which  had 
caught  fire,  losing  one  of  her  three  children,  a  baby,  in 
the  flames.  The  nervous  excitement  which  this  affair 
caused  Dr.  Marshman  prostrated  him  completelj',  and 
he  died  Dec.  5, 1837.  A  few  days  previous  to  this  event 
arrangements  had  been  concluded  in  London  for  the  re- 
imion  of  the  Serampore  Mission  with  the  parent  society, 
and  for  retaining  Dr.  Marshman  in  the  superintendence. 

By  severe  and  diligent  labor  Dr.  Marshman  had  ac- 
quired a  complete  knowledge  of  the  Bengalee,  Sanscrit, 
and  Chinese  languages.  Into  the  Chinese  he  translated 
v.— F  F  F 


the  four  Gospels,  the  Epistles  of  Paul  to  the  Romans  and 
the  Corinthians,  and  the  book  of  Genesis.  He  also  wrote 
A  Dissertation  on  the  Characters  and  Sounds  of  the  Chi- 
nese Language  (1809,  4to)  : — The  Worlcs  of  Confucius, 
containing  the  original  Text,  with  a  Translation  (1811, 
4to,  reviewed  in  London  Quarterly  Review,  xi,  332) : — 
Clavis  Sinica: — Elements  of  Chinese  Grammar,  with  a 
Prelimina7-y  Dissei-tation  on  the  Characters  and  Col- 
loquial Medium  of  the  Chinese  (Serampore,  1814).  In 
Sanscrit  and  Bengalee  he  assisted  Dr.  Carey  in  the 
preparation  of  a  Sanscrit  grammar  in  1815,  and  a  Ben- 
galee and  English  dictionary  in  1825.  In  1827  he  pub- 
lished an  abridgment  of  the  dictionary.  He  also  en- 
gaged in  a  controversy  with  Eammohun  Roy  (q.  v.), 
who  distinguished  himself  greatly  among  his  country- 
men in  India  by  his  spirited  attacks  upon  idolatry,  and 
by  the  publication  of  a  work  entitled  The  Precepts  of 
Jesus,  the  Guide  to  Peace,  in  which,  while  exalting  the 
precepts,  he  asperses  the  miracles  of  Christ.  Dr.  IMarsh- 
man  answered  tliis  work  by  a  series  of  articles  in  the 
Fi-iend  of  India  (a  periodical  issued  by  the  Serampore 
missionaries),  subsequently  republished  in  book  form 
(Loud.  1822),  entitled  A  Defence  of  the  Deity  and  Atone- 
ment of  Jesus  Christ,  in  reply  to  Rammohun  Roy,  of  Cal- 
cutta. In  1824  appeared  a  second  London  edition  of 
Bammohun  Roy's  work,  illustrated  with  a  portrait  of 
the  author,  and  containing  a  reply  to  Dr.  Marshman. 
In  a  sketch  of  Dr.  Blarshman's  character  at  the  end  of 
the  first  volume  of  Dr.  Cox's  History  of  the  Baptist  Mis- 
sionary Society  he  is  spoken  of  as  "possessed  of  great 
mental  power  and  diligence,  of  firmness  bordering  upon 
obstinacy,  and  of  much  wariness."  See  Lond.  Gent.  Mag. 
1838,  pt.  ii,  p.  216;  English  Cyclopcedia  of  Biography 
(1857),  iv,  120;  Kaye,  Christianity  in  India,  ch.  vii; 
Yonge,  Pioneers  and  Founders  (Lond.  1872, 12rno),  ch.  v ; 
Trevor,  India,  its  Natives  and  Missions,  p.  316 ;  Marsh- 
man (J.),  Life  and  Times  of  Carey,  Marshman.  and 
Ward  (Lond.  1859,  2  vols.  8vo ;  popular  ed.,  N.  ¥.1867, 
12mo), 

Marsiac, Council  of  (Concilium  Marsiacense),'>Nas, 
held  Dec.  8, 1326,  by  William  de  Flavacour,  archbishop 
of  Auch,  and  his  suffragans.  The  proceedings  are  of 
little  interest.  This  council  established  the  feast  of  S. 
Martha,  the  sister  of  S.  I\Iary  Magdalene,  celebrated  on 
the  fourth  of  the  calends  of  August.  See  Landon,  Man- 
ual of  Councils,  p.  390. 

Marsile,  a  Dutch  philosopher  and  theologian,  was 
born  at  Inghen,  in  the  diocese  of  Utrecht.  He  was  can- 
on and  treasurer  of  the  Church  of  Saint-Andrew,  at  Co- 
logne, and  when  Rupert,  the  duke  of  Bavaria,  founded 
the  academj^  of  Heidelberg  in  1386,  he  called  jMarsUe  to 
a  professorship  of  philosophy.  He  died  there  Aug.  20, 
1394.  Tritenhemius  attributes  to  him  a  Dicdectic,  and 
some  comments  on  Aristotle  and  on  Peter  Lombard. 
Fabricius  adds  that  his  commentaries  on  the  four  books 
of  the  Sentences  were  published  in  Strasburg  in  1501, 
folio.  A  volume  published  at  La  Haye  (1497,  fol.)  con- 
tains the  first  two  books  of  the  Sentences,  with  the  criti- 
cism of  D'Inghen. — Fabricius,  Bibl.  med.  et  inf.  Latin.  : 
Diet,  des  Sciences philos. ;  B.  Haureau,  De  la  Philos.  sco- 
last.  ii,  483 ;  Hoefer,  Nou  v.  Biog.  Generale,  vol.  xxxiii,  s.  v. 

Marsilius,  Ficinus.     See  Ficinus. 

Marsilius  of  Padua,  an  eminent  opponent  of  the 
papacy,  was  born  towards  the  close  of  the  13th  century, 
and  was  probably  a  native  of  Italy.  He  first  attracted 
notice  at  the  University  of  Orleans,  in  France,  and  later 
at  that  of  Paris,  where  he  studied  jurisprudence,  and 
also  paid  some  attention  to  philosophy,  medicine,  and 
theology,  and  in  1312  became  rector.  It  was  not,  how- 
ever, until  1324  that  lie  became  particularly  noted.  In 
that  year  he  composed  his  principal  work.  Defensor  2)a- 
cis  s.  de  re  imj)eratoria  et pontifcia.  In  this  work,  writ- 
ten in  the  interest  of  the  emperor  Louis  lY,  tlie  Bava- 
rian, and  against  tlie  papacy,  he  describes  the  papacy  of 
his  time  as  the  most  dangerous  foe  to  peace  and  pros- 
perity, supportmg  his  assertion  by  a  reference  to  events 


MARSILIUS 


818 


MARTENE 


then  current,  e.  g.  the  quarrel  of  Boniface  VIII  with 
Philip  the  Fair  of  France,  the  arrogance  of  Clement  V 
towards  the  emperor  Henry  VII,  and  the  treatment  ac- 
corded hy  pope  John  XXII,  then  reigning,  to  Louis  the 
Bavarian.  In  order  to  prevent  such  scandals  for  the 
future,  he  declares  that  the  axe  must  be  laid  at  the  root 
of  the  evil;  and  he  then  proceeds  to  consider,  1,  the  na- 
ture, origin,  and  end  of  the  state,  with  constant  refer- 
ence to  peace  and  quietness  as  the  highest  good  of  social 
life;  2,  the  relation  between  Church  and  State,  opposing 
to  the  exaggerated  pretensions  of  the  Curia  a  doctrine 
of  the  Church  which  he  grounds  on  reason,  tradition, 
Scripture,  history,  and  ecclesiastical  law.  The  leading 
thoughts  are  these :  (1)  The  official  duties  and  authority 
of  every  priest  are  confined  to  the  ministration  of  the 
Word  and  sacraments.  His  power  is  spiritual  and  mor- 
al; the  civQ  power  alone  may  employ  force,  and  the 
priest,  even  if  he  be  bishop  or  pope,  is  subject  to  the 
civil  power.  (2)  All  priests,  whatever  their  name,  are 
equal  in  spiritual  rank  and  authority ;  there  was  no  dis- 
tinction in  the  apostoUc  Church  between  bishops  and 
presbyters;  and  the  I^.  T.  sho-\vs  that  there  was  no  pri- 
macy of  Peter,  but  that  the  apostles  were  all  equal.  In 
externals  and  non-essentials  there  may  be  distinctions 
between  priests,  and  gradations  of  office,  so  far  as  cir- 
cumstances require,  but  as  a  merely  human  arrange- 
ment. (3)  There  is  only  one  divinely-appointed  Head 
of  the  Church — Christ  himself.  (4)  The  highest  au- 
thority on  earth  in  ecclesiastical  matters  does  not  inhere 
in  a  single  priest  or  bishop,  not  even  in  the  bishop  of 
Kome,  but  in  a  general  council,  composed  as  well  of  in- 
telligent laymen,  who  are  versed  in  the  Scriptures,  as  of 
priests.  Christ  has  promised  to  be  with  his  Chiu-ch  unto 
the  end  of  the  world,  and  a  general  council  is  the  prop- 
er exponent  and  organ  of  the  Church.  The  pope  has 
not  even  authority  to  convene  a  council,  since  the  case  is 
possible  that  he  should  be  guilty  of  conduct  which  it- 
self would  require  the  attention  of  a  general  council. 
This  authority,  therefore,  belongs  to  the  sovereign,  as 
supreme  lawgiver.  (5)  The  Scriptures,  including  what 
must  be  necessarily  inferred  from  their  teaching,  alone 
deserve  an  unconditional  assent.  The  principles  thus 
submitted  b}'  Marsilius  found  a  practical  application  in 
1338,  when  the  heiress  of  the  Tyrol  souglit  a  divorce 
from  her  husband,  John  of  Bohemia,  in  order  to  marry 
a  son  of  the  emperor;  a  step  which  was  sanctioned 
by  Louis  IV  (in  13i2),  regardless  of  the  fact  that  the 
parties  were  within  the  degrees  of  consanguinity  in 
which  marriage  was  prohibited  by  the  Church,  public 
opinion  everywhere  censuring  the  emperor's  action. 
Both  Marsilius  and  the  learned  Franciscan,  William  Oc- 
cam, came  forward  in  the  emperors  defence,  in  a  work 
bearing  the  title  in  each  case,  Tractatus  de  jurisdiclione 
Imperatoris  in  caiisis  matrimoHialibus.  They  are  com- 
plementary to  each  other,  Marsilius  treating  especially 
of  the  dissolution  of  the  former  marriage,  and  Occam  of 
the  dispensation  on  accoimt  of  consanguinity.  Marsil- 
ius here  also  advanced  the  principle,  that  the  ministers 
and  teachers  of  the  Word  are  to  decide  on  the  sufficien- 
cy of  any  reason  for  divorce  under  the  divine  law,  but 
that  the  sovereign  legislator  must  decide,  on  grounds 
of  human  law,  whether  such  sufficient  reason  exists  in 
any  given  case.  Because  of  his  work  Bpfenso?-  pads, 
Marsilius  was  placed  under  the  ban  in  1327.  His  death 
is  generally  assigned  to  1328,  but  Louis  IV  speaks  of 
him  as  living,  in  a  letter  addressed  to  pope  Benedict,  in 
133(5,  and  tlicre  is  no  reason  to  doubt  the  genuineness 
of  his  work  on  marriage,  which  appeared  in  1342.  He 
must  therefore  have  lived  until  after  that  date.  In  his 
life  he  ajtpears  as  one  of  the  most  determined  opposers 
of  the  unhmited  pretensions  of  the  papacy ;  and  in  his 
views  of  the  headsliip  of  the  Church  as  centring  in 
Christ,  and  of  the  Scriptures  jis  furnishing  the  sole  rule 
of  faith  and  practice  for  the  Church,  we  recognise  him 
as  a  forerunner  of  the  Keformation.  His  works  were 
published  in  Goldast's  Momirchia  s.  Bom.  imp.  (Frankf. 
1668).     See  Schrockh,  Kirchengesch.  xxxi,  79  sq. ;  Ne- 


ander,  Christian  Dogm.  ii,  599  sq. ;  Milman,  Hist,  of  Latin 
Christianity,  vii,  89  sq. ;  Herzog,  Real-Enajklop.  xx,  109 
sq. ;  Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirc/ten-Lex.  vi,  896  sq. ;  Fried- 
berg,  Zeitsch.f.  Kirchenrecht  (Tubing.  1809),  viii,  09  sq. 
(G.M.) 

Mart  (~nO,  sackar',  Isa.  xxiii,  3 ;  also  spoken  of 
what  is  gained  from  traffic,  j*?-q^^,  wealth,  "merchan- 
dise," Prov.  iii,  14;  Isa.  xlv,  14),  a  trading-place  or  em- 
porium. The  root  signifies  to  travel  about  as  traders, 
buying  and  selling;  thus  pointing  out  at  once  the  gen- 
eral character  of  the  commerce  of  the  East  from  the 
earliest  age  to  the  present.  See  Cojuierce;  Mar- 
ket ;  Merchant. 

Marteilhe,  Jean,  a  French  martyr  to  the  Protes- 
tant cause,  was  born  at  Bergerac  in  1084,  and  was  con- 
demned in  1702  to  the  galleys  at  Dunkirk,  where  he 
spent  seven  years.  He  died  in  1777.  See  The  Hu- 
guenot G alley-Slave  (New  York,  18G7) ;  Quarterly  Review 
(July),  1866. 

Martel,  Andre,  a  Swiss  Protestant  theologian,  was 
born  at  Montauban  m  1018;  studied  theology  at  Sau- 
mur,  and  was  appointed  pastor  of  Saint-Alfrique.  In 
1647  he  was  called  to  IMontauban  to  fill  the  same  office. 
In  1653  he  became  professor  of  theology  in  the  Reformed 
academy  of  that  town;  he  was  rector  there  in  166(»,when 
he  was  transferred  to  Puylaurens.  Although  very  re- 
served in  all  that  could  Avound  the  pretensions  of  the 
Catholic  clergy,  he  was  nevertheless  involved  in  a  suit 
instituted  against  the  pastors  of  Puylaurens,  who  were 
accused  of  having  received  into  the  Church  those  who, 
once  converted  to  Romanism,  had  relapsed  into  Protes- 
tantism, contrary  to  the  royal  prescriptions  of  April, 
1663,  of  June,  1605,  and  of  April,  1006.  He  was  con- 
ducted with  them  to  the  prisons  of  Toulouse.  The  at- 
tention of  the  government  was  particularly  directed  to 
him ;  it  was  hoped  that  if  they  succeeded  in  extracting 
from  him  an  abjuration,  liis  example  woidd  draw  a  great 
number  of  his  fellow-reformers,  and  would  serve  as  aii 
excuse  to  those  who  only  asked  a  pretext  for  passing 
over  to  Romanism.  His  moderation,  moreover,  induced 
them  to  believe  in  the  possibility  of  success.  Conse- 
quently they  endeavored  to  move  him  sometimes  by 
menaces,  sometimes  by  promises.  All  was  useless,  and 
they  finally  liberated  him.  After  the  revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes,  the  ministers  of  Montauban  and  of  the 
neighboring  churches  retired  to  HoUand.  Martel  pre- 
ferred Switzerland,  and  withdrew  to  the  canton  of  Berne, 
where  he  very  soon  obtained  the  direction  of  one  of  the 
principal  churches.  He  died  at  Berne  towards  the  close 
of  the  17th  century',  about  seventy  years  of  age.  Of 
Jlartel's  productions,  we  have  Eesjionse  a  la  metkode  de 
M.  le  cardinal  de  Richelieu  (Rouen,  1674,  4to).  This  re- 
ply, said  Cathala-Couture,  indicates  in  the  author  a  pro- 
found knowledge,  and,  above  all,  a  tone  of  moderation 
and  propriety  far  removed  from  the  bitterness  and  fanat- 
icism which  prevail  ordinarily  in  the  greater  part  of 
controversial  works: — De  Natura  Fidei  el  de  Gratia  ef- 
Jicaci  (^Montauban,  1653,  4to)  :  —  inaugural  thesis  —  a 
number  of  theses  which  he  delivered,  during  his  presi- 
dency, to  the  scholars  of  the  academy  of  Montauban, 
from  1656  to  1674  : — a  collection  of  sermons  that  Catha- 
la-Couture attributes  to  him,  without,  however,  givuig 
their  titles  in  detail.  See  Cathala-Couture,  Hist,  du 
Qiierci,  vol.  iii ;  Haag,  La  France  Protest. ;  Bayle,  Xou- 
velles  Lettres  (La  Haye,  1739),  p.  314, 315 ;  Iloefer,  Xouv. 
Biog.  Genercde,  vol.  xxxiii,  s.  v. 

Martene,  Edmund,  a  learned  French  Benedictine, 
was  born  at  St.  Jean  de  Losne,  in  the  diocese  of  Dijon, 
Dec.  22, 1 654.  After  completing  his  studies,  he  took  the 
vows  in  the  Benedictine  convent  of  St.  Rcmi,  at  Rheims, 
Sept.  8,  1672.  He  soon  distinguished  himself  by  his 
thorough  acquaintance  with  tlie  ancient  ascetic  writers, 
and  was  sent  by  the  superiors  of  the  Congregation  of 
St.lMaur,  upon  whom  his  convent  depended,  to  the  head- 
quarters of  the  order,  St.  Germain  des  Pres,  at  Paris. 
Here  he  was  placed  under  the  guidance,  and  enjoyed 


MARTHA 


819 


MARTIANAY 


the  friendship  of  the  great  lights  D'Achery  and  Ma- 
billon.  He  soon  afterwards  published  his  Commentarius 
ill  rerjulam  S.  P.  Benedicti  (Paris,  1G90,  4to),  which  met 
with  great  success.  He  was  well  versed  in  monastic 
archaeology,  and,  encouraged  by  Mabillon,  published  next 
De  Antiquis  nwnachorum  riiihus  libri  quinque  (Lugd. 
1(>90,  2  vols.  4to).  He  was  then  sent  to  the  convent  of 
Marmoutier,  where  he  remained  several  years,  continu- 
ing his  studies,  and  imbibing  the  strong  ascetic  views 
of  Claudius  Martin,  whose  biography  he  wrote  upon  the 
death  of  Martin.  His  exaggerated  praise  of  this  mys- 
tic ascetist  seemed  to  his  superiors  more  likely  to  pro- 
voke ridicule  than  admiration  in  the  age  of  Louis  XIV, 
and  it^ublication  was  forbidden.  The  Vie  du  venera- 
ble P.  Dom  Claude  Martin,  etc.,  was  nevertheless  pub- 
lished either  with  or  without  the  author's  consent  (Tours, 
1697, 8vo).  He  was  exiled  to  Evreux  for  his  insubor- 
ilination.  He  was,  however,  soon  transferred  to  the  con- 
vent of  St.  Ouen,  at  Rouen,  and  there  assisted  Dom  de 
Sainte  Martlie  in  his  edition  of  the  work  of  Gregory  the 
Great.  Here  he  republished  the  life  of  Martin,  and 
added  Maxinies  spirituelles  du  venerable  P.  D.  Claude 
Martin  (Eouen,  1(598, 12mo).  His  next  work,  to  which 
the  above  De  antiquis  monuchorum,  etc.,  was  but  a  pref- 
ace, is  De  antiquis  ecclesice  ritibus  (Kotomagi,  1700  sq., 
3  vols.  4to),  and  as  appendix  the  Tractutus  de  anfiqua 
ecclesice  disciplina  in  celebrandis  officiis  (Ludg.  1700, 
4to).  In  1700  he  pubUshed  also,  as  a  complement  to 
D'Achery's  Spicileyium,  his  Veiermn  scrij)toruni  et  mon- 
uintntorum  ,  .  .  collectio  nova,  after  Avhich  he  devoted 
himself  especially  to  antiquarian  researches,  and  writ- 
ing commentaries  on  the  works  of  ancient  writers.  In 
1708  the  general  chapter  of  his  order  sent  him  on  a  jour- 
ney through  France,  to  visit  all  the  libraries,  and  to  col- 
lect documents  for  a  new  Gallia  Christiana.  Dom  Ur- 
sinus  Durand  (q.  v.)  was  given  him  as  colleague  in  1709, 
and  after  six  years  thus  employed  the  result  of  their  re- 
searches was  published  under  the  title  Thesaurus  novus 
Anecdotorum  (Paris,  1717,  5  vols,  fol.),  and  Voyage  lit- 
teraire  de  deux  relir/ieux  Benedictine,  etc.  (Paris,  1717, 
4to).  In  the  same  year  he  was  allowed  by  chancellor 
D'Aguesseau  to  compile  a  new  collection  of  the  works 
of  French  historical  writers,  more  complete  than  that  of 
Andrew  Duchesne,  but  was  prevented  from  carrying  out 
his  plan  by  political  events.  He  was  now  sent  again, 
with  his  former  colleague,  on  a  literary  journey,  from 
which  they  returned  in  1724.  The  result  of  it  was  the 
Veteru7n  scriptorum  et  monumentorum  .  .  .  amplissima 
collectio  (Paris,  1724-33,  9  vols.  fol.).  In  1734  he  fell  into 
disgrace  in  consequence  of  his  opposition  to  the  bull 
Unifjenitus,  thereafter  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  his 
studies,  and  in  1738  published  a  much  enlarged  edition 
of  his  archiijological  works.  He  also  continued  Mabil- 
lon's  Annaks  ordinis  S.  Benedicti,  tom.  vi,ab  anno  Chris- 
ti  1117  ad  1157  (Paris,  1739),  and  prepared  a  continua- 
tion of  the  Acta  Sanctorum  ordinis  S.  Benedicti,  and  an 
edition  of  the  life  and  works  of  Thomas  of  Canterbury. 
He  also  asked  permission  to  publish  a  Ilistoire  de  la  Con- 
gregcttion  de  S.Maur,  but  was  refused  on  account  of  its 
too  enthusiastic  praise  of  the  monastic  life.  He  died 
June  20, 1739.  See  Tassin,  Hist.  Litt.  de  la  Congr.  de  S. 
Maur;  'Mortin,  Diet.  Ilistor. ;  Mercure  de  France,  Axi- 
gust,  1739;  Le  Pour  et  le  Contre,  vol.  xii,  n.  249;  Chris- 
tian Observer,  vol.  xviii ;  Dowling,  Introd.  to  Ch.  Hist. ; 
Herzog,  Real-Encykiop.  ix,  1 1 9 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Ge- 
nerale,  xxxiii,  1003 ;  Piercr,  Universal-Lexikon,  x,  92G. 
(J.N.  P.) 

Mar'tha  {Map^u,  of  unknown  signification,  but  a 
Syriac  prop,  name  [xn"i^]  according  to  Plutarch,  17/. 
Mar.  17),  a  Jewess,  the  sister  of  Lazarus  and  INIary,  who 
resided  in  the  same  house  with  them  at  Bethany  (Luke 
x,  38,  40,  41;  John  xi,  1-39;  xii,  2).  See  Lazarus. 
From  the  house  at  Bethany  being  called  "  her  house," 
in  Luke  x,  38,  and  from  the  leading  part  which  Martha 
is  always  seen  to  take  in  domestic  matters,  it  has  seemed 
to  some  that  she  was  a  widow,  to  whom  tlio  house  at 
Bethany  belonged,  and  with  whom  her  brother  and  sis- 


ter lodged ;  but  this  is  uncertain,  and  the  common  opin- 
ion that  the  sisters  managed  the  household  of  their 
brother  is  more  probable.  Jesus  was  intimate  with  this 
family,  and  their  house  was  often  his  home  when  at  Je- 
rusalem, being  accustomed  to  retire  thither  in  the  even- 
ing, after  having  spent  the  day  in  the  city.  The  point 
which  the  evangelists  bring  out  most  distinctly  with 
respect  to  Martha  hes  in  the  contrariety  of  disposition 
between  her  and  her  sister  Mary.  The  first  notice  of 
Christ's  visiting  this  family  occurs  in  Luke  x,  38-42. 
He  was  received  with  great  attention  by  the  sisters,  and 
Martha  soon  hastened  to  provide  suitable  entertainment 
for  the  Lord  and  his  followers,  while  IMary  remained  in 
his  presence,  sitting  at  his  feet,  and  drinking  in  the  sa- 
cred words  that  fell  from  his  lips.  The  active,  bustling 
solicitude  of  Jlartha,  anxious  that  the  best  thuigs  in 
the  house  should  be  made  subservient  to  the  Master's 
use  and  solace,  and  the  quiet  earnestness  of  Mary,  more 
desirous  to  profit  by  the  golden  opportunity  of  hearing 
his  instructions  than  to  minister  to  his  personal  wants, 
strongh'^  mark  the  points  of  contrast  in  the  characters 
of  the  two  sisters.  (See  bishop  Hall's  observations  on 
this  subject  in  his  Contemplations,  iii,  4,  Nos.  17,  23,  24.) 
She  needs  the  reproof,  "  One  thing  is  needful ;"  but  her 
love,  though  imperfect  in  its  form,  is  yet  recognised  as 
true,  and  she  too,  no  less  than  Lazarus  and  Mary,  has 
the  distinction  of  being  one  whom  Jesus  loved  (John  xi, 
3).  The  part  taken  by  the  sisters  in  the  transactions 
connected  with  the  death  and  resurrection  of  Lazarus 
(John  xi,  20-40)  is  entirely  and  beautifully  in  accord- 
ance with  their  previous  history  (see  Tholuck,  Comment. 
ad  loc).  The  facts  recorded  of  her  indicate  a  character 
devout  after  the  customary  Jewish  type  of  devotion, 
sharing  in  Messianic  hopes  and  accepting  Jesus  as  the 
Christ;  sharing  also  in  the  popular  belief  in  a  resurrec- 
tion, but  not  rising,  as  her  sister  did,  to  the  belief  that 
Christ  was  making  the  eternal  life  to  belong,  not  to  the 
future  onh^  but  to  the  present.  Xothing  more  is  re- 
corded of  Martha  save  that  some  time  after,  at  a  supper 
given  to  Christ  and  his  disciples  at  Bethany,  she,  as 
usual,  busied  herself  in  the  external  service.  Lazarus, 
so  marvellously  restored  from  the  grave,  sat  with  her 
guests  at  table.  ''Martha  served,"  and  Mary  occupied 
her  favorite  station  at  the  feet  of  Jesus,  which  she 
bathed  with  her  tears,  and  anointed  with  costly  oint- 
ment (John  xii,  1,  2).  See  Mary.  Notwithstanding 
the  seeming  drawbacks  upon  Martha's  character,  so  viv- 
idly painted  in  the  Gospels,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  her 
genuine  piety  and  love  for  the  Saviour.  A.D.  29.  See 
Niemeyer,  Charakt.  i,  66 ;  and  Schulthess,  A'eueste  iheol. 
Nachricht.  1828,  ii,  413.  According  to  tradition,  she 
went  with  her  brother  and  other  disciples  to  Marseilles, 
gathered  roiuul  her  a  society  of  devout  women,  and, 
true  to  her  former  character,  led  them  to  a  life  of  active 
ministration.  The  wilder  Provencal  legends  make  her 
victorious  over  a  dragon  that  laid  waste  the  country. 
The  town  of  Tarascon  boasted  of  possessing  her  remains, 
and  claimed  her  as  its  patron  saint  {Acta  Sanctorum, 
and  Brer.  Horn,  in  Jul.  29;  Fabricii  Lux' Evangel,  p. 
388). 

Martha,  Order  of,  is  the  name  sometimes  given 
to  the  organization  of  the  Hospital  Sisters  of  St.  ^Martha 
of  Pontarlier,  etc.  The  aim  of  this  female  order  is  the 
care  of  the  sick  and  the  poor,  and  the  gratuitous  in- 
struction of  poor  children.     See  Hospital  Sisters. 

Martlie,  Anne  Briget,  a  French  nun,  called  Sister 
Martha,  born  at  Besanpon  in  1749,  deserves  a  place  here 
for  her  devotion  during  the  French  Kevolution  and  the 
wars  that  followed  to  the  relief  of  the  sick  and  wounded, 
and  of  prisoners  of  all  nations.  She  died  in  1824.  The 
Martha.  Order  (({.  v.)  is  named  after  her. 

Martianay,  Jeax,  a  learned  Benedictine  of  St. 
Maur,  was  born  at  St.  Sever  Cap,  in  the  diocese  of  Aire, 
Dec.  30, 1647.  In  1667  he  entered  the  convent  of  La 
Daurade,  at  Toulouse.  He  now  aiiplicd  himself  with 
great  zeal  to  the  study  of  Oriental  languages  and  Bibli- 
cal literature,  both  of  which  he  afterwards  taught  in 


MARTIEN 


820 


MARTIN 


colleges  of  his  order.  Daring  his  residence  at  Bor- 
deaux he  wrote  a  work  against  the  clironological  sys- 
tem of  Pezron,  which  attracted  the  notice  of  his  supe- 
riors. He  was  called  to  the  head-quarters  of  his  order, 
the  abbey  of  St.  Germain  des  Pres,  and  intrusted  with 
tlie  preparation  of  a  new  edition  of  the  works  of  St.  Je- 
mme.  In  1G90  he  published  his  jwodrormis  of  this  work, 
in  which  he  demonstrated  the  incorrectness  of  preceding 
editions.  His  edition  was  violently  attacked  by  Simon 
and  Leclerc,  but  Martianay  as  vigorously  defended  it. 
This  controversy  lasted  a  long  time,  yet  did  not  prevent 
him  from  publishing  a  large  number  of  works,  more  re- 
markable ibr  their  learning  and  ingenuity  than  for  large- 
ness of  thought  or  critical  acumen.  He  died  Jmie  16, 
1717.  Among  his  works  we  notice  the  above-mentioned 
edition  of  the  works  of  St.  Jerome  (Paris,  1693-1706,  5 
vols,  fol.) : — Defense  du  texte  Hehreu  et  de  la  clu-onologie 
de  la  Vulgate  (Par.  1689)  : — Continuation  de  la  Defense  du 
texte,  etc.  (Par.  1693).  In  both  these  works  he  endeavors 
to  prove  that  the  Heljrew  text  is  to  be  preferred  to  the 
Septuagint,  and  that  less  than  4000  years  elapsed  from 
the  creation  of  the  world  to  the  advent  of  Christ : — 
Traites  de  la  connaissance  et  de  la  verite  de  VEcriture 
Sainte  (Paris,  169-1-95,  4  vols.)  : — Traiie  melhodique,  ou 
maniere  d'expliquer  VEcriture  par  le  secouis  des  trois 
syntaxes,  la  projjre,  la  Jiguree,  et  Vharmonique  (1704)  : — 
Vie  de  St.  Jerome  (1706)  : — Harmonie  anahjtique  de  plu- 
sieurs  sens  caches  et  rapports  inconnus  de  VAncien  et  du 
Nouveau  Testament  (1708) : — Essais  de  Traduction  ou 
Remarques  sur  les  traductions  Frangaises  du  Nouveau 
Testament  (1709): — Le  Nouveau  Testament  traduit  en 
Fran^ais  sur  la  Vulgate  (1712) : — Methode  sacree,  pour 
apprendre  a  expUquer  VEcriture  sainte  par  VEcriture 
ineme  (1716);  etc.  See  Journal  des  Savants,  Aug.  9, 
1717  ;  Hist.  Litt.  de  la  Congreg.  de  St.  Maur,  p.  382-397; 
Herzog,  Real-Encyklopddie,  ix,  120 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog. 
Generate,  xxxiv,  2.      (.J.  N.  P.) 

Martien,  William  Stockton,  a  ruling  elder  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church,  was  born  June  20, 1798.  He 
was  of  Huguenot  descent,  and  received  an  early  Chris- 
tian education.  In  1828  he  commenced  business,  and 
in  1830,  in  connection  with  others,  engaged  in  the  es- 
tablishment of  The  Presbyterian,  of  which  he  continued 
to  be  the  chief  proprietor  and  publisher  until  1861.  In 
1833  he  commenced  the  publication  of  religious  books, 
and,  as  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Publication  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church,  he  issued  many  works  of  standard 
religious  character.  In  1.S46  he  was  elected  and  ordained 
ruling  elder,  in  which  office  he  continued  to  labor  in  the 
Sabbath  and  mission  schools  belonging  to  the  congrega- 
tion until  his  death,  April  16, 1861.  Mr.  Martien  was  a 
man  of  great  enterprise  and  efficiency  in  the  Church — 
faithful  and  conscientious  in  the  discharge  of  every 
trust,  wise  in  counsels,  and  eminently  gifted  in  manage- 
ment. See  Wilson,  Fresh.  Hist.  Almanac,  1862,  p.  142. 
(J.  L.  S.) 

Martin  (.S'^)  of  Bkaga,  a  prelate  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  was  born  in  Pannonia  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  6th  century.  In  his  youth  he  visited 
the  holy  places  of  Palestine.  He  afterwards  went  to 
Galicia,  in  Spain,  where  he  did  much  to  preserve  or- 
thodoxy among  the  population,  which  inclined  strongly 
to  Arianism.  He  established  several  convents  there, 
and  was  himself  abbot  of  Dumia  until  about  560.  At 
that  time  he  was  made  archliishop  of  I5racara,  now 
Br.aga.  in  Portugal.  As  such  he  took  part  in  the  second 
Council  of  Bracara,  in  563,  against  the  Priscillianists  and 
Arians.  and  in  572  presided  over  the  third  council  at  the 
same  place  on  Church  discipline.  He  died  about  583. 
He  was  a  very  voluminous  writer.  Among  his  ^vorks 
we  notice  Formula  honesttt  vita  s.  de  diff'erentii^  quatuor 
rirtutuM  (in  the  JJibl.  Patr.  Lugd.  x,  382  sq.,  and  (ial- 
landi  BiU.  Patr.  xii,  273  sq.).'  This  work  fras  very  well 
received.  The  Sententim  ^Egyptiorum  patrum  were  not 
translated  from  Greek  into  Latin  bj-  Martin,  as  some 
have  supposed,  but  by  Paschasius,  deacon  of  the  convent 
of  Dumia,  at  Martin's  instigation  (Rosweyd,  ]'it.  Patr. 


[Antv.  1615],  p.  1002  sq. ;  see  also  Grasse,  Handbuch  d. 
allg.  Literaturgesch.  ii,  127).  Some  Latin  poems  of  Mar- 
tin are  to  be  found  in  Sismondi,  (9/)/;.  [ed.Ven.],  ii,  653, 
and  in  Gallandi  Bibl.  Patr.).  But  more  important  than 
all  these  is  his  Collectio  Oiientalium  Canonum,  s.  Capit- 
ula  Ixxxiv  collecta  ex  Greeds  synodis  et  versa,  etc.  (in 
Aguirre,  Cone.  Hisp.  ii,  327  sq.,  and  Mansi,  ix,  846  sq. ; 
see  Florez,  Esp.  Sagr.  iv,  151  sq.).  It  is  a  sort  of  trans- 
lated compilation  of,  with  commentaries  on,  the  acts  of 
the  Greek  councils,  adapted  for  the  use  of  the  Western 
Church.  It  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  first  contain- 
ing the  canons  concerning  the  clerg}'^,  the  second  those 
applying  to  the  laity.  See  D.  Czvittingeri  Specimen 
Hungarice  literatce  (Francf.  and  Lip.  1711) ;  Schrockh, 
Kirchengesch.  xvii,  392  sq. ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyklop.  ix, 
122.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Martin  of  Dunin,  a  noted  Polish  Roman  Catholic 
prelate,  was  born  in  the  village  of  Wal,  near  Rawa, 
Prussian  Poland,  Nov.  11, 1774.  Until  his  twelfth  year 
he  was  kept  at  the  Jesuit  school  of  Rawa ;  was  then  en- 
tered a  student  at  the  Gymnasium  of  Bromberg ;  but, 
having  determined  to  devote  his  life  to  the  Church  and 
her  cause,  he  was  sent  to  Rome,  and  became  a  student 
in  the  Collegium  Germanicum  in  1793.  Upon  the  com- 
pletion of  his  studies,  three  years  after,  he  was  ordained 
subdeacon ;  later,  by  papal  dispensation,  successively  dea- 
con and  priest,  when  he  returned  to  his  native  country, 
which  had  in  the  meantime  lost  its  independence,  and 
fallen  a  prey  to  the  Russians,  Austrians,  and  Prussians. 
Martin  himself  was  now  a  Prussian  subject,  but  he  took 
a  position  in  the  diocese  of  Cracowa,  and  was  thus  in 
the  employ  of  that  portion  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  of  Poland  under  control  of  the  Austrian  govern- 
ment. In  1808  the  archbishop  of  Gnesen,  count  Rac- 
zynski,  called  him  to  Gnesen,  and  conferred  upon  Mar- 
tin first  a  canonicate  in  the  metropolitan  church,  and 
shortly  after  made  him  auditor.  Thereafter  honors  came 
fast  and  freely.  In  1815  he  was  made  chancellor  of  the 
metropolitan  chapter;  in  1824  master  of  the  Cathedral 
of  Posen,  and  shortly  after  was  intrusted  by  the  Prus- 
sian government  with  the  supervision  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  schools  in  the  diocese.  In  1829  he  was  pro- 
moted to  the  position  of  capitular  vicar  and  general-ad- 
ministrator, and  in  1831  was  honored  with  the  archie- 
piscopal  chair  of  (inesen  and  Posen.  This  position  came 
to  him  in  an  hour  when  great  discretion  and  strong 
nerve  were  required  of  Romish  prelates  on  Prussian  ter- 
ritory. The  discontent  of  the  Poles  in  1830,  and  the  re- 
bellion in  which  it  resulted,  caused  the  government  of 
Frederick  William  HI  to  look  with  suspicion  upon  the 
priesthooil  of  the  papal  Church.  It  was  a  notorious 
fact  that  the  latter  was  leagued  with  the  revolutionists. 
Poland  had  ever  been  a  devoted  daughter  of  Rome; 
Prussia  decidedly  Protestant,  the  most  daring  opponent 
of  papal  interests.  Could  it  be  expected  that  the  Ro- 
man Catholics  would  hesitate  to  work  for  the  restoration 
of  Polish  independence?  Has  not  even  in  our  day  the 
Prussian  goverinnent  all  it  can  do  to  control  the  priest- 
hood in  that  section  of  her  territory  ?  See  Posen.  To 
prevent  the  further  spread  of  revolutionary  tendencies 
among  the  priesthood,  the  Prussian  government  inau- 
gurated a  new  policy,  the  execution  of  which  resulted 
in  a  spirited  contest  between  the  representative  of  Rome, 
our  Martin  of  Dunin.  and  the  secular  authority  of  the 
province  of  Posen.  The  difficulties  commenced  at  the 
seat  of  the  metropolitan.  A  school  for  the  education  of 
Romish  priests  ^vas  sustained  at  this  place  by  the  gov- 
ernment. Hitherto  the  instructors  had  been  chosen  by 
the  Church  for  whose  service  it  was  intended,  but  now 
the  government  insisted  upon  its  right  to  choose  the  in- 
cumbents of  the.  ])rofessorships.  The  archbishop  pro- 
tested, but  the  government  proceeded  without  any  re- 
gard to  his  opj5osition.  Fresh  fuel  was  added  to  the 
fiame  in  1837.  By  the  bull  Magnce  nobis  admirationis, 
issued  by  pope  Benedict  XIA"  (June  27,  1748),  mixed 
marriages  were  made  possible  only  by  special  dispensa- 
tion from  the  pope,  and,  when  permission  was  grant- 


MARTIN 


821 


MARTIN 


ed,  the  cliildren  of  such  unions  were  demanded  for 
the  Church  of  Kome.  Poland  had  conceded  this  point 
to  tlie  Itoman  pontiff',  but  tlie  Prussian  government  in 
1837  declared  that  in  its  territorj^  no  such  dispensation 
was  needed,  nor  any  understanding  in  regard  to  the  re- 
ligious education  of  any  children  from  such  a  union. 
This  action  on  the  part  of  the  government  the  arch- 
bishop held  to  be  illegal,  and  he  stoutly  asserted  his 
right  to  dissent  from  the  decision  of  all  secular  author- 
ity. Had  he  rested  here,  and  awaited  the  settlement  of 
thi.^  difficulty  between  the  pope  of  Rome  and  the  king 
of  Prussia,  all  would  have  been  well.  IMartin,  however, 
proceeded  at  once  to  inaugurate  measures  which  clearly 
revealed  him  as  a  plotter  against  the  government  he  had 
sworn  to  uphold.  He  secretly  entered  into  communica- 
tion with  the  clergy  of  his  dioceses,  and  threatened  with 
excommunication  any  and  all  priests  who  should  obey 
the  mandates  of  the  government  without  his  consent. 
Prompt!}'  the  government,  after  hearing  of  this  pro- 
cedure, arrested  the  archbishop,  and  brought  him  to 
trial,  and  he  was  condemned  to  six  months'  confinement 
in  a  fortress,  incapacitated  for  office,  and  burdened  with 
the  expense  of  his  trial.  Previous  to  his  arrest  the  gov- 
ernment had  addressed  the  Koman  Catholics  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Posen,  and  had  assured  them  of  the  preservation 
of  their  rights  and  privileges  as  heretofore,  but,  notwith- 
standing all  these  precautions,  the  priesthood  remained 
firmly  bound  to  the  interests  of  their  religious  shepherd, 
and  no  sooner  had  IMartin  of  Dunin  been  condenmed 
and  imprisoned  at  the  fortress  of  Colberg  (Oct.  4, 1839), 
than  the  Romanists  of  the  two  archiepiscopal  sees  went 
into  mourning.  Fortunately  this  difficulty  occurred  near 
the  closing  days  of  the  reign  of  Frederick  William  HI. 
The  wife  (now  queen  widow)  of  Frederick  William  IV 
(who  came  to  the  throne  in  1840),  herself  a  lioman 
Catholic,  was  no  doubt  instrumental  in  securing  an  un- 
derstanding bet\veen  the  archbishop  and  her  royal  spouse. 
Martin  returned  to  Posen  Aug.  5, 18-iO,  and  died  Dec.  26, 
1842.  See  Pohl,  Martin  von  Dunin  (IMarienburg,  1843, 
8vo) ;  Aschbach,  Kirchen-Lexikon,  s.  v.  See  also  Prus- 
sia.    (J.  H.  W.) 

Martin  {St.)  of  Tours,  a  prelate  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  was  born  in  Pannonia  about  the  year 
316.  He  was  educated  at  Pavia,  and,  at  the  desire  of 
his  father,  who  was  a  military  man,  entered  the  army 
under  Constantine  I,  who  was  then  emperor.  When 
eighteen  years  old  he  became  a  convert  to  Christianity, 
was  baptized,  and  a  fc^v  years  aftenvards  went  to  Gaul, 
and  there  became  a  pupil  and  follower  of  St.  Hilarius 
(({.v.)  Pictaviensis.  He  quitted  the  army,  and  zealous- 
ly devoted  himself  to  the  interests  of  orthodox  Chris- 
tianity. On  a  visit  to  Lombardy,  wishing  to  see  his 
parents  again,  who  were  Arians,  Martin  reproved  the 
inliabitants  for  their  views.  They  took  his  liberty  un- 
kindly; he  was  imprisoned  and  flogged  by  order  of  the 
magistrates  of  Milan.  He  then  retired  to  a  neighbor- 
ing village  with  a  few  adherents,  but  being  again  perse- 
cuted by  Auxentius,  the  Arian  bishop  of  Milan,  he  at- 
tempted to  return  to  Gaul.  That  country,  however,  was 
also  a  prey  to  religious  dissensions ;  Hilarius  himself 
had  been  banished  to  Poitiers,  and  IMartin  therefore  re- 
tired to  the  island  of  Gallinaria,  in  the  Tyrean  Sea. 
When  St.  Hilarius  was  restored  to  his  Church  in  3G0, 
Martin  hastened  back  to  him,  and  with  his  assent  re- 
tired to  the  wilds  in  the  neighborhood  of  Poitiers,  at 
the  place  now  called  Liguge.  Here  ho  was  soon  joined 
by  others,  and  thus  arose  the  convent  of  Liguge,  probably 
the  oldest  monastic  establishment  of  France.  About 
370,  Lidoire,  bishop  or  archbishop  of  Tours,  died,  and  the 
clergy  of  that  diocese  insisted  upon  Martin's  acceptance 
of  the  vacant  see.  He  was  finally  persuaded  to  accept 
the  oftice,  but  he  governed  the  diocese  like  a  convent, 
and  always  lived  himself  in  the  simple  way  to  which 
he  was  accustomed  at  Liguge.  He  erected  a  convent 
which  became  the  celebrated  monastery  of  Marmoutiers, 
near  Tours.  Under  his  active  and  vigilant  care  the 
diocese  attained  great  prosperity,  while  he  himself  be- 


came renowned  for  his  talents  and  his  virtues,  not  only 
in  the  neighboring  parts,  but  even  throughout  Gaul. 
When  Maximus,  after  the  murder  of  Gratian,  caused  all 
the  bishops  of  Gaul  who  had  supported  his  rival  to  be 
deposed  or  imprisoned,  Martin  was  sent  by  them  to  the 
court  at  Treves  to  protest  against  this  violence,  and  suc- 
ceeded so  well  that  the  emperor  released  all  the  prison- 
ers. On  another  occasion,  when  the  Spanish  bishops 
Idacius  and  Ithacius  besought  Maximus  to  surrender 
Priscillian  and  his  followers  to  the  civil  authorities,  to 
be  executed  as  heretics,  Martin  protested  against  such 
sanguinary  orthodoxy,  and  when,  notwithstanding  his 
protests,  Priscillian  was  executed  by  order  of  the  empe- 
ror, Martin  refused  to  hold  any  mtercourse  with  those 
who  had  advocated  that  measure.  This  conduct  dis- 
pleased the  emperor,  and  when  Martin,  some  time  after, 
had  occasion  to  ask  the  pardoning  of  Narces  and  Leoca- 
dius,  accused  of  rebellion,  he  granted  it  only  on  the  con- 
dition that  Martin  would  become  reconciled  with  Itha- 
cius. Martin  submitted,  but  left  Treves  at  once,  and  it 
is  said  expressed  himself  sorry  for  having  purchased  the 
pardon  of  Narces  and  Leocadius  at  that  price.  He  died 
at  Candes  about  396.  His  Ufe  by  his  contemporary, 
Sulpicius  Severus,  is  a  very  curious  specimen  of  the 
Christian  literature  of  the  age,  and,  in  the  profusion  of 
miraculous  legends  with  which  it  abounds,  might  take 
its  place  among  the  lives  of  the  medieval  or  modern 
Roman  Church.  The  only  extant  literary  relic  of  ilar- 
tin  is  a  short  Confession  of  Faith  on  the  Holy  Trinity, 
which  is  published  by  GaUand,  Eihl.  Pair,  vii,  559.  He 
is  the  first  who,  without  suffering  death  for  the  truth, 
has  been  honored  in  the  Latin  Church  as  a  confessor  of 
the  faith.  The  festival  of  his  birth  is  celebrated  on  the 
11th  of  November.  In  Scotland  this  day  still  marks  the 
winter-term,  which  is  called  Martinmas  (q.v.).  In  Ger- 
many, also,  his  memory  continues  to  our  day  among 
the  popidace  in  the  celebration  of  the  Martinaiia.  See 
Gregorius  Turon,  Hist.  Francor.  lib.  x ;  Gervaise,  Vie  de 
Saint  Martin  (1699) ;  Dupuy,  Histoire  de  Saint  Martin 
(1852)  ;  Jean  Maan,  Metropol.  Turonensis ;  Hist.  Litf.  de 
la  France,  i,  417 ;  Gallia  Christ,  vol.  xiv,  col.  6  ;  SchafF, 
Ch.  Hist,  ii,  203  sq. ;  Gieseler,  Eccles.  Hist,  i,  278 ;  Mon- 
talembert.  Monks  of  the  West,  vol.  i,  bk.  iii ;  Mrs.  Jame- 
son, Sacred  and  Legendary  Art,  p.  720;  Hoefer,  Noiti-. 
Biog.  Generale,  xxxiv,  14;  Herzog,  Jieal-Fncyklop.  ix, 
126  sq.     (J.H.W.) 

Martin  of  Tkkves,  a  Capuchin  monk,  was  born 
about  1630,  in  the  archbishopric  of  Treves.  He  took 
the  cowl  at  an  early  age,  and  a  little  later  became  a  lec- 
tor of  theology  ;  but  in  consequence  of  a  pestilence, 
whose  ravages  broke  up  his  school  in  1666,  he  devoted 
himself  to  literature.  A  catechism  issued  by  him  was 
received  with  great  favor  by  the  public,  and  this  suc- 
cess led  to  the  publication  of  a  great  number  of  works 
for  instruction  and  edification  ;  but,  zealous  for  the  glory 
of  God  and  the  honor  of  his  Church,  he  did  not  confine 
his  efforts  to  this  field.  He  was  indefatigable  in  preach- 
ing, in  catechizing,  and  in  missionaiy  work,  and  during 
the  course  of  his  labors  traversed  nearlj-  the  whole  of 
the  archbishoprics  of  Mayence  and  Treves.  His  benevo- 
lent spirit  found  expression  in  the  readiness  with  which 
he  ministered  to  the  diversified  wants  of  the  people, 
among  whom  the  instruction  of  the  xmlearned  and  of 
children  claimed  his  especial  notice.  He  is  even  cred- 
ited with  removing  thorns  and  stones  from  the  high- 
ways, and  with  placing  stepping-stones  in  streams  for 
the  convenience  f)f  travellers.  Withal,  he  was  a  thor- 
ough ascetic,  eating  neither  flesh  nor  fish,  and  travel- 
ling without  either  hat  or  sandals  in  the  most  inclement 
weather;  and  he  attended  mass  as  often  as  possible  each 
day  for  more  than  twenty  j-ears.  As  a  teacher,  he  was 
wont  to  lay  especial  stress  on  the  adoration  of  the  mass 
and  the  worship  of  the  Virgin,  which  doctrines  he  was 
often  compelled  to  defend  against  opponents.  He  or- 
ganized a  number  of  brotherhoods  in  the  provinces  of 
the  Rhine,  and  rebuilt  many  churches  that  had  been 
destroyed  iu  the  Thirty-years'  War.     He  died,  after  a 


MARTIN 


822 


MARTIN 


brief  illness,  Sept.  10, 1712.  His  works,  after  being  dis- 
regarded for  a  time,  are  again  offered  to  the  public; 
they  mostly  consist  of  contributions  to  practical  relig- 
ion. The  most  important  are  Christian  Dociiine  (Co- 
logne, 1G6G) : — History  of  the  Church  (1693) : — Exposi- 
tion of  the  Mass  (1G98)  :— Legends  of  Saints  (1705) : — 
An  Essay  on  the  Divine  Perfections  (Mayence,  1707): — 
Life  of  Christ  (Mayence  and  Augsburg,  1708).— Wetzer 
u.  Weite  (R.  C),  Kirchen-Lexikon,  xii,  771  sq.    (G.  M.) 

Martin  I,  Pope,  son  of  Fabricius,  a  distinguished 
citizen  of  the  Papal  States,  was  called  to  the  papal  chair 
July  5,  040,  as  successor  to  Theodore  I.  The  emperor 
Constans  II  made  every  exertion  to  induce  Martin  to 
approve  a  decree  he  had  promulgated  in  659,  forbidding 
discussions  between  the  orthodox  Romanists  and  the 
INIonothelites.  Martin,  on  the  contrary,  assembled  a 
council  at  Rome  (the  first  Lateran),  without  the  emper- 
or's consent,  in  Oct.,  649,  in  which  all  heresies,  and  partic- 
ularly that  of  the  jNIonothelites,  were  condemned,  and  the 
decrees  of  Heraclius  and  of  Constans  II  denounced.  (See 
for  details  the  article  Lateran  Councils  [1].)  The 
emperor,  enraged  at  this  opposition,  caused  Martin  to 
be  taken  prisoner,  June  19,  653,  and  exiled  him  to  the 
island  of  Naxos.  Oa  Sept.  17,  654,  the  pope  was  taken 
to  Constantinople,  and  kept  in  prison  there  for  six 
months.  But  he  bore  all  his  trials  with  great  firmness, 
refusing  to  be  reconciled  to  the  heretics,  and  was  finally 
transported  to  the  Thracian  Chersonesus.  There,  in  the 
midst  of  unfeeling  barbarians,  he  had  to  suffer  the  great- 
est deprivations.  Yet  he  bore  it  all  with  Christian  pa- 
tience, and  died  Sept.  16,  655.  His  body  was  after- 
wards removed  to  Rome.  He  is  commemorated  by  the 
Church  of  Rome  Nov.  12.  Eighteen  encyclical  letters 
attributed  to  Martin  are  published  in  the  Bihliotheca 
Patrum,  and  in  Labbe's  Concilia.  vSee  F.  Pagi,  Brevia- 
riuin,  etc.,  coinplectans  illustriora  Pontijicum  Romano- 
rum  gesta  concilioi-um,  etc. ;  Platina,  Vitce  Potif.  Roman. ; 
Artaud  de  IMontor,  Hist,  cles  sourerains  Pontifes  Ro- 
mnins,\'o\.\\  Bower, //tsf.Po/)fs,iii,  44  sq. ;  Riddle, //<V. 
Papacy,  i,  297 ;  Baur,  Dreieinigkeitslehre,  vol.  i  and  ii ; 
Hoefer,  Nour.  Biog.  Generale,  xxxiv,  18 ;  Neander,  Hist, 
of  the  Christian  Religion  and  Church,  iii,  186,  187,  188, 
191 ;  Hcrzog,  Real-EncyMopddie,  ix,  122.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Martin  II  (Marinus  I),  Pope,  was  born  at  Alonte- 
fiascone,  in  the  Papal  States.  He  was  thrice  sent  to 
Constantinople  (866,  868,  881)  as  papal  legate  to  oppose 
the  nomination  of  Photius  as  patriarch,  but  when  he 
■was  elected  pope,  Dec.  23,  882,  did  not  continue  in  the 
policy  of  his  predecessor,  John  YIII,  but  reversed  the 
condemnation  of  Photius,  of  bishop  Formosus  of  Porto, 
and  others.  His  reign  lasted  only  fourteen  months. 
He  died  Feb.  14,  884.  See  Fleury,  Hist.  Eccl.  iii,  542 ; 
F,  Pagi,  Breriarium  Pontijicum  Romanorum,  etc. ;  Mu- 
ratori,  A  nn.  Ital. ;  Artaud  de  Montor,  Hist,  des  souve- 
rains  Pontifes  Romains,  ii,  141;  Bower,  Hist.  Popes,  v, 
101  sq. ;  Riddle,  Hist. Papacy,  ii,  32 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog. 
Generale,  xxxiv,  18 ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyklopddie,  ix, 
124. 

Martin  III  (called  by  some  Marinus  II),  Pope,  a 
Roman  by  birtli,  succeotled  Stephen  YIII  in  942.  He 
died  only  four  years  after,  and  was  succeeded  by  Aga- 
petus  II.  Martin  III  was  a  patron  of  learning,  and  a 
noble  Christian  exemplar. 

Martin  IV  (Simon  de  ki  Brie),  Pope,  was  probably 
a  native  of  Touraine,  France,  and  of  humble  origin.  He 
was  educated  at  Tours,  and  there  entered  the  Franciscan 
order.  St.  Louis,  king  of  France,  favored  him.  and  gave 
him  a  position  at  the  church  of  St.  jNIarlin.  lu  1262  he 
was  created  cardinal  by  pope  Urban  lY,  and  by  pope 
Gregory  X  was  appointed  a])ostolical  legate  to  the 
French  court.  He  contiiuiod  in  tliis  ofHce" under  the 
popes  Hadrian  Y,  John  XXI-^andNicholas  III ;  but  upon 
the  decease  of  the  last  named  (Aug.  22. 1280)  he  was 
elected  successor  in  the  papiil  chair  in  1281,  tiirough  the 
influence  of  Charles  of  Anjou,  king  of  Sicily  and  Naples. 
The  "  Sicilian  Yespers"  (tj.  v.),  in  1282,  having  ejected 


Charles  of  Sicily,  Martin  came  to  the  support  of  his 
royal  friend  Avitli  all  his  influence,  and  even  by  the  spir- 
itual censures  he  had  at  his  command  sought  to  main- 
tain French  domination  in  Sicily.  He  excommunicated 
Peter  of  Aragon,  whom  the  Sicilians  had  elected  king ; 
but  his  excommunication  was  of  no  more  avail  than  the 
arms  of  the  Angevins,  for  the  Sicilians  stood  firm  against 
both.  Martin  also  excommunicated  the  Byzantine  em- 
peror Michael,  and  by  this  measure  widened  the  breach 
between  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches.  He  died  in 
1285,  and  was  succeeded  by  Honorius  lY.  It  is  to  the 
use  of  the  censures  of  the  Church  in  the  unpopidar  cause 
of  Charles  of  Anjou  that  many  Church  historians  ascribe 
the  decline  and  ultimate  extinction  of  the  authority  in 
temporals  which  the  papacy  had  hitherto  exercised. 
Not  only  did  he  lower  the  popular  esteem  of  the  papal 
authority,  but  he  made  himself  a  laughing-stock  b}^  his 
rashness  and  inability  to  make  good  his  threats.  Let- 
ters of  this  pope  are  found  in  D'Achery,  Spicileg.  iii,  684. 
His  biography  ( Vita)  was  written  by  Bernard,  Grindon, 
and  by  Muratori.  See  Muratori,  Annali  d'ltcdia,  vii, 
435-442 ;  Artaud  de  Montor,  Hist,  des  souverains  Pon- 
tifes Romains,  iii,  55-63;  Bower,  Hist.  Popes,  vi,  324; 
Hefele,  Concilienqesch.  vi,  188  sq. ;  Leo,  Gesch.  r.  Itulien, 
vol.  iv.     (J.  H.  AY.) 

Martin  V  {Otto  de  Colonna),  pope  from  1417  to 
1431,  was  the  son  of  Agapetus  de  Colonna,  and  a  de- 
scendant of  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  illustrious  fam- 
ilies of  Italy.  Martin  studied  canon  law  at  Perugia, 
and  on  his  return  to  his  native  city,  Rome,  was  created 
by  LTrban  YI  prothonotary  and  referendary;  liy  Boni- 
face IX  nuncio  to  the  States  of  Italy;  under  Innocent 
YII  he  received  the  appointment  of  cardinal  deacon  of 
St.  George  ad  Aulicum  Aureum ;  and  by  John  XXIII  he 
was  appointed  apostolic  legate  for  the  patrimony  of  St. 
Peter,  and  vicar-general  of  the  apostolic  sec  in  Umbria. 
When  (Jrogory  XII,  because  of  a  breach  of  his  oath  of 
office,  became  so  inipopular  as  to  be  deserted  by  his  car- 
dinals, Martin  alone  adhered  to  him  steadfastly  until  he 
was  deposed  by  the  Council  of  Pisa.  He  was  likewise 
a  faithfid  supporter  of  his  immediate  predecessor,  pope 
John,  and  even  followed  him  in  his  flight  from  Con- 
stance, thus  clearly  foretokening  the  imcompromising 
stand  which  he  afterwards  took  against  all  opposition 
to  what  he  conceived  to  be  the  papal  prerogative. 

The  general  discontent  with  the  abusive  reign  of  pope 
John  XXIII,  which  Gerson,  the  noted  chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Paris,  had  severely  attacked,  not  even 
hesitating  to  say  that  the  pontiff  ^vas  "  no  longer  ser- 
vant of  servants,  but  John,  the  lord  of  lords,"  as  well  as 
other  auspicious  events,  had  resulted  in  the  general 
Council  of  Constance  (q.  v.),  whose  moving  spirits  seemed 
determined  on  reform.  Their  two  great  objects  were 
the  restoration  of  the  Church's  unity,  and  the  reforma- 
tion of  the  abuses  which  had  crept  in.  One  of  their 
first  steps,  largely  influenced  by  tlie  emperor  Sigismund, 
was  to  depose  pope  John.  There  still  remained,  how- 
ever, two  rival  pontiffs,  Benedict  XIII  and  Gregory  XII, 
each  claiming  the  title  of  supreme  head  of  the  Church. 
The  latter  of  these  vras  induced  to  abdicate,  and  the  for- 
mer, being  without  any  temporal  support,  was  ignored 
by  the  council.  The  election  <if  a  pope  was  forthwith 
considered.  The  choice  fell  upon  cardinal  Otto  de  Co- 
lonna by  an  overwhelming  majority  of  the  electors  from 
the  five  nations  represented  in  the  council,  and  the 
unanimous  vote  of  the  cardinals.  Neander  {Ch.  Hist. 
V,  126)  thus  narrates  tlie  proceedings  for  the  election: 
"The  Germans  set  the  example  of  sacrificing  their  own 
wishes  and  interests  to  the  good  of  the  Cliurrh.  declar- 
ing themselves  ready  to  give  their  votes  for  an  Italian ; 
they  also  prevailed  on  the  English  to  yield.  The  French 
and"  Spaniards  fvere  refractory  at  first ;  but  finally,  after 
the  invocation  of  the  Holy  Ghost, -on  St,  Martin's  day, 
in  November,  they  were  prevailed  upoji  to  give  place 
for  the  Holy  Spirit  as  a  spirit  of  concord ;  and  on  the 
same  day  cardinal  Otto  of  Colonna  was  chosen  pope,  af- 
ter the  "election  had  lasted  three  days."     The  election 


MARTIN 


823 


MARTIN 


having  taken  place  on  St.  Martin's  day,  the  new  pope, 
in  honor  of  that  saint,  assumed  the  title  of  Martin  V. 
The  whole  assembly  was  in  an  ecstacy  of  joy  at  the  re- 
sult, especially  because  it  exhibited  the  unanimity  of 
hitherto  conflicting  parties.  Martin  was  immediately 
invested  with  the  papal  robes  and  placed  on  the  altar, 
where  the  emperor  hastened  to  do  him  homage  by  kiss- 
ing his  feet. 

But  scarcely  was  Martin  securely  seated  on  the  pon- 
tifical throne  when  the  whole  face  of  affairs  at  Con- 
stance changed,  and  it  soon  became  evident  that  all 
intentions  of  reform,  for  which  mainly  the  council  had 
been  called  and  John  XXIII  deposed,  had  been  put 
away  from  the  mind  of  Martin,  JNIild,  but  sagacious 
aaid  resolute,  "seeming  to  yield  everything  to  the  em- 
peror and  council,  he  conceded  nothing."  As  early  as 
April  following  his  election  (Nov.  11, 1417),  he  dissolved 
the  council,  which  had  struggled  through  three  years 
and  a  half  for  reform,  without  being  any  nearer  the  ac- 
complishment of  their  hopes  than  when  they  began, 
and  the  spirit  of  advance  which  had  inspired  the  up- 
rising of  Bohemia  and  the  organization  of  the  Lollards 
(q.  v.)  was  crushed  for  a  time,  to  rise  only  two  centu- 
ries thence  in  a  force  that  defied  all  opposition,  and  re- 
sulted in  a  schism  nearly  destroymg  the  mother  Church. 
So  far  from  aiding  a  reform,  Martin  V's  first  act  vras  one 
of  tyranuA'.  "  The  papal  chancery  had  been  the  object 
of  the  longest,  loudest,  and  most  just  clamor.  The  day 
after  the  election  the  pope  published  a  brief  confirming 
all  the  rcgidations  established  by  his  predecessors,  even 
by  John  XXIII.  .  .  .  The  form  was  not  less  dictatorial 
than  the  substance  of  the  decree.  It  was  an  act  of  the 
pope,  not  of  the  council.  It  was  an  absolute  resump- 
tion of  the  whole  power  of  reformation,  so  far  at  least 
as  the  papal  court,  into  his  own  hands"  (IVIilman,  Latin 
Christiunity,  vii,  517).  The  Council  of  Constance,  in- 
stead of  shaking  the  papal  supremacy,  had,  by  the  choice 
of  Otto  de  Colonna,  raised  it  higher  than  ever  before  by 
producing  a  pope  who,  as  liomanists  will  have  it,  "  re- 
covered the  waning  reverence  of  Christendom."  Martin 
V  was  the  product  of  no  schism  or  party,  but  of  the 
Church  universal,  and  he  was  justified  in  seeking  such 
supremacy ;  nor  do  we  wonder  that,  in  the  last  con- 
sistory of  the  cardinals  at  Constance,  Martin  Y  put  forth 
a  constitution  by  which,  in  direct  contradiction  to  the 
principles  so  distinctly  laid  down  at  Constance,  he  di- 
rected that  no  one  should  be  allowed  to  dispute  any  de- 
cision of  the  pope  in  matters  of  faith,  and  to  appeal 
from  him  to  a  general  council  (Neander,  v,  127).  See 
Infallibility.  From  Constance  the  pope  proceeded 
to  Florence,  where  he  was  received  with  the  greatest 
official  respect,  and  where  he  remained  for  three  years, 
during  which  interval  all  opposition,  in  the  form  of 
anti-poperj',  virtually  died  out.  He  then  proceeded  to 
Eome,  where  he  was  also  received  with  demonstrations 
of  great  joy,  and  honored  with  the  title  of  the  Father  of 
his  Country.  He  set  himself  with  great  energy  to  the 
task  of  restoring  the  fallen  glory  of  the  Eternal  City, 
and  so  well  did  he  succeed  that  he  received  the  addi- 
tional title  of  Eo7ii>ilus  the  Second.  By  his  address  and 
superior  sagacity,  Martin  V  succeeded  in  bringing  a  pro- 
tracted quarrel  with  Alphonso  of  Aragon  to  a  termina- 
tion, which  at  once  secured  his  own  ends  and  pacified  a 
stubborn  adversary.  At  the  Council  of  Constance  the 
next  general  council  Vi'as  appointed  to  meet,  five  years 
later,  at  Pavia.  Accortlingly  such  a  council  was  actu- 
ally opened  there  in  the  year  1423,  but,  on  account  of  the 
spread  of  the  pestilence  called  the  Black  Death,  it  was 
dissolved  and  transferred  to  Sienna.  But  at  Sienna  also 
only  a  few  sessions  were  held ;  and,  on  the  pretence  that 
the  small  number  of  prelates  assembled  ditl  not  author- 
ize tlic  continuance  of  the  council,  in  conformity  with 
the  determination  of  the  Council  of  Constance,  the  next 
meeting  was  appointed  to  be  held  seven  vears  later,  in 
the  year  1431.  at  Basle  (comp.  Fisher  [G."P.],  The  Ref- 
ormation [N.  Y.  1873,  8vo],  p.  43).  See  Julian,  Cardi- 
nal. This  council  was  intended  to  close  the  difficulty  with 


the  Hussites  (q.  v.),  whose  leaders  Martin  Y  had  so  sum- 
marily disposed  of  at  Constance  (q.  v.),  and  to  effect  the 
reunion  of  the  Greek  Church.  At  this  important  crisis 
he  died,  in  Rome,  of  an  apopletic  fit,  in  February',  1431. 
As  a  man,  Martin  Y  was  of  that  class  who  form  their 
determinations  deliberately  and  adhere  to  them  steadily, 
and,  if  necessary,  doggedly.  He  was  possessed  of  great 
administrative  ability.  He  has  been  accused  of  avarice, 
though  perhaps  unjustly.  He  certainly  favored  learn- 
ing, and  the  palaces  of  his  cardinals  were  the  schools  of 
advancement  for  the  youth  of  Italy.  He  has  also  been 
charged,  and  with  greater  justice,  with  nepotism,  an  in- 
stance of  which  is  the  appointment  of  his  nephew  at 
the  age  of  fourteen  as  archdeacon  of  Canterbury.  The 
main  features  of  his  reign  are  the  pacification  of  Italy, 
the  restoration  of  peace  between  France  and  England, 
the  rebuilding  of  Home,  and  the  wars  against  Bohemia. 
He  was  succeeded  by  pope  Eugenius  lY.  See  Bower, 
Hist.  Popes,  vii,  200  sq. ;  Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  v,  126  sq. ; 
Milman,  Lat.  Christianity,  vii,  613  sq. ;  Muratori,  Script. 
iii,  p.  ii ;  Leo,  Gesch.  v.  Italien,  iv,  520  sq. ;  TroUope,  Hist. 
Florence,  vol.  ii  (see  Index  in  vol.  iv) ;  Reichel,  Roman 
See  in  Aliddle  Ages,  p.  492  sq. ;  Life  of  Cardinal  Julian, 
p.  18,  57  sq.,  96  sq.,  103,  126  sq.,  243  sq.,  338;  Gillett, 
Hubs  and  Hussites,  ii,  335  sq. ;  Ffoulkes,  iJivisions  of 
Christendom,  vol.  ii,  ch.  vi,  p.  83,  134 ;  Butler  (C.  M.), 
Eccles.  Hist,  ii,  109-113;  Waddington,  Ch.  Hist.  p.  105, 
110,  137,  142,  196;  Jahrb.  deutsch.  Theol.  1871,  iii,  564. 
(J.D.H.) 

Martin,  Andre,  a  French  ecclesiastic  and  philoso- 
pher, was  born  in  Poitou  in  1621 ;  was  admitted  to  the 
oratory  in  1641,  and  instructed  in  philosophy.  In  1679 
he  became  a  professor  of  theology  at  Saumur,  but  was 
suspended  some  time  after,  because  accused  of  Jansen- 
ism. He  died  at  Poitiers,  Sept.  26, 1695.  He  was  one 
of  the  earliest  advocates  of  the  Cartesian  philosophy, 
and  wrote  Philosopihia  Moralis  Christiana  (Angers, 
1653).     See  Hocfer,  Kouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxxiv.  32. 

Martin,  Asa,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  born  in 
Washington  Co.,  Ind.,  Oct.  19, 1814.  He  was  educated 
at  Marietta  College,  Marietta,  Ohio ;  studied  theologj' 
privately;  was  licensed  by  Salem  Presbyterv',  and  in 
1843  ordained  pastor  of  Mount  Yernon  Church,  Ind.  In 
1848  he  became  pastor  of  Hartford  Church,  Ind.;  in  1852, 
of  Bloomfield,  Iowa ;  in  1854,  of  West  Grove,  Iowa;  in 
1861,  of  Olivet,  in  Mahaska  Co.,  Iowa,  where  he  died, 
Nov.  9, 1SG5.  Mr.  Martin  was  a  man  of  retiring  man- 
ners, a  faithful  pastor,  an  excellent  presbyter,  and  an 
earnest  and  sound  preacher.  See  Wilson,  Presh.  Hist. 
A  Imanac,  1867,  p.  312.      (J.  L.  S.) 

Martin,  Claude,  a  French  theologian,  was  born  at 
Tours  in  1619.  He  had  scarcely  attained  twelve  years 
of  age  when  he  was  abandoned  by  his  mother,  who  en- 
tered the  convent  of  the  Ursulines.  After  having  stud- 
ied for  some  time  in  the  city  of  Orleans,  he  entered  the 
Order  of  the  Benedictines.  In  1654  he  was  appointed 
prior  of  Blancs-Manteaux.  He  afterwards  filled  the 
same  charge  at  Saint-Comeille  de  Compiegne,  at  Saint- 
Serge  d' Angers,  at  Bonne-Nouvelle  de  Rouen,  and  at  Mar- 
moutiers.  He  died  Aug.  9,  1696.  Martin  was  distin- 
guished both  for  great  learning  and  deep  piety.  His 
works  are  Meditations  Chretiennes pour  les  Dimanches,  les 
ferns,  et  les  principales  fetes  de  Vannee  (Paris,  1669,  2 
vols.  4to)  : — Conduite  pour  la  retraite  du  mois  (Paris, 
1670, 12rao) : — Pratique  de  la  regie  de  Saint-Benoit  (Par- 
is, 1674, 12mo) : — Vie  de  la  venerable  mh-e  3Iarie  de  V In- 
carnation, superieure  des  Ursulines  en  Canada  (Paris, 
1677,  4to)  : — Meditation  pour  la  fete  et  pour  Voctave  de 
sainte  Ursule  (Paris,  1678,  IGmo). — Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog. 
Generale,  vol.  xxxiii,  s.  v. 

Martin,  C.  F.,  a  Congregational  minister,  was  born 
in  Illinois  about  1821.  He  was  educated  at  Knox  Col- 
lege, Galesburg,  Illinois ;  taught  in  an  academy  at  Lis- 
bon, Illinois,  four  years,  and  then  entered  the  Union  The- 
ological Seminary,  New  York  City,  to  prepare  for  the 
ministry.     Upon  the  completion  of  liis  studies,  he  was 


MARTIN 


824 


MARTIN 


scut  by  tlic  American  jMissionary  Society  to  act  as  mis- 
sionary among  the  Copts  in  Egypt.  His  health  failing 
liim,  he  ^^'as  obligeil  to  return  after  a  three  years'  stay  in 
the  East.  Later  he  became  pastor  of  the  Congregational 
Church  in  Peru.  Illinois,  and  remained  there  until  1863, 
when  he  ^vas  appointed  associate  secretary  of  the  west- 
ern branch  of  the  American  Tract  Society.  He  labored 
among  the  soldiers  at  Chattanooga  until  he  fell  in  the 
Avork,  March  7, 1804. 

Martin,  David,  a  French  Protestant  theologian, 
was  born  at  Hevel,  Languedoc,  in  1639.  He  studied  phi- 
losophy at  Nismes,  and  theology  at  Puy-Laurens.  Af- 
ter acting  as  pastor  at  several  places,  he  was  obliged  to 
leave  France  in  consequence  of  the  revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes  :  so  great  was  the  consideration  he  en- 
joyed that  Roman  Catholics  themselves  assisted  him  to 
tlee.  He  next  became  pastor  at  Utrecht,  and,  although 
invited  to  Deventer  as  professor  of  theology  in  1680,  and 
to  Haag  in  1095,  he  remained  attached  to  his  congrega- 
tion. He  died  at  Utrecht  in  1721.  He  wrote  three  vol- 
umes of  sermons,  some  polemical  and  apologetic  works, 
and  some  critical  essays,  all  of  which  give  evidence  of 
his  learning  and  talent.  The  most  important  of  his 
works  are  Le  Nouveau  Testamenf,  explique  pa?-  des  notes 
courtes  et  claires  (Utrecht,  1696, 4to) :  the  notes  are  part- 
ly dogmatic,  partly  literary,  and  were  subsequently  used 
by  the  editor  of  the  French  Roman  Catholic  translation 
of  the  N.  T.  published  at  Brussels  (1700,  4  vols.  r2mo)  : 
— Histoire  du  Vieux  et  du  Xoiiveau  Testament  (Amst. 
1700, 2  vols.  fol.).  It  contained  some  magnificent  cop- 
per-plate engravings,  and  was  often  reprinted.  But 
Martin's  chief  claim  on  posterity  lies  in  his  revision  of 
the  Geneva  version  of  the  Bible,  which  he  undertook 
at  the  request  of  the  Walloon  communities.  It  appear- 
ed in  1707  (Amst.  2  vols,  fol.),  and  was  often  reprinted  in 
8vo.  The  rirst  edition  contained  theological  and  crit- 
ical notes,  with  a  general  introduction,  and  special  ones 
appended  to  each  book ;  these,  however,  were  omitted 
in  the  subsequent  popidar  editions.  It  was  approved 
by  the  Synod  of  Leuwarden  in  1710.  IMartin's  transla- 
tion, subsequently  revised  by  Osterwald,  is  still  the  one 
most  in  use  in  the  Protestant  churches  of  France. 
Among  his  other  works  we  notice  Sermons  sur  divers 
textes  de  tEcriture  Sainte  (Amst.  1708, 8vo) : — V Excel- 
lence de  la  foi  et  de  ses  eff'ets,  expliquee  en  xx  sei'mons 
(Amst.  1710,  2  vols.  8vo) : — Truite  de  la  Religion  nat- 
urelle  (Amst.  1713,  8vo ;  translated  into  Dutch  in  1720, 
English  in  1720,  and  German  in  1735): — Le  vrai  seris 
du  Psaume  ex  (Amst.  1715,  8vo).  His  dissertation  on 
natural  religion  caused  quite  a  long  and  spirited  contro- 
versy with  the  Arian  Emlyn  (q.  v.).  See  Niceron,  Me- 
moires,  vol.  xxi ;  Chaufepie,  Diet.  hist. ;  Prosper  Mar- 
chand.  Diet. ;  Nayral,  Biog.  Castraise,  vol.  ii ;  Haag,  La 
France  Protestaiiie,  yo\.vii\  Jioefer,  Xouv.  Bioff.  Gene- 
rale,  xxxiv,  34 ;  Ilerzog,  Jieal-EncyUoj).  ix,  130. 

Martin,  Enoch  R.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  Washington  Co.,  Ind.,  about  the  year  1811.  He 
receivetl  a  good  common-scliool  education ;  studied  the- 
ology privately ;  was  licensed  by  Cincinnati  Presbytery, 
and  ordained  by  Salem  Presbytery  in  1836.  He  preach- 
ed for  several  years  to  the  JIt.  Yernon  and  Utica  church- 
es, in  Clark  Co.,  Ind. ;  thence  removed  to  Jefferson  Co., 
Ind.,  anil  preached  to  the  Mizpeh,  Sharon,  and  Mt.  Ver- 
non chiu-ches,  and  afterwards  became  jiastor  of  Sharon 
Church,  111.  In  1862  he  accepted  a  call  to  the  Pisgah 
and  Sharon  churches,  Ind.  He  died  Nov.  20, 1803.  Mr. 
Martin  was  a  very  useful  minister,  and  a  sincere  Chris- 
tian; he  did  much  for  the  cause  of  education  and  the 
suppression  of  intemperance.  See  WUson,  Pirsb.  Hist. 
Almaiiur,  1865,  p.  107.     (J.  L.  S.) 

Martin,  Gregory,  an  English  Roman  Catholic  the- 
ologian of  the  lOth  century,  v,jts  a  native  of  Sussex,  and 
was  admitted  a  scholar  of  St.  .John's  College,  Oxford,  in 
1557.  He  became  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Douay,  and 
subsequently  at  Rheims.  He  died  in  1582.  He  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  author,  or  one  of  the  authors,  of 


the  Rheims  translation  of  the  New  Testament,  and  of 
the  Old  Testament  in  the  Douay  version.  He  wrote 
several  theologico-controversial  jiamphlets,  among  them 
A  Discover)/  of  the  manifold  Corruptions  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures  hy  the  Hei-etics  of  our  Days,  spiecially  the  Eng- 
lish Sectaries  (printed  in  Fulke's  Defence  of  the  Trans- 
lations, Parker  Society,  1843). — Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit. 
and  A  me?:  A  nth.  s.  v. ;  Darling,  Cyclop.  Bibliog.  s.  v. 

Martin,  Jacques  de,  a  French  ecclesiastic,  noted 
as  a  writer  on  philosopliical  subjects,  was  born  in  the 
diocese  of  Mirepoix,  May  11, 1684 ;  was  educated  at  Tou- 
louse; entered  the  order  of  the  Congregation  of  St.Maur 
in  1709 ;  taught  the  humanities  at  Sorize ;  went  to  Par- 
is in  1727,  and  died  there  Sept.  5, 1751.  He  was  a  mul- 
tifarious writer,  and  possessed  an  unusual  acquaintance 
with  the  most  diversified  subjects  of  learning.  But  he 
was  censured  for  the  immodesty  of  his  illustrations.  His 
most  important  Avork  is  La  Religion  des  Gaulois  (Paris, 
1727, 2  vols.  4to),  in  which  he  attempts  to  prove  that  the 
religion  of  the  Gaids  was  derived  from  that  of  the  patri- 
archs; and  that,  consequentl}^,  an  illustration  of  their 
religious  ceremonies  must  tend  to  throw  light  on  many 
dark  passages  in  the  Scriptures.  He  wrote  also  Expli- 
cations de  plusieu?'S  textes  difficiles  de  VEcritiu-e  Sainte: 
— De  I'origine  de  Fame,  selon  le  sentiment  de  Saint  A  u- 
gustin  (1736, 12mo).  See  Hoefer,  Noui:  Biog.  Generale, 
xxxiv,  37. 

Martin,  James,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  born 
in  Union  District,  S.  C,  May  14, 1801.  lie  graduated  at 
the  North  Carolina  University,  at  Chapel  Hill,  N.  C.,  in 
1825 ;  studied  divinity  under  the  care  of  Dr.  Cinining- 
ham,  of  Concord  Church,  Green  Co.,  Ala.;  was  licensed 
in  1827,  and  soon  after  ordamed  as  a  domestic  mission- 
ary in  West  Florida  and  South  Alabama.  In  1830  he 
took  charge  of  the  churches  at  Linden  and  Prairie  Bluifs, 
Ala. ;  in  1837  moved  to  LouisviUe,  Miss.,  where  he  or- 
ganized a  Church;  in  1841  became  pastor  of  a  Church 
at  Multona  Springs, Miss.;  in  1848  removed  to  Memphis, 
Tenn.,  where  he  taught  school  till  1850,  Avhen  he  went 
to  Arkansas,  and  organized  several  churches.  He  died 
Sept.  14, 1863.  Mr.  jMartin  possessed  an  excellent  raind ; 
his  education  was  sound  and  classical,  his  piety  devout 
and  habitual.  See  WUson,  Pi-esb.  Hist,  A  Imanac,  1867, 
p.  445.     (J.  L.  S.) 

Martin,  John  (1) ,  an  English  Baptist  minister  of  the 
18th  century,  was  in  early  life  a  mechanic;  but,  brought 
under  the  intluence  of  Gospel  teaching,  he  studied,  and 
became  the  minister  of  a  Baptist  congregation  at  Lon- 
don. He  published  a  number  of  occasional  Sermons 
and  theological  treatises  (1763-1807).  Of  these,  the 
most  important  was  The  Conquest  of  Canaan  (Lond. 
1797, 12mo).  Of  his  occasional  sermons,  the  one  on  Acts 
xiv,  7,  deserves  special  mention,  entitled  The  Gospel 
of  our  Salvation  (Lond.  1796, 8vo).  Besides,  there  were 
published  three  volumes  of  his  sermons,  one  treating  of 
The  Character  of  Christ  (1793,  8vo) ;  the  other  two 
were  edited  by  Thomas  Palmer  (1817, 2  vols.  Svo).  John 
Martin  is  described  by  Ivimy  {Baptists')  as  "  a  man  of 
strong  mental  powers,"  and  as  a  truly  "evangelical 
preacher."  See  his  ,4  utobiography  (1797,  r2mo).  See 
also  Darling,  Cyclop.  Bibliog.  s.  v. ;  AUibone,  Diet.  Brit, 
and  A  mer.  A  uth.  s.  v. 

Martin,  John  (2"),  an  English  painter  of  Bililical 
subjects,  was  born  near  Hexham,  Northumberland,  JiUy 
19,  1789 ;  went  to  London  in  1806.  and,  after  some  years 
spent  in  oljscure  struggles,  made  his  first  appearance  as 
an  exhibitor  at  the  Royal  Academy  in  1812.  His  pict- 
ure was  entitled  Sadak  in  Search  of  the  Waters  of  Ob- 
livion, and  attracted  much  notice.  It  was  followed 
within  two  ycaxs  by  the  Expulsion  from  Paradise,  Cly- 
tee,  and  Joshua  commanding  the  Sun  to  stand  still.  The 
last  of  these  works  was  a  great  success  in  point  of  popu- 
larity, but  it  was  also  the  cause  of  a  quarrel  between 
Martin  and  the  English  Academy,  in  consequence  of 
which  he  never  obtained  any  distinction  from  the  soci- 
ety.    From  this  period  till  nearly  the  close  of  his  life 


MARTIN 


825 


MARTIN 


he  incessantly  painted  pictures  in  a  style  whicli  was 
considered  "  sublime"  by  the  same  sort  of  people  who 
thought  Montgomery's  Satan  and  Pollok's  Course  of 
Time  equal  to  Paradise  Lost.  The  principal  of  these 
productions  are  Bels/iazzar's  Feast  (1821)  ;  Creation 
(1824)  ;  The  Deluge  (182G) ;  The  Fall  of  Nineveh  (1828) ; 
Pandemonium  (1841)  ;  Morning  and  Evening  (1844) ;  The 
Last  Man  (1850).  He  died  at  Douglas,  Isle  of  INIan, 
Feb.  0,  1854.  —  Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v.  See  Autotdog- 
raphg  of  John  Martin  in  the  AthencBUm  (1854). 

Martin,  John  Nicholas,  a  distinguished  minis- 
ter of  the  Lutheran  Cluirch,  was  born  in  the  duchy  of 
Deux  Fonts,  or  Zweibriicken,  in  Khenish  Bavaria,  and 
came  to  this  country  about  the  middle  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury, in  company  with  a  Lutheran  colony,  as  their  spir- 
itual teacher.  They  landed  in  Philadelphia  with  the 
intention  of  settling  permanently  on  tlie  rich  soil  of 
Pennsylvania,  but,  as  the  land  they  desired  could  not  be 
procured,  they  passed  on  to  the  valley  of  the  Shenan- 
doah, whither  many  of  the  German  emigrants  had  al- 
ready been  attracted;  but  the  congregation  to  which 
Mr.  Martin  ministered  finally  determined  to  locate  in 
South  Carolina,  in  a  district  between  the  Broad  and  Sa- 
hida  rivers,  a  favorite  spot  with  the  (Jermans  of  that 
day  in  the  South.  The  German  popidation  in  this  re- 
gion increased  fast,  and  Lutheran  churches  were  estab- 
lished on  both  sides  of  the  rivers.  Here  IMartin  re- 
mained for  many  years,  all  the  time  olficiating  in  his 
vernacular  German.  In  1776  he  took  charge  of  the 
Lutheran  Church  in  Charleston.  This  was  his  last  field 
of  labor.  Many  reminiscences  of  his  life  and  services 
during  this  eventful  period  of  our  country's  history  are 
still  preserved.  The  American  Revolution  interrupted 
the  peaceful  course  of  his  ministry,  and  exposed  him  to 
various  annoyances  and  trials.  His  naturally  ardent 
temiicrament,  as  well  as  his  love  of  liberty,  led  him  to 
espouse  tlie  cause  of  the  American  colonies  with  great 
zeal  and  patriotic  devotion.  He  was  closely  watched 
by  the  enemy;  and  when  it  was  ascertained  that  he 
would  not  pray  for  the  king,  and  that  his  ministrations 
were  not  favorable  to  the  royal  cause,  his  pulpit  labors 
were  interdicted,  he  was  put  under  arrest,  and  a  guard 
placed  over  him.  Subsequently  his  property  was  con- 
fiscated, and  he  driven  from  the  city.  He  remained  in 
the  interior  of  the  state  until  the  conclusion  of  the  war. 
On  his  return  in  1783,  although  aged  and  his  phj'sical 
vigor  gone,  his  congregation  still  clung  to  him.  They 
urged  him  to  resume  his  pastoral  relations ;  but  he  min- 
istered to  them  only  until  a  regular  pastor  could  be 
procured  for  them  from  German}'.  In  1787  he  was  re- 
leased from  further  service,  with  a  vote  of  thanks  for  the 
fidelity  with  which  he  had  ministered  to  the  spiritual 
interests  of  his  people.  He  now  retired  to  his  little  farm 
near  the  city.  His  physical  as  weU  as  mental  powers 
gradually  failed  him,  and  he  closed  his  honored  and 
useful  life  July  27,  1795,  illustrating  in  his  death  the 
principles  which  through  a  long  life  he  had  advocated. 
Mr.  IMartin  was  faithfully  devoted  to  his  work,  and  ex- 
ceedingly useful  as  a  minister  of  the  Gospel.  He  pos- 
sessed an  integrity  that  no  considerations  of  personal 
interest  or  expediency  could  seduce  from  the  straight 
line  of  duty.  He  was  a  man  of  great  courage  and  deci- 
sion, firm  and  persistent  in  the  maintenance  of  his  prin- 
ciples, witli  an  energy  of  will  and  a  zeal  which  no  dis- 
couragements coidd  repress  and  no  faihu-e  abate.  In 
the  vindication  of  what  he  believed  was  the  truth,  he 
was  prepared  for  any  emergency.  Tlie  people  appre- 
ciated his  sagacity,  and  relied  on  his  clear,  practical 
judgment.  He  steadfastly  devoted  himself  to  their  in- 
terests. It  was  the  constant  burden  of  his  heart  and 
the  earnest  purpose  of  his  life  to  honor  Christ  in  the 
salvation  of  souls.  He  M'as  regarded  by  the  community 
in  which  he  lived  as  a  great  blessing.  His  death  was 
considered  a  public  calamity.     (M.  L.  S.) 

Martin,  Margaret  Max-well,  a  lady  Methodist 
noted  as  a  writer,  was  born  at  Dumfries,  Scotland,  in 


1807,  emigrated  to  America,  and  was  married  in  1836  to 
the  Rev.  William  Martin,  a  Methodist  divine.  She  has 
published  Methodism,  or  Chridianity  in  Earnest,  and 
other  religious  works. 

Martin  Mar-Prelate,  Controversy  of.  About 
1580,  the  year  tif  the  Armada,  there  appeared  in  Eng- 
land a  number  of  tracts — "a  series  of  scurrilous  libels  in 
which  the  queen,  the  bishops,  and  the  rest  of  the  con- 
forming clergy,  were  assailed  with  every  kind  of  con- 
tumely" (Hardwick,  Ch.  Hist.  p.  25C) — written  probably 
by  some  radicals  of  the  Puritan  camp  when  the  contro- 
versy between  the  Church  and  the  Puritans  was  wax- 
ing hot.  Marsden  says  "  there  is  some  reason  to  believe 
that  the  whole  was  a  contrivance  of  the  Jesuits."  The 
charge  against  the  latter  is  based,  however,  only  upon 
supposition,  and  deserves  no  encouragement.  The  pub- 
lic printing-presses  being  at  the  time  shut  agamst  the 
Puritans,  all  their  printing  had  to  be  done  secretly,  and 
it  is  therefore  difficult  to  determine  the  origin  of  the 
"  Martin  Mar-Prelate"  tracts.  The  Puritan  divines  Udal 
and  Penry,  on  their  trials,  were  charged  with  the  au- 
thorship, or  \vith  a  wilfid  knowledge  of  the  authors ;  but 
they  refused  to  make  any  revelations,  and  the  real  a.u- 
thorship  of  these  once  dreaded  and  proscribed,  but  now 
ludicrous  lampoons,  remains  a  mystery.  Their  titles 
and  contents  are  given  somewhat  in  detail  by  Neale, 
Hist,  of  the  Pui-ituns  (Harpers'  edit,  i,  190  sq.).  They 
were  reprinted  as  I'uritan  Disc.  Tracts  (Lond.  1843). 
See  also  Maskell,  Hist,  of  the  Martin  Mar-Pi-elate  Contro- 
versg  (Lond.  1845) ;  Marsden, Eai'lg  Pu7-itans,  p.  198  sq. ; 
id.  Hist,  of  Christian  Churches  and  Sects,  i,  131 ;  Hunt, 
Religious  Thought  of  England,  i,  72.      (J.  H.  W.) 

Martin,  Saint-,  I\farquis  Louis  Claude  de,  called 
"the  Unknown  Philosoiilicr,"  a  noted  French  mystic,  was 
born  at  Amboise  (Touraine)  Jan.  18, 1743;  was  educated 
for  the  bar;  preferred  a  military  Ufc,  and,  through  the 
influence  of  M.  de  Choiseul,  obtained  a  commission.  The 
regiment  to  which  he  was  assigned  contained  several 
oflScers  who  had  been  initiated  into  a  sort  of  nn-stical 
freemasonry  by  the  Portuguese  mystic  Martinez  Pas- 
qualis;  he  soon  became  enamored  with  mystical  doc- 
trines, and  read  largely  in  that  line.  Mysticism,  how- 
ever, was  at  that  time  confined  to  rather  narrow  limits 
in  France ;  the  mind  of  nearly  the  whole  country  was  ab- 
sorbed in  the  rising  school  of  materialism,  and  to  com- 
bat the  latter  became  the  task  of  our  obscure  officer  of 
the  regiment  of  Foix.  Saint-Martin  soon  threw  up  his 
commission,  and  gave  himself  wholly  to  writing  and 
meditation,  bent  to  crush,  by  every  means  in  his  power, 
the  cold,  heartless  form  of  speculation  which  was  then 
everywiiere  the  order  of  the  daj'.  First  he  translated  the 
works  of  Jacob  Boehme ;  but  finally  he  originated  a  re- 
ligious mysticism,  which,  according  to  Morell  (Hist,  of 
Philos.in  the  \^th  Cent.  p.  208),  consisted  of  the  principles 
of  the  Cambridge  Platonist  Henry  More, "  reared  up  under 
the  guidance  of  a  versatile  and  enthusiastic  spirit,  as  a 
barrier  against  the  philosophical  sensationalism  of  Con- 
dillac  and  the  religious  scepticism  of  Voltaire."  But  as 
all  mystical  schools  have  sooner  or  later  found  their 
natural  issue  in  fanaticism,  so  Saint-Martin  also  struck 
against  this  self-same  rock,  and,  despite  the  guarded 
manner  in  which  he  handled  theological  questions,  the 
heresies  contained  in  his  writings  are  neither  few  nor 
small.  Yet,  notwithstanding  many  feats  and  vagaries 
of  an  ultra  eccentric  description,  Saint-Martin  has  left  us 
one  of  the  best  refutations  of  sensualist  errors  on  record, 
and  his  influence  against  the  materialism  of  the  18th 
century  has  to  our  very  day  failed  to  receive  the  recog- 
nition deserved.  With  his  eyes  fixed  upon  the  invisi- 
ble world,  he  passed  unscathed  through  all  the  horrors 
of  the  Frencli  Revolution  ;  he  saw  the  Reign  of  Terror, 
the  Directory,  the  Consulate,  and  quietly  and  happily 
closed  a  life  of  great  literary  activity  at  Aulnay,  near 
Paris,  Oct.  13.  l.sbs. 

Among  Saint  -  Jlartin's  achievements,  his  victory 
over  the  sensationahst  Garat  deserves  especial  notice. 


MARTIN 


826 


MARTINDALE 


"  The  legislators  of  the  first  French  Revolution,  in  their 
atiompt  to  remodel  society  after  the  Keign  of  Terror, 
had  taken  as  their  code  of  laws,  and  as  their  nniversal 
])anacea,  a  debasing  theory,  which  they,  however,  imag- 
ined would  regenerate  the  world,  and  according  to  which 
they  most  natnrally  therefore  wished  to  train  the  new 
generation.  Such  was  the  origin  of  the  Ecole  Noi-male, 
subsequently  remodelled  and  organized  by  Napoleon, 
and  still  rendering  the  greatest  services  as  a  seminarj'  of 
teachers.  Saint-Martin  had  been  sent  by  the  district  he 
inhabited  to  attend  the  lectures  delivered  in  that  school, 
and,  of  course,  was  expected  to  receive  as  soimd  gospel 
the  teaching  of  the  celebrated  philosopher  Garat,  whose 
prelections  on  '  ideology'  were  scarcely  anything  else 
but  a  rechauffe  of  Condillac,  dressed  up  with  much  taste, 
but  still  more  assurance.  A  disciple  of  Jacob  Boehme, 
the  young  mj'Stic,  felt  that  what  society  required  was 
not  the  deification  of  matter,  nor  the  Encydopedie  made 
easy ;  he  boldly  rose  tip  to  refute  the  professor,  and,  by 
a  reference  to  the  third  volume  of  the  Debuts  dts  Ecoles 
Normales,  the  reader  can  follow  all  the  circuinstances  of 
a  discussion  which  ended  in  Garat's  discomfiture.  M. 
Caro  (Saint-Martin's  biographer)  has  supplied  a  valuable 
resume  of  the  whole  affair — an  extremely  important  epoch 
in  the  life  of  Saint-Martin."  ]M.  Caro,  in  his  Essai  sur  la 
vie  et  la  Doctrine  de  Saint-Martin  (Paris,  185G),  has  giv- 
en a  complete  list  of  Saint-JIartin's  works.  They  are 
rather  numerous.  The  best  are  the  following :  Des  Er- 
reurs  et  de  la  Virite,  ou  les  komrnes  rappeles  au  Princip>e 
unirersel  de  la  Science  (1775);  L' Homme  de  Desir ;  and 
De  VEsprit  des  Choses,  ou  coup  d'ail  Philosojyhiqtces  sur 
la  nature  des  etres,  et  sur  Vohjet  de  leur  existence  (1800,  2 
vols.  8vo).  These  supply  a  clue  to  the  main  features  of 
the  author's  character,  and  by  a  careful  study  of  them 
we  are  enabled  to  ascertain  the  exact  position  he  occu- 
pies in  the  gallery  of  modern  metaphysicians. 

M.  Damiron,  in  reviewing  the  life  and  works  of  Saint- 
Martin  (^Arckires  Litteraires,  1804),  affords  lis  the  fol- 
lowing resrime  of  Saint-Martin's  views  :  "  The  system  of 
Saint-Martin  aims  at  explaining  everything  by  means  of 
man.  Man  is  to  him  the  key  to  every  phenomenon,  and 
the  image  of  all  truth.  Taking,  therefore,  literally  the 
fam.ous  oracle  of  Delphi,  'Nosce  te  ipsum,'  he  maintains 
that,  if  we  -would  fall  into  no  mistakes  respecting  exist- 
once,  and  the  harmony  of  all  beings  in  the  universe,  we 
liave  only  to  understand  ourselves,  inasmuch  as  the  body 
of  man  has  a  necessary  relation  to  everything  visible, 
and  his  spirit  is  the  type  of  everything  that  is  invisible. 
What  we  should  study,  then,  are  the  physical  faculties, 
whose  exercise  is  often  influenced  by  the  senses  and  ex- 
terior objects,  and  the  moral  faculties  or  the  conscience, 
which  supposes  free-will.  It  is  in  this  study  that  we 
must  seek  for  truth,  and  we  shall  find  in  ourselves  all 
the  necessary  means  of  arriving  at  it :"  this  it  is  which 
our  author  calls  natural  revelation.  For  example :  "  The 
smallest  attention,"  he  says,  '•  suffices  to  assure  us  that 
we  can  neither  communicate  nor  form  any  idea  without 
its  being  preceded  by  a  picture  or  image  of  it,  engen- 
dered by  our  own  understanding;  in  this  way  it  is  that 
we  originate  the  plan  of  a  building  or  any  other  work. 
Our  creative  faculty  is  vast,  active,  inexhaustible ;  but, 
in  examining  it  closeh-,  we  sec  that  it  is  only  secondary, 
temporary,  dependent,  i.  e.  that  it  owes  its  origin  to  a 
creative  faculty,  which  is  superior,  independent,  and  imi- 
versal,  of  which  ours  is  but  a  feeble  copy.  Man,  there- 
fore, is  a  type,  which  must  have  a  i>rototype,  and  that 
prototype  is  God."  This  extract  affords  a  fair  insight, 
"rve  think,  into  the  philosophical  mysticism  by  which 
Saint-^Iartin  attempted  to  sujiplant  the  shallow  mate- 
rialism and  growing  infidelity  of  his  age,  and  to  induce 
liis  countrymen  to  take  a  deeper  insight  into  the  consti- 
tution of  the  human  mind,  and  its  close  connection  with 
the  divine.  See,  besides  M.  Cato's  work  aboye  alluded  to, 
Damiron,  Memoirespour  sercir  a  Vhistoire  de  philosophic 
au  18'  siecle,vo\.  i;  Malter.  S(iini-.]furlin,  Lc  J'hilii.<<oj)he 
■inconnu  (1862) ;  Morell,  llistonj  of  Modern  Philn.inp/,//.  p. 
208,  201);  London  Qaarierli/  Ikview,  1850  (Jan.);  1857 


(April), p.  177;  3fethodist  Quarterly  Revieic,l8&S  (ApTiY). 
p.  339.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Martin,  Sarah,  an  English  philanthropist,  was 
bom  near  Yarmouth  in  1791,  and  died  in  1843.  She 
was  distinguished  for  her  labors  in  the  cause  of  prison 
reform.  See  Brief  Biographies,  by  Samuel  Smiles; 
Rev.  Erskine  Neale,  Christianity  and  Infidelity  Contrast- 
ed; Edinburgh  Review  (April),  18-17. 

Martin,  Thomas,  an  English  jurist  noted  for  the 
part  he  took  in  the  Marian  persecution,  was  born  at 
Cerne,  in  Dorsetshire,  in  the  first  half  of  the  10th  cen- 
tury, and  was  educated  at  Winchester  School  and  at 
New  College,  Oxford.  In  1555  he  was  made  chancellor 
of  the  diocese  of  Winchester.  Martin  wrote  in  Latin, 
Life  of  William  of  Wykeham,  the  founder  of  New  Col- 
lege. He  vehemently  opposed  the  marriage  of  (iriests, 
and  thus  also  created  considerable  excitement.  He  also 
took  (lart  with  Story  in  the  trial  of  archbishop  Cranmer 
at  Oxford.  He  died  in  158-1.  See  Hook,  Eccles.  Biog. 
s.  V. ;  StTVTpe,  A  nnals ;  "Wood,  Athence  Oxon. 

Martin,  William  "Wisner,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  born  in  Kahway.  N.  J.,  Dec.  18, 1837.  He  re- 
ceived a  most  careful  parental  training ;  pursued  his  pre- 
paratory studies  in  the  Academy  at  Brookh'n,  N.  Y. ; 
graduated  at  Yale  College,  as  salutatorian  of  his  class, 
in  1860;  studied  divinity  at  the  Union  Theological 
Seminary,  New  Y'ork  City,  where  he  graduated  in  1863; 
and  was  immediately  licensed  and  ordained  as  a  home 
missionary  to  the  Pacific  coast.  On  his  arrival  there, 
he  began  his  labors  in  Sonora,  and  joined  Sierra  Nevada 
Presbyter}' ;  thence  he  supplied  the  Howard  Street 
Church,  San  Francisco,  for  a  few  months,  and  subse- 
quently accepted  a  call  from  the  Church  at  San  Jose, 
but,  before  his  installation  took  place,  was  taken  ill  and 
died,  Oct.  16,  1865.  Mr.  Martin  was  characterized  by 
an  exceedingly  frank  and  genial  disposition,  clear  and 
discriminating  habits  of  thought,  and  thorough,  decided 
Christian  principles.  See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  A  Imanac, 
1867,  p.  311.     (J.  L.  S.) 

Martin  Brethren,  or  Knights  of  the  Order  of  St. 
Martin  of  Jfayence,  y^ere  organized  in  1294  by  arch- 
bishop Gerhard,  and  renewed  by  archbishop  Berthold 
in  1497,  and  flourished  until  the  days  of  the  French  Rev- 
olution. Tlieir  object  was  the  attainment  of  a  godly 
life,  brotherly  love  among  the  knights,  and  protection 
of  the  holy  faith.  Tlieir  sign  was  a  golden  shield,  with 
a  picture  of  St.  jNIartin. — Pegensbui-g  Allgem.  Encyhlop. 
s.  V.  INIartinsbriUler. 

Martina,  a  Christian  martyr  in  the  reign  of  the  ty- 
rant JMaximin,  was  a  noble  and  beautiful  virgin  of 
Rome,  who  for  the  sake  of  Christ  suffered  manifold  tor- 
tures, which  were  finished  at  length  by  the  sword  of  the 
executioner,  A.D.  235.  Multitudes  of  Christians,  in  the 
course  of  this  three  years'  persecution,  were  slain  with- 
out trial,  and  buried  indiscriminately  in  heaps,  fifty  or 
sixty  being  sometimes  cast  into  a  pit  together.— Fox, 
Martyrs,  p.  25,  26. 

Martinalia.     See  i\Iartixjias. 

Martindale,  Stephen,  a  minister  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  JMaryland  in  1788, 
and  entered  the  itinerant  ministry  in  1808.  lie  contin- 
ued in  active  service  for  fifty-three  years,  filling  the 
most  important  appointments  in  the  Philadcliihia  and 
New  York  conferences.  For  twenty  years  he  held  the 
oflice  of  presiding  elder  on  the  Rhinobeck,  Long  Island, 
Prattsville,  NewYork,  and  Poughkccpsie  districts.  In 
all  these  posts  his  fidelity,  prudence,  and  cajiacity  were 
amply  shown  ;  and  through  his  long  term  of  ministerial 
service  he  maintained  an  unblemished  and  even  exalted 
reputation.  He  was  elected  to  nearly  every  General 
Conference  between  1820  and  18.56.  He  died  at  Tarrj'- 
town,  N.  Y.,  iNIay  23, 18()0.  Sec  Smith,  Memorials  N.  Y. 
and  X.  Y.  East  Coif.  p.  127. 

Martindale,  Tlieodore  Dwight,  a  minister  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  was  born,  of  Congre- 


MARTINET 


827 


MARTINI 


gational  parents,  at  Greenfield,  Mass.,  Nov.  28,  1820; 
was  educated  at  the  Western  Reserve  Seminar}^ ;  taught 
for  a  time  after  his  conversion ;  served  in  the  local  min- 
istry for  several  years;  was  admitted  into  the  Ohio  Con- 
ference in  the  fall  of  1852,  and  appointed  to  Blendon 
Circuit.  His  subsequent  appointments  were  MaysviUe, 
Marietta,  Logan,  Pickerington,  and  Newark,  when,  in 
1862,  his  connection  with  the  Conference  was  dissolved, 
and  thenceforth  he  sustained  the  relation  of  local  preach- 
er. In  the  fall  of  1871  the  presiding  elder  of  the  Zanes- 
ville  District,  at  the  request  of  the  Circuit,  appointed 
him  as  a  supply  with  the  venerable  David  Smith  on  the 
Hebron  Charge,  in  the  bounds  of  which  he  resided.  He 
entered  upon  the  work  with  commendable  zeal  and  with 
general  acceptability,  but  died  on  April  7, 1872.  He  was 
gifted  and  fluent  in  language,  and  his  pulpit  efforts  gen- 
erallv  ranged  above  mediocrity.  See  S.  C.  Kiker,in  \Vest. 
Christ.  Advocate,  July  10,  1872. 

Martinet,  Louis-Fkan^ois,  a  Roman  Catholic  di- 
vine, was  born  at  Epernaj-,  diocese  of  Rheims,  April  19, 
1753.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  entered  the  regular 
canons  of  the  Congregation  of  France,  and  during  his 
course  of  studies  at  the  abbey  of  St.  Genevieve,  of  Paris, 
he  was  particularly  favored  by  his  superiors,  who  early 
made  him  teacher  of  philosophy  and  theology.  Or- 
dained i)riest  at  the  age  of  twenty-tive,  he  was  made 
prior  of  Daon,  in  the  diocese  of  Angers.  It  was  in  this 
capacity  that  he  was  elected  delegate  to  the  provincial 
assembly  of  the  clergy  of  Anjou,  and  later  to  the  states- 
general  of  1789.  Faithful  to  the  principles  of  the  minor- 
ity of  the  Constituent  Assembl}',  he  was  constantlj'  op- 
posed to  the  legislative  measures  which,  under  tlie  sem- 
blance of  a  useful  reform,  had  a  destructive  and  ruinous 
object.  He  succeeded  in  escaping  persecution,  a.id  em- 
igrated to  England.  There  he  did  not  share  in  the  il- 
lusions of  his  companions  in  exile  of  a  speedy  return  to 
France ;  and,  with  a  view  to  exercising  his  ministry 
usefully,  he  apjilied  liimself  to  the  study  of  English. 
Gifted  with  indefatigable  industry,  and  severely  ascetic 
in  his  habits,  he  was  enabled  to  regulate  his  time  judi- 
ciously, and  thus  attain  great  success.  In  1804  he  re- 
turned to  France,  and  at  the  period  of  the  concord;  t  was 
elected  priest  of  Courbevoie.  He  passed  from  there  to 
the  parish  of  Saint-Leu-Saint-Giles,  at  Paris.  It  is  to 
Martinet  that  we  owe  the  preservation  of  the  church  of 
Saint-Leu;  and,  notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  M. 
Frochot,  the  prefect  of  the  Seine,  he  succeeded  in  inter- 
esting powerful  protectors,  and  the  church  was  not  aban- 
doned. They  even  -donated  to  him  considerable  funds 
for  the  reparation  and  embellishment  of  the  edifice.  In 
1820  he  was  made  priest  of  tlie  parish  church  of  Saint- 
Laurent,  and,  although  advanced  in  age,  his  zeal  and 
activity  did  not  diminish  in  his  administration.  He 
died  INIay  30, 183G.  INIartinet  was  one  of  the  most  wor- 
thy priests  of  the  clergy  of  Paris.  A  knowledge  of  a 
great  variety  of  subjects,  an  unbiassed,  clear,  and  me- 
thodical mind,  a  plcasuig  and  easy  elocution,  were  in- 
creased by  that  urbanity  of  manner,  that  delicacy  of 
tact,  and  that  exquisite  politeness  which  he  observed 
in  his  habitual  relations  with  persons  of  distinguished 
rank. — Biographie  Universelle,  Supplem.,  vol.  Ixxiii,  s.  v. 

Martini,  Antonio,  an  Italian  prelate,  was  born  at 
Prato  in  1720.  Having  chosen  an  ecclesiastical  career, 
and  possessing  a  good  knowledge  of  the  ancient  lan- 
guages, he  occupied  his  time  in  translating  the  sacred 
writings  into  Italian.  Pius  YI,  informed  of  his  merits, 
appointed  him  bishop  of  Bobio  (1778);  afterwards  the 
grand  duke  of  Tuscany  called  him  to  the  archiepiscopa- 
cy  of  Florence  (1781).  Martini  was  greatly  opposed  to 
aU  new  itleas,  and  decidetUy  manifested  liis  opinion  in 
haughtily  condemning  the  doctrines  of  Ricci  in  the 
synod. 

Martini,  Corneille,  a  learned  Belgian  Lutheran, 
was  born  at  Antwer])  in  1567,  and  was  educated  in  Ger- 
many, where  he  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of  arts  and 
theology.     In  1691  he  taught  logic  in  his  native  city, 


and  for  thirty  years  filled  that  chair  successfulh".  He 
died  at  Helmstiidt,  Dec,  17, 1621,  at  the  age  of  fifty-four. 
His  works  are  De  Subjecto  et  fini  Logicce  (Lemgo,  1597, 
12mo):  —  Metaphijsica  Commentatio,  compendiose,  suc- 
cincte,  et perspicve  covipj-ehendens  universiim  metiqihysices 
docti-inam  (Strasburg,  1605, 12mo,  et  al.)  : — De  Analysi 
logica  (Helmst.  1619,  et  al.) : — Commentarius  in  Apuleii 
librum  TTtpi  tpiJit]vtiag  (Frankfort,  1621, 12mo)  : — Com- 
mentcn-ioiitm  logicorum  udversus  Ramistas  Libri  quinque 
(Helmst.  1623,  12mo) : — Ethica : — Compendium  Tkeolo- 
gice.    See  Hoefer,  iVo^r.  Biog.  Generale,  vol.  xxxiv,  s,  v. 

Martini,  Giambattista,  best  known  under  the 
title  of  "  Padre  Martini,"  was  born  at  Bologna  in  170G. 
Early  in  youth  he  entered  the  Order  of  St.  Francis,  and, 
prompted  by  a  spirit  of  incjuirj'  and  love  of  antiquity, 
soon  set  out  on  travels  which  he  extended  to  Asia.  On 
his  return  to  Europe,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
music  under  the  celebrated  Ant.  Perti.  In  1723  he  be- 
came maestro  di  capella  of  the  convent  of  his  order, 
which  office  he  retamed  till  his  death  in  1784.  "He 
was,"  says  Dr.  Burney,  who  knew  him  well,  "  regarded 
during  the  last  fifty  j-ears  of  his  life  as  the  most  pro- 
found harmonist,  and  the  best  acquainted  with  the  art 
and  science  of  music,  in  Italy.  All  the  great  masters  of 
his  time  were  ambitious  of  becoming  his  disciples  and 
proud  of  his  approbation."  Martini  was  also  a  com- 
poser, and  produced  much  music  for  the  Church,  which 
was  formerly  held  in  esteem.  His  sixty  canons  in  the 
unison,  for  two,  three,  and  four  voices,  are  still  known, 
and  admired  for  their  smoothness  and  grace.  His  rep- 
utation depends,  however,  mainly  on  his  Essay  on  Coun- 
terpoint (Bologna,  1774,  2  vols,  folio),  and  on  his  History 
of  Music  (1781,  3  vols.  4to).     See  English  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Martini,  Martino,  a  .Jesuit  missionary,  was  born 
at  Trent  in  1614,  visited  China,  and  published,  after  his 
return,  De  Bella  Tiirturico  in  Sinis,  which  was  trans- 
lated into  the  principal  European  languages;  also  an 
cxciUent  map  of  China  ("Atlas  Sinensis"),  and  &  His- 
tory of  China  previous  to  the  Christian  ^Era.  He  died 
in  1661. 

Martini,  Raymond,  a  Spanish  Dominican  friar, 
noted  for  his  great  attainments  as  an  Orientalist,  was 
born  at  Sobirats,  Catalonia,  near  the  middle  of  the  13th 
century.  At  a  general  chapter  held  at  Toledo  in  1250, 
Martini  was  selected  as  among  the  most  promising  and 
talented  of  his  order  to  be  educated  as  a  defender  of  the 
faith.  Spain  was  at  this  time  the  great  centre  of  Jew- 
ish and  Slohammedan  scholarship,  and  the  Dominican 
general  Raymond  de  Penafort  was  bent  upon  a  polem- 
ical Avar  with  the  "  heretics."  To  defray  the  expenses 
of  educating  such  of  the  priests  and  friars  as  might  act 
as  polemics,  Raymond  had  secured  a  pension  from  the 
kings  of  Castile  and  Aragon.  Both  Hebrew  and  Arabic 
were  assiduously  studied  by  jNIartini,  who,  after  having 
sufficiently  qualified  himself  by  the  mastery  of  these 
Shemitic  tongues,  promptly  commenced  his  attack  on 
the  Jews  in  a  work  entitled  Pvgio  fidei,  which  he  finish- 
ed in  1278.  He  is  also  reputed  to  have  written  Capis- 
tnim  Judeenrum,  and  also  A  Confutation  of  the  Alcoran. 
Tlie  time  of  his  decease  is  not  generally  known.  The 
great  knowledge  which  IMartini  displayed  in  liis  com- 
ments on  the  boo^s  and  opinions  of  the  Jews,  has  made 
some  unjustly  imagine  that  he  was  of  tliat  religion. 
The  "  Pugio  fidei"  is  said  to  have  been  greatly  oidarged 
after  Martini's  death.  AVe  are  told  tliat  Bosijuet,  who 
died  bishop  of  Montpelier,  fell  upon  the  manuscript, 
while  he  was  with  great  ardor  rummaging  all  the  cor- 
ners of  the  library  of  the  College  de  Foix  at  Toulouse, 
about  1629,  read  it,  and,  after  copying  some  things  out 
of  it,  gave  it  to  James  Spiegel,  a  learned  German,  and 
his  preceptor  in  tlic  Hebrew  tongue.  Spiegil  advised 
Maussac  to  publish  it ;  but  the  latter,  thougli  very  able 
to  do  it  himself,  had  for  an  assistant  Mr.  de  Voisin,  son 
of  a  counsellor  in  the  Parliament  at  Bourdeaux,  who 
took  upon  him  the  greatest  part  of  the  task.  Thomas 
Turc,  general  of  the  Dommicans,  was  very  earnest  iu 


MARTINIQUE 


828 


MARTYN 


spurring  on  the  promoters  of  this  edition ;  and,  not  sat- 
islied  with  soliciting  them  by  letters  equally  importu- 
nate and  obliging,  he  gave  orders  that  they  sliould  be 
provided  with  all  the  manuscripts  of  the  "  Pugio  tidei" 
that  could  be  recovered.  In  short,  the  Dominican  Or- 
der interested  themselves  so  much  in  it  that  they  bore 
the  charges  of  the  impression,  which  was  made  at  Paris 
in  1G51. 

Martinique,  or  Martinico,  called  by  the  natives 
Jifadiaiui,  one  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  lying  between  lat- 
itude 14^  23'  43"  and  l-l^  52'  47"  north,  and  longitude 
(30^  5ft'  and  61°  19'  west,  is  forty  miles  long,  about  tv/elve 
miles  broad,  and  has  an  area  of  about  380  square  miles, 
and  137,455  inhabitants,  of  whom  upwards  of  87,000  are 
black.  The  island  was  discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in 
1493,  colonized  by  the  French  in  1635,  and  now  belongs 
to  them.  It  is  of  an  oval  form,  with  much  indented 
coasts,  and  is  everywhere  mountamous;  the  highest 
peak.  Mount  Pelee,  being  considerably  more  than  4000 
feet  above  the  sea-level.  There  are  six  extinct  volca- 
noes on  the  island,  one  of  them  with  an  enormous  crater. 
The  cultivated  portion  (about  one  third  of  the  whole  of 
IMartinique)  lies  chiefly  along  the  coast.  The  climate 
is  moist,  but,  except  during  the  rainy  season,  is  not  un- 
healthy, and  the  soil  is  very  productive.  Of  the  land 
in  cultivation,  about  three  fifths  are  occupied  with  sugar- 
cane. 

The  government  of  the  island  consists  of  a  governor, 
a  privy  council  of  seven,  and  a  col  jnial  council  of  thirty 
members.  Slavery  was  abolished  in  1848.  The  island 
is  liable  to  dreadful  hurricanes.  The  capital  is  Fort 
Eayal,  but  St.  Pierre  (q.  v.)  is  the  largest  town  and  the 
seat  of  commerce.  The  average  annual  fall  of  rain  is 
eighty-four  inches.  The  j'ear  is  divided  into  two  sea- 
sons ;  one  commences  about  Oct.  15,  and  lasts  some  nine 
months,  and  the  other,  or  rainy  season,  lasts  the  remain- 
der of  the  year.  During  the  short  season  the  yellow-fe- 
ver prevails  largely.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Martinique 
Islands  are  usually  adherents  of  the  Church  of  Home. 

Martinists,  a  Russian  sect  of  mystics,  which  orig- 
inated near  the  opening  of  our  fera,  as  a  result  of  the 
labors  of  St.  Martin,  the  French  philosopher  whose  life 
and  labors  we  have  spoken  of  above.  The  Martinists 
allied  themselves  with  freemasonrj-,  and  spread  from 
Moscow  over  aU  Russia.  Aiming  to  supplant  infidelity 
b\-  mysticism,  they  read  largely  the  writings  of  German 
mystics  and  pietists ;  Arndt  and  Spener  were  special  fa- 
vorites, and  were  widely  scattered  in  translations.  Cath- 
arine 11  opposed  the  sect,  but  it  continued  to  flourish, 
notwithstanding  all  persecution,  until  the  despotic  reign 
of  Nicholas  I,  Avhen,  with  many  other  sects,  the  Mar- 
tinists were  crushed.  Under  Alexander  I,  the  Martin- 
ists, favored  by  the  patronage  of  prince  Galitzin,  en- 
joyed their  "  golden  age." 

Martiiiius,  IMatthias,  a  German  Reformed  theo- 
logian, was  born  in  1572,  and  became  eminent  as  a 
sclujlar,  preacher,  and  instructor.  He  was  made  court- 
preacher  in  ]  595,  professor  at  Herborn  iir  the  following 
year,  and  placed  in  charge  of  the  grammar-school  con- 
nected with  the  academy  at  that  place  in  1597.  lie 
continued  in  that  relation  during  ten  years ;  and  in  1610, 
after  an  interval  spent  in  preacliing  at  Emden,  accepted 
a  call  from  the  Council  of  Bremen  to  become  the  rector 
of  the  famous  gj-mnasium  of  their  city,  and  to  fill  the 
chair  of  theology  in  its  facultj-.  Under  his  direction 
this  institution  rose  to  great  prosperity,  and  students, 
even  from  many  foreign  lands,  thronged  its  halls.  In 
1618  he  was  delegated  to  the  Synod  of  Dort,  where  he 
was  noted  for  the  moderation  of  liis  views.  The  course 
of  that  body  never  received  liis  ajjproval,  although  his 
name  appears  among  its  signers,  and  in  later  years  he 
was  often  heard  to  exclaim,  '^O  Dort,  would  to  God  I 
had  never  seen  thee !"'  He  died  in  1630  of  apoplexy, 
and  was  buried  at  Bremen.  1 1  is  chief  work,  the  Lexicon 
philolor/ico-etymoloc/icum,  is  still  used.  His  other  writ- 
ings, of  which  sixty-eight  have  been  enumerated,  are 


unimportant.  The  Lexicon  was  puoiished  at  Bremen 
in  folio  in  1623,  in  a  second  edition  at  Frankfort  in  1665, 
and  at  Utrecht  in  1697, — Herzog,  Real-Encijklopddie, 
XX,  113sq.     (G.M.) 

Martinmas,  or  the  Mass  of  St.  Martin,  a  feast 
kept  on  the  11th  of  November  in  honor  of  St.  Martin 
of  Tours.  The  feast  was  often  a  merry  one.  In  Eng- 
land and  Scotland  the  winter's  provisions  were,  in  olden 
days,  cured  and  stored  up  at  that  time  of  the  year,  and 
were  hence  called  a  mart.  Luther  derived  his  first  name 
from  being  born  on  the  eve  of  this  festival ;  in  Germany 
called  also  MartinaUu.  See  Eadie,  Eccles,  Cyclop,  s.  v.; 
Ref/ensburg  Real-Encyklop.  ix,  312,  col.  i  (iii). 

Martin's  Day,  St.     See  Maktixmas. 

Martinus,  Polonls  or  Bohemus,  a  Polish  chroni- 
cler and  ecclesiastic  of  the  13th  century,  was  born  at 
Troppau,  in  Silesia ;  entered  the  Dominican  Order ;  be- 
came chaplain  and  confessor  to  pope  Clement  IV,  and  to 
several  of  his  successors;  and  in  1278  was  appointed 
archbishop  of  Gnesen.  He  died  shortly  after  at  Bologna 
(1278).  He  wrote  valuable  works  in  the  department 
of  ecclesiastical  history,  including  biographies  of  several 
popes.  His  most  important  production  is  the  Chronicon 
de  Summis  Pontificibus.  See  Hoefer,  Xuuv.  Biog.  Gene- 
rale,  xxxiv,  27. 

Martyn,  Henry,  known  as  "  the  scholar  mission- 
ary," one  of  the  most  distinguished  missionaries  of  mod- 
ern times,  was  born  of  humble  parentage  at  Truro,  in 
Cornwall,  England,  Feb.  18, 1781.  He  was  educated  in 
the  grammar-school  of  his  native  place;  sought  for  a 
scholarship  in  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford,  but,  fail- 
ing in  this,  he  went  to  Cambridge,  and  entered  St.  John's 
College  in  October,  1797.  He  was  at  that  time  out- 
wartUy  moral,  but  stUl  unconverted.  But,  while  at  col- 
lege, the  death  of  his  father  directed  his  mind  to  relig- 
ious subjects,  and,  by  liis  association  with  the  celebrated 
evangelical  preacher  Charles  Simeon,  be  soon  became  one 
of  the  most  thoroughly  Christian  students  in  the  col- 
lege, where,  in  1801, he  came  out  "senior  wrangler,"  the 
highest  academical  honor  adjudged.  He  was  chosen 
fellow  of  his  college  in  March,  1802,  and  obtained  the 
first  prize  for  the  best  Latin  prose  composition  in  the 
university.  Believing  it  to  be  his  duty  to  preach  the 
Gospel,  he  now  devoted  himself  to  the  work  of  the  min- 
istry, England  was  at  this  time  wide-awake  in  the 
cause  of  missions,  and  Martyn  finally  determined  that 
he  also  must  go  forth  to  propagate  Christianitj^  among 
the  nations  who  sat  in  darkness.  He  sought  to  be  em- 
ployed by  the  "  Society  for  Missions  to  Africa  and  the 
East,"  now  the  "  Church  Missionarj'  Society ;"  but,  as  he 
was  too  young  to  take  holy  orders,  his  appointment  was 
postponed.  He  was  ordained  deacon  Oct.  22, 1803 ;  was 
made  bachelor  of  divinity  in  jNIarch,  1805,  and  was  at 
the  same  time  ordained  priest,  and,  obtaining  an  ap- 
pointment as  missionary  to  India,  embarked  Sept.  10, 
1805. 

Henrj'  Martyn  reached  Madras  April  21, 1806.  He 
stopped  for  a  while  at  Calcutta,  where  he  continued  the 
study  of  Hindostanee,  which  he  had  commenced  in  Eng- 
land, and  applied  himself  also  to  Sanscrit,  as  the  key  to 
most  of  the  Eastern  languages,  and  to  Persian.  He 
then  removed  to  the  station  of  Dinapore,  where  he  was 
appointed  to  labor,  primarily  among  the  English  troops 
there  posted,  and  the  families  of  the  civilians.  But  to 
the  natives  also  he  constantly  addressed  himself,  and, 
amid  all  these  labors,  yet  found  time  to  complete  a  trans- 
lation of  the  English  liturgy  into  Hindostanee  (Feb.  24, 
1807),  a  translation  of  the  N.  T.  in  that  language,  and, 
this  finished,  commenced  a  version  of  the  N.  T.  in  Per- 
sian, in  which  he  had  the  assistance  of  an  Arab  trans- 
lator, Sabat  ((].  v.). 

Near  the  close  of  1809,  ISIr.  Martyn  commenced  his 
first  public  ministrations  among  the  heathen  at  Cawn- 
pore,  whither  he  had  removed  in  April  of  this  year.  His 
auditory  sometimes  counted  as  many  as  eight  hundred. 
They  were  young,  old,  male,  female,  bloated,  wizened, 


MARTYN 


829 


MARTYR 


clothed  with  abominable  rags,  nearly  naked,  some  plas- 
tered with  mud  or  cow-dung,  others  with  matted,  un- 
combeil  locks,  streaming  to  the  heels,  others  bald  or 
scabby-headed.  The  authorities  seem  to  have  had  a 
wide-open  eye  on  his  proceedings,  and  anything  which 
appeared  to  graze  roughly  against  the  superstitions  of 
his  auilitory  would  at  once  have  wrecked  his  scheme. 
Finally,  exhausted  with  these  and  otlier  labors,  his 
health  began  to  give  way,  and  he  was  recommended 
either  to  trj'  the  eifccts  of  a  sea-voyage,  or  to  return  to 
England  for  a  time.  Having  embraced  the  latter  pro- 
posal, he  determined  to  travel  by  way  of  Persia  and  Ara- 
bia, with  a  view  of  submitting  his  Persian  and  Arabic 
translations  of  the  N.  T.  to  the  revision  and  critical 
judgment  of  learned  Persians.  He  left  Cawnpore  in 
the  last  of  September,  1810,  and  in  the  early  summer  of 
1811  landed  at  Busliire,  and  thence  proceeded  to  Shiraz, 
where  he  resided  for  more  than  ten  months.  Here  he 
created  great  interest  by  the  religious  discussions  which, 
as  tlie  sole  advocate  of  the  Christian  faith,  he  carried  on 
in  the  crowded  conclaves  of  Mollahs  and  Soils.  He 
completed  his  Persian  version  of  the  N.  T.  Feb.  24, 1812, 
and  a  Persian  translation  of  the  Psalms  six  weeks  later. 
F'rom  Shiraz  he  went  to  Tabriz,  resolved  on  visiting  the 
king  in  his  summer  camp,  and  presenting  his  work  in 
person.  His  interview  with  the  vizier,  who  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  number  of  ignorant  and  intemperate  Mol- 
lahs, called  forth  all  the  energies  of  IMartyn's  faith  and 
patience,  and  at  length  it  was  found  that,  owing  to  an 
informality — the  want  of  an  introduction  from  the  Brit- 
ish ambassador — he  could  not  be  admitted  to  the  royal 
presence.  He  now  proceeded  to  Tabriz,  where  he  was 
laid  up  for  two  months,  and  compelled  to  abandon  all 
hopes  of  presenting  his  N.  T.  in  person  to  the  king,  but 
Sir  G.  Ousely,  the  British  ambassador,  relieved  his  anx- 
iety by  kindly  promising  to  present  the  volume  him- 
self. Ten  days  after  his  recovery  from  the  fever  which 
liad  laid  him  up,  he  proceeded  on  his  journey  home- 
ward. His  plan  was  to  return  to  England  via  Constan- 
tinople, but,  in  consequence  of  too  hurried  travelling,  he 
was  laid  up  at  Tocat  with  severe  illness,  and  died  Oct. 
16, 1812.  "  No  more  is  known  of  Henry  Martyn  save 
that  he  died  at  Tocat,  without  a  European  near.  .  .  . 
He  died  a  pilgrim's  solitary  death,  and  lies  in  an  un- 
known grave  in  a  heathen  land."  The  regrets  in  Eng- 
land which  this  event  created  were  great.  Much  was 
expected  from  him,  and  much  would  probably  have  been 
done  by  him  in  the  cause  to  which  he  had  devoted  him- 
self. As  it  was,  he  brought  not  a  few,  both  Hindus 
and  iNIuhammedans,  to  make  profession  of  the  Christian 
faith,  and  he  caused  the  Scriptures  to  be  extensively 
dispersed  among  a  people  who  had  not  previously  known 
them.  "The  ardent  zeal  of  the  Cekic  character;  the 
religious  atmosphere  that  .John  Weslej'  had  spread  over 
Cornwall,  even  among  those  who  did  not  enr(jU  them- 
selves among  his  followers;  the  ability  and  sensitive- 
ness hereditary  in  the  Martyn  family,  together  with  the 
strong  influence  of  a  university  tutur — all  combined  to 
make  such  a  bright  and  brief  trail  of  light  to  the  ca- 
reer of  Henry  Martyn"  (Miss  C.  M.  Yonge,  Pioneers  and 
Founders,\s.l\).  An  interesting  account  of  his  life,  com- 
piled from  various  journals  left  by  him,  was  published 
by  the  Rev.  John  Sargent  in  1819.  Of  his  produc- 
tions there  were  published  Sermons  pi-eached  in  Calcutta 
and  elseichere  (4th  edit.  Lond.  1822,  8vo) : — Controver- 
sial Tracts  on  Cfiristianiti/  amlMohammedanism  (edited 
by  Prof.  Samuel  Lee,  D.D.,  Camb.  1824,  8vo)  -.  —  Jour- 
nals and  Letters  (edited  by  the  Ecv.  J.  B.  Wilberforce, 
later  bishop  of  Oxford,  Lond.  1837,  2  vols.  8vo ;  abridged 
1839,  post  8vo,  and  often).  See,  besides  the  biography 
already  referred  to,  that  by  John  Hall  (N.  Y.  18mo,  pub- 
lished by  the  American  Tract  Society).  See  also  Eclec- 
tic Review,  4th  series,  iii,  321 ;  Bost.  Sj>i?-it  of  the  Pil- 
grims, iv, 428 ;  Albert  Barnes,  Essays  and  Iievieirs  (1855), 
ii,  278;  Edinb.Rev.  1844  (July),lxxx,  278;  Ci/clopcrdia 
oj' Modern  Religious  Biofjraphy,  p.  321  ;  Timpson,  Bible 
Triumphs,  p.  423 ;  EncyclopoBdia  of  Religious  Knowledge ; 


Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  1857  (Julv),  art.  ii,  p.  329 ;  Princeton 
Rev.  1853,  p.  409  ;  1855,  p.  327.     (,J.  H.  W.) 

Martyr  (/.idprvQ  and  jidpnip,  so  rendered  only  in 
Acts  xxii,  20 ;  Rev.  ii,  13 ;  xviii,  6)  is  properly  a  witness, 
and  is  applied  in  the  New  Testament  (</)  to  judicial 
witnesses  (Matt,  xviii,  16;  xxvi,65;  Markxiv,63;  Acts 
vi,  13 ;  vii,  58 ;  2  Cor.  xiii,  1 ;  1  Tim.  v,  19 ;  Heb.  x,  28. 
The  Septuagint  also  uses  it  for  the  Hebrew  IV,  ed,  in 
Deut.  xvii,  16 ;  Prov.  xxiv,  28) ;  (b)  To  one  who  has  tes- 
titied,  or  can  testify  to  the  truth  of  what  he  has  seen, 
heard,  or  known.  This  is  a  frequent  sense  in  the  New 
Testament,  as  in  Luke  xxiv,  48  ;  Acts  i,  8,  22  ;  Rom.  i, 
9;  2  Cor.  i,  23;  1  Thes.  ii,  5,10;  lTim.vi,r2;  2Tim.ii, 
2 ;  1  Pet.  v,  1 ;  Rev.  i.  5 ;  iii,  14 ;  xi,  3,  and  elsewhere, 
(c)  The  meaning  of  the  word  which  has  now  become 
the  most  usual,  is  that  in  which  it  occurs  most  rarely  in 
the  Scriptures,  i.  e.  one  who  by  his  death  bears  witness 
to  the  truth.  In  this  sense  we  only  find  it  in  Acts  xxii, 
20 ;  Rev,  ii,  13 ;  xvii,  6.  This  now  exclusive  sense  of 
the  word  was  brought  into  general  use  by  the  early  ec- 
clesiastical writers,  who  applied  it  to  every  one  who  suf- 
fered death  in  the  Christian  cause  (see  Suicer,  Thesau- 
rus Eccles.  sub.  voc).  See  Martyus.  Stephen  was  in 
this  sense  the  first  martyr  [see  Stephen],  and  the  spir- 
itual honors  of  his  death  tended  in  no  small  degree  to 
raise  to  the  most  extravagant  estimation,  in  the  early 
Chiurch,  the  value  of  the  testimony  of  blood.  Eventu- 
ally a  martyr's  death  was  supposed,  on  the  alleged  au- 
thority of  the  imder-named  texts,  to  cancel  all  the  sins 
of  the  past  life  (Luke  xii,  50 ;  aiark  x,  39) ;  to  supply 
the  place  of  baptism  (Matt,  x,  39),  and  at  once  to  se- 
cure admittance  to  the  presence  of  the  Lord  in  Paradise 
(Matt.  V,  10-12).  In  imitation  of  the  family  custom  of 
annually  commemoratmg  at  the  grave  the  death  of  de- 
ceased members,  the  churches  celebrated  the  deaths  of 
their  martyrs  by  prayers  at  their  graves,  and  by  love- 
feasts.  From  this  high  estimation  of  the  martyrs,  Chris- 
tians were  sometimes  led  to  deliver  themselves  up  vol- 
untarily to  the  pubhc  authorities — thus  justifying  the 
charge  of  fanaticism  brought  against  them  by  the  hea- 
then. For  the  most  part,  however,  this  practice  was 
discountenanced,  the  words  of  Christ  himself  being 
brought  against  it  (Matt,  x,  23 ;  see  Gieseler,  Eccles.  Hist. 
i,  109,  110). — Kitto.  For  monographs,  see  Volbeding, 
Index  Programmatum,  p.  75, 116.     See  Confessor. 

Martyr,  Peter,  one  of  the  early  Reformers,  was 
born  at  Florence,  Italj-,  in  1500.  His  family  name  was 
Vermigli,  but  his  parents  gave  him  that  of  JIartyr,  from 
one  Peter,  a  martyr,  whose  church  stood  near  their  house. 
In  1516  he  became  a  canon  regular  of  the  Order  of  St. 
Augustine,  in  the  convent  of  Fiesole,  near  Florence. 
In  1519  he  was  sent  to  the  LTniversity  of  Padua,  where 
he  soon  distinguished  himself  as  a  good  scholar.  He 
acquired^reat  reputation  as  a  preacher,  was  made  abbot 
of  Spoleto,  and  afterwards  principal  of  the  College  of  St. 
Peter  ad  Aram,  at  Naples.  Here  he  made  the  intimate 
acquaintance  of  Juan  Valdez  (q.  v.),  a  Spaniard,  who 
had  become  a  convert  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, and  from  whom  Vermigli  adopted  some  of  those 
tenets.  He  concealed  them  for  a  time;  but  his  Biblical 
studies  convincing  him  more  and  more  of  the  errors  of 
the  Church  of  Rome,  and  a  perusal  of  the  works  of  Lu- 
ther, Zwingle,  and  Bucer  making  sure  his  conversion,  he 
publicly  avowed  his  new  doctrine  shortly  after  his  ap- 
pointment to  Lucca  as  prior  of  San  Frediano,  and  was 
compelled  to  leave  the  place  secreth'.  After  a  short 
stay  at  Florence,  he  went  by  way  of  Germany  to  Switz- 
erland. He  found  an  asj-lum  finally  in  Strasburg,  and 
there,  in  1542,  was  called  to  a  theological  chair,  and  act- 
ed for  five  years  as  the  colleague  of  Bucer  in  the  minis- 
terial office.  In  1546  he  married  a  converted  nun.  In 
1547  he  received  from  Cranmer,  and  accepted,  an  invi- 
tation to  England.  The  request  was  sent  in  the  name 
of  king  Edward  VI,  acting  under  the  advice  of  Sey- 
mour, the  protector.  In  1549  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  at  Oxford.     The  fame  of  his  learning 


MARTYR 


830 


MARTYROLOGY 


secured  him  a  large  auditory,  many  Romanists  among 
the  iiiiinlier ;  "  and  though  they  had  much  envying  and 
licart-buniing  about  liiin,  as  may  easily  be  imagined, 
yet  they  bore  him  pretty  patiently  till  he  came  to  han- 
dle the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper.     Then  they  be- 
gan to  break  forth  into  outrages,  to  disturb  him  in  his 
lectures,  to  fix  up  malicious  and  scandalous  schedules 
against  him,  and  to  challenge  him  to  disputes ;  which 
challenges  he  did  not  disdain  to  accept,  but  disputed 
first  privately  in  the  vice-chancellor's  lodge,  and  after- 
wards in  public,  before  his  majesty's  commissioners  de- 
puted for  that  purpose.    At  length,  however,  they  stirred 
up  the  seditious  multitude  against  him  so  successfully 
that  he  was  obliged  to  retire  to  London  till  the  tumult 
was  suppressed ;"  and  on  returning  again,  in  the  year  fol- 
lowing, he  was,  for  his  better  security,  made  by  the  king 
canon  of  Christ-church.     It  is  said  that  some  r.ltera- 
tions  in  the  Prayer-book  were  made  at  Peter  Martyr's 
suggestions.     On  the  accession  of  Mary  he  was  obliged 
to  leave  England,  and,  returning  to  Strasburg,  there 
resumed  his  former  professorship.     However,  as  he  in- 
cliued  to  Calvin's  views  on  the  doctrine  of  the  Eucha- 
rist, he  accepted  a  pressing  invitation  extended  to  him 
by  the  Senate  of  Zurich,  in  1556,  to  till  the  chair  of  the- 
ology in  that  miiversity.     In  1561  he  received  letters 
from  the  queen  of  France,  the  king  of  Navarre,  the 
prince  of  Conde,  as  well  as  from  Beza  and  others  of  the 
leading  French  Protestants,  requesting  him  to  attend  at 
the  famous  Colloquy  of  Poissy,  in  France.    Here  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  well  for  his  skill  as  for  his  pru- 
dence and  moderation.      He  died  at  Zurich  Nov.  I'i, 
1562.     '•  Peter  Martyr  is  described  as  a  man  of  an  able, 
healthy,  big-boned,  and  well- limbed  body,  and  of  a  coun- 
tenance which  expressed  an  inwardly  grave  and  settled 
turn  of  mind.     His  parts  and  learning  were  very  un- 
common ;  as  was  also  his  skill  in  disputation,  which 
made  him  as  much  admired  by  the  Protestants  as  hated 
by  the  Papists.     He  was  very  sincere  and  indefatigable 
in  promoting  a  reformation  in  the  Church,  yet  his  zeal 
was  never  known  to  get  the  better  of  his  judgment. 
He  was  alwajs  moderate  and  prudent  in  his  outward 
behavior,  nor  even  in  the  conflict  of  a  dispute  did  he  suf- 
fer himself  to  be  transported  into  intemperate  warmth  or 
allow  unguarded  expressions  ever  to  escape  him.  But  his 
pains  and  industry  were  not  confined  to  preaching  and 
disputing  against  the  Papists ;  he  wrote  a  great  many 
1  looks  against  them,  none  of  which  raised  his  reputation 
higher  than  his  Defence  of  the  Orthodox  Doctrine  of  the 
Lord's  /Supper  \^Defe)isio  Doctrince  veteris  et  apostolicce 
de  S.  Eacharisti(B  sacramento  ;  accessit  Tractatio,  et  Dis- 
putatio  habita  Univ.  Oxon.  de  eodem,  1562,  foL]  against 
bishop  (iardiner.    He  wrote  also  several  tracts  of  divin- 
ity, and  commentaries  on  several  books  of  Scripture,  for 
all  of  which  he  was  as  much  applauded  by  one  party 
as  he  was  condemned  by  the  other."      Tirabaschi,  a 
zealous  Roman  Catholic,  acknowledges  that  Martyr  was 
free  from  the  arrogance  and  virulence  with  which  the 
Romanists  are  wont  to  charge  the  Reformers ;  that  he 
was  deoi)ly  acquainted  with  the  Scriptures  and  the  fa- 
thers, and  was  one  of  the  most  learned  writers  of  the 
Reformed  Church,     He  was  the  author  of  Expositio 
Symholi  Apostolici ;  De  Ccend  Domini  Qufesfiones,  a  sys- 
tem of  theology,  which  was  first  published  in  England 
by  Massonius,  then  more  fully  under  the  title  Loci  com- 
munes, ex  variis  ipsius  authoris  scriptis  (Zurich,  1580, 
folio ;  translated  into  English,  1583,  folio,  etc.).      His 
other  works  are,  Inprinium  librum  Mosis  qui  vulgo  Ge- 
nesis dicitur  commentarii,     Addita  est  initio  operis  vita 
ejusdem  a  Josia  Simlero  (Tiguri,  156!),  folio)  : — In  Li- 
Irruni  Judicuni  commentarii,  cum  tractatione  pierutili  re- 
rum  et  locorum.     Editio  tertia,  prioribus  longe  cmenda- 
tior  (Tiguri,  1571,  folio)  : — In  duos  libros  Samuclis  j^'o- 
phet(e  commentarii  doctissimi,  cum  rerum  et  hcorum  plu- 
rimorum  tractatione  perutilt  (Tiguri,  1575,  folio)  : — In 
Epistolam  S.  Pauli  ad  Romnnos  commentarii  doctissimi, 
cum  tractatione  perutili  rernm  et  locorum,  qui  ad  cam 
epistolam  pertinent.    Cum  indicibus  (Basle,  tertia  editio, 


1570,  folio)  : — In  i.  Epistolam  ad  Corinthios  commentarii 
doctissimi  (Tiguri,  editio  secunda,  1567,  folio): — Com- 
mentani  in  duos  libros  Recjum  (1599) : — Commentarii  in 
Threnos  (1629).  See  Simler,  Oratio  de  vita  et  obitu  D. 
Petri  Martyris  (Ziirich,  1662,  4to) ;  Schlosser,  Leben  des 
Theodor  Beza  u.  d.  P.  M.  Vermigli  (Heidelb,  1807) ;  Le- 
hen  der  Vater  u.  Begriinder  d.  reformirten  Kirche,  vol.  vii 
(Elberfeld,  1858) ;  Schmidt,  Vie  de  Pierre  Martyr  Ver- 
migli (Strasb.  1835,  8vo) ;  McCrie,  Hist.  Reformation  in 
Italy ;  Wordsworth,  Biog,  vol,  iii, ;  Fisher,  Hist.  Ref, 
p.  336,  etc. ;  Biblioth.  Sacra  (1859),  p.  445 ;  Gen.  Biog.  Diet. 
s.  V. ;  Darling,  Cyclop.  Bibliog.  ii,  1991 ;  Hook,  Ecclesiasf. 
Biog.  vii,  245;  Mosheim,  Eccles.  Ilist.  iii,  67, 192;  Her- 
zog,  Real-EncyM.  xvii,  82  sq. 

Martyrdom  is  a  term  employed  by  Christian  ec- 
clesiastical writers  to  record  the  suffering  of  death  ou 
account  of  one's  adherence  to  the  faith  of  the  Gospel. 
See  Martyr.  In  times  of  persecution,  martyrdom  came 
to  be  thought  so  meritorious  that  it  acquired  the  name 
of  second  baptism,  or  hajMsm  in  blood,  because  of  the 
power  and  efficacy  it  was  supposed  to  have  in  saving 
men  by  the  mvisible  baptism  of  the  Spirit,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  the  external  element  of  water.  In  any  case  in 
which  a  catechumen  was  apprehended  and  slain  for  the 
name  of  Christ  before  he  could  be  admitted  among  the 
faithful  b}^  baptism,  his  martyrdom  was  deemed  suffi- 
cient to  answer  all  the  purposes  of  the  sacrament.  In 
the  writings  of  Prosper  there  is  an  epigram  to  this  effect: 

"Fraudati  non  sunt  sacro  baptismate  Christi, 
Fons  quibus  ipsa  sui  sanj^uinis  uuda  fuit; 
Et  quicquid  sacri  fert  mystica  forma  lavacri, 
Id  totuni  iniplevit  gloria  martyrii." 

'•  They  are  not  deprived  of  the  sacred  baptism  of  Christ 
who,  mstead  of  a  ioni,  are  washed  in  their  own  blood ; 
for  whatever  benefit  accrues  to  any  by  the  mystical  rite 
of  the  sacred  laver,  is  all  fulfilled  by  the  glorj'  of  mar- 
tyrdom," The  martyrs  were  supposed  to  enjoy  very 
singular  privileges ;  in  some  ages  the  doctrine  was 
taught  that  immediatelj^  on  death  they  passed  to  the 
enjoyment  of  the  beatific  vision,  for  which  other  Chris- 
tians were  required  to  wait  till  the  day  of  judgment; 
and  that  God  would  grant  to  their  prayers  the  hasten- 
ing of  his  kingdom  and  the  shortening  the  times  of  per- 
secution.— Farrar,  Eccles.  Did.  s,  v. 

Martyriarius  is  the  name,  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  of  the  keeper  of  sacred  7-elics.  The  relics  of 
martyrs  are  most  generally  kept  under  the  principal 
altar  of  the  church. 

Martyrion.     See  Martyriuji. 

Martyrium.  The  name  of  a  church  built  over  the 
grave  of  a  martyr,  or  called  by  his  name  to  preserve  the 
memor%'  of  him,  had  usually  the  distinguishing  title  of 
martyrium,  or  memoria  murtyrum.  Instances  of  this 
kind  of  designation  occur  with  great  frequency  in  the 
writings  of  Eiisebius,  Augustine,  etc.  Eusebius  calls  the 
church  which  was  built  by  Constantine  on  Calvary,  in 
memory  of  Christ's  passion  and  resurrection,  Martyrium 
Salratoris. 

Martyrology  {Acta  Martynm)  is  (1)  with  the 
Protestant  a  catalogue  or  list  of  those  who  have  suffered 
martyrdom  for  their  religion,  including  the  history-  of 
their  lives  and  sufferings ;  but  (2)  with  those  who  be- 
lieve in  the  adoration  and  intercession  of  saints  and 
martyrs,  a  calendar  of  martyrs  and  other  saints  arranged 
in  the  order  of  months  and  days,  and  intended  partly  to 
be  read  in  the  public  services  of  the  Church,  partly  for 
the  guidance  of  the  devotion  of  the  faithful  towards  the 
saints  and  martyrs.  The  use  of  the  martyrology  is  com- 
mon both  to  the  Latin  and  Greek  Churches,  In  the 
latter  it  is  called  Menologion  (q,  v.). 

Eusebius  of  Caesarea  was  the  first  who  wrote  an  ex- 
tensive history  of  the  Christian  martyrs;  it  was  trans- 
lated into  Latin  by  St,  Jerome,  but  has  been  long  irre- 
coverably lost,  St,  Jerome's  own  worlv  on  the  same 
subject — the  oldest  one  now  extant — is  regarded  as  the 
great  martyrology  of  the  Latin  Church  [it  is  published 


MARTYRS 


831 


MARTYRS 


in  the  eleventh  volijme  of  the  collected  edition  of  his 
works  by  Vallars]  ;  but  it  is  little  used  in  comparison 
with  later  compilations  of  idle  legends  and  pretended 
miracles.  The  latest  Greek  martyrology  or  menology 
extant  dates  from  the  9th  century.  It  \vas  prepared  by 
order  of  emperor  Basilius  Macedo  (8G7-88G),  and  was 
published  in  1727  by  cardinal  Urbini.  In  the  mediae- 
val period,  martyrologies  were  issued  in  England  by 
Venerable  Bede ;  in  France  by  Floras,  Ado,  and  Usuard ; 
and  in  Germany  by  St.  Gall,  Nolter,  and  Kabanus  Mau- 
rus.  The  so-called  "  Koman  Martyrology"  {Martyrolo- 
fjinm  Romanum)  is  designed  for  the  entire  Church,  both 
East  and  West,  and  was  published  by  authoritv  of 
Gregory  XIII,  with  a  critical  commentary  by  the  cele- 
brated cardinal  Baronius,  in  1580.  A  still  more  critical 
edition  was  issued  by  the  learned  Jesuit  Herebert  Kos-. 
weid.  The  Protestant  Church  possesses  many  accounts 
of  martyrs ;  but  as  a  true  martj'rology  in  English,  from 
a  Protestant  stand-point,  we  may  mention  Fox's  Book 
of  Martijrs.     See  Martyrs  ;  Martyrdom. 

Martyrology  is  (3)  also  applied  to  the  painted  or 
written  catalogues  in  the  Roman  churches,  containing 
the  foundations,  obits,  prayers,  and  masses  to  be  said 
each  day.     See  Acta  Martyrum. 

Martyrs,  those  who  lay  down  their  life  or  suffer 
death  for  the  sake  of  their  religion.  In  accordance  with 
the  primitive  Greek  sense  of  the  word,  i.  e.  a  witness 
[see  Martyr],  it  is  appUed  by  Christian  writers  to 
such  as  suffer  in  testimony  of  the  truth  of  the  Gospel  or 
its  doctrines.  The  Christian  Church  has  abounded  with 
martyrs,  and  history  is  tilled  with  surprising  accounts 
of  their  singular  constancy  and  fortitude  under  the  most 
cruel  torments  that  human  nature  is  capable  of  suffering. 
Tlie  primitive  Christians  were  accused  by  their  enemies 
of  paying  a  sort  of  divine  worship  to  martyrs.  Of  this 
we  liave  an  instance  in  the  answer  of  the  Church  of 
Smyrna  to  the  suggestion  of  the  Jews,  who,  at  the  mar- 
tyrdom of  Polycarp,  desired  the  heathen  judge  not  to 
suffer  the  Christians  to  carry  off  his  body,  lest  they 
should  leave  their  crucified  Master,  and  worship  him  in 
his  stead.  To  this  they  answered,  "We  can  neither 
forsake  Christ  nor  worship  any  other,  for  we  worship 
him  as  the  Son  of  God ;  but  love  the  martyrs  as  the  dis- 
ciples and  followers  of  the  Lord,  for  the  great  affection 
they  have  shown  to  their  King  and  Master."  A  like 
answer  was  given  at  the  martyrdom  of  Fructuosus  in 
Spain;  for  when  the  judge  asked  Eulogius,  his  deacon, 
whether  he  would  not  worship  Fructuosus,  as  thinking 
that,  though  he  refused  to  worship  the  heathen  idols, 
lie  might  yet  be  inclined  to  worship  a  Christian  mar- 
tyr, Eulogius  replied,  "  I  do  not  worship  Fructuosus,  but 
him  whom  Fructuosus  worships."  The  courage  and 
constancy  of  the  sufferers  naturally  enough  won  the 
highest  admiration  from  their  brethren  in  the  faith ; 
and  so  it  came  to  be  held  a  special  privilege  to  receive 
the  martyr's  benediction,  to  kiss  his  chains,  to  visit  him 
in  prison,  or  to  converse  with  him ;  and  as  it  was  held 
by  the  primitive  Christians  that  the  martyrs  enjoyed 
very  singular  privileges  with  God  [see  Martyrdom], 
it  came  to  be  held  also  that  their  great  and  superabun- 
dant merit  might,  in  the  eyes  of  the  Church,  compen- 
sate for  the  laxity  and  weakness  of  less  perfect  breth- 
ren, and  thus  gradually  a  practice  of  intercession  arose, 
which  linally  degenerated  into  the  granting  of  indul- 
gences, etc.,  as  now  common  in  the  Ivoman  Catholic 
Church.     See  iNDULCiEXCEs ;  Invocation. 

Perhaps  the  admiration  and  veneration  which  Chris- 
tian martyrdom  secures  has  had  a  great  tendency  to 
excite  many  to  court  martyrdom.  "We  must  not  lose 
sight  of  the  fact,  however,  that  martyrdom  in  itself  is  no 
proof  of  the  goodness  of  our  cause,  but  only  that  we  our- 
selves are  persuaded  that  it  is  so.  '•  It  is  not  the  hlood, 
but  the  anise  that  makes  the  martyr"  (Mead).  Yet  we 
may  consider  the  number  and  fortitude  of  those  who 
have  suffered  for  Christianity  as  a  collateral  proof  at 
least  of  its  exceUencj^;  for  the  thing  for  which  they 
suffered  was  not  a  point  of  specidation,  but  a  plain  mat- 


ter of  fact,  in  which  (had  it  been  false)  they  could  not 
have  been  mistaken.  The  martyrdom,  therefore,  of  so 
many  wise  and  good  men,  taken  with  a  view  of  the 
whole  system  of  Christianity,  wiU  certainly  afford  some- 
thing considerable  in  its  favor. 

In  the  early  days  of  Christianity  it  was  no  unusual 
occurrence  to  build  a  church  over  the  grave  of  a  mar- 
tyr, calling  the  church  after  his  name,  in  order  to  pre- 
serve the  memory  of  his  sufferings.  See  Martyrium. 
But  soon  every  Church  wished  to  possess  a  saint's  tomb 
for  an  altar.  Mere  cenotaphs  did  not  suffice.  Thus, 
according  to  Augustine,  Ambrose  was  delayed  in  the 
consecration  of  a  new  church  at  Jlilan  tiU  a  seasonable 
dream  helped  him  to  the  bones  of  two  martyrs,  Gerva- 
sius  and  Protasius.  And  the  second  Council  of  Nice 
(A.D.  787)  went  even  so  far  as  to  threaten  bishops  with 
deprivation  if  they  should  undertake  to  consecrate 
churches  without  relics.  The  consequence  was  that  a 
supply  was  produced  hy  such  a  demand,  and  frauds  of 
every  kind  were  perpetrated  and  overlooked.  Each 
Church  also  had  its  own  Fasti,  or  calendar  of  martyrs. 
See  Calendar;  Church. 

The  festivals  of  the  martyrs  are  also  of  verj'  ancient 
date.  On  the  first  establishment  of  their  religion,  it 
was  natinal  that  Christians  should  look  back  from  a 
condition  of  unexpected  security  on  the  sufferings  of 
their  immediate  predecessors  with  the  most  vivid  senti- 
ments of  sympathy  and  admiration.  They  had  wit- 
nessed those  sufferings,  they  had  beheld  the  constancy 
with  which  they  were  endured ;  the  same  terror  had  been 
suspended  over  themselves,  and  their  own  preservation 
they  attributed,  under  the  especial  protection  of  divine 
Providence,  to  the  perseverance  of  those  who  had  per- 
ished. The  gratitude  and  veneration  thus  fervently 
excited  were  loudly  and  passionately  expressed;  and 
the  honors  which  were  due  to  the  virtues  of  the  depart- 
ed were  profusely  bestowed  on  their  names  and  their 
memory.  Enthusiasm  easily  passed  into  superstition, 
and  those  who  had  sealed  a  Christian's  faith  by  a  mar- 
tyr's death  were  exalted  above  the  condition  of  men, 
and  enthroned  among  superior  beings.  The  day  of 
martyrdom,  moreover,  as  being  held  to  be  the  day  of 
the  martyr's  entering  into  eternal  life,  was  called  the 
"  natal"  or  "  birth"  day,  and  as  such  was  celebrated  with 
peculiar  honor,  and  with  special  religious  services.  Their 
bodies,  clothes,  books,  and  the  other  objects  which  they 
had  possessed,  were  honored  as  Relics  (q.  v.),  and  their 
tombs  were  visited  for  the  purpose  of  asking  their  inter- 
cession.    See  Martyrs,  Festivals  of  the. 

Of  the  sayings,  sufferuigs,  and  deaths  of  the  martyrs, 
though  preserved  with  great  care  for  the  jnirposes  above 
alluded  to,  and  to  serve  as  models  to  future  ages,  we 
have  but  very  little  left,  the  greatest  part  of  them  hav- 
ing been  destroyed  during  the  Diocletian  persecution ; 
for  a  most  diligent  search  was  then  made  after  all  their 
books  and  jjapers,  and  all  of  them  that  were  found  were 
committed  to  the  flames.  Some  of  those  records  since 
compiled  have  either  never  reached  us  at  all,  or,  if  they 
have,  their  authority  is  extremely  suspected.    See  Mar- 

TY-ROLOGY. 

The  appropriate  homage  to  be  rendered  to  the  mar- 
tyrs by  the  Protestant  world,  as  a  reason  why  our  re- 
spect of  these  sainted  dead  should  not  degenerate  into 
martyr-worship,  by  the  exhibition  of  an  enthusiasm 
which  witli  the  early  Christians  was  quite  natural,  but 
with  us  would  be  artificial,  has  been  well  commented 
upon  by  Gieseler  {Church  History,  i,  108,  282),  who  says: 
"  The  respect  paid  to  martyrs  still  maintains  the  same 
character  as  in  the  2d  century,  differing  only  in  degree, 
not  in  kind,  from  the  honor  shown  to  other  esteemed  dead. 
As  the  churches  held  the  yearly  festivals  of  their  mar- 
t}TS  at  the  graves  of  the  latter,  so  they  willingly  as- 
sembled frequently  in  the  burial-places  of  their  deceased 
friends,  for  which  they  used  in  many  places  even  caves 
(cryjotce  catacttmhn').  At  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  both  the  living  who  brought  oblations,  as  weU 
as  the  dead,  and  the  martyrs  for  whom  offeruigs  were 


MARTYRS,  CANONIZATION  OF  832       MARTYRS,  FESTIVALS  OF 


presentoil,  especially  on  the  anniversary  of  their  death, 
were  included  by  name  in  the  prayer  of  the  Church. 
Inasmuch  as  the  readmission  of  a  sinner  into  the  Church 
was  thought  to  stand  in  close  connection  with  the  for- 
giveness of  sin,  an  opinion  was  associated  with  the  older 
custom  of  restoring  to  Church  communion  the  lapsed 
wlio  had  been  again  received  by  the  martyrs,  that  the 
martyrs  could  also  be  serviceable  in  obtaining  the  for- 
giveness of  sins.  In  doing  so  thej^  set  out  in  jiart  with 
tlie  idea,  which  is  very  natural,  that  tlie  dead  prayed 
for  the  living,  as  the  living  prayed  for  the  dead,  but 
that  the  intercession  of  martyrs  abiding  in  the  captivity 
of  the  Lord  would  be  of  peculiar  efficacy  on  behalf  of 
their  brethren ;  while  they  also  thought  that  the  mar- 
tyrs, as  assessors  in  the  last  decisive  judgment,  were 
particularly  active  (1  Cor.  vi,  2,  3).  Origen  attributed 
very  great  value  to  that  intercession,  expecting  from 
it  great  help  towards  sanctification ;  but  he  went  be- 
yond the  ideas  hitherto  entertained  in  attributing  to 
martyrdom  an  importance  and  efficacy  similar  to  the 
death  of  Christ.  Hence  he  feared  the  cessation  of  per- 
secution as  a  misfortune.  The  more  the  opinion  that 
value  belonged  to  the  intercession  of  martyrs  was  estab- 
lished, the  oftener  it  may  have  happened  that  persons 
commended  themselves  to  the  martyrs  yet  living  for 
intercession." 

The  number  of  martyrs  who  suifered  death  during 
the  first  ages  of  Christianity  has  been  a  subject  of  great 
controversy.  The  early  ecclesiastical  writers,  with  the 
natural  pride  of  partisanship,  have,  it  can  hardly  be 
doubted,  leaned  to  the  side  of  exaggeration.  Some  of 
their  statements  are  palpably  excessive ;  and  Gibbon,  in 
his  well-known  sixteenth  chapter,  throws  great  doubt 
even  on  the  most  moderate  of  the  computations  of  the 
Church  historians.  But  it  is  clearly  though  briefiy 
shown  by  Guizot,  in  his  notes  on  this  celebrated  chap- 
ter (see  Jlilman's  Gibboii's  Decline  and  Fall,  i,  508),  that 
Gibbon's  criticisms  are  founded  on  unfair  and  partial 
data,  and  that  even  the  very  authorities  upon  which  he 
relies  demonstrate  the  fallaciousness  of  his  conclusions. 
Those  who  are  interested  in  the  subject  will  find  it  dis- 
cussed with  much  learning  and  considerable  modera- 
tion in  Ruinart's  Acta  Primitiva  et  Sinco-a  Martyrum. 
Xo  little  difference  of  opinion  has  also  existed  as  to 
what,  in  the  exploration  of  the  ancient  Christian  tombs 
in  the  Koman  Catacombs,  are  to  be  considered  as  signs 
of  martyrdom.  The  chief  signs,  in  the  opinion  of  older 
critics,  were  (1)  the  letters  B.  M.,  (2)  the  figure  of  a 
palm-tree,  and  (3)  a  phial  with  the  remains  of  a  red 
liquor  believed  to  be  blood.  Each  of  these  has  in  turn 
been  the  subject  of  dispute,  but  the  last  is  commonly 
regarded  as  the  conclusive  sign  of  martyrdom.  The 
first  recorded  martyr  of  Christianity,  called  the  "  proto- 
martyr,"  was  the  deacon  Stephen,  whose  death  is  re- 
corded in  Acts  vi  and  vii. 

See  Siegel,  Christliche  Alterthumer,  iii, 272  sq.;  Bing- 
ham, Orif).  Eccles.  p.  102,  etc.;  Kiddle,  Christian  An- 
tiquit.  p.  101  sq. ;  Donaldson,  Lit.  ii,  284  sq. ;  Neander, 
Plant  ami  Train.  Christ.  Churches  (see  Index) ;  Lardner, 
Works,  iii,  91,  219  sq. ;  Jortin,  Remarks,  i,  34.5;  Taylor, 
Anc.  Christianit;i,  p.  380;  Milman,  Christianity  (see  In- 
dex) ;  Lat.  Christianity  (see  Index) ;  Waddington,  Ch. 
Hist.  pt.  iv,  p.  114;  SchafF,  Ch.  Hist,  i,  177  sq.,'l82  sq. : 
Coleman,  A  no.  Chi-istidnity,  p.  404 ;  A  m.  Theol.  Rev.  1860 
(Aug.),  p.  530;  Zeitschr.histor.  theol.  1850,p.315;  Eadie, 
Merles.  Cyclop,  s.  v. ;  Ciiambcrs,  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Martyrs,  Canonization  of  the.  Tfie  ceremo- 
ny for  canonizing  saints  in  the  Koniau  C'atholic  Church 
varied  greatly  until,  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century, 
pope  Benedict  XIV  definitely  prescribed  it.  It  is  now 
as  follows :  After  the  candidate's  reputation  for  sanctity 
has  been  duly  proved,  he  is  styled  venerable,  after  which 
an  inquiry  is  entered  into  to- establish  the  proof  of  his 
virtues,  in  a  high  or,  as  it  is  termed,  heroic  degree.  For 
that  purpose  the  whole  life  and  all  the  actions  of  the 
candidate  are  scrutinized.  That  task  devolves  on  the 
Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Kites,  assisted  by  theolo- 


gians and  canonists,  three  audit<jfs  of  the  rota,  and 
monks  belonging  to  five  different  orders.  Natural  phi- 
losophers and  physicians  are  also  called  on  to  give  their 
opinions  on  the  temperament  of  the  candidate  and  on 
the  miracles  which  are  attributed  to  him.  The  most 
important  and  the  most  original  character  in  this  court 
of  inquiry  is  that  of  the  promoter  of  the  faith,  also  called 
the  Advocate  of  the  Devil.  His  Satanic  majesty  is  a 
power  which  must  be  taken  into  account,  and  is  allowed 
to  have  his  cause  pleaded  even  before  the  ecclesiastical 
tribunal.  This  advocate  may  be  supposed  to  bring  for- 
ward arguments  to  prove  that  the  man  who  is  a  candi- 
date for  canonization  is  guilty  of  everj-  sin ;  that  lie  has 
violated  the  ten  commandments  of  God  and  those  of 
the  Church ;  has  eaten  on  fast  days ;  has  entered  into  a 
compact  ■v\ith  the  daemons  of  avarice,  pride,  envy,  ha- 
tred, and  malice;  and  that  the  miracles  attributed  to 
him  were  performed  by  the  devil  himself.  The  advo- 
cate would  probably  conclude  his  argument  by  saying, 
'•  Kender  therefore  mito  Satan  that  which  is  Satan's, 
and  do  not  deprive  Beelzebub  of  the  fruit  of  his  works." 
The  advocate  for  the  candidate  then  rises,  and  endeav- 
ors to  overturn  all  the  arguments  of  his  learned  brother 
by  bringing  forward  and  enlarging  upon  all  the  virtues 
of  his  client,  and  concludes  by  begging  the  judges  to 
throw  open  to  him  the  doors  of  beatitude,  and  adorn  his 
forehead  with  the  rays  of  glorj'.  The  tribunal  then 
examines  all  the  arguments  jfro  and  con,  and  at  length 
pronounces  in  favor  of  the  candidate.  Next  comes  the 
question  of  the  miracles,  and  the  natural  philosophers  are 
requested  to  bring  forward  all  the  objections  they  may 
have  to  make.  They  in  their  turn  declare  that  science 
is  vanquished,  and  the  miracles  are  declared  to  be  bona 
fide.  A  favorable  report  is  then  made  to  the  pope,  who 
delivers  the  sentence  of  beatification,  and  on  the  day 
appointed  pronounces  the  canonization  from  his  throne 
at  the  Vatican.  The  honors  conferred  by  canonization 
are  seven  in  number:  1.  The  names  are  inscribed  in  the 
ecclesiastical  almanacs,  in  the  list  of  martyrs,  and  in 
the  litanies.  2.  They  are  publicly  invoked  In  the  pray- 
ers and  service  of  the  Church.  3.  Chapters,  churches, 
and  altars  are  dedicated  to  them.  4.  Sacrifice  is  offered 
in  their  honor  at  the  mass.  5.  Their  fete  day  is  cele- 
brated. C.  Their  images  are  exhibited  in  the  churches, 
and  they  may  be  there  represented  with  a  crown  of 
light  round  the  head.  7.  Their  relics  are  offered  to  the 
veneration  of  the  faithful,  and  carried  with  pomp  m  sol- 
emn processions.     See  Canonizatiox. 

Martyrs,  Festivals  of  the.  These  commemo- 
rations of  Christian  sufferers  for  the  cause  of  their  Mas- 
ter are  of  very  ancient  date,  and  may  be  carried  as  high 
as  the  time  of  Polycarp,  who  suffered  death  about  A.D. 
168.  In  the  days  of  Chrysostom  and  Theodoret  these 
festivals  had  become  so  frequent  that,  so  they  tell  us, 
oftentimes  one  or  two  were  celebrated  in  one  and  the 
same  week  (see  Chrj-sostom,  Ilom.  40  in  Juventinuin,  i, 
546 ;  Theodoret,  Serm.  8  de  Martyi'ibus,  iv,  605 ;  Chrj'- 
sostom,  Ho7n.  65  de  Martyr,  iv,  971).  On  these  occa- 
sions, as  has  been  intimated  in  the  article  Martyrs,  the 
assemblies  were  not  held  in  the  churclies  or  in  the  usual 
places  of  worship,  but  at  tlie  graves  of  the  martyrs.  The 
night  preceding  the  festival  was  passed  in  holy  vigil, 
praying  and  singing  psalms  and  hymns.  As  they  were 
esteemed  high  festivals,  the  same  service  that  was  per- 
formed on  the  Sabbath  was  always  performed  on  such 
occasions.  But,  besides  the  usual  solemnities  of  other 
festivals,  the  history  of  the  sufferings  of  the  martyrs 
was  also  commonly  read,  and  orations  were  delivered 
commending  their  \  irtues,  and  the  audience  invited  to 
profit  by  these  self-denying  examples.  This  practice 
was  encouraged  by  a  canon  of  the  thirtl  Council  of 
Carthage  ("  Liceat  etiam  legi  passiones  martyrum,  cum 
anniversarii  dies  eorum  celebrantur,"'  Con.  Carth.  3,  can. 
47).  Mabillon  gives  several  instances  to  show  that  they 
were  read  also  in  the  French  churches.  In  the  Koman 
Church  they  were  forbidden  by  jiope  Gelasius,  as  many 
were  said  to  be  anonymous,  and  others  by  heathen  or 


MARUF  EL-KARKHI 


833 


MARY 


heretical  authors ;  but  this  rule,  it  seems,  did  not  then 
prescribe  as  to  other  churches.  The  Lord's  Supper  was 
always  administered  at  these  festivals,  and  at  the  close 
the  rich  usually  made  a  feast  for  the  poor,  especially 
to  the  widows  and  orphans. — Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. ; 
Hmghava,  Antiquities  of  the  Ch?istian  Church,  i,  God ; 
Cyclop,  of  Religious  Knowledge,  s.  v. ;  Wetzer  u.  Welte, 
Kirchen-Lex.  xii,  777.     See  Feasts. 

Maruf  el-Karkhi,  Eben-Mahfond,  an  Arabic 
mystic,  was  born  at  Carkh,  between  Hamadan  and  Ispa- 
han, about  the  year  750.  The  son  of  a  Christian,  he  be- 
came a  Mussulman,  under  the  name  of  Ali.  WhUe  at- 
tached to  the  house  of  the  imam  Ali  Kiza,  at  Bagdad, 
where  he  discharged  the  duties  of  a  door-keeper,  he 
formed  a  firm  frientlship  with  one  of  the  most  ancient 
mystic  chiefs,  Daud  el-Thayi,  and  became  himself  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  mystics  of  Arabia.  He  died  in 
81G,  at  Bagdad.  The  mystical  sj-stera  of  Mariif  is  nei- 
ther the  ascetic  system  of  the  ancient  Indian  and  Chris- 
tian Ccsnobites,  which  he  rejected,  nor  that  of  the  more 
recent  Persian  m}'Stics,  who  are  entirely  absorbed  in  con- 
templations of  divine  love.  He  lays  stress  on  the  prac- 
tical virtues ;  and  if  he  preaches  humUity  in  saj'ing  that 
we  should  never  appear  before  God  except  with  the  ex- 
terior of  a  poor  piendicant,  he  still  is  not  led  astray  in  his 
retiections  upon  divine  love,  which,  according  to  him,  is 
a  gift  of  God's  grace,  and  not  learned  by  the  lessons  of 
masters.  Maruf,  it  is  true,  elsewhere  carries  out  his 
thoughts,  by  sayuig  that  we  must  turn  to  God  if  we  ex- 
pect God's  favor  upon  us.  These  ideas  have  caused  him 
to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  orthodox  mystics  of  Islam. 
His  maxims  are  found  dispersed  throughout  the  ascetic 
works  of  Abiilfaray  Mansur  ibn  al-Yanzi,  especially  in 
the  31  anahhih- Maruf  or  Panegyrics  of  Maruf,  and  in 
the  Kenzel  Modzakkirin,  or  Treasure  of  the  Deistical 
Paneg3'rists.  In  the  Monutekhah  fl  Kowle  is  found  tlie 
most  complete  selection  of  Marufs  utterances. — Hadj'l 
Chalfa,  Lexikon  Bibliographicum  et  Encyclopcedicnm ; 
Djami,  Biographie  des  Soufis ;  Hammer,  Gesch. der  A  ra- 
bischen  Literatur ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  vol. 
xxxili,  s.  V. 

Marut  or  Marut  (Sanscrit  tvind)  denotes  in  the 
Hindii  mythology  the  genus  or  divinities  presiding  over 
the  winds.  In  the  Vedas  the  Maruts  are  often  addressed 
as  the  attendants  and  allies  of  Indra,  and  are  called  the 
sons  of  Prisni  (or  Pricni),  or  the  Earth ;  they  are  also 
called  Rhudras,  or  the  sons  of  Rhudra.  See  the  Intro- 
ductions to  the  several  volumes  of  professor  Wilson's 
translation  of  the  Rig  Veda ;  see  also  Moor,  Iliiulu  Pan- 
theon, s.  V. ;  Thomas,  Diet,  of  Biog.  and  Mythol.  s.  v. 

Maruthas,  one  of  the  most  important  men  in  the 
Syrian  Church  of  the  4th  and  5th  centuries,  was  bishop 
of  Tagrit,  in  Mesopotamia,  called  also  b}-  the  Syrians 
Maipherkin,  Maipherkat,  and  Medinat  Sohde,  i.  e.  city 
of  the  martyrs.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  manage- 
ment of  Church  affairs,  and  is  also  known  as  a  writer. 
So  great,  indeed,  was  the  consideration  he  enjoyed  at 
the  hands  of  his  contemporaries  that  he  was  popularly 
credited  with  power  to  work  miracles.  In  403  he  made 
a  journey  to  Constantinople,  as  agent  in  the  negotia- 
tions between  the  emperors  Arcadius  and  Theodosius  II 
and  tlie  Persian  emperor  Yczdegerd  II,  who  was  per- 
secuting the  Christians,  and  in  these  negotiations  he 
gained  the  esteem  and  confidence  of  the  Persian  empe- 
ror. He  was  enabled  by  his  sagacity  to  defeat  the  in- 
trigues of  the  Magians  to  effect  his  downfall,  and  his 
reputation  only  rose  higher,  so  that  he  obtained  permis- 
sion for  the  Christians  to  rebuild  their  churches,  and  to 
hold  their  meetings  for  divine  worship.  The  next  year 
he  went  again  to  Constantinople  to  ]3lead  the  cause  of 
Chrysostom,  who  was  exiled.  He  was  subsequently 
sent  again  by  Theodosius  II  to  Yczdegerd.  He  is  said 
on  this  occasion  to  have  taken  part  in  a  synod  assem- 
bled by  patriarch  Isaac  of  Seleucia  Ctesiphon,  but  He- 
fele  {Conciliengesch.  ii,  90)  has  proved  that  the  docu- 
ments we  possess  concerning  this  council  are  spurious, 

v.— G  G  G 


and  the  very  existence  of  such  a  council  is  now  consid- 
ered doubtful.  Maruthas,  however,  took  part  in  the 
Council  of  Antioch  against  the  Jlessalians  (q.  v.),  in  383 
or  390.  He  wrote  a  number  of  works  in  Syriac,  de- 
scribed by  Assemani  {id  infr.^.  Among  them  the  fol- 
lowing deserve  special  notice :  A  liturgic  work,  foimd  in 
Syriac  in  the  missal  of  the  Maronites  (1594,  p.  172),  and 
in  Latin  in  Renaudot  {Liturgiarum  Orient,  collectio,  ii, 
261) ;  an  exposition  of  the  Gospels,  from  which  it  ap- 
pears that  he  incUned  towards  the  doctrine  of  transub- 
stantiation ;  a  history  of  the  Persian  martyrs  under  king 
Shapur  (Sapores)— this  history  forms  the  first  part  of 
Assemani's  A  eta  Martyrum  Orientalium,  qui  in  Perside 
passi  sunt,  et  Occidentalium,  translated  mider  the  title 
Etliche  Acten  heiliger  Mdrtyrer  d.  Morgenlundes  (Inns- 
bruck, 1836).  See  Assemani,  Biblioth.  Orient.  Clemen- 
tina-Vaticana,  i,  174-179;  Uerzog,  Real-E7icyklop.  ix, 
131 ;  Meander,  Hist,  of  the  Christian  Religion  and  Church, 
ii,  110,700.     (J.N.  P.) 

Ma'ry  {Mapia  or  Mapiufi,  from  the  Heb.  b'^"10, 
Miriam),  the  name  of  several  females  mentioned  in  the 
New  Test. 

1.  The  wife  of  Joseph,  and  a  lineal  descendant  of  Da- 
vid (Matt,  i) ;  '•  the  Mother  of  Jesus"  (Acts  i,  14),  and 
"  Mary,  his  Blother"  (Blatt.  ii,  11) ;  in  later  times  gener- 
ally called  the  "Virgin  Maky,"  but  never  so  designated 
in  Scripture.  Little  is  known  of  this  highly-favored  in- 
dividual, in  whom  was  fulfilled  the  first  prophecy  made 
to  man,  that  the  '•  seed  of  the  woinan  should  bruise  the 
serpent's  head"  (Gen.  iii,  15).  As  her  history  was  of  no 
consequence  to  Christianity,  it  is  not  given  at  large. 
Her  genealogy  is  recorded  by  Luke  (ch.  iii),  in  order  to 
prove  the  truth  of  the  predictions  which  had  foretold 
tlie  descent  of  the  ]\Iessiah  from  Adam  through  Abra- 
ham and  David,  with  the  design  evidently  of  sliowing 
tliat  Christ  was  of  that  royal  house  and  lineage  (comp. 
Davidson's  Sacred  Ilermeneutics,  p.  589  sq.).  Eusebius, 
the  early  ecclesiastical  historian,  although  unusually 
lengthy  upon  "  the  name  Jesus,"  and  the  genealogies  in 
IMatthew's  and  Luke's  Gospels,  throws  no  new  light  upon 
Mary's  birth  and  parentage.  The  very  simplicity  of 
the  evangelical  record  has  no  doubt  been  one  cause  of 
the  abundance  of  the  legendary  matter  of  which  she 
forms  the  central  figure.  Imagination  had  to  be  called 
in  to  supply  a  craving  which  authentic  narrative  did 
not  satisfy.  We  shall  give  the  account  from  both  these 
sources  somewhat  in  detail,  using  for  this  purpose  much 
of  the  matter  found  in  Smith's  and  Kitto's  Dictiona- 
ries. 

1.  Scriptural  Statements. — 1.  We  are  wholly  ignorant 
of  the  circumstances  and  occupation  of  Marj-'s  parents. 
If,  as  is  most  probable,  the  genealogy  given  by  Luke  is 
that  of  Mary  (Greswell,etc.),her  father's  name  was  Heli, 
which  is  another  form  of  the  name  given  to  her  legend- 
ary father,  Jehoiakim  or  Joachim.  But  if  Jacob  and  Heli 
were  the  two  sons  of  Matthan  or  Matthat,  and  if  Jo- 
seph, being  the  son  of  the  younger  brother,  married  his 
cousin,  the  daughter  of  the  elder  brother  (Hervey,  Gen- 
ealogies of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ),  her  father  was  Jacob. 
See  Genealogy  of  our  Lord.  She  was,  like  Joseph, 
of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  of  the  Imeage  of  David  (Psa. 
cxxxii,  11 ;  Luke  i,  32;  Eom.  i,  3).  What  was  her  re- 
lationship to  the  so-called  "  sister"  named  Mary  (John 
xix,  25)  is  uncertain  (see  No.  3  below),  but  she  was  con- 
nected by  marriage  {miyYSpijc,  Luke  i,  36)  with  Elisa- 
beth, who  was  of  the  tribe  of  Levi  and  of  the  lineage  of 
Aaron. 

2.  In  the  autumn  of  the  year  wliich  is  known  as  B.C. 
7,  Mary  was  living  at  Nazareth,  probably  at  her  parents' 
house,  not  having  yet  been  taken  by  Joseph  to  his  home. 
She  was  at  this  time  betrothed  to  Joseph,  and  was  there- 
fore regarded  by  the  Jewish  law  and  custom  as  his  wife, 
though  he  had  not  yet  a  husband's  rights  over  her.  See 
Marriage.  At  this  time  the  angel  Gabriel  came  to 
her  with  a  message  from  God,  and  announced  to  her 
that  she  was  to  be  the  mother  of  the  long-expected 


MARY 


834 


MARY 


Messiah.  He  probably  bore  the  form  of  an  ordinary 
man,  like  the  angels  who  manifested  themselves  to  Gid- 
eon and  to  Manoah  (Judg.  vi,  xiii).  This  would  appear 
both  from  the  expression  tlaeX^iov,  '•  he  came  in,"  and 
also  from  the  fact  of  her  being  troubled,  not  at  his  pres- 
ence, but  at  the  meaning  of  his  words.  Yet  one  cannot 
but  believe  that  there  was  a  glory  in  his  featiu-es  which 
at  once  convinced  INIary  of  the  true  nature  of  her  vis- 
itor, entering  as  he  did  unannounced,  apparently  into 
her  secret  chamber — most  probably  at  the  time  of  her 
devotions.  The  scene  as  well  as  the  salutation  is  verj^ 
similar  to  that  recounted  in  the  book  of  Daniel,  "  Then 
there  came  again  and  touched  me  one  like  the  appear- 
ance of  a  man,  and  he  strengthened  me,  and  said,  O 
man  greatly  beloved,  fear  not :  peace  be  mito  thee,  be 
strong,  yea,  be  strong!"  (Dan.  x,  18,  19).  The  exact 
meaning  of  KsxapiTiofiivr]  is  "  thou  that  hast  had  be- 
stowed upon  thee  a  free  gift  of  grace."  The  A.V.  ren- 
dering of  "  highly  favored"  is  therefore  very  exact,  and 
much  nearer  to  the  original  than  the  "ff7-atia]}le7ia"  of 
the  Vulgate,  on  which  a  huge  and  wholly  unsubstantial 
edifice  has  been  built  by  Romanist  devotional  writers. 
The  next  part  of  the  salutation,  "The  Lord  is  with  thee," 
would  probably  have  been  better  translated, "The  Lord 
be  with  thee."  It  is  the  same  salutation  as  that  with 
which  the  angel  accosted  Gideon  (Judg.  vi,  12).  "  Bless- 
ed art  thou  among  women,"  is  nearly  the  same  expres- 
sion as  that  used  by  Ozias  to  Judith  (Jud.  xiii,  18).  Ga- 
briel proceeds  to  instruct  Mary  that  by  the  operation  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  the  everlasting  Son  of  the  Father  should 
be  born  of  her;  that  in  him  the  prophecies  relative  to 
David's  throne  and  kingdom  should  be  accomplished; 
and  that  his  name  was  to  be  called  Jesus.  He  further 
informs  her,  perhaps  as  a  sign  by  which  she  might  con- 
vince herself  that  his  prediction  with  regard  to  herself 
would  come  true,  that  her  relative  Elisabeth  was  within 
three  months  of  being  delivered  of  a  child. 

The  angel  left  Mary,  and  she  set  off  to  visit  Elisabeth 
either  at  Hebron  or  Juttah  (whichever  way  we  under- 
stand the  ti'c  T)]v  6peipi]v  ili;  ttoXiv  'lovSa,  Luke  i,  39), 
where  the  latter  lived  with  her  husband  Zacharias, 
about  twenty  miles  to  the  south  of  Jerusalem,  and  there- 
fore at  a  very  considerable  distance  from  Nazareth. 
Immediately  on  her  entrance  into  the  house  she  was 
saluted  by  Elisabeth  as  the  mother  of  her  Lord,  and  had 
evidence  of  the  truth  of  the  angel's  saying  with  regard 
to  her  cousin.  She  embodied  her  feelings  of  exultation 
and  thankfidness  in  the  hymn  known  under  the  name 
of  the  Magnificat.  Whether  this  was  uttered  by  im- 
mediate inspiration,  in  reply  to  EHsabeth's  salutation, 
or  composed  during  her  journey  from  Nazareth,  or  was 
written  at  a  later  period  of  her  three  months'  visit  at 
Hebron,  does  not  appear  with  certainty.  The  hymn  is 
founded  on  Hannah's  song  of  thankfulness  (1  Sam.  ii,  1- 
10),  and  exhibits  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  Psalms, 
prophetical  writings,  and  books  of  Moses,  from  which 
sources  almost  every  expression  in  it  is  drawn.  The 
most  remarkable  clause,  "  From  henceforth  all  genera- 
tions shall  call  me  blessed,"  is  borrowed  from  Leah's  ex- 
clamation on  the  birth  of  Asher  (Gen.  xxx,  13).  The 
same  sentiment  and  expression  are  also  found  in  Prov. 
xxxi,  28 ;  Mai.  iii,  12 ;  James  v,  1 1.  In  the  latter  place 
the  word  fiaKapiZ.u)  is  rendered  with  great  exactness 
"  count  happy."  The  notion  that  there  is  conveyed  in 
the  word  any  anticipation  of  her  bearing  the  title  of 
"  Blessed"  arises  solely  from  ignorance. 

^  Various  opinions  have  been  lield  as  to  the  purpose  of 
divine  Wisdom  in  causing  tlic  Saviour  to  be  born  of  a 
betrothed  rather  than  a  disem/aficd  virgin.  It  seems 
eminently  seemly  and  decorous  that  tlie  mother  of  the 
Messiah  should  have  some  one  to  vouch  for  her  virgin- 
ity, and  to  act  as  her  protector  and  the  foster-father  of 
her  child,  and  that  he  shouW  be  one  who,  as  heir  of  the 
throne  of  David,  would  give  to  his  ailopted  Son  the  legal 
rights  to  the  same  dignity,  while  of  all  persons  he  was 
the  most  interested  in  resisting  the  claims  of  a  pretend- 
3r.     Origen,  following  Ignatius,  thinks  it  was  in  order 


to  baffle  the  cunning  of  the  devil,  and  keep  him  in  igno- 
rance of  the  fact  of  the  Lord's  advent. 

Mary  returned  to  Nazareth  shortly  before  the  birth 
of  John  the  Baptist,  and  continued  living  at  her  own 
home.  In  the  course  of  a  few  months  Joseph  became 
aware  that  slie  was  with  child,  and  determined  on  giv- 
ing her  a  bill  of  divorcement,  instead  of  yielding  her  up 
to  tlie  law  to  suffer  the  penalty  which  he  supposed  that 
she  had  incurred.  Being,  however,  warned  and  satisfied 
by  an  angel  who  appeared  to  him  in  a  dream,  he  took 
her  to  his  own  house.  It  was  soon  after  this,  as  it 
would  seem,  that  Augustus's  decree  was  promulgated, 
and  Joseph  and  ]\Iary  travelled  to  Bethlehem  to  have 
their  names  enrolled  in  the  registers  (B.C.  6)  by  way  of 
preparation  for  the  taxing,  which,  however,  was  not 
comi)leted  till  several  years  afterwards  (A.D.  C),  in  the 
governorship  of  Quirinus.  They  reached  Bethlehem, 
and  there  JIary  brought  forth  the  Saviour  of  the  world, 
and  humbly  laid  him  in  a  manger. 

Bethlehem  stands  on  the  narrow  ridge  of  a  long  gray 
hill  running  east  and  west,  and  its  position  suggests  the 
difficulty  that  a  crowd  of  travellers  woidd  have  in  find- 
ing shelter  within  it.  As  early  as  the  second  century, 
a  neighboring  cave  was  fixed  upon  as  the  stable  where 
Joseph  abode,  and  where  accordingly  Christ  was  born 
and  laid  in  the  manger.  The  hill-sides  are  covered 
with  vinej-ards,  and  a  range  of  convents  occupies  the 
height,  and  incloses  within  it  the  cave  of  the  nativity ; 
but  there  are  grassy  slopes  adjoining,  where  the  shep- 
herds may  have  kept  watch  over  their  flocks,  seen  the 
vision  of  the  angelic  hosts,  and  heard  the  divine  song 
of  "  Glory  to  God  in  the  highest,  on  earth  peace  and 
good  will  towards  men."  Full  of  wonder  and  hope,  they 
sought  the  lowly  sojourn  of  the  Virgin,  and  there  saw 
with  their  own  eyes  what  the  Lord  had  made  known  to 
them.  But  while  the}'  published  abroad  and  spread  the 
wondrous  tale,  j\Iary  kept  all  these  things  and  pondered 
them  in  her  heart. 

3.  The  circumcision,  the  adoration  of  the  wise  men, 
and  the  presentation  in  the  Temple,  are  rather  scenes  in 
the  life  of  Christ  than  in  that  of  his  mother.  The  pres- 
entation in  the  Temple  might  not  take  place  till  forty 
days  after  the  birth  of  the  child.  During  this  period 
the  mother,  according  to  the  law  of  Moses,  was  unclean 
(Lev.  xii).  In  the  present  case  there  could  be  no  ne- 
cessity for  offering  the  sacrifice  and  making  atonement 
beyond  that  of  obedience  to  the  Mosaic  precept ;  but 
already  he,  and  his  mother  for  him,  were  acting  upon 
the  principle  of  fulfilling  all  righteousness.  The  pover- 
ty of  Mary  and  Joseph,  it  may  be  noted,  is  shown  by 
their  making  the  offering  of  the  poor.  But  though  to- 
kens of  poverty  attended  her  on  this  occasion,  she  was 
met  by  notes  of  welcome  and  hymns  of  grateful  joy  by 
the  worthiest  and  most  venerable  of  Jerusalem.  Sim- 
eon, we  know,  was  a  just  and  devout  man — one  who  wait- 
ed for  the  consolation  of  Israel,  and  had  revelations  from 
the  Holy  Ghost ;  but  tradition  also  says  that  he  was  the 
great  rabbi  Simeon,  the  son  of  Hdlel,  and  father  of  Ga- 
maliel, in  whose  days,  according  to  the  rabbins,  the  birth 
of  Jesus  of  Nazareth  took  place  (RosenmiiUer,  quoted 
by  Wordsworth).  Anna,  too,  who  had  spent  her  long 
life  in  daily  attendance  at  the  worship  of  the  Temple, 
was  evidently  the  centre  of  a  devout  circle,  whose  minds 
had  been  led  by  the  study  of  Scripture  to  an  expecta- 
tion of  redemption.  IMary  wondered  when  Simeon  took 
her  child  into  his  arms,  and  received  him  as  the  prom- 
ised salvation  of  the  Lord,  the  light  of  the  Gentiles,  and 
the  glory  of  Israel;  but  it  was  the  wonder  of  joy  at  the 
miexpected  confirmation  of  the  promise  already  given  to 
her  by  the  angel.  The  song  of  Simeon  and  the  thanks- 
giving of  Anna,  like  the  wonder  of  the  shepherds  and 
the  adoration  of  the  magi,  only  incidentally  refer  to 
Mary.  One  passage  alone  in  Simeon's  address  is  spe- 
cially directed  to  her :  "  Yea,  a  sword  shall  pierce  through 
thy  own  soul  also."  The  exact  purport  of  these  words 
is  doubtfid.  A  common  patristic  explanation  refers 
them  to  the  pang  of  unbelief  which  shot  through  her 


MARY 


835 


MARY 


bosom  on  seeing  her  Son  expire  on  the  cross  (Tertullian, 
Origen,  Basil,  Cyril,  etc.).  By  modern  interpreters  it  is 
more  commonly  referred  to  the  pangs  of  grief  which  she 
experienced  on  witnessing  the  sufferings  of  her  Son. 

In  the  tlight  into  Egypt,  Mary  and  the  babe  had  the 
support  and  protection  of  Joseph,  as  well  as  in  their  re- 
turn from  thence  in  the  following  year,  on  the  death  of 
Herod  the  Great  (B.C.  4).  It  appears  to  have  been  the 
intention  of  Joseph  to  settle  at  liethlehera  at  this  time, 
as  his  home  at  Nazareth  had  been  broken  up  for  more 
than  a  year;  but  on  finding  how  Herod's  dominions  had 
been  disposed  of,  he  changed  his  mind  and  returned  to 
his  old  place  of  abode,  thinking  that  the  child's  life 
would  be  safer  in  the  tetrarchy  of  Antipas  than  in  that 
of  Archelaus.  It  is  possible  that  Joseph  might  have 
been  himself  a  native  of  Bethlehem,  and  that  before 
this  time  he  had  only  been  a  visitor  at  Nazareth,  drawn 
thither  by  his  betrothal  and  marriage.  In  that  case, 
his  fear  of  Archelaus  would  make  him  exchange  his  own 
native  town  for  that  of  j\Iary. 

4.  Henceforward,  until  the  beginning  of  our  Lord's 
ministn,' — i.  c.  from  B.C.  4  to  A.D.  25 — we  may  picture 
Mary  to  ourselves  as  living  in  Nazareth,  in  a  humble 
sphere  of  life,  the  wife  of  Joseph  the  carpenter,  ponder- 
ing over  the  sayings  of  the  angels,  of  the  shepherds,  of 
Simeon,  and  of  those  of  her  Son,  as  the  latter  "  increased 
in  wisdom  and  stature,  and  in  favor  with  God  and  man" 
(Luke  ii,  52).  Two  circumstances  alone,  so  far  as  we 
know,  broke  in  on  the  otherwise  even  How  of  the  still 
waters  of  her  life.  One  of  these  was  the  temporary  loss 
of  her  Son  when  he  remained  Ijehind  in  Jerusalem  (A.D. 
8)  ;  the  other  v/as  the  death  of  Joseph.  The  exact  date 
of  this  last  event  -we  cannot  determine,  but  it  was  prob- 
ably not  long  after  the  other.    See  Joseph. 

5.  From  the  time  at  which  our  Lord's  ministry  com- 
menced, Mary  is  -withdrawn  almost  wholly  from  sight. 
Four  times  only,  as  detailed  below,  is  the  veil  removed 
which,  surely  not  without  reason,  is  thrown  over  her. 
If  to  these  we  add  two  references  to  her,  the  first  by  her 
Nazarene  fellovz-citizens  (Matt,  xiii,  54,  55;  Mark  vi,  1- 
3),  the  second  by  a  woman  in  the  multitude  (Luke  xi, 
27),  we  have  specified  every  event  kno^^^^  to  us  in  her 
life.  It  is  noticeable  that,  on  every  occasion  of  our 
Lord's  addressing  her,  or  speaking  of  her,  there  is  a 
sound  of  reproof  in  his  words,  with  the  exception  of  the 
last  words  spoken  to  her  from  the  cross. 

(1.)  The  marriage  at  Cana  in  Galilee  (John  ii)  took 
place  in  the  few  months  which  intervened  between 
the  baptism  of  Christ  and  the  Passover  of  the  year  26. 
Wlien  Jesus  was  found  by  his  mother  and  Joseph  in  the 
Temple  in  the  year  8,  we  find  him  repudiating  the  name 
of  '"father"  as  applied  to  Joseph.  ^' Thy  father  and  I 
have  sought  thee  sorrowing."  "  How  is  it  that  ye 
sought  me  ?  Wist  ye  not  that  I  must  be  at  [not  Jo- 
.seph's  anil  yours,  but]  my  Father's  house?"  (Luke  ii,48, 
49).  Now,  in  like  manner,  at  his  first  miracle,  which  in- 
augurates his  ministrj',  he  solemnly  withdraws  himself 
from  the  authority  of  his  earthly  mother.  This  is  Au- 
gustine's explanation  of  the  "What  have  I  to  do  with 
thee  ?  my  hour  is  not  yet  come."  It  was  his  humanity, 
not  his  divinity,  which  came  from  !Mary.  While,  there- 
fore, he  was  acting  in  his  divine  character,  he  could  not 
acknowledge  her,  nor  does  he  acknowledge  her  again 
until  he  was  hanging  on  the  cross,  when,  in  that  nature 
which  he  took  from  her,  he  was  about  to  submit  to 
death  (St.  Aug.  Comm.  in  Joan.  Evany,  tract  viii,  vol.  iii, 
p.  1455  [Paris,  1845,  edit.  Migne]).  That  the  words  T/ 
f/(oi  Ka\  crot;=^bl  ip  rt?3  imply  reproof,  is  certain 
(comp.  Matt,  viii,  29;  Mark  i,  24 ;  and  Sept.,  Judg.  xi, 
12;  1  Kings  xvii,  18;  2  Kings  iii,  13),  and  such  is  the 
patristic  explanation  of  them  (see  Iren.  Adv.  Hmr.  iii, 
18 ;  Apnd  Bihl.  Pair.  Max.  tom.  ii,  part  ii,  p.  293 ;  St. 
Chrysost.  Jlom.  in  Joan.  xxi).  But  the  reproof  is  of  a 
gentle  kind  (Trench,  On  the  Miracles,  p.  102  [London, 
1856]  ;  Alford,  Comm.  ad  loc. ;  Wordsworth,  Comm.  ad 
loc).     Mary  seems  to  have  understood  it,  and  accord- 


ingly to  have  drawn  back,  desiring  the  ser%'ants  to  pay 
attention  to  her  divine  Son  (Olshausen,  Comm.  ad  loc). 
The  modern  Komanist  translation,  "  What  is  that  to  me 
and  to  thee  ?"  is  not  a  mistake,  because  it  is  a  wilful 
misrepresentation  (Douay  version  ;  Orsini,  Life  of  Mary. 
etc.;  see  The  Catholic  Layman,  p.  117  [Dublin,  1852]). 
Lightfoot  supposes  the  marriage  to  have  taken  place 
in  the  house  of  Alph»us,  Mary's  brother-in-law,  as  his 
son  Simon  is  called  the  Canaanite,  or  man  of  Cana. 
But  this  terra  rather  describes  him  as  a  former  Zealot. 
See  Zelotes.  It  is  clear  that  Mary  felt  herself  to  be 
invested  with  some  authority  in  the  house.  Jesus  was 
naturally  there  as  her  Son,  and  the  disciples  as  those 
whom  he  had  called  and  adopted  as  his  especial  friends. 
As  yet,  the  Lord  had  done  no  miracle ;  and  it  has  been 
questioned  whether  INIary,  in  drawing  his  attention  to 
the  failure  of  the  wine,  meant  to  invoke  his  miracidous 
powers,  or  merely  to  submit  the  fact  to  his  judgment, 
that  he  might  do  what  was  best  under  the  circumstances 
— either  withdrawing  from  the  feast  with  his  disciples, 
or  engaging  the  attention  of  the  guests  by  his  discourse. 
The  better  opinion,  however,  seems  to  be  that  she  knew 
he  was  about  now  to  enter  on  his  public  ministry,  and 
that  miracles  would  be  wrought  by  him  in  proof  of  his 
divine  mission ;  and  the  early  fathers  do  not  scruple  to 
say  that  a  desire  to  gain  eclat  by  the  powers  of  her  Son 
was  one  motive  for  her  wish  that  he  should  supply  the 
deficiency  of  the  wine,  and  that  by  his  reply  he  meant 
to  condemn  this  feeling. 

(2.)  Capernaum  (John  ii,  12)  and  Nazareth  (Matt,  iv, 
13  ;  xiii,  54  ;  Mark  vi,  1)  appear  to  have  been  the  resi- 
dence of  Mary  for  a  considerable  period.  The  next  time 
tliat  she  is  brought  before  us  we  find  her  at  Capernaum 
(Matt,  xii,  46;  Mark  iii,  21,  31;  Luke  viii,  19).  It  is 
the  autumn  of  the  year  27 — a  year  and  a  half  after  the 
miracle  wrought  at  the  marriage-feast  in  Cana.  The 
Lord  had  in  the  mean  time  attended  two  feasts  of  the 
Passover,  and  had  twice  made  a  circuit  throughout  Gal- 
ilee, teaching  and  working  miracles.  His  fame  had 
spread,  and  crowds  came  pressing  round  him,  so  that 
he  had  hot  even  time  "  to  eat  bread."  Mary  was  still 
living  with  her  other  sons,  James,  Joses,  Simon,  Jude, 
and  their  sisters  (Matt,  xiii,  55) ;  and  she  and  they 
heard  of  the  toils  which  he  was  undergoing,  and  they 
understood  that  he  was  denying  himself  every  relaxa- 
tion from  his  labors.  Their  human  affection  conquered 
their  faith.  They  thought  that  he  was  killing  himself, 
and,  with  an  indignation  arising  from  love,  they  ex- 
claimed that  he  was  beside  himself,  and  set  off  to  bring 
him  home  either  by  entreaty  or  compulsion.  He  was 
surrounded  by  eager  crowds,  and  they  could  not  reach 
him.  They  therefore  sent  a  message,  begging  him  to 
allow  them  to  speak  to  him.  This  message  was  handed 
on  from  one  person  in  the  crowd  to  another,  tUl  at 
length  it  was  reported  aloud  to  him.  Again  he  re- 
proves ;  again  he  refuses  to  admit  any  authority  on  the 
part  of  his  relatives,  or  any  privilege  on  account  of  their 
relationship.  "Who  is  my  mother,  and  who  are  my 
brethren?  And  he  stretched  forth  his  hand  towards 
his  disciples,  and  said,  Behold  my  mother  and  my  breth- 
ren !  For  whosoever  shall  do  the  will  of  my  Father 
which  is  in  heaven,  the  same  is  my  brother,  and  sister, 
and  mother"  (Matt,  xii,  48,  49).  Compare  Theoph.  in 
Marc,  iii,  32 ;  St.  Chrys.  Ilom.  xliv  in  IMatt. ;  St.  Aug. 
in.  Joan,  tract  x,  who  all  of  them  point  out  that  the 
blessedness  of  Mary  consists,  not  so  much  in  having 
borne  Christ,  as  in  believing  on  him  and  in  obeying  his 
words  (see  also  Qiimst.  et  Besp.  ad  Orthodox,  cxxxvi ; 
ap.  St.  Just.  Mart,  in  the  Kihl.  Max.  Patr.  tom.  ii.  pt.  ii. 
p.  138).  This,  indeed,  is  the  lesson  taught  directly  by 
our  Lord  himself  in  the  next  passage  in  which  reference 
is  made  to  Mary.  In  the  midst  or  at  the  completion  of 
one  of  his  addresses  on  the  same  occasion,  a  woman  of 
the  multitude,  whose  soul  had  been  stirred  by  his  words, 
cried  out,  "  Blessed  is  the  womb  that  bare  thee,  and  the 
paps  which  thou  hast  sucked  !"  Immediately  the  Lord 
replied, "  Yea,  rather,  blessed  are  they  that  hear  the  word 


MARY 


836 


MARY 


of  God,  and  keep  it"  (Luke  xi,  27).  lie  docs  not  either 
aflirin  or  deny  anything  ^vityl  regard  to  the  direct  bear- 
ing of  the  woman's  exclamation,  but  passes  that  by  as  a 
tiling  indifferent,  in  order  to  point  out  in  -what  alone  the 
true  blessedness  of  his  mother  and  of  all  consists.  This 
is  the  full  force  of  the  {.ttvovvye  with  which  he  com- 
mences his  reply. 

(3.)  The  next  scene  in  ]Marj''s  life  brings  us  to  the 
foot  of  the  cross.  She  was  standing  there  with  her  sis- 
ter Mary  and  Mary  Magdalene,  and  Salome,  and  other 
women,  having  no  doubt  followed  her  Son  as  she  was 
able  throughout  the  terrible  morning  of  Good  Friday. 
It  was  about  3  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  and  he  was  about 
to  give  up  his.  spirit.  His  divine  mission  was  now,  as 
it  were,  accomplished.  AVhile  his  ministry  was  in  prog- 
ress he  had  withdrawn  himself  from  her  that  he  might 
do  his  Father's  work.  But  now  the  hour  had  come 
when  his  human  relationship  might  again  be  recognised, 
'•Tunc  enim  agnovit,"  says  Augustine,  "quando  illud 
quod  peperit  moriebatur"'  (St.  Aug.  In  Joan.  ix).  Stand- 
ing near  the  company  of  the  women  was  the  apostle 
John,  and,  with  almost  his  last  words,  Christ  commend- 
ed his  mother  to  the  care  of  him  who  had  borne  the 
name  of ''  the  Disciple  whom  Jesus  loved :"  "  Woman,  be- 
hold thy  Son."  "  Commendat  homo  homini  hominem," 
says  Augustine.  From  that  hour  John  assures  us  that 
he  took  her  to  his  own  abode.  If  by  "  that  hour"  the 
evangelist  means  immediately  after  the  words  were 
spoken,  Mary  was  not  present  at  the  last  scene  of  all. 
The  sword  had  sufficiently  pierced  her  soul,  and  she  was 
spared  the  hearing  of  the  last  loud  cry,  and  the  sight  of 
the  bowed  head.  Ambrose  considers  the  chief  purpose 
of  our  Lord's  words  to  have  been  a  desire  to  make  man- 
ifest the  truth  that  the-  redemption  was  his  work  alone, 
AvhUe  he  gave  human  affection  to  his  mother.  "  Non 
egebat  adjutore  ad  omnium  redemptionem.  Suscepit 
quidem  matris  affectum,  sed  non  qua;sivit  hominis  aux- 
ilium''  (St.  Amb.  Expos.  Evam/.  Luc.  x,  132).  But  it  is 
more  probable  that  she  continued  at  the  spot  till  all  was 
over.     See  Crucifixion. 

(4.)  A  veil  is  drawn  over  her  sorrow,  and  over  her  joy 
which  succeeded  that  sorrow.  Mediajval  imagination 
has  supposed,  but  Scripture  does  not  state,  that  her  Son 
appeared  to  Mary  after  his  resurrection  from  the  dead. 
(See,  for  example,  Ludolph  of  Saxony,  FiVa  Christi  [Ly- 
ons, 1642],  p.  6G6 ;  and  Rupert,  De  Divinis  Officils  [Ven- 
ice, 1751],  vii,  25,  tom.  iv,  p.  92).  Ambrose  is  considered 
to  be  the  first  writer  -who  suggested  the  idea,  and  refer- 
ence is  made  to  his  treatise  De  Virginitate,  i,  3 ;  but  it 
is  quite  certain  that  the  text  has  been  corrupted,  and 
that  it  is  of  Mary  Magdalene  that  he  is  there  speaking. 
(Comp.  his  Exposition  of  St.  Luke,  x,  156.  See  note  of 
the  Benedictine  edition  [Paris,  1790],  ii,  217.)  Another 
reference  is  usually  given  to  Anselm.  The  treatise 
quoted  is  not  Anselm's,  but  Eadmer's.  (See  Eadmer, 
De  ExceUentia  Marice,  chap,  v,  appended  to  Anselm's 
Works  [Paris,  1721],  p.  138.)  Ten  appearances  are  re- 
lated by  the  evangelists  as  having  occurred  in  the  forty 
days  intervening  between  Easter  and  Ascension  Day, 
but  none  to  JMary.  She  was  doubtless  living  at  Jerusa- 
lem with  John,  cherished  with  the  tenderness  which  her 
tender  soul  would  have  speciall_v  needed,  and  which  un- 
doubtedly she  found  pre-eminently  in  John.  We  have 
no  record  of  her  presence  at  the  Ascension.  Arator,  a 
writer  ,f  the  6th  century,  describes  her  as  being  at  the 
time  not  on  the  spot,  but  in  .Jerusalem  (Arat.  Z>e  Act. 
Apost.  1. 50,  apud  IMigne,  Ixviii,  95  [Paris,  1848],  quoted 
by  Wordsworth,  Gk.  Test.  Com.  on  the  Acts,  i,  14).  We 
have  no  account  of  her  being  present  at  the  descent  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  on  the  day  of  Pentecost.  What  we  do 
read  of  her  is,  that  she  remained  steadfast  in  prayer  in 
the  upper  room  at  Jerusalem  with  Mary  IMagdalene  and 
Salome,  and  those  known  as  Ihe  Lord's  brothers  and  the 
apostles  (Acts  i,  14).  This  is  the  last  view  t'liat  we  have 
of  her.  Holy  Scripture  leaves  her  engaged  m  prayer 
(see  Wordsworth,  as  cited  above). 

C.  From  this  point  forwards  we  know  nothing  of  her. 


It  is  probable  that  the  rest  of  her  life  was  spent  in  Jeru- 
salem with  John  (see  Epiph.  liar,  78).  According  to 
one  tradition,  the  beloved  disciple  would  not  leave  Pales- 
tine until  she  had  expired  in  his  arms  (see  Tholuck,  Light 
from  the  Cross,  vol.  ii,  Serm.  x,  p.  234  [Edinb.  1857]) ; 
and  it  is  added  that  she  lived  and  died  in  the  Coenacu- 
lum,  in  what  is  now  the  IVIosque  of  the  Tomb  of  David, 
the  traditional  chamber  of  the  Last  Supper  (Stanley,  S. 
and  P.  ch.xiv^,  p.  456).  Other  traditions  make  her  journey 
with  John  to  Ephesus,  and  there  die  in  extreme  old  age. 
It  was  believed  by  some  in  the  5th  century  that  she  was 
buried  at  Ephesus  (see  Cone.  Ephes.,  Cone.  Labb.  iii,  574 
«) ;  by  others,  in  the  same  centurj',  that  she  was  buried 
at  Gethsemane,  and  this  appears  to  have  been  the  infor- 
mation given  to  Marcian  and  PiUcheria  by  Juvenal  of 
JeriLsalem.  As  soon  as  we  lose  the  guidance  of  Scrip  . 
ture,  we  have  nothing  from  which  we  can  derive  any 
sure  knowledge  about  her.  The  darlaiess  in  ^v'hich  we 
are  left  is  in  itself  most  instructive. 

7.  The  character  of  the  Virgin  Mary  is  not  drawn  by 
any  of  the  evangelists,  but  some  of  its  lineaments  are 
incidentall)'  manifested  in  the  fragmentary  record  which 
is  given  of  her.  They  are  to  be  ibund  for  the  most  part 
in  Luke's  Gospel,  whence  an  attempt  has  been  made,  by 
a  curious  mixture  of  the  imaginative  and  rationalistic 
methods  of  interpretation,  to  explain  the  old  legend 
which  tells  us  that  Luke  painted  the  Virgin's  portrait 
(Calmet,  Kitto,  Migne,  Mrs.  Jameson).  We  might  have 
expected  greater  details  from  John  than  from  the  other 
evangelists,  but  in  his  Gospel  we  learn  nothing  of  her 
except  what  may  be  gathered  from  the  scene  at  Cana 
and  at  the  cross.  It  is  clear  from  Luke's  account,  though 
without  any  such  intimation  we  might  rest  assured  of 
the  fact,  that  her  youth  had  been  spent  in  the  study  of 
the  holy  Scriptures,  and  that  she  had  set  before  her  the 
example  of  the  holy  women  of  the  Old  Testament  as 
her  model.  This  would  appear  from  the  Magnificat 
(Luke  i,  46).  The  same  hymn,  so  far  as  it  emanated 
from  herself,  would  show  no  little  power  of  mind  as  well 
as  warmth  of  spirit.  Her  faith  and  humilitj'  exhibit 
themselves  in  her  immediate  surrender  of  herself  to  the 
divine  will,  though  ignorant  how  that  will  should  be  ac- 
complished (Luke  i,  38) ;  her  energy  and  earnestness,  ijl) 
her  journey  from  Nazareth  to  Hebron  (Luke  i,  39);  her 
happy  thankfuhiess,  in  her  song  of  joy  (Luke  i,  48) ;  her 
silent,  musing  thoughtfulness,  in  her  pondering  over  the 
shepherds'  visit  (Luke  ii,  19),  and  in  her  keeping  her 
Son's  words  in  her  heart  (Luke  ii,  51),  though  she  could 
not  fully  understand  their  import.  Again,  her  humility 
is  seen  m  her  drawing  back,  yet  without  anger,  after  re- 
ceiving reproof  at  Cana,  in  Galilee  (John  ii,  5),  and  in 
the  remarkable  manner  in  which  she  shuns  putting  her- 
self forward  throughout  the  whole  of  her  Son's  ministry, 
or  after  his  removal  from  earth.  Once  only  does  she 
attempt  to  interfere  with  her  divine  Son's  freedom  of 
action  (Matt,  xii,  4G;  Mark  iii,  31;  Luke  viii,  19);  and 
even  here  we  can  hardly  blame,  for  she  seems  to  have 
been  roused,  not  by  arrogance  and  by  a  desire  to  show 
her  authority  and  relationship,  as  Chrysostom  supposes 
{Horn,  xliv  in  Matt.),  but  by  a  ^voman's  and  a  mother's 
feelings  of  affection  and  fear  for  him  whom  she  loved. 
It  was  part  of  that  exquisite  tenderness  which  ajipears 
throughout  to  have  belonged  to  her.  In  a  word,  so  far 
as  Mary  is  portrayed  to  us  in  Scripture,  she  is,  as  we 
should  have  expected,  the  most  tender,  the  most  faithful, 
humble,  patient,  and  loving  of  women,  but  a  woman 
still.     See  Niemeyer,  Charakt.  i,  58. 

II.  Christian  Legends. — These,  as  might  naturally  be 
expected,  played  an  important  part  in  the  traditional 
historj-  of  Mary.  They  began  to  appear  probablj'  in  the 
earh^  part  of  the  3d  century,  and  were  usualh-  published 
under  false  names.  Of  these  the  apocryphal  writings 
called  the  Protevangelium  and  the  Gospfl  of  the  Birth 
of  Mary  are  among  the  earlier  specimens.  We  give  at 
considerable  length  their  contents  on  this  head. 

1.  The  early  Life  of  Mary. — According  to  these  apoc- 
ryphal accounts,  Joachim  and  Anna  were  both  of  the 


MARY 


837 


MARY 


house  of  David.  The  abode  of  the  former  was  Naza- 
reth, the  latter  passed  her  early  years  at  Bethlehem. 
Tliey  lived  piously  in  the  sight  of  God,  and  faultlessly 
before  man,  dividing  their  substance  into  three  portions, 
one  of  which  they  devoted  to  the  service  of  the  Temple, 
another  to  the  poor,  and  the  third  to  their  own  w-jnts. 
So  twenty  years  of  their  live?  passed  silently  away. 
But  at  the  end  of  this  period  Joachim  went  to  Jrrusa- 
lem  with  some  others  of  his  tribe,  to  make  his  usual  of- 
fering at  the  Feast  of  the  Dedication.  It  chanced  that 
Issachar  was  high-priest  (Gospel  of  Birth  of  Mary) ; 
that  Keuben  was  high-priest  (Protevangelion).  The 
high-priest  scorned  Joachim,  and  drove  him  roughly 
away,  asking  how  he  dared  to  present  himself  in  com- 
pany with  those  who  had  children,  while  he  had  none ; 
and  he  refused  to  accept  his  offerings  until  he  should 
have  begotten  a  child,  for  the  Scripture  said,  "  Cursed 
is  every  one  who  does  not  beget  a  man-child  in  Israel." 
Joachim  was  ashamed  before  his  friends  and  neighbors, 
and  lie  retired  into  the  wilderness  and  lixed  his  tent 
there,  and  fasted  forty  days  and  forty  nights.  At  the 
end  of  this  period  an  angel  appeared  to  him,  and  told 
him  that  his  wife  should  conceive,  and  should  bring 
forth  a  daughter,  and  he  should  call  her  name  Mary. 
Anna  meantime  was  much  distressed  at  her  husbantl's 
absence,  and  being  reproached  by  her  maid  Judith  with 
her  barrenness,  she  was  overcome  with  grief  of  spirit. 
In  her  sadness  she  went  into  her  garden  to  walk,  dressed 
in  her  wedding-dress.  She  there  sat  down  under  a  lau- 
rel-tree, and  looked  up  and  spied  among  the  branches  a 
sparrow's  nest,  and  she  bemoaned  herself  as  more  miser- 
able than  the  very  birds,  for  they  were  fruitful  and  she 
was  barren ;  and  she  prayed  that  she  might  have  a 
child,  even  as  Sarai  was  blessed  with  Isaac.  At  this 
moment  t\vo  angels  appeared  to  her,  and  promised  her 
that  she  should  have  a  child  who  should  be  spoken  of 
in  all  the  world.  Joachim  returned  joyfully  to  his 
home,  and  -when  the  time  was  accomplished  Anna 
brought  forth  a  daughter,  and  they  called  her  name 
Mar}\  Now  the  child  Mary  increased  in  strength  day 
by  day,  and  at  nine  months  of  age  she  walked  nine 
steps.  When  she  was  three  j'ears  old  her  parents 
brought  her  to  the  Temple,  to  dedicate  her  to  the  Lord. 
There  were  fifteen  stairs  up  to  the  Temple,  and,  while 
Joseph  and  Mary  were  changing  their  dress,  she  -walked 
up  them  without  help ;  and  the  high-priest  placed  her 
upon  the  third  step  of  the  altar,  and  she  danced  with 
her  feet,  and  all  the  house  of  Israel  loved  her.  Then 
Mary  remained  at  the  Temple  until  she  was  twelve 
(Prot.),  fourteen  (G.  B.  M.),  years  old,  ministered  to  by 
the  angels,  and  advancing  in  perfection  as  in  years.  At 
this  time  the  high-priest  commanded  all  the  virgins 
that  were  in  the  Temple  to  return  to  their  homes  and 
to  be  married.  But  IMary  refused,  for  she  said  that  she 
had  vowed  virginity  to  the  Lord.  Thus  the  high-priest 
was  brought  into  a  perplexit)-,  and  he  had  recourse  to 
God  to  inquire  what  he  should  do.  Then  a  voice  from 
the  ark  answered  him  (G.  B.  M.),  an  angel  spake  unto 
him  (Prot.) ;  and  they  gathered  together  all  the  widow- 
ers in  Israel  (Prot.),  all  the  marriageable  men  of  the 
house,  of  David  (G.  B.  M.),  and  desired  them  to  bring 
each  man  his  rod.  Among  them  came  Joseph  and 
brought  his  rod,  but  he  shunned  to  present  it,  because 
he  was  an  old  man  and  had  children.  Therefore  the 
other  rods  were  presented  and  no  sign  occurred.  Then 
it  was  found  that  Joseph  had  not  presented  his  rod; 
and  behold,  as  soon  as  he  had  presented  it,  a  dove  came 
forth  from  the  rod  and  fiew  upon  the  head  of  Joseph 
(Prot.) ;  a  dove  came  from  heaven  and  pitched  on  the 
rod  ((}.  B.  M.).  So  Joseph,  in  spite  of  his  reluctance, 
was  compelled  to  betroth  himself  to  Jlary,  and  he  re- 
turned to  Bethlehem  to  make  preparations  for  his  mar- 
riage (G.  B.  M.) ;  he  betook  himself  to  his  occupation 
of  building  houses  (Prot.) ;  while  Mary  went  back  to 
her  parents'  house  in  Galilee.  Then  it  chanced  that 
the  priests  needed  a  new  veil  for  the  Temple,  and  seven 
virgins  cast  lots  to  make  different  parts  of  it ;  and  the 


lot  to  spin  the  true  purple  fell  to  Mary.  As  she  went 
out  with  a  pitcher  to  draw  water,  she  heard  a  voice  say- 
ing to  her,  "Hail,  thou  that  art  highly  favored,  the 
Lord  is  with  thee.  Blessed  art  thou  among  women '." 
and  she  looked  round  with  trembling  to  see  whence  the 
voice  came ;  and  she  laid  down  the  pitcher  and  went 
into  the  house,  and  to«k  the  purple  and  sat  down  to 
work  at  it.  But  behold  the  angel  Gabriel  stood  by  her 
and  filled  the  chamber  with  prodigious  light,  and  said, 
"  Fear  not,"  etc.  When  Mary  had  finished  the  purple, 
she  took  it  to  the  high-priest ;  and,  having  received  his 
blessing,  went  to  visit  her  cousin  Elisabeth,  and  returned 
back  again.  Then  Joseph  returned  to  his  home  from 
building  houses  (Prot.) ;  came  into  Galilee,  to  marry  the 
Virgm  to  whom  he  was  betrotlied  (G.  B.  M.),  and  find- 
ing her  with  child,  he  resolved  to  put  her  away  private- 
ly ;  but  bemg  warned  in  a  dream,  he  relinquished  his 
purpose  and  took  her  to  his  house.  Then  came  Annas 
the  scribe  to  visit  Joseph,  and  he  went  back  and  told 
the  priest  that  Joseph  had  committed  a  great  crime,  ibr 
be  had  privately  married  the  Virgin  whom  he  had  re- 
ceived out  of  the  Temple,  and  had  not  made  it  known 
to  the  children  of  Israel.  So  the  priest  sent  his  ser- 
vants, and  they  found  that  she  was  with  child ;  and  he 
called  them  to  him,  and  Joseph  denied  that  the  child 
was  his,  and  the  priest  made  Joseph  drink  the  bitter 
water  of  trial  (Numb,  v,  18),  and  sent  him  to  a  moun- 
tainous place  to  see  what  would  follow.  But  Joseph 
returned  in  perfect  health,  so  the  priest  sent  them  away 
to  their  home.  Then  after  three  months  Joseph  put 
Mary  on  an  ass  to  go  to  Bethlehem  to  be  taxed ;  and  as 
they  were  going,  INIary  besought  him  to  take  her  down, 
and  Joseph  took  her  down  and  carried  her  into  a  cave, 
and,  leaving  her  there  with  his  sons,  he  went  to  seek  a 
midwife.  As  he  went  he  looked  up,  and  he  saw  the 
clouds  astonished  and  all  creatures  amazed.  The  fowls 
stopped  in  their  flight ;  the  working  people  sat  at  their 
food,  but  did  not  eat ;  the  sheep  stood  still ;  the  shep- 
herds' lifted  hands  became  fixed ;  the  kids  were  touch- 
ing the  water  with  their  mouths,  but  did  not  drink.  A 
midwife  came  down  from  the  mountains,  and  Joseph 
took  her  with  him  to  the  cave,  and  a  bright  cloud  over- 
shadowed the  cave,  and  the  cloud  became  a  great  light, 
and  when  the  bright  light  faded  there  appeared  an  in- 
fant at  the  breast  of  INIary.  Then  the  midwife  went 
out  and  told  Salome  that  a  Virgin  had  brought  forth, 
and  Salome  would  not  believe;  and  they  came  back 
again  into  the  cave,  and  Salome  received  satisfaction, 
but  her  hand  withered  away,  nor  was  it  restored  until, 
by  the  command  of  an  angel,  she  touched  the  child, 
whereupon  she  was  straightway  cured.  See  Giles,  Co- 
dex Apocryphus  Novi  Testamenti,  p.  o3-A.7  and  66-81 
(Lond.  1862);  Jones,  On  the  New  Testament,  vol.  ii,  ch. 
xiii  and  xv  (Oxf.  1827) ;  Thilo,  Codex  Apociyjykus ;  also 
Vitce  </lo7-ississim(e  Matris  Anna pei-  F.  Petriim  Dorian- 
do,  appended  to  Ludolph  of  Saxony's  Vita  Christi  (Ly- 
ons, 1642) ;  and  a  most  audacious  Historia  Christi,  writ- 
ten in  Persian  by  the  Jesuit  P.  Jerome  Xavier,  and  ex- 
posed by  Louis  de  Dieu  (Lugd.  Bat.  1639). 

Three  spots  lay  claim  to  be  the  scene  of  the  Amnmci- 
ation.  Two  of  these  are,  as  was  to  be  expected,  in  Naz- 
areth, and  one,  as  every  one  knows,  is  in  Italy.  The 
Greeks  and  Latins  each  claim  to  be  the  guardians  of  the 
true  spot  in  Palestine ;  the  third  claimant  is  the  holy 
house  of  Loretto.  The  Greeks  point  out  the  spring  of 
water  mentioned  in  the  Protevangelion  as  confirmatory 
of  their  claim.  The  Latins  have  engraved  on  a  marble 
slab  in  the  grotto  of  their  convent  in  Nazareth  the  words 
Verhum  hie  caro  factum  est,  and  point  out  the  pillar 
which  marks  the  spot  where  the  angel  stood ;  while  the 
head  of  their  Church  is  irretrievably  committed  to  the 
wild  legend  of  Loretto.    See  Stanley,  S.  and  P.  ch.  xiv. 

In  the  Gospel  of  the  Infancy,  which  seems  to  date 
from  the  2d  century,  innumerable  miracles  are  made  to 
attend  on  Jlary  and  her  Son  during  their  sojoinn  in 
Egypt,  e.  g.  Mary  looked  with  pity  on  a  woman  who 
was  possessed,  and  immediately  Satan  came  out  of  her 


MARY 


838 


MARY 


in  the  form  of  a  young  man,  saying,  "Woe  is  me  because 
of  thee,  Mary,  and  thy  Son  !"  On  another  occasion  they 
fell  in  with  two  thieves,  named  Titus  and  Dumachus; 
and  Titus  was  gentle  and  Dumachus  was  harsh :  the 
Lady  Jlary  therefore  promised  Titus  tliat  God  should 
receive  him  on  his  right  hand.  Accordingly,  thirty- 
three  years  afterwards,  Titus  was  the  penitent  thief  who 
was  crucitied  on  the  right  hand,  and  Dumachus  was  cru- 
cified on  the  left.  These  are  sufficient  as  samijles. 
Throughout  the  book  Ave  tind  Marj'  associated  with  her 
Son,  in  the  strange  freaks  of  power  attributed  to  them, 
in  a  way  which  shows  us  whence  the  cultus  of  Mary 
took  its  origin.  See  Jones,  On  the  New  Test,  vol.  ii 
(Oxf.  1827) ;  Giles,  Codex  A230crj/phus ;  Thilo,  Codex 
Apoc7~yphus. 

2.  Mary's  later  Life. — The  foregoing  legends  of  Ma- 
ry's childhood  may  be  traced  back  as  far  as  the  third  or 
even  the  second  century.  Those  of  her  death  are  prob- 
ably of  a  later  date.  The  chief  legend  was  for  a  length 
of  time  considered  to  be  a  v^eritable  history,  ivritten  by 
Melito,  bishop  of  Sardis,  in  the  2d  century.  It  is  to  be 
found  in  the  Bihliotheca  Maxima  (torn,  ii,  pt.  ii,  p.  212), 
entitled  Sancti  Melitonis  Episcopi  Sardensis  de  Transitu 
Virc/inis  Marice  Liber;  and  there  certainly  existed  a 
book  with  this  title  at  the  end  of  the  5th.  century,  Avhich 
was  condemned  by  Pope  Gelasius  as  apocryphal  {()p. 
Gelas.  apud  Migne,  lix,  152).  Another  form  of  the  same 
legend  has  been  pubhshed  at  Elberfeld,  in  1854,  by  Maxi- 
milian Enger  in  Arabic.  He  supposes  that  it  is  an  Ara- 
bic translation  from  a  S3'riac  original.  It  was  found  in 
the  library  at  Bonn,  and  is  entitled  Joannis  ApostoU  de 
Transitu,  Beatce  Marice  Virfjinis  LAber.  It  is  perhaps 
the  same  as  that  referred  to  in  Assemani  (^Biblioth.  Orient. 
[Rome,  1725],  iii,  287),  under  the  name  oi Ilistoria  Dor- 
mitionis  et  A  ssumptionis  B.  Marim  Virginis  Joanni  Evan- 
fjelistw  /also  iiiscripta.  We  give  the  substance  of  the 
legend  with  its  main  variations. 

When  the  apostles  separated  in  order  to  evangelize 
the  world,  Mary  continued  to  live  with  John's  parents 
in  their  house  near  the  Mount  of  Olives,  and  everv  day 
she  went  out  to  pray  at  the  tomb  of  Christ,  and  at  Gol- 
gotha. But  the  Jews  had  placed  a  watch  to  prevent 
prayers  being  offered  at  these  spots,  and  the  watch  went 
into  the  city  and  told  the  chief  priests  thai  Mary  came 
daily  to  pray.  Then  the  priests  commanded  the  watch 
to  stone  her.  At  this  time,  however,  king  Abgarus  wrote 
to  Tiberius  to  desire  him  to  take  vengeance  on  the  Jews 
for  slaying  Christ.  They  feared,  therefore,  to  add  to  his 
wrath  by  slaying  IMary  also,  and  yet  they  could  not  al- 
low her  to  continue  her  prayers  at  Golgotha,  because  an 
excitement  and  tumult  was  thereby  made.  According- 
ly, they  went  and  spoke  softly  to  her,  and  slie  consented 
to  go  and  dwell  in  Bethlehem ;  and  thither  she  took 
with  her  three  holy  virgins  who  should  attend  upon  her. 
In  the  twenty-second  year  after  the  ascension  of  the 
Lord,  Mary  felt  her  heart  burn  with  an  inexpressible 
longing  to  be  with  her  Son ;  and  behold  an  angel  ap- 
peared to  her,  and  announced  to  her  that  her  soul  should 
be  taken  up  from  her  body  on  the  third  day,  and  he 
placed  a  pahn-braneh  from  paradise  in  her  hands,  and 
desired  that  it  should  be  carried  before  her  bier.  IVIary 
besought  that  the  apostles  might  be  gathered  round  her 
before  she  died,  and  the  angel  rephed  that  they  should 
come.  Then  the  Holy  Sjiirit  caught  up  John  as  he  was 
preaching  at  Ephesus,  and  Peter  as  he  was  offering  sac- 
rifice at  Home,  and  Paul  as  he  was  disputing  with  the 
Jews  near  Rome,  and  Thomas  in  the  extremity  of  Intiia, 
and  Matfliew  and  James:  these  were  all  of  tlie  apostles 
who  were  still  living;  tlien  the  Holy  Spirit  awakened 
the  dead,  Philip  and  Andrew,  and  Luke  and  Simon,  and 
Mark  and  Bartholomew;  and  all  of  them  were  snatched 
away  in  a  bright  cloud  and  found  themselves  at  Bethle- 
hem. Angels  and  powers  ^vithout  number  descended 
from  heaven  and  stood  round  about  the  house  ;  Gabriel 
stood  at  blessed  IMary's  head,  and  Micliael  at  her  feet, 
and  they  fanned  her  wiiii  their  wings;  and  Peter  and 
John  wiped  away  her  tears;  and  there  was  a  great  cry, 


and  they  all  said  "  Hail,  blessed  one !  blessed  is  the  fniit 
of  thy  womb!"  The  people  of  Bethlehem  brought  their 
sick  to  the  house,  and  they  were  all  healed.  Then  ne^vs 
of  these  things  was  carried  to  Jerusalem,  and  the  king 
sent  and  commanded  that  they  should  bring  Mary  and 
the  disciples  to  Jerusalem.  Accordingly,  horsemen  came 
to  Bethlehem  to  seize  Marj',  but  they  did  not  find  her, 
for  the  Holy  Spirit  had  taken  her  and  the  disciples  in. 
a  cloud  over  the  heads  of  the  horsemen  to  Jerusalem. 
Then  the  men  of  Jerusalem  saw  angels  ascending  and 
descending  at  the  spot  where  Mary's  house  was.  But 
the  high-priests  went  to  the  governor,  and  craved  per- 
mission to  burn  her  and  the  house  with  fire,  and  the 
governor  gave  them  permission,  and  they  brought  wood 
and  fire ;  but  as  soon  as  they  came  near  to  the  house, 
behold  there  burst  forth  a  fire  upon  them  which  con- 
sumed them  utterly.  Now  the  governor  saw  these 
things  afar  off,  and  in  the  evening  he  brought  his  son, 
who  was  sick,  to  IMary,  and  she  healed  him. 

Then,  on  the  sixth  day  of  the  week,  the  Holy  Spirit 
commanded  the  apostles  to  take  up  Mary,  and  to  carry 
her  from  Jerusalem  to  Gcthsemane,  and  as  they  went 
the  Jews  saw  them.  Then  drew  near  Juphia,  one  of 
the  high-priests,  and  attempted  to  overthrow  the  litter 
on  which  she  was  carried,  for  the  other  priests  had 
conspired  with  him,  and  they  hoped  to  cast  her  down 
into  the  valley,  and  to  throw  wood_  upon  her,  and  to 
burn  her  body  with  fire.  But  as  soon  as  Juphia  had 
touched  the  litter  the  angel  smote  off  his  arms  with  a 
fiery  sword,  and  the  arms  remained  fastened  to  the  lit- 
ter. Then  he  cried  to  the  disciples  and  Peter  for  help, 
and  they  said,  ''Ask  it  of  the  Lady  Mary ;"  and  he  cried, 
"  O  Lady,  O  Mother  of  Salvation,  have  mercy  on  me !" 
Then  she  said  to  Peter, "Give  him  back  his  arms;"  and 
they  were  restored  whole.  But  the  disciples  proceeded 
onwards,  and  they  laid  down  the  litter  in  a  cave,  as  they 
were  commanded,  and  gave  themselves  to  prayer. 

Now  the  angel  Gabriel  announced  that  on  the  first 
day  of  the  week  ISIary's  soul  should  be  removed  from 
this  world.  So  on  the  morning  of  that  day  there  came 
Eve,  and  Anne,  and  Elisabeth,  and  they  kissed  Mary,  and 
told  her  who  they  were:  there  came  Adam,  Seth,  Shem, 
Noah,  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  David,  and  the  rest  of  the 
old  fathers:  there  came  Enoch,  and  Elias,  and  Moses: 
there  came  twelve  chariots  of  angels  innumerable :  and 
then  appeared  the  Lord  Christ  in  his  humanity,  and 
Mary  bowed  before  him  and  said,  "O  my  Lord  and  my 
God,  place  thy  hand  upon  me ;"  and  he  stretched  out  his 
hand  and  blessed  her  ;  and  she  took  his  hand  and  kissed 
it,  and  placed  it  to  her  forehead,  and  said,  "  I  bow  before 
this  right  hand,  which  has  made  heaven  and  earth,  and 
all  that  in  them  is,  and  I  thank  thee  and  praise  thee  that 
thou  hast  thought  me  worthy  of  tliis  liour."  Then  she 
said,  "  O  Lord,  take  me  to  thyself!"  But  he  said  to  her, 
"  Now  shall  thy  body  be  in  paradise  to  the  day  of  the  res- 
urrection, and  angels  shall  serve  thee ;  but  thy  pure  spirit 
shall  shine  in  the  kingdom,  in  the  dwelling-place  of  my 
Father's  fulness."  Then  the  disciples  drew  near,  and  be- 
sought her  to  jiray  for  the  world  Avhich  she  was  about 
to  leave.  So  Jlary  prayed.  After  her  prayer  was  fin- 
ished her  face  shone  with  marvellous  brightness,  and 
she  stretched  out  her  hands  and  blessed  them  all:  and 
her  Son  put  forth  his  hands  and  received  her  juire  soul, 
and  bore  it  into  his  Father's  treasure-house.  Then  there 
v,-as  a  light  and  a  sweet  smell,  sweeter  than  anything  on 
earth;  and  a  voice  from  heaven  saying,  "  Hail,  blessed 
one!  blessed  and  celebrated  art  thou  among  women!" 
(The  legend  ascribed  to  Melito  makes  her  soul  to  be 
carried  to  paradise  by  Gabriel  whUe  her  Son  returns  to 
heaven.) 

Now  the  apostles  carried  her  body  to  the  valley  of 
Jehoshaphat,  to  a  place  which  the  Lord  had  told  them 
of,  and  John  went  before  and  carried  the  palm-branch. 
There  they  placed  her  in  a  new  tomb,  and  sat  at  the 
mouth  of  the  sepulchre,  as  the  Lord  commanded  them; 
and  suddenly  there  appeared  the  Lord  Christ  surrounded 
by  a  multitude  of  angels,  and  said  to  the  apostles,  "^^'hat 


MARY 


839 


MARY 


will  ye  that  I  should  do  with  her  whom  my  Father's 
command  selected  out  of  all  the  tribes  of  Israel  that  I 
should  dwell  in  herV"  So  I'eter  and  the  apostles  bc- 
souglit  him  that  he  would  raise  the  body  of  Mary  and 
take  it  with  him  in  glory  to  heaven.  Then  the  Saviour 
said,  '•  Be  it  according  to  your  word,"  So  he  commanded 
Slichael  the  archangel  to  bring  down  the  soul  of  Mary. 
Then  Gabriel  rolled  away  the  stone,  and  the  Lord  said, 
"  Else  up,  my  beloved,  thy  body  shall  not  suffer  corrup- 
tion in  the  tomb."  Immediately  Mary  arose,  and  bowed 
herself  at  his  feet  and  worshipped ;  and  the  Lord  kissed 
her,  and  gave  her  to  the  angels  to  carrj-  her  to  paradise. 

Hut  Thomas  was  not  present  with  the  rest,  for  at  the 
moment  that  he  was  summoned  to  come  he  was  baptiz- 
ing I'olodius,  who  was  tlie  son  of  the  sister  of  the  king. 
And  lie  arrived  just  after  all  these  things  were  accom- 
plished, and  he  demanded  to  see  the  sepulchre  in  which 
they  had  laid  his  Lady  :  "  For  ye  know,"  said  he,  "  that 
I  am  Thomas,  and  unless  I  see  1  will  not  believe."  Then 
Peter  arose  in  haste  and  wrath,  and  the  other  disciples 
with  him,  and  they  opened  the  sepulchre  and  Vi'ent  in ; 
but  they  found  nothing  therein  save  that  in  which  her 
body  had  been  wrapped.  Then  Thomas  confessed  that 
he  too,  as  he  was  borne  in  the  cloud  from  India,  had 
seen  her  holy  body  carried  by  the  angels  with  great 
triumph  into  heaven;  and  tliat  on  his  crying  to  her 
for  lier  blessing,  she  had  bestowed  upon  him  her  pre- 
cious Girdle,  which  when  the  apostles  saw  they  were 
glad.  Then  the  apostles  were  carried  back  each  to  his 
own  place.  For  the  story  of  this  Sacratigsimo  Cintolo, 
still  preserved  at  Prato,  see  IMrs.  Jameson's  Legends  of 
the  Madonna,  p.  344  (Lond.  1852). 

On  this  part  of  the  legend,  see  generally  Joannis  Apos- 
toli  de  Transitu  Beatce  Marice  Vifffinis  Liber  (Elberfel- 
die,  1854) ;  Sf.  Melitonis  Episc.  Sard,  de  Transitu  V.  M. 
Liber,  apud  Bibl.  Max.  Patr.  torn,  ii,  pt.ii,  p.  212  (Lugd. 
1677) ;  Jacobi  a  Voragine.  Legenda  A  urea,  ed.  Graesse,  ch. 
cxix,  p.  504  (Dresd.  1840)  ;  John  Damasc.  Serm.  de  Dor- 
mit.  Deiparm,  in  0pp.  ii,  p.  857  sq.  (Venice,  1743);  An- 
drew of  Crete,  InDormit.  Deiparce  Serm.  iii,  p.  115  (Par. 
1644) ;  Mrs.  Jameson,  Legends  of  the  Madonna  (London, 
1852) ;  Butler,  Lices  of  the  Saints  in  A  ug.  15  ;  Dressel, 
Edita  et  inedita  Ejjiphanii  Monacki  et  Fresbgteri,  p.  105 
(Paris,  1843). 

3.  Fler  A  ssumption. — The  above  story  gradually  gained 
credit.  At  the  end  of  the  5th  century  we  find  that  there 
existed  a  book,  De  Transitu  Virginis  Maries,  which  was 
condemned  by  pope  Gelasius  as  apocryphal.  This  book 
is  without  doubt  the  oldest  form  of  tlie  legend,  of  which 
the  books  ascribed  to  Melito  and  John  are  variations. 
Down  to  the  end  of  the  5th  century,  then,  the  story  of 
the  Assumption  was  external  to  the  Church,  and  dis- 
tinctly looked  upon  by  the  Church  as  belonging  to  the 
heretics  and  not  to  her.  But  then  came  the  change  of 
sentiment  on  this  sulyect  consequent  on  the  Nesto- 
rian  controversy.  The  desire  to  protest  against  the 
early  fables  ;vhich  had  been  spread  abroad  by  the  here- 
tics had  now  passed  away,  and  had  been  succeeded  by 
the  desire  to  magnify  her  who  had  brought  forth  him 
who  was  God.  Accordingly  a  writer,  whose  date  Ba- 
ronius  fixes  at  about  this  time  {Ann.  Eccl.  i,  347,  Lucca, 
1738),  suggested  the  possibility  of  the  Assumption,  but 
declared  his  inabilitj^  to  decide  the  question.  The  let- 
ter in  which  this  possibility  or  probability  is  thrown  out 
came  to  be  attributed  to  Jerome,  and  may  still  be  found 
among  his  works,  entitled  Ad  L'aulam  et  Eustochiuni  de 
Assuniptione  B.  Vh-ginis  (v,  82,  Paris,  1700).  About  the 
same  time,  probably,  or  rather  later,  an  assertion  (now 
recognised  on  all  hands  to  be  a  forger}')  was  made  in 
Eusebius's  Chronicle,  to  the  effect  that "  in  the  year  A.D. 
48  Mary  the  Virgin  was  taken  up  into  heaven,  as  some 
wrote  that  they  had  had  it  revealed  to  them."  Another 
tract  ^vas  written  to  prove  that  the  Assumption  was  not 
a  thing  in  itself  luilikely ;  and  this  came  to  be  attributed 
to  St.  Augustine,  and  may  be  ftiund  in  the  ajipendix  to 
his  works;  and  a  sermon,  with  a  similar  purport,  was 
ascribed  to  St.  Athanasius.     Thus  the  names  of  Euse- 


bius,  Jerome,  Augustine,  Athanasius,  and  others,  came  to 
be  quoted  as  maintaining  the  truth  of  the  Assumption, 
The  first  writers  within  the  Church  in  whose  extant 
writings  we  find  the  Assumption  asserted,  are  Gregory 
of  Tours  m  the  0th  century,  AVho  has  merely  copied  Meli- 
to's  book,  De  Transitu  (De  Glor.  Mart.  lib.  i,  c.  4  ;  Migne, 
71,  p.  708) ;  Andrew  of  Crete,  who  probably  lived  in  the 
7th  century ;  and  John  of  Damascus,  who  lived  at  the 
begimiing  of  the  8th  century.  The  last  of  these  authors 
refers  to  the  Euthymiac  history  as  stating  that  Marcian 
and  Pulcheria,  being  in  search  of  the  body  of  Mary,  sent 
to  Juvenal  of  Jerusalem  to  inquire  for  it.  Juvenal  re- 
plied, "In  the  holy  and  divinely-inspired  Scriptures,  in- 
deed, nothing  is  recorded  of  the  departure  of  the  holj- 
IMary,  Mother  of  God.  But  from  an  ancient  and  most 
true  tradition  we  have  received,  that  at  the  time  of  her 
glorious  falling  asleep  all  the  holy  apostles,  who  were 
going  through  the  world  for  the  salvation  of  the  nations, 
borne  aloft  in  a  moment  of  time,  came  together  to  Jeru- 
salem ;  and  when  they  were  near  her  they  had  a  vision 
of  angels,  and  divine  melody  was  heard ;  and  then  with 
divine  and  more  than  heavenly  melody  she  delivered 
her  holy  soul  into  the  hands  of  God  in  an  unspeakable 
manner.  But  that  which  had  borne  God,  being  carried 
with  angelic  and  apostolic  psalmody,  with  funeral  rites, 
was  deposited  in  a  coffin  at  Gethsemane.  In  this  place 
the  chorus  and  singing  of  the  angels  continued  three 
whole  days.  But  alter  three  days,  on  the  angelic  music 
ceasing,  those  of  the  apostles  who  were  present  opened 
the  tomb,  as  one  of  them,  Thomas,  had  been  absent,  and 
on  his  arrival  wished  to  adore  the  body  which  had  borne 
God.  But  her  all-glorious  body  they  could  not  find; 
but  they  found  the  linen  clothes  lying,  and  they  were 
filled  with  an  ineffable  odor  of  sweetness  which  proceeded 
from  them.  Then  they  closed  the  coffin.  And  they 
were  astonished  at  the  mysterious  wonder,  and  they 
came  to  no  other  conclusion  than  that  he  who  had  chosen 
to  take  flesh  of  the  Virgin  jMary,  and  to  become  a  man, 
and  to  be  bom  of  her — God  the  Word,  the  Lord  ol  Glory 
— and  had  preserved  her  virginity  after  birth,  was  also 
pleased,  after  her  departure,  to  honor  her  immaculate 
and  unpolluted  body  with  incorruption,  and  to  translate 
her  before  the  common  resurrection  of  all  men"  (St.  Joan. 
Damas.  Op.  ii,  880,  Venice,  1748).  It  is  quite  clear  that 
this  is  the  same  legend  as  that  which  we  have  before 
given.  Here,  then,  we  see  it  brought  over  the  borders 
and  planted  within  the  Church,  if  this  "  Euthymiac 
history"  is  to  be  accepted  as  veritable,  by  Juvenal  of 
Jerusalem  in  the  5th  century,  or  else  by  Gregory  of 
Tours  in  the  0th  century,  or  by  Andrew  of  Crete  in  the 
7th  centurj',  or,  finally,  by  John  of  Damascus  in  the  8th 
centurj-  (see  his  three  Homilies  on  the  Sleep  of  the  Bless- 
ed Virgin  Mary,  in  his  0pp.  ii,  857-886).  The  same  le- 
gend is  given  in  a  slightly  different  form  as  veritable 
historj'  by  Nicephorus  Callistus  in  the  13th .century  (Ni- 
ceph.  i,  171,  Paris,  1030) ;  and  the  fact  of  the  Assumption 
is  stereotyped  in  the  Breviarj-  services  for  August  15 
(Brev.  Rom.  Pars  (est.  p.  551,  Milan,  1851).  Here  again, 
then,  we  see  a  legend  originated  by  heretics,  and  re- 
maining external  to  the  Church  till  the  close  of  the  5th 
century,  creeping  into  the  Church  during  the  6th  and 
7th  centuries,  and  finally  ratified  by  the  autliority  both 
of  Kome  and  Constantinople.  See  Baronius,  >4 /»;.  £'cc/. 
(i,  344,  Lucca,  1738)  and  Martyr ologiuni  (p.  314,  Paris, 
1607). 

4.  On  the  dogma  of  Mar\-'s  siulessness,  see  Immacu- 
late Co^XEPTION.  On  her  worship,  see  IMariolatey. 
On  the  alleged  transportation  of  her  dwelling  to  Italy, 
see  LoRETTO. 

HI.  Jewish  Traditions. — These  are  of  a  very  different 
nature  from  the  light -liearted  fairs- -tale -like  stories 
which  we  have  recnuntcd  above.  We  should  expect 
that  the  miraculous  birth  of  our  Lord  would  be  an  oc- 
casion of  scoffing  to  the  unbelieving  Jews,  and  we  find 
this  to  be  the  case.  AVe  have  already  a  hint  during 
our  Lord's  ministry  of  the  Jewish  calumnies  as  to  his 
birth.     "  We  {jijitic)  be  not  born  of  fornication"  (John 


MARY 


840 


MARY 


viii,  41),  seems  to  be  an  insinuation  on  the  Jews'  part 
tliat  he  was.  To  the  Christian  beUever  the  Jewish 
slander  becomes  in  the  present  case  only  a  confirmation 
of  his  faith.  The  most  definite  and  outspoken  of  these 
slanders  is  that  which  is  contained  in  the  book  called 
"VJi  ri1?ir,  or  Toledoth  Jesu.  It  was  grasped  at 
with  avidity  by  Voltaire,  and  declared  by  him  to  be  the 
most  ancient  Jewish  -writing  directed  against  Christiani- 
ty, and  apparently  of  the  first  century.  It'was  written, 
he  says,  before  the  Gospels,  and  is  altogether  contrary 
to  them  {Lc'iire  sui-  les  JiiiJ's).  It  is  proved  by  Ammon 
{Bihllsch.  Theologie,  p.  263,  Erlang.  1801)  to  be  a  compo- 
sition of  the  13th  century,  and  by  Wagenseil  {Tela  iynea 
SataruK  ;  Confui.  Lib):  Toldos  JescJiu,  p.  12,  Altorf,  1G81) 
to  be  irreconcilable  with  the  earlier  Jewish  tales.  In 
the  Gospel  of  Nicodemus,  otherwise  called  the  Acts  of 
Pilate,  we  find  the  Jews  represented  as  charging  our 
Lord  with  illegitimate  birth  (c.  2).  The  date  of  this 
Gospel  is  about  the  end  of  the  third  century.  The  ori- 
gin of  the  charge  is  referred  with  great  probability  by 
Thilo  {Codex  Apocr.  p.  527,  Lips.  1832)  to  the  circular  let- 
ters of  the  Jews  mentioned  by  Grotius  {ad  Matt,  xxvii, 
63,  ei  ud  Act.  Apost.  xxviii,  22;  Op.  ii,  278  and  G66,  Ba- 
sil. 1732),  which  were  sent  from  Palestine  to  all  the  Jew- 
ish synagogues  after  the  death  of  Christ,  with  the  view 
of  attacking  "  the  lawless  and  atheistic  sect  which  had 
taken  its  origin  from  the  deceiver  Jesus  of  Galilee"  (Jus- 
tin, adr.  Tryph.).  The  first  time  that  we  find  it  openly 
proclaimed  is  in  an  extract  made  by  Origen  from  the 
work  of  Celsus,  which  he  is  refuting.  Celsus  introduces 
a  Jew  declaring  that  the  mother  of  Jesus  was  repudiated 
by  her  husband  for  adultery  {vnu  tou  yijfiavroc,  TtKTO- 
vog  Ti]v  TtxvTjv  oVTOQ,  t'^suxySrai,  tXtyx^tlaav  mq  //£- 
fioix(Vfiiv7]v,  Contra  Celsum,  c.  28,  Origenis  Opera,  xviii, 
69,  Berlin,  18i5 ;  again,  //  tov  lijtjov  /x/;r;;p  Kvovaa, 
i^uia^iirja  inro  rod  /.ivrjcrrevaaf^tipov  avTt'ii'  rtKTOvoc, 
iXtyxSrtiija  im  noixeioi  Kai  rlicrovaa  Into  tivoq  arpari- 
ibrov  Ilai''ji)pa  Tovvopa,  ibid.  32).  Stories  to  the  same 
effect  may  be  found  in  the  Talmud — not  in  the  Mishna, 
which  dates  from  the  2d  century,  but  in  the  Gemara, 
which  is  of  the  5th  or  6th  {see' Tract.  Sanhedrin,  cap. 
vii,  fol.  67,  col.  1 ;  Shahhuth,  cap.  xii,  fol.  104,  col.  2 ;  and 
the  Midrash  Koheleth,  cap.  x,  5).  Eabanus  Maurus,  in 
the  9th  century,  refers  to  the  same  story :  "  Jesum  filium 
Ethnici  cujusdam  Pandera  adulter!,  more  latronum  pu- 
nitum  esse.''  Lightfoot  quotes  the  same  story  from  the 
Talmudists  {Exercit.  at  Matt,  xxvii,  56),  who,  he  says, 
often  vilify  j\Iary  under  the  name  of  Satdah ;  and  he 
cites  a  storj^  in  which  she  is  called  IMary  the  daughter 
of  HeH,  and  is  represented  as  hanging  in  torment  among 
the  damned,  with  the  great  bar  of  hell's  gate  hung  at 
her  ear  (ibid,  at  Luke  iii,  23).  We  then  come  to  the 
Toledoth  Jesu,  in  which  these  calumnies  were  intended 
to  be  summed  up  and  harmonized.  In  the  year  4671, 
the  story  runs,  in  the  reign  of  king  Jannicus,  there 
was  one  Joseph  Pandera  who  lived  at  Bethlehem.  In 
the  same  village  there  was  a  widow  who  had  a  daugh- 
ter named  Miriam,  who  was  betrothed  to  a  God-fearing 
man  named  Johanan.  Now  it  came  to  pass  that  Joseph 
Pandera  meeting  with  IMiriam  when  it  was  dark,  de- 
ceived her  into  the  belief  that  he  was  Johanan  her  hus- 
band. So  after  three  montlis  Johanan  consulted  rabbi 
Simeon  Shetachides  what  he  should  do  with  Miriam, 
and  the  rabbi  advised  him  to  bring  her  before  the  great 
council.  Hut  Johanan  was  ashamed  to  do  so,  and  in- 
stead lie  U  tY  his  home  and  went  antl  lived  at  Babylon ; 
and  thtie  Miriam  brought  forth  a  son,  and  gave  him  the 
name  of  .lehoshua.  The  rest  of  the  work,  which  has 
no  merit  in  a  literary  aspect  or  othenvise,  contains  an 
account  of  how  this  Jehoshua  gained  the  art  of  working 
miracles  by  stcahng  the  knowledge  of  the  unmentiona- 
ble name  from  the  Temple ;  iiow  he  was, defeated  by 
the  superior  magical  arts  of  one  Juda;  and  how  at  last 
he  was  crucified,  and  his  body  hidden  under  a  water- 
course. It  is  offensive  to  make  use  of  sacred  names  in 
comiectiou  with  such  tales;  but  in  Wageiiseil's  quaint 


words  we  may  recollect,  "  hrec  nomina  non  attinere  ad 
Servatorem  Xostrum  aut  beatissimam  illius  matrem  cce- 
terosque  quos  significare  videntur,  sed  desiguari  iis  a 
Diabolo  supposita  Spectra,  Larvas,  Lemures,  Lamias, 
Stryges,  aut  si  quid  turpius  istis"  {Liber  Toldos  Jtschu, 
in  the  Tela  Iynea  »S'«<f/M(F,  p.  2,  AJtorf,  1681).  It  is  a 
curious  thing  that  a  Pandera  or  Panther  has  been  in- 
troduced into  the  genealogy  of  our  Lord  by  Epiphanius 
{Ha:  res.  Ixxviii),  who  makes  him  grandfather  of  Joseph, 
and  by  John  of  Damascus  {De  Fide  orthodoxa,  iv,  15), 
who  makes  him  the  father  of  Barpauther  and  grandfa- 
ther of  Mary. 

IV.  Mohammedan  Traditions, — These  are  again  cast 
in  a  totally  different  mould  from  those  of  the  Jews. 
The  Mohammedans  had  no  purpose  to  serve  in  spread- 
ing calumnious  stories  as  to  the  birth  of  Jesus,  and  ac- 
cordingly we  find  none  of  the  Jewish  malignity  about 
their  traditions.  Mohammed  and  his  followers  appear 
to  have  gathered  up  the  floating  Oriental  traditions 
which  originated  in  the  legends  of  Mary's  early  years, 
given  above,  and  to  have  drawn  from  them  and  from 
the  Bible  indifferently.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the 
Koran  had  an  object  in  magnifying  Mary,  and  that  this 
was  to  insinuate  that  the  Son  was  of  no  other  nature 
than  the  mother.  But  this  does  not  appear  to  be  the 
case.  Mohammed  seems  merely  to  have  written  down 
what  had  come  to  his  ears  about  her,  without  definite 
theological  piu^pose  or  inquirj'. 

IVIarj'  was,  according  to  the  Koran,  the  daughter  of 
Amram  (sur.  iii)  and  the.  sister  of  Aaron  (sur.  xix).  Mo- 
hammed can  hardly  be  absolved  from  having  here  con- 
founded Miriam  the  sister  of  Moses  with  Mary  the  moth- 
er of  our  Lord.  It  is  possible,  indeed,  that  lie  may  liave 
meant  different  persons,  and  such  is  the  opinion  of  Sale 
{Koran,  p.  38,  251)  and  of  D'Herbelot  {Bibl.  Orient,  s.  v. 
Miriam) ;  but  the  opposite  view  is  more  likely  (see  Gau- 
dagnoli,  Apol.  pro  rel.  Christ,  c.  viii,  p.  277,  Rom.  1631). 
Indeed,  some  of  the  Mohammedan  commentators  have 
been  driven  to  account  for  the  chronological  ditficulty 
by  saying  that  Miriam  was  miraculously  kept  alive  from 
the  days  of  Moses  in  order  that  she  might  be  the  moth- 
er of  Jesus.  Her  mother  Hannah  dedicated  her  to  the 
Lord  while  still  in  the  womb,  and  at  her  birth  "  com- 
mended her  and  her  future  issue  to  the  protection  of 
God  against  Satan."  So  Hannah  brought  the  child  to 
the  Temple  to  be  educated  by  the  priests,  and  the  priests 
disputed  among  themselves  who  should  take  charge  of 
her.  Zacharias  maintained  that  it  was  his  office,  be- 
cause he  had  married  her  aunt.  But  when  the  others 
would  not  give  up  their  claims,  it  was  determined  that 
the  matter  should  be  decided  by  lot.  So  they  -went  to 
the  river  Jordan,  twenty-seven  of  them,  each  man  with 
his  rod ;  and  they  threw  their  rods  into  the  river,  and 
none  of  them  floated  save  that  of  Zacharias,  whereupon 
the  care  of  the  child  was  committed  to  him  (Al  Beidawi; 
Jallalo'ddin).  Then  Zacharias  placed  her  in  an  inner 
chamber  by  herself;  and  though  he  kept  seven  doors 
ever  locked  upon  her  (other  stories  make  the  only  en- 
trance to  be  by  a  ladder  and  a  door  ahvays  kept  locked), 
he  always  found  her  abundantly  supplied  with  provi- 
sions which  God  sent  her  from  paradise,  winter  fruits  in 
summer,  and  summer  fruits  in  winter.  Then  the  angels 
said  unto  her,  "O  Mary,  verily  God  hath  chosen  thee, 
and  hath  purified  thee,  and  hath  chosen  thee  above  all 
the  women  of  the  world"  {Koran,  sur.  iii).  So  she  re- 
tired to  a  place  towards  the  east,  and  Gabriel  appeared 
unto  her  and  said,  "Verily  I  am  the  messenger  of  thy 
Lord,  and  am  sent  to  give  thee  a  holy  Son"  (sur.  xix). 
Then  the  angels  said,  "O  Marj-,  verily  tJnd  scndeth  thee 
good  tidings  that  thou  slialt  bear  the  '\\'ord  proceeding 
from  himself:  His  name  shall  be  Christ  Jesus,  the  Sou 
of  Mary,  honorable  in  this  world  and  in  tlie  world  to 
come,  and  one  of  them  who  approach  near  to  the  pres- 
ence of  God :  and  he  sliall  speak  imto  men  in  his  cradle 
and  when  he  is  grown  up ;  and  he  shall  be  one  of  the 
righteous."  But  she  said,  '"How  shall  I  have  a  son, 
seeing  I  know  not  a  man  V"     The  angel  said, "  So  God 


MARY 


841 


MARY 


createth  that  which  he  pleaseth :  when  he  decreeth  a 
thiiiji,  he  only  saith  unto  it, '  Be,'  and  it  is.  God  shall 
teach  him  the  Scripture  and  wisdom,  and  the  Law  and 
the  Gospel,  and  shall  appoint  liim  his  apostle  to  the 
cliildren  of  Israel"  (sur.  iii).  So  God  breathed  of  his 
Spirit  into  the  womb  of  Mary ;  and  she  preserved  her 
chastity  (sur.  Isvi) ;  for  the  Jews  have  spoken  against 
her  a  grievous  calumny  (sur.  iv).  Thus  she  conceived 
a  son,  and  retired  with  him  apart  to  a  distant  place; 
and  the  pains  of  childbirth  came  upon  her  near  the 
trunk  of  a  palm-tree ;  and  God  provided  a  rivulet  for 
her,  and  she  shook  the  palm-tree,  and  it  let  fall  ripe 
dates,  and  she  ate  and  drank,  and  was  calm.  Then  she 
carried  the  child  in  her  arms  to  her  people ;  but  they 
saiil  that  it  was  a  strange  thing  she  had  done.  Then 
she  made  signs  to  the  child  to  answer  them;  and  he 
said,  "Verily  I  am  the  servant  of  God:  he  hath  given 
me  the  book  of  the  Gospel,  and  hatJi  appointed  me  a 
prophet ;  and  he  hath  made  me  blessed,  wheresoever  I 
shall  be ;  and  hath  commanded  me  to  observe  prayer 
and  to  give  alms  so  long  as  I  shall  live ;  and  he  hath 
made  me  dutifid  towards  my  mother,  and  hath  not 
made  me  proud  or  unhappy :  and  peace  be  on  me  the 
day  whereon  I  waa  born,  and  the  day  whereon  I  shall 
die,  and  the  day  whereon  I  shall  be  raised  to  life."  This 
was  Jesus  the  Son  of  Mary,  the  Word  of  Truth,  concern- 
ing whom  they  had  doubt  (sur.  xix). 

Mohammed  is  reported  to  have  said  that  many  men 
have  arrived  at  perfection,  but  only  four  women ;  and 
that  these  are,Asia  the  wife  of  Pharaoh,  Mary  the  daugh- 
ter of  Amram,  his  lirst  wife  Khadijah,  and  his  daughter 
Fatima. 

The  commentators  on  the  Koran  tell  us  that  every 
person  who  comes  into  the  world  is  touched  at  his  birth 
by  the  devil,  and  therelure  cries  out ;  but  that  God 
placed  a  veil  between  Mary  and  her  Son  and  the  Evil 
Spirit,  so  that  he  coidd  not  reach  them.  For  this  rea- 
son they  were  neither  of  them  guilty  of  sin,  like  the 
rest  of  the  children  of  Adam.  This  privilege  they  had 
in  answer  to  Hamiah's  prayer  for  their  protection  from 
Satan  (Jallalo'ddin  ;  Al  Beidawi;  Kitada).  The  Im- 
maculate Conception  therefore,  we  may  note,  was  a  Mo- 
hammedan doctrine  six  centuries  before  any  Christian 
theologians  or  schoolmen  maintained  it. 

See  Sale,  Koran,  p.  39, 79, 250, 458  (Lond.  1734) ;  War- 
ner, Compendium  Historicum  eorum  qua  Muhammedani 
de  Christo  tradiderunt  (Lugd.  Bat.  1643) ;  Gaudagnoli, 
Apolofjia  pro  Christiana  Relir/ione  (Rom.  1631);  D'Her- 
helot,  Bibliotheque  Orienfule,  -p.  58  (Paris  1697);  W^eil, 
Biblische  Legenden  der  Muselmanner,  p.  230  (Frkf.  1845). 

V.  Emblems. — There  was  a  time  in  the  history  of  the 
Church  when  all  the  expressions  used  in  the  book  of 
Canticles  were  applied  at  once  to  Mary,  Consequently 
aU  the  Eastern  metaphors  of  king  Solomon  have  been 
hardened  into  symbols,  and  represented  in  pictures  or 
sculpture,  and  attached  to  her  in  popular  litanies.  The 
same  method  of  interpretation  was  applied  to  certain 
parts  of  the  book  of  the  Revelation.  Her  chief  emblems 
are  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  (Rev.  xii,  1 ;  Cant,  vi,  10). 
The  name  of  Star  of  the  Sea  is  also  given  her,  from  a  fan- 
ciful interpretation  of  the  meaning  of  her  name.  She 
is  the  Rose  of  Sharon  (Cant,  ii,  1)  and  the  Lily  (ii,  2), 
the  Tower  of  David  (iv,  4),  the  Mountain  of  Myrrh  and 
the  Hill  of  Frankincense  ( iv,  6),  the  Garden  enclosed, 
the  Spruig  shut  up,  the  Fountain  sealed  (iv,  12),  the  Tow- 
er of  Ivory  (vii,  4),  the  Palm-tree  (vii,  7),  the  Closed 
Gate  (Ezek.  xliv,  2).  There  is  no  end  to  these  metaphor- 
ical titles.  See  Mrs.  Jameson's  Legends  of  the  Madomia, 
and  the  ordinary  Litanies  of  the  Blessed  Virgin. 

VI.  Festivals,  etc. — The  Festival  ofMarg's  Conception 
is  said  to  have  been  instituted  on  the  occasion  of  the 
preservation  from  shipwreck  of  St.  Anselra,  afterwards 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  by  the  direction  of  Mary 
herself,  who  informed  him  that  the  day  of  her  concep- 
tion was  the  8th  of  December. 

The  Xativify  of  the  Virgin. — There  is  a  good  deal  of 
controversy  as  to  the  time  of  its  first  celebration  and  its 


origin.  It  is  celebrated  on  the  8th  of  September,  and  is 
not  traceable  further  back  than  the  9th  century.  There 
is  a  Romish  calumny  that  queen  Elizabeth  substituted 
her  own  birthday  in  its  place. 

Her  Presentation  in  the  Temple,  November  21,  men- 
tioned in  very  early  martyrologies,  and  in  a  constitution 
of  the  emperor  Manuel  Comnenus. 

Her  Fspousals,  January  23. 

The  A  nnunciation,  March  25. 

The  Visitation,  July  2,  established  by  Urban  VI.,  and 
approved  by  the  Council  of  Basle. 

The  Purification,  February  2,  established  in  the  East 
under  the  emperor  Justmian,  and  a  little  later  in  the 
West. 

The  Assumption  {KoijxriaiQ,  in  the  Greek  Church),  cel- 
ebrated originally  at  different  times,  but  fixed  to  be  on 
the  15th  of  August  about  the  time  of  Charlemagne. 

Besides  the  great  festivals  in  honor  of  Marj-,  particu- 
lar churches  and  fraternities  have  had  their  private  ones. 
Several  religious  orders  have  chosen  her  for  their  espe- 
cial patroness,  and  the  whole  kingdom  of  France  was,  in 
1638,  placed  under  her  protection  by  a  \mv  of  Louis 
XIII.  Festivals  have  been  established  in  honor  of  par- 
ticular objects  connected  with  her,  as  the  chamber  in 
which  she  was  born,  and  which  was  conveyed  miracu- 
lously from  Nazareth  to  Loretto(q.v.), la  Cintola  at  Prato, 
la  Saint  Chemise  at  Chartres,  the  rosarj^  which  she  gave 
to  St.  Dominic,  and  the  scapular  which  she  gave  to  Simon 
Stock ;  and  indulgences  have  been  granted  on  the  oc- 
casion of  these  festivals,  and  the  devotions  they  elicited. 
Books  have  been  written  to  describe  her  miraculous  pict- 
ures and  images,  and  the  boundless  extent  and  diversi- 
ty of  the  literature  to  which  her  worship  has  given  rise 
may  be  inferred  from  a  description  of  two  of  the  115 
worlvs,  all  on  the  same  subject,  of  Hippolyte  Maracci, 
a  member  of  the  congregation  of  the  Clerks  of  the  Moth- 
er of  God,  born  1604.  Bihliotheca  Mariana  is  a  bio- 
graphical and  bibliographical  notice  in  alphabetical  or- 
der of  all  the  authors  who  have  written  on  any  of  the 
attributes  or  perfections  of  the  holy  Virgin,  with  a  list 
of  their  works.  The  number  of  writers  amounts  to  more 
than  3000,  and  the  number  of  works  in  print  or  MS.  to 
twice  as  many.  This  rare  and  highly-valued  work  is 
accompanied  by  five  curious  and  useful  indices.  The 
other  is  Conceptio  immaculatce  Deiparce  Virginis  Marice 
celebrata  MCXV  anagrammatibus pirorsus  jmris  ex  hoc 
salutaiionis  A  ngelicw programmate  dediictis  "  A  ve  Mai'ia 
gratia  piletia  Dominus  tecum."  This  work,  of  which  Ma- 
racci was  only  the  editor,  certainly  exceeils  in  laborious 
trifling  the  production  of  father  J.  B.  Hepburnc,  the 
Scotch  Minim,  who  dedicated  to  his  patron,  Paul  V,  sev- 
enty-two encomiums  on  the  Virgin  in  as  many  difi'erent 
languages. 

For  further  literature,  see  Volbeding,  Index  Program- 
matum,  p.  9  ;  Darling,  Cgclopwdia  Bibliograjjhica,  coL 
1841  sq. ;  'Da.nz,\Vdrterhuch,  s.  v.  Maria;  Winer,  7?e«k'. 
s.  V.     See  Jesus  Christ;  Virgin. 

2.  Mary,  the  Magdalene  {Mapia  ij  Mayca\t]v{], 
A.  V.  '•  Marj'  Magdalene"),  one  of  the  most  interesting, 
but  at  the  same  time  most  contradictorily-interpreted 
characters  in  the  N.  T.  In  the  following  statements  re- 
specting her  we  largely  foUow  the  article  in  Smith's  Bic- 
tionai-y  of  the  Bible,  s.  v. 

I.  The  Name. — Four  different  explanations  have  been 
given  of  this.  (1)  That  which  at  first  suggests  itself  as 
the  most  natural,  that  she  came  from  the  town  of  Mag- 
dala.  The  statement  that  the  women  with  whom  she 
journeyed  followed  Jesus  in  Galilee  (]\lark  xv,  41),  agrees 
with  this  notion.  Magdala  was  originally  a  tower  or 
fortress,  as  its  name  indicates,  the  situation  of  which  is 
probabh'  the  s?me  with  that  of  the  modern  village  of 
el-Mejdel,  on  the  western  shore  of  the  Lake  of  Tiberias 
(Stanley).  But  Lightfoot  starts  another  supposition,  both 
with  regard  to  the  place  of  residence  and  to  the  identity 
of  Mary  Magdalene.  He  shows  that  there  was  a  place 
called  Magdala  very  near  Jerusalem,  so  near  that  a  per- 
son who  set  up  his  candles  in  order  on  the  eve  of  the 


MARY 


842 


MARY 


{?,iobalh,  might  afterwards  go  to  Jerusalem,  pray  there, 
and  return  and  light  up  his  candles  when  the  Sabbath 
\vr.s  now  coming  in  (^Exercit.  John  xii,  3),  This  place 
is  stated  in  the  Talmud  to  have  been  destroyed  on  ac- 
count of  its  adidteries.  Now,  it  is  argued  by  liaronius, 
that  Mary  INIagdalene  must  liave  been  the  same  person 
as  Mary  the  sister  of  Martha  and  Lazarus,  and  on  this 
point  Lightfoot  entirely  agrees  with  him,  and  he  thinks 
that,  Betliany  and  jNIagdala  being  both  near  Jerusalem, 
she  may  have  married  a  man  of  Magdala,  and  acquired 
the  dissolute  morals  of  the  place ;  or  that  Magdala  may 
have  been  another  name  for  Bethany.  All  this,  how- 
ever, is  full  of  improbabilities.  (2)  Another  explanation 
has  been  found  in  the  fact  that  tlie  Talmudic  writers,  in 
their  calumnies  against  the  Nazarenes,  make  mention 
of  a  Miriam  Megaddda  (XPI^'O),  and,  deriving  that 
•word  from  the  Piel  of  PTil,  to  twine,  explain  it  as  mean- 
ing '■  the  twiner  or  plaiter  of  hair."  They  connect  with 
this  name  a  story  wliich  will  be  mentioned  later ;  but 
the  derivation  has  been  accepted  by  Lightfoot  {Ilor.  Ileh. 
on  Matt,  xxvi,  50 ;  Harm.  Evang.  on  Luke  viii,  3)  as 
satisfactory,  and  pointing  to  the  previous  worldliness  of 
"Miriam  with  the  braided  locks"  as  identical  with  "  the 
woman  that  was  a  sinner"  of  Luke  vii,  37.  It  has  been 
urged  in  favor  of  this  that  the  r)  KciXovfiivr]  of  Luke 
viii,  3  implies  something  peculiar,  and  is  not  used  where 
the  word  that  follows  points  only  to  origin  or  residence. 
(3)  Either  seriously,  or  with  the  patristic  fondness  for 
paronomasia,  Jerome  sees  in  her  name,  and  in  that  of 
her  town,  the  old  Migdol  ("'a  watch-tower"),  and  dwells 
on  the  coincidence  accordingly.  The  name  denotes  the 
steadfastness  of  her  faith.  She  is  "  vere  Trypyt'rj/c,  vere 
turris  candoris  et  Libani,  qure  prospicit  in  faciem  Damas- 
ci"  {Epist.  ad  Principiam).  He  is  followed  in  this  by 
later  Latin  writers,  and  the  pun  forms  the  theme  of  a 
panegyric  sermon  by  Odo  of  Cliigni  (.4  eta  Sanctorum, 
Antwerp,  1727,  July  12).  (4)  Origen,  lastly,  looking  to 
the  more  common  meaning  of  P'la  (r/nJar,  tobegreat), 
sees  in  her  name  a  prophecy  of  iier  spiritual  greatness 
as  having  ministered  to  the  Lord,  and  been  the  first  wit- 
ness of  his  resurrection  {T?-act.  in  Matt.  xxxv).  See 
Magdalene. 

IL  Scripture  Incidents. — 1.  Mary  Magdalene  comes  be- 
fore us  for  the  first  time  in  Luke  viii,  2  (A.D.  28).  It 
was  the  custom  of  Jewish  women  (.Jerome  on  1  Cor.  ix, 
5)  to  contribute  to  the  support  of  rabbis  whom  they 
reverenced,  and,  in  conformity  with  that  custom,  there 
were  among  the  disciples  of  Jesus  women  who  "  minis- 
tered unto  him  of  their  substance."  All  appear  to  have 
occupied  a  position  of  comparative  wealth.  With  all 
the  chief  motive  was  that  of  gratitude  for  their  deliver- 
ance from  "  evil  spirits  and  infirmities."  Of  Mary  it  is 
said  specially  that  "  seven  diemohs  (Saij-wvia)  went  out 
of  her,"  and  the  number  indicates,  as  in  Matt,  xii,  45,  and 
the  ''legion"  of  the  Gadarene  dasmoniac  (Mark  v.  9),  a 
possession  of  more  than  ordinary  malignity.  We  must 
think  of  her,  accordingly,  as  having  had,  iii  their  most 
aggravated  forms,  some  of  the  phenomena  of  mental  and 
spiritual  disease  which  we  meet  with  in  other  divmoni- 
acs — the  wretchedness  of  despair,  the  divided  conscious- 
ness, the  preternatural  frenzy,  the  long-continued  fits  of 
silence.  The  appearance  of  the  same  description  in 
INIark  xvi,  9  (whatever  opinion  we  may  form  as  to  the 
authorship  of  the  closing  section  of  that  Gospel),  indi- 
cates that  this  was  the  fact  most  intimately  coimected 
with  her  name  in  the  minds  of  the  early  disciples.  From 
that  state  of  misery  she  had  been  set  free  by  the  presence 
of  the  Healer,  and,  in  the  absence,  as  we  may  infer,  of  oth- 
er ties  and  duties,  she  found  her  safety  and  her  blessed- 
ness in  following  him.  The  silence  of  the  Gospels  as 
to  the  presence  of  these  women  at  other  periotls  of  the 
Lord's  ministry,  makes  it  probable  that  they  attended 
on  him  chietiy  in  his  more  solemn  jjrogresses  through 
the  towns  and  vdlages  of  Galilee,  while  at  other  times 
he  journeyed  to  and  fro  without  any  other  attendants 
than  the  Twelve,  and  sometimes  without  even  them. 


2.  In  the  last  journey  to  Jerusalem,  to  which  so  many 
had  been  looking  with  eager  expectation,  they  again  ac- 
companied liim  (Matt,  xxvii,  55;  Mark  xv,  41;  Luke 
xxiii,  55 ;  xxiv,  ]  0),  A.D.  29.  It  will  explain  much  that 
follows  if  we  remember  that  this  life  of  ministration 
must  have  brought  Jlary  Magdalene  into  companion- 
ship of  the  closest  nature  with  Salome,  the  mother  of 
James  and  John  (Mark  iv,40),  and  even  also  with  Marj', 
the  mother  of  the  Lord  (John  xix,  25).  The  women 
W'ho  thus  devoted  themselves  are  not  prominent  in  the 
history:  we  have  no  record  of  their  mode  of  life  or 
abode,  or  hopes  or  fears,  during  the  few  momentous  days 
that  preceded  the  crucifixion.  From  that  hour  they 
came  forth  for  a  brief  two  days'  space  ir.to  marvellous 
distinctness.  They  "  stood  afar  off,  beholding  these 
things"  (Luke  xxiii, 49), during  the  closing  hours  of  the 
agony  on  the  cross.  l\Iary  INIagdalene,  Marj',  the  moth- 
er of  tlie  Lord,  and  the  beloved  disciple,  were  at  one 
time  not  afar  off,  but  close  to  the  cross,  within  hearing. 
The  same  close  association  which  drew  them  together 
there  is  seen  afterwards.  She  remains  by  the  cross 
tin  all  is  over,  waits  tiU  the  body  is  taken  down,  and 
wrapped  in  the  linen-cloth  and  placed  in  the  garden- 
sepulchre  of  Joseph  of  Arimathxa.  She  remains  there  in 
the  dusk  of  the  evening,  watching  what  she  must  liave 
looked  upon  as  the  final  resting-place  of  the  I'rophet 
and  Teacher  whom  she  had  honored  (!Matt.  xx^•ii,  CI ; 
Mark  xv,  47;  Luke  xxiii,  55).  Not  to  her  had  there 
been  given  the  hope  of  the  resurrection.  The  disciples 
to  whom  the  words  that  spoke  of  it  had  been  addressed 
had  failed  to  understand  them,  and  were  not  likely  to 
have  reported  them  to  her.  The  Sabbath  that  followed 
brought  an  enforced  rest,  but  no  sooner  is  the  sunset 
over  than  she,  with  Salome  and  Mary,  the  mother  of 
James,  "  bought  sweet  spices  that  they  might  come  and 
anoint"  the  body,  the  interment  of  which  on  the  night 
of  the  crucifixion  they  regarded  as  hasty  and  provis- 
ional (Mark  xvi,  1). 

The  next  morning,  accordingly,  in  the  earliest  dawT> 
(Matt,  xxviii,  1 ;  Mark  xvi,  2),  they  came  with  Marj-, 
the  mother  of  James,  to  the  sepulchre,  and  successively 
saw  the  "  vision  of  angels"  (INIatt.  xxviii,  5 ;  Mark  xvi, 
5).  A  careful  comparison  of  the  relative  time  of  the 
several  appearances  of  Christ  on  his  resurrection  makes 
it  evident  that  the  term  "first,"  applied  by  Mark  (xvi, 
9)  to  the  appearance  to  INIary,  must  not  be  taken  so 
strictly  as  to  exclude  the  prior  appearance  to  the  other 
females  who  had  accompanied  her  to  the  sepulchre  (see 
Metk.  Quart.  Rev.  1850,  p.  337  sq.).  See  Appearances 
OF  Chkist.  To  her,  however,  after  the  first  moment  of 
joy,  it  had  seemed  to  be  but  a  vision.  She  went  with 
her  cry  of  sorrow  to  Peter  and  John  (let  us  remember 
that  Salome  had  been  with  her),  ''They  have  taken 
away  the  Lord  out  of  the  sepulchre,  and  we  know  not 
where  they  have  laid  him"  (John  xx,  1,2).  But  she 
returns  there.  She  follows  Peter  and  John,  and  remains 
when  they  go  back.  The  one  thought  that  fiUs  her 
mind  is  still  that  the  body  is  not  there.  She  has  been 
robbed  of  that  task  of  reverential  love  on  which  she  had 
set  her  heart.  The  words  of  the  angels  can  call  out  no 
other  answer  than  that^ — "  Tiiey  have  taken  away  my 
Lord,  and  I  know  not  where  they  have  laid  him"  (John 
XX,  13).  This  intense  brooding  over  one  fixed  thought 
was,  we  may  venture  to  say,  to  one  who  had  suffered  as 
she  had  suffered,  full  of  special  danger,  and  called  for  a 
special  discipline.  The  spirit  must  be  r.aised  out  of  its 
blank  despair,  or  else  the  "seven  devils"  might  come  in 
once  again,  and  the  last  state  be  worse  than  the  first. 
The  utter  stupor  of  grief  is  shown  in  her  want  of  power 
to  recognise  at  first  either  the  voice  or  the  form  of  the 
Lord  to  whom  she  had  ministered  (John  xx,  14, 15).  At 
last  her  own  name  uttered  by  that  voice,  as  she  had 
heard  it  uttered,  it  may  be.  in  the  hour  of  her  deepest 
misery,  recalls  her  to  consciousness;  and  then  follows 
the  cry  of  recognition,  with  the  strongest  word  of  rev- 
erence which  a  woman  of  Israel  could  use,  "  Kabboni," 
and  the  rush  forwards  to  cling  to  his  feet.     That,  how- 


MARY 


843 


MARY 


ever,  is  not  the  discipline  she  needs.  Her  love  had  been 
too  dependent  on  the  visible  presence  of  her  Master. 
She  had  the  same  lesson  to  learn  as  the  other  disciples. 
Thouf^li  they  had  "  known  Christ  after  the  flesh,"  they 
were  '•  henceforth  to  know  him  so  no  more."  She  was 
to  hear  that  truth  in  its  highest  and  sharpest  form. 
"  Touch  me  not,  for  I  am  not  yet  ascended  to  my  Fa- 
ther." For  a  time,  till  the  earthly  affection  had  been 
raised  to  a  heavenly  one,  she  was  to  hold  back.  When 
he  had  finished  his  work  and  had  ascended  to  the  Fa- 
ther, there  should  be  no  barrier  then  to  tlie  fullest  com- 
munion that  the  most  devoted  love  could  crave.  Those 
who  souglit,  might  draw  near  and  touch  him  then.  He 
would  be  one  with  them,  and  they  one  with  him.  This 
is  the  last  authentic  record  of  the  Magdalene.  On  her 
character,  see  the  Journ.  ofSacX-it.  Oct.  186G. 

H.  Proposed  Identifications  with  other  Females  men- 
tioned in  the  N.  T. — 1.  The  questions  which  meet  us  con- 
nect themselves  with  the  narratives  in  the  four  Gospels 
of  women  who  came  with  precious  ointment  to  anoint 
the  feet  or  the  head  of  Jesus.  Each  Gospel  contains  an 
account  of  one  such  anointing,  and  men  have  asked,  in 
endeavoring  to  construct  a  harmony,  "  Do  they  teU  us 
of  four  distinct  acts,  or  of  three,  or  of  two,  or  of  one 
only '?  On  any  supposition  but  the  last,  are  the  distinct 
acts  perff)rmed  by  the  same  or  by  different  jiersons,  and 
if  by  different  persons,  then  by  how  many?  Further, 
have  we  any  grounds  for  itlentifying  Mary  Magdalene 
with  the  woman  or  with  any  one  of  the  women  whose 
acts  are  thus  brought  before  us  V"  This  opens  a  wide 
range  of  possible  combinations,  but  the  limits  of  the  in- 
quiry may,  without  much  difficulty,  be  narrowed.  Al- 
though the  opinion  seems  to  have  been  at  one  time 
maintained  (Origen,  Tract,  in  3fatt.  xxxv),  few  would 
now  hold  that  Matt,  xxvi  and  Mark  xiv  are  reports  of 
two  distinct  events.  Few,  except  critics  bent  like 
Schleiermacher  and  Strauss  on  getting  up  a  case  against 
the  historical  veracity  of  the  evangelists,  could  persuade 
themselves  that  the  narrative  of  Luke  vii,diflering  as  it 
does  in  well-nigh  every  circumstance,  is  but  a  misplaced 
and  embellished  version  of  the  incident  which  the  first 
two  Gospels  connect  with  the  last  week  of  our  Lord's 
ministry.  The  supposition  that  there  were  three  anoint- 
ings has  found  favor  with  Origen  (/.  e.)  and  Lightfopt 
(^Hurm.  Evaiu/.  ad  loc,  and  Ilor.  Ileb.  in  Matt,  xxvi) ; 
but  while,  on  the  one  hand,  it  removed  some  harmonistic 
difficidties,  there  is,  on  the  other,  something  improbable, 
to  the  verge  of  being  inconceivable,  in  the  rejietition 
within  three  days  of  the  same  scene,  at  the  same  place," 
with  precisely  the  same  murmur  and  the  same  reproof. 
We  are  left  to  the  conclusion  adopted  by  the  great  ma- 
jority of  interpreters,  that  the  Gospels  record  two  anoint- 
ings, one  in  some  city  unnamed  (Capernaum  and  Nain 
have  been  suggested),  during  our  Lord's  Galikean  min- 
istry (Luke  vii),  the  other  at  Bethany,  before  the  last 
entry  into  Jerusalem  (Matt,  xxvi;  Mark  xiv;  John 
xii). 

We  come,  then,  to  the  question  whether  in  these  two 
narratives  we  meet  with  one  woman  or  with  two.  The 
one  passage  adduced  for  the  former  conclusion  is  John 
xi,  2.  It  has  been  urged  (iMaldonatus,  hi  ISlatt.  xxvi, 
and  Joan,  xi,  2;  Acta  Hanctonnn,  July  22)  that  the 
words  which  we  find  there  ("It  was  that  Mary  v/hich 
anointed  the  Lord  with  ointment  .  .  .  whose  brother 
Lazarus  was  sick")  could  not  possibly  refer  by  anticipa- 
tion to  the  history  which  was  about  to  follow  in  ch.  xii, 
and  must  therefore  presuppose  some  fact  known  through 
the  other  Gospels  to  the  Church  at  large,  and  that  fact, 
it  is  inferred,  is  found  in  the  history  of  Luke  vii. 
Against  this  it  has  been  said,  on  the  other  side,  that  the 
assumption  thus  made  is  entirely  an  arbitrary  one,  and 
that  there  is  not  the  slightest  trace  of  the  life  of  Mary 
of  Bethany  ever  having  been  one  of  open  and  flagrant 
impurity.  There  is,  therefore,  but  slender  evidence  for 
the  assumption  that  the  two  anointings  were  the  acts 
of  one  and  the  same  woman,  and  that  -woman  the  sister 
of  Lazarus.    That  she  may  have  been  in  the  later  scene 


is  probable,  but  certainly  not  in  the  earlier.  See  No.  3, 
below. 

There  is,  if  possible,  still  less  reason  for  the  identifica- 
tion of  Mary  Magdalene  with  the  chief  actor  in  either 
historj\  When  her  name  appears  in  Luke  viii,  3,  there 
is  not  one  word  to  connect  it  with  the  histor}'  that  im- 
mediately precedes.  Though  possible,  it  is  at  least  un- 
likely that  such  a  one  as  the  "  sinner"  would  at  once 
have  been  received  as  the  chosen  companion  of  Joanna 
and  Salome,  and  have  gone  from  town  to  town  with 
them  and  the  disciples.  Lastlj',  the  description  that  is 
given — "  Out  of  wliom  went  seven  devils" — points,  as 
has  been  stated,  to  a  form  of  suffering  all  but  absolutely 
incompatible  with  the  life  implied  in  afiaprioXuc,  and 
to  a  very  different  work  of  healing  from  that  of  the  di- 
vine words  of  pardon— "Thy  sins  be  forgiven  thee." 
To  say,  as  has  been  said,  that  the  "  seven  devils"  are  the 
"  many  sins"  (Greg.  Mag.  lioni.  in  Evung.  25  and  53), 
is  to  identify  two  things  which  are  separated  in  the 
whole  tenor  of  the  N.  T.  by  the  clearest  line  of  demar- 
cation. The  argument  that  because  Mary  Magdalene 
is  mentioned  so  soon  afterwards,  she  must  be  the  same 
as  the  woman  of  Luke  vii  (Butler's  Lives  of  the  Saints, 
July  22),  is  simply  puerile.  It  woidd  be  just  as  reason- 
able to  identify  "the  sinner"  with  Susanna.  Never, 
perhaps,  has  a  figment  so  utterly  baseless  obtained  so 
wide  an  acceptance  as  that  which  we  connect  with  the 
name  of  the  "  penitent  Magdalene."  It  is  to  be  regret- 
ted that  the  chapter-heading  of  the  A.  V.  of  Luke  vii 
should  seem  to  give  a  quasi-authoritative  sanction  to  a 
tradition  so  utterly  uncertain,  and  that  it  should  have 
been  perpetuated  in  connection  with  a  great  work  of 
mercy. 

2.  The  belief  that  IMarj'  of  Bethany  and  Mary  Mag- 
dalene are  identical  is  yet  more  startling.  Not  one  sin- 
gle circumstance,  except  that  of  love  and  reverence  for 
their  Master,  is  common.  The  epithet  Magdalene,  what- 
ever may  be  its  meaning,  seems  chosen  for  the  express 
purpose  of  distinguishing  her  from  all  other  Marys. 
No  one  evangelist  gives  the  shghtest  hint  of  identity. 
Luke  mentions  Martha  and  her  sister  Mary  in  x,  38, 
39,  as  though  neither  had  been  named  before.  John, 
who  gives  the  fuUest  account  of  both,  keeps  their  dis- 
tinct individuality  most  prominent.  The  onlj'  simula- 
crum of  an  argument  on  behalf  of  the  identity  is  that, 
if  we  do  not  admit  it,  we  have  no  record  of  the  sister  of 
Lazarus  having  been  a  witness  of  the  resurrection. 

HI.  Traditions. — 1.  On  the  above  Identijication. — This 
lack  of  evidence  in  the  N.  T.  itself  is  not  comjiensated 
by  any  such  -weight  of  authority  as  -would  indicate  a 
really  trustworthy  tradition.  Two  of  the  earliest  writers 
who  allude  to  the  histories  of  the  anointing — Clement 
of  Alexandria  {Pcedag.  ii,  8)  and  Tertullian  (/>e  Pudic. 
chap.  8) — say  nothing  that  would  imply  that  they  ac- 
cepted it.  The  language  of  IrenKus  (iii,  4)  is  against 
it.  Origen  (/.  c.)  discusses  the  question  fully,  and  re- 
jects it.  He  is  followed  by  the  whole  succession  of  the 
expositors  of  the  Eastern  Church :  Theophilus  of  Anti- 
ocli,  Macarius,  Chrysostom,  Theophylact.  The  traditions 
of  that  Church,  when  they  wandered  into  the  regions 
of  conjecture,  took  another  direction,  and  suggested  the 
identity  of  Mary  Magdalene  with  the  daughter  of  the 
Sj'ro-Phoenician  woman  of  Mark  vii,  2G  (Nicephorus,  ^. 
E.  i,  33).  In  the  Western  Cliurch,  however,  the  other 
belief  began  to  spread.  At  first  it  is  mentioned  hesitat- 
ingly, as  by  Ambrose  {De  Virg.  Vel.,  and  in  Z,?<c.  lib.  vi), 
and  Jerome  {in  Matt,  xxvi,  2 ;  contr.  Jovin.  c.  16).  Au- 
gustine at  one  time  inclines  to  it  {De  Consens.  Evang. 
c.  G9),  at  another  speaks  very  doubtingly  (Tract,  in 
Joann.  49).  At  the  close  of  the  first  great  period  of 
Church  history,  Gregorj-  the  Great  takes  up  both  no- 
tions, embodies  them  in  his  Homilies  (in  Ev.  25,  53), 
and  stamps  them  with  his  authority.  The  reverence 
felt  for  him,  and  the  constant  use  of  his  works  as  a 
text-book  of  theology  during  the  whole  mediajval  pe- 
riod, secured  for  the  hypothesis  a  currency  which  it 
never  would  have  gained  on  its  own  merits.     The  ser- 


MARY 


844 


MARY 


vices  of  the  Feast  of  St.  INIary  Magdalene  were  con- 
structed on  the  assumption  of  its  truth  (^Brev.  Rom.  in 
Jul.  22).  Hymns,  and  paintings,  and  sculptures  fixed 
it  deep  in  the  minds  of  the  Western  nations,  France 
antl  England  being  foremost  in  their  reverence  for  the 
saint  whose  history  appealed  to  their  sj'mpathies.  (See 
below.)  In  particular,  that  passage  in  Luke  has  been 
adopted  as  the  lesson  of  the  day  for  her  festival  (Meyer 
on  Luke  vii,  37),  and  her- name  has  passed  into  all  the 
languages  of  Western  Christendom  as  expressive  of  a 
female  penitent,  Deyling  {Obss.  Sacr.  iii,  201)  gives  a 
history  both  of  the  progress  of  the  identification  and  of 
those  controversies,  especially  in  the  Gallic  Church, 
which  resulted  in  the  distinction  being  again  drawn 
between  them ;  and  a  testimony  to  the  success  with 
which  this  was  done  will  be  found  in  Daniel  (Thesaui'us 
Ilymnologicus,  ii,  129),  who  tells  us  that  in  the  missals 
of  various  churches,  the  words  "  Peccatricem  absolvisti" 
were  substituted  for  those  which  unquestionably  belong 
to  that  noble  hymn,  the  Dies  Irce,  in  its  original  condi- 
tion, "  Qui  Mariam  absolvisti."  WeU-nigh  all  ecclesias- 
tical writers,  after  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great  (Al- 
bert the  Great  and  Thomas  Aquinas  are  exceptions), 
take  it  for  granted.  When  it  was  first  questioned  Ity 
Fe\Te  d'Etaples  (Faber  Stapulensis)  in  the  early  Bibli- 
cal criticism  of  the  IGth  centurj',  the  ne^v  opinion  was 
formally  condemned  by  the  Sorbonne  {Ada  Sanciorum, 
1.  c),  and  denounced  by  bishop  Fisher  of  Rochester. 
The  Praj-er-book  of  1549  follows  in  the  wake  of  the 
Breviary;  but  in  that  of  1552,  either  on  account  of  the 
uncertainty  or  for  other  reasons,  the  feast  disappears. 
The  Book  of  Homilies  gives  a  doubtfiU  testimony.  In 
one  passage  the  "sinful  woman"  is  mentioned  without 
any  notice  of  her  being  the  same  as  the  Magdalene 
{Sermon  on  Repentance,  part  ii) ;  in  another  it  depends 
upon  a  comma  whether  the  two  are  distinguished  or 
identified  (ibid,  part  ii).  The  translators  under  James 
I,  as  has  been  stated,  adopted  the  received  tradition. 
Since  that  period  there  has  been  a  gradually  accumu- 
lating consensus  against  it.  Calvin,  Grotius,  Hammond, 
Casaubon,  among  older  critics,  Bengel,  Lampe,  Gres- 
■well,  Alford,  Wordsworth,  Stier,  Meyer,  Ellicott,  01s- 
hausen,  among  later,  agree  in  rejecting  it.  Romanist 
writers  even  (Tillemont,  Dupin,  Estius)  have  borne 
their  protest  against  it  in  whole  or  in  part;  and  books 
that  represent  the  present  teaching  of  the  Galilean 
Church  reject  entirely  the  identification  of  the  two  Ma- 
rys as  an  unhappy  mistake  (Migne,  Diet,  de  le  Bible?). 
The  mediiBval  tradition  has,  however,  found  defenders 
in  Baronius,  the  writers  of  the  Acta  Sanctorum,  Maldo- 
natus,  bishop  Andrewes,  Lightfoot,  Isaac  WUliams,  and 
Dr.  Pusey. 

2.  It  remains  to  give  the  substance  of  the  legend 
formed  out  of  these  combinations.  At  some  time  before 
the  commencement  of  oiu-  Lord's 'ministry,  a  great  sor- 
row fell  upon  the  household  of  Bethany.  The  younger 
of  the  two  sisters  fell  from  her  purity  and  sank  into  the 
depths  of  shame.  Her  life  was  that  of  one  possessed  by 
the  "seven  devils"  of  uncleanness.  From  the  city  to 
which  she  then  went,  or  from  her  harlot-like  adorn- 
ments, she  was  known  by  the  new  name  of  Magdalene. 
Then  she  hears  of  the  Deliverer,  and  repents,  and  loves, 
and  is  forgiven.  Then  she  is  received  at  once  into  the 
fellowship  of  the  holy  women  and  ministers  to  the  Lord, 
and  is  received  back  again  by  her  sister  and  dwells  with 
her,  and  shows  that  she  has  chosen  the  good  part.  The 
death  of  Lazarus  and  his  return  to  life  are  new  motives 
to  her  gratitude  and  love;  and  she  shows  them,  as  she 
had  shown  tliem  before,  anointing  no  longer  the  feet 
only,  but  the  head  also  of  her  Lord.  She  watches  by 
the  cross,  and  is  present  at  the  sepulchre,  and  witnesses 
the  resurrection.  Then  (the  legend  goes  on,  when  the 
work  of  fantastic  combination  i«  completed)^ after  some 
years  of  waiting,  she  goes  with  Lazarus,  and  Martha, 
and  iMaximin  (one  of  the  seventy)  to  Marseilles.  Comp. 
Lazari's.  They  land  there  ;  and  she,  leaving  Martha 
to  more  active  work,  retires  to  a  cave  in  the  neighbor- 


hood of  Aries,  and  there  leads  a  life  of  penitence  for 
thirty  years.  When  she  dies  a  church  is  built  in  her 
honor,  and  miracles  are  wrought  at  her  tomb.  Clovis 
the  Frank  is  healed  by  her  intercession,  and  his  new 
faith  is  strengthened;  and  the  chivalry  of  France  does 
homage  to  her  name  as  to  that  of  the  greater  Mary. 

Such  was  the  full-grown  form  of  the  Western  story. 
In  the  East  there  was  a  different  tradition.  Nicepho- 
rus  (//.  E.  ii,  10)  states  that  she  went  to  Rome  to  accuse 
Pilate  for  his  unrighteous  judgment;  Modestus,  patri- 
arch of  Constantinople  (Horn,  in  Marias'),  that  she  came 
to  Ephesus  with  the  Virgin  and  St.  John,  and  died  and 
was  buried  there.  The  emperor  Leo  the  Philosopher 
(cir.  890)  brought  her  body  from  that  city  to  Constan- 
tinople (,lc/a  Sanctorum,  1.  c),  and  deposited  it  in  the 
church  of  St.  Lazarus.  The  day  of  her  festival,  in  both 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Church,  is  July  22. 

The  name  appears  to  have  been  conspicuous  enough, 
either  among  the  living  members  of  the  Chiu-ch  at  Je- 
rusalem or  in  their  written  records,  to  attract  the  notice 
of  their  Jewish  opponents.  The  Talmudists  record  a 
tradition,  confused  enough,  that  Sfada  or  Satda,  whom 
they  represent  as  the  mother  of  the  Prophet  of  Naza- 
reth, was  known  by  this  name  as  a  "  plaiter  or  twiner 
of  hair;"  that  she  was  the  w/fe  of  Paphus  ben-Jehudah, 
a  contemporary  of  Gamaliel,  Joshua,  and  Akiba ;  and 
that  she  grieved  and  angered  him  by  her  wantonness 
(Lightfoot,  IIo}-.  Ileb.  on  Matt,  xxvi ;  Harm.  Enmg.  on 
Luke  viii,  3).  It  seems,  however,  from  the  fuller  report 
given  by  Eisenmenger,  that  there  were  two  women  to 
whom  the  Talmudists  gave  this  name,  and  the  wife  of 
Paphus  is  not  the  one  whom  they  identified  with  the 
Mary  Blagdalene  of  the  Gospels  (Entdeckt.  Judenth.  i, 
277).  There  is  a  pretended  history  of  her  said  to  have 
been  written  in  Hebrew  by  Marada,  servant  of  Martha, 
but  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  a  forgery  (Calmet's  Dic- 
tiomu-y  of  the  Bible). 

There  is,  lastly,  the  strange  supposition  (rising  out 
of  an  attempt  to  evade  some  of  the  harmonistic  difficul- 
ties of  the  resurrection  history)  that  there  were  two 
women  both  known  by  this  name,  and  both  among  those 
who  went  early  to  the  sepiUchre  (Lampe,  Conim.  in  Jo- 
ann ;  Ambrose,  Comm.  in  Luc.  x,  24). 

3.  IMary,  the  Sister  of  Lazarus.  For  much  of 
the  information  connected  with  this  name,  comp.  L^vz- 
ARUS  and  Mary  IMagdalene.  The  facts  strictly  per- 
sonal to  her  are  but  few.  She  and  her  sister  Martha 
appear  in  Luke  x,  40  as  receiving  Christ  in  their  house. 
The  contrasted  temperaments  of  the  two  sisters  have 
already  been  in  part  discussed.  See  JIartiia.  Mary 
sat  listening  eagerly  for  every  word  that  fell  from  the 
divine  Teacher.  She  had  chosen  the  good  part,  the  life 
that  had  found  its  unity,  the  "  one  thing  needful,"  in 
rising  from  the  earthly  to  the  heavenly,  no  longer  dis- 
tracted by  the  "  many  things"  of  earth.  The  same  char- 
acter shows  itself  in  the  history  of  John  xi.  Her  grief 
is  deeper,  but  less  active.  She  sits  still  in  the  house. 
She  will  not  go  to  meet  the  friends  who  come  on  the 
formal  visit  of  consolation.  But  when  her  sister  tells 
her  secretl)',  "  The  Master  is  come  and  calleth  for  thee," 
she  rises  quickly  and  goes  forth  at  once  (John  xi,  20, 
28).  Those  who  have  watched  the  depth  of  her  grief 
have  but  one  explanation  for  the  sudden  change :  "  She 
goeth  to  the  grave  to  weep  there !"  Her  first  thought, 
when  she  sees  the  Teacher  in  whose  power  and  love  she 
had  trusted,  is  one  of  complaint.  "  She  fell  down  at  his 
feet,  saying,  Lord,  if  thou  hadst  been  here,  my  brother 
had  not  died."  Up  to  this  point  her  relation  to  the  di- 
vine Friend  had  been  one  of  reverence,  receiving  rather 
than  giving,  blessed  in  the  consciousness  of  his  favor. 
But  the  great  joy  and  love  which  her  brother's  return 
to  life  called  up  in  her,  poured  themselves  out  in  larger 
measure  than  had  been  seen  before.  The  treasured  ala- 
baster-box of  ointment  was  brought  forth  at  the  final 
feast  of  Bethany  (John  xii,  3).  A.D.  29.  Matthew  and 
Mark  keep  back  her  name.     See  Anointinc;. 

Of  her  after-history  we  know  nothing.     The  ecclesi- 


MARY 


845 


MARY 


astical  traditions  about  her  are  based  on  the  unfounded 
hypothesis  of  her  identity  with  Mary  Magdalene. — 
Smith. 

4.  JIary,  the  (Wife)  of  Clopas  (Mapia  r)  tov 
KXai7r«,  A.  Y.  "of  Clcophas"),  described  by  John  as 
standing  by  the  cross  of  Jesus  in  company  with  his 
mother  and  Mary  Magdalene  (John  xix.  25).  The 
same  group  of  women  is  described  by  IMatthew  as  con- 
sisting of  Mary  Magdalene,  and  Mary  [the  mother]  of 
James  and  Joses,  and  the  mother  of  Zebedee's  children" 
(Matt,  xxvii,  5G) :  and  by  INIark,  as  "  Mary  Magdalene, 
and  Mary  [the  mother]  of  James  the  Little  and  of  Joses, 
and  Salome"  (Mark  xv,  40).  From  a  comparison  of 
these  passages,  it  appears  that  "  Mary  of  Clopas,"  and 
"  Mary  of  James  the  Little  and  of  Joses,"  are  the  same 
person,  and  that  she  was  the  sister  of  Mary  the  Virgin. 
The  arguments,  preponderating  on  the  affirmative  side, 
for  this  Mary  behig  (according  to  the  A.  V.  translation) 
the  wife  of  Clopas  or  Alph^us,  and  the  mother  of  James 
the  Little,  Joses,  Jude,  Simon,  and  their  sisters,  have 
been  given  under  the  heading  J^uies. 

To  solve  the  difficulties  of  this  verse  the  following 
supposition  has  been  suggested :  (1)  That  the  two  clauses 
"his  mother's  sister"  and  "Marj^  of  Clopas"  are  not  in 
apposition,  and  that  John  meant  to  designate  four  per- 
sons as  present,  namely,  the  mother  of  Jesus ;  her  sister, 
to  whom  he  does  not  assign  any  name ;  Mary  of  Clopas ; 
and  Mary  Magdalene  ( Lange).  It  has  been  further  sug- 
gested that  this  sister's  name  was  Salome,  wife  of  Zebe- 
dee  (Wieseler).  This  is  avoiding,  not  solving  a  diffi- 
culty. John  could  not  have  expressed  himself  as  he 
does  had  he  meant  more  than  three  persons.  It  has 
been  suggested  (2)  that  the  word  dStX^r]  is  not  here  to 
be  taken  in  its  strict  sense,  but  rather  in  the  laxcr  ac- 
ceptation, which  it  clearly  does  bear  in  other  places. 
Mary,  wife  of  Clopas,  it  has  been  said,  was  not  the  sister, 
but  the  cousin  of  Mary  the  Virgin  (see  Wordsworth,  Gi\ 
Test.,  Preface  to  the  Epistle  of  St.  James).  There  is 
nothing  in  this  suggestion  which  is  objectionable,  or 
wliich  can  be  disproved.  But  it  is  hardly  consistent 
with  the  terms  of  close  relationship  assigned  to  the  con- 
nected members  of  the  holy  family.  See  Brethren 
OF  OUR  Lord.  By  many,  therefore,  it  has  been  con- 
tended (3)  that  the  two  Marys  were  literally  sisters- 
german.  "  That  it  is  far  from  impossible  for  two  sisters 
to  have  the  same  name  may  be  seen  by  any  one  who 
will  cast  his  ej-e  over  Betham's  Genealogical  Tables. 
To  name  no  others,  his  eye  will  at  once  light  on  a  pair 
of  Antonias  anil  a  pair  of  Octavias,  the  daughters  of  the 
same  father,  and  in  one  case  of  different  mothers,  in  the 
other  of  the  same  mother.  If  it  be  objected  that  these 
are  merely  gentilic  names,  another  table  will  give  two 
Cleopatras.  It  is  cjuite  possible,  too,  that  the  same  cause 
which  operates  at  present  in  Spain  may  have  been  at 
work  formerly  in  Judrea.  MiRiAjr,  the  sister  of  IMoses, 
may  have  been  the  holy  woman  after  whom  Jewish 
mothers  called  their  daughters,  just  as  Spanish  mothers 
not  unfrequently  give  the  name  of  jMarv  to  their  chil- 
dren, male  and  female  alike,  in  honor  of  Mary  the  Vir- 
gin. (Maria,  Maria-Pia,  and  Maria-Immacolata,  are  the 
first  names  of  three  of  the  sisters  of  the  late  king  of  the 
Two  Sicilies.)  This  is  on  the  hypothesis  that  the  two 
names  are  identical,  but,  on  a  close  examination  of  the 
Greek  text,  we  find  that  it  is  possible  that  this  was  not 
the  case.  i\Iary  the  Virgin  is  Mapici^i ;  her  sister  is 
Mopi'o.  It  is  more  than  possible  that  these  names 
are  the  Greek  representatives  of  two  forms  which  the 
antique  C'^'I'a  had  then  taken;  and  as  in  pronunciation 
the  emphasis  would  have  been  tin-own  on  the  last  sylla- 
ble in  Mnpia/x,  while  the  final  letter  in  Mapia  would 
have  been  almost  unheard,  there  would,  upon  this  hy- 
pothesis, have  been  a  greater  difference  in  the  sisters' 
names  than  there  is  between  Jlary  and  Jlaria  among 
ourselves.  The  ordinary  explanation  that  Mapta/x  is 
the  Hebraic  form,  and  Mapta  the  Greek  form,  and  that 
the  difference  is  in  the  use  of  the  evangelists,  not  in  the 


name  itself,  seems  scarcely  adequate :  for  why  should 
the  evangelists  invariably  employ  the  Hebraic  form 
when  writing  of  Mary  the  Virgin,  and  the  Greek  form 
when  ^rating  about  all  the  other  Marj-s  in  the  Gospel 
history?  It  is  true  that  this  distinction  is  not  con- 
stantly observed  in  the  readings  of  the  Codex  Vatica- 
nus,  the  Codex  Ephraemi,  and  a  few  other  MSS. ;  but 
there  is  sufficient  agreement  in  the  majority  of  the  cod- 
ices to  determine  the  usage.  That  it  is  possible  for  a 
name  to  develop  into  several  kindred  forms,  and  for  these 
forms  to  be  considered  sufficiently  distinct  appellations 
for  two  or  more  brothers  or  sisters,  is  evidenced  by  our 
daily  experience"  (Smith).  "  We  find  that  the  high- 
priest  Onias  III  had  a  brother  also  named  Onias,  who 
eventually  succeeded  him  in  his  office. under  the  adopt- 
ed name  of  Menelaus.  We  have  the  authority  of  the 
earliest  traditions  for  the  opinion  that  our  Lord's  mother 
had  at  least  one  sister  called  Mary.  Indeed,  it  is  an  old 
opinion  that  Anna,  the  mother  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  had 
three  daughters  of  that  name  by  different  husbands ; 
and  Dr.  Routh,  in  his  Reliquia  Sacra,  gives  us  from  Pa- 
pias,  the  scholar  of  John  {ex  Cod  MS.  Bill.  Bodl.  2397), 
the  following  enumeration  of  four  Marys  of  the  N.  T. : 
1.  Maria,  Mater  Domini ;  2.  Maria,  Cleopha;  sive  Alphsei 
uxor,  quffi  fiut  mater  .Tacobi  Episcopi  et  Apostoli,  et  Si- 
monis,  et  Thadrei,  et  cujusdam  Joseph ;  3.  Maria  Salome, 
uxor  Zebedaji,  mater  Johannis  evangelistffi  et  Jacobi ;  4. 
Maria  Magdalene.  It  is  further  stated,  in  this  fragment 
of  Papias,  that  both  Mary,  the  wife  of  Cleophas,  and 
Mary  Salome,  were  aunts  of  our  Lord,  and  consequently 
sisters  of  the  Virgin  Mary"  (Kitto).  Finally,  most  in- 
terpreters, regarding  all  the  above  positions  as  untena- 
ble, or,  at  least,  improbable,  suppose  (4)  that  the  two 
IMarys  were  sisters-in-law  by  virtue  of  having  married 
brothers,  i.  e.  Joseph  and  Alphreus  or  Clopas,  and  after- 
wards, perhaps  by  a  Levirate  marriage,  having  become 
the  wives  of  the  same  husband,  namely,  Joseph  the  sur- 
vivor.    See  ALPtt.Eus. 

The  only  knowledge  we  have  of  this  Mary,  besides 
the  above  facts  of  her  sons,  and  of  her  presence  at  the 
crucifixion,  is  that  she  was  that "  other  Jlary"  who,  with 
Marj^  Magdalene,  attended  the  body  of  Christ  to  the 
sepulchre  when  taken  down  from  the  cross  (jMatt.  xxvii, 
61 ;  Mark  xv,  47 ;  Luke  xxiii,  55).  She  was  also  among 
those  who  went  on  the  morning  of  the  first  day  of  the 
week  to  the  sepulchre  to  anoint  the  body,  and  who  be- 
came the  first  witnesses  of  the  resurrection  (Matt,  xxviii, 
1 ;  Mark  xvi,  1 ;  Luke  xxiv,  1).     A.D.  29. 

5.  Mary,  the  siother  of  .John,  surnajied  Mark 
{Mapia  i)  iu]rt]p  'Imlvvov  tov  iTTiKa\ovj.ikvov  MapKov, 
Acts  xii,  12).  A.D.  44.  The  woman  known  by  this  de- 
scription must  have  been  among  the  earliest  disciples. 
We  learn  from  Col.  iv.  10  that  she  was  sister  to  Barna- 
bas, and  it  would  apjiear  from  Acts  iv,  37;  xii,  12.  that, 
while  the  brother  gave  up  his  land  and  brought  the 
proceeds  of  the  sale  into  the  common  treasury  of  the 
Church,  the  sister  gave  up  her  house  to  be  used  as  one 
of  its  chief  places  of  meeting.  The  fact  that  Peter  went 
to  that  house  on  his  release  from  prison  indicates  that 
there  was  some  special  intimacy  (Acts  xii,  12)  between 
them,  and  this  is  confirmed  by  the  language  which  he 
uses  towards  Mark  as  being  his  "  son"  (1  Pet.  v,  13). 
She,  it  may  be  added,  must  have  been,  Hke  Barnabas,  of 
the  tribe  of  Levi,  and  may  have  been  connected,  as  ho 
was,  with  Cyprus  (Acts  iv,  3G).  It  has  been  surmised 
that  filial  anxiety  about  her  welfare  during  the  persecu- 
tions and  the  famine  which  harassed  the  Church  at  Je- 
rusalem, was  the  chief  cause  of  Mark's  withdrawal  from 
the  missionary  labors  of  Paul  and  Barnabas.  The  tra- 
dition of  a  later  age  represented  the  place  of  meeting  for 
the  disciples,  and  therefore  probably  the  house  of  Jlary, 
as  having  stood  on  the  upper  slope  of  Zion,  and  affirmed 
that  it  had  been  the  scene  of  the  wonder  of  the  day  of 
Pentecost,  had  escaped  the  general  destruction  of  the 
city  by  Titus,  and  was  still  used  as  a  church  in  the  4th 
century  (Epiphan.  I)e  Pond,  et  Mens,  xiv;  Cyril  HierosoL 
Caieck.  xtI). — Smith.     See  JMark. 


MARY 


846 


MARY 


6.  A  Christian  female  at  Rome,  mentioned  by  Paul  as 
having-  formerly  treated  him  with  special  kindness  (Kom. 
xvi.  (>).  A.D.  54.  As  this  is  the  only  Hebrew  name  in 
the  list  (Jouatt,  ad  loc),  and  as  the  reading  tig  yi-iag  in 
the  same  verse  is  disputed,  it  is  possible  that  she  was 
not  a  native  of  Rome. 

Mary  of  Agreda.     See  Agreda,  Maria  de. 

Mary  of  Egypt,  a  saint  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  according  to  her  legend,  ran  away  from  her  par- 
ents when  twelve  years  of  age ;  led  a  very  dissolute  life 
for  seventeen  years  at  Alexandria,  and  then  joined  a 
party  of  pilgrims  on  their  way  to  Jerusalem,  with  the 
intention  of  living  there  in  the  same  manner.  Arriving 
in  that  cit_y,  she  wished  to  visit  the  Church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre,  but  was  held  back  by  an  unseen  power ;  she 
then  knelt  before  an  image  of  Mary,  and  vowed  to  re- 
form her  life.  She  was  now  permitted  to  enter  the 
church,  and,  after  praying  to  the  cross,  asked  the  Vir- 
gin to  direct  her  ^vhat  she  should  do  to  be  agreeable  to 
God.  A  supernatural  voice  told  her  to  go  to  the  other 
side  of  Jordan,  into  the  wilderness.  ]\Iary  obeyed,  and 
lived  there  forty-seven  years,  enduring  privations  of  aU 
kinds,  until  the  monk  Zosimus  discovered  her  one  day, 
an  old,  naked,  sunburnt  woman,  covered  with  white  hair. 
She  asked  him  for  his  cloak,  his  prayers,  and  his  bless- 
ing ;  related  to  him  her  history,  and  asked  him  to  come 
to  see  her  again  in  a  year,  and  to  bring  her  the  com- 
munion. As  he  came  at  the  appointed  time,  she  met 
him  and  communed  with  him.  But  when  he  went  again 
to  her,  as  appointed,  three  years  afterwards,  ha  found 
only  a  corpse,  and  her  name  written  beside  her  on  the 
sand.  After  he  had  long  tried  in  vain  to  dig  a  grave 
to  bury  her,  a  lion  came  and  helped  him.  According  to 
the  general  opinion,  she  died  during  the  reign  of  Theo- 
dosius  the  Younger.  Her  grave  became  a  great  shrine, 
and  a  number  of  churches  and  chapels  were  placed  un- 
der her  protection.  She  is  most  honored  in  the  Greek 
Church,  and  is  commemorated  on  the  2d  of  April.  See 
C.  Baronii  Murtyrologium  Romanum  (Moguntife,  1631', 
p.  200  sq.);  Herzog,  Real-Encijklopddie,  ix,  105.  (J. 
N.P.) 

Mary,  queen  of  England,  daughter  of  Henry  VHI 
by  his  iirst  wife,  Catharine  of  Aragon,  is  commonly  called 
liloodij  Queen  Mary,  on  account  of  her  cruel  persecutions 
of  the  Protestants — "  a  history  of  horrors  exceeded  only 
by  the  persecutions  in  the  Netherlands  by  Alva,  and  of 
Louis  XIV  after  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes." 
She  was  born  at  Greenwich,  on  the  18th  (Burnet  says 
l!)th)  of  February,  1516.  The  only  living  one  of  sev- 
eral children  liorne  by  her  mother,  she  was  on  this  ac- 
count, according  to  Burnet,  and  because  her  father  was 
then  "out  of  hopes  of  more  children,"  declared  in  1518 
princess  of  Wales,  and  sent  to  Ludlow,  to  hold  her  court 
there,  divers  matches  being  projected  for  her,  none  of 
which,  however,  were  carried  into  effect.  After  the  di- 
vorce of  Catharine,  and  Henry's  marriage  of  Anne  Bo- 
leyn,  iNIary's  position  waned  at  court,  anil  finally  the  title 
of  princess  of  Wales  was  transferred  to  princess  Eliza- 
beth, soon  after  she  came  into  the  world.  j\Iary  had 
been  brought  up  from  her  infancy  in  a  strong  attach- 
ment to  the  ancient  religion,  under  the  care  of  lier  moth- 
er, and  Margaret,  countess  of  Salisbury,  the  effect  of 
whose  instructions  was  not  impaired  by  the  subsequent 
lessons  of  the  learned  Ludovicus  Vives,  who,  though 
somewhat  inclined  to  the  Reformed  opinions,  was  ap- 
pointed by  Henry  to  be  her  Latin  tutor.  The  profli- 
gate conduct  of  her  father,  and  the  wrongs  inflicted 
upon  her  mother,  naturally  had  the  effect  of  making  her 
still  more  attached  to  the  Roman  Catholics.  But  im- 
mediately after  the  execution  of  queen  Anne  in  1536, 
a  reconcilement  took  place  between  Henr}'  ami  his  el- 
dest daughter,  who  was  now  prevailed  upo,n  to  make  a 
formal  acknowledgment  both  of  Henry's  ecclesiastical 
supremacy — utterly  refusing  "  the  bishop  of  Rome's  ])re- 
tended  authority,  power,  and  jurisdiction  within  this 
realm  heretofore  usurped" — and  of  the  nullity  of  the 


marriage  of  her  father  and  mother,  which  she  declared 
was  "  by  God's  law  and  man's  law  incestuous  and  un- 
lawful." (See  the  "  Confession  of  me,  the  Ladj-  Marj-," 
as  printed  by  Burnet  [//w/.  Ref.^  from  the  original,  '•  all 
written  ^vith  her  own  hand.")  This  very  year,  how- 
ever, shortly  after  the  marriage  of  Jane  Seymour,  a  new 
act  of  succession  was  passed,  by  which  she  was  again,  as 
well  as  her  sister  Elizabeth,  declared  illegitimate,  and 
forever  excluded  from  claiming  the  inheritance  of  the 
crown  as  the  king's  lawful  heir  by  lineal  descent.  But 
as,  by  the  powers  reserved  to  Henry  VHI  of  nominating 
his  own  successor  after  failure  of  the  issue  of  queen  Jane, 
or  of  any  other  queen  whom  he  might  afterwards  mar- 
ry, a  possible  chance  was  left  to  Mary,  she  continued  to 
yield  an  outward  conformity  to  aU  her  father's  capri- 
cious movements,  even  in  the  matter  of  religion,  and 
she  so  far  succeeded  in  regaining  his  favor  that  in  the 
new  act  of  succession,  passed  in  1544,  the  inheritance 
to  the  crown  was  expressly  secured  to  her  next  after  her 
brother  Edward  and  his  heirs,  and  any  issue  the  king 
might  have  by  his  then  wife  Catharme  Parr.  Upon 
the  death  of  Henry  VHI  and  the  accession  of  Edward  to 
the  throne  of  England  (1544),  Mary's  hopes  of  reigning 
one  day  over  England  were  darkened  by  the  persistent 
efforts  of  her  half-brother  to  establish  the  religion  of 
the  Reformers.  Mary's  compliance  with  the  innovations 
in  religion  in  her  father's  time,  as  we  have  noted  above, 
had  been  dictated  merely  by  fear  or  self-interest;  no 
longer  restrained,  she  mataifested  her  fidelity  to  and  af- 
fection for  the  court  of  Rome  when,  after  Edward's  ac- 
cession, his  ministers  proceeded  to  place  the  whole  doc- 
trine, as  AveU  as  discipline,  of  the  national  Church  upon 
a  new  foundation.  She  openlj'  refused  to  go  along  with 
them,  nor  could  all  their  persuasions  and  threats,  aided 
by  those  of  her  brother  himself,  move  her  from  her 
ground.  (Full  details  of  the  various  attempts  that  were 
made  to  prevail  upon  her  may  be  found  in  Burnet's 
History,  p.  417-420,  and  in  king  Edward's  Journal. 
Mention  is  made  in  the  latter,  under  date  of  April,  1549, 
of  a  demand  for  the  hand  of  the  lady  Jlary  by  the  duke 
of  Brunswick,  who  -was  informed  by  the  council  that 
"  there  was  talk  for  her  marriage  with  the  infant  of 
Portugal,  which  being  determined,  he  should  have  an- 
swer." About  the  same  time  it  is  noted  that  '■  whereas 
the  emperor's  ambassador  desired  leave,  by  letters  pat- 
ent, that  my  lady  ;\Iary  miglit  have  mass,  it  M'as  denied 
him."  On  the  18th  of  March  of  the  following  year  the 
king  writes :  "  The  lady  ]Mar}',  my  sister,  came  to  me.  at 
Westminster,  where,  after  salutations,  she  was  called, 
with  my  council,  into  a  chamber;  where  was  declared 
how  long  I  had  suffered  her  mass,  in  hope  of  her  recon- 
ciliation, and  how  now  being  no  hope,  which  I  perceived 
by  her  letters,  except  I  saw  some  short  amendment,  I 
could  not  bear  it.  She  answered  that  her  soul  was  (iod's, 
and  her  faith  she  would  not  change,  nor  dissemble  her 
opinion  with  contrary  doings.  It  was  said,  I  constrain- 
ed not  her  faith,  but  wished  her  not  as  a  king  to  rule, 
but  as  a  subject  to  obey ;  and  that  her  example  might 
breed  too  much  inconvenience.")  Had  it  not  been  for 
the  interference  of  Charles  V,  no  doubt  IMary  would  have 
suffered  severe  punishment  for  her  persistenc}'  in  remain- 
ing faithfid  to  the  pope.  The  emperor,  who  had  once 
even  asked  her  liand,  aiid  only  withdrew  his  recpiest  when 
Catharine  was  divorced,  made  it  "  the  condition  of  his 
friendly  relations  to  the  English  government  that  Mary 
be  left  in  the  free  enjoyment  of  her  religious  faith,  and 
the  king  of  England,  rather  than  he  subject  to  war,  yield- 
ed— but  with  tears"  (Lingard,  Hist,  of  Engl,  vii,  G6  sq.). 
Yet  if  ISIary  secured  liberty  of  conscience,  she  secured  it  • 
at  the  risk  of  a  crown,  for  Jlary's  firm  adherence  to  the 
Roman  faith  finally  induced  Edward,  under  the  inter- 
ested advice  of  his  minister  Northumberland,  to  attempt 
at  the  close  of  his  life  to  exclude  her  from  the  succes- 
sion, and  to  make  over  the  crown  by  will  to  lady  Jane 
Grey,  an  act  which  was  certainly  without  any  shadow 
of  legal  force,  and  failed  to  be  of  any  effect.  Although 
lady  Jane  was  actually  proclaimed  queen  upon  the  death 


MARY 


847 


MARY 


of  Edward,  Mary  herself  claimed  the  crown,  and  with 
scarcely  any  resistance  secured  the  throne. 

INIary's  reign  opens  a  new  and  bloody  chapter  in  the 
history  of  England — a  period  in  the  ecclesiastical  annals 
when  the  tlame  of  Komanism,  which  had  been  slowly 
dying,  was  fanned  into  new  life,  and,  glaring  up  wild- 
h',  spent  its  full  furj^,  and  quickly  died,  never  to  burn 
anew.  Slary,  as  we  have  seen,  was  ever  a  faithful  ad- 
herent to  the  cause  of  Rome ;  she  had  quietly  submit- 
ted to  the  innovations  under  Henry  VIII  to  secure  her 
father's  favors,  but  as  she  grew  older  she  grew  more 
decided.  Indeed,  her  own  legitimacy  to  the  throne  was 
involved  in  her  acknowledgment  of  the  pope.  One  of 
the  pontiffs  had  confirmed  her  mother's  marriage,  and 
another  had  refused  to  annul  it.  Impressed  by  this 
truth,  she  had  clung  closely  to  the  Church  of  her  in- 
fancy, even  when  she  seemed  in  danger  of  losing  the 
privilege  of  succession,  and  she  faltered  not  when  lady 
Jane  tJrey  became  the  avowed  heir  of  her  half-broth- 
er. (Juite  in  contrast  with  this  bearing  is  her  conduct 
after  the  decease  of  Edward.  Satisfied  that  the  way  to 
the  throne  could  be  opened  only  by  Protestant  aid,  she 
hesitated  not  to  pledge  to  the  men  of  Suffolk,  whose  help 
she  invoked, "  that  she  would  be  content  with  her  own 
private  exercise  of  religion,  and  that  she  would  not  force 
that  of  others"  (Butler,  ii,  437  ;  Neale,  i,  58).  She  even 
repeated  a  like  declaration  to  the  council,  and  renewed 
it  as  late  as  a  month  after  her  accession  to  the  throne. 
Yet  all  this  time  she  was  preparing  the  waj'  for  a 
speedy  return  of  England's  clergy  to  the  Church  of 
Rome.  Even  before  she  had  made  these  promises  she 
had  already  sent  a  message  to  the  Pope  announcing  her 
accession,  and  giving  in  her  allegiance  to  him  as  a  duti- 
ful daughter  of  the  Church  (Butler,  ii,  437). 

Mary  made  her  accession  to  the  throne  on  July  19. 
In  the  course  of  the  month  of  August,  Bonner  (q,  v.), 
Gardiner  (q.  v.),  and  three  other  bishops,  who  had  been 
deposed  for  nonconformity  in  the  late  reign,  were  re- 
stored to  their  sees,  and  the  mass,  contrary  to  law,  began 
again  to  be  celebrated  in  manj'  churches.  In  the  fol- 
lowing month  archbishop  Cranmer  (q.  v.)  and  bishop 
Latimer  (q.  v.),  having  opposed  these  popish  innova- 
tions, were  committed  to  the  Tower.  Soon  after  Ridley 
(q.  v.)  was  committed,  and  upon  the  meeting  of  Parlia- 
ment, Oct.  5,  only  three  months  after  the  king's  death, 
but  two  of  the  Reformed  bishops — Tajdor  of  Lincoln  and 
Harley  of  Hereford — remained  in  their  sees,  while  Pe- 
ter Martyr  (q.  v.),  John  a  Lasko  [see  Lasko],  and  other 
ffireign  preachers,  were  advised  to  quit  the  countrj'. 
After  the  assembling  of  Parliament  further  steps  were 
taken.  An  act  was  forced  through  repealing  all  the 
acts,  nine  in  number,  relating  to  religion  that  had  been 
passed  in  the  late  reign,  and  restoring  the  Church  to 
tlie  same  position  which  it  had  held  at  the  death  of 
Henry  A'lII.  Most  high  handed  were  the  games  of 
bishop  Cilardiner,  a  man  truly  unscrupulous  and  void  of 
moral  sense.  Seeking  only  to  promote  selfish  ends,  he 
had  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII  been  the  most  subser- 
vient instrument  of  the  king  in  securing  the  divorce 
from  Catharine,  and  to  procure  the  archbishopric  he  now 
played  a  like  unmerciful  game  against  all  who  stood 
in  his  way.  The  crime  he  had  perpetrated  he  assured 
IMary  had  been  committed  by  Cranmer,  and  persuaded 
all  that  he  had  ever  remained  a  most  faithful  servant 
of  the  pope.  See  (  Jakdinek.  Some  writers  will  even 
have  it  that  Mary  was  at  this  time  inclined  to  be  just 
to  all  her  subjects,  and  that  she  was  only  led  astray 
by  this  dastardly  but  wily  ecclesiastic.  But,  be  this  as 
it  may,  certain  it  is  that  iNIary  acted  in  the  interests  of 
Romanism  only,  quite  unmindful  of  the  obligations  she 
had  assumed  before  the  Protestants.  In  the  Convo- 
cation, the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  and  Poynet's  Cat- 
echism were  pronounced  "abominable  and  pestiferous 
books."  In  the  lower  house,  six  divines  disputed  boldly 
against  transubstantiation  for  three  days;  but  when, 
overpo\vered  by  numbers,  they  left  the  house,  four  arti- 
cles were  framed  which  became  the  test  of  heresy  to  all 


who  suffered  in  this  reign.  They  affirmed  (1)  commu- 
nion in  one  kind ;  (2)  a  transubstantiation  of  bread  and 
wine  into  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ ;  (3)  that  wor- 
ship should  be  rendered  to  the  host;  (4)  that  Christ  is 
offered  up  as  a  sacrifice  in  the  mass  (comp.  Butler,  ii, 
440).  Rome  also  promptly  responded,  and  appointed  a 
papal  legate  to  England— cardinal  Pole — but,  as  Gardi- 
ner himself  was  desirous  to  secure  the  position  (Soames, 
iv,  77),  he  urged  the  queen  to  request  the  legate  to  re- 
main at  home,  at  least  until  the  match  proposed  between 
herself  and  Philip  of  Spain,  the  pious  Catholic,  be  fur- 
ther matured.  There  was  great  opposition  on  the  part 
of  the  people  to  this  proposed  union  with  Spain,  and  it 
was  not  best  to  tritle  with  popular  opinion.  Indeed,  as 
it  was,  these  measures,  and  other  indications  given  by 
the  court  of  a  determination  to  be  completely  reconciled 
with  Rome,  were  followed  by  insurrection  (commonly 
known  as  that  of  Sir  Thomas  Wyat,  its  principal  lead- 
er), which  broke  out  in  the  end  of  January,  1554.  It  is 
true  this  rebellion  was  in  a  few  days  effectually  put 
down,  its  suppression  being  signalized  by  the  executions 
of  the  unfortunate  lady  Jane  (Jrey  and  her  husband,  the 
lord  Guildford  Dudley,  of  her  father,  the  duke  of  Suf- 
folk, and,  finally,  of  Wyat  himself;  but  the  popular  in- 
dignation, instead  of  bringing  Mary  to  her  senses,  led 
her  further  and  further  away  from  the  people  over  whom 
she  had  forced  herself  as  ruler.  She  was  well  aware 
that  the  people  were  daily  growing  in  dissatisfaction 
because  of  her  decision  to  lead  them  back  to  Rome,  and 
yet,  in  the  face  of  all  this  opposition,  she  contracted  a 
union  with  the  greatest  Roman  Catholic  power,  the  gov- 
ernment of  Charles  V,  by  her  marriage  to  Philip  II  (q. 
v.),  July  25.  Though  the  latter  pledged  himself  to  the 
performance  of  many  concessions  to  the  English,  the 
Spanish  match  remained  exceedingly  unpopular. 

Mary's  success  in  quelling  the  rebellion  which  she  had 
provoked  gave  her,  however,  most  complete  ascendency 
over  the  reactionists,  and  she  promptly  used  her  courage 
and  capacity  to  intrench  herself  by  the  aid  of  Rome. 
Parliament,  which  ;vas  assembled  in  November,  was  com- 
pletely imder  her  sway,  and,  ins]iired  by  her,  obediently 
passed  acts  repealing  the  attainder  of  cardinal  Pole,  who 
had  long  waited  to  make  his  appearance  in  England  as 
the  papal  legate,  restoring  the  authority  of  the  pope, 
repealing  all  laws  made  against  the  see  of  Rome  since 
Henry  VIII,  reviving  the  ancient  statutes  against  her- 
esy, and,  in  short,  re-establishing  the  whole  national  sys- 
tem of  religious  policy  as  it  had  existed  previous  to  the 
first  innovations  made  by  her  father.  By  one  of  the 
acts  of  this  session  of  Parliament,  also,  Philip  was  au- 
thorized to  take  the  title  of  King  of  England  during 
the  queen's  life.  These  measures  became  the  inaugu- 
ral ceremonies  of  a  rule  of  bloodshed  and  tyranny  that 
closed  only  with  the  decease  of  the  principal  author  and 
actor — "  Bloody  Queen  Mary"  herself. 

Not  content,  however,  with  having  restored  the  power 
of  the  Church  of  Rome  over  the  Anglican  Church,  Mary 
introduced  new  and  severe  measures  for  the  suppression 
of  those  who  had  dared  to  follow  her  father  and  half- 
brother  in  measures  of  ecclesiastical  reform.  Many  of 
the  clergy  had  married.  One  of  her  first  acts  now  was 
the  ejection  of  these  clergy.  The  number  of  such,  ac- 
cording to  Burnet,  was  12,000  out  of  IC.OOO;  but  this 
seems  exaggerated,  and  we  prefer  to  follo\v  Butler,  who 
estimates  them  at  a  little  over  3,000,  certainly  a  large 
enough  number  of  men  so  suddenly  deprived  of  their  liv- 
ing, and,  with  thousands  dependent  upon  them,  at  a 
moment's  warning  shut  out  from  home  and  hearth.  To 
say  the  least,  the  measure  was  most  tyrannical;  not 
even  the  option  of  dissohing  the  marriage-bond  was 
given,  though  they  had  been  married  under  the  sanc- 
tion of  the  law  of  the  land.  Many  of  the  bishops — six- 
teen of  them — shared  a  like  fate  with  their  subordi- 
nates. The  question,  however,  still  remained  to  be  set- 
tled. How  shall  the  heretic  he  treated'^  "  Cardinal  Pole, 
from  his  gentler  temper  and  larger  wisdom,  advised 
mild  measures  in  order  to  win  them  back ;  but,  in  case 


MARY 


848 


MARY 


they  coiild  not  be  won,  he  would,  equally  with  Gardiner 
and  Bonner,  have  had  them  burned.  Gardiner  was  now 
for  measures  of  repression  and  vigor.  He  contended 
that  relaxation  in  the  time  of  Hcnrj'  VIII  had  been  the 
cause  of  the  rapid  spread  of  the  lieresy.  He  was  disap- 
pointed of  tlie  see  of  Canterbury  [which  Pole  had  se- 
cured, of  course],  and  enraged  because  his  books  against 
the  papal  supremacy  were  reprmted  and  dispersed  through 
the  country.  The  queen  was  always  on  the  side  of  the 
severest  measures,"  and  the  remainder  of  the  history  of 
the  reign  of  IMary  is  occupied  chiefiy  with  the  sangui- 
nary persecutions  of  the  adherents  to  the  Reformed  doc- 
trines. IMost  Protestant  writers  reckon  Miat  about  280 
victims  perished  at  the  stake  from  Feb.  4, 1555,  on  which 
day  John  Rogers  was  burned  at  Smithtield,  to  Nov.  10, 
1558,  when  the  last  "auto-da-fe"  of  the  reign  took  place 
by  the  execution  in  the  same  manner  of  three  men  and 
two  women  at  Colchester.  Dr.  Lingard,  the  Roman 
Catholic,  admits  that  after  expunging  from  the  Protes- 
tant lists  "  the  names  of  all  who  were  condemned  as  fel- 
ons or  traitors,  or  who  died  peaceably  in  their  beds,  or 
who  survived  the  publication  of  their  martyrdom,  or 
who  woidd  for  their  heterodoxy  have  been  sent  to  the 
stake  by  the  Reformed  prelates  themselves,  had  they 
been  in  possession  of  the  power,"  and  making  every 
other  possible  allowance,  it  will  still  be  found  '•  that  in  the 
space  of  four  years  almost  200  persons  perished  in  the 
tlames  for  religious  opinion."  The  harrowing  narrative, 
in  its  details,  may  be  found  in  part  in  Burnet,  and  in  full 
in  Fox's  Marti/rologi/.  Among  the  most  distinguished 
sufferers  were  Hooper,  bishop  of  Gloucester,  Ferrar  of 
St.  David's,  Latimer  of  Worcester,  Ridley  of  London, 
and  Cranmer,  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Nor  were  the 
sufferings  confined  to  the  stake.  Intolerance  also  car- 
ried grief,  horror,  and  ferocity  into  all  England  by  the 
persecution  of  those  who  were  guilty  of  heresy,  but  were 
not  considered  fit  subjects  for  the  stake.  It  is  said  that 
in  the  last  three  years  of  IMary's  reign  no  less  than 
"30,000  persons  were  exiled  and  spoiled  of  their  goods" 
(Butler,  ii,  445),  among  whom  were  not  less  than  800 
theologians  (comp.  Fisher,  p.  328). 

The  question  has  been  raised,  Who  were  most  respon- 
sible for  these  persecutions?  Gardiner,  bishop  of  Win- 
chester and  lord  chancellor,  was  IMary's  chief  minister 
till  his  death  in  November,  1555,  after  which  the  direc- 
tion of  affairs  fell  mostly  into  the  hands  of  cardinal  Pole, 
who,  after  Cranmer's  deposition,  was  made  archbishop 
of  Canterbury ;  but  the  notorious  Bonner,  Ridley's  suc- 
cessor iu  the  see  of  London,  has  the  credit  of  having 
been  the  principal  instigator  of  these  atrocities,  which, 
it  may  be  remarked,  so  far  from  contributing  to  put 
down  the  Reformed  doctrines,  appear  to  have  had  a 
greater  effect  in  disgusting  the  nation  with  the  restored 
Church  than  aU  other  causes  together.  Says  Soames 
(iv,  385),  "  These  horrid  proceedings  filled  the  whole 
kingdom  with  amazement,  indignation,  and  disgust. 
Unfeeling  Romish  bigots  were  disappointed  becawse  this 
atrocious  ebullition  of  their  party's  intolerance  had 
■wholly  failed  to  overawe  the  spirit  of  their  adversaries. 
Timid  Protestants  were  encouraged  by  the  noble  con- 
stancy displayed  among  their  friends.  Jloderate  Ro- 
manists were  ashamed  of  their  spiritual  guides.  The 
mass  of  men,  who  live  in  stupid  forgetfulness  of  God, 
were  aroused  from  that  lethargy  of  sensuality,  covetous- 
ness,  or  vanity  in  which  they  dissipate  existence,  to  re- 
flect ujjon  the  principles  which  could  support  the  human 
mind  tranquil,  or  even  exulting,  amid  such  frightful 
agonies." 

■  At  the  same  time  that  the  attempt  was  thus  made  to 
extinguish  the  new  opinions  in  religion  by  persecution 
at  the  stake,  exUe,  and  other  severe  measures,  the  queen 
gave  a  further  proof  of  the  ardor  of  her  own  faitli  by 
restoring  to  the  Church  the  teuths  and  first-fruits,  with 
all  the  rectories,  glebe-lands,  and  tithes  that  had  been 
annexed  to  the  crown  in  the  times  of  her  father  and 
brother.  She  also  re-established  several  of  the  old  mon- 
asteries which  her  father  had  dissolved,  and  endowed 


them  as  liberally  as  her  means  enabled  her.  Gladly 
would  she  have  restored  them  aU  to  the  Church,  '•  but 
it  was  feared  that  violent  commotions  would  ensue  if 
that  course  were  adopted;"  and  the  papal  legate,  while 
he  "reluctantly  assented"  to  the  arrangement  as  pro- 
posed by  the  Convocation,  "  that  the  present  titles  to 
monasteries  and  Church  lands  should  not  be  disturbed," 
"  admonished  those  who  held  those  lands  of  the  guilt  of 
sacrilege,  and  reminded  them  of  the  doom  of  Belshaz- 
zar"  (!).  See  Monasticism.  Froude,  whom  the  Ro- 
manists are  so  eager  to  prove  guilty  of  unfitness  as  a 
historian,  has  been  one  of  the  most  lenient  commenta- 
tors on  the  conduct  of  Mary  of  England  towards  her 
people.  He  holds  that,  "  To  the  time  of  her  accession 
she  had  lived  a  blameless  and,  in  many  respects,  a  noble 
life ;  and  few  men  or  women  have  lived  less  capable  of 
doing  knowingly  a  wrong  thing."  He  adds  that  her 
trials  and  disappointments,  "it  can  hardly  be  doubted, 
affected  her  sanity,"  and  ascribes  the  guilt  chiefiy  to 
Gardiner,  and  measurably  to  Pole.  Unless  it  be  on  the 
point  of  insanity,  we  are  inclined  to  hold  IMary  respon- 
sible for  the  persecutions  of  her  reign,  believing,  with 
Ranke,  that  "  whatever  is  done  in  the  name  of  a  prince, 
with  his  will  and  by  his  authority,  decides  his  reputa- 
tion in  historj'."  In  her  domestic  Ufe  Mary  was  wretch- 
ed. Philip,  whom  she  loved  with  a  morbid  passion, 
proved  a  sour,  selfish,  and  heartless  husband;  at  once  a 
bigot  and  a  brute.  No  children  followed  their  union; 
and  exasperation  and  loneliness,  working  upon  a  temper 
naturally  obstinate  and  sidlen,  without  doubt  rendered 
her  more  compliant  to  the  sanguinary  policy  of  the  re- 
actionary bishops.  Fortunately  for  England,  her  reign 
was  brief.  She  died — after  suffering  much  and  long 
from  dropsy  and  nervous  debility — Nov.  17, 1558.  Her 
successor  on  the  throne  was  her  sister  Elizabeth,  who 
not  only  undid -all  the  work  she  had  accomplished,  but 
finally  and  successfully  established  Protestantism  as  the 
faith  of  the  nation.     See  Elizabeth. 

Queen  Mary's  literarj'  productions,  thougli  of  but  mi- 
nor interest  at  present,  deserve  mention  here  because  of 
the  peculiar  bearing  they  have  on  her  early  histor}\ 
She  is  said  to  have  been  a  superior  Latin  scholar,  and 
was  commended  by  Erasmus.  "  Scripsit  bene  Latinas 
epistolas,"  says  he.  Towards  the  end  of  her  father's 
reign,  at  the  earnest  solicitation  of  queen  Catharine  Parr, 
she  undertook  to  translate  Erasmus's  Paraphrase  on  the 
Gosj)el  of  St.  John,  but  being  cast  into  sickness,  as  Udall 
relates,  partly  by  overmuch  stuxly  in  this  ^vork,  after 
she  had  made  some  progress  therein,  she  left  the  rest  to 
be  done  by  Dr.  Mallet,  her  chaplain.  This  translation 
is  printed  in  the  first  volume  of  Erasmvs's  Paraj^hrase 
upon  the  New  Testament  (London,  1548,  folio).  The 
"  Preface"  was  written  by  Udall,  the  famous  master  of 
Eton  School,  and  addressed  to  the  queen  dowager.  Af- 
ter her  accession  to  the  throne  a  proclamation  was  issued 
callmg  in  and  suppressing  this  very  book,  and  all  others 
that  liad  any  tendency  towards  furthering  the  Refor- 
mation. An  ingenious  writer  is  of  opinion  that  the  sick- 
ness which  came  upon  her  while  she  was  translating 
St.  John  was  all  affected;  "for,"  says  he,  "she  would 
not  so  easily  have  been  cast  into  sickness  had  she  been 
empWed  on  the  legends  of  St.  Teresa  or  St.  Catharine 
of  Sienna."  Strype  (iii,  468)  has  preserved  three  pray- 
ers or  meditations  of  hers :  the  first,  Against  the  A  ssaults 
of  Vice ;  the  second,  A  Meditation  touching  A  drersiti/  ; 
the  third,  A  Prayer  to  he  read  at  the  Hour  of  Death, 
In  Y OS.' s  Acts  and  Monu7nents  are  printed  eight  of  her 
letters  to  king  EdAvard  and  the  lords  of  the  council  on 
her  nonconformity,  and  on  the  imprisonment  of  her 
chaplain.  Dr.  Mallet.  In  the  SyUoge  fpistolurum  are 
several  more  of  her  letters,  extremely  curious:  one  on 
her  delicacy  in  never  having  written  but  to  three  men, 
one  of  affection  for  her  sister,  one  after  the  death  of 
Anne  Boleyn,  and  one,  very  remarkable,  of  Cromwell  to 
her.  In  Haynes's  State  Papers  arc  two  in  Spanish,  to 
the  emperor  Charles  V.  There  is  also  a  French  letter, 
printed  by  Strj'pe  (iii,  318)  from  the  Cotton  Library, 


MARY  STUART 


849 


MARY  STUART 


in  answer  to  a  haughty  mandate  from  Philip,  when  he  j  to  the  Highlanders.     Scotland  had  thus  far  remained 


true  to  the  cause  of  Kome :  a  scion  of  the  house  of  Guise 
(duke  Claude)  was  on  the  throne,  and  the  Keformation, 
though  progressing  in  the  adjoining  country,  had  not 
yet  been  suffered  to  make  much  of  an  impression  on  the 
Scots.  But  the  new  doctrine  had  found  an  entrance  at 
least.  Indeed,  the  regent  Arran  was  himself  favorable 
to  the  Keformers,  and  in  Parliament,  as  early  as  1542, 
an  act  had  been  passed  declaring  it  lawful  for  all  to 
read  the  Scriptures  in  their  native  language.  It  was 
clear,  therefore,  that  though  Komanism  had  hitherto 
sustained  its  supremacy,  its  power  was  tottering.  At 
this  critical  juncture  of  affairs  France  came  forward  and 
offered  assistance  to  the  IJomish  party.  The  cause  of 
the  Church  must  be  upheld  at  all  hazards.  The  resiilt 
was  the  establishment  of  two  camps.  "  The  friends  of 
the  Reformation,"  says  Kussell  (Hist,  of  ike  Ch.  of  Scot- 
land [Lond.  1834, 2  vols.  18mo],  i,  181), " supported  those 
counsels  which  had  for  their  object  the  union  of  the 
British  crowns ;  while  the  Eoraanists  very  naturally 
clung  to  that  alliance  which,  aided  by  the  personal  in- 
fluence of  the  queen-mother,  promised  to  strengthen  the 
foundations  of  their  establishment,  already  somewhat 
shaken  by  the  popular  tempest."  Had  Arran  been  a 
person  of  indomitable  will  and  stability  of  purpose  the 
cause  of  the  Keformers  might  now  have  been  fir:;;ly  es- 
tablished, but  he  was  '•  a  weak  and  fickle  man,  liable  at 
all  times  to  be  wrought  upon  and  biased  by  tliose  of 
greater  decision  and  energy  of  character,"  and  his  op- 
ponent, the  wily  cardinal,  had  obtained  the  ascendancy, 
and  not  only  neutralized  Arran's  opposition,  but  actually 
brought  him  to  approve  and  further  the  great  master- 
scheme  of  the  cardinal  to  give  the  young  queen  in  mar- 
riage to  the  dauphin  of  France.  In  consonance  with  a 
treaty  for  this  purpose,  Mary  was  sent  to  France  in  1548, 
to  be  educated  in  that  coinitry. 


had  a  mind  to  marry  the  lady  Elizabeth  to  the  duke  of 
Savoy,  against  the  queen's  and  princess's  inclination : 
it  is  written  in  a  most  abject  manner  and  a  wretched 
style.  Bishop  Tanner  ascribes  to  her  A  Kistorij  of  her 
own  Life  and  Death,  and  An  Account  of  Mai-tyrs  in  her 
Reign,  but  tliis  is  manifestly  an  error.  See  Homel,  Ma- 
rie la  Sunglante  (Paris,  18G2,  8vo) ;  Burnet,  Hist,  lief  p. 
458  sq. ;  Soames,  IJist.  Ref  vol.  iv,  ch.  i-iv;  Perry,  Ch. 
Hist,  of  Emjl.  iii,  20,  96 ;  Collier,  Eccles.  Hist,  vi,  1  sq. ; 
Fuller,  Ch.  Hist,  ii,  309  sq. ;  Short,  Eccles.  Hist,  of  Enyl. 
p.  351-358  ;  Froude,  Hist,  of  Eiujl.  vol.  v,  ch.  xxviii,  and 
the  whole  of  vol.  vi ;  Strickland,  Queens  of  Engl. ;  Tur- 
ner, Hist,  of  the  Rei/jns  of  Edward.  VI,  Mary,  and  Eliz- 
abeth (Loiid.  1829,  8vo);  Butler,  Eccles.  Hist.  (Phila. 
1872,  8vo),  vol.  ii,  ch.  xliii ;  Wordsworth,  Eccles.  Biog. 
(see  Index  in  vol.  iv) ;  Hardwick,  Reformation,  p.  240 ; 
Fisher  (George  P.),  The  Reformation  (N.  Y.  1873,  8vo), 
p.  327  stj. ;  Brit,  and  For.  Review,  184r4,  p.  388  sq. ;  Eng- 
lish Cgcliip.  s.  V. 

Mary  Stuart,  the  famous  queen  of  Scotland,  whose 
name,  Froude  {/list,  of  Engl,  vii,  309)  says,  "  will  never 
be  spoken  of  in  history  without  sad  and  profound  emo- 
tion, however  opinions  may  vary  on  the  special  details 
of  her  life,"  the  hope  of  Kome  at  an  hour  of  sorest  trav- 
ail, was  born  at  Linlithgow  Dec.  8, 1542.     She  was  the 
third  child  of  king  James  Y  of  Scotland,  by  his  wife 
Mary  of  Lorraine,  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Guise,  who 
had  previously  borne  her  husband  two  sons,  both  of 
whom  died  in  infancy.     A  report  prevailed  that  INIary 
too  was  not  likely  to  live ;  but  being  unswadiUed  by  her 
nurse  at  the  desire  of  her  anxious  mother,  in  presence 
of  the  English  ambassador,  the  latter  wrote  to  his  court 
that  she  was  as  goodly  a  child  as  he  had  seen  of  her 
age.     At  the  time  of  her  birth  her  father  lay  sick  in  the 
palace  of  Falkland,  and  in  the  course  of  a  few  days  after 
he  expired,  at  the  early  age  of  thirty,  his  death 
being  hastened  by  distress  of  mind  occasioned  by 
the  defeats  which  his  nobles  had  sustained  at 
Fala  and  Solway  JIoss.     James  was  naturally  a 
person  of  considerable  energy  and  vigor  both  of 
mind  and  body,  but  previous  to  his  death  he  feU 
into  a  state  of  listlessness  and  despondency,  and 
after  his  decease  it  was  found  that  he  had  made 
no  provision  for  the  care  of  the  infant  princess 
or  for  the   administration  of  the  government. 
After  great  animosities  among  the  nobility,  it 
was  decreed  that  the  earl  of  Arran,  as  being  by 
proximity  of  blood  the  next  heir  to  the  crown 
in  legitimate  descent,  and  the  first  peer  of  Scot- 
land, should  be  made  governor  of  the  kingdom, 
and  guardian  of  the  queen,  who  remained  in  the 
mean  time  with  her  mother  in  the  royal  palace 
at  Linlithgow.     But  while  the  difficulty  was  set- 
tling, the  Koman  Catholics,  fearing  for  the  decline 
of  their  power  if  the  choice  of  the  nobility  should 
fall  upon  some   one  likely  to  join  hands  with 
Henry  VIII,  urged  cardinal  Beatoun,  the  head  of 
their  party,  to  seize  the  regency.     Ambitious  for 
office  and  power,  Beatoun  but  too  willingly  lis- 
tened to  the  advice  of  his  friends,  and,  producing 
a  testament  which  he  asserted  to  be  that  of  the 
late  king,  promptly  claimed  the  control  of  the 
affairs  of  Scotland.     The  fraud  was  not  long  un- 
discovered, but  as  great  suit  had  been  made  by 
king  Henry,  in  behalf  of  his  son  Edward,  for  the 
hand  of  the  infant  queen,  and  as  Arran  and  his 
party  had  been  indiscreet  enough  to  accept  the 
offer  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  people, 
Beatoun  held  his  own  in  the  country,  and  finally 
even  persuaded  Arran  to  his  views,  and  the  en- 
gagement with  England  was  annulled.     The  re- 
sult was  a  war  between  Scotland  and  England, 
which  ended  most  ignominiously  for  the  Iligh- 
landers.    It  is  not  at  all  likely  that  this  war  would 
have  broken  out  between  England  and  Scotland   , ,     ,      ,  „  ,,^,-,        ^ .       ,      ,   ,  ... 

,       ,  .  \  f        \  liberator  ot  Marv,  and  that  it  passed  from  liim  to  his  eminent  relate 

had  It  not  been  lor  the  encouragement  i  raUCe  gave    earl  of  Morton,  with  whose  posterity  it  remains  to  the  present  day.] 

v.— H  II  H 


Mary  Queen  of  Scots. 


[The  numerous  portraits  ascribed  to  this  princess  are  as  various  and  dissimilar  aa 
the  circumstances  of  her  life,  and  have  excited  almost  as  much  doubt  and  controversy 
as  the  disputed  points  of  her  history,  afrrccins  only  in  representing  her  as  eminently 
beautiful.  The  picture  which  has  furnishe-l  the  plate  before  us  has  been  preserved 
with  the  trreatest  care  from  time  immemorial  in  the  mansion  of  Dalmnhoy,  the  prin- 
cipal seat  in  Scotland  of  the  earl  of  Morton.  On  the  upper  part  of  it  is  inscribed, 
"  Mary  Queen  of  Scots:  said  to  have  been  painted  during  her  confinement  in  Loch- 
leven  Castle:"  and  the  earl  who  at  present  possesses  it  states  that,  according  to  a 
tradition  in  his  lordship's  family,  it  was  once  the  property  of  George  Doufflas,  the 
liberator  of  Mary,  and  that  it  passed  from  him  to  his  eminent  relation,  James,  fourth 


MARY  STUART 


850 


MARY  STUART 


Soon  after  her  arrival  at  her  destination  Mary  was 
placed  with  the  French  king's  own  daughters  in  one 
of  the  first  convents  of  the  kingdom,  where  she  made 
rapid  progress  in  the  acquisition  of  the  literature  and 
accomplishment  of  the  age.  She  received  instructions 
in  the  art  of  making  verses  hy  the  famous  Ronsard, 
and  Latin  was  taught  her  by  the  great  Scottish  scholar 
Buchanan.  When  only  fourteen  years  old  she  had 
attained  to  such  a  mastery  of  the  language  that  she 
pronounced  before  Henry  II  a  Latin  oration,  in  which 
she  maintained  that  it  is  becoming  for  women  to  study 
literature  and  master  the  liberal  arts.  Introduced  at 
the  court  of  Henry  II,  which,  as  Robertson  observes, 
"  was  one  of  the  politest  but  most  corrupt  in  Europe," 
Mary,  while  yet  a  child,  became  the  envy  of  her  sex, 
surpassing  the  most  accomplished  in  the  elegance  and 
fluency  of  her  language,  the  grace  and  liveliness  of  her 
movements,  and  the  charm  of  her  whole  manner  and 
behavior.  "  Graceful  alike  in  person  and  intellect,"  says 
Froude, "  she  possessed  that  peculiar  beauty  in  which  the 
form  is  lost  in  the  expression,  and  which  every  painter, 
therefore,  has  represented  differently.  Eprely,  perhaps, 
has  any  woman  combined  so  many  noticeable  qualities 
as  IMary  Stuart :  with  a  feminine  insight  into  men  and 
things  and  human  life,  she  had  cultivated  herself  to 
that  high  perfection  in  which  accomplishments  were  no 
longer  adventitious  ornaments,  but  were  wrought  into 
her  organic  constitution.  .  .  .  She  had  vigor,  energy, 
tenacity  of  purpose,  with  perfect  and  never-failing  self- 
possession,  and,  as  the  one  indispensable  foundation  for 
the  effective  use  of  all  other  qualities,  she  had  indomi- 
table courage"  (IJisf.  of  Enr/land,  vol.  vii,  ch.  iv).  The 
dauphin,  to  whom  she  was  betrothed,  was  about  two 
years  her  junior,  but,  as  they  had  been  playmates  in 
early  childhood,  a  mutual  affection  had  sprung  up  be- 
tween them,  and  when,  on  April  24, 1558,  she  was  to  be 
joined  to  him  in  wedlock,  she  hesitated  not  to  submit  to 
the  most  absurd  stipulations.  Not  only  was  she  obliged 
to  agree  that  her  intended  husband  should  have  the  title 
of  king  of  the  Scots,  but  she  was  even  betraj'ed  into  the 
signature  of  a  secret  deed,  by  which,  if  she  died  chikl- 
less,  both  her  Scottish  realm  and  her  right  of  succession 
to  the  English  crown,  as  the  granddaughter  of  Henry 
VII,  were  conveyed  to  France.  The  foolishness  of  this 
secret  compact  Mary  had  afterivards  sufficient  cause  to 
regret  more  than  once. 

Scarce  were  the  nuptial  solemnities  fairly  over,  when 
queen  Mary  of  England  died  (1558).  In  accordance 
with  the  agreement  entered  into,  France  promptly  put 
fonvard  her  claims  to  the  vacated  throne,  and,  tliough 
Elizabeth  was  made  successor,  IMary  Stuart's  rights  were 
insisted  upon,  and  continued  to  be  urged  with  great  per- 
tinacity by  her  ambitious  uncles  the  princes  of  Lorraine. 
"  On  every  occasion  on  which  the  dauphin  and  dau- 
phiness  a[)peared  in  public,  they  were  ostentatiously 
greeted  as  the  king  and  queen  of  luigland ;  the  English 
arms  were  engraved  upon  their  plate,  embroidered  on 
their  banners,  and  jiainted  on  their  furniture ;  and  jMary 's 
own  favorite  device  at  the  time  was  the  two  crowns  of 
France  and  Scotland,  with  the  motto  '  Aliaque  mora- 
tur,'  meaning  that  of  England."  July  10, 1559,  Henry 
died,  and  the  young  dau|>hin  ascended  the  throne  of 
Charlemagne  as  Francis  II.  '"  Surely,"  thought  Mary,  "  I 
am  soon  to  realize  my  highest  cxiiectations.  Over  three 
kiugdonis  I  sliall  sway  tlic  sceptre.  The  holy  father 
himself  will  come  from  Kome  and  pronounce  his  bless- 
ing u|)on  nie  as  his  most  faithful  daughter.  The  lately- 
deceased  queen  of  England  received  her  name  in  honor 
of  the  blessed  Virgin,  I  shall  be  pronounced  more  worthy 
of  it  still."  Alas  for  human  frailty.  Man  proposeth, 
but  God  dispDseth.  ]\Liry  had  reached  the  summit  of 
her  splendor  at  a  moment  when  she  believed  herself 
only  ascending  the  heights.  '  Feeble  and -sickly,  Fran- 
cis II  was  scarcely  seated  on  the  throne  when  he  was 
seized  by  disease,  and,  fast  wasting  away,  died  Dec.  5, 
15G0.  Only  a  year  and  a  half  had  the  young  pair  en- 
joyed their  royal  honors.     ChiieUess,  Mary  was  obliged 


to  yield  her  place  on  the  throne,  and  the  reins  of  power 
were  seized  by  the  queen-mother,  Catharine  of  Medicis, 
as  regent  for  her  son,  Charles  IX.  Mary  must  have  been 
prepared,  under  almost  any  circumstances,  to  quit  a  court 
which  was  now  swayed  by  one  whom,  during  her  brief 
reign,  she  had  taunted  with  being  "  a  merchant's  daugh- 
ter.'' But  there  were  other  reasons  for  her  departure 
from  France.  Her  presence  was  urgently  needed  in 
Scotland,  which  the  death  of  her  mother,  a  few  months 
before,  had  left  without  a  government,  at  a  moment 
when  it  was  convulsed  by  tlie  throes  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. Her  kinsmen  of  Lorraine  had  ambitious  projects 
for  her  marriage ;  great  schemes  were  based  on  her  near- 
ness of  succession  to  the  English  crown ;  and  both  these, 
it  was  thought,  might  be  more  successfully  followed  out 
when  she  was  seated  on  her  native  throne.  The  queen 
of  England,  however,  interposed;  and,  as  ISIary  woidd 
not  abandon  all  claim  to  the  English  throne,  refused  to 
grant  her  a  free  passage.  IMary,  notwithstanding,  re- 
solved to  go,  and  at  length,  after  repeated  delays,  stiU 
lingering  on  the  soil  where  fortune  had  augured  so 
much,  she  reached  Calais,  attended  thus  far  by  the  car- 
dinals of  Guise  and  Lorraine,  while  three  other  uncles, 
D'Elboeuf,  D'Aumale.  and  the  grand  prior,  had  come  to 
see  her  safely  to  Edinburgh.  August  14  she  finally  set 
sail,  "and  with  'Adieu,  belle  France,'  sentimental  verses, 
and  a  passionate  chfitelar  sighing  at  her  feet  in  melodi- 
ous music,  she  sailed  away  over  the  summer  seas,"  and, 
safely  escaping  the  English  ships-of-war  Elizabeth  had 
despatched  to  intercept  her,  reached  Leith  on  the  19th. 
Her  arrival  on  her  native  shores  is  thus  beautifully  de- 
scribed m  Harper's  .'l/oya32ne,Feb.  1873,p.348:  "August 
19, 15G1.  The  thickest  mist  and  most  drenching  rain 
men  remembered  ever  to  have  seen.  A  fog  so  thick 
that  the  very  cannon  in  the  harbor  boom  with  a  muf- 
fled sound,  and  the  peal  of  bells  from  the  lulinburgh 
churches  sounds  ominously,  as  if  it  rang  out  the  funeral 
knell  of  the  young  queen.  Such  is  the  day  that  greets 
French  IMary  when  she  lands  on  Scottish  shores.  Bet- 
ter far  for  her  had  not  this  fog  hid  her  squadron  from 
the  watchful  eyes  of  her  royal  cousin.  Better  that  she 
had  fallen  then  into  the  hands  of  queen  Elizabeth  than 
to  have  become  her  wretched  prisoner  seven  years  later, 
shorn  of  that  good  name  which  is  woman's  chief  protec- 
tion— always  and  everywhere  her  best '  safe-conduct.' " 
A  great  change  had  taken  place  in  Scotland  since 
IMary  had  left  her  coiuitry  nearly  thirteen  years  ago. 
The  Roman  Catholic  religion  was  then  supreme ;  and, 
under  the  direction  of  cardinal  Beatoun,  the  Romish 
clergy  displayed  a  fierceness  of  intolerance  which  seemed 
to  aim  at  nothing  short  of  the  utter  extirpation  of  every 
seed  of  dissent  and  reform.  The  same  causes,  however, 
which  gave  strength  to  the  ecclesiastics  gave  strength 
also,  though  more  slowly,  to  the  great  body  of  the  peo- 
ple ;  and  at  length,  after  the  repeated  losses  of  Flodden 
and  Fala,  and  Sohvay  Moss  anil  Pinkie — which,  by  the 
fall  of  nearly  the  whole  lay  nobility  and  leading  men 
of  the  kingdom,  brought  all  classes  within  the  influence 
of  public  events — the  energies,  physical  and  mental,  of 
the  entire  nation  were  drawn  out,  and  under  the  guid- 
ance of  the  reformer  Knox  expended  themselves  with 
the  furj'  of  awakened  mdignation  upon  the  whole  fabric 
of  the  ancient  religion.  The  queen-regent  died  June 
10,  15G0.  In  August  following  the  estates  convened, 
adopted  and  approved  the  Calvinistic  Confession  of 
Faith,  and,  abolishing  the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  for- 
bade at  the  same  time  the  administering  of  the  mass  or 
attendance  upon  it — the  penalty  for  the  third  offence  be- 
ing death.  "On  the  morning  of  Aug.  25,  15G0,"  saj's 
Burton  (iv,  89),  "the  Romish  hierarchy  was  supreme; 
in  the  evening  of  the  same  d.ay  Calvinistic  Protestant- 
ism was  established  in  its  stead."  Hardly  a  year  had 
passed  since  these  changes  had  been  effected.  A  strange 
atmosphere  this  for  Marv,  who  had  been  taught  in 
France  to  abhor  Protestant  opinions.  But,  fortunately 
for  Mary,  she  had  enjoyed  a  training  which  fltted  her 
well  for  the  part  she  was  now  to  play.     Had  she  not 


MARY  STUART 


851 


MARY  STUART 


spent  the  most  susceptible  years  of  her  life  in  the  court 
of  France  under  those  worthy  custodians  of  the  con- 
science— Vasquez,  Escobar,  JlcndozaV  These  Jesuit 
fatliers  had  not  hesitated  to  defend  by  their  casuistry, 
and  luider  color  of  religion,  fraud,  forgery,  falsehood, 
and  murder.  Their  teachings,  before  counteracted  by 
the  protests  of  such  believers  as  Pascal  and  such  heretics 
as  Luther,  had  brought  forth  their  fruit  in  the  assassina- 
tion of  William  of  Orange  and  of  Coligni,  and  in  the 
wholesale  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew.  Surely  it  could 
not  be  expected  that  Mary  would  i)rove  herself  unwor- 
thy of  her  birth  and  her  costly  education.  Indeed,  as 
earl}^  as  1558  she  had  shown  herself  an  apt  pupil  wor- 
thy of  her  Jesuitical  masters.  Never  a  blush  of  secret 
shame  mantled  her  maiden  cheek  when  she  signed  the 
treaty  which  the  Scotch  commissioners  brought  her  for 
the  purpose  of  guarding  the  independence  of  the  nation, 
jealous  of  foreign  interference;  never  a  hint  from  which 
dijilomats  could  guess  that  fifteen  days  before  she  had 
signed  away  the  kingdom  to  the  crown  of  France,  an- 
nulling beforehand  whatever  solemn  promise  to  the  con- 
trary she  might  make  to  her  own  most  beloved  and 
trusting  subjects.  So  young,  so  fair,  and  yet  so  false, 
■was  Mary  queen  of  Scots.  "  The  -enthusiastic  admirers 
and  apologists  of  Mary  maintain  that  she  was  sincerely 
in  favor  of  toleration.  They  would  make  her  a  kind  of 
apostle  of  religious  liberty.  It  is  an  unreasonable  stretch 
of  charity,  however,  to  suppose  that  she  would  not  .  .  . 
have  rejoiced  in  the  restoration,  and,  had  it  been  feasi- 
ble, the  forcible  restoration  of  the  old  religion. .  .  .  That 
she  should  'serve  the  time  and  still  commode  herself 
discreetly  and  gently  with  her  own  subjects,'  and  '  in 
effect  repose  most  on  them  of  the  Reformed  religion,' 
was  the  policy  which  had  been  sketched  for  her  in 
France,  as  we  learn  from  her  faithful  friend.  Sir  James 
Melville"  (Fisher,  Reform,  p.  858,  859).  But  ]\Iary  was 
wise  enough  to  comprehend  that  the  situation  was  such 
that  any  active  opposition  to  the  newly-established  re- 
ligion would  be  futile  and  disastrous  to  herself,  and  she 
accommodated  herself  to  the  circumstances.  Yet  even 
this  she  did  only  moderately.  Her  letters  to  pope  Pius 
IV  and  to  her  uncle,  the  cardinal  of  Lorraine,  in  15G3, 
plainly  reveal  the  secret  working  of  her  desire  to  re- 
store the  old  religious  system  to  supremacy  as  soon  as 
practicable.  AYith  this  purpose  in  view  she  refused  to 
grant  her  assent  to  the  acts  of  Parliament  which  estab- 
lished the  new  religion  as  the  faith  of  the  nation;  while 
she  herself  failed  not  to  seize  every  opportunity  to  prove 
her  attachment  to  Romanism.  The  very  first  Sunday 
after  her  arrival  Mary  commanded  a  solemn  mass  to  be 
celebrated  in  the  chapel  of  the  palace ;  and,  as  might 
have  been  expected,  an  uproar  ensued,  the  servants  of 
the  chapel  were  insidted  and  abused,  and  had  not  some 
of  the  lay  nobility  of  the  Protestant  party  interposed, 
the  riot  might  have  become  general.  The  next  Sunday 
Knox  preached  a  violent  sermon  against  idolatry,  and 
in  his  discourse  he  took  occasion  to  say  that  a  single 
mass  was,  in  his  estimation,  more  to  be  feared  than  ten 
thousand  armed  men.  Upon  this,  Mary  sent  for  the 
Reformer,  desiring  to  have  an  interview  with  him.  The 
interview  took  place,  as  well  as  one  or  two  subsequent 
ones  from  a  like  cause ;  but  the  only  result  was  to  make 
plainer  the  fact  that  she  was  at  variance  with  the  newly- 
established  religious  power  of  her  country.  Her  youth, 
however,  her  beauty  and  accomplishments,  and  her  af- 
fability, interested  many  in  her  favor;  she  had,  more- 
over, from  the  first  continued  the  government  in  the 
hands  of  the  Protestants.  The  jirincipal  direction  of 
affairs  she  had  left  in  the  hanils  of  her  half-brother,  the 
earl  of  Murray  (q.  v.),  the  leader  of  the  Protestant  no- 
bles, and  she  had  made  William  Maitland,  of  Lethington, 
another  great  Protestant  leader,  one  of  her  most  trust- 
ed advisers.  The  government  in  the  hands  of  worthy 
leaders,  the  court  sacredly  promised  to  the  unimpaired 
preservation  of  the  Reformed  faith  and  worship,  no 
Protestant  felt  inclined  to  ask  more  ;  and  there  were  but 
few  to  complain  when  Mary  only  demanded  for  herself 


the  same  privilege  which  she  accorded  to  her  subjects — 
"  that  of  worshipping  God  according  to  her  own  creed." 
"So  the  nation  rested  in  tolerable  peace,  trusting  in  Mur- 
ray rather  than  in  IMary,  and  suffering  her  mass,  though 
always  under  protest,  so  long  as  she  suffered  herself  to  be 
guided  by  his  counsels.  But  of  this  kind  of  compromise 
the  holy  IMother  Church  is  always  impatient.  Although 
there  was  no  papal  legate  at  the  court  of  Edinburgh, 
Rome  did  not  lack  for  envoys — shrewd  ones,  too.  Of 
these  the  chief  was  an  Italian,  David  Rizzio  (q.v.).  He 
entered  her  service  as  a  musician  soon  after  she  went  to 
Scotland ;  was  promoted  to  the  office  of  valet  de  chambre ; 
became  her  private  secretary ;  conducted  all  her  private 
and  secret  correspondence ;  became  eventually  the  pow- 
er behind  the  throne  greater  than  the  throne  itself, 
usurping  the  verj'  government.  Chief  we  have  called 
him,  yet  he  was  not  alone.  The  court  of  Scotland  had  her 
representatives  in  foreign  courts,  as  befitted  her  dignitj' ; 
but  her  true  representatives  were  unknown  to  courtly 
fame — Chesein  in  France,  Yaxley  in  the  Netherlands, 
Ranlet  in  the  Low  Countries.  So  there  was  an  outer  and 
inner  court.  My  lord  James,  earl  of  ]\Iurray,  was,  indeed, 
the  queen's  prime  minister;  but  this  unknown  adventur- 
er from  Piedmont — unknown  because  he  succeeded  best 
while  he  hid  his  office,  as  his  designs — was  virtually 
her  secretary  for  foreign  affairs,  and  her  most  confiden- 
tial adviser.  The  earl  of  Murray  must  be  dismissed. 
No  easy  task,  surely,  but  one  that  art  can  accomplish. 
Wlio  so  fitting  to  come  between  sister  and  brother  as  a 
husband?  Queen  INIary  shall  be  married.  It  is  time 
she  laid  off  her  widow's  weeds.  And  who  so  fitting  a 
spouse  as  my  lord  Darnley — the  only  one  who,  when 
Elizabeth  dies,  can  compete  with  Mary  for  the  throne 
of  England  ?  So  my  lord  Darnley  and  Mary  queen  of 
Scots  are  brought  together.  They  meet  in  Wemyss 
Castle,  by  the  Firth  of  Forth.  It  is  a  clear  case  of 
'  love  at  first  sight.'  Royal  husbands  not  a  few  have 
been  proposed  for  IMary's  hand,  but  nothing  more  is 
heard  of  them.  '  He  is  the  handsomest  and  best-pro- 
portioned long  man,'  says  Mary, '  I  have  ever  seen.' 
Everything  goes  as  Rizzio  and  the  papal  court  would 
have  it.  The  Protestant  interest  takes  fire,  for  Darnley 
is  a  Catholic.  It  is  not  less  furious  in  England  than  in 
Scotland,  for  the  nation  has  little  hope  now  that  queen 
Elizabeth  will  ever  take  a  husband,  and  in  the  absence 
of  her  heirs  the  throne  of  the  iniited  kingdom  will  fall 
into  the  hands  of  this  Catholic  couple.  .  .  .  Queen  Eliz- 
abeth, -who  has  been  playing  fast  and  loose,  with  fair 
promises  and  fickle  performance,  finds  herself  no  match 
for  the  cunning  Italian.  Her  own  kingdom  is  threat- 
ened with  faction ;  and  rumors  of  Catholic  rebellion,  to 
unseat  her  and  place  her  rival  and  cousin  on  the  empty 
throne,  fill  the  court  and  the  nation  with  perplexity. 
She  indignantly  summons  Darnley  back  again,  and  gets 
for  answer  that '  he  has  no  mind  to  return.'  '  I  find  my- 
self,' he  says,  shortly  and  almost  contemptuously, '  very 
well  where  I  am,  and  so  I  purpose  to  keep  me.'  My 
lord  Murray  sees  the  end  of  all  this  from  the  beginning. 
Neither  Blary's  tears  nor  INIary's  threats,  and  she  uses 
both  with  a  woman's  consummate  skiU,  can  wring  from 
him  an  approval  of  the  marriage.  But  all  his  affection- 
ately-earnest protests  are  powerless  to  hinder  it.  Op- 
position is  only  fuel  to  the  flame.  IMarry  she  will, 
though  all  the  world  opposes.  Love,  blind  as  it  always 
is  said  to  be,  for  the  ignoble  Darnley,  revenge  on  Eliza- 
beth, whom  Mary  cordially  hates,  and  who  hates  her  as 
cordially,  and  ambition — the  arabitioji  to  make  good  her 
claim  to  the  English  throne,  which  since  she  was  a  girl 
eighteen  j-^ears  old  she  has  never  ceased  to  nourish — all 
push  her  on  to  this  destructive  marriage.  And  Mc- 
phistopheles  is  «t  her  side  to  remove  every  obstacle  and 
clear  the  way.  It  is  Rizzio  who  arranges  for  the  first 
meeting  between  Mary  and  Darnley.  It  is  Rizzio  who 
affects  such  liking  for  the  young  lord  that  he  shares  his 
bed  with  him.  It  is  Rizzio  who  promises  to  secure  the 
pope's  dispensation — for  jMary  and  Darnley  are  cousins. 
It  is  Rizzio  who,  while  negotiations  are  still  pending 


MARY  STUART 


852 


MARY  STUART 


and  the  envoy  is  yet  on  his  way  to  the  court  of  Rome, 
fits  up  a  private  room  in  the  palace,  where  the  marriage- 
ceremuny,  which  the  Church  pronounces  void,  is  clan- 
destinely performed.  For  the  papal  benediction  is  need- 
ed, it  ajjpears,  not  to  hallow  the  marriage-tie,  but  only  to 
give  it  respectability  before  the  public.  Elizabeth  might 
as  well  spare  her  diplomacy,  since  all  is  virtually  settled. 
Eizzio  has  not  exceeded  his  instructions.  There  are 
no  delaj'S  at  the  court  of  Rome.  Fast  as  wind  and  wave 
can  carry  him  comes  back  the  messenger  with  the  prom- 
ised dispensation.  The  marriage,  already  perlbnned  in 
secret,  is  repeated  in  public.  It  takes  place  on  June  29, 
loGo.  Queen  Mary,  as  though  some  secret  conscious- 
ness hung  over  her  of  the  sorrows  on  which  she  is  en- 
tering, wears  at  the  marriage-altar  her  mourning  dress 
of  black  velvet.  It  is  a  gloomy  ceremony.  \Mien  the 
herald  proclaims  in  the  streets  of  Edinburgh  that  Henry, 
earl  of  Ross  and  Albany,  is  hereafter  king  of  Scotland, 
the  crowd  receive  the  proclamation  in  sullen  silence. 
Even  the  money  distributed  in  profusion  among  them 
awalvcns  no  enthusiasm.  Onlj'  one  voice  cries,  '  God 
save  his  Grace.'  It  is  the  voice  of  Darnley's  father. 
My  lord  the  earl  of  Murraj'  has  tried  dissuasion.  It  has 
failed.  He  has  tried  wile  against  wile,  has  planned  to 
al>duct  lord  Darnley  and  send  him  back  to  the  queen  of 
England.  But  the  rough  Scotchman  is  no  match  in 
craft  for  the  cunning  Italian.  This  fruitless  conspiracj' 
has  only  incensed  the  queen  against  him.  His  honest 
portraiture  of  the  poor  fool  with  whom  queen  Mary  is 
.so  infatuated  has  awakened  all  her  womanly  indigna- 
tion. The  court  is  no  longer  safe.  Rumors  are  rife  of 
plans  for  his  assassination.  True  or  false,  they  are  prob- 
able enough  to  make  him  avoid  Rizzio  and  Darnley. 
The  queen  summons  him  to  court,  and  offers  him  a  safe- 
conduct.  But  Protestants  have  learned  to  look  with 
suspicion  on  safe-conducts  ])roffered  by  Roman  CathoUc 
princes.  Murray  is  conveniently  sick,  and  cannot  come. 
Sentence  of  outlawry  is  pronounced  against  him.  AU 
the  hate  of  a  hot  woman's  heart  is  aroused ;  '  hatred  the 
more  malignant  because  it  was  unnatural.'  Revenge  is 
sweeter  than  ambition.  '  I  would  rather  lose  my  crown 
than  not  be  revenged  upon  him,'  she  is  heard  to  say. 
He  calls  to  arms.  The  interest  of  the  Protestant  religion 
is  his  battle-cry.  But  there  are  few  responses.  He 
despatches  messengers  to  queen  Elizabeth  for  the  help 
she  has  long  since  promised.  She  hesitates,  delays, 
falters.  Mary  knows  no  delay.  She  takes  the  field  in 
jicrson.  Lord  Darnley  rides  at  her  side.  He  is  clad  in 
gilt  armor,  she  in  steel  bonnet  and  corslet,  with  pistols 
at  her  saddle-bow  and  pistols  in  her  hand.  In  August 
the  standard  of  rebellion  was  raised.  In  October  Mur- 
ray antl  his  few  retainers  are  flying  across  the  border 
into  England  (Burton,  ix,  28G).  Mephistopheles  no 
longer  conceals  his  purpose.  Mass  is  no  longer  confined 
to  the  queen's  private  chapel.  The  retainers  of  Darn- 
ley's  father  go  openly  to  the  Catholic  service.  The 
General  Assembly  have  passed  a  resolution  that  the 
sovereign  is  not  exempt  from  the  law  of  the  land,  and 
that  the  Reformed  service  take  the  })lace  of  the  mass  in 
the  royal  chapel.  This  is  Rizzio's  answer  to  their  de- 
mand. Negotiations  are  opened  with  pope  Pius  Y  and 
Philip  of  Spain.  One  promises  soldiers,  twelve  thou- 
sand men;  the  other  sends  money,  twenty  thousand 
crowns.  The  Catholic  powders  of  Europe  liave  at  length 
settled  their  political  controversies,  and  joined  in  a  se- 
cret league  for  the  extirpation  of  heres\'  by  fire  and 
sword ;  a  league  of  which  that  Alva  was  the  founder 
whose  estimate  of  Protestantism  was  simmied  u])  in  the 
epigrammatic  saying,  'One  salmon  is  wortli  a  multitude 
of  frogs;'  a  league  of  which  tlie  outcome  was  the  Inqui- 
sition in  Holland,  and  the  massacre  of  St.  Barilmlomew 
in  France.  That  Mary  was  in  hearty  sympathy  with 
this  league  is  undoii1)ted;  thafshe  was  actually  a  party  to 
it  is  both  asserted  and  denied  by  men  behind  tlie  scenes 
who  had  every  ojiport unity  to  know.  Tliat  a  vigorous 
attempt  was  to  be  made  to  re-establish  the  Catholic 
faith  and  worship  is  certain.     Her  most  Catholic  maj- 


esty assures  her  subjects  that  in  any  event  the  religion 
of  the  realm  shall  not  be  interfered  with.  At  the  same 
time  she  writes  to  Pius  V  to  congratulate  him  on  the 
victories  already  gained,  and  to  inspire  him  with  hopes 
of  victories  yet  to  come :  '  With  the  help  of  God  and  his 
holiness,'  she  says, '  she  will  yet  leap  over  the  wall' " 
{Harper's  Magazine,  1873,  Feb.,  p.  352,  353).  "  To  this 
fatal  resolution,"  says  Robertson  (^History  of  Scotland), 
"  may  be  imputed  all  the  subsequent  calamities  of  Mary's 
life."  Many  of  the  Protestant  lords  who  had  hitherto 
supported  the  queen  now  took  fright  lest  they  should 
suffer  the  fate  of  the  adherents  of  the  Protestant  religion 
under  Mary  of  England.  The  bloody  deeds  of  that  foul 
woman  were  yet  fresh  in  the  minds  of  all.  What  was 
there  to  hinder  Mary  Stuart  from  uprooting  heresy  in 
her  dominions,  with  her  hands  stayed  by  all  the  other 
Romish  powers  of  luirope ?  IMoved  by  such  fears,  several 
of  the  Scotch  nobles,  whose  covetousness  had  had  more 
to  do  with  their  interest  in  the  new  religion  than  their 
soul's  salvation  (Fisher,  p.  351-353),  determined  to  strike 
boklly  against  the  throne.  Mary,  however,  was  not  now 
the  ruler  of  Scotland.  She  was  only  called  so.  Upoir 
the  throne  sat  the  Italian  singer.  "\\'hen  ISIarj'  was 
married  to  Darnley  she  had  promised  him  an  equal  share 
in  the  royal  authority,  and  accordingly  the  public  pa- 
pers and  the  public  coin  were  issued  in  the  name  of 
Henry  and  JMary.  But  Darnley  had  not  proved  the 
right  husband  for  her,  and  ere  long  she  manifested  her 
disappointment  by  placing  her  name  first.  Gradually 
the  place  lost  by  the  husband  is  occupied  by  the  Italian 
adventurer.  The  public  seal  is  given  to  Rizzio,  and 
with  his  own  hand  he  signs  and  stamps  the  official  pa- 
pers for  the  king.  There  is  no  access  to  Mary  but 
through  Rizzio:  he  who  would  gain  the  ear  of  the  one 
must  buy  the  favor  of  the  other.  '■  He  had  the  control," 
says  Froude,  "  of  aU  the  business  of  the  state."  The 
king  himself  finds  the  door  barred — ^David  admitted, 
himself  shut  out.  Whispers  such  as  no  true  woman  can 
afford  to  suffer  circulate  freely,  and  Mary  suffers  th.em ; 
ugly  stories,  aptly  illustrated  by  the  saying  of  a  later 
day,  that  "King  James  the  Sixth's  title  to  be  called 
the  modern  Solomon  was,  doubtless,  that  he  was  the 
son  of  David,  who  performed  upon  the  harp."  History 
does  not  justify  these  scandals.  Neither  can  it  justify 
the  queen  Mho  suffered  them.  David  Eizzio  was  not  a 
man  to  entertain  passion  or  to  inspire  it.  His  power 
over  Jlary  was  not  that  which  love  gives.  It  was  that 
of  a  Jesuit  father  over  an  obedient  child.  To  Mary, 
Rizzio  was  the  pope,  whose  benediction  he  carried  with 
him,  whose  secret  envoy  he  was.  But  no  husband  in 
such  an  issue  is  apt  to  weigh  p?'05  and  cons  nicely,  least 
of  all  such  a  man  as  Darnley.  '•  Handsome  long  man" 
he  may  have  been,  but  he  carried  all  his  merits  in  his 
face  and  figure.  Intriguing  nobles  easily  played  the  part 
of  lago  to  one  who  was  in  heart  anything  but  an  Othello. 
A  jealous  husband  and  an  imscrupulous  nobility  were  not 
slow  to  make  common  cause ;  and  so  the  death  of  the 
queen's  favorite  was  determined,  and  accordingly  Rizzio 
fell  a  prey  to  both  Darnley  and  the  nobles,  March  0. 
156(5.  The  assassins,  of  course,  suffered  their  merited 
punishment.  High  in  position  and  power,  they  were  not 
given  to  the  hangman,  but  an  ever-watchful  Providence 
meted  out  to  all  their  merited  award.  (The  charge 
formerly  made  by  some  [c.  g.  Tytler]  that  Knox  and 
the  Reformed  clergy  were  pri\y  to  this  scheme  to  mur- 
der Rizzio  has  been  so  thoroughly  exploded  that  it  is 
hardly  necessary  for  us  even  to  allude  to  it  here.  Tliose 
who  wish  to  examine  particularly  are  referred  to  iM'Crie, 
Sketches  of  Scottish  Cli.  Hist.,  tim\  Hctheiington,  7//^-^ 
Ch.  of  Scotland,  i,  124,  402  sq.)  It  was  an  aggravation 
of  the  murder  of  Rizzio  that  it  was  committed,  if  not  in 
the  queen's  presence,  at  least  within  a  few  yards  of  her 
person,  only  three  months  before  she  gave  birth  (June 
19, 15G6)  to  the  prince  who  became  king  James  YI.  As 
that  event  drew  near,  the  queen's  affection  for  her  hus- 
band, who  had  unblushingly  declaimed  against  all  ]iart 
in  the  conspiracy,  seemed  to  revive;  but  the  change 


MARY  STUART 


853 


MARY  STUART 


was  only  momentary;  aiifi  before  the  boy's  baptism,  in 
December,  her  estrangement  from  the  king  was  greater 
than  ever.  Divorce  was  openly  discussed  in  her  pres- 
ence, and  even  darker  designs  were  obscurely  hinted  at 
among  her  friends.  The  king,  on  his  part,  spoke  of  leav- 
ing the  country,  but  before  his  preparations  were  com- 
pleted, he  fell  ill  of  the  small-|)ox  at  Glasgow.  This  was 
about  Jan.  9, 15G7.  On  the  '2.jth  Mary  went  to  see  him, 
and,  travelling  by  easy  stages,  brought  him  to  Edinburgh 
on  the  31st.  He  was  lodged  in  a  small  mansion  beside 
the  Kirk  of  the  Field,  nearly  on  the  spot  where  the 
south-east  corner  of  the  University  now  stands.  There 
Mary  visited  him  daily,  and  slept  for  two  nights  in  a 
room  below  his  bedchamber.  She  passed  the  evening 
of  Sunday,  Feb.  9,  by  his  bedside,  talking  cheerfully  and 
affectionately  with  him,  although  she  is  said  to  have 
dropped  one  remark  which  gave  him  uneasy  forebodings 
• — that  it  was  much  about  that  time  twelvemonth  that 
Rizzio  was  murdered.  She  left  him  between  ten  and 
eleven  o'clock  to  take  part  in  a  mask  at  Hoh^rood,  at 
the  marriage  of  a  favorite  valet.  The  festivities  had 
not  long  ceased  in  the  palace  when,  about  two  hours 
after  midnight,  the  house  in  which  the  king  slept  was 
blown  up  by  gunpowder,  and  in  the  neighboring  garden 
was  found  the  lifeless  body  of  him  to  whom  Mary,  on 
the  assassination  of  Eizzio,  had  spoken  these  ominous 
words :  "  I  shall  never  rest  till  I  give  you  as  sorrowful 
heart  as  I  have  at  this  present." 

The  chief  actor  in  this  tragedy  was  undoubtedly 
James  Hepburn,  earl  of  Ijothwell,  a  needy,  reckless,  vain- 
glorious, profligate  noble,  who,  since  Murray's  revolt, 
and  still  more  since  Kizzio's  murder,  had  enjoyed  a  large 
share  of  the  queen's  favor.  But  there  were  suspicions 
that  the  queen  herself  was  not  whoUj'^  ignorant  of  the 
plot,  and  these  suspicions  could  not  but  be  strengthened 
by  what  followed.  On  the  r2th  of  April,  Bothwell  was 
brought  to  a  mock-trial  and  acquitted  ;  on  the  24th,  he 
intercepted  the  queen  on  her  way  from  Linlithgow  to 
Edinburgh,  and  carried  her,  -with  scarcely  a  show  of  re- 
sistance, to  Dunbar.  On  the  7th  of  May,  he  was  di- 
vorced from  the  young  and  comelj'  wife  whom  he  had 
married  little  more  than  a  twelvemonth  before ;  on  the 
rith,  Mary  publicly  pardoned  his  seizure  of  her  person, 
and  created  him  duke  of  Orkney;  and  on  the  15th — only 
three  months  after  her  husband's  murder — she  married 
the  man  whom  every  one  regarded  as  his  murderer, 
married  while  the  stain  of  her  husband's  blood  w^as  still 
upon  him.  "  Surely  this  is  carrying  quite  too  far  the 
'indulgent  temper'  for  which  her  eulogist  (Meline,  p.  124) 
praises  her  so  highly."  Impelled  by  a  just  and  burning 
indignation,  her  subjects  rose  in  rebellion,  led  by  nobles 
of  both  the  Protestant  and  Romish  factions.  Surround- 
ed at  Borthwick  Castle,  Bothwell  escaped  under  cover 
of  the  night,  Mary  following  him  dressed  in  male  attire. 
They  hastily  gathered  the  Royalists  about  them,  but 
such  a  cause  enlisted  few  followers.  Yet  the  few  were 
mustered,  an(l,however  sparse  in  number,Mary  hesitated 
not  to  brave  the  storm ;  she  even  dared  to  enter  the 
lists  against  her  opponents,  but  on  the  field  of  Carberry 
(.June  15)  the  army  melted  away  in  sight  of  the  enemy, 
and  no  alternative  was  ieft  to  her  but  to  abandon  Both- 
well,  and  surrender  herself  to  the  confederate  lords.  She 
was  now  escorted  by  the  nobles  as  a  prisoner  to  Edin- 
burgh, where  the  insults  of  the  rabble  and  grief  at  part- 
ing with  Bothwell  threw  her  into  such  a  frenzy  that 
she  refused  all  nourishment,  and,  rushing  to  the  window 
of  the  room  in  which  she  was  kept  prisoner,  called  for 
help,  and  showed  herself  to  the  people  half  naked,  with 
her  hair  hanging  about  her  ears.  From  Edinbiu^gh  she 
was  hurried  to  Loch  Leven,  where,  on  the  24th  of  July, 
she  -was  prevailed  upon  to  sign  an  act  of  abdication  in 
favor  of  her  son,  who,  five  days  .afterwards,  was  crowned 
at  Stirling  [see  James  I] ;  while  to  her  brother  INIurray 
was  intrusted  the  government  during  the  minority  of 
her  successor  on  the  throne.  Barred  windows  and  iron 
doors  proved  no  confinement  to  Mary.  She  soon  found 
ways  to  communicate  with  the  world,  and  made  even 


the  very  prison-keeper  her  friend  and  confidant.  May 
2, 15G8,  she  finally  succeeded  in  making  her  escape  from 
the  island-prison,  and  once  more  she  made  a  call  to  arms, 
this  time  to  enter  the  lists  life  for  life.  An  army  gath- 
ered, and  in  a  few  da3's  she  found  herself  at  the  head  of 
GOOO  men.  Elizabeth  of  England,  whose  great  political 
maxim  was  "  that  the  head  should  not  be  subject  to  the 
foot,"  would  gladly  have  extended  aid  to  Mary  had 
she  not  feared  the  power  of  the  perspicacious  and  firm 
leader  of  the  Protestants  who  had  imprisoned  Mary — 
her  own  half-brother,  Murray.  On  the  12th  of  May  it 
finally  came  to  a  battle  between  the  Royalists  and  the 
insurgents  at  Langside,  near  Glasgow.  IMary  was  com- 
pletely routed,  and  obliged  to  flee  the  kingdom.  She 
entered  England,  and  threw  herself  on  the  protection  of 
Elizabeth.  The  queen  of  England,  however,  had  al- 
ways had  cause  to  fear  the  presence  of  her  rival  on 
English  ground.  Mary  had  never  yet  renounced  her 
claim  to  the  crown  which  Elizabeth  wore.  Moreover, 
"Mary  Stuart  was  the  centre  of  the  hopes  of  the  ene- 
mies of  Protestant  England  and  of  Elizabeth.  Their 
plots  looked  to  the  elevation  of  ]\Iary  to  the  throne 
which  Elizabeth  filled  "  (Fisher,  p.  882).  Political  ambi- 
tion and  religious  fanaticism  controlled  both  parties,  and 
should  the  stronger  yield  to  the  weaker?  Mary  had 
come  hoping  to  secure  her  cousin's  sympathy  and  aid. 
But  that  cousin  feared  for  her  own  life  and  the  security  of 
her  throne,  and  therefore  persistently  denied  the  ardent 
and  persevering  solicitations  of  Mary  for  an  interview, 
on  the  agreeable  pretence  that  she  should  first  clear  her- 
self of  the  crime  imputed  to  her.  A  criminal,  then,  she 
was  made  a  prisoner,  and,  after  an  immense  amount  of 
deceptive  diplomacy,  a  commission  was  appointed,  nom- 
inally to  investigate  the  charges  of  Ma>y  against  her 
rebellious  lords,  really  to  investigate  the  charges  of  the 
lords  against  their  queen.  Before  this  commission 
JIurray  represented  the  Scottish  government.  At  first 
he  laid  the  guilt  of  the  murder  on  Bothwell  alone,  and 
defended  the  insurrection  only  as  one  against  the  infa- 
mous, ambitious,  and  tyrannical  earl.  But  as  the  trial 
proceeded  he  changed  his  ground.  He  hesitated,  pro- 
crastinated, faltered.  At  length  he  openly  charged  his 
sister  with  the  murder  of  her  husband ;  and  he  pro- 
duced, in  confirmation  of  this  charge,  the  since  famous 
"  casket  letters."  Of  their  discover}'  he  told  tliis  story : 
The  earl  of  Bothwell — so  said  lord  IMurray,  and  so  said 
the  lords  he  represented — fleeing  from  Edinburgh,  sent 
back  a  confidential  messenger  to  the  castle  to  bring 
thence  a  silver  casket  from  a  certain  drawer.  James 
Balfour— that  Balfour  who  drew  the  deed  for  Darnley's 
murder — had  received  the  captaincy  of  the  castle  as  the 
price  of  his  crime.  He  delivered  the  casket;  he  at  the 
same  time  sent  the  lords  a  hint  of  the  fact.  The  mes- 
senger was  intercepted  and  the  casket  seized.  This 
casket,  with  its  contents,  was  the  witness  Murray  pro- 
duced before  the  English  commission  against  the  Scot- 
tish queen.  Its  contents  were  eight  letters  and  twelve 
sonnets,  written  in  French,  apparently  in  Mary's  hand- 
writing. Among  the  commissioners  were  more  than 
one  of  INIary's  friends,  one  of  them  that  duke  of  Norfolk 
who  subsequently  attested  the  strength  of  his  attach- 
ment by  the  sacrifice  of  his  life :  if  these  letters  were  a 
forgery,  they  were  not  so  declared  by  them.  Of  these 
letters  one  gave  a  full  account  of  Jlary's  interview  w^ith 
Darnley  at  Glasgow;  of  his  unsuspicious  confidence; 
of  her  own  mournful  sense  of  shame  and  guilt.  Another 
advised  the  earl  when  and  where  to  abduct  her,  and  cau- 
tioned him  to  come  with  force  sufficient  to  overcome  all 
resistance.  All  breathed  the  language  of  passionate  de- 
votion, with  here  and  there  a  flash  of  fierce  jealousy. 
They  were  true  to  nature,  but  to  a  lost,  though  not  a 
shameless  one.  Their  language  was  that  of  a  once  noble 
but  now  ruined  woman  unveiling  her  heart's  secrets  in 
unsuspecting  confidence.  If  forged,  the  forger  was  a 
consummate  master  of  his  art.  True  or  false,  they  were 
equally  remarkable  as  contributions  to  the  language  of 
passion.     Mary  denounced  them  as  forgeries.     She  de- 


MARY  STUART 


854 


MARY  STUART 


mandcd  to  see  the  originals.  Elizabeth  granted  the 
reasonableness  of  the  demand,  but  never  complied  with 
it.  She  demanded  to  face  her  accusers.  Elizabeth 
hair  promised  that  she  should  do  so,  but  never  fulfilled 
tlie  pledge.  The  commission  broke  up  without  a  ver- 
dict. Elizabeth  had  no  interest  to  press  for  either  ac- 
ouittal  or  conviction.  Murray  was  glad  to  return  to  his 
regency.  Jlary  alone  had  any  reason  to  demand  the 
comjiletion  of  the  investigation,  but  Mary  was  a  prisoner, 
and  her  access  to  the  public  not  the  most  eas}-.  Though 
inconclusive,  the  trial  had  revealed  enough  to  strength- 
en the  worst  suspicions  of  the  Scottish  people,  and  no 
one  thought  of  finding  fault  with  Elizabeth  for  retain- 
ing 5Iary  a  prisoner.  For  nineteen  years  Mary  Stuart 
thus  passed  life.  "For  nineteen  years  both  captive  and 
captor  are  made  miserable  by  plots  and  counterplots; 
and  whether  Mary  in  prison  or  Mary  at  large  is  the 
more  dangerous  to  the  security  of  Protestant  England 
is  a  question  so  hard  to  decide  that  Elizabeth  never 
fairly  attempts  to  determine  it.  At  length  a  \Aot  is  vm- 
covered  more  deadly  than  any  that  has  preceded.  Half 
a  score  of  assassins  band  themselves  together  to  attempt 
Elizabeth's  life,  and  to  put  Catholic  Mary  on  the  vacant 
throne.  The  blessing  of  the  pope  is  pronounced  upon 
the  enterprise.  The  Catholic  powers  of  Europe  stand 
ready  to  welcome  its  consummation.  Mary  gives  it 
her  conlial  approbation.  '  The  hour  of  deliverance,'  she 
writes  exultingly,  '  is  at  hand.'  But  plots  breed  coun- 
terplots. In  all  the  diplomatic  service  of  Europe  there 
is  no  so  ingenious  spy  as  Walsingham, Elizabeth's  prime 
minister.  E^-ery  letter  of  Mary's  is  opened  and  copied 
by  his  agents  before  sent  to  its  destination.  The  con- 
siiiracy  is  allowed  to  ripen.  Then,  when  all  is  ready 
for  Consummation,  the  leaders  are  arrested,  the  plot  is 
brought  to  the  light  of  day.  Mary,  with  all  her  faults, 
never  knew  fear ;  no  craven  heart  was  hers.  The  more 
dangerous  was  she  because  so  brave.  She  battles  for 
her  life  with  a  heroism  well  worthy  a  nobler  nature — 
battles  to  the  last,  though  there  be  no  hope.  She  re- 
ceives the  sentence  of  death  with  the  calmness  of  true 
courage,  not  of  despair.  With  all  her  treachery,  never 
recreant  to  her  faith — never  but  once,  when  her  infatu- 
ated love  of  Bothwell  swerved  her  from  it  for  a  few 
short  weeks — she  clings  to  her  crucifix  till  the  very 
hour  of  death.  Almost  her  last  words  are  words  of 
courage  to  her  friends.  'Weep  not,'  she  says;  'I  have 
promised  for  you.'  Her  ver\'  last  are  a  psahn  from  her 
Prayer-book — '  In  thee.  O  Lord,  have  I  pu.,  my  trust.' 
And  then  she  lays  her  head  upon  the  block  as  peace- 
fully as  ever  she  laid  it  upon  her  pillow.  No  'grizzled, 
wrinkled  old  woman,'  but  in  the  full  bloom  of  ripened 
womanhood — forty-five,  no  more — Mary  Stuart  pays  on 
the  scaffold  at  Fotheringay  [whither  she  had  been  re- 
moved for  trial  of  conspiracy  from  Charpley  in  Septem- 
ber, l.")8(i]  the  penalty  of  lier  treacliory  at  iMlinburgh, 
May  8, 1587.  The  spirit  of  the  stern  old  I'uritans  is  sat- 
isfied, and  the  pro])hecy  of  the  Good  Book  receives  a 
new  and  pregnant  illustration — 'Whoso  sheddeth  man's 
blood,  by  man  shall  his  blood  be  shed.'  "  Five  months 
after  the  execution  her  body  was^  buried  with  great 
pom;)  at  Peterborough,  whence,  in  1012,  it  was  removed 
to  king  Henry  VlTs  ('hajiel  at  Westminster,  where  it 
still  lies  in  a  sumptuous  tomb  erected  by  king  James  YI. 
"  Whoever  has  attended  but  little  to  the  phenomena 
of  human  nature  has  discovered  how  inadequate  is  the 
clearest  insight  which  he  can  hope  to  attain  into  char- 
acter and  disposition.  Everj'  one  is  a  peqilexity  to 
himself  and  a  jierplexity  to  his  neighbors;  and  men 
who  are  born  in  the  same  generation,  who  arc  exposed 
to  the  same  influences,  trained  bj'  the  same  teachers, 
and  live  from  childhood  to  age  in  constant  and  familiar 
intercourse,  are  often  little  more  than  shadows  to  each 
other,  intelligible  in  superficial  f<wni  and  outline,  but  di- 
vided inwardly  b}'  impalpable  and  mysterious  l)arriers." 
Thus  Froude  opens  the  fourth  volume  of  his  f/istan/  <if 
J'^iii/IiiikJ,  wlien  about  to  jiass  in  review  the  affairs  of 
Scotland  and  Ireland  in  the  IGth  centurv,     Yet.  when 


this  same  writer  comes  to  speak  of  Mary  Stuart,  he 
"writes  almost  as  a  public  prosecutor  of  the  Scottish 
queen,  and  sometimes  sacrifices  historical  accuracy  to 
dramatic  eflfect."  The  truth  is  that  the  character  of 
Mary  was  long  one  of  the  most  fiercely-vexed  questions 
of  historj^,  and  is  still  in  debate;  hence  the  difficulties 
which  beset  any  attempt  to  tell  correctly  the  story  of 
her  career,  or  analyze  aright  Iter  character.  The  stu- 
dent of  history  finds  no  impartial  witnesses ;  few  in  her 
own  time  who  are  not  ready  to  tell  and  to  believe  about 
her  the  most  barefaced  lies  which  will  promote  their 
own  party.  During  her  life  she  was  calumniated  and 
eulogized  with  equal  audacity.  Since  her  death  the 
same  curiously-contradictory  estimates  of  her  character 
have  been  vigorously  maintained — by  those,  too,  who 
have  not  their  judgment  impaired  by  the  prejudices 
■which  environed  her.  On  the  one  hand,  we  are  assured 
that  she  was  "  the  most  amiable  of  women ;''  "  the  up- 
right queen,  the  noble  and  true  woman,  the  faithful 
spouse  and  affectionate  mother;"  "the  poor  martyred 
queen;"  "the  helpless  victim  of  fraud  and  force;"  an 
"illustrious  victim  of  state-craft,"  whose  "kindly  spirit 
in  prosperity  and  matchless  heroism  in  misfortune" 
award  her  "  the  most  prominent  place  in  the  annals  of 
her  sex."  On  the  other,  we  are  assured,  by  men  equally 
competent  to  judge,  that  she  was  "a  spoiled  beauty;" 
"  the  heroine  of  an  adulterous  melodrama:"  "  the  victim 
of  a  blind,  imperious  passion ;"  an  "  apt  scholar"  in  "  the 
profound  dissimulation  of  that  school  of  which  Catharine 
de'  Medici  was  the  chief  instructor;"  "a  bad  woman, 
disguised  in  the  livery  of  a  martyr,'"  having  "  a  proud 
heart,  a  crafty  wit,  and  indurate  mind  against  God  and 
his  truth ;"  "  a  bold,  unscrupulous,  ambitious  woman," 
with  "  the  panther's  nature — graceful,  beautiful,  malig- 
nant, untamable."  The  great  preponderance  of  author- 
ity, however,  seems  now  to  be  on  the  side  of  those  who 
believe  in  her  criminal  love  for  Bothwell  and  her  guilty 
knowledge  of  his  conspiracy  against  her  husband's  life. 
The  question  of  her  guilt  as  to  the  murder  of  her  hus- 
band does  certainly  not  rest  on  the  authenticity  of  the 
"  casket  letters,"  however  much  these  may  be  matter  of 
historical  interest.  "Evidence  which  her  own  day 
deemed  clear,"  says  the  writer  in  IJarjier  whom  we  had 
occasion  to  quote  before,  "  history  deems  imcertain. 
Circumstances  which,  isolated,  only  created  a  wide- 
spread suspicion  in  her  own  times,  pttt  together  by  his- 
tory, form  a  net-work  of  evidence  clear  and  conclusive. 
A  wife  learns  to  loathe  her  husband ;  utters  her  passion- 
ate hate  in  terms  that  are  unmistakable ;  is  reconciled 
to  him  for  a  purpose ;  casts  him  off  when  that  purjjose 
is  accamplished ;  makes  no  secret  of  her  desire  for  a 
divorce;  listens  with  but  cold  rebuke  to  intimations  of 
his  assassination;  dallies  while  he  langinshes  upon  a 
sick-bed  so  long  as  death  is  near;  hastens  to  him  only 
when  he  is  convalescent ;  becomes,  in  seeming,  recon- 
ciled to  him ;  by  her  blandishments  allays  his  terror 
and  arrests  his  flight,  which  nothing  else  could  arrest; 
brings  him  with  her  to  the  house  chosen  by  the  assas- 
sins for  his  tomb — a  house  which  has  absolutely  nothing 
else  to  recommend  it  but  its  singular  adaptation  to  the 
deed  of  cruelty  to  be  wrought  there;  remains  with  him 
till  within  two  hours  of  his  murder;  hears  with  uncon- 
cern the  story  of  his  tragic  end,  wliich  thrills  all  other 
hearts  with  horror;  makes  no  effort  to  bring  the  perpe- 
trators of  the  crime  to  pmiishment;  rewards  the  sus- 
pected with  places  and  pensions,  and  the  chief  criminal 
with  her  hand  in  marriage  while  the  blood  is  still  wet 
on  his.  That  the  world  shoidd  be  asked  to  believe  her 
the  innocent  victim  of  a  diabolical  conspiracy  affords  a 
singular  illustration  of  the  effrontery  of  the  Church 
which  claims  her  for  a  martyr.  That  half  the  world 
sliould  have  acquiesced  in  the  claim  affords  an  illustra- 
tion no  less  singular  of  the  credulity  of  mankind  wheii 
sentiments  and  sympathies  are  called  on  to  render  the 
judgment  which  the  reason  alone  is  qualified  to  render." 
The  genuineness  of  the  "casket  letters"  is  maintained 
bv  the  historians  Hume,   Kobertson,   Laing,   Burton, 


MARY  STUART 


855 


MASADA 


Mackintosh,  Mignet,  Ranke,  and  Froude.  The  most 
acute  writer  on  tlie  other  side  of  the  question  is  Hosack, 
an  Edinburgh  barrister,  but  he  "  writes  in  such  a  vein 
as  would  betit  him  were  he  indeed  earning  a  lawyer's 
fee  by  a  lawyer's  service."  One  of  the  latest  writers  on 
the  ecclesiastical  history  of  this  period,  Prof.  Fisher  (p. 
37G),  of  Yale  College,  thus  comments  on  the  question  at 
issue :  "  No  candid  critic  can  deny,  whatever  may  be 
his  final  verdict,  that  the  letters  contain  many  internal 
marks  of  genuineness  which  it  would  be  exceedingly 
dillicult  for  a  counterfeiter  to  invent,  and  that  the  scru- 
tiny to  which  they  were  subjected  in  the  Scottish  Par- 
liament, the  Scottish  privy  council,  and  the  English 
privy  council,  was  such  that,  if  they  were  forged,  it  is 
haril  to  account  for  the  failure  to  detect  the  imposture. 
Moreover,  the  character  of  Murray,  although  it  may  be 
admitted  that  he  was  not  the  immaculate  person  that 
he  is  sometimes  considered  to  have  been,  must  have 
been  black  indeed  if  these  documents,  which  he  brought 
forward  to  prove  the  guilt  of  his  sister,  were  forged;  but 
Slurray  is  praised  not  only  by  his  personal  adherents 
and  by  his  party,  but  by  men  like  Spottiswoode  and 
Melville  (Spottiswoode,  History  of  the  Chmrh  of  S cot- 
land,  ii,  121)."  Yet,  however  writers  may  differ  about 
her  moral  conduct,  they  agree  very  well  as  to  the  vari- 
ety of  her  accomplishments.  She  wrote  poems  on  vari- 
ous occasions,  in  the  Latin,  Italian,  French,  and  Scotch 
languages;  "Eoyal  advice  to  her  son,"  in  two  books, 
the  consolation  of  her  long  im.prisonment.  A  great 
number  of  her  original  letters  are  preserved  in  the  king 
of  France's  library,  in  the  Koyal,  Cottonian,  and  Ash- 
molean  libraries.  We  have  in  print  eleven  to  the  earl  of 
Bothwell,  translated  from  the  French  by  Edward  Sim- 
monds,  of  Christ-church,  Oxford,  and  printed  at  West- 
minster in  1726.  There  are  ten  more,  with  her  answers 
to  the  articles  against  her,  in  "  Ilaynes's  State-papers ;" 
six  more  in  "Anderson's  Collections;"  another  in  the 
"Appendix"  to  her  life  by  Dr.  Jebb;  and  some  others  dis- 
persed among  the  works  of  Pius  V,  Buchanan,  Camden, 
Udall,  and  Sanderson. 

To  enumerate  all  that  has  been  written  on  Mary  would 
fill  a  vohmic.  Among  the  chief  works  are  S.  Jebb,  De 
Vita  et  Rthus  Gestis  3f a/ice  Scotoimm  R'f/ince  (Lond. 
1725,  2  vols,  fol.) ;  J.  Anderson,  Collections  7-elatirig  to  the 
Histoiy  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scotland  (Lond.  1727-28,  4 
vols.  4to) ;  Burton,  Hist,  of  Scotland,  vol.  iv ;  Bishop 
Keith,  Hist,  of  the  Affah'S  of  Chin-ch  and  State  in  Scot- 
land (Edinb.  1734,  fol. ;  1844-50,  3  vols.  8vo)  ;  W.  Good- 
all,  Exundnation  of  the  Letters  said  to  he  icritten  by  Mary, 
Queen  of  Scots,  to  James,  Earl  of  Bothwell  (Edinb.  1754, 
2  vols.  8vo) ;  Robertson,  Hist,  of  Scotland ;  W.  Ty tier. 
Inquiry  into  the  Evidence  against  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots 
(Edinb.  1759, 8vo ;  Lond.  1790, 2  vols.  8vo) ;  Laing,  Hist, 
of  Scotland ;  Chalmers,  Life  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots 
(Lond.  1818,  2  vols.  4to ;  1822,  3  vols.  8vo) ;  Schlitz, 
Lehen  Maria  Stuarts  (1839)  ;  P.  F.  Ty  tier,  IHst.  of  Scot- 
land; Prince  Labanoff,  Recueil  des  Lettres  de  Marie  Stu- 
art (Lond.  1844,  7  vols.  8vo)  ;  David  Laing,  edition  of 
Ji)hn  Knox's  Hist,  of  the  Reformation  (Edinb.  1846-48, 
2  vols.  8vo) ;  M.  Teulet,  Papiers  d'Etat  relatifs  a  VHis- 
toire  de  VEcosse  (Par.  1851-60,  3  vols.  4to  ;  1862,  5  vols. 
8vo) ;  Miss  Agnes  Strickland,  lAves  of  the  Queens  of 
Scotland  (Edinb.  1850-59,  8  vols.  8vo) ;  M.  Mignet,  His- 
toire  de  Marie  Stuart  (Par.  1852,  2  vols.  8vo) ;  A.  de 
Tilontaiglon,  ia//«  Themes  of  Mary  Stuart  (Lond.  1855, 
8vo) ;  Prince  Labanoif,  Notice  sur  la  Collection  des  Por- 
traits de  Marie  Stuart  (St.  Petersb.  1856) ;  M.  Cheruel, 
Marie  Stuai-t  et  Catherine  de  Medicis  (Par.  1858,  8vo) ; 
I\L  Teulet,  Lettres  de  Marie  Stuart  (Par.  1859,  8vo); 
Joseph  Robertson,  Catalogues  of  the  Jewels,  Dresses,  Fur- 
niture, Books,  and  Paintings  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots 
(Edinb.  1863,  4to) ;  Hosack,  Mai-y,  Queen  of  Scots  and 
her  Accusers -{^A  ed.  Lond.  1870,  2  vols.  8vo)  ;  Meline, 
Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  and  her  latest  English  Historian 
(N.  Y.  1872,  8vo),  a  polemic  against  Froude,  assails  the 
Englisli  historian  very  bitterly,  and  shows  him  to  be  in- 
accurate in  some  minor  details;  but  Meluie's  own  "in- 


tense partisanship  unfits  him  for  the  office  of  a  critic, 
and  he  entirely  fails  in  his  narrative."     (J.  H.W.) 

Masaccio,  called  Maso  da  San  Giovanni,  one  of 
the  earliest  and  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Italian  paint- 
ers of  the  second  or  middle  age  of  modern  painting,  the 
miquestioned  founder  of  the  Florentine  school,  was  born 
at  San  Giovanni,  in  Val  d'Arno,  in  the  year  1401.  He 
was  a  disciple  of  Masolino  da  Panicale,  to  whom  he 
proved  as  much  superior  as  his  master  was  to  all  his  con- 
temporaries. He  had  great  readiness  of  invention,  with 
unusual  truth  and  elegance  of  design.  He  made  nature 
his  constant  study ;  and  he  gave  in  his  works  exam- 
ples of  that  beauty  which  arises  from  a  judicious  and 
pleasing  choice  of  attitudes,  accompanied  with  spirit, 
boldness,  and  relief.  He  was  the  first  who  studied  to  give 
more  dignity  to  his  draperies,  by  designing  them  with 
greater  breadth  and  fuhiess,  and  omitting  the  multitude 
of  small  folds.  He  was  also  the  first  who  endeavored  to 
adapt  the  color  of  his  draperies  to  the  tints  of  his  car- 
nations, so  that  they  might  harmonize  with  each  other. 
Masaccio  was  remarkably  well  skilled  in  perspective, 
which  he  was  taught  by  Brunelleschi.  His  works  pro- 
cured him  great  reputation,  but  excited  the  envy  of  his 
competitors.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  poisoned, 
and  died  about  1443.  Fuseli  says  of  him  :  "  Masaccio 
was  a  genius,  and  the  head  of  an  epoch  in  the  art.  He 
may  be  considered  as  the  precursor  of  Raphael,  who  im- 
itated his  principles,  and  sometimes  transcribed  his  fig- 
ures." His  most  perfect  works  are  the  frescoes  of  St. 
Pietro  del  Carmine  at  Florence,  "  where  vigor  of  concep- 
tion, truth  and  vivacity  of  expression,  correctness  of 
design,  and  breadth  of  manner  are  supported  by  a  most 
surprising  harmony  of  color ;"  and  the  picture  of  Christ 
curing  the  iJoemoniacs.  The  "  Arundel  Society"  has 
lately  published  these  frescoes  in  a  series  of  superior 
chromo-lithographs.  See  Vasari,  Lives  of  the  Painteis ; 
Mrs.  Jameson,  Memoirs  of  Early  Halian  Painters. 

Masada  (MaadSa),  a  very  strong  fortress  not  far 
south  of  Engedi  (Josephus,  War;  Ant.  i,  12,  1),  on  the 
west  of  the  Dead  Sea  (Pliny,  v,  17),  in  a  volcanic  region 
(Strabo,  xvi,p.  764),  minutely  described  by  Josephus  in 
various  places,  especially  in  the  account  of  its  final  trag- 
edy ( War,  vii,  8).  It  was  built  by  Jonathan  Macca- 
bajus  on  an  almost  inaccessible  rock,  and  was  probably 
one  of  his  "strongholds  in  Judrea"  (1  Mace,  xii,  35),  as 
it  had  possibly  been  in  earlier  times  a  refuge  of  David 
(1  Sam.  xxiii,  14, 29 ;  comp.  2  Sam.  v,  17).  It  was  much 
enlarged  and  strengthened  by  Herod  the  Great,  who 
placed  Mariamne  here  for  safety  when  he  was  driven 
from  Jerusalem  by  Antigonus  (Josephus,  War,  i,  13,  7). 
It  resisted,  at  that  time,  the  attack  by  the  Parthians 
(ib.  15,  3),  but  was  afterwards  taken  from  the  Romans 
through  treachery  by  Judas  the  Galitean  {ib.  17,  2).  It 
was  the  last  stronghold  of  the  Jews  in  the  final  struggle 
with  the  Romans  mider  Flavins  Silva,  who  took  it  by 
assault,  the  garrison,  in  their  desperation,  having  immo- 
lated themselves  (ut  sup.).  The  site  was  conjectured  by 
Dr.  Eli  Smith  to  be  that  of  the  modern  Sebbeh  (Robin- 
son, i?fsea?-o^es,  ii,  24)  ;  which  has  been  abundantly  con- 
firmed by  later  travellers,  who  have  attested  the  pro- 
digious strength  of  the  place,  and  its  exact  agreement 
with  the  description  of  Josephus  (TiaiWs  Josephus,  ii,  109 
sq. ;  Biblioth.  Sacra,  1843,  p.  62  sq. ;  Van  de  Velde,  Nar- 
rative, ii,  97  sq.;  Tristram,  Land  of  Israel,  p.  293  sq.). 

The  description  of  Josephus,  in  whose  histories  Ma- 
sada plays  a  conspicuous  part,  is  as  follows ;  A  lofty  rock 
of  considerable  extent,  surrounded  on  all  sides  b}^  pre- 
cipitous valleys  of  frightfid  depth,  afforded  difficult  ac- 
cess only  in  two  parts — one  on  the  east,  towards  the 
Lake  Asphaltis,  by  a  zigzag  path,  scarcely  practicable, 
and  extremely  dangerous,  called  "  the  Serpent,"  from  its 
sinuosities ;  the  other  more  easy,  towards  the  west,  on 
which  side  the  isolated  rock  was  more  nearly  ap- 
proached by  the  hills.  The  summit  of  the  rock  was  not 
pointed,  but  a  plain  of  7  stadia  in  circumference,  sur- 
romided  by  a  waU  of  white  stone,  12  cubits  high  and 


MASADA 


856 


MASALOTH 


'1  he  Rock  ot  Masada. 


8  cubits  thick,  fortified  with  37  towers  of  50  cubits  iu 
height.    The  wall  was  joined  within  by  large  buildings 
connected  with  the  towers,  designed  for  barracks  and 
magazines  for  the  enormous  stores  and  munitions  of  war 
which  were  laid  up  in  this  fortress.     The  remainder  of 
the  area,  not  occupied  by  buildings,  was  arable,  the  soil 
being  richer  and  more  genial  than  that  of  the  plain  be- 
low ;   and  a  further  provision  was  thus  made  for  the 
garrison  in  case  of  a  failure  of  supplies  from  without. 
The  rain-water  was  preserved  in  large  cisterns  excavated 
in  the  solid  rock.     A  jialacc,  on  a  grand  scale,  occupied 
the  north-west  ascent,  on  a  lower  level  than  the  fortress, 
but  connected  with  it  by  covered  passages  cut  in  the 
rock.     This  was  adorned  Avithin  with  porticoes  and 
baths,  supported  by  monolithic  columns;  the  walls  and 
tioors  were  covered  with  tessellated  work.     At  the  dis- 
tance of  1000  cubits  from  the  fortress,  a  massive  tower 
guarded  the  western  approach  at  its  narrowest  and  most 
difficult  point,  and  thus   completed  the   artificial  de- 
fences of  this  most  remarkable  site,  which  nature  had 
rendered  almost  impregnable.    In  attacking  the  fortress, 
the  first  act  of  the  Roman  general  was  to  surround  the 
fortress  with  a  wall,  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  garri- 
son.    Having  distributed  sentries  along  this  line  of  cir- 
cumvallation,  he  pitched  his  own  camp  on  the  west, 
where  the  rock  was  most  nearly  approached  by  the 
mountains,  and  was  therefore  more  open  to  assault ;  for 
the  difficulty  of  procuring  provisions  and  water  for  his 
soldiers  did  not  allow  him  to  attempt  a  protracted  block- 
ade, which  the  enormous  stores  of  provisions  and  water 
still  found  there  by  Eleazar  would  have  enabled  the 
garrison  better  to  endure.     Behind  the  tower  which 
guarded  the  ascent  was  a  prominent  rock  of  considerable 
size  and  height,  though  .300  cubits  lower  than  the  wall 
of  the  fortress,  called  the  White  Cliff.     On  this  a  bank 
of  200  cubits'  height  was  raised,  whicli  formed  a  base  for 
a  platform  Qii'n.ia)  of  solid  masonry,  50  cubits  in  width 
and  height,  and  on  this  was  placed  a  tower  similar  in 
construction  to  those  invented  and  employed  iii  sieges 
by  Vespasian  and  Titus,  covered  with  plates  of  iron, 
which  reached  an  additional  fiO  cubits,  so  as  to  domi- 
nate the  wall  of  the  castle,  which  was  quickly  cleared 
of  its  defenders  by  the  showers  of  missiles  discharged 
from  the  scorpions  and  balistw.     The  outer  wall  soon 


yielded  to  the  ram,  when  an 
inner  Avail  Avas  discovered  to 
ha\'e  been  constructed  by  the 
garrison — aframcAvork  of  tim- 
ber filled  Avith  soil,  Avhich  be- 
came more  solid  and  compact 
by  the  concussions  of  the  ram. 
This,  however,  Avas  speedily 
fired.  The  assault  Avas  fixed 
for  the  morroAv,Avhen  the  gar- 
rison anticipated  the  SAvords 
of  the  IJomans  by  one  of  the 
most  cold-blooded  and  atro- 
cious massacres  on  record.  At 
the  instigation  of  Eleazar, 
they  first  slew  CA'ery  man  his 
Avife  and  children ;  then,  haA'- 
ing  collected  the  property  into 
one  heap,  and  destroyed  it  all 
by  fire,  they  cast  lots  for  ten 
men,  Avho  shoidd  act  as  exe- 
cutioners of  the  others  Avhile 
they  lay  in  the  embrace  of 
their  slaughtered  families. 
One  Avas  then  selected  by  lot 
to  slay  the  other  nine  sur- 
AUA'ors;  and  he  at  last,  haA-ing 
set  fire  to  the  palace,  Avith  a 
desperate  effort  drove  his 
sword  completely  through  his 
OAvn  body,  and  so  perished. 
The  total  number,  including 
Avomen  and  cliildren,  Avas  9G0. 
An  old  Avoman,  Avith  a  female  relatiA'e  of  Eleazar,  and 
five  children,  who  had  contrived  to  conceal  them- 
selves in  the  reservoirs  Avhile  the  massacre  Avas  being 
perpetrated,  survived,  and  narrated  these  facts  to  the 
astonished  Eomans  Avhen  they  entered  the  fortress 
the  folloAving  morning,  and  had  ocular  demonstration 
of  the  frightful  tragedy.  On  the  present  ruined  site 
the  ground-plan  of  the  storehouses  and  barracks  can 
still  be  traced  in  the  foundations  of  the  buildings  on 
the  summit,  and  the  cisterns,  excaA'ated  in  the  nat- 
ural rock,  are  of  enormous  dimensions.  One  is  men- 
tioned as  nearly  50  feet  deep,  100  long,  and  45  broad. 
The  foundations  of  a  round  toAver,  40  or  50  feet  below 
the  northern  summit,  may  haA'e  been  connected  Avith 
the  palace,  and  the  AvindoAvs  cut  in  the  rock  near  by, 
which  Mr.  Woolcot  conjectures  to  haA-e  belonged  to  some 
large  cistern,  noAV  coA'ered  up,  may  possibly  baA-e  light- 
ed the  rock-hewn  gaUerj'  bj^  Avhich  the  palace  commu- 
nicated Avith  the  fortress.  From  the  summit  of  the 
rock  every  part  of  the  Avail  of  circumvallation  could  be 
traced,  carried  along  the  Ioav  ground,  and,  Avherever  it 
met  a  precipice,  commencing  again  on  the  high  sum- 
mit above,  thus  making  the  entire  circuit  of  the  place. 
Connected  Avith  it,  at  interA-als,  Avcre  the  Avails  of  the 
Roman  camps,  opposite  the  north-Avest  and  south-east 
corners,  the  former  being  the  spot  where  Josephus  places 
that  of  the  Roman  general.  A  third  may  be  traced  on 
the  IcA'el  near  the  shore.  The  outline  of  the  Avorks,  as 
seen  from  the  heights  above,  is  as  complete  as  if  they 
had  been  but  recently  abandoned.  The  Roman  Avail  is 
six  feet  broad,  built,  like  the  fortress  A\-alls  and  buildings 
above,  Avith  rough  stones  laid  loosely  together,  and  tlie 
interstices  filled  in  Avith  small  pieces  of  stone.  The 
Avail  is  half  a  mile  or  more  distant  from  the  rock,  so  as 
to  be  Avithout  range  of  the  stones  discharged  by  the  gar- 
rison. No  Avater  Avas  to  be  found  in  the  neighborhood 
but  such  as  the  recent  rains  had  left  in  the  IioHoavs  of 
the  rocks,  confirming  the  remark  of  Josephus  that  Ava- 
ter,  as  avcU  as  food,  aams  brought  thither  to  the  Roman 
army  from  a  distance.  Its  position  is  exactly  opposite 
to  the  peninsula  that  runs  into  the  Dead  Sea  from  its 
eastern  shore,  towards  its  southern  extremity.  See 
Smitl).  7)icf.  of  Class.  Gcoff.  s.  a-. 

Masaloth  (MaiaaXwi  v.  r.  MeaaaXwB^),  a  place 


IMASAUPASA 


857 


MASH 


in  Arbela,  which  Bacchides  and  Alcimus  besieged  and 
captured  on  their  way  from  Gilgal  to  Jiutea  (1  j\Iacc.  ix, 
2).  Josephus,  in  his  parallel  account,  omits  the  name 
(Anf.  xii,  11, 1) ;  but  a  trace  of  the  name  is  thought  by 
Kobinson  {Researches,  ii,398)  to  be  found  in  the  "steps" 
(n'li:p"2,  mesilloth')  or  terraces  (as  in  2  Chron.  ix,  11), 
in  connection  with  the  remarkable  caverns  besieged  by 
Herod  near  Arbela  (Josephus,  War,  i,  16,  4),  now  Kulat 
ibn-ilaon.     See  Arbkla. 

Masatipasa,  a  famous  fast  among  the  East  Indian 
pagans.  The  name  is  derived  from  musa,  which,  in  the 
Malabarian  language,  signifies  a  mouth,  and  vpada  a 
fast.  It  is  the  most  sacred  of  all  their  fasts,  and  begins 
with  the  last  day  of  October.  Such  as  keep  the  fast, 
having  first  washed  and  dressed  themselves  very  clean, 
repair  to  the  pagoda  or  temple  of  the  god  Vistnum,  and 
the  next  morning,  having  changed  their  clothes,  go 
round  the  temple  101  times,  and  the  most  devoted  1001 
times.  They  repeat  the  same  ceremony  every  day  dur- 
ing the  months  of  November  and  December.  During 
this  time  they  must  eat  nothing  but  milk  and  eggs, 
must  not  look  upon  a  woman,  nor  think  or  speak  of  any- 
thing but  what  relates  to  the  Vistnum.  The  next  year 
they  perform  the  same  devotion,  beginning  with  the 
first  day  of  December,  and  continuing  till  the  tenth  day 
of  January.  The  next  year  they  begin  with  the  first 
day  of  January  and  end  with  the  tenth  day  of  February, 
and  so  on  till  the  number  of  twelve  years  is  completed, 
when  they  receive  pardon  for  aU  their  sins. — Brough- 
ton,  Biblioth.  Hist.  Sac.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Mascaron,  Jules,  a  distinguished  French  Roman 
Catliolic  preacher,  was  born  at  Aix  in  March,  1034.  He 
studied  at  tlie  college  of  the  Oratorians  in  his  native 
city,  and  afterwards  at  that  of  jMans,  where  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  rhetoric  in  165G.  About  the  same 
time  he  commenced  preaching  at  Saumur,  and  soon  at- 
tracted attention.  He  afterwards  preached  successively 
at  Marseilles,  Aix,  and  Nantes,  and  then  at  Paris,  in  the 
churches  of  the  Oratory,  of  the  Louvre,  and  of  St.  Andre 
des  Arts.  In  1GC6  he  preached,  in  presence  of  Francis 
do  Harlay,  archbishop  of  Kouen,  the  funeral  sermon  of 
the  queen  dowager,  Anne  of  Austria.  This  discourse  was 
so  much  admired  that,  aided  by  the  influence  of  De 
Harlay,  Mascaron  was  admitted  at  Versailles.  Louis 
XIV  was  greatly  pleased  with  him,  and  appointed  him 
court  preacher.  He  was  made  bishop  of  Tulle  in  1671, 
but  liis  bulls  arrived  only  two  years  afterwards.  In  the 
mean  time  Mascaron  preached  three  other  funeral  ser- 
mons :  those  of  the  duke  of  Beaufort,  of  Henrietta  of 
England,  and  of  chancellor  Seguier  (the  two  first  are 
considered  his  best).  He  finally  went  into  his  diocese, 
and  wrote  there,  in  1675,  the  funeral  sermon  of  marshal 
Turcnne,  eulogized  by  La  Harpe  as  a  chef-dVeuvre. 
Made  bishop  of  Agen  in  1678,  he  founded  there  a  theo- 
logical seminary  and  a  hospital.  Ke  only  left  his  diocese 
once,  to  preach  his  last  sermon  before  Louis  XIV.  He 
died  Nov.  20, 1703.  His  Oraisonsfunebres  passed  through 
a  large  number  of  editions  (Paris,  1704, 12mo ;  reprinted 
in  1740,  1745, 1785, 1828,  etc.,  and  in  1734,  together  with 
those  of  Bossuet  and  Flechier).  See  A.  de  Bellecombe, 
L'Ar/eiiois  illustre;  Diet,  of  Biog.  s.  v.  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog.  Gemrale,  xxxiv,  125.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Masch,  Andreas  Gottlieb,  D.D.,  a  noted  German 
pulpit  orator,  was  born  at  Beseritz,  in  INIecklenburg, 
Dec.  5, 1724.  His  father  was  himself  a  minister  of  the 
(iospel,  and  instructed  Andreas  in  the  preparatorj^ 
branches  of  study.  In  1743  he  went  to  the  University 
of  Kostock ;  two  years  later  removed  to  Halle,  and  there 
enjoyed  the  favor  and  society  of  the  celebrated  Baum- 
garten  and  Semler.  The  latter  desired  that  Masch 
should  remain  at  the  university  as  instructor,  but  his 
health  failing  he  decided  to  return  to  his  father's.  In 
1752  he  was  made  the  assistant  preacher,  in  1756  pastor 
of  a  church  at  New  Strelitz,  and  only  four  years  after 
this  he  was  honored  with  the  appointment  of  "court 
preacher."    He  died  Oct.  26, 1807.     His  most  impor- 


tant literary  remains  are  embodied  in  the  BihUotheca 
Sacra,  which,  originally  edited  by  Le  Long,  he  contin- 
ued upon  the  same  plan  (now  in  5  vols.  4to) — a  work 
of  great  labor  and  merit,  which  had  been  discontinued 
for  want  of  patronage.  Le  Long  had  published  2  vols. 
8vo  (Paris,  1709 ;  republished  by  Burner,  of  Leipsic, 
with  additions).  Dr.  Masch  began  its  continuation  in 
1778,  and  completed  it  in  1790.  It  gives  a  full  account 
of  the  literary  history  of  the  Bible,  the  various  editions 
of  the  original,  and  the  ancient  and  modern  versions. 
Dr.  JIasch  also  wrote  several  dissertations  of  considera- 
ble value,  particularly  a  treatise  on  the  Religions  of  the 
Heathen  and  of  Christians  (Gedunken  ran  der  Geoffen- 
barteii  lieligion,  Halle,  1750,  8vo),  intended  as  an  argu- 
ment against  the  naturalists.  For  a  complete  list  of  his 
works,  see  Doring,  Gelehrte  Theologen  JJeutschlands  d. 
18'™  u.  19'""  Jahrb.  ii,  422  sq. 

Mas'chil  (Heb.  maslil',  biSiT'O,  instructing,  Hiph. 
part,  of  ?r'U,  to  be  ivise;  used  as  a  noun  in  Psa.  xlvii,  7, 
pi^'P'O  ^"53T,  sing  ye  a  poem,  Peshito,  sing  praise,  but 
the  Sept.,Vulg.,  and  Auth.Vers.  "sing  ye  with  under- 
standing") occurs  in  the  titles  or  inscriptions  of  Psa. 
xxxii,  xlii,  xliv,  xlv,  lii,  liii,  liv,  Iv,  Ixxiv,  Ixxviii, 
Ixxxviii,  Ixxxix,  cxlii.  The  origin  of  the  use  of  this 
word  is  uncertain,  and  it  has  been  variously  interpreted. 
The  most  probable  meaning  of  maschil  is  a  poem,  song, 
which  enforces  intelligaice,  tcisdom,  piety,  q.  d.  didactic ; 
which  is  true  of  every  sacred  song,  not  excepting  Psa. 
xlv,  where  everj'thing  is  referred  to  the  goodness  of 
God.  It  occurs  elsewhere  as  an  adjective,  and  is  accord- 
ingly rendered  "wise,"  or  some  other  term  equivalent 
to  instruction  (1  Sam.  xviii,  14, 15;  2  Chron.  xxx,  22; 
Job  xxii,  2 ;  Psa.  xiv,  2 ;  xli,  1 ;  liii,  2 ;  Prov.  x,  5, 19 ; 
xiv,  35;  XV,  24;  xvi,  20;  xvii,  2;  xix,  14;  xxi,  12; 
Jer.  1,  9;  Dan.  i,  4;  xi,  33,  35;  xii,  3, 10;  Amos  v,  13). 
For  other  derivations  from  the  Arabic,  see  Gesenius, 
Thes.  lleb.  p.  1331.    See  Psaljis,  Book  of. 

Masclef,  Francois,  a  noted  Roman  Catholic  divine 
and  Orientalist,  was  born  at  Amiens  in  the  year  1662. 
He  very  early  de\'oted  himself  to  the  study  of  Oriental 
languages,  and  attained  in  them  an  extraordinary  de- 
gree of  proficiency.  Educated  for  service  in  the  Church, 
he  became  first  a  curate  in  the  diocese  of  Amiens,  but 
afterwards  obtained  the  confidence  of  De  Brou,  bishop 
of  Amiens,  who  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  theologi- 
cal seminary  of  the  district,  and  made  him  a  canon.  De 
Brou  died  in  1706,  and  Masclef,  -whose  opinions  on  the 
Jansenistic  controversy  were  not  in  accordance  with 
those  of  the  new  prelate  Sabbatier,  was  compeUod  to  re- 
sign his  place  in  the  theological  seminary  and  retire  from 
public  life.  From  this  time  he  devoted  himself  to  study 
with  such  close  application  as  to  bring  on  a  disease,  of 
which  he  died,  on  Nov.  24, 1728,  when  only  in  his  prime. 
Though  austere  in  his  habits,  he  was  amiable  and  pious. 
Masclefs  chief  work  is  the  Grammatica  Jlebraica,  a 
punctis  (diisque  inveniis  Massorethicis  libera,  still  con- 
sidered one  of  the  best  -works  of  the  kind ;  it  embodies 
an  elaborate  argument  against  the  use  of  the  vowel- 
points.  The  first  edition  was  published  in  1716,  and 
speedily  called  forth  a  defence  of  the  points  from  the 
abbe  Guarln,  a  learned  Benedictine  monk.  In  tlie  year 
1731  a  second  edition  was  published  at  Paris,  containing 
an  answer  to  Guarin's  objections,  with  the  addition  of 
grammars  of  the  SjTiac,  Chaldee,  and  Samaritan  lan- 
guages. Other  works  of  Jlasclef  are.  Ecclesiastical  Con- 
ferences of  the  Diocese  of  A  miens : — Catechism  of  A  miens: 
— and  in  manuscript.  Courses  of  Philosophy  and  Divin- 
ity ;  not  printed  because  it  is  thought  to  contain  Jansen- 
istic opinions. — English  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Mash  (Heb.  ic7.  d^,  signif.  unknown ;  Sept.  Moaux, 
Vulg,  J/es),  the  last  named  of  the  four  sons  of  Aram 
(B.C.  post  2513),  and  a  tribe  descended  from  him,  who 
gave  their  name  to  a  region  inhabited  liy  (hem  (Gen.  x, 
23) ;  probably,  therefore,  to  be  sought  in  Syria  or  Meso- 
potamia.    In  the  parallel  passage  (1  Chron.  i,  17)  the 


MASHAL 


858 


MASON 


name  of  Mesiiecii  has  been  erroneously  substituted. 
Jtisephus  (Ant.  i,  G,  4)  imderstands  the  Mesancei  {Mrj- 
aai'dioi),  and  states  that  tlieir  locality  "is  now  called 
Cliarax  of  Spasinus,^''  evidently  the  same  place  (Xn- 
f)ciS,  Ua(7ivov,  Ptol.  vi,  3, 2),  situated,  according  to  others, 
at  tlie  junction  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  (Plin.  vi, 
26,  and  31,  ed.  Hardouin).  Most  interpreters,  however, 
following  Eochart  {Phaleg,  ii,  11),  understand  to  be 
meant  the  inhabitants  of  Mount  JIasius,  which  lies 
north  of  Nesibis,  and  forms  part  of  the  chain  of  Taurus 
separating  Media  from  Mesopotamia  (Strabo,  xi,  527 ; 
I'tol.  V,  18,  2),  of  which  latter  the  Shemites  occupied  the 
southern  part  (jMichaelis,  Spicileg.  ii,  140  sq.). — Winer. 
"  Knobel  ( VulkertaJ\4,  p.  237)  seeks  to  reconcile  this 
view  with  that  of  Josephus  by  the  supposition  of  a  mi- 
gration from  the  north  of  Blesopotamia  to  the  south  of 
Babylonia,  where  the  race  may  have  been  known  in 
later  times  under  the  name  of  Meshech :  the  progress 
of  the  population  in  these  parts  was,  however,  in  an  op- 
posite direction,  from  south  to  north.  Kalisch  (Comm, 
on  Gen.  p.  286)  connects  the  names  of  ]\Iash  and  ]\[ysia : 
this  is,  to  say  the  least,  extremely  doubtful ;  both  the 
Mysians  themselves  and  their  name  (^Alcesia')  were  prob- 
ably of  European  origui"  (Smith).  "  It  is  remarkable 
that  among  the  Asiatic  confederates  of  the  Kheta  or 
Sheta,  i.  e.  Hittites,  who  are  enumerated  as  conquered 
by  liameses  II  at  Kedesh  on  the  Orontes,  is  found  the 
prince  of  Maso  or  Masa  (Brugsch,  Hist,  de  VEgypte,  i, 
140, 142)"  (Kitto).     See  Ethnology. 

Ma'shal  (1  Chron.  vi,  74  [59]).     See  Mishal. 

Masliam,  Lady  Damaris,  a  lady  celebrated  for  her 
attainnients  in  divinity,  daughter  of  the  celebrated  Cud- 
worth,  >vas  born  at  Cambridge,  England,  in  1658.  Her 
lather,  jierceiving  the  bent  of  her  genius,  took  particular 
care  of  her  education,  so  that  she  was  early  distinguish- 
ed for  piety  and  uncommon  learning.  She  became  the 
second  wile  of  Sir  Francis  Masham,  of  Gates,  in  Essex  ; 
and  repaid  her  father's  care  of  her  in  the  admirable 
pains  she  took  in  the  education  of  her  only  son.  In 
the  study  of  divinity  and  philosophy  she  was  greatly 
assisted  by  Locke,  who  lived  in  her  family  most  of  his 
last  years,  and  who  died  in  her  house.  She  died  in 
1708.  Lady  IMasham  •vnotQ  a  discourse  concerning  the 
Love  of  God  (1691, 12mo);  and  Occasional  Thoughts  in 
reference  to  a  Virtuous  or  Christian  Life  (1700,  12mo); 
and  drew  up  the  account  of  Mr.  Locke  published  in  the 
great  Historical  Dictionary.  See  Lord  King,  Life  of 
Locke;  AUibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer,  Auth.  s.  v. 

Masi'as  (Mnc/oe  v.  r.  Mio-ai'ac),  one  of  the  "ser- 
vants of  Solomon"  whose  descendants  returned  with  Zo- 
Tobbabel  from  Babylon  (1  Esdr.  v,  34).  Nothing  corre- 
sponding to  the  name  is  found  in  the  Heb.  text  (Ezra  v, 
55  sq.). 

Masius,  Andre,  a  very  learned  Orientalist,  was  born 
near  Brussels  in  1516.  He  was  a  man  of  excellent  parts, 
an  accomplished  lawyer,  and  counsellor  to  the  duke  of 
Cleves.  He  died  in  1573. 
INIasius  translated  a  variety 
of  articles  from  the  Syriac, 
which  may  be  found  in  the 
Supplement  to  the  Critica 
Saci-a,  compiled  a  Syi'iac 
Lexicon  and  Grammar,  and 
a  learned  Gomnnentary  on 
Joshua  and  part  of  Deuter- 
onomy. The  former  con- 
tains the  readings  of  the 
Syriac  llexaplar  version. 
See  Hoefer,  Xour.  L'iog. 
Generale,  s.  v. 

Mask,  or  Notcii-iiead, 
is  the  technical  term  in  ec- 
clesiastical arcliitccture  fcir 
a  kind  of  corbel,  the  shadow 

of  whicli  bears  a  close  re-  Coibel.W  est  Claudon,  Sur- 
Bemblance  to  that  of  the  hu-  rey. 


man  face.  It  is  common  in  some  districts  in  work  of  the 
13th  and  14th  centuries,  and  is  usually  carved  under  the 
eaves  as  a  corbel-table.  A  good  example  occurs  in  Ports- 
mouth Church,  where  it  is  mixed  with  the  tooth-orna- 
ment. It  is  a  favorite  ornament  in  Northamptonshire 
in  the  cornices  of  the  broad  spire,  and  under  the  para- 
pet of  the  chancel;  but  it  is  by  no  means  confined  to 
any  particular  district. — Parker,  Glossary  of  Architect- 
ure, s.  V. 

Mas'man  (Mairjunv  v.r.  jVfrtacrjUf'd^),  a  corrupt  read- 
ing (1  Esdr.  viii,  43  ;  compare  'Eaf.iaiag,  ver.  44)  for  the 
SiiEJLViAii  (q.  V.)  of  the  Heb.  text  (Ezra  viii,  16). 

Mason  (I'^iS,  goder',  a  wall-builder,  2  Kings  xii,  12 ; 
xxii,G;  " repairer," Isa.lviii,  12;  3:i£in,c^o^se6',l  Chron. 
xxii,  2;  2  Chron.  xxiv,  12;  Ezra  iii,  7;  a  "  heu-et-"  of 
wood,  Isa.  X,  15;  or  a  stone-cutter,  2  Kings  xii,  13;  or 
of  both,  1  Kings  v,  15 ;  "j^X  O  jtl,  chai-ash'  e'ben,  2  Sam. 
V,  11,  a  "  carrer  or  worker  ofstone,^'  as  in  1  Chron.  xxii, 
15;  "i"ip  TiJ'^n,  charash'  Idr,  1  Chron.  xiv,  1,  a  icall- 
wo7-imun'),  a  stone-mason  or  artificer  in  stone.  From  2 
Sam.  v,  1 1 ,  which  states  that "  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  sent 
messengers  to  David,  and  cedar-trees,  and  carpenters, 
and  masons,  and  they  built  David  a  house,"  we  may 
infer  that  the  Hebre^^•s  were  not  so  skilful  in  arcliitec- 
ture  as  the  Tyrians,  though  they  had  long  sojourned  in 
Egj'pt,  where  that  art  attained  a  high  degree  of  perfec- 
tion at  a  very  early  period.  The  ruins  of  immense  tem- 
ples and  palaces  at  the  present  day  fill  the  traveller  in 
Egypt  with  wonder  and  astonishment.  The  sculptures 
on  the  granite,  basalt,  and  hard  limestone  stiU  remain 
undefaced.  Upon  the  ancient  monuments  of  Egypt  the 
various  processes  of  the  building  art  are  very  numerous. 
Masons,  carpenters,  blacksmiths,  brickmakers,  etc.,  may 
be  seen  hard  at  work,  and  appear  to  be  depicted  with 
minute  fidelity,  and  some  of  these  seem  to  explain  to  us 
a  curious  circumstance  mentioned  by  the  sacred  histo- 
rian in  the  account  of  the  erection  of  Solomon's  Temjile : 
"And  the  house,  when  it  was  in  building,  was  built  of 
stone  made  ready  before  it  was  brought  thither ;  so  that 
there  was  neither  hammer,  nor  axe,  nor  any  tool  of  iron 
heard  in  the  house  whilst  it  was  in  building"  (1  Kings 
vi,  7).  This  previous  squaring  and  preparation  of  the 
stones  is  frequently  delineated ;  they  are  accurately 
measured  mider  the  superintendence  of  a  principal  archi- 
tect, the  shape  marked  on  the  rough  block  with  a  dark 
line,  so  as  to  determine  the  course  of  the  stone-cutter 
accurately,  and  a  mark  or  number  is  fixed  to  the  finish- 
ed stone  so  as  to  point  out  its  place  in  the  building. 
Masons'  and  carpenters'  tools  have  frequently  been  found 
in  the  tombs.  INIost  of  the  blades  have  been  attached 
by  linen  bandages  and  an  adhesive  composition.  On 
the  blades  of  the  larger,  and  handles  of  the  smaller  tools, 
is  generally  inscribed  a  line  of  hieroglyphics.  Some  of 
them  are  of  remote  antiquity,  bearing  the  prienomen  of 
Thothmes  III.  (See  "Wilkinson,  yl«ct(rw<  J-Jgypfiuns,  ii, 
305-315.)     The  peculiar  bevelled  edges  and  immense 


Masonry  of  Harain  Wall  at  Hebron.    (Prom  Photograph 
122  of  the  "  Palestine  Exploration  Fund.") 


MASON^ 


859 


MASON 


size  of  the  loAver  courses  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  and 
other  cities  of  Palestine  attest  the  anticiue  art  of  Solo- 
mon's day.  Similar  advancement  in  the  art  of  stone- 
cutting  is  evident  from  the  ruins  discovered  by  Botta 
and  Layard  in  Assyria.    See  Handicraft;  Sculpture. 

Masou,  Erskine,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
son  of  Dr.  John  M.  Mason,  was  born  in  New  York  City 
April  16, 1805 ;  was  educated  at  Dickinson  College  (class 
of  1823) ;  was  ordained  in  October,  182G ;  installed  over 
the  Church  at  Schenectady  in  May,  1827 ;  pastor  of 
Bleecker  Street  Church,  New  York,  from  1830  to  1851 ; 
and  also  jjrofessor  of  ecclesiastical  history  in  Union  The- 
ological Seminary,  New  York,  from  183G  to  18-42.  lie 
died  in  iNIay,  1851.  His  memoir,  by  llev.  Wm.  Adams, 
is  prefixed  to  his  sermons  on  practical  subjects,  entitled 
A  Pastoi-'s  Legacy  (1853, 8vo).  See  also  Drake,  Diet,  of 
Ainer.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Mason,  Francis  (1),  B.D.,  an  English  divine, 
was  born  in  the  county  of  Durham  in  15tJG;  was  edu- 
cated at  Jlerton  College,  Oxford,  about  1583,  where  he 
was  chosen  probationer  fellow ;  became  rector  of  Ox- 
ford, SufTolk,  and  chaplain  to  king  James  I,  and  arch- 
deacon of  Norfolk  in  1G19.  lie  died  in  1G21.  He  pub- 
lished Sermons  (Lond.  1G07,  4to;  Oxford,  1G34,  4to)  : — 
Vindicice  Ecelesice  Anrjlicance  (1G13,  fol. ;  published  in 
an  English  dress,  entitled  A  Vitidicafion  of  the  Church 
of  Enr/laml,  and  of  the  Lawful  Ministry  thereof,  etc. ; 
greatly  enlarged  by  Eev.  John  Lindsay,  with  additions, 
1728,  fol. ;  1778,  fol.).  This  book  contains  a  complete 
refutatiim  of  the  Nag's  Head  story: — Two  Sermons 
(lG21,8vo) : — The  Lawfulness  of  the  Ordination  of  Min- 
isters of  the  Reformed  Churches  beyond  the  Seas  (Ox- 
ford, 1641,  4to).  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer. 
Authors,  s.  v. ;  Darling,  Cyclop.  Bibliog.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Mason,  Francis  (2),  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister, 
noted  as  a  missionary,  was  born  at  York,  England,  in 
1799.  He  was  a  shoemaker's  apprentice;  emigrated  to 
Philadelphia  in  1818;  settled  at  Canton,  Mo.,  in  1825; 
studied  at  the  Theological  Seminary,  Newton,  Mo.,  in 
1827 ;  and  in  May,  1830,  having  been  ordained,  sailed 
with  his  wife  for  Calcutta  as  a  missionary  to  the  Karens. 
After  acquiring  the  language,  he  wrote  The  Sayings  of 
the  Elders,  which  was  the  first  printed  book  in  the  Ka- 
ren language.  He  prepared  Pali  and  Burmese  gram- 
mars, and  acc^uired  many  of  the  Oriental  languages.  He 
also  published  a  Karen  translation  of  the  Bible.  He 
was  medical  adviser  to  this  people,  having  studied  med- 
icine, and  published  a  small  work  on  materia  medica 
and  pathology  in  one  of  the  Karen  dialects.  He  also 
edited  for  many  years  the  Morning  Star,  a  Karen 
monthly,  in  both  the  Sgan  and  Pwo  dialects,  and  was 
member  of  a  number  of  literary  and  scientific  bodies. 
His  I<]nglish  writings  a.xe,Tieport  of  the  Twvay  Mission 
Society: — Life  of  Kothabyn,  the  Karen  Apostle: — Me- 
moir of  Mrs.  Helen  M.  Mason  (1847)  : — Memoir  of  San 
Quala  (1850):  —  and  Burmah,  its  People  and  Naturcd 
Productions  (1852;  enlarged  edition,  18G1).  See  Drake. 
Diet.  A  me?:  Biog.  s.  v. 

Mason,  John  (l),an  English  dissenting  divine, was 
born  in  Essex  in  1705  or  170G;  became  pastor  of  a  con- 
gregation at  Dorking,  Surrey,  in  1730,  and  at  Chestnut, 
Hertfordshire,  in  1746.  He  died  in  1763.  ]\Ir.  jMason 
published,  besides  a  number  of  iSermons,  various  theo- 
logical treatises  and  otlier  works.  The  best  known  are 
Self-Knoirledge  (1754;  new  edition  and  life  of  the  author 
by  John  Mason  Good,  1811, 12mo ;  new  edition  by  Tegg, 
1847,  32mo;  with  jMelmoth's  Lnp07-tance  of  a  Christian 
Life,  published  by  Scott,  1855,  24mo);  this  work  was 
very  popular  for  a  long  time,  and  was  translatecVinto 
several  languages: — The  Lord's  Day  Evening  Entertain- 
ments, 52  practical  discourses  (1751-52,  4  vols.  8vo;  2d 
ed.  1754,  4  vols.  8vo) : — The  Student  and  Pastor  (1755, 
8vo ;  new  edition  by  Joshua  Toulmin,  D.D.,  1807, 12mo) : 
—  Fifteen  L/iscourses  (1758,  8vo):  —  Christian  Morals 
(1761,  2  vols.  8vo).  See  Allibone,  Diet.  Brit,  and  Amer. 
A  uthors,  s.  V. ;  Hook,  Eccks.  Biog.  s.  v. 


Mason,  John  (2),  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Associate 
Reformed  Church,  father  of  the  celebrated  John  M.  Ma- 
son, was  born  near  Miel-Calder,  in  Linlithgowshire,  Scot- 
land, in  1734.  The  great  ecclesiastical  agitation  within 
the  Church  of  Scotland  occurred  in  his  earh'  days,  and, 
favoring  the  Anti-Burgher  part}',  he  identified  liirtiself 
witli  this  branch  of  the  "  Secession  Church,"  pursued 
his  theological  studies  at  Abernethy,  and  later  became 
an  assistant  professor  of  logic  and  moral  philosophy  at 
the  theological  school.  In  1761  he  was  ordained  for  the 
ofiice  of  the  ministry,  and  sent  to  this  country  as  pastor 
of  the  then  Cedar  Street  Church,  New  York.  Believing 
that  the  causes  which  divided  the  Presbyterians  of  Scot- 
land did  not  exist  here,  he  labored,  from  the  moment  of 
his  arrival  in  the  States,  for  the  union  of  all  Presbyteri- 
ans, and,  though  his  course  displeased  his  brethren  at 
home,  and  the  sj'nod  suspended  him,  he  pushed  his  proj- 
ect, and  on  June  13,  1782,  a  general  union  of  the  lie- 
formed  Presbyterians  was  held  as  "  tlie  Associate  Re- 
formed Church."  Dr.  Mason  had  the  honor  to  be  the 
first  moderator  of  this  body.  LTntiring  in  his  services 
to  the  cause  of  the  Church  of  Christ,  and  his  own  branch 
of  it,  he  died  April  19, 1792.  "  His  death,  like  his  life, 
was  an  honorable  testimony  to  his  Redeemer's  power 
and  grace."  The  degree  of  D.D.  was  conferred  upon 
him  by  New  Jersey  College,  of  which  he  was  a  trustee 
from  1779  to  1785.  Dr.  Mason  "was  a  man  of  sound 
and  vigorous  mind,  of  extensive  learning,  and  fervent 
piety.  As  a  preacher,  he  was  uncommonly  judicious 
and  instructive,  and  his  ministrations  were  largely  at- 
tended. As  a  pastor,  he  was  specially  faithful  and  dili- 
gent. To  great  learning  there  were  united  in  him  meek- 
ness, prudence,  diligence,  knowledge  of  the  world,  and  an 
affectionate  superintendence  of  the  interests,  temporal 
and  spiritual,  of  his  flock"  (Di-.  John  B.  Dales,  in  Annals 
of  the  Amer.  Pulpit,  ix,  4  sq.). 

Mason,  John  Mitchell,  D.D.,  a  distinguished 
Presbyterian  divine  and  noted  American  pulpit  orator, 
was  born  in  the  city  of  New  York  March  19, 1770.  He 
was  educated  at  Columbia  College,  class  of  1789,  and 
having  decided  to  devote  his  life  to  the  service  of  the 
Church,  went  abroad,  and  studied  theology  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh.  While  at  the  ''  Northern  Athens" 
young  Mason  became  noted  for  piety  and  an  exemplary 
life.  In  1792  he  was  unexpectedly  recalled  by  the  sud- 
den decease  of  his  father,  and,  after  his  return  to  New 
York,  Avas  established  in  the  ministry  over  the  same 
Church  which  his  father  had  served  so  long.  The  As- 
sociate Reformed  Church,  to  which  he  belonged  at  this 
time,  had  been  wont  to  celebrate  the  Lord's  Supper  but 
once  or  twice  annually.  IMason  believed  in  more  fre- 
quent communion,  and  both  by  his  pen  and  his  tongue 
went  forward  to  advocate  reform  in  this  respect.  A 
pamphlet,  consisting  of  "Letters  on  Communion,"  which 
he  published,  brought  him  prominently  before  the  relig- 
ious world,  and  thereafter  John  JNIitcheU  jNIason  was  not 
an  uncommon  name  in  the  assembly  of  American  Chris- 
tians. He  also  served  his  day  and  generation  in  many 
other  ways.  The  Associate  Reformed  Church  had  al- 
ways depended  upon  foreign  institutions  for  the  educa- 
tion of  her  ministry'.  Mason  advocated  the  establish- 
ment of  a  school  of  the  prophets  on  American  soil,  and 
thus  became  instrumental  in  founding  the  institution 
known  as  the  "  Union  Theological  Seminaiy."  He  was 
appointed  its  first  professor  at  the  opening  in  1804.  In 
1806  he  projected  the  "  Christian's  Magazine,"  the  pages 
of  which  are  filled  with  a  controversy  he  had  with  bish- 
op Hobart  on  the  claims  of  the  episcopacy.  h\  1810  he 
resigned  his  pastoral  charge,  for  the  jiurpose  of  forming 
a  new  congregation.  The  intimate  relations  he  now  es- 
tablished with  the  Presbyterians  were  objected  to  by 
many  of  his  own  denomination,  and  in  1811  a  charge 
was  brought  against  him,  but  the  sjniod  had  sense 
enough  to  refuse  all  censure.  Mason,  however,  im- 
proved the  opportunity  to  push  his  favorite  object,  the 
Plea  for  Sacramental  Communion  on  Catholic  Principles 
(published  in  1816).     In  this  year  (1811)  he  was  also 


MASON" 


860 


MASORAH 


honored  with  the  provostship  of  Columbia  College,  and, 
thim-h  ah-eady  employed  as  preacher  and  prufessor,  ac- 
cepted the  position,  "  and  by  his  talents  and  energy 
raised  that  institution  to  a  higher  character  than  it  had 
ever  before  possessed."  In  1816  failing  health  admon- 
ished* him  of  the  magnitude  of  the  work  he  had  under- 
takeji,  and  he  resigned  his  connection  with  the  college, 
and  went  to  Europe.  On  his  return  in  1817  he  again 
devoted  himself  to  Gospel  labors,  but  in  1821  exchanged 
the  pulpit  for  the  rostrum,  as  president  of  Dickinson 
College,  Pa.  In  1822  he  transferred  his  ecclesiastical  re- 
lation to  the  Presbyterian  Church.  In  182-1  he  resign- 
ed his  position  at  college,  and  returned  to  New  York  to 
recuperate  his  health,  but  he  was  never  again  permitted 
to  assume  any  official  connection.  He  died  Dec.  2G, 
1829.  Besides  the  literarj'  enterprises  already  men- 
tioned. Dr.  Mason  wrote  a  number  of  essays,  reviews, 
orations,  and  sermons,  published  at  different  times. 
They  were  collected  by  his  son,  the  Rev.  Ebenezer  Ma- 
son, and  published  in  4  vols.  8vo,  in  1832  (new  ed.,  with 
many  additions,  1849).  A  memoir,  with  some  of  his  cor- 
respondence, was  published  by  his  son-in-law,  J.  Van 
Vcchten,  D.D.,  in  1856,  2  vols.  8vo.  The  mind  of  Dr. 
Mason  was  of  the  most  robust  order,  his  theology  Cal- 
vinistic,  and  his  style  of  eloquence  po^verful  and  irresist- 
ible as  a  torrent.  When  Robert  Hall  first  heard  him 
deliver  before  the  London  Missionary  Society,  in  1802, 
his  celebrated  discourse  on  "  Messiah's  Throne,"  he  is  said 
to  have  exclaimed,"!  can  never  preach  again!"  (Fisk's 
Pulpit  Eloquence,  1857,  p.  486,  q.  v.).  "  Taken  altogeth- 
er, no  American  preacher  has  combined  more  impressive 
qualities.  His  aspect  was  on  a  scale  of  grandeur  corre- 
sponding to  the  majesty  of  mind  within.  Tall,  robust, 
straight,  with  a  head  modelled  after  neither  Grecian 
nor  Roman  standard,  yet  symmetrical,  combining  the 
dignity  of  the  one  and  the  grace  of  the  other;  with  an 
eye  that  shot  fire,  especially  when  under  the  excite- 
ment of  earnest  preaching,  yet  tender  and  tearful  when 
the  pathetic  cord  was  touched ;  with  a  forehead  broad 
and  high,  running  up  each  side,  and  slightly  parted  in 
the  middle  by  a  graceful  pendant  of  hair;  a  mouth  and 
chin  expressive  of  firmness  and  decision.  .  .  .  Dr.  Mas<iii 
stood  before  you  the  prince  of  pulpit  orators"  {N.  Y.  Ob- 
server, Nov.  1860).  See  also  Bost.  Christ.  Disciple,  iii, 
475 ;  Dr.  Spring,  Power  of  the  Pulpit ;  Duyckinck,  Ci/- 
clnp.  Amer.  Lit.  (see  Index  in  vol.  i) ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of 
Brit,  and  Amer.  Auth.  ii,  1237;  Princet.  Review,  1856, 
p.  318.     (J.II.AV.) 

Mason,  Lew  ell,  doctor  of  music,  a  celebrated 
American  composer  of  music,  was  born  at  IMedfield, 
Mass..  Jan.  8, 1792.  When  but  a  child  he  exhibited  ex- 
traordinary love  and  capacity  for  music,  and  began  to 
teach  early  in  life.  In  1812  he  removed  to  Savannah, 
Ga.,  and  there  compiled  his  first  book  of  Psalmodi/,  the 
celebrated  Hiindel  and  Haydn  collection,  the  success  of 
which  eliciting  much  persuasion  of  his  musical  friends 
in  Massachusetts  to  settle  in  his  native  state,  he  re- 
moved to  Boston  in  1827,  devoted  himself  to  the  musical 
instruction  of  children  and  the  introduction  of  vocal  mu- 
sic into  the  public  schools  of  New  England ;  caused  the 
Boston  Academy  of  ]\Iusic  to  be  established,  and  also 
"  Teachers'  Institutes"  for  tJie  training  of  teachers  and 
leaders  of  choirs.  He  visited  EurojjC  in  1837,  and  ac- 
quainted himself  with  all  the  improvements  in  the  mu- 
sical teaching  on  the  Continent.  In  1855  the  Univer- 
sity of  New  York  conferred  on  him  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  music,  the  first  ever  conferred  by  an  American  col- 
lege. In  the  later  years  of  his  life  he  gave  much  atten- 
tion to  congregational  singing  in  churches,  and  did 
much  to  advance  the  interests  of  Church  music  in  gen- 
eral. He  died  at  his  residence.  Orange,  N.  J.,  in  May, 
1872.  His  publications  of  interest  to  us  are  Jiirenile 
Psolmisf.  Juvenile  Lyre,  etc.  (Uoston,  1829,>'30,  '34,  '35, 
'36,  '37,  '39,  '40,  '45,  "'46;  New  York,  1856;  Phila.  1843; 
Lond.  1838): — several  sacred  and  Church  music-books: 
— The  Boston  IJdndel  and  Haydn  Collection  of  Chui-c/i 
Music  (1822):— r/se  Choir,  or  Union  Collection  (1833, 


etc.) ;  etc.  Dr.  Mason  was  the  author  and  compiler  of 
more  musical  works  than  any  other  American,  and  con- 
tributed much  towards  making  the  Americans  a  nation 
of  "singing  men  and  singing  women."  See  Allibone, 
Diet.  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  a.  v. ;  Drake,  Diet.  A  mer. 
Biog.  s.  V. 

Mason,  William,  an  English  divine  of  some  note, 
son  of  the  vicar  of  St.  Trinity  Hall,  was  born  in  1725 ; 
was  educated  at  St.  John's  CoUege,  Cambridge,  and 
made  fellow  of  Pembroke  College  in  1747.  In  1754  he 
took  holy  orders,  became  rector  of  Aston,  Yorkshire, 
chaplain  to  the  king,  and  was  for  thirty-two  years  pre- 
centor and  canon  residentiary  of  York.  He  died  in 
1797.  His  published  works,  both  secular  and  religious, 
are  chiefly  in  poetrj^,  among  which  are  Essays,  Histor- 
ical and  Critical,  on  English  Church  Music  (1795, 12mo). 
He  also  published  Memoirs  of  Thomas  Gray  (1775, 4to). 
Mason  was  regarded  by  his  contemporaries  as  a  poet  of 
more  than  ordinary  genius,  but  the  lack  of  classical  cult- 
ure prevented  his  rise.  There  is  a  tablet  to  his  mem- 
ory in  Poet's  Corner,  in  Westminster  Abbej'.  His  style 
is,  to  a  great  extent,  that  of  an  imitator  of  Gray ;  and, 
not  beuig  so  perfect  an  artist  in  language  as  his  master, 
he  has  been  proportionally  less  successful.  In  addition 
to  his  poetical  reputation,  he  possessed  considerable  skill 
in  painting  and  music,  and  on  the  latter  sidjject  enter- 
tained opinions  not  at  all  consonant  with  those  of  musi- 
cians in  general.  He  wished  to  reduce  Church  music 
to  the  most  dry  and  mechanical  style  possible,  exclud- 
ing all  such  expression  as  should  depend  on  the  powers 
and  taste  of  the  organist  (Mason's  Compendium  of  the 
History  of  Church  Music).  See  3femoir  of  Mason  in 
Johnson  and  Chalmer's  Enylish  Poets  (1840,  21  vols. 
8voj;  Chalmer's  Biog.  Diet.  s.  v.;  Blachcood's  Mag. 
XXX.  482;  xxvi,  553;  Allibone,  Diet.  Brit,  and  Amer. 
A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Masorah,  Masoreth,  or  Massoreth  (n'nb'^, 

ri'ID'C,  r'lnS^),  the  technical  term  given  to  a  gram- 
matico-critical  commentary  on  the  O.  Test.,  the  design 
of  which  is  to  indicate  the  correct  reading  of  the  text 
with  respect  to  words,  vowels,  accents,  etc.,  so  as  to  pre- 
serve it  from  all  corruption,  putting  an  end  to  the  ex- 
ercise of  imbomided  individual  fancy.  In  the  He- 
brew Masoreth  denotes  tradition,  from  "iD^,  which  is 
used  in  Chaldaic  in  the  sense  of  to  give  over,  to  commit 
(corresponding  to  the  Hebrew  T'S  "(r;,  "iSG,  "I'^icri; 
comp.  Turg.  on  1  Sam.  xvii,  46;  xxiv,  11 ;  1  Kings  xx, 
13  ;  Exod.  xxi,  3  ;  Amos  vi,  8)  ;  and  hence,  by  the  rab- 
binical writers,  in  the  sense  oi  to  deliver, 'w'lih  reference 
to  the  oral  communication  of  doctrine,  opinion,  or  fact. 
The  derivation,  from  "lON,  to  bind,  to  fx  within  strict 
limits,  seems  to  have  bec4i  an  afterthought,  suggested  by 
the  sentiment  that  the  Masorah  is  a  hedge  to  the  To- 
rah.  The  Masorah,  however,  is  not  confined  to  what  is 
communicated  by  oral  tradition  ;  in  the  state  in  which 
it  has  come  down  to  us  it  embraces  all  that  has  been 
delivered  traditionally,  whether  orally  or  in  writing. 
Its  correlate  is  tlPSp  (Kabbalah),  receptio?i ;  and  as  the 
latter  denotes  whatever  has  been  received  traditionally, 
the  former  embraces  whatever  has  been  delivered  tradi- 
tionally; though  in  usage  Kabbalah  is  generally  restrict- 
ed to  matters  of  theologic  and  mystic  imjiort  [sec  Ca- 
bala], while  Masorah  has  reference  rather  to  matters 
affecting  the  condition  of  the  text  of  Scripture.  It  takes 
account  not  only  of  various  readings,  but  also  contains 
notes  of  a  grammatical  and  lexicographical  character. 
(The  article  here  given  is  substantially  adojjtedfrom  that 
in  Kitto's  Cyclopeedia,  which  is  based  upon  the  article  in 
Herzog's  Real-En'eyMopddie.) 

I.  Origin  of  the  ^fasorah. — The  IMasorah  is  the  work 
of  certain  Jewish  critics,  who  from  their  work  have  re- 
ceived the  title  of  n^ilD^n  ip"2  (Baali  Hcnnmaso- 
reth),  mastei-s  of  the  Masorah,  or,  as  they  are  generally 
designated,  Masoretes.     Who  they  were,  and  when  or 


MASORAH 


861 


MASORAH 


where  their  work  was  accomplished,  are  points  involved 
in  some  uncertainty.  According  to  Jewish  tradition, 
the  work  began  with  Moses;  from  him  it  was  commit- 
ted to  the  wise  men  till  Ezra  and  the  great  Synagogue, 
and  was  then  transferred  to  the  learned  men  at  Tiberias, 
by  whom  it  was  transmitted  to  writing  and  called  the 
Masorah  (El.  Levita,  Masoreth  Ilammasoreih,  Pref.  p.  2). 
Some  even  claim  Ezra  as  the  author  of  the  written  col- 
lection (Biixtorf,  Tiberias,  c.  11,  p.  102;  Leusden,  Philol. 
lleb.  Diss.  25,  sec.  4 ;  Pfeiffer,  De  Masora,  cap.  ii,  in  Ojyp. 
p.  891,  etc.) ;  but  the  arguments  which  have  been  ad- 
duced in  support  of  this  opinion  are  not  sufficient  to  sus- 
tain it.  Aben-Ezra  says  expressly, "  So  was  the  usage 
of  the  wise  men  of  Tiberias,  for  from  them  were  the 
men  the  authors  of  the  Masoreth,  and  from  them  have 
we  received  the  whole  punctuation"  (^Zachuth,  cited  by 
Buxtorf,  Tib.  c.  3,  p.  9)  ;  and  even  Buxtorf  himself  un- 
consciously gives  in  to  the  opinion  he  opposes  by  the 
title  he  has  put  on  his  work.  That  various  readings 
had  been  noted  before  this,  even  in  pre-Talmudic  times, 
is  not  to  be  doubted.  In  the  Talmud  itself  we  have  not 
only  directions  given  for  the  correct  ^vriting  of  the  Bib- 
lical books,  but  references  to  varieties  of  reading  as  then 
existing  {Ilierosol.,  tr.  Taanith,  f.  G8,  c.  1 ;  comp.  Kenni- 
cott.  Diss.  Gen.  sec.  3^ ;  De  Wette,  Einleit.  ins  A .  T.  sec. 
89  ;  Hiivernick,  Introduct.  p.  280)  ;  especial  mention  is 
made  of  the  Ittur  Sopherim  (C^"iSD  ^113",  Ablatio 
Scribarum  ;  tract  Nedarim,  f.  37,  c.  2),  of  the  Keri  re-lo 
Ketkib,  the  Kethib  ve-lo  Keri,  and  the  Keri  ve-lcethib  {Xt- 
darim,  1.  c. ;  tract  Sota,  v,  5 ;  Joma,  f.  21,  c.  2),  and  of  the 
pinicta  extraordinaria,  which,  however,  are  not  properly 
of  critical  import,  but  rather  point  to  allegorical  expla- 
nations of  the  passage  (tr.  Nasir,  f.  23,  c.  1 ;  comp.  Je- 
rome, Qiuest.  ill  Gen.  xviii,  35) ;  and  already  the  mid- 
dle consonant,  the  middle  word,  and  the  middle  verse  of 
the  Pentateuch  are  noted  as  in  the  Masorah.  In  the 
tract  Sopherim,  written  between  the  Talmud  and  the 
INIasorah,  there  are  also  notes  of  the  same  kind,  though 
not  exactly  agreeing  with  those  in  the  Masorah.  But 
those  variants  had  not  before  been  formally  collected 
and  reduced  to  order  in  writing.  This  was  the  work  of 
the  Jewish  scholars  who,  from  the  6th  century  after 
Christ,  flourished  in  Palestine,  and  had  their  principal 
seat  at  Til)erias  (Zunz,  Gottesdienstiiche  Vortrdge  der  Ju- 
den,  p.  309). 

II.  Contents  of  the  Masorah. — These  are  partly  pala?o- 
graphic,  partly  critical,  partly  exegetical,  partly  gram- 
matical.    They  embrace  notes  concerning — 

1.  The  Consonants  of  the  Jlebreiv  Text.  —  Concerning 
these,  the  Masoretes  note  about  thirty  letters  which  are 
larr/er  than  the  others,  about  thirty  that  are  less,  four 
which  are  suspended  or  placed  above  the  line  of  the  oth- 
ers in  the  same  word,  and  nine  wliicli  are  inverted  or 
written  upside  down  ;  to  these  peculiarities  reference  is 
made  also  in  the  Talmud,  and  the  use  of  them  as  merely 
marking  the  middle  of  a  book  or  section  indicated  (tr. 
Kiddushin,  f.  30,  c.  1 ;  Hiivernick,  1.  c,  p.  282).  The  Ma- 
soretes also  note  a  case  in  which  the  linal  D  is  found  in 
the  heart  of  a  word  (Pimab,  Isa.  ix,  G) ;  one  in  which 
the  initial  "3  is  found  at  the  end  Ccn,  Neh.  ii,  13) ;  and 
one  in  which  the  initial  3  occurs  at  the  end  (J'a,  Job 
xviii,  1) — irregidarities  for  which  no  reason  can  be  as- 
signed (comp.  Leusden,  Phil.  Ileb.  Diss.  x).  They  have 
noted  \wvr  often  each  letter  occurs ;  and  they  signalize 
the  middle  of  each  book,  the  middle  letter  of  the  Penta- 
teuch (the  1  in  "in:.  Lev.  xi,  42),  the  middle  letter  of 
the  Psalter  (the  2?  in  "i"i'2,  Psa.  Ixxx,  14),  the  number 
of  times  each  of  the  five  letters  which  have  final  forms 
occurs  in  its  final  and  in  its  initial  form. 

2.  The  Voirel-points  and  A  events  in  the  Tlebreto  Text. 
— Here  the  Masoretes  note  the  pecidiarities  or  anoma- 
lies in  the  use  of  the  vowel-points,  of  the  dagesh  and 
mappik,  and  of  the  accents  in  the  text— a  fact  to  which 
Buxtorf  appeals  with  considerable  force,  as  jjroving  that 
the  authors  of  the  Masorah,  as  we  have  it,  were  not  the 


inventors  of  the  diacritical  marks  by  which  vowels  and 
accents  are  indicated  in  the  Hebrew  text ;  for,  had  they 
been  so,  they  would  not  have  confined  themselves  to  la- 
boriously noting  anomalies  into  which  thej'  themselves 
had  fallen,  but  would  at  once  have  removed  them.  See 
Vowel-points. 

3.  Words. — With  regard  to  these,  the  Masoretes  note 
(1)  the  cases  of  Scrij>tio  ple?ui  (D'^X?^)  and  defectiva 
(D^~iDn) ;  (2)  the  number  of  times  in  which  certain 
words  occur  at  the  beginning  of  a  verse  (as,  e.  g.,  mp, 
^vhich  they  say  is  nine  times  the  first  word  of  a  verse), 
or  the  end  of  a  verse  (as  yiXtl,  which  they  say  occurs 
thrice  as  the  final  word  of  a  verse) ;  (3)  words  of  which 
the  meaning  is  ambiguous,  and  to  which  they  athx  the 
proper  meaning  in  the  place  where  they  occur ;  (4) 
words  which  have  over  them  the puncta  extraordinaria  ; 
and  (5)  words  which  present  anomalies  in  writing  or 
grammar,  and  which  some  have  thought  should  be  alter- 
ed, or  pecuUarities  which  need  to  be  explained  ("j'^T'SD). 

4.  Verses. — The  Masoretes  number  the  verses  in  each 
book  of  the  O.  Test.,  as  well  as  in  each  of  the  larger  sec- 
tions of  the  Pentateuch,  and  they  note  the  middle  verse 
of  each  book  of  the  O.  T. ;  they  also  note  the  number  of 
verses  in  which  certain  expressions  occur,  the  first  and 
last  letters  of  each  verse,  and  in  many  cases  the  number 
of  letters  of  which  it  is  composed ;  and,  in  fine,  they  have 
marked  twenty-five  or  twenty-eight  places  where  there 
is  a  pause  in  the  middle  of  a  verse,  or  where  a  hiatus  is 
supposed  to  be  found  in  the  meaning  (as,  e.  g.,  in  Gen.  iv, 
8,  where,  after  the  words  l^nx  bzrrbx  "pp  T^Xi", 
there  is  in  rabbinical  editions  of  the  O.  Test,  a  space  left 
vacant  [XpDS,  piska']  to  indicate  that  something  is 
probablj'  omitted). 

5.  Tihhun  Sopherim  (D"'^&'10  'Ip!^?  ordinafio,  sive 
correctio  Scribarum). — On  the  word  DTl^D  (Psa.  cvi, 
20)  the  Masorah  has  this  note  :  the  icord  01133  is  one 
of  eighteen  words  in  Scripture  which  are  an  ordination 
of  the  Scribes.  These  eighteen  words  are  also  enumera- 
ted in  a  note  at  the  beginning  of  Numbers.  The  pas- 
sages where  they  occur  are  presented  in  the  following 
table : 

Tikkun  Soiiltervm.    Erroneous  Reading. 

Gen.  xviii,  22,  mni  ^isb  ....        Cm^X   '^I'sh 

DtT>as    mni 

nrrnn 

i3iTua 

13X  bx 

rrcn  xb 

inix 

T^'bx 
T"iT  rx 

Charges  have  been  rashly  advanced  against  these 
Sopherim  of  having  corrupted  the  sacred  text  (Galatin, 
De  A  rcanis  Cathol.  Ver.  lib.  i,  c.  8),  but  for  this  there  is 
no  foundation  (see  ben-Chajim's  Introduction  to  the  Rab- 
binic Bible,  translated  by  Ginsburg,  p.  21).  Eichhorn 
concludes  from  ''  the  character  of  the  readings"  that 
"  this  recension  took  note  only  of  certain  errors  which 
had  crept  into  the  text  through  transcribers,  and  which 


Numb,  si,  15, 

in^'-a 

Numb,  sii,  12, 

1-cx 

nirn 

1  Sam.  iii,  13, 

cnb 

2  Sam.  xvi,  12, 

»;i-'- 

1  Kings  xii,  16,) 

2  Chron.  x,  16,  / 
Ezek.  viii,17, 

i"''bnxb 

DSX  ^X 

Hab.  i,  12. 

Til ^3  X^ 

Mai.  i,  13, 

irix 

Zecb.  ii,  8, 

131:; 

Jer.  ii,  11, 

imsD 

Hos.  iv,  7, 

cm^D 

Psa.  cvi,  20, 

0^2= 

Job  vii,  20, 

i?X 

Job  xxxii,  3, 

mix  rx 

Lam.  iil,  20, 

-b-j 

MASORAH 


862 


MASREKAH 


were  corrected  by  cullation  of  IMSS."  (Einleif.  ins.  A .  T. 
sec.  110).  Bleek,  however,  thinks  that  this  is  affirmed 
without  evidence,  and  that  in  some  cases  the  rejected 
reading  is  probably  the  original  one,  as,  e.  g.,  in  Gen. 
xviii,  "22,  and  Hab.  i,  12  {Einleit.  ins  A.  T.  p.  803). 

0.  Itiur  Sopherim  (D'ISIO  "iIl^^",  ablatio  Scriba- 
rum).  —  The  Masoretes  have  noted  four  instances  in 
which  the  letter  1  has  been  erroneously  prefixed  to  *nx 
— viz.  Gen.  xviii,  5 ;  xxiv,  55 ;  Numb,  xii,  1-1 ;  and  Psa. 
Ixviii,  20 ;  they  note  also  that  it  has  been  erroneously 
prefixed  to  the  word  T'^IiSUJia  in  Psa.  xxxvi,  7.  Of 
these  passages,  the  only  one  in  which  the  injunction  of 
the  Sopherim  to  remove  the  1  has  been  neglected  is 
Numb,  xii,  14 — a  neglect  at  which  Buxtorf  expresses 
surprise  (Lex.  Talmud,  s.  v.  ^-2"). 

7.  Keri  and  Kethib. — But  not  aU  the  dicta  of  the  Mas- 
oretes are  of  equal  sterling  value ;  they  are  not  only 
sometimes  utterly  superfluous,  but  downright  erroneous. 
Of  its  "  countings"  we  may  adduce  that  it  enumerates  in 
the  Pentateuch  18  greater  and  43  smaller  portions,  1534 
verses,  03,407  words,  70,100  letters,  etc. — a  calcidation 
which  is,  however,  to  a  certain  degree  at  variance  with 
the  Talmud.  See  the  article  Keki  jSssd  Kethib  in  this 
work. 

III.  Form,  of  Ike  Masorah. — The  language  of  the  Ma- 
sorah  is  Chaldee;  and,  besides  the  difficulty  of  this  idiom, 
the  obscure  abbreviations,  contractions,  symbolical  signs, 
etc.,  with  which  the  work  abounds,  render  its  study  ex- 
ceedingly difficult.  In  all  probability  it  was  composed 
out  of  notes  that  had  been  made  from  time  to  time  on 
separate  leaves,  or  in  books,  as  occasion  demanded.  Af- 
terwards they  were  appended  as  marginal  notes  to  the 
text,  sometimes  on  the  upper  and  lower  margin,  some- 
times in  a  more  brief  form  on  the  space  between  the 
text  and  the  Chaldee  version,  where,  from  scarcity  of 
room,  many  abbreviations  and  symbols  were  resorted  to, 
and  considerable  omissions  were  made.  Hence  arose  a 
distinction  between  the  nbns  iTTlD'a,  the  Masora 
Maffna,  and  the  il5i:p  12,  the  M,  Parva — the  former 
of  which  comprehends  the  entire  body  of  critical  re- 
mark on  the  margins,  the  latter  the  more  curt  and  con- 
densed notes  inserted  in  the  intermediate  space.  The 
latter  has  frequently  been  represented  as  an  abbreviated 
compend  of  the  former ;  but  this  is  not  strictly  correct, 
for  the  lesser  Masorah  contains  many  things  not  found 
in  the  greater.  At  an  early  period  the  scribes  intro- 
duced the  practice  of  adorning  their  annotations  with 
all  manner  of  figures,  and  symbols,  and  caligraphic  inge- 
nuities ;  and  from  this,  as  well  as  from  causes  connected 
with  their  method  of  selection  and  arrangement,  the 
Mhole  came  into  such  a  state  of  confusion  that  it  was 
rendered  almost  useless.  In  this  state  it  remained  until 
the  publication  of  Bomberg's  Rabbinical  Bible  (Venetia, 
1526 :  the  second  Bomberg  Biblia  Rabbin.,  not  the  first, 
as  is  sometimes  stated),  for  which  the  learned  K.  Jacob 
ben-Cliajim,  with  immense  labor,  prepared  and  arranged 
the  Masorah.  See  JACon  ben-Ciiajim.  To  facilitate 
the  use  of  the  Greater  Masorah.  he  placed  at  the  end  of 
liis  v.ork  what  has  been  called  the  Masora  maxima  or 
Jinali.-!,  and  which  forms  a  sort  of  JIasorctic  Concord- 
ance in  alphabetic  order. 

IV.  }'a/iie  of  the  J\[asorah. — While  there  is  much  in 
the  iiasorah  that  can  be  regarded  in  no  other  light  than 
as  laborious  trifling,  it  is  far  from  deserving  the  scorn 
which  has  sometimes  been  poured  upon  it.  There  can 
l)e  no  doubt  that  it  preserves  to  us  much  valuable  tradi- 
tional information  concerning  the  constitution  and  the 
meaning  of  tlie  sacred  text.  It  is  the  source  whence 
materials  for  a  critical  revision  of  the  O.-Test.  text  can 
now  alone  be  derived.  It  is  a  pity  that  it  is  now  impos- 
sible to  discriminate  the  older  Trom  the  more  recent  of 
its  contents.  Wc  would  earnestly  reiterate  the  wish  of 
Eichhorn,  that  some  one  would  undertake  the  "bitter 
task"  of  making  complete  critical  excerpts  from  the  Ma- 
sorah. 


V.  Literature.— Elias  Levita,  r~i'lD':n  nTlb':  (Yen. 
1538;  German  transl.  by  Semler,  Halle,  1770;  English 
transl.  by  Ginsburg,  Lond.  1867) ;  Buxtorf,  Tiberias,  sive 
Comment.  Masoreth.  trii^lex  histor.  didact.  crit.  (Basle, 
1620, 4to);  Cappell,  CriV.^Sflc.  lib.iii;  Olaus  Celsius,  i>e 
Masora  Bisput. ;  Leusden,  Philol.  Ileb.,  Diss,  xxii-xxv  -, 
Walton,  Prolegf].  in  rolyglott,  No.  viii;  Carpzov,  Crit. 
Sacr.  p.  283;  Wiihner,  Antiq.  Hebr.  sec.  1,  c.  30;  Abr. 
Geiger,  Zur  Gesch.  der  Masorah  (in  the  3d  vol.  of  his 
Jiid.  Zeitschr.fiir  Wissensch.  u,  Leben) ;  Frensdorff,  Das 
Buck  "  Ochlach  W'ochlach"  (Massora)  (Hamburg.  1804, 
8vo) ;  Hupfeld,  Veber  eine  bisher  nnbehamt  gebliebene 
Ilandschrift  der  Masorah  (in  Zeitschr.  d.  deutsch.  mor- 
genl,  Gesellsch.  xxi,  201  sq.) ;  Eichhorn,  Einleit.  ins  A .  T. 
voLi,  sec.  140-158;  De  Wette,  Einleit.  sec.  90-92;  Hii- 
vernick,  Introd.  to  the  0.  T.  p.  279  sq. ;  Bleek,  Einleit.  ins 
A.  T.  p.  803  sq. ;  Ginsburg,  Introduction  to  the  Rabbinic 
Bible  by  J.  ben-Chajim,  transl.  m  the  Journal  of  Sacred 
Literature  for  July,  1803.     See  Criticism,  Biblical. 

Mas'pha,  the  name  of  two  places  mentioned  in  the 
Apocrypha. 

1.  (MaffffjjijJidB'  V.  r.  Ma(7(Tjj0a.)  A  place  opposite  to 
{KaTivavTi)  Jerusalem,  at  which  Judas  jMaccabajus  and 
his  followers  assembled  themselves  to  bewail  the  deso- 
lation of  the  city  and  the  sanctuary,  and  to  inflame  their 
resentment  before  the  battle  of  Emmaus,  by  the  sight 
not  only  of  the  distant  city,  which  was  probably  visible 
from  the  eminence,  but  also  of  the  book  of  the  law  mu- 
tilated and  profaned,  and  of  other  objects  of  peculiar 
preciousness  and  sanctity  (1  Mace,  iii,  40).  As  the  pas- 
sage contains  an  allusion  to  similar  acts  of  devotion 
"  aforetime  in  Israel,"  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  iden- 
tical with  MizPEii  (q.  v.)  of  Benjamin,  the  ancient 
sanctuary  at  which  Samuel  had  convened  the  people  on 
an  occasion  of  equal  emergency  (1  Sam.  vii,  6).  In 
fact,  Maspha,  or,  more  accurately,  Massepha,  is  merely 
the  form  in  which  the  Sept.  uniformly  renders  the  He- 
brew name  Mizpeh,  the  modern  Kebi-Samicil,  a  high 
range  in  the  neighborhood  of  Jerusalem  (Kobiuson,  Re- 
searches, ii,  143). — Smith. 

2.  (Ma(T0a.)  One  of  the  cities  which  were  taken 
from  the  Ammonites  by  Judas  MaccabiEus  in  his  cam- 
paign on  the  east  of  Jordan  (1  Mace,  v,  35).  It  is  un- 
certain whether  the  ancient  city  of  Mizpeh  of  Gilead 
(Judg.  xi,  29,  etc.)  or  Mizpeh  of  Moab  (1  Sam.  xxii,  3) 
is  meant.  The  Syriac  has  the  curious  variation  of 
Olim,  "  salt,"  and  one  Greek  ]MS.  has  ti'c  "AXf/(rt,  another 
e'lQ  'EaXena,  another  f /f  Af/^ta :  but  this  seems  to  be  a 
mere  arbitrary  correction  from  ver.  26  by  some  one  who 
thought  that  the  place  mentioned  in  both  verses  should 
be  the  same.  Michaelis,  however,  would  combine  both 
readings,  and  make  tlie  place  Mizpeh-Eltm.  Perhaps 
Josephus  also  reads  Ti^'O,  "salt,"  as  he  reads  MfiXX?; 
{Ant.  xii,  8,  3),  which  Grimm  thinks  has  arisen  from 
transposition  of  letters  (Ilandb.  z.  a.  Apokr.  ad  loc). 

Mas'rekah  (Ileb.  Jfasrehah',  Hp'lb^,  vineyard; 
Sept.  MaaaiKKa,  MaaiKKii),  a  place  apparently  in  Idu- 
mrea,  the  native  place  of  Samlah,  one  of  the  Edomitish 
kings  (Gen.  xxxvi,  36;  1  Chron.  i,  47).  "The  student 
will  observe  that  while  some  of  these  kings  are  men- 
tioned with  the  addition,  '  and  the  name  of  liis  town 
was,'  others  are  introduced  as  '  coming  from'  some  other 
place.  Kalisch  (ad  loc.)  remarks  that  the  former  seems 
to  comprise  native  Iduma?ans,  the  latter  foreigners.  Eu- 
sebius  and  Jerome,  however  {Onomast.  s.  v.  Masraca), 
locate  Masrcliah  in  Gebalene,  a  province  embracing  the 
northern  part  of  Edom"  (Kitto).  "Inteqireted  as  He- 
brew, the  name  refers  to  vineyards — as  if  from  Sai-al; 
a  root  with  which. we  are  familiar  in  the  'vine  of  So- 
rek,'  that  is,  the  choice  vine ;  and,  led  by  this,  Knobel 
{Genesis,  p.  257)  proposes  to  place  Masrekah  in  the  dis- 
trict of  the  Idum^an  mountains  north  of  Petra,  and 
along  the  Haj  route,  where  Burckliardt  found  '  exten- 
sive vineyards,'  and  'great  quantities  of  dried  grapes,' 
made  by  the  tribe  of  the  Refaya  for  the  supply  of  Gaza 


MASS 


863 


MASS 


and  for  the  Mecca  pilgrims  (Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  418). 
But  this  is  mere  conjecture,  as  no  name  at  all  corre- 
sponding with  Slasrekah  has  been  yet  discovered  in 
that  locality"  (Smith).  According  to  Schwarz  {Palest. 
p.  215),  there  is  still  a  town,  eight  miles  south  of  Pctra, 
called  En-Masrak,  which  he  thinks  may  be  the  locality. 
He  probably  refers  to  the  place  marked  Ain  Mafrah  on 
Palmer's  Map,  and  Ain  el-Usdaka  on  Kiepert's. 

Mass  (Latin  Missa)  is  the  technical  term  by  which 
tlie  Church  of  Home  designates  the  Eucharistic  service 
which  in  that  Church,  as  well  as  in  the  Greek  and  other 
Oriental  churches,  is  held  to  be  the  sacrifice  of  the  new 
law — a  real  though  unbloody  offering,  in  which  Christ 
is  the  victim,  in  substance  the  same  with  the  sacrifice 
of  the  cross.  It  is  instituted,  Romanists  further  teach, 
in  commemoration  of  that  sacrifice,  and  as  a  means  of 
applying  its  merits  through  all  ages  for  the  sanctifica- 
tion  of  men. 

Origin  and  Meaninr)  of  the  Word. — "The  first  names 
given  to  the  administration  of  the  sacrament  of  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ,"  says  Walcott  (s.  v.),  "were  the 
Breaking  of  Bread  (Acts  xx,  0,7),  the  Lord's  Supper  (1 
Cor.  ii,  20),  or  Communion  (1  Cor.  x,  18).  It  was  also 
called,  by  way  of  eminence,  the  mystery,  the  sacrament, 
the  oblation  or  prosphora,  the  sacrifice,  Dominicum  (the 
Lord's),  agenda  (the  action),  synais  and  coUecta  (the 
assembly),  the  solemnities,  the  service,  the  supplication, 
the  mystical  or  divine  Eucharist  or  eulogy  (the  thanks- 
giving), the  office,  the  spectacle,  the  consecration,  the 
unbloody  sacrifice,  the  supper,  the  table,  the  latria  (wor- 
ship), the  universal  canon  ;  and,  by  the  Greeks,  also  the 
hierurgia  (sacred  action),  and  the  good  by  excellence, 
metalepsis  (the  communion),  in  the  Apostolical  Canons. 
These  terms  served  either  to  explain  to  the  faithful  the 
meaning  of  the  service,  or,  in  times  of  persecution,  to 
conceal  its  real  nature  from  the  profane  and  persecutors. 
In  Acts  xiii,  2,  it  is  spoken  of  as  the  liturgy." 

The  term  Mass  is  ancient,  having  been  used  by  Cle- 
ment I,  Alexander,  Telesphorus,  Soter,  and  Felix  (cir. 
100-27o).  In  a  letter  of  St.  Ambrose  to  his  sister  Mar- 
cellina  (of  the  4th  centurj'),  we  have  this  passage  :  "Ego 
mansi  in  munere,  missam  facere  coepi,  dum  oifers,  rap- 
tum  cognovi"  {Ep.  xxxiii).  Its  origin  and  use,  howev- 
er, have  given  much  trouble.  There  are  at  present  three 
principal  derivations  of  the  word  :  (1.)  From  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  vuese,  a  feast,  in  which  sense  the  word  is  of 
more  ancient  date  than  the  Eucharist.  It  seems  proba- 
ble that  the  ancient  word  is  embodied  in  such  names 
as  Christ;«3«,  Michaelwrfs,  Martin?;j(M ,-  but  it  is  very 
doubtful  whether  the  suffix,  as  thus  used,  has  any  refer- 
ence at  all  to  the  holy  Eucharist,  and  it  is  much  more 
probable  that  the  coincidence  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  word 
iox  feast,  with  mass  and  missa,  the  holy  Eucharist,  is  pure- 
ly accidental.  (2.)  From  the  Hebrew  il&p,  missah', 
which  signifies  an  oblation,  as  in  Deut.  xvi,  10.  This 
derivation  would  tend  to  show  an  association  between 
the  original  idea  of  the  Eucharist  and  the  oblations  of 
the  .Jewish  ritual ;  but  it  is  extremely  improbable  that 
the  Jewish  word  should  have  found  its  way  into  every 
language  of  Europe,  and  yet  be  entirely  absent  from  the 
liturgical  vocabulary  of  the  Oriental  churches.  (3.) 
From  the  "Ite,  inissa  est"  of  the  ancient  liturgies  of  the 
West,  which  was  equivalent  to  the  'Ev  dpnvy  Xpiarov 
7roptiOw/(f )', "  Let  us  de]iart  in  peace,"  of  the  Greek  litur- 
gies. But  the  words  "Ite,  missa  est,"  have  two  senses 
given  to  them  by  ancient  writers ;  thus,  in  Micrologus, 
it  is  said,  "In  festivis  diebus  'Ite,  missa  est'  dicitur,  quia 
tunc  generalis  conventns  celebrari  solet,  qui  per  hujus- 
modi  denuntiationem  licentiam  discendi  accipere  solet" 
(Microloy.  xlvi).  St.  Tliomas  Aquinas,  on  the  other 
hand,  explains  the  phrase  as  meaning  that  the  sacrifice 
of  the  Eucharist  has  been  sent  up  to  God  by  the  admin- 
istration of  angels  (Thomas  Aquinas,  iii,  qu.  83,  art.  iv). 
Both  these  meanings  are  combined  in  a  very  ancient 
exposition  of  the  mass,  printed  by  Hittorpius  :  "  Tunc 
demuui  a  diacona  dicitur,  Ite,  missa  est,  id  est,  Ite  cum 


pace  in  domus  vestras,  quia  transmissa  est  pro  vobis  ora- 
tio  ad  dominum ;  et  per  angelos,  qui  nuncii  dicunter, 
allata  est  in  divinte  conspectum  majestatis"  (Expos. 
Miss,  ex  vetitst.  cod.  in  Ilittorp.  p,  587). 

The  proper  technical  sense  of  the  word  undoubtedly 
is  the  one  in  which  it  is  employed  by  the  early  Church 
• — that  of  "  offering"  or  "  oblation,"  which,  as  we  have 
seen  above,  are  ancient  names  for  the  Lord's  Supper. 
In  such  a  sense  the  English  Church  used  the  word,  and 
it  thus  occurs  in  the  first  vernacular  litiurgy  of  the 
Church  of  England  (A.D.  1549)  :  "The  Supper  of  the 
Lord,  and  the  holy  Communion,  commonly  called  the 
Mass."  Indeed  it  was  only  abandoned  by  the  Anglican 
clergy  when  it  was  found  that  Eomanists  attached  to 
the  word  mass  a  perverted  sense.  It  was  first  dropped 
in  the  revised  Prayer-book  of  1552.  In  Germany  the 
Reformers  hesitated  not  to  protest  against  the  accusa- 
tion that  they  opposed  mass.  Thus,  e.  g.,  the  Augsburg 
Confession  "  protests  agamst  any  notion  that  it  abolishes 
mass"  (comp.  Schott,  Auyshuryische  Confession,  p.  137, 
141).  The  doctrine  of  the  mass,  as  interpreted  by  Ro- 
man Catholics,  presupposes  the  Eucharist,  and  involves 
the  notion  of  a  sacrifice.  On  the  latter  point  hinges  the 
controversy  between  Romanists  and  Protestants :  the 
question  being  whether  it  is  a  positive  sacrifice,  renew- 
ed at  every  celebration,  or  only  a  solemn  feast  on  a  sac- 
rifice once  offered  by  Jesus  Christ ;  whether  Christ  in 
body  and  blood  is  absolutely  and  corporally,  or  only 
spiritually  and  really  present  in  the  elements.  See  Real 
Pkesence  ;  Teansubstantiation. 

By  primitive  use,  the  communion  of  the  faithful  ap- 
pears always,  unless  in  exceptional  cases,  to  have  form- 
ed part  of  the  Eucharistic  service ;  but  afterwards  it 
came  to  pass  that  the  officiating  priest  only  communi- 
cated, whence  arose,  especially  in  the  Western  Clnirch, 
the  practice  of  "  private  masses,"  which  has  been  in 
later  times  a  ground  of  complaint  with  dissentients  from 
Rome — even  those  who  in  other  respects  approach  close- 
ly to  the  Roman  doctrine.  In  the  ancient  writers  a 
distinction  is  made  between  the  "  mass  of  the  catechu- 
mens" and  the  "  mass  of  the  faithful ;"  the  former  in- 
cluding all  the  preparatory  prayers,  the  latter  all  that 
directly  regards  the  consecration  of  the  elements  and 
the  communion,  at  which  the  "  discipline  of  the  secret" 
forbade  the  presence  of  the  catechumens.  With  the 
cessation  of  this  discipline  the  distinction  of  names  has 
ceased,  but  the  distinction  of  parts  is  still  preserved,  the 
mass  of  the  catechumens  comprising  all  the  first  part  of 
the  mass  as  far  as  the  "  preface." 

The  mass  is  now  in  general  denominated  according 
to  the  solemnity  of  the  accompanying  ceremonial — a 
"low  mass,"  a  "chanted  mass,"  or  a  "high  mass."  In 
the  first,  a  single  priest  simply  i-eads  the  service,  at- 
tended by  one  or  more  acolytes  or  clerks.  The  second 
form  differs  only  in  this,  that  the  service  is  chanted  in- 
stead of  being  i-ead  by  the  priest.  In  the  high  mass 
the  service  is  chanted  in  part  by  the  priest,  in  part  by 
the  deacon  and  subdeacon,  by  whom,  as  well  as  by  sev- 
eral ministers  of  inferior  rank,  the  priest  is  assisted.  In 
all  these,  however,  the  service,  as  regards  the  form  of 
prayer,  is  the  same.  It  consists  of  (1)  an  introductory 
prayer  composed  of  the  41st  Psalm,  together  -^vith  the 
"  general  confession ;"  (2)  the  introit,  which  is  followed 
by  the  thrice -repeated  petition,  "Lord,  have  mercy," 
"Christ,  have  mercy,"  and  the  hymn  "(ilnry  to  God 
on  high  ;"  (3)  the  collect,  or  public  and  joint  prayers  of 
priest  and  people,  followed  by  a  lesson  either  from  tlie 
Epistles  or  some  book  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  by  the 
Gradual  (q.  v.) ;  (4)  the  Gospel,  which  is  commonly  fol- 
lowed by  the  Nicene  Creed ;  (5)  the  Offertory  (q.  v.), 
after  the  reading  of  which  comes  the  preparatory  offer- 
ing of  the  bread  and  wine,  and  the  washing  of  the 
priest's  hands  in  token  of  purity  of  heart,  and  tlie  "  se- 
cret," a  prayer  read  in  a  low  voice  by  the  priest ;  (6) 
the  preface,  concluding  with  the  trisagion,  or  "  thrice 
holy,"  at  which  point,  by  the  primitive  use,  the  cate- 
chumens and  penitents  retired  from  the  church;  (7) 


MASS 


864 


MASS 


the  '•'  canon,"  which  is  always  the  same,  and  which 
contains  all  the  prayers  connected  with  the  consecra- 
tion, the  elevation,  the  hreaking,  and  the  commnnion  of 
the  host  and  of  the  chalice,  as  also  the  commemorations 
hoth  of  the  living  and  of  the  dead;  (8)  the  "commun- 
ion," which  is  a  short  scriptural  prayer,  usually  appro- 
priate to  the  particular  festival ;  (9)  the  "  post-commun- 
ion," which,  like  the  collect,  was  a  joint  prayer  of 
priest  and  people,  and  is  read  or  sung  aloud ;  (10)  the 
dismissal  with  the  hcnediction;  and,  finally,  the  first 
chapter  of  John's  Gospel.  A  great  part  of  the  above 
prayers  are  fixed,  and  form  what  is  called  the  "  ordo"  or 
"  ordinary"  of  the  mass.  The  rest,  which  is  called  the 
"  proper  of  the  mass,"  differs  for  different  occasions, 
many  masses  having  nothing  pecidiar  but  the  name: 
such  are  the  masses  of  the  saints — that  of  St.  IMary  of 
the  Snow,  celebrated  on  the  5th  of  August ;  that  of  St. 
Margaret,  patroness  of  lying-in  women;  that  at  the 
feast  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  at  which  are  said  three 
masses ;  that  of  the  Innocents,  at  which  the  Glui-ia  in 
Excelsis  and  HuUelujah  are  omitted,  and,  it  being  a  day 
of  mourning,  the  altar  is  of  a  violet  color.  As  to  ordi- 
nary masses,  some  are  for  the  dead,  and,  as  is  supposed, 
contribute  to  release  the  soul  from  jnirgatory.  At  these 
masses  the  altar  is  put  in  mourning,  and  the  onl}^  deco- 
rations are  a  cross  in  the  middle  of  six  yellow  wax 
lights ;  the  dress  of  the  celebrant,  and  the  very  Mass- 
book,  are  black ;  many  parts  of  the  office  are  omitted, 
and  the  pco])le  are  dismissed  ^vithout  the  benediction. 
If  the  mass  be  said  for  a  person  distinguished  by  his 
rank  or  virtues,  it  is  followed  with  a  funeral  oration : 
they  erect  a  chapelle  ardenie,  that  is,  a  representation  of 
the  deceased,  with  branches  and  tapers  of  yellow  wax, 
either  in  the  middle  of  the  church  or  near  the  deceased's 
tomb,  where  the  priest  pronounces  a  solemn  absolution 
of  the  deceased.  There  are  hkewise  private  masses 
said  for  stolen  or  strayed  goods  or  cattle,  for  health,  for 
travellers,  etc.,  which  go  under  the  name  of  votive  ynasses. 
There  is  stiU  a  farther  distinction  of  masses,  denomina- 
ted from  the  countries  in  which  they  were  used :  thus 
the  Gothic  mass,  or  missa  Mosarabum,  is  that  used 
among  the  Goths  when  they  were  masters  of  Spain, 
and  is  still  kept  up  at  Toledo  and  Salamanca ;  the 
Ambrosian  mass  is  that  composed  by  St.  Ambrose,  and 
used  only  at  Milan,  of  which  city  he  was  bishop ;  the 
Gallic  mass,  used  by  the  ancient  Gauls;  and  the  IJo- 
man  mass,  used  by  almost  all  the  churches  in  the 
Ilomish  communion.  The  mass  of  the  presanctified 
{missa  prwsanctijicdtorum)  is  a  mass  peculiar  not  only 
to  the  lioman,  but  also  to  the  Greek  Church.  In  the 
latter  there  is  no  consecration  of  the  elements;  but,  after 
singing  some  hymns,  the  bread  and  wine,  which  were 
consecrated  on  the  preceding  day,  are  partaken  of.  This 
mass  is  performed  in  the  Greek  Church  not  only  on 
(iood  Friday,  but  on  every  day  during  all  Lent,  except 
on  Saturdays,  Sundays,  and  the  Annunciation.  The 
priest  counts  upon  his  fingers  the  days  of  the  ensuing 
week  on  which  it  is  to  be  celebrated,  and  cuts  off  as 
many  pieces  of  bread  at  the  altar  as  he  is  to  say  masses, 
and,  after  having  consecrated  them,  steeps  them  in  wine 
and  ])uts  them  in  a  box,  out  of  Avhich,  upon  every  occa- 
sion, he  takes  some  of  it  with  a  spoon,  and,  putting  it  on 
a  disli,  sets  it  on  the  altar. 

Ceremoiiij. — The  following  office  of  the  mass  is  ex- 
tracted from  the  Gurdeii  of  the  Soul,  prepared  by  the  late 
bishop  Clialloner,  and  may  be  accepted,  therefore,  as  the 
authorized  rite  of  the  English  IJoman  Catholics:  "At 
the  beginning  of  the  mass,  the  priest  at  the  foot  of  the 
altar  makes  the  sign  of  the  cross,  '  In  the  name  of  the 
Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  (ihost ;  amen,' 
and  then  recites  with  the  clerk  tlie  I'id  I'sahn — K/iidica 
me,  Dens,'  etc.  Then  the  priest,  bowing  down, "says  the 
CoiifUeor,  by,  way  of  a  general- confession  to  tiod,  to  the 
whole  court  of  heaven,  and  to  all  the  faithful  there  pres- 
ent, of  his  sins  and  unworthiness,  and  to  beg  their  pray- 
ers to  God  for  him.  And  the  clerk,  in  the  name  of  the 
people,  prays  for  the  priest,  that  God  Avould  have  mercy 


on  him,  and  forgive  him  his  sins,  and  bring  him  to  ev- 
erlasting life.  Then,  in  the  name  of  all  there  present, 
the  clerk  makes  the  like  general  confession  to  God,  to 
the  whole  court  of  heaven,  and  to  the  priest,  and  begs 
his  prayers.  And  the  priest  prays  to  God  to  show  mercy 
to  all  his  people,  and  to  grant  them  pardon,  absolution, 
and  remission  of  all  their  sins.  Which  is  done  to  the 
end  that  both  priest  and  people  may  put  themselves  in 
a  penitential  spirit,  in  order  to  assist  worthily  at  this 
divine  sacrifice.  After  the  Confiteor  the  priest  goes  up 
to  the  altar,  saying,  'Take  away  from  us,  we  beseech 
thee,  O  Lord,  oiu:  iniquities,  that  we  maj'  be  worthy  to 
enter  with  pure  minds  into  the  holy  of  holies,  through 
Christ  our  Lord ;  amen,'  and  kisses  the  altar  as  a  fig- 
ure of  Christ,  and  the  seat  of  the  sacred  mysteries. 
When  the  priest  is  come  up  to  the  altar,  he  goes  to  the 
book,  and  there  reads  what  is  called  the  introit  or  en- 
trance of  the  mass,  which  is  different  every  day,  and  is 
generally  an  anthem  taken  out  of  the  Scripture,  with 
the  first  verse  of  one  of  the  Psalms,  and  the  Glory  be  to 
the  Father,  etc.,  to  glorify  the  blessed  Trinity.  The 
priest  returns  to  the  middle  of  the  altar,  and  says  alter- 
nately with  the  clerk  the  Kyrie  eleison,  or  Lord  have 
mercy  on  us,  which  is  said  three  times  to  God  the  Fa- 
ther; three  times  Christe  eleison,  or  Christ  have  mercy 
on  us,  to  God  the  Son  ;  and  three  times  again  Kyrie  elei- 
son, to  God  the  IIolj'  Ghost.  After  the  Kyrie  eleison, 
the  priest  recites  the  '  Gloria  in  Excelsis,'  or  Glory  be  to 
God  on  high,  etc.,  being  an  excellent  hymn  and  prayer 
to  God,  the  beginning  of  which  was  sung  by  the  angels 
at  the  birth  of  Christ.  But  this,  being  a  hymn  of  J03-, 
is  omitted  in  the  masses  of  reqviem  for  the  dead,  and  in 
the  masses  of  the  Sundays  and  ferias  of  the  penitential 
times  of  Advent  and  Lent,  etc.  At  the  end  of  the  Glo- 
ria in  Excelsis  the  priest  kisses  the  altar,  and,  turning 
about  to  the  people,  says,  '  Dominus  vobiscum'  (The 
Lord  be  with  you).  Answer  :  '  Et  cum  spiritu  tuo' 
(And  with  thy  spirit).  The  priest  returns  to  the  book, 
and  says, '  Orcmus'  (Let  us  pray),  and  then  reads  the 
collect  or  collects  of  the  day,  concluding  them  with 
the  usual  termination,  'Per  Dominum  nostrum,'  etc. 
(Through  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  etc.),  with  which  the 
Church  commonly  concludes  all  her  prayers.  The  col- 
lects being  ended,  the  priest  lays  his  hands  upon  the 
book  and  reads  the  epistle  or  lesson  of  the  day,  at  the 
end  of  which  the  clerk  answers, '  Deo  gratias'  (Thanks 
be  to  God) — viz.,  for  the  heavenly  doctrine  there  deliv- 
ered. Then  follow  some  verses  or  sentences  of  Scrip- 
ture, called  the  gradind,  which  are  ever\-  day  different. 
After  this  the  book  is  removed  to  the  other  side  of  the 
altar,  in  order  to  the  reading  of  the  Gospel  for  the  day  ; 
which  removal  of  the  book  represents  the  passing  from 
the  preaching  of  the  old  law,  figured  by  the  lesson  or 
epistle,  to  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ  published  by  the 
preachers  of  the  new  law.  The  jiriest,  before  he  reads 
the  Gospel,  stands  awhile  bowing  down  before  the  mid- 
dle of  the  altar,  begging  of  God  in  secret  to  cleanse  his 
heart  and  his  liijs,  that  he  may  be  worthy  to  declare 
those  heavenly  words.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Gospel 
the  priest  greets  the  people  with  the  usual  salutation — 
'Dominus  vobiscum'  (The  Lord  be  with  yon),  and  then 
tells  out  of  which  of  the  evangelists  the  Gospel  is  taken, 
saying,  '  Sequentia  S.  Evangelii  secundum,'  etc.  (What 
follows  is  of  the  holy  Gospel,  etc.).  At  these  words  both 
priest  and  people  make  the  sign  of  the  cross:  1st.  upon 
their  foreheads,  to  signify  that  they  are  not  ashamed 
of  the  cross  of  Christ  and  his  doctrine ;  2d,  upon  their 
mouths,  to  signify  they  will  ever  profess  it  in  words; 
3d,  upon  their  breasts,  to  signify  that  they  will  always 
keep  it  in  their  hearts.  The  clerk  answers, '  Gloria  tibi, 
Domine'  (( ilory  be  to  thee,  O  Lord).  At  the  Gospel  the 
people  stand  up,  ro  declare  by  that  posture  their  readi- 
ness to  go  and  do  whatsoever  they  shall  be  commanded 
by  the  Saviour  in  his  Gospel.  At  the  end  of  the  Gospel 
the  clerk  answers, '  Laus  tibi,  Christe'  (Praise  be  to  thee, 
O  Christ),  and  the  priest  kisses  the  book  in  reverence  to 
those  sacred  words  he  has  been  reading  out  of  it.    Then 


MASS 


865 


IVIASS 


upon  all  Sundays,  and  many  other  festival  days,  stand- 
ing in  the  middle  of  the  altar,  he  recites  the  Nicene 
Creed,  kneeling  down  at  the  words  '  He  was  made  man,' 
in  reverence  to  the  great  mystery  of  our  Lord's  incarna- 
tion. Then  the  priest  turns  about  to  the  people  and 
says,  'Dominus  vobiscum'  (The  Lord  be  with  you). 
Having  read  in  the  book  a  verse  or  sentence  of  the 
Scripture,  which  is  called  the  oj}'ertoi-y,  and  is  everj'  day 
different,  he  imcovers  the  chalice,  and,  taking  in  his 
hand  the  paten,  or  little  plate,  offers  up  the  bread  to 
God ;  then,  going  to  the  corner  of  the  altar,  he  takes  the 
wine  and  pours  it  into  the  chalice,  and  mingles  with  it 
a  small  quantity  of  water,  in  remembrance  of  the  blood 
and  water  that  issued  out  of  our  Saviour's  side ;  after 
which  he  returns  to  the  middle  of  the  altar  and  offers 
up  the  chalice.  Then,  bowing  down,  he  begs  that  this 
sacrifice,  which  he  desires  to  offer  with  a  contrite  and 
humble  heart,  may  find  acceptance  with  God ;  and, 
blessing  the  bread  and  wine  with  the  sign  of  the  cross, 
he  invokes  the  author  of  all  sanctity  to  sanctify  this  of- 
fering. At  the  end  of  the  oifertory,  the  priest  goes  to 
the  comer  of  the  altar  and  washes  the  tips  of  his  fingers, 
to  denote  the  cleanness  and  purity  of  soul  with  which 
we  ought  to  approach  to  these  divine  mysteries,  saying, 
*  Lavabo,'  etc.  (I  will  wash  my  hands  among  the  iimo- 
cent,  and  I  will  encompass  thy  altar,  O  Lord,  etc.),  as  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  26th  Psalm.  Then  returning  to 
the  middle  of  the  altar,  and  there  bowing  down,  he  begs 
of  the  blessed  Trinity  to  receive  this  oblation  in  memo- 
ry of  the  passion,  resurrection,  and  ascension  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  and  for  an  honorable  commemoration  of 
the  blessed  Virgin  and  of  all  the  saints,  that  they  may 
intercede  for  us  in  heaven,  whose  memory  we  celebrate 
upon  earth.  Then  the  priest,  kissing  the  altar,  tiurns  to 
the  people  and  saj's, '  Orate,  fratres,'  etc.  (Brethren,  pray 
tliat  my  sacrifice  and  yours  may  be  made  acceptable  to 
God  the  Father  Almighty).  Then  the  priest  says  in  a 
low  voice  the  prayers  called  secreta,  which  correspond 
to  the  collects  of  the  day,  and  are  different  every  day. 
The  priest  concludes  the  secreta  by  saying  aloud,  'Per 
omnia  srecula  steculorum'  (World  without  end).  An- 
swer :  Amen.  Priest :  '  Dominus  vobiscum'  (The  Lord 
be  with  you).  Answer :  '  Et  cum  spiritu  tuo'  (And 
with  thy  spirit).  Priest :  '  Sursum  corda'  (Lift  up  your 
hearts).  Answer  :  '  Haberaus  ad  Dominum'  (We  have 
them  lifted  up  to  the  Lord).  Priest :  '  Gratias  agamus 
Domino  Deo  nostro'  (Let  us  give  thanks  to  the  Lord 
our  God).  Answer :  '  Dignum  et  justum  est'  (It  is  meet 
and  just).  Then  the  priest  recites  ih^  preface  (so  called 
because  it  serves  as  an  introduction  to  the  canon  of  the 
mass).  After  the  preface  follows  the  canon  of  the  mass, 
or  the  most  sacred  and  solemn  part  of  this  divine  ser\'- 
ice,  which  is  read  with  a  low  voice,  as  well  to  express 
the  silence  of  Christ  in  his  passion,  and  his  hiding  at 
that  time  his  glory  and  his  divinity,  as  to  signify  the 
vast  importance  of  that  common  cause  of  all  mankind, 
which  the  priest  is  then  representing,  as  it  were,  m  se- 
cret to  the  ear  of  God,  and  the  reverence  and  awe  with 
which  both  priest  and  people  ought  to  assist  at  these 
tremendous  mysteries.  The  canon  begins  by  invoking 
the  Father  of  mercies,  through  Jesus  Christ  his  Son,  to 
accept  this  sacrifice  for  the  holy  Catholic  Church,  for 
the  pope,  for  the  bishop,  for  the  king,  and  for  all  the 
professors  of  the  orthodox  and  apostolic  faith  tlirough- 
out  the  whole  world.  Then  follows  the  memento,  or 
commemoration  of  the  living,  for  whom  in  particular 
the  priest  intends  to  offer  up  that  mass,  or  who  have 
been  particularly  recommended  to  his  prayers,  etc.  To 
which  is  subjoined  a  remembrance  of  all  there  present, 
followed  by  a  solemn  commemoration  of  the  blessed 
Virgin,  of  the  apostles,  martyrs,  and  all  the  saints — to 
honor  their  memory  by  naming  them  in  the  sacred 
mysteries,  to  communicate  with  them,  and  to  beg  of 
God  the  help  of  their  intercession,  through  Jesus  Christ 
our  Lord.  Then  the  priest  spreads  his  hands,  accord- 
ing to  the  ancient  ceremony  of  sacrifices,  over  tlie  bread 
and  wine  which  are  to  be  consecrated  into  the  body  and 
v.— 1 1 1 


blood  of  Christ,  and  begs  that  God  would  accept  of  this 
oblation  which  he  makes  in  the  name  of  the  whole 
Church,  and  that  he  would  grant  us  peace  in  this  life 
and  eternal  salvation  in  the  next.  After  which  he  sol- 
emnly blesses  the  bread  and  wine  with  the  sign  of  the 
cross,  and  invokes  the  Almighty  that  they  may  be  made 
to  us  the  body  and  blood  of  his  most  beloved  Son,  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ.  And  so  he  proceeds  to  the  conse- 
cration, first  of  the  bread  into  the  body  of  our  Lord,  and 
then  of  the  wine  into  his  blood ;  which  consecration  is 
made  by  Christ's  own  words,  pronounced  in  his  name 
and  person  by  the  priest,  and  is  the  most  essential  part 
of  this  sacrifice,  because  thereby  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ  are  really  exhibited  and  presented  to  God,  and 
Christ  is  mystically  immolated.  Immediately  after  the 
consecration  follows  the  elevation,  first  of  the  host,  then 
of  the  chalice,  in  remembrance  of  Christ's  elevation  upon 
the  cross.  At  the  elevation  of  the  chalice  the  priest  re- 
cites those  words  of  Christ,  'As  often  as  you  do  these 
things,  you  shall  do  them  for  a  commemoration  of  me.' 
Then  he  goes  on,  making  a  solemn  commemoration  of 
the  passion,  resurrection,  and  ascension  of  Christ,  and 
begging  of  God  to  accept  this  sacrifice,  as  he  was  pleased 
to  accept  the  oblation  of  Abel,  Abraham,  and  ISIelchise- 
dek ;  and  to  command  that  it  may,  by  his  holy  angel, 
be  presented  upon  the  altar  above,  in  presence  of  his  di- 
vine Majestj',  for  the  benefit  of  all  those  that  shall  par- 
take of  these  mysteries  here  below.  Then  the  priest 
proceeds  to  the  memento,  or  commemoration  of  the 
%lead,  saying, '  Remember  also,  O  Lord,  thy  servants  N. 
and  N.,  who  are  gone  before  us  with  the  sign  of  faith, 
and  repose  in  the  sleep  of  peace ;'  praying  for  aU  the 
faithful  departed  in  general,  and  in  particular  for  those 
for  whom  he  desires  to  offer  this  sacrifice.  After  this 
memento  or  commemoration  of  the  dead,  the  priest, 
raising  his  voice  a  little,  and  striking  his  breast,  says, 
'  Nobis  quoque  peccatoribus,' etc.  (And  to  us  sinners,  etc.), 
humbly  craving  mercy  and  pardon  for  his  sins,  and  to 
be  admitted  to  some  part  and  society  with  the  apos- 
tles and  martyrs  through  Jesus  Christ.  Then  Icneeling 
down,  and  taking  the  sacred  host  in  his  hands,  he  makes 
the  sign  of  the  cross  with  it  over  the  chalice,  saying, 
'  Through  him,  and  with  him,  and  in  him,  is  to  thee,  O 
God,  the  Father,  in  the  unity  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  all 
honor  and  glory ;'  which  last  words  he  pronounces,  ele- 
vating a  little  the  host  and  chalice  from  the  altar,  and 
then  kneels  down,  saying,  with  a  loud  voice, '  Per  omnia 
siEcula  sfficidorum"  (Forever  and  ever).  Answer,  Amen. 
After  which  he  recites  aloud  the  Pater  Nosier,  or  Lord's 
Prayer,  the  clerk  answering  at  the  end, '  Sed  libera  nos 
a  malo'  (But  deliver  us  from  evil).  After  this  the  priest 
breaks  the  host  over  the  chalice,  in  remembrance  of 
Christ's  body  being  broken  for  us  upon  the  cross;  and 
he  puts  a  small  particle  of  the  host  into  the  chalice, 
praying  that  the  peace  of  the  Lord  may  be  always  with 
us.  Then  kneeling  down,  and  rising  up  again,  he  says, 
'Agnus  Dei,^  etc.  (Lamb  of  God,  who  takest  away  the 
sins  of  the  world,  have  mercy  on  us).  He  repeats  this 
thrice ;  but  at  the  third  time,  instead  of  'Have  mercy  on 
us,'  he  says, '  Grant  us  peace.'  After  the  Agnus  Dei,  the 
jjriest  says  three  short  prayers,  by  way  of  preparation 
for  receiving  the  blessed  sacrament ;  then  kneeling  down, 
and  rising  again,  he  takes  up  the  host,  and,  striking  his 
breast,  he  says  thrice,  '  Domine,  non  sum  dignus,'  etc. 
(Lord,  I  am  not  worthy  that  thou  shouldest  enter  under 
my  roof;  speak  only  the  word,  and  my  soul  shall  be 
healed).  After  which  he  makes  the  sign  of  the  cross 
upon  himself  with  the  host,  saying,  '  The  body  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ  preserve  my  soul  to  life  everlasting. 
Amen.'  He  so  receives  it.  Then,  after  a  short  pause  in 
mental  prayer,  he  proceeds  to  the  recei\'ing  of  the  chal- 
ice, usmg  the  like  words, '  The  blood  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ  preserv'e  my  soul  to  life  everlasting.  Amen.' 
Then  follows  the  communion  of  the  people,  if  any  are  to 
receive.  After  the  communion,  the  priest  takes  the  lo- 
tions, or  ablutions,  of  wine  and  water  in  the  chalice,  in 
order  to  consummate  whatever  may  remain  of  the  con- 


MASS 


866 


MASS 


secrated  species.  Then  covering  the  chalice,  he  goes 
to  the  book  and  reads  a  versicle  of  holy  Scripture,  called 
the  communion ;  after  which  he  turns  about  to  the  peo- 
ple with  the  usual  salutation,  Dominus  vobiscum,  and,  re- 
turning to  the  book,  reads  the  collects  or  prayers  called 
the  post-communion.  After  which  he  again  greets  the 
people  with  Dominus  vobiscum,  and  gives  them  leave  to 
depart  with  Ite,  missa  est ;  the  clerk  answering,  '  Deo 
gratias'  (Thanks  be  to  God).  Then  the  priest,  bowing 
down  before  the  altar,  makes  a  short  prayer  to  the 
blessed  Trinity ;  and  then,  turning  about  to  the  people, 
gives  his  blessing  to  them  all,  in  the  name  of  the  blessed 
Trinity ;  and  so  concludes  the  mass,  by  reading  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Gospel  according  to  St.  John,  which  the 
people  hear  standing,  till  these  words, '  Et  verbiun  caro 
factum  est'  (And  the  Word  was  made  tlesh) ;  when  both 
priest  and  people  kneel  down,  in  reverence  to  the  mys- 
terj'  of  Christ's  incarnation.  At  the  end  the  clerk  an- 
swers, 'Deo  gratias'  (Thanks  be  to  God).  And  so  the 
priest  returns  from  the  altar  to  the  sacristy,  and  imvests 
himself,  reciting  in  the  meantime  the  Benedicite,  or  the 
canticle  of  the  three  children,  inviting  all  creatures  in 
heaven  and  earth  to  praise  and  bless  the  Lord.  As  the 
mass  represents  the  passion  of  Christ,  and  the  priest 
there  officiates  in  his  person,  so  the  vestments  in  which 
he  officiates  represent  those  with  which  Christ  was  ig- 
nominiously  clothed  at  the  time  of  his  passion.  Thus 
the  amice  represents  the  rag  or  clout  with  which  the 
Jews  muffled  our  Saviour's  face,  when  at  every  blow 
they  bid  him  prophesy  who  it  was  that  struck  him"' 
(Luke  xxii,  64).  The  alb  represents  the  white  garment 
with  which  he  was  vested  by  Herod ;  the  girdle,  mani- 
ple, and  stole  represent  the  cords  and  bands  with  which 
he  was  bound  in  the  different  stages  of  his  passion.  The 
chasuble,  or  outward  vestment,  represents  the  purple 
garment  with  which  he  was  clothed  as  a  mock  king; 
upon  the  back  of  which  there  is  ^  cross,  to  represent 
that  which  Christ  bore  on  his  sacred  shoidders ;  lastly, 
the  priest's  tonsure  or  crown,  is  to  represent  the  crown 
of  thorns  which  our  Saviour  wore.  Moreover,  as  in  the 
old  law,  the  priests,  that  were  wont  to  officiate  in  sacred 
functions,  had,  by  the  appointment  of  God,  vestments 
assigned  for  that  purpose,  as  well  for  the  greater  decency 
and  solemnity  of  the  di\'ine  worship,  as  to  signify  and 
represent  the  virtues  which  God  required  of  his  minis- 
ters, so  it  was  proper  that  in  the  Church  of  the  New 
Testament  Christ's  ministers  should  in  their  sacred  func- 
tions be  distinguished  in  like  manner  from  the  laity  by 
their  sacred  vestments,  which  might  also  represent  the 
virtues  which  God  requires  in  them :  thus  the  amice, 
which  is  first  put  upon  the  head,  represents  divine  hdf)e, 
which  the  apostle  calls  the  helmet  of  salvation ;  the  alb. 
innocence  of  life;  the  girdle,  with  which  the  loins  are 
begirt,  purity  and  chastity ;  the  maniple,  which  is  put 
on  the  left  arm,  patient  suffering  of  the  labors  of  this 
mortal  life ;  the  stole,  the  sweet  yoke  of  Christ,  to  be 
borne  in  this  life,  in  order  to  a  happy  immortality ;  in 
fine,  the  chasuble,  which  is  uppermost,  and  covers  all  the 
rest,  represents  the  virtue  of  charity.  In  these  vest- 
ments the  Churcli  makes  use  of  live  colors,  viz.  the  w/iite 
on  the  feasts  of  our  Lortl,  of  the  blessed  Virgin,  of  the 
angels,  and  of  the  saints  that  were  not  martyrs;  the  red 
on  the  feasts  of  Pentecost,  of  the  invention  and  exalta- 
tion of  the  cross,  and  of  the  apostles  and  martyrs ;  the 
violet,  wliich  is  the  penitential  color,  in  the  penitential 
times  of  Advent  and  Lent,  and  upon  vigils  and  ember 
days;  the  rp-een  on  most  of  the  otlier  Sundays  and  ferias 
thro\:gh()ut  the  year;  and  the  bliick  on  (iood  Friday, 
and  in  the  masses  for  the  dead.  We  make  a  reverence 
to  the  altar  upon  which  mass  is  said,  because  it  is  the 
seat  of  these  divine  mysteries,  and  a  figure  of  Christ, 
who  is  not  only  our  priest  and  sacrifice,  but  our  altar  too, 
inasmucli  as  we  offer  our  prayers  and  sacrifices  through 
him.  Lipon  the  altar  we  always  liave  a  crucifix,  that, 
as  the  mass  is  said  in  rememl)rance  of  Christ's  passion 
and  death,  both  priest  and  people  may  have  before  their 
eyes,  during  this  sacrifice,  the  image  that  puts  them  in 


mind  of  his  passion  and  death.  And  there  are  always 
lighted  candles  upon  the  altar  during  mass,  as  well  to 
honor  the  victory  and  triumph  of  our  (ircat  King  (which 
is  there  celebrated)  by  these  lights,  which  are  tokens  (jf 
our  joy  and  of  his  glory,  as  to  denote  the  light  of  faith, 
with  which  we  are  to  approach  to  him. 

"  The  priest  who  is  to  celebrate  mass  must  previously 
confess  all  his  mortal  sins,  in  order  that  he  may  feel 
morally  sure  tliat  he  is  in  a  state  of  grace,  since  for  the 
recovery  of  that  state  by  such  as  have  once  fallen  from 
it,  confession,  or  contrition,  if  confession  cannot  be  ob- 
tained, is  absolutely  necessary.  Confession  is  unattain- 
able when  there  is  no  confessor,  or  when  there  is  none 
but  an  excommunicated  person,  or  one  whose  powers 
have  expired,  or  whose  powers  do  not  extend  to  absolu- 
tion from  the  particular  sins  of  which  the  penitent  is 
guilty,  or  one  who  is  justly  suspected  of  having  betrayed 
the  secrets  of  confession,  or  who  requires  an  interjireter, 
or  when  it  is  impossible  to  go  to  confession  without 
manifest  inconvenience  from  distance,  badness  of  the 
roads,  inclemency  of  the  season,  or  the  murmurs  of  the 
congregation  impatient  for  mass.  Even  if  any  of  these 
reasons  can  be  pleaded,  no  unconfessed  priest  ought  to 
celebrate  mass  unless  he  be  compelled  bj'  menaces  of 
death,  or  through  fear  that  a  sick  person  may  die  with- 
out receiving  the  viaiiciim,  or  to  avoid  scandal  when  a 
congregation  is  waiting,  or  to  finish  a  mass  in  which 
another  priest  has  been  accidentally  interrupted.  If  a 
priest,  during  the  celebration  of  mass,  should  recollect 
that  he  is  in  a  state  of  mortal  sin,  excommunicated  or 
suspended,  or  that  the  place  in  which  he  is  celebrating 
it  is  interdicted,  he  must  quit  the  altar,  imless  he  has 
already  consecrated  the  host ;  and  even  if  he  has  done 
so,  or  any  fear  of  scandal  induces  him  to  proceed  (as  it 
is  morally  impossible  but  that  some  such  fear  must 
arise),  he  must  perform  an  act  of  contrition,  and  make  a 
firm  resolution  to  confess,  if  in  his  power,  on  the  very 
same  day.  No  priest,  without  committing  venial  or 
perhaps  mortal  sin,  can  celebrate  mass  before  he  has  re- 
cited matins  and  lauds,  unless  from  the  necessity  of  ad- 
ministering the  viciticnm  to  the  dying,  or  of  exhorting 
such  a  one  during  the  night,  from  pressure  of  confes- 
sions on  a  holiday,  or  to  quiet  murmurs  among  the  con- 
gregation. It  is  a  mortal  sin  for  a  priest  intending  to 
say  mass  to  taste  food,  drink,  or  medicine  after  the  pre- 
ceding midnight.  Even  an  involuntary  transgression 
of  such  rules  is  a  mortal  sin ;  so  that  a  priest  offends  in 
that  degree  if  he  celebrates  mass  alter  having  been 
forced  to  eat  or  drink  the  smallest  morsel  or  drop  while 
the  hour  of  midnight  is  striking,  or  a  single  moment  af- 
terwards. The  exceptions  are — 1.  To  save  the  profa- 
nation of  the  host;  thus,  if  a  heretic  is  about  to  profane 
the  host,  and  there  be  no  one  else  by  who  can  otherwise 
prevent  it,  a  priest,  although  not  fasting,  may  swallow 
it  without  sin.  2.  When  a  priest  has  so  far  proceeded 
in  mass  that  he  cannot  stop,  as  when  water  has  been 
accidentally  put  into  the  chalice  instead  of  wine,  and  he 
does  not  perceive  it  till  he  has  swallowed  it,  or  when  he 
recollects  after  consecration  that  he  is  not  fasting.  3. 
When,  after  having  performed  the  larabo,  he  perceives 
any  scattered  fragments  of  hosts,  provided  he  be  still  at 
the  altar,  these  he  may  eat.  4.  To  prevent  scandal, 
such  as  a  suspicion  that  he  had  committed  a  crime  the 
night  before.  5.  To  administer  the  viaticum.  0.  To 
finish  a  mass  commenced  by  another  priest,  and  acci- 
dentally interrupted.  7.  ^Mien  he  is  dispensed.  It  is 
vert/  probably  a  mortal  sin,  by  autliorities,  to  celebrate 
mass  before  dawn.  So  also  mass  must  not  be  celebrated 
after  noon,  and  never,  unless  for  the  dying,  on  Good 
Friday.  It  is  a  mortal  sin  to  celebrate  mass  without 
the  necessary  vestments  and  ornaments,  or  with  uncon- 
secrated  vestments,  etc.,  unless  in  cases  of  the  uttermost 
necessity.  These  vestments  lose  their  consecration  if 
any  portion  has  been  torn  off  and  sewed  on  again,  not 
if  they  are  repaired  before  absolute  disjunction,  even  if 
it  be  by  a  downright  patch.  No  Avorn-out  consecrated 
vestment  should  be  ajiplied  to  any  other  purpose ;  but  it 


MASS 


867 


MASS 


should  be  burned,  and  the  ashes  thrown  in  some  place 
in  which  they  will  not  be  trampled  on.  But,  on  the 
other  hand,  with  a  very  wise  distinction,  the  precious 
metals  wliich  have  served  profane  uses  may  be  applied 
to  sacred  purposes,  after  having  been  passed  through 
the  tire,  which  changes  their  very  nature  by  fusion.  No 
dispensation  has  ever  yet  been  granted  by  any  pope  to 
qualify  the  rigid  precept  enjoining  the  necessity  of  an 
altar  for  mass;  and  this  must  have  been  consecrated  by 
a  bishop,  not  by  a  simple  priest,  imless  through  dispen- 
sation from  the"  holy  father  himself.  Three  napkins  are 
strictly  necessary ;  two  may  suffice  if  such  be  the  com- 
mon usage  of  the  country— one  in  very  urgent  cases ; 
and  even  that,  provided  it  be  whole  and  clean,  may  be 
unconsecrated ;  but  a  lighted  taper  must  not  on  any  ac- 
count be  dispensed  with,  even  to  secure  the  receipt  of 
the  viaticum  by  a  dying  man.  IMass  must  stop  if  the 
taper  be  extinguished  and  another  cannot  be  obtained. 
On  that  account  a  lamp  should  be  kept  burning  day  and 
night  before  every  altar  on  which  the  host  is  deposited; 
and  those  to  whom  the  care  of  this  lamp  appertains  com- 
mit a  mortal  sin  if  they  neglect  it  for  one  whole  day. 
In  no  case  must  a  woman  be  allowed  to  assist  a  priest 
at  the  altar.  Certain  prevalent  superstitions  during  the 
celebration  of  mass  are  forbidden — such  as  picking  up 
from  the  ground,  during  the  sandus  of  the  mass  on  Palm 
Sunday,  the  boxwood  consecrated  on  that  day,  infusing 
it  for  three  quarters  of  an  hour,  neither  more  nor  less, 
in  spring  water,  and  drinking  the  water  as  a  cure  for 
the  colic;  keeping  the  mouth  open  during  the  sandus 
in  the  mass  for  the  dead,  as  a  charm  against  mad  dogs; 
writing  the  sandus  on  a  piece  of  virgin  parchment,  and 
wearing  it  as  an  amulet;  saying  mass  for  twenty  Fri- 
days running  as  a  security  against  dying  without  con- 
fession, contrition,  full  satisfaction,  and  communion,  and 
in  order  to  obtain  admission  into  heaven  thirty  days  af- 
ter decease ;  ordering  a  mass  of  the  Holy  Ghost  to  be 
said  in  certain  churches  by  way  of  divination.  If  a  fly 
or  a  s])ider  fall  into  the  cup  before  consecration,  a  fresh 
cup  should  be  provided ;  if  after  consecration,  it  should 
be  swallowed,  if  that  can  be  done  without  repugnance 
or  danger,  otherwise  it  should  be  removed,  washed  with 
wine,  burned  after  mass,  and  its  ashes  thrown  into  the 
sacristy.  There  are  some  nice  precautions  to  be  ob- 
served in  case  of  the  accidental  fall  of  a  host  among  the 
clothes  of  a  female  communicant;  if  the  wafer  fall  on  a 
napkin,  it  suffices  that  the  napkin  be  washed  by  a  sub- 
deacon  ;  but  if  it  be  stained  by  no  more  than  a  single 
drop  of  wine,  the  office  must  be  performed  by  a  priest. 

In  the  celebration  of  mass  the  priest  wears  peculiar 
vestments,  five  in  number — two  of  linen,  called  "amice" 
and  "  alb ;"  and  three  of  silk  or  precious  stuffs,  called 
"  maniple."  "  stole,"  and  "  chasuble,"  the  alb  being  girt 
with  a  cincture  of  flaxen  or  silken  cord.  The  color  of 
these  vestments  varies  with  the  occasion,  five  colors  be- 
ing employed  on  different  occasions — white,  red,  green, 
purple  or  violet,  and  black ;  and  they  are  often  richly 
embroidered  with  silk  or  thread  of  the  precious  metals, 
and  occasionally  with  precious  stones.  The  priest  is 
required  to  celebrate  the  mass  fasting,  and,  unless  by 
special  dispensation,  is  only  permitted  to  offer  it  once  in 
the  day,  except  on  Christmas  day,  when  three  masses 
may  be  celebrated. 

In  the  Greek  and  Oriental  churches,  the  Eucharistic 
service,  called  in  Greek  Thna  Leilonrr/ia  (The  Divine 
Liturgy),  differs  in  the  order  of  its  parts,  in  the  wording 
of  most  of  its  prayers,  and  in  its  accompanying  ceremo- 
nial, from  the  mass  of  the  Latin  Church  [see  Liturgy]  ; 
but  the  only  differences  which  have  any  importance  as 
bearing  iqion  doctrine,  are  their  use  of  leavened  bread 
instead  of  unleavened ;  their  more  frequent  celebration 
of  the  "  jMass  of  the  Presanctified,"  to  which  reference 
has  already  been  made ;  the  Latin  use  of  private  mass- 
es, in  which  the  priest  alone  communicates ;  and,  in  gen- 
eral, the  much  more  frequent  celebration  of  the  mass  in 
the  Latin  Church.  The  sacred  vestments,  too,  of  the 
Greek  and  Eastern  rites  differ  notably  from  those  of  the 


Latin ;  and  in  some  of  the  former — as,  for  example,  the 
Armenian — a  veil  is  drawn  before  the  altar  during  that 
part  of  the  service  in  which  the  consecration  takes  place, 
which  is  only  withdrav;n  at  the  time  of  the  communion. 
The  service  sometimes  used  on  shipboard,  and  improp- 
erly called  Missa  Sicca  (Dry  IVIass),  consists  simply  of 
the  reading  of  the  prayers  of  the  mass,  but  without  any 
consecration  of  the  elements.  It  was  resorted  to  with  a 
view  to  avoiding  the  danger  of  spilling  the  sacred  ele- 
ments, owing  to  the  unsteady  motion  of  the  ship.  It  is 
sometimes  also  called  Missa  Nautica  (Ship  Mass).  (For 
detailed  information  on  the  practices  of  the  Riisso-Greek 
Church,  see  John  Glen  King,  Rites  and  Cei-emonies  of  the 
Greek  Church  in  Russia  [London,  1772,  4to].  For  the 
Eastern  Church  generally,  see  Neale,  Eastern  Church: 
Introduction,') 

Frequency  of  tlie  Mass. — "At  first,"  says  Walcott  (p. 
366),  "celebration  occurred  only  on  Sundays  (1  Cor.  xvi, 
1) ;  and  in  the  time  of  Justin  jMartyr,  after  the  2d  cen- 
tury, the  Western  Christians  communicated  on  Sundays, 
and  Wednesdays,  and  Fridays.  In  the  4th  century  the 
Greek  Church  added  Saturday ;  now  it  maintains  daily 
celebration.  St.  Augustine  says  that  the  practice  dif- 
fered in  various  countries;  in  some  celebration  was  daily, 
in  others  on  Saturdays  and  Sundays,  but  in  some  on 
Sunday  only ;  the  daily  celebration  was  practiced  in  Af- 
rica, Spain,  and  at  Constantinople ;  in  the  6th  century  it 
was  general.  St.  Ambrose  mentions  three  celebrations 
in  the  week,  St.  Francis  one  daily  mass  at  Rome.  After 
the  5th  century  priests  were  allowed  on  certain  days, 
called  PolyUturgic,  to  celebrate  twice.  Pope  Deusde- 
dit  first  enjoined  a  second  mass  in  a  day;  vUexander  I 
permitted  a  priest  to  celebrate  only  once  a  day ;  Leo  IV 
forbade  private  masses,  but  still  there  were  several  fes- 
tivals besides  Christmas  when  the  priest  said  mass  three 
times  in  a  day ;  Leo  III  sometimes  celebrated  seven  or 
eight  times  in  twelve  hours,  and  it  was  not  untU  the 
close  of  the  11th  century  that  Alexander  III  directed 
that  the  same  priest  shoidd  say  no  more  than  one  mass 
on  the  same  day,  Christmas  excepted.  The  Council  of 
Seligenstadt  forbade  a  priest  to  exceed  saying  more 
than  three  masses  in  a  day.  From  the  6th  century 
these  repeated  masses  said  by  some  priest  may  be  dated, 
when  private  masses  were  not  in  common  use,  and  were 
permitted  (as  St.  Leo  says)  in  order  to  satisfy  the  need 
of  crowds  of  communicants,  and  he  calls  it  a  form  of 
tradition  from  the  fathers.  At  length,  when  the  press- 
ure no  longer  existed  in  the  8th  centmy,  there  were 
four  masses  at  Christmas,  two  on  the  Circumcision,  and 
three  on  SS.  Peter  and  Paul's  day,  and  on  IMaundy- 
Thursday.  In  France  every  priest  was  allowed  to  say 
two  masses  a  day  in  Holy  Week.  Three  masses  were 
said  on  St.  John  Baptist's  day :  one  in  the  eve,  in  com- 
memoration of  his  being  the  Lord's  messenger ;  a  second  on 
his  feast,  in  memorial  of  the  baptism  in  the  Jordan ;  and 
the  third  because  he  was  a  Nazarite  from  his  birth.  In 
1222,  in  England,  mass  might  be  said  by  a  priest  twice 
on  the  same  day,  at  Christmas,  Easter,  and  in  the  offices 
of  the  dead.  The  three  Christmas  masses  were  in  hon- 
or of  Christ,  as  the  only-begotten  of  the  Father,  his 
spiritual  birth  in  Christians,  and  his  nativity  of  a  wom- 
an. A  restriction  by  the  Council  of  Autun  (613)  was 
in  force  until  the  10th  century,  against  celebration  by  a 
priest  at  the  same  altar  twice  in  one  day,  or  where  pon- 
tifical mass  had  been  said.  Priests  who  celebrated  more 
than  once  collected  all  the  ablutions  of  their  fingers  in 
one  chalice,  and  the  contents  being  emptied  into  a  cup, 
were  drank  at  the  last  mass  by  a  deacon,  clerk,  or  lay- 
man in  a  state  of  grace  or  innocent.  The  day  when  no 
mass  was  offered,"except  that  of  the  Mass  of  the  Pre- 
sanctified, was  called  a  liturgic.  The  Holy  Commu- 
nion was  celebrated  at  first  at  night,  or,  as  Pliny  says, 
before  daybreak,  and  Tcrtullian  calls  the  meeting  the 
Night  Convocation,  or  that  before  light.  Put  in  time 
the  Church  prescribed  the  mass  to  be  said  in  tierce  of 
festivals,  but  always  after  tierce  in  England  in  1322  ;  on 
common  days  at  sexts ;  in  Lent  and  on  fasts  at  nones, 


MASS  PENNY 


868 


MASSALIANS 


or  3  P.M.  In  the  IVIiddle  Ages  the  nightly  celebrations  1 
were  permitted  on  Christmas  eve,  on  Easter  eve,  on  St. 
Jolni  Baptist's,  principally  in  France,  and  Saturdays  in 
Ember  weeks,  when  ordinations  were  held ;  and  Easter 
and  Pentecost  on  tlie  hallowing  of  the  candle.  In  1483 
archbishop  Bourchier,  from  regard  to  his  infirmity,  re- 
ceived permission  to  celebrate  in  the  afternoon.  Belith 
says  each  day  had  its  mass,  commencing  on  Sunday; 
those  of  Holy  Trinitj',  Charity,  Wisdom,  the  Holy  Ghost, 
Angels,  Holy  Cross,  and  St.  ]Mary,  and  that  at  Rome.  In 
the  province  of  Ravenna  the  mass  of  Easter  eve  was 
not  said  until  after  midnight.  He  adds  that  the  Greek 
Church  excommunicated  all  who  failed  to  partake  of 
the  Eucharist  for  three  Sundays.     See  Invitatory. 

Literature. — The  most  noted  writers  on  this  subject 
are  Bona,  Gerbert,  Gavanti,  Binterim,  Augusti,  Be- 
sides these,  see  Bochart.  Truite  de  saa-{fice  de  la  Messe; 
Derodon,  Le  Tombeau  de  la  Messe ;  Du  Moulin,  Pra- 
tique des  ceremonies  de  la  Messe;  Fechtius,  Z'e  orig.  et 
superstitione  Missai-um;  Jaeger,  Suppositio  niissm  sa- 
crijicio ;  Killian,  Tract,  de  sacrijicio  missatico  (Roman 
Cath.) ;  Koslmg,  Lithurg.  Vorles.  it.  d.  heil.  Messe  (2d 
ed.) ;  Michaelis,  Frohnleicknakni  v.  Messopfer ;  Griiser, 
Die  rom.-Kathol.  Lit.  (Halle,  1829) ;  Hirscher,  Missce 
genuina  notio  (Tlib.  1821)  ;  Mornay,  De  docti-ine  de  VEu- 
charistie  quand  et  par  quels  degres  la  messe  s'est  introduite 
ii  sa  place ;  Bauer,  Priifung  der  Griinde ;  Baur,  Gegen- 
satz  des  Katholicismus  n.  Pi-otestantismus  (Tub.  1836, 2d 
edit.) ;  Baier,  Symholik  der  rum.-Kathol.  Kirclie  (Leip- 
sic,  1854) ;  Anderson,  The  Mass  (Lond.  1851, 12mo);  Ma- 
guire.  One  Hundred  Defects  of  the  Mass ;  INIeager,  Popish 
Mass  celebrated  by  Heathen  Priests ;  Whitby,  A  bsurdity 
and  Idolatry  of  the  Mass ;  Bible  and  Missal,  ch.  iv ;  Bos- 
suet's  Variations,  vol.  i;  Siegel,  Chistliche  Alterthiimer 
(see  Index  in  vol.  iv,  s.  v.  Messe) ;  Riddle,  Christian  A  n- 
iiquities;  Walcott,  Sac.  Archceol.  s.  v.;  Coleman,  Christ. 
A  ntiq. ;  Willet,  Synop.  Pap.  (ed.  Gumming,  Lond.  1852) ; 
Forbes,  Coiisiderations,  ii,  562 ;  English  Rev.  x,  344 ;  Ret- 
rospective  Rev.  xii,  70 ;  Wesim.  Rev.  18G6  (July),  p.  95 ; 
Christian  Ch.  Rev.  1866  (April),  p.  15  sq. ;  Evangel.  Qii. 
Rev.  1869  (.Jan.),  p.  86 ;  Christian  Remembrancer,  1866 
(Jan.),  p.  63 ;  New  Englander,  1869,  p.  525 ;  Haag,  Les 
Dogmas  Chretiennes  (see  Index) ;  Flagenbach,  Hist,  of 
Doctrines  (see  Index,  vol.  ii) ;  Cramp,  Text-Book  oJ'Pope- 
}-y ;  Blunt,  Diet,  of  Hist,  and  Doctr.  Theol.  s.  v. ;  Eadie, 
Ecclesiast.  Did,  s.  v. ;  Aschbach,  Kirchen-Lexikon,  s.  v. 
Messe. 

Mass  Penny,  a  conventional  name  for  the  offering 
made  by  a  chief  mourner  at  a  funeral. 

Mass  Priests,  mercenaries  hired  at  a  certain  sum, 
who  undertook  an  immoderate  number  of  annals  or  tren- 
tals,  and  were  unable  to  say  them,  and  sold  them  to  be 
offered  by  others.  This  abuse  was  forbidden  in  1236  by 
archbishop  Edmund's  Constitutions  (2).  In  960  the 
mass  priest  was  the  secular,  and  the  minister  priest  the 
conventual,  and  this  is  the  earliest  meaning  of  the  term. 
^Walcott,  Sac.  A  rchceol.  s.  v. 

Mas'sa  (Heb.  Massa',  ii'<lS'0,  a  lifting  up,  as  often  ; 
Sept.  M«(Tff»/),  one  of  the  sons  of  Ishmael  (B.C.  post 
2061),  who  became  the  progenitor  of  an  Arabian  clan 
(Gen.  XXV,  14 ;  1  Chron.  i.  30).  The  tribe  is  usually, 
and  not  improbably,  compared  with  the  Masani  (Mo- 
aavoi,  Ptol.  v,  19,  2),  inhabiting  the  Arabian  desert  to- 
wards Babylonia,  doubtless  the  same  as  the  Mascei,  a 
nomad  tribe  of  Mesopotamia  (Pliny,  //.  A',  vi,  30).  This 
would  confirm  Forster's  theon,-  that  the  twelve  sons  of 
Ishmael  peopled  the  whole  of  the  Arabian  peninsula 
{Gengr.  of  A  rabia,  i,  284).  As  Dumah  is  named  in  con- 
nection with  Scir  (Isa.  xxi,  11),  there  "is  some  founda- 
tion for  the  opinion  that  Massa  was  a  kingdom  of  con- 
siderable size,  possibly  reigned  over  by  king  Lemuel 
(Prov.  XXX,  1,  X'^a^ij,  "  th&  prophecy")..  See  Lkmuel. 
Hitzig  arbitrarily  locates  Dumah  in  wady  el-Kora, 
about  fifty  miles  south-east  of  Aliabah,  and  then  places 
Jlassa  between  it  and  IMouut  Seir  (Zcller's  Jahrbuch, 
1844,  p.  288).     See  Dujlvii, 


Massa  Candida,  the  name  given  to  300  Chris- 
tians who,  during  the  persecution  of  Valerian,  and  in 
the  time  of  bishop  Cyprian,  were  put  to  death  by  being 
burned  in  a  lime-kUn.  The  name  Massa,  says  Augus- 
tine, was  given  them  "  ob  numeri  multitudinem,"  and 
that  of  Candida  "ob  causae  fulgorem."  Baronius  re- 
marks :  "  Dicti  sunt  hi  Massa  Candida,  eo  quod  in  for- 
nace  calcaria  martyrium  consumarint."  Vincentius  Bel- 
lovacensis,  on  the  other  hand,  designates  the  ]\[assa 
Candida  as  "  locus  apud  Carthaginem,  in  quo  sub  Impe- 
ratoribus  gentilibus  et  in  Christianos  sxvientibus  fovea 
erat  calce  plena,  in  quam  Christiani  gentilium  Diis  sa- 
crificare  renuentes  pa3cipitabantur."  Augustine  also  uses 
the  expression,  "  Uticensis  Massa  Candida,"  which  Baro- 
nius explains :  "  Uticaj  proscipue  agebatur  horum  solem- 
nitas,  atque  ca  de  causa  S.  Augustinus  Massam  candi- 
dam  Uticensem  dictam  esse  refert."  Aurelius  Pruden- 
tius  Clemens  refers  to  the  Massa  Candida  in  his  hymn 
on  St.  C3'prian  {Lib.  Persisfei)hanon,  Hymn  xiii)  in  the 
following  gloAV'ing  description : 

"  Fama  refert  foveam  campi  in  medio  patere  jnssara, 
Calce  vaporifera  Summos  prope  iiiargines  refertam 
Saxa  recocta  vomunt  ignem  niveusque  pulvis  ardet, 
Urere  tacta  potens ;  et  mortifer  ex  odore  flatus. 
Appositam  memorant  aram,  fovea  stetisse  summa, 
Lege  sub  hac  salis  aut  micam,  jecur  aut  suis  litarent 
Christicolsp,  aut  media?  spoiite  irruerent  in  ima  fossce. 
Prosiluere  alacres  cursu  rapido  simul  trecenti. 
Gurgite  pulvereo  mersos  liquor  aridus  voravit, 
Prsecipitemque  globum  fundo  tenus  implicavit  imo. 
Corpora  candor  habet,  candor  vehit  ad  superna  meutes. 
Candida  Massa  dehinc  did  meruit  per  omne  eseclum." 

The  festival  is  commemorated  Aug.  24. — Herzog,  Real" 
Encyklopddie,  ix,  142. 

Massagetae,  an  ancient  nomadic  people,  who  in- 
habited the  broad  steppes  on  the  north-east  of  the  Cas- 
pian Sea,  to  the  northward  of  the  river  Araxes  or  Jax- 
artes.  Herodotus  says  that  they  had  a  community  of 
wives ;  that  they  sacrificed  and  devoured  their  aged  peo- 
ple ;  that  they  worshipped  the  sun,  and  offered  horses 
to  him ;  that  they  lived  on  the  milk  and  flesh  of  their 
herds,  and  on  fish ;  and  fought  on  horseback  and  on  foot 
with  lance,  bow,  and  double-edged  axe.  Cyrus  is  said 
to  have  lost  his  life  in  fighting  against  them,  B.C.  530. 
Niebuhr  and  Bockh  are  of  opinion  that  they  belonged 
to  the  Mongolian,  but  Humboldt  and  others,  to  the  Indo- 
Germanic  or  Ar^-an  family. — Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Mas'sah  (Heb.  Massah',  ilS'O,  trial,  as  often ;  Sept. 
TTf  (pcrffjiioc,  iriipa  ;  Vulg.  tentatio'),  a  name  given  to  the 
spot  in  Rephidim  where  the  Israelites  provoked  Jeho- 
vah bj'  murmuring  for  want  of  water;  otherwise  called 
Meribah  (Exod.  xvii,  7 ;  Deut.  vi,  16 ;  ix,  22 ;  xxviii, 
8).  The  name  also  occurs  (in  the  Heb.),  with  mention 
of  the  circumstances  which  occasioned  it,  in  Psa.  xcv,  8, 
9,  and  its  Greek  equivalent  in  Heb.  iii,  8. 

Massalians  (from  "|"'^^'2)  or  Messalians,  also 
called  Enthusiasts,  were  a  sect  which  sprung  up  about 
the  year  A.D.  360,  in  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Constair- 
tius.  They  were  mainly  roammg  mendicant  monks, 
and  flourished  in  IMesopotamia  and  Syria.  They  main- 
tained that  men  have  two  souls,  a  celestial  and  a  dia- 
bolical; and  that  the  latter  is  driven  out  by  prayer. 
They  consequently  conceived  the  Christian  life  as  an 
unintermitted  prayer,  despised  the  moral  law  and  the 
sacraments,  and  claimed  to  enjoy  perfection.  The  Gos- 
pel historj'  they  declared  a  mere  allegory.  But  they 
concealed  their  pantheistic  mysticism  and  antinomian- 
ism  under  external  conformity  to  the  Cathohc  Church. 
From  those  words  of  our  Lord,  "Labor  not  for  the  meat 
that  perisheth,"  it  is  said  that  they  concluded  they  ought 
not  to  do  any  work  to  get  their  bread.  We  may  sup- 
pose, says  Dr.  Jortin,  that  this  sect  did  not  last  long; 
that  these  sluggards  were  soon  starved  out  of  the  world ; 
or,  rather,  that  cold  and  hunger  sharpened  their  wits, 
and  taught  them  to  be  better  interpreters  of  Scripture. 
ToAvards  the  close  of  the  4th  century  the  Church  dis- 
covered the  real  tendency  of  the  IMassalians,  and  they 
were  sorely  persecuted ;  but,  notwithstanding  all  oppo- 


MASSARIUS 


869 


MASSILLON 


sition,  they  perpetuated  themselves  to  the  7th  centurj', 
and  reappeared  in  the  Euckites  and  Bogomiles  (q.  v.)  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  See  Buck,  Theol.  Did.  s.  v. ;  Nean- 
der,  Ch.  Hist,  i'i,  240-247 ;  SchafF,  Ch.  Hist,  ii,  199. 

IMassarius,  a  chamberlain  of  the  massa  communis, 
which  Mas  the  common  fund  of  a  cathedral. 
Masseketh.     See  Talmud. 
Massi'as  (Mao-o-iac  v.  r.  'Aaaiiar),  given  (1  Esdr. 
ix,  22)  in  place  of  the  Maassei.vh  (q.  v.)  of  the  Heb. 
list  (Ezra  x,  22). 

Massie,  James  William,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  mmister 
of  the  English  Independents,  for  some  time  engaged  in 
the  missionary  field,  was  born  in  Ireland  in  1799.  He 
was  educated  for  the  ministry  by  Dr.  Bogue,  and  went 
out  as  a  missionary  to  India.  After  laboring  there  a  few 
years  he  returned  to  Great  Britain,  was  pastor  for  a  time 
at  Perth,  Scotland,  and  subsequently  at  Dublin,  Ireland, 
and  Salford,  England,  from  which  latter  place  he  re- 
moved to  London,  to  act  as  secretary  of  the  Home  Mis- 
sionary Society.  Deeply  interested  in  all  the  public 
movements  of  the  day,  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
anti-slavery  movement,  and  was  an  active  member  of 
the  Union  and  Emancipation  societies  formed  during 
the  late  war  in  the  United  States.  He  visited  this 
country  several  times,  and  was  twice  delegated  from  the 
Independents  to  our  Congregationalists  and  Presbyte- 
rians. He  died  at  Kingston,  Ireland,  May  8, 1869.  Dr. 
Massie  was  the  author  of  several  works,  among  which 
were  Continental  India  (1839,  2  vols.  8vo ;  1840,  2  vols. 
8vo)  : — Recollections,  illustrating  the  Religion,  etc.,  of  the 
Hindus  (2  vols.) : — The  Nonconformists'  Plea  for  F?-ee- 
dom  of  Education  (1847) : — The  Evangelical  Alliance,  its 
Origin  and  Development  (1847) : — Liberty  of  Conscience 
illustrated,  etc.  (1847)  : — Social  Improveinoit  among  the 
Working  Classes  affecting  the  entire  Body  Politic  (1849)  : 
— Slavery  the  Ci'ime  and  Curse  of  America  (1852): — 
The  Contrast — War  and  Christianity:  Mai'tial  Evils 
and  their  Remedy  (1855) : — Christ  a  Learner  (1858) : — 
Revivals  in  Ireland :  Facts,  Documents,  and  Correspond- 
ence (1859-60)  -.—Revival  Work  (1860)  -.—The  A  merican 
Crisis  in  Relation  to  the  Anti-slavery  Cause  (1862): — 
America,  the  Origin  of  her  jjresent  Conflict;  her  Pros- 
pect for  the  Slave,  and  her  Claim  for  Anti-slavery  Sym- 
pathy, illustrated  hy  Incidents  of  Travel  during  a  Tour 
in  the  Summer  of  1863  throughout  the  United  States 
(1864)  ;  etc. 

Massieu,  Guillaume,  a  learned  French  writer, 
was  born  April  13, 1605,  at  Caen,  where  he  finished  his 
classical  studies.  At  sixteen  he  began  a  course  of  phi- 
losophy at  the  college  of  the  Jesuits.  As  he  proved 
himself  an  apt  pupil,  the  Jesuits  desired  to  attach  him  to 
their  order,  and  sent  him  to  Rennes  to  teach  rhetoric,  de- 
signing him  idtimately  for  the  professorship  of  theology; 
but  his  studies  were  not  congenial  to  his  tastes,  and,  his 
love  for  belles-lettres  far  exceeding  that  for  theology, 
he  forsook  the  society  after  he  had  actually  joined  it, 
and  returned  to  the  worid.  His  remarkable  gifts  soon 
gained  him  friends,  and  he  found  work  as  an  instructor. 
While  at  Paris  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  abbot 
De  Tourreil,  whom  he  aided  in  translating  the  works  of 
Demosthenes;  through  his  influence  also  he  became  a 
pensioner  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1705,  and 
in  the  same  j-ear  was  elected  professor  royal  of  the  Greek 
language  in  the  College  of  France,  where  he  distin- 
guished himself  during  the  twelve  j'ears  that  he  held 
the  position  by  his  profound  knowledge  and  a  pure  and 
delicate  taste.  In  1714  the  French  Academy  was  opened 
to  him.  His  oration  delivered  on  this  occasion  is  printed 
in  the  collections  of  the  academy.  Having  translated 
Pindar,  he  naturally  defended  the  writers  of  antiquity 
against  the  attacks  of  Pcrrault  and  of  Lamothe.  The 
Memoires  de  V Academic  des  Inscriptions  (vol.  i,  ii,  and 
iii)  contain  a  great  number  of  dissertations  from  the 
abbe  Massieu.  They  are  still  read  with  pleasure,  al- 
though they  are  more  distinguished  for  delicacy  of  finish 
than  for  profound  erudition  ;   the  principal  are,  Les 


Graces,  Les  Hesperides,  Les  Boucliers  votifs,  Les  Se/-- 
ments  chez  les  Anciens,  and  a  ParalVele  entre  Homere  et 
Platon,  His  most  valuable  work  is  UHistoire  de  la 
Poesie  Frangoise,  it  partir  du  onzieme  si'ecle,  Massieu 
was  one  of  the  many  distinguished  literary  men  who 
are  obliged  all  through  life  to  maintain  an  incessant 
struggle  with  poverty.  In  his  old  age  he  suffered  many 
bodily  grievances,  and  two  cataracts  deprived  him  of 
his  sight.  He  rendered  valuable  service  to  Biblical  lit- 
erature by  his  edition  of  the  Neio  Testament  in  Greek 
(printed  at  Paris,  1715,  in  2  vols.  12mo).  He  died  Sept. 
26,  1722,  at  Paris.  —  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  vol. 
xxxiv,  s.  V. 

Massilians,  a  school  of  theologians  in  Southern 
Gaid,  who,  about  the  year  425,  with  John  Cassian  of 
Marseilles  {Massilia),  a  pupil  of  Chrj'sostom,  at  their 
head,  asserted  the  necessity  of  the  co-operation  of  divine 
grace  and  the  human  will,  maintained  that  God  works 
differently  in  different  men,  and  rejected  the  doctrine 
of  predestination  as  a  vain  speculation  of  mischievous 
tendency.  They  were  called  at  first  Massilians ;  after- 
wards, bj'  scholastic  writers,  Semi-Pelagians;  although, 
far  from  taking  that  name  themselves,  they  rejected  aU 
connection  with  Pelagianism.  Cassian  recognised  the 
universal  corruption  of  human  nature  as  a  consequence 
of  the  first  transgression,  and  recognised  grace  as  well 
as  justification  in  the  sense  of  St.  Augustine,  whom  he 
opposed  on  the  question  of  election.  See  Riddle,  Eccl. 
Chron.;  Eden,  7  keol.  Diet. ;  'Neander,  Hist,  of  the  Chris- 
tian Religion  and  Church,  ii.  261,  627-630;  Schaff,  Ch. 
Hist,  iii,  859  sq. ;  Wiggers,  Gesch.  des  Semi-Pelagianis- 
mns,  ii,  7  sq. ;  Guericke,  Ch.  Hist,  i,  391  sq. ;  Neander, 
Hist,  of  Christian  Dogmas,  ii,  375 ;  Hagenbach,  Hist,  of 
Doctr.  vol.  i.     See  Semi-Pelagia>'s  and  Cassl\nus. 

Massillou,  Jean  Baptiste,  prominent  among  the 
most  eloquent  divines  of  the  French  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  was  born  at  Hieres,  in  Provence,  June  24, 1663. 
His  father  was  a  notary  in  moderate  circumstances, 
and  at  first  intended  his  son  for  the  same  profession, 
but  subsequently  allowed  him  to  receive  the  instruc- 
tions of  the  Fathers  of  the  Oratory,  and  when  eigh- 
teen years  of  age  the  young  man  joined  that  order. 
Soon  "after,  forsaking  the  -world  altogether,  he  entered 
an  abbey  under  the  rule  of  La  Trappe.  Here,  however, 
his  talents  attracted  the  attention  of  the  bishop,  after- 
wards cardinal  de  Noailles,  who  induced  him  to  re-enter 
the  Oratory,  in  which  he  soon  achieved  great  eminence. 
Yet  his  success  was  more  the  fruit  of  labor  than  of  spon- 
taneous genius,  and  his  last  efforts  are  much  superior  to 
his  first.  In  1696  he  went  to  Paris  as  principal  of  the 
Seminary  of  St.  Magloire,  the  renowned  school  of  the 
Oratory.  Here,  in  the  midst  of  the  prevailing  laxity  of 
morals,  he  commenced  his  career  as  a  pulpit  orator,  the 
delivery  of  his  "  Ecclesiastical  conferences"  to  ecclesias- 
tical students  affording  him  an  opportunity  of  developing 
his  talent.  He  admired  the  austere  eloquence  of  Bour- 
daloue,  but  chose  for  himself  a  different  style,  character- 
ized by  profound  pathos,  and  an  insight  into  the  most 
secret  motives  of  the  human  heart.  He  was  shortly 
noted  as  the  preacher  of  repentance  and  penitence;  and 
it  was  declared  by  able  contemporaries  of  his  sermons 
that  "  they  reach  the  heart,  and  produce  their  due  ef- 
fects with  much  more  certainty  than  all  the  logic  of 
Bourdaloue."  He  delivered  the  customary  Lent  ser- 
mons at  Montpellier  in  1698,  and  the  following  year  at 
Paris.  The  latter  were  warmly  applauded,  and  induced 
the  king  to  invite  Jlassillon  to  preach  the  "Advent"  at 
court.  On  this  occasion  king  Louis  XIV  paid  him  the 
highest  compliments.  He  said,  "I  have  heard  many 
talented  preachers  in  my  chapel  before,  and  was  much 
pleased  with  them ;  but  every  time  I  hear  you,  I  feel 
much  displeased  with  myself."  He  again  preached  the 
Lent  sermons  before  the  coiu-t  during  the  years  1701  to 
1704,  but  afterwards  he  received  no  calls  to  appear  be- 
fore them  mitil  the  death  of  the  king :  so  fearless  and 
plain-spoken  a  preacher  would  have  been  ill  suited  to 


MASSILLON 


870 


MAST 


the  gallant  and  profligate  court  of  "  the  great  king."  At 
the  death  of  Louis  XIV,  jMassilloii  was  requested  to 
preach  liis  funeral  sermon  ;  in  other  words,  to  pronounce 
a  eulogy  of  this  prince.  This  was  an  arduous  task  for 
the  uncourticrlike  preacher;  yet  he  undertook  it,  and  in 
his  discourse  lauded  the  fame  and  piety  of  the  lung,  yet 
deplored  the  evils  suffered  by  the  nation  in  consequence 
of  the  wars  and  the  looseness  of  morals.  Invited  now 
to  preach  the  Lent  sermons  before  the  young  king, 
Louis  XV,  then  but  eight  years  of  age,  he  took  advan- 
tage of  the  occasion  to  censure  the  manners  of  the  court ; 
and  morality,  rather  than  the  passion  of  Christ,  formed 
the  subject  of  his  sermons.  These  are  ten  in  number, 
and  being  short,  to  accommodate  them  to  the  youth  of 
his  royal  hearer,  are  known  under  the  name  of  Le  petite 
careme.  In  1717  Massillon  became  bishop  of  Clermont, 
and  in  1719  member  of  the  French  Academy.  Two 
years  after  he  preached  at  St.  Denis  the  funeral  sermon 
of  the  duchess  Ehzabeth  Charlotte  of  Orleans,  daughter 
of  the  elector  of  Palathiate,  and  mother  of  the  regent. 
This  is  considered  one  of  the  best  of  his  six  Oraisons 
Funehres.  Thereafter  he  remained  quietly  in  his  diocese, 
diligently  fulfilling  his  pastoral  duties  until  his  death. 
Less  ambitious  than  Bossuet,  he  did  not  wish  to  remain 
connected  with  the  court,  or  in  any  way  to  take  part  in 
temporal  affairs.  His  life  was  a  model  of  Christian  vir- 
tue and  gentleness;  he  never  disputed  against  any  but 
infidels,  and  the  Roman  Catholics  will  not  forgive  him 
for  having,  in  his  eulogy  of  Louis  XIV,  after  praising 
this  monarch  for  his  efforts  to  destroy  heres}%  alluded  to 
the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew's  eve  and  pronounced 
it  a  Uoodi/  wronff,  to  be  ever  condemned  in  the  name  of 
religion  as  well  as  of  humanity.  Preaching  from  the 
fulness  of  his  heart,  he  did  not  consider  the  rank  of 
those  he  addressed,  but  spoke  to  them  with  nobleness  of 
purpose  in  all  simplicity  and  fervor.  He  carefidly  in- 
structed the  clergy  of  his  diocese  by  holding  numerous 
conferences  and  by  synodal  discourses.  He  died  Sept. 
18, 1742.  D'Alembert  pronounced  his  eulogy  before  the 
French  Academy. 

The  fame  of  this  celebrated  man  stands  perhaps  higher 
than  that  of  any  preacher  who  has  preceded  or  followed 
him,  by  the  number,  variety,  and  excellence  of  his  pro- 
ductions, and  their  eloquent  and  harmonious  style. 
Grace,  dignity,  and  force,  and  an  inexhaustible  fecun- 
dity of  resources,  particularly  characterize  his  works. 
His  A  vent  et  Cui-cme,  consisting  of  six  volumes,  may  be 
justly  considered  as  so  many  "  chef-d'ceuvres."  His 
mode  of  delivery  contributed  not  a  little  to  his  success. 
"We  seem  to  behold  him  stiU  in  imagination,"  said 
they  who  had  been  fortunate  enough  to  attend  his  dis- 
courses, "with  that  simple  air,  that  modest  carriage, 
those  eyes  so  luirably  directed  downwards,  that  unstud- 
ied gesture,  that  touching  tone  of  voice,  that  look  of  a 
man  fully  impressed  with  the  truths  which  he  enforced, 
conveying  the  most  brilliant  instruction  to  the  mind, 
and  the  most  patlietic  movements  to  the  heart."  The 
famous  actor.  Baron,  after  hearing  him,  told  him  to 
continue  as  he  had  begun.  "  You,"  said  he,  "  have  a 
manner  of  your  own;  leave  the  rules  to  others."  At 
another  time  he  said  to  an  actor  who  was  with  him, 
"My  friend,  this  is  the  true  orator;  we  are  mere  play- 
ers." Voltaire  is  said  to  have  kept  a  volume  of  jMassil- 
lon"s  sermons  constantly  on  his  desk,  as  a  model  of  elo- 
quence. He  thought  him  "the  preacher  who  best  un- 
derstood the  world  —  whose  elo(iuence  savored  of  the 
courtier,  the  academician,  the  wit,  and  the  philoso]iher." 
Massillon's  works,  consisting  mainly  of  sermons,  have 
been  collected  and  published  under  the  title  (Kiivres 
completes  (Paris,  177t),  15  vols.  Timo).  In  Kiiglisli  we 
have,  Sermons  on  the  Duties  of  the  Great,  translated 
from  the  French ;  preached  before  Louis  XV  during 
his  minority ;  by  William  Dodd,  LL.D.  (Lond.  177(),  Sd 
ed.  sm.  8vo)  : — Sermons,  selected  and  translated  by  Wil- 
liam Dickson  (I>ond.  1826.  <Svo)  ■.—Charr/es,  with  tn-o  Ks- 
sai/s,  translated  by  Theo]iliilus  St.  John  [the  Kev.  S. 
Claj)ham  j  (^Lond.  1805,  8vo) : — Sermons  on  Death,  Psa. 


Ixxxix,  47,  translated  (T.Wimbolt,  Se7-mons) : — Ecclesi- 
astical Confere)\ces,  Synodical  Discourses,  and  Episcopal 
]\[andates,  etc.,  translated  by  C.  H.  Boylan,  of  Mav- 
nooth  College  (1825, 2yols.  8vo).  See  La  Harpe,  Cours 
de  Litterut. ;  Maury,  Eloquence  de  la  Chuire  ;  F.  There- 
min, Demosthenes  und  Massillon  (1845) ;  D'Alembert, 
Elof/e  de  Jlfassillon  ;  Sainte-Beuve,  Causeries  de  Liindi; 
Talbert,  Eloge  de  Massillon  (1773) ;  Hoefer,  Xour.  Biog, 
Generale,  s.  v. ;  Christian  Remembrancer,  1854  (Jan.),  p. 
104 ;  Presh.  Rev.  1868  (AprU),  p.  295.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Masson,  John,  a  minister  of  the  Reformed  Church, 
who  was  a  native  of  France,  whence  he  emigrated  to 
England  after  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes. 
He  then  settled  in  Holland,  and  assisted  in  a  critical 
journal  entitled  llistoire  Critique  de  la  Repuhlique  de 
Lettres  from  1712  to  1721.  He  also  wrote  lives  of  Hor- 
ace, Ovid,  and  Pliny  the  Younger,  in  Latin ;  and  llis- 
toire de  Pierre  Iluyle  et  de  ses  Ouvrages  (12mo).  He 
died  in  England  about  1760.  * 

MassoH,  Philip,  a  relative  of  the  preceding,  who 
assisted  in  the  same  journal,  and  was  also  the  author  of 
a  critical  dissertation  designed  to  show  the  utilitj'  of  the 
Chinese  language  in  explaining  various  passages  of  the 
Old  Testament. 

Masson,  Samuel,  brother  of  John,  was  pa?tor  of 
the  English  Church  at  Dort,  and  conductor  of  the  above 
journal. 

Massorah.     See  Masoraii. 

Massuet,  Risni^,  a  French  Benedictine  monk  of  the 
Congregation  of  St.  Maur,  was  born  at  St.  Ouen,  in  Nor- 
mandy, in  1665.  He  studied  philosophy  and  theology 
in  different  Benedictine  convents;  was  made  licentiatus 
juris  at  Caen ;  and  came  to  the  abbey  of  St.  Germain  des 
Pres,  at  Paris,  in  1703.  Here  he  commenced  his  scien- 
tific labors,  which  secured  him  a  distinguished  place  in 
that  learned  congregation.  After  the  death  of  Ruinart, 
Massuet  was  intrusted  with  the  continuation  of  the  an- 
nals of  the  order,  and  he  furnished  the  fifth  vohmie. 
The  principal  work  from  his  pen  is  an  edition  of  the 
works  of  Irenseus,  published  under  the  title  Sancti  h-e- 
neei,  ejnscopi  Luf/dunensis,  contra  Ilcereses  Lihri  v  (Paris, 
1710,  fol.);  considered  as  having  been  the  best  edition 
of  this  Church  father  that  had  ajipeared  up  to  INIassuet's 
time.  He  prefaced  the  works  of  Irenreus  by  three  dis- 
sertations, which  give  good  proof  of  the  editor's  pene- 
tration and  judgment.  In  the  first  dissertation  the  per- 
son, character,  and  condition  of  I  re  nam  s  are  considered, 
setting  forth  particularly  the  writings  and  heretics  he 
encoimtered ;  in  the  second,  the  life,  actions,  martyrdom, 
and  writings  of  this  saint  are  treated  of;  and  in  the 
third  his  sentiments  and  doctrines  are  reviewed.  ]Mas- 
suet  took  an  active  part  in  the  Jansenistic  controversies. 
Having  undertaken  to  defend  the  edition  of  the  works 
of  St.  Augustine  against  the  attacks  of  the  Jesuit  Lan- 
glois,  he  wrote  Lettre  dhtn  Ecclesiaslique  au  R.  P.  E.L, 
sur  celle  qiiHl  a  ccrite  aux  R.  P.  Benedictins  de  la  Cong, 
de  Saint-Maur  (Osnabruck,  1699).  He  is  also  the  au- 
thor of  a  Lettre  a  Af.  Vereque  de  Bayeux,  sur  son  mande- 
ment  du  5  Mai  1707  (La  Haye,  1708, 12mo);  and  a  book 
entitled  Angnstinus  Grcecus,  in  which  he  defends  the 
opinions  of  his  order  on  grace  and  free  agency,  but 
which  was  never  published.  He  died  at  Paris,  Jan.  1 1, 
1716.  See  Hist.  Litter,  de  la  Cong,  de  St.  Maur,  p.  375 ; 
Hoefer, A o?»\j5/o^.G'(^»<?ra/e,xxxiv, 217;  Herzog, /^f a/- 
Enci/klop.  ix,  145. 

Mast  is  the  rendering  in  the  Auth.Vers.  of  two  Heb. 
words,  ban  (chibbel',  so  called  from  the  ropes  and  staj'S 
with  which  it  is  fastened),  occurs  only  in  Prov.  xxiii, 
34, "Thou  (that  tarriest  long  at  the  wine)  shalt  be  as  he 
that  lieth  down  in  the  midst  of  the  sea,  or  as  he  that 
lieth  upon  the  top  of  the  mast"  (Sept.  wrnvip  Kvi^ipvl,- 
-i](j  iv  TToXX'p  K-X/'t'itjri,  Vulg,  quasi  sopilus  gubernuior 
(imisso  cl(ino),  doubtless  correctly  as  refcmng  to  an  in- 
toxicated sailor  falling  asleep  at  the  mast-head  in  a 
storm  at  sea.     'f'^T\  {to'ren,  prob.  i.  q.  'j'^X,  a  pine-tree), 


MASTER 


871 


MASTIC 


the  mast  of  a  ship  (Isa.  xxiii,  23 ;  Ezek.  xxvii,  5;  Sept. 
I'ffrocVulg.  malus);  also  a  siffiial-pole  set  up  on  moun- 
tains for  an  ensign  (Isa.  xxx,  17  ;  Sept.  iVroc,  Vulg.  ma- 
ins, Auth.Vers.  '•beacon").  Ancient  vessels  had  often 
two  or  three  masts  (see  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Antiq.  s. 
V.  aialus).     See  Ship. 

Master  is  the  rendering  in  the  A.V.  of  the  follow- 
ing Heb.  and  Greek  words :  ")ilX,  adon',  tcvpioQ,  prop- 
erly lord,  as  usually  rendered;  bi'3,  ba'al,  an  owner, 
hence  master  in  the  prevalent  sense,  h(7Trorr](^ ;  also 
y\,  rah,  great  or  chief,  usually  in  combination;  ^b, 
sar,  prince  or  captain,  'tTrinTurriQ ;  finally  hSuoKaXoi;, 
teacher.  On  "  masters  of  assemblies"  (Eccl.  xii,  11),  see 
Assembly.     For  master  of  the  feast,  see  Architricli- 

KUS. 

MASTER,  in  a  Christian  point  of  view,  is  a  person 
who  has  servants  under  him ;  a  ruler  or  instructor.  The 
duties  of  masters  relate,  1.  To  the  civil  concerns  of  the 
famlh/.  They  are  to  arrange  the  several  businesses  re- 
quired of  servants;  to  give  particular  instructions  for 
what  is  to  be  done,  and  how  it  is  to  be  done ;  to  take 
care  thai^  no  more  is  required  of  servants  than  thev  are 
equal  to ;  to  be  gentle  in  their  deportment  towards  them : 
to  reprove  them  when  they  do  wrong,  to  commend  them 
when  they  do  right;  to  make  them  an  adequate  recom- 
pense for  their  services,  as  to  protection,  maintenance, 
wages,  and  character.  2.  As  to  the  morals  of  servants. 
Masters  must  look  well  to  their  servants'  characters  be- 
fore they  hire  them  ;  instruct  them  in  the  principles  and 
confirm  them  in  the  habits  of  virtue ;  watch  over  their 
morals,  and  set  them  good  examples.  3.  As  to  their  re- 
Uffious  interests.  They  should  instruct  them  in  the 
knowledge  of  divine  things  (Gen.  xiv,  14:  xviii,  19); 
pray  with  them  and  for  them  (Josh,  xxiv,  15) ;  allow 
them  time  and  leisure  for  religious  services,  etc.  (Eph. 
vi,9).  See  Stennett,  On  Domestic  Duties,  sen  8 ;  Paley's 
HI  oral  Philosophij,  i,  233,  235 ;  Beattie's  Elements  of 
Moral  Science,  i,  150, 153  ;  Doddridge's  Lectures,  ii,  266. 
— Henderson's  Buck. 

Masters  of  the  Church,  a  name  given  (1)  to  the 
learned  clergy  who  sat  as  advisers  of  the  bishops  in  syn- 
ods ;  (2)  also  to  the  residentiaries  in  a  minster,  as  master 
of  the  lady  chapel,  being  its  keeper ;  master  of  the  chor- 
isters, master  of  tlie  common  hall,  califactorj',  or  par- 
lor; master  of  converts,  the  superintendent  of  lay-broth- 
ers ;  the  master  of  the  novices,  always  an  elderly  monk ; 
master  of  the  song-school,  master  of  the  shrine,  masters 
of  the  order  or  custodes,  the  great  officers  of  the  monas- 
tery.— Walcott,  Sacred  A  rchceol.  s.  v. 

Mastiaux,  Caspar  Anton  von,  a  Roman  Catholic 
theologian,  was  born  at  Bonn,  Germany,  March  3, 17G6. 
He  became  a  canon  at  Augsburg  in  17SG.  and  was  or- 
dained to  the  priesthood,  and  appointed  jireaeher  at  the 
cathedral  of  Augsburg,  three  years  later.  After  tilling 
several  subordinate  positions,  he  was  made  privy-coun- 
cillor to  the  king  of  Bavaria  in  180G.  lie  receiv'ed  the 
degree  of  master  of  philosophy  in  1784,  doctor  of  laws 
in  1786,  doctor  of  divinity  in  1790,  and  was  admitted  as 
an  honorary  member  to  several  academies  and  learned 
societies.  His  published  works  embrace  De  veteruni 
Ripuariorum  statu  civili  et  ecclesiastico  commentatio  his- 
torica  (Bonn,  1784) : — A  Historical  and  Geographical  De- 
scription of  the  Archbishopric  of  Cologne  : — On  the  neg- 
ative Character  of  Religious  Principle  among  the  Mod- 
ern French: — A  Sketch  of  Borromeo,  ArchMshojy  of  Mi- 
lan and  Cardinal  in  the  Romish  Church: — The  Passion- 
week,  according  to  the  Ritual  of  the  Roman  Church : — An 
Essay  on  Chorals  and  Hymns  for  the  Church: — Several 
Collections  of  Hymns,  and  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Tunes: 
— .4  number  of  Sermons,  and  of  miscillawous  Speeches 
in  German  and  Latin.  He  served  for  a  time  as  editor 
of  Felder's  Literaturzeitung,  for  teachers  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith,  and  was  noted  for  his  pointed  and  satiri- 
cal style.  The  year  of  his  death,  which  occurred  at 
Munich,  is  not  exactly  known ;  it  is  supposed  to  have 


been  1828.  — Wetzcr  imd  Welte,  Kirchen-Lex.  vi,  921. 
(G.M.) 

Mastic  ((TxTvoc,  Vulg.  lentiscus,  A.  Vers,  "mastick- 
tree")  occurs  but  once,  and  that  in  the  Apocrypha  (Su- 
san, v,  54),  where  there  is  a  happy  play  upon  the  word. 
"  Under  what  tree  sawest  thou  them  ?  ,  .  .  under  a 
mastic-tree  (iitto  axivov).  And  Daniel  said  .  .  .  the 
angel  of  God  hath  received  the  sentence  of  God  to  cut 
thee  in  two  {(yxiau  os  /licroi')."  This  is  unfortunately 
lost  in  our  version ;  but  it  is  preserved  by  the  Vulgate, 
"  sub  schino  . .  .  scindet  te ;"  and  by  Luther,  '•  Linde  .  .  . 
finden."  A  similar  play  occurs  in  ver.  58,  59,  between 
Ttpivoi'  and  Trpiuai  ere.  For  the  bearing  of  these  and 
similar  characteristics  on  the  date  and  origin  of  the 
book,  see  Susanna. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  Greek  word  is  correctly 
rendered,  as  is  evident  from  the  description  of  it  by 
Theophrastus  (Hist.  Plant,  ix,  i,  §  2,  4,  §  7,  etc.),  Pliny 
(V.  //.  iii,  36;  xxiv,  28),  Dioscorides  (i,  90),  and  other 
writers.  Herodotus  (iv,  177)  compares  the  fruit  of  the 
lotus  (the  Rhamnus  lotus,  Linn.,  not  the  Egyptian  A'e- 
lumbium  speciosum)  in  size  with  the  mastic  berry,  and 
Babrius  (3, 5)  says  its  leaves  are  browsed  by  goats.  The 
fragrant  resin  known  in  the  arts  as  "  mastic,"  and  which 
is  obtained  by  incisions  made  in  the  trunk  in  the  month 
of  August,  is  the  produce  of  this  tree,  whose  scientific 
name  is  Pistacia  lentiscus.  It  is  used  with  us  to  strength- 
en the  teeth  and  gums,  and  was  so  applied  by  the  an- 
cients, bv  whom  it  was  much  prized  on  this  account, 
and  for  its  many  supposed  medicinal  virtues.  Lucian 
{Lexiph.  12)  uses  the  term  (jxivoTpwKrrjg  of  one  who 
chews  mastic  wood  in  order  to  whiten  his  teeth.  Mar- 
tial (Ep.  xiv,  22)  recommends  a  mastic  toothpick  {den- 
tiscalpium).  Phny  (xxiv,  7)  speaks  of  the  leaves  of 
this  tree  being  rubbed  on  the  teeth  for  toothache.  Di- 
oscorides (i,  90)  says  the  resin  is  often  mixed  with  otlier 
materials  and  used  as  tooth-powder,  and  that,  if  chewed, 
it  imparts  a  sweet  odor  to  the  breath.  It  is  from  this 
use  as  chewing-gum  that  we  have  the  derivf.tlun  of 
mastic,  from  naarixih  the  gum  of  the  axit^of,  anJ  M"" 
ara^,  fiaartxao),  i-iaaao^iai,  "to  chew,"  "to  masticate." 
Both  Pliny  and  Dioscorides  state  that  the  best  mastic 
comes  from  Chios,  and  to  this  day  the  Arabs  prefer  that 
which  is  imported  from  that  island  (comp.  Niebuhr, 
Beschr.  von  A  rab.  p.  144 ;  Galen,  Defac.  Simpl.  1,  p.  69). 
Toumefort  {Voyages,  ii,  58-61,  transl.  1741)  has  given  a 
full  and  very  interesting  account  of  the  Lentisks  or 
Mastic  plants  of  Scio  (Chios) :  he  says  that  "  the  towns 
of  the  island  are  distinguished  into  three  classes,  those 
del  Campo,  those  of  Apanomeria,  and  those  where  they 
plant  Lentisk-trees,  whence  the  mastic  in  tears  is  pro- 
duced." Tournefort  enumerates  several  lentisk-tree  vil- 
lages.   Of  the  trees  he  says,  "These  trees  are  very  wide 


Mastic  {Pibtacia  Lentibcits). 


MASUDI 


8V2 


MATERIALISM 


spread  and  circular,  tea  or  twelve  feet  tall,  consisting 
of  several  branchy  stalks  which  in  time  grow  crooked. 
The  biggest  trunks  are  a  foot  diameter,  covered  with  a 
bark,  grayish,  rugged,  chapt  .  .  .  the  leaves  are  dis- 
posed in  three  or  four  couples  on  each  side,  about  an 
inch  long,  narrow  at  the  beginning,  pointed  at  their 
extremity,  half  an  inch  broad  at  the  middle.  From  the 
junctures  of  the  leaves  grow  flowers  in  bunches  like 
grapes;  the  fruit,  too,  grows  like  bunches  of  grapes,  in 
each  berry  whereof  is  contained  a  white  kernel.  These 
trees  blow  in  May;  the  fruit  does  not  ripen  but  in  au- 
tumn and  winter."  This  writer  gives  the  following  de- 
scription of  the  mode  in  which  the  mastic  gum  is  pro- 
cured. "  They  begin  to  make  incisions  in  these  trees 
in  Scio  the  first  of  August,  cutting  the  bark  crossways 
with  huge  knives,  without  touching  the  younger  branch- 
es; next  day  the  nutritious  juice  distils  in  small  tears, 
which  by  little  and  little  form  the  mastic  grains ;  thej' 
harden  on  the  ground,  and  are  carefully  swept  up  from 
under  the  trees.  The  height  of  the  crop  is  about  the 
middle  of  August,  if  it  be  dry,  serene  weather,  but  if  it 
be  rainy  the  tears  are  all  lost.  Likewise  towards  the 
end  of  September  the  same  incisions  furnish  mastic,  but 
in  lesser  quantities."  Besides  the  uses  to  which  refer- 
ence has  been  made  above,  the  people  of  Scio  put  grains 
of  this  resin  in  perfumes,  and  in  their  bread  before  it 
goes  to  the  oven.  Mastic  is  one  of  the  most  important 
products  of  the  East,  being  extensively  used  in  the 
preparation  of  spirits,  as  juniper  berries  are  with  us,  as 
a  s\vcetmeat,  as  a  masticatory  for  preserving  the  gums 
and  teeth,  as  an  antispasmodic  in  medicine,  and  as  an 
ingredient  in  varnishes.  The  hardened  mastic,  in  the 
form  of  roundish  straw-colored  tears,  is  much  chewed 
by  Turkish  women.  It  consists  of  resin,  with  a  minute 
portion  of  volatile  oil.  The  Greek  writers  occasionally 
use  the  word  (JxIvoq  for  an  entirely  different  plant,  viz. 
the  Squill  (Scilla  maritimu)  (see  Aristoph.  Plut.  715; 
Sprengel,  Flor.  Hippoc.  41 ;  Theophr.  Hist.  Pla7it.  v,  6, 
§  10).  The  Pisiacia  lentiscus  is  common  on  the  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean.  According  to  Strand  {Flor.  Pa- 
tes/.  No,  559),  it  has  been  observed  at  Joppa,  both  by 
Rauwolf  and  Pococke.  The  mastic-tree  belongs  to  the 
natural  order  Anacardiacece,.  —  Smith,  s.  v.  See  Tris- 
tram, Nat.  Hist,  of  Bible,  p,  362;  Buxtorf,  Lex,  Chald. 
col.  1230;  Belon,  Observ.  ii,  81. 

Masudi,  Abu'l  Hasan  (^AH  hen-IIusein  hen- AW), 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  Arabian  savants,  an  early 
writer  in  the  department  of  comparative  religion,  from 
the  Mussulman  stand-point,  was  born,  according  to  his 
own  statement,  at  Bagdad  in  the  3d  century  of  the  He- 
gira,  or  the  9th  of  the  Christian  a;ra,  and  was  the  de- 
scendant of  an  illustrious  family,  who  were  among  the 
early  and  devout  followers  of  the  Prophet  of  Mecca. 
Masudi  was  gifted  with  great  talents,  which  he  applied 
at  an  early  age  to  learned  pursuits.  He  gathered  an  im- 
mense stock  of  knowledge  in  afl  branches  of  science ; 
and  his  learning  was  not  mere  book  learning,  but  he  im- 
proved it  in  his  long  travels  through  all  parts  of  the 
East,  Turkej',  Eastern  Russia,  and  Spain.  In  A.H,  303 
he  visited  India,  Ceylon,  and  the  coast  of  China,  where 
the  Arabs  had  founded  numerous  small  colonics ;  thence 
he  went  to  Madagascar  and  Southern  Arabia;  thence 
through  Persia  to  the  Caspian ;  he  also  visited  the  Kha- 
zors  in  Southern  Russia,  In  A.H.  314  he  was  in  Pales- 
tine ;  from  332  to  334  in  Syria  and  Egypt;  and  he  says 
in  345,  when  he  wrote  his  last  book,  tlie  second  edition 
of  his  dolden  Meadoics,  he  was  in  Egypt,  and  had  been 
a  long  time  absent  from  his  native  country,  Irak.  He 
says  he  travelled  so  far  to  the  west  (Morocco  and  Spain) 
that  he  forgot  the  east,  and  so  far  east  that  he  forgot 
the  west.  Masudi  died  probably  at  Kahirah  (Cairo), 
A.H.  345  (A.D.  956);  and,  since  he  visited  India  as 
early  as  A.H.  303,  it  is  evident  that  those  who  say  he 
died  young  are  mistaken. 

No  Arabian  writer  is  quoted  so  often,  and  spoken  of 
with  so  much  universal  admiration.  The  variety  of 
subjects  on  which  he  wrote  astonishes  even  the  learned, 


and  the  philosopher  is  surprised  to  see  this  Arab  of  the 
Middle  Age  resolving  questions  which  remained  prob- 
lems to  Europeans  for  many  centuries  after  him.  Ma- 
sudi knew  not  only  the  historj"^  of  the  Eastern  nations, 
but  also  ancient  history,  and  that  of  the  Europeans  of 
his  time.  He  had  thoroughly  studied  the  different  re- 
ligions of  mankind — Mohammedanism,  Christianity,  the 
doctrines  of  Zoroaster  and  Confucius,  and  the  idolatry  of 
barbarous  nations.  No  Arabian  writer  can  boast,  like 
him,  of  learning  at  once  profound  and  almost  universal. 
Unfortunately,  however,  IMasudi  wanted  method  in  ar- 
ranging the  prodigious  number  of  facts  which  a  rare 
memory  never  failed  to  supply  him  with  while  he  was 
writing.  He  illustrates  the  history  of  the  geography 
of  the  West  with  analogies  or  contrasts  taken  from  Chi- 
na or  Arabia;  he  avails  himself  of  his  knowledge  of 
Christianity  to  eluciJate  the  creeds  of  the  different  Mo- 
hammedan sects ;  and,  while  he  informs  the  reader  of  the 
mj-steries  of  the  extreme  North,  he  will  all  at  once  for- 
get his  subject,  and  transfer  him  into  the  Desert  of  Sa- 
hara. For  a  list  of  his  works,  which  are  mostly  extant 
only  in  MS.,  see  the  English  CyclopKEdia,  s.  v, 

Matali,  in  Hindu  mytholog}',  is  the  charioteer  of 
Indra.    See  Williams,  Ti-anslaiion  ofSahuntala,  Act  VI. 

Mater  Dolorosa,  or  Lady  of  Sorrow,  is  the  tech- 
nical term  given  to  such  portraits  of  the  Virgin  Mary 
as  represent  her  alone,  weeping  or  holding  the  cro\ra  of 
thorns.  "  She  appears  alone,"  says  Mrs.  Jameson  {Le- 
gends of  the  Madonna,  p.  36),  "  a  seated  or  standing  fig- 
ure, often  the  head  or  half-length  only,  the  hands  clasp- 
ed, the  head  bowed  in  sorrow,  tears  streaming  from  the 
heavy  eyes,  and  the  whole  expression  intensely  mourn- 
ful.    The  features  are  properly  those  of  a  woman  in 


Representation  of  the  Mater  Dolorosa.     (After  Murillo.) 


middle  age ;  but  in  later  times  the  sentiment  of  beauty 
predominated  over  that  of  the  mother's  agony,  and  I 
have  seen  the  sublime  Mater  Dolorosa  transformed  into 
a  merelj'  beautiful  and  youthful  maiden,  with  such  an 
air  of  sentimental  grief  as  might  be  felt  for  the  loss  of  a 
sparrow."  It  is  common  also  to  represent  the  Virgin 
with  a  sword  in  her  bosom,  and  even  with  seven  swortis, 
in  allusion  to  the  seven  sorrows  (Luke  ii,  35) — a  version 
of  the  allegorical  prophecy  which  the  Romanists  have 
found  quite  profitable  for  the  interests  of  the  hierarchy. 
There  are  fe;v  Roman  Catholic  churches  without  this 
representation  of  ]\Lary.     See  Stabat  Matei;. 

Mater  Speciosa,  or  Lady  of  Joy,  the  counterpart 
of  the  hymn  of  "  Mater  Dolorosa.'"  See  Stabat  Ma- 
ter. 

Materialism  may  be  defined  as  that  system  of 
philosophy  which  considers  matter  as  the  fundamental 
principle  of  all  things,  and  consequently  denies  abso- 
lutely the  independence  and  autonomy  of  the  spirit.   It 


MATERIALISM 


873 


MATERIALISM 


is  sometimes  considered  as  synonymous  with  Naiural- 
■Ism,  yet  this  is  erroneous,  for  there  is  a  difference  be- 
tween the  notions  of  nature  and  matter.  It  is  also  called 
bv  some  Sensualism,  which  is  more  correct,  yet  only  ex- 
presses one  of  the  characteristics  of  the  theory  of  mate- 
rialism. In  a  more  extended  sense,  the  expression  ma- 
terialism is  made  to  signify  the  whole  of  the  practical 
results  which,  consciously  or  unconsciously,  flow  from 
such  philosophy,  and  whose  final  object,  although  some- 
times restrained  by  considerations  of  prudence  or  expe- 
diency, is  sensual  enjoyment  in  its  fullest  sense. 

Materialism,  strictly  viewed,  is  the  doctrine  that  all 
spirit,  so  called,  is  material  in  its  substance,  and  is  subject 
to  the  laws  which  govern  the  composition  of  material 
particles  and  the  activity  of  material  forces.  Strictly 
construed,  it  is  a  psj'chological  doctrine  or  theory ;  but, 
as  it  implies  certain  philosophical  assumptions  or  princi- 
ples, it  makes  a  place  for  itself  in  the  domain  of  specu- 
lative philosophy.  Its  assumptions  and  conclusions  are 
also  fundamental  to  theology.  If  its  positions  are  tena- 
ble, theology  is  impossible.  If  the  human  soul  is  but 
another  name  for  an  aggregation  of  material  particles,  it 
cannot  exist  when  these  particles  are  sundered.  Al- 
though it  is  conceivable  that  these  particles  may  be  so 
minute  as  aiot  necessarily  to  be  distiu^bed  by  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  larger  particles  which  constitute  the  body, 
yet  this  is  too  improbable  to  relieve  the  materialistic 
theory  from  the  charge  of  being  inconsistent  with  the 
possibility  of  a  future  life.  The  moral  relations  of  the 
soul  must  be  entirely  inconsistent  with  its  subjection 
to  the  laws  which  govern  matter  and  its  activities,  and 
these  moral  relations  give  to  theology  —  certainlj''  to 
Christian  theology — all  its  interest.  If  the  assumptions 
of  materialism  are  correct,  there  can  be  no  intelligent 
and  personal  Creator.  Creation  itself  is  inconceivable, 
and  therefore  impossible. 

A  significant  fact,  which  strikes  one  at  first  on  the 
study  of  the  history  of  materialism,  is  that  it  never  ap- 
pears as  a  power  among  the  masses  in  the  early  stages 
of  civilization.  On  the  contrary,  we  find  that  in  all  na- 
tions a  more  or  less  perfect  spiritual  contemplation  of 
nature  forms  the  first  step  towards  religious  conscious- 
ness. This  fact  is  a  sufficient  answer  in  itself  to  the  as- 
sertion that  materialism  is  the  original  and  true  form 
of  human  consciousness.  On  the  other  hand,  we  find 
materialism  spreading  among  the  masses  in  the  nations 
which  have  attained  the  culminating  point  of  their  civ- 
ilization. It  becomes,  then,  the  premonitory  sign  of 
their  downfall,  being  already  an  evidence  of  their  moral 
and  spiritual  decay. 

The  materialistic  theory  was  in  some  sense  sanctioned 
by  those  earlier  Greek  philosophers  who  referred  the  or- 
igin of  all  things — the  spirit  of  man  included — to  some 
attenuated  form  of  matter,  as  water,  air,  or  fire.  From 
these  rude  speculations  philosophy  emerged  by  succes- 
sive efforts,  till  in  the  Socratic  school  the  soul  of  man 
was  held  to  be  distinct  in  its  essence  from  matter,  to  be 
superior  to  matter,  and  indestructible  by  the  dissolution 
of  the  body.  The  Socratic  school  also  emphasized  the 
doctrine  that  mind  has  infused  order  into  the  universe. 
The  Platonic  philosophy  enforced  these  doctrines  with 
glowing  appeals  to  the  nobler  sentiments,  and  embel- 
lished them  with  a  great  variety  of  mythological  repre- 
sentations. Aristotle,  more  cautious  and  exact  in  his 
statements,  asserted  for  the  higher  forms  of  intellectual 
activity  an  essence  distinct  from  matter.  The  philoso- 
jihers  of  the  Epicurean  school  were  avowed  materialists. 
They  taught  explicitly  and  earnestly  the  doctrine  that 
what  is  called  the  soul  is  composed  of  atoms,  and  must 
necessarily  be  dissipated  at  death.  The  universe  itself 
likewise  consists  of  atoms,  and  all  its  phenomena  are 
the  results  of  fortuitous  combinations  of  atoms.  Sensa- 
tion, intelligence,  and  desire  are  the  effects  of  the  action 
and  reaction  of  the  atoms  within  and  the  atoms  with- 
out the  body.  These  doctrines  are  elaborately  set  forth 
by  the  celebrated  Lucretius  (B.C.  95-44)  in  his  poem  De 
rerwn  natura.     The  Atomic  Materialism  of  Epicurus, 


and  the  Imaginative  and  Rational  Spiritualism  of  Plato 
and  Aristotle,  separated  the  Greek  philosophers  into  two 
leading  divisions,  with  various  unimportant  subordinate 
sections.  Among  the  Jews,  the  Sadducees  denied  that 
there  was  either  angel  or  spirit,  or  existence  after 
death ;  but  there  is  no  evidence  that  they  supported 
these  doctrines  by  any  philosophical  materialistic  theo- 
ries. The  Christian  philosophy  was  necessarily  anti- 
materialistic.  With  the  revival  of  learning  and  of  the 
ancient  philosophies,  the  Epicurean  materialism  found 
many  adherents,  against  whose  influence  the  pronounced 
spiritualism  of  Descartes  furnished  a  positive  and  most 
efiicient  check.  Hobbes  was  the  opponent  of  Descartes, 
and  all  his  conceptions  of  the  soid  and  of  the  laws  of  its 
activity  are  materialistic,  reducing  all  spiritual  phenom- 
ena to  bodily  motions.  Spinoza  made  spiritual  beings 
to  be  modes  of  the  universal  substance  which  is  God 
— every  spiritual  operation  being  the  necessary  counter- 
part of  some  materiahstic  phenomenon.  But  the  rise 
of  the  mechanical  or  new  philosophj'  of  nature,  to  which 
Descartes  incidentally  contributed,  and  which  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  so  triumphantly  established,  had  no  little  influ- 
ence in  developing  the  materialism  of  modern  philoso- 
phy. The  speculations  of  Locke  indirectly  furthered 
this  tendency ;  although,  with  Descartes,  he  asserted  the 
authority  of  consciousness  for  the  realitj'  of  spiritual 
phenomena.  But  still  he  contended,  as  against  Descar- 
tes, that  no  man  has  the  right  to  aflirm  that  God  could 
not  endow  matter  with  the  capacity  to  think.  The 
free-thmking  Deists  of  England,  who  called  themselves 
the  disciples  of  Locke,  were  in  many  cases  materialists, 
and  advanced  their  speculations  against  the  possibility 
of  a  separate  existence  of  the  soul  in  connection  with 
their  attacks  upon  the  Christian  doctrine  of  the  resur- 
rection. There  were  few  advocates  of  philosophical 
materialism  among  the  English  writers  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury. David  Hartley  (1704-1757)  made  many  phenom- 
ena of  the  soul  to  depend  on  vibrations  of  the  brain,  but 
expressly  denied  the  inference  that  the  soul  is  mate- 
rial in  its  substance.  Joseph  Priestley  (1733-1804)  was. 
led,  in  the  course  of  his  speculations,  to  assert  that  the 
soul  is  nothing  but  the  organized  body,  and  that  this 
doctrine  is  essential  to  the  rational  acceptance  of  the 
Christian  sj^stem  (Disquisitions  relatiiif/  to  Matter  and 
Spirit,  London,  1777,  2  vols.  8vo).  In  France  the  influ- 
ence of  the  spiritualistic  doctrines  of  Descartes  was  grad- 
ually displaced  in  the  schools  by  the  system  of  Condil- 
lac,  which  found  its  logical  termination  in  the  extreme 
materialism  of  La  Mettrie  (1709-1751),  U Homme  ma- 
chine ;  Histoire  naturelle  de  Vdme,  and  of  baron  Holbach 
(1723-1789),  Systeme  de  la  Nature,  in  which  all  spirit- 
ual essence  and  activity  are  resolved  into  matter  and 
motion.  Here  the  Encyclopjedists  Diderot  (q.  v.)  and 
D'Alembert  (q.  v.)  deserve  special  mention  ;  nor  should 
the  noted  Helvetius  (q.  v.)  be  forgotten. 

In  more  recent  times,  materialism  has  been  both 
metaphysical  and  physiological.  IMetaphj'sical  mate- 
rialism has  resulted  in  some  cases  by  logical  deduc- 
tion, or,  rather,  a  logical  tendency,  from  the  idealistic 
assumption  that  matter  and  spirit  are  identical.  The 
argument  which  seeks  to  make  matter  and  spirit  one, 
lends  plausibilitj'  to  the  conclusion  that  it  is  indifferent 
whether  matter  should  be  resolved  into  spirit,  or  spirit 
resolved  into  matter.  The  extreme  idealism  of  some  of 
the  German  schools  has  prepared  the  way  for  the  mate- 
rialism with  which  they  would  seem  to  have  had  the 
least  possible  sympathy.  The  real  pantheism  of  Spinoza 
and  the  logical  pantheism  of  Hegel  have  fiu-nished  ax- 
ioms and  a  method,  which  have  been  applied  in  the  serv- 
ice of  materialism.  It  is  in  physiology,  however,  that 
modern  materialism  has  found  its  most  efiicient  alh'. 
Physiology  has  renewed  the  previously-exploded  doc- 
trine of  vibrations,  which  again  has  found  conlimiation 
in  that  view  of  the  correlation  of  forces  which  resolves 
every  agency  of  nature  into  some  mode  of  motion.  If 
heat,  and  light,  and  electricity  are  but  modes  of  motion, 
why  not  nervous  activity  ?  and  if  nervous  activity,  why 


MATERIALISM 


874 


MATHER 


not  vital  energy?  and  if  vital  energy,  why  not  spiritual 
jialgments  antl  emotions?  This  argument  has  been 
urged  with  great  earnestness  and  pertinacity  by  certain 
physiologists  both  of  the  German  and  English  schools. 
Conspicuous  among  them  are  Carl  Vogt,  Physioloijische 
Briefejur  GebiUeie ;  Kohler-Glimhe  uiid  Wissenschaft, 
1855 ;  J.  Moleschott,  Physiologie  des  StoJJ'icechsels ;  Der 
Krtislaiif  des  Lebens,  etc. ;  Louis  Buclnier,  Kraft  imd 
iStoff  {\>ihb);  Natur  u.  Geist,  etc.;  Hiickcl,  Nut urlick- 
Scliopfu)i(j.t<jeschichte  ;  Ueber  die  Entstchutu/  itnd  den 
Staumbau  des  Memchenr/escldechts,  etc.  T.  11.  Huxley, 
On  the  Plujsical  Bases  of  Life,  edit.  18G8  (compare  J.  H. 
Sterling,  As  irr/ards  Protoplasm,  etc.,  edit.  18G9-72), 
and  H.  Maudsley,  Physiolu(jy  and  Patholotpj  of  the  Hu- 
man Mind  (Loud,  and  N.  Y.  18G7),  approximate  to  the 
same  opinions  among  the  English.  Alexander  Bain 
(The  Senses  and  the  Intellect, \o\\([.  1855,  1804);  The 
Emotions  and  the  Will,  2d  ed.  1865  ;  Mental  and  Moral 
Science,  Lond.  1867)  sympathizes  with  these  tendencies, 
treating  the  soul  in  the  main  as  though  it  ^vere  but 
a  capacity  in  the  nervous  system  for  special  functions 
which  obej'  physiological  laws.  The  doctrine  of  evo- 
lution by  natural  selection  in  the  struggle  for  existence, 
which  has  been  derived  by  the  celebrated  Darwin  from 
a  limited  cycle  of  physiological  facts,  and  extended 
by  him  to  explain  the  production  of  all  complex  forms 
oi'  being,  inorganic  and  organic,  is  materialistic  in  its 
assumptions  and  its  conclusions,  even  if  neither  of  these 
are  recognised  or  confessed  by  its  advocates.  The  met- 
aphysical doctrine  of  development  by  successive  pro- 
cesses of  differentiation  and  integration,  which  has  been 
hardened  into  an  axiom  by  Herbert  Spencer,  and  ap- 
plied to  the  explanation  of  all  forms  of  being,  and  even 
of  the  primal  truths  of  metaphysical  science  itself,  can 
lead  to  no  other  than  a  materialistic  psychology.  The 
doctrine  of  unconscious  cerebration,  which  is  taught 
more  or  less  explicitly  by  Dr.W.  B.  Carpenter  and  other 
eminent  physi(3logists,  though  not  necessarily  involving 
the  materialistic  hypothesis,  is  yet  materialistic  in  its 
tendencies  and  associations.  The  positive  school  of 
Comte  teaches  directly  that  the  brain  is  the  only  sub- 
stance of  the  soul,  and  that  what  are  usually  called  spir- 
itual activities  are  simply  biological  phenomena.  J.  S. 
Mill,  though  not  avowedly  a  materialist,  follo^vs  Hume 
in  reducing  matter  and  mind  to  idealistic  formula;, 
which,  as  conceived  by  him,  arc  not  distinguishable 
from  physiological  j)henomena  or  products. 

According  to  the  materialistic  philosophy,  as  devel- 
oped by  whatever  writer,  but  especially  in  its  once  pop- 
ular form  of  Epicureanism,  the  j^erception  of  our  senses 
is  the  only  source  of  all  human  knowledge.  The  re- 
membrance of  man}'  previous  perceptions  of  the  same 
nature  gives  rise  to  general  views,  and  the  comparison 
of  these  to  judgments.  Ethics  are  thus  but  the  doc- 
trine of  happiness,  and  its  highest  maxim :  Seek  joy, 
avoid  pain !  Yet  Epicurus  sought  to  give  a  certain 
moral  tendency  to  this  fundamental  axiom  of  his  sys- 
tem, by  declaring  every  pleasure  objectionable  which  is 
followed  by  a  greater  impleasantness,  and  every  pain  is 
desirable  which  is  followed  by  a  greater  pleasure;  ac- 
cording to  which  iirinciple  freedom  from  care  and  in- 
sensil)ility  to  liodily  pain  become  the  highest  aim  of 
man.  Sec  Lutterbeck,  Neutestamentliche  Lehrbeffriff'e 
(Mainz,  1852),  i,  .38-58  ;  H.  Kitter,  Gesch.  d.  Philosophie ; 
Fries,  Gesch.  d.  Philosophie,  vol.  i.  See  Epicurean  Phi- 
losophy. In  Boston  a  pajier  entitled  The  Inrestigaior 
is  now  published  in  the  interests  of  materialism.  The 
German-Americans  are  also  quite  active  in  this  work. 
They  have  two  jiapers — the  Pionicr  (Boston)  antl  the 
Keue  Zeit  (New  York).  The  editor  of  the  former,  Karl 
Heinzen,  is  frequently  before  the  public  all  over  the 
country  to  press  the  interests  of  his  abominable  work. 
Kecently  Dr.  G.  C.  Hiebeling- published  a, pamphlet  en- 
titled Naturwissenschaft  gefjen  Philosophie  (New  "i'ork, 
Schmidt,  1871, 12nio)  to  controvert  Hurtmaim's  Philos- 
ojthy  of  the  Unknoirn. 

The  defects  of  the  materialistic  hj-pothesis  are  mani- 


fold. It  considers  only  the  similarities,  and  overlooks  the 
differences  of  two  classes  of  actual  phenomena.  Through 
its  overweening  desire  of  unit}',  it  becomes  one-sided 
and  imperfect  in  all  its  conceptions  and  conclusions, 
and  fails  to  do  justice  to  the  peculiarities  of  spirit^ial 
experiences,  which  are  as  real  as  the  more  obtrusive 
and  palpable  phenomena  of  matter.  Moreover,  it  fails 
to  discern  that  the  intellectual  and  moral  functions  not 
only  have  a  right  to  be  recognised  in  their  full  import, 
but  that  they  have  a  certain  supremacy  and  authority 
over  all  others,  inasmuch  as  the  agent  which  knows 
must  furnish  the  principles  and  axioms  which  all  science 
assumes  and  on  which  all  science  must  rest.  If  the 
soul  is  only  a  function  of  matter,  then  to  know  is  one  of 
the  functions  of  matter.  It  follows  that  the  authority 
of  knowledge  itself  may  be  as  changeable  and  micer- 
tain  as  the  changes  of  form,  the  varieties  of  motion, 
the  manifold  chemical  combinations,  or  the  more  or  less 
complex  developments  of  which  matter  is  capable.  The 
materialistic  hypothesis  not  only  overlooks  and  does  in- 
justice to  the  facts  which  are  open  to  common  appre- 
hension, but  it  is  a  suicidal  theory,  which  destroys,  by 
its  own  positions  and  its  method,  the  very  foundations 
on  which  any  science  can  stand — even  the  scientific  the- 
ory of  materialism  itself.     See  Soul. 

Literature. — Lange  (Frdr.  A.),  Gesch.  des  Materialis- 
mus,  etc.  (Iserlohn,  1867,  8vo) ;  Schaller,  Leib.  u.  Seele 
(3d.  ed.  1858);  Wagner,  Kampf  vm  die  Seele  (1857); 
Frauenstadt,  Ber  Materialismus ;  Fabri  (Dr.  Friedrich), 
Briefe  gegen  den  Materialismus  (Stuttg.  1856 ;  2d  ed. 
1864,  8vo ;  comp.  Bibl.  Sac.  1865,  p.  525) ;  .Janet,  The 
Materialism  of  the  Present  Day  (a  critique  of  Dr.  Bilch- 
ner,  Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1866,  12mo)  ;  Lotze,  Medicinische 
(Leipsic,  1852) ;  also  his  Mikrokosmus  (Leipsic,  1856) ; 
Ulrici,  Gott  und  die  Natur  (Leipsic,  1862) ;  also  his  Gott 
uml  der  Mensch  (Leipsic,  1866)  ;  Fichte,  Zur  Seelenfrafie 
(Leipsic,  1859) ;  Seelenfortdauer,  etc.  (Leipsic,  1867) ; 
Psycholoyie  (Leipsic,  1864) ;  Trendelenburg,  in  the  Benk- 
schriften  d.K.  Akad.  (1849) ;  also  Hist.  lieitrdrje  (1855); 
Jahr,  Die  ivichtiffsten  Zeitfragen ;  Die  Natur,  der  Men- 
schengeist  und  sein  Goftesbegriff  (Leipsic,  1869,  8vo) ; 
Weiss  (Dr.  L.),  Anii-Materialismus  ;  Vortrdge  aus  dem 
Gebiete  der  Philosophie  (Berlin,  1869, 1871,  2  vols.  8vo); 
Hagenbach,  His't.  of  Doctrines,  ii,  222,  475;  Pearson,  On 
Infidelity;  Farrar,  Crit.  Hist,  of  Free  Thought;  Buckle, 
l/ist.  of  Civilization;  Mansel,  Limits  of  Religious  Thought, 
Lect.  V  ;  Porter,  Human  Intellect,  p.  18  sq. ;  Liddon,  Our 
Lord's  Divinity,  p.  451 ;  Cudworth,  Intellectual  System 
of  the  Universe ;  Leckey,  Hist,  of  Rationalism  ;  Hamil- 
ton, Biscnssions;  Fichte,  in  the  Zeitschr.f.  die  Philoso- 
phie, 1860  ;  Christ.  Exam.  1859  (Nov.) ;  North  Brit.  Rev. 
1860  (Nov.);  ^;«er.Pm-6.i?er.l869,p.l93;  1872,p.l94; 
Bihl.  Sac.  1860,  p.  201 ;  1865  (Jidy)  ;  Theol.  Eclect.  1869 
(Nov.),  p.  55;  Princet.  Rev.  1869  (Oct.),  p.  616;  Kitto, 
Journ.  Sac.  Lit.  xxv,  25;  Westminster  Rev.  1864  (July), 
p.  90;  1870  (Oct.),  p.  225;  Rosenkranz,  in  Zeitschr.f iir 
wissenschaftl.  Theol.  1864,  vol.  iii,  art.  i ;  .loum.  Specul. 
Phil.  vol.  i.  No.  3,  art.  vi;  Catholic  World,  1870  (Aug.). 
See  Matter.  (N.  P.) 
Maternus.  See  Firmicus. 
Maternus  I,  bishop  of  Cologne.  See  Cologne. 
Mather,  Alexander,  one  of  Mr.  Wesley's  most 
useful  preachers,  was  born  at  Brechin,  North  Britain,  in 
Feb.  1733.  When  a  boy  he  had  some  instruction  at  a 
Latin  school,  and  afterwards  ran  away  with  the  rebels, 
and  was  in  the  battle  of  Culloden.  On  account  of  this 
he  was  treated  with  great  harshness  by  his  father,  and 
deprived  of  all  educational  advantages.  In  1751  he  left 
home  and  went  to  Perth,  and  in  1752  to  London,  to  earn 
his  living  as  a  mechanic.  Here,  in  1753,  he  married. 
He  had  been  religiously  inclined  from  boyhood,  and  had 
long  followed  his  convictions  in  many  moralities  and 
means  of  grace;  finally  converted  under  a  sermon  of 
John  Wesley's,  April  14, 1754,  he  soon  became  very  use- 
ful as  a  band  and  class  leader  and  local  preacher.  In 
1767  lie  began  itinerating  under  BIr.  Wesley,  and  with 


MATHER 


875 


MATHER 


great  success,  though  often  in  peril  from  mobs  stirred  up 
by  the  Establishment.  Sometimes  he  was  beaten  near- 
ly to  death,  and  often  stoned,  but  grace  triumphed,  and 
so  much  the  more  grew  the  word  of  God  and  multiplied. 
In  1757  he  experienced  the  blessing  of  "  the  great  sal- 
vation," or  perfect  love,  and  from  that  time  labored  with 
increased  unction  and  usefulness.  He  was  persecuted 
by  some  of  his  brethren  on  this  account,  but  Mr.  Wes- 
ley defended  him  and  held  him  up.  He  travelled  on 
nearly  all  the  circuits  of  England,  and,  during  forty- 
three  years,  was  present  at  thirty -nine  Conferences. 
Most  of  the  time  he  -vvas  in  prominent  relations  in  the 
Church,  and  active  in  all  its  interests.  He  was  the 
principal  member  of  Mr.  Wesley's  select  committee,  and 
his  clear,  strong  sense  and  judgment  were  of  great 
weight  in  all  things.  "  His  disinterestedness  was  shown 
in  the  fact  that,  though  ordained  by  Wesley  as  a  super- 
intendent or  bishop,  and  an  advocate  of  the  claim  of  the 
people  for  the  sacraments,  he  made  no  attempt  to  secure 
any  defence  for  his  peculiar  office,  but  even  opposed  the 
immediate  adoption  of  Coke's  episcopal  scheme,  as  pro- 
posed at  the  Litchfield  meeting"  (Stevens).  He  died  at 
London,  Aug.  22,  1800  ('?).— Jackson,  Early  Methodist 
Preachers,  i,  369;  Stevens,  Uist.  of  Methodism,  ii,  142; 
iii,  27,  40, 1 55  sq. 

Mather,  Cotton,  a  very  celebrated  American  di- 
vine of  colonial  days,  the  most  noted  of  the  JMather  fam- 
ily, the  grandson  of  Kichard  Mather  and  son  of  Increase, 
is  one  of  the  trio  spoken  of  in  the  old  doggerel  tomb- 
stone inscription  : 

"Under  this  stone  lies  Richard  Mather, 
Wlio  liad  a  son  greater  than  his  father, 
And  eke  a  grandson  greater  than  either." 

Cotton  blather  was  born  at  Boston  Feb.  12,  1662-(i3. 
His  early  education  be  received  under  the  eye  of  his  fa- 
ther, and  as  a  lad  of  twelve  he  entered  at  Harvard.  At 
this  time  he  is  spoken  of  as  a  line  classical  scholar. 
Four  years  afterwards,  when  he  grailuated.  Dr.  Oakes,  the 
president  of  the  college,  addressed  him  in  a  Latin  speech, 
lauding  in  glowing  terms  his  past  contluct  and  attain- 
ments, and  predicting  a  glorious  future.  But  it  was  not 
in  worldly  knowledge  only  that  lie  was  so  advanced  a 
student.  The  descendant  of  a  line  of  ministers,  he 
seemed  to  be  himself,  by  his  ajjtncss  in  learning  and 
early  seriousness,  specially  marked  out  for  the  minis- 
try. When  only  in  his  fourteenth  year.  Cotton  Mather's 
mind  had  begun  to  be  greatly  exercised  with  religious 
thoughts.  He  at  this  time  laid  down  a  system  of  rigid 
fasts,  which  he  continued  to  practice  monthly  or  week- 
ly, and  sometimes  oftener  through  the  rest  of  his  life, 
of  strict  and  regular  self-examination,  and  of  prolonged 
times  of  prayer,  to  which  he  afterwards  added  frequent 
nightl}'  vigils.  It  is  necessary  to  mention  these  things 
in  order  to  understand  some  points  in  his  character  and 
conduct  in  future  years.  For  awhile  he  was  diverted 
from  his  purpose  of  becoming  a  minister  by  a  growing 
impediment  in  his  speech,  and  he  began  to  study  medi- 
cine. But  being  shown  how  by  a  "  dilated  deliberation'' 
of  speech  he  might  avoid  stammering,  he  returned  to 
his  theological  studies,  and  commenced  preaching  when 
scarcely  eighteen  years  old.  In  1C80  he  received  a 
unanimous  call  from  his  father's  congregation,  then  the 
largest  in  Boston,  to  become  assistant  pastor,  and  in 
January,  1().S2,  was  settled  as  a  colleague  of  his  father. 
His  labors  in  the  ministry  were  characterized  by  great 
zeal  and  earnestness,  and  he  soon  came  to  be  considered 
a  prodigy  of  learning  and  ability.  He  was  not  only  a 
most  attentive  pastor,  but  a  superior  preacher,  and 
withal  found  time  for  a  large  amount  of  literary  labors: 
he  published  three  hundred  and  eighty-two  distinct 
works,  most  of  them  of  course  small,  consisting,  besides 
his  sermons,  of  devotional  works,  and  other  contributions 
to  practical  religion.  In  addition  to  all  these  labors  he 
was  engaged  in  the  accumulation  of  material  for  greater 
works.  Nor  did  he  any  more  than  his  father  shrink 
from  the  political  duties  which  the  ministerial  office  had 
been  supposed  to  cast  upon  those  who  held  it.     ''New 


England,"  he  wrote,  "being  a  countrj'  whose  interests  are 
remarkably  inwrapped  in  ecclesiastical  circumstances, 
ministers  ought  to  concern  themselves  in  politics." 
When,  therefore,  his  father  was  sent  to  England  to  seek 
relief  from  the  arbitrary  proceedings  of  Charles  II  and 
James  II,  Cotton  IMather  regarded  himself  as  the  nat- 
ural leader  of  the  citizens,  and  on  their  seizing  and  im- 
prisoning the  obnoxious  governor,  he  drew  up  their  dec- 
laration justifying  that  extreme  measure. 

The  freedom  of  thought  in  politics,  however,  made 
its  inroads  into  the  Church  also,  and  fearing  a  falling 
away  from  the  purity  of  the  old  ftiith,  and  fancying  that 
he  saw  the  evil  one  busy  in  turning  away  the  hearts  of 
the  people,  he  was  led  to  a  life  of  asceticism,  which  in- 
volved him  in  religious  controversies. 

The  daughter  of  one  Goodwin,  a  respectable  mechanic 
of  Boston,  accused  a  laundress  of  having  stolen  some  of 
the  family  linen.  The  mother  of  the  suspected  person, 
an  Irish  emigrant,  expostulated  in  no  very  gentle  terms 
against  such  a  charge,  and,  as  was  averred,  not  content 
with  abuse,  cast  a  spell  over  the  accuser.  The  younger 
children  soon  began  to  suffer  similarly,  and  the  poor 
Irishwoman  was  denounced  as  a  witch.  Cotton  Mather, 
fearing  that  the  excesses  of  superstition  would  have  a  stUI 
more  derogatory  effect  on  the  religious  life  of  the  col- 
onists, determined  to  investigate  this  case  of  witchcraft. 
He  took  the  eldest  girl,  then  about  sixteen  years  old,  into 
his  house,  and  her  vagaries  soon  left  on  his  mind  no 
doubt  that  she  was  really  under  the  influence  of  an  evil 
spirit.  The  poor  Irishwoman  was  tried,  condemned, 
and  executed ;  and  ilather  printed  a  relation  of  the  cir- 
cumstances, and  an  account  of  such  influences  in  other 
places.  The  book,  which  was  published  with  the  rec- 
ommendation of  all  the  ministers  of  Boston  and  Charles- 
town,  was  entitled  MemoraUe  F?-ovidences  relating  to 
Witchcraft  and  Possessions,  with  Discoveries  and  Ap- 
pendix  (Lond.  and  Bost.  1689, 8vo ;  2d  edit.  1691, 12mo ; 
Edinb.  1097,  12mo).  Both  in  the  colony  and  in  Eng- 
land the  book  ^vas  read  by  everybody.  In  the  old  coun- 
try it  had  the  honor  to  be  introduced  by  the  eminent 
divine.  Dr.  Kichard  Baxter,  who  wrote  a  preface  for  the 
work,  and  argued  that  it  was  "sufficient  to  convince  all 
but  the  most  obdurate  Sadducees."  The  question  here 
arises  whether  or  not  Cotton  Mather  was  himself  a  be- 
liever in  witchcraft,  and  whether  or  not  he  wrote  the 
book  simply  to  explode  the  "  delusion"  which  was  fast 
making  converts,  especially  in  and  about  Massachusetts. 
Even  to  our  day  this  question  lias  not  been  satisfactorilj' 
solved. 

Mr.  Bancroft,  our  great  historian,  has  treated  Cotton 
Mather  as  guilty  of  haA-ing  provoked  the  excitement 
known  as  the  "  Salem  witchcraft  delusion."  AVithin  the 
last  few  years,  however,  one  of  our  ablest  writers,  Mr. 
Poole,  formerly  librarian  of  the  "  Boston  Library,"  has 
come  forward  to  clear  Cotton  Mather  of  any  and  aU  in- 
sinuations, holding  that  "the  opposite"  of  what  is  gener- 
ally charged  against  Mr.  Mather  "  is  the  truth."  "  His 
gentler  treatment,"  we  are  told, "  cured  and  Christian- 
ized them  [the  believers  of  witchcraft].  He  opposed, 
with  his  father  and  the  rest  of  the  clergj- — with  but 
three  exceptions — the  course  of  the  judges  in  deeming 
every  possessed  person  guilty,  the  ministry  holding  that 
the  devil  might  enter  innocent  persons,  and  that  the 
fact  of  tlTeir  irr:proper  conduct  was  no  ground  for  ad- 
judging them  criminals.  He  also  opp<5sed  taking  spec- 
tral testimony,  or  the  words  of  a  confessed  witch.  It 
must  be  ordinary  legal  witnesses  and  testimony  that 
could  alone  convict.  He  also  offered  to  take  six  of  the 
accused  persons  into  his  own  house,  at  his  oivn  expense, 
and  to  make  upon  them  the  experiment  of  prayer  and 
fasting  which  had  been  so  successful  with  the  (ioodwin 
children  of  his  o^^•n  congregation."  j\Ir.  Poole  also 
proves  or  makes  it  quite  credible  that  it  was  IMather  and 
not  jMr.Willard  who  wrote  the  most  vigorous  tract  of 
the  times  against  the  Salem  movements,  and  who  made 
the  Boston  and  Salem  treatment  noted  for  their  differ- 
ence even  at  that  day.     See  Salem  ;  Witcuckaft. 


MATHER 


816 


MATHER 


There  can  hardly  be  any  question  about  the  fact  that 
Cotton  Mather  is,  in  a  measure  at  least,  responsible  for 
the  blood  that  was  shed  at  Salem  between  1685  and 
1692.  But  it  is  folly  indeed  to  question  his  goodness, 
as  some  have  done,  or  even  to  bring  charges  against  his 
sincerity  because  ofhis  fanatical  treatment  of  the  deluded 
Salemites.  We  need  only  remember  that  even  the  very 
men  who  built  up  the  Church  of  Protestantism  in  the 
16th  ccnturj'  were  not  entirely  free  from  mistakes,  and 
failed  in  a  manner  very  much  like  their  good  Puritan 
descendant.  Sublimely  ridiculous,  then,  appears  the 
judgment  pronounced  by  a  writer  in  a  late  number  of 
Zion's  Herald  (May  20, 1869) :  "At  twenty-three  he  was 
in  the  midst  of  this  terrific  panic  of  mortal  fear  and  its 
fatal  results ;  and,  even  at  this  boyish  age,  bore  himself 
with  such  manly  courage,  prudence,  and  coohiess  that 
he  was  the  only  minister,  and  even  the  only  person,  ex- 
cept his  father,  who  may  have  been  said  to  have  stood 
solidly  on  his  feet,  and  who  ^^'on  from  his  contemporary 
the  praise  that  'had  his  notions  been  hearkened  to  and 
followed,  these  troubles  would  never  have  grown  unto 
that  height  which  they  now  have.' "  The  quotation  is 
from  Poole's  article  in  the  North  A  merican  Review  of 
April,  1869.  AVhile  we  would  not  forget  the  merits 
of  our  ancestors,  but  would  rather  extol  them  and  laud 
them  for  their  virtues,  we  cannot  afford  to  be  blind  to 
their  faults  and  mistakes.  Salem  witchcraft  persecu- 
tion certainly  must  not  find  an  advocate  in  the  nine- 
teenth century,  surely  not  at  the  expense  of  the  truths 
of  liistorj'.  But  to  turn  to  the  brighter  side  of  Mather's 
life.  Says  a  writer  in  delineating  his  character,  while 
acknowledging  the  failing  we  have  felt  constrained  to 
condemn :  '■  It  was  the  great  ambition  of  his  whole  life  to 
do  good.  His  heart  was  set  upon  it ;  he  did  not  there- 
fore content  himself  with  merely  embracing  opportuni- 
ties of  doing  good  that  occasionallj"  offered  themselves, 
but  he  very  frequently  set  apart  much  time  on  purpose 
to  devise  good ;  and  he  seldom  came  into  any  company 
without  having  this  directly  in  his  view.  It  was  con- 
stantly' one  of  his  first  thoughts  in  the  morning.  What 
good  may  I  do  this  day  ?  And  that  he  might  more  cer- 
tainly attend  to  the  various  branches  of  so  large  and 
comprehensive  a  duty,  he  resolved  this  general  question. 
What  good  shall  I  do  ?  into  several  particidars,  one  of 
which  he  took  into  consideration  while  he  was  dressing 
himself  every  morning,  and  as  soon  as  he  came  into  his 
study  he  set  down  some  brief  hints  of  his  meditations 
upon  it.  He  had  ordinarily  a  distinct  question  for  each 
morning  in  the  week.  His  question  for  the  Lord's-day 
morning  constantly  was,  What  shall  I  do,  as  pastor  of  a 
Church,  for  the  good  of  the  flock  under  my  charge  ? 
Upon  this  he  considered  what  subjects  were  most  suit- 
able and  seasonable  for  him  to  preach  on ;  what  families 
of  his  Hock  were  to  be  visited,  and  with  what  particular 
view ;  and  how  he  might  make  his  ministrjr  still  more 
acceptable  and  useful."    He  died  Feb.  13, 1728. 

Though  many  of  Cotton  Mather's  productions  are  in- 
deed but  small  volumes,  as  single  Sermons,  Essays,  etc., 
yet  there  are  several  among  them  of  a  much  larger  size ; 
as  his  Magnalia  Chrixli  Americana,  or  (he  Ecclesiasti- 
cal History  of  Neiv  Em/laml  from  its  first  riantiiif/  in 
1620  to  1698'(Lond.l70i2,  folio;  Hartford, Conn.,  1820,  2 
vols.Svo) ;  hisC/(m/.P/(i7o.w/>/(e?-(Lond.  1721, 12mo);  his 
Ratio  DisciplincB  Fratrum  Nov- A  nr/lorum ;  his  Directions 
to  a  Candidate  for  the  Ministi-y — a  book  which  brought 
him  as  many  letters  of  thanks  as  would  fill  a  volume. 
Besides  all  these,  the  doctor  left  behind  him  several 
books  in  manuscript ;  one  of  which,  viz.  his  Jiiblia  A  mei-- 
icana,or  Illustrations  of  the  Sac7-ed  Scriptures, -was  pro- 
posed to  be  printed  in  three  volumes,  folio.  The  true 
motive  that  prompted  him  to  write  and  pul)lish  so  great 
a  number  of  books,  api>cars  from  the  motto  that  he  wrote 
on  the  outside  of  the  catalogue  which  he  kept  ofhis  own 
works,  viz.  .Tohn  xv,  8,''  Herein  is  my  Father  glorified, 
that  ye  bear  much  fruit."  Ur.  Mather  was  one  of  the 
most  peculiar  men  that  America  has  produced.  He 
doubtless  possessed  larger  learning  than  any  other  min- 


ister of  his  time,  but  his  mind  was  better  adapted  to  ac- 
quire than  to  create.  He  lacked  in  strong  judgment,  in 
original  genius,  and  in  sustained  power.  He  had  no 
ability  to  generalize,  no  wide  and  penetrating  vision. 
The  most  noted  benefaction  ofhis  life  to  the  country  was 
introducing  vaccination  for  small-pox,  which  proved  a 
great  blessing.  See  his  Life,  ^\•Titten  by  his  son  (Bost. 
1729) ;  also  by  Enoch  Pond  and  Dr.  Jennings ;  Jones, 
Chris.  Biog.  s.  v. ;  Sparks,  A  mer.  Biog.  1st  series,  vi,  161 
sq. ;  Sherman,  Neio  England  Divines,  p.  76  sq. ;  Duj'c- 
kinck,  Cyclop,  of  A  mer.  Lit.  i,  59 ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit, 
and  A  mer.  Auth.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  Bancroft,  Hist,  of  the  U. 
S.  iii,  71,  76,  95,  98;  North  Amer.  Rev.  xliii,  519;  xlvi, 
477;  li,  1;  Jleth.Quar.  Rev.  i,i30;  Christian  Examine?; 
V,  365.     (J.H.W.) 

Mather,  Eleazer,  a  Puritan  minister  of  New  Eng- 
land, son  of  Eichard,  and  brother  of  Increase  Mather, 
was  born  at  Dorchester  May  13, 1637 ;  graduated  at  Har- 
vard in  1656;  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Church  at 
Northampton  in  1661 ;  and  there  died,  July  2-1,  1699. 
He  was  a  fine  scholar,  a  sound  thinker,  and  a  devoted 
and  evangelical  minister.  Many  souls  were  converted 
through  his  labors,  and  his  early  death  was  much  la- 
mented by  all  the  churches. — Sherman,  A'eiv  England 
Divines,  p.  107;  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Amer.  Pulpit,  i, 
159 ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer.  Auth.  s.  v. 

Mather,  Increase,  D.D.,  an  eminent  American 
divine,  was  boni  at  Dorchester,  Mass.,  June  21,  1639. 
His  father,  Eichard  Mather  (q.  v.),  had  emigrated  from 
England  to  Massachusetts  in  1635.  In  early  child- 
hood Increase  exhibited  signs  of  miusual  mental  en- 
dowments; he  entered  Harvard  College  at  the  age  of 
tweh'e,  and  graduated  with  the  class  of  1656.  Shortly 
after  this  he  was  converted,  and  determined  to  de- 
vote his  life  to  the  ministry.  In  the  year  following 
that  of  his  graduation  lie  went  to  Dublin,  where  his 
brother  was  preaching.  There  he  entered  Trinity  Col- 
lege, and,  after  securing  the  degree  of  M.A.,  was  chosen 
a  fellow  of  the  coUege,  an  honor,  however,  which  he 
declined.  The  climate  of  Ireland  being  unfavorable 
to  his  health,  he  removed  to  England,  and  preached 
there  for  a  while.  At  the  time  of  the  Eestoration  he 
was  residing  in  the  island  of  Guernsey,  as  chaplain  to 
an  English  regiment ;  but  when,  as  a  commissioned  offi- 
cer, he  was  required  to  sign  a  paper  declaring  "  that 
the  times  then  were  and  would  be  happy,"  and  he  re- 
fused to  comply,  his  salary  was  so  greatly  reduced  that 
soon  after  this  he  returned  to  his  native  country',  and 
was  called  and  settled  as  pastor  of  the  North  Church  in 
Boston.  In  this  city  he  married,  in  1662,  a  daughter 
of  the  Eev.  John  Cotton,  and  from  this  marriage  sprang 
Cotton  Mather,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  divines  of  his 
day.  In  the  controversy  as  to  "  who  are  the  legitimate 
subjects  of  baptism,"  he  opposed  his  father,  and  likewise 
the  decision  of  the  synod  of  1662,  until  caused  to  change 
his  views  by  the  arguments  of  Mr.  Mitchell,  of  Cam- 
bridge. Largely  by  his  instrumentality  the  govern- 
ment was  induced  to  call  the  general  synod  of  1679  from 
the  whole  colony,  for  the  purpose  of  "  correcting  the 
evils  that  had  provoked  God  to  send  judgment  on  New 
England."  The  sj-nod  had  its  second  session  the  fol- 
lowing year,  and  Mr.  Mather  acted  as  moderator.  At 
this  meeting  the  Confession  of  Faith  was  agreed  upon, 
and  he  prepared  a  preface  to  it.  On  the  death  of  presi- 
dent Oakes  of  Harvard  Universitj-,  Mather  tcmporarLly 
supplied  the  place.  By  the  sudden  death  of  the  ap- 
pointee, president  Eogers,  Mather  was,  in  1684,  again 
called  to  the  head  of  the  collegf.  This  time  he  ac- 
cepted, and  combined  his  presidential  duties  with  his 
pastoral.  In  1692  he  was  presented  with  a  diploma  of 
doctor  of  divinity,  ."  the  first  instance  in  which  such  a 
degree  was  conferred  in  British  America."  On  the  ac- 
cession of  Charles  II  Jlassachusctts  was  thrown  into 
trouble.  His  majestj'  required  full  submission  of  their 
charter  to  his  pleasure,  on  pain,  in  case  of  refusal,  of 
having  a  quo  warranto  issued  against  it.     To  tliis  op- 


MATHER 


877 


MATHER 


pression  Mather  was  stanch  in  his  opposition,  and  be- 
fore an  assembly  in  Boston  dissuaded  his  countrymen 
from  yielding  their  liberties  tamely.  As  a  result  of 
their  resistance,  j  udgment  was  entered  against  the  char- 
ter of  the  Massachusetts  colony.  About  this  time 
Charles  died,  and  James  II,  being  his  successor,  pub- 
lished his  specious  declaration  for  liberty  of  conscience. 
This  produced  temporary  relief,  and  Mather  was  dele- 
gated to  convey  to  his  majesty  in  England  the  grateful 
acknowledgment  of  the  churches,  and  to  sue  for  a  fur- 
ther redress  of  their  wrongs.  James  received  him  kindly, 
and  promised  him  more  than  he  ever  granted.  Mather 
remained,  however,  until  the  close  of  the  revolution  of 
1G88,  which  deposed  James  and  placed  William  and 
Mary  on  the  throne  of  England.  After  much  diplomacy 
with  the  prince  of  Orange,  a  new  charter  was  at  length 
procured  in  lieu  of  the  old  one,  and  Mather  himself  was 
allowed  the  privilege  of  nominating  the  governor,  lieu- 
tenant governor,  and  board  of  council.  After  four  years 
thus  spent  among  the  nobility  at  Whitehall,  Dr.  Mather 
returned  to  Boston  with  the  consciousness  of  having 
faithfully  discharged  his  duty  and  rendered  his  comitry 
an  important  service.  He  found  the  Church  in  great 
excitement  about  witchcraft,  which  called  forth  his  work 
entitled  Cases  of  Conscience  concerning  Witchcraft.  He 
retained  his  natural  bodily  and  mental  vigor  imtil  past 
his  eightieth  birthday.  After  this  he  endured  great 
bodily  and  consequent  mental  derangements  for  four 
years,  during  all  of  which  time  his  great  burden  seemed 
to  be,  not  his  suffering,  but  the  painful  sense  of  his  ina- 
bility to  labor.  At  last,  on  Aug.  23, 1723,  he  died  peace- 
fully in  the  arms  of  his  eldest  son.  His  loss  was  deeply 
mourned  by  those  for  whom  he  had  spent  his  long  and 
laborious  life.  According  to  Sprague,  "  he  was  the  last 
of  more  than  twenty-two  hundred  ministers  who  had 
been  ejected  and  silenced  on  the  restoration  of  Charles 
II  and  on  the  Act  of  Uniformity."  He  was  an  indus- 
trious student,  and  published  ninety-two  separate  works, 
most  of  which  are  now  very  scarce.  A  noted  writer 
thus  comments  upon  him  in  the  North  Amer.Rev.  1840 
(July),  p.  5 :  "  Increase  Mather  not  only  stood  most 
conspicuous  among  the  scholars  and  divines  of  New 
England,  as  president  of  Harvard  College  and  pastor  of  a 
chiu'ch  in  Boston,  but  by  his  political  influence  was  sup- 
posed at  times  to  have  controlled  the  administration  of 
the  government."  He  was  a  learned,  earnest,  and  de- 
voted minister,  whose  piety  was  deep,  warm,  and  fuU  of 
love.  His  sermons  were  elaborate  and  powerful,  and 
many  souls  were  converted  by  his  labors.  He  studied 
earnestly  for  sixty  years,  and  was  regarded  as  the  most 
learned  American  minister  of  his  day. — Sherman,  Neio 
England  Divines,  p.  57  ;  Allibone,  Diet.  Brit,  and  A  mer. 
Auth.  s.  V. ;  Bancroft,  Hist.  U.  S.  (see  Index  in  vol.  iii) ; 
Drake,  Diet.  A  mer.  Biogr.  s.v. ;  Duyckinck,(7j/cfo^;.  A  mer. 
Lit.  vol.  i. 

Mather,  Moses,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  born  at  Lyme,  Connecticut,  in  1719;  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  1739,  and  soon  after  was  licensed  to 
preach  by  the  New  London  Association.  In  1742  he 
commenced  preaching  in  a  Congregational  church  in 
Middlesex,  now  Darien,  Connecticut,  and  in  1744  was 
ordained  pastor  of  the  Congregational  Church,  and  this 
position  he  held  until  his  death  in  180G.  Dr.  Mather 
Avas  a  fellow  of  Yale  College  from  1777  to  1790.  He 
warmly  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Colonies  in  the  Rev- 
olutionary War,  and  was  twice  taken  by  the  British  and 
Tories,  carried  to  New  York,  and  confined  in  the  pro- 
vost prison.  He  published  a  Reply  to  Dr.  Bellamy  on 
the  Half-  luay  Covenant :  —  Infant  Bajitism  Defended 
(1759) : — A  Sermon,  entitled  Divine  Sovereignty  disjjlay- 
ed  by  Predestination  (1763) ;  and  was  the  author  of  a 
posthumous  work,  yl  Systematic  Vierv  of  Divinity  (1813, 
12mo).    See  Sprague,  A  nnuls  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit,  i,  425, 

6.  V. 

Mather,  Nathaniel,  an  English  minister,  a  broth- 
er of  Increase  Mather,  Avas  born  in  Lancashire  in  1630; 


graduated  at  Harvard  College,  1647,  and  spent  his  min- 
isterial life  in  England  and  Holland.  He  died  in  1097. 
He  published  Tn-o  Sennons  (Oxon.  1094,  4to ;  Lond. 
1718,  12mo) :  —  A  Discussion  on  the  Laivfulness  of  a 
Pastor's  Officiating  in  Another  Church: — A  Fast  Ser- 
mon:— and  Sermons  preached  at  Pinner's  Hall  and  Lime 
Street  (1701).  "  In  his  public  discourses  there  was  nei- 
ther a  lavish  display  nor  an  inelegant  peniuy  of  orato- 
rical excellence,  while  the  dignity  of  his  subjects  su- 
perseded the  necessity  of  rhetorical  embellishments." — • 
Calamy,  Continuation  of  the  Nonconforinists'  Memorial  ; 
Wilson,  Dissenters;  AlUboue,  Diet,  of  B?-it.  aivl  Amer. 
Auth.  s.v. 

Mather,  Richard,  an  Episcopal  and  later  a  Puritan 
minister,  was  born  at  Lowtown,  Lancashire,  Eng.,  in  1596 ; 
was  converted  when  a  young  man ;  spent  two  years  at 
Oxford ;  entered  the  ministry  in  1618,  near  Liverpool, 
and  at  the  end  of  fifteen  years  of  devoted  and  successful 
labor  was  suspended  for  nonconformity.  He  then  emi- 
grated to  Massachusetts,  and  became  pastor  of  a  congre- 
gation at  Dorchester.  There  he  died,  April  22,  1669. 
He  was  a  sound  and  earnest  preacher,  not  captivating, 
but  solid,  pious,  and  very  useful.  He  was  an  active  the- 
ologian, and  a  member  of  every  synod  in  New  England 
after  his  arrival.  He  was  studious,  a  good  scholar,  and 
a  very  able  and  valuable  man.  Richard  Mather  assist- 
ed Eliot  in  the  New  England  version  of  the  Psalms,  and 
furnished  the  s>niod  of  1648  a  model  of  Church  Disci- 
pline. He  published  a  discourse  on  the  Church  Cove- 
nant (1639),  a  treatise  on  Justification  (1652),  and  an 
elaborate  defence  of  the  churches  of  New  England.  See 
Increase  Mather,  Life  and  Death  of  Robert  Mather  (1670, 
4to) ;  Drake,  Cyclop,  of  A  mer.  Biog.  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet, 
of  Brit,  and  Amer.  Auth.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  Roger,  New  Eng- 
land Divines ;  Sherman,  New  England  Divines,  p.  26. 

Mather,  Samuel  (1),  brother  of  Increase  Mather, 
was  born  in  Lancashire,  England,  in  1 626 ;  graduated 
at  Harvard  College  in  1643;  was  for  some  time  assist- 
ant pastor  to  Rev.  Mr.  Rogers,  in  Rowley ;  and  was  pas- 
tor of  the  North  Church,  Boston,  in  1649.  In  1650  he 
returned  to  England,  and  was  appointed  chaplain  of 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford;  preached  in  Scotland  and 
Ireland;  went  to  Dublin  in  1655,  and  became  senior 
fellow  of  Trinity  CoUege,  Dublin,  and  minister  of  the 
Church  of  St.  Nicholas.  Soon  after  the  Restoration  he 
was  suspended  on  a  charge  of  sedition,  but  afterwards 
continued  to  preach  to  a  small  congregation  privately. 
He  died  in  1671.  Mr.  Mather  held  the  first  rank  as  a 
preacher.  He  published  Sermons  and  Tracts: — Old 
Testament  Types  Explained  and  Improved  (Lond.  1673, 
4to) ;  rewritten  by  CaroUne  Fry,  as  Gospel  of  the  Old 
Testament  (1833,  1851):  —  Life  of  Nathaniel  Mather 
(1689).  See  Drake,  Diet,  of  A  mer.  Biog.  s.  v. ;  Darling, 
Cyclop.  Bibliog.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Mather,  Samuel  (2),  D.D.,  minister  of  the  Trin- 
itarian Congregational  Church,  son  of  Cotton  ]\Iather, 
was  born  in  Boston  in  1706 ;  graduated  at  Harvard 
CoUcge  in  1723,  having  studied  theology  probably  un- 
der the  direction  of  his  father;  was  licensed  to  preach, 
and  in  1732  became  colleague-pastor  with  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Gee,  of  the  Second  Church  in  IJoston,  and  was  ordained 
in  the  same  year.  In  1741  a  dissatisfaction  arose  against 
him  in  this  church,  partly  from  the  charge  of  looseness 
of  doctrine,  and  also  of  impropriety  of  conduct,  and  he, 
with  the  smaller  part  of  his  membership,  withdrew,  and 
established  a  separate  Church  in  Hanover  Street,  on  the 
corner  of  North  Bennet.  "  The  fact,"  says  Bobbins,  in 
his  History  of  the  Second  Church,  "  that  so  many  per- 
sons of  good  character  supported  Mr.  INIather,  affords 
good  reason  to  doubt  whether  the  charges  of  imjiroprie- 
ty  were  well  founded."  He  sustained  his  relation  as 
pastor  of  Hanover  Street  Church  until  his  death  in  1785. 
Dr.  Mather  published  A  Sermon  on  the  Death  of  Cotton 
Mather  (1728)  -.—Life  of  Cotton  Mather  (1729)  -.—An  Es- 
say concerning  Gratitude  (1732):— I'jVa  A.H.  Franckii, 
cui  adjecta  est  narratio  rerum  memorabilium  in  Ecclesiis 


MATHESIUS 


MATHILDA 


Evanqdirh  per  Germaniam,  etc.  (1733)  : — A  n  Apohgy 
for  tin-  I.ihirtks  of  the  Churches  in  New  England  (1738) : 
— and  IScrmoiis  on  various  Subjects  (1738,  '39,  '40,  '51, 
'53,  'GO,  '62,  '66,  and  '68.  Also  a  Poem,  in  five  parts. 
The  Sacred  Minister,  by  Aiirelius  Prudentius  America- 
nns  (1773) : — Answer  to  a  Pamphlet  entitled  Saleation 
for  all  Men  (1782). — Spraguc,  A7mals  Amer.  Puljnt,  i, 
371. 

Mathesius,  Johann,  a  German  Protestant  theolo- 
£jian,  was  a  native  of  Saxony.  He  studied  at  Witten- 
berg in  1528,  and  -vvas  there  for  a  while  Luther's  fellow- 
boarder.  He  was  appointed  rector  of  Joachirasthal  in 
1532,  pastor  in  1545,  and  died  in  1564.  He  had  wit- 
nessed many  abuses  resulting  from  the  misconception 
of  the  doctrine  of  salvation  by  grace :  we  learn  from  liim 
that  there  were  parties  in  the  Church  who  claimed,  on 
the  strength  of  it,  that  faitli  alone  was  necessary,  and 
that  works  were  of  no  imjiortance  whatever,  so  that  it 
did  not  matter  whether  the  actions  of  believers  were 
good  or  bad.  Mathesius  strongly  opposed  such  hereti- 
cal views,  and  thus  became  involved  in  controversies 
which  embittered  the  end  of  his  life.  He  is  especially 
known  by  seventeen  sermons  on  the  doctrine,  the  con- 
fession, and  the  death  of  Luther  (Nuremberg,  1588 ;  in 
recent  times  the  biographical  portions  were  collected 
and  published  under  the  title,  J.  Mathesius,  d.  Lehen  d. 
Dr.  Martin  Luther,  mil  einer  Vorrede  von  G.  II.  v.  Schu- 
bert, Stuttgart).  He  wrote  also  various  other  sermons, 
a  tract  on  justification,  a  catechism,  and  several  hymns. 
His  biograpliy  was  published  by  Balthasar  Mathesius 
in  1705.  See  Jcicher,  Gelehi-fen-Lexikon,  and  DoUinger, 
Die  Ri'formation,  ii,  127  ;  Herzog,  Real-EncyUopiddie,  ix, 
160;  \\"m\i\\an\\,  Christian  Singers  of  Germany, -p.  140 
sq.      (.1.  N.  P.) 

Mathetas  (MoSj/rai,  disciples)  is  one  of  the  names 
by  which  the  early  followers  of  our  Lord  were  known 
among  tlieir  contemporaries.  All  the  common  appella- 
tions of  the  professors  of  the  Christian  religion  which 
occur  in  the  N.  T.  were  expressive  of  certain  dispositions 
and  privileges  belonging  to  the  sincere  professor  of  the 
Gospel.     See  Christians  ;  Disciple. 

Mathe'W,  Father  Theobald,  the  celebrated  apostle 
of  tem Iterance,  a  Catholic  priest,  was  born  in  the  county 
of  Tipperary,  Ireland,  in  1814;  was  educated  at  the  Ko- 
man  Catholic  seminary  in  Maynooth ;  was  appointed, 
after  his  ordination,  to  a  missionary  charge  at  Cork, 
where  he  established  a  charitable  association  on  the 
model  of  that  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul.  About  1838  he 
became  president  of  a  temperance  society,  and  in  a  few 
montlis  administered  the  pledge  to  150,000  persons  in 
Cork  alone.  He  afterwards  visited  diiferent  parts  of 
Ireland,  the  cities  of  London,  Manchester,  and  Liverpool, 
and  the  United  States  of  America,  and  was  everywhere 
received  with  enthusiasm.  For  these  eminent  services 
in  the  cause  of  religion  and  morality,  queen  Victoria  be- 
stowed upon  father  IMathew  an  annuity  of  £500.  He 
died  Dec.  6,  1856,  at  Queenstown,  Ireland.  See  Ma- 
guirc.  Father  Mathcir,  a  Biography  (Loud.  1863) ;  Mor- 
ris, Memoirs  of  the  Life  <f  Theobald  Mathew  (New  York, 
1841);  Ilensliaw,  Life  of  Father  Mathew  (New  York, 
1841)),  s.  v. ;  Harriet  Martineau,  Biogi-aphical  Sketches 
(1869) ;  Frase7-''s  Magazine  for  Januarj-,  1841 ;  Thomas, 
Diet,  liiog.  and  Mythol.  s.  v. 

Mathews,  James  ]\I.,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the 
(Dutch)  licformed  Church,  was  born  in  Salem,  N.  Y..  in 
1785 ;  graduated  at  Union  College  in  1803 ;  at  the  Sem- 
inary of  the  Associate  IJeformed  Church  in  1807;  was 
licensed  to  preach  tlie  Gospel  by  the  Associate  Reformed 
I'resbytery  in  New  York  in  1807;  became  assistant  pro- 
fessor in  the  theological  seminary  of  his  great  preceptor, 
Kev.  Dr.  .lohn  ls\.  ]\Iason,  in  1809,  and  continued  there 
until  1818.  After  supjilying  tJie  South  Dutch  Church 
in  Garden  Street,  New  York,  for  one  year,  he  became  its 
pastor  in  1812,  and  retained  that  relation  until  1840. 
Thereafter  he  never  again  took  a  pastoral  charge.  He 
was  the  principal  founder  of  the  University  of  the  City 


of  New  York,  and  was  its  first  chancellor — 1831  to  1839. 
The  elegant  marble  edifice  of  the  university  and  the  ad- 
joining Reformed  church  on  Washingtoit  Square  are 
monuments  of  his  architectural  taste  and  liberal  proj- 
ects. Dr.  Mathews  published,  in  addition  to  various 
occasional  pamphlets,  a  book  o{  Autobiographical  Recol- 
lections, a  volume  of  lectures  On  the  Relations  of  Science 
to  Christianity,  and  another  on  The  Bible  and  Men  of 
Learning  (1855).  He  was  a  man  of  noble  presence  and 
courtly  manners,  scholarly  in  his  tastes  and  liabits,  a 
powerfid  preacher,  and  fertile  in  large  plans  of  Christian 
usefulness.  His  last  labors  were  given  for  many  months 
before  his  decease  to  preparations  for  an  evangelical 
council,  held  in  New  York,  composed  of  representatives 
from  most  of  the  American  churches,  and  over  which  he 
presided,  in  October,  1869.  He  was  a  zealous  advocate 
of  the  Evangelical  Alliance,  and  of  other  forms  of  Chris- 
tian imion ;  and  it  is  believed  that  his  latest  efforts  in 
this  cause  exhausted  his  strength  and  hastened  his  end. 
Dr.  JMathews  was  naturally  a  leader  of  men.  His  learn- 
ing was  extensive,  his  tact  and  skill  were  great,  and  his 
zeal  was  ardent.  Associated  with  prominent  men  and 
events  for  more  than  threescore  years,  he  bore  an  active 
part  in  nearly  all  of  the  great  religious  and  philanthropic 
movements  of  our  country  during  this  period.  He  died 
January,  1870,  after  a  brief  illness,  in  the  city  of  New 
York,  where  his  life  was  spent.     (W.  J.  K.  T.) 

Mathilda,  a  Roman  Catholic  saint,  and  queen  of 
Germanj',  was  born  in  Westphalia,  towards  the  close  of 
the  9th  century.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Theodoric, 
count  of  Oldenburg,  a  descendant  of  the  famed  Witti- 
kind,  and  of  a  princess  of  Denmark.  She  was  educated 
by  her  grandmother,  abbess  of  the  convent  of  Herword. 
In  909  she  was  married  to  Henry,  afterwards  king  of 
Germany.  On  the  throne  she  preserved  the  piety  and 
simplicity  which  distinguished  her  from  her  youth. 
A  great  part  of  her  time  was  spent  in  prayer.  She 
gave  liberally  to  the  poor,  whom  she  often  nursed  her- 
self. She  had  three  sons:  the  emperor  Otho  the  Great; 
Henry,  duke  of  Bavaria;  and  Bruno,  archbishop  of  Co- 
logne. One  of  her  daughters,  Hedwige,  was  married  to 
Hugh  the  Great,  duke  of  France,  and  became  mother 
of  Hugh  Capet.  After  the  death  of  her  husband,  Otho 
and  Henry  of  Bavaria  quarrelled  concerning  the  crown 
of  Germany.  Henry,  for  whom  his  mother  showed 
great  partiality  on  this  occasion,  having  subsequently 
become  reconciled  with  Otho,  joined  him  in  despoiling 
Slathilda  of  her  dowry  and  of  all  her  possessions,  under 
pretence  that  she  was  squandering  the  money  of  the 
state  in  giving  alms  to  the  poor.  Her  property  was, 
however,  subsequently  returned  to  her  through  the  in- 
terference of  Edith,  wife  of  Otho.  The  remainder  of 
her  life  was  passed  in  meditation  and  works  of  charit}% 
She  founded  several  convents,  and  died  at  Qucdlinburg, 
iVIarch  14,  968.  See  A  eta  Sanctorum,  INlarch  14 ;  l?ail- 
let,  Vie  des  Saints ;  Mabillon,  Scecula  Ordinis  Benedicto- 
rnm;  Hchwurz,  De  JIathilda,  abbatissa  Quedlimburgensi 
(Altdorf,  1736,  4to) ;  Breitenbauch,  Leben  d.  Kaiserin 
Mathilde  (Reval,  1780,  8vo) ;  Treitschke,  Ileinrich  I  und 
Mafhilde  (Lpz.  1814,  8vo);  Mathilde  Gemahlin  Ilein- 
richs  I  (Augsburg,  1832,  8vo). — Herzog,  Real-Encyldo- 
pddie,  ix,  161 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Generate,  xxxiv, 
250.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Mathilda,  countess  or  Tuscan^-,  well  known  in 
history  through  her  close  political  connection  with  pope 
Gregory  VII  (q.  v.),  was  a  daughter  of  Boniface,  count 
of  Tuscany,  and  was  born  in  1046.  She  is  said  to  have 
married  (Jodfrey  (surnaracd  II  Gobbo,  or  the  ''Hunch- 
back"), duke  of  Lorraine,  in  1069,  by  procuration ;  but, 
if  so,  her  husband  did  not  make  his  ajipearance  in  Italy 
until  four  j-ears  after  the  wedding  ceremony,  and  the 
two,  if  they  were  ever  united,  soon  afterwards  separated. 
Godfrey  went  back  to  his  duchy,  and  became  a  supporter 
of  the  emperor  Henry  IV,  while  IMathilda  made  herself 
conspicuous  by  the  /.eal  with  which  she  espoused  the 
cause  of  Gregory  VII.     She  became  his  inseparable  as- 


MATHURTNS 


879 


MATRIMONY 


sociate,  was  ever  ready  to  assist  him  in  all  he  under- 
took, and  to  share  every  danger  from  which  she  could 
not  protect  him.  In  1077,  when  Henry  had  suddenly 
made  his  appearance  in  Italy,  and  Gregory  was  fearing 
for  his  safety,  she  gave  the  pontiff  shelter  in  her  own 
castle.  This  intimacy  of  Mathilda  with  the  pope  has 
given  rise  to  much  scandal,  though  every  unprejudiced 
mind  will  clear  both  of  the  guilt  they  stand  accused  of. 
Both  the  countess  and  the  vicar  were  pure  in  character, 
if  their  correspondence  may  serve  as  an  index  of  their 
thoughts.  (See  on  this  point  Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  iv,  113, 
8(5.)  In  1'079  jMathilda  made  a  gift  of  all  her  goods  and 
possessions  to  the  Church.  In  1081  she  alone  stood  by 
the  pope,  when  Henry  poured  his  troops  into  Italy, 
burning  to  avenge  his  humiliation  at  Canossa;  she  sup- 
ported him  with  money  when  he  was  besieged  in  Eome ; 
and  after  his  death  at  Salerno  boldly  carried  on  the  war 
against  the  emperor.  She  died  at  the  Benedictine  mon- 
astery of  Polirone  in  1115.  Her  death  gave  rise  to  new 
feuds  between  the  emperor  and  pope  Paschal  HI  on  ac- 
count of  her  gift  to  the  Church,  which  finally  resulted 
in  the  former  wresting  from  the  latter  a  portion  of  Ma- 
thilda's possessions,  but  even  what  remained  constituted 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  subsequent  "Patrimony  of  Pe- 
ter."    See  P.VTRiMONiuJi  Petri.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Mathurins,  or  Brethren  of  the  Holy  Trinity, 
an  order  of  monks  which  arose  at  the  end  of  the  12th 
century,  and  got  this  name  from  having  a  church  at 
Paris  which  claims  St.  j\Iathurin  for  its  patron  saint. 
All  their  churches  were  dedicated  to  the  Holy  Trinity. 
Sometimes  they  are  called  Brethren  of  the  Redemption 
of  Cuptiees,  because,  originating  at  the  period  of  the 
Crusades,  they  gave  their  labor  and  a  third  of  their  rev- 
enue to  liberate  Christian  captives  from  Mohammedan 
masters.  Their  founders  were  two  French  recluses  in 
the  diocese  of  Meaux — Jean  de  Mattia  and  Felix  de 
Yalois.  By  some  they  seem  to  have  been  called  the 
Order  oj" Asses,  as  they  were  permitted  to  use  those  an- 
imals only,  and  were  debarred  from  riding  on  horses.  A 
similar  order  was  founded  in  Spain  in  12"28,  and  there 
called  the  Order  of  St.  Murtj. — Eadie,  Eccles.  Diet,  s,  v. 
See  also  Trinitarians, 

Mathiirists.     See  Trinitarians. 

Mathu'sala  (Luke  iii,  37).     See  Methuselah. 

Matins,  or  Matutina,  the  ^hiew  mominrj  service," 
or  the  tirst  of  the  morning  services,  and  so  called  in  con- 
tradistinction from  the  "  old  morning  service,"  which  was 
before  day,  whereas  this  was  after  day  began.  Cassian 
says  this  was  first  set  up  in  Bethlehem,  for  till  that  time 
the  old  morning  service  used  to  end  with  the  nocturnal 
psalms,  and  prayers,  and  daily  vigils  ;  after  v.'hich  they 
used  to  betake  themselves  to  rest  till  the  third  hour, 
which  was  the  first  hour  of  diurnal  prayer.  The  name 
for  morning  prayer,  in  more  modern  Church-language, 
is  matins.  Before  the  Reformation  the  hours  of  prayer 
were  seven  in  number,  namely,  matins,  the  tirst  or  prime, 
the  third,  sixth,  and  ninth  hours,  and  vespers,  and  com- 
pline. The  ofHce  of  matins  in  the  Church  of  England 
is  an  abridgment  of  her  ancient  services  for  matins, 
lauds,  and  prime.  Bitualists  divide  the  office  of  mat- 
ins, or  morning  prayers,  into  three  parts :  first,  the  in- 
troduction, which  extends  from  the  beginning  of  the 
oflice  to  the  end  of  the  Lord's  Prayer ;  secondly,  the 
psalmody  and  lessons,  extending  to  the  end  of  the  Apos- 
tles' Creed  ;  thirdl}^,  the  prayers  and  collects,  which  oc- 
cupy the  remainder  of  the  service.  See  Farrar,  Eccles. 
Diet.  s.  V. ;  Eadie,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Neale,  Introd.  East. 
Church.     See  also  Hours,  Canonical. 

Ma'tred  (Heb.  Matred',  I'l:?'?,  propelling;  Sept, 
Ma-^n/S',  Marpao), the  daughter  ofMezahab  and  moth- 
er of  Mehetabel,  which  last  was  wife  of  one  of  the  Edom- 
itish  kings  (Gen,  xxxvi,  39 ;  1  Chron,  i,  50),  B.C.  prob. 
ante  1619. 

Ma'tri  (Heb.  Matri',  '^'1^'?  [but  with  the  def.  art.], 
prob.  ea-jjectant ;  Sept,  MaTrapi,Yu\^.  Metri),  a  Benja- 


mite,  the  head  of  the  ancestry  of  Kish,  the  father  of 
Saul  (1  Sam,  x,  21).     B.C,  prob,  cir,  1612, 

Matriciila,  a  list  or  register  of  the  church,  called 
in  Greek  Kaviov  and  icaTcikoyoq  upariKog  ;  in  Latin,  al- 
bum, matricula,  tabula  clericorum.  The  use  of  the  word 
matricula  to  designate  enti-y  at  college  or  university 
record  of  a  new  student  is  due  to  this  early  adaptation 
of  the  word.  Because  the  names  of  all  the  clergy  and 
other  persons  were  enrolled  in  the  matricula,  they  were 
called  canonici. — Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet,  s,  v. ;  Eadie,  Eccles. 
Diet,  s,  V,     See  Canonici  ;  Diptyciis, 

Matricularii,  subordinate  servants  of  the  clergy, 
who  were  intrusted  with  the  care  of  the  church  in  which 
they  were  accustomed  to  sleep :  they  had  also  offices  to 
perform  in  public  processions, — Farrar, Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. ; 
Eadie,  Eccles.  Diet,  s,  v.     See  Sacristan. 

Matrimony  or  Marriage  as  a  Sacrajient. 
The  Church  of  Kome  regards  the  act  of  matrimony  not 
only  as  a  religious  contract,  but  also  as  a  sacrament. 
We  need  hardly  step  aside  to  explain  the  meaning  of 
the  word  sacrament,  but  it  may  be  proper  here  to  say 
that  the  Komanists  hold  seven  sacraments  as  established 
by  the  Council  of  Trent,  teaching  also  that  "  each  sac- 
rament confers  grace  peculiar  to  itself,  so  that  it  has  the 
special  effect  of  conferring  grace  subservient  to  that  end." 
This  distinction  is  called  by  the  divines  "  sacramental 
grace."  See  Sacrajient.  The  clergy  of  the  Church 
of  England  of  High-Church  tendency  incline  to  hold  a 
like  view  on  this  point,  but  there  is  certainly  nothing 
in  the  XXXIX  Articles  to  warrant  any  such  interjireta- 
tion  of  the  marriage-contract.  The  Roman  view  of  mar- 
riage is  based  by  the  schoolmen  on  the  expression  of  Paul 
in  writing  to  the  Ephesians  (v,  32),  to  fivcrrt'iptov  rovro 
fdya  tarii;  or,  as  it  runs  in  the  Yulgate,  "  Sacramen- 
tum  hoc  magnum  est."  "Thus  viewed,  the  external 
part  or  sign,  the  *  pars  sensibilis,'  is  the  expression  of  a 
mutual  consent  involving,  as  is  necessary  m  all  sacra- 
mental ordinances,  a  real  present  intention ;  and  the  in- 
ward part  or  gift  is  the  grace  which  unites  the  hearts, 
or,  according  to  another  view,  the  grace  to  resist  concu- 
piscence, sometimes  entirely,  judging  by  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas's  remark  that  carnal  intercourse  is  not  a  neces- 
sary part  of  marriage,  because  there  was  none  in  Para- 
dise," The  following  more  general  considerations  are 
also  urged  from  Scripture  in  favor  of  the  sacramental 
theory :  "  The  union  between  the  husband  and  wife  is 
spoken  of  as  analogous  to  the  union  between  Christ  and 
the  Church,  The  husband  is  the  head  of  the  wife  even 
as  Christ  is  the  head  of  the  Church ;  therefore,  as  the 
Church  is  subject  unto  Christ,  so  let  the  wives  be  to 
their  own  husbands  in  everj'thing  (Eph,  v,  23,  24), 
Now  if  this  figure  has  any  meaning  it  must  be  this,  that 
the  external  sign  of  alliance  between  bride  and  bride- 
groom signify  that  there  should  henceforth  exist  be- 
tween them  a  union  as  holy,  as  close,  and  as  indissoluble 
as  that  between  Christ  and  the  Church,  a  union  which 
could  not  be  maintained  without  a  special  gift  from 
God,  Tliat  sucli  a  gift  exists  is  made  evident  by  Paul, 
who  says,  while  drawing  a  comparison  between  mar- 
riage and  celibacy, '  Every  man  hath  his  proper  gift  of 
(iod,  one  after  this  manner  and  another  alter  that'  (1 
Cor.  vii,  7) ;  and  what  would  the  gift  be  which  is  alluded 
to  in  the  case  of  married  persons  but  the  grace  which 
unites  their  hearts,  and  enables  them  to  be  fitting  em- 
blems of  Christ  and  the  Church?  Again,  the  presence 
of  our  Lord  at  the  marriage  in  Cana  of  Galilee  (John  ii, 
1-11)  is  sometimes  referred  to  as  having  elevated  the 
ceremony  into  the  dignity  of  a  sacrament"  (Blunt,  Diet. 
ofTheol.s.Y.). 

Those  who  regard  marriage  as  a  sacrament  are  not 
themselves  agreed  as  to  what  is  the  essential  part  of 
matrimoH)'  constituting  it  a  sacrament.  The  prevailing 
opinion  we  take  to  be  that  the  essential  part,  as  Avell  as 
the  efficient  cause,  is  the  consent  of  the  two  parties, 
which  must  be  expressed  in  words  as  the  "  pars  sensi- 
bilis" of  the  sacrament,  and  must  imply  a  real  present, 


MATRBIONY 


880 


MATRBIONY 


and  not  a  future  consent.  There  are  others  who  would 
make  the  words  of  the  priest  the  essential  element 
whereby  the  marriage  union  is  created,  "Ego  vos  in 
matrimoniura  conjungo,"  etc.;  in  the  English  otfice, 
"  Those  whom  God  has  joined  together  let  no  man  put 
asunder,"  followed  by  the  declaration  of  complete  union, 
"  I  pronounce  that  they  be  man  and  wife  together,  in 
the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy 
(Jhost."  If  the  previous  consent  had  made  the  two  per- 
sons man  and  wife,  these  words  on  the  priest's  lips  would 
seem  to  be,  strictly  speaking,  superfluous.  From  primi- 
tive times  it  has  been  the  custom  to  acquaint  the  Church 
beforehand  with  an  intended  marriage,  which  is  evident 
from  the  passages  above  quoted.  The  object  was  to 
prevent  unlawful  marriage;  not  that  the  Church  claimed 
anv  absolute  power  to  grant  or  refuse  leave  to  marrj-, 
but  that  in  case  a  person  was  about  to  marry  a  Jew,  or 
a  heathen,  or  a  heretic,  or  one  within  the  forbidden  de- 
grees of  consanguinity,  etc.,  the  marriage  might  be  pre- 
vented, or  at  least  not  obtain  the  sanction  of  the  Church. 
The  earliest  allusion  to  the  necessity  of  such  notice  in 
England  is  contained  in  the  eleventh  canon  of  the  Synod 
of  Westminster  (A.D.  1200),  which  enacts  that  no  mar- 
riage shall  be  contracted  without  banns  thrice  published 
in  church  (Johnson,  Canons,  ii,  91).  See  Bann.  The 
existing  law  of  the  Church  of  England  is  expressed  in 
the  sixty-second  canon:  "No  minister,  upon  pain  of 
suspension  '  per  triennium  ipso  facto,'  shall  celebrate 
matrimony  between  any  persons  without  a  faculty  or 
license  granted  by  some  of  the  persons  in  these  our  con- 
stitutions expressed,  except  the  banns  of  matrimony 
have  been  first  published  three  several  Sundays  or  holy- 
days  in  the  time  of  divine  service  in  the  parish  churches 
and  chapels  where  the  said  parties  dwell,  according  to 
the  book  of  Common  Prayer."  The  only  substitute  for 
banns  recognised  by  the  Church  of  England  is  an  ordi- 
nary or  special  license.  The  power  of  granting  the  for- 
mer has  belonged  to  English  bishops  from  a  verj'  early 
date,  being  confirmed  to  them  by  25  Henry  VHI,  c.  21. 
The  right  to  grant  special  licenses,  which  are  free  from 
all  restrictions  as  to  time  or  place,  was  originally  a  priv- 
ilege of  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  as  "  legatus  na- 
tus."  The  ritual  of  the  Church  of  Eome  teaches  that 
"  the  end  of  the  sacrament  of  marriage  is  that  man  and 
wife  may  mutually  help  and  comfort  each  other,  in  or- 
der that  they  may  spend  this  life  in  a  holy  manner,  and 
thereby  gain  a  blessed  immortality ;  and  to  contribute 
to  the  edification  of  the  Church  by  the  lawfid  procrea- 
tion of  children,  and  by  the  care  of  procuring  them  a 
spiritual  regeneration,  and  an  education  suitable  to  it. 
Every  person,  before  entering  into  wedlock,  is  required 
to  beseech  God  to  join  him  with  such  a  person  as  he 
may  work  out  his  salvation  with,  and  examine  whether 
or  no  the  person  he  has  fixed  his  affections  on  has  the 
fear  of  God  before  her  eyes ;  is  prudent,  discreet,  and 
able  to  take  care  of  a  family." 

The  Council  of  Trent,  at  its  twentj'-fourth  session, 
held  Nov.  11, 1563,  legislated  upon  the  subject  of  matri- 
mony in  twelve  canons,  as  follows : 

"  CanonX.  Whoever  shall  affirm  that  matrimony  is  not 
truly  and  properly  one  of  the  peven  sacraments  of  the 
evangelical  law,  instituted  by  Christ  onr  Lord,  but  tbat  it 
is  a  human  invention,  introduced  into  the  Church,  and 
does  not  confer  grace:  let  him  l)e  accursed. 

"2.  Whoever  shall  affirm  that  Christians  may  have  more 
wives  than  one,  and  that  this  is  prohibited  by  no  divine 
law  ;  let  him  be  accursed. 

"3.  Whoever  shall  affirm  that  only  those  degrees  of 
consanguiuity  or  affinity  which  are  mentioned  in  the 
book  of  Leviticus  can  hinder  or  disannul  the  marriage- 
contract;  aud  that  the  Church  has  no  i)o\ver  to  dispense 
with  some  of  them,  or  to  constitute  additional  hnider- 
ances  or  reasons  for  disannulling  the  contract ;  let  him 
be  accursed. 

"4  Whoever  shall  affirm  that  the  Church  cannot  con- 
stitute any  impediments,  with  power  to  disannul  matri- 
mony, or  that  in  constituting  them  she  has  erred  ;  let  him 
be  accursed. 

"5.  Whoever  shall  affirm  that  the  marriage-bond  may 
be  dissolved  by  hcreisy,  or  mutual  dislike,  or  voluntary 
absence  from  the  husband  or  wife  ;  let  him  be  accursed. 

"6.  Whoever  shall  affirm  that  a  marriage  solemnized 


but  not  consummated  is  not  disannulled  if  one  of  the  par- 
ties enters  into  a  religious  order;  let  him  be  accursed. 

"7.  Whoever  shall  affirm  that  the  Church  has  erred  in 
teaching,  according  to  the  evangelical  and  apostolic  doc- 
trine, that  the  marriage-bond  cannot  be  dissolved  by  the 
adultery  of  one  of  the  parties,  aud  that  neither  of  them, 
not  even  the  innocent  party,  who  has  given  no  occasion 
for  the  adultery,  can  contract  another  marriage  while  the 
other  party  lives ;  and  that  the  husband  who  puts  away 
his  adulterous  wife,  and  marries  another,  commits  adul- 
tery, and  also  the  wife  who  puts  away  her  adulterous  hus- 
band, aud  marries  another  (whoever  shall  afBrm  that  the 
Church  has  erred  in  maintaining  these  sentiments) ;  let 
him  be  accursed. 

"8.  Whoever  shall  affirm  that  the  Church  has  erred  in 
decreeing  that  for  various  reasons  married  persons  may 
be  separated,  as  far  as  regards  actual  cohabitation,  either 
for  a  certain  or  an  uncertain  time  ;  let  him  be  accursed. 

"9.  Whoever  shall  affirm  that  persons  in  holy  orders,  or 
regulars,  who  have  made  a  solemn  profession  of  chastity, 
may  contract  marriage,  and  that  the  contract  is  valid,  not- 
withstanding any  ecclesiastical  law  or  vow ;  and  that  to 
maintain  the  contrary  is  nothing  less  than  to  condemn 
marriage  ;  aud  that  all  persons  may  marry  who  feel  that, 
though  they  should  make  a  vow  of  chastity,  they  have 
not  the  gift  thereof;  let  him  be  accursed;  for  God  does 
not  deny  his  gifts  to  those  who  ask  aright,  neither  does 
he  suffer  us  to  be  tempted  above  that  we  are  able. 

"  10.  Whoever  shnll  affirm  that  the  conjugal  state  is  to 
he  preferred  to  a  life  of  virginity,  or  celibacy,  and  that  it 
is  not  better  and  more  conducive  to  happiness  to  remain 
in  virginity,  or  celibacy,  than  to  be  married ;  let  him  be 
accursed. 

"11.  Whoever  shall  affirm  that  to  prohibit  the  solemni- 
zation of  marriage  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  is  a  ty- 
rannical superstition,  borrowed  from  the  superstition  of 
the  pagans  ;  or  shall  condemn  the  beuedictions  and  other 
ceremouies  used  by  the  Church  at  those  times ;  let  him  he 
accursed. 

"12.  Whoever  shall  affirm  that  matrimonial  causes  do 
not  belong  to  the  ecclesiastical  judges ;  let  him  be  ac- 
cursed." 

Mari-iage  as  a  Sacrament  unhihlical. — 1.  In  many  most 
important  points  respecting  marriage,  Protestants  and 
Roman  Cathiilics  agree  ;  yet,  when  the  Church  of  Kome 
advances  matrimony  to  a  sacrament  instituted  by  Christ, 
and  endows  it  with  sacramental  qualities,  there  are  sev- 
eral points  of  considerable  importance  to  Christianity  in 
which  Protestant  and  Romanist  must  disagree.  The 
latter  asserts  that  matrimony  as  a  sacrament  was  insti- 
tuted by  Christ,  and  confers  grace,  and  supports  this 
dogma  by  quoting  Ephesians  v,  32 :  "  This  is  a  great 
iwariipiov ;  but  I  speak  in  Christ  and  in  the  Church," 
where  the  Douay  translation  renders  by  sacrament  the 
word  fivarripioi',  which  we  Protestants  prefer  to  trans- 
late mystery.  "  Or,  indeed,  if  we  render  the  word  '  sac- 
rament,' stiU  they  have  no  advantage,  inasmuch  as  the 
original  word  fivaTt^piov,  '  mystery,'  which  they  read 
*  sacrament,'  is  employed  on  other  subjects — as  '  myste- 
ry of  godliness'  (1  Tim.  iii,  IG), '  a  mystery,  Babylon  the 
great'  (Rev.  xvii,  5).  Papists  must  know  that  there  is 
no  force  in  their  argument.  The  text,  as  found  in  their 
version,  can  only  influence  the  minds  of  ignorant  per- 
sons, who  know  not  the  Scriptures.  The  apostle  does 
not  say  that  marriage  is  a  mystery,  for  he  speaks  con- 
cerning Christ  and  the  Church.  It  is  acknowledged 
that  marriage  is  instituted  of  God,  and  is  a  sign  of  a 
holy  thing,  yet  it  is  no  sacrament;  the  Sabbath  was 
ordained  of  God,  and  signified  the  rest  in  Christ  (Heb. 
iv,  8),  yet  it  was  no  sacrament.  All  significant  and  mys- 
tic signs  are  not  necessarily  sacraments"  (Elliott,  Jio- 
jna7i{sm,  p.  428).  "  Romanists,"  says  the  same  able  po- 
lemic whom  we  have  just  had  occasion  to  cite,  "  further 
quote  the  following  passage  to  support  their  doctrine : 
'  >S'/(e  shall  be  saved  in  cMdheariny,  if  they  contimie  in 
faith  and  love'  (1  Tim.  ii,  15),  inferring  that  the  grace 
of  sanctification  is  given  to  the  parties  married.  To 
this  we  answer :  (1.)  We  deny  that  any  sacraments  give 
or  confer  grace  ;  they  are  only  means  or  instruments  of 
its  communication.  (2.)  It  is  allowed  that  God  does 
give  to  pious  married  persons  grace  to  live  in  piety  and 
holiness ;  but  it  is  unnecessary  to  constitute  marriage 
into  a  sacrament  for  this  purpose.  (3.)  Those  who  are 
not  married  may  possess  the  sanctifying  grace  of  God, 
which  is  sufficient  to  preserve  all  in  a  state  of  inward 
as  well  as  outward  holiness." 


MATRBIONY 


881 


MATTANIAH 


2.  That  marriage  is  no  sacrament  of  the  Gospel,  speak- 
ing of  such  an  institution  in  its  proper  scriptural  accep- 
tation, may  be  proved  by  the  following  arguments  :  (1.) 
Matrimony  was  instituted  in  I'aradise  long  before  sin 
had  entered,  therefore  it  cannot  be  a  sacrament  of  the 
Gospel ;  marriage  is  observed  among  infidels  and  wick- 
ed persons,  who  are  incapable  of  receiving  worthily  the 
sacraments  of  the  Church.  (2.)  Papists  are  inconsistent 
with  themselves  in  calling  marriage  a  profanation  of 
orders ;  some  with  consummate  effrontery  assert  that  to 
live  in  a  state  of  concubinage  is  more  tolerable  for  a 
priest  than  to  marry.  Can  they  really  believe  marriage 
to  be  a  sacrament,  which  they  contemn  as  vile  and  pol- 
luted? Pope  Siricius  appHed  the  words  of  St.  Paul, 
'■'■They  that  are  in  the  flesh  cannot  jilease  God,"  in  favor 
of  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy — thus  proving  that  this 
pope,  in  common  with  many  other  pontiffs,  knew  but 
little  of  scriptural  interpretation,  seeing  the  reference  is 
plainly  to  deep  human  depravity  and  wickedness,  but 
not  to  the  marriage  state.  (3.)  In  every  sacrament  there 
must  be  an  external  sensible  sign  as  the  matter,  and  an 
appropriate  order  of  words  as  the  form ;  but  in  matri- 
mony there  is  neither,  therefore  it  is  no  sacrament.  (4.) 
Again,  none  but  pious  persons  can  be  partakers  of  the 
sacraments  of  the  Church ;  but  piety  is  not  a  necessary 
condition  of  marriage,  therefore  marriage  is  not  a  sacra- 
ment. The  conditions  of  confession  and  absolution, 
which  are  sometimes  enjoined  in  the  Church  of  Eome, 
cannot  be  pleaded  as  teaching  that  piety  is  required  of 
those  who  are  to  be  married  ;  for  confession  and  absolu- 
tion are  no  proper  concomitants  of  true  piety,  seeing  the 
greatest  part  of  those  who  confess  and  receive  absolu- 
tion are  no  otherwise  religious  than  as  members  of  the 
Church  of  Rome,  and  membership  in  tliat  community  is 
rather  a  presumption  against,  than  in  favor  of  true  re- 
ligion. It  does  not  alter  the  case  to  introduce  the  dis- 
tinctions which  have  been  made  by  their  theologians, 
namely,  that  marriage  is  often  a  civil  or  natural  con- 
tract, and  not  a  sacrament.  This  distinction  is  founded 
on  mere  technicalities,  and  not  on  any  scriptural  author- 
ity, either  direct  or  inferential. 

3.  It  is  necessary,  as  they  acknowledge,  that  a  sac- 
rament should  be  instituted  by  Christ ;  but  matrimony' 
was  not  instituted  by  him,  therefore,  according  to  their 
own  rule,  it  is  no  sacrament.  It  is  in  vain  for  them  to 
say  that  Christ  instituted  the  sacrament  of  marriage, 
when  they  are  unable  to  produce  the  words  of  institu- 
tion, or  to  adduce  a  single  circumstance  connected  with 
its  institution.  It  is  true,  the  Council  of  Trent  most 
positively,  in  their  first  canon,  affirm  that  Christ  did  in- 
stitute.the  sacrament  of  matrimony ;  but  then  neither 
chapter  nor  verse  is  given  to  prove  the  fact.  Indeed, 
so  divided  among  themselves  are  they  respecting  the 
time  in  which  Christ  converted  matrimony  into  a  sac- 
rament, that  the  most  discordant  opinions  exist.  Let 
the  Roman  Catholic  Dens  speak  on  the  subject:  "  Some," 
says  he,  "  say  that  it  was  instituted  when  Christ  was 
present  at  the  marriage  in  Cana  of  Galilee,  which  he  is 
said  to  honor  with  his  presence  and  bless  it  (.John  ii)  ; 
according  to  others,  when  Christ,  revoking  matrimony 
to  its  primeval  unity  and  indissolubleness,  rejecting  the 
bill  of  divorce,  said, '  What  God  hath  joined  together,  let 
not  man  put  asunder'  (Matt,  xix) ;  but  others  refer  its 
institution  to  the  time  of  the  forty  days  between  the 
resurrection  and  ascension,  during  which  Christ  often 
taught  his  apostles  concerning  the  kingdom  of  God,  or 
his  Church ;  others  say  the  time  is  uncertain."  Thus  the 
institution  of  marriage  as  a  sacrament  cannot  be  discov- 
ered by  their  ablest  divines.  The  Council  of  Trent  is 
unable  to  find  the  place  where  Christ  established  it; 
the  Roman  Catechism  adroitly  evades  this  point,  and 
leaves  the  matter  in  the  same  uncertainty  as  it  found  it. 
We  therefore  hesitate  not  to  affirm  that,  although  mar- 
riage was  originally  instituted  by  Almighty  God,  recog- 
nised by  Christ,  and  its  duties  explained  and  enforced 
by  the  apostles,  nevertheless  its  institution  as  a  sacra- 
jaent  cannot  be  found  in  any  part  of  the  New  Testa- 

V.— K  K  K. 


ment.  See,  besides,  Elliott's  Delineation  of  Romanism, 
ch.  xvi ;  Hagenbach, //is?,  of  Doctrines  (see  Index,  vol. 
ii) ;  Wetzer  u.  Welte,  Kirchen-Lexikon,  art.  Ehe ;  Her- 
zog,  Eeul-£ncyklojmdie,  art.  Ehe.  See  also  Celibacy  ; 
Dispensation  ;  Divorce  ;  Marriage  ;  Sacrajvient. 

Matriuce.     See  Godjiothers. 

Matrix  Ecclesia.     See  Ecclesia. 

Matsya,  a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  aflsh,  and  form- 
ing the  name,  in  Hindu  mythology,  of  the  first  avatar 
of  Vishnu.  On  that  occasion  the  preserving  deity  is 
said  to  have  assumed  the  form  of  a  great  fish  shining 
like  gold,  and,  according  to  one  account,  "  extending  a 
million  leagues,"  that  he  might  protect  the  ark  which 
contained  Satyavrata  and  the  seven  Rhisis  with  their 
wives,  all  the  rest  of  the  human  race  having  been  de- 
stroyed by  the  deluge.  See  Moor,  Hindu  Pantheon,  s.  v. ; 
Thomas,  Diet,  of  Biog.  and  Mythol.  s.  v. 

Mat'tan  (Heb.  Mattan',  'jS^'a,  a  gift,  as  in  Gen. 
xxxiv,  12,  etc.),  the  name  of  two  men  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment and  one  in  the  New.     See  also  Mithnite. 

1.  (Sept.  MaSiav,  MarSdv  v.  r.  MaySiav  and  Max«j/.) 
The  priest  of  Baal  slain  before  his  idolatrous  altar  during 
the  reformation  instituted  by  Jehoiada  (2  Kings  xi,  18 ; 
2  Chron.  xxiii,  17).  B.C.  876.  "  He  probably  accom- 
panied Athaliah  from  Samaria,  and  would  thus  be  the 
first  priest  of  the  Baal- worship  which  Jehoram,  king  of 
Judah,  following  in  the  steps  of  his  father-in-law  Ahab, 
established  at  Jerusalem  (2  Chron.  xxi,  6, 13).  Josephus 
(^Ant.  ix,  7,  3)  calls  him  'MaaSidv"  (Smith). 

2.  (Sept.  ^abuv  V.  r.  Ma^av.)  The  father  of  the 
Shephatiah  who  was  one  of  the  nobles  that  charged  .Jer- 
emiah with  treason  (Jer.  xxxviii,  1),     B.C.  ante  589. 

3.  (Mor^av,  Auth.Vers.  "Matthan".)  The  son  of 
Eleazar  and  father  of  Jacob,  which  last  was  father  of 
Joseph,  the  husband  of  the  Virgin  Mary  (Matt,  i,  15). 
According  to  tradition  he  was  a  priest  (which  disagrees 
with  his  tribal  descent),  and  father  of  Anna,  the  mother 
of  the  same  ]\Iary  (Niceph.  Hist.  Ev.  ii,  3).  B.C.  con- 
siderably ante  40.     See  Genealogy  of  Jesus  Christ. 

Mat'tanah  (Heb.  Mattanah',  nsil^,  a  gift,  as  in 
Gen.  XXV,  G,  etc. ;  Sept.  TAavSravauv),  the  fifty-third  sta- 
tion of  the  Israelites  on  the  south-eastern  edge  of  Pales- 
tine, between  the  well  (Beer)  in  the  desert  and  NahaUel 
(Numb,  xxi,  18, 19).  It  was  no  doubt  a  Moabitish,  or 
rather  Ammonitish  city,  and  is  placed  by  Eusebius  and 
Jerome  (Onomast.  s.  v.)  in  the  region  of  Arnon,  twelve 
miles  eastward  of  Medebah,  which  Hengstenberg  cor- 
rects to  "  southward"  {Bileam,  p.  240),  i.  e.  apparently  in 
the  plain  of  Ard  Ramadan,  perhaps  between  the  branches 
of  wady  Waleh.  Leclcrc  (ad  loc.)  suggests  that  Mat- 
tanah may  be  the  same  with  the  mysterious  word  Vaheb 
(ver.  14;  A.V.  "what  he  did"),  since  the  meaning  of 
that  word  in  Arabic  is  the  same  as  that  of  Mattanah  in 
Hebrew.  This  is  nearly  the  same  with  the  explanation 
of  the  Targums  of  Onkelos  and  Pseudo-Jonathan,  who 
make  it  an  appellative  for  the  weU  or  Beer  just  men- 
tioned, as  being  a  gift  of  God  (see  Kennicott,  Remarks 
on  0.  T.  p.  60).     See  Exode. 

Mattani'ah  {Ueh..Vattamjah',  r\^i'r\-g. gift  ofJe- 
koru//.iiho  in  the  prolonged  form  Mattanga'hii,  'HT^lJn'a, 
1  Chron.  xxv,  4, 16;  2  Chron.  xxix,  13;  Sept.  Mar^a- 
viaq  or  Mar^avia  v.  r.  Ma^^av  and  BarSiaviaQ),  the 
name  of  several  men. 

1.  A  Levite,  one  of  the  sons  of  Heman,  appointed  by 
David  Temple  singers,  and  head  of  the  ninth  class  of 
musicians  (1  Chron.  xxv,  4, 16).  B.C.  1014.  He  is  pos-  ' 
sibly  the  same  with  the  father  of  Jeiel,  and  ancestor  of 
the  Jahaziel  who  predicted  Jehoshaphat's  victory  over 
the  jMoabites  (2  Chron.  xx,  14). 

2.  A  Levite  of  the  descendants  of  Asaph,  who  assist- 
ed in  purifving  the  Temple  at  the  reformation  under- 
taken by  liezckiah  (2  Chron.  xxix,  13).     B.C.  726. 

3.  The  original  name  of  Zedekiah  (q.  v.),  the  last 
king  of  Judah  (2  Kings  xxiv,  17).    In  like  maimer  Pha- 


MATTATHA 


882 


MATTER 


rach  had  changed  the  name  of  his  brotlicr  Elialdm  to 
Jehoiakim  on  a  similar  occasion  (2  Kings  xxiii,  3i), 
■\vhcn  he  restored  the  succession  to  the  elder  branch  of 
the  royal  family  (comp.  2  Kings  xxiii,  31, 36). 

4.  An  Israelite  of  the  "  sons"  (residents)  of  Elam,  who 
divorced  his  Gentile  wife  after  the  captivity  (Ezra  x, 
2(5).     B.C.  459. 

5.  Another  Israelite  of  the  "sons"  (residents)  of  Zat- 
tu,  who  did  the  same  (Ezra  x,  27).     B.C.  459. 

6.  Another  Israelite  of  the  "sons"  (i.  e.  inhabitants) 
of  Pahath-Moab,  who  did  likewise  (Ezra  x,  30).  B.C. 
459. 

7.  Another  Israelite  of  the  descendants  (or  residents) 
of  Bani,  who  acted  similarly  (Ezra  x,  37).     B.C.  459. 

8.  A  descendant  of  Asaph  (but  named  as  one  of  "  the 
priests'  sons,"  i.  e.  perhaps  assistants,  for  Asaph  was  only 
a  Levite),  and  great-grandfather  of  the  Zechariah  who 
assisted  in  celebrating  upon  trumpets  the  completion  of 
the  walls  of  Jerusalem  (Xeh.  xii,  35).  B.C.  much  ante 
44G.  His  father's  name,  Michaiah,  and  grandfather's, 
Zaccur.  present  features  of  identity  witli  Nos.  9  and  10, 
but  in  other  respects  the  notices  are  different.  Some 
interpreters  suspect  a  corruption  of  the  text,  and  in  that 
case  all  discrepancies  may  be  removed. 

9.  A  Levite,  son  of  JVIicah,  of  the  family  of  Asaph, 
resident  in  the  neighborhood  of  Jerusalem  after  the  ex- 
ile (1  Chron.ix,  15).  B.C.  cir.  440.  He  is  evidently  the 
same  with  the  leader  of  those  who  offered  prayer  and 
praise  in  the  Temple  after  the  captivity  (Neh.  xi,  17; 
xii,  8),  and  also  guarded  the  gates  (Neh.  xii,  25).  He 
also  appears  to  be  tlie  same  with  the  father  of  Hasha- 
biah  and  great-grandfather  of  Uzzi,  mentioned  as  one 
of  the  chief  Levites  in  the  saime  connection  (Neh.  xii, 
22),  but  in  that  case  he  must  have  been  a  very  aged 
man  at  the  time.     See  also  No.  8. 

10.  A  Levite,  father  of  Zacciu-,  and  grandfather  of 
the  Hanaa  whom  Nehemiah  set  over  the  distribution 
of  the  tithes  (Neh.  xiii,  13).  B.C.  considerably  ante  410. 
See  also  No.  8. 

Mat'tatha  (Luke  iii,  31).     See  Mattathah,  1. 

Mat'tathah  (Heb.  Mattathah',  nrnp,  probably  a 
contraction  of  ilfaftafhiah),  the  name  of  a  person  in  the 
Old  Test,  and  of  another  in  the  New. 

1.  (Marra^d,  Auth.  Vers.  "  jMattatha.")  The  son 
of  Nathan  and  grandson  of  David,  among  Christ's  ma- 
ternal ancestry  (Luke  iii,  31).     B.C.  post  1014. 

2.  (Sept.  Ma^^a^a  v.  r.  MarBaSrd.)  An  Israelite 
of  the  "  sons"  (i.  e.  inhabitants)  of  Hashun,  who  divorced 
his  Gentile  wife  after  the  return  from  Babylon  (Ezra  x, 
33).     B.C.  458. 

Mat'tathias  (MarraJ/ac),  the  Greek  form  of 
Mattatiiiaii  (q.  v.),  and  standmg  for  several  persons 
in  the  Aiiocrypha  and  New  Test. 

1.  One  who  supported  Ezra  in  reading  the  law  (1 
Eedr.  ix,  43),  the  Mattitiiiaii  of  Neh.  viii,  4. 

2.  The  father  of  the  Maccabiean  brothers  (1  Mace,  ii, 
1, 14, 10, 17,  19,  24,  27,  39,  45,  49 ;  xiv,  29).     See  Mac- 

CABEE. 

3.  The  son  of  Absalom  and  brother  of  the  Maccabaean 
Jonathan,  the  high-priest  (1  INIacc.  xi,  70 ;  xiii,  11).  In 
the  battle  fought  by  the  latter  with  the  forces  of  Deme- 
trius on  the  plain  of  Nasor  (the  old  Hazor),  his  two  gen- 
erals Mattathias  and  Judas  alone  stood  by  him  when 
his  army  was  seized  with  a  panic  and  tied,  and  with 
their  assistance  the  fortunes  of  the  day  were  restored. 

4.  Tlie  son  of  Simon  iMaccaba-us,  who  was  treacher- 
ously murdered,  together  with  his  father  and  brother,  in 
the  "fortress  of  Docus,  by  Ptolemseus,  the  son  of  Abubus 
(1  j\Iacc.  xvi,  14).     See  Maccabee. 

5.  One  of  the  three  envoys  sent  by  Nicanor  to  treat 
with  Judas  Maccab:eus  (2  Mace,  xiv,  19).  See  Macca- 
bee. 

6.  Son  of  Amos,  in  the  genealogy  of  Jesus  Christ 
(Luke  iii,  25). 

7.  S(in  of  Scmei,  in  the  same  catalogue  (Luke  iii,  2G). 
For  both  these  last,  see  Mattithiah,  5, 6. 


Mattel,  INIaril'S,  a  noted  Eoman  Catholic  prelate, 
lately  the  presiding  officer  of  the  College  of  Cardinals  at 
Rome,  and  in  ecclesiastical  dignity  ranked  next  to  the 
pope  himself,  was  born  at  Pergola,  States  of  the  Church, 
Sept.  6,  1792 ;  was  educated  at  Rome,  and  entered  the 
priesthood  in  1814.  In  1832  he  received  his  appointment 
as  cardinal.  In  December,  1860,  he  became  the  bishop 
of  Ostia  and  legate  of  Yelletri.  Among  other  eminent 
distinctions,  he  held  the  post  of  "archpriest"  to  the 
Church  of  the  Vatican,  and  was  the  prefect  of  the  com- 
mission for  the  preservation  of  St.  Peter's  Church.  He 
died  Oct.  8, 1870.  Cardinal  Mattel  was  a  great  favorite 
of  pope  Pius  IX,  and  owed  most  of  his  distinctions  to 
his  friend  "  the  infallible." 

Matteis  (or  Mattel),  Paolo,  an  Italian  painter 
and  engraver,  was  born  near  Naples  in  1662,  and  died 
in  1728.  Among  his  masterpieces  are  the  pictures  of 
the  "  Saviour  and  St.  Gietano,"  in  the  church  of  St.  Paul 
at  Pistoia,  and  the  "  Meeting  of  Erminia  and  the  Shep- 
herds," in  the  Museum  of  Vienna.  See  Lanzi,  History 
of  Painthvj  in  Italy. 

Mat'tenai  (Heb.  Mattmay',  *^2Pl'C,  prob.  contract- 
ed for  Mattaniah ;  Sept.  Mn&Saj/ai,  JJar^avai),  the 
name  of  three  men  after  the  exile. 

1.  An  Israelite  of  the  "  sons"  (citizens)  of  Ilashun, 
who  divorced  his  Gentile  wife  after  the  return  from 
Babylon  (Ezra  x,  33).     B.C.  459. 

2.  Another  Israelite  of  the  "  sons"  (or  inhabitants)  of 
Bani,  who  did  the  same  (Ezra  x,  37).     B.C.  459. 

3.  A  priest,  "  son"  (descendant  or  representative)  of 
Joiarib,  among  those  last  registered  in  the  Old  Test. 
(Neh.  vii,  19).     B.C.  post  536. 

Matter,  as  opposed  to  mind  or  qnrit  (q.  v.),  is  that 
which  occupies  space,  and  with  which  we  become  ac- 
quainted by  means  of  our  bodily  senses  or  organs.  Ev- 
er\"thing  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge  is  either 
matter  or  mind,  i.  e.  spirit.  Mind  is  that  which  knows 
and  thinks.  INIattcr  is  that  which  makes  itself  known 
to  mind  by  certain  properties.  "  The  first  form  which 
matter  assumes  is  extension,  or  length,  breadth,  and 
thickness ;  it  then  becomes  body.  If  body  were  infinite 
there  could  be  no  fi'jure,  which  is  body  bounded.  But 
body  is  not  physical  bodj',  unless  it  partake  of  or  is  con- 
stituted of  one  or  more  of  the  elements,  tire,  air,  earth, 
or  water"  (Monboddo,  Ancient  Metaphys.  b.  ii,  c.  2).  Ac- 
cording to  Des  Cartes  the  essence  of  mind  is  thought, 
and  the  essence  of  matter  is  extension.  He  said,  Give 
me  extension  and  motion,  and  I  shall  make  the  world. 
Leibnitz  said  the  essence  of  all  being,  whether  mind  or 
matter,  is  force.  Matter  is  an  assemblage  of  simple 
forces  or  monads.  His  system  of  physics  may  be  called 
dynamical,  in  opposition  to  that  of  Newton,  which  may 
be  called  mechanical;  because  Leibnitz  held  that  the 
monads  possessed  a  vital  or  living  energy.  "We  may 
explain  the  phenomena  of  matter  hy  the  movements  of 
ether,  by  gravity  and  electricity ;  but  the  ultimate  rea- 
son of  all  movement  is  a  force  primitively  commmiicated 
at  creation,  a  force  which  is  everywhere,  but  which, 
while  it  is  present  in  all  bodies,  is  differently  limited ; 
and  this  force,  this  virtue  or  power  of  action,  is  inherent 
in  all  substances  material  and  spiritual.  Created  sub- 
stances received  from  the  creative  substance  not  only 
the  faculty  to  act,  but  also  to  exercise  their  activity  each 
after  its  own  manner.  See  Leibnitz,  De  Prima'  Philos- 
ophice  Emendatione  et  de  Notione  Substantia;  or  Nouveau 
Systeme  de  la  Nature  ct  de  la  Communication  des  Sub- 
stances, in  the  Journal  des  Savam,  1695.  On  the  vari- 
ous hypotheses  to  explain  the  activity  of  matter,  see 
Stewart  {Outlines,  pi.  ii,  ch.  ii,  sect.  1,  and  .1  ct.  and  Mor. 
Pow.  last  edit.,  vol.  ii,  note  A).  See  also  Perception. 
The  properties  which  have  been  predicated  as  essen- 
tial to  matter  are  impenetrability,  extension,  divisibility, 
inertia,  weight.  To  the  senses  it  manifests  color,  sound, 
smell,  taste,  heat,  and  motion;  and  by  observation  it  is 
discovered  to  ]iossess  elasticity,  electricity,  magnetism, 
etc.     Metaphysicians  have  distinguished  the  qualities 


MATTER 


883 


MATTER 


of  matter  into  primary  and  secondarj',  and  have  said 
that  our  knowledge  of  the  former,  as  of  impenetrability 
and  extension,  is  clear  and  absolute ;  while  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  latter,  as  of  sound  and  smelJ,  is  obscure  and 
relative.  This  distinction  taken  by  Des  Cartes,  adopted 
by  Locke  and  also  by  Eeid  and  Stewart,  was  rejected  by 
Kant,  according  to  whom,  indeed,  all  our  knowledge  is 
relative.  Others  who  do  not  doubt  the  objective  reality 
of  matter,  hold  that  our  knowledge  of  all  its  qualities  is 
the  same  in  kind.  See  the  distinctions  precisely  stated 
and  strenuously  upheld  by  Sir  William  Hamilton  (Heid's 
WorJc^,  note  D),  and  ingeniously  controverted  by  jMons. 
Emilie  Saisset,  in  Diet,  des  Sciences  Philosoph.  art.  "Ma- 
tiere."     See  Materialism. 

The  metaphysical  historj'  of  this  term,  like  that  of 
most  others,  begins  with  Aristotle ;  its  theological  sig- 
nificance may  be  said  to  begin  with  the  first  two  verses 
of  Genesis.  Three  questions  of  theological  as  well  as 
philosophical  interest  grow  out  of  this  subject. 

I.  Popular  language,  in  spite  of  Berkeley's  own  appeal 
to  popular  opinion,  must  be  admitted  to  be  framed  on  the 
hypothesis  that  matter  exists  in  itself,  independently  of 
any  mind  perceiving  it ;  and  theologians  have  in  general 
been  content  to  accept  popular  language  on  the  point, 
so  that  the  language  of  theologians  represents  the  popu- 
lar opinion.  But  as  Berkeley's  system  does  not,  when 
understood,  contradict  any  of  the  ordinary  facts  of  expe- 
rience, so  the  language  of  theologians,  like  that  of  other 
non-Berkeleyans,  does  not  become  meaningless  in  con- 
sequence of  the  sj-stem  being  accepted.  For  a  system 
invented  or  advanced  from  a  theological  motive,  it  af- 
fects theology  singidarly  little. 

It  can  hardly  be  denied,  that  a  belief  in  the  reality  of 
matter,  however  reality  may  be  defined,  is  necessary  to 
orthodox  Christianity.  The  narrative  of  the  Creation 
becomes  meaningless,  or  at  least  deceptive,  if  the  things 
created  be  no  more  than  "  permanent  possibilities  of 
sensation,"  things  that  vjould  be  perceived,  or  rather 
groups  of  phenomena  that  would  make  impressions,  ij' 
there  were  any  minds  placed  ready  to  observe  them, 
which  there  are  not;  and,  to  tell  the  truth,  even  Berke- 
ley's system  confuses  or  obscures  the  notion  of  creation. 
The  existence  of  a  material  substance  means,  according 
to  him,  that  some  mind  or  minds  are  affected  with  cer- 
tain sensations,  from  a  cause  external  to  themselves. 
Now  in  this  there  is  nothing  to  conflict  with  Christian 
doctrine;  when  we  say  that  God  created  all  material 
substances,  we  shall  mean,  on  this  hypothesis,  that  he  is 
the  sole  and  ultimate  cause  of  the  laws,  external  to  cre- 
ated minds,  whereby  their  consciousness  is  modified  in 
the  various  ways  which  we  ascribe  to  the  presence  of 
matter. 

So  far,  then,  all  is  clear.  If  Berkeley  has  not  j'et 
given  any  support  to  the  doctrines  of  religion,  he  cer- 
tainly has  not  assailed  them.  But  when  we  come  to 
the  part  of  his  theory  >vhich  was  to  confute  atheism,  it 
is  more  possible  to  bring  him  into  collision  ^vith  that 
Kevelation  which  he  undertakes  to  defend.  Matter,  it 
is  said,  exists  in  virtue  of  being  perceived  by  a  mind : 
e.  g.  "  my  inkstand  exists,"  means  "  my  mind  has  a 
group  of  sensations,  simultaneous  or  successive,  which  I 
describe  as  seeing  and  feeling  a  glass  inkstand,  hearing 
it  ring  when  struck  or  thrown  down,  etc.,  or  otherwise 
as  being  conscious  of  the  presence  of  a  hard,  smooth, 
round,  hollow  body,  of  a  heavy,  grayish,  transparent  sub- 
stance." But  if  I  go  out  of  the  room,  I  believe  that  my 
inkstand  still  exists,  though  no  longer  perceived  by  me. 
What  do  I  mean  by  this,  on  the  idealistic  hypothesis? 
We  have  rejected  the  answer, "  You  mean  that  you  be- 
lieve that,  if  you  went  into  the  room  again,  you  w-ould 
again  experience  the  same  sensations."  In  the  first 
place,  I  do  mean  more  than  that,  though  I  am  unable  to 
prove  that  anything  more  than  that  is  true.  And  fur- 
ther, as  has  been  said  above,  unless  the  inkstand  exists 
when  not  seen,  how  is  it  true  that  the  Creator  caused 
the  flint,  sand,  alkali,  copper  and  zinc  ore,  etc.,  of  which 
it  is  made,  to  exist  ages  before  they  were  discovered 


and  used,  and  sustains  the  manufactured  product  of  his 
works  in  being  now  ? 

To  these  objections  the  sensationalist  has  no  answer; 
the  Berkeleyan  has.  "  When  you  say  that  the  inkstand 
exists  in  your  absence,  you  mean  that  when  it  is  not 
perceived  by  your  mind,  it  is  perceived  by  some  mind 
or  other.  Your  only  notion  of  existence  (except  the 
existence  of  a  mind,  a  conscious  subject)  is  of  existence 
as  the  object  of  consciousness  of  a  mind.  If  you  be- 
lieve, as  you  doubtless  do,  that  matter  exists  absolutely, 
not  only  in  relation  to  the  finite  minds  that  perceive  it, 
you  are  bound  to  admit  that  there  is  an  infinite  mind, 
which  always  perceives  all  matter  existent,  even  what 
is  perceived  by  no  other  mind." 

Injustice  is  done  to  Berkeley  by  a  sensationalist  phi- 
losopher, if  he  regards  the  negative  part  of  his  system, 
the  denial  of  an  objective  substratum  to  material  phe- 
nomena, as  separate  from  this,  its  positive  part.  Berke- 
ley was  a  real  idealist,  not  a  mutilated  or  inconsistent 
sensationalist;  and  any  one  who  denies  an  objective 
substratum  to  matter,  but  does  not  recognise  its  absolute 
existence  as  an  object  of  consciousness  to  a  necessarily 
existing  mind,  is  not  taking  half  Berkeley's  sj'stem  and 
leaving  the  other  half,  but  framing  a  new  one,  suggest- 
ed, it  may  be,  by  Berkeley's,  but  essentially  different 
from  it.  His  religious  pliilosophy  was  not  an  amiable 
excrescence  on  his  metaphysical,  but  an  essential  cor- 
relative to  it ;  and  therefore  his  system  has  no  sceptical 
tendency.  Neither  does  it  seem  fair  to  charge  it  with  a 
tendency  to  pantheism  (jMansel's  Prolegomena  Logica, 
App.  B) ;  for  God  is  distinguished  adequately,  on  the 
one  hand,  from  the  created  objects,  i.  e.  groups  of  ideas, 
which  he  perceives;  on  the  other,  from  the  created  minds 
which  he  causes  to  perceive  the  sjwiie  objects.  But  it 
seems  doubtful  whether  the  system,  sublime  as  is  the 
picture  it  gives  of  the  Creator's  relation  to  his  universe, 
does  not  really,  by  implication,  lower  our  view  of  his  na- 
ture and  his  dealings  with  it. 

What,  on  this  hypothesis,  do  we  mean  when  we  say 
that  God  made  the  material  world?  That  he  caused, 
and,  having  begun,  continues  to  cause,  created  intelli- 
gences to  receive  certain  impressions,  under  certain  laws 
of  sequence  and  coexistence.  But  more  than  this.  We 
mean  also  that  God  himself,  when  he  created,  began  to 
perceive  certain  ideas  as  real.  Now  this  is  almost  shock- 
ingly contradictory  to  the  generally-received  notion  of 
an  eternal  present  in  the  divine  mind ;  and  it  is  hard 
to  see  that  it  does  not  contradict  the  doctrines  of  his 
eternal  foreknowledge  and  immutability.  Doubtless 
God  began  (on  this  hypothesis)  to  be  conscious  of  the 
world  at  his  own  mere  will,  and  not,  as  we  do,  from  an 
external  cause.  But  his  nature  seems  lowered,  if  we 
confess  that  by  his  creating  we  mean  that  he  caused 
certain  ideas  to  become  present  to  his  mind,  which  there- 
fore were  not  present  to  it  before.  We  have,  in  fact,  a 
curious  converse  of  pantheism.  Pantheism  (as  the  term 
is  commonly  used)  merges  the  personal  God  in  union 
with  the  universe,  a  universe  consisting  of  matter,  or 
spirit,  or  both.  Here  the  personality  as  well  as  the  spir- 
ituality of  the  Eternal  is  preserved;  but  instead  of  his 
being  so  merged  in  the  world  as  to  deify  it,  the  world  is 
so  merged  in  him  as  to  introduce  its  own  finite  and  mu- 
table qualities  into  his  nature. 

Creation  is  a  mystcr^^  on  any  hypothesis.  On  any 
hypothesis.  God.  at  some  finite  time,  came  into  new  re- 
lations with  things  that  are  not  God.  He  assumed  new 
characters  (as  those  of  Creator,  Preserver,  Kuler,  Judge) 
which  he  had  not  before;  and  we  must  believe  this  to 
be  without  any  change  in  his  nature,  or  even  in  his  pur- 
pose. Whether  this  necessary  difficulty  is  aggravated 
by  the  above  form  of  stating  it;  whether  the  theory  of 
creation  in  the  divine  mind  implies  more  of  a  change  of 
nature  than  that  of  a  creation  of  things  external  to  it, 
may  be  a  question.  It  is  one  that  at  least  deserves  to  be 
stated.  If  it  be  admitted  that  idealism  is  not  logically 
opposed  to  Christianity  on  this  ground,  there  remain 
only  two  slighter  objections  to  it. 


MATTER 


884 


MATTER 


Existence  has,  on  this  hypothesis,  a  twofold  aspect. 
Thin<TS  material  exist,  absolutely  as  being  perceived  by 
God  relatively  as  being  caused  by  God  to  be  perceived 
bv  his  sensitive  creatures.  Now  if,  to  avoid  the  objec- 
tion above  stated,  it  be  said  that  while  creation  existed 
eternally  in  the  purpose  of  God,  so  that  his  works  were 
always  "known  to  him,  yet  it  may  be  said  that  crea- 
tion had  a  beginning  in  time,  when  God  first  made  it 
known  to  other  intelligences  than  his  own.  In  itself, 
no  doubt,  this  would  be  inadequate  as  an  account  of 
creation,  however  fair  a  defence  it  might  be  against  the 
charge  of  introducing  change  into  the  divine  purpose  or 
thought.  And  it  just  stops  short  of  making  the  world 
eternal,  though  it  comes  dangerously  near  to  it.  It  may 
be  added  that  the  hypothesis  of  a  subjective  creation  is 
not  invented  on  behalf  of  this  system.  One  of  the  rec- 
ognised explanations  of  the  double  account  of  the  crea- 
tion in  Genesis  is  that  the  former  or  Elohistic  narrative 
describes  the  order  in  which  God's  purpose  was  made 
known  to  the  holy  angels,  the  second  that  in  which  it 
was  executed. 

But  the  reality  (in  whatever  sense)  of  the  material 
universe  is  presupposed,  hot  only  in  the  doctrine  of  the 
creation,  but  in  that  of  the  sacraments,  insomuch  that 
•■  matter"  is  used  as  a  technical  term  in  relation  to  them, 
describing  one  of  their  essential  requisites.  Speaking 
generally,  any  hypothesis  that  allows  the  reality  of  mat- 
ter would  be  sufhcient,  and  therefore  the  idealistic,  since 
it  does  make  matter,  in  an  intelligible  sense,  real.  The 
command  to  use  certain  material  substances,  and  the 
promise  of  certain  spiritual  effects  to  follow  on  their  use, 
is  not  evacuated  if  we  describe  their  use  as  '•  taking  the 
known  means  to  occasion,  to  our  own  mind  and  others, 
including  the  divine,  certain  states  of  consciousness." 
But  it  seems  hard  to  see  how  the  theory  can  fail  to  af- 
fect the  doctrine  of  the  holy  Eucharist.  If  the  pres- 
ence of  a  body  means  the  fact  that  its  bodily  properties 
are  manifest  to  all  intelligences  capable  of  observing 
them,  then  a  presence  of  a  bodj',  real  but  not  sensible, 
becomes  self-contradictory.  If,  however,  the  point  be 
urged  with  sufficient  boldness,  that  absolute  truth  is  not 
•■  truth  relative  to  all  intelligences,"  but  truth  relative 
to  the  Infinite  intelligence,  then  it  is  of  course  possible 
to  believe  that  God  regards  that  as  present  which  man 
does  not  recognise  as  present  by  the  ordinary  test  of 
manifesting  the  properties,  in  manifesting  which  bodily 
presence  consists;  and  this  will,  by  an  adherent  of  the 
system,  be  regarded  as  constituting  a  real  but  not  sensi- 
ble presence. 

II.  Whether  matter-  exists  only  in  virtue  of  minds  to 
which  it  bears  relation,  or  whether  it  exists  in  itself, 
the  source  of  its  being  must  be  determined.  For  not 
even,  if  it  be  said  that  matter  is  a  mode  of  the  mind  of  a 
spirit,  is  it  yet  proved  that  matter  is  not  self-caused  or 
eternal:  it  might  be  a  necessary  mode  of  an  eternal 
Spirit's  thought,  and  so  coeternal  with  his  being.  How- 
ever, the  motives  that  have  led  to  the  belief  in  the  eter- 
nity of  matter  have  been,  in  general,  such  as  woidd  in- 
volve a  belief  in  its  independence.  It  is  conceding 
cither  too  much  or  too  little  to  make  matter  merely 
the  thought  of  God,  yet  a  thought  which  he  never  was 
without,  and  without  wliich  he  could  not  have  existed. 
Eternal  matter  was  usually  conceived  as  an  antitheistic 
power,  whether  active  or  passive ;  sometimes  so  passive 
as  to  be  no  more  than  an  imperfect  medium  for  the  di- 
vine operation.  It  is  hariUy  worth  while  to  frame  a 
system  in  which  matter  should  have  a  subjective  eter- 
nity, since  such  a  system  has  never  yet  been  received. 
It  iias  already  been  pointed  out,  however,  that  sucli  a 
system  is  a  conceivable  corollary  of  Berkeley's.  I5ut, 
supposing  matter  to  be  something  external  to  the  di- 
vine mind  which  (all  theists  will  probably  admit)"knows 
or  contemplates  it,  what  is  tlie  relation  li^tween  the 
two  V  Is  one  the  work  of  the  other,  or  are  they  both 
iudqiendent? 

Strictly  speaking,  there  are  three  possible  answers  to 
this  question,  viz.  that  matter  is  the  product  of  mind, 


that  mind  is  the  product  of  matter,  and  that  the  two  are 
independent.  But  the  second,  in  this  exact  form,  has 
probably  never  been  maintained.  Matter,  being  inact- 
ive, cannot  be  conceived  as  producing,  unless  it  be  first 
personified.  Materialism,  however,  or  regarding  mind 
as  a  mode  of  matter,  is  a  fair  representative  of  this  view. 
Setting  this  on  one  side,  we  come  to  the  choice  between 
the  two  other  alternatives,  that  matter  is  the  work  of 
mind,  and  that  it  is  coeternal  with  miud — between  the- 
ism and  dualism. 

The  Jewish  and  Christian  religions  are  theistic :  most 
other  religions  of  any  claim  to  depth  or  specidative  value 
are  dualistic.  Attempts  to  import  dualism  into  Chris- 
tianity have  been  numerous,  but  it  has  in  every  age 
been  so  obvious  that  the  hybrid  system  was  inconsist- 
ent— for  if  Christianity  was  a  coherent  system,  its  au- 
thorit,ative  documents  denounced  dualism,  and  its  in- 
stinctive consciousness  rejected  it — that  it  is  unnecessary 
to  reopen  a  question  which  is  practically  closed.  All 
who  claim  to  be,  strictly  speaking,  theists,  woidd  now 
admit  the  prerogative  of  creation  to  belong  to  God  in 
the  fuUest  sense.  It  will  be  enough  here  to  classify  the 
forms  of  dualism  which  have  either  been  opposed  to  the 
theistic  doctrine  of  Christianity,  or  which  it  has  been 
sought  to  amalgamate  with  it,  as  they  refer  to  the  sub- 
ject before  us,  all  of  them  being  separately  and  fully 
noticed  elsewhere.     See  Dualisji. 

1.  The  Buddhistic  dualism  assumes  two  eternal  and 
impersonal  principles,  matter  and  spirit.  Finite  and 
(eminently)  human  nature  exists  in  virtue  of  the  union 
or  collision  of  the  two;  they  are  not  only  the  good  and 
evil,  but  the  positive  and  negative  elements  of  exist- 
ence :  existence  consists  in  partaking  of  both,  as  the 
Hegelian  system  makes  it  consist  in  the  union  of  being 
and  nothing.  The  victory  of  the  human  spirit  is  to  be 
free  from  matter,  and  one  with  all  pure  spirit ;  but  since 
matter  as  well  as  spirit  is  necessary  to  existence,  this 
pure  being,  though  not  conceived  as  nothingness,  is  uii- 
distinguishable  from  it. 

2.  The  Manich»an  dualism  (to  use  the  name  of  its 
most  famous  and  permanently  vital  form,  for  a  system 
not  confined  to  the  Manich<T?an  sect,  or  those  affiliated  to 
it)  assumes  two  eternal  principles,  matter  and  spirit,  of 
which  both  are  more  or  less  <\.htmcX\y  jjersonified.  The 
strange  and  grotesque  mythology  by  which  the  ]\Iani- 
chreans  (in  the  stricter  sense)  accounted  for  tlie  inter- 
mixture of  good  and  evil  in  the  world,  may  have  been 
meant  to  be  understood  allegoricallj' ;  but  this  is  hardly 
Ukely — the  allegory  is  too  vivid  to  have  been  less  than 
a  myth,  in  the  minds  of  its  hearers,  if  not  of  its  mvent- 
ors.  Two  powers  which  make  war  on  each  other,  which 
devour  and  assimilate  from  each  others'  substance,  or 
create  and  beget  from  their  own,  are  strangely  personal 
if  regarded  as  abstractions :  indeed,  the  best  reason  for 
thinking  them  so  is  that,  if  the  ]\Ianicha?an  cosmogony 
be  taken  literally,  the  eternal  Spirit  is  wonderfully  car- 
nal. But  because  a  system  is  unphilosophical  or  incon- 
sistent, if  understood  in  the  natural  way,  it  does  not  fol- 
low that  it  ought  to  be  understood  otherwise :  there  be- 
ing such  things  as  inconsistent  systems.  It,  however, 
is  to  be  remembered  that  Manicha;anism  always  main- 
tained an  esoteric  doctrine,  which  viay  have  allegorized 
the  known  gross  one. 

3.  The  piatonic  dualism  (if  one  may  take  a  title  from 
a  single  enunciation  of  it — it  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  a  consistent  or  permanent  conviction  with  Plato) 
assumes  an  eternal  personal  Spirit,  acting  on  an  eternal 
imi)ersonal  matter.  Oiit  of  this  he  produces  all  things 
that  are  :  not  deriving  them  from  his  own  being,  lest  he 
should  impoverish  himself,  yet  being  in  a  real  sense 
their  author.  Matter  is  conceived  as  negatively  but 
not  positively  evil— unable  to  be  made  entirely  good, 
even  bj-  the  entirely  good  Spirit — and  passively  but  not 
actively  resisting  his  will. 

4.  The  general  character  of  Gnostic  systems  was  not 
strictly  dualistic.  They  assumed  two  eternal  principles 
of  spirit  and  matter,  of  which  the  first  at  least  was  con- 


MATTER 


885 


MATTHiEUS 


ceived,  more  or  less  distinctly,  as  personal :  but  matter 
was  made  into  liiiite  beings,  not  by  the  action  of  the 
eternal  Spirit,  but  of  a  created  or  generated  one ;  who, 
though  not  eternal,  held  a  place  so  exalted  as  to  be  prac- 
tically a  third  God;  and  usurped,  more  or  less,  the  bad 
eminence  of  the  eternal  matter,  since,  in  opposition  to 
orthodox  Christians,  it  was  necessary  to  distinguish  him 
from  the  eternal  Spirit,     See  Dejiiukge. 

The  most  ancient  form  of  dualism,  the  Persian,  does 
not  come  in  for  consideration  here,  as  its  antitliesis  is  not 
between  spirit  and  matter,  but  between  light  and  dark- 
ness. Owing  to  its  antiquity,  the  distinction  between 
personal  and  impersonal  principles  is  not  formulated  in 
it. 

III.  Has  matter  ever  existed  abstracted  from  those 
conditions  of  concrete  form  in  which  we  meet  with  it '? 
The  third  and  fourth  of  the  forms  of  dualism  just  enu- 
merated make  their  cosmogony  depend  on  the  distinc- 
tion devised  by  Anaxagoras,  and  formulated  by  Aristo- 
tle, between  matter  and  form.  If  matter  be  conceived 
as  eternal,  and  yet  a  creation  by  a  spiritual  Being  be  in 
some  sense  admitted,  this  is  necessary.  If  matter  be 
believed  to  be  itself  the  work  of  a  Spirit,  it  is  possible, 
but  by  no  means  necessary,  still  to  believe  that  he  first 
created  matter,  and  then  formed  it.  Such  was,  perhaps, 
the  general  view  of  the  scholastic  period  in  the  widest 
sense  of  the  term :  the  belief  recognised  absolute  crea- 
tion by  God  out  of  nothing,  while  it  left  a  meaning  for 
the  Aristotelian  distinction  which  was  fiimiliar.  It 
seemed  to  derive  direct  support  from  the  narrative  of 
the  creation  in  Gen.  i,  2.  But  it  is  evident  that  the 
word  "  without  form,"  in  this  passage,  is  not  to  be 
pressed  in  so  strict  a  philosophical  sense  :  if  the  mean- 
ing of  the  word  were  less  general,  it  would  stiU  follow 
from  the  fact  that  the  "  formless"  matter  is  already  called 
(not  the  universe  merely,  but)  "  the  earth."  It  there- 
fore follows  that  the  scriptural  or  Christian  doctrine  of 
creation  admits,  but  does  not  require,  the  complication 
of  this  intermediate  step.  It  probably  is  ignored  by  al- 
most aU  modern  thought  on  the  subject :  in  the  last  age 
of  scholasticism.  Sir  Thomas  Browne  still  continued  to 
assume  it,  and  his  critic  Digby  thought  it  needless. — 
Blunt,  Did.  of  Theol.  s.  v.     See  Creation. 

Matter,  Jacques,  a  noted  French  historian  and 
])hilosopher,  was  born  in  Alt-Eckendorf,  Alsace,  May  31, 
1791.  His  parents  were  Germans,  and,  though  living 
imder  French  rule,  remained  true  to  the  fatlierland. 
Jacques,  however,  was  taught  French  from  his  child- 
hood, as  he  was  expected  to  take  a  position  under  the 
French  government.  He  was  intended  for  the  legal 
profession,  and,  after  enjoying  the  best  educational  ad- 
vantages of  private  instructors,  was  sent  to  the  gymna- 
sium at  Strasburg,  and  then  entered  as  a  student  at  the 
University  of  Gcittingen,  Germany,  where  he  enjoyed 
the  instruction  and  association  of  Heeren,  the  noted  his- 
torian, and  Eichhorn,  the  celebrated  Orientalist.  He  re- 
moved to  Paris  with  a  diplomatic  career  in  view,  at- 
tended the  lectures  of  the  Faculty  of  Letters,  and  wrote 
his  Essui  historique  sur  Vecole  d'Alexandrie  (published 
in  1820),  which,  crowned  by  the  academy  in  1816,  gave 
him  a  reputation  among  those  French  scholars  who 
were  interested  in  German  erudition.  By  favor  of 
Roj'er-Collard  and  Guizot,  lie  received  in  1819  a  profess- 
orship in  the  College  of  Strasburg,  which  he  exchanged 
two  years  afterwards  for  the  directorship  of  the  gymnasi- 
um and  the  professorship  of  ecclesiastical  history  in  the 
Protestant  academy  of  the  same  city.  Applying  him- 
self to  the  study  of  ecclesiastical  history  and  philosophy, 
he  wrote  Hisfoire  critique  dti  Gnosticisme  (Paris,  18'28,  2 
vols.  8vo  ;  2d  ed.  1843-44,  3  vols.  8vo),  and  Ilistoire  ujii- 
verselle  de  VEr/Use  Chretienne  (1829-32,  3  vols.;  2d  edit. 
1838).  In  1828  he  was  appointed  inspector  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Strasburg,  and,  in  1831,  corresponding  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.  His  treatise  De  V influ- 
ence des  moeurs  sur  les  lois  et  des  lois  sur  ks  moeurs  (Par- 
is, 1832)  received  from  the  academy  the  extraordinary 
prize  of  10,000  francs.     In  1832  he  was  appointed  by 


Guizot  general  inspector  of  the  University  of  Paris,  and 
removed  to  that  city.  Among  his  later  productions  are, 
Ilistoire  des  doctrines  morales  et  poUtiques  des  trots  der- 
niers  siecles  (1836-37,  3  vols.)  : — De  Vaffuiblissement  des 
idees  et  des  etudes  morales  (18-11) : — Schelling  et  la  philo- 
sopliie  de  la  nature  (1842)  : — De  Vetat  morale  politique 
et  litteraire  de  rAllemac/ne  (1847,  2  Vols.)  : — Histoire  de 
la  j)hilo Sophie  dans  ses  rapports  avec  la  religion  (18;j4)  : 
— Philosophie  de  la  i-elirjion  (1857, 2  vols)  : — Morale, plii- 
losophie  des  moeurs  (1860) : — St.  Martin, philos.  inconnu 
(1862) : — Emmanuel  de  Swedenhoi-g  (1863) : — Le  Mysti- 
cisme  en  France  aux  temjis  de  Fenelon  (1864).  He  has 
also  written  occasional  treatises  concernmg  schools  and 
education,  and  numerous  articles  in  the  Dictionnaire  de 
la  conveisation  and  other  cyclopa3dias.  He  died  at 
Strasburg  June  23, 1864. 

Matthai,  Chkistian  Friedrich  von,  a  noted  Ger- 
man theologian,  was  born  in  Thuringia  in  1744;  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Leipsic,  and  immediately 
upon  the  completion  of  his  studies  became  rector  of  the 
Gymnasium  at  Moscow.  While  here  he  devoted  him- 
self to  a  critical  study  of  the  Greek  fathers  of  the  Church, 
and  published  editions  of  the  writings  of  Chrj'sostom, 
Basil  the  Great,  and  others.  He  was  promoted  to  a 
professorship  in  the  universitj'  about  1776,  but  in  1785 
gladly  accepted  the  position  of  rector  at  Meissen — this 
affording  him  an  opportunity  to  return  to  his  fatherland. 
In  1789  he  was  called  to  the  University  of  Wittenberg, 
whence  he  again  returned  to  Moscow  in  1805.  He  died 
in  Russia  Sept.  26, 1811.  Matthai,  besides  patristic  stud- 
ies, devoted  himself  largely  to  exegesis.  He  edited 
the  commentary  of  Euthymius  Zigabenus  on  the  Gos- 
pels, with  notes,  and  Nemesius  of  Emesa  on  the  Nature 
of  Man.  But  his  most  celebrated  critical  labor  is  his 
edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  for  which  he  made  an 
extensive  collation  of  manuscripts;  though,  as  he  chiefly 
followed  the  authority  of  one  class,  the  Byzantine,  his 
edition  is  less  valuable  in  itself  than  as  a  collection  of 
materials  for  the  further  labors  of  the  critical  editor.  A 
second  edition  of  this  Testament  appeared  in  1803-7,  in  3 
vols.  8vo.  The  work  is  entitled  Novum  Test.  Greece  et  La- 
tine:  Textum  denuo  recensuit,varias  Lectiones  numquam 
antea  vulgatas  collegit,  scholia  Grceca  addidit,  animadver- 
siones  criticas  adjecit,  etc.  (Riga?,  1782-88, 12  vols.  8vo). 
The  competent  judgment  of  Michaelis  pronounces  its 
great  value  in  few  words.  He  says :  "  He  has  made 
his  collection  of  various  readings  with  great  labor  and 
diligence ;  he  found  in  liis  MSS.  a  confirmation  of  many 
readings,  which  I  should  liave  hardly  expected,  because 
they  are  found  in  MSS.  of  a  different  kind  and  of  a  dif- 
ferent country  from  those  which  he  used ;  naj',  even 
those  of  the  Western  edition,  of  which  he  speaks  with 
the  utmost  contempt,  he  has  corroborated  by  the  evi- 
dence of  his  Moscow  MSS.  This  edition  is  absolutely 
necessarj^  for  every  man  who  is  engaged  in  the  criticism 
of  the  Greek  Testament."  See  Doring,  Gelehrte  Theol. 
Deutschktnds  d.  18'"'  u.  19'""  Jarh.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  Home, 
Introd.  to  the  Grit.  Study  of  the  Scriptures ;  Kitto,  Cyclop. 
Bibl.  Lit.  vol.  iii,  s.  v. 

Matthaeus,  Cantacuzenus,  co- emperor  of  Con- 
stantinople, was  the  eldest  son  of  the  far-more  illustri- 
ous John  V  Cantacuzenus  (Johannes  VI).  At  twenty- 
one,  four  years  before  he  was  of  age,  he  was  associated 
by  his  father  in  the  supreme  government  as  a  means  of 
checking  the  rebellion  of  John  Palieologus.  This  meas- 
ure of  Cantacuzenus.  however,  owing  to  the  popularitj' 
of  Palieologus,  failed  in  its  design,  and  in  1355  the  asso- 
ciate emperors,  father  and  son,  were  compelled  to  alidi- 
cate  the  throne  in  favor  of  their  rival.  Matthanis  now 
retired  with  liis  father  to  a  monastic  life  in  the  convents 
of  Mount  Athos.  He  married  Irene  Paheologina,  and 
became  the  father  of  six  children.  His  death,  preceding 
that  of  his  father,  occurred  towards  the  end  of  the  14th 
century.  He  was  a  man  of  much  learning,  and  the  au- 
thor of  various  works,  mostly  Biblical  commentaries, 
several  of  which  are  still  extant  in  MS.  The  one  enti- 
tled Commentarii  in  Cantica  Canticorum  has  be€n  pub- 


MATTHAN 


886 


MATTHEW 


lishetl.  See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biogra- 
■phij  and  Mythology,  s.  v. 

Mat'than  (Matt,  i,  15).     See  Mattax. 

Mat'that  (Mdr&ar,  prob.  some  form  of  the  name 
Mattlnui),  the  name  of  two  men  mentioned  only  in  the 
New  Test,  as  maternal  ancestors  of  Jesus.  See  Gene- 
alogy OF  Jesus  Cjikist. 

1.  The  son  of  Levi  and  father  of  Jorim,  of  the  pri- 
vate line  bet\veen  David  and  Zerubbabel  (Luke  iii,  29). 
B.C.  post  623. 

2.  The  son  of  another  Levi,  and  father  of  the  Eli  who 
was  the  father  of  the  Virgin  Mary  (Luke  iii,  24).  B.C. 
considerably  ante  22. 

Matthe'las  {Ma^iiKag  v.  r.  ]\Ia>;\ac,Yulg.  Mare- 
a.t),  a  corrupt  Greek  form  (1  Esdr.  ix,  19)  of  the  Ma- 
ASEiAH  (q.  V.)  of  the  Hebrew  text  (Ezra  x,  8).  "The 
reading  of  the  Sept.,  which  is  followed  in  the  A.V.,  might 
easily  arise  from  a  mistake  between  the  uncial  9  and  S 
(C)"  (Smith). 

Matthes,  Karl,  a  Lutheran  minister  in  the  duchy 
of  Altenburg,  in  Germany,  was  born  Dec.  26,  1811,  at 
Eisenbcrg.  His  early  studies  were  pursued  at  tlie  lyce- 
inn  of  his  native  town,  and  in  1830  he  entered  the  UuIt 
\crsit}'  of  Jena  as  a  student  of  theology.  After  com- 
pleting his  studies  in  1833,  he  spent  several  years  in  the 
capacity  of  family  tutor  and  as  a  teacher,  and  finally,  in 
1843,  became  the  pastor  of  Ober-Arnsdorf.  In  18G4  he 
was  transferred  to  Bornshain,  where  he  died  suddenly 
.July  3, 1865.  Matthes  possessed  in  a  rare  degree  the 
love  and  esteem  of  his  acquaintances,  who  applied  to 
him  the  saying  of  Luther,  "  He  lived  what  we  preach." 
His  ripe  culture,  theological  knowledge,  and  penetrating 
judgment  find  expression  in  his  works,  which  comprise 
a  Liben  Philip  Melancihon's  (of  which  a  second  edition 
appeared  in  1846)  and  a  Vergleickende  Sy?nbolik  (pub- 
lished in  1854).  In  the  latter  year  he  assumed  the  pub- 
lication of  the  Allgemeinc  kirchliche  Chronik,  a  brief  but 
comprehensive  annual,  reviewing  important  matters  in 
the  field  of  Church  and  theology.     (G.  M.) 

Mat'the"W  (MarSaToc  v.  r.  Ma^SaTof),  one  of  the 
apostles  and  evangelists.  In  the  following  account  of 
him  and  his  Gospel  we  freely  use  the  articles  in  Kitto's 
and  Smith's  Dictionaries. 

1.  His  Name.  —  According  to  Gesenius,  the  names 
Mdtthants  and  Matthias  are  both  contractions  of  Mat- 
tathias  {T\'''rV\'0,  "gift  of  Jehovah  ;"  QtoSujpoQ,  Qiwo- 
TO<S},  a  common  Jewish  name  after  the  exile.  See  Mat- 
TiTHiAH.  Matthew  had  also  the  name  of  Levi  (Mark 
ii,  14;  Luke  v,  27).  In  the  catalogues — Mark  iii,  18; 
Luke  vi,  15 — he  is  coupled  with  Thomas,  which  has 
given  rise  to  the  not  altogether  unfounded  conjecture 
that  Matthew  was  the  twin  brother  of  Thomas  (Disri, 
a  tiriii)^  whose  real  name,  according  to  Eusebius,  //.  E. 
i,  V^.  was  Judas,  and  that  they  were  both  "brethren  of 
our  liiird''  (Donaldson,  Jashar,  p.  10;  comp.  Matt,  xiii, 
55;  jNIark  vi,  3).  This  last  supposition  would  account 
for  Matthew's  immediate  obedience  to  the  call  of  Christ, 
but  is  hardly  consistent  with  the  indetiniteness  of  the 
words  with  which  he  is  introduced — av5ip(.oirov  MarS. 
Xfyo/(.  (Matt,  ix,  9);  riXowtji'  oi'6i.ia-i  Atvii/  (Luke  v, 
27) — or  the  unbelief  of  our  Lord's  brothers  (.John  vii,  5). 
Hcracleon,  as  quoted  by  Clem.  Alex  (^S'/row.  iv,  11),  men- 
tions Levi  as  well  as  ^Matthew  among  the  early  teachers 
who  did  not  suffer  martyrdom.  C)rigen  also  (^Contr. 
Cels.  i,  sec.  62  [48])  speaks  of  !>  At/S*/*;  rtXun'TjQ  c'tKoXov- 
^I'laac  Ttfj  'hiaov,  together  with  "3Iatthew  the  publi- 
can ;"  but  the  names  Af/3»';c  «ih'^  Atirft;  are  by  no  means 
identical,  and  there  is  a  hesitation  about  his  language 
which  shows  that  even  then  the  tradition  wps  hardly 
trustworthy.  The  attempt  of  Theod.  Hase  (L'ibl.  Bn-iii. 
V,  475)  to  identify  Levi  with'thc  aiiostle  Lebbivus  is  an 
example  of  misapplied  ingenuity  which  deserves  liitle 
attention  (comp.  Wolf.  Cin:  ad  i\Iarc.  ii,  14).  The  dis- 
tinction between  Levi  and  Matthew  has.  however,  been 
maintained  by  Grotius  (though  he  acluiowledges  thai  the 


voice  of  antiquity  is  against  him, "  ct  sane  congruunt  cir- 
cumstantini"),  Michaelis,  De  Wette,  Sieft'ert,  Ewald,  etc. 
But  it  is  in  the  highest  degree  improbable  that  two 
publicans  should  have  been  called  by  Christ  in  the  same 
words,  at  the  same  place,  and  with  the  same  attendant 
circumstances  and  consequences;  and  that,  while  one  be- 
came an  apostle,  the  other  dropped  entirely  out  of  mem- 
ory. Still  less  can  we  acquiesce  in  the  hypothesis  of  Sief- 
fert  (  Ursjw.  d.  erst.  Kanon.  Ev.  p.  59)  and  Ewald  {Drei 
Erst.  Ev.  p.  344:  Christus,  p.  289,  321)  that  the  name 
"  Matthew"  is  due  to  the  Greek  editor  of  Matthew's  Gos- 
pel, who  substituted  it  by  an  error  in  the  narrative  of 
the  call  of  Levi.  On  the  other  hand,  their  identity  was 
assumed  by  Eusebius  and  Jerome,  and  most  ancient 
writers,  and  has  been  accepted  by  the  soundest  com- 
mentators (Tischendorf,  jMcyer,  Ncander,  Lardner,  EUi- 
cott,  etc.).  The  double  name  only  supplies  a  difficulty 
to  those  who  are  resolved  to  find  such  everywhere  in 
the  Gospel  narrative.  It  is  analogous  to  what  we  find 
in  the  case  of  Simon  Peter,  John  Mark,  Paul,  Jude,  etc., 
which  may  all  admit  of  the  same  explanation,  and  be 
regarded  as  indicating  a  crisis  in  the  spiritual  life  of  the 
individual,  and  his  passing  into  new  external  relations. 
He  was  no  longer  ^"h  but  "^ri"?,  not  Levi  but  Theodore 
— one  who  might  well  deem  both  himself  and  all  his 
future  life  a  veritable  "gift  of  God"  (Ellicott,  Ilist.L.ect. 
p.  172  ;  compare  Meyer,  Coinineiif.  i,  2 ;  Winer,  I?.  W.  B. 
s.  v.  Matthiius,  Name).  See  Michaelis,  Einltit.  ii,  984; 
Kraft,  Observ.  sacr.  v,  3 ;  Biel,  in  the  Bibl.  Ei-em.  vi, 
1038 ;  Heumann,  ErUiir.  d.  N.  T.  i,  538 ;  Frisch,  Diss, 
de  L^evi  c.  Maith.  non  confundendo  (Leips.  1746) ;  Thiers, 
Krit.  Comment,  i,  90;  Sieffert,  Urspr.  d.  Kanon.  Evang. 
p.  54.     See  Name. 

II.  Scripture  Statements  respecting  Mm. — His  father's 
name  was  Alphreus  (Mark  ii,  14),  probably  different 
from  the  father  of  James  the  son  of  Marv',  the  wife  of 
Cleophas,  who  was  a  "  sister"  of  the  mother  of  Jesus 
(John  xix,  25).  See  ALPii,EUS.  His  call  to  be  an 
apostle  (A.D.  27)  is  related  by  all  three  evangelists  in 
the  same  words,  except  that  Matthew  (ix,  9)  gives  the 
usual  name,  and  Mark  (ii.  14)  and  Luke  (v,  27)  that  of 
Levi.  Matthew's  special  occupation  ^vas  probably  the 
collection  of  dues  and  customs  from  persons  and  goods 
crossing  the  Lake  of  Gennesareth.  It  was  while  he  was 
actually  engaged  in  his  duties,  KaSrjjjxivov  tm  to  rtXw- 
viov,  that  he  received  the  call,  which  he  obeyed  with- 
out delay.  Our  Lord  Avas  then  invited  by  him  to  a 
"  great  feast"  (Luke  v,  29),  to  which  perhaps,  as  Nean- 
der  has  suggested  (Life  of  Christ,  p.  230,  Bohn;  comp. 
Blunt,  Undes.  Coincid.  p.  257),  by  way  of  farewell,  his  old 
associates,  ux^og  Te\wi'io7>  ttoXuc;,  were  summoned.  The 
publicans,  jiroperly  so  called  (publicani),  were  persons 
who  farmed  the  lioman  taxes,  and  they  M'ere  usually, 
in  later  times,  Roman  knights,  and  persons  of  wealth 
and  credit.  They  employed  imder  them  inferior  offi- 
cers, natives  of  the  province  where  the  taxes  were  col- 
lected, called  properly  porlifores,  to  which  class  Jlat- 
thew  no  doubt  belonged.  These  latter  -were  notorious 
for  impudent  exactions  everywhere  (Plautus,  Menach. 
i,  2,  5 ;  Cic.  ad  Quint.  Fr.  i,  1 ;  Plut.  De  Curios,  p.  518 
e) ;  but  to  the  Jews  they  were  especially  odious,  for 
they  were  the  verj'  spot  where  the  Koman  chain  galled 
them,  the  visible  proof  of  the  degraded  state  of  their 
nation.  As  a  rule,  none  but  the  lowest  would  accept 
such  an  unpopular  office,  and  thus  the  class  became 
more  worthy  of  the  hatred  with  which  in  any  case  the 
Jews  woulil  have  regarded  it.  The  readhicss,  however, 
with  which  jMatthew  obeyed  the  call  of  Jesus  seems  to 
show  that  liis  heart  was  still  open  to  religious  impres- 
sions. We  find  in  Luke  vi,  13.  that  when  Jesus,  before 
delivering  the  Sermon  on  the  Blount,  selected  twelve 
disciples,  who  were  to  form  the  circle  of  his  more  inti- 
mate associates,  Matthew  Avas  one  of  them.  On  a  sub- 
sequent occasion  (Luke  v,  29),  Matthew  gave  the  part- 
ing entertainment  to  his  friends.  After  this  event  he 
is  mentioned  only  in  Acts  i,  13.     A.D.  29. 

HI.  Traditionary  Notices. — xVccording  to  a  statement 


MATTHEW 


887 


MATTHEW 


in  Clemens  Alexaudrinus  {Padagog.  ii,  1),  Matthew  ab- 
stained from  animal  food.  Hence  some  writers  have 
rather  hastily  concluded  that  he  belonged  to  the  sect 
of  the  Essenes.  It  is  true  that  the  Essenes  practiced 
abstinence  in  a  high  degree,  but  it  is  not  true  that 
they  rejected  animal  food  altogether.  Admitting  the 
accomit  in  Clemens  Alexandrinus  to  be  correct,  it  proves 
only  a  certain  ascetic  strictness,  of  which  there  occur 
vestiges  in  the  habits  of  other  Jews  (comp.  .Josephus, 
Life,  •!  and  3).  Some  interpreters  find  also  in  Kom.  xiv 
an  allusion  to  Jews  of  ascetic  principles. 

According  to  another  account,  which  is  as  old  as  the 
first  century,  and  which  occurs  in  the  Kljpvyita  lliTpov 
in  ClemensAlexandrinus  (Strom,  wi,  lb),  Matthew,  after 
the  death  of  Jesus,  remained  about  fifteen  years  in  Je- 
rusalem. This  agrees  with  the  statement  in  Eusebius 
{Ifisf.  Eccles.  iii,  2-1),  that  Matthew  preached  to  his  own 
nation  before  he  went  to  foreign  countries.  Rufinus 
{Hkt.  Eccles.  x,  9)  and  Socrates  {Hist.  Eccks.  i,  19)  state 
that  he  afterwards  went  into  Ethiopia  (jMeroe) ;  but 
Ambrose  says  that  God  opened  to  him  the  comitry  of 
the  Persians  {In  Ps.  45) ;  Isidore,  the  Macedonians  (Isi- 
dore Hisp.  De  Sanct.  11) ;  and  others  the  Tarthians,  the 
Medes,  the  Persians  of  the  Euphrates  (comp.  Florini 
Exercit.  Jiist.  j>IiiL  p.  23 ;  Credner,  Einl.  ins  N'.  T.  I,  i, 
68).  There  also  he  probably  preached  specially  to  the 
Jews.  See  Abdiie,  Ilistor.  Apost.  vii,  in  Fabricii  Cod. 
apocr.  i,  636;  Perionii  Vit.  Apost.  p.  lU;  comp.  Mar- 
tyrol.  Rom.  Sept.  21.  According  to  Heracleon^about 
A.D.  150)  and  Clemens  Alexandrinus  {Strom,  iv,  9), 
Matthew  was  one  of  those  apostles  who  did  not  suffer 
martyrdom,  which  Clement,  Origen,  and  Tertullian  seem 
to  accept:  the  tradition  that  he  died  a  martyr,  be  it 
true  or  false,  came  in  afterwards  (Niceph.  //.  E.  ii,  41). 
Tischendorf  has  published  the  apocrj'phal  "Acts  and 
MartjTdom  of  Matthew"  {Acta  Apocrypha,  Lips.  1841). 
See  Acts,  Spurious. 

MATTHEW,  Gospel  of,  the  first  of  the  four  me- 
moirs of  our  Lord  in  all  the  arrangements.  See  New 
Testament. 

I.  Author. — There  is  no  ancient  book  with  regard  to 
the  authorship  of  which  we  have  earlier,  fuller,  and 
more  unanimous  testirjony.  From  Papias,  almost  if 
not  quite  contemporary  with  the  apostles,  downwards, 
^\■e  have  a  stream  of  unimpeachable  witnesses  to  the 
fact  that  Matthew  was  the  author  of  a  gospel ;  while 
the  quotations  which  abound  in  the  works  of  the  fathers 
prove  that  at  least  as  early  as  Irenreus — if  we  may  not 
also  add  Justin,  whose  "  Memorabilia  of  Christ"  we  can- 
not but  identify  with  the  "  Gospels"  he  speaks  of  as 
in  public  use — the  Gospel  received  by  the  Church  un- 
der his  name  was  the  same  as  that  which  has  reached 
us.  As  in  the  case  of  the  other  synoptists,  a  subsidiary 
argument  of  no  small  weight  in  favor  of  the  correctness 
of  this  assignment  may  be  drawn  from  the  comparative 
insignificance  of  Slatthew  among  the  twelve,  Anj'  one 
desirous  of  imposing  a  spurious  gospel  on  the  Church 
would  naturally  have  assumed  one  of  the  principal  apos- 
tles as  its  author,  instead  of  one  whose  name  could  add 
but  little  weight  or  authority  to  the  composition. 

Nevertheless  a  number  of  alleged  circumstances  have 
led  Strauss  and  others  to  consider  the  Gospel  of  Matthew 
as  an  unapDstolical  composition,  originating  perhaps  at 
the  conclusion  of  the  first  century ;  while  some  consider 
it  a  production  of  the  Aramrean  Matthew,  augmented 
by  some  additions ;  others  call  it  a  historical  commenta- 
ry of  a  later  period,  made  to  illustrate  the  collection  of 
the  sayings  of  Christ  which  Matthew  had  furnished 
(comp.  SielTert,  Ueher  die  Aechtheit  undden  Urspnmg  des 
erslen  Kcangdii,  1832 ;  Schneckenburger,  Ueher  den  Ur- 
sprung des  trsten  Evangelii,  1834;  Schott,  Ueher  die  Au- 
thenticitdt  des  El:  Matt.  1837). 

(1st.)  The  representations  of  Matthew  (it  is  said) 
have  not  that  vivid  clearness  whicli  characterizes  the 
narration  of  an  eye-witness,  and  which  we  find,  for  in- 
stance, in  the  Gospel  of  John.  Even  Mark  and  Luke 
surpass  Matthew  in  this  respect.     Compare,  for  exam- 


ple, Matt,  iv,  18  with  Luke  v,  1  sq. ;  Matt,  viii,  5  sq. 
with  Luke  vii,  1  sq.  This  is  most  striking  in  the  his- 
torj'  of  his  own  call,  where  we  should  expect  a  clearer 
representation.  To  this  it  may  be  replied  that  the  gift 
of  narrating  luminously  is  a  personal  ciualirtcation  of 
which  even  an  apostle  might  be  destitute,  and  which  is 
rarely  found  among  the  lower  orders  of  people  ;  this  ar- 
gument, therefore,  has  recently  been  given  up  altogether. 
In  the  history  of  his  call  to  be  an  apostle,  IMatthew  has 
this  advantage  over  Mark  and  Luke,  that  he  relates 
the  discourse  of  Christ  (ix,  13)  with  greater  complete- 
neiss  than  these  evangelists.  Luke  relates  that  Matthew 
prepared  a  great  banquet  in  his  house,  while  IMatthew 
simply  mentions  that  an  entertainment  took  place^  be- 
cause the  apostle  coidd  not  well  write  that  he  himself 
prepared  a  great  banquet. 

(2d.)  He  omits  some  facts  which  every  apostle  cer- 
tainly knew.  For  instance,  he  mentions  only  one  jour- 
ney of  Christ  to  the  Passover  at  Jerusalem,  namely,  the 
last ;  and  seems  to  be  acquainted  oidy  with  one  sphere 
of  Christ's  activity,  namely,  Galilee.  He  even  relates 
the  mstances  of  Christ's  appearing  after  his  resurrection 
in  such  a  manner  that  it  might  be  understood  as  if  he 
showed  himself  only  to  the  women  in  Jerusalem,  and  to 
his  disciples  nowhere  but  in  Galilee  (Matt,  xxvi,  32,  and 
xxviii,  7).  But  an  argumentum  a  silentio  must  not  be 
urged  against  the  evangelists.  The  raising  of  Lazarus 
is  narrated  only  by  John,  and  the  raising  of  the  youth 
at  Nain  only  by  Luke ;  the  appearance  of  five  hundred 
brethren  after  the  resurrection,  which,  according  to  the 
testimony  of  Paid  (1  Cor.  xv,  6),  was  a  fact  generally 
known,  is  not  recorded  by  any  of  the  evangelists.  The 
apparent  restriction  of  Christ's  sphere  of  activity  to  Gal- 
ilee, we  find  also  in  jMark  and  Luke.  This  peculiarity 
arose  perhaps  from  the  circumstance  that  the  apostles 
first  taught  in  Jerusalem,  Avhere  it  was  unnecessary  to 
relate  what  had  happened  there,  but  where  the  events 
which  had  taken  place  in  Galilee  were  unknown,  and 
required  to  be  narrated :  thus  the  sphere  of  narration 
may  have  gradually  become  fixed.  At  least  it  is  gener- 
ally granted  that  hitherto  no  satisfactory  explanation 
of  this  fact  has  been  discovered.  The  expressions  in 
Matt,  xxvi,  32,  and  xxviii,  7,  perhaps  only  indicate  that 
the  Lord  appeared  more  frequently  and  for  a  longer  pe- 
riod in  Galilee  than  elsewhere.  In  Matt,  xxviii,  16,  we 
are  told  that  the  disciples  m  Galilee  went  up  to  a  moun- 
tain, whither  Christ  had  appointed  them  to  come  ;  and, 
since  it  is  not  previously  mentioned  that  any  such  ap- 
pointment had  been  made,  the  narrative  of  Matthew 
himself  here  leads  us  to  conclude  that  Christ  appeared 
to  his  disciples  in  Jerusalem  after  his  resurrection. 

(3d.)  He  relates  unchronologically,  and  transposes 
events  to  times  in  which  they  did  not  happen  ;  for  in- 
stance, the  rejection  at  Nazareth,  mentioned  in  Luke  iv, 
14-30,  must  have  happened  at  the  commencement  of 
Christ's  public  career,  but  jNIatthew  relates  it  as  late  as 
xiii,  53  sq.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  reason 
to  suppose  that  the  evangelists  intended  to  write  a 
chronological  biography.  On  the  contrary,  we  learn 
from  Luke  i,  4,  and  John  xx,  31,  that  their  object  was  of 
a  more  practical  and  apologetic  tendency.  With  the 
exception  of  John,  the  evangelists  have  grouped  their 
communications  more  according  to  subjects  than  accord- 
ing to  chronological  succession.  This  fact  is  now  gen- 
erally admitted.  As  to  the  particular  event  above  re- 
ferred to,  namely,  the  rejection  of  Christ  at  Nazareth, 
it  appears  to  have  occurred  twice  ;  Luke  (iv,  14-31)  giv- 
ing the  earlier,  and  Matthew  (xiii,  53-58)  the  later  in- 
stance. See  Strong's  Ilurmony  of  the  Gospels,  §  32,  60, 
and  notes. 

(4tli.)  He  embodies  in  one  discourse  several  sayings 
of  Christ  which,  according  to  Luke,  were  pronounced  at 
different  times  (comp.  Matt,  v-vii,  and  xxiii).  But  if 
the  evangelist  arranges  his  statements  according  to  sub- 
jects, and  not  chronologically,  we  must  not  be  surprised 
that  he  connects  similar  sayings  of  Christ,  inserting 
them  in  the  longer  discourses  after  analogous  topics  had 


MATTHEW 


MATTHEW 


been  mentioned.  These  discourses  are  not,  in  fact,  com- 
piled liy  the  evangelist,  but  always  form  the  fundament- 
al framework  to  which  sometimes  analogous  subjects 
are  attached.  Moreover,  it  can  be  proved  that  several 
sa^•ings  are  more  correctly  placed  by  Matthew  than  by 
Lulvc^compare  especially  Matt,  xxiii,  37-39  with  Luke 
xiii,  34, 35). 

(5th.)  He  falls,  it  is  asserted,  into  positive  errors.  In 
ch.  i  and  ii  he  seems  not  to  know  that  the  real  dwelling- 
place  of  the  parents  of  Jesus  was  at  Nazareth,  and  that 
their  abode  at  Bethlehem  was  only  temporary  (compare 
Matt,  ii,  1,  22,  23  with  Luke  ii,  4,  39).  According,  to 
SLirk  xi,  20,  21,  the  fig-tree  withered  on  the  day  after  it 
was  cursed ;  but  according  to  ]Matt.  xxi,  19,  it  withered 
immediately.  According  to  IMatt.  xxi,  12,  Christ  puri- 
fied the  Temple  immediatel}'  after  his  entrance  into  Je- 
rusalem ;  but  according  to  Mark  he  on  that  day  went 
out  to  Bethany,  and  purified  the  Temple  on  the  day  fol- 
lowing (Mark  xi,  11-15).  Matthew  says  (xxi,  7)  that 
Christ  rode  on  a  she-ass  and  on  a  colt,  which  is  impossi- 
ble ;  the  other  Gospels  speak  only  of  a  she-ass.  But  it 
depends  entirely  upon  the  mode  of  interpretation  wheth- 
er such  positive  errors  as  are  alleged  to  exist  are  really 
chargeable  on  the  evangelist.  The  difference,  for  in- 
stance, between  the  narrative  of  the  birth  of  Christ,  as 
severally  recorded  by  Matthew  and  Luke,  may  easily  be 
solved  without  questioning  the  correctness  of  either,  if 
we  suppose  that  each  of  them  narrates  what  he  knows 
from  his  individual  sources  of  information.  The  histon,- 
of  Christ's  childhood  given  in  Luke  leads  us  to  conclude 
that  it  was  derived  from  the  acquaintances  of  Mary, 
while  the  statements  in  Matthew  seem  to  be  derived 
from  the  friends  of  Joseph.  As  to  the  transaction  re- 
corded in  Matt,  xxi,  18-22,  and  Mark  xi,  11, 15,  20,  21, 
it  appears  that  INIark  describes  what  occurred  most 
accurately;  and  yet  there  is  nothing  in  Matthew's 
account  really  inconsistent  with  the  true  order  of 
events. 

On  the  other  hand,  some  of  the  most  beautifid  and 
most  important  sayings  of  our  Lord,  the  historical  credi- 
bility of  which  no  sceptic  can  attack,  have  been  pre- 
served by  Matthew  alone  (Matt,  xi,  28-30  ;  xvi,  16-19 ; 
xxviii,  20 ;  compare  also  xi,  2-21 ;  xii,  3-6,  25-29 ;  xvii, 
12,  25,  26 ;  xxvi,  13).  Above  all,  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount,  although  containing  some  things  apparently  not 
coincident  in  time  (for  instance,  the  Lord's  prayer),  is 
yet  far  more  complete  and  systematic  than  the  compar- 
atively meagre  report  of  Luke,  It  may  also  be  proved 
that  in  many  particulars  the  reports  of  several  discourses 
in  Matthew  are  more  exact  than  in  the  other  evangel- 
ists, as  may  be  seen  by  comparing  Matt,  xxiii  with  the 
various  parallel  passages  in  Luke.  See,  generally,  Kern, 
Ufher  den  Urspritng  cks  Evangelii  Matthcei  (Tubingen, 
1834)  ;  Olshausen,  I)7-ei  Programme,  1835 ;  and  the  two 
Lucubrations  of  Harles,  1840  and  1843. 

II.  Timv.  and  Place  of  its  Composition. — There  is  little 
in  the  (Jospel  itself  to  throw  any  light  on  the  date  of  its 
composition.  In  xxvii,  7,  8 ;  xxviii,  15,  we  have  evi- 
dences of  a  date  some  years  subsequent  to  the  resurrec- 
tion ;  but  these  may  well  be  additions  of  a  later  hand, 
and  prove  nothing  as  to  the  age  of  the  substance  of  the 
Gospel.  Little  trust  can  be  placed  in  the  dates  given 
by  some  late  writers  —  e.  g.  Theophylact,  Euthymius 
Zigabcnus,  Eusebius's  Chron.,  eight  years  after  the  As- 
cension ;  Niccph.,  Callist.,  and  the  Chron,  PascJi.,  A. I). 
45.  The  only  early  testimony  is  that  of  Iren.TJUs  {Hcvr. 
iii,  1,  \\.  174),  that  it  was  written  "  when  I'eter  and  Paul 
were  iireacliing  in  Kome,  and  founiling  the  Church." 
This  would  bring  it  down  to  about  A.D.  03 — probably 
some\\hat  earlier,  as  this  is  the  latest  date  assigned  for 
Luke's  (iospel;  and  we  have  the  authority  of  a  tradition, 
accepted  by  Origen.  for  the  ])riority  of  that  of  JLatthew 
{iv  TzapaConti  fiacwv  ....  ori^TpCoTOv  //h'  y'iypaiTTCH 
TO  Kara  rov  TTort  Tt\(0V7iv  va-tfwv  ff  n—oar.  I.  \f). 
MnrjaTor,  Eusebius.  //.  A',  vi.  25).  On  the  supposition 
of  a  Hebrew  original,  we  may  presume  that  that  w(juld 
have  been  written  the  first  of  all  the  Gospels,  or  soon 


after  the  Ascension — i.  e.  about  A.D.  31;  and  then  the 
present  Greek  edition  may  have  been  issued  not  much 
later,  or  shortly  before  Matthew's  removal  from  Ju- 
diea,  i.  e.  about  A.D.  47.  Tillemont  maintains  A.D.  33  ; 
Townson,  A.D.  37  ;  Owen  and  Tomline,  A.D.  38 ;  David- 
son, Introd.  N.  Test.,  inclines  to  A.D.  41-43 ;  while.  Hug, 
Eichhorn,Credner,  Bertholdt,  etc.,  identifying  "Zacha- 
rias  the  son  of  Barachias"  (xxiii,  35)  with  Zacharias  the 
son  of  Baruch,  whose  murder  is  recorded  by  Josephus 
(  War,  iv,  6,  4),  place  its  composition  shortly  after  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem,  a  theory  which  is  rejected  by  De 
Wette  and  Meyer,  and  may  safely  be  dismissed  as  im- 
tenable. 

With  regard  to  the  place,  there  is  no  difference  of 
opinion.  All  ancient  authorities  agree  that  Matthew 
wrote  his  Gospel  in  Palestine,  and  this  has  been  as 
unanimously  received  by  modern  critics. 

III.  For  what  Readers  u-as  ii  Wiitfcn  ? — The  concur- 
rent testimony  of  the  early  Church  that  Matthew  drew 
up  his  Gospel  for  the  benefit  of  the  Jewish  Christians  of 
Palestine  (rolig  anb  'lovca'ifffxov  iriUTtvaaai,  Orig.  ap, 
Eusebius,  H.K  vi,  25),  has  been  accepted  without  ques- 
tion, and  may  be  regarded  as  a  settled  point.  The  state- 
ment of  Eusebius  is  that,  "  having  previously  preached 
to  the  Hebrews,  when  he  was  about  to  go  to  others  also, 
he  committed  to  writing  in  his  native  tongue  his  Gos- 
pel (7-6  Kar  aiiTov  tvayyeXiov),  and  so  filled  up  by  his 
writing  that  which  was  lacking  of  his  presence  to  those 
whonirhe  was  departing  from"  (Eusebius,  //.  E.  iii,  24). 
The  testimony  of  Jerome,  frequently  repeated,  is  to  the 
same  effect  (^Preef.  ad  Matt. ;  Be  Vir.  III. ;  Comm.  in 
Hos.  xi).  The  passages  quoted  and  referred  to  above, 
it  is  true,  have  reference  to  the  supposed  Aramaic  orig- 
inal, and  not  to  the  present  Greek  Gospel.  But  what- 
ever conclusion  may  be  arrived  at  on  the  perplexed 
question  of  the  origin  of  the  existing  Gospel,  Jlr.  West- 
cott  has  shown  {Inti-od.  to  Gospels,  p.  208)  that  "  there 
is  no  sufficient  reason  to  depart  from  the  unhesitating 
habit  of  the  earliest  writers  who  notice  the  subject,  in 
practicallj'  identifying  the  revised  version  with  the 
original  text,"  so  that  whatever  has  been  stated  of  the 
purpose  or  characteristics  of  the  one  may  unhesitatingly 
be  regarded  as  applicable  to  the  other  also. 

Looking,  therefore,  to  our  present  Gospel  for  proofs  of 
its  original  destination,  we  find  internal  evidence  tend- 
ing to  confirm  the  traditional  statement.  The  great 
object  of  the  evangelist  is  evidently  to  prove  to  his 
countrymen  that  Jesus  of  Nazareth  was  the  promised 
Messiah,  the  antitype  of  the  figures  of  the  old  covenant, 
and  the  fulfilment  of  all  prophecy.  The  opening  words 
of  his  Gospel  declare  his  purpose.  Jesus  Christ  is  set 
forth  as  "  the  son  of  David"  and  "  the  son  of  Abraham," 
fulfilling  "  the  promises  made  to  the  fathers,"  and  re- 
viving the  faded  glories  of  the  nation  in  the  heir  of  Da- 
vid's royal  line,  Abraham's  promised  seetl  (comp.  Iren. 
Fragm.xxix;  Hcrr.  iu,9,l;  Orig.  «n  .7ofl?(».  iv,  4).  In 
the  symmetrical  arrangement  of  the  genealogy  also — 
"  its  divisions,"  as  dean  Goodwin  has  remarked  {Comm. 
in  St.  Matt.,  Introd.),  '■  corresponding  to  the  two  great 
crises  in  their  national  life,  the  maximum  and  minimum 
points  of  Hebrew  prosperity" — we  have  an  accommoda- 
tion to  Jewish  prejudices  and  Jewish  habits  of  thought, 
in  marked  contrast  with  the  continuous  order  of  the 
universalistic  Luke.  As  we  advance,  we  find  that  the 
accomplishment  of  the  promises,  the  proof  that  Jesus 
Christ  is  he  of  whom  "Moses  in  the  law  and  the  proph- 
ets did  write,"  is  the  object  nearest  to  his  heart.  Thus 
he  is  continually  speakmg  of  the  necessity  of  this  or 
that  event  hajtpening.  in  order  that  a  particular  proph- 
ecy might  be  fulfilled  (iVa  Tr\r)pw^y  to  pri^iv  i'lro  tov 
Ki'piov  [or  BfoT']  Cia  -oh  Trpc^iirov,  i,  22  ;  ii,  15;  xxi,4  ; 
xxvi,  56  ;  comp.  ii.  17  :  iii.  3  ;  iv.  14 ;  viii,  17.  etc.),  while 
his  whole  Gospel  is  full  of  allusions  to  those  passages 
and  sayings  of  the  O.  Test,  in  which  Christ  was  predict- 
ed and  foreshadowed.  As  Da  Costa  has  remarked  (Four 
Witnesses,  p.20),  he  regards  the  events  he  narrates  as 
"  realized  prophecy,"  and  everj-thing  is  recorded  with 


MATTHEW 


889 


MATTHEW 


this  view,  that  he  may  lead  his  countrymen  to  recognise 
in  Jesus  their  promised  Deliverer  and  King. 

It  is  in  keeping  with  the  destination  of  his  Gospel 
that  we  tind  in  Matthew  less  frequent  explanations  of 
Jewish  customs,  laws,  and  localities  than  in  the  other 
Gospels.  Knowledge  of  these  is  presupposed  in  the 
readers  (Matt,  xv,  1,  2  with  IVIark  vii,  1-4 :  Matt,  xxvii, 
G-2  with  Mark  xv,  42 ;  Luke  xxiii,  54 ;  John  xix,  14, 31, 
42,  and  other  places).  Jerusalem  is  the  holy  city  (see 
below,  Style  and  Diction).  Jesus  is  of  the  elect  line  (i, 
1 ;  ix,  27  ;  xii,  23  ;  xv,  22 ;  xx,  30  ;  xxi,  9, 15) ;  is  to  be 
born  of  a  virgin  in  David's  place,  Bethlehem  (i,  22 ;  ii, 
6) ;  must  flee  into  Egypt  and  be  recalled  thence  (ii,  15, 
19);  must  have  a  forerunner,  John  the  Baptist  (iii,3; 
xi,  10) ;  was  to  labor  in  the  outcast  Galilee  that  sat  in 
darkness  (iv,  14-lG) ;  his  healing  was  a  promised  mark 
of  his  office  (viii,  17 ;  xii,  17),  ancl  so  was  his  mode  of 
teaching  by  parables  (xiii,  14)  ;  he  entered  the  holy  city 
as  Messiah  (xxi,  5-16) ;  was  rejected  by  the  people,  in 
fulfilment  of  a  prophecy  (xxi,  42),  and  deserted  by  his 
disciples  in  the  same  way  (xxvi,  31,  56).  The  Gospel 
is  pervaded  by  one  principle,  the  fulfilment  of  the  law 
and  of  the  INIessianic  prophecies  in  the  person  of  Jesus. 
This  at  once  sets  it  in  opposition  to  the  Judaism  of  the 
time,  for  it  rebuked  the  Pharisaic  interpretations  of  the 
law  (v,  xxiii),  and  proclaimed  Jesus  as  the  Son  of  God, 
and  the  Saviour  of  the  world  through  his  blood,  ideas 
which  were  strange  to  the  cramped  and  limited  Juda- 
ism of  the  Christian  rera.  In  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount 
Christ  is  introduced  declaring  himself  not  as  the  de- 
stroyer but  the  fultiller  of  the  Mosaic  law.  When  the 
twelve  are  sent  forth  they  are  forbidden  to  go  "  into  the 
way  of  the  Gentiles"  (x,  5 ;  comp.  xv,  24).  In  the  same 
passage — the  only  one  in  which  the  Samaritans  are  men- 
tioned— that  abhorred  race  is  put  on  a  level  with  the 
heatlien,  not  at  once  to  be  gladdened  with  the  Gospel 
message. 

But  while  we  keep  this  in  view,  as  the  evangelist's 
first  object,  we  must  not  strain  it  too  narrowly,  as  if  he 
had  no  other  purpose  than  to  combat  the  objections 
and  to  satisfy  the  prepossessions  of  tlie  Jews.  No  evan- 
gelist expresses  with  greater  distinctness  the  universal- 
ity of  Christ's  mission,  or  does  more  to  break  down  the 
narrow  notion  of  a  Messiah  for  Israel  who  was  not  one 
also  for  the  whole  world ;  none  delivers  stronger  warn- 
ings against  trusting  to  an  Abraham  ic  descent  for  ac- 
ceptance with  God.  It  is  in  Matthew  that  we  read  of 
the  visit  of  the  magi  (ii,  1  sq.),  symbolizing  the  mani- 
festation of  Christ  to  the  Gentiles;  it  is  he  that  speaks 
of  the  fulfilment  of  Isaiah's  prophecy,  when  "  the  na- 
tions that  sat  in  darkness  saw  a  great  light"'  (iv,  15, 16), 
and  adds  to  the  narrative  of  the  cure  of  the  centurion's 
servant  what  is  wanting  to  the  universalistic  Luke,  that 
"many  should  come  from  the  East  and  West,"  etc.  (viii, 
11).  Tlie  narrative  of  the  Syro-Phcenician  woman,  omit- 
ted by  Luke,  is  given  by  Matthew,  in  whom  alone  we 
also  tind  the  command  to  "  make  disciples  of  all  nations" 
(xxviii,  19),  and  the  unrestricted  invitation  to  "all  that 
labor  and  are  heavy  laden"  (xi,  28).  Nowhere  are  we 
made  more  conscious  of  the  deep  contrast  between  the 
spiritual  teaching  of  Christ  and  the  formal  teaching  of 
the  rulers  of  the  Jewish  Church,  We  see  also  that  oth- 
ers besides  Jewish  readers  were  contemplated,  from  the 
interpretations  and  explanations  occasionally  added,  e.  g. 
Immanuel,  it,  23 ;  Golgotha,  xxvii,  33  ;  Eli,  lama  sabach- 
thani,  ver.  46. 

IV.  Original  Language. — While  there  is  absolutely 
nothing  in  the  Gospel  itself  to  lead  us  to  imagine  that 
it  is  a  translation,  and,  on  the  contrary,  everj'thing  fa- 
vors the  view  that  in  the  present  (ireek  text,  with  its 
perpetual  verbal  corresi)ondence  with  the  other  synop- 
tists,  we  have  the  original  ccimiiosition  of  the  author 
himself;  yet  the  unanimous  testimony  of  all  antiquity 
affirms  that  INIatthew  wrote  his  (Jospel  in  Ifeh-eiv,  i.  e. 
the  Aramaic  or  Syro-Chaldee  dialect,\which  was  the 
vernacular  tongue  of  the  then  iuliabitants  of  Palestine. 
The  internal  evidence,  therefore,  is  at  variance  with  the 


external,  and  it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  adjust  the  claims 
of  the  two. 

1.  External  Evidence. — The  unanimity  of  all  ancient 
authorities  as  to  the  Hebrew  origin  of  this  Gospel  is 
complete.  In  the  words  of  the  late  canon  Cureton  {Syr- 
iac  Recension,  p.  Ixxxiii),  "  no  fact  relating  to  the  his- 
tory of  the  Gospels  is  more  fully  and  satisfactorily  es- 
tablished. From  the  days  of  the  apostles  down  to  the 
end  of  the  4th  centurj',  every  Avriter  who  had  occasion 
to  refer  to  this  matter  has  testified  the  same  thing. 
Papias,  Irenaeus,  Panttenus,  Origen,  Cyril  of  Jerusalem, 
Athanasius,  Epiphanius,  Jerome,  all  with  one  consent 
affirm  this.  Such  a  chain  of  historical  evidence  appears 
to  be  amply  sufficient  to  establish  the  fact  that  IVIatthew 
wrote  his  Gospel  originally  in  the  Hebrew  dialect  of 
that  time,  for  the  benefit  of  Jews  who  understood  and 
spoke  the  language."  To  look  at  the  evidence  more 
particularly — (1.)  The  earliest  witness  is  Papias,  bishop 
of  Hierapolis,  in  Phrygia,  in  the  beginning  of  the  2d 
century;  a  hearer  of  the  apostle,  or  more  probably  of  the 
presbyter  John,  and  a  companion  of  Polycarp  (Iren^us, 
Ilmr.  V,  33,4).  Eusebius  describes  him  (//.  E.  iii,  36) 
as  "a  man  of  the  widest  general  information,  and  well 
acquainted  with  the  Scriptures"  {avrjp  ra.  irch'Ta  on 
fiaXiffra  Xoytwraroe  Kai  ypacpijg  ildiji-iiov);  and, though 
in  another  iilace  he  depreciates  his  intellectual  power 
{(T(p6cpa  (TjMKpijQ  wv  Tui>  voi'V,  11.  E.  ill,  39),  this  unfa- 
vorable view  seems  chiefly  to  ha^'e  reference  to  his  mil- 
lennarian  views  (comp.  Irenjeus, //«??■.  v,  33,  3),  and  can 
hardly  invalidate  his  testimony  on  a  matter  of  fact. 
Papias  says,  it  would  seem  on  the  authority  of  John  the 
Presbyter,  "Matthew  compiled  his  Gospel  (or 'the  ora- 
cles') in  the  Hebrew  dialect ;  while  each  interpreted 
them  according  to  his  ability"  (MarSmoc;  fih>  ovv 
'EjipaiSi  SiaXtKrqj  tu  Xoyia  avreypaipaTO :  t)p/j.ijvev(Te 
S'  avru  (j)Q  (/!-'  Svvaroc^  iKaaToc).  In  estimating  the 
value  of  this  testimony,  two  important  points  have  to  be 
considered — the  meaning  of  the  term  Xoyia,  and  wheth- 
er Papias  is  speaking  of  the  present  or  the  past.  On 
the  latter  point  there  can  be  little  doubt.  His  use  of 
the  aorist,  y'lp^uji'tixre,  not  (pi.u]v(vii,  evidently  shows 
that  the  state  of  things  to  which  he  or  his  original  au- 
thority referred  had  passed  away,  and  that  individual 
translation  was  no  longer  necessarJ^  It  would  seem, 
therefore,  to  foUoAv,  that  "  an  authorized  Greek  repre- 
sentative of  the  Hebrew  Matthew"  had  come  into  use 
"  in  the  generation  after  the  apostles"  (Westcott,  Introd. 
p.  207,  note).  The  signification  of  Xoyto  has  been  much 
controverted.  Schleiermacher  {Stud.  u.  Krit.  1832,  p. 
735)  was  the  first  to  explain  the  term  of  a  supposed 
"  collection  of  discourses"  which  is  held  to  have  been 
the  basis  that,  by  gradual  modification  and  interpola- 
tion, was  transformed  into  the  existing  Gospel  (Meyei-, 
Comm.  i,  13).  This  view  has  found  wide  acceptance,  and 
has  been  strenuously  maintained  by  Lachmann  {Stud, 
u.  Krit.  1835),  Meyer,  De  Wette,  Credner,  Wieseler,  B. 
Crusius,  Ewald,  Renan,  etc.,  but  has  been  controverted 
by  Liicke  {Stud.  u.  Krit.  1833),  Hug,  Ebrard,  Bauer,  De- 
litzsch,Hilgenfeld,  Thiersch,  Alford,  Westcott,  etc.  But 
\uyta,  in  the  N.  T.,  signifies  the  ivhole  revelation  made, 
by  God,  rather  than  the  mere  words  in  which  that  rev- 
elation is  contained  (x\.cts  vii,  38 ;  Rom.  iii,  2  ;  Heb.  v, 
12 ;  1  Pet,  iv,  11) ;  and,  as  has  been  convincingly  shown 
by  Hug  and  Ebrard,  the  patristic  use  of  the  word  con- 
firms the  opinion  that,  as  used  by  Papias,  both  in  this 
passage  and  in  the  title  of  his  own  work  {Xoyitov  Kvpi- 
aiciov  t^i'iyrjaic),  it  implies  a  combined  record  of  facts 
and  discourses  corresponding  to  the  later  use  of  the  word 
gospel.  (2.)  The  next  witness  is  Irenseus,  who,  as  quoted 
by  Eusebius  (//.  E.  v,  8),  says  that  "  Matthew  among 
the  Hebrews  published  also  a  written  Gospel  in  their 
own  language"  (rjy  ii:ia  avrCov  hak'iKTo/).  Hug  and 
others  have  attempted  to  invalidate  this  testimony,  as  a 
mere  repetition  of  that  of  Papias,  whose  disciple,  accord- 
ing to  Jerome,  Irenreus  was ;  but  we  may  safely  accept 
it  as  independent  evidence.  (3.)  Pantienus,  the  next 
witness,  cannot  be  considered  as  strengthening  the  case 


MATTHEW 


890 


MATTHEW 


for  the  Hebrew  original  much  ;  though,  as  far  as  it  goes, 
his  evidence  is  definite  enough.  His  story,  as  reported 
by  Eiiscbius,  is  that "  he  is  said  to  have  gone  to  the  In- 
dians (probably  in  the  south  of  Arabia),  where  it  is  re- 
ported that  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  had  preceded  him 
among  some  who  had  there  acknowledged  Christ,  to 
whom  it  is  said  the  apostle  Bartholomew  had  preached, 
and  had  left  with  them  the  writing  of  Matthew  in  He- 
brew letters  {'EjSpaiwv  ypafi^aai  rt)v  tov  MarSraiov 
KaToXtlipai  ypa(priv),  and  that  it  was  preserved  to  the 
time  mentioned."  Jerome  tells  the  same  tale,  with  the 
atldition  that  Pantrenus  brought  back  this  Hebrew  Gos- 
pel with  him  {De  fir.  III.  36).  No  works  of  Panttenus 
iiave  been  preserved,  and  we  have  no  means  of  confirm- 
ing or  refuting  the  tale,  which  has  somewliat  of  a  mj'th- 
ical  air,  and  is  related  as  a  mere  story  (XkyeTai,  Xoyog 
tupsiv  avTov),  even  by  Eusebius.  (4.)  The  testimony 
of  Origen  has  already  been  referred  to.  It  is  equally 
definite  with  those  quoted  above  on  the  fact  that  the 
Gospel  was  "  published  for  Jewish  believers,  and  com- 
posed in  Hebrew  letters"  (tKCfCojKura  ahrb  toXq  airb 
'lovcdidfiov  Tnarivaaai,  ypaii{.iacnv  'El3paiKol(;  avvTS- 
Tciyfiivov,  Eusebius,  //.  E.  vi,  25).  There  is  no  reason 
for  questioning  the  independence  of  Origen's  evidence, 
or  for  tracing  it  back  to  Papias.  He  clearly  states  what 
■was  the  belief  of  the  Church  at  that  time,  and  without 
a  doubt  as  to  its  correctness.  (For  a  refutation  of  the 
objections  brought  against  it  by  Masch  and  Hug,  etc., 
see  Marsh's  Michaelis,  iv,  128,  135  sq.)  (5.)  We  have 
already  given  the  testimony  of  Eusebius  (//.  E.  iii,  24), 
to  -which  may  be  added  a  passage  {ad  Marin,  qucesf.  ii, 
p.  941)  in  which  he  ascribes  the  words  otpt  tuv  aafi- 
(itirov  to  the  translator  (7rap«  tov  ipfnivtvaavrog  ti]v 
ypacptiv) ,  adding, "  For  the  evangelist  jMatthew  delivered 
his  Gospel  in  the  Hebrew  tongue."  This  is  very  impor- 
tant evidence  as  to  the  belief  of  Eusebius,  which  was 
cleai'ly  that  of  the  Church  generaU}',  that  the  Gospel 
was  originally  composed  in  Hebrew.  (6.)  Epiphanius 
(//(??-.  xxix,  9,  p.  124)  states  the  same  fact  without  the 
shadow  of  a  doubt,  adding  that  Jlattbew  was  the  only 
evangelist  who  wrote '  E/jpoVori  Kai ' EjipdiicdiQ  ypafifjia- 
aiv.  The  value  of  his  evidence,  however,  is  impaired 
by  his  identification  of  the  Hebrew  original  with  that 
employed  bj^  the  Nazarenes  and  Ebionites,  by  whom  he 
asserts  it  was  still  preserved  (iri  <jixj'Cirai).  (7.)  The 
same  observation  may  also  be  made  concerning  the  tes- 
timony of  Jerome,  whose  references  to  this  subject  are 
very  frequent,  and  who  is  the  only  one  of  the  fathers 
that  appears  to  have  actually  seen  the  supposed  Hebrew 
archetype  (P?-cef.  ad  Matt. ;  De  Vir.  III.  3  and  36 ;  in 
Qitai.  Ec.  ad  Danuiwcvf. ;  Ep.  Dam.  de  Osanna ;  Ep.  ad 
llcdih.  qutest.  viii ;  Coimn.  in  IIos.  xi).  A  perusal  of 
these  passages  shows  that  there  was  a  book  preserved 
in  the  library  collected  by  Pamphilus  at  Cffisarea,  which 
was  supposed  to  be  the  Ilebrew  original  {^Hpsvm  Ilehra- 
icum'),  and  was  as  such  transcribed  and  translated  into 
Greek  and  Latin  by  Jerome,  about  A.D.  392,  from  a  copy 
obtained  from  the  Nazarenes  at  the  Syrian  city  of  Beroja. 
Afterwards,  about  A.D.  398  (C'oinm.  in  Jfatf.  xii,  13),  he 
speaks  more  doul)tfully  of  it,  "quod  vocatur  a  plerisque 
Jlatt.  authenticum."  Later  on,  A.D.  415  (Contr.  Pelag. 
iii,  1),  he  modifies  his  opinion  still  further,  and  describes 
the  book  used  by  the  Nazarenes,  and  preserved  in  the 
library  at  Caesarea,  as  "  Ev.juxta  Ilebrajos.  .  .  .  secun- 
diuii  Apostolos,  si\-e  ut  pk'ri(/tie  aiitiimant  juxta  Mat- 
tliii'um"  (comj).  Kdinh.  Rev.  July,  1851,  p.  39  ;  De  Wette, 
Eiul.  \\  100).  While,  then,  we  may  safely  accept  Jerome 
as  an  additional  witness  to  the  belief  of  the  early  Church 
tliat  Matthew's  (iospel  was  originally  composed  in  He- 
I)rew  (Aramaic),  which  he  mentions  as  something  uni- 
versally recognised  without  a  hint  of  a  doul)t.  we  may 
reasonably  question  whether  the  book  he  transkitcd  had 
any  sound  claims  to  be  cousiLlpred  the  genuine  work  of 
iMatthew.  and  whether  Jerome  liiniself  did  not  ultimate- 
ly discover  his  mistake,  though  he  shrunk  from  opeidy 
confessing  it.  AVe  may  remark,  in  cuntirmatiou  of  this, 
that  unless  the  Aramaic  book  had  differed  considerably 


from  the  Greek  Gospel,  Jerome  would  hardly  have  taken 
the  trouble  to  translate  it ;  and  that  while,  whenever  he 
refers  to  Matthew,  he  cites  it  according  to  the  present 
text,  he  never  quotes  the  Nazarene  Gospel  as  a  work  of 
canonical  authority,  but  only  in  such  terms  as  "quo 
ufuntur  Nazareni,"  "  quod  lectitant  Nazar.Ti,"  "  quod 
juxta  Heb.  Nazar.  Icgere  consueverunt,"  and  still  more 
doubtingly, "  qui  crediderit  evanyelio,  quod  secundum  He- 
braBos  editum  nuper  transtulimus;"  language  inconsist- 
ent with  his  having  regarded  it  as  canonical  Scripture. 
(8)  The  statements  of  later  writers,  Cyril  of  Jerusalem, 
Athanasius,  Chrysostom,  Augustine,  Gregory  Nazianzen, 
etc.,  merely  echo  the  same  testimony,  and  need  not  be 
more  particularly  referred  to. 

An  impartial  survey  of  the  above  evidence  leads  to 
the  conclusion  that,  in  the  face  of  so  many  independent 
witnesses,  we  should  be  violating  the  first  principles  of 
historical  criticism  if  we  refused  to  accept  the  fact  that 
Jlatthew  wrote  his  Gospel  originally  in  Hebrew.  But 
whether  this  original  was  ever  seen  by  Jerome  or  Epi- 
phanius is  more  than  questionable. 

2.  Internal  Evidence. — What,  then,  is  the  origin  of 
our  present  Gospel?  To  whom  are  we  to  ascribe  its 
existing  form  and  language?  What  is  its  authority? 
These  are  the  questions  which  now  meet  us,  and  to 
which  it  must  be  confessed  it  is  not  easy  to  give  a  sat- 
isfactory answer.  We  may  at  the  outset  lay  down  as 
indisputable,  in  opposition  to  Cureton  (who  asserts,  ut 
sup.,  that  "  a  careful  critical  examination  of  the  Greek 
text  will  afford  very  strong  confirmation  of  the  Hebrew 
original),  that  the  phenomena  of  the  Gospel  as  we  have 
it — its  language,  its  coincidences  with  and  divergences 
from  the  other  synoptists,  the  quotations  from  the  Old 
Test,  it  contains,  and  the  citations  made  from  it  by  an- 
cient writers,  all  oppose  the  notion  of  the  present  Greek 
text  being  a  translation,  and  support  its  canonical  au- 
thority, (1.)  An  important  argument  may  be  tlrawn 
from  the  use  made  of  the  existing  Gospel  by  all  ancient 
writers.  As  Olshausen  remarks  (Clark's  ed.,  i,  xxviii), 
while  all  the  fathers  of  the  Church  assert  the  Hebrew 
origin  of  the  Gospel,  they  without  exception  make  us? 
of  the  existing  Greek  text  as  canonical  Scripture,  and 
that  without  doubt  or  question,  or  anything  that  would 
lead  to  the  belief  that  thej'  regarded  it  as  of  less  author- 
ity than  the  original  Hebrew,  or  possessed  it  in  any 
other  form  than  that  in  Avhich  we  now  have  it,  (2,) 
Another  argument  in  favor  of  the  authoritative  charac- 
ter of  our  present  Gospel  arises  from  its  miiversal  diffu- 
sion and  general  acceptance,  both  in  the  Clmrch  and 
among  her  adversaries.  Had  the  Hebrew  Gospel  been 
really  clothed  with  the  authority  of  the  sole  apostolic 
archetype,  and  our  Greek  Gospel  been  a  mere  transla- 
tion, executed,  as  .Jerome  asserts,  by  some  miknown  in- 
dividual ("  quis  postca  in  Gra;cum  transtulerit  non  satis 
certum  est,"  De  Vir.  III.  3),  would  not,  as  Olshausen  re- 
marks, xit  sup.,  objections  to  it  have  been  urged  in  some 
quarter  or  other,  particularly  in  the  country  \vhere 
Matthew  himself  labored,  and  for  whose  inhabitants 
the  Hebrew  was  written  ?  Woidd  its  statements  have 
been  accepted  without  a  cavU  bj'  the  opponents  of  the 
Church  ?  No  trace  of  such  opposition  is,  however,  to 
be  met  with.  Not  a  doubt  is  ever  breathed  of  its  ca- 
nonical authority.  (3.)  Again,  the  text  itself  bears  no 
marks  \)f  a  translation.  This  is  especially  evident  in 
the  mode  of  dealing  with  the  citations  from  the  Old 
Test.  These  are  of  two  kinds:  {a)  those  standing  in 
the  discourses  of  our  Lord  himself,  and  the  interlocu- 
tors; and  (i)  those  introduced  by  the  evangelist  as 
proofs  of  our  Lord's  Messiahship.  Now  if  we  assume, 
as  is  certainly  most  ]irobable  (though  the  contrary  has 
been  maintained  by  Hug,  the  late  duke  of  Manchester, 
and  more  recently,  by  the  IJcv,  Alexander  lioberts,  whose 
learned  and  able  "  Discussions  on  the  Gos]iels"  demand 
attentive  consideration  from  every  Biblical  student), 
that  Aramaic,  not  Greek,  was  tlie  language  ordinarily 
used  by  our  Lord  and  his  Jewish  contemporaries,  we 
should  certainly  expect  that  any  citations  from  the  Old 


MATTHEW 


891 


MATTHEW 


Test.,  made  by  them  in  ordinary  discourse,  would  be 
from  the  original  Hebrew  or  its  Aramaic  counterpart, 
not  from  the  Septuagint  version,  and  would  stand  as 
such  in  the  Aramaic  record;  while  it  would  argue  more 
than  the  ordinary  license  of  a  mere  translator  to  substi- 
tute the  Sept.  renderings,  even  when  at  variance  with 
the  Hebrew  before  him.    Yet  what  is  the  case  ?    While 
in  the  class  (b),  due  to  the  evangelist  himself,  which 
may  be  supposed  to  have  had  no  representative  in  the 
current  Greek  oral  tradition  which  we  assume  as  the 
basis  of  the  synoptical  Gospels,  we  find  original  render- 
ings of  the  Hebrew  text;  in  the  class  («),  on  the  other 
hand,  where  ^\•e  might,  a  priori,  have  looked  for  an  even 
closer  correspondence,  the  citations  ai'e  usually  from  the 
Sept.,  even  where  it  deviates  from  the  Hebrew.     In  («) 
we  may  reckon  iii,  3  ;  iv,  4,  G,  7,  10 ;  xv,  4,  8,  9  ;  xix,  5, 
18;  xxi,  13,42;  xxii,  39,  44;  xxiii,  39  ;  xxiv,  15;  xxvi, 
31 ;  xxvii,  46.     In  (i),  called  by  Westcott  {Introd.  p. 
208,  note  1)  "  Cyclic  quotations,"  i,  23;  ii,  G,  15, 18;  iv, 
15,  IG;  viii,  17;  xii,  18  sq. ;  xiii,  35;  xxi,  5;  xxvii,  9, 
10).     In  two  cases  Matthew's  citations  agree  with  the 
synoptic  parallels  in  a  deviation  from  the  Sept.,  all  being 
drawn  from  the  same  oral  groundwork.    Matthew's  (\\xo- 
tations  have  been  examined  by  Credner,  one  of  the 
soundest  of  modern  scholars,  who  pronounces  decidedly 
for  their  derivation  from  the  Greek  {Elnleit.  p.  94 ;  comp. 
De  Wette,  Einl.  p.  198).    We  may  therefore  not  unwar- 
rantably find  here  additional  evidence  that  in  the  exist- 
ing Greek  text  we  have  the  work,  not  of  a  mere  trans- 
lator, but  of  an  independent  and  authoritative  writer. 
(4.)  The  verbal  correspondences  between  jMatthew  and 
the  other  synoptists  in  their  narratives,  and  especially 
in  the  report  of  the  speeches  of  our  Lord  and  others,  are 
difficult  to  account  for  if  we  regard  it  as  a  translation. 
As  Alford  remarks  {Gr.  Test.  Froleg.  i,  28),  "  The  trans- 
lator must  have  been  either  acquainted  with  the  other 
two  Gospels,  in  which  case  it  is  inconceivable  that,  in 
the  midst  of  the  present  coincidences  in  many  passages, 
such  divergences  should  have  occurred,  or  unacquainted 
with  them,  in  which  case  the  identity  itself  woiUd  be 
altogether  inexplicable."    Indeed,  in  the  words  of  Cred- 
ner {Einlelt.  p.  94,  95),  "  the  Greek  original  of  this  Gos- 
pel is  affirmed  by  its  continual  correspondence  with 
those  of  ^Mark  and  Luke,  and  that  not  only  in  generals 
and  important  facts,  but  in  particulars  and  minute  de- 
tails, in  the  general  plan,  in  entire  clauses,  and  in  sepa- 
rate words — a  phenomenon  which  admits  of  no  expla- 
nation under  the  hypothesis  of  a  translation  from  the 
Hebrew."     (5.)  This  inference  in  favor  of  an  original 
Greek  Gospel  is  strongly  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  all 
versions,  even  the  Peshito  Syriac,  the  language  in  M'hich 
the  Gospel  is  said  to  have  been  originally  written,  are 
taken  from  the  present  Greek  text.     It  is  true  that 
canon  Cureton  (S/jriac  Recens.  p.  Ixxv  sq.)  argues  with 
much  ability  against  this,  and  expends  much  learning 
and  skill  in  proof  of  his  hypothesis  that  the  Syriac  ver- 
sion of  ilatthew  published  by  liim  is  more  ancient  than 
tlie  Peshito,  and  may  be  regarded  as,  in  the  main,  iden- 
tical with  the  Aramaic  Gospel  of  Matthew  ;  which  he 
also  considers  to  have  been  identical  with  the  Gospel  ac- 
cordinfi  to  the  Hebreics,  used  by   the  Nazarenes  and 
Ebionites,  "  modified  by  some  additions,  interpolations, 
and  perhaps  some  omissions."     His  statement  (p.  xlii) 
that  "  there  is  a  marked  difference  between  the  recen- 
sion of  Matthew  and  that  of  the  other  Gospels,  proving 
that  they  are  by  different  hands — the  former  showing 
no  signs,  as  the  others  do,  of  translation  from  the  Greek" 
— demands  the  respect  due  to  so  careful  a  scholar;  but 
he  fails  entirely  to  explain  the  extraordinary  fact  that, 
in  the  very  country  where  JIatthew  published  his  Gos- 
pel, and  within  a  comparatively  short  period,  a  version 
from  the  (ireek  was  substituted  for  the  authentic  orig- 
inal; nor  have  his  views  met  with  general  acceptance 
among  scholars. 

3.  Having  thus  stated  the  arguments  in  favor  of  a 
Hebrew  and  Greek  original  respectively,  it  remains  for 
us  to  incjuire  whetlier  there  is  any  way  of  adjusting  the 


claims  of  the  two.  Were  there  no  explanation  of  this 
inconsistency  between  the  external  assertions  and  the 
internal  facts,  it  would  be  hard  to  doubt  the  concurrent 
testimony  of  so  many  old  writers,  whose  belief  in  it  is 
shown  by  the  tenacity  with  which  they  held  it  in  spite 
of  their  own  experience. 

(1.)  But  it  is  certain  that  a  Gospel,  not  the  same  as 
our  canonical  Matthew,  sometimes  usurped  the  apostle's 
name ;  and  some  of  the  witnesses  we  have  quoted  ap- 
pear to  have  referred  to  this  in  one  or  other  of  its  vari- 
ous forms  or  names.  The  Christians  in  Palestine  still 
held  that  the  Mosaic  ritual  was  binding  on  them,  even 
after  the  destruction  of  .Jerusalem.  At  the  close  of  the 
first  century  one  party  existed  who  held  that  the  Mosaic 
law  was  only  binding  on  Jewish  converts ;  this  was  the 
Nazarenes.  Another,  the  Ebionites,  held  that  it  was  of 
universal  obligation  on  Christians,  and  rejected  Paul's 
Epistles  as  teaching  the  opposite  doctrine.  These  two 
sects,  who  differed  also  in  the  most  important  tenets  as 
to  our  Lord's  person,  possessed  each  a  modification  of 
the  same  Gospel,  which  no  doubt  each  altered  more  and 
more,  as  their  tenets  diverged,  and  which  bore  various 
names — the  Gospel  of  the  twelve  Apostles,  the  Gospel 
according  to  the  Hebrews,  the  Gospel  of  Peter,  or  the 
Gospel  according  to  Matthew.  Enough  is  known  to 
decide  that  the  Gospel  according  to  the  Hebrews  was 
not  identical  with  our  Gospel  of  Matthew ;  but  it  had 
many  points  of  resemblance  to  the  synoptical  Gospels, 
and  especially  to  Matthew.  What  was  its  origin  it  is 
impossible  to  say:  it  may  have  been  a  description  of  the 
oral  teaching  of  the  apostles,  corrupted  by  degrees ;  it 
may  have  come  in  its  early  and  pure  form  from  the  hand 
of  Matthew,  or  it  may  have  been  a  version  of  the  Greek 
Gospel  of  Matthe;v,  as  the  evangelist  who  wrote  espe- 
cially for  Hebrews.  Now  this  Gospel,  "  the  Proteus  of 
criticism"  (Thiersch),  did  exist;  is  it  impossible  that 
when  the  Hebrew  Matthew  is  spoken  of,  this  question- 
al)le  document,  the  Gospel  of  the  Hebrews,  was  really 
roferjed  to?  Observe  that  all  accounts  of  it  are  at  sec- 
ond hand  (Avith  a  notable  exception) ;  no  one  quotes  it ; 
in  cases  of  doubt  about  the  text,  Origen  even  does  not 
appeal  from  the  Greek  to  the  Hebrew.  All  that  is  cer- 
tain is,  that  Nazarenes  or  Ebionites,  or  both,  boasted 
that  they  possessed  the  original  Gospel  of  Matthew. 
.Jerome  is  the  exception,  and  him  we  can  convict  of  the 
very  mistake  of  confounding  the  two,  and  almost  on  his 
own  confession.  "At  first  he  thought,"  says  an  anony- 
mous writer  {Edinburgh  Review,  1851,  July,  p.  39),  "  that 
it  was  tlie  authentic  IMatthew,  and  translated  it  into 
both  Greek  and  Latin  from  a  copy  which  he  obtained 
at  Beroea,  in  Syria.  This  appears  from  his  De  Vir.  Ill, 
written  in  the  year  392.  Six  years  later,  in  his  Com- 
mentary on  Matthew,  he  spoke  more  doubtfully  about 
it — 'Quod  vocatur  a  plerisque  Matthaei  authcnticum.' 
Later  still,  in  his  book  on  the  Pelagian  heresy,  written 
in  the  year  415,  he  modifies  his  account  still  further,  de- 
scribing the  work  as  the  'Evangehum  juxta  Hebrajos, 
quod  Cihaldaico  quidem  Syroque  sermone,  sed  Hehraicis 
Uteris  conscriptum  est,  quo  utuntur  usque  hodie  Naza- 
reni  secundum  Apostolos,  sive  ut  plenque  cmtinnant 
juxta  Matthaeum,  quod  et  in  Cffisariensi  habctur  Bibli- 
otheca.' "  There  have  pronounced  for  a  Greek  original 
—  Erasmus,  Calvin,  Leclerc,  Fabricius,  Lightfoot,  Wet- 
stein,  Paulus,  Lardncr,  Hey,  Hales,  Hug,  Schott,  De 
Wette,  Moses  Stuart,  Fritzsche,  Credner,  Thiersch,  and 
many  others.  Great  names  are  ranged  also  on  the  other 
side,  as  Simon,  JMIII,  Michaelis,  Marsh,  Eichhorn,  Storr, 
Olshausen,  and  others.  IMay  not  the  truth  be  that  Pa- 
pias,  knowing  of  more  than  one  Aramaic  Gospel  in  use 
among  the  Judaic  sects,  may  have  assumed  the  exist- 
ence of  a  Hebrew  original  from  which  these  were  sup- 
posed to  be  taken,  and  knowing  also  the  genuine  Greek 
Gospel,  may  have  looked  on  all  these,  in  the  loose,  un- 
critical way  which  earned  for  him  Eusebius's  descrip- 
tion, as  the  various  "  interpretations"  to  which  he  al- 
ludes? It  is  by  no  means  improbable  that  after  several 
inaccurate  and  imperfect  translations  of  the  Aramaean 


MATTHEW 


892 


MATTHEW 


original  came  into  circulation,  Matthew  himself  was 
prompted  by  this  circumstance  to  publish  a  Greek  trans- 
lation, or  to  have  his  Gospel  translated  under  his  own 
supervision.  It  is  very  likel}^  that  this  Greek  translation 
did  not  soon  come  into  general  circulation,  so  that  it  is 
even  possible  that  Papias  maj^  have  remained  ignorant 
of  its  existence.  See  Stuart,  in  the  Ame?:  Bib.  Repos. 
1838,  p.  130-179,  315-356. 

(2.)  We  think  that  Mr.  Westcott — to  whom  the  study 
of  the  Gospels  owes  so  much — has  pointed  out  the  road 
to  a  still  better  solution.  Not  that  the  difficulties  which 
beset  this  matter  can  be  regarded  as  cleared  up,  or  the 
question  finally  and  satisfactorily  settled,  but  a  mode  of 
reconciling  the  inconsistency  between  testimony  and 
fiict  has  been  indicated,  which,  if  pursued,  maj^,  we 
think,  lead  to  a  decision.  "  It  has  been  shown,"  says 
Mr. Westcott  {Introd.  p.  208,  note),  "that  the  oral  Gos- 
pel probably  existed  from  the  first  both  in  Aramaic  and 
in  Greek,  and  in  this  way  a  preparation  for  a  fresh  rep- 
resentative of  the  Hebrew  Gospel  was  at  once  found. 
The  parts  of  the  Aramaic  oral  Gospels  which  were 
adopted  by  Matthew  already  existed  in  the  Greek  coun- 
terpart. The  change  was  not  so  much  a  version  as  a 
substitution ;  and  frequent  coincidence  with  common 
parts  of  INIark  and  Luke,  which  were  derived  from  the 
same  oral  Greek  Gospel,  was  a  necessary  consequence. 
Yet  it  may  have  happened  that,  as  long  as  the  Hebrew 
and  Greek  churches  were  in  close  connection,  perhaps 
till  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  no  authoritative  Greek 
Gospel  of  Matthew — i.  e.  such  a  version  of  the  Greek 
oral  Gospel  as  would  exactly  answer  to  Matthew's  ver- 
sion of  the  Aramaic — was  committed  to  writing.  When, 
however,  the  separation  between  the  two  sections  grew 
more  marked,  the  Greek  Gospel  was  v/ritten,  not  indeed 
as  a  translation,  but  as  a  representation  of  the  original, 
as  a  Greek  oral  counterpart  was  already  current."  This 
theorv  of  the  origin  of  the  Greek  Gospel,  it  appears  to 
us,  meets  the  facts  of  the  case,  and  satisfies  its  require- 
ments more  fully  than  any  other.  We  have  seen  above 
that  the  language  of  Papias  indicates  that,  even  in  his 
day,  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  existed  substantially  in 
Greek,  and  its  universal  diffusion  and  general  authority 
in  the  earliest  ages  of  the  Church  prove  that  its  compo- 
sition cannot  be  placed  much  after  the  times  of  the 
apostles.  May  it  not  have  been  then  that  the  two — 
the  Aramaic  and  the  Greek  Gospel — existed  for  some 
time  in  their  most  important  portions  as  an  old  tradition 
side  by  side — that  the  Aramaic  was  the  first  to  be  com- 
mitted to  writing,  and  gained  a  wide  though  temporary 
circulation  among  the  Hebrew  Christians  of  Syria  and 
Palestine?  that  when,  as  would  soon  be  the  case,  the 
want  of  a  Greek  Gospel  for  the  use  of  the  Hellenistic 
.Jews  was  felt,  this  also  was  published  in  its  written 
form,  either  by  Matthew  himself  (as  is  maintained  by 
Thiersch,  Olshausen,  and  Lee),  or  by  those  to  whom, 
from  constant  repetition,  the  main  portions  were  famil- 
iar; perhaps  under  the  apostle's  eye,  and  with  the  vir- 
tual, if  not  the  f<irmal  sanction  of  the  Church  at  Jeru- 
salem ?  As  it  supplied  a  need  widely  felt  by  the  Gentile 
Christians,  it  would  at  once  obtain  currency,  and  as  the 
Gentile  Church  rapidly  extended  her  borders,  while  that 
of  the  Jewish  believers  was  continually  becoming  con- 
fined within  narrower  limits,  this  Greek  Gospel  would 
speedily  sujiplant  its  Hebrew  predecessor,  and  thus  fur- 
nish a  fresh  and  most  striking  example  of  what  Mr. 
Westcott,  in  his  excellent  work  on  The  Jiible  in  the 
Church  (Introd.  p.  viii),  calls  "that  doctrine  of  a  divine 
providence  separating  (as  it  were)  and  preserving  spe- 
cial books  for  the  perpetual  instruction  of  the  Church, 
which  is  the  true  correlative  and  comjilement  of  every 
sound  and  reverend  theory  of  inspiration."  No  other 
hypothesis,  as  Dr.  Lee  has  satisfactorily  shown  ■{Inspu: 
of  II.  iSc.  Appendix  1\[),  than  the  Greek  (Jospcl  being 
cither  .actually  or  substantially  the  [iroductlon  of  IMat- 
thew  himself,  "  accounts  for  tlic  profound  silence  of  an- 
cient writers  respecting  the  translation  ...  or  for  the 
absence  of  the  least  trace  of  anv  other  Greek  translation 


of  the  Hebrew  original."  The  hj-potheses  which  assign 
the  translation  to  Barnabas  (Isid.  Hispal.,  CAron.p.  272), 
John  (Theophyl.,  Euthym.  Zigab.),  Mark  (Greswell), 
Luke  and  Paul  conjointly  (Anastas.  Sinaita),  or  James 
the  brother  of  our  Lord  (Syn.  Sao:  Scr.  apud  Athanas. 
ii,  202),  are  mere  arbitrary  assertions  without  any  foun- 
dation in  early  tradition.  The  last  named  is  tlie  most 
ingenious,  as  we  may  reasonably  suppose  that  the  bishop 
of  Jerusalem  would  feel  solicitude  for  the  spiritual  wants 
of  the  Hellenistic  Christians  of  that  citj'. 

Those  who  desire  to  pursue  the  investigation  of  this 
subject  wiU  find  ample  materials  for  doing  so  in  the  In- 
troductions of  Hug,  De  Wette,  Credner,  etc.;  Marsh's 
Michaelis,  vol.  iii,  pt.  i,  where  the  patristic  authorities 
are  fully  discussed ;  and  they  will  be  found,  for  the  most 
part,  in  Kirchhofer,  Quellensammlunff,  where  will  also  be 
found  the  passages  referring  to  the  Gospel  of  the  He- 
brews, p.  448 ;  also  in  most  of  the  commentaries.  The 
following  have  written  monographs  on  this  point :  Sonn- 
tag  (Altorf,  1696),  Schroder  (Viteb.  1699,  1702),  Masch 
(HaUe,  1755),  AVilUams  (Lond.  1790),  Elaner  (F.  ad  V, 
1791),  Buslaw  (Vratisl.  1826),  Stuart  {Bill.  Repos.  1838), 
Harless  (Erlang.  1841,  also  1842,  the  latter  tr.  in  Bibl. 
Repos.  1844),  Tregelles  (Kitto's  Journ.  1850,  and  sepa- 
rateh'),  Alexander  (ibid.  1850),  Roberts  (Lond.  1864). 
]\Iore  general  discussions  may  be  found  in  Lardner's 
Credibility,  vol.  v;  Reuss's  Gesch.  d.  Kanon;  Tregelles 
on  The  Ori(jincd  Languac/e  of  St.  Matthew ;  Rev.  A.  Rob- 
erts's Discussions  on  the  Gospels ;  the  commentaries  of 
Olshausen,  Meyer,  Alford,  Wetstein,  Kuinol,  Fritzsche, 
Lange,  etc. ;  and  the  works  on  the  Gospels  of  Norton 
(Credibility),  Westcott,  Baur,  Gieseler  (Entstehmig),  Hil- 
genfeld,  etc. ;  Cureton's  Syrictc  Recension,  Preface ;  and 
Dr.  W.  Lee  on  Inspiration,  Appendix  M;  Jeremiah 
Jones's  Vindication  of  St.  Matthew ;  Ewald,  Die  drei 
Erst.  Ev. ;  and  Jah-biich  d.  Bibl.  Wissensch.  1848^9. 

V.  Characteristics Matthew's  is  emphatically  the 

Gospel  of  the  Kingdom.  The  main  object  of  the  evan- 
gelist is  to  portray  the  kingly  character  of  Christ,  and 
to  show  that  in  him  the  ideal  of  the  King  reigning  in 
righteousness,  the  true  Heir  of  David's  throne,  was  ful- 
filled (comp.  Augustine,  De  Consens.  Ev.  passim).  Thus 
the  tone  throughout  is  majestic  and  kingly.  He  views 
things  in  the  grand  general  aspect,  and,  indifferent  to 
the  details  in  which  Mark  loves  so  much  to  dwell,  he 
gathers  up  all  in  the  great  residt.  His  narrative  pro- 
ceeds with  a  majestic  simplicity,  regardless  of  time  and 
place,  according  to  another  and  deeper  order,  ready  to 
sacrifice  mere  chronologj^  or  locality  to  the  develop- 
ment of  this  idea.  Thus  he  brings  together  events  sep- 
arated sometimes  by  considerable  intervals,  according  to 
the  unity  of  their  nature  or  purpose,  and  with  a  grand 
but  simple  power  accumulates  in  groups  the  discourses, 
parables,  and  miracles  of  our  Lord  (I.  Williams,  Study 
of  GosjkIs,  p.  28).  From  the  formation  and  objects  of 
the  Gospels,  we  should  expect  that  their  prevailing  char- 
acteristics would  be  indicated  rather  by  a  general  tone 
and  spirit  than  by  minute  peculiarities.  Not,  however, 
that  these  latter  are  ■wanting.  It  has  already  been  re- 
marked how  the  genealogy  with  which  Matthew's  Gos- 
pel opens  sets  our  Lord  forth  in  his  kingly  character,  as 
the  heir  of  the  throne  of  David,  the  representative  of 
the  royal  lino  of  which  he  was  the  true  successor  and 
fulfilment.  As  we  advance  we  find  his  birth  hailed,  not 
by  lowly  shepherds  as  in  Luke,  but  by  wise  men  coming 
to  wait  on  him  with  royal  gifts,  inquiring,  "  Where  is 
he  that  is  born  king  of  the  Jews."  In  the  Sermon  on 
the  Mount  the  same  majestj'  and  authority  appear.  We 
hear  the  Judge  himself  delivering  his  sentence ;  the 
King  laying  down  the  laws  of  his  kingdom,  "I  say  unto 
you,"  and  astonishing  his  hearers  with  the  "authority" 
with  which  he  speaks.  The  awful  majesty  of  our  Lord's 
reproofs  in  his  teaching  in  the  Temple,  and  his  denunci- 
ations of  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees,  also  evidence  the 
authority  of  a  king  and  lawgiver — "  one  who  knew  tho 
mind  of  Ciod  and  could  reveal  it ;"  Avhich  may  also  be 
noticed  in  the  lengthened  discourses  that  mark  the  close 


MATTHEW 


893 


MATTHEW 


of  his  ministry,  in  which  "  the  king"  and  "  the  kingdom 
of  heaven"  come  forward  with  so  much  frequency  (xxi, 
31,43;  xxii,  2sq. ;  xxiii,  14;  xxiv,  14;  xxv,  1,  34,40). 
Nor  can  we  overlook  the  remarkable  circumstance  that, 
in  the  parable  of  the  marriage-feast,  so  similar  in  its 
general  circumstances  with  that  in  Luke  (xiv,  16),  in- 
stead of  "  a  certain  man,"  it  is  "  a  king"  making  a  mar- 
riage for  his  son,  and  in  kinglj'  guise  sending  forth  his 
armies  and  binding  the  unworthy  guest.  The  addition 
of  the  doxology  also  to  the  Lord's  Prayer,  with  its  as- 
cription of  "  the  kingdom,  the  power,  and  the  glorj',"  is 
in  such  true  harmony  with  the  same  prevailing  tone  as 
to  lead  many  to  see  in  this  fact  alone  the  strongest  ar- 
gument for  its  genuineness. 

But  we  must  not  in  this,  or  in  any  of  the  Gospels,  di- 
rect our  attention  too  exclusively  to  any  one  side  of  our 
Lord's  character.  "  The  King  is  one  and  the  same  in 
all,  and  so  is  the  Son  of  Man  and  the  Priest.  ...  He 
who  is  the  King  is  also  the  Sacrifice"  (Williams,  ut  sup. 
p.  32).  The  Gospel  is  that  of  the  King,  but  it  is  the 
King  •'  meek"  (xxi,  5),  "  meek  and  lowly  of  heart"  (xi, 
29) ;  the  kingdom  is  that  of  "  the  poor  in  spirit,"  •'  the 
persecuted  for  righteousness'  sake"  (ver.  3, 10),  into  which 
"  the  weary  and  heavy  laden"  are  invited,  and  which 
they  enter  by  submitting  to  the  "yoke"  of  its  king. 
He,  it  tells  us,  was  to  be  one  of  ourselves,  "  whose  broth- 
erhood with  man  answered  all  the  anticipations  the 
Jewish  prophets  had  formed  of  their  king,  and  whose 
power  to  relieve  the  woes  of  humanity  could  not  be  sep- 
arated from  his  participation  in  them,  who '  himself  took 
our  infirmities  and  bare  our  sicknesses' "  (viii,  17)  (Mau- 
rice, Unity  of  N.  T.  p.  190).  As  the  son  of  David  and 
the  son  of  Abraham,  he  was  the  partaker  of  the  sorrows 
as  well  as  the  glories  of  the  throne — the  heir  of  the  curse 
as  well  as  the  blessing.  The  source  of  all  blessings  to 
mankind,  fulfilling  the  original  promise  to  Abraham,  the 
curse  due  to  man's  sin  meets  and  centres  in  him,  and  is 
transformed  into  a  blessing  when  the  cross  becomes  his 
kindly  throne ;  and  from  the  lowest  point  of  his  degra- 
dation he  reappears,  in  his  resurrection,  as  the  Lord  and 
King  to  whom  "  all  power  is  given  in  heaven  and  earth." 
He  fulfils  the  promise,  "  In  thy  seed  shall  all  families  of 
the  earth  be  blessed ;"  in  the  command  to  "go  and  make 
disciples  of  aU  nations,"  he  "  expands  the  I  Air,  which 
was  the  ground  of  the  national  polity,  into  the  name  of 
'  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost'  "  (Maurice, 
ut  sup.  p.  221). 

Once  more,  the  kingdom  he  came  to  establish  was  to 
be  a  fatherly  kingdom.  The  King  he  made  known  was 
one  reigning  in  God's  name,  and  as  his  representative. 
That  God  was  the  father  of  his  people,  as  of  him,  in  and 
through  whom  human  beings  were  to  be  adopted  as  the 
children  of  God.  This  characteristic  of  the  Gospel  is 
perpetually  meeting  us.  At  every  turn  Matthew  repre- 
sents our  Lord  bringing  out  the  mind  of  (}od  and  show- 
ing it  to  be  the  mind  of  a  Father.  The  fatherly  rela- 
tion is  the  ground  of  all  his  words  of  counsel,  command, 
warning,  comfort.  Especially  is  this  the  case  in  the 
Sermon  on  the  Mount.  Everj'  command,  as  to  good 
works  (v,  16, 45, 48),  almsgiving  (vi,  1, 2),  prayer  (vi,  6, 
8\  forgiveness  (vi,  14, 15),  fasting  (vi,  18),  trust  and  faith 
(vi,  26;  vii,  ll),is  based  on  the  revelation  of  a  Father. 
The  twelve  are  sent  forth  in  the  same  name  and  strength 
(x,  20,  29).  The  kingdom  Christ  came  to  establish  is 
not  so  much  a  kingdom  as  a  family  —  the  Ecclesia,  a 
word  found  only  in  Matthew  (xvi,  18 ;  xviii,  17) — "  held 
together  by  the  law  of  forgiveness  and  mutual  sacrifice, 
with  their  elder  Brother  in  the  midst  of  them,  and  their 
^vill  so  identified  with  that  which  rules  heaven  and 
earth,  that  whatever  they  shall  agree  to  aSk  shall  be 
done  by  their  Father."  This  characteristic  of  Matthew 
is  remarkably  evidenced  by  a  comparative  survey  of 
the  usage  of  the  evangelists.  In  Mark  we  find  our  Lord 
speaking  of  or  to  God,  as  his  Father,  three  times,  in 
Luke  twelve  times,  in  Matthew  twenty-two  times;  as 
the  Father  of  his  people,  in  Mark  twice,  in  Luke  five 
times,  in  JIatthew  twenty-two  times. 


Another  minor  characteristic  which  deserves  remark, 
is  Matthew's  use  of  the  plural,  where  the  other  evangel- 
ists have  the  singular.  Thus,  in  the  temptation,  we 
have  "  stones"  and  "  loaves"  (iv,  3),  two  dtemoniacs  (viii, 
28),roiicxop7"oiJC  (xiv,  19), two  blind  men  (xx,30;  comp. 
ix,  27),  the  ass  and  her  colt  (xxi,  2),  servants  (xxi,  34, 
36),  both  thieves  blaspheming  (xxvii,  44).  This  is  in- 
geniously accounted  for  by  Da  Costa  {Four  Witnesses,  p. 
322),  though  this  is  not  universally  applicable,  on  the 
idea  that  "  his  point  of  view — regarding  the  events  he 
narrates  as  fulfilled  prophecies  —  leads  him  to  regard 
the  species  rather  than  the  individual ;  the  entire  plen- 
itude of  the  prophecy  rather  than  the  isolated  fulfil- 
ment." 

VI.  Relation  to  Marh  and  Luke. — In  the  article  on 
Mark  we  have  expressed  our  opinion  that,  while  hi8 
Gospel  is  probably  in  essence  the  oldest,  there  is  nothing 
seriously  to  invalidate  the  traditional  statement  that 
Matthew's  was  the  earliest  in  composition — the  first 
committed  to  writing.  Neither  does  a  careful  review 
of  the  text  of  the  Gospel  allow  us  to  accept  the  view 
put  forth  by  Ewald  with  his  usual  dogmatism,  and  de- 
fended with  his  wonted  acuteness,  that,  as  we  have  it,  it 
is  a  fusion  of  four  different  elements — (1.)  An  original 
Greek  Gospel  of  the  simplest  and  briefest  form ;  (2.)  An 
Aramaic  "  collection  of  sayings"  (ja  \6yia) ;  (3.)  the 
narrative  of  JMark ;  and  (4.)  "  a  book  of  higher  histor}-." 
That  our  Gospel  is  no  such  curious  mosaic  is  evident 
from  the  unity  of  plan  and  unity  of  language  which 
pervades  the  whole,  and  to  an  unprejudiced  reader  Ew- 
ald's  theory  refutes  itself. 

Comparing  Matthew's  Gospel  with  those  of  Mark  and 
Luke,  we  find  the  following  passages  peculiar  to  him: 
chap,  i  (with  the  exception  of  the  great  central  fact), 
and  chap,  ii  entirely.  The  genealogy,  the  suspicions  of 
Joseph,  the  visit  of  the  magi,  the  flight  into  Eg5'pt  and 
return  thence,  the  massacre  of  the  innocents,  and  the 
reason  of  the  settlement  at  Nazareth,  are  given  by  IMat- 
thew  alone.  To  him  we  owe  the  notice  that "  the  Phar- 
isees and  Sadducees"  came  to  John's  baptism  (iii,  7) ; 
that  John  was  unwUling  to  baptize  our  Lord,  and  the 
words  in  which  Jesus  satisfied  his  scruples  (ver.  13-15) ; 
the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  in  its  fullest  form  (ch.  v,  vi, 
vii) ;  the  prediction  of  the  call  of  the  Gentiles,  appended 
to  the  miracle  of  the  centurion's  servant  (viii,  11, 12) ; 
the  cure  of  the  two  blind  men  (ix,  27-30) ;  and  that 
memorable  passage  by  which,  if  by  nothing  else,  Mat- 
thew will  forever  be  remembered  with  thankfulness — 
which,  as  perhaps  the  fullest  exposition  of  the  spirit 
of  the  Gospel  anywhere  to  be  found  in  Holy  Scripture, 
taught  Augustine  the  difference  between  the  teaching 
of  Christ  and  that  of  the  best  philosophers  (xi,  28-30) ; 
the  solemn  passage  about  "  idle  words"  (xii,  36,  37) ; 
four  of  the  parables  in  ch.  xiii,  the  tares,  the  hid  treas- 
ure, the  pearl,  and  the  draw-net ;  several  incidents  re- 
lating to  Peter,  his  walking  on  the  water  (xiv,  28-31), 
the  blessing  pronounced  upon  him  (xvi,  17-19),  the  trib- 
ute-money (xvii,  24-27) ;  nearly  the  whole  of  ch.  xviii, 
with  its  lessons  of  humility  and  forgiveness,  and  the 
parable  of  the  unmerciful  servant ;  the  lessons  on  volun- 
tary continence  (xix,  10, 12) ;  the  promise  to  the  twelve 
(ver.  28) ;  the  parables  of  the  laborers  in  the  vinej-ard 
(xx,  1-lC),  the  two  sons  (xxi,  28-32),  the  transference 
of  the  kingdom  to  the  Gentiles  (ver.  43) ;  the  parable 
of  the  marriage  of  the  king's  son  (xxii,  1-14) ;  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  denunciations  against  the  Scribes  and 
Pharisees  in  ch.  xxiii ;  the  parables  of  the  last  things 
in  ch.  xxv.  In  the  history  of  the  passion  the  pecidiar- 
ities  are  numerous  and  uniform  in  character,  tending  to 
show  how,  in  the  midst  of  his  betrayal,  sufferings,  and 
death,  our  Lord's  Messiahship  was  attested.  It  is  in 
Matthew  alone  that  we  read  of  the  covenant  with  Judas 
for  "  thirty  pieces  of  silver"  (xxvi,  15)  ;  his  inquiry  "  Is 
it  I  ?"  (xxvi.  25),  as  well  as  the  restoration  of  the  money 
in  his  despair,  and  its  ultimate  destination  in  uncon- 
scious fulfilment  of  prophecy  (xxvii,  3-10) ;  the  cup  "  for 
the  remission  of  sins"  (xxvi,  28);  the  mention  of  the 


MATTHEW 


894 


MATTHEW 


"  twelve  legions  of  angels"  (ver.  52-54) ;  Pilate's  wife's 
tlreiiiii  (xxvii,  19),  his  washing  his  hands  (ver.  24),  and 
the  inii)r'jcation  "His  hlood  be  on  lis,"  etc.  (verse  25); 
the  opening  of  the  graves  (ver.  52,  53),  and  the  watch 
placed  at  the  sepulchre  (ver.  62-G6).  In  the  account  of 
tlie  resurrection  we  lind  only  in  Matthew  the  great 
earthquake  (xxviii,  2),  the  descent  of  the  angel,  his 
glorious  ajipearancc  striking  terror  into  the  guards  (ver. 
2-4),  their  tlight,  and  the  falsehood  spread  by  them  at 
the  instigation  of  the  priests  (ver.  11-15);  our  Lord's 
appearance  to  the  women  (ver.  9,  10) ;  the  adoration 
and  doubt  of  the  apostles  (ver.  17);  and,  finally,  the 
parting  commission  and  promise  of  his  ever-abiding 
presence  (ver.  18-20). 

This  review  of  the  Gospel  will  show  us  that  of  the 
matter  peculiar  to  Matthew,  the  larger  part  consists  of 
parables  and  discourses,  and  that  he  adds  comparatively 
little  to  the  narrative.  Of  thirty-three  recorded  mira- 
cles eighteen  are  given  by  Matthew,  but  onlj'  two,  the 
cure  of  the  blind  men  (ix,  27-30)  and  the  tribute  money 
(xvii,  24-27),  are  peculiar  to  him.  Of  twenty-nine  par- 
ables Matthew  records  fifteen;  ten,  as  noticed  above, 
being  peculiar  to  him.  Eeuss,  dividing  the  matter  con- 
tained in  the  synoptical  Gospels  into  100  sections,  finds 
73  of  them  in  Matthew,  63  in  Mark,  in  Luke,  the  rich- 
est of  all,  82.  Of  these,  49  are  common  to  all  three ;  9 
common  to  JlatthcAV  and  Mark;  8  to  Matthew  and 
Luke ;  3  to  Mark  and  Luke.  Only  7  of  these  are  pecul- 
iar to  Matthew ;  2  to  Mask ;  -while  Luke  contains  no 
less  than  22. 

Matthew's  narrative,  as  a  rule,  is  the  least  graphic. 
The  great  features  of  the  history  which  bring  into  prom- 
inence our  Lord's  character  as  teacher  and  prophet,  the 
substance  of  tyjje  and  prophecy,  the  Jlessianic  king,  are 
traced  with  broad  outline,  without  minute  or  circumstan- 
tial details.  "\Vc  are  conscious  of  a  want  of  that  pictu- 
resque power  and  vivid  painting  which  delight  us  in 
the  other  Gospels,  especially  in  that  of  Mark.  This 
deficiency,  however,  is  more  than  compensated  for  by 
the  grand  simplicity  of  the  narrative,  in  which  every- 
thing is  secondary  to  the  evangelist's  great  object.  The 
facts  which  prove  the  Messianic  dignity  of  his  Lord  are 
all  in  all  with  him,  the  circumstantials  almost  nothing, 
Avhile  he  portrays  the  earthly  form  and  theocratic  glory 
of  the  new  dispensation,  and  unfolds  the  glorious  con- 
summation of  the  "  kingdom  of  heaven." 

YII.  Arrangement  and  Contents.  —  Matthew's  order, 
we  have  already  seen,  is  according  to  subject-matter 
rather  than  chronological  sequence,  which  in  the  first 
half  is  completely  disregarded.  IMore  attention  is  paid 
to  order  of  time  in  the  latter  half,  where  the  arrange- 
ment agrees  with  that  of  Mark.  The  main  body  of  his 
Gospel  divides  itself  into  groups  of  discourses  collected 
according  to  their  leading  tendency,  and  separated  from 
each  other  by  groups  of  anecdotes  and  miracles.  We  may 
distinguish  seven  such  collections  of  discourses — (1.)  The 
Sermon  on  the  Mount,  a  specimen  of  our  Lord's  ordinary 
didactic  instruction  (ch.  v-vii) ;  divided  by  a  group  of 
works  of  healing,  comprising  no  less  than  ten  out  of  eigh- 
teen recorded  miracles,  from  (2.)  the  commission  of  the 
twelve  (ch.  x).  The  following  chapters  (xi,  xii)  give 
the  result  of  our  Lord's  own  teaching,  and,  introducing 
a  change  of  feeling  towards  him,  jjrepare  us  for  (3.)  his 
first  open  denunciation  of  his  enemies  (xii,  25-45),  and 
pave  the  way  for  (4.)  the  group  of  parables,  including 
seven  out  of  fifteen  recorded  by  him  (ch.  xiii).  The 
next  four  chapters,  containing  the  culminating  point  of 
our  Lord's  history  in  Peter's  confession  (xvi,  13-20),  and 
the  transfiguration  (ch.  xvii),  with  the  first  glimpses  of 
the  cross  (xvi,  21 ;  xvii,  12),  are  bound  together  by  his- 
torical sequence.  In  (5.),  comprising  ch.  xviii,  we  have 
a  complete  treatise  in  itself,  made  up  of  fragments  on 
humility  and  brotherly  love.-  The  counsels  of  perfec- 
tion, in  xix,  1-xx,  1(>,  are  followed  by  the  disputes  with 
the  Scribes  and  Pharisees  (xxi,  23-xxii,4G),  which  sup- 
ply the  ground  for  ((>.)  the  solemn  denunciations  of  the 
hypocrisies  and  sophisms  bj'  which  they  nullified  the 


spirit  of  the  law  (ch.  xxiii),  followed  by  (7.)  the  proph- 
ecy of  the  last  things  (ch.  xxiv,  xxv). 

JMore  particularly  its  principal  divisions  are— 1.  The 
introduction  to  the  ministiy  (ch.  i-iv).  2.  The  laymg 
down  of  the  new  law  for  the  Church  in  the  Sermon  on 
the  Mount  (ch.  v-vii).  3.  Events  in  historical  order, 
showing  Jesus  as  the  worker  of  miracles  (ch.  viii,  ix). 
4.  The  appointment  of  apostles  to  preach  the  kingdom 
(ch.  x).  5.  The  doubts  and  opposition  excited  by  his 
activity  in  divers  minds — in  John's  disciples,  in  sundry 
cities,  in  the  Pharisees  (ch.  xi,  xii).  6.  A  series  of  par- 
ables on  the  nature  of  the  kingdom  (ch.  xiii).  7.  Sim- 
ilar to  5.  The  effects  of  his  ministry  on  his  countrj'- 
men,  on  Herod,  the  people  of  Gennesaret,  Scribes  and 
Pharisees,  and  on  multitudes,  whom  he  feeds  (xiii,  53- 
xvi,  12).  8.  Revelation  to  his  disciples  of  his  suiferings. 
His  instructions  to  them  thereupon  (xvi,  13-xviii,  35). 
9.  Events  of  a  journey  to  Jerusalem  (ch.  xix,  xx).  10. 
Entrance  into  Jerusalem  and  resistance  to  him  there, 
and  denunciation  of  the  Pharisees  (ch.  xxi-xxiii).  11. 
Last  discourses;  Jesus  as  lord  and  judge  of  Jerusalem, 
and  also  of  the  world  (ch.  xxiv,  xxv).  12,  Passion  and 
resurrection  (ch.  xxvi-xxviii). 

The  view  that  MatthcAv's  Gospel  is  arranged  chrono- 
logically was  revived  by  Eichhorn,  who  has  been  fol- 
lowed by  Marsh,  De  Wette,  and  others.  But  it  has  been 
controverted  by  Hug,  Olshausen,  Greswell,  Ellicott,  and 
others,  and  is  almost  universally  held  to  be  untenable. 

VHL  Style  and  Diction. — The  language  of  Matthew 
is  less  characteristic  than  that  of  the  other  evangelists. 
Of  the  three  synoptical  Gospels  it  is  the  most  decidedly 
Hebraistic,  both  in  diction  and  construction,  but  less  so 
tliau  that  of  John.  Credner  and  others  have  remarked 
the  following :  (1.)  r)  [iaatXiia  twv  ovpavCov,  which  oc- 
curs thirty-two  times  in  Matthew  and  not  once  in  the 
other  evangelists,  who  use  instead  i)  fSacr.  t.  ^tov,  em- 
ployed also  by  Matthew  (vi,  33 ;  xii,  28 ;  xxi,  31,  43). 
(2.)  6  Tzariip  6  iv  to7q  oitpavolc  (6  ovpcnnoq,  four  times), 
sixteen  times,  only  twice  in  Mark,  not  at  all  in  Luke. 
(3.)  Y'lOQ  AajSid,  to  designate  Jesus  as  the  Messiah, 
seven  times,  three  times  each  in  Mark  and  Luke.  (4.) 
'H  a-yia  noXig,  and  6  nyiog  TUTTog,  for  Jerusalem,  three 
times;  not  in  the  other  evangelists.  (5.)  t)  avvreXiia 
Tov  aiCJvog,  "the  consummation  of  the  age"="the  end 
of  the  world,"  is  found  five  times  in  Matthew,  nowhere 
else  in  the  New  Test,  except  Heb.  ix,  26,  in  the  plural, 
ahoinov.  (6.)  'iva  (on-mc)  TrXrjpwSry  to  ptj^iv,  eight 
times,  nowhere  else  in  the  New  Test.  John  uses  'iva 
TrX7]p.  6  Xoy.,  or  >'/  ypuf.;  Mark  once  (xiv,  49),  'Iva 
7rXj;p.  a'l  ypa(p.  (7.)  to  prjSriv  (always  used  by  Jlat- 
thew  when  quoting  holy  Scripture  himself,  i'^  other  ci- 
tations yiypaTTTai,  with  the  other  evangelists),  twelve 
times;  o  pijBeig,  once  (iii,  3).  He  never  uses  the  sin- 
gular, ypacpt).  Mark  once  uses  to  prjSriv  (xiii,  14).  (8.) 
iBviKog,  twice;  nowhere  else  in  the  New  Test,  (9.) 
dixvvnv  tv,  seven  times;  not  elsewhere,  save  Rev.  x,  6. 
(10.)  Kal  ISoi,  in  narrative,  twenty-three  times;  iu 
Luke  sixteen  times;  not  in  Jlark.  idov,  after  a  geni- 
tive absolute,  nine  times.  (11.)  Trpoa'Epxta^ai  and  tto- 
phvtu^at,  continually  used  to  give  a  pictorial  coloring 
to  the  narrative  (e.  g.  iv,  3;  viii,  5,  19,  25;  ix,  14,  20, 
etc.;  ii,  8;  ix,  13;  xi,  4,  etc.).  (12.)  Xfywv,  absolutely, 
without  the  dative  of  the  person  (e,  g.  i,  20;  iii,  2,  13, 
20;  iii,  2, 14, 17;  v,  2;  vi,  31,  etc.).  (13.)  'ItpoaoXvpa 
is  the  name  of  the  holy  city  with  Matthew  always,  ex- 
cept xxiii,  37.  It  is  the  same  in  Mark,  with  one  (doubt- 
ful) exception  (xi,  1).  Luke  uses  this  form  rarely;  'it- 
povrraXt'ifi  frcqucntlj% 

Other  peculiarities,  establishing  the  unity  of  author- 
ship, may  be  noticed  :  (1.)  The  use  of  rorf,  as  the  ordi- 
nary particle  of  transition,  ninety  times ;  six  times  in 
Mark,  and  fourteen  in  Luke.  (2.)  Kai  tysvtro  'ots,  five 
times;  Luke  uses  iire  Ct  tyfvtTo,  or  Kai  '6-e  tytvtTO. 
(3.)  'twg  ov,  seven  times.  (4.)  tv  iKiiv(j)  Ttjj  Katpip,  iv 
Ty  lopc/.  iK.,  and  aTro  r.  top.  tK.,  scarcely  found  in  Mark 
or  Luke.  (5.)  ai'ax'^pii'',  "  to  retire,"  ten  times.  (6.) 
Kar'  vvap,  six  times.     (7.)   ttouTv  tlig,  wairtp,  KaBwg, 


MATTHEW 


895 


MATTHEW 


iooavTdJQ  ;  Luke,  voi.  o/^oiwc.  (8.)  rcKpoQ,  six  times  ; 
only  Rom.  iii,  13-  besides  in  the  N.  T.  (9.)  (rtpuSpa,  and 
other  adverbs,  after  the  verb,  except  ovnj,  always  be- 
fore it.  (10.)  irpoaKvviiv,  with  the  dative,  ten  times; 
twice  in  Mark,  three  times  in  John. 

Other  AV'ords  which  are  found  either  only  or  more 
frequently  in  Matthew  are,  fiaSirjTEvtiv,  atXrivid'CtaBai, 
(ppvi'ij-iog,  otKiaKog,  varepov,  iKtt^ev,  diarai^HV,  Kura- 
irovriCeTSrai,  fitTaiptlv,  avvaipiiv  \6yov,  avfijiohXiov 
Xai.tj3av(ii',  fiaXuKia — koc,  etc.  (see  Credner,  Ewltit.  p. 
Go  Sf[. ;  Gersdorf,  Beitrdije  z.  Sprachcharuct.  d.  N.  T.), 

IX.  Citations  from  the  Old  Testament. — Few  facts  are 
more  significant  of  the  original  purpose  of  this  Gospel, 
and  the  persons  for  whom  it  was  designed,  than  the  fre- 
quency of  citations  from  and  references  to  the  O.-Test. 
Scriptures.  While  in  Luke  and  Mark,  the  Gentile  Gos- 
pels, we  have  only  twenty -four  and  twenty-three  re- 
spectively, Matthew  supplies  no  less  than  lifty-four. 
The  character  of  the  quotations  is  no  less  noticeable 
than  the  number.  In  Matthew  the  Old  Test,  is  cited 
verbally  no  less  than  forty -three  times,  many  of  the 
quotations  being  peculiar  to  this  evangelist ;  in  Luke 
we  have  not  more  than  nineteen  direct  citations,  and 
only  eight  quotations  (in  Mark  only  two),  which  are 
not  found  elsewhere.  The  two  classes  into  which  these 
citations  are  distinguished — those  more  or  less  directly 
from  the  Sept.,  and  those  which  give  an  original  render- 
ing of  the  Hebrew  text — have  been  alluded  to  above. 
The  citations  peculiar  to  Matthew  are  marked  with  an 
asterisk  (*),  and  those  which  he  quotes  as  having  been 
fulfilled  in  our  Lord's  life  with  (a). 


(a)i/23.... 

.  .Isa.  vii,  14. 

XV,  4 

.Exod.  xxi,  16. 

((•()  ii,  6 

..Mic.  v,  2. 

8,9.. 

.Isa.  xxix,  13. 

(a)     3.5 

..IIos.  xi,l. 

* 

xviii,  10. . 
xix,  4.... 

.Deut.  xix,  15. 

ill)     is'  . . . 

.  .Jar.  xxxi,  15. 

.Gen.  i,  27. 

iii, 3.... 

..Isa.  xl,3. 

5.... 

.Geu.  ii,  24. 

iv,  i  ... 

.  .Deut.  viii,  3. 

7.... 

.Deut.  xxiv,  1. 

0  ... 

...Psa.  xci.ll, 

xix,  18, 19. Exod.  XX,  12- 

12. 

16. 

7... 

.  Deut.  vi,16. 

*{a) 

xxi,  5 

.Zech.  ix,9. 

10... 

..Deut.  vi,  13. 

9... 

.Psa.  cxviii, 

{a)      14-10. 

..Isa.  ix,  12. 

25,  26. 

V,  5  ... . 

..Psa.  xxxvii, 
11,  29. 

13... 

.Isa.  Ivi,  7; 
Jer.  vii,  11. 

21.... 

..Exod.  XX,  13. 

* 

16... 

.Psa.  viii,  2. 

2T  . . . . 

..Exod.  XX,  14. 

42... 

.Psa.  cxviii, 

31  ... . 

.  .Deut.  xxiv,  1. 

22. 

[Lev.  xix,  12; 

xxii,  24  . 

.  Deut.  XXV,  5. 

33  ... . 

-I    Deut.  xxiii, 

32. 

.Exod.  iii,  6. 

i    23. 

37. 

.  Deut.  vi,  .5. 

3S  . . . . 

..Exod.xxi,24. 

39.. 

.  Lev.  xix,  13. 

43  ... . 

.  .Lev.  xix,  18. 

44  .. 

.  Psa.  ex,  1. 

viii,  4.. 

. .  Lev.  xiv,  2. 

xxiii,  3S. . 

.Hag.  i,  9(?). 

(a)        IT.. 

..Isa.  liii,4. 

39. 

.Psa.  cxviii, 

(rt)  ix,  13.. 

..Hos.  vi,  6. 

26. 

X,  3.'),  30 

..Mic.  vii,  G. 

xxiv,  15. 

.Dan.  xii,  11; 

xi,  5  . . . 

..Isa.  XXXV,  5; 

ix,  27. 

xxix,  IS. 

29. 

.Isa.  xiii,  10; 

10.... 

..Mai.  iii,  1. 

Joel  ii,  10. 

(a)  xii,  7... 

...Hos.  vi,6. 

xxvi,  31., 

.Zech.  xiii,  7. 

(a)       lS-21 

...Isa.  xlii,  1^. 

64. 

.Dan.  vii,  13. 

xiii,  14,  IS.Isa.  vi,9, 10. 

*{a) 

xxvii,  10 

.Zech.  xi,  13. 

(a)          35. 

..Psa.  Ixxviii, 

yi) 

35 

.Psa.  xxii,  18. 

2. 

43 

.Psa.  xxii,  8. 

XV,  4... 

..Exod.  XX,  12. 

46 

.Psa.  xxii,  1. 

To  these  may  be  added  (ii,  23),  "  He  shall  be  called  a 
Nazarcne  ;"  and  the  appeal  to  the  words  of  the  prophets 
generally  (.xxvi,  51-,  56). 

References  to  the  O.  Test,  which  are  not  direct  cita- 
tions, are  as  under : 


xi,  14 Mai.  iv,  5. 

xii.  3 1  Sam.  xxi,  3-6. 

5 Numb,  xxviii,  9. 

40 Jonah  i,  17. 

42 1  Kings  X,  1. 


xvii,  11 . . . 
xxi,  44. .. 

xxiii,  35 . , 


,  .Mai.  iv,  6. 
..Dan.  ii,  44. 
(Gen.  iv,  8; 
■I    2  Chron.  xxiv, 
21. 


X.  Genuineness.  —  Notwithstanding  the  doubts  that 
have  been  thrown  upon  it,  the  genuineness  of  INIatthew 
is  as  .satisfactorily  established  as  that  of  any  ancient 
book  whatever.  See  David.son's  Introd.  to  the  N.  Test., 
vol.  i.  From  the  days  of  Justin  we  find  perpetual  qno- 
tations  corresponding  with  the  existing  text  of  the  Gos- 
pel, which  prove  that  the  book  then  in  circulation,  as  of 
canonical  authority,  was  the  same  as  that  we  now  have. 
Of  the  various  recensions  by  which  we  are  invited  by 


Marsh,  Hilgenfeld,  Schleiermacher,  Ewald,  etc.,  to  be- 
lieve that  the  Gospel  assumed  its  present  form,  there  is 
absolutely  no  external  evidence;  while  the  internal, 
arising  from  style  and  diction,  are  entirely  in  favor  of 
the  whole  having  substantially  proceeded  from  one  hand. 
Other  supposed  internal  evidence  varies  so  much,  ac- 
cording to  the  subjective  position  of  critics,  and  leads 
them  by  the  same  data  to  such  opposite  results,  as  to  be 
little  worth. 

1.  Some  critics,  admitting  the  apostolic  antiquity  of 
a  part  of  the  Gospel,  apply  to  Matthew,  as  they  do  to 
Luke,  the  gratuitous  supposition  of  a  later  editor  or 
compiler,  who,  by  augmenting  and  altering  the  earlier 
document,  produced  our  present  Gospel.  Hilgenfeld  (p. 
106)  endeavors  to  separate  the  older  from  the  newer 
work,  and  includes  much  historical  matter  in  the  for- 
mer ;  since  Schleiermacher,  several  critics,  misinterpret- 
ing the  Xoyia  of  Papias,  consider  the  older  document  to 
have  been  a  collection  of  "discourses"  only.  We  are 
asked  to  believe  that  in  the  2d  centurj^,  for  two  or  more 
of  the  Gospels,  new  works,  differing  from  them  both  in 
matter  and  compass,  were  substituted  for  the  old,  and 
that  about  the  end  of  the  2d  century  our  present  Gos- 
pels were  adopted  by  authority  to  the  exclusion  of  all 
others,  and  that  henceforth  the  copies  of  the  older  works 
entirely  disappeared,  and  have  escaped  the  keenest 
research  ever  since.  Eichhorn's  notion  is  that  "  the 
Church"  sanctioned  the  four  canonical  books,  and  by  its 
authority  gave  them  exclusive  currency ;  but  there  ex- 
isted at  that  time  no  means  for  convening  a  council, 
and  if  such  a  body  could  have  met  and  decided,  it  would 
not  have  been  able  to  force  on  the  churches  books  dis- 
crepant from  the  older  copies  to  which  they  had  long 
been  accustomed,  without  discussion,  protest,  and  resist- 
ance (see  Norton,  Genuineness,  chap.i).  That  there  was 
no  such  resistance  or  protest  we  have  ample  evidence. 
IrenaBus  knows  the  four  Gospels  only  {Hcer.  i-ii,  chap.  i). 
Tatian,  who  died  A.D.  170,  composed  a  Gospel  harmony, 
lost  to  us,  under  the  name  of  Diatessaron  (Eusebius, 
Hist.  Eccles.  iv,  29).  Theophilus,  bishop  of  Antioch, 
about  168,  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Gospels  (Jerome, 
Ad  A  Ifjasiam,  and  Be  Vir.  ill.).  Clement  of  Alexandria 
(flourished  about  189)  knew  the  four  Gospels,  and  dis- 
tinguished between  them  and  the  uncanonical  gospel 
according  to  the  Egyptians,  Tertullian  (born  about 
160)  knew  the  four  Gospels,  and  was  called  on  to  vindi- 
cate the  text  of  one  of  them  against  the  corruptions  of 
Marcion.  See  Luke.  Origen  (born  185)  calls  the  four 
Gospels  the  four  elements  of  the  Christian  faith  ;  and  it 
appears  that  his  copy  of  Matthew  contained  the  gene- 
alogy {Comm.  in  Joan.).  Passages  from  Matthew  are 
quoted  by  Justin  IMartyr,  by  the  author  of  the  letter 
to  Diognetus  (see  in  Otto's  Justin  Martyr,  vol.  ii),  by 
Hegesippus,  Irenjeus,  Tatian,  Athenagoras,  Theophilus, 
Clement,  Tertullian,  and  Origen,  It  is  not  merely  from 
the  matter,  but  the  manner  of  the  quotations,  from  the 
calm  appeal  as  to  a  settled  authority,  from  the  absence 
of  all  hints  of  doubt,  that  we  regard  it  as  proved  that 
the  book  we  possess  had  not  been  the  subject  of  any 
sudden  change.  Was  there  no  heretic  to  throw  back 
with  double  force  against  Tertullian  the  charge  of  alter- 
ation which  he  brings  against  Marcion  ?  Was  there  no 
orthodox  Church  or  member  of  a  Church  to  complain 
that,  instead  of  the  Matthew  and  the  Luke  that  had 
been  taught  to  them  and  their  fathers,  other  and  differ- 
ent writings  were  now  imposed  on  themV  Neither  the 
one  nor  the  other  appears. 

The  citations  of  Justin  Martyr,  very  important  for 
this  subject,  have  been  thought  to  indicate  a  source  dif- 
ferent from  the  Gospels  which  we  now  possess;  and  by 
the  word  uTroj^n'i)jio^nviiaTa  (memoirs),  he  has  been 
supposed  to  indicate  that  lost  work.  We  have  not  space 
here  to  show  that  the  remains  referred  to  are  the  Gos- 
pels which  we  possess,  and  not  any  one  book;  and  that 
though  Justin  quotes  the  Gospels  very  loosely,  so  that 
his  words  often  bear  but  a  slight  resemblance  to  the 
original,  the  same  is  true  of  his  quotations  from  the 


MATTHEW 


896 


MATTHEW 


Septuasjint.  He  transposes  words,  brings  separate  pas- 
sages together,  attributes  the  words  of  one  prophet  to 
another,  and  even  quotes  the  Pentateuch  for  facts  not 
recorded  in  it.  Many  of  the  quotations  from  the  Sep- 
tuajtjint  are  indeed  precise,  but  these  are  chiefly  in  the 
Dialogue  with  Trypho,  where,  reasoning  with  a  Jew  on 
the  O.  T.,  he  does  not  trust  his  memory,  but  considts  the 
text.  This  question  is  disposed  of  in  Norton's  Genuine- 
ness, vol.  i,  and  in  Hug's  Einleitwig. 

2.  The  genuineness  of  the  first  two  chapters  has  been 
called  in  question,  but  on  no  sufficient  grounds.  See 
Meyer's  note.  Comment,  i,  65,  who  adduces  as  arguments 
for  their  genuineness,  that — (1.)  they  are  found  in  all 
MSS.  and  ancient  versions,  and  are  quoted  by  the  fa- 
thers of  the  2d  and  3d  centuries,  Irenseus,  Clem.  Alex., 
etc.,  and  are  referred  to  by  Celsus  (Orig.  C.  Cels.  i,  38 ; 
ii,  32).  (2.)  The  facts  they  record  are  perfectly  in  keep- 
ing with  a  Gospel  written  for  Jewish  Christians.  (3.) 
The  opening  of  chap,  iii,  tv  ci  raig  ijfx.  Ik.,  refers  back, 
by  its  construction,  to  the  close  of  chap,  ii ;  and  iv,  13 
would  be  unintelligible  without  ii,  23.  (4.)  There  is  no 
difference  between  the  diction  and  constructions  and 
those  in  the  other  parts  of  the  Gospel. 

The  opponents  of  these  two  chapters  rest  chiefly  on 
tneir  alleged  absence  from  the  Gospel  of  the  Hebrews  in 
use  among  the  Ebionites  (Epiphanius,  Ucei:  xxx,  13). 
But  Epiphanius  describes  that  book  as  "  incomplete, 
adulterated,  and  mutilated;"  and  as  the  Ebionites  re- 
garded Jesus  simply  as  the  human  Messiah  co-ordinate 
with  Adam  and  Moses,  the  absence  of  the  two  chapters 
may  readily  be  accounted  for  on  doctrinal  grounds.  The 
same  explanation  may  be  given  for  the  alleged  absence 
from  the  Diatessaron  of  Tatian  of  these  chapters,  and 
the  corresponding  parts  of  Luke  containing  the  geneal- 
ogy, and  all  the  other  passages  which  show  that  the 
Lord  was  born  of  the  seed  of  David  "  according  to  the 
flesh"  (Theoiioret,  Hcer.  fab.  i,  20).  The  case  must  be  a 
weak  one  which  requires  us  to  appeal  to  acknowledged 
heretics  for  the  correction  of  our  canon.  The  supposed 
discrepancy  between  the  opening  chapters  of  Matthew 
and  Luke,  which  has  led  even  professor  Norton  to  fol- 
low Strauss,  Paulus,  Schleiermacher,  etc.,  in  rejecting 
them,  has  been  abundantly  discussed  in  all  recent  com- 
mentaries, and  by  Wieseler  (^Synopsis),  Neander  {Life  of 
Christ),  Mill  {Pantheism),  Kern  {Ursprimg  d.  Ev.  Mat.), 
etc.,  as  well  as  in  the  various  answers  to  Strauss.  It  is 
sufficient  here  to  note  the  following  points  in  reply :  (1.) 
Such  questions  are  by  no  means  confined  to  these  chap- 
ters, but  are  found  in  places  of  which  the  apostolic  ori- 
gin is  admitted.  (2.)  The  treatment  of  Luke's  Gospel 
by  Marcion  suggests  how  the  Jewish  Christians  dropped 
out  of  their  version  an  account  which  they  would  not 
accept.  (3.)  Prof.  Norton  stands  alone,  among  those 
who  object  to  the  two  chapters,  in  assigning  the  gene- 
alogy to  the  same  author  as  the  rest  of  the  chapters 
(Hilgenfeld,  p.  4G,  47).  (4.)  The  difficulties  in  the  har- 
mony are  all  reconcilable,  and  the  day  has  passed,  it 
may  be  hoped,  when  a  passage  can  be  struck  out,  against 
all  the  MSS.  and  the  testimony  of  early  writers,  for  sub- 
jective impressions  about  its  contents. 

XL  Commentaries. — The  following  are  the  special  ex- 
cgetical  helps  on  the  whole  of  Matthew's  Gospel,  a  few 
of  the  most  important  of  which  we  indicate  by  an  aster- 
isk prefixed :  Origen,  Commentaria  (in  0pp.  iii,  440  sq., 
«30  sq.) ;  also  Scholia  (in  (ialland,  Bibl.  Patr.  xiv) ; 
Athanasius,  Fragm^nta  (in  0pp.  i,  pt.  2;  also  iii,  18); 
Hilarius  Pictaviensis,  Coinmentarii  (in  0pp.  i,  669) ;  3e- 
rnm^,  Comment arii  (in  0pp.  v,  1);  Faustus  Khcgiensis, 
Super  ev.  Matt.  ( in  Jerome,  0pp.  xi,  77,  204. 365) ;  Chry- 
sostom,  I/omiliiv  (in  0pp.  [»S/?Mna],vi, 731-980;  also  ed. 
Field,  Cantab.  1839,  3  vols.  8vo;  in  English,  in  Lib.  of 
Fathers,  Oxf.  1843-51 ,  vols,  xi,  xv,  xxxiv)  ;  CjTil  of  Al- 
exandria, Fragmemta  (in  Mai,  Script,  vet,  viii,  pt.  ii,  142) ; 
Paschasius  Ratbertus,  Commentaria  (in  0pp.  i ;  also  in 
Bihl.  Max.  Patr.  xiv) ;  Chromatins  Aquiliensis,  Tracta- 
tiis  (in  Galland,  BiU.  Patr.  viii,  333);  Bede,  FxjMsilio 
(in  Opj).  v,  1) ;  Anselm,  Enarrationes  (in  0pp.  ed.  I'i- 


card) ;  Rupertus  Tuitiensis,  Supier  Matthmum  (in  Opp, 
ii,  1) ;  Aquinas,  Commentai-ii  (in  Opp.  iii) ;  Druthmar, 
Expositio  (in  Bihl.  Max,  Patr,  xv,  86) ;  Albertus  Mag- 
nus, Coinmentarii  (in  Ojyp.  ix) ;  Melancthon,  Commen- 
tarii  (Argent.  1523, 8vo ;  also  in  Opp.  iii)  ;  Munster,  A  n- 
notationes  (Basil.  1537,  fol. ;  also  in  Critici  Sacrt) ;  1m- 
ther,  Adnotationes  [on  ch.  i-xviii]  (Vitemb.  1538,  8vo; 
also  in  ]Vo7-ks.  both  Lat.  and  Germ.) ;  Sarcer,  Scholia 
(Frcft.  1538;  Basil.  1540,  1541,  1544,  1560,  8vo);  Bul- 
linger,  Commentariiis  (Tigur.  1542,  fol.) ;  Titelmann,Cc»)n- 
me?itariiis  (Antw.  1.545,  8vo;  1576;  Par.  1546;  Lugd. 
1547, 1556, 1568,  fol.) ;  Musculus,  Commentarius  [includ. 
Mark  and  Luke]  (BasU.  1548, 1556, 1566, 1578, 1591, 1611, 
fol.) ;  Bredembrach,  Commentaria  (Colon.  1550,  fol.) ; 
Zwingle,  Annotationes  (in  C|p7).  iv,  1 ;  in  Germ,  by  Kiis- 
ter,  Halle,  1783, 8vo) ;  Chj-trjeus,  Commentarius  (Vitemb. 
1555,  1566,  8vo) ;  Ferus,  Enai'rationes  (Mogunt.  1559, 
fol.;  Antw.  and  Lugd.  1559;  Par.  and  Ven.  1560;  Com- 
plut.  1562;  Par.  1564;  Antw.  1570;  Rom.  1577;  Lugd. 
1604,  1610,  8vo) ;  Hersel,  Commentarius  (Lovan.  1568, 
1572,  8vo) ;  Marloratus,  Exposition  (from  the  Lat.  by 
Tymme,  Lond.  1570,  fol.) ;  Junius,  Expositio  (in  Oj^p.  ii, 
1893)  ;  Brentz,  Commentarii  (in  Opp.  v) ;  Aretius,  Com- 
ment ai-ius  (Morg.  1580, 8vo) ;  Tyndale,  Notes  [on  i-xxi] 
(in  Expositions,  p.  227);  Gualther,  Hornilice  (Tigur.  1590- 
96,  2  vols,  fol.) ;  De  Avendano,  Commentariiis  (Jladrid, 
1592,  2  vols,  fol.) ;  Danteus,  Commentarius  (Genev.  1593, 
8vo);  Kirsten,A^ote  (Vratisl.  1611, fol.);  Pelargus, ///us- 
trationes  (Frcft.  1612,1617,2  vols.  4to);  Tostatus,  Com- 
mentarii (in  Ojjp.)  ;  Scultetus,  Exercitationes  (Amst.  1624, 
4to)  ;  Novarinus,  Notes  (Ven.  1629 ;  Lugd.  1642,  fol.) ; 
Gomar,  Explicatio  (Groning.  1631, 8vo) ;  (Ecolampadius, 
Enan-ationes  (Basil.  1636, 8vo) ;  Possinus  and  Corderius, 
Symholce  (Tolos.  1646, 2  vols,  fol.) ;  Episcopius,  Notm  [on 
i-xxiv]  (in  Oj^p.  H,  i,  1) ;  Dickson,  Exposition  (Lond. 
1651,  12mo) ;  De  Aponte,  Commentarii  (Lugd.  1651,  2 
vols. fol.);  Bertram, i,'w?/c?eafw  (Arnst.  1651, 4to);  Mat- 
thias, Analysis  (Amst.  1652, fol.) ;  Wandalin, Pa?Y;/)/(?-«- 
sis  (Slesw.  1654,4to);  De  Pise,  Co»!?He?i?a?7n  (Lugd.  1656, 
fol.) ;  Parens,  Commentarius  (in  Opp.  ii) ;  Cocceius,  jVote 
(in  Opp.  xii,3);  Lightfoot,  Exercitations  (in  Works,  xi) ; 
Blackwood,  Exposition  [on  i-x]  (Lond.  1659,  4to)  ;  A. 
Lapide,  Iti  Mafth.  (Antw.  1660.  fol.) ;  Leighton,  Lectures 
[on  i-ix]  (in  Works,  iii,  I);  Winstrup,  Po?;(/ecte  (Lund. 
Scan.  1660, 1674 ;  Hafn.  1699, 2  vols,  fol.) ;  Gerhard,  Ad- 
notationes  (Jen.  1663, 1696, 4to) ;  Spanheim,T7?ifZ2WcE  (i, 
ii,  Heidelb.  1663 ;  iii,  L.  B.  1685, 4to) ;  Meisner,  Exercita- 
tiones (Vitemb.  1664,  4to) ;  YLaxtsoicker,  A  antekeningen 
(Amst.  1668, 4to) ;  Saubert,  Varice  Lectiones,  etc.  (Helmst. 
1672,  4to);  De  Ye\],  Explicatio  [includ.  Mark]  (Lond. 
1678, 8vo);  VanTil,iVoto  (in  Dutch,  Amst.  1683;  Dort, 
1687,  1695;  in  German,  Cassel,  1700;  Frcft.  1705,  4to) ; 
Huysing,  Exposition  (in  Dutch,  Hague,  1684,  4to ;  in 
German,  Cassel,  1710,  fol.) ;  Crell,  Commentarius  [on  i-v] 
(in  Opp.  i,  1) ;  Przipcovius,  Cogitationes  (Eleuth.  1692, 
fol.);  Wegner,  .4 (feotata  (Regiom.  1699,1705,  4to);  Hi- 
deyger,  Labores  [includ.  some  other  books]  (Tigur.  1700, 
4to);  Olearius,06«f?Ta^^07^es  (Lips.  1713, 1743, 4to);  Pfaff, 
Notm  (Tubing.  1721,  4to);  }s.\(tram,  Exeixitia  [on  i-v] 
(Tub.  1725,  4to);  Nnmoet,  Ohsei~cationes  [on  i-v]  (Fr. 
ad  R.  1728, 8vo) ;  D.  Scott,  Notes  (Lond.  1741, 4to) ;  Eis- 
ner, Commentarius  (Zwoll.  1767-9,  2  vols.  4to) ;  'W'ake- 
field.  Notes  (Lond.  1782,  4to)  ;  Adam,  Exposition  (iu 
Works,  i);  G'oz,  Erklci rung  (Stuttg.  1785, 8vo);  Wizen- 
man,  Jesus  nach  Matth.  (liasle,  1789, 1864,  8vo)  ;  Beau- 
sobre.  Commentary  (from  the  French,  Cambr.  1790,  8vo, 
and  often  since) ;  Heddiius,  Anmerkungen  (Stuttg.  1792, 
2  vols.  8vo)  ;  Griesbach,  Commentarius  (Jen.  1798, 8vo) ; 
Porteus,  Lectures  (Lond.  1802,  and  since,  2  vols.  8vo) ; 
Schulthess,  Homilien  (Winterth.  1805. 2  vols.  8vo) ;  Men- 
ken, Betrachtungen  (i,  Frckft.  1809 ;  ii,  Bann.  1822, 8vo) ; 
Lodge,  T^ectures  (Lond.  1818,  8vo) ;  Meyer,  Beitrdge 
(Wicn,  1818,  8vo)  ;  Gratz,  Commentar  (Ti'ib.  1821-23,  2 
vols.  8vo) ;  Binterim,  Bemerkungm  (i,  Mainz,  1823, 8vo) ; 
*Fritzsche,  Commentar  (Lpz.  ] 826, 8vo) ;  Harte, Lectures 
(Lond.  1831-34, 2  vols.  12mo)  ;  Cramer,  Jesus  nach  Mat- 
thdus  (Lpz.  1832,  8vo) ;  Penrose,  Lectures  (Lond.  1832, 


MATTHEW 


897 


MATTHEW 


12mo);  *Watson,  Exposition  [includ.Mark]  (Lond.1833 
and  since ;  N.  Y.  1846  and  since,  8vo) ;  Scholten,  Onder- 
socking  (Leyden,  1836,  Svo) ;  Cotter,  Paraphrase  [in- 
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1843, 8vo) ;  Perceval,  Lectures  (Lond.  1845, 4  vols.  12mo) ; 
Ford,  Illustration  (Lond.  1848,  8vo)  ;  Boothroyd,  Notes 
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vols.  8vo) ;  Gumming,  Readintjs  (Lond.  1853,  8vo) ;  Ar- 
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N.  Y.  1860, 4to) ;  Conder,  Commentary  (Lond.  1860, 8vo) ; 
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♦Alexander,  Explanation  [on  i-xvi]  (N.  Y.  1861,  r2mo); 
*Luthardt,  De  Compositione  Matt.  (Lips.  1861, 8vo) ;  Re- 
ville.  Etudes  (Par.  1862, 8vo) ;  Gratry,  Commentaire  (Par. 
1863, 8vo) ;  *Nast,  Commentary  [incliid.  Mark  ]  (Cincin- 
nati, 1864, 8  vo);  T:'hoxQdiS,Ohser nations  (Lond.  1864, 8 vo) ; 
Klofuter,  Commentarius  (Vien.  1866,  8vo)  ;  Hilgenfeld, 
Untersuchung  (in  his  Zeitschr.  1866, 1867)  ;  Kelly,  Lect- 
ures (Lond.  1870,  8vo) ;  Adamson,  Exposition  (Lond. 
1871, 8vo).     See  Gospels. 

Matthevr  of  Bassi.     See  Capuchins. 

Matthew  of  Blatares.     See  Blatares. 

Matthew  of  Cracow  (more  accurately  of  Kro- 
kow,  in  Pomerania),  a  noted  German  prelate  of  the 
Church  of  Rome,  and  worthy  to  be  counted  foremost 
among  the  forerunners  of  the  great  Reformation,  was  a 
native  of  Pomerania,  and  flourished  near  the  opening 
of  the  15th  centurj'.  But  little  is  known  of  his  personal 
history,  except  that  he  was  made  by  the  emperor  Ru- 
pert a  professor  In  the  young  University  of  Heidelberg ; 
afterwards  became  chancellor  to  Rupert,  and  through 
the  latter's  influence  became  bishop  of  Worms  in  1405, 
and  that  he  attended  the  Council  of  Pisa  in  1409,  and 
died  in  1410.  But  of  his  labors  we  know  enough  to 
award  him  great  praise  as  an  ardent  and  faithful  worker 
for  reform  among  the  clergj'  of  his  Church.  Indeed, 
the  corrupt  condition  of  the  Romish  Church,  and  espe- 
cially of  the  ecclesiastical  body,  seems  to  have  earlj' 
engaged  his  serious  attention.  In  1384  he  delivered  a 
discourse  on  the  improvement  of  morals,  both  in  priests 
and  people,  before  an  archiepiscopal  synod  in  Prague ; 
and,  as  he  began  then,  so  he  continued  through  life  to 
battle  for  reform  and  the  eradication  of  corruption,  and 
the  abandonment  of  simony  and  other  vile  practices. 
Both  with  his  tongue  and  by  his  pen  he  sought  to  ad- 
vance the  interests  of  the  noble  cause  he  had  espoused, 
and,  as  his  position  secured  him  great  influence,  his  la- 
bors were  certainly  not  in  vain.  For  his  day  and  gen- 
eration he  was  no  doubt  another  cardinal  Julian  (q.  v.). 
He  desired  reform  rather  than  a  revolution,  and  there- 
fore failed  to  accomplish  his  mission. 

Matthew  left  behind  him  a  number  of  MSS.,  some 
of  ^vhich  were  afterwards  printed.  Among  the  most 
noted  of  his  works  is  a  treatise  on  the  pollutions  of 
the  Romish  court,  which  appears  to  have  been  writ- 
ten a  little  previous  to  the  year  1409,  about  the  pe- 
riod when  the  schism  in  the  papacy  seemed  to  open  a 
door  for  conscientious  minds  to  cherish  doubts,  at  least 
privately,  yet  sufficiently  to  afford  a  leaven  for  the 
future,  respecting  the  boasted  infallibility  of  the  popes, 
and  the  degree  of  implicit  faith  and  obedience  due  to 
their  appointments  and  decisions.  It  may  be  that  the 
weakness  occasioned  bj^  this  papal  schism  furnished 
a  reason  why  the  author  of  so  bold  an  attack  on  the 
prevailing  corruptions  did  not  encounter  the  hostil- 
ity and  persecution  of  the  ecclesiastical  powers.  His 
favor  with  the  emperor  was  an  additional  source  of  im 
punity,  and  probably  also  his  early  death  after  the  pub- 
lication of  the  work.  We  have  no  information  of  the 
effect  immediately  produced  by  the  treatise,  but  it  shows 
that  the  harvest  of  the  16th  century  was  even  then  in 
its  germ,  and  it  seems  like  some  of  the  seed  towards  the 
harvest,  sown  for  a  hundred  vears,  to  produce  fruit  in 
v.— L  L  L 


the  times  of  Luther  and  Melancthon.  See  Ullmann, 
Reformers  hefore  the  Reformation,  vol.  i ;  Hodgson,  Re- 
formers and  Martyrs  (Phila.  1867,  12mo),  p.  118  sq. 
(J.H.W.) 

Matthew  {Matthceus)  of  Paris,  an  English  mo- 
nastic, of  great  celebrity  as  a  chronicler  of  England's 
early  history,  was  born  about  the  end  of  the  12th  cen- 
turj'.  He  took  the  religious  habit  in  the  Benedictine 
monastery  of  St.  Albans  in  1217.  Almost  the  only  in- 
cident of  his  life  that  has  been  recorded  is  a  journej'  he 
made  to  Norway,  by  command  of  the  pope,  to  introduce 
some  reforms  into  the  monastic  establishments  of  that 
country,  which  mission  he  has  the  credit  of  having  ex- 
ecuted with  great  ability  and  success.  He  is  said  to 
have  stood  high  in  the  favor  of  Henry  III,  and  to  have 
obtained  various  privileges  for  the  University  of  Ox- 
ford through  his  influence  with  that  king.  His  ac- 
quirements embraced  all  the  learning  and  science  of 
his  age ;  besides  theology  and  history ;  oratory,  poetry, 
painting,  architecture,  and  a  practical  knowledge  of 
mechanics,  are  reckoned  among  his  accomplishments  by 
his  biographers  or  panegyrists.  His  memory  is  pre- 
served mainly  by  his  history  of  England,  entitled  Ilis- 
toria  Major,  really  a  continuation  of  a  work  begun  at 
St.  Albans  by  Roger  of  Wendover  (who  died  in  May, 
1236),  and  which  was  subsequently  entitled  Chronica 
Major,  or  Chronica  Majora  Sancti  Albani.  Roger's 
name,  however,  was  obscured  by  that  of  our  subject, 
Matthew  of  Paris,  who,  though  he  adopted  the  plan  of 
Roger's  work,  really  furnished  a  most  valuable  chron- 
icle, especially  of  mediiBval  history.  In  the  British 
Museum,  and  in  the  libraries  of  Corpus  Christi  and 
Benedict  colleges,  Cambridge,  there  are  manuscripts  of 
an  epitome,  by  Matthew  of  Paris  himself,  of  his  history, 
generally  referred  to  by  the  names  of  the  Historia  Minor, 
or  the  Chronica,  which,  bishop  Nicholson  says,  contains 
"  several  particulars  of  note  omitted  in  the  larger  his- 
tory." This  smaller  work  was  for  a  long  time  ascribed 
to  a  Matthew  of  Westminster  (q.  v.).  Of  late,  however, 
the  question  of  authorship  has  been  fairly  settled  by 
Sir  Frederick  Madden,  who  edited  and  published  these 
chronicles.  He  pronounced  the  Westminster  JNIatthew 
"  a  phantom  who  never  existed,"  and  observes  that  even 
the  late  IMr.  Buckle  was  so  deceived  by  the  general  tone 
of  confidence  manifested  in  quoting  this  writer  that  he 
characterizes  him  as,  after  Froissart,  the  most  celebrated 
historian  of  the  14th  century.  "  The  mystery  of  the 
'  phantom  historian,'  "  says  a  writer  in  the  Westminster 
Revieio  (Oct.,  1866,  p.  238),  "has  been  happily  unveiled 
by  Sir  Frederick  Jladden,  whose  correct  anticipation  is 
unexpectedly  confirmed  by  his  discovery  of  the  original 
copy  of  the  work,  now  in  the  Chetham  Library  at  Man- 
chester. This  manuscript  establishes  beyond  all  doubt 
that  the  largest  portion  of  the  Flores  Ilistoriarum,  at- 
tributed to  the  pseudo  Matthew  of  Westminster,  was 
written  at  St.  Albans,  under  the  eye  and  by  direction 
of  Matthew  of  Paris,  as  an  abridgment  of  his  greater 
chronicle  ;  and  the  text  from  the  close  of  the  year  1241 
to  about  two  thirds  of  1249  is  in  his  own  handwriting. 
This  manuscript,  continued  after  his  death  by  another 
hand  on  the  same  plan,  down  to  the  issue  of  the  battle 
of  Evesham  in  1265,  ceased  after  that  date  to  be  written 
at  St.  Albans,  and  passed  eventually  into  tlie  library  of 
the  Monastery  of  St.  Peter,  at  Westminster.  The  au- 
thor of  the  first  continuation,  after  the  manuscript  had 
left  St.  Albans,  was.  Sir  F.  Madden  thinks,  John  Bevere, 
otherwise  named  John  of  London.  It  was  brought 
down  by  Bevere  to  the  year  1306.  A  special  class  of 
manuscripts,  including  the  Eton  MS.  of  Matthew  of 
Westminster,  implicitly  follows  Bevere's  chronicle  ;  but 
in  the  original  coi)y  of  the  Flo7-es  Ilistoriarum,  after 
it  came  to  Westminster,  Bevere's  text  is  generally 
abridged,  althougli  under  some  years  there  are  addi- 
tions. The  entire  work  is  carried  on  to  the  year  1305. 
'  It  was,'  says  Sir  Frederick,  '  no  doubt  from  the  fact 
that  the  latter  portion  of  the  Floi-es  Historiarum  was 
composed  by  a  Westminster  monk,  that  the  entire  work 


MATTHEW 


898 


MATTHEWS 


was  aftenvards  attributed  to  a  Matthew  of  Westmin- 
ster, for  the  name  of  Matthew  really  belonged  to  Mat- 
thew of  Paris,  whilst  the  afKx  of  Westminster  was  sup- 
plied by  conjecture  ;  and  this  pseudonyme  liaving  been 
recognised  by  Bale  and  Joscelin,  and  adopted  by  arch- 
bishop Parker,  the  error  has  been  perpetuated  to  our 
own  time.'  "  Besides  this  edition  by  Madden,  entitled 
Mattlmi  Parisiensis,  Monachi  Sancti  Albaiii,  Historia 
An(jlorum,  siee  ut  vulgo  dicitiir,  Ilistoria  Minor,  item, 
ejusdem  abbreviatio  Chronicorum  A  nf/lice  (published  by 
the  authority  of  the  lords  commissioners  of  her  majes- 
ty's treasury,  London,  Longmans,  1866  sq.),  we  have  one 
by  archbishop  Parker  (London,  1571,  folio;  reprinted  at 
Liguri,  Zurich,  1606  ;  London,  1640  [or  in  some  copies 
1641],  fob,  by  Dr.  William  Watts ;  Par.  1644,  fol. ;  Lond. 
1684,  fol.).  Watts's  edition,  which  is  sometimes  divided 
into  two  volumes,  contains,  besides  various  readings  and 
copious  indexes,  two  other  works  of  the  author  never 
before  printed,  namely,  his  Buorum  Offarum  Merciorum 
Reffum  (S.  Albani  Fundatorum)  Vitce,  and  his  Viginti 
Trillin  Abbatum  S.  Albani  Vitce,  together  with  what  he 
calls  his  Additamenta  to  those  treatises.  "Matthew  of 
Paris  writes  with  considerable  spirit  and  rhetorical  dis- 
play, and  uses  remarkable  freedom  of  speech ;  and  his 
work,  which  is  continued  to  the  death  of  Henry  III 
(1272)  by  William  Eishangor,  another  monk  of  the 
same  abbey,  has  been  the  chief  authority  commonly  re- 
lied upon  for  the  history  of  that  reign.  Its  spirit,  how- 
fever,  is  somewhat  tiercely  and  narrowly  English ;  and 
from  the  freedom  with  which  he  inveighs  against  what 
he  regards  as  the  usurpations  of  the  papal  see,  Romanist 
writers  have  always  expressed  strong  dissatisfaction  es- 
pecially with  his  accounts  of  ecclesiastical  affairs.  With 
Protestant  critics,  on  the  other  hand,  Matthew  of  Paris 
has  been  a  favorite  in  proportion  to  the  dislike  he  has 
incurred  from  their  opponents.  At  one  time  it  used  to 
be  affirmed  by  the  Roman  Catholics  that  the  printed 
Matthew  of  Paris  was  in  many  things  a  mere  modern 
fabrication  of  the  Reformers ;  but  Watts,  by  collating 
all  the  manuscript  copies  he  could  find,  and  noting  the 
various  readings,  proved  that  there  was  no  foundation 
for  this  charge"  {Engl.  Cgclop.  s.  v.).  A  translation  of 
the  History  of  Matthew  of  Paris,  by  Dr.  Giles,  forms  a 
volume  of  Bohn's  "Antiquarian  Library,"  and  the  Flow- 
ers of  History  of  Roger  of  Wendover  forms  two  volumes 
of  the  same  series.  See  Oudin,  Scripto?-es  Eccles.  iii,  204 
sq. ;  also  Herzog,  Real-EncyHopddie,  ix,  176 ;  Wetzer  u. 
Welte,  Kirchen-Lexikon,  vi,  932 ;  North  British  Rev.  Oct. 
1869,  p.  119.     See  Roger  of  Wendover. 

Matthe'w  of  Westminster,  an  early  English 
clironielcr,  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Edward  II.  Noth- 
ing whatever  is  known  of  his  personal  history  except 
that  he  was  a  monk  of  the  Benedictine  Abbey  of  West- 
minster. He  is  supposed  to  have  died  about  1307  or 
1377.  His  chronicle,  written  in  Latin,  is  entitled  Flores 
Historiariim,  per  Matthceum  Wcstinonasteriensem  col- 
lecti,  pi-(p,cipue  de  Rebus  Bi-ittannicis,  ab  Exordia  Mundi, 
usque  ad  annum  1307  (Lond.  1567 ;  with  additions,  Frkf. 
1601).  Bohn  has  published  an  English  version  (Lond. 
1853,  2  vols.  8vo).  Another  work  formerly  ascribed  to 
him  is  now  definitely  settled  to  be  the  production  of 
Matthew  of  Paris  (q.  v.). 

Matthe'w  of  York  (Tom as),  a  noted  English  prel- 
ate, was  born  in  Bristol  in  1546.  In  childhood  he  mani- 
fested unusual  talent,  and  was  prepared  for  Oxford  when 
only  thirteen  years  of  age.  He  took  the  bachelor's  degree 
in  1563,  and  three  years  after  the  master's,  and  immedi- 
ately entered  into  "  holy  orders" — a  young  man  much 
respected  for  his  great  learning,  eloquence,  sweet  con- 
versation, friendly  disposition,  and  the  sharpness  of  his 
wit.  In  1566  he  was  made  university  orator;- in  1570, 
canon  of  Christ  Church  and  ilcacon  of  Bath;  in  1572, 
prebendary  of  Sarum  and  president  of  St.  Jo'lni's  College, 
Oxford,  and  one  of  the  queen's  chaplains  in  ordinary-. 
In  1583  he  was  installed  dean  of  Durham,  in  1595  he 
was  created  bishop  of  Durham,  and  in  1606  archbishop 


of  York.  He  died  at  Cawood  Castle  March  29,  1628. 
The  learning  and  piety  of  archbishop  Matthew  have 
been  warmly  eulogized  by. Camden,  It  is  to  be  much 
lamented  that  his  sermons,  which  are  said  to  have  been 
superior  productions,  were  not  preserved  to  us  in  print. 
The  only  publication  of  his  is  entitled  Concia  Apolnget- 
icu  contra  Capiunum  (Oxf.  1581  and  1638,  8vo).  In  the 
cathedral  church  at  York  there  is  a  MS.  from  his  pen 
containing  Notes  upon  all  the  Ancient  Fathers.  See 
'\Woo<\,  At henm  Oxonienses ;  Middleton,  Ev.  Biogr.  ii,  478 
sq. ;  Hook,  Eccles.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Matthe-ws,  Alford  A.,  a  minister  of  the  IMcth- 
odist  Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  Mercer  County,  P,a., 
July  11,  1838 ;  went  to  Wethersfield,  111.,  in  1855,  and 
was  there  converted  and  joined  the  Missionary  Baptist 
Church.  In  the  winter  of  1862-63  he  joined  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church,  after  advising  with  his  pastor 
and  members  of  his  own  Church.  Soon  after  he  re- 
ceived license  to  preach.  In  the  spring  of  1864,  the  health 
of  the  pastor  of  the  Buda  Circuit  failing,  the  circuit 
was  vacated,  and  Blatthews  was  appointed  his  successor. 
At  the  close  of  the  year  he  was  admitted  on  trial  into 
the  Illinois  Conference,  and  retm-ned  to  the  Buda  charge. 
From  the  Conference  of  1866  to  that  of  1868  he  was  in 
charge  of  the  Tiskilwa  Station.  At  the  Conference  of 
1868  he  was  appointed  to  ChUlicothe,  and  there  he  la- 
bored most  acceptably  to  the  people  and  most  success- 
fully for  the  cause  to  which  he  gave  his  life.  He  died 
quite  suddenly  at  this  place,  Aug.  1, 1869.  "From  his 
boyhood  days  he  was  a  diligent  student ;  from  his  es- 
pousal of  the  cause  of  Christ,  a  devoted  Christian  ;  and 
from  the  time  he  received  license  to  preach,  a  very  zeal- 
ous and  successful  minister  of  the  Gospel.  While  at 
Buda,  his  first  charge,  he  sought  and  found  the  blessing 
of  perfect  love,  and  lived  in  the  enjoyment  of  the  bless- 
ing until  the  day  of  his  death."  See  Coyf.  Minutes,  1869, 
p.241. 

Matthews,  Henry,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  was  liorn  in  Prince  George  County, 
]Md.  Blessed  with  pious  and  good  parents,  he  was  early 
led  to  Christ,  and  connected  himself  with  Asbur}'  Cluu-ch, 
in  Howard  Count}'.  In  1849  he  moved  to  Baltimore, 
and  joined  the  Sharp  Street  Church.  In  1852  he  was  li- 
censed to  preach,  and  in  1857  was  ordained  a  local  dea- 
con. In  1864  he  joined  the  Washington  Conference, 
just  then  organizing,  and  was  appomted  to  Gunpowder 
Circuit,  where  he  labored  with  great  zeal  for  three  years; 
was  then  appointed  to  West  River  Circuit,  and  in  1870 
was  stationed  at  Monocacy;  but  his  health  suddenly 
failed,  and  he  was  compelled  to  relinquish  his  arduous 
labors.  He  died  Dec.  31,  1870.  "  Brother  Matthews 
was  a  faithfid,  plodding,  deeply  conscientious  minister. 
Wherever  he  went  his  soliility  of  character  was  ac- 
knowledged ;  and  the  firm  faith  which  he  himself  re- 
posed in  the  doctrines  he  preached,  and  his  prayerfiU 
reliance  on  (iod,  stamped  on  his  efforts  unvaried  suc- 
cess."    See  Conf.  Minutes,  1871,  p.  28. 

Matthews,  John,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  Beaver  Co.,  Pa.,  Feb.  7, 1778.  He  enjoyed  the 
advantages  of  a  good  parental  training,  graduated  at 
Jefferson  College,  Canonsburg,  Pa.,  in  1807,  and  studied 
theology  under  Rev.  Dr.  John  Mc^Millan.  He  was  li- 
censed in  1809,  and  in  1810  ordained  pastor  of  Gravel 
Run  and  Waterford  churches;  in  1817  he  became  an 
itinerating  missionary,  and  took  charge  of  the  Church 
at  Louisiana,  Pike  Co.,  Mo.,  where  he  continued  itinera- 
ting, especially  among  the  destitute  of  that  vicinity,  until 
1825,  when  he  settled  at  Apple  Creek  Church,  in  Cape 
Girardeau  Co.,]Mo.;  in  1827  he  took  charge  of  the  Church 
at  Kaskaskia.  111.,  thence  went  to  IMissouri,  where  he  la- 
bored till  his  health  failed,  and  then  removed  to  George- 
town, 111.,  where  he  died.  Jlay  12, 1861.  Jlr.  Matthews 
was  characterized  by  a  cheerful  and  warm-hearted  dis- 
position. As  a  pastor  he  was  faithful  and  zealous ;  as 
a  friend,  kind  and  affectionate.  See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist, 
A  Imanac,  1862,  p.  102.     (J.  L.  S.) 


MATTHEWS 


899 


MATTHIAS 


Matthews,  William,  a  Quaker  preacher,  was 
born  in  Stafford  Co.,  Va.,  in  1732.  His  parents  died 
when  he  was  quite  young.  He  entered  the  ministry  at 
twenty-three  years  of  ago,  and  gave  convincmg  evi- 
dence of  a  heavenly  caU.  Matthews  was  a  man  of 
sound  judgment  and  great  Christian  piety.  He  spent 
several  j-ears  in  ministerial  work  in  England,  Ireland, 
Scotland,  and  Wales.  The  exact  date  of  his  death  is 
not  known.     See  Janney,  Hist,  of  Friends,  iii,  398. 

Matthew's  (St.)  Day,  a  festal  daj-  observed  in 
the  Koman  Catholic  and  the  Anglican  churches  on  Sept. 
21,  and  in  the  Greek  churches  on  Nov.  16,  is  mentioned 
in  St.  Jerome's  Comes,  and  was  tirst  generally  observed 
in  the  11th  century. — Walcott,  Sac,  Archcuol.  s.  v. 

Matthia,  Johann,  a  noted  Swedish  prelate,  was 
born  in  Ostrogothia  in  1592,  and  after  enjoying  the  best 
educational  advantages  of  his  country,  entered  the  min- 
istry. After  tilling  several  important  positions,  he  be- 
came court  preacher  and  almoner  to  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus.  He  was  next  appointed  preceptor  to  Christina,  the 
daughter  of  that  monarch,  and  was  created  bishop  of 
StrengnLis  in  1643.  He  died  in  1670.  Matthia  wrote 
several  moral  and  theological  v/orks,  the  most  important 
of  which  are,  Opuscula  Theolor/ira  (Strengniis,  1661, 
8vo)  : — Sacrce  Disquisitvmes  ad  refutandos  Epicureos, 
atheos  et  fanaticos  (Stockholm,  1G69,  4to).  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  Gen.  vol.  xxxiii,  s.  v. 

Matthi'as  (MarS/ac,  a  contraction  of  Matithiah 
or  Matthew,  a  form  frequently  met  with  in  Josephus 
[see  below]),  one  of  the  constant  attendants  from  the 
tirst  upon  our  Lord's  ministry,  who  was  chosen  by  lot, 
in  preference  to  Joseph  Barsabas,  into  the  number  of  the 
apostles,  to  supply  the  vacancy  caused  by  the  treachery 
and  suicide  of  Judas  (Acts  i,  23-26).  A.D.  29.  We 
may  accept  as  probable  the  opinion  which  is  shared  by 
Eusebius  (//.  E.  lib.  i,  12)  and  Epiphanius  (i,  20)  that 
he  was  one  of  the  seventy  disciples.  He  is  said  to  have 
preached  the  Gospel  in  /Ethiopia  (Niceph.  ii,  40 ;  ac- 
cording to  Sophronius,  "  in  altera  /Ethiopia,"  i.  e.  Col- 
chis ;  comp.  Cellar.  Xotit.  ii,  309),  or  Cappadocia  accord- 
ing to  Cave,  and  to  have  at  last  suffered  martyrdom 
(comp.  Menalofj.  Gnec.  iii,  198).  According  to  another 
tradition,  he  preached  in  Jud;ua,  and  was  stoned  to  death 
by  the  Jews  (see  Prionii  Vitie  Apostol,  p.  178;  Acta 
Sanctorum,  Feb.  24;  comp.  Augusti,  Denkwurdirjk.  iii, 
241).  There  was  early  an  apocryphal  gospel  bearing 
his  name  (Eusebius,  //.  E.  iii,  25,  3;  Clemens  Alex. 
Strom.,  ii,  163;  vii,  318;  Grabii  Spicileg.  patr.  ii,  1,  p. 
117 ;  Fabric.  Cod.  apocr.  N.  T.  i,  782  sq.). 

"  Different  opinions  have  prevailed  as  to  the  manner 
of  the  election  of  Matthias.  The  most  natural  con- 
struction of  the  words  of  Scripture  seems  to  be  this: 
After  the  address  of  Peter,  the  whole  assembled  body  of 
the  brethren,  amounting  in  number  to  about  120  (Acts 
i,  15),  proceeded  to  nominate  two,  namely,  Joseph,  sur- 
named  Barsabas,  and  ^Matthias,  who  answered  the  re- 
quirements of  an  apostle  :  the  subsequent  selection  be- 
tween the  two  was  referred  in  prayer  to  him  who,  luiow- 
ing  the  hearts  of  men,  knew  which  of  them  was  the  fitter 
to  be  his  witness  and  apostle.  The  brethren  then,  un- 
der the  heavenly  guidance  which  they  had  invoked, 
proceeded  to  give  forth  their  lots,  probably  by  each 
writing  the  name  of  one  of  the  candidates  on  a  talilet, 
and  casting  it  into  the  urn.  The  urn  was  then  shaken, 
and  the  name  that  first  came  out  decided  the  election. 
Lightfoot  {ITor.  Heb.  Luc.  i,  9)  describes  another  way  of 
casting  lots  which  was  used  in  assigning  to  the  priests 
their  several  parts  in  the  service  of  the  Temple.  The 
apostles,  it  will  be  remembered,  had  not  yet  received  the 
gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  this  solemn  mode  of  casting 
the  lots,  in  accordance  with  a  practice  enjoined  in  the 
Levitical  law  (Lev.  xvi,  8),  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  way 
of  referring  the  decision  to  God  (comp.  Prov.  xvi,  33). 
Chrysostom  remarks  that  it  was  never  repeated  after 
the  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  The  election  of  Mat- 
thias is  discussed  by  bishop  Beveridge  {\Vorks,\o\.\, 


serm.  2)"  (Smith).  It  would  seem,  however,  that  Paul 
was  the  divine  appointee  to  fill  the  vacancy  in  the  col- 
lege of  the  apostles.  Monographs  in  Latin  on  his  elec- 
tion have  been  written  by  Scharff  (Viteb.  1652),  Bittel- 
maier  (ib.  1676),  and  llammerschmid  (Prag.  1760). 

MATTHI'AS  is  likewise  the  name  of  one  person 
mentioned  in  the  Apocrypha  (M«rra.^(«g)  and  of  sev- 
eral in  Josephus  QAa-^iac),  especially  as  Jev.'ish  high- 
priests. 

1.  Given  (1  Esdr.  ix,  33)  in  place  of  the  Heb.  ^Mat- 
TATHiAH  (Ezra  X,  33). 

2.  A  son  of  Ananus,  made  high-priest  by  Agrippa 
(soon  after  the  appointment  of  Petronius  as  president  of 
SjTia),  in  place  of  Simon  Cantheras,  after  that  honor 
had  been  declined  by  Jonathan  as  a  second  term  (Jose- 
phus, A  nt.  xix,  G,  4). 

3.  Son  of  Theophilus  of  Jerusalem,  made  high-priest 
by  Herod  in  place  of  Simon,  son  of  Boethius  (.!«('.  xvii, 
4,  2)  ;  removed  again  by  Herod  to  make  room  for  Joaza 
(ib.  6,  4,  where  Josephus  relates  his  temporarj-  disquali- 
fication on  the  day  of  annual  atonement),  and  again  re- 
instated b}^  Agrippa  in  place  of  Jesus,  son  of  Gamaliel 
(ib.  XX,  9,  7). 

Josephus  likewise  mentions  Matthias,  son  of  Boethius, 
as  "  one  of  the  high-priests"  betrayed  by  Simon  during 
the  last  siege  of  Jerusalem  {War,\,  3,1),  but  it  does 
not  appear  whether  he  ^vas  one  of  the  above.     See 

HiGH-rKlEST. 

Matthias,  a  religious  impostor  whose  real  name 
was  Robert  Matthews,  was  born  in  Washington  County. 
N.  Y.,  about  1790.  He  kept  a  country-store,  but  failed 
in  1816,  and  went  to  New  York  City.  In  1827  he  re- 
moved to  Albanj',  where  he  became  much  excited  by 
the  preaching  of  Messrs.  Khk  and  Finney ;  made  him- 
self active  in  the  temperance  cause ;  claimed  to  have  re- 
ceived a  revelation,  and  began  street-preaching ;  failing 
to  convert  Albanj',  he  prophesied  its  destruction,  and 
fled  secretly  to  New  York  City,  where  he  was  tried  and 
acquitted  on  the  charge  of  poisoning  a  wealthy  disciple 
in  whose  family  he  had  lived.  His  impositions  exposed, 
he  soon  disappeared  from  public  view.  See  Matthias 
and  his  Impostures,  by  W.  L.  Stone  (New  York,  1835) ; 
Drake,  Diet.  A  mer.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Matthias  CoryTnus,  king  of  Hungary,  second  son 
of  John  Hunj^ady  (q.  v.),  was  born  in  1443,  and  came  to 
the  throne  in  1458,  His  accession  was  hailed  with  the 
utmost  enthusiasm  over  the  whole  country.  But  the 
Hungarian  crown  at  this  time  was  no  chaplet  of  roses ; 
two  sovereigns,  alike  formidable,  the  one,  Mohammed 
II,  from  his  military  talents  and  immense  resources,  the 
other,  Frederick  III,  from  his  intriguing  policy,  were 
busily  conspiring  against  the  boy-king.  To  meet  these 
dangers  IMatthias  rapidly  carried  out  his  measures  of 
defence,  and,  scarcely  prepared,  fell  on  the  Turks,  who 
had  ravaged  the  countr}'  as  far  as  Temesvar,  infiicted 
upon  them  a  bloody  defeat,  pursued  them  as  far  as  Bos- 
nia, took  the  stronghold  Jaieza,  there  liberated  10,000 
Christian  prisoners,  and  then  returned  to  Weisenberg, 
to  be  crowned  Avith  the  sacred  crown  of  St.  Stephen,  in 
1464.  He  next  suppressed  the  disorders  of  Wallachia 
and  Moldavia;  but  feeling  that.his  plans  were  counter- 
acted by  the  intrigues  of  the  emperor  Frederick  III  to 
gain  possession  of  Hungary,  IVIatthias  besought  the  as- 
sistance of  pope  Pius  II,  but  to  no  purpose.  After  a 
second  successful  campaign  against  the  Turks,  he  turned 
his  attention  to  the  encouragement  of  arts  and  letters, 
and  adorned  his  capital  with  the  works  of  renowned 
sculptors,  in  addition  to  a  library  of  50,000  volumes. 
He  sent  a  large  staff  of  literary  men  to  Italy  for  the  pur- 
]iose  of  obtaining  copies  of  valuable  MSS.  (even  nov,- 
the  Collectio  Corvinn  is  celeljrated),  and  adorned  his 
court  by  the  presence  of  the  most  eminent  men  of  Italy 
and  Germany.  He  was  himself  an  author  of  no  mean 
ability,  and  possessed  a  delicate  appreciation  of  the  fine 
arts.  At  the  same  time  the  affairs  of  government  were 
not  neglected.     The  finances  were  brought  into  a  flour- 


MATTHIAS 


900 


MATTHIAS 


ishing  coiulition,  industn-  and  commerce  were  promoted 
l)v  wise  legislation,  and  justice  was  strictly  administered 
to  peasant  and  noble  alike.  But  the  promptings  of  his 
ambition,  and  the  pressure  exercised  by  the  Romish 
party,  cast  an  indelible  blot  on  Matthias's  otherwise 
spotless  escutcheon;  he  wantonly  attacked  Podiebrad, 
liis  father-in-law,  the  Hussite  king  of  Bohemia,  to  wrest 
from  Podiebrad  the  sceptre  which  he  was  holding  by  the 
ileclared  will  of  the  people.  In  this  action  Matthias  was 
inlluenced  especially  by  pope  Pius  II  and  his  successor, 
Paul  II.  See  Hussites,  vol.  iv,  especially  p.  424,  col.  2. 
After  a  bloody  contest  of  seven  years'  duration  between 
these  kings,  the  greatest  generals  of  the  age,  the  Hun- 
garian power  prevailed,  and  Moravia,  Silesia,  and  Lusa- 
tia  were  wrested  from  Bohemia.  A  third  war  with  the 
Turks  closed  as  successfully  as  the  former  two.  The 
emperor  also  was  humUiated  by  Matthias,  and  expiated 
his  guilt  in  poverty  and  disgrace.  Matthias  was  sud- 
denly cut  down  in  the  midst  of  his  successes  at  Vienna, 
April  5, 1490.  See  Butler,  Eccles.  Hist,  ii,  165 ;  Gieseler, 
Eccles.  Hist,  iii,  370  sq.  See  Lauislaus  of  Poland  ; 
Pus  II. 

Matthias  of  Kujtwalde,  one  of  the  first  ministers 
of  the  Ancient  jNIoravian  Brethren  (q.  v.),  flourished  in 
the  IGth  century.  He  was  appointed  at  the  Synod  of 
Lhota,  in  Bohemia,  in  14G7,  On  that-  occasion  nine 
men,  of  high  repute  for  piety,  were  elected  by  ballot. 
Then  twelve  lots  were  prepared,  nine  being  blank,  and 
three  inscribed  with  the  Bohemian  word  Jest  (He  is). 
Thereupon  a  fervent  prayer  was  oifered  up  beseeching 
God  to  designate  of  these  nine  nominees,  either  one, 
or  two,  or  three,  as  the  ministers  of  the  Church ;  but,  if 
tliis  should  not  be  the  time  which  he  had  ordained  for 
such  a  consummation,  to  cause  all  the  nine  to  receive 
blanks.  In  this  event  the  Brethren  woidd  have  de- 
ferred further  action  to  some  future  period.  Nine  lots 
having  been  drawn  singly  from  a  vase  and  given  to 
the  nominees,  it  appeared  that  Matthias  of  Kunwalde, 
Thomas  of  Prelouc,  and  Elias  of  Chrenovic,  had  each 
received  one  marked  Jest.  The  synod  rose  to  its  feet, 
sang  a  thanksgiving  hymn,  composed  for  the  occasion, 
and  accepted  these  three  men  as  the  future  ministers  of 
the  Church.  In  tlie  same  year,  after  the  episcopacy 
liad  been  secured,  jNIatthias,  although  oidy  twenty-five 
years  of  age,  was  consecrated  a  bishop,  and,  upon  the 
resignation  of  bishop  INIichael,  became  president  of  the 
Church  Council.  He  administered  its  affairs,  according 
to  the  extreme  views  of  discipline  entertained  by  Greg- 
ory ((J.  v.),  until  1494,  when  he  resigned  his  presidency 
and  united  with  the  liljeral  party.  In  1500,  while  on 
his  ^vay  to  a  synod  in  Moravia,  he  died  at  Leipnik,  after 
having,  in  his  last  will  and  testament,  which  he  ad- 
dresseil  to  the  Brethren,  exhorted  them  to  avoid  scliisms, 
and  to  preserve  the  unity  of  the  Spirit  in  the  bonds  of 
peace.     He  was  buried  at  Prerau.    (E.  de  S.) 

Matthias  I,  emperor  of  Germany,  son  of  Maxi- 
milian II  and  INIary,  daughter  of  Charles  Y,  deserves  a 
place  here  because  of  his  relation  to  one  of  the  most 
eventful  periods  in  the  earliest  stages  of  modern  history. 
He  was  born  in  1557.  In  1578  he  was  invited  by  the 
Eomanists  of  the  Netherlands  to  assume  the  government 
of  that  country,  but  he  held  the  position  only  a  short 
time.  He  was  appointed  stadtholder  of  Austria  in  1595, 
and  in  IGll  was  invited  by  the  Bohemians  to  become 
their  ruler.  On  the  death  of  his  brother  Rudolf,  empe- 
ror of  Germany,  in  1G12,  he  succeeded  to  the  throne, 
and  was  called  upon  to  sit  in  judgment  between  Protes- 
tant and  Romanist  in  the  ensuing  contest  between  these 
two  factions  of  his  empire.  He  pursued  a  vacillating 
jiolicy,  and,  while  striving  to  direct,  made  himself  dis- 
trusted by  both.  He  concluded  a  disadvafitageous 
treaty  with  the  Turks,  then  in  possession  ,of  Hungary 
(1615),  and  soon  after  caused  his  cousin  Ferdinand  to  be 
|iroclaimed  king  of  Bohemia  and  Hungary.  In  the 
midst  of  the  dissensions  which  preceded  the  Tliirty 
Years'  War  he  died,  in  1619.     See  Khevenhuller,  An- 


iiales  Ferdinandei ;  P.  Santoric,  Vite  di  Ridolfo  e  Mattia 
Imperutori  (1664) ;  Vehse,  Memoirs  of  the  Court  of  A  iis- 
tria,  i,  240  sq. ;  Coxe,  House  of  A  ustria,  ii,  95  sq. ;  Kohl- 
ransch,  Hist,  of  Germani/,  I). 'dll  sq.  See  also  Tiiikty 
Yeaks'  Wau. 

Matthias,  John  B.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  born  at  Germantown,  Pa.,  Jan.  1, 1767 ;  was  con- 
verted while  residing  in  New  York,  after  his  majority; 
was  there  licensed  to  preach  in  1793 ;  preached  much 
and  with  excellent  success  as  a  local  deacon  until  1811, 
when  he  joined  the  itinerancy.  Thereafter  he  labored 
v^ery  usefully  until  1841,  when  loss  of  sight  obliged  him 
to  superannuate.  He  died  in  great  blessedness  at  Hemp- 
stead, L.  I.,  May  27, 1848.  He  was  educated  a  German 
Lutheran,  and  was  by  trade  a  ship-carpenter,  hut  when 
he  felt  called  to  preach  he  prepared  to  the  best  of  his 
ability,  and  for  many  years  delivered  regularly  no  less 
than  three  sermons  a  v»-eek,  and  many  souls  ^vere  con- 
verted under  these  labors.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
humble,  pious,  and  loving  of  Christians,  and  the  fruit  of 
his  unostentatious  labors  was  abundant  and  blessed. — 
Minutes  of  Conferences,  iv,  224.     (G.  L.  T.) 

Matthias,  John  J.,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  was  born  at  New  York  Jan.  17, 1796. 
His  childhood  and  early  youth  were  spent  with  his  par- 
ents in  Tarrytown.  At  a  suitable  age  he  went  to  Brook- 
lyn to  learn  the  art  of  printing,  but,  brought  to  a  knowl- 
edge of  converting  grace,  and  persuaded  in  his  own 
mind  that  he  was  called  of  God  to  preach  the  Gospel  of 
Christ,  he  determined  to  prepare  for  the  work.  He  en- 
tered the  ministry  when  twenty-one  years  old,  in  the 
New  York  Conference  at  Goshen  Circuit.  In  1818  he 
was  appointed  to  Pittsfield  Circuit ;  in  1819  to  Stow;  in 
1820  to  Leyden ;  in  1821  and  1822  to  Cortlandt ;  in  1823 
to  Middlebury,  Yt. ;  in  1824  to  St.  Albans;  in  1825  to 
Pittsfield;  in  1826  to  Cortlandt.  He  was  stationed  in 
the  city  of  New  York  in  1827  and  1828,  and  in  the  city 
of  Albany  in  1829  and  1830 ;  was  transferred  to  the  Phil- 
adelphia Conference  in  1831,  and  stationed  in  the  city 
of  Newark,  N.  J.  In  1833, 1834,  and  1835  he  travelled 
the  East  Jersey  District;  in  183G  he  was  stationed  at 
the  Nazareth  Church,  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia.  His 
health  failing,  he  took  a  superannuated  relation,  and 
continued  to  hold  it  until  1841.  While  sustaining  this 
relation  to  his  Conference,  the  Pennsylvania  and  New 
York  Colonization  Societies  appointed  him  governor  of 
Bassa  Cove,  on  the  West  Coast  of  Africa.  He  was  in 
Africa  about  a  year,  but,  subjected  to  severe  suffering  by 
the  African  fever,  he  returned  to  the  States.  In  1842 
he  was  retransferred  to  the  New  York  Conference,  and 
stationed  at  Flushing,  L.  I.;  in  1843  at  Rockaway ;  in 
1844  to  1847  was  presiding  elder  of  the  Long  Island  Dis- 
trict ;  in  1848  and  1849  was  stationed  in  A^'illiamsburgh ; 
in  1850  and  1851  in  the  Twenty-seventh  Street  Church, 
New  York ;  in  1852  was  supernumerary  at  Hempstead, 
L.  I. ;  but  was  given  an  effective  relation  in  1853,  and 
stationed  at  Jamaica.  In  1854  he  was  obliged  again  to 
superannuate,  but  his  relation  was  changed  to  effective 
at  the  ensuing  Conference,  and  in  1851  to  1857  served 
as  chaplain  to  the  Seamen's  Friend  Retreat  on  Staten 
Island.  "He  was  held  in  high  esteem  by  the  managers 
and  officers  of  that  institution.  At  the  bedside  of  the 
sick  and  in  his  chapel  services  he  was  felt  to  be  well 
adapted  to  the  duties  of  his  office."  The  tax  upon  his 
symp.'ithies  and  the  labors  of  the  position  were  more 
tiiaii  his  enfeebled  health  could  sustain,  and  in  1858  he 
resigned  the  chaplaincy,  and  received  a  superannuated 
relation.  He  retired  to  a  quiet  and  comfortable  resi- 
dence in  Tarrytown,  where  he  resided  imtil  the  day  of 
his  decease,  Sept.  25,  1861.  "  Few  ministers  have  a 
longer  or  more  worthy  record  than  this.  Some  of  these 
fields  of  labor  were  very  arduous,  others  of  them  very 
responsible.  In  all  of  tliem  he  was  faithful  and  useful. 
He  was  a  high-minded,  intelligent,  and  honorable  man. 
His  tastes  were  refined,  las  feelings  delicate,  his  conver- 
sation chaste,  and  his  manners  dignified  but  affable.    His 


MATTHIAS'S  DAY 


901 


MATTISON 


Christian  reputation  is  without  blemish.  He  possessed 
the  disciplinary  attributes  of  a  minister — "  gifts,  grace, 
and  usefulness."  His  preaching  was  practical  and  ex- 
perimental. He  sought  assiduously  and  successfully  to 
lead  tlie  members  of  his  Church  to  a  higher  spiritual 
state,  and  a  holy,  active,  religious  life.  As  a  pastor  he 
had  few  superiors.  Gentle,  aifectionate,  and  sympa- 
thetic in  his  manners,  his  pastoral  visits  were  highly 
prized  by  the  people  of  his  care.  He  fostered  the  8ab- 
batli-school,  and  fed  the  lambs  of  the  flock,  a  good  min- 
ister of  Jesus  Christ"  (bishop  Janes,  in  the  N.  Y.  Chris- 
tian Adrocate,  Jan.  0, 18(32).  See  also  Smith,  Memorials 
of  the  N.  Y.  and  N.  Y.  East  Conferences,  p.  11. 

Matthias's  (St.)  Day,  a  festival  observed  on  the 
2-4th  of  February  in  the  Church  of  Rome,  with  a  pro- 
vision that  in  leap-year  it  should  be  observed  on  the 
25th.  In  the  Church  of  England  it  is  usually  observed 
on  the  24th  of  February,  even  in  leap-years.  In  the 
Greek  Church  St.  Matthias's  day  is  held  on  the  9tli  of 
August.  The  date  of  the  introduction  of  this  festival  is 
involved  in  obscurity.  Some  suppose  it  was  first  es- 
tablished in  the  11th  century,  others  in  the  8th.  See 
Farrar,  Ecdes.  Did.  s.  v. ;  Eadie,  Ecdes.  Diet.  s.  v. ; 
Broughton,  Bihlioth.  Hist.  Sac.  ii,  76. 

Matthieists.     See  Munster,  Anabaptists  in. 

Matthieson.     See  Anabaptists. 

Mattison,  Hiram,  D.D.,  a  prominent  divine  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  was  born  at  Norway,  Her- 
kimer County,N.Y.,  Feb.  8, 181 1.  Three  years  afterwards 
his  parents,  who  were  natives  of  New  England,  removed 
to  Oswego  County,  and  settled  near  the  present  city  of 
Oswego.  His  mother,  besides  rearing  her  own  twelve 
children,  became  the  foster-mother  of  ten  others  who 
had  not  homes  for  themselves.  The  first  years  of  his 
early  manhood  were  devoted  to  teaching,  but  his  con- 
version at  the  age  of  twenty-three  turned  his  thoughts 
towards  the  ministry,  which  soon  after  became  his  life- 
work.  He  entered  the  Black  River  Conference  in  1836, 
and  filled  successively  several  of  the  most  important  ap- 
pointments in  that  body.  In  1842  and  1843  he  was  sta- 
tioned at  Watertown ;  in  1844  and  1845  at  Rome ;  in 
1846  he  became  superannuated ;  the  next  year  supernu- 
merary ;  the  next  two  years  he  was  superannuated ;  in 
1850  lie  was  made  secretary  of  the  Conference,  and  his 
relation  changed  to  eifective.  During  this  and  the  fol- 
lowing year  he  served,  by  appointment  of  the  bishop,  as 
professor  in  FaUey  Seminary.  In  1852  he  was  elected 
secretary  of  Conference  for  the  third  time,  and  his  rela- 
tion was  changed  to  superannuated.  This  same  year, 
on  account  of  ill-health  and  a  tendency  to  pulmonary 
difficulties,  he  removed  to  New  York  City  for  the  bene- 
fit of  the  sea  air,  and  was  pastor  of  John  Street  Church 
(left  vacant  bj'  the  death  of  Rev.  \V.  K.  Stopford),  and 
afterwards  of  Trinity  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in 
Tliirtj'-fourth  Street,  which  he  organized,  and  under  his 
administration  the  present  church  edifice  was  erected. 
His  preaching  was  both  popular  and  effective,  being  dis- 
tinguished by  great  clearness  of  statement,  force  of  argu- 
ment, aptness  of  illustration,  and  earnestness  of  appeal. 
His  sermon  at  the  camp-meeting  held  near  Morristown, 
N.  J.,  in  1866,  may  be  ver\^  justly  pronounced  one  of  the 
most  eloquent  and  powerful  discourses  of  modern  times. 
Dr.  Mattison  labored  with  great  zeal  to  secure  action  by 
the  General  Conference  (of  which  he  was  a  member  in 
1848,  1852,  and  1856)  against  all  slaveholding  in  the 
Church,  but  at  length,  despairing  of  success,  he  formally 
withdrew  from  the  ]\Iethodist  Episcopal  Church,  Nov.  1, 
1861.  He  became  the  pastor  of  an  Independent  Method- 
ist Church,  for  which  a  house  of  worship  \vas  built  un- 
der his  supervision  in  Forty-first  Street.  Tliis  church  he 
continued  to  serve  till  1865,  when  he  returned  to  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  and  was  appointed  to  the 
Trinity  Jlethodist  Church  in  Jersey  City,  having  been 
admitted  a  meml)er  of  the  Newark  (N.J.)  Conference, 
in  the  fellowship  of  which  he  continued  till  death.  The 
last  year  of  his  life  was  devoted  to  the  service  of  the 


American  and  Foreign  Christian  Union  as  its  secretary. 
The  fertility  of  his  pen  was  amazing.  Believing  strong- 
ly in  the  power  of  the  press  for  good  or  evil,  he  made 
free  and  constant  use  of  it  to  aid  the  one  and  oppose  the 
other.  His  publications  embraced  a  range  from  the  lit- 
tle Sunday-school  card  to  the  stately  volume,  all  in- 
tended to  aid  the  public  movement  in  favor  of  temper- 
ance, and  in  opposition  to  slavery  and  Romanism.  There 
was  too  much  in  the  life  and  character  of  Dr.  IMattison 
to  admit  of  a  summing  up  in  the  space  allotted  to  this 
brief  sketch.  We  need  only  say  that  to  know  him,  es- 
pecially to  know  him  well,  was  to  admire,  esteem,  and 
love  him  as  a  man,  a  friend,  a  scholar,  a  minister,  a  hero, 
a  Christian.  Bishop  Thomson,  in  his  introduction  to  the 
writer's  memoir  of  Dr.  Mattison's  life  (see  below),  thus 
delineates  him  :  "  Before  the  world  he  stood  as  the  able 
preacher,  the  gifted  writer,  the  stern  controversionalist, 
the  unsparing  antagonist;  but  he  was  not  without  the 
gentler  and  more  attractive  elements  of  character.  He 
was  an  amiable,  communicative,  entertaiuuig  compan- 
ion, a  generous  friend,  and  loving  husband  and  father. 

'  From  his  rough  heart  a  babe  could  press 
Soft  milk  of  human  tenderness.' 

On  all  the  storms  of  his  life  were  rainbows,  but  only  liis 
intimate  friends  were  in  position  to  see  them."  His 
first  book  was  ^4  Scriptural  Defence  of  the  Doctrine  of 
the  Trinity,  a  small  volume  issued  in  1843,  and  to  which 
inultum  injjcirvo  was  peculiarly  applicable.  In  the  same 
year  ho  began  his  publication  of  Tracts  for  the  Times, 
which  at  length  grew  into  a  small  but  piquant  monthlj-, 
called  at  first  The  Conservative,  and  afterwards  the  Prim- 
itive Christian.  In  1846  he  published  a  Avork  on  As- 
tronomy, with  large  astronomical  maps — a  work  of  rare 
merit  and  popularity.  Soon  after  he  issued  his  Ele- 
mentary Astronomy,  and  in  1850  edited  a  new  and  im- 
proved edition  of  Bun-ett's  Geography  of  the  Heavens, 
for  which  he  is  spoken  of  as  "one  of  the  most  competent 
astronomers  in  the  country."  In  1853  he  published  his 
Hiyh-School  Astronomy,  and  the  same  year  was  associ- 
ated with  Prof.  J.  B.Woodbury  in  bringing  out  a  music- 
book.  The  Lute  q/'Zion,  which,  becoming  widely  popular, 
led  in  a  short  time  to  an  enlarged  edition  under  the  title 
of  Neiv  Lute  ofZion.  The  next  year  his  work  on  Spir- 
it Rappings  was  issued,  and  had  a  large  circulation.  In 
1856  his  celebrated  controversy  with  Dr.  J.  H.  Perry,  on 
tlie  Wesleyan  Doctrine  of  Christian  Perfection,  was  pub- 
lished in  successive  pamphlets.  Three  years  later  he 
issued  another  tune-book.  Sacred  Melodies,  "  designed 
for  use  on  all  occasions  of  public  worship ;"  and  the  same 
year  also  sent  forth  his  Impending  Crisis,  a  stout  pam- 
phlet of  pungent  facts  and  impassioned  appeals  on  the 
slavery  question.  In  1864  his  Ministers  Pocket  Manual 
was  published,  and  within  the  next  two  years  followed 
with  the  two  most  elaborate  theological  works  of  his 
life,  Immortality  of  the  Soul,  and  Resurrection  of  the  Body, 
books  of  superior  and  permanent  value.  During  1866 
he  published  Select  Lesso/is  from  the  Holy  Scriptures. 
and  his  Defence  of  American  Methodism,  and  in  the  next 
year  a  timely  treatise  on  Pojnilar  Arnusements.  The 
year  1868,  the  last  of  his  life,  was  perhaps  the  busiest, 
and  the  most  prolific  of  results  in  the  line  of  authorship. 
Besides  editing  and  bringing  through  the  press  the  work 
on  Perfect  Love,  he  wrote  and  published  Mary  Ann 
Smith,  and  a  surprising  number  of  other  works  on  Ro- 
manism, from  the  tract  of  a  few  pages  to  the  heavy 
pamphlet.  He  left  an  unfinished  treatise  on  Depravity 
in  its  Relation  to  Entire  Sanctification,  and  the  outlines 
of  several  other  theological  works.  His  contributions 
to  the  periodical  press  were  abundant  and  able.  He 
was  the  author  of  several  poems  of  decided  merit,  and 
among  his  issues  from  the  press  were  various  Church 
and  Sunday-school  reipiisites.  He  composed  with  re- 
markable ease  and  rapidity,  and  seldom  rewrote  a  sen- 
tence or  even  a  word.  His  busy  life  suddenly  closed  at 
his  residence.  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  in  a  signalh'  triumphant 
death,  Nov.  24, 1868.  s'ee  Minutes  of  Conferences,  1869, 
p,  55  sq. ;  also  Work  Here,  Rest  Hereafter,  or  the  Life 


MATTISON 


902 


MAUBURNE 


(ind  Character  of  Rev.  Hiram  Muttison,  D.D.,  by  Rev.  N. 
A'aiisaiit,  with  an  Introductivn  by  bishop  Thomson  (New 
York,  lf<70,  8vo).     (N.V.) 

Mattison,  Seth,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  born  at  Shaftesbun^,  Vt.,  Feb.  22, 1788 ;  joined  the 
r>Iethodist  Chiu-ch  in  1805;  entered  the  Genesee  Con- 
ference in  1810 ;  and  died  Oct.  18, 1845,  having  preached 
with  eminent  nsefiilness  and  great  holiness  the  Gospel 
of  Christ  for  thirty-four  years.— Minufes  of  Conftrences, 
iii,(>43, 

Mattison,  Spencer,  A.M.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister  and  educator,  was  born  at  Plainficld,  N.  Y.,  Aug. 
2.  1808;  was  converted  in  1825;  graduated,  with  first 
lionors,  at  Middlebury  College,  Vt.,  in  1830 ;  joined  Troy 
Conference  the  same  year,  but  on  his  second  charge  his 
health  failed,  and  he  went  to  Georgia.  On  recover}-  he 
spent  five  years  there  as  principal  of  VineviUe  Academy, 
and  then  rejomed  the  Troy  Conference  in  1842.  In  1846 
lie  was  elected  professor  of  ancient  languages  and  lit- 
erature in  M'Kendree  College,  Illinois,  where  he  spent 
six  years,  and  then  resigned  and  re-entered  the  regu- 
lar work  of  the  ministry,  but  at  the  close  of  a  j-ear 
he  accepted  the  principalship  of  Rock  River  Seminary, 
jMount  Morris,  III.  His  health  again  failed,  and  he  died 
aljout  the  end  of  October,  1853.  Professor  Mattison  was 
an  excellent  linguist  and  instructor,  and  greatly  beloved 
by  his  pupils.  He  was  a  minister  of  fine  talents  and 
uniform  piety,  and  a  most  accomplished  Christian  gen- 
tleman.— Minutes  of  Conferences,  v,  455.     (G.  L.  T.) 

Mattithi'ah  (Heb.  Mattilhjah',  fl^rilnp,  (^ift  of 
Jchorah,  compare  QdiSorot;,  Theodore ;  also  in  the  pro- 
longed form  Mattithya'hii,  ^n^nPip,  1  Chron.  xv,  18, 
21 ;  XXV,  3,  21 ;  Sept.  MarTa^iag,  but  in  Ezra  x,  43 
Ma^SiaSiiaQ  v.  r.  'MuT^aviaQ  ;  so  also  MnrrnSioCj  1 
Mace,  ii,  1 ;  Luke  iii,  25,  26)  the  name  of  three  or  four 
men  in  the  Old  Test,  and  of  one  or  t\vo  (Auth.  Vers. 
"  I\Iattathias")  in  the  New.  See  also  Mattathah  ; 
1Iattiie^\'  ;  Matthlvs,  etc. ;  and  especially  ISIatta- 

THIAS. 

1.  One  of  the  sons  of  the  Levite  Jeduthun,  appointed 
by  David  cliief  of  the  fourteenth  section  of  the  Temple 
musicians  (1  Chron.  xxv,  3,  21).  B.C.  1014.  He  is 
jirobabh'  the  same  with  one  of  the  Levitical  wardens 
who  were  assigned  to  the  performance  of  the  sacred  an- 
thems on  the  removal  of  the  sacred  ark  to  Jerusalem  (1 
Chron.  xv,  18,  21 ;  xvi,  5).     B.C.  cir.  1043. 

2.  An  Israelite  of  the  "sons"  (residents)  of  Nebo, 
who  divorced  his  Gentile  wife  after  the  Babylonian  exile 
(Ezra  X,  43).  B.C.  459.  He  was  possibly  identical  with 
No.  4. 

3.  The  eldest  son  of  Shallum,  a  Levite  of  the  family 
of  Korah,  -who  had  charge  of  the  baked  offerings  of  the 
Temjile  on  the  re-establishment  after  the  exile  (1  Chron. 
ix,31).     B.C.  cir.  440. 

4.  One  of  those  (apparently  chief  Israelites)  who 
supported  Ezra  on  the  right  hand  while  reading  the 
law  to  the  people  after  the  captivity  (Neh.  viii,  4) .  B.C. 
cir.  410. 

5.  A  person  named  in  Luke  iii,  26  as  the  son  of  Semei, 
among  the  maternal  ancestors  of  Jesus;  but  as  no  such 
name  appears  in  the  i)arallel  passages  of  the  Old  Test., 
and  would  licrc  unduly  protract  the  interval  limited  by 
otlier  intimations  of  the  generations,  it  is  probably  in- 
terpolated from  No.  6.  (See  Strong's  II arm.  and  Expos, 
of  the  Gospels,  p.  16.) 

6.  The  son  of  Amos  and  father  of  Joseph,  among  the 
maternal  ancestry  of  Jesus  after  the  close  of  tlie  O.-Test. 
genealogy  (Luke  iii,  25).     B.C.  post  406. 

Mattock,  an  old  English  name  for  an  agricultural 
imi)lement  like  a  pickaxe  wiih  a  wide  jioiiit.  for  grub- 
bing up  and  digging  out  roots  and  stones,  is  the  render- 
ing adopted  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  for  three  Hebrew  words. 
^!7"?  {madei-',  an  instrument  for  dressing  or  pruning  a 
vineyard ;  occurs  only  in  Isa.  vii,  25)  denotes  a  xcceding- 


hook  or  hoe ;  iTllJ'nri'2  (inachareshah' ,  1  Sam.  xiii,  20) 
and  ri'd'nri'5  Qnachare'sheth,  "  share,"  1  Sam.  xiii,  20) 
are  the  names  of  two  agricultural  cutting  instruments 
(for  they  were  sharpened  with  a  file),  one  of  which  is 
perhaps  Vae 2>lough-share  and  the  other  tlie  coulter  (from 
D'^n,  to  scrape;  but  the  plur.  of  both  is  nilli'^inp,  ma- 
chareshoth',  "  mattocks,"  1  Sam.  xiii,  21).  See  Plough. 
a'nn  {che'reb,  2  Chron.  xxxiv,  6 ;  elsewhere  usually  a 
"  sword")  signifies  any  sharp  instrument,  as  a  knife, 
dagger,  chisel;  and  possibly  a  spade  in  the  passage  in 
question  (marg.  "maul").  The  tool  used  in  Arabia  for 
loosening  the  ground,  described  by  Niebuhr  {Descr.  de 
r Arabic,  p.  137),  answers  generally  to  our  mattock  or 
grubbing-axe  (Loudon,  Encyclop.  of  Gardening,  p.  617  ; 
Hasselquist,  Trav.  p.  100), i.e.  a  single-headed  pickaxe, 
the  sarculus  simplex,  as  opposed  to  hicornis,  of  PaUadius 
{De  Re  Rust,  i,  43).  The  ancient  Egyptian  hoe  was  of 
wood,  and  answered  for  hoe,  spade,  and  pick.  The  blade 
was  inserted  in  or  through  the  handle,  and  the  two  were 


Ancient  Egyptian  Hoes. 

attached  about  the  centre  by  a  twisted  rope.  See  Wil- 
kinson, Anc.  Egypt,  ii,  16,  18,  abridgm. ;  comp.  Her.  ii, 
14.     See  Agricultuke. 

Mattiriii,  Charles  Robert,  an  Irish  divine,  was 
born  in  1782,  and  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dub- 
lin. Though  popular  as  a  pulpit  orator,  the  income 
from  his  living — the  curacy  of  St.  Peter's,  in  the  Irish 
metropolis — was  inadequate  to  his  support,  and  he  turn- 
ed aside  to  secular  literary  enter] irises.  He  secured  spe- 
cial distinction  as  a  poet  and  dramatist.  He  died  in 
1825.  ■  Says  a  contemporary,  "  The  genius  of  Maturin 
was  great,  but  it  was  not  always  under  the  control  of  a 
pure  taste."  He  pul)lished  a  collection  of  his  Sei'vions, 
ijesides  many  secular  works,  several  of  which  were  first 
brought  out  under  the  assumed  name  of  Dennis  Jasper 
Murphy. 

Matutinal.     See  ISIatins. 

Mauburne  or  Momboir,  Jean,  an  ascetic  Bel- 
gian author,  was  born  at  Brussels  about  1460.  After 
having  studied  grammar  and  music  at  the  cathedral 
school  of  Utrecht,  he  Joined  the  regular  canons  of  Jlont- 
Saint-Agnes,  a  famous  monastery  near  Zwol).  and  was 
emiiloyed  in  different  positions  in  the  congregation  of 
Windcsham.  The  pulilication  of  his  first  work,  Rosetum 
Spirituale,  gave  I\Iauljume  great  renown,  and  induced 
Nicholas  de  Hacqueville,  first  president  of  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Paris,  to  invite  him  to  France  (1497),  to  reform 
the  regidar  canons  of  the  kingdom.  Mauburne  gladly 
heeded  the  call,  and  restored  order  to  the  abbevs  of 
Saint- Si'vcrin.  of  Cysoing.  of  Saint -Euvert  d'Orleans, 
and  of  Saint-^Lirtin  de  Nevers  ;  but  he  attached  him- 
self more  particularly  to  that  of  Livri,  of  which  he  was 


MAUDurr 


903 


MAULBRONN 


elected  prior  (Nov.,  1500),  then  regular  abbot  by  the 
resignation  of  Nicholas  de  Hacqueville  in  liis  favor 
(Jan.,  1502).  The  zeal  of  Maiiburne  was  not  confined 
to  his  own  order ;  he  was  interested  in  that  of  Benedict, 
and  labored  much  for  the  reformation  of  the  congrega- 
tion of  Chezal,  which  served  as  a  model  to  the  houses 
of  Saint- Vanne  and  Saint-lMaur.  Taken  ill  in  conse- 
quence of  the  fatigue  caused  by  his  religious  labors,  he 
was  carried  to  Paris,  and  died  there  about  the  beginning 
of  the  yesLT  1503.  lie  included  among  his  friends  Saint- 
Francois  de  Paule,  GeofFroi  de  Boussard,  chancellor  of 
Notre-Dame  of  Paris ;  the  bishop  Louis  Pinel,  Pierre  de 
Bruges,  and  probably  Erasmus,  who  addressed  several 
letters  to  him.  His  principal  works  are,  Rosetum  exer- 
cituum  sjnritualium  et  sacrarum  meditationum  (Bale. 
1491,  et  al.).  "This  book,"  says  Gence,  "is  the  first 
where  some  passages  of  the  Imitation  have  been  intro- 
duced and  given  under  the  name  of  Kempis :"  —  Venato- 
riuni  investigatorium  sanctorum  canonici  ordinis,  a  his- 
torical manuscript  which  appears  to  be  an  abridgment  of 
that  of  Buschius,  and  in  which  Mauburne  again  attrib- 
utes to  Kempis  the  book  Qui  sequitus  me  of  the  Imita- 
tion. We  find  in  the  ancient  Gallia  Christiana  (t.  vii, 
col.  281-282)  two  letters  addressed  to  this  priest  by  Eras- 
mus, and  written  at  Paris.  See  Swurt,  Athena  Belf/ica, 
p.  447 ;  Mastelyn,  Necrol.  Viridis  Vallis,  p.  121 ;  Sander, 
BihUoth.  Belgica ;  Gallia  C/i;-w?irt?i«,  vii,  836-839  ;  Mo- 
reri,  Grand  Diet.  Hist.  s.  v. ;  Paquot,  Memoires,  vol.  iii. 
— Hoefer,  N'ouv.  Biog.  Geneixde,  s.  v. 

Mauduit,  Michel,  a  learned  French  theologian, 
was  born  at  Vire,  Normandj',  in  1G44.  While  still  young- 
he  entered  the  brotherhood  of  the  Oratorians,  Avhere  for 
a  long  time  he  studied  the  classics;  then  he  devoted 
himself  to  preaching,  and  instructing  the  country  peo- 
ple. The  study  of  the  Bible  occupied  the  remainder  of 
his  life.  He  possessed  a  great  variety  of  knowledge, 
understood  Greek  well,  also  Plebrew  and  Latin,  and  ob- 
tained many  prizes  in  the  academical  competitions  of 
Rouen  and  Caen.  He  died  at  Paris  January  19,  1709. 
Of  Mauduit's  works  we  have  Traite  de  religion  centre 
les  Athees,  les  Deistes  et  les  nouveaux  Pij7-rhoniens  (Par. 
1677,  12mo) ;  the  2d  edition  (1698)  has  been  great- 
ly enlarged: — Melanges  de  direrses  jwesies ;  divises  en 
IVUvres  (Lyons;  the  edition  of  1723, 12mo,  is  prefera- 
ble on  account  of  the  additions  to  it).  We  find  in  this 
a  well-written  preface  on  the  good  use  of  poetry  : — Dis- 
sertation sur  le  siij'et  de  la  goutte,  avec  le  mogen  de  Venga- 
rantir  (Paris,  1687, 1689, 12mo)  : — Analyse  des  Epitres 
de  Saint  Paul  et  des  Epitres  canoniques,  avec  des  disser- 
tationes  sur  les  endroits  dijficiks  (Paris,  1691,  2  vols. 
12mo ;  reprinted  in  1702)  : — Analyse  de  VEi'angile  selon 
Vordre  historique  de  la  Concorde  (Paris,  1694,  3  vols. 
12mo,  et  al.).  This  work,  to  which  the  author  devoted 
nearly  all  his  life,  has  had  many  editions  (later  editions, 
Malines,  1821,  7  vols.  12mo ;  Paris,  1843-44,  4  vols.  8vo)  : 
— Analyse  des  Actes  des  Ap6t?-es  (Paris,  1697,  2  vols. 
12mo)  : — Meditations  poiu-  une  retraite  ecclesiastique  de 
dix  jours  (Lyons,  1723,  12mo).  lUauduit  also  left,  in 
MS.,  Analyse  de  V Apocalypise  and  Traduction  complete 
du  JVouveau  Testament.  See  Mercure  de  France,  May, 
1709  ;  Moreri,  Diet.  Hist.  s.  v. — Hoefer,  Nouvelle  Biogr. 
Generale,  s.  v. 

Mauermann,  Franz  Laur,  a  German  Eoman 
Catholic  prelate,  was  born  at  Neuzelle  in  1780  ;  entered 
the  priesthood  in  1797,  and,  after  fiUing  various  posi- 
tions, was  in  1825  made  chaplain  to  the  royal  house  of 
Saxony,  and  in  1827  prajses  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Consistory  of  the  kingdom.  In  1842  he  was  made 
bishop  of  Rome  and  confessor  of  the  king  of  Saxony. 
Later  he  became  apostolic  vicar.  He  died  in  Octo'uer, 
1845. — Regenshurger  Real-EncyklopUdie,  s.  v. 

Maul  or  Mall  is  an  old  name  for  a  hammer  or 
mallet,  and  stands  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  for  the  Ileb.  y'^'Z'O 
(jnephits',  only  occurs  in  Prov.  xxv,  18 ;  but  kindred  is 
y Q^,  mappets',  "  battle-axe,"  Jer.  li,  20 ;  both  from  "TfiS 


or  "TSS,  to  hrealc  in  pieces),  a  war-club,  such  as  was  an- 
ciently in  common  use,  and  even  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
the  memory  of  which  is  stUl  preserved  in  the  modern 
mace  as  a  sign  of  authority.  "  Probably  such  was  that 
which  is  said  to  have  suggested  the  name  of  Charles 
Martel.  The  mace  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  ac- 
counts of  the  wars  of  the  Europeans  with  Saracens, 
Turks,  and  other  Orientals,  and  several  kinds  are  still 
in  use  among  the  Bedouin  Arabs  of  remoter  parts 
(Burckhardt,  Notes  on  Bedouins,  i,  55).  In  their  Euro- 
pean wars  the  Turks  were  notorious  for  the  use  they 
made  of  the  mace  (\\.\\oV^ys,Hist.ofthe  TitrJcsy  (Smith). 
Various  kinds  of  mace  were  used  by  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians, either  with  or  without  a  ball  at  the  end  to  give 
weight  to  the  blow,  and  generally  with  a  guard  at  the 
handle.  The  curved  club  or  throw-stick,  the  Arabian 
lissdn  or  "  tongue,"  is  a  very  general  Oriental  weapon. 


Ancient  Throw-sticks :  1, Egyptian;  2,  Assyrian. 


Among  the  Australians,  this  implement  is  yet  a  formid- 
able one,  called  the  boomerang.  Unmistakable  traces 
of  its  use  occur  on  the  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  monu- 
ments (Wilkinson,  A  nc.  Eg.  i,  365 ;  Bonomi,  Nineveh,  p. 
134-6).     See  Armor. 

Maulbronn,  originally  a  Cistercian  convent  in  the 
bishopric  of  Spiers,  was  foimded  by  bishop  Gunther  of 
Spiers,  on  a  tract  of  land  given  him  by  Walther  von 
Lomersheim  in  1148,  previously  infested  with  robbers. 
The  convent  soon  became  verj'  rich,  partly  through  do- 
nations, and  partly  by  the  zeal  and  activity  of  the 
monks.  It  was  at  first  placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  empire,  by  Frederick  I  and  other  emperors,  but  in  the 
14th  century  was  placed  under  that  of  the  Palatinate.  In 
1504  it  was  concjuered  by  duke  Ulrich  of  Wurtemberg, 
and  when  the  Reformation  commenced,  it  was  appoint- 
ed by  him  for  the  monks  of  his  province  who  wished  to 
remain  Roman  Catholics;  duke  Christopher,  in  1557, 
took  this  also  from  them,  appointed  an  evangelical  ab- 
bot, and  established  a  school  in  it.  It  is  yet  the  seat  of 
one  of  the  four  minor  theological  seminaries.  The  re- 
maining portions  of  the  building,  i.  e.  the  church,  clois- 
ters, entrance-hall,  and  refectory,  are  considered  among 
the  finest  specimens  of  German  Gothic  architecture. 

The  place  has  become  renowned  in  the  annals  of  Prot- 
estantism by  its  connection  with  two  important  trans- 
actions, the  Colloquium  Maulbrunnense,  in  1564,  and  the 
Foimula  Maulbrimnensis,  in  1576. 

(1.)  The  introduction  of  Calvinism  into  the  Palatinate 
by  duke  Frederick  III  after  1560,  and  in  particular  the 
publication  of  the  Heidelberg  Catechism  in  1563,  pro- 
voked great  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  Lutherans. 
The  authorities,  and  especially  duke  Christopher  of 
Wiirtemberg,  Wolfgang  of  Psalzneuburg,  and  margrave 
Charles  of  Baden,  vainly  endeavored  to  heal  the  dissen- 
sion by  means  of  a  collotjuy  held  between  the  theolo- 
gians of  the  Palatinate  and  Wiirtemberg  at  jMaulbronn 
in  1564.  The  elector  of  the  Palatinate  was  accompanied 
by  his  court  preacher,  JI.  i\Iichael  Diller,  and  the  theo- 
logians Dr.  Peter  B<iquin,  Caspar  Olevian,  Zacharias 
Ursinus.  and  Peter  Uathenius ;  also  the  church  counsel- 
lor Thomas  Erastus,  chancellor  Dr.  Eheim,  and  notary 
Wilhelm  Xylander,  professor  of  Greek  at  Heidelberg. 
The    representatives    of  Wurtemberg    were   Valentin 


MAULBRONN 


904 


MAULMONT 


Vannius,  abbot  of  Maulbronn,  Johannes  Brenz,  provost 
of  Stuttgard,  Jacob  Aiubreii,  provost  and  chancellor  of 
the  University  of  Tubingen,  Dietrich  Schnejjf,  professor 
at  Tubingen,  and  the  court  preacher  Balthasar  Bidem- 
bacli ;  also  as  notary,  Lucas  Osiandcr,  then  preacher  at 
Stuttg;ird,  and  as  civil  counsellors  chancellor  John  Fess- 
ler  and  vice-chanccUor  Jerome  Gerhard.  The  colloquy 
lasted  from  April  10th  to  April  1 5th.  Chancellor  Eheim, 
in  his  opening  speech,  invited  the  theologians,  since  the 
object  of  the  conference  was  to  heal  their  dissensions,  to 
avoid  all  merely  human  views  and  arguments,  and  to 
confine  themselves  to  the  positive  testimony  of  Scrip- 
ture on  the  points  of  controversy.  Yet,  instead  of  treat- 
ing of  the  doctrine  of  the  Eucharist,  which  was  their 
chief  point  of  difference,  the  theologians  at  once  launch- 
ed into  arguments  concerning  the  ubiquity,  or,  as  An- 
dreii  termed  it,  the  majesfas  nuUo  loco  circumscripta,  of 
the  body  of  Christ.  Thus  all  possibility  of  harmony 
was  at  once  destroyed.  During  eight  sessions  this  same 
question  was  discussed  without  either  party  coming  any 
nearer  to  the  views  of  the  other.  The  theologians  of 
the  Palatinate,  and  in  particular  Boquin,  Olevian,  and 
Ursin,  partly  denied  the  importance  of  the  doctrine  of 
the  ubiquity  of  the  body  of  Christ,  and  partly  refuted 
their  opponents  by  the  Scriptures,  the  articles  of  faith, 
and  by  an  expose  of  tlie  errors  into  which  these  princi- 
ples must  lead.  Those  of  Wiirtemberg  tried  especially 
to  defend  the  idea  of  the  ubiquity  of  Christ's  body  from 
misapprehension  and  misrepresentation,  and  treated  it 
as  a  necessary  consequence  of  unio  personalis  and  the 
cominunicatio  idiomaium ;  they  rejected  the  accusation 
of  mixing  up  the  two  natures,  and  accused  their  oppo- 
nents of  making  a  mere  man  of  Christ.  As  the  others 
asked  whether,  in  this  view,  the  body  of  Christ  was 
considered  as  omnipresent  even  iii  the  womb,  Andrea, 
who  was  spokesman  of  the  Wiirtemberg  party,  drew  a 
distinction  between  the  possession  and  the  use  of  the 
attribute,  and  asserted  that  Christ  could  not  have  been 
omnipresent  in  the  womb,  but  only  became  so  actually 
after  his  ascension — a  view  which  the  Heidelberg  the- 
ologians rejected  as  contrary  to  reason  and  unsupported 
by  Scripture. 

At  the  last  two  sittings,  finally,  the  question  of  the 
Eucharist  was  discussed,  as  the  princes  wished  that  the 
two  parties  should  seek  to  arrive  at  some  understanding 
concerning  this  important  point,  leaving  aside  all  Chrls- 
tological  questions.  Yet,  after  a  verj'  few  speeches,  the 
question  of  ubiquity  was  again  started,  this  time  by  the 
Keformed  theologians,  and  the  discussion  receded  to  its 
original  ground.  The  coUoquy  now  came  to  a  close. 
The  protocols  were  compared  and  signed,  and  the  two 
parties  separated,  each  holding  as  firmly  to  its  own 
views  as  previous  to  the  meeting,  and  considering  itself 
as  having  obtained  the  advantage.  In  spite  of  the 
promise  of  secrecj^  the  Heidelberg  theologians  boasted 
of  having  silenced  their  opponents,  claiming  even  that 
duke  Christopher  himself  was  now  more  inclined  to 
their  doctrines.  The  Wiirtemberg  party  would  not 
brook  tliis,  and  Brenz  wrote  an  account  of  the  colloquy, 
denying  the  statements  of  the  Heidelbergians,  wliich 
was  at  first  circulated  privately,  and  was  finally  print- 
ed in  the  same  j'ear  luidcr  the  title  Epiiome  colloquii 
^[aidhruuneiisis  inter  theologos  Jhiddberrjenses  et  Wur- 
temheryenses  de  Ccena  Domini  et  Majestafe  Christi,  and 
also  a  Wahrhaftifjer  u.  grilndlicher  Bericht  v.  d.  Ge- 
sprdch,  etc.,  (jestellt  durch  d.  Wiirltemher()ischen  Theolo- 
(jen  (Frankfort,  156-1,  4to) ;  in  these  works  he  accused 
his  adversaries  of  having  had  recoiu"se  to  soi)histry,  and, 
when  tliey  fuund  it  impossible  longer  to  defend  their 
views,  to  have  caused  tlie  collocjuy  to  be  brought  to  a 
close.  Heidelberg  answered  by  the  Epitome  colloq. 
Maidbr.  cum  7'esponsione  Palatinorum  ad  epit:  Wiir- 
temb.  (Heidelberg,  1565, 4to),  and  published  a^t  the  same 
time  the  protocol  of  the  conference,  which  was  followed 
up  by  the  opposite  party  with  a  new  edition  of  the  pro- 
tocols, ''without  changes  or  additions"  (Tubing.  1565, 
4to).     Both  parties  now  accused  each  other  of  interpo- 


lating the  protocols.  The  theologians  of  Wittenberg 
were  also  drawn  into  the  quarrel,  as  duke  Christopher 
submitted  to  tliem  the  protocols  of  IMaulbronn  and  the 
De  Majestate  Christi  of  Andreii  and  Brenz,  both  of  which 
they  severely  condemned.  The  dispute  lasted  for  sev- 
eral years.  It  was  finally  set  at  rest  by  the  wise  and 
Christian  efforts  of  elector  Frederick  at  the  Diet  of  Augs- 
burg in  1566.  See  Osiander,  Jlistor.  eccl.  cent,  xvi, 
c.  59,  p.  791;  Struve,  P/dlz.  K.  Hist,  p.  149  sq.;  Hos- 
pinian,  Hist.  sacr.  t.  ii. ;  Arnold,  Unpart.  K.  Hist.  cent, 
xvi,  §  17,  p.  14;  Sattler,  Gesch.  d.  Herzogth.  Wib-tem- 
berg,  iv,  207  sq. ;  Planck,  Geschichte  d.  Prot.  Lehrbegr, 
vol.  V,  pt.  ii,  p.  487  sq.;  Heppe,  Gesch.  des  deutsch.  Pro- 
test, ii,  71  sq.;  Klmizinger,  I).  Peligio7isgesprach  zu  M. 
{Zeitschr.  f.  histor.  Theolog.  1849,  i,  166  sq.) ;  Leben  u. 
ausqeicdhlte  Schrift.  d.  Voter,  etc.,  d.  rejo'rm.  Kirche 
(El'berfeld,  1857,  p.  260). 

(2.)  Another  conference,  held  tw^lvi.  years  later  at 
Maulbronn,  between  theologians  from  Tt'iirtemberg,  Ba- 
den, and  Henneberg,  secured  a  better  vesult.  The  theo- 
logians were  L.  Osiander,  Balthasar,  Bidembach,  pro- 
vost of  Stuttgard,  Abel  Scherdinger,  court  preacher  of 
Henneberg,  Peter  Strecker,  pastor  at  Suhl,  and  some 
others.  The  object  of  the  conference  was  to  discuss  a 
formula  of  union  drawn  up  by  Osiander  and  Bidembach. 
Tlie  meeting  took  place  Jan.  19,  1576,  and  the  formula 
itself,  which  may  be  considered  as  a  forerunner  of  the 
Eor inula  Concordiee,  received  the  name  of  Forriula 
Maulbrunnensis.  In  the  early  part  of  Februaiy  it  was 
sent,  together  with  an  address  by  count  George  Ernest 
of  Henneberg,  to  the  elector  August  of  Saxony,  who  re- 
ceived also  about  the  same  time  the  so-called  Suabian 
and  Saxon  formula  of  duke  Julius  of  Brunswick.  The 
elector  submitted  them  both  to  Andrea,  who  declared 
that,  in  his  opinion,  the  formula  of  Maidbronn  was  the 
most  serviceable  for  the  purpose  of  uniting  the  different 
parties.  Yet  in  the  conference  held  at  Torgau,  May  28, 
Andrea  consented  to  use  nominal!}'  the  other  formula  as 
a  basis,  but  took  good  care  to  include  all  the  principal 
points  of  the  Maulbronn  formula  into  the  so-called  Book 
of  Torgau.  See  Hutter,  Concoixl.  cone.  p.  305  sq. ;  Osi- 
ander, Hist.  Eccl.  cent,  xvi,  lib.  iv,  pt.  iii,  p.  866 ;  Planck, 
Gesch.  d.  protest.  Lehrbegr.  vi,  428;. Heppe,  Gesch.  d. 
luth.  Concordienformel,  1858,  p.  73  sq. 

(3.)  In  September  of  the  same  year  (1576),  still  anoth- 
er meeting  was  held  at  Maulbronn,  in  which  Heerbrand, 
Schnepf,  Magirus,  Bidembach,  L.  Osiander, Dietz,  Scher- 
dinger, and  Strecker  took  part.  Its  object  was  to  dis- 
cuss the  Book  of  Torgau,  and  it  ended  in  expressing  its 
approbation  of  it  as  a  whole.  See  Heppe,  Gesch.  d. 
luth.  Concordienformel,  p.  120  sq. — Herzog,  Real-Ency- 
ifo;7.  ix,  178  sq.      (J.N. P.) 

Maulmont  (or  Malmont),  Jean  pk,  a  learned 
Frenchman,  was  born  in  Limousin,  in  the  10th  century, 
of  an  ancient  noble  family,  which  possessed  one  of  the 
baronies  of  Limousin,  the  chateau  of  Maumont.  Of  his 
personal  histor}-  but  little  is  known  except  that  he 
was  principal  of  the  College  of  Saint-Michel,  otherwise 
called  Chanac,  which  had  been  founded  in  1530  by  the 
Pompadour  house  for  the  Limousin  students.  Accord- 
ing to  La  Croix  du  Maine,  "jMaidmont  was  a  very 
learned  man,  master  of  many  languages,  especially  the 
Greek,  a  great  theologian,  and  a  prolific  orator."  He 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Julius  Scaliger.  IMany  of  his 
contemporaries  have  pretended  that  he  was  the  true  au- 
thor of  the  translation  of  Plutarch  which  liears  tho 
name  of  Amyot ;  this  assertion  lias  been  refuted  by  La 
Monnoye  in  a  note  on  UAnti-Baillet  of  Menage.  We 
have  of  Maulmont's  works,  Les  (Euvres  de  Saint  Justin, 
pliilosojihe  et  marti/r  (Paris,  1538,  fol.)  : — Les  Histoires 
et  Chi'oniques  du  Monde,  tirees  tant  du  gros  volume  de 
Jean  Zonare,  auteur  Byzantin,  que  cle  plusieu7's  autres 
scripteurs  Hebrevx  et  Grecs,  urec  annotations  (Paris, 
1563,  fol.) : — Les  g7-ares  et  sainies  7-emo7itrances  de  l'e7n- 
jiercnr  Ferdinand  au  pope  Pie  IV  sur  le  Candle  de 
Trente  (Paris,  1563,  8vo)  :  —  Renumt7-a)ices  Chretieimes 
enfo7-me  d'epitre  a  la  reine  d'A7iglete7-7-e,  t7-ad.  du  Latin 


MAUNDAY  THURSDAY 


905 


IVIAUR 


(k  Hierosme  Oserias,  evesque  Porttigalois  (Paris,  1653, 
8vo).  The  same  author  has  written  in  Italian  a  life  of 
Rene  de  Birague,  chancellor  of  France,  who  died  in  1583, 
and  the  Gallia  Christiana  quotes  it  as  a  correct  and  use- 
Ad  work.  See  La  Croix  du  Maine  et  Du  Verdier,  Biblioth. 
Francoises;  Goujet,  Biblioth.  Francoises,  vol.  xii;  Gal- 
lia Christiana,  vi,  571.— Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biocj.  Generale, 
vol.  xxxiv,  s.  V. 

Maunday  Thursday,  also  known  under  the  term 
Dies  Ccen-.e  Dominic.e  (q.  v.),  is  the  name  given  to 
the  Thursday  before  Faster.  The  origin  of  this  name 
is  Dies  maiidati—7nandate  Thursday;  either  from  the 
commandment  which  our  Saviour  gave  to  his  disciples 
to  commemorate  the  sacrament  of  his  supper,  which  he 
instituted  on  this  day  (hence  also  called  dies  paiiis,  day 
of  bread;  and  dies  lucis,  day  of  light) ;  or  because  on 
this  day  our  Saviour  washed  his  disciples'  feet,  and  gave 
them  commandment  to  follow  his  example.  Others  de- 
rive it  from  the  Saxon  mand,  which  means  a  basket,  and 
subsequently  any  gift  or  offering  contained  in  the  bas- 
ket. On  this  day  penitents  who  had  been  put  out  of 
the  Church  on  Ash- Wednesday  were  readmitted.  There 
was  also  a  general  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  with 
which  the  ceremony  of  washing  the  feet  was  connected. 
Candidates  for  baptism  publicly  recited  the  Creed.  The 
origin  of  this  practice  is  generally  referred  to  the  7th 
centuT}',  but  Riddle  {Christian  Antiquities,  p.  GG9)  con- 
tends that  "  it  appears  to  have  been  of  much  earlier  in- 
stitution."    See  Pedilavium. 

Maunoir,  Julien,  a  learned  French  ecclesiastic, 
was  born  Oct.  1, 1606,  in  the  province  of  Saint-Georges 
de  Reinthembaidt,  diocese  of  Rennes.  At  the  age  of 
twenty  he  entered  the  Order  of  the  Jesuits  at  Paris, 
and  tijiishcd  his  studies  at  La  Flijche.  A  professor- 
ship in  the  College  of  Quimper  was  offered  him,  but  he 
preferred  to  preach,  and  accordingly  entered  the  min- 
istry. He  studied  the  dialect  of  Brittany,  began  to 
travel  over  the  country,  and  displayed  so  much  zeal  in 
his  preaching  that  his  health  became  impaired,  and  he 
was  obliged  to  resume  the  career  of  teaching,  which 
he  followed  at  Tours.  After  having  been  ordained  at 
Nevers,  he  consecrated  the  remainder  of  his  life,  accord- 
ing to  a  vow  that  he  had  made,  to  the  evangelization 
of  Brittany.  For  forty-two  consecutive  years  Maunoir 
labored  for  the  accomplishment  of  his  project.  Un- 
moved by  the  injury  and  violence  with  which  his  devo- 
tion was  often  repaid,  accepting  or  imposing  on  himself 
the  rudest  privations,  travelling  on  foot,  with  a  wallet  on 
his  shoulders,  and  carrying  only  the  clothing  and  nour- 
ishment absolutely  indispensable,  he  visited  successively 
and  repeatedly  nearly  all  the  parishes  in  the  dioceses  of 
Cornovaille  and  Leon,  the  islands  of  Ouessant,  of  Mo- 
lene,  of  Sizein,  etc.,  without  mentioning  a  great  number 
of  localities  in  the  other  dioceses  of  Brittany,  and  every- 
where his  preaching  was  attended  with  success.  He 
died  Jan.  28, 1683,  at  Plevin,  near  Guincamp.  In  ac- 
cordance with  his  expressed  desire,  he  was  buried  like  a 
pauper,  but  later  a  statue  was  erected  to  him  in  the 
church  of  Plevin.  With  the  triple  object  in  view  of 
understanding  thoroughly  a  language  so  indispensable 
to  himself,  of  purifying  it  from  the  mixed  dialect  used 
by  the  preachers  of  the  times,  and  of  generalizing  the 
learning  of  the  language,  Maunoir  aided  in  the  promo- 
tion of  the  colleges  of  Quimper  and  of  Morlaix,  where 
the  language  of  Brittany  was  generally  used.  The  same 
motives  actuated  him  in  the  composition  of  the  follow- 
ing works,  which  have  been  adopted  by  all  the  ecclesi- 
astics of  the  country :  Canticon  spii'ituel  hoc  instructio- 
non  2}rofetubl  evit  quisqui  an  hent  da  vont  d'ar  bar-ados 
(Quimper) :  —  Vita  S.  Corentini,  A  reniorici  ;  Cosopeti 
(Quimper,  1685,  12mo,  et  al.) ;  far  from  being  written 
in  Latin,  as  father  Southwell  and  Le  Long  have  sup- 
posed, this  life  is  comiwscd  of  766  Breton  verses: — Le 
Temple  consacre  a  la  passion  de  Jesus-Christ,  in  Breton, 
prose  and  verse  (Quimper,  1679, 1686,  8vo) : — Le  sacre 
College  de  Jesus  divise  en,  cinq  classes,  ou  Von  enseigne  en 


Icmgue  Armorique  les  lemons  Chretiennes,  avec  les  trois 
clefs  pour  y  entrcr.  These  and  other  works  of  this  char- 
acter are  curious  in  a  philological  point  of  view  as  mon- 
uments of  the  changes  in  the  Breton  language.  A  very 
competent  judge,  M.  de  la  Villemarque,  has  given  the 
following  opinion :  "  Born  in  the  French  part  of  Brit- 
tany, father  Maunoir  was  shocked  by  the  rudeness  of 
certain  sounds  in  the  Breton  language.  In  order  to 
soften  them,  he  suppressed  or  modified  certain  signs 
necessary  for  preserving  the  primitive  signification  of 
the  words,  and  for  showing  their  etymology,  deriva- 
tion, and  affinities.  The  expressions  thus  disfigured,  of 
whicli  he  makes  use  in  his  works,  prevailed  in  the  18th 
century,  and  he  left  an  orthography  without  fixed  prin- 
ciples or  method,  an  orthography  ad  libitum,  which  has 
very  properly  been  abandoned,  since  Le  Pelletier  has 
substituted  the  ancient  Breton  orthography  in  his  Dic- 
iionnaire.  See  Boschet,  Le  Parfait  Missionnuire,  ou  la 
vie  du  P.  Jtdien  Maunoir  (Paris,  1697,  r2mo) ;  Lobin'eau, 
Vie  des  Saints,  etc.,  de  Bretagne,  \,  23-137 ;  G.  Leroux, 
Recueil  des  vertus  et  des  miracles  du  P.  Julien  Maunoir 
(Quimper,  1716, 12mo) ;  La  Villemarque,  Fssai  sur  VHis- 
toire  de  la  Langue  Bretonne,  at  the  head  of  his  edition 
of  the  Diet.  Frangais-Breton  de  Le  Gonidec  (St.  Brieuc, 
1847,  -Ito). — Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  vol.  xxxiv,  s.v. 

Maupas  du  Tour,  Henri  Caugiion  de,  a  French 
prelate,  was  born  in  1600  at  the  chateau  of  Cosson,  near 
Rheims.  Descended  from  an  ancient  family  of  Cham- 
pagne, he  had  for  his  godfather  king  Henry  IV,  and  was 
scarcely  sixteen  years  of  age  when  he  was  elected  ab- 
bot of  Saint-Denis  of  Rheims,  with  a  regular  benefice. 
In  1636  he  founded  there  the  society  of  Saint  Genevieve. 
He  next  became  chief  vicar  of  the  diocese  of  Rheims, 
then  first  cliaplain  to  the  queen,  Anne  of  Austria,  and  in 
1641  was  finally  elected  bishop  of  Puy,  whence  he  was 
transferred  in  1661  to  the  see  of  Evreux.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year,  being  called  to  Rome  to  solicit  the  beatiti- 
catioii  of  Francois  de  Sales,  he  was  chosen  assistant  pre- 
late to  the  pontifical  throne.  January  14, 1667,  he  found- 
ed a  seminary  at  Evreux,  resigned  his  bishopric  in  1680, 
and  died  at  "E\Teux  August  12  of  the  same  year.  Of 
his  works  we  have  Vie  de  Miw.  de  Chantal  (Paris,  1644, 
4to)  -.—  Vie  de  saint  Francois  de  Sales  (Paris,  1657, 4to) : 
— Oraisonfiinebre  de  saint  Vincent  de  Paul  (Paris,  1661, 
4to)  -.^Statuts  synodaux  (E\Teux,  1664, 1665, 8vo).  See 
Gallia  Christiana,  vols,  ii  and  xi;  Le  Brasseur,  Hist.du 
Diocese  d' Evreux.— Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  vol. 
xxxiv,  s.  V. 

Maupin,  Milton,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  South,  was  born  in  Campbell  County,  Ten- 
nessee, Dec.  24, 1829.  He  was  educated  at  Emory  and 
Henry  College,  Virginia ;  was  licensed  to  preach  about 
the  year  1849 ;  and  was  engaged  for  two  or  three  years 
teaching  school  and  preaching  in  the  local  relation.  He 
went  to  California  in  1852,  and  in  1853  joined  the  Pa- 
cific Conference,  California.  In  1856  he  returned  to 
Tennessee ;  in  1859  joined  the  Holston  Conference,  and 
was  appointed  to  Grayson  Circuit,  in  Western  Virginia ; 
in  1860  to  Newport  Circuit :  in  1861  to  Maynardsville 
Circuit.  In  1862  lie  was  appointed  by  the  Conference  a 
missionary  chaplain  to  a  regiment  in  the  Confederate 
States  army;  but,  as  the  regiment  was  disbanded  before 
the  close  of  the  year,  he  returned  home,  and  ^vas  with- 
out regular  work  until  1866,  when  he  was  appointed  to 
Knox  and  IMaynardsville  Circuit.  In  1867  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  Trinity  Conference,  Texas,  and  appointed  in 
1869  to  Gainesville  Circuit;  in  1871  to  Decatur  Mission, 
where  he  finished  his  life  and  ministry,  April  1.1871. 
He  was  faithfid  to  his  calling  while  his  strength  lasted. 
"  He  left  the  aroma  of  a  good  name,  and  the  assurance 
that  he  went  to  his  rest:'— Minutes  of  the  M.  E.  Church 
South,  1871. 

Maiir  (St.\  Congregation  of.  The  Benedic- 
tines afford  the  only  cxamiilc  of  a  monastic  order  which, 
after  declining  from  an  originally  high  position,  and  af- 
ter remaining,  so  to  speak,  dead  for  two  centuries,  re- 


MAUR 


906 


MAUE, 


vived  anil  took  again  a  leading  place  in  the  Church  by 
its  activity  and  learning. 

As  early  as  the  latter  part  of  the  IMiddle  Ages  the 
Order  of  IJenedictines  had  lost  much  of  their  intluence. 
The  convents  had  become  too  wealthy,  and  the  monks, 
instead  of  devoting  themselves  to  study  and  religious 
exercises,  were  entirely  given  up  to  idleness  and  worldly 
enjoyments.  This  state  of  things  continued  through 
the  "l6th  centurj'.  In  the  early  part  of  the  17th  a  re- 
form took  place  in  the  Convent  of  St.Vanites,  near  Ver- 
dun, under  the  influence  of  Didier  de  la  Cour,  and  it  was 
soon  imitated  by  the  formerly  renowned  convents  of 
Moyenmoutier  and  Senones.  Clement  VIII  confirmed 
the  organization  of  this  Congregation  de  8.  FawJie*-,  which 
produced  some  distinguished  men,  among  them  Dom 
Calmet  and  Dom  Cellier.  In  161-1  the  assembly  of  the 
French  clergy  expressed  the  wish  that  all  the  Benedic- 
tine convents  throughout  the  country  should  connect 
themselves  with  St.Vannes;  the  general  chapter  of  the 
congregation,  however,  was  afraid  of  the  consequences 
which  might  result  from  such  extended  power.  In  1618, 
however,  Dom  Benard,  one  of  tlie  monks  of  St.  Vannes 
who  had  been  employed  in  reforming  other  convents,  ob- 
tained from  Louis  XIII  authority  to  establish  a  congrega- 
tion, Avhich  when  organized  took  the  name  of  St.  Maur, 
for  fear  of  awakening  jealousy  if  it  took  that  of  any  par- 
ticular convent.  This  congregation  was  confirmed  by 
Gregory  XV  in  1621,  and  by  Urban  VIII  in  1627.  The 
first  convent  subjected  by  Benard  to  the  nev/  regula- 
tions was  that  of  the  Blancs-Manteaux  at  Paris.  Soon 
a  number  of  others  joined  it.  In  1652  they  counted 
forty  convents ;  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th  centurj' 
their  luimber  reached  180,  divided  into  six  provinces. 
The  most  important  of  all  these  establishments  was  the 
convent  of  St.  Germain  des  Pres,  near  Paris.  It  was  the 
residence  of  the  general  of  the  order,  was  endowed  with 
episcopal  authority,  and  possessed  a  librarv'  particularly 
rich  in  ancient  MSS.  Its  statutes,  drawn  up  to  accord 
with  the  spirit  of  the  times,  the  strict  morality,  intellect- 
ual pursuits,  and  great  learning  of  its  members,  gained 
universal  respect  for  the  congregation.  Amid  the  loose- 
ness of  morals  which  then  prevailed  among  the  French 
clergy,  the  Congregation  of  St.  IMaur  belongs  to  the  few 
exceptions  which  reflect  honor  on  the  Church  of  Rome. 
According  to  the  confession  of  a  Eomanist  writer,  they 
are  perhaps  the  only  order  in  the  history  of  convents  of 
which  this  can  be  said.  It  is  also  to  be  remembered 
that,  conscious  of  serving  higher  and  universal  interests, 
they  remained  entire  strangers  to  all  persecutions  both 
of  the  Jesuits  and  the  Galilean  clerg}\ 

To  secure  a  high  degree  of  scholarship  among  the  Con- 
gregation, the  first  general,  Dom  Tariffe,  carefidly  pre- 
pared a  scheme  of  studies ;  and  as  early  as  the  17th  and 
18th  centuries  the  congregation  counted  a  large  num- 
ber of  distinguished  men.  Their  labors  vi-ere  promptly 
directed  to  the  gathering  of  materials  for  the  history  of 
the  convents  belonging  to  the  congregation,  and  to  that 
of  the  saints.  These  researches  soon  led  them  into  pa- 
leological  and  diplomatic  works.  The  finished  educa- 
tion given  to  the  novices  required  a  large  number  of  new 
books  or  imjjroved  reprints  of  old  ones,  which  were  pre- 
pared by  ortler  of  the  superiors  by  members  of  the  con- 
gregation. Thus  arose  a  large  number  of  very  impor- 
tant and  valuable  works.  They  treat  of  a  great  variety 
of  subjects,  but  especially  of  the  history  of  France  and 
of  the  Church.  The  most  distinguished  among  the 
monks  were  intrusted  with  the  editorshii),  and  the  oth- 
ers were  employed  in  gathering  the  materials,  or  making 
up  some  particular  part  of  it :  if  one  of  them  died  before 
his  task  was  complete,  another  took  his  place,  and  con- 
tinued it  in  the  same  spirit  and  with  the  same  learning. 
No  other  order  ever  made  the  same  use  of  its  riches : 
they  bought  the  rarest  JISS.  and  books,  made  journeys 
to  visit  foreign  Ubraries  and  to  establish  relations  with 
foreign  savans.  Their  publications  also  possessed  an 
outward  finish  previously  unknown  in  typography. 
Their  religious  independence  is  shown  in  the  fact  that 


they  remained  in  friendly  relation  with  the  recluses  of 
Port  Koyal  (q.  v.),  and  suffered  persecution  for  their  re- 
fusal to  endorse  the  bull  Unigenitus  (q.  v.),  and  thev 
were  often  and  severely  attacked  by  the  Jesuits.  Tlic 
order  continued  m  existence  until  the  French  devolu- 
tion. 

The  historical  works  of  the  Congregation  of  St.  Maur 
are  numerous,  and  embrace  an  extensive  field.  Dom 
INIabillon  may  be  considered  as  the  founder  of  diplomacj', 
of  which  he  established  the  basis  in  his  De  re  diplo- 
matica  (1681,  6  vols,  fol.) ;  this  M'as  followed  by  a  sup- 
plement in  1704,  in  consequence  of  the  attacks  of  the 
Jesuit  Germon.  As  these  works  related  almost  exclu- 
sively to  France,  a  general  work  on  the  same  subject 
was  published  by  Dom  Toustain  and  Dom  Tassin,  under 
the  title  Nouveau  traite  de  dij)lomaiique  (1750-65, 6  vols. 
4to),  which  is  still  the  most  perfect  of  the  kind.  To 
these  must  be  added  Montfau^on's  P«?ff  o^?Yyj7»'«  Grceca 
(1708,  fol.),  which,  however,  has  been  surpassed  by  sub- 
sequent publications.  Chronology  may  almost  be  said 
to  have  been  created  by  them.  The  Art  de  verifier  les 
dates,  commenced  by  Dantine  and  finished  by  Clemen- 
cet  (1750.  2  vols.  4to),  is  well  known  to  every  student 
of  history.  A  second  edition  was  published  by  Clement 
(1770,  fol.),  and  then  a  third  (1783-92,  3  vols,  fol.),  each 
time  with  numerous  additions.  The  fourth,  much  en- 
larged edition,  due  also  to  Clement,  appeared  first  in 
1818  (37  vols.  8vo),  and  was  often  reprinted ;  there  are 
also  an  edition  in  folio  and  one  in  quarto.  This  work 
has  justly  been  called  the  most  important  monument  of 
French  learning  in  the  18th  centurv'.  Montfau^on's 
Aniiquite  expliquee  en  figures  (1719,10  vols,  fol.)  has  now 
become  somewhat  antiquated  in  consequence  of  the  new 
sources  discovered  since.  In  the  domain  of  phUology, 
the  congregation  took  an  active  part  in  a  yet  unsur- 
passed work,  the  Glossariinn  medice  et  infimce  Laiinitaiis 
of  Dufresne  Ducange  (1678),  which,  if  it  did  not  origi- 
nate with  them,  was  at  least  increased  one  half  by  Dom 
Dantine  and  Dom  Charpentier  (1733-36, 6  vols,  fol.,  with 
a  supplement  bj'  Charpentier,  1767,  4  vols,  fol.),  and  ac- 
quired its  full  imjjortance  by  their  labors.  This  work 
is  not  only  important  for  its  philological  value,  but  also 
for  the  information  it  contains  on  the  literature,  laws, 
and  civil  and  ecclesiastical  customs  of  the  JMiddle  Ages. 
Charpentier  is  also  the  author  of  the  A  Ijihahetmn  tyroni- 
amnii  (1747,  fol.).  They  published  the  sources  of  the 
history  of  France.  Such  as  had  been  furnished  by  Pi- 
thon  and  Duchesne  were  insuflicient,  and  Colbert  and 
Louvois  vainly  sought  to  have  the  work  continued;  but 
D'Aguessau  finally  succeeded  in  inducing  the  Benedic- 
tines to  apply  themselves  to  the  task.  It  finally  came 
uito  the  hands  of  Dom  Bouquet,  who  completed  the  first 
eight  volumes  of  the  Scripiores  rerinn  Gallicurinn  et 
Francicarmn ;  Dom  J.  B.  Haudiguier  and  C.  Haudi- 
guier  accomplished  the  ixth,  xth.  and  xith;  Dom  Cle'- 
ment  the  xiith  and  xiiith,  and  Dom  Brial,  the  last  of 
the  Benedictmes  of  St.  Maur,  the  xivth  and  xvth  (1738- 
1818,  fol.).  The  work  has  since  been  continued  by  the 
Academie  des  Inscriptions,  which  published  the  xxist 
volume  in  1855.  To  this  class  of  works  belongs  the 
edition  of  the  writings  of  Gregoire  de  Tours,  published 
by  Dom  Euinart  (1699,  fol.).  They  never  gave  a  com- 
plete historj'  of  France,  but  only  the  beginning  of  it, 
and  the  historv'  of  particular  parts.  Dom  Jlartin  wrote 
La  Religion  des  Ganlois  (1727,  2  vols.  4to),  and  Dom  de 
Brezillac  llistoii-e  des  Ganles  et  des  Conquctes  des  Gaidois 
(1752, 2  vols.  4to),  both  of  little  importance  now.  Their 
histories  of  particular  provinces  arc  more  valuable.  The 
most  important  are  lIistoii-e  gemrnle  du  Langixdoc,  by 
Vaisseite  and  De  Vic  (1730-45)  5  vols,  fol.) ;  Ilistoire 
de  Bretagne,  by  Vcisserie  (who  subsequently  became  a 
Protestant)  and  Lo'bineau  (1707,  2  vols.  fob).  This  was 
afterwards  entirely  remodelled,  although  not  completed, 
by  Maurice  de  Beaubois  (1742,  3  vols,  fob,  and  2  vols. 
4to);  Ilistoire  de  Bourgogne.  by  Plancher  (1739  sq.,  3 
vols,  fol.) ;  Ilistoire  de  la  Mile  de  Paris,h\  Yi^lihicn  and 
Lobineau  (1725, 5  vols.).    Finally,  the  Ilistoire  lilteraire 


MAUR 


907 


MAUR 


de  la  France  (1733-63,  12  vols.  4to),  inaugurated  by 
Dom  Rivet  and  others,  and  continued  by  the  order  tUI 
1814,  when  it  was  taken  up  by  the  Academie  des  In- 
scriptions ;  the  xxth  voUime  was  published  iu  1842. 
It  is  a  very  valuable  collection  of  documents,  not 
only  for  the  history  of  French  literature,  but  also  for 
that  of  the  Middle  Ages  generally.  The  researches  iu 
the  libraries  of  the  convents,  also  the  journeys,  prin- 
cipally in  Italy,  Germany,  and  the  Netherlands,  gave 
occasion  to  publish  extensive  catalogues  and  descrip- 
tions of  them.  Among  these  we  notice  the  Spicilegium 
veterum  aliquot  scriptorum  of  D'Achery  (1553-1677, 
13  vols.  4to  ;  new  edit,  by  De  la  Barre,  1723,  3  vols, 
fol.);  Vetera  Analecta,  by  Mabillon  (1675-85,  4  vols. 
4to);  Colledio  nova  veterum  scriptorum,  by  IMarteue 
(1700, 4to) ;  Thesaurus  novus  Anecdotorum,  by  Martene 
and  Durand  (1717,  5  vols,  fol.);  Voyage  litteraire  de 
deux  religieux  Benedictins,  by  the  same  (1724,  4to) ; 
Diarium  Italicum  (1702,  4to),  and  Bibliotheca  bihliothe- 
caruni  inanuscrij^toy-um  nova  (1739,  2  vols,  fol.),  both  by 
Montfau9on.  In  Church  history,  their  most  important 
works  are  their  revision  of  the  Gallia  Christiana  of  the 
brothers  De  Sainte-Marthe  (1656,  4  vols,  fol.).  The 
new  work  was  commenced  by  another  member  of  that 
distinguished  famih',  Dom  Denis  de  Sainte-Marthe.  It 
was  intended  as  an  introduction  to  a  contemplated  Orhis 
Christiatms,  for  which  a  large  amount  of  documents 
were  collected,  yet  this  work  was  never  completed.  The 
first  volume  of  the  Gallia  Christiana  appeared  in  1715. 
Sainte-Marthe  died  on  the  completion  of  the  third  vol- 
ume, in  1725.  The  order  continued  the  work  until  the 
thirteenth  volume,  which  appeared  in  1785.  It  was 
then  interrupted,  until  of  late  years  Haureau,  the  author 
of  the  Histoire  de  la  Philosophie  scholasiique  (1850,  2 
vols.),  took  it  up  again,  and  in  1856  he  published  his 
continuation.  The  Gallia  Christiana  was  used  as  a  model 
for  other  similar  works,  such  as  the  Italia  sacra,  the 
Espaiia  sagrada,  the  Illyria  sacra,  etc.  It  also  gave 
rise  to  numerous  histories  of  special  convents  by  others 
of  the  congregation ;  the  greater  part  of  them,  howev- 
er, remain  unpublished.  The  only  two  which  appeared 
are  the  Histoire  de  VAhhage  de  St.  Denis  of  Fi'Iibien 
(1706,  fol.),  and  the  Histoire  de  VAhbaye  de  S.  Germain 
des  Pres  of  BouiUart  (1724,  fol.).  The  collection  of  the 
French  councils,  commenced  by  Dom  de  Coniac,  and 
afterwards  continued  by  Dom  Labat,  was  to  be  appended 
to  the  Gallia  Christiana.  The  first  volume  appeared  in 
1789,  at  the  moment  of  the  outbreak  of  the  French  Eev- 
olution,  and  the  congregation  was  dispersed  before  the 
second  was  complete.  The  history  of  martyrs  was 
treated  by  Dom  Ruinart  in  his  Acta  primorum  marty- 
rum  (1689,  4to).  Of  greater  interest  are  the  works  on 
the  old  litingies  and  convent  customs,  some  of  which 
are  among  the  earliest  works  of  the  congregation.  Me- 
nard published  the  Sacramentarium  of  Gregory  the 
(ireat  (1642, 4to),  Mabillon  the  Liturgia  Gallicana  (1645, 
4to),  Mart(?ne  his  Libri  V  de  antiquis  monachorum  riti- 
bus  (1690,2  vols.  4to),  and  his  De  antiquis  ecclesiai  riti- 
bus  (1700,  4  vols.  4to ;  2d  edit.  1736,  4  vols,  fol.) ;  finally, 
among  the  most  renowned  works  in  that  line,  we  must 
mention  the  Acta  Sanctorum  Ordinis  S.  Benedict i,  com- 
menced liy  D'Achery',  and  continued  by  Mabillon  and 
Ruinart  (1668,  etc.,  9  vols,  fol.:  the  tenth  remained  un- 
published); the  Annales  Ordinis  S.  Benedicti,  the  cele- 
brated work  of  Mabillon,  completed  by  Massuet  (1703, 
etc.,  6  vols.  fol.).  •  The  same  congregation  wrote  also  a 
history  of  their  own  order,  whicli  formed  3  vols.  fol.  in 
MS.,  but  the  superiors  refused  permission  for  publica- 
tion. Dom  Tassin  pulilished,  however,  an  abstract  from 
it,  down  to  1766.  Dom  Clemencet  wrote  a  history  of 
Port  Royal,  of  which  the  first  part  alone  appeared  (1755, 
10  vols.  12mo)  ;  the  second  (lart  remained  in  MS.,  as 
being  too  favorable  to  the  Jansenists. 

The  greatest  claim  of  the  Benedictines  of  St.  Maur  to 
the  gratitude  of  theologians  lies  in  their  editions  of  the 
works  of  the  fathers.  They -had  at  first  contemplated 
only  publishing  the  complete  works  of  authors  of  their 


own  order ;  but  the  favor  with  which  their  productions 
were  received,  as  also  the  requirements  of  their  schools, 
induced  them  to  publish  first  the  works  of  the  Latin  fa- 
thers, and  afterwards  of  the  Greek  also.  For  this  pur- 
pose they  compared  the  various  texts  of  the  different 
works  existing  in  France,  Itaty,  England,  Holland,  Ger- 
many, etc.  The  residt  was  a  set  of  works  which  for 
correctness  of  the  text  remains  imsurpassed,  especially 
for  the  works  of  the  most  important  among  the  fathers. 
Among  these  works  we  must  not  forget  their  valuable 
Latin  translations  of  the  Greek  fathers,  and  their  Indices, 
so  important  for  all  historical  students.  The  first  Latin 
father  wliose  works  they  published  is  St.  Augustine. 
His  views  afforddl  them  powerful  weapons  in  the  Jan- 
senistic  controversj-.  The  edition  was  commenced  by 
Dom  Delf'au,  and  continued  by  Blampin  and  Constant 
(1679-1700,  11  vols,  folio);  Garet  published  Cassiodor 
(1679,  2  vols,  fol.)  ;  Du  Frische  and  Le  Nourri,  A  mbro- 
sius  (1686-90,  2  vols,  fol.)  ;  Constant,  Ililarius  of  Poi- 
tiers (1693,  fol.) ;  Martianay,  Jero?ne  (1693-1706,  5  vols, 
fol.).  The  works  of  Cyprian,  commenced  by  Baluze, 
who  was  not  of  St.  Maur,  were  completed  by  Dom  Ma- 
ran  (1726,  fol.).  In  1645  the  Benedictines  published  the 
Epistle  of  Barnabas  (4to).  But  it  is  only  towards  the 
close  of  the  17th  century  that  they  seriously  applied 
themselves  to  this  branch  of  ancient  ecclesiastical  liter- 
ature. Montfau(;on  published  the  works  oi  Afhanasiun 
(1698,  3  vols,  folio) ;  this  was  followed  by  his  Collectio 
nova p)atnim  (1706,  2  vols,  fol.),  containing  additions  to 
Athanasius;  the  works  of  Eusebius  ofCcesarea,  and  the 
Topography  of  Cosmas.  Massuet  published  Irenceus 
(1710,  fol.)  ;  Montfau^on,  Chrysostom  (1718-38, 13  vols, 
fol.)  ;  Toutee,  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  (1720,  fol.) ;  Gamier, 
Basil  the  Great  (1721-30,  3  vols,  folio);  Charles  de  la 
Rue  and  his  nephew  Vincent  de  la  Rue,  Origen  (1733-59, 
4  vols,  folio) ;  Maran,  Justin  and  the  other  apologetists 
(1742,  fol.).  Maran  commenced  an  edition  of  the  worlcs 
of  Gregory  of  Nazianzum,  which  was  continued  b}^  Cle- 
mencet,  but  the  breaking  out  of  the  French  Revolution 
prevented  the  publication  of  any  but  the  first  volume 
(1788,  folio). 

Among  the  works  of  writers  of  their  order  and  others 
of  the  MidtUe  Ages  which  they  published,  we  notice  the 
rule  of  St.  Benedict  of  Aniane,  Concordia  regidarum, 
published  by  iMenard  (1628, 4to) ;  Lanfranc,  by  D'Ache- 
ry (1648,  foi.),  and  Guibert  ofNogent,  by  the  same  (1651, 
fol.) ;  St.  Benmrd,  by  Mabillon  (1667,  fol. ;  2d  ed.  1690, 
2  vols. -fol. ;  3d  ed.  1719,  2  vols,  fol.);  Anselm  of  Canter- 
bury, by  Gerberon  (1675,  fol.,  2d  ed.  1721) ;  Gregory  the 
Great,  by  Denis  de  Sainte-lMarthe  (1705,  4  vols,  folio) ; 
Hildebert  de  Mans,  by  Beaugendre  (1708,  folio).  Dom 
Constant  compiled  a  collection  of  the  letters  and  decrees 
of  the  popes,  only  the  first  volume  of  which  appeared 
(1721,  folio).  To  aid  in  the  use  of  the  Biblioth.  patrum 
maxima  of  Lyon,  Le  Nourri  wrote  his  Apparatus  (1703, 
fol.),  which,  however,  does  not  extend  further  than  the 
4th  century  ;  it  consists  of  biographical,  historical,  and 
literarj'  notices  of  the  writers  whose  works  are  contained 
in  the  Bibliotheca.  Finally,  among  their  most  valuable 
publications  are  those  relating  to  the  ancient  transla- 
tions of  the  Bible.  Such  are  the  Hexapla  of  Origen,  by 
Montfau^on  (1713,  2  vols,  fol.) ;  the  Bibloth.  divina  of  Je- 
rome, by  Martianay  (1693,  vol.  i  of  the  -ivorks  of  .Jerome), 
and  the  Latintt  versiones  antiqme,  by  Sabatier,  BaUlard, 
and  Vincent  de  la  Rue  (1743-49,  3  vols.  fol.). 

Their  zeal  and  their  liberal  views  coidd  not  fail  to  in- 
volve them  in  numerous  and  bitter  controversies;  yet 
even  then  they  generally  preserved  a  tone  of  great  mod- 
eration, whilst  their  greater  learning  often  gave  them 
the  advantage  over  their  adversaries.  Perhaps  the 
weakest  contest  they  ever  engaged  in  was  their  defence 
of  the  claims  of  their  fellow  Benedictine  abliot  Gersen 
as  the  author  of  the  Imitatio  Christi,  against  the  at- 
tacks of  the  Augustinian  canon  regulars  [see  Kejipis]. 
They  ably  defended  themselves  against  the  insinuations 
of  De  Ranee,  founder  of  La  Trappe,  who  accused  them 
of  worklliuess  on  accoimt  of  their  studies.     Mabillon 


MATJRAND 


908 


MAURICE 


was  thus  provoked  to  publish  his  renowned  Traitk  des 
etudes  Monnstiques  (1691,  4to,  and  1092,  2  vols.  12mo  ;  it 
was  translated  into  Latin  and  Italian).  They  also  got 
into  difficulties  with  the  Jesuits,  who  accused  them  of 
Jansenism  on  account  of  their  edition  of  St.  Augustine, 
and  otherwise  attacked  them  in  the  Journal  of  Trevoux. 
During  this  controversy  they  published  ver^'  important 
essays  against  the  bull  Unigenitus.  Gerberon  published 
the  Uistoire  ghierale  du  Janseniume  (1700,  3  vols.  r2mo), 
and  Le  Cerf  the  IIisioii-e  de  la  Constitution  Uniyenitus 
en  ce  qui  i-egarde  la  Congregation  de  St.  Maur.  The 
French  Kevolution,  in  forbidding  the  existence  of  con- 
vents, dispersed  also  the  Benedictines.  Several  of  the 
works  they  had  then  on  hand  remained  luicompleted. 
The  A  cademie  des  Inscriptions  undertook  to  finish  such 
as  related  to  the  history  of  France.  The  last  of  the 
Benedictines  of  St.  Maur,  Dom  Brial,  died  a  member  of 
the  French  Academy  in  1833.  In  later  times  an  attempt 
was  made  to  revive  the  order.  La  Mennais  (q.  v.)  with 
some  of  his  friends  bought  the  abbey  of  Solesmes,  for- 
merly occupied  by  the  IJenedictines  of  St.  RIaur.  The 
pope  made  it  the  regular  abbey  of  the  restored  Order 
of  Benedictines  Sept.  1,  1837,  and  Geranger  (afterwards 
called  Gueranger),  a  German  professor,  formerly  a  Prot- 
estant, Avas  made  superior-general  of  the  order.  Yet  so 
far,  the  attempts  of  the  new  monks  to  rival  the  fame  of 
their  predecessors  have  proved  unsuccessful ;  the  ultra- 
montanism  which  pervades  the  French  clergy  is  not  fa- 
vorable to  profound  studies.  Its  first  work  gave  evi- 
dence of  the  spirit  which  now  animates  the  institution  : 
Origines  catholiques,  oi'igines  de  VEglise  Romaine  (Paris, 
183(),  4to ;  vol.  i  only  has  appeared).  By  his  Institutions 
liturgiques  (Paris,  184G)  Gueranger  helped  to  introduce 
the  use  of  the  Roman  liturgy  in  the  French  dioceses,  in 
spite  of  the  remonstrances  of  the  Galilean  clergy.  The 
most  eminent  of  the  new  Benedictines  is  Pitra,  yet  even 
his  works  will  prove  of  more  value  to  the  papacy  than 
to  science.  In  an  article  published  in  the  Correspondant 
of  1852  he  attacked  the  Eegesta  pontificum  of  Jatfe,  and 
asserted  that  the  making  of  the  pseudo-decretals  (q.  v.) 
affords  proof  that  the  primacy  of  the  See  of  Korae  was 
then  already  recognised  by  all.  Pitra  has  published  a 
Histoire  de  St.  Leger  et  de  VEglise  de  France  au  7""  sie- 
cle  (Paris,  1846) : — Etudes  sur  la  Collection  des  Actes  des 
Saints }Kir  les  Bollandistes  (Paris,  1 850),  a  valuable  work. 
Since  1852  he  has  been  working  at  a  Sjncilegium  Soles- 
mense,  of  which  three  volumes  have  been  published 
(Paris,  royal  8vo).  They  do  not  continue  the  impor- 
tant works  commenced  by  the  old  order,  leaving  even 
the  series  of  the  fathers  unfinished.  See  Petz,  Biblioth. 
Benedicto-mauriana  (Vienna,  1710, 8vo) ;  Le  Cerf,  Bibli- 
otkeque  historique,  etc.,  des  Auteurs  de  la  Cong,  de  St. 
Maur  (Hague,  1726, 12mo) ;  Tassin,  Histoire  liter,  de  la 
Congr,  de  St.  Maur  (Paris,  1726,  4to) ;  Herbst,  Die  Ver- 
dienste  d.  Mauriner  um  d.  Wvisenschaften  (Tilhinger  theol. 
Quartalschrift,  1833,  part  i,  ii,  iii;  1834,  pt.  i).— Herzog, 
Real-KnctjJdopddic,  ix,  190  sq. 

Mauraud  (or  Mauran),  Pierre,  the  first  leader 
of  the  Albigenses  in  Southern  France,  was  born  at  Tou- 
louse, of  a  noted  family,  in  the  early  part  of  the  12th 
century.  From  his  youth  he  gave  himself  entirely 
to  spreading  the  doctrines  of  the  Albigenses  (q.  v.) 
throughout  Languedoc.  Rich  and  learned,  preaching 
incessantly,  travelling  barefooted,  sleeping  on  the 
ground,  living  in  the  midst  of  danger,  he  strongly  im- 
pressed the  southern  mind,  always  easily  excited,  and 
in  a  short  time  made  a  great  number  of  converts,  whom 
he  assembled  in  two  of  his  mansions,  one  in  the  city, 
the  other  in  the  country.  INIaurand  said  Imlilly  "that 
the  clergy  performed  their  ecclesiastical  duties  without 
learning,  without  morals,  and  without  cajtacity;  that 
usury  was  common,  ami  that  in  many  churches  all  was 
venal,  the  sacraments  and  the  bcHefices;  that  the  clerks, 
the  priests,  the  canons,  and  even  the  bishops,  associated 
publicly  with  abandoned  women  ;  that  if  the  same  vices 
were  remarked  in  the  lunls  and  laity,  it  was  owing  to 
the  general  ignorance,  an  excuse  which  the  clergy  could 


not  plead."  As  for  his  belief,  he  admitted  two  grand 
directing  principles,  independent  and  uncreated ;  good 
and  evil;  light  and  darkness.  He  did  not  consider 
almsgiving  a  means  of  salvation ;  and  life  should  not  be 
an  incessant  commerce.  He  did  not  admit  that  a  priest 
could,  by  a  few  words,  transform  the  bread  and  wine 
into  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  and  persisted  in  see- 
ing in  the  mass  and  sacrifice  only  a  commemoration,  a 
symbol.  He  rejected  all  the  ceremonial  service  of  the 
Church  as  an  abuse  which  should  be  destroyed.  He  led, 
moreover,  a  most  regular  and  sober  life,  prayed  on  his 
knees  seven  times  a  day  and  seven  times  each  night. 
He  did  not  acknowledge  the  remission  of  sins  on  the 
earth,  not  being  able  to  believe  that  a  mere  mortal,  a 
priest  "  all  covered  with  the  leprosy  of  vice,"  could  ab- 
solve that  of  which  he  was  himself  knowingly  guilty 
each  day.  As  for  the  members  of  the  clergy,  he  called 
them  not  pastors,  but  ravishing  wolves,  etc.  The  court 
of  Rome  was  not  slow  in  being  roused,  and  the  number 
of  heretics  multiplied  so  prodigiously  that  an  appeal 
was  made  to  the  secular  arm.  After  having  condemned 
the  sectarians  in  several  synods,  the  archbishops  of  Nar- 
bonne  and  Lyons  made  some  arrests,  and  burned  alive 
those  who  would  not  recant.  After  the  action  of  the 
Council  of  Albi  in  1176,  pope  Alexander  III  himself  in- 
augurated a  crusade  against  the  heretics,  who  were  par- 
ticularly strong  in  the  dominion  of  Raymond  V  of  Tou- 
louse. The  legate  and  the  bishops  entered  Toulouse  in 
the  midst  of  the  insulting  clamors  of  the  people.  One 
of  the  prelates  however  preached,  and  attempted  to  re- 
fute the  doctrines  of  the  Albigenses;  the  latter,  appa- 
renth'  convmced  not  so  much  by  his  reasoning  as  by 
fear  of  the  count  of  Toulouse,  did  not  dare  to  be  seen  or 
to  speak  in  public.  The  legate,  not  contented  with  this 
success,  caused  the  Roman  Catholics  to  promise  with  an 
oath  to  denounce  and  deliver  up  aU  the  heretics  they 
knew.  Pierre  Maiu'and  was  one  of  the  first  reached  by 
this  measure.  They  induced  him  by  caresses  and  prom- 
ises to  appear  before  the  legate.  In  the  examination  to 
which  he  was  obliged  to  submit,  he  declared  that  the 
bread  was  not  the  body  of  Christ.  The  inquisitors 
asked  nothing  more ;  they  delivered  him  to  the  count 
of  Toulouse,  who  immediately  imprisoned  him,  order- 
ing that  his  goods  should  be  forthwith  confiscated  and 
his  mansions  demolished,  whilst  other  punislimont  was 
j'et  to  follow.  Pierre  Mauraud,  seeing  himself  on  the 
verge  of  an  ignominious  death,  promised  to  abjure  his 
faith.  They  then  brought  him  out  of  prison,  and  on 
the  public  square,  before  the  assembled  people,  he 
kneeled  to  the  legate  and  his  colleagues ;  begged  their 
pardon,  and  promised  to  submit  to  their  orders.  The 
next  day  the  bishop  of  Toulouse  and  the  abbot  of  Saint- 
Sernin  took  Maurand  from  his  prison,  naked  and  bare- 
footed, and  led  him  through  the  city,  fiogging  him  from 
time  to  time.  Arriving  at  the  cathedral,  he  paid  a 
heavy  fine,  renewed  the  abjuration  of  his  faith,  and 
heard  the  sentence  which  condemned  him  to  start  with- 
in forty  days  for  Jerusalem,  and  remain  there  three  years 
in  the  service  of  the  poor;  his  goods  were  confiscated, 
half  to  the  profit  of  Raymond  V,  half  to  the  profit  of  the 
clergy.  He  ■was  also  obliged  to  pay  a  fine  of  five  hun- 
dred pounds'  weight  of  silver  to  the  count  of  Toulouse, 
to  make  numerous  gifts  to  religious  establishments,  to 
the  poor,  etc.  However,  when  IMaurand  returned  from 
Palestine,  he  recovered  the  greater  part  of  liis  estates. 
See  Dom  Vaissette,  Histoire  de  Languedoc,  t.  iii,  chap. 
xix ;  Diet,  des  Heresies,  article  Albigeois,  in  the  Ency- 
clopedie  theologique  of  the  abbe  IMigne;  Benoit,  Hist, 
des  Albigeois,  t.  1;  Langlois,  Histoire  des  C7-oisades  con- 
tre  les  A  Ibigeois ;  Basnage  de  Beauval,  Hist,  de  VEglise, 

t.  ii,  chap,  xxix Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biogr.  Ghierale,  vol. 

xxxiv,  s.  V. 

Maurice,  St.     See  Mauritius. 

Maurice  (dulce  and  afterwards  elector')  of  Saxony, 
one  of  the  most  prominent  characters  in  the  historj-  of 
the  Reformation  in  the  Church  of  Germany,  a  celebrated 


MAURICE 


909 


MAURICE 


general  and  champion  of  the  Protestant  cause,  was  the 
eldest  son  of  duke  Henry  of  the  Albertuie  line  and 
nephew  of  duke  George  the  Bearded,  the  most  bitter 
opponent  of  the  Reformation.  Maurice  was  born  at 
Freiburg  March  21,  1521  ;  he  espoused  in  15-il  Agnes, 
daughter  of  the  landgrave  Philip  of  Hesse ;  and  later  in 
the  same  year  succeeded  his  father  in  the  duchy  of  Sax- 
ony and  its  dependencies.  He  was  hardly  well  estab- 
lished in  his  dominions  when  a  dispute  arose  between 
him  and  his  cousin,  the  elector  of  Saxony,  John  Fred- 
erick, regarding  their  respective  rights  over  the  bish- 
opric of  Meissen,  which  was  the  common  property  of  the 
Ernestine  and  Albertine  lines ;  but  by  the  influence  of 
Luther  and  of  the  landgrave  Philip  a  temporary  recon- 
ciliation was  effected.  In  the  war  with  the  Turks  he 
distinguished  himself  as  a  soldier,  and  became  the  fa- 
vorite of  Charles  V.  Whether,  however,  Maurice  was 
at  this  time  the  sincere  friend  of  the  emperor  is  a 
question  that  has  never  yet  been  determined.  This 
much  is  certain  that  Maurice  was  selfish  by  nature, 
and  sought  rather  the  furtherance  of  his  own  inter- 
ests than  the  welfare  of  his  associates  and  those  who 
befriended  him.  A  professed  Protestant,  he  took  part 
in  the  deliberations  at  Smalcald  (q.  v. ;  see  also  Holy 
League),  but  refused  to  become  a  member  of  the  league 
for  fear  of  displeasing  the  emperor,  with  whom  he  co- 
quetted at  that  time  to  secure  the  protectorate  of  the 
bishoprics  of  Magdeburg  and  Halberstadt.  No  sooner 
had  the  emperor  bestowed  upon  him  this  much-coveted 
favor,  and  honored  him  with  the  title  of  elector  (Jmie 
19,  154G),  than  Maurice  deserted  the  Protestant  camp, 
and  played  the  part  of  a  most  devoted  adherent  of  the 
emperor's  cause.  In  consequence  of  this  unexpected 
hostility  to  the  Protestants  the  imperial  army  gained  a 
decisive  victory  at  IMiihlberg  in  April,  15-i7,  wellnigh 
proving  the  death-stroke  of  the  Protestant  cause.  By 
this  defeat  of  the  Protestants,  and  the  imprisonment  of 
his  rival,  John  Frederick,  Maurice,  according  to  a  pre- 
vious understanding  with  the  emperor,  became  himself 
the  ruler  of  all  Saxony.  Thus  gratified  in  all  the  am- 
bitious desires  in  which  he  could  expect  aid  from  Charles 
V,  Maurice  became  quite  uneasy  in  his  present  relation, 
and  hesitated  not  to  embrace  the  very  first  opportunity 
to  seek  anew  the  favor  of  the  leaders  he  had  so  basely 
deserted.  It  is  true  as  late  as  lo-t?  Maurice  was  still  found 
on  the  side  of  the  imperialists,  for  he  this  year  supported 
the  Interim  (q.  v.)  of  Augsburg;  but  gradually  he  less- 
ened the  hold  of  the  Romanists  upon  him,  and  by  1551 
we  find  him  a  party  to  a  secret  treaty  of  the  Protestants 
with  Henry  II  of  France,  at  the  very  time  that  he  was 
professing  to  besiege  the  rebellious  city  of  Magdeburg. 
As  treacherously  and  unhesitatingly  as  he  had  aban- 
doned the  cause  of  the  Reformers  he  now  forsook  the 
imperial  side.  Poor  Charles  was  at  Innsbruck,  employ- 
ing himself  in  building  up  vast  schemes  of  ambition, 
little  dreaming  of  the  mine  which  the  man  whom  he 
most  of  all  confided  in  was  preparing  to  spring  under  his 
feet.  When  suddenly  the  word  came  to  him  that  he 
must  release  prince  Philip  of  Hesse,  whom  he  had  im- 
prisoned for  his  opposition  to  the  imperial  cause,  even 
before  he  had  time  to  decide  the  case,  news  came 
to  him  that  Maurice  of  Saxony  was  marching  against 
him.  Without  money,  without  troops,  without  allies, 
Charles  was  compelled  to  yield  to  the  demands  of  the 
man  whom  he  had  himself  matle  powerfid.  On  April 
18,  by  the  mediation  of  Ferdinand,  king  of  the  Romans, 
a  treaty  was  concluded  at  Linz  granting  the  demands 
of  the  Protestants ;  but  as  it  was  not  to  take  effect  till 
Maj'  20,  Maurice  employed  himself  in  attacking  (i\Iay 
18)  the  camp  of  Reitti,  in  which  soldiers  were  assem- 
bling for  the  emperor,  defeated  and  wholly  dispersed 
the  imperialists,  and  advanced  on  Innsbruck  with  the 
view  of  taking  Charles  captive.  Had  it  not  been  that 
a  mutiny  stopped  his  progress,  the  emperor  ;vould  have 
been  rudely  handled,  as  Maurice  knew  his  antagonist, 
and  feared  the  consequences  of  his  treacliery.  But 
Maurice  also  was  feared.    His  advance  on  Innsbruck  so 


alarmed  the  members  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  then  in 
session  there,  that  they  fled  from  the  town,  and  the  sit- 
tings were  thenceforth  suspended  for  some  years.  Fi- 
nally came  the  day  of  convocation  of  the  electors  and 
princes  of  the  empire  at  Passau ;  Maurice  directing  the 
cause  of  the  Protestants,  and  Ferdinand  attending  to  the 
imperial  interests.  To  the  Protestants  this  meeting 
must  ever  be  memorable.  It  was  here  that  a  treaty  of 
peace  was  established  which  secured  to  Protestants  free 
exercise  of  worship ;  and  it  was  by  the  Passau  treaty 
that  the  Romanists  of  Germany  agreed  that  the  impe- 
rial chamber,  from  which  Lutherans  were  not  to  be  ex- 
cluded, shoidd  render  justice  irrespective  of  religion; 
and  that  the  Aulic  Council  shoidd  be  composed  exclu- 
sively of  German  ministers.  These  conditions,  which 
in  political  matters  secured  "Germany  for  the  Germans," 
and  in  religious  affairs  permanently  established  the 
principles  of  toleration,  were  embodied  in  the  agreement 
called  the  Peace  of  Passau  (Aug.  22,  1552).  Charles, 
though  he  professed  reconciliation,  never  lost  an  oppor- 
tunity to  wreak  his  vengeance  on  the  elector.  The  lat- 
ter, with  his  usual  subtlety  and  address,  patched  up  a 
reconciliation  with  the  emperor,  and  engaged  in  the 
campaign  of  1553  against  the  Turks,  who  were  gradu- 
ally gaining  ground  in  Hungarj-.  Returning  soon,  he 
found  that  one  of  his  former  allies,  Albert,  margrave  of 
Kulmbach,  had  refused  to  accede  to  the  treaty  of  Pas- 
sau, and  continued  the  war  on  his  own  account,  making 
raids  on  the  ecclesiastical  princes  of  the  Rhine  and  Fran- 
conia.  INIaurice  also  speedily  discovered  that  behind 
the  margrave  stood  the  emperor,  who  had  secured  the 
services  of  the  margrave  because  he  had  found  in  him 
a  general  and  an  army  capable  of  wreaking  his  ven- 
geance on  the  perfidious  Saxon  prince.  But  INIaurice  was 
equal  to  the  occasion.  Putting  himself  at  the  head  of 
20,000  men,  he  marched  to  protect  his  bishopric  of  INIag- 
deburg  against  the  ecclesiastical  spoliator,  and,  falling  in 
with  him  at  Sievershausen,  completely  defeated  him 
(July  9, 1553),  but  fell  himself  in  the  conflict,  mortallj^ 
wounded,  and  died  July  11, 1553.  "  So  thoughtful  and 
'  reticent,  so  enterprising  and  energetic,  so  correct  in 
I  judgment  and  unfailing  in  action,  and  at  the  same  time 
I  wholly  devoid  of  moral  sentiment,  he  is  one  of  the 
most  prominent  instances  of  power  without  principle 
which  the  world's  history  has  ever  presented."  Kohl- 
rausch  has  perhaps  furnished  the  most  moderate  com- 
ment on  the  perjured  life  of  Maurice  of  Saxony.  "The 
final  efforts  he  so  patriotically  made  for  the  promotion 
and  establishment  of  general  tranquillity,  and  his  love 
for  peace  and  order,  which  he  sealed  with  his  own  blood, 
have  in  a  great  degree  served  to  throw  the  mantle  of 
oblivion  over  his  earlier  proceedings,  and  conciliated  the 
critical  voice  of  public  opinion"  (Hist.  Gernuiny,  p.  296). 
Robertson  appears  to  be  equally  anxious  to  laud  the  last 
act  of  Maurice,  and  to  let  it  stand  forth  only  as  the  life- 
work  of  this  faithless  prince.  He  excuses  him  on  the 
ground  that  "  his  long  and  intimate  union  with  the  em- 
peror had  afforded  him  many  opportunities  of  observing 
narro\vly  the  dangerous  tendency  of  that  monarch's 
(Charles)  schemes.  He  saw  the  yoke  that  was  prepar- 
ing for  his  country,  and  was  convinced  that  but  a  few 
steps  more  remained  to  be  taken  in  order  to  render 
Charles  as  absolute  a  'monarch  in  Germany  as  he  had 
become  in  Spain.  At  the  same  time  he  perceived  that 
Charles  was  bent  on  exacting  a  rigid  conformity  to  the 
doctrines  and  rites  of  the  Romish  Church,  instead  of  al- 
lowing liberty  of  conscience,  the  promise  of  which  had 
allured  several  Protestant  princes  to  assist  him  in  the 
war  against  the  confederates  of  Smalcald.  As  he  him- 
self, notwithstanding  all  the  compliances  which  he  had 
made  from  motives  of  interest,  or  an  excess  of  confi- 
dence in  the  emperor,  was  sincerely  attached  to  the  Lu- 
theran tenets,  he  determined  not  to  be  a  tame  spectator 
of  the  overthrow  of  a  system  which  he  believed  to  be 
founded  in  truth"  (p.  386).  Though  we  would  gladly- 
like  to  concede  this  point,  truth  compels  us  to  dissent 
from  the  opinion  of  the  noted  historian.    We  doubt  very 


MAURICE 


910 


MAURICE 


much  whether  Maurice  of  Saxony,  in  any  period  of  his 
life,  liclicvcd  either  Konianism  or  Protestantism  "to  be 
founileil  ill  truth ;"  we  doubt  even  that  he  ever  believed 
himself  '•  to  be  founded  in  truth."  Let  us  say,  rather, 
that  he  was  possessed  of  an  ambition  which  knew  no 
bounds,  and  that,  scekmg  honor  for  himself,  he  reaped 
all  the  glory  of  having  concerted  and  completed  that 
iniexpected  revolution  which  closed  with  the  treaty  of 
Passaii — "  that  overturned  the  vast  fabric  in  erecting 
which  Charles  had  employed  so  many  years,  and  had 
exerted  the  utmost  efforts  of  his  power  and  policy ;  that 
annulled  all  his  regulations  with  regard  to  rehgion ;  de- 
feated all  his  hopes  of  rendering  the  imperial  authority 
absolute  and  hereditary  in  his  family ;  and  established 
the  Protestant  Church,  which  had  hitherto  subsisted 
precariously  in  Germany,  through  connivance  or  by  ex- 
pedients, upon  a  firm  and  secure  basis"  (p.  415 ;  comp. 
p.  424,  425).  It  is  indeed  a  singular  circumstance  that 
the  IJeformation  should  be  uidebted  for  its  securitj'  and 
full  establishment  in  Germany  to  the  same  hand  which 
had  brought  it  to  the  brink  of  destruction,  and  that 
both  events  should  have  been  accompanied  by  the  same 
acts  of  dissimulation.  See  J.  Camerarius,  Vita  Mauniii 
Ekctoris  Saxonke  (15G9) ;  Georg  Arnold,  Vita  Matiritii 
(1719) ;  F.  A.  von  Langemi,  Moritz  Ilerzog  unci  Chur- 
Jtirst  von  Sacksen  (1841,  2  vols.);  Schlenkert,  Moritz 
Churfurst  von  Saclisen  (1798-1800, 4  vols.) ;  K.  von  We- 
ber, Montz,  Graf  von  Sachsen,  etc.  (Lps.  1863) ;  Taillan- 
dier,  Maurice  dii  Saxe  (Paris,  1865) ;  Coxe,  House  of 
Austria,  i,  450  sq.;  Vehse,  Memoirs  Court  of  Austria,  i, 
254;  Kohlrausch,  Hist,  of  Germany,  ch.  iv;  Eobertson, 
Charles  V,  book  x.  See  also  Cilvrles  V;  Interim; 
Keformatios. 

Maurice,  Antoine  (1),  a  French  Protestant  theo- 
logian and  Orientalist,  was  born  at  Eyguieres,  in  Prov- 
ence, Sept.  27,  1079.  He  belonged  to  a  Provencal 
family  which  had  embraced  the  Reformed  religion  in 
the  16th  centurT,  and  furnished  many  pastors  to  the 
churches  of  the  south.  When  the  revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes  forced  his  father  to  retire  to  Geneva,  Lc 
was  not  permitted  to  follow  him,  and  remained  for  some 
time  in  the  hands  of  priests,  who  hoped  to  educate  hiiu 
to  the  service  of  the  Church  of  Eome.  Two  officers, 
friends  of  his  family,  coming  to  his  aid,  he  succeeded 
finally  in  escaping  the  vigilance  of  his  guardians  and  ar- 
rived at  Yiemia ;  being  denounced  during  a  halt,  he  fled 
alone,  and  arrived  on  foot  at  Bourg  in  Bresse  (1686). 
Although  it  was  in  the  middle  of  winter,  he  resumed 
his  route  with  a  faithful  servant,  and,  after  having  wan- 
dered in  the  mountains  of  Jura,  he  succeeded  in  reach- 
ing Basle,  from  whence  he  was  conducted  to  Geneva  in 
a  pitiable  condition.  He  was  then  only  nine  j'ears  old. 
Consecrated  to  the  ministrj',  he  entered  it  in  1697,  at 
Geneva,  where,  in  1704,  he  assumed  pastoral  duty. 
Gifted  with  a  happy  memory  and  great  talent  for  the 
study  of  languages,  he  learned  the  greater  part  of  the 
Oriental  idioms,  and  perlected  himself  by  speaking 
them  ilucntly  with  a  rabbi  and  priest  from  the  Levant 
whom  he  had  invited  to  his  house.  He  was  also  fond  of 
the  sciences,  and  abandoned  the  system  of  Des  Cartes  for 
that  of  Newton,  of  whom  he  became  a  zealous  partisan. 
In  1710  he  was  elected  professor  of  belles-lettres  and  of 
histciry  in  the  Academy  of  Geneva,  later  he  taught  the 
Oriental  languages,  and  after  1724  theology.  He  was 
twice  called  to  the  rectorship.  In  1713  he  was  made  a 
member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  the  Sciences  of  Berlin, 
on  the  proposition  of  Leibnitz.  Maurice  died  in  Geneva 
Aug.  20,  1756.  Of  his  works  we  have  an  edition  of  the 
Rationarium  Tempo7-um  du  P.  Petan,  with  notes  (Gene- 
va, 1721,  3  vols.  8vo)  :  —  twelve  iServwns  (ibid.  1722, 
8vo): — twenty  different  dissertations,  among  others.  Be 
Conscientia  (1725-1734,  4to)  :  —  Be  Resurredione  Jesu 
Christi  (1734-1763): — Jus  examinis  (1740„fol): — Be 
Suicidio  (1756,  8vo).  His  scientific  and  philological 
works  have  not  been  published. — Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biotj. 
Gini-ralc,  s.  v. 

Maurice,  Antoine  (2),  a  Swiss  theologian,  was 


born  at  Geneva  April  11, 1716.  He  showed  at  an  earlv 
age  a  decided  taste  for  the  physical  sciences;  at  the  a"-"e 
of  sixteen  he  maintained  before  the  celebrated  pro- 
fessors Caames  and  Calendrini  some  theses,  Be  A  ctione 
Solis  et  Lunm  in  aereni  et  aquam  (Geneva,  1732,  4to), 
which  were  then  considered  very  remarkable.  He  be- 
came pastor  in  1748,  and  in  1753  succeeded  his  father 
in  the  theological  chair.  He  died  in  Geneva  July  23, 
1795.  He  has  left  some  dissertations  on  philosophical 
and  theological  points :  Be  Musica  in  Sacris  (Geneva, 
1771,  4to): — Be  Fide  veterum  Judceorum  drca  futurwn 
post  hanc  vitam  stafum  (ibid.  1780,  8vo) : — Be  Tolei-an- 
tia  ajnid  Ethnicos  (ibid.  1790,  4to) ; — and  in  MS.  a  His- 
toire  ecclesiastique.  See  Senebier,  Hist,  litter,  de  Ge- 
neve; Mensel,  Gelekrten- Lexicon,  s.  v.  —  Hoefer,  A'oMy. 
Bioff.  Generale,  s.  v. 

Maurice,  Frederick  Denison,  a  very  celebrated 
English  divine  of  our  day,  the  successor  of  Dr.  ^Vrnold 
as  leader  of  the  "  Broad  Church"  party  of  the  Anglican 
clergy,  was  born  in  1805,  the  son  of  a  Unitarian  minister 
of  high  reputation  for  intelligence  and  philanthropic 
zeal.  Young  Maurice  at  an  early  age  entered  at  Trin- 
ity College,  Cambridge,  where  he  formed  an  intimate 
friendship  with  the  late  Scotch  divine  John  Sterling 
(q.v.),  a  friendship  which  lasted  through  the  >vliole  of 
Sterling's  life,  and  which  was  made  closer  in  the  end 
hy  the  marriage  of  the  friends  to  two  sisters.  From 
Trinity  College  both  Maurice  and  Sterling  removed  to 
the  smaller  corporation  of  Trinity  HaU;  and  here  thus 
early  the  former  began  to  exert  that  smgular  influence, 
partly  intellectual  and  partly  moral,  upon  all  who  came 
near  him,  which  accompanied  him  throughout  his  Avhole 
career.  His  examinations  at  college  were  passed  with 
such  great  distinction  that  he  was  recommended  for  a 
fello^vship  notwithstanding  his  nonconformity,  and  when 
he  refused,  upon  the  ground  that  he  could  not  conscien- 
tiously subscribe  to  the  Thii'ty-nine  Articles,  he  was  giv- 
en a  year  or  two  that  he  might  overcome  his  scruples, 
take  his  degree,  and  enjoy  a  fellowship.  This  also  he 
declined,  on  the  ground  that,  by  holding  out  to  himself 
such  a  prospect,  he  woidd  be  subjecting  his  intellectual 
independence  to  the  risk  of  a  temptation,  and  bribing 
his  conscience.  Accordingly,  quitting  Cambridge  with- 
out a  degree,  he  removed  to  London,  where  for  some 
time  he  devoted  himself  to  literature.  With  his  friend 
Sterling  he  became  connected  with  the  "  Athenaium," 
then  just  starting,  and  opened  a  literarj^  career  that  last- 
ed for  a  period  of  forty-four  years,  within  which  "  the  ink 
of  his  pen  was  seldom  dr}%"  Experiencing  a  change  in 
his  religious  sentiment,  he  finally  decided  to  enter  the 
ministrj'  of  the  Established  Church,  but,  lest  his  motives 
should  be  misinterpreted,  he  went  to  Oxford  instead  of 
Cambridge,  and  there  about  1828  received  ordination. 
From  that  very  moment  his  activity  in  the  Church 
began,  and  as  he  commenced  so  he  continued  through 
life.  Earnestl}-  devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  Christian 
rehgion,  he  sought  to  present  the  truths  of  the  Gospel 
in  a  manner  that  might  bring  within  the  pale  of  the 
Church  the  educated  and  the  liberal.  He  held  that  the 
Church  ought  to  grapple  intellectually,  in  its  theolog- 
ical aims  and  expositions,  with  the  most  advanced  forms 
of  sceptical  thought,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  evince  a 
liberal  sympathy  with  much  that  is  non-theological  in 
its  apparent  aspect,  in  order  the  more  surely  to  exhibit 
the  supremacy  of  religion  over  all,  and  that  the  Clnirch, 
as  an  institution,  ought  so  to  grapple  with  contempora- 
ry forms  of  social  evil  as  to  exhibit  Christianity  as  the 
true  source  of  everj'  effective  social  amelioration.  In 
carrying  out  these  ideas  he  necessarily  came  into  conflict 
with  the  vie^vs  of  others,  both  in  and  out  of  the  Church ; 
his  orthodoxy  on  various  doctrinal  points  was  ques- 
tioned, and  he  was  severelj'  attacked  by  those  who  be- 
lieved him  guilty  of  injuring  the  best  interests  of  the 
Church. 

Mr.  Maurice  was  holding  a  position  as  preacher,  but 
it  is  especially  as  a  writer  that  he  exerted  liis  influence, 
and  secured  a  reputation,  and,  as  a  proper  estimate  of 


MAURICE 


911 


MAURICE 


this  man  is  impossible  without  a  glance  at  his  works, 
we  proceed  to  a  hastj'  consideration  of  his  written  pro- 
ductions in  the  field  of  theology  and  philosophy.  Omit- 
ting numerous  separate  sermons  and  occasional  tracts, 
Ave  note  his  Doctfiiie  of  Sacrifice  deduced  from  the 
Scriptures: — Lectures  on  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of 
the  First  and  Second  Centuries: — Theological  Essays: 
— Patriarchs  and  Lawgivers  of  the  Old  Testanient: — 
Prophats  and  Kings  of  the  Old  Testament: — The  Unify 
of  the  Neiu  Testament: — Christmas  Day  and  other  Ser- 
mons:— On  the  Religions  of  the  World: — On  the  Prayer- 
hooh:—The  Church  a  Family: — On  the  Lord's  Prayer: 
— On  the  Sabbath;  and  Law  on  the  Fable  of  the  Bees. 
To  the  "  Encyclopedia  Britannica"  he  contributed  His- 
tory of  Moral  and  Metaphysical  Philosophy,  in  ancient 
and  in  medieval  times,  which  was  afterwards  collected 
into  book  form  and  republished  (2  vols.  8vo).  He  also 
published  a  reply  to  Hansel's  Hampton  Lectures  in  1859. 
Particularly  noteworthy  among  all  these  productions  are 
his  Theological  Essays  (Lond.  1853, 8vo ;  N.  Y.  1854:).  A 
Unitarian  by  birth  and  education,  Mr.  JIaurice  had  im- 
bibed much  of  the  humanitarian  principles.  In  these 
essaj's  he  proposed  for  himself  the  task  of  influencing 
the  general  religious  thought  of  England,  determined,  as 
a  faitliful  ambassador  of  his  Saviour,  to  meet  the  actual 
wants  of  the  disturbed  and  reluctantly  sceptical  age  in 
which  he  lived.  Unfortunately,  however,  Mr.lMaurice 
had  failed  to  make  due  allowance  for  the  moderate  de- 
gree of  toleration  that  was  in  vogue  twenty  years  ago, 
when  he  came  forward  to  act  as  a  religious  and  theo- 
logical reformer,  and  for  the  ignorance  that  prevailed 
among  his  feUow-men  concerning  the  man  who  sought 
to  do  this  work.  Now  that  careful  inquiry  and  inves- 
tigation have  clearly  revealed  his  character,  even  tlie 
most  orthodox  of  all  orthodox  Christians  need  not  hesi- 
tate to  speak  in  terms  of  highest  commendation  of  the 
labors  and  services  of  Frederick  Dcnison  Blaurice.  But 
not  so  in  the  daj's  of  his  travail.  "  It  was  the  specialty 
of  his  position,"  says  a  writer  in  the  British  Quart.  Rev. 
(Jan.  1873,  p.  30), "  that  he  stood  midway,  as  it  were,  be- 
tween the  professors  of  the  Christian  faith,  as  commonly 
received,  and  the  modern  sceptical  and  rationalizing 
spirit  which  attracted  his  sympathies,  in  so  far  as  it  was 
a  spirit  of  free  and  earnest  inquirj',  aiming  sincerely  at 
the  attainment  of  the  truth.  Thus  he  came  to  be  con- 
sidered by  many  as  affording  a  sort  of  half-waj-  house  of 
shelter  to  those  who  did  not  or  could  not  accept  the  or- 
dinary orthodoxy,  and  who  were  yet  too  much  in  earnest 
about  life  and  destiny  to  be  satisfied  with  the  cheerless 
negations  of  atheism  or  the  cold  comforts  of  a  provis- 
ional scepticism.  It  was  natural  that  he  should  meet 
the  fate  of  those  who  strive  to  reconcile  contraries.  Dis- 
owned by  orthodoxy — which  is  no  matter  for  wonder — 
he  was  rejected  and  often  also  despised  by  scepticism. 
By  the  one  party  he  was  charged  with  unsettling  the 
faith  of  ingenuous  youth,  while  the  others  accused  him 
of  paltering  with  words  in  a  double  sense,  and  seeking 
to  reconcile  things  really  irreconcilable."  The  Lessing 
of  the  English  Church,  he  lield  many  views  akin  with 
the  great  German  writer.  Seeking,  like  the  latter,  to 
spread  truth  by  giving  it  a  fair  test,  Mr.  Maurice  often 
went  beyond  reasonable  limits,  and  unknowinglj'  en- 
dangered the  interests  of  the  cause  he  so  unhesitatingly 
served  ;  his  language  respecting  both  the  atonement 
and  the  question  of  eternal  punishment  was  maile  the 
text  of  many  attacks,  the  most  noted  of  which  was  that 
by  Dr.  Candlish  of  the  Scottish  Church,  in  a  sermon  en- 
titled Examination  of  Mr.  Maurice's  "  Theological  Es- 
says." 

Starling  from  the  divine  centre  as  the  root  and  source 
of  all.  religion  is  to  Mr.  Maurice  a  mode  of  life  condi- 
tioned and  determined  on  all  sides  by  dependence  upon 
God — the  human  personality  upon  the  divine  Person. 
"As  a  life  it  is  a  series  of  experiences  through  and  in 
which  man  is  acted  upon  by  God,  so  as  to  be  filled  full 
out  of  the  Infinite  fulness.  But  how  shall  there  be  a 
commiuiion  between  God  and  man?     In  order  to  the 


revealing  of  God,  there  must  be  a  revealer.  This  re- 
vcaler  must  be  able  to  manifest  forth  what  is  in  God, 
who  is  the  Father  iniiversal,  and  to  do  this  by  such 
means  that  man  may  thereby  know  him  as  his  Father. 
A  mediator  between  God  and  man  is  essential  to  the 
satisfying  and  fulfilling  of  human  wants.  Only  one  who 
was  himself  God  could  adequately  unfold  the  Eternal. 
And  he  must  do  this  by  manifestation  of  the  divine  in  and 
through  the  human,  other\vise  man  could  not  apprehend 
the  revelation;  the  light  would  continue  shining  in 
darkness  without  being  comprehended  of  the  latter.  .  ,  . 
The  Father  has  shown  us  what  he  is  by  an  actual  man 
like  oiu-selves,  who  told  us  that  he  came  forth  from  the 
Father,  and  that  he  knew  him,  ...  He  could  reveal 
God  to  men  because,  having  been  ever  with  the  Father, 
he  had  also  been  near  to  all  men  from  their  beginning, 
as  the  Light  lightening  every  man  coming  into  the 
world.  lie  was  the  Eoot,  and  because  he  was  the  Root, 
he  was  also  the  Head  of  humanity.  He  could  redeem 
humanity,  and  he  alone  could,  because  it  was  his  own; 
because  he  was  in  some  way  already  one  with  it;  be- 
cause in  its  deepest  roots  the  human  personality  was 
bound  to  him.  He  did  not,  therefore,  first  become  a  Re- 
deemer when  he  came  to  oiu:  earth  in  human  form.  He 
could  redeem  in  time,  because  he  had  been  the  Deliverer 
before  his  incarnation — because  it  was  his  nature  to  be 
so."  So  far  so  well.  There  is,  however,  one  great  as- 
pect of  the  work  and  mission  of  Christ  which  Mr.  INIau- 
rice  ignored,  that  brought  the  charge  of  heterodoxy  to 
his  door.  The  necessity  of  vindicating  the  authority  of 
a  broken  law,  the  obligation  from  which  even  God  him- 
self could  not  escape  of  only  pardoning  when  justice  had 
been  satisfied,  and  which,  therefore,  magnified  and  made 
honorable  the  law  that  man  had  disowned  and  the  au- 
thority he  had  despised,  are  altogether  tossed  aside 
by  Mr.  Jlaurice.  According  to  him,  it  is  the  sin, 
and  not  alone,  if  at  all,  the  penalty  of  the  sin  of  the 
world  that  Christ  takes  away.  The  penalty  is  and 
must  always  be  borne  by  those  against  whom  it  is  di- 
rected, and  cannot  be  endured  by  any  at  second  hand. 
Need  we  wonder  that  this  view  of  the  atonement  ex- 
posed jNIr.  Maurice  to  much  obloquy  ?  "  He  transforms 
the  atonement,"  says  the  writer  already  quoted,  "  into  a 
mere  means  of  reconciling  man  to  God  by  a  process  of 
education.  The  subjective  influence  of  the  sacrifice  of 
Christ — its  effects,  that  is,  upon  the  souls  of  men,  ethi- 
cally and  spiritually — was  alone  emphasized  by  him. 
And  whatever  benefits  may  have  been  wrought  by 
bringing  this  aspect  of  the  atonement  into  prominence, 
obviously  it  is  not  the  whole  scriptural  doctrine  of  sac- 
rifice, as  unfolded  in  the  work  in  which  he  seeks  to  de- 
duce that  from  the  Scriptures."  Fundamentally  defec- 
tive in  this  one  great  doctrine  of  Christianity,  there  are 
yet  others  in  which  his  influence  was  mauily  pernicious, 
"Grateful  to  him  as  we  are  for  the  power  with  which  he 
vindicated  that  great  truth  on  ^vhich  Christianity  rests 
— the  incarnation  of  our  Lord — is  it  not  evident  that  he 
was  apt  to  resolve  this,  and  with  it  the  whole  work  of 
Christ,  into  the  fulfilment  of  a  merely  naturalistic  or- 
der? ...  He  clung  to  the  indefinite,  afraid  of  losing 
hold  of  the  reality  by  putting  thoughts  in  the  place  of 
things — opinions,  theories,  and  speculations  about  the 
real,  for  true  contact  with  and  genuine  apprehension 
(or  laying  hold  and  grasping)  of  it.  He  would  not  let 
go  his  hold  upon  reality,  which  somehow  was  brought 
near  by  being  revealed  to  man;  but  he  was  satisfied 
with  the  somehoiv."  And  yet,  while  there  are  some 
points  like  those  mentioned  on  which  we  must  differ 
from  the  teachings  of  IMr.  Jlaurice,  we  must  concede 
that,  in  face  of  a  rationalism  which  menaces  the  foun- 
dations of  Christianity,  Mr.  Maurice  might  well  be 
counted,  even  by  the  most  orthodox,  "a  champion  of 
revelation."  We  do  not  so  much  refer  to  his  influence 
upon  those  who,  accepting  his  theological  teaching  in 
its  entirety,  may  be  called  his  disciples,  as  to  the  far 
more  diffused  influence  exercised  by  him  upon  the  gen- 
eral religious  thought  of  England.     The  very  corner- 


MAURICE 


912 


MAURITIUS 


stone  of  this  influence  lies  in  his  vivid  and  unfailing  ap- 
prehensiim  of  the  revelation  of  God  in  Christ  as  a  pres- 
ent reality,  exactly  fitted  to  accomplish  all  that  the 
world  needs. 

Mr.lVIaurice  held  for  many  years  the  professorship  of 
divinity  in  King's  College.  The  peculiar  views  advo- 
cated in  his  Theological  Essays  deprived  him  of  this 
jiosition,  and  he  was  thereafter  confined  to  the  oilice  of 
chaplain  to  Lincoln's  Inn.  In  18G0  the  queen,  in  addi- 
tion, appointed  him  incumbent  of  the  district  church 
of  Vere  Street,  Marylebonc,  and  in  1866  he  was  hon- 
ored with  a  call  to  the  chair  of  moral  philosophy  at 
Cambridge.  He  died  at  his  residence  in  London,  April 
1, 1872,  the  object  of  universal  admiration.  "  By  not  a 
few  he  was  'worshipped  on  this  side  idolatry,'  while 
by  a  large  number  of  outsiders  he  was  regarded  with 
atfectionate  veneration.  These  feelings  culminated  at 
his  death  in  a  display  of  feeling  such  as  it  is  given  to 
few  to  call  forth.  The  unanimity  of  the  testimony  borne 
to  his  character  and  work  by  the  many  journals,  secular 
and  religious,  that  chronicled  his  decease,  was  an  index 
of  the  general  sentiment.  It  was  felt  ever\'where  that 
England  had  lost  a  veritable  hero  in  the  battle  for  truth, 
and  tlie  Church  a  liright  ornament  and  exemplar  of  the 
practical  graces  of  the  Christian  life." 

It  must  not  be  believed  that  Mr.  Maurice's  labors  were 
confined  to  the  theological  or  philosophical  arena.  It 
has  been  tndy  said  by  the  A  thenceum  that  he  "  lived 
during  his  allotted  term  the  lives  of  many  men."  He 
was  the  originator,  or  one  of  the  originators,  of  tlie 
Christian  socialistic  movement,  the  design  of  which  was 
to  break  down  the  system  of  competitive  labor,  and  ele- 
vate the  working  classes  by  teaching  them  to  associate 
together  in  little  companies,  undertaking  work  in  com- 
mon, and  sharing  the  proceeds.  With  a  view  to  pre- 
paring working-men  for  such  a  task,  he  founded  a  work- 
ing-men's college  in  London,  to  which  in  his  last  years 
he  devoted  much  of  his  time  and  attention.  He  also 
took  great  interest  in  the  cause  of  female  education. 
Indeed,  there  are  few  social  questions  of  anj'  importance 
to  which  his  sympathies  did  not  extend.  See  Fra- 
ser's  Magazine,  1854  (April) ;  Scrihner's  Monthly,  1872 
(Sept.);  British  Quart.  Rev.  ISIZ  (Jan.),  art.  ii;  Encjlish 
Cyclop.  S.V.;  NMx>wi,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer.  Authors, 
s,  V. ;  Xew  A  iner.  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Maurice,  Henry,  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  flour- 
ished near  the  middle  of  the  17th  century  as  chaplain 
to  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He  published  A  Vin- 
dication of  the  Primitive  Church  and  Diocesan  Episco- 
pacy, in  answer  to  Baxter's  Church  History  of  Bishops 
(Lond.  1682,  8vo)  -.—Sermons  (1682,  4to ;  1744,  4to)  :— 
A  Defence  of  Diocesan  Episcopiacy,  in  answer  to  David 
Clarkson's  Primitive  Episcojmcy  (Lond.  1700)  : — Doubts 
concerning  Roman  Infallibility.  See  Gibson's  Pi-eserva- 
tive,  iv,  271;  Allibone,  Diet.  Brit,  and  Amer,  Authors, 
vol.  ii,  s.  V. ;  Darling,  Cyclop.  Bibliogr.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Maurice,  Thomas,  an  English  divine  and  scholar, 
noted  particularly  f<ir  his  studies  of  the  antiquities  of 
India,  was  born  abnut  175.5  at  Hertford,  where  his  fa- 
ther was  then  bead-master  of  the  Christ's  Hospital 
school.  After  his  father's  death  the  family  was  im- 
poverished by  an  unfortunate  marriage  of  the  widow, 
and  his  education  proceeded  irregidarly  till  Dr.  Parr,  on 
opening  his  school  at  Stanmore,  was  ])rcvailed  on  to  re- 
ceive him  as  a  pu[)il,  and  treated  him  witti  great  gener- 
osity and  kindness.  Destined  for  the  Church,  he  en- 
tered at  nineteen  St.  John's  College,  Oxford,  whence  he 
removed  next  year  to  University  College.  After  taking 
his  degree  of  B.A.,  he  was  ordained  by  bishop  Lowth, 
and  held  for  some  time  the  curacy  of  the  large  par- 
ish of  Woodford,  in  Essex,  which  in  1785  he  resigned 
for  a  chapel  at  Ejiping,  in  order,to  obtain  greater  leisure 
for  study.  His  turn  for  historical  studies  had  been  fos- 
tered at  University  College  by  his  distinguished  tutor 
Lord  Stowell,  and  he  now  began  to  concentrate  his  at- 
tention on  the  history  of  India,  for  treating  upon  which 


he  made  proposals  in  1790  in  a  published  letter  address- 
ed to  the  East  India  directors.  The  irreligious  spirit  of 
the  French  Kevolution,  alamaing  Mr.  INIaurice's  mind, 
induced  him  to  remodel  his  first  work  after  it  was  near- 
ly completed,  and  to  devote  a  considerable  proportion 
of  it  to  dissertations  on  the  Hindu  mythologj-.  In 
1791  he  came  before  the  public  with  two  volumes  of  his 
Indian  Antiquities:  the  rest  were  brought  out  at  inter- 
vals, the  completion  of  the  work  being  mainly  owing  to 
the  liberality  of  the  earl  of  Harborough ;  and  the  sev- 
enth and  last  volume  appeared  in  1797.  This  work  re- 
mains to  our  day  a  trustworthy  book  of  reference.  Mean- 
time he  had  undertaken  a  History  of  Hindostan,  the 
three  volumes  of  which,  in  quarto,  were  published  in 
1795, 1798, 1799,  and  a  second  edition  appeared  in  1821. 
In  1798  earl  Spencer  presented  him  to  the  vicarage  of 
Wormleighton,  in  Wanvickshire  ;  next  year  he  was  ap- 
pointed assistant  librarian  in  the  British  Museum ;  in 
1800  bishop  Tomline  obtained  for  him  the  pension  that 
had  been  held  by  the  poet  Cowper ;  and  in  1804  he  re- 
ceived from  the  lord  chancellor  the  vicarage  of  CudJiam, 
in  Kent.  His  Modern  History  of  Hindostan,  in  two  vol- 
umes, appeared  in  1802  and  1804.  Several  other  vol- 
umes on  Eastern  history  and  theology,  and  attempts  in 
verse,  succeeded  this  work ;  and  one  of  his  last  under- 
takings was  his  Menwirs,  comprehending  the  History  of 
the  Progi-ess  of  Indian  Literatuiv,  aiul  Anecdotes  of  Lit- 
erary Characters  in  Britain,  during  a  Period  of  Thirty 
Yeais.  Of  this  work  the  three  volumes  appeared  in 
1819,  1820,  and  1822.  He  died  March  30,  1824.  See 
English  Cyclop,  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  me?: 
A  ittliors,  s.  V. ;  Gorton,  Biog.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Mauritius  and  the  Thebaic  Legion.  •  The  le- 
gend concerning  St.  Mauritius  and  his  fellow-soldiers 
originated  with  Eucherius,  bishop  of  Lyons  (f  about  450), 
and  was  first  published  in  A.D.  1662,  bj^  the  Jesuit  Fran- 
cis Chifiletus,  from  an  old  martyrology  in  the  Abbey  of 
St.  Claude,  in  the  Jura.  A  recension  of  this  legend  was 
admitted  Iw  Surius  into  his  Lives  of  Sai7its  in  1569, 
which  is  drawn  from  martyrologies  of  a  later  date,  and 
was  composed  by  a  monk  connected  with  the  cloister  of 
St.  Maurice,  who  bore  the  same  name  as  the  bishop,  but 
flourished  nearly  a  century  later.  Much  has  been  writ- 
ten for  and  against  the  authenticity  of  the  legend,  but 
the  results  of  modern  criticism  seem  to  indicate  that  a 
basis  of  truth  underlies  the  story.  The  evidence  in  its 
favor  reaches  to  the  4th  centurj',  while  the  adverse  proof 
rests  chiefly  on  the  improbability  of  the  events  narrated. 
It  relates  that  during  the  wars  of  the  emperor  Maxim- 
ian  with  the  Gaids,  a  legion,  known  as  the  Thebaic,  was 
ordered  from  the  East  to  reinforce  his  army.  It  was 
composed  entirely  of  Christians,  and  was  led  by  IVIauri- 
tius.  While  the  emperor  rested  at  Octodurum  (now 
IMartigny,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  St.  Bernard),  tlie  bulk 
of  this  legion  was  stationed  at  St.  Maurice,  in  the  pres- 
ent canton  of  Wallis,  excepting  two  cohorts,  which  were 
sent  to  Treves.  The  army  was  at  this  time  employed 
in  persecuting  Christians,  in  which  service  the  Thebaic 
legion  was  ordered  to  co-operate.  They  refused  to  obey, 
and  the  emperor,  in  a  rage,  commanded  the  decimation 
of  the  legion.  As  they  remained  firm,  even  after  a  sec- 
ond decimation,  IMaximian  ordered  the  massacre  of  the 
entire  body.  Eucherius  states  that  at  this  period  a  le- 
gion numbered  6600  men,  and  clearly  asserts  that  the 
greater  portion  of  this  legion  perished  at  St.  ISIaurice, 
while  the  martyrology  of  St.  INIauritius  adds  that  offi- 
cers were  sent  to  Treves  to  execute  a  similar  punish- 
ment on  tlie  two  cohorts  stationed  there.  A  similar  le- 
gend occurs  in  Simeon  Metaphrastes,  according  to  which 
a  St.  Mauritius  with  seventy  of  his  soldiers  was  execu- 
ted by  order  of  IMaximian  ;  but  this  was  probably  a 
Greek  adaptation  <if  the  Latin  story.  Grave  doubts  are 
cast  upon  the  legend  by  the  great  number  of  fugitives 
from  this  massacre  which  constantly  meet  us,  and  by 
the  improbabilitj'  of  the  sacrifice  of  so  large  a  body  of 
troops  in  time  of  war.  See  De  Lisle,  Defense  de  la  ]'ente 
du  Martyre  de  la  Legion  Thebeenne  (1737) ;  the  A  eta  SS., 


MAURUS 


913 


MAURY 


Surius,  and  the  Martyrol.  Usuardi,  edit.  J.  B.  du  Sollier, 
S.  J.,  Sept.  22,  and  October  4, 10, 15 ;  ako  Tillemont,  Me- 
moires,  torn,  iv ;  Stolberg,  ix,  302  sq. ;  Kettberg,  Kir- 
chengesch.  Deutschlands,  i,  §  16. — Uerzog,  Real-Enct/Mop. 
ix,  197  sq. ;  Wetzer  ixnd  Welte,  Kirchen-Lexikon,  vi,  414 
sq.     (G.  M.) 

Maurus,  a  pupil  of  Benedict  of  Nursia,  is  chiefly 
known  by  the  account  given  of  him  by  the  monks  of 
the  Congregation  of  St.  Maur  (q.  v.).  His  history  is 
mainly  legendary.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to 
introduce  the  Benedictine  rule  into  France ;  to  have 
founded  its  first  convent  in  France  at  Glanfeuil,  in  the 
province  of  Anjou,  and  to  have  died  in  584,  after  havuig 
performed  a  great  number  of  miracles.  Such  at  least 
are  the  main  points  to  be  gathered  from  his  biographj^, 
much  mixed  up  indeed  in  regard  to  dates,  which  appear- 
ed in  the  9th  centur}%  Gregory  of  Tours  makes  no 
mention  of  him  whatever.  This,  however,  appears  cer- 
tain, that  France  was  the  field  of  his  labors,  for  his  name 
was  known  there  before  his  biography  appeared.  Yet 
all  the  Maurimonasteria  do  not  lead  us  back  to  him ; 
thus,  for  instance,  that  at  the  foot  of  the  Vosges  is 
named  after  an  abbot  of  the  8th  century,  Mabillon  and 
Kuinart  vainly  tried  to  prove  the  correctness  of  the  old 
biography  (Acta  Sanctorum  Of  J.  S.  Bened.  scec.  i,  274 
sq. ;  Annales  ord.  S.  Betted,  scec,  i,  107  sq.,  629  sq.), 
whilst  not  only  Protestant  but  also  Roman  Catholic 
writers  have  found  ample  reason  to  doubt  its  genuine- 
ness.— Herzog,  Real-Eiicyklo}].  ix,  201.     (J.N.  P.) 

Maurus,  Rabanus.     See  Radanus. 

Maury,  John  Siffreix,  a  French  prelate,  and  noted 
also  as  a  pulpit  orator,  was  born  June  26, 1746,  at  Vau- 
reas,  in  the  Venaissm,  of  poor  but  respectable  parents. 
He  displayed  at  a  very  early  age  great  eagerness  for 
learning,  and  being  destined  by  his  parents  for  the  ec- 
clesiastical profession,  he  was  placed  at  the  Seminary  of 
St.  Garde,  at  Avignon,  to  pursue  his  theological  studies. 
About  17G0  he  proceeded  to  Paris,  in  the  expectation 
of  earning  a  subsistence  by  the  cultivation  of  his  tal- 
ents. Though  he  was  without  friends  in  that  city,  his 
first  publication  attracted  considerable  notice.  Encoiur- 
aged  by  this  early  success  he  took  orders,  and  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  pulpit  eloquence.  In  1772  an 
Eloge  on  Fenelon,  which  he  published,  was  favorably 
received  by  the  French  Academy,  and  caused  him  to  be 
appointed  vicar-general  of  the  bishop  of  Lombez.  He 
however  soon  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  became 
very  popular  as  a  preacher.  A  panegyric  of  St,  Loius, 
which  he  delivered  before  the  French  Academy,  and  one 
of  St.  Augustine  before  an  assembly  of  the  clergy,  met 
with  so  much  success  that  king  Louis  XVI  appointed 
him  preacher  to  the  court,  and  presented  him  with  the 
living  of  the  abbey  Frenade,  in  the  diocese  of  Saintes. 
In  1785  he  delivered  his  panegyric  on  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul,  which  is  esteemed  a  masterpiece ;  shortly  after  he 
had  the  honor  to  be  chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy 
in  the  place  of  the  lyric  poet  Lefranc  de  Pompignan, 
and  the  following  year  the  valuable  benefice  of  the  pri- 
ory of  Lioris  was  conferred  upon  him.  At  the  assembly 
of  the  States-General  in  1789  he  was  named  deputy  of 
the  clergy  for  the  bailiwick  of  Peronne,  and  soon  took 
a  prominent  part  in  the  debates.  From  the  first  he 
enlisted  himself  on  the  aristocratic  side,  ^vhere  his  en- 
ergetic eloquence  and  peculiar  talent  at  reply  rendered 
him  a  formidable  antagonist  to  Mirabeau.  His  im- 
pressive and  impassioned  oratory,  though  it  expressed 
opinions  hostile  to  the  great  majority  of  the  assembly, 
was  often  listened  to  with  admiration  and  greeted  with 
applause.  His  great  moral  courage  and  firm  adherence 
to  the  principles  which  he  had  adopted,  and  which,  in 
spite  of  the  most  violent  opposition  and  in  the  face  of 
the  greatest  danger,  he  earnestly  advocated,  secured 
for  him  the  respect  and  esteem  of  the  more  enlightened 
portion  of  his  enemies.  November  27,  1790,  a  decree 
was  passed  in  the  National  Assembly,  by  which  ever*- 
ecclesiastic  in  the  kingdom  was  required  to  take  an  oath 

v.— M  M  M 


to  maintain  with  all  his  power  the  new  constitution ; 
and,  in  case  of  any  priest's  refusal,  it  was  declared  that 
he  should  be  held  to  have  renounced  his  benefices.  To 
this  constitution  the  pope  had  refused  his  sanction,  on 
account  of  its  hostility  to  the  interests  of  the  Church, 
and  the  oath  was  indignantly  refused  by  the  great  ma- 
jority of  the  clergy.  When  the  day  arrived  for  the 
taking  it  by  the  bishops  and  clergy  of  the  Assembly,  an 
infuriated  mob  surrounded  the  hall,  threatening  death 
to  all  who  should  refuse.  On  this  occasion  also  INIaury 
displayed  his  usual  intrepidity,  and  boldly  advocated 
the  independence  of  his  order.  "  Strike,  but  hear  me," 
was  his  exclamation,  when  the  last  efforts  of  his  impas- 
sioned eloquence  in  that  Assembly  were  mterrupted  by 
the  incessant  cries  of  his  political  antagonists.  At  the 
close  of  the  stormy  session  of  the  National  Assembh', 
Maurj^,  who  coidd  lend  no  further  aid  to  the  prostrate 
cause  of  royalty  and  religion,  quitted  his  native  coun- 
try', and,  at  the  invitation  of  Pius  VI,  took  up  his  resi- 
dence at  Rome.  He  was  there  received  with  the  high- 
est distinction,  and  the  loss  of  his  benefices  in  France 
was  more  than  compensated  by  his  speedy  elevation  to 
the  highest  positions  in  the  gift  of  the  Roman  Church. 
In  1792  he  was  named  archbishop  of  Nicaa  "in  partibus 
infidelium,''  and  afterwards  appointed  apostolical  nun- 
cio to  the  diet  held  at  Frankfort  for  the  election  of  the 
emperor  Francis  II.  This  mission  accompUshed,  in  1794 
he  was  elevated  to  the  dignity  of  a  cardmal,  and  was 
instituted  to  the  united  sees  of  IMonte-Fiascone  and 
Cometo.  On  the  invasion  of  Italy  by  the  French  in  1798, 
though  every  effort  was  made  to  seize  cardinal  INIaury, 
he  escaped  under  disguise  to  Venice,  where  he  assisted 
at  the  conclave  assembled  for  the  election  of  Pius  VII. 
In  1799  he  returned  to  Rome  upon  the  conquest  of  Italy 
by  Suwarrow,  and  was  accredited  as  ambassador  to  his 
exiled  king,  Louis  XVIII,  at  that  time  a  resident  of  Mit- 
tau.  This  office  he  resigned  on  the  reconciliation  of 
the  Church  of  Rome  with  the  government  of  France  un- 
der Napoleon  (in  1804) ;  thereafter  he  embraced  the 
cause  of  the  first  consul,  and  was  permitted  to  return  to 
France.  This  position,  which  was  deemed  not  to  be  in 
unison  with  the  tenor  of  his  former  conduct,  subjected 
him  in  after  times  to  the  reproaches  and  persecutions 
of  the  party  whom  he  had  served  with  so  much  person- 
al hazard.  Napoleon  gladly  received  the  approaches 
of  so  distinguished  a  member  of  the  Church  whose  es- 
tablishment he  was  restoring  in  France ;  an  interview 
took  place  between  them  at  Genoa,  and  in  May,  1806, 
Maury  reappeared  at  Paris.  The  flattering  reception 
he  there  met  with  was  calculated  to  attach  him  to  the 
interests  of  this  chief,  who  admitted  him  to  his  intima- 
cy, and  availed  himself  of  his  counsels  in  ecclesiastical 
matters.  He  received  the  pension  assigned  to  the  dig- 
nity of  a  French  cardinal,  and  was  appointed  first 
almoner  of  Jerome  Bonaparte.  In  1807  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  Institute  in  the  place  of  Target,  one  of 
the  advocates  of  the  unfortunate  Louis  XVI.  His  ac- 
ceptance in  1810  of  the  archbishopric  of  Paris  subjected 
him  to  the  displeasure  of  Pius  A'll,  between  whom  and 
Napoleon  there  had  arisen  much  disagreement.  Car- 
dinal Maury  was  a  warm  and  sincere  admirer  of  the 
emperor,  and  he  not  only  espoused  his  cause  in  the  dis- 
putes with  the  head  of  the  Church,  but  took  every  oc- 
casion, which  the  frequent  victories  of  this  chief  af- 
forded him,  of  testifying  his  gratitude  by  expressions 
of  admiration  in  his  mandates  to  the  clergy  of  his 
diocese.  These  mandates,  written  in  a  style  of  the 
most  florid  eloquence,  do  not  remind  us  of  the  im- 
pressive and  energetic  orator  of  the  National  Assem- 
bly :  they  were  severely  criticised  by  the  adherents 
of  the  ancient  regime,  and  by  the  witty  frequenters 
of  the  Parisian  saloons,  who  styled  them'  "archiepis- 
copal  despatches,"  in  allusion  to  their  military  tone, 
and  their  imitation  of  the  style  and  manner  of  Napo- 
leon's bulletins.  After  the  capitulation  of  Paris  on  the 
30th  of  INIarch,  1814,  Maury  was  deprived  by  the  Bour- 
bons of  the  administration  of  hi*^  diocese ;  and,  in  their 


3IAUZZIM 


914 


MAXCY 


resentment  for  his  adherence  to  Napoleon's  fortunes, 
they  forgot  his  former  dariiii;-  and  powerful  support  of 
their  tottering  throne,  lie  then  returned  to  Kome, 
where  he  was  imprisoned  during  one  j'ear  by  the  orders 
of  tlie  pope;  he  was  afterwards  allowed  to  live  in  retire- 
ment on  a  pension  which  was  given  to  him  in  com- 
pensation for  his  resignation  of  the  see  of  Monte  Fias- 
cone.  In  this  retirement,  deeply  affected  by  the  in- 
gratitude of  his  former  party,  and  that  of  the  pontiff,  to 
whose  elevation  he  had  been  instrumental,  he  died  on 
the  1 1th  of  May,  1817.  "  Notwithstanding  his  extraor- 
dinary eloquence,"  says  the  duchess  of  Abrantes,  who 
knew  him  intimately,  "  the  abbe  Maury  had  been  be- 
fore the  Revolution,  what  he  was  in  proscription,  what 
he  continued  under  the  empire,  a  man  cf  talent  rather 
than  a  man  of  sense,  and  a  curate  of  the  time  of  the 
League,  rather  than  an  abbe  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV." 
She  adds  that  his  tigiire  was  in  the  highest  degree  dis- 
agreeable, but  the  description  she  gives  of  it  appears 
rather  a  caricature  than  a  portrait.  His  principal  work, 
Essais  sur  l' Eloquence  de  la  Chaire  (3  vols.  8vo),  pub- 
lished after  his  death  by  his  nephew,  Louis  Siffrein 
Maury,  still  maintains  its  well-merited  popularity.  His 
mind  was  formed  to  appreciate  the  eloquence  of  Massil- 
lon,  Bossuet,  and  Bourdaloue,  and  his  criticisms  on  the 
other  Frencli  divines  are  in  general  as  correct  as  they 
are  temperate.  In  his  review,  however,  of  English  pul- 
pit oratory,  he  manifests  a  want  of  acquaintance  with 
the  writings  of  its  most  celebrated  preachers,  such  as 
Jeremy  Taylor,  Sherlock,  and  Barrow.  He  selected 
Blair  as  the  best  model  of  English  eloquence,  and  the 
comparison  which  he  draws  between  him  and  Massillon 
is  necessarily  most  unfavorable  to  Blair.  His  own  pan- 
egyric of  St.  Augustine  is  esteemed  one  of  the  finest 
pieces  of  French  pidpit  eloquence.  He  is  also  supposed, 
conjointly  with  the  abbe  de  Boismont,  to  be  the  author 
of  a  ^vork  entitled  Lettres  sur  VEtat  actuel  de  la  Religion 
it  du  Clerge.  en  France.  See  Vie  du  Cardinal  Maury 
(1827),  by  Poujbulat;  Le  Cardinal  Maury,  sa  Vie  et  ses 
CEurres  (1855);  Hoefer,  Nonr.  Biog.  Generale,  s.  v.; 
Monthly  Review,  vol.  Ixix  (1812),  Appendix;  English 
Cyclop,  s.  V. 

Maiiz'zim  (D''"S.''3  Sept.  Maoj^ti/t  v.  r.  MaioZii, 
Vulg.  2[aozim).  The  marginal  note  to  the  A.  V.  of 
Dan.  xi,  38,  "  the  God  of  Jhrce,^,"  gives,  as  the  equiva- 
lent of  the  last  w^ord,  "  Mauzzini,  or  gods  protectors,  or 
munitions."  The  Geneva  version  renders  the  Hebrew 
as  a  proper  name  both  in  Dan.  xi,  38  and  39,  where  the 
word  occurs  again  (marg.  of  A.  V.  "munitions").  In 
the  Greek  version  of  Theodotion,  given  above,  it  is  treat- 
ed as  a  proper  name,  as  well  as  in  the  Vulgate.  The 
Sept.,  as  at  present  printed,  is  evidently  corrupt  in  this 
passage,  but  iaxvpa  (ver.  37)  appears  to  represent  the 
word  in  question.  In  Jerome's  time  the  reading  was 
different,  and  he  gives  "  Deum  fortissimum"  for  the 
Latin  translation  of  it,  and  '•  Deum  fortitudinum"  for 
that  of  Aquila.  He  ridicules  the  interpretation  of  Por- 
phyry, who,  ignorant  of  Hebrew,  understood  by  "  the 
god  of  Mauzzini"  the  statue  of  Jupiter  set  up  in  Modin, 
the  citj'  of  Mattathias  and  his  sons,  by  the  generals  of 
Antiochns,  who  compelled  the  Jews  to  sacrifice  to  it, 
"  the  god  of  Modin."  Theodoret  retains  the  reading  of 
Theodotion  (Ma^wti'/t  being  evidently  for  Maw^fi/i), 
and  exjilains  it  of  Antichrist,  "  a  god  strong  and  power- 
ful." 'I"he  Peshito-Syriac  has  "the  strong  god,"  and 
Junius  and  Tremellius  render  it  "Deum  summi  roboris," 
considering  the  Hebrew  plural  as  intensive,  and  inter- 
preting it  of  the  God  of  Israel.  There  can  be  little 
doubt  that  "Mauzzim"  is  to  be  taken  in  its  literal  sense 
of  "fortresses,"  just  as  in  Dan.  xi,  19,  39,  "the  god  of 
fortresses"  being  then  the  deity  who  presided  over 
strongholds.  But  beyond  this  it  is  scarcely  jiossil^le  to 
coimect  an  appellation  so  general  with  any  special  ob- 
ject of  idolatrous  worshij).  (irotius  conjectured  that 
Mauzzim  was  a  modification  of  tlie  name  "A^uof.  the 
war-god  of  the  Phoenicians,  mentioned  in  Julian's  liymn 


to  the  sun  (Beyer,  Addit.  ad  Seldenii  "De  Dea  Syria," 
p.  275).  Calvin  suggested  that  it  denoted  "  money,"  the 
strongest  of  all  powers.  By  others  it  has  been  supposed 
to  be  Mars,  the  tutelary  deity  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes, 
who  is  the  sufyect  of  allusion.  The  only  autliority  for 
this  supposition  exists  in  two  coins  struck  at  Laodicea, 
which  are  believed  to  have  on  the  obverse  the  head  of 
Antiochus  with  a  radiated  crown,  and  on  the  reverse 
the  figure  of  Mars  with  a  spear.  But  it  is  asserted,  on 
the  contrary,  that  aU  known  coins  of  Antiochus  Epiph- 
anes bear  his  name,  and  that  it  is  mere  conjecture 
which  attributes  these  to  him  ;  and,  further,  that  there 
is  no  ancient  authority  to  show  that  a  temple  to  INIars 
was  built  by  Antiochus  at  Laodicea.  The  opinion  of 
Gesenius  is  more  probable,  that  "  the  god  of  fortresses" 
was  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  for  whom  Antiochus  built  a 
temple  at  Antioch  (Livj',  xli,  20).  By  others  it  is  re- 
ferred to  Jupiter  Olympius,  to  whom  Antiochus  dedi- 
cated the  Temple  at  Jerusalem  (2  Mace,  vi,  2).  See  Ju- 
piTt'.R.  Flirst  (Ilandw.  s.  v.),  comparing  Isa.  xxxiii,  4, 
where  the  reference  is  to  Tyre,  "  the  fortress  of  the 
sea,"  makes  D'^"S'"2  equivalent  to  C'tl  T'i"'!3j  or  even 
proposes  to  read  for  the  former  C  tJ'TD,  the  god  of  the 
"  stronghold  of  the  sea,"  i.  e.  Melkart,  the  Tyrian  Her- 
cules. A  suggestion  made  by  Mr.  Layard  (Xitieve/i, 
ii,  456,  note)  is  worthy  of  being  recorded,  as  being 
at  least  as  well  founded  as  any  already  mentioned. 
After  describing  Hera,  the  Assyrian  Venus,  as  "stand- 
ing erect  on  a  lion,  and  crowned  with  a  tower  or  mural 
coronet,  which,  we  learn  from  Lucian,  was  peculiar  to 
the  Shemitic  figure  of  the  goddess,"  he  adds  in  a  note, 
"  May  she  be  connected  with  the  '  El  Maozem,'  the  de- 
ity presiding  over  bulwarks  and  fortresses,  the  '  god  of 
forces,'  of  Dan.  xi,  38  ?"  Pfeiffer  {Dub.  Vex.  cent,  iv, 
loc.  72)  will  only  see  in  it  "  the  idol  of  the  Mass  /" — 
Smith,  s.  V. 

MaTW  {^^p,,  kebah',  liolloio,  only  occurs  in  Dent,  xviii, 
3),  the  rough  ventricle  or  echinus  of  ruminating  ani- 
mals, which  is  the  second  of  their  four  stomachs  (Aris- 
totle, Hist.  anim.  ii,  17).  So  the  Vulg.,  Onkelos,  Saadias, 
and  Flimahi  interpret ;  but  Josephus  (^4  nt.  iv,  4),  Philo 
(ii,  235,  ed.  Mang.),  after  the  Sept.  (JvvvaTpov,  i.  e.  i}v- 
vvarpov),  understand  the  fourth  stomach,  or  omaiim, 
esteemed  a  great  delicacy  (like  irij^e)  among  the  an- 
cients (comp.  Bochart,  Hieroz.  i,  571  ed.  Lips.). 

Ma-wmoisine  or  Malvoisine,  William  de,  a 
Scotch  Koman  Catholic  prelate,  supposed  to  be  a  native 
of  France,  flourished  in  Scotland  about  the  opening  of 
the  13th  century.  He  was  made  bishop  of  St.  Andrew's 
in  1202;  established  many  monasteries  in  that  country, 
and  was  active  in  promoting  a  crusade  to  the  Holy  Land. 

Ma'wson,  Matthias,  D.D.,  an  English  divine  of 
the  18th  century,  became  master  of  Corpus  Christi  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  in  1732 ;  subsequently  rector  of  Had- 
stock,  Essex;  bishop  of  LlandaflF  in  1738;  was  trans- 
lated to  Chichester  in  1740,  and  in  1754  to  Ely.  He 
died  about  1771.  Bishop  INIawson  published  only  occa- 
sional Sermons  (Lond.  1732,  '33,  '40,  '41,  '43,  '46,  '50). 
See  AUibone,  Diet.  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Maxcy,  Jonathan,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister  and 
noted  American  educator,  was  born  in  Attleborough, 
Mass.,  Sept.  2, 1768 ;  graduated  at  Brown  University  in 
1787,  and  immediately  became  a  tutor  in  that  institution. 
Deciding  for  the  ministry,  he  was  licensed  to  preach 
April  1,  1790,  and  was  on  Sept.  8,  1791,  ordained  pastor 
of  the  First  Baptist  Church  of  Providence,  K.  I.  He 
was  on  the  same  day  also  elected  both  a  trustee  and 
professor  of  divinity  "in  the  college,  and  in  July,  1792, 
became  president.  His  pastoral  relations  he  severed 
Sejjtember  8, 1792.  In  1802  he  accepted  the  presiden- 
cv  of  Union  College;  and  in  1804.  the  newly-estab- 
ifshcd  South  Carolina  College  having  chosen  him  for  its 
first  president,  he  heeded  tlie  call,  in  the  hope  that  a 
Soutliern  climate  would  improve  his  health,  which  had 
Ijecome  much  impaired.     Over  this  institution  he  con- 


MAXENTIUS 


915 


MAXIMILIAN 


tinned  to  preside,  with  almost  unprecedented  popularity, 
until  his  death,  June  4,  1820.  Dr.  IMaxcy  was  one  of 
the  most  accomplished  pulpit  orators  and  scholars  this 
country  has  produced.  He  was  well  versed  in  philology, 
criticism,  metaphysics,  logic,  politics,  morals,  and  phi- 
losophy His  character  was  very  amiable  and  his  piety 
sincere.  His  death  was  that  of  the  believer  in  Jesus, 
and  his  memory  is  widely  revered.  He  published  a 
large  number  of  sermons,  addresses,  orations,  etc.,  which 
after  his  death  were  gathered  in  a  volume,  entitled  The 
Literary  Eemaiiis  of  the  Rev.  Jonathan  Maxcij,  D.D., 
with  a  Memoir  of  his  Life,  by  Romeo  Elton,  D.D.  The 
most  valued  of  his  publications  were  his  sermons  on  the 
existence  of  God,  frequently  republished.  See  Sprague, 
Annah,  vi,  297;  Christian  Review,  vol.  ix;  Allibonc, 
Diet.  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  itthors,  s.  v. ;  Drake,  Bid.  A mer. 
Biog.  s.  V. 

Maxentius.     See  Constantine. 

Maxfield,  Thomas,  a  noted  early  Methodist  lay- 
preacher,  flourished  in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury. He  was  one  of  Wesley's  converts  at  Bristol,  and 
■was  appointed  to  pray  and  expound  the  Scriptures,  but 
not  to  preach,  at  the  Foundery,  in  London,  during  Mr. 
Wesley's  absence.  Maxfield,  however,  being  a  young 
man  of  "much  fervency  of  spirit,  and  mighty  in  the 
Scriptures,"  greatly  editied  the  people,  who,  assembling 
in  vast  crowds,  and  listening  with  earnest  attention,  in- 
sensibly led  him  to  deviate  from  this  restriction  and 
begin  to  preach.  Wesley  was  informed  of  this  irregu- 
larity, and  hastened  to  London  in  alarm  to  check  him, 
his  prejudices  for  "Church  order"  being  still  strong. 
The  mother  of  Wesley  counselled  him  to  hear  Maxfield 
preach  before  reproving  him,  adding,  "But  take  care 
what  you  do  respecting  that  young  man;  he  is  as  surely 
called  of  God  to  preach  as  you  are."  Wesley  heard  him, 
and,  his  prejudices  yielding  to  the  power  of  truth,  he 
objected  no  longer.  Thus  Maxfield  became  the  first  of 
the  innumerable  itinerantlay-preachers,  whohave  spread 
the  Gospel  throughout  the  world  more  successfully  than 
any  other  class  of  the  Christian  community.  Wesley 
promoted  his  welfare  in  every  way,  introduced  him  in 
London  to  a  social  position  superior  to  his  birth,  by 
which  he  was  enabled  to  make  an  advantageous  mar- 
riage, and  obtained  ordination  for  him  in  Ireland  from 
the  bishop  of  Londonderry,  who  favored  Wesley  in  that 
country.  Maxfield  was  present  at  the  first  jMethodist 
Conference,  which  was  held  at  the  Foundery,  London, 
June  25, 1774.  Maxfield  also  attended  the  tnird  Con- 
ference assembled  at  Bristol,  May,  174G.  He  shared  the 
persecution  to  wliich  the  followers  of  Wesley  were  sub- 
jected; was  at  one  time  seized  and  imprisoned  for  the 
king's  service,  thrown  into  a  dungeon,  and  offered  to 
the  commander  of  a  ship  of  war.  In  17G3,  during  a  re- 
vival in  Loudon,  great  excitement  was  produced  by  an 
honest  madman.  Bell,  formerly  a  life-guardsman,  who 
had  become  a  local  preacher,  and  supposed  that  he  had 
performed  a  miraculous  cure.  Possessing  more  enthu- 
siasm than  judgment,  he  became  fanatical  in  public 
meetings,  and  greatly  excited  his  hearers.  He  unfor- 
tunately obtained  much  influence  over  Maxfield — the 
latter  was  not  naturally  an  enthusiast — and  made  him 
a  companion  in  his  fanaticism.  Both  the  Wesleys 
conversed  with  IMaxficld  on  the  subject,  telling  him 
what  they  disliked  in  liis  conduct.  In  some  matters 
he  had  lieen  unjustly  blamed,  in  others  he  promised 
to  change;  the  evil,  however,  was  not  remedied,  but 
seemed  rather  to  increase.  Then  Mr.  Wesley  wrote  a 
long  letter  to  Maxfield,  plainly  telling  him  of  the  errors 
of  his  preaching  and  conduct,  and  of  its  tendency  to- 
wards a  separation  from  the  Wesleyans.  The  doctrines 
advocated  by  Maxticld  and  Bell  were  erroneous,  inas- 
much as  they  taught  that  a  person  saved  from  sin  need 
not  examine  himself,  need  not  pray  in  private,  need  onlij 
believe  ;  that  heliecing  malvcs  man  perfect,  and  that  the 
pure  in  heart  cannot  fall  from  grace.  They  said  no  one 
thus  saved  could  be  taught  by  any  one  who  was  not. 


They  were  thus  led  to  consider  themselves  the  only 
persons  really  capable  of  interpreting  the  Gospel  and 
qualified  to  teach  it,  and  soon  regarded  themselves  as 
inspired,  mistaking  the  workings  of  their  own  imagina- 
tions for  the  voice  of  the  Spirit,  and  neglecting  knowl- 
edge, reason,  and  wisdom  generally.  Maxfield  finally 
decided  to  separate  from  Mr.  Wesley,  and  accordingly 
gave  up  his  work  at  the  Foundery,  and  took  with  him 
one  hundred  and  seventy  persons  who  had  embraced  the 
Wesleyan  cause.  He  now  opened  an  independent  chapel, 
and  preached  for  twenty  years.  Towards  the  close  of 
Maxfleld's  life,  Wesley,  in  his  travels  through  England, 
found  him  sinking  under  paralysis  and  the  weight  of 
years,  prayed  with  him,  invoking  God's  blessing  on  his 
last  days,  and  subsequently  preached  in  his  chapel.  See 
Stevens,  Hist,  of  Methodism  (Index  in  vol.  iii) ;  Smith, 
Hist,  of  Weslerj  and  his  Time;  Tyerman,  Life  of  Wesley 
(see  Index  in  vol.  iii). 

Maximian.     See  Diocletian. 

Maximianists,  a  considerable  party  among  the 
Donatists  who  separated  from  the  main  body  of  that 
sect,  and  arrogated  to  themselves  the  exclusive  posses- 
sion of  those  qualities  of  perfection  and  infallibility  to 
which  the  whole  sect  had  made  pretensions  when  they 
separated  from  the  Catholic  Chiuch.     See  Donatists. 

Maximilian  I,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of 
the  German  emperors,  the  son  and  successor  of  Frederick 
III,  the  forerunner  of  Charles  V,  was  born  at  Neustadt, 
near  Vienna,  March  22, 1459.  In  his  nineteenth  year  he 
married  Maria,  the  only  child  and  heiress  of  Charles  the 
Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy,  who  died  in  1482.  IMaximilian 
had  hoped  to  enjoy  the  estates  of  his  father-in-law,  but 
Louis  XI  of  France  attempted  to  seize  some  of  these  pos- 
sessions, and  thus  involved  our  German  prince  in  a  con- 
test which,  when  it  promised  to  end  favorably  for  Max- 
imilian, was  suddenlj'  turned  in  favor  of  Louis  XI  liy 
the  dexterous  intrigues  of  the  latter  among  the  Nether- 
landers.  It  was  not  until  1493  that  peace  was  finally 
established  at  Senlis.  This  very  year  his  father  the 
emperor  died,  and  IMaximilian  succeeded  to  the  govern- 
ment of  the  vast  possessions  of  the  Teutonic  realm,  so 
soon  to  become  the  theatre  of  one  of  the  greatest  revo- 
lutions the  world  has  ever  been  called  upon  to  witness 
—the  Reformation  of  the  16th  century— an  event  that 
was  ushered  in  just  as  IMaximilian  himself  was  fast 
fading  as  the  shades  of  evening.  In  1494  the  newly- 
crowned  emperor  married  Bianca  Sforza,  daughter  of  the 
duke  of  Milan,  which  alliance  gave  rise  to  a  succession 
of  wars  in  Italy.  Shortly  after  he  joined  the  League  of 
Cambray,  formed  between  pope  Julius  II,  Ferdinand  of 
Spain,  and  Louis  XII  of  France,  against  the  Venetians ; 
but  that  republic  having  soon  after  become  reconciled 
to  the  pope,  Maximilian  joined  the  so-called  Holy  League 
between  England,  Spain,  Venice,  and  the  pope,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  French,  who  were  signally  defeated  by  the 
forces  of  Henry  VIII  and  the  emperor  in  the  '■  battle  of 
the  spurs,"  near  Guincgate  (1513).  The  ascension  of 
Francis  I  to  the  throne  of  France  somewhat  modified 
matters  in  favor  of  the  French.  The  new  king  of  the 
Franks  captured  INIilan,  and  compelled  Maximilian  to 
give  up  Verona  to  the  Venetians  for  200,000  ducats.  By 
the  treaty  of  Basle  (1499)  he  had  been  obliged  to  ac- 
knowledge the  independence  of  S^vitzerland.  Though 
thus  unsuccessful  in  his  wars,  he  had  the  fortune  to  see 
the  hereditary  dominions  of  his  house  increased  during 
his  reign  by  several  peaceful  additions;  and  the  mar- 
riage of  his  son  Philip  with  the  infanta  Juana,  and  of 
his  daughter  Margaret  with  the  infant  Juan  of  Spain, 
led  to  the  subsequent  union  of  Spain  with  Austria, 
while  the  marriage  of  two  of  his  grandchildren  with 
the  son  and  daughter  of  Ladislaus,  king  of  Hungary 
and  Bohemia,  brought  both  these  kingdoms  to  the  Aus- 
trian monarchy.  The  closing  activity  of  his  reign  was 
displayed  against  the  rising  heresy.  Luther  had  just 
come  forward  and  attacked  Tetzel  (1517),  and.  as  Leo  X 
was  inclined  to  make  light  of  the  opposition  of  the  little 


MAXDIILIAN 


916 


MAXIMIN 


Augustino  friar,  Maximilian  addressed  the  Eoman  pon- 
tiff, and  persuaded  him  to  heed  this  ditKculty  as  "  a  ques- 
tion wliich  was  dividing  Germany."  But  in  the  very 
vear  in  which  the  discussion  at  Leipzic  came  off  Maxi- 
milian died  (1519),  and  left  it  for  his  successor  Charles 
X  to  further  the  cause  of  Protestantism  by  a  blind  obe- 
dience to  the  dictates  of  an  incompetent  Roman  pontiff. 
iNIaximilian  I  was  a  liberal  patron  of  literature,  and 
learned  men  were  greatly  encouraged  by  him.  Indeed 
he  was  himself  an  author,  producing  several  works  in 
prose  and  verse.  See  Hegewisch,  Gesch.  d.  Regierung 
JIaximilians  /(178-2;  new  ed.  Leipz.  1818);  Haltaus, 
Gesch.  (1.  Kaise7-s  Maximilian  (1850)  ;  Klupfel,  Kaiser 
Jfaximilian  I  (Beil.  1864) ;  Lichnowsky,  Gesch. d.  Hauses 
Habsbiirg;  Vehse,  Memohs  of  Austria,  i,  2-33:  Coxe, 
Hist,  of  the  House  of  A  ustria,  i,  278  sq. ;  Kohlrausch, 
Hist,  of  Germany,  p.  234  sq. 

Maximilian  II,  emperor  of  Austria,  son  of  empe- 
ror Ferdinand  I,  and  of  Anna  of  Hungarj',  was  bora  at 
Vienna  Aug.  1,  1527.  He  was  educated  in  Spain  by 
Charles  V;  took  part  in  the  war  of  Smalcald  (1541-48) 
against  the  French ;  became  viceroy  of  Spain  in  1549 ; 
on  his  return  to  Germany,  about  1551,  he  made  the 
treaty  of  Passau,  and  in  1552  became  governor  cf  Hun- 
gary. In  September,  1 562,  he  was  crowned  king  of  Bo- 
hemia ;  elected  king  of  Rome  at  Frankfort  in  Novem- 
liir  of  the  same  year;  king  of  Hungarj'  at  Presburg  in 
loG3;  and  finally  succeeded  his  father  as  emperor  of 
(iermaiiy  in  July,  1564.  He  made  war  against  the 
Turks,  in  Hungary,  until  1567,  but  aftenvards  reigned 
in  peace.  During  his  youth  his  preceptor,  "Wolfgang 
Stiefel,  had  made  him  acquainted  with  the  Protestant 
tenets,  and  he  showed  himself  favorable  to  the  Refor- 
mation, living  on  very  friencUy  terms  with  the  Protes- 
tant princes  (Fisher,  Hist,  of  the  Reformation  [N.  Y.  1873, 
8vo],  p.  423).  Yet  he  did  not  allow  their  doctrines  free 
scope  throughout  his  empire,  as  the  majority  in  the 
states  was  opposed  to  it,  and  the  Protestants  themselves, 
divided  into  Lutherans  and  Calvinists,  were  engaged  in 
strife  with  each  other.  From  the  manner  in  which  he 
sought  the  friendship  and  alliance  of  Romish  princes,  it 
must  appear  that  Maximilian  II  never  allowed  his  pri- 
vate convictions  to  rule  him  as  a  monarch,  but  that  all 
was  made  subservient  to  the  interests  of  tlie  empire. 
Some  will  even  have  it.  as  Yehse  (see  below),  that  he 
was  at  one  time  a  convert  to  the  Protestant  religion 
(comp.  Baker,  Eccles.  Hist,  ii,  211).  He,  however,  grant- 
ed the  Protestants  in  1568  liberty  to  worship  God 
accordmg  to  their  conscience  throughout  Austria, 
and  commissioned  D.  Chytrrous  to  draw  up  a  Prot- 
estant liturgy  for  Austria.  Although  he  was  op- 
posed to  the  Jesuits,  and  subjected  them  to  many 
restrictions,  he  yet,  by  his  toleration,  permitted  them 
access  and  great  influence  in  his  own  family.  He 
died  Oct.  12,'  157G.  See  J.  F.  Miller,  Episto'lm  Fer- 
dinandi  I  et  M.  II  (Pesth.  1808);  Koch,  Quellen  z. 
Gesch.  M.  II  (Leipz.  1857-61) ;  Ranke,  Historisch- 
jyoiitischer  Zeitschr.  (1832,  p.  278  sq.) ;  and  the  same 
reprinted  in  Deutsche  Gesch.  (1868),  vol.  vi ;  Bernard 
Raupach,  Evang.  Ofsterrclch,  vol.  i  and  ii ;  Lebret, 
Magazin  z.  Gehrauch  d.  Staaten  und  Kirchengesch. 
(Ulm,  1785),  vol.  ix ;  Maurenbrecher,  in  Sybcl's  Ilisior. 
Zeitschrift,  1862,  p.  351  sq. ;  E.  Reimann,  in  the  same 
journal,  1866,  p.  1  sq. ;  Coxe,  Hist,  of  the  House  of  A  us- 
tria, ii,  4  sq.;  Yehse,  Jtlemoirs  of  the  House  of  Austria,  i, 
217  SI]. :  I'ierer,  Unicersal-Lexikon,  xi,  29;  Herzog, /?ea?- 
Encykliip.  ix.  204. 

Maximin  I,  Ji-i.ius  Yerus,  Roman  emperor,  was  a 
native  of  Thrace,  and  a  shcjiherd  in  his  youth.  His 
fine  figure,  great  height,  and  strength  attracted  the  notice 
of  the  emperor  Sevcrus,  who  enrolled  him  in  his  guards. 
Maximin  advanced  rapidly,  but  did  not  serve  -imder 
either  ^Macrinus  or  Ileliogabalus.  During  the  reign  of 
Alexander  Sevcrus  he  came  to  Rome,  was  made  senator 
and  chief  of  a  newly-formed  legion,  took  an  active  part 
in  the  wars  against  the  Persians  and  ^Vllemans.  and  soon 
gained  great  influence  over  the  soldiers.     "When  Alex- 


ander Severus  was  killed  at  Mayence,  March  19, 235.  the 
troops  appointed  Maximin  his  successor,  and  the  sen- 
ate, frightened,  confirmed  the  election.  He  remained, 
however,  with  the  army,  and  made  several  expeditions 
into  Germany.  His  disposition  was  naturally  cruel,  and 
he  gave  fuU  scope  to  it  when  on  the  throne.  Two  con- 
spiracies against  him  which  were  discovered  led  to  fear- 
ful massacres;  in  the  first,  it  is  said,  over  four  thousand 
persons  were  executed.  He  also  opposed  Christianity, 
and  particularly  persecuted  the  bishops  who  had  been 
most  favored  by  Alexander.  About  the  same  time  some 
earthquakes  occurred  in  the  empire,  particularly  in  Cap- 
padocia,  and  the  people  became  enraged  against  the 
Christians,  whom  they  accused  of  being  the  cause  of 
all  the  evUs  which  befell  them,  and  the  emperor  allowed 
free  scope  to  all  barbarities  the  people  chose  to  inflict 
on  them.  The  persecution,  indeed,  broke  out  only  in 
some  parts  of  the  empire,  so  that  Christians  could  flee 
before  it ;  but  as  the  Christians  had  of  late  become  used 
to  toleration,  this  sudden  visitation  of  persecution  fell 
severely  upon  their  heads,  and  caused  much  suffering 
(comp.  Eusebius,  Eccles.  Hist,  vi,  28 ;  Firmilian,  in  Cypr. 
Ep.  75 ;  Origen,  Comment,  in  Matt,  xxiv,  9).  Finally  his 
soldiers,  tired  of  his  tyranny  and  cruelty,  murdered  him, 
together  with  his  son,  at  Aquileia,  March,  238.  Max- 
imin was  only  regretted  by  the  inhabitants  of  Thrace 
and  Pannonia,  who  were  proud  of  having  an  emperor  of 
their  own ;  the  other  parts  of  the  empire  rejoiced  over 
his  death.  The  legendary  poesy  of  the  10th  centu- 
r\'  assigns  to  the  reign  of  Maximin  the  fabulous  mar- 
tyrdom of  St.  Ursula,  a  British  princess,  and  her  com- 
pany of  eleven  thousand  (according  to  others,  ten  thou- 
sand) virgins,  who,  on  their  return  from  a  pilgrimage  to 
Rome,  were  murdered  bj'  heathens  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Cologne.  "This  incredible  number  has  probably 
arisen  from  the  misinterpretation  of  an  inscription,  like 
•  Ursula  et  Undecimilla'  (which  occurs  in  an  old  missal 
of  the  Sorbonne),  or  '  Ursula  et  XI  M.  Y.,  i.  e.  Martyres 
Yirgines,  which,  by  substituting  milUa  for  viarlyres,  was 
increased  from  eleven  martjTS  to  eleven  thousand  vir- 
gins. Some  historians  place  the  fact,  which  seems  to 
form  the  basis  of  this  legend,  in  connection  with  the 
retreat  of  the  Huns  after  the  battle  of  Chalons,  451" 
(Schaff).  iieaHerzog,  Real-Encyclop.i:^,2Ql\  Smith, 
Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and  Mythology,  ii, 
983 ;  Schaff,  Church  Hist,  i,  170 ;  Gieseler,  Ecclesiastical 
History,  i,  115. 


Coin  of  Maximin  1. 


Maximin  II,  DAZA,Roman  emperor,  was  originally 
an  lUyrian  peasant,  who  served  in  the  Roman  armies,  and 
was  raised  by  Galerius,  who  was  his  relative,  to  the  rank 
of  militarj-  tribune,  and  lastly,  A.D.  303,  at  the  time  of 
the  abdication  of  Diocletian  and  Maximian,  to  the  dig- 
nity of  Cicsar,  receiving  for  his  share  the  government 
of  .Syria  and  Egypt.  After  the  death  of  Galerius,  in  311. 
Maximin  and  Licinius  divided  his  dominions  between 
them,  and  Maximin  obtained  the  whole  of  the  Asi- 
atic provinces.  Both  he  and  Licinius  behaved  ungrate- 
fully towards  the  family  of  tialerius.  their  common  ben- 
efactor. Valeria,  the  daughter  of  Diocletian  and  widow 
of  Galerius.  having  escaped  from  Licinius  into  the  do- 
minions of  Maximin,  the  latter  offered  to  marrj-  her, 
and  on  her  refusal  banished  her  with  her  mother  into 
the  deserts  of  Syria.     He  gained  unenviable  notoriety 


MAXIMUS 


917 


MAXIMUS 


by  li'-s  severity  towards  his  Christian  subjects,  and  made 
war  against  the  Armenians.  A  new  war  having  broken 
out  between  Licinius  and  Maximin,  the  latter  advanced 
as  for  as  Adrianople,  but  was  defeated,  tied  into  Asia,  and 
died  of  poison  at  Tarsus  in  313. — English  Cyclop,  s.  v. 


Coin  of  Mashnin  II. 


Maximus  Alexandrinus,  called  also  the  Cynic 
Philosopher,  was  born  in  the  fourth  century,  in  Alexan- 
dria, of  Christian  parents  of  rank.  He  united  the  faith 
of  an  orthodox  believer  with  the  appearance  and  con- 
duct of  a  cynic  philosopher,  and  was  greatly  respected 
b}'  the  leading  theologians  of  the  orthodox  party. 
Athanasius,  in  a  letter  written  about  A.D.  371  {Epist. 
ad  Maxim.  Philosoph.  in  Opip.  i,  917,  etc.,  ed.  Benedict.), 
compliments  him  on  a  work  written  in  defence  of  the 
orthodox  faith.  Tillemont  and  the  Benedictine  editor 
of  the  works  of  Gregory  Nazianzen  (M^onitui7i  ad  Orat. 
xxv),  misled  by  the  virulent  invectives  of  that  father, 
attempt  to  distinguish  between  this  Maximus  and  the 
one  to  whom  Athanasius  wrote,  for  the  reason  that 
Athanasius  could  never  have  approved  of  so  worthless  a 
character.  They  also  distinguish  him  from  the  INIaxi- 
mus  to  whom  Basil  the  Great  addressed  a  letter  (£p.  41, 
Paris,  1839)  in  terms  of  great  respect,  discussing  some 
points  of  doctrine,  and  soliciting  a  visit  from  him ;  but 
they  are  not  successful  in  either  case.  The  Maximus 
Scholasticus,  liowever,  to  whom  Basil  also  wrote  (^Ep. 
42),  was  a  different  i^erson.  In  A.D.  374,  during  the 
reign  of  the  emperor  Valens,  in  the  persecution  carried 
on  by  Lucius,  Arian  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  Maximus 
was  barbarously  scourged  and  banished  to  the  Oasis,  on 
account  of  his  zeal  for  orthodoxy,  and  the  alacrity  with 
which  he  aided  those  enduring  the  same  persecutions 
(Gregory  Nazianzen,  Orat.  xxv,  c.  13,  14).  He  was  re- 
leased at  the  end  of  four  years,  probably  on  the  death 
of  Valens ;  and  it  was  soon  after  this  event  that  he  pre- 
sented to  the  emperor  Gratian  at  Milan  his  work  De 
Fide,  written  against  the  Arians  (compare  Jerome,  De 
Viris  Illusir,  c.  127).  He  wrote  also  against  other  here- 
tics, but  whether  in  the  same  work  or  in  another  is  not 
certainly  known ;  and  he  disputed  ably  against  the  hea- 
thens. He  appears  to  have  returned  from  Milan  and 
visited  Constantinople,  where  Gregory  Nazianzen  had 
just  been  made  patriarch,  A.D.  379.  Gregory  received 
him  with  the  greatest  honor,  and  pronounced  an  ora- 
tion (Orat.  xxv)  in  his  praise,  where  his  warm  panegy- 
rics cause  the  commendations  of  Athanasius  and  Basil  to 
seem  exceedingly  tame.  He  welcomed  him  at  his  table, 
treated  him  with  much  confidence  and  regard,  but  was 
subsequently  grievously  disappointed  in  him.  Whether 
in  the  succeeding  events  Jlaximus  was  himself  ambi- 
tious or  merely  the  tool  of  others,  does  not  appear. 
Profiting  by  the  sickness  of  Gregory,  and  supported  by 
some  Egyptian  ecclesiastics,  sent  by  Peter,  patriarch  of 
Alexandria,  luider  whose  guidance  they  professed  to 
act,  Maximus  was  ordained,  during  the  night,  patri- 
arch of  Constantinople,  in  the  place  of  Gregory,  whose 
election  had  not  been  perfectly  canonical.  This  bold 
proceeding  greatly  excited  the  indignation  of  the  peo- 
]rle,  with  whom  Gregory  was  popular.  The  emperor 
Theodosius,  to  whom  the  usurper  applied,  showing  him 
no  favor,  the  latter  withdrew  to  Alexandria,  from 
whence  he  was  speedily  expelled  by  his  patron  Peter 
(see  Gregory  Nazianzen,  Carmen  de  Vita  sua,  vss.  750- 
1029).  The  resignation  of  Gregory  did  not  benefit 
IMaximus.  His  election  was  declared  null  and  void  by 
the  second  general  council,  and  the  presbyters  whom  he 
had  ordained  were  declared  not  to  be  presbyters  {Co7i- 


cil.  Consfaniinop.  can.  3,  sec.  Dionys.  Exiguum ;  Capital. 
G,  sec.  Isidor.  Mercat;  apud  Concil.  vol.  i,  col,  809,  810, 
ed.  Hardouin).  He  attempted  again  to  assert  his  claims 
to  the  patriarchate;  but,  though  the  Italian  bishops 
seemed  inclined  for  a  time  to  second  his  efforts,  he  met 
with  no  permanent  success.  The  invectives  of  Gregory 
Nazianzen  against  Maximus  {Carmina,  sec.  De  Vita 
sua,  1.  c, ;  In  Invidos,  vs.  IG,  etc.;  In  Maximum)  were 
written  after  their  struggle  for  the  patriarchate,  and 
contrast  strongly  with  his  former  praises  in  his  twenty- 
tifth  Oration,  to  which  some  of  Gregory's  admirers,  to 
conceal  the  inconsistency,  prefixed  the  name  of  Heron 
or  Hero  (/«  Laudem  Heronis ;  Jerome,  De  Viris  Illustr. 
1.  c),  which  it  still  bears.  The  work  of  Maximus,  De 
Fide,  which  is  well  spoken  of  by  Jerome,  is  lost.  (See 
Athenas,  Basil,  Gregory  Nazianzen,  Jerome,  I.  c. ;  Sozo- 
men, //.  i',  vii,  9,  cum  not.  Vales;  Tillemont,  3Iemoires, 
ix,  443,  etc. ;  Cave,  Hist.  Litt.  ad  ann.  380,  i,  27G,  ed.  Ox- 
ford, 1740-42;  Fabricius,  Bibl.  Grceca,  iii,  520). — Smith, 
Diet.  Or.  and  Rom.  Biog.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Maximus  Confessor,  a  leading  champion  of  or- 
thodoxy in  the  Monothelite  controversy  (q.  v.),  was 
born  at  Constantinople  in  580.  At  an  early  age  he  be- 
came private  secretary  to  the  emperor  Heraclius,  but, 
deciding  for  the  ecclesiastic  state,  lie  resigned  this  posi- 
tion, and  in  630  entered  the  monastery  of  Chrysopolis 
(Scutari),  near  Constantinople,  and  in  a  short  time  be- 
came its  abbot.  The  dangers  which  threatened  the 
state  at  the  time  induced  the  emperor  to  attempt  a 
reconciliation  between  the  parties  engaged  in  the  jMono- 
physite  controversy  (q.  v.),  by  means  of  a  compromise, 
which  declared  that  Christ  had  accomplished  the  work 
of  redemption  by  one  manifestation  of  his  viW\  as  the 
God-man,  Qua  ^eavSpiKij  ivepyeiq).  The  patriarchs 
Sergius,  of  Constantinople,  and  Cyrus,  of  Alexandria, 
as  heads  of  the  contending  parties,  agreed  in  G33  to 
iniite  on  this  formula,  and  many  of  the  Monophysite 
faction  returned  to  the  Church ;  but  several  of  the  or- 
thodox opposed  the  compromise  strongly,  as  practically 
endorsing  Monophysite  A'iews.  With  a  view  to  put  an 
end  to  these  troubles,  the  emperor  in  639  published  an 
edict,  known  as  the  Ecthesis  (q.  v.),  which  prohibited  all 
controversies  on  the  question  whether  in  Christ  were 
one  or  two  operations,  but  which  itself  plainly  incul- 
cated the  doctrine  of  one  will.  Maximus,  who  had  in 
the  mean  time  removed  to  Africa,  now  entered  the  lists 
in  defence  of  the  orthodox  view,  and  unequivocally  re- 
sisted all  attempts  to  undermine  the  faith  of  the  Church. 
His  course  was  favored  by  Gregorius  (or  Georgius),  the 
prefect  of  North  Africa,  who  sought  an  opportunity  to 
renounce  his  allegiance  to  the  Byzantine  court ;  and 
under  his  protection  IMaximus  exerted  himself  to  the 
utmost  to  combat  the  many  heresies  which  were  then 
rife,  manifesting  a  special  zeal  against  the  Monophysite 
Severians  in  Egypt  and  Crete,  and  against  the  Jlono- 
thelites.  His  discussion  with  Pj-rrhus,  the  patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  ^vho  had  fled  to  Gregorius  on  being 
charged  with  complicity  in  the  murder  of  the  emperor 
Constantine,  was  held  in  July,  A.D.  G45,  and  residted  in 
the  signal  triumph  of  Maximus.  The  records  of  this 
disputation  belong  to  the  most  interesting  writings  of 
the  Monothelite  controversy.  In  the  following  j-ear 
the  bishops  of  Africa  and  the  neighboring  isles,  influ- 
enced by  Maximus,  held  a  number  of  synods  which  con- 
demned Monothelitism,  and  called  on  Theodore,  bishop 
of  Rome,  to  support  their  views  with  his  authority. 
Maximus  now  went  to  Rome,  accompanied  by  Pyrrhus, 
who  formally  recanted  his  late  opinions,  and  was  recog- 
nised by  the  pope  as  the  rightful  patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople ;  and  thus  a  coalition  in  the  interests  of  ortho- 
doxy was  formed  which  promised  a  complete  triumph. 
But  Maximus  was  the  only  disinterested  party  to  the 
agreement,  Gregorius  fell  in  a  battle  with  the  Sara- 
cens in  A,D.  647;  Pyrrhus  hastened  to  t.ake  back  his 
recantation,  and  to  make  his  peace  with  the  emperor; 
and  the  pope,  disappointed  in  the  hope  of  seeing  his  su- 
premacy recognised  in  the  East  as  well  as  in  the  West, 


MAXIMUS 


918 


MAXIMUS 


f.nathcmatized  him.  Maximus  was  accaiii  compelled  to 
cunliiic  liis  labors  to  controversial  writings.  He  was 
now  recognised  at  the  imperial  court  as  the  soul  of  the 
iipposition;  and  when  he  resisted  the  edict  of  Constaiis 
II,  promulgated  in  A.D.  648,  and  known  as  the  Tyjnis 
(q.  v.),  Grcgorius,  an  envoy  of  the  Byzantine  court,  did 
not  disdain  to  seek  him  in  his  cell,  and  attempt  to 
shake  his  firmness.  The  monk,  however,  refused  to 
make  any  concessions,  since  he  regarded  that  edict  as 
degrading  Christ  to  the  level  of  a  being  without  will 
or  energy,  and  denied  the  right  of  the  emperor  to  inter- 
fere in  dogmatic  questions.  On  the  accession  of  Martin 
I,  Maximus,  more  than  any  others,  induced  that  pope  to 
convene  the  first  synod  of  the  Lateran  (in  649);  and 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  he  originated  the  resolu- 
tions there  adopted,  which  condemned  Monothelitism 
and  the  imperial  edict.  Thereafter  Maximus  entered  a 
cloister,  and  we  lose  trace  of  the  detailed  record  of  his 
life.  We  meet  him  again  when  apprehended,  under  or- 
ders from  Constantinople,  perhaps  at  the  same  time  as 
pope  ]\Iartin  I,  and  brought  to  trial  in  665.  The  pro- 
ceedings (of  which  the  records  are  quite  full)  show  that 
the  aim  of  the  emperor  was  simjily  to  secure  his  ap- 
proval of  the  TiJTrof,  as  a  measure  in  the  interests  of 
jieace;  but  the  monk  remained  firm,  and  declared  with 
tears  that  the  only  means  of  securing  peace  was  the 
recall  of  that  instrument.  Hence  the  treatment  he  re- 
ceived became  harsher;  and  when,  af*ter  his  third  trial, 
he  still  persisted  in  maintaining  his  views,  a  synod  con- 
vened by  the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople  and  of  An- 
tioch  advised  the  emperor  to  banish  him,  and  he  was 
taken  to  the  castle  of  Bizya,  in  Thrace,  later  to  the 
monastjry  of  St.  Theodore,  near  Khegium,  and  finally  to 
Perberis.  His  exile  was  protracted  more  than  a  year, 
during  ^vhich  period  frequent  attempts  were  made  by 
bishop  Thoodosius  of  Cfesarea,  and  by  special  agents  of 
the  emperor  to  induce  him  to  recant,  but  always  with- 
out success.  He  was  finally  condemned  to  be  scourged, 
and  to  lose  his  tongue  and  his  right  hand,  that  he  might 
no  longer  be  able  either  to  speak  or  write,  and  afterwards 
to  be  incarcerated  in  the  castle  of  Shemari,  in  the  coun- 
try of  the  Lacians,  where  he  died,  Aug.  13,  662.  His 
inriucnce,  however,  continued  to  be  felt.  A  few  years 
later  the  emperor  Constans  II  fell  a  victim  to  the  hatred 
lie  had  aroused  chiefly  by  his  persecution  of  this  faith- 
ful champion  of  the  Church,  and  in  A.D.  680  the  Church 
gave  her  sanction  to  the  doctrines  so  heroically  defend- 
ed by  this  monk  in  the  first  Trullan  council  (q.  v.). 

As  a  writer  ^laximus  is  distinguished  by  a  rare  com- 
bination of  dialectic  power  witli  mystical  profundity. 
His  mind  was  receptive  rather  than  creative,  and  in  his 
works  Platonic  and  Aristotelian  thought,  Chalcedonian 
orthodoxy,  the  theology  of  the  Greek  fathers,  and  the 
ideas  of  a  Christian  mysticism,  which  includes  both  the 
subjective  ascetism  of  the  Egyptian  monks  and  the  hie- 
rarchical tendencies  of  the  Areopagite  system,  all  meet 
and  coalesce.  The  mysticism  of  the  Pseudo-Dionysius 
exerted  the  greatest  influence  over  him,  and  from  it  he 
derived  his  principal  thoughts;  and  it  is  chiefly  be- 
cause of  his  autliority  that  the  wide-spread  influence  of 
this  system  upon  the  theology  of  the  Middle  Ages  was 
pDssibk'.  The  influence  exerted  on  Scotus  Erigena  by 
the  writings  of  Maximus  was  especially  imjiortant. 
Baur  asserts  that  Erigena  merely  (levcloped  the  ideas 
of  Maximus,  and  commented  on  them  ;  and  otlier  writ- 
ers have  shoAvn  in  detail  that  the  essential  features  of 
the  system  of  Erigena  are  drawn  from  i\laximus,  and 
mediately  Ilinmgh  him  from  the  Areoi)agite.  This 
monk  Ilius  brcdiucs  important  as  a  conned ing  link  be- 
tween the  ideas  of  the  T^ast  and  West,  between  the  early 
fathers  and  the  Jliddle  Ages,  and  as  a  forerunner  of 
scholasticism  ;  and  in  his  genius,  character,  l)iefv,  learn- 
ing, literary  and  ecclesiastical  influence,  <is  well  as  in 
his  eventful  life,  he  appears  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
Christian  thinkers  and  martyrs.  His  Avorks  have  bee" 
largely  transcribed  and  read,  but  there  is  no  complete 
edition.      Combefis  has  published  a  collection  in  two 


volumes,  folio  (Paris,  1675).  Catalogues  have  recorded 
the  titles  of  fifty-three,  his  letters  being  mentioned  as 
one  work.  Of  these,  forty-eight  liave  been  printed. 
They  may  be  classed  as  exegetical,  which  treat  the 
Scriptures  in  allegorical  style;  commentaries  on  the 
Church  fatliers ;  dogmatico-polemical ;  moral  and  ascet- 
ic ;  epistolary ;  and  miscellaneous.  He  is  commemora- 
ted in  the  Latin  Church  Aug.  13 ;  by  the  Greek  Church 
Jan.  21.  See  Herzog,  Real-EncijMop.  xx,  114  sq. ;  Wet- 
zer  und  AVelte,  Kirchen-Lex.  xii,  783  sq. ;  Kurtz,  Church 
Hist,  i,  205  sq. ;  Hardwick,  Hist,  of  the  Middle  Afjes,  p. 
72  sq. ;  Gieseler,  Eccles.  Hist,  i,  366  sq. ;  INIilman,  Hist,  of 
Lat.  Christianity,  ii,  274  sq. ;  Neander,  Hist,  of  Christian 
Dogmas,  ii,  423  sq. ;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Biocj.  and  Mijthol.  s.  v.     (G.  M.) 

Maximus  the  Gkeek,  a  celebrated  personage  in 
Russian  Church  history,  was  born  at  Arta,  in  Albania, 
towards  the  end  of  the  15th  century.  After  studying 
at  Paris,  Florence,  and  other  cities  then  distinguished 
as  seats  of  learning,  he  took  the  monastic  vows  at  the 
cloister  of  INIount  Athos.  The  grand-duke  Yassili  I vano- 
vitch,  having  requested  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople 
to  send  two  persons  to  arrange  and  describe  a  vast  num- 
ber of  Greek  manuscripts  and  books  that  had  recently 
been  discovered  in  some  part  of  the  palace,  Maximus 
was  selected,  and  accordingly  set  out  for  Moscow.  He 
was  directed  by  Vassili  to  examine  the  books,  and  to  se- 
lect such  as  were  most  deserving  of  publication ;  but  as 
he  was  then  wholly  ignorant  of  the  Slavonic  tongue, 
he  had  first  to  prepare  a  Latin  version,  which  was  after- 
wards rendered  by  others  into  Slavonian.  It  was  thus 
that  the  translations  of  a  Psalter  with  a  commentary, 
and  Chrj'sostom's  Homilies  on  St.  John,  were  produced. 
Desirous  of  returning  to  his  convent,  it  was  only  at  the 
instances  of  the  Czar,  who  wished  him  to  revise  the  ear- 
lier translated  books  of  the  Greek  Church,  that  he  de- 
cided to  remain,  and  he  then  luidertook  this  task,  for 
which  he  was  now  qualified  by  a  successful  mastery  of 
the  Slavonian.  The  diligence  with  which  he  executed 
it,  reslilting  in  many  corrections,  tended  however  only 
to  raise  up  numerous  enemies  against  him,  among  the 
rest  Daniel  the  metropolitan.  But  what  more  immedi- 
ately tended  to  his  disgrace  was  the  firmness  with  which 
he  opposed  Yassili's  divorce  from  his  first  wife,  Salome 
(on  account  of  barrenness),  and  his  marriage  with  the 
princess  Helena  Glinski  (comp.  Duncan,  Hist,  of  Russia, 
p.  350).  Maximus  was  condemned  by  a  synod,  excom- 
municated as  a  heretic,  and  imprisoned  in  the  Otrotch 
monastery  at  Tver  in  1525.  In  this  confinement  he 
was  for  some  time  treated  with  great  rigor,  though  the 
bishop  of  Tver  interceded  for  him.  At  length  removed 
to  the  Monastery  of  St.  Sergiu.s,  he  died  there  in  1556. 
A  great  number  of  works  by  him  are  extant,  cliiefly  in 
manuscript,  on  a  variety  of  subjects — dogmatical,  polem- 
ical, philosophical,  etc.,  from  which  considerable  infor- 
mation has  been  derived  with  regard  to  the  opinions 
and  prejudices  of  the  clergy  and  people  in  that  age  ;  nor 
was  he  at  all  timid  in  reproving  the  abuses  and  vices  of 
the  times.  This  alone  would  account  for  the  persecu- 
tion Avhich  he  drew  down  upon  himself;  but  after  his 
death  even  those  who  had  been  among  the  more  violent 
against  him  admitted  his  innocence,  rior  was  it  long  be- 
fore his  memory-  came  to  be  regarded  as  that  of  a  holy 
man  and  a  raartjT.  —  Enc/lish  Cyckq).  s.  v.;  Pose,  New 
Gen.  BivQ.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Maximus  of  Jerusaleji  (HierosiJi/iiiil<inns),  a 
Greek  ecclesiastical  writer,  flourished  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  2d  century.  Jerome  {De  ]'iris  llhislr.  c.  47) 
sjieaks  of  IVIaximus  as  writing  on  the  questions  of  the 
origin  of  evil  and  the  creation  of  matter,  and  as  having 
lived  under  the  emperors  Commodus  (A.D.  180-1113)  and 
Severus  (A.D.  193-21 1\  but  he  does  not  designate  what 
olfice  he  held  in  the  Church,  or  whether  he  held  any; 
nor  does  he  connect  him  with  any  locality.  Honorius 
of  Autun  (/>e  Scrij)tor.  Eccles.  i.  47),  extracting  from  Je- 
rome, mentions  the  name  of  INIaximinus ;  and  Kuluius, 


MAXIMUS 


919 


MAXIMUS 


translating  from  Eusebius,  who  has  a  brief  passage  re- 
lating to  the  same  writer  {II.  E.  v,  27),  gives  the  name 
in  the  same  form ;  bnt  it  is  probably  incorrect.  A  Max- 
imiis,  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  lived  in  the  reign  of  Antoni- 
nns  Pius  or  Marcus  Aurelius,  or  the  early  part  of  that  of 
Commodus,  somewhere  between  A.D.  156  and  A.D.  185; 
another  Maximus  occupied  the  same  see  from  A.D.  185, 
and  the  successive  episcopates  of  himself  and  seven  suc- 
cessors occupy  about  eighty  years,  the  duration  of  each 
episcopate  not  being  known.  The  date  of  this  latter 
Maximus  of  Jerusalem  accords  sufficiently  with  the  no- 
tice in  Jerome  respecting  the  writer ;  but  it  is  remarka- 
ble that  though  both  Eusebius  and  Jerome  mention  the 
bishop  (Eusebius,  Chronic,  and  Jerome,  Euseb.  Chronic. 
Inierpretatio),  they  do  not  either  of  them  identify  the 
writer  with  him ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  in  the  list 
given  by  Eusebius  of  the  bishops  of  Jerusalem,  in  his 
Histor.  Eccles.  (v,  27),  the  names  of  the  second  Maximus 
and  his  successor  Antoninus  do  not  appear.  It  is  uncer- 
tain, therefore,  whether  the  writer  and  the  bishop  are 
the  same,  though  it  is  extremely  prob.ible  they  were. 
The  title  of  the  work  of  Maximus  noticed  by  Jerome 
and  Eusebius  (for  the  two  questions  of  the  origin  of  evil 
and  the  creation  of  matter  appear  to  have  been  compre- 
hended in  one  treatise)  was  De  Materia.  Eusebius  has 
given  a  long  extract  from  it  {Prmp.  Evang.  vii,  21,  22). 
A  portion  of  the  same  extract  is  inserted,  without  ac- 
knowledgment, in  the  Dialor/us  Adamantii  de  recta  in 
Deum  Fide,  or  Contra  Marcionitas,  sect,  iv,  commonly 
attributed  to  Origen,  but  in  reality  written  long  after 
his  time.  It  is  also  quoted  in  the  rhilocalia,  c.  24,  com- 
piled by  Gregory  Nazianzen  and  Basil  the  Great  almost 
entirely  from  the  works  of  Origen.  In  the  inscription 
to  the  chapter  they  are  said  to  be  from  the  Prceparatio 
Evangelica  of  Eusebius;  and  their  being  contained  also 
in  the  supposed  work  of  Origen,  De  Recta  Fide,  is  af- 
firmed in  a  probably  interpolated  sentence  of  the  con- 
cluding paragraph  of  the  chapter  (Delarue,  Opera  Orig- 
enis,  i,  800  sq.).  This  passage,  apparently  the  only  part 
of  iVIaximus's  work  which  has  come  down  to  us,  is  given 
in  the  Bibliotheca  Patrum  of  Galland  (ii,  146),  who  iden- 
tities the  author  with  the  bishop,  and  gives  his  reasons 
for  so  doing  in  the  Prolegomena  to  the  volume,  c.  6  ;  see 
also  Cave,  Hist.  Litt.  ad  ann.  196,  i,  95 ;  Tillemont,  Me- 
moires,  ii,  706,  note  xiii  on  Origen. 

There  was  a  third  bishop  of  Jerusalem  of  this  name, 
besides  the  two  previously  mentioned,  who  lived  in  the 
reign  of  Constantine  the  Great  and  his  sons.  He  suffer- 
ed in  one  of  the  later  persecutions  of  the  heathen  em- 
perors, apparently  under  Maximian  Galerius  (Philostor- 
gius,  II.  £.  iii,  12).  His  sufferings  in  the  cause  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  the  great  excellence  of  his  character,  so  en- 
deared him  to  the  people  of  Jerusalem,  among  whom  he 
officiated  as  priest,  that  when  he  was  appointed  by  Ma- 
carius,  bishop  of  that  city,  to  the  vacant  bishopric  of  Di- 
ospolis,  the  multitude  would  not  permit  his  departure, 
and  ilacarius  was  forced  to  nominate  another  in  his  place. 
According  to  some  accounts,  Macarius  repented  almost 
immediately  of  the  nomination  of  Maximus  to  Diospo- 
lis,  and  readily  acquiesced  in  his  remaining  in  Jerusa- 
lem, taking  him  for  his  assistant  in  the  duties  of  the 
episcopal  office  (Sozomen,  Ilisf.  Eccles.  ii,  20).  Upon 
the  death  of  Macarius  (some  time  between  A.D.  331  and 
335),  Maximus  succeeded  him,  and  was  present  at  the 
Council  of  Tyre,  A.D.  335,  when  Athanasius  was  con- 
demned. Sozomen  records  {flisf.  Eccles.  ii,  25)  that  at 
this  council  Paphnutius,  a  bishop  of  the  Thebais  or  Up- 
per Egypt,  and  himself  a  confessor,  took  IVIaximus  by 
the  hand,  and  told  him  to  leave  the  place;  "for,"  said 
he,  '•  it  does  not  become  us,  who  have  lost  our  eyes  and 
been  hamstrung  for  the  sake  of  religion,  to  join  the 
council  of  the  wicked."  This  appeal  was  in  vain,  and 
Maxltnus  was  induced,  but  unfairly,  to  subscribe  to  the 
decree  condemning  Athanasius.  But  he  soon  regretted 
this  step,  and,  at  a  synod  of  sixteen  bishops  of  Palestine, 
joyfully  admitted  Athanasius  to  communion  when  re- 
turning from  the  Council  of  Sardica,  through  Asia,  to 


Alexandria.  Sozomen  relates  (Hist.  Eccles.  iv,  20)  that 
Maximus  was  deposed  by  the  influence  of  Acacius  of 
Ciesarea  anil  Patrojihilus  (A.D.  3-19  or  350),  and  Cyril 
(St.  CyriUus  of  Jerusalem)  appointed  in  his  place  ;  but 
if  there  is  any  truth  in  this  statement,  the  death  of 
Jlaximus  must  have  very  shortly  followed  his  deposi- 
tion (Socrates,  Hist.  Eccles.  ii,  8  ;  Sozomen,  I.  c,  and  iii, 
6 ;  Theodoret,  I.  c. ;  Philostorgius,  l.  c. ;  Le  Quien,  Oriens 
Christianus,  vol.  iii,  col.  156). — Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Biog.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Maximus  Philosopiius.  Different  parties  of  that 
name  are  known  in  ancient  history. 

1.  A  heathen  eclectic-Platonic  philosopher  and  con- 
juror, who  was  teacher  to  the  emperor  Julian,  and  had 
great  influence  over  him. 

2.  -iiso  a  heathen,  of  Madaura,  in  Africa,  is  known  to 
us  by  an  interesting  letter  to  Augustine.  In  consequence 
of  his  consciousness  of  the  downfall  of  heathenism,  he 
seeks  to  uphold  a  philosophical  but  impotent  monothe- 
ism, which,  in  the  worship  of  several  deities,  sees  only 
the  adoration  of  a  higher  or  supreme  deity  who  imparts 
to  them  their  power ;  but  he  reproaches  the  Christians 
with  wishing  to  have  that  God  all  to  themselves,  and 
visiting  the  graves  of  the  dead  (martj'rs).  Kegardless 
of  the  new  life  which  Christianity  awakened,  or  of  the 
divine  energy  testified  by  its  excliisiveness,  he  finally 
exclaims,  wearily,  "  Trahit  sua  quemque  voluntas."  The 
answer  of  Augustine  is  somewhat  haughty  and  ironical 
(Axigust.  0pp.  ii,  25  sq.,  ed.  Venet.). 

3.  Eusebius  mentions  a  Christian  philosopher  of  that 
name  in  the  2d  century,  giving  an  interesting  fragment 
of  a  work  of  his  on  the  question,  then  much  discussed, 
of  the  origin  of  evil  {Prcep.  Evang.  vii,  21  fin.,  22  ;  Hist. 
Eccles.  V,  27).  He  has  been  by  some  considered  as  the 
author  of  the  I)ialogus  c.  Marcion.,  formerly  and  errone- 
ously attributed  to  Origen ;  but  Gieseler  {Stud.  xi.  Krit. 
1830-32,  p.  380)  successfully  opposed  this  view. 

4.  Another  Maximus,  who  represented  himpf^lf  both 
as  a  philosopher  (cynic)  and  a  Christian,  and  ga\  e  much 
trouble  to  Gregory  of  Nazianzum,  at  Constantinople. — 
Herzog,  Real-EncyUoj).  ix,  208. 

Maximus,  bishop  of  Turin,  was  born  towards  the 
close  of  the  4th  centurj^,  and  early  in  the  5th  was  ele- 
vated to  the  episcopate.  But  little  is  known  of  his  life. 
His  signature  is  affixed  to  a  document  expressing  the 
approval  liy  the  bishops  of  Northern  Italy  of  pope  Leo's 
letter  to  Flavian  on  Eutychianism  (Leo,  0pp.  ed.  Ques- 
nel,  p.  291).  Among  the  signatures  to  the  acts  of  a 
synod  hehl  at  Rome  in  A.D.  465,  his  name  appears  im- 
mediately below  that  of  pope  Hilarius,  the  successor  of 
Leo,  a  circumstance  that  marks  him  as  the  oldest  bishop 
of  the  assembly.  His  writings,  chieflj'  homilies,  are 
rich  in  descriptions  of  the  life  of  the  Christians,  at  a 
time  when  paganism,  although  tottering  to  its  fall,  was 
still  powerful  among  the  rural  population,  and  when  the 
empire  was  trcmliling  before  the  power  of  the  invading 
hordes  of  barbarians.  During  the  irruption  of  Attila 
he  displayed  a  lofty  faith  in  God,  and  succeeded  in 
arousing  his  people  from  their  despair,  which  had  deter- 
mined them  to  forsake  their  homes  and  seek  safety  in 
flight.  The  people  of  Turin  obeyed  his  counsel,  and 
their  city  was  spared.  But  when  the  Huns  departed 
from  Italy,  and  the  citizens  purchased  a  share  of  their 
spoil,  including  slaves,  he  did  not  hesitate  to  condemn 
their  conduct,  and  even  compared  them  to  wolves  fol- 
lowing in  the  track  of  lions,  in  order  to  gorge  them- 
selves on  their  abandoned  prey.  His  homilies  often 
censure  the  still  prevailing  idolatr}-,  particularly  the 
cultus  Dianro  arvorum  numinis,  the  practice  of  the 
priests  in  inflicting  wounds  on  themselves  to  do  honor  to 
their  goddess,  etc.,  and  also  defended  the  orthodox  doc- 
trines of  the  Church  against  Eutychians,  Nestorians, 
Pelagians,  and  IManicha-ans.  The  best  edition  of  his 
works  is  that  published  at  Rome  in  1784,  found  in 
Migne,  vol.  Ivii.  See  also  Schonemann,  Bibl.  Hist.  Lit, 
(Leips.  1794),  ii,  607  sq. ;  Acta  Sanct.  Jmie  25 ;  Biogra- 


MAXIMUS 


920 


MAXWELjl 


j>Me,  UiiiverseUe,  vol.  xxvii,  s.  v. ;  Herzog,  Real-EncyUop. 
ix,  208  ?:(i. ;  Wetzer  u.  Welte,  Kirchen-Lex.  xii,  782  sq. 

Maximus  of  Tyre,  a  Neo-Platonic  philosopher, 
sumanunl  after  the  place  of  his  abode,  flourished  in  the 
2d  century  as  teacher  of  philosophy  and  rhetoric,  first  in 
Greece  and  afterwards  in  Rome,  whither  he  made  two 
journeys,  one  under  the  reign  of  Antoninus,  another  un- 
der that  of  Coramodus.  He  may  be  ranked  with  Phasdrus, 
(Juintus  Curtius,  and  others,  of  whom  their  contempora- 
ries have  scarcely  made  mention,  and  therefore  of  whom 
very  little  is  known.  We  have  extant  of  his  works 
forty-one  ^laKi^uQ,  or  dissertations,  upon  various  argu- 
ments, a  MS.  copy  of  which  was  first  brought  out  of 
Greece  into  Italy  by  Janus  Lascaris,  and  presented  to 
Lawrence  de  Medicis.  From  this  copy  a  Latin  transla- 
tion was  made,  and  published  by  Cosmus  Paccius,  arch- 
bishop of  Florence,  in  1519 :  then  in  Greek  by  Henry 
Stephens  in  1557;  then  in  Greek  and  Latin  by  Daniel 
Heinsius  in  1G07 ;  by  J.  Davis  in  1703 ;  by  Keiske  in 
1774,  and  since,  in  4to.  These  dissertations  are  enter- 
taining, curious,  and  instructive,  and  have  gained  the 
author  high  encomiums  among  the  learned.  The  fol- 
lowing examples  will  give  some  idea  of  the  subject  of 
Maximus's  dissertations :  "  On  Plato's  Opinion  respect- 
ing the  Deity;"  "Whether  we  ought  to  return  Injuries 
done  to  us ;"  "  Whether  an  Active  or  a  Contemplative 
Life  is  to  be  preferred ;"  "  Whether  Soldiers  or  Husband- 
men are  more  usefiU  in  a  State ;"  "  On  the  Daimouium 
of  Socrates ;"  "  Whether  Prayers  should  be  addressed  to 
the  Deity,"  etc.  The  dissertations  have  been  translated 
into  French  by  Morel  (Paris,  1607),  by  Forney  (1764), 
and  by  Dounais  (1S02) ;  into  Italian  by  Petro  de  Eardi 
(Venice,  1642) ;  and  into  German  by  C.  T.  Damm  (Ber- 
lin, 1764).  There  is,  we  believe,  no  English  translation 
of  this  author.  Isaac  Casaubon,  in  the  epistle  dedica- 
tory of  his  Commentaries  upon  Peisius,  calls  him  "  mel- 
litissimus  Platonicorum ;"  and  Peter  Petit  represents  him 
as  "  auctorem  imprimis  elegantem  in  philosophia  ac  di- 
sertum"  {Misc.  Observat.  lib.  i,  c.  20).  He  has  spoken  a 
good  deal  of  himself  in  his  thirty-seventh  dissertation, 
and  seemingly  in  a  style  of  panegyric,  for  which  his 
editor  Da\'is  has  accused  him  of  indecency  and  vanity ; 
but  Fabricius  {Bib.  Grcec.  lib.  iv,  c.  23)  has"  defended  him 
very  well  upon  this  head  by  observing  that  Davis  did 
not  sufficiently  attend  to  Maximus's  purpose  in  speaking 
thus  of  himself:  "  which  was,"  he  says,  "  not  at  all  with 
a  view  of  praising  himself,  but  to  encourage  and  pro- 
mote the  practice  of  those  lessons  in  philosophy  which 
they  heard  from  him  with  so  much  applause."  Some 
have  confounded  Maximus  of  Tyre  with  Maximus  Ephe- 
sius,  the  preceptor  of  Julian  the  Apostate.  See  Gen. 
Bio(j.  Diet.  s.  v.;  Smith,  Diet.  Greek  and  Roman  Biog. 
and  Mythol.  s.  v. ;  English  Cydopcedia,  s.  v. 

Maxwell,  Lady  Darcy,  an  eminently  pious  IMeth- 
odist,  who  by  birth  and  rank  belonged  to  the  nobility  of 
Scotland,  is  noted  for  her  great  works  of  philanthropy. 
She  was  the  youngest  daughter  of  Thomas  Brisbane, 
County  of  Ayr,  and  was  born  about  the  year  1742.  In 
lier  own  home  she  received  the  rudiments  of  an  educa- 
tion, but  subsequently  completed  it  in  the  city  of  Edin- 
burgh. At  the  age  of  sixteen  she  resided  for  a  time  in 
London  with  her  uncle  and  aunt,  lord  and  lady  Lothian, 
to  enjoy  tlie  advantages  of  being  presented  at  court.  In 
1759.  iMjiiii  after  her  return  from  London,  she  married  Sir 
Walter  ?ilaxwell.  This  union  seemed  to  open  before 
her  a  bewildering  vista  of  future  joys  and  happiness; 
but  only  for  two  short  years  did  she  realize  her  bright 
anticipations;  at  the  end  of  that  period  her  husband 
and  child  were  taken  from  her,  and  she  was  loft  a  widow 
at  nineteen.  When  tidings  of  her  little  one's  death,  with- 
in six  weeks  after  that  of  her  husband,  were  conveyed  to 
her,  without  any  outburst  of  grief,^or  even  a  murmur,  she 
exclaimed,  "  I  see  God  requires  my  whole  heart,  and  he 
shall  have  it !"  "  God  brought  me  to  himself  bv  afflic- 
tion," she  frequently  said.  It  was  while  overwhelmed 
by  these  heavy  trials  that  she  became  acquainted  with 


the  Methodists.  The  early  ministrj'-  of  John  Wesley 
and  George  Whltefield  was  generally  respected  in  Scot- 
land. Many  of  the  higher  classes  approved  their  labors ; 
ministers  of  the  Establishment,  members  of  the  univer- 
sity, and  persons  of  rank  and  title  mingled  in  their  aud- 
iences. It  is  supposed  that  some  of  the  pious  nobility, 
ailmirers  of  Wesley  and  Whitetield,  first  induced  lady 
Maxwell  to  hear  them.  However  that  may  be,  it  is 
certain  that  on  June  16, 1764,  INIr.  Wesley  preached  to  a 
large  congregation  in  Edinburgh,  and  from  that  time 
corresponded  with  her  ladyship,  his  influence  aiding 
greatly  in  regulating  her  views,  and  guiding  her  deter- 
minations through  life.  From  the  time  of  her  husband's 
death  she  had  resided  in  Edinburgh  or  the  vicinity. 
Her  benevolence  here  was  imusually  great.  Seeking  to 
relieve  misery  in  every  form,  there  was  scarcely  a  pub- 
lic or  private  charity  for  the  repose  of  age  or  the  guid- 
ance of  youth,  the  relief  of  the  poor,  the  care  of  the  sick, 
or  the  spread  of  the  Gospel,  to  which  she  did  not  con- 
tribute. In  1770  she  established  a  school  in  Edinburgh 
for  the  purpose  of  affording  education  and  Christian  in- 
struction to  poor  children — this  school  was  ahvays  the 
object  of  her  pious  solicitude;  its  entire  management 
and  superintendence  remained  with  herself,  and,  as  the 
benefits  flowing  from  it  became  manifest,  pecuniary  aid 
was  furnished  by  others.  At  the  time  of  her  death 
eight  hundred  children  had  profited  by  this  praisewor- 
thy charity,  and  it  is  still  in  active  operation.  The 
employment  of  her  time  each  day  was  exceedingly  ex- 
emplary ;  she  usually  rose  at  four  o'clock,  and  attended 
the  Wesleyan  chapel  at  five,  morning  preaching  being 
then  cutsomar}' ;  after  breakfast  she  discharged  the  du- 
ties of  the  head  of  a  family  in  her  own  house ;  from 
eleven  to  twelve  she  spent  the  time  in  interceding  with 
GckI  for  her  friends,  the  Church,  and  the  world ;  the  re- 
maining hours  of  the  day  she  devoted  to  reading,  writ- 
ing, exercise,  and  acts  of  benevolence.  Her  evenings, 
when  alone,  were  occupied  with  reading,  chiefly  divin- 
ity; and,  after  an  early  supper,  and  committing  her 
family  to  the  care  of  the  great  Father  who  watches  over 
all,  and  spending  some  time  in  praising  God  for  his  mer- 
cies, she  retired  to  rest.  In  this  manner,  for  nearly  fifty 
years,  she  walked  with  her  God.  Her  outward  relig- 
ious life  had  its  varieties,  but  they  were  the  varie- 
ties of  advance ;  her  inner  religious  life  also  had  its 
changes,  but  they  were  those  of  the  beautiful  morn- 
ing, which  shines  brighter  and  brighter  unto  the 
perfect  day.  In  person,  lady  Maxwell  was  above  the 
medium  height,  exceedingly  straight  and  well  propor- 
tioned; her  features  quite  feminine,  but  strongly  mtel- 
ligent;  her  eye  quick  and  penetrating,  yet  sweet  and 
tender.  She  died  July  2, 1810,  passing  away  as  peace- 
fully and  joyfully  as  she  had  lived :  the  society  to  which 
she  belonged  losing  its  oldest  member,  the  world  one  of 
its  best  inhabitants,  and  the  Church  luiiversal  one  of  its 
brightest  ornaments.  See  Lancaster,  Life  of  Lady  Max- 
well (N.  Y.  1840, 12mo) ;  Coles,  Heroines  of  Methodism, 
p.  76. 

Maxwell,  Robert,  one  of  the  Scottish  lords  of  the 
regency  during  the  absence  of  James  V  in  France,  de- 
serves a  place  here  for  his  action  in  the  first  Parliament 
of  j\Iary  queen  of  Scots  (1543),  where  he  introduced  a 
bill  to  allow  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  vulgar 
tongue,  which  was  passed  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of 
the  lord  chancellor,  the  bishops,  and  priests.  He  died 
in  1546. 

Maxwell,  Samuel,  an  American  divine  and  edu- 
cator, was  born  in  Berkshire  County,  Mass.,  about  1805 ; 
was  educated  at  Amherst  College  (class  of  1829) ;  sub- 
sequently became  principal  of  the  preparatory'  depart- 
ment of  Marietta  College,  Ohio,  and  later  a  professor  in 
the  collegiate  department  of  the  same  institution,  and 
remained  there  until  iiis  death,  which  occurred  January 
24,  1867.  He  w.as  also  in  the  employ  of  the  American 
Missiduary  Association  in  his  last  years. 

Maxw^ell,  William,  LL.  D.,  an  American  educa- 


MAY 


921 


MAYENCE 


tor,  celebrated  also  in  the  department  of  jurisprudence, 
was  bom  at  Norfolk,  Va.,  Feb.  27,  1784;  was  educated 
at  Yale  College,  1802 ;  practiced  in  his  native  city,  and 
attained  great  eminence ;  assumed  the  editor's  chair  in 
the  literary  department  of  the  A'.  F.  Journal  of  Com- 
merce in  1827;  resumed  the  practice  of  jurisprudence, 
however,  in  the  following  year ;  was  a  member  of  the 
Virginia  House  of  Delegates  in  1830,  and  of  the  State 
Senate  from  1831  to  1837,  during  which  time  he  was 
made  secretary  of  the  Historical  Society  of  Virginia.  He 
next  accepted  tlie  presidency  of  the  Hampden  Sidney 
College  in  1838,  which  he  retained  until  1844,  and  then 
edited  the  Virginia  Historical  Reijister  from  18-18  to 
1853  (G  vols,  in  3, 12mo).  He  died  January  9,  1857,  at 
Eichmond,  Va.  He  wrote  Memoir  of  the  Rev.  John  II. 
Rice,  D.  D.  (Phila.  1835, 12mo).  See  Drake,  Diet.  A mer. 
Bioff.  s.  V. 

May,  E.  H.,  a  Dutch  Reformed  minister,  was  born 
at  Lynn,  Norfolk,  England,  Jan.  28,  1795.  He  received 
a  good  preparatory  education,  and  studied  for  the  min- 
istry at  Hoxton  College,  near  London  ;  was  ordained  in 
1815  over  the  Independent  Church  at  Bury,  Lancashire, 
and  subseciuently  preached  in  Kochford,  in  tlie  south 
of  England,  and  Croydon,  Siu-rey.  In  183-4  he  came  to 
America,  and  in  1835  became  a  member  of  the  Classis 
of  Washington,  and  pastor  of  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church 
in  Northumberland ;  in  1836,  pastor  of  the  Church  in 
Schuylerville ;  in  18o9,of  the  Twenty-first  Street  Church, 
New  York ;  in  1848  accepted  the  appointment  of  sec- 
retary to  the  Pennsylvania  Colonization  Society;  and 
in  1849  became  secretary  of  the  Pennsylvania  Seamen's 
Friend  Society,  in  which  connection  he  served  until 
near  his  death,  August,  1858.  Mr.  May  was  an  instruc- 
tive and  evangelical  preacher,  a  man  of  refined  taste  and 
correct  judgment,  and  a  frank,  open-hearted  Christian. 
See  Wilson,  Presh.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1860,  p.  203.    (J.  L.  S.) 

May,  James,  D.D.,  an  Episcopal  divine  and  theo- 
logical educator,  -was  born  in  Chester  County,  Pa.,  Oct. 
1,  1805.  He  entered  Jefferson  College,  Pa.,  in  1822 ; 
graduated  with  distinction;  commenced  the  study  of 
law,  but  finally  entered  the  theological  seminary  at  Alex- 
andria, Va.  He  was  ordained  by  bishop  White  in  1827, 
and  first  settled  in  Wilkesbarre,  Pa.,  where  he  remained 
two  years.  In  1836  he  became  rector  of  St.  Paul's  par- 
ish, Pliiladelphia.  While  there  he  was  engaged  with 
Dr.  Clark,  then  rector  of  St.  Andrew's  Church,  Dr.Tyng, 
then  rector  of  the  Church  of  the  Epiphany,  and  with 
Dr.  Suddards,  then  and  still  rector  of  Grace  Church,  in 
the  editorial  management  of  the  Ejnscopal  Recorder. 
His  health  failing  at  this  time,  he  was  led  to  seek  re- 
storation in  foreign  travel.  Two  years  were  thus  spent 
abroad.  After  his  return,  he  accepted  the  position  of 
professor  of  pastoral  theology  and  ecclesiastical  history 
in  the  Alexandria. Seminary,  his  alma  mater.  The  out- 
break of  the  rebellion  in  1801  closing  the  operations  of 
that  school,  he  removed  to  Philadelphia,  and  became 
professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  and  systematic  theol- 
ogy in  the  divinitj'  school  just  organized.  He  remained 
there  until  his  death,  Dec.  18,  1863.  But  few  men 
have  so  thoroughly  won  the  affections  of  those  with 
whom  they  were  associated.  Apparently  not  an  impul- 
sive man,  he  was  by  no  means  a  person  of  cold  and  un- 
impnlsive  temper,  but  full  of  deep  feeling.  He  has 
influenced  the  training  of  hundreds  now  in  the  minis- 
try, who  wiU  greatl)^  miss  his  counsels,  and  the  encour- 
agement his  sympathy  and  personal  attainments  gave 
them.  He  was  remarkable  for  the  unvarying  symmetry 
and  depth  of  his  Christian  character,  and  seemed  like 
one  inspired  by  Gospel  i)rinciplcs,  rather  than  controlled 
by  them,  so  perfectly  natural  and  habitual  was  his  man- 
ifestation of  them.     See  .4/».  Ch.  Rev.  1864,  p.  150. 

May,  Samuel  Joseph,  an  eminent  Unitarian 
minister  and  philanthropist,  was  bom  in  Boston,  J\Iass., 
in  1797.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1817; 
and,  after  preaching  several  years  as  a  Unitarian  min- 
ister at  Brooklyn,  Conn.,  became  general  agent  of  the 


Blassachusetts  Anti- slavery  Society.  Afterwards  he 
assumed  a  pastorate  at  South  Scituate,  Mass. ;  from 
1842  to  1845  was  principal  of  the  Lexington  Normal 
school;  and  finally,  in  1845,  settled  in  the  Unitarian 
ministry  at  Syracuse,  New  York.  There  the  remainder 
of  his  life  was  passed,  and  he  was  identified  with  every 
movement  for  the  moral,  intellectual,  and  social  im- 
provement of  the  people,  and  came  to  be  regarded  as  the 
leading  spirit  in  every  measure  of  benevolence.  In  all 
matters  of  education  he  was  very  active,  and  to  him,  as 
much  as  to  any  man  in  Syracuse,  it  is  due  that  its 
public  schools  are  so  successfid  and  maintain  so  high 
a  character.  He  resigned  the  pastorate  July  1,  1871. 
Mr.  May  devoted  his  energies  especially  to  the  anti- 
slavery  cause  for  many  years.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
members  of  the  New  England  Society  in  1832,  and  a 
member  of  the  Philadelphia  Convention  of  1833  which 
formed  the  Anti-slavery  Society.  He  was  author  of 
Recollections  ofAmer.  Anti-slavery  (1869).  See  Drake, 
Diet.  A  mer.  Biog.  s.  v. ;  New  A  mer.  Cyclop,  1871,  p.  495. 

Maya  (Sanscrit,  Illusioti)  is  a  term  applied  by  the 
Hindus,  in  a  philosophical  or  mystical  sense,  to  that 
power  which  caused  or  created  the  visible  phenomena 
of  the  universe.  The  Hindfi,  like  Berkeley  and  other 
European  philosophers,  assumes  that  external  objects 
have  no  absolute  existence,  but  that  they  are  mere  im- 
pressions on  the  mind.  INIaya,  in  Hindu  theology,  is, 
according  to  some,  that  mighty  goddess  the  wife  or 
consort  of  Brahma.  See  Moor,  Hindu  Mythology,  s.  v. ; 
Wilson,  Sanscrit  Dictionary,  s.  v. ;  Thomas,  Diet.  Biog. 
and  Mythol.  s.  v. 

Mayeuce,  a  German  town,  beautifully  situated  on 
a  sloping  hill  on  the  left  bank  of  the  River  Rhine,  is 
noted  in  ecclesiastical  annals  as  the  scat  of  an  archiepis- 
copal  see,  and  as  the  seat  of  several  important  Church 
councils.     See  Mayen'ce,  Councils  of. 

Mayence  as  an  A  rchbishojjric  and  Bishoj)ric. — We 
have  no  trustworthy  information  as  to  the  early  history 
of  this  archbishopric.  Attempts  have  been  made  to 
prove  that  the  Christian  Church  was  established  there 
by  St.  Crescens,  based  on  the  passage  in  2  Tim.  iv,  10, 
"  Crescens  (is  departed)  to  Galatia ;"  and  Jerome  and 
other  writers  also  favor  the  opinion  of  Gaul  having  been 
Christianized  by  Crescens.  Ado,  however,  in  his  Mar- 
fyrologium,  written  about  860,  is  the  first  to  refer  to  the 
action  of  Crescens  at  Vienna.  StLU  we  find  no  docu- 
ments referring  to  it  until  the  10th  century,  which  may, 
however,  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the  city 
was  three  times  destroyed  by  tire  up  to  that  period. 
According  to  the  ecclesiastical  tradition,  Crescens,  a  pu- 
pil of  the  apostle  Paul,  came  to  preach  there  as  early 
as  the  year  82,  became  the  first  bishop  of  Mayence,  and 
died  a  martyr  in  103.  The  list  of  bishops  up  to  the 
6th  century  is  all  of  later  origin ;  according  to  it,  Cres- 
cens was  succeeded  by  Aureus,  who  was  murdered  by 
the  Vandals  when  they  took  the  citj'  in  451.  Sidonius, 
about  546,  began  the  restoration  of  the  town  and  of  the 
church  ;  Sigbert  then  became  bishop  about  589,  and  is 
said  to  have  received  from  king  Childebert  the  onyx 
bearing  a  likeness  of  that  prince  and  of  his  wife,  which 
is  still  retained  among  the  jewels  of  IMayence.  In  612 
Leonisius  (Leutgasius)  caused  war  between  Theoderick 
and  Theodebert.  We  then  find  in  the  list  Euthelmus 
(Rudelin),  Landwald, Lupoald  (Leowald),  Rigbert  (Rich- 
bert.f  712),  Gerold,  who  died  at  the  hands  of  the  Saxons 
in  743.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Gerwilio  or  Ge- 
wilieb,  who  in  744  marched  with  Carloman  against  the 
Saxons,  and  defeated  thorn  on  the  shores  of  the  Weser. 
In  745  he  was  deposed,  Bonifacius  appointed  in  his 
place,  and  the  bishopric  transformed  into  an  archbish- 
opric, with  the  sanction  of  pope  Zacharv,  in  748.  In 
753  or  754  Bonifacius  resigned  in  favor  of  his  pupil  Lul- 
lus,  who,  however,  did  not  receive  the  pallium  before 
780 ;  he  labored  diligently  for  the  interest  of  the  arch- 
bishopric, founded  several  churches  and  convents,  and 
greatly  increased  the  revenues  of  the  Church  by  the 


MAYENCE 


922 


MAYENCE 


adoption  of  the  tithing  system  in  779.  He  died  Oct.  IG, 
7,si;.  ]lis  successor  was  liiculf,  wlio  founded  tlie  school 
<if  the  Church  of  St.  Alban  at  Mayence,  and  died  Aug.  9, 
•SI 3,  the  very  year  in  which  Constantine  called  a  coun- 
cil at  Mayence  (see  below).  Haistulf,f  Jan.  28,  827,  in- 
troduced canonical  life  in  the  archbishopric;  j'et  the 
succeeding  archbishops,  down  to  Marculf,  were  not  elect- 
eil  according  to  canonical  rules,  but  by  the  king,  with 
the  consent  of  the  clergy  and  people.  This  was  the 
case  with  Otgar,  826-47 ;  Rabanus  Jlaurus,  847-56  (who 
called  a  council,  by  order  of  Louis  of  Germany,  in  the 
year  of  his  accession  to  the  archiepiscopal  chair) ; 
Charles,  son  of  king  Pepin  I  of  Aquitania,  and  nephew 
of  Louis  the  German,  856-63,  who  was  also  archchan- 
ccllor  of  the  empire,  a  dignity  which  was  retained  by 
his  successors ;  Liutbert,  who  marched  against  the  Bo- 
hemians in  872,  and  against  the  Sorbians  in  874 ;  defeat- 
ed the  Normans,  who  had  ascended  the  Rhine,  in  883, 
and  died  Feb.  17,  889.  Sunzo  (Sunderhold)  fell  fight- 
ing against  the  Normans  in  891.  Hatto  I  played  an 
important  part  in  the  history  of  Germany  during  the 
reign  of  Louis  the  Lifant  and  Conrad  I,  and  died  Jan. 
18,  913.  His  successor,  Heriger,  died  in  927.  Hildebert, 
who  snccessfuU)'  disputed  against  Cologne  and  Treves 
the  right  to  crown  the  king,  and  crowned  Otto  I  at  Aix- 
la-Chapelle  in  936,  died  in  937.  Frledrich  was  exiled 
to  Hamliurg  or  Fulda  by  the  emperor  Otto  I,  as  a  rebel; 
was  recalled  in  954,  but  repeatedly  accused  of  treason,  and 
escaped  punishment  only  by  his  sudden  decease  in  954. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Wilhelm,  a  natural  son  of  Otto, 
•who  died  in  968.  Of  Hatto  H  (968-70),  the  tradition 
says  that  he  was  devoured  by  mice.  Ruprecht  died  in 
974.  AVilligis  received  the  pallium  from  pope  Benedict 
VII,  together  with  the  privilege  of  presiding  at  all  the 
German  councils  and  of  crowning  the  king.  To  remind 
him  always  of  his  low  origin  (his  father  was  said  to 
have  been  a  wagoner),  he  caused  a  wheel  to  be  erected 
on  the  walls  of  his  palace,  and  this  is  said  to  be  the  ori- 
gin of  the  wheel  on  the  arms  of  thj  archbishops  of 
Mayence.  In  978  he  laid  the  foundations  of  the  new 
cathedral  (which,  however,  was  burned  down  on  the  day 
of  its  consecration  in  1009),  and  died  in  1011.  Next  fol- 
low Archimbald  (Erkenbold),  1011-21;  Aribon,  1021- 
31;  Bardo  of  Oppershofen,  1031-51,  who  finished  the 
new  cathedral,  and  consecrated  it  Nov.  10,  1037.  He 
received  on  this  occasion  the  pallium  from  pope  John 
XIX,  and  the  right  to  act  as  papal  legate  whenever  no 
other  person  appeared  invested  with  that  authority  in 
his  diocese.  The  succeeding  incumbent  was  Leopold 
(Luitpold),  count  of  Bogen,  1051-59.  Sigfrid  I,  comit 
of  Eppstein,  joined  a  crusade  in  1065;  in  1069  he  tried, 
but  in  vain,  to  procure  a  divorce  between  Henry  IV  and 
Bertha,  and  proclaimed — yet  without  effect— in  1075  the 
edict  of  celibacy  of  Gregory  VII.  After  1077  he  took 
the  part  of  the  anti- kings,  and  crowned  Rudolf  of 
Suabia  and  Hermann  of  Luxemburg.  He  died  in  1084. 
Wezilo  (1084-88)  was  complained  of  at  the  Council  of 
Ilalberstadt,  and  put  under  ban  for  maintaining  that 
those  of  the  secular  clergy  who  lost  their  estates  were 
no  longer  subject  to  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  ;  he  sub- 
setiuently  receded  from  this  position.  Under  Ruthard 
(10.S8-99),  in  1097,  a  persecution  liroke  out  against  the 
Jews  in  Mayence,  and  the  archbishop,  fearing  the  anger 
of  the  emperor  for  having  taken  an  active  part  in  it, 
lied  to  Tliuringia,  whence  he  returned  only  after  a  lapse 
of  eight  years.  Adelbert  I,  count  of  SaaVbruck  (1109- 
37),  was  elected  by  Henry  V,  yet  sided  against  him  in 
1112  on  the  question  of  investiture  ;  lie  was  imprisoned 
for  his  opposition,  and  only  released  in  1115,  when  the 
people  of  Mayence  rose  in  arms  to  secure  his  liberation. 
Adelbert  showed  his  gratitude  by  granting  the  citizens 
of  Mayence  the  charter  (releasing  them  from  the  jiirisdic- 
tion  of  the  church-wardens  and-from  their  taxes),  which 
was  inscribed  on  the  door  of  the  cathedral  in  1135.  In 
1120  he  tied  again  before  the  emperor,  after  whose  death, 
in  1125,  he  assembled  a  diet  for  the  election  of  a  king. 
This  is  the  first  instance  of  the  appearance  in  the  his- 


tory of  Germany  of  the  electors,  among  whom  the  arch- 
bishop of  Mayence  held  the  first  place.  Adelbert  H, 
brother  of  the  jireceding,  held  the  office  1138-41.  Mar-. 
cidf,  1141-42,  was  the  first  archbishop  elected  according 
to  canonical  rules,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  people. 
Henry  1, 1142-53,  was  appointed  by  Conrad  HI  tutor  to 
his  son,  before  his  departure  for  the  crusade.  He  was 
hated  by  the  clergy  for  his  severity,  and  they  accused 
him  before  the  pope  of  squandering  the  funds  of  the 
Church  and  of  immorality.  He  was  deposed  in  1153. 
Under  Arnold  I,  of  Seelenhowen  (1153-60),  the  partisans 
of  his  predecessors,  among  them  Hermann,  count  of  the 
Palatinate,  invaded  the  diocese  and  laid  the  land  waste. 
Arnold  retaUated,  and  peace  was  only  restored  at  the 
emperor's  return  from  Italy  in  1155.  Arnold  having 
promised  the  emperor  to  accompany  him  in  his  next 
journey  to  Rome,  and  to  employ  his  influence  to  settle 
the  difliculty  then  existing  betvreen  him  and  the  pope, 
he  sought  to  levy  a  tax  on  the  diocese  to  defray  his  ex- 
penses; but  the  citizens  resisted,  and,  the  emperor  re- 
fusing to  take  the  part  of  the  citizens,  they  murdered 
the  archbishop  in  1160.  The  emperor  now  ajipointed 
Conrad  I,  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  chapter;  the 
new  archbishop,  however,  on  being  requested  to  recog- 
nise the  anti-pope,  Pascal,  fled  to  Alexander  at  llome, 
and  was  made  archbishop  of  Salzburg.  His  place  was 
filled  in  1165  by  Christian  I,  count  of  Buch,  chancellor 
of  the  emperor  Frederic  I.  He  proved  true  to  that 
prince,  and  took  his  part  in  Italy  against  the  pope :  but 
was  arrested  there  in  1180  by  the  count  of  Monte  Fer- 
rara,  remained  a  prisoner  imtil  1181,  and  died  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Rome  in  1183.  The  title  of  archchan- 
cellor  of  the  empire,  which  the  archbishops  of  ]Ma3-ence 
had  often  received  since  the  10th  centun,',  became  per- 
manent now.  After  the  decease  of  Christian,  Conrad 
I  became  again  archbishop  of  Mayence.  The  late  prel- 
ate had  already  set  up  a  claim  on  the  estates  of  the 
extinct  house  of  Franconia  in  Thuringia  and  Hesse; 
Conrad  brought  it  forward  again  in  1184,  but  was  op- 
posed by  the  landgrave  Lewis  HI,  and  a  lengthy  strife 
ensued.  In  1197  Conrad  took  part  in  a  crusade,  and 
died  in  1200.  Sigfrid  II,  the  elder,  coimt  of  Ei)pstein 
(1200-30),  obtained  in  1208  the  direction  of  the  bishop- 
ric of  Worms,  and  in  1228  the  right  to  crown  the  kings 
of  Bohemia  (\vhich  was  exercised  by  his  followers  un- 
til 1343).  Sigfrid  HI,  of  Eppstein,  nephew  of  the  pre- 
ceding (1230-49),  finding  the  finances  in  very  bad  con- 
dition, levied,  with  the  assent  of  the  chapter,  on  all 
benefices  a  tax  amounting  to  one  twentieth  of  their 
income.  On  the  other  hand,  it  was  enacted  that  the 
archbishop  could  in  future  contract  no  liabilities  with- 
out the  consent  of  the  chapter,  and  that  everj'  fut- 
ure archbishop  should  be  strictly  held  to  submit  to 
that  rule.  In  1232  Sigfrid  obtained  from  the  king 
the  abbey  of  Lorch,  and  restored  the  cathedral,  which 
was  consecrated  in  1239.  He  favored  the  deposition  of 
emperor  Frederick  II,  and  supported  Henry  Raspe,  and 
afterwards  William  of  Holland  (this  is  commemorated  by 
three  statues  to  be  seen  in  the  cathedral  of  Mayence, 
the  centre  one  representing  the  archbishop,  the  one  on 
his  right  Henry  Raspe,  and  the  other  William  of  Hol- 
land). After  the  death  of  Henry  Raspe,  Sigfrid  at- 
tempted to  annex  his  possessions  to  Thuringia,  but  was 
opposed  by  landgrave  Henry  and  Sophia  of  Ih-abant, 
and  the  dispute  lasted  seven  years.  Sigfrid  died  in 
1249,  and  was  succeeded  by  Christian  II,  of  Bolanden, 
who  resigned  in  1251.  Gerhard  I  (1251-59),  was  impris- 
oned in  1256  by  duke  Albrecht  of  Brunswick,  and  liber- 
ated in  1257  by  king  Richard  of  England,  whom  he  af- 
terwards supported  as  a  candidate  to  the  imperial  crown. 
L'nder  him  the  cathedral  canons  of  Mayence  ceased  to 
lead  the  communistic  life.  Werner  of  Eppstein,  nephew 
of  Sigfrid  III  (1259-84),  cancelled  part  of  the  debts  of  the 
archbishopric,  and  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  duchess 
Sophia  of  Brabant  in  1263,  by  which  he  obtained  (irun- 
berg  and  Frankenburg;  in  1271  he  bought  Wildenberg, 
Amorbach,  Schneeberg,  and  Wilbach  from  Ulrich  of  Dil- 


MAYENCE 


923 


MAYENCE 


ren,  and  in  1278  the  castle  of  Bockelnheim  from  count 
Henry  of  Sponheim ;  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  elec- 
tion of  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg  as  emperor  of  Germany. 
After  a  vacancy  of  two  years,  Henry  II  was  appointed 
archbishop  in  1286 ;  he  was  disliked  by  the  clergy  for 
his  strictness,  and  died  in  1288.  Gerhard  II,  of  Eppstein 
(1289-1305),  labored  to  have  his  cousin  Adol[)h  of  Nassau 
elected  emperor,  but  afterwards  aided  in  his  deposition, 
and  in  the  election  of  Albrecht  of  Austria :  he  used  his 
influence  with  both  emperors  for  the  aggrandizement 
of  his  archbishopric.  He  was  also  somewhat  distm- 
guished  as  a  legislator;  his  decrees  form  the  Concordata 
Gerhardi.  An  electoral  edict  of  king  Albrecht  having 
assigned  him  the  second  rank  among  the  electors,  he 
protested,  and  obtained  an  imperial  decree,  under  date  of 
Sept.  23, 1298,  placing  him  and  his  successors  in  the  first 
rank ;  the  same  decree  contirmed  them  also  in  the  title 
of  archchanceUor  of  Germany.  Peter  Aichspalter  (180(5- 
20)  improved  greatly  the  tinances  of  the  diocese  by  his 
economy,  and  was  a  strict  promoter  of  ecclesiastical  dis- 
cipline. Matthias,  count  of  IJucheck  and  landgrave  of 
Burgundy  (1321-28),  first  sided  with  emperor  Louis  of 
Bavaria,  but  afterwards  with  the  pope,  and  enlarged  the 
estates  of  the  archbishopric.  After  his  death,  which  oc- 
curred in  1328,  pope  John  XXII  appointed  Henry  HI, 
count  of  Burneburg,  but  the  chapter  elected  archbishop 
Balduin  of  Treves;  the  latter  governed  the  diocese  dur- 
ing the  difficulty,  and  added  to  it  a  part  of  the  village 
of  Herzberg,  half  of  JNIark  Duderstadt,  Schurburg,  Botz- 
■wangen,  Esenheim,  and  Odenheim.  On  Nov.  12, 1336, 
Balduin  voluntarilj"-  surrendered  his  claim,  and  Henr)^ 
■was  now  accepted  by  the  chapter,  after  promising  to 
take  sides  with  Louis  of  Bavaria,  and  to  surrender  the 
strong  places  of  the  diocese  into  the  hands  of  the  chap- 
ter. In  1329  he  engaged  not  to  tax  the  inhabitants  of 
Mayence,  or  those  of  the  suburbs,  without  their  con- 
sent; in  1330  he  released  them  from  the  ecclesiastical 
punishments  they  had  incurred  for  injuring  the  clergy, 
and  in  1331  absolved  them  from  their  promise  to  re- 
pay the  Jews  sums  advanced  by  them  to  the  city.  He 
obtained  jurisdiction  over  Eichsfeld,  Duderstadt,  and 
Giboldhausen ;  on  the  other  hand,  Olmiitz  and  Prague 
were  detached  from  Mayence,  and,  in  consequence,  the 
archbishops  of  JMayence  lost  the  riglit  to  cr^)wn  the 
kings  of  Hungary.  He  finally  got  into  difficulties  by 
his  fidelity  to  emperor  Lewis,  and  was  deposed  by  pope 
Clement  YI  in  1346,  yet  continued  to  exercise  his  func- 
.  tions  until  his  death  in  1353.  Gerlach,  who  had  been 
appointed  by  the  pope  in  1346,  was  now  recognised  by 
all  as  archbishop.  The  ditficulties  between  him  and  his 
predecessor  had  greatly  injured  the  diocese:  tlie  funds 
had  become  low,  debts  had  been  contracted,  the  clergy 
had  become  much  relaxed,  and  the  respect  of  the  people 
had  diminished  in  consequence ;  Gerlach,  however,  add- 
ed to  the  diocese  the  castles  of  Itter  and  Allenfelt,  Bal- 
lenburg,  the  village  of  Budensheini,  and  the  half  of 
Geismar.  At  this  time  the  (iulden  Bull,  in  which  the 
high  position  of  the  archbishop  of  jMayence  as  dean  of 
the  electoral  college  was  officially  recognised,  was  given 
to  the  public.  Gerlach  died  Feb.  12,  1371.  His  suc- 
cessor, John  I,  duke  of  Luxemburg,  died  in  1373.  Louis, 
son  of  margrave  Frederick  the  Earnest,  was  now  ap- 
pointed by  both  the  pope  and  the  emperor,  while  the 
chapter  elected  Adolph  I,  of  Nassau,  bishop  of  Spires,  who 
took  up  his  residence  at  Erfurt ;  the  difficulty  lasted 
until  1380 ;  Adolph  remained  archbishop  of  Mayence, 
while  Louis  was  made  archbishop  of  Magdeburg,  and 
retained  the  regalia  until  his  death.  Adolph  was  long 
at  war  with  landgrave  Hermann  of  Hesse  about  some 
possessions  in  that  province ;  he  founded  the  LTniversity 
of  Erfurt,  and  died  in  1390.  His  successor,  Conrad  II,  of 
Weinslierg,  persecuted  the  Waldenses,  of  whom  there 
were  a  number  in  his  diocese,  and  entered  into  a  league 
with  the  Palatinate,  Bavaria,  and  Spires  against  the 
Flagellants.  He  died  Oct.  19, 1396.  John  H,  count  of 
Nassau,  brother  of  Adolph  I  (1396-1419),  took  part  in  the 
deposition  of  emperor  Wenzel,  and,  in  consequence  of  be- 


ing suspected  of  having  had  a  share  in  the  murder  of 
the  emperor  elect,  duke  Frederick  of  Brunswick,  as  he 
sheltered  the  murderer,  he  became  involved  in  a  war 
with  Brunswick  and  Hesse,  which  lasted  until  1401 :  he 
added  to  his  diocese  Wettcrau  and  Ardeck,  besides  sev- 
eral villages.  Conrad  HI,  count  of  Stein,  was  in  1422 
appointed  vicar  of  the  empire  by  emperor  Sigismund ; 
but,  being  opposed  by  Louis  of  Heidelberg,  he  resigned 
that  office  in  1423  :  he  added  to  the  diocese  the  city  of 
Steinheim,  and  enacted  strict  regulations  for  the  con- 
duct of  the  clergy.  Under  him  the  citizens  of  Jlayence 
continued  to  complain  of  the  exemption  from  taxes  en- 
joyed by  the  clergy,  and  he  did  not  succeed  in  settling 
the  question.  He  died  in  1434.  His  successor,  Die- 
trich I,  of  Erbach,  was  more  fortunate,  and  put  an  end  to 
the  troubles  in  1435,  with  the  aid  of  two  commission- 
ers of  the  Council  of  Basle.  His  whole  time  was  taken 
up  in  quarrels  with  the  pope  and  emperor;  the  Prag- 
matic Sanction  of  Mayence,  of  which  he  was  the  author, 
and  in  whicli  he  recognised  the  Council  of  Basle,  the 
suppression  of  the  annates,  and  the  general  restoration 
of  canonical  election,  was  rejected,  while  the  Concordat 
of  Aschaflenburg,  which  held  the  contrary  views,  was 
afterwards  adopted.  Dietrich  died  May  6, 1459,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Diether  (Dietrich  II),  count  of  Isenburg- 
Budingen ;  the  latter,  however,  found  a  rival  in  count 
Adolph  of  Nassau,  whom  Frederick,  elector  of  the  Pala- 
tinate, supported  by  force  of  arms ;  Diether  was  besieged 
in  Heidelberg  July  4, 1461,  and  obliged  to  fiee.  In  1462 
he  Avas  deposed  by  pope  Pius  II,  for  refusing  to  collect 
the  annates  (which  the  pope  had  arbitrarily  raised  from 
10,000  to  21,000  florins).  Adolph  II,  count  of  Nassau, 
was  now  made  archbishop,  and  a  war  commenced  be- 
t^vecn  Diether,  supported  by  Bavaria  and  the  Palati- 
nate, and  Adolph,  upheld  by  Bavaria  and  WUrtemberg; 
a  treaty  was  finally  concluded,  Oct.  25, 1463,  Diether  re- 
nouncing his  claims.  The  city  of  Maj'ence,  which  was 
stormed  by  Adolph  in  1462,  lost  all  privileges.  After 
the  death  of  Adolph,  Sept.  6, 1475,  Diether  was  again 
appointed  archbishop ;  but  now  commenced  a  strife 
aljout  the  city  of  Mayence :  the  cathedral  chapter 
claimed  it  for  its  own,  while  the  citizens  demanded  their 
liberty,  and  rebelled  against  the  chapter;  they  were 
finally  defeated,  and  the  city  remained  subject  to  the 
archbishop,  who  made  it  his  residence ;  he  built  the 
palace  of  Martinsburg,  and  founded  the  LTniversity  of 
Mayence,  which  was  opened  in  1477 ;  he  also  restored  to 
the  diocese  the  estates  of  Algesheim  and  Olm,  and  died 
May  7, 1482.  Albert  I,  duke  of  Saxony,  was  son  of  the 
elector  Ernst  (1482-84).  His  successor,  Berthold,  count 
of  Henneberg,  accompanied  emperor  Maximilian  as  arch- 
chancellor  to  court;  he  took  an  active  part  in  restoring 
peace  throughout  the  countrj',  and  in  the  institution 
of  the  imperial  chamber  of  justice;  he  also  introduced 
great  improvements  in  the  ecclesiastical  and  conventual 
discipline,  and  laid  the  grievances  of  the  Germans  with 
regard  to  ecclesiastical  affairs  before  the  court  of  Kome. 
He  died  Dec.  21, 1504.  Jacob  of  Liebensteiu  (1504-8) 
added  Kostheim  and  part  of  KUngenberg  to  the  diocese. 
Uriel  of  Genimengcn  (1508-14)  ordered  the  examina- 
tion of  the  clergy,  and  strictly  opposed  concubinage 
among  them.  Albrecht  of  Brandenburg,  archbishop  of 
Magdeburg,  was  made  archbishop  of  Idavence  in  1514-, 
he  loved  grandeur,  Avasted  the  funds  of  the  diocese, 
and  abused  the  sale  of  indulgences;  he  took  part  in 
the  league  against  the  Protestant  princes;  being  at- 
tacked b}'  the  landgrave  of  Hesse,  he  purchased  peace 
at  the  expense  of  40,000  thalers.  In  1529  he  originated 
the  Edict  of  Worms  against  the  Protestants;  yet  he  af- 
terwards sought  to  restore  peace  among  the  different  re- 
ligious parties,  and  was  one  of  the  princijjal  promoters 
of  the  peace  of  Nuremberg.  He  died  Scjit.  24,  1545, 
highly  respected  both  by  the  Roman  Cathdlics  and  the 
Lutherans,  and  even  by  Luther,  with  whum  he  had 
some  correspondence.  Sebastian  of  Heusenstam  (1545- 
55)  labored  to  improve  the  administration  of  tlic  dio- 
cese, and  also  to  restore  the  influence  of  Romanism ;  he 


MAYENCE 


924 


MAYENCE 


subscribed  to  the  Interim  of  1548.  During  his  reign 
Albreclit  Alcibiades  of  Brandenburg  invaded  the  diocese, 
and  took  Mayeuce;  he  made  the  citizens  swear  alle- 
giance to  tlie  king  of  France,  demanded  a  contribution 
of  600,000  tlorius  from  the  archbishop  and  chapter,  and, 
as  they  were  unable  to  pay  that  amomit  by  the  time 
stipulated,  he  burnt  down  the  archiepiscopal  palace  and 
several  churches;  the  archbishop  himself  fled  to  Elt- 
feld,  where  he  died  in  1555.  His  successor,  Daniel  of 
Homburg,  endeavored  to  restore  the  archbishopric  to  its 
former  splendor ;  he  introduced  the  Jesuits  into  ]\Iay- 
cnce  and  in  Eichsfelde,  and  surrendered  education  into 
their  hands ;  he  took  part  also  in  the  attempts  of  recon- 
ciliation between  the  Protestants  and  Romanists,  added 
to  his  diocese  the  county  of  Lahr  (Kieneck),  the  county 
of  Kiinigstein,  and  the  villages  of  Rennshausen  and 
Zornhcim.  He  died  March  22, 1582.  He  was  succeed- 
ed by  Wolfgang  of  Dalberg  (1582  to  April  5, 1601).  John 
Adam,  of  Bicken  (1601  to  Jan.  10, 1604),  and  John  Sui- 
card,  of  Kronenberg,  strictly  enforced  all  the  old  ecclesi- 
astical rules,  and  persecuted  the  Protestants,  Under 
Suicard  the  diocese  began  to  feel  the  effects  of  the  Thir- 
ty Years'  War,  which  was  then  raging;  it  suffered  espe- 
cially from  the  inroads  of  Mansfeld  and  Christian  of 
Brunswick,  against  whom  he  called  for  the  assistance 
of  the  Spaniards.  He  died  July  6, 1629.  Anselm  Casi- 
mir,  of  Wambold,  was  obliged  to  flee  from  Mayence  when 
that  city  was  taken  by  Gustavus  Adolphus,  Dec.  23, 1631 ; 
lie  retired  to  Cologne,  and  the  diocese  was,  until  the 
Treaty  of  Prague,  in  1635,  occupied  by  Swedish  and 
French  troops,  who  greatly  impoverished  the  country — 
not  more,  liowever,  than  the  imperial  forces.  In  1635 
the  archbishop  returned  to  Mayence ;  but  the  diocese  be- 
coming again  the  theatre  of  war  in  1643,  he  fled  again 
before  the  French  armies,  and  in  1647  made  a  treaty 
with  Turenne.  Mayence  remained  in  the  possession  of 
the  French,  and  the  archbishop  went  to  reside  at  Frank- 
fort, where  he  died,  Oct.  9, 1647.  His  successor,  John 
Philip,  of  Schiinborn,  prince  bishop  of  Wiirzburg,  re- 
signed soon  after  his  election,  for  the  Swedes,  after  the 
expiration  of  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  exerted  them- 
selves for  the  secularization  of  the  diocese,  and  the  arch- 
bishopric was  only  maintained  through  the  intervention 
of  Saxony ;  it  lost,  however,  by  exemption,  the  districts 
of  Verdcn  and  Halberstadt.  On  the  occasion  of  the 
coronation  of  Ferdinand  IV  at  Regensburg,  John  Philip 
came  in  conflict  with  the  archbishop  of  Cologne  over 
their  respective  prerogatives.  He  was  also  in  difficulty 
with  the  inhabitants  of  Mayence,  and  finally  took  the 
city  by  force  in  1664.  Philip  also  quarrelled  with  Sax- 
ony about  the  town  of  Erfurt,  which  was  finally  added 
to  his  diocese  in  1665.  He  then  devoted  all  his  atten- 
tion to  internal  improvements;  he  gave  regulations  to 
the  court  of  Mayence  in  1659;  in  1661  he  established  a 
theological  seminary ;  and  in  1663  was  also  made  bishop 
of  Worms.  He  died  Feb.  12, 1673.  His  successor  was 
Lothar  Frederick,  of  Metternich-Burchied,  coadjutor  of 
John  Philip  since  1670 ;  in  1674  he  got  into  war  with 
the  elector  of  the  Palatinate,  about  the  district  of  Bock- 
elnheim,  but  died  June  3,  1675.  Domian  Hartard,  of 
Leyen,  died  Dec.  G,  1678.  Charles  Henry,  duke  of  Met- 
ternich-Winneburg,  was  elected  in  1679,  and  died  on 
Sept.  27  of  the  same  year,  Anselm  Franz,  of  Ingelheim, 
surrendered  IMayence  to  the  French  in  1688,  and  took 
up  his  residence  at  Erfurt ;  but  the  marshal  of  Uxelles 
having  given  up  Mayence  to  the  duke  of  Lorraine,  Sept. 
8, 1689,  the  archbishop  returned  to  it.  In  1691  he  joined 
a  league  against  France.  By  a  treaty  concluded  Aug. 
24,  1692  with  Brunswick,  he  gave  up  the  district  of 
Eichsfeld,  with  the  exception  of  Duderstadt,  Giebold- 
shausen,  and  Landau.  He  died  in  1695,  Lothar  Franz, 
of  Schonborn,  nephew  of  John  Philip,  took  the  part  of 
Austria  against  Spain  in  the  ^\'ar  ot^  Succession.  ,In  1704 
the  district  of  Kronenberg  was  joined  to  the  diocese  by 
succession.  In  1714  the  strife  "between  the  archbishop 
and  the  Palatinate  was  brought  to  a  close  by  the  former 
giving  up  his  claim  to  Bockelnheim,  and  receiving  in 


exchange  New  Bamberg.  Hedied  Jan.  30, 1729.  Fran-, 
cis  Louis,  count  of  Neuburg,  bishop  of  Breslau  and 
Worms,  and  also  arclibishop  of  Treves,  died  April  19, 
1732.  Under  Philip  Charles,  of  Eltz-Kempenich,  Alze- 
nau,  together  with  five  villages,  was  added  to  the  dio- 
cese. He  died  March  21, 1743,  John  Frederick  Charles, 
count  of  Ostein,  remained  neutral  in  the  Austrian  War 
of  Successit)n,  and  his  diocese  suffered  severely  from  the 
French  in  consequence ;  in  1745  the  grand  duke  of  Tus- 
cany succeeded  in  driving  the  French  armies  out  of  the 
country,  but  during  the  Seven  Years'  War  the  bishop- 
ric suffered  again  on  account  of  its  adherence  to  the 
queen  of  Hungary.  The  archbishop  died  Jinie  4, 1763 : 
he  had  added  the  bishopric  of  Fulda  to  Mayence.  Em- 
merich Joseph,  baron  of  Breidbach-Buresheim,  was  made 
also  bishop  of  Worms  in  1768 ;  in  1769  he  joined  the 
two  other  ecclesiastical  electors  in  trying  to  emancipate 
the  German  episcopacy  from  the  domirrion  of  Rome ;  by 
a  decree  of  Dec.  23, 1766,  he  abolished  a  number  of  festi- 
vals, and  by  another  of  July  30, 1771,  he  enacted  several 
reforms  in  the  convents;  he  encouraged  industry  and 
agriculture,  founded  charitable  institutions,  and  estab- 
lished the  administration  of  the  diocese  on  a  regular  ba- 
sis ;  on  Jan.  30, 1773,  he  entered  into  an  agreement  with 
Saxony  concerning  Trefurt  and  Midhouse,  by  which  he 
surrendered  the  jurisdiction  of  Protestant  districts  to 
Saxony.  He  died  July  11, 1774.  Frederick  Charles  Jo- 
seph, of  Eichthal,  who  became  also  bishop  of  Worms, 
followed  in  the  footsteps  of  his  predecessor,  introducing 
many  reforms  in  the  Church  ;  he  endowed  the  Univer- 
sity of  Mayence  with  the  convents  of  Karthaus,  Alten- 
munster,  and  Reichenklaren  in  1781,  to  which,  in  1784, 
he  added  seventeen  prebends,  and  also  directed  that  the- 
ological studies  should  no  longer  be  pursued  in  convents, 
but  only  in  the  University  of  Mayence.  The  archbish- 
ops had  heretofore  been  partisans  of  Austria,  but  he  sided 
with  Prussia  when  Frederick  the  Great  opposed  the 
plans  of  aggrandizement  of  the  former  power  towards 
Bavaria ;  he  opposed,  also,  the  encroachments  of  the  pa- 
pal nuncios.  When  the  French  Revolution  broke  out, 
Mayence  was  betrayed  into  Custine's  hands,  Oct.  21, 
1792 ;  the  archbishop  tied  to  Heiligenstadt,  then  took  up 
his  residence  at  Erfurt,  and  died  at  Aschaffenburg  July 
25, 1802.  He  was  the  last  archbishop  of  jMayence.  The 
archbishopric  was  secularized  Feb.  20, 1803.  By  treaty 
France  received  the  portion  of  the  diocese  on  the  left 
shore  of  the  Rhine,  and  the  remainder  was  divided  be- 
tween Prussia,  Hesse,  etc.,  with  the  exception  of  the 
principalities  of  Aschaffenburg,  Regensburg,  the  county 
of  Wetzlar,  and  some  other  small  portions  which  were 
given  to  the  coadjutor  of  the  late  archbishop,  Charles 
Theodore  of  Dalberg,  as  archchancellor,  metropolitan, 
and  primate  of  Germany.  The  see  was  transferred  to 
the  cathedral  of  Regensburg,  and  received  jurisdiction 
over  the  whole  of  the  former  ecclesiastical  provinces  of 
JIayence,  Treves,  and  Cologne,  lying  on  the  right  shore 
of  the  Rhine,  with  the  exception  of  the  part  belonging 
to  Prussia,  and  also  over  the  whole  province  of  Salzburg, 
in  Bavaria.  The  archbishojiric  of  IMayence  became  a 
simple  bishopric,  subject  to  the  archbishop  of  Mechlin, 
and  including  only  the  territory  of  the  old  archbishopric 
on  the  left  shore  of  the  Rhine.  The  first  bishop  was 
Joseph  Louis  Colmar,  appointed  Oct.  3, 1802,  who  gov- 
erned his  diocese  exclusively  under  French  inspiration. 
Mayence  was  taken  by  the  allies  May  17, 1814;  Colmar 
died  Dec.  15  of  the  same  year.  A  vicar-general  was 
then  appointed.  In  1829  the  bishojiric  of  IMayence  was, 
by  a  pajial  decree,  detached  from  Jlechlin  and  subjected 
to  Freiburg.  Joseph  Vitus  Burg  was  appointed  bishop 
Jan.  12, 1830 ;  he  divided  the  diocese  into  deaneries,  and 
died  May  23, 1833.  His  successor,  the  former  vicar-gen- 
eral, John  Jacob  Humann,  died  Aug.  19,  1834.  Peter 
Leopold  Kaiser  issued  complete  diocesan  statutes  in 
1837,  and  died  Dec.  30,  1848.  Leopold  Schmid,  pro- 
fessor of  theology  and  jihilosophy  at  the  L^niversity  of 
(iiesscn,  was  appointed  bishop  of  IMayence  by  pope  Pius 
IX,  Feb.  22, 1849,  but  he  was  not  confirmed  (see  L. 


MAYENCE 


925 


MAYER 


Schmid,  Ueh.  d.jUngste  Mainzer  Bischofsioahl,  Giessen, 
1850) ;  and  William  Emanuel  von  Ketteler  was  made 
bishop  in  his  place,  March  29,  1850.  Since  Ketteler's 
accession,  the  bishopric  of  Mayence  is  noted  as  the  gath- 
ering-place of  all  Jesuit  idtramontanists.  How  this 
Roman  see  in  Germany  will  continue  its  opposition  to 
all  order  of  state  rule,  now  that  the  Jesuits  have  been 
expelled  from  Germany  (1873),  remains  to  be  seen.  See 
Theoderich  Gresemund,  Cataloyus  episcoporiwi  et  urchi- 
ejnscojmrumMoffuni.  (Schunk'si>'ei7/((^eH,vol.ii) ;  J.Lat- 
omus,  Gesch.  d.  Bischufe  v.  M.  (in  Mencke,  Scriptores  re- 
riim  G«'TO.vol.  iii);  ^ex\-a.mxs,,Res  Moyuntiacce  (in  Joan- 
nis,  Res  Mogunt.  Frankf.  1722,  vol.  i) ;  Severus,  Memoria 
pontificum  Mogunt.  (Slayence,  1765) ;  Wiirdtwein,  Dia- 
cesis  Moguntina  in  archidiaconatus  districia  (Manh. 
1769-77,  3  vols.) ;  Schepfer,  Codex  eccles.  Mogunt.  nov. 
(Aschaf.  1803) ;  D.  Untergang  d.  Kurjurst.  M.  (Frankf. 
1839) ;  Werner,  X'er  Dam  z.  J/.  (Mayence,  1827, 3  vols.) ; 
Pierer,  Univeisal-Lexikon,  x,  741  sq. ;  Herzog,  Real-En- 
cijklop.  viii,  697  sq. 

MAYENCE,  Councils  at.  Of  the  numerous  coun- 
cils of  the  Chiu-ch  of  Rome  convened  here,  special  notice 
is  due  to  those  of  813, 847-8, 1225,  and  1549. 

(1.)  The  first  of  these,  convened  June  9,  813,  by  order 
of  Charlemagne,  was  composed  of  thirty  bishops  and 
twenty-five  abbots ;  Hildebald,  archbishop  of  Cologne 
and  arch-chaplain,  presided.  The  object  of  this  council 
was  to  restore  the  discipline  of  the  Church.  To  this 
end  the  Gospels,  the  canons  of  the  Church,  and  certain 
of  the  works  of  the  fathers  were  read,  among  others 
the  pastoral  of  St.  Gregory  ;  the  abbots  and  monks  also 
read  the  letter  of  St.  Benedict.  Fifty-six  canons  were 
published.  1,  2,  and  3  treat  of  faith,  hope,  and  char- 
ity. 4.  Orders  the  administration  of  holy  baptism  af- 
ter the  Roman  use,  and  restricts  it  to  Easter  and  Pen- 
tecost, except  in  cases  of  necessity.  C.  Orders  bishops 
to  take  care  of  disinherited  orphans.  9.  Orders  canons 
to  eat  in  common,  and  to  sleep  in  the  same  dormitor3^ 
11.  Relates  to  the  life  of  the  monks.  13.  To  that  of 
nuns.  22.  Is  directed  against  vagabond  clerks.  23. 
Gives  entire  liberty  to  clerks  and  monks  who  have  been 
forced  to  receive  the  tonsure.  28.  Orders  all  priests  at 
all  times  to  wear  the  stole,  to  mark  their  sacerdotal 
character.  32.  Defines  the  difference  between  the  exo- 
mologesis  and  litania ;  the  former  it  states  to  be  solely 
for  confession  of  sin,  the  latter  to  implore  help  and  mer- 
cy. 33.  Orders  the  observance  of  the  great  Litany  by 
all  Christians,  barefooted,  with  ashes.  35.  Confirms  the 
19th  canon  of  Gangra  on  fasting.  36  and  37.  Relate  to 
holidays  and  Sundays.  43.  Forbids  mass  to  be  said  by 
a  priest  alone ;  for  how  can  he  say  Dominus  vohiscum, 
and  other  like  things,  when  no  one  is  present  but  him- 
self? 47.  Orders  godparents  to  instruct  their  godchil- 
dren. 52.  Forbids  all  interments  within  the  Church  ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  bishops,  abbots,  priests,  or  lay  persons 
distinguished  for  holiness  of  life.  54.  Forbids  marriage 
within  the  fourth  degree.  55.  Forbids  parents  to  stand 
as  sponsors  for  their  own  children,  and  forbids  marriages 
between  sponsors  and  their  godchildren,  and  the  parents 
of  their  godchOdren.  56.  Declares  that  he  who  has 
married  two  sisters,  and  the  woman  who  has  married 
two  brothers,  or  a  father  and  son,  shall  be  separated,  and 
never  be  permitted  to  marry  again  {Cone,  vii,  1239). 

(2.)  The  next  council  convened  there  about  Oct.  1, 
847,  by  order  of  Louis  of  Germany,  under  Rabanus, 
archbishop  of  Mayence,  assisted  by  twelve  bishops,  his 
suffragans,  and  several  abbots,  monks,  priests,  and  oth- 
ers of  the  clergy,  including  the  chorepiscopi.  Thirty- 
one  canons  were  published.  The  most  important  are  : 
2.  Warning  bishops  to  be  assiduous  in  preaching  the 
W^ord  of  God.  7.  Leaving  the  disposition  of  Church 
property  to  the  bishops,  and  asserting  their  power  over 
the  laity.  11.  Forbidding  to  endow  new  oratorios  with 
the  tithes  or  other  property  belonging  to  churches  an- 
ciently founded,  without  the  bishop's  consent.  13.  Re- 
lating to  the  life  to  be  observed  by  clerks  and  monks ; 
forbids  joking,  gaming,  unsuitable  ornaments,  delicate 


living,  excess  in  eating  or  drinking,  unjust  weights  oi 
measures,  unlawful  trades,  etc.  14.  Ordering  all  monks 
holding  livings  to  attend  the  synods  and  give  an  ac- 
count of  themselves.  15.  Forbidding  the  clergy  to  wear 
long  hair,  under  pain  of  anathema.  30.  Forbidding 
marriage  within  the  fourth  degree  (Cone,  viii,  39). 

(3.)  The  next  important  council  was  held  at  Mayence 
in  1225,  by  cardinal  Conrad,  legate  of  Ilonorius  III.  It 
is  by  some  called  "  a  synod  of  Germany."  Fourteen 
canons  were  published,  which  relate  to  the  incontinence 
of  the  clergy,  and  simony.  The  sixth  declares  that  ex- 
communicated priests  who  dare  to  perform  any  clerical 
function  while  under  excommunication  shall  be  deposed 
both  from  their  office  and  benefices,  without  hope  of  be- 
ing ever  restored ;  shall  be  treated  as  infamous,  deprived 
of  the  power  of  leaving  their  property  by  will,  and  never 
again  permitted  to  hold  any  kind  of  ecclesiastical  bene- 
fice {Cone,  xi,  294). 

(4.)  Another  very  large  body  assembled  in  council  at 
Mayence  in  1549,  called  together  by  Sebastian  Heusen- 
stein,  archbishop  of  Mayence,  with  the  deputies  of  the 
bishops  of  his  province  and  the  principal  of  his  clergj'. 
Forty-seven  canons  were  published  concernmg  the  faith, 
and  fifty-seven  canons  of  discipline.  Among  the  first 
we  find  an  exposition  of  the  mystery  of  the  sacred  Trin- 
ity, according  to  the  faith  of  the  Church ;  it  is  further 
stated  that  man  was  created  with  righteousness  and  en- 
dued with  grace,  but  that  he  was  possessed  of  free-wiU; 
afterwards  the  fall  of  man  and  his  justification  are  spo- 
ken of,  and  it  is  declared  that  this  justification  proceeds 
from  the  grace  of  God ;  that  it  is  given  before  any 
merit;  that  this  justification  is  given  when  man  re- 
ceives the  Holy  Spirit,  with  faith,  hope,  and  charity, 
which  gifts  it  declares  to  be  inherent  in  him,  and  not 
merely  imputed,  so  that  man  is  not  only  accounted 
righteous,  but  is  so  in  reality,  yet  not  through  his  own 
merits,  but  by  God's  grace  and  righteousness  communi- 
cated to  him ;  that  the  charitj'  which  justifies  must  be 
accompanied  by  good  works,  of  which  grace  is  the  source 
and  principle  (canons  7  and  8).  The  council  moreover, 
in  the  canons  of  faith,  set  forth  the  doctrine  of  the  sac- 
raments, and  decided,  against  the  heretics,  that  they  are 
not  bare  ceremonies,  but  effectual  signs  of  grace,  which 
they  are,  by  divine  operation,  the  means  of  conveymg 
to  those  who  receive  them  worthily. 

AVith  regard  to  ceremonies,  it  is  decreed  that  such 
ought  to  be  retained  as  incite  the  people  to  meditate 
upon  God ;  among  these  are  reckoned  the  sacraments, 
churches,  altars,  images,  holy  vestments,  banners,  etc. 
As  to  images,  the  council  decrees  that  the  people  should 
be  taught  that  they  are  not  set  up  to  be  worshipped, 
and  that  none  ought  to  be  set  up  in  churches  which  are 
likely  to  inspire  worldly  and  carnal  thoughts  rather 
than  piet}'.  Curates  are  also  enjoined  to  remove  the 
image  of  any  saint  to  which  the  people  flocked,  as  if  at- 
tributing some  sort  of  di\-inity  to  the  image  itself,  or  as 
supposing  that  God  or  the  saints  would  perform  what 
they  prayed  for  by  means  of  that  particular  image,  and 
not  otherwise.  Afterwards  the  following  matters  are 
treated  of:  devout  pilgrimages,  worship  of  saints,  prayer 
for  the  dead,  and  the  law  of  fasting. 

Among  the  fifty -six  canons  of  discipline  and  mo- 
rality, we  find  it  ruled  (by  canon  61)  that  when  the 
lesser  festivals  fall  on  a  Sunday,  they  shall  be  kept  on 
some  day  following  or  preceding ;  that  apostate  monks, 
upon  their  return  to  their  duty,  shall  be  kindly  treated ; 
that  nmis  shall  not  leave  their  convent  without  the 
bishop's  permission  ;  that  preaching  shall  not  be  allow- 
ed, nor  the  holy  sacraments  administered,  in  chapels  at- 
tached to  private  houses ;  that  care  shall  be  taken  that 
all  school-masters  be  sound  Catholics,  etc.  Finally,  it  is 
declared  that  the  council  received  the  acts  of  the  holy 
(Ecumenical  councils,  and  yielded  entire  submission  to 
the  catholic,  apostolic,  Roman  Church  in  all  thhigs 
{Cone,  xiv,  667  ;  Landon,  Afanned  of  Coimeils,  s.  v.). 

Mayer,  Jacob,  an  American  minister  of  the  Ger- 
man Reformed  Church,  was  born  in  Lykens  Valley,  Dau- 


MAYER 


926 


MAYER 


pliin  Co.,  I'a.,  in  1798  ;  was  brought  up  in  the  Reformed 
Church,  and  early  instructed  in  its  doctrines.  Prepara- 
tory to  entering  the  ministrj',  he  was  for  four  years  un- 
der tlie  special  tuition  of  Rev.  Dr.  Samuel  Helffenstein, 
of  Philadelphia  ;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  September, 
1822,  at  the  synod  held  in  llarrisburg,  I'a. ;  was  soon 
afterwards  ordained,  and  took  charge  of  the  churches  in 
Woodstock,  Va.,  and  vicinity.  After  three  years  of  la- 
bor he  removed  to  the  neighborhood  of  Slirewsbury, 
York  Co.,  Pa.,  and  there  took  charge  of  quite  a  number 
of  congregations.  In  this  field  he  labored  eight  years ; 
then  removed  to  Mercersburg,  Franklin  Co.,  Pa.,  and  be- 
came pastor  of  the  Church  at  that  place,  in  connection 
with  those  at  Greencastle  and  Loudon  in  the  same  coun- 
ty. In  1836  he  was  appointed  special  agent  of  the  the- 
ological seminary  at  Mercersburg ;  the  next  eight  years 
of  his  active  life  were  devoted  to  the  work  of  procuring 
funds  for  the  use  of  that  institution  and  of  Marshall  Col- 
lege, in  Mercersburg,  in  the  founding  and  establishing  of 
both  of  which  he  was  deeply  interested.  While  engaged 
in  this  work  his  healtli  failed,  and  he  was  obliged  to  re- 
linquish the  pastoral  work,  and  attend  to  some  secular 
pursuit  in  order  to  provide  for  himself  and  family  a  proper 
temporal  support.  He  lived  in  this  way,  during  difl'er- 
ent  periods,  at  Chambersburg,  Philadelphia,  Columbia, 
and  mainly  at  Lock  Haven ;  in  the  last-named  place  he 
died,  Oct.  29,  1872.  "lie  suffered  severely,  especially 
during  the  last  four  years  of  his  life,  from  lingering  con- 
sumption, in  the  midst  of  which  he  manifested  much 
Christian  patience,  especially  during  the  closing  por- 
tion of  his  eartlily  career."  See  Reformed  Church  Mes- 
senger, Nov.  G,  1872. 

Mayer,  Johann,  a  German  theologian,  was  bom 
Aug.  2, 1697,  at  Nuremberg ;  studied  at  the  high-schools 
of  his  native  place  until  1717,  when  he  went  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Altdorf  to  study  theology.  In  1720  he  re- 
moved to  the  University  of  Halle,  and  there  enjoyed 
the  instruction  of  the  celebrated  German  savants  Wolf 
and  Michaelis.  He  continued  his  studies  until  1725, 
when  he  finally  secured  the  position  of  catechist,  first  at 
an  orphan  asylum  and  later  at  a  prison.  In  1727  he 
■was  made  vicar,  and  in  1728  morning  preacher  at  St. 
Waldburg.  The  year  following  he  became  pastor  at 
Schwinunbach  and  AVengen ;  in  1732  dean  of  Spitalch, 
Nuremberg;  in  1738  was  transferred  to  the  Church  of 
St.  Laurence ;  in  1749  became  senior  of  the  chapter.  He 
died  Sept.  3, 1760.  Mayer's  productions  are  mostly  of 
an  ascetic  character ;  at  the  time  of  their  publication 
the}'  secured  him  much  popularity,  especially  his  Epis- 
iolische  Betrachtunr/en  (ks  Tocles  (Nuremb.  1741,  4to). 
He  also  published  a  number  of  his  sermons.  For  fur- 
ther details  of  his  works,  see  DiJring,  Gelehrte  Theologie 
Deiitschlands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Mayer,  Johann  C,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  a 
German  by  birtli,  was  born  in  Korl),  Wiirtemburg,  May 
4,  1835.  He  was  educated  at  Basle,  Switzerland,  and 
attended  the  seminary  at  St.  Christiana.  He  left  his 
native  land  and  settled  in  Texas,  where  he  was  licensed 
by  the  Lutheran  Synod  of  Texas.  On  coming  to  New 
Orleans  he  organized  a  German  Presbyterian  Church, 
but  died  before  he  had  been  ordained  pastor  over  it, 
Aug.  24, 1858.  See  Wilson,  Presh.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1860, 
p.  76.     (J.  L.  S.) 

Mayer,  Johann  Friedrich,  a  (Jcrman  Lutheran 
minister,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1650.  He  studied  in 
the  university  of  his  native  city,  an<l  became  succes- 
sively superintendent  of  Leissnig  in  1(')73,  of  (Jrimma  in 
1679,  professor  of  theology  at  Wittemherg  in  1684,  pas- 
tor of  St,  Joseph  of  Hamburg  in  1686,  professor  of  the 
gymnasium  of  that  city  in  1687,  professor  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Kiel  in  1688,  professor  and  archchancellor  at 
the  University  of  Greifswald,  and^eneral  superintendent 
of  Pomerania  and  Riigen,  in  1701.  He  died  at  Stettin 
in  1712.  Mayer  had  taken  a  leading  part  in  all  the 
controversies  of  the  time.  Among  his  voluminous  works 
we  notice  Bibliotheca  Biblica,  which  treats  of  the  most  I 


celebrated  Jewish,  Romish,  Lutheran,  and  Calvinistic 

expositions  of  Scripture  (best  edition,  Nostock,  1713) : 

Best  Method  of  Studying  Holy  Hcripture: — History  of 
Martin  Luther^ s  Gerriian  Veision  of  the  Bible  : — An  Ac- 
count of  the  Moderns  who  have  wi-itten  against  the  Holy 
Scriptures: — Ail  Exposition  of  the  first  two  Psalms: — 
Tractatus  de  Osculo  Pedum  Pontificis  Romani: — Be 
Fide  Baronii  el  Bellarmini  ipsis  Pontificiis  amhigud.  See 
Herzog,  Reed- Ency Hop.  ix,  209 ;  Pierer,  Unicersal-Lexi- 
kon,  xi,  35  ;  Hook,  Biog.  Diet,  vii,  262.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Mayer,  John,  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  flourished 
in  the  early  part  of  the  17th  century.  But  few  memo- 
rials have  been  discovered  to  furnish  any  satisfactory  ac- 
count of  his  personal  history.  It  appears  from  his  pref- 
aces that  he  labored  under  infirm  health,  which  unfitted 
him  for  public  services  as  a  clergyman  for  many  years. 
In  1634  he  became  minister  of  Reydon,  in  Suffolk.  He 
published  Theological  Treatises  and  Commentaries  on  the 
English  Catechism  (Lend.  1621,  4to) : — A  Commentary 
on  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  (rare ;  G  vols,  fol.,  and  1 
vol.  4to,  1631,  '47,  '52,  '53).  See  Allibone,  Diet.  Brit. 
and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  Darling,  Cyclop).  Bib- 
Hog,  vol.  ii,  s.  V. 

Mayer,  Le'wis,  D.D.,  a  noted  American  divine  of 
that  branch  of  the  Christian  Church  denominated  the 
German  Reformed,  was  born  at  Lancaster,  Pa.,  jMarcli 
26, 1783.  After  having  received  a  liberal  education  in 
his  native  place,  he  removed  to  Frederick,  Md.,  where 
he  devoted  his  attention  for  some  time  to  a  secular  call- 
ing. He  was  fond  of  reading  and  study.  Having  be- 
come conscious  of  a  call  to  the  holy  ministry,  he  pursued 
his  theological  studies  with  great  zeal  and  success,  un- 
der the  direction  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Wagner,  of  Frederick, 
Md.  He  was  licensed  and  ordained  in  1807,  and  became 
pastor  of  a  charge  in  Shepherdstown,  Va.,  where  he  la- 
bored till  1821.  In  that  year  he  was  called  as  pastor  to 
York,  Pa.  In  1825  he  resigned  his  charge,  having  been 
called  by  the  Synod  of  the  German  Reformed  Church  to 
assume  the  presidency  of  the  theological  seminary  then 
established  at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  and  afterwards  located  at 
York,  Pa.  In  this  position  he  laboreil  with  great  zeal 
tin  1835.  His  health  giving  way  he  retired  to  private 
life,  and  lived  in  York,  Pa.  He  devoted  his  remaining 
strength  to  the  preparation  of  a  History  of  the  German 
Reformed  Church,  only  the  first  volume  of  which,  how- 
ever, has  been  published.  This  volume  is  chiefly  occu- 
pied with  an  account  of  the  Reformation  in  Switzerland. 
His  labors  were  brought  down  to  1770.  Dr.  Mayer  pub- 
lished also  a  Treatise  on  the  Sin  against  the  Holy  Ghost, 
and  Lectin-es  on  Scriplu7-e  Subjects.  While  professor  of 
theology  he  also  edited  for  some  years  the  Magazine 
and  the  Messenger  of  the  German  Reformed  Church. 
He  died  Aug.  25, 1849.  See  biographical  sketch  by  the 
Rev.  E.  Heiner,  prefaced  to  Dr.  Mayer's  History  (Phila. 
1850,  8vo,  pp.  477). 

Mayer,  Philip  Frederick,  D.D.,  a  distinguished 
American  Lutlicran  minister,  was  born  April  1,  1781,  in 
the  city  of  New  York,  wliere  he  continued  to  reside  till 
he  reached  his  majority.  His  earlier  years  were  spent 
at  the  German  school  attached  to  the  Lutheran  Church. 
His  preparation  for  college  was  made  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Mr.  Campbell.  He  graduated  with  the  first 
honors  of  his  class  at  Columbia  College,  New  York,  in 
1799,  then  under  the  administration  of  Dr.  W.  S.  Johnson. 
He  spent  three  years  in  the  prosecution  of  his  theologi- 
cal studies,  under  the  instruction  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Kunze, 
one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  day.  He  was  licensed 
to  preach  the  (xospel  in  1802,  and  soon  after  took  charge 
of  the  Lutheran  Church  at  Lunenburg  (now  Athens), 
N.  Y.  In  1806  he  resigned  this  position,  and  accepted 
a  call  as  pastor  of  St  John's  (Lutheran)  Church,  Phila- 
delphia. This  was  the  first  exclusively  English  Lu- 
theran congregation  formed  in  this  country.  To  the 
discharge  of  his  arduous  duties  Dr.  Mayer  devoted  him- 
self with  conscientious  fidelity  and  untiring  zeal.  He 
was  unwearied  in  his  efforts  to  promote  the  good  of  his 


MAYHEW 


927 


MAYNE 


own  flock,  as  well  as  faitliful  anil  constant  in  his  aims 
to  advance  the  welfare  of  the  whole  community.  He 
never  withheld  his  influence  from  any  object  v.hich  met 
his  deliberate  and  cordial  approval.  In  1808  he  was 
associated  with  bishop  White,  Dr.  Green,  Dr.  Rush,  and 
others  in  the  formation  of  the  Pennsylvania  Bible  Soci- 
ety, the  first  institution  of  the  kind  organized  in  the 
United  States,  of  which  he  continued  to  be  an  active 
and  efficient  manager,  and  was  at  the  time  of  his  death 
the  presiding  officer.  He  was  also  the  senior  member  of 
tlie  board  of  trustees  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
He  was  the  president  of  the  board  of  managers  of  the 
Deaf  and  Dumb  Asylum  and  of  the  Philadelphia  Dispen- 
sary, and  ^vas  actively  connected  with  other  eleemosy- 
nary institutions.  Liberal  and  enlarged  in  his  views, 
he  was  at  some  time  identified,  either  as  a  patron  or  di- 
rector, with  every  philanthropic  enterprise  of  a  catholic 
spirit  in  his  adopted  city.  He  retained  his  pastoral 
connection  with  the  Church  tUl  his  death,  which  oc- 
curred April  IG,  1868.  Dr.  Mayer  was  no  ordinary  man, 
or  he  coidd  never  have  so  successfully  sustained  him- 
self for  so  long  a  period  among  the  same  people,  and 
enjoyed  in  so  eminent  a  degree  the  regard  and  confi- 
dence of  the  whole  community.  He  was  a  man  of  clear 
intellect  and  quick  perceptions,  united  with  great  deli- 
cacy of  taste  and  keen  discernment.  He  was  a.  ripe 
scliolar,  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  whole  range  of 
English  literature,  and  in  the  department  of  Biblical 
Criticism  having  few  superiors.  He  received  his  D.D. 
from  Columbia  College,  New  York,  and  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania.     (M.  L.  S.) 

MayheTV,  Experience,  a  noted  American  divine, 
for  years  actively  engaged  in  missionary  labors  among 
the  Indians,  was  born  Jan.  27, 1673.  His  father,  grand- 
father, and  great-grandfather  were  all  most  successfully 
engaged  as  missionaries  to  the  Indians  before  him.  In 
March,  169-i,  about  five  years  after  the  death  of  his  fa- 
ther, he  began  to  preach  to  the  Indians,  taking  the  over- 
sight of  five  or  six  of  their  assemblies.  The  Indian 
language  had  been  familiar  to  him  from  infancy,  and 
he  was  employed  by  the  commissioners  of  the  Society 
for  Propagating  the  Gospel  in  New  England  to  make  a 
new  version  of  the  Psalms  and  John,  which  work  he 
executed  with  great  accuracy  in  1709.  He  died  Nov. 
29. 1758,  aged  eighty-five.  He  published  a  sermon  en- 
titled A II  Mankind  by  Nature  equally  undei'  Sin  (1724:)  : 
■ — Indian  Converts  (1727),  in  which  he  gives  an  account 
of  the  lives  of  thirty  Indian  ministers,  and  about  eighty 
Indian  men,  women,  and  j'outh,  -worthy  of  remembrance 
on  account  of  their  piety : — Letter  on  the  Lord's  Supper 
(1741): — Grace  Defended  (17-14),  in  which  he  contends 
that  the  offer  of  salvation  made  to  sinners  in  the  Gospel 
contains  in  it  a  conditional  promise  of  the  grace  given 
in  regeneration.  In  this  he  says  he  differs  from  most 
Calvinists ;  yet  he  supports  the  doctrines  of  original  sin, 
of  eternal  decrees,  and  of  the  sovereignty  of  God  in  the 
salvation  of  man.  His  son  Zechariah  succeeded  him  in 
the  missionary  field,  making  five  generations  thus  en- 
gaged. The  age  attained  by  the  Mayhews  is  remarka- 
ble: the  first,  Thomas,  died  aged  ninety;  Experience, 
eighty-four;  John,  grandson  of  the  first  John,  eighty- 
nine;  his  brother  Jeremiah,  eighty-five;  Dr.  Matthew, 
eighty-five ;  Zecliariah,  seventj'-nine.  —  Indian  Com:, 
Appendix,  p.  300,  307;  Chauncy's  FemarJcs  on  Lan- 
daff's  Sei-nion,  p.  23 ;  Cyclop.  Eel.  Knoicledge,  s.  v. 

Mayhe^w,  Jonathan,  D.D.,  a  celebrated  Ameri- 
can divine,  was  born  at  Jlartha's  Vineyard  Oct.  8, 1720. 
He  was  a  descendant  of  Thomas  Jlayhew,  the  first  Eng- 
lish settler  of  that  island.  In  early  childhood  Jonathan 
gave  indications  of  great  vigor  of  mind  and  a  strong 
will.  He  was  fitted  for  college  by  his  father,  who  was 
a  very  intelligent  man.  During  his  college  course  at 
Harvard  he  w.is  distinguished  not  only  as  a  fine  classi- 
cal scholar,  but  also  for  his  skill  in  dialectics  and  his  at- 
tainments in  ethical  science.  He  graduated  with  great 
honor  in  1744.     Three  years  later  he  received  a  caU 


from  West  Church,  in  Boston,  and  continued  in  this 
station  for  the  remainder  of  his  life.  On  the  day  first 
appointed  for  his  ordination  only  two  clergymen  of  those 
invited  were  in  attendance,  owing,  no  doubt,  to  his  ex- 
treme rationalism ;  and  even  these  ivio  refused  to  act, 
and  a  councU,  consisting  of  fourteen  ministers,  had  to  be 
convoked,  June  17,  after  which  the  new  candidate  was 
duly  installed  in  office.  Mr.  Mayhew's  lilieral  opinions 
were  so  unpopidar  in  Boston  that  he  was  for  some  time 
excluded  from  membership  of  the  Boston  Association  of 
Congregational  Ministers.  In  1750  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  divinity  was  conferred  upon  him  by  the  University 
of  Aberdeen.  His  publications  excited  great  attention 
not  oifly  in  this  coimtry,  but  also  in  England.  In  1755 
he  published  a  volume  of  sermons  on  the  Doctrine  of 
Grace.  At  the  close  of  one  of  these  sermons  there  is  a 
note  on  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  which  was  offensive 
alike  to  those  who  did  and  did  not  endorse  his  general 
views.  Subsequently  the  doctor  himself  appears  to  have 
regretted  having  ^^'ritten  it,  and  he  unsuccessfully  en- 
deavored to  prevent  its  being  published  in  the  London 
edition.  Dr.  Mayhew  was  at  this  time  scribe  of  the 
Massachusetts  Convention  of  Congregational  Ministers. 
In  1763  the  Rev.  East  Arthorp  published  a  pamphlet 
entitled  Considei-ations  on  the  Institution  and  Conduct  of 
the  Society  for  Propagating  the  Gospel,  occasioning  a 
violent  controversy,  in  which  Dr.  Mayhew  bore  a  promi- 
nent part.  Dr.  IMayhew  was  extensively  known  through- 
out Great  Britain,  and  numbered  among  his  correspond- 
ents such  men  as  Lardner,  Benson,  Kippis,  Blackburn, 
and  Hollis.  He  died  July  9,  1706.  Dr.  Mayhew  pos- 
sessed a  mind  of  great  acuteness  and  energy,  and  in  his 
principles  was  a  determined  republican.  lie  had  no  lit- 
tle influence  in  producing  the  American  Revolution. 
Among  his  best-known  publications  are  the  following: 
Seven  Sei^mons  (1749,  8vo) : — ,1  Discourse  concerning 
Unlimited  Submission  and  Non-resistance  to  the  Higher 
Poivers  (1750,  8vo).  See  Mr.  Bancroft's  notice  of  this 
sermon,  and  his  eloquent  tribute  to  IMayhew,  in  his  Hist. 
of  the  United  States,  iv,  60-62:  —  Thanksgiving  Sernwn 
for  the  Repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act  (1766): — Sermons  to 
Young  Men  (1767,  2  vols.  12mo).  See  Memoir  of  the 
Life  and  Writings  of  the  Rev.  Jonathan  Mayhew,  by  Al- 
den  Bradford  (1838);  Riche,  Bibl.  Amer.  Nova,  i,  140, 
145, 153 ;  AUibone,  Diet.  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  s.  v. ; 
Sprague,  Annuls  Amer.  Pulpit,  vii,  22  sq. 

]VIayhe"W,  Thomas,  a  Trinitarian  Congregational 
minister,  son  of  Thomas  Mayhew,  the  governor  of  Mar- 
tha's Vineyard,  was  born  in  Southampton,  England, 
about  1621 ;  emigrated  with  his  father  to  New  lingland 
in  1631 ;  resided  for  a  few  years  in  ■\\'atertown,  Mass.; 
and  in  1642  assisted  his  father  in  establishing  a  settle- 
ment at  Edgartown,  INIartha's  Mneyard.  Being  deeply 
affected  by  the  intellectual  and  moral  degradation  of  the 
Indians,  and  possessuig  good  natural  talents,  and  a  con- 
siderable knowledge  of  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew 
languages,  he  determined  to  devote  himself  to  preaching 
to  the  natives  of  the  island.  He  soon  acquired  their 
language,  commenced  his  pulpit  ministrations  in  1646, 
and  labored  among  them  so  faithfullj'  that  in  1650  he 
had  100  converts,  and  in  1662,  282,  among  whom  were 
eight  pawams  or  priests.  In  1057  he  sailed  for  England 
to  obtain  aid  from  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of 
the  Gospel ;  but  the  ship  in  which  he  had  taken  pas- 
sage was  lost  at  sea,  and  never  heard  of.  Cotton  Ma- 
ther says  that  "  he  was  so  affectionately  esteemed  by 
the  Indians  that  many  j-ears  after\vards  he  was  seldom 
named  without  tears."  He  wrote,  in  connection  with 
John  Eliot,  Tears  of  Repentance,  or  a  Narrative  of  the 
Progress  of  the  Gospel  among  the  Indians  in  Neiv  Eng- 
land.—i^^ra.Q\iQ,  A  nnuls  A  merican  Pulpit,  i,  131 ;  Drake, 
Diet.  A  merican  Biography,  s.  v. 

Maymbourg.     See  Maimiurg. 

Mayne,  Jaxnes  S.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  RavaUagh,  near  Coleraine,  Antrim  County,  Ire- 
land, iu  1825,     He  received  a  careful  academic  educa- 


MAYNE 


928 


MAYNOOTH 


tion  ill  his  native  countn,-,  and  in  1853  came  to  America; 
graduated  at  Princeton  College  with  honor  in  1857 ; 
studied  divinity  at  the  theological  seminary  at  Prince- 
ton, N.  J. ;  was  licensed  in  1859,  and  in  1860  commenced 
his  labors  at  May's  Landing,  Atlantic  City,  and  Abse- 
con,  N.  J.,  where  he  died,  Aug.  30,  18C0.  Mr.  Mayne 
was  a  man  noted  for  his  consistent  and  devoted  pietv. 
See  WUson,  Presh.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1862,  p.  103.    (J.  L.  S.) 

Mayne,  Jasper,  an  English  divine  and  poet,  was 
born  in  Devonshire  in  1604.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  he 
entered  Christ-church  College,  Oxford,  and  in  1631  se- 
cured the  degree  of  M. A.  He  took  holy  orders,  became 
a  popular  preacher,  was  presented  by  his  college  to  two 
neighboring  livings,  and  continued  at  the  same  time  his 
residence  in  the  university.  He  was  made  D.D.  in  1646. 
At  the  time  of  Cromwell's  usurpation,  being  tirmly  de- 
voted to  the  cause  of  Charles  I,  he  was  deprived  of  his 
student's  place,  and  soon  lost  both  of  his  vicarages.  His 
spirit,  however,  remained  unbroken,  and  in  1652  we  hear 
of  his  holding  a  public  disputation  with  a  noted  Ana- 
baptist preacher.  Subsequently  he  resided,  until  the 
Kestoration,  as  chaplain  in  the  family  of  the  earl  of 
Devonshire ;  in  1660  he  was  restored  again  to  his  liv- 
ing, was  made  chaplain  in  ordinary  to  the  king,  a  canon 
of  Christ  Church,  and  archdeacon  of  Chichester.  He 
died  in  Oxford  in  1672.  Dr.  Mayne  published  in  1662 
a  translation  of  a  part  of  Lucian's  Dialogues,  also  several 
sermons  and  scattered  poems. 

Maynooth  College.  In  consequence  of  the  Eng- 
lish Keformation,  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Ireland 
lost  all  its  rights  and  possessions.  At  the  Synod  of  Dub- 
lin, in  1560,  seventeen  bishops  out  of  nineteen  endorsed 
the  Act  of  Uniformity,  and,  upon  the  principle  that  "ubi 
episcopus  ibi  ecclesia,"  the  English  Reformed  Church 
was  declared  the  only  legal  Church  in  Ireland.  The 
Eoman  Catholics  were  therefore  compelled  to  worship 
in  private,  and  to  get  their  priests  educated  abroad. 
With  the  assistance  of  foreign  princes  they  established, 
during  the  years  1582-1688,  a  number  of  seminaries  in 
Spain,  Italy,  and  the  Netherlands  (namely,  at  Salaman- 
ca, Alcala,  Lisbon,  Evora,  Dacay,  Antwerp,  Tournay, 
Lille,  Rome,  Prague,  Caupranica,  Toulouse,  Bordeaux, 
Poitiers,  Nantes,  Bouley,  and  Paris).  As  most  of  the 
students  were  poor  and  dependent  on  the  aristocracy  of 
Ireland,  a  great  attachment  grew  up  between  them  and 
the  class  by  whom  they  were  patronized.  But  in  con- 
sequence of  the  French  Revolution  intercourse  between 
Ireland  and  the  Continent  became  more  difficult.  The 
Irish  colleges  of  France  and  Brabant  w^ere  closed,  and 
the  necessity  became  apparent  of  establishing  a  semi- 
nary at  home.  The  most  opposite  political  parties 
agreed  in  supporting  this  measure  :  the  aristocracy  from 
fear  that  the  young  priests  might  imbibe  democratic 
ideas  abroad,  and  the  democrats  from  the  hope  of  gain- 
ing over  to  their  views  the  priests,  who  had  heretofore 
ahvays  siiled  with  their  patrons.  The  middle  classes 
especially  thought  to  find  in  home-bred  priests  useful 
auxiliaries  to  their  emancipation.  When  therefore  the 
Roman  Catholic  prelates  submitted  to  the  lord  lieuten- 
ant of  Ireland  their  plan  of  establishing  a  college,  he 
immediately  gave  his  approval ;  the  Irish  Parliament, 
composed  of  Protestants,  sanctioned  it,  voted  an  appro- 
priation of  £8000,  and  readily  obtained  the  approbation 
of  the  Parliament  of  England  in  17;)5.  A  board  of 
trustees  was  organized,  consisting  of  four  Protestants, 
the  Irish  lord  chancellor,  three  chief  justices,  six  Roman 
Catholic  laymen,  and  ten  bishops.  Dr.  Hussey,  who 
had  been  eminently  active  in  organizing  the  whole  af- 
fair, was  elected  president  of  the  college.  The  whole 
care  and  management  of  the  college  was  vested  in  this 
board  of  managers.  The  four  Protestant  members-were 
changed  every  five  years  (being  replaced  b}'  election  of 
the  other  members),  and,  together  with  three  Roman 
Catholics,  fulfilled  the  duties  of  inspectors,  yet  without 
the  power  of  interfering  with  either  the  doctrines  or  the 
discipline  of  the  college.     The  most  liberal  among  the 


Roman  Catholics  wished  the  college  to  be  established  at 
DubUn,  the  seat  of  the  University,  and  where  members 
of  the  different  denominations  were  already  studying 
harmoniously  together.  But  the  Roman  Catholic  bish- 
ops opposed  this,  as  they  desired  their  priests  to  be  edu- 
cated under  stricter  discipline.  The  board  of  managers 
therefore  chose  the  village  of  IMaynooth,  eleven  miles 
from  Dublin,  and  commenced  building  a  seminarj-  for 
fifty  students  on  a  piece  of  land  purchased  from  the  duke 
of  Leinster.  When  the  Irish  Parliament  was  incorpo- 
rated with  the  English,  in  1801,  an  appropriation  was 
made  for  the  College  of  JMaynooth  amounting  to  some 
£8000  a  year  for  the  next  twenty  years.  In  1808  some 
£13,000  more  was  voted  for  the  purjjoseof  enlarging  the 
seminar}',  as  it  was  inadequate  to  educating  the  number 
of  priests  required.  Indeed  in  that  year  there  were  478 
obliged  to  study  abroad,  chiefly  in  France,  while  there 
were  only  200  to  250  attending  at  Ma\-nooth.  The  sem- 
inary continued  a  long  time  without  attracting  much 
attention ;  even  the  report  of  the  board  of  trustees,  pre- 
sented in  1826  to  Parliament,  did  not  throw  much  light 
on  the  real  character  of  the  institution ;  in  fact,  the  true 
state  of  things  was  rather  covered  up  than  revealed  in 
that  document.  But  when  O'Connell's  agitation  broke 
out,  it  became  apparent  that  its  principal  champions 
were  priests  educated  in  Maynooth  College.  It  was 
also  found  that  the  alumni  of  Maynooth  took  an  active 
part  in  the  Roman  Catholic  emancipation  in  1829  by 
unfairly  influencing  the  elections.  The  seminary,  in- 
stituted for  the  purpose  of  suppressing  democratic  ideas, 
seems  thus  to  have  become  a  centre  of  political  as  well 
as  religious  agitation.  But  the  interior  workings  of  the 
institution  remained  hidden  from  the  public  gaze  until 
a  zealous  Protestant  minister,  M'Ghee,  procured  the 
theological  text-book  of  Peter  Dens,  used  at  jNIaynooth, 
which  was  published  to  the  extent  of  three  thousand 
copies  in  1801;  another  edition  of  the  same  number  ap- 
peared in  1832.  This  work,  which  breathes  to  the  ut- 
most the  Roman  Catholic  spirit  of  aggression  and  perse- 
cution, and  upholds  the  most  offensive  doctrines  of  that 
Church,  was  considered  there  as  the  highest  authority, 
and  gives  a  striking  contradiction  to  the  statement  so 
often  made  by  interested  parties  that  the  Roman  Ca- 
tholicism of  the  19th  century  is  animated  by  an  entirely 
diiferent  spirit  from  that  of  former  times.  These  reve- 
lations provoked  much  opposition  to  Romanism,  and  a 
growing  desire  to  abrogate  the  privileges  of  the  Roman- 
ists. June  28, 1835,  a  great  meeting  was  held  at  Exe- 
ter HaU,  which  was  followed  by  others  in  various  cities 
of  England  and  Scotland.  It  was  proved  that  the  Rom- 
ish Church  still  displayed  the  same  zeal  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  heretics,  still  claimed  to  relieve  from  oaths,  re- 
tained auriciUar  confession,  with  all  its  attendant  evils, 
and  all  from  unequivocal  passages  in  the  aforesaid  text- 
book. Numberless  pamphlets  were  published  on  this 
occasion ;  Protestant  associations  were  formed  in  Ireland 
to  defend  evangelical  freedom,  and  chief  among  these 
were  found  the  Orangemen.  The  old  hatred  between 
the  Roman  Catholics  and  the  Protestants  was  thus  re- 
vived, and  trouble  with  Ireland  seemed  imminent.  On 
the  side  of  the  Romish  Church  the  "  liberator  of  Ireland" 
gained  crowds  to  his  party  by  his  eloquence  and  his 
fiery  denunciations  of  the  English ;  his  attitude  became 
so  threatening  that  the  government  was  obliged  to 
prosecute  him  for  high-treason.  This  repressed  the  re- 
bellion in  its  vcrj'  infancy,  but  at  the  same  time  embit- 
tered the  feelings  of  the  Roman  Catholic  population. 
Previous  experience  for  seven  centuries  had  shown  that 
persecution  could  indeed  weaken,  and  almost  destroy, 
but  never  conquer  Ireland  ;  and  this  was  still  more  the 
case  with  regard  to  their  Church,  which  the  Roman 
Catholic  Irish  clung  -to  the  more  as  it  was  weaker  and 
more  oppressed.  There  remained  nothing  but  to  try 
whether  kindness  would  succeed  where  harshness  had 
failed.  The  occasion  was  favorable,  the  insurrection 
was  suppressed,  and,  if  the  victors  met  the  vanquished 
as  friends,  much  might  be  gained.    This  Irish  question 


MAYNOOTH 


929 


MAYNOOTH 


proved  almost  insolvable  to  the  English  government. 
Cabinet  after  cabinet  were  wrecked  upon  it,  without  ar- 
riving at  any  result.  And  tliis  is  not  to  be  wondered 
at,  for  the  civil  as  well  as  religious  relations  in  Ireland 
had  for  a  long  time  been  in  so  abnormal  a  state  that  all 
attempts  at  reform  seemed  either  inefficient  or  danger- 
ous. Every  effort  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  peas- 
antry was  met  bj'  the  opposition  of  the  landed  aristoc- 
racy, while  every  assistance  rendered  to  the  weak  and 
oppressed,  but  de  facto  national  Churcli  of  Ireland,  ex- 
asperated the  Protestant  element  of  the  population.  The 
passage  of  any  bill  concerning  Ireland  was  a  most  com- 
plicated piece  of  politics.  But,  said  an  Irish  paper,  "  Prot- 
estantism is  not  as  powerful  as  landed  property,  and  re- 
ligion must  give  ivay  before  ground-rents."  Without 
attributing  such  views — as  was  often  done — to  the  Brit- 
ish government,  for  attempts  at  conciliation  were  made 
from  religious  motives,  it  would  appear  that  Sir  Kobert 
Peel  inclined  to  tliis  theory  when,  in  1845,  he  presented 
the  Maynooth  Bill  to  Parliament.  Indeed  for  the  last 
fifty  years  Parliament  had  been  voting  aii  annual  ap- 
propriation of  over  £8000  for  the  education  of  Koman 
Catholic  priests;  the  preceding  year  the  Charitable  Be- 
quest Bill  had  been  passed  almost  unanimoush',  and  the 
Koman  Catholic  prelates  had  assured  Peel  that  the  pas- 
sage of  his  new  bill  would  be  thankfully  received  by  the 
Ponian  Catholics  as  a  pledge  of  reconciliation.  But 
hardly  had  the  bill  been  presented  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons when  a  storm  of  opposition  arose.  The  Protes- 
tants of  the  various  denominations  united  to  denounce 
it,  and  to  petition  against  a  biU  wliich  would  modify 
the  Protestant  character  of  the  administration.  A  large 
meeting,  chiefly  of  Dissenters,  was  held  at  Exeter  Hall, 
March  18, 1845,  and  a  Central  Anti-lMaynooth  Commit- 
tee organized  to  oppose  the  bill,  and  to  overwhelm  the 
Parliament  with  petitions.  On  April  3  Peel  presented 
the  bill  to  the  House  of  Commons.  He  attempted  to 
prove  that  there  were  but  three  ways  of  acting :  to  main- 
tain things  as  they  were,  to  suppress  the  usual  appro- 
priation, or  to  increase  it.  The  first  he  declared  imprac- 
ticable, as  so  insufficient  a  sum  for  the  purpose  could  not 
gain  much  gratitude  for  the  donors  ;  the  second,  he  said, 
was  still  less  advisable,  as  the  withdrawal  of  assistance 
to  which  they  had  been  accustomed  for  fifty  years  woidd 
not  fail  to  exasperate  the  Irish  ;  but  the  third  he  looked 
upon  as  a  certain  remedy.  He  therefore  proposed  to 
raise  the  yearly  appropriation  for  Maynooth  to  £26,000, 
making  it  a  part  of  the  regidar  budget,  and  thus  trans- 
forming the  grant  into  a  dotation;  he  moreover  pro- 
posed to  incorporate  the  board  of  trustees,  and  to  vote  a 
special  grant  of  £30,000  for  building  purposes.  Besides, 
the  existing  ex  officio  inspectors  were  to  be  replaced  by 
five  inspectors  appointed  by  the  crown,  who,  however, 
would  leave  the  control  of  the  doctrines  and  discipline 
to  the  three  Roman  Catholic  inspectors.  The  opposi- 
tion was  headed  by  Sir  R.  Inglis.  He  attacked  the  bill 
on  religious  ground,  as  opposed  to  Protestant  principles. 
He  did  not  mean  to  withdraw  the  usual  appropriation, 
but  Avanted  Roman  Catholics,  like  Dissenters,  to  educate 
their  ministers  at  their  own  expense.  All  those  op- 
posed to  the  Established  Church  sided  with  him.  The 
bill  received  216  votes  against  114  at  the  first  reading. 
This,  however,  was  but  the  prelude.  At  the  second 
reading  the  struggle  commenced  in  earnest,  and  lasted 
through  six  sittings.  They  first  argued  about  the  new- 
principle,  which  converted  a.  yearly  grant  into  a  dota- 
tion, for  this  gave  to  the  previouslij  irjnored  Roman  Ciitji- 
olic  Church  a  leyal  existence  and  offcial  recognition. 
The  friends  of  the  bill  sought  to  defend  this  principle  in 
various  ways.  Some  claimed  that  it  was  the  duty  of  the 
Parliament  to  care  for  Maynooth,  either  because,  by 
uniting  with  itself  the  Irish  Parliament,  it  liad  assumed 
its  charges,  or  as  a  sort  of  restitution  for  the  former  pos- 
sessions of  which  the  Church  of  Rome  had  been  de- 
prived. Yet  the  assumption  of  the  liabilities  of  the 
Irish  Parliament  did  not  guarantee  the  continuance  of 
■  the  grant  longer  than  twenty  years  more,  and,  on  the 

V. — N  N  N 


other  hand,  calling  £26,000  a  restitution,  when  the 
yearly  income  from  the  confiscated  Church  property 
amounted  to  over  £600,000,  sounded  like  bitter  mock- 
ery. Others  preferred  to  take  the  broader  ground  of 
moral  obligation,  claiming  that  it  was  necessary  to  aid 
oppressed  and  impoverished  Ireland.  Others  again, 
leaving  the  past  to  consider  only  the  future,  argued 
from  the  political  point  of  view.  They  hoped  that  this 
conciliatory  measure,  and  the  better  education  of  the 
priests,  would  open  a  new  tera  to  Ireland.  None  of  these 
views  satisfied  Gladstone,  who,  after  criticising  them 
all,  finally  arrived  at  the  negative  principle  that  the 
support  granted  to  jNIaynooth  shoidd  only  be  withdrawn 
at  the  last  extremity,  as  it  would  have  the  worst  conse- 
quences on  the  relation  existing  between  England  and 
Ireland.  Some  even  sought  to  treat  it  as  a  mere  edu- 
cational question.  Still  the  majority  could  not  blind 
themselves  to  the  fact  that  it  really  involved  the 
weighty  and  difficult  question  of  the  relation  between 
the  English  govenmient  and  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
in  Ireland.  The  opponents  of  the  bill  had  an  easier 
task.  They  could  readily  attack  it  from  an  abstract  re- 
ligious stand-point.  They  divided  themselves,  hoAvever, 
into  two  great  sections,  according  to  the  ground  they 
took.  The  Churchmen  and  some  of  the  Dissenters  did 
not  oppose  the  continuation  of  the  former  support,  but  its 
increase ;  the  Dissenters,  as  a  body,  opposed  this,  like  all 
other  government  support  towards  churches.  Both  par- 
ties clamored  loudly  against  the  abuses  of  the  Church  of 
Rome,  its  political  as  well  as  religious  tendencies,  and 
particularly  the  Jesuitical  spirit  inculcated  at  Maynooth. 
Yet  Parliament  perceived  that  something  must  be  done 
to  allay  the  hostile  feelings  in  Ireland,  and  the  bill 
passed  the  second  reading  with  323  votes  against  176. 
After  another  protracted  and  severe  struggle,  it  received 
at  the  third  reading  317  votes  against  189.  The  discus- 
sion of  the  bill  in  the  House  of  Lords  was  a  repetition  of 
that  in  the  House  of  Commons.  The  most  eminent  ju- 
rists decided  in  favor  of  the  bill.  Brougham  estabhshed 
a  precedent  in  bringing  forward  a  previous  act  in  which 
the  principle  of  dotation  was  clearly  expressed.  On  the 
bench  of  bishops,  six  voted  in  favor  of  the  bill ;  among 
them  the  archbishop  of  Armagh  and  the  bishops  of 
Norwich  and  St.  David.  The  bill  finally  went  through 
with  181  votes  against  50,  and  received  the  ro3-al  sanc- 
tion on  June  30,  1815.  AVhile  the  bill  was  under  dis- 
cussion in  Parliament,  the  opposition  outside  was  very 
active.  A  large  meeting  was  held  on  April  13  at  Cov- 
ent  Garden,  in  which  both  Churchmen  and  Dissenters 
took  part.  Other  meetings  were  also  held  in  the  prin- 
cipal cities.  The  Dissenters  were  especially  active. 
Chin-chmen  and  Dissenters  asserted  as  the  ground  of 
their  opposition :  1,  that  by  increasing  the  grant  to  the 
seminary,  the  papacy  woidd  be  legally  recognised  in 
Ireland ;  2,  that  the  practice  of  employing  government 
funds  for  the  support  of  religion  is  wrong  in  principle ; 
3,  that  there  were  special  objections  to  the  bill  under 
consideration,  namely,  the  Jesuitical  tendencies  of  May- 
nooth, the  danger  of  the  influence  over  the  masses  of  a 
more  thoroughly-educated  clergy,  the  evil  of  binding 
the  clergy  to  the  support  of  the  government,  leading 
them  to  oppose  the  progressive  social  tendencies  of  the 
peo]ile ;  and,  finally,  the  spirit  of  aggression  inherent  to 
the  papacy.  Some  of  the  Dissenters,  however,  found 
this  platform  too  indefinite;  they  wanted  the  bill  re- 
jected wholly  on  anti-State-Church  principles,  and  on 
May  2  formed  a  special  committee  at  Salter's  Hall,  dis- 
tinct from  the  original  Central  Anti-Maynooth  Com- 
mittee. On  May  20  they  held  a  meeting  at  Crosby 
Hall,  in  which  300  ministers  and  400  laymen  (princi- 
pally Baptists,  Presbyterians,  Independents,  and  Cal- 
vinistic  and  Arminian  Methodists  of  the  new  Connec- 
tion) took  part.  They  urged  the  Roman  Catholics  to 
decline  the  assistance  of  the  Government  to  their 
Church  for  their  own  sake  and  that  of  their  religion. 
Sir  Culling  Eardley,  president  of  the  Central  Commit- 
tee, spoke  in  a  quite  different  tone  in  a  letter  to  O'Con- 


MAYNOOTH 


930 


MAYOW 


nell.  He  accused  the  Roman  Catholic  leader  of  incon- 
sistency if  he  accepted  the  new  grant,  and  threatened 
to  use  every  means  in  his  power  to  gain  his  end.  An 
Anti-Maynooth  Committee  was  also  organized  at  Dub- 
lin, and  in  a  meeting  held  on  June  5  an  address  to  the 
House  of  Lords  was  drawn  up,  which  received  3627  sig- 
natures, and  also  a  petition  to  the  queen.  On  the  whole 
there  were  some  10,000  petitions  drawn  up  against  the 
bill,  which  received  about  1,130,000  signatures.  The 
government,  however,  remained  unmoved,  and  the  ex- 
citement gradually  subsided.  It  was  thought  that  now 
the  Koman  Catholic  party  would  rest  satistied,  and  be 
truly  reconciled ;  yet  at  one  of  the  very  first  synods  held 
by  them  the  roj'al  colleges  were  excommunicated  and 
the  national  school  condemned.  The  Koman  Catholic 
prelates  in  Ireland — CuUen,  Slatery,  and  INI'Hale — had 
already  attracted  considerable  attention  by  their  Ultra- 
montane views,  but  at  this  last  outrage  the  old  opposi- 
tion spirit  kindled  again  into  a  flame.  Spooner  pro- 
voked a  visitation  of  Maynooth  College  by  a  bill  he 
proposed  May  11, 1852.  Yet  more  moderate  advice  pre- 
vailed :  it  was  claimed  that  the  papal  aggression  in  no 
wise  aftected  Ireland,  but  rather  England,  and  that  the 
most  Ultramontane  among  the  Irish  prelates,  CuUen, 
was  educated  at  Eome,  not  at  Maynooth.  Spooner 
finally  withdrew  his  motion.  Yet  every  year,  for  some 
time  after,  the  proposition  of  stopping  the  appropriation 
was  renewed ;  and  was  not  dropped  until  quiet  had  been 
fully  restored  in  Ireland,  and  general  harmony  re-estab- 
lished. 

The  agitation  of  the  Irish  population  in  late  years, 
provoked,  no  doubt,  in  a  great  measure  in  Ireland,  as  in 
Poland,  by  the  immaculate  emissaries  of  the  pontiff 
of  Rome,  has  led  the  government  of  England  to  con- 
sider the  propriety  of  granting  the  three  millions  of 
Irish  Romanists  such  liberty  in  worship  and  education 
as  should  make  them  as  fit  subjects  as  the  other  twenty 
millions  of  the  northern  isles  who  enjoy  the  protection 
of  the  British  crown,  and  worthy  associates  of  their 
English-speaking  neighbors.  Jn  18G8  INIr.  Gladstone, 
whose  very  earliest  work  had  been  "  marlied  by  a  plain 
inclination  to  elevate  the  Church  above  the  State,"  and 
who,  in  the  very  maiden-days  of  his  political  career,  had 
•■exhibited  an  unfailing  tenderness  for  the  whims,  the 
complaints,  and  the  growing  claims  of  his  friends  the 
papal  prelates,"  was  called  to  the  premiership  of  Great 
Britain,  to  establish,  if  possible,  perfect  accord  between 
the  English  and  Irish  people.  Almost  the  sole  aim  of 
the  policy  which  the  new  premier  inaugurated  was  the 
conciliation  of  the  Romanists  of  Ireland.  Eor  this  one 
purpose  he  has  labored  uninterruptedly.  No  sooner  had 
he  succeeded  Mr.  Disraeli  than  he  urged  the  disestab- 
lishment of  the  Church  of  England  principles  as  the 
ecclesiastical  principles  of  Ireland.  His  success  in  this 
attempt  is  now  a  matter  of  history.  See  Ikeland. 
Flattered  by  the  easy  victory  gained  in  his  first  effort, 
Mr.  Gladstone  followed  it  by  a  proposal  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  compulsory  education  and  denominational 
schools.  Herein,  also,  he  succeeded,  but  only  measura- 
bly. Encouraged  by  these  repeated  successes,  he  has 
lately  come  forward  with  a  scheme  which  only  a  few 
(lays  ago  (February,  1873)  threntoned  his  ruin,  and  even 
now  holds  him  in  suspense.  His  new  scheme  now  on 
foot  is  a  proposition  to  dismantle  Trinity  College,  long 
the  eyesore  of  Romanists,  and  to  found  an  immense  ed- 
ucational establishment,  called  the  Irish  University,  in 
which  Catholics  shall  study  only  their  own  history  and 
philosophy,  Protestants  a  different  series,  and  which 
shall  lie  endowed  with  a  vast  revenue  from  the  spolia- 
tion of  Trinity  and  the  wrecks  of  the  EstabHshcd  Church. 
Botli  Dissenters  and  Conformists  are  alarmed  at  the  step 
iMr.  Gladstone  seems  determined  upon.  Even  Roman- 
ists disfavor  the  proposal,  for  of -the  three  or  four  mill- 
ions of  Catholic  Irish  it  is  probable  that  not  one  third 
of  suitable  age  can  read  and  write.  The  greatest  oppo- 
sition, however,  has  come  from  Rome,  and  suddenly  the 
premier  of  Great  Britain  finds  himself  confronted  by 


those  whom  he  had  always  had  reason  to  look  upon  as 
his  chief  supporters.  Well  has  it  lately  been  said  that 
"  the  policy  of  Rome  knows  neither  friendship  nor  grat- 
itude ;  to  serve  '  the  Church'  it  strikes  indiscriminately 
at  its  friends  or  foes ;  and  the  British  statesman  has 
shown  himself  no  match  for  the  Italian  priests,  who 
have  prej'ed  upon  his  eminent  renown,  and  woidd  now, 
perhaps,  exult  over  his  fall.  They  throw  him  aside  as 
the  instrument  they  can  no  longer  use,  and  demaml  that 
Ireland  shall  be  ruled  and  educated  by  Catholics  alone. 
With  media3val  mummeries  they  have  dedicated  the 
island  to  '  the  sacred  heart  of  Jesus,'  and  plainly  intend 
nothing  less  than  the  total  subjugation  of  its  Protestant 
population  to  a  priestly  despotism."  The  endowment 
of  Maynooth,  and  later  the  establishment  of  the  queen's 
colleges,  and  even  the  open  doors  of  Trinity,  cannot  and 
will  not  pacify  Rome.  She  seeks  control  of  Ireland  both 
in  Church  and  State;  and  so  long  as  the  papacy  shall  re- 
main tainted  by  a  zest  for  temporal  power,  both  Eng- 
land and  Prussia  will  find  defilement  and  abasement, 
aj^e,  not  unfrequently  rebellion  in  the  ranks  of  those  of 
her  subjects  who  claim  fidelity  to  the  hierarchy.  The 
last  days  certainly  are  teaching  even  the  most  liberal- 
minded  politicians  that  the  Church  of  Rome  is  built 
upon  a  foundation  which  is  political  as  well  as  ecclesias- 
tical, and  that  the  severe  measures,  as  inaugurated  by 
Bismark,  will  alone  save  the  Protestant  world  from  ruin 
and  decay.  . 

Mayo,  Daniel,  a  Presbyterian  divine  of  some  note, 
■was  born  in  London  or  vicinity  in  1G72.  He  was  edu- 
cated first  at  liome,  then  went  abroad  and  studied  for 
some  time  in  Holland  under  Witsius.  On  his  return  to 
England  he  preached  successively  at  Tothill  Fields, 
Westminster,  at  Kingston-upon-Thames,  and  at  Hack- 
ney, and  finally  settled  permanently  at  Silver  Street, 
London,  where  he  died  in  1733.  Mr.  Mayo  was  a  man 
of  considerable  talents,  great  zeal  and  activity,  combined 
with  prudence.  I5esides  publishing  many  sermons,  he 
wrote,  in  continuation  of  Henry's  Exposition,  a  Com- 
mentary on  the  Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  See 
Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  s.  v. ;  Brown, 
Cyclop),  of  Relir/ioiis  Knowledge,  s.  v. 

Mayotta,  one  of  the  Comoro  Isles  (in  the  Indian 
Ocean),  since  1843  under  the  control  of  the  French,  is 
situated  in  latitude  12°  3-4 '-13°  4'  S.,  and  longitude  44° 
59'  15"-45°  23'  E.,  covering  some  twenty-one  miles 
from  north  to  south,  with  an  average  breadth  of  six  or 
seven  miles ;  if,  however,  the  dangerous  coral  reefs  which 
surround  the  island  be  included,  the  whole  occupies  a 
space  of  thirty  miles  north  and  south,  and  twenty-four 
miles  east  and  west,  and  contains  a  population  of  about 
8000,  mostly  Romanists.  The  surface  of  this  isle  is  v,ery 
uneven,  and  is  studded  with  volcanic-looking  peaks, 
some  of  which  exceed  2000  feet  in  height.  Its  shores 
are  in  some  places  lined  with  mangrove  swamps,  which 
are  uncovered  at  low  water,  and  are  productive  of  ma- 
laria and  fever;  it  is  in  most  parts  capable  of  cultiva- 
tion, prominently  that  of  sugar,  the  only  article  exported. 
The  French  themselves  live  mainly  on  the  islantl  of 
Gaondzi,  inside  the  chain  of  reefs  on  the  east  side  of 
]\Iavotta.  A  governor  and  colonial  officer  are  residents, 
and"  some  100  French  soldiers,  besides  some  natives,  were 
stationed  there.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  alone  has 
a  hold  here. 

Mayow,  Rohekt  Wvxell,  an  English  divine,  was 
burn  at  Saltash,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  17tli  century 
(1777);  was  educated  at  Exeter  College,  Oxford;  and, 
after  serving  several  curacies  in  succession,  removed  to 
Ardwick,  near  Manchester,  but  there  he  died,  only  three 
months  after  removal,  in  1S17.  Mr.  Mayow  is  highly 
spoken  of  as  a  pulint  orator.  A  noted  English  writer 
has  compared  him  with  Sterne  for  his  great  humor  and 
strong  feeling,  which  the  two  possessed  in  common.  He 
publishe<l  I'ldin  I'reachinr/,  or  Sermons  J'or  the  Poor  and 
for  I'cople  of  all  Honks  (Lond.  181G,  12mo)  : — Ser-mons 
and  Miscellaneous  Pieces,  to  which  is  prefixed  a  Memoir 


MAYK 


931 


MAZARIN 


ofhb  Life  (1822,  12mo).— AJlibone,  Did.  of  Brit,  and 
A  mer.  A  uth.  s.  v. 

Mayr,  Beda,  a  Benedictine  monk,  was  born  at  Dii- 
itingen,  in  Bavaria,  in  1742.  He  entered  the  cloister  at 
Donauworth  in  his  twentieth  year.  Finely  cultured, 
and  classed  with  the  best  talent  of  his  day,  he  sought 
relief  from  the  dulness  of  convent  life  by  teaching  math- 
ematics, poetry,  rhetoric,  philosophy,  canon  law,  and  tlie- 
ology.  He  was  charged  with  being  liberal  to  excess, 
and  was  both  feared  and  distrusted  by  the  clergy  of  the 
Eoman  Catholic  Church.  His  principal  work.  Defence 
of  the  Naturctl,  Christian,  and  Catholic  Religion,  accoy-d- 
ing  to  the  Necessities  of  our  Time,  was  published  at  Augs- 
burg in  1787,  and  is  still  mentioned.  He  died  April  28, 
1794.  A  list  of  his  works  is  given  by  Doring,  Gelehrte 
Theol.  Deutschlands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  see  also  Wetzer  and 
Vv'elte,  Kirchen-Lexikon,  vi,  953.     (G.  jM.) 

Mayr,  Colestin,  a  German  theologian,  was  born 
April  21, 1G79,  at  Donauwiirth.  In  1098  he  entered  the 
Benedictine  Order  at  Augsburg ;  later  he  became  a  stu- 
dent at  the  University  of  Salzburg,  where  in  1711  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy.  In  1713  he  ob- 
tained the  professorship  of  polemical  theology,  and  the 
inspection  of  the  Salzburg  schools.  About  this  time  he 
was  made  doctor  of  divinity.  In  1714  he  was  appointed 
ecclesiastical  counsellor  of  the  duke  of  Salzburg,  and  at 
the  same  time  became  professor  of  scholastic  theology. 
In  1716  he  was  appointed  vice-rector  of  the  university, 
in  1719  pro-chancellor,  and  in  1728  chief  rector.  In 
1731  he  retired  from  academic  life,  and  thereafter  held 
an  official  relation  to  the  cloister  Linzheim,  in  Neuburg, 
where  he  died,  March  19,  1753.  Mayr  enjoyed  great 
prominence  as  a  writer  of  theology,  but  his  productions 
have  never  been  collected  in  book  form.  They  consist 
mainly  of  dissertations  and  contributions  to  different 
journals.  For  a  list  of  his  writings,  see  Doring,  Gelehrte 
Theol.  Deutschlands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Maysart.     See  Meysart. 

Mazarin,  Jules  (properly  Gnilio  Mazzaiino),  car- 
dinal, the  celebrated  prime-minister  of  king  Louis  XIV 
of  France,  the  successor  of  cardinal  Kichelieu,  and  inau- 
gurator  of  a  reign  noted  for  attainments  in  arms,  lan- 
guage, tine  arts,  literature,  industry,  and  a  superior  de- 
gree of  splendor,  was  born  of  a  noble  Sicilian  family 
July  14, 1G02,  most  probably  at  Piscina,  near  the  lake 
of  Celano,  in  Abruzzo  Citra,  though  in  the  letters  of  nat- 
uralization granted  him  in  France  in  1639  it  is  stated 
that  he  was  born  at  Rome,  It  is  certain,  however, 
that  he  received  his  education  at  the  Eternal  City,  and 
hence,  no  doubt,  the  mistake  as  to  his  native  place.  In 
1619  Mazarin  went  to  Spain  to  pursue  the  study  of  juris- 
prudence, probably  intending  to  enter  the  legal  profes- 
sion, but,  returning  to  Home  in  1622,  a  little  later  he 
entered  the  military  service,  and  was  given  a  captain's 
commission  in  1625.  Soon  after  this  he  entered  the 
service  of  the  Church,  and  was  emploj'ed  as  companion 
of  the  papal  legate  to  France,  and  in  this  mission  dis- 
played great  political  talents.  In  the  difficulties  arising 
out  of  the  contested  succession  to  the  duchy  of  IMantua, 
in  which  France  supported  the  pretensions  of  the  count 
De  Nevers,  while  the  emperor  of  Germany,  the  king  of 
Spain,  and  the  duke  of  Savoj'  supported  those  of  the  didie 
of  Guastalla,  Slazarin  was  sent  by  pope  Urban  to  Turin 
as  the  assistant  of  cardinal  Sacchetti.  The  latter  at 
once  perceived  his  talent,  gave  him  his  entire  confidence, 
and  in  fact  devolved  upon  him  the  entire  managemeitt 
of  the  negotiation.  It  v.'as  not  immediately  successful, 
for  in  1629  Louis  XIII  in  person  invaded  Savoy,  took 
Suza,  and  forced  the  duke  of  Savoy  to  abandon  his  alli- 
ance with  Spain.  Finally  Sacchetti  returned  to  Rome, 
l(javing  Jlazarin,  with  the  title  of  "  internuncio,''  to  con- 
tinue the  negotiations.  Cardinal  Barberini.  the  pope's 
nephew,  returned  in  Sacchetti's  stead,  and  Barberini 
found  Mazarin  as  indis])ensablc  as  had  his  predecessor. 
Mazarin  labored  unceasingly  to  restore  peace.  He  vis- 
ited the  contending  powers ;  in  1630  he  saw  Louis  XIII 


and  cardinal  Richelieu,  who  both  formed  a  high  opinion  ' 
of  him,  and  in  1631  he  finally  succeeded  in  effecting  the 
treaty  of  Cherasco,  liy  which  peace  was  restored,  ]\Iaz- 
arin  at  this  time  displayed  considerable  trickery  in  fa- 
vor of  France,  and  by  this  unfair  partiality  acquired  the 
hatred  of  the  courts  of  Spain  and  Germany,  but  the 
thanks  of  Louis  and  Richelieu,  who  recommended  '•  the 
able  negotiator"  to  the  favor  of  the  pope.  Shortly  after 
he  was  to  receive  at  the  hands  of  the  French  cardinal 
and  prime-minister  the  reward  due  for  his  great  services 
to  Louis  XIII.  In  1634  he  was  named  vice-legate  to 
Avignon,  but  was  sent  to  Paris  as  nuncio  to  intercede 
with  Louis  XIII  in  favor  of  the  duke  of  Lorraine,  whose 
duchy  the  king  of  the  French  had  taken  possession  of. 
Mazarin,  vunv  unequivocally  drawn  towards  Richelieu, 
of  course  failed  to  accomplish  the  task  assigned  him  by 
the  holy  father.  Mazarin  returned  to  Rome  in  1636 
as  the  avowed  supporter  of  French  interests,  and,  on 
the  death  of  Richelieu's  celebrated  confidant,  father  Jo- 
seph, pope  Urban  was  solicited  by  Louis  XIII  and  his 
minister  to  bestow  upon  Mazarin  the  cardinal's  hat 
promised  for  father  Joseph,  but,  as  Urban  refused,  Maz- 
arin in  1639  quitted  Italy  for  France,  and  there  entered 
the  service  of  the  king  as  a  naturalized  Frenchman.    In 

1640  he  was  nominated  ambassador  to  Savoy,  where,  af- 
ter a  short  war,  he  was  enabled  to  restore  peace,  and  in 

1641  he  was  at  length  raised  to  the  rank  of  cardinal, 
through  the  persistent  efforts  of  his  friend  the  cardinal 
and  prime-minister  of  France.  IMazarin,  in  France,  was 
a  fiiithful  and  useful  assistant  to  Richelieu,  especially 
during  the  famous  conspiracy  headed  by  Henri  de  Cinq- 
Mars,  which  ended  by  his  execution  in  September,  1642. 
This  was  Richelieu's  last  triumph.  In  the  following 
December  he  died,  recommending  on  his  death-bed  that 
Louis  should  receive  IMazarin  as  his  own  successor,  and 
Louis,  sufficiently  predisposed  in  Mazarin's  favor,  gladly 
acceded  to  the  last  wish  of  his  faithful  friend  and  coun- 
sellor. In  1643  Louis  XIII  himself  died,  and  Mazarin's 
position  became  one  of  great  difficulty  amid  the  in- 
trigues, jealousies,  and  strifes  of  the  courtiers  surround- 
ing Louis  XIV  in  his  minority.  By  the  will  of  the 
late  king  he  had  been  declared  the  sole  adviser  of  the 
queen-regent,  Anne  of  Austria,  but  the  latter  assumed 
a  decidedly  hostile  attitude  towards  the  cardinal,  and 
it  was  some  time  before  he  succeeded  in  acquiring  the 
principal  power  in  the  government,  as  well  as  the  confi- 
dence of  the  queen-regent.  He  used  his  power  at  first 
with  moderation,  and  courted  popularity  by  gracious 
and  affable  manners.  He  prosecuted  the  war  against 
Spain  Avhich  began  under  his  predecessor,  and  in  which 
Conde  and  Turenne  maintained  the  honor  of  the  French 
arms.  A  dispute  which  arose  between  the  court  and 
the  Parliament  of  Paris,  regarding  the  registration  of 
edicts  of  taxation,  was  fomented  by  cardinal  De  Retz 
into  the  revolt  of  the  Parisians  called  "  the  Day  of  the 
Barricades"  (Aug.  27,  1648"),  and  was  followed  by  the 
civil  war  of  the  Fronde.  The  court  was  forced  to  retire 
to  St.  Germain,  and  Mazarin  was  outlawed  by  Parlia- 
ment ;  but,  by  the  truce  of  Ruel,  he  still  remained  min- 
ister. The  feeling  against  him,  however,  became  still 
more  inflamed  when,  at  his  instigation,  the  queen-re- 
gent caused  the  princes  of  Conde  and  Conti  and  the 
duke  of  LonguevUle  to  be  arrested  in  January,  1650. 
Mazarin  -went  in  person  at  the  head  of  the  court  troops 
to  the  insurgent  provinces,  and,  after  the  victory  at  Re- 
thel,  showed  so  much  insolence  that  the  nobles  and  the 
people  of  the  capital  made  common  cause  against  him. 
He  found  it  necessary  to  secure  his  safety  by  flight  to 
the  Netherlands.  Tlie  press  teemed  with  violent  jjub- 
lications  against  jMazarin,  known  as  Masariiiadts  (col- 
lected by  Moreau  in  the  Bibliof/rajihie  des  Mazarinudes 
[Paris,  1850-51,3  vols.  8vo];  a  selection  of  them  was 
also  published  by  IMoreau  under  the  title  Choix  des  Maz- 
arinades  [ibid.  1854,  2  vols.  8vo]).  After  llie  rebellion 
of  the  prince  of  Conde  he  ventured  to  return  to  France ; 
but  Paris  making  his  removal  a  condition  of  its  submis- 
sion, he  retired  again  from  the  court,  and  it  was  not  till 


MAZDAK 


932 


MAZZOCCHI 


Feb.  3,  lfi53  that  lie  made  a  tiiiimphaat  entry  into  the 
capital,  wliere  he  was  received  with  significant  silence. 
Yet  after  a  time  the  skill,  patience,  and  perseverance  of 
]\lazarin  triumphed,  and  he  regained  his  former  popular- 
ity and  actiuired  his  former  power.  See  here  article 
Louis  XIV,  p.  5'26,  col.  1.  After  governing  France  with 
great  ability,  and  just  as  Louis  XIV  was  arriving  at  an 
age  when  he  felt  the  capacity  and  desire  to  sway  the 
sceptre  himself,  Mazarin  died,  March  9,  IGGl.  In  IGDO 
some  letters,  written  by  Mazarin  during  the  negotiation 
of  the  peace  of  the  Pyrenees,  were  published ;  additional 
letters  were  published  in  lGi)3,  and  in  1745  others  were 
added,  and  the  whole  arranged  under  the  title  of  Lettres 
(hi  Cardinal  Mazarin,  oil  I'on  voit  le  secret  de  nerjoiia- 
tiiin  de  la  Paix  des  Pi/renees.  "  They  were  written  for 
tlie  information  and  instruction  of  the  young  king,  and 
furm  useful  examples  of  clearness  and  precision  in  dip- 
lomatic writings.''  His  person  was  remarkably  hand- 
some, and  his  manners  fascinating,  and  from  an  oppo- 
nent he  turned  Anne  of  Austria,  the  queen-regent  during 
Louis  XIV's  minority,  into  his  friend,  if  not  secretly  af- 
fianced companion,  as  has  been  asserted  with  much  ap- 
pearance of  truth.  "  Mazarin,"  says  Mignet  {Mhnoires 
rdatifs  a  la  succession  d'Espa^ne),  "  had  a  far-seeing 
and  inventive  mind,  a  character  rather  supple  than  fee- 
ble. His  device  was  '  Le  Temps  et  moi.' "  Under  his 
administration  the  influence  of  France  among  the  na- 
tions was  increased,  and  in  the  internal  government  of 
the  country  those  principles  of  despotism  were  estab- 
lished on  which  Louis  XIV  afterwards  acted.  The  ad- 
ministration of  justice,  however,  became  very  corrupt, 
and  the  commerce  and  finances  of  the  country  sank  into 
deep  depression.  It  is  admitted  that  as  a  financial  ad- 
ministrator he  was  far  inferior  to  Richelieu.  jMazarin 
•ivas  very  niggardly  and  very  avaricious,  and  had  ac- 
(juired  in  various  'waj's,  fair  and  foul,  an  immense  for- 
t  ime,  amounting  to  12,000,000  livres,  which  he  offered 
to  the  king  shortly  before  he  died;  afraid,  it  is  thought, 
that  it  might  be  rudely  seized  from  his  heirs.  Louis 
lieclined  the  restitution,  which  was  perhaps  what  the 
wily  minister  expected.  In  his  will  Mazarin  made  many 
and  large  bequests  to  students  and  literary  enterprises ; 
indeed,  he  had  always  proved  himself  the  friend  and 
jiatron  of  learning.  The  College  Mazarin  was  founded 
at  his  wish,  to  receive  students  from  the  provinces  ac- 
quired by  the  "  peace  of  the  Pyrenees,"  and  to  this  same 
institution  he  presented  his  library,  of  immense  value 
and  size.  See  the  Memoirs  of  Mazarin's  contemporaries, 
Retz,  Madame  Motteville,  La  Eochefoucanlt,  Turenne, 
(Jrammont,  etc.;  Mtne.  de  Longueville,  etc.,  by  Victor 
(Jousin;  Aubery,  Histoire  da  Cai-dinal  Mazarin  (1751) ; 
(.!apetigue,  Richelieu,  Mazarin,  la  Fronde  et  la  rhfjne  de 
Louis  XI V (Paris,  1835, 8  vols.  8 vo) ;  Saint- Aulaire,  His- 
toire de  la  Fronde;  Bazin,  Histoire  de  France  sons  le 
Ministere  da  Cardinal  Mazarin  (Paris,  1842, 2  vols.  8vo) ; 
Voltaire,  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;  Gualdo-Priorato,  Vita  del 
Cardinal  Mazarin  (1662)  ;  John  Calvert,  Lije  ofCardi- 
md  Mazarin  (1670) ;  Sismondi,  Histoire  des  Frangais ; 
<  Jrammont,  Mhnoires ;  V.  Cousin,  La  Jeunesse  de  Maza- 
rin; Hoefer,  Xouu.  Biog.  Generale  ;  Chambers,  Cyclop. 
s.  V. :  Enfjlish  Cyclop,  s.  v. ;  Eraser's  Magazine,  Novem- 
ber, 1831,  and  February,  1832. 

Mazdak  (or  Mazdek),  a  Persian  religious  enthu- 
siast, rtourislied  towards  tlio  close  of  the  5th  centurv 
(he  is  believed  to  liave  been  born  about  A.D.  470).  He 
professed  to  be  a  prophet,  and,  securing  many  followers, 
declared  for  a  community  of  property.  Gaining  in 
strength  among  the  people,  he  found  favor  finally  also 
in  the  eyes  of  his  ruler,  king  Kobad,  and  the  system  of 
communism  was  adopted,  effecting  great  changes  in  the 
social  order.  The  revolution,  however,  lasted  only  a 
short  time,  and  gradually  the  old  order  of  things  was 
restored. 

Mazel,  ABUAiiA:\r,  a  leader  of  the  French  Camisards, 
w.'is  li  .in  at  Saiiit-.Jean-du-Gard  some  time  about  the 
middle  of  the  17th  century.     After  the  insurrection  of 


the  Cevennes  in  1702  he  was  imprisoned,  but,  escaping 
from  liis  captors,  he  determined  to  bring  the  people  to  a 
more  determined  stand,  and  while  engaged  in  this  work 
was  killed  in  a  skirmish  near  Uzes  in  1710.  See  Court, 
Histoire  des  Camisards.     See  Casiisauds. 

Maziti'as  (Ma^iWaf  v.  r.  Ztiriac'),  given  by  er- 
roneous Gnecism  (1  Esdr.  ix,  35)  in  place  of  the  He- 
brew Mat'tatuiau  (Ezra  x,  43). 

Mazolini,  Sii>vestko,  an  Italian  theologian,  is 
usually  known  by  the  surname  Prierias  (after  the  name 
of  his  birthplace,  Prierio).     See  Pkierias. 

Ma'zor  (Heb.  Matsor',  li^'D),  a  name  occurring 
only  in  the  original,  and  which  the  translators  of  the 
A.  V.  ('-besieged  places,"  2  Kings  xix,  24;  Isa.  xxxvii, 
25  ;  "  fortified  cities,"  Micah  vii,  12  ;  "  defence,"  Isa. 
xix,  6)  have  confounded  with  a  word  of  the  same  form 
signifying  a,  fortress  (as  in  Psa.  xxxi,  22  ;  Hab.  ii,  1, 
etc.).  Gesenius,  however  {Thesaur.  Heh.  p.  815),  regards 
it  as  a  title  of  Egypt,  and  apparently  Lower  Egj'pt, 
as,  in  three  out  of  the  four  passages  where  it  occurs,  it 
is  in  the  phrase  "li^TQ  "^T}^?)  ^^^  streams  or  canals  of 
Egypt,  i.e.  the  branches  of  the  Nile  (Isa.  xix,  6 ;  xxxvii, 
25  ;  2  Kings  xix,  24)  ;  and  that  it  comes  from  the 
Egpytian  word  mesduro,  a  kingdom ;  perhaps  the  sing, 
of  the  dual  form  Mizraim,  C^T^'O^  q.  d.  double  Egypt 
(comp.  Josephus,  Ani.  i,  G,  2).  Others  (see  Bochart, 
Phaleg,  iv,  24),  as  probably  the  Hebrews  themselves, 
considered  Egypt  to  be  so  called  as  being  strongly  forti- 
fied (see  Diod.  Sic.  i,  31).     See  Egypt  ;  Fouruiiss. 

Maz'zaroth  (Heb.  Mazzaroth',  TiT^Jp,  a  word 
found  only  in  the  plural,  and  occurring  but  once.  Job 
xxxviii,  32,  probably  by  an  interchange  of  liquids  for 
mP'Pj  "  planets,"  2  Kings  xxiii,  5),  an  astronomical 
term,  probably  meaning  the  twelve  signs  of  the  Zodiac 
(see  Hirzel,  Delitzsch,  and  Conant,  severally,  ad  loc). 
See  Astronomy.  "The  Peshito-Syriac  renders  it  by 
iogalto,  the  Wain,  or  Great  Bear;  and  J.  D.  Michaelis 
{Suppl.  ad  Lex.  Heh.  No.  1391)  is  followed  by  E\vald  in 
applying  it  to  the  stars  of  the  northern  crown  (EAvald 
adds  the  southern),  deriving  the  word  from  It 5,  nezer, 
a  croAvn.  Fiirst  {Handw.  s.  v.)  understands  by  Mazza- 
roth the  planet  Jupiter,  the  same  as  the  star  of  Amos 
V.  26.  But  the  interpretation  given  in  the  margin  of 
our  version  is  supported  by  the  authority  of  Gesenius 
(Thes.  p.  869).  On  referring  to  2  Kings  xxiii,  5,  we 
find  the  word  r.VsfD,  mazzaloth  (A.  V.  the  planets),  dif- 
fering only  from  mazzaroth  in  having  the  liquid  I  for 
r,  and  rendered  in  the  margin  '  the  twelve  signs,'  as 
in  the  Vulgate.  The  Sept.  there  also  has  fia'^^ovpwB, 
which  points  to  the  same  reading  in  both  passages,  and 
is  by  Suidas  explained  as  the  'Zodiac,'  but  by  Procopius 
of  Gaza  as  probably  '  Lucifer,  the  morning  star,'  follow- 
ing the  Vulgate  of  Job  xxxviii,  32.  In  later  Jewish 
writings  mazzaloth  are  the  signs  of  the  Zodiac,  and  the 
singular,  ?nazzdl,  is  used  to  denote  the  single  signs  as 
well  as  the  planets,  and  also  the  influence  which  they 
were  believed  to  exercise  upon  human  destiny  (Selden, 
De  Dis  Syr.  Synt.  i.  c.  1).  In  consetpience  of  this, 
Jarchi,  and  the  Hebrew  commentators  generally,  iden- 
tity mazzaroth  and  mazzaloth,  though  their  interpreta- 
tions vary.  Aben  Ezra  understands  '  stars'  generally ; 
but  R.  Levi  ben-Gershon,  'a  northern  constellation.' 
(iesenius  himself  is  in  favor  of  regarding  mazzaroth  as 
tlie  older  form,  signifying  strictly  'premonitions.'  and 
in  the  concrete  sense,  '  stars  that  give  warnings  or  pre- 
sages,' from  the  usage  of  the  root  "lj5,  ndzar,  in  Arabic, 
He  deciphered,  as  he  believed,  the  same  words  on  some 
Cilician  coins  in  the  inscription  PS)  "jT  'pl^,  which  he 
renders  as  a  prayer,  'may  thy  pure  star  (shine)  over 
(us)'  {Mon.  Phoen.  p.  279,  tab.  36)"  (Smith). 

Mazzocchi  (<ir  Mazzoccolo),  Alessio  Sijijia- 
ciio,  an  Italian  antiipiary  and  <  )rieutalist,  was  born  at 
Santa  jMaria  di  Capua  in  1G84,  and  afterwards  flourished 


MAZZOLA 


933 


McBRYDE 


as  professor  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  at  Naples.  He  died 
in  1771.  Mazzocchi  was  celebrated  for  liis  learning  far 
beyond  the  borders  of  his  native  land.  His  many  treat- 
ises (written  in  Latin  and  Italian)  were  elaborate  and 
scholarly  dissertations  upon  various  subjects.  The  Paris 
Academy  of  Inscriptions  recognised  his  services  to  the 
M'orld  by  making  him  a  member  of  its  body.  See  Hoefer, 
Nour.  Bio<j.  Generalc,  s.  v. 

Mazzola,  Girolamo  Bedolo,  an  Italian  painter, 
pronounced  the  most  distinguished  pupil  of  Parmigiano, 
was  born  near  Parma  in  1503,  and  died  about  1580.  He 
excelled  as  colorist  and  in  perspective.  Among  his  most 
valuable  productions  are  those  falling  within  the  domain 
of  sacred  art.  The  most  worthy  of  notice  are  his  Ma- 
donna icith  St.  Catharine  and  Miracle  of  the  Multiplica- 
tion of  the  Loaves.  See  Vasari,  Lives  of  the  Painters  ; 
Hcefer.  Nouv.  Biofj.  Generule,  s.  v. 

Mazzola  (or  Mazzuola),  Girolamo  Frances- 
co Maria,  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  surnamed  II  Par- 
migiano, the  Parmesan,  was  born  at  Parma  in  1503.  lie 
visited  Rome  in  1523,  and  was  employed  by  Clement 
VII  to  execute  a  number  of  works  in  that  city.  His 
stjde,  formed  on  that  of  Correggio  and  Raphael,  is  char- 
acterized by  exceeding  grace  and  delicacy  of  form  and 
softness  of  coloring.  It  was  saiil  by  JMazzola's  admirers 
that "  the  spirit  of  Eaphael  had  passed  into  him."  Maz- 
zola was  the  tirst  Italian  artist  who  engraved  with 
aqua  fortis.  He  died  in  1540.  Among  his  masterpieces 
are  the  Madonna  della  Rosa,  in  the  gallery  of  Dresden ; 
an  A  nnunciation,  in  the  principal  church  of  Viadana ; 
the  Madonna  with  St.  Margaret,  St,  Jerome,  etc.,  in  the 
Museum  at  Bologna ;  the  Madotma  dello  Lungo  Collo, 
at  Florence  ;  and  the  Vision  of  St.  Jerome,  in  the  Na- 
tional Gallery,  London.  See  Vasari,  Lives  of  the  Paint- 
ers ;  Affo,  Vita  di  F.  Mazzola  (1784) ;  Mrs.  Jameson, 
Memoirs  of  Early  Italian  Painters ;  Bellini,  Cenni  in- 
tonio  alia  Vita  ed  alle  Opere  di  F.  Mazzola  (1844)  ; 
Mortara,  Memoria  della  Vita  di  F.  Mazzuola  (1846). — 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biorj.  Generale,  vol.  xxxiv,  s.  v. 

McAdam,  Thojias,  a  ruling  elder  in  the  Presby- 
terian Church,  was  born  April  10,  1777,  near  Ballymena, 
Ireland.  Being  an  ardent  friend  of  liberty,  the  op- 
pressive measures  of  the  British  government  led  him 
to  take  an  active  part  in  the  efforts  made  to  obtain  free- 
dom in  Ireland ;  in  consequence  of  which  he  incurred 
the  suspicion  of  the  officers  of  the  laiv,  and  being  m 
danger  of  losing  his  life  by  a  summary  trial,  in  1797  he 
left  his  native  land  for  America.  He  was  subsequently 
engaged  in  teaching  in  Philadelphia;  was  for  a  consid- 
erable time  at  the  head  of  the  mathematical  and  English 
school  connected  with  the  University  of  Pennsylvania ; 
was  ordained  a  ruling  elder  in  1801,  and  for  many 
years  treasurer  of  the  Board  of  Missions  of  the  General 
Synod  of  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church.  He  died 
Nov.  16,  1844.  Mr.  INIcAdam  was  a  man  of  noble  and 
generous  impulses,  dignified  in  manners,  intelligent,  and 
truthful.  See  Wilson,  Presb,  Hist.  Almanac,  1860,  p. 
176.     (J.  L.  S.) 

McArthur,  James  P.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  in  Jackson,  N.  Y.,  October  22,  1827 ;  gradu- 
ated at  Union  College,  Schenectady,  N.  Y. ;  studied  the- 
ology, first  in  the  Associate  Seminar}',  Canonsburg,  Pa., 
and  afterwards  in  the  seminary  at  Xenia,  Ohio ;  was 
licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  jMiami,  and  connected 
with  the  Presbytery  of  Cambridge  when  he  died,  April 
15,  1859.  See  Wilson,  Presh.  Jtist.  Almanac,  1860,  p. 
159. 

McAuley,  William,  an  Associate  Reformed  Pres- 
byterian minister,  was  born  in  the  north  of  Ireland  about 
1765.  His  early  education  was  thorough,  as  he  was  in- 
tended for  some  literary  profession,  and  when  about  fif- 
teen years  old  he  was  entered  as  student  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Glasgow,  where  he  gained  high  distinctions. 
Both  students  and  professors  regarded  him  as  a  youth 
of  singular  promise.  Upon  graduation  he  at  once  en- 
tered upon  the  study  of  theology,  under  the  weU-knowii 


and  venerable  John  Brown  of  Haddington,  the  professor 
of  theology  to  the  Associate  Burgher  Synod  of  Scotland, 
and  was  one  of  the  last  class  of  students  taught  by  that 
great  and  good  man.  AVilliam  McAuley  was  licensed  to 
preach  in  1789  by  the  Associate  Presbytery  of  Armagh, 
and  was  ordained  bj'  that  body  in  1790,  as  minister  of 
the  Associate  congregation  of  TuUiaUan,  and  there  he 
labored  acceptably  until  1794,  when  he  emigrated  to  the 
United  States.  Here  he  was  received  by  the  Presby- 
tery of  Washington  (Synod  of  New  Y'ork),  and  was  in- 
stalled in  charge  of  the  united  congregations  of  Kort- 
right,  Harpersfield,  and  Stamford,  Delaware  County, 
N.  Y.  As  the  country  developed,  his  churches  grew  in 
power,  and  divisions  becoming  necessary,  he  Avas  finally 
confined  in  his  labors  to  Kortright  alone.  He  held  his 
post  for  over  half  a  centur}',  and  died  in  the  harness 
March  24, 1851.  Mr.  McAuley  deserves  to  be  remem- 
bered as  one  of  the  pioneers  of  American  Protestantism. 
His  task  was  one  requiring  energy  and  perseverance, 
and  both  these  qualities  he  possessed  in  an  eminent  de- 
gree. Though  frequently  left  to  struggle  against  pov- 
erty and  sickness  in  the  care  of  a  large  family,  he  never 
faltered,  and  unhesitatingly  pressed  forward  to  advance 
the  interests  of  his  Master's  cause.  Says  Dr.  John  For- 
syth (in  Sprague's  Annals  of  the  American  Pulpit,  ik, 
78) :  "That  he  was  not  an  ordinary  man,  all, I  think,  will 
admit,  who  consider  the  single  fact  that  his  '  natural 
force'  as  a  preacher  was  considered  as  '  unabated'  by 
the  grandchildren  and  great-grandchildren  of  those  who 
seventy  years  ago  or  more  settled  in  a  wilderness,  which, 
through  their  instrumentalitj^,  has  been  made  to  blos- 
som as  the  rose./.  .  .  In  the  central  portions  of  Dela- 
ware County  there  are  thousands  who,  though  they 
never  saw  him,  yet,  from  what  their  fathers  have  tokl 
them,  will  cherish  with  affectionate  veneration  the  name 
of  William  McAuley." 

McBride,  Matthew,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  in  Philadelphia  April  27,  1830;  graduated  at 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1851,  and  studied  in 
the  Theological  Seminary  of  the  Reformed  Presbyterian 
Church ;  was  licensed  in  1855  by  the  Philadelphia  Pres- 
bytery, and  became  a  pastor  in  Mount  Vernon,  Iowa, 
where  he  remained  until  1861,  when,  compelled  by  im- 
paired health  to  resign,  he  returned  to  Philadelphia. 
He  next  became  editor  and  proprietor  of  The  Banner 
of  the  Covenant,  which  he  conducted  with  great  accept- 
ance to  the  Church  until  his  death.  May  13,  1863.  See 
Wilson,  I'resh.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1864. 

McBride,  Robert,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  at  Franklin  jNlills,  Ohio,  in  May,  1825 ;  gradu- 
ated with  honor  at  Oberlin  College,  Ohioj  subsequent- 
ly studied  theology  in  the  same  institution';  and  in 
1853  was  licensed  by  the  Western  Reserve  Conference, 
and  ordr.ined  by  Washtenow  Presbytery ;  in  1855  ac- 
cepted a  call  to  the  Church  in  Howell,  Mich.,  where  he 
labored  until  his  death.  Sept,  12,  1860.  Mr.  McBride 
was  a  man  of  much  devotional  piety,  and  labored  zeal- 
ouslv  in  building  up  the  Church.  See  Wilson,  Presb. 
Hist.  A  Imanac,  1862,  p.  191.     (J.  L.  S.) 

McBryde,  Thomas  Lr\'iNGSTOX,  D.D.,  a  Presby- 
terian minister,  was  born  in  Abbeville  District,  S.  C., 
Feb.  25,  1817;  pursued  his  literary  course  in  Franklin 
College,  Athens,  Ga.,  graduating  in  1837 ;  entered  the 
theological  seminary  in  Columbia,  S.  C. ;  and  in  1839 
was  licensed  to  preach  bj'  Harmony  Presbytery ;  was 
appointed  missionary  to  China  in  1839,  and  sailed  for 
Singapore  in  March,  1840  ;  in  1843  returned  to  this 
country  on  account  of  failing  health ;  and  afterwards  be- 
came pastor  successively  of  Providence  and  Rocky  Riv- 
er churches  in  Abbeville  District,  S.  C,  and  HopeweU 
Church,  Pendleton,  S.  C,  in  which  latter  place  he  la- 
bored till  he  died,  April  15, 1863.  He  received  the  de- 
gree of  D.D.  from  Erskine  College,  S.  C.  Dr.  IMcBryde 
was  an  able  minister,  a  sound  divine,  and  a  wise  coun- 
sellor. See  Wilson,  Presb,  Hist.  Almanac,  1866.  p.  355, 
(J.L.S.) 


McCAINE 


934 


McCARTEE 


McCaine,  Alex.\nder,  an  American  divine  of 
note,  was  burn  in  Tipperary,  Ireland,  some  time  towards 
the  close  of  the  last  century,  lie  was  educated  in  Eng- 
land, and  was  intended  for  the  ministry  of  the  Church 
of  England ;  but,  emigrating  to  the  United  States  in 
1791,  he  joined  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  and  in 
1707  entered  the  itinerant  ministry,  and  lilled  several 
important  pulpits  until  1821,  when  he  located.  He  now 
liccarae  one  of  the  agitators  of  the  movement  which  so 
lately  has  been  successfully  carried  —  lay  representa- 
tion. In  reply  to  the  adverse  decision  of  the  General 
Conference  of  182-1,  he  published  the  somewhat  elaborate 
Historif  and  Mijstertj  trf  Methodist  Episcojuici/  (1S29),  a 
work  displaying  rare  ability.  When  the  Methodist 
Protestant  Church  was  started,  he  became  one  of  its 
zealous  promoters,  and  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  most 
able  and  influential  ministers  of  that  body.  He  died 
.Tune  1, 1856.  He  was  particularly  ready  with  the  pen, 
and  distinguished  for  his  rare  talents  in  the  pulpit. 

McCall,  John  A.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  New  Athens,  Ohio,  Feb.  23, 1834 ;  graduated  at 
Franklin  College,  New  Athens,  in  1859;  studied  theol- 
ogy in  the  semuiary  at  Xenia,  Ohio ;  was  licensed  by 
the  Wheeling  Presb\'tery  in  1862,  and  in  1868  was  or- 
dained by  the  Xenia  Presbytery,  and  had  just  accepted 
a  call  to  Cedarville,  Ohio,  when  he  died,  Aug.  25, 1863. 
Mr.  McCaU  was  a  man  of  more  than  ordinary  talents, 
and  remarkable  for  his  sober  and  studious  habits.  See 
Wilson,  Presh.  Hist.  Almanac,  1864,  p.  351. 

McCall,  Joseph  Pinckney,  a  minister  of  the 
IMethodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  born  in  Missis- 
sippi ;  professed  religion  while  young ;  joined  the  Meth- 
odist Protestant  Church,  and  was  soon  after  licensed  to 
preach.  The  war  breaking  out  soon  after,  he  went  out 
as  a  volunteer  in  the  Southern  army.  After  the  war 
he  was  received  into  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
South,  and  in  due  course  was  recommended  to  the 
Quarterly  Conference  and  licensed  to  preach.  In  1866 
he  was  received  into  the  Memphis  Annual  Conference, 
and  was  stationed  at  Wesley  Circuit,  with  Rev.  A.  R. 
Wilson  as  preacher  in  charge.  In  1867  and  1868  he 
served  at  Dresden  Station.  His  last  appointment  was 
Hickman  Station,  in  Kentucky,  where  he  labored  faith- 
ftdly  until  his  death,  April  8, 1870.  ]Mr.  McCall  was  an 
able  and  faithful  minister  of  the  Gospel,  and  the  Church 
greatly  mourned  her  early  loss. — Minutes  of  the  M.  E. 
Church  South,  1870,  s.  v. 

McCalla,  Daniel,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  born  at  Neshaminy,  Pa.,  in  1748 ;  graduated  at 
Princeton  College,  N.  .J.,  in  1766 ;  was  licensed  to  preach 
•Tuly  20, 1772 ;  taught  an  academy  in  Philadelphia  ;  was 
ordained  pastor  of  New  Providence  and  Charleston,  Pa., 
in  1774;  acted  as  chaplain  in  the  Revolutionary  War; 
taught  afterwards  an  academy  in  Hanover  County,  Va. ; 
and  was  tlnally  twenty-one  vears  minister  at  Wappetaw, 
S.  C.  He  died  Ajjril  6, 1809.  See  HoUinghead,  Ser- 
mom  and  Essays  of  D.  McCalla  (1810,  2  vols.);  also 
Drake,  Diet,  of  A  nur.  Biog.  s.  v. 

McCalla,  William  Latta,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  born  near  Lexington,  Ky.,  Nov.  25, 1788.  He 
received  his  preparatory  education  under  the  supervis- 
ion of  his  parents;  graduated  with  honors  at  the  Tran- 
sylvania University,  Lexington,  Ky. ;  afterwards  stud- 
ied theology  i>rivately ;  was  licensed  in  1816,  and  after- 
wards ordained  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  at 
Augusta,  Ky. ;  in  1823  he  went  to  Philadeljihia,  and 
was  installed  ])astor  of  the  Scotch  Presbyterian  Church, 
where  he  continued  to  labor  until  1835,  when  impaired 
health  prompted  him  to  resign.  Subsequeiuly  he  took 
charge  of  tlie  Fourth  Presbyterian  Church.  Philadelphia, 
and  under  his  pulpit  ministration  the  Cluirch  became 
large  and  intiuential.  In  1839  lie  resigned  tliis  charge, 
and  spent  some  time  as  an  itinerant  missionary  in  Tex- 
as;  on  his  return  to  Pliiladelphia,  he  successively  lilled 
the  Middletown  and  Ridley  charges,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Philadelphia,  and  Union  Church,  on  Thirteenth  Street. 


In  1853  he  removed  to  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  and  after  preach- 
ing there  some  time  became  connected  with  the  Female 
Seminary  at  St.  Charles,  Mo.  In  1850  he  assumed  the 
pastorate  of  a  Church  in  Louisiana,  where  he  labored 
until  his  death,  Oct.  12,  1859.  Mr.  McCalla  possessed 
exeellent  pulpit  talents ;  his  expository  style  was  rich 
and  absorbing,  his  preaching  close  and  pungent.  He 
was  the  author  of  many  published  Sernions  and  Essays ; 
also  Discussions  with  A  lexander  Campbell  on  Baptism ; 
u-ith  Kneeland  on  Universalism  ;  with  Barker  on  Infidel- 
ity ;  a  small  volume  on  the  Doctorate  of  Divinity ;  and 
Travels  in  Texas.  See  Wilson,  Presh.  Hist.  Almanac, 
1861,  p.  99.     (J.  L.  S.) 

McCampbell,  John,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  Rockbridge  County,  Va.,  April  9, 1781 ; 
graduated  at  Washington  College,  Lexington,  Va. ;  sub- 
sequently studied  theology  with  Isaac  Anderson,  D.D., 
at  IMaryviUe,  Tenn. ;  was  licensed  in  1805,  ordained  by 
the  Union  Presbytery  in  1807,  and  preached  successively 
to  the  Strawberry  Plains,  Hopewell,  and  New  ^Market 
churches,  within  the  bounds  of  French  Broad  Presby- 
tery. He  died  Sept.  28, 1859.  Dr.  SIcCampbell  was  a 
faithful  minister,  a  good  preacher,  and  an  earnest  pas- 
tor.    See  Wilson,  Presh.  Hist.  Almanac,  1861,  p.  191. 

McCarroll,  Thomas,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  Newlin,  Pa.,  August  12, 
1800.  In  1829  he  entered  the  itinerant  ministry  in  the 
Philadelphia  Conference,  and  in  1835  the  Ne^v  .Jersey 
Conference.  He  labored  as  an  effective  minister  for 
thirty-one  years.  Fie  was  three  times  appointed  pre- 
siding elder,  and  was  a  member  of  the  (ieneral  Confer- 
ence of  1852.  A  thorough  student,  an  eloquent  preach- 
er, a  faithful  pastor,  a  gentle  ruler,  he  was  greatly  be- 
loved and  esteemed  in  all  his  appointments.  He  died 
in  East  Newark,  N.  J.,  May  9, 1860. 

McCarron,  Michael,  D.D.,  a  Roman  Catholic  the- 
ologian of  note,  was  born  in  the  County  of  Monaghan, 
Ireland,  in  the  year  1804.  He  received  his  early  edu- 
cation in  his  native  place,  after  the  completion  of  which 
he  entered  Maynooth  College  to  pursue  his  theological 
studies,  and  on  graduation  was  ordained  to  the  ministry. 
Soon  after  this  he  came  to  the  Laiited  States.  He  was 
placed  at  St.  James's  Church  (now  the  cathedral),  in 
Brooklyn.  Subsequently  he  was  transferred  to  St. 
James's  Church,  New  York,  but  very  soon  afterwards 
was  appointed  pastor  of  St.  Joseph's  Church,  Sixth 
Avenue,  where  he  remained  several  years.  About  the 
year  1857  the  late  archbishop  Hughes  conferred  on  him 
the  pastorate  of  the  large  congregation  of  St.  jMary's 
Church,  corner  of  Grand  and  Ridge  Streets,  New  York, 
which  he  retained  until  his  decease,  Feb.  23, 1867.  At 
the  time  wlien  father  McCarron  arrived  in  this  country, 
archbishop  Hughes  had  been  actively  engaged  in  the 
work  of  education,  and  had  succeeded  in  exciting  a  deep 
interest  among  the  Catholics  on  the  subject.  Father 
McCarron,  then  in  the  vigor  and  prime  of  life,  entered 
upon  this  work  with  the  greatest  zeal,  and  the  results 
of  his  efforts  in  that  noble  cause  were  soon  apiiarent, 
and  are  felt  at  the  present  time.  Father  McCarron  re- 
ceived evidences  of  the  respect  and  esteem  of  his  asso- 
ciates by  his  advancement  to  the  archdeaconship  of  the 
archdiocese  of  New  York.  The  date  of  this  appoint- 
ment is  not  known  to  us.      (E.  de  P.) 

McCaitee,  Robert,  D.D.,  an  American  Presbyte- 
rian minister,  was  born  in  New  York  Citj'  Sept.  30, 1791, 
and  was  educated  at  Columbia  College.  He  chose  the 
legal  profession,  and  was  engaged  in  his  studies  of  juris- 
prudence when  he  was  impressed  with  the  duty  of  de- 
voting himself  to  the  sacred  ministry.  He  tlierefore 
entered  the  Theological  Seminary  of  the  Associate  Re- 
formed Church  at  New  York,  and  jiursued  a  theological 
course  of  study,  and  was  licensed  to  jireach  in  1816.  He 
was  immediately  called  to  Philadelphia,  where  he  re- 
mained several  years ;  then  returned  to  New  Y'ork  to 
take  charge  of  the  Orange  Street  Cluirch,  which  had  at 
that  time  but  thirty  members.     A\'hUe  he  was  the  pas- 


McCartney 


935 


McCHEYNE 


tor  of  this  Church  it  was  removed  to  Canal  Street. 
When  his  connection  ceased,  in  183(3,  it  numbered  eight 
hundred  members.  In  1836  he  accepted  a  call  to  the 
Church  at  Port  Carljon,  I'a.,  and  remained  there  four 
years.  In  18-10  he  became  the  pastor  of  the  Presbyte- 
rian Church  at  Goshen,  N.  Y. ;  in  1849  of  the  Union 
Church  at  Newburg,  and  in  1856  of  the  Westminster 
Church  in  Twenty-second  Street  (with  which  the  Twen- 
ty-fifth Street  Church  was  united).  New  York  City. 
This  was  his  last  pastoral  charge.  In  1862  his  health, 
which  for  some  time  had  been  enfeebled,  failing  still 
more, he  resigned  his  charge,  lie  died  at  Yonkers,  N.  Y., 
March  12,  1865.  "All  who  have  known  Dr.  McCar- 
tee  will  remember  him  as  one  possessed  of  a  genial  nat- 
ure, whose  warm-hearted  friendship  was  ever  finding 
the  most  fitting  expression  in  words  and  acts ;  as  a  sim- 
ple-minded, fervent  Christian,  whose  love  for  the  Sav- 
iour and  his  blessed  Gospel  was  never  concealed;  and 
as  an  able  minister  of  the  New  Testament,  whose  fervid 
elotiuence  when  proclaiming  the  glad  tidings  of  salva- 
tion, and  in  urging  them  upon  the  acceptance  of  perish- 
ing men,  was  seldom  equalled.  We  have  often  listened 
with  wrapt  attention  to  his  solemn  appeals,  while  the 
tears  which  were  flowing  down  his  cheeks,  and  his  ten- 
der words,  were  answered  by  the  tears  of  his  hearers. 
But  his  voice  is  now  silent ;  his  work  is  done ;  he  has 
entered  into  rest"  (The  Observer,  N.  Y.  March,  1865). 
The  degree  of  D.D.  was  bestowed  on  Mr.  McCartee  by 
Columbia  College  in  1831.  See  New  A  mer.  Cijclop.  1865, 
p.  536  ;  Wilson.  I'rcsb.  Jllst.  A  Imunac,  1866,  p.  132. 

McCartney,  John  B.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  near  ApoUo,  Armstrong  Co.,  Pa.,  June  22, 1835 ; 
graduated  at  Jefferson  College,  Canonsburg,  Pa. ;  and  in 
1855,  at  the  Western  Tlieological  Seminary,  Alleghany, 
Pa.;  was  licensed  in  1857,  and  in  1858  was  ordained 
and  installed  pastor  of  the  churches  at  iMount  Washing- 
ton and  Temperanceville,  in  the  vicinity  of  Pittsburg, 
Pa.  In  1864  he  accepted  a  call  from  the  Twelfth  Pres- 
byterian Church,  Baltimore,  Md.,  and  was  installed  its 
pastor  May  2, 1865,  where  he  labored  until  he  died,  Maj' 
14, 1865.  ]\Ir.  IMcCartney  was  a  man  of  superior  abili- 
ties, a  close  student,  and  an  excellent  scholar.  See  Wil- 
son, Presh.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1866,  p.  136.     (J.  L.  S.) 

McCartney,  'William  D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Columbia  Co.,  Pa.,  in  1806  ;  graduated 
at  Washington  College,  Washington,  Pa.,  in  1832  ;  stud- 
ied theology  at  the  Western  Theological  Seminar}-,  Al- 
leghany City,  Pa. ;  was  licensed  in  1835,  and  installed 
pastor  of  West  Liberty  Church,  Pa. ;  afterwards  labored 
in  the  Eidge  Church,  Madison,  and  Holmesville  church- 
es, Ohio,  within  the  bounds  of  Steubenville  and  New 
Lisbon  Presbyteries,  and  died  July  27, 1863.  ]\Ir.  McCart- 
ney was  gifted  with  superior  intellectual  powers,  logi- 
cal and  discriminating  in  his  theological  views,  an  ex- 
cellent scholar,  and  a  successful  minister.  See  Wilson, 
Presb.  Hist.  Almanac,  1864,  p.  175.      (J.  L.  S.) 

McCaul,  Alexandeu,  an  eminent  Anglican  divine, 
was  born  about  the  opening  of  this  centurj-,  and  was 
educated  at  King's  College,  London,  -where  he  afterwards 
became  professor  of  divinity.  He  was  also  prebend  of 
St.  Paul's,  London,  since  1845.  He  is  noted,  however, 
not  so  much  on  account  of  the  high  positions  he  filled 
as  an  ecclesiastic,  as  for  his  missionary  labors  among 
the  Jews,  a  task  for  which  his  great  erudition  and  un- 
common familiarity  with  the  Hebrew  language  and  lit- 
erature peculiarly  fitted  him.  He  died  in  1863.  Dr. 
McCaul  left,  besides  Sketches  of  .hidaism  and  the  Jews 
(Lond.  1838,  8vo),  The  Old  Paths,  or  a  Comimrison  of 
Mod.  Judaism  with  the  Pel.  of  Moses  and  the  Prophets 
(2d  ed.  1868,  r2mo)  ;  a  lot  of  minor  theological  works, 
and  a  host  of  sermons ;  for  a  list  of  which  see  Darling, 
Cyclop.  Bibliog.  ii,  1902. 

McCaulIe,  Thomas  Harris,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  born  about  the  middle  of  last  century; 
graduated  at  Princeton  College,  N.  J.,  in  1774;  was  or- 
dained minister  in  the  western  counties  of  North  Caro- 


lina ;  was  several  years  president  of  a  college  at  Waynes- 
borough,  S.  C. ;  and  died  in  Savannah,  Ga.,  about  1800. 
See  Drake,  Diet.  Amer.  Biocj.  s.  v. 

McCay,  David,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  born 
in  Lewiston,  Pa.,  Feb.  17, 1816 ;  was  educated  at  Jeffer- 
son Cofiege  (class  of  1838)  ;  studied  theology  in  the 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary;  was  licensed  by  Hunt- 
ingdon Presbytery  in  1841 ;  and  in  1842  was  ordained, 
and  installed  pastor  of  the  united  churches  of  Bethesda, 
Concord,  and  Callensburg,  Pa.,  where  he  continued  to 
labor  for  more  than  twenty  j-ears.  In  1861  he  accepted 
the  chaplaincy  of  the  103d  Kegiment  of  Pennsylvania 
Vohmteers,  in  which  position  he  labored  until  ids  death, 
June  4, 1862.  Mr.  McCay  possessed  an  intellect  of  high 
order,  clear,  comprehensive,  and  eminently  practical ; 
his  attainments  in  science  and  literature  were  varied 
and  exact ;  his  piety  deep,  constant,  and  heartfelt.  See 
Presb.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1863,  p.  191.     (J.  L.  S.) 

McCheyne,  Robert  Murray,  a  celebrated  Scotch 
preacher  and  evangelist,  M-as  born  in  Edinburgh,  Scot- 
land, May  21, 1813.  At  five  years  of  age  he  was  quite 
proficient  in  English.  When  eight  years  old  he  entered 
the  high-school,  where  for  six  years  he  maintained  high 
rank  in  his  classes.  In  November,  1827,  he  entered 
Edinburgh  University,  and  during  his  college  course 
gained  prizes  in  various  departments  of  study.  He 
studied  modern  languages  privately ;  was  proficient  in 
gymnastic  exercises,  and  in  music  and  drawing.  This 
last  acquisition  -was  advantageous  to  him  afterwards  in 
sketching  scenes  in  the  Holy  Land.  The  death  of  his 
eldest  brother,  David,  led  to  his  conversion,  or  was  the 
beginning  of  the  great  change  in  his  life,  and  brought 
him  to  study  for  the  ministrj-.  In  1831  he  entered  upon 
his  studies  in  theology  and  Church  history  in  Divinity 
Hall,  under  Dr.  Chalmers  and  Dr.  Welsh.  In  1835  he 
removed  to  the  Presbytery  of  Annan,  and  was  licensed 
to  preach  July  1.  November  7  he  began  his  labors  at 
Larbert,  a  parish  containing  six  thousand  jici  pie,  to 
whom  he  v.as  a  devoted  pastor.  He  was  also  an  intense 
student  of  the  Bible,  reading  it  in  both  the  Hebrew  and 
the  Greek.  In  1836  he  was  called  to  St.  Peter's  Church, 
Dundee,  and  Avas  ordained  there  Nov.  24.  This  charge 
was  large,  and  his  labors  were  so  constant  that  his 
health  failed,  and  he  was  obliged  to  retire  for  a  season 
of  rest.  During  this  vacation  he  went,  with  three  oth- 
er ministers,  to  Palestine,  on  a  "mission  of  inquiry  to 
the  Jews."  His  health  improved  by  his  travels,  and  on 
his  return  he  resumed  his  work  at  St.  Peter's,  where  he 
remained  until  1842,  when  his  health  again  failed.  He 
now  undertook  a  preaching  tour,  with  other  ministers, 
through  the  north  of  England,  preaching  in  the  open 
air  and  in  churches  of  different  denominations.  Ke- 
turning  from  England,  he  was  obliged  by  failing  health 
'to  have  an  assistant  in  his  labors  at  Dundee.  In  Feb- 
ruary, 1843,  he  went  on  his  last  tour  as  an  evangelist ; 
on  his  return  from  which  he  was  attacked  by  a  fever, 
and  died  March  25,  1843.  His  death  was  a  loss  not  to 
his  own  congregation  or  denomination  only,  but  to  the 
whole  Christian  world.  ]Mr.  McCheyne  was  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  examples  of  the  true  Gospel  minister. 
Whether  among  his  own  congregation,  or  in  Palestine, 
or  travelling  as  an  evangelist,  he  was  always  preaching 
by  his  Avords  and  holy  life.  He  was  pre-eminent  as  a 
preacher,  as  a  pastor,  and  as  a  Christian,  and  did  a  great 
work  not  merely  by  the  great  number  of  conversions 
which  took  place  directly  or  indirectly  through  his  in- 
strumentality, but  by  the  zealous  spirit  which  he  in- 
fused into  every  department  of  Christian  work.  He  had 
also  fine  talents  for  literary  and  scholastic  pursuits.  He 
wrote  a  number  of  pieces  showing  a  taste  fi>r  poetrj', 
one  of  which — Greece,  but  living  Greece  no  more — was 
written  at  the  age  of  fourteen.  His  letters  from  Pales- 
tine, his  lectures,  sermons,  and  letters,  show  an  ability 
for  composition  rarely  surpassed ;  but  he  consecrated  all 
his  talents  and  powers  to  the  service  of  Christ,  and  lived 
only  for  the  salvation  of  men.     His  name  ■will  long  bo 


McCLANAHAN 


936 


McCLINTOCK 


fragrant  in  the  Church  as  a  model  preacher  of  the  Gos- 
pel. See  Life  and  Remains  of  Letters.  Lectures,  and  Po- 
ems of  the  Ree.  Robert  Murray  McCheyne,  by  Kev.  An- 
drew'A.  Honar  (New  York,  1857).     (H.  A.  B.) 

McClanahan,  Alexaxdkr  W.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  born  near  West  Union,  Adams  County, 
Ohio,  Nov.  28,  1821;  graduated  with  honor  at  Miami 
University,  Oxford,  Ohio,  in  1844;  studied  theology  in 
the  theological  seminary  at  Oxford;  was  licensed  in 
1847  by  the  Chilicothe  Presbytery;  and  in  1848  or- 
dained. His  first  and  only  charge  was  at  Decatur,  Ohio. 
He  died  Oct.  29, 18G2.  Mr.  McClanahan  was  noted  for 
his  kindness  of  heart  and  spirit  of  self-sacritice ;  he  had 
a  massive  intellect,  capable  of  broad  and  comprehen- 
sive views,  and,  when  aroused  to  high  mental  activity, 
he  wrote  and  spoke  with  rare  power.  See  Wilson, 
Presh.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  18G3,  p.  3o9.      (J.  L.  S.) 

McClaskey,  John,  an  eminent  Methodist  Episco- 
pal minister,  was  born  in  Derry  County,  Ireland,  Jan.  2, 
1756.  His  parents,  who  were  members  of  the  Estab- 
lished Church  of  England,  in  1772  emigrated  to  New 
Jersey ;  here  John  was  converted  in  1782,  and,  feeling 
that  he  was  called  of  God  to  preach  the  Gospel,  took 
the  necessary  steps  to  enter  the  ministry,  and  in  1786 
became  a  member  of  Conference  as  an  itinerant ;  in 
1792  was  appointed  presiding  elder  on  Philadelphia  Dis- 
trict; in  1793-94, to  Baltimore;  in  1795,  to  Philadelphia; 
in  1796-98,  presiding  elder  on  New  Jersev  District ;  in 
1799-1801,  to  New  York  City;  in  1802,  to  Philadelphia; 
in  1812-13,  presiding  elder  on  Chesapeake  District,  and 
died  at  Chestertown,  Md.,  Sept.  2,  1814.  Mr.  McClas- 
key was  a  man  of  deep  and  earnest  piety;  versed  in 
the  Scriptures ;  and  thousands  of  souls  were  converted 
through  his  efforts  during  a  long  and  useful  ministry. — 
Conference  Minutes,  i,  257 ;  Sprague,  A  nnals  of  the  A  mer- 
ican  Pulpit,  vii,  125. 

McClelland,  Alexander,  D.D.,  a  noted  (Dutch) 
Reformed  minister  and  educator,  was  born  at  Schenec- 
tady, N.  Y.,  in  1796 ;  graduated  at  Union  College  in 
1809 ;  studied  theology  with  Rev.  John  Anderson,  D.D., 
in  AVestern  Pennsylvania,  and  afterwards  with  Rev.  John 
M.  Mason,  D.  D. ;  was  licensed  by  the  Associate  Re- 
formed Presbytery,  New  York,  in  1815;  and,  when  nine- 
teen years  only,  was  elected  pastor  of  Rutgers  Street 
Presbyterian  Church,  New  York,  as  successor  of  Dr.  Mille- 
doler.  Here  he  remained  seven  years,  and  established 
his  great  reputation  as  a  pulpit  orator  among  the  fore- 
most men  of  his  day.  In  1822  he  became  professor  of 
rhetoric,  logic,  and  metaphysics  in  Dickinson  College, 
Pa. ;  removed  in  1829  to  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  as  pro- 
fessor of  languages  in  Rutgers  College ;  and  in  1832 
was  ekited  professor  of  Oriental  literature  and  Biblical 
criticism  in  the  Theological  Seminary  of  the  Reformed 
Church.  He  continued,  however,  to  give  instruction  in 
rhetoric  and  belles-lettres  in  the  college  for  several 
years.  He  resigned  his  place  in  the  theological  semi- 
nary in  1857;  and,  after  a  tour  in  Europe,  returned  to 
New  Brimswick,  where  he  lived  in  retirement  until  his 
decease  in  1864.  His  published  works  consist  of  a  few 
occasional  sermons  and  pamphlets,  and  a  volume  on  the 
Canon  ami  Intei-pretation  of  Scripture  (New  York,  1860, 
pp.  329, 12mo).  Dr.  McClelland  was  in  almost  every  re- 
spect a  man  sui  generis.  He  was  original  in  thought, 
in  style  of  expression,  in  oratory,  and  in  the  professor's 
c'aair.  He  was  humorous  and  witty,  keen  and  strong, 
roljust  in  mind,  tliorough  in  scholarship,  impatient  of 
ilulness  and  idleness,  and  exacting  to  the  last  degree 
as  a  teacher.  Inspiring  his  pupils  with  his  own  entlui- 
siasm,  he  taught  them  to  study  and  to  think  accurate- 
ly for  themselves.  He  gave  very  short  lessons  in  He- 
bre\v  and  in  Greek ;  but  the  grammar  and  dictionary 
were  always  in  use,  and  he  required  critical  accuracy  in 
recitations.  His  written  lectures  on  the  Epistles  to  the 
Romans  and  Hebrews,  and  his  oral  criticisms  on  Isaiah 
and  the  Psalms;  his  condensed  Hebrew  Grammar,  and 
his  lectures  on  the  Canon  and  interpretation  of  Script- 


ure, were  admirable  specimens  of  his  skill  as  an  in- 
structor. His  rare  pulpit  eloquence  M'as  quite  equalled 
at  times  by  outbursts  of  his  genius  and  power  in  the 
professorial  chair.  Naturally  impulsive  and  irritable, 
he  was  often  sarcastic  and  se  /ere  ;  and  these  tendencies 
were  aggravated  by  protracted  and  distressing  disease. 
Yet  his  best  students  overlooked  all  this  in  their  ad- 
miration of  his  ability  as  a  teacher.  In  the  pulpit  he 
was  clear  and  forcible,  brilliant  and  impassioned,  versa- 
tile and  learned,  simple  and  profound,  electric,  and  fre- 
quently eccentric.  Among  his  published  sermons  are  a 
few  of  his  memorable  discourses;  but  some  that  were 
perhaps  even  more  characteristic  of  his  remarkable  ora- 
tory were  left  out  of  the  collection.  No  printed  page 
can  reproduce  the  effects  of  his  mellifluous  voice,  his 
significant  gestures,  and  the  earnestness  of  his  impas- 
sioned power.  His  peculiarities  of  temperament  and 
manner  interfered  considerably  with  his  general  useful- 
ness, and  his  independence  of  thought  sometimes  led 
him  into  questionable  statements  of  truth ;  and  in  1834 
he  was  arraigned  before  the  General  Synod  for  heresy, 
on  the  subject  of  spiritual  renovation  ;  but,  having 
made  satisfactory  explanations,  he  retained  his  profess- 
orship and  ecclesiastical  status.  His  latter  years  were 
spent  in  retirement  among  his  books,  and  in  the  quiet 
pursuit  of  favorite  studies,  until  he  was  disabled  by  a 
long  and  incurable  disease ;  and  then,  with  simple  trust 
in  Jesus,  entered  into  rest.  Quite  detailed  sketches  of 
Dr.  McClelland's  life  and  works,  from  the  pen  of  Dr. 
Chalmers,  of  New  York  City,  were  published  in  the 
Christian  Intelligencer  (New  Yorlc,  1872,  Oct.,  Nov.). 
(W.  J.  R.  T.) 

McClintock,  John,  D.D.,  one  of  the  projectors 
and  editors  of  this  Cyclopcedia,  was  born  in  the  city  of 
Philadelphia,  Oct.  27, 1814.  His  parents  were  devoted 
members  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  that 
city.  In  the  year  1832  he  entered  the  freshman  class 
of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  by  strenuous  ex- 
ertions completed  the  whole  collegiate  course  in  the 
space  of  three  years.  Before  his  graduation,  in  the 
year  1835,  he  had  commenced  preaching,  in  the  New 
Jersey  Annual  Conference  of  the  Jlethodist  Episcopal 
Church.  In  the  year  1836  he  accepted  a  call  to  the 
chair  of  mathematics  in  Dickinson  College,  which  had 
been  reopened  in  1834  under  Methodist  auspices.  In 
this  institution  he  spent  twelve  most  fruitful  years.  In 
the  year  1840  he  exchanged  the  mathematical  chair  for 
that  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages,  succeeding  his 
friend,  the  Rev.  Robert  Emory.  As  a  teacher  Dr.  Mc- 
Clintock was  most  successful.  Rapid  and  brilliant,  and 
at  the  same  time  thorough  and  accurate,  he  was  the 
beau  ideal  of  a  college  instructor.  In  1840  he  com- 
menced, in  connection  with  the  writer  of  this  article,  a 
series  of  Latin  and  Greek  text-books,  designed  to  apply 
to  these  languages  the  method  of  "  imitation  and  repe- 
tition" which  had  been  successfully  introduced  into  the 
teaching  of  modern  tongues.  The  series  was  well  re- 
ceived, and  its  method  has  since  been  extensiveh-  fol- 
lowed. In  the  year  1848  Dr.  IMcClintock  was  elected 
iiy  the  General  Conference  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  the  editor  of  its  Quarterly  Rerieu:  In  this  of- 
fice he  spent  eight  years.  His  fine  taste,  his  critical  acu- 
men, and  his  interest  in  all  departments  of  human  knowl- 
edge, were  amply  illustrated  in  his  conduct  of  the  Re- 
riew.  Under  his  care  it  rose  rapidly  to  the  highest 
rank  among  periodicals  of  its  kind.  In  1856  he  was,  in 
association  with  bishop  Simpson,  appointed  a  delegate 
from  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  to  the  Wesleyan 
Jlethodist  Conference  of  England.  He  was  at  various 
times  elected  president  of  several  colleges,  but  he  never 
assumed  the  active  duties  of  such  a  position.  In  1857 
he  became  pastor  of  St-.  Paul's  Methodist  Church,  in  the 
city  of  New  York.  He  adapted  himself  readily  to  the 
duties  of  the  pastoral  office,  and  speedily  became  known 
as  one  of  the  most  eloijuent  preachers  of  the  metropolis. 
A  fine  presence,  a  rich  voice,  and  a  graceful  delivery 
gave  effect  to  the  utterances  of  a  well-stored  mind.    His 


McCLINTOCK 


937 


McCLURE 


charge  of  this  Church  expirinc;  by  Hmitation  in  1860, 
he  accepted  the  appointment  of  pastor  of  tlie  American 
cliapel  in  Paris,  then  and  no\v  under  tlie  otire  of  the 
American  and  Foreign  Christian  Union.  While  hold- 
ing this  position  the  great  American  civil  war  broke 
out,  and  Dr.McClintock  was  not  a  man  to  be  idle  in  the 
time  of  his  country's  peril.  Appreciating  the  value  to 
the  national  cause  of  the  friendly  opinion  of  luirope,  he 
exerted  himself  to  the  utmost  in  diffusing  a  right  knowl- 
edge of  the  merits  of  the  controversy  in  which  the 
American  Union  ^vas  in\-olved.  In  these  labors  he 
avaded  himself  of  the  aid  of  the  count  De  Gasparin 
and  the  Kev.  Mr.  Austin  of  England.  During  the  en- 
tire war  his  pen  was  never  idle,  and  from  the  plat- 
form, whenever  it  was  practicable,  he  made  eloquent 
pleas  for  the  national  cause.  During  the  period  of  his 
residence  abroad,  he  was  also  corresponding  editor  of 
the  Methodist,  a  paper  established  in  1800  in  the  city 
of  New  York.  His  letters  kept  the  American  public 
well  advised  of  the  fluctuations  of  European  opinion  in 
relation  to  the  war.  Upon  his  return  home,  in  1864,  he 
was  for  a  second  time  appointed  to  the  pastorate  of 
St.  Paul's  Church,  but,  finding  his  health  unequal  to  the 
discharge  of  the  duties  of  the  office,  he  resigned  it  at  the 
end  of  a  year.  In  1866  he  was  made  chairman  of  the 
Central  Centenarj'  Committee  of  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church,  to  which  was  given  the  work  of  organizing 
the  commemoration  of  the  introduction,  in  1760,  of 
Methodism  into  the  United  States.  Mr.  Daniel  Drew, 
of  New  York,  having  signified  his  intention  of  found- 
ing, in  connection  with  this  centenary  commemoration, 
a  Biblical  and  Theological  School,  Dr.  McClintock  was 
chosen  its  first  president.  The  school  was  opened  in 
the  year  1867,  at  Madison,  New  Jersey,  under  the  most 
flattering  auspices,  and  has  been  from  the  beginning  an 
entire  success.  Dr.  McClintock's  health  had,  prior  to 
his  election  to  the  presidency  of  Drew,  shown  symptoms 
of  decline.  Since  18-18  lie  had  been  frequently  pros- 
trated by  attacks  of  illness.  From  1867  to  1870  a  great 
decay  of  vitality  was  perceptible,  and  on  March  4  of 
the  latter  year  the  "  wheels  of  life  stood  still  at  last." 

To  the  preparation  of  this  Ci/dopadia,  Dr.  McClin- 
tock had,  in  company  with  his  co-editor.  Dr.  Strong,  de- 
voted many  laborious  years.  To  theology  and  its  kin- 
dred studies  his  attention  had  through  life  been  chiefly 
directed.  He  lived  to- sec  three  volumes  completed,  and 
the  fourth  in  a  state  of  forwardness.  In  the  year  1847 
he  translated,  with  Prof.  C.  E.  Blumonthal,  Neander's 
Life  nf  Christ,  published  by  Harper  and  Brothers.  In 
1851  he  prepared  an  essay  on  the  Temporal  Power  of 
the  Pope,  which  was  at  that  time  a  political  question  of 
some  importance  in  the  United  States.  The  Theologi- 
cal Institutes,  by  Watson,  Dr.  McClintock  supplied  with 
an  analysis,  which  is  considered  a  model  work  of  its 
kind.  He  was  also  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  Method- 
ist Qinu-terhj  Eeviev,  and  an  occasional  one  to  several  oth- 
er periodicals.  Since  his  death  a  volume  of  his  sermons 
has  been  collected  and  published  under  the  title  Liriitrj 
Words  (N.  Y.  1871 ,  12mo).  Dr.  IMcClintock's  versatility 
of  talent  is  apparent  even  from  this  slight  sketch.  He 
was  truly  a  many-sided  man.  Yet  his  attainments  were 
solid;  an  imperfect  understanding  of  any  subject  he 
could  not  tolerate.  In  facility  of  acquiring  knowledge 
he  was  very  remarkable.  He  could  track  a  subject, 
never  losing  the  clew,  through  a  labyrinth  of  books,  un- 
til he  came  into  full  possession  of  it,  both  as  a  whole  and 
in  its  details.  The  critical  faculty  was  dominant  in 
him.  To  systematize  knowledge,  to  reduce  it  to  form 
and  completeness,  was  instinctive  with  him  ;  yet  he  had 
at  the  same  time  the  fervor  which  makes  the  orator. 
His  eloquence  was  of  the  highest  order;  in  power  to 
sway  an  audience  he  had  few  if  any  superiors.  He  was 
probably  the  most  complete  scholar  that  his  Church  has 
produced  in  the  United  States.  His  style  as  a  writer 
was  remarkable  for  clearness,  precision,  directness,  and 
condensation.  His  personal  qualities  endeared  him  to 
hosts  of  friends ;  his  death,  ui  the  midst  of  his  years,  has 


been  deplored  as  a  great  loss  to  the  cause  of  religion  and 
learning  in  our  country.      (G.  K.  C.) 

McClung,  John  Ai.kxandkk,  D.D..  a  Presbyte- 
rian minister,  was  born  in  Washington,  Ky.,  Sept.  25, 
1804.  His  education  was  received  at  a  private  school 
at  Brick  Pond,  Woodford  Count}',  Ky.,  his  instructors 
being  Messrs.  Thompson  and  Daly,  from  the  University 
of  Dublin,  Ireland.  In  1823  he  entered  Princeton  The- 
logical  Seminary,  and  in  1828  was  licensed  to  preach. 
Subsequently,  his  mind  becoming  unsettled  concerning 
the  authenticity  of  some  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment and  one  or  two  of  the  Epistles,  he  gave  up  preach- 
ing and  entered  upon  the  study  of  law.  During  this 
stage  of  his  life  he  wrote  Sketches  of  Western  Advent- 
ures, and  otherwise  contributed  to  the  press  of  the  daj-. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1835,  and  became  a  reg- 
ular practitioner  until  1849,  when,  his  religious  princi- 
ples being  revived,  he  was  again,  in  1851,  licensed  and 
ordained,  and  was  called  to  the  First  Presbj'terian 
Church,  Indianapolis,  Ind. ;  during  his  pastorate  there 
he  was  elected  president  of  Hanover  College,  Ind.  In 
1857  he  accepted  a  call  to  ]\Iaysville,  Ky.,  where  he  la- 
bored until  tlie  summer  of  1850,  when  he  was  drowned. 
Dr.  McClung  was  a  man  of  brilliant  intellect  and  rare 
eloquence ;  he  was  a  polished  scholar,  a  generous  friend, 
and  an  humble  Christian.  See  Wilson,  Presb.  Ilist.  A  l- 
wfmflc,  1801,  p.  100.     (.J.L.  S.) 

McClure,  Alexander  Wilson,  D.D.,  an  Amer- 
ican divine,  was  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  May  8,  1808 ; 
was  educated  at  Yale  and  Amherst  colleges  and  Andover 
Theological  Seminary  (class  of  1830);  was  settled  at 
Maiden,  Mass.,  1830-41 ;  then  at  St.  Augustine,  Fla., 
1841-44;  editor  of  the  Christian  Ohserratori/  from  1844 
to  1847;  and  pastor  again  at  Maltlen  from  1848  to  1852. 
Leaving  the  Congregational  body,  he  accepted  a  call  to 
the  First  Keformed  Church,  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  and  re- 
mained there  three  years  (1852-55),  when  he  became 
corresponding  secretary  of  the  American  and  Foreign 
Christian  Union,  1855.  His  health  having  been  im- 
paired, he  was  sent  in  1856  as  chaplain  of  the  union  at 
Rome,  Italy.  In  1858,  broken  down  by  bronchial  dis- 
ease, he  retired  from  public  service,  and  lingered  a  great 
sufferer  until  his  death  in  18G5.  The  American  Chapel 
in  Paris  was  erected  largely  by  funds  Avhich  Dr.  McClure 
secured  with  great  zeal  and  labor.  Dr.  McClure's  con- 
tributions to  the  periodical  press  were  numerous  and 
popular,  including  valuable  articles  for  the  Observatory, 
the  Netv  Brunswick  Revieiv,  and  the  Literary  and  Theo- 
logical Review.  He  also  published  The  Life-Boat,  an 
Alleepry  : — Four  Lectures  on  Ultra-Universalisin,  "a 
theological  classic,  unanswered  and  unanswerable :" — A 
Series  of  Letters  upon  the  Bible  in  tlie  Public  Schools, 
written  in  controversy  with  a  Romish  priest  in  Jersey 
City: — Lives  of  the  Chief  Fathers  of  N etc  England  (2 
vols.)  : — and  The  Translatois  Revived,  or  Biographical 
Articles  on  the  Ilistori/  of  the  Translators  of  the  English 
Bible  (New  York,  1853,  12mo).  The  title  is  somewhat 
unfortunate,  but  the  work  is  invaluable,  the  materials 
being  drawn  from  the  best  sources  in  Great  Britain  and 
America,  and  with  the  utmost  care  for  many  years,  to 
secure  accuracy  and  fulness.  Dr.  McClure  was  a  truly 
learned  scholar,  a  genuine  wit,  a  keen  dialectician,  and 
a  practical  controversialist.  Ardent  and  honest  as  the 
sunlight,  abounding  in  good  feeling,  and  simple  in  man- 
ners as  a  child,  he  was  a  man  of  positive  convictions, 
fearless  of  consequences  in  the  advocacy  of  truth  and  in 
assailing  popular  errors.  Yet,  with  all  his  exuberant 
mirth  and  knowledge  of  the  world,  Dr.  JMcClure  v.as 
pre-eminenth'  a  devout  and  humble  Christian  minister. 
Chastened  by  many  providential  trials,  his  piety  grew 
more  serene,  and  beautiful,  and  deep  with  advancing  in- 
firmities and  years.  His  prayers  and  preaching  v.cre 
solemn,  tender,  ami  scriptural.  Eternal  things  were 
seen  and  felt  by  him  as  eternal  realities,  and  his  hearers 
often  were  hushed  and  melted  under  his  reverential  ap- 
peals.    His  death  was  triumphant.     See  Corwin,  Man- 


McCLURE 


938 


McCOOK 


ttal;  BecoUections  of  Dr.  N.  Adams;  Personal  Memo- 
ries.    (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

McClure,  Arthur,  <*i  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  bom  in  East  Tennessee,  Feb.  16,  1801 ;  was  con- 
verted about  1819  ;  entered  the  Tennessee  Conference  in 
1822,  and  died  Sept.  26, 1825.  He  was  a  young  man  of 
much  i)romise,  excellent  in  abilities  and  graces,  and  an 
elotjuent  and  successfid.  minister. — Conference  Minutes, 
i,  550. 

McClure,  David,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  born  Nov.  18,  1748,  in  Newport,  IJ.  I. ;  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  College  in  1769 ;  was  ordained  missionary 
to  the  Indians  near  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  May  20,  1772.  Tlie 
mission  was  broken  up  by  the  troubles  with  England, 
and  McClure  became  pastor  in  North  Hampton,  N.  H., 
Nov.  13,  1776;  at  East  Windsor,  Conn.,  June  11,  1786, 
and  died  June  25,  1820.  He  was  chosen  trustee  of 
Dartmouth  College  in  1778,  and  made  D.D.  by  the  same 
in  1800.  Dr.  McClure  published  Sermons  on  the  Moral 
Law  (1795,  8vo): — Memoirs  of  the  Rev.  Kleazar  Whee- 
locl\  D.D.,  in  connection  with  the  Rev.  Dr.  Parish  (1810) : 
—and  a  number  of  occasional  sermons  and  addresses, 
and  magazine  contributions.     See  Sprague,  Annals, n,7. 

McCombs  (or  McCoonibs),  Lawrence,  an  early 
Metliodist  Episcopal  minister,  was  born  in  Kent  County, 
in  the  State  of  Delaware,  on  the  11th  of  March,  1769. 
Little  is  known  of  his  early  education,  but  it  is  to  be 
presumed,  from  the  easy  circumstances  of  his  father, 
who  was  a  man  of  wealth,  and  the  high  character  of 
the  schools  and  academies  of  the  district  in  which  he 
lived,  that  he  early  attained  to  a  good  degree  of  in- 
tellectual culture.  la  1792  he  was  admitted  to  the 
Philadelphia  Conference  on  probation,  and  his  first  ap- 
pointment was  to  the*  Newburg  Circuit,  in  the  State  of 
New  York ;  two  years  later  he  was  appointed  to  Long 
Island;  in  1795, to  New  London;  in  1796,  to  Middletown; 
in  1797  and  1798,  to  PoUand;  in  1799,  to  New  Lojidon; 
in  1800, to  Philadelphia;  in  1801,  to  Paltimore  City;  in 
1802,  to  Baltimore  City  and  Fell's  Point;  in  1804,  to  the 
Baltimore  Circuit.  In  180G  he  asked  and  obtained  a 
location,  and  selected  a  residence  on  the  eastern  shore 
of  Maryland,  near  the  head  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay.  In 
this  location  he  is  said  to  have  labored  with  unabated 
industry  and  devotion.  In  1815  he  re-entered  the  itiner- 
ancy, and  took  his  place  in  the  Philadelphia  Conference ; 
in  tliat  and  in  the  following  year  he  was  appointed  to 
Smyrna;  in  1817,  to  Queen  Anne's;  and  in  1818,  to  Kent. 
From  1819  to  1822  he  was  presiding  elder  of  the  Jersey 
District ;  in  1823  he  was  appointed  to  Essex  and  Staten 
Island;  in  1824  and  1825,  to  St,  John's  Church, Philadel- 
phia ;  and  in  1826,  to  Wilmington.  In  1827  and  1828  he 
was  presiding  elder  of  the  East  Jersey  District ;  from 
1829  to  1832.  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay ;  and  in  1833,  of  the 
South  Philadelphia  District.  In  1834  he  was  appointed 
to  St.  Paul's  Church,  Philadelpliia;  in  this  year,  howev- 
er, he  was  constrained,  by  his  rapidly-failing  health,  to 
relinquish  his  active  position  and  become  a  supernu- 
merary. In  1835  he  toi)k  his  place  among  the  retired 
and  infirm,  after  having  performed  an  unprecedented 
amount  of  labor,  and  left  the  impress  of  his  energetic 
character  wherever  he  went.  He  closed  his  useful  and 
eventful  life  June  11, 1836.  An  intimate  friend,  also  a 
minister,  the  Rev.  J.  Kennaday,  has  left  this  beautiful 
tribute  to  his  memory:  "In  his  religious  character  Mr. 
McCombs  blended  great  zeal  and  fidelity  with  a  verj' 
unusual  kindliness  of  spirit.  No  hostility  could  intimi- 
date him  in  the  course  of  duty,  nor  could  any  provoca- 
tion betray  him  into  petidance  or  resentment.  Meek 
in  spirit,  intrepid  in  purpose,  gentle  and  social  in  man- 
ner, he  was  greatly  respected  in  the  pidpit,  and  ever 
welcome  to  the  hospitalities  of  the  numerous  circles 
which  he  adorned  as  the  man  o£  God.  He  >yas  strong 
in  faitli,  much  in  prayer,  and  a  great  reader  of  the  Bible. 
His  intellectual  character  was  developed  more  in  the 
uniform  strength  of  liis  facidties  than  in  the  marked 
prominence  of  any  one  or  more  of  them.     His  percep- 


tions were  quick  and  clear,  and  his  judgment  sober  and 
impartial.  He  had  a  fine  imagination,  which,  being  re- 
strained and  regulated  by  his  admirable  taste,  gave 
beauty  and  warmth,  as  the  artists  say,  to  all  his  pictures. 
In  unison  with  these  traits,  there  were  some  physical 
qualities  that  contributed  largely  to  his  power  and  suc- 
cess. His  personal  appearance  was  very  imposing.  In 
stature  he  was  full  six  feet  in  height,  with  a  finely-de- 
veloped form  ;  though  not  corpulent,  the  breadth  of  his 
chest  indicated  the  prodigious  strength  whicii  enabled 
him  to  perform  his  almost  gigantic  labors.  The  general 
expression  of  his  countenance  betokened  intelligence, 
gentleness,  and  energy,  wliile  his  full,  frank  face  was  il- 
lumined by  his  ever-kindling  eye.  His  voice  was  full, 
clear,  and  of  great  flexibility,  sweeping  from  the  lowest 
to  the  highest  tone,  aiid  modulated  in  the  most  delicate 
manner,  in  beautifid  harmony  with  his  subject.  In 
preaching  in  the  field,  which  was  his  favorite  arena,  I 
used  to  think  he  was  quite  an  approach  to  Wliitefield. 
Such  was  his  known  power  at  camp-meetings  that  the 
announcement  that  he  was  to  be  present  on  such  an  oc- 
casion would  draw  a  multitude  of  people  from  great  dis- 
tances, ...  I  have  thought  that  in  some  respects  there 
was  a  striking  resemblance  between  him  and  the  late 
distinguished  Dr.  John  M.  INIason,  of  New  York,  ;vhom 
I  often  heard  in  my  boyhood."  See  Sprague,  A  muAs 
A  mer.  Pulpit,  vii,  210  sq. ;  Conf.  Min.  ii,  492.    (E.  de  P.) 

McConaughy,  David,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Presbyte- 
rian minister,  was  born  in  Menallen  township,  York 
County,  Pa.,  Sept,  29,  177.5,  and  graduated  at  Dickinson 
College,  Carlisle,  in  1795;  studied  theology  fur  two 
years ;  was  licensed  in  1797,  and  preached  frequently  as 
a  missionary  in  Philadelphia  and  New  York ;  accepted 
a  call  from  the  United  Christians  of  Upper  jNIarsh  Creek 
and  Conewago  in  1800,  and  remained  pastor  till  1832. 
During  this  connection  he  visited  Baltimore,  Phila- 
delphia, and  New  York  in  behalf  of  the  Gettysburg 
Church,  and  as  a  minister  and  a  teacher  rendered  im- 
portant services.  At  an  early  period  he  interested  him- 
self much  in  the  cause  of  temperance  by  appointing 
meetings,  preaching,  and  formmg  a  society,  of  \vhich  he 
himself  was  president.  He  removed  to  Washington  in 
1832  to  the  presidency  of  the  college,  which  he  resigned 
in  1849.  He  died  Jan.  29,  1852.  Dr.  IVIcConaughy 
published  A  Brief  Summary  and  Outline  of  Moral  Sci- 
ence (1838)  : — Discoui'ses,  chief y  Bior/raphical,  of  Per- 
sons eminent  in  Sacred  History  (1850,8vo)  : — Two  Tracts 
on  the  Z)octrine  of  the  Trinity  and  on  Infant  Baptism  : — 
Sermons  and  Addresses.     See  Sprague,  Annals,  \y,  199. 

McConnell,  William  L.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  near  Canonsburg,  Pa.,  Sept.  19,  1829;  gradu- 
ated at  .Jefferson  College,  Canonsburg,  Pa. ;  studied  the- 
ology in  the  Associate  Reformed  Seminary,  Alleghany, 
Pa. ;  and  was  licensed  and  ordained  by  Alleghany  Re- 
formed Presbyter}'  in  1857.  He  accepted  a  call  to  Han- 
over Church,  and  subsequently  to  West  Newton,  Pa., 
where  he  labored  until  failing  health  compelled  him  to 
desist.  He  died  July  18, 1866.  See  Wilson,  Pnsh.  Hist. 
Almanac,  1867,  p.  363. 

McCook,  Robert  J.,  a  minister  of  the  Jlethodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  born  in  Wilkinson  County, 
Ga.,  Jan.  5,  1817;  professed  religion  and  joined  the 
Church  when  in  his  fourteenth  year,  and  was  impressed 
with  a  call  to  preach  the  Gospel.  Resisting  this  im- 
pression, he  lost  his  religious  peace,  and  finally  made 
shipwreck  of  his  faith.  At  about  twenty-two  he  again 
connected  himself  with  the  Church,  but  si  ill  slirunk 
from  obeying  his  call  to  the  ministr\-  until  \>^h?t.  when 
he  was  licensed  to  preach,  and  was  admitted  into  the 
Florida  Convention  in  1854.  From  that  time  (except 
during  the  year  1866,  when  he  was  superannuated),  he 
labored  with  devoted  zeal  and  encouraging  success,  fill- 
ing various  important  charges  with  great  usefulness  un- 
til his  death  at  Key  West,  Nov.  22, 1870.  '•  He  was  a 
godly  man.  '  Holiness  to  tlie  Lord'  was  his  theme  in 
the  pulpit,  and  was  illustrated  in  his  daily  life.     His. 


McCOOMBS 


939 


McCRIE 


end  was  peace,  and  his  works  do  follow  him." — Coiifer- 
ence  Minutes  M.  E.  Church  South,  1871,  s.  v. 

McCoombs.     See  McComks. 

McCorkle,  Sasiuel  Eusebius,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  born  near  Harris  Ferry,  Lancaster  Count}-, 
Pa.,  Aug.  23,  174(5,  and  graduated  at  New  Jersey  Col- 
lege in  1772 ;  was  licensed  in  1774,  and,  after  laboring 
for  two  years  in  Virginia,  accepted  a  call  from  the  con- 
gregation of  Thyatira  in  1777.  About  1785  he  opened 
a  classical  school  named  Zion  Parnassus,  which  he  con- 
tinued ten  or  twelve  years.  He  died  June  21,  1811. 
Dr.  McCorkle  published  Four  Discourses  on  the  great 
First  Principles  of  Deism  and  Revelation  contrasted 
(1797) : — Three  Discourses  on  the  Terms  of  Christian 
Communion: — Occasional  Sermons,  See  Sprague,  ^n- 
nals,  iii,  346. 

McCoy,  Isaac,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  born  in  Fay- 
ette County,  Pa.,  June  13, 1784 ;  Avas  licensed  to  preach 
in  1805,  and  began  work  as  a  missionary.  Oct.  13, 1810, 
he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Maria  Creek, 
in  Clark  County,  Ind.,  where  he  remained  some  eight 
years,  making  occasional  missionary  tours  in  tlie  sur- 
rounding country.  In  1818  he  was  appointed  a  mis- 
sionary to  the  Indians,  and  in  IMay,  1820,  removed  to 
Fort  AVayne,  where  he  establislied  a  Church ;  in  the  fall 
of  the  same  year  he  removed  to  Carey,  on  the  St.  Jo- 
seph River,  and  from  thence,  in  1829,  to  the  Indian  coun- 
try, now  Kansas.  In  1842  he  became  the  tirst  corre- 
sponding secretary  and  general  agent  of  the  American 
Indian  Mission  Association,  at  Louisville,  Ky.  He  died 
June  21, 1846.  He  published  a  IlistDri/  of  Baptist  In- 
dian Missions,  embracing  remarks  on  the  former,  pres- 
ent condition,  and  future  prospects  of  the  aboriginal 
tribes  (1840, 8vo).     See  Sprague,  Annals,  vi, 541. 

McCracken,  John  Steele,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  born  near  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  April  25, 1804.  His 
opportunities  in  early  life  for  acquiring  knowledge  were 
poor.  In  1833  he  entered  the  jireparatory  department 
of  Miami  University,  Oxford,  Ohio,  and  graduated  in 
1838 ;  studied  theology  under  the  care  of  the  First 
Presbyterv  of  Ohio  of  the  Associate  Keformed  Clurch, 
and  subsequently  attended  the  theological  seminary  at 
Alleghany  City,  Pa.,  and  the  seminary  at  Oxford ;  was 
licensed  in  1841,  and  then  went  out  as  a  missionary 
among  the  newh'-formed  congregations  in  Illinois  and 
Iowa ;  in  1843  he  accepted  a  call  from  the  Church  at  Ken- 
ton, Ohio,  where  he  labored  until  liis  health  gave  way. 
He  died  April  1, 1863.  ]\lr.  McCracken  was  an  able  ex- 
pounder and  a  sound  theologian  ;  his  judgment  was  em- 
inently just  and  critical;  his  disposition  charitable  and 
liberal.  See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  A  Imaitac.  1864,  p.  352. 
(J.L.S.) 

McCracken,  Samuel  "W.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  born  near  Lexington,  Ky.,  Jan.  12, 1800 ;  was 
educated  at  ]Miami  University  (class  of  1831) ;  studied 
theology  at  ]\Iarj'ville,  Tenn.,  and  was  elected  professor 
of  mathematics  in  the  college  at  Mary viUe ;  was  after- 
wards chosen  professor  of  mathematics  in  Jliami  L'ni- 
versity;  was  licensed  by  Ohig First  Presbytery  in  1835, 
and  in  1836  was  ordained;  in  1839  accepted  a  call  to 
Hopewell  Church,  Ohio,  and  resigned  his  professorship 
in  the  university;  here  he  continued  to  labor  imtil  his 
death,  Sept.  10,  1859.  Mr.  McCracken  maintained  a 
high  reputation  for  talent;  prudent  and  far-sighted,  his 
counsels  were  always  worthy  of  consideration  ;  opposed 
to  all  expedients,  he  made  experience  the  basis  of  ac- 
tion.   See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  A  Im.  1861 ,  p.  209.   (J. L.  S.) 

McCrary,  W.  H.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  born 
in  Tennessee  Jan.  17,1831 ;  was  educated  at  Kethel  Col- 
lege, Tenn. ;  was  licensed  in  1849,  after  teaching  school 
for  several  years  ;  was  ordained  in  1854.  lie  died  Sept. 
14, 1858.  Mr.  IVIcCrarj'  was  a  gootl  preacher,  a  success- 
ful teacher,  and  a  tine  theologian.  See  Wilson.  Presb. 
Hist.  A  Imamir.  1861,  p.  236. 

McCready,  Jonathan  Sharp,  a  Presbyterian  min- 


ister, was  born  near  New  Galilee,  Pa.,  April  15, 1828 ;  en- 
joyed in  earl}'  life  the  advantage  of  religious  instruc- 
tion, discipline,  and  example;  graduated  at  Franklin 
College  in  1852  ;  studied  theology  in  the  AsBociate 
Seminary  at  Canonsburg  (class  of  1855)  ;  was  licensed 
by  the  Associate  Presbytery  of  Ohio  in  October  of  the 
same  year;  in  1856  was  ordained  and  installed  pastor 
of  the  Associate  congregation  of  Cadiz,  and  there  con- 
tinued to  labor  until  1862,  when  he  volunteered  in  the 
service  of  the  government.  While  in  the  army  he  con- 
tinued to  preach,  and  perform  every  other  ministerial 
duty  as  occasion  offered,  until  he  was  killed,  Sept.  7, 1864. 
Mr.  McCready  was  endowed  with  a  clear  and  penetrating 
intellect;  his  education  was  comprehensive,  his  style 
logical  and  energetic,  his  manner  positive  and  emphatic. 
See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1866,  p.  2G5.  (J.  L.  S.) 
McCrie,  Thomas,  D.D.,  a  noted  Scotch  divine,  cel- 
ebrated as  a  writer  on  ecclesiastical  history  and  polem- 
ics, was  born  at  Dunse,  in  Berwickshire,  in  November, 
1772.  "Dr.  McCrie's  parents,"  says  his  biographer, 
"being  connected  with  that  branch  of  the  secession 
usually  termed  Anti-Burghers,  he  was  brought  up  under 
.  .  .  the  primitive  strictness  of  that  communion  .  .  . 
and  received  that  thoroughly  religious  education,  of  the 
importance  of  which  he  was  ever  afterwards  so  strenu- 
ous an  advocate,  and  of  the  success  of  which  he  was 
himself  a  striking  example."  After  securing  the  ru- 
diments of  education  at  the  parish  school  of  his  native 
place,  he  entered,  in  1788,  the  University  of  Edinburgh, 
and  in  1791  commenced  his  theological  studies.  In 
1795  he  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Associate  Pres- 
bytery of  Kelso,  and  he  was  immediately  afterwards 
chosen  pastor  of  a  congregation  of  the  same  body  in  Ed- 
inburgh, where  he  served  the  following  ten  years,  ap- 
plying himself  with  great  assiduity  to  the  discharge  of 
his  professional  duties,  and  occasionally  publishing  able 
pamphlets  on  some  of  the  gravest  and  most  difficidt 
subjects  of  theological  inquiry.  The  differences  of  opin- 
ion, and  the  appearance  of  Ketc-Lights  with  peculiar 
doctrines  quite  unknown  to  the  primitive  belief  of  the 
"Secession  Church,"  caused  McCrie  in  1806,  with  five 
friends,  among  them  the  celebrated  Bruce,  to  separate 
from  the  "  General  Associated  Synod,"  and  to  form  "the 
Constitutional  Associate  Presbytery,"  avowing  "strict 
adherence  to  the  princijiles  of  the  original  secession." 
(Here  compare  Hist.  Sketch  of  the  Oi'igin  of  the  Secession 
Church,  by  the  Eev.  A.  Thomson,  and  the  History  of 
the  Rise  of  the  Relief  Church,  by  the  Kev.  Gavin  Struth- 
ers  [Edinburgh,  1858, 12mo]).  During  the  controversy 
which  this  change  provoked  he  gave  himself  largely  to 
the  study  of  the  Peformers,  and  came  to  admire  so 
much  his  great  countryman,  John  Knox,  that  he  zeal- 
ously applied  himself  to  the  composition  of  a  Life  of 
.John  Knox  (Edinb.  1812,  8vo,  and  often),  a  masterly 
work,  that  combines  the  highest  excellences  of  which 
biography  is  capable,  and  was  by  his  contemporaries 
regarded  as  "a  literary  phenomenon."  "It  placed  the 
character  of  the  Scottish  Keformer,"  says  Jamieson  {Cy- 
clop. Pel.  Biog.  s.  v.),  "in  an  eniirely  new  light,  and 
showed  him  to  be  so  widely  different  from  the  rude  and 
illiterate  demagogue  he  had  been  hitherto  represented, 
that  its  appearance  was  hailed  with  patriotic  pride  and 
gratitude.  It  placed  the  name  of  McCrie  at  once  in  the 
foremost  ranks  of  living  historians.  The  highest  liter- 
ary honors  were  conferred  on  him"  (compare  Hethering- 
ton,  IFtst.  Ch.  of  Scotland,  ii,  369).  He  received  from 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  the  honorary  title  of  D.D., 
being  the  first  Dissenter  to  whom  that  distinction  was 
awarded ;  and  his  book,  besides  passing  through  several 
editions  in  Scotland,  was  translated  into  most  of  the  lan- 
guages of  Europe.  Encouraged  by  the  success  of  his 
first  literary  cll'ort.  Dr.  JlcCrie  published,  as  the  fruits 
of  his  researches  regarding  a  later  period  of  Scottish  ec- 
clesiastical liistory,  the  Biography  of  Andretc  Melville, 
a  celebrated  champion  of  Presbyterianism  in  the  reigii 
of  James  YI  of  Scotland.  This  work,  composed  on  the 
same  principle  of  combining  the  memoirs  of  an  ii.divid- 


McCULLOUGH 


940 


McDonald 


ual  with  a  narrative  of  public  events  (it  illustrates  the 
formation  of  the  Kirk  of  Srotlaiul.  and  the  peculiarities 
of  the  I'resbj'teriau  establishment),  evinces  a  vast 
amount  of  erudition  and  research.  Critics  of  Anglican 
teniiency  have  always  been  inclined  to  accuse  INIcCrie 
of  great  |iartisan  zeal  and  unfairness  to  his  opponents : 
thus  Jlr.  Ilallam  designated  his  writings  as  the  products 
of  "I'resbj'terian  Hildebrandism."  But  these  censures 
are  unjust  and  unmerited.  His  impartiality  and  can- 
dor, and  his  luiaffectcd  desire  to  investigate  the  truth, 
to  whatever  conclusion  it  might  lead,  have  been  clearly 
conccdetl  even  by  liberal  opponents,  and  unmistakably 
impress  themselves  on  every  thoughtful  reader.  A 
■writer,  commenting  on  a  later  production  from  Dr. 
McCrie,  in  the  Westminstei-  Review  (Jail.  1857),  aptly 
says :  "  McCrie  belongs  to  the  higher  class  of  writers  to 
whose  earnestness,  thoroughness,  and  genuine  research 
we  turn  for  relief  from  the  superficial  second-hand  show- 
iiiess  of  books  written  from  a  transient  impulse,  in  order 
to  supply  only  a  transient  need."  After  McCrie's  forma- 
tion of  the  "  Constitutional  Associate  Presbj'terj',"  ditfi- 
culty  arose  among  his  people  respecting  their  Church 
property.  The  result  finally  was  the  building  of  a  new 
place  of  worship  in  West  Nicholson  Street,  and  there  he 
ministered  for  nearly  thirty  years.  In  1821  he  made  a 
tour  to  the  Continent,  mainly  with  a  view  to  study  the 
Continental  Reformation,  and,  after  continuing  his  in- 
vestigations until  1827,  published  the  1/ist.  of  Ike  Ref. 
in  Itali/.  and  in  1829  the  Hist,  of  the  Ref.  in  Spain,  both 
of  which  had  the  honor  of  being  prominently  placed  in 
the  list  of  the  Koman  Index  of  forbidden  books,  and  are 
spoken  of  "  as  the  very  best  accounts  we  possess  of  the 
protest  made  against  Komisli  corruption  by  the  races  of 
the  South — a  protest  not  less  ardent,  but  unhappily  less 
persistent  than  that  of  the  phlegmatic  North."  At  the 
time  of  his  death,  Aug.  5, 1835,  the  doctor  was  engaged 
on  a  "Life  of  Calvin,"  which  unfortunately  he  left  un- 
completed. All  his  completed  works  were  published 
under  the  title  of  Worls  of  the  late  Thomas  McCrie, 
D.D.,  by  his  son  Thomas,  in  4  vols.  8vo  (Edinb.  1855- 
57).  They  contain,  besides  the  works  already  men- 
tioned, Discourses  on  the  Unity  of  the  Church  (1821): — 
Memoirs  of  William  Veitch  and  George  Bryson  (1825)  : 
— Lectures  on  the  Booh  of  Esther  (1838): — Vindications 
of  Christian  Faith  and  his  Sermons  (1836).  See  Life 
and  Times  of  Thomas  McCrie,  D.D.,  by  his  son  Thomas 
(Edinb.  1840,  8vo) ;  Blackwood's  Magazine,  xxxviii, 
429;  Gentl.  Magazine,  1835,  pt,  ii,  p.  434;  The  Amiucd 
Biogr.  and  Obit.  (Lond.  183(1,  8vo),  xx,  442;  AUibone, 
Diet.  Brit,  and  Amer.  Authors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v.;  Cunning- 
ham, Hist.  Studies,  i,  411.     (J.  H.  W.) 

McCulloiigh,  Egbert,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  in  Ireland.  He  received  a  classical  education 
in  the  College  of  Belfast,  Ireland;  subsequently  emigra- 
ted to  this  country,  and  studied  theology  in  Princeton 
Theological  Seminarj'.  In  1848  he  was  licensed,  and 
ordained  pastor  of  Blount  Grove  and  Hopewell  churches, 
Ohio,  where  he  remained  until  1856,  when  he  went  to 
California.  On  his  return  he  became  comiected  with 
the  New  Lisbon  I'resbytcry,  in  which  connection  he  re- 
mained imtil  his  death  in  1859.  See  Wilson,  Prcsb. 
Hist.  A  Imanac,  1800,  p.  76.     (J.  L.  S.) 

McCiirdy,  Joiix,  a  minister  of  the  IVIethodist  Epis- 
cojial  Churcli  South,  was  born  in  Elbert  County,  Ga., 
July  10,  1800;  in  1825  he  professed  religion,  and  joined 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church;  in  1830  was  licensed 
to  preach,  and  in  1843  was  admitted  into  the  Tennessee 
Annual  Conference.  P>om  that  time  till  his  death  he 
labored  faithfully  on  various  circuits  and  missions. 
Much  of  his  time  was  devoted  to  missionary'  work 
among  the  colored  people.  In  this  field  he  was  very 
successful.  For  the  last  several -years  of  his,  life  his 
health  was  feeble,  and  he  was  on  the  supernumerary'  and 
superannuated  lists.  He  died  in  Williamson  County, 
Tenn.,  Aug.  17,  1870.  Mr.  McCurdy  ''was  a  man  fif 
sound  judgment,  good  common-sense,  and  deep  and  uni- 


form piety.  He  lived  above  reproach,  and  died  honored 
by  all  who  knew  him." — Conference  Minutes  M,  E.  Ch, 
South,  1870,  s.  V. 

McCutchen,  James  B.,  a  minister  of  the  INIethod- 
ist  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  born  near  IMurfrees- 
boro,  Tenn.,  Aug.  26, 1829 ;  professed  religion  in  his  four- 
teenth year,  and  joined  the  Methodist  Church ;  was 
licensed  to  preach,  and  joined  the  Memphis  Annual  Con- 
ference in  1852;  was  appointed  to  Camden  Circuit  in 
1853;  Mount  Pinson  in  1854;  Tishomingo  in  1855;  Clin- 
ton Circuit  in  1857 ;  Paducah  Circuit  in  1858 ;  Murray 
Circuit  in  1860 ;  and  Tishomingo  Circuit  in  1861.  Dur- 
ing this  year  he  was  elected  chaplain  of  the  7th  Ken- 
tucky Regiment  C.  S.  A.  In  this  service  he  continued 
till  the  close  of  the  war,  when  he  resumed  his  place  as  p, 
travelling  preacher,  and  was  appointed  in  1860  to  Cage- 
ville  Circuit;  in  1808  to  Trenton  Circuit,  and  again  to 
Cageville  Circuit  in  1869.  He  died  Aug.  28,  1870. 
"  Brother  McCutchen  was  a  self-made  man,  having  re- 
ceived but  a  limited  education  in  his  youth,  but  by  in- 
dustry and  hard  study  he  had  acquired  a  very  good 
English  education,  and  no  mean  acquaintance  with  the 
Latin  and  Greek  languages.  His  preaching  was  of  a 
plain,  jiractical  character,  exhibiting  a  large  acquamt- 
ance  with  the  sacred  Scriptures,  and  with  the  standard 
literature  of  the  Church.  He  -was  not  of  a  polemical 
turn  of  mind,  but  when  our  dojtriues  were  attacked,  he 
alwaj's  showed  himseK  a  fearless  champion  and  a  trust- 
worthy debater.  But  few  men  in  our  ranks  are  better 
prepared  to  defend  our  doctrines  than  he  was,  and  yet 
he  cherished  a  noble  catholicity  of  sentiment  and  feel- 
ing that  did  credit  at  once  to  his  head  and  heart.  He 
was  not  merely  acceptable,  but  popular  and  useful,  mak- 
ing many  friends  wherever  he  went." — Conference  Min- 
utes M.  E.  Church  South,  1870,  s.  v. 

McDearmon,  James,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  Amelia  County,  Ya.,  A]iril  1, 1799 ;  was  educatetl 
in  what  were  known  as  the  Old  Fields  Schools  of  Vir- 
ginia; was  early  made  a  ruling  elder  in  the  Church, 
and  at  once  identified  himself  with  the  cause  of  temper- 
ance. He  was  licensed  by  West  Hanover  Presbytery  in 
1834,  and  in  1838  ordained  and  installed  pastor  over 
Hoe  Creek  and  IMorris  churches,  in  Campbell  County, 
Ya.  He  died  Sept.  15,  1867.  j\Ir.  ]McDearmon  was  a 
good  and  useful  man,  and  an  earnest  apostle  of  temper- 
ance in  his  region.  Hee  Wilson, Presb. Hist.  Almanac, 
1868,  p.  347. 

McDermott,  Tiiomas,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  Monmouth  County,  N.  J.,  in  1791 ;  was  educated 
in  the  Lawrenceville  High  School,  N.  J. ;  studied  divin- 
ity in  the  theological  seminary  at  Princeton  (class  of 
1832),  and  was  licensed  and  ordained  by  New  Bruns- 
wick Presbytery,  as  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Stillwater, 
N.  J. ;  in  1838,  removed  to  Ohio  as  pastor  of  Hubbard 
and  Unity  churches ;  in  1844  accepted  a  call  to  Clark- 
son  Church ;  and  in  1840  resigned  to  become  pastor  of 
Chippewa  Church,  where  he  remained  until  compelled 
to  resign  because  of  failing  health.  He  died  June  0, 
1861.  Mr.  McDermott  was  a  devoted  preacher ;  earnest 
in  his  work,  and  industrious  in  his  efforts.  See  Wilson, 
Fresh.  Hist.  A  Imanac.  1862,  p.  109.      (J.  L.  S.) 

McDonald,  Andrew,  a  Scotch  minister,  was 
born  at  Leith  in  1757 ;  was  educated  at  the  University 
of  Edinburgh  ;  was  ordained  deacon  in  1775;  jiastor  of 
a  congregation  at  Glasgow  in  1777;  subsequently  re- 
moved to  London,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  author- 
ship of  light  literature,  and  died  in  the  great  English 
metropolis,  "a  victim  to  sickness,  disappointment,  and 
misfortune,"  in  1790.  A  list  of  his  works  is  given  by 
AUibone.  Dirt.  Brit,  and  A)ner.  Authois,  ii,  1160. 

McDonald,  Daniel,  D.D.,  an  Episcopal  minister 
in  America,  was  born  near  Bedford,  Westchester  County, 
N.  v.,  about  1787,  and  was  educated  at  Middlebury  Col- 
lege. Having  taught  for  some  time,  he  was  ordaineil 
in  1810,  and  became  rector  of  St.  Peter's,  Auburn,  N.  Y. 
He  subsequently  took  charge  of  the  academy  in  Fair" 


McDonald 


941 


McFARLAND 


field,  Herkimer  Co.,  where  he  superintended  the  prepa- 
ration of  candidates  for  holy  orders.  In  1821  he  was 
made  D.D.  by  Columbia  College ;  removed  to  Geneva, 
and  served  for  many  years  as  missionarj'  in  the  village 
of  Waterloo.  He  became  professor  in  the  College  of  Ge- 
neva in  1825,  and  continued  so  until  his  death,  March 
25,  1830.  His  works  are  A  Sermon  in  the  Churchman^s 
Magazine,  and  A  Series  of  A  rticles  in  the  Gospel  Mes- 
senger, signed  P.     See  Sprague,  ^1  nnals,  v,  525. 

McDonald,  John,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  Brooke  County,  Va.,  July  25, 1794 ;  was  educated 
in  Ohio  University,  Athens,  Ohio ;  was  licensed  and  or- 
dained by  Athens  Presbytery  in  1827,  and  installed 
pastor  of  the  Church  in  Burlington, Ohio;  subsequently 
served  as  missionary  in  Kentucky;  in  1832  labored  in 
Manchester  and  Huntington  churches,  Ohio  ;  and  from 
1836  in  the  Pleasant  Prairie  Church,  111.,  until  his  death, 
Aug.  15,  1866.  Mr.  McDonald  was  possessed  of  rare 
mental  strength  and  discriminating  powers;  extensive 
religious  and  literary  actjuirements;  sterling  piety,  and 
unassuming  humilitv.  See  Wilson,  Presb,  Hist.  A  Ima- 
nac,  1867,  p.  18-1.     (.J.  L.  S.) 

McDonogll,  John,  an  American  philanthropist, 
a  merchant  of  New  Orleans,  was  born  at  Baltimore  in 
1778,  and  in  1800  removed  to  the  Southern  city,  where, 
after  having  by  hard  labor  and  strict  economy  amassed 
an  immense  fortune,  he  delighted  to  serve  the  cause  of 
humanity.  He  foimded  free  schools  and  asylums  for 
orphans,  and  also  aided  greatly  the  cause  of  the  "Amer- 
ican Colonization  Society."'  lie  established  himself  a 
colony  in  Africa,  and  sent  thither  many  of  his  own  ne- 
groes, after  having  previoiislv  provided  them  with  a 
thorough  education  and  a  trade.  He  died  Oct.  26. 1850. 
See  Drake,  Diet.  A  mer.  liiog.  s.  v. 

McDowell,  Alexander,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  Ireland,  and  came  to  this  country  in 
1737;  was  licensed  in  1739;  and  afterwards  itinerated 
through  portions  of  Maryland  and  Virginia,  until,  in 
1741,  he  was  ordained  as  an  evangelist  to  Virginia,  and 
subsequently  to  itinerate  in  New  Castle  Presbyterj' ;  in 
1743  took  charge  of  White  Clay  and  Elk  Kiver  church- 
es ;  in  1752  was  appointed  principal  of  the  Synod's 
school,  which  he  aftersvards  removed  to  Elktown,  Md., 
and  in  1767  to  Newark,  Del.  He  continued  to  labor  as 
a  teacher  and  preacher  until  his  death,  Jan.  12,  1782. 
See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1803,  p.  48.     (J.  L.  S.) 

McDowell,  John,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister 
(O.S.),  was  born  in  Bcdminster,  Somerset  County,  N.  J., 
Sept.  10, 1780;  was  educated  at  Princeton  College,  where 
he  graduated  A.B.  in  1801 ;  studied  theology  with  Dr. 
Woodhull,  of  Freehold  ;  and  was  licensed  by  the  Pres- 
bytery of  New  Brunswick  in  1804.  In  December  of  that 
year  he  was  installed  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
of  Elizabethtown,  where  lie  remained  until  1833.  Dur- 
ing his  ministry  there  1144  persons  were  added  to  the 
Church.  In  May,  1833,  he  became  pastor  of  the  Cen- 
tral Church,  Philadelphia,  which,  from  small  beginnings, 
grew  to  be  a  strong  Church  under  his  ministr}'.  In 
1846  he  accepted  a  call  to  the  new  Spring-garden  Street 
Church,  where  again  his  talent  for  organizing  and  es- 
tablishing a  society  was  very  successfully  employed. 
He  remained  in  this  parish  till  his  death,  February, 
1863.  He  published  a  System  of  Theology  (2  vols.)  : — Bi- 
ble Class  Manual  (2  vols.)  : — Bible  Questions ;  etc.  For 
nearly  fifty  years  he  was  a  trustee  of  Princeton  College, 
and  was  a  director  of  the  theological  seminary  from  its 
foundation.     See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  A  Im.  1864,  p.  186. 

McDowell,  William  Anderson,  D.D.,  a  Pres- 
byterian minister,  was  born  at  Lamington,  Somerset  Co., 
N.  J.;  in  1809  graduated  at  Princeton,  where  he  acted 
as  tutor  for  several  months;  comjilcted  his  theological 
studies  in  1813;  was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  New 
Brunswick,  and  ordained  and  installed  pastor  at  Bound 
Brook.  In  1814  he  became  pastor  of  the  Church  of 
INIorristown,  N.  J. ;  but  after  a  residence  of  nine  years 
his  health  obliged  him  to  resign ;  in  1823  he  was  installed 


liy  the  Charleston  Union  Presbytery,  ser\'ed  for  several 
years,  and  in  1832  became  moderator  of  the  General  As- 
sembly, and  secretary  of  the  "  Board  of  Domestic  Missions 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church"  (Phila.).  He  subsequently 
visited  the  South ;  and  preached  occasionally  in  New 
Jersey,  where  he  died,  Sept.  17, 1851.  See  Sprague,  A  n- 
nals,  iv,  495 ;  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1804. 

McElhany,  William  G.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  in  Huntington,  Pa. ;  graduated  at  Jefferson 
College,  Pa.,  in  1847  ;  studied  theology  in  the  Associate 
Reformed  Seminary  at  Canonsburg,  Pa. ;  and  in  1850 
was  licensed  by  Chartier  Presbytery;  in  1855  was  or- 
dained and  installed  pastor  of  the  Church  in  Hoboken, 
N.  J.,  which  relation  existed  until  his  death,  ]\Iay  28, 
1860.  Blr.  McElhany  was  a  sound  evangelical  preach- 
er.   See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  A  Im.  1861,  p.  209.    (J.  L.  S.) 

McFarland,  Asa,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  born  April  19, 1709,  at  Worcester,  Mass.;  grad- 
uated at  Dartmouth  College  in  1793 ;  was  ordained  pas- 
tor in  Concord, N.  II.,  March  7, 1798,  and  died  there  Feb. 
18, 1827.  He  was  made  trustee  of  Dartmouth  College 
in  1809,  and  president  of  the  New  Hampshire  Mission- 
ary Society  in  1811.  His  publications  were.  Oration  be- 
fore the  Phi  Beta.  Kappa  Society  in  Dartmouth  College 
(1802)  : — .4??  Historical  View  of  Heresies  and  Vindica- 
tion of  the  Primitire  Faith  (1808) ;  and  several  occa- 
sional Sermons.     See  Sprague,  Annals,  ii,412. 

McFarland,  James,  a  Presbyterian  divine,  was 
born  in  March,  1800.  at  Dumbarton,  within  the  present 
limits  of  the  city  of  Glasgow,  Scotland.  He  entered 
the  grammar  school  in  Glasgow  when  seven  years  old. 
He  next  passed  to  St.  Andrew's  College,  and  afterwards 
to  the  divinity  school  of  the  Established  Church,  and 
was  licensed  to  preach  the  Gospel  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
one.  During  his  college  course  he  served  as  private 
tutor  to  an  only  son  of  a  branch  of  the  great  familv  of 
Argyle.  At  the  age  of  twenty-six  he  became  the'  as- 
sistant and  successor  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Mushett,  at  Shet- 
tleston,  a  suburb  of  Glasgow.  Soon  after  he  was  called 
to  the  largest  and  most  numerous  congregation  in  the 
whole  of  Scotland  at  Aberbrotheck,  a  seaport  and  man- 
ufacturing town  between  Montrose  and  Aberdeen,  situ- 
ate on  the  German  Ocean.  In  the  year  1835  Mr.  Mc- 
Farland came  to  New  York,  and  a  little  later  went  to 
Delaware  County,  settled  by  Scotch  people,  many  of 
whom  were  the  associates  and  schoolmates  of  his  boy- 
hood. After  a  few  years  he  removed  to  Ulster  County, 
and  in  1838  was  called  to  be  the  pastor  of  the  Reformed 
Dutch  Church  of  IJloomingdale.  During  his  ministry 
in  that  place  a  beautiful  church  was  erected  in  the 
neighboring  village  of  Rosendale,  principalh^  through 
his  personal  efforts.  Unusual  accessions  were  made  to 
the  membership,  and  he  continued  as  pastor  of  the  united 
congregations  until  the  year  1844,  when  he  was  called 
to  a  large  and  flourishing  congregation  at  Canajoharie. 
In  1848  he  became  the  pastor  of  the  Reformed  Dutch 
Church  of  English  Neighborhood,  where  he  remained 
seven  years.  After  a  brief  visit  to  Canada,  he  returned 
to  Ulster  County  as  pastor  of  the  Reformed  Dutch 
Church  of  Esopus  and  St.  Remy  Chapel.  In  1861  he 
relinquished  Esopus  and  St.  Remy,  and  the  next  year 
became  minister  of  a  Presbyterian  congregation  in  Gal- 
way,  Fulton  County.  From  this  date  until  his  death 
his  ecclesiastical  relations  were  with  the  Presbyterian 
body.  In  1866  he  left  Gahvay,  and  became  pastor  of  a 
congregation  at  Port  Washington,  a  pleasant  summer 
retreat  on  the  Shrewsbury  River,  Monmouth  County, 
N.  J.  He  died  JMarch  23',  1870.  Mr.  McFarland  was 
distinguished  for  his  scholarship.  He  was  an  excellent 
linguist.  "  As  a  preacher,  INIr.  IMcFarland  was  careful  in 
his  preparations,  which  he  delighted  in  making  even  to 
the  last.  There  was  the  careful  use  of  language,  brev- 
ity in  treatment,  and  such  use  and  application  of  the 
truth  as  was  suited  to  excite  the  spirit  of  devotion,  to 
awaken  love  and  reverence,  and  to  administer  satisfying 
consolation  to  the  penitent  and  mourner.    His  positions 


McFARLAND 


942 


McGEE 


in  the  ministry  attest  popular  qualities,  his  labors  evince 
practical  tact,  and  his  success  in  gathorinp;  men  and 
■women  into  the  fold  attest  the  blessing  of  the  Good 
Shepherd  upon  his  ministrations."     (E.  de  P.) 

McFailaud,  James  Hunter,  a  Methodist  Epis- 
copal minister,  ;vas  born  in  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  March  10, 
1809;  was  converted  in  1827,  and  soon  after  licensed  to 
preach,  and  admitted  to  the  Philadelphia  Conference  in 
1830.  His  ministerial  charges  were  Trenton  Circuit,  Es- 
sex, Bergen  Neck  Mission,  I'laintield,  Westchester,  Bus- 
tleton,  Dover,  Elkton,  Agency  for  Dickinson  College, 
Newcastle,  Columbia,  Eighth  Street,  Philadelphia,  pre- 
siding eldership  of  Reading  District,  Frankford,  Borden- 
town,  and  Haverstraw,  N.  J.  In  185"2,  while  a  member 
of  the  New  Jersey  Conference,  his  health  failed,  and  he 
was  transferred  to  the  Philadelphia  Conference  as  a  su- 
pernumerary. In  June,  18G2,  he  was  appointed  chaplain 
of  the  United  States  Hospital  in  Philadelphia,  and  in 
this  relation  he  prosecuted  his  ministry  to  the  close  of 
his  life,  March  23, 18G3.  His  last  words  were  addressed 
to  his  wife:  "Mother,  I  am  dying!  Lord  Jesus,  take 
me !''  IMcFarland  was  for  more  than  twenty  years  a 
corresponding  member  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sci- 
ences in  Philadelphia,  and  was  also  a  member  of  the 
Entomological  Society.  "  He  was  a  very  faithful  and 
devoted  minister  of  Christ,  and  did  the  work  of  an  evan- 
gelist succcssfulh%  He  was  warm  in  his  friendship, 
faithful  to  the  demands  of  dut_v,  and  above  everything 
that  looked  like  a  compromise  of  Christian  principle." — 
Conference  Minutes,  1863,  p.  47. 

McFarlane,  Jessie,  a  female  preacher  of  the  So- 
ciety of  Friends,  was  born  about  the  year  1842 ;  com- 
menced preaching  at  seventeen,  at  first  to  girls  and 
^^•omen,  but  later  also  to  men.  After  eight  years  of  this 
service,  she  Ijccame  the  wife  of  Dr.  Brodie,  of  Edinburgh, 
and  spent  the  remainder  of  her  life  in  more  private  ac- 
tivity for  the  cause  of  her  Master.  She  died  about 
1869.  llcr  preaching  was  impressive,  her  life  one  of 
uncommon  purity  and  devotion,  her  death  triumphant. 
She  wrote  a  paper  on  the  scriptural  authority  for  the 
preaching  of  women,  which  is  inserted  in  a  memoir  of 
her  life,  entitled  In  Memoiiam  Jessie  McFarlane,  by 
J.  (t.  (Loud.  1872, 12mo).  See  Friends'  Review  (Phila.), 
0>;t.  12, 1872. 

McFerrin,  James,  a  distinguished  minister  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  Washington 
County,Va.,  March  25, 1784.  His  ancestors  emigrated 
from  Ireland  to  this  country  about  the  year  1740.  His 
father  was  a  Presbyterian,  a  ftirmer,  a  strict  observer  of 
the  Lord's  day,  and  esteemed  for  his  sobriety,  good  judg- 
ment, and  intelligence.  Mr.  JMcFerrin's  educational  ad- 
vantages were  very  limited,  the  years  of  his  minority 
being  passed  on  his  fiither's  farm,  where,  however,  he  ac- 
quired habits  of  industry,  sobriety,  and  enterprise.  On 
his  tweutietli  birthday  he  was  married  to  Jane  Camp- 
bell Berry ;  shortly  after  which  event  he  removed  from 
Virginia  to  llutherford  County,  Tenn.  The  country 
was  new,  the  settlements  exposed  to  depredations  by 
the  Indians;  hardships  and  dangers  were  consequently 
inseparal)le  from  .such  a  condition  of  things.  Mr.  Mc- 
Ferrin gave  great  attention  to  military  tactics,  in  which 
he  became  thoroughly  skilled,  and,  on  the  breaking  out 
of  the  war  with  Great  Britain  in  1812,  he  was  called 
into  service,  and,  as  captain  of  a  company  of  volunteers, 
was  engaged  in  a  campaign  against  the  Creek  Indians 
under  that  renowned  man,  general  Jackson.  On  ac- 
count of  his  brave  conduct  at  the  battle  in  which  the 
Indians  were  defeated,  Mr.  INIcFerrin  was  elected  colonel. 
In  his  thirty-sixth  year  his  whole  course  of  life  was 
changed,  the  result  of  which  was  that  he  thenceforth  de- 
voted himself  to  the  work  of  the  ministry.  In  182o  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Tennessee  Annual  Conference, 
and  was  appointed  to  the  Jackson  Circuit,  in  the  north- 
ern part  of  Alabama.  He  had  charge  of  this  circuit  two 
years.  The  two  subsecjuent  years  (1826  and  1827)  he 
travelled  the  Limestone  Circuit,  and  at  the  close  of  this 


period  removed  to  the  vicinity  of  Courtland,  Ala.,  Vv^here 
he  purchased  a  farm,  and  remained  for  several  years. 
This  was  in  the  Franklin  Circuit,  which  he  travelled 
in  the  years  1828  and  1829.  During  this  period  he  at- 
tended the  General  Conference  held  in  Pittsburg  in 
1828.  He  was  also  a  delegate  to  the  General  Confer- 
ence of  1832,  held  in  Philadelphia.  At  the  close  o'f  his 
labors  on  the  Franklin  Circuit  he  was  made  presiding 
elder  of  the  Richland  District,  which  he  travelled  four 
years.  In  the  year  1834,  having  determined  to  remove 
to  Western  Tennessee,  he  deemed  it  proper  to  locate  for 
one  year,  till  he  should  be  settled  in  his  new  home.  In 
1835  he  was  readmitted  into  Conference,  and  appointed 
to  the  Wesley  Circuit,  which  he  travelled  two  years. 
His  next  appointment  was  to  Randolph  and  Harmony, 
for  one  year;  and  to  the  Wesley  Circuit  for  one  \'ear 
(1839),  which  proved  to  be  the  last  of  his  itinerant  life. 
Among  his  papers  is  the  following  record,  made  in 
1839 :  "  Since  I  joined  Conference,  Nov.  25, 1823, 1  have 
preached  2088  times,  baptized  673  adults  and  813  in- 
fants, and  have  taken  into  society  3965  members."  Mr. 
McFerrin  died  Sept.  4, 1840. 

McGaiighey,  Williaji  G.,  a  minister  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  South,  was  born  in  Davidson 
County,  Tenn.,  Jan.  12,  1812 ;  was  converted  in  1833 ; 
was  licensed  to  exhort  at  Holly  Springs,  Miss.,  about 
1843 ;  and  shortly  after  received  license  to  preach,  and 
accomplished  much  good  for  the  Church  in  this  capac- 
ity. He  v/as  also  for  several  years  agent  for  the  Amer- 
ican Bible  Society.  In  1847  he  was  ordained  deacon 
by  bishop  Soule;  elder  by  bishop  Andrew  in  1852; 
in  1855  was  admitted  into  Louisiana  Conference,  and 
ap]3ointed  to  Swan  Lake  and  Pecan  Grove;  to  Lake 
Providence  in  1858;  Carroll  Circuit  in  1859;  Tensas  and 
Elizabeth  Chapel  in  1861 ;  Tensas  Mission  in  1863;  Wes- 
ley, Tensas,  and  Jordan  Chapel  in  1864 ;  Tensas  District 
in  1865;  Like  Providence  District  in  1867;  Carroll  Cir- 
cuit in  1870 ;  and  in  1871  Lake  Providence.  He  died 
Jan.  26,  1872.  Jlr.  McGaughey  was  a  devoted  Chris- 
tian and  an  able  minister,  much  esteemed  by  all  who 
knew  him.  —  Conference  Minutes  of  the  M.  E.  Church 
South,  1872,  s.  V. 

McGavin,  Williaji,  a  celebrated  Scotch  layman 
and  writer,  ^vas  born  in  the  ]5arish  of  Auchinleck,  Aj'r- 
shire,  Aug.  12, 1773.  His  parents  were  in  ver\'  moder- 
ate circumstances,  anti  young  IMcGavin  therefore  en- 
joyed but  slender  educational  advantages.  While  yet 
a  boy  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  bookseller  and  printer, 
but  soon  made  himself  a  host  of  friends  by  the  great 
literary  talent  he  displayed  in  frequent  contributions  to 
the  local  ne^\'spapers.  He  was  intrusted  with  the  care 
of  an  elementary  school,  which  he  conducted  with  skUl, 
though  he  hated  the  drudgerj'  of  teaching.  He  took 
an  early  opportunity  to  quit  the  rostrum,  and  to  seek  a 
livelihood  in  the  counting-house.  He  became  the  agent 
of  the  British  Linen  Company's  banking  establishment 
in  Glasgow.  Although  this  business  connection  gave 
him  great  care  and  responsiliility,  McGavin's  fondness 
of  writing  would  not  allow  him  to  withdraw  altogether 
from  literary  labors,  and,  by  habits  of  unwearied  indus- 
try, he  was  enabled  to  command  leisure  for  the  publi- 
cation of  many  valuable  religious  tracts.  An  ardent 
opponent  of  Romanism,  he  attacked  it  in  a  scries  of  pa- 
pers entitled  the  "Protestant"  (1818-21),  which  Dr. Rob- 
ert Hall  (Review  of  Birt's  Popery)  pronounced  "the  full- 
est delineation  of  the  popish  system,  and  the  most  pow- 
erful confutation  of  its  principles,  in  a  jiopular  style." 
IMcGavin  also  edited  John  Howie's  Scotch  Worthies, 
and  John  Knox's  Hist,  of  the  Reformation,  and  frequent- 
ly preached  to  the  poor  and  the  humble  in  the  suburbs 
of  Glasgow.  He  died  in  1832.  See  Chambers's  and 
Thomson's  Bioff.  Diet,  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  (1865),  vol. 
iii,  s.  V. ;  Jamieson,  Diet,  of  Relig.  Biarj.  s.  v.;  AUibone, 
Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer.  Authors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

McGee,  William  C,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  Paterson,  N.  J.,  Aug.  15, 1816,  and  was  educated 


McGILVARY 


943 


McILVAINE 


at  New  Jersey  College,  N.  J.  (class  of  183G),  and  at  the 
theological  seminary,  Princeton,  N.  J.  In  1841  he  was 
licensed  and  ordained  pastor  of  Hardwick  and  jMarks- 
borough  churches,  where  he  remained  until  his  death, 
Mav  25. 1867.  Mr.  McGee,  as  a  preacher,  was  earnest, 
lucid,  and  practical;  as  a  pastor,  constant  and  zealous; 
as  a  citizen,  intelligent  and  public-spirited.  See  Wil- 
son, Presh.  Hist.  A  linanac,  1868,  p.  127.      (J.  L.  S.) 

Mc  Gil  vary,  Archibald  B.,  a  minister  of  the  Meth- 
odist Einscopal  Church  South,  was  born  in  the  Isle  of 
Skye,  coast  of  Scotland,  towards  the  close  of  the  last 
century.  He  came  to  this  country  in  1806,  joined  the 
South  Carolina  Conference  in  1832,  and  died  at  Green- 
ville, S.  C,  June  9, 1863.  "  Brother  McGilvary  was  a 
modest,  cheerful,  and  agreeable  man,  a  faithful  friend, 
and  good  citizen.  As  a  minister  of  Christ,  he  was  holy, 
laborious,  and  useful."— Co;?/M-e?!ce  Minutes  of  the  M.  E. 
C/iurch>South,u,Ud. 

McGlashan,  Alexander,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  in  (Jueenston,  Canada,  Feb.  23, 1812 ;  pursued 
his  preparatory  studies  in  the  academy  in  Geneva,  N.  Y. ; 
graduated  at  Hobart  College,  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  and  in  18-10 
at  the  theological  seminary  in  Auburn,  N.  Y.  He  was 
licensed  and  ordained  as  an  evangelist  in  1843,  and  after- 
wards commissioned  by  the  American  Tract  Society 
as  a  general  agent  to  the  Southern  States.  While  in 
this  employ  he  built  a  mariner's  church  in  Jlobile,  Ala. ; 
subsequently  his  services  were  transferred  from  the  tract 
and  colportage  efforts  to  the  cause  of  the  Seaman's 
Friend  Society.  In  1859  he  again  removed  to  the 
North,  and  in  1863  commenced  work  for  the  cause  of 
the  sailor  in  New  York  City,  where  he  established  a  new 
church,  called  the  Church  of  the  Sea  and  Land.  In 
18G6  he  removed  to  St.  Catharine's,  Canada,  where  he 
remained  until  his  death,  Sept.  9, 1867.  Mr.  McGlashan 
was  a  man  of  extraordinary  Christian  zeal,  peculiar  tal- 
ents, and  marked  success.  See  Wilson,  Presfi.  Hist.  A  l- 
mumir.  18G8,  p.  128.     (J.  L.  S.) 

McGorrisk,  Bernard,  a  Roman  Catholic  priest, 
was  born  in  Ireland  in  1818;  went  to  Paris  to  pursue 
an  academical  course,  and  there  also  studied  theology ; 
emigrated  to  this  country  early  in  1842;  was  engaged 
for  several  months  as  professor  of  French  at  St.  John's 
College  (Fordham,  N.  Y.) ;  afterwards  went  as  mission- 
ary priest  to  the  West,  where  he  labored  for  nearly 
eighteen  years,  building  fifteen  or  sixteen  churches. 
About  1860  he  removed  to  Brooklyn,  where  he  built  the 
present  church  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul.  He  died  Oct. 
29, 1865. — Kno  Amer.  Cyclop.  1865,  p.  654. 

McGregor,  David,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  Ireland  in  1711,  and  from  1736  until  his  death 
(May  30, 1777)  was  pastor  of  Londonderry  Church,  New 
Hampshire.  He  received  the  degree  of  A.IVI.  from  New 
Jersey  College.  He  published  Sermons  ami  Theolog- 
ical Treatises  (1741-74).  See  Drake,  Diet,  of  Amer. 
Biofj.  s.  V. 

McHenry,  Barnabas,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  one  of  the  eastern  coun- 
ties of  Virginia  Dec.  10, 1767 ;  was  converted  when  only 
fifteen  years  of  age,  and  shortly  after  joined  the  Church. 
Called  to  preach  the  Gospel,  he  entered  the  itinerancj' 
in  Jlay,  1787,  and  was  appointed  to  Yadkin  Circuit. 
Thereafter  he  successively  served  the  cause  of  his  blas- 
ter in  the  following  appointments:  in  1788  at  Cumber- 
land Circuit :  in  1789  at  Danville  ;  in  1790  at  Madison ; 
in  1791  at  Cumberland;  was  placed  in  charge  of  the 
district  in  1792,  and  in  1793  of  an  enlarged  number  of 
circuits;  in  1794  he  was  sent  to  Salt  River  Circuit;  in 
1795  was  located  on  account  of  impaired  health;  in 
1819  was  readmitted,  and  appointed  presiding  elder  of 
Salt  River  District,  Tennessee  Conference,  but  his  health 
again  failed  him,  and  he  was  finally  obliged  to  retire 
from  active  work,  and  take  the  place  of  a  superannuate. 
He  died  at  Mount  Pleasant,  near  Springfield,  Ky.,  June 
16,  1833.  "Barnabas  McHenry,"  is  the  testimony  of 
one,  '•  was  a  man  of  strong  mind  and  able  in  argument. 


He  stood  upon  the  v/alls  of  our  Zion  and  defended  her 
bulwarks  when  slie  was  assailed  by  an  enemy."  Bishop 
Bascom  says,  "  Of  the  early  years  of  his  ministry  but 
little  is  known,  except  vague  yet  cherished  traditions 
of  the  beauty,  unction,  and  eloquence  of  his  preaching, 
together  with  the  dangers  and  hardships  to  which  he 
was  exposed  as  a  pioneer  missionary  in  the  wilderness 
of  the  West  from  1788  to  1795.  .  .  .  Even  a  century  in 
a  single  community  produces  few  such  men  as  Barnabas 
McHenry  and  Valentine  Cook,  They  were  men  by 
themselves,  and  their  memory  would  adorn  the  history 
of  any  Church  or  age."  See  Sprague,  vl  ?»««?«  of  the 
Amei-ican  Puljrit,  vii,  143  sq. ;  Finley,  Sketches  of  the  M. 
E.  Church  South ;  J\Iii)utes  ofCorferences,  1834. 

Mcllvaine  (or  Macllvaine),  Charles  Petit, 
D.D.,  an  eminent  divine  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church,  ivas  born  in  Burlington,  New  Jersey,  June 
18,  1798.  His  father,  Joseph  Mcllvaine,  was  a  leading 
lawyer  and  United  States  senator  from  New  Jersey  at 
the  time  of  his  death,  in  1826.  Charles  graduated  in  1816 
at  Princeton ;  was  admitted  to  deacon's  orders  July  4, 
1820,  by  bishop  White,  and,  having  labored  in  Christ 
Church,  Georgetown,  Md.,  he  received  two  years  later 
priest's  orders  from  bishop  Kemp,  of  Blarvland.  In 
1825  he  became  professor  of  ethics  and  chaplain  in 
the  United  States  Military  Academy  at  West  Point.  In 
1827  he  became  rector  of  St.  Ann's  Church,  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  where  he  remained  until  1832,  when  he  was  con- 
secrated bishop  of  Ohio.  While  rector  at  Brooklyn,  he 
also  held  the  professorship  of  evidences  of  revealed  re- 
ligion and  sacred  antiquities  in  the  University  of  the 
City  of  New  York.  In  the  episcopacy.  Dr.  IMcIlvaine 
quickly  made  a  name  for  himself  as  a  man  of  learning, 
and  of  unusual  kindliness  of  disposition,  not  only  in  his 
own  Church,  but  among  all  Christians,  both  in  this  coun- 
try and  in  Europe.  For  the  last  ten  years  or  more 
he  was  looked  upon  as  the  representative  of  the  Low 
Churchmen  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  Jn 
his  death  (which  occurred  at  Florence,  Italy,  while  on  a 
journey  for  recreation,  INIarch  14.  1873),  irenical  theol- 
ogy has  lost  one  of  its  ablest  advocates,  and  the  Evan- 
gelical Association  one  of  its  most  active  promoters. 
Bishop  Mcllvaine  was  a  large  contributor  to  theological 
literature.  His  Lectures  on  the  Evidences  of  Christianity 
(9tli  ed.  1857, 12mo,  reprinted  in  England  and  Scotland), 
delivered  in  New  York  University  in  1831.  were  pub- 
lished by  request  of  the  Council,  and  have  gone  through 
many  editions.  During  the  early  part  of  the  controversy 
arising  out  of  the  Oxford  tracts,  appeared  his  Oxford 
Divinity  compared  with  that  of  the  Roniish  and  Anf/lican 
Churches  (Phila.  1841, 8vo  ;  Lend.  1841, 8vo),  which  the 
Edinburgh  Review  recommended  as  one  of  the  best "  con- 
futations of  the  Oxford  school."  In  1854  he  published  a 
volume  of  sermons  entitled  The  Truth  and  the  Life.  He 
also  compiled  two  volumes  of  Select  Family  and  Parish 
Sermons  (Columbus,  Ohio,  1839, 2  vols.  8vo).  His  other 
works  of  a  minor  character  are.  The Sinne7''s  Justification 
before  God  (N.Y.  18mo;  Lond.  1851,  sq.)  :— TAe  Holy 
Catholic  Church  (Phila.  18mo ;  Lond.  1844, 16mo)  -.—No 
Priest,  no  Altar,  no  Sacrifice,  but  Chi-ist  (N.  Y.  12mo; 
Lond.  r2mo)  :  —  Valedictory  Ojfh-ing  ;  Five  Serrhons 
(1853,  12mo)  : — A  Word  in  Season  to  Candidates  for 
Confirmation : — The  Doctrines  of  the  Prot.  Epis.  Church 
(IS  to  Confirmation : — Chief  Danger  of  the  Cku7-ch : — The 
Truth  and  the  Life ;  a  Series  of  Twenty-two  Discourses 
(N.  Y.  1855,  8vo;  Lond.  1855,  8vo  ;  this  volume  was 
published  at  the  request  of  the  Convention  of  the  Dio- 
cese of  Ohio,  together  with  A  Memoir  of  the  Rev.  Chas. 
Simeon,  both  published  in  New  York)  ;  and  contributed 
articles  to  the  N.  Y.  ((luarterly)  Review,  the  tfiscojutl 
(monthly)  Observer,  the  J.ondon  (monthly)  Christian 
Observer,  the  Protestant  Chxtrchman  (New  York),  the 
Ej)iscopal  Recorder  (Phila.),  and  the  Western  Episco- 
palian (Gambler,  Ohio).  In  1853  the  degree  of  D.C.L. 
was  conferred  on  him  by  the  University  of  Oxford,  and 
in  1858  that  of  LL.D.  by  the  University  of  Cambridge. 
He  was  distinguished  for  the  soundness  and  clearness 


McIVER 


944 


McKENDREE 


of  his  evangelical  views,  and  for  the  expository  charac- 
ter of  his  preaching.  "  That  for  which  as  a  preacher  he 
is  most  eminent  is  his  power  of  illustrating  Scripture 
hy  Scripture  ;  and  his  mode  of  doing  this  shows  at  once 
the  fidness  and  the  accuracy  of  his  knowledge  of  Script- 
ure and  the  transparent  simplicity  of  his  conception 
....  in  all  his  preaching  he  aims  to  lay  broad  and  deep 
the  foundations  of  the  Christian  character,  in  strong, 
clear  views  of  man's  sinfulness  and  need,  and  Christ's 
fulness  and  freeness  as  a  Saviour."  See  Fish,  Pulpit 
Eloquence  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  (N.  Y.  1857, 442,  q.  v.) 
for  a  notice  of  this  excellent  prelate,  and  a  sermon  of 
liis  on  the  resurrection  of  Christ.  See,  also,  Western 
Memorabilia;  Knickerbocker, Kx:i.v, 42;  Darling,  Cyclop. 
Bibl.  i,  1911;  AUibone,  Diet.  Brit,  and  Amer.  Authors, 
vol.  ii,  s.  V.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Mclver,  J.  W.,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
cojial  Church  South,  was  born  Sept.  19, 1835 ;  professed 
rehgion  in  1858  ;  joined  the  Memphis  Conference  in 
18G1,  and  filled  the  Chulahoma  and  Good  Springs  cir- 
cuits. He  joined  the  Confederate  army  in  the  late  civil 
war.  In  1865  and  18GG  he  was  appointed  to  the  Rich- 
land and  Cassida  circuits;  and  in  1867  to  the  luka  Cir- 
cuit. He  died  suddenly,  of  congestion,  while  on  his 
way  to  an  appointment,  Jan.  17, 1868.  "Brother  Mclvor 
was  a  very  promising  young  preacher,  much  beloved  by 
all  the  people  where  he  preached,  and  it  is  with  feel- 
ings of  deepest  sadness  that  we  record  his  early  death." 
See  Conference  Minutes  of  the  M.  E.  Church  South,  iii, 
246. 

McKay,  William,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
liorn  in  Columbiana  County,  Ohio,  July  7,  1825;  pursued 
his  academic  course  at  .Jefferson  College,  Canonsburg, 
I'a. ;  studied  theology  at  the  Western  Theological  Sem- 
inary, Alleghany  City,  Pa. ;  was  licensed  by  the  Pres- 
bytery of  New  Lisbon,  and  immediately  took  temporary' 
charge  of  the  Church  at  Yellow  Creek;  but,  owing  to  ill- 
health  and  other  causes,  had  to  give  up  his  labors.  He 
died  Jan.  19, 1863.  Mr.  McKay  possessed  an  extensive 
knowledge  of  the  Scriptures,  and  was  well  versed  in 
ttieologv.     See  Wilson,  Presh.  Hist.  Almanac,  1864,  p. 

isr.    (J.  L.  s.) 

McKean,  James  W.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  in  Lawrence  County,  Pa.,  April  30,  1833  ;  was 
educated  at  Richmond  College  and  Jefferson  College, 
Canonsburg,  Pa.  (class  of  1859),  and  at  the  Western 
Theological  Seminary ;  in  1862  was  licensed  and  or- 
dained by  the  Ohio  Presbytery,  with  a  view  to  labor  as 
a  domestic  missionary  in  the  Lake  Superior  region ;  in 
1863  was  elected  principal  of  the  Synodical  School  at 
Hopkinton,  Iowa,  where  he  continued  to  labor  until 
May,  1864,  when  he  enlisted  in  the  service  of  his  coun- 
try. He  died  while  in  camp,  July  9, 1864.  Mr.  BIcKean 
Avas  an  accurate  scholar,  a  good  teacher,  and  a  model 
of  Christian  piety.  See  Wilson,  Presh.  Hist.  A  Imanac, 
18G6.  p.  137.     (J.  L.  S.) 

McKean,  Joseph,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Congregational 
minister,  was  born  April  19,  1776,  in  Ipswich,  Mass. ; 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1794;  entered  the  min- 
istry, and  was  ordained  pastor  in  Jlilton,  Mass.,  Nov.  1, 
1797;  resigned  Oct,  3,  1804;  was  elected  professor  of 
mathematics  in  Harvard  College  in  1806,  but  declined, 
and  was  chosen  Boylston  professor  of  rhetoric  in  1809. 
He  remained  in  this  position  until  his  health  failed. 
He  died  at  Havana  March  17,  1818.  He  published  a 
Memoir  of  the  Rev.  John  Eliot,  S.T.I).,  m  tlie  HiM. 
Coll.,  and  several  occasional  sermons  and  addresses.  See 
Sjiraguc,  .  1  nual.t,  ii,  414. 

McKeain,  Rich  Ann,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  born 
in  Rawdon,  Ireland,  Aug.  22,  1804,  and  emigrated  with 
his  parents,  while  yet  a  youth,  to  the  British  possessions 
this  side  the  Atlantic,  and  finally  settled  at  liowdon, 
N.  F.  Richard  was  reared  in  the  lipiscopal  Church,  but  in 
1820  was  converted  under  the  preaching  of  elder  James 
Munro,  a  Baptist  evangcHst,  and  in  1821  finally  joined 
the  Baptists ;  lie  began  preaching  in  182G,  and  March  10, 


1828,  became  the  pastor  of  a  congregation  at  Rowdon. 
In  May,  1829,  he  was  called  upon  to  assume  the  pastor- 
ate of  a  Baptist  congregation  at  Windsor  also,  and  he 
thereafter  preached  both  at  Rowdon  and  Windsor  until 
about  1836,  when  ill  health  compelled  him  to  withdraw 
from  the  ministry.  Deprived  of  the  advantages  of  aca- 
demic training,  he  had  prepared  for  college  while  in  the 
ministry,  and  in  1839  matriculated  at  Kmg's  College, 
and  there  graduated  in  due  course  of  time,  and  took  his 
degree  of  I3.A.  In  1842,  his  health  still  too  feeble  to  re- 
enter the  ministry,  he  removed  to  Dartmouth,  and  estab- 
lished himself  in  business.  He  died  Aug.  17,1860,  acknowl- 
edged by  all  who  knew  him  to  have  been  "  a  conspicu- 
ous example  of  unbending  Christian  integrit}',  and  ear- 
nest, steadfast  devotion  to  the  cause  of  Christ."  '•  As  a 
preacher,"  says  one  of  his  contemporaries  and  associates, 
"Mr.  McKearn  commanded  the  full  attention  of  his  au- 
ditory. His  manner  was  earnest  and  energetic ;  his 
subjects  practical,  and  treated  -with  clearness  and  preci- 
sion. Their  application  to  the  heart  and  conscience  was 
with  great  power.  His  language  was  free  and  copious, 
his  voice  excellent,  and  capable  of  great  modulation. 
As  his  subject  required,  he  was  earnestly  winning  and 
persuasive,  or  denounced  with  fearful  energy  the  courses 
of  the  ungodlv."  See  The  Christian  Messenger  (Hali- 
fax), Oct.  17, 1860. 

McKeen,  Joseph,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minis- 
ter, noted  as  an  educator,  was  born  Oct.  15,  1757,  in 
Londonderry,  N.  H. ;  graduated  at  Dartmoutli  in  1774; 
served  under  general  Sullivan  in  the  Revolution;  was 
licensed  to  preach,  and  ordained  pastor  in  Beverly  in 
May,  1785.  In  1802  he  was  chosen  first  president  of 
Bowdoiu  College,  and  was  inaugurated  Sept.  2.  He 
died  July  15,  1807.  '"Dr.  McKeen  possessed  a  strong 
and  discriminating  mind;  his  manners  were  concilia- 
ting though  dignified,  and  his  spirit  mild  though  firm 
and  decided.  He  was  indefatigable  in  his  exertions  to 
promote  the  interests  of  science  and  religion.  He  was 
respectable  for  his  learning  and  exemplary  for  his  Chris- 
tian virtues,  being  pious  without  ostentation,  and  ad- 
hering to  evangelical  truth  without  bigotry  or  supersti- 
tion." He  published  his  Inaugural  Address  and  a  few 
occasional  Sermons. — Sprague,  Annals,  ii,  216. 

McKendree,WiLLiAJi,  a  bishop  of  the  Jlethodist 
Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  King  AA'illiam  County, 
Va.,  July  G,  1757.  He  was  the  subject  of  frequent  re- 
ligious impressions  in  youth,  but  he  failed  to  find  peace. 
He  was  an  adjutant  and  commissary  in  Washington's 
army  for  several  years,  and  was  present  at  the  surrender 
of  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown  in  1781 ;  in  1787  he  was  con- 
verted, during  the  great  revival  that  occurred  under  the 
labors  of  the  Rev.  John  Easter;  and  entered  the  itineran- 
cy June  17, 1788.  In  1796  he  was  made  presiding  elder; 
in  1801  was  sent  by  the  bishops  to  preside  over  Kentucky 
District,  and  to  have  general  superintendence  of  the 
AVestern  Conference,  then  embracing  Ohio,  Kentucky, 
Tennessee,  Western  Virginia,  and  jiart  of  Illinois;  and  in 
1806  was  presiding  elder  on  Cumberland  District,  with 
the  same  supervision  of  the  Conference.  At  the  (ieneral 
Conference  in  Baltimore,  May,  1808,  McKcndree  was 
(inally  promoted  to  the  highest  office  in  the  gift  of  the 
Churcli — the  episcopacy.  He  died  March  5, 1835,  at  his 
brother's,  near  Nashville,  Tenn.,  having  preached  faith- 
fully almost  fifty  j'ears,  been  twelve  years  a  presiding 
elder,  and  nearly  twenty-seven  3'ears  a  bishop  in  the 
Church.  Bishop  IMcKendree  was  one  of  the  most  emi- 
nent of  all  the  preachers  and  pastors  of  his  age.  From 
the  time  of  his  first  efforts  he  was  marked  as  a  man  of 
the  most  vigorous  genius,  the  most  genuine  modesty, 
and  the  most  devoted  piety.  Although  not  classically 
educated,  his  broad  and  grasping  mind  went  on  acquir- 
ing and  growing  until  it  had  digested  and  could  wield 
at  will  a  vast  and  varied  knowledge.  His  imagination 
was  grand  and  fervid,  but  always  healthy;  and  could 
give  to  liis  knowledge  the  freshness  of  romance,  or  to 
his  judgment  the  spell  of  prophecy.    His  utterance  was 


McKENNAN 


945 


McKINNEY 


copious  and  forcible,  and  his  voice  ricb,  deep,  and  flexi- 
ble. These  elements  of  mind  and  means,  employed  by 
a  strong  and  pathetic  heart  baptized  with  the  Holy 
Ghost,  made  him  not  only  the  most  truly  eloquent 
bishop  that  his  Church  has  ever  possessed,  but  one  of 
the  best  preachers  of  any  Church  or  age.  As  a  pastor, 
his  administrative  abilities  were  unrivalled.  He  found 
the  economical  methods  of  the  Church  crude  and  indef- 
inite, and  imparted  to  them  a  systematic  vigor ;  and  he 
was  a  distinguished  promoter  of  her  benevolent  institu- 
tions. As  a  man  and  a  Christian  he  was  honored  by 
every  class  of  society.  His  labors  were  mighty  in  lay- 
ing the  deep  foundations  of  evangelical  rehgion  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley,  and  his  genius  and  devotion  are  still 
a  power  in  the  churches,  and  his  memory  is  blessed. 
See  Minutes  of  Conferences,  ii,  402 ;  Life,  by  B.  St.  J. 
Fry,  in  the  IM.  E.  S.  S.  Library ;  and  that  by  Bp.  Paine, 
of  the  M.  E.  Church  South  (Nasliville,  18G9,  2  vols. 
12mo) ;  Summers,  Biog.  Sketches,  p.  43 ;  Wakely,  Heroes 
of  Methodism,  p.  93;  Bennett  (AV.  B.),  Memorials  of 
Methodism  in  Virginia  (Richm.  1871,  r2mo),  p.  2G0  sq. ; 
BIcFerrin,  Hist.  Meth.  in  Tennessee,  i,  30G ;  Itedford,  Hist. 
Meth.  in  Kentucl-y,  ii,  28.     (G.  L.  T.) 

McKemian,  Jajies  Wilsox,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  born  in  Washington,  Pa.,  Sept.  2,  1804; 
graduated  at  Washington  College,  Pa.,  in  1822,  and  then 
studied  and  practiced  law  at  jMillersburg,  Ohio ;  subse- 
quently commenced  the  study  of  theology  with  Dr. 
John  Anderson,  of  Upper  Buffalo  Church,  Pa. ;  was 
licensed  by  Washington  Presbytery  in  1828,  and  in  1829 
was  ordained  and  installed  pastor  of  the  United  churches 
of  Lower  Buffalo  and  West  Liberty,  Pa.  In  1835  he 
accepted  a  call  to  Indianapolis,  but  owing  to  infirm 
health  he  had  to  resign.  lie  was  afterwards  engaged 
in  teaching  in  Wheeling,  and  at  Moundsville,  Ya.,  and 
also  as  rector  in  the  preparatory  department,  and  ad- 
junct professor  of  languages  in  Washington  CoUege. 
He  died  July  19, 1861.  Dr.  McKennan's  character  was 
truly  remarkable  in  candor,  benevolence,  and  meekness ; 
in  simplicity  and  directness  of  purpose ;  in  strength  of 
faith  and  zeal.  His  sermons  were  characterized  by 
plainness  and  directness  of  stvle.  See  Wilson.  Presb. 
Hist.  A  Imanac,  18G2,  p.  109,     (J.  L.  S.) 

McKinley,  John,  a  minister  of  the  Reformed 
Presbyterian  Church,  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
July  18,  1815.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  wliicli  institution  he  entered  when  not 
quite  fourteen  years  old,  and  there  he  graduated  with 
the  first  honor  of  his  class  in  1833.  From  his  very  child- 
hood the  ministry  had  been  looked  to  as  the  profession 
nf  his  life,  and  he  therefore,  immediately  upon  the  com- 
pletion of  his  college  course,  entered  npon  the  study  of 
theology  at  the  theological  seminary  of  his  Chiu-ch,  then 
under  the  care  of  Dr.  Samuel  B.  Wylie.  In  1835  Mr. 
IMcKinley  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Presbytery  of 
Philadelphia.  After  tilling  various  minor  appointments, 
lie  was  in  1838  called  to  the  pastorate  of  the  Reformed 
Presbyterian  Church  at  JNIilton,  Pa.  Here  he  labored 
acceptably  and  successfully  until  1841,  when  failing 
health  compelled  him  to  withdraw  from  active  work. 
His  precautions  had  been  taken  too  late,  for  he  failed 
rapidly,  and  died  Oct.  5  of  the  same  year.  "All  who 
knew  him  recognised  in  his  death  the  extinction  of  one 
of  the  bright  lights  of  the  Church."  His  only  publica- 
tion is  a  series  of  articles  on  the  Slave  Trade,  which  ap- 
peared in  a  weekly  periodical  at  Milton,  Pa.  "  He  was 
a  man  of  cultivated  intellect,  of  sound  and  discrimina- 
ting judgment,  of  generous  sj'mpathies  and  noble  im- 
pulses, and  fervent  piety."  See  Sprague,  A  nnuls  of  the 
Amer.  Pulpit,  ix,  87  sq. 

McKinney,  Calvin,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  at  Wallkill,  Orange  County, 'n.  Y.,  Jan.  12,  1819. 
He  received  a  good  academic  education,  afterwards 
studied  theology  in  the  Associate  Reformed  Seminary 
at  Xewburg,  N.  Y.,  and  \vas  licensed  and  ordained  in 
J856.  He  labored  successively  at  Blillport,  Blecklen- 
V.— 0  o  o 


burg,  and  West  Groton,  N.  Y.     He  died  June  9,  1864. 
See  Wilson,  Presh.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1866,  p.  220.   (J.  L.  S.) 

McKinney,  David,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  Mifflin  County,  Pa.,  Oct.  23,  1795.  He 
was  educated  at  Jefferson  College  (class  of  1821) ;  then 
studied  theology  at  the  school  of  divinity  at  Princeton, 
N.  J. ;  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Presbytery  of  Phil- 
adelphia in  April,  1824,  and  ordained  and  installed  at 
Erie,  Pa.,  in  May,  1825.  In  1835  he  removed  to  the 
bomids  of  the  Presbytery  of  Huntingdon,  and  took 
charge  of  the  churches  at  Sinking  Creek  and  Spring; 
in  1841  he  was  transferred  to  HoUidaysburg,  in  the  same 
presbytery.  In  1852,  having  severed  his  pastoral  rela- 
tions. Dr.  McKinney  removed  to  Philadelphia,  and  there 
established  the  Presbyterian  Banner,  In  1855  he  re- 
moved the  office  of  publication  to  Pittsburg,  and  there 
submerged  in  it  the  interests  of  the  Preslyterian  Advo- 
cate. He  sold  the  paper  in  1864,  to  become  librarian 
and  treasurer  for  the  Board  of  Colportage  of  the  Synods 
of  Pittsburg  and  Alleghany,  and  this  position  he  filled 
until  the  time  of  his  decease.  Dr.  McKinney  was  a  pri- 
vate partner,  and  at  one  time  in  connection  with  the 
editorial  staff  of  the  Northwestern  Presbyterian  Ban- 
ner. 

McKinney,  Isaac  Ne"V7ton,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  born  in  Erie,  Pa.,  Oct.  20, 1828;  gradua- 
ted at  Jefferson  College  in  1848,  and  in  1849  engaged  in 
teaching  in  Alabama;  in  1852  he  entered  the  theolog- 
ical seminary  at  Princeton,  but  because  of  failing  health 
was  obliged  to  relinquish  his  studies;  in  1856  he  accepted 
a  license  to  preach,  and  in  1857  was  ordained  and  in- 
stalled pastor  of  Montour's  Church,  but  soon  after  ac- 
cepted an  appointment  as  professor  of  Latin  in  his  alma 
mater;  in  18G2  he  was  engaged  in  editing  the  Preshytt- 
7-ian  Banner,  and  then  in  originating  and  conducting  the 
Family  Treasure,  and  died  Nov.  20, 18G4.  Mr.  IMcKin- 
ney  was  a  scholar,  well  versed  in  language — embracing 
Latin,  Greek,  French,  and  German.  As  a  prcciber,  he 
was  ardent,  direct,  and  lucid;  as  a  teacher,  he  Lad  rare 
capaljilities.  See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  Almanac,  1865, 
p.  103.     (J.  L.  S.) 

McKinney,  James,  a  Reformed  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  in  Cookstown,  Tyrone  County,  Ire- 
land, in  1759.  After  due  preparation  he  entered  Glas- 
gow College,  where  he  distinguished  himself  by  close 
application  to  study  and  a  display  of  unusual  talents. 
His  next  step  was  to  study  medicine,  but,  called  of  God 
to  preach  the  Gospel,  he  finally  entered  upon  the  study 
of  theology,  was  licensed  in  due  time,  and  constituted 
pastor  of  a  congregation  at  Kirkhills,  Antrim  County, 
about  1780.  In  1793  he  emigrated  to  this  country,  and 
was  immediately  employed  as  missionary.  Four  j-ears 
later  he  became  the  pastor  of  a  Reformed  Presbyterian 
Church  at  Galway  and  Duanesburg,  N.  Y.,  and  there  he 
remained  until  1804,  when  he  accepted  a  call  to  a  Church 
at  Chester  County,  S.  C.  He  went  south  in  May,  but 
lived  only  a  few  months;  he  died  Sept.  10, 1804.  Dr. 
McMasters  thus  comments  upon  McKinney  (in  Sprague, 
A  muds  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit,  ix,  2) :  "  Of  the  character  of 
Mr.  McKinney  as  a  preacher,  and  of  the  power  of  his  elo- 
quence, the  very  large  assemblies  that  everywhere  at- 
tended his  ministry,  and  the  uniform  testimony  of  aU 
weU-informed  and  serious  men,  of  various  denomina- 
tions, leave  no  room  for  doubt.  .  .  .  One  feature  of  his 
ministerial  character  may  perhaps  be  inferred  from  the 
plan  of  a  Vi'ork  which  he  proposed  to  publish,  the  intro- 
ductory portion  of  which  only  he  lived  to  complete. 
The  proposal  was  a  discussion  of  the  Rights  of  God,  the 
Rights  of  Christ  as  IMediator,  the  Eights  of  the  Church, 
and  the  Rights  of  Humanity  in  general.  Taking  the 
part  he  published  as  a  specimen  of  the  whole,  tlie  reader 
will  regret  the  failure  of  the  purpose.  The  work  would 
have  been  worthy  of  the  man — not  only  sound  in  mat- 
ter, but  deep  in  thought  and  impressive  in  style."  An 
Irish  journal,  commenting  on  the  character  of  James 
McKinney,  says  of  him :  '•  The  character  of  James  Mc- 


McKIXNEY 


946 


McLEOD 


Kinncv  never  was  exceeded  in  the  boldness  of  its  out- 
line and  in  the  distinctness  and  prominency  of  its  feat- 
ures. His  eloquence  was  in  perfect  character.  His 
heart,  possessed  with  the  love  of  the  truth  as  it  is  in  Je- 
sus, was  ever  set  upon  its  recommendation  and  enforce- 
ment ;  and  it  was  when  descanting  upon  the  grand  Gos- 
pel theme  of  a  crucified  Saviour  or  asserting  the  Church's 
rights,  or  when,  with  well-sustained  pathos,  he  mourned 
tiic  wrongs  of  Zion,  that  his  mind  assumed  a  gigantic 
attitude,  and  put  forth  its  wonderful  energies.  His  dic- 
tion was  clear,  copious,  strong,  and  full  of  pertinent  and 
often  brilliant  figures.  He  has  frequently,  in  his  public 
discourses,  caught  a  flame  from  the  working  of  bis  judg- 
ment, imagination,  and  feelings ;  and  then  his  concep- 
tions, conveyed  in  simple,  energetic  language,  or  in 
bright  imagery,  and  in  bold  and  apt  allusions,  produced 
an  astonishing  effect.  In  America,  whose  republican  in- 
stitutions he  had  long  loved,  the  land  of  enterprise  and 
freedom,  was  the  field  which  just  suited  the  genius  of 
^NIcKinnej- ;  there  his  powers  had  full  scope  for  develop- 
ment and  exercise." 

McKinney,  John,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  Bellefonte,  Pa.,  Aug.  2(5,  1797;  graduated  at 
Jefferson  College,  Canonsburg,  Pa.,  in  1817;  studied 
theology  in  the  seminary  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  and  was 
licensed  by  Philadelphia  Presbytery  in  1824:;  was  or- 
dained and  installed  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Fredericks- 
burg, Ohio,  in  1829 ;  subsequently  became  pastor  of  the 
Church  at  Alexandria,  Pa.,  and  still  later  a  supply  at 
Oswego,  111.  He  died  in  18G7,  Mr.  McKinney's  life 
was  one  of  real  sacrifice  and  great  usefulness;  he  was 
mild,  affectionate,  trustworthy,  and  eminently  righteous. 
See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1868,  p.  131.  (J.  L.  S.) 
McKinnon,  J.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  born 
in  Esquessing,  C.  W.  His  early  education  was  com- 
menced in  Oneida  Institute,  in  N.  Y.,  in  1837 ;  in  1838 
he  placed  himself  under  the  tuition  of  Dr.  Eae,  in  Ham- 
ilton, C.  W.  His  collegiate  studies  were  pursued  in 
Queen's  College,  Kingston,  C.  W.,  and  Knox  College, 
Toronto.  In  1844  he  was  licensed,  and  became  pastor 
successively  of  the  St.  Thomas,  Owen  Sound,  and  Beck- 
with  churches.  He  died  Dec.  24, 1865.  jMr.  McKinnon 
was  a  man  of  sterling  integrity  and  conscientious  fidel- 
ity; he  possessed  a  competent  knowledge  of  the  lan- 
guages, but  excelled  in  the  logical  and  mathematical 
faculties.  See  Wilson,  Presb.  Ilist.  Almanac,  1867,  p. 
478.     (J.  L.  S.) 

McLachlan,  James,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  Glasgow,  Scotland,  in  1797 ;  was  educated  in 
the  Glasgow  University,  and  studied  divinity  in  the 
tlieological  seminary  of  the  Old  Burgher  section  of  the 
Secession  Church;  was  licensed  in  1827,  and  ordained 
as  a  missionary  to  Southern  Africa,  under  the  patronage 
of  the  London  INIissionary  Society,  but  after  two  years' 
residence  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  he  was  compelled 
by  ill-health  to  return.  In  1830  he  was  made  chaplain 
of  the  Seamen's  Chapel  in  the  city  of  Glasgow ;  but,  be- 
coming dissatisfied  with  his  ecclesiastical  connection,  he 
jollied  the  Keformed  Presbyterian  Church,  and  in  1834 
■vvas  sent  by  the  Scottish  Synod  of  the  Church  to  Can- 
ada West  as  their  missionary.  Subsequenth'  he  accept- 
ed a  call  from  the  congregation  at  Lisbon,  N.  Y.,  where 
he  continued  till  his  death,  Nov.  19, 1864.  Sec  Wilson, 
Presb.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1866,  p.  292.     (J.  L.  S.) 

McLain,  John,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  born 
near  I'.loumingsburg,  Ohio,  April  2,1821;  was  educated 
at  the  South  Salem  Academy,  Ohio,  and  studied  theol- 
ogy with  Dr.  Carothers  and  Rev.  II.  S.  Fnllerton,  and 
for  a  short  time  at  the  Western  Theological  Seminary, 
^Vlleghanj'  City,  Pa. ;  was  licensed  in  18r)2,  and  ordained 
in  1853,  as  pa-stor  of  Harmony  Church.  During  the  last 
few  years  of  his  life  he  was  connected  with  the?  Western 
Reserve  Presbytery,  and  was  a  commissioner  from  that 
jiresbytery  to  the  General  Asseml)ly  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  which  met  at  Columbus,  C)hio,  in  1862.  He 
died  June  24, 1862.     Mr.  McLain  was  a  man  of  indom- 


itable energy,  great  zeal,  and  geniality  of  spirit.     See 
Wilson,  Pr'esb.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1863,  p.  193.     (J.  L.  S.) 

McLane,  Jamics  Woods,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  di- 
vine, was  born  in  Charlotte,  N.  C,  May  22,  1801 ;  re- 
ceived his  preparatory  training  in  Phillips'  Academy, 
Andover,  Mass. ;  graduated  with  high  honor  at  Yale 
College  in  1828,  and  in  1834  at  Andover  Theological 
Seminary ;  was  licensed  by  the  Andover  Congregational 
Association  in  1835 ;  was  shortly  after  ordained  pastor 
of  the  Madison  Street  Presbyterian  Church  in  New  York, 
and  labored  there  until  1856,  when  he  became  pastor  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church  at  Williamsburg,  L.  I.  There 
he  labored  with  untiring  zeal  until  1863,  when  he  re- 
signed oiT  account  of  failing  health.  During  his  minis- 
try Dr.  McLane  contributed  frequently  to  the  religious 
press ;  was  for  many  years  director  of  the  American  Bi- 
ble Society,  and  prepared  for  this  society  an  improved 
standard  edition  of  the  Bible.  He  was  also  for  many 
years  recorder  of  the  Union  Theological  Seminary,  and 
secretary  of  the  Church  Erection  Fund.  He  died  at 
Brookljai,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  26, 1864.  Dr.  McLane  was  a  man 
of  fine  talents  and  scholarship ;  as  a  preacher,  earnest 
and  practical ;  as  a  writer,  bold  and  uncompromising. 
See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1865,  p.  168 ;  Apple- 
ton,  Neic  Amer.  Cyclop.  1864,  p.  595. 

McLaurin,  Jajies,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  Perthshire,  Scotland,  in  1796;  graduated  at  Ed- 
inburgh ;  studied  theology  in  Glasgow ;  and  in  1824  was 
licensed  and  ordained  by  a  presbytery  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland.  In  1840  he  emigrated  to  the  United  States, 
became  pastor  successively  of  the  Plainfield  and  Paw 
Paw  churches,  within  the  bounds  of  Kalamazoo  Presby- 
tery, Mich.,  and  subsequently  preached  at  Birmingham 
and  Fentonville,  Mich.  He  died  May  11,  1860.  Mr. 
McLaurin  was  an  able  and  learned  minister.  See  Wil- 
son, Presb.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1861,  p.  161. 

McLean,  Alexander,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  in  the  Island  of  North  Uist,  Scotland,  in  March, 
1827.  His  early  advantages  were  poor — his  boyhood  be- 
ing a  constant  battle  for  existence  against  the  strong 
arm  of  Romanism.  He  graduated  at  the  Edinburgh 
Universitj',  and  afterwards  studied  theology;  while  thus 
engaged  he  was  associated  with  the  Rev.  Mr.  Hall  in 
the  Glasgow  Home  jNIission  work.  In  1855  he  came  to 
Canada,  and  in  1856  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  East 
Puslinch  congregation,  where  he  remained  till  his  death, 
]May  25, 1864.  l\Ir.  McLean  was  an  effective  minister, 
and  an  ai'dent  laborer  in  the  mission  work.  See  Wil- 
son, Presb.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1866,  p.  372.     (J.  L.  S.) 

McLean,  Charles  G.,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  Armagh  County,  Ireland,  Jlarch  17, 1787 ; 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1808, 
and  studied  theology  under  the  Rev.  Dr.  John  M.  Ma- 
son, of  the  Associate' Reformed  Church ;  was  licensed  in 
1812,  and  ordained  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
near  Gettysburg,  Pa.,  during  which  pastorate  he  became 
an  Independent.  In  1844  he  accepted  a  call  from  the 
Reformed  Dutch  Church  at  Fort  Plains,  N.  Y.,  and  in 
1852  emigrated  to  the  West,  and,  in  connection  with  his 
son-in-law.  established  a  female  seminary  at  Indianapo- 
lis. Ind.  He  died  July  4, 1860.  See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist. 
A  Imanac,  1861,  p.  101.'     (.L  L.  S.) 

McLeod,  Alexander,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the 
Reformed  Presbvterian  Church,  was  born  in  the  Island 
of  Mull  June  1 2,"l  774.  H  is  father  and  grandfather  were 
ministers  of  the  Church  of  Scotland.  In  1792  he  came 
to  America  and  entered  Union  CoUege,  where  he  gradu- 
ated in  1798.  In  1799  he  was  licensed  by  the  Keformed 
Presbytcrv  at  Coldcnham,  and  in  1801  was  installed 
pastor  of  the  First  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church.  His 
first  publication  was  Ket/ro  JSlarcri/  Unjustifiable  (N.  Y. 
1802).  In  1803  appeared  Messiah  <iovernina  the  Na- 
tions; in  l^id.  Ecclesiastical  Catechism: — The  Gospel 

Ministri/: Lectures  on  the  Prophecies: — Sermons  on  the 

War:— Life  and  Poorer  of  True  Godliness.    He  was 
the  chief  organizer  of  the  American  Colonization  Soci- 


McLEOD 


947 


McLEOD 


ety  in  1816,  and  wrote  its  constitution.  During  his  pas- 
toral career  he  received  various  calls  to  other  churches, 
to  colleges,  and  to  editorships ;  but  he  declined  them  all, 
and  remained  in  his  charge  until  his  death,  Feb.  17, 1833. 
See  Wiley  (Sam.  B.),  Memoir  of  A .  McLeod,  D.D.  (N.  Y. 
1855,  8vo);  Wilson,  Prcsi.  Ilisf.  Almanac,  18G-2,  p.  261 ; 
Sprague,  Annals  of  ike  Amcr.  Pulpit,  ix,  9  sq. 

McLeod,  Cornelius,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  born  about  1820;  joined 
the  Church  when  but  a  boy ;  entered  the  South  Carolina 
Conference  in  1837,  and  for  nearly  tliirty  years  labored 
I'aithfully  and  zealously  for  the  cause  of  the  lledeemer. 
His  last  appointment  was  Kichland  Fork  Mission.  He 
died  April  9, 1866.  "  McLeod  was  a  successful  laborer, 
and  was  much  beloved  by  those  for  whom  he  labored. 
Remarkably  amiable,  he  won  without  effort  the  affec- 
tions of  those  with  whom  he  was  associated ;  and  now, 
though  he  has  passed  away,  he  lives  in  the  hearts  of  his 
people." — Covference  Minutes  of  the  M.E.  Church  South, 
iii,  17. 

McLeod,  Norman,  D.D.,  one  of  the  most  noted 
Scotch  divines  of  our  day,  was  born  at  Campbelltown, 
Argyleshire,  June  3, 1812.  He  was  early  destined  for 
the  ministr}'  by  his  father,  who  was  at  the  time  of  Nor- 
man's birth  parish  minister  of  Campbellto-\vn,  and  Nor- 
man was  to  make  the  fourth  generation  of  the  McLeods 
in  the  ministry  of  the  Scotch  Kirk.  To  fit  him  properly 
for  the  responsible  position  he  was  to  occupy  in  the  near 
future,  his  father  accepted  a  parish  near  Glasgow,  and 
Norman  made  his  preparatory  studies  for  college  at 
Glasgow.  His  academic  education  he  obtained  at  Edin- 
burgh, and  he  then  travelled  for  some  time  in  Germany 
and  the  northern  countries  of  Europe.  On  his  return  to 
Scotland  he  studied  theology  at  Edinburgh,  enjoying 
especially  the  counsel  and  instruction  of  the  celebrated 
Dr.  Chalmers.  He  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1838,  and 
"  with  the  Norse  tongue  in  him,  and  a  vigorous  Celtic  im- 
agination," he  soon  found  a  ]iarish  ready  to  receive  him, 
and  was  ordained  pastor  of  Loudon,  in  Ayrshire.  Here 
he  labored  faithfully  until  1843,  the  year  so  eventful  to 
the  Scotch  Kirk.  See  Scotland.  Though  Norman 
McLeod  had  been  a  pupil  of  Dr.  Chalmers,  and  greatly 
esteemed  the  doctor,  he  refused  to  leave  the  establish- 
ment, and  even  opposed  the  Free  Church  movement. 
In  consequence  of  this  decision  to  remain  a  Churchman 
many  offers  of  promotion  came  to  his  door,  and  he  finally 
accepted  the  parish  of  Dalkeith,  where  he  resided  un- 
til 1851,  when  he  was  called  to  the  Barony  Church  of 
Glasgow,  whither  he  removed,  and  "  substantiall}'  began 
the  real  work  of  his  life,"  among  a  membership  of  from 
eleven  to  twelve  hundred  adults,  who  by  his  guidance 
not  only  walked  themselves  in  the  path  of  righteous- 
ness, but  were  the  means  of  promoting  Christian  holi- 
ness and  ameliorating  the  condition  of  the  poor  and  the 
forsaken.  "  Commonly,"  says  his  biographer,  Dr.  Wal- 
ter C.  Smith  (in  Good  \Vo)-ds,  Aug.  1872,  p.  513),  "  he 
preached  thrice  every  Sabbath,  besides  conducting  a 
large  class  of  his  own ;  and  his  preaching  was  no  mere 
stringing  together  of  theological  commonjilaces,  but  the 
expression  of  earnest  thought  about  the  highest  things, 
full  of  practical  help  and  counsel  for  living  men.  .  .  . 
Neither  did  he  regard  his  congregation  merely  as  a 
company  of  people  to  be  preached  to,  but  rather  as  a 
body  of  men  whom  he  had  to  lead  unto  every  good 
work."  Aside  from  his  parish  work,  extended  as  it  was 
far  beyond  the  labor  usually  performed  by  three  minis- 
ters, he  edited  for  ten  years  the  Edinhurc/h  Christian 
Magazine,  a  periodical  of  the  old  religious  type,  which, 
while  it  existed,  did  much  good  to  the  people  who  read 
it,  but  proved  a  heavy  loss  lioth  to  publisher  and  editor. 
In  spite  of  McLeod's  conncctinn  with  this  literar}- vent- 
ure, Mr.  Strahan,  the  noted  British  publisher,  hesitated 
not  to  court  the  services  of  Dr.  McLeod  when  in  1860 
the  publication  of  Good  Woi-ds  was  projected.  The 
manner  in  which  the  doctor  replied  to  the  invitation  is 
well  worthy  of  the  Christian  minister  of  Glasgow  (comp. 


Contemporary  Review,  1872,  July,  p.  29  sq.).  The  suc- 
cess of  Good  Wcmls  as  a  literary  venture  has  been  al- 
most unprecedented  in  the  annals  of  magazine  literature. 
"  Wherever  the  English  language  is  read  it  has  famil- 
iarized the  people  with  the  great  leaders  of  theological 
thought;  has  br9ught  into  the  cottage  specimens  of  the 
pencil  of  the  most  eminent  artists ;  has  diffused  sound 
information  on  secular  truth;  and  has  been  the  means 
of  introducing  to  the  poor,  poets  of  eminence  and  writ- 
ers of  wholesome  fiction.  Its  pages,  too,  were  often 
graced  with  the  kindly  productions  of  the  editor's  own 
l)en.  Blany  of  his  works,  now  published  in  book  form, 
and  of  deservedly  high  popidarity,  first  appeared  in  Good 
Words.^''  A  recognition  of  his  able  services  caine  to  Dr. 
McLeod  in  his  later  years  from  a  quarter  where,  as  a 
member  of  the  Church  outside  the  Anglicait  establish- 
ment, he  could  hardly  have  expected  so  mucli  —  we 
refer  to  his  appointment,  upon  the  death  of  Dr.  llobert 
Lee,  to  the  chaplaincy  to  the  queen  of  England,  a  honor 
which  never  before  fell  to  the  lot  of  any  Scotch  minis- 
ter except  William  Carstairs.  In  the  midst  of  these 
varied  labors,  while  still  in  fullest  sympathy  with  the 
great  life  that  stirred  around  him,  and  full  of  hope  for 
its  progress,  and  doing  his  full  share  of  the  task,  death 
came  upon  him,  June  16,  1872,  causing  a  loss  deeply 
felt  not  onh'  by  his  own  Church,  but  by  all  evangelical 
denominations,  by  the  rich  and  the  poor,  the  high  and 
the  low ;  for  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  his  genial, 
great,  noble  nature  made  its  influence  felt  everywhere ; 
and  "  he  considered  no  work  foreign  to  him  if  it  could 
be  called  his  Master's  business."  "Perhaps  no  other 
minister  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  was  so  generally  be- 
loved or  exercised  so  potent  an  influence  for  good.  His 
charity  was  remarkable.  He  extended  the  hearty  hand 
of  fellowship  to  men  of  all  sects  believing  in  Jesus 
Christ  and  him  crucified.  In  the  pulpit  his  utterances 
were  peculiarly  fresh  and  eloquent;  and  reproof  and  in- 
struction, conveyed  in  a  spirit  of  love,  came  home  with 
striking  effect  to  men's  business  and  bosoms.  He  had 
a  holy  horror  of  shams  in  whatever  guise  they  might 
be  presented ;"  and  we  do  not  wonder  that  the  man  who 
is  most  competent  to  speak  of  him  is  constrained  to  say 
that  Dr.  Norman  McLeod  was  '•  the  most  manly  man" 
he  ever  knew ;  "  the  most  genial,  the  most  many-sided, 
and  yet  the  least  angular"  (John  Strahan,  publisher  of 
Good  Words,  in  Contemporary  Revietc,  July,  1872,  p.  291 
sq.).  "  Norman  McLeod,"  continues  Mr.  Strahan,  "was 
no  mere  paper,  and  pidpit,  and  platform  good  man,  put- 
ting all  his  goodness  into  books,  and  sermons,  and 
speeches.  Where  ho  was  best  known — known  as  stand- 
ing the  crucial  test  of  the  'dreary  intercourse  of  daily 
life' — there  he  was  most  respected  and  beloved.  Glas- 
gow had  known  him  for  many  a  year  as  a  most  unpre- 
tentious and  yet  most  indefatigable  worker  for  his 
brethren's  weal  in  this  life  and  beyond  this  life;  and 
money-making  Glasgow  struck  work  in  the  middle  of 
the  week  to  show  that  it  felt  it  had  lost  its  best  citizen." 
It  should  not  be  omitted  here  that  Dr.  IMcLeod  strove 
hard  to  advance  the  cause  of  the  Indian  Mission  scheme 
of  the  Church  of  Scotland  by  not  only  obtaining  for  it 
the  contributions  "of  the  Church,  but  by  inducing  men 
of  high  Christian  and  educational  attainments  to  under- 
take the  work  of  preaching  the  tJospel  to  the  people  of 
India.  He  himself  visited  India  only  a  short  time  bc- 
f(ire  his  death  to  inquire  into  the  success  of  the  Mission 
and  to  advance  its  interests  more  ably.  His  last  speech 
before  the  last  Assembly  he  attended  was  to  revive  the 
mission  zeal  of  the  Church.     (J.  H.W.) 

McLeod,  Xavier  Donald,  a  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  was  bcjrn  in  New  York  about  1821,  and  was  the 
son  of  the  celebrated  I'resbyterian  divine.  Dr.  Alexander 
iMcLeod.  He  was  educated  at  Columbia  College ;  studied 
theology ;  took  orders  in  the  Episcopal  Church  in  1845 ; 
sailed  for  Europe  in  1850,  and  while  abroad  embraced 
Roman  Catholicism.  After  his  return  to  this  country 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  publication  of  several  works 
of  a  secular  natiure,  besides  a  Life  of  Mary  Queen  of 


McLOUGHLIN 


948 


McMillan 


Scots  (1857).  About  1860  he  became  professor  of  belles- 
lettres  at  Mount  St.  Mary's  College,  near  Cincinnati; 
subsequently  entered  the  pricstliood,  and  died  in  Au- 
gust, 1SI)5. — Xcw  Amer.  Ci/clop.  18G.5,  p.  G-18. 

McLoughlin,  F.  T.,  a  Roman  Catholic  priest,  was 
born  in  the  parish  of  Aglia,  Upper  Canada,  in  1836; 
was  educated  at  the  College  of  St.  Michael,  Toronto; 
studied  for  the  priesthood  in  the  Seminary  of  St.  Mary's, 
Baltimore,  Md. ;  was  ordained  priest  in  Brooklyn  for 
that  diocese;  died  in  New  York  Aug.  3,  1863.  '-lie 
won,  by  his  attention  to  the  best  interests  of  his  people, 
the  sincere  admiration  of  all." — Xew  A  me?:  Cyclop.  1865, 
p.  645. 

McLure,  Daniel  Miltox,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  born  near  Flat  Rock,  S.  C,  Dec.  1835;  pursued 
his  studies  at  Davidson  College,  N.  C,  and  subsequent- 
ly at  Oglethorpe  University,  Ga.  (class  of  1858) ;  stud- 
ied divinity  in  the  theological  seminary  at  Columbia, 
S.  C. ;  and  in  1861  was  licensed  to  preach,  and  supplied  a 
Church  in  Alabama.  In  1.S64  he  was  regularly  ordained 
and  installed  pastor  of  ^yilliamsburg  Church,  and  died 
Oct.  25, 1865.  Mr.  McLure's  mind  was  of  more  than  or- 
dinary strength ;  independence  and  clearness  character- 
ized his  thoughts,  deliberation  and  study  formed  his 
opinions.  See  "Wilson,  Fresh.  Hist.  Almanac,  1867.  p. 
447.     (.J.  L.  S.) 

McMahon,  WiLLiAsr,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  born  in  Dumfries,  Prince 
AVilliam  County,  Ya.,  about  1785 ;  was  converted  at  a 
camp-meeting  held  near  Oldtown,  JMd. ;  was  appointed 
class-leader  by  Peter  Cartwright,  and  afterwards  licensed 
to  exhort  by  the  Rev.  James  Quinn,  and  soon  after  to 
preach,  and  was  received  into  the  travelling  connection 
in  1811.  His  first  appointment  was  Silver  Creek,  in 
the  territory  of  Indiana;  in  ISli  he  was  sent  to  Ken- 
tucky, where  he  remained  four  years,  and  travelled  the 
Lexington,  Shelby,  Jefferson,  and  Fleming  circuits.  Un- 
der this  four  years'  ministrj'  thousands  were  awakened 
and  converted.  In  1816  he  was  transferred  to  the  Mis- 
sissippi Conference  to  take  charge  of  a  district.  He 
started  on  his  journey  with  bishop  Roberts,  but  was 
taken  sick  at  Nashville,  and  there  transferred  by  bishop 
McKendree  to  the  Tennessee  Conference,  and  was  ap- 
pointed to  Nashville  Circuit.  After  tliat  time  he  be- 
came one  of  the  leading  minds  of  the  Tennessee  and 
Memphis  Conferences.  His  health  having  failed,  he 
located,  and  removed  from  North  ^Uabama  to  De  Soto 
County,  Miss.,  in  December,  1835 ;  was  readmitted  into 
the  travelling  connection  at  the  second  session  of  the 
Memphis  Conference,  held  in  the  fall  of  1841,  and  was 
appointed  to  Holly  Springs  District,  where  he  remained 
four  years.  He  continued  in  the  regular  work,  ])reach- 
ing  with  a  power  and  success  such  as  but  few  men  ever 
had,  until  his  health  gave  way.  For  several  years  be- 
fore his  death  he  sustained  either  a  supernumerary  or  a 
superannuated  relation.  He  died  about  1867  or"  1868. 
'•Few  men,  during  the.  present  century,  ha\-e  exerted 
a  greater  influence  upon  Methodism  in  "the  South.  For 
lifty  years  he  held  up  the  cross  and  preached  the  doc- 
trines of  Christianity  in  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Alabama, 
and  Mississippi,  leaving  holy  foot-prints,  and  winning 
votaries  to  Christ.  He  was  in  many  respects  a  most 
remarkable  man.  No  one  ever  had  the  reputation  that 
he  had  in  North  ^Vlabama  and  Mississippi." — Confvrcnce 
Minutes  of  the  M.  K.  Church  South,  1870.  s.  v. ;  McFerrin, 
Methodism  in  Tennessee,  ii,  426;  Redforil,  IJist.  Meth.  in 
Kentucl-ij,  ii,  252. 

McMaster,  Erasmus  D.,  D.D.,  a  noted  Presby- 
terian divine,  was  Ijorn  in  Pennsylvania  in  1S()6;  grad- 
uated at  Union  College,  N.  Y.,  in  1827;  was  licensed  to 
preach  in  1829;  was  ordained  in  1831,  and  made  "pastor 
at  Ballston,  N.  Y. ;  was  president  of  the  South  Hano- 
ver College.  Indiana,  from  1838  to  1845,  and  of  i\Iiami 
University,  Ohio,  from  1845  to  lM4!t:  was  jinifessor  of 
systematic  theology  in  the  New  All).iny  Tlieological 
Seminary  from  184S)  to  1866;  and  was  then  appointed 


to  the  same  chair  in  the  theological  seminary  of  the 
Northwest.  He  died  at  Chicago,  Illinois,  Dec.  10, 1866. 
Possessed  of  a  vigorous  and  thoroughly  cultured  mind 
and  a  well-balanced  judgment,  McMaster  succeeded  in 
all  he  attempted.  "  His  expositions  of  Scripture  and  his 
religious  addresses  and  sermons  were  exceedingly  rich 
and  instructive,  and  held  the  attention  of  all  his  hearers ; 
vvhile  his  intiiience  over  his  students  was  unbounded." 
He  published  several  sermons  and  addresses,  and  minor 
theological  treatises.  See  Drake,  Diet.  A  mer.  Bio</.  s.  v. ; 
Xeir  Ainer.  Cydop.  18G6,  p.  463. 

McMaster,  Gilbert,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  Ireland,  Feb.  13,  1778;  came  to  this 
country  when  yet  a  child,  and  was  educated  at  Jeffer- 
son College,  Pa.,  -where  he  graduated  in  1803 ;  was  or- 
dained August  8,  1808,  and  was  pastor  of  Duanesburg 
Church,  N.  Y.,  from  1808  to  1840,  and  of  the  Church  at 
Princeton,  Ind.,  from  1840  to  1846.  He  died  at  New  Al- 
bany, Ind.,  March  15,  1854.  His  works  are:  An  Essay 
in  Defence  of  some  Fundamental  Doctrines  of  Christian- 
ity: — An  Analysis  of  the  Shorter  Catechism  (1815): — 
An  Apology  for  the  Book  ofFsalms: — The  Moral  Char- 
acter of  Civil  Government  considered  (1832)  : — Thoughts 
on  Union  in  the  Church  of  God  (1846).  See  Wilson, 
Presb.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1863,  p.  368 ;  Sprague,  A  nnals 
A  mer.  Pulpit,  ix,  46  sq. ;  Drake,  Diet.  Amer.  Biog.  s.  v. 

McMillan,  Edward,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  in  Cumberland  County,  N.  C,  Sept.  2,  1804; 
was  educated  under  Rev.  Samuel  Donnell  and  Rev. 
J.  R.  Bain,  Tenn. ;  was  licensed  by  Shiloh  Presbytery  in 
1827,  and  ordained  in  1828 ;  labored  in  1829  in  Moulton, 
Ala.;  in  1835,  in  Bethany,  Tenn. ;  in  1849,  in  Gallatin, 
Tenn. ;  in  1856,  in  Carlinville,  lU. ;  and  in  1862  became 
chaplain  in  the  army,  in  which  service  he  died,  Aug.  27, 
1864.  Mr.  McMillan  as  a  preacher  was  clear  and  ana- 
lytical ;  as  a  Christian,  confiding,  prayerful ;  as  a  man, 
naturally  kind,  noble,  and  generous.  See  WUson,  Presb. 
Hist.  A  Imur.ac,  1866,  p.  220.     (J.  L.  S.) 

McMillan,  Gavin,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  Antrim  County,  Ireland,  Feb.  6,  1787,  and  was 
brought  to  Charleston,  S.C,  in  August  of  the  same  year. 
He  began  his  education  under  Rev.  John  Kell,  and  pur- 
sued his  classical  studies  under  the  care  successively 
of  John  Orr,  Rev.  Thomas  Donnell_y,  Rev.  E.  Newton, 
and  Mr.  Can)pbell;  in  1817  he  graduated  with  honor  at 
the  South  Carolina  College,  S.  C. ;  afterwards  studied  di- 
vinity in  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Seminary  in  Phil- 
adelphia, Pa. ;  was  licensed  by  the  Reformed  Philadel- 
phia Presbytery  in  1821,  and  in  1823  \vas  ordained  and 
installed  pastor  of  Beech  AYoods  Church,  at  Morning 
Sun,  Ohio,  where  he  labored  for  fifty  years.  In  1839 
and  1861  he  was  moderator  of  the  Synod.  He  died  Jan. 
25,  1867.  Mr.  jNIcMillan  was  eminent  as  a  scholar  and 
theologian ;  clear  and  instructive  as  a  preacher ;  wise 
and  tnistfid  as  a  counsellor.  See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist. 
A Imuiuic,  1868,  p.  390.     {J,  L.  S.) 

McMillan,  Gavin  Riley,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, -was  born  in  Fairfield  District,  S.C,  Dec.  24, 1824; 
was  educated  in  [Miami  University,  Athens, Ohio;  grad- 
uated at  the  theological  seminary  of  the  Reformed  Pres- 
byterian Church  in  Philadeliihia,  Pa. ;  was  licensed  in 
1850,  and  in  1851  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Neshanock 
and  Hermon  churches,  in  Pennsylvania.  In  1859  he  ac- 
cepted a  call  to  the  First  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church 
in  Brooklyn,  but  owing  to  failing  health  resigned  in 
1860.  Subsequently  lie  settled  in  the  West,  and  be- 
came president  of  the  Union  Fem.alc  Seminary  at  Xenia, 
Ohio.  He  died  Jan.  9.  1S65.  JMr.  Mc^Iillan  was  a  man 
of  good  talents — the  juilgment  predominating  over  the 
imaginative,  the  practical  over  the  speculative ;  truth- 
fulness, simplicity,  -and  humility  were  the  principal 
traits  of  his  character.  See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  Aliiia- 
mic.  1867.  p.  :i'.\o.     (J.  L.  S.) 

McMillan,  Hugh,  D.D..  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  in  Chester  District,  S.C,  February,  1794;  pur- 
sued his  collegiate  studies  at  the  University  of  Penn- 


McMLlLAN 


949 


McNEISH 


sylvania,  and  graduated  with  the  highest  honor  ;  was 
soon  after  elected  professor  of  languages  in  Cohimbia 
College ;  but,  determining  to  consecrate  liimself  to  the 
ministry,  ho  entered  the  theological  seminary  of  the 
licformed  Presbyterian  Church,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  and 
in  18-20  was  licensed  to  preach.  In  1821  he  was  ordained 
and  installed  pastor  of  the  Rock  Creek  Brick  Church, 
Chester  District,  S.  C.  His  reputation  as  a  profound 
linguist  being  now  well  established,  at  the  public  solic- 
itation he  founded  an  academy  at  the  Brick  Church  for 
the  primary  education  of  young  men.  In  1828  he  ac- 
cepted a  call  to  become  pastor  of  the  united  congrega- 
tions of  Xenia  and  Massie's  Creek,  Ohio,  where  also,  at 
the  earnest  request  of  his  people,  he  established  an  acad- 
emy in  1830.  In  1850,  his  congregation,  becoming  too 
numerous,  divided  into  two  societies,  and  he  removed 
to  Cedarville,  where  he  died,  Oct.  9, 1800.  Dr.  McMil- 
lan was  a  man  of  deep-toned  piety;  zealous,  faithful,  and 
indefatigable  as  a  minister ;  profound  and  learned  as  a 
scholar.  See  Wilson,  Presh.  IJist.  A  Imanac,  1861,  p.  218. 
(J.  L.  S.) 

McMillan,  Robert,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  Washington  County,  Pa.,  Jlarch  10, 1829 ;  gratl- 
iiated  at  Jefferson  College,  Canonsburg,  Pa.,  in  1850,  then 
taught  some  months  in  Darlington,  Pa.,  and  afterwards 
took  charge  of  the  academy  in  Cross -Creek  village, 
where  he  labored  for  three  years  with  great  acceptance. 
Subsequently  he  studied  theology  at  the  Western  Theo- 
logical Seminary  in  Alleghany  City;  was  licensed  in 
1856,  and  in  1857  ordained  and  installed  pastor  of  the 
congregations  of  Warren  and  Pine  I!un,  Pa.,  where  he 
labored  until  his  death,  Aug.  1 ,  1864.  Mr.  IMc^Millan  pos- 
sessed a  clear  mind,  a  warm  heart,  and  a  most  unassum- 
ing spirit;  his  talents  were  of  a  high  order,  cultivated 
by  thorough  education ;  his  sermons  were  of  the  richest 
ingredients  and  finest  mould.  See  Wilson,  Presh.  Hist. 
A  liiuiimc,  1865,  p.  105.     (J.  L.  S.) 

McMullen,  Jajies  Ported,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  Abbeville  District,  S.  C,  July  21, 1811 ; 
graduated  at  Franklin  College,  Athens,  Georgia,  in  1838 ; 
studied  theology  privately,  under  the  direction  of  his 
brother.  Rev.  Dr.  IMcMuUen,  and  in  1841  was  licensed 
and  ordained  pastor  of  the  united  churches  of  Mt.  Zion, 
Concord,  and  Carthage,  Ala.,  and  afterwards  took  charge 
of  Pleasant  Ridge  and  Bethsaida  churches,  in  Greene 
and  Pickens  counties,  Ala.  In  1864  he  was  appointed 
by  the  Executive  Committee  of  Domestic  Missions  of 
the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church  South  to  labor  in 
the  Army  of  Tennessee,  in  which  service  he  was  killed 
in  battle.  May  16, 1864.  Jlr.  McjMnllen  Avas  a  man  of 
excellent  mind  and  great  force  of  character.  See  Wil- 
son, Presb.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1868,  p.  348.      (J.  L.  S.) 

McMurray,  Williaji,  D.D.,  a  (Dutch)  Reformed 
minister,  was  born  in  Salem,  N.  Y.,  in  1784 ;  graduated 
at  Union  College  in  1804;  was  tutor  in  same  in  1806-7; 
Ivas  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Associate  Reformed  Church 
in  1808;  settled  at  Lansingburg,  N.  Y.,  in  1808-11;  en- 
tered the  Reformed  Church  as  pastor  at  Rhinebeck  Flats, 
N.  Y.,  in  1812-20;  then  removed  to  IMarket  Street  Re- 
formed Dutch  Church,  New  York,  and  died  in  1835.  His 
character  was  distinguished  for  its  beautiful  balance  and 
harmony  of  excellent  and  gentle  qualities.  His  minis- 
try was  remarkable  for  its  fervor,  diligence,  and  uniform 
success.  His  Cluirch  in  New  York  grew  from  very  small 
and  humble  beginnings,  and  chietly  among  a  poor  peo- 
ple in  the  then  suburbs,  to  a  membership  of  between 
five  and  six  hundred  communicants.  Besides  frequent 
contributions  to  the  periodical  press.  Dr.  Jlc^Iurray  pub- 
lished several  valuable  occasional  discourses  (1825, 1833). 
— Sprague,  yl'«?!a/6-,vol.ix;  Corwin,  Manual  {Butch)  Re- 
formed Church,  s.  v.      (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

McNair,  John,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  divine,  was 
born  near  Newton,  Pa.,  May  28, 1806.  He  was  reared 
with  an  earnest  regard  to  his  spiritual  welfare,  and  at 
an  early  age  made  a  profession  of  religion.  He  was 
educated  at  Newton  Academy,  then  at  Jefferson  College, 


Canonsburg,  Pa.,  graduating  in  1828 ;  studied  theology 
at  Princeton  Seminary,  N.  J. ;  was  licensed  in  1831,  and 
ordained  in  1833.  He  labored  for  several  years  as  a 
missionary  in  Pennsylvania,  Indiana,  and  New  Jersej' ; 
but  subseciuently  he  was  calleel  to  Lancaster,  Pa.,  where 
he  continued  to  labor  for  eleven  years.  During  the  re- 
bellion he  entered  the  army  as  chaplain,  and  when  the 
war  was  over  returned  and  took  charge  of  the  Church 
in  Strasburg,  Pa.  He  died  Jan.  27, 1867.  Dr.  McNair 
was  retiring  in  his  manner  and  deportment,  possessing, 
however,  a  firmness  and  integrity  of  purpose  wliich 
made  itself  felt  in  his  expressed  opinions.  His  sermons 
evinced  a  high  order  of  talent,  being  eloquent,  yet  plain 
and  easily  comprehended.  See  Wilson,  Presh.  Hist.  A  l- 
manuc,  1868,  p.  132.     (J.  L.  S.) 

McNeill,  Angus  Cnrrie,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  Robeson  County,  N.  C,  May  4, 1812.  He 
early  exhibited  an  intense  fondness  for  learning,  and, 
though  he  had  to  struggle  against  adverse  influences, 
managed  to  secure  a  good  primary  education;  his  final 
preparation  for  college  ^vas  received  in  the  Donaldson 
Academy  in  Fayetteville,  N.  C,  where  he  discharged  the 
twofold  duties  of  teacher  and  pupil  until  1835,  when  he 
entered  the  University  of  North  Carolina,  where  he 
graduated  with  the  first  honor.  He  studied  theology 
in  the  Union  Seminary  at  Prince  Edward,  Ya.,  was 
licensed  in  1845,  and  ordained  and  installed  pastor  of 
Carthage,  Union,  and  Cypress  churches  in  North  Caro- 
lina. In  1852  he  accepted  a  call  to  the  pastorate  of 
Centre  Ridge  Church,  Ala.,  which  relation  existed  until 
his  death,  Oct.  14, 1860.  Mr.  JMcNeill  was  an  able  min- 
ister, an  eloquent  orator,  and  a  fine  scholar.  See  Wil- 
son, Presb.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1862,  p.  1 10.      (J.  L.  S.) 

McNeill,  James  H.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
horn  in  Fayetteville,  N. C,  May  23, 1825 ;  entered  North 
Carolina  University  at  Chapel  Hill,N.C. ;  after  one  year 
went  to  Yale  College,  New  Haven,  and  subsequently 
graduated  at  Delaware  College,  Newark,  Del.,  in  1844; 
studied  divinity  in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York,  for  two  years,  and  afterwards  graduated  at 
Princeton,  N.  J. ;  was  licensed  in  1848,  and  in  1849  or- 
dained and  installed  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Pittsbor- 
ough,  in  Chatham  County,  N.  C. ;  was  made  one  of  the 
corresponding  secretaries  of  the  American  Bible  Society 
at  New  York  in  1853;  in  1861  was  elected  associate  ed- 
itor of  the  North  Carolina  Presbi/terian,  which  position 
he  held  until  1862,  when  he  entered  the  Conf'ederate 
army.  He  was  killed  in  battle,  March  31, 1865.  Mr. 
McNeill  was  a  man  of  strong  ^vill,  and  great  independ- 
ence of  thought  and  action ;  his  distinct  individuality 
was  indicative  of  the  highest  executive  ability ;  his  ear- 
nestness and  vigor  made  him  effective  in  every  sphere. 
See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1866,  p.  356.    (J.  L.  S.) 

McNeish,  David,  a  minister  of  the  (Dutch)  Re- 
formed Church,  was  born  in  Scotland  in  1820 ;  came  to 
this  country  while  yet  a  youth;  graduated  at  Rutgers 
College  in  1841,  and  at  the  New  Brunswick  Theological 
Seminary  in  1844.  He  consecrated  himself  to  the  work 
of  domestic  missions,  for  which  he  was  peculiarly  fitted 
by  his  constitutional  vigor  and  enthusiasm,  by  his  un- 
usual gifts  as  a  public  speaker,  and  by  the  depth  and 
activity  of  his  piety.  He  combined  the  '■  ingenium  per- 
fervidum  Scotorum"  with  a  truly  American  practicality, 
.and  with  a  consuming  zeal  which  dared  all  difiiculties 
and  endured  all  trials  "  for  Jesus's  sake."  Few  preach- 
ers could  be  more  intensely  earnest  and  solemn  in  deal- 
ing with  the  higlicr  themes  of  the  Gospel,  and  in  ap- 
peals to  the  consciences  and  the  hearts  of  his  hearers. 
One  of  his  sermons  on  the  last  judgment  seemed  to  the 
writer  of  this  notice  as  if  it  were  almost  inspired.  Its 
realizing  power  was  awful  and  sublime.  But  he  was 
equally  at  home  in  appealing  to  the  tenderest  sensibili- 
ties of  the  soul.  Like  a  master  musician,  he  could  sweep 
all  the  chords  of  his  mighty  harp  at  will.  His  devotion 
to  his  missionary  work  in  Michigan  and  Indiana,  where 
aU  of  his  ministry  was  spent,  was  self-consuming.     He 


McXELLY 


950 


McVEAN 


lived  for  t'.ip  Church  of  God  until  his  earthly  career  closed 
in  1854.  His  threat  thought  and  last  uttered  wish  was 
in  lull  accordance  with  his  high  theological  belief  and 
experience.  "  Oh,  that  I  may  be  made  perfectly  holy!" 
lie  was  settled  successively  at  Centrevillc  and  Constan- 
linp,  Mich.  (1844-49);  at  South  Bend,  Ind.  (1849-52); 
and  again  at  Constantine  (1852-54).  But  his  influence 
was  powerfid  in  all  the  Keformed  churches  of  the  West- 
ern States,  among  which  he  was  a  pioneer  and  a  master 
iK.ilder.     (W.  J.  K.  T.) 

McNelly,  George,  a  mun'ster  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  born  Feb.  15,  1793,  on 
Drake's  Creek,  Da^-idson  (now  Sumner)  County,  then 
territory  south  of  Ohio,  now  State  of  Tennessee;  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  August,  1814;  entered  the  travel- 
ling connection  in  the  autumn  of  the  same  year;  was 
ordained  deacon  in  1816,  and  elder  in  1818,  by  bishop 
McKendree.  His  ministerial  life  was  spent  in  Tennes- 
see, Ohio,  and  Kentucky.  His  educational  opportuni- 
ties were  limited,  but  by  hard  study,  pursued  in  the 
midst  of  the  abundant  labors  of  a  Methodist  itinerant, 
he  obtained  a  good  knowledge  of  Latin,  Greek,  and  He- 
brew, and  also  of  the  sciences.  He  stood  quite  high, 
not  only  as  a  preacher,  but  also  as  a  theologian.  See 
McFerrin,  Methodism  in  Tennessee,  ii,  334. 

McNulty,  JoHX,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  born 
at  Killala,  Ireland,  in  June,  1829 ;  was  educated  at  Bel- 
fast, Ireland,  and,  after  reaching  the  United  States,  in 
the  Associate  Keformed  Seminary  at  Iscwburg,  N.  Y., 
Union  Seminary,  New  York  City,  and  the  theological 
seminary  at  Princeton,  X.  J.  In  1853  he  was  licensed, 
and  in  1854  was  ordained  and  installed  pastor  of  the 
Church  at  Eichland  City,  Wis. ;  in  1856  accepted  a  call 
from  the  Church  of  Caledonia  in  De  Ivorra,Wis.,  where 
he  labored  zealously  until  he  died.  May  15, 1861.  Mr. 
jNIcXulty  was  a  devoted  and  zealous  worker  in  the  cause 
of  Christ,  See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  Almanac,  1862,  p. 
111.     (J.L.S.) 

McPheeters,  William,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  born  in  Augusta  County,  Va. ;  was  educated 
at  Liberty  Hall,  Lexington,  and  licensed  in  1802.  Soon 
after  he  preached  in  various  parts  of  Kentucky,  ex- 
tended his  labors  to  Ohio,  and  took  charge  of  the  Church 
at  Danville,  Ky.,  and  of  a  male  school.  In  1804  he  vis- 
ited the  counties  of  Greenbriar  and  ^lonroe.  Subse- 
quently served  at  New  Lebanon  and  A\'indy  Cove,  and 
acted  as  a  stated  supply  in  1805  at  Bethel  Church.  He 
was  ordained  in  1806,  and  took  charge  of  the  academy 
and  congregation  in  Kaleigli,  N.  C  where  he  remained 
several  years.  In  1836  he  was  principal  of  a  school  in 
Fayetteville,  and  was  afterwards  agent  of  the  Board  of 
Domestic  Missions  of  the  General  Assembly.  He  died 
Nov.  7, 1842. — Sprague,  Annuls,  iv,  304. 

McPherson,  John  Erskine,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  born  in  Iredell  County.  N.  C,  Aug.  17, 180G; 
was  educated  at  the  academy  at  Beatlie's  Ford,  N.  C. ; 
spent  one  year  in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary,  Vir- 
ginia, and  finished  his  studies  privately  under  the  Rev. 
K.  1 1.  Morrison,  of  Davidson  College,  N.  C. ;  was  licensed 
in  1838,  and  for  several  months  labored  as  a  missionary 
in  North  Carolina.  In  1842  he  was  ordained,  but  for  teii 
years  more  continued  to  labor  in  the  mission  work;  in 
1852  he  was  called  to  Prospect  Cliurch,  in  Powan  Coun- 
ty, N.  C. ;  in  1855  removed  to  Cliemkee  ('ounty.  and 
labored  in  that  missionary  region  until  1859.  He  died 
April  9, 1860.  Mr.  IMcPherson  was  characterized  by  a 
patient  perseverance  and  devotion  to  duty,  indicative 
of  the  highest  grade  of  spiritual  life.  Sec  Wilson.  P/vii. 
Hist.  Almanac,  irn;\, -p.  nyl.     (J.L.S.) 

McPherson,  Joseph  A.,  a  minister  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Churcli  Soutli.  was  born  in  West  Ivli- 
ciaua  Parish,  La..  Dec.  19.  1835;  was  educated  at  the 
Centenary  College,  Jackson,  La.  (class  of  1853)';  spent 
several  years  in  teaching;  entered  the  Mississippi  Con- 
ference in  1859,  and  was  appointed  to  Bolivar  Circuit  ; 
in  1860  he  was  traiusfcrred  to  Fort  Adams  Circuit,  and 


died  June  18, 1861.  He  was  a  faithful  and  able  minis- 
ter of  the  Gospel,  and  the  Church  greatly  lamented  his 
early  loss. — Conference  Minutes  of  the  M.  E.  Ch.  South, 
ii,  317. 

McQueen,  GiiORCiK,  Jr.,  a  Presbj-terian  missionary, 
was  born  in  Schenectady^  N.  Y.,  in  1826 ;  graduated  at 
Union  College,  N.  Y.,  in  1849 ;  studied  divinity  in  the 
seminary  at  Princeton,  N.J. ;  was  licensed  and  ordained 
by  the  presbytery  of  Albany  in  1852,  and  soon  after 
sailed  for  Africa,  as  a  member  of  the  Corisco  Mission, 
where  he  labored  until  he  died,  Slarch  25,  1859.  See 
Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  Almanac,  1860,  p.  76. 

McReynolds,  Robert  Young,  a  minister  of  the 
Metllodi^t  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  born  in  Allen 
County,  Kentucky,  in  1818;  was  converted  in  his  six- 
teenth year;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  his  nineteenth 
year,  and  joined  the  Kentucky  Conference  in  1829.  In 
1840  he  was  transferred  to  the  Rock  River  Conference, 
and  was  stationed  at  Galena;  in  1841  was  transferred 
back  to  the  Kentuckj'  Conference,  and  continued  in  the 
regular  Avork  until  1845,  when  he  located  until  1867. 
He  was  next  readmitted  to  the  Louisville  Conference, 
and  appointed  to  Portland;  in  1868  to  Shepherdsville 
Circuit,  and  in  1869  to  Litchfield  Circuit,  He  died  Au- 
gust 23, 1870,  Mr.  IMcReynolds  was  "  a  benevolent  man, 
a  cheerful,  happy  Christian,  vciy  zealous  and  useful  in 
the  ministry." — Conference  Minutes  of  the  M^E.  Church 
South,  1870",  s.  V. 

McS"waiii,  WiLLiAJi  Adxey,  a  minister  of  the 
IMethodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  born  in  Mont- 
gomery (now  Stanlej')  County,  N.  C,  Nov.  5, 1814;  was 
converted  and  joined  the  Church  in  1831;  was  licensed 
to  preach  in  1836,  and  entered  the  South  Carolina  Con- 
ference in  1838.  He  served  on  the  following  circuits : 
Pleasant  Grove  in  1843 ;  Rutherford  in  1844-45 ;  Union 
in  1846-47,  and  again  in  1854;  Neuberry  in  1848,  and 
again  in  1855-56 ;  Black  Swamp  in  1849-50.  In  1851- 
52  he  was  pastor  of  Trinity  Church,  Charleston ;  in  1853 
of  Spartansburg  station ;  in  1857  tract  agent  of  his  Con- 
ference ;  from  1859-62  presiding  elder  on  the  Cokesbury 
District ;  in  1863-G4  pastor  of  Ninety-six,  and  in  1865 
of  Laurens  Circiut.  He  died  Jan.  7, 1866.  Besides  the 
trustworthiness  indicated  in  his  appointments,  he  served 
as  a  delegate  to  the  last  two  sessions  of  the  Southern 
General  Conference,  and  was  elected  to  that  which  was 
to  meet  in  1862,  and  was  at  the  time  of  his  death  presi- 
dent of  the  Sunday-school  Society  of  the  South  Carolina 
Conference.  "  Few  men,  with  similar  disadvantages, 
ever  attained  that  measure  of  ability,  degree  of  emi- 
nence, and  width  of  popularity  which  constituted  that 
honor  which  was  so  cheerfulh'  and  universally  awarded 
by  the  Church  and  world  to  this  self-made  man.  Pos- 
sessed of  great  versatility  of  genius,  gifted  with  rare  so- 
cial qualities  and  conversational  powers,  and  blessed  with 
a  singular  descriptive  faculty,  he  was  well  qualified,  from 
his  vast  fund  of  general  information,  to  give  life,  interest, 
and  information  to  the  fireside  or  social  circle.  His  ap- 
pearance in  the  pulpit,  his  engaging  address,  flow  of 
language,  and  tone  of  voice,  and  ease  and  natin-alness 
of  manner,  his  own  interest  in  the  subject,  with  the 
general  persuasiveness  of  his  style,  gave  to  his  sermons, 
which  evinced  much  thought  and  research,  an  effective- 
ness which  was  only  equalled  by  the  great  popularity  of 
the  preacher  himself.  He  -was  a  favorite  divine  with  all 
sects  of  Christians  and  all  classes  of  people."  See  Con- 
ference Minutes  of  the  M.  E.  Church  South,  iii,  17. 

McVean,  Daniel  Creighton,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  born  in  Caledonia,  Livingston  County,  N.  Y., 
Oct.  10, 1818 ;  graduated  at  Union  College  in  1844 ;  pur- 
sued his  theological  studies  in  the  Seminary  of  the  As- 
sociate Reformed  Synod  of  New  York  at  Newburg.  and 
in  1847  was  licensed  to  preach.  He  travelled  for  two 
or  three  years  as  a  probationer,  and  in  18.50  was  ordained 
and  installed  pastor  of  the  Associate  Reformed  Church 
of  Lyndon,  where  he  labored  for  sixteen  years.  He 
died  Sept.  7, 1868.     Mr.  McYeau  was  a  faithful  pastor, 


McVICKAR 


951 


McVICKAR 


a  useful  minister,  and  an  eminently  pious  man.     See 
Wilson,  Fresh.  Hist.  Almanac,  1868,  p.  274.     (J.  L.  S.) 

McVickar,  John,  D.D.,  an  eminent  clergyman  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  was  born  at  New  York 
in  1787,  and  was  educated  at  Columbia  CoUege  (class 
of  ISOi),  and  at  Cambridge  University,  England.  He 
entered  the  ministry  in  1811  as  rector  at  Hj'de  Park, 
N.  Y.,  and  remained  there  until  1817,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  moral  philosophj',  rhetoric,  and 
belles-lettres  in  Columbia  College.  The  duties  of  this 
position  he  discharged  until  1857,  when  ill-health  obliged 
him  to  retire  from  active  duties.     In  recognition  of  his 


services  he  was  created  Emeritus  professor.  He  also 
acted  as  chaplain  on  Governor's  Island.  He  died  at 
Bloonungdale,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  '29, 18G8.  Dr.  McVickar  was 
the  author  of  several  valuable  works ;  among  them  the 
following  deserve  our  notice :  Early  Years  of  Bishop  Ho- 
hart  (183-4)  -.—The  Professional  Years  of  Bishop  Hobart 
(1836)  -.—A  Memoir  of  the  Rev.  Edmund  D.  Griffins,  ap- 
pended to  the  "  Eemains  of  the  Rev.  E.  D.  Griffins"  (1831, 
2  vols.  8  vo) .  See  Life  of  the  Rev.  John  Mc  Vickar,  D.D., 
by  W.  A.  McVickar  (N.  Y.  1871) ;  Neio  Amer.  Cyclop. 
1868 ;  Drake,  Diet.  A  mer.  Biog.  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet.  Brit, 
and  Amer,  Authors,  ii,  1198. 


LIST  OF  ARTICLES  IN  VOL.  V. 


Kaab Page    1 

Kaaba 1 

Kabiler 2 

Kabzul 2 

Kades 2 

Kadesh 2 

Kadi 3 

Kadraiel i 

Kadmonite 4 

Kadroma 4 

Kaffres 4 

Kacjbossnm 5 

Kahaubarha 5 

Kahler 5 

Kajomorts 5 

Kakusandii 5 

Kalasutra 5 

Kalderou 5 

Kaldi 6 

Kali 6 

Kalighi T 

Kaliph T 

Kalir 7 

Kaliyaga 7 

Kallai 7 

Kalmucks 7 

Kalonymus 8 

Kalottiuocracy S 

Kalpa 8j 

Kalpa-Sutra 8| 

Kaltelseu 8: 

Kama s| 

Kamawachara 9 

Kami 9; 

Kampanton 10 

Kamtchatka 10' 

Kana lOl 

Kanah,  1 10! 

Kauah,  2 10 

Kaune 11 

Kanoii 11 

Kauouse 11 

Kausa Ill 

Kant Ill 

Kautoplatouism 17 

Kapila 17 

Karaites 17 

Kaieih 19 

Kariua li) 

Karens 19 

Kare  -  Patrepanda- 

ron 21 

Karg 21 

Karigites 21 

Karkaa 21 

Karkor 21 

Karl-Borromaens 

Union 21 

Karmathiaus 21 

Karn 23 

Karukowski 23 

Karo 23 

Kartali 24 

Kartan 24 

Kartikeya 24 

Kasimir 24 

Katerkamp 24 

Kathenotheisra 24 

Kathismata 24 

Katoua 24 

Kattath 24 

Katyayaua 24 

Kantz 25 

Kny 25 

Kaye 25 

Keach 25 

Ketit.ing 

Keblali 25 

Keble 20 

Keckerniann 2(1 

Kedar 27 

Kedeinah 27 

Kedemolh 27 

Kedesh,  1 27 

Kedesh,  2 27 

Kedesh,  3 27 


Keel Page 

Keeler 

Keeling 

Keeue 

Keeper •. 

Kehilathah 

Keil  

Keilah 

Keir 

Keitli,  George 

Keith,  Isaac 

Keith,  Reuel 

Keith,  Robert 

Keith,  William 

Keithians 

Kelaiah 

Kelita 

Kell 

Keller,  Beujamiu. .. 

Keller,  Emanuel 

Keller,  Ezra 

Keller,  Frederick. . . 

Keller,  Jacob 

Kellerraau 

Kelley 

Kells 

Kelly,  John 

Kelly,  Thomas 

Kelpies 

Kelsey 

Kelso 

Kemp,  James 

Kemp,  Thomas 

Kemp,  van  der 

Kenipe 

Kemper 

Kempis,  John  a 

Kempis,  Thomas  ii. . 

Keniuel,  1 

Kemuel,  2 

Keniuel,  3 

Ken 

Keuath 

Kenay,  1 

Kenay,  2 

Kenay,  3 

Kenay,  4 

Kendal 

Kendall,  George,  1. . 
Kendall,  George,  2.. 

Kendall,  John 

Kendrick,  Bennett. . 

Keudrick,  Clark 

Kendrick,    Nathan- 
iel   

Kenlte 

Kenizzite,  1 

Keuizzite,  2 

Kennaday 

Kennedy,  B.  J 

Kennedy,  James 

Kennedy,  John 

Kennedy,  Samuel... 

Kennedy,  W.  M 

Ivennedy,W.  S 

Ivonnerly 

Keunet,  Basil 

Ivennet,  White 

Kenney  

Kennicott 

Keuuon  

Kenosis 

Kenrick 

Kent,  Asa 

Kent,  James 

Kentigern 

Kephar 

Kepliar-Chanauiah. 

Kfpler 

Keralay 

Kerchief 

Kerckherdere 

Kerckhove 

Kereu-happuch 

Keri 

Keri,  Francis 


2S|Keri,  Janos. .  ..Page 

28lKerioth,  1 

2SjKerioth,  2 

28|Kerkassandi 

2S, Kernel 

28|Kero 

28 '  Keros 

28 1  Kerr,  George,! 

29 1  Kerr,  George,  2 

29  Kerr,  Henry 

2!)  Kerr,  James 

29  Kerr,  John 

30  Kerr,  Joseph 

30  Kerr,  Joseph  R 

30  Kerr,  Moses 

30  Kersey 

30  Keryktik 

30  Kesitah 

SOiKesler 

SOjKessIer,  Christian.. 

80 '  Kessler,  Johaun 

30  Kett 

30!Kettler 

31]Kettcubach 

SliKettle  

31;  Kettle  well 

31|Kettuer 

31[Keturah 

32:  Keucheuius 

32'Ke\vley 

32  Key  (in  heraldry)... 

32  Key 

32  Keyes 

32  Keys 

32  Keys,  Power  of  the. 

32  Keyser 

33  Kezia 

33  Keziz 

37  Khadijah 

37  Khan 

37  Khatchadur 

37  Khatchid  I 

SSKhatchid  II 

38'Khazars 

3S  Khedr-Al 

3SKliesl 

33  Khlistic 

39  Kholtah 

39  Khonds 

39  Khosru  I 

S'Jjlvhosru  II 

39  Kibby 

39  Kibroth-hattaavah.. 

Kibzaim 

Kid 

Kidd 

40i  Kidder 

40  Kidney 

41  Kidrou 

41:Kief 

41  Kiernander 

41  Kiesliug 

41iKiffin 

41  Kilburn 

42  Kilbve 

42  Kildlire 

42  Kilham 

42  Kilian 

42  KilliL'rcw 

4:'.  Kilvert 

44  Kilwardeby 

44iKimber 

41)  Kimchi,  David 

46iKimchi,  Joseph 

47  Kimchi,  Moses 

47  Kinah 

47!Kindervater 

47  Kindred 

47!Kine 

45  King 

4Si  King,  Alouzo 

49|King,  Barnabas 

491  King,  Cliarles 

49;  King,  Edward 

49  King,  Henry 

541  King,  James 


54|King, John,!.. Page    SS.Kley Page  119 

54,Kiug,Johu,  2 88  Kling 119 

54  King,  John,  3 86  Klinge 119 

55iKiug,JohnG 88  Klingler 119 

55  King,  John  L 88  Klopstock 119 

55  King,  Peter 8S  KInge,  David 122 

55  King,  Richard 88  Kluge,  Johaun 122 

55  King,  Thomas 88  Kliiplel,  Emanuel. .  122 

55  King,  William,  1. . .  89'Klupfel,  En<jelbert.  122 

55  King,  William,  2. . .     89  Knapp,  Albert 122 

5G'Kingdom  of  God. .     89iKuapp,  Georg 123 

5G  Kingly  Office OliKuapp,  Johaun 123 

56lKings,  Books  of. ..     Slllvnatchbull 124 

5G  King's  Book 99  Knauer 124 

57  King's  Dale 99  Kuead 124 

57  King's  Evil 100  Kneading-Trousrh.  124 


100  Knee 124 

lOOiKneeling 124 

lOO'Kneph 125 

101  Kuibb 126 


57  Kingsbury,  Cyrus, 

57  Kingsbury,  Wm.  . 

58  Kingsley,  Calvin. . 
58  Kingsley,  James.. 
58  Kingsley,  Phiueas.  102 

58  Kingsmill 102 

58  Kinkaid 102 

58  Kinkead 102 

58  Kiuuersley 102iKnight,  Samuel  .. .  127 

58  Kinsman 102  Knighthood 127 

PS  Kipling 103JKnill 132 

58  Kippis 104iKnipperdolliug. ...  133 

59  Kir 1C4  Kuipstro 133 


Knife 12G 

Knight,  Jame.«,  1 . .  127 
Knight,  James,  2  . .  127 
Knight,  Joel 127 


59  Kiratarjuniya 104 

5!)  Kircher,     Athana- 

59  sins 104 

60  Kircher,  Kourad..  104 

00  Kirchhofer 104|KuolIis 1.34 

60  Kirchomayr 104!KuoI!ys 134 


Kuittel 133 

Knobel 133 

Knobelsdorfl" 134 

Knock 134 


135 


135 
135 


69  Kirchmeier,Johauu 

691     C 104 

69  Kirchmeier, Johanu 

69  S 105 

CO  Kirghis 105 

70  Kirjathaini,  1 105 

70  Kirjaihaim, 2 105 

7o  Kii'iath-arba 105 

70  Kirjath-huzoth 106 

70  Kirjath-jearim 106 

70  Kirjath-sannah 107 

■71  Kirk 107 

72  Kirkland,  John 107|Knowles,  James  D.  137 

72  Kirkland,  Samuel..  107lKnowles,  James  S.  137 

74  Kirkpatrick, Jacob.  107|Knowles,  John 137 

74  Kirkpatrick,  James  lOS  Kuowles,  Thomas.  137 

74  Kirk-Sessions lOSlKuowlton 137 

74  Kirkton 108| Known  Men 137 

74  Kirkwood 108 1  Knox,  John,  1 137 

75  Kir-Moab 108  Knox,  John,  2 140 

75  Kirwau 109ilvnox,  Vicesimus. .  140 

75  Kish,  1 109  Knutzen,  Martin  ..  140 

75  liish,  2 109iKuutzeu,  Matthias.  140 


Knop 134 

Knorr 135 

Knorr  vou  Rosen 

roth,  Abraham . 
Knorr  von  RoseU' 

roth.  Christian. . 
Knott,  Edward.... 

Knott,  John 135 

Know 135 

Knowledge 136 

Knowledge  of  God.  130 
Knowler 137 


Koa 141 

Kobarius 141 

Kobler 141 

Kobudaisi 141 

Ivoch,  Henry 141 


75  Kish,  3 109 

77,KiBh,  4 109 

77  Kish,  5 109 

77  Kishim 109 

77  Kishon 110 

78  Kisker 112  Koch,  John  Henry.  141 

78  Kiss 1121  Ivoclianowski 141 

78  Ki.«temaker li;;l  Kochberg 141 

78.Kili ll;;lKoclicr 141 

79  Kithlish llJ|Koebergcr 141 

SO  Kitron 114 :  Ivofflcr 142 

SO,  Kittle 114!Kou'lcr 142 

80  Kitto 114  Kohath 142 


SO  Klaiber 11.'") 

SO  Klarenbach 115 

81  Klauser 11.'- 

81:Klansing llf 

81  Klebitz 115 

82iKlee 11.'. 

82  Klefeker Uf. 

82  Klein,  Friedrich...  11(1 

82  Klein,  Georg Ill) 

87  Ivleinknecht 11*' 

87  Klemm 116 

ST  Kk'iitomania 116 

STiKleschius 11!: 

STKlette 119 

&S,Kleuker 119 


Kohathite 142 

Ivohcu,  Naphtali  ..  142 
Ivolien,  Nehemiah.  143 

Kohen.Zedek 143 

Kohl 143 

Kohler,  Christian..  143 
Kohlcr.  Johann....  143 

Kohlreif 143 

Kokcn 144 

Kolaiah.l 144 

Kolaiah,  2 144 

Kollar 144 

Kolle 144 

Kollenbusch 144 

Kollock.H 144 


954 


LIST  OF  ARTICLES  IN  VOL.  V. 


Kollock,S....Page 

Kolonta.i 

Komaiuici-  — ,. .. 

Komauo-Bikuui. . . 

Komp 

Kouarski 

Kouig,  Christian  . . 

Kouig,  Georg 

Koiiig,  Joiianu 

Koui^.  Maui-itius. . 

Koiiig,  Samuel 

Konigsclorfer,  Co- 
lestiu 

Konigsdorier,  Mar- 
tin   

Kouigswarter 

Kourad  of  Marburg 

Konrad  III 

Konradin 

Koolhaas 

Kopascy 

Kopistenski 

Kopitar 

Kopke  

Koppe 

Koppeu,  Daniel . . . 

Koppeu,  Priedrich. 

Korah,  1 

Korah,  2 

Korah,  3 

Korahite 

Koraidhites 

Koran 

Kofdes 

Kore,  1 

Kore,  2 

Koreish 

KorraczaiKniga.. . 

Korner 

Kornmauu 

Kornthal 

Kortholt,  Christian 

Kosegarten,  Bern- 
hard  

Kosegarteu,  Hans. 

Kosegarten,  Lud- 
wig 

Kossoff 

Koster,  Johann 

Koster,  Martin 

Koster,  Wilhelm. . . 

Kostha,  Ihn-Luka.. 

Kotter 

Kotzebur 

Jvoz,  1 

Koz,  2 

Krafft,  Adam 

Krafft,  Johanu 

Kraft,  Priedrich. . .. 

Kraft,  Johann 
Georg 

Kraft,  Johauu  Mel- 
chior  

Kraft,  Johann  Wil- 
helm   

Kraft,  Justus 

Kragh 

Krakcwitz 

Kraliz 

Krama 

Krautz,  Albert 

Krantz,  David 

Krasicki 

Krasinski 

Kraus,  Christian  . . 

Kraus,  Johann 

Krause,  Priedrich.. 

K  ran  so,  Johanu 
Christian 

Krause,  Johanu 
Friedrich 

Krause,  Karl 

Krauth 

Krebs,  Johann 
Friedrich 

Krebs,  Johanu  To- 
bias   

Krebs,  John 

Krebs,  William 

Krey 

Krider 

Kripner 

Krishna 

Krochmal 

Kromayer,  Jerome 

Kroraayer,  John. . . 

Krotos". 

Krudener 

Krng,  John 

Krug,  Wilhelm 


144  Krnger Page 

145'  K  r  u  m  in  a  c  h  e  r , 
I45I  Friedrich  Adolph 
145| K  r  u  m  m  a  c  h  e  r , 
1451  Friedrich  Wil- 
145I     helm 

145  K  r  u  m  m  a  c  h  e  r , 

146'     Gottfried 

140  Krummendyk 

146  Kryptre 

146jKryptics 

iKtistolatra 

146{Kubel 

Kuchlein 

146|Kuen 

140'Kuflc  Writing 

140  Kuhlmanu 

147|Kuhu 

147  Kuinoel 

147|Kulkzynski 

147  Kulon 

147 

147 

147 

14S 

14S 


Kumarasambhava. 

Kuuadus 

Kuuibert 

Kunneth 

Kunwald 

14S'Kunze 

148[  Kurdistan 

148  Kurma 

150  Kurtz,  Benjamin  . . 
150i  Kurtz,  John  Daniel 
150| Kurtz,  John  Nich- 

1501     olas 

154  Kushaiah 


Kuster,  Karl . . . 
Kuster,  Ludolf.. 

Kutassy 

Kuvera 

Kuypers 

Kvasir 

Kyderminster.  . 

Kypke 

Ivyrie 

Kyrle 


153 


Laadah 

Laadan,  1 

Laadan,  2 

Labadie 

150  Labagh 

150  Laban,  1 

157  Laban,  2 

157  Labana 

157  Labarum 

ISt'Labat 

157lLabbe 

157  Labis 

157 1  Labor 

157  Laborantes 

Laborde 

Labouderie 

Laboureur 

Labrador 

Labrousse 

La  Brune  

15S;Lacarry 

158  Lace 

158  LacediBmonian. . . . 

15S|Lacey 

158|La  Chaise 

158  La  Chapelle 

150JLachish 

150  Lachmann 

159  Lacombe,  Pijre 

159  L a c o  m b  e ,  D  o  m  i- 

159i     niqne 

159  Lacordaire 

'Lacroix 

159  Lacrozo 

jLactaiitius 

159iLacticinia 

160|Lacunary  Koofs  ... 
160'Lacunus 

iLacy  

laOLad 

I Ladan 

lGO;Ladd,  Francis 

160  Ladd,  William 

100  Ladder 

161  Ladder  of  Tyrus... 

lOlLadislasII 

161  Ladislaus  of  Poland 

101  Ladvocat 

167  Lady ^ 

167  Lady  Chapel 

167  Lady  Past 

107  Lady  of  Mercy 

167  Lady  of  Montesa. . 
lOS  Lael 

168  LiBtare  Sunday 


09  Ltevinus Page 

Lafaye 

G9,Latitau 

Lahad 

'Lahniam 

69  Lahnii 

Laidlie 

70  Lainez,  Francisco  . 

70  Lainez,  lago 

70  Laiug 

70Laish,l 

70Laish,  2 

70  Laish,3 

70  Laity 

70  Lake 

70  Lake,  Arthur 

71  Lake,  John 

71  Lakeniacher 

71  Lakin 

71jLak8hmi 

7l'Lakum 

71jLalita-Vistaria 

72^Lallemaut,  Jacques 
72iLallemant,  Pierre.. 
72'La  Luzerne 

72  Lama 

72iLamai8m 

72  La  Marck,    Evrard 

73|     de 

73jLa  Marck,  Jean 
74     Baptiste 

[Lamb 

74  Lamb  of  God 

74  Lamb,  John 

74  Lamb,  Thomas.... 
74  Lambdin 

74  Lambert,  von  Hers- 
74]    feld 

75  Lambert   of  Maes- 

75}     tricht 

75. Lambert,  Chandley 
75|Lambert,  Francis.. 
75;Lambert,  George.. 
75|Lambert,  Johann.. 

Lambert,  John 

75 1  Lambert,  Joseph  .. 
75  Lambert,  Ralph  ... 

75,  Lambert,  St 

75  Lambruschini 

70  Lamech,  1 

70  Lamech,  2 

70  Lamennais,FL'licite 
77  Lamennais,  Jean.. 

77  Lament 

77L  a  mentations, 
77|    Book  of 

77  Lami 

78  Lamiletiere 

78  Lammas-day 

78  Laraout 

7SjLamormain,  Guil- 
78i     laume 

78  Lamorraain,  Henri 

79  de 

79  Lamothe 

79JLamourette 

79 1  Lamp 

79|Lamp  (ceremony).. 
79j Lamps  in  theChris- 

79]    tian  Church 

SOi  Lampadary 

80jLampe   

S2[Lampetiaus.  

82  Lampillas 

JLamplugh 

S2|Lamprouti 

82  Lamson 

S5  Laray,  Bernard 

85  Lamy,  Francois 

85  Lancaster,  Joseph. 
90J  Lancaster,  Lydia  .. 
901  Lancaster,  Nathau- 

90     iel 

90!  Lance... 

9(»  Lance,  the  Holy,  1. 
90;Lanee,  the  Holy,  2. 
90  i  Lan  cellott  i,Gio  van- 

'.n\     ni,  1 

91iLanccllotti,Giovan- 

91 1     ni,  2 

92|  Lancelot 

92I  Lancet 

93|Lancet  Window. . . 

94  Land 

94  Laiidau  ...    

94  Landed  Estate  . . 

94  Landelin 

94  Land-mark 

94  Lando 

94.Landou 


194  LandsboroughPage227lLatin,  LTse  of  .Page  261 

194  Landsperger 227  Latinisms 263 

194  Lane 227  Latin  Versions 263 

194  Lane,  George 227  Latitudinarians 267 

194  Lane,  John 228  Latomius 268 

194  Laney 22S;Latria 268 

195  Lanfranc 228  Latta,  James 208 

195  Lang,  Georg  H 229! Latta,  Samuel  A. . .  268 

195!Laug,  Joseph 229  Lattice 26S 

196  Lang,  Lorenz  J.  . . .  229'Latzembock 209 

190!Lang,  Matthaus 229: Laud 269 

190lLaugbaine 230  Lauda  Sion  Salva- 

190  Langdon 2oOJ     torem 275 


197  Lange,  Joachim.. 

197  Lange,  Johauu  M..  230 

197  Langeais 231 

198  Langeland 231 

198  Langham 231 

198  Laughorne,  John. .  231 
198  Laughorne, William  231 

198  Lanigau 231 

198  Laugle 231 

198  Laugres 232 

19S  Langton 232 

198  Language 233 

199  Languet  de  Gergy.  233 
199  Lan'ueau,BazileE..  233 

L  a  n  n  e  a  u ,  John 

204  Francis 234 

Lannis 234 

205  Lauiado,  Abraham.  234 

205  Laniado,  Samuel.. .  234 

206  Lanka 234 

206;Lan8ing 234 


230  Landemium 275 

L  audi  an  Manu- 
script   275 

Lauds 270 

Laufler 270 

Laughter 270 

Laughton 276 

Laugier 276 

Launay 276 

Launoi 276 

Laura 277 

Laureate 277 

Laurence 277 

Laureutius      (anti- 
pope) 277 

Laureutius  (prelate)  277 

Laurentius,  St 277 

Laureutius  Valla  . .  27S 

Lauria 278 

Laurie 27S 

Laval 278 

Lavalette 278 

Lavater,       Johann 

Kasper 279 

Lavater,  Louis 2S0 

Lavatory 280 

Laver 280 

Laverty 282 

Lavialle 282 

Lavington 282 

Law.." 283 

Law  of  Moses 284 

Law,  Ednntnd 294 

Law,  George  Henry  294 

Law,  Isaac 294 

Law,  Joseph 295 


206  Lantern 234 

200  Lantern   (in  archi- 
tecture)  235 

206  Lanterns,  Feast  of.  235 
Lautfredus 236 

207  Laodicea 236 

207  Laodicea,    Council 
207     of 237 

207  Laodicean 238 

208  Laodiceans,  Epistle 

208     to  the 23S 

208  Laos 238 

20s  Lao-tzu 239 

208  Lap 241 

208  Lapithse 241 

209  Laphria 241 !  Law,  Samuel 295 

210  LapidesJudaici....  241  Law,  William 295 

210  Lapidoth 241  Lawrence,  Abbot. .  295 

213  La  Pilounitre 241, Lawrence,  Amos.. .  295 

213  Lapis 241|Lawrence,     Henry 


Montgomery 295 

Lawrence,  St.,  Reg- 
ular Canons  of . .  295 
Lawrenson 295 


Laplace,  Josue  de. .  241 
213  Laplace,  Pierre  Si- 

2191     mou  de 242 

219  LaPlacette 242 

219  Lapland 242  Lawyer 295 

219jLappiug 243!Lawyers 296 

Lapse 243  Lay,  Benjamin 296 

219  Lapsi 244  '        "  "    ' 

JLapwing 245 

220  Larduer,  Dionvsius  240 
2201Lardner,  Nathaniel  246  ' 

220  Lares 247 

220iLarned,  Sylvester..  247 
222  Lamed,  William 

I    Augustus 247 

222  Laroche 248 

223  Larochefoucauld. . .  248 

223  Laromiguitre 248 

223  Laros 249}Lazarists. 

223  Larroque,  Daniel . .  249iLazarus,  1. 


Lay  Abbots 29G 

Layard 296 

Lay  Brothers 296 

Lay  Chancellors...  296 

Laymann 296 

Lay  Preaching 296 

Lay  Representation  298 
Layritz,  Johanu 

Georg 300 

Lavritz,PaulEugen  300 

Laza; 300 

300 
301 

223  Larroque,  Matthieu        I  Lazarus,  2 301 

223 i     de 249  Lazarus  (prelate)...  302 

223  Larue 249JLeach 302 

223  Lastea 249iLeacock S02 

224  La  Salle 249jLead 303 

224  Lasha 2.50  Leade 304 

224  Lasharon 250|Leaders 304 

Lasitins 250jLeaders'  Meetings.  305 

224'Lasius,Christopho-         Leaf 305 

224j    rus 251  League .S05 

224  Lasius,  Hermann  |  League  of  Cambray  306 
224j    Jacob 2.'51lLeah 306 

Lasius,  Lorenz  Otto  251  [Leake 300 

224  Laskary 251  Learning 306 

iLasko,  John  il,  1...  251  Leander 306 

225  Lasko,  John  a,2...  251  Leang-Oo-Tee 307 

225  Lasthenes 254|Leannoth 307 

225  Latchet 254  Learning 307 

225  Lateran,  Church  of        Leasing 3<i7 

225|     St.  John 254  Leather 307 

225  Lateran  Councils . .  2.'>4  Leaven 307 

225  Latey 2.^8  Lebanah 309 

227  Lathrop 2.5S  Lebanon 309 

227  Latimer,  Ilu^h 258  Lebaoth 314 

227  Latimer,  William . .  261  Lebbseus 315 

227  Latin 261;Lebeuf 315 


LIST  OF  ARTICLES  IN  VOL.  V. 


955 


Leblond Page 

Lebou 

Lebouah  

Lebrija 

Lebrun 

Lebiiiu 

Lecah 

LecODe 

Leckey 

Leclerc,  David 

Leclerc,  James  The- 
odore   

Le  Clerc,  John 

Leclerc,  Laureut 
Jos6 

Locnmte 

Lectern 

Lecticarii 

Lectiouariiim 

Lectisteruiura 

Lector 

Lecturers 

Lectures,  Mer- 
chants'   

Lectures,  Monthly. 

Lectures,  Morning. 

Lectures,  Moyer's. . 

Lectures,  Religious 

Lectures,  Warbnr- 
touian 

Ledge 

Ledieu 

Ledru  

Ledwich 

Lee,  Andrew 

Lee,  Ann 

Lee,  Charles 

Lee,  Chauncey 

Lee,  Edward 

Lee,  Jason 

Lee,  Jesse 

Lee,  Robert 

Lee,  Robert  P 

Lee,  Samuel,  1 

Lee,  Samuel,  2 

Lee,  Wilson 

Leek 

Lees 

Leeser 

Left 

Left-handed 

Leg 

Legalists 

LeLJ:ates 

Legend 

Legend,  Golden 

LC'ger,  Antoine,  1.. 

Li'ger,  Antoine,  2. . 

Leger,  Jeau 

Legion 

Legion,  Theban  . . . 

Legion,  Thuuder- 


Legrand,  Antoine. . 
Legrand,  Joachim. 

Legrand,  Louis 

Legris-Duval 

Legros,  Antoine. . . 
Legros,  Nicholas  . . 

Lehabim 

Lehi 

Lehmann 

Lehnberg 

Lehnin 

Leibnitz 

Leidradt 

Leifchild 

Leigh,  Edward  .... 

Lei'^li,  Egerton 

Leiu'li,  Hezekiah. . . 
Lei^hlin,  Synod  of. 
Lei^'hton,    Alexan- 
der  

Leighton,  Robert. . 
Leipsic,Colloquy  of 

Leitch ."... 

Leitomysl 

Lejay.." 

Lejuive 

Leland,  Aaron 

Leland,  John,  1 

Leland,  John,  2 

Leland,  Thomas. .. 

Lelong 

Lemaistre  de  Saci. . 

LeMercier 

Lemoine 

L'Eraperenr 

Lempriere 

Lemuel 


Lemures Page 

Lend 

Len  fant,  Alexandre- 
Charles-Anne  . . . 

Leufaut,  Jacques  . . 

Leug 

Lengerke 

Lenoir 

Lent 

Lentile 

Lentulus 

317!Leo  of  Achris 

317  Leo^gyptus 

Leo  Diacouus 

Leo  the  Isaurian.. . 

Leo  the  Magentian. 

Leo    the    Philoso- 
pher  

Leo  of  Saint-Jean. . 

Leo  Stypiota 

Leo  of  Thessalon- 
ica 

Leo  the  Thracian. . 

Leo  I 

Leo  II 

IDlLeoIII 

310|LeoIV 

319  Leo  V 

Leo  VI 

319:Leo  VII 

319  Leo  VIII 

3U)  Leo  IX 

319  Leo  X 

319  Leo  XI 

319  Leo  XII 

319  Leodegar 

3-20  Leon  da  Modena. .. 
321 1  Leon,  Jacob  Jehu- 

?,->V     dah 

321  Leon,  Luis  Ponce 

321 1     de 

.^22 1  Leonard,  St 

32.G  Leonard,  George. . . 

Leonard,    Levi 
Washburne 

L  e  o  n  a  r  d,  Z  e  n  a  s 
Lockwood 

Leonardo  da  Porto 
Mauritio 

Leonardo  da  Vinci. 

Leonidas 

Leonistse 

Leontes 

Leoutius 

Leontius  of  Antioch 

Leontius  of  Arabis- 
sus 

Leontius  of  Arelate 

Leontius  of  Byzan- 
tium, 1 

Leontius  of  Byzan- 
tium, 2 

Leoutius  of  Neapo- 
lis 

Leopard 

Leopold  II 

Leopold  IV 

Leporius 

,3301  Leprosy 

330iLe  Quieu 

331  '     ■ 

331 

331 

331 

332 

33T 


325 


Lerino 

Lesbonax  

Leshem 

Lesley 

Leslie,  Charles 

Leslie,  John 

33S'Less,  Gottifried 

33S|Less,  Leonhard 

33s'Lesser 

.S.SSLessey 

33SJLessing,  Gotthold.. 

Lethe.". 

339  Lethech 

339!Leti 

339;Letter 

3-lOi Letter,  the 

340' Letters  of  Orders.. 

:;4lILettice 

341jLettus 

;!4l'Letushim 

341  Leucippus 

342  I.eucopetriaus 

342  Leiimmim 

342JLeun 

342lLeusden 

843JLeulard 

343;Levellers 

343  Lever 

343lLevi,  1 

343lLevi,  2 


Levi,  3 Page 

Levi,  4 

Leviathan 

Levi,  David 

Levings 

Levirat* 

Levis 

Levison 

Levite 

Levites,  Military... 

Leviticus 

Levity 

Levy 

Lewd 

Lewin 

Lewis,  Isaac 

Lewis,  John  Nitchle 

Lewis,  Moses 

Lewis,  Thomas. ... 

Lewis,  Zechariah. . 

Leyczon  Nobla.... 

Ley decker 

Leyden,  Lucas  van. 

Leydeu,  Schools  of. 

Leydt  

Libanius 

Libauus 

Libation 

Libel 

Libellatici 

Libclli  Pacis 

Liberality 

Liberality  of  Senti- 
ment   

Liberatus 

Liber  Diurnus 

Liberia 

Liberins 

Liber  Pontiflcalis. . 

Libertine 

Libertines 

Liberty 

Libnah,  1 

Libuab,  2 

Libni 

Libulte 

Liborius 

Libra 

Libraries 

Libya 

Libyan 

Lice. ..' 

License 

Licentiate  (degree). 

Licentiate  (iu 
Church) 

Lichteuberg 

Lie 

Liebneehl 

Lieutenant 

Life 

Lift 

Lifters 

Light.... 

Light,  George 

Lightfoot,  John,  1. 

Lightfoot,  John,  2. 

Lightning 

Lights 

Lign-aloe 

Liguori 

Lil'iiie 

Likhi 

Lilburne 

Lilienthal,  Michael. 

lalienthal,  Theodor 

Lillie 

Lily 

Limbo 

Limborch 

Lime 

Limina  Martyrum. 

Limiter 

Lincoln  

Linda 

Lindblom 

Linde 

Lindewood 

Lindiierus 

Lindsay,  John,  1.. . 

Lindsay,  John,  2.. . 

Lindsey 

Lindsley,  James 

I    Harvey 

[Lindsley,  Philip . .. 

Line 

Lineage 

Linen 

Linga 

Llngard 


3$S,Lingeudes,  Claude 

3nS1     de Page 

3S;s'LiMgendes,  Jeau  de 

3S9  Link,  .lohaun 

3S9|Link,\Venceslaus.. 
3S9lLlnn,  John  Blair. . . 

3901  Linn,  William 

390|Lintel 

390|Linus 

400  Liuz 

400Il1ou 

400jLip 

40(>jLipmanu 

40T|Lippe 

407  Lippomani 

Lipscomb 

Lipsius 

Liptines 

Liquor 

Lismaniui 

List 

Litany 

Literoe  Eucyclicse.. 

Litera;  Formatre. . . 

Lith 

Lithuania 

Litter 

Little  Christians. . . 

Littlejohn 

Littleton,  Adam 

Littleton,  Edward. 

Liturgy 

j  Liver 

41olLiving  Creatures.. 

411  j  Livingston,  Gilbert 
411iLivingston,  Henry. 

412  Livingston,  John 


Livingston,  John 
Henry 

Livonia 

Lizard 

Lizel 

Llorente 

Lloyd,  Charles 
Hooker 

Lloyd,  Thomas 

Lloyd,  William.... 


421 1  Loaf . 

421 

421 

421 

421 

423 

423 

423 


Loammi 

Loan 

Loaysa 

Lobbes 

Liiber 

Lobethau 

Lobo 

Lobstein 

423;Lobwasser 

423:Local  Preachers. 

424'Lochmann 

424 
424 
425 
425 
425 
420 
420 
427 


Loci  Communes 

Theologici 

Lock 

Locke,  George 

Locke,  John 

Locke,  Nathaniel. . 

Locke,  Samuel  .... 

Locke,  William 

427'Lockyer 

427  Locust 

427|Lodebar 

429JLodenstcin 

430J  Lodge 

430  Lodge,  Nathan 

430j Lodge,  Robert 

4.S0  Lodur 

431 !  Lofller,  Fricdrich.. 

431  Lofller,  Josias 

43i;Loft 

434'L()ftns,    Dudley 

436|     Field 

43(i  Loft  lis,    William 

437|     Kennett 

437iLoir 

4:i7  Logan,  David  Swift 

437  Logan,  John 

437:  Logic 

437iLoiros 

437'Logotheta 

4;!7iLoguo 

437  Lohdius 

437iLohe 

437,  Loin 

[Lois 

4.38'Loki 

43S  Lokman 

43SXollards 

439  j  Lom  bardus 

439jLombardy 

443iLombross 

443iLomL'nie 


Lomus Page 

Li.n \. 

Long,  Roger 

Long,  Thomas 

Long  Brothers 

Longevity 

Longinns 

Lougley 

Longobardi 

Longobardi,Niccolo 

Longuerue 

Lougueval 

Lonsdale 

Loop 

Loos 

Lope  de  Vera 

Lorance 

Lord 

Lordly 

Lord,  Benjamin  . . . 

Lord,  Daniel  Minor 

Lord,  Eleazer 

Lord,  Isaiah 

Lord,  James  Cooper 

Lord,  Jeremiah  S. . 

Lord,  John  King  . . 

Lord,  Nathan 

Lord,  Nathan  L. . . . 

Lord's  Day 

Lord's  Prayer 

Lord's  Supper 

Lorenz 

Lorenzo 

Loretto 

Loria,  Isaac 

Loria,  Salomo 

Loriu 

Lorsbach 

Lorsch 

Lort 

Loruhamah 

Losada 

Loscher,  Johann.. . 

Liischet,  Valentin 
Ernst 

Loskiel 

LiJsner 

Loss 

Loss,  Lewis 

Lossius 

Lot 

Lot  (man) 

Lotan 

Lothaire  11 

Lothasubus 

Lotto 

Louis  de  Grenada. . 

Louis  I 

Louis  VI 

Louis  VII 

Louis  IX  (St.Louis) 

Louis  XIV 

Louvavd 

Love 

Love,  Christopher. 

Love,  John 

Love-feast 

Love,  Virgins  of. . . 

Lovejoy,  Elijah 

Lovejoy,  Owen 

Loveys 

Low  Churchmen  . . 

LOwe,  Ben-Bezalel. 

Liiwe,  Joel 

Lowell,  Charles 

Lowell,  John 

Lower  Parts 

Liiwisohn 

Lowman,  Abraham 

Lowman,  ]Moses . . . 

Lowrie,  John  Mar- 

I    shall 

Lowrie,  Reuben.. . 

Lowrie,  Walter  Mal- 
colm  

Low  Sunday 

Lowth,  Robert 

Lowth,  Simon 

Lowth,  William 

Loyola 

Lozon 

Lubbert 

Lubrinietski 

Lubim 

Lnbin,  AuLrustin.. . 

Lubin,  Eilhard 

Luca 

Lncanius 

Lucas 

Lucas  de  Tuy 


49S 
49S 
49S 
498 
498 
498 
500 
500 
501 
5(i2 
502 
502 
503 
503 
503 
503 
503 
503 
504 
504 
504 
504 
504 
504 
504 
505 
50,5 
505 
505 
509 
509 
515 
515 
510 
510 
51 T 
51 T 
51 T 
51 T 
51 T 
518 
518 
518 

518 
518 
518 
518 
519 
519 
519 
520 
523 
522 
522 
522 
522 
523 
525 
525 
525 
525 
528 
528 
530 
530 
531 
531 
531 
531 
531 
531 
531 
532 
532 
532 
532 
532 
533 
533 

533 
533 
533 
533 
533 
533 
534 
534 
534 
536 
536 
53C 
53T 
53T 
53T 
53T 
538 
538 
538 


956 

Lucas,  Fran... Page  53S 
Lucas,  Richard  —  53S 

Luce 538 

Luceruarium 538 

Lucia 538 

Luciau 539 

Luciau,  St. 5-tl 

Lucidus 542 

Lucifer 54-2 

Lucifer  (bishop)...  5431 

Lucifeiiaus 543 1 

Lucifugse 543 

Lucius  (consul) 543 

Lucius  of  Adriano- 

ple 544 

Lucius  of  Alexan- 
dria   544 

Lucius  (of  Cyreue).  544 

Lucius  (king) 544 

Lucius  1 544 

Lucius  II 545 

Lucius  III 545 

Luck 545 

Liicke 545 

Luckeubach 545 

Luckey 545 

Lucopetriaus 546 

Lucretius 546 

Lud,  1 546 

Lud,  2 546 

Ludamilia 546 

Liideke 546 

Liiderwald 547 

Lud|j;ardi8 547 

Liidicke 547 

Ludiin 547 

Liidke 54S 

Ludlow,  Jotiu 548 

Ludlow,  Peter 54S 

Ludolf 54S 

Ludolph 548 

Liiera 54S 

Luft 548 

Lugo 540 

Luliith 549 

Laiui 549 

Luitprand  (kin,^)...  549 
Luitprand     (histo- 
rian)   550 

Luke 550 

Luke,    Gospel     ac- 
cording to 551 

Luke  of  Prague 55T 

Luke's,  St.,  Day  ...  55S 

Lukewarm 558 

LuUns 558 

Lully 55S 

Luminum  Dies 560 

Lump 560 

Lumper 560 

Lunisdeu 560 

Lunatic 560 

Luudy 560 

Lunford 560 

Lunt 5G0; 

Lupetiuo 561 

Lupset 561 

Lupus,  St 561 

Lupus,  Servatus  . . .  561 

Luque 561 

Lusk 562 

Lust 562 

Lustration 563 

Lutei 563 

Luther 563 

Lutheran 573 

Lutherans  in  Amer- 
ica   579 

L  itkemann 5S2 

Lilt/,  Johann  Lnd- 

wig 5S2 

Lutz,  Samuel 582 

Lux  Mentis 582 

Luxury 582 

L:i/.,  1 582 

L'l/.,  2 582 

Lu7,  zatto,     Mose 

Chayim 583 

Luzzatto,  Samuel..  583 
Luzzatto,  Simone. .  583 

Lvbou 583 

Lybrand 5S3 

Lycaonia 583 

Lycia 5S4 

Lych-gate 584 

Lychnoscope 584 

Lycus 5S4 

Lydda 584 

Lydgate 585 

Lydia,  1 5S5 


LIST  OF  ARTICLES  IN  VOL.  V, 


L3-dia,  2 Page  586 

Lydius,  Balthasar..  586 

Lydius,  Jacob 586 

Lydius,  Johannes,  1  586 
Lydiuti,  Johannes, 2  586 

Lydius,  Martin 587 

Lye,  Edward 587 

Lve,  Thomas 587 

Lj-ell 587 

Lyford 587 

Lyle 587 

Lyman,  Henry 587 

Lyman,  Joseph 587 

Lyman,  William. ..  587 

Lynch 587 

Lynde 587 

Lyon,  Asa 587 

Lyon,  Hervey 588 

Lyon,  John  C 588 

Lyon,  Mary. 58S: 

Lyons 588 

Lyons,  Israel 588 

Lyons,  James  G. . . .  5S8 

Lyra 5S8 

Lysauias 589 

Lysczynski 590 

Lyser 590 

Lysias,  1 590j 

Lysias,  2 591 

Lysimachus,  1 591 

Lysimachus,  2 591 

Lysons 591 

Lystra 591 

Lytle 592 

Lyttleton,  Charles.  592 
Lyttleton,  George..  592 

Maacah,  1 592 

Maacah,2 593 

Maacah,  3 593 

JNlaacah,  4 593 

Maacah,  5 593 

Maacah,  6 593 

Maacah,  7 593 

Maacah,  8 593 

Maacah,  9 593 

Maacah,  10 593 

Maachah 593 

Maachathi 593 

Maadai 593 

Maadiah 593 

Maai 593 

Maaleh-acrabbim..  593 
Maaleh-adummim .  593 

Maau 593 

Maaui 593 

Maarath 593 

Maaseiah,  1 594 

Maaseiah,  2 594 

Maaseiah,  3 594 

Maaseiah,  4 594 

Maaseiah,  5 594 

Maaseiah,  6 594| 

Maaseiah,  7 594 

Maaseiah,  S 594 

Maaseiah,  9 594 

Maaseiah,  10 594! 

Maaseiah,  11 594| 

Maaseiah,  12 594' 

Maaseiah,  13 594' 

Maaseiah,  14 594 

Maaseiah,  15 594 

Maaseiah,  16 594 

Maasiai 594 

Maasias 594 

Maath 594 

Maaz 594 

Maaziah,  1 694 

Maaziah,  2 594 

Mabdai 594 

Mabillou 594 

Mabon 595 

Maboul 595 

Mac- 595 

Macalon 595 

Macarius,  1 595 

Macarius,  2 .596 

Macarius,  3 .596 

Macarius,  4...   .59(; 

Macarius,  5 f>'M] 

Macassar 59(! 

Macaulay,  Aulay  . .  596 
Macaulay,  Zachary.  596 

Macauley  . .  .»■ 596 

Macbride 59(i 

Maccabee 590 

Maccabees,    Books 

I    of COG 

Maccabees,      First 

i    Book  of 006, 


Maccabees,  Second 

Book  of Page 

Maccabees,     Third 

Book  of 

Maccabees,  Fourth 

Book  of  (a). ...... 

Maccabees,  Fourth 

Book  ot(h) 

Maccabees,      Fifth 

Book  of 

Maccabees,  Festi- 
val of  the 

Maccarthy 

Maccarty 

Macclintock 

Maccovius 

Macdil 

Mac6 

Macedo,  Antonio  . . 
Macedo,   Francisco 

de 

Macedonia 

Macedonian 

Macedonius 

Mac  Gill 

Machserus 

Machar  

Machault,  Jacques. 
Machault,  Jean  de. 
Machault,    Jean- 

Baptiste  de 

Machbanai 

Machbenah  

Machet 

Machi 

.Machir,  1 

.\rachir,  2 

Machnadebai 

Machpelah 

Machzor 

Mackee 

Mackellar 

Mackenzie,  Charles 
Mackenzie,  George 

Mackey 

Mackie 

Mackintosh 

Macklaurin 

Macklin 

Macknight 

Maclaine 

Maclay 

Maclean 

Maclennnn 

Macneile 

Macon   

Macrobiub 

Macron 

Macurdy. , 

Macwhorter 

Madagascar 

Madai 

Madan,  Martin 

Madan,  Spencer,  1. 
Madan,  Spencer,  2. 

Madeira 

Madhava  

iMadhavacharya  .. . 

Madiabun 

Madison 

Madmauuah  

Madmeu.. ..- 

Madmeiiah 

Madness 

Madon  

^[adonna 

Madox  

Madras 

^ladruzzius 

Madura,  1 

Madura,  2 

Maelus 

Maflci,  Bernard  . . . 
Maflei,      Francisco 

Scipione  de 

Maft'ei,       Giovanni 

Pietro 

JMaffei,  Vegius 

:\Iaffit 

Magalhreus,  Gabriel 

de 

Magalhfeus,   Pedro 

de..." 

Mf^rtrarita 

Magliish 

Magdala 

Magdalen 

Magdalen,  Order  of 

Miigdalena 

Mflgdiel 


608 


Maged Page 

Magee,  Thomas 

Mairce,  William 

Magi 

Magic 

Magician 

Magicians 

Magie 

Magill 

Maginnis 

Magister  Discipli- 
nsE 

Magister  Sacri  Pa- 
latii 

Magistrate 

Magistratis 

Magistris 

Magnanimity 

Magnentius 

Magni,  John 

Magni,  Valerian  . . . 

Magnificat 

Magnus,  1 

Magnus,  2 

Magnus,  3 

Magnus,  4 

Magnus,  John 

Magnus,  Olaus 

Magog 

INIagormissabib 

Macpiash 

Mahabharata 

!Mahadeva 

iMahadi 

Maha-Kala 

Mahakasyapa  

Mahalaleel,  1 

Mahalaleel,  2 

Mahalath,! 

iMahalath,2 

Mahalath  Maschil.. 

Mahanaim 

Mahanehdau  

Maha-Pralya 

Alaharai 

.Alahaaanghika 

Mahath,  1 

Mahath,  2 

Mahavausa 

Mahavira 

Mahavite 

Mahazioth 

M  a  h  e  rs  h  al  al  h  a  sh- 
baz 

Mahesa 

Mahlah,  1 

Mahlah,2 

Mahli,  1 

Mahli,  2 

Mahlite 

Mahlon 

Mahmud 

JIahneuschmidt . . . 

Mahol 

Mahrattas 

Mai 

Maianeas 

Maid 

Maiguan 

Maigrot 

Mail 

MaildufF 

Maillard 

Maillat 

Maille  de  Breze 

Mainibourg,  Louis. 

Maimbourg,  Theo- 
dore  

Maimou 

Maimonides 

Main-sail 

Maine  de  Birau  — 

Main  tenon 

Alair  


Mairs 

Mai.stre,  Joseph 

Maitland,  Samuel.. 
Maitland,  William. 

Mailreya 

Major,  Georg 

Major,  Johann 

l\[ajor,  John 

Majores ; 

Majoristic   Contro- 
versy  

Mnioritas 

Makarij 

Makaz 

Maked 

Makemie 


632jMakheloth  . .  .Page  671 

632|Makkedah on 

032Makrina,  1 671 

032  Makriua,  2 C71 

639  Maktesh 671 

648  Malabar 671 

048  Malacca 672 

648  Malachi 073 

049  Malachy 675 

049  Malagrida 676 

Malakans 676 

049  Malau 070 

Malay  Archipelago.  077 

049  Malays 07T 

049  Malcham .' . .  078 

C5l|Malchiah,  1 678 

05l!Malchiah,  2 078 

OSliMalchiah,  3....;...  678 

652'Malchiah,4 078 

052  Malchiah,  5 678 

0.52'AIalchiah,6 67S 

652 1  Malchiah,  7 079 

652!Ma]chiah,  8 679 

652  Malchiah,  9 679 

052  Malchiah,  10 679 

652  Malchie! 070 

052  Malchielite 670 

652  Malchiram 679 

653  Malchns 679 

053  IMaldive  Islands  ...  070 
053  Maldonatus,   Joan- 

053  ues,  1 079 

654  Maldonatus,  Joan- 

654     nes,  2 080 

654  Male 080 

054  Malebrauche 680 

654  Malec 6S3 

0.'54  Malekites 083 

654  Malevolence 083 

054  Maley 688 

055|Malice 6$3 

655'Malignity 083 

055|Mallary 083 

055  M alios 083 

655'Mallothi 083 

055|Mallows 083 

655|Malluch,  1 685 

655lMa!luch,  2 085 

655!Malluch,  3 685 

65CMalluch,  4 085 

056  Malluch,  5 685 

656  IMalmesbury 685 

jMalou 685 

056  Maltbie 085 

056  Maltbv,  Edward. . .  685 
656  Maltby,  Henry 685 

056  IMalthiis 685 

656  Malvenda 685 

656  Maraachi 686 

656  Mamaias 686 

656  Mamas 086 

057iMamertus 086 

057  Mammillariaus 680 

657;Mammoa 680 

657:Mamnitauaimus. ..  087 

058  Mamuu 0S7 

059  Mamre 087 

059  Marauchns 687 

659  Man 687 

0.59  Manaen 080 

659  Managers 689 

000  Manahath,  1 089 

060  JNIanahath,  2 689 

060  Manasseh,l 080 

660.Manasseh,  Tribe  of.  680 

660  Mauasseh,  2 092 

iManasseh,  3 692 

661  Manasseh,  4 t>96 

661  Manasseh,  5 690 

OOljManasseh,  Ben-Jo- 
066|    seph  ben-Israel..  096 

666  Manasses,  1 090 

667  Manasses,  2 6'.'6 

007  Manasses,  3 696 

667iManasses,  4 696 

067  INI  an  asses,     Prayer 

069  of CM 

6(;9!Maniissite 097 

0(;9  Mauby 09T 

669  Manchet 09T 

670  Mancius 097 

070  Mandeville, Bernard 
0701     de 098 

iMandeville,  Henry.  6;:S 

670Mandingo 093 

670Mandra 699 

670  Mandrake 090 

071  Mandvas 700 

671  Maneli 700 

071  Mauetho 700 


LIST  OF  ARTICLES  IN  VOL.  V. 


957 


Maiij^ey 

Manluirlists  .... 

M:uii 

Maiiichfeism 

Manipa 

JIaniple 

Jiliiuitou 

Waiiley 

JVIauliiis 

Manly 

]\Iauii,  Cyrus 

Maun,  Horace. . 
>Liuu,  William. . 


Pasre  705IMarcus  Diado-        iMarseua Page  SlSlMary,  wife  of  Clo- 

...  70o|    chus Page  73S  Mars' Hill Sls]    pas Page  S45 

706  Marcus  Eremita...  738] Marsh S13'Mary,     mother    of 

700  Marcus  of  Gaza 730!Marsh,  Francis 813     Johu S45 

'.'. 707JMarcus  the  Heresi-        iMarsh,  Herbert 813'Mary  at  Rome. . . 

701)1     arch 730  Marsh,  James 814  Mary  of  Egypt. . . 

......  709'Marcus  the  Heretic  740|Marsh,  John,  1 SU'Mary  of  England 

..   .  709  Marcus  Hieromona-        Marsh,  John, '2 8141  Mary  Stuart 

".    .,  70!)|     chus 740  Marsh,  Narcissus..  814!Masaccio 

709  Marcus  of  Otrauto.  740  :\[arsh,  William,  1:.  SU'Masada 

709  Mardochreus 740  ^Marsh,  William,  2. .  815  Masaloth 

710 -Mardochai,  1 740  Marshall,  Andrew..  SL-i'Masaupasa 

710  Mardochai, '2 740  Mar^liall,  George..  blOJIascaron 

740  Mar^^hall,  Johu....  SL^iMasch 

740  Marshall,  Jcseph. . .  815  Maschil 857jMattenai,  1 

740  Marshall, Nathaniel  SlSiMasclef. 857|Mattenai,  2 


Mattaniah,  S..Page  883 


740  Marshall,  Samuel..  SlS.Mash... 


711  Mardochai,  3. 

Mauua 711  Mardochai,  4 

Mauheimer 713  Mardocliai,  5. . . . 

Manning,  James. . .  714  Mardochai,  G 

Manning,  Owen  ...  714:Mardochai,  7 -    --  , 

Manuus 714:Marcchal,Ambroise  74o  .Marshall,  Thomas.  81G 

Manoah 711iMarcchal,  Bernard.  741  ^^ar!^hall,  Walter  ..  816 

Mause 714JMaruchal,  Pierre         Marshall,  William.  816 

Mausel 715     Sylvaiu 741  Marsham 810 

Mansi 715  Mareshah,  1 741 

Mansionarii 715  Mareshah,  2 741 

710;Mareshah,  3 741 

710 1  Maresius,  Jean  de . .  741 

716lMaresins,  Samuel..  741 


Mattaniah,  9 882 

Mattaniah,  10. 882 

Mattathah,  1 882 

846  Mattathah,  2 883 

S46;Matt.athias,  1 882 

S46'Mattathias,  2 SS3 

849  Mattathias,  3 882 

S55'Mattathias,  4 883 

855, Mattathias,  5 882 

S56|Mattathias,  6 883 

857 1  Mattathias,  7 882 

857!Mattei, 882 

857|Matteis 882 

882 
882 


Manslayer 

Mansus  Ecclesise. . 
Mant,  Richard,  1.. 
Maut,  Richard,  2.. 


740  .Marshall,  Stephen. 


Marshman 816 

Marsiac 817 

Marsile S17 

Marsilius 817 

Mart SIS 


857|Mattenai,  3 832 


717'Marezoll. 


Matter 882 

Matter,  Jacques. ..  885 

Matthai 885 

Matthseus 885 

Matthat,  1 88G 

Matthat,  2 886 

Matthelas 885 


Mautchuria 717  Margaret,  St. 


742,Marteilhe SIS 

742iMartel SIS  Masou,  Johu  M 


Mantelet 717| Margaret  of  France  74-2 

Mantle 717  iMargaret  of  Orleans  743 

Mantua 719jMargaret   of  Scot- 

Mautuau 719]     laud 743 

Mautz 719:Margarit 743 

Manu 719  .Margarita 743 

Manudnctor 719  Margil 743 

Manuel  Charitopu-         Margunins 743 

lus 719  Marheineke 743 

Manuel  Comnenus.  719  Maria  Angelica 744 

Mauuel  of  Coustan-         Maria  Theresa 

tiuople 720  Mariales 


Martt'ue 81S 

Martha 819 

Martha,  Order  of..  819 

Marthe 819 

Martiauay 819 

Martieu 

Martin  of  Braga 
Martin  of  Duniu, 
Martiu  of  Tours. 
Martin  of  TrtJves 

44iMartin  I 

44  Martiu  11 


816  Jlasham S5S  : 

Masias 85S  : 

Masius 858  ; 

Mask 858  : 

Masman 85S 

Mason 858  : 

Mason,  Erskine 859  : 

Masou,  Francis,  1..  SSOjMatthes 8SG 

Mason,  Frauds,  2. .  859  Matthew 8SG 

Mason,  John,  1 859iMatthew, Gospel  of  8ST 

Masou,Johu,  2  ....  8.59 1  Matthew  of  Cracow  89T 
*"     "'         859  Matthew  of  Paris..  89T 
Masou,  Lowell 860;Matthew  of  West- 
Mason,  William  ...  860|    minster 898 

Masorah 860, Matthew  of  York. .  S9S 

Maspha,  1 802, Matthew.?, Alford A.  898 

Maspha,  2 862  Matthews,  Heury . .  898 

820i]Masrekah 8G2!Matthews,  John  ...  898 

S20lMass 863 iMatthews, William.  899 

820  Mass  Peuny SOSiMatthew's,  St.,  Day  899 

S2l!Mass  Priests SeSJMatthia 899 

82llMassa 86SlMatthias 899 


Mauuel  Holobolus.  720  Mariamnc,  1 744!Martin  III. . 

Mauuel,  Niclans. . .  720  Mariamne,  2 744;  Jlartiu  I_V, 


Manure  . 

Manuscripts 721 

Maock 729 

Maon,  1 729 

Maon,  2 729 

Maonite 729 

T»[aphrian 72!) 

IMapletoft. . . 
INIappa, 


S22!]\rassa  Candida 8G8 

S22iMassaget!e 868 

S22!Ma?sah 868 

822  Massaliaus 8GS 


Mariana 

Mariauus  Scotus. . .  740 

Mariastein 746 

Mariazell 740 

Marie  :\  la  Coque  . .  746 
Marie  de  I'lucarna- 

tion 74" 

729  Mariotu 747 

30  Marillac 747 


744'Martin  V. 

Martiu,  Andrt- 823 

Martiu,  Asa 823 

Martin,  Claude 823 

Martin,  C.  F 823 


Massarius 869 

Massias 809 

Massie 869 

Massieu S09 

Massilians 860 

lartiu;  David 824'Massillon 869 

Martin,  Enoch  K. . .  824  Massou,  John 870;Matthias,  Johu  J. . 


Matthias    (profane 

historian),  1 899 

Matthias,  2 899 

Matthias,  8 899 

Matthias  (impostor)  S99 
Matthias  Corvinus.  899 
Matthias   of   Kuu- 

walde 900 

Matthias  1 900 

Matthias,  JohuB..  900 
900 


Mara 730  Marin 

]SIara  (Hiududiva).  730  Mariner 

Marahuts 7)!0,Marini 

Marofoschi 730  Alarino 

Marah 730'Marinus 

Maralah 730^ Mariolatry 

Maranatha 730  Marion , 

Marauos 731  Maris 

Marau 731  Marius  Aveuticui 

Maratta 731  Marius  Mercator 

Maraviglia 731  Mark 

Marbach 731  Mark,  Gospel  of 

Marban 731  Mark  ou   the  Per 

Marbeck 731 

Marble 731|M;irk 

Marburg  Bible 732  Market. . . 

MarburgConference  732:Marklin.. . 

Marbury 733;^Iarks 

Marca  733|Mark'.s,  St 

Marcella 733  Marlatt. . . 

Marcellians 733l^Iarlay 704Mariini, 

Marcelliua 733|Marloratus. 

Marcelliuus 733  Marmontcl 

Marcellus,  St.,  1  ...  734|Mannoth  .. 

Marcellus,  St.,  2  . . .  734  ^Marue 

Marcellus,  St.,  3  . . .  734  Marnix 

Marcellus,  St.,  4  . . .  7.34,Maron 

j\[arcellusofAncyra  734  Maronites. 


-Martin;  Gregory....  824, IMasson,  Philip  ....  870, Matthias's  Day  , 
Martiu,  Jacques  de.  824!l\[a8son,  Samuel...  870  Mattison,  Hiram. . . 


90O 

901 

S24iMassuet S70iMattison,  Seth 902 


870 1  Mattison,  Spencer.  902 


747  .Martin,  James 

747lMart'ii,  John,  1. . . .  S24'Mast . 

747'jtart    ;,  John,2....  S24lMaster S7i:Mattithiah,l 902 

74TiMavtiu,  Johu  Nich-         blaster  (Christian)..  S71>Iattithiah,  2 902 

747'     olas 825Masters   of  the        iMattithiah,  3 902 

747  Martin, :\IarsraretM.  S25|     Chui'ch 871  Mattithiah,  4 902 

754  :\Iartiu, Mar-Prelate  S25'Mastiaux 871  Mattithiah,  5 902 

754;Marlin,  Saint 825i^Iastic 8T1  Mattithiah,  6 902 

7.55Martin,  Sarah 82G|Masndi 872  Mattock 902 

755  Martin,  Thomas...   826  IMatali 872  Maturin 902 

755'Martiu,  William  W.  S26::Mater  Dolorosa. . . .  872iMauburne 902 


766jMartin  Brethren. . . 

Martina 

eon 762  Martiudale,   Ste- 

7621     phen 820 

763^Martiudale,    Theo- 

703'     doreD 826 

763'Miirtinet 827 

Day 703  Martini,  Antonio  . .  827 


que 
705  Martinists.. . 

7i;6  ;Mnrtinins 

7iiO  Martinmas  . . , 

Marot 770  Martinus 

Maroth 771  Martyn 

Marozia 771  Martyr 

Marquesas  Isles 771  Martyr,  Peter, 

Marcellus  1 735'Marquette 772  Martyrdom  .. . 

Marcellus  II 735;Marquez 772  :\Iartyriarius. , 

Mai'cellus,  Aaron  . .  735^Iarquis,  Jaines  E. .  772  Martyrium 

Marcheshvan 7:'.5iMarquis,  Thomas. .  772  Martyrologj' 

Marchetti,  Fraufois  7;!5  Maracci 772iMartyrs 

]Marchetti,Giovanui  7:15  Marriage 772, Martyrs,  Canoniza- 


Marcellus  of  Apa- 
mea,  1 734 

Marcellus  of  Apa- 
mea,  2 734 


826  Mater  Speciosa 8721Mauduit 903 

820  Materialism 872  Mauermanu 903 

Mather,  Alexander.  874  Maul 903 

Mather,  Cotton....  875  Maulbronu 903 

Mather,  Eleazer.  ..  876  Maulr.nout 904 

Mather,  Increase...  876  Mauuday  Thursday  905 

Mather,  Moses 877  Maunoir 905 

Mathei-,  Nathaniel.  877  Maupas  du  Tour. ..  905 

O;!  MartiniiCorneille. .  827JMather,  Richard.. .  877  Maupiu 905 

Giambat-         Mather,  Samuel,  1.  877  Maur,    Cougrega- 

...   .64      tista 827'Mather,  Samuel,  2.  877i    tiou  of 905 

...   70.=>  >lartini,  Martino. ..  827  Mathesius 878  Maurand 90S 

705  Martini,  Raymond.  827  Mathetie 878  Maurice  of  Saxony.  90S 

705  "Martinique 82.s';\Iathew S7S  Maurice,  Antoiue,  1  910 

S2s  :MathPws 878  Maurice,  Antoiue,  2  910 

S2S  :\Iathilda,  St 878  Maurice,  Frederick 

....  828  Mathilda    of    Tus-        |     Deuison 910 

82.si     canv 878  JNIaurice,  Henry 913 

82S  Mathiirius 879  Maurice,  Thomas..  912 

829  Matins 879  Mauritius 912 

S29| Matred 870  Manrus 913 

S3ol Matri 879  Maury 91 3 

s:',0 'Matriciila S79  Mauzzim 914 


Marciou 735  M.-.rriage,  Christian  7SSl     tioii  of. 

Marcites 737  Marriage,  Heathen.  706|Martvrs,    Festivals 

Marck 737lMarron Sl'ot    of  the 

Marcouville 787|Marrow 810  Mar.'if  el-Karkhi . . . 

Marcomaui 737;Marrow  Controver-         Marut 

Marcosians 737      sv 811  ^STaruthas 

Marcus,  Pope 737  Mars 811  iVIarv,  the  Vir£;in 


Marcus  of  Alexau-        IM 
dria 7.38  Ma 


St 
<ay 


8:io  Matricularii 879  Maw 914 

S:;o  :\Iatrimouy S79  Mawmoisine 914 

831.Matsva 8S1  j\Iawson 914 

Mattan,  1 SSI  Maxcy 914 

S32':\IaltMn,  2 8S1  Maxtield 915 

•     JMatraii.  3 8S1  Maximiauists 915 

S32^Iattauah SSI  Maximilian  1 915 

S3:'.  :\Innaniah,l 8S1  Maximilian  II 916 

s:',:;  ^fatraniah,  2 881  Maximiu  1 910 

S3.T  Mattaniah,  3 881  Maximiu  II 916 

^ ,  ..._  .  ..^ S3.!  Mattaniah,  4 882  Maximus     Alcxan- 

812  MaryMagdaiene. . .  841  Mattaniah,  5 SS2      drinus 917 


812  Mary,  sister  of  Laz- 


Marcus  of  Arethusa  73S,Marsdeu 812|    arlis 844iMaltauiab,  7 


Mdttaniah,  G 882  Maximus  Confessor  917 


882  Maximus  the  Greek  918 


958 


LIST  OF  ARTICLES  IN  VOL.  V. 


Maximus  of  Jerusa- 
lem  Page 

Maximus  Pliiloso- 
pUus,  1 

Maximus  Philoso- 
plius,  2 

Maxiuuis  Philoso- 
plius,  3 ; 

Maximus  Philoso- 
phus,  4 

Maximus  of  Turin. 

]^[aximus  of  Tyre.. 

Maxwell,  Darcy — 

Maxwell,  Kobert. .. 

IMaxwell,  Samuel.. 

Maxwell,  William. . 

May,  E.  H 

May,  James 

May,  Samuel 

Maya 

INIayence 

Mayeuce,  Councils 
at 

Mayer,  Jacob 

Z^Iayer,  Johanu 

Mayer,  Johanu  C. . 

Mayer,  Johann 
Friedrich 

Mayer,  John 

Mayer,  Lewis 

Mayer,  Philip 

Mayhew,  Experi- 
euce. . . : 

Mayhew,  Jonathan. 

Mayhew,  Thomas. . 

Mayne,  James  S — 

Mayue,  Jasper 

Maynooth  College. . 


Mavo Page 

91S  Mayotta 

Mayow 

Mayr,  Beda 

Mayr,  Colestin 

Mazarin 

Mazdak 

Mazel 

Mazitias 

919  Mazoliui 

919!Mazos 

920iMazzaroth 

O-iOMazzocchi 

9'20iMazzola,  Girolamo 

920|     Bedolo 

9-20;Mazzola,  Girolamo 

921 1     Francisco 

9-_>l|McAdam 

921  Mc  Arthur 

921iMcAuley 

921  McBride,  Matthew. 

McBride,  Robert... 
925!McBryde 

925  McCaine 

92G  McCall,  John 

92G  McCall,  Joseph 

'McCalla,  Daniel . .. 

926  McCalla,  William.. 

920  McCarapbell 

926McCartoll 

926iMcCarrou 

McCartee 

927|McCartuev,  John. . 
927 1  McCartney,    Wil- 

927  liam 

927  McCaul 

928!McCaulle 

92S|McCay 


930|McCheyue Page 

9;iO|McClauahan 

930  McClaskey 

931  McClelland 

931  McClintoclc 

93l|McCIuug 

McClure,     Alexau 

932  ■ 
932 
932 


dcr 

McClure,  Arthur. . . 

McClure,  David 

McCombs 

McCouaughy  

McConnell 

McCook 

McCorkle 

McCoy 

McCracken,  John 
Steele  

McCracken,  Sam- 
uel W 

McCrary 

McCready 

McCrie 

McCnllough 

McCurdy 

McCntchen 

McDearmon 

McDermott 


935  McElhany . . .  .Page  941 
930  McFarlaud,  Asa.. . .  941 
930  McFarland,  James.  941 

936  McFarland,    James 

936  Hunter 942 

937  McFarlane 942 

McFerrin 942  : 

937  McGaughey 942 

93S  McGavin 942 

93SMcGee 942: 

938  McGilvary 943 

938  McGlashan 943 

938  McGorrisk 94:;  McMillau.Edward.  948 

93S  McGregor 94:;  Mc:\[illan,  Gavin. . .  943 

939McHenrv 943, McMillan,    Gavin 

939  McUvaine 943      Kiley 94S 

iMcIver 944!McMillau,  Hugh. . .  943 

939|McKay 944  McMillan, Robert. .  949 

McKean,  James  W.  944  :\Ic:Mu11cu 949 

939  McKeau,  Joseph. . .  944  :Mc]\i:nrray 949 

939iMcKearn 944  McXair 949 


McLeod,    Alexan- 
der  Page  946 

McLeod,  Cornelius.  947 
McLeod,  Norman. .  947 
McLeod,    Xavier 

Donald 947 

McLougbliu 948 

McLure 948 

McMahon 948 

McMaster,  Erasmus 

D 94S 

McMaster,  Gilbert..  94S 


McDonald,  An- 
drew  

McDonald,  Daniel. . 

McDonald,  John. . . 

McDouogh  

McDowell,  Alexan- 
der   

McDowell,  John. . . 

McDowell,  William 
Anderson 


939  McKeeu 944 

939  McKendree 944 

940  McKennan 945 

940  McKinley 945 

940  McKiuney,  Calvin.  945 
940  McKiuney,  David . .  945 
940  McKiuney,    Isaac 

Newton 945 

940  >IcKiuncy, James..  945 
940  McKinney,Johu...  946 


McNeill,  Angus  Cur- 

rie 949 

McNeil,  James  H...  949 

McNeish 949 

McNelly 950 

McNultv 950 

McPhee'ters 950 

McPherson,     John 

Erskine 950 

McPherson,  Joseph 


941  Mclvinnon 940|     A 950 

941  McLachlau 946, McQueen 950 

McLain 946]McReynolds 950 

941  McLaue 946  McSwain 950 

941  McLauriu 94c!McVean 950 

McLean,  Alexander  946lMcVickar 951 

941  McLean,  Charles  G.  946l 


EXD  OF  VOL,  V, 


665; 


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